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LIBRARY 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived      t-x-x%3^<£'/o^    ,  /«? 
^Accession  No.   /S  ^-^f.        .   Class  No. 


*       • 


•     .  v  .  • 


<m^]:  *t, 


UNIVERSAL 


PRONOUNCING   DICTIONARY 


OF 


I  O  G  R  A  P  H  Y 


AND 


MYTHOLOGY 


BY  J.  THOMAS,  A.M.,  M.D., 


AUTHOR  OF 

THE  SYSTEM  OF  PRONUNCIATION  IN  "  LIPPINCOTT'S  PRONOUNCING  GAZETTEER  OF  THE  WORLD, 
AND  OF  THE  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARIES  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL 
NAMES  IN  "WEBSTER'S  UNABRIDGED  DICTIONARY." 


VOL.  II. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    AND    CO. 

1870. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


UCCHUS 


1237 


IBN-KHALLIKAN 


I. 


I-ac'-ehus,  [Gr.  "I<z/q;oc,]  a  surname  or  synonym  of 
BACCHUS,  which  see. 

I-am'be,  [Gr.  'lu/i;3r/,]  a  servant-maid  of  Metanira, 
Queen  of  Eleusis,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Pan.  By 
her  jokes  or  tricks  she  amused  Ceres  when  the  latter 
was  in  distress.  Iambic  poetry  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  her. 

lamblichus.     See  JAMBI.ICHUS. 

I-ap'e-tus,  [Gr.  'la-erof;  Fr.  JAPET,  zht'pi',]  in  classic 
mythology,  a  Titan,  and  a  son  of  Uranus.  He  was  the 
father  of  Atlas,  Prometheus,  Epimetheus,  and  Menoetius. 
He  is  by  some  considered  to  be  the  same  as  the  Japheth 
of  Scripture.  lapetus  was  regarded  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  as  the  ancestor  of  the  human  race,* 
and,  according  to  Scripture,  the  descendants  of  Japheth 
inhabited  the  "isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  (Genesis  x.  5,) 
which  would  seem  to  signify  the  numerous  islands  along 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  and  probably 
also  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  two  continents  ;  in  other 
words,  all  that  part  of  the  world  with  which  the  early 
Greeks  were  acquainted. 

I-a'si-oii  [Gr.  'laaiuv}  or  I-a'si-us,  a  fabulous  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Electra,  (or  of  Minos  and  Corythus.)  He 
is  said  to  have  been  beloved  by  Ceres,  who  bore  him  a 
son,  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches. 

Ibarra,  e-p.ar'ra,  (JoAQUix,)  a  Spanish  printer,  born 
at  Saragossa  in  1725,  carried  on  business  in  Madrid. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  perfection  of  his  publica 
tions,  especially  for  his  editions  of"  Don  Quixote,"  (1780,) 
and  a  Spanish  version  of  Sallust,  (1772.)  Died  in  1785. 

I'bas,  a  Syrian  priest  of  the  fifth  century,  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  disputes  about  Nestorianism.  He 
was  chosen  Bishop  of  Edessa  in  436  A. D.  At  the  Coun 
cil  of  Ephesus,  in  449,  he  was  deposed  on  the  charge  of 
favouring  the  Nestoi  ians  ;  but  he  was  reinstated  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedony  in  451.  Died  in  457. 

Ib'bet-sou,  (Mrs.  AGNES,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  London  in  1757.  She  investigated  the  structure  of 
plants,  and  wrote  botanical  papers  which  were  inserted 
in  Nicholson's  "Journal"  and  the  "  Philosophical  Maga 
zine,"  (1809-17.)  Died  in  1823. 

Ibbetson,  (JULIUS  CAESAR,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Scarborough,  copied  and  imitated  with 
success  the  works  of  Berghem.  lie  wrote  an  "  Accidence 
or  Gamut  of  Oil-Painting  for  Beginners."  Died  in  1817. 

Ib'bot,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  divine,  born  near 
Swaffham,  in  Norfolk,  in  1680.  lie  became  chaplain 
to  George  I.  in  1716,  and  prebendary  of  Westminster 
in  1724.  He  delivered  the  Boyle  lectures  in  1713-14. 
Died  in  1725.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  pub 
lished  in  1726. 

See  DR.  S.  CLARKE,  "  Life  of  Benjamin  Ibbot." 

Iberville,  d',  de'beR'vel',  (LEMOINE  or  LEMOYNE,) 
a  Canadian  navigator,  born  at  Montreal  in  1642,  distin 
guished  himself  in  many  actions  against  the  English. 
He  commanded  a  vessel  sent  by  the  French  government 
to  explore  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  which  he  dis 
covered  in  March,  1699.  He  ascended  the  river,  and 
built  a  fort  on  its  border.  Died  at  Havana  in  1706. 

Ibi,  ee'bee,  (SiMBAi.no,)  an  Italian  painter,  a  pupil 
of  Perugino,  was  born  at  Perugia,  and  flourished  between 
1505  and  1528. 

JB2\~,  ib'n,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "son,"  and 
forming  a  part  of  many  names  ;  as,  IBN-HANBAL,  the 
"son  of  Hanbal,"  etc.  It  is  often  written  Ben;  as,  AI.I- 
BEN-ABI-TALIB,  for  ALF.K-!BN-ABEE  (-ABi)  -TAi.iB. 

Ibn-Abeet (-Abi)-Yakoob,(or-Y'akub,)  Urn  a'bee 
ya'koob'  (Abool-Faraj,  a'hool  fdr'aj,)  otherwise  called 
An-Nadeem  (-Nadim)-Mohammed-Ibn-Ishak,  an 
na-deem'  mo-ham'med  Tb'n  is-hak',  an  Arabian  writer, 
chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a  valuable  catalogue  of 
books  in  the  Arabic  language,  with  brief  and  excellent 

*  See  Horace,  lib.  i.,  Carmen  3,  in  which  the  phrases  "Gens  liu- 
mana"  and  "  lapeti  genus"  are  used  almost  synonymously. 
t  See  note  on  page  35. 


notices  of  their  authors.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  wrote  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century. 

Ibn-Al-Atseer,  (-Atsyr,)  Ib'n  al  at-seeR',  (Abool- 
Hassan-Alee,  or  Aboul.-Abul)  -Hassan- All,  a'bool 
I  has'san  a'lee,)  surnamed  Az-ED-DEEN,  (AzzEDnYN,)  (i.e. 
the  "Splendour  of  Religion,")  an  Arabian  historian,  borr. 
in  Mesopotamia  about  1160,  became  a  citizen  of  Mosul. 
He  excelled  in  the  science  of  prophetic  traditions,  and 
had  great  knowledge  of  history,  as  appears  by  his 
Complete  Chronicle  from  the  origin  of  the  world  to 
his  own  time.  Died  in  1233. 

See  HAJI-KHALFAH,  "  Lexicon  Bibliographicum  ;"  VON  HAMMER- 
PURCSTAI.L,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber." 

Ibn-Al-Atseer  (or  -Al-Atsyr)-Nasr- Allah,  Ib'n  al- 
at-seeR'  nas'r  al'lah,  written  also  Alatyr  and  Alatir,  an 
Arabian  writer,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Jezeereh-Benee-Omar,  on  the  Tigris,  in  1162.  He  visited 
the  court  of  Saladin,  who  engaged  him  as  vizier  to  his 
son  and  heir,  Melik-Afdhal.  He  was  eminent  for  his  learn 
ing,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Prosody,  and  other  works. 

See  Inx-KnAi.LiKANT,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Ibn-Bajah.     See  AVENPACE. 

Ibn-Batuta.     See  BATOOTAH. 

Ibii-Doreid,  Ib'n  do'racl',  (or  do'rid',)  a  celebrated 
Arabian  poet,  born  at  Bassorah  in  838  A.D.  He  culti 
vated  various  kinds  of  poetry  with  distinguished  success. 
Died  at  Bagdad  in  933. 

Ibn-Hanbal,  Ib'n  han'bal,  (Ahmed,  an'med,)  the 
founder  of  the  fourth  sect  of  orthodox  Mohammedans, 
was  born  at  Bagdad  (or,  as  some  say,  at  Meru)  in  the 
year  of  the  Hejrah  164.  He  attained  a  great  reputation 
for  virtue  and  knowledge  of  the  traditions  of  Mohammed. 
He  received  many  traditions  from  Shafei,  with  whom  he 
was  intimate.  For  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  the  Koran 
to  have  been  created,  he  was  scourged  and  imprisoned 
by  the  caliph  Motassem.  He  died  at  Bagdad  in  A.D. 
855.  The  sect  became  very  numerous  after  his  death. 

See  SALE'S  "  Koran." 

Ibn-Haukal.     See  HAUKAL. 

Ibn-Ishak,  (or  -Ishaq,)  Ib'n  is-hSk',  an  Arabian  his 
torian,  who,  at  the  request  of  the  caliph  Al-Mansoor, 
wrote  a  life  of  Mohammed  the  prophet.  He  is  an  elo 
quent  but  not  a  trustworthy  writer.  Died  in  768  A.D. 

See  SPKENGER,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  69  et  seg. 

Ibn-Khakan,  (or  -Khacan.)     See  AI.-FATH. 

Ibn-Khaldoon,  (-Khaldcun  or  -Khaldun,)  Ib'n 
Kal'dooi/  ( Walee-ed-Deen-  (or  Waly-Eddyn-) 
Aboo-Zeid-Abd-er-Rahman,  wa'lee  ed-deen'  a'boo 
zTd  abd-er-rah'nian,)  a  celebrated  Arabian  historian,  born 
at  Tunis  in  1332.  He  removed  to  Cairo,  where  he  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  uprightness  as  a  judge,  and  was 
chosen  chief  of  the  Cadees  (Cadis)  of  the  sect  of  Malek- 
ites  in  1384.  Afterwards,  while  on  a  journey  to  Syria, 
he  was  made  prisoner  by  Taimoor,  (the  famous  Tamer 
lane,)  by  whom  he  was  treated  with  great  kindness  and 
respect.  His  principal  work  is  a  valuable  "History  of 
the  Arabs,  Persians,  and  Berbers,  with  Preliminary 
Observations,''  which  was  recently  published  in  Fiance. 
"We  cannot  but  conceive,  in  reading  this,"  says  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  "  a  very  high  idea  of  his  judgment, 
sagacity,  and  erudition,  and  of  the  great  variety  of  his 
knowledge."  Died  in  1406. 

See  his  Autobiography,  published  in  the  "Journal  Asiatique"  of 
1844;  SILVF.STKK  DK  S^cv,  "  Chrestomathie  Arabe  ;"  CASIRI,  "Uilli- 
otheca  Arabico  Hispana." 

Ibn-Khallikan,  Ib'n  Kai'le-kSn',  written  also  Ebn- 
Khalican  or  -Khilcan,  (Shems-ed-Deen  (or-Eddin) 
Abool-  (Aboul-  or  Abul-)  Abbas-Ahmed,  shems 
ed-deen'  a'bool  ab'bls'  an'med,)  a  celebrated  Arabian 
historian,  born  at  Arbela  in  1211.  He  became  grand 
Cadee  (Cadi)  of  Damascus  about  1261.  His  chief  work 
is  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Famous  Moslems," 
which  contains  over  eight  hundred  articles.  An  English 
translation  of  it  was  begun  by  Mr.  Slane,  the  first  volume 
of  which  was  published  in  1841.  Died  in  1282. 


€as/£;cas.r;g;5arfl';gasy,-  G,u,K,guttural;  N,  nasal:  R, trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.      (Jtj^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


1BN-KOTETBAH 


1238 


IDA 


Ibn-Koteybah  or  Abdallah-Ibn-Koteybah,  ab- 

dil'Iah  Tb'n  ko-ta'bah  or  ko-tl'bah,  written  also  Cotey- 
bah  and  Qotaybali,  an  Arabian  historian  and  critic,  born 
at  Bagdad  in  828  A.D. ;  died  in  889. 

See  IBN-KHALLIKAN,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Ibn-Maimoon,   (-Maimuii    or  -Maimoun.)     See 

M.  \1MON  IDES. 

Ibn-Rosched,  (or  -Roshd.)     See  AVERROES. 

Ibn-Sina.     See  AVICENNA. 

Iba-Tofail,  (-Tofayl.)  See  ABOO-BEKR-IBN-TOFAIL 

Ibnul-Abbar.    See  KODHAEE. 

Ibn-Yoonas,  (-Younas  or  -Yunas,)  Ib'n  yoo'nas, 
sometimes  spelled  Ibn-Youuis,  (Alee-  (or  All-)  Ibn- 
Abderrahman,  a'lee  Tb'n  abd-er-rah/man,)  one  of  the 
most  eminent  Arabian  astronomers,  was  born  in  979  A.D. 
He  made  at  Cairo  a  series  of  observations,  the  results  of 
which  he  published  in  a  work  called  the  "Table  of  Ibn- 
Yoonas."  Died  in  1008. 

Ibn-Zohr.     See  AVENZOAR. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  written  also  Ibrahym,  the 
Arabic  name  of  the  patriarch  ABRAHAM,  which  see. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,*)  ib-ri-heem', thirteenth  caliph 
of  the  Omeyyacl  dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Waleed  (Walicl) 
I.  He  began  to  reign  in  Damascus  in  744  A.D.,  and  a 
few  months  after  was  deposed  by  Merwan.  The  Arab 
historians  disagree  respecting  his  subsequent  fate. 

Ibraheem  "(Ibrahim)  I.,  (Aboo-Abdallah,  a'boo 
ab-dal'lah,)  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Aglabides  in  Africa, 
was  the  son  of  Aglab,  and  a  native  of  Arabia.  About 
800  A.D.  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Africa  by  Haroun- 
al-Raschid.  After  the  death  of  the  latter,  (808,)  Ibraheem 
assumed  the  royal  power.  Died  about  813. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  I.,  a  Turkish  Sultan,  brother 
of  Amurath  IV.,  was  proclaimed  in  1640,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three.  His  cruelty  and  other  vices  excited  against 
him  a  powerful  and  successful  conspiracy,  by  which  he 
was  deposed  and  strangled  in  1648  or  1649.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Mahomet  IV. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  II.,  Emperor  of  Hindustan,  the 
son  of  Iskander,  began  to  reign  in  1517,  being  the  third 
of  the  Afghan  dynasty.  lie  was  a  very  unpopular  ruler. 
In  1526  the  Mogul  Baber  invaded  India,  a  battle  was 
fought  at  Paniput,  where  Ibraheem  was  defeated  and 
killed,  and  the  Mogul  dynasty  was  established  in  India. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  a  favourite  of  Sultan  Solyman 
II.,  was  a  Genoese  by  birth,  and  was  taken  to  Constan 
tinople  by  pirates  in  his  infancy.  He  became  grand 
vizier  about  1523,  and  signalized  his  courage  in  the  war 
against  Hungary  in  1527.  He  was  put  to  death,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Sultana,  in  1535. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  born  at  Aleppo,  was  the  most 
eminent  among  the  Ottoman  jurists.  His  fame  rests  upon 
a  great  work  styled  the  "  Confluence  of  the  Seas,"  ("  Mul- 
teka  al-Abhar,")  which  is  a  complete  code  of  laws.  Died 
in  1549. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  Pasha  of  Egypt,  the  son  of 
Mehemet  Alee,  (Ali,)  was  born  in  Rumelia  in  1789.  He 
conquered  the  Wahabees,  in  Arabia,  about  1818.  In 
1824  he  commanded  an  army  and  fleet  which  Mehemet 
Alee  sent  against  the  Greeks.  Having  landed  in  the 
Morea  with  10,000  men  in  1825,  he  took  several  towns 
and  committed  many  atrocities.  The  success  of  the  allies 
at  Navarino  and  the  French  invasion  of  the  Morea  forced 
him  to  retire  to  Egypt  in  1828.  In  a  war  waged  between 
the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  the  Sultan,  Ibraheem  took 
Aleppo  and  defeated  the  Turks  in  a  great  battle  at 
Konieh,  in  Syria,  in  1832.  His  victorious  progress  was 
arrested  by  the  intervention  of  the  European  powers  in 
1833.  Died  in  1848. 

See  LABAT,  "L'figypte,  ancienne  et  moderne." 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Bey,  a  famous  Mameluke 
chief,  born  in  Circassia  about  1735.  He  went  to  Egypt 


*  The  Arabic  texts  are  by  no  means  uniform  in  regard  to  the 
penultima  of  this  name ;  it  is  often  made  short,  but,  if  we  mistake 
not,  more  frequently  long,  as  given  above.  It  is  proper,  however,  to 
remark  that  a  single  instance  of  the  insertion  of  the  Alif  (the  sign  of 
the  long  vowel)  ought  to  outweigh  several  omissions,  as  the  latter 
mij;ht  more  easily  be  the  result  of  neglect  or  haste.  The  frequent 
omission  of  the  long  vowel  in  the  manuscript  of  writers  who  are 
generally  correct,  merely  proves  that  the  insertion  is  not  deemed 
absolutely  indispensable.  Its  omission  may  be  compared  to  the 
neglecting  to  dot  one's  is  in  writing  English, — a  fault,  undoubtedly,  but 
a  fault  often  committed  by  writers  otherwise  remarkable  for  accuracy. 


iii  his  youth,  and  entered  the  service  of  Mohammed  Bey. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter,Ibraheem  shared  with  Moorad 
Bey  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  When  Bonaparte  invaded 
Egypt  in  1798  and  defeated  Moorad,  Ibraheem  retired 
to  Syria.  In  1800  he  took  part  against  the  French  at 
Cairo,  etc.,  and,  after  they  evacuated  Egypt,  was  again 
Governor  of  Cairo,  until  supplanted  by  Mehemet  Alee. 
Died  in  1816. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Effendi,  (cT-fen'dee,)  a  learned 
Turk,  who  was  born  about  1640,  and  filled  considerable 
offices  at  Constantinople.  He  was  converted  to  Chris 
tianity,  was  baptized  in  1671,  retired  to  Venice,  and  as 
sumed  the  name  of  Paul  Antonio  Effendi.  He  translated 
several  books  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  Died  in  1697. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Khan-Ogli,(o'glee,)  was  grand 
vizier  of  Turkey  when  Mahomet  I.  died,  in  1421.  He 
took  measures  to  secure  the  succession  of  Mahomet's 
son,  Amurath  II.,  who  was  then  absent  from  the  capital. 
To  reward  this  service,  Amurath  gave  him  the  title  of 
Khan,  with  hereditary  privileges  which  made  his  family 
the  first  in  the  empire. 

Ibrahim.     See  IBRAHEEM. 

Ibrahym.     See  IBRAHEEM. 

Ib'jf-cus,  ['ISf'KOf,]  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Rhe- 
gium,  in  Italy,  flourished  about  560  B.C.,  and  passed  part 
of  his  life  at  Samos.  His  poems,  which  were  chiefly 
love-songs,  are  lost,  except  a  few  fragments.  lie  was 
the  fifth  lyric  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  canon,  and  had 
a  high  reputation.  He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
robbers.  His  death  has  furnished  the  subject  of  one 
of  the  finest  of  Schiller's  minor  poems,  "Die  Kraniche 
des  Ibycus." 

Iga.     See  ISA. 

Icard,  e'kSii',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  Protestant  min 
ister  and  writer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1636.  lie  was 
driven  into  exile  by  persecution  in  1682,  and  settled  at 
Bremen  in  1688. 

Icare.    See  ICARUS. 

I-ca'rl-us,  [Gr.  '[Kuptog,]  also  called  Icarus,  an  Athe 
nian,  to  whom  Bacchus  is  said  to  have  taught  the  cultiva 
tion  of  the  vine.  He  was  killed  by  some  shepherds,  to 
whom  he  had  given  wine  and  who  suspected  that  he  had 
poisoned  them.  The  legend  adds  that  he  was  changed 
into  the  constellation  Bootes. 

Icarius,  a  Lacedaemonian,  the  father  of  Penelope. 
He  urged  her  to  remain  at  Sparta  after  she  was  married 
to  Ulysses  ;  but  she  preferred  to  follow  her  husband. 

Ic'a-rus,  [Gr. 'kapof;  Fr.  ICARE,  e'k^R',]  son  of  Das- 
dalus,  with  whom,  according  to  the  Greek  mythology, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete.  Having 
attempted  to  fly  by  means  of  artificial  wings  made  with 
wax,  they  were  melted  by  his  approaching  too  near  the 
sun,  and  he  fell  into  the  sea,  near  the  island  of  Samos, 
which  received  from  him  the  name  of  the  Icarian  Sea. 

Iccius,  ik'shej-ns,  a  Roman  philosopher,  lived  about 
30  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to 
him  an  epistle  and  an  ode. 

Icher,  e'shaiii',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  physician  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1658;  died  in  1713. 

I-cil'I-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  who  was  affi 
anced  to  the  celebrated  Virginia.  He  was  elected  tribune 
of  the  people  in  456  B.C.,  and  favoured  the  cause  of  the 
plebeians.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  successful 
revolt  against -the  Decemviri  about  450  B.C. 

See  NIEBUHR,  "History  of  Rome." 

Ic-ti'iius,  ['knvof,]  a  celebrated  Grecian  architect, 
who  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  built  several  grand 
temples,  among  which  was  that  of  Apollo  Epicurius  in 
Arcadia.  The  most  memorable  monument  of  his  genius 
is  the  Parthenon  of  Athens,  built  by  order  of  Pericles. 
Calibrates  was  associated  with  Ictinus  as  architect  of 
this  edifice,  which  is  probably  the  most  perfect  speci 
men  of  Grecian  architecture  in  any  age.  Its  length  was 
227  feet  and  its  breadth  about  100.  (See  CALLICRATES.) 

See  PAUSANIAS,  book  viii. 

I9wara.     See  ISWARA. 

Fda,  [Fr.  IDE,  ed,]  Countess  of  Boulogne,  born  about 
1040,  was  the  mother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  crusader 
and  King  of  Jerusalem.  She  was  eminent  for  wisdom 
and  piety.  Died  in  1113. 

See  BAILLET,  "  Vies  des  Saints." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


IVACE 


1239 


IN  RE 


Idace.    See  IDACIUS. 


Idacius,  e-da'sheHis,  [Fr.  IDACE,  e'dSss',]  a  Spanish 
chronicler,  born  at  Lamego  about  the  end  of  the  fourtli 
century.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chaves,  (Aquae  Flaviae,) 
in  Portugal.  He  was  author  of  a  "  Chromcon"  of  the 
period  from  379  to  468  A.D.,  which  was  printed  in  Paris 
by  Sirmond  in  1619. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

I'das,  [Gr.  "Wof,]  a  son  of  Aphareus,  took  part  in  the 
Argonautic  expedition,  ar.d  was  renowned  for  valour. 
Idas  and  his  l)rother  Lynceus  having  quarrelled  with 
the  Dioscu'ri,  Idas  killed  Castor,  and  was  in  turn  killed 
by  Pollux. 

Ide.     See  IDA. 

Ideler,  ee'deh-ler,  (CHRISTIAN  LUDWIG,)  a  Prussian 
astronomer  and  linguist,  born  near  Perleberg  in  1766. 
He  was  appointed  in  1816  tutor  to  the  princes  William 
Frederick  and  Charles,  and  in  1821  became  professor  at 
the  Berlin  University.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical 
Researches  on  the  Astronomical  Observations  of  the 
Ancients,"  (1806,)  "On  the  Calendar  of  Ptolemy,"  and 
other  similar  treatises.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Institute,  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1846. 

Ideler,  (JULIUS  LUDWIG,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1809.  He  published 
"  Meteorology  of  the  Ancient  Greeks  and  Romans," 
(1832,)  "Hermapion,  or  Rudiments  of  the  Hieroglyphic 
Literature  of  Ancient  Egypt,"  (1841,)  and  other  anti 
quarian  treatises.  Died  in  1842. 

Ideler,  (KARL  WILHELM,)  a  Prussian  physician,  born 
in  1 795,  lived  in  Berlin.  He  is  known  as  a  writer  on 
mental  maladies. 

Ides,  ee'de's,  (EVERARD  ISKRANTZ,)  a  German  travel 
ler,  born  in  Holstein  about  1660.  He  was  sent  to  Pekin 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1692  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  com 
merce,  and  returned  in  1694.  A  narrative  of  his  journey, 
published  in  1704,  is  a  work  of  some  merit. 

Idmaii,  id'man,  (XiLS,)  a  Ssvedish  philologist,  pub 
lished  in  1778  "Researches  on  the  Finnish  People,  and 
the  Relations  between  the  Finnish  Language  and  the 
Greek." 

Idomenee.     See  IDOMENEUS. 

I-dom'e-neus,  [Gr.  'I6ofj.evd'f ;  Fr.  IDOMENEE,  e'clo'- 
ma'na',]  King  of  Crete,  a  semi-fabulous  Greek  hero,  said 
to  be  a  grandson  of  Minos.  According  to  Homer,  he 
fought  bravely  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Having  been  ex 
pelled  from  Crete  by  his  subjects,  he  went  to  Italy  and 
founded  a  city. 

Idomeneus,  [Gr.  'l&ftevevf,]  a  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Lampsacus,  lived  about  300  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Epicurus.  His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis. " 

Iduna,  e-doo'na,  or  Idun,  sometimes  written  Idun- 
na,  [etymology  doubtful,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  immortality,  who  keeps  a  casket  of  apples,  of 
which  if  the  gods  partake  they  never  grow  old.  (See 
THIASSI.)  Iduna  is  said  to  be  the  wife  of  Bragi,  the  god 
of  poetry,  who  in  one  sense  may  be  said  to  possess  the 
gift  of  immortality. 

See  THORPE'S  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

lefremoff  or  lefremov.     See  YEFREMOF. 

leuichen.    See  JENICHEN. 

lermak.    See  Y'ERMAK. 

lezdedjerd.     See  YEZDEJERD. 

Ifiland,  if'flant,  (AUGUST  WILHELM,)  a  celebrated 
German  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1759. 
He  became  director  of  the  National  Theatre  at  Berlin  in 
1796,  and  in  1811  was  appointed  director-general  of  the 
royal  plays.  Among  his  most  popular  dramas  are  "  The 
Hunters,"  ("Die  Jager,")  "The  Advocates,"  and  "The 
Old  Bachelors,"  ("Die  Hagestolzen.")  He  also  pub 
lished  several  treatises  on  the  dramatic  art.  "  It  is 
impossible,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "to  have  more 
originality  than  Iffland;  and  he  is  as  superior  in  the 
theory  as  in  the  practice  of  his  art."  Died  in  1814. 

See  his  "  Autobiography"  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Dramas,  18 
vols.,  1798-1809;  J.  L.  FORMEY,  "A.  W.  Inland's  Krankheits- 
geschichte,"  1814;  KUNZ,  "  Aus  dem  Leben  zweier  Schauspieler  : 
Inland's  mid  Devrient's,"  1838. 

Igdrasil,  (Yggdrasil.)     See  ODIN. 


Iglesias  de  la  Casa,  e-gla'se-as  da  la  ka'sa,  (JosE,) 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Salamanca  in  1753  ;  died  in  1791. 

See  LONGFELLOW'S  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ignace.     See  IGNATIUS. 

Ignarra,  en-yar'ra,  (NiccoiA)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  priest,  born  near  Naples  in  1728,  was  a  good  clas 
sical  scholar.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
Royal  University  of  Naples  in  1771,  director  of  the  royal 
printing-office  in  1782,31x1  preceptor  of  the  prince  Fran 
cis  de  Bourbon  in  1784.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  esteemed  commentary  "De  Palaestra  Neapolitana," 
|(I770.)  Died  in  1 808. 

SeeCASTALDl,  "Ignarrae  Vita,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Opuscoli,"  1807. 

Ignatius,  ig-na'she-us,  [Gr.  'b/vu-uo^ ;  Fr.  IGNACE, 
en'ytss';  Ger.  IGNAZ,  ig-nats';  It.  IGNAZIO,  en-yat'se-o,] 
surnamed  THEOPH'ORUS,  one  of  the  earliest  Christian 
Fathers,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  among  the  imme 
diate  successors  of  the  apostles,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Syria.  About  67  A.n.  he  became  bishop 
or  minister  of  the  church  of  Antioch  by  the  appointment 
of  Saint  Peter,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  of  Saint 
John.  He  had  filled  this  station  acceptably  about  forty 
years,  when  the  emperor  Trajan  began  a  persecution 
of  the  Christians.  Ignatius  was  brought  before  Trajan 
at  Antioch,  and,  refusing  to  renounce  his  religion,  was 
condemned,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  in  107, 
being  exposed  to  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  His 
epistles  to  the  Romans,  Philadelphians,  Smyrneans,  and 
to  Polycarp  are  extant,  and  are  regarded  as  precious 
memorials  of  the  primitive  Church.  In  one  of  his  last 
epistles  he  wrote,  "  Now  I  begin  to  be  a  disciple  :  I  weigh 
neither  visible  nor  invisible  things,  that  I  may  win  Christ !" 

See  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria  ;"  PEARSON,  "  Vindicia;  Ignatianas," 
Cambridge,  1672;  W.  CURETON,  "  Vindicis  Ignatianae,  or  the  Genu 
ine  Writings  of  Saint  Ignatius  vindicated  from  the  Charge  of  Heresy," 
8vo,  1846;  COETI.OSQUET,  "  Vie  de  Saint- Ignace,  fiveque  d' Antioch," 
1857  ;  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  in  799 
A.D.,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Michael  Curopalates. 
When  the  latter  was  deposed,  Ignatius  entered  a  monas 
tery,  and  became  eminent  for  piety  and  wisdom.  In  846 
he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  patriarch.  Eleven  years 
after,  he  was  banished  and  cruelly  treated  for  his  opposi 
tion  to  Bardas,  an  uncle  of  Michael  III.,  who  appointed 
in  his  place  the  ambitious  Photius.  The  schism  between 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  began  while  Photius 
was  in  office,  and  has  continued  ever  since  that  time.  In 
867  the  emperor  Basilius  reinstated  Ignatius,  who  as 
sembled  in  869  an  oecumenical  council  at  Constantinople, 
which  condemned  Photius  and  his  party.  Died  in  877. 

See  DAVID  NICETAS,  "Vita  S.  Ignatii,"  1604. 

Ignatius  Loyola.     See  LOYOLA. 

Igor  (ee'gor)  I.,  third  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  a  son 
of  Rurik,  was  born  about  875,  and  succeeded  Oleg  in 
912  A.D.  He  led  an  expedition  against  Constantinople  in 
941,  and  compelled  the  Greek  emperor  to  sue  for  peace, 
which  was  granted  by  a  treaty  in  945.  Igor  was  killed 
in  an  ambuscade  in  945.  After  his  death  his  widow  Olga 
was  converted  to  Christianity. 

See  SOLOVIEF,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Igor  II.,  or  Igor  Olgovitch,  Grand  Prince  of  Russia, 
began  to  reign  at  Kief  about  1145.  His  claim  was  con 
tested  by  Iziaslaf,  who  defeated  him  in  1 146.  Igor  was 
confined  in  a  convent,  and  assassinated  in  1147. 

See  KARAMZIX,  "Histoire  de  Russie." 

Hire,  ee'reh,  (JoHAN,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  eminent  in 
philology,  born  at  Lund  in  1707,  graduated  with  the 
highest  honour  at  Upsal  in  1730.  After  visiting  France, 
England,  etc.,  he  returned  to  Upsal  and  became  professor 
of  poetry  and  of  theology  in  the  university  of  that  place. 
In  1 738  he  obtained  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  and  political 
science,  which  he  occupied  about  forty  years,  acquiring 
great  celebrity  as  a  lecturer  and  author.  In  1769  he 
published  his  "  Swedish  Glossary,"  ("  Glossarium  Suio- 
gothicum,")  a  monument  of  his  immense  learning  and 
critical  sagacity,  containing  a  philosophic  treatise  on  the 
filiation  of  languages,  besides  remarks  on  the  origin 
and  affinity  of  Swedish  words.  He  also  wrote  several 
hundred  excellent  academical  dissertations,  and  is  justly 
ranked  among  the  best  critics  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (SJf^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IHRE 


1240 


IMPERIAL* 


In  1759  he  was  decorated  with  the  order  of  the  Polar 
Star.  Died  in  1780. 

See  FLODERUS,  "  Parentation  bfver  J.  Ihre,"  1781  ;  GEZELIUS, 
"  Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Ihre,  (THOMAS,)  a  Swedish  writer,  father  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Wisby  in  1659;  died  in  1720. 

See  T.  RUDJ£N,  "Trognas  Strid  och  Seger,  Likpredikan  ofver  T. 
Hire,"  1720. 

Iken,  ee'ken,  (CONRAD,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Bremen  in  1689.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Bremen,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Antiquitates 
Hebraicse,"  (1730.)  Died  in  1753. 

Iken,  (HEiNRiCH  FRIEDRICU,)  a  German  religious 
writer,  born  at  Neuenkirchen  in  1791;  died  in  1820. 

Ildefonse.     See  ILDEFONSO. 

Il-de-fon'so,  [Lat.  ILDEFON'SCJS  ;  Fr.  ILDEFONSE, 
el-deh-f6NTs',]  SAINT,  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Toledo 
in  607  A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  Saint  Isidore.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  658.  He  wrote,  besides  several 
theological  treatises,  a  continuation  of  Saint  Isidore's 
work  "De  Viris  illustribus."  Died  in  669. 

See  CIXILA,  "Vita  Ildefonsi ;"  GREGORIO  MAYANS,  "Vida  de  S. 
Ildefonso,"  1727. 

Ilepooshin  or  Ilepouschin,  il-e-poo'shen,  a  Rus 
sian  poet  of  the  present  age,  lived  near  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  wrote  pastoral  poems. 

Ilgen,  il'gen,  (K.ARL  DAVID,)  a  distinguished  philolo 
gist,  born  in  Prussian  Saxony  in  1763.  He  became  in 
1794  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at  Jena.  His 
principal  works  are  entitled  "  Ilymni  Homerici,"  and 
"Convivial  Songs  of  the  Greeks,"  ("  Scholia  sive  Car- 
mina  convivialia  Grsecorum.")  Died  in  1834. 

See  F.  C.  KRAFFT,  "Vita  C.  T>.  Ilgeni,"  1837  ;  R.  STERN,  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  C.  D.  Ilgenio,"  1839  ;  "  Ilgeuiana:  Erinnerungen  an  Dr.  C. 
D.  Ilgen,"  Leip>ic,  1853. 

Ilia.     See  RHEA  SILVIA. 

I-lith-y-i'a  or  Eileithyia,  [Gr.  Elfaidvia,}  written 
also  Eleithyia  and  Bleutho,  a  Greek  goddess,  who 
presided  over  birth.  Though  originally  distinct  from 
Diana,  (Artemis,)  she  seems  later  to  have  become  identi 
fied  with  her.  (See  LUCINA.) 

Hive,  I'liv,  ?  (JACOB,)  an  English  printer,  who  became 
noted  by  his  fictitious  "  Book  of  Jasher,"  (1751,)  which  he 
pretended  to  have  translated  from  Alcuin.  Died  in  1763. 

Illescas,  el-yeVkas,  (GONSALVO,)  a  Spanish  monk, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Popes,"  (1570.)  Died  in  1580. 

Illgeii,  il'gen,  (CHRISTIAN  FKIEDRICII,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1786,  wrote  sev 
eral  works,  and  edited  a  journal  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  1844. 

Illyricus.     See  FRA.NCOWITZ. 

Ilmoni,  il-mo'nee,  (!MMANUEI.,)  a  Finnish  physician, 
born  in  1797,  wrote  "Contributions  to  the  History  of  the 
Nosology  of  the  North,"  (3  vols.,  1846-53.)  Died  in  1856. 

I'lus,  [Gr.  *I/lor,]  the  founder  of  Ilium,  (Ilion,)  or  Troy, 
was  a  son  of  TROS,  (which  see.) 

Imad-ed-Deen,  (-Eddyn  or  -Eddin,)  e-mad'  ed- 
deen',  (i.e.  the  "Pillar  of  Religion,")  (Mohammed, 
mo-han/med, )  surnamed  AL-KATEH,  was  born  at  Is 
pahan  in  1125  A.D.  He  went  in  1167  to  Damascus, 
where  he  became  the  secretary  of  Noor-ed-I)een.  Alter 
the  death  of  Noor-ed-Deen,  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
famous  Saladin,  whose  victories  he  celebrated  in  an  ode, 
and  whom  he  served  as  private  secretary  until  the  death 
of  that  prince.  Imad-ed-Deen  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin,"  and  "Memoirs  of 
the  Moslem  Poets  of  the  Sixth  Century  of  the  Hejrah." 
Died  in  1201. 

See  IBN-KHALLJKAN,  "  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Imad-ed-Dowlah,  (or  -Eddaulah,)  e-mSd'ed-dow'- 
lah,  (i.e.  "  Pillar  of  the  State,")  (Alee-Abool-Hassan- 
Alee-Ibn-Booyah,  a'lee  a'bool  has'san  a'leelb'nboo'- 
yah,)  King  of  Persia,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
Bouides,  and  began  to  reign  in  933  A.D.  He  conquered 
the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  and  died  in  949,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  nephew,  Adhad-ed-Dowlah. 

See  IBN-KHALLIKAN,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  WEIL,  "  Ge- 
schichte  des  Chalifen." 

Irnberdis,  aN'beii'dess',  (ANDRE,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Ambert  about  1810,  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Religious  Wars  in  Auvergne  during  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (2  vols.,  1841.) 


Imbert,  aN'baiR',  (BARTHELEMY,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1747.  He  produced  at  the  age  of  twenty 
"The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  graceful  poem,  which  was 
much  admired.  The  plan  was  ingenious,  and  the  style 
natural  and  elegant.  Died  in  1790. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Imbert,  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Limoges  about  1743  ;  died  at  Paris  in  1803. 

Imbert,  (JEAN,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  La  Rochelle 
about  1522,  published  "  Institutiones  Forenses,"  (1542,) 
often  reprinted.  Died  about  1600. 

Imbert,  (JosF.rH  GABRIEL,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Marseilles  in  1654,  was  a  .pupil  of  Le- 
brun  and  of  Van  cler  Meulen.  At  the  age  of  thirty-four 
he  took  the  monastic  vows,  after  which  he  painted  only 
sacred  subjects.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Calvary."  Died 
in  1740. 

Imbonati,  em-bo-na'tee,  (CARLO  GIUSEPPE,)  an  Ital 
ian  bibliographer,  born  at  Milan,  wrote  "  Bibliotheca 
Latino-Hebraica,"  (2  vols.,  1696.)  Died  after  1696. 

Imhof  or  Imhoff,  im'hof,  (GusT.vv  WILLEM,)  born 
in  Amsterdam  in  1705,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Cey 
lon  in  1736.  Having  gained  general  confidence  by  his 
conduct  and  capacity,  he  became  about  1742  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Died  in  1750. 

Imhof,  von,  fon  im'hdf,  (JAKOB  WILHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  genealogist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1651.  He  was 
well  versed  in  the  history  of  the  royal  and  noble  families 
of  Europe,  and  wrote  many  works  on  genealogy,  among 
which  is  one  in  2  vols.,  (1684.)  Died  in  1728. 

See  KOEI.ER,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Inihofs." 

Imilcon.     See  HIMILCON. 

Im'i-son,  (JoilN,)  an  English  mechanician,  wrote  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "The  School  of  Arts,"  which 
passed  through  several  editions.  In  1807  Professor  J. 
Webster  published  an  improved  edition,  with  the  title 
of  "Elements  of  Art  and  Science."  Died  in  1788. 

Immeimann,  im'mer-man',  (KARL  LEBRECHT,)  a 
German  dramatist  and  poet,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1796, 
was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Princes  of 
Syracuse,"  (1821,)  "The  Valley  of  Ronceval,"  "King 
Periander,"  (1823,)  and  other  tragedies.  He  also  pub 
lished  a  number  of  tales  and  lyric  poems.  Died  in  1840. 

See  KARL  IMMERMANN,  "Memorabilien,"  3  vols.,  1840-43;  F. 
FREILIGRATH,  "C.  Immermann,  Blatter  der  Erinnerung  an  ihn," 
1842;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1843. 

Imola.     See  FRANC ucci. 

Imparato,  em-pa-ra'to,  (  FRANCESCO,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian, 
whose  style  he  imitated  with  some  success.  Died  after 

I565- 

Imperiale,  em-pa-re-a'la,  (FRANCESCO,)  born  at 
Genoa  about  1370,  went  to  Spain,  and  became  attached 
to  the  court  of  Henry  III.  of  Castile.  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  Spanish  poets  of  that  time. 

Imperial!,  em-pa-re-ii'lee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  author,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1568, 
graduated  at  Padua,  and  practised  with  success  in  his 
native  city.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  which  were  admired, 
also  a  collection  of  observations  entitled  "  Exotericae 
Exercitationcs,"  (1603.)  Died  in  1623. 

His  son  GIOVANNI,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1602,  was  also 
a  physician,  and  wrote  "Muscenm  Ilistoricum  et  Physi- 
cum,"  consisting  of  eulogies  and  memoirs  of  eminent 
literary  men.  Died  in  1670. 

Imperial!,  (GIOVANNI  VINCENTE,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Genoa  about  1570,  served  the  state  as  a  diplo 
matist,  and  held  a  high  command  in  the  navy.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  poems,  "  Lo  Stato  rustico,"  (1611,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.  Died  about  1645. 

See  SOPRANI,  "Scrittori  Lignri." 

Imperial!,  (GIUSEPPE  RENATO,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
distinguished  for  his  patronage  of  learning,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family  at  Genoa  in  1651.  It  is  said  he  would 
have  been  elected  pope  in  1730,  if  the  court  of  Spain 
had  not  interposed  against  him.  Many  learned  men  were 
recipients  of  his  bounty.  Died  in  1737.  He  left  a  noble 
library,  which,  by  his  will,  was  kept  open  to  the  public. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Imperiali-Lercari,  em-pa-re-a'lee  leR-ka'ree,  (FRAN 
CESCO  MARIO,)  was  Doge  of  Genoa  when  that  city  was 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6.,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  'y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  nflt;  good;  rnoon; 


IMPET 


1241 


INES 


bombarded  by  the  fleet  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1684.  Hos 
tilities  having  been  suspended  by  the  mediation  of  the 
pope,  the  Doge  went  as  ambassador  to  Paris,  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  1685. 

Im'pey,  (Sir  ELIJAH,)  an  infamous  judge,  who  offi 
ciated  in  India  during  the  administration  of  Warren 
Hastings. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Elijah  Impey,"  by  E.  B.  IMPEY,  1846; 
MACAUI.AY,  "Essay  on  Warren  Hastings." 

Impiccati,  degli,  a  surname  of  ANDREA  DEL  CAS- 
TAGNO.  (See  CASTAGNO.) 

I'lia  or  I'lias,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Heptarchy,  succeeded  Ceadwalla  in  689 
A.D.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  superior  talents, 
and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal  legislators  among 
the  ancient  Anglo-Saxons.  He  waged  war  successfully 
against  the  people  of  Kent  and  the  Britons  about  710. 
In  728  he  resigned  his  crown,  and  died  at  Rome  the 
same  year. 

See  WILLIAM  OF  MAI.MF.SBURY,  "Gesta  Regum  Anglorum." 

In'a-ehus,  [Gr.  'Iva^of,]  a  mythical  personage,  the 
son  of  Oceanus,  and  father  of  lo,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  King  of  Argos.  Having  been  chosen  as  umpire 
by  Neptune  and  Juno  when  they  disputed  about  the 
possession  of  Argos,  he  decided  in  favour  of  Juno. 

Iiica,  ing'ka,  (plural  Iiicas,)  a  Peruvian  or  Quichua 
word,  signifying  "  chief,"  and  applied  to  the  dynasty  reign 
ing  in  Peru  on  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  in  that  coun 
try  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  the 
Peruvians  did  not  possess  the  art  of  writing,  we  have  no 
means  of  ascertaining,  or  even  forming  a  satisfactory 
conjecture  respecting,  the  earliest  date  of  their  power.  The 
Incas  claimed  to  be  the  descendants  of  Manco  Capac  and 
his  wife  Mama  Ocllo,  who  were  the  children  of  the  sun. 
(See  MANGO  CAPAC.)  The  empire  of  the  Incas,  at  the 
period  of  their  greatest  power,  extended  through  nearly 
forty  degrees  of  longitude,  and  contained  an  area  of 
between  one  and  two  million  square  miles.  Their  sub 
jects,  though  unacquainted  wLth  letters,  had  in  many 
respects  advanced  to  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  They 
understood  the  working  of  the  precious  metals,  archi 
tecture,  and  many  other  arts,  and  were  especially  dis 
tinguished  for  the  general  liberality  and  wisdom  of  their 
state  policy  ;  though  some  of  their  laws  and  regulations 
were,  according  to  the  standard  of  Christian  civilization, 
both  unjust  and  inhuman. 

See  PRESCOTT'S  "Conquest  of  Peru,"  book  i.  chap.  i. 

Inch'bald,  (EI.IZAUETH,)  a  popular  English  actress, 
novelist,  and  dramatist,  born  at  Stanningfield  in  1753, 
was  the  daughter  of  a  farmer  named  Simpson.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  she  came  to  London  with  the  intention  of 
becoming  an  actress,  and  was  married  to  Mr.  Inchbald, 
who  had  obtained  some  success  on  the  stage.  After 
performing  with  her  husband  several  seasons  at  Edin 
burgh  and  other  towns,  she  made  her  dt-but  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1780,  and  was  very  successful.  Her  success 
is  ascribed  in  a  great  measure  to  her  personal  beauty 
and  virtuous  character.  In  1789  she  retired  from  the 
stage.  She  wrote  "Such  Things  Are,"  "Every  One 
has  his  Fault,"  "To  Marry  or  Not  to  Marry,"  and  many 
other  plays.  Her  greatest  productions  are  two  novels, 
"A  Simple  Story,"  (1791,)  and  "Nature  and  Art,"  (1796,) 
which  obtained  extensive  and  durable  popularity.  Her 
'"Nature  and  Art,' "  says  Hazlitt,  "is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  pathetic  stories  in  the  world."  The 
other  work  is  highly  commended  by  Miss  Edgeworth. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  her  Life,  by  BOADKN,  1833;  MRS.  ELWOOD,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843. 

Iiich'i-quin,  (MORROGH  O'BRIEN,)  BARON  OK,  a 
famous  Irish  soldier,  born  about  1618.  He  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  civil  war,  fighting  alternately  for 
Charles  I.  and  against  him.  I  Fe  was  a  royalist  from  1640 
to  1645,  ancl  gained  several  victories.  About  1649  he 
entered  the  French  service,  with  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1674. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1814. 

Inchofer,  ing'Ko'fer,  (MEl.CHiou,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1584,  lived  in  various  cities  of  Italy,  and  wrote 
several  learned  works,  among  which  is  the  "Ecclesias 


tical  History  of  Hungary,"  (1644,  unfinished.)     He  had 
more  learning  than  critical  judgment.     Died  in  1648. 
See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Incledoii, ink'el-don,  (BENJAMIN  CHARLES,)  an  Eng 
lish  vocalist,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1764,  served  several 
years  in  the  royal  navy.  He  first  appeared  in  a  London 
theatre  in  1790,  and  performed  many  years  with  success. 
Died  in  1826. 

Iiidaco,  1',  len'cla-ko,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  flourished  about  1530. 

Iiidaco,  1',  ([AGOPO  DA  FIKENZE.)  a  Florentine  painter, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a  pupil  of  Ghirlandaio, 
and  worked  at  Rome. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

India,  en'de-a,  (TiiLLio, )  called  THE  ELDER,  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Verona,  and 
flourished  in  1545.  He  was  a  skilful  painter  in  fresco, 
and  an  excellent  copyist. 

His  son  BERNARDINO,  a  painter,  was  born  at  Verona. 
One  of  his  later  works  is  dated  1584. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

In-dib'i-lis,  a  Spanish  chief,  who  flourished  during 
the  first  Punic  war,  in  which  he  fought  for  and  betrayed 
both  sides.  He  fought  for  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
battle  at  which  Publius  Scipio  was  killed,  in  213  B.C. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  the  younger  Scipio  in  207. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Romans  in  205  n.c. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  x.xii.  and  xxv.-xxix. 

Indra,  Ti/dua,  [etymology  doubtful ;  possibly  related 
to  the  Latin  imber,  (Gr.  o/ujpof,)  a  "shower"  or  "rain 
storm,"]  the  regent  of  the  firmament,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  is  the  son  of  Kasyapa  ancl  Aditi.  As  the 
god  of  sto'rms  and  thunder,  he  may  be  said  to  correspond 
very  nearly  to  the  Roman  Jupiter  and  Greek  Zeus.  In 
the  early  period  of  the  Hindoo  mythology  he  was  (like 
Jupiter)  regarded  as  the  most  powerful  of  the  gods  ;  but, 
after  the  introduction  of  the  deities  of  the  Hindoo  triad, 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  Indra,  Varuna,  and  Agni 
were  deposed  from  their  high  rank  and  made  to  occupy 
a  far  inferior  position.  Krishna,  an  avatar  ofVishnu,  is 
represented,  while  still  an  infant,  as  baffling  with  the 
utmost  ease  the  mightiest  efforts  of  the  god  of  thunder. 
(See  KRISHNA.)  Indra  is  supposed  to  preside  over  all 
atmospheric  changes  ;  the  clouds  are  his  war-elephants, 
one  of  which,  represented  with  three  trunks  and  called 
Iravat,*  (T-ra'vat,)  is  his  vahan,  (or  "vehicle,"!)  and  his 
most  terrible  weapon  is  his  vajra,  (pronounced  by  the 
modern  Hindoos  viij'ra  or  buj'ra,)  or  "adamantine  thun 
derbolt."}  The  heaven  or  paradise  of  Indra  is  called 
Swarga  or  Swerga,  (pronounced  swiir'ga.)  Here  dwell 
the  Apsaras,  the  beautiful  dancing-girls  of  his  court,  who 
may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the  Hoorees  (Houris)  of 
Mohammed's  paradise,  and  the  Gandharvas,  or  celestial 
minstrels.  The  consort  of  Indra  is  named  Indrani,  (in- 
clKa'nee.)  His  capital  city  is  called  Amravati,  (lim-ra'- 
va-tee,)  or  the  "city  of  immortality." 

See  MOOR'S  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  COI.KMAN'S  "Mythology  of  the 
Hindus;"  SIR  WILLIAM  JONES'S  Works,  vol.  xiii.,  (or  vol.  vi.  of 
another  edition;)  H.  H.  WILSON'S  "Translation  of  the  Rig- Veda,' 
and  "  Essays  on  the  Religion  of  the  Hindus." 

Induno,  en-doo'no,  (DOMENICO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  nn<\  ffcnre,  born  at  Milan  in  1815.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1837.  ^)^<*  , 

Indutiomare.     See  INDUTIOMARUS. 

Indutioniarus  or  Iiiduciomarus,  in-du-she-om'a- 
rus,  [Fr.  INDUTIOMAKK,  aN'di.i'se'o'ma'tt',]  a  chief  of  the 
Treviri,  fought  against  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  killed  in 
54  B-C. 

Ifies  (en'yc's)  or  Inez  de  Castro,  en'yeth  da  kas'tRo, 
sometimes  Anglicised  as  AGNES  DE  CASTRO,  a  beautiful 
Spanish  lady,  whose  tragical  fate  is  commemorated  by 
Camoens  in  the  "  Lusiad,"  was  born  of  a  noble  family 
in  Castile  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Having  been  a 
maid  of  honour  at  the  court  of  Alphonso  IV.  of  Por 
tugal,  she  won  the  love  of  his  son  Don  Pedro,  who 
privately  married  her.  The  king,  on  learning  the  fact, 

*  Iravat  signifies  "  watery,"  "  full  of  rain,"  (in  Latin, plttviosjis.') 
t  See  note  under  GARUDA. 

J  This  word  (vajra)  signifies  both  "  thunderbolt"  a-.id  "  adamant,1 
or  "diamond." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


INFANT  ADO 


1242 


INGLES 


was  violently  enraged,  and,  after  vain  efforts  to  dissolve 
their  union,  authorized  her  assassination  in  1355.  She 
was  eminent  for  virtue,  grace,  and  intelligence.  Her 
story  is  the  subject  of  numerous  dramas,  legends,  etc. 

See  MRS.  BEHN,  "The  History  of  Agnes  cle  Castro;"  LOFE  DE 
VEGA,  "Donna  Inez  de Castro ;"  J.  B.  GOMEZ,  JK.,  "  Nova  Castro," 
Lisbon,  1817. 

Infantado,  de,  da  en-fan-ta'oo,  DUQUE,  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  in  1773,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
Prince  of  Asturias,  (Ferdinand  VII.)  In  1808  he  ac 
companied  that  prince  to  Bayonne,  and  signed  the  con 
stitution  which  Napoleon  imposed  on  Spain.  In  1809 
he  commanded  an  army  which  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Saint  Sebastian.  Ferdinand  VII.  appointed 
him  president  of  Jhe  council  of  Castile  in  1814.  He 
resigned  in  1820,  and  was  prime  minister  for  a  short 
time  in  1825.  Died  in  1841. 

Ingalls,  ing'galz,  (RuEUS,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  about  1820,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  September,  1862.  He  served  as  chief 
quartermaster  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1863-65. 

Ingeburga,  ing'eh-bdoR'ga,  sometimes  written  lug- 
elburge  or  Ingerburga,  a  Danish  princess,  was  the 
sister  of  Canute  VI.  In  1192  she  became  the  wife  of 
Philip  Augustus  of  France,  who  soon  after  divorced 
her  without  good  reason.  She  appealed  to  the  pope, 
Innocent  III.,  who  decided  in  her  favour;  and  after  the 
kingdom  of  Philip  had  been  laid  under  an  interdict, 
he  was  induced  to  reinstate  her.  Died  in  1236. 

See  DE  THOU,  "Histoire  universelle." 

Ingegneri,  en-jen-ya'ree,  (ANGIOLO,)  an  Italian  litte 
rateur,  born  in  Venice  about  1550,  was  secretary  of  Car 
dinal  C.  Alclobrandini  at  Rome,  whose  service  he  quitted 
in  1598.  He  xwrote  a  pastoral  called  "The  Dance  of 
Venus,"  ("  La  Danza  di  Venere,")  "  Buon  Segretario," 
and  a  few  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Tasso.  Died  in  1613. 

See  GINGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d' Italic." 

Ingegno,  L'.     See  LUIGI,  (ANDREA.) 

Ingelm*u,  ing'el-man',  (C.  G.,)  a  Swedish  poet,  born 
in  1788;  died  in  1845. 

In'ge-lo,  (NATHANIEL,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
wrote  "  Bentivolio  and  Urania,"  a  romance,  (1660,)  also 
a  few  sermons.  Died  in  1683. 

In'ge-16w,  (JEAN,)  a  popular  English  writer  and 
poetess,  born  about  1825,  published  "Poems,"  (1863,) 
"Studies  for  Stories,"  (1865,)  "A  Story  of  Doom," 
(1867,)  and  "Mopsa  the  Fairy,"  (1869.) 

Ingemanu,  ing'eh-man',  (  BERNHARD  SEVERIN,  )  a 
popular  Danish  poet  and  novelist,  was  born  in  the  island 
of  Falster,  May  28,  1789.  He  produced  a  volume  of 
lyric  poems  ("Digte")  in  1811,  and  an  epic  poem,  called 
"The  Black  Knights,"  ("  De  sorte  Riddere,")  in  1814. 
His  tragedies  "Blanca"  and  "  Masaniello"  (1815)  were 
performed  with  great  success.  About  1820  he  published 
an  admired  dramatic  poem,  called  "The  Deliverance  of 
Tasso."  He  was  chosen  professor  of  Danish  at  the  Acad 
emy  of  Soroe  in  1822.  He  is  author  of  several  popular 
historical  novels,  among  which  are  "Waldemar  the  Vic 
tor,"  (1826,)  and  "Prince  Otho  of  Denmark,"  (1835.) 

See  WILLIAM  and  MARVHOWITT,  "The  Literature  and  Romance 
of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii.,  1852  :  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  aiid  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  ERSLEW,  "Almindeiigt  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  MOLLER. 
"Dansk  Pantheon  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Ingeii  or  Iiighen,  van,  vtn  ing'gen  or  ing'nen,  (Wii.- 
LEM,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1651,  studied  under  C. 
Maratta  at  Rome.  He  worked  in  Venice  and  Naples, 
and  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His  works  have  considera 
ble  merit.  Died  about  1710. 

Ingenhousz,  ing'gen-hows',  QAN,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Breda  in  1730.  About 
1767  he  visited  London,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
Dr.  Pringle,  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  by  whose 
recommendation  he  became  physician  to  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa  in  1772.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
the  aulic  council  in  Vienna,  and  received  a  pension  for 
life.  After  remaining  in  Vienna  a  number  of  years,  he 
travelled  in  France,  Italy,  etc.,  pursuing  his  scientific 
studies  and  experiments,  and  at  last  settled  in  London, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  in 
vented  an  electrophorus,  and  discovered  that  growing 


plants  exposed  to  the  light  exhale  oxygen  gas,  (1779.) 
His  principal  works  (which  are  all  written  in  English) 
are  "  Experiments  on  Vegetables,  discovering  their  Power 
of  Purifying  the  Air,"  (1779,)  an  "  Essay  on  the  Food  of 
Plants,"  and  "Experiments  and  Observations  on  Various 
Physical  Subjects."  The  invention  of  the  plate  electrical 
machine  is  attributed  to  him.  Died  in  1799. 
See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Ingersoll,  ing'ger-sol,  (CHARLES  TARED,)  a  lawyer 
and  writer,  a  son  of  Jared,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1782.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1812,  and  was  appointed  district  attorney  for  Pennsyl 
vania  by  President  Madison  in  1815.  He  was  chosen 
a  Democratic  member  of  Congress  in  1840,  1842,  and 
1844.  Among  his  works  are  "Chiomara,"  a  poem, 
(1800,)  and  a  "Historical  Sketch  of  the  Second  War 
between  the  United  States  of  America  and  Great  Britain," 
(4  vols.,  1845-52.)  Died  in  1862. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Ingersoll,  (JARED,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1749.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1766, 
studied  law  at  the  Temple  in  London,  and  on  returning  to 
America  took  up  his  residence  in  Philadelphia.  Though 
the  son  of  a  royalist,  he  zealously  advocated  the  rights 
of  the  colonies  in  the  Revolution.  He  rose  to  great  dis 
tinction  in  his  profession,  was  twice  attorney-general  of 
Pennsylvania,  once  United  States  district  attorney,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  president-judge  of  the  district 
court  of  Philadelphia.  He  served  in  the  convention  that 
framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  and  in  1812  was 
the  candidate  of  the  Federal  party  for  the  Vice-Presidency 
of  the  United  States.  Died  in  1822. 

Ingersoll,  (JOSEPH  REED,)  D.C.L.,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  14,  1786.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1808,  and  attained  to  a  high 
rank  in  the  legal  profession  in  his  native  city.  He  was  a 
representative  in  Congress  from  1835  to  1837,  and  was 
re-elected  by  the  Whig  party  in  1841,  and  again  in  1843, 
1845-,  and  1847.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates 
on  the  tariff,  and  was  for  some  time  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  the  judiciary.  He  was  appointed  minister 
to  England  by  President  Fill  more  in  1852.  Died  in  1868. 

Ing'ham,  (CHARLES  C.,)  an  eminent  American  por 
trait-painter,  born  about  1797.  He  worked  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  December,  1863.  His 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  their  high  finish. 

See  DUNLAP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America." 

Inghen.     See  INGEN. 

Inghirami,  en-ge-ra'mee,  (Cavaliere  FRANCESCO,) 
an  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Volterra  in  1772, 
devoted  many  years  to  researches  into  ancient  art,  and 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  writings.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  his  "Monument!  Etruschi," 
(10  vols.,  1821-27,)  which  is  the  most  complete  de 
scription  of  the  antiquities  of  Etruria.  He  wrote,  also, 
"Galleria  Omerica,"  (3  vols.,  1827-38,)  illustrative  of 
Homer's  poems,  and  "  Letters  on  Etruscan  Erudition, 
etc.,"  (1828.)  Died  in  1846. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Inghirami,  (TOMMASO  FEDRA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  orator,  born  at  Volterra  in  1470,  settled  at 
Rome  in  early  youth,  and  obtained  high  preferments. 
He  acquired  the  fame  of  being  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
men  of  modern  Rome  ;  and  Erasmus  informs  us  that  he 
was  styled  the  Cicero  of  his  age.  He  was  patronized 
by  Julius  II.,  who  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  Vatican 
Library.  He  left  in  manuscript  a  "Commentary  on 
Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,"  "An  Abstract  of  Roman  His 
tory,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1516. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  TIRA- 
BOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

In'gi-ald,  (almost  in'jald,)  King  of  Sweden,  surnamed 
ILLRADA,  ("the  Bad,")  reigned  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  was  the  last  of  his  dynasty.  In  consequence  of  his 
crimes,  some  of  his  subjects  revolted  with  success,  and 
he  destroyed  himself.  Iwar,  Prince  of  Scania,  succeeded 
him. 

Ingles,  ing-gles',  (Master  JORGE,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
was  eminent  in  history  and  portraits.  He  worked  at 
Granada  in  1455. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


INGLES 


INMAN 


Ingles,  (Don  JOSE,)  a  Spanish  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Valencia  in  1718;  died  in  1786. 

Inglis,  ing'glis,  (HENRY  DAVID,)  a  Scottish  writer  of 
travels,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1795.  He  travelled  exten 
sively  in  Europe,  and  published  excellent  books  of  travel, 
viz.,  "  Solitary  Walks  through  Many  Lands,"  (3d  edition, 
1843,)  a  "Journey  through  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den 
mark,"  (1829,)  "Tour  through  Switzerland,  the  South  of 
France,"  etc.,  (1830,)  "  Spain  in  1830,"  (from  which  Lord 
Aberdeen  said  he  had  derived  more  information  than 
from  all  the  state  documents  he  ever  perused,)  "  The 
Tyrol,  with  a  Glance  at  Bavaria,"  (1834,)  and  "  Rambles 
in  the  Footsteps  of  Don  Quixote."  Died  in  1835. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Inglis  or  English,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  poet,  born  in  Scot 
land  in  the  reign  of  James  IV.,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  a  book  entitled  "The  Complaint  of  Scotland," 
published  at  Saint  Andrew's  in  1548,  said  to  be  the  most 
ancient  Scottish  prose  work  that  is  extant.  Died  in  1530. 

Inglis,  (Jon.v,)  D.D.,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1763, 
was  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Greyfriars'  Church  in 
that  city.  He  published  a  "  Vindication  of  the  Christian 
Faith,"  (1830,)  and  a  few  other  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Iiiglis,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  Scottish  advocate,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1810.  He 
became  lord  advocate  in  May,  1852,  and  was  elected 
dean  of  the  faculty  in  the  same  year.  Having  retired 
from  office  with  the  Derby  ministry  in  December,  1852, 
he  was  restored  to  the  same  in  1858,  and  became  lord 
justice  clerk  in  the  same  year. 

In'glis,  (Sir  JOHN  EARDLEY  WILMOT,)  a  British  gen 
eral,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  about  1815,  was  a  son 
of  the  Bishop  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaign  of  the  Punjab  in  1848-49,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  His  regiment  was  at 


Ingraham,  (JOSEPH  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1809.  Among  his  productions 
are  the  romances  of  "  Lafitte,"  "  Captain  Kyd,"  and 
"The  Dancing  Feather."  He  has  also  written  "The 
Prince  of  the  House  of  David,"  and  other  similar  works. 

Ingrain,  ing'gram,  (HERBERT,)  an  English  printer, 
born  at  Boston  in  1811,  founded  the  "  Illustrated  Lon 
don  News"  in  1842.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1856,  and  visited  the  United  States  in  1860.  In  Sep 
tember  of  that  year  he  was  drowned  in  Lake  Michigan, 
in  consequence  of  a  collision. 

Ingram,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Wiltshire  in  1774,  became  president  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1824,  and  rector  of  Garsington.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  "  Saxon  Chronicle,"  (1823,)  "  Memorials 
of  Oxford,"  (1834-37,)  which  was  favourably  received, 
and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1850. 

Ingram,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  in  1727.  He  became  vicar  of  Orston 
and  Boxted,  and  published,  besides  other  works,"  Isaiah's 
Vision,"  (1784,)  and  "The  Seventh  Plague,"  (1787.)  Died 
in  1804. 

Ingrassia,  en-gRas'se-a,  written  also  Ingrassias, 
(GIOVANNI  FILIPPO,)  an  eminent  Sicilian  physician  and 
anatomist,  born  at  Palermo  about  1510,  taught  anatomy 
at  Naples.  In  1563  he  was  chosen  by  Philip  II.  first 
physician  of  Sicily,  and  in  1575  he  checked  the  ravages 
of  the  plague  at  Palermo.  He  wrote  a  "  Commentary 
on  the  Bones,"  and  other  able  treatises  on  anatomy. 
Died  in  1580. 

See  £LOV,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Ingres,  a.vgR,  (JEAN  AUGUSTS  DOMINIQUE,)  a  cele 
brated  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1780  or  1781,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1801  for  a  picture  of  "Achilles  receiving  in  his 
Tent  the  Envoys  of  Agamemnon."  He  worked  about 


Lucknow  when  that  place  was  besieged  by  the  Sepoys    twenty  years  (1804-24)  in  Rome  and  Florence,  choosin 


in  the  summer  of  1857.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  garrison. 
He  received  the  brevet  of  major-general  for  his  heroic 
defence  of  Lucknow.  Died  at  Homburg,  Germany,  in 
September,  1862. 

Inglis,  (Sir  ROBERT  HARRY,)  M.P.,born  in  1786,  was 
the  only  son  of  Sir  Hugh  Inglis,  chairman  of  the  East 
India  Company.  He  was  first  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1824.  From  1829  to  1853  he  represented  the  University 
of  Oxford,  and  constantly  voted  with  the  Tories  against 
the  Reform  bill,  the  relief  of  the  Catholics,  etc.  Died 
in  1855. 

Inglis,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1762, 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war.  Died 
in  1835. 

Ingoldsby,  ing'golz-be,  (THOMAS,)  the  assumed  name 
of  Richard  H.  Barham.  (See  BARHAM.) 

Ing'on  I.,  surnamed  THE  Goon,  King  of  Sweden,  was 
the  son  and  successor  of  Stenkil,  and  began  to  reign 
about  1080.  He  favoured  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
among  his  subjects.  Died  in  1112. 

Ingon  n.,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  his 
successors,  and  shared  the  royal  power  with  his  brother 
Philip.  Slavery  was  gradually  abolished  in  his  reign. 
Died  in  1130. 

Ingoni,  en-go'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTTSTA,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Modena  in  1528  ;  died  in  1608. 

Ingoni,  (MATTEO,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1587;  died  in  1631. 

Ingouf,  aN'goof',(FRANgois  ROBERT,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  engraved  "The 
Nativity,"  after  Raphael,  and  some  of  the  plates  for  the 
"Musee  Fran9ais."  Died  in  1812.  His  brother,  PIERRE 
CHARLES,  born  in  Paris  in  1746,  was  also  a  successful 
engraver.  Died  in  1800. 

Ingraham,  ing'gra-am,  (DUNCAN  NATHANIEL,)  a 
naval  commander,  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1802.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  spirited  conduct 
in  procuring  the  release  from  an  Austrian  war-vessel, 
at  Smyrna,  in  June,  1853,  of  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian, 
who  had  legally  declared  his  intention  to  become  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States.  As  a  mark  of  its  approval, 
the  general  government  presented  Tngraham  with  a  medal. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1855. 


Raphael  as  his  model.  During  this  period  he  painted 
"  CEdipus  and  the  Sphinx,"  "  Raphael  and  La  Fomarina," 
and  "Odalisque,"  (1819.)  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1824, 
became  the  founder  of  a  school,  and  exhibited  "  The 
Vow  of  Louis  XIII.,"  one  of  his  best  works,  which 
opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  Institute  in  1825.  In 
1827  he  painted  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Louvre  "The 
Apotheosis  of  Homer,"  which  is  called  his  master-piece. 
At  the  Exposition  of  185=;  A  salon  was  reserved  exclu 
sively  for  his  works,  which  are  said  to  have  had  a  wide 
influence  on  the  style  of  French  and  foreign  artists.  He 
is  called  the  representative  of  correct  design  and  ideal 
composition.  Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  L.  DE  LOM^NIE,  "  M.  Ingres,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ; 
FREDERIC  MERCEY,  "  Peintres  et  Sculpteurs  modernes  :  J.  Ingres," 
1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Inguimbert,  d^da.N'ga.x'baiR',  (JOSEPH  DOMINIQUE,) 
a  French  bishop,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1683,  assumed 
the  name  of  DOM  MALACHIE.  He  became  an  intimate 
counsellor  of  Pope  Clement  XII.,  who  appointed  him 
domestic  prelate,  and  in  1733  Bishop  of  Carpentras.  He 
built  a  hospital  in  that  town,  and  founded  a  large  public 
library  there.  He  wrote  and  translated  several  religious 
works.  Died  in  1757. 

See  VITALIS,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Malachie  d' Inguimbert,"  1812 

Ingulf.     See  INGULPHUS. 

In-gul'phus  or  In'gulf,  a  monk,  born  in  London 
about  1030,  became  secretary  and  favourite  of  William, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  in  1051.  After  that  prince  had 
become  King  of  England,  Ingulphus  was  made  abbot  of 
the  monastery  of  Croyland.  He  died  in  1109.  He  was 
the  reputed  author  of  a  History  of  the  above  monastery, 
in  Latin,  containing  much  curious  and  important  infor 
mation  ;  but  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  has  proved  that  it  is  a 
forgery. 

See  ORDENCUS  VILALIS,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica." 

In'I-go,  an  English  engraver,  whose  proper  name  was 
JOHN  COLLET,  was  born  about  1725.  He  excelled  in 
the  same  line  as  Hogarth,  and  displayed  an  original 
genius  for  humorous  design.  He  left  but  few  works, 
among  which  is  a  "  Monkey  pointing  to  a  Very  Dark 
Picture  of  Moses  striking  the  Rock."  Died  in  1780. 

In'man,  (HENRY,)  an  American  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Jarvis.  He 


«  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


INMAN 


1244 


INNOCENT 


worked  mostly  in  the  city  of  New  York.  During  a  visit 
to  England,  in  1844,  he  painted  portraits  of  the  poet 
Wordsworth,  Dr.  Chalmers,  andT.  B.  Macaulay.  Among 
his  other  works  are  portraits  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall 
and  Bishop  White.  He  was  commissioned  by  Congress 
to  adorn  the  national  capitol  with  historical  paintings ; 
but  before  he  had  finished  them  he  died,  in  1846. 

See  DUNI.AP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  TUCKBRMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists. " 

In  man,  (fun.\,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Utica,  New  York,  in  1805,  was  an  associate  editor  of 
the  "  New  York  Mirror"  and  "The  Commercial  Adver 
tiser."  Died  in  1850. 

In'nes,  (Louis,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  of  a 
Scottish  family  about  1650.  He  became  secretary  to 
James  II.  after  he  was  deposed  from  the  Knglish  thr"one. 
He  is  the  reputed  author  of  "  Memoirs  of  James  II.,"  part 
of  which  was  published  by  J.  Stanier  Clarke  in  1816. 

Innes,  (THOMAS,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1662,  studied  in  Paris,  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  suc 
ceeded  Louis  as  principal  of  the  Scottish  College.  He 
wrote  a  "Critical  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabitants  of 
the  Northern  Parts  of  Britain,"  (1729,)  which  is  highly 
;omtnended  for  sound  learning,  judicious  criticism,  and 
valuable  information.  Died  in  1744. 

SeeCHAMBEK.s,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

In'no-cent  [Lat.  INNOCEN'TIUS;  It.  IXNOCENZO,  en- 
no-chen'zo ;  Ger.  IXNOCENZ,  in'no-tsents  ;  Span.  [NO- 
CENCIO,  e-no-///en'//^e-o]  I.,  a  native  of  Albano,  chosen 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  402  A.D.,  was  contemporary  with 
Augustine  and  Jerome.  During  his  pontificate,  Rome 
was  pillaged  by  Alaric  the  Goth.  Innocent  strenuously 
asserted  the  supremacy  of  the  see  of  Rome,  and  con 
demned  the  doctrines  of  Pelagius.  Died  {11417,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Zosimus. 

See  BRUYS,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  5  vols.,  1735. 

Innocent  II.,  POPE,  was  elected  in  1130  as  successor 
to  Ilonorius  II.  Another  party  elected  a  rival  pope, 
under  the  name  of  Anacletus  II.,  whose  partisans  drove 
Innocent  out  of  Rome.  The  latter  was  recognized  as  pope 
by  the  Kings  of  France,  England,  and  Germany,  and  his 
rival  was  supported  by  Roger  of  Sicily.  In  1138,  Inno 
cent,  assisted  by  Lotharius  of  Germany,  recovered  the 
papal  power,  and,  his  rival  having  died  in  the  same  year, 
the  unity  of  the  Church  was  restored.  In  1139  Arnaldo 
da  Brescia  was  banished  from  Rome  for  preaching  doc 
trines  that  were  deemed  unsound.  Innocent  died  in 
1143,  and  was  succeeded  by  Celestine  II. 

See  PLATINA,  "  Vite  de' snmmi  Pontefici."  1613  ;  AI.LETZ,  "His 
toire  cles  Papes,"  1776;  J.  HARTMANN,  "Vita  Innocentii  II.  Pon- 
tificis,"  1744;  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pon- 
tifes,"  1847-49. 

Innocent  III.,  whose  proper  name  was  Lotharius, 

was  the  son  of  Trasimund,  a  Roman  count,  and  was  born 
in  Rome  in  1161.  He  was  unanimously  elected  pope  in 
January,  1198,  as  successor  to  Celestine  III.  With  su 
perior  abilities,  improved  by  diligent  study,  he  combined 
great  resolution,  industry,  and  austerity  of  character,  and 
availed  himself  of  every  opportunity  to  magnify  his  office 
and  to  assert  the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  In  1 199 
he  placed  the  kingdom  of  France  under  an  interdict  be 
cause  the  king,  Philip  Augustus,  had  repudiated  his  wife  ; 
and  thus  he  compelled  him  to  reinstate  her.  About  1200 
he  instigated  the  fourth  crusade,  the  principal  result  of 
which  was  the  capture  of  Constantinople  from  the  Greeks 
by  the  crusaders.  In  1212  he  excommunicated  and  de 
posed  Otho,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  crowned  Frede 
rick  of  Sicily  in  his  place.  A  memorable  quarrel  occurred 
between  this  pontiff  and  King  John  of  England,  respect 
ing  the  appointment  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
(1207,)  the  right  to  appoint  being  obstinately  asserted  by 
each.  England  was  laid  under  an  interdict, 'which  lasted 
two  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which,  as  John  was  still 
refractory,  the  pope  declared  him  to  be  deposed,  and 
authorized  Philip  Augustus  of  France  to  execute  the 
decree.  While  the  latter  was  preparing  to  invade  Eng 
land,  John  submitted  to  the  pope,  in  1213,  and  signed  a 
disgraceful  treaty,  in  which  he  consented  to  hold  Eng 
land  and  Ireland  as  fiefs  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to 
pay  an  annual  tribute  of  one  thousand  marks.  In  1214 
Innocent  raised  a  cruel  persecution  or  crusade  against 


the  Albigenses  for  heresy.  During  his  pontificate  the 
papal  power  attained  its  greatest  height.  He  was  perhaps 
the  most  learned  man  and  the  most  able  statesman  of 
his  age.  He  wrote  "  Letters,"  and  other  works,  which  are 
highly  commended.  Died  in  1216,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Honorius  III. 

See  F.  HURTHR,  "  Geschichte  Innocenz  III.,"  2  vols.,  1835,  (and 
French  version  of  the  same,  4  vols.,  1838-43;)  D.  LESSMANN,  "  Pabst 
Innocenz  III.  und  Fiirst  Michael  Glinski,"  1830;  JORRY,  "Histoire 
du  Pape  Innocent  III,"  1852;  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Hisloire  des 
souverains  Pontifes,"  1847-49;  J.  H.  GURNEY,  "Four  Ecclesiastical 
Biographies,"  London,  1864. 

Innocent  IV.,  (SINIKALDO  de'  Fieschi — da  fe-cV- 
kee,)  a  native  of  Genoa,  was  elected  pope  as  successor  to 
Celestine  IV.  in  1243.  He  soon  found  himself  involved 
in  a  quarrel  with  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  (who  had 
been  ex-communicated  by  Gregory  IX.,)  and  retired  for 
security  to  Lyons.  Here  he  summoned  a  council,  in 
1245,  and  renewed  the  excommunication  of  Frederick, 
who  was  also  formally  deposed.  The  emperor,  however, 
refused  to  submit  to  this  assumption,  and  waged  war 
against  the  pope  for  several  years,  until  his  death  in  1250. 
Innocent  then  returned  to  his  capital,  and  proclaimed  a 
crusade  against  Conrad,  the  son  of  Frederick  ;  but  again 
his  malignity  was  baffled.  He  died  in  1254,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Alexander  IV. 

See  J.  HARTMANN,  "Vita  Innocentii  IV.,"  1738;  PAOLO  PANZA, 
"Vita  del  gran  Pontefice  Innocenzio  Quarto,"  1601. 

Innocent  V.,  (  PETKK  OF  TARANTASIA,  )  born  at 
Moutier,  in  Savoy,  was  elected  in  1276  as  successor  to 
Gregory  X.  After  holding  office  a  few  months,  he  died 
in  the  same  year. 

Innocent  VI.,  (  UTIENNE  Aubert — 5'bain', )  a 
Frenchman,  born  near  Pompadour,  was  elected  pope 
in  1352.  He  succeeded  Clement  VI.,  who  had  made 
him  a  cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Ostia.  His  court  was  kept 
at  Avignon  throughout  his  pontificate.  He  reformed 
some  abuses  in  the  Church,  and  appears  to  have  acted 
with  more  moderation  and  propriety  than  most  of  his 
predecessors.  Died  in  1362. 

See  BRUYS,  "Histoire  des  Papes,"  1735;  SISMONDI,  "Histoire 
des  Francais." 

Innocent  VII.,  (Cardinal  COSMO  Migliorati — mcl- 
yo-ril'tee,)  born  at  Sulmona  about  1338,  was  elected  pope 
in  1404,  as  successor  to  Boniface  IX.  At  that  time  there 
was  an  extensive  schism  in  the  Church,  and  Benedict 
XIII.  held  a  rival  court  at  Avignon.  Died  in  1406. 

See  PI.ATINA,  "Vite  de'  sunimi  Pontefici,"  1613. 

Innocent  VIII.,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  Cibo — chee'- 
bo,)  born  at  Genoa  in  1434,  was  elected  pope  in  1484,  as 
successor  to  Sixtus  IV.  He  laboured  without  success 
to  unite  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  against  the  Turks, 
and  was  himself  engaged  in  war  with  Ferdinand,  King 
of  Naples.  He  died  in  1491,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander  VI. 

See  F.  SKRDONATI,  "Vita  d'lnnocenzo  VIII.,"  1829;  F.  M. 
VIALARDO,  "  Istoria  della  Vita  d'lnnocenzo  VIII.,"  1613. 

Innocent  IX.,  (ANTONIO  Facchinetti  —  fak-ke- 
net'tee,)  born  at  Bologna,  succeeded  Gregory  XIV.  in 
October,  1591,  but  only  survived  two  months  after  his 
election.  He  left  a  good  reputation  for  virtue  and 
wisdom.  Clement  VIII.  was  his  successor. 

See  RANKK,  "  History  of  the  Popes." 

Innocent  X.,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  Panfili — pan- 
fee'lee,)  elected  in  place  of  Urban  VIII.  in  1644,  was 
born  in  Rome  about  1570.  He  owed  his  promotion  to 
the  Barberini,  who  soon  became  his  enemies.  The  Jan- 
senist  controversy  having  made  a  great  commotion  in 
the  Church,  Innocent  appointed  a  commission  of  car 
dinals  to  settle  it,  and  in  1653  issued  a  bull  cum  occastone, 
in  which  he  condemned  the  five  propositions  of  Jansen. 
Historians  differ  widely  as  to  the  character  of  this  pontiff. 
He  died  in  1655,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  VII. 

See  RANKE,  "  History  of  the  Popes:"  CIACONIUS,  "  Vita;  et  Res 
geste  Pontificnm  Romanorum,"  4  vols.,  1677. 

Innocent  XI.,  (Cardinal  BENEDICT  Odescalchi — 
o-deVkal'kee,)  born  at  Como  in  161 1,  succeeded  Clement 
X.  in  1676.  He  had  been  made  a  cardinal  in  1647,  and 
had  sustained  a  respectable  character.  He  soon  mani 
fested  his  zeal  to  reform  abuses  and  restore  strict  disci 
pline,  and  his  inflexible  resolution  to  maintain  the  papal 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


INNOCENT 


1245 


IPH1TUS 


prerogatives.  His  pontificate  was  signalized  by  a  re 
markable  contest  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France  in  relation 
to  the  regale  and  the  privileges  or  exemptions  of  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Rome.  The  pope  wished  to  abolish  the 
usage  which  rendered  the  ambassador's  palace,  with  the 
adjacent  premises,  an  asylum  for  malefactors,  etc.,  inac 
cessible  to  the  officers  of  justice.  Louis  XIV.  in  1687 
sent  his  ambassador  Lavardin  with  orders  to  maintain 
his  rights,  and  with  an  armed  retinue  of  eight  hundred 
men.  The  pope  persisted,  and  excommunicated  Lavar 
din,  who  returned  without  effecting  his  object ;  and  the 
quarrel  was  not  ended  until  after  the  death  of  Innocent, 
which  occurred  in  1689.  It  seems  that  his  enmity  to  Louis 
induced  this  pontiff  to  favour  the  English  in  resistance 
to  James  II.  ;  and  some  one  remarked  that  the  peace  of 
P^urope  would  be  promoted  if  James  would  become  a 
Protestant,  and  the  pope  a  Catholic. 

See  UGHEI.LI,  "Italia  sacra,"  10  vols.,  1717-22;  RANKE,  "His 
tory  of  the  Popes;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  t'raiiQais ;"  F. 
BUONAMICI,  "  De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Innocentii  XI.,"  1776. 

Innocent  XII.,  (ANTONIO  Pigiiatelli — pen-ya-tel'- 
lee,)  born  in  Naples  in  1615,  became  Cardinal  and  Arch 
bishop  of  Naples  during  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  XI., 
and  succeeded  Alexander  VIII.  as  pope  in  July,  1692. 
He  proposed  to  take  Innocent  XL  as  his  model,  and 
appears  to  deserve  credit  for  his  economy,  regular  habits, 
liberality,  and  works  of  utility.  In  his  pontificate  a  re 
conciliation  was  effected  with  the  French  court  by  mutual 
concession.  Quietism  also  received  its  quietus,  in  1699, 
by  a  papal  brief  condemning  Fenelon's  "  Maximes  des 
Saints."  He  died  in  1700,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clem 
ent  XL 

See  RANKE,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  BRUYS,  "Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1735. 

Innocent  XIII.,  (MICHELANGELO  Conti — kon'tee,) 
born  in  Rome  in  1655,  was  the  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Poli,  and  attained  the  dignity  of  cardinal  in  1706.  He 
succeeded  Clement  XL  as  pope  in  1721,  and  exercised 
his  power  so  prudently  that  his  subjects  regretted  the 
brevity  of  its  duration.  He  died  in  1724,  and  his  place 
was  supplied  by  Benedict  XIII. 

See  KRUYS,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  1735  ;  "  Leben  Pabst  Innocenz 
XIII.,"  Cologne,  1724. 

Innocentius.     See  INNOCENT. 

Innocenz.     See  INNOCENT. 

Iiinocenzo.     See  INNOCENT. 

I'no,  [Or.  'Ivw,]  a  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia, 
was  the  wife  of  Athamas,  King  of  Thebes.  According 
to  tradition,  she  incurred  the  enmity  of  Juno,  who  de 
prived  Athamas  of  his  reason.  In  a  fit  of  insanity  he 
killed  a  son  of  Ino,  who  threw  herself  into  the  sea  and 
was  changed  into  a  sea-goddess,  named  Leucothea.  Her 
story  was  dramatized  by  several  Greek  poets. 

Inocencio.     See  INNOCENT. 

Interiano  de  Ayala,  6n-ta-re-a'no  da  I-a'Ia,  (JuAN,) 
a  Spanish  author  and  monk,  born  in  1656,  became 
preacher  to  the  king.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
(mostly  in  Spanish,)  "  Pictor  Christian  us  Eruditus," 
(1730,)  in  which  he  exposes  the  prevalent  errors  of 
painters  who  treat  of  religious  subjects.  Llis  style  is 
pure  and  elegant.  Died  in  1730. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  MORERI,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  Historique." 

Inthiema,  in-te-a'ma,  (HERO,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  jurist, 
born  in  1576;  died  in  1623. 

Intieri,  en-te-a'ree,  (  BARTOLOMMEO,  )  an  Italian 
economist  and  mechanician,  born  at  Pistoia  about  1674. 
He  founded  a  chair  of  political  economy  at  Naples,  and 
wrote  "On  the  Conservation  of  Grain."  Died  in  1757. 

Intorcetta,  en-toR-chet'ta,  (PROSPERO,)  a  Jesuit  mis 
sionary,  born  in  Sicily  in  1625,  laboured  in  China,  and 
published  Latin  translations  of  some  works  of  Confu 
cius.  Died  in  1696. 

Inveges,  en-va'jes,  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  Sicilian  historian 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Sciacca  in  1595,  published  a 
"History  of  Palermo,"  (3  vols.,  1649-51,)  which  was 
much  esteemed.  Died  in  1677. 

In'wood,  (CHARLES  FREDERICK,)  son  of  William 
Inwood,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1798.  He  co-operated 
with  his  father  as  architect  of  Westminster  Hospital  and 
other  edifices.  Died  in  1840. 


Inwood,  (HENRY  WILLIAM,)  an  English  architect,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1794.  He  was 
associated  in  his  profession  with  his  father,  and  pub 
lished  "  Studies  of  the  Architect  from  Nature,"  and  an 
illustrated  work  on  Athenian  architecture,  called  "The 
Erechtheion  at  Athens,"  (1827.)  He  perished  by  ship 
wreck  in  1843,  while  making  a  voyage  to  Spain. 

Inwood,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  architect,  born  about 
1770,  was  employed  on  many  buildings  in  London,  and 
also  followed  the  profession  of  surveyor.  lie  was  assisted 
in  his  architectural  labours  by  his  two  sons,  noticed 
above.  Saint  Pancras  Church,  London,  finished  in  1822, 
was  erected  by  him  and  his  son  Henry.  He  published 
"Tables  for  Purchasing  Estates,"  etc.  Died  in  1843. 

I'o,  [Gr.  MCJ,]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the  Greek 
poets  represent  as  a  daughter  of  Inachus  and  a  priestess 
of  Juno.  It  was  said  that,  having  been  transformed  by 
Jupiter  into  a  white  cow,  she  was  tormented  by  a  gadfly, 
(sent  by  Juno,)  to  escape  from  which  she  swam  across 
the  Ionian  Sea  and  wandered  through  various  parts  of 
the  world.  Her  story  is  related  by  /Eschylus  in  his 
"  Suppliants." 

I-o-la'us  [Gr.  'loAaoc]  or  I'o-las,  [Gr.  'loAaf,]  a  per 
sonage  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  relative  and  faithful 
companion  of  Hercules,  whom  he  aided  in  his  contest 
against  the  Lernean  Hydra. 

I'o-le,  [Gr.  'lo/.t],]  the  daughter  of  Eurytus,  King  of 
CEchalia,  who  promised  her  in  marriage  to  Hercules. 
But,  Eurytus  having  afterwards  refused  to  perform  his 
engagement,  lole  was  forcibly  carried  off  by  her  lover. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  caused  by  Dejanira's  jealousy, 
(see  DEJA.NIRA,)  lole  was  married  to  Hyllus,  the  son  of 
Hercules. 

I'on,  [Gr.  'Iwv,]  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  lonians, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Creusa.  His 
story  was  dramatized  by  Euripides. 

Ion,  [~luv,]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  who  was  born  at 
Chios,  (Scio,)  and  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  lived 
at  Athens,  where  he  became  a  friend  of  ^Eschylus  and 
gained  a  prize  for  one  of  his  tragedies.  He  composed, 
besides  tragedies,  elegies,  lyric  poems,  and  some  prose 
works,  all  of  which  are  lost.  He  was  included  in  the 
canon  of  the  five  Athenian  tragic  poets  by  the  Alexan 
drian  critics. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  KAYSER,  "  Historia  cri- 
tica  Tragicorum  Gracoruin,"  1845;  KARL  NIEBERDING,  "  De  lonis 
Chii  Vita,  Moribus  et  Studiis,"  1836. 


I'o-phon,  [Gr.  ' 


an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  a  son 


of  Sophocles  the  poet,  lived  about  420  B.C.  He  gained 
the  second  prize  in  429,  when  Euripides  received  the 
first  prize.  Among  the  titles  of  his  plays  are  "  Achilles," 
"  Actaeon,"  and  "  Pentheus."  His  works  are  not  extant. 
Died  after  405  B.C. 

See  KAYSER,  "  Historia  critica  Tragicorum  Graecorum,"  1845. 

louzef  or  louzaf.     See  YOOSEF. 
.    Iphicrate.     See  IPHICRATES. 

I-phic'ra-te§,  [Gr.  'tyiicpunjf  ;  Fr.  IPHICRATE,  e'fe'- 
kRJtt',]  a  skilful  Athenian  general,  who  rose  from  a 
humble  rank  in  society  and  obtained  the  chief  command 
of  the  Athenian  army.  About  392  B.C.  he  defeated  the 
Spartans  near  Corinth,  and  afterwards  gained  applause 
by  his  defence  of  Corcyra  against  the  Spartans  and  Syra- 
cusans.  He  made  important  changes  in  the  armour  and 
tactics  of  his  troops,  by  exchanging  the  heavy  buckler 
for  a  light  target  and  increasing  the  length  of  the  spear 
and  the  sword.  He  was  associated  with  Timotheus  and 
Chares  in  the  command  of  an  expedition  against  Byzan 
tium  about  357  B.C. 

See  GKOTK,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  "  Iphi- 
crates  ;"  DIODORUS  SICULUS,  books  xiv.,  xv.,  and  xvi.  ;  XEXOPHON, 
"  Hellenica,"  books  iv.  and  vi.  ;  REHUANTZ,  "  Vitae  Iphicratis,  Cha- 
brije  et  Timothei,"  Berlin,  1845. 

Iph-I-ge-ni'a  or  Iph-i-ge-nei'a,  [Gr.  'tyiyeveia;  Fr. 
IPHIGENIE,  e'fe'zha'ne',]  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
Clytemnestra.  The  ancient  poets  relate  that  Diana 
detained  the  Greek  fleet  at  Aulis  by  a  calm,  because 
Agamemnon  had  offended  her,  and  that  the  soothsayer 
Calchas  declared  Diana  could  be  appeased  only  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Iphigenia.  When  she  was  on  the  point  of 
being  immolated,  she  was  rescued,  it  is  said,  by  Diana, 
who  carried  her  to  Tauris,  where  she  became  a  priestess 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jrrj^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IPHIGENIE 


1246 


IRETON 


in  the  temple  of  the  goddess.  Her  story  is  the  subject 
of  two  of  the  dramas  of  Euripides. 

Iphig^nie.     See  IPIIIGENIA. 

Iph'i-tus,  [Gr.  'l<j>irof,]  a  king  of  Elis,  who  revived 
the  Olympic  games  about  884  H.C.,  four  hundred  and 
seventy  years  after  their  first  institution.  They  were 
celebrated  every  fifth  year,  at  Olympia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Alpheus.  Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  was 
associated  with  Iphitus  in  this  affair. 

Ipparco,  the  Italian  of  HIPPARCHUS,  which  see. 

Ippocrate.     See  HIPPOCRATES. 

Ippolito.     See  HIPPOLYTUS. 

Irailh,  e'rtl',  (AucusriN  SIMON,)  a  French  historical 
writer,  born  at  Puy-en-Velay  in  1719,  became  canon 
of  Monistrol.  He  wrote  an  interesting  work  entitled 
"Literary  Quarrels,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Revolutions  in 
the  Republic  of  Letters  from  the  Time  of  Homer  to 
the  Present,"  (4  vols^  1761,)  also  a  "History  of  the 
Reunion  of  Bretagne  with  France,"  (2  vols.,  1764.)  Died 
in  1794. 

See  QU^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Irala  Yuso,  e-ra'la  yoo'so,  (MATIAS  ANTONIO,)  a 
Spanish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Madrid  in  1680; 
died  in  1753. 

Ir'bjf,  (CHARLES  LEONARD,)  an  English  traveller,  and 
a  commander  in  the  royal  navy.  In  conjunction  with 
James  Mangles,  he  wrote  a  book  entitled  "  Travels  in 
Egypt,  Nubia,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land,"  privately 
printed  in  1823.  It  has  since  been  published,  and  is 
reputed  a  valuable  work.  (See  MANGLES,  CAPTAIN.) 

Irby,  (FREDERICK  PAUL,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born 
in  1779,  commanded  the  Amelia  in  an  indecisive  action 
against  the  French  in  1813.  Died  in  1844. 

Ire'dell,  (Tr'del,)  (JAMES,)  a  distinguished  jurist,  born 
in  England  in  1751,  settled  in  North  Carolina  in  1768. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1770,  and  in  1777  became 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Carolina.  This 
position  he  resigned  in  1779.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  influential  members  of  the  convention  called 
in  1788  to  consider  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  from 
1790  till  his  death,  in  1799,  was  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  He  published,  under  the 
authority  of  the  legislature,  the  "Laws  of  North  Caro 
lina,  1715-1790,"  (1791.) 

See  G.  J.  McREK,  "Lite  of  James  Iredell,"  1857. 

Iredell,  (JAMES,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Edenton,  North  Carolina,  in  1788.  He  was 
Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1827,  and  was  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  from  1828  to  1831.  He  was  sub 
sequently  reporter  to  the  supreme  court  of  his  native 
State,  and  published  thirteen  volumes  of  law  and  eight 
of  equity  reports.  Died  in  1853. 

Ire'land,  (JoiiN,)  D.D.,  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Ashburton  in  1761,  became  prebendary  of  Westminster 
in  1802,  and  Dean  of  Westminster  and  rector  of  Islip  in 
1816.  He  founded  a  professorship  at  Oxford,  and  several 
scholarships.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "London 
Quarterly  Review,"  and  the  author  of  several  approved 
works  of  divinity,  among  which  is  "  Paganism  and  Chris 
tianity  Compared."  Died  in  1842. 

Ireland,  (JOHN,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Shrop 
shire,  removed  to  London,  where  he  became  a  con 
noisseur  of  art  and  a  dealer  in  pictures.  He  compiled 
"Memoirs  of  Henderson"  the  actor,  and  published 
"  Hogarth  Illustrated,"  which  was  favourably  received. 
Died  in  1808. 

Ireland,  (SAMUEL,)  born  in  London,  was  a  weaver 
of  Spitalfields  in  his  youth.  He  became  subsequently  a 
dealer  in  rare  prints,  curiosities,  etc.  Having  acquired 
some  skill  in  drawing  and  engraving,  he  employed  it 
in  illustrating  various  countries,  of  which  he  published 
"  Picturesque  Tours."  He  was  the  author  of  "  Graphic 
Illustrations  of  Hogarth,"  and  the  publisher  of  the  Shak- 
speare  Papers  forged  by  his  son.  (See  below.)  Died 
in  1800. 

Ireland,  (WILLIAM  HENRY,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1777.  He  acquired  notoriety 
in  1795  by  forging  legal  documents  under  the  seal  of 
Shakspeare,  and  by  practising  on  the  public  credulity  in 
relation  to  dramas  which  he  pretended  to  have  found  at 
Stratford.  One  of  these,  called  "  Vortigern,"  was  pur 


chased  by  Sheridan,  and  performed  at  Drury  Lane  before 
the  imposture  was  detected.  The  audience  were  ex 
tremely  disgusted  at  the  quality  of  the  play,  and  Ireland, 
being  required  to  explain  how  he  had  obtained  it,  con 
fessed  the  forgery  to  his  father,  and  afterwards  published 
a  written  confession,  which  displays  more  vanity  than 
penitence.  Died  in  1835. 

Ireiiseus,  e-ra-na/iis,  (FALKOVSKI,)  a  learned  Russian 
prelate  and  writer  on  theology,  born  in  1762;  died  in 
1823. 

Irenaeus,  (KLEMKNTIEVSKI,)  a  Russian  theologian, 
born  in  1753,  became  Archbishop  of  Pskof.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  translated  from  the 
Greek  some  works  of  the  Fathers.  Died  in  1818. 

Irenaeus,  ?r-e-nee'us,  [Gr.  Elpr/valof;  Fr.  IRENEE,  e'ra'- 
na';  It.  IRENEO,  e-ra-na'o,]  SAINT,  a  Christian  martyr, 
born  about  130  or  140  A.D.,  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  and 
was  probably  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  as  he  was  a  pupil 
of  the  eminent  Bishop  Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  About  177 
he  became  Bishop  of  Lyons,  (Lugdunum,)  in  France,  in 
place  of  Pothinus,  who  was  the  first  that  occupied  that 
see.  He  ministered  to  his  churches  with  wisdom  and 
general  acceptance.  To  counteract  the  errors  of  the 
Gnostics  and  others,  he  wrote  a  treatise  against  Heresies, 
which  is  still  extant,  (in  a  Latin  translation.)  He  also 
wrote  several  Letters,  and  other  works,  which  are  lost, 
except  some  fragments.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  under  Septimus  Severus  ;  but 
the  learned  are  not  agreed  whether  it  occurred  in  202 
or  208.  He  was  well  versed  in  ancient  philosophy,  as 
well  as  in  evangelical  doctrine.  His  book  on  Heresies 
is  highly  appreciated  as  a  historical  monument  and  a 
vindication  of  the  primitive  faith.  He  was  a  believer  in 
the  Millennium,  and  entertained  opinions  on  that  subject 
which  some  consider  extravagant. 

See  SAINT  JEROME,  "  De  Viris  illustribus  ;"  EUSEBIUS,  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastical"  HKNRY  DODWHLL,  "  Dissertationes  in  Irenamm," 
i6Sg;  GEKVAISE,  "  Vie  de  S.  Irenee,  second  fiveque  deLyon."  1723; 
J.  M.  PRAT,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Irenee,"  1843;  JAMES  BEAVEN, 
"Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Saint  Iieiiajus." 

I-re'ne,  [Gr.  Eipr/vi; ;  Fr.  IRENE,  e'rin',]  Empress  of 
Constantinople,  was  born  at  Athens  about  752,  of  very 
obscure  parentage,  and  in  769  A.D.  became  the  wife  of 
Leo  IV.,  Emperor  of  the  East.  At  his  death,jn  780,  he 
left  a  son  of  ten  years,  named  Constantine,  during  whose 
minority  Irene  acted  as  regent.  She  was  remarkable  for 
her  beauty,  energy,  and  talents.  In  order  to  decide  the 
quarrel  between  the  Iconoclasts  and  their  opponents,  to 
whom  she  was  partial,  she  assembled  a  council  in  787, 
which  formally  sanctioned  the  worship  of  images.  When 
her  son  attained  his  majority,  her  ambition  so  far  pre 
vailed  over  natural  affection  that  she  dethroned  him  and 
deprived  him  of  sight.  In  802  she  was  deposed  by  a 
conspiracy  of  her  subjects,  and  Nicephorus  was  chosen 
emperor.  She  died  in  exile  in  803. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  VINCENT  MIGNOT, 
"Histoire  de  1'Impe'ratrice  Irene,"  1762;  GIBBON,  "History  of  the 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Irenee.     See  IREN^US. 

Ireneo.     See  IREN.'EUS. 

Ireton,  Tr'ton,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  repub 
lican,  born  in  1610.  He  was  a  student  of  law  when  the 
civil  war  began,  in  which  he  became  an  ardent  leader 
of  the  popular  cause.  Entering  the  army  as  captain  of 
cavalry,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  became  highly 
distinguished  for  his  courage  and  capacity  both  in  the 
battle-field  and  the  council-chamber.  At  the  battle  of 
Naseby,  (1645,)  with  the  rank  of  commissary-general,  he 
commanded  the  left  wing,  and  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner  ;  but,  his  friends  having  gained  the  victory,  he 
recovered  his  liberty  the  same  day.  In  1646  he  married 
Bridget,  daughter  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  The  latter,  as 
Hume  remarks,  "had  great  deference  for  the  counsels 
of  Ireton ;"  and  the  republicans  generally  reposed  the 
highest  confidence  in  him,  as  a  statesman  of  incorruptible 
honour.  About  1646  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  where 
he  projected  various  wise  legal  and  constitutional  re 
forms  and  was  eminent  for  his  skill  in  drafting  ordi 
nances.  While  Charles  I.  was  a  prisoner  at  Hampton 
Court,  he  had  conferences  with  Cromwell  and  Ireton, 
who,  it  is  said,  were  inclined  to  reinstate  him  in  a  limited 
royalty,  until  they  intercepted  one  of  his  letters  which 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


1RIARTE 


1247 


IRVING 


convinced  them  of  his  insincerity.  Ireton  was  a  member 
of  the  court  which  tried  the  king;  and  he  signed  the 
warrant  for  his  execution,  January,  1649.  In  reference 
to  this  affair,  Burnet  says,  "  Ireton  was  the  person  that 
drove  it  on  ;  for  Cromwell  was  all  the  while  in  some 
suspense  about  it."  In  July,  1649,  he  went  to  Ireland 
as  second  in  command  under  Cromwell,  who,  returning 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months,  left  to  Ireton  the  chief 
command,  with  the  title  of  lord  deputy.  After  gaining 
several  victories  and  taking  Limerick,  he  died  there  of 
the  plague  in  1651.  Hume,  who  was  not  partial  to  his 
cause,  denominates  him  "  a  memorable  personage,  much 
celebrated  for  his  vigilance,  industry,  capacity  even  for 
the  strict  execution  of  justice  in  that  unlimited  command 
which  he  possessed  in  Ireland.  It  was  believed  by  many 
that  he  was  animated  by  a  sincere  and  passionate  love 
of  liberty."  ("  History  of  England.") 

See,  also,  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  GUIZOT,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Revolution  d  Angleierre." 

Iriarte  or  Yriarte,  e-re-aR'ta,  (BKRNARDO,)  nephew 
of  Don  Juan  de  Iriarte,  noticed  beiow,  was  born  in  Tene- 
riffe  about  1734.  He  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state,  and  held  other  important  offices  under  the 
Spanish  government.  Died  in  1814. 

Iriarte,  (DOMINGO,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Teneriffe  in  1746,  was  sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary 
of  Spain  to  Poland,  and  employed  in  other  embassies'. 
Died  in  1795. 

Iriarte,  (FRANCISCO  DIKGO  DE  Ainsay — In -si',)  a 
Spanish  writer,  born  at  Huesca,  published  an  account 
of  his  native  city,  entitled  "  Fundacion,  Eccelencias, 
Grandezas,  etc.  de  la  antiquisima  Ciudad  de  Huesca," 
(1619.) 

Iriarte,  (iGNACro,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Guipuscoa  in  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
elder  Herrera.  He  worked  in -Seville,  and  became  a 
friend  of  Murillo,  who  painted  the  figures  for  some  of  his 
landscapes.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy 
of  Seville.  Iriarte  was  regarded  as  the  best  landscape- 
painter  of  his  country  and  his  time.  Connoisseurs  admire 
in  his  works  the  lightness  of  the  foliage,  the  transparency 
of  the  sky,  the  limpidity  of  the  water,  and  the  mastery 
of  chiaroscuro.  Died  in  1685. 

See  RAPHAEL  MENGS,  "  Las  Obras,"  etc.,  1780;  QUILLIET,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Iriarte,  de,  da  e-re-aR'ta,  (Don  JUAN,)  an  eminent 
linguist  and  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Teneriffe  in 
1702.  He  studied  in  Paris  at  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand,  and  subsequently  visited  London  and  Madrid, 
where  he  was  appointed  in  1732  one  of  the  librarians 
in  the  Royal  Library.  He  became  official  translator  to 
the  principal  secretary  of  state  in  1740,  and  in  1743  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  his 
works  may  be  named  a  "  History  of  the  Canary  Islands," 
(in  manuscript,)  a  collection  of  Spanish  proverbs  in 
Latin  verse,  and  translations  from  Martial.  Iriarte  is 
said  to  have  added  two  thousand  manuscripts  and  more 
than  ten  thousand  printed  volumes  to  the  Royal  Library 
during  the  thirty-nine  years  in  which  he  officiated  as 
librarian.  Died  in  1771. 

Iriarte,  de,  (To.\i/\s,)  youngest  brother  of  Bernardo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Teneriffe  about  1750.  He  be 
came  a  proficient  in  the  ancient  and  modern  languages 
under  the  tuition  of  his  uncle,  and  subsequently  became 
archivist  to  the  principal  secretary  of  state,  and  editor 
of  the  "Madrid  Mercury."  He  was  author  of  a  poem 
entitled  "La  Musica,"  (1779,)  which  was  received  with 
great  favour  and  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages,  and  "  Literary  Fables,"  ("  Fabulas  literarias.") 
The  latter  are  written  in  various  metres,  and  are  re 
markable  for  their  graceful  versification.  They  enjoyed 
great  popularity  at  the  time,  and  are  still  ranked  among 
the  classics  of  the  language.  An  English  version  of 
these  fables,  by  George  H.  Devereux,  appeared  in  1855. 
Iriarte  also  published  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Spoiled 
Child,"  ("El  Senorito  mimado,")  a  number  of  sonnets 
and  critical  essays,  and  a  metrical  translation  of  Horace's 
"Art  of  Poetry."  Died  about  1790. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  JOLY,  no 
tice  of  the  Life  of  Tomas  de  Iriarte,  in  the  "  Repertoire  de  Litte'ra- 
ture." 


Irico,  e-ree'ko,  (GIOVANNI  ANDREA,)  an  Italian  priest 
and  savant,  born  at  Trino  in  1704.  He  wrote  several 
religious  and  antiquarian  works.  Died  in  1782. 

I'ris,  [Gr.  TIpif,]  in  Greek  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
the  rainbow,  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Thaumas,  and 
sometimes  called  Thaumantias.  Homer  represents  her 
as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  employed  to  carry  mes 
sages  from  Ida  to  Olympus  and  from  gods  to  men. 

Irland,  CR'ISN',  (BONAVENTURE,)  a  French  jurist,  of 
Scottish  descent,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1551  ;  died  in  1612. 

Irnerius,  eR-na're-us,  sometimes  written  Warnerius, 
a  celebrated  Italian  jurisconsult,  born  at  Bologna  in  the 
eleventh  century.  He  became  the  renovator  or  restorer 
of  the  Roman  law,  which  had  been  neglected,  and  on 
which  he  wrote  commentaries,  called  "Glossae."  He 
obtained  the  office  of  judge,  and  was  sent  by  the  emperor 
to  Rome  in  mS  to  expedite  the  election  of  a  pope. 

See  B.  NIHUSIUS,  "Irnerius,"  Cologne,  1642;  FANTUZZI,  "  Scrit- 
tori  Kolognesi." 

Iron  Mask.     See  MASQUE  DE  FER. 

Ir' vine,  (WILLIAM,)  a  general,  born  near  Enniskillen, 
Ireland,  about  1742,  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania  in  1763. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1776,  and  a  brigadier-general 
in  1779.  From  1781  to  1783  he  commanded  the  troops 
stationed  at  Fort  Pitt  for  the  defence  of  the  western 
frontier.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1787, 
and  again  in  1793.  Died  in  1804. 

Ir'ving,  (DAVID,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  biographer  and 
writer  on  law.  He  published  "  Lives  of  Scottish  Poets," 
(1804,)  "Lives  of  the  Scottish  Writers,"  (1839,)  and  "The 
Table-Talk  of  John  Selden,"  (1854.)  He  also  wrote  the 
article  "Civil  Law"  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Irving,  (EDWARD,)  a  celebrated  and  eloquent  Scottish 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Annan  in  1792,  was  a  graduate  of 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Having  been  employed 
as  rector  of  an  academy  at  Kirkaldy  about  seven  years, 
he  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister.  From  1819  to 
1822  he  was  engaged  as  assistant  in  the  pulpit  of  Dr. 
Chalmers,  Glasgow,  where  he  acquired  a  good  reputation. 
He  accepted  a  call  from  the  Scottish  Church,  Cross 
Street,  London,  in  1822,  and  soon  became  an  admired 
and  fashionable  preacher.  His  original  genius  and  his 
extraordinary  eloquence  attracted  crowded  audiences, 
among  whom  were  found  the  most  eminent  authors  and 
statesmen,  and  nobles  of  the  highest  rank.  In  1823  he 
published  a  series  of  discourses  entitled  "For  the  Ora 
cles  of  God,  Four  Orations,"  etc.  In  1829  he  removed 
into  a  larger  church  built  for  him  in  Regent  Square.  A 
charge  of  heresy  having  been  preferred  against  him  in 
the  presbytery  of  London  in  1830,  he  was  condemned 
by  that  body,  and  ejected  from  the  church,  in  1832. 
After  this  event  he  obtained  another  place,  and  attracted 
crowds  by  his  exhibition  of  the  gift  of  unknown  tongues, 
which  he  ascribed  to  divine  inspiration.  He  published 
"  Babylon  and  Infidelity  Foredoomed  of  God,"  and  other 
theological  treatises.  Died  at  Glasgow  in  December, 
1834.  "  He  was  unquestionably,"  says  De  Quincey,  "by 
many  degrees  the  greatest  orator  of  our  times."  It  is 
probable  that  his  devotion  was  sincere,  but  not  guided 
by  discretion,  and  that  in  the  latter  part  of  his  career 
his  mind  was  affected  with  insanity.  Carlyle,  who  was 
his  friend,  thinks  that  "bodily  and  spiritually,  perhaps, 
there  was  not  (in  that  November,  1822)  a  man  more  full 
of  genial,  energetic  life  in  these  islands."  He  left  three 
children.  The  collected  writings  of  Edward  Irving  have 
been  published  under  the  editorship  of  his  nephew,  the 
Rev.  G.  Carlyle,  London,  1864-65. 

See  "Life  of  Irving,"  by  MRS.  OLIPHANT,  1862;  DE  QUINCEY, 
"  Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Octo 
ber,  1862;  "Edward  Irving,  an  Ecclesiastical  and  Literary  Biogra 
phy,"  by  W.  WILKS:  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi 
nent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;)  M.ICHAEL  HOHL.  "  Bruchstiicke  aus 
dem  Leben  und  den  Schritten  E.  Irving's,"  1839;  LEHMANN,  "  Ueber 
die  Irvingianer,"  1853;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1824; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1858,  and  June,  1862; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1835;  "  North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1862. 

Ir'ving,  (JOHN  TREAT,)  an  American  judge  and  writer, 
brother  of  Washington  Irving,  was  born  in  1778.  He 
was  a  popular  contributor,  (political,)  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  to  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  and  from  1821  till 
his  death,  in  1838,  was  presiding  judge  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  New  York. 


c  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ':  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IRVING 


1248 


ISABEL 


Irving,  (JOHN  TREAT,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  resident  of  New  York,  is  au 
thor  of  a  volume  of  "  Indian  Sketches,"  (1835,)  and  two 
novels,  entitled  "The  Attorney,"  and  "Harry  Harson  ; 
or,  The  Benevolent  Bachelor,"  which  originally  appeared 
in  the  "Knickerbocker  Magazine." 

Irving,  (PKTER,)  an  American  journalist,  born  in  1771. 
He  became  in  1802  the  editor  and  proprietor  of  the 
"Morning  Chronicle,"  a  Democratic  journal  of  New 
York.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Washington,  he 
projected  "  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York."  He 
wrote  "Giovanni  Sbogarro,  a  Venetian  Tale,"  (1820.) 


Died  in  1838. 
Irving,  (TiiF.onoRK,) 


LL.D.,   an   American    author, 


and  minister  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1809.  He  spent  some  time  in 
Europe  with  his  uncle,  Washington  Irving,  was  professor 
of  history  and  belles-lettres  in  Geneva  College,  New 
York,  from  1836  to  1849,  and  afterwards  filled  for  several 


years 


the  chair  of  belles-lettres  in  the  New  York  Free 


Academy.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1854.  He  has 
written  "The  Conquest  of  Florida  by  Hernando  de 
Soto,"  in  2  vols.,  (Philadelphia  and  London,  1835,)  and 
"The  Fountain  of  Living  Waters,"  (1854.) 

Irving,  (WASHINGTON,)  a  distinguished  American 
author  and  humourist,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
April  3,  1783,  was  a  son  of  William  Irving,  a  native  of 
Scotland.  About  1800  he  left  school  and  commenced 
the  study  of  the  law.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health,  he 
performed  in  1804  a  voyage  to  Europe,  visited  France, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  England,  and  returned  in  1806. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar ;  but 
he  preferred  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
never  practised  law.  In  coniunction  with  his  brother 
William  and  with  James  K.  Paulding,  he  issued  in  1807 
a  humorous  and  satirical  magazine,  entitled  "  Salma 
gundi,  or  the  Whim-Whams  and  Opinions  of  Launcelot 
Langstaff,  P'sq.,  and  others."  Of  this  amusing  and  popular 
work  only  twenty  numbers  were  issued.  lie  published 
in  1809  another  humorous  work,  "The  History  of  New 
York,  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker,"  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  brother  Peter.  It  was  very  favourably 
received.  "I  have  never,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "read 
anything  so  closely  resembling  the  style  of  Dean  Swift 
as  the  Annals  of  Diedrich  Knickerbocker."  (Letter  to 
Henry  Brevoort,  April  23,  1813.) 

In  1810  he  became  a  silent  partner  with  his  brothers 
in  an  extensive  commercial  house  in  New  York.  He 
sailed  in  1815  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  many 
years,  and  in  1817  visited  Sir  Walter  Scott  at  Abbots- 
ford,  who  became  his  constant  friend..  He  was  reduced 
to  poverty  by  the  failure  of  the  firm  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  in  1817.  His  next  important  work  was  "The 
Sketch-Book, "  (1818,)  by  Geoffrey  Crayon,  which  was 
written  in  England.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
raised  Irving  to  the  highest  rank  of  American  authors. 
Lord  Jeffrey,  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August, 
1820,  commended  "The  Sketch-Book"  as  "written 
throughout  with  the  greatest  care  and  accuracy,  and 
worked  up  to  great  purity  and  beauty  of  diction  on  the 
model  of  the  most  elegant  and  polished  of  our  native 
writers."  He  published  in  London,  in  1822,  "Brace- 
bridge  Hall,  or  the  Humourists,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour  both  in  England  and  America.  Com 
menting  on  this  work,  Lord  Jeffrey  says,  "We  happen 
to  be  very  intense  and  sensitive  admirers  of  those  soft 
harmonies  of  studied  speech  in  which  this  author  is  apt 
to  indulge  himself,  and  have  caught  ourselves  oftener 
than  we  shall  confess,  neglecting  his  excellent  matter  to 
lap  ourselves  in  the  liquid  music  of  his  periods."  ("Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  November,  1822.)  For  his  "Tales 
of  a  Traveller,"  (1824,)  Murray,  the  London  publisher, 
gave  him  ^"1500  before  he  saw  the  manuscript. 

Mr.  Irving  afterwards  spent  some  years  in  France  and 
Spain,  where  he  composed  his  "History  of  the  Life 
and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus,"  (4  vols.,  1828,) 
which  was  very  successful.  "This  is  one  of  those  works," 
says  Alexander  H.  Everett,  "which  are  at  the  same  time 
the  delight  of  readers  and  the  despair  of  critics.  It  is 
as  nearly  perfect  as  any  work  well  can  be."  ("North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1829.)  In  1829  he  pro 


duced  an  imaginative  and  romantic  work  entitled  "The 
Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada,  from  the  Manu 
scripts  of  Fray  Antonio  Agapida."  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  legation  to  the  American  embassy  at  London 
in  1829,  and  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1832.  Among 
his  later  works  are  "  The  Alhambra,"  (1832  ;)  a  "Tour  on 
the  Prairies,"  (1835;)  "Astoria,"  (3  vols.,  1836;)  "The 
Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville,"  (2  vols.,  1837;) 
"Oliver  Goldsmith,  a  Biography,"  (1849;)  "Mahomet 
and  his  Successors,"  (1850;)  and  "The  Life  of  George 
Washington,"  (5  vols.,  1855-59.)  He  was  minister  to 
Spain  from  1842  to  1846.  He  passed  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  at  Sunnyside,  on  the  Hudson  River,  where  he 
died,  November  28,  1859.  He  was  never  married. 

For  an  easy  elegance  of  style,  Irving  has  no  superior, 
perhaps  no  equal,  among  the  prose  writers  of  America. 
If  I  lawthorne  excels  him  in  variety,  in  earnestness,  and  in 
force,  he  is  perhaps  inferior  to  Irving  in  facility  and  grace  ; 
while  he  can  make  no  claim  to  that  genial,  lambent 
humour  which  beams  in  almost  every  page  of  "  Geoffrey 
Crayon." 

See  the  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving,"  by  PIERRE  M. 
IRVING,  1863;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ar 


1822,  and  September,  1828;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
1821,  March,  1825,  and  July,  1863;  "North  American  Review"  for 
July,  1835,  and  January,  1837,  (both  by  EDWARD  EVERETT,)  and 


pendium  of  American  Literature;"  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  Novem 
ber,  1860,  and  June,  1864. 

Irving,  (Wn.uAM,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1766.  He  married  a  sister  of 
James  K.  Paulding  in  1793,  became  a  merchant  in  New 
York,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  during  three 
terms,  (1813-19.)  He  aided  his  brother  and  Mr.  Pauld 
ing  in  the  "  Salmagundi,"  of  which  he  wrote  the  poetical 
parts.  Died  in  1821. 

Ir'win,  (Evi.ES,)  a  poet,  born  in  Calcutta,  of  Irish 
parents,  in  1748,  was  employed  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  wrote  several  odes  and 
eclogues,  and  "Adventures  during  a  Voyage  up  the  Red 
Sea,"  (1780.)  Died  in  1817. 

Irwin,  VISCOUNTESS.     See  HOWARD,  (ANNE.) 

Isa,  ee'sa,  written  also  I$a  and  Islia,  one  of  the  names 
of  SIVA,  which  see. 

Isaac,  I'zak,  [Heb.pnY'  or  pn^' ;  It.  ISACCO,  e-sak'- 
ko ;  Arabian,  ISHAK,  is'hSk',]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  the 
son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah,  was  born  about  1890  n.C.  He 
married  Rebecca,  and  became  the  father  of  Esau  and 
Jacob.  "  Of  all  the  patriarchs,"  says  Bishop  Hall,  "  none 
made  so  little  noise  in  the  world  as  Isaac."  He  removed 
to  Gerar,  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  acquired 
riches  as  a  planter.  He  died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty. 

See  Genesis  xxi.,  xxii.,  xxiv.,  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  and  xxxv.  29; 
Matthew  xxii.  32;  Luke  xx.  37;  Galatians  iv.  28;  Hebrews  xi.  17. 

Isaac  I.,  or  Isaac  Coni-ne'nus,  [Gr.  'laaumos  6 
Ko/j.vr]v6c,]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  chosen  by 
the  army  as  successor  of  Michael  VI.  in  1057.  Two 
years  later,  in  consequence  of  a  malady  which  he  sup 
posed  mortal,  he  resigned  the  throne  to  Constantino 
Ducas,  and  entered  a  convent.  Died  in  1061. 

Isaac  II.,  or  Isaac  An'ge-lus,  [Gr.  'loauiuof  6  "Ayye- 
/toc,]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  proclaimed  in 
1185  as  successor  to  Androni'cus,  who  was  dethroned 
by  a  popular  revolt.  He  rendered  himself  very  un 


popular  by  his  vices  and  misgovernment.  In  1195  his 
brother  Alexis  usurped  the  throne  and  imprisoned  Isaac, 
who  was  liberated  and  restored  in  1203  by  an  army  of 
crusaders.  In  1204  he  was  again  supplanted  by  Alexius 
Ducas,  and  died  or  was  killed  the  same  year.  Constan 
tinople  was  speedily  taken  by  the  crusaders,  who  elected 
Baldwin  emperor. 

Isaac,  ee'zak,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  musician,  whom 
the  Italians  called  ARRIGO  TEDESCO,  (i.e.  the  "  German 
Henry,")  was  born  about  1440.  He  removed  to  Italy 
about  1475,  anc'  was  patronized  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 
He  composed  sacred  music. 

Isaacson,  T'zak-son,  (HENRY,)  born  in  London  in 
1581,  wrote  a  work  on  Chronology.  Died  in  1654. 

a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ISABEL 


1249 


1SAIE 


Isabel,  the  Spanish  of  ELIZABETH,  which  see. 

Isabel  I.     See  ISABELLA  OF  CASTILK. 

Is'a-bel  [Sp.  pron.  e-sa-bel']  II.,  (or,  more  fully, 
Maria  Isabel  Luisa,)  Queen  of  Spain,  born  at  Madrid 
in  October,  1830,  is  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII.  and 
Maria  Christina.  She  succeeded  her  father  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1833,  when  her  mother  became  regent. 
Her  claim  was  disputed  by  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos,  in  a 
civil  war,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Carlists  in 
1840.  The  queen-regent  having  been  driven  from  power 
by  a  popular  revolt  in  October,  1840,  Espartero  became 
regent.  Isabel  was  declared  of  age  in  November,  1843, 
and  in  October,  1846,  was  married  to  her  cousin,  Fran 
cisco  de  Assis,  a  son  of  Francisco  de  Paula,  who  was  a 
brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.  She  has  a  son,  Francisco, 
born  in  1857.  Her  reign  was  agitated  by  many  revolu 
tions,  coups  d'etat,  and  changes  of  constitution.  In  Sep 
tember,  1868,  she  was  deposed  by  her  revolted  subjects 
almost  without  a  struggle. 

Isabella.     See  ELIZABETH. 

Is-a-bel'la  OK  AUSTRIA,  (CLARA  EUGENIA,)  the 
daughter  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  Elizabeth  of  France, 
was  born  in  1566.  As  the  niece  of  Henry  III.  of  France, 
she  claimed  the  French  crown  at  his  death,  but  was 
excluded  by  the  Salic  law,  though  she  was  favoured  by 
the  chiefs  of  the  League.  In  1597  she  became  the  wife 
of  Archduke  Albert,  son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1633. 

Isabella  OF  BAVARIA,  daughter  of  Stephen,  second 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1371,  became  Queen  of  France 
in  1385  by  marriage  with  Charles  VI.  She  was  remark 
able  for  beauty  and  for  her  voluptuous  and  dissolute 
character.  When  her  imbecile  consort  became  incapable 
of  ruling,  she  aspired  to  royal  power,  and  made  a  coali 
tion  with  the  English  against  the  dauphin,  her  son.  Died 

in  1435- 

Isabella  [Span.  ISABEL,  e-sa-beT;  Fr.  ISABELI.E,  e'zi'- 
bel'J  OK  CASTILK,  daughter  of  John  II.,  King  of  Cas 
tile,  was  born  at  Madrigal  in  14^1.  The  malcontent 
subjects  of  her  brother,  Henry  IV.,  forced  him  to  ac 
knowledge  her  as  his  heir,  after  which  her  hand  was 
solicited  by  several  princes  of  Europe,  and  she  became 
the  wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  in  1469.  In  1474  she 
was  proclaimed  Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon,  the  sove 
reignty  of  which  she  did  not  resign  to  her  husband,  but 
kept  in  her  own  hands.  Historians  agree  in  applauding 
her  beauty,  virtue,  magnanimity,  piety,  learning,  and 
political  wisdom.  It  was  under  her  auspices  that  Co 
lumbus  discovered  America,  after  his  project  had  been 
treated  with  neglect  by  Ferdinand.  Died  in  1504.  (See 
FERDINAND  V.)  Isabella  had  blue  eyes  and  auburn  hair, 
and  possessed  great  beauty  of  features,  sweetness  of 
expression,  and  dignity  of  presence. 

Pee  PKKSCOTT,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;"  JUAN  T>K 
MOLINA,  "  Sumario  de  la  Vicla  y  Heclios  tie  los  catolicos  Reyes  D. 
Fernando  \  Dona  Isabel,"  1587;  FERNANDEZ  DE  PUI.GAU,  "Reruni 
a  Ferdinando  et  Klisabe  Hispaniarmn  Regibus  Gestarum  Decades 
II.,"  1545;  D.  CLEMHNCIN,  "  Elogio  de  la  Reina  catolica  Doiia 
Isabel,"  1821;  GKORGK  ANITA,  "Memoirs  ot"  Queen  Isabella  of 
Castile,"  London,  1850. 

Isabella.     Sec  ISABELLA. 

Isabelle  OF  FRANCE.     See  ELIZABETH  OF  FRANCE. 

Isabelle  (e'zt'beK)  OF  FRANCE,  Queen  of  England, 
daughter  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France,  was  born 
in  1292,  and  was  married  to  Edward  II.  in  1308.  The 
issue  of  this  union  was  a  son,  who  became  Edward  III. 
About  1324  she  went  to  Paris  to  negotiate  between  her 
consort  and  the  French  king,  where  she  formed  a  con 
spiracy  with  malcontent  nobles,  and  returned  to  England 
with  the  avowed  intention  to  remove  from  power  the 
king's  unworthy  favourite,  Spencer.  Entering  London 
without  resistance,  in  1326,  the  partisans  of  the  queen  de 
posed  Edward  II.  and  proclaimed  his  son  king.  Isabelle 
and  her  favourite,  Mortimer,  exercised  the  royal  power 
a  few  years  during  the  minority  of  her  son  ;  and  there 
seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  contrived  the  murder 
of  Edward  II.  She  was  imprisoned  for  nearly  twenty 
years,  and  died  in  prison  in  1358.  She  was  surnamed, 
on  account  of  her  cruelty,  "the  she-wolf  of  France." 

Isabelle  OF  FRANCE,  Queen  of  England,  born  in 
1389,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  She  was  married 
to  Richard  II.  of  England  in  1396.  Died  in  1409. 


to  Richard  II.  of  England  in  1396.     Died  m  1409.  Isaie.     See  ISAM 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in 

79 


Isabelle,  e'z&'beT,  (CHARLES  EDOUARD,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Havre  in  1800,  wrote  "The  Circular 
Edifices  and  Domes  Classed,"  etc.,  (1843-56.) 

Isabelle  d'Angouleme,  e'zt'beT  d&N'goo'lim',  a 
French  princess,  was  a  daughter  of  Aymar,  Count  of 
Angouleme.  She  was  married  to  John,  King  of  Eng 
land,  in  1201.  Died  in  1245. 

Isabey,  e'zt'b.V,  (EUGENE  Louis  GABRIEL,)  an  emi 
nent  painter  of  marine  views,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He 
obtained  a  first-class  medal  in  1824,  and  produced  in 
1827  "  The  Coast  of  Honfleur,"  and  a  "Tempest  near 
Dieppe."  Among  his  best  works  are  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Texel,"  (1839,)  "The  Departure  of  Queen  Victoria," 
(1845,)  and  tne  "Embarkation  of  De  Ruyter,"  (1851.) 
He  received  a  first-class  medal  at  the  Exposition  of  1855. 

Isabey,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  celebrated  French  minia 
ture-painter,  born  at  Nancy  in  1767,  was  a  pupil  of 
David,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  About  1802  he 
became  the  most  fashionable  artist  of  Paris  in  his  depart 
ment  of  the  art.  He  was  liberally  patronized  by  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  who  had  been  his  friend  when  both 
were  obscure  citizens.  He  executed  many  admired 
portraits  of  the  Bonaparte  family  and  of  the  generals 
of  the  empire.  It  is  said  that  most  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe  have  been  the  subjects  of  his  pencil.  Among 
his  works  are  the  "Table  des  Marechaux,"  a  picture  on 
porcelain  of  Napoleon  and  his  marshals,  and  "The 
Congress  of  Vienna,"  (1817.)  Died  in  1855. 

Isacs,  ee'zaks.  (PlETER,)  a  skilful  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Helzevor  in  1569;  died  about  1620. 

Isaeus,  T-see'us,  [Gr.  'laaiof ;  Fr.  ISEE,  e'za',]  a  famous 
Greek  orator,  who  flourished  about  400  B.C.,  was  a 
native  of  Chalcis,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of 
Athens.  Having  been  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  he  opened 
a  celebrated  school  in  Athens,  and  had  the  honour  of 
being  the  preceptor  of  Demosthenes.  Isseus  is  one  of 
the  ten  Athenian  orators  of  the  Alexandrian  canon.  His 
style  is  at  once  elegant  and  vehement,  but  is  less  natural 
than  that  of  Lysias.  He  had  great  skill  in  dialectics 
and  in  the  distribution  of  his  arguments.  Only  eleven 
of  his  orations  are  now  extant ;  and  these  are  all  forensic. 
He  is  said  to  have  survived  the  .Accession  of  King  Philip 
of  Macedon,  348  B.C. 

See  J.  A.  LIEBMANN,  "  De  ISJEJ  Vila  et  Scriptis,"  1831  ;  E.  JENIKE, 
" Observationes  in  Isseum,"  1838. 

Isasus,  a  Greek  sophist"  and  orator,  born  in  Assyria, 
lived  in  the  first  century  after  Christ.  His  eloquence 
is  extolled  by  Pliny. 

Isaiah,  T-za'yah  or  e-zi'a,  [Heb.  1iT>'fcy  ;  Gr.  "Haaiaf; 
Lat.  ESAI'AS;  Fr.  ISAIE,  e'zt'e',  or  fisAlE,  a'zt'e' ;  It. 
ISAIA,  e-sa-ee'a;  Sp.  ISAIAS,  e-sa-ee'as,]  the  first  of  the 
great  Hebrew  prc^hets,  was  a  contemporary  of  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  and  Micah.  He  prophesied  during  a  period 
of  about  fitly  years,  beginning  about  760  B.C.  He  lived 
at  Jerusalem,  and  exerted  great  influence  in  public  affairs. 
Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history,  except  that  he 
had  a  wife,  who  is  called  a  prophetess,  and  two  sons. 
There  is  a  doubtful  tradition  that  Isaiah  suffered  death 
by  being  sawn  asunder,  at  the  command  of  King  Ma- 
nasseh.  As  a  writer  he  is  remarkable  for  versatility  of 
genius,  and  merits  the  first  rank  among  the  prophets  by 
the  majestic  simplicity  and  sublimity  of  his  compositions. 
He  declared  more  amply  and  clearly  than  any  other 
prophet  the  eternal  divinity,  vicarious  sufferings,  and 
glorious  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  and  hence  is  often 
called  the  evangelical  prophet.  No  other  prophet  is  so 
often  quoted  by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  (See  Matt.  i. 
22,  iii.  3,  viii.  17,  xii.  18-20,  xiii.  14;  Luke  iv.  17;  Acts 
xxviii.  25;  Rom.  ix.  27,  and  x.  16;  Phil.  ii.  10.)  In  our 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  he  is  always  called 
ESAIAS.  He  has  been  pronounced  by  some  critics  not 
inferior  to  Homer  in  poetical  genius  ;  and  all  agree  that 
his  book  is  a  master-piece  of  beauty  and  sublimity  both 
in  thought  and  style. 

Among  the  commentators  on  Isaiah  are  Saint  Jerome, 
Vitringa,  Lowth,  Calmet,  Eichhorn,  Doderlein,  Gesenius, 
Gataker,  Hitzig,  Rosenmuller,  and  Henderson  ;  and,  in  the 
United  States,  Dr.  Alexander  and  Mr.  Albert  Barnes. 

See,  also,  KIMCHI,  "Lexicon  Rabbinicum ;"  EWALD,  "Die  Pro- 
plieten  des  alten  Bundes,"  and  "Gescbicbte  des  Volkes  Israel  bis 
Cliristus;"  KNOHKI.,  "  Prophetisme  des  Hebreux." 

Isa'ie.     See  ISAIAH. 


this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ISAMBERT 


1250 


IS  LA 


Isambert,  e'zfiN'baiR',  (filMii.E,)  a  French  physician 
and  biographer,  a  son  of  Franjois  Andre,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Auteuil  in  1828. 

Isambert,  (FRANC.OIS  ANDRE,)  a  French  jurist  and 
Protestant,  born  at  Aunay  (Eure-et-Lo,re)  in  1792.  He 
distinguished  himself  about  1825  as  the  defender  of  the 
rights  of  the  free  people  of  colour  in  Martinique,  and 
"  performed  in  France,"  says  Taillaiuiier,  "a  service  like 
that  which  Clarkson  and  \Vilberforce  rendered  in  Eng 
land."  In  1830  he  was  appointed  a  judge  (conseiller)  of 
the  court  of  cassation.  lie  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1848,  and  supported 
Cavaignac  and  the  cause  of  order  in  the  Assembly  of 
1848.  He  was  secretary  of  the  French  Society  for  the 
Abolition  of  Slavery,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  been 
the  founder.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Manual  for  the 
Publicist  and  Statesman,"  (4vols.,  1826,)  and  a  "History 
of  Justinian,"  (1856.)  I  le  wrote  many  able  articles  for 
the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale."  Died  in  1857. 

See  TAII.LANUIER,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Isam,  e'x.ti<n',  (SAMUKL,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Cas- 
tres  in  1637,  wrote  "The  Speaking  I'istole,"  ("  La  Pistole 
parlante,"  1660,)  which  had  great  success.  Died  in  1673. 

Isamicus.     See  LKO  III. 

Is-ca'm-us  or  Is-ca'mis,  (JOSEPH,)  surnamed  also 
DKVO'MUS,  an  English  poet,  born  at  Exeter,  derived  his 
name  from  Isca,  the  place  of  his  education.  lie  accom 
panied  Richard  I.  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine,  and  wrote 
a  Latin  poem  "On  the  Trojan  War,"  and  another  en 
titled  "  Antiocheis."  Died  about  1224. 

Isee.     See  Is^us. 

Iselin,  e/.'la.N',  (  ISAAC,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Bale 
in  1728.  He  was  assistant  secretary  of  state  from  1756 
to  his  death.  He  became  the  enlightened  advocate  of 
reform  in  morals,  education,  and  legislation,  on  which 
he  wrote  articles  for  the  journals.  His  chief  work  is 
entitled  "On  the  History  of  Mankind,"  ("  Ueber  die 
Geschichte  cler  Menschheit."  1764.)  Died  in  1782. 

See  J.  G.  SCHI.OSSER,  "Rede  auf  Iselin,"  1783;  S.  HIRZEL, 
"Denkmal  I.  Iselin  gewidmet,"  1782. 

Iselin,  [Lat.  ISELI'NUS,]  (JACQUES  CHRISTOPHF,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  philologist  and  divine,  born  at  Bale  in 
1681.  He  spoke  Greek  with  facility,  and  excelled  in 
Oriental  languages.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Bale  in  1707,  and  was  promoted  to  the  chair  of  divinity 
in  1711.  He  wrote  an  admirable  Latin  poem  on  "The 
Gauls  Crossing  the  Rhine,"  (1696,)  a  treatise  on  the 
"Latin  Historians  of  the  Classic  Period,"  ("  De  Histo- 
ricis  Latinis  Melioris  /Evi,"  1697,)  a  treatise  "On  the 
Domination  of  the  Magi  in  Persia,"  (1707,)  and  other 
minor  works.  Died  in  1737.  I 

See  HECK,  "Vita  Iselini,''  in  the  3d  vol.  of  "Tempe  Helvetica;" 
J.  R.  ISELIN,  "  Laudatio  funebris  conseciaudae  Memoriae  Viri  iucom- 
parabilis  J.  C.  Iselini,"  1739. 

Iselin,  ([KAN  KODOLPHE,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at 
Bale  in  1705,  wrote  "On  Eminent  Domain,"  ("De  Do- 
minio  Eminente,"  1726,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1779. 

Isembert  (e'/fiN'bain')  OF  XAINTES,  a  French  archi 
tect,  lived  about  1200,  and  is  supposed  to  have  built  the 
old  London  Bridge. 

Isendooru,  van,  vtn  ee'zen-doRn',  or  Ysendoorn, 


,         ,  ,  , 

(GlJSBKRT,)  a  Dutch  philosopher,  born  in  Gelderland  in 
1601,  published  "  Effata  Philosophica,"  (1633,)  "Ethica 
" 


, 

history,  lived  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  B.C., 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  convert  to  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster,  in  which  he  was  followed  by  his  father 
Gushtasp  (Darius  Hystaspis)  and  the  whole  Persian 
empire.  This  change  of  religion  led  to  the  invasion  of 
Persia  by  Arjasp,  King  of  Turan,  in  which  Isfendiyar, 
by  his  bravery  and  heroism,  not  only  saved  his  father's 
kingdom,  but  conquered  India,  Arabia,  and  the  West. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  celebrated  Roostum. 

See  MALCOLM,  "History  of  Persia;"   J.ATKINSON,  "Abridg 
ent  of  ihe  Shah  Namch  of  Firdousi." 


Ish'mael,  [Heb.  i^'OBr  ;  Arabic,  IsMAEELor  ISMAIL, 
is-mi-eel';  Fr.  ISMAEL,  es'mf'el',]  the  son  of  Abraham 
and  Hagar,  born  about  1900  H.c.,  was  the  ancestor  of 
the  Ishmaelites  or  Arabians.  (See  Genesis  xvi.,  xxi.) 


Ishwara.    See  ISWARA. 

Isi,  ee'see,  written  also  Igi  and  Ishi,  (the  consort  of 
Isa  or  Siva,)  one  of  the  many  names  of  PA  KVATf,  which 
see.  She  is  identified  by  some  writers,  including  Sir  W. 
Jones,  with  the  Isis  of  the  Egyptians.  (See  Isis.) 

Isiaslaf.     See  IZIASLAF. 

Is'i-dore  [Gr.  'Itw'Ajpocv  Lat.  ISIDO'RUS  ;  Fr.  ISIDORE, 
e'ze'doK/;  It.  ISIDOKO,  e-se-do'ro|  OF  CHAKAX,  a  Per 
sian,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  century 
of  our  era,  wrote  a  work  called  "  Parthian  Itinerary," 
which  contains  a  list  of  the  eighteen  provinces  of  Parthia 
and  of  the  chief  towns,  with  the  distances  of  the  towns 
from  each  other. 

Isidore  OF  Moscow,  a  Russian  prelate,  was  chosen 
Primate  of  Russia  in  1437.  He  favoured  the  reunion  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  at  the  Council  of  Florence, 
(1437.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1463. 

Isidore,  SAINT,  an  eminent  Spanish  scholar  and 
bishop,  born  at  Carthagena  about  570  A.I).,  was  a  brother 
of  Leander,  Archbishop  of  Seville.  He  understood 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Latin,  and  was  very  influential  in 
the  Spanish  Church.  About  600  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Seville.  The  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  650, 
denominated  him  "the  glory  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age."  Among  his  most 
important  works  are,  in  Latin,  "A  Chronicle  from  the 
Origin  of  the  World  to  626  A. I).,"  and  "Twenty  Books 
of  Etymologies,"  which,  says  Dr.  Iloefer,  "is  one  of  the 
most  precious  monuments  for  the  history  of  human 
knowledge."  Died  in  636  A.I). 

See  SAINT  ILDBFONSO,  ''De  Viris  illustribus;"  TRITIIKIM,  "  De 
Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis ;"  KOESI.KK,  "Dissertatio;  Isidori  His- 
toria  Gothorura,  Vandalorum,"  etc..  1803. 

Isidore,  SAINT,  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  born  in  Egypt  about 
318  A.D.,  was  a  friend  of  Athanasius,  by  whom  he  was 
ordained  a  priest.  Died  in  404. 

Isidore,  SAINT,  OF  PKLUSIUM,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  between  360  and  390  A. D.  He  lived  as  a 
hermit  in  Egypt,  and  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety  and 
wisdom.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  great  number  of  short 
letters,  of  which  more  than  two  thousand  are  now  ex 
tant.  They  are  said  to  contain  sound  doctrine  and  good 
instruction  in  morals.  Died  about  450  A.I). 

See  HERMANN,  "Dissertatio  de  Isidore  Pelusiota,"  1737 ;  NIE- 
MEYER,  "Dissertatio  de  Isidore  Peiusiota,"  1825. 

Is'I-dore  Mer-ca'tor  or  Pec-ca'tor,  the  supposed 
name  of  a  person  who  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century 
fabricated  a  famous  code  of  canon  law  or  collection  of 
decretals,  often  called  the  "Collection  of  the  Pseudo-Isi 
dore."  Some  popes  availed  themselves  of  this  means 
to  extend  their  temporal  power. 

Isidorus.     See  ISIDORE. 

Is-I-do'rus  OF  MILETUS,  a  Greek  architect  of  the 
sixth  century,  who  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Jus 
tinian  to  build  the  magnificent  church  of  Saint  Sophia 
in  Constantinople,  which  is  now  used  as  a  mosque. 

I'sis,  [Gr.  'love,]  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  was  called  the  wife  of  Osiris  and  mother  of 
Horus.  She  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  fecun 
dity,  and  appears  to  have  represented  nature  or  the  earth. 
The  cow  was  sacred  to  Isis.  She  had  many  worshippers 
in  Greece  and  Rome.  There  were  famous  temples  of 
Isis  at  Memphis  and  Denderah.  She  has  been  identified 
with  the  Hindoo  Isi,  (which  see.) 

Isla,  es'la,  (JosE  FRANCISCO,)  a  witty  and  popular 
Spanish  author,  born  at  Segovia  in  1703.  He  became  a 
Jesuit  and  an  eminent  preacher.  He  effected  a  reform 
in  the  vicious  style  and  bad  taste  that  prevailed  among 
the  Spanish  priests,  which  he  ridiculed  in  his  famous 
satirical  romance  "The  Life  of  the  Popular  Preacher 
Fray  Gerundio  de  Campazas,"  (3  vols.,  1758,)  which 
is  called  the  best  picture  of  Spanish  manners  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  This  work  was  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition.  He  made  a  Spanish  version  of  "Gil  Bias," 
under  this  title  :  "Adventures  of  Gil  Bias,  stolen  from 
Spain,  adopted  in  France  by  Le  Sage,  and  restored  to 
his  Native  Country  and  Language,"  (6  vols.,  1787.)  The 
Jesuits  having  been  expelled  from  Spain  in  1767,  he 
retired  to  Bologna,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  J.  I.  DE  SALAS,  "Vida  de  Juan  de  Isla,"  1803.  TICKNOR, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  EVERETT,  "  Critical  and  Miscella 
neous  Essays." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good:  moon; 


ISLE  IF 


ITTIG 


Isleif,  is'lTf,  an  Icelandic  historian,  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  Rome  about  1056,  and  returned  home.  He 
wrote  "  Annals  of  Iceland  and  of  Norway."  Died  about 
1080. 

Isocrate.     See  ISOCRATF.S. 

I-soc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'laoK/xirriz ;  Fr.  ISOCRATE,  e'zo'- 
kKtt';  It.  ISOCRATE,  e-sok'ra-ti,]  one  of  the  ten  great 
Athenian  orators,  born  at  Athens  in  436  B.C.,  received 
lessons  from  Gorgias,  Prodicus,  and  Theramenes,  and 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Plato.  He  soon  surpassed 
these  masters  in  the  rhetorical  art ;  but  his  insuperable 
constitutional  timidity  defeated  his  political  aspirations, 
and  disqualified  him  for  a  public  debater  or  an  oracle 
of  the  "fierce  democracy."  He  opened  a  school  of  elo 
quence,  which  numbered  among  its  pupils  many  eminent 
rhen,  such  as  Isaeus,  Timotheus,  Xenophon,  and  Hyperi- 
des.  Cicero  compared  his  school  to  the  wooden  horse 
of  Troy,  from  which  issued  the  principal  Grecian  chiefs. 
He  composed  orations  and  forensic  arguments  for  clients 
or  others,  and  discourses  on  moral  and  political  questions. 
His  style  is  extremely  polished  and  harmonious,  but 
perhaps  too  artificial  and  diffuse.  His  character  was 
honourable,  his  political  principles  were  moderate  and 
sincerely  patriotic.  He  was  one  of  the  few  who  had  the 
courage  to  appear  in  mourning  for  the  death  of  Socra 
tes.  It  is  said  that  the  disastrous  battle  of  Chaeronea 
affected  him  so  deeply  that  he  refused  to  eat  afterwards, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight.  Twenty-one  of  his 
orations  are  extant. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  Vitae  Decem  Oratorum ;"  BILMARK,  "De 
Isocrate  Oratore  Grzco,"  1798;  PFUND,  "  De  Isocratis  Vita  et 
Scriptis,"  1833:  LiCHTENAi'ER,  " De  Isocrate,"  1843:  O.  MUI.LER, 
"  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  P.  EKKRMAN,  "  Iso- 
crates  Patre  loquentia;,"  1743. 

Ismaeel  or  Ismail,  is-mt-eel',  a  Moslem  priest,  was 
Imam  of  the  Sheeites  in  the  second  century  of  the  Hejrah. 
At  his  death  a  division  occurred  among  the  Sheeites  in 
respect  to  the  succession.  Those  who  adhered  to  the 
son  of  Ismaeel  were  called  Ismaeelites  or  Ismaeelians, 
and  became  a  powerful  sect  in  Egypt  and  Persia. 

Ismaeel,  Ismail,  or  Ismail  6hah,  is-mi-eel'  shah, 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Sofees  of  Persia,  was  born  in 
1487,  and  assumed  royal  power  about  the  age  of  four 
teen.  He  acquired  several  provinces  of  Persia  by  con 
quest,  and  died  in  1524,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Aboo-Modhaffer.  Ismaeel  is  venerated  by  the  Persians, 
who  call  him  King  of  the  Sheeites,  (a  religious  sect.) 

See  MALCOLM,  "  History  of  Persia  ;"  Vox  HAMMER-PIIRGSTALL, 
"Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Ismaeel  (Ismail)  II.,  King  of  Persia,  the  son  of  Aboo- 
Modhaffer,  began  to  reign  in  1576,  and  made  himself  de 
tested  by  his  sanguinary  temper.  After  executing  many 
innocent  persons,  he  died  in  1577,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Mohammed  Meerza,  (Mirza.) 

See  MALCOLM,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Ismael,  the  French  for  ISHMAF.L,  which  see. 

Isnard,  es'i.tR',  (Acmi.LE  NICOLAS,)  a  French  pol;ti- 
cal  economist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  about  1803. 

Isnard,  (MAXIMIN,)  a  French  Girondist,  republican, 
and  orator,  born  at  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1751,  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  17"!. 
lie  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  enthusiastic  partisans 
of  the  Revolution,  to  which  he  often  gave  a  new  impulse 
by  his  brilliant,  impetuous,  and  inflammatory  eloquence. 
Fie  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  the  formation  of  which  he  first  proposed, 
and  was  president  of  the  Convention  a  few  days  in  May, 
1793,  during  the  struggle  between  his  party  and  the  fa- 
cobins.  He  was  inv<  Ived  in  the  fatal  proscription  of  the 
Girondists,  but  escaped  death  by  concealment.  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun 
dred.  He  retired  from  political  life  when  Napoleon  be 
came  consul,  and  published  an  essay  on  the  "  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,"  (1801,)  in  which  he  professes  himself  aeon- 
vert  to  revealed  religion.  He  maintained  a  fair  reputation 
for  honour  and  probity,  and  died  about  1830.  Lamartine, 
who  calls  him  the  Danton  of  the  Gironde,  says,  "His 
speeches  were  magnificent  odes,  which  exalted  discussion 
into  lyric  enthusiasm."  ("  History  of  the  Girondists.") 
"Isnard  was  the  man  of  the  Girondist  party,"  says 
Charles  Nodier,  "  who  possessed  in  the  highest  degree 


the  gift  of  those  vehement  inspirations  which  burst  like 
thunder  in  sudden  and  terrible  explosions." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  THIERS,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution." 

Isnardi,  es-naR'dee,  (GIAMKATTISTA,)  an  Italian  sa 
vant,  born  near  Nice  in  1749,  wrote  a  "Memoir  on  the 
Monuments  of  India  and  Egypt."  Died  in  1830. 

Isolani,  e-so-la'nee,  (IsinoRO,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Milan,  lived  between  1480  and  1550,  and  wrote 
many  works  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 

Isolani,  e-zo-la'nee,  (JOHANN  LUDWIG  HECTOR,) 
COUNT,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1586,  served  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war.  For  the  part  he  took  in  the 
betrayal  of  Wallenstein  he  received  the  title  of  count. 
Died  in  1640. 

Isore,  e'zo'ra',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  politician,  born 
at  Cauvigny  in  1758,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Died 
in  1839. 

Isourd,  d',  de'zooR',  (JOACHIM  JEAN  XAVIER,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Aix  in  1766.  He  became  a 
cardinal  in  1827,  and  in  1829  was  made  a  peer  of  France, 
with  the  title  of  duke.  After  refusing  several  archbishop 
rics,  he  accepted  that  of  Lyons  in  1839  ;  but  he  died 
before  the  end  of  that  year. 

Is'rael,  [Heb.  /.O^';  Gr.  'lcpar/7.,]  a  name  often  given 
by  the  inspired  writers  to  the  patriarch  Jacob,  whose 
descendants  are  called  Israelites.  (See  JACOB.) 

Israeli.     See  DISRAELI. 

Is'selt,  van,  (MICHAEL,)  a  Dutch  historian  and  Cath 
olic  priest,  born  at  Dokkum,  adhered  to  the  Spanish 
party  in  the  civil  war.  He  wrote  "  Historia  Belli  Colo- 
niensis,"  (1584,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1597. 

Is'ter,  [Gr.  "Icrrpoc,]  a  Greek  historian  and  poet,  lived 
about  250  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  or  pupil  of  Callimachus. 
He  wrote  a  history  entitled  ATTIKU,  and  other  works, 
none  of  which  are  extant. 

Isthvanfi,  Isht'vSn-fee,  [Lat.  ISTHVAN'FIUS,"]  (NICHO 
LAS,)  a  Hungarian  noble,  born  about  1535,  was  rewarded 
for  his  services  by  the  office  of  Vice-Palatine  of  Hungary. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Hungary  from  1490  to 
1606,"  (1622.)  Died  in  1615. 

Isthvanfius.     See  ISTHVANFI. 

Istria,  DUKE  OK.     See  KKSSIERES. 

Isturiz,  de,  daes-too-reth',  (Don  FRANCISCO  XAVIER,) 
a  Spanish  politician,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1790.  He  pro 
moted  the  revolution  of  January,  1820,  was  elected  to 
the  Cortes  in  1822,  and  became  a  leader  of  the  Liberal 
or  democratic  party.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
for  a  few  months  in  1836,  and  was  driven  into  exile  by 
an  emente.  Having  returned  in  1837,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Cortes  in  1839.  He  negotiated  the 
marriage  of  the  queen  Isabel,  (1846,)  was  sent  as  minister 
to  Eicgland  in  1850,  and  to  Russia  in  1857.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  in  February,  1862. 

Iswara,  ees'wa-ra,  or  Ishwara,  etsh'wa-ra,  written 
also  Ic^wara,  one  of  the  thousand  names  of  Siva,  though 
sometimes  applied  to  other  Hindoo  deities.  He  is  by 
some  writers  identified  with  the  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians. 

See  MOOR'S  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Itale.     See  ITAI.US. 

It/a-lus,  |Gr.  'lra/.6f ;  Fr.  TTALE,  e'tSl',]  an  ancient 
king  of  Italy,  from  whom  that  country  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name.  He  married  Electra,  a  daughter  of 
Latinus.  He  is  considered  as  fabulous  by  some  authors. 

Itard,  e'tfr/,  (JEAN  MAUIK  GASPAKP,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Oraison  in  1775,  removed  to  Paris  about 
1796,  and  practised  with  success.  In  1799  he  was  ap 
pointed  physician  to  the  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  which 
position  he  filled  for  many  years.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  Diseases  of  the  Ear,"  (2  vols.,  1821.)  Died  in  1838. 

Itb'a-cus,  |Gr.  *I0a/cof;  Fr.  ITHAQUE,  e'ttk',]  a  name 
of  ULYSSES,  which  see. 

Ithaque.     See  ITHACUS. 

Ittig,  it'tio,  [Lnt.  Irnr/irs,]  (THOMAS,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  1643  at  I.eipsic,  where  he  became 
professor  of  divinity.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  among 
which  are  one  "  On  the  Heresiarchs  of  the  Apostolic 
Age,"  (1600,)  and  "  Bibliotlteca  Patrum  Apostolicorum 
Giaeco-Latina,"  (2  vols.,  1699.)  Died  in  1710. 

See  F.  KFRN,  ''  De  V'la  et  Scriptis  T.  Ittigii,"  1710;  ERSCH  und 
GRTBER,  "  Allgenic  tie  Eucyklopaedie  " 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ITURBIDE 


1252 


IZARD 


,  Iturbide,  e-tooR'be-oa,  (Don  AUGUSTIN,)  Emperor 
of  Mexico,  born  at  Valladolid  (Mexico)  in  1784,  (one  ac 
count  says  1790.)  He  fought  against  the  insurgents  in  the 
war  of  independence  which  began  in  1810,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general.  About  the  end  of  1821  he  became 
the  master-spirit  of  a  successful  plot  for  the  liberation 
of  Mexico  from  the  Spanish  rule.  He  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  May,  1822  ;  but  his  power  was  resisted  by  a 
large  party  in  the  Congress  and  by  many  generals,  who 
preferred  a  republic.  Finding  his  position  untenable, 
he  abdicated,  and  was  banished  in  May,  1823.  In  July, 
1824,  he  returned  almost  alone,  and,  just  after  he  landed, 
was  arrested  and  shot  as  a  traitor. 

See  M.  J.  QUIN,  "Memoirs  of  Iturbide,"  and  French  version  of 
the  same,  by  J.  T.  PAKISOT,  1824. 

lule.     See  lui.us. 

I-u'lus,  [Gr.  "lovXog;  Fr.  IULE,  e'iil',]  a  son  of  /Eneas. 
(See  ASCANIUS.) 

Ivan  or  Iwaii  (e-van')  I.,  a  Russian  prince,  who  began 
to  reign  in  Moscow  at  the  death  of  his  brother  George, 
in  1328,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Tartars.  His  dominions 
consisted  of  Vladimir,  Moscow,  and  Novogorod.  His 
reign  was  peaceful,  and  lasted  twenty-two  years. 

His  grandson,  Ivan  II.,  son  of  Simeon,  born  in  1325, 
was  recognized  by  the  Tartars  as  heir  to  the  throne  in 
1353.  The  events  of  his  short  reign  were  unimportant. 
In  his  last  illness  he  took,  according  to  usage,  the  mon 
astic  vows,  and  died  in  1358. 

See  KARAMZIN,  "Histoire  de  Russie." 

Ivan  III.,  (Vasilievitch,)  son  of  Basil  IV.,  ascended 
the  Russian  throne  in  1462,  and  is  sometimes  styled 
IVAN  I.,  CZAR  OF  MUSCOVY.  He  liberated  his  realm 
from  the  tribute  which  the  Tartars  had  exacted  by  right 
of  conquest  from  his  predecessors,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  empire.  About  1475  ne  defeated,  in 
several  actions,  the  Tartar  chief  Ahmed,  (or  Akhmet,) 
and  extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  various 
princes.  He  embellished  Moscow,  the  capital,  with  fine 
edifices,  and  patronized  the  industrial  arts.  In  1486  he 
assumed  the  title  of  "Sovereign  of  all  the  Russias."  He 
died  in  1505,  aged  sixty-six,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Basil. 

See  HEBERSTEIN,  "Rerum  Moscoviticarum  Commentarii,"  1549. 

Ivan  IV.,  or  Ivan  Vasilievitch  II.,  surnamed  THE 
TERRIBLE,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  inherited  the 
throne  at  the  death  of  Basil,  his  father,  in  1533,  when 
he  was  four  years  of  age.  He  assumed  the  titles  of  Czar 
and  Autocrat  about  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  conquered 
Kazan  and  Astrachan  from  the  Tartars,  and  waged  war 
against  Sweden  and  Poland  without  decisive  results. 
Siberia  was  discovered  and  partially  subdued  in  his 
reign.  About  1582  the  first  printing-press  was  estab 
lished  by  him  in  Russia.  He  displayed  energy  and 
ability  in  promoting  civilization,  but  is  charged  with 
excessive  cruelty  in  the  exercise  of  his  unrestrained 
power.  Died  in  1584. 

See  ODERPORN,  "Joannis  Basilidis  Vita,"  1600;  HEIDENSTEIN, 
"  De  Hello  Moscovitico,"  1600;  S.  CIAMPI,  "  Esaine  critico  con 
Document!  inediti  della  Storia  di  Ivan  Wasiliewitsch,"  1827. 

Ivan  V.,  (Alexievitch,)  born  in  1666,  was  the  heir 
of  the  Russian  crown  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Feodor 
III.  in  1682  ;  but  on  account  of  his  imbecility  his  younger 
brother  Peter  (the  Great)  was  proclaimed  in  his  stead. 
Ivan  was  permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  Czar,  but  had 
no  ambition  to  rule.  Died  in  1696. 

Ivan  VI.,  sometimes  styled  IVAN  III.,  born  in  1740, 
was  the  son  of  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick  and  Anne  of 
Russia,  (niece  of  the  empress  Anne.)  The  latter,  at  her 
death  in  1740,  appointed  the  infant  Ivan  her  successor; 
but  h'lizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  obtained 
the  imperial  power.  Ivan  was  confined  in  prison,  where, 
it  is  said,  he  was  killed  in  1764,  when  Mirovitch  made 
a  rash  attempt  to  raise  him  to  the  throne. 

See  E.  MAUVII.I.ON,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  du  Regne  d'lwan  VI," 
1766;  "Gescliichte  von  dem  Leben  nnd  Req;ieritn!?  Ivans  III.,  Kaiser 
von  Russland,"  1766;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ganera'e." 

Ivanof,  e-va'nof,  [written  in  German,  IWANOW,] 
(FEODOR,)  a  Russian  dramatist,  born  in  1777,  served  in 
the  army,  and  wrote,  besides  several  successful  comedies, 
a  tragedy  called  "Martha."  Died  in  1816. 


Ivara.     See  JUVARA. 

Iveruois,  d',  de'vCR'nwa',  (FRANgois,)  a  Swiss  politi 
cal  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1757,  represented  his  native 
city  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Geneva  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  (3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1842. 

See  ''  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Iversen,  ee'ver-sen,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1748,  published,  among  other 
works,  the  "  Literary  Progress  of  Denmark,"  (4  vols., 
1781-89.)  Died  in  1827. 

See  ERSI.EW,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Fver-son,  (ALFRED,)  a  Democratic  politician,  born 
in  Burke  county,  Georgia,  in  1798,  was  elected  to  Con 
gress  in  1847,  succeeded  W.  C.  Dawson  as  United  States 
Senator  from  Georgia  in  1855,  and  was  a  prominent 
advocate  of  disunion.  Having  entered  the  Confederate 
army,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Ives,  Ivz,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  went 
with  Admiral  Watson  to  the  East  Indies  in  1754,  and 
published  a  valuable  account  of  his  voyage  and  of  the 
operations  of  the  English  army  in  1755,  1756,  and  1757. 
Died  about  1780. 

Ives,  Ivz,  (ELi,)  an  American  physician,  born  at  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1779.  He  was  professor  of  medi 
cine  at  Yale  College  about  twenty  years.  Died  in  1861. 

Ives,  (JoiiN,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Yarmouth  in  1751,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
published  "  Remarks  on  the  Garianonumof  the  Romans," 
and  other  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1776. 

Ives,  (LEVI  SILLIMAN,)  a  theologian,  boi  n  in  Meriden, 
Connecticut,  in  1797.  He  became  an  Episcopal  clergy 
man  about  1824,  and  Bishop  of  North  Carolina  in  1831. 
In  1852  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Trials  of  a  Mind  in 
its  Progress  to  Catholicism,"  (1854.) 

Ives  or  Yves,  [modern  Fr.  pron.  ev,]  written  also 
I'vo,  SAINT,  a  French  theologian,  born  in  1035,  became 
Bishop  of  Chartres.  Died  in  1115. 

Iveteaux.     See  DES  YVETEAUX. 

Ivo.     See  IVES,  SAINT. 

I'vo-ry,  (JAMKS,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Dundee  in  1765.  After  he  left  college, 
he  engaged  in  teaching  and  other  pursuits.  In  1804  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Marlow,  which  he  retained  about  fifteen  years. 
He  contributed  numerous  able  papers  on  physical  as 
tronomy  and  mathematics  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
Institute  of  France  and  of  other  foreign  Academies.  In 
1831  he  received  the  Gnelphic  order  of  knighthood  and 
a  pension  of  ^300.  Died  in  1842. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men,"  (Supplement.) 

Iwaii.     See  IVAN. 

Ix-i'on,  [Gr.  'l^iuv,]  a  fabulous  king  of  the  Lapithns. 
The  poets  feigned  that  after  he  had  committed  a  murder, 
Jupiter  purified  him  and  invited  him  to  his  table.  Ixion 
attempted  to  seduce  Juno,  but  embraced  a  cloud  instead 
of  that  goddess.  To  punish  him  for  this  crime,  he  was 
chained  to  a  fiery  wheel  which  revolved  perpetually. 

See  VIRGIL,  "Georgica,"  book  iv.  484. 

Ixtlilxochitl,  ikst-lel-Ho-cheetl',  ?  (FERNANDO  DE 
ALVA,)  a  Mexican  historian,  born  at  Tezcuco  about  1568, 
was  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Tezcuco.  He 
wrote  "Historia  Chichimeca,"  and  other  chronicles  on 
Mexican  history.  The  first-named  work  has  been  trans 
lated  into  French  by  Ternaux-Compans.  Died  about 
1648. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Izaacke,  T'zak,  ?  (RICHARD,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1624;  died  in  1700. 

Iz'ard,  (GEORGE,)  a  general,  born  in  South  Carolina 
in  1777.  He  became  a  colonel  in  1812,  served  in  the 
war  that  ensued,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  Died  in- 1828. 

Izard,  (RALPH,)  a  Senator,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1742,  settled  in  London  in  1771.  Having  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1780,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  Con- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a.,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


IZIASLAF 


1253 


JACKSON 


gress  in  1781,  and  was  a  United  States  Senator  (for  South 
Carolina)  from  1789  to  1795.  He  was  an  able  debater, 
and  a  constant  supporter  of  Washington's  administra 
tion.  Died  in  1804. 

See  his  "  Life  and  Correspondence,"  by  his  daughter,  1844. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  (e-ze-as-laf)  I.,  written  also 
Isiaslaw,  (DMITRI  or  DEMETRIUS,)  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia,  succeeded  his  father,  Yaroslaf,  in  1054.  His 
reign  was  disturbed  by  wars  with  his  brothers  and  other 
princes,  among  whom  Russia  was  divided.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1078,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  II.,  Grand  Prince  of  Russia,  was 
the  son  of  Mstislaf.  He  began  to  reign  in  1146,  as  suc 
cessor  to  Igor  II.,  whom  he  defeated  in  battle.  He  was 
thrice  driven  from  his  throne,  but  as  often  recovered  it. 
He  died  in  1 154. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  III.,  surnamed  DAVIDOVITCH, 
son  of  David,  became  Grand  Prince  of  Russia  in  1157. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  about  1161. 


Iziocalt,  e-se-o-kalt'.  King  of  the  Mexicans,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1433,  and  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
Mexican  empire.  He  formed  a  code  of  laws,  which  was 
adopted  by  several  adjacent  nations.  Died  in  1445. 

Izma'ilof,  is-mi'e-lof,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Russian  fabu 
list,  born  at  Moscow  in  1779.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  edited  several  reviews  or  journals. 
He  published  a  volume  of  fables,  (1804,)  which  are  highly 
commended.  Died  in  1831. 

See  GRETCH,  "  History  of  Russian  Literature,"  1819-22. 

Izma'ilof,  (VLADIMIR  VASII.IEVITCH,)  a  Russian  writer, 
born  at  Moscow  in  1773.  He  wrote  "Travels  in 
Southern  Russia,"  (1802,)  and  translated  some  works  of 
Rousseau  and  Chateaubriand. 

Izquierdo  de  Ribera,  eth-ke-eVdo  da  re-Ba'ra,  (Don 
EUGENIC,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Saragossa. 
He  was  sent  to  Paris  as  plenipotentiary  in  1806,  and 
negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Portugal.  Died 
in  1813. 


J. 


Jaafar,  Jafar,  Djafar,  or  Giafar,  ja'a-far  or  ja'far, 
surnamed  SADIK,  an  eminent  Mussulman  doctor  of 
Medina;  died  in  764  A.M. 

Jaafar,  Jafar,  Jafer,  Djafar,  or  Giafar,  a  Barmecide, 
who  became  the  favourite  of  Haroun-al-Raschid,  and 
to  whom,  it  is  said,  the  Caliph  g;>ve  his  own  sister  Ab- 
basa  in  marriage,  on  condition  th.it  the  intercourse  of  the 
married  pair  should  be  strictly  Platonic.  Abbasa  having 
borne  a  son  to  Jaafar,  Haroun,  in  his  rnge,  mercilessly 
destroyed  both  father  and  son.  (See  BARMECIDES.) 

Jaafar-Ibn-Tofail.     See  ABOO-BEKR-!BN-TOFAIL. 

Jablonowski,  ya-blo  nov'skee,  (  STANISLAUS,  )  a 
Polish  general,  born  in  1631,  commanded  the  right  wing 
of  the  army  of  Sobieski  when  he  defeated  the  Turks  at 
Vienna  in  1683.  He  afterwards  had  the  chief  command 
during  the  illness  of  the  king.  Died  in  1702. 

See  DE  JONSAC,  "Histoire  de  Stanislas  Jablonowski,"  4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1774. 

Jablonowski,  von,  fon  ya-blo-nov'skee,  (JOSEPH 
ALEXANDER,)  a  Polish  or  German  prince,  born  in  1711, 
was  a  patron  of  science.  He  founded  at  Leipsic  a  sci 
entific  association  which  bears  his  name,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Museum  Polonicum,"  (1752.) 
Died  in  1777. 

See  ERSCH  uurl  GRUBER,  "Allgeineine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jabloiiski,  ya-blon'skee,  (DANIEL  ERNST,)  an  emi 
nent  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1660.  He  became  pastor  at  Konigsberg  in  1690,  and 
preacher  or  chaplain  to  the  king  at  Berlin  in  1693.  He 
published  a  Hebrew  Bible,  with  notes  and  a  preface, 
(1699,)  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  He  la 
boured  to  effect  a  union  of  various  Protestant  sects. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1741. 

See  ERSCH  und  GKUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jabloiiski  or  Jablonsky,  (|OHANN  THF.ODOR,)  a 
brother  of  Daniel  Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Dantzic  about  1654.  He  published  a  "  French-German 
and  German-French  Dictionary,"  (1711.)  Died  in  1731. 

Jabloiiski,  (  PAUL  ERNST,  )  an  eminent  Prussian 
scholar  and  divine,  a  son  of  Daniel  Ernst,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Berlin  in  1693.  He  devoted  himself  par 
ticularly  to  the  study  of  the  Coptic  and  other  Oriental 
languages.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Pantheon 
Egyptiorum,"  (3  vols.,  1750-52,)  a  work  relating  to  the 
religion  of  the  Egyptians,  and  "  Of  the  Memnon  of  the 
Greeks  and  Egyptians."  Died  in  1757. 

See  ERSCH  imd  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonsky,  ya-blon'skee,  (KARL  GUSTAV,)  a  Prus 
sian  entomologist,  born  in  1756,  published  a  "System 
of  all  the  Known  Insects,  arranged  according  to  the 
Method  of  Linnjeus."  Died  in  1787. 

Jacetius.     See  CATTANI  DA  DIACETO. 

Jachaeus.     See  JACK. 

Jack,  [Lat.  JACH/E'US,]  (GILBERT,)  a  Scottish  meta 
physician,  born  at  Aberdeen  about  1578.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leyden  in  early  life.  He 


published  several  works,  among  which  is  "  Institutiones 
Physicae,"  (1612.)  Died  in  1628. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jack,  (THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  minister  of  Eastwood, 
wrote  "Onomasticon  Poeticum,"  (1592.)  Died  in  1596. 

Jack'son,  (ANDREW,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  the  Waxhaw  settlement,  North 
or  South  Carolina,  on  the  ijth  of  March,  1767.  Parton 
states  that  he  was  born  in  Union  county,  North  Caro 
lina,  but  adds  that  "General  Jackson  always  supposed 
himself  to  be  a  native  of  South  Carolina,"  for  in  his 
proclamation  to  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina  he  thus 
addresses  them  :  "  Fellow-citizens  of  my  native  State." 
He  was  a  son  of  Andrew  Jackson,  an  Irishman,  who 
emigrated  to  America  in  1765  and  died  poor  in  1767. 
The  name  of  his  mother  was  Elizabeth  Hutchinson.  We 
have  little  definite  information  about  the  schools  that  he 
attended.  According  to  Parton,  "  he  learned  to  read,  to 
write,  and  cast  accounts  ; — little  more.  .  .  .  He  was  never 
a  well-informed  man."  Having  taken  arms  against  the 
British  in  1781,  he  was  captured,  and  afterwards  wounded 
by  an  officer  because  he  refused  to  clean  his  boots. 
About  1785  he  began  to  study  law  at  Salisbury,  North 
Carolina.  He  was  addicted  in  his  youth  to  gambling, 
horse-racing,  and  other  sports.  He  was  an  excellent 
horseman,  "  a  capital  shot,"  was  very  dignified  in  man 
ner,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  activity. 
His  stature  was  six  feet  and  one  inch  high. 

In  1788  he  removed  to  Nashville,  Tennessee,  where 
he  began  to  practise  law.  He  speedily  obtained  a  large 
practice,  of  which  disputed  land-claims  formed  the  prin 
cipal  subject.  About  1792  he  married  Rachel  Robards, 
originally  Rachel  Donelson,  whose  first  husband  was 
living  and  had  taken  preliminary  measures  to  obtain 
a  divorce,  which  was  legally  completed  in  1793.  The 
marriage  ceremony  was  again  performed  in  1794.  Jack 
son,  following  a  custom  then  extremely  common  in  the 
South  and  West,  fought  a  number  of  duels  in  the  early 
part  of  his  life.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  that  year  was  elected  representative  to 
Congress  by  the  people  of  Tennessee,  which  was  then 
entitled  to  only  one  member.  He  supported  Thomas 
Jefferson  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1796.  In  1797 
he  became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  Tennessee. 
He  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  in  1798,  "partly  be 
cause  he  felt  himself  out  of  place  in  so  slow  and  digni 
fied  a  body,  but  chiefly  for  pecuniary  reasons."  He  was 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee  from  1798  to 
1804.  In  1806  he  challenged  and  killed  Charles  Dick 
inson  in  a  duel  with  pistols,  receiving  himself  a  severe 
wound.  This  affair  impaired  for  many  years  his  popu 
larity  in  Tennessee  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

In  1807,  while  the  trial  of  Aaron  Bnrr  was  still  unde 
termined,  [ackson  "harangued  the  crowd, [at  Richmond,] 
defending  Burr,  and  angrily  denouncing  Jefferson  as  a 
persecutor."  (Parton's  "  Life.")  After  war  had  been 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  ££«.     (Q^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACKSON 


1254 


JACKSON 


declared  against  Great  Britain,  General  Jackson  (who 
several  years  before  had  been  appointed  major-general 
of  militia)  offered  his  services,  and  those  of  2500  volun 
teers,  in  June,  1812.  He  was  ordered  to  New  Orleans, 
and  led  a  body  of  2070  men  in  that  direction  ;  but  at 
Natchez  he  received  an  order  dated  February  6,  1813,  by 
which  his  troops  were  dismissed  from  public  service.  In 
September,  1813,  he  had  an  affray  with  Colonel  Thomas 
H.  Benton  at  Nashville,  and  was  severely  wounded  by  his 
brother,  Jesse  Benton.  In  October  next  he  took  the  field 
against  the  Creek  Indians,  whom  he  defeated  at  Talla- 
dega  in  November.  By  his  services  in  this  Creek  war, 
which  ended  in  1814,  he  acquired  great  popularity,  and 
in  May,  1814,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  was  soon  after  ordered  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  to  oppose  an  expected  invasion  of  the  British. 
In  November  he  seized  Pensacola,  which  belonged  to 
Spain  but  was  used  by  the  British  as  a  base  of  operations. 
About  the  1st  of  December  he  moved  his  army  to  New 
Orleans,  which  was  then  ill  prepared  for  defence.  The 
British  fleet,  conveying  an  army  of  veterans  who  had 
fought  under  Wellington,  entered  Lake  Borgne  Decem 
ber  13,  and  captured  several  gunboats.  General  Jackson 
proclaimed  martial  law  in  the  city  on  the  i6th.  On  the 
23d  the  enemy  advanced  to  a  point  about  nine  miles  be 
low  the  city,  and  were  attacked  in  the  night  by  General 
Jackson,  who  had  about  2100  men.  The  result  of  this 
action  was  favourable  to  the  defenders  of  the  city,  who 
gained  time  to  fortify  their  position.  On  the  251)1  of 
December  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  arrived  and  took  com 
mand  of  the  invaders,  whose  number  was  about  12,000. 
Jackson,  who  had  a  much  smaller  army,  composed  partly 
of  the  unerring  marksmen  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky, 
repulsed  an  attack  on  the  1st  of  January,  1815.  On  the 
8th  of  January  the  British  made  a  general  assault  on  the 
American  lines,  but  were  defeated  with  great  loss  by 
the  deadly  fire  of  the  riflemen  and  artillery.  Generals 
Pakenham  and  Gibbs  were  killed.  "Seven  hundred 
killed,"  says  Parton,  "fourteen  hundred  wounded,  and 
five  hundred  prisoners,  were  the  dread  result  of  that 
twenty-five  minutes'  work.  Jackson's  loss  was  eight 
killed  and  thirteen  wounded."  The  victory  of  New 
Orleans,  which  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  de 
cisive  ever  gained  by  an  American  army,  raised  Jackson's 
reputation  as  a  general  to  the  highest  point,  and  made 
him  the  idol  of  a  large  portion  of  the  American  people. 
This  was  the  last  battle  of  the  war,  a  treaty  of  peace 
having  been  signed  in  Europe  in  December,  1814. 

In  March,  1815,  while  that  city  was  still  under  mar 
tial  law.  Judge  Hall,  of  New  Orleans,  granted  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  for  the  release  of  Mr.  Lbuaillier,  who  had 
been  arrested  by  order  of  Jackson,  for  exciting  discontent 
among  the  troops.  The  latter,  instead  of  obeying  the 
writ,  had  the  judge  arrested  and  kept  in  custody.  Peace 
having  been  formally  proclaimed,  Hall  was  set  at  liberty. 
General  Jackson  was  then  summoned  to  answer  for  con 
tempt  of  court.  He  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to 
pay  a  fine  of  one  thousand  dollars.  He  immediately 
paid  the  fine ;  but  it  was  afterwards  refunded  with  the 
interest  by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  February,  1844. 

In  1817-18  he  waged  a  successful  war  against  the 
Seminoles  in  Florida,  seized  Pensacola,  and  executed 
Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  two  British  subjects,  accused 
of  inciting  the  savages  to  hostile  acts  against  the  Ameri 
cans.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Florida  in  1821. 
Before  this  date  he  had  built,  near  Nashville,  a  mansion 
called  the  "  Hermitage,"  in  which  he  resided  many  years. 
In  1823  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States, 
and  nominated  as  candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
legislature  of  Tennessee.  His  competitors  were  John 
Quincy  Adams,  Henry  Clay,  and  William  H.  Craw'ford. 
Jackson  received  ninety-nine  electoral  votes,  Adams 
eighty-four,  Cra.vford  forty-one,  and  Clay  thirty-seven. 
As  no  candidate  had  a  majority,  the  election  devolved 
on  the  House  of  Representatives,  voting  by  States,  each 
State  having  one  vote.  Through  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Clay,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected,  by  the  vote  of 
thirteen  States.  General  Jackson,  who  received  the 
vote  of  seven  States,  became  the  implacable  enemy  of 
Mr.  Clay,  whom  he  stigmatized  as  "this  Judas  of  the 
West."  He  habitually  attributed  the  conduct  of  his 


political  opponents  to  mean  or  improper  motives,  and, 
accordingly,  hated  Crawford,  Clay,  Adams,  and  Calhoun. 

In  1828  he  was  elected  President,  receiving  one  hun 
dred  and  seventy-eight  electoral  votes,  while  Mr.  Adams 
received  eighty-three.  Calhoun  became  Vice- President. 
Martin  Van  Buren  was  appointed  secretary  of  state. 
Jackson  was  the  first  President  who  proscribed  public 
servants  for  political  opinions.  He  made  more  teniovals 
in  one  year  than  all  the  other  Presidents  in  forty  years 
before.  At  a  banquet  in  April,  1830,  the  President  gave 
this  famous  toast:  "Our  Federal  Union:  it  must  be 
preserved."  In  April,  1831,  he  reorganized  his  cabinet, 
appointing  Edward  Livingston  secretary  of  state,  Louis 
McLane  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Lewis  Cass  secretary 
of  war,  Levi  Woodbury  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  Roger 
B.  Taney  attorney-general. 

Among  the  principal  events  of  his  first  term  was  his 
veto  of  the  bill  which  granted  anew  charter  to  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States,  (July,  1832.)  This  subject  became 
the  chief  issue  between  the  partisans  of  Jackson  and  his 
opponents,  who  supported  Henry  Clay  in  the  Presiden 
tial  election  of  1832.  General  Jackson  was  re-elected, 
receiving  two  hundred  and  nineteen  electoral  votes  out 
of  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight,  which  was  the  whole 
number,  and  Martin  Van  Buren  succeeded  Calhoun  in 
the  Vice-Presidency.  In  November,  1832,  a  Convention 
in  South  Carolina  adopted  an  ordinance  of  nullification, 
by  which  they  ordained  that  the  tariff-law  of  1828  "is 
null  and  void."  The  President  electrified  the  country 
by  his  memorable  proclamation  against  the  nullifiers, 
December  H,  1832,  in  which  he  announced  his  resolu 
tion  to  crush  any  disunion  movement  with  the  strong 
hand.  He  was  censured  by  the  Senate  for  removing 
the  public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
September,  1833. 

He  used  his  influence  to  procure  the  election  of  Mar 
tin  Van  Buren  to  the  Presidency  in  1836,  and  retired 
finally  from  public  life  March  4,  1837.  He  afterwards 
joined  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  his  last  illness  Dr. 
Edgar  asked  "what  he  would  have  done  with  Calhoun 
and  the  other  nullifiers  if  they  had  kept  on."  "  Hung 
them,  sir,  as  high  as  Hainan,"  was  his  reply.  He 
died,  without  issue,  at  the  Hermitage,  on  the  8th  of 
June,  1845. 

See  EATON,  "  Life  of  Jackson,"  1824;  WILLIAM  COBRKTT,  "Life 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  1834;  J.  S.  JENKINS,  "Life  of  General  An 
drew  Jackson,"  1850;  J.  T.  HKADLEY,  "  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson," 
1852;  AMOS  KKNDALL,  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,"  1844;  AI.KXANDKR 
WALKER,  "Jackson  and  New  Orleans,"  1856;  JAMES  PAKTON,  "  Life 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  3  vols.,  1860,  (by  far  the  most  complete  life  of 
the  Hero  of  New  Orleans  that  has  been  published  ;)  "  National  Por 
trait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i.  ;  "New  American 
Cyclopaedia;"  "  Hlackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1862. 

Jack'spn,  (ARTHUR,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1593,  preached  at  Saint  Faith's,  Lon 
don,  until  1662,  when  he  was  ejected.  He  wrote  "An 
notations  on  the  Old  Testament,"  (1643-58.)  Died  in 
1666. 

Jackson,  (CHARLES,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
was  born  in  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1775.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  with  the  highest  honours  of  his 
class  in  1793,  studied  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons,  and 
obtained  an  extensive  practice  in  his  native  town.  In 
1803  he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  practised  law  for 
many  years.  In  1813  he  was  made  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Massachusetts,  the  duties  of  which  he  discharged 
for  ten  years.  He  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  com 
missioners  appointed  by  the  State  in  1832  to  revise  her 
legislative  enactments.  Died  in  Boston  in  1855.  lie 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Pleadings  and  Practice  in 
Real  Actions,  with  Precedents,"  etc.,  (1828.) 

Jackson,  (CHARLES  THOMAS,)  M.D.,  an  American 
chemist  and  geologist,  born  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts, 
in  June,  1805.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.IO.  at  Harvard 
in  1829,  after  which  he  continued  his  studies  in  Paris, 
and  passed  several  years  in  visits  to  various  countries 
of  Europe.  In  conjunction  with  Francis  Alger,  he  pub 
lished  a  work  called  "  Mineralogy  and  Geology  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  (1832.)  He  became  a  resident  of  Boston  about 
1833,  was  appointed  State  geologist  of  Maine  in  1836, 
and  produced  a  "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  State 
of  Maine,"  (1837.)  His  second  and  third  Reports  on 
the  same  subject  appeared  in  1838  and  1839.  He  was 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


J4CKSON 


1255 


J4CKSON 


appointed  geologist  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  in 
1840.  He  claims  to  be  the  original  discoverer  of  anaes 
thetics,  and  was  involved  in  a  long  controversy  on  this 
subject  with  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton. 

Jackson,  (CONRAD  FKGKR,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Pennsylvania.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Union  army  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  1862,  commanded 
a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  and 
was  killed  at  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862. 

Jackson,  (CYRIL,)  DR.,  a  noted  English  divine,  born 
at  Stamford  in  1742.  He  was  offered  the  primacy  of 
Ireland  and  an  English  bishopric,  both  of  which  he  de 
clined.  He  was  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  (George 
IV.)  Died  in  1819. 

Jackson,  (HENRY  R.,)  was  born  in  Georgia  in  1810. 
He  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was 
appointed  minister  to  Austria  in  1853.  This  position  he 
held  till  1858.  He  published  in  1851  "Tallulah,  and 
other  Poems." 

Jackson,  ([AMES,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Devonshire, 
England,  in  1757,  emigrated  to  America  in  1772.  He 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  British  in  Georgia 
in  1776-82,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1789,  and  was  a 
United  States  Senator  for  Georgia  from  1792  to  1795. 
In  1798  he  became  Governor  of  Georgia,  and  in  1801 
was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  Died 
in  18034. 

See  "National  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Jackson,  (JAMES  S.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  gene 
ral,  born  in  Kentucky  about  1822.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1860  by  the  %'oters  of  the  second 
district  of  Kentucky,  but  he  resigned  his  seat  and  joined 
the  Union  army  in  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Perryville,  October  8,  1862. 

Jackson,  (JoHN,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1686.  He  was  a 
zealous  advocate  of  the  Arian  doctrines,  which  prevented 
his  advancement  in  the  church.  Died  in  1763.  He  wrote 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "Chronological  Antiquities," 
(3  vols.,  1752,)  and  numerous  controversial  treatises. 

See  DR.  SUTTOK,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John 
Jackson,  '  1764. 

Jackson,  (JoHN,)  an  able  English  engraver  on  wood, 
flourished  about  1725-45. 

Jackson,  (Jon.\,)  an  eminent  English  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Lastingham,  Yorkshire,  in  1778,  became  a  resi 
dent  of  London  about  1797,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1817.  Among  his  best  works 
are  portraits  of  Canova  and  Flaxman.  Died  in  1831. 

See  CUNNINGHAM,  "Lives  of  British  Painters." 

Jackson,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  letter-founder,  born 
probably  in  London  in  1733  <  CMed  m  J792- 

Jackson,  (NATHANIEL  J.,)  born  in  New  England, 
became  brigadier-general  in  the  Federal  army  in  1862. 

Jackson,  (PATRICK  TUACY,)  a  merchant  and  manu 
facturer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1780. 
He  organized  in  1821  the  Merrimac  Manufacturing 
Company,  and  founded  Lowell.  Died  in  1847. 

See  J.  A.  I.owEr.r.,  "  Life  of  P.  T.  Jackson,"  in  HUNT'S  "Lives 
of  American  Merchants,"  vol.  i.,  1858. 

Jackson,  (Rom-.RT,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1751.  He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  army,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Fevers  of 
Jamaica,"  (1791.)  Died  in  1827. 

Jackson,  (SAMUEL,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
physiologist,  born  in  Philadelphia  March  22,  1787.  He 
was  elected  in  1835  to  the  chair  of  the  institutes  of  medi 
cine  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  he  filled 
with  great  credit  to  himself  and  the  institution  for 
twenty-eight  years.  He  resigned  in  1863.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Principles  of  Medicine,"  (1832,) 
and  an  "  Introduction  to  Lehman's  Chemical  Physi 
ology,"  (1856.) 

Jackson,  (THOMAS,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Durham  in  1579.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Com 
mentary  on  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  and  of  several  devo 
tional  treatises.  He  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  in 
1638.  His  works  are  highly  praised  by  Southey.  Died 
in  1640. 

See  E.  VAUGHAN,  "Life  of  Thomas  Jackson,"  1673. 


Jackson,  (THOMAS  JONATHAN,)  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  STONEWALL  JACKSON,  a  distinguished  Amer 
ican  general,  born  in  Lewis  county,  Virginia,  January  21, 
1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  standing  seven 
teenth  in  a  class  of  fifty-nine.  He  was  considered  at 
West  Point  to  be  rather  a  dull  and  slow  student.  In  the 
Mexican  war  (1846-47)  he  served  as  first  lieutenant  with 
distinction.  Having  resigned  his  commission  in  1852, 
he  became  a  professor  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Lex 
ington,  Virginia.  About  1853  he  married  Miss  Junkin, 
a  daughter  of  Dr.  Junkin,  of  Lexington.  He  was  ap 
pointed  a  colonel  ot  the  Virginian  troops  in  April,  1861, 
and  commanded  the  force  that  was  attacked  by  the  Union 
army  at  Martinsburg,  July  2.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  following 
September.  It  has  been  currently  stated  that  he  received 
his  surname  from  the  fact  that  he  and  his  men  "  stood  like 
a  stone  wall"  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  but,  according  to 
one  of  his  biographers,  the  name  "Stonewall"  was  first 
applied  to  his  brigade  because  it  was  recruited  in  a  stone 
wall  country, — the  counties  of  Jefferson,  Page,  Frederick, 
etc.  He  was  defeated  by  General  Shields  near  Win 
chester,  March  23,  1862,  and  retreated  up  the  valley  to 
Harrisonburg,  pursued  by  General  Banks.  Having  been 
reinforced,  he  resumed  the  offensive  with  about  twenty 
thousand  men,  attacked  General  Banks  near  Strasburg, 
May  23,  and  drove  him  back  to  the  Potomac.  On  the 
approach  of  General  Fremont  from  the  west,  General 
fackson  moved  hastily  up  the  valley  to  Harrisonburg. 
His  army  was  overtaken  by  General  Fremont  at  Cross 
Keys,  where  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  8th 
|  of  June.  Before  the  end  of  June  he  moved  his  army 
!  to  Richmond  and  joined  that  of  General  Lee.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  and  at  that  of  Malvern  Hill,  July  I,  1862.  On  the 
9th  of  August  he  defeated  a  small  army  under  General 
Banks  at  Cedar  Mountain,  Virginia.  He  captured 
Harper's  Ferry,  with  eleven  thousand  Union  prisoners, 
on  the  1 5th  of  September,  and  joined  General  Lee  in 
time  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September 
17.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862,  for  which  service  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  remained  inactive 
j  for  several  months,  (January— April,  1863,)  employed 
i  partly  in  preparing  official  reports.  On  the  1st  of  May 
i  he  was  ordered  by  General  Lee  to  execute  a  flank  move- 
I  ment  on  the  right  wing  of  General  Hooker's  army.  He 
surprised  and  routed  the  eleventh  corps,  near  Chancel- 
lorsville,  on  the  evening  of  the  2d  of  May.  As  he  was 
riding  with  his  staff  from  the  front  towards  the  rear 
during  that  battle,  he  received  a  volley  from  his  own 
men,  who  in  the  darkness  mistook  the  staff  for  a  party 
of  Federal  cavalry.  General  Jackson  received  three 
wounds,  of  which  he  died  at  Guinea's  Station  on  the 
loth  of  May,  1863.  "  His  loss,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "  was 
the  greatest  yet  sustained  by  either  party  in  the  tall  of  a 
single  man  ;  though  Sidney  Johnston  had  probably  mili 
tary  talents  of  a  higher  order.  But  Jackson's  power  over 
his  men  was  unequalled;  and  it  was  justified  by  the 
soundness  of  his  judgment,  as  well  as  the  intrepidity  of 
his  character.  Contrary  to  the  vulgar  notion,  his  attacks 
were  all  well  considered,  and  based  on  a  careful  cal 
culation  of  forces;  and  he  showed  as  high  qualities  in 
refusing  to  squander  his  men  at  Antietam,  and  again  at 
Fredericksburg,  as  he  did  in  his  most  brilliant  charges. 
...  It  is  doubtful  if  all  the  advantages,  including  pres 
tige,  which  the  rebels  gained  around  Chancellorsville, 
were  not  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  Thomas  J. 
Jackson."  ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  359-60.) 
Stonewall  Jackson  was  a  man  of  deep  and  earnest  re 
ligious  convictions  ;  and  in  his  general  character,  as  well 
as  in  his  serene,  indomitable  courage  and  the  extraor 
dinary  influence  which  he  exerted  over  the  minds  of  his 
soldiers,  he  reminds  us  of  the  great  Puritan  leaders  who 
fought  under  Cromwell. 

See  DABNEY,  "  Life  of  General  T.  J.  Jackson,"  and  a  "Life  of 
General  T.  J.  Jackson,"  in  "Southern  Generals,"  1865. 

Jackson,  (THOMAS  K.,)  born  in  South  Carolina  about 
1829,  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army  in  1861. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^J^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACKSON 


1256 


JACOBI 


Jackson,  (WILLIAM,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Ireland  about  1737.  In  1794  he  was 
detected  in  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  France, 
in  which  he  recommended  the  invasion  of  Ireland.  lie 
was  tried  and  found  guilty  of  high  treason,  but  died 
from  the  effects  of  poison,  before  sentence  was  passed 
upon  him,  in  1795. 

Jackson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  landscape-painter,  was  born  at  Exeter  in  1730. 
Among  his  musical  compositions  are  "Twelve  Popular 
Songs,"  "  Six  Sonatas  for  the  Harpsichord,"  and  "  Twelve 
Canzonets  for  Two  Voices."  He  published  "Thirty 
Letters  upon  Various  Subjects,"  (1782,)  and  "The  Eour 
Ages,"  (1798.)  Died  in  1803. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Jackson,  (Dr.  WILLIAM,)  Bishop  of  Oxford,  and 
brother  to  Dr.  Cyril  Jackson,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Stamford  in  1750.  He  published  several  sermons. 
Died  in  1815. 

Ja'cob,  [Heb.  3n>>'*;  Gr.  'la.Ku:3,]  a  celebrated  Hebrew 
patriarch,  a  son  of  Isaac,  and  the  great  progenitor  of  the 
Israelitish  nation.  He  was  also  called  ISRAEL. 

See  Genesis  xxv.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxx. 

Ja'cob,  a  Hungarian  adventurer,  and  chief  of  the 
Pastoiireaux.  About  1250)16  incited  the  common  people 
to  enlist  in  a  crusade  for  the  liberation  of  Saint  Louis, 
who  was  then  a  captive.  He  mustered  a  vast  multitude 
of  French  peasants,  who  massacred  priests  and  com 
mitted  other  outrages  in  France.  Jacob  was  killed,  and 
his  dupes  were  dispersed. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Ja'cob,  (EDWARD,)  a  topographical  and  antiquarian 
writer  of  Kent,  England.  Died  in  1788. 

Jacob,  (GILES,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Hamp 
shire  in  1686.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Poetical 
Register,''  (1723,)  composed  of  memoirs  of  the  English 
dramatic  poets,  and  a  "Law  Dictionary,"  (1729,)  which 
has  passed  through  many  editions.  Died  in  1744. 

Jacob,  (HENRY,)  an  English  Puritan  and  Independ 
ent  minister,  born  in  Kent  about  1562.  He  founded  in 
London  the  first  Independent  Congregational  church 
that  existed  in  England,  and  published  several  works. 
In  1624  he  removed  to  Virginia,  where  he  died  about 
1626. 

Jacob,  (HKNRY,)  a  philologist  and  Orientalist,  born 
in  1606  or  1607,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  published 
"Gnecu  et  Latina  Poemata."  Died  in  1652. 

Ja'cob,  (jEiiui)AH  LHON,)  a  Jew  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  born  in  Spain,  resided  in  Holland.  He  wrote 
a  "Description  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,"  also  a 
description  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  an  "Exposition  of 
the  Psalms." 

Jacob,  (JOHN,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1812  or 
1813.  He  distinguished  himself  in  India  in  1843  as 
commander  of  the  Sinde  Horse.  Died  in  India  in  1858. 

Jacob,  (JoiiN,)  an  Armenian  carpenter,  lived  about 
1650.  He  is  distinguished  for  having  introduced  the  art 
of  printing  into  Persia. 

Jacob  OF  EDKSSA.     See  BARAD^EUS. 

Jacob  or  James  |Gr.  'Itkufioc;  Lat.  JACO'BUS]  OF 
NISIHIS,  sur named  THK  GRKAT,  a  Christian  bishop,  who 
was  regarded  as  a  prophet  and  was  distinguished  for  his 
ascetic  life.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  and  attended, 
in  325  A.D.,  the  Council  of  Nice,  where  he  advocated  the 
orthodox  creed.  He  is  said  to  have  delivered  Nisibis 
from  the  besieging  Persians  by  his  prayers.  His  death 
is  variously  dated  from  about  340  to  350  A.D. 

See  SAINT  JEROMK,  "De  Viris  illustribus;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibli- 
othecn  GrjEca:"  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ja'cob  Ben  Ash'er,  a  learned  Jew,  born  in  Ger 
many,  wrote  a  work  called  "  Arba  Thourim."  Died  at 
Toledo  about  1340. 

Ja'cob  Ben  Haj'im  or  Chajim,  a  Jewish  rabbi 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  distinguished  for  his  learning, 
was  born  at  Tunis.  He' edited  the  Masora  and  Hebrew 
Bible,  with  commentaries,  and  a  Chaldean  paraphrase, 
"Biblia  Rabbinica  Bombergiana,"  (4  vols.,  1525.) 

Ja'cob  Ben  Naph'ta-li,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi  of 
the  fifth  century,  educated  at  Tiberias.  To  him  is  chiefiv 


attributed  the  invention  of  the  Masoretic  points  used  in 
distinguishing  the  Hebrew  vowels. 

Jacob  de  Saint-Charles,  zhS'kob'  deh  saN  shf  Rl, 
(Louis,)  a  French  author  and  bibliographer,  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1608.  He  became  a  monk  of  the 
order  of  Carmelites.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise 
upon  the  Finest  Libraries  of  the  World,"  (1644,)  "The 
Parisian  Library,"  and  "The  French  Universal  Library," 
(1646.)  Died  in  1670. 

Jacob-Kolb,  zha'kob'  kolb,  (GERARD,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1775.  He  made  valuable 
collections  of  Greek  and  Roman  medals,  autographs, 
and  books.  He  wrote  "  Historical  Researches  on  the 
Crusades  and  the  Templars."  Died  in  1830. 

Jacob  le  Bibliophile.     See  LACROIX,  (PAUL.) 

Jacobaa  or  Jacobaea.     See  JACQUELINE. 

Jacobaeus,  ya-ko-ba'us,  or  Jacobi,  ya-ko'bee,  (Oi,i- 
GER,)  a  distinguished  physician  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Aarhuus,  in  Jutland,  in  1650,  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Copenhagen.  He  wrote  several  works  on  natural 
history,  and  elegant  Latin  poems.  Died  in  1701. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires ;"  KRAFT  og  NYEROP,  "  Litteratur- 
lexicon." 

Jacobazzi,  ya-ko-bat'see,  (DOMENICO,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Rome  about  1443,  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  Councils,"  (1538.)  Died  in  1527. 

Jacobi.    See  JACOHAEUS.    ,  ^ 

Jacobi,  ya-ko'bee,  (HEINRICH  FRIEDRTCH,)  an  emi 
nent  German  writer  and  thinker,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in 
1743.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  young  Jacobi 
was  destined  to  the  same  calling,  although  his  tastes  led 
him  to  other  pursuits.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
sent  to  school  at  Frankfort.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Geneva,  where  he  remained  three  years,  applying  him 
self  to  literary  studies.  During  this  period  he  acquired 
such  a  mastery  of  the  French  language  as  has  rarely 
been  equalled  by  any  of  his  countrymen.  On  returning 
to  Dusseldorf,  he  conducted  his  father's  business  for 
several  years,  without,  however,  abandoning  his  favourite 
pursuits.  Afterwards,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
and  patron  the  Count  of  Goltstein,  he  received  an  ap 
pointment  under  the  government,  and  was  thus  enabled 
to  devote  his  principal  attention  to  philosophy  and  lite 
rature.  About  this  time  he  married  Betty  von  Clermont, 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  a  lady  of  considerable  wealth  as  well 
as  of  great  accomplishments  and  personal  attractions. 
In  1779  Jacobi  was  invited  to  Munich,  where  he  became 
privy  councillor.  But,  having  exposed  the  abuses  of  the 
Bavarian  system  of  customs,  he  fell  into  disfavour  with 
the  government,  and  withdrew  to  his  estate  near  Dus 
seldorf.  In  1804  he  was  again  called  to  Munich,  to  aid 
in  the  establishment  of  the  new  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  that  city,  of  which  institution  he  became  president 
in  1807.  He  resigned  this  position  in  1813,  and  died 
in  1819. 

Among  the  works  of  Jacobi  may  be  named  "Edward 
AHwill's  Correspondence,"  ("Eduard  Allwill's  Brief- 
sammlung,"  1781,)  "On  the  Doctrine  of  Spinoza," 
("  Ueber  die  Lehre  des  Spinoza,"  1785,)  in  a  series  of 
letters  to  Mendelssohn,  "David  Hume  on  Faith,  or 
Idealism  and  Realism,"  ("David  Hume  tiber  den  Glau- 
ben,  oder  Idealismus  und  Realismus,"  1787,)  "  Wolde- 
mar,"  (2  vols.,  1799,)  and  "Of  Divine  Things  and  their 
Revelation,"  ("Von  gottlichen  Dingen  und  ihrer  Offen- 
barung,"  181 1.) 

"As  a  writer  of  fiction,"  observes  Mrs.  Austin,  "Ja 
cobi  is  distinguished  for  vigorous  painting,  admirable 
delineation  of  nature  and  the  human  heart,  warmth  and 
depth  of  feeling,  and  a  lively,  bold,  yet  correct  turn  of 
expression.  As  a  philosopher,  he  is  admired  for  his 
rare  depth  of  thought,  for  the  fervour  of  his  religious 
feelings,  and  for  the  originality  and  beauty  of  his  style." 
Again  she  says,  "  His  character  is  rich  in  all  that  can 
attract  the  wise  and  good."  "Jacobi  is  ranked,  and 
justly,"  says  Dr.  Hedge,  "among  the  philosophers  of 
modern  Germany,  although  his  philosophy,  far  from 
shaping  itself  into  a  system,  denies, — and  that  denial 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  its  leading  characteristics, — 
on  philosophical  grounds,  the  possibility  of  a  system, 
and  maintains  that  any  system  of  philosophy,  carried  to 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JACOBI 


1257 


JACQUELINE 


its  legitimate  results,  must  lead  to  fanaticism.  He  vin 
dicated  the  'affective'  part  of  man's  nature,  which  the 
Kantian  exaltation  of  pure  reason  had  seemed  to  dis 
parage,  at  least  to  neglect,  and  gave  to  feeling  its  due 
place  and  authority  as  a  medium  and  interpreter  of  truth. 
.  .  .  He  differed  from  contemporary  philosophers  in  being 
a  devout  believer  in  revelation, — in  the  Christian  revela 
tion.  The  gospel  was  to  him  the  test  and  criterion  of  all 
truth.  For  the  rest,  he  was  an  eclectic,  and  welcomed  light 
from  whatever  quarter  it  came.  In  philosophical  insight 
he  is  surpassed  by  none  ;  and,  though  his  fixed  idea  of 
the  impossibility  of  a  systematic  philosophy  may  have 
somewhat  vitiated  his  view  of  existing  philosophies,  his 
criticisms  on  some  of  them  are  among  the  best  that 
have  been  essayed." 

See  J.  KUHN,  "Jacob!  und  die  Philosophic  seiner  Zeit,"  1834; 
"  F.  H.  Jacobi,  nach  seinem  Leben,  Lehren  und  Wirken,"  1819; 
F.  HERBST,  "J.  G.  Hamann ;  F.  H.  Jacobi,"  1830;  EKSCH  und 
GRUKER,  "  Allgemeine  E.icyklopaedie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 

rale'"  %_  / 

Jacobi,  (JoiIANN  GKORG,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 

was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1740.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Halle,  and  in  1784 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Freiburg.  He  published 
a  collection  of  poems.  Died  in  1814. 

See  ROTTECK,  "Gerlachtnissrede  auf  Jacobi,"  1814;  ERSCH  und 
GRTBEK,  "Ail^eineine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jacobi,  (KAKL  GUSTAV  JAKOB,)  an  eminent  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1804,  became  in  1829 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Konigsberg.  He  wrote 
"Foundations  of  the  New  Theory  of  Elliptical  Func 
tions,"  (1829,)  and  "Canon  Arithmeticus,"  and  contrib 
uted  a  number  of  able  treatises  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1851. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jacobi,  (MouiTx  HKRMANN,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1790,  was  the  inventor  of  Galvanoplastic, 
(1840,)  on  which  he  published  a  treatise,  and  the  appli 
cation  of  electro-magnetism  to  the  moving  of  machinery. 

Ja'cobs,  [Ger.  pron.  ya'kops,](FRiKi>uicH  CHRISTIAN 
WILHKI.M,)  an  eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  born 
at  Gotha  in  1764.     He  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Heyne 
in  1784,  and  in  1807  became  a  teacher  of  ancient  literature  ' 
in  the  Lyceum  at  Munich,  and  member  of  the  Academy  j 
of  Sciences  of  that  city.     In    1810  he   was    appointed  \ 
chief  librarian  and  director  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  at  i 
Gotha.     Among   his  numerous   critical  writings,  which  j 
are  distinguished  for  profound  learning  and  elegance  of  I 
style,  are  "Animadversions  on  Euripides,"  ("Animad-i 
versiones  in  Eunpidem,"  1790,)  "  Critical  Emendations 
on  Ancient  Writers,"  ("Emendationes  criticas  in  Scrip- 
tores    veteres,"    1796,)    and    "Emendations    on    Greek 
Anthology,"  ("  Emendationes  in  Anthologiam  Graecam.") 
He  also  prepared  editions  of  Achilles  Tatius,  Bion  and 
Moschus,  and  other  classics.    He  made  translations  from  j 
the  Orations  of  Demosthenes,  the  Greek  Anthology,  and  j 
Velleius,  and  contributed  a  number  of  excellent  treatises  j 
to  Wieland's  "Attic  Museum"  and  to  the  "Library  of  I 
Ancient  Literature  and  Art."     He  also  wrote  "Glean-' 
ings  from  the  Journal  of  the  Pastor  of  Mainau,"  (1823.) 
Died  in  1847. 

See  his  Auiobiotrrarhy,  ("  Per«onalien,")  in  the  eighth  volume  of 
his  "  Verniischte  Schritten,"  8  vols.,  1829-44;  "Nouvelle  Biogr.iphie 
Generale." 

Jacobs,  ya'kops,  (JURIEN,)  a  distinguished  Swiss 
painter  of  animals  and  hunting-scenes,  born  in  1610;  died 
in  1664. 

Jacobs,  (LUCAS.)  See  LUCAS  VAN  LEYDEN. 

Jacobs,  (PAUL  EMIL,)  a  German  painter,  son  of 
Friedrich  Christian  \Vilhelm,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  about  1800. 

Jacobs,  ya'kops,  (SiMON,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Gouda,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Haarlem  in  1572. 

Jacobsen,  ya'kop-sen,  (LEVIN,)  a  Danish  surgeon, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1783.  He  invented  an  instru 
ment  called  the  "lithoclaste,"  and  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  H.  C.  OERSTED,  "Tale  ved  Jacobsens  Liigfard." 

Jacobsen  or  Jacopseu,  ya'kop-sen,  (MICHAEL,)  a 
naval  commander,  born  at  Dunkirk.  He  served  in  the 
famous  Spanish  Armada  sent  against  England  in  1588, 


and,  by  his  skilful  management,  saved  several  vessels. 
Died  in  1633. 

Jacobson,  ya'kop-son,  (JOHANN  KARL  GOTTFRIED,) 
a  Prussian  technologist,  born  at  Elbingen  in  1726,  pub 
lished  a  "Technological  Dictionary  of  Useful  Trades, 
Arts,"  etc.  Died  in  1789. 

Jacometti,  ya-ko-met'tee,  (PIETRO  PAULO,)  a  sculp 
tor,  founder,  and  painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at 
Ricanati  in  1580;  died  in  1655. 

Jacomb,  jak'om,  ?  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1622.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Eighth  Chapter  of  Romans,"  a 
"  Treatise  of  Holy  Dedication,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1687. 

Jacopo  di  Pietro,  ya'ko-po  de  pe-a'tRO,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  in  Tuscany,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Or- 
cagna.  He  died  after  1368. 

Jacopo  Tedesco,  (architect.)     See  LAPO. 

Jacopone  da  Todi,  ya-ko-po'na  d5  to'dee,  or  Ja 
copo,  ya'ko-po,  sometimes  called  Benedetto,  an  Italian 
monk  and  poet,  born  at  Todi.  He  wrote  poems  which 
were  approved  by  the  Academy  della  Crusca.  The 
"  Stabat  Mater  Dolorosa"  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some 
writers.  Died  in  1306. 

See  G.  MODIO,  "Vita  di  Jacopone,"  1558;  GINGUENE,  "Histoire 
litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Jacopsen.     See  JACOBSEN. 

Jacotin,  zhfko'taN',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  officer  of 
engineers,  born  near  Langres  in  1765,  was  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  topography.  He  drew  a  map  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  which  was  taken  from  actual  survey. 
Died  in  1827. 

Jacotot,  zht'ko'to',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  teacher,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1770.  Under  Napoleon  I.  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Chamber  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  earnest  efforts  in  the  cause  of  national 
education,  for  which  he  advocated  a  new  and  improved 
system  and  on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1840. 

See  A.  GUYARD,  "Jacotot  et  sa  Methode,"  1840;  C.  F.  WURM, 
"  Hamilton  und  Jacotot,"  1831 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jacquand,  zhi'k6.\',  (CLAUDIUS,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1805,  settled  in  Paris  in  1833, 
and  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1836. 

Jacquard,  zht'ka'R',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  a  Frenchman, 
celebrated  for  his  inventions  in  the  art  of  weaving,  was 
born  in  Lyons,  July  7,  1752.  At  an  early  age,  being 
employed  as  a  type-founder,  and  afterwards  as  a  cutler, 
he  exhibited  an  uncommon  mechanical  genius.  In  1793 
he  assisted  in  the  defence  of  his  native  city  against  the 
army  of  the  Convention.  He  subsequently  served  for  a 
short  period  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  1801  he  com 
pleted  his  great  invention  for  weaving  the  finest  and 
richest  kinds  of  figured  cloth.  This  apparatus,  which 
bears  his  name, — the  Jacquard  loom, — though  at  first 
strongly  opposed  by  the  weavers  of  France,  has  been 
brought  into  general  use  both  in  Europe  and  in  America, 
and,  instead  of  destroying  the  occupation  of  labourers,  it 
has  greatly  increased  the  number  of  operatives  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  figured  stuffs.  Jacquard  also  in 
vented  a  machine  for  weaving  nets.  For  this  invention 
he  received  a  gold  medal  in  1804  from  the  inspectors  of 
Paris.  While  in  that  city,  he  was  introduced  to  Napo 
leon  I.  Died  in  1834.  In  1840  a  public  statue  was 
raised  to  his  memory  by  the  citizens  of  Lyons. 

See  DE  FORTIS,  "  £"loge  historique  de  Jacquard,"  1838;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  LAMARTINE,  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated 
Characters,"  1856. 

Jacquelin,  zhtk'laN',  (JACQUES  ANDRE,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1776;  died  in  1827. 

Jacqueline,  zhtk'len',  Jac-o-bae'a  or  Jac-o-ba'a, 
[Ger.  pron.  ya-ko-ba'a,]  of  Bavaria,  Countess  of  Holland, 
and  heiress  of  William  VI.  of  Bavaria,  was  born  in  1400. 
She  was  married  successively  to  John  the  Dauphin  of 
France  and  son  of  Charles  VI.,  to  her  cousin  John  of 
Brabant,  and  to  Humphrey  Duke  of  Gloucester  and 
brother  of  Henry  V.  After  a  long  contest  with  her 
cousin  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  she  was  compelled 
to  give  up  to  him  her  possessions.  Died  in  1436. 

See  PETIT,  "  Chronique  ancienne  et  moderne  de  la  Hollande ;" 
A.  VAN  OVERSTRATKN,  "  Jacoba  van  Beijeren,  in  V.  Boeken,"  1790; 
MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACQUELOT 


1258 


JAL 


Jacquelot  or  Jaquelot,  zhtk'lo',  (ISAAC,)  a  learned 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Champagne,  France,  in 
1647.  He  wrote  "On  the  Existence  ol"  God,"  (1697,) 
a  "Dissertation  on  the  Messiah,"  (1699,)  and  on  "The 
Inspiration  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  (1715.) 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1708. 

See  DAVID  D'JRAND,  "La  Vie  de  Jaquelot,"  1785;  NIC^RON, 
"  Memoires." 

Jacquemard,  zhik'mtR',  (fi'riENNE,)  a  grammarian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772,  wrote  a  valuable  "Elements  of 
French  Grammar."  Died  in  1830. 

Jacquemont,  zhtk'mOx',  (VICTOR,)  a  distinguished 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  After  making  scientific 
excursions  through  France  and  Switzerland,  he  sailed 
in  1826  for  America,  and  visited  Canada,  the  United 
States,  and  Hayti.  He  returned  to  France  in  1827,  with 
a  choice  collection  of  plants  and  minerals.  In  1828  he 
went  to  the  East  Indies,  and  explored  thegreater  part  of 
Ilindostan  and  Thibet.  He  was  author  of  a  "Geological 
Treat.se  on  the  Alps,"  "Correspondence  of  Victor  Jacque 
mont  with  his  Family  and  many  of  his  Friends  during  his 
Journey  in  India,"  and  "Travels  in  India  from  the  Year 
1828  to  the  Year  1832."  Died  at  Bombay  in  1832. 

See  fiooUARD  UE  WARREN,  "La  Vie  et  les  GEuvres  de  Jacque 
mont,"  1852;  "  Nnuvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  February,  1834. 

Jacques,  zhtk,  (AMEDEE,)  born  in  Paris  in  1813, 
wrote  several  works  on  philosophy,  and  edited  the 
works  of  Leibnitz. 

Jacques,  FKEKE.     See  BAULOT. 

Jacques,  (MATHIEU  JOSEPH,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Lyons,  was  born  in  1736. 
He  wrote  "  Convincing  Proofs  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
and  other  theological  works.  Died  in  1821. 

Jacques,  ( NICOLAS,)  a  French  miniature-painter,  born 
near  Nancy  in  1780;  died  in  1844. 

Jacques  de  Chison,  zhtk  cleh  she'ziN"',  a  French 
poet,  who  lived  about  1250,  was  highly  esteemed  by  his 
contemporaries. 

See  LON(;FEI.I.«W,  "  Po<"ts  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Jacquet,  zht'ki',  (Eunfc.\K  VINCENT  STANISLAS,)  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1811,  was 
particularly  skilled  in  the  Sanscrit.  In  1829  he  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris,  and 
soon  became  known  by  his  writings.  Died  in  1838. 

See  FEI.IX  NEVE,  "  Memoire  sin  la  Vie  d' Eugene  Jai_quet,"  1856; 
"Nouvehe  Biographic  Generale." 

Jacquet,  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1732,  wrote  a  "  Parallel  between  the  Greek  and  French 
Tragic  Writers,"  and  a  pri/.e  essay  upon  the  Discovery 
of  America.  Died  in  1794. 

Jacquier,  zhS'  e-i',  (  FRANC.OIS,  )  a  distinguished 
French  mathematician,  born  at  Vitry-le-Frati9ais  in  1711, 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Roman 
College  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  He  edited  the  "  Prin- 
cipia"  of  Newton,  and  wrote,  with  Le  Sueur,  a  "Treatise 
on  Algebra,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1788. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Jacquin,  zhS'kax',  (ARMAND  PIERRE,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1721  ;  died  about  1780. 

Jacquin,  rtifkiN',?  (JOSEPH  FRANZ,)  a  German  bota 
nist  and  chemist,  son  of  Nikolaas  Joseph,  noticed  below, 
was  born  about  1766.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
of  Vienna,  and  wrote  on  natural  history.  Died  in  1839. 

Jacquiii,  (NIKOLAAS  JOSEPH,)  a  celebrated  botanist, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1727.  Having  removed  to  Vienna, 
he  was  sent  by  Francis  I.  to  the  West  Indies,  whence  he 
returned  at  the  end  of  six  years,  with  a  choice  collection 
of  plants.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  botany  in  the  University  of  Vienna, 
and  created  baron  and  councillor  of  mines  and  coinage. 
He  wrote  numerous  works  on  botany,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  his  magnificent"  Florae  Austriacae,"  which 
contained  five  hundred  coloured  engravings,  (1771-77.) 

T^*       1    •        XT'  •  o  O*\lf*tllr 

Died  m  Vienna  in  1817. 

See  ERSCH  und  CRUDER,  "Allgememe  Encyklopaedie  ;"  MEUSEI., 
"Gelehrtes  Deutschland  :"  "  Nouvcile  Biographic  Generale;"  RAI- 
MANN,  "  Rede  zur  Gedachtnissfeier  des  N.  J.  Jacquin,"  1818. 

Jacquiiiot,  zht'ke'no',  (CHARLES  CLAUDE,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Melun  in  1772,  commanded  two  divisions 
of  cavalry  at  Waterloo.  Died  in  1848. 


Jacquiiiot  -  Pampeluiie,  zht'ke'no'  pSMp'liin', 
(CLAUDE  FRANC.OIS  JOSEPH,)  a  French  advocate  and 
politician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1771  ;  died  in  1835. 

Jacquot,  zhi'ko',  (GEORGES,)  a  French  statuary,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1794,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1820,  and 
went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 

Jadelot,  zhjtd'lo',  (NICOLAS,)  a  learned  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  1738,  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Nancy.  He  wrote  nume 
rous  professional  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise 
upon  the  Causes  of  the  Pulsation  of  the  Arteries,"  and 
a  "Complete  Course  of  Anatomy."  Died  in  1793. 

Jadiii,  zht'daN',  (Louis  EMM'ANUEL,)  a  French  com 
poser  of  dramatic  music,  born  at  Versailles  in  1 768 ;  died 
in  1853. 

Jadin,  (Louis  GODEFROY,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 

Jadwige.     See  HEDWIG. 

Jaeger.     See  JAGER. 

Jaerta,  (Jon AN  or  HANS.)     See  JARTA. 

Jagellon,  ya-gel'lon,  Duke  of  Lithuania,  born  about 
1354.  He  embraced  Christianity,  and  married  Heel  wig, 
Queen  of  Poland,  thus  uniting  the  two  territories  under 
one  government.  He  also  caused  Christianity  to  be 
established  in  Lithuania.  Died  in  1434. 

See  ROEPELL,  "Geschichte  Polens." 

Jagemann,  ya'geh-man'',  (CHRISTIAN  JOSEPH,)  a  Ger 
man  litterateur,  born  at  Dingelstadt  in  17^5,  spent  many 
years  in  Italy.  He  translated  several  Italian  works  into 
German.  Died  in  1804. 

Jager  or  Jaeger,  ya'ger,  (GusTAV,)  a  German  histor 
ical  painter,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1808,  painted  some  frescos 
in  the  royal  palace  of  Munich.  His  works  (among 
which  are  oil-paintings)  are  highly  commended. 

Jager  or  Jaeger,  (JoHANN  WOLFGANG,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart 
in  1647  ;  died  in  1720. 

Ja'go,  ( RICHARD,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1715.  Among  his  poems  may 
be  mentioned  an  "Elegy  on  the  Death  of  a  Blackbird," 
"Edgehill,"  and  "Labour  and  Genius."  Died  in  1781. 

Jahan-Geer  or  Jahaiiguire.     See  JEHAN-GEER. 

Jahii,  van,  (FERDINAND  HENDKIK,)  a  Danish  histo 
rian,  born  at  Neumiinster  in  1789.  He  wrote  on  Danish 
history.  Died  in  1828. 

Jahii,  van,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Meiningen  in  1766;  died  in  1813. 

Jahn,  (FKIEDRICH  LUDWIG,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Lanz  in  1778,  published  several  treatises  on  gym 
nastics,  an  essay  "On  German  Nationality,"  (1810,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1852. 

Jahn,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  Orientalist  and  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  born  in  Moravia  in  17^0.  He  was 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Vienna  from  1789  to 
1806.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament,"  (1793,)  and  "  Biblical  Antiquities," 
(1805,)  both  of  which  were  censured  as  unsound  and  put 
in  the  "  Index"  by  the  court  of  Rome.  Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Vindiciae  J.  Jahn,"  Leipsic,  1822;  ERSCH  und  GIUJBER, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
MEUSEL,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland,"  vols.  iii.,  x.,  xi.,  xiv.,  nnd  xviii. 

Jahn,  (OTTO,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born  at  Kiel 
in  1813.  He  became  professor  of  philology  at  Leipsic 
in  1847,  and  published  a  "Life  of  Mozart,"  (1856,)  and 
other  works. 

Jaillot,  xht'yo',  (CHARLES  HUBERT,)  a  French  geog 
rapher  and  engraver,  published  some  accurate  maps  of 
France.  Died  in  1712. 

Jaillot,  (JEAN  BAPTLSTE  RF.NOU,)  a  French  geogra 
pher,  published  "  Researches  in  the  City  of  Paris,"  (5 
vols.,  1772.)  Died  in  1780. 

Jaime.    See  JAMES  I.  OF  ARAGON. 

Jaina  and  Jains.     See  JINA. 

Jakob,  von,  fon  ya'kop,  (LUDWIG  HEINRICH,)  a 
learned  German  writer,  born  at  Wettin  in  1759,  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Halle  in  1816.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  National  Economy,"  (1805,) 
and  other  esteemed  works.  Died  in  1827. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

Jal,  zhtl,  (AuGUSTE,)  a  French  litterateur  and  archae 
ologist,  was  born  at  Lyons  about  1791.  He  published, 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


JALABERT 


1259 


JAMES 


besides  criticisms  on  art,  "  De  Paris  a  Naples ;  Etudes 
de  Mceurs,  de  Marine  et  d'Art,"  (2  vols.,  1835,)  and 
"  Archeologie  navale,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  The  latter  is  an 
important  work  on  ancient  ship-building,  published  by 
order  of  the  king. 

See  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Jalabert,  zht'li'baiR',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Nimes  about  1815,  obtained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Jalal-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddiii.)     See  JELAL-F.D-DEEN. 

Jaley,  zhi'la',  (JEAN  Louis  NlCOLAS,)  a  skilful  French 
statuary,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  "  La  Pucleur"  and  "  La  Priere,"  (1855.) 

Jallabert,  zhS'iS'baik',  (fvriENNE,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher  and  writer,  born  in  1658;  died  in  1724. 

Jallabert,  (JEAN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Geneva  in  1712,  filled  the  office  of  syndic  of  the  repub 
lic.  He  wrote  "Experiments  upon  Electricity,"  (1748,) 
and  several  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1768. 

See  DESGENETTKS,  notice  in  the  "  Biographic  Medicale  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jam'bli  -ehus,  a  native  of  Syria,  who  was  enslaved 
by  the  Romans  under  Trajan,  flourished  in  the  second 
century.  He  subsequently  obtained  his  liberty,  and 
wrote  a  romance,  in  Greek,  entitled  "  Babylonics,  or 
the  Loves  of  Sinonis  and  Rhodanes." 

Jamblichus  or  Jamblicus,  a  Platonic  philosopher, 
and  native  of  Syria.  He  flourished  under  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  fulian,  who  dedicated  numerous  epistles  to  him. 

Jam'bli-ehus  or  I-am'bli-chus  -eiial-ci-de'nus, 
[Gr.  '\u.fjLJ)7j.^o^ ;  Fr.  JAMDLIQUK,  zh6.\'blekr,]  an  eminent 
heathen  philosopher,  born  at  Chalcis,  in  Syria,  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  (306-37  A.D.)  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Porphyry,  and  was  attached  to  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school.  Many  of  the  Neo-Platonists  encouraged 
a  life  of  ascetic  meditation  and  a  belief  in  magic  and 
divination.  Their  system  was  built  on  the  doctrine 
of  emanation, — that  the  souls  of  all  beings,  after  the 
requisite  purification,  return  to  the  Source  from  which 
they  emanated.  Jamblichus  wrote  a  "Life  of  Pythago 
ras,"  a  treatise  on  the  "  Mysteries  of  the  Egyptians," 
and  several  other  works.  To  his  influence  is  ascribed 
the  prevalence  of  magic,  sacrifices,  and  superstition  in 
the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy. 

See  EUNAPIUS,  "Vita?  Sophistarum  ;"  RITTKR,  "History  of  Phi 
losophy:"  FABRICHIS,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca;"  HEBENSTREIT,  "Dis- 
sertaiin  de  Jambiichi  Doctrina,"  1764. 

Jamblicus.     See  JAMHLICHUS. 

Jamblique.     See  JAMKI.ICHUS. 

Jamee,  Jami,  or  Djami,  ja'mee,  (Moolla-Noor- 
ed-Deen-  (Ncmr-ed-Dm-)  Abd-er-Rahrnaii,  mool'la 
nooK-ed-deen'  abd  eR-ran'man,)  written  also  Djamy 
and  Dschami,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  born  at  Jam,  (or 
Djam,)  in  Khorassan,  in  1414,  lived  at  Herat,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  bounty  of  the  Sultan  Aboo-Saeed,  (Abou- 
Said.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Chain 
of  Gold,"  (Sil'silet-zah'ab  or  -zeh'eb,)  a  collection  of 
satires,  and  "  The  Loves  of  Joseph  and  Zuleika,  and  Mej- 
noon  and  Leila."  He  also  wrote  "  Beharistan,"  ("  Abode 
of  Spring,")  a  treatise  on  morality,  in  prose  and  verse, 
which  is  admired  for  its  graceful  style  as  well  as  for  its 
sentiments.  Jamee  has  sometimes  been  called  "  the  Per 
sian  Petrarch."  He  was  devoted  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Soofees ;  and  many  of  his  poems  are  characterized  by 
the  spiritual  or  mystical  ideas  of  that  sect.  Died  in  1492. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale, "article  "  Djami  ;"OUSF.LEV, 
"  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
November.  1856. 

Jameray-Duval.     See  DUVAL. 

James  [Sp.  JAIME,  Hl'ma]  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  sur- 
named  THE  CONQUEROR,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1213.  He  quelled  an  insurrection  formed  against  him 
by  his  nobles,  and  checked  the  encroachments  of  papal 
power.  Died  in  1276.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Pedro  III. 

See  T.  DE  SOTO.  "  Vida  del  Rev  Don  Jaime  I.  de  Aragon,"  1622. 

James  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  surnamed  THE  JUST, 
son  of  Peter  III.,  was  born  in  1261.  He  ascended  the 
throne  in  1291.  He  annexed  Catalonia  and  Valencia  to 
his  territory,  and  carried  on  long  wars  against  Navarre 
and  the  Moors.  He  was  a  brave,  magnanimous,  and 
benevolent  prince.  Died  in  1327. 


James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland  was  born  in 
the  Castle  of  Edinburgh  in  June,  1566.  He  was  the  only 
child  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  her  husband  Henry 
Lord  Darnley,  (called,  after  his  marriage,  King  Henry.) 
Both  Queen  Mary  and  Lord  Darnley  were  grandchildren 
of  Margaret  Tudor,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England. 
It  was  through  this  princess  that  James  claimed  the 
throne  of  England.  In  1567  Lord  Darnley  was  mur 
dered,  James  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Earl  of 
Mar,  and  Queen  Mary  married  Bothwell,  and  was  soon 
after  made  prisoner  by  the  insurgent  lords.  Mary  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  her  son,  who  was  crowned, 
as  James  VI.,  on  the  2gth  of  July,  1567.  During  his 
minority  Scotland  was  fearfully  rent  by  contending 
factions  and  the  violent  disputes  of  the  Protestants  and 
Catholics.  The  regent  Morton  having  rendered  himself 
odious  by  his  tyrannical  acts,  a  successful  conspiracy 
was  formed  against  him  by  a  majority  of  the  Scottish 
nobles.  Morton,  however,  on  account  of  his  Protestant 
proclivities,  soon  regained  his  former  influence,  fames 
from  the  commencement  of  his  reign  exhibited  a  weak 
and  frivolous  passion  for  favourites.  His  cousin  Esme 
Stuart,  Lord  D'Aubigny,  a  native  of  France,  obtained 
the  principal  ascendency  over  his  vouthful  mind.  Cap 
tain  James  Stuart  held  the  second  place  in  the  king's 
esteem.  Lord  D'Aubigny  was  created  Duke  of  Lennox, 
and  Captain  Stuart  Earl  of  Arran.  Both  eagerly  plotted 
j  the  destruction  of  Morton,  who  was  put  to  death  in 
1581.  In  1582  a  company  of  nobles  seized  King  fames, 
confined  him  in  the  castle  of  Ruthven,  in  Perthshire,  im 
prisoned  Arran,  and  forced  Lennox  to  retire  to  France. 
This  revolt  is  knosvn  in  history  as  the  Raid  of  Ruthven. 
At  the  expiration  of  ten  months,  James  recovered  his 
liberty  and  reinstated  Arran  in  his  former  power.  In 
1 585  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  English  and 
Scottish  sovereigns.  Elizabeth  conferred  upon  James 
an  annual  pension  of  five  thousand  pounds,  and  through 
her  influence  deprived  the  Earl  of  Arran  of  all  emolu 
ments.  In  1586  James  formed  another  treaty  with  Eng 
land,  offensive  and  defensive,  for  the  protection  of  the 
Protestant  religion.  In  1587  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was 
executed.  James  at  first  appeared  insulted  and  enraged  ; 
he  threatened  to  invade  the  dominions  of  Elizabeth  ; 
but,  feeling  more  interested  for  the  inheritance  of  the 
crown  of  England  than  for  his  honour  or  for  filial  duty, 
he  was  soon  pacified.  In  1589  he  married  Anne,  daugh 
ter  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  In  1594  he  quelled  a 
rebellion  of  the  Catholic  lords.  Bothwell  also,  having 
taken  part  in  this  revolt,  was  obliged  to  fly  from  the 
country,  to  which  he  never  returned.  James  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  Episcopacy,  and  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  establish  it  in  his  dominions,  in  opposition  to 
the  wishes  of  the  people.  On  this  account  a  tumult 
was  raised  in  Edinburgh  in  1596,  from  which  his  life 
appeared  to  be  in  imminent  danger.  But  James,  ex 
hibiting  for  him  an  unusual  share  of  spirit  and  energy, 
dexterously  turned  this  to  his  own  advantage.  In  1600 
he  was  decoyed  to  the  castle  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie, 
where  Ruthven,  brother  of  the  earl,  made  an  attempt 
on  the  king's  life,  on  which  occasion  both  the  noblemen 
were  slain.  The  Gowrie  Conspiracy  has  always  been 
veiled  in  mystery, — no  historian  having  yet  unravelled  it. 

On  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  1603,  James  became 
King  of  England.  He  displeased  his  new  subjects  by 
the  prodigality  of  his  gifts  to  his  Scottish  favourites.  He 
continued  the  foreign  policy  of  Elizabeth  by  concluding 
a  treaty  with  Henry  IV.  of  France  for  assisting  Holland 
against  Spain.  In  1605,  chiefly  through  King  James's 
penetration,  the  Gunpowder  Plot  was  discovered.  (See 
F.AWKES,  GUY.)  The  year  1612  was  marked  by  the  death 
of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  who  by  his  manly  and  noble 
qualities  had  been  far  more  successful  than  his  father  in 
winning  the  affections  of  the  English  people.  In  1613, 
James's  daughter,  the  princess  Elizabeth,  was  mariied 
to  Frederick,  the  Elector-Palatine.  Among  the  king's 
favourites  were  successively  Sir  George  Hume,  Philip 
Herbert,  Earl  of  Montgomery,  and  Robert  Carr  or 
Ker,  a  young  Scotchman  who  by  his  handsome  person 
monopolized  the  royal  favour.  lie  was  created  Earl 
of  Somerset.  In  1615  Carr  was  tried  and  convicted  on 
a  charge  of  poisoning  his  friend  Sir  Thomas  Overbury. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ia6o 


JAMES 


This  made  room  for  a  new  favourite,  named  Villiers,  who 
was  created  Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  who  retained 
his  influence  over  the  king  during  the  remainder  of  the 
reign.  In  1617  James  visited  Scotland,  where  he  was 
very  zealous  in  introducing  episcopal  forms  into  the 
Established  Church.  In  1618  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
executed  on  the  pretended  charge  of  conspiracy,  but  in 
fact  to  conciliate  the  court  of  Spain.  The  public  con 
tempt  which  this  excited  against  James  was  increased 
by  his  behaviour  towards  the  Elector-Palatine,  whom 
the  Bohemians  had  chosen  as  their  king,  and  who  was 
attacked  by  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  Spain. 
James  pusillanimously  refused  to  give  his  son-in-law 
any  assistance  or  encouragement.  Frederick  had  been 
the  Protestant  champion  of  Europe,  and  the  people  of 
Britain  hesitated  not  to  express  their  grief  and  rage. 
During  a  long  period  James  had  wished  to  form  a  Span 
ish  alliance  for  Prince  Charles;  and  he  now  hastened 
the  negotiations.  This  alliance  was,  however,  broken 
off  through  the  rashness  and  insolence  of  Buckingham. 
Finally,  in  1624,  war  was  declared  against  Spain,  and 
an  army  was  fitted  out  to  assist  the  Elector.  Owing  to 
pestilence  and  mismanagement,  this  army  never  entered 
the  Palatinate,  which  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria.  James  died  in  March,  1625,  after  a 
reign  of  nearly  fifty-eight  years,  during  twenty-two  of 
which  he  sat  on  the  throne  of  England.  He  had  seven 
children  by  his  queen,  Anne  of  Denmark,  of  whom  only 
Prince  Charles  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  survived  him. 

"No  prince,"  says  Hume,  "so  little  enterprising  and 
so  inoffensive,  was  ever  so  much  exposed  to  the  opposite 
extremes  of  calumny  and  flattery,  of  satire  and  panegyric. 
.  .  .  Many  virtues,  it  must  be  owned,  he  was  possessed 
of;  but  scarce  any  of  them  pure  or  free  from  the  conta 
gion  of  the  neighbouring  vices.  His  generosity  bordered 
on  prolusion,  his  learning  on  pedantry,  his  pacific  dis 
position  on  pusillanimity,  his  wisdom  on  cunning,  his 
friendship  on  light  fancy  and  boyish  fondness."  (Hume's 
"  History  of  England,"  chapter  xlix.  Respecting  the 
character  of  James,  see,  also,  Gardner's  "  History," 
referred  to  below,  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  pp.  55-57.)  James  was 
the  author  of  numerous  works,  which  displayed  con 
siderable  learning  and  no  little  pedantry  ;  but  the  most 
important  of  his  labours  was  the  supervision  of  the 
present  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  will  remain  as  a 
lasting  monument  of  his  industry  and  munificence.  The 
translation  was  not  only  made  under  his  immediate 
superintendence,  but  the  excellent  rules  by  which  the 
translators  were  governed  were  drawn  up  by  James  him 
self.  Among  his  works  we  may  cite  "Basilicon  Doron, 
or  his  Majesties  Instructions  to  his  Dearest  Son,  Henry 
the  Prince,"  "The  Essays  of  a  Prentice  in  the  Divine 
Art  of  Poesy,"  "  The  True  Law  of  Free  Monarchies," 
"  Daemonology,"  and  "A  Counterblast  to  Tobacco." 

See  ARTHUR  WILSON,"  Life  and  Reign  of  King  James  I. ,"1653; 
W.  HAKKIS,  ''Life  of  James  I.,"  1753;  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Scot 
land  ;"  "Secret  Histories  of  the  Court  of  James  I.,"  by  OSBOHNB, 
WBLDON,  and  SIR  E.  PKYTON,  with  notes  by  SIK  WAI.TKK  SCOTT,  2 
vols.,  1811 ;  GARDINER,  "  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of 
James  I.  to  the  Disgrace  of  Chief-Justice  Coke,"  London,  1863. 

James  II.  of  England  and  VII  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Charles  I.,  and  younger  brother  of  Charles  II.,  was  born 
at  Saint  James's,  London,  in  1633,  and  soon  after  was 
created  Duke  of  York.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Parliamentarians  in  1646.  In  1648  he  escaped  to  Hol 
land,  and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  nearly  four 
years.  Having  received  a  commission  in  the  French 
army,  he  served  under  Marshal  Turenne  until  the  peace 
concluded  between  Cromwell  and  the  French  obliged 
him  to  leave  the  kingdom.  At  the  restoration,  in  1660, 
James  accompanied  his  brother  to  England,  where  he 
received  the  appointments  of  lord  high  admiral  and  lord 
warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  The  same  year  he  married 
Anne,  daughter  of  •Chancellor  Hyde.  In  1664  the  Duke 
of  York  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  war  with  Hol 
land.  He  took  command  of  the  fleet,  and  in  June,  1665, 
gained  an  important  victory  over  the  Dutch.  In  1671 
the  Duchess  of  York  died,  and  James  avowed  himself  a 
Roman  Catholic.  In  1672  war  was  renewed  against  Hol 
land,  and  James,  as  lord  admiral,  assumed  the  command 
of  the  navy.  In  1673  the  Test  Act  was  passed  against 
Catholics  and  dissenters.  By  it  the  Duke  of  York  was 


compelled  to  resign  the  command  of  the  navy,  and  all 
other  offices  which  he  held  under  government.  The  same 
year  he  married  Maria  Beatrice  Eleonora,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Modena.  In  1677,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  English  nation,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
York,  was  married  to  her  cousin  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  was  a  Protestant. 

In  1679,  during  the  commotions  of  the  Gates  Popish 
Plot,  James  retired  to  the  continent.  In  his  absence 
a  bill  for  excluding  him  from  the  throne  was  brought 
before  the  Parliament.  It  was  passed  by  the  Commons, 
but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords.  Upon  the  death  of  King 
Charles,  in  1685,  James  ascended  the  throne  unopposed, 
and  promised  to  maintain  and  defend  the  Established 
Church.  He  summoned  a  Parliament,  which  voted  him 
all  the  revenues  his  brother  had  enjoyed.  Having  de- 
clarocl  his  intention  of  continuing  the  alliance  formed 
by  Charles  with  France,  he  received  from  Louis  XIV. 
500,000  livres.  Strong  suspicions  were  soon  excited 
against  the  king  by  his  arbitrary  measures.  It  became  too 
manifest  that  he  only  intended  to  keep  his  promises  until 
he  could  break  them  with  safety.  He  sent  an  agent  to 
Rome  to  promote  the  restoration  of  Roman  Catholicism 
in  England  ;  he  publicly  attended  the  illegal  celebration 
of  the  mass,  and  laboured  earnestly  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Test  Act.  The  blindness  of  his  zeal  was  so  apparent 
that  even  the  pope  advised  him  to  exercise  more  caution. 
In  June,  1685,  England  was  invaded  by  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  Monmouth 
was  totally  defeated  at  Sedgemoor  on  the  5th  of  July, 
was  captured  two  days  after,  and  executed.  James  now 
exhibited  his  true  character.  Colonel  Kirke  and  the  in 
famous  Judge  Jeffreys  were  sent  to  the  western  counties, 
which  had  been  the  principal  scene  of  Monmouth's  insur 
rection,  and,  by  the  king's  express  authority,  perpetrated 
a  series  of  butcheries.  Men  were  shot  and  hung  with 
out  the  form  of  trial,  and  women  were  burned  at  the 
stake  for  sheltering  fugitives.  In  opposition  to  law,  he 
admitted  Catholics  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army  and 
the  navy.  Protestants  holding  high  offices  of  state  were 
discharged,  and  a  court  resembling  that  of  the  high  com 
mission  under  Charles  I.  was  established.  Episcopal 
dioceses  were  given  to  professed  Catholics,  and  the  Prot 
estant  clergy  were  driven  from  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  to  make  room  for  foreign  priests.  In  June, 
1688,  the  queen  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  suspected 
to  be  spurious.  Previous  to  this  period,  Mary,  Princess 
of  Orange,  had  been  regarded  as  the  heir-apparent  to 
the  crown,  and  the  English  people  had  hoped  that  at 
length  they  would  again  be  governed  by  a  Protestant 
sovereign.  These  hopes  being  now  blighted,  they  ap 
plied  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  for  assistance  in  an  effort 
to  depose  the  king.  He  was  prepared  to  accept  the  in 
vitation  which  they  sent  him  ;  and  in  November,  1688, 
he  landed  in  Devonshire,  with  about  fourteen  thousand 
men.  The  king,  deserted  by  the  nobility,  the  gentry, 
the  army,  his  friends,  and  his  servants,  quitted  the  island 
in  December,  and  fled  to  France,  where  he  was  kindly 
received  by  Louis  XIV.  Soon  after,  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Orange  were  crowned,  as  King  William  III. 
and  Queen  Mary.  In  1689  James  landed  in  Ireland  with 
a  small  force  given  him  by  Louis.  He  besieged  London 
derry,  which  he  was  unable  to  take.  On  the  1st  of  July, 
1690,  King  William,  who  commanded  in  person,  totally 
defeated  James's  army  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and 
firmly  established  his  own  power.  James  soon  returned 
to  France,  and  resided  at  Saint  Germain's  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  September,  1701.  As  a  king,  he  was 
brave,  determined,  energetic.  He  did  much  for  the  im 
provement  of  the  British  navy;  he  was  industrious,  and 
frugal  of  the  public  money.  But  he  was  implacable  in 
revenge,  and  his  blind  bigotry  cost  him  three  kingdoms. 
James  had  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde,  eight  children, 
of  whom  only  Queen  Mary  and  the  Princess  Anne  sur 
vived  him.  By  his  second  wife,  Mary  of  Modena,  he 
had  six  children,  two  of  whom  outlived  him;  He  also 
had  four  children  by  Arabella  Churchill,  a  sister  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  and  one  by  Catherine  Sedley. 

See  DAVID  JONES,  "Life  of  James  II.,"  1702;  J.  S.  CLARKE, 
"  Life  of  James  II.,  King  of  England,"  2  vols.,  1816;  BURNKT,  "  His 
tory  of  his  Own  Times;"  MACAULAY,  '•  History  of  England;"  C. 
J.  Fox,  "History  of  the  Early  Part  of  the  Reign  of  James  II.,"  1808. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JAMES 


1261 


JAMES 


James  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  of  the  house  of  Stuart, 
and  son  of  Robert  III.,  was  born  about  1394.  In  1405 
his  father  sent  him  to  France,  in  order  that  he  might 
escape  the  intrigues  of  the  Duke  of  Albany;  but  he  was 
sei/ed  by  a  British  fleet,  carried  as  prisoner  to  Lon 
don,  and  thrown  into  the  Tower,  whence,  after  remaining 
thei'e  more  than  two  years,  he  was  taken  to  Windsor. 
In  1417,  when  King  Henry  V.  invaded  France,  James  was 
obliged  to  accompany  him.  In  1424,  after  a  captivity  of 
nineteen  years,  he  was  released  and  restored  to  his  king 
dom.  While  the  young  king  was  in  England,  Henry  V. 
had  given  him  a  good  education  ;  and,  upon  his  acces 
sion  to  power,  James  commenced  with  energy  and  firm 
ness  to  reform  the  laws  and  customs  of  Scotland.  During 
his  captivity  Scotland  had  been  governed  successively  by 
the  two  Dukes  of  Albany  as  regents,  who  had  increased 
their  own  power  and  that  of  the  feudal  lords,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  royal  authority.  On  the  recovery  of  his 
kingdom  he  resolved  to  check  with  a  strong  hand  the 
arrogance  and  lawlessness  of  the  nobles.  Me  seized  his 
cousin  Murdo,  Duke  of  Albany,  his  sons,  the  Earls  of 
Douglas,  Lennox,  Angus,  and  many  other  peers  and 
barons.  All  were  reconciled  to  the  king  except  the  Duke 
of  Albany,  his  sons,  and  the  Earl  of  Lennox,  who  were 
tried  and  executed.  This  blow  struck  terror  into  the  order 
of  nobles.  The  king  continued  to  conduct  his  reforms 
with  ability  and  prudence.  One  part  of  his  policy  was 
to  raise  the  ecclesiastical  power  in  order  to  balance  that 
of  the  barons.  James  had  married  Joanna  Beaufort,  a 
lady  of  the  blood-royal  of  England.  Although  the  earls 
at  first  received  the  innovations  of  the  king  in  a  spirit 
of  submission,  they  at  length,  perceiving  the  rapid  decline 
of  their  authority,  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  and 
assassinated  him  in  1437.  James  had  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  most  accomplished  princes  of  his  day. 
He  produced  several  poetical  pieces  and  songs,  which 
were  greatly  admired,  and  in  which  much  literary  taste 
was  displayed.  There  yet  remains  his  "Kings  Quhair." 
Robertson  justly  remarks  that  "it  was  the  misfortune  of 
James  that  his  maxims  and  manners  were  too  refined  for 
the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Happy  had  he  reigned  in  a 
kingdom  more  civilized.  His  love  of  peace,  of  justice, 
and  of  elegance  would  have  rendered  his  schemes  suc 
cessful  ;  and,  instead  of  perishing  because  he  attempted 
too  much,  a  grateful  people  would  have  applauded  and 
seconded  his  efforts  to  reform  and  improve  them." 

See  BUCHANAN,  "Rerum  Scoticarum  Historia  ;''  BURTON,  "  His 
tory  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxvii.  ;  ROBERTSON,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

James  II.,  son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1430.  He  had  for  his  adviser  an  able  man, 
named  Crichton,  who  during  his  minority  obtained  chief 
control  of  the  government.  Crichton  impressed  on  the 
mind  of  the  young  monarch  the  necessity  of  further  hum 
bling  the  nobility.  But  what  James  I.  had  attempted 
to  do  slowly  and  by  legal  means,  his  son  and  Crichton 
pursued  with  an  impetuosity  as  unscrupulous  as  it  was 
unwise.  William,  sixth  Earl  of  Douglas,  having  defied 
the  royal  authority,  was  decoyed  by  Crichton  to  an  in 
terview  in  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  both  he  and 
his  brother  were  murdered.  James  stabbed  with  his 
own  hand  William,  eighth  Earl  of  Douglas.  This  led 
to  a  revolt,  and  the  house  of  Stuart  appeared  to  be  in 
imminent  peril.  The  Earl  of  Douglas  commanded  the 
greater  number  and  more  warlike  followers ;  but,  owing 
to  his  want  of  energy,  nearly  all  his  retainers  deserted 
him  before  a  battle  was  fought,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
fly  to  England,  James  would  in  all  probability  have 
succeeded  in  his  plans,  had  he  not  been  killed  in  1460 
by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon. 

See  BURTON,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxviii.  ; 
ROBERTSON,  "History  of  Scotland." 

James  III.,  the  son  and  successor  of  James  II.,  was 
born  in  1453.  During  his  minority  the  kingdom  was 
governed  successively  by  Bishop  Kennedy  and  Lord 
Boyd.  James  married  Margaret  of  Denmark  about 
1470.  He  had  respectable  abilities,  and  was  a  lover  of 
the  fine  arts  and  literature.  The  nobles  weie  offended 
because  he  neglected  them  and  chose  for  his  associates 
artists,  musicians,  and  other  persons  of  inferior  rank. 
The  king's  brothers,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  and  the  Earl 


of  Mar,  conspired  with  the  malcontent  nobles  against 
James,  who  was  defeated  by  them  in  battle  near  Ban- 
nockburn  in  1488,  and  was  murdered  as  he  fled  from 
the  field. 

See  BURTON,  "History  of  Scotland;"  ROBERTSON,  "History  of 

Scotland." 

James  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  succeeded  his  father, 
James  III.,  in  1488,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  lie  was  gen 
erous  and  brave,  loved  magnificence,  delighted  in  war, 
and  was  eager  to  obtain  fame.  During  his  reign  the 
ancient  and  hereditary  enmity  between  the  king  and  the 
nobles  appears  almost  entirely  to  have  ceased.  During 
the  revolt  which  had  cost  James  III.  his  life,  his  son 
had  been  compelled  or  persuaded  to  set  himself  at  the 
head  of  it,  and  was  openly  declared  king.  He  was  sub 
sequently  troubled  by  remorse  for  this  deed,  and,  not 
being  free  from  superstition,  he  received  from  the  pope, 
as  penance,  an  iron  belt  to  be  worn  without  cessation  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  also  performed  several  pil 
grimages  on  foot.  James  founded  (1497)  the  University 
of  Aberdeen,  and  he  also  created  the  order  of  Knights 
of  the  Thistle,  (or  of  Saint  Andrew.)  In  1513,  in  oppo 
sition  to  the  advice  of  his  sagest  counsellors,  he  rashly 
invaded  England  with  one  of  the  most  loyal  and  gallant 
armies  that  ever  a  Scottish  king  had  commanded,  and 
was  defeated  at  the  famous  battle  of  Flodden,  where 
the  flower  of  the  Scottish  chivalry  perished.  The  king, 
with  twelve  earls,  thirteen  lords,  and  a  great  number  of 
barons,  died  upon  the  field,  in  September,  1513. 

See  BUHTON,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxx. ;  ROB 
ERTSON,  "History  of  Scotland." 

James  V.,  a  son  of  James  IV.,  was  born  in  1512,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1513.  The  regency  was  conferred 
upon  his  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  a  man  of  enteiv 
prise  and  ability,  who  was  desirous  to  extend  the  royal 
authority ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  his  exertions,  the  aris 
tocracy  retained  their  power,  and  the  duke  resigned  his 
authority  about  1525.  The  king  was  then  in  his  thir 
teenth  year,  and  the  nobles  agreed  that  he  should  assume 
the  government.  The  Earl  of  Angus,  however,  by  his 
intrigues,  obtained  the  chief  control  of  affairs,  and  kept 
the  young  king  as  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  James, 
after  suffering  this  for  some  time,  escaped,  and  Angus  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  the  country.  Firmly  seated  upon  the 
throne,  James  continued  the  policy  of  his  predecessors 
in  humbling  the  nobility.  Commencing  very  cautiously, 
he  found  loyal  supporters  among  the  clergy,  the  prin 
cipal  of  whom  was  Cardinal  Beaton.  The  nobles  had 
received  too  severe  a  blow  at  Flodden  to  resist,  and 
James  pushed  forward  his  plans  in  an  unscrupulous 
and  arbitrary  manner.  He  married  Mary  of  Guise  in 
1538.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  declared  war  against 
him  in  1542,  and  he  was  obliged  to  seek  the  assistance 
of  those  nobles  whom  he  had  oppressed.  They  took 
up  arms  at  his  command,  were  led  by  him  against  the 
English,  and  were  at  first  successful;  but,  owing  to  the 
lateness  of  the  season,  and  to  other  causes  of  discontent, 
they  refused  to  follow  up  their  good  fortune.  A  second 
expedition  across  the  border  was  still  less  successful  : 
nearly  ten  thousand  Scots  were  taken  prisoners,  or,  as 
some  say,  went  deliberately  over  to  the  English.  This 
proved  too  great  a  blow  to  the  proud  and  ambitious 
monarch,  who  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  December, 
1542,  in  the  thirty-first  year  of  his  age,  leaving  the 
crown  to  his  only  legitimate  child,  the  unfortunate  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.'  He  had  several  natural  children,  one 
of  whom  was  the  famous  Regent  Murray. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xxxi.-xxxiii. ; 
FKOUDE,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xviii.  and  xix. ; 
ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  He  ME,  "  History  of  England." 

James  VI.  OF  SCOTLAND.     See  JAMES  I.  OF  ENG- 

LA  N  I ). 

James,  [Gr.  'luKuCoc ;  Lat.  JACO'EUS  ;  Ger.  JAKOB, 
ya'kob;  Fr.  JACQUES,  x.hsk;  Sp.  SANTIAGO,  san-te-a'go; 
It.  GIACOMO,  ja'ko-mo,]  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
commonly  called  SAINT  JAMES,  son  of  Zebedee,  and 
brother  of  Saint  John.  He  was  one.of  the  three  apostles 
who  appeared  to  be  the  most  intimately  associated  with 
our  Saviour.  He  suffered  martyrdom  about  44A.D.,  by 
the  order  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

See  Matthew  iv.  21,  x.  2,  xvii. ;  Luke  viii.  51. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  //5z'.r.     (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JAMES 


i  262 


JAMESON 


James,  called  THE  LESS,  was  one  of  the  twelve  apos 
tles,  and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  brother 
of  our  Saviour,  and  the  author  of  the  Epistle  bearing 
that  name.  Josephus  states  that  he  was  put  to  death 
by  the  high-priest  Ananias  about  62  or  63  A.D. 

See  Matthew  x.  3,  xiii.  55,  xxvii.  56;  Mark  iii.  18,  vi.  3,  xv.  40; 
Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i.  13. 

James,  (CHARLES  T.,)  an  American  Senator  and  in 
ventor,  born  in  West  Greenwich,  Rhode  Island,  about 
1805.  In  1851  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  six  years  by  the  legislature  of  Rhode  Island. 
He  invented  a  rifled  cannon,  and  was  killed  at  Sag  Har 
bour,  Long  Island,  in  October,  1862,  by  the  explosion  of 
a  shell  on  which  he  was  experimenting. 

James,  zhtm,  (CONSTANTIN,  )  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1813.  lie  edited  Magendie's 
"Lectures  on  Physiology,"  etc.,  (1837-39.) 

James,  (GEORGE  PAYNK  RAINSFOKD,)  a  very  volu 
minous  novelist  and  historian,  born  in  London  in  1801. 
Before  attaining  the  age  of  seventeen  he  had  written  a 
series  of  Eastern  tales,  entitled  "The  String  of  Pearls." 
In  1825  he  published  "Richelieu,"  which  had  previously 
received  the  commendation  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and 
Washington  Irving.  This  is  thought  to  be  his  best  pro 
duction.  In  1852  Mr.  James  was  chosen  Bsitish  consul 
at  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  and  in  1858  received  the  same 
appointment  for  Venice.  His  works  amount  to  one 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  volumes.  Of  these  we  may 
mention  "  Philip  Augustus,"  (1831,)  "  Adra,  or  the  Peru 
vians,  a  Poem,"  "  Memoirs  of  Great  Commanders,"  (3 
vols.,  1832,)  "History  of  Charlemagne,"  (1832,)  "Lives 
of  Foreign  Statesmen,"  (5  vols.,  1832-38,)  and  "Came- 
ralzaman,"  a  dramatic  poem,  (1848.)  Died  in  1860. 

See  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  HORNE,  London,  1844  ; 
ALI.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1844,  (by  E.  P.  WHIPPLE.) 

James,  (HENRY,)  an  able  and  original  writer  on  the 
ology,  born  at  Albany  in  1811.  About  1843  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Swedenborg,  whose 
leading  doctrines  he  appears  to  have  fully  embraced, 
without,  however,  joining  himself  to  the  ecclesiastical 
organization  of  Swedenborgians.  He  has  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Moralism  and  Christianity,"  (1852,) 
"Christianity  the  Logic  of  Creation,"  (1857,)  and  "The 
Secret  of  Swedenborg.  being  an  Elucidation  of  his  Doc 
trine  of  the  Divine  Natural  Humanity,"  (1869.) 

See  "Old  and  New"  for  January,  1870. 

James,  (JoHN  ANGELL,)  an  eloquent  English  dissent 
ing  minister  and  popular  writer,  born  at  Blandford,  Dor 
set,  in  1785.  He  was  for  many  years  an  Independent 
minister  of  Birmingham,  and  acquired  great  influence  by 
his  oral  ministry  and  his  numerous  writings,  which  have 
had  an  immense  circulation.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Anxious  Inquirer,"  "Christian  Fellowship,"  (.nth 
edition,  1855,)  "  Family  Monitor,"  (gth  edition,  1848,) 
"The  Church  in  Earnest,"  (4th  edition,  1851,)  and  "  Fe 
male  Piety,"  (4th  edition,  1855.)  Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  John  Aneell  James,"  by  R.  W.  DALE  ; 
REV.  ROBERT  STEEL,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

James,  (JoHN  THOMAS,)  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  born  at 
Rugby  in  1786.  Upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Heber  he 
was  appointed  to  the  diocese  of  Calcutta,  and  sailed  for 
India  in  1827.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Tour  through 
Germany,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Poland,"  (1816,)  "Treat 
ise  on  the  Italian,  French,  Dutch,  and  German  Schools 
of  Painting,"  (1822,)  and  "The  Semi-Sceptic,  or  the 
Common  Sense  of  Religion  considered."  Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Bishop  James,"  by  his  brother,  1830. 

James,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  divine,  linguist,  and 
traveller,  and  nephew  of  Thomas' James,  (1571-1629,) 
was  born  at  Newport,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1592. 
Among  his  works  are  manuscripts  upon  Russia,  and  a 
"  Poem  upon  the  Death  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton."  Died 
in  1638. 

James,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Staf 
fordshire  in  1703.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  celebrated 
fever-powder  which  bore  his  name,  and  the  author  of  a 
"Medicinal  Dictionary,"  (1743-45,)  (in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,)  treatises  on  the  "Prac 
tice  of  Physic"  and  "  On  Canine  Madness,"  and  a  "Dis 
sertation  on  Fevers,"  (1778.)  Died  in  1776. 


James,  (THOMAS,)  a  learned  divine,  born  at  Newport, 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1571.  He  was  distinguished  as 
an  able  and  industrious  writer  against  the  Catholics. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  are  "  A  Treat 
ise  of  the  Corruptions  of  the  Scriptures,  Councils,  and 
Fathers  by  the  Church  of  Rome,"  (1612,)  and  "The 
Jesuits'  Downfall."  Died  in  1629. 

See  Wooo,  "Athene  Oxoaienses." 

James,  (Tiio.MAS,)  an  English  navigator,  who  sailed 
in  1631  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage.  He  made 
some  discoveries  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  to 
the  country  lying  west  of  it  he  gave  the  name  of  New 
Wales.  On  his  return  to  England  he  published  "The 
Strange  and  Dangerous  Voyage  of  Captain  Thomas 
fames  for  the  Discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage  to  the 
South  Sea." 

James,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  teacher,  became  head 
master  of  Rugby  School  in  1776.  He  published  a  "Com 
pendium  of  Geography."  He  was  the  father  of  Bishop 
John  T.  James,  noticed  above.  Died  in  1804. 

James,  (THOMAS  C.,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  scholar,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1766.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1788,  and  followed 
his  profession  with  eminent  success  in  his  native  city. 
In  iSir  he  was  appointed  professor  of  midwifery  in  the 
above  institution.  Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1835.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  versed  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  French, 
and  German  languages,  and  to  have  possessed  some 
acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew.  lie  contributed  several 
short  but  beautiful  poems  to  Dennie's  "Portfolio." 

See  "  Memoir  of  Thomas  Chnlkley  James,"  by  J.  R.  TVSON, 
Philadelphia,  1836;  GROSS,  '•American  Medical  Biography ;"  CAR 
SON,  "  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania." 

James,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  land  agent  and  sur 
veyor,  born  in  Warwickshire  in  1771.  He  was  the  first 
to  project  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway,  and  is 
generally  regarded  as  "the  father"  of  the  railway-system 
in  England.  Died  in  1837. 

James,  (WILLIAM,)  an  Englishman,  known  as  the 
author  of  "The  Naval  History  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  Declaration  of  War  by  France  in  1793  to  the  Ac 
cession  of  George  IV.  in  1820,"  (5  vols.,  1822.)  a  work 
evincing  great  research.  Died  in  1827. 

James,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  naval  officer  of 
high  rank,  born  at  Milford  Haven  about  1721.  Me  dis 
tinguished  himself  in  the  East  India  service  and  in  the 
American  war.  Died  in  1785. 

James  (or  Jacques,  zhtk)  de  Vitri,  (deh  ve't^e',)  a 
distinguished  cardinal  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Vitri, 
near  Paris,  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  preached  against 
the  Albigenses,  and  about  1218  joined  the  crusade  against 
the  Saracens.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  East  and  West."  Died  in  1240. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

James  (or  Giacomo,  ja'ko  mo)  de  Voragine,  (da 

vo-ra'je-na,)  a  Romish  prelate,  born  at  Voraggio,  near 
Genoa,  about  1230.  In  1292  he  was  ordained  Archbishop 
of  Genoa.  Died  in  1298.  He  wrote  various  ecclesias 
tical  works,  and  a  famous  collection  of  the  lives  of  the 
saints,  entitled  the  "Golden  Legend." 

James  Francis  Edward,  called  the  first  Pretender, 
and  Chevalier  de  Saint  George,  born  in  1688,  was  the 
son  and  heir  of  James  II.  of  England.  He  was  educated 
in  France,  and  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  At  the  death 
of  his  father  he  was  recognized  as  King  of  England  by 
Louis  XIV.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and  charged 
at  the  head  of  the  cavalry  at  Malplaquet  in  1709.  Lord 
Bolingbroke  formed  a  design  to  secure  for  him  the  suc 
cession  to  the  throne,  but  was  defeated  by  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne.  In  1715  the  Scottish  Jacolntes  took  arms 
to  assert  the  title  of  the  Pretender,  and,  under  the  com 
mand  of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  were  defeated  at  Sheriffmuir. 
Another  army  of  his  partisans  surrendered  at  Preston. 
James  Francis  Edward  landed  in  Scotland  in  December, 
1715;  but,  finding  his  cause  in  a  desperate  state,  he 
returned  to  France  the  next  month.  Died  in  1 758  or  1 765. 

See  JESSE,  "Memoirs  of  the  Pretenders  and  their  Adherents," 
1845. 

Ja'me-son,  (ANNA,)  a  celebrated  writer,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1797,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  Murphy,  a 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JAMESON 


1263 


JANIN 


painter.  She  married  in  1824  a  barrister  named  Jame 
son,  with  whom  she  went  to  live  in  Canada  ;  but,  various 
circumstances  causing  a  separation,  Mrs.  Jameson  re 
turned  to  England,  to  employ  herself  in  literature  and 
the  fine  arts.  She  was  an  earnest  labourer  for  the  fuller 
development  of  the  usefulness  and  mental  culture  of  the 
women  of  England.  Her  productions  evince  great  dis 
crimination,  learning,  and  refinement.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  we  may  mention  "The  Diary  of  an 
Ennuyee,"  (1826,)  afterwards  enlarged  and  published 
with  the  title  of  "Visits  and  Sketches  at  Home  and 
Abroad,"  (2  vols  ,  1834,)  "  Loves  of  the  Poets,"  (1829,) 
"  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Female  Sovereigns,"  (2  vols., 
1831,)  "The  Beauties  of  the  Court  of  Charles  II.," 
"Lives  of  the  Early  Italian  Painters,"  (2  vols.,  1845,) 
and  "  The  Poetry  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,"  (2 
vols.,  1848.)  Died  in  1860. 

See  HARRIET  MARTINEAU,  "Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1869;  "New  Spirit  ot"  the  Age,"  by'  R.  H.  HORNE;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1834,  and  April,  1^49;  "  BlacUwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  Julv,  1853  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  lor  March,  1849;  "Twelve 
Biographical  Sketches,"  by  B.  R.  PARKKS,  London,  1866. 

Ja'me-spn,  (CHARI.KS  DAVIS,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Gorham,  Maine,  in  1827.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  July,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Fair 
Oaks,  May,  1862.  Died  at  Oldtown,  Maine,  in  Novem 
ber,  1862.' 

Ja'me-spii,  (RoiiF.irr,)  an  eminent  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  at  Leith  in  1774  or  1773.  ^e  published  "  Mineral 
ogy  of  the  Scottish  Isles,"  (2  vols.,  1800,)  "  A  System  of 
Mineralogy,"  (3  vols.,  1804-08,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  from  1804  until  1854.  In  1819  Professor 
Jameson  and  Sir  David  Krewster  founded  the  "  Edin 
burgh  Philosophical  Journal,"  which  the  former  edited 
many  years.  He  also  contributed  to  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica."  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  professor. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804,  and  April,  1805; 
"Annual  Register"  for  1854. 

Ja'me-spne,  (GKOKGE,)  an  eminent  painter,  called 
"the  Van  Dyck  of  Scotland,"  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in 
1586.  About  1616  he  went  to  Antwerp,  where,  with  Van 
Dyck,  he  studied  under  Rubens.  "  His  excellence,"  says 
Walpole,  "consisted  in  delicacy  and  softness,  with  a 
clear  and  beautiful  colouring."  It  is  said  that,  in  1633, 
when  Charles  I.  visited  Edinburgh,  the  magistrates  of 
that  city  employed  Jamesone  to  paint  the  portraits  of 
some  of  the  Scottish  monarchs.  Charles  was  so  much 
pleased  with  the  result  that  he  sat  for  his  own  portrait, 
and  presented  the  artist  with  a  diamond  ring  from  his 
finger.  Jameson  was  also  a  painter  of  historical  and 
landscape  scenes.  Died  in  1644. 

See  ALLAN  CUNNINGHAM,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British 
Painters,"  etc.  ;  WAI. POLK,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting ;"  CHAMUEKS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jamet,  zhi'mi',  (PiF.RUK  CHARI.KS,)  a  French  writer, 
born  near  Sens  in  1701.  Among  his  works  are  "Meta 
physical  Essays,"  (1732,)  "Letters  on  Taste  and  the  Doc 
trine  of  Bayle,"  (1740,)  and  "The  Mongol  Philosopher 
Dane-Che-Men-Kan,"  (1740.)  Died  about  1770. 

Jami.     See  JAMFE. 

Ja'mie-spn,  (JoHN,)  D.D.,  a  learned  divine,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1759,  became  in  1797  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  The 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  College  of  New  Jersey.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Socinianism  Unmasked,"  (1788,)  "The  Sorrows 
of  Slavery,"  a  poem,  "The  Use  of  Sacred  History,"  (2 
vols.,  1802,)  an  "Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish 
Language,"  (2  vols.,  1809,)  which  is  highly  esteemed, 
and  "An  Historical  Account  of  the  Ancient  Culdees  of 
lona,"  (1811.)  Died  in  1838. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1809,  and  May,  1828;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  September,  1810. 

Jamin,  zhi'max',  (  JF.AN  BAPTISTE,  )  VICOMTE,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1772;  died  in  1848. 

Jamin,  (JtiLFS  CEI.FSTIN,)  a  French  natural  philoso 
pher,  born  in  1818.  He  became  professor  of  physics  in 
the  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris.  He  commenced  in  1858 


the  publication  of  an  important  work,  entitled  "Cours 
de  Physique." 

Jamin  de  Bermuy,  zhS'maN'  deh  beVmii-e',  (JF.AN 
BAPTISTE  AUGUSTE  MAKIF.,)  one  of  the  best  French 
cavalry  officers  of  his  time,  was  born  in  Bretagne  in 
1773.  He  became  colonel  of  the  royal  guards  of  light 
cavalry  about  1807,  and  went  to  Spain,  where  he  dis 
tinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ocana  in  1809.  As 
general  of  brigade,  he  won  additional  honours  at  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  in  1813.  For  his  various  services  he 
was  created  baron  of  the  empire  and  Marquis  de  Ber 
muy.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  1815. 

See  J.  NOLLET-FABEKT,  "  Le  General  Jamin,"  1853. 

Jamsheed.     See  JF.MSHEKD. 

Jamshid.     See  JEMSHEKD. 

Jamyn,  zht'ma.N',  (AMADIS,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Champagne  about  1540.  His  productions  attracted 
the  attention  of  Ronsard,  who  became  a  warm  friend  and 
liberal  patron  of  Jamyn  and  procured  for  him  the  situa 
tion  of  secretary  and  reader  to  Charles  IX.  He  wrote 
poems  on  various  subjects,  and  made  translations  of  the 
last  three  books  of  the  "  Iliad"  and  the  first  three  of  the 
"Odyssey."  Died  in  1585. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Janachen,  yan-a'ken,  (i.e.  Jan.  (or  John)  Acheii.) 
See  AcHii.N. 

Jane  OF  NAVARRE.     See  JOAN. 

Janes,  janz,  (EDMUND  S.,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  Connecticut, 
about  1805.  In  early  life  he  was  principal  of  an  academy 
in  New  Jersey.  About  1836  he  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1839  was  transferred  to 
Mulberry  Street  Church,  in  New  York.  He  was  chosen 
in  1841  financial  secretary  of  the  American  Bible  So 
ciety,  and  travelled  through  most  of  the  States  in  plead 
ing  the  cause  of  the  Bible.  He  was  elected  a  bishop  in 

1844- 

Janet,  a  French  painter.     See  CLOUF.T. 

Jane'way,  (JAMES,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1636.  He  was  a  preacher  of 
great  power,  and  was  very  actively  employed  at  the  time 
of  the  plague  both  in  the  pulpit  and  in  visiting  the  sick. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  John  Janeway,"  his-  brother,  and 
"The  Saint's  Encouragement  to  DJligence,"  (1675.) 
Died  in  1674. 

Jani,  yl'nee,  (CHRISTIAN  DAVID,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  near  Halle  in  1743.  He  published  a  good 
edition  of  Horace,  (2  vols.,  1778-82,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1790. 

Janigon,  /hS'ne'sfiN7',  (FRANCOIS  MICHEL,)  a  noted 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1674.  Being  an  avowed 
Protestant,  he  went  to  receive  his  education  in  Holland, 
which  became  his  adopted  country.  In  early  life  he 
entered  the  army,  but  finally  devoted  himself  to  litera 
ture.  Among  his  wotks  are  "  Present  State  of  the 
Republic  of  the  United  Provinces  and  their  Dependen 
cies,"  (1729,)  a  production  of  great  merit,  and  "Serious 
and  Satirical  Letters  upon  the  Works  of  the  Savants," 
(12  vols.,  1740  et  st'(j.}  Died  in  1730. 

See  MOREKI,  "Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  NIC^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Janin,  zht'naN',  (Jui.F.s  GABRIEL,)  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  litterateur,  born  at  Saint-fitienne  in  1804.  He 
contributed  successively  to  the  "Figaro"  and  the  "Quo- 
tidienne,"  and  about  1830  became  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Journal  cles  Debats,"  for  which  he  furnished  a 
number  of  brilliant  and  original  articles  on  politics  and 
literature.  He  was  for  a  long  time  the  dramatic  critic 
of  that  journal.  He  also  wrote  for  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  etc.  Among  his  other  productions  are  the 
romances  of"  Barnave,"  (1831,)  "New  Literary  Tales," 
"Journey  in  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  "  The  Nun  of  Toulouse," 
(1850.)  He  also  wrote  an  abridgment  of  "  Clarissa  Har- 
lowe,"  and  a  "History  of  Dramatic  Literature,"  (4 
vols.,  1851-56.)  His  critiques  consist  mostly  of  literary 
gossip,  written  in  a  sparkling  and  polished  style.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1870. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Canseries  du  Luudi :"  QTERARD,  "La 
France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Janin   de   Combe -Blanche,  zht'naN'  deh   koN'- 
',  (JEAN,)  a  celebrated  surgeon  and  oculist,  born 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


J4NITIUS 


1264 


JjfNSS&NS 


in  Carcassonne,  France,  in  1731.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "Treatise  upon  the  Lachrymal  Fistula,"  and  seve 
ral  other  works  on  diseases  of  the  eye.  Died  about  1790. 

See  QUBKAKO,  "La  France  Litteiaire." 

Jauitius,  ya-nit'se-iis,  or  Jaiiicki,  ya-nlt'skee,  (Cl.K- 
MKNT,)  a  learned  Polish  writer,  born  in  1516.  At  fifteen 
he  wrote  elegant  Latin  poetry.  Among  his  works  is 
"Lives  of  the  Kings  of  Poland."  Died  in  1543. 

Jannabee  or  Jannabi,  Al,  al-jan-na'bee,  |I,at.  AL- 
JANNA'HIUS,  or  simpiy  JANNA'HIUS,]  (Aboo-Moham- 
med-Mustafa — moos'ta-fa,)  written  also  Djannaby 
and  Dschaimabi,  an  Arabian  historian,  of  whose  life 
scarcely  anything  is  known.  lie  wrote  an  abridgment 
of  universal  history,  entitled  "  Bahar-al-Zokkar,"  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  down  to  his  own  time.  Died 
in  1581. 

Jannabi.     See  JANNAHEE. 

Jarmabius.     See  JANNABKE. 

Jaunequin, x.hin'ka.N',  (CLAUDE,)  Sieurde  Rochefort, 
a  French  traveller,  sailed  for  Africa  in  1637,  and,  after 
his  return,  published  a  "  Voyage  to  Libya,  to  the  King 
dom  of  Senegal,  and  the  Banks  of  the  Niger,"  etc.,  (1643.) 

Jannequin,  (CLEMENT,)  a  French  or  Flemish  mu 
sician  of  superior  merit,  flourished  about  1550.  He 
composed  masses,  canzoni,  chansons,  etc.  in  1544 
he  published  "  Inventions  musicales  a  quatre  et  cinq 
Parties,"  which  displayed  much  inventive  genius. 

See  liiWNF.v,  "History  of  Music;"  FETIS,  " Biographic  Univer- 
selle  des  Musicieus." 

Jan'ney,  (SAMUEL  M.,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
London  county,  Virginia,  January  11,  1801.  Both  his 
parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or 
Quakers  ;  and  his  mind  appears  to  have  been  at  an  early 
age  deeply  impressed  with  the  truth  and  high  importance 
of  the  religious  principles  in  which  he  was  educated. 
Besides  some  smaller  works,  he  has  written  "Conver 
sations  on  Religious  Subjects,"  (1835;)  "A  Teacher's 
Gift,  consisting  of  Fssays  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1840;) 
"An  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Christian  Church  during 
the  Middle  Ages,"  (1847,)  ar|d  two  valuable  biographies, 
viz.,  a  "  Lite  of  William  Penn,"  (1852,)  and  a  "Life  of 
George  Fox,"  (18^5.)  His  last  and  most  important 
publication  is  a  "  History  of  the  Religious  Society  of 
Friends  from  its  Rise  to  the  Year  1828,"  (4  vols.,  1867.) 
This  work  treats,'  among  other  subjects,  of  the  causes 
and  events  of  the  separation  which  occurred  in  the 
Society  in  1827—28.  The  writer  belongs  to  the  anti- 
orthodox  division  of  the  Quakers;  and,  though  not  pro 
fessing  strict  impartiality,  he  has  evinced,  in  his  treatment 
of  this  delicate  and  difficult  subject,  great  moderation, 
a  scrupulous  regard  for  the  facts  of  the  case,  and,  on 
the  whole,  a  liberal  and  kindly  spirit.  He  is  a  highly- 
esteemed  minister  of  the  Society  of  which  he  is  a  member. 
Early  in  1869  he  was  appointed  by  President  Grant 
superintendent  of  Indian  affairs  in  the  Northern  Super- 
intendency. 

Janozki,  ya-nozh'kee,  or  Janotzki,  ya-nots'kee, 
sometimes  written  Janisck,  (TjoHN  DANIEL,)  a  Polish 
or  Russian  author,  born  at  Viborg  in  1720.  He  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  Zaluski  Library  at 
Warsaw.  Among  his  works,  which  principally  relate 
to  the  literature  of  Poland,  are  "Letters  on  Criticism," 
"A  Dictionary  ot  the  Living  Authors  of  Poland,"  and 
"Polish  Literature  of  our  Time."  Died  in  1786. 

Jansemin.     See  JASMIN. 

Janseii,  jai/sen  or  yan'sen,  or  Jau-se'm-us,  [Dutch 
pron.  ydn-sa'ne-us, ]  (CoKNEi.is,)  Bishop  of  Ypres,  cele 
brated  as  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Jansenists,  born  near 
Leerdam,  in  Holland,  in  October,  1585.  He  pursued  his 
studies  at  Paris,  and  in  1617  was  chosen  professor  of  di 
vinity  in  the  University  of  Louvain.  About  1634116  bitterly 
attacked  the  French  government,  in  his  "  Mars  Gallicus," 
for  having  formed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Dutch  Prot 
estants.  This  provoked  the  enmity  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
but  obtained  the  favour  of  the  King  of  Spain,  who  raised 
Jansenius  to  the  see  of  Ypres  in  1635.  His  principal 
production  was  entitled  "  Augustimis,"  (Louvain,  1640,) 
in  which  he  advocated  the  doctrines  of  Saint  Augustine 
in  regard  to  the  atonement,  divine  grace,  free  will,  and 
predestination.  This  work  was  finished  a  short  time 
previous  to  his  death,  in  1638,  and  by  his  will  he  referred 


it  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See  ;  but  his  executors 
published  the  book,  and  suppressed  that  part  of  the  will 
which  related  to  it.  The  opinions  which  he  advocated 
were  directly  opposed  to  those  advanced  by  the  Jesuits, 
who  made  great  efforts  to  obtain  a  decision  against  them 
by  the  pope.  Finally  the  bishops  of  France  reduced  the 
doctrines  of  Jansenius  to  five  propositions  for  condemna 
tion, — viz.  :  i.  That  there  are  divine  precepts  which  good 
men  are  unable  to  obey  for  want  of  God's  grace,  although 
desirous  to  do  so.  2.  That  no  person  can  resist  the  in 
fluence  of  divine  grace  when  bestowed.  3.  That  for 
human  actions  to  be  meritorious,  it  is  not  requisite  that 
they  should  be  exempt  from  necessity,  but  only  from 
constraint.  4.  That  the  Semi-Pelagians  err  grievously  in 
maintaining  that  the  human  will  is  endowed  with  power 
of  either  receiving  or  resisting  the  aids  and  influences 
of  preventive  grace.  5.  That  whoever  maintains  that 
Jesus  Christ  made  expiation  by  his  sufferings  and  death 
for  the  sins  of  all  mankind  is  a  Semi-Pelagian.  Innocent 
X.  condemned  the  first  four  of  these  propositions  as 
simply  heretical,  but  the  last  as  rash,  impious,  and  in 
jurious  to  the  Supreme  Being.  Many  bulls  were  also 
issued  by  the  succeeding  popes,  by  which  the  Jansenists, 
several  of  whom  were  among  the  most  learned  and  emi 
nent  ecclesiastics  of  France,  were  deprived  of  office  and 
declared  to  be  heretics.  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  instigation 
ot  his  Jesuit  confessor,  ordered  them  to  be  persecuted 
and  their  monastery  at  Port-Royal  to  be  suppressed. 
Notwithstanding  these  attempts  to  crush  them,  the  Jan 
senists  continued  to  increase,  comprising  among  their 
champions  Pascal,  Arnauld,  Nicole,  and  many  other 
celebrated  men. 

See  LEVDRCKBR,  "Historia  Jansenism!,"  1695;  BAYI.K,  "His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary;'  SAINTE-!>KUVK,  "Port-Royal," 
tomes  i.,  ii.  :  HKHSKK,  "Hislorisch  Verhaal  van  cle  Geboorte,  I, even, 
eic.  van  C.  Jansenius,"  1727;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gihierale." 

Janseii,  yan'sen,  (HKNDIUK,)  a  noted  writer  and  trans 
lator,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1741.  He  fixed  his  residence 
in  Paris  about  1770,  where  he  became  librarian  to  Tal 
leyrand.  His  works  were  chiefly  of  a  historical  and 
philosophical  character.  Died  in  1812. 

Jansenius.     See  JANSKN. 

Jaiiseiiius,  yin-sa'ne-us,  (CORNELLS,)  a  learned  Flem 
ish  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Hulst  in  i^io.  In  1568  he  was 
ordained  first  Bishop  of  Ghent.  Of  his  works  we  may 
mention  "Concord  of  the  Evangelists,"  and  a  "Para 
phrase  on  the  Psalms."  Died  in  1576. 

Jaiiseiiius,  (JAKOH,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1547,  became  in  1595  regius  professor  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  at  Louvain.  Among  his  works  are 
Expositions  of  the  Prophet  Job,  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
and  of  the  Gospel  of  fohn.  Died  in  1625. 

Janson  or  Jeiison,  zhS.v'soN',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French 
engraver,  printer,  and  type-founder,  settled  in  Venice 
about  1470.  lie  produced  there  a  number  of  celebrated 
editions  between  1470  and  1480.  He  is  called  the  in 
ventor  of  the  Roman  type  now  generally  used.  Died 
about  1481. 

See  G.  SARDINI,  "  Esanie  su  i  Principj  del'a  Frnncesa  ed  Ita'iana 
Tipografia,  ovvero  Stoiia  critica  di  N.  Jt-nson,''  3  vois.,  1796-0.^. 

Jaiissen,  yans'sen,  or  John'son,  (CORNELLS,)  a  noted 
artist,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1590.  In  1618  he  visited 
England,  where  he  was  employed  by  James  I.  to  paint 
the  portraits  of  the  royal  family.  He  was  also  patronized 
by  the  nobility.  He  possessed  neither  the  freedom  nor  the 
grace  of  Van  Dyck,  but  in  other  respects  was  regarded  as 
is  equal,  and  in  finishing  was  considered  even  superior 
to  him.  His  carnations  have  been  particularly  admired  ; 
and  his  pictures  yet  retain  their  original  lustre,  in  conse 
quence  perhaps  of  the  ultramarine  which  he  used.  Died 
in  1665. 

Janssens,  yans'sens,(  ABRAHAM,)  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1569.  His  designs  were  elegant  and 
spirited.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  a  rival  of  Rubens. 
He  excelled  in  painting  subjects  illuminated  by  torches, 
where  the  brilliant  light  and  deepest  shade  were  placed 
in  a  striking  contrast.  His  most  important  works  are 
the  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  and  a  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross."  Died  at  Antwerp  in  1631. 

Janssens,  (ERASMUS,)  a  Dutch  Unitarian  theologian, 
born  about  1540,  preached  at  Clausemburg.  Died  after 
1595- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


J4NSSENS 


1265 


JARS 


Janssens,  (JAN  WILLEM,)  a  distinguished  Dutch 
general,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1762.  In  1802  he  was 
appointed  governor  and  general-in-chiefof  the  colony  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the 
English,  who  took  possession  of  that  country  in  1806. 
After  the  abdication  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  under  svhom 
he  had  held  the  office  of  minister  of  war,  Napoleon  made 
him  Governor-General  of  Holland  and  the  East  Indies. 
In  this  capacity  he  bravely  defended  Batavia  against  the 
English  in  1811,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  surrender. 
Died  in  1835.  » 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Janssens,  (VICTOR  HONORIUS,)  a  noted  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1664.  He  studied  in  Rome 
the  works  of  Raphael,  selected  Albano  for  his  model, 
and  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  in  that  style.  At 
the  expiration  of  eleven  years  he  returned  to  Brussels, 
where  he  painted  numerous  large  pictures  for  palaces 
and  churches.  Died  in  1739. 

Janszoon.    See  KOSTER. 

Januario.     See  JANUARIUS. 

Jan-u-a'ii-us,  [Fr.  JANVIER,  zh5N've^i';  It.  JANUA 
RIO,  yi-noo-a're-o,]  SAINT,  Bishop  of  Benevento,  was 
beheaded  during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  about 
305.  A  cathedral  was  erected  over  his  grave  at  Naples, 
where  it  is  believed  that  his  blood  exerts  great  power  in 
checking  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius. 

Ja'nus,  an  ancient  Latin  deity,  represented  with  two 
faces.  He  was  regarded  as  the  opener  of  the  day  and 
as  having  charge  of  the  gates  of  heaven.*  He  seems  to 
have  presided  over  the  commencement  of  enterprises. 
The  word  Janua  ("gate")  is  supposed  to  have  been  de 
rived  from  him  ;  also  the  name  of  the  month  January. 
The  temple  of  Janus  Quirinus  at  Rome  was  kept  open 
in  time  of  war  and  closed  during  peace.  It  has  been 
conjectured  by  some  scholars  that  the  name  and  attri 
butes  of  Janus  may  be  traced  to  Ganesa,  (or  Ganesha,) 
the  Hindoo  deity  of  prudence  and  circumspection,  who, 
among  his  other  offices,  had  those  of  presiding  over  the 
commencement  of  undertakings,  guarding  gates  and 
doors,  etc. 

See  GUIGNIAUT,  "  Religions  de  1'Antiquite,"  Paris,  1825-29,  vol. 
ii.  book  v.  sect.  2,  chap.  iii. ;  KEIGHTLEV,  "Mythology." 

Janvier.     See  JANUARIUS. 

Janvier,  zhAVve-i',  (  ANTIDE,)  an  ingenious  and  cele 
brated  horologist,  was  born  at  Saint-Claude,  in  France, 
in  1751.  He  invented  numerous  improvements  for 
watches  and  for  different  kinds  of  astronomical  appa 
ratus.  In  1784  he  became  watchmaker  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1835. 

Janvier,  (Dom  RENE  AMBROISE,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  in  1614.  He  made  a  Latin  translation  of 
the  "  Rabbi  David  Kimchi's  Hebrew  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms."  Died  in  1682. 

Japet.    See  IAPETUS. 

Japetus.     See  IAPETUS. 

Ja'pheth,  [Heb.  H3',]  a  patriarch,  one  of  the  three 
sons  of  Noah,  and  the  supposed  ancestor  of  the  Cauca 
sian  race.  (See  IAPETUS.) 

See  Genesis  vi.,  vii.,  ix. 

Japix,  Japicx,  or  Japiks,  ya'piks,  (GYSBERT,)  a 
celebrated  Frisian  poet,  born  at  Bolsward  in  1603.  But 
few  incidents  in  his  early  life  are  known.  Japix  was  the 
first,  and  in  fact  the  only,  writer  in  Frisian  of  any  note  of 
that  period.  In  1763,  at  Dr.  Johnson's  request,  Bos- 
well,  then  at  Utrecht,  sent  a  copy  of  Tapix  as  a  specimen 
of  Frisian,  and  at  the  same  time  remarked  that  "it  was 
the  only  book  which  they  had  ;  that  there  were  no  treat 
ises  of  devotion,  ballads,  or  story-books  in  the  language." 
Japix  died  of  the  plague  in  1666. 

See  H/UPERTSMA,  "Hulde  aan  G.  Japiks,"  1827;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Jaquelot.     See  JACQUET.OT. 

Jaquotot,  zht'ko'to',  (MARIE  VICTOIRE,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  on  porcelain,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  She 
copied  several  works  of  Raphael  on  porcelain,  and 
painted  the  dessert-service  presented  by  Napoleon  I.  to 
the  Czar  of  Russia  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  Died  in  1855. 


*  Some  writers  suppose  Janus  to  be  a  corruption  of  Dianas,  (from 
Dies,  "  Day,'')  because  he  was  the  opener  of  the  day. 


Jarchi,  zhaVshe',  (SOLOMON  BEN  ISAAC,)  sometimes 
called  Raschi,  a  distinguished  Jewish  writer,  born  at 
Troyes,  in  France,  about  1040.  After  finishing  his  edu 
cation  at  the  Jewish  Academy  in  that  city,  he  travelled 
through  Egypt,  Western  Asia,  Greece,  Russia,  and  Ger 
many.  On  his  return  to  France  he  wrote  Annotations 
on  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  the  Mishna,  and  the  Gemara. 
These  works  obtained  a  high  reputation,  and  procured 
for  the  author  the  title  of  "  Prince  of  Commentators." 
Died  in  1  105. 

Jardin  or  Jardyn.     See  Du  JARDIN. 

Jar'dme,  (GEORGE,)  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland, 
in  1742,  was  professor  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glas 
gow  from  1774  to  1824,  and  made  improvements  in  the 
mode  of  teaching.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Philo 
sophical  Education,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1827. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1819. 

Jardine,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  about  1800.  He  studied  botany,  orni 
thology,  etc.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Illus 
trations  of  Ornithology,"  (3  vols.,  1829-45.)  He  was 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Naturalist's  Library,"  (40 
vols.,  1833-43,)  and  joint  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Phi 
losophical  Journal." 

Jardinier,  zhtK'de'neJt',  (CLAUDE  DONAT,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  Among  his  works  is  the 
"Virgin  and  the  Infant  Jesus,"  from  C.  Maratta.  Died 
in  1774. 

Jardins,  des,  da  zhtR'daN',  (MARIE  CATHERINE,) 
MADAME  DE  VILLEDIEU,  a  talented  and  profligate  French 
authoress,  was  born  in  1640.  She  removed  to  Paris, 
where  she  supported  herself  by  writing  romances  and 
dramas.  Her  works  were  quite  successful,  and,  not 
withstanding  her  very  exceptionable  conduct,  she  was 
much  courted  by  persons  of  distinction.  Her  active 
and  vivid  imagination  produced  a  new  era  in  French 
romances,  changing  their  old  and  tedious  style  into  that 
of  the  modern  novel.  Died  in  1683. 

Jard-Panvillier,  zhfR'pfiN've'yej-i',  (Louis  ALEX- 
ANDRE,)  a  French  politician,  born  near  Niort  in  1757. 
In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Convention, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  bold  defence  of 
the  king.  Napoleon  created  him  baron  of  the  empire 
and  president  of  the  court  of  exchequer.  Died  in  1822. 

Jardyn  or  Jardin,  (KAREL  DE.)     See  DUJARDIN. 

Jarnac,  de,  cleh  zhaVna'k',  (Gui  CHABOT,)  SEIGNEUR, 
a  French  soldier,  who  in  1547  killed  La  Chateigneraye 
in  a  duel  which  was  fought  in  the  presence  of  King  Henry 
II.  Died  about  1560. 

See  TAVANNES,  "Memoires;"  BRANT&ME,  "Memoires,"  tome  iii. 

Jarnowich,  yaR'no-vik',  or  Giornovichi,  JOR-IIO- 
vee'kee,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  a  celebrated  and  eccentric 
violinist,  born  at  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1745.  He  spent 
several  years  in  France,  Prussia,  and  England.  He  sub 
sequently  visited  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1804. 

Jaroslaf.     See  YAROSLAF. 

Jarrige,  zhi'rezh',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Tulle  in  1605.  He  embraced  Protestantism,  and  wrote 
a  work  against  the  society  of  which  he  had  been  a  mem 
ber,  entitled  "The  Jesuits  upon  the  Scaffold  ;"  but  sub 
sequently  he  was  reconciled  to  them,  and  published  a 
refutation  of  his  previous  work.  Died  in  1660. 

Jarry,  zhi're',  (Xicoi.AS,)  a  French  calligraphist,  born 
in  Paris  about  1620,  was  famous  for  the  beauty  of  his 
penmanship. 

Jarry,  du,  dii  zht're',  (LAURENT  Juilhard  —  zhii-e'- 
ytu',)  a  celebrated  ecclesiastic,  poet,  and  orator,  born 
near  Saintes,  in  France,  about  1658.  He  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Bossuet  and  the  Due  de 
Montausier.  In  1714116  gained  a  poetical  prize  at  the 
French  Academy  over  Voltaire  and  other  competitors. 
He  wrote  "The  Evangelical  Ministry,  or  Reflections 
upon  the  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit,"  (1726,)  "Poems, 
Christian,  Heroic,  and  Moral,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 


j  zhtR,  (GABRIEL,)  a  distinguished  mineralogist, 
and  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  born 
at  Lyons,  in  France,  in  1732.  In  1757  he  was  sent  to  ex- 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

80 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JARS 


1266 


JAFELLO 


amine  the  mines  of  Germany  and  Hungary,  and  in  1765 
visited  England,  Scotland,  Norway,  and  Sweden  for  the 
same  purpose.  He  died  in  1769,  leaving  manuscripts  from 
which  his  brother  compiled  "Observations  upon  a  Great 
Number  of  Gold  and  Silver  Mines,"  (3  vols.,  1774-81.) 
See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Jars,  de,  deh  zhjtu,  (  FRANCOIS  DK  Rochechouart — 
rosh'shoo-f R',)  CHKVAI.IKR,  a  French  officer  and  cour 
tier.  He  was  arrested  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1632, 
because  he  refused  to  give  evidence  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  friend  Chateauneuf,  keeper  of  the  seals.  After 
an  imprisonment  of  eleven  months  in  the  Bastille,  and 
twenty-four  examinations,  during  which  nothing  could 
be  extorted  from  him  that  would  criminate  Chateauneuf, 
he  was  convicted  on  false  evidence  and  sentenced  to 
death.  A  reprieve,  however,  arrived  from  the  king  after 
Jars  had  placed  his  head  upon  the  block.  He  obtained 
his  liberty  after  a  long  imprisonment.  Died  in  1670. 

See  RICHELIEU,  "Memoires." 

Jarta  or  Jaerta,  yeR'ta,  (JoHAN  or  HANS,)  a  Swedish 
statesman,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1774,  was  minister  of 
finances  from  1809  to  1811,  and  assisted  in  framing  the 
present  Constitution  of  Sweden.  Died  in  1847. 

Jar'ves,  (JAMES  JACKSON,)  a  writer  and  traveller, 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1818.  He  produced, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Hawaiian  or 
Sandwich  Islands,"  (1843,)  and  "Art  Hints,"  (1855.) 

Jar'vis,  (ABRAHAM,)  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Norwalk,  in  Connecticut, 
in  1739.  lie  graduated  at  Yale  in  1761,  was  ordained 
in  England  in  1764,  and  became  Bishop  of  Connecticut 
in  1797.  Died  in  1813. 

Jar'vis,  (JOHN,)  an  artist,  born  in  Dublin  about  1749, 
had  a  great  reputation  for  his  paintings  on  glass  and  his 
exquisite  manner  of  finishing  single  subjects.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  the  west  window  of  New  College 
Chapel,  Oxford,  from  a  design  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
Died  in  1804. 

Jarvis,  (JOHN  WESLEY,)  a  distinguished  artist,  born 
in  the  north  of  England  in  1780,  came  at  an  early  age  to 
New  York,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his 
portraits.  He  was  also  noted  for  his  eccentricities  and 
genial  humour. 

See  DUNI.AP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Jarvis,  (SAMUEL  FARMER,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri 
can  clergyman  and  author,  son  of  Bishop  Jarvis,  was 
born  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1786.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1805,  and  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
Oriental  literature  in  Washington  (now  Trinity)  College 
at  Hartford,  and  from  1837  to  1842  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church  in  his  native  town.  He  wrote  "  A  Chronological 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Church,"  etc.,  (1845,) 
and  "The  Church  of  the  Redeemed;  or,  The  History 
of  the  Mediatorial  Kingdom,"  (1850.) 

Jasikov  or  Jazikov.    See  YAZIKOF. 

Jasmin,  zhfs'ma.N',  or  Jansemiii,  zhfiNss'maN', 
QACQUES  or  JAQUOU,)  the  "Barber  Poet  of  Agen,"  born 
at  that  town  in  1798.  His  poems,  which  are  written 
in  the  Proven9al  patois,  enjoy  the  highest  popularity  in 
France,  and  display  great  powers  of  humour  and  pathos, 
with  a  charming  simplicity  of  diction.  Among  the  most 
admired  are  "The  Curl-Papers,"  ("Los  Papillotos,") 
and  "The  Blind  Girl  of  Castel-Cuille,"  ("L'Abuglo  de 
Castel-Cuille.")  The  latter  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Longfellow.  Died  in  1864. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generate ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1849. 

Ja'soii,  IGr.  'Idouv,]  a  semi-fabulous  Greek  hero,  cele 
brated  as  the  leader  of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  which 
was  supposed  to  have  occurred  before  the  siege  of  Troy. 
The  Argonauts  went  to  Colchis  to  fetch  a  golden  fleece 
which  was  guarded  by  a  dragon.  Jason  succeeded  in 
this  enterprise  by  the  aid  of  Medea,  a  sorceress,  whom 
he  married.  (See  MEDEA.) 

Jason,  tyrant  of  Pherse,  and  chief  magistrate  of  Thes- 
saly,  was  ambitious  and  enterprising.  He  obtained 
control  of  Thessaly  in  374  B.C.,  and  aspired  to  be  master 
of  all  Greece.  He  was  assassinated  in  369  B.C. 

Jas'per,  (WILLIAM,)  (known  in  history  as  SERGEANT 
JASPER,)  a  brave  soldier  of  the  American  Revolution, 


born  in  South  Carolina  about  1750.  When  the  American 
flag  was  shot  away  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Moultrie,  June 
28,  1776,  he  leaped  outside  the  walls  of  the  fort,  amidst 
a  perfect  storm  of  cannon-shot,  replaced  the  flag,  and 
returned  to  his  post  without  injury.  For  this  gallant 
service  Governor  Rutledge  presented  to  him  his  own 
sword.  He  afterwards  served  with  distinction  under 
Marion,  and  was  killed  at  Savannah  in  October,  1779. 

Jaubert,  zho'baik',  (FRANCOIS,)  COMTE,  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Condom  in  iZjjS.  In  1804  he  became 
president  of  the  Tribunate.  In  1806  he  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state.  Died  in  1822. 

Jaubert,  (HIPPOLYTE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  minister 
of  state,  and  naturalist,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  became  minister  of  public 
works  in  1840.  He  published  "  Illustrationes  Plantarum 
Orientalium,"  (2  vols.,  1842-46.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Jaubert,  (PIERRE  AMEDE^EMILIEN  PROHE,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Provence  in  1779,  accompanied  Na 
poleon  to  Egypt  as  first  secretary-interpreter  in  1799. 
He  was  appointed,  after  his  return,  professor  of  Persian 
in  the  College  of  France,  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1830,  and  made  a  peer  of  France  in 
1841.  He  contributed  to  the  "Journal  Asiatique,"  and 
wrote  a  number  of  learned  works.  Died  in  1847. 

See  E.  BIOT,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M.  Jaubert ;"  QUERARD, 
"La  France  Litteraire." 

Jaucourt,  de,  deh  zhS'kooR',  (ARNAIL  FRANC.OIS,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1757, 
was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 
in  1791.  In  June,  1814,  he  acted  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  absence  of  Talleyrand.  He  founded  the 
Protestant  Bible  Society  of  Paris.  Died  in  1852. 

Jaucourt,  de,  (Louis,)  CHEVALIER,  an  accomplished 
French  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He 
studied  at  Geneva,  Cambridge,  and  Leyden,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Boerhaave  in  medicine.  He  published  in  1734 
a  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Leibnitz,"  which 
is  much  admired.  He  wrote  many  articles  on  natural 
philosophy,  natural  history,  literature,  etc.  for  the  great 
French  Encyclopaedia  of  Diderot.  His  principles  were 
more  consistent  with  the  Christian  religion  than  those 
of  the  other  Encyclopaedists.  He  wrote  a  voluminous 
Medical  Lexicon,  but  lost  the  manuscript  at  sea,  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  "  Bibliotheque  raisonnee  des 
Ouvrages  des  Savants  de  1'Europe,"  (1728-40.)  Died 
at  Compiegne  in  1779. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale;"  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France 
protestante. " 

Jauffret,  zho'fRi',  (GASPARD  JEAN  ANDRE  JOSEPH,) 
a  French  writer  on  theology,  born  in  Provence  in  1759, 
became  chaplain  to  Napoleon  about  1804,  Bishop  of  Metz 
in  1806,  and  Archbishop  of  Aix  in  1811.  Died  in  1823. 

Jauffret,  (Louis  FRANCOIS,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  He  was  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Marseilles,  and  wrote  several  valuable 
juvenile  books.  Died  about  1850. 

Jaugeon,  zh5'zh6N',  (N.,)  an  able  French  mechani 
cian,  who  wrote  several  works  on  natural  history  and 
physiology.  Died  in  1725. 

Jault,  zho,  (AuousTiN  FRANC.OIS,)  a  physician  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1700,  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  Syriac  in  the  Royal  College  at 
Paris.  He  translated  Ockley's  "  History  of  the  Sara 
cens"  (1748)  from  the  English,  and  several  medical  works 
from  the  Latin.  Died  in  1757. 

Jauregui  y  Aguilar,  de,  di  How-ra'gee  e  a-ge-laR', 
(JuAN,)  Chevalier  de  Calatrava,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
painter,  born  at  Toledo  about  1570.  In  1607  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  studied  Italian  and  improved  himself 
in  the  art  of  painting.  He  translated  into  his  native 
tongue  the  "Pharsalia"  of  Lucan  and  the  "Aminta"  of 
Tasso,  (1607.)  The  latter  is  an  excellent  version.  He 
introduced  a  superior  style  among  the  Spanish  painters. 
Died  in  1650,  or,  according  to  some,  in  1640. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  QUILLIET,  "  Die- 
tionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Javello,  ya-vel'lo,  (CRISOSTOMO,)  a  learned  philoso 
pher  and  theologian  of  the  Dominican  order,  was  born 
near  Milan  about  1471. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


JAPOLENUS 


1267 


JAY 


Jav-o-le'nus,  (Piuscus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Nerva  and  Hadrian.  He 
wrote  an  "  Epitome  of  the  Libri  Fosteriores  of  Labeo," 
and  several  treatises  on  law. 

Jay,  zhi,  (ANTOINK,)  a  French  journalist  and  littera 
teur,  born  in  the  Gironde  in  1770.  He  was  for  many 
years  chief  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  daily  paper 
of  Paris,  and  the  "Miuerve."  In  politics  he  was  liberal. 
He  spent  seven  years  in  the  United  States,  1795-1802. 
In  1832  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Ministry 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  (1815,)  which  is  highly  praised 
by  Henri  Martin.  Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Jay,  (JOHN,)  an  illustrious  American  statesman,  first 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  New  York, 
December  12,  1745.  He  was  descended  on  his  father's 
side  from  Pierre  Jay,  a  Huguenot  merchant  of  La  Ro- 
chelle,  who  fled  to  England  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  Jay  graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia) 
College  in  1764,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New 
York  in  1768.  At  this  period  he  combined  in  a  remark 
able  degree  the  dignity  and  gravity  of  manhood  with  the 
ardour  of  youth.  His  talents  soon  procured  for  him 
both  an  extensive  legal  practice  and  great  influence  in 
the  political  assemblies  called  to  consider  the  aggressive 
policy  of  the  British  government.  Elected  to  the  first 
Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  in  1774,  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  all  its  proceedings,  and,  as  one  of  a 
committee  of  three,  drew  up  the  address  to  the  people 
of  Great  Britain,  which  at  once  procured  for  its  author 
the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  elo 
quent  writers  in  America.  He  also  prepared  the  address 
issued  by  Congress  in  1775  to  tne  people  of  Canada.  In 
the  general  debates  he  took  strong  ground  in  favour  of 
the  central  authority  and  against  separate  colonial  action. 
Having  been  recalled  from  Philadelphia  in  May,  1776, 
to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  New  York  pro 
vincial  Congress,  his  name  does  not  appear  on  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  which,  however,  received 
his  cordial  support.  He  exerted  great  influence  in  the 
convention  which  met  in  August  of  the  same  year  to 
frame  a  State  government  for  New  York.  To  arouse 
the  people  from  the  despondency  occasioned  by  the 
disasters  to  our  arms,  he  prepared,  in  December,  an 
address  to  the  country,  which  was  issued  by  the  con 
vention  and  ordered  by  Congress  to  be  translated  into 
German.  He  also  reported  to  the  New  York  conven 
tion,  in  March,  1777,  a  bill  of  rights,  and  had  a  chief 
share  in  framing  the  Constitution.  Before  its  adjourn 
ment,  May,  1777,  the  convention  appointed  Jay  chief 
justice  of  New  York. 

In  December,  1778,  he  again  took  his  seat  in  Congress, 
and  a  few  days  after  was  chosen  its  president.  His  dig 
nified  and  impartial  discharge  of  the  duties  of  this  posi 
tion  won  the  esteem  of  all  parties.  In  September,  1779, 
he  resigned  the  offices  both  of  president  and  chief  justice, 
to  accept  the  appointment  of  minister  to  Spain  to  nego 
tiate  for  a  loan  of  $5,000,000  and  for  the  free  navigation 
of  the  Mississippi.  Alter  many  months  of  vexatious 
and  fruitless  labours  at  Madrid,  he  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  took  part  with  Adams,  Franklin,  and  others  in  ne- 
gotiating  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  signed  September  3,  1783.  Jay  re 
turned  to  New  York  in  July,  1784,  and,  learning  that 
Congress  had  already  appointed  him  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  then  probably  the  most  important  office  in  the 
government,  he  accepted  this  position  in  December 
following,  and  discharged  its  duties  until  the  election  of 
Washington  as  President  of  the  United  States  in  1789. 
To  answer  the  objections  of  the  opponents  to  the  Federal 
Constitution  as  it  came  from  the  General  Convention  of 
1787,  Jay  united  with  Hamilton  and  Madison  in  writing 
"The  Federalist."  "No  constitution  of  government," 
says  Chancellor  Kent,  "ever  received  a  more  masterly 
and  successful  vindication."  Jay  contributed  greatly 
towards  overcoming  the  majority  against  the  Constitution 
in  the  New  York  convention  called  to  adopt  or  reject 
it  in  1788,  (at  first  the  vote  stood  only  eleven  for,  to 
forty-six  against  it ;  afterwards  thirty  for,  to  twenty-seven 
against,)  and  on  the  reorganization  of  the  government 


under  it  in  1789  he  was  offered  by  Washington,  it  is  said, 


the  choice  of  the  offices  in  his  gift, 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 


He  accepted  that  of 
"  His  general  learn 


ing  and  ability,"  says  Daniel  Webster,  "  and  especially 
the  prudence,  the  mildness,  and  the  firmness  of  his  char 
acter,  eminently  fitted  Mr.  Jay  to  be  at  the  head  of  such 
a  court."  In  1792  Jay  received  a  majority  of  the  votes 
for  Governor  of  New  York ;  but,  on  some  technical 
grounds,  George  Clinton,  the  Republican  candidate,  was 
declared  elected.  In  writing  of  this  result  to  his  wife,  he 
said,  "  A  few  years  will  put  us  all  in  the  dust;  and  then 
it  will  be  of  more  importance  to  me  to  have  governed 
myself  than  to  have  governed  a  State."  In  1794  Jay 
accepted  with  reluctance  the  appointment  of  special 
minister  to  England  to  negotiate  a  settlement  of  the  dif 
ficulties  between  the  two  countries,  well  knowing  that 
in  the  state  of  public  feeling  no  adjustment  that  could  be 
effected  would  give  satisfaction  to  all  parties.  He  con 
cluded  a  treaty  on  the  igth  of  November  of  the  same  year. 
It  provided,  among  other  things,  that  pre-revolutionary 
debts  owed  to  British  subjects  should  be  paid  by  the 
United  States,  that  the  British  government  should  indem 
nify  Americans  for  losses  sustained  by  illegal  captures,  etc. 
(About  $10,000,000  were  afterwards  paid  on  this  account.) 
This  treaty  was  at  once  assailed  with  almost  unexampled 
violence  by  the  party  favourable  to  France.  Mobs  lighted 
bonfires  with  it  in  the  principal  cities,  and  in  Boston  Jay 
himself  was  burned  in  effigy.  On  the  other  hand,  Ham 
ilton  defended  the  treaty  with  an  ability  that  extorted 
the  admiration  even  of  its  opponents,  and  Fisher  Ames, 
in  one  of  the  greatest  efforts  of  American  eloquence, 
declared  that  the  "  treaty  had  justly  raised  the  character 
of  the  nation."  It  was  finally  carried  into  effect  by  a 
vote  of  fifty-eight  to  fifty-one.  While  Jay  was  absent 
in  England,  he  was  elected,  without  his  knowledge  or 
consent,  Governor  of  New  York, — an  office  which  he 
held  for  six  years.  It  was  under  his  administration  that 
slavery  in  that  State  was  abolished.  In  writing  to  a 
friend,  in  1780,  he  had  declared,  "Till  America  comes 
into  this  measure,  [the  abolition  of  slavery,]  her  prayers 
to  Heaven  for  liberty  will  be  impious."  Five  years  later 
(1785)  he  was  made  president  of  a  society  in  New  York 
"to  promote  the  manumission  of  slaves."  Having  de 
clined  a  re-election  at  the  close  of  his  second  guberna 
torial  term,  Jay  was  nominated  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate  to  succeed  Oliver  Ellsworth  in  his  former  office 
of  chief  justice  of  the  United  States;  but  this  honour  he 
also  declined,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  resided 
on  his  estate  at  Bedford,  Westchester  county,  New  York. 
He  died  May  17,  1829.  "In  lofty  disinterestedness," 
says  Hildreth,  "  in  unyielding  integrity,  in  superiority 
to  the  illusions  of  passion,  no  one  of  the  great  men  of 
the  Revolution  approached  so  near  to  Washington," 
(as  Jay.)  Jay  was  a  member  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  a  man  of  deep  religious  as  well  as  earnest  moral 
convictions ;  the  Bible  is  said  to  have  been  his  con 
stant  study.  In  stature  he  was  somewhat  less  than  six 
feet  in  height ;  he  was  svell  formed,  but  rather  thin,  face 
colourless,  with  deep-blue  eyes,  and  aquiline  nose. 

See  a  "  Life  of  John  Jay,  with  Selections  from  his  Writings,"  by 
his  son.  WILLIAM  JAY,  2  vols.,  1833;  JAMES  RENWICK,  "  Lives  of 
John  Jay  and  Alexander  Hamilton,"  1840;  HENKY  FLANDERS, 
"  Lives  and  Times  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  United  States," 
1855;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol. 
ii. ;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1823,  and  October,  1833. 

Jay,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  a  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  son  of  Judge  William  Jay,  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1817.  He  graduated  at 'Columbia  College 
in  1836,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  and 
was  counsel  for  several  fugitive  slaves  in  the  courts  of 
law.  In  April,  1869,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Aus 
tria.  He  was  thrice  chosen  president  of  the  Union  League 
of  New  York. 

Jay,  (WILLIAM,)  a  popular  English  dissenting  minis 
ter  and  writer,  born  at  Tisbury,  Wiltshire,  in  1769.  He 
was  the  pupil  and  protege  of  the  Rev.  Cornelius  Winter. 
He  began  to  preach  about  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  be 
came  in  1791  minister  of  Argyle  Chapel,  Bath,  where 
he  continued  to  preach  for  sixty-two  years.  He  was 
called  the  "prince  of  preachers"  by  the  eminent  John 
Foster.  Among  his  works  are  "  Morning  and  Evening 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23. 


JAY 


1268 


JEBB 


Exercises,"  (1842,)  "Lectures  on  Female  Scripture 
Characters,"  (1854,)  a  "Life  of  Cornelius  Winter," 
"Mornings  with  Jesus,"  (1854,)  and  "Evenings  with 
Jesus,"  (1854.)  Died  in  December,  1853. 

See  his  Autobiography,  edited  bv  GEORGE  REDFORD  and  JOHN 
ANGELL  JAMES,  1854;  "Memoir  of  William  Jay,"  by  S.  S.  WILSON, 
1834- 

Jay,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  philanthropist,  second 
son  of  Chief-Justice  Jay,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1789. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1807,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1829,  succeeded  to  the  family  estate  at  Bedford. 
He  had  previously,  in  1820,  been  appointed  first  judge 
of  Westchester  county,  in  which  office  he  was  continued 
till  superseded,  in  1842,  on  account  of  his  anti-slavery 
opinions.  He  early  entered  upon  his  philanthropic 
labours,  and  continued  to  exert  himself  in  behalf  of 
the  temperance  reform,  the  abolition  of  slavery,  educa 
tional  and  missionary  enterprises,  Sunday-schools,  tract 
and  Bible  societies,  etc.,  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  for  several  years  the  president  of  the  American 
Peace  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  His  principal  works  are  the 
"  Life  of  John  Jay,  with  Selections  from  his  Writings," 
(2  vols.,  1833,)  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Character  and 
Tendency  of  the  American  Colonization  and  American 
Anti-Slavery  Societies,"  (1835,)  "A  View  of  the  Action 
of  the  Federal  Government  in  I3ehalf  of  Slavery,"  (1839,) 
"  War  and  Peace,"  (1848,)  and  "  A  Review  of  the  Causes 
and  Consequences  of  the  Mexican  War,"  (1849.)  Died 
at  Bedford,  New  York,  in  1858. 

Jay,  le,  (Guv  MICHEL.)     See  LE  JAY. 

Jayadeva  or  Djayadeva,  jl-a-da'va,  a  celebrated 
Hindu  poet,  known  as  the  author  of  the  "  Gita  Govinda," 
("  Song  of  Krishna,")  a  famous  Sanscrit  poem  in  honour 
of  Krishna.  The  time  and  circumstances  of  his  life  are 
unknown.  An  Oriental  critic  refers  to  Jayadeva  as  a 
poet  in  the  following  terms :  "  Whatever  is  delightful 
in  the  modes  of  music,  .  .  .  whatever  is  exquisite  in 
the  sweet  art  of  love,  whatever  is  graceful  in  the  strains 
of  poetry, — all  that  let  the  happy  and  wise  learn  from 
the  songs  of  Jayadeva." 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Panlheon ;"  "Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  iii. 
p.  207. 

Jazet,  zht'zi',  (JEAN  PIERRE  MARIF,)  a  French  en 
graver,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  perfected  the  art  of 
engraving  in  aquatint,  and  reproduced  the  works  of 
Horace  Vernet  and  other  masters. 

Jeacocke,  ja'kok,  ?  (CALEU,)  a  baker  of  London, 
known  as  the  author  of  the  "  Vindication  of  the  Moral 
Character  of  the  Apostle  Paul  against  the  Charges  of 
Hypocrisy  and  Insincerity  brought  by  Bolingbroke,  Mid- 
dleton,  and  Others,"  (1765.)  Died  in  1786. 

Jean  OF  FRANCE.     See  JOHN. 

Jean  Bon  Saint-Andre,  zh&N  b6x  saN'toN'dRa', 
BARON,  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1749.  He  studied  theology,  and  became  a  Protestant 
minister.  He  was  chosen  deputy  to  the  National  Con 
vention  in  1792,  joined  the  Jacobins,  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king,  and  was  elected  one  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Mayence, 
(Mentz,)  where  he  won  great  esteem  by  the  firmness,  in 
tegrity,  and  wisdom  of  his  administration.  Died  in  1815. 

Jean  Jacques.    See  ROUSSEAU. 

Jean  de  Matha.     See  MATHA. 

Jean  de  Paris,  zh8N  de  pS're',  a  French  Dominican, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Paris,  wrote  "  De  Regia 
Potestate  et  Papali,"  in  which  he  maintained  the  cause 
of  King  Philip  against  the  pope.  Died  in  1304. 

Jean  Paul.    See  RICHTER. 

Jeanes,  jeenz,  (HENRY,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Allensay,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1611.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  "  Abstinence  from  Evil,"  one  entitled  "The  Image 
Unbroken,"  (1651,)  in  defence  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  work 
in  reply  to  the  "  Iconoclastes"  of  Milton.  Died  in  1662. 

Jeanne  d'Albret,  zhtn  dil'bui',  or  Joan,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  born  in  1528,  was  the  only  child  of  Jean  II. 
d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre,  and  Marguerite,  sister  of  the 
French  monarch  Francis  I.  Her  earliest  suitor  was  Philip, 
the  son  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany ;  but  Francis  I.  opposed 
the  union,  and  gave  her  in  marriage  to  Antoine  de  Bour 
bon,  Duke  of  Vendome,  in  1548.  Through  her  husband's 


influence  she  embraced  the  Calvinistic  faith,  caused  it  to 
be  introduced  into  Navarre,  and  in  a  short  time  was  re 
garded  as  one  of  the  chief  supporters  of  Protestantism  in 
France.  On  the  131)1  of  December,  1553,  she  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  afterwards  known  as  the  illustrious  Henry  IV.  In 
J555'  vv'th  ner  husband,  sne  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty 
of  Navarre.  Two  years  later,  her  husband,  having  been 
appointed  lieutenant-general  of  France,  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Rouen.  Jeanne  died  at  Paris  in  1572.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  talents,  virtues,  and  heroic 
qualities. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais  ;"  DE  THOU,  "  Historia 
sui  Temporis;"  D'Aumr.NE,  "  Memoires." 

Jeanne  d'Arc.     See  JOAN  OF  ARC. 

Jeanne  of  Naples.     See  JOAN  OF  NAPLES. 

Jeanne  of  Navarre.     See  JOAN  OF  NAVARRE. 

Jeannin,  zht'na.N',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  statesman  and 
diplomatist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Autun  in  1540. 
He  held  an  office  at  Dijon  in  1572,  when  a  royal  order 
came  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants.  Although  he 
was  a  zealous  Catholic,  he  persuaded  the  local  authori 
ties  to  disobey  or  suspend  the  execution  of  the  order, 
which  in  a  few  days  was  countermanded.  He  afterwards 
became  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Dijon.  In  1594 
he  gave  his  adhesion  to  Henry  IV.,  who  employed  him 
on  important  foreign  missions.  He  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  king  in  a  high  degree.  After  the  death  of  Henry 
IV.,  (1610,)  the  queen,  Marie  de  Me"dicis,  appointed 
Jeannin  controller  of  the  finances,  and  confided  to  him 
the  chief  direction  of  affairs.  He  died  in  1622,  leaving 
"Memoirs  of  his  Negotiations,"  (1656.) 

See  PIERRE  SAUMAISE,  "FJos;e  de  Jeannin  ;"  THIROUX,  "  Eloge 
de  M.  Jeannin  ;"  DE  THOU,  "Historia  sui  Temporis;"  GUYTON  DE 
MOKVKAU,  "filoge  du  President  Jeannin,"  1766;  GROTIUS,  "  An- 
nales  et  Historia;  Belsicas;"  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Gendrale ;" 
MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  1.  et  seg. 

Jeanron,  zhAv'riN',  (PHILIPPE  AUGUSTE.)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1809. 

Jeaurat,  zho'rt',  (EDME  S^HASTIEN,)  a  French  as 
tronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  published  in  1750 
a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Perspective."  In  1753  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Military  School 
of  Paris,  where  he  caused  an  observatory  to  be  estab 
lished.  Among  his  works  is  "Observations  on  the  Solar 
Eclipse  of  1793."  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute 
in  1796.  Died  in  1803. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^neVale." 

Jebb,  (  [OHN,)  M.D.,  a  celebrated  divine,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1736.  In  1768  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  Greek  Testament  at  Cambridge.  He  obtained 
the  living  of  Ovington,  in  Norfolk,  in  1764,  and  became 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Harborough.  Having  subse 
quently  embraced  Socinian  views,  he  resigned  all  his 
ecclesiastical  appointments  and  commenced  the  study 
of  medicine.  He  obtained  his  degree  at  Saint  Andrew's, 
and  practised  with  success.  He  was  much  engaged  in 
political  controversy,  and  earnestly  advocated  the  Amer 
ican  cause  during  the  Revolutionary  war.  Died  in  1786. 

See  DISNEY,  "Life  of  John  Jebb,"  1787. 

Jebb,  (JOHN,)  an  Irish  Protestant  bishop  and  clas 
sical  scholar,  born  at  Drogheda  in  1775,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  published,  in  1819  or 
1820,  an  important  work  on  "Sacred  Literature,"  which 
is  highly  praised  by  several  critics.  "  It  has  the  highest 
claims,"  says  T.  II.  Home,  "to  the  attention  of  every 
biblical  student."  In  1823  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Limerick.  Among  his  works  is  "Practical  Theology," 
(2  vols.,  1830.)  Died  in  1833. 

See  CHARLES  FORSTER,  "Life  of  Bishop  Jebb,"  2  vols.,  1837. 

Jebb,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  BART.,  son  of  Dr.  Samuel  Jebb, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stratford,  in  Essex,  in  1729. 
He  studied  medicine  in  London,  and  afterwards  at  the 
University  of  Leyden,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of 
M.D.  He  became  physician-extraordinary  to  George 
III.  about  1777,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  1780.  Died  in  1787. 

Jebb,  (SAMUEL,)  M.D.,  a  noted  English  physician 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  was  an 
uncle  of  John  Jebb,  M.D.,  noticed  above.  He  embraced 
the  principles  of  the  nonjurors,  and  became  librarian  to 
the  celebrated  Jeremy  Collier.  He  edited  the  "  Dialogue 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not)  good;  moon; 


JEE-JEE-B'HOT 


1269 


JEFFERSON 


of  Justin  Martyr  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  in  Greek  and 
Latin,"  the  "Opus  Majus"  of  Roger  Bacon,  and  several 
other  works.  Died  in  1772. 

See  NICHOLS,  "Literary  Anecdotes  of  Bowyer." 

Jee'jee-b'hoy',  (Sir  JAMSET'JKE,)  a  Hindoo  mer 
chant  and  munificent  benefactor  of  Bombay,  was  born 
in  1783.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune,  and  gave  vast 
sums  to  benevolent  institutions.  The  honour  of  knight 
hood  was  conferred  on  him  by  Queen  Victoria.  Died  in 

1859- 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1851,  (by  C.  E.  NORTON.) 

Jefferson,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
and  the  third  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born, 
April  2,  1743,  at  Shadwell,  Virginia,  near  the  spot  which 
afterwards  became  his  residence  with  the  name  of  Mon- 
ticello.  He  was  the  oldest  son  in  a  family  of  eight 
children.  His  father,  Peter  Jefferson,  was  a  man  of 
great  force  of  character  and  of  extraordinary  physical 
strength.  His  mother,  Jane  Randolph,  of  Goochland, 
was  descended  from  an  English  family  of  great  respecta 
bility.  Young  Jefferson  began  his  classical  studies  at 
the  age  of  nine,  and  at  seventeen  he  entered  an  advanced 
class  at  William  and  Mary  College.  On  his  way  thither 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Patrick  Henry,  who  was 
then  a  bankrupt  merchant,  but  who  afterwards  became 
the  great  orator  of  the  Revolution.  At  college  Jefferson 
was  distinguished  by  his  close  application,  and  devoted, 
it  is  said,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours  a  day  to  study. 
He  became  well  versed,  we  are  told,  in  Latin,  Greek, 
Italian,  French,  and  Spanish,  making  at  the  same  time 
a  respectable  proficiency  in  his  mathematical  studies. 
After  a  five  years'  course  of  law  under  Judge  Wythe, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767.  His  success  in  the 
legal  profession  was  remarkable ;  his  fees  for  the  first 
year  amounted  to  nearly  three  thousand  dollars.  In 
1769  Jefferson  commenced  his  public  career  as  a  member 
of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  in  which  he  had, 
while  a  student  of  law,  listened  to  Patrick  Henry's  great 
speech  on  the  Stamp  Act. 

In  1773  he  united  with  Patrick  Henry  and  other  pa 
triots  in  devising  the  celebrated  committee  of  corre 
spondence  for  disseminating  intelligence  between  the 
colonies,  of  which  Jefferson  was  one  of  the  most  active 
and  influential  members.  Elected  the  next  year  to  a 
convention  to  choose  delegates  to  the  first  Continental 
Congress  at  Philadelphia,  he  drew  up  for  their  instruc 
tion  his  famous  "  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British 
America,"  which,  though  rejected  by  the  convention  as 
being  too  radical,  was  subsequently  issued  by  the  House 
of  Burgesses,  and,  after  some  revision  by  Edmund  Burke, 
passed  through  several  editions  in  Great  Britain.  June 
I,  1775,  Jefferson  reported  to  the  Assembly  the  reply  of 
Virginia  to  Lord  North's  conciliatory  proposition,  and 
on  the  2ist  of  the  same  month  took  his  seat  in  the 
Continental  Congress.  His  reputation  as  a  statesman 
and  accomplished  writer  at  once  placed  him  among  the 
leaders  of  that  renowned  body.  He  served  on  the  most 
important  committees,  and,  among  other  labours,  drew 
lip  the  reply  of  Congress  to  the  above  proposal  of  Lord 
North,  and  assisted  John  Dickinson  in  preparing,  in  be 
half  of  the  Colonies,  a  declaration  of  the  cause  of  taking 
up  arms.  The  rejection  of  a  final  petition  to  the  king 
having  at  length  destroyed  all  hope  of  an  honourable 
reconciliation  with  the  mother-country,  Congress,  early 
in  the  session  of  1776,  appointed  a  committee  to  draw 
up  a  declaration  of  independence,  of  which  Jefferson  was 
made  chairman.  In  this  capacity  he  drafted,  at  the  re 
quest  of  the  other  members  of  the  committee,  (Franklin, 
Adams,  Sherman,  and  R.  R.  Livingston,)  and  reported  to 
Congress,  June  28,  that  great  charter  of  freedom  known 
as  the  "  Declaration  of  American  Independence,"  which, 
on  July  4,  was  adopted  unanimously,  and  signed  by  every 
member  present  except  John  Dickinson  of  Pennsylvania. 
It  may  be  doubted  if  in  all  history  there  be  recorded  so 
important  an  event,  or  if  a  state  paper  has  ever  been 
framed  that  has  exerted,  or  is  destined  to  exert,  so  great 
an  influence  on  the  destinies  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
human  race.  The  Declaration  of  Independence,  says 
Edward  Everett,  "  is  equal  to  anything  ever  born  on 
parchment  or  expressed  in  the  visible  signs  of  thought." 
"  The  heart  of  Jefferson  in  writing  it,"  adds  Bancroft, 


"and  of  Congress  in  adopting  it,  beat  for  all  humanity." 
In  October  following,  Jefferson  resigned  his  seat  in 
Congress,  and  also  the  appointment  of  commissioner  to 
France,  to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Virginia 
Assembly.  A  State  Constitution  had  previously  been 
adopted,  to  which  he  had  furnished  the  preamble  ;  and 
he  now  applied  himself  to  a  radical  revision  of  the  laws 
of  the  commonwealth,  in  which  he  was  engaged  for  two 
years  and  a  half.  Among  other  reforms,  he  procured 
the  repeal  of  the  laws  of  entail,  the  abolition  of  pri 
mogeniture,  and  the  restoration  of  the  rights  of  con 
science, — reforms  which,  he  believed,  would  eradicate 
"every  fibre  of  ancient  or  future  aristocracy."  He  also 
originated  a  complete  system  of  elementary  and  collegiate 
education  for  Virginia. 

In  June,  1779,  Jefferson  succeeded  Patrick  Henry  as 
Governor  of  Virginia,  and  held  the  office  during  the 
most  gloomy  period  of  the  Revolution.  He  declined 
a  re-election  in  1781,  assigning  as  a  reason  that  at  that 
critical  juncture  "the  public  would  have  more  confidence 
in  a  military  chief."  Two  days  after  retiring  from  office, 
his  estate  at  Elk  Hill  was  laid  waste,  and  he  and  his 
family  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  the  enemy.  Jefferson 
was  twice  appointed,  in  conjunction  with  others,  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain, — viz.,  in  June,  1781,  and  in  November,  1782, — 
but  was  prevented,  by  circumstances  beyond  his  control, 
from  action  in  either  instance.  Returned  to  Congress 
in  1783,  he  reported  to  that  body,  from  a  committee  of 
which  he  was  chairman,  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace, 
(concluded  at  Paris,  September  3,  1783,)  acknowledging 
the  independence  which  had  been  announced  in  the  De 
claration  of  July  4, 1776.  He  also  proposed,  and  carried 
through  Congress  at  its  next  session,  a  bill  establishing 
the  present  Federal  system  of  coinage,  which  took  the 
place  of  the  English  pounds,  shillings,  pence,  etc.,  and 
reported  a  plan  of  government  for  the  territory  of  the 
United  States.  In  May  following,  (1784,)  Congress  ap 
pointed  him  minister-plenipotentiary  to  act  with  Frank 
lin  and  Adams  in  negotiating  treaties  of  commerce  and 
amity/vvith  foreign  powers ;  and  in  1785  he  succeeded 
Dr.  Franklin  as  resident  minister  at  Paris.  It  was  during 
this  sojourn  in  France,  which  was  one  of  the  happiest 
periods  of  Jefferson's  life,  that  he  formed  that  strong 
predilection  for  the  French  nation  over  the  English 
which  marked  so  conspicuously  his  subsequent  career. 
He  published,  while  abroad,  his  famous  "Notes  on  Vir 
ginia,"  relating  to  politics,  commerce,  manufactures,  etc., 
(Paris,  1784,)  which  at  once  attracted  general  attention 
throughout  Europe.  Having  obtained  permission  to 
return  to  America,  he  left  Paris  in  September,  1789,  and 
reached  Virginia  soon  after  the  election  of  Washington 
as  first  President  of  the  United  States.  The  Federal 
Constitution,  then  recently  adopted,  did  not  meet  with 
his  approval.  He  declared  that  he  did  not  know  whether 
the  good  or  the  bad  predominated.  Subsequently,  how 
ever,  he  thought  more  favourably  of  it.  In  organizing 
the  government,  Washington  offered  him  a  seat  in  his 
cabinet  as  secretary  of  state,  which  Jefferson  accepted. 

With  Washington's  administration  began  the  fierce 
struggles  between  the  two  great  political  parties  of  the 
country,  the  Republicans  and  Federalists, — the  former 
under  the  lead  of  Jefferson,  and  the  latter  under  that 
of  Alexander  Hamilton,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury. 
Jefferson  opposed  Hamilton's  funding  system,  his  United 
States  bank,  and  other  financial  measures  ;  and  when  the 
war  broke  out  between  England  and  France  he  was  in 
favour  of  aiding  the  latter  with  our  arms,  while  Hamilton 
advocated  the  observance  of  a  strict  neutrality.  These 
differences  between  the  two  rival  chiefs,  which  were  the 
occasion  of  many  stormy  discussions  in  the  cabinet  and 
of  an  almost  unexampled  political  excitement  throughout 
the  country,  culminated  shortly  after  the  dismissal  of  the 
French  minister  Genest,  (Genet,)  and  Jefferson  resigned 
his  office,  December  31,  1793,  and  retired  to  Monticello. 
At  the  close  of  Washington's  second  term  he  was  again 
called  into  public  life,  as  the  Presidential  candidate  of 
the  Republican  party,  John  Adams  being  the  nominee  of 
the  Federalists.  In  the  ensuing  election  Adams  received 
the  highest  number  of  votes,  and  was  declared  President ; 
and,  according  to  a  rule  then  in  force,  Jefferson,  being 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JEFFERSON 


1270 


JEFFRET 


the  next  highest  candidate,  became  Vice-President.  By 
virtue  of  this  office  he  took  his  seat,  March  4,  1797, 
as  president  of  the  Senate.  The  disputes  with  France, 
and  other  difficult  questions,  rendered  the  administration 
one  of  extraordinary  turbulence.  At  its  close,  Jefferson 
and  Adams  were  again  the  respective  candidates  of  the 
Republican  and  Federal  parties.  In  this  election  the  Re 
publicans  triumphed,  but  cast  an  equal  number  of  votes 
for  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr, — seventy-three :  Adams 
received  but  sixty-five.  As  it  was  necessary  that  the 
person  chosen  to  the  first  office  should  have  a  plurality 
of  votes,  the  election,  in  these  circumstances,  devolved 
upon  the  House  of  Representatives,  which,  on  its  thirty- 
sixth  ballot,  declared  Jefferson  President  and  Burr  Vice- 
President,  their  terms  of  office  to  commence  March  4, 
1 80 1.  Jefferson  was  re-elected  in  1804  by  an  electoral  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  to  twenty-eight,  and  in 
1809  retired  voluntarily  from  office,  after  a  prosperous  ad 
ministration  of  eight  years.  Among  the  important  events 
that  occurred  during  his  term  of  office  were  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana,  (1803,)  the  brilliant  victories  of  our  fleets  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  peace  with  Morocco  and  Tripoli, 
in  1803,  Lewis  and  Clark's  overland  exploring  expedi 
tion  to  the  Pacific,  sent  out  by  the  President  in  1804,  the 
arrest  and  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for  treason,  1807,  and  the 
attack,  the  same  year,  of  the  British  war-frigate  Leopard 
on  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  which  led  to  Jeffer 
son's  embargo  act  and  ultimately  to  the  second  war  with 
Great  Britain.  Washington  and  Adams  had  opened  Con 
gress  with  a  speech;  but  Jefferson  preferred  a  written 
message,  as  being  more  democratic.  He  also  initiated 
the  policy  of  removing  incumbents  from  office  on  the 
grounds  of  a  difference  in  political  opinion.  After  par 
ticipating  in  the  inauguration  of  his  friend  and  successor, 
James  Madison,  Jefferson  retired  to  Monticello,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  attending  to  his 
private  affairs,  receiving  the  numerous  calls  of  friends 
and  strangers,  and  in  the  exercise  of  a  most  liberal  hos 
pitality.  In  1819  he  took  the  chief  part  in  founding  the 
University  of  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  near  Monti- 
cello,  and  acted  as  its  rector  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  the  same  day  with  that  of  John  Adams,  July  4,  1826, 
— the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence.  The  following  epitaph,  written  by  himself,  is 
inscribed  on  his  tombstone,  a  small  granite  obelisk,  at 
Monticello  :  "  Here  was  buried  Thomas  Jefferson,  author 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  of  the  Statute  of 
Virginia  for  Religious  Freedom,  and  Father  of  the  Uni 
versity  of  Virginia."  As  the  author  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  founder  of  the  Republican  (Demo 
cratic)  party,  Jefferson  has  probably  exerted  a  greater 
influence  on  the  institutions  of  this  country  than  any  other 
American  except  Washington.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
very  embodiment  of  democracy.  All  titles  of  honour 
— even  that  of  Mr. — were  distasteful  to  him.  Dressed 
in  the  plainest  apparel,  he  was  as  accessible  to  the 
yeoman  in  his  every-day  garments  as  to  a  foreign  dig 
nitary  of  state.  In  his  intercourse  with  others  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  affability.  _His  conversation  was 
fluent,  imaginative,  various,  and  eloquent.  "  In  Europe," 
wrote  the  Due  de  Liancourt,  "he  would  hold  a  distin 
guished  rank  among  men  of  letters."  His  adroitness  in 
politics  and  in  the  management  of  men  has  rarely  been 
surpassed.  In  religion  he  was  what  is  denominated  a 
free-thinker.  "His  instincts,"  says  Bancroft,  "all  in 
clined  him  to  trace  every  fact  to  a  general  law,  and  to 
put  faith  in  ideal  truth."  Slavery  he  considered  a  moral 
and  political  evil,  and  declared  in  reference  to  it  that  he 
"trembled  for  his  country  when  he  remembered  that 
God  is  just."  His  extreme  views  of  State  rights  in 
later  life  were  very  much  modified,  and  he  owned  that 
it  was  necessary  for  the  general  government  sometimes 
"to  show  its  teeth." 

In  his  prime,  Jefferson  was  six  feet  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  height,  with  a  sinewy,  well-developed  frame, 
angular  face,  but  amiable  countenance,  and  ruddy  com 
plexion  delicately  fair.  He  had  deep-set,  light-hazel  eyes, 
and  hair  of  a  reddish  chestnut  colour,  very  fine.  He 
was  married  in  1772  to  Mrs.  Martha  Skelton,  daughter 
of  John  Wales,  a  distinguished  Virginia  lawyer.  She 
brought  him  a  large  dowry  in  lands  and  slaves,  about 


equal  in  value  to  his  own  property;  but  his  liberality 
and  generous  living  left  him  insolvent  at  his  death.  One 
daughter  and  ten  grandchildren  survived  him.  "The 
Memoirs,  Correspondence,  and  Private  Papers  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,"  in  4  vols.  8vo,  edited  by  his  grandson,  Thomas 
Jefferson  Randolph,  was  published  at  Charlottesville  in 
1829,  and  republished  in  London  and  Boston  the  same 
year,  and  in  New  York  in  1830.  In  1848  his  manuscripts 
were  purchased  by  Congress,  and  published  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Writings  of  Thomas  Jefferson,"  in  9  vols, 
8vo,  1853-55.  U's  "Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice" 
is  still  in  use  among  legislative  bodies  in  this  country. 

See,  in  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  HENRY  S.  RAN 
DALL,  "Life  of  T.  Jefferson,"  3  vols.,  1858;  GEOKGE  TUCKER,  "Life 
of  Thomas  Jefferson,"  1836;  B.  L.  RAYNER,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Jef 
ferson,"  1834;  THEODORE  DWIGHT,  "Character  of  T.  Jefferson," 
1839;  W.  LINN,  "  Life  of  T.  Jefferson,"  1835;  NICHOLAS  KIDDLE, 
"Eulogy  on  T.  Jefferson,"  1827;  GRISWOLD,  "Prose  Writers  of 
America;"  DOYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  i. ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1830,  and  October,  1837; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1830,  and  January,  1835; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1830;  and  an  excellent  article 
on  Jefferson  in  the  "New  American  Cyclopedia,"  (by  JOHN  E. 
COOKE.) 

Jeffery  or  Jeffrey,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ipswich  in  1647.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  Kir  ton 
and  Falkenham,  in  Suffolk,  in  1687,  and  was  appointed 
Archdeacon  of  Norwich  in  1694.  He  published  the 
religious  works  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne.  Dr.  Jeffrey  was 
strongly  opposed  to  religious  controversy.  Died  in  1720. 

See  "  Life  of  Jeffery,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Sermons." 

Jeffery  or  Jeffrey,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dissent 
ing  minister,  born  at  Exeter  about  the  year  1700.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  religious  works,  in  which  he 
displayed  great  ability.  Of  these  we  may  mention  "The 
True  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
and  "The  Divinity  of  Christ  proved  from  Holy  Scrip 
ture."  Died  about  1728. 

Jeffrey,  (FRANCIS,)  LORD,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
critic  and  essayist,  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  23d  of  Oc 
tober,  1773.  He  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Glasgow 
in  1787,  and  removed  in  1791  to  Queen's  College,  Ox 
ford,  where  he  remained  but  a  few  months.  In  1794  he 
was  admitted  an  advocate  to  the  Scottish  bar,  but  for 
several  years  obtained  scarcely  any  practice.  About 
this  time  he  became  a  member  of  the  Speculative  Soci 
ety  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
several  young  men  afterwards  eminent  in  the  literary 
and  political  world.  Among  these  were  Sydney  Smith 
and  Henry  (afterwards  Lord)  Brougham,  with  whom  he 
projected  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  number 
of  which  was  issued  in  October,  1802.  Three  numbers 
were  edited  by  Smith ;  but  upon  his  removal  to  London 
the  entire  charge  devolved  upon  Jeffrey,  who  held  the 
position  of  editor  for  the  ensuing  twenty-six  years.  It 
was  successful  from  the  first,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
circulation  had  increased  to  about  nine  thousand,  and 
in  1813  it  considerably  exceeded  twelve  thousand.  As 
Jeffrey  himself  expressed  it,  "it  stood  on  two  legs,  the 
one  being  the  criticism  of  current  literature,  the  othei 
being  Whig  politics."  The  commencement  of  the  "Ed 
inburgh  Review"  formed  a  new  era  in  English  literature, 
and  completely  changed  the  style  of  the  popular  maga 
zines.  Jeffrey  was  the  principal  contributor;  and  his 
articles  in  both  politics  and  criticism  attracted  great  atten 
tion.  Scott,  Byron,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Moore,  and 
other  distinguished  poets  of  that  period  were  severely — 
sometimes  unjustly — criticised ;  but  most  of  them  after 
wards  became  warm  friends  of  the  great  reviewer.  About 
1802  he  married  his  second-cousin,  Catherine  Wilson,  • 
who  died  in  1805.  In  1813  he  married  an  American  lady 
in  New  York,  named  Charlotte  Wilkes.  Though  Jeffrey 
devoted  so  much  of  his  time  to  editorial  labours,  his 
practice  as  a  lawyer  greatly  increased.  In  rapidity,  flu 
ency,  and  eloquence  he  had  no  equal  at  the  Scottish  bar. 
Once,  while  conducting  the  prosecution  of  a  libel-suit 
at  Glasgow,  he  poured  forth  such  a  torrent  of  words  that 
the  opposing  counsel  declared  "  that,  by  calculation  with 
his  watch,  that  man  had  actually  spoken  the  English 
language  twice  over  in  three  hours."  In  1820  he  was 
elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Nine 
years  later  he  became  dean  of  the  faculty  of  advocates, 
and  thereupon  resigned  the  editorial  chair  of  the 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  me"t;  not;  good;  moon; 


JEFF  RETS 


1271  JELAL-ED-DEEN-ROOMEE 


"Edinburgh  Review."  In  1830  he  was  elected  to  the 
first  Parliament  of  William  IV.  He  continued  in  Par 
liament  four  years,  and  held  the  office  of  lord  advocate 
of  Scotland  under  the  administration  of  Grey.  He  re 
ceived  the  appointment  to  a  Scottish  juclgeship  in  1834, 
with  the  honorary  title  of  Lord.  As  a  judge  he  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  conscientiousness  and  his  busi 
ness  qualifications.  Lord  Jeffrey's  contributions  to  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  extend  over  a  period  of  nearly 
fifty  years,  and  amount  to  over  three  hundred  articles. 
The  greater  part  of  these  were  published,  in  4  vols.,  in 
1843.  Died  in  January,  1850. 

See  LORD  COCKBURN,  "  Life  of  Lord  Jeffrey,"  2  vols.,  1852 : 
ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1852  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September  and  October, 
1852  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1852  ;  "  North  British  Review" 
for  May,  1850,  and  August,  1852.  For  an  able,  though  somewhat 
severe,  review  of  Jeffrey's  character  as  a  critic,  see  article  entitled 
"  British  Critics,"  published  in  the  second  volume  of  WHIPPLE'S 
"Essays  and  Reviews,"  New  York,  1849:  (it  first  appeared  in  the 
"  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845.) 

Jeffreys, (Lord  GEORGE,)  Baron  Wem,  the  infamous 
minion  of  James  II.,  was  born  at  Acton,  in  Denbighshire, 
and  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple.  At  first  he  pro 
fessed  to  be  a  Roundhead,  and  was  chosen  recorder  of 
London,  and  city  judge.  During  his  practice  at  the  Old 
Bailey  bar  he  had  acquired  a  boundless  command  of  the 
language  in  which  the  depraved  express  hatred  and  con 
tempt  ;  and  on  the  bench  he  hesitated  not  to  pour  forth 
torrents  of  oaths,  curses,  and  vituperative  epithets  on 
attorneys,  jurymen,  witnesses,  and  prisoners.  Age  and 
merit  were  treated  in  the  same  manner  ;  for  when  Baxter 
was  brought  before  him,  on  a  charge  of  nonconformity, 
he  railed  in  such  a  manner  at  that  eminent  divine  and 
his  counsel  that  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  a  fair  trial. 
His  voice  and  manners  were  always  disagreeable  ;  but 
these,  which  he  considered  natural  advantages,  he  had 
improved  to  such  a  degree  that  in  his  paroxysms  of  rage 
few  could  hear  him  unmoved.  His  eye  had  a  terrible 
fascination  for  the  prisoner  on  whom  it  was  fixed.  He 
appeared  to  delight  in  misery  merely  for  its  own  sake. 
Such  was  the  man  who  became  the  court  favourite  of 
James  and  chief  justice  of  England.  Jeffreys,  perceiving 
that  he  had  obtained  all  that  could  be  expected  from 
his  old  friends,  sought  the  favour  of  the  court.  He 
received  great  attention  from  the  Duke  of  York  ;  but 
the  king  regarded  him  with  contempt  and  disgust.  Not 
withstanding  these  views,  however,  Jeffreys  was  soon 
made  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.  Upon  James's 
accession  to  the  throne  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Wem,  and  was  subsequently 
made  lord  high  chancellor  of  England.  He  gained  great 
notoriety  during  the  trials  of  those  who  had  participated 
in  the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  Pen  can 
scarcely  portray  the  atrocities  committed  under  his  juris 
diction.  He  delighted  in  torturing,  burning,  hanging, 
and  beheading  men,  women,  and  children,  after  the 
merest  shams  of  trials.  All  these  actions  appeared  to 
give  great  satisfaction  to  his  sovereign.  Yet  his  decisions 
are  said  to  have  been  generally  just  and  impartial  where 
political  purposes  were  not  to  be  subserved.  When  the 
Prince  of  Orange  came  to  England,  the  lord  chancellor 
attempted  to  escape  to  the  continent ;  but  as  he  was 
in  a  beer-house  at  Wapping,  dressed  as  a  sailor,  he 
was  discovered  by  an  attorney  whom  he  had  formerly 
abused.  This  person  gave  the  information  to  the  popu 
lace,  who  immediately  seized  Jeffreys  and  carried  him 
before  the  mayor,  from  whence  he  was  sent  to  the 
Lords.  By  them  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where 
he  died  in  1689,  from  the  effects  of  his  intemperance  and 
misfortunes. 

See  WOOLRVCH,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  G.  Jeffreys,"  1827; 
LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  1856;  MAC- 
AULAY,  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ,  * 

Jeffreys,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  North 
amptonshire  in  1678.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never  practised.  Among 
his  productions  were  several  tragedies,  and  an  oratorio, 
entitled  "The  Triumph  of  Truth."  Died  in  1755. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Jeffries,  jef'frez,  (Jon.v.)  M.D.,  an  American  physi 
cian,  born  in  Boston  in  1744.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 


in  1763,  and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Edinburgh.  In 
the  Revolution  he  sided  with  the  British,  and  became 
surgeon-major  to  the  royal  army  in  America.  In  1780 
he  resumed  his  profession  in  London.  While  making 
some  investigations  in  atmospheric  temperature,  in  1785, 
he  crossed  from  England  to  France  in  a  balloon.  This 
was  the  first  successful  experiment  in  aeronautics  on 
an  extensive  scale.  He  returned  to  Boston  in  1789, 
and  died  in  1819. 

Jehan-Geer  or  Jahangir,  je-han'geer',  written  also 
Djahanguir,  Djehanguire,  Djah.au  Gbyr,  and 
Dschehangir,  (i.e.  the  "Conqueror  of  the  World,") 
one  of  the  Mogul  emperors  of  Hindostan,  succeeded  his 
father,  the  great  Akbar,  in  1605.  Jehangeer  left  Memoirs 
of  his  own  life.  He  died  in  1627.  He  inherited  nothing 
of  the  ability  of  his  father.  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
this  emperor  that  the  celebrated  embassy  of  Sir  Thomas 
Roe  arrived  from  England  at  the  court  of  Delhi. 

See  COLLIN  DE  BAR,  "Histoire  de  1'Inde;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  tor  March,  1834. 

Je-ho'a-haz-  [HelxinKtiT;  Fr.  JOACHAZ,  zho't'kiz',] 
son  of  Jehu,  ascended  the  throne  of  Israel  856  B.C.,  and 
reigned  seventeen  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xiii.  i-io. 

Jehoahaz,  also  called  Shallum,  succeeded  his  father 
Josiah  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  and  reigned  three  months. 
Died  about  610  B.C. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  1-4. 

Jehoash.    See  JOASH. 

Je-hoi'a-kim,  [~Heb.  D'p'lTT  ;  Fr.  JOACHIM,  zho'S'- 
ki\',  ]  whose  name  was  changed  by  Pharaoh-Necho 
from  Eliakim,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Judah  608  B.C., 
and  reigned  eleven  years. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  4-9. 

Je-hoi'a-kin  or  Jec-o-m'ah  was  the  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as  King  of  Judah  in  597  B.C., 
and  reigned  three  months. 

See  II.  Kings  xxiv.  ;  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  8-10. 

Je-ho'ram  or  Jo'ram,  [Heb.  D11JT,]  King  of  Israel, 
son  of  Ahab,  succeeded  to  the  throne  896  B.C.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  by  Jehu  in  884  B.C. 

See  II.  Kings  i.-x. 

Jehoram  or  Joram,  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Judah  893  or  892  B.C.  Died  in  885  or  884. 

See  II.  Kings  viii.  15-25;  II.  Chronicles  xxi. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  [Heb.  D3BN7T;  Gr.  'luaapar;  Fr. 
JOSAPHAT,  zho'zt'tit',]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Asa,  was 
born  about  950  B.C.  He  began  to  reign  in  914,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  and  reigned 
twenty-five  years.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety 
and  justice. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xvii.-xxii. 

Je'hu,  [Heb.  N1!T,]  King  of  Israel,  was  an  officer  in 
the  army  of  King  Jehoram,  when  he  was  anointed  king 
by  a  young  prophet  sent  by  Elisha  in  884  B.C.  He  killed 
Jehoram,  and  reigned  about  twenty-eight  years. 

See  II.  Kings  ix.  and  x. 

Jek'yll,  (Sir  JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  lawyer  and 
statesman,  born  ir.  .Nottinghamshire  in  1664.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  Whig  party  during  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  and  was  knighted  upon  the  accession 
of  George  I.  He  was  afterwards  master  of  the  rolls,  and 
privy  councillor.  Died  in  1738. 

Jekyll,  (JOSEPH,)  M.P.,  a  witty  English  barrister, 
born  about  1752,  was  distinguished  by  his  talent  for 
epigram  and  repartee.  He  became  solicitor-general  to 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1805.  Died  in  1837. 

Jelal-ed-Deen  or  Djelal-Eddin,  jeh-ltl'  ed-deen', 
(i.e. the  "Splendour  (or  Glorv)  of  Religion,")  written  also 
Jalal-ed-Deen  and  Djalal-Eddin,  KingofKhorasmia, 
who  succeeded  his  father,  Ala-ed-Deen,  in  1318,  was  re 
nowned  fof  his  military  ability  and  enterprise.  He  fought 
numerous  battles  against  Jengis  Khan  with  various  suc 
cess.  It  is  said  that  he  afterwards  abandoned  himself  to 
indolence  and  pleasure,  and  when  a  Mongol  army  in 
vaded  his  capital  he  fled,  and  was  killed,  in  1231. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jelal-ed-Deen-Roomee,  (Jelal-ed-Din-Rumi  or 
Djelal-ed-dyn-Roumy,)  jeh-lSl'ed-deen-roo'mee,  one 
of  the  most  eminent  Persian  poets,  born  at  Biilkh  or 
Balkh,  in  Khorassan,  about  1200.  His  father  was  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JELLACHICH 


1272 


JENNENS 


noted  doctor  and  preacher  of  the  Soofee  sect,  who  set 
tled  at  Iconium,  (Konieh,)  in  Asia  Minor,  (called  in  Arabic 
and  Persian  Room,  because  it  was  part  of  the  empire 
of  Rome.)  At  his  death,  in  1233,  Jelal-ed-Deen  became 
the  chief  of  the  Soofees.  His  "Mes'newee"  ("Mesnewi") 
or  "Mesnevee,"  (i.e.  poem  with  rhyming  couplets,)  less 
correctly  written  "  Metsnewee"  or  "  Metsnevi,"  is  re 
garded  as  an  excellent  model  of  the  mystical  style. 
"  This  precious  pearl  of  the  ocean  of  mysticism  departed 
from  this  fragile  world"  in  1272. 

Jellachich  von  Buzini,  von,  fon  yel'la-Kiic'  fon 
boot'sim,  (FRANZ,)  BARON,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in 
1746,  fought  with  distinction  in  the  principal  campaigns 
of  the  French  Revolution,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant- 
field-marshal  in  1800.  Died  in  1810. 

Jellachich  von  Buzini,  von,  (JOSEPH,)  Ban  of  Cro 
atia,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Peterwardein  in 
1801.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  appointed  Ban, 
or  commander-in-chief,  of  the  Croats,  and  had  the  prin 
cipal  share  in  the  victory  of  Schwechat,  near  Vienna, 
over  the  Hungarians.  He  gained  several  advantages 
over  General  Bern,  but  was  at  length  defeated,  (1849,)  and 
forced  to  retreat  with  considerable  loss.  Died  in  1859. 

See  BAI.LEYDIER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  de  Hongrie." 

Jellinek,  yel'le-nek',  (ADOLPH,)  a  German  philologist, 
of  Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Moravia  in  1820,  has  written 
on  the  Cabala  and  on  Oriental  philology. 

See  JOST,  "Adolphe  Jellinek  et  la  Kabbale,"  1852. 

Jem  or  Djem,  jSm,  sometimes  called  Zizini,  a  Turkish 
prince,  born  in  1459,  was  a  son  of  Mahomet  II.,  and 
younger  brother  of  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet.)  At  the  death  of 
his  father  he  aspired  to  sovereign  power,  but  was  de 
feated  in  battle  by  Bayazeed,  (1481.)  Jem  became  an  exile, 
passed  some  years  in  France,  and  died  in  Italy  in  1495. 

Jemlah  or  Djemlah,  jem'la,  [Hindoo  pron.  jum'la,] 
(Mohammed,  mo-ham'med,)  called  AMKER  (or  EMIU) 
AL  OMRA,  (i.e.  "  Prince  of  the  Nobles,")  a  famous  states 
man  and  general,  born  near  Ispahan.  In  1652  he  entered 
the  service  of  Aurung-Zeb,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
first  vizier  of  the  Mogul  empire.  Having  been  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Bengal,  he  commanded  in  1659  an  expedition 
against  Assam,  in  which  he  displayed  great  talents  and 
prudence.  Died  in  1665. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Jemsheed  or  Jemshid,  jem-sheed',  written  also 
Djemchyd,  Dschemschid,  and  Jamshid,  an  ancient 
Persian  king,  supposed  to  have  ascended  the  throne 
about  800  K.C.  He  greatly  improved  and  embellished 
the  city  of  Istakhar,  or  Persepolis,  the  ruins  of  which  are 
now  known  by  the  name  of  Chilminar,  ("  Forty  Pillars.") 
Tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  introduction  of  the  solar 
year  among  the  Persians,  and  the  invention  of  tents.  He 
was  dethroned  by  Zohak,  an  Arabian. 

See  ATKINSON,  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdausi;" 
D'HHKBELOT,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale." 

Jemshid  or  Jemschid.     See  JEMSHEED. 

Jen§is  Khan,  jen'gis  Kin,  (written  also  Djenguiz 
Khan,  Dschengis  Chan,  Tchenguyz  Khan,  Chingis 
Khan,  and  in  various  other  modes,*)  a  celebrated  Tartar 
conqueror,  born  in  1 164,  was  the  son  of  a  Mongolian  chief. 
Having  subdued  a  number  of  Mongol  and  Tartar  tribes, 
he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  khan  of  the  nation, 
and  about  1210  invaded  China,  took  Peking,  (1215,)  and 
in  a  few  years  gained  possession  of  the  northern  prov 
inces.  In  1218  he  marched  against  Mohammed  Koteb- 
ed-Deen,  King  of  Khorasmia,  whom  he  defeated,  and 
afterwards  destroyed  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  and  other 
cities.  Having  subjected  the  whole  of  Persia,  he  gained 
a  victory  over  the  King  of  Tangoot,  and  was  proceeding 
towards  the  south  of  China,  when  he  died  in  1227,  leaving 
the  principal  part  of  his  empire  to  his  son  Okui.  Jengis 
Khan  is  said  to  have  caused  the  destruction  of  five  mil 
lions  of  human  beings.  He  gave  a  code  of  laws,  which 
is  still  called  by  his  name. 

See  DE  GUIGNES,  "Histoire  gthieVale  des  Huns,"  etc.  ;  PETIS 
DE  LA  CROIX,  "  Histoire  du  grand  Gengliizcan ;"  A.  REMUSAT, 
^Nouvelles  Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  VON  HAMMER-PURGSTAI.L, 
'  Gesclnclite  der  Goldenen  Horde  in  Kiptschak,"  1840;  ANTOINE 
GAUBIL,  "  Histoire  de  Gentchiscan,"  1739;  ABOOI.FEDA,  "Annales 
Moslemici ;"  KARAMZIN,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 


*  This  name  is  written  in  more  than  twenty  different  modes,  not 
counting  such  forms  (like  Gentchiscan)  as  are  manifest  errors. 


Jenichen  or  lenichen,  ya'ne-Ken,  (GOTTLOB  AU 
GUST,)  a  German  jurist  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1709;  died  in  1750. 

Jenisch,  von,  fon  ya'nish,  (BERNHARD,)  BARON,  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1743,  became 
in  1772  keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library.  He  pub 
lished  "Persian  Anthology,"  ("Anthologia  Persica," 
1778,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Early  Kings  of  Persia 
after  the  Establishment  of  the  Mohammedan  Religion," 
("Historia  priorum  Regum  Persarum  post  firmatum  in 
Regno  Islamismum  ex  Mohamede  Mirkhond,"  1792.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Jenischius,  ya-nis'Ke-us,  (PAUL,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish 
writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1558.  He  published  "Thea- 
trum  Animarum."  Died  in  1647. 

Jgnk'in,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  the 
isle  of  Thanet  in  1656.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  received  several  preferments  ;  but,  refusing  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  he  was 
deprived  of  them  all.  He  wrote  "The  Reasonableness 
of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1696,)  and  several  other 
works.  Died  in  1727. 

Jenkin  or  Jenk'yn,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  at  Suclbury  in  1612.  He  preached  many 
years  in  London,  and  published  an  "  Exposition  of  the 
Epistle  of  Jude,"  (1652,)  which  is  called  an  excellent 
work.  His  ministry  was  highly  commended  by  Baxter. 
He  died  in  Newgate  prison  in  1685. 

See  J.  SHERMAN,  "  Memoir  of  William  Jenkin,"  1839. 

Jenk'ins,  (ALHERT  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Cabell  county,  Virginia,  about  1830.  He  represented 
a  district  of  Virginia  in  Congress,  1857-61.  He  served 
under  General  Lee  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  1864. 

Jenk'ins,  (DAVID,)  a  Welsh  judge,  was  born  in  Gla 
morganshire  in  1586.  After  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  war  he  condemned  to  death  several  persons  who 
had  fought  against  the  king.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  and  confined  in  the  Tower,  in 
1645.  Having  been  brought  before  the  House  of  Com 
mons  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  he  refused  to  kneel, 
and  called  the  House  "a  den  of  thieves."  He  was  fined 
;£iooo,  and  imprisoned  in  Newgate.  He  was  released 
about  1660.  He  wrote  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1667. 

See  WOOD,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Jenk'ins,  (HENRY,)  an  Englishman,  celebrated  for 
his  longevity,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1501  ;  died  in  1670. 

Jenkins,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Mfldstone  in  1592;  died  in  1678. 

Jenkins,  (JOHN  S.,)  an  American  biographer  of  the 
present  century.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Lives  of  the  Governors  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  a 
"  Life  of  Silas  Wright,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Andrew  Jack 
son,"  (1847.) 

Jenkins,  (Sir  LEOLINE,)  a  British  civilian  and  states 
man,  born  in  Glamorganshire  in  1623.  He  fought  on  the 
king's  side  in  the  civil  war,  and  on  the  death  of  Charles 
became  tutor  to  several  families  in  Wales.  He  was  sub 
sequently  obliged  by  Parliament  to  leave  the  country. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  chosen  principal  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1665  he  was  appointed  judge 
in  the  court  of  admiralty,  and  in  1672  ambassador  to 
Holland.  On  his  return  he  became  secretary  of  state. 
He  was  twice  chosen  member  of  Parliament  for  the 
University  of  Oxford.  His  letters  and  manuscripts,  con 
taining  valuable  diplomatic  information,  were  published, 
in  2  vols.,  in  1724.  Died  in  1685. 

See  WYNNE,  "  Life  of  Sir  L.  Jenkins,"  1724  ;  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica. " 

Jenk'in-son,  (ANTHONY,)  an  Englishman,  travelled 
in  Russia  and  Persia  about  1560.  His  Adventures  were 
published  by  Hakluyt  and  Purchas. 

Jenkiiisbn,  (CHARLES.)     See  LIVERPOOL,  EARL  OF. 

Jenkinson,  (ROHERT.)     See  LIVERPOOL,  EARL  OF. 

Jenks,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  religious  writer,  born 
in  1646,  was  curate  of  Kenley  and  Harley.  He  wrote 
"  Prayers  and  Offices  of  Devotion,"  (1697,)  and  "  Medi 
tations  on  Important  Subjects,"  (1701.)  Died  in  1724. 

Jen'nens,  (CHARLES,)  a  rich  and  vain  Englishman, 
called  "  Solyman  the  Magnificent."  He  composed  or 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a.,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


JENNER 


1273 


JEROME 


selected  the  words  of  some  of  Handel's  oratorios,  and 
edited  several  plays  of  Shakspeare.     Died  in  1773. 

Jen'ner,  (EDWARD,)  M.D.,  celebrated  for  having  in 
troduced  the  practice  of  vaccination,  was  born  at  Berke 
ley,  in  Gloucestershire,  England,  in  1749.  He  studied 
surgery  at  Sodbury,  "and  afterwards  went  to  London, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  celebrated  John 
Hunter,  with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship. 
He  commenced  practice  at  Berkeley,  and  obtained  "a. 
high  reputation  for  skill.  His  attention  was  first  called 
to  the  subject  of  vaccination  by  hearing  a  countrywoman 
remark  that  she  could  not  take  the  smallpox,  because  she 
had  had  the  cow-pox.  Upon  investigating  the  subject, 
he  ascertained  that  milkers  frequently  caught  a  disease 
from  an  eruption  on  the  cow's  udder,  and  that  to  such  per 
sons  it  was  impossible  to  communicate  the  smallpox  by 
inoculation.  Jenner  related  the  circumstance  to  several 
eminent  men  in  the  profession ;  but  they  treated  it  with 
ridicule.  By  further  experiments  he  clearly  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  from  one  of  the  several  eruptions  to  which 
cows  were  subject,  the  true  cow-pox,  as  he  termed  it, 
could  be  propagated  to  the  human  body,  and  then  from 
one  person  to  another,  and  that  this  was  a  preventive  of 
the  smallpox.  After  nearly  twenty  years  of  experiments, 
he  published  "  An  Enquiry  into  the  Causes  and  Effects 
of  the  Variolae  Vaccinse,"  (1798;)  and  soon  after  more 
than  seventy  physicians  and  surgeons  signed  a  declara 
tion  of  their  entire  confidence  in  the  truth  of  Jenner's 
theory.  He  was  rewarded  by  Parliament  for  his  dis 
covery  by  a  present  of  ,£10,000  in  1802,  and  a  grant  of 
^20,000  in  1807.  He  also  received  marks  of  distinction 
from  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  DR.  JOHN  BARON,  "Life  of  Dr.  Jenner,"  1827;  DR.  VALEN 
TIN,  "  Notice  historique  surle  Docleur  Jenner,"  Nancy,  1824  ;  WAN- 
LOP,  "Hulde  aan  E.  Jenner,"  Rotterdam,  1812;  J.  A.  DUPAU, 
"Notice  historique  sur  le  Dr.  E.  Jenner,"  1824;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Jenner,  (WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Chatham  in  1815,  graduated  in  London  in  1844. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in  University  College 
in  1848,  and  professor  of  clinical  medicine  there  in  1857. 
He  was  appointed  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  queen  in 
1862,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1863. 

Jeii'nings,  (DAVID,)  a  learned  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1691.  He  was  ap 
pointed  to  an  Independent  church  in  Wapping,  where 
he  preached  about  forty  years.  He  wrote  "  An  Appeal 
to  Reason  and  Common  Sense  for  the  Truth  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,"  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge 
of  Medals,"  (1763,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Jewish  Antiqui 
ties,"  (1766,  often  reprinted.)  Died  in  1762. 

Jennings,  (HENRY  CONSTANTINE,)  an  English  an 
tiquary  and  virtuoso,  born  at  Shiplake,  Oxfordshire,  in 
1731.  He  had  a  passion  for  the  collection  of  medals, 
antiquities,  and  works  of  art,  by  the  purchase  of  which 
he  ruined  his  fortune.  Died  in  1819. 

Jennings,  (SARAH.)  See  MARLBOROUGH,  DUCHESS 
OF. 

Jen'our,  (ALFRED,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
was  rector  of  Kittisford,  in  Somersetshire.  He  pub 
lished  in  1830  a  "Translation  of  Isaiah,  with  Notes,' 
(2  vols.) 

Jensoii,  (NICHOLAS.)  See  JANSON. 
Jen'yns,  (SoAME,)  a  distinguished  writer  and  politi 
cian,  born  in  London  in  1704,  was  educated  at  Cam 
bridge.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  married  a  young  lady 
of  a  large  fortune,  from  whom  he  soon  after  separated 
He  was  several  times  elected  to  Parliament,  and  in  1755 
was  made  a  lord  of  trade.  In  politics  he  was  a  Tory 
His  writings  are  conspicuous  for  elegance  of  style,  wit 
and  discrimination.  Among  them  we  may  mention  "A 
Free  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Origin  of  Evil,"  (1757, 
"Viesv  of  the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Reli 
gion,"  (1776,)  a  work  which  attracted  great  attention 
and  several  poetical  productions.  Died  in  1787. 

See  C  NELSON  COLE,  "Life  of  Soame  Jenyns,"  1790;  JoHNSpr. 
and  CHALMERS,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  " Retrospectiv 
Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Jeph'son,  (ROBERT,)  a  dramatic  writer,  and  captain  ii 
the  English  army,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1736.  He  wrote 


'esides  other  works,  the  tragedies  of  "  Braganza,"  (1775,) 

and  "The  Count  of  Narbonne,"  which  were  successful, 

ind  a  poem  entitled  "Roman  Portraits,"  (1797.)     He 

,vas  master  of  the  horse  under  twelve  successive  viceroys 

if  Ireland.     Died  in  1803. 

Jeph'thah,  [Heb.  nr\£T,]  a  judge  of  Israel,  about 
200  B.C. 

See  Judges  xi.  and  xii. 

Jer'dan,  (WILLIAM,)  a  writer  and  critic,  born  at 
Celso,  in*  Scotland,  in  1782.  He  formed  a  connection 
about  1805  with  a  newspaper  in  London  called  the 
"Aurora,"  and  in  1817  established  the  "Literary  Ga 
zette,"  which  he  edited  in  an  able  manner  until  1850. 
At  this  time  he  was  granted  a  pension  by  government 
of  one  hundred  guineas  per  annum.  He  published  an 
nteresting  work,  entitled  "Men  I  have  known,"  (1866.) 
Died  in  1869. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  4  vols.,  18.52-53. 
Jereer,  Jerir,  or  Djerir,  jeh-reeu',  [in  German, 
DSCHERIR,]  or,  more  fully,  Jereer-Ibii-Ateeyah-At- 
;emeemee,  (Attemimi,)  Ib'n  a'tee'yah  at-te-mee'mee, 
surnamed  ABOO-  (ABC-)  HAZRAH,  (a'boo  haz'ra,)  a 
celebrated  Arabian  poet,  who  lived  at  Bassora,  (Basra,) 
whence  he  was  called  EL-BASREE,  (or  -BASRY.)  He 
excelled  in  almost  every  kind  of  poetry,  in  panegyric, 
and  in  amatory  pieces,  but  was  most  distinguished  for 
lis  wit  and  satiric  powers.  He  died  about  730  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  about  700)  A.D. 

See  article  "Djerir"  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 
Jgr-e-mi'ah,  [Heb.  5TDT  or  1TVOT  ;  Lat.  JEREMI'AS  ; 
Fr.  JEREMIE,'  zha'ra'me';  Ger.  JEREMIAS,  ya-ra-mee'as  ; 
It.  GEREMIA,  ja-ra-mee'a,]  a  prophet  of  Judah,  who 
lived  about  600  B.C.,  was  one  of  the  four  great  prophets 
of  the  Bible.  He  was  the  author  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  book  in  the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name, 
and  of  all  the  book  of  Lamentations.  He  is  called 
JEREMY  in  the  New  Testament.  (Matthew  xxvii.  9.) 
Died  about  580  B.C. 

Jeremiah  was  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1572. 
The  Lutherans  sent  him  a  copy  of  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  hoping  to  obtain  his  approval  of  it;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  he  condemned  it  in  many  of  his  writings. 

Jeremie.     See  JEREMIAH. 

Jeremie,  jer'e-me,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  eloquent  lawyer, 
born  in  Guernsey  in  1795,  at  the  age  of  twenty  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Saint  Lucia,  in  the  West  Indies.  When  he  first 
went  to  that  island  he  was  opposed  to  the  abolitionists ; 
but,  improving  the  opportunities  which  he  possessed 
of  investigating  the  subject  of  slavery,  he  formed  very 
different  views.  During  the  time  that  he  held  office  in 
Saint  Lucia  he  ably  enforced  the  laws  for  the  ameliora 
tion  of  the  condition  of  the  slaves.  On  his  return  to 
England,  in  1831,  he  published  "Four  Essays  on  Colonial 
Slavery."  In  1836  he  became  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Ceylon,  and  four  years  later  Governor  and  Cap 
tain-General  of  Sierra  Leone,  where  he  died  in  1841. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Letter  on  Negro  Emancipation 
and  African  Civilization." 

Jerir.     See  JEREER. 

Jermolov,  (ALEXIS  PETROVITCH.)     See  YERMOLOF. 

Jerningham,  jer'ning-am,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1727.  Of  his  productions  we  may  cite  "The 
Rise  and  Fall  of  Scandinavian  Poetry,"  "Essay  on  the 
Mild  Tenour  of  Christianity,"  and  "The  Shakspeare 
Gallery,"  which  was  praised  by  Edmund  Burke.  Died 
in  1812. 

Jer-o-bo'am  [Heb.  D>'3T]  I.,  first  King  of  Israel, 
was  elected  king  by  the  ten  tribes  who  had  revolted 
from  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon,  975  B.C.  Died 
about  954  B.C. 

See  I.  Kings  xi.  to  xv. ;  II.  Chronicles  ix.  to  xiv. 

Jeroboam  II.,  a  son  of  Joash,  became  King  of  Israel 
in  834  or  825  B.C.,  and  reigned  forty-one  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xii. 

Jerome,  ie-rom'  or  jeVom,  [Lat.  HIERON'YMUS;  Fr. 
JEKOME,  zha'rom';  Ger.  HIEROM,  hee'rom ;  It.  GIRO- 
LAMO,  je-rol'a-mo  ;  Sp.  GERONIMO,  Ha-ron'e-mo,]  SAINT, 
or,  more  fully,  Eu-se'bi-us  Hi-er-ou'y-mus  So-phro'- 
nl-us,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (£|f=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JEROME 


1274 


JESSENIUS 


the  Church,  was  born  at  Stridon,  in  Dalmatia  or  in  Pan- 
nonia,  about  340  A.D.  After  receiving  his  education  at 
Rome,  he  visited  Gaul,  where  he  collected  a  valuable 
library.  He  next  travelled  through  Thrace,  Pontus,  and 
Cappadocia,  and  finally  fixed  his  residence  in  Syria.  He 
subsequently  went  to  Jerusalem  to  study  Hebrew.  About 
382  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  became  secretary  to  Pope 
Damasus.  Upon  the  death  of  that  pontiff  he  removed 
to  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem,  where  he  died  in  420  A.D. 
A  large  portion  of  his  writings  were  of  a  controversial 
character,  exhibiting  great  learning,  eloquence,  and  in 
genuity,  though  too  often  betraying  bigotry,  passion,  and 
bitterness.  But  the  works  by  which  he  will  ever  be 
remembered  and  honoured  are  a  treatise  on  the  "  Lives 
and  Writings  of  the  Elder  Christian  Fathers,"  "  Com 
mentaries  on  the  Prophetical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment,  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  and  several  of  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  and  a  translation  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  into  Latin,  known  in  the  Romish 
Church  as  the  "  Vulgate." 

See  EKASMUS,  "Vita  Doctoris  Hieronymi,"  RSle,  1519  ;  SCHUOKH, 
"Kirchengeschichte,"  vol.  xi.  ;  MARTIANAY,  "Vie  de  Saint-Jerome," 
1706:  F.  Z.  COI.I.OMBET,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Jerome,"  1844;  JOSE 
DE  SIGUENZA,  "  Vida  de  San  Geronimo,"  Madrid,  1595  ;  SEBASTIANO 
DOI.CI,"  Maximus  Hieronymus  Vitaesuaa  Scriptor,"etc..  1758;  VILI.E- 
MAIN,  "Tableau  de  1'Eloquence  chretienne  au  quatrieine  Siecle," 
1857;  VINCENZO  ROM  AMI,  "  Compendio  storico  della  Vita  e  degli 
Scntti  di  S.  Girolamo,"  2  vols.,  1844;  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "Allge- 
mei'ne  Encyklopaedie." 

Jerome  OF  SANTA  F6,  (san'ta  fa,)  a  learned  Spanish 
Jew,  who  lived  about  1420.  His  Hebrew  name  was 
JOSHUA  LAKCHI.  After  making  a  careful  examination 
of  the  prophecies  in  regard  to  the  Messiah,  he  was  con 
vinced  of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  the  errors  of  the  Jewish  faith,  and  another  against 
the  Talmud. 

Jeidme  de  Cardie.     See  HIERONYMUS. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  [Lat.  HIERON'YMUS  PRAGEN'SIS.J 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  followers  of  John  Huss, 
was  born  in  the  city  from  which  he  took  his  surname.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Paris,  Heidelberg,  and  Co 
logne,  each  of  which  conferred  upon  him  the  diploma  of 
D.I).  About  1400  he  became  acquainted  with  John  Huss, 
whose  doctrines  he  soon  after  began  to  preach  with  great 
effect  in  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Poland.  In  1415,  when 
Huss  was  arrested,  Jerome  prepared  to  go  to  Constance 
to  defend  him.  Being  informed,  however,  of  the  great 
hostility  felt  there  towards  reputed  heretics,  he  retired 
to  Eberlingen,  and  afterwards  attempted  to  return  to 
Bohemia,  but  was  arrested,  and  placed  in  the  custody 
of  the  Prince  of  Salzburg,  who  sent  him  in  chains  to 
Constance,  where  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  treated 
with  great  cruelty.  On  a  third  examination  before  the 
council,  he  signed  a  recantation  of  the  doctrines  of  Hnss 
in  regard  to  transubstantiation  ;  but  a  few  months  after  he 
bitterly  repented  of  this,  and  declared  that  fear  of  a  cruel 
death  alone  induced  him  to  do  it.  He  was  thereupon 
condemned  as  a  heretic,  and  sentenced  to  be  burnt  on 
the  3Oth  of  May,  1416.  He  suffered  with  the  greatest 
firmness,  serenity,  and  Christian  heroism,  and  his  death 
excited  the  highest  admiration  even  in  his  enemies. 

See  "  J.  Hussi  et  Hieronymi  Pragensis  Historiaet  Monumenta;" 
CoCHi.jKus,  "Historia  Hussitarum." 

Jgr'ram,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
1770,  was  vicar  of  Chobham,  Surrey.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Conversations  on  Infant  Baptism," 
(2d  edition,  1826.)  Died  about  1853. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  C.  Jerram,"  by  his  son,  1855. 

JeVrold,  (DOUGLAS  WILLIAM,)  celebrated  as  a  hu 
mourist,  a  journalist,  and  a  dramatical  and  satirical 
writer,  was  born  in  London  in  1803.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  manager  of  Sheerness  Theatre,  where  he  imbibed 
his  taste  for  dramatic  literature.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  printer  in  London,  in  which  situation  he  diligently 
improved  his  leisure  hours  in  the  study  of  literature  and 
the  languages.  Shakspeare  was  his  favourite  book.  His 
first  production  was  an  essay  on  the  opera  of  "  Der  Frei- 
schiitz,"  which  he  enclosed  anonymously  to  the  editor 
by  whom  he  was  then  employed.  The  article  was  highly 
commended,  and  Jerrold  had  the  satisfaction  of  placing 
it  in  type.  Thus  encouraged,  he  wrote  "  Black-Eyed 
Susan,"  (about  1824,)  one  of  the  most  popular  dramas 
ever  acted  on  the  English  stage.  This  was  followed  by 


several  other  plays  of  great  merit.  He  afterwards  be 
came  a  contributor  to  "Punch,"  the  popularity  of  which 
was  rapidly  increased  by  his  satirical  and  witty  produc 
tions.  He  also  edited  successively  "  The  Heads  of  the 
People,"  "The  Illuminated  Magazine,"  "The  Shilling 
Magazine."  and  "  Lloyd's  Weekly.*'  All  of  these  were 
very  successful,  and  the  last  had  an  immense  circulation. 
Many  of  his  writings  have  been  issued  in  volume  form, 
among  which  we  may  mention  "  Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain 
Lectures,"  (new  edition,  1846,)  "Chronicles  of  Clover- 
nook,"  (1846,)  "Saint  Giles  and  Saint  James,"  (1851,) 
"Prisoner  of  War,"  "Time  Works  Womleis,"  (1854,) 
and  the  "Bubbles  of  the  Day."  Died  in  1857. 

See  "The  Wit  and  Opinions  of  Douglas  Jerrold,"  edited  by  his 
son,  W  B.  JBKROI.D,  1858;  "Life  and  Letters  of  D.  Jerrold,"  by 
W.  B.  JKRROLD,  iS5g;  "New  Spirit  of  the  ASe,"  by  R.  H.  HORNE, 
London,  1844;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  iS.qg. 

Jerrold,  (WILLIAM  BLANCHARD.)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1826.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "A  Brage-Beaker  with  the  Swedes, 
or  Notes  from  the  North,"  (1853,)  ancl  "Life  of  Douglas 
Jerrold,"  (1859.)  He  succeeded  his  father  as  editor  of 
"Lloyd's  Weekly  News." 

Jerusalem,  yi-roo'za-le'm',  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICII 
WILHKLM,)  a  celebrated  Protestant  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Osnabriick,  in  Germany,  in  1709.  He 
was  appointed  in  1740  court  preacher  to  Duke  Charles 
of  Brunswick,  and  soon  after  became  tutor  to  his  son, 
Prince  Charles  William.  Through  his  influence  the 
Caroline  College  was  established  at  Brunswick.  In  1771 
he  was  created  vice-president  of  the  consistory  at  Wol- 
fenbuttel.  He  published,  besides  sermons,  "  Contem 
plations  on  the  Principal  Truths  of  Religion,"  (5  vols., 
1768-79.)  Died  in  1789.  The  suicide  of  his  son,  Karl 
Wilhelm,  suggested  to  Goethe  the  story  of"  Werther." 

See  JERUSALEM,  "  Entwurf  einer  Selbstbiographie;"  "  Lebens- 
geschichte  des  seeligen  Jerusalem,"  1790. 

Jer'vas,  (CHARLES,)  a  portrait-painter,  and  native  of 
Ireland,  born  about  1675.  His  chief  excellence  lay  in 
copying.  He  gave  lessons  to  Pope  the  poet,  who  highly 
praises  him  in  the  "Epistle  to  Jervas."  Died  in  1739. 

See  WALPOLE,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Jer'vis,  (JOHN,)  Earl  of  Saint  Vincent,  and  admiral  of 
the  British  fleet,  born  at  Meaford,  in  Staffordshire,  in 
1734.  He  entered  the  navy  when  ten  years  old,  and  in 
1760  became  a  post-captain.  In  1778  he  commanded  an 
eighty-gun  ship  in  Keppel's  action  against  the  French, 
and  in  1782  captured  the  Pegase,  of  seventy-four  guns. 
He  sat  in  Parliament  several  years  for  various  boroughs, 
until  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution,  when 
he  sailed  at  the  head  of  a  squadron  to  the  West  Indies, 
with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  captured  Martinique, 
Guadeloupe,  and  Saint  Lucia.  In  1795  he  was  made 
admiral  of  the  blue,  and  commander  of  the  naval  force  in 
the  Mediterranean.  He  encountered  the  Spanish  fleet 
off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  in  February,  1797,  and,  though 
their  force  was  double  his  own,  he  gained  a  complete 
victory.  For  this  exploit  he  received  the  thanks  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  and  a  pension  of  ^"3000,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  titles  of  Earl  of  Saint  Vin 
cent  and  Baron  Jervis  of  Meaford.  He  was  appointed 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  i8oi,and  retired  from  that 
office  in  1804.  He  became  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1821. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  E.  P.  BRENTON,  "  Life  of  Earl  Saint  Vincent,"  2  vols.,  1838. 

Jesabel,  the  French  of  JEZEBEL,  which  see. 

Jesi,  ya'see,  (SAMUELE,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at 
Milan  about  1789,  executed  a  number  of  excellent  plates, 
after  Raphael.  Died  in  1853. 

Jesid.     See  YEZEED. 

Jes'se,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  naturalist  and  writer, 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Gleanings  in  Natural 
History,"  (3  vols.,  1832-35,)  and  ".Scenes  and  Tales  of 
Country  Life,"  (1844.)  Died  in  1868. 

Jesse,  (foHN  H  ENRAGE,)  an  English  poet  and  his 
torical  writer  of  the  present  age.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  England  during  the  Reign  of 
the  Stuarts,"  (4  vols.,  1839-40,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
Pretenders  and  their  Adherents,"  (2  vols.,  1845.) 

Jesseiiius,  y§s-sa'ne-us,  (JOHANN,)  a  physician,  born 
in  Hungary  in  1566,  was  employed  by  the  Emperor  of 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  xi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


JESSET 


1275 


JOAN 


Germany.  In  1621  he  was  condemned  and  executed  for 
having  attempted  to  incite  his  countrymen  to  revolt 
against  the  house  of  Austria. 

Jes'sey,  (HENRY,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1600.  He  was  ordained  after  the  Epis 
copal  forms,  and  obtained  a  living.  He  subsequently 
became  minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation.  He  com 
menced  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  but,  from  the 
persecutions  which  he  suffered  for  his  religious  belief, 
was  unable  to  finish  it.  He  died  in  prison  in  1663. 

Jes'sup,  (THOMAS  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
1790  ;  died  in  1860. 

Je'sus  or  Jesh'u-a,  son  of  Sirach,  a  learned  Jew,  and 
the  author  of  the  apocryphal  book  of  Ecclesiasticus.  He 
was  a  native  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  200  B.C. 

Je'ter,  (JEREMIAH  B.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine  and  author,  born  in  Bedford  county,  Virginia,  in 
1802,  became  pastor  in  Richmond.  He  published  several 
works. 

Jeuffroy,  zhuh'fRwa',  (R.  V.,)  a  distinguished  French 
engraver  of  gems  and  medals,  born  at  Rouen  in  1749. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in  1826. 

Jeune,  le,  leh  zhun,  (JEAN,)  a  celebrated  French 
preacher,  bom  in  Franche-Comte  in  1592;  died  in  1672. 
His  sermons  were  published  in  10  vols. 

Jevhery  or  Djevhery,  jeVha-ree,  (Ismaeel-Ibn- 
Ham'mad,)  an  Arabian  lexicographer,  born  at  Farab. 
Afcer  travelling  through  various  countries,  he  settled  at 
Nishapoor,  in  Persia,  where,  in  999,  he  published  one 
of  the  most  perfect  of  Arabian  dictionaries,  of  which 
Golius  made  extensive  use  in  his  "Lexicon  Arabicum." 
Died  about  1005. 

Jev'pn,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatic  writer  and 
actor,  who  died  in  1688,  aged  about  thirty-five. 

Jew'ell  or  Jew'el,  (JoHN,)  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  one 
of  the  earliest  champions  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  born 
at  Buden,  in  Devonshire,  in  1522.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  graduated  in  1540.  Under  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
he  openly  avowed  the  Protestant  faith,  and  assisted  Peter 
Martyr  in  his  dispute  with  the  Catholic  theologians  at 
Oxford.  After  the  accession  of  Mary  he  fled  to  Ger 
many,  (1555,)  and  at  Strasburg  again  met  Martyr,  whom 
he  assisted  on  some  of  his  works.  When  Elizabeth 
ascended  the  throne,  Jewell  returned  to  England,  and 
was  ordained  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1559  or  1560.  In 
this  position  he  continued  to  labour  diligently  for  the 
advancement  of  the  Protestant  religion.  He  died  in 
1571,  greatly  esteemed  for  his  eminent  piety  and  vast 
theological  knowledge.  His  writings  are  principally 
of  a  controversial  nature,  and  are  still  highly  valued. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  "  Apologia  Ecclesiae 
Anglicanas,"  ("Apology  for  the  Church  of  England," 
1562,)  written  in  elegant  Latin,  and  translated  into 
English  by  the  mother  of  Lord  Bacon.  Versions  were 
also  rendered  of  it  into  Dutch,  French,  German,  Greek, 
Italian,  and  Spanish  ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  done  more 
for  the  promotion  of  the  Reformation  than  any  other 
work.  Jewell  also  wrote  a  "Defence  of  the  Apology," 
(1567,)  in  answer  to  Harding,  a  Roman  Catholic,  who 
had  attacked  him. 

See  L.  HUMFREY,  "  Life  of  Jewell,"  1573:  C.  W.  LE  BAS,  "Life 
of  Bishop  Jewell,"  1835  ;  BURNET,  "  History  of  the  Reformation  ;" 
"  Biographia  Britannica." 

Jews'bur-y,  (GERALDINE  ENDSOR,)  younger  sister 
of  Mrs.  Fletcher,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Manchester 
in  1821.  She  published  a  number  of  novels,  among 
which  may  be  named  "  Zoe,  or  the  History  of  Two 
Lives,"  (1845,)  "Marian  Withers,"  (1851,)  and  "The 
Sorrows  of  Gentility,"  (1856.) 

Jewsbury,  (MARIA  JANE,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  in  Warwickshire  about  1800.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Phantasmagoria,  or  Sketches  of  Life  and 
Literature,"  (1825,)  "Lays  of  Leisure  Hours,"  (1829,) 
and  "Three  Histories."  Having  been  married  in  1832 
or  1833  to  the  Rev.  William  Fletcher,  she  accompanied 
him  to  India,  where  she  died  in  1833.  She  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth,  who  has  eulogized  her 
character  and  talents.  He  said  he  considered  her 
"unrivalled  in  one  quality, — quickness  in  the  motions 
of  her  mind." 


Jez'e-bel,  [Heb.  ^PX;  Fr.  JESABEL,  zha'zt'bel ',]  a 

daughter  of  Ethbaal,  King  of  the  Zidonians,  and  wife  of 
Ahab,  King  of  Israel.     She  was  notorious  for  her  cruelty 
and  ill  faith.     She  was  killed  by  being  thrown  out  of  a 
window  by  the  order  of  Jehu. 
See  I.  Kings  xvi.  ;  II.  Kings  ix. 

Jezid  or  Jezed.    See  YEZEED. 

Jezzar  or  Djezzar  Ahmed,  jez'zar  aH'me"d,  a  Pasha 
of  Acre  and  Sidon,  notorious  for  his  cruelty,  was  born 
in  Bosnia.  After  being  a  slave  of  AH  Bey  in  Egypt,  he 
became  governor  of  Cairo.  In  1775  he  was  appointed 
Pasha  of  Acre  and  Sidon,  and  about  1784  he  received 
the  Three  Tails.  In  1799  he  was  defeated  by  the  French, 
and  shut  himself  in  Saint-Jean-d'Acre,  which,  with  the 
aid  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  he  successfully  defended  against 
Bonaparte.  Died  in  1804. 

Jina,  jin'a,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "victorious,"] 
one  of  the  many  names  applied  to  Vishnu :  also  the 
name  of  a  celebrated  sage,  (called  also  JAINA,  jl'na,) 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Jains  or  Jainas.  As  the 
Hindoos  have  no  trustworthy  history,  it  seems  impos 
sible  to  determine  positively  the  character  of  the  Jains. 
They  are  commonly  regarded  as  a  division  or  offshoot 
of  the  Booddhists ;  although  in  one  passage  of  the 
"  Bhagavat"  Jina  is  spoken  of  as  the  father  of  Booddha. 
Thus  much  only  is  certain,  that  in  some  of  their  tenets 
and  customs  the  Jains  closely  resemble  the  Booddhists. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon,"  and  an  excellent  article  on  the 
Jains,  by  MR.  COLKBROOKE,  in  "Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  ix.  p.  288. 

Jo'ab,  [Heb.  2XV,]  chief  captain  of  the  armies  of 
Israel  under  King  David. 

See  II.  Samuel  iii.,  iv.,  x.,  xviii.,  xix.,  xx.  ;  I.  Kings  ii. 

Jo'a-ehim,  [It.  GiOACCHiNo,jo-ak-kee'no,]  an  Italian 
monk,  founded  the  monastery  of  Flora,  in  Calabria.  He 
wrote  several  heretical  works,  in  which  he  advanced 
the  doctrines  of  tritheism.  Died  in  1202  or  1207. 

Joachim,  (GEORGE.)     See  RH^TICUS. 

Joachim,  yo'a-Kim,  (JoHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
historian  and  medallist,  born  at  Halle  in  1713.  He  was 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  Halle,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  history  and  numismatics.  Died  in  1667. 

Joachim  Murat.     See  MURAT. 

Joan  or  Jo-an'iia  [Fr.  JEANNE,  zhfn ;  It.  Gio- 
VANNA,  jo-van'na]  I.,  Queen  of  Naples,  a  daughter  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria,  was  born  in  1327.  She  was 
married  to  Andrew,  Prince  of  Hungary,  and  in  1343  suc 
ceeded  her  grandfather,  Robert,  King  of  Naples.^In  1345 
Andrew  was  murdered  by  conspirators,  probably  with 
the  connivance  of  Joan,  who  soon  after  married  Prince 
Louis  of  Tarentum.  To  avenge  the  death  of  Andrew, 
Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  invaded  Naples  and  expelled 
Joan  from  the  kingdom.  Having  gained  the  favour  of  the 
pope  by  ceding  Avignon  to  him,  she  was  restored  to  the 
throne  in  1352.  She  was  married  in  1376  to  her  fourth 
husband,  Otho  of  Brunswick,  but  continued  to  be  child 
less.  In  1381  Naples  was  invaded  by  Charles  Durazzo, 
who  captured  Joan  and  put  her  to  death  in  1382. 

See  "  Historical  Life  of  Joanna  of  Sicily,"  London,  2  vols.,  1824; 
GIANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli ;"  V.  MIGNOT,  "  His- 
toiredejeanne  I,  Reinede  Naples,"  1764;  D.  CRIVELLI,  "  DeKaprima 
e  delia  seconda  Giovanna,  Regine  di  Napoli,"  1832  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generate, "  (under  "Jeanne  ;")"  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1824;  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1824. 

Joan  (or  Giovanna)  II.,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Durazzo,  succeeded  her  brother  Ladislaus  on  the  throne 
of  Naples  in  1414.  She  was  notorious  for  her  licentious 
conduct  and  the  number  of  her  favourites.  She  died  in 
1435,  leaving  the  kingdom  in  a  very  unsettled  state. 

See  D.  CRIVELLI,  "Delia  prima  e  della  seconda  Giovanna,  Regine 
di  Napoli,"  1832;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Joan,  POPE,  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  a  fabu 
lous  character,  is  placed  by  several  writers  in  the  ninth 
century.  Having  assumed  male  attire,  she  went  to  Rome, 
and  became  so  celebrated  for  her  ecclesiastical  know 
ledge  that  upon  the  death  of  Leo  IV.  she  was  unani 
mously  elected  pope.  She  was,  hosvever,  one  day  seized 
with  the  pains  of  childbirth  as  she  was  proceeding  to  the 
Lateran  Basilica,  and  died  in  the  street,  after  a  pontificate 
of  two  years,  five  months,  and  four  days.  She  was  buried 
without  honours.  Other  accounts  state  that  upon  the 
discovery  of  the  imposture  she  was  stoned  to  death  by  the 
populace.  The  Protestants  have  been  accused  of  fabri- 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOAN 


1276 


JOAO 


eating  the  account ;  but  it  has  been  satisfactorily  proved 

that  it  was  in  circulation  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century. 

See  J.   LENFANT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Papesse  Jeanne,"  1730;   S. 

BARING-GOULD,  "Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  1867. 

Joan,  Queen  of  Castile,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  the  Catholic,  was  married  in  1496  to  Philip, 
Archduke  of  Austria.  In  1500  she  gave  birth  to  Prince 
Carlos,  afterwards  Charles  V.  of  Germany.  She  soon 
after  lost  her  reason ;  and  when,  upon  the  death  of  Isa 
bella,  she  became  Queen  of  Castile,  it  was  necessary  that 
a  regent  should  be  appointed.  Died  in  1555. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;"  MARIANA, 
"Historiade  Espana." 

Joan,  (Jeanne,)  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  I. 
of  Navarre,  and  queen  of  Philippe  le  Bel  of  France, 
was  born  in  1272.  Upon  her  marriage  with  the  French 
monarch  she  retained  authority  over  her  hereditary  do 
minions  of  Navarre  and  Champagne.  She  carried  on 
a  successful  war  against  the  Castilians  and  Aragonese, 
assisted  her  husband  in  the  councils  and  administration 
of  affairs  in  France,  established  a  college  in  Navarre, 
and  was  a  liberal  patroness  of  learning.  In  1297,  Count 
de  Bar  having  invaded  Champagne,  the  queen  marched 
against  him  at  the  head  of  her  troops,  cut  his  army  in 
pieces,  and  carried  him  prisoner  to  Paris.  Died  in  1305. 

Joan  d'Albret.     See  JEANNE  D'ALHRET. 

Joan  of  Arc,  or  Jeanne  Dare,  zhin  dauk,  surnamed 
THE  MAID  OF  ORLEANS,  [Fr.  LA  PUCELLE  D'OKLEANS, 
It  pii'sel'  doR'la'&.V,]  the  most  illustrious  of  the  hero 
ines  of  history,  was  born  in  the  hamlet  of  Dom-Remy, 
in  Champagne,  about  1411.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
poor  and  religious  peasants,  who  implanted  in  her  heart 
at  an  early  age  the  seeds  of  that  exalted  enthusiasm 
which  subsequently  obtained  so  absolute  an  ascendency 
over  her  character.  At  this  time  the  rival  factions  of 
the  Orleanists  or  Armagnacs  and  the  Burgundians  deso 
lated  France  by  their  wars.  The  former  supported  the 
claims  of  Charles  VII. ;  while  the  latter  had  sworn  al 
legiance  to  Henry  V.  of  England.  Joan  from  infancy 
had  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  Orleanists,  by  whom 
she  was  surrounded.  Her  devotion  to  their  cause  was 
increased  by  the  cruelties  which  she  frequently  saw  the 
enemy  commit.  She  was  untiring  in  her  efforts  to  re 
lieve  the  sufferings  of  the  poor  around  her,  and  even  sold 
her  bed  and  the  greater  part  of  her  clothing  in  order  to 
procure  them  supplies.  She  afterwards  stated  that  as 
early  a»  the  age  of  thirteen  she  received  commands  from 
Heaven  to  go  and  liberate  France.  These  commands 
continued  to  be  repeated  ;  but  her  parents  endeavoured 
to  suppress  her  enthusiasm.  She,  however,  obtained 
the  assistance  of  an  uncle,  who  introduced  her  to  De 
Baudricourt,  the  commander  of  a  neighbouring  fortress, 
before  whom  her  voices,  as  she  termed  them,  had  or 
dered  her  to  lay  her  divine  commission.  That  officer  at 
first  treated  her  assertions  with  scorn  ;  but  finally,  on 
account  of  the  disasters  that  his  prince  had  suffered,  he 
gave  her  the  assistance  which  she  had  requested,  and 
in  February,  1429,  with  a  guard  of  five  or  six  men,  she 
set  out  on  her  journey  for  Chinon,  where  Charles  then 
held  his  court.  At  this  time  his  cause  appeared  to  be 
almost  desperate.  Orleans,  which  was  the  only  place  of 
importance  that  remained  to  him,  was  closely  besieged 
by  the  English.  Joan  appeared  before  him,  and  declared 
that  her  mission  was  to  raise  the  siege  and  to  conduct 
him  to  Rheims  to  be  crowned.  At  this  period  she  had 
reached  her  eighteenth  year,  and  possessed  a  very  beau 
tiful  countenance  and  noble  form.  Charles  was  convinced 
of  the  truthfulness  of  her  statements,  and,  notwithstand 
ing  the  opposition  of  his  ecclesiastics  and  courtiers, 
raised  her  to  the  rank  of  a  military  commander,  and 
placed  a  considerable  body  of  troops  at  her  disposal. 
She  entered  Orleans  about  the  last  of  April,  1429,  with 
a  convoy  of  provisions,  and  in  one  week  raised  the  siege. 
In  battle  Joan  displayed  great  personal  bravery.  She 
subsequently  gained  the  battles  of  Jargeau  and  Patay,  in 
the  latter  of  which  the  noted  Talbot  was  made  prisoner. 
Several  important  cities  surrendered  to  her  without  resist 
ance  ;  and  in  less  than  three  months  from  the  time  that  she 
received  her  military  command,  Charles  was  crowned  at 
Rheims,  in  the  cathedral  consecrated  to  the  coronation  of 
the  French  sovereigns.  She  then  petitioned  the  king  that 


she  might  be  permitted  to  return  home  ;  but  he  prevailed 
on  her  to  continue  in  the  army.  The  following  spring,  as 
she  was  making  a  sortie  against  the  Burgundians  near 
Compiegne,  she  was  captured  by  them  and  subsequently 
handed  over  to  the  English,  who,  with  the  Bishop  of 
Beauvais  and  the  University  of  Paris,  urgently  demanded 
her  execution  as  a  sorceress.  The  King  of  England 
granted  their  request,  and  Joan,  after  a  mock-trial  at 
Rouen,  was  condemned  to  be  burnt.  On  the  3ist  of 
May,  1431,  she  was  dressed  in  the  garb  of  the  victims  of 
the  Inquisition,  and,  amidst  the  clamours  of  assembled 
thousands,  conducted  to  the  stake,  where,  in  a  short 
time,  her  body  was  consumed.  She  died  declaring  that 
her  voices  had  not  deceived  her,  and  with  the  name  of 
Jesus  on  her  lips.  Many  of  those  who  had  most  eagerly 
sought  her  death  were  melted  to  tears  ;  and  even  the 
executioner  declared  that  he  had  committed  an  unpar 
donable  sin.  A  secretary  of  the  King  of  England  also 
said,  "We  are  lost!  we  have  burned  a  saint."  Thus 
perished  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  against  whom  not  the 
slightest  crime  could  be  proved.  If  the  inspiration  which 
she  received  came  not  from  the  source  to  which  she 
attributed  it,  it  was  at  least  the  offspring  of  bravery,  of 
generosity,  of  patriotism,  of  those  virtues  which  have 
raised  to  immortality  so  many  of  the  great  and  good. 
In  the  high-coloured  and  eulogistic  account  given  of 
her  by  Michelet,  he  remarks,  "She  had  the  goodness  of 
the  ancient  martyrs,  but  with  this  difference  :  the  early 
Christians  remained  pure  and  virtuous  only  in  retiring 
from  the  encounter  and  in  separating  themselves  from 
the  struggles  and  temptations  of  the  world,  while  she 
was  benign  in  the  fiercest  conflicts,  good  among  the  bad, 
gentle  even  in  war  ;  'into  war,  that  triumph  of  the  devil, 
she  carried  the  spirit  of  Heaven.'  This  tenderness  of 
heart  she  had  for  all  men.  She  wept  after  the  victories, 
and  relieved  the  sufferings  of  the  wounded  English." 
Her  death  stamped  indelible  infamy  on  all  the  parties 
connected  with  the  war, — on  the  Burgundians  for  de 
livering  her  to  her  inveterate  enemies,  on  the  English 
and  their  French  allies  for  their  inhuman  cruelty  and 
thirst  for  revenge,  and  on  her  own  prince  and  party  for 
not  making  a  powerful  attempt  to  save  her. 

See  BARTmJ.r.EMYDE  BEAUREGAKD,  "  Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
2  vols.,  1847  :  DESJARDINS,  "Vie  de  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1854  ;  VAI.I.ET 
DE  VIRIVII.I.E,  "  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  Famille,  etc.  de  Jeanne 
Dare,"  1854;  LENGI.ET-DUFRRSNOY,  "Histoire  de  Jeanne  ci'Arc," 
1753;  LE  BRUX  DE  CIIARMETTES.  "  Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
4  vols.,  1817;  AI.PHONSE  DE  I.AMARTiNE,  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1853; 
JUI.ES  MICHEI.ET,  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1853;  R.  M.  EVANS,  "Story 
of  Joan  of  Arc,"  1847;  A.  M.  MENEGHEI.LI,  "Giovanna  d'Arc," 
Padua,  1841:  MICHELET,  "History  of  France;"  CARL  LIEBELT, 
"  D/.iewica  Orleanska  ustep  dziejow  Francyi,"  Posen,  1847;  Gumo 
GOERRES,  "Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,"  1834;  HARRIET  PARR, 
"Life  and  Death  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1866;  THOMAS  DE  QUINCEY, 
"  Miscellaneous  Essays;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March, 
1842. 

Joan  [Sp.  JUANA,  Hoo-an'ya]  Henriquez,  (gn-ree'- 
k£th,)  Queen  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  daughter  of  Fred 
erick  Henriquez,  of  the  blood-royal  of  Castile,  and 
admiral  of  that  kingdom.  In  1444  she  was  married  to 
John  II.  of  Aragon,  and  in  1452  gave  birth  to  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.  She  was  a  princess  of  great  energy  of 
character  and  of  uncommon  mental  endowments ;  and 
to  her  advice  and  assistance  many  of  the  successes  of 
John  II.  are  to  be  attributed.  Died  in  1468. 

Joanes,  no-a'nes,  or  Juanes,  Hoo-a'nes,  (VINCENTE,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  born  in  Valencia  in  1523, 
studied  at  Rome,  and  was  regarded  as  the  greatest  artist 
of  the  Valencian  school.  Died  in  1579.  Among  his 
most  important  works  may  be  mentioned  Christ  after 
death  borne  by  the  angels,  the  Saviour  with  the  two 
prophets,  and  a  Saint  Francis. 

Joannes.     See  JOHN. 

Joannes  Coninenus.     See  CALO-JOANNF.S. 

Joannes  Massilieiisis.     See  CASSTAN,  (JOHN.) 

Joannet,  xho't'ni',  (Cl.AUDE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Dole  in  1716;  died  in  1789. 

Joanny,  zho'Jt'ne',  the  assumed  name  of  JEAN  BAP- 
TISTK  BERNARD  BRISSEBARKE,  a  famous  French  tragic 
actor,  born  at  Dijon  in  1775,  and  who  is  said  to  have 
been  nearly  equal  to  Talma.  Died  in  1849. 

Joao  (or  Joam)  OF  PORTUGAL.     See  JOHN. 

Joao  or  Juan,  surnamed  DE  Dios  or  DE  DIEU.  See 
DIEU. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JO4SH 


12/7 


JO HAN NOT 


Jo'ash  [Heb.  BW]  or  Je-ho'ash,  King  of  Judah, 
and  son  of  Ahaziah.  He  ascended  the  throne  when 
seven  years  of  age,  and  reigned  virtuously  forty  years. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  servants  in  838  B.C. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxiii.  and  xxiv.  ;  II.  Kings  xi.  and  xii. 

Joash  or  Jehoash,  King  of  Israel,  succeeded  his 
father,  Jehoahaz,  839  or  840  B.C.,  and  reigned  sixteen  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xiii.  ;  II.  Chronicles  xxv.  17. 

Job,  [Heb.  3TN;  Gr.  'Iw,J;  Arabic,  AIYOOB,  (AiYOUB 
or  AIYUB,)  I'yool/;  Ger.  HIOB,  hee'op ;  It.  GIUBBE, 
job'bi,]  a  patriarch  of  Uz,  (a  country  which  is  believed 
by  many  to  be  the  same  as  Idumaea,)  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  a  very  remote  antiquity.  One  of  the  most 
sublime  books  of  the  Old  Testament  bears  his  name  and 
gives  an  account  of  his  life  and  virtues.  By  many  it  has 
been  thought  that  Job  was  an  allegorical  character;  but 
there  appears  to  be  little  reason  for  this  supposition. 
He  is  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  (XT.  16,)  and 
by  Saint  James,  (v.  11,)  as  a  real  person.  Much  con 
troversy  has  arisen  about  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and 
the  author  of  the  book  ;  but  both  these  points  remain 
unsettled.  This  work  was  written  in  Hebrew,  with  a 
mixture  of  Arabic. 

Job  or  Aiyoob,  I'yoob',  (SOLOMON,)  an  African 
prince,  son  of  a  king  of  Bondoo,  in  Senegambia.  In 
1730  he  was  sold  to  the  English,  who  carried  him  to 
Maryland,  where  he  became  a  slave.  His  story  interested 
General  Oglethorpe  and  others,  who  ransomed  him  and 
sent  him  to  England  in  1733.  He  was  presented  at 
court,  and  attracted  much  attention.  He  produced  an 
interesting  geographical  account  of  his  native  country, 
and  wrote  from  memory,  it  is  said,  three  copies  of  the 
Koran.  He  returned  to  Bondoo  about  1735. 

Jobard,  zho'btK',  (J.  B.  A.  M.,)  a  writer  on  social 
economy,  born  in  Haute-Marne,  France,  in  1792.  He 
lived  in  Belgium.  Died  in  1861. 

Jobert,  zho'baiR',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  anti 
quary,  born  at  Paris  in  1637.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards 
became  celebrated  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  treatises  on  medals.  Died  in  1719. 

Jobert  de  Lamballe,  zho'baiR'  deh  IflN'btK,  (AN- 
TOINK  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Lainbalie  in  1799.  He  lectured  in  Paris,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Plastic  Surgery," 
("Traite  de  Chirurgie  plastique,"  2  vols.,  1849.)  He 
became  surgeon  to  the  emperor  in  1854.  Died  in  1867. 

Jo-cas'ta  or  Jo-cas'te,  [Gr.  'loKuarri ;  Fr.  JOCASTE, 
zho'kist',]  sometimes  called  Epicaste,  the  wife  of  Laius, 
and  the  mother  of  CEdipus.  According  to  tradition,  she 
was  married  to  CEdipus  without  knowing  who  he  was, 
and  hung  herself  after  she  discovered  the  relationship 
between  them. 

See  the  "  CEdipus"  of  SOPHOCLES. 

Jocaste.     See  JOCASTA. 

Jog'e-lyn,  (ROBERT,)  LORD,  M.P.,  an  English  poli 
tician,  born  in  1816,  visited  China  about  1840,  and  pub 
lished  "Six  Months  in  China."  Died  in  1854. 

Jo-eha'nan  or  Jo-ha'nan  Ben  E-li-e'zer,  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  Palestine  about  184  A.D.  He  compiled 
the  "Jerusalem  Gemara,"  a  part  of  the  Talmud.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  in  279  A.D. 

Jocher  or  Joecher,  yo'Ker,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIEB,) 
an  eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1694.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  his 
tory  at  Leipsic  about  1730.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Learned  Men,"  ("Allge- 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,"  4  vols.,  1750-51,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  Supplements  have  been  published  by 
Adelung  and  others.  Died  in  1758. 

See  ERNESTI,  "Memoria  C.  G.  Jocheri,"  1758:  ERSCH  tind 
GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  ADELUNG'S  Supplement  to 
Jocher. 

Jochmus,  yoK'mus,  (ALBRF.CHT,)  a  German  general, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1808.  About  1838  he  was  sent  by 
Lord  Palmerston  to  Constantinople  to  plan  a  campaign 
in  Syria.  He  became  general-in-chief  of  the  allied 
armies  of  England  and  Turkey  in  December,  1840.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  by  the  Archduke 
John,  Vicar  of  the  German  empire,  in  May,  1849,  and 
resigned  in  December  of  that  year. 


Jocondus.     See  GIOCONDO,  (GIOVANNI.) 

Jode,  de,  deh  yo'deh,  (ARNOLD,)  son  of  Pieter,  Jr., 
noticed  below,  was  born  about  1636.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  inferior  to  his  grandfather  and  father  as  an 
engraver.  While  in  London,  in  1667,  he  engraved  for 
Charles  I.  "Mercury  Instructing  Cupid,"  by  Correggio. 
Among  his  other  works  is  "The  Infant  Jesus  embracing 
Saint  John." 

See  BASAN,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Jode,  de,  (PIETER,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  in  1570; 
died  in  1634.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  pro 
ductions  may  be  mentioned  "The  Last  Judgment,"  by 
Cousin,  and  "Jesus  Christ  giving  the  Keys  to  Saint 
Peter,"  by  Rubens. 

Jode,  de,  (PIETER  or  PETRUS,)  Jr.,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1606.  He  engraved 
numerous  pictures  from  Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  Titian,  and 
other  artists.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  The  Visita 
tion  of  the  Virgin,"  after  Rubens.  Died  after  1660. 

Jodelle,  z'no'deK,  (ETIENNE,)  Lord  of  Lymodin,  born 
at  Paris  in  1532.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  French  poets 
termed  the  "  Pleiades."  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  write  plays  in  the  French  language  and  to  introduce 
choruses  after  the  Greek  manner.  It  is  said  that  his 
fluency  of  composition  was  so  great  that  on  a  wager  he 
composed  in  one  night  five  hundred  Latin  verses  on  a 
given  subject.  He  died  poor  in  1573.  His  principal 
production  was  the  tragedy  of  "Cleopatra,"  (1552.) 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  BAYI.E,  "  His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  SAINTE- 
BEUVE,  "  Poesie  Francaise  au  seizieme  Siecle." 

Jo'drelL,  (RICHARD  PAUL,)  an  English  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  1745.  He  produced  "A  Widow  and  no 
Widow,"  a  farce,  "The  Persian  Heroine,"  a  tragedy, 
(1786,)  and  "  Philology  of  the  English  Language,"  (1820.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Joecher.     See  JOCHER. 

Jo'el,  [Heb.  '"JXV;  Gr.  'lur/A,]  one  of  the  twelve  minor 
Hebrew  prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Uzziah,  about  800-750  B.C.  A  passage  of  his  prophecy 
is  quoted  in  Acts  ii.  17. 

Joerdens.    See  JORDENS. 

Joffredus.    See  JOUFFROI. 

Jof  frid,  an  English  abbot  of  Lincolnshire,  lived  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Peter  de  Blois,  a  writer  of  the  time 
of  Henry  II.,  states  that  Joffrid  was  the  founder  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge. 

Jogues,  zhog,  (ISAAC,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Or 
leans  in  1607,  spent  many  years  in  Canada  as  a  missionary. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Mohawks  in  1646. 

Johaiin,  (princes  of  Germany.)     See  JOHN. 

Joharmeau,  zho'i'no',  (£LOI,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  near  Blois  in  r/yo.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academic  Celtique.  In  i8'i  he  became  imperial 
censor  of  books.  He  wrote  on  botany,  Celtic  monuments, 
and  other  subjects.  Died  in  1851. 

Johannaeus,  (FINNUS.)     See  JONSSON,  (FINN.) 

Johannes,  the  Latin  for  JOHN,  which  see. 

Johannes  Antiocheiius.     See  JOHN  OF  ANTIOCH. 

Johannes  Climacus.     See  CLIMACUS. 

Johannes  Secundus.     See  EVERARD,  (JOHANNES.) 

Johannot,  zho'f'no',  (CHARLES,)  eldest  son  of  Fran- 
9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Frankfort  about  1790. 
He  was  a  skilful  engraver,  and  produced  illustrations  of 
the  life  of  Saint  Genevieve  of  Brabant.  Died  in  1825. 

Johannot,  (CHARLES  HENRI  ALFRED,)  an  engraver 
and  painter,  second  son  of  Frai^ois,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Offenbach  in  1801.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  for  his  vignette-designs  illustrating  the  French 
translations  of  Byron,  Scott,  and  Cooper.  Among  his 
best  paintings  are  "  The  Entrance  of  Mademoiselle 
Montpensier  into  Orleans  during  the  Fronde,"  and  "  Mary 
Stuart  leaving  Scotland."  Died  in  1837. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Johannot,  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  German  designer  and  en 
graver,  of  French  extraction,  was  born  in  Hesse-Darm 
stadt,  and  lived  about  1790.  He  settled  at  Paris  with 
his  partner,  Charles  Andre. 

Johannot,  (TONY,)  a  painter  and  wood-engraver,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Offenbach  in  1803. 
He  gained  a  wide  reputation  as  a  designer  and  engraver 


•e  as k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (SJf^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1278 


JOHN 


of  vignettes  for  books.  Among  the  works  which  he 
illustrated  are  "  Werther,"  the  plays  of  Moliere,  "  Manon 
Lescaut,"  "Jerome  Paturot,"  and  "The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field."  Died  in  Paris  in  1852. 

John  [Gr.  'luuwr/s ;  Lat.  JOHAN'NES  ;  Fr.  JEAN,  zh6N  ; 
It.  GIOVANNI,  jo-van'nee]  THE  DIVINE,  commonly  called 
SAINT  JOHN  THE  EVANGELIST,  with  his  brother  James, 
was  among  the  first  to  become  a  disciple  of  our  Saviour 
when  He  commenced  his  ministry.  John  was  made 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles;  and  his  gentle,  loving  spirit 
appears  to  have  especially  endeared  him  to  his  divine 
Master.  He  spoke  of  himself  as  "the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved."  He  was  with  his  Master  in  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane.  When  our  Saviour  was  nailed  to  the  cross, 
He  commended  his  mother  to  the  care  of  the  beloved 
disciple.  After  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  Jesus, 
Saint  John  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the 
propagators  of  the  Christian  religion.  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  were  the  principal  scenes  of  his  labours.  We 
are  told  by  Tertullian  and  Saint  Jerome  that  under  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  by  the  order  of  a  Roman  proconsul, 
he  was  immersed  in  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  and  that  in 
this  terrible  ordeal  he  was  miraculously  preserved,  so 
that  he  sustained  not  the  slightest  injury.  After  this 
he  was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where  he  wrote 
the  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation.  He  also  wrote  three 
Epistles,  and  the  Gospel  according  to  Saint  John.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Ephesus  in  99  A.D.,  at  the 
age  of  ninety-four. 

Among  all  the  disciples  of  Christ,  John  appears  to 
have  most  fully  comprehended  the  character  and  spirit 
of  his  divine  Master.  He  first  announced  in  clear  and 
concise  terms  the  great  central  truth  of  Christianity, 
that  "  God  is  love," — a  truth  which,  in  his  view,  finds 
its  fullest  proof  in  the  great  fact  that  God  gave  His 
Son  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.  (See  John  iii.  16, 
17;  and  I.  Epistle  iv.  8,  9,  10.)  The  soul  of  "the  be 
loved  disciple"  seems  ever  filled  with  the  one  theme. 
Love,  not  fear,  is  to  be  the  motive  of  obedience  : — "  If  ye 
love  me,  keep  my  commandments."  The  love  to  which 
he  refers  is  not  a  mere  sentiment,  but  a  living  power : — 
"This  is  the  love  of  God,  that  we  keep  his  command 
ments."  (See  John  xiv.  15,  21,  23;  I.  Epistle  iv.  7,  8, 
16,  18,  20;  v.  2  and  3.) 

See  F.  A.  THOI.UCK,  "  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John,"  the 
yth  edition  of  which  was  translated  into  English  by  DR.  C.  P. 
KRAUTH,  Philadelphia,  1859;  WEGSCHEIDER,  "Introduction  to  the 
Gospel  of  Saint  John,"  Gbuingen,  1806;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate. " 

John  I.,  surnamed  ZIMIS'CES,  [Gr.  T&uw/ciyc,]  became 
Emperor  of  the  East  in  969  A.D.  He  carried  on  a  suc 
cessful  war  against  the  Rossi,  or  Russians,  and  quelled 
serious  disturbances  in  his  eastern  provinces.  He  died 
of  poison,  as  he  was  returning  to  Constantinople,  in  975. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior  talents. 

John  III.,  of  the  family  of  Ducas,  surnamed  VATAT'- 
ZES,  born  in  Thrace  in  1193,  succeeded  his  father-in-law, 
Theodore  Lascaris,  in  1222,  as  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Constantinople  being  then  in  possession  of  the  Latins, 
John  fixed  his  capital  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithynia.  In  1235  he 
besieged  Constantinople,  but  was  repulsed.  He,  how 
ever,  reconquered  all  the  other  possessions  belonging  to 
the  Greek  Empire  which  had  been  taken  by  the  Latins. 
John  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  useful  arts,  and  did  much 
to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  Died  in  1255. 

John  IV.  (Las'caris)  succeeded  his  father  Theodore 
as  Emperor  of  the  East  in  1259,  when  he  was  aged  but 
six  years.  He  was  deprived  of  the  crown  in  1261  by 
Michael  Palasologus,  who  put  out  his  eyes  and  im 
prisoned  him  during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

John  V.     See  CANTACUZENUS. 

John  VI.,  (Falaeol'ogus,)  born  in  1332,  was  a  son  of 
Andronicus,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  imperial  throne 
of  Constantinople  in  1341.  He  was  afterwards  impris 
oned  by  one  of  his  sons.  During  these  intestine  troubles 
the  Turks  attacked  the  capital,  and  forced  John  to  con 
clude  a  disgraceful  treaty.  He  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Manuel.  Died  in  1391. 

John  VII.  (Faleeologus)  succeeded  his  father  Man 
uel  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  1425.  Being 
unable  to  oppose  the  Turkish  invaders,  he  sought  the 
assistance  of  the  Latins  ;  and,  in  order  to  cement  the 


union,  he  formed  a  reconciliation  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches,  which,  however,  lasted  but  a 
short  period.  Died  in  1448.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Constantine  XIII. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire." 

John  [Sp.  JUAN,  Hoo-an']  I.,  son  of  Peter  ("Pedro)  IV., 
was  born  in  1350,  and  ascended  the  throne  of  Aragon  in 
1387.  Died  in  1395. 

John  (Juan)  II,  King  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  born 
in  1397,  was  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  enterprising 
of  the  Spanish  sovereigns.  In  1425  he  ascended  the 
throne  of  Navarre,  as  the  husband  of  Queen  Blanche, 
and  three  years  later  was  appointed  by  his  brother  Al 
fonso  V.  to  the  government  of  Aragon.  Blanche  died 
soon  after,  and  in  1447  he  married  Joan  Henriquez,  of 
the  blood-royal  of  Castile,  who  became  the  mother  of 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  became  King  of  Aragon  in 
1458.  He  carried  on  long  and  successful  wars  against 
Henry  IV.  of  Castile  and  Louis  XI.  of  Erance.  He  also 
suppressed  a  formidable  rebellion  of  the  Catalans.  Died 
in  1479. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  chap.  ii. ;  ERSCH  und 
GKUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  (Juan)  I.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  was  born 
in  1358.  He  succeeded  his  father  Henry  (Henrique)  II. 
in  1379.  He  subsequently  invaded  Portugal,  but  met 
with  a  total  defeat  at  Aljubarota  in  August,  1385.  Died 
in  1390. 

John  II.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  son  of  Henry 
(Henrique)  III.,  born  in  1404,  was  proclaimed  sovereign 
two  years  later.  He  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre  and  the  Moors  of 
Granada.  By  his  first  wife,  Maria  of  Aragon,  he  left 
three  children,  one  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Henry 
(Henrique)  IV.  By  his  second  queen,  Isabella,  he  had  a 
daughter,  afterwards  illustrious  as  Isabella  the  Catholic. 
Though  a  feeble  sovereign,  he  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
learning,  and  his  reign  was  distinguished  for  the  revival 
of  literature  in  Castile.  Died  in  1454. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  chap.  i.  ;  ERSCH  und 
GRUHER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  (Hans,  hans)  I.  OF  DENMARK  and  II.  OF 
SWEDEN,  son  of  Christian  I.,  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg, 
born  in  1455,  ascended  the  throne  in  1481.  About  the 
year  1500  the  Swedes  rebelled  against  him  because  he 
had  garrisoned  the  fortresses  with  Danish  and  German 
troops.  He  was  finally  obliged  to  resign  all  claims  to  the 
Swedish  crown.  Died  in  1513. 

John,  King  of  England,  surnamed  SANSTEURE,("  Lack 
land,")  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.  by  his  queen,  Elea 
nor  of  Guienne,  was  born  at  Oxford  in  1166.  The  king 
at  first  create  1  him  Earl  of  Montague,  in  Normandy,  and 
in  1178  made  him  Lord  of  Ireland.  In  1189  he  married 
the  daughter  and  sole  heiress  of  William,  Earl  of  Glou 
cester.  The  same  year  he  was  a  confederate  in  the 
rebellion  of  hi,s  brother  Richard.  On  the  accession  of 
the  latter  to  the  throne  he  gave  John  several  earldoms, 
including  about  one-third  of  the  kingdom.  Soon  after 
Richard's  departure  on  the  crusade  for  the  Holy  Land, 
John  formed  plans  to  obtain  the  crown  on  the  event  of 
the  king's  death,  in  opposition  to  the  rights  of  his  nephew 
Arthur,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  whom  Richard  had  recognized 
as  his  heir.  When  John  was  informed  of  his  brother's 
imprisonment  in  Germany,  he  immediately  attempted  to 
usurp  the  throne,  but  was  kept  in  check  by  the  loyalty 
of  the  nobles.  On  the  king's  return  to  England,  in 
1 194,  he  deprived  John  of  all  his  estates  and  compelled 
him  to  make  a  humble  submission.  Richard  died  in 
France  in  1199,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  John,  who  was 
then  with  him.  That  prince  hastened  to  establish  his 
authority  in  Normandy  and  his  other  dominions,  and 
was  crowned  at  Westminster  in  May,  1199.  In  1201  he 
obtained  a  divorce  from  his  wife,  and  married  Isabella 
of  Angouleme.  Philip  Augustus  of  France  espoused 
the  cause  of  Arthur,  who  commenced  hostilities  against 
John  and  gained  several  victories,  but  was  subsequently 
taken  prisoner  by  his  uncle  and  conveyed  to  Rouen. 
Nothing  further  was  heard  from  him  ;  but  the  probability 
is  that  he  was  murdered.  The  war  afterwards  went 
entirely  against  the  King  of  England,  who  in  the  course 
of  two  years  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  continental 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOHN 


1279 


JOHN 


possessions.  During  this  period  he  drew  upon  himself 
the  hostility  of  the  Roman  pontiff  by  insisting  on  his 
right  to  appoint  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that  see 
being  then  vacant.  The  pope  excommunicated  him  and 
laid  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  (1208.)  John,  how 
ever,  paid  no  attention  to  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican, 
but  imprisoned  or  banished  the  bishops  and  clergy  who 
obeyed  the  pope's  orders.  Meanwhile  he  reduced  Lle 
wellyn,  a  Welsh  prince,  to  subjection,  and  suppressed  a 
rebellion  in  Ireland.  Finally  the  pope,  having  formally 
deposed  him  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their  oaths 
of  allegiance,  instigated  the  French  king  to  invade  Eng 
land.  John,  perceiving  his  danger,  made  an  abject  sub 
mission  to  the  papal  legate,  and  resigned  to  him  the 
kingdoms  of  England  and  Ireland,  (1213.)  Philip  was 
then  forbidden  to  prosecute  his  enterprise.  For  a  long 
time  John's  tyranny  had  excited  the  hatred  of  his  barons. 
This  was  increased  by  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canter 
bury,  who,  presenting  them  with  the  charter  of  Henry  I., 
exhorted  them  to  obtain  the  liberties  therein  granted.  A 
numerous  body  of  barons  solemnly  swore  to  regain  their 
rights  or  to  levy  an  unceasing  war  on  the  king.  King 
John,  being  supported  by  the  pope,  scornfully  refused  to 
make  any  concessions  to  the  barons,  who  raised  a  power 
ful  force  and  marched  to  London,  where  the  citizens 
gladly  received  them.  On  the  I5th  of  June,  1215,  John 
consented  to  grant  all  that  they  required,  and  signed  at 
Runnymede  the  famous  Magna  Charta.  Scarcely  had 
he  done  this  before  he  induced  the  pope  to  absolve  him 
from  these  obligations  and  to  excommunicate  several 
of  his  opponents.  He  also  brought  into  England  large 
bodies  of  foreign  troops,  and  gained  several  victories 
over  the  barons.  The  latter  then  chose  Louis,  Dauphin 
of  France,  as  their  king.  This  prince  landed  at  Sand 
wich  in  May,  1216.  John  would  probably  have  been 
successful,  (for  dissensions  were  already  breaking  out  in 
the  camp  of  Louis,)  had  he  not  been  carried  off  by  a 
fever  in  October  of  that  year.  John  has  left  one  of  the 
darkest,  names  in  the  history  of  the  English  kings.  He 
was  extremely  cruel,  fickle,  and  licentious,  without  a 
redeeming  virtue.  He  had,  by  his  queen  Isabella,  five 
children,  the  eldest  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Henry 
HI.  The  second,  Richard,  was  elected  King  of  the 
Romans  in  1257. 

See  HUME,  "History  of  England;"  HALI.AM,  "Constitutional 
History  of  England;"  JOSEPH  BERINGTON,  "History  of  Henry  II. 
and  of  Richard  I.  and  John,  his  Sons,"  1790;  LINGAKD,  "History 
of  England." 

John  [Fr.  JEAN,  zhdN]  I.,  a  posthumous  son  of  Louis 
X.,  King  of  France,  was  born  in  1316.  Though  he  lived 
but  eight  days,  he  is  recorded  among  the  French  mon- 
archs. 

See  N.  DE  MONMERQUE,  "Dissertation  historique  sur  Jean  I, 
Roi  de  France,"  1844. 

John  (Jean)  II.,  surnamed  LE  BON,  ascended  the 
throne  of  France  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Philip 
of  Valois,  in  1350.  Charles,  King  of  Navarre,  having  ac 
cepted  an  invitation  to  meet  John  at  Rouen,  was  there 
imprisoned,  and  several  of  his  lords  put  to  death.  The 
people  of  Navarre  applied  to  England  for  assistance,  and 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  invaded  France  at  the  head  of  an 
army.  John  marched  against  him  with  60,000  men,  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  fought 
in  1356,  and  conducted  to  London,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  honour  by  Edward  III.  While  he  remained 
in  England  a  civil  war  broke  out  in  France  with  the  peas 
antry,  known  in  history  by  the  name  of"  La  Jacquerie." 
In  this  revolt  the  castles  of  the  nobility  were  plundered 
and  burnt  and  the  inmates  massacred.  These  ravages 
continued  for  two  years,  until  the  dauphin,  assisted  by 
several  powerful  lords,  defeated  the  peasants,  putting 
thousands  of  them  to  the  sword.  In  1360,  peace  having 
been  concluded  between  France  and  England,  John  re 
turned  to  his  capital ;  but,  finding  much  opposition  made 
by  the  nobles  to  the  conditions  of  the  treaty,  he  again 
visited  England,  to  confer  with  King  Edward.  He  was 
soon  after  taken  ill,  and  died  in  London  in  1364. 

See  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Francais;"  FROISSART,  "Chroni 
cles;"  MICHELET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  HENKI  MARTIN,  "His 
toire  de  France." 

John  I.  OF  NAVARRE.     See  JOHN  II.  OF  FRANCE. 
John  II.  OF  NAVARRE.     See  JOHN  II.  OF  ARAGON. 


John  III.  OF  NAVARRE,  or  Jean  d'Albret,  zh6N 
dSl'bu.V,  began  to  reign  in  1494.  In  1512  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  invaded  Navarre  and  drove  John  from  the 
throne.  Died  in  1516. 

John  I.,  King  of  Poland,  a  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was 
born  in  1459,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1492.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Tartars  and  Turks.  Died  in  1501. 

John  II.  OF  POLAND.     See  CASIMIR  V. 

John  III.  OF  POLAND.     See  SOBIESKI. 

John  I  Port.  JOAO  or  JOAM,  zho-owN']  I.,  surnamed  THE 
GREAT,  King  of  Portugal,  the  natural  son  of  Peter  I., 
was  born  in  1357.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Ferdi 
nand,  in  1385,  he  assumed  the  regal  power  in  opposition 
to  the  rights  of  Ferdinand's  daughter  Beatrix,  who  had 
married  John  I.,  King  of  Castile.  This  led  to  a  war  with 
Spain,  in  which  the  Portuguese  monarch  gained  several 
important  victories  and  firmly  established  his  power.  He 
subsequently  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the 
Moors  of  Africa.  During  his  reign  the  Portuguese  com 
menced  those  maritime  expeditions  which  soon  after 
rendered  them  so  celebrated.  Under  the  command  of 
his  son,  Prince  Henry,  they  discovered  Madeira,  the 
Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  several  places  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.  Died  in  1433. 

See  LA  CLEDE,  "Histoire  generale  de  Portugal;"  FERNANDO 
LOPEZ,  "Chronica  del  Rey  Joao  I.,"  3  vols.,  1644;  MANGEL  MON- 
TEIRO,  "Joannes  Portugaliae  Reges,"  1742. 

John  (Joao)  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  surnamed  THE 
PERFECT,  son  of  Alfonso  V.,  was  born  in  1455,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  1481.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
years  he  fought  against  the  African  Moors  and  took  Ar- 
zile  and  Tangiers,  and  five  years  later  gained  the  battle 
of  Toro  over  the  Castilians.  Soon  after  his  coronation 
he  quelled  a  powerful  conspiracy  formed  against  him 
by  his  nobles.  He  encouraged  the  spirit  of  enterprise 
among  the  Portuguese,  and  fitted  out  a  squadron  destined 
for  the  East  Indies  and  the  Eastern  Seas.  Died  in  1495. 

See  VASCONCELLOS,  "  Vida  y  Acciones  del  Rey  Don  Juan  II.," 
1639,  (translated  into  French,  1641;)  DAMIAO  DE  GOES,  "Chronica 
do  Principe  Dora  Joao  Rey,"  etc.,  1567;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

John  (Joao)  III.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1502, 
succeeded  his  father,  Emanuel  the  Great,  in  1521.  In 
1524  he  married  Catherine  of  Austria,  to  whose  brother, 
Charles  V.,  he  gave  his  sister  Isabella  in  marriage.  He 
colonized  Brazil,  and  sent  to  the  Eastern  Seas  a  fleet, 
by  which  Japan  was  discovered.  He  established  the 
Inquisition  in  Portugal  and  its  colonies.  Died  in  1557. 

John  (Joao)  IV.,  surnamed  THE  FORTUNATE,  chief 
of  the  dynasty  of  Braganza,  was  born  in  1604.  He  threw 
off  the  authority  of  Spain,  to  which  Portugal  had  been 
subjected  since  the  days  of  Philip  II.,  and  became  king 
in  1640.  He  enacted  many  wise  and  beneficial  laws,  and 
died,  greatly  regretted  by  the  nation,  in  1656. 

See  VERTOT,  "  Histoire  des  Revolutions  de  Portugal,"  1689. 

John  (Joao)  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1689,  suc 
ceeded  his  father,  Peter  II.,  in  1707.  He  joined  the  allies 
against  France  and  Spain  about  1702.  After  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  he  devoted  his  time  to  the  encourage 
ment  of  education  and  commerce.  Died  in  1750. 

See  "Vida,  Successes  e  Fallecimento  do  Rey  Joao  V.,"  Lisbon, 
1750;  FERDINAND  DENIS,  "Portugal." 

John  (Joao)  VI.  of  Portugal,  was  born  in  1769,  and 
was  appointed  Regent  of  Portugal  in  1793  on  account  of 
the  derangement  of  his  mother,  Maria  I.,  who  was  then 
queen-regnant.  In  1807,  when  the  French  invaded 
Portugal,  he  sailed  to  Brazil,  where  he  received  the  title 
of  emperor.  He  returned  in  1821,  soon  after  which  the 
Brazilians  revolted  and  declared  themselves  independent. 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "  Histoire  de  Jean  VI,  Roi  de  Portugal,"  1827;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

John,  KING  OF  SCOTLAND.     See  BALIOL. 

John  OF  RUSSIA.     See  IVAN. 

John  (Johaii,  yo'han)  I.,  King  of  Sweden,  the  Jast 
of  the  dynasty  of  Sverker,  succeeded  Eric  in  1216.  He 
was  very  active  in  establishing  Christianity.  Died  in  1222. 

John  II.  OF  SWEDEN.     See  JOHN  I.  OF  DENMARK. 

John  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  the  second  son  of  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa,  was  born  in  1537.  He  married  Catherine 
Jagelion,  daughter  of  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland.  In 
1560  he  visited  England,  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  grMural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1280 


JOHN 


his  elder  brother  Eric  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  which  he 
was  unsuccessful.  In  1568  he  deposed  Eric  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  his  stead.  Influenced  by  his  queen,  he 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  Catholic  religion,  but  was 
effectually  resisted  by  his  brother  Charles,  Duke  of 
Sudermania,  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants.  Died 
in  1592. 

John  (Jean)  I.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  was  born  in  1217. 
Having  attempted  to  check  the  papal  encroachments, 
the  pope  excommunicated  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
go  to  Rome  to  obtain  absolution.  Died  in  1284. 

John  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1239.  He 
married  Beatrix,  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England, 
from  whom  he  received  the  title  of  Count  of  Richemont. 
He  was  also  made  a  peer  of  France  by  Philippe  le  Bel. 
He  was  killed  at  the  ordination  of  Clement  V.  at  Lyons 
by  the  falling  of  a  wall. 

John  III,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  surnamed  THE  Goon, 
succeeded  his  father,  Arthur  II.,  in  1312.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  just  and  benevolent  prince.  Died  in 

I34i- 

John  IV.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  known  as  JEAN  DE 
MONTFORT,  half-brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1293.  John  (Jean)  III.,  having  no  children,  willed  the 
dukedom  to  Charles  de  Blois  ;  but  Jean  de  Montfort,  re 
garded  by  many  as  the  legitimate  heir,  soon  reduced  all 
the  towns  and  provinces  to  his  subjection,  and  went  to 
England  to  render  homage  to  King  Edward  for  his  estates. 
On  his  return  he  was  summoned  before  the  court  of  peers 
to  prove  his  claims  to  Bretagne.  The  peers  decided 
against  him,  and  he  raised  an  army  to  defend  his  rights, 
but  was  shortly  after  taken  prisoner  by  the  Duke  of  Nor 
mandy  and  confined  in  the  tower  of  Louvre  at  Paris. 
In  the  mean  time  the  war  was  carried  on  with  energy 
by  his  duchess,  Jeanne  of  Flanders.  At  the  expiration 
of  nearly  four  years,  John  escaped,  disguised  as  a  mer 
chant.  He  died  soon  after,  in  1345. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  BretaRiie." 

John  (Jean)  V.,  (or  John  IV.,  according  to  some 
authorities,)  Duke  of  Bretagne,  born  in  1338,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  married  Mary,  a  daughter 
of  Edward  III.  of  England.  By  a  decisive  victory  over 
his  competitor,  Charles  de  Blois,  at  Auray,  in  1364,  he 
obtained  possession  of  Bretagne.  He  afterwards  fought 
for  the  English  against  the  French,  who  drove  him  out 
of  Bretagne  about  1374 ;  but  he  was  soon  restored.  Died 
in  1399. 

See  S/SMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Francais." 

John  (Jean)  VI.,  son  of  the  preceding,  became  Duke 
of  Bretagne  in  1399,  when  he  was  ten  years  of  age.  He 
carried  on  a  war  against  the  Count  of  Penthievre  and 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  afterwards  joined  the  Eng 
lish  under  the  Duke  of  Bedford  against  France.  Died 
in  1443. 

See  D'ARGENTRE,  "Histoire  de  Bretagne,"  etc. 

John,  surnamed  THE  FEARLESS,  [Fr.  JEAN  SANS  PEUR, 
zhSN  s6x  pUR,|  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1371,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  the  Bold.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  assisted  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary, 
against  the  Turks,  by  whom  he  was  made  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Nicopolis.  When  taken  before  the  Sultan  Baya- 
7,eed,  (Bajazet,)  he  evinced  so  much  courage  that  that 
sovereign  gave  him  his  liberty  and  the  surname  of  SANS 
PEUR,  (the  "Fearless.")  After  his  return  to  France  he 
was  engaged  in  fighting  the  English  and  in  political  in 
trigues  at  the  French  court.  He  was  appointed  guardian 
of  the  dauphin  of  France  in  1406.  He  caused  the  assas 
sination  of  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  1407,  and 
obtained  almost  unlimited  power  in  the  kingdom.  He 
was  murdered  in  1419,  at  the  instigation  of  the  dauphin, 
son  of  Charles  VI. 

See  DE  BARANTE,  "  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  ;"  MICHE- 
LEJ,  "  Histoire  de  ¥  ranee." 

John,  [Ger.  JOHANN,  yo'han,]  surnamed  THE  CON 
STANT,  a  son  of  the  Elector  Ernest,  was  born  in  1467, 
and  became  Elector  of  Saxony  in  1525.  He  was  a  zealous 
defender  of  the  Protestant  faith,  and  in  1530  caused  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  Diet 
assembled  at  that  city.  Died  in  1532. 

See  ERSCH  tind  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


John  [Lat.  JOHAN'NES;  Fr.  JEAN,  zh6N ;  It.  Gio- 
VANNr,  jo-vai/nee|  I.,  a  native  of  Tuscany,  was  raised  to 
the  Roman  see  upon  the  death  of  Hormisdas,  in  523. 
He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Constantinople  by  King 
Theodoric  to  obtain  toleration  for  the  Arians  ;  and  on 
his  return,  having  displeased  that  monarch,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  in  526. 

John  II.,  surnamed  MERCURIUS,  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  succeeded  Boniface  II.  in  532  or  533.  Died 

in  535- 

John  III.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Pelagius  I. 
in  560.  Died  about  573,  and  was  succeeded  by  Bene 
dict  I. 

John  IV.,  a  Dalmatian,  succeeded  Severinus  in  640. 
He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  the  Monothelites  and  the 
edict  of  the  emperor  Heraclius,  called  "The  Exposition 
of  Faith,"  which  was  issued  in  their  defence.  Died  in 
642,  and  was  succeeded  by  Theodorus. 

John  V.,  a  native  of  Antioch,  in  Syria,  was  chosen 
pope  on  the  death  of  Benedict  II.,  in  685,  and  died  in 
687.  Conon  succeeded  him. 

John  VI.,  a  Greek,  succeeded  Sergius  I.  in  701.  During 
his  pontificate  Wilfred,  Archbishop  of  York,  was  tried 
and  acquitted  of  the  charges  preferred  by  the  English 
clergy.  Died  in  705. 

John  VII.,  a  native  of  Greece,  was  elected  successor 
to  the  preceding.  Died  in  707.  Sisinnius  succeeded 
him. 

John  VIII.,  (called  John  IX.  by  those  who  admit  the 
truth  of  Pope  Joan's  history,)  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and 
succeeded  Adrian  II.  in  872.  He  crowned  the  emperor 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  afterwards  Charles  le  Gros.  He 
confirmed  Phocius  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  878 
the  Saracens  invaded  Italy  and  compelled  him  to  pay 
tribute.  Died  in  882.  He  was  succeeded  by  Martin  II. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

John  IX.,  an  Italian,  became  pope  in  898,  after  the 
death  of  Theodore  II.  Died  about  900. 

John  X.  was  elected  in  91 5,  through  theinflueyceofhis 
mistress  Theodora,  as  successor  to  Lando.  He  crowned 
Berengarius  as  emperor.  Subsequently,  with  the  assist 
ance  of  this  sovereign,  he  marched  against  the  Saracens, 
who  had  invaded  Italy,  defeated  them,  and  drove  them 
from  the  country.  At  this  time  Guido,  Duke  of  Tus 
cany,  with  his  wife,  the  infamous  Marozia,  possessed 
great  power  in  Rome.  John,  having  offended  them,  was 
seized  in  his  palace  by  their  soldiers  and  put  in  prison, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  been  killed  in  928. 

John  XI.,  elected  pope  in  931,  was  the  son  of  Maro 
zia,  as  some  suppose,  by  Pope  Sergius  III.  Alberico, 
another  son  of  Marozia,  r.aised  a  revolt  against  his 
mother,  whom  he  imprisoned  with  John  in  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo.  The  latter  died  about  936,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Leo  VII. 

John  XII.,  son  of  Alberico,  was  elected  successor  to 
Agapetus  II.  in  956,  when  he  was  but  eighteen  years  old. 
He  changed  his  name  from  Octavianus.  Four  years 
later  he  crowned  Otho  I.  Emperor  of  Germany  and 
King  of  Italy.  Subsequently  he  became  so  notorious  for 
his  oppression  and  licentiousness  that  Otho  returned  to 
Rome  in  963  and  caused  John  to  be  deposed  and  Leo 
VIII.  to  be  chosen  in  his  place.  But,  as  soon  as  Otho 
left  Italy,  John  entered  Rome  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
party,  drove  out  Leo,  and  committed  great  atrocities. 
He  died  in  964.  One  of  his  mistresses,  named  Joan, 
exercised  much  influence  at  Rome  during  his  pontificate  ; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  may  hav*  given  rise 
to  the  story  of  "  Pope  Joan." 

See  BARONIUS,  "Annales." 

John  XIII.,  Bishop  of  Narni,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
see  in  965  by  the  influence  of  the  emperor  Otho  I.  The 
Romans,  however,  being  opposed  to  this  election,  im 
prisoned  John.  Otho  marched  to  Rome,  liberated  him, 
and  hanged  several  of  his  opponents.  John  crowned 
Otho  II.,  son  of  Otho  I.,  as  emperor.  Died  in  972,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Benedict  VI. 

John  XIV.,  Bishop  of  Pavia,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
see,  as  successor  to  Benedict  VII.,  about  984.  After  a 
pontificate  of  nine  months,  he  was  deposed  by  Boniface 
VII.  and  put  in  prison,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned  in  985. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


JOHN 


1281 


JOHN 


John  XV.,  elected  successor  to  John  XIV.,  died  a  few- 
days  after.  By  some  he  is  left  out  of  the  order  of  popes. 

John  XVI.,  a  native  of  Rome,  became  pope  about 
986.  During  his  pontificate,  a  patrician,  named  Cres- 
centius,  caused  great  disturbances  and  drove  the  pope 
from  Rome.  He  was,  however,  reinstated  in  his  au 
thority  by  the  emperor  Otho.  Died  in  996,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  V. 

John  XVH.,  whose  previous  name  was  PHILAGA- 
THIUS,  a  native  of  Calabria,  and  Bishop  of  Piacenza,  was 
chosen  pope  in  997  by  the  faction  of  Crescentius,  in  op 
position  to  Gregory  V.  Otho  III.,  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  latter,  executed  Crescentius  with  his  adherents, 
and  imprisoned  John  after  having  horribly  mutilated  him. 

John  XVIII.  was  elected  successor  to  Sylvester  II. 
in  1003,  and  died  four  months  afterwards. 

John  XIX.,  elected  pope  in  1004.  He  sent  Saint 
Bruno  to  preach  Christianity  to  the  Russians,  and  healed 
the  schism  between  the  Churches  of  Rome  and  Constan 
tinople.  Died  in  1009,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sergius  IV. 

John  XX.,  previously  named  ROMANUS,  was  the  son 
of  Count  Gregory  of  Tuscany,  and  brother  of  Benedict 
VIII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1024.  In  1027  he  crowned 
Conrad  as  emperor.  He  died  in  1033  or  1034,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Benedict  IX. 

John  XXL,  born  in  Lisbon,  was  elected  successor  to 
Adrian  V.  about  1276.  He  died  after  a  pontificate  of  a 
few  months.  Nicholas  III.  succeeded  him. 

John  XXII.,  a  native  of  Cahors,  in  France,  and  pre 
viously  known  as  JACQUES  D'Eusx,  or  JAMES  OF  OSSA, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Clement  V.  in  1316.  He  was 
consecrated  at  Lyons,  and  made  his  residence  at  Avignon. 
At  this  period  there  was  a  competition  for  the  throne  of 
Germany  between  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick  of 
Austria.  John,  who  declared  that  he  had  the  right  to 
appoint  the  emperor,  excommunicated  Louis  in  1324  or 
1327,  and  advanced  the  claims  of  Robert,  King  of  Naples. 
This  led  to  a  long  war  in  Italy  between  the  Guelphs, 
who  were  allies  of  Robert,  and  the  Ghibelines,  who  were 
assisted  by  the  troops  of  Louis.  At  first  the  Guelphs  had 
the  advantage  ;  but  their  opponents  soon  gained  ground, 
and  in  1327  Louis  visited  Italy  and  received  the  iron 
crown  of  Milan.  At  Rome  the  Bishops  of  Venice  and 
Aleria  crowned  him  emperor,  after  which  he  deposed 
John  and  appointed  Peter  de  Corvara  in  his  place,  with 
the  name  of  Nicholas  V.  After  the  return  of  Louis  to 
Germany  the  Guelphs  began  to  obtain  the  ascendency. 
John  died  at  Avignon  in  1334.  He  possessed  extraor 
dinary  abilities,  was  devoted  to  study,  and  wrote  some 
medical  treatises.  His  avarice,  however,  was  the  most 
prominent  trait  in  his  character  ;  and  to  him  is  attributed 
the  introduction  of  the  Annates,  or  First-Fruits.  He  left, 
besides  his  jewels,  eighteen  millions  of  golden  florins  in 
his  coffers. 

See  AKTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes;" 
PI.ATINA,  "  Historia  de  Vitis  Pontificum  Romanorum  ;"  "  Xouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

John  XXIII.,  (or  XXII.,  according  to  some  authori 
ties,)  (Cardinal  COSSA,)  a  Neapolitan,  was  elected  as  suc 
cessor  to  Alexander  V.  in  1410,  during  a  schism  of  the 
Church.  His  title  was  disputed  by  two  rivals,  Benedict 
XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.  He  was  a  man  of  depraved 
morals  and  of  insatiable  cupidity.  A  quarrel  between 
John  and  Ladislaus  of  Naples  resulted  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  former  from  Rome.  John  applied  for  support 
to  the  emperor  Sigismund,  who  convoked  at  Constance 
in  1414  a  general  council.  This  council  (at  which  John 
was  present)  required  him  to  abdicate  the  popedom. 
He  pretended  to  comply,  but  left  Constance  disguised, 
and  fled  towards  Rome  with  the  intention  to  resist  the 
decree  of  the  council.  He  was  quickly  arrested  and 
brought  back  to  Constance,  where  he  was  convicted  of 
many  heinous  offences,  and  formally  deposed,  in  1415. 
He  was  confined  in  prison  about  three  years.  He  died 
at  Florence  in  1419. 

See  RANKE,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  ALLETZ,  "Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1776;  TH.  DE  NIEM,  "  Historia  de  Vita  Joannis  XXIII.," 
1620. 

John,  (Juan,)  DON,  OF  AUSTRIA,  one  of  the  most  cele 
brated  military  and  naval  commanders  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
and  Barbara  Blomberg,  a  native  of  Germany.  He  was 


born  at  Ratisbon  in  1546,  and  passed  as  the  son  of  a 
Spanish  nobleman  named  Quixacla,  by  whom  he  was 
educated.  Charles  V.  on  his  death-bed  recommended 
him  to  the  protection  of  Philip  II.,  who  soon  after  ac 
knowledged  John  as  his  brother  and  made  appropria 
tions  which  enabled  him  to  live  in  princely  state.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  sent  against  the  Moriscoes  of  Granada, 
whom  he  vanquished  in  several  battles  and  finally  re 
duced  to  complete  subjection.  In  1571,  war  having  been 
declared  between  Philip  II.  and  the  Sultan,  Don  John 
was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  combined  fleets  of 
Spain  and  Italy.  He  sailed  from  Messina  in  the  middle 
of  September  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  ships  of  war 
and  about  fifty  thousand  men,  and  on  the  7th  of  October 
encountered  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto, 
where  he  gained  one  of  the  greatest  naval  victories  of 
which  history  makes  mention.  Soon  after  the  battle 
of  Lepanto  he  received  an  embassy  from  the  Greeks  of 
Albania  and  Macedonia,  requesting  him  to  assist  them 
against  the  Turks  and  to  receive  the  sovereignty  of  their 
countries.  Don  John  was  prevented  from  accepting  the 
offer  by  Philip,  who,  jealous  of  his  brother's  reputation, 
refused  the  assistance  necessary  for  the  enterprise.  Don 
John,  in  a  subsequent  expedition  against  Africa,  took 
Tunis,  Biserta,  and  several  other  important  places.  He 
was  appointed  in  1576  Governor  of  the  Netherlands, 
which  were  then  in  a  state  of  rebellion.  He  at  first  used 
conciliatory  measures  ;  but  the  States,  suspecting  him 
of  duplicity,  declined  his  overtures  and  prepared  for  war. 
Don  John  soon  after  took  Namur  by  stratagem,  and  on 
the  ist  of  January,  1578,  gained  the  decisive  victory  of 
Gemblours.  He  afterwards  reduced  Louvain,  Nivelle, 
and  other  towns  belonging  to  the  insurgents.  \Yhile 
thus  actively  engaged,  in  October,  1578,  he  was  seized 
with  an  illness  which  carried  him  to  the  grave.  Strong 
suspicions  were  entertained  by  many  that  he  was  poisoned. 

See  L.  VAN  DER  HAMMEN,  "Vida  de  Don  Juan,"  1627;  BRUSLE 
DE  MONTPLEINCHAMP,  "  Vie  de  Don  Juan  d'Autriche,"  1690  ;  ALEXIS 
DfMESXM,  "Vie  de  Don  Juan  d'Autriche,"  1827;  MOTLEY,  "Rise 
of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  iii.  part  v.  chaps,  i.-v.  ;  PRESCOTT, 
"  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii. ;  J.  P.  LYSER,  "  Erzherzog  Johann. 
der  Freiind  des  Volkes,"  1843  ;  SCHNEIDKWIMD.  "  Leben  des  Erz- 
herzogs  Johann  von  Oesterreich,"  etc.,  1849  '•  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  1848. 

John  or  Johann,  (NEPOMUK  MARIA  JOSEPH,)  born  in 
1801,  succeeded  his  brother  Frederick  Augustus  as  King 
of  Saxony  in  1854.  He  was  distinguished  for  great  virtues 
as  a  ruler,  and  for  his  literary  attainments,  and  published 
a  translation  of  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy."  He  was  an 
ally  of  Austria  in  the  war  against  Prussia  in  1866. 

John  OF  BAYEUX,  [Fr.  JEAN  DE  BAYEUX,  zhoN  cleh. 
bi'yuh',]  a  haughty  and  violent  French  prelate.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1070.  Died  in  1079. 

John  OF  BRIENNE,  [Fr.  JEAN  DE  BRIENNE,  zhSx  cleh 
bRe'en',]  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  Regent  of  Constanti 
nople,  was  born  in  France.  He  assisted  in  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  in  1204,  and  in  1218,  at  the  head  of  a  Latin 
army,  he  took  Damietta.  In  1226  he  was  compelled  to 
resign  Jerusalem  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  Three 
years  later  he  was  elected,  by  the  French  barons  in  the 
East,  Regent  of  Constantinople,  which  he  bravely  de 
fended  against  the  Greek  emperor  John  Ducas.  Died 
in  1237. 

John  OF  BRUGES.     See  EYCK,  (JOHN  VAN.) 

John  OF  CAPPADOCIA,  a  theologian,  became  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  about  518.  He  co-operated  with  the 
pope  Hormisdas  in  the  restoration  of  union  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.  Died  in  520. 

John  II.  OF  CAPPADOCIA  became  Patriarch  of  Con 
stantinople  about  582  A.D.  Died  in  596. 

John,  surnamed  CLIMACUS  or  CLIMACHUS.  See 
CUMACUS. 

John  OF  GIS'CALA  or  GISCHALA,  a  Jewish  captain,. 
was  an  enemy  of  Josephus  the  historian.  He  was  the 
chief  of  one  of  the  factions  of  zealots  and  outlaws  that 
fought  against  each  other  and  against  the  Romans  in  Je 
rusalem  while  that  city  was  besieged  by  Titus,  in  70  A.D.. 
On  the  capture  of  the  city  he  was  imprisoned  for  life. 

John  OF  LUXEMBURG,  surnamed  THE  BLIND,  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry  VII.,  was  born  in  1295.  In  1309 
he  was  elected  King  of  Bohemia,  and  in  1322  he  con- 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

81 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1282 


JOHNSON 


quered  Silesia.  In  1331  he  formed  a  league  with  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  Emperor  of  Germany,  against  Pope  John 
XXII.,  and  entered  Italy.  The  pope  then  offered  to 
recognize  him  as  King  of  Italy.  The  emperor,  in  order 
to  prevent  this,  invaded  Bohemia.  John  left  the  com 
mand  of  his  army  in  Italy  to  his  son,  returned  to  Bo 
hemia,  and  drove  out  Louis.  He  was  soon  after  attacked 
with  a  disease  in  his  eyes,  which  produced  blindness, 
but  did  not  in  the  least  affect  his  spirit  of  enterprise. 
He  invaded  Poland,  reduced  it  to  subjection,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  Philip  of  France  against  the  English. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  in  1346, 
after  having  performed  great  feats  of  valour. 

See  FROISSART,  "Chronicles;"  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
cais." 

John  OF  RAGUSA,  a  learned  Romish  prelate,  was  in 
1426  sent  by  Martin  V.  to  the  Council  of  Bale,  over  which 
he  presided  in  1431.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
controversies  with  the  followers  of  Huss. 

John  OF  SALISBURY,  a  learned  scholastic  philosopher 
and  writer,  born  at  Salisbury  about  1120.  He  entered 
the  service  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  became  his  secre 
tary.  In  1176  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chartres. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  valuable  works,  "  Polycraticus 
de  Nugis  Curialium  et  Vestigiis  Philosophortim,"  which 
is  a  satire  on  the  follies  of  courtiers,  etc.,  and  a  "Life 
of  Thomas  a  Becket."  Died  in  1180.  His  works  were 
published  by  J.  A.  Giles,  Oxford,  (5  vols.,  1848.) 

See  "Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  viii.  ;  15.  HAUREAU.  "De  la  Philo 
Sophie  scholastique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

John  OF  SEVILLE  or  DE  LUNA,  a  learned  Jewish 
convert  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  translated  into  Span 
ish  many  valuable  Arabic  works. 

John  OF  SUABIA,  surnamed  THE  PARRICIDE,  born 
in  1289,  was  a  nephew  of  the  emperor  Albert  I.  The 
latter,  having  withheld  from  him  his  hereditary  domains, 
was  murdered  by  John  and  a  band  of  conspirators. 

See  BRANTOME,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

John  OF  UDINK.     See  GIOVANNI. 

John  (Johann)  Baptist,  (JOSEPH  FABIAN  SEBAS 
TIAN,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  1782,  was  a  son  of 
Leopold  II.  He  succeeded  Kray  in  1800  as  commander 
of  the  Austrian  army,  and  was  defeated  by  General 
Moreau  at  Hohenlinden,  in  December  of  that  year.  In 
the  campaign  of  1809  he  directed  the  operations  in  the 
Tyrol,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  viceroy  Eugene.  In 
June,  1848,  he  was  elected  Vicar  of  the  German  empire 
by  the  Parliament  at  Frankfort.  He  resigned  that  office 
in  December,  1849.  Died  in  1859. 

John  Cas'i-mjr,  [Ger.  JOHANN  CASIMIR,  yo'han 
ka'ze-m?K,]  Count  Palatine,  born  in  1543,  was  the  second 
son  of  the  Elector-Palatine  Frederick  III.  He  was  a 
zealous  Calvinist,  and  in  1568  raised  an  army  with  which 
he  invaded  Lorraine  to  aid  the  French  Huguenots.  In 
1575  he  again  entered  France,  as  the  ally  of  the  Prince 
of  Conde.  His  court  at  Neustadt  became  the  centre 
of  the  Calvinist  policy.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
John  Casimir  was  the  political  chief  of  the  Reformers. 
Died  in  1592. 

See  DE  THOU,  "  Histoire  Universelle ."  DANIEL  PARENS,  "His- 
toria  Palatina;"  F.  JUNIUS,  "Ecloga  in  Obitum  Joannis  Casimiri," 
1592;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'rale." 

John  Comnenus.     See  CALO-JOANNF.S. 

John  Damascenus.     See  DAMASCENUS. 

John  Frederick  [Ger.  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,  yo'han 
freed'riK]  I.  of  Saxony,  surnamed  THE  MAGNANIMOUS, 
was  a  son  of  the  Elector  John  the  Constant,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1532.  Having  joined  the  Protestant  League 
of  Schmalkalden,  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Miihlberg,  but  was  released  through  the  intervention  of 
his  cousin,  Maurice  of  Saxony.  Died  in  1^4. 

S/ 
B 

sen,"  1755. 

John  Frederick  II.,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1529.  He  began  to  reign 
in  1554.  Died  in  1595. 

John  George  [Ger.  JOHANN  GEORG,  yo'han  ga'oRG] 
I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  born  in  1585,  began  to  reign  in 
1611.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  war  his  course  was 


vacillating,  alternately  favouring  the  cause  of  the  emperor 
and  of  the  Protestant  allies.  In  1635  he  made  a  disad 
vantageous  peace  with  Ferdinand  II.  Died  in  1656. 

See  KARL  AUGUST  MUI.I.ER,  "  Kurfurst  Johann  Georg  I.,  seine 
Familie,"  etc.,  1838;  SEELIGMANN,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  Joannis 
Georgii  I.,"  1676. 

John  George  'II.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  born  in  1613, 
began  to  reign  in  1656,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a 
legislator.  Died  in  1680. 

See  STOCKMANN,  "  Programma :  Elector  Joannes  Georgius  II. 
Saxonio:  et  Lusatiae  Legislator,"  1789. 

John  of  Antioch,  or  John  the  Scholastic,  [Lat. 
JOHAN'NES  ANTIOCHE'NUS,  or  JOHAN'NES  SCHOLAS'TI- 
cus;  Fr.  JEAN  D'ANTIOCHE,  zhoN  d6N'te-osh',]  a  Greek 
canonist,  born  at  Antioch,  became  Patriarch  of  Constan 
tinople  in  565  A.D.  fie  published  a  collection  of  canons. 
Died  in  578.  (See  MALALA.) 

John  of  Bologna.     See  BOLOGNA. 

John  of  Damascus.     See  DAMASCENUS. 

John  of  Gaunt  or  Ghent,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  a 
younger  son  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  was  born  in 
1340.  He  served  under  his  brother  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  in  the  French  wars,  where  he  gained  great  dis 
tinction  for  his  skill  and  bravery.  He  married  Constance, 
a  natural  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  King  of  Castile 
j  and  Leon,  and,  on  the  death  of  that  monarch,  laid  claim 
to  the  sovereignty  of  those  kingdoms,  but  was  defeated 
by  Henry  of  Trastamara.  He  subsequently  gave  his 
daughter  in  marriage  to  the  heir-apparent  of  the  crowns 
of  Castile  and  Leon,  upon  which  he  resigned  his  own 
claims.  His  third  wife  was  a  sister  of  the  poet  Chaucer, 
to  whom  he  proved  a  liberal  patron.  Died  in  1399.  His 
son,  surnamed  Bolingbroke,  afterwards  ascended  the 
throne  of  England,  with  the  title  of  Henry  IV. 

John  of  Leyden,  sometimes  called  Johann  Bock- 
elson  or  Beccold,  a  notorious  fanatic,  born  at  Leyden 
in  1510.  Having  joined  the  Anabaptists,  he  associated 
himself  with  Matthys,  and  with  his  followers  took  pos 
session  of  the  city  of  Minister.  After  committing  the 
greatest  excesses  and  cruelties,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Bishop  of  Minister,  and  executed  in  1536. 

See  JOCHMUS,  "  Gescliiclite  der  Miinsterschen  Wiedertatifer ;" 
ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  book  v.  ;  C.  A.  VULPIUS, 
"Johann  von  Leyden,  1793;  J.  C.  WALI.MANN,  "Johann  von  Ley 
den,"  1844;  ERSCII  und  GKUHER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  the  Baptist,  |  Fr.  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  zh6N  bfp'- 
test';  It.  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,  jo-vaii'nee  bat-tis'ta,] 
son  of  Zacharias,  a  Jewish  priest,  and  his  wife  Elisabeth. 
It  was  foretold  of  him  that  he  should  come  in  the  spirit 
and  power  of  Elias,  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  Lord. 
(Luke  i.  17.)  Our  Saviour  also  said  that  no  prophet 
was  greater  than  John  the  Baptist.  (Luke  vii.  28.)  He 
began  to  preach  and  to  baptize  in  the  desert  country 
through  which  the  Jordan  flowed.  It  was  here  that 
Jesus  received  baptism  and  was  proclaimed  by  him  as 
the  promised  Messiah.  He  was  subsequently  cast  into 
prison,  and  beheaded  by  the  order  of  Herod. 

See  Mark  vi.  16-30. 

Johnes,  j6nz,  ?  (THOMAS,)  an  English  scholar  and 
bibliomaniac,  born  at  Ludlow,  in  Shropshire,  in  1748. 
He  was  twice  elected  a  member  of  Parliament.  lie 
translated  Froi.-sart's  "Chronicle,"  and  other  literary 
works,  from  the  French.  Died  in  1816. 

John'son,  (ALEXANDER  B.,)  an  author  and  banker, 
born  in  Gosport,  England,  in  1786.  He  settled  in  Utica, 
New  York,  in  1801,  and  engaged  in  banking  operations 
in  that  town.  He  devoted  his  leisure  to  the  study  of 
the  nature  of  human  knowledge,  or  ideas  irrespective  of 
the  words  by  which  they  are  expressed.  The  results  of 
his  investigation  are  his  "Philosophy  of  Human  Know 
ledge,  or  a  Treatise  on  Language,"  (1828,)  a  "  Treatise  on 
Language,  or  the  Relation  which  Words  bear  to  Things," 
(1836,)  and  other  publications  on  the  same  subject.  His 
"Physiology  of  the  Senses"  (1856)  was  highly  com 
mended  by  the  "Westminster  Review."  He  has  also 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Banking." 

John'son,  (ANDREW,)  the  seventeenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina, 
in  1808.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  tailor,  which  he  fol 
lowed  formany  years  at  Greenville,  Tennessee.  He  was 
self-educated,  and,  it  is  said,  never  attended  any  school. 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mgt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSON 


1283 


JOHNSON 


In  1828  he  was  elected  alderman,  and  in  1830  mayor,  of 
Greenville.     After  he  had  served  several  terms  in  the 
legislature  of  Tennessee,  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  by  the  Democrats   in  1843,  and  continued  in 
that  body  for  ten   years.     He  was   chosen  Governor  of 
Tennessee  in  1853,  and  again  in  1855.     In  1857  he  was 
elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  six.  years.     Having 
taken  a  decided  stand  against  the  disunion  movement  in 
1860  and  1861,  he  was  appointed  Military  Governor  of 
Tennessee  by  President  Lincoln  in  1862.    He  was  elected 
Vice-Preside'nt  of  the  United  States  by  the  Republicans 
in   November,  1864,  and,  on  the   death  of  Mr.  Lincoln, 
became  President  in  April,  1865.     On  his  accession  to 
office   he   displayed    at   first   a   spirit   of  great  severity 
against  the  rebels,  but  soon  afterwards  adopted  a  line  of 
policy  in  relation  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
States  which  was  very  favourable  to  them.     His  policy, 
which  tended  to  restore  the  domination  of  the  secession 
ists  and  to  reduce  the  freedmen  again  to  many  of  the 
evils  of  slavery,  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  Congress  ; 
and  a  violent  contest  ensued  between  that  body  and  the 
President,  who   vetoed   numerous  acts  passed  by  Con 
gress  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States,  etc. 
His  vetoes,  however,  were  overruled   by  a  majority  of 
two-thirds  in   each    House,  and  the  policy  of  Congress 
prevailed.     In  the  course  of  a  tour  from  Washington  to 
Chicago,  in    1866,  he  made   many  undignified  political 
speeches,  which   rendered   him  very  unpopular,  and  in 
the  next  elections  his  opponents,  the  Radicals,  obtained  j 
large  and  increased  majorities.     He  opposed  impartial  I 
suffrage,  recommended  repudiation,  and  co-operated  with 
the  Democratic   party.     He   pardoned  a  large  number  \ 
of  counterfeiters.     In  August,  1867,  he  suspended  Mr.  | 
Stanton,  secretary  of  war,  and  appointed  General  Grant 
secretary  ad  interim.     The  Senate  of  the  United  States 
reinstated  Mr.  Stanton  in  January,  1868,  and  President 
Johnson  quarrelled  with  General  Grant  because  he  gave 
up  the  war  office  to  Mr.  Stanton.     Great  excitement  was 
produced  by  the  attempt  of  the  President  to  remove  Mr.  I 
Stanton  in   February,   and  he   was   impeached  of  high  j 
crimes  and   misdemeanours   by  a  large  majority  of  the  I 
House  of  Representatives.     Among  the  crimes  charged  ! 
against  him  w:as    the  violation  of  the   "Act  regulating; 
the  Tenure  of  certain  Civil  Offices,"  by  the  removal  of  j 
Mr.   Stanton  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate.     The 
trial  before  the  Senate  began  about  March  13,  and  ended, 
May  26,  in  his  acquittal.    Thirty-five  Senators  voted  that 
he  was  guilty,  and  nineteen  voted  not  guilty.     Among 
the  latter  were  seven  Republicans. 

See  "Life  of  Andrew  Johnson,"  New  York,  1866;  "The  Trial 
of  Andrew  Johnson,"  (official,)  3  vols.,  1868. 

Johnson,  (BF.x.)     See  JONSON,  (BEN.) 

Johnson,  (CHAPMAN,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1779.  He  began  the  practice  of  law 
at  Staunton,  and  rose  to  the  first  rank  in  his  profession. 
He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  James  Brecken- 
riclge  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain.  Died  in  1849. 

John'son,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  dramatic  writer, 
born  in  1679,  is  mentioned  in  Pope's  "Dunciad,"  particu 
larly  on  account  of  h'is  obesity.  The  comedy  of  the 
"Country  Lasses"  was  the  most  popular  of  his  plays. 
Died  in  1748. 

See  BAKER,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Johnson,  (CUTHBKRT  W.,)  an  English  writer  on  agri 
culture,  born  at  Bromley,  Kent,  about  1800.  He  pub 
lished  "The  Farmer's  Encyclopaedia  and  Dictionary  of 
Rural  Affairs,"  (1842.) 

Johnson,  (EASTMAN,)  an  American  painter  of  por 
traits  and  genre,  born  near  Freyburg,  Maine.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Old  Kentucky  Home,"  "Savoyard 
Boy,"  "The  Woodsman,"  "The  Chimney-Corner,"  and 
other  admirable  delineations  of  common  life. 

See  Tt'CKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Johnson,  (EDWARD,)  one  of  the  earliest  historians  of 
New  England,  born  in  Kent,  England,  about  1600.  He 
emigrated  to  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1630.  Died 
in  1672.  His  valuable  "History  of  New  England  from 
the  English  Planting  in  1628  till  1652"  was  published  in 
London  in  1650,  and  afterwards  in  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Collections. 


Johnson,  (EDWARD,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Kentucky,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  com 
manded  a  division  of  Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3, 
1863,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Spottsylvania  Court- 
House,  May  12,  1864. 

Johnson,  (GANRIEL.)     See  JOHNSTON. 

Johnson,  (HKSTKR.)     See  SWIFI*,  (JONATHAN.) 

Johnson,(  ISAAC,)  one  of  the  founders  of  Massachusetts 
colony,  came  from  England  with  Governor  Winthrop  in 
1630.  He  and  three  others  organized,  July  30,  the  church 
of  Boston  at  Charlestown ;  but,  for  the  want  of  good 
water,  they  removed  to  Shawmut,  now  Boston,  which 
was  settled  under  Johnson's  supervision.  Died  in  1630. 

Johnson,  (JAMES,)  an  Irish  physician,  born  about 
1777,  practised  in  London.  He  published,  besides  other 
medical  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Influence  of  Tropical 
Climates  on  European  Constitutions,"  and  "The  Econ 
omy  of  Health."  Died  in  1845. 

See  "  Life  of  Dr.  James  Johnson,"  by  his  son,  1846. 

Johnson,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  nonjuring  divine,  born 
in  Kent,  England,  in  1662.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Holy 
David  and  his  Old  English  Translation  Cleared,"  written 
in  answer  to  one  of  the  works  of  Baxter,  "  The  Clergy 
man's  Vacle-Mecum,"  (1708,)  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1725. 

See  THOMAS  BRETT,  "Life  of  John  Johnson,"  174?. 

Johnson,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  general,  son  of  Sir  William, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  1742.  He  was  a  royalist  in 
the  Revolution,  instigated  the  Indians  to  fight  for  the 
king,  and  conducted  several  raids  from  Canada  against 
the  State  of  New  York.  Near  the  close  of  last  century 
he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Upper  Canada.  Died  in 
1830. 

Johnson,  (JOSEPH,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Judge  William 
Johnson,  was  born  in  Charleston  in  1776.  He  practised 
as  a  physician  in  his  native  city,  and  in  1807  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Medical  Society  of  South  Carolina.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  literary  and  political  move 
ments  of  Charleston,  was  long  mayor  of  the  city,  and  a 
prominent  leader  of  the  party  which  opposed  nullifica 
tion  in  1832-^3.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Tra 
ditions  and  Reminiscences  of  the  Revolution,"  (1851.) 

Johnson,  (MANUEL  JOHN,)  an  English  astronomer, 
born  about  1805.  He  was  astronomer  of  the  Radcliffe 
Observatory  of  Oxford,  and  published  "Astronomical 
Observations,"  (13  vols.,  1845-55.)  Died  in  1859. 

Johnson,  (MARTIN,)  an  English  landscape-painter 
and  seal-engraver  of  the  time  of  Charles  II.  Died 
about  1685. 

Johnson,  (MAURICE,)  an  English  lawyer  and  antiqua 
rian,  born  in  Lincolnshire.  He  founded  an  antiquarian 
society  at  Spalding,  and  wrote  several  commentaries. 
Died  in  1755. 

Johnson,  (REVERDY,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of 
Judge  Johnson,  was  born  in  Annapolis,  Maryland,  May 
21,  1796.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815,  and  followed  his  profession 
with  great  success  in  Baltimore.  He  has  also  been 
extensively  engaged  in  cases  before  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.  In  1845  ne  was  elected  by  the  Whigs 
to  the  United  States  Senate.  This  position  he  resigned 
in  1849  to  accept  the  attorney-generalship  of  the  United 
States,  tendered  him  by  President  Taylor.  On  the  death 
of  General  Taylor,  in  July,  1850,  Mr.  Johnson  resumed 
his  profession  in  Baltimore.  In  connection  with  Thomas 
Harris,  he  has  published  seven  volumes  of  reports  of 
the  Maryland  court  of  appeals,  (from  1800  to  1826.)  He 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  six  years, 
(1863-69,)  and  appointed  minister  to  England  in  June, 
1868.  He  negotiated  in  relation  to  the  Alabama  claims 
a  convention  which  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
rejected  almost  unanimously.  He  was  recalled  early 
in  1869. 

Johnson,  (RICHARD,)  a  commentator  and  gramma 
rian,  born  in  England.  Among  his  works  are  "  Noctes 
Nottinghamicae,"  and  "  Grammatical  Commentaries." 
Died  in  1721. 

Johnson,  (RICHARD  MENTOR,)  ninth  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
in  1780.  He  studied  at  Transylvania  University,  and 
practised  law  with  success.  Elected  a  representative 


•t  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K.  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHNSON 


1284 


JOHNSON 


to  Congress  in  1807,  he  zealously  supported  the  admin 
istration  of  President  Madison,  and  was  regularly  re- 
elected  for  a  period  of  twelve  years.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1812,  he  raised  and  commanded  a 
regiment  of  mounted  riflemen  on  the  Indian  frontier.  In 
1813  he  again  took  the  field,  and  contributed  greatly  to 
Harrison's  victory  of  the  Thames,  (October  5,  1813.) 
The  Indian  chief  Tecumseh,  who  fell  in  this  battle,  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  killed  by  Colonel  John 
son,  who  was  dangerously  wounded.  In  1819  he  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate,  of  which  he 
was  a  member  for  ten  years.  He  was  again  returned  to 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  1829,  and  was  regularly 
re-elected  till  chosen  Vice-President  in  1837,  Van  Buren 
being  the  President.  None  of  the  candidates  for  Vice- 
President  having  on  that  occasion  received  a  majority 
of  votes  in  the  electoral  college,  Colonel  Johnson  was 
elected  by  the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  again 
the  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  on  the  ticket  with 
Van  Buren  in  1840,  but  was  defeated.  Died  in  1850. 

Johnson,  (RICHARD  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1827,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1849.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  i862-January  2,  1863,  and  at  Chick- 
amauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863.  He  served  under 
General  Sherman  in  Georgia  in  May,  1864. 

Johu'spn,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  divine,  memorable 
for  his  undaunted  support  of  the  Protestant  cause,  was 
born  in  Staffordshire  in  1649.  Soon  after  he  had  taken 
orders  he  removed  to  London.  He  became  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  bill  of  exclusion  against  James,  Duke 
of  York,  and  published  a  tract  entitled  "Julian  the 
Apostate,"  (1682,)  in  which  he  refuted  the  arguments  in 
favour  of  passive  obedience.  For  writing  this  article  he 
was  tried  and  imprisoned  ;  but  during  his  confinement  he 
issued  several  treatises  against  popery.  In  1686  he  wrote 
"An  Humble  and  Hearty  Address  to  all  the  English 
Protestants  in  the  Present  Army."  For  the  production 
of  this  essay  he  was  sentenced  to  stand  three  times  in 
the  pillory,  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  hundred  marks,  and  to 
be  publicly  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn.  lie  bore 
all  these  sufferings  with  great  firmness.  He  subsequently 
wrote  in  favour  of  the  Revolution,  and  also  of  William 
of  Orange,  on  whose  accession  he  was  rewarded  with 
a  present  of  £1000  and  an  annuity  of  ^300.  Died  in 

Johnson,  (SAMUEL,)  an  eccentric  English  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  Cheshire  about  1705.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  comedies,  "  Hurlothrumbo,  or  the  Supernatural." 
Died  in  r773. 

See  BAKER,  "Biogiaphia  Dramatica." 

Johnson,  (SAMUK.L,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Eng 
lish  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  son  of  Michael 
Johnson,  a  bookseller,  was  born  at  Lichfield,  September 
18,  1709.  He  commenced  his  studies  in  his  native  town, 
and  subsequently  continued  them  at  a  school  in  Stour- 
bridge.  In  1728  he  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 
From  boyhood  he  had  been  afflicted  with  the  scrofula, 
which  greatly  impaired  his  eyesight  and  weakened  his 
constitution.  To  this  may  be  attributed  the  natural  in 
dolence. which  he  never  fully  succeeded  in  overcoming. 
Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  he  acquired  such  stores 
of  knowledge  that,  when  he  was  examined  at  Oxford, 
one  of  the  officers  pronounced  him  to  be  the  best  pre 
pared  among  all  those  who  had  entered  since  his  re 
membrance.  Three  years  afterwards  he  was  under  the 
necessity  of  leaving  college,  on  account  of  the  narrowness 
of  his  resources.  The  same  year,  his  father  dying  under 
pecuniary  embarrassments,  he  obtained  employment  as 
usher  to  a  school  in  Market-Bosworth.  The  duties  of 
this  office,  however,,  soon  became  so  irksome  that  he 
threw  it  up  and  removed  to  Birmingham,  where  he  had 
made  an  engagement  to  contribute  to  a  newspaper.  It 
was  there,  also,  that  he  produced  his  first  book,  an 
abridged  translation  from  the  French  of  "  Father  Lobos' 
Voyage  into  Abyssinia,"  for  which  he  received  the  small 
compensation  of  five  guineas.  In  1736  he  married  Mrs. 
Porter,  the  widow  of  a  mercer.  This  lady  is  described 
as  being  nearly  twice  •  his  age,  and  as  having  vulgar 
vmanners,  a  loud  voice,  and  florid  complexion.  Johnson 
Said,  however,  that  it  was  a  love-match  on  both  sides. 


Not  long  after,  he  attempted  to  establish  an  academy  at 
Edial  Hall,  where  he  obtained  only  three  pupils,  one  of 
whom  was  David  Garrick.  In  1737  he  went  to  London, 
accompanied  by  Garrick.  In  a  short  time  he  produced, 
in  imitation  of  the  third  Satire  of  Juvenal,  a  poem  on 
London,  which  attracted  great  attention.  Pope  remarked 
"that  the  author,  whoever  he  was,  would  not  be  long 
concealed."  It  was  in  the  metropolis  that  Johnson 
formed  a  friendship  for  the  poet  Savage,  with  whom  he 
frequently  walked  the  streets  at  night  because  they  were 
too  poor  to  procure  lodgings.  In  1740  he  wrote  the 
parliamentary  speeches  for  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,'' 
and  in  1744  published  the  "Life  of  Richard  Savage." 
Three  years  later  he  commenced  his  English  Dictionary. 
In  March,  1749,  the  first  number  of  the  "  Rambler"  was 
issued.  Johnson  continued  this  periodical  until  his  wife's 
death,  in  1752,  which  affected  his  mind  so  deeply  that  he 
suspended  many  of  his  literary  labours.  In  1762  George 
III.  granted  him  a  pension  of  ^300  per  annum;  and 
from  that  time  he  was  enabled  to  live  in  ease  and  inde 
pendence.  He  became  a  member  of  the  famous  literary 
club  to  which  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Reynolds,  and  many 
other  celebrated  men  belonged.  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  in  1765  from  the  University  of  Dublin,  but  did 
not  assume  the  title  until  several  years  later,  when  the 
same  honour  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  University  of 
Oxford.  He  was  also  treated  with  marked  attention  by 
the  king,  to  whom  he  was  introduced  at  the  library  in 
Buckingham  House.  In  1773  he  made  an  excursion  to 
the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland,  of  which  he  wrote 
an  account,  and  two  years  later  visited  Paris.  In  1781 
he  finished  the  "  Lives  of  the  British  Poets,"  the  last  of 
his  literary  works.  He  died  in  1784,  from  the  effects 
of  dropsy  and  asthma. 

Johnson's  intellect  was  incisive,  comprehensive,  and 
profound  ;  and,  when  fre'e  from  the  influence  of  prejudice 
or  passion,  his  judgments  are,  generally  speaking,  re 
markably  just.  He  seemed  to  seize,  instantaneously  and 
without  effort,  the  essential  features  of  the  subject  under 
discussion,  and  his  decisions  are  often  expressed  with  a 
clearness  and  force  that  make  a  vivid  and  indelible  im 
pression  upon  the  minds  of  his  readers.  He  was  pre 
eminently  distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers ; 
in  society  he  was  original,  pointed,  logical,  and  fond  of 
argument,  in  which  no  one  but  Burke  could  successfully 
encounter  him.  Much  of  the  intolerance  and  ill  temper 
which  he  too  often  betrayed  on  such  occasions  must  be 
ascribed  to  distressing  and  deep-rooted  bodily  infirmi 
ties,  which  powerfully  reacted  upon  his  mind.  If  his 
disposition  was  irritable,  his  heart  was  essentially  kind 
and  generous.  Few  persons,  with  means  so  limited  as 
his,  ever  spent  more  for  charitable  or  benevolent  pur 
poses.  "He  loved  the  poor,"  says  Mrs.  Thrale,  "as  I 
never  yet  saw  any  one  else  love  them.  .  .  .  He  nursed 
whole  nests  of  people  in  his  house,  where  the  lame,  the 
blind,  the  sick,  and  the  sorrowful  found  a  sure  retreat." 
Francis  Barber,  the  servant  and  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
was  originally  a  Jamaica  slave.  It  is  related  that  John 
son,  on  making  his  will,  asked  his  physician  what  would 
be  a  sufficient  annuity  for  a  faithful  servant.  Being  told 
that  fifty  pounds  a  year  would  be  regarded  as  adequate 
in  the  case  of  a  nobleman,  "  Then,"  he  said,  "  I  shall 
be  nolrilissimiis ;  for  I  mean  to  leave  Frank  seventy  pounds 
a  year."  "That,  with  all  his  coarseness  and  irrita 
bility,"  says  Macaulay,  (who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of 
any  undue  partiality  to  Johnson,)  "he  was  a  man  of 
sterling  benevolence,  has  long  been  acknowledged.  But 
how  gentle  and  endearing  his  deportment  could  be  was 
not  known  till  the  '  Recollections  of  Madame  D'Arblay  ' 
were  published."  Although  certainly  not  wanting  in  a 
proper  respect  for  dignities,  he  possessed  a  true  Saxon 
independence  of  character,  of  which  his  well-known  letter 
to  Lord  Chesterfield  furnishes  a  fine  illustration.  He 
was  a  sincere  and  humble  believer  in  the  great  truths 
of  Christianity,  which  he  ably  upheld  and  defended. 

Johnson  was  great  in  all  the  branches  of  literature  to 
which  he  devoted  his  attention.  Few  men  have  exerted 
so  great  an  influence  while  living, — an  influence  which 
will  probably  be  felt  far  into  the  future.  His  poems, 
\\hich  are  chiefly  descriptive  and  satirical,  have  been 
greatly  admired  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  critics. 


a,  e,  I,  5, «,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSON 


1285 


JOHNSTON 


"  I  have  had,"  said  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  more  pleasure 
in  reading  'London'  and  the 'Vanity  of  Human  Wishes' 
than  any  other  poetical  composition  that  I  can  mention." 
Of  the  latter  Byron  remarks,  "  Tis  a  grand  poem,  all 
the  examples  and  mode  of  giving  them  sublime."  His 
romances  and  plays  attracted  less  attention.  He  was 
particularly  unsuccessful  with  his  female  characters. 
Burke  aptly  remarked  that  among  his  dramatis  persona 
"all  the  ladies  introduced  were  Johnsons  in  petticoats." 
His  excellence  in  literary  criticism  lies  in  his  strength, 
perspicuity,  and  originality  of  thought.  His  critical 
observations  are  generally  extremely  just  (as  already 
intimated)  when  not  biased  by  prejudice.  He  had  not, 
however,  that  nice  discrimination  or  sensibility  requisite 
in  order  to  appreciate  poetical  beauties  of  a  delicate  or 
subtle  kind.  His  most  important  critical  works  are  the 
"  I'reface  and  Notes  to  Shakspeare,"  and  "  The  Lives 
of  the  British  Poets."  His  English  Dictionary,  upon 
which  he  bestowed  vast  labour  for  several  years,  is 
probably  the  most  remarkable  work  of  the  kind  "ever 
produced  by  a  single  person.  His  style,  precise  and 
stately,  was  much  admired  and  imitated  during  his 
lifetime  ;  but  at  present  the  prevailing  taste  in  literature 
has  pronounced  it  too  artificial  and  elaborate  to  be  ever 
used  as  a  model. 

See  BOSWELL,  "Life  of  Johnson ;"  review  of  CROKER'S  edition 
of  BOSWELL'S  "Life  of  Johnson,"  in  MACAUI.AY'S  "Essays;" 
"Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Johnson,"  by  MADAME  PIOZZI,  (MRS.  THRAI.E,-} 
1786;  ANDERSON,  "Life  of  Johnson,"  1795;  THOMAS  CAKI.YLE, 
"Heroes  and  Hero-  Worship ;"  SCOTT'S  Miscellaneous  Prose 
Works ;  GARY,  "  Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke 
White;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1831,  June, 
1850,  April,  1858,  and  January,  1859 ;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
October,  1831  ;  see,  also,  the  excellent  and  elaborate  article  in  ALLI- 
BONE'S  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Johnson,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  born  in  Guilford,  Con 
necticut,  in  1696,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1714.  Having 
become  an  Episcopalian,  he  took  holy  orders  in  England 
in  1722,  and  on  his  return  settled  at  Stratford.  He  was 
chosen  president  of  King's  College  in  1754.  This  posi 
tion  he  resigned  in  1763.  Died  in  1772.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  System  of  Morality." 

Johnson,  (THOMAS,)  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  royal 
army,  distinguished  as  a  botanist,  was  born  at  Selby, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  received  from  the  University  of  Ox 
ford  the  title  of  M.D.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  siege  of  Basinghouse,  in  1644.  He  wrote  several 
botanical  works. 

Johnson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Oxfordshire,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  in  1692 
he  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  He  edited  Sophocles, 
(1705,)  and  other  classical  works.  Died  about  1750. 

Johnson,  (WALTER  ROGERS,)  an  American  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  in  Leominster,  Massachusetts,  about 
1794.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1819;  and,  while 
professor  of  mechanics,  natural  philosophy,  etc.  in  the 
Philadelphia  High  School,  he  contributed  largely  by 
lectures  and  essays  towards  introducing  an  improved 
system  of  common-school  education  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  afterwards  made  important  investigations  in  the 
geology  of  that  State,  particularly  the  coal  formations, 
filled  for  four  years  (1839-43)  the  chair  of  chemistry  in 
the  Medical  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1844 
published,  by  order  of  Congress,  his  "  Report  on  the 
Different  Varieties  of  Coal."  Died  in  1852. 

Johnson,  ( WILLIAM,)  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Caro 
lina,  in  1771.  He  was  a  brother  of  Joseph,  noticed  above. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton,  with  the  highest  honours  of 
his  class,  in  1790,  rose  to  distinction  at  the  bar  of  his 
native  State,  and  was  appointed  judge  by  Jefferson  in 
1801.  He  died,  while  undergoing  a  surgical  operation, 
in  New  York,  in  1834.  He  published  "The  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Major-General  Greene,"  (2  vols., 
1822.)  . 

Johnson,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  British  military  officer, 
born  about  1715,  was  employed  in  North  America,  and 
had  great  influence  over  the  Indians.  He  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  against  Crown  Point  in  1755,  a"d 
defeated  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies.  He  wrote 
a  short  work  "On  the  Customs  and  Languages  of  the 
American  Indians."  Died  in  New  York  in  1774. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  W.  John?  on,"  by  W.  L.  STONE,  1865. 


Johnson,  (WILLIAM  B.,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  near 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1782.  He  presided  over 
the  Baptist  Convention  of  South  Caiolina  for  twenty- five 
years  or  more.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
works. 

Johnson,  (WILLIAM  SAMUEL,)  F.R.S.,  an  eloquent 
American  lawyer  and  scholar,  born  at  Stratford,  Con 
necticut,  in  1727,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1744.  Having 
been  sent  as  a  colonial  agent  to  England  in  1766,  he 
became  an  acquaintance  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Johnson, 
with  whom  he  corresponded  for  many  years.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1785,  was  a  member  of  the  con 
vention  which  formed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787, 
and  was  elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  Connecticut 
in  1789.  He  was  president  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  from  1791  until  1800.  Died  in  1819. 

Johiis'ton,  (ALBERT  SYDNEY,)  an  eminent  American 
general,  born  in  Mason  county,  Kentucky,  in  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826.  Having  resigned  his 
commission  in  1834,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier  in 
the  army  of  Texas  in  1836.  He  soon  became  commander- 
in-chief,  in  place  of  F.  Houston,  with  whom  he  fought 
a  duel  about  1837.  He  was  secretary  of  war  of  the 
republic  of  Texas,  1838-40,  and  served  as  colonel  of 
the  army  of  the  United  States  in  the  Mexican  war, 
(1846-47.)  In  1849  ne  was  appointed  paymaster  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States.  Having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  colonel,  he  commanded  the  expedition  sent  to 
Utah  against  the  Mormons  in  1857.  In  1860  he  took 
command  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  He  offered 
his  services  to  the  secessionists  in  1861,  and  was  ap 
pointed  commander  of  the  department  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee.  He  occupied  a  fortified  position  at 
Bowling  Green  in  the  autumn  of  1861.  The  capture 
of  Fort  Donelson,  February  16,  1862,  having  rendered 
this  position  untenable,  he  moved  hastily  southward 
into  Tennessee,  and  formed  a  junction  with  the  army 
of  General  Beauregard  at  Corinth.  About  six  weeks 
were  spent  in  this  disastrous  retreat.  He  collected  a 
force  of  about  50,000  men  at  Corinth,  and  attacked  the 
army  of  General  Grant  at  Shiloh  on  the  6th  of  April, 
1862.  He  was  killed  about  two  P.M.  on  the  first  day 
of  this  battle,  by  a  ball,  which  cut  an  artery  of  his  leg. 
"A.  S.  Johnston,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "was  probably 
the  ablest  commander  at  any  time  engaged  in  the  rebel 
service."  ("American  Conflict.") 

See  Life  of  A.  S.  Johnston  in  "Southern  Generals,"  (anony 
mous.)  1865;  TENNEY,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebel 
lion,"  1865. 

Johiis'tpn,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1816.  His  works  mostly  represent  familiar 
scenes  of  Scottish  life,  or  events  in  Scottish  history. 

Johnston,  (ALEXANDER  KEITH,)  an  eminent  geog 
rapher,  was  born  at  Kirkhill,  in  Scotland,  in  1804.  In 
order  to  be  thoroughly  informed  upon  geography,  he 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  French,  Spanish, 
Italian,  and  German  languages.  His  first  important 
work,  the  "National  Atlas,"  was  issued  in  1843.  In 
1848  he  published  a  valuable  "Physical  Atlas,"  which 
greatly  extended  the  celebrity  of  its  author.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Geographical  Societies  of  Ber 
lin  and  Paris,  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  Of  the  other  works 
of  Mr.  Johnston  may  be  mentioned  "A  Dictionary  of 
Geography,"  (1850,)  and  an  "Atlas  of  the  Historical 
Geography  of  Europe." 

See  "  Biackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849. 
Johnston,  (Dr.  ARTHUR,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
poet,  eminent  for  his  classical  learning,  was  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire  in  1587.  He  pursued  his  studies  mostly  on 
the  continent,  and  in  1610  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
at  Padua.  He  afterwards  resided  at  Paris  several  years, 
and  on  his  return  to  England,  in  1632,  was  appointed 
physician-in-ordinary  to  Charles  I.  Died  in  1641.  He 
contributed  to  Sir  John  Scott's  collection  of  Latin 
poems,  and  composed,  in  Latin,  "Poetical  Paraphrases 
of  the  Psalms  of  David,"  (1637.)  "I  am  inclined  to 
think,"  says  Hallam,  "that  Johnston's  Psalms  do  not 
fall  far  short  of  those  of  Buchanan,  either  in  elegance 
of  style  or  in  correctness  of  Latinity." 

See   IRVING,  "Lives   of  Scottish  Writers;"   CHAMBERS,  "  Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,giMiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2®=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHNSTON 


1286 


JOHN  STONE 


Johnston,  (GABRIEL,)  a  native  of  Scotland,  was  ap 
pointed  colonial  governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1734; 
died  in  1752. 

Johnston,  (GEORGE,)  a  distinguished  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Simprin  in  1789,  and  graduated  as  a  physician  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1819.  Among  his  inter 
esting  and  valuable  contributions  to  science  may  be  men 
tioned  "  History  of  British  Zoophytes,"  (1838,)  "  History 
of  British  Sponges  and  Lithophytes,"  (1842,)  papers  on 
"British  and  Irish  Annelides,"  a  work  on  Conchology, 
(1850,)  and  "  Botany  of  the  Eastern  Borders,"  (1854.) 
He  practised  medicine  at  Berwick-on-Tweed  for  many 
years.  Died  in  1855. 

See  a  notice  of  G.  Johnston  in  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine" 
for  September,  1855. 

Johnston,  (JAMKS  T.  W.,)  a  noted  agricultural  chem 
ist,  was  born  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  about  1796.  lie 
studied  in  Sweden,  under  Bencelius.  In  1833  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Durham.  He  also  visited  America,  where  he  became 
distinguished  as  an  agricultural  chemist.  Among  his 
works  are  the  "  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 
Geology,"  (1842,)  "  Catechism  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 
and  Geology,"  (1844,)  a  work  which  has  been  translated 
into  nearly  every  European  language,  "Contributions 
to  Scientific  Agriculture,"  (1849,)  "Notes  on  North 
America,"  (1851,)  and  "  Chemistry  of  Common  Life," 
(2  vols.,  1854-55.)  Died  in  1855. 

Johnston,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  scholar,  was 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  College  of  Saint  Andrew's. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "  Heroes  ex  Omni  His- 
toria  Scotica  Lectissimi,"  (1603.)  Died  in  1612. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnston,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  physician  and  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  Poland  in  1603.  He  graduated  at 
the  Universities  of  Leyclen  and  Cambridge.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  in  Latin,  the  "Wonders  of  Nature, 
divided  into  Ten  Classes,"  which  was  a  natural  history 
of  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  and  insects.  Died  in  1675. 

Johnston,  (JOSEPH  EGGLKSTON,)  an  able  American 
general,  born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Virginia,  about 
1809.  His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Wood,  was 
a  niece  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1829,  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1846,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war,  1846-47.  In  June, 
1860,  he  was  appointed  quartermaster-general,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  resigned  his  commission 
in  April,  1861,  and  was  immediately  appointed  a  major- 
general,  or  general,  by  Jefferson  Davis.  He  took  com 
mand  of  a  force  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  May,  1861,  and  was 
opposed  in  that  vicinity  by  General  Patterson.  Having 
eluded  Patterson,  he  moved  his  army  rapidly  to  Ma- 
it  assas,  and  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Beau- 
regard  on  the  2Oth  or  2ist  of  July.  General  Johnston 
was  superior  in  rank  to  Beauregard,  but  he  waived  his 
claim  to  precedence  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21. 
He  remained  inactive  at  Manassas  Junction  during  the 
autumn  of  1861  and  the  ensuing  winter.  About  the  8th 
of  March,  1862,  he  changed  his  base  and  retired  behind 
the  Rapidan.  He  soon  moved  his  army  to  the  peninsula 
to  oppose  McClellan,  and,  having  been  repulsed  at  Wil- 
liamsburg,  May  5,  retreated  towards  Richmond.  On 
the  3 1st  of  May  he  attacked  a  part  of  the  Union  army  at 
Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines.  In  this  battle  he  received 
a  severe  wound,  which  disabled  him  for  several  months. 
In  November,  1862,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
a  department  comprising  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Mis 
sissippi.  He  reported  in  April,  1863,  that  he  was  still 
unfit  for  active  service  in  the  field.  After  General  Grant 
approached  Vicksburg  from  the  south,  General  Johnston 
moved  a  small  army  to  relieve  that  place,  and  reached 
Jackson  on  the  I3th  of  May.  He  was  defeated  on  the 
I4th,  abandoned  Jackson,  and  retreated  to  Canton.  On 
the  2gth  of  May  he  wrote  to  General  Pemberton,  "  I  am 
too  weak  to  save  Vicksburg.  Can  do  no  more  than 
attempt  to  save  you  and  your  garrison."  In  December, 
1863,  he  took  command  in  person  of  the  army  which  had 
recently  been  defeated  by  General  Grant  near  Chatta 
nooga,  and  which  was  required  to  oppose  the  advance 
of  General  Sherman  towards  Atlanta.  He  began  this 
campaign  with  about  55,000  men,  occupying  a  strong 


and  fortified  position  at  Dalton,  Georgia.  This  position 
having  been  turned  by  the  Union  army,  Johnston  fell 
back  to  Resaca,  where  he  was  attacked  on  the  151)1  of 
May.  After  a  severe  battle,  he  retreated  in  the  ensuing 
night,  closely  pursued,  and  reached  Cassville,  near  the 
Etowali  River,  on  the  igth.  Having  crossed  the  Etowah 
under  cover  of  the  night,  General  Johnston  made  another 
stand  in  the  strong  position  of  Allatoona  Pass,  to  dis 
lodge  him  from  which  General  Sherman  ordered  a  flank 
movement  to  Dallas.  General  Johnston  attacked  the 
Federals  at  Dallas  on  the  28th  of  May,  was  repulsed, 
and  on  the  4th  of  June  retreated  to  Kenesaw  Mountain. 
On  the  27th  of  June,  General  Sherman  made  an  unsuc 
cessful  assault  on  the  works  at  Kenesaw,  but  he  resorted 
again  to  a  flank  movement,  which  compelled  General 
Johnston  to  abandon  Kenesaw  on  the  2d  or  ^d  of  July, 
and  to  retreat  across  the  Chattahoocb.ee.  He  was  re 
moved  from  the  command  on  the  i8th  of  July,  1864. 
Before  this  date  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  general, 
the  highest  in  the  service.  He  obtained  command  of 
an  army  in  South  Carolina  about  February,  1865,  and 
on  the  iSth  of  March  attacked  the  advance  of  General 
Sherman's  army  at  Bentonville,  North  Carolina.  He 
retreated  to  Smithfield  on  the  2ist  of  March,  and 
surrendered  his  army  to  General  Sherman  on  the  26th 
of  April,  1865,  on  the  same  terms  as  were  granted  to 
General  Lee.  (See  SHERMAN,  W.  T.) 

See  a  "  Life  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston"  in  "Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Johnston,  (Rov.>:RT,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  (1642,  in 
Latin.)  Died  about  1636. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jolmstone  (jons'ton)  or  Johnston  of  Warriston, 
(ARCHIBALD,)  a  Scottish  statesman,  and  leader  of  the 
Presbyterians.  He  held  several  high  offices,  and  was 
an  adherent  of  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war  which 
began  in  1642.  He  became  lord  advocate  in  1646,  and 
was  created  a  peer  by  Cromwell.  He  was  executed  as 
a  rebel  in  1663. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone,  (BRYCE,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  born 
in  Dumfriesshire  in  1747.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  which  in  1786  unanimously  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  D.D.  Among  his  works  may  be  men 
tioned  "  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John 
the  Divine,"  (1794,)  "Essay  on  the  Influence  of  Religion 
on  Civil  Society  and  Civil  Government,"  and  a  treatise 
on  agriculture.  Died  in  1805. 

See  a  "Life  of  Bryce  Johnstone,"  by  his  nephew,  JOHN  JOHN- 
STONE,  1808. 

Johnstone,  Johnson,  or  Johnston,  (CHARLES,)  an 
author,  born  in  Ireland  about  1720,  was  educated  for  the 
bar.  The  most  important  of  his  productions  was  a  po 
litical  romance,  entitled  "Chrysal,  or  the  Adventures  of 
a  Guinea,"  (1760,)  which  met  with  a  great  sale.  Besides 
this,  he  wrote  "The  Reverie,  or  a  Flight  to  the  Paradise 
of  Fools,"  (1762,)  "Arsaces,  Prince  of  Betlis,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  Calcutta  in  1800. 

See  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT'S  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works. 

Johnstone,  (GEORGE,)  a  diplomatist  and  post-captain 
in  the  royal  navy,  the  son  of  a  Scottish  baronet.  In  1763 
he  was  made  Governor  of  West  Florida.  During  the 
American  Revolution  he  was  appointed  (in  1778)  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  with  Lord  Carlisle  to  the  United 
States  to  treat  with  Congress.  Died  in  1787. 

Johnstone,  ([AMES,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  physi 
cian,  born  at  Annan  in  1730,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Paris.  lie  was  very  successful  in  malignant  fevers, 
on  which  he  wrote  a  treatise.  He  is  also  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  recommend  the  use  of  mineral  acids  in  those 
diseases.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned 
"  Medical  Essays  and  Observations,  with  Disquisitions 
relating  to  the  Nervous  System,"  (1795.)  He  practised 
at  Worcester,  where  he  died  in  1802. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone,  (JoHN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
in  1768,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  equally 
celebrated  as  a  skilful  physician  and  an  accomplished 
scholar.  He  wrote  the  "Life  of  Dr.  Parr,"  (1828,)  with 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOHN  STONE 


1287 


JOMBERT 


whom  he  was  very  intimate  ;  also  several  medical  works. 
He  practised  in  Birmingham  about  forty  years.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  a  notice  of  J.  Johnstone  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for 
May,  1837. 

Johnstone,  (JOHN  HENRY,)  a  celebrated  comic  actor 
and  vocalist,  born  in  Ireland  in  1750;  died  in  1828. 

Johnstone,  jons'ton,  de,  CHEVALIER,  a  native  of 
Edinburgh,  entered  in  1745  the  army  of  the  Pretender,  to 
whom  he  soon  became  aide-de-camp.  He  served  at  the 
battle  of  Prestonpans  and  in  subsequent  engagements. 
After  the  battle  of  Culloden  he  escaped  to  Paris,  and  re 
ceived  an  appointment  in  the  French  army.  He  wrote, 
in  FVench,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Rebellion  in  1745  and  1746," 
which  was  translated  and  published  in  London  in  1820. 
Died  in  France  at  an  advanced  age. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1822. 

Joinville,  zhwaN'vel',  (EmioND,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1801  ;  died  in  1849. 

Joiiiville,  de,  deh  join'vil  or  zhwaN'vel',  (FRANCOIS 
FERDINAND  PHILIPPE  Louis  MARIE  I/ORLEANS,  ) 
PRINCE,  the  third  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born 
in  1818.  He  served  in  the  navy,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  for  his  conduct  at  the  attack  on  Vera  Cruz  in 
1838.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to  Saint  Helena  to  bring  the 
remains  of  Napoleon  to  France.  He  commanded  the 
naval  division  which  bombarded  Tangier  in  1844,  and  gave 
an  impulse  to  the  construction  of  steam  ships  of  war  by 
his  "  Note  sur  les  Forces  navales  de  la  France,"  (1844.) 

See  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Joinville,  de,  (JEAN  or  JEHAN,)  SIRE,  a  French  noble 
man  and  chronicler  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Cham 
pagne  in  1224.  He  grew  up  at  the  court  of  Thibaut,  King 
of  Navarre  and  Count  of  Champagne,  and  in  1248  raised 
several  hundred  armed  men  from  among  his  tenants  and 
accompanied  Louis  IX.  in  his  first  crusade  to  the  Holy 
Land.  He  soon  became  a  great  favourite  with  this 
monarch.  Joinville  distinguished  himself  for  bravery  at 
the  capture  of  Damietta  in  Egypt,  and  was  subsequently, 
with  Louis,  made  prisoner  at  Mansoorah.  He  returned 
to  France  with  the  king  in  1254.  He  wrote  a  very  in 
teresting  work  entitled  "History  of  Saint  Louis  IX., 
King  of  France,  by  Jehan  Sire  de  Joinville."  "In  this 
history,"  says  Ambrose  Firmin  Didot,  "which  is  one  of 
the  most  precious  monuments  of  ancient  or  modern 
times,  the  Christian,  the  maji  of  the  world,  the  friend  of 
the  king,  and  the  naif  historian,  display  themselves  with 
such  naturalness,  simplicity,  and  candour  that  the  reader 
can  penetrate  the  inner  heart  of  the  author  by  the  simple 
recital  which  he  has  given  us.  .  .  .  His  natural  and 
easy  style  has  all  the  charm  of  conversation."  ("Nou 
velie  Biographic  Generale.")  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1317. 

See  F.  FERIEL,  "  Notice  sur  Jean  de  Joinville,"  1853;  CIIF.ZJEAN, 
"Notice  historique  sur  Sire  de  Joinville,"  1853;  SAINTE-BEUVE, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Joliet,  zho'Ie-i',  (Louis,)  a  French  traveller,  was  one 
of  the  first  white  men  that  explored  the  Mississippi 
River.  He  had  resided  some  time  at  Quebec  before 
1673,  when  he  and  Marquette  were  sent  to  explore  that 
river.  (See  MARQUETTE.)  After  the  end  of  that  voyage 
it  appears  that  he  returned  to  Quebec.  Died  about  1730. 

Joliveau  de  Segrais,  zho'le'vo'  deh  seh'gRi',  (MA 
RIE  MADELEINE  NICOLE  ALEXANDRINE,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1756;  died  in  1830. 
She  wrote  "  New  Fables  in  Verse,"  etc. 

Jolivet,  de,  deh  zho'Ie'vft',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  MOYSE,) 
COUNT,  a  French  advocate,  born  in  1754,  was  elected 
in  1791  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  boldly 
denounced  the  Jacobins.  On  the  accession  of  Napoleon 
he  was  created  councillor  of  state.  Died  in  1818.  He 
wrote  various  works  on  political  economy. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire. " 

Jollivet,  zho'le'vi',  (ADOLPHE,)  a  French  politician, 
born  in  1799,  wrote  many  works  against  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  He  was  killed  in  Paris  during  the  revolution 
of  February,  1848. 

Jollivet,  (PIERRE  JULES,)  a  French  painter  of  history, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803,  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class 
in  1835. 


Jollois,  zho'Iwa',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  PROSPER,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  engineer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1776.  He 
was  chief  engineer  of  the  department  of  Seine,  (Paris.) 
He  published  many  works  on  French  antiquities.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  ALFRED  MAURV,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  B. 
P.  Jollois,"  1846;  "Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Joly,  zho'le',  (BENIGNE,)  a  French  religious  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1644,  wrote  a  number  of  devotional 
works.  Died  in  1694. 

Joly,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1607,  wrote  "A  Collection  of  True  Maxims 
for  the  Education  of  a  King,  against  the  Pernicious 
Policy  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  (1652,)  a  copy  of  which 
was  burnt  by  the  common  executioner.  He  became  a 
canon  of  the  Church  of  Paris  in  1631.  Died  in  1700. 

See  MORERI,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Joly,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  preacher,  born  in  Lorraine 
in  1610,  became  Bishop  of  Agen,  and  left  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  (1692-94.)  Died  in  1678. 

Joly  or  Jolly,  zho'le',  (FRANCOIS  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
comic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1662.  He  wrote  several 
comedies,  and  published  accurate  editions  of  Moliere 
(6  vols.,  1734)  and  Corneille,  (5  vols.)  Died  in  1753. 

Joly,  (Gill,)  a  French  writer,  a  nephew  of  Claude  Joly, 
noticed  above,  became  confidential  secretary  to  Cardinal 
de  Retz.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  the  historical 
"  Memoirs"  from  164810  1665,  (1718.)  An  English  trans 
lation  of  this  work  was  published  in  1 755.  His  "  Memoirs" 
are  designed  to  explain  and  complete  those  of  De  Retz. 

Joly,  (JOSEPH  ROMAIN,)  a  French  monk  and  writer, 
born  in  1715  ;  died  in  1805. 

Joly,  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
1672,  wrote  "The  School  of  Lovers,"  and  "The  Jealous 
Wife."  Died  in  1753. 

Joly  or  Jolly,  (MARIE  ELISABETH,)  a  noted  French 
actress,  born  at  Versailles  in  1761.  In  1793  she  was 
imprisoned  by  the  revolutionists,  but  regained  her  free 
dom  on  condition  that  she  should  perform  at  the  theatre 
of  the  Republic.  Died  in  1798. 

Joly,  (PHILIPPE  Louis,)  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic 
and  philologist,  born  at  Dijon  about  1712.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Dictionary  of  Bayle," 
(1748,)  and  a  "  Treatise  on  French  Versification,"  (1751.) 
Died  in  1782. 

See  QUERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Joly  de  Bevy,  zho'le'  deh  ba've',  (Louis  PHILIPPE 
JOSEPH,)  a  French  judge  and  religious  writer,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1736;  died  in  1822. 

Joly-Clerc,  zho'le'  klaiR,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  natu 
ralist,  wrote  a  number  of  works  on  botany.  Died  in  1817. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  zho'le'  deh  fluh're',  (GUILLAUME 
FRANCOIS,)  a  learned  and  eloquent  French  advocate  and 
magistrate,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  For  more  than 
twenty  years  he  was  attorney-general  in  the  Parliament  of 
Paris.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  law.  Died  in  1756. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  ( J  EAN  FRANQOIS,)  a  French  financier, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1718.  He  succeeded 
Necker  as  minister  of  finances  in  1781,  and  resigned  in 
1783.  Died  in  1802. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  (JEAN  Omer — o'maiR.',)  a  French 
priest,  nephew  of  Guillaume  Frai^ois,  noticed  above. 
Died  in  1755. 

Joly  de  Maizeroy.     See  MAIZEROY. 

Jomard,  zho'inaV,  (  EDME  FRANC.OIS,  )  a  French 
archaeologist  and  geographer,  born  at  Versailles  in  1777. 
He  accompanied  the  army  to  Egypt  in  1798,  returned 
in  1802,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Egyptian 
commission.  He  contributed  to  the  redaction  of  the 
great  "  Description  of  Egypt,"  and,  as  imperial  com 
missary,  directed  the  engraving  and  impression  of  the 
same  for  twenty  years,  (1807-26.)  The  portions  of  this 
work  written  by  Jomard  were  published  separately, 
with  the  title  of  "Observations  on  Ancient  and  Modem 
Egypt,  or  a  Historical  and  Picturesque  Description  of 
its  Monuments,"  (4  vols.,  1830.)  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jombert,  zhoN'bain',  (CHARLES  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
writer  on  art,  born  in  Paris  in  1712;  died  in  1784. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOMELLI 


1288 


JONES 


Jomelli,  yo-mel'lee,  (NiccoiA)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Aversa,  near  Naples,  in  1714.  He 
studied  under  Feo,  Leo,  and  Martini.  His  first  opera, 
"L'Errore  amoroso,"  produced  when  he  was  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  rendered  him  so  famous  that  he  was 
soon  after  invited  to  Rome,  where  he  composed  two 
more  operas  and  was  patronized  by  the  Cardinal  of 
York.  In  1742  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  formed  an 
intimate  friendship  with  Metastasio  and  gave  instruc 
tions  in  music  to  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  was 
employed  as  musician  or  chapel-master  in  Saint  Peter's 
at  Rome  from  1749  to  1754.  The  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg 
having  invited  him  to  enter  his  service  as  chapel-master 
to  the  court,  Jomelli  removed  to  Stuttgart,  where  he 
passed  about  seventeen  years,  (1754-70.)  Died  at  Naples 
in  August,  1774.  Among  his  best  productions  are  operas 
entitled  "Didone,"  (1745,)  "Eumene,"(i746,)  "Merope," 
(1747,)  and  "Ezio,"  (1748,)  several  oratorios  and  masses, 
and  a  miserere  for  two  voices. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians;"  PIETRO 
ALFIERI,  "Notizie  biografiche  di  N.  Jomelli,"  1X45;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Ge'ne'rale ;"  CHORON  et  FAYOLLE,  "  Dictionnaire  des 
Musiciens. " 

Jomini,  zho'me'ne',  (HENRI,)  BARON,  an  able  general 
and  eminent  writer  on  strategy,  was  born  at  Payerne, 
in  the  Swiss  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  1779.  He  entered  the 
French  army,  became  aide-de-camp  to  Ney  about  1804, 
and  presented  to  Bonaparte  on  the  field  of  Austerlitz 
his  "  Treatise  on  the  Grand  Operations  of  War."  A 
few  days  after  this  event  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
staff  of  Ney.  He  received  the  title  of  baron  for  his 
conduct  at  Jena  in  1806,  and  was  employed  in  Spain  in 
1808.  In  1811  he  became  a  general  of  brigade,  and  in 
1812  French  governor  of  Wilna.  He  contributed  greatly 
to  the  victory  of  Bautzen  in  1813.  His  promotion  having 
been  obstructed  by  the  enmity  of  Berthier,  he  quitted 
the  French  service  in  1813,  and  entered  that  of  Russia, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  became  aide-de 
camp  to  the  emperor  Alexander.  Died  about  April  i, 
1869.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "Traite  des  grandes 
Operations  militaires,  ou  Histoire  critique  et  militaire  des 
Guerresde  Frederic  II  comparees  a  celles  de  la  Revolu 
tion,"  (5  vols.,  1805,)  a  "  Critical  and  Military  History  of 
the  Campaigns  of  the  Revolution  from  1792  to  1801," 
(15  vols.,  1819-24,)  and  "  Precis  de  I1  Art  de  la  Guerre," 
(5th  ed.,  2  vols.,  1838.)  The  works  of  Jomini  are  among 
the  best  that  have  ever  been  written  on  the  art  of  war. 

See  PASCAL,  "Observations  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Baron 
Jomini ;"  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phie  Ge'nerale  ;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix.) 

Jon  Areson.     See  ARESON  JON. 

Jon,  du,  (FRANCIS.)     See  JUNIUS. 

Joiiae,  yo'na,  (PETER,)  Bishop  of  Strengnas,  in  Swe 
den,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Upsal  when  John  III. 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  Catholic  religion.  Jonae 
boldly  opposed  this  proceeding.  Died  in  1607. 

Jo''nah  or  Jo'nas,  [Heb.  HJV ;  Gr.  'Iwruc;  Lat. 
JONAS,]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  and  the 
subject  of  the  book  bearing  his  name,  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  about  800 
B.C.  ;  but  some  place  him  under  that  of  Jehu. 

See  II.  Kings  xiv.  25  ;  Matthew  xii.  39,  41 ;  Luke  xi.  29,  32. 

Jonas.     See  JONAH. 

Jonas,  yo'nas,  Jonae,  yo'na,  or  Jonsson,  yon'son, 
(ARNGRIM,)  a  learned  historian,  antiquary,  and  divine, 
born  in  Iceland  about  1568,  is  said  to  have  studied 
astronomy  under  Tycho  Brahe.  Most  of  his  works 
relate  to  the  history  of  Iceland.  Died  in  1648. 

Jonas,  yo'nds,  (JUSTUS,)  an  eminent  German  Re 
former  and  writer,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1493.  IIe 
became  in  1521  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg. 
He  assisted  Luther  in  the  translation  of  the  Old  Tes 
tament,  accompanied  him  to  the  Diet  at  Worms  and  at 
Augsburg,  and  had  a  share  in  the  composition  of  the 
so-called  Torgau  Articles.  He  also  translated  a  number 
of  Luther's  works,  and  Melanchthon's  "Defence  (Apol 
ogy)  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,"  from  the  Latin  into 
German.  Died  in  1555. 


Jonas  or  Jonae,  (RUNOI.PH,)  a  scholar  and  author, 
born  in  Iceland,  graduated  at  Copenhagen,  where  he 
fixed  his  residence  after  1649.  He  wrote  "Elements 
of  the  Northern  Languages,"  and  "  Rudiments  of  the 
Icelandic  Grammar."  Died  in  1654. 

Jon'a-than,  [Heb.  jruirv,]  son  of  King  Saul,  and  the 
most  intimate  friend  of  the  psalmist  David.  The  death 
of  this  prince,  who  fell  with  his  father,  near  Mount  Gilboa, 
while  fighting  the  Philistines,  furnished  the  subject  of 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  David's  songs. 
See  I.  Samuel  xviii.,  xix.,  xx.  ;  II.  Samuel  i.  17-27. 

Joii'athan  Ap'phus,  (af'fus, )  a  celebrated  Jewish 
leader  and  high-priest,  succeeded  his  elder  brother,  Judas 
Maccabxus,  in  161  K.C.,  as  chief  ruler  of  his  nation."  For 
seventeen  years  he  governed  with  wisdom  and  justice,  and 
carried  on  successful  wars  with  many  of  the  surrounding 
nations.  During  the  civil  dissensions  in  the  kingdom 
of  Syria  he  was  decoyed  into  the  city  of  Ptolemais  and 
massacred  with  his  entire  escort. 

Jonathan  Ben  Uz-zi'el  (or  uz'ze-el)  or  U-zi'el, 
a  Jewish  rabbi,  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary 
with  the  prophets  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  "Targtim,"  a  Chaldaic  paraphrase 
of  most  of  the  Hebrew  prophetical  books. 

Joncourt,  de,  deh  zhoN'kooR',  (ELIE,)  a  Dutch  writer, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1707.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  des  Sciences 
et  des  Arts,"  (50  vols.,  1754-80,)  and  wrote  various 
works.  Died  about  1775. 

Jonctys,  yonk'tls,  (DANIEL,)  a  Dutch  litterateur  and 
physician,  born  at  Dort,  lived  many  years  at  Rotterdam. 
Among  his  works  was  an  able  treatise  against  torture. 
Died  in  1654. 

Jones,  jonz,  (ANSON,)  an  American  physician,  Presi 
dent  of  the  republic  of  Texas  at  the  time  of  its  annexation, 
was  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1798. 
He  settled  in  Brazoria,  Texas,  in  1833,  took  a  promi 
nent  part  in  the  political  and  military  movements  which 
resulted  in  the  independence  of  that  republic,  was  min 
ister  to  the  United  States  in  1838,  and  afterwards  for 
three  years  secretary  of  state  under  President  Houston. 
In  1844  he  succeeded  Houston  as  President.  Died  by 
his  own  hand  in  1858. 

Jones,  jonz,  (DAVID,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  Caer 
narvonshire,  was  also  a  collector  of  Welsh  manuscripts. 
Died  about  1780. 

Jones,  (DAVID  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1827,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1846.  He  served  as  brigadier-general  in  the  army  of 
General  Lee  at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.  Died 
in  1863. 

Jones,  (EDWARD,)  a  Welsh  musician  and  bard,  born 
in  Merionethshire  about  1750.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Musical  and  Poetical  Relics  of  the  French 
Bards,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1821. 

Jones,  jonz,  (ERNEST,)  M.P.,  an  English  poet  and 
Chartist.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  Chartist  move 
ment  about  1846.  He  was  imprisoned  about  two  years 
for  his  radical  political  speeches,  (1848-49.)  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Wood  Spirit,"  (1841,)  and  "Chartist 
Lyrics."  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
1869,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Jones,  (GRIFFITH,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Wales  in 
1684,  was  very  active  in  supporting  schools  and  in  cir 
culating  the  Bible  among  his  indigent  countrymen.  He 
wrote  several  educational  treatises  in  Welsh  and  English. 
Died  in  1761. 

Jones,  (GRIFFITH,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1721. 
He  edited  at  different  times  several  periodicals,  and  was 
connected  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  "  Literary  Magazine" 
and  with  Goldsmith  in  the  "  British  Magazine."  Among 
his  works  are  "Great  Events  from  Little  Causes,"  and 
several  "Liliputian  Histories."  Died  in  1786. 

Jones,  jonz,  (HENRY,)  an  Irish  poet  and  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Drogheda  about  1720,  was  by  trade  a 
bricklayer.  His  productions  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  then  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
who  took  him  to  England  and  procured  a  large  sub- 
cription  for  his  poems.  Among  his  works  we  mfiy  cite 
the  "Tragedy  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,"  (1753,)  and  "The 
Cave  of  Idra."  Died  in  1770. 


a,  e,  1, 6, u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  <j,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  niftt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JONES 


1289 


JONES 


Jones,  (I.NIGO,)  a  distinguished  architect,  styled  "the 
English  Palladio,"  was  born  in  London  about  1572. 
Being  apprenticed  to  a  joiner,  his  talent  for  designing 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  who 
furnished  him  with  means  to  travel  through  Europe. 
While  in  Italy,  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Christian 
IV.  to  visit  Denmark.  The  sister  of  that  monarch  was 
the  queen  of  James  I.  of  England  ;  and  thus  the  way 
was  paved  to  the  royal  patronage  when  he  reached  his 
native  land  in  1605.  In  a  short  time  he  was  appointed 
architect  to  the  queen  and  to  Prince  Henry,  in  which 
position  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Ben  Jonson.  They 
subsequently  quarrelled,  and  the  poet  ridiculed  him  in 
several  plays.  In  1612  he  visited  Italy  a  second  time; 
and  it  was  at  this  period  that  he  fully  adopted  the  classic 
style  of  architecture,  which  was  then  but  little  known  in 
England.  On  his  return  he  became  surveyor-general  of 
the  royal  buildings.  He  died  in  1653.  Of  the  edifices 
designed  and  constructed  by  him  may  be  mentioned  the 
palace  at  Whitehall,  and  the  west  front  of  Old  Saint 
Paul's.  He  was  an  accomplished  classical  scholar,  and 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Stonhenge  Restored." 

See  PETER  CUNNINGHAM,  "  Life  of  Inigo  Jones,"  1848:  CAMP 
BELL,  "Vitruvius  Britannicus,"  5  vols.,  1767;  BRITTON,  "Dictionary 
of  Architecture,"  1830-38. 

Jones,  (JACOB,)  COMMODORE,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Kent  county,  Delaware,  in  1770.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  about  1801,  and  in  October,  1812, 
commanded  the  sloop-of-war  Wasp,  with  which  he  cap 
tured  the  British  sloop  Frolic,  which  carried  more  guns 
than  the  Wasp.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  post- 
captain  in  1813,  and  obtained  command  of  the  frigate 
Macedonian.  Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1850. 

Jones,  (JAMES  CHAMKERLAIN,)  a  United  States  Sen 
ator,  born  in  Davidson  county,  Tennessee,  in  1809.  In 
1841  he  was  chosen  by  the  Whigs  Governor  of  the  State, 
James  K.  Polk  being  his  competitor.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1843,  when  Mr.  Polk  was  again  the  opposing  can 
didate.  In  the  National  Whig  Convention  of  1848 
Governor  Jones  strenuously  advocated  the  nomination 
of  Henry  Clay  ;  but  after  the  selection  of  General  Taylor 
as  the  choice  of  the  Convention  he  entered  the  canvass 
warmly  in  his  support,  and  spoke  to  large  audiences 
in  different  States  of  the  Union.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1851,  and  served  the  full  term 
of  six  years.  He  supported  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
in  1854,  and  thenceforward  acted  principally  with  the 
Democratic  party.  Died  in  1859. 

Jones,  (JEREMIAH,)  a  learned  and  eloquent  English 
dissenting  minister,  born  in  1693,  published  an  important 
work  entitled  a  "New  and  Full  Method  of  Settling  the 
Canonical  Authority  of  the  New  Testament,"  (2  vols., 
1726,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  English  work  on  the 
subject.  Died  in  1724. 

Jones,  (JoHN,)  a  physician  and  medical  writer,  sup 
posed  to  have  been  born  in  Wales  about  1500.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  practised  at  Bath,  in  Eng 
land.  Among  his  works  was  "The  Art  and  Science  of 
Preserving  the  Body  and  Soul  in  Health,"  (1579.) 

Jones,  (JOHN,)  a  Benedictine,  born  in  London  in 
1575.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he  roomed  with 
Laud,  afterwards  the  celebrated  archbishop.  Having 
become  a  Roman  Catholi^,  he  went  to  Spain,  became  a 
monk,  and  continued  his  studies  at  Compostella.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
divinity  at  Douay.  He  was  the  author  of  several  theo 
logical  works.  Died  in  London  in  1636. 

Jones,  (JoHN.)  a  Welsh  antiquary,  who  collected  and 
transcribed  numerous  old  manuscripts  in  his  native  lan 
guage.  Fifty  large  volumes  of  these  are  yet  preserved. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1600. 

Jones,  (JoHN,)  the  author  of  "  Adrasta,  or  the 
Woman's  Spleen,"  (1635,)  and  other  dramatic  works, 
lived  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 

Jones,  (JoHN,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng 
land,  born  in  Wales  in  1700,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
In  1751  he  became  rector  of  Boulne-Hurst,  and  in  1755 
vicar  of  Hitchin.  Four  years  later  he  was  chosen  by  Dr. 
Young,  the  poet,  to  be  his  curate.  He  wrote  "  Catholic 
Faith  and  Practice,"  (1765,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  about  1770. 


Jones,  (JOHN,)  LL.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Carmarthenshire  about  1765.  About  1795  he  was  ap 
pointed  pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Plymouth  Dock,  and 
afterwards  at  Halifax,  in  Yorkshire.  He  subsequently 
removed  to  London.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
the  use  of  Greek-and-English  dictionaries.  Previous 
to  his  time  the  Greek  had  been  studied  entirely  with  the 
aid  of  books  written  in  Latin.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  may  mention  "  Illustrations  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
founded  on  Circumstances  peculiar  to  our  Lord  and  the 
Evangelists,"  (1808,)  and  "A  Greek-and-English  Lexi 
con,"  (1823.)  Died  in  1827. 

Jones,  (JoHN,)  a  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Carmar 
thenshire  in  1772,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1803. 
Among  his  works  are  "A  History  of  Wales,"  and 
"  Cyfamod  Newydcl,"  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Greek  into  Welsh.  Died  in  1838. 

Jones,  (JoHN  GALE,)  an  English  political  orator,  born 
in  1771,  advocated  republican  or  radical  opinions.  He 
was  prosecuted  for  some  political  offence,  defended  by 
Romilly,  and  acquitted.  Died  in  1838. 

Jones,  (JoHN  M., )  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia  about  1820,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1853,  and  resigned  his  commis 
sion  in  1861.  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
army  of  General  Lee,  and  was  killed  near  Spottsylvania, 
May  10,  1864. 

Jones,  (Colonel  LESLIE  GROVE,)  an  English  political 
writer,  born  in  1779.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula  as 
aide-de-camp  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  con 
tributed  letters  to  the  "London  Times."  Died  in  1839. 

Jones,  (NoiiLE  WIMBERLY,)  a  physician  and  patriot, 
born  in  Georgia  in  1725.  He  was  an  early  and  active 
promoter  of  the  Revolution,  was  a  delegate  to  Con 
gress  in  1775,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston  in 
1780.  In  1781  he  was  again  elected  to  Congress.  Died 
in  1805. 

Jones,  (OwEN,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  Denbighshire, 
Wales,  in  1740.  He  published  a  large  collection  of 
ancient  WTelsh  poetry,  and  the  "Archaeology  of  Wales," 
containing  several  historical  documents.  Died  in  1814. 

Jones,  (OwEN,)  an  architect,  born  in  \Vales  about 
1809.  In  1837  he  visited  Granada,  and  in  1842  published 
"  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  the  Al- 
hambra,"  with  a  translation  of  the  Arabic  inscriptions, 
and  a  historical  account  of  the  sovereigns  of  Granada 
from  the  Spanish.  He  chiefly  devoted  his  attention  to 
ornamental  architecture,  in  which  he  soon  acquired 
distinction.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  "Director  of 
Decorations"  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  London.  He 
displayed  his  taste  and  artistic  knowledge  with  a  very 
happy  effect  in  arranging  and  ornamenting  the  various 
courts  of  that  building.  Among  his  writings  are  "De 
signs  for  Mosaic  and  Tessellated  Pavements,"  (1842,)  and 
the  "Grammar  of  Ornament,"  (1856.) 

Jones,  (PAUL  ;  originally  JOHN  PAUL,)  a  famous  naval 
officer,  born  at  Arbigland,  in  Scotland,  in  1747.  He  emi 
grated  to  Virginia,  entered  the  colonial  naval  service  in 
1775,  was  appointed  a  captain  in  August,  1776,  and  took 
command  of  the  Ranger,  a  vessel  of  eighteen  guns,  about 
June,  1777.  He  sailed  to  Europe  in  that  year,  cruised  on 
the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  made  a  bold  attack  on  White- 
haven,  where  he  burnt  some  shipping.  He  also  captured 
the  Drake,  a  sloop  of  war.  Early  in  1779  he  was  trans 
ferred  to  the  Bonhomme  Richard,  which  carried  about 
forty-five  guns.  Having  several  smaller  vessels  under 
his  command,  he  captured  or  destroyed  many  British 
vessels.  In  September  he  attacked  the  Serapis.  a  frigate 
of  forty-four  guns,  which  surrendered  after  a  long  battle. 
His  osvn  ship  was  so  much  damaged  in  this  action  that 
she  sank  a  few  hours  after.  Congress  voted  Captain 
Jones  a  gold  medal  for  this  victory.  He  entered  the 
Russian  service,  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  in  1788; 
but,  having  quarrelled  with  one  of  the  Russian  admirals, 
he  was  soon  removed  from  the  command.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1792. 

See  J.  H.  SHERBOURNE,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Jones,"  2  vols.,  1835; 
JAMES  HAMILTON,  "Life  of  Rear- Admiral  J.  P.  Jones,"  1848;  A. 
S.  MACKKNZIE,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Jones,"  2  vols.,  1841;  "  Het  Leven 
van  J.  P.  Jones."  Groningen,  1829;  W.  G.  SIMMS,  "  Life  of  J.  P. 
Jones,"  1845;  "National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinruished  Ameri 
cans,"  vol.  iii. ;  •'  Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1825. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JONES 


1290 


JONS  ON 


Jones,  (RiCE,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  1715.  He  pub 
lished  "  Welsh  Anthology,"  (1770.)  Died  in  1801. 

Jones,  (RICHARD,)  a  Welshman,  published  about 
1654  "Gemma  Cambricum,"  a  work  of  great  ingenuity, 
in  which  all  the  books  and  chapters  of  the  Bible  were 
abbreviated  and  written  in  his  native  dialect. 

Jones,  (ROGER,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir 
ginia,  lie  fought  against  the  British  on  the  northern 
frontier  in  1813  and  1814,  and  became  adjutant-general 
in  1825.  Died  in  1852. 

Jones,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  major-general,  born 
in  Virginia,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  in 
Western  Virginia  in  1862-63.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  1864. 

Jones,  (STEPHEN,)  born  in  London  in  1763.  He  was 
the  editor  of  the  Whitehall  "Evening  Post,"  the  "Bio- 
graphia  Dramatica,"  and  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary," 
(2d  edition,  1796.)  Died  in  1827. 

Jones,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas  during  the  reign  of  James  II.  He  openly  opposed 
the  encroachments  of  the  king  on  the  laws  of  England, 
and  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1686. 

See  MACAUI.AY,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi. 

Jones,  (THOMAS  M.,)  born  in  Virginia  about  1835, 
became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army 
about  1862. 

Jones,  (THOMAS  RYMER,)  an  English  physician  and 
surgeon,  distinguished  as  a  comparative  anatomist  and 
physiologist,  was  born  about  1810.  He  was  educated 
at  London  and  Paris.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  in  King's  College,  London,  and 
in  1840  became  Fullerian  professor  of  physiology  in 
the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.  In  1844  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among  his 
works  may  be  mentioned  "  A  General  Outline  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom,"  (1841,)  and  "The  Natural  History 
of  Animals,"  (ist  vol.,  1844.) 

Jones,  (THOMAS  WHARTOX,)  a  British  oculist  and  phy 
siologist,  born  at  Saint  Andrew's,  Scotland,  about  1808. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Oph 
thalmic  Medicine  and  Surgery,"  and  became  professor 
of  ophthalmic  medicine  in  University  College,  London. 

Jones,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  judge  under  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.,  was  born  in  1566.  He  wrote  several 
legal  works,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  king's  bench  in 
1625.  Died  in  1640. 

Jones,  (WILLIAM,)  an  able  mathematician,  born  in 
the  island  of  Anglesey  in  1680.  He  taught  mathematics 
for  several  years,  and  corresponded  with  the  most  dis 
tinguished  scientific  men  of  that  age.  He  was  the  friend 
of  Newton  and  of  Halley,  and  the  father  of  the  emi 
nent  Orientalist  Sir  William  Jones.  He  held  the  office 
of  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1749. 
Among  his  productions  are  "A  Compendium  of  the  Art 
of  Navigation,"  (1702,)  and  several  works  in  defence 
of  the  theories  of  Newton. 

Jones  (WILLIAM)  of  Nayland,  a  learned  Episcopal 
divine  and  multifarious  writer,  born  in  Northampton 
shire,  England,  in  1726,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1749. 
Of  his  productions  we  may  mention  "Catholic  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  provedfrom  Scripture,"  (1756,)  an  "Essay 
on  the  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1762,) 
"  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Language  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (1786,)  and  two  political  treatises 
against  the  French  Revolution,  entitled  "A  Letter  from 
Thomas  Bull  to  his  Brother  John,"  and  "  The  Scholar 
armed  against  the  Errors  of  the  Times."  He  was  per 
petual  curate  of  Nayland.  Died  in  1800. 

See  WILLIAM  STEVENS,  "  Life  of  W.  Jones  of  Nayland,"  1801. 

Jones,  [Lat.  JONF/SIUS,]  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  eminent 
Orientalist,  son  of  William  Jones,  noticed  above,  (1680- 
1749,)  was  born  in  London  September  28,  1746.  He 
lost  his  father  when  he  was  three  years  of  age  ;  but  his 
mother,  a  lady  remarkable  both  for  her  learning  and 
accomplishments,  ably  superintended  his  education.  In 
1753  he  was  placed  at  the  Harrow  School,  of  which  Dr. 
Thackeray  was  preceptor.  Jones  early  distinguished 
himself  for  his  classical  acquirements,  and  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  entered  University  College,  Oxford,  with  more 
learning  than  many  good  scholars  have  carried  thence. 


The  following  year  he  left  Oxford,  to  become  tutor  to 
the  son  of  Earl  Spencer,  in  whose  family  he  continued 
to  reside  for  five  years.  During  this  period  he  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  the  acquirement  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  He  was  also  versed  in  nearly  all  the  Euro 
pean  tongues.  In  1768,  at  the  request  of  the  King  of 
Denmark,  he  translated  the  "Life  of  Nadir  Shah"  from 
the  Persian  into  French.  The  year  following  he  issued 
a  valuable  Persian  Grammar.  In  1770  he  began  the 
study  of  law,  and  in  1774  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
In  March,  1783,  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  at  Fort  William,  in  Bengal,  and  re 
ceived  the  order  of  knighthood.  Soon  after  he  married 
Anna  Maria  Shipley,  a  daughter  of  the  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph.  In  the  following  September  Sir  William  Jones 
reached  India,  where  he  continued  to  pursue  his  Oriental 
studies  with  unabated  zeal.  He  also  organized  (about 
1785)  the  "  Asiatic  Society,"  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
further  information  relative  to  the  sciences,  antiquities, 
languages,  and  history  of  Asia.  He  died  at  Calcutta 
on  the  271)1  of  April,  1794,  after  a  short  illness.  In  the 
branch  of  literature  to  which  he  devoted  his  attention 
he  undoubtedly  surpassed  all  other  Europeans.  He  is, 
however,  to  be  equally  esteemed  for  his  noble  qualities 
and  Christian  virtues  as  for  his  vast  erudition.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "  Commentaries  on  Asiatic 
Poetry,"  commenced  in  his  twenty-first  year,  and  contain 
ing  translations  from  the  most  distinguished  Hebrew, 
Persian,  Arabic,  and  Turkish  poets,  treatises  "  On  the 
Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  "  On  the  Second 
Classical  Book  of  the  Chinese,"  "  On  the  Musical  Modes 
of  the  Hindus,"  and  a  translation  of  the  "Institutes 
of  Manu,"  and  a  prose  translation  of  Kalidasa's  cele 
brated  poem  "  Sacontala,"  ("  Sakoontala,")  both  from 
the  original  Sanscrit.  He  was  also  author  of  several 
works  on  the  laws  of  England  and  of  India. 

See  LORD  TEIGNMOUTH,  "  Life  of  Sir  William  Jones,"  1804  ; 
"  Autobiography  of  William  Jones,"  published  by  his  son,  London, 
1846;  H.  A.  HAMAKEK,  "  Oratio  de  Vita  et  Mentis  G.  Jonesii," 
Leyden,  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  :"  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  January,  1805:  GARY,  "Lives  of  English  Poets  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White." 

Jones,  (WILLIAM  ALFRED,)  an  American  writer  and 
critic,  was  born  in  1817.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1836.  He  has  contributed  largely  to  various 
periodicals,  and  published  several  volumes  of  essays. 
His  "Characters  and  Criticisms"  (2  vols.,  1857)  was 
highly  commended  by  Washington  Irving. 

Jonesius.    See  JONES,  (SiR  WILLIAM.) 

Jong,  de,  deh  yong,  (LuDOLK,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  battle-  and  hunting-scenes,  born  near  Rotterdam  in 
1616  ;  died  in  1697. 

Jongelingx,  yong'eh-links',  (JACOH,)  a  Flemish  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1531.  Among  his  works  is  a 
monument  to  Charles  the  Bold  at  Bruges.  Died  in  1606. 

Jonin,  zho'naN',  (GILKERT,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  poet, 
born  in  Auvergne  in  1596.  He  translated  into  Latin, 
with  many  modifications,  the  Odes  of  Anacreon,  which 
he  published  under  the  title  of  "  The  Christian  Anacreon." 
He  wrote  several  Greek  and  Latin  odes.  Died  in  1638. 

Joiisius,  yon'se-us,  (JoiiANN,)  a  German  scholar,  born 
at  Flensburg  in  1624.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Scriptoribus  Historian  Philosophical,"  (1659,)  which 
was  once  highly  prized.  Died  at  Leipsic  in  1659. 

Jon'son  or  Johnson,  (BEN,)  one  of  the  most  cele 
brated  English  poets  and  dramatists,  was  born  at  West 
minster  in  1574.  His  father,  a  Protestant  clergyman, 
died  a  month  previous  to  his  birth.  Jonson's  mother 
subsequently  married  a  master-bricklayer,  who  sent  him 
to  Westminster,  then  under  the  charge  of  Camden,  to 
whom  he  afterwards  dedicated  the  drama  entitled  "  Every 
Man  in  his  Humour."  Jonson  regarded  his  preceptor 
through  life  with  esteem  and  affection.  In  his  sixteenth 
year  he  entered  the  University  of  Cambridge  ;  but,  on 
account  of  his  straitened  circumstances,  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  college  and  to  assist  his  step-father  as  a  mason. 
Becoming  disgusted  with  this  employment,  he  enlisted 
in  the  army  in  Flanders,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself 
by  his  bravery.  When  he  returned,  as  Gifford  observes, 
"he  brought  little  but  the  reputation  of  a  brave  man,  a 
smattering  of  Dutch,  and  an  empty  purse."  He  soon 
afterwards  joined  a  company  of  actors  ;  but,  having  killed 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


JONSSON 


1291 


JO R DENS 


one  of  them  in  a  duel,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and 
narrowly  escaped  svith  his  life.  During  his  confinement 
he  was  converted  by  a  priest  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  Subsequently,  after  a  careful  examination, 
he  renounced  his  adopted  faith,  and  was  again  received 
into  the  communion  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1598 
he  produced  "  Every  Man  in  his  Humour,"  a  drama, 
which  at  once  brought  him  into  notice.  One  of  the 
characters  of  this  play  is  said  to  have  been  performed 
by  Shakspearc.  It  was  followed  by  numerous  produc 
tions,  which  added  to  the  fame  he  had  already  acquired. 
About  1605  he  assisted  Chapman  and  Marston  in  writing 
"  Eastward  Hoe."  This  was  regarded  as  a  libel  on  the 
Scots,  and  his  associates  were  thrown  into  prison,  whither 
he  voluntarily  accompanied  them.  The  three  poets  were 
condemned  to  lose  their  ears  and  noses ;  but,  through 
Jonson's  influence  at  court,  they  escaped.  He  was  shortly 
afterwards  created  poet-laureate  by  James  I.,  with  an 
annual  pension  of  ;£ioo  and  a  tierce  of  Spanish  wine. 
Jonson  died  in  1637.  On  his  death-bed  he  expressed 
the  deepest  penitence  for  the  profanity  that  he  had  intro 
duced  into  his  plays,  which,  with  this  exception,  are  far 
purer  in  morals  than  the  other  dramas  of  that  age.  Jon- 
soivs  convivial  habits  (perhaps  his  greatest  weakness) 
caused  him  to  suffer  from  poverty  in  his  declining  years. 
He  was  accustomed  to  meet  Shakspeare  and  other  dis 
tinguished  persons  at  the  drinking-houses  of  London. 
He  also  gave  costly  entertainments  at  his  own  residence. 
He  was  brave,  generous,  and  benevolent,  and  governed 
by  the  highest  principles  of  honour.  Towards  his  friends 
lie  was  unwavering  in  his  attachment,  and  was  easily 
reconciled  to  those  who  had  injured  him.  As  a  poet  he 
exhibits  uncommon  classical  learning,  great  intellectual 
power,  and  acuteness  of  perception.  He  unquestionably 
deserves  much  praise  for  refining  English  poetry  and 
the  morals  of  the  English  stage.  "  I  think  him,"  says 
Dryden,  "the  most  learned  and  judicious  writer  which 
any  theatre  ever  had.  ...  If  I  would  compare  him  with 
Shakspeare,  I  must  acknowledge  him  the  most  correct 
poet,  but  Shakspeare  the  greater  wit.  Shakspeare  was 
the  Homer  or  father  of  dramatic  poets.  Jonson  was  the 
Virgil,  the  pattern  of  elaborate  writing.  I  admire  him, 
but  I  love  Shakspeare."  Jonson  was  most  successful  in 
satirical  comedies,  the  style  of  which  he  obtained  from 
the  ancients.  To  the  refinement  and  thought  displayed 
in  his  writings  may  be  attributed  the  ill  success  which 
many  of  them  first  met  with  among  the  English  people, 
whose  taste  had  been  vitiated  by  the  low  wit  and  ob 
scenity  which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  hear  from 
the  stage.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  dramas 
are  "Cynthia's  Revels,"  (1600,)  "  Sejanus,"  (1603,)  "  Vol- 
pone,"'(i6o5,)  "The  Alchemist,"  (1610,)  and  "Catiline's 
Conspiracy,"  (1611.) 

See  CHETWOOD,  "Life  of  Hen  Jonson,"  1756;  "Memoir  of  Ben 


vol.  i.,  1820;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1856. 

Jonssoii,  (ARNGRIM.)     See  JONAS. 

Jonsson,  yons'son,  (FiNN,)  [Lai.  FIN'NUS  JOHAN 
N^F/US,]  a  clergyman  and  historical  writer  on  the  church 
and  literature  of  Iceland,  was  born  in  that  island  in 
1704.  After  receiving  his  education  at  the  University 
of  Copenhagen,  he  returned  to  Iceland.  Died  in 
His  most  important  work  is  the  "Ecclesiastical  Historj 
of  Iceland,"  ("Historia  Ecclesiastica  Islandiae.") 

Jonston,  (ARTHUR.)     See  JOHNSTON. 

Jordaens,  you'dlns,  (JAKOU,)  a  distinguished  painter 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1594.  He  studied  under  Van  Oort 
but  was  indebted  for  the  most  of  his  artistic  knowledg 
to  Rubens,  by  whom  he  was  subsequently  employed.  H 
painted  with  rapidity  and  ease,  and  his  colouring  was 
rich  and  harmonious  ;  but  he  was  deficient  in  elegano 
and  loftiness  of  conception.  Among  his  numerous  work 
are  "Jesus  Christ  in  the  Midst  of  the  Doctors,"  (a  paint 
ing  which  has  been  frequently  attributed  to  Rubens 
"The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  "Saint  Peter  Cut 
ting  off  the  Ear  of  Malchus,"  and  "The  Satyr  and  th 
Man  who  Blew  Hot  and  Cold."  Died  in  i6J&. 

See  DKSCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamamls,"  etc.:  Lout 
ALVIN.  "  J  Jordaens,"  1844;  J.  CAMPO  WEYEK.MAN,  "  De  Schildei 
konst  der  Nederlanders." 


Jordan,  zhoR'doN',  (CAMILLE,)  a  French  politician 
.ud  orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1771.  He  was  distinguished 
3r  his  moderate  principles  during  the  Revolution,  and 
lis  attachment  to  the  Catholic  religion,  which  he  bravely 
lefended.  Having  been  proscribed  by  the  Directory,  he 
ought  an  asylum  in  Switzerland  in  1797,  and  afterwards 
n  Germany,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  men  of  note.  Jordan  returned  to 

ranee  about  1800.  During  Bonaparte's  administration 
ic  led  a  private  life;  but  upon  the  accession  of  Louis 

VIII.  he  was  ennobled,  and  elected  to  the  Chamber 

f  Deputies.  He  wrote  several  works  of  a  political 
lature.  Died  in  1821. 

See  LAMARTINE,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  PIERRE  SIMON 

AI.I.ANCHE.  "  filoge  de  C.  Jordan,"  1823;  THIERS,  "Histoiy  of 
he  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Revue 
les  Deux  Mondes,"  vol.  lx.,  1868. 

Jordan,  (CHARLES  ETIENNE,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1700.  He  was 
appointed  privy  councillor  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
1740.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Berlin  by  the 
suppression  of  mendicity  and  the  promotion  of  educa- 
ion.  Among  his  works  is  "Travels  in  France  anrl 
England,"  (1735.)  Died  in  1745. 

See  MM.  HAAG,  "La  V ranee  protestante." 

Jor'daii,  (DOROTHEA,)  or  DOROTHY  Bland,  a  cele- 
jrated  actress,  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  about  1762. 
In  1785  she  made  her  appearance  in  London  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre,  where  she  enjoyed  the  highest  popularity. 
She  subsequently  became  the  mistress  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  (afterwards  William  IV.,)  to  whom  she  bore 
ten  children.  This  connection  being  suddenly  broken 
off  by  the  duke  in  1811,  Mrs.  Jordan  retired  to  France, 
where  she  died  in  1816  in  great  poverty.  As  an  actress 
he  possessed  uncommon  versatility,  and  excelled  both 
in  comedy  and  tragedy. 

See  J.  BOA  DEN,  "Life  of  D.  Jordan,"  2  vols.,  1831;  OXBERRV, 
Dramatic  Biography." 

Jordan,  HOR-dan',  (ESTEBAN,)  a  Spaniard,  born  at 
Valladolid  in  1543,  excelled  in  painting,  architecture, 
and  sculpture,  but  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the 
last-named  art.  Philip  II.  appointed  him  his  first 
sculptor.  Among  his  most  admired  productions  are 
"Saint  Peter,"  "Saint  Paul,"  and  "The  Addition  of 
the  Kings."  Died  in  1605. 

Jordan,  yoR'clan,  QOIIAXN  CHRISTOPH,)  a  noted  anti 
quary,  and  privy  councillor  to  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  the  author  of  annotations  on  Livy,  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  Polybius,  and  Diodorus  Siculus.  Died 
about  1740. 

Jordan,  (Sir  JOSEPH,)  an  English  admiral,  who  com 
manded  at  the  victory  of  Solebay,  which  was  gained  over 
the  Dutch  in  1672. 

Jordan,  (RUDOLF,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Berlin 
about  1 8 10.  His  delineations  of  fisher-life  in  Helgoland 
are  greatly  admired  :  among  these  we  may  name  "The 
Shipwreck"  and  "The  Death  of  the  Pilot." 

Jordan,  (SYLVESTER,)  a  German  jurist  and  politician, 
born  near  Innspruck  in  1792.  He  was  imprisoned  about 
twelve  years  for  his  liberal  opinions,  and  was  released 
in  1845.  Died  in  1861. 

Jordan,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
lived  in  London  ;  died  about  1685. 

Jor'dan,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  officer  in  the  Con 
federate  service,  born  in  Virginia  about  1821,  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Jordanes.     See  JORNANDES. 

Jordano,  (LucA.)     See  GIORDANO. 

Jordano  Bruno.     See  BKUNO. 

Jor'den,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  physician  and  scien 
tific  writer,  born  in  Kent  in  1569.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  the  University  of  Padua.  Died  in  1632. 

Jordeiis,  yoR'dens,  (GEORG,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at 
Deventer  in  1718,  was  known  as  the  author  of  two  legal 
treatises,— one  in  defence  of  the  University  of  Utrecht, 
and  the  other  on  the  Mosaic,  Greek,  and  Roman  laws. 
Died  in  1771. 

Jordeiis  or  Joerdens,  yoR'dens,  (KARL  HF.INRICH,) 
a  German  philologist  and  biographer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Mansfeld  in  1757.  He  was  rector  of  an  academy  at 
Lauban.  His  chief  work  is  an  excellent  "Dictionary  of 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gr(mtral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JORDT 


1292 


JOSEPH 


German  Poets  and  Prose  Writers,"  (6  vols.,  1805-11.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  ERSCH  und  CRUDER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jordy,  zhoR'de',  (Nicoi.AS  Louis,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Abreschwiller  in  1758;  died  in  1825. 

Jore,  zhoR,  (CLAUDE  FRANgois,)  a  French  printer, 
lived  about  1750,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  for  whom 
he  published  several  works.  He  wrote  "  Six  Letters  to 
Voltaire,"  and  some  other  productions. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance  generale." 

Jorgenson,  yoR'gen-son,  written  also  Jiirgensen, 
(JORGEN,)  a  Danish  adventurer,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1779.  Having  gone  to  England  in  early  youth,  he 
was  some  years  later  promoted  to  the  command  of  an 
English  vessel,  and  during  the  war  between  England 
and  Denmark  sailed  for  Iceland.  On  the  25th  of  June, 
1809,  he  landed  with  twelve  English  sailors  and  took 
the  governor,  Count  Trampe,  prisoner,  and  proclaimed 
that  Iceland  was  free  and  independent  of  Denmark. 
With  a  force  of  eight  Icelanders,  he  continued  to  exer 
cise  undisputed  sway  over  the  island  until  August,  when 
the  British  restored  it  to  its  former  government.  During 
this  revolution  not  a  gun  was  fired  nor  a  drop  of  blood 
'  shed.  The  inhabitants  feared  to  resist,  as  their  capital 
lay  exposed  to  the  guns  of  Jorgenson's  vessel.  Soon 
after  his  return  to  England  he  became  very  dissipated, 
and  was  finally  convicted  and  transported  to  New  South 
Wales,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died.  While  in 
Newgate,  before  his  transportation,  he  wrote  a  work  en 
titled"  "The  Religion  of  Christ  the  Religion  of  Nature." 

See  SIR  WM.  HOOKER,  "Tour  in  Iceland;"  SKULASON,  "J.  Jiir- 
gensens  Usurpation;  Island,"  1832  ;  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Jorisz,  yoR'is-,  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Delft  in  1525  ;  died  in  1552. 

Jorisz,  (DAVID.)     See  DAVID  GEORGE. 

Jorjanee,  Jorjani,  or  Djordjani,  jor-ja'nee,  (Saeed 
Shereef  Zein-ed-Deen  Abool  Hassan,  or  Said 
Scherif  Zeiii-ed-Din  Abou'l  Hassan,  sa-eed'  sher- 
eety  zan  (or  zin)  ed-deen'  a'bool  has'san,)  a  renowned 
Arabian  writer,  born  in  Tagoo,  (Tagou,)  in  the  district 
of  Asterabad  and  the  region  called  Jorjan,  in  1339.  lie 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  among  which  per 
haps  the  most  important  is  an  extremely  valuable  dic 
tionary,  entitled  "Tarafat,"  (i.e.  "  Definitions.")  Jorjanee 
enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  great  conqueror  Tamerlane. 
Died  in  1413. 

Jor-nan'des  or  Jor-da'nes,  a  distinguished  Gothic 
historian  of  the  sixth  century,  was  secretary  to  the  Gothic 
kings  of  Italy.  Having  embraced  Christianity,  he  was 
ordained  Bishop  of  Ravenna  in  552.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Goths"  until  the  reign 
of  Vitiges,  who  was  conquered  by  Belisarius,  ("  De  Ge- 
tarum  sive  Gothorum,  Origine  et  Rebus  gestis.")  It  was 
first  printed  at  Augsburg  in  1515,  and  is  highly  prized. 
He  also  wrote  an  abridgment  of  universal  history,  en 
titled  "  De  Regnorum  et  Temporum  Successione." 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis;"  ERSCH  und  GRUBER, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  D.  W.  MOLLER,  "  Disputatio  Circu- 
laris  de  Jornande,"  1690. 

Jor'tin,  (JOHN,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  critic, 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1698.  Soon 
after  graduating  at  Cambridge  he  settled  in  his  native 
city,  where  he  gained  great  distinction  for  his  eloquence 
and  learning.  He  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  London 
in  1764.  Of  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  volume  of 
"Latin  Poems,"  (1722,)  which  are  classed  among  the 
most  finished  of  the  modern  productions  in  that  lan 
guage,  "  Miscellaneous  Observations  on  Authors,  An 
cient  and  Modern,"  (2  vols.,  1732,)  "Remarks  upon 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (5  vols.,  1751-73,)  and  the  "Life 
of  Erasmus,"  (1758.)  Died  in  1770.  "Jortin's  sermons," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "are  very  elegant." 
See  JOHN  DISNEY,  "  Life  of  Jortin,"  1792. 

Josaphat.     See  JEHOSHAPHAT. 

Jo'seph,  [Heb.  ^DV ;  Gr.  'lum/fr :  Lat.  JOSE'PHUS  ; 
It.  JOSEF,  yo-sef ;  Sp.  JOSEF,  Ho-seY',|  one  of  the  twelve 
patriarchs,  and  the  favourite  son  of  Jacob,  was  born  in 
Mesopotamia  about  1525  B.C.  At  an  early  age,  on  ac 
count  of  their  jealousy,  he  was  sold  by  his  brothers  to 
some  Ishmaelitish  merchants,  who  carried  him  as  a  slave 
into  Egypt,  over  which  kingdom  he  was  subsequently 


appointed  governor  by  Pharaoh.  The  descendant.;  of  his 
sons  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  formed  the  two  half-tribes, 
which  exerted  no  little  influence  in  the  Hebrew  nation. 

See  Genesis  xxxv.-l. 

Joseph  [Ger.  pron.  yo'sSf]  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  son  of  Leopold  I.,  was 
born  in  1676.  In  1687  he  was  proclaimed  King  of  Hun 
gary,  and  in  1690  King  of  the  Romans.  At  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1705,  he  ascended  the  imperial  throne. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Louis  XIV.,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  England,  Holland,  and  Savoy. 
The  allied  armies  were  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene 
and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Joseph  granted,  through 
the  influence  (it  is  said)  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  nume 
rous  privileges  to  his  Protestant  subjects.  Died  in  1711. 

See  G.  LANGE,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  des  K a ysers  Joseph  I.,"  1712; 
FRANZ  WAGNER,  "Historia  Joseplii  I.  Cssaris  Augusti,"  1745; 
ERSCH  und  GKUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Joseph.  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  eldest  son  of 
Francis  of  Lorraine  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  was 
born  in  Vienna  in  1741.  In  1764  he  was  elected  King 
of  the  Romans,  and  in  the  following  year  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne  of  Germany.  He  married  Isabella, 
a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  in  1760,  and  Maria 
Joscpha,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Charles  VII.,  about 
1764.  In  1772  he  signed,  with  the  sovereigns  of  Russia 
and  Prussia,  the  treaty  by  which  Poland  was  divided 
between  them.  At  the  death  of  his  mother,  in  1780, 
he  came  into  possession  of  Hungary  and  all  the  other 
hereditary  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria.  He 
united  with  Catherine  of  Russia,  six  years  later,  in  a 
Turkish  war,  in  which  his  general  Laudon  gained 
several  important  victories.  During  his  reign  he  intro 
duced  many  civil  and  ecclesiastical  reforms,  which  would 
probably  have  been  very  beneficial  to  his  subjects  had 
he  acted  with  more  calmness  and  deliberation.  He 
abolished  feudal  serfdom,  regulated  the  taxes,  allowed 
liberty  of  conscience  and  rights  of  citizenship  to  all 
denominations  of  Christians,  mitigated  the  condition  of 
the  Jews,  suppressed  several  convents,  greatly  abridged 
the  power  of  the  pope  and  clergy  in  his  dominions,  and 
encouraged  manufactures  and  industry.  But  his  zeal  in 
correcting  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church  caused  an 
insurrection  in  Belgium  ;  while  his  attempt  to  establish 
the  German  as  the  universal  language  in  his  dominions 
induced  the  Hungarians  to  revolt.  He  died,  without  issue, 
in  February,  1790,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Leopold  II. 

See  PAGANEI.,  "Histoire  de  Joseph  II,"  1843:  F.  X.  HUBER, 
"GeschiclHe  Kaiser  Joseph's  II.,"  2  vols..  1792;  L.  A.  DE  CARAC- 
cioi.i,  "Vie  de  Joseph  II,  Empereur  d'Allemagne,"  1790;  JGNAZ 
CORNOVA,  "Leben  Joseph  II.,  Romischen  Kaisers,"  1802;  C.  T. 
HEYNE,  "  Geschichte  Kaiser  Joseph's  II.,"  2  vols., 1848  ;  RAMSHORN, 
"  Kaiser  Joseph  II.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1845. 

Joseph,  FATHER,  [It.  Fra  GIUSEPPE,]  an  Italian  mis 
sionary,  whose  family  name  was  SEBASTIANI.  He  went 
to  Persia,  and  obtained  no  little  influence  at  the  court  of 
the  Shah.  He  used  his  power  in  favour  of  the  English 
interests  and  against  those  of  the  French.  He  was 
acquainted  with  several  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
translated  the  works  of  the  Persian  poet  Hafiz  into 
Latin. 

Joseph,  zho'zeP,  (FRANC.OIS  LECLERC  du  Trem- 
blay — clii  titSm'bli',)  called  FATHER  JOSEPH,  a  French 
monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1577,  became  the  agent  and 
confidant  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  employed  him  in 
negotiations  and  intrigues.  Died  in  1638. 

See  ABBE  RICHARD,  "Vie  du  Pere  Joseph,"  2  vols. ;  "  Le  ve'ri- 
table  Pere  Joseph,"  1704;  RICHELIEU,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Joseph  OF  EXETER.     See  ISCANUS. 

Joseph  Al'bo,  a  Jew,  distinguished  for  his  learning, 
born  at  Sora,  in  Spain,  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  on  Jewish  faith,  entitled  "  Se- 
pher  Ikkarim."  Died  in  1430. 

Joseph  Ben  Gorion.     See  GORTON  IDES. 

Joseph  Emaiiuel,  [Port.  JOZE  MANOEL,  zho-za'  ma- 
no-61',]  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1714.  In  1750  he  suc 
ceeded  his  father,  John  V.  In  1755  his  kingdom  suffered 
from  a  great  earthquake,  which  destroyed  a  large  part 
of  Lisbon  and  killed  about  sixty  thousand  persons.  In 
1758  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him,  in  which 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


JOSEPH 


JGSUH 


he  was  severely  wounded.  He  discovered  that  the  Jesuits 
were  implicated  in  the  plot,  and  immediately  caused  all 
against  whom  any  evidence  was  brought  to  be  executed. 
He  also  issued  an  edict  by  which  all  the  Jesuits  in  Por 
tugal  were  declared  traitors.  In  1762  he  united  with 
England  in  a  war  against  France  and  Spain.  He  enacted 
several  laws  to  encourage  education  and  to  advance 
religious  toleration,  and  restricted  the  powers  of  the 
Inquisition.  Died  in  1777. 

See  "Leben  Joseph  Emmanuels  Konigs  von  Portugal,"  Nurem 
berg,  1778. 

Joseph  Meir,  (maR,)  a  French  Jew,  born  at  Avignon 
in  1496.  He  wrote  a  work,  in  Hebrew,  on  the  Kings  of 
France  and  the  Sultans  of  Turkey.  Died  in  1554. 

Josephe,  the  French  of  JOSEPHUS,  which  see. 

Josephine,  jo'ze-feen',  [Fr.  pron.  zho'za'fen',]  origin 
ally  Marie  Joseph  Rose  Tascher  de  la  Fagerie, 
(tS'sha'  deh  IS  pt/h're',)  wife  of  Napoleon  I.  of  France, 
was  born  in  1/63  in  the  island  of  Martinique.  At  a 
very  early  age  she  attracted  attention  by  her  remark 
able  beauty  and  vivacity.  About  1778  she  went  to 
reside  in  France  with  an  aunt  by  whom  she  had  been 
adopted,  and  thus  became  the  heiress  to  a  large  for 
tune.  She  was  soon  after  married  to  Viscount  de  Beau- 
harnais,  one  of  the  most  polished  noblemen  of  the  French 
court.  In  1780  she  gave  birth  to  Eugene,  who  was  sub 
sequently  appointed  Viceroy  of  Italy  by  Bonaparte,  and 
in  1783  to  Hortense,  afterwards  Queen  of  Holland,  and 
mother  of  Napoleon  III.  Jealousies  having  arisen  be 
tween  Bettuharnais  and  his  wife,  the  former  sued  for  a 
divorce  before  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  The  case  was 
decided  in  favour  of  Josephine,  who  in  a  short  time 
sailed  for  Martinique  with  her  daughter.  At  this  period 
her  circumstances  were  so  straitened  that  she  was  glad 
to  accept  from  the  captain  of  the  vessel  a  pair  of  shoes 
for  Hortense.  At  the  expiration  of  three  years  she  re 
turned  to  France  and  was  reconciled  to  her  husband. 
During  the  French  Revolution  Beauharnais  boldly  op 
posed  the  measures  of  the  Jacobins,  by  whom  he  was 
executed  in  1794.  His  wife,  who  was  then  in  prison, 
escaped  the  same  fate  only  by  the  sudden  fall  of  Robes 
pierre.  Through  the  influence  of  Barras  and  Tallien, 
she  regained  part  of  her  husband's  property,  which  had 
been  confiscated.  She  now  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  fashion.  Her  talents  and  personal  attractions  enabled 
her  also  to  exert  no  little  influence  in  the  politics  of  that 
period.  In  1796  she  was  married  to  Bonaparte,  who  had 
recently  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
in  Italy.  At  the  time  Josephine  was  thought  by  her 
friends  to  have  formed  a  mesalliance.  After  Bona'parte 
became  First  Consul,  she  exerted  all  her  influence  to  alle 
viate  the  sufferings  of  the  royalists,  and  even  endeavoured 
to  persuade  him  to  restore  the  Bourbons.  While  Napo 
leon  was  in  Egypt,  she  had  bought  for  her  favourite  resort 
the  estate  of  Malmaison,  which  she  fitted  up  with  royal 
magnificence.  At  length  her  expenditures  for  this  and 
other  luxuries  became  so  enormous  as  to  occasion  the 
First  Consul  serious  embarrassment.  When  Napoleon 
was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  and  she  became  Empress 
of  France,  to  her  was  due  in  a  great  measure  the  honour  of 
having  imparted  to  the  court  of  the  Tuileries  the  splendour 
and  taste  for  which  it  was  then  distinguished.  From  the 
time  of  her  coronation  her  influence  over  the  emperor 
rapidly  diminished  ;  and,  as  there  was  no  longer  hope  of 
her  bringing  him  an  heir,  he  finally  resolved  to  divorce 
her.  The  announcement  of  this  decision  plunged  the 
empress  into  the  deepest  despair.  Napoleon  himself 
is  said  to  have  been  greatly  affected;  but  his  resolu 
tion  was  fixed,  and  the  bill  of  divorce  was  passed  in  1809. 
Josephine,  still  retaining  her  former  dignities  and  titles, 
retired  to  Malmaison.  Napoleon  occasionally  visited 
her,  and  appeared  to  cherish  a  sincere  affection  for  her. 
When  the  allied  armies  invaded  France,  she  was  treated 
with  the  greatest  respect  by  the  emperor  Alexander. 
She  died  in  1814,  soon  after  the  abdication  of  Napoleon. 
The  character  of  Josephine  has  been  greatly  admired. 
The  cause  of  this  is  to  be  attributed  more  to  her  pleasing 
manners  than  to  any  exalted  virtue  which  she  possessed. 
It  is  said  that  there  was  a  fascination  in  her  countenance 
which  no  painter  could  transfer  to  canvas.  She  had  a 
very  remarkable  memory,  was  accomplished,  educated, 


and  witty  ;  but  vanity  seems  to  have  had  an  unlimited 
ascendency  over  her,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  she 
was  endowed  with  so  many  uncommon  qualities  as  several 
modern  writers  have  attributed  to  her.  (See  BONA 
PARTE,  NAPOLEON.) 

See  "Josephine, "  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale,"  vol. 
xxxvii.  For  the  private  life  of  Josephine,  the  reader  may  consult 
AUBENAS*  "Histoire  de  I'lmpe'ratrice  Josephine,"  z  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
1857-59;  a'so  the  letters  of  Napoleon  to  Josephine,  and  of  Josephine 
to  Napoleon  and  to  her  daughter.  For  a  very  curious  account  of 
the  empress  Josephine's  descendants,  see  "  London  Review"  for 
June,  1866;  MARIE  ANNE  I.K  NORMAND,  "  Memoires  historiques 
et  secrets  de  Josephine,"  2  vols.,  1820,  (English  version  of  the  same, 
1848;)  P.  C.  HEADLEY,  "Life  of  the  Empress  Josephine,"  1852. 

Jo-se'phus,  [Fr.  JOSEPHE,  zho'zef';  It.  GIOSEFFO; 
jo-seT'fo,]  or,  more  fully,  Fla'vi-us  Jo-se'phus,  [Gr. 
<b/.u:3io(;  'HJarjxof,]  the  most  celebrated  of  Jewish  historians, 
was  born  at  Jerusalem  A.D.  37.  His  mother  was  of  the 
royal  house  of  the  Asmonaeans,  and  his  father  belonged  to 
the  sacerdotal  order  from  which  the  chief  pontiff's  were 
chosen.  He  pursued  his  studies  in  his  native  city  with 
such  assiduity  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  often 
consulted  on  abstruse  points  of  Jewish  law.  He  after 
wards  joined  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  and  passed  three 
years  with  a  hermit  in  the  desert.  At  the  age  of  nine 
teen  he  became  a  Pharisee.  In  the  year  63  he  visited 
Rome,  in  order  to  procure  the  liberation  of  some  Jew 
ish  priests  whom  the  governor  Felix  had  sent  there  as 
prisoners.  He  was  favourably  received  at  the  imperial 
court,  and  succeeded  in  his  enterprise  through  the  in 
fluence  of  Poppaea,  the  wife  of  Nero.  On  his  return  to 
Judea  he  opposed  the  revolutionary  spirit  that  was  then 
gaining  ground  among  his  countrymen.  Perceiving  his 
efforts  to  be  of  no  avail,  he  accepted  the  government  of 
the  two  Galilees,  and  in  67  A.D.  bravely  defended  for  forty- 
seven  days  the  city  of  Jotapata  against  a  powerful  Roman 
army  under  Vespasian.  The  Romans  finally  triumphed, 
however,  and  of  the  Jewish  warriors  Josephus  alone  was 
saved,  on  account  of  his  predicting  that  Vespasian  would 
soon  receive  the  imperial  purple.  He  was  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  by  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  at  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  his  influence  procured  the 
liberation  of  his  brother  and  fifty  of  his  friends.  He 
afterwards  accompanied  Titus  to  Rome,  where  Vespasian 
granted  him  a  pension  and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a 
Roman  citizen.  As  a  mark  of  gratitude  for  these  and 
other  favours,  Josephus  assumed  the  emperor's  family 
name  of  Flavius.  -The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown ; 
but  some  writers  have  placed  it  A.D.  95.  The  most  im 
portant  works  of  Josephus  are  his  "  History  of  the  Jew 
ish  War,"  in  seven  books,  "  The  Antiquities  of  the  Jews," 
('lavdaiKjj  'Apxaudayia,)  in  twenty  books,  two  treatises 
"  Against  Apion  of  Alexandria,"  a  "  Discourse  on  the 
Martyrdom  of  the  Maccabees,"  and  an  account  of  his 
own  life.  All  of  these  were  written  in  Greek,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first,  which  was  originally  composed  in 
Syro-Chaklaic  and  afterwards  translated  into  Greek  by 
himself.  On  account  of  the  beauty  of  his  style,  he  has 
been  called  "  the  Grecian  Livy."  His  works  have  been 
translated  into  Latin  and  most  of  the  modern  languages 
of  Europe. 

See  G.  R.  VAN  HOEVEI.I.,  "  F.  Joseph!  Vita,"  1835;  J.  F.  ECK- 
HARD,  "  Biographic  des  beriihmten  F.  Josephus,"  1785  ;  FABRICIUS, 
"  Hibiiotheca  Gra^ca  ;"  CAVE,  "  Scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum  Historia 
literarin  :"  C.  F.  BOEHMERT,  "  Ueber  des  Flavius  Josephus  Zeugniss 
von  Chii^to,"  1823;  PHILARETE(JHASLES,  "  De  1'Autorite  histoiique 
de  F.  Josephe,"  1841. 

Josepin.     See  CESARI,  (GIUSEPPE.) 

Josh'u-a,  [Heb.  >'Bnrv  ;  Gr.  'l-qame  ;  Fr.  Josug,  zho'- 
zii'a',]  or  O'she-a,  the  son  of  Nun,  (Numbers  xiii.  16,) 
became  commander  of  the  Israelites  on  the  death  of 
Moses.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and  mili 
tary  skill,  and  gained  numerous  important  victories  over 
the  different  Canaanite  princes.  Much  controversy  has 
arisen  in  regard  to  the  authorship  of  the  book  of  Joshua. 
Many  suppose  it  to  have  been  compiled  from  manuscripts 
written  by  himself;  others  attribute  it  to  Samuel.  Died 
about  1425  is.c. 

Jo-sl'ah  [Heb.  iri'tyx* ;  Fr.  JOSIAS,  zho'se'as']  suc 
ceeded  his  father  Amon  on  the  throne  of  Judah  641  n.c., 
at  the  age  of  eight  years.  He  was  an  able  and  pious 
prince,  and  during  his  reign  of  thirty-one  years  many 
wise  and  beneficial  laws  were  enacted:  idolatry  was 
suppressed,  the  Temple  was  repaired,  and  the  true  forms 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOS  US 


1294 


JOUFFROr 


of  worship  were  restored.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle 
against  Pharaoh-Necho,  King  of  Egypt,  about  610  B.C. 

See  II.  Kings  xiii.,  xxii.  ;  II.  Chronicles  xxxiv.,  xxxv. 

Josias.     See  JOSIAH. 

Josika,  yo'she-koh,  (MlKi.os,)  a  Hungarian  nobleman 
and  celebrated  novelist,  born  in  1796  at  Torda,  in  Tran 
sylvania.  His  first  and  most  successful  work,  "  Abafi," 
a  historical  tale,  appeared  in  1836.  He  produced  about 
sixty  volumes  of  romances,  which  were  very  popular  with 
the  Hungarians.  In  1848,  as  a  member  of  the  upper 
house  of  nobles,  he  took  a  bold  stand  against  the  en 
croachments  of  Austria,  and  advocated  the  measures  of 
Kossuth.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Hungarians  in  1849  he 
lived  in  exile.  Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Josquin  Desprez  or  Depres.     See  DESPRES. 

Josselin  de  Courtenay,  zhos'laN'  den  kooRt'ny,  a 
French  nobleman,  who  went  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine  in 
iioi.  He  was  created  Count  of  Edessa  by  the  King  of 
Jerusalem,  and  won  great  distinction  by  the  numerous 
victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Saracens.  Died  in  1 147. 

Jost,  yost,  (IsAAK  MARCUS,)  a  learned  Jew,  born  at 
Bernburg,  in  Germany,  in  1793,  studied  philology  at 
Gottingen  and  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Israelites,"  (10  vols.,  1846.)  He  also  published  a 
translation  of  the  "  Mishna,"  with  a  text  and  commen 
tary.  Died  in  1862. 

Josue.     See  JOSHUA. 

Jo'tham,  [Heb.  DTil',]  King  of  Judah,  was  the  son 
of  Uzziah,  whom  he  succeeded  n.c.  757. 

See  II.  Kings  xv.  32,  38;  II.  Chronicles  xxvii. 

Jotun,  yo'tiin,  in  the  plural  Jotuns,  [an  old  Norse 
word  signifying  "giant,"  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
an  ancient  form  of  the  verb  to  "  eat,"  (Anglo-Saxon 
eofen,)  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  the  Jotuns 
being  their  prodigious  voracity.  (See  Thorpe's  "  North 
ern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  148,)]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  name  applied  to  certain  mythical  beings  supposed 
to  be  hostile  to  men  and  to  the  beneficent  /Esir.  The 
Jotuns,  or  Giants,  are  types  of  the  disturbing,  untamable, 
or  destructive  forces  of  nature.  Hence  the  wolf  Fenrir, 
(supposed  to  typify  volcanic  fire,)  Midgard's  Serpent, 
(the  vast  untamable  ocean,)  and  Hela  (the  goddess  of 
death)  are  all  represented  as  of  Jotun  birth.  Loki  him 
self  is  considered  to  be  of  Jotun  origin,  and  is  the  father 
of  the  mightiest  and  most  terrible  beings  belonging  to 
that  race.  Cold  or  frost,  being  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  desolation  and  death,  is  represented  as  the  parent  of 
a  powerful  family  of  Jotuns,  termed  Frost-giants.  The 
abode  of  the  Jotuns  is  called  Jotunheim  or  Utgard, 
(oot'gard,  i.e.  "outer  ward,")  and  comprises  the  desert 
regions  on  the  outermost  boundary  of  the  world.  The 
Jotuns  (i.e.  the  elements  of  disorder  and  desolation)  are 
represented  as  being  always  at  war  with  the  ^sir,  the 
powers  presiding  over  life  and  order.  (See  /EsiR.)  The 
opposition  is  eternal  ;  they  are  never  reconciled,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Vanir  and  /Esir,  (see  VANIR,)  because  there 
can  be  no  reconciliation  between  order  and  confusion,  or 
between  life  and  death. 

See,  besides  the  work  above  referred  to,  KEVSER,  "Religion  of 
the  Northmen;"  MAI.LET,  "Northern  Antiquities;"  PETEKSEN, 
"  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Jouarmet,  zhoo't'ni',  (FRANC.OIS  VATAR,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  statistician,  born  in  1765  ;  died  in  1845. 

See  LAMOTHE,  "  Jouannet,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1847. 

Jouamiin,  zhoo'S'naN',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1783  ;  died  in  1844. 

Joubert,  zhoo'baiR',  (BARTH^LEMY  CATHERINE,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Pont-de-Vaux,  in  Bresse,  in 
1769.  In  1791  he  enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
and  served  with  distinction  against  the  Austrians.  Two 
years  later  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Sardinians.  He 
soon  after  regained  his  liberty  and  returned  to  France, 
where  he  boldly  opposed  the  Jacobins.  In  1794  he  re 
ceived  the  appointment  of  adjutant-general,  and  in  1795, 
having  displayed  great  bravery  at  Loano,  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  brigadier-general  on  the  field  of  battle. 
He  subsequently  gained  distinguished  honours  at  several 
battles  in  Italy  and  in  the  Tyrol.  In  1799  he  was  ap 
pointed  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  fell  at 


the  battle  of  Novi,  in  August  of  that  year.  "He  united 
with  great  military  talents,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale,"  "  all  the  virtues  of  a  citizen.  He  was 
admired  by  all  parties,  and  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
glory  and  happiness  of  his  country." 

See  P.  J.  GAR  AT,  "  filoge  de  B.  C  Joubert,"  1799;  J.  LAVAL- 
I,£E,  "l5loge  de  Joubert,"  1800;  GUILBERT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de 
Joubert,"  etc.,  1799;  H.  LESUKUR,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  J.  J.  LE  FRANCOIS  DE  LALANUE,  "  Sur  le  General  Jou 
bert,"  1799;  THIERS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Joubert,  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  priest  and  Jansenist, 
distinguished  for  his  learning,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1689.  On  account  of  his  principles,  he  was  persecuted 
by  the  Jesuits  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille.  lie 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Apocalypse  and  on  a  number 
of  the  Hebrew  prophecies.  Died  in  1763. 

Joubert,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Lyons, 
known  as  the  author  of  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  French 
and  Latin  Dictionary,  taken  from  the  Original  and  Clas 
sical  Authors  in  both  Languages."  Died  in  1719. 

Joubert,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  moralist,  born  at  Mon- 
tignac  (Perigord)  in  1734,  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
about  1778.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Fontanes,  by 
whose  influence  he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of 
the  University  of  Paris  in  1809.  He  died  in  1824,  leaving 
many  manuscripts,  a  part  of  which  Chateaubriand  edited, 
with  the  title  of  "Pensees."  A  more  complete  edition 
of  the  "Pensees,  Essais,"  etc.  appeared  in  2  vols.,  1842. 

See  "Notice  sur  J.  Joubert,"  by  his  brother  ARNAUD,  1824; 
SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  Litteraires,"  and  "  Causeries  du  Luudi," 
tome  i.  ;  PAUL  RAYNAI.,  "Notice  sur  J.  Joubert,"  prefixed  to  his 
"Pensees,"  etc.,  1842;  "Essays  in  Criticism,"  by  MATTHEW  AR 
NOLD,  1865. 

Joubert,  (JOSEPH  ANTOINE  RENE,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Angers  in  1772.  He  served  with  distinction  at 
Hcliopolis,  Wagram,  (1809,)  Smolensk,  (1812,)  and  Lut- 
zen,  (1813.)  Died  in  1843. 

Joubert,  (LAURENT,)  an  eminent  French  physician, 
born  at  Valence  in  1529.  He  graduated  at  the  Univer 
sity  of  Montpellier,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  chosen 
chancellor.  lie  was  also  appointed  first  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Henry  III.  He  wrote  "Popular  Errors  in 
regard  to  Medicine,"  (1578-79,)  which  was  often  re 
printed,  and  a  "Treatise  on  Laughter."  Died  in  1583. 

See  A.MOREUX.  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  Joubert,"  1814;  BAYLE, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Joubert,  (LEON,)  a  French  biographer  of  the  present 
century,  wrote  many  able  articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Jouermeaux.     See  JUVENAL. 

Jouffroi,  de,  deh  zhoo'fiuva',  [  Lat.  JOFFRE'DUS,  ] 
(JEAN,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Luxeuil  about  1412. 
He  obtained  the  favour  of  Louis  XL,  who  procured  for 
him  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1461,  and  made  him  his  almoner. 
Died  in  1473. 

Jouffroy,  zhoo'fRwa',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1806.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1832,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux-Arts  in  1857. 

Jouffroy,  (THEODORE  SIMON,)  a  French  philosophical 
writer,  born  near  Mouthe  (Doubs)  in  1796,  was  a  pupil 
of  Victor  Cousin,  who  influenced  the  development  and 
direction  of  his  mind.  He  was  appointed  a  tutor  of 
philosophy  (eleve  repetiteur)  in  the  Normal  School  in 
1817.  This  school  having  been  suppressed  in  1822,  he 
began  to  write  for  several  journals  in  Paris.  In  1830  he 
became  a  professor  in  the  Normal  School,  then  re-estab 
lished.  He  produced  a  version  of  the  complete  works 
of  Thomas  Reid,  (6  vols.,  1828-35.)  In  1833  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy  in 
the  College  de  France.  He  exchanged  this  position  in 
1838  for  "the  office  of  librarian  to  the  University,  and 
succeeded  Laromiguiere  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
1837.  Among  his  works  are  "  Melanges  philosophiques," 
(1833,)  and  "Cours  d'Esthetique,"  (1843.)  lie  also 
produced  a  version  of  Dugald  Stewart's  "  Essays  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (1826,)  to  which  he  wrote  a  valuable 
preface.  Died  in  1842. 

See  MIGNET,  "Notice  sur  Jouffroy,"  1853;  ADOI.PHE  GAR- 
NIER,  article  "  Jouffroy"  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  philoso 
phiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  "'Nouvelle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

Jouffroy,  de,  deh  zhoo'fmva',  (CLAUDE  FRANgois 
DOROTHEE,)  MARQUIS,  an  ingenious  Frenchman,  born 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


JOUKOFSKI 


1295 


JO  USENET 


in  Franche-Comte,  about  1750.  He  studied  the  con 
struction  of  different  vessels,  and  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  propelling  boats  by  steam.  His 
first  vessel  of  this  kind  was  launched  in  1776.  Although 
this  attempt  was  far  from  being  successful,  Jouffroy  was 
-convinced  that  his  object  was  attainable.  In  1783  he 
completed  another  steam-vessel,  one  hundred  and  forty 
feet  long,  with  which  he  ascended  the  Saone  several 
miles,  but,  on  account  of  his  limited  means,  was  unable 
to  carry  his  invention  to  a  higher  state  of  perfection. 
The  inventions  of  Jouffroy  were  highly  spoken  of  by 
Robert  Fulton.  Died  in  1832. 

See  F.  A.  A.  MIGNET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Tra- 
vaux  de  M.  Jouffroy,"  Paris,  1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Joukofski,  (VASILI  ANDREIVITCH.)  See  ZHOOKOF- 
SKI. 

Joule,  jool,  ?  (JAMES  P.,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  experi 
mental  philosopher,  born  at  Salford,  near  Manchester, 
in  1818.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Dalton.  He 
made  some  discoveries  in  electro-magnetism,  and  in  the 
theory  of  heat.  He  is  considered  by  some  persons  as 
the  founder  of  the  modern  theory  of  the  correlation  of 
forces. 

Jourdain,  zhooR'clax',  (AMABLE  Louis  MARIE  Mi- 
CHI.I.  Brechillet — bRa'she'yi',)  a  distinguished  French 
writer  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  "Persia  ;  or,  A  Description  of  the 
History,  Government,  Religion,  and  Literature  of  that 
Empire,"  (5  vols.,  1814.)  He  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in  1818. 

Jourdain,  (ANSELME  Louis  BERNARD  Brechillet,) 
an  eminent  surgeon-dentist,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  invented  several  instru 
ments  used  by  dentists,  and  wrote  numerous  treatises  on 
dentistry.  Died  in  1816. 

See  J.  R.  DUVAL,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Jourdain," 
1816. 

Jourdain,  (CHARLES  MARIE  GABRIEL  Brechillet,) 
a  philosopher,  a  son  of  Amable,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1817.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  La  Philosophic  de  Saint  Thomas  d'Aquin,"  (2  vols., 
1858.) 

Jourdain,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  Benedictine  and 
antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Poligny  in  1696;  died  in 
1782. 

Jourdan,  zhooR'dfix',  (ANDRE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  Provence.  In  1795  he  was  elected 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  where  he  opposed  the 
laws  against  the  emigrants.  For  this  reason,  in  1797  he 
was  obliged  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Spain.  On  the  acces 
sion  of  Louis  XVIII.  Jourdan  was  chosen  councillor  of 
state.  Died  in  1831. 

Jourdan,  (AXTOINE  JACQUES  Louis,)  born  in  Paris 
in  1788,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Terms  used  in  the 
Natural  Sciences,"  (2  vols.,  1834.)  Died  in  1848. 

Jourdan,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1711  ;  died  in  1793. 

Jourdan,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  marshal  of  France,  born 
at  Limoges  in  1762,  was  the  son  of  a  poor  surgeon,  who 
paid  but  little  attention  to  his  education.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  he  entered  the  French  army,  and  fought  for 
the  Americans  in  the  Revolutionary  war  until  1782, 
when  he  returned  home  on  account  of  ill  health.  In 
1791  he  again  entered  the  army,  and  soon  after  received 
the  command  of  a  battalion,  and  served  under  La  Fa- 
yette  and  Dumouriez.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  general 
of  division.  Having  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Hondschoote,  in  1793,  he  was  chosen  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  French  army.  He  then  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Wattignies,  near  Mau- 
beuge,  and  raised  the  siege  of  that  town.  He  was  sub 
sequently  called  to  Paris  by  the  committee  of  public 
safety  to  consult  upon  the  future  movements  of  the 
army.  He  was  at  first  received  with  great  enthusiasm  ; 
but,  having  given  offence  by  the  candour  with  which 
he  expressed  his  sentiments,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
authority,  and  Pichegru  was  chosen  in  his  place.  In 
1794,  however,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
army  of  the  Moselle  against  the  Austrians,  over  whom, 
in  a  few  weeks,  he  won  the  important  battles  of  Arlon 
and  Fleurus.  He  also  captured  Charleroi  and  many 


other  towns.  In  the  autumn  of  1794  he  gained  the 
victories  of  Ayvaile  and  Aldenhoven.  He  afterwards 
took  Luxemburg,  Dusseldorf,  Frankfort,  and  Wiirzburg, 
but  in  September,  1796,  was  signally  defeated  by  the 
Archduke  Charles  near  the  last-named  place.  Jonrdan 
soon  after  resigned,  and,  having  returned  to  Paris,  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  of 
which  a  few  months  later  he  was  elected  president.  In 

!  1798  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  on 
the  Danube.  In  1799,  having  met  with  two  decisive 
defeats  from  the  Archduke  Charles,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Massena.  The  same  year  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  for  having  opposed  the  ambi- 

j  tious  projects  of  Napoleon.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Cisalpine  Republic  in  1800.  Though  created  a 
marshal  of  the  empire  in  1804,  no  military  command  of 
importance  was  given  to  him  until  he  accompanied  Jo 
seph  Bonaparte  to  Spain  as  major-general.  He  remained 

I  with  that  monarch  through  all  his  vicissitudes,  and  was 

i  the  nominal  commander  of  the  French  forces  when  they 

pSvere  defeated  at  Vitoria  by  Wellington  in  1813.  In  1818 
Louis  XVIII.  created  Jonrdan  a  peer  of  France.  Died 
in  1833.  He  was  the  author  of  two  works, — "Opera 
tions  of  the  Army  of  the  Danube  under  the  Orders  of 

i  General  Jourdan,"  and  "  History  of  the  Campaign  of 
1796,  containing  the  Operations  of  the  Army  of  the 

|  Sambre-et-Meuse."  Napoleon,  at  Saint  Helena,  con 
fessed  that  he  had  ill-treated  Jourdan,  whom  he  charac 
terized  as  a  "  true  patriot." 

See  THIERS,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  1'Empire;"  DE  COUR- 
CELI.ES,  "  Dictionnairedes  Generaux  Francais;"  MICHAUD,  "  Notices 
historiques  sur  le  Marechal  Jourdan,  les  Generaux  Kalckreuth,  Kil- 
maine,"  etc.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jourdan,  (MATHIEU  JOUVE,)  surnamed  COUPE-TETE, 
koop'tit',  ("  cut-throat,")  a  French  revolutionist,  noto 
rious  for  his  inhumanity,  was  born  in  Vivarais  in  1749. 
He  was  executed  in  1794. 

Jourde,  zhooRd,  (GILBERT  AMABLE,)  a  French  law 
yer,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1757,  in  1795  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  Died  in 
1837- 

.  Jourdeuil,  zhooR'dul' or  zhooR'duh'ye,  (DIDIER,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the 
massacre  in  September,  1792.  Died  about  1800. 

Jourgniac  Saiat-Meard,  zhooRn'ye-tk'  sax  ma'f  R', 
(Chevalier  FKAN<JOIS,)  a  French  satirical  writer  and 
royalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1745.  In  1792  he  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  was  acquitted.  Died 
in  1827. 

Jousse,  zhooss,  (DANIEL,)  an  eminent  jurist,  born 
at  Orleans,  in  France,  in  1704.  He  entered  a  college 
in  Paris,  where  he  gained  distinction  in  mathematics. 
He  subsequently  began  the  study  of  law.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "  Historical  Detail  of  the  City 
of  Orleans,"  and  "  New  Commentary  upon  the  Criminal 
Ordinance."  Died  in  1781. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "  Allgeineine  Encyklopaedie." 

Joussouf,  Joussef,  or  Joussof     See  YOOSUF. 

Jouvancy  or  Jouvency,  zhoo'vSN'se',  (JOSEPH,)  a 
celebrated  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Paris  in  1643.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  college  of  Louis 
le  Grand,  and  was  afterwards  called  by  his  superiors  to 
Rome  to  assist  in  writing  the  history  of  the  Jesuits.  His 
style  is  remarkable  for  its  purity  and  elegance.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Notes  upon  Juvenal,  Persius,  Terence, 
Horace,  Martial,  and  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,"  and 
the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the  Jesuits"  from 
1591  to  1616.  Died  in  1719. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  QCERARD,  "  La  France 
Litteraire." 

Jouvency.  See  JOUVAXCY. 

Jouvenet,  zhoov/ni/,  (JEAX,)  a  celebrated  historical 
painter,  born  at  Rouen,  France,  about  1646.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  his  uncle,  Laurent  Jouvenet,  and  afterwards 
studied  in  Paris  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  was  subsequently  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  granted  him  a  pension  of  1700  livres.  Having 
lost  the  use  of  his  right  hand  by  a  paralytic  stroke,  he 
ascertained  that  he  could  use  his  left  with  equal  facility, 
and  soon  after  painted  one  of  his  best  pictures,  a  repre 
sentation  of  Innocence  followed  by  Falsehood  and  seek- 


e  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


JOUPENNSJUX 


I  296 


JOTEUSE 


ing  protection  in  the  arms  of  Justice.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Esther  before  Ahasuerus,"  "Jesus  Christ 
driving  the  Money-Changers  from  the  Temple,"  "The 
Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  and  the  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross." 

See  D'ARGENVILLE,  "  Vies  des  Peintres ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Ge'nerale." 

Jouvenneaux.     See  JUVENAL. 

Jouy,  de,  deh  zhooV,  (Louis  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
lawyer,  and  advocate  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  where 
he  was  born  in  1714  ;  died  in  1771. 

Jouy,  de,  (VICTOR  JOSEPH  ETIENNE,)  an  eminent 
French  writer,  born  at  Jouy,  near  Versailles,  in  1764  or 
1769.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1790 
favoured  the  Revolution;  but  during  the  reign  of  terror 
he  fled  for  safety  to  Switzerland.  In  1794  he  returned  to 
France,  and,  after  serving  for  some  time  in  the  army,  which 
he  quitted  in  1797,  fixed  his  residence  in  Paris  and  turned 
his  attention  to  literary  pursuits.  Among  his  works  are 
the  operas  of  "The  Vestal"  (1807)  and  of  "The  Ama 
zon,"  the  tragedy  of  "  Sylla,"  (1822,)  "Cecil,"  a  novel, 
(1827,)  and  a  series  of  essays  entitled  "The  Hermit  of 
the  Chaussee  d'Antin,"  (5  vols.,  1812-14.)  The  last 
work,  which  somewhat  resembles  Addison's  "  Spec 
tator,"  obtained  a  European  reputation.  He  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  1815,  and  appointed  chief 
librarian  of  the  Louvre  in  1831.  Besides  the  works 
above  named,  he  wrote  "The  Hermit  in  the  Province," 
("L'Hermite  en  Province,"  14  vols.,  1818  et  scy.,)  and 
"The  Hermits  in  Prison,"  ("  Les  Hermites  en  Prison," 
2  vols.,  1823,)  which  was  very  popular.  Died  in  1846. 

See  QUE^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  CHARLES  NISARD,  m  the 
"Dictioimaire  de  la  Conversation;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'- 
rale  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1822. 

Jove.     See  JUPITER. 

Jovellanos,  de,  da  Ho-vel-ya'n6s,  (CASPAR  MEL- 
CHIOU,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  author,  and  scholar,  born 
of  noble  parentage  at  Gijon,  in  Asturias,  in  1744.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Oviedo,  Avila,  and  Alcala. 
In  1770  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Madrid,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  councillor  of 
state  by  Charles  III.  In  1778  he  became  a  judge  of 
the  criminal  court  at  Madrid.  Afterwards,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Don  Manuel  Godoy,  Prince  of  Peace, 
he  was  banished  to  Majorca,  where  for  more  than  seven 
years  lie  remained  a  prisoner.  He  returned  to  Spain 
in  1808,  and  in  a  short  time  became  a  member  of  the 
supreme  junta.  Among  his  works  are  several  valuable 
treatises  on  political  economy,  the  tragedy  of  "  Pelayo," 
(1790,)  the  comedy  of  "The  Honourable  Delinquent," 
a  "  Dissertation  on  English  Architecture,"  and  an  ex 
cellent  "  Memoir  on  Law  applied  to  Agriculture,"  ("  In- 
forme  sobre  la  Ley  agraria.")  Died  in  1811. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  CEAN  BER- 
MUDEZ,  "  Memorias  para  la  Vida  del  Don  G.  Jovellanos,"  1814; 
ANTILLON,  "  Noticias  historicas  de  G.  M.  de  Jovellanos,"  1812; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830. 

Jo'vi-an,  [Lat.  JOVIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  JOVIEN,  zho've-aN'; 
It.  GIOVIANO,  jo-ve-a'no,]  or,  more  fully,  Jo-vi-a'nus 
Fla'vi-us  Clau'dl-us,  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in 
Pannonia,  331  A.D.  He  early  distinguished  himself  as 
a  commander  in  the  Roman  army,  and,  though  an  avowed 
Christian,  received  many  marks  of  distinction  from  Julian 
the  Apostate,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  unsuccessful 
expedition  into  Persia.  At  the  death  of  that  sovereign, 
in  3°3>  Jovian  was  elected  emperor  by  the  army.  The 
Roman  troops  were  at  that  time  in  imminent  danger, 
both  on  account  of  the  superior  Persian  forces  by  which 
they  were  hemmed  in,  and  the  great  scarcity  of  provi 
sions.  Jovian,  after  bravely  repelling  several  attacks  of 
the  enemy,  formed  a  treaty,  by  which  he  agreed  to  give 
up  the  Roman  conquests  west  of  the  Tigris.  Returning, 
he  spent  some  time  at  Antioch,  where  he  annulled 
Julian's  laws  against  the  Christians  and  re-established 
the  orthodox  religion.  He  died  in  364,  at  Dadastana, 
in  Galatia,  as  he  was  proceeding  to  Constantinople. 


Jovianus.     See  JOVIAN. 

Jovien,  the  French  for  JOVIAN,  which  see. 

Jovin.     See  JOVINUS. 


Jo-viii'I-an,  [Lat.  JOVINIA'NUS;  Fr.  JOVINIEN,  zho'- 
ve'iie-^N',]  an  Italian  monk,  distinguished  for  his  bold 
opposition  to  the  growing  superstition  andencroachments 
of  the  Roman  Church.  He  particularly  censured  celi 
bacy,  fasting,  and  the  austerities  of  the  convent.  For 
the  propagation  of  these  principles  he  was  condemned 
for  heresy  by  the  Bishops  of  Rome  and  of  Milan,  and 
in  398,  by  the  orders  of  the  emperor  Honorius,  was 
scourged  and  banished.  Died  about  410  A.D. 

See  SAINT  JEROME,"  Contra  Jovinianum  ;"  BARONIUS,  "  Annales 
Ecclesiastic!." 

Joviniarms.     See  JOVINIAN. 

Jovinien.     See  JOVINIAN. 

Jo-vi'nus,  [Fr.  JOVIN,  zho'vaN',]  a  native  of  Rheims, 
was  created  a  Roman  consul  by  the  emperor  Valentinian 
in  367  A.D.  He  received  the  command  of  the  cavalry  in 
Gaul,  and  soon  after  cut  in  pieces  a  German  army  which 
had  invaded  that  country.  He  built  in  his  native  city  a 
church,  in  which  he  was  buried  in  370  A.D. 

Jovinus,  a  Roman  general,  who  in  41 1  A.D.,  under  the 
reign  of  Honorius,  assumed  the  imperial  title  and  pos 
sessed  himself  of  part  of  Gaul.  In  412  he  was  defeated 
by  Ataulphus,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  an  ally  of  Hono 
rius.  He  was  soon  after  taken  and  executed. 

Jovius,  (PAUL.)     See  GIOVIO,  (PAOLO.) 

Jow'ett,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  missionary, 
born  about  1787.  He  published  "Christian  Researches 
in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,"  (1825,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1855. 

Joy,  Joye,  or  Gee,  (GEORGE,)  an  early  English  Re 
former,  born  in  Bedfordshire.  He  graduated  at  Cam 
bridge  in  1513.  Being  accused  of  heresy,  he  retired  to 
Germany,  where  he  remained  several  years.  He  is  sup 
posed  to  have  died  in  1553.  He  assisted  in  the  transla 
tion  of  Tyndale's  Bible  which  was  printed  at  Antwerp  in 
1534,  and  wrote  several  religious  works,  among  which  is 
one  "On  the  Unity  and  Schism  of  the  Ancient  Church." 

See  LEWIS,  "  History  of  the  Translations  of  the  Bible." 

Joyant,  zhwa'y6N',  (Jui.ES  ROMAIN,)  a  skilful  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  produced 
views  of  Venice,  which  were  much  admired.  Died  in  1854. 

Joyce,  jois,  (JEREMIAH,)  an  English  writer  and  Uni 
tarian  minister,  born  in  1764.  He  was  principal  editor 
of  the  "Cyclopaedia"  which  appeared  under  the  name 
of  William  Nicholson,  and  was  the  author  of  a  justly 
popular  work,  "Scientific  Dialogues,"  "Letters  on  Nat 
ural  Philosophy,"  and  other  productions  of  a  similar 
nature.  He  was  arrested  in  1794  with  Home  Tooke  and 
others  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  was  released  without 
trial  after  the  acquittal  of  Tooke.  Died  in  1816. 

Joyeuse,  de,  deh  zhwa'yuz',  (ANNE,)  Due,  a  French 
nobleman,  born  about  1561.  He  married  Margaret  of 
Lorraine,  sister  of  the  queen  of  Henry  III.  About  1586 
he  received  the  command  of  the  army  sent  against  the 
Huguenots.  He  at  first  gained  some  advantages,  and 
committed  great  cruelties  upon  the  Protestants,  but  in 
October,  1587,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of 
Coutras  by  Henry  of  Navarre. 

See   SISMONDI,    "Histoire   des  Francais;"   D'AuBiGNE,    "  M£- 


Joyeuse.de,  (FRANC.OIS,)  CARDINAL,  brother.of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1562.  He  was  the  confidential 
minister  of  Henry  III.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIII.  In 
1614  he  became  dean  of  the  cardinals  of  Avignon.  Died 
in  1615. 

See  AUBERY,  "  Histoire du  Cardinal  de  Joyeuse, "etc.,  Paris,  1654. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (GUILLAUME,)  VISCOUNT,  a  French 
military  commander,  born  about  1520.  He  was  made 
lieutenant-general  of  Languedoc,  and  in  1562  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  wars  against  the  French  Protest 
ants.  In  1582  he  was  created  a  marshal.  Died  in  1592. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (HENRI,)  Due,  born  in  France  in  1567. 
The  death  of  his  wife,  about  1587,  affected  him  so  deeply 
that  he  entered  the  order  of  the  Capuchins.  In  1592  he 
obtained  a  dispensation  releasing  him  from  his  vows,  and 
received  the  command  of  the  army  in  Languedoc.  Henry 
IV.  created  him  marshal  of  France.  He  afterwards  be 
came  again  a  Capuchin.  Died  in  1608. 

See  BROUSSK,  "Viede  Henri,  Due  de  Joyeuse,"  Paris,  1621. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (JEAN  ARMAND,)  MARQUIS,  a  French 
nobleman,  born  in  1631.  He  served  with  distinction  in 


a,  e, I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m&t;  not;  good;  moon; 


JOTNER 


1297 


JUD4S 


Flanders  under  Turenne,  and  was  afterwards  created 
marshal  of  France.  Died  in  1710. 

Joy'ner,  (WILLIAM,)  sometimes  called  Lyde,  an 
English  Catholic  and  author,  born  near  Oxford  in  1622  ; 
died  in  1706.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Roman  Em 
press,"  a  comedy,  and  several  English  and  Latin  poems. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatica. " 

Joze,  zho-za',  (  ANTONIO,)  a  Portuguese  Jew  and  cele 
brated  dramatist.  He  excelled  in  wit  and  sai  casm,  which, 
in  one  of  his  comedies,  he  directed  against  some  of  the 
Catholic  ceremonies.  He  was  soon  after  seized  by  the 
officers  of  the  Inquisition,  tortured,  and  finally  burned  at 
an  auto-de-fe  in  1745.  Among  the  best  of  his  comedies 
are  "Esop'T  and  "The  Enchantments  of  Medea." 

Joze  Manoel.     See  JOSEPH  EMANUEL. 

Juan,  DON.     See  JOHN,  DON,  OF  AUSTRIA. 

Juaii,  Hoo-Sn',  DON,  natural  son  of  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain  and  Maria  Calderona,  an  actress,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1629.  In  1647  he  received  the  command  of 
the  Spanish  army  in  Italy,  where  he  took  the  city  of 
Naples  and  gained  many  other  advantages.  Afterwards 
he  was  defeated  by  Turenne  in  the  Netherlands,  at  the 
battle  of  Dunes,  and  compelled  to  evacuate  the  country. 
His  brother,  Charles  II.,  subsequently  made  him  prime 
minister.  Died  in  1679. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Juan  de  Santa  Cruz.     See  JUAN  DE  YEPEZ. 

Juan  de  Yepez,  Hoo-an'  da  ya'pe'th,  or  Juan  de 
Santa  Cruz,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  calendar,  was  born 
in  Old  Castile  in  1542.  He,  with  Saint  Theresa,  estab 
lished  the  order  of  Barefooted  Carmelites.  Died  in  1591. 

Juan  y  Santacilia,  noo-an'e  san-ta-thee'le-a,(JoRGK,) 
DON,  a  celebrated  Spanish  mathematician  and  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  Orihuela,  in  Valencia,  in  1712.  He 
was  sent  about  1735,  with  several  Spanish  and  French 
servants,  to  measure  the  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the 
equator.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  naval  archi 
tecture.  He  wrote  "Observations  on  Astronomy  and 
Physics  made  in  the  Kingdom  of  Peru,"  (5  vols.,  1748,) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  construction  of  vessels,  (2  vols., 
1761.)  Died  in  1774. 

See  LA  COXDAMINE,  "Journal  du  Voyage  fait  a  1'Equateur,"  etc. 

Juana  OF  SPAIN.     See  JOAN. 

Juarez,  joo-a'rgz,  [Sp.  pron.  Hoo-a'r£th,l  (BENITO,) 
a  Mexican  statesman,  born  in  Oajaca  about  1807,  is  said 
to  be  of  pure  aboriginal  stock.  He  studied  law,  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1846,  and  was  Governor  of  Oa 
jaca  from  1848  to  1852.  In  1853  he  was  banished  by- 
Santa  Ana.  He  joined  the  party  of  Alvarez,  who  became 
president  in  1855,  and  served  under  him  as  minister  of 
justice.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
Comonfort,  who  was  driven  from  power  in  January,  1858. 
Juarez  was  recognized  as  the  successor  of  Comonfort  by 
the  Liberals,  but  was  opposed  by  the  clerical  party  in  a 
long  civil  war.  He  was  elected  president  about  1861, 
soon  after  which  Mexico  was  invaded  by  a  French  army. 
Having  gained  several  victories,  the  French  took  the 
city  of  Mexico  in  June,  1863,  and  Maximilian  of  Austria 
assumed  the  imperial  power,  under  the  patronage  of 
Napoleon  III.  Juarez  was  reduced  to  a  critical  position, 
and  his  cause  seemed  desperate  ;  but  at  length  the  French 
army  was  withdrawn  in  1866,  and  the  Liberals  quickly 
recovered  the  ascendency.  (See  MAXIMILIAN.)  He  was 
elected  president  again  in  October,  1867. 

Ju'ba  [Gr.  'I66af]  L  succeeded  his  father,  Hiempsal, 
on  the  throne  of  Numidia  about  50  B.C.  In  the  war 
between  Cassar  and  Pompey  he  supported  the  cause  of 
the  latter,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Curio,  a 
lieutenant  of  Czesar.  After  Pompey's  defeat  at  Phar- 
salia,  Juba  continued  to  support  his  cause  in  Africa,  and 
for  some  time  held  even  Caesar  in  check.  He  was,  how 
ever,  defeated  by  the  dictator  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus, 
and  soon  after  killed  himself,  42  B.C.,  in  preference  to 
gracing  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  His  kingdom 
was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  of  which  the  historian 
Sallust  was  appointed  the  first  governor. 

See  CXKAR,  "  Beilum  Civile ;"  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of 
Rome;"  APPIAN,  "Beilum  Civile." 

Juba  IL,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  carried  to  Rome 
by  Caesar,  who  gave  him  a  liberal  education.  He  served 


in  the  army  of  Augustus,  from  whom  he  received  the 
kingdom  of  Mauritania  about  30  B.C.  He  married  Cle 
opatra  Selena,  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Cleopatra, 
Queen  of  Egypt,  by  Antony.  Juba  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning,  ability,  and  justice.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  works,  written  in  Greek,  upon  various  subjects. 
Pliny,  Plutarch,  Tacitus,  and  other  historians  mention  his 
writings  with  just  commendation.  He  died  about  20  B.C. 

See  Vossii's,  "  De  Historicis  Gratis  ;"  ECKHEL,  "  Doctrina  Nu- 
morum;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gcnerale. " 

Jube,  zhii'ba',  (AUGUSTK,)  a  French  historian  and 
general,  born  in  1765.  He  wrote  a  "Military  History 
of  the  Wars  of  France  from  1643  to  '815,"  (2  vols.,') 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1824. 

Jube,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  Jansenist,  born  near  Paris 
in  1674;  died  in  1745. 

Jubiiial,  zhu'be'ntl',  (MiCHEL  Louis  ACHILLE,)  a 
French  writer  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1810. 

Juda,  zhii'dS',  (LEON,)  a  French  Protestant,  born  in 
Alsace  in  1482,  was  the  natural  son  of  Jean  Juda,  a 
priest.  In  1502,  having  formed  a  friendship  with  Zuin- 
glius,  he  was  led  to  embrace  the  principles  of  the  Re 
formers,  and  became  pastor  of  Saint  Peter's  Church  in 
Zurich.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in  promoting 
the  Reformation,  both  from  his  pulpit  and  by  his  pen. 
Died  in  1542.  He  commenced  a  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Latin,  which  was  finished  after  his  death, 
and  was  regarded  by  the  Protestants,  and  even  by  many 
Catholic  divines,  as  the  best  version  extant.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  religious  works. 

See  M.  ADAM,  "  Vit;e  Theologorum  Germanorum  ;"  HAAG,  "  La 
France  protestante." 

Ju'dah,  [Heb.  miiT,]  fourth  son  of  Jacob,  and  one 
of  the  twelve  Hebrew  patriarchs,  was  born  in  Mesopo 
tamia,  B.C.  1755.  When  Joseph  was  thrown  into  the 
cave  by  his  brethren,  it  was  through  Judah's  influence 
that  they  sold  him  to  the  Ishmaelites,  instead  of  taking 
his  life  as  they  had  previously  intended.  (Genesis  xxxvii. 
26.)  Jacob,  on  his  death-bed,  foretold  that  Judah's  pos 
terity  would  become  the  principal  tribe  of  Israel,  and 
also  referred  to  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to 
be  his  lineal  descendant.  (Genesis  xlix.  8-12.) 

Ju'dah,  (HENRY  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Snow  Hill,  Maryland,  about  1821,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843,  anc^  was  a  captain  before  the  civil  war 
began.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun 
teers  early  in  1862,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Resaca, . 
Georgia,  May  15,  1864. 

Judah  or  Je-hu'dah  Hak'ka-dosh',,(or  Hakka- 
dosch,)  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  Galilee  about 
1 20  A.D.  He  is  believed  to  have  compiled,  at  the  re 
quest  of  the  Roman  emperor  Marcus  Antoninus,  the 
Mishna,  (Mischna,)  which  contains  the  various  Jewish 
laws  and  institutions  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 
In  a  short  time  the  Talmud  was  ranked  among  the 
sacred  books  of  the  nation,  and  it  has  since  received  ad 
ditions  from  several  learned  rabbis.  Died  in  190  A.D. 

See  WOLF,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica." 

Ju'dah  Hioog,  (or  Hioug,)  he-oog',  a  Jewish  rabbi 
and  physician,  who  gained  great  distinction  for  his  learn 
ing  and  skill,  was  born  at  Fez,  in  Africa,  and  lived  about 
1040.  He  wrote  several  works  (in  Arabic)  on  the  Hebresv 
language,  and  is  now  regarded  by  his  nation  as  their  first 
and  perhaps  their  greatest  grammarian.  His  name  is 
sometimes  written  JUDAH  CHIUG. 

Judah  Rav  or  Rab,  a  celebrated  Jewish  doctor, 
who  lived  near  Babylon  in  the  third  century  of  our  era, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  principal  author  of  that  portion 
of  the  Talmud  known  as  the  "Babylonish  Gemara." 

Ju'das  Is-car'i-ot,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  chosen 
by  Jesus.  He  betrayed  his  Master  to  the  officers  of  the 
chief  priests  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver.  Afterwards,  being 
stung  with  remorse,  he  returned  the  money  to  the  priests 
and  "went  and  hanged  himself." 

See  Matthew  x.  4,  xxvi.  47-50,  xxvii.  3-5 ;  Mark  xiv.  18-21,  43. 

Ju'das  Le-vi'ta.  or  Hal'le-vi,  a  learned  Spanish  Jew 
and  poet,  born  in  1090  or  1080,  wrote  a  work  in  Arabic 
in  defence  of  the  Jewish  religion,  entitled  "  Sepher  Hoc- 
cori,"  which  was  translated  into  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Spanish.  Died  in  1140. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  P,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 

Sz 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUDAS 


1298 


JUGURTHA 


Ju'das  Maccabae'us,  (mak-ka-bee'us,)  [Gr.  'lowkzo  o 
Mowca(3<MOf;  Fr.  JUDAS  MACHABEK,  zhti'dav  mi'kt'ba',] 
of  the  royal  line  of  the  Asmonaeans,  became  leader  of  the 
Jews  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Mattathias,  H.C.  166. 
He  conquered  and  cut  in  pieces  several  Syrian  armies 
which  had  been  sent  against  him  by  Antiochus,  subdued 
the  Iclumeans,  Ammonites,  and  other  neighbouring  na 
tions,  and  restored  the  worship  of  the  true  God  in  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  afterwards  besieged  in 
that  city  by  Antiochus  Eupator,  who  was,  however,  soon 
obliged  to  return  to  Syria,  on  account  of  a  civil  war  which 
had'broken  out  in  his  kingdom.  Judas,  wishing  to  form 
an  independent  government  in  Judea,  and  being  unable 
to  contend  against  the  whole  power  of  Syria,  concluded 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Romans.  Hut,  before  any 
assistance  could  arrive,  a  large  army  of  Syrians  again 
invaded  Judea.  Judas  marched  against  them  with  a  body 
of  three  thousand  men,  which  was  soon  reduced  by  de 
sertion  to  eight  hundred.  He  nevertheless  attacked  the 
enemy,  and,  after  a  severe  battle,  was  defeated  and  slain, 
1 60  B.C. 

Judd,  (SYLVESTER,)  a  Unitarian  minister  and  writer, 
born  in  Westhampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1836,  studied  divinity  at  Harvard, 
and  from  1840  until  his  death,  in  1853.  was  pastor  of  the 
Unitarian  church  in  Augusta,  Maine.  His  principal 
work,  "Margaret,  a  Tale  of  the  Real  and  Ideal,"  (1845,) 
is  pronounced  by  the  "North  American  Review"  "the 
most  emphatically  American  book  ever  written."  It  has 
since  been  beautifully  illustrated  by  Darley.  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  Fhilio,"  a  didactic  poem. 

See  "Life  and  Character  of  Sylvester  Juckl,"  Boston,  1854; 
DUYCKIXCK.  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Fra- 
scr's  Magazine"  lor  July,  1867. 

Jude,  [Gr.  'loMac,]  SAINT,  one  of  the  twelve  apos 
tles.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  book 
bearing  his  name.  He  was  surnamed  LEBBEUS  and 
THAUDEUS. 

See  Matthew  x.  3  ;  Mark  iii.  18. 

Judicael,  ju'de-kal,  became  ruler  of  Bretagne  about 
632,  and  assumed  the  title  of  royalty.  After  a  reign  of 
six  years,  he  entered  a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Alain. 

Ju'dith,  [Heb.  mirr  ;  It.  GIUDITTA,  joo-det'ta,]  a. 
Jewish  heroine,  of  uncertain  epoch.  According  to  tradi 
tion,  she  lived  at  Bethulia  when  that  town  was  besieged 
by  Holofernes,  a  general  of  the  King  of  Assyria.  Having 
by  insidious  arts  gained  admission  to  his  tent  and  per 
suaded  him  that  she  designed  to  betray  the  town  to  him, 
she  cut  off  his  head  and  carried  it  in  a  sack  to  Bethulia, 
which  was,  consequently,  saved  from  capture. 

See  the  Apocryphal  Book  of  Judith ;  ALFONSO  NICCOLAI,  "La 
Giuditta;  Dissertazione,"  1765. 

Jud'son,  (AnoNiRAM,)  an  eminent  Baptist  mission 
ary,  born  in  Maiden,  Massachusetts,  in  1788,  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1807.  He  was  sent  as  a  mis 
sionary  to  Burmah  in  1812,  founded  a  mission  at  Ran 
goon,  and  learned  the  Burmese  language.  In  1823  he 
printed  a  Burmese  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  was  thrown  into  prison  in  1824,  and  kept  in  close 
confinement  eighteen  months  or  more,  during  which  he 
and  his  companions  suffered  extremely.  He  completed 
a  Burmese  translation  of  the  Bible  in  1834.  He  married 
successively  Ann  Hasseltine,  Sarah  Hall  Boardman,  and 
Emily  Chubbuck,  each  of  whom  is  noticed  below.  Having 
'  visited  the  United  States  in  1845,  ne  returned  to  Burmah 
in  1846,  and  resumed  his  labours  at  Maulmain.  He  died 
at  sea  in  April,  1850. 

See  FRANCIS  WAVLAND,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  A.  Judson,"  2 
vols..  1853;  JAMES  CLEMENT,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  A.  Judson,"  1850; 
H.  C.  CONANT,  "The  Earnest  Man  •  a  Sketch  of  the  Character  and 
Labours  of  A.  Judson,"  1856  ;  WILLIAM  HAGUE,  "  Life  of  A.  Jud 
son,"  1851. 

Judson,  (ANN,)  (originally  Miss  HASSELTINE,)  a 
missionary  to  India,  wife  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Adoniram 
Judson,  was  born  in  Bradford,  Massachusetts,  in  1789. 
(See  preceding  article.)  A  "Memoir  of  her  Life,"  by 
the  Rev.  J.  D.  Knowles,  appeared  soon  after  her  death 
in  1826. 

Judson,  (EMILY,)  (originally  Miss  CHUBBUCK,)  an 
American  authoress,  known  by  the  nom  de  plume  of 
"  Fanny  Forester,"  was  born  at  Eaton,  in  New  York, 


in  1817.  She  wrote  for  the  "New  York  Mirror,"  and 
published  two  volumes  of  her  essays,  sketches,  and 
poems,  under  the  title  of  "  Alderbrook,"  (1846.)  She 
was  married  in  1846  to  Dr.  Judson,  and  immediately 
sailed  with  him  for  India.  While  in  Burmah,  she  com 
posed  some  of  her  best  poems.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  in  1850,  she  returned  to  America,  and  died  at 
Hamilton,  New  York,  in  1854.  (See  JUDSON,  ADONIKAM.) 

Judson,  (SARAH,)  (originally  Miss  HALL,)  a  mission 
ary  to  India,  born  in  Alstead,  New  Hampshire,  in  1803. 
In  1825  she  was  married  to  the  Rev.  George  Dana 
Boardman,  and  the  same  year  sailed  with  him  for  Bur 
mah.  They  established  the  Baptist  Mission  at  Maul- 
main,  and  subsequently  at  Tavoy.  After  the  death  of 
her  husband,  in  1831,  she  continued  her  missionary 
labours  with  great  success.  In  1834  she  was  married  to 
Rev.  A.  Judson,  noticed  above.  Died  at  Saint  Helena 
in  1845. 

Juel,  yoo'el,  (J.,)  a  Danish  admiral,  was  a  brother 
of  Niels,  noticed  below,  with  whom  he  co-operated  in 
several  battles.  He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
treaty  of  Lund  in  1679.  Died  about  1700. 

See  N.  JONGE,  "Vice-Admiral  J.  Juels  Liv  og  Lcvnctsbeskri- 
velse,"  1755. 

Juel,  ( NIELS  or  NICHOLAS,)  a  celebrated  Danish  ad 
miral,  born  in  1629.  After  serving  in  the  Dutch  navy 
under  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter,  he  entered  the  Danish 
service,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  several  im 
portant  victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Swedes.  The 
King  of  Denmark  created  him  an  admiral,  knighted  him, 
and  conferred  upon  him  other  honours.  Died  in  1697. 

See  T.  DE  HOKMAN,  "Portraits  historiques  des  Homines  il- 
lustres  de  Danemarck;"  HAGERUP,  "Ligtale  over  N.  Juel,"  1795; 
H.  G.  GARDE,  "  N.  Juel,"  1842;  MARCUS  GJOE,  "Ligtale  over  N. 
Juel,"  1753. 

Juenin,  zhu-a'na.N',  (GASPARD,)  a  French  priest, 
writer,  and  professor  of  philosophy  in  Paris,  born  at 
Varambon,  in  Bresse,  in  1650;  died  in  1713. 

Juglaris,  yoo-gla'res,  (ALOISIO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
professor  of  rhetoric,  born  at  Nice  in  1607.  He  was  also 
employed  as  preceptor  to  Prince  Charles  Emanuel  of 
Savoy.  He  wrote  numerous  panegyrics  on  Louis  XIII. 
and  other  persons  of  distinction.  Died  in  1653. 

Jugleb,  yooc/lgp,  or  Jugler,  yooc'ler,  (JoHANN 
FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  writer,  born  near  Naumburg  in 
1718.  He  published  "Biographical  and  Critical  Notices 
of  Eminent  Jurists  and  Statesmen  of  Europe,"  (6  vols., 
1773-80,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1791. 

Ju-gur'tha,  [Gr.  '[ovyovpOag  or  'loyopdaf,]  an  African 
prince,  remarkable  for  his  crimes  and  tragical  death,  was 
a  natural  son  of  Manastabal.  He  was  brought  up  at  the 
court  of  his  uncle,  Micipsa,  King  of  Numiclia,  and  at  an 
early  age  served  under  Scipio  /Emilianus  in  the  Roman 
army.  During  the  war  with  Numantia  he  gained  great 
distinction,  and  at  its  conclusion  was  highly  commended 
to  his  uncle  by  Scipio.  Micipsa  soon  after  created  him 
joint  heir  with  his  own  sons  Adherbal  and  Miempsal. 
Upon  the  death  of  that  monarch,  Jugurtha  caused 
Hiempsal  to  be  murdered,  and  forced  Adherbal  to  seek 
protection  at  Rome.  Commissioners  were  sent  out  by 
the  Roman  senate  to  divide  the  kingdom  between  Ad 
herbal  and  Jugurtha  ;  but  the  latter,  having  bribed  them, 
received  the  largest  portion  of  the  territory,  and  was 
declared  to  be  innocent  of  the  murder  of  Hiempsal. 
Resolving,  however,  to  obtain  the  entire  kingdom,  he 
captured  Adherbal  in  the  city  of  Cirta,  while  he  was  jet 
under  the  protection  of  the  Roman  senate,  and  put  him 
to  death  with  the  greatest  cruelty.  War  was  imme 
diately  declared  against  him  by  the  Romans ;  but  he 
succeeded  in  forming  an  advantageous  treaty  with  the 
consul  Calpurnius,  who  had  been  sent  to  reduce  him  to 
subjection.  The  senate  refused  to-ratify  this  treaty,  and 
summoned  Jugurtha  to  Rome  to  answer  the  charges 
brought  against  him.  He  obeyed  the  mandate;  but 
while  in  that  city  he  procured  the  assassination  of  his 
cousin  Massiva,  another  claimant  of  the  Numidian  crown. 
Upon  the  commission  of  this  outrage  he  was  commanded 
to  leave  Rome.  As  he  was  taking  his  last  view  of  the 
capital,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  "Mercenary  city, 
thou  waitest  only  for  a  purchaser  to  sell  thyself;  and 
thou  wilt  perish  if  one  is  found."  After  his  return  to 
Numidia  he  defeated  a  Roman  army  under  Aulus  Post- 


a,e,T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;^.,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,o,u,y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JUIGNE 


1299 


JULIAN 


hum! us,  compelling  it  to  pass  under  the  yoke  and  to 
evacuate  the  country.  The  war  was  afterwards  con 
tinued  by  Metellus  ;  and,  though  [ugurtha  was  one  of 
the  ablest  commanders  of  that  age,  he  was  unable  to 
resist  the  Roman  general,  whose  skill  and  prudence  made 
him  ever  victorious  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  who.se 
stern  integrity  rendered  him  invincible  to  the  golden 
offers  of  the  Xumidian  usurper.  J ugurtha,  having  been 
twice  defeated  by  Marius,  the  successor  of  Metellus,  was 
delivered  to  his  enemies  by  the  treachery  of  his  ally, 
Bocchus,  King  of  Mauritania.  He  was  carried  in  chains 
to  Rome,  where  he  graced  the  triumph  of  Marius.  He 
was  then  thrown  into  the  Mamertine  prison.  His  death, 
which  occurred  six  days  later,  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  caused  by  starvation.  The  Jugurthine  war, 
which  was  terminated  Ii.c.  106,  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  histories  of  Sallust. 

See  SAI.I.UST,  "  Jugurtlia  ;"  PLUTARCH,  "  Marius;"  LIVY,  "  Epi 
tome,"  books  Ixii.,  Ixiv.,  Ixvii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Juigne,  de,  deh  Ehu-fen'yi',(ANTOlNEEuioNORK  LEON 
LKCI.ERC,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1728,  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  his  persecution  of  the  Jansenists. 
In  1781  he  became  Archbishop  of  Paris.  Died  in  1811. 

See  LAMBERT,  "Vie  de  Messire  A.  E\  Lecleic  de  Juij;ne,"  1821. 

Juigue-Broissiuiere,  de,  deh  zhii-en'ya'  bRwa'se'- 
ne-aik',  a  French  lawyer  and  compiler,  was  born  in 
Anjou,  and  lived  about  1650.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"Theological,  Historical,  Poetical,  and  Cosmographical 
Dictionary,''  (1644.) 

Juillard  or  Juilhard.    See  JARRY. 

Jukes,  jiiks,  (Jusm-H  BEETE,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
geologist,  born  near  Birmingham  about  1812.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "  Popular  Physical  Geology," 

(1853.) 

Jules,  the  French  for  JULIUS,  which  see. 

Ju'li-a,  |Fr.  JULIK,  zhii'le',]  a  Roman  lady,  remarka 
ble  for  her  beauty  and  virtues,  was  the  daughter  of  Julius 
Cnssar.  She  first  married  Cornelius  Csepio,  but,  by  her 
father's  command,  procured  a  divorce  and  became  the 
wife  of  Pompey  the  Great.  She  died  53  i:.c.,  before  the 
dissensions  arose  between  her  father  and  her  husband. 

Julia,  only  daughter  of  Augustus  Caesar,  born  about 
39  i:. c.,  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  accomplish 
ments,  and  disgraceful  intrigues.  She  was  married  to 
Marcellus,  upon  whose  death  she  became  the  wife  of 
Agrippa,  by  whom  she  was  the  mother  of  five  children. 
Alter  the  death  of  her  second  husband  she  was  given  in 
marriage  to  Tiberius,  who  divorced  her,  and  afterwards 
caused  her  to  l)e  poisoned,  14  .\.n. 

Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  about  18  H.C., 
was  married  to  L.  /Emilius  Paulus.  Her  character  is 
said  to  have  resembled  that  of  her  mother.  Some  writers 
identify  her  with  the  Corinna  of  Ovid.  Died  28  A.D. 

Julia,  a  daughter  of  Drusus  and  Livia,  born  about  5 
A.D.,  was  a  niece  of  Germanicus.  She  was  married  to 
Nero,  who  was  her  cousin -german. 

Julia,  daughter  of  Csesar  Germanicus,  was  born  17  A.D. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  was  married  to  a  Roman  sena 
tor  named  Vinucias.  She  was  soon  after  suspected  of 
conspiracy  and  banished  by  her  brother  Caligula,  but 
was  subsequently  recalled  by  Claudius.  .She  was  put 
to  death  in  her  twenty-fourth  year,  at  the  instigation 
of  Messalina. 

Julia  de  Fontenelle,  zhii'le-S'  deh  foN'teh-neT, 
([KAN  SEBASTIEN  EUGENE,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Xarbonne  in  1790,  published  a  "Manual  for  Glass- 
makers,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1842. 

See  HENRI  JULIA  DE  FONTENELLE,"  Notice  sur  M.  Julia  de  Fon 
tenelle,"  1843. 

Ju'U-a  Dom'na,  wife  of  the  Roman  emperor  Septi- 
mius  Severus,  and  the  mother  of  Caracalla  and  Geta,  was 
born  in  Syria  about  170  A.n.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Bassianus,  a  priest  of  the  sun.  After  the  death  of  Seve 
rus  she  endeavoured  to  heal  the  dissensions  l>etween  her 
sons,  but  in  vain  ;  Geta  was  murdered  in  her  presence 
in  212,  by  his  brother's  orders.  During  the  remainder  of 
Caracalla's  reign  she  exerted  great  influence  in  the  affairs 
of  government.  Died  in  217. 

Julia  Mammaea.     See  MAMM.CA. 

Ju'll-an,  [Lat.  JL'LIA'.NUS  ;  Fr.  JULIEN,  zhii'le^N',] 
or,  more  fully,  Ju-li-a'nus  Fla'vl-us  Clau'di-us,  stir- 


named  THE  APOSTATE,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  in 
Constantinople  in  331  A.D.  He  was  the  son  of  Julius 
Constantius,  and  a  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  soldiers,  in  order  to 
secure  the  succession  of  his  sons,  massacred  all  the  other 
members  of  the  Flavian  family  except  Julian  and  his 
elder  brother  Gallus.  The  jealousy  of  the  emperor 
Constantius  afterwards  banished  the  brothers  to  Cap- 
padocia,  where  they  were  educated  in  the  principles  of 
the  Christian  religion  and  officiated  as  lecturers  in  the 
church  of  Nicomedia.  In  351  Gallus  was  created  Caesar 
by  the  emperor,  and  Julian  was  permitted  to  return  to 
his  native  city,  but  in  a  short  time  was  again  exiled  to 
Xicomedia.  He  subsequently  embraced  the  philosophy 
of  the  Platonists,  and,  having  obtained  permission  to 
visit  Athens,  he  pursued  his  studies  in  that  city  and  was 
privately  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  the  religion  of 
Greece.  After  the  execution  of  his  brother,  in  355,  he 
was  recalled  to  Constantinople  through  the  influence  of 
the  empress  Eusebia.  Constantius  created  him  Caesar, 
and  gave  him  command  of  the  armies  in  Gaul.  Julian 
also  received  in  marriage  Helena,  sister  of  the  emperor. 
He  made  four  successful  campaigns  against  the  Germans, 
who  had  overrun  Gaul,  expelled  them  from  that  country, 
took  captive  Chnodomarius,  their  most  powerful  king, 
invaded  Germany,  and  gained  a  high  distinction  for 
military  skill  and  personal  bravery.  Constantius, 
envious  of  the  fame  of  Julian,  and  wishing  to  destroy  his 
power,  commanded  him  to  send  his  best  troops  to 
the  East,  in  order  that  they  might  assist  in  the  Persian 
war.  The  soldiers,  who  had  Income  greatly  attached  to 
Julian,  refused  to  obey,  and,  notwithstanding  his  remon 
strances,  proclaimed  him  Augustus.  It  is  even  stated 
that  they  threatened  him  with  death  if  he  refused  the 
purple.  He  then  sent  an  embassy  to  Constantius,  re 
questing  that  he  might  be  recognized  as  Augustus  in 
Gaul.  This  not  having  been  granted,  he  marched 
towards  Constantinople  ;  but  the  sudden  death  of  the 
emperor,  in  361,  enabled  Julian  to  ascend  the  imperial 
throne  unopposed.  Immediately  after  his  accession  he 
threw  off  the  hypocrisy  which  had  shielded  him  for 
so  long  a  time,  and,  renouncing  Christianity,  in  which 
probably  he  was  never  a  true  believer,  declared  his  faith 
in  the  divinities  of  Greece  and  Rome.  He  proclaimed 
liberty  of  conscience  to  all,  commanded  the  pagan  tem 
ples  to  be  reopened,  and  even  attempted  to  restore  Ju 
daism  by  rebuilding  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  He  was 
prevented  from  completing  this  project  by  remarkable 
eruptions  of  fire,  which  rendered  it  impossible  for  the 
workmen  to  continue  their  labours.  In  the  spring  of 
363  he  set  out  from  Antioch,  at  the  head  of  65,000  well- 
disciplined  troops,  on  his  contemplated  invasion  of  Per 
sia.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  gained 
several  important  victories  over  the  Persians;  but  the 
oppressive  heat  and  the  scarcity  of  provisions  compelled 
him  to  retreat,  and  in  June  of  the  same  year,  as  he  was 
bravely  repelling  an  attack  of  the  enemy,  a  javelin 
wounded  him  fatally  in  the  side.  He  died  the  following 
evening,  while  he  was  calmly  conversing  with  his  friends 
on  philosophy.  Julian  was  the  author  of  an  account  of 
his  Gallic  and  German  wars,  which  has  been  lost,  "The 
Cassars,"  "  Misopogon,"  a  satire  against  the  citizens 
of  Antioch,  whom  he  had  offended  by  his  philosophical 
austerity  and  his  slovenly  habits,  and  of  about  eighty 
letters  upon  various  subjects. 

See  AUGUST  NEANDER,  "  Ueber  Kaiser  Julian  und  sein  Zeital- 
ter,"  1812.  (translated  into  En^ii^h  by  G.  V.  Cox,  1850;)  LA  BLET- 
TERIE,  "Vie  de  1'Empereur  Julien,  1735;  JONDOT,  "  Histoire  de 
1'Empereur  Julien,"  2  vo!s.,  1817  ;  WILLIAM  WARBCRTON,  "Julian, 
or  a  Discourse  concerning  the  Earthquake  and  Fisry  Eruption  which 
defeated  mat  Emperors  Attempt  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem." 
1750;  AISEI.  DESJARDIXS,  "  E"rude  sur  1'Empereur  Julien,"  1845  :  j. 
KORNKR.  "  Kaiser  Juiian  der  Abtriinnijre,"etc.,  1830;  GIBBON,  ''  His 
tory  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire:"  SOCRATES, 
"  Historia  Ecc'esiaslica ;"  MILMAX,  "  History  of  Christianity. " 

Julian,  uoo-le-an',  COUNT,  Governor  of  Andalusia 
under  the  JGothic  kings  of  Spain.  After  King  Roderick 
had  ravished  the  daughter  of  Julian,  the  latter  formed  a 
treaty  with  the  Moslems  for  the  invasion  of  Spain,  and 
rendered  them  efficient  service  at  the  battle  of  Xeres, 
where  Roderick  was  defeated  in  711  A.D. 

See  MURPUV,  "  History  of  the  Mahometan  Empire  in  Spain;" 
SOUTHEV,  "Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths." 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal;  R.  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  * 


JULIAN 


1300 


JUNCKER 


Ju'li-an,  [Lat.  JULIA'NUS;  Fr.  JULIEN,  zhii'le-aN'; 
It.  GIULIANO,  joo-le-S'no,]  an  Italian  bishop,  distin 
guished  for  his  opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Saint  Au 
gustine,  was  born  about  380,  and  studied  theology  under 
Pelagius.  In  416  Innocent  I.  raised  him  to  the  see  of 
Eclanum  ;  but  about  420  he  was  banished  from  Italy  on 
account  of  his  Pelagian  doctrines.  Having  been  con 
demned  by  several  councils,  he  settled  in  Sicily.  Died 
about  455. 

Julian,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  calendar,  was  born  in  Spain,  of  Jewish  descent. 
He  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Toledo  in  680,  and  presided 
over  four  different  councils  held  in  that  city.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  on  death,  the  resurrection,  and  the 
final  judgment.  Died  in  690. 

Julian,  (MARCUS  AURELIUS,)  a  Roman  Governor  of 
Venetia,  who  in  285,  while  aspiring  to  the  imperial 
purple,  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Verona  by  Cariuus. 

Julian  Cesarini.     See  CESAKINI,  (GIULIANO.) 

Ju-11-a'na,  a  woman  of  Portuguese  descent,  born  in 
Bengal  in  1658.  Having  gained  the  favour  of  Aurung- 
Zeb,  she  was  appointed  governess  to  his  son,  Shah  Alum, 
who  succeeded  to  the  crown  in  1707.  In  a  battle  between 
that  prince  and  his  brothers,  who  disputed  the  succession, 
she  rode  by  his  side  on  an  elephant  and  greatly  contrib 
uted  to  his  success.  Shah  Alum  raised  her  to  the  rank 
of  a  princess,  and  conferred  upon  her  many  other  honours. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Julianus.     See  JULIAN. 

Ju-11-a'nus  or  Julian,  (SALVIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
jurist,  and  great-grandfather  to  the  emperor  Didius,  was 
born  about  100  A.n.  He  was  twice  chosen  consul.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  Digesta,"  in  ninety  books, 
and  is  often  referred  to  by  writers  on  Roman  law. 

See  J.  G.  HEINECCIUS,  "  Progranima  de  S.  Juliano,"  1733. 

Julie.     See  JULIA. 

Julien,  the  French  for  JULIAN,  which  see. 

Julien,  zhii'le-aN',  (PIERRE,)  a  celebrated  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Saint-Paulien  in  1731.  He  commenced 
his  studies  at  Lyons,  under  Perache,  whom  he  left  in 
1765  to  become  the  pupil  of  Coustou,  the  king's  sculp 
tor,  at  Paris.  In  1768  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  re 
mained  four  years,  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art.  In  1779 
his  statue  of  "The  Dying  Warrior"  gained  his  admission 
to  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1804.  Among  his  most  admirable  productions 
are  "  La  Baigneuse,"  the  statues  of  La  Fontaine  and 
Poussin,  and  copies  of  Apollo  Belvedere  and  "The  Dying 
Gladiator,"  from  the  Italian. 

See  J.  LEBRETON,  "  Notice  historique  stir  In  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  P.  Julien,"  1805. 

Julien,  (SiMON,)  or  Julien  of  Parma,  a  French  artist, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1736,  studied  in  Paris  under  Vanloo, 
resided  ten  years  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He  was 
called  JULIEN  THE  APOSTATE,  because  he  abandoned 
the  French  style.  Died  in  1 800. 

Julien,  (STANISLAS,)  an  eminent  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1799.  He  studied  under  Abel  Re- 
musat,  and  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  Chinese 
language.  He  succeeded  Abel  Re'musat  as  professor  of 
Chinese  in  1832,  and  afterwards  became  administrator,  in 
the  College  of  France.  He  made  translations  from  Meng- 
tseu  (Mencius)  and  other  Chinese  authors,  and  pub 
lished  "  Practical  Exercises  of  Chinese  Syntax  and  Lexi 
cography,"  (1842.)  Jnlien  enjoys  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  first  Chinese  scholars  of  his  time.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  of  the  prin 
cipal  learned  societies  of  Europe.  Among  his  works  is  one 
of  great  interest,  "Voyages  des  Pelerins  Bouddhistes," 
(3  vols.,  1853-58,)  translated  from  the  Chinese. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Julio  Romano.     See  GIULIO  ROMANO. 

Julius  [Fr.  JULES,  zhiil ;  It.  GIULIO,  joo'le-o]  I.,  a 
Roman  by  birth,  succeeded  Marcus  in  the  papal  see  in 
336.  In  340  he  convoked  a  council  at  Rome  to  settle 
the  dispute  between  Athanasius,  the  orthodox  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  Arians,  who  had  expelled  him 
from  his  office.  Athanasius  appeared  ;  but  his  enemies 
called  at  Antioch  a  council  which  condemned  him. 


Julius,  finding  his  interpositions  to  be  in  vain,  sum 
moned  the  General  Council  of  Sardica,  which  restored 
the  bishop  to  his  see  and  introduced  the  custom  of 
appealing  to  the  pope  in  all  ecclesiastical  disputes.  Died 
in  352  A.I). 

Julius  II.,  (Cardinal  GIULIANO  della  Rovere — 
del'la  ro-va'ri,)  born  in  1441,  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Rome  upon  the  death  of  Pius  III.,  in  1503.  Haughty 
and  warlike  in  his  disposition,  he  immediately  turned  his 
ambition  to  the  aggrandizement  of  the  papal  authority. 
He  drove  Ctesar  Borgia  from  the  Romagna,  and  attempted 
to  expel  the  Venetians  from  Ravenna,  Rimini,  and  other 
parts  ot  his  dominions.  Failing  in  this,  he  formed  the 
League  of  Cambrai  with  the  King  of  France,  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Venetian  republic.  Julius,  soon  discovering,  how 
ever,  that  he  had  more  to  fear  from  the  French  than 
from  the  Venetians,  made  a  treaty  with  the  latter  in 
1510,  and  took  the  field  in  person  against  the  French, 
over  whom  he  gained  some  slight  advantages.  In  1512 
he  allied  himself  with  the  English,  Spaniards,  Swiss, 
and  Venetians,  and  finally  succeeded  in  expelling  the 
French  from  Italy.  But  liftle  was  gained  by  this  success  ; 
for  the  Swiss  and  Spaniards  gave  him  as  much  trouble 
as  the  French  had  previously  done.  He  died  before 
these  new  difficulties  were  adjusted,  in  1513.  Julius 
displayed  a  great  taste  for  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the 
first  to  commence  Saint  Peter's  Cathedral  at  Rome,  and 
was  the  patron  of  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  other 
men  of  distinction.  Leo  X.  was  his  successor. 

See  RANKE,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  BRUVS,  "  Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1732  ;  "  La  Viedu  Pape  Jules  II,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1515. 

Julius  III.,  (Cardinal  Giocci — jot'chee,)  born  in  1487 
at  Arezzo,  succeeded  Paul  III.  in  February,  1550.  His 
pontificate  was  marked  by  quarrels  with  the  King  of 
France,  the  Venetians,  and  other  powers.  Died  in  1555. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souvernins  Pontifes." 

Jullian,  zlui'le-fiN',  (PIERRE  Louis  PASCAL,)  a  French 
historical  writer  and  politician,  born  at  Montpellier  about 
1769.  He  wrote  "Fragments  historiques,"  (1804,)  and 
"Souvenirs  de  ma  Vie,"  (1808.)  Died  about  1836. 

Jullien,  zhu'le^N"',  (  ANURE,)  a  writer  upon  the  culture 
of  the  vine,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone,  in  France,  in 
1766  ;  died  in  1832. 

Jullien,  (Louis,)  a  popular  French  composer  of  music 
and  director  of  concerts,  was  born  in  1812.  He  com 
posed  music  for  balls,  operas,  etc.,  and  performed  in 
Paris  and  London.  Died  in  1860. 

Jullien,  (MARCEL  BERNARD,)  a  French  grammarian 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Jullien  de  la  Di  6me,  zhii'le-aN'  deh  It  dRom,  (MARC 
ANTOINE,)  a  French  Jacobin,  distinguished  for  his  vio 
lence,  was  born  in  Dauphine  in  1744;  died  in  1821. 

Jullien  de  Paris,  zhu'le-a.N'  deh  pS're',  (MARC  AN 
TOINE,)  a  politician  and  journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1775, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  During  the  Revolution  he 
was  a  Jacobin.  He  published  several  works  on  politics, 
education,  etc.,  and  founded  in  iSiS  the  "Revue  Ency- 
clopedique."  Died  in  1848. 

See  QI;£RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biopraphie 
Generale  :"  BOILEAU  D'AUXY,  "  Biographic  de  M.  J.  de  Paris,"  1842. 

Julus.     See  IULUS. 

Jumel,  zhii'meT,  (JEAN  CHARLES,)  a  French  eccle 
siastic  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  in  1824. 

Jumeliu,  zhiim'laN'',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE, )  a  French 
savant,  physician,  and  writer,  born  in  1745,  visited  Greece, 
where  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  botany  as  well  as 
to  the  antiquities  of  that  country.  Died  in  1807. 

Jumilhac,  de,  deh  zhii'me  )tk',  (ANTOINE  PIERRE 
JOSEPH  CHAPELLE,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  royalist,  dis 
tinguished  as  a  cavalry  officer,  was  born  in  1764.  In 
1791  Louis  XVI.  appointed  him  lieutenant-colonel  of 
his  guard.  He  served  under  Napoleon.  Died  in  1826. 

Jumlah.     See  JEMLAH. 

Jumonville,  de,  deh  zhii'n^N'vel',  (Coui.ON,)  a 
French  officer,  born  about  1725,  signalized  his  bravery 
in  the  Canadian  wars.  He  is  said  to  have  been  treache 
rously  killed  in  1753  by  the  English,  to  whom  he  was 
bearing  a  message. 

Juncker,  ydonk'ker,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  phi 
lologist  and  historian,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1668.  He 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  gcJod;  moon; 


JUNCKER 


1301 


JUNIUS 


published  several  works  on  German  history,  and  a  "  Ljfe 
of  Luther,"  (1699.)     Died  at  Altenburg  in  1714. 

See  SCHADEN,  "  Ehrengedachtniss  Junckers,"  1714;  ERSCH  und 
GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  GELI.IUS,  "  Epistola  ad  J. 
A.  Fabricium  de  C.  Junckero,"  1714- 

Juiicker  or  Junker,  (GOTTLOB  JOHANN,)  a  German 
physician,  born  near  Giessen  in  1680.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1729,  and  maintained  the 
doctrines  of  Stahl.  He  wrote  numerous  medical  works. 
Died  at  Halle  in  1759. 

Juncosa,  Hoon-ko'sa,  (Fra  JOAQUIN*,)  a  skilful  Span 
ish  painter,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Tarragona  in  1631 ; 
died  near  Rome  in  1708. 

Junc-tl'nus,  the  Latin  name  of  FRANCESCO  GlUNTlNI, 
an  Italian  astrologer  and  monk,  born  at  Florence  in  1522. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  astrology,  etc.  Died  in  1590. 

Jung,  voting,  or  Junge,  yoong'eh,  [Lat.  JUNG'IUS,] 
( JOACHIM,)  a  German  physician  and  botanist,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1587,  became  successively  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  Giessen  and  Rostock.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
able  opponents  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  for  his 
actiteness  was  compared  by  Leibnitz  to  Copernicus  and 
Galileo.  He  also,  it  is  said,  first  suggested,  in  his  "Isa- 
goge  Phytoscopica,"  (1678,)  the  classification  of  plants 
afterwards  developed  by  Linnaeus.  He  was  rector  of  a 
school  at  Hamburg  from  1629  until  his  death.  Died  at 
Hamburg  in  1657. 

See  MARTIN  VOGEI.,  "  Histotia  Vita:  et  Mortis  J.  Jimgii,"  1657; 
GUHRAUER,  "  J.  Jungius  und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Jung,  (TUHAXN  HEINRICH,)  commonly  known  by  the 
pseudonym  of  STILLING,  an  original  German  writer, 
born  at  'im-Grund,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  in  1740. 
While  studying  medicine  at  Strasburg,  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Goethe,  who  has  given  an  interesting  ac 
count  of  him  in  his  Autobiography.  In  1804  he  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Heidelberg.  He  pub 
lished  in  1777  "  Henry  Stilling's  Youth,  Early  Years,  and 
Wanderings,"  which  was  foliosved  soon  after  by  "  Henry 
Stilling's  Domestic  Life."  Among  his  fictitious  writings 
we  may  cite  "Theobald,  or  the  Enthusiast,"  "The  Chris 
tian  Philanthropist,"  and  "  Scenes  from  the  Spirit-Land." 
Stilling  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  earnestness 
as  well  as  simplicity  of  character,  with  a  strong  tendency 
to  religious  enthusiasm  and  mysticism.  Died  in  1817. 

See  J.  H.  JUNG.  "  H.  Stilling's  Jtieend,  Jiingiingsjahre.  Wan- 
deischatt  und  hausliches  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1777-79:  enlarged  under 
the  title  of  "  Lebensbeschreibung  J.  H.  Jungs."  5  vols..  1806: 
SCHWARZ,  "  Jung-Stillings  Alter,"  1817;  JOHN  WRIGHT,  "  Life  of 
H.  Stilling,"  abridged  by  SAMUEL  JACKSON,  1847  '•  "  Foreign  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Jung-Bahadoor,  (or  -Bahadur,)  jung  (or  Jung)  ba- 
ha'door,  (i.e.  "brave  in  war,")  [from  the  Hindostanee 
Jung,  "  battle,"  "  war,"  and  bahadurm  bahadoor,  "  brave,"] 
the  name,  or  rather  surname,  of  several  Indian  princes, 
among  whom  the  recent  minister  of  Nepaul  and  virtual 
sovereign  of  that  country  deserves  particular  mention. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Nepaulese  general,  was  born  about 
1815,  and  by  his  unscrupulous  audacity,  combined  with 
rare  talents  for  intrigue,  he  soon  raised  himself  to  the 
highest  position  in  the  state.  About  1850  he  visited 
England  as  ambassador,  and  while  in  that  country  was 
the  object  of  much  attention.  In  1857  he  offered  the 
English  government  his  co-operation  in  suppressing  the 
mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and,  with  about  9000  Goorkhas, 
(a  race  of  Tartar  origin,)  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
Lucknow,  for  which,  and  other  services,  he  received  from 
Queen  Yictoria  the  grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath. 

Junger,  yoong'er,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1759.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  popular  romances  and  dramatic  works. 
Among  his  nov<  Is  are  "  Vetter  Jakobs  Launen,"  (6  vols., 
1786-92,)  and  "  Der  Schein  triigt,"  (1787.)  Diedin  1797. 

Jungerniann,  yo6ng'er-man',(GoTTFRiEn,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Longi  Pas- 
toralia  Greece  cum  Latina  Versione,"  (1605,)  and  other 
classical  works.  Died  in  1610. 

Juiigermaun,  (Luowio,)  a  botanist,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1572,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  botany  at  Altdorf.  Died  in  1653. 

Junghuhn,  yodng'hoon,  (FRANZ  WII.HKI.M,)  a  Prus 
sian  naturalist,  born  at  Mansfeld  in  1812.  He  was  em 


ployed  as  army  physician  or  officer  of  health  in  India, 
and  explored  the  island  of  Java.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  account  of  the  topography,  botany,  and 
geology  of  Java,  ("Java,  seine  Gestalt,  Pflanzendecke 
und  innere  Bauart,"  3  vols.,  1852,)  which  is  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  that  subject. 

Jungius.     See  JUNG. 

Jungmann,  yocng'man,  (JOSEPH  JAKOH,)  a  learned 
Slavonian  philologist,  born  at  Hudlitz,  in  Bohemia,  in 
1773.  He  was  appointed  in  1815  professor  of  languages 
and  rhetoric  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Prague,  where  he  was 
aftersvards  prefect.  His  greatest  work  is  a  "  Bohemian- 
German  Dictionary,"  (5  vols.,  1835,)  which  gives  evi 
dence  of  immense  learning  and  industry.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Bohemian  Language  and  Literature," 
(1825,)  and  a  "Bohemian  Chrestomathy."  He  wrote 
other  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  and  made  a  number  of 
translations  from  eminent  English  and  French  writers. 
Jungmann  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  and 
efficient  promoters  of  Slavonian  literature.  Diedin  1847. 

See  L.  CELAKOVSKV,  "  Dodavky  ke  Slpvmku  J.  Jungmanna," 
1850;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828. 

Ju-nill-us,  a  bishop  who  flourished  in  Africa  about 
550  A.D.  He  wrote  a  Latin  work  "On  Parts  of  the 
Divine  Law,"  which  was  printed  at  Bale  in  1545- 

Ju'm-us,  the  assumed  name  of  a  political  writer  who 
in  January,  1769, -began  to  issue,  in  London,  a  series 
of  famous  letters,  which  first  appeared  in  Wooclfall's 
"  Public  Advertiser."  Junius  opposed  the  ministry  then 
in  power,  and  denounced  several  eminent  persons  with 
great  severity  of  invective  and  pungency  of  sarcasm. 
His  style  is  eminently  pure,  terse,  and  vigorous.  These 
letters  had  a  great  popularity,  and  powerfully  promoted 
the  cause  of  civil  liberty.  "The  myrmidons  of  the  court,"' 
said  Burke,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  "  have  been  long, 
and  are  still,  pursuing  him  in  vain.  They  will  not  spend 
their  time  upon  me,  or  you,  or  you.  No  :  they  disdain 
such  vermin  when  the  mighty  boar  of  the  forest,  that 
has  broken  through  all  their  toils,  is  before  them.  .  .  . 
Kings,  Lords,  and  Commons  are  but  the  sport  of  his 
fury.  Were  he  a  member  of  this  House,  what  might 
not  be  expected  from  his  knowledge,  his  firmness  and 
integrity!"  Among  the  numerous  persons  to  whom 
these  letters  have  been  attributed  were  Sir  Philip  Fran 
cis,  Lord  Chatham,  Edmund  Burke,  Henry  Grattan, 
Colonel  Barre,  Gibbon  the  historian,  John  Home  Tooke, 
Horace  Walpole,  John  Wilkes,  and  Wedderburn,  (after 
wards  Lord  Loughborough.)  The  publication  of  the 
Letters  of  Junius  continued  until  January,  1772.  In 
his  dedication  to  the  people  of  England,  he  said,  "  I  am 
the  sole  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish 
with  me." 

A  multitude  of  books  and  essays  have  been  written  in 
the  attempt  to  solve  this  mystery.  But  all  the  efforts 
in  that  direction  seemed  for  a  long  time  to  be  wholly 
unsuccessful ;  so  much  so  that  a  very  able  lawyer  and 
antiquary,  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  writing  in  1843,  declared 
his  conviction  that  all  the  Junius-seekers  had  completely 
failed  in  their  undertaking.  Macaulay,  however,  in  his 
essay  on  Warren  Hastings,  (1841,)  says  that  "the  evi 
dence  [against  Sir  P.  Francis]  would  support  a  verdict 
in  a  civil — nay,  in  a  criminal — proceeding."  At  the 
present  time  (1870)  the  question  appears  to  be  no  longer 
doubtful.  A  great  number  of  circumstances  (some  of 
which  have  only  very  lately  come  to  light)  seem  to  point 
with  unerring  certainty  to  Sir  Philip  Francis  as  the  true 
Junius.  Among  the  various  incidental  proofs  bearing  on 
this  question,  one  of  the  most  curious  and  decisive  is 
given  in  "  Lippincott's  Magazine"  for  January,  1870,  p.  11 8. 

See  JOHN  TAYLOR,  "The  Identity  of  Junius  with  a  Distinguished 
Living  Character  Established,"  1816;  JOHN  MASON  GOOD,  "Essay 
on  Jiinius  and  his  Writings;"  MACAULAY,  review  of  Gleig's  "Lite 
of  Warren  Hastings  ;"  LORD  BROUGHAM,  article  in  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1817,  (vol.  xxix.  ;)  ''London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  December,  1851 ;  AI.LIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ju'nl-us,  (FRANCIS,)  [Fr.  FRANCOIS  nu  JON,  frS.N'- 
swa'  dii  zhiN,  |  a  learned  Protestant  theologian,  was  born 
at  Bonvges,  in  France,  May  I,  1545.  He  studied  at  Lyons 
and  Geneva,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  a  Walloon 
church  in  Antwerp  in  1565,  but  at  length  was  com 
pelled  to  fly  to  Germany  to  escape  the  tortures  of  the 
Inquisition.  In  1568  he  became  chaplain  to  the  army 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;%3&j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  Ms. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUNIUS 


1302 


JUPITER 


of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Five  years  later,  at  the  re- 
cjuest  of  the  Elector- Palatine,  he  went  to  Heidelberg, 
where,  with  the  assistance  of  Tremellius,  he  translated 
the  Old  Testament  into  Latin,  (1575-79.)  This  work, 
which  established  his  reputation,  is  known  as  the  version 
of  Junius  and  Tremellius.  He  afterwards  filled  succes 
sively  the  chairs  of  theology  at  Neustadt,  Heidelberg, 
and  Leyden.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  divinity  and 
the  classics.  Died  at  Leyden  in  October,  1602. 

See  "Vita  F.  Junii  Biturigensis  ab  ipsnmet  conscripts, "  1505: 
BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON,  "Me- 
moires;"  F.  GOMAK,  "Oratio  funebris  in  Obilum  F.  Junii,"  1602. 

Junius,  (FRANCIS  or  FRANCISCUS,)  an  eminent  phi 
lologist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Heidelberg 
in  1589,  and  was  educated  at  Leyden.  He  passed  over 
to  England  about  1620,  and  became  librarian  to  Thomas 
Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel,  with  whom  he  remained  thirty 
years.  He  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the  study  of 
the  Teutonic  languages.  He  published  a  rare  and  valu 
able  work, — a  translation  of  the  Gospels  into  the  ancient 
Gothic,  (made  by  Bishop  Ulphilas  about  360  A.D.,)  with 
a  Commentary,  (1665.)  Junius  was  the  author  of  a  work 
"On  the  Painting  of  the  Ancients,"  ("l)e  Pictura 
Veterum,"  1637,)  and  of  an  Etymological  Dictionary, 
("Etymologicum  Anglicanum,"  1743,)  in  which  he  ex 
plains  the  derivation  and  origin  of  numerous  English 
words.  He  left  his  choice  collection  of  manuscripts  to 
the  University  of  Oxford.  Died  at  Windsor  in  1677. 

See  GRJEVIUS,  "  Life  of  Francis  Junius,"  in  the  21!  edition  of  liis 
"De  Pictura  Veterum,"  1694;  BAVI.K,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic 
tionary;"  NICEKON,  "  Memoiies :"  WOOD,  "  Athena:  Oxonienses." 

Junius,  de,  deh  yoo'ne-us,  or  Jonghe,  yong'eh, 
(ADRIAAN,)  a  learned  Dutch  physician,  was  born  at 
Hoorn,  in  Friesland,  in  1512.  He  went  to  England 
near  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  became 
physician  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  After  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.  he  published  a  Greek-and-Latin  Lexi 
con,  which  he  dedicated  to  that  sovereign.  For  this  he 
was  severely  censured  by  the  Roman  pontiff.  He  wrote 
in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Queen  Mary  with  Philip 
of  Spain  a  Latin  poem  entitled  "  Philippeis."  About 
1564  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  King  of  Den 
mark.  Died  at  Middelburg  in  1575.  As  a  philologist 
and  linguist  his  contemporaries  regarded  him  as  second 
only  to  Erasmus.  In  addition  to  the  works  previously 
mentioned  are  his  "Nomenclature  of  All  Things,"  a 
vocabulary  in  seven  different  languages,  several  Latin 
poems  and  epistles,  and  various  commentaries  on  the 
writings  of  the  ancient  authors. 

See  P.  SCHKI.TEMA,  "Diatribein  H.  Junii  Vitam  ingeniuin  et  Merita 
literaria,"  1836. 

Junker,  yoonk'er,  or  Juniker,  yoo'ne-ker,  (GKORG 
ADAM,)  a  teacher  and  translator,  born  at  Hanau  about 
1720.  He  translated  numerous  German  dramas,  etc. 
into  French.  Died  in  1805. 

Ju'no,  [Fr.  JUNON,  zhii'noN' ;  It.  GIUNONE,  joo-no'- 
na,]  a  goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology,  called  the  queen 
of  heaven  and  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Hera,  ('H/xz  or  "Hp??.)  She  was  regarded  as  the 
protecting  deity  of  the  female  sex,  and  as  the  patroness 
of  marriage  and  maternity.  She  was  surnamed  MATRONA 
and  REGINA,  and  was  worshipped  by  the  Roman  women 
at  an  annual  festival  called  Matronalia.  As  the  patroness 
of  marriage,  she  was  called  Pronuba,  Gamelia,  Jugalis  or 
Juga,  and  various  other  names.  Her  aid  was  implored 
by  women  in  childbirth  under  the  name  of  LuciNA,  (which 
see.)  She  is  usually  represented  as  a  majestic  woman, 
crowned,  with  her  favourite  bird,  the  peacock,  near  her. 
The  name  Juno  is  in  all  probability  related  etymologically 
to  the  Sanscrit  word  Ydm,*  signifying  "matrix,"  and 
hence  denoting  maternity  and  femineity. 

See  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology ;"  KEIGHTI.EV,  "Mythology,"  article  "Hera;"  Gui- 
GNIAUT,  "Religions  de  1'Antiquite,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Junon.    See  JUNO. 

*  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  etymologist  how  nearly  u  is 
related  to  o:  in  Arabic  and  Persian  they  have  but  a  single  letter  to 
represent  both ;  in  Norwegian  and  Swedish  there  is  but  little  differ 
ence  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  two  vowels,  o  being  pronounced  pre 
cisely  like  the  Italian  or  German  ;/.  J  (i.e.,  i consonant)  in  the  Latin 
(as  it  does  in  many  of  the  modern  languages')  corresponded  to  our 
Y-  The  terminal  o  in  Jiino  is  merely  the  feminine  termination  so 
common  in  Greek  and  Latin  proper  names. 


Junot,  zhu'no',  (ANDOCHK,)  Due  d'Abrantes,  a  distin 
guished  French  general,  was  born  near  Semur  in  1771. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  he  enlisted  as  a  common  soldier, 
but,  on  account  of  his  uncommon  bravery,  was  soon  made 
lieutenant.  While  serving  at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  he 
gained  the  approbation  of  Bonaparte,  who  made  him  his 
first  aide-de-camp,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  He  ac 
companied  that  general  on  his  Italian  campaigns,  and 
fought  with  his  accustomed  bravery  at  the  battles  of  Lodi, 
Arcola,  Castiglione,  and  l^onato.  During  the  invasion  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  he  became  the  favourite  of  Bonaparte, 
and  gained  great  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Nazareth, 
where,  with  three  hundred  horsemen,  he  attacked  and 
held  in  check  a  body  of  three  thousand  Moslems.  After 
his  return  to  France  he  rendered  efficient  service  to 
Bonaparte  in  the  subversion  of  the  Directory.  In  1800 
he  was  appointed  commandant  of  Paris,  and  afterwards 
governor  of  that  city  and  colonel-general  of  hussars. 
He  also  received  the  decoration  of  the  grand  eagle  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Portugal.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  in 
1805.  In  1807  he  commanded  an  army  which  invaded 
Portugal  and  took  Lisbon.  He  was  soon  afterwards 
created  Due  d'Abrantes.  In  August,  1808,  he  was 
defeated  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  at  V'imiera,  and  com 
pelled  to  evacuate  Portugal.  The  emperor  then  deprived 
him  of  the  governorship  of  Paris,  but  appointed  him 
Captain-General  and  Governor  of  the  Illyrian  provinces. 
His  misfortunes  and  disgrace  shortly  after  affected  his 
mind  so  deeply  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  public 
life.  He  died  at  Montpellier  in  July,  1813. 

See  MADAME  b'AnRANTBs,  "  Memoires ;"  THIERS,  "  Histoire  du 
Consulate!  de  PKmpire:"  NAPOLEON,  " Correspondance  ;"  ALISON, 
"History  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvellt  Biographic  Generale." 

Junot,(LAUREPKRMON,)MADAME,  Duchesse  d'Abran 
tes,  was  born  in  Montpellicr  in  1784,  and  was  married 
to  General  Junot  about  1800.  Her  family  was  related  to 
that  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  her  mother  had  shown  great 
kindness  before  he  l>ecame  a  general.  At  her  marriage 
Mademoiselle  Pennon  received  from  the  First  Consul 
one  hundred  thousand  francs  as  a  marriage-portion. 
In  1806  she  accompanied  her  husband  to  Lisbon,  and 
in  1807  became  Duchesse  d'Abrantes.  On  the  restora 
tion  of  the  Bourbons  she  was  kindly  received  by  Louis 
XVIII.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Memoirs  or 
Historical  Souvenirs  of  Napoleon,  the  Revolution,  the 
Directory,  etc.,"  (18  vols.,  1831-34.)  Died  in  1838. 

See  A.  D.  ROOSMALEN,  "  Les  derniers  Moments  de  la  Duchesse 
d'Abrantes,"  Paris,  1838;  IGNAZIO  CANTU,  "  Relazione  della  Du- 
chessa  d'Abrantes,"  1837;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Junquieres,  de,  deh  zhuN'ke-aiu',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,) 
a  French  poet  and  officer,  born  at  Paris  in  1713;  died 
in  1786. 

Junta  or  Junte,  (FILIPPO.)     See  GIUNTA. 

Junta,  (Tu.MMASO,)  a  Venetian  physician,  floiuished 
about  1550.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Battles  of 
the  Ancients,"  which  displays  considerable  erudition. 

Junte.     See  GIUNTA. 

Junterbuck,  yotm'ter-book',  (JAMES,)  a  Polish  writer, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Erfurt,  was  born  about  1385  ; 
died  in  1465.  He  wrote  various  works,  among  which  is 
a  "Tract  on  Mental  Apparitions." 

Ju'pl-ter  or  Jup'pi-ter,  [Fr.  pron.  zhii'pe'taiR' ;  It. 
GlOVK,  jo'va,  whence  the  English  JOVE,*]  the  supreme 
deity  of  the  Roman  mythology,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  ZKUS,  and  represented  as  the  eldest  son  of  Saturn 
and  Rhea.  He  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  gods  of  the 
classic  mythology,  and  was  supposed  to  control  all  earthly 
and  human  affairs  and  to  foresee  futurity.  The  Romans 
ascribed  to  him  power  over  all  changes  in  the  sky,  and 
the  phenomena  of  rain  and  lightning,  and  hence  applied 
to  him  the  epithets  of  "Pluvius,"  ("rainy,"  or  "raining,") 
"Tonans,"(" thundering,")"  Fulminator,"  ("thunderer,'') 
etc.  As  presiding  over  marriage,  he  is  sometimes  called 
Gamelius;  and  as  the  protector  of  the  rights,  of  hospi 
tality,  he  was  invoked  as  Jupiter  Hospitalis.  He  was 
sometimes  called  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  because  his  tem- 


*  Or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  both  the  Italian  and  English  are 
derived  from  Jovis,  the  Latin  genitive  case  of  Jupiter.  The  German, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  names  for  Jupiter,  in  spelling  and  accen 
tuation,  are  the  same  as  the  Latin. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JUPPIN 


1303 


JUSSIEU 


pie  at  Rome  stood  on  the  Capitol.  He  was  the  father 
of  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Minerva,  Venus,  etc.  Ac 
cording  to  the  Greek  mythology,  he  kept  his  court  on 
Olympus.  His  most  famous  Greek  temple  was  at 
Olympia,  in  Elis.  He  is  usually  represented  as  seated 
on  a  throne,  with  a  thunderbolt  in  his  right  hand,  in  his 
left  a  sceptre,  and  near  him  his  favourite  bird  the  eagle. 
The  name  Jupiter  (who  was  also  called  Diespiter)  is 
probably  a  corruption  of  Diu-pater,  (or  Dior-is  pater,) 
("father  of  the  heavens,"  or  "heavenly  father.")  Diiim, 
Dirnm,  and  Dies  originally  signified  the  same, — viz.,  the 
"sky,"  or  "heaven."  Others  derive  it  from  the  Greek 
Zens  Pater  or  Zeu  Pater,  (i.e.  "  father  Zeus.")  Respect 
ing  the  probable  identity  between  Jupiter  (or  Zeus)  and 
the  Hindoo  god  Siva,  see  SIVA. 

See  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology;"  GUIGNIAUT,  "Religions  de  1'Antiquite,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
i.  ;  KHIGHTI.EY,  "  Mythology." 

Juppiii,  zhii'pa.N',  QEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Flemish  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Namur  in  1678.  He  studied  in 
Brussels,  and  afterwards  visited  Italy.  Among  his  works 
is  the  "Crater  of  Vesuvius."  Died  in  1729. 

Juret,  zhii'ri',  (FkAN^ois,)  a  French  critic  and  poet, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1553,  became  canon  of  Langres.  He 
published  "  Senecre  'ad  Lucilium  Epistolarum  Liber," 
(1602,)  and  "  Panegyrici  Veteres  cum  Xotis,"  (2  vols., 
1652.)  Died  in  1626. 

Jurieu,  zhii're-uh',  (  PIERRE,)  a  learned  French  theo 
logian  and  controversialist,  was  born  at  Mer,  in  Orleanais, 
in  1637.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Protestant  congregation 
in  Mer  after  he  had  studied  at  Saumur  and  Sedan.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  professor  of  theology  and 
Hebrew  at  Sedan.  On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  in  1685,  he  retired  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote  numerous 
religious  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  Cal 
vinism  and  Popery  compared,"  (1682,)  and  a  "Critical 
History  of  Doctrine  and  Worship,  Good  and  Bad," 
(1704,)  both  in  French.  Died  in  1713. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  pvotestante ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic 
Generale."  3<*y7<>  /-Z3'«  fT'rumy  *~>fic4t~  . 

Ju'rin,  (JAMES,)  an  English  physician  and  philosopher, 
was  born  in  1684,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which 
he  became  secretary,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on 
philosophy  and  physiology.  Died  in  1750. 

Jurine,  zhli'ren',  (Louis,)  a  .Swiss  physician  and  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1751,  resided  in  Paris.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  on  ascertaining  the 
salubrity  of  the  atmosphere.  Died  in  1819. 

Jussieu,  jiis-sii',  de,  [French  pron.  deh  zhii'se-uh',] 
(ADRIEN,)  a  celebrated  French  botanist,  son  of  Antoine 
Laurent,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris,  December  23, 
1797.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  the  competition  of 
1814,  and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history 
and  medicine.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of 
rural  botany  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1826, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Institute  in  1831.  He  published 
a  series  of  memoirs  and  monographs  which  have  placed 
him  in  the  first  rank  of  botanists.  Among  his  best  works 
are  a  "Monograph  of  the  Malpighiaceae,"  (1843,)  and 
an  "  Elementary  Course  of  Botany,"  which  has  been 
translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  In  1845 
he  became  professor  of  vegetable  organography  to  the 
Faculte  des  Sciences.  Died  in  June,  1853. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (ALEXIS,)  a  French  journalist  and  ad 
ministrator,  born  in  1797,  was  a  nephew  of  the  great 
botanist  Antoine  Laurent.  He  was  prefect  of  Ain  and 
of  Vienna  in  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Jussieu,  de,  (ANTOINE,)  professor  of  botany  in  the 
Royal  Garden  of  Paris,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1686.  He 
travelled  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  for  the  purpose 
of  making  botanical  explorations,  succeeded  Tournefort 
as  professor  of  botany  in  1708,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  treatises  on  that  science.  He  published  a  new 
edition  of  Tournefort's  "Institutions."  Died  in  1758. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Jussieu,  de,(  ANTOINE  LAURENT,)  a  celebrated  French 
botanist,  born  at  Lyons  in  April,  1748,  was  the  most 


eminent  member  of  a  family  which  has  been  called  "the 
Botanical  Dynasty."  In  1765  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
medicine,  and  became  the  protege  and  pupil  of  his  uncle, 
Bernard  de  Jussieu,  who  lectured  on  botany  in  the  Jar- 
din  clu  Roi,  and  was  meditating  a  natural  method  of 
classification,  near  the  close  of  a  life  memorable  in  the 
records  of  botanical  science.  This  uncle,  whose  advanced 
age  and  dimness  of  sight  indisposed  him  to  the  labours 
of  authorship,  freely  communicated  his  mature  reflections 
to  young  Jussieu,  who  zealously  enlisted  in  the  important 
enterprise.  In  1770,  having  just  graduated  as  M.D.,  he 
was  appointed  demonstrator  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi,  as  the  substitute  of  Lemonnier,  chief  physician  to 
the  king.  His  first  production  was  an  excellent  mono 
graph  on  the  "  Ranunculaceae,"  (1774,)  which  opened  to 
him  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  determined  him  to 
apply  himself  almost  exclusively  to  botany. 

In  1774  the  arrangement  of  the  plants  in  the  Royal 
Garden,  which  was  conformed  to  the  system  of  Tourne 
fort,  was  exchanged  for  one  proposed  by  Jussieu,  founded 
on  natural  affinities.  While  performing  his  duties  as 
professor,  he  continued  to  digest  and  perfect  his  new 
system,  until  1788,  when  he  developed  the  same  in  his 
great  Latin  work,  "  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Ordines 
naturales  disposita,"  "which,"  says  Cuvier,  "forms  in 
the  sciences  of  observation  an  epoch  perhaps  as  im 
portant  as  the  '  Chemistry'  of  Lavoisier  in  the  sciences 
of  experiment."  Although  the  success  of  his  book  was 
retarded  by  the  political  convulsions  of  France,  his  philo 
sophical  system  has  gradually  prevailed  and  superseded 
the  artificial  method  of  Linnaeus.  The  idea  of  such  a 
system  had  occurred  to  other  botanists  ;  but  Jussieu  is 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  laying  its  broad  and  impreg 
nable  foundations. 

In  1793  the  school  of  the  Royal  Garden  was  reor 
ganized,  under  the  title  of  "  Museum  of  Natural  His 
tory,"  and  the  chair  of  botany  was  given  to  Jussieu,  who 
was  also  chosen  director  of  the  institution.  A  few  years 
later  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1808 
was  appointed  a  councillor  of  the  Imperial  University. 
At  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  lost  the  office  last 
named,  but  retained  the  professorship  until  1826,  when 
he  resigned  it  in  favour  of  his  son.  Between  1800  and 
1820  he  wrote  many  botanical  treatises  on  natural  orders 
and  families,  which  were  inserted  in  the  records  of  the 
Institute  or  the  "Annales  du  Museum."  These  are 
characterized  by  the  same  merits  as  his  principal  work, 
— profound  knowledge,  patient  observation,  a  correct 
estimate  of  the  value  of  characters,  and  an  admirable 
sagacity  in  perceiving  affinities.  Died  in  1836. 

See  FI.OURENS,  "  filoge  de  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,"  1838  ;  A.  T.  BROXG- 
NIART,  "  Notice  liistorique  sur  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,"  1837;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (BERNARD,)  a  celebrated  botanist, 
brother  of  Antoine,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1699.  After  studying  in  his  native  city,  he  accompanied 
his  brother  on  several  scientific  tours.  On  returning 
to  France  he  entered  the  medical  course  at  Montpellier, 
where  he  graduated  in  1720.  Six  years  later  he  was 
chosen  Doctor  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Paris.  He 
was  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  the  classification  of 
plants  according  to  their  affinities.  This  method  was  per 
fected  by  his  nephew,  the  celebrated  Antoine  Laurent  de 
Jussieu.  He  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  Louis  XV.,  to 
whom  he  gave  valuable  advice  upon  the  formation  of  the 
garden  at  Trianon.  Jussieu  visited  England,  and  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1777. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  filoge  de  Jussieu ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (JOSEPH,)  brother  of  Antoine  and  Bernard 
de  Jussieu,  was  born  in  Lyons  in  1704.  In  1735  he  ac 
companied,  as  a  botanist,  the  French  and  Spanish  savants 
who  had  been  sent  by  their  respective  governments  to 
Peru.  He  remained  in  that  country  and  other  parts  of 
South  America  until  1771,  and  collected  valuable  infor 
mation  on  natural  history.  Died  at  Paris  in  1779. 

Jussieu,  de,  (LAURENT  PIERRE,)  a  French  moralist 
and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1792,  was  a  brother  of 
Alexis,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  a  number  of  popular 
educational  works,  among  which  are  "  Simon  de  Nantua," 
,)  and  "Antoine  et  Maurice,"  (1821.)  His  "Post- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  wow/;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  //4w.     (g^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUS  SOW 


1304 


JUST  I  NUN 


humous  Works  of  Simon  de  Nantua"  (1829)  obtained 
the  Montyon  prize. 

See  QUERAKU,  "  La  France  LitteVaire." 

Jussow,  yoos'so,  (HEiNRicii  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
architect,  born  at  Cassel  in  1754.  He  designed  a  church 
at  Neustadt,  a  wing  of  the  royal  palace  of  Wilhelmshohe, 
and  the  Chinese  Gallery  at  Cassel.  Died  in  1825. 

See  ERSCH  und  GKUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jussy,  zhu'se',  (JACQUKS  PHILIPPE,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Besai^on  about  1716.  He  introduced  a 
new  and  successful  method  of  lithotomy.  Died  in  1798. 

Just,  Saint.     See  SAINT-JUST. 

Juste,  zhiist,  (THEODORE,)  a  Belgian  historian,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1818.  He  published,  besides  other  works 
in  French,  a  "Popular  History  of  Belgium,"  (1838,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Belgian  Revolution  of  1790,"  (3  vols., 
1846,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (5  vols., 
1848.) 

Justel,  zhiis'tel',  (CnuiSTOPHE,)  a  French  Protestant 
statesman,  and  secretary  to  Henry  IV.,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1580.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  of  canon  law,  upon  which  he 
wrote  several  books.  He  also  wrote  some  historical 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Family  of 
Turenne,"  (1645.)  Died  in  1649. 

See  SAX,  "  Onomasticon  ;"  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;" 
HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Justel,  (HENRI,)  a  canonist,  born  in  Paris  in  1620, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
secretary  to  the  king.  He  collected  an  extensive  library, 
especially  rich  in  manuscripts,  and  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  literary  men.  For  the  sake  of  religious  liberty  he 
emigrated  to  England  in  1681,  and  became  librarian  to 
Charles  II.  He  published  "  Bibliotheca  Juris  Canonic! 
veteris,"  (2  vols.,  1661.)  Died  in  1693. 

See  SAX,  "Onomasticon;"  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Justen.     See  JUUSTEN. 

Justi,  yoos'tee,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH  GOTTLIEB,)  a 
German  writer  on  political  economy  and  philosophy, 
born  in  Thuringia  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "Treatise 
on  Manufactures  and  Fabrics,"  (3  vols.,  1758-61,)  and 
"Moral  and  Philosophical  Writings,"  (2  vols.,  1760-61,) 
both  in  German.  Died  at  Kiistrin  in  1771. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBEK,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jus'tin,  [Lat.  JUSTI'NUS,  or  JUSTI'NUS  FRONTI'NUS,] 
a  Latin  historian  of  uncertain  period,  and  of  whose  life 
nothing  is  known.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Histo- 
riarum  Philippicarum  Libri  XLI V.,"  which,  as  he  informs 
the  reader  in  his  preface,  is  extracted  or  abridged  from 
the  History  of  the  World  written  by  Trogus  Pompeins. 
As  the  original  work  is  lost,  Justin's  history,  although 
it  has  no  great  intrinsic  merit  except  an  elegant  style, 
supplies  much  valuable  information  not  found  in  other 
histories.  The  most  ancient  writer  that  mentions  Justin 
is  Saint  Jerome  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  former  lived 
between  150  and  350  A.D. 

See  D.  W.  MOLLER,  "  Disputatio  de  Justine, "  1684 ;  ZEMBSCH, 
"  Justimis  Trogi  Pompeii  Epitomator,"  1804. 

Jus'tin  or  Justi'nus,  surnamed  THE  MARTYR,  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  learned  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
was  born  of  Greek  parentage  at  Neapolis,  in  Palestine, 
about  103  A.D.  He  was  educated  in  the  pagan  religion 
and  in  the  philosophy  of  Plato.  About  132  he  embraced 
Christianity.  He  afterwards  removed  to  Rome,  where 
he  wrote,  in  Greek,  his  first  apology  for  the  Christian 
religion.  It  was  addressed  to  the  emperor  Antoninus, 
from  whom  Justin  procured  some  concessions  for  the 
Christians.  His  other  apology  was  addressed  to  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  discussions 
with  Trypho,  a  learned  Jew,  upon  the  Messiah.  He 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  under  Marcus  Aurelius, 
for  refusing  to  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods,  about  165. 
His  writings  are  considered  very  valuable. 

See  JOHN  KAVE,  "Life  of  Justin  Martyr,"  London,  1836;  CARL 
SEMISCH,  "Justin  der  Miirtyrer,"  2  vols.,  1840-42;  VOI.KMAR, 
"Ueber  Justin  den  Martyrer,"  etc.,  1853;  JUNIUS,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Justino  Martyre,"  1836 ;' RITTER,  "History  of  Christian  Philoso 
phy;"  EUSEBIUS,  "  Ecclesiastical  History;"  NEASDER,  "  History  of 
the  Church  ;"  FLEURY,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 


Justin  or  Justinus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
born  a  peasant  in  Dacia  in  450  A.D.  At  an  early  age  he 
went  to  Constantinople,  where  he  enlisted  in  the  im 
perial  guards  of  Leo  I.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
his  military  abilities,  and  rose  in  rank  until  he  was  suc 
cessively  appointed  general  and  commander  of  the 
guards.  In  518,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor  Anasta- 
sitis,  Justin  was  proclaimed  his  successor  by  the  soldiers 
and  the  people.  Through  his  instrumentality  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches  were  reconciled.  He  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  just  prince.  Died  in  527,  soon  after  re 
signing  the  throne  to  his  nephew  Justinian. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "Histoiredu  Bas-Empire;"  ZONARAS,  "History." 

Justin  or  Justinus  II.  was  a  nephew  of  Justinian  I., 
whom  he  succeeded  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in 
565.  During  his  reign  the  Longobards  under  Alboin 
invaded  Italy,  the  northern  part  of  which  they  wrested 
from  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  the  Persians  made  several 
important  conquests  in  the  Asiatic  provinces.  In  574, 
perceiving  his  inability  to  govern,  he  resigned  in  favour 
of  Tiberius,  the  captain  of  his  guards.  Died  in  578. 

See  LE  BHAU,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  MEXANMIEK,  "His- 
toriarurn  Libri  VI II.,"  Paris,  1609;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jus-ti'iia,  [Fr.  JUSTINE,  zhus'ten',]  SAINT,  a  Chris 
tian  martyr,  who  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  death 
under  Diocletian,  (A.D.  304.)  She  was  the  patroness  of 
Venice  and  of  Padua.  In  the  latter  town  a  church  was 
built  in  her  honour  in  the  fifth  century. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Jus-tin'i-aii  or  Jus-tin-1-a'nus  [Fr.  JUSTINIEN, 
zhiis'te'ne-a.N']  I.,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Em 
perors  of  the  East,  and  nephew  of  Justin  I.,  was  born  in 
Dardania,  May  11,483  A.D.  Justin  at  his  coronation  in 
518  appointed  Justinian  his  colleague,  and  in  527  invested 
him  with  supreme  authority.  Soon  after  ascending 
the  throne,  Justinian  commenced  an  active  persecution 
against  the  Arians,  Jews,  and  Pagans.  About  532  se 
rious  revolts  occurred,  in  one  of  which  the  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  and  other  buildings  were  destroyed  by  fire.  This 
sedition,  in  which  thirty  thousand  insurgents  are  said  to 
have  fallen,  was  incited  by  the  factions  of  the  circus,  and 
was  only  quelled  by  the  prompt  resolution  of  Belisarius  at 
the  head  of  the  imperial  guards.  Justinian  showed  great 
clemency  to  those  of  his  rebellious  subjects  who  were 
made  prisoners.  He  immediately  began  to  repair  the 
damages  of  the  conflagration.  The  magnificent  church 
of  Saint  Sophia,  which  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
edifices  of  any  age  or  country,  was  rebuilt  upon  the  plan 
furnished  by  the  architect  Anthemius.  Justinian  also 
exhibited  his  liberality  and  architectural  skill  in  the  con 
struction  of  temples,  convents,  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts, 
and  fortifications  in  many  parts  of  his  vast  empire.  But 
by  far  the  greatest  work  of  his  reign  was  the  revision  of 
the  Roman  law  and  the  publication  of  the  Codes,  Pan 
dects,  and  Institutions  which  bear  his  name,  and  which 
were  compiled  under  his  supervision  by  the  eminent 
jurist  Tribonian.  The  "Codes,"  consisting  of  twelve 
books,  were  completed  in  534.  The  "  Digesta"  or  "  Pan- 
dectae,"  embracing  all  that  was  taken  from  the  decisions, 
arguments,  and  expositions  of  the  civilians  of  Rome,  were 
subsequently  issued  in  fifty  books.  The  "Institutiones" 
were  an  abridgment  of  the  first  principles  of  the  law  for 
the  use  of  students.  Justinian  also  composed  many  new 
laws,  mostly  in  Greek,  entitled  "  Constitutiones  No 
velise."  While  he  was  thus  rendering  such  eminent 
service  to  the  world  by  the  publication  of  his  Codes  and 
Pandects,  his  celebrated  generals  Belisarius  and  Narses 
carried  the  terror  of  his  arms  into  Persia,  Italy,  and 
Africa,  and  made  their  master  the  sovereign  of  nearly 
all  the  territory  over  which  the  first  Caesars  had  held 
dominion.  (See  BELISARIUS,  and  NARSES.)  Justinian 
gave  liberal  encouragement  to  the  industrial  arts,  and 
was  the  first  to  introduce  silk-worms  and  the  manu 
facture  of  silken  goods  into  Europe.  He  died  in  565, 
after  a  reign  of  more  than  thirty-eight  years,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Justin  II.  Justinian,  although 
justly  censurable  for  his  occasional  intolerance,  was  dis 
tinguished  for  his  general  justice  and  humanity,  as  well 
as  for  his  knowledge  of  theology,  philosophy,  law,  poetry, 
and  architecture,  for  his  administrative  powers,  and  for 
his  exceedingly  virtuous  and  temperate  life, — qualities 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


JUSTINUN 


JUXON 


which  would  have  placed  him  in  the  highest  rank  as  a 
monarch,  even  if  he  had  not  produced  those  Codes  which 
have  immortalized  his  name. 

See  PROCOPIUS,  "  HistoriasuiTemporis,"  (translated  into  English 
by  HOI.CROFT,  1653;)  LUDEWIC,  "Vita  Justiniani,"  1731  ;  ISAMBERT, 
"  Hivoirede  Justinien,"  1856;  CORVINUS  DE  BEI.DERN.  •'  Imperator 
Justinianus  Catliolicus,"  1618  :  G.  PEKRIN,  "  Vita  Justiniani,"  1576  ; 
GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  MONTESQUIEU, 
"  Grandeur  et  Decadence  desRomains,"chap.  xx.  ;  H.  VOGKL,  "  Dis- 
serta;io  de  Jnstiniano,"  1672;  P.  GAUDENZIO,  "Gloria  Justiniani 
Imperatoris  vindicata,"  1639;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Justinian  [Lat.  JUSTINIA'NUS]  II.,  son  of  Constan- 
tine  III.,  ascended  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  685. 
He  gained  important  advantages  over  the  Saracens,  and 
compelled  them  to  relinquish  some  of  their  conquests. 
Finally,  his  great  cruelties  to  his  subjects,  and  also,  it  is 
said,  his  intention  of  burning  Constantinople,  caused  his 
general  Leontius  to  depose  him,  to  cut  off  his  nose,  and 
to  banish  him  to  the  Crimea.  He  subsequently  escaped 
from  the  Crimea,  and  married  the  daughter  of  a  Turkish 
chief,  with  whose  assistance,  and  that  of  the  Bulgarians, 
he  regained  his  crown.  He  put  Leontius,  and  many 
others,  to  horrible  deaths.  He  was  preparing  to  execute 
further  cruelties,  when  he  was  killed  in  711  by  Philip- 
picus  Bardanes,  who  succeeded  him. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire:"  LE  BEAU, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  ZONARAS,  "History;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Justiniani.     See  GIUSTINIANI. 

Justinianus.     See  JUSTINIAN. 

Justinien.     See  JUSTINIAN. 

Justinus.     See  JUSTIN. 

Jus'tu-lus.yoos'too-lus,  (PiETRO  FRANCESCO,)  a  Latin 
poet,  and  secretary  to  Caesar  Borgia,  a  native  of  Italy, 
lived  about  1500.  His  poems  are  distinguished  for  their 
purity  and  elegance. 

Ju'suf.     See  YOOSUK. 

Ju-tur'iia,  [Fr.  JUTURNE,  zhu'tliRn',]  a  nymph  or 
goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology,  was  said  to  be  beloved 
by  Jupiter.  According  to  Virgil,  she  was  a  sister  of 
Turnus.  The  water  which  the  Romans  used  in  sacrifices 
was  mostly  drawn  from  the  fountain  of  Juturna. 

Juturne.     See  JUTURNA. 

Juusten  or  Justen,  yoos'ten,  (PAUL,)  Bishop  of  Abo, 
in  Finland,  was  born  at  Viborg.  He  was  sent  in  1569  by 
John  III.  of  Sweden  as  an  ambassador  to  Ivan,  Czar  of 
Russia.  That  monarch,  on  some  false  pretence  against 
John,  threw  Juusten  in  prison,  where  he  was  confined  for 
three  years.  Died  at  Abo  in  1575. 

Juvara,  yoo-va'ra,  or  Ivara,  e-va'ra,  (FILIPPO,)  first 
architect  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  was  born  at  Messina,  in 
Italy,  in  1685,  and  educated  at  Rome  under  Fontana. 
He  constructed  a  palace  at  Messina,  and  several  edifices 
in  Turin.  In  1724  he  went  to  Lisbon,  where  he  super 
intended  the  building  of  the  royal  palace  and  other  edi 
fices,  for  which  he  received  the  order  of  knighthood  and 
a  pension  of  about  three  thousand  dollars.  He  died  in 
1735,  at  Madrid.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  hunting- 
palace  of  Stupinigi,  and  the  Birago  di  Borgaro  palace, 
both  in  Turin. 

See  MII.IZIA,  "  Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  QUATREMERE  r>E 
QUINCV,  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Ju've-nal,  [Lat.  JUVENA'I.IS  ;  Fr.  JUVENAL,  zhii'va'- 
ntl',]  or,  more  fully,  De9/a-mus  Ju'm-us  Ju-ve-na'- 
lis,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Latin  satirical  poets, 
is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  Aquinum,  a  Volscian 
town,  about  A.D.  40.  But  few  authentic  facts  have  been 
preserved  respecting  his  history:  it  is  said,  however,  that 
he  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  freedman,  and  that  he 
devoted  the  early  part  of  his  life  to  the  study  of  rhetoric 
and  declamation.  He  afterwards  became  a  pleader  in 
the  courts  of  law,  where  he  appears  to  have  been  suc 
cessful.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Martial, 
who  mentions  him  in  two  of  his  epigrams.  None  of 
the  productions  of  Juvenal  were  given  to  the  public 
until  he  had  passed  the  age  of  sixty  years.  His  poems, 


which  he  then  recited,  gained  him  universal  admiration. 
One  of  his  earliest  satires  had  been  written  against  an 
actor  named  Paris,  who  was  a  great  favourite  with  the 
emperor  Domitian.  It  was  not  published  until  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  who,  imagining  that  it  reflected  on  one  of 
his  own  favourites,  sent  Juvenal  into  an  honourable  exile 
by  making  him  the  prefect  of  a  legion  in  Egypt,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  died  about  A.D.  125.  Sixteen  of  his 
satires  have  been  preserved.  Several  translations  of 
them  have  been  made  into  English,  of  which  the  most 
prominent  are  those  of  Dryden  and  Gifford.  In  these 
satires  Juvenal  severely  lashes  the  prevailing  vices  of 
his  time ;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  his  vivid 
pictures  of  the  licentiousness  of  that  age  do  not  tend  to 
fan  those  very  passions  which  they  seem  intended  to 
restrain.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  force  of  intellect, 
his  flow  of  language,  and  his  never-failing  wit.  "Juvenal 
gives  me,"  says  Dryden,  "as  much  pleasure  as  I  can 
bear.  He  fully  satisfies  expectation  ;  he  treats  his  sub 
ject  home.  .  .  .  When  he  gives  over, 'tis  a  sign  that  the 
subject  is  exhausted,  and  that  the  wit  of  man  can  carry 
it  no  further."  His  works,  differing  equally  from  the 
austere  moral  dialogues  of  Persius  and  the  genial  raillery 
of  Horace,  are  rhetorical  rather  than  poetical.  They  are 
brilliant  and  sonorous  declamations,  and  master-pieces 
of  denunciation. 

"Magnificent  versification,"  says  Macaulay,  "and  in 
genious  combinations  rarely  harmonize  with  the  expres 
sion  of  deep  feeling.  In  Juvenal  and  Dryden  alone  we 
have  the  sparkle  and  the  heat  together.  Those  great 
satirists  succeeded  in  communicating  the  fervour  of  their 
feelings  to  materials  the  most  incombustible,  and  kindled 
the  whole  mass  into  a  blaze  at  once  dazzling  and  destruc 
tive."  ("  Essay  on  Dryden.")  Among  the  best  editions 
of  Juvenal  is  that  of  Ruperti,  (Leipsic,  2  vols.,  1801,)  to 
!  which  are  prefixed  all  the  ancient  documents  for  the 
j  biography  of  the  satirist. 

See  J.  V.  FRANCKE,  "  Examen  criiicum  D.  J.  Juvenalis  Vita;," 
1820,  and  "  Programma  de  VitaD.  J.  Juvenalis  Questioaltera,"  1827  ; 
VOI.KER,  "Juvenal,  Lebens-  und  Charakterbild,"  1851  ;  BAUER, 
"  Kritische  Bemerkungen  iiber  einige  Nachrichten  atis  dem  Leben 
Juvenals,"  1833  :  BAHR,  "Geschichte  Her  Romischen  Litteratur. " 

Juvenal,  zhiiv'njtl',  (Gui  Jouvenneaux.zhoo'vcYno', 
or  Jouennaux,  zhoo'i'no',)  a  French  philologist  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  about  1460,  was  educated  at  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Comedies 
of  Terence,"  and  "Monastic  Reformations  Vindicated." 
Died  in  1505. 

Juvenal  des  Ursiiis.     See  URSINS. 

Ju-ven'cus,  (CA'IUS  VEC'TIUS  (vek'she-us)  AQUILI'- 

NUS,)  one  of  the  earliest  Christian  poets,  was  born  in 

Spain  about  330  A.D.     His  principal  production  is  the 

"  Life  of  Christ,"  written  in  Latin  poetry  and  taken  lite- 

•  rally  from  the  four  Evangelists. 

See  A.  R.  GEBSER,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  V.  A.  Juvenci  Vita  et 
i  Scriptis,"  1827;  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Juvenel,  zhiiv'nel',  (F^Lix,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
i  born  at  Pezenas  in  1669,  published  "Principles  of  His 
tory."  Died  in  1760. 

Juvigny.     See  RIGOLEY  DE  JUVIGNY. 

Jux'on,  (WILLIAM,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born 
in  Chichester  in  1582,  graduated  at  Oxford.  In  1621  he 
was  appointed  president  of  Saint  John's  College,  and 
afterwards  received  various  offices  in  the  Church  through 
the  patronage  of  Archbishop  Laud.  In  1633  he  was 
successively  raised  to  the  sees  of  Hereford  and  London. 
Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  I.  lord 
high  treasurer  of  England.  For  about  six  years  he  ful 
filled  the  duties  of  this  station  with  so  much  justice  and 
ability  that,  although  great  hostility  was  excited  that  an 
ecclesiastic  should  be  chosen  to  that  office,  no  charges 
were  made  against  his  administration.  He  remained 
with  Charles  through  his  trial,  and  accompnnied  him  to 
the  scaffold,  where  he  received  the  dying  injunctions  of 
that  monarch.  On  the  restoration  he  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Canterbury.  Died  in  1663. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=>See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KAAB 


1306 


KALCKREUTH 


K. 


Kaab,  ka'ab,  a  distinguished  Arabian  poet,  who  flour 
ished  about  650  A.D.  He  was  at  first  a  bitter  enemy  of 
Mohammed ;  but  afterwards,  becoming  reconciled  to 
him,  he  wrote  a  poem,  which  is  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  eulogiums  addressed  to  the  founder  of 
the  Moslem  faith.  The  prophet  was  so  much  pleased 
that  he  gave  Kaab  his  green  mantle.  The  poem  was 
hung  up  in  the  Temple  of  Mecca.  Kaab  died  in  662  A.D. 

See  D'HERUELOT,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale." 

Kaas,  kas,  [Lat.  KAA'SIUS,]  (Nucoi.AUS,)  a  Danish 
statesman,  born  in  1535,  and  educated  in  Germany,  where 
he  studied  theology  under  Melanchthon.  In  1573  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  Denmark,  and  in  1588  be 
came  first  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority 
of  Christian  I.  lie  performed  the  duties  of  that  office 
with  commendable  ability  and  patriotism.  Died  in  1594. 
Kaas  actively  promoted  the  cause  of  education. 

See  HOFMANX,  "  Portraits  historiques  des  Hommes  cdlebres  du 
Danemaick  ;"  KOLDHR,  "  Exegesis  Virtutum  et  Rerum  gestarum  N. 
Kaasii,"  1580;  P.  J.  WINSTKUP,  "  Ligpraediken  over  N.  Kaas," 
1594;  J.  CALUNDANUS,  "Descriptio  Vita;  N.  Kaasii,"  1637. 

Kaasius.     See  KAAS. 

Kaau-Boerhaave,  kow  booR'ha'veh,  (AliRAM,)  a 
Dutch  physician,  and  nephew  of  Herman  Boerhaave, 
was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1713,  and  educated  at  Leyclen. 
In  1740  he  was  invited  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he 
became  councillor  of  state,  and  in  1748  first  physician  to 
the  imperial  court.  Died  at  Moscow  in  1753. 

Kabbete,  kab'l>eh-teh,  QAN,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter.  Some  of  his  pictures  were  engraved  by  Perelle. 
Died  in  1660. 

Kabel,  van  der,  vtn  der  ka'bel,  (ADRIAAN,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Riswyck  in  1631. 
His  designs  were  natural  and  vigorous.  Died  in  1695. 

See  PILKINGTO.V,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kabus  or  Kabous.     See  CAUOOS. 

Kadlubek,  kad-loo'bek,  (VINCKNT,)  sometimes  writ 
ten  Kodlubko  or  Kalubko,  a  Polish  historian  and 
prelate,  was  born  in  Galicia.  In  1208  he  was  raised  to 
the  see  of  Cracow.  Died  in  1223.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
and  accurate  history  of  Poland  to  the  year  1202. 

See  OSSOLIXSKI,  "  V.  Kadlubek,  ein  historisch-kntischer  Beitrag," 
etc.,  1822. 

Kaempfer.     See  KAMPFER. 

Kaestner.     See  KASTNER. 

Kager,  ka'ger,  (JOHANN  MATTHIAS,)  a  German 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Munich  in  1566;  died  at 
Augsburg  in  1634. 

Kahle,  kri'leh,  (LuowiG  MARTIN,)  a  German  philos 
opher  and  jurist,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1712.  Among 
his  works  is  "  The  Balance  of  Europe,"  ("  De  Trutina 
Europae,"  1744.)  Died  in  1775. 

Kahler,  ka'ler,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Wolmar,  Hesse-Cassel,  in  1649,  was  a  Cartesian 
in  philosophy,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1727. 

Kahnis,  ka'nis,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  at  Greitz  in  1814.  He  studied 
under  Tholuck,  and  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Leipsic  in  1850.  He  published  a  valuable  work,  entitled 
"  Luthei  ische  Dogmatik,"  (2  vols.,  1861-68.) 

Kaiaiiian  or  Caianian,  kl-a'ne-an,  the  name  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  ancient  Persian  dynasties,  so 
called  from  its  founder,  Kai-Kobad,  who,  according  to 
the  Persian  legends,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the 
famous  hero  and  conqueror  Roostum,  (or  Rustem.)  Of 
this  dynasty,  Cyrus  the  Great  (called  by  the  Persians 
Kai-Khosroo  or  Kai-Khosrau,  Kos-row')  was  the  chief 
ornament  and  glory.  (See  CYRUS.)  Darius  the  Younger, 
conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  was  the  last  of  the 
Kaianian  kings. 

See  ATKINSON,  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdaust," 
London,  1832;  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  SIR  VV. 
JONES'S  Works. 

Kai-Kaoos,  (-Kaus  or  -Kaous,)  ki  ka'oos',  an  an 
cient  king  of  Persia,  (or  Iran,)  was  the  son  of  Kai-Kobad. 
His  general,  the  famous  Roostum,  carried  on  successful 


wars  against  the  Kings  of  Turan.  Sir  William  Jones 
places  the  date  of  this  prince's  accession  at  B.C.  610. 
Kai-Kaoos  is  said  to  have  founded  an  observatory  in 
Babylon.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Kai-Khos 
roo,  (Cyrus  the  Great.) 

See  MIRKHOND,  "Raouset;"  ATKINSON,  "Abridgment  of  the 
Shah  Nameh." 

Kai-Kaoos,  (-Kaus  or  -Kaous,)  ki  ka'oos',  I., 
seventh  Sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seljookides  of 
Anatolia,  succeeded  his  father,  Kai-Khosroo,  about  A.D. 
1210.  He  was  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Grecian  em 
peror  and  several  of  the  neighbouring  princes.  Died  in 
1219,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Kai-Kobad 
Ala-cd-Deen,  (Ala-eddin.) 

See  FERISIITA,  "History." 

Kai-Kaoos  (or  -Katis)  II,  Azzed-ed-Deen,  (Az- 
zed-Eddin,)  az'zed  ed-deen',  succeeded  his  father, 
Kai-Khosroo  II.,  in  the  sovereignty  of  Anatolia,  about 
A.D.  1244.  His  reign  was  occupied  by  long  wars  with 
his  brother,  Kilij-Arslan,  and  with  the  Grand  Khan 
ofTartary.  Died  in  1278. 

Kai-Khosrau.     See  CYRUS. 

Kai-Khosroo  (-Khosrou)  THE  ELDER.  See  CYRUS. 

Kai-Khos'roo'  I.,  sixth  Sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Seljookides,  became  sovereign  of  Anatolia  A.D.  1192. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1210  by  Theodore  Lascaris, 
Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Kai-Khosroo  II.  succeeded  his  father,  Kai-Kobad 
Ala-ed-Deen,  (Ala-eddin,)  on  the  throne  of  Anatolia  in 
1237.  In  1244  he  was  defeated  by  the  Tartars,  and  was 
compelled  to  become  a  tributary  to  their  grand  khan. 
He  died  the  same  year. 

Kai-Khosroo  III.,  twelfth  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Seljookides,  became  Sultan  about  1266.  Died  in  1283. 

Kailasa  or  Cailasa,  kl-la'sa,  called  in  the  common 
dialect  Kailas,  ki-lSs',  the  name  of  a  very  high  mountain- 
peak  near  the  northern  extremity  of  India,  supposed  to 
be  the  favourite  abode  of  Siva  and  Parvati.  (See  SIVA.) 

Kain.     See  LE  KAIN. 

Kaiook,  Kaiuk,  or  Kaiouk,  kl-ook',  a  grandson 
of  Jengis  Khan,  was  proclaimed  Grand  Khan  ofTartary 
in  1246.  This  prince  granted  numerous  privileges  to 
the  Christians  of  his  dominions.  He  died  in  1248,  as  he 
was  raising  an  immense  army  for  the  invasion  of  Europe. 

Kairis,  ka'ris,  (THEOPHILOS,)  a  Greek  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  the  island  of  Andros  in  1780.  In  1839  he  was 
banished  by  the  Synod  of  Athens  to  a  cloister  for  having 
taught  deism.  He  wrote  a  burlesque  on  the  prayers  of 
the  Christian  Church.  In  1852  he  was  sent  to  prison, 
where  he  died  in  1853. 

Kaiser,  kl'zer,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
at  Ulm  in  1775,  worked  in  Vienna.  Died  in  1819. 

Ka'kig  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Pagrat- 
ides,  succeeded  his  brother,  Sempad  II.,  in  989.  Kakig 
assumed  the  surname  SiiAHAN-SiiAH,  ("  King  of  kings.") 
In  998  he  assisted  David,  a  Georgian  prince,  to  defeat  the 
Mohammedans  under  Mamloon  the  Ameer.  Died  in  1020. 

Kala,  kd'la,  or  Kal,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "time," 
[from  Ml,*  to  "count"  or  "  reckon,"]  and  forming  one  of 
the  many  names  of  the  destroying  god  SIVA,  (which  see.) 

Kalanaga.     See  KALIYA. 

Kalauu  or  Kalaoun.     See  KELAOON. 

Kalb,  de.     See  DE  KALI?. 

Kalckreuth.von,  fon  kalk'roit',  (FRIEDRICH  ADOLF,) 
COUNT,  born  at  Sangerhausen,  in  Prussia,  in  1737,  served 
in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession,  and  afterwards 
in  the  campaigns  of  Holland  and  P 'ranee.  For  his  gallant 
defence  of  Dantzic  against  the  French,  in  1807,  he  was 
made  field-marshal.  In  July,  1807,  he  concluded  with 
Talleyrand  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and 
France.  Died  in  1818. 

See  L.  G.  MICHAUD,  "Notices  historiques  sur  le  Marechal  Jour- 
dan  et  les  Generaux  Kalckreuth  et  Kilmaine." 

*  This  word  is  related  etymologically  to  the  middle  syllable  of  the 
Latin  "  interai/aris,"  denoting  the  reckoning  of  a  day  or  space  of 
time  between  other  days.  The  word  "kalends"  is  not  improbably 
from  the  same  root. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


KALDI 


1307 


KALRAAT 


Kaldi,  kal'dee,  (GKORGE,)  a  learned  and  eloquent 
Hungarian  Jesuit,  born  in  Tirnau  about  1572,  was  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Olmiitz.  Died  at  Presburg  in  1634. 
He  translated  the  Bible  into  the  Hungarian  language. 

Kale.     See  KALK. 

Kalee.     See  KALL 

Kalergis,  ka-leR'gis,  (DEMETRIUS,)  a  Greek  general 
and  politician,  born  in  Taganrog  about  1802.  He  fought 
for  independence  against  the  Turks.  About  1843  he  be 
came  a  general,  and  governor  of  Athens.  He  was  min 
ister  of  war  for  about  two  years,  (1854-56.)  Died  in  1867. 

Kalf,  kalf,  written  also' Kale,  (WlLHELM,)  a  distin 
guished  Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1630.  He  especially  excelled  in  painting  fruit,  gold 
and  silver  vessels,  gems,  crystals,  etc.  Died  in  1693. 

Kali  or  Kalee,  ka'lee,  the  feminine  of  Kala,  (a  name 
of  Siva,)  forming  the  common  appellation  of  Siva's  con 
sort  in  her  destroying  character.  She  is  often  called 
Maha  Kali,  (ina-ha'  ka'lee,)  or  the  "Great  Kali,"  and 
Bhaclra  (b'hud'ra)  Kali,  (from  Bhadra,  one  of  the  many 
appellations  of  Siva,)  and  various  other  names.  She  is 
represented  sometimes  with  four  and  sometimes  with 
eight  hands,  and  her  person  is  decorated  with  a  necklace 
of  human  skulls.  Her  images  are  usually  painted  black 
or  of  a  dark  colour.  In  her  character  of  Maha  Kali  she 
sometimes  represents  eternity.  (See  Coleman's  "My 
thology  of  the  Hindoos,"  p.  91.)  As  active  or  militant 
virtue,  she  is  called  Durga;  in  her  ordinary  and  more 
peaceful  character  she  is  known  as  Parvati,  (i.e.  the 
"mountain  goddess,"  in  allusion  to  her  dwelling  on  the 
inaccessible  heights  of  the  Himalayas,)  or  as  Devi,  (da'- 
vee,)  which  signifies  the  " goddess"  par  excellence.  (See 
DUKC.A,  and  PARVATI.) 

Kalidasa,  Calidasa,  ka'll-da'sa,  or  Kalidasas, 
called  "the  Shakspeare  of  India,"  the  most  illustrious 
of  Hindoo  poets,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  50 
}!.C.,  under  the  magnificent  reign  of  Vikramaditya  I.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  dramas,  of  which  the  most 
celebrated,  "  Sakoontala,"  (or  "  Sakontala,")  was  first 
made  known  to  the  nations  of  the  West  through  the  prose 
translation  of  Sir  William  Jones.  The  appearance  of 
this  remarkable  production  excited  a  deep  interest  and 
general  admiration  among  the  critics  of  Europe.  Of  its 
author,  Alexander  Humboldt  observes,  "Tenderness  in 
the  expression  of  feeling,  and  richness  of  creative  fancy, 
have  assigned  to  him  his  lofty  place  among  the  poets  of 
all  nations."  Goethe  expresses  his  admiration  in  a  still 
higher  strain  : 

"  Willst  du  die  Bliithe  des  friihen,  die  Friichte  des  spateren  Jahres, 
\Villst  du  was  reizt  mid  ent/.iickt,  willst  du  was  sattigt  und  nahrt, 
Willst  dn  den  Hinimel,  die  Krde,  init  einem  Namen  begreifen? 
Nenn'  ich  Sakontala  dich,  und  so  1st  alles  gesagt."* 

A  new  translation  of  Sakoontala,  by  Monier  Williams, 
the  present  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Oxford,  was  pub 
lished  at  Hertford  in  1856.  In  this  version  the  metrical 
portions  of  the  original  play  were  for  the  first  time 
rendered  into  English  verse.  Besides  the  drama  already 
referred  to,  there  have  come  down  to  us  two  others  by 
Kalidasa,  viz.,  "  Vikrama  and  Urvasi,"  which  abounds  in 
lyrical  beauties,  and  a  comedy  entitled  "Agnimitra  and 
Mnlavika."  His  two  epic  poems,  "  Raghuvansa"  and 
"Kumara-Sambhava,"  possess,  with  many  individual 
beauties,  comparatively  little  merit,  taken  as  a  whole. 
Among  his  lyrical  poems,  "  Megha-duta,"  or  the  "  Cloud- 
Messenger,"  is  remarkable  for  its  deep  feeling  and  grace 
ful  delineations  of  nature.  The  "  Nalodaya,"  a  sort  of 
poetical  romance,  which,  in  spite  of  much  that  would 
strike  a  European  reader  as  ridiculous  or  absurd,  has 
many  charming  passages,  is  also  commonly  ascribed  to 
Kalidasa. 

See  the  notice  of  Kalidasa  prefixed  to  PROFESSOR  WIM.IAMS'S 
translation  of  "  Sakoontala,"  already  referred  to ;  WILSON'S  "  Indian 
Theatre,"  in  which  there  are  English  translations  of  the  "  Megha- 
duta"  and  an  analysis  of  "Agnimitra  and  Malavika;"  also  BROCK- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon."  The  "  Nalodaya"  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English  verse  by  the  REV.  W.  YATES,  Calcutta,  1844. 

*  "  Wouldst  thou  the  blossoms  of  the  early,  the  fruits  of  the  later  year, 

Wouldst  thou  what  charms  and  enraptures,  what  satisfies  and  nour 
ishes,  [the  soul,] 

Wouldst  thou  comprehend  heaven  and  earth  [in  short]  under  one 
name? 

When  I  name  thee,  O  Sakoontala,  then  everything  is  said." 


Kallya,  ka'H-ya,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Mia,  "  black,"  and 
hence  "terrible"  or  "deadly,"]  called  also  KalanEkga, 
(ka'ia-na'ga,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a 
terrible  serpent  destroyed  by  Krishna.  As  the  latter  is 
by  some  identified  with  the  Apollo  of  the  Greeks,  so 
Kaliya  is  supposed  to  be  the  Python  of  classic  mythology. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kalkar.     See  CALCAR. 

Kalkar,  kal'kar,  (CHRISTIAN  ANDREAS  HERMAN,)  a 
Danish  theologian,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1802.  He  be 
came  first  minister  of  the  diocese  of  Seeland  in  1843. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Exegesis,"  (2  vols., 
1836-38.) 

Kalkbrenner,  kalk'bRen'ner,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Ger 
man  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Minden  in  1755. 
He  composed  dramatic  and  instrumental  music,  and 
became  chapel -master  to  the  queen  at  Berlin  in  1788. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1806. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Kalkbrenner,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  musical  com 
poser  and  pianist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1788,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  visited  Vienna  in  1803,  where  he 
studied  under  Albrechtsberger.  He  settled  in  Paris  in 
1824,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Pleyel,  founded  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  piano-manufactories  of  that  city.  As  a 
musician  he  holds  the  first  rank,  and  his  numerous  com 
positions  for  the  piano  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1849. 

See  L.  BOIVIN,  "Kalkbrenner,"  Paris,  1842:  P'ETIS.  "  Biographic 
Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kal'ki,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kiil'ki ;  from  the  San 
scrit  Ml,  to  "count"  or  "reckon,"]  the  only  one  of  the 
avatars  of  Vishnu  yet  to  come.  Vishnu,  mounted  on  a 
white  horse,  with  a  flaming  sword  in  his  hand,  will  bring 
the  present  (or  Kali)  age  to  an  end,  to  be  followed  by  an 
era  of  purity. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kail,  kal,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  eminent  Danish  scholar, 
born  in  Jutland  in  1743,  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  where  in  1778  he  became  professor  of  the 
history  and  mythology  of  the  North.  In  1785  he  founded 
a  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  foreign  lite 
rature,  and  in  1808  was  appointed  historiographer  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  Norway.  Died  in  1821. 

See  ERSLEW,  "Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Kallgreen.     See  KELLGRE.N. 

Kallias.     See  CALLIAS. 

Kallicrates.     See  CALLICRATES. 

Kallicratidas.     See  CALLICRATIDAS. 

Kallimachus.     See  CALLIMACHUS. 

Kallinicus.     See  CALLI.NICUS. 

Kallinus.     See  CAI.LINUS. 

Kalliope.     See  CALLIOPE. 

Kallippus.     See  CALLIPPUS. 

Kallistuenes.     See  CALLISTHENES. 

Kallistratus.     See  CALLISTRATUS. 

Kalliwoda,  kal'le-wo'da,  (JOHANN  WENZEL,)  a  noted 
violinist  and  composer,  born  at  Prague  about  1800. 

Kalm,  kalm,  (PEHR,)  a  Swedish  naturalist,  born  in 
1715.  In  1748,  under  the  direction  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Stockholm,  he  sailed  for  North  America, 
where  he  remained  about  three  years,  prosecuting  the 
study  of  natural  history.  On  his  return  to  Sweden  he 
published  an  account  of  his  travels,  under  the  title  of 
"A  Voyage  to  North  America,"  (1753.)  The  first  part 
of  this  valuable  work  relates  to  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
England.  He  was  afterwards  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm,  and  created  knight 
of  the  order  of  Vasa.  He  wrote  several  other  scientific 
works.  Died  in  1779.  The  genus  Kalmia  was  named 
in  honour  of  him. 

See  J.  L.  ODHELIUS,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  Kalm,"  1780; 
ADELI'NG,  Supplement  to  JOCHER'S  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexi- 
kon." 

Kalo-Joannes.     See  CALO- JOANNES. 

Kalraat,  van,  vtn  kal'rSt',  (ABRAM,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  sculptor,  born  at  Dort  in  1643.  His  paintings  are 
chiefly  of  flowers  and  fruits.  Died  in  1699. 

Kalraat,  van,  (BERNARD  or  BARENT,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1650,  studied  under  Albert  Cuyp. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  elegant  finish  which  he 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  .R,  trilled  ':  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


KALUBKO 


1308 


KANE 


gave  to  his  landscapes.  He  painted  scenes  on  the  Rhine. 
Died  in  1721. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kalubko.     See  KADLUBEK. 

Kalypso.     See  CALYPSO. 

Kamadeva,  ka'ma-da'va,  or  Kamaddo,  ka'ma-da'o, 
[from  the  Sanscrit  kamd,  "desire"  or  "love,"  and  dh'd, 
a  "god,"J  written  also  Camadeva,  Camadeo,  and 
Canideo,  sometimes  called  simply  Kama  or  Cama, 
the  god  of  love  of  the  Hindoos,  is  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Maya,  ("Illusion.)  He  is  represented  as  a  beautiful  youth, 
sometimes  as  riding  on  a  parrot,  and  sometimes  as  con 
versing  with  his  mother  Maya,  or  his  wife  Reti,  (or  Rati,) 
(i.e.  "  Affection.")  He  has  a  bow  made  of  sugar-cane,  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  of  flowers.)  The  points 
of  his  arrows  are  tipped  with  flowers.  Vasanta  (the 
"  Spring")  is  said  to  be  his  most  intimate  friend.  The 
most  remarkable  event  in  Kamadeva's  history  is  his 
encounter  with  Siva.  It  is  related  that  he  once  pre 
sumed  to  aim  one  of  his  arrows  at  the  destroying  deity, 
who  with  one  glance  of  his  eye  reduced  the  love-god  to 
ashes.  Since  that  catastrophe  Kamadeva  has  ceased  to 
possess  any  corporeal  form  ;  but  his  actual  power  seems 
thereby  to  have  been  increased  rather  than  diminished, 
as  he  can  now  more  easily,  and  with  less  suspicion,  exert 
his  sway  over  the  minds  of  men. 

See  MOOR'S  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  SIR  WILLIAM  JONES'S  Works, 
vol.  vi.,  (or  vol.  xiii.  of  another  edition.) 

Kamadheiiu,  ka'ma-d'ha'noo,  [i.e.  "wish-cow,"  from 
the  Sanscrit  kam&,  "desire"  or  "wish,"  and  dheini,  a 
"cow,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  won 
derful  cow,  produced  by  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  having 
power  to  grant  to  those  whom  she  favoured  whatever 
they  might  desire.  She  is  also  called  SurabhT,  (soo'- 
ra-b'hi,)  and  is  in  fact  a  goddess  of  no  mean  pretensions, 
aiid  would  appear  to  occupy  nearly  the  same  rank  as 
Vishnu's  consort  Lakshmi,  who  also  was  produced  from 
the  churning  of  the  ocean.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the 
Hindoos,  when  praying  for  prosperity  or  happiness,  to 
say,  "  May  Lakshmi,  who  resides  among  the  gods,  (or 
"who  reposes  on  the  bosom  of  Vishnu,")  become  a  boon- 
granting  cowtome."  (See  LAKSHMI,  and  KCRMA.) 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kamala  or  KSmala,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kxim'- 
a-la';  from  kamala,  the  "lotus,"  which  is  in  its  turn 
derived  from  kam&t  "beauty,"  "radiance,"]  one  of  the 
names  of  LAKSHMI,  (which  see.) 

Kanibyses.     See  CAMBYSES. 

Kamehameha  (ka-ma-ha'ma-ha')  HI.,  King  of 
Hawaii,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands,  was  born  about  1817  ; 
died  in  1854. 

Kamehameha  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1833,  was  educated  by  Protestant  missionaries.  He 
visited  Europe  in  1852,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1854. 

Kamel.     See  CAMELLI. 

Kamenski,  ka-men'skee,  (Count  MICHAEL  FEDORO- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian,  born  about  1735,  was  created  field- 
marshal  by  the  emperor  Alexander  in  1802.  Four  years 
later  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
sent  against  the  French,  but  was  soon  after  succeeded 
by  Benningsen.  He  died,  or  was  killed,  in  1809. 

Kames^  LOUD.     See  HOME,  (HENRY.) 

Kam-Hi.     See  KHANG-HEE. 

Kampen,  van,  ([ACOB.)     See  CAMPEN. 

Kamperi,  van,  van  kam'pen,  (NICOLAAS  GODFRIED,) 
a  Dutch  historian,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1776.  In  1829 
he  was  professor  of  Dutch  history  and  literature  in  Am 
sterdam.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  "  His 
tory  of  the  French  Ascendency  in  Europe,"  (8  vols.,  1815 
-23,)  and  "  Geographical  and  Statistical  Account  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1839. 

See  MULI.ER,  "  Leven  van  N.  Kampen,"  1840;  VAN  UF.N  KRINK, 
"  N.  G.  van  Kampen,"  etc.,  1839. 

Kampenhausen,  kam'pen-how'xen,  (BALTHASAR,) 
BARON,  born  near  Riga,  in  Russia,  in  1772,  wrote  several 
political  and  topographical  works.  Died  in  1823. 

Kampfer  or  Kaempfer,  kemp'fer,  (ENGELBRECHT,) 
an  eminent  German  botanist  and  traveller,  was  born  at 
Lemgo  in  1651.  He  studied  medicine  and  the  languages. 
In  1683  he  accompanied  the  Swedish  ambassador  to 
Persia.  Having  passed  into  the  service  of  the  Dutch 


East  India  Company  as  surgeon,  he  visited  Bengal, 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  Japan.  He  returned  to  Europe  in 
1693,  and  published  an  important  work  entitled  "Amce- 
nitates  Exoticae,"  (1712,)  which  contains  the  results  of 
his  researches  in  Persia,  etc.  He  also  wrote  a  valuable 
"  History  of  Japan  and  Siam,"  which  was  published  by 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  in  English,  (1727.)  It  was  also  pub 
lished  in  German  in  1777.  Died  at  Lemgo  in  1716. 

See  HIRSCHINO,  " Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Kamphuizen.     See  CAMPHUYSEN. 

Kamptz,  von,  fon  kampts,  (KARL  ALBRECHT  CHRIS- 
TOPH  HKINRICH,)  an  able  Prussian  statesman,  born  at 
Mecklenburg  in  1769,  was  successively  appointed  min 
ister  of  the  interior  and  of  the  police,  and  in  1830  min 
ister  of  justice.  Died  in  1849.  ^e  published  "Civil 
Law  of  the  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg,"  and  "  Contributions 
to  Public  and  International  Law." 

Kanada,  (the  name  of  a  sage.)     See  KASYAPA. 

Kaiiaris,  ka'na-ris,  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  famous  naval 
hero  of  modern  Greece,  born  in  the  island  of  Ipsara 
about  1790.  In  1822  he  blew  up  the  Turkish  admiral's 
ship  in  the  channel  of  Chios,  and  in  1824  saved  the  island 
of  Samos  by  burning  a  large  Turkish  frigate  and  several 
transport-ships  which  were  destined  to  attack  it.  In 
1827  he  represented  Ipsara  in  the  Greek  National  Con 
vention,  and  in  1848  was  appointed  minister  of  the  marine 
and  president  of  the  cabinet.  He  resigned  in  1855. 

See  A.  SOUTZO,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Grecque." 

Kandace.     See  CANDACE. 

Kandaules.     See  CANOAULES. 

Kaiideh  Rao,  kan'deh  ra'o,  [perhaps  from  the  San 
scrit  kanda,  a  "  horse,"  and  rdo,  a  modern  Hindoo  word, 
signifying  "prince,"]  written  also  Kandarahu,  the 
name  of  an  avatar  of  Siva,  in  which  that  god  is  always 
represented  on  horseback.  (See  SIVA.)  Kandeh  Rao 
is  worshipped  chiefly  among  the  Mahrattas. 

See  Moon,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kandjatou.     See  KANJATOO. 

Kandler,  kant'ler,  (JoiiANN  JOACHIM,)  a  German 
artist  and  modeller  in  porcelain,  born  in  Saxony  in  1706. 
He  worked  at  Meissen.  Died  in  1776. 

Kane,  (ELISHA  KENT,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  Ameri 
can  explorer,  born  'in  Philadelphia  on  the  2Oth  of  Feb 
ruary,  1820.  lie  was  the  son  of  Judge  John  K.  Kane. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  graduated  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1842,  on  which  occasion  he  wrote  an 
inaugural  thesis  on  "Kyestein."  In  1843  he  sailed  to 
China  with  Commodore  Parker,  as  surgeon  or  physician 
to  the  embassy.  lie  visited  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Phil 
ippine  Isles,  and  was  impelled  by  his  adventurous  spirit 
into  several  perilous  enterprises.  In  1845  he  made  an 
excursion  to  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  ascended  the 
Nile  to  Nubia,  and  traversed  Greece  on  foot.  He  re 
turned  home  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  in 
1847.  I'1  May,  1850,  he  sailed  as  surgeon  to  the  expedi 
tion  which  Lieutenant  De  Haven  conducted  in  search  of 
Sir  John  Franklin.  He  published,  in  1854,  "  The  United 
States  Grinnell  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Frank 
lin."  He  commanded  a  second  expedition  sent  out  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  sailed  from  New  York  in  the 
Advance  in  May,  1853.  He  failed  to  find  any  traces  of 
Franklin,  returned  home  in  October,  1855,  and  related 
the  adventures  and  sufferings  of  his  party  in  his  "Arctic- 
Explorations,"  (2  vols.,  1856.)  In  this  voyage  he  had 
discovered  the  existence  of  an  open  Polar  sea.  lie  re 
ceived  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
of  London.  To  recruit  his  failing  health,  he  made  a  voy 
age  to  England  in  October,  1856,  and  passed  thence  to  the 
West  Indies.  He  died  at  Havana  in  February,  1857. 

See  WILLIAM  ELDER,  "  Biography  of  Elislia  Kent  Kane,"  1X5^  : 
SCHMUCKEK,  "  Life  of  Elisha  Kent  Kane  ;>:  "  North  British  Review" 
for  February,  1857. 

Kane,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  chemist, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1810.  After  filling  professorships  in 
several  scientific  societies,  he  was  appointed  in  1849 
president  of  Queen's  College,  Cork.  He  had  previously 
been  knighted  by  the  lord  lieutenant.  He  wrote  various 
works  on  chemistry,  pharmacy,  and  other  sciences. 

Kane,  (THOMAS  L.,)  a  general,  brother  of  Dr.  E.  K. 
Kane,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1822.  He  was  sent 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


K4NJATOO 


1309 


KAO-TSOONG 


on  an  important  mission  to  the  Mormon  insurgents  of 
Utah  in  1858.  He  was  wounded  in  a  battle  near  Har- 
risonburg,  Virginia,  in  June,  1862. 

Kanjatoo,  Kaiidjatou,  or  Kanjatu,  kan-ja-too', 
fifth  Mongol  sovereign  of  the  dynasty  of  Jengis  Khan, 
began  to  reign  over  Persia  A.D.  1291.  A  conspiracy 
having  been  formed  against  him  by  his  nobles,  he  was 
killed  in  1295. 

Kanne,  kan'neh,  (JoiiANN  ARNOLD,)  a  learned  and 
eccentric  German  writer,  born  at  Detmold  in  1773, 
studied  philology  and  theology  at  Gottingen.  In  1818 
he  became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Erlangen, 
where  he  died  in  1824.  Among  his  various  works  we 
may  name  "Anthology  of  Greek  Epigrams,"  ("Florile- 
gium  Epigrammatum  Graecorum,")  "  System  of  Indian 
Myths,"  and  "  Biblical  Researches." 

Kannegiesser,  kan'neh-gees'ser,  (GOTTLIEB  HEIN- 
RICH,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Gotha  in  1712  ; 
died  at  Kiel  in  1792. 

Kannegiesser,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG,)  a  Ger 
man  scholar,  born  at  Wendemark  in  1781,  is  known  for 
his  numerous  and  excellent  translations  into  German. 
Among  these  are  the  dramas  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
Dante's  "Divine  Comedy,"  extracts  from  the  writings 
of  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael,  Mickiewicz,  and  other  cele 
brated  authors.  He  also  made  translations  from  Horace, 
Sappho,  and  Anacreon,  and  published  original  dramas 
entitled  "Mirza"  and  "Dorothea." 

Kaiisa.     See  KRISHNA. 

Kant,  (IMMANUEL,)  one  of  the  profoundest  metaphy 
sicians  that  have  ever  lived,  the  founder  of  the  Critical 
(popularly  called  the  Transcendental)  school  of  philoso 
phy  in  Germany,  was  born  at  Konigsberg,  April  26,  1724. 
His  father  was  a  saddler,  and  is  said  to  have  been  of 
Scottish  extraction.  Both  his  parents  are  represented 
as  having  been  endued  with  a  severe  and  inflexible  vir 
tue  ;  and  to  the  influence  of  their  precept  and  example 
must  be  ascribed,  in  no  small  measure,  the  pure  moral 
character  and  that  profound  respect  for  moral  obliga 
tion  which  Kant  exhibited  through  the  whole  of  his 
life.  Having  gone  through  a  course  at  the  gymnasium, 
(the  Collegium  Fredericianum,)  he  entered  in  1740  the 
university  of  his  native  city.  Here  he  commenced  the 
study  of  theology,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for  other  pur 
suits,  and  devoted  his  attention  to  the  natural  sciences, 
mathematics,  and  philosophy.  On  leaving  the  university 
he  maintained  himself  for  several  years  as  a  private  tutor. 
During  this  period  he  published  his  first  work,"  Thoughts 
on  the  True  Estimation  of  the  Living  Powers,"  ("Ge- 
danken  von  der  wahren  Schatzung  der  lebencligen 
Krafte.")  About  1755  he  began  to  give  lectures  on 
logic,  physics,  metaphysics,  and  mathematics.  In  1762 
he  was  offered  the  professorship  of  poetry  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Konigsberg  ;  but  he  declined  the  position,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  not  the  proper  qualifications. 
He  had  already  established  his  reputation  as  an  original 
and  profound  thinker,  when  at  length,  in  1770,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
University  of  Konigsberg.  When  he  entered  upon  his 
professorship,  he  delivered  a  discourse  on  the  World  of 
the  Senses  and  that  of  the  Understanding,  ("De  Mundi 
sensibilis  et  intelligibilis  Forma  et  Principiis,")  containing 
the  germs  of  the  philosophical  system  which  he  after 
wards  developed  in  his  great  work  entitled  "  Critique 
of  Pure  Reason,"  ("  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft,")  first 
published  in  1781.  He  had  previously,  in  his  work  on 
"Universal  Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the  Heavens," 
("Allgemeine  Xaturgeschichte  und  Theorie  des  Him- 
mels,"  1755,)  in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  anticipated 
the  discovery  of  the  planet  Uranus,  given  proof  of  his 
sagacity  in  questions  relating  to  physical  science.  Among 
his  various  other  works  may  be  named  "  Observations 
upon  the  Sentiment  of  the  Beautiful  and  Sublime," 
("  Beobachtungen  iiber  das  Gefiihl  des  Schb'nen  und  Er- 
habenen,"  1764,)  "Critique  of  Practical  Reason,"  ("Kritik 
der  praktischen  Vernunft,"  1790,) — that  is,  reason  con 
sidered  in  its  application  to  our  moral  conduct, — "Cri 
tique  of  the  Faculty  of  Judging,"  ("Kritik  der  Urtheils- 
krat't,"  1793,)  and  his  essay  "  On  a  Plan  for  an  Everlasting 
Peace,"  (" znm  ewigen  Fricden" )  (1795.)  Kant  died 
February  12,  1804,  having  never,  it  is  said,  in  the  whole 


course  of  his  life  travelled  above  seven  miles  from  his 
native  city.     Although  his  writings  embrace  a  great  va 
riety  of  subjects,  his  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  achieve 
ments  as  a  metaphysician.    As  a  deep  and  close  thinker 
he  has  perhaps  never  been  equalled.*    Our  limits  will 
not  permit  us  to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  Kantian 
system   of  philosophy,   which   could  only  be   rendered 
intelligible  in  an  extensive  treatise.     It  will  be  sufficient 
here  to  observe  that  Kant's  great  aim  was  to  determine 
the  laws  and  limits  of  the  intellect  of  man,  and  thus  to 
guard,  on  the  one  hand,  against  the  arrogant  dogmatism 
of  those  who  overestimate,  and,  on  the  other,  against 
the  absurd  skepticism  of  those  who  underestimate,  the 
powers  of  the  human  mind.     He  does  not  pretend  to 
have  made  any  important  discoveries  respecting  ques 
tions  which  belong  properly  to  religion,  (such,  for  ex 
ample,  as  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  moral  attributes 
of  the  Deity,  etc.,)  but  he  claims  that  the  great  points 
of  faith  are  not  only  undisturbed  by  his  system,  but  are 
rendered  more  secure  against  the  attacks  of  those  who 
use  their  reputation  for  philosophic  insight  to  give  weight 
to  arguments  against  religion,  in  questions  where,  from 
the  necessary  laws  of  the  human  intellect,  the  profoundest 
philosopher  can  know  no  more  than  the  great  mass  of 
mankind.     "Only  by  this    means,"  (i.e.   by  a  critique 
determining  the   laws  and  limits  of  the  human  reason.) 
says  he,  "  can  the  roots  of  materialism,  fatalism,  atheism, 
...  be  cut  off;"  and  he  proposes  in  this  manner  "to 
make  an  end  for  all  future  time  of  all  objections  against 
morality  and  religion,  by  presenting  the  clearest  proofs 
of  the  ignorance  of  their  assailants."     It  is  claimed  by 
some  of  the  admirers  of  Kant  (indeed,  he  himself  sug 
gested  the  parallel)  that  he  performed  for  mental   phi 
losophy  a  service  similar  to  that  which  his  countryman 
Copernicus  performed  for  astronomy.   As  the  latter  may 
be  said  to  have  determined  the  relative  importance  as 
'  well  as  the  true  position  of  the  earth  in  the  solar  system, 
;  so  the  former  has  determined  the  proper  limits  and  true 
j  position  of  the  human  intellect  in  relation  to  the  objects 
]  of  knowledge  ;  and  as  Copernicus  has  demonstrated  that 
j  many  of  the  apparent   motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
I  are  not  real,  but  caused  by  the  motion  of  the  earth,  (the 
\  standpoint  of  the  observer,)  so   Kant  has  shown  that 
i  many  mental   phenomena  are   to  be  explained,  not  by 
I  referring  them,  as  most  philosophers  have  done,  to  in- 
:  dependent  external  causes,  but  to  those  essential  laws 
|  which  regulate  the  movements  of  the  mind  itself. 

For  an  excellent  popular  notice  of  the  influence  exerted 
!  by  Kant's  philosophy,  the  reader  is  referred  to  De  Quin- 
I  cey's  chapter  on  German  Literature  in  the  volume  of  his 
works  entitled  "Life  and  Manners."  He  will  also  find 
I  many  interesting  observations  on  Kant  and  his  writings 
j  in  Madame  de  Stael's  "Germany,"  Part  III.  chap.  vi. 

See,  also,  F.  BOUTERWEK,  "I.  Kant,  ein  Denkmal,"  1804;  F. 
W.  SCHUBERT,  "  I.  Kant's  Biographic,"  etc.,  1842;  JACHMANN,  "I. 
Kant,  geschildert  in  Hriefen,"  etc.,  1804;  BOROWSKI,  "  Darstellung 
des  Lebens  und  Characters  I.  Kant's,"  1804;  F.  T.  RINCK,  "  An- 
sicliten  aus  I.  Kant's  Leben,"  1805;  AMAND  SAINTES,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Vie  et  de  la  Philosophic  de  Kant,"  1844 ;  J.  WII.I.M,  "  Histcire 
de  la  Philosophic  Allemande  depuis  Kant  jusqu'a  Hegel,"  Paris, 
4  vols.,  1846  ;  M.  V.  COUSIN,  "  Kant  dans  les  dernieres  Annees  de  sa 
Vie,"  1857;  HASSE,  "  Letzte  Aeusserungen  Kant's,"  1804;  WASI- 
ANSKI,  "  Iinmanuel  Kant,"  etc.,  1804;  F.  HOEFER,  article  in  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge'nerale;"  HEDGE,  "Prose  Writers  of  Ger 
many  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1827,  (by  DE  QUIN- 
I  CEY.)  and  August,  1830;  ''Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1803. 

Kaiitacuzenus.     See  CANTACUZENUS. 

Kantemir.     See  CANTEMIR. 

Kao-Tsoo  or  Kao-Tsou,  ka'o  tsoo,  the  name  of 
!  several  emperors  of  China,  of  whom  one  reigned  in  the 
I  seventh  and  two  others  in  the  tenth  century. 

Kao-Tsoong  or  Kao-Tsoung  (ka'o  tsoong)  I.,  of 
the  dynasty  of  Tang,  succeeded  his  father,  Tha'i-Tsoung, 
on  the  imperial  throne  of  China  about  648  A.D.  He  was 
a  wise  and  just  ruler,  and  enacted  many  good  laws. 
He  reduced  the  Khan  of  the  Turks  to  complete  subjec 
tion.  Died  in  684. 

See  MAILLA,  "Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine;"  PAUTHIER, 
"Chine  ancienne." 


*  M.  Stapfer,  author  of  the  article  on  Kant  in  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  calls  him  "the  most  profound  thinker  with  whom  the 
history  of  the  human  mind  has  made  us  acquainted,"  ("  le  penseur 
le  phis  profond  que  nous  fasse  connaitre  1'histoire  de  1'esprit  hu- 
main.") 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KAO-TSOO-OOTEE 


1310 


KARSTEN 


Kao-Tsoo-OoteeorKao-Tsou-Outi.ka'o-tsoo'oo'- 
tee,  called  also  Soong-Ootee  or  Soung-Outi,  soong- 
oo'te,  Emperor  of  China,  and  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
Soong,  was  born  about  A.D.  355.  By  his  intrigues  and 
military  skill  he  reduced  many  of  the  rival  chiefs  to 
subjection,  and,  after  putting  the  emperor  and  his  son 
to  death,  ascended  the  imperial  throne.  Died  in  422. 

KSLpl-1^  or  Capila,  (Hindoo  pron.  kup'i-la,]  an  In 
dian  philosopher,  regarded  as  an  avatar  of  Siva,  was 
the  founder  of  a  celebrated  sect  named  Sankhya,  and  of 
a  philosophic  system  called  the  Sdnkhya  philosophy, 
supposed  to  have  been  the  genn  or  commencement  of 
Booddhism.  The  Sankhya  philosophy  was  a  system  of 
rationalism  pushed  to  the  borders  of  atheism.  (See 

VASUDfiVA.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge^ie'rale,"  under  "Capila." 

Kapnist,  kap'nist,  (VASiLi  VASILIEVITCH,)  a  cele 
brated  lyric  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Russia  in  175°- 
His  translation  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  .first  fixed  his 
reputation  as  a  man  of  letters.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  poet  Derzhavin,  and  a  member  of  the  Im 
perial  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg.  Among  his  works 
are  the  comedy  of  "  labeda,"  and  an  "Essay  upon  the 
Odyssey."  Died  in  1813. 

Kapbdistria.     See  CAPO  n'IsTRTAS. 

Kara-George.     See  CZERNI-GEOKGE. 

Kara-Moustapha.     See  CAKA-MUSTAFA. 

Kara-Yusuf     See  CARA-YOOSEF. 

Karajitch,  Karadjitch,  01  Karadscliitsch,  ka-ra'- 
jitsh,  a  learned  Servian,  was  born  near  Losnitza  in  1787. 
Having  fled  to  Vienna  in  1813  to  escape  the  cruelties 
of  the^Turks,  his  attention  was  turned  to  the  national 
ballad-poetry  of  his  country,  said  to  exceed  in  richness 
and  extent  that  of  almost  every  other  nation.  His 
collection  was  issued  in  Vienna  in  1814,  under  the  title 
of  "Servian  National  Songs."  He  published  a  Servian 
Grammar,  a  Servian-and-German  Dictionary,  and  various 
other  works. 

See  BOWRING,  "  Servian  Poetry  ;"  JUNGMANN,  "  History  of  Bo 
hemian  Literature." 

Karamzin  or  Karamsin,  ka-ram-zeen'  or  ka-ram- 
zii/,  (NIKOLAI  MIKHAELOVITCH,)  one  of  the  most  emi 
nent  of  Russian  historians,  was  born  in  the  province  of 
Orenburg  in  December,  1765,  and  was  educated  in  Mos 
cow.  In  1789  he  commenced  a  tour  through  England, 
France,  Switzerland,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  On 
his  return  he  published  "  Letters  of  a  Travelling  Rus 
sian."  He  afterwards  issued  various  literary  productions, 
which  were  written  in  a  finished  and  elegant  style.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  European  Messenger,"  a 
literary  journal.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  historiogra 
pher  of  Russia,  and  the  same  year  commenced  his  great 
work,  the  "  History  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  (n  vols., 
1815-24.)  He  did  not  live  to  finish  the  work,  which  ends 
about  the  year  1610.  No  work  in  the  Russian  language 
has  obtained  greater  popularity.  The  first  edition,  of 
eight  volumes,  brought  the  author  100,000  rubles.  The 
emperor  Alexander  created  him  councillor  of  state  and 
knight  of  the  order  of  Saint  Anne  ;  and  after  the  death  of 
the  historian  his  widow  received  from  the  same  monarch 
an  annual  pension  of  50,000  rubles.  "  The  History  of 
the  Russian  Empire"  has  been  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Polish.  Died  in  May,  1826. 

See  DEPPING,  notice  of  Karamzin  in  the  "  Revue  Encyclopedique ;" 
PRINCE  A.  GAI.ITZIN,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "  British  and  Foreign  Review"  for  September,  1828  ;  "  Monthly 
Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix;)  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  September,  1828. 

Karburis.     See  CARIHIRIS. 

Karim  or  Kareem.     See  KEREF.M. 

Karl,  (FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  born  at  Hanover  in  1785.  Having  distinguished 
himself  in  several  actions  against  the  French,  he  was  ap 
pointed  lieutenant-general  by  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1813. 
He  entered  Paris  at  the  head  of  the  royal  guard  in  1815. 
In  1825  he  became  a  general  of  infantry  and  president 
of  the  council  of  state.  Died  in  1837. 

Karl  Albrecht,  Elector  of  Bavaria.  See  CHARLES 
VII.,  EMPEROR. 

Karl  Alexander,  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  born  in  1684, 
was  the  successor  of  Ludwijj  Eberhard.  He  was  an 
ally  of  the  emperor  Leopold  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 


succession.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Turin  in  1706,  defended  Landau  against  Marshal  Villars 
in  1713,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1737. 

Karl  der  Fiinfte.     See  CHARLES  V. 

Karl  der  Grosae.     See  CHARLEMAGNE. 

Karl  Eugen,  (oi-gat/,)  or  Charles  Eugene,  a  son 
of  Karl  Alexander,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1728, 
and  became  Duke  of  Wu'rtemberg  in  1737.  He  pro 
moted  commerce,  arts,  and  agriculture,  and  founded  the 
university  called  Carolina,  at  Stuttgart.  Died  in  1793. 

Karloman.     See  CARLOMAN. 

Karlstadt.     See  CARLSTADT. 

Karmarsch,  kaR'maush,  (KARL,)  a  German  savant, 
and  director  of  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Hanover,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1803.  He  wrote  "First  Sketches  of  Me 
chanical  Technology,"  and  other  scientific  works. 

Karmat,  Karniath,  Carmath,  kau'inat,  or  Kar- 
mathi,  kau'ina-tee,  called  also  Hamdan,  ham-din',  the 
founder  of  a  fanatical  and  numerous  sect  which  made 
great  ravages  in  the  Arabian  empire  in  the  ninth  cen 
tury.  He  attempted  to  establish  a  community  of  property, 
and  taught  a  contempt  for  religion  and  morality.  His 
followers  were  called  Karmatians  (Carmatians)  or  Kar- 
mattians.  Died  about  900  A.n. 

See  D'HERBELOT,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientate." 

Karneades.     See  CARNEADES. 

Karnkowski,  kaRn-kov'skee,  written  also  Karu- 
cov,  kaun'kov,  or  Karnowski,  (STANISLAS,)  a  distin 
guished  prelate,  born  in  Poland  about  1525.  In  1581 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate  of 
Poland.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  a 
successful  promoter  of  reforms  among  the  priests.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Interregnum  in  Poland,"  and 
several  other  works.  Died  in  1603. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Karoly,  ki'rol,  written  also  Karoli,  (JASPER,)  a 
Protestant  minister,  who  lived  in  Hungary  about  1580. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  philosophy, 
theology,  and  philology.  He  produced  a  valuable  trans 
lation  of  the  Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew  into  the 
Hungarian,  (1589.) 

Karpiiiski,  kaR-pin'skee  or  kau-pin'skee,  (FRANCIS,) 
a  Polish  poet,  born  in  Galicia  about  1760.  He  wrote  a 
tragedy  entitled  "Judyta,"  and  a  number  of  popular 
songs  and  idyls.  Died  in  1823. 

Karpinski,  kar-pen'skee,  (  HYACINTH,)  a  Russian 
theological  writer,  born  in  Ukraine  in  1721;  died  in 
Moscow  in  1798. 

Karpocrates.     See  CARPOCRATKS. 

Karr,  ktn,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  ALPHONSE,)  a  popular 
French  novelist,  born  at  Munich  in  1808,  was  a  son  of 
Henri  Karr,  a  pianist.  He  produced  in  1832  a  novel 
entitled  "  Sous  les  Tilleuls,"  in  which  the  public  admired 
the  mixture  of  irony  and  sentiment,  of  fancy  and  good 
sense.  About  1837  he  became  editor  of  the  "Figaro," 
and  of  a  satirical  monthly  periodical  called  "The  Wasps," 
("  Les  Guepes.")  Among  his  numerous  novels  are  "  Fa 
clieze,"  (1834,)  "  Vendredi  Soir,"  (1835,)  and  "  La  Famille 
Alain,"  (1848.)  lie  also  wrote  an  ingenious  work  on 
flowers  and  gardens,  "  Voyage  autour  de  mon  Jarclin," 
(2  vols.,  1845.) 

See  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  February,  1842;  CI.KMKNT  IJE 
Ris,  "  Portraits  i  la  Plume,"  1853  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May, 
1851,  and  February,  1854:  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1852; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Karsch,  kaRsh,  or  Karschin,  kaRsh'ln,  (  ANNA 
LUISE,)  a  German  poetess,  whose  original  name  was 
DURHACH,  was  born  near  Schwiebus  in  1722.  After 
living  a  long  time  in  poverty  and  obscurity,  she  visited 
Berlin,  where  she  was  patronized  by  Gleim  and  Men 
delssohn.  Her  "Select  Poems,"  published  in  1764,  were 
very  favourably  received,  and  procured  for  her  the  title 
of  "the  German  Sappho."  Died  in  1791. 

See  L.  VON  KI.KUKB,  "  Lebenslauf  der  Karschin,"  1792;  HIR- 
SCHING,  "  Historisch-liternrisches  Handbuch." 

Karsten,  kai/sten,  (DIETRICH  LUDWIG  GUSTAV.)  a 
German  mineralogist,  born  at  Bu'tzow  in  1768.  lie  wrote 
many  able  treatises  on  mineralogy.  Died  in  1810. 

See  LEOPOLD  VON  Boot,  "  Lobrede  auf  Karsten,"  in  the  "Ab- 
hanclHingen  der  Berliner  Akadeniie,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  o,ii,  y,  fan?;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,e,  T,o,  u,  y,  s kort;  a,  e,  j,  $,  obsrure :  far,  fall,  fat;  inSt;  not;  good:  moon; 


KARSTEN 


1311 


KAULBACH 


Karsten,  (FRANZ  CHRISTIAN  LORENZ,)  a  German 
agriculturist  and  writer,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Biitzow  in  1751  ;  died  in  1829. 

Karsten,  (KARL  JOHANN  BERNHARD,)  an  eminent 
Prussian  mineralogist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Biitzow  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  privy  councillor  of 
mines  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1819.  He  pub 
lished  a  treatise  "  On  the  Carbonaceous  Substances  of 
the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1826,)  a  "  System  of  Metallurgy," 
(5  vols.,  1832,)  a  "  Philosophy  of  Chemistry,"  (1843,)  an(l 
other  important  works.  In  his  peculiar  department  of 
science  Karsten  occupied  the  highest  rank.  Died  in  1853. 

See  BKOCKHAL'S,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Kartlkeya,  kSR-tl-ka'ya.  written  less  correctly  Car- 
ticeya  or  Cartikiya,  otherwise  named  Skan'da,  a 
son  of  Siva  and  Parvati,  and  brother  of  Ganesa,  is  the 
Hindoo  god  of  war  and  commander  of  the  celestial  armies. 
He  is  sometimes  called  AGNlimCs  or  AONIBHU'VA, 
("born  of  Agni"  or  Fire,)  SKIMANA,  and  many  other 
names.  One  of  his  greatest  exploits  was  the  destruction 
of  the  mighty  giant  Tripurasura,  who  had  acquired  such 
power  that  Indra  and  the  other  gods  trembled  for  their 
dominion. 

See  MOOR'S  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kartikiya.     See  KARTIKEYA. 

Xashyapa.     See  KASYAPA. 

Kassiopeia.     See  CASSIOPEIA. 

Kastner  or  Kaestner,  kgst'ner,  (AKRAHAM  Gorr- 
HELF,)  an  eminent  German  mathematician,  astronomer, 
and  poet,  bom  at  Leipsic  in  September,  1719.  He  be 
came  assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leipsic  in 
1746,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  physics 
at  Gottingen  in  1756.  In  1762  he  succeeded  Tobias 
Mayer  as  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Gottingen.  He 
wrote,  besides  numerous  works  on  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  and  witty  epigrams,  a  "  History  of  Mathe 
matics  from  the  Revival  of  Science  to  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (in  German,  4  vols.,  1796-1800.) 
Died  in  June,  1800. 

See  "Vita  Kaestneri,"  by  himself,  Leipsic,  1787  ;  KIRSTEN,  "  De 
A.  G.  Kaestnero,"  1787 ;  C.  G.  HEYNE,  "  Elogium  Kzstneri,"  1801  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Kastner,  kast'ner,  (KARL  WILHEI.M  GOTTLOB,)  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Greifenberg, 
in  Pomerania,  in  1783.  In  1821  he  was  professor  of 
chemistry  and  medicine  at  Erlangen.  He  wrote,  among 
other  treatises,  "Outlines  of  Physics  and  Chemistry," 
(1821,)  and  a  "Manual  of  Meteorology,"  (3  vols.,  1823- 
30.)  Died  in  1857. 

Kas'ya-pa  or  Casyapa,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
kus'ya-pa,)  [etymology  obscure  ;  perhaps  from  the  San 
scrit  kas  or  kac,  to  "shine,"]  written  also  Kashyapa 
and  Ka§yapa,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  sage  (Rishi)  or  demi-god,  the  father  (by 
Aditi)  of  the  Suras,  including  Indra,  and  (by  Diti)  of 
the  Asuras,  or  giants. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon:"  MONIER  WILLIAMS,  "Transla 
tion  of  Sakoontala,"  (by  KAUDASA.) 

Kasyapa,  kSs'ya-pa,  called  also  Kan'a-da,  a  cele 
brated  Hindoo  sage  or  philosopher,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding. 

Kate,  Ten,  ten  ka'teh,(LAMiiERT,)  a  Dutch  clergyman, 
who  lived  about  1720.  He  is  known  for  his  valuable 
grammar  of  the  Dutch  language,  (Amsterdam,  1723.)  He 
also  wrote  "On  the  Connection  between  the  Gothic  and 
Dutch  Languages,"  and  a  "Life  of  Jesus  Christ." 

See  SAX,  "Onomasticon." 

Ka'ter,  (HENRY,)  F.R.S.,  a  skilful  mathematician, 
born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1777,  was  educated  in  the 
Royal  Military  College  in  Sandhurst.  lie  was  distin 
guished  for  his  investigations  of  the  principles  of  reflect 
ing  telescopes  ;  for  his  experiments  to  determine  the 
exact  length  of  the  seconds-pendulum  ;  for  his  important 
advice  and  improvements  on  measures  and  weights  ;  and 
especially  for  his  invention  of  the  floating  collimator,  an 
instrument  for  adjusting  the  telescope.  In  1814,  when 
the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  visited  England,  Kater 
was  decorated  by  him  with  the  order  of  Saint  Anne. 
He  wrote  several  mathematical  treatises.  Died  in  1835. 

Katona,  kot'o-noh,  (STEPHEN,)  an  eminent  Hungarian 
scholar  and  historian,  was  born  at  Papa  in  1732,  and 


became  a  Jesuit  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  He  afterward* 
filled  the  chairs  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  history  in  the 
University  of  Buda.  Died  in  1811.  His  chief  produc 
tion  is  a  History  of  Hungary,  written  in  Latin,  ("Historia 
critica  Regum  Stirpis  Aus'triaczE,"  41  vols.,  1795  et  seq.) 
This  is  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  and  accurate 
work  upon  the  subject.  It  closes  with  the  year  1801. 
Katona  was  also  the  author  of  several  other  historical 
works,  in  the  Latin  and  Hungarian  languages. 

See  G.  FEJEK,  "Memoria  S.  Katon^e,"  1812. 

Katt,  voii,  fan  kat,  a  Prussian  officer,  born  in  1681, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Prince  Frederick,  afterwards 
Frederick  the  Great.  For  having  aided  him  in  his 
attempt  to  escape  to  England,  Katt  was  executed  before 
the  prison-windows  of  the  prince. 

Kauer,  kow'er,  (FERDINAND,)  a  German  musical  com 
poser,  born  in  Moravia  in  1751.  His  works,  amounting 
in  all  to  nearly  two  hundred,  consist  of  church  music, 
operas,  symphonies,  concertos,  etc.  Died  in  1831. 

KaufTmanu,  kowf'man,  (  MARIA  ANGELICA,  )  the 
daughter  of  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Coire,  in 
Switzerland,  about  1741.  After  studying  painting  in 
Italy,  she  went  under  the  patronage  of  Lady  Wentworth 
to  England,  where  in  a  short  time  she  gained  consider 
able  celebrity  in  her  art.  Her  popularity  was  probably 
as  much  due  to  her  accomplished  manners  and  her  supe 
rior  education  as  to  any  excellence  which  she  possessed 
as  an  artist.  In  1781  she  was  married  to  Antonio  Zucchi, 
a  Venetian  painter,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Italy  in 
the  following  year.  She  still  retained  her  maiden  name 
of  Kauffmann.  Died  at  Rome  in  1807. 

See  G.  r>E  Rossi,  "Vita  di  Angelica  Kauffmann,"  1810;  A.  FR. 
L^ON  DE  WAILLY,  "Angelica  Kauffmann."  Paris,  2  vols.,  1838; 
KoNijNENBi'RG,  "  Ktinstveidiensten  van  A.  Kauffmann  en  Raphael," 
1810;  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Kaufmarm,  kowf  man,  (JoHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  Ger 
man  mechanician,  born  at  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony,  in  I752> 
was  the  inventor  of  several  very  ingenious  instruments, 
among  which  was  a  flute-  and  harp-clock,  (Floten-  und 
ffarfenuhr,)  which  was  purchased  by  the  Elector  Fred 
erick  Augustus.  His  son  FREDERICK,  born  in  1782, 
invented  the  automaton  trumpeter  and  other  similar 
works.  Died  in  1818. 

Kaulbach,  kowl'baK,  (\\TILHELM,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  recent  times,  was  born  in  the  princi 
pality  of  Waldeck,  Germany,  in  1805.  Though  destined 
by  his  father  to  be  an  artist,  he  showed  little  inclination 
for  painting,  until  a  collection  of  engravings  illustrating 
Schiller's  tragedies  fell  into  his  hands  and  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  his  genius.  He  began  his  studies  under 
Cornelius  at  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf  about  1822,  and 
in  1829  finished  his  picture  of  the  "  Mad-House,"  ("  Irren- 
haus,")  a  work  displaying  such  originality  and  power  as 
entitled  him  at  once  to  a  place  among  great  painters. 
About  this  time  he  executed  the  frescos  of  "  Apollo  and 
the  Muses,"  in  the  Odeon,  and  "Cupid  and  Psyche,"  in 
the  palace  of  Duke  Max,  at  Munich.  In  1837  he  com 
pleted  his  "  Battle  of  the  Huns,"  founded  on  the  tradition 
of  the  combat  before  the  gates  of  Rome,  between  the 
Romans  and  the  spirits  of  the  Huns  who  were  slain, 
which,  rising  in  the  air,  continued  the  fight.  This  won 
derful  production,  so  strange  and  unique  in  its  character, 
was  received  with  general  applause,  and  is  justly  re 
garded  as  a  miracle  of  art.  His  second  great  historical 
piece,  "  The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,"  was 
finished  in  1838 ;  and  a  copy  of  it,  executed  in  oil  at  the 
request  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  in  the  Pinakothek.  Kaulbach  also  illustrated, 
somewhat  in  the  style  of  Hogarth,  Schiller's  "  Criminal 
from  Lost  Honour,"  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  and  "  Renarcl  the 
Fox,"  ("  Reineke  Fuchs  :")  the  last  displays  exquisite 
humour.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  works,  he  has 
painted  a  number  of  portraits,  and  furnished  illustrations 
for  Shakspeare  and  other  poets.  Kaulbach  excels  in  the 
highest  qualities  of  his  art,  and  has  been  eminently  suc 
cessful  in  blending  in  his  style  the  ideal  and  symbolic 
with  the  real.  He  is  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Munich,  and  is  a  member  of  nearly  all  the  similar  institu 
tions  of  Europe. 

See  A.  RACZINSKI,  "  Histoire  de  1'Art  moderne  en  Allemagne  ;" 
H.  FORTOUL,  "De  1'Art  en  Allemagne;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KAUNITZ 


KE4NE 


Kaunitz,  von,  fon  kow'nits,  (WENZEL  ANTON,) 
PRINCE,  a  celebrated  Austrian  statesman  and  diploma 
tist,  born  at  Vienna  in  February,  1711.  After  travelling 
in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  aulic  councillor,  (1735.)  On  the 
accession  of  Maria  Theresa  he  was  made  in  1745  minis 
ter-plenipotentiary  to  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Governor  of 
the  Netherlands.  In  1748  he  was  a  member  of  the  Peace 
Congress  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  was  soon  after  created 
minister  of  state  and  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
Having  been  sent  as  ambassador  to  France  in  1750,  he 
negotiated  the  secret  alliance  between  that  country  and 
Austria.  lie  was  soon  after  appointed  chancellor  of 
state  and  chancellor  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
enjoyed  the  unbounded  confidence  of  the  empress,  to 
whose  service  he  was  devoted,  and  the  principal  measures 
of  her  government  are  to  be  ascribed  to  his  influence. 
He  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  reforms 
of  Joseph  II.  The  court  of  Rome,  offended  by  these 
innovations,  called  Kaunitz  "the  heretical  minister," 
("il  ministro  eretico.")  For  a  long  time  he  was  consid 
ered  as  the  oracle  of  diplomacy,  and  exercised  such  an 
influence  over  the  direction  of  affairs  that  he  was  jest 
ingly  called  "The  Coachman  of  Europe."  Kaunitz  was 
a  generous  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts,  and  was 
himself  an  accomplished  scholar.  Died  in  1794. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  GRIMM,  "  Correspon- 
dance;"  OBERMAVER,  "Trailer  am  Grabe  des  \V.  A.  Fiirsten  von 
Kaunitz,"  1794;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Kausler,  von,  fon  kows'ler,  (FRANZ,)  a  German 
officer  and  military  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1794, 
served  in  the  campaigns  against  the  French  from  1812 
to  1815.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  all 
Nations  and  Times,"  (5  vols.,  1826-32,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  Died  in  1848. 

Kavaiiagh,  kf  v'a-nail,  ( JULIA,)  a  distinguished  writer 
of  tales  and  romances,  born  in  the  county  of  Tippe- 
rary,  Ireland,  iri  1824.  In  1848  she  published  "Made 
leine,"  a  tale  from  real  life,  which  was  very  successful, 
and  her  romance  of  "Nathalie"  (1851)  was  still  more 
admired.  -She  also  wrote  a  biographical  work  entitled 
"  Woman  in  France  during  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1850.)  Her  writings  are  remarkable  for  their 
beautiful  delineation  of  character  and  graceful  simplicity 
of  style. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1851. 

Kay,  (JoHN,)  an  English  poet,  was  the  first  that  re 
ceived  in  England  the  title  of  poet-laureate.  He  flourished 
about  1480. 

Kay,  (JoHN,)  a  miniature-painter  and  engraver,  born 
near  Dalkeith,  in  Scotland,  in  1742.  For  several  years 
he  gained  a  livelihood  as  a  barber  in  Edinburgh  ;  but, 
having  exhibited  a  talent  for  sketching,  he  was  assisted 
by  a  wealthy  gentleman,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
entirely  to  art.  His  paintings  were  distinguished  for 
their  correct  and  exact  likeness  to  the  original.  He 
etched  about  nine  hundred  plates,  which  contained  por 
traits  of  the  distinguished  or  eccentric  personages  of 
Edinburgh  at  that  date.  These  were  published,  under 
the  title  of  "  Kay's  Edinburgh  Portraits."  Died  in  1826. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kay  or  Key,  kl,  (Wii.LEM,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  in  Breda  in  1520.  Of  his  most  admired 
productions  we  may  mention  a  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  and  a  large  painting  in  which  the  chief  magis 
trates  of  Antwerp  were  introduced  of  the  size  of  life. 
Died  in  1568. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kay-Shuttleworth,shut'tel-worth, (Sir  JAMES  PHIL 
LIPS,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1804.  He  is  noted  for 
his  activity  in  advancing  the  interests  of  public  schools. 
For  several  years  he  held  the  office  of  secretary  to  the 
committee  of  the  privy  council  on  education. 

Kaye.     See  CAIUS. 

Kaye,  ka,  (JoHN.)  an  English  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1 783, 
became  Bishop  of  Lincoln  about  1827.  Died  in  1853. 

Kaye,  (JoHN  WILLIAM,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  London  about  1814.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  War  in  Affghanistan,"  (1851,) 
a  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Malcolm,"  (1856,)  and  a  <(  History 
of  the  Sepoy  War,"  (1866.) 


Kazinczy,  koz'int-se,  (FRANCIS,)  a  Hungarian  noble 
man,  distinguished  for  his  contributions  to  the  litera 
ture  of  his  country,  was  born  at  Er-Semlyn  in  1759. 
He  devoted  his  attention  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Hungarian  language,  which  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  was 
attempting  to  extirpate.  This  dialect  had  then  partially 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  many  terms  to  express  modern 
significations  were  required  to  be  added  in  order  to  give 
it  a  reasonable  degree  of  completeness.  To  effect  this, 
Kazinczy  translated  numerous  works  from  the  French, 
German,  and  English,  adding  words  where  the  original 
Hungarian  was  delicient.  In  this  undertaking  he  appears 
to  have  been  eminently  successful.  In  1788  he  established 
the  first  Hungarian  magazine,  entitled  "  Magyar  Mn- 
zeum,"  and  two  years  later  commenced  the  "Orpheus." 
In  1794  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  and 
condemned  to  death.  This  sentence,  however,  was  com 
muted  to  imprisonment,  and  after  the  expiration  of  about 
six  years  he  regained  his  liberty.  He  wrote  various 
poems,  and  several  works  in  prose.  Died  of  cholera 
in  1831. 

Kazwyny,  (ZACHARIA  BEN  MOHAMMED.)  See  CAZ- 
WEENEE. 

Keach,  keech,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  Baptist  min 
ister,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1640.  After  the  resto 
ration  he  was  bitterly  persecuted  on  account  of  the 
principles  which  he  had  advanced  in  his  writings.  He 
preached  some  years  in  London  after  1668.  The  most 
important  of  his  works  are  the  "Key  to  open  Scripture 
Metaphors,"  (1682,)  and  "Exposition  of  the  Parables," 
(1704.)  He  also  wrote  two  works  in  imitation  of  Bunyan, 
viz.,  "Travels  of  True  Godliness,"  and  "Travels  of  Un 
godliness."  Died  in  1704. 

See  CROSBY,  "  History  of  the  Baptists." 

Kean,  (CHARLES  J.,)  a  distinguished  actor,  the  son 
of  Edmund  Kean,  was  born  in  Waterford,  Ireland,  in 
1811,  and  studied  at  Eton.  He  made  several  visits  to 
America,  the  last  of  which  was  in  1866.  About  1846  he 
became  the  manager  of  the  Princess's  Theatre,  London, 
to  the  popularity  of  which  he  contributed  greatly  by  the 
introduction  of  the  most  admirable  machinery,  such  as 
had  never  before  been  exhibited  to  the  British  public. 
He  was  also  employed  to  superintend  the  royal  theatri 
cals  at  Windsor  Castle.  Died  in  1868. 

Kean,  (EDMUND,)  a  celebrated  tragedian,  born  in 
London  about  1787.  He  was  the  son  of  an  actress 
named  Ann  Carey,  and,  while  very  young,  was  brought 
upon  the  stage  to  play  those  parts  in  which  children 
were  represented.  In  this  capacity  he  performed  before 
George  III.  at  Windsor  Castle,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction 
of  that  monarch.  In  1814  he  first  appeared  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre,  in  the  character  of  "  Shylock,"  with  such 
distinguished  success  that  he  not  only  fully  established 
his  own  fame,  but  also  retrieved  the  declining  popularity 
of  the  theatre.  lie  afterwards  visited  America,  where 
he  remained  two  years.  Died  in  1833.  As  a  tragedian 
Kean  is  considered  not  inferior  to  any  one  that  has  ap 
peared  on  the  English  stage.  His  remarkable  success 
was  owing  to  his  great  application  in  the  study  of  his 
characters  and  the  intensity  of  passion  which  he  threw 
into  them.  He  especially  excelled  in  his  representations 
of  "Shylock,"  "Othello,"  and  "Richard  III." 

See  PROCTER,  "Life  of  E.  Kean,"  1835;  F.  W.  HAWKINS, 
"Life  of  Edmund  Kean;"  OXBERRY,  "Dramatic  Biography:" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Keane,  keen,  (Joii.x,)  LORD,  a  celebrated  British 
general,  was  born  at  Belmont,  in  the  county  of  Water- 
ford,  in  1 781.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  thirteen. 
In  1799  he  was  promoted  to  the  grade  of  captain,  and 
was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  Earl  Cavan  in  Egypt. 
In  1812  he  served  as  colonel  in  Spain  under  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  was 
present  at  the  engagements  of  Vitoria,  Toulouse,  and 
other  important  battles.  lie  was  subsequently  sent  to 
America,  where,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  January,  1815. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  forces  of 
Bombay,  and  in  1838  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
British  army  sent  against  the  Afghans.  In  1839  he  be 
sieged  the  fortress  of  Ghuznee,  which  had  been  regarded 
as  impregnable,  and  which  was  garrisoned  with  3500 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  \,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsciire;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moor ; 


KEARNEY 


1313 


KEFERSTEIN 


men,  well  supplied  with  all  the  munitions  of  war.  The 
place  was,  however,  taken  by  assault  in  forty-eight  hours, 
with  a  loss  of  only  two  hundred  on  the  side  of  the  British. 
For  this  victory  General  Keane  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Keane  of  Ghuznee.  Died  in  1844. 

Kearney  or  Kearny,  kar'ne,  (PHILIP,)  an  able 
American  general,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  June, 
1815.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  by  the  government  to 
study  the  French  cavalry  tactics  about  1838.  He  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  lost  his  left  arm  near  Mexico  in  1847.  Having 
resigned  his  commission  in  1851,  he  passed  several  years 
in  Europe,  and  served  in  the  French  army  at  Solferino, 
(1859.)  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 
army  in  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battles 
of  Williamsburg,  May  5,  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  White  Oak 
Swamp,  June  30,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  I,  1862.  In 
the  month  last  named  he  was  raised-  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chantilly, 
September  i,  1862. 

Kearny,  (STEPHEN  WATTS,)  a  major-general  in  the 
United  States  army,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Newark,  New  jersey,  in  1794.  He  entered  the  army 
as  lieutenant  in  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Queenstosvn.  Promoted  to  the  rank  of  briga 
dier-general  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war  in 
1846,  he  marched  westward  from  the  Arkansas,  con 
quered  New  Mexico,  and  established  a  provisional  gov 
ernment  at  Santa  Fe.  He  was  brevetted  major-general 
for  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  San  Pasqual,  December 
3,  1846.  In  the  following  spring  he  was  for  some  time 
Governor  of  California.  Died  in  1848. 

Keate,  keet,  (GEORGE,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1729.  During  his  travels  on  the 
continent  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Voltaire,  with 
whom  he  was  a  correspondent  for  a  long  time.  Of  his 
works  we  may  mention  the  poems  of  "Ancient  and  Modern 
Rome,''  (1760,)  and  "The  Alps,"  (1763.)  He  compiled  an 
account  of  the  "  Pelew  Islands"  ( 1 788)  from  manuscripts 
placed  in  his  hands  by  Captain  Wilson.  Died  in  1797. 

Keat'ing,  (GEOFKKEY,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic  priest  and 
historical  writer,  was  born  in  Tipperary,  Ireland,  about 
1600.  His  chief  production  is  a  "History  of  Ireland 
from  the  Time  that  it  was  Planted  after  the  Flood  until 
the  Seventeenth  Year  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  II."  This 
work,  which  is  replete  with  fables  and  traditions,  was 
translated  from  the  Irish  by  Dermot  O'Connor,  and 
published  in  London,  in  1738. 

Keats,  (JOHN,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1795  or  1796,  and  educated  in  the  classics  at 
Enfielcl.  He  published  his  first  poems  in  1817,  at  the 
recommendation  of  Leigh  Hunt..  His  "  Endymion," 
which  appeared  soon  after,  was  severely  criticised  by 
Gifford  in  the  "Quarterly  Review."  As  Keats  was  of  a 
very  sensitive  disposition,  it  is  supposed  that  this  criti 
cism  aggravated  the  disease  under  which  he  was  suffer 
ing.  He  died  in  1821  at  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
reside  on  account  of  his  health.  The  poetry  of  Keats, 
though  exhibiting  a  vivid  perception  of  the  beautiful,  and 
great  powers  of  fancy,  is  deficient  in  intensity  and  force  ; 
and  his  celebrity  is  perhaps  to  be  attributed  as  much  to 
the  circumstances  attending  his  early  death  as  to  his 
poetical  abilities.  Besides  the  "  Endymion,"  we  may 
mention,  as  among  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
"Hyperion,"  "Lamia,"  and  "Isabella." 

"We  had  never  happened,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "to 
see  either  of  these  volumes  ["Endymion"  and"  "The 
Eve  of  Saint  Agnes"]  till  very  lately,  and  have  been 
exceedingly  struck  with  the  genius  they  display,  and  the 
spirit  of  poetry  which  breathes  through  all  thei'r  extrava 
gance.  .  .  .  Mr.  Keats,  we  understand,  is  still  a  very 
young  man  ;  and  his  whole  works,  indeed,  bear  evidence 
enough  of  the  fact.  They  are  full  of  extravagance  and 
irregularity,  rash  attempts  at  originality,  interminable 
wanderings,  and  excessive  obscurity.  They  manifestly 
require,  therefore,  all  the  indulgence  that  can  be  claimed 
for  a  first  attempt; — but  we  think  it  no  less  plain  that 
they  deserve  it ;  for  they  are  flushed  all  over  with  the 
rich  lights  of  fancy,  and  so  coloured  and  bestrewn  with 
the  flowers  of  poetry,  that,  even  while  perplexed  and  be 
wildered  in  their  labyrinths,  it  is  impossible  to  resist  the 


intoxication  of  their  sweetness,  or  to  shut  our  hearts  to 
the  enchantments  they  so  lavishly  present."  ("Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  August,  1820.) 

See  RICHARD  MONCKTON  MII.NES,  "Life,  Letters,  and  Literary 
Remains  of  John  Keats,"  2  vols.,  1848;  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  lor  April,  1818;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1849; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  January,  1861 ;  "  Monthly  Review"  tor  July, 
1820. 

Keats,  (Sir  RICHARD  GOODWIN,)  an  English  admiral, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1757.  In  1778  he  was  promoted  to 
a  lieutenancy  in  the  ninety-eight-gun  ship  Prince  George, 
where  the  Duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV.) 
was  placed  under  his  command.  He  served  with  dis 
tinction  against  the  Americans  and  the  French.  In  1782 
he  received  a  commander's  commission,  and  in  1807 
became  rear-admiral.  Died  in  1834. 

Keble,  kee'bel  or  kee'b'l,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  divine 
and  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Fairford,  in  Glou 
cestershire,  on  the  25th  of  April,  1792.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  elected  a  Fellow  of  Oriel  College  about  1810, 
and  ordained  a  priest  in  1816,  soon  after  which  date  he 
left  the  university.  For  twenty  ensuing  years  he  was 
employed  as  his  father's  curate  at  Fairford.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  John  Henry  Newman,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Tractarian  movement  in  favour  of  High- 
Church  doctrines,  or  Puseyism.  According  to  Dr.  New 
man,  Keble  was  the  primary  author  of  this  movement. 
In  1827  he  published  "The  Christian  Year:  Thoughts 
in  Verse  for  the  Sundays  and  Holidays  throughout  the 
Year,"  which  obtained  almost  unbounded  popularity, 
and  passed  through  fifty  editions  or  more.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1833,  and 
became  vicar  of  Hursley  in  1835.  About  this  time  he 
married  Charlotte  Clarke.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  (1834-36,)  and  published  a  number  of 
sermons.  Among  his  popular  works  is  "Lyra  Innocen- 
'  tium  :  Thoughts  in  Verse  on  Christian  Children,  their 
j  Ways  and  Privileges,"  (1846.)  "To  English  church 
;  people  without  number,"  says  the  "North  British  Re 
view,"  '"The  Christian  Year'  has  long  been  not  only  a 
cherished  classic,  but  a  sacred  book,  which  they  place 
!  beside  their  Bible  and  their  Prayer-Book.  .  .  .  Popularity 
is  no  word  to  express  the  fact  that  this  book  has  been 
j  for  years  the  cherished  companion,  in  their  best  moods, 

•  of  numbers  of  the  best  men,  of  the  most  diverse  charac 
ters  and  schools,  who  have  lived  in  our  time."     Died  in 
March,  1866. 

See  SIR  JOHN  T.  COLERIDGE,  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  John  Keble," 
1869;  "North  British  Review"  for  September,  1866;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  April  and  July,  1869  ;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1867  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1869. 

Keble,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  writer  upon  law,  born 
in  London  about  1632;  died  in  1710.  Of  his  numerous 

•  works  we  may  cite  "An  Explanation  of  the  Laws  against 
Recusants,"  (1681.) 

Keckermann,  kek'ker-man',  (BARTHOLOMAUS,)  a 
learned  German  writer  on  science,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1571.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Systema  Ethi- 
cum,"  (1610,)  and  "Systema  Mathematices,"  (1617.) 
Died  in  1609. 

Keder,  kil'der,  (NiLS  or  NICHOLAS,)  a  Swedish  an 
tiquary,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1659.  He  wrote  his  auto 
biography,  and  several  treatises  upon  the  ancient  medals 
of  the  North.  He  was  ennobled  in  1719.  Died  in  1735. 

Keene,  keen,  (EDMUND,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Lynn  in  1713.  In  1752  he  was  raised  to  the  see  of 
Chester,  and  in  1770  to  that  of  Ely.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  benevolence.  Died  in  1781. 

Keen'er,  (JOHN  CHRISTIAN,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1819.  He  graduated  at 
Wesleyan  University,  Connecticut,  in  1834.  He  wrote 
a  popular  work  entitled  "The  Post-Oak  Circuit." 

Kee-Tse  or  Ki-Tse,  kee-tsiih,  [written  in  French, 
Ki-TsEU,]  a  Chinese  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth 
century  li.c.  He  became  the  adviser  of  the  emperor 
Woo-Wang,  the  founder  of  the  third  Chinese  dynasty. 

See  PAUTHIER,  "Chine  ancienne;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Keferstein,  ka'fer-stln',  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
geologist,  born  at  Halle  in  1784.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Geognostic  Observations  on  the  Basaltic 
Structure  of  Western  Germany,"  (1820,)  in  which  he 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

83 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KE1GHTLET 


I3H 


KELLER 


successfully  maintains  the  volcanic  nature  of  basalt,  and 
"The  Natural  History  of  the  Earth,"  (2  vols.,  1834.) 

Keightley,  kit'le,  (THOMAS,)  a  historical  and  bio 
graphical  writer,  born  in  Dublin  about  1790.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "Mythology  of  Ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,"  (3d  edition,  1854  ;)  a  "  History  of 
England,"  (1837  ;)  a  "  Life  of  John  Milton,"  (1855  ;)  and 
a  "  History  of  Rome." 

Keil,  kil,  (JoiiANN  GEORG,)  a  German  scholar  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Gotha  in  1781.  He  published  in  1814 
an  "  Elementary  Book  of  the  Spanish  Language."  In 
1813  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Spanish 
Academy.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  lyrical  poems. 
Died  in  1857. 

Keil,  (KARL  AUGUST  GOTTLIEB,)  a  German  theolo 
gian,  born  at  Grossenhain  in  1754.  He  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  a  "  Manual  of  Hermeneutics  of  the 
New  Testament,"  in  German,  (1810.)  Died  in  1818. 

Keill,  keel,  (JAMES,)  a  physician,  brother  of  John, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1673.  He 
studied  medicine  in  his  native  city  and  at  Leyden,  and 
lectured  on  anatomy  in  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Anatomy  of 
the  Human  Body,"  and  several  physiological  treatises. 
Died  in  1719. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keill,  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  mathematician,  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1671,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1700 
he  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote 
several  works  in  defence  of  the  theories  of  Newton  against 
Leibnitz.  In  1711  he  was  chosen  to  decipher  papers  for 
the  queen,  for  which  position  he  was  well  qualified.  He 
became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  where  he  had 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  physic.  Among  his 
works  are  "  An  Introduction  to  Natural  Philosophy," 
and  "An  Introduction  to  the  True  Astronomy,"  both 
of  which  were  published  in  Latin  and  English.  Died 
in  1721. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keim,  kirn,  (FRANZ  XAVER,)  a  German  architect, 
born  in  1769  ;  died  in  1864. 

Keim.  kim,  (WILLIAM  II.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  in  1813.  lie  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  voters  of  Berks  county 
in  1858,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
autumn  of  1861.  Died  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania, 
in  May,  1862. 

Keisar,  kl'sar  or  kl'zar,  (  WII.LEM,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1647;  died  about  1693. 

Keiser.    See  KIESER,  (DIETRICH  GEORG.) 

Keiser,  ki'zer,  (REINHARD,)  one  of  the  earliest  opera 
composers  in  Germany,  born  in  Leipsic  in  1673,  was  the 
author  of  more  than  a  hundred  operas,  besides  several 
concertos  and  pieces  of  church  music.  His  productions 
were  highly  esteemed  by  Handel.  Died  in  1739. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneYale  ;"  BURNEY,  "  History  of 
Music." 

Keith,  keeth,  (GEORGE,)  fifth  Earl  Marischal  of 
Scotland,  distinguished  as  a  munificent  patron  of  learn 
ing,  and  as  the  founder  of  Marischal  (mar'shal)  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  at 
Geneva,  where  he  had  the  celebrated  Theodore  Beza  for 
a  preceptor.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  earl 
marischal  in  1581.  During  the  reign  of  James  VI.  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices  of  state.  Died  in  1622. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (GEORGE,)  hereditary  Earl  Marischal  of  Scot 
land,  was  born  in  that  country  about  1693.  He  entered 
the  army,  and  was  appointed  by  Queen  Anne  the  captain 
of  her  guards.  At  the  death  of  that  sovereign  he  made 
strenuous  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  have  the  Pretender 
proclaimed  in  London.  After  the  accession  of  George 
I.,  in  1714,  his  property  was  confiscated,  and  sentence 
of  death  passed  against  him  by  the  British  Parliament. 
Keith  escaped  to  the  continent,  and  served  for  some 
time  in  the  Spanish  army.  He  subsequently  removed 
to  Berlin,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
high  favour  with  Frederick  the  Great.  Died  in  1778. 

See  D'ALEMUEKT,  "  filoge  de  Milord  Marechal,"  1779. 

Keith,  (GEORGE,)  a  Scottish  religionist,  who  at  an 
early  age  embraced  the  principles  of  George  Fox,  in 


the  defence  of  which  he  displayed  much  zeal  and  elo 
quence.  He  subsequently  advocated  many  views  at  va 
riance  with  those  held  by  the  Quakers,  for  which  he  was 
"  disowned"  or  excommunicated  by  the  Society.  Before 
his  death  his  views  again  changed,  and  he  died  in  the 
communion  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  wrote  "  The 
Standard  of  the  Quakers  Examined,"  (1702,)  intended  as 
a  refutation  of  Barclay's  "  Apology." 

See  JANNEY,  ''History  of  Friends,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  iii. ;  GOUGH, 
"  History  of  the  Quakers  ;"  SMITH.  "  History  of  Pennsylvania." 

Keith,  (JAMES,)  field-marshal  of  Prussia,  and  brother 
of  George  Keith,  (1693-1778,)  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1696.  Having  entered  the  army  of  the  Pretender,  he 
took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Sheriffmtiir,  where 
he  was  wounded.  He  afterwards  served  in  Spain  and 
in  Russia,  where  he  obtained  distinction  as  a  warrior  and 
statesman  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-gen 
eral.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  empress  Elizabeth 
he  removed  to  the  court  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom 
he  was  created  field-marshal  of  Prussia,  and  in  1749 
governor  of  Berlin.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Hochkirchen, 
in  October,  1758. 

See  A.  HENDERSON,  "Memoirs  of  Field-Marshal  Keith,"  1759: 
VARNHAGEN  VON  ENSE,  "  Leben  des  Feld-Marschalls  J.  Keith," 
Berlin,  1844;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Kincardineshire  in  1681,  was  conse 
crated  a  bishop  in  1727.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Affairs  of  Church  and  State  in  Scotland  from 
the  Beginning  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Reign  of  James 
V.  to  the  Retreat  of  Queen  Mary  into  England,"  (1734.) 
Died  in  1757. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (Sir  ROBERT  MURRAY,)  a  British  diplomatist, 
born  about  1730.  He  was  for  many  years  ambassador 
at  the  court  of  Vienna.  Died  in  1795. 

See  his  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence,  Official  and  Familiar," 
etc.,  published  by  MRS.  GII.UESPIE  SMYTH,  2  vols.,  1849. 

Keith,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1759.  He  wrote  the  "Complete  Practical 
Arithmetician,"  a  work  on  Trigonometry,  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1824. 

Keith,  VISCOUNT.     See  ELPHINSTONE,  (G.  KEITH.) 

Keitt,  commonly  pronounced  kit,  (LAWRENCE  M.,)  a 
politician,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1824.  In  1853  he 
was  elected  a  representative  to  Congress,  and  re-elected 
in  1855,  1857,  and  1859.  In  1856  he  was  associated  with 
Preston  S.  Brooks  in  his  assault  upon  Charles  Sunnier 
on  the  floor  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Southern  disunion  movement  of  1860. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Richmond  in  June,  1864. 

Kelaoon,  Kelaoun,  or  Kelaun,  keTS  oon',  (Alma- 
lek  -  Almansoor  -  Seif -  ed  -  Deen,  (or  - Almansour- 
Saiffeddyn,)  al-mSl'ek  al-man-sooR'  slf-ed-cleen',)  Sul 
tan  of  Egypt,  was  brought  to  that  country  as  a  slave  in 
1249  A.n.  He  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and  in  1279,  having 
revolted  against  Almalek-al-Saeed,  he  was  proclaimed 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  He  subsequently  conquered 
Tripoli,  and  other  places  of  importance  in  Northern 
Africa.  Died  in  1290. 

Kelij-Arslan.     See  KILIJ-ARSLA"N. 

Keller.     See  CELLARIUS. 

Keller,  kel'ler,  (GEORG,)  a  German  Catholic  theolo 
gian,  born  near  Bomdorf,  in  the  Black  Forest,  in  1760. 
He  became  in  1806  pastor  at  Aarau,  where  his  opinions, 
which  leaned  towards  Protestantism,  gave  great  offence 
to  the  Catholic  clergy.  lie  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  Catholicon."  Died  in  1827. 

Keller,  kel'ler,  (GODFREY,)  a  Swiss  poet,  born  at  Zu 
rich  in  1819.  He  published  in  1846  a  volume  of  poems, 
which  were  received  with  favour.  Died  in  1860. 

Keller,  (JAKOB,)  a  German  Roman  Catholic  writer, 
born  at  Seckingen  in  1568.  He  wrote  several  polemical 
works  against  the  Protestants.  Died  in  1631. 

See  BAYI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Keller,  (JEAN  BALTHASAR,)  a  brass-founder,  born  in 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1638.  lie  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  gained  distinction  by  the  bronze  statues  whi9h 
he  executed,  several  of  which  were  purchased  to  orna 
ment  the  garden  of  Versailles.  Died  in  1702. 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  5,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  xi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good:  moon; 


KELLER 


1315 


KEMBLE 


Keller,  (JosKPH,)  an  able  German  engraver,  born  at 
Linz,  on  the  Rhine,  in  1815,  became  professor  of  en 
graving  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  works  are  a  large 
engraving  of  Raphael's  "  Dispute  of  the  Sacrament," 
and  several  prints  after  Overbeck. 

Keller  von  Steinbock,  kel'ler  fon  stln'bok,  (FRIED- 
RICH  LUDWIG,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1799,  became  professor  of  law  at  Halle  in 
1843- 

Kellerhoven,  kel'ler-ho'ven,  (MoRiTZ,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Altenrath,  duchy  of  Berg, 
in  1758,  became  court  painter  at  Munich  about  1806. 
He  excelled  in  portraits,  and  engraved  many  of  his  own 
works.  Died  in  1830. 

Kellermann,  de,  deh  ki'leVmdN',  (FRANgois  CHRIS- 
TOPHE,)  Duke  of  Valmy,  a  distinguished  French  mar 
shal,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1735. 
After  serving  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1792,3110!  was  soon  after  appointed 
to  command  the  central  army  on  the  Moselle.  He  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  at  Valmy 
in  September,  1792.  Having  been  accused  of  treachery 
by  Custine  and  others,  he  was  imprisoned  for  ten  months, 
and  only  released  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In  1795 
he  became  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Alps,  and 
after  his  return  to  Paris  was  appointed  inspector-general 
of  cavalry,  in  1798.  He  was  created  in  1804  senator  and 
marshal  of  France,  and  in  1806  he  obtained  from  Napo 
leon  the  command  of  the  reserve  army  on  the  Rhine,  and 
other  distinctions.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVIII. 
he  was  made  a  peer,  and  received  the  grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Louis.  Died  in  1820. 

See  DE  SALVE,  "Fragments  historiques  sur  le  Marechal  de  Kel- 
lermnnn,"  1807  ;  THIERS,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  1'Empire  ;" 
BOTIDOUX,  "Esquisse  de  la  Carriere  militaire  de  F.  C.  de  Keller- 
mann,"  1817;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Kellermann,  de,  (FRANgois  CHRISTOPHE  EDMOND,) 
Duke  of  Valmy,  a  son  of  Francois  Etienne,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1839,  1842,  and  1844. 

Kellermann,  de,  (FRANgois  ETJENNE,)  Duke  of 
Valmy,  born  at  Metz  in  1770,  was  a  son  of  General  Kel 
lermann,  noticed  above.  He  served  as  adjutant-general 
under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  in  1796,  became  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1797,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory 
at  Marengo  in  1800.  About  1802  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division.  He  was  wounded  at  Austerlitz, 
where  he  directed  several  charges  of  cavalry.  In  1815 
he  fought  for  Napoleon  at  Waterloo.  Died  in  1835. 

Kel'ley,  (BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,)  an  American  gen 
eral  in  the  Union  army,  born  in  New  Hampshire  about 
1807.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Philippi,  Virginia,  in  Tune, 

1861.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  "railroad  district"  in  Northwestern  Virginia. 

Kel'ley,  (EDWARD,)  a  noted  astrologer,  born  at  Wor 
cester,  England,  in  1555.  He  was  an  accomplice  of  the 
notorious  Dr.  Dee,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Germany. 
While  there,  he  was  imprisoned  as  an  impostor  by  the 
emperor  Rudolph;  but.  having  afterwards  obtained  his 
release,  he  won  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  by  whom  he 
was  knighted.  He,  however,  resumed  his  old  practices, 
and  was  again  imprisoned.  In  an  attempt  to  regain 
his  liberty,  he  fell  from  his  window,  and  was  mortally 
wounded,  in  1595.  He  wrote  various  works  upon  al 
chemy  and  astrology. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Kelley,  (WILLIAM  D.,)  born  in  Philadelphia  about 
1814,  studied  law,  and  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  About  1856  he  became 
an  active  Republican,  and  was  in  1860  an  ardent  sup 
porter  of  Lincoln  for  the  Presidency.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  from  Philadelphia  in  1860,  in 

1862,  in  1864,  in  1866,  and  in  1868.     In  the  House  of 
Representatives  Judge  Kelley  has  uniformly  acted  with 
the  radical  Republicans.  * 

Kellgren,  chel'gR^n,  (JoHAN  HENRIK,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1751,  was  edu 
cated  at  the  University  of  Abo,  in  Finland.  In  1786 
Gustavus  III.  appointed  him  a  member  of  the  Swedish 
Academy,  and  likewise  chose  him  for  his  private  secre 
tary  and  librarian.  His  works,  consisting  of  lyric  poetry 


and  four  operas,  were  published  in  1796,  in  3  vols.,  under 
the  title  of  "  Samlade  Skriftes."     Died  in  1795. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  N.  VO.M  Ro- 
SENSTEIN,  "  J.  H.  Kellgrens  Lefnad,"  1796. 

Kellie,  EARL  OF.    See  ERSKINE,  (T.  ALEXANDER.) 

Kel'11-son,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1560.  He  filled 
the  offices  of  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Rheims  and 
president  of  the  College  of  Douay.  He  wrote  numerous 
religious  and  controversial  works.  Died  in  1641. 

Kel'ly,  (ALFRED,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at  Mid- 
dletown,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  Having  removed  to 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  he  contributed  greatly  to  the  internal 
improvement  of  the  State  by  canals,  and  was  several 
times  elected  to  the  legislature.  Died  in  1859. 

Kel'ly,  (Sir  FITZROY,)  a  British  lawyer,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1796.  He  was  for  many  years  a  Conservative 
member  of  Parliament,  and  was  attorney-general  in 
1858-59. 

Kelly,  (HUGH,)  a  dramatic  and  political  writer,  born 
at  Killarney,  in  Ireland,  in  1739.  He  removed  to  Lon 
don,  where  he  became  the  editor  of  several  periodicals. 
He  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  a  "Vindication  of  the 
Administration  of  Mr.  Pitt,"  and  the  plays  of  "  False 
Delicacy,"  (1768,)  "A  Word  to  the  Wise,"  (1770,)  and 
the  "School  for  Wives,"  (1774.)  Died  in  1777. 

See  "  Life  of  Kelly,"  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  his  Works,  1778. 

Kelly,  (JOHN,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng 
land,  born  at  Douglas,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  in  1750.  He 
translated  the  Bible  into  the  Manks  language,  a  dialect 
of  the  ancient  Celtic,  in  which  he  was  exceedingly  well 
versed,  and  wrote  "  A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Ancient 
Gallic,  or  Language  of  the  Isle  of  Man."  Died  in  1809. 

Kelly,  (MICHAEL,)  a  celebrated  singer  and  musical 
composer,  born  at  Dublin  in  1762.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  went  to  Naples,  and  received  lessons  there  from 
Fineroh  and  April!.  He  performed  with  eminent  success 
in  Italy,  and  also  in  Germany,  where  he  was  a  favourite 
with  the  emperor  Joseph  and  an  intimate  friend  of  the' 
great  Mozart.  He  afterwards  became  first  singer  at 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  London.  He  wrote  an  interesting 
work  entitled  "  Reminiscences"  of  his  contemporaries 
and  friends.  Died  in  1826. 

See  "Musical  Biography,"  London,  1814;  "Monthly  Review" 
for  November,  1825.  .. 

Kem'ble,  (CHARLES,)  a  brother  of  Mrs.  Siddons  and 
J.  P.  Kemble,  was  born  in  South  Wales  in  1775.  He 
was  educated  at  Douay,  in  France,  and  became  an  actor 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  In  1792  he  performed  at  Drury 
Lane  as  "Malcolm"  in  "  Macbeth,"  and  continued  upon 
the  stage  as  a  successful  actor  until  1840.  Died  in  1854. 

See  OXBERRY'S  "Dramatic  Biography;"  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  December,  1854. 

Kemble,  (ELIZABETH,)  a  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble, 
was  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1761.  She  made 
her  first  appearance  in  London  in  1783.  In  form  and 
expression,  as  well  as  in  the  applause  which  she  re 
ceived,  she  has  been  compared  to  her  sister,  Mrs.  Sid- 
dons.  In  1785  she  married  an  actor  named  Whitlock, 
whom  she  accompanied  to  America  in  1792.  In  this 
country  she  became  a  great  favourite,  and  performed 
several  times  before  General  Washington.  Died  in  1836. 

Kemble,  (FRANCES  ANNE,)  often  called  FANNY 
KEMBLE,  a  popular  English  actress  and  writer,  born  in 
London  in  181 1,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  Kemble.  She 
performed  both  tragedy  and  comedy  with  eminent  suc 
cess.  About  1832  she  accompanied  her  father  to  the 
United  States,  where  she  married  Pierce  Butler,  from 
whom  she  was  divorced  in  1849.  She  published  a  "Jour 
nal  of  a  Residence  in  America,"  (1835,)  "The  Star  of 
Seville,"  a  drama,  "Journal  of  a  Residence  on  a  Georgian 
Plantation  in  1838-39,"  (1863,)  etc. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835,  and  September, 
1847;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1835;  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1832,  and  September,  1835. 

Kemble,  (GEORGE  STEPHEN,)  another  brother  of  the 
Kemble  family,  and  a  distinguished  actor,  was  born  in 
Herefordshire  in  1758.  He  first  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1783,  and  afterwards  was  successively  the 
manager  of  the  theatres  of  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and 
Drury  Lane.  Died  in  1822. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Srj^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KEMBLE 


1316 


KEN 


Kemble,  (JOHN  MITCHELL,)  an  Anglo-Saxon  scholar 
and  historian,  son  of  Charles  Kemble  the  actor,  was 
born  in  1807,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam 
bridge.  For  several  years  he.  was  the  editor  of  the 
"British  and  Foreign  Quarterly  Review."  lie  became 
a  member  of  various  foreign  scientific  and  historical 
societies.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "The  Saxons  in 
England;  a  History  of  the  English  Commonwealth  till 
the  Period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March  and  May,  1857. 

Kemble,  (JoHN  PHILIP,)  an  eminent  English  trage 
dian,  brother  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons,  and  son 
of  Roger  Kemble,  was  born  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire, 
in  1757.  He  first  appeared  on  the  stage  at  the  age  of 
ten  years.  He  was  afterwards  educated  at  the  Roman 
Catholic  seminary  at  Douay,  France.  In  1776  he  again 
went  on  the  stage,  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  first  rank  in 
his  profession.  In  1783  he  first  performed  as  "  Hamlet" 
in  London  at  the  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  He  subsequently 
became  a  shareholder  and  manager  in  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  He  retired  from  his  profession  in  1817.  On 
this  occasion  a  public  dinner  was  given  him,  at  which 
Lord  Holland  presided.  On  account  of  ill  health,  he 
then  went  to  reside  in  the  south  of  France,  and  after 
wards  at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died  in  1823. 

A  competent  and  impartial  critic  thus  states  his  im 
pressions  of  Kemble  as  an  actor:  "His  performances 
throughout  evince  deep  study  and  application,  joined  to 
amazingly  judicious  conception.  They  are  correct  and 
highly-finished  paintings,  but  much  laboured. .  .  .  Though 
my  head  is  satisfied,  and  even  astonished,  yet  my  heart  is 
seldom  affected.  .  .  .  Once,  I  must  own,  however,  I  was 
completely  overpowered  by  his  acting.  It  was  in  the 
partofZanga.  .  .  .  I  could  not  have  believed  that  tragic 
representation  could  so  far  deceive  the  senses  and  the 
Judgment."  ("  Life  and  Letters  of  Irving,"  vol.  i.  p.  156.) 
As  an  actor,  Kemble  excelled  in  the  highest  order  of 
tragedy.  He  possessed  an  elegant  and  discriminating 
taste,  and  was  learned  and  refined.  His  manners  were 
uncommonly  attractive.  He  enjoyed  a  high  character  as 
a  gentleman  and  a  man  of  honour. 

See  BOADEN,  "Memoirs  of  John  P.  Kemble,"  2  vols.,  1825; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1826;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1825. 

Kemble,  (PRISCII.LA,)  an  English  actress,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1755  ;  died  in  1845. 

Kemble,  (!<OGER,)  a  distinguished  actor,  born  in  Here 
ford,  England,  in  1721.  In  1753  he1  married  Sarah  Ward, 
an  actress,  by  whom  he  had  twelve  children.  Among 
these  were  Mrs.  Siddons,  John  Philip  Kemble,  Eliza 
beth  Kemble,  and  Charles  Kemble,  all  of  whom  are 
mentioned  in  this  work. 

Kemeny,  kem'afi,  (SiGMUND,)  BARON  OF,  a  Hunga 
rian  writer  and  journalist,  born  in  1816.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  to  the  National  Assembly  at  Pesth,  where  he 
advocated  the  revolutionary  cause.  The  next  year  he 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Respublica."  He 
wrote  several  popular  romances.  Died  in  1852. 

Kemp,  (GEORGE  MICKLE,)  the  designer  of  the  Scott 
monument  at  Edinburgh,  was  born  at  New  Hall,  in 
Scotland,  about  1794.  He  was  employed  for  a  time  as  a 
draughtsman,  and,  when  plans  were  requested  for  the 
Scott  monument,  he  furnished  one  which  was  preferred, 
though  he  did  not  live  to  see  the  execution  of  it.  Died 
in  1844. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Kemp,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis 
copal  diocese  of  Maryland,  born  in  Scotland  in  1764, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1787,  and  for  more  than 
twenty  years  was  rector  at  Great  Choptank,  Maryland. 
He  was  bishop  of  that  diocese,  and  provost  of  the  Uni 
versity  of  Maryland,  from  1816  until  his  death,  in  1827. 

Kemp,  (JoHN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Kent  about 
1400,  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1452,  and 
subsequently  became  lord  chancellor.  He  had  distin 
guished  abilities  both  as  a  primate  and  statesman.  Died 
in  1454. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  v.  chap.  xx. 


Kemp,  (JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  musical  composer, 
and  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Bristol,  was  born  at 
Exeter  in  1778;  died  in  1824.  Among  his  productions 
are  the  anthems  "I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,"  "A  Sound 
of  Battle  is  in  the  Land,"  and  "The  Siege  of  Ischia," 
an  opera. 

Kempelen,  von,  fon  kem'peh-len,  (WOLFGANG,)  a 
famous  mechanical  genius,  and  the  inventor  of  the  chess 
machine,  was  born  at  Presburg  in  1734.  His  remarkable 
talent  for  chess-playing  made  him  a  favourite  at  the 
court  of  Maria  Theresa,  who  created  him  an  imperial 
councillor.  In  1769  he  exhibited  to  the  empress  his 
chess-player,  representing  a  man  of  usual  size  sitting 
before  a  table  which  held  a  chess-board.  Though  op 
posed  by  the  best  players,  the  machine  was  nearly  always 
victorious,  and  would  correct  a  false  move  of  the  other 
party.  He  visited  France  and  England,  where  his  in 
vention  caused  a  great  sensation.  In  1728  he  invented 
the  speaking-machine,  having  the  form  of  a  wooden 
box  provided  with  a  bellows.  This  was  made  to  speak 
words  distinctly  in  a  voice  like  that  of  a  child.  Kem 
pelen  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Mechanism  of  Human 
Speech."  Died  in  1804. 

Kemper,  kem'per,  (JAN  MELCHIOR,)  an  able  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1776.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  Leyden  in  1809,  and  published  a  number 
of  works  on  law.  Died  in  1824. 

See  M.  SIEGENBEEK,  "Memoria  J.  M.  Kemperi,"  1824. 

Kem'per,  (REUBEN,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Fauquier  county,  Virginia.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
various  engagements  against  the  Spaniards  in  Florida 
and  Mexico,  and  took  part  in  the  defence  of  New  Orleans 
under  General  Jackson.  Died  in  1826. 

Kemph,  kemf,  (NiKOLAUS,)  a  German  theologian 
and  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1397  ;  died  in  1497. 

Kempis,  d,  a  kem'pis,  (THOMAS,)  or  THOMAS  Ham'- 
er-ken,  a  celebrated  German  ascetic  writer,  born  at 
Kempen,  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  about  1380.  He 
became  an  inmate  of  the  monastery  of  Mount  Saint 
Agnes,  and  spent  much  time  in  copying  religious  books. 
Pie  is  said  to  have  employed  fifteen  years  in  writing  a 
copy  of  the  Bible.  He  also  wrote  several  original  treat 
ises.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  the  well-known  work 
entitled  "De  Imitatione  Christi  ;"  but  it  remains  an 
unsettled  question  whether  he  composed  or  only  tran 
scribed  it.  Many  volumes  have  been  written  on  each 
side  of  this  question.  Died  in  1471. 

See  BREWER,  "Thomas  a  Kempis  Biographia,"  1676;  BAEHRING, 
"Thomas  von  Kempen,"  etc.,  1854;  MOOREN,  "Nachrichten  iiber 
Thomas  a  Kempis,"  Crefeld,  1855,  (said  to  be  the  best  of  all  the 
biographies  of  T.  a  Kempis  ;)  M  AI.OU,  "  Recherches  sur  le  veritable 
Auteur  de  1'Imitation, "  1858:  HODGSON,  "Reformers  and  Mar 
tyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867  ;  CHARLES  HOFFMANN,  "  T.  a  Kempis  et  ses 
EcntS,"  1848;  J.  P.  SILBERT,  "Gersen,  Gerson  und  Kempis,  oder 
1st  Einer  von  diesen  Dreien  der  Verfasser,"  etc.,  1828;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Ken,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  English  prelate,  born  at 
Berkhamstead  in  1637,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  About 
1679  he  went  to  Holland  as  chaplain  to  the  Princess 
of  Orange.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  chaplain  to 
Charles  II.,  who  raised  him  to  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells 
in  1684.  "He  was,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  man  of  parts 
and  learning,  of  quick  sensibility  and  stainless  virtue.  .  .  . 
Before  he  became  a  bishop,  he  had  maintained  the 
honour  of  his  gown  by  refusing,  when  the  court  was  at 
Winchester,  to  let  Eleanor  Gwinn  [a  mistress  of  Charles] 
lodge  in  the  house  which  he  occupied  there  as  a  preben 
dary.  The  king  had  sense  enough  to  respect  so  manly 
a  spirit.  Of  all  the  prelates  he  liked  Ken  the  best." 
Deprived  of  his  bishopric  as  a  nonjuror  upon  the  coro 
nation  of  William  III.,  he  was  regarded  with  the  highest 
esteem  even  by  his  opponents.  Queen  Anne,  upon  her 
accession,  granted  him  a  pension.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  volumes  of  elaborate  sermons,  and  of  many 
poetical  productions  of  a  religious  character.  "  His 
Morning  and  Evening  Hymns,"  says  4he  writer  above 
quoted,  "are  still  repeated  daily  in  thousands  of  dwell 
ings."  He  died  in  1711. 

See  W.  HAWKINS,  "Life  of  Bishop  Ken,"  1713;  W.  L.  BOWLES, 
"  Life  of  Thomas  Ken,"  1830 ;  MACAULAY,  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  i.  chap.  v.  ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1851  ; 
Miss  STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  etc.,  London, 
1866;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1832. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  tat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


KENDAL 


1317 


KENNICOTT 


Ke"n'dal,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  nonconformist  minis 
ter,  born  in  Devonshire,  was  a  Calvinist.  He  became 
rector  of  Blissland,  in  Cornwall,  from  which  he  was 
ejected  about  1662.  Died  in  1663. 

KSn'dall,  (A.\ios,)  an  able  American  statesman,  born 
at  Dunstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1789.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1811,  and  subsequently,  removing 
to  Kentucky,  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Henry 
Clay.  He  supported  General  Jackson  in  the  Presiden 
tial  campaign  of  1829,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
him  an  auditor  of  the  treasury  department.  He  was 
made  postmaster-general  in  1835,  and  continued  to  fill 
that  post  till  1840.  He  began  about  1844  a  Life  of 
General  Jackson,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  pub 
lished  several  years  ago.  Died  in  1869. 

See  notice  in  the  "Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1838,  (with  a 
portrait ;)  "  Life  of  Jackson." 

Ken'dall,  (G.,)  an  English  missionary,  who  laboured 
in  New  Zealand,  and  opened  a  school  there  in  1816.  He 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language  of  that 
country,  and  wrote  a  "Grammar  and  Vocabulary  of  the 
Language  of  New  Zealand,"  (1820.)  He  was  drowned 
at  sea  in  1835. 

Kendall,  (GEORGE  WILKINS,)  an  American  writer 
and  journalist,  born  at  Amherst,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1810.  He  removed  in  1835  to  New  Orleans,  where  he 
became  associated  with  Mr.  Lumsden  as  editor  of  the 
"Picayune."  In  1841  he  accompanied  the  Santa  Fe  ex 
pedition  from  Texas,  of  which  he  published  an  account 
after  his  return.  He  brought  out  in  1851  a  work  entitled 
"The  War  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,"  with 
coloured  plates  of  the  principal  conflicts. 

Kendall,  (JOHN,)  an  English  writer,  and  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  born  about  1725;  died  in  1814. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Thomas  Story,"  and 
"Precepts  of  the  Christian  Religion." 

Kendi,  Al.    See  ALCHINDUS. 

Ken'drick,  (ASAHEL  C.,)  D.D.,  an  American  scholar 
and  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Poultney,  Vermont,  in 
1809.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York, 
in  1831.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Madison  University,  and  in  1850 
Greek  professor  in  the  University  of  Rochester,  New 
York.  He  has  published  a  number  of  religious  and 
miscellaneous  works. 

Kendrick,  (NATHANIEL,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1777,  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  and  moral  philosophy  in  Hamilton 
College  (now  Madison  University)  in  1822.  His  labours 
contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  institution. 
Died  in  1848. 

Kenicius,  ka-nee'she-us,  (PETER,)  Archbishop  of 
Upsal,  Sweden,  during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
was  born  in  1555.  He  rendered  important  service  to 
the  cause  of  education,  and  owing  to  his  efforts  parish 
hospitals  were  established  throughout  Sweden.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.  Died  in  1636. 

Ken'ly,  (JoHN  R.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  general, 
born  in  Baltimore  about  1820.  He  commanded,  a  small 
force  which  was  attacked  at  Front  Royal  by  the  army 
of  Stonewall  Jackson,  May  23,  1862.  lie  was  wounded 
and  captured  in  this  action. 

Ken'na-way,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  British  diplomatist,  born 
at  Exeter  in  1758.  He  became  a  captain  of  the  army  in 
India  in  1780,  and  negotiated  an  important  treaty  with 
Tippoo  Saib  in  1792.  Died  in  1836. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (GRACE,)  a  popular  Scottish  authoress, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1782.  She  published  several  moral 
and  religious  tales  of  great  merit.  Among  these  we 
may  name  "Anna  Ross,"  "The  Decision,"  and  "Jessy 
Allan,"  which  have  been  translated  into  German;  also 
"Father  Clement,"  (1825.)  Died  in  1825. 

Kennedy,  (!I.DEFONSO,)  a  Scottish  Benedictine  and 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Muthel  in  1721,  was  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Munich.  Died  in  1804. 

Kennedy,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  prelate,  and  grandson 
of  Robert  III.,  was  born  about  1405.  He  was  raised  in 
1440  to  the  see  of  Saint  Andrew's,  and  was  subsequently- 
chosen  a  lord  of  the  regency  until  James  III.  obtained 
his  majority.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  salutary  re 
forms  which  he  effected  among  the  Scottish  clergy.  He 


was  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Saint  Salvator,  at 
Saint  Andrew's.  Died  in  1466.  '  v 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kennedy,  (JOHN,)  a  physician  and  antiquary,  born 
in  Scotland.  He  wrote  a.  treatise  on  the  coins  of  the 
emperor  Carausius.  Died  in  1760. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (JoHN,)  an  English  author,  and  rector  of 
Bradley,  in  Derbyshire.  Among  "his  works  is  "A  Scrip 
ture  Chronology,"  (1752.)  Died  about  1770. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (JoHN  PENDI.ETON,)  an  American  states 
man  and  popular  writer,  born  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in 
1795.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  elected  in 
1820  to  the  Maryland  House  of  Delegates,  He  was  sub 
sequently  three  times  elected  to  the  United  States  House 
of  Representatives,  where  he  actively  supported  the  lead 
ing  measures  of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  1852.  He  has  published  several 
popular  works  of  fiction,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Swallow  Barn,  or  a  Sojourn  in  the  Old  Dominion," 
(1832,)  and  "  Horse-Shoe  Robinson,  a  Tale  of  the  Tory 
Ascendency,"  (1835;)  also  a  "Life  of  William  Wirt," 
besides  other  works.  Died  in  August,  1870. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Ken'net,  (BASIL,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  brother  of  Bishop  Kennet,  born  in  Kent 
in  1674,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  chaplain 
to  the  English  factory  at  Leghorn.  He  returned  to 
England  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  wrote  various 
antiquarian  and  historical  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Antiquities  of  Rome,"  (1696,)  relating  to  the  history  of 
the  republic,  and  "Lives  and  Characters  of  Ancient 
Greek  Poets,"  (1697.)  Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Kennet,  (WniTE,)  an  English  prelate  and  author, 
born  at  Dover  in  1660,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  at  Oxford.  In  1699  he  received  the  degree 
of  D.D.,  and  in  1718  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Peterbo 
rough.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher  of  great 
eloquence  and  as  a  scholar  of  indefatigable  industry  and 
perseverance,  as  well  as  for  his  opposition  to  the  High- 
Church  party.  Died  in  1728.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  may  mention  "  Parochial  Antiquities  attempted  in 
the  History  of  Ambrosden,  Burcester,  and  other  Ad 
jacent  Places  in  the  Counties  of  Oxford  and  Bucks," 
(1695,)  and  "A  Register  and  Chronicle,  Ecclesiastical 
and  Civil,"  (1728,)  relating  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

See  W.  NEWTON,  "Life  of  White  Kennet,"  1730;  "Biographia 
Britannica." 

Ken'neth  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  died,  after  a  short 
reign,  in  606,  and  was  succeeded  by  Eugene  III. 

Kenneth  II.  succeeded  his  father,  Alpin,  as  King  of 
the  Scots,  in  834.  He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against 
the  Britons,  and  reduced  the  Picts  to  subjection.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  sovereign  who  swayed  a 
sceptre  over  all  Scotland.  Died  about  858  A.D. 

Kenneth  III.  ascended  the  throne  of  Scotland  in  970. 
He  repelled  the  invasions  of  the  Danes,  established  a 
just  and  efficient  government  in  his  dominions,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  monarch  who  gave  Scotland 
a  written  code  of  laws.  He  was  assassinated  in  994. 

See  BUCHANAN,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Ken'nI-cott,  (BENJAMIN,)  a  learned  divine  and  He 
brew  scholar,  born  at  Totness,  in  Devonshire,  England, 
in  1718.  While  a  student  at  Oxford,  he  wrote  two  dis 
sertations,  one  "  On  the  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise,"  and 
the  other  "On  the  Oblations  of  Cain  and  Abel,"  which 
procured  for  him,  free  of  expense  and  before  the  usual 
period,  the  degree  of  B.A.  He  was  soon  after  elected 
a  Fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  became  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1750. 
In  1753  he  published  a  treatise  on  "The  State  of  the 
Printed  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,"  in  which 
he  unfolded  his  plan  of  collating  the  Hebrew  manuscripts 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Although  his  efforts  met  with 
opposition  from  some  of  the  clergy,  a  large  sum  was 
raised  to  aid  him  in  his  enterprise,  and  several  men 
of  learning  were  employed  to  assist  him  in  his  labours. 
His  "  Hebrew  Bible,"  the  result  of  these  labours,  was 
issued  in  1776,  with  the  various  readings  attached.  Dr. 
Kennicott  and  his  assistants  in  this  valuable  work  con- 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


KENNON 


1318 


KENTON 


suited  sixteen  Samaritan  and  over  six  hundred  Hebrew 
manuscripts.     Died  at  Oxford  in  1783. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Ken'iipn,  (ROKERT  LEWIS,)  a  Methodist  divine  anc 
physician,  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1789.  He  excellec 
in  various  branches  of  science,  particularly  geology,  anc 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  coal 
fields  of  Alabama.  Died  in  1838. 

Ken'rick,  (FRANCIS  PATRICK,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic 
prelate,  born  at  Dublin  in  1797,  emigrated  in  1821 
to  America.  In  1842  he  succeeded  Dr.  Conwell  as 
Bishop  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Baltimore  in  1851,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
the  pope  "  primate  of  honour,"  having  precedency  over 
all  other  Catholic  prelates  of  the  country.  He  enjoyec" 
a  high  reputation  for  learning,  and  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Dogmatic  Theology,"  and  "Moral  The 
ology,"  (both  in  Latin.)  Died  in  1863. 

Keiirick,  (PETER  RICHARD,)  D.D.,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Dublin  in  1806.  Having  re 
moved  to  Philadelphia,  he  became  editor  of  the  "Cath 
olic  Herald."  On  the  deatli  of  Dr.  Rosati,  in  1843,  he 
succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  Saint  Louis,  and  in  1847 
was  made  first  archbishop  of  that  city.  lie  has  founded 
several  charitable  institutions,  and  has  been  active  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  education. 

Ken'rick,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  noted  for 
his  quarrelsome  disposition,  born  in  Hertfordshire  about 
1720,  published  "Epistles,  Philosophical  and  Moral,' 
in  poetry,  (1759,)  "  A  Review  of  Dr.  Johnson's  New  Edi 
tion  of  Shakspeare,"  (1765,)  which  caused  a  controversy 
with  Johnson's  friends,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language,"  and  a  poem  called  "  Love  in  the  Suds,"  for 
which  he  was  sued  for  damages  by  Garrick,  whom  he 
had  libelled  in  it.  Died  in  1779. 

See  BAKEK,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Ken'sett,  (JOHN  FREDERICK,)  an  American  land 
scape-painter,  born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in  1818. 
He  studied  in  London,  and  in  1845  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  his  "View  of  Windsor  Castle."  He 
afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  executed  several 
excellent  pictures  of  Italian  scenery.  Among  his  best 
American  landscapes  may  be  named  "Sunset  in  the 
Adirondacks,"  "  Franconia  Mountains,"  and  "Hudson 
River  from  Fort  Putnam."  He  became  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1849. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Kent,  (EDWARD,)  DUKE  OF,  father  of  Victoria,  Queen 
of  Great  Britain,  and  the  fourth  son  of  George  III.,  was 
born  in  1767.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Geneva.  In 
1790  he  entered  the  army,  and  three  y«ars  later  assisted 
in  the  capture  of  Saint  Lucia.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general,  and  in  1799  was  created  Duke  of  Kent 
and  Strathern  and  Earl  of  Dublin.  In  1802  he  became 
Governor  of  Gibraltar  ;  but,  his  rigid  discipline  producing 
a  mutiny,  he  was  soon  after  recalled.  In  1818  he  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  Duke  of 
Kent  was  a  liberal  patron  of  benevolent  enterprises. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Life  of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,"  by  ERSKINE  NEALE,  1850. 

Kent,  (EDWARD,)  LL.D.,  an  American  judge,  born  in 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  in  1802.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  and  in  1825  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Bangor, 
Maine.  He  was  afterwards  twice  Governor  of  the  State, 
and  became  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Maine  in  1859. 

Kent,  (JAMES,)  a  distinguished  organist  and  musical 
composer,  born  at  Winchester  in  1700.  He  became  one 
of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  London.  Upon 
finishing  his  education,  he  was  successively  chosen  or 
ganist  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  of  Winchester 
Cathedral.  He  published  a  popular  work  containing 
"Twelve  Anthems"  of  his  composition.  Died  in  1776. 

See  BURNEY,  "History  of  Music." 

Kent,  (JAMES,)  an  eminent  American  jurist,  born  in 
Putnam  county,  New  York,  in  July,  1763.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1781,  studied  law,  and  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Poughkeepsie.  In  politics 
he  was  a  Federalist.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  legal 
knowledge.  He  became  a  resident  of  the  city  of  New 


York  about  1793,  and  a  friend  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 
In  1798  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
of  New  York,  and  in  1804  became  chief  justice.  He 
lectured  on  law  at  Columbia  College.  His  important 
decisions  in  law  and  equity  have  been  preserved  in  the 
Reports  of  Johnson  and  Caines.  He  became  chancellor 
in  1814,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  1823,  after  which 
he  was  again  professor  of  law  in  Columbia  College.  He 
published  "Commentaries  on  American  Law,"  (4  vols., 
1826-30,)  which  is  a  standard  work  of  high  authority 
and  a  production  of  great  literary  merit.  Referring  to 
this  work,  Judge  Story  remarks,  "These  Commentaries 
have  already  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  juridical  classic, 
and  have  placed  their  author  in  the  first  rank  in  the 
benefactors  of  the  profession.  They  embody  the  prin 
ciples  of  law  in  pages  as  attractive  by  the  persuasive 
eloquence  of  their  style  as  they  are  instructive  by  the 
fulness  and  accuracy  of  their  learning."  ("On  the  Con 
flict  of  Laws.")  "It  will  be  a  proud  distinction  to  Kent 
and  Story,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October, 
1852,  (p.  340,)  "that  they  have  done  more  than  any  other 
men  to  put  an  end  to  the  indifference  of  English  lawyers 
to  the  learning  of  their  American  brethren."  Judge 
Kent  had  a  high  reputation  for  virtue.  He  died  in  New 
York  in  December,  1847,  leaving  one  son,  William. 

See  JOHN  DUER,  "  Discourse  on  the  Life  of  James  Kent ;"  "  Na 
tional  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii.  ;  AI.I.I- 
BONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors,"  vol.  ii.  ;  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopxdia 
of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Kent,  (MARIA  LOUISA  VICTORIA,)  DUCHESS  OF,  born 
in  1786,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg. 
She  was  married  about  1803  to  Prince  Emich  Karl  of 
Leiningen,  and  again  to  tj.ie  Duke  of  Kent  in  1818.  Vic 
toria,  Queen  of  England,  was  the  issue  of  her  second 
marriage.  Died  in  1861. 

Kent,  (WILLIAM,)  the  founder  of  the  English  style 
of  landscape-gardening,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  about 
1685.  He  studied  painting,  which  he  soon  abandoned 
for  ornamental  architecture.  Among  his  best  designs  is 
that  of  the  temple  of  Venus  at  Stowe.  His  fame,  how 
ever,  rests  chiefly  on  the  great  improvement  he  effected 
in  landscape-gardening,  by  substituting  the  close  imita 
tion  of  nature  for  the  stiff  and  formal  style  of  the  French 
and  Dutch.  Walpole  has  styled  him  "the  creator  of 
modern  gardening."  Died  in  1748. 

See  WAI.J'.OI.E,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Kent,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of  James 
Kent,  the  eminent  jurist,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1802.  He  was  appointed  by  Governor  Seward  a  judge 
of  the  circuit  court  of  New  York.  Having  resigned 
that  office,  he  practised  law  in  New  York  City.  Died  in 
January,  1861. 

Kent'i-gern,  SAINT,  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  became 
Bishop  of  Glasgow.  He  is  said  to  have  converted  many 
of  the  natives  to  Christianity.  Died  about  600. 

Ken'ton,(SiMON,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in  Fau- 
quier  county,  Virginia,  was  one  of  the  associates  of 
Daniel  Boone,  the  Kentucky  pioneer.  He  fought  against 
the  Indians  on  the  Western  frontier,  and  subsequently 
in  the  war  of  1812.  Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Ken'yon,  (JOHN,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Jamaica 
about  1783,  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  published 
'  A  Day  at  Tivoli,  with  other  Poems."  Died  in  1856. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1838;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1839,  (by  PRESCOTT.) 

Kenyon,  (LLOYD,)  LORD,  an  eminent  English  law 
yer,  and  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  was  born  at 

~reddington,  in  Flintshire,  October  5,  1732.  He  be 
came  in  1754  a  member  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was 
idmitted  to  the  bar  in  1761.  With  too  high  a  sense 
of  honour  to  employ  artifice,  and  having  no  influential 
"riends  to  assist  him,  several  years  elapsed  before  he 
obtained  practice.  In  1779  he  distinguished  himself  by 

lis  able  defence  of  Lord  George  Gordon,  on  trial  for 

reason.  Three  years  later  he  was  made  attorney-general. 

'n  1788  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Ken- 

on,  Baron  Greddington.  He  died  in  1802,  after  having 
amassed  a  large  fortune.  Lord  Kenyon  was  generally 


a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


KEOGH 


KERCKHERDERE 


popular,  though  his  extremely  parsimonious  habits,  added 
to  his  overbearing  and  haughty  manner  towards  the  bar 
risters  as  well  as  towards  his  associate  judges,  made  him 
no  favourite  with  the  members  of  his  profession.  As  a 
justice,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  strict  adherence  to 
the  letter  of  the  law,  and  for  his  impartial  severity  upon 
offenders  of  every  rank. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;"  "Sketch 
of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Lord  Kenyon,"  London,  1802  ;  Foss,  "The  Judges 
of  England." 

Keogh,  ka'oH,  ?  (WlLUAM,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  born  at 
Galway  in  1817.  He  published  "The  Practice  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery  in  Ireland."  In  1856  he  became  a 
judge  of  the  common  pleas. 

Kepler,  kep'ler,  or  Keppler,  [Lat.  KEPLE'RUS,] 
(JOHANN,)  a  celebrated  German  astronomer,  born  at  or 
near  Weil,  in  Wiirtemberg,  on  the  271)1  of  December, 
1571.  His  father,  Henry  Kepler,  lost  nearly  all  his  prop 
erty  by  becoming  surety  for  a  friend,  and  was  reduced 
to  the  position  of  tavern-keeper  at  Ehnendingen.  About 
1586  he  entered  the  monastic  school  of  Maulbronn, 
where  he  was  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  continued  his  studies  at  Tubingen, 
which  he  quitted  in  1591  with  the  degree  of  master. 
In  1594  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Gratz,  in  Styria.  He  published,  under  the  title  of 
"  Mysterium  Cosmographicum,"  (1596,)  an  account  of 
his  inquiries  and  speculations  in  relation  to  the  number, 
distances,  and  periodic  times  of  the  planets.  In  1597  he 
married  a  widow  named  Barbara  von  Muller.  Kepler 
and  the  other  Protestant  professors  were  driven  from 
Gratz  by  persecution  about  1600.  He  visited  Tycho 
Brahe,  who  then  resided  near  Prague,  and  who  intro 
duced  him  to  the  emperor  Rudolph.  At  the  request  of 
Rudolph,  he  began  to  assist  Tycho  in  the  formation  of 
astronomical  tables. 

On  the  death  of  Tycho,  in  October,  1601,  Kepler  suc 
ceeded  him  as  principal  mathematician  to  the  emperor, 
with  a  salary  of  1500  florins,  and  inherited  his  unpub 
lished  observations.  He  published  in  1604  an  important 
contribution  to  the  science  of  optics,  entitled  a  "  Supple 
ment  to  Vitellio."  After  he  obtained  the  patronage  of 
the  emperor  he  resided  for  some  years  at  Linz.  In  1609 
he  produced  his  greatest  work,  "Astronomia  nova,  seu 
Physica  celestis  tradita  Commentariis  de  Motibus  Stellas 
Martis,"  in  which  he  announced  two  of  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  periods  and  motions  of  the  planets,  and 
which  are  known  as  Kepler's  Laws.  These  are  :  I,  that 
the  orbits  of  the  planets  are  elliptical ;  2,  the  radius- 
vector,  or  line  extending  from  a  planet  to  the  sun,  de 
scribes  or  passes  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times ;  3,  the 
squares  of  the  periodic  times  of  planets  are  proportional 
to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 
"These  laws  constitute  undoubtedly,"  says  Sir  John 
Herschel,  "  the  most  important  and  beautiful  system  of 
geometrical  relations  which  have  ever  been  discovered 
by  a  mere  inductive  process,  independent  of  any  con 
sideration  of  a  theoretical  kind.  They  comprise  within 
them  a  compendium  of  the  motions  of  all  the  planets, 
and  enable  us  to  assign  their  places  in  their  orbits  at  any 
instant  of  time,  past  or  to  come."  "This  beautiful  and 
simple  law,"  says  Professor  Playfair,  in  reference  to  the 
third  law,  "had  a  value  beyond  what  Kepler  could  pos 
sibly  conceive  ;  yet  a  sort  of  scientific  instinct  instructed 
him  in  its  great  importance.  He  has  marked  the  year 
and  the  day  when  it  became  known  to  him  :  it  was  on 
the  8th  of  May,  1618."  His  third  law  was  discovered 
with  infinite  satisfaction  in  1618,  and  announced  in  his 
"  Harmonice  Mundi,"  (1619,)  the  title  and  contents  of 
which  recall  the  ideas  of  Pythagoras  on  celestial  har 
mony.  Kepler  imagines  that  in  this  music  of  the  spheres 
Saturn  and  Jupiter  perform  the  bass,  Mars  the  tenor, 
and  the  Earth  and  Venus  the  haute-contre.  He  con 
sidered  the  sun  to  be  the  source  of  motion  as  well  as  of 
light  and  heat.  The  treasury  of  the  emperor  was  so 
exhausted  by  war  that  Kepler  could  not  obtain  the  pay 
ment  of  his  salary,  and  often  felt  the  pressure  of  poverty. 
Afer  the  death -of  Rudolph,  (1612,)  he  was  appointed 
pro'essor  of  mathematics  at  Linz.  His  first  wife  having 
died,  he  married  Susanna  Rettinger,  about  1614.  In 
1620  he  was  visited  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  an  English 


ambassador,  who  invited  him  to  remove  to  England ; 
but  he  declined.  He  expended  the  labour  of  several 
years  on  his  "  Rudolphine  Tables,"  which  were  published 
in  1627  and  were  highly  prized.  Among  his  important 
works  is  his  "  Dioptrica,"  (1611,)  in  which  he  describes 
the  astronomical  telescope  with  two  convex  lenses.  The 
invention  of  this  form  of  telescope  is  ascribed  to  him. 
Kepler  was  so  devoted  to  science,  and  had  so  little  re 
gard  for  riches,  except  those  of  the  mind,  that  he  used 
to  say  he  would  rather  be  the  author  of  the  works  he 
had  written  than  possess  the  duchy  of  Saxony.  He  died 
at  Ratisbon  in  November,  1630,  leaving  four  sons  and 
three  daughters. 

See  DRINKWATER  BETHUNE,  "Life  of  Kepler,"  in  the  "Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge:"  BRKITSCHWERD,  "  Keplers  Leben  mid  Wir- 
ken,"  1831:  SIR  DAVID  BREWSTER,  "Martyrs  of  Science,"  1841; 
ARAGO,  "  Notices  biographiques,"  tome  ii.  ;  DR.  F.  HOEFER,  article 
in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nernle  :"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  June,  1835;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  1860. 

Kepler,  (LuowiG,)  a  German  physician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1607.  He  practised 
at  Bale,  Strasburg,  and  Konigsberg,  and  wrote  several 
works.  Died  in  1663. 

Keplerus.     See  KEPLER,  (JOHANN.) 

Kep'pel,  (AUGUSTUS,)  an  English  admiral,  son  of 
William,  Earl  of  Albemarle,  was  born  in  1725.  In  1761, 
as  commander  of  a  small  squadron,  he  captured  Belle- 
Isle,  and  the  following  year  was  created  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.  In  1778  he  became  admiral.  He  was  subse 
quently  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount  Keppel,  Baron 
Elden,  and  was  twice  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admi 
ralty.  He  was  accused  by  Sir  Hugh  Palliser  of  neglect 
of  duty  in  an  action  against  the  French  in  July,  1778,  and 
was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  by  which  he  was  honourably 
acquitted.  Died  in  1786. 

See  "Life  of  Viscount  Keppel,"  by  THOMAS  KEPPEL;  KIPPIS, 
"Life  of  Lord  Anson;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1842. 

Keppel,  EARL  OF  ALBEMARLE.     See  ALBEMARLE. 

Keppel,  (GEORGE  THOMAS,)  an  English  officer,  born 
in  1799,  was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Albemarle.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1832  and  in  1847.  He  published 
a  "Journey  across  the  Balkan." 

Keppel,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  naval  officer,  a 
younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Albemarle,  was  born  in  1809. 
He  became  a  captain  about  1837,  and  commanded  the 
naval  forces  operating  against  China  in  1857-58.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "An  Expedition  to  Borneo." 

Keppler.     See  KEPLER. 

Ker,  ker  or  kar,  (JoHX,)  of  Kersland,  a  Scottish 
philologist,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Edinburgh.  He 
was  employed  as  a  political  agent  by  William  III.,  and 
published  "  Memoirs  and  Secret  Negotiations,"  (3  vols., 
1726.) 

Ker,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  bibliographer,  born  in  London 
in  1740,  was  the  son  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Roxburgh,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1755  in  the  Scottish  dukedom,  and  also  in 
the  British  peerage  as  Earl  and  Baron  Ker  of  Wakefield. 
He  died  in  1804.  In  the  accumulation  of  his  library, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  valuable  private 
collection  in  Great  Britain,  he  exhibited  remarkable 
industry  and  rare  judgment.  The  sale  of  these  books 
after  his  death  produced  a  great  sensation  in  the  lite 
rary  world.  One — "  II  Decamerone  di  Boccaccio" — was 
sold  for  £2250. 

Ker,  (ROBERT.)     See  CARR.   , 

Ker  Porter.     See  PORTER,  (ROBERT  KER.) 

Keralio,  de,  deh  keh-i  t'leV,  (Louis  FELIX  Guine- 
meiit — gen'mSx',)  a  French  officer  and  litterateur,  born 
in  Brittany  in  1731.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
one  upon  the  "General  Principles  of  Tactics."  Died  in 

1793- 

Keratry,  de,  deh  ka'rf'tRe',  (AUGUSTE  HILARION,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  statesman,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1769.  He  was  twice  chosen  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  in  1818  and  in  1827,  and  was  made  a  peer  in 
1837.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Moral  and  Physi 
ological  Inductions,"  (1817,)  and  several  romances  and 
poems.  Died  in  1859. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Kerckherdere,  keRk'heVdeh-reh,  (JAN  GERAART,) 
a  Dutch  philologist  and  theologian,  born  near  Maestricht 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KERCKHOVE 


1320 


KETBOGA 


about  1678.  He  was  professor  at  Louvain,  and  wrote 
several  works.  Died  in  1738. 

Kerckhove,  van  den,  vSn  din  keKk'ho'veh,  (JAN 
POLYANDER,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  of  Dutch  extrac 
tion,  born  at  Metz  in  1568.  In  1609  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  of 
which  he  was  subsequently  chosen  rector  eight  times. 
Died  in  1646. 

Kerckhove,  van  den,  written  also  Kerckchove, 
(JOSEPH,)  an  able  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in 
1669.  He  painted  sacred  history.  Died  in  1724. 

Kerckring,  kSRk'ring,  (THEODORUS,)  a  physician  and 
anatomical  writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  ;  died  in  1693. 

Kereem-  (Kerim-  or  Kerym-)  Khan,  ker-eem'  Kan, 
became  sovereign  of  Persia  in  1750.  He  was  an  able 
warrior,  lawgiver,  and  statesman.  Died  about  1780. 

Kerguelen-Trernarec,  de,  deh  kiR'ga'lftN'  tKa'mi'- 
rek',  (IVEs  JOSEPH,)  a  celebrated  French  navigator,  born 
at  Quimper,  in  Brittany,  in  1745.  Having  previously 
visited  the  North  Sea,  he  set  out  in  1771  on  a  voyage  to 
the  South  Sea,  and  the  following  year  discovered,  in  498 
south  latitude,  the  island  to  which  Captain  Cook  gave, 
in  1776,  the  name  of  Kerguelen's  Land.  He  published 
a  "  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Shores  of  Iceland,  Greenland,"  etc.,  (1771,)  and  "An 
Account  of  Two  Voyages  in  the  South  Sea  and  the 
Indies,"  (1782.)  Died  in  1797. 

Kerhallet,  de,  deh  ki'r&'li',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE,) 
a  French  hydrographer,  born  in  Brittany  in  1809.  He 
became  a  captain  in  the  navy,  and  was  employed  many 
years  in  surveying  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  published  a 
"  Manual  for  the  Navigation  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa," 
(3  vols.,  1853.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1863. 

Keri,  ka'ree,  (FRANCIS  BORGIA,)  a  historian  and  Jesuit, 
born  at  Zemplin,  in  Hungary,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Empire  of  the  East."  Died  in  1769. 

Keri,  (JOHN  or  JAxos,)  a  learned  Hungarian  bishop, 
who  wrote  "  Ferocia  Martis  Turcici,"  a  history  of  the 
different  Turkish  invasions  of  Hungary.  Died  in  1685. 

Keiim-Khan.     See  KEREEM-KHAN. 

Keri,  keRl,  (JoHANN  CASPAR,)  a  German  composer 
and  organist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1625.  He  was  chapel- 
inaster  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  Died  about  1685. 

Kern,  kcRn,  (J.  CONRAD,)  a  Swiss  statesman  of  the 
Liberal  party,  was  born  at  Berlingen  in  1808.  He  be 
came  president  of  the  Federal  Tribunal  in  1850. 

Kern,  k^Rn,  (ViNCENZ,)  a  skilful  German  surgeon, 
born  at  Gratz  in  1760.  He  became  professor  of  surgery 
in  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  is  said  to  have  intro 
duced  important  reforms  in  the  practice  of  surgery.  He 
published  several  professional  works.  Died  in  1829. 

Kernel!,  keVnil,  (PEHR  ULRIK,)  a  Swedish  litterateur, 
born  in  1797  ;  died  in  1824. 

Kerner,  keR'ner,  (ANDREAS  JUSTINUS,)  a  German 
lyric  poet,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1786.  He  published 
in  1811  "Travelling  Shadows,  by  the  Magic-Lantern 
Player,"  a  work  of  great  humour  and  originality.  His 
"Visionary  of  Prevorst"  (1829)  had  great  success. 

See  a  long  notice  of  Kerner  in  HKNRI  BLAZE'S  "  ficrivains  et 
Poetesde  rAllemagne,"  1851  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Keroual,  kir'roo-il',  or  Querouaille,  ka'roo'tF  or 
ka'roo't'ye,  (LouiSE  PENHOET,)  Duchess  of  Portsmouth, 
a  mistress  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  was  born  in  France 
about  1652.  She  wen$  to  England  as  maid  of  honour  to 
Henriette,  the  queen  of  Charles  I.,  and  received  the  title 
of  Duchess  of  Portsmouth  in  1673.  She  is  said  to  have 
used  her  influence  to  promote  the  designs  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1734. 

See  EVELYN,  "Diary ;". VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Kerr,  ker  or  kar,  (RoiiERT,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and 
scientific  writer,  born  about  1755,  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies  of  Edinburgh.  Among 
his  works  are  "  The  Animal  Kingdom  or  Zoological 
System  of  Linnaeus,"  "  The  Natural  History  of  Quad 
rupeds  and  Serpents,"  and  a  "History  of  Scotland  during 
the  Reign  of  Robert  Bruce."  The  first  and  second  are 
translations.  Died  in  1813. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kersaint.    See  DURAS,  DE,  (CLAIRE  LECHAT.) 
Kersaint,  de,  deh  keR'saN',  (ARMAND  GUI  SIMON,) 
COUNT,  a  French  naval  commander,  born  in  Paris  about 


1741.  After  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  he 
made  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Jacobin  Club.  He  afterwards  joined  the  Girondists, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  Convention,  boldly  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  king  and  the  extreme  measures  of  the 
Jacobins.  He  was  proscribed  and  executed  in  Decem 
ber,  1793. 

Kersenbrock,  ker'sen-bRok',  (HERMANN,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  the  county  of  Lippe  in  1526.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "History  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Minister,"  (in 
Latin.)  Died  in  1585.  •* 

Ker'sey,  (JOHN,)  an  English  mathematician,  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  wrote  a  work  on  Algebra, 

(I673-) 

Kersseboom,  keRs'seh-bom',  (WILLEM,)  a  Dutch 
statistician,  born  in  1691,  wrote  a  number  of  valuable 
works  on  population,  mortality,  etc.  Died  in  1771. 

See  HEUSCHLING,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Kersseboom,"  1857; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Kervillars,  de,  deh  kek've'ytR',  (JEAN  MARIE,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Vannes  in  1668.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Ovid's  Elegies,  (1724.)  Died  in  1745. 

Kesava,  ka'sa-va,  written  also  Cesava  and  Kegava, 
[from  the  Sanscrit  word  kcsa,  "hair,"  probably  cognate 
with  the  Latin  acsaries,  having  the  same  signification,] 
(i.e.  "having  beautiful  hair,")  an  epithet  of  KRISHNA, 
(which  see  ;)  also,  a  surname  of  Booddha. 

Kessel,  van,  v$n  kes'sel,  (FERDINAND,)  a  distin 
guished  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  patronized 
by  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  and  William  III.  of 
England.  His  death  is  variously  dated  in  1696  and  about 
1710. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kessel,  kes'sel,  orKessels,  van,  vtn  kes'sels,  (JAN,) 
THE  ELDER,  a  Dutch  artist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1626, 
excelled  in  painting  animals,  fruits,  and  flowers.  His 
portraits  and  landscapes  were^lso  of  superior  merit. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  Died  about  1692. 

Kessel,  van,  (JAN,)  THE  YOUNGER,  the  son,  or,  ac 
cording  to  some  writers,  the  nephew,  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1648.  He  was  one  of  the 
best  portrait-painters  of  his  time  ;  and  some  of  his  works 
have  been  mistaken  for  those  of  Van  Dyck.  Having 
visited  Spain,  he  was  appointed  in  1686  court  painter  to 
Charles  II.  His  portraits  of  the  two  queens  of  Charles 
and  that  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain  are  ranked  among  his 
master-pieces.  Died  in  1708. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kessel,  van,  (Nicoi.AAS,)  a  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1684,  was  a  nephew  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above.  He 
adopted  the  style  of  David  Teniers.  Died  in  1741. 

Kessel,  van,  (THEODORUS,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1620,  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens, 
and  historical  subjects  after  several  Italian  masters. 

Kessels,  kes'sels,  (MATTHIAS,)  one  of  the  most  dis 
tinguished  Dutch  sculptors  of  recent  times,  was  born  at 
Maestricht  in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  colossal 
scene  from  the  Deluge,  a  "  Madonna,"  a  "Cupid  sharp 
ening  his  Arrow,"  and  a  "Discobolus."  Died  at  Rome 
in  1836. 

See  FILIPPO  GERARDI,  "  Vita  di  M.  Kessels,"  1837  :  NAGLER, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kestner,  kest'ner,  (CHRISTIAN  WILHELM,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1694,  published  "Biblio- 
theca  Medica,"  (1746.)  Died  in  1747. 

KSt  or  Kett,  (Ror.ERT,)  a  tanner,  of  Norfolk  county, 
England,  was  the  chief  leader  in  a  rebellion  which 
occurred  in  1549,  during  the  protectorate  of  Somerset. 
After  several  considerable  successes,  he  was  at  length 
defeated  by  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick.  Soon  after  he 
was  taken  prisoner  and  hung  at  Norwich  Castle.  Ket's 
rebellion — or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Norfolk  re 
bellion — was  "remarkable,"  says  Froude,  "among  other 
things,  for  the  order  which  was  observed  among  the 
people  during  seven  weeks  of  lawlessness."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxvi.) 

Ket,  (  WILLIAM,)  of  Norfolk,  an  English  rebel,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents 
who  took  Norwich.  He  was  hanged  in  1549. 

Ketboga  or  Ketbogha,  kSt-bo'ga,  a  Mongolian  by 
birth,  and  Sultan  of  Egypt,  was  brought  to  that  country 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  tat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


K  ETC  HUM 


1321 


KHALEEL 


as  a  slave  in  A.D.  1288.  He  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and 
finally  made  himself  the  sovereign  of  Egypt  in  1294.  In 
1296 'he  was  driven  from  the  country  by  his  favourite 
Lajeen,  (Lajin  or  Ladjyn,)  who  succeeded  him. 

Ketch'um,  (WILLIAM  SCOTT,)  an  American  officer 
in  the  Union  army,  born  at  Nonvalk,  Connecticut,  in 
1813.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1862  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

Ketel,  ka'tel,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Gouda  in  1548.  He  commenced  his  studies  in  Paris; 
but,  being  a  Protestant,  he  was  soon  driven  from  France 
by  Charles  IX.  About  1574  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  painted  the  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  of 
several  English  noblemen.  Died  after  1602.  Among 
his  pictures  is  "  Force  Conquered  by  Wisdom,"  which 
he  painted  in  England. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Ketelaer,  ka'teh-l§R',  (NICOLAAS,)  one  of  the  earliest 
of  Dutch  printers,  flourished  at  Utrecht  about  1480. 

Kett,  (HENRY,)  a  learned  English  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1761,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1783. 
He  was  drowned,  while  bathing,  in  1825.  Among  his 
works  are  "  History  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy,"  (3 
vols.,  1798-99,)  "Elements  of  General  Knowledge,"  (3 
vols.,  1802,)  and  "Flowers  of  Wit,"  (1814.) 

Kett,  (ROBERT.)     See  KET. 

Kettlewell,  ket'tel-wel,  (JOHN,)  an  English  nonjuring 
divine,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1653.  He  published  in 
1678  "  Measures  of  Christian  Obedience,"  which  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  became  rector  of  Coleshill  about 
i682,'refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William 
III.  in  1689,  and  was  ejected.  His  "rare  integrity"  is 
commended  by  Macaulay.  Died  in  1695- 

See  NELSON,  "  Life  of  Kettlewell,"  1718. 

Kettner,  ket'ner,  (FRIEDRICH  ERNST,)  a  German 
writer  on  history  and  theology,  born  at  Stollberg  in 
1671  ;  died  in  1722. 

K6tu,  ka'too,  or  K6tus,  ka'toos,  [perhaps  etymologi- 
cally  related  to  the  Greek  KI/TOC;,  a  "sea-monster,"]  a 
monster  of  the  Hindoo  mythology;  in  astronomy,  the 
dragon's  tail,  or  descending  node.  (See  RAHU.) 

Keuchen,  ko'Ken,  (ROBERT,)  a  poet  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Geldern,  flourished  about  1660. 

Keuleii,  van,  van  ko'len  or  kuh'len,  (JANSZONS,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  in  1580.  He  was  employed  in  Eng 
land  by  Charles  I.,  and  afterwards  fixed  his  residence  at 
the  Hague.  Died  in  1665. 

Keulen,  van,  (LUDOLPH,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  at  Hildesheim.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  circle, 
("Van  den  Cirkel,"  1596,)  and  "Geometrical  Problems." 
Died  at  Leyden  in  1610. 

Keux,  Le.     See  LE  KEUX. 

Kew,  written  also  K'ew  and  Kieou,  one  of  the  names 
given  to  Confucius. 

See  LEGGE'S  "Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,"  ch.  v.  p.  58. 

Kexler,  keks'ler,  (SiMON,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  born  in 
1602,  wrote  various  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1669. 

Key.     See  CAIUS. 

Key,  (FRANCIS  SCOTT,)  an  American  jurist  and  poet, 
born  in  Frederick  county,  Maryland,  in  1779.  Having 
removed  to  Washington,  he  became  district-attorney  of 
the  District  of  Columbia.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
popular  national  song  of  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner," 
and  a  number  of  other  poems.  Died  in  1843. 

Key,  (THOMAS  HEWITT,)  an  English  philologist,  born 
near  London  in  1799.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  invited  in  1824  to  fill  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Virginia,  then  recently  founded.  After 
his  return  he  became,  in  1828,  professor  of  Latin  in  the 
University  of  London.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
a  "Latin  Grammar,"  (1846,)  and  numerous  valuable  con 
tributions  to  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  the  "Journal 
of  Education."  He  has  been  many  years  engaged  on 
a  Latin-English  dictionary. 

Key,  kl,  (\\'ILI.EM,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Breda, 
in  the  Netherlands,  in  1520;  died  in  1568. 

Keyes,  keez,  (ERASMUS  D.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1811,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1832.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army 
in  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21. 


He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31,  1862,  and  at  other  battles  in  June  of  that  year. 

Keying,  kl'ing',  or  Ky-In,  kl'in',  a  Chinese  diplo 
matist,  negotiated  with  the  English  the  treaty  of  Nankin 
in  1842,  after  which  he  was  governor  of  Canton.  He 
favoured  a  friendly  policy  towards  Europeans,  and  was 
disgraced  by  Hien-Fung  in  1850,  but  restored  in  1852. 

Keylhau,  kil'how,  (EBERHART,)  a  painter,  known  in 
Italy  under  the  name  of  MONSU  BERNARDO,  was  born 
at  lielsingor,  in  Denmark,  in  1624.  After  studying  under 
Rembrandt,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1687. 

Keyser,  de,  deh  ki'zer,  (NICAISE,)  an  eminent  Belgian 
painter,  was  born  near  Antwerp  in  1813.  In  1836  he 
exhibited  at  Brussels  his  picture  of  "The  Battle  of  the 
Golden  Spurs."  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Battle 
of  Wceringen,"  one  of  the  most  admired  works  of  the 
Belgian  school,  "The  Antiquary,"  and  a  "Crucifixion." 

Keyser,  van,  vSn  ki'zer,  sometimes  written  De 
Keyser,  (HENDRIK,)  a  Dutch  architect  and  sculptor, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1565.  In  1619  he  completed  the 
monument  of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange.  Died  in 
1621. 

Keyser,  van,  (THEODORUS,)  a  skilful  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  flourished  about  1630-50. 

Keyserling,  von,  fon  ki'zer-ling',  (THIERRY,)  a  Prus 
sian  general  and  litterateur,  born  in  Courland  in  1698, 
was  a  friend  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Died  in  1745. 

See  MALTERTUIS,  "filoge  de  Keyserling." 

Keysler,  kis'ler,  QOHANN  GEORG,)  a  German  anti 
quary,  born  at  Thurnau  in  1683.  He  published  "Travels 
in  Germany,  Italy,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1741,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  HABERLIN,  "Keysler's  Leben,"  1743. 

Khadijah,  Khadeejah,  or  Khadidja,  KJ-dee'ja,  [in 
German,  CHADIDSCHA,]  written  also  Chadijah,  a  rich 
widow  of  Mecca,  who  married  Mohammed  the  prophet. 
At  the  time  of  their  marriage  she  was  about  forty  years 
of  age,  while  he  was  only  twenty-five.  She  bore  him  eight 
children,  all  of  whom  died  young  except  Fatimah,  who 
became  the  wife  of  his  cousin  and  favourite,  Alee,  (Ali,) 
the  son  of  Aboo-Talib.  (See  MOHAMMED.) 

Khadyjah.     See  KHADIJAH. 

Khaisang,  k'hi'sang',  surnamed  WOO-TSOONG,  (the 
"  Honourable  Warrior,")  called  by  the  Tartars  Kaishan- 
Kulluk-Khan,  kl'sbln'  kool'look  Kin,  a  sovereign  of 
the  Mongolian  dynasty,  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  China  A.D.  1308,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  abilities  as  a  commander,  and  for 
his  patronage  of  men  of  letters.  Died  A.D.  1311. 

Khalaf,  "Ka-lSP,  ascended  the  throne  of  Seistan,  in 
Eastern  Persia,  about  A.D.  963.  He  was  a  bold  and  skil 
ful  warrior  and  an  able  diplomatist,  but  was  treacherous, 
cruel,  and  tyrannical.  After  a  reign  of  forty  years,  he 
was  conquered  by  the  emperor  Mahmood  of  Ghazna, 
who  imprisoned  him  till  his  death,  A.D.  1008. 

See  MALCOLM,  "History  of  Persia." 

Khaled  or  Chaled,  xa'led,  written  also  Caled,  a 
celebrated  Arabian  general,  born  in  582  A.D.  In  the 
third  year  of  the  Hejrah  he  completely  routed  the  army 
of  Mohammed  at  the  battle  of  Ohod.  He  subsequently 
embraced  the  Moslem  faith,  gained  numerous  important 
victories  over  its  enemies,  and  received  from  the  prophet 
the  title  of  "  The  Sword  of  God."  Eastern  writers  ascribe 
to  this  warrior  almost  superhuman  valour,  which,  how 
ever,  was  often  stained  with  cruelty.  Died  about  642  A.D. 

See  OCKLEY,  "  History  ot  the  Saracens;"  ELMACIN,  "Historia 
Saracenorum  ;"  ABOOLFF.DA,  "Annales  Moslemici." 

Khaled-Ben  (or-Ibn)  -Barmek.   See  BARMECIDES. 

Khaleel  (Khalil)  or  Chalil,  KMeel',  (Aboo-Abd- 
er-Rahman,  i'boo  abd-er-ran'man,)  a  celebrated  Arabic 
grammarian  of  Bassora,  born  about  719  A.D.  ;  died  in  786. 

Khaleel,  (Khalil,)  surnamed  MELIK-AL-ASHRAF, 
mel'ik  al-ash'raf,  (i.e.  the  "  Illustrious  King,")  eighth 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  succeeded  his  father  Kelaoon 
(Kelaun)  A.D.  1290.  He  took  Acre  from  the  European 
Christians,  whom  he  final)y  drove  from  Syria.  He  was 
assassinated  bv  his  ameers,  A.D.  1293. 

Khaleel-  (Khalil-  or  Chalil-)  Beg,  Ka-leel'  beg,  of 
the  Turkoman  dynasty,  succeeded  his  father,  Oozoon 
(Uzun)  Hassan,  on  the  throne  of  Persia,  A.D.  1478-  His 
excessive  cruelty  and  oppression  caused  several  revolts 


*•  as  X-;  $  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ([JiJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KHALEEL 


1322 


KHOSROO 


among  his  subjects,  during  one  of  which  he  was  slain 
on  the  field  of  battle. 

Khaleel  ( Khalil  or  Chalil)  Pasha,  grand  vizier  to 
the  Ottoman  Sultan  Amurath  II.  In  1444  he  gained 
at  Varna  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Christian  allies. 
In  this  battle  Ladislaus,  King  of  Hungary,  fell.  Upon 
the  accession  of  Mahomet  II.  Khaleel  still  retained  his 
power,  and  commanded  the  Turkish  army  at  the  capture 
of  Constantinople,  in  1453.  He  was  a  few  days  after 
condemned  on  a  charge  of  bribery,  and  executed. 

Khalil.     See  KHALEEL. 

Khallikan.     See  IHN-KHALLIKAN. 

Khang-Hee,  (or -Hi,)  k'hanghee,  Emperor  of  China, 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Mantchoo  Tartars,  was  born  about 
1653  A.D.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Shun-Chee,  (Chun- 
tchi,)  at  the  age  of  seven  years.  In  1675  he  quelled  a 
formidable  rebellion  raised  against  him  by  the  Chinese 
under  Oo-san-Kwei.  He  afterwards  carried  on  success 
ful  wars  against  the  neighbouring  nations,  and  reduced 
nearly  all  the  princes  of  Tartary  to  vassalage.  Historians 
speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  justice,  candour,  libe 
rality,  and  tolerant  spirit  of  this  monarch.  Died  in  1722. 

See  BOUVET,  "Life  of  Cang-Hy,  Present  Emperor  of  China," 
London,  1699;  MAILLA,  "  Histoire 'generale  de  la  Chine  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biopjraphie  Generale." 

Khatchadoor,  Khatchadour,  or  Khatchadur, 
Ka-cha-dooR',  an  Armenian  poet  and  bishop,  born  at 
Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  1600.  His  poems  are 
chiefly  of  a  religious  and  moral  character. 

Khatchig  (Ka'chig)  I.  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Ar 
menia  in  972.  He  founded  numerous  monasteries,  and 
encouraged  literature  and  the  fine  arts.  Died  in  992. 

Khatchig  U.,  sometimes  written  Khatchadoor,  be 
came  Patriarch  of  Armenia  in  1058.  He  was  imprisoned 
at  Constantinople  by  Constantine  Ducas,  who  afterwards 
banished  him  to  Cappadocia.  Died  in  1064. 

Khell,  K&l,  (JOSEPH  VON  KHELLBURG,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  at  Linz  in  1714,  published  several 
works  in  Vienna.  Died  in  1772. 

Khernnitzer,    (!VAN    IVANOVITCH.)      See    CHEM- 

NIT7.ER. 

Kheraskof  or  Kheraskov,  Ker'as-koP,  [written,  in 
German,  CHERASKOW,]  (MICHAEL  MATVIEVITCH,)  a 
distinguished  Russian  poet,  born  in  1733.  Among  his 
principal  works  maybe  mentioned  "  Rossiada,"  (1785,) 
an  epic  on  the  event  of  the  Russians  liberating  them 
selves  from  their  Tartar  oppressors.  Died  in  1807. 

Khevenhiiller,  Ka'ven-htil'ler,  (FRANZ  CHRISTOPH,) 
a  German  historian,  born  in  1589,  rose  to  be  imperial 
minister  of  state.  He  wrote  "  Annales  Ferdinandei,"  a 
history  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  II.  Died  in  1650. 

Khilkof  or  Khilkov,  Kil'kof,  (ANDREI  YAKOF  LE- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  prince,  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sweden 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1700.  War  having  been  soon 
after  declared  between  the  two  countries,  Charles  XII. 
ordered  Khilkof  to  be  thrown  into  prison.  During  his 
confinement  of  eighteen  years  he  wrote  his  celebrated 
"  History  of  Russia."  He  died  at  the  isle  of  Aland,  on 
his  return  to  Russia,  in  1718. 

Khlesl,  klesl,  (MELCHIOR,)  a  German  cardinal,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1553,  became  first  minister  of  the  emperor 
Matthias,  whom  he  had  assisted  in  usurping  the  throne 
of  Rudolph  II.  Died  in  1630. 

See  VON  HAMMER-PURGSTALL,"  Leben  des  Cardinals  M.  Khlesl," 
Vienna,  4  vols.,  1847-51. 

Khoda-Bendeh,  Ko'dah  ben'deh,  (  MOHAMMED,  ) 
sovereign  of  Persia,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sofees,  (or 
Sofys,)  began  to  reign  in  1578.  He  was  a  weak  and 
effeminate  prince.  During  his  reign  the  Turks  and  Tar 
tars  ravaged  his  dominions.  Died  about  1587. 

See  MALCOLM,  "History  of  Persia." 

Khomarooyah  or  Khomarouyah,  Ko-ma-roo'yah, 
succeeded  his  father,  Ahmed,  as  Sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  884  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  carried  on  a 
war  with  the  caliph  Mootamed,  whom  he  obliged  to  sue 
for  peace,  and  invaded  the  tGreek  empire,  from  which 
he  carried  a  rich  booty.  He^was  assassinated  in  896. 

Khomiakof,  Ko-me-a'kof,  Khomiakov,  or  Khomi- 
akow,  Ko-me-a'kov,(  ALEXIS  STEFANOVITCH,)  a  popular 
Russian  poet,  born  about  1802.  He  published  historical 
dramas,  called  "  Yermak"  (or  "  lermak")  and  "  The  False 


Demetrius,"  also  lyrical  poems,  and  some  able  prose 
works. 

Khondemeer,  Khondemir,  or  Khondemyr,  Kon- 
cle-meeR',  a  surname  of  Giyas-ed-Deen*  (Oiyas- 
eddin)  Mohammed,  ge-Sss'  ed-deen'  mo-htir/ined,  a 
Persian  historian,  and  a  son  of  the  eminent  historian 
Mirkhond,  was  born  at  Herat  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  valuable  universal  his 
tory,  extending  from  the  creation  to  1471,  also  a  work 
called  "  The  Friend  of  Biographies  and  Eminent  Men," 
which  is  highly  commended.  Died  after  1522. 

See  ABEL  REMUSAT,  "Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  D'HERBELOT, 
"  Bibliotheque  Orientale." 

Khoong-Foo-tsze.     See  CONFUCIUS. 

Khosroo  or  Khosru,  Kos'roo',  written  also  Khos- 
rou,  Khosrau,  Kos'row,  and  Khosrew,  [Gr.  Xoapow; 
Lat.  CHOS'ROES,]  surnamed  in  Persian  NOUSIUKVAN, 
now'shlR-var/,  or  NOOSHIRVAN,  (NuscniRWAN,)  said  to 
signify  "  Generous  Soul,"  the  greatest  of  the  Sassanide 
sovereigns,  was  the  son  of  Kobad,  (Cabades,)  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Persia,  A.D.  531.  At  an 
early  age  he  displayed  extraordinary  talents  for  govern 
ment,  and  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne  immediately 
commenced  a  reform,  which  the  corrupt  reign  of  his 
father  had  rendered  necessary.  By  the  retrenchment 
of  expenditures,  and  other  means,  he  greatly  improved 
the  state  of  the  finances.  He  appointed  none  but  the 
most  efficient  men  to  offices ;  he  established  a  strict 
and  impartial  justice  throughout  his  dominions ;  he  re 
modelled  his  army,  and  suppressed  the  Zendiks,  who 
were  promulgating  doctrines  immoral  and  dangerous  to 
the  state.  He  also  concluded  a  peace  with  the  emperor 
Justinian,  who  paid  the  Persian  monarch  ten  thousand 
pounds  of  gold.  He  afterwards  carried  on  wars  with 
various  Asiatic  nations,  extending  his  empire  as  far  as 
the  Indus.  Alarmed  at  the  successes  of  Belisarius  in 
Italy  and  Africa,  he  resolved  to  strike  a  sudden  blow. 
In  540  he  invaded  Syria,  pillaged  and  burned  several 
cities,  including  Antioch,  and  took  a  multitude  of  pris 
oners  and  an  immense  amount  of  booty.  The  next  year 
he  was  opposed  by  Belisarius,  one  of  the  greatest  gene 
rals  of  that  or  of  any  age.  The  Roman  commander,  with 
a  small  number  of  ill-disciplined  soldiers,  succeeded  in 
holding  in  check  the  innumerable  hosts  of  Persia.  But 
in  542  this  great  general  was  recalled,  and  Khosroo, 
having  now  nothing  to  fear,  went  from  victory  to  victory. 
The  war  continued  until  562,  when  Justinian  purchased 
a  treaty  for  thirty  thousand  pieces  of  gold.  Hostilities 
were  again  renewed  under  the  emperor  Justin,  and  the 
King  of  Persia  met  at  length  with  a  total  defeat,  in  578, 
from  Justinian,  the  general  of  the  emperor  Tiberius. 
Khosroo  died  in  579.  The  long  and  beneficent  reign  of 
this  prince  is  mentioned  by  Oriental  poets  as  the  golden 
age  of  Persia.  His  virtues,  his  wise  and  efficient  meas 
ures  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  his  conquests,  his 
liberal  encouragement  of  literature  and  science,  attested 
by  the  numerous  colleges  and  libraries  which  he  founded, 
all  rendered  it  worthy  of  this  eminent  distinction.  A 
Pehlvi  translation  of  the  celebrated  Bidpay  or  Pilpay 
Fables  of  India  was  made  under  the  auspices  of  this 
prince.  He  was  succeeded  by  Hormisdas  IV. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  MIRK 
HOND,  "Histoire  des  Sassanides,"  translated  by  DE  SACY  ;  D'HEK- 
BELOT,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale,"  article  "  Nouschh  van  ;"  LE  BEAU, 
"Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Khosroo,  Khosru,  or  Khosrau  (or  Chosroes)  II., 
surnamed  PARVEEZ  or  PARWIX.,  par'veez',  i.e.  the  "  Gene 
rous,"  son  of  Hormisdas  IV.,  and  grandson  of  Khosroo 
I.,  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Persia  upon  the  deposition 
of  his  father,  A.D.  590.  He  was  soon  after  driven  from 
his  capital  by  the  rebel  Bahram,  and  obliged  to  seek  the 
protection  of  Maurice,  the  Emperor  of  the  East.  This 
sovereign,  with  a  powerful  army,  overthrew  the  rebels 
and  reinstated  Khosroo.  In  602  Maurice  was  assassin 
ated  by  the  usurper  Phocas.  Khosroo  immediately  took 
up  arms  to  avenge  his  death,  and  by  a  series  of  victories 
in  a  few  years  subjugated  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek 
empire,  and  at  length  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Con 
stantinople.  Heraclius,  the  successor  of  Phocas,  having 
vainly  attempted  to  obtain  a  favourable  peace,  resolved 


*  Written  also  Gaiatheddin.     See  Introduction,  p.  15. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


KHOSROO 


1323 


K1KKERT 


bravely  to  meet  his  foe  in  the  field.  He  gained  repeated 
victories,  and  in  five  years  drove  the  Persians  out  of 
every  province  which  they  had  wrested  from  the  empire. 
Khosroo  was  assassinated  in  628.  He  had  married  a 
Christian  lady  named  Shereen,  (Shirin,)  distinguished  for 
her  exquisite'beauty.  She  poisoned  herself  at  his  grave. 
The  romantic  and  unchanging  affection  of  these  royal 
lovers,  together  with  their  tragic  end,  has  furnished  the 
subject  of  many  an  Oriental  poem. 

See  MALCOLM,  "History  of  Persia;"  LE  BEAU,  "  Histoire  du 
Bas- Empire." 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  I.,  King  of  Armenia, 
surnamed  THE  GREAT,  a  brave  prince  and  able  general, 
ascended  the  throne  198  A.D.  He  conquered  the  nations 
of  the  Khazars  and  Basiliens,  and  overran  the  greater  part 
of  the  Persian  dominions.  He  was  assassinated  in  232. 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  II.,  the  second 
Christian  King  of  Armenia,  and  a  contemporary  and 
ally  of  Constantine  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne  in 
314.  Died  in  325. 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  IIL  was  placed 
upon  the  throne  of  Persian  Armenia  by  the  King  of 
Persia  in  387,  whilst  the  legitimate  king  Arsaces  ruled 
that  part  of  Armenia  which  belonged  to  the  Romans. 
Khosroo  gained  several  important  victories  over  the 
neighbouring  nations,  and  upon  the  death  of  Arsaces 
annexed  Roman  Armenia  to  his  own  dominions.  In  392 
the  King  of  Persia,  suspecting  Khosroo  of  the  design 
to  render  himself  independent,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
placed  another  prince  on  his  throne.  After  remaining 
in  captivity  twenty-one  years,  he  was  restored  to  his 
kingdom.  His  death  occurred  soon  after. 

See  LE  HEAL',  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Khouiig-Fou-Tseu  or  Khoung-Tseu.  See  CON 
FUCIUS. 

Khowawezmi.     See  AL-KHOWAREZMI. 

Khulleel.     See  KHALEEL. 

Kick,  kik,  '(CORNELIS,)  an  artist,  celebrated  as  a 
painter  of  flowers  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1635  ;  died  in  1675. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kidd,  (JOHN,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  1775,  was 
professor  of  chemistry,  or  medicine,  at  Oxford.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  the  Bridgewater  Treatise 
"  On  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical 
Condition  of  Man."  Died  in  1851. 

Kidd,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  at  Hull 
in  1801.  He  went  as  missionary  to  Malacca,  and  after 
his  return  was  professor  of  Chinese  in  the  University  of 
London.  He  published  "  Illustrations  of  the  Symbols 
of  China,"  (1841.)  Died  in  1843. 

Kidd,  (WILLIAM,)  a  notorious  American  pirate,  born 
about  1650.  In  1696  he  was  intrusted  by  the  British 
government  with  the  command  of  a  privateer,  and  sailed 
from  New  York  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the 
numerous  pirates  then  infesting  the  seas.  He  went  to 
the  East  Indies,  where  he  began  a  career  of  piracy,  and 
returned  to  New  York  in  1698  with  a  large  amount  of 
plunder.  He  was  soon  after  arrested,  sent  to  England 
for  trial,  and  executed  in  1701. 

See  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  Robin  Hood  and  Captain  Kidd,"  by 
W.  W.  CAMPBELL,  1853. 

Kid'der,  (DANIEL  PARISH,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  clergyman,  born  in  Genesee  county,  New 
York,  in  1815.  He  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  Uni 
versity,  Connecticut,  and  in  1836  settled  as  a  pastor  at 
Rochester,  New  York.  In  1837  he  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Brazil,  where  he  introduced  the  Scriptures  in  the 
Portuguese  language.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Sketches  of  a  Residence  and  Travels  in  Bra 
zil,"  (1845,)  which  was  republished,  with  large  additions, 
by  Rev.  James  C.  Fletcher,  in  1858. 

'Kid'der,  (RICHARD,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
entered  Cambridge  University  in  1649,  and,  after  various 
preferments,  was  appointed  Dean  of  Peterborough  in  1689. 
He  was  raised  by  William  III.  to  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells  in  1691,  as  successor  to  Bishop  Ken.  He  wrote 
"A  Commentary^on  the  Pentateuch,"  a  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Messias,"  and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1703. 
See  MACAULAV,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v.  ;  WOOD,  "  Athenz 
Oxonienses." 


Kid'der-min'ster  or  Kyd'er-myn'ster,  (RICH 
ARD,)  an  English  monk,  distinguished  as  a  preacher 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Worcestershire.  He  published 
a  Latin  treatise  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  Died 
in  1531. 

Kiel,  (CORNELIS  VAN.)     See  KILIAX. 

Kiehneyer,  von,  fon  keel'mi'er.  (K.\RL  FRIEDRICH,) 
a  German  naturalist  and  professor,  born  near  Tubingen 
in  1765.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Relations  of 
Organic  Forces,"  (1793.)  Cuvier,  who  was  his  pupil, 
speaks  of  him  as  the  founder  of  the  modern  philosophical 
school.  Died  in  1844. 

See  VON  MARTIUS,  "Denkrede  auf  C.  F.  von  Kielmeyer,"  1845. 

Kielsen,  keel'sen  or  ke-el'sen,  (FREDERIC  CHRIS 
TIAN,)  a  Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1774,  wrote  on  zoology  and  botany,  a  "Natural  History 
of  Birds,"  (1810,)  and  other  works. 

Kien-Loong,  (or  -Lung,)  ke-en'loong,  written  also 
Kien-Long,  born  in  1710,  succeeded  his  father,  Yung- 
Tching,  on  the  imperial  throne  of  China  in  1735.  He 
reduced  Calmuck  Tartary  and  Thibet  to  subjection,  and 
established  numerous  fortresses  throughout  his  vast  em 
pire.  It  was  in  1770,  during  the  reign  of  this  emperor, 
that  the  Torgoots,  a  Mongolian  tribe  numbering  about 
300,000  and  inhabiting  the  country  near  the  Volga,  left 
their  homes,  and,  travelling  eastward,  after  incredible 
sufferings,  finally  reached  the  confines  of  China.  Kien- 
Loong  welcomed  them  warmly,  and  allotted  them  ample 
territory  for  their  future  home.  As  a  prince,  he  was  wise, 
just,  and  beneficent.  He  was  noted  for  his  love  of  lite 
rature,  and  for  the  liberal  encouragement  which  he  gave 
to  learned  men  of  every  nation.  Died  in  1799. 

See  FORTIA  D'URBAN,  "  Discours  sur  1'Empereur  Kien-Long," 
1841;  ABEL  REMUSAT,  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques,"  tome 
ii. ;  "  Notivelle  Biographic  Generale."  For  an  interesting  account 
of  the  migration  of  the  Torgoots,  see  DE  QUINCEY,  "Narrative  aud 
Miscellaneous  Papers,"  etc.,  vol.  i. 

Kien-Lung.     See  KIEN-LOONG. 

Kieou,  (pronounced  almost  kew,)  a  name  given  to 
Confucius  in  his  childhood.  (See  CONFUCIUS.) 

Kiepert,  kee'pCRt,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  geogra 
pher,  born  in  Berlin  in  1818,  published  a  number  of 
excellent  maps,  among  which  are  the  "Atlas  of  Hellas 
[Greece]  and  the  Hellenic  Colonies,"  "  Maps  of  Asia 
Minor,"  and  an  "Historical-Geographical  Atlas  of  the 
Ancient  World,"  (1848.) 

Kierings,  kee'rings,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  skilful  land 
scape-painter,  born  in  Holland  in  1590  ;  died  in  1646. 

Kierman,  keeR'man,  (GusTAF,)  a  Swedish  patriot, 
born  in  1702.  He  was  elected  seven  times  a  member  of 
the  Diet.  Died  in  1766. 

Kiernander  or  Kjernander,  kyeVnan'der,  QOHAN 
ZECHARIAS,)  a  missionary,  born  in  Sweden  in  1711, 
was  sent  to  India  by  the  English  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge.  Died  at  Calcutta  in  1799. 

Kieser,  kee'zer,  (DIETRICH  GEORG,)  a  German  natu 
ralist  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Harburg,  in  Hanover, 
in  1779  ;  died  in  1862. 

Kiesewetter,  kee'zeh-wet'ter,  (JOHANN  CHRISTOPH,) 
a  learned  German  writer,  born  at  Oberweissbach  in  1-666. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  works.  Died  in  1744. 

Kiesewetter,  (RAFAEL  GEORG,)  a  German  writer  on 
music,  born  in  Moravia  in  1773.  Among  his  productions 
are  treatises  "  On  the  Music  of  the  Modern  Greeks"  and 
"  On  the  Music  of  the  Arabians."  Died  in  1850. 

Kiesling,  kees'ling,  (JoHANN  RUDOLPH,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1706;  died  in 
1778. 

Kiesling,  (LEOPOLD,)  an  eminent  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Schoneben,  in  Austria,  in  1770.  He  worked  in 
Vienna,  and  became  sculptor  to  the  court.  Among  his 
works  are  a  bust  of  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  the 
monument  of  Von  Hammer- Purgstall.  Died  in  1827. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kif'fin  or  Kif fen,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  merchant 
and  preacher,  born  in  1616.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune 
by  trade,  and  afterwards  became  a  dissenting  minister. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  MACAL-LAY,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii. 

Kik'kert,  (ANTOON,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Vlie- 
land  in  1762;  died  about  1835. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KILBOURNE 


'324 


KIMBERLET 


Kilbourne,  kil'burn,  (JAMES,)  an  American  pioneer, 
born  in  New  Britain,  Connecticut,  in  1770.  He  organized 
about  1802  the  Scioto  Company  which  settled  in  Ohio, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1813  to  1817.  Died 
in  1850. 

Kilbye,  kil'be,  ?  (RICHARD,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ratcliffe,  in  Leicestershire,  about  1550.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  and  one  of  the  translators 
of  the  Bible.  Died  in  1620. 

Kilbye,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  minister,  author  of 
"The  Burden  of  a  Loaded  Conscience."  Died  in  1617. 
Kil-dare',  (THOMAS  FITZGERALD,)  EARL  OF,  an  Irish 
nobleman,  born  about  1514,  was  a  son  of  Gerald,  Earl 
of  Kildare.  He  rebelled  against  the  King  of  England 
in  1534,  and  was  taken  prisoner,  sent  to  England,  and 
executed  at  Tyburn  in  1537. 

Kilian,  kee'le-an'  or  kil'e-an,  (BARTOLOMAUS,)  a  skil 
ful  engraver,  born  in  Augsburg  in  1630,  was  the  son  and 
pupil  of  Wolfgang,  noticed  below.  Died  in  1696. 

Kilian,  kee'le-an,  or  van  Kiel,  (vSn  keel,)  (CORNE- 
LIS,)  a  learned  author,  born  in  Brabant.  Among  his 
works  are  an  "  Etymology  of  the  Teutonic  Languages, 
or  a  Teutonic-and-Latin  Dictionary,"  and  several  pieces 
of  Latin  poetry.  Died  in  1607. 

Kilian,  (GEORG  CHRISTOPH,)  an  engraver,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1709,  was  a  brother  of  Philipp  Andreas, 
noticed  below.  Died  in  1781. 

Kilian,  (LUCAS,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
German  engravers,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1579.  He  en 
graved  with  uncommon  ease  and  rapidity.  Among  his 
best  works  are  "The  Resurrection,"  by  Paul  Veronese, 
and  "  Christ  after  Death,"  by  Michael  Angelo.  Died 
in  1637. 

Kilian,  (PHILIPP  ANDREAS,)  an  eminent  engraver, 
was  born  ill  Augsburg  in  1714.  Augustus  III.,  King  of 
Poland  and  Elector  of  Saxony,  appointed  him  his  court 
engraver,  and  Kilian  executed  several  designs  at  Dres 
den,  though  he  continued  to  spend  most  of  his  time  at 
Augsburg.  Among  his  works  are  the  "  Adoration  of 
the  Kings,"  by  Paul  Veronese,  and  portraits  of  Francis 
I.  and  Maria  Theresa.  Died  in  1759. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
Kilian,  (WOLFGANG,)  brother  of  Lucas,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1581.  He  studied  engraving  at  Augsburg 
and  Venice.  The  most  important  of  his  numerous  works 
is  the  "Celebration  of  the  Westphalian  Peace  in  Augs 
burg  in  1649,"  which  contains  about  fifty  portraits.  Died 
in  1662. 

See  NAGI.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kilij-  (or  Kilidj-)  Arslan,  kil'lij  aR'sltn',  written 
also  Kelij-Arslan,  I.,  Sultan  of  Iconium,  began  to  reign 
in  1092.  He  was  defeated  by  the  crusaders  under  God 
frey  of  Bouillon  at  Nicaea  in  1097.  In  1101  he  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  a  large  army  of  crusaders.  Having 
revolted  against  the  Sultan  of  Persia,  he  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1107. 

See  ABOOLFEDA,  "Annales." 


K^lij-  (or  Kilidj-)  Arslan  II.,  surnamed  AZZ-ED- 
DEEN  or  AZZEDDYN,  az'ed-deen',  ("  Splendour  of  the 
Faith,")  Sultan  of  Anatolia,commenced  his  reign  at  Ico 
nium  in  1155  A.D.  He  carried  on  long  and  doubtful 
wars  against  the  Greek  empire,  but  finally  succeeded  in 
annexing  several  provinces  to  his  dominions.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  skill,  energy,  and  generosity.  Died 
in  1192. 

See  MICHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Kil'll-grew,  (ANNE,)  an  English  lady,  to  whom  Dry- 
den  has  addressed  his  most  beautiful  elegy,  was  cele 
brated  for  her  virtues  and  accomplishments.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Dr.  Henry  Killigrew,  and  was  born  in 
1660.  She  excelled  both  as  a  poetess  and  as  an  artist. 
A  volume  of  her  poems  was  published  shortly  after 
her  death,  which  occurred  in  1685.  She  executed  por 
traits  of  James  II.  and  his  queen,  and  several  historical 
paintings. 

See  BALLARD,  "Memoirs  of  Several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain," 
etc.  ;  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  COSTELLO, 
1844. 

Killigrew,  (CATHERINE,)  the  wife  of  Sir  Henry  Kil 
ligrew,  was  born  about  1530.  She  was  distinguished  for 


her  poetical  effusions  and  for  her  knowledge  of  the 
classical  and  Oriental  languages.  She  was  a  daughter 
of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  and  a  sister  of  Lord  Bacon's 
mother.  Died  in  1600. 

Killigrew,  (Dr.  HENRY,)  a  dramatist,  and  a  brother 
of  Sir  William  Killigrew,  was  born  in  1612.  He  served 
as  chaplain  to  the  Cavaliers,  and  subsecpuently  gradu 
ated  as  D.D.  at  Oxford  in  1642.  He  wrote  a  tragedy, 
"The  Conspiracy,"  and  other  works.  Died  about  1688. 

See  WOOD,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Killigrew,  (MARGARET,)  wife  of  William  Cavendish, 
Duke  of  Newcastle.  She  wrote  a  life  of  her  husband, 
and  several  philosophical  works.  Died  in  1673. 

Killigrew,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Middlesex  in  1611,  was  a  page  to  Charles  I.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  rebellion  he  accompanied  Charles 
II.  on  the  continent,  and  married  one  of  the  queen's 
maids  of  honour.  Upon  the  restoration  he  was  made 
groom  of  the  bed-chamber,  and,  on  account  of  his  wit 
and  oddities,  became  a  highly-privileged  person  at  court. 
He  wrote  several  plays.  Died  in  1682. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatics." 

Killigrew,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1605.  For  his  faithful  adherence  to  Charles 
I.  he  was  knighted  at  the  restoration,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  vice-chamberlain.  He  wrote  several  plays, 
and  two  works  entitled  "Midnight  and  Daily  Thoughts" 
and  "  Artless  Midnight  Thoughts  of  a  Gentleman  at 
Court."  Died  in  1693. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Drainatica." 

Kilmaine,  kil-man',  (CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  a  general, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1754,  entered  the  French  army,  and 
served  with  distinction  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  Died 
in  1799. 

Kilmarnock,  EARL  OF.     See  BOYD,  (WjjxiAM.) 

Kil-pat'rick,  (Jui)SON,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Jersey  in  1838,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  April, 
1861.  He  served  as  captain  at  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1861  became  a  lieutenant-colonel 
of  cavalry.  In  1862  he  took  part  in  various  operations  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  May,  1863,  after  which  he  was 
employed  in  a  raid  to  Richmond  for  the  release  of  Federal 
prisoners.  lie  commanded  the  cavalry  of  Sherman's 
army  in  its  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah,  November- 
December,  1864. 

Kil'vert,  (Rev.  FRANCIS,)  an  English  scholar  and 
author,  born  in  1793  ;  died  in  1863. 

Kilwardeby,  kil-ward'be,  (  ROBERT,  )  an  English 
prelate,  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1272,  and 
cardinal  in  1277.  Died  in  1279. 

Kil-war'den,  (ARTHUR  WOLFE,)  LORD,  an  Irish 
judge,  born  about  1740.  lie  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1766,  became  attorney-general  in  1789,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  in  1798.  lie  was  massacred  by  a 
mob  of  insurgents  in  Dublin  in  1803,  during  a  revolt,  of 
which  Robert  Emmet  was  the  leader. 

Kim'ball,  (NATHAN,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Indiana.  He  commanded  a  division  of  the  Union  army 
at  the  siege  of  Vicksbnrg,  June-July,  1863,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Franklin,  November,  1864. 

Kimball,  (RICHARD  BURLEIGII,)  an  American  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  at  New  Lebanon,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1818.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  sub 
sequently  travelled  in  England  and  on  the  continent. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Reminiscences  of  an 
Old  Man,"  "Cuba  and  the  Cubans,"  (1850,)  and  "Ro 
mance  of  Student-Life  Abroad,"  (1853.) 

Kim'ber,  (EDWAKD,)  son  of  Isaac  Kimber,  born  in 
1719,  produced  some  historical  works,  and  a  novel  en 
titled  "Adventures  of  Joe  Thompson."  Died  in  1769. 

Kimber,  (ISAAC,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  Berkshire  in  1692.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of  Bishop 
Beveridge  and  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  (1714,)  and  compiled 
a  "  History  of  England,"  (1745.)  Died  in  1758. 

Kim'ber-ley,  (JOHN  WODEHOUSE,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1826,  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1847.  He  was  under-secretary  of  stale*for  foreign  affairs 
from  1852  to  1856,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Pe 
tersburg  in  the  latter  year,  and  returned  in  1858.  He 


e, I,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


KIMBOLTON 


1325 


KING 


was  again  appointed  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs 
in  June,  1859,  resigned  in  August,  1861,  and  was  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  from  October,  1864,  to  July,  1866. 
In  June,  1866,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Earl  of 
Kimberley,  and  in  December,  1868,  he  was  appointed 
lord  privy  seal  in  the  new  Liberal  cabinet. 

Kimbolton,  LORD.     See  MANCHESTER,  EARL  OF. 

Kinichi,  kim'kee  or  ka.v'she',  (DAVID,)  an  eminent 
Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  the  south  of  France.  He  is  regarded 
by  his  nation  as  the  greatest  Hebrew  grammarian.  In 
1232,  on  account  of  his  influence  and  vast  erudition,  he 
was  appointed  by  the  French  and  Spanish  Jews  to  decide 
in  a  controversy  which  then  existed  between  them  in 
regard  to  the  doctrines  of  Maimonides.  His  principal 
works  are  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  a  "Dictionary  of  He 
brew  Roots,"  and  commentaries  on  nearly  all  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Died  about  1240. 

See  WOLF,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generate. " 

Kimchi,  (JOSEPH,)  a  learned  rabbi,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  flourished  at  Narbonne  about  1 160.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  grammar. 

Kinaston.     See  KYNASTON. 

Kind,  klnt,  QOHAXN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  litterateur 
and  poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1768.  He  wrote  novels, 
dramas,  and  poems.  His  most  famous  production  is  the 
opera  "  Der  Freischiitz,"  set  to  music  by  Weber.  Died 
at  Dresden  in  1843. 

Kind,  (K.ARL  THEODOR,)  a  German  writer,  distin 
guished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  modern  Greek  language 
and  literature,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1799.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  Modern  Greek  Popular  Songs  in 
the  Original  and  with  a  German  Translation." 

King,  (CHARLES,)  an  American  journalist,  son  of 
Rufus  King,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1789.  He  became  in  1823  associate  editor  of  the 
"New  York  American,"  a  literary  and  political  journal 
of  a  conservative  character.  He  was  subsequently  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "Courier  and  Enquirer,"  in  New 
York,  and  in  1849  was  chosen  president  of  Columbia 
College.  Died  near  Rome  in  1867. 

King,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  poet,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  the  subject  of  Milton's  monody  of  "Lycidas."  He 
was  drowned  in  1637,  aged  about  twenty-seven  years. 

King,  (EDWARD,)  a  learned  English  antiquary  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1735.  In  1767  he  was  elected 
A  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Observations  on  Ancient  Castles,"  and  a  treatise 
on  English  architecture  previous  to  the  Norman  con 
quest.  Died  in  1807. 

King,  (GREGORY,)  an  English  engraver  and  writer  on 
heraldry,  born  at  Lichfield  about  1648;  died  in  1712. 

King,  (Dr.  HENRY,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  1591,  became  Bishop  of  Chichester.  He  wrote  "A 
Poetical  Version  of  the  Psalms,"  "Poems,  Elegies,  Para 
doxes,  and  Sonnets,"  (1659,)  and  various  sermons  and 
religious  treatises.  Died  in  1669. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses. " 

King,  (JoHN,)  a  clergyman  and  writer,  brother  of 
Bishop  Henry  King,  was  born  about  1596;  died  in  1639. 

King,  (JoHN,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in  the 
county  of  Bucks  about  1559,  was  the  father  of  Henry, 
noticed  above.  He  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  In  161 1  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  London.  Died  in  1621. 

King,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cornwall  in 
1652.  He  preached  for  some  time  at  Chelsea,  and  be 
came  prebendary  of  York  in  1731.  Died  in  1732. 

His  son  JOHN,  born  in  1696,  was  a  physician,  and 
published  an  edition  of  the  "Orestes,"  "Hecuba,"  and 
"Phoenissae"  of  Euripides,  (1726.)  Died  in  1728. 

King,  (JOHN  CROOKSHANKS,)  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scot 
land,  in  1806,  emigrated  in  1829  to  America,  where  he 
soon  became  distinguished  as  a  sculptor.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  busts  of  John  Q.  Adams,  Daniel 
Webster,  and  other  eminent  Americans. 

King,  (JoHN  GLEN,)  a  clergyman  and  writer,  was  born 
in  Norfolk,  England,  about  1735.  He  was  chosen  in 
1763  chaplain  to  the  English  factory  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1787.  Of  his  works  maybe  mentioned  "The 
Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Russia; 


containing  an  Account  of  its  Doctrine,  Worship,  and  Dis 
cipline." 

King,  (JoHN  P.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Ken 
tucky  about  1800,  was  elected  by  the  Democratic  party 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1833.  He  was  again 
elected,  but  resigned  before  the  term  was  completed. 

King,  (MITCHELL,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  in  Scotland  in  1783.  He  removed  to 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  law.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Philosophical  Society  at  Charleston,  and  was  appointed 
in  1819  judge  of  the  city  court. 

King,  (PETER,)  LORD,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  high 
chancellor  of  England,  born  at  Exeter  in  1669,  was  the 
son  of  a  grocer.  His  talents  and  application  attracted 
the  attention  of  his  maternal  uncle,  the  celebrated  John 
Locke,  through  whose  influence  he  was  sent  to  the 
University  of  Leyden.  After  his  return  to  England  he 
studied  law,  gained  admission  to  the  bar,  and  rapidly 
rose  in  his  profession.  He  was  elected  about  1700  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Beer-Alston,  which  seat  he 
retained  for  several  years.  In  1708  he  was  appointed 
recorder  of  London,  and  was  knighted.  Notwithstand 
ing  the  arduous  duties  of  his  profession,  King  found  time 
to  write  two  able  theological  works,  which  alone  would 
have  made  him  celebrated.  They  are  an  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Constitution,  Discipline,  Unity,  and  Worship  of  the 
Primitive  Church,"  (1691,)  (in  which  he  favoured  the 
rights  of  the  Protestant  dissenters,)  and  the  "  History 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  with  Critical  Observations  on  its 
Several  Articles,"  (1702.)  In  1714  Sir  Peter  King  was 
created  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and  in  1725 
was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  King  of  Ockham.  He  was  attached  to  the  Whig 
party.  He  resigned  the  seals  in  1733,  on  account  of  ill 
health.  Died  in  1734. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  "  Selec 
tion  from  the  Speeches  and  Writings  of  Lord  King;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England. " 

King,  (PETER,)  LORD,  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  1775,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Lords  about  1796,  and  became  a 
political  and  personal  friend  of  Charles  James  Fox.  He 
published  a  "  Life  of  John  Locke,"  (1829.)  He  died  in 
1833,  leaving  a  son  WILLIAM,  Earl  of  Lovelace,  who 
married  Lord  Byron's  daughter  Ada. 

See  LORD  BROUGHAM.  "  Sketches.  oS  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of 
George  III.,"  (second  series.) 

King,  (PETER  JOHN  LOCKE,)  an  English  legislator,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ockham,  Surrey,  in 
1811.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1847,  and  ob 
tained  the  repeal  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  sleeping 
statutes  in  1856.  ^ 

King,  (PHILIP  PARKER,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
in  the  island  of  Norfolk  in  1793.  He  commanded  an 
expedition  sent  in  1826  to  explore  and  survey  the  coasts 
of  South  America.  The  results  were  published  in  a 
"Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyages  of  H.M.S.  Ad 
venture  and  Beagle,  between  the  Years  1826  and  1836," 
(1839.)  Died  in  1855. 

King,  (PRESTON,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Ogdensburg,  New  York,  in  1806.  He  embraced  the 
profession  of  law,  and  was  a  representative  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  J847,  and  again  from  1849  to  1853.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1853,  took  an 
active  part  in  the  senatorial  debates,  and,  during  the  dis 
union  movement  of  1860-61,  advocated  a  firm  adherence 
to  the  principles  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  ap 
pointed  collector  of  the  port  of  New  York  about  1864. 
Died  at  New  York  in  November,  1865. 

King,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  divine  and  polemical 
writer,  born  in  Bristol  about  1750.  Among  his  princi 
pal  works  are  "  Letters  from  Abraham  Plymley  to  his 
Brother  Peter  on  the  Catholic  Question,"  and  a  "  Treat 
ise  on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures."  Died  in  1810. 

King,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Dorsetshire  in  1771.  He  rendered  important  services 
at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  where  he  fought  as  captain, 
(1805.)  He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1821.  Diedini834. 

King,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in  Scar 
borough,  Maine,  in  1755,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1777. 


€  as  k:  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KING 


1326 


KINGS  LET 


He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1780,  and 
became  an  eloquent  pleader.  In  1784  he  was  elected 
a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  in  which  he 
offered  in  1785  a  resolution  "That  there  be  neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  States 
described  in  the  resolution  of  Congress  of  April,  1784," 
i.e.  the  Northwest  Territory.  He  married  Mary  Alsop, 
of  New  York  City,  in  1786.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Convention  which  in  1787  formed  the  Constitu 
tion  of  the  United  States,  and  became  a  leader  of  the 
Federal  party.  Having  fixed  his  residence  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1788,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1789.  He  advocated  Jay's  treaty  in 
several  eloquent  speeches,  was  re-elected  to  the  national 
Senate  in  1795,  and  was  appointed  minister-plenipoten 
tiary  to  Great  Britain  in  1796.  He  performed  the  duties 
of  this  position  with  much  ability  for  eight  years,  and 
retired  to  private  life  in  1804.  In  1813  he  was  elected 
a  United  States  Senator  by  a  legislature  of  adverse  poli 
tics.  Having  been  again  elected  in  1819  or  1820,  he 
continued  in  that  body  until  1825,  and  made  an  able 
speech  against  the  extension  of  slavery  on  the  occasion 
of  the  admission  of  Missouri.  He  was  appointed  min 
ister  to  England  in  1825,  returned  about  a  year  later,  and 
died  in  April,  1827. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

King,  (Rurus,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of  Charles 
King,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York 
in  1814.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833,  and  was 
employed  as  an  engineer  for  several  years.  About  1838 
he  became  adjutant-general  of  New  York.  He  after 
wards  edited  a  paper  at  Milwaukee.  He  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  commanded 
a  division  under  Generals  McDowell  and  Pope  in  the 
summer  of  1862.  He  was  minister  at  Rome  from  Oc 
tober,  1863,  to  July,  1867. 

King,  (SUSAN  PKTIGRU,)  an  American  writer,  daugh 
ter  of  James  L.  Petigru,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina.  She  has  published  "  Busy  Moments  of  an  Idle 
Woman,"  "Sylvia's  World,"  and  other  tales  of  fashion 
able  life.  • 

King,  (THOMAS,)  an  actor  and  dramatist,  born  in 
London  in  17^0.  Among  his  productions  are  "  Love  at 
First  Sight,"  "  A  Peep  behind  the  Curtain,  or  the  New 
Rehearsal,"  and  "Wit's  Last  Stake."  Died  in  1805. 

See  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

King,  (T.  BUTLER,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hampshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1804.  He  studied 
law,  and  removed  to  Georgia  about  1824.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1839,  1841,  and  1845,  and  be 
came  a  secessionist  in  1861.  Died  in  1864. 

King,  (THOMAS  STATER,)  an  American  Unitarian  di 
vine,  born  in  New  York  in  1824.  He  became  in  1848 
pastor  of  the  church  in  Hollis  Street,  Boston,  and  in 
1860  sailed  for  San  Francisco,  where  he  assumed  charge 
of  the  Unitarian  church  in  that  city.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lecturer,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  \Vhite  Hills:  their  Legends,  Landscapes, 
and  Poetry,"  (1859.)  Died  in  1864. 

See  "A  Tribute  to  Thomas  Starr  King,"  by  R.  FROTHINGHAM. 

King,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Protestant  prelate,  was  born  in 
Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1650.  He  opposed  the  Catholics 
under  James  II.,  and  favoured  the  Revolution.  In  1703 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  wrote  "  The 
Inventions  of  Men  in  the  Worship  of  God,"  (1694,) 
intended  to  reconcile  the  Irish  Presbyterians  to  the 
Episcopal  ceremonies,  and  a  treatise,  in  Latin,  on  "The 
Origin  of  Evil,"  ("De  Origine  Mali,"  1702,)  which  was 
attacked  by  Bayle  and  Leibnitz.  Died  in  i729.B*y?e,v.6 

King,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  and  satirical  writer,  born 
in  London  in  1663.  About  1702  he  was  appointed  in  Ire 
land  to  the  offices  of  judge  of  the  admiralty,  keeper  of  the 
records,  and  commissioner  of  prizes.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Animadversions  upon  the  Pretended  Account  of 
Denmark,"  (1694,)  in  answer  to  a  work  by  Lord  Moles- 
worth,  "The  Transactioneer,"  a  satire  on  the  Royal  So 
ciety,  (1700,)  and  "Original  Works  in  Prose  and  Verse," 
(3  vols.,  1776.)  A  Memoir  of  his  life  is  prefixed  to  the 
last.  Died  in  1712. 


King,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  born  near  Lon 
don  in  1685.  Among  his  works  are  several  Latin  tracts 
on  various  subjects,  and  his  autobiography,  entitled 
"Political  and  Literary  Anecdotes,"  (1819,)  containing 
an  interesting  account  of  a  number  of  his  contemporaries. 
He  was  principal  of  Saint  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1819;  "Monthly  Review" 
for  February,  iSigt 

King,  (WILLIAM,)  born  at  Scarborough,  Maine,  in 
1768,  was  president  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  his  native  State.  He  was  afterwards 
elected  first  Governor  of  Maine.  Died  in  1852. 

King,  ( WILLIAM  RUKUS,)  an  American  statesman  of 
the  Democratic  party,  born  in  Sampson  county,  North 
Carolina,  in  1786.  In  1810  he  was  elected  to  Congress. 
He  was  United  States  Senator  from  Alabama  from  1819 
to  1840,  being  re-elected  four  times.  He  supported 
General  Jackson  in  the  Presidential  campaigns  of  1824, 
1828,  and  1832,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  France  by 
President  Tyler  in  1844.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Senate  in  1850,  and  in  1852  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States.  Died  in  1853. 

King'lake,  (ALEXANDER  WILLIAM,)  an  English  au 
thor  and  barrister,  born  at  Taunton  in  1809,  was  edu 
cated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  after  which  he  made  a 
tour  in  the  Levant,  and  published  a  book  of  travel 
called  "  Eothen,"  (1844,)  which  was  highly  successful. 
He  accompanied  the  British  army  to  the  Crimea  in  1854, 
and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Crimean  War."  In  1857 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1844,  and  April, 
1863;  "  Hlackwood's  Magazine"  fur  March,  1863,  and  January,  1869; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1863;  "North  British  Review"  for 
May,  1863. 

Kingo,  king'o,  (THOMAS,)  a  Danish  poet  and  prelate, 
born  at  Slangerup  in  1634,  became  Bishop  of  Fiinen. 
His  sacred  poems  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contem 
poraries,  and  he  has  been  compared  by  English  readers 
to  Dr.  Watts.  Died  in  1723. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kingsborough,  king//bur'eh,  (EDWARD  KING,)  VIS 
COUNT,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1795,  was  a  son 
of  the  Earl  of  Kingston.  He  published  a  costly  work 
entitled  "Antiquities  of  Mexico,  comprising  Fac-Similes 
of  Ancient  Mexican  Paintings,"  etc.,  (9  vols.,  1830  ct 
seq.}  Died  in  1837. 

Kings'ley,  (CALVIN,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist 
clergyman,  born  in  Oneida  county,  New  York,  in  1812. 
He  graduated  at  Alleghany  College,  Pennsylvania.  He 
took  the  editorial  charge  of  the  "  Western  Christian 
Advocate"  in  1856.  Died  in  1870. 

Kings'ley,  (Rev.  CHARLES,)  a  popular  English  writer, 
born  at  Holne  Vicarage,  in  Devonshire,  in  June,  1819. 
He  was  educated  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  was 
ordained  a  priest  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  1843,  and 
became  rector  of  Eversley,  Hampshire,  in  1844.  About 
this  date  he  married  Miss  Grenfell,  whose  sister  is  the 
wife  of  Froude  the  historian.  He  published  in  1848  a 
dramatic  poem  called  "The  Saint's  Tragedy."  He 
united  with  his  friend  the  Rev.  J.  F.  D.  Maurice  in  efforts 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  working-men  by  the 
formation  of  co-operative  associations.  His  interest  in 
the  sufferings  and  trials  of  the  working-classes  in  large 
towns  was  manifested  in  his  novel  of  "Alton  Locke, 
Tailor  and  Poet,"  (1850,)  which  attracted  much  attention. 
In  1853  he  produced  a  philosophical  romance  entitled 
"  Hypatia,"  which  appeared  first  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
and  is  regarded  as  one  of  his  most  powerful  works. 
He  afterwards  published  "Alexandria  and  her  Schools," 
"Glaucus;  or,  The  Wonders  of  the  Shore,"  (1855,) 
"Two  Years  Ago,"  a  novel,  (1857,)  "Westward  Ho," 
and  other  works. 

See  "  Klnckwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1850,  June,  1855, 
and  August,  1858  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1848,  and  June, 
1858  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1851. 

Kingsley,  (JAMES  LUCE,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Windham, 
Connecticut,  in  1778,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1799, 
and  in  1805  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Greek  in  that  institution.  He  wrote  the  "Life  of  Ezra 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


KINGS  MILL 


1327 


K1RCHMA1ER 


Stiles"  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  and  pub 
lished  several  educational  works.  Died  in  1852. 

Kings'niill,  (ANDREW,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  at  Sidmonton  in  1538.  He  preached  at  Oxford  and 
at  Geneva,  and  published  several  religious  works.  Died 
at  Lausanne  in  1569. 

Kings'ton,  (ELIZABETH  CHUDLEIGH,)  DUCHESS  OF, 
an  English'  beauty,  born  in  1720.  She  was  privately 
married  to  Harvey,  who  became  Earl  of  Bristol,  and 
from  whom  she  was  soon  separated.  In  1769  she  was 
again  married  to  the  Duke  of  Kingston.  She  was  tried 
on  a  charge  of  bigamy,  and  convicted.  Died  in  1788. 

See  "  An  Authentic  Detail  of  Particulars  relative  to  the  Duchess 
of  Kingston,"  London,  1788. 

Kinkel,  kink'el,  (JOHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German 
patriot,  poet,  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Oberkassel  in 
1815.  He  published  in  1846  a  "  History  of  the  Plastic 
Art  among  Christian  Nations,"  and  a  poem  entitled 
"Otto  the  Archer."  In  1848  he  established  a  journal 
called  "  Spartacus,"  in  which  he  was  a  zealous  advocate 
of  democratic  principles.  Having  taken  part  in  the 
storming  of  the  arsenal  at  Siegburg,  and  the  insurrec 
tion  of  the  Palatinate,  he  was  in  June,  1849,  taken  by  the 
Prussians  and  imprisoned  at  Spandau.  In  November, 
1850,  assisted  by  his  friend  Carl  Schurz,  he  made  his 
escape  to  England. 

See  STRODTMANN,  "  Kinkels  Leben,"  2  vols.,  1850;  LONGFEL 
LOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kinkel,  (JOHANNA,)  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1807,  was  distinguished  as  an  authoress  and 
musician.  Died  in  1858. 

Kinker,  kink'er,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  author  and  poet, 
born  near  Amsterdam  about  1760;  died  about  1825. 

Kinnara,  kin'a-ra,  [etymology  uncertain,]  sometimes 
improperly  written  Cinnara,  the  name  given  to  the  male 
dancers  of  Swerga,  or  the  paradise  of  Indra.  The  Kin- 
naras  are  represented  with  the  body  and  limbs  of  a  man 
and  the  head  of  a  horse. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Kinsbergen,  van,  vfn  kins'beR'Hen,  (JAN  HEN- 
DRIK,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Doesburg  in  1735.  In 
1767  lie  entered  the  Russian  service  under  Catherine  II., 
and  soon  after  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Turks. 
In  1781  he  assisted  in  the  famous  battle  of  Doggersbank, 
fought  between  the  Dutch  and  English.  He  was  created 
Count  of  Doggersbank  by  Louis,  King  of  Holland.  Died 
in  1820. 

See  M.  C.  VAN  HALL,  "Leven  en  Karakter  van  den  Admiraal 
Jnnkheer  J.  H.  van  Kinsbergen,"  1841;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Kinschot,  van,  vtn  klns'Kot,  (HENDRIK,)  a  Belgian 
jurist,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1541  ;  died  in  1608. 

Kinschot,  van,  (KASPAR,)  a  Dutch  writer  of  Latin 
poetry,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1622  ;  died  in  1649. 

Kinsky,  kin'skee,  (FRANZ  JOSEPH,)  COUNT,  an  Aus 
trian  general,  born  at  Prague  in  1739,  served  with  dis 
tinction  against  the  French  in  1793-96.  Died  in  1805. 

Kinson,  kin'son,  or  Kinsoen,  kin'soon,  (FRANS,)  a 
skilful  Flemish  portrait-painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1774 
or  1770,  worked  in  Paris  and  Brussels.  Died  in  1839. 

Kip,  (\VILLIAM  INGRAHAM,)  D.D.,  an  American  prel 
ate,  born  in  New  York  in  1811.  He  graduated  in  1831 
at  Yale  College,  and  was  consecrated  in  1853  missionary- 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  California. 
He  published  "Early  Conflicts  of  Christianity,"  and 
"  Domestic  and  Religious  Life  in  Italy." 

KipTing,  (THOMAS,)  D.D.,  professor  of  theology  at 
Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Peterborough,  born  in  England 
about  1755.  He  wrote  "The  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England  proved  not  to  be  Calvinistic,"  and  various  other 
works.  Died  in  1821. 

Kipping,  kip'ping,  [Lat.  KIPPIN'GIUS,]  (HEINRICH,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  near  Rostock  about  1623, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works  on  philology,  history, 
and  antiquities.  Died  in  1678. 

See  H.  E.  HEEREN,  "Oratio  de  H.  Kippingio,"  etc.,  1755. 

Kippingius.     See  KIPPING. 

Kip'pis,  (ANDREW,)  an  English  dissenting  minister 
and  eminent  biographer,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1725. 
He  preached  for  some  years  in  London,  whither  he 
removed  in  1753,  and  was  appointed  teacher  in  Coward's 


Academy  for  the  education  of  dissenting  ministers,  in 
1763.  About  1780  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  His  most  important  work  is  a  new  and  enlarged 
edition  of  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  of  which  he  pub 
lished  5  vols.  in  1778-79.  This  work  is  highly  esteemed, 
but  was  left  unfinished,  terminating  at  the  letter  F.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Captain  Cook,"  (1788.)  Died  in  1795. 

See  REES,  "  Cyclopedia." 

Kir'by,  (JoHN  JOSHUA,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  artist 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1716.  He  published 
"The  Perspective  of  Architecture,"  (1761,)  and  "A  Map 
of  Suffolk."  Died  in  1774. 

See  NICHOLS,  "Biographical  Anecdotes  of  Hogarth." 

Kirby,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  ento 
mologist,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1759,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
.preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cam 
bridge,  and  became  curate  of  Barham.  He  studied 
various  branches  of  natural  history,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  to  which  he 
contributed  several  papers.  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  work  on  English  Bees,  "Monographia 
Apium  Anglije,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)  In  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Spence,  he  published  an  excellent  "  Introduction  to  En 
tomology,"  (4  vols.,  1815-26.)  He  also  wrote  the  Bridge- 
water  Treatise  entitled  "  The  Habits  and  Instincts  of 
Animals."  Died  in  1850. 

See  J.  FREEMAN,  "Life  of  William  Kirby,"  1852;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  October,  1835;  "Monthly  Review"  for  January, 
1803,  and  November,  1817. 

Kirch,  k£e~RK,  (CHRISTFRIED,)  a  distinguished  as 
tronomer  and  writer,  born  at  Guben  in  1694.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academies  of  Science  at  Paris  and  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  director  of  the  Observatory  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1740. 

Kirch,  (GOTTFRIED,)  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1639.  He  was  appointed  di 
rector  of  the  Observatory  and  royal  astronomer  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  "  Observations  upon  the  Comet  that  appeared 
in  Italy  in  1676,"  (1677,)  "  Astronomical  Tables,"  and 
"  Christian,  Jewish,  and  Turkish  Calendar  to  the  Year 
1685."  Died  in  1710. 

Kirch,  (MARIE  MARGARETHE  WINCKELMANN,)  an 
astronomer,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Upper 
Lusatia  in  1670.  She  assisted  her  husband  in  his  astro 
nomical  labours,  and  published  almanacs.  Died  in  1720. 

Kir'-eher,  [Ger.  pron.  ketVKer;  Lat.  KIRCHE'RUS,] 
(ATHANASIUS,)  alearned  German  Jesuit,  distinguished  for 
his  talents  and  versatility,  was  born  near  Fulda  in  1601. 
Having  studied  at  Avignon,  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by 
the  pope  to  fill  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Roman 
College.  He  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  philology, 
hieroglyphics,  and  antiquities,  which  display  profound 
learning,  but  are  deficient  in  sound  criticism,  and  many 
of  them  are  rather  interesting  than  reliable.  Among 
these  may  be  named  "  Prodromus  Coptus,"  (1636,) 
"OZdipus  Egyptiacus,"  (3  vols.,  1652-55,)  being  an  ex 
planation  of  hieroglyphics,  "  Mundus  Subterraneus," 
(1665,)  and  "Description  of  Latium  considered  in  its 
Ancient  and  Modern  Aspect,"  ("Latium,  id  est  nova  et 
parallela  Latii,  turn  veteris,  turn  novi,  Descriptio,"  1669.) 
He  also  published  several  valuable  scientific  treatises; 
and  to  him  is  generally  ascribed  the  invention  of  the 
magic-lantern.  Died  in  1680. 

See  his  autobiography,  "Vita  Kircheri,"  in  the  "Fasciculus 
Epistolarum  Kircheri,"  1684  ;  BAVI.E,  "  Historical  and  Crilical  Dic 
tionary  ;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kircher,  (CONRAD,)  a  German  philologist  and  writer, 
born  in  Augsburg.  His  chief  work  is  a  Greek  and  He 
brew  Concordance  of  the  Old  Testament,  (1607.)  Died 
after  1620. 

,  Kirchhoff,  keeRK'hof,  (G.,)  a  German  astronomer  of 
the  present  age,  distinguished  for  his  observations  and 
discoveries  with  the  spectroscope.  He  published  "Re 
searches  on  the  Solar  Spectrum,"  (1862.) 

Kirchmaier  or  Kirchmayer,  ke^RK/mT'er,  (GEORG 
KASPAR,)  a  German  chemist  and  scholar,  born  in  Fran- 
conia  in  1635.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  several  classic 
authors.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of  etching  on  glass 
with  fluoric  acid  is  attributed  to  him.  Died  in  1700. 

See  JOCHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


K1RCHMA1ER 


1328 


KISF4LUDT 


Kirchmaier,  (THOMAS,)  a  Lutheran  minister,  born  in 
Bavaria  about  1511.  He  took  the  Greek  name  of  Nao 
Georgos.  lie  is  the  author  of  numerous  Latin  poems 
and  theological  and  polemical  works,  mostly  written  in 
the  Latin  language.  He  preached  at  Stuttgart,  Esslingen, 
and  Wisloch.  Died  in  1563. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  SAX,  "  Ono- 
masticon." 

Kirchman,  keeRic'man,  a  Russian  electrician,  of  Ger 
man  extraction,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Saint 
Petersburg.  He  was  killed  by  the  electric  fluid,  in  the 
act  of  attracting  it  from  the  clouds,  in  1753. 

Kirchmami,  keeRK'man,  (|OHANN,)  a  German  au 
thor  and  scholar,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1575,  became  in 
1603  professor  of  poetry  at  Rostock.  He  wrote  a  "  Dis 
sertation  on  the  Funeral  Ceremonies  used  among  the 
Romans,"  (1605,)  and  "  De  Annulis,'"  a  treatise  on  an 
cient  rings.  Died  in  1643. 

See  BAVI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Kirgener,  keRzh'naiu',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1766,  was  killed  at  Markersdorf  in  1813 

Kirk,  (EDWARD  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio.  He  was  a  citizen  of  Illinois  when  the  civil  war 
began.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7,  1862,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  January,  1863. 

Kirk,  (EDWARD  NORRIS,)  D.D.,  an  American  Con- 
gregationalist  divine,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  and 
became  in  1828  pastor  of  a  church  at  Albany.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  secretary  of  the  Foreign  Evangelical 
Society,  and  in  1842  settled  as  pastor  of  the  Mount  Ver- 
non  Church,  Boston. 

Kirk'al,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
Sheffield  about  1700. 

Kirkaldy,  ker-kau'de,  (Sir  WILLTAM,)  of  Grange, 
one  of  the  earliest  Protestants  of  Scotland,  was  the  son 
of  Sir  James  Kirkaldy,  high  treasurer  under  the  reign  of 
James  V.  Sir  William  was  implicated  in  the  assassina 
tion  of  Cardinal  Beaton,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned. 
He  finally  escaped  to  France,  where  he  was  distinguished 
as  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  chivalrous  knights  in  the 
court  and  army  of  Henry  II.  After  his  return  to  Scot 
land,  he  became  a  leader  of  the  Protestants.  He  fought 
bravely  against  the  French,  who  had  been  sent  over  to 
assist  the  Catholics,  and  made  Queen  Mary  prisoner.  He 
vainly  attempted  to  capture  Bothwell,  whom  he  pursued 
as  far  as  the  coast  of  Norway.  About  1570  Kirkaldy 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  queen,  of  whose  party  he 
became  the  leader.  He  refused  to  obey  the  mandates 
of  the  regent,  and  after  several  months  of  fighting,  in 
which  great  ferocity  was  displayed  on  both  sides,  sus 
tained  a  siege  in  Edinburgh  Castle.  He  was,  however, 
finally  obliged  by  his  soldiers  to  make  an  unconditional 
surrender.  He,  with  several  of  his  friends,  was  hung 
in  August,  1573.  John  Knox,  who  had  formerly  been 
his  intimate  friend  and  fellow-sufferer  in  the  Protestant 
cause,  deeply  deplored  his  change  of  principles  and  his 
untimely  end. 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Adventures  of  Sir  Win.  Kirknldy,"  Edinburgh, 
i84q  :  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Scotland  :"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographi 
cal  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  FROUDE,  "  History  of  Eng 
land  ;"  "  Blackxvood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1849. 

Kirk'bride,  (THOMAS  S.,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy 
sician,  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1809. 
Having  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he 
became  resident  physician  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
and  in  1840  superintendent  of  the  Hospital  for  the  In 
sane.  He  has  published  an  excellent  work  entitled 
"Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 
for  the  Insane,"  (1850.) 

Kirke,  kerk,  (PERCY,)  COLONEL,  a  British  officer, 
notorious  for  cruelty,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  James  II.  and 
William  HI.  He  served  in  the  army  which  suppressed 
the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  (1685.)  His 
men  were  called  "Kirke's  lambs." 

See  PEPYS,  "Diary;"  MACAUI.AY,  "  History  of  England." 

Kirke  White.     See  WHITE. 

Kirk'land,  (Mrs.  CAROLINE  MATILDA  STANSBURY,) 
an  American  writer,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  was 


married  about  1830  to  Professor  William  Kirklancl,  of 
Hamilton  College.  After  a  residence  of  nearly  three 
years  in  Michigan,  she  published,  under  the  assumed 
name  of  "  Mary  Clavers,"  "A  New  Home — Who'll  Fol 
low  ?"  (1839.)  "Forest  Life,"  (1842,)  and  "Western  Clear 
ings,"  (1846,)  which  soon  obtained  a  wide  popularity. 
She  became  editor  of  the  "  Union  Magazine,"  in  New 
York,  in  1847.  Among  her  other  works  may  be  named 
"An  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Spenser,"  (1846,) 
and  "Personal  Memoirs  of  George  Washington,"  (1858.) 
Mrs.  Kirkland's  delineations  of  Western  pioneer-life  are 
among  the  most  admirable  of  their  kind,  abounding  in 
humorous  incidents,  shrewd  sense,  and  picturesque  de 
scriptions.  Died  in  1864. 

See  GRISWO^.D,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  DUVCKINCK,  "  Cy 
clopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  CLEVELAND,  "Compen 
dium  of  American  Literature ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for 
January,  1840. 

Kirkland,(JoiiN  THORNTON,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer 
ican  scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Little  Falls,  New  York, 
in  1770.  Having  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1789,  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Summer 
Street,  Boston.  He  was  elected,  in  1810,  president  of 
Harvard  College.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Fisher  Ames," 
and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1840. 

Kirk'land,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  1721.  He  graduated  as  M.D.  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Died  in  1798. 

Kirk-pat'rick,  (WILLIAM  JAMES,)  an  Oriental 
scholar,  born  about  1760,  was  a  member  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Calcutta,  and  major-general  in  the  English 
army  at  Bengal.  He  wrote  a  "  Biography  of  the  Persian 
Poets,"  "  Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  Nepaul,"  (iSil,) 
and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1812. 

Kirnberger,  kee'Rn'be'Rr/er,  (JOHANN  PHILIPP,)  a 
German  musician  and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Thuringia 
in  1721  ;  died  in  1783. 

Kirsten,  keeVsten,  or  Kirchstein,  keeRK'stin, 
(GEORG,)  a  physician  and  writer  on  surgery  and  anatomy, 
born  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1613;  died  in  1660. 

Kirsten,  (MICHAEL,)  a  learned  physician  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  Moravia  in  1620;  died  in  1678. 

Kirsten,  [Lat.  KIRSTE'NIUS,!  (PETER,)  a  distinguished 
physician  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Breslau  in  IS77- 
He  studied  at  the  most  celebrated  universities  of  Ger 
many,  and  travelled  extensively  in  Europe.  He  was  sub 
sequently  invited  to  Sweden  by  Chancellor  Oxenstiern, 
where  he  was  appointed  physician  to  Queen  Christina 
and  medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Upsal.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  master  of  twenty-six  languages. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  an  "  Arabic  Grammar," 
(1608-10,)  and  "Notes  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew, 
from  the  Collation  of  Arabic,  Syriac,  Egyptian,  Greek, 
and  Latin  Texts,"  (1611.)  Died  at  Upsal  in  1640. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
'  Memoiresr" 

Kirstenius.     See  KIRSTEN,  (PETER.) 

Kirwaii,  ker'wan,  (RICHARD,)  a  distinguished  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  at  Gal  way,  in  Ireland,  about  1733, 
or,  as  others  say,  in  1750.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  and  member  of  various  scientific  associations 
on  the  continent.  He  published  "An  Essay  on  the 
Constitution  of  Acids,"  (1787,)  which  was  translated 
by  Lavoisier  and  refuted  by  him,  "  Elements  of  Mine 
ralogy,"  (1794,)  an  "Essay  on  the  Analysis  of  Mineral 
Waters,"  "An  Estimate  of  the  Temperature  of  Different 
Latitudes,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1812. 

See  CUVIER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles." 

Kir-wan,  (WALTER  BLAKE,)  an  Irish  clergyman,  dis 
tinguished  for  his  eloquence,  born  at  Gal  way  in  1754. 
He  was  educated  as  a  Catholic  priest,  but  joined  the 
Church  of  England  in  1787,  after  which  he  preached  in 
Dublin.  Died  in  1805. 

Kis,  klsh,  (STEPHEN, )  a  Hungarian  theologian,  born  at 
Szegedin  in  1505,  was  a  disciple  of  Luther.  He  preached 
at  Temesvar,  and  published  several  works.  Died  in  1572. 

Kischtasp.     See  GIISHTASP. 

Kisfaludy,  k?sh'foh-loody,  almost  kish'foh-looj, 
'KAROLY,)  a  celebrated  dramatist,  the  founder  of  Hun 
garian  comedy,  was  born  at  Tete  in  March,  1790.  On 


a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


KISFALUDT 


1329 


KLAPROTH 


account  of  his  fiery  and  turbulent  disposition,  he  was 
placed  in  the  Austrian  army  at  an  early  age.  He  served 
as  an  officer  in  Italy  in  1805  against  Napoleon,  and  svas 
afterwards  taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  Having,  been 
exchanged,  he  fought  in  Germany  in  1809.  He  left  the 
army  in  1810,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Vienna,  where 
he  gained  a  living  as  an  artist.  In  1819  he  acquired  a 
sudden  celebrity  by  his  play  "The  Tartar  in  Hungary." 
Soon  after  he  produced  "  Ilka,"  a  tragedy,  "  Stiber  the 
Chieftain,"  and  several  other  plays,  all  of  which  were 
received  with  the  greatest  applause.  Among  the  most 
popular  of  his  comedies  are  the  "Student  Matthias," 
of  which  the  emperor  Matthias  Corvinus  is  the  hero, 
"The  Suitors,"  and  "The  Insurgents."  Kisfaludy  es 
tablished  an  able  and  successful  literary  annual,  entitled 
the  "Aurora."  Died  in  November,  1830. 

See  T.  MUNDT,  "Geschichte  cler  Literatur  der  Gegemvart:" 
FRANZ  SCHEIJEL,  "Kisfaludy  K.  FJete,"  Hilda- Pesth,  1832;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1850,  (by  MRS.  PUTNAM.) 

Kisfaludy,  (SANDOR,)  an  elder  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  poets  of 
Hungary,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Szalad  in  1772.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1793,  and  formed  an  attachment  for 
the  beautiful  Rosalia  Szegedy,  who  rejected  him.  He 
subsequently  served  against  Napoleon  in  Italy,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  While  a  captive  in  the 
place  where  Petrarch  had  poured  forth  his  immortal 
strains  to  Laura,  the  young  Hungarian  resolved  to  ad 
dress  the  object  of  his  love  in  a  similar  poem.  In  1800 
he  regained  the  affections  of  the  lady  Rosalia,  to  whom 
he  was  'married.  He  left  the  army  and  retired  to  his 
paternal  estate.  The  same  year  the  anonymous  publica 
tion  of  his  poem,  under  the  title  of  "  Himfy,"  produced 
a  sensation  among  men  of  letters  never  equalled  in 
Hungary.  In  1807  he  made  himself  known  in  publish 
ing  a  poem  entitled  "  Happy  Love."  He  afterwards 
wrote  several  other  poems  and  dramas,  of  which  "John 
Huniades"  and  "Ladislaus  the  Rumanian"  were  greatly 
admired.  Died  in  1844.  Three  years  later  his  complete 
works  were  published  at  Pesth,  in  6  vols.  Several 
extracts  from  "  Himfy"  have  been  translated  into  English. 

See  T.  MUNDT,  "Geschichte  der  Literatur  der  Gegenvvart," 
Leipsic,  1853;  also  the  article  on  the  "Language  and  Literature 
of  the  Magyars"  in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
1828. 

Kiss,  kis,  (AUGUSTUS,)  a  distinguished  Prussian  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Pless,  in  Upper  Silesia,  in  1802.  He  studied 
ur.der  the  celebrated  Rauch.  He  was  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Berlin.  Among  his  most 
admirable  works  are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Frede 
rick  the  Great,  and  two  colossal  groups  in  bronze, — an 
"Amazon  attacked  by  a  Tiger,"  and  "Saint  George 
and  the  Dragon."  Died  in  1862. 

Kisselef,  Kisseleff,  or  Kisselew,  kis'seh-leT,  (NI 
CHOLAS,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born  in  1800. 
He  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Paris  in 
1851,  and  was  sent  as  Russian  minister  to  Rome  in  1856. 

Kisselef,  (PAUL,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general  and 
diplomatist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Moscow  in  1788.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
domains  of  the  emperor  in  1837,  and  sent  as  ambassador 
to  France  in  1856. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Kisselew.     See  KISSELEF. 

Kitch'eii-er,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer  on  gastronomy,  born  in  London  about  1775.  He 
was  the  author  of  "The  Cook's  Oracle,"  "The  Art  of 
Invigorating  and  Prolonging  Life,"  "  The  Traveller's 
Oracle,"  "Observations  on  Vocal  Music,"  and  other 
works  on  various  subjects.  Died  in  1827. 

See  WILLIAM  JERDAN,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866  ; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1827. 

Kite,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Gravesend  about  1768  ;  died  in  1811. 

Ki-Tseu  or  Ki-Tse.     See  KEE-TSE. 

Kit/to,  (JOHN,)  an  English  writer,  distinguished  as  a 
biblical  scholar,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1804.  He  suffered 
much  privation  and  neglect  in  his  childhood  in  conse 
quence  of  the  intemperance  of  his  father.  About  the 
age  of  twelve  he  was  rendered  incurably  deaf  by  a  fall 
from  the  roof  of  a  house.  He  became  an  inmate  of  the 
poor-house,  where  he  manifested  such  an  earnest  desire 


to  improve  his  mind  that  some  persons  procured  for 
him  admission  to  a  college  in  Islington.  As  tutor  to  the 
children  of  Mr.  Grove,  he  travelled  in  Russia,  Arme 
nia,  and  Persia  in  1829-32.  About  1833  he  was  engaged 
by  Charles  Knight  to  write  for  the  "  Penny  Magazine." 
He  edited  "The  Pictorial  Bible"  published  by  Charles 
Knight,  (1838,)  and  produced  numerous  valuable  and 
successful  works,  among  which  are  "  The  Cyclopaedia 
of  Biblical  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1845-50,)  "The  Lost 
Senses — Deafness  and  Blindness,"  which  contains  an 
autobiography,  and  "Daily  Bible  Illustrations,"  (7  vols., 
1849-53.)  HC  was  married  about  1833.  He  died  at 
Cannstadt,  Wiirtemberg,  in  1854. 

See  J.  E.  RYLAND,  "Memoirs  of  John  Kittp,"  1856;  "Brief 
Biographies,"  by  SAMUEL  SMILES;  "North  British  Review"  for 
February,  1847. 

Kiuperli.     See  KOPKILI. 

Kj  oping  or  Kjoeping,  cho'ping,  (NIKOLAUS  MAT- 
SON,)  a  Swedish  traveller,  born  in  1630.  In  1648  he 
sailed  to  the  East  Indies,  and  afterwards  visited  Persia, 
Farther  India,  Arabia,  and  Egypt.  An  account  of  his 
travels  was  published  after  his  death.  Died  in  1667. 

Klapka,  klop'koh,  (General  GEORGE,)  born  at  Te- 
mesvar,  in  Hungary,  in  1820.  He  became  a  cadet  in 
an  artillery  regiment  about  1838,  and  lieutenant-colonel 
in  1847.  In  1848  he  joined  the  Hungarian  revolutionists, 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  daring  courage 
and  his  ability  as  a  commander.  He  soon  after  received 
a  general's  commission  and  was  appointed  secretary^  of 
war.  In  1849,  while  defending  the  fortress  of  Comorn, 
he  made  a  sally  at  midnight,  totally  routed  the  Austrian 
army,  and  took  several  pieces  of  artillery.  He  forced 
his  enemies  to  evacuate  Raab,  and  cut  off  their  commu 
nication  with  Austria.  A  few  days  after  he  received  the 
information  that  the  Hungarian  army  in  the  South  had 
surrendered  to  the  Austrians,  and  also  a  command  from' 
Gorgey  to  yield  up  the  fortress  of  Comorn.  This  man 
date  General  Klapka  refused  to  obey  ;  but  two  months 
later,  having  obtained  honourabla  terms  from  Haynau 
for  himself  and  troops,  he  capitulated,  in  October,  1849. 
He  then  went  to  London,  and  afterwards  to  Geneva. 
He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  of  Independence  in 
Hungary,"  (2  vols.,  1850,)  and  a  work  upon  the  war  in 
the  East  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  (1855.) 

Klaproth,  klap'rot,  sometimes  Anglicised  in  pronun 
ciation  as  klap'roth,  (HEixiucH  JULIUS,)  an  eminent 
German  Orientalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Berlin,  October 
II,  1783,  was  a  son  of  Martin  H.  Klaproth,  noticed  below. 
At  an  early  age  he  acquired,  without  a  teacher,  consid 
erable  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  in  1802 
founded  the  "  Asiatisches  Magazin"  at  Weimar.  On  the 
recommendation  of  Count  Potocki,  he  was  invited  in  1805 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  was  made  adjunct  for  the 
Oriental  languages  and  literature  at  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  In  the  capacity  of  interpreter  to  the  Russian 
embassy  to  China,  he  travelled  through  Siberia  as  far  as 
Irkootsk  in  1805,  and  collected  valuable  books  and  docu 
ments,  which  he  used  in  the  composition  of  his  "  Asia 
Polyglotta."  In  1807  he  was  sent  by  the  Russian  govern 
ment  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  Caucasus,  and  on 
his  return,  in  1809,  was  appointed  aulic  councillor,  and 
received  a  title  of  nobility  and  other  distinctions.  He 
resigned  his  offices  in  Russia  in  1812.  In  1816,  through 
the  influence  of  William  von  Humboldt,  Klaproth  re 
ceived  from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  honorary  title  of 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  literature  at  Berlin, 
together  with  a  large  pension,  and  permission  to  reside 
in  Paris.  Among  his  numerous  works  we  may  mention 
"Travels  in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia,"  (2  vols.,  1812- 
14,)  "Geographical  and  Historical  Description  of  the 
Eastern  Caucasus,"  (1814,)  "Historical  Pictures  of  Asia 
from  the  Monarchy  of  Cyrus  to  the  Present  Time," 
(1824,)  "Asia  Polyglotta,"  or  a  classification  of  Orien 
tal  nations  according  to  their  languages,  (1829,)  and 
"  On  the  Origin  of  Paper  Money  in  China."  Besides 
these  productions,  which  enjoy  the  highest  reputation 
throughout  Europe,  he  published  a  number  of  excellent 
maps  and  geographical  treatises,  and  wrote  valuable 
articles  for  the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1835.  Klaproth  was  one  of  the  greatest  linguists 
of  his  time.  His  sagacity,  judgment,  and  memory  were 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

84 


(23^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KLAPROTH 


'33° 


KLEIST 


extraordinary.  "  Since  Klaproth's  death,"  says  the  "  En 
cyclopaedia  Britannica,"  "  his  fame  has  continued  to  rise. 
His  merits  as  a  philologer  are  very  great ;  but  his  merits 
as  a  linguist  are  greater  still.  .  .  .  His  memory,  both  for 
comprehensiveness  and  accuracy,  was  unrivalled." 

See  LANDRESSE,  "  Notice  historique  et  litternire  sur  Klaproth  ;" 
FISCHER,  "  Denksclirift  anf  Klaproth."  Berlin;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generate;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1814. 

Klaproth,  (MARTIN  HEINRICH,)  an  eminent  German 
analytical  chemist  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Wernigerode, 
in  Prussian  Saxony,  in  December,  1743.  He  served  an 
apprenticeship  as  an  apothecary,  and  about  1768  went  to 
Berlin,  where  he  studied  chemistry.  Having  gained  dis 
tinction  by  the  analysis  of  mineral  substances  and  by 
discoveries  in  chemistry,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Berlin  in  1788,  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the 
French  Institute.  He  discovered  the  metals  Uranium 
and  Titanium,  and  the  earth  Zirconia.  He  published  the 
results  of  his  researches  and  experiments  in  his  "Con 
tributions  to  the  Chemical  Knowledge  of  Mineral  Bodies," 
(5  vols.,  1796-1810.)  About  1809  he  became  professor 
of  chemistry  in  Berlin.  Died  in  Berlin  in  1817. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale  ;"  KOPP,  "Geschichte  der  Chemie." 

Klass,  klas,  (FRIEDRICH  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1752  ;  died  in  1827. 

Klass,  (KARL  CHRISTIAN,)  a  historical  painter,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1747. 
Died  in  1793. 

Klauber,  klow'ber,  (!GNAZ  SEBASTIAN,)  a  German 
engraver,  was  born  in  Augsburg  in  1754.  He  was 
invited  to  Saint  Petersburg  by  the  empress  Catherine, 
who  appointed  him  professor  in  the  Imperial  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts.  Died  about  1820.  Among  his  engravings 
is  a  portrait  of  the  empress  Catherine. 

Klauber,  (JOSEPH,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Augsburg 
in  1710,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1768. 

Klaus,  a  surname  of  NICOLAS  VON  DER  FLUE.  See 
FLUE,  DE. 

Kleander  or  Kleandros.     See  CLEANDER. 

Kleanthes.     See  CLEANTHES. 

Klearchus.     See  CLEARCHUS. 

Kle'ber,  fFr.  KLEBER,  kla'baiR',]  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,) 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1754. 
Having  studied  at  the  military  school  of  Munich,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1788,  and  soon  attained  the  rank 
of  adjutant-major.  For  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  siege 
of  Mayence,  in  1793,  he  was  made  general  of  brigade. 
He  subsequently  gained  several  advantages  over  the 
Vendeans  ;  but  his  generous  treatment  of  the  prisoners 
called  down  upon  him  the  censures  of  the  committee  of 
safety.  He  was  removed  to  the  army  of  the  North,  in 
which,  as  general  of  division,  he  served  under  Jourdan. 
He  gained  distinguished  laurels  in  1794  at  the  battle 
of  Fleurus,  where  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the 
French  army.  He  soon  after  captured  Mons  and  the 
fortress  of  Maestricht.  In  1797,  displeased  with  the 
Directory,  he  retired  to  a  country-seat  near  Paris ;  but 
he  left  this  retreat  at  the  request  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  1798  to  Egypt.  He  was  severely  wounded 
at  the  siege  of  Alexandria,  of  which  city  he  was  appointed 
governor.  The  following  winter  he  marched  into  Syria 
at  the  head  of  the  French  vanguard,  reduced  El  Arish, 
Gaza,  and  Jaffa,  and  gained  in  April,  1799,  the  decisive 
victory  of  Mount  Tabor.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he 
added  to  his  already  brilliant  reputation  at  the  battle  of 
Abonkir.  In  August,  1799,  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  by  Bonaparte,  who  returned  to  France.  Though 
Kleber  was  very  popular,  this  event  caused  general  dis 
satisfaction  in  the  army.  The  soldiers  were  greatly  re 
duced  in  numbers,  and  provisions  were  scarce.  The  grand 
vizier,  with  over  40,000  men  and  several  English  officers, 
having  captured  the  important  fortress  of  El  Arish,  was 
marching  against  the  French.  For  these  reasons  Kleber 
formed  a  treaty  with  the  Turks  and  the  English  admiral 
Sir  Sidney  Smith,  by  which,  upon  the  surrender  of  all 
the  fortresses  in  his  possession  except  three,  he  was  to 
receive  from  the  Turks  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  per 
mission  to  return  peaceably  to  France.  He  accordingly 
delivered  up  several  strongholds,  and  was  preparing  to 
sail  from  Egypt,  when  he  was  informed  by  Admiral  Keith 
that  the  English  government,  on  the  ground  that  Smith 


was  not  vested  with  full  authority,  would  not  consent 
that  the  French  should  leave  the  country  except  as  pris 
oners  of  war.  This  infraction  of  the  treaty  thoroughly 
aroused  the  French  general.  He  attacked  the  Turks, 
gained  over  them  the  brilliant  and  decisive  victory  of 
Heliopolis,  drove  their  army  from  Cairo,  and  within  a 
month  regained  every  position  which  he  had  previously 
abandoned.  He  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  im 
provement  of  his  conquests.  He  distributed  land  among 
his  troops,  formed  several  companies  of  native  soldiers, 
and  was  using  practicable  and  efficient  means  to  render 
Egypt  a  valuable  colony  of  France,  when  he  was  assassin 
ated  in  June,  1800,  by  a  Mohammedan  fanatic.  Kleber 
stands  as  one  of  the  very  first  of  the  many  distinguished 
generals  of  that  period.  To  his  great  intellectual  powers 
were  joined  the  generosity  of  a  lofty  mind  and  the  hatred 
of  avarice  and  cruelty.  "  Kleber,"  said  Napoleon  at 
Saint  Helena,  "was  an  irreparable  loss  to  France  and  to 
me.  He  was  a  man  of  the  brightest  talents  and  of  the 
greatest  bravery.  Of  all  the  generals  I  have  had  under 
me,  Desaix  and  Kleber  possessed  the  greatest  talents." 
See  COI'SIN  D'AVALLON,  "  Histoire  des  GeneVaux  Desaix  et 
Kleber,"  1802;  LUBERT  DE  HERICOURT,  "Vie  du  General  Kleber," 
1800;  TIIIKRS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  E.  BAKKOIS, 
"Notice  sur  le  GdneVal  Kleber,"  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Kleeman,  kla'man,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH  KARL,) 
a  German  naturalist  and  painter  of  insects,  etc.,  was 
bom  near  Nuremberg  in  1735.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  entomology.  Died  in  1789. 

Klefeker,  kla'feh-ker,  (JoiiANN,)  a  German  writer, 
bom  in  Hamburg  in  1698  ;  died  in  1775. 

Klein,  kiln,  (BERNHARD,)  a  German  composer,  born 
at  Cologne  in  1794.  Among  his  principal  works  arc  the 
oratorios  of  "Job"  and  "David,"  and  an  opera  entitled 
"Dido."  Died  in  1832. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Klein,  klaN,  (DOMINIQUE  Louis  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Blamont  in  1761  ;  died  in  1845. 

Klein,  (ERNST  FERDINAND,)  a  learned  jurist,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1743,  became  privy  councillor  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  "  Principles  of  German  and  Prussian  Penal 
Law,"  (1795,)  "System  of  Prussian  Civil  Law,"  (1830,) 
and  other  legal  works.  Died  in  1810. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  E.  F.  Klein's  Selbstbiographie,"  1810. 

Klein,  (  JAKOB  THEODOR,  )  a  celebrated  writer  on 
natural  history,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1685.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Saint  Peters 
burg  and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Linnaeus 
gave  the  name  of  Kleinia  to  a  new  plant  in  honour  of 
this  naturalist.  The  works  of  Klein  are  regarded  as 
valuable  contributions  to  science.  Died  in  1759. 

See  CHRISTIAN  SKNDEL,  "Lpbrede  auf  Herrn  J.  T.  Klein,"  1759  ; 
HIRSCHINC;,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gdne'rale." 

Klein,  (JOHANN  ADAM,)  a  distinguished  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  a  skilful  engraver, 
was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1792.  He  visited  Rome 
about  1820. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kleiiiarts.     See  CLENARD. 

Kleinau,  kli'now,  (JOHANN,)  Baron  von  Janowitz, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  Bohemia  about  1760.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  Wagram,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Leipsic,  1813.  Died  in  1819. 

Kleist,  von,  fon  klist,  (EWALD  CHRISTIAN,)  a  popu 
lar  German  poet,  was  born  near  Koslin,  in  Pomerania, 
in  1715.  He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  Danish  army.  In  1740  he  left  Copenhagen, 
and  received  a  commission  in  the  service  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Kunnersdorf  in  1759,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 
His  most  celebrated  work  is  a  poem  entitled  "  Spring," 
("Der  Friihling,"  1749.)  Besides  this,  he  wrote  several 
hymns  and  idyls,  a  series  of  essays,  and  a  treatise  on 
military  tactics. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  F.  NICOLAI, 
"Ehrengedaohtniss  E.  C.  von  Kleist's,"  1759;  GERVINUS,  "Ge 
schichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung,"  1853. 

Kleist,  von,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  poet  and  novel- 
st,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1776.  He  fought 
in  the  Prussian  army  against  France.  In  1808  he  was 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KLEIST 


KLOP STOCK 


associated  with  Adam  Miiller  in  the  publication  of  the 
"Phoebus."  A  victim  of  hypochondria,  he  committed 
suicide  in  1811.  Gervinus  places  him  above  all  the  dra 
matic  poets  of  his  time.  His  works  include  dramas,  lyric 
poems,  novels,  and  tales,  among  which  are  the  tragedies 
entitled  "The  Prince  of  Homburg"  and  "The  Battle  of 
Hermann,"  (1809,)  and  "Michael  Kohlhaas,"  a  tale. 

See  BULOW,  "  Heinrich  von  Kleist's  Leben  und  Briefe,"  1848; 
GERVINUS,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung,"  4th  edition,  1853  ; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828;  "British  Quarterly 
Review^  for  October,  1860.  . 

Kleist  von  Nollendorf,  klist  fon  nol'len-doRf, 
(EMIL  FRIEDRICH,)  COUNT,  a  Prussian  commander, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1762.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  at  the  battle  of  Baut 
zen,  after  which,  as  Prussian  plenipotentiary,  he  concluded 
the  truce.  After  the  battle  of  Dresden  and  the  retreat 
of  the  allies,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  Vandamme 
at  Nollendorf,  (August,  1813.)  He  was  created  a  field- 
marshal  in  1821,  having  previously  received  the  order  of 
the  Black  Eagle  and  been  made  commander-general  of 
Saxony.  Died  in  1823. 

Kleistheiies.     See  CLISTHENES. 

Kleitarchos.     See  CLITARCHUS. 

Kleitomachos.     See  CLITOMACHUS. 

Kleitos.     See  CLITUS. 

Klemm,  klem,  (FRIEDRICH  GUSTAV,)  a  German  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1802.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Bavaria,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  a  "Manual  of 
German  Archaeology,"  (1835,)  a  "General  History  of 
Human  Civilization,"  (10  vols.,  1843-50,)  and  other 
works. 

Klengel,  klejig'el,  QOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Dresden  in  1751. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  an  "Italian  Landscape  at 
Twilight,"  and  "The  Wheat  Harvest."  Died  in  1824. 

Klenze,  klgnt/seh,  (CLEMENS  AUGUST  KARL,)  a  Ger 
man  jurist,  a  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  near 
Hildesheim  in  1/95.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Common 
Penal  Law,"  (1833,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1838. 

Klenze,  von,  fon  klSnt'seh,  (LEO,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  architect,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1784.  He  studied 
at  Brunswick  and  at  Berlin,  and  afterwards  in  France, 
England,  and  Italy.  In  1813  he  went  to  Munich,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  crown-prince  Ludwig,  and  two 
years  later  was  appointed  court  architect  to  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  In  1833  he  was  ennobled.  Among  the  most 
important  of  his  designs  are  the  Glyptothek,  a  building 
to  receive  statuary  and  gems,  completed  in  1830  ;  the 
Odeon  and  the  Pinakothek  (picture-gallery)  at  Munich, 
completed  in  1837  ;  and  the  Walhalla,  or  hall  of  heroes, 
a  magnificent  marble  edifice  near  Ratisbon,  finished  in 
1839.  This  building,  the  exterior  of  which  resembles  the 
Parthenon,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments 
erected  in  modern  times.  Klenze,  in  his  designs  for 
buildings,  displays  an  uncommon  knowledge  of  the 
various  styles  of  architecture ;  though  he  regards  the 
Grecian  models  as  superior  to  all  others.  He  also 
erected  at  Saint  Petersburg,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
emperor  Nicholas,  the  Imperial  Palace  (completed  in 
1851)  and  the  Imperial  Museum.  Klenze  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Restoration  of 
the  Tuscan  Temples,"  "  The  Walhalla  in  its  Artistic  and 
Technical  Relations,"  and  several  collections  of  Grecian 
designs.  He  was  likewise  skilled  in  painting,  and  pro 
duced  several  landscapes  and  architectural  pieces.  Died 
in  1864. 

See  R.  WIEGMANN-,  "  Ritter  L.  von  Klenze  und  unsere  Kunst," 
1839;  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  FORTOUL,  "De  1'Art  en  Allemagne,"  tome  i. 

Kleobulos.     See  CLEOBULUS. 

Kleonibrotos.     See  CLEOMBROTUS. 

Kleomedes.     See  CLEOMEDES. 

Kleomeiies.     See  CLEOMENES. 

Kleoii.     See  CLEON. 

Kleopatra.     See  CLEOPATRA. 

Kleophon.     See  CLEOPHON. 

Kleostratos.     See  CLEOSTRATUS. 

Klerck,  kleRk,  (HENDRIK,)  an  artist  and  poet,  born 
in  Brussels  about  1570.  Among  his  paintings  are  "The 
Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  "The  Martyrdom  of 
Saint  Andrew." 


Kletten,  klet/ten,  (GEORG  ERNST,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  near  Wurzburg  in  1759;  died  in  1827. 

Klettenberg,  klet'ten-b?RG',  (SUSANNE  CATHERINE,) 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1723,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Goethe's  mother,  and  has  been  celebrated  by 
the  poet  in  his  "  Wilhelm  Meister,"  under  the  name  of 
"the  Beautiful  Soul."  She  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
essays  and  hymns.  Died  in  1774. 

Kleuker,  kloi'ker,  QOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Osterode  in  1749.  He  became  in  1798 
professor  of  theology  at  Kiel,  where  he  died  in  1827. 
He  translated  the  "  tend  Avesta"  of  Zoroaster  from  the 
Persian,  (1776,)  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Religious 
System  of  the  Brahmins,"  (1797.) 

See  RATJEN,  "J.  F.  Kleuker  und  Briefe  seiner  Freunde,"  etc., 
1842. 

Klicpera,  klits'peh-ra,  ?  (WENCESLAUS,)  a  Bohemian 
dramatist,  born  at  Chlumec  in  1792  ;  died  in  1859. 

Klimrath,  klaN'rit',  (HENRI,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Strasbourg  in  1807  ;  died  in  1837. 

Klingemaun,  kling'eh-man',  (ERNST  AUGUST  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  dramatic  poet,  and  director  of  the  court 
theatre  at  Brunswick,  where  he  was  born  in  1777.  Among 
his  best  works  are  "Luther,"  "Henry  the  Lion,"  and 
"German  Fidelity,"  ("Deutsche  Treue.")  Died  in  1831. 

See  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1827. 

Klingenstierna,  kling'en-sheR/na,  (SAMUEL,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born 
near  Liukoping  about  1690,  was  educated  at  Upsal. 
Having  visited  Germany,  he  became  the  friend  and  dis 
ciple  of  the  celebrated  Wolf.  Upon  his  return  to  Swe 
den,  in  1730,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics, 
and  was  subsequently  chosen  tutor  to  the  crown-prince, 
(Gustavus  III.)  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  office 
with  great  ability,  receiving  as  a  reward  the  order  of  the 
Polar  Star  and  the  title  of  councillor  of  state.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of  Upsal. 
Klingenstierna  wrote  a  work  on  refracting  telescopes, 
which  obtained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Saint  Petersburg,  a  treatise  on  the  height  of 
the  atmosphere,  (1732,)  and  various  other  productions. 
Died  at  Stockholm  in  1785. 

See  MARTIN  STROEMEK,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  Sfver  S.  Klingen 
stierna,"  1785;  ADEI.UNG  and  JOCHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Klinger,  kling'er,  (FRIEDRICH  MAXIMILIAN,)  a  Ger 
man  litterateitr,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  Febru 
ary,  1753.  Having  visited  Russia  in  1780,  he  became 
reader  to  the  grand  duke  Paul,  whom  he  accompanied 
on  his  travels.  In  181 1  he  was  created  lieutenant-general. 
He  published  poems,  dramas,  and  romances.  Died  at 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1831.  His  drama  entitled  "  Storm  and 
Stress,  or  Impulse,"  ("Sturm  und  Drang,"  1775,)  had  a 
great  success,  and  gave  a  name  to  a  period  of  German 
literature,  ("Die  Sturm-und-Drang  Periode,")  which, 
says  Gervinus,  "was  an  epoch  of  the  revolt  of  nature 
against  civilization,  of  simplicity  against  conventionality, 
of  youth  against  age,  of  the  heart  against  reason,"  etc. 

See  GERVINUS,  "Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung;"  "Xou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Klingsor  von  Ungerland,  kling'soR  fon  dong'er- 
lant',  a  German  minnesinger  and  astrologer  of  the  thir 
teenth  century,  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been 
the  author  o'f  the  famous  "Nibelungen-Lied,"  while 
others  regard  him  as  a  fabulous  personage. 

Klingstadt,  Klingstaedt,  or  Klingstet,  kling'stgt, 
(CLAUDIUS  GUSTAV,)  a  miniature-painter  in  the  suite 
of  the  regent  Duke  of  Orleans,  born  at  Riga  in  1657; 
died  at  Paris  in  1734. 

Klio.     See  CLIO. 

Klocker,  klok'ker,  or  Kloker,  kk/ker,  (DAVID,)  a 
portrait  and  historical  painter,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1629. 
In  early  life  he  went  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Sweden, 
where  he  was  appointed  to  give  lessons  in  drawing  to 
Queen  Christina.  He  was  afterwards  liberally  patron 
ized  by  Charles  X.  Died  at  Stockholm  in  1698. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie. " 

Kloostermaii.     See  CLOSTERMAN,  (JOHANN.) 

Klopstock,   klop'stok,   (FRIEDRICH  GOTTLIEB,)  a 

celebrated  German  poet,  born  at  Quedlinburg,  July  2, 

1724.    He  early  cherished  the  ambition  of  writing  an  epic 

poem.     About  1746  he  went  to  Jena  to  study  theology, 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z,  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KLOSE 


1332 


KNAPP 


and  in  1747  removed  to  Leipsic.  He  produced  in 
1748  the  first  three  cantos  of  his  "Messiah,"  which 
had  immense  success  and  opened  a  new  era  in  German 
poetry.  In  1749  he  was  employed  as  tutor  in  a  family 
at  Langensalza.  He  removed  in  1751  to  Copenhagen, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  king,  Frederick  V.,  who  gave 
him  a  pension  of  four  hundred  thalers  that  he  might 
have  leisure  to  complete  his  great  poem.  In  1754  he 
married  Margaret  (Meta)  Moller,  an  accomplished  and 
literary  woman,  whom  he  has  commemorated  in  odes 
and  elegies  under  the  name  of  "Ciclli."  He  remained 
twenty  years  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  Count  Bernstorff  and  Count  Moltke.  In  1755  he  pub 
lished  five  more  cantos  of  the  "Messiah."  He  cherished 
the  idea  that  he  had  a  great  poetical  mission.  "  This 
idea  of  an  epic  priesthood,"  says  Taillandier,  "gradually 
became  a  reality.  He  transferred  to  his  poem  the  events 
of  his  life;  he  regulated  his  life  by  the  inspirations  of 
his  poem."  "  By  his  character  and  conduct,"  says  Goethe 
in  his  Autobiography,  "  Klopstock  had  succeeded  in 
creating  attention  and  respect  for  himself  and  other  men 
of  talent.  ...  At  this  time  Klopstock  came  forward 
and  offered  his  'Learned  Republic'  for  subscriptions. 
Although  the  later  cantos  of  the  '  Messiah'  could  not 
have  the  effect  of  the  earlier,  partly  on  account  of  their 
contents,  partly  on  account  of  their  mode  of  treating  the 
subject,  which  came  pure  and  innocent  into  a  pure  and 
innocent  time,  the  esteem  for  the  poet  remained  un 
changed."  The  same  writer  remarks,  "  On  the  whole, 
one  might  have  taken  him  for  a  diplomatist.  He  carried 
himself  with  the  self-conscious  dignity  of  a  person  who 
has  a  great  moral  mission  to  fulfil." 

In  1758  he  was  greatly  afflicted  by  the  death  of  his 
wife.  He  settled  at  Hamburg  in  1771,  and  published 
in  1773  the  last  cantos  of  his  "Messiah."  The  general 
sentiment  of  his  contemporaries  in  relation  to  this  poem 
is  thus  expressed  by  Madame  de  Stael,  in  her  "  Tableau 
de  I'Allemagne  :"  "  When  the  reader  commences  this 
poem,  he  receives  an  impression  like  that  of  a  person 
entering  a  grand  cathedral  filled  with  the  music  of  an 
organ."  His  admirers  compared  him  to  Homer  and 
Milton ;  but  more  sober  critics  censure  his  sentimen 
tality,  monotony,  and  lack  of  action.  Although  his 
"  Messiah"  is  seldom  read  at  the  present  time,  all  the 
German  schools  unite  in  the  expression  of  honour  and 
gratitude  to  the  author  for  the  impulse  which  he  gave 
to  the  national  literature.  The  finest  qualities  of  his 
genius  are  displayed  in  his  odes,  some  of  whifch  are  con 
sidered  as  classic  models  of  the  noble  and  the  graceful. 
He  also  wrote  a  number  of  sacred  dramas,  among  which 
is  "The  Death  of  Adam."  About  1792  he  married  a 
widosv  named  Von  Winthem.  He  died  at  Hamburg  in 
March,  1803. 

See  HEINRICH  DURING,  "  F.  G.  Klopstock's  Biographic,"  1853; 
CRAMER,  "Klopstock  er  und  iiber  ihn,"  5  vols.,  1780-93;  Miss 
BENGEK,  "Klopstock  and  his  Friends,"  1814;  H.  DOKING,  "Klop 
stock's  Leben, "1825;  JOIIANN  G.  GRUBER,  "  Klopstocks  Leben," 
1832;  BON  JOSEPH  DAUER,  "filoge  de  Klopstock,"  Paris,  1805; 
F.  L.  MOLTKE,  "  Ara  D.  M.  F.  G.  Klopstock,"  Altona,  1818;  LONG 
FELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  January,  1843;  GERVINUS,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Dichtung  ;"  ALEXANDER  TOLHAUSEN,  "  Klopstock,  Lessing,  and 
Wieland:  Treatise  on  German  Literature,"  London,  1848;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Klose,  kids,  (F.  J.,)  an  English  musical  composer  and 
skilful  pianist,  was  born  in  London  ;  died  in  1830. 

Klotz,  klots,  [Lat.  KLOT'ZIUS,]  (CHRISTIAN  ADOL- 
PHUS,)  a  learned  German  critic  and  poet,  born  at  Bischofs- 
werda,  near  Dresden,  in  1738.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Jena,  and  in  1762  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen.  He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Prussia 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Halle  in  1765,  with  the  title  of 
aulic  councillor.  He  wrote  numerous  commentaries  and 
short  treatises,  among  which  are  "  Ridicula  Literaria," 
(1762,)  "Acta  Literaria,"  (7  vols.,  1764-73,)  and  "Lec- 
tiones  Venusinae,"  (1771.)  Died  in  1771. 

See  C.  HAUSEN,  "  Leben  und  Charakter  C.  A.  Klotzens,"  1772  ; 
C.  G.  VON  MURR,  "Denkmal  zur  Khre  des  Herrn  Klotz,"  1772; 
MANGELSDORF,  "  Vita  et  Memoria  Klotzii,"  1772. 

Klotz,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  German  painter  of  portraits 
and  landscapes,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1748;  died  in  1821. 
His  three  sons,  CASPAR,  SIMON,  and  JOSEPH,  acquired 
distinction  in  the  same  departments  of  painting. 


Klotz,  (REINHOLD,)  a  German  critic  and  scholar,  born 
at  Stollberg  in  1807,  succeeded  Hermann  as  professor  of 
philology  at  Leipsic  in  1849.  He  published  editions  of 
Terence,  of  the  "  Phoenissae"  and  "  Medea"  of  Euripides, 
and  other  works. 

Klotz,  (SiMON,)  a  German  painter  of  history  and 
landscapes,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1777,  was  a  son  of 
Matthias,  noticed  above.  Died  in  1825. 

Klotzius.     See  KLOTZ,  (CHRISTIAN  ADOLPHUS.) 

Klotzius,  klot'se-us,  (STEPHEN,)  a  German  Jheolo- 
gian,  born  at  Lippstadt  in  1606;  died  in  1668. 

Kliiber  or  Klueber,  klu'ber,  (JOHANN  LUDWIG,)  a 
German  jurist  and  writer  of  high  reputation,  was  born 
near  Fulda  in  1762.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Heidelberg  in  1807,  soon  after  which  date  he  was  coun 
cillor  of  state  at  Carlsruhe.  In  1817  his  friend  Prince 
Hardenberg  procured  for  him  a  high  office  in  the  min 
istry  of  foreign  affairs  at  Berlin.  He  acquired  distinc 
tion  by  a  history  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  "  Acten  des 
Wiener  Congresses  in  den  Jahren  1814  und  1815,"  (9 
vols.,  1815-35,)  ancl  other  works.  Died  in  1837. 

See  MORSTADT,  "Kliibers  Leben,"  prefixed  to  KI.UBER'S  "  Of- 
fentliches  Recht  des  Deutschen  Bundes,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Klueber.     See  KLUHER. 

Kluegel.     See  KLUGEL. 

Kliigel,  klii'gel,  (GEORG  SIMON,)  a  German  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1739.  He  became  in  1766 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Helmstedt.  Among  his 
principal  works  is  "Elements  of  Astronomy,"  (1819.) 
Died  in  1812. 

Kluit,  kloit,  (  ADRIAAN,)  a  Dutch  historical  writer,  born 
at  Dort  in  1735.  In  1779  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  archaeology  of  Holland  and  of  diplomatic  history 
at  Leyden.  Among  his  works  are  a  "History  of  the 
Political  Administration  of  Holland"  until  1795,  (5  vols., 
1802-05,)  and  the  "  Political  Economy  of  Holland."  Died 
in  1807. 

Kluk,  klook,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  a  Polish  naturalist, 
born  in  Podlachia  in  1739,  published  a  "  Dictionary  of 
Plants,"  (3  vols.  1786-88.)  Died  in  1796. 

Klupfel,  kloop'fel,  (EMMANUEL  CHRISTOPH,)  a  Ger 
man,  born  in  Saxe-Gotha,  became,  in  1764,  editor  of  the 
well-known  "Almanach  de  Gotha."  Died  in  1776. 

Klyn  or  Klijn,  kiln,  (HENDRIK  HERMAN,)  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1773,  wrote  a  poem  on 
Astronomy,  (1809,)  and  other  works. 

Klytermiestra.     See  CLYTEMNESTRA. 

Kmety,  kma'tee,  (GEORGE,)  GENERAL,  the  son  of  a 
Protestant  minister,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Gomor, 
in  Hungary,  in  1810.  He  entered  the  Austrian  army, 
in  which  he  obtained  a  commission.  In  1848  he  joined 
the  Hungarian  army  which  fought  against  the  Austrians, 
and  signalized  his  bravery  on  several  occasions.  After 
the  surrender  of  Gorgey,  he  embraced  the  Moslem  faith, 
and  enlisted  in  the  Turkish  service,  with  the  title  of 
Ismael  Pasha.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  general  in 
the  Crimean  war,  particularly  in  a  battle  with  the  Rus 
sians  before  Kars.  Died  in  1865. 

Knapp,  knap  or  k'nap,  (ALISRECHT,)  a  German  divine, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Wurtemberg  in  1798,  has  published 
several  collections  of  hymns  and  sacred  poems,  which 
are  highly  esteemed. 

Knapp,  (GEORG  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Halle  in  1753.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Halle  about  fifty  years,  and  was  distinguished  in  sacred 
criticism.  He  was  moderately  orthodox,  endeavouring 
to  reconcile  revelation  with  the  demands  of  reason.  He 
published  "Lectures  on  Christian  Theology,"  (2  vols., 
1827,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Halle  in  1825. 

See  A.  H.  NIEMEYER,  "  Epicediendem  Andenken  G.  C.  Knapp's," 
etc.,  1825. 

Kuapp,  (JoiiANN,)  a  German  painter  of  flowers  and 
animals,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1778  ;  died  in  1833. 

Knapp,  nap,  (SAMUEL  LORENZO,)  a  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1784. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Biographical  Sketches 
of  Eminent  Lawyers,  Statesmen,  and  Men  of  Letters," 
"Travels  in  North  America,  by  Ali  Bey,"  "Lectures 
on  American  Literature,"  and  "American  Biography." 
Died  in  1838. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


KNAPTON 


1333 


KNIGHT 


Knapton,  nap'ton,  (GEORGK,)  an  English  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1698,  painted  in  crayons. 
Died  in  1788. 

Kiiaust,  knowst  or  k'nowst,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  1541 ;  died  in  1577. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Knaut,  knowt  or  k'nosvt,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Halle  in  1654;  died  in  1716. 

Knaut,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  botanical  writer,  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1638;  died  in  1694. 

Knauth,  knowt,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Gorlitz  in  1706 ;  died  in  1784. 

Knebel,  kna'bel,  (EMMANUEL  THEOPHILUS,)  a  Ger 
man  medical  writer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1772  ;  died  in  1809. 

Knebel,  von,  fon  kna'bel,  (KARL  LUDWIG,)  a  Ger 
man  litterateur,  born  at  Wallerstein,  in  Franconia,  in 
1744.  He  published  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
Elegies  of  Propertius  (1798)  and  the  "  I)e  Rerum 
Xatura"  of  Lucretius,  (1821  and  1831.)  His  interesting 
"  Correspondence  with  Goethe"  came  out  after  Knebel's 
death,  which  took  place  in  1834.  He  was  intimate  with 
Mendelssohn,  Gleim,  Jacobi,  and  other  eminent  writers. 

SeeT.  MUNDT,  "  Knebels  Leben,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Literarischer 
Xachlass,"  1835-40:  SCHWARZ,  "Zur  Erinnerung  an  K.  L.  von 
Knebel:  Rede  an  seinem  Grabe  gesprochen,"  1834;  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1838. 

Kneller,  nel'ler,  [Ger.  pron.  knel'ler,]  (GODFREY,) 
a  celebrated  portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Lubeck  in 
1648.  He  commenced  his  studies  under  Rembrandt, 
and  pursued  them  in  Italy.  He  afterwards  went  to  Eng 
land,  where  he  was  successively  court  painter  to  Charles 
II.,  James  II.,  William  III.,  Queen  Anne,  and  George  I. 
The  last-named  created  him  a  baronet.  Kneller  was  also 
made  a  knight  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  emperor 
Leopold.  In  addition  to  the  distinguished  personages 
of  the  English  court,  he  painted  portraits  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Peter  the  Great.  Died  about  1723. 

See  W.  A.  ACKERMANN,  "  Der  Portrnitmaler  Sir  Godefrey  Kneller 
im  Verhaltniss  zur  Kunstbildung  seiner  Zeit  dargestellt,"  Lubeck, 
1845- 

Kniazhnin,  kne-azh'nin,  written  also  Kniaschnin 
and  Kniajm'n,  (YAKOF  BORISSOVITCH,)  a  Russian  poet 
and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Pskov  in  1742.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Dido"  and  "  Sopho- 
nisba,"  and  a  number  of  odes,  songs,  and  fables.  At  the 
request  of  the  empress  Catherine,  he  translated  from 
the  Italian  "  La  Clemenza  di  Tito"  of  Metastasio.  Died 
in  1791. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Princess  Daschkoff,"  1840. 

Kniaziewicz,  kne-azh'ya-vitch,  ?  (KARL,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1762.  He  fought  bravely,  though  un 
successfully,  in  the  defence  of  his  country  in  1794,  and 
afterwards  entered  the  French  army  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1798.  He  was  made 
a  commander  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1804.  Died  in 
1842. 

See  L.  CHODZKO,  "La  Pologne  illustree,"  1840. 

Kniaznin,  kne-azh'nin,  ?  (FRANCIS  DIONYSIUS,)  a 
Polish  poet,  born  in  the  government  of  Vitepsk  in  1750, 
became  teacher  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Warsaw,  and 
was  afterwards  secretary  to  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski. 
He  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems,  and  published  various 
translations  of  ancient  poets  into  Polish.  Died  in  1807. 

Knibb,  nib,'(Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  Baptist  mis 
sionary,  noted  for  his  courageous  opposition  to  slavery 
in  Jamaica,  was  born  at  Kettering,  in  Xorthamptonshire, 
about  1800.  He  laboured  zealously  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  slaves  ;  and  by  his  representations  to 
the  people  of  England  he  aided  not  a  little  in  the  negro 
emancipation  of  Jamaica,  as  well  as  in  the  subsequent 
abolition  of  the  apprentice  system.  He  made  a  powerful 
anti-slavery  speech  at  Exeter  Hall  in  1840.  Died  in  1845. 

See  JAS.  HOBV,  "  Memoir  of  Wm.  Knibb,"  1839;  J.  H.  HINTON, 
"  Memoirs  of  Wm.  Knibb,"  1847. 

Knicauiu,  kne-ka-neen'.  ?  (STEPHAN  PETROVITCH,)  a 
Servian  general,  born  in  1808,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  in  1852  was  made  a  general 
and  senaH^.  Died  in  1855. 

Knickerbocker,  (DIEDRICH.)     See  IRVING. 

Kniep,  kneep,  (CHRISTOPH  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1748.  He  travelled  in 


Italy  with  Goethe,  and  worked  in  Xaples.  His  drawings 
in  sepia  and  crayons,  of  Italian  landscapes  and  antiqui 
ties,  are  much  admired.  Died  in  Xaples  in  1825. 

Knigge,  von,  fon  knik'keh,  (ADOLF  FRANZ  FRIED- 
RICH,)  BARON,  a  German  philosopher  and  writer,  born 
near  Hanover  in  1752.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Romance  of  my  Life,"  ("Roman  meines  Lebens," 
4  vols.,  1781,)  and  "'On  the  Art  of  Living  with  Men," 
("Ueber  den  Umgang  mit  Menschen,"  1788.)  Died  in 
1796. 

See  GODEKR,  "Adolf  von  Knigge,  sein  Leben  und  Blicke  in  seine 
Zeit,"  1844;  "  Kurze  Biographic  des  A.  von  Knigge,"  1823. 

Knight,  nit,  (CHARLES,)  an  eminent  English  editor 
and  author,  born  at  Windsor  in  1791.  He  settled  in 
London  about  1823,  and  commenced  business  as  a  pub 
lisher.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  under  whose 
auspices  he  published  "The  Penny  Magazine"  (1832-45) 
at  his  own  risk,  and  "The  Library  of  Entertaining 
Knowledge."  Among  the  works  which  he  has  published 
or  edited  are  "The  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  (30  vols.,  1833- 
46,)  "The  Pictorial  History  of  England,"  (about  1844,) 
and  a  valuable  "English  Cyclopaedia,"  (24  vols.,  1854- 
61,)  which  is  in  fact  a  recast  of  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia," 
with  important  changes  and  additions.  This  is  separated 
into  divisions  for  biography,  geography,  etc.  He  has  also 
published  a  number  of  popular  works,  among  which  are 
a  "  Life  of  Shakspere,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Pictorial  Shak- 
spere,"  (1839,)  "Knowledge  is  Power,"  (1855,)  and  his 
"Popular  History  of  England,"  (1856-62.) 

See  "Passages  of  a  Working- Life,"  by  CHARLES  KNIGHT; 
"British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1864. 

Knight,  (CORNELIA,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
about  1758,  was  for  a  time  companion  to  the  princess 
Charlotte.  She  resided  many  years  in  Italy.  Among 
her  works  is  "Dinarbas,"  (1790,)  which  is  a  sequel  to 
Johnson's  "Rasselas."  Died  about  1837. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  Miss  Cornelia  Knight,"  London,  1861  ; 
BESSIE  R.  PARKES,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1866 ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1862 ;  "  British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1862. 

Knight,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born  at 
Birmingham  in  1774;  died  in  1826. 

Knight,  (GODWIN,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  philosopher, 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1742.  He  published  an  "  Attempt 
to  demonstrate  that  all  the  Phenomena  of  Nature  may 
be  explained  by  Attraction  and  Repulsion,"  (1748.)  Died 
in  1772. 

Knight,  (HENRY  GALLY, )  an  English  antiquary, 
traveller,  and  writer,  born  in  1786.  He  wrote  poems 
and  treatises  on  architecture.  Died  in  1846. 

Knight,  (JAMES,)  an  English  navigator,  who  in  1719 
was  sent  by  a  mercantile  company  with  two  vessels  to 
search  for  a  northwest  passage  and  for  mines  of  copper. 
None  of  this  party  ever  returned. 

Knight,  (JoHN  PRESCOTT,)  an  English  painter,  born 
at  Stafford  in  1803,  is  the  son  of  a  noted  comedian.  He 
painted  portraits  with  success. 

Knight,  nit,  (JONATHAN,)  an  American  surgeon,  born 
at  XTorwalk,  Connecticut,  in  1789.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Yale  College  in  1813,  and  was  professor 
of  surgery  at  the  same  college  from  1838  to  1864.  Died 
in  1864. 

Knight,  (RICHARD  PAYNE,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
Greek  scholar,  born  in  Herefordshire  in  1750.  He  was 
several  times  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  boroughs  of 
Leominster  and  Ludlow.  He  made  a  large  collection 
of  Greek  coins,  bronzes,  and  various  works  of  art,  valued 
at  fifty  thousand  pounds,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
British  Museum.  Among  other  works,  he  wrote  "An 
Analytical  Enquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Taste,"  (1805.) 
He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  and  wrote 
a  mediocre  poem  on  "The  Progress  of  Civil  Society," 
(1796,)  which  furnished  Canning  and  others  a  subject  for 
a  parody  in  "The  Anti-Jacobin."  Died  in  1824. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806. 

Knight,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  clergyman  and  biogra 
pher,  born  in  London  in  1674.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of 
Erasmus  (1724)  and  of  Dr.  John  Colet,  (1726.)  He 
became  chaplain  to  George  II.  in  1730,  and  Archdeacon 
of  Berks  in  1735.  Died  in  1746. 


€  as/-;  9  as  s;  'ghard;  g  as_/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t'tis. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KNIGHT 


'334 


KNOX 


Knight,  (THOMAS  ANDREW,)  a  distinguished  vege 
table  physiologist  and  horticulturist,  born  in  1758,  was  a 
brother  of  R.  P.  Knight,  noticed  above.  He  succeeded 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  as  president  of  the  British  Horticul 
tural  Society.  He  wrote  "A  Treatise  on  the  Culture 
of  the  Apple  and  Pear,  and  on  the  Manufacture  of  Cider 
and  Perry,"  (1797,)  and  other  works.  He  produced  new 
and  valuable  varieties  of  fruits  from  seeds,  and  made 
experiments  in  vegetable  fecundation,  in  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  in  other  processes  of  vegetable  physiology. 
Died  in  1838. 

Knightoii  or  Knyghton,  m'ton,  (HENRY,)  a  his 
torical  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  flourished  in  England 
about  1380-1400.  His  principal  works  are  a  chronicle 
of  events  from  the  invasion  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
and  a  history  of  Richard  II. 

Kuill,  nil,  (Rev.  RICHARD,)  an  English  Methodist  mis 
sionary,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1787.  He  was  sent  in 
1816  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  India,  where 
he  spent  three  years,  and  subsequently  resided  sixteen 
years  in  Russia,  where  he  laboured  with  great  zeal  and 
success.  Died  in  1857. 

See  CHARLES  M.  BIRRELL,  "  Life  of  Richard  Knill,  with  a  Review 
of  his  Life  and  Character,"  by  J.  ANGELL  JAMES,  London,  1860. 

Knipperdolling,  knip'per-dol'ling,  (BERNHARD,)  a 
German  fanatic,  born  in  Minister,  was  associated  with 
the  principal  leaders  of  the  Anabaptist  insurrection  of 
1533.  He  was  executed  in  1536,  with  his  accomplice, 
John  of  Leyden. 

Knipstrovius.     See  KNIFSTROW. 

Kiiipstrow,  knip'stRo,  or  Kiiiepstrow,  kneep'stRo, 
[Lat.  KNIPSTRO'VIUS,]  QOHANN,)  a  German  reformer, 
born  at  Sandow,  in  Silesia,  in  1497.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  a  public  dispute  against  Tetzel  in  1518.  In 
1539  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Greifswalde, 
and  in  1547  rector  of  the  university  at  that  place.  Died 
in  1556. 

See  MAYER,  "Vita  Knipstrovii." 

Knjaschnin  or  Knjaznin.     See  KNIAZHNIN. 

Knobelsdorf,  kno'bels-douf,  (HANS  GEORG  WEN- 
CESLAUS,)  a  distinguished  Prussian  architect,  born  in 
1697,  was  appointed  by  Frederick  the  Great  superin 
tendent  of  the  royal  buildings.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  castle  of  Sans-Souci  and  the  Opera-House  at 
Berlin.  Died  in  1753. 

Knoblecher,  knop'leK-er,  (N.,)  a  German  mission 
ary  and  traveller,  born  about  1800.  In  company  with  a 
trading-party,  he  ascended  the  White  Nile  in  1849-50 
to  about  4°  north  latitude,  but  was  unable  to  reach  the 
source  of  the  river. 

Kiioller,  von,  fon  knol'ler,  (MARTIN,)  an  eminent 
historical  painter,  born  at  Steinach,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1725, 
studied  several  years  in  Rome.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  frescos  painted  from  incidents  in  the  life  of 
Cardinal  Borromeo,  and  a  large  fresco  at  Munich  of  the 
"Ascension  of  the  Virgin."  Knoller  received  a  patent 
of  nobility  from  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  worked 
many  years  in  Milan.  Died  in  1804. 

See  ENRICO  CLAUSEN,  "  Memoria  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  M. 
Knoller,"  Milan,  1838;  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Knolles,  nolz,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  about  1545.  Among  his  works 
are  "  General  History  of  the  Turks  from  the  Origin  of 
this  Nation  until  the  Elevation  of  the  Ottoman  Family," 
(1610,)  and  a  "Compendium  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  Grammar."  His  "  History  of  the  Turks"  was 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson.  Died  in  1610. 

Knolles  or  Knowles,  n51z,  (ROBERT,)  a  celebrated 
English  general  under  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  was 
'born  about  1317  ;  died  about  1406. 

See  FROISSART,  "Chronicles." 

Knollis  or  Knowles,  nolz,  (Sir  FRANCIS,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  about  1530.  He  pro 
moted  the  Reformation  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  On 
the  accession  6f  Elizabeth,  (1558,)  he  was  appointed 
chamberlain  of  the  household  and  privy  councillor.  Died 
in  1596. 

See  TURNER,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  VI.,"  etc. 

Knorr,  knoR,  (GEORG  WOLFGANG,)  a  German  en 
graver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1705  ;  died  in  1761. 


Knorr  von  Rosenroth,  knoR  fon  ro'zen-r5t',  (CHRIS 
TIAN,)  BARON,  a  German  scholar  and  statesman,  born 
near  Liegnitz  in  1636.  He  wrote  an  "Evangelical  His 
tory,"  and  "Kabbala  Denudata,"  an  exposition  of  the 
transcendental,  metaphysical,  and  theological  doctrines 
of  the  Hebrews.  Died  in  1689. 

Knott,  not,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  Jesuit  and  con 
troversial  writer,  whose  proper  name  was  MATTHEW 
WILSON,  was  born  in  Northumberland  in  1580.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  "  Infidelity  Unmasked,"  (1652,)  in 
answer  to  Chillingworth's  "  Religion  of  Protestants." 
Died  in  1656. 

Knowler,  no'ler,  ?  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  about  1700,  translated  part  of  Saint  Chrysostom's 
works.  Died  in  1767. 

Knowles,  n5lz,  (JAMES  DAVIS,)  an  American  writer 
and  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1798.  He  graduated  at  Columbian  College,  Wash 
ington,  D.C.,  and  in  1825  became  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Boston.  He  wrote  Memoirs  of  Roger  Williams  and 
of  Mrs.  Ann  H.  Judson,  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
"Christian  Review."  Died  in  1838. 

Knowles,  nolz,  (JAMES  SHERIDAN,)  a  popular  drama 
tist  and  actor,  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in  1784.  At 
twelve  years  of  age  he  wrote  his  first  play,  and  at  four 
teen  produced  an  opera,  "The  Chevalier  de  Grillon." 
He  visited  America  in  1835,  where  he  performed  on  the 
stage  and  met  with  a  flattering  reception.  P'our  years 
later,  an  annual  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  was  con 
ferred  upon  him  by  the  British  government.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  of  his  numerous  plays  may  be  mentioned 
"Leo  the  Gipsey,"  "Caius  Gracchus,"  (1815,)  "Vir- 
ginius,"  (1820,)  and  "The  Hunchback,"  (1832.)  Several 
years  before  his  death  he  left  the  stage  and  became  a 
Baptist  preacher.  Died  in  1862. 

See  R.  H.  HORNE,  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1833;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April.  1836; 
"  Ulackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1863;  ALLIBONE,  "Diction 
ary  of  Authors." 

Knowles,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  Ely  in  1723.  He  wrote  "Advice  to 
Young  Clergymen,"  "Primitive  Christianity,  in  Defence 
of  the  Trinity,"  and  "Lectures  for  Passion  Week." 
Died  in  1802. 

Knowlton,  noKton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  botanist, 
born  in  1692  ;  died  in  1782. 

Knox,  noks,  (HENRY,)  an  able  American  general  and 
statesman,  born  at  Boston,  July  25,  1750,  was  a  book 
seller  in  his  youth.  He  married  an  accomplished  lady 
named  Lucy  Fluker.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  as  an  engineer  and 
artillerist.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  artillery.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  in  1776,  and  served  under  Washington  in  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  January,  1777.  He 
directed  the  artillery  at  the  battle  of  Branclyvvine,  Sep 
tember,  1777,  and  at  Monmouth,  June,  1778.  lie  also 
contributed  to  the  defeat  and  capture  of  the  British  army 
at  Yorktown,  in  October,  1781,  soon  after  which  he  was 
promoted  to  be  a  major-general.  He  enjoyed  in  a  high 
degree  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  General  Wash 
ington.  He  succeeded  General  Lincoln  as  secretary  of 
war  in  March,  1785,  before  the  adoption  of  the  Consti 
tution,  and  was  appointed  to  the  same  office  by  President 
Washington  in  1789.  In  politics  he  was  a  Federalist. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  December,  1794,  after  which  he 
lived  in  Maine.  He  had  seven  or  more  children.  He 
died  at  Thomaston,  Maine,  in  October,  1806. 

See  BANCROFT,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Knox,  noks,  (JOHN,)  the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  Re 
formers,  was  born  at  Gifford,  in  East  Lothian,  in  1505. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's, 
and  in  theology  was  a  pupil  of  John  Major  or  Mair.  He 
was  ordained  a  priest  about  1530,  soon  after  which  a  great 
change  took  place  in  his  religious  opinions.  In  1542 
he  openly  renounced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and 
became  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Protestant  doctrines, 
which  at  that  time  had  few  adherents  in  Scotland.  The 
storm  of  persecution  soon  began  to  beat  against  him, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fet;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KNOX 


1335 


KOCH 


and  it  is  stated  that  Cardinal  Beaton  employed  assassins 
to  take  his  life.  In  1547  he  retired  for  safety  to  the.castle 
of  Saint  Andrew's,  which  was  occupied  by  a  party  of 
Protestants  who  had  conspired  against  and  killed  Cardi 
nal  Beaton.  During  the  siege  of  this  place  he  preached 
with  great  power  and  converted  many  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  castle  at  length  was  captured  by  Regent  Arran  and 
his  French  allies,  who  carried  Knox  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rouen.  He  was  confined  nineteen  months  in  the  French 
galleys,  and  released  in  1549,  after  which  he  preached 
at  Berwick  and  Newcastle  for  several  years.  He  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.  about  1551,  and  was 
intimate  with  Cranmer.  In  1553  he  married  Marjory 
Bowes.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  (1553,)  he 
was  induced  by  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  friends  to 
retire  to  the  continent.  He  visited  Scotland  in  1555, 
after  which  he  passed  about  three  years  at  Geneva,  where 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Calvin,  studied  Hebrew,  and 
was  employed  as  pastor  of  a  church.  In  1558  he  pub 
lished  "The  First  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the 
Monstrous  Regiment  of  Women."  The  Scotch  Prot 
estants  in  the  mean  time  had  increased  in  number,  and 
the  conflict  between  the  opposing  ideas  had  reached  a 
crisis  which  required  the  inflexible  resolution  and  un 
flinching  courage  of  Knox.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in 
May,  1559,  and  became  the  master-spirit  of  the  Refor 
mation  in  that  country,  which  was  then  ruled  by  Marie, 
the  queen-regent,  a  French  princess  of  the  family  of 
Guise.  The  Protestants  raised  and  maintained  an  army 
for  self-defence,  and  were  animated  by  the  vehement 
harangues  of  Knox,  who  thundered  continually  against 
the  idolatry  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  Parliament  in 
1560  renounced  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  adopted 
a  confession  of  faith  proposed  by  Knox.  In  1561  the 
young  queen  Mary  arrived  in  Scotland,  and  had  with 
Knox  several  interviews,  with  no  satisfactory  results. 
"  At  my  interview  with  the  queen,"  he  wrote  to  Cecil, 
"she  showed  more  artifice  than  I  ever  found  in  a  person 
so  young."  At  her  instigation,  Knox  was  accused  of 
treason,  and  tried,  but  was  acquitted,  (1563.)  His  first 
wife  having  died,  he  married  in  1564  Margaret  Stewart, 
a  daughter  of  Lord  Ochiltree.  The  projects  and  influ 
ence  of  Knox  were  promoted  by  the  abdication  of  the 
queen  and  the  appointment  of  Murray  as  regent.  But 
in  his  latter  years  he  was  greatly  afflicted  by  the  assas 
sination  of  Murray  (1570)  and  the  confusion  and  disorders 
which  followed  that  event.  He  died  in  November,  1572. 
Among  the  Reformers  of  that  age,  Knox  was  distin 
guished  for  his  courage  and  sagacity,  as  well  as  for  his 
earnestness  and  the  inflexible  austerity  of  his  principles. 
The  regent  Morton,  in  a  short  funeral  oration,  said  of 
him,  "  Here  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face  of  man." 
Of  Knox,  Froude  remarks  that  he  was  "perhaps  in 
that  extraordinary  age  its  most  extraordinary  man,  and 
whose  character  became  the  mould  in  which  the  later 
fortunes  of  his  country  were  cast."  ("  History  of  Eng 
land,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xviii.)  In  another  place  he  says, 
"  No  grander  figure  can  be  found  in  the  entire  history  of 
the  Reformation  in  this  island  than  that  of  Knox.  .  .  . 
The  one  man  without  whom  Scotland,  as  the  modern 
world  has  known  it,  would  have  had  no  existence.  .  .  . 
His  was  the  voice  which  taught  the  peasant  of  the 
Lothians  that  he  was  a  free  man,  the  equal  in  the  sight  of 
God  with  the  proudest  peer  or  prelate  that  had  trampled 
on  his  forefathers.  He  was  the  one  antagonist  whom 
Mary  Stuart  could  not  soften  nor  Maitland  deceive  ;  he 
it  was  that  raised  the  poor  commons  of  his  country  into 
a  stern  and  rugged  people,  who  might  be  hard,  narrow, 
superstitious,  and  fanatical,  but  who  nevertheless  were 
men  whom  neither  king,  noble,  nor  priest  could  force 
again  to  submit  to  tyranny."  (See  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  x.  chap,  xxiii.  pp.  452-456  et  seq.) 

See  McCRiE,  "Life  of  John  Knox,"  2  vols.,  1812;  BURTON', 
"  History  of  Scotland,"  more  particularly  chap,  xxxviii.  ;  ROBERT 
SON,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  FROUDE,  "  History  of  England,"  vols. 
v.,  vii.,  ix.,  x.  ;  NIEMEYER,  "  Leben  des  J.  Knox  und  der  beiden 
Marien,"  1824;  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica;"  "Westminster  Re 
view"  for  July,  1853;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nen  Scotsmen;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812,  April,  1852, 
and  July,  1853. 

Knox,  noks,  (JOHN,)  an  English  benefactor,  born 
about  1720,  was  a  bookseller  of  London.  He  acquired  a 


fortune  by  business,  and  spent  much  time  and  money  in 
plans  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  the  High 
lands  of  Scotland,  which  he  visited  sixteen  times.  He 
wrote  a  "  Systematic  View  of  Scotland."  Died  in  1790. 

Knox,  (JoHN,)  a  native  of  Edinburgh,  and  captain 
in  the  English  navy,  wrote  a  historical  account  of  the 
campaigns,  naval  battles,  etc.  in  America  during  the 
years  1757,  1759,  and  1760.  Died  in  1790. 

Kiiox,  (ROBERT,)  of  the  British  East  India  naval 
service,  was  born  about  1640.  In  1660  he  was  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Ceylon,  where  he  remained  a  captive 
twenty  years.  After  his  escape  he  published  a  "  His 
torical  Relation  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon,"  (1681.)  Died 
about  1700. 

Kuox,  (ViCESiMUS,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  English  cler 
gyman  and  author,  born  at  Newington  Green,  in  the 
county  of  Middlesex,  in  1752.  The  title  of  D.D.  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Of  his  numerous  works  may  be  mentioned  "  Essays, 
Moral  and  Literary,"  (1777,)  "Personal  Nobility,  or 
Letters  to  a  Young  Nobleman,"  "Christian  Philoso 
phy,"  (1795,)  "On  the  National  Importance  of  Classical 
Education,"  and  "Considerations  on  the  Nature  and 
Efficacy  of  the  Lord's  Supper."  As  a  preacher  he  was 
very  popular.  He  obtained  the  united  rectories  of  Rum- 
well  and  Ramsden  Crays  in  Essex,  and  was  master  of 
Tunbridge  School,  which  he  conducted  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1821. 

Knox,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  about  1788. 
Among  his  poems  are  "The  Lonely  Hearth,"  and  "Ma- 
riamne."  Died  in  1825. 

Kiiud.     See  CANUTE. 

Knupfer,  kndop'fer,  (NIKOLAUS,)  a  German  painter 
of  battles  and  mythological  subjects,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1603  ;  died  in  1660. 

Knut.     See  CANUTE. 

Knutzen,  knoot'sen,  (MARTIN,)  a  German  writer,  and 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg, 
was  born  in  that  city  in  1713  ;  died  in  1751. 

Kuutzen,  Knuzen,  or  Cnutzen,  knoot'sen,  (MAT 
THIAS,)  an  atheist  or  skeptic,  was  born  in  Holstein,  and 
educated  at  Konigsberg.  He  made  numerous  proselytes, 
who,  from  his  doctrine  that  reason  and  conscience  were 
sufficient  to  guide  all  men,  have  been  called  Conscien- 
tiarians.  Died  after  1674. 

Knuzen.     See  KNUTZEN. 

Knyphausen,  knip'how'zen,  (BARON,)  a  German 
general,  born  in  Alsace  about  1730.  He  obtained  in  1776 
command  of  an  army  of  Hessians  who  were  hired  by 
the  British  ministry  to  fight  against  the  Americans.  He 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  September,  1777, 
and  in  other  actions  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  Died  in 
Berlin  in  1789. 

Kobad.     See  CABADES. 

Kobell,  ko'bel,  (FERDINAND,)  an  able  German  land 
scape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1740. 
He  worked  for  some  years  at  Munich,  where  he  died  in 
1799.  His  etchings  are  highly  prized. 

Kobell,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  landscape-painter,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Mannheim  in  1749.  He  also 
executed  with  his  pen  a  large  number  of  pictures,  which 
have  been  greatly  admired.  Died  in  1822. 

Kobell,  (FRA'NZ,)  a  German  poet  and  mineralogist, 
a  grandson  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Munich  in  1803.  He  published  several  good  works  on 
mineralogy,  and  a  number  of  popular  poems. 

Kobell,  ko'bgl,  (HENDRIK,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Rotterdam  in  1751.  He  painted  landscapes,  marine 
pieces,  and  naval  battles  with  success.  Died  in  1782. 

Kobell,  (JAN,)  a  skilful  painter  of  landscapes  and 
animals,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1782,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  Died  in  1814. 

Kobell,  (WILHKLM,)  an  eminent  German  painter 
of  landscapes  and  battles,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1766, 
was  a  son  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above.  He  worked  at 
Munich.  Died  in  1853.  • 

Kobenzl.     See  COHENZL. 

Koch,  von,  fon  koK,  (CHRISTOPH  WILHF.LM,)  a 
French  Protestant  and  historical  writer,  of  German 
parentage,  was  born  at  Bouxviller,  in  Alsace,  in  1737. 
He  studied  at  Strasburg  under  Schopflin,  and  gained  dis- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KOCH 


1336 


KOHL 


tinction  as  a  lecturer  on  history,  public  law,  etc.  in  that 
city.  In  1791  he  represented  Bas-Rhin  in  the  Legisla 
tive  Assembly.  He  was  imprisoned  during  the  reign  of 
terror,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Tribunate  in  1802. 
Among  his  important  works  are  "Tableau  des  Revolu 
tions  de  1'Europe  depuis  le  Bouleversement  cle  1'Empire 
Remain,"  (1771,)  and  an  "Abridged  History  of  the 
Treaties  between  the  European  Powers  since  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,"  (4  vols.,  1796.)  Died  in  1813. 
See  SCHWEIGHAUSER,  "  Notice  biographique  de  Koch." 

Koch,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  FREDERIC,)  a  general,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1782.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  the  Campaign  of  1814," 
(3  vols.,  1819,)  and  aided  Jomini  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Revolution,"  (5  vols.,  1819-24.)  Died  in  1861. 

Koch,  (JOSEPH  ANTON,)  an  eminent  landscape  and 
historical  painter,  born  in  the  valley  of  Lech,  near  Augs 
burg,  in  1768.  He  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  fixed  his 
residence.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  the  "  Sacrifice  of 
Noah,"  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  and  the  frescos  from 
Dante  in  the  villa  Massimi.  He  also  etched  twenty 
plates  of  Italian  landscapes,  which  are  esteemed  master 
pieces.  Died  at  Rome  in  1839. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Koch,  (KARL  HEINRICH  EMANUEL,)  a  German  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1809.  He  travelled  in  Southern 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  his  "  Journey  through  Russia  to  the  Caucasian 
Isthmus,"  (2  vols.,  1842,)  "Wanderings  in  the  East,"  (3 
vols.,  1846,)  and  a  "Flora  of  the  Levant,"  ("  Beitrage  zu 
einer  Flora  des  Orientes,"  1848-54.) 

Koch,  (WILHELM  DANIEL  JOSEPH,)  a  German  phy 
sician  and  botanist,  born  near  Deux-Ponts  in  1771,  be 
came,  in  1824,  professor  of  botany  and  medicine  at  Erlan- 
gen.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  European  Willows," 
("  De  Salicibus  Europacis,"  1818,)  "  Synopsis  of  the  Flora 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland,"  (1835-37,)  and  other  works 
on  botany.  Died  in  1849. 

Koch-Sternfeld,  UOK  steiu/felt,  (JOSEPH  ERNST,) 
a  German  historical  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Mit- 
tersill  in  1778.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Kingdom 
of  the  Longobards  in  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  "Historical 
Studies  on  Civilization  in  the  Alps,"  (2  vols.,  1852.) 

Kochaiiowski,  ko'Ka-nov'skee,  (JoHN,)  a  Polish 
nobleman  and  celebrated  poet,  born  in  1532.  For  his 
translations  of  the  Psalms  into  Polish  verse  he  received 
the  title  of  "the  Pindar  of  Poland."  His  other  poems 
were  published  at  Warsaw,  (1803-05.)  Died  in  1584. 

See  BENTKOWSKI,  "History  of  Polish  Literature." 

Kock,  (MATTHEW.)     See  COCK. 

Kock,  de,  deh  kok,  (CHARLES  PAUL,)  a  French  ro 
mance-writer  and  dramatist,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born 
at  Passy,  near  Paris,  in  1794.  His  works,  though  pos 
sessing  'little  merit  as  literary  productions,  and  ranking 
among  the  most  immoral  of  French  novels,  enjoy  great 
popularity  both  in  France  and  other  countries  of  Europe. 
Some  French  critics  consider  him  an  excellent  painter 
of  French  manners,  of  Parisian  roguery,  rustic  bonhomie, 
and  the  absurdity  of  the  bourgeois. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1837;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830,  and  October,  1839  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1843. 

Kochly  or  Koechly,  koK'lee,  (HERMANN  AUGUST 
THEODOR,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1815.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  valuable 
"History  of  the  Art  of  War  among  the  Greeks,"  (1852.) 

Kodde,  van  der,  vSn  der  kocl'deh,  (J/\N,  ADRIAAN, 
and  GYSBERT,)  three  brothers,  who  lived  at  Warmond, 
near  Leyden,  and  founded  a  religious  society,  called  Col- 
legiants,  about  1620. 

Kodhaee  or  Kodhai,  Al,  al  ko-dha'ee,  (Abdallah- 
Ibn-Abi-Bekr-Ibnul-Abbar,  ab-d31'lah  Tb'n  a'bee 
bek'r  ib-nool'  ab-bSn',)  often  called  simply  Ibnul-  (or 
Ibnool-)  Abbar,  a  celebrated  Spanish  Arabian  author, 
born  at  Valencia,  in  Spain,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
His  style  is  elegant,  pure,  and  terse.  Among  his  writings 
are  two  biographical  works  on  the  Arabian  poets  and 
authors. 

Kodros.    See  CODRUS. 


Koeberger,  koo'beRG-er,  (VENCESLAUS,)  a  Flemish 
painter  and  architect,  born  in  Antwerp  about  1550.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  Among  his  paintings 
are  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian,"  and  "  Christ 
taken  from  the  Cross  and  supported  by  Angels."  Died 
in  1634,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1610. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Koecher.     See  KOCHER. 

Kcechlin,  kek'liN',  (DANIEL,)  a  French  chemist  and 
manufacturer  of  cotton,  born  at  Miilhouse  about  1780, 
was  one  of  the  firm  of  Nicolas  Koechlin  freres.  He 
greatly  promoted  the  prosperity  of  Miilhouse  by  the 
invention  of  a  process  of  adorning  printed  muslins  with 
rich  designs  and  brilliant  colours. 

Kcechlin,  (NICOLAS,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Miilhouse  in  1781.  lie  was  a  manufacturer  of 
fine  muslins  (indiennes)  at  Miilhouse,  and  a  liberal  mem 
ber  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Died  in  1852. 

Koechly.    See  KOCHLY. 

Koeck,  kook,  (PIETER,)  a  Flemish  painter,  engraver, 
and  architect,  was  born  at  Alost  about  1500.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  and  afterwards  visited  Turkey.  Among  his 
works  are  seven  large  and  well-executed  paintings  to 
illustrate  the  manners  of  the  Turks.  He  also  made 
engravings  of  these  pictures.  Koeck  was  first  painter 
to  Charles  V.  Died  in  1553. 

See  PII.KINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Koegler.     See  KOGLER. 

Koehler.     See  KOHLER. 

Koekkoek,  kook'kook,  (BERNARD  CORNELLS,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1803, 
published  in  1841  "Recollections  and  Communications 
of  a  Landscape-Painter."  His  works  are  commended 
for  fidelity  to  nature  and  other  merits.  Died  in  1858. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Koelcsey,  (FRANCIS.)     See  KOLCSEY. 

Koeler.     See  KOHLER. 

Koelliker.     See  KOLLIKER. 

Koelreuter.     See  KOLREUTER. 

Koeiiig.     See  KONIG. 

Koenigshoveii.     See  KONIGSHOVEN. 

Koenigsmarck.     See  KONIGSMARCK. 

Koeppen.     See  KOPPEN. 

Koepstein.    See  CAPITO,  (WOLFGANG.) 

Koerner.     See  KORNER. 

Koerte.     See  KORTE. 

Koerten-Block.     See  BLOCK. 

Koes,  (F.)     See  Kos. 

Koestliii.     See  KOSTLIN. 

Koets,  koots,  (ROELOF,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Zwolle  in  1655.  Among  his  works  are  the  por 
traits  of  WTilliam  III.  of  England,  and  of  several  distin 
guished  Flemings,  Germans,  and  Englishmen.  Died  in 
1725. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kofod,  ko'fod,  (JOHAN  ANCHER,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  near  Bornholm  in  1777,  published  several  histories 
and  a  "Conversations-Lexicon,"  (28  vols.,  1816-28.) 
Died  in  1829. 

See  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Kogler  or  Koegler,  kor/Ier,  (  IGNAZ,  )  a  learned 
Jesuit,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1680.  In  1715  he  was  sent  as 
a  missionary  to  China,  where  he  received  many  marks 
of  distinction  from  the  emperor  Kang-Hee,  (Kang-Hi.) 
He  died  in  Pekin  in  1746. 

Kohen  Attar,  ko'hen  at-t&R',  written  also  Cohen 
Atthar  and  Kuhan  Atthar,  a  learned  Egyptian  phy 
sician,  lived  about  1150,  and  wrote  on  materia  meclica. 

Kohl,  k5l,  (JoiiANN  GEORG,)  a  German  traveller  and 
popular  writer,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1808.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Russia 
and  Poland,"  (1841,)  "Travels  in  Styriaandthe  Bavarian 
Highlands,"  (1842,)  "Travels  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,"  (1844,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Netherlands," 
(1850.)  He  also  wrote  "Sketches  from  Nature  and 
Common  Life,"  (2  vols.,  1851.)  His  fine  descriptive 
powers  and  spirited,  attractive  style  entitle  him  to  rank 
among  the  best  writers  of  travels  in  recent  times. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1841,  and  January, 
1842  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1846. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


KOHLER 


1337 


KONIG 


Kbhler  or  Koehler,  ko'ler,  QOHANN  BERNHARD,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1742.  In  1781  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  He  wrote 
"Remarks  on  Dion  Chrysostom,"  "Tracts  on  Roman 
Law,"  and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1802. 

Kohler,  Koehler,  or  Koeler,  QOHANN  DAVID,)  a 
German  author  and  antiquary,  born  near  Leipsic  in 
1684.  In  1710  he  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  at 
Altorf,  and  about  1725  was  chosen  professor  of  history 
at  Gottingen.  His  numerous  works  relate  to  history, 
bibliography,  and  literature.  Died  in  1755. 

See  J.  M.  GESNER,  "  Memoria  Koehleri,"  1755;  GATTERER  und 
J.  I!.  KOHLER,  "J.  D.  Kohlers  Leben,"  in  the  last  volume  of  his 
"Miinzbelustigungen,"  22  vols.,  1729-55. 

Kohler  or  Koehler,  (JOHANN  TOBIAS,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  at  Altorf  in  1720,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  "Cabinet  of  Ducats," 
("Ducaten-Cabinet,"  2  vols.,  1758-60.)  Died  in  1768. 

Kohlrausch,  kol'rowsh,  (  HKINRICH  FRIEDRICH 
THKODOR,)  born  near  Gottingen  in  1780,  published  a 
"  History  of  Germany." 

Kohrie,  ko'neh,  (FREDERICK,)  born  in  Prussia  in 
1757,  emigrated  to  America  in  1780,  and  made  a  large 
fortune  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  He  died  in  1829, 
leaving  a  great  part  of  his  property  to  the  charitable 
institutions  of  Pennsylvania  and  South  Carolina,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  coloured  as  well  as  the  white  population. 

Kolb.     See  KOLBE,  (PETER.) 

Kolbe,  kol'beh,  (KARL  WILHELM,)  a  skilful  German 
engraver  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1757.  He  etched 
numerous  landscapes  after  his  own  designs,  and  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Riches  of  the 
German  and  French  Languages,  and  the  Capacity  of 
both  for  Poetry,"  (1806.)  Died  in  1835. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Mein  Lebenslauf  und  mein  Wirken," 
1825;  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kolbe,  (KARL  WILHELM,)  a  German  painter,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Berlin  in  1781  ;  died  in  1853. 

Kolbe,  written  also  Kolb,  kolp,  or  Kolben,  kol'ben, 
(PETER,)  a  naturalist,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria, 
in  1675.  He  passed  some  years  in  Southern  Africa, 
and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "A  Description  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  (1719.)  His  book,  containing 
much  valuable  information,  was  translated  into  the 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  languages.  Died  in  1726. 

See  G.  C.  OERTEL,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Mentis  P.  Kolbii," 
1758- 

Kolben.    See  KOLBE,  (PETER.) 

Kolcsey,  kol'cha,  (FRANCIS,)  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Hungarian  orators,  celebrated  also  as  a  poet,  critic,  and 
lawyer,  was  born  in  Middle  Szolnok  in  1790.  At  an 
early  age  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Kazinczy  and  Paul 
Szemere,  and  in  1826  was  associated  with  the  latter  as 
editor  of  a  journal  entitled  "  Life  and  Literature."  He 
published  in  this  periodical  a  number  of  critical  essays, 
regarded  as  the  best  in  the  Hungarian  language,  the 
object  of  which  was  the  improvement  of  the  national 
literature  of  Hungary.  He  was  a  deputy  to  the  Diet 
of  1832-36,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  rare  elo 
quence  and  his  unswerving  course  in  the  support  of 
liberal  principles.  Died  in  1838.  His  complete  works, 
consisting  of  poems,  tales,  essays,  and  philosophical  and 
miscellaneous  writings,  were  published  the  same  year. 

See  an  article  on  the  "  Language  and  Literature  of  the  Magyars," 
in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

Koler.     See  KOHLER. 

Ko-let'tis  or  Co-let'tis,  (JOANNIS,)  a  modern  Greek 
statesman  and  democrat,  born  near  Janina  in  1788,  was 
one  of  the  most  active  promoters  of  the  insurrection  of 
1821.  On  the  accession  of  King  Otho  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  interior  and  president  of  the  cabinet. 
He  became  in  1844  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  which  post 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  1847. 

See  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "M.  Colettis,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842. 

Kollar,  kol'laR,  (JAN,)  a  distinguished  ecclesiastic, 
poet,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Northern  Hungary  in  1793. 
He  endeavoured  by  his  writings  to  establish  a  common 
language  and  feeling  of  nationality  between  the  various 
Slavonic  races  in  Europe.  This  spirit  pervades  all  his 


poetry,  for  which  he  used  the  Bohemian  language,  re 
garding  his  native  Slovakian  as  deficient  in  dignity  and 
comprehensiveness.  After  the  revolt  of  the  Hungarians, 
to  whom  he  was  bitterly  opposed,  he  removed  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  professor  of  archaeology.  Died  in  1852. 
His  principal  poem  is  entitled  "  Slawy  Dcera,"  ("  Daugh 
ter  of  Glory,"  1824.)  Among  his  prose  works  are  "Treat 
ises  on  the  Names  and  Antiquities  of  the  Slavonic 
Nation,"  and  "On  the  Literary  Reciprocity  between  the 
Races  and  Dialects  of  the  Slavonic  Tribes,"  (1831.) 

See  DR.  J.  BOWRING,  "Servian  Poetry;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1828. 

Kolli,  kol'lee,  de,  (BARON,)  a  political  adventurer, 
born  in  Piedmont  about  1775.  He  made  an  attempt  in 
1810  to  release  from  prison  the  Spanish  prince,  (after 
wards  Ferdinand  VII.,)  but,  his  plan  having  been  be 
trayed,  he  was  imprisoned  four  years  in  the  castle  of 
Saumur.  Died  about  1825. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Baron  de  Kolli,"  by  himself;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1823. 

Kolliker  or  Koelliker,  kol'le-ker,  (ALBERT,)  a  Ger 
man  physiologist  of  high  reputation,  born  about  1818. 
He  gained  distinction  by  his  minute  investigations  with 
the  microscope.  Among  other  works,  he  published 
"  Manual  of  Human  Histology,"  ("  Handbuch  der  Gewe- 
belehre  des  Menschen,"  1852,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Busk  and  Huxley.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Wiirzburg. 

Kollmann,  kol'man,  ( AUGUST  FRIEDRICH  KARL,)  a 
German  composer,  born  near  Hanover  in  1756.  He  was 
an  organist  in  London,  and  wrote  a  "Theory  of  Musical 
Harmony,"  (1806.)  Died  in  1824. 

Kollontaj  or  Kolontaj,  kol'lon-t!',  (Huco,)  written 
also  Kollontay,  a  Polish  patriot,  born  in  the  government 
of  Sandomir  in  1750.  He  had  the  principal  share  in 
drawing  up  the  constitution  of  the  3d  of  May,  1791,  but, 
after  the  meeting  of  the  confederation  of  Targowitza,  was 
forced  to  leave  the  country.  He  was  afterwards  impris 
oned  for  a  time  at  Olmiitz  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  able  political  treatises.  Died  in  1812. 

Kolmar.     See  COLMAR. 

Koln.     See  COLN. 

Kol-o-ko-tro'nis  or  Colocotronis,  (THEODORE,) 
a  modern  Greek  patriot,  born  in  Messenia  in  1770.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  many  engagements  with  the 
Turks,  and  rose  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  Pelo 
ponnesus  in  1823.  In  1835  he  was  made  a  councillor 
of  state  by  King  Otho,  and  obtained  other  distinctions. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  QUINET,  "La  Grece  moderne  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  1'An- 
tiquite." 

Kolowrat  or  Kolowrat-Liebsteinski,  ko'lo-rat' 
leep-stln'skee,  (FRANZ  ANTON,)  a  Bohemian  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Prague  in  1778.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  ministers  at  Vienna  in  1825,  and  had 
charge  of  the  department  of  finances  for  many  years. 

Kolowrat,  ko'lo-rat',  or  Kollowrath,  kol'lo-rat', 
(LEOPOLD  KRAKOWSKI,)  a  statesman  of  Austria  under 
the  reigns  of  Francis  I.,  Maria  Theresa,  Joseph  II., 
Leopold  II.,  and  Francis  II.  He  held  the  offices  of 
minister  of  the  interior  and  grand  chancellor  of  Bohemia. 
Died  in  1809. 

Kolreuter  or  Koelreuter,  kol'roi'ter,  (JOSEPH 
GOTTLIEB,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at  Julz,  on  the 
Neckar,  in  1733;  died  in  1806. 

Koltzof  or  Kolzov,  kolt'sof,  (  ALEXEI  VASILIE- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  the  government  of 
Voronezh  in  1809.  His  "Russian  Songs  and  Ballads" 
are  ranked  among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in 
the  language.  Died  in  1842. 

Komnenos.     See  COMNENUS. 

Konarski,  ko-naR'skee,  (STANISLAS  JEROME,)  a 
Polish  poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Konary,  near  Cracow, 
in  1700.  He  founded  a  college  of  Piarists  at  Warsaw. 
He  published  numerous  works  which  contributed-  to 
reform  the  national  literature.  Died  in  1773. 

See  KRAJEWSKI,  "  filoge  historique  de  Konarski,"  Warsaw,  1783. 

Kong-Fou-Tse.     See  CONFUCIUS. 
Kong-Fu-Tse.     See  CONFUCIUS. 
Koiiig  or  Koenig,  ko'nic,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIEB,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Altorf  in  1711 ;  died  in  1782. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;gzs>j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KON1G 


1338 


KOOTOOZ 


Konig  or  Koenig,  ko'nio,  (EMANUEL,)  a  Swiss  natu 
ralist  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Bale  in  1658.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Regnum  Vegetabile,"  (1680.)  Died  in 
1731. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (FRIF.DRICII,)  the  inventor  of  the 
steaiu-press,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  in  Germany,  in  1775. 
About  1807  he  visited  London,  where  he  was  aided  in 
carrying  out  his  plans  by  Bensley,  Taylor,  and  Woodfall. 
In  1811  a  sheet  of  the  "  Annual  Register"  was  printed, 
being  the  first  that  was  done  by  a  printing-machine  by 
which  the  paper  was  applied  to  the  type  by  a  revolving 
cylinder.  In  November,  1814,  a  number  of  the  "Times" 
was  printed  by  a  steam  press  on  the  principle  of  Konig's 
invention :  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  newspaper 
ever  printed  by  steam-power.  After  his  return  to  Ger 
many,  Konig,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Bauer,  es 
tablished  at  Oberzell,  near  Wurzburg,  a  manufactory 
for  the  construction  of  printing-machines,  four  hundred 
of  which  had  in  1853  been  sent  forth  from  it.  After  the 
death  of  Konig,  in  1833,  the  business  was  carried  on  by 
Bauer. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (GEORG  MATTHIAS,)  a  German 
writer  and  scholar,  born  at  Altdorf,  in  Franconia,  in  1616, 
was  appointed  in  1667  professor  of  poetry  in  his  native 
city.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Latin-and-German  Lexi 
con,"  (1668,)  and  a  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Authors, 
("  Bibliotheca  Vetus  et  Nova,"  1678.)  Died  in  1699. 

See  BAVLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"Memoires. " 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (HEINRICH  JOSEPH,)  a  German 
novelist,  born  at  Fultla  in  1790.  Among  his  best  works 
are  "The  Waldenses,"  (1836,)  "  William  Shakspeare," 
(1839.)  and  "The  Clubbists  of  Mentz,"  ("Die  Clubisten 
von  Mainz,"  1847  :)  the  last  named,  a  historical  romance, 
is  especially  admired.  He  was  secretary  of  finance  at 
Hanau  from  1819  to  1835.  Died  in  1869. 

See  N.  GRETCH,  "  H.  Konig  und  seine  Liigen  ;  Seitenstiick  zu 
Nic.  Gretsch  und  die  Russische  Literatur  in  Deutschland,"  1840. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (JoiiANN  GERARD,)  a  botanist,  and 
pupil  of  Linnaeus,  born  in  Livonia  in  1728.  He  visited 
Iceland  and  the  East  Indies,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  botany,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  Died  at  Tran- 
quebar in  1785. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (SAMUEL,)  an  eminent  mathema 
tician,  son  of  Samuel  Heinrich,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Biidingen  in  1712.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Franeker,  and  professor  of  philosophy  and  law  at  the 
Hague.  Died  in  1757. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (SAMUEL  HEINRICH,)  a  Swiss 
Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  about  1670  at  Berne, 
where  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  and  Oriental 
languages  in  1731.  Died  in  1750. 

Koriig  or  Koninck,  (SOLOMON.)     See  CONINCK. 

Kbnigshoven  or  Koenigshoven,  kS'nios-ho'ven, 
also  known  as  JAMES  TWINGER,  an  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1346.  He  wrote,  in  Latin  and  German, 
"  Chronicles  of  Strasburg."  Died  in  1420. 

See  OBERLIN,  "  De  Jacobo  Twingero,"  etc.,  1789. 

Konigsmarck  or  Koenigsmarck,  von,  fon  ko'- 
niGs-maRk',  written  also  Kouigsmark,  [Lat.  KONIGS- 
MAR'KIUS,]  (JOHANN  CHRISTOPH,)  COUNT,  a  celebrated 
general,  born  in  Germany  in  1600,  entered  the  service 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1630.  After  the  death  of  the 
King  of  Sweden,  he  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  battle 
of  Wolfenbiittel.  He  also  invaded  Bohemia,  and  captured 
Prague,  in  1648.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  Governor 
of  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  Queen  Christina 
created  him  count  and  field-marshal.  Died  in  1663. 

See  "  Eterna  Gloria  J.  C.  Kbnigsmarkii,"  Holm,  1664. 

Konigsmarck,  Koenigsmarck,  or  Konigsmark, 
von,  (MARIA  AURORA,)  COUNTESS,  a  granddaughter  of 
the  preceding,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  accomplish 
ments,  was  born  in  Bremen  about  1670.  She  was  the 
mistress  of  Frederick  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland,  by  whom  she  had  a  son,  Maurice  Count 
de  Saxe,  afterwards  famous  as  a  French  general.  In 
1702  she  was  sent  by  the  Elector  to  treat  with  Charles 
XII.  That  monarch  refused  to  see  her ;  "  but  she 
returned,"  says  Voltaire,  "with  the  satisfaction  of  be 
lieving  that  she  was  the  only  person  feared  by  the  King  of 


Sweden."  The  Countess  of  Konigsmarck  spoke  several 
languages  with  great  fluency  and  correctness.  She  com 
posed  a  poem  on  Charles  XII.,  written  in  the  purest 
French.  Died  in  1728. 

See  CRAMER,  "  Denkwurdigkeiten  der  M.  A.  Konigsmark,"  2 
vols..  1836;  CORVIN-WIERSBITZKY,  "Maria  Aurora  Grafin  von 
Konigsmark,"  1841 ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1837. 

Konigsmarck,  von,  (OTTO  WILHELM,)  COUNT,  son 
of  Johann  Christoph,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  West 
phalia  in  1639.  He  subsequently  served  with  great  dis 
tinction  in  the  P'rench  army  under  Turenne  and  with 
the  Swedish  army  in  Germany.  In  1686  he  was  created 
generalissimo  of  the  Venetian  republic,  for  which  he 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Turks.  Died  in  1688. 

Konigsmark  or  Koeiiigsmark,  ko'niGs-maRk',  (Fi- 
LIP  CHRISTOFEK,)  COUNT,  a  Swedish  officer,  born  about 
1640,  was  a  favourite  lover  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  wife 
of  George,  Elector  of  Hanover.  This  prince,  it  is  said, 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated  in  1694. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  BLAZE  DE  BURV,  "Episode  de 
1'Histoire  du  Hanovre." 

Konigsmarkius.     See  KONIGSMARCK. 

Koninck.     See  CONINCK. 

Koning,  ko'ning,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1524,  engraved  portraits  of  celebrated 
men,  including  Luther  and  Calvin. 

Kouing,  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes  and 
history,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1645.  He  went  to 
Copenhagen,  and  worked  for  the  King  of  Denmark. 

Koiiing,  de,  (DAVID.)     See  CONINCK. 

Koning  or  Koninck,  de,  cleh  ko'ning,  (PuiLiPP,) 
an  able  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1619,  was 
a  pupil  of  Rembrandt.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and 
excelled  in  landscapes  and  portraits.  Died  in  1689. 

Konon.     See  CONON. 

Konstantijn  or  Konstantyn.  See  CONSTANTTNE 
THE  GREAT. 

Kontski,  kont/skee,  (MARTIN,)  a  Polish  general,  born 
in  1635,  served  with  distinction  under  John  Sobieski.  He 
directed  the  artillery  in  the  great  battle  against  the  Turks 
at  Vienna  in  1683.  Died  in  1710. 

Konz,  (KARL  PHILIPP.)     See  CONZ. 

Kooang  or  Kouang,  koo-ang',  (almost  kwang,)  a 
Chinese  statesman  and  celebrated  historian,  born  in  the 
province  of  Shen-see  or  Chen-si  about  1018  A.D.  He 
wrote  an  important  work  on  the  history  of  China.  Died 
in  1086. 

See  MAII.LA,  "Histoire  g^nerale  de  la  Chine." 

Kooblai  (Koublai  or  Kublai)  Khan,  koo'bl!'  Kan, 
(Shee-Tsoo  or  Chi-Tsou,  shee-tsoo,)  the  founder  of 
the  Mongol  dynasty  of  China,  was  a  grandson  of  Jengis 
Khan.  He  began  to  reign  over  the  north  part  of  China 
about  1260,  soon  after  which  date  he  conquered  the 
southern  provinces  and  became  master  of  a  vast  empire 
extending  from  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
and  including  Thibet,  Tartary,  Siam,  etc.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  able  ruler.  In  his  reign  Marco  Polo  visited 
China.  Died  in  1294. 

Koogen,  van  der,  v3n  der  ko'gen,  (LEONARD,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1610,  was  also  an 
etcher.  Died  in  1681. 

Koolee  Khan.     See  NADIR  SHAH. 

Koolnef,  Koulneff,  or  Kulnew,  kool-neT,  (YAKOF,) 
a  Russian  general,  born  in  1763.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Drissa,  in  July,  1812. 

Koorakiii  or  Kourakin,  koo'ra-keen'  or  koo'ra-kin', 
(ALEXANDER  BORISOVITCH,)  PRINCE,  a  Russian  diplo 
matist,  born  in  1752,  was  a  favourite  courtier  of  Paul  I. 
He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1808  to  1812.  Died 
in  1818. 

Koorakin  or  Kourakin,  (  BORIS  IVANOVITCH,  ) 
PRINCE,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born  in  1677,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Peter  I.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  on  a 
political  mission  by  that  emperor.  Died  in  1727. 

Koornhert.     See  CORNHERT. 

Kooten,  van,  vtn  ko'ten,  (THEODORUS,)  a  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Holland  in  1749;  died  in  1814. 

Kootooz  or  Kutuz,  (Kothouz,)  koo-tooz'  or  koo'- 
tooz',*  written  also  Kotouz,  (Mahmood  Seif-ed- 

*  There  is  some  discrepancy  in  the  mode  of  writing  this  name. 
Abulpharagius  more  frequently  gives  both  syllables  long.  See 
Pocock's  edition,  Oxford,  1663. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


KOOTOOZOF 


1339 


KORTHOLT 


Deen  Malek  Modhaffer,  man'mood'  sif  ed-deen'  mo'- 
dhaf'fer,)  became  Sultan  of  Egypt  in  1259  by  usurpation. 
He  defeated  the  Tartars  in  Syria.  He  was  assassinated 
by  Bibars  in  1260. 

Kootoozof,  Koutouzof,  Koutousof,  or  Kutu- 
sow,  koo-too'zof,  (MICHAEL  LAURIONOVITCH  GOLENI- 
TCHEF,)  a  celebrated  Russian  commander,  born  in  1745, 
served  against  the  Poles  and  the  Turks,  and  rose  to  be 
lieutenant-general  in  1789.  In  1793  he  was  ambassador 
to  Constantinople,  and  on  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul  was  charged  with  a  mission  to  Berlin.  After  the 
assassination  of  that  sovereign  he  was  appointed  gov 
ernor-general  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1805  was 
created  commander-in-chief  of  the  first  corps  of  the 
Russian  army  against  the  French.  He  gained  a  victory 
over  Marshal  Mortier  at  Dtirrenstein,  and  soon  after 
commanded  the  allied  army  under  the  emperor  Alex 
ander  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.)  In  1812,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
seven,  he  succeeded  Barclay  de  Tolly  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Russian  army,  a  few  days  before  the 
battle  of  Borodino.  For  his  victories  over  Ney  and 
Davoust  the  emperor  bestowed  upon  him  the  surname 
of  Smolenskoi.  He  died  in  1813,  at  Buntzlau,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  him. 

See  SEGUR,  "  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  grande  Armee;" 
MIKHAII.OVSKY-DANILEVSKY,  "Vie  du  Feld-Marechal  Koutouzoff," 
translated  from  the  Russian  by  FIZELIER,  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Kopernicus.     See  COPERNICUS. 

Kopernik.     See  COPERNICUS. 

Kopievitch,  ko-pe-a'vitch,  written  also  Kopieu- 
vicz,  (ELIAS,)  a  Russian  philologist,  who  was  sent  by 
Peter  the  Great  to  Holland  in  order  to  complete  his 
studies.  Among  his  works  are  a  Latin  Grammar  for  Rus 
sian  schools,  and  a  Slavonic-and-German  Dictionary. 

Kopisch,  ko'pish,  (AUGUST,)  a  German  poet  and 
artist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1799  ;  died  in  1853. 

Kopitar,  ko'pe-taR',  (BARTHOLOMAUS,)  a  philologist, 
born  in  Carniola  in  1780,  was  appointed  first  keeper  of 
the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna,  (1843.)  He  published 
in  1808  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Slavonian  Language  in  Car 
niola,  Carinthia,  and  Styria."  Died  in  1844. 

Kopp,  kop,  (JOHANN  ADAM,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Offenbach  in  1698.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Law  which  now  prevails  in 
Germany,"  ("  Historia  Juris  quo  hodie  in  Germania 
utimur,"  1741.)  Died  in  1748. 

Kopp,  kop,  (JOSEPH  EUTYCH,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
at  Miinster,  in  Lucerne,  in  1793.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  History  of  the  Swiss  Leagues,"  ( Biinde,)  (4  vols.,  1845- 
57,)  which  is  commended  as  very  interesting.  Kopp 
discredits  the  popular  tradition  of  William  Tell. 

Kopp,  (ULRICH  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Cassel  in  1762,  became  director  of  the  court 
archives  in  1802.  His  "  Paloeographia  critica"  (1817)  is 
much  esteemed.  Died  in  1834. 

Koppe,  kop'peh,  (JOHANN  BENJAMIN,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1750.  He  published 
several  exegetical  works,  and  left  unfinished  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek,  (3  vols.)  Died  in  1791. 

See  HOPPENSTEDT,  "Ueber  den  verstorbenen  J.  B.  Koppe," 
1791. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (ADOLPHUS  Louis,) 
a  Danish  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1804.  In  1834  he  visited  Greece,  where  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  history,  archaeology,  and  modern  languages 
at  the  military  college  in  ^£gina.  He  removed  in  1846  to 
America,  where  he  became  in  1854  professor  of  history, 
aesthetics,  and  modern  languages  in  Franklin  and  Mar 
shall  College,  Pennsylvania.  He  has  published  "The 
World  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1854,)  and  other  works. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (CARL  FRIEDRICH,) 
a  German  writer,  born  about  1800,  became  assistant  pro 
fessor  in  one  of  the  principal  gymnasiums  of  Berlin.  He 
published  in  1848  a  treatise  "On  the  Divine  Right  of 
Kings,"  ("De  Jure  Divino,")  which  was  condemned  by 
the  government  and  forbidden  to  be  reprinted.  His 
work  entitled  "  The  Religion  of  Booddha  and  its  Origin" 
("Die  Religion  des  Buddha  und  ihre  Entstehung,"  1857) 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  treatises  on  that  subject. 
He  also  published  "  The  Lamaic  System  of  Religion," 
etc.,  ("  Lamaische  Hierarchie,"  1859.) 


Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  writer  on  philosophy,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1775.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Bremen  in  1804,  and  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Erlangen  in  1827.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Philosophy  of  Christianism,"  (2  vols., 
1813-15.)  Died  in  1858. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH  JUSTUS,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1755.  He 
published  a  Greek  Anthology,  (3  vols.,  1787,)  "Com 
mentary  on  Homer's  Iliad,"  (5  vols.,  1787-92,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1791. 

Koppen,  kop'pen,  (PETER,)  a  Russian  writer,  born  at 
Kharkov  in  1793,  has  published  several  works  on  the 
antiquities  and  statistics  of  Russia,  and  a  valuable  "Eth 
nographical  Chart  of  European  Russia,"  (1851.) 

Koprili,  ko'pre-lee,  written  also  Coprogli  and  Kiu- 
perli,  (MEHEMET,)  an  eminent  Turkish  commander, 
born  at  Kopri,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  1585,  rose  from  the 
station  of  a  cook  to  be  grand  vizier  at  Constantinople  in 
1656.  He  took  Tenedos  and  Lemnos  from  the  Vene 
tians,  and  obtained  other  advantages  over  the  enemies 
of  the  Sultan.  As  a  ruler  he  showed  great  energy  and 
prudence,  and  effected  important  reformations  in  the 
condition  of  the  country.  Died  in  1661. 

Koprili,  (MUSTAFA,)  surnamed  THE  VIRTUOUS,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  appointed  grand  vizier  by  Solyman 
III.  in  1689.  Died  in  1691. 

Koprili-Fazil-Ahmed,  (or  -Achmed,)  ko'pre-lee 
fa'zil  an'med,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1626, 
succeeded  Mehemet  Koprili  as  grand  vizier.  He  gained 
several  important  victories  over  the  Hungarians  and  the 
Poles,  and  took  the  island  of  Candia.  Died  in  1676. 

See  Vox  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Kops,  kops,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Belgian  landscape- 
painter,  born  about  1800. 

Koray.     See  CORAY. 

Kordes,  kor/de's,  (BERNHARD,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1762.  He  lived  at  Kiel.  Died  in  1823. 

Koren,  (MOSES  OF.)    See  MOSES  CHORENENSIS. 

Koreiiatz.    See  MOSES  CHORENENSIS. 

Korf,  koRf,  (ANDREI,)  BARON,  a  Russian  publicist 
and  senator,  born  near  Mittau  in  1715  ;  died  in  1823. 

Korf,  (NICHOLAS,)  BARON,  a  Russian  minister  of  state 
under  Peter  III.,  was  born  in  1710;  died  in  1766. 

Korinna.     See  CORINNA. 

Kornelisz.     See  CORNELISZ. 

Korner  or  Koerner,  koR'ner,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTT 
FRIED,)  born  at  Leipsic  in  1756,  was  the  father  of  Theo- 
dor  Korner,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Schiller.  He  was 
also  a  correspondent  of  Goethe.  It  was  in  his  beautiful 
vineyard  near  Dresden  that  Schiller  wrote  "Don  Car 
los."  Died  in  1831. 

Korner  or  Koerner,  (KARL  THEODOR,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  German  poets,  was  born  in  Dresden  in 
1791.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Berlin,  and  displayed 
at  an  early  age  a  rare  poetical  genius.  Among  his  first 
productions  were  the  popular  comedies  of  "The  Green 
Domino,"  (1812,)  and  "The  Watchman,"  (1812.)  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  enlist  in  the  war  against  Napoleon  ; 
and,  inspired  with  patriotic  enthusiasm  and  a  keen  sense 
of  his  country's  wrongs,  he  produced  some  of  the  most 
spirited  and  beautiful  martial  lyrics  in  the  German  lan 
guage.  These  were  published  under  the  title  of  "The 
Lyre  and  the  Sword,"  (1814.)  Korner  was  also  the 
author  of  two  popular  tragedies,  "  Rosamunda,"  (1812,) 
and  "Zriny,"  (1813.)  He  fell  in  battle  near  Rosenberg, 
in  1813,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 

See  F.  \V.  LEHMANN,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  K.  T.  Koerner's," 
1819;  H.  A.  ERHARD,  "T.  Koerner's  Leben, "etc.,  1821 ;  H.  BLAZE, 
"  ficrivains  et  Poetes  de  I'Allemagne,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1820,  and  February,  1821. 

Kornmann,  koRn'man,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  ;  died  about  1620. 

Korosi.     See  CSOMA. 

Kbrte  or  Koerte,  koR'teh,  (WILHELM,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Aschersleben  in  1766.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Gleim,"  (1811,)  who  was 
his  great-uncle,  and  a  "Life  of  Carnot,"  (1820.)  Died 
in  1846. 

Kortholt,  koRt'holt,  [Lat.  KORTHOL'TUS,]  (CHRIS 
TIAN,)  a  Lutheran  theologian  and  ecclesiastical  historian, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  ?///>.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KORTHOLT 


1340 


KOSSUTH 


born  at  Burg,  in  Holstein,  in  1633.  About  1665  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Kiel. 
He  published  numerous  religious  treatises,  of  which  we 
may  name  "On  the  Pagan,  Mohammedan,  and  Jewish 
Religions,"  (1666,)  "  Of  the  Three  Impostors  Herbert, 
Hobbes,  and  Spinosa,"  (1680,)  "On  the  Origin  and  Na 
ture  of  Christianity,"  and  "  On  the  State  and  Progress 
of  Schools  and  Academies,  especially  in  Germany."  Died 
in  1694. 

See  LINDEMANN,  "Memoria  C.  Kortliolti,"  1694. 

Kortholt,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish  or  German  theo 
logian,  son  of  Sebastian,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Kiel  in  1709.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  published  "The  Letters  of  Leibnitz,"  (4 
vols.,  1734-42,)  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  (in  Latin,) 
an  "Essay  on  the  Enthusiasm  of  Mohammed,"  (1745.) 
Died  in  1751. 

See  AYRER,  "  Memoria  C.  Kortholti,"  1751. 

Kortholt,  (SEBASTIAN,)  a  son  of  Christian,  noticed 
above,  (1633-94,)  and  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Kiel  about  1670.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn 
ing,  and  wrote  many  literary  essays.  Died  about  1740. 

Kortholtus.     See  KORTHOLT. 

Kortiim  or  Kortuem,  koR'tiim,  (JOHANN  FRIF.DRICH 
CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  historian,  born  in  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz  in  1788,  became  professor  of  history  at  Heidel 
berg  in  1840.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Political  Constitution  of  Greece,"  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1837.)  Died  in  1858. 

Kortiim  or  Kortuem,  (KARL  ARNOLD,)  a  German 
physician  and  satiric  poet,  born  at  M ill heim-an-der- Ruhr 
in  1745,  published  a  mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The 
Jobsiad;  or,  The  Life,  Opinions,  and  Deeds  of  Jerome 
Jobs  the  Candidate,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1824,  An  English 
translation  of  "The  Jobsiad,"  by  Rev.  Charles  T.  Brooks, 
was  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1863. 

Kosciusko,  kos-se-us'ko,  [Polish,  KOSCIUSZKO,  k6sh- 
yoo'sko,]  (THADDEUS,)  an  illustrious  Polish  patriot  and 
general,  of  a  noble  family,  was  born  in  Lithuania  about 
1750.  Having  studied  at  the  military  academy  of  Ver 
sailles,  he  embarked  about  1777  for  America,  where  he 
fought  with  distinction  at  New  York  and  Yorktown  and 
acquired  the  friendship  of  Washington.  He  returned 
to  Poland  in  1786,  but,  his  country  being  soon  after  sub 
jected  to  Russia,  he  retired  to  Leipsic.  On  the  break 
ing  out  of  the  revolution  of  1794,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Polish  army,  and  defeated  the  Russians 
with  greatly  superior  numbers  at  Raclawice.  For  two 
months  he  defended  Warsaw  against  the  united  forces 
of  Russia  and  Prussia,  but,  overpowered  at  last  by  fresh 
troops  advancing  under  Fersen,  suffered  a  total  defeat  at 
Maciejowice,  where  he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner 
in  October,  1794.  After  two  years'  imprisonment,  he  was 
released  by  the  emperor  Paul,  who  offered  him  his  sword, 
which  Kosciusko  refused,  saying  "  he  had  no  need  of  a 
sword,  since  he  had  no  longer  a  country."  When  solicited 
by  Napoleon  to  aid  him  in  his  ambitious  schemes  with 
regard  to  Poland,  he  steadily  refused  ;  and  the  proclama 
tion  to  the  Poles,  which  appeared  in  the  "Moniteur" 
under  his  name  in  1806,  was  declared  by  him  a  forgery. 
He  died  in  1817,  at  Soleure,  in  Switzerland,  having 
previously  written  to  the  emperor  Alexander  entreat 
ing  him  to  give  to  Poland  a  free  constitution.  He  also 
abolished  serfdom  on  his  Polish  domain. 

See  M.  A.  JULI.IEN,  "Notice  sur  Kosciuszko,"  1818;  FAI.KEN- 


by  GODEBESKI,  1851;  "Nouvelle  Hiographie  GeneVale  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1835. 

Kosegarten,  ko'zeh-gaR'ten,  (JOHANN  GOTTFRIED 
LUDWIG,)  son  of  Ludwig  Theobul,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Rligen  in  1792.  Having  studied 
philology  in  Paris,  he  became  in  1824  professor  of  Ori 
ental  languages  at  Greifswalde.  He  translated  into 
German  the  Hindoo  poem  "Nala,"  (1820,)  and  made 
several  versions  from  the  Persian.  He  also  published 
editions  of  the  "  Moalakat,"  and  other  Arabic  works. 
Died  in  1860. 

Kosegarten,  (Lunwic  THEOBUL,)  a  German  divine 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Grevismiihlen,  in  Mecklenburg, 


in  1758.  He  became  in  1808  professor  of  history  at 
Greifswalde,  and  subsequently  of  theology,  and  rector 
of  the  university.  His  romance  of  "  Ida  von  Plessen," 
(1788,)  as  well  as  his  "Legends"  and  lyric  poems,  enjoy 
a  wide  popularity.  He  also  made  several  translations 
from  the  Danish  and  English :  among  the  latter  is  Rich 
ardson's  "Clarissa."  Died  in  1818. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
Koslof,  kos'lof,  or  Kozlov,  koz'lof,  (!VAN  IVANO- 
vrrcit,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1774,  made  a  number 
of  excellent  translations  from  the  English.  His  poems, 
written  after  he  became  blind,  are  distinguished  for  their 
melody  of  versification  and  tender  pathos.  Among  the 
most  admired  of  these  is  "The  Monk,"  ("Tchernets.") 
Died  in  1838. 

See  E.  MECHERSKI,  "Les  Poetes  Russes." 

Koslovski,  (M.  I.)     See  KOZLOFSKI. 

Kos-Iov'ski,  (OssiP  ANTONOVITCH,)  a  popular  Rus 
sian  composer,  produced,  among  other  works,  a  "  Re 
quiem"  of  great  beauty,  and  composed  the  music  for 
Oserof's  tragedy  of  "  Fingal."  Died  in  1831. 

Kosmas.     See  COSMAS. 

Kossuth,  kosh'oot,  (Louis,)  an  eminent  Hungarian 
orator  and  statesman,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Monok, 
in  the  county  of  Zemplin,  in  1802.  He  studied  law  at  the 
Protestant  college  of  Sarospatak,  and  joined  the  popular 
party  in  opposing  the  despotic  policy  of  Austria.  Having 
offended  the  government  by  his  writings,  he  was  impris 
oned  three  years,  (1837-40.)  The  Diet  of  1840  refused  to 
grant  supplies  during  the  imprisonment  of  Kossuth,  who 
was  consequently  liberated.  In  1841  he  married  Theresa 
Meszlenyi,  and  began  to  edit  a  daily  paper  at  Pesth,  called 
"  Pesti-Hirlap,"  the  tone  of  which  was  liberal,  but  not 
radical  or  democratic.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Diet  by  the  national  party  of  Pesth  in  1847,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  March,  1848,  the 
Diet  adopted  a  proposition  made  by  Kossuth,  the  object 
of  which  was  the  appointment  of  a  responsible  Hun 
garian  ministry,  as  a  pledge  of  constitutional  reforms. 
Kossuth  and  others  were  sent  as  a  deputation  to  Vienna, 
and  obtained  the  assent  of  the  emperor,  then  conscious 
of  the  pressure  of  a  powerful  revolutionary  movement. 
Kossuth  induced  the  Diet  to  vote  the  perfect  equality  of 
civil  rights  and  public  burdens  for  all  classes,  and  to 
extend  the  right  of  suffrage.  lie  became  minister  of 
finance  in  the  new  ministry  formed  in  April,  1848.  Al 
though  the  benefits  of  these  reforms  were  shared  by  the 
Croatians  and  Servians,  an  anti-Magyar  party  was  soon 
formed  in  Croatia  by  the  intrigues  of  Austrian  agents. 
The  Croatians,  directed  by  Jellachich  and  secretly  aided 
by  Austria,  revolted  against  Hungary,  and  began  hos 
tilities  by  the  massacre  of  villagers  on  the  frontier.  In 
June,  1848,  the  Austrian  court  openly  sanctioned  the 
movementsof  the  Croatian  insurgents.  Kossuth  believed 
that  the  time  had  come  to  defend  by  arms  the  constitu 
tion  and  the  national  independence.  He  called  for  the 
levy  of  200,000  men,  which  was  granted  by  the  Diet.  In 
September,  1848,  Jellachich  was  defeated  in  battle,  and 
Kossuth  was  elected  president  of  a  committee  of  de 
fence.  After  the  second  insurrection  at  Vienna,  October, 
1848,  the  Hungarian  army  advanced  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Liberals  of  that  capital,  but  was  repulsed  at 
Schwechat.  The  Austrian  general  Windischgratz  then 
invaded  Hungary,  took  Pesth,  and  committed  great  atro 
cities.  A  war  of  extermination  followed,  and  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  in  several  battles.  In  April,  1849,  the 
Hungarians  renounced  allegiance  to  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  and  chose  Kossuth  governor  or  dictator.  But  the 
intervention  of  Russia  rendered  the  heroic  efforts  and 
sacrifices  of  the  Hungarians  unavailing.  The  victories 
gained  by  Dembinski,  Klapka,  and  Bern  served  merely 
to  prolong  the  national  agony.  Kossuth,  after  a  dis 
agreement  with  Gorgey,  whom  he  accused  of  treachery, 
resigned  his  office  on  the  nth  of  August,  1849,  and  went 
into  exile.  He  retired  to  Turkey,  and  was  imprisoned 
at  Kutaieh.  Through  the  intervention  of  England  and 
the  United  States,  he  was  released  in  August,  1851.  He 
then  visited  England,  where  he  was  received  with  en 
thusiastic  popular  demonstrations,  and  made  several 
admirable  speeches  in  the  English  language.  In  the 
autumn  of  1851  he  came  to  the  United  States,  the 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  me"t;  not;  good;  moon; 


KOSTA 


134' 


KRASHENINNIKOF 


citizens  of  which  gave  him  a  very  warm  and  flattering 
reception. 

See  P.  C.  HHADI.EV,  "  Life  of  L.  Kossuth,"  1852 ;  HORN,  "  Louis 
Kossutli,"  1851;  "Kossuth,  von  einem  Ungarn,"  Leipsic,  1854; 
"Kossuth  in  England  uncl  seine  Reden,"  etc.,  1851 ;  KLAPKA,  "  Me- 
moiren,"  1850;  "  L.  Kossuth,  Dictator  von  Ungarn,"  Mannheim, 
1849:  "Hungary  and  its  Revolutions,  with  a  Memoir  of  L.  Kossuth." 

Kosta-Ibn-Looka,  (or  -Luka,)  kos'ta  ib'n  loo'ka, 
written  also  Costha-Ben-Louka,  an  excellent  Arabian 
scholar  and  translator,  bom  at  Balbec,  flourished  from 
about  870  to  900  A.D.  He  translated  several  Greek  works 
into  Arabic,  and  wrote  original  treatises  on  philosophy, 
logic,  medicine,  etc. 

Koster.     See  COSTER. 

Kos'ter  or  Cos'ter,  (LAURENS  JANSZOON,)  a  Dutch 
printer,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1370,  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  invented  the  art  of  printing.  Ac 
cording  to  one  tradition,  he  kept  his  art  a  secret,  but  it 
was  stolen  by  one  of  his  workmen,  named  John  Fust. 
Died  about  1440. 

See  A.  F.  DIDOT,  "  Essai  sur  la  Typographic;"  AUGUSTE  BER 
NARD,  "  Histoire  de  1'Origine  de  I'ltnprimerie." 

Kostlin  or  Koestlin,  kost-leen',  (CHRISTIAN  REIN- 
HOLD,)  a  German  jurist  and  novelist,  born  at  Tubingen 
in  1813;  died  in  1856. 

Kostrof,  Kostrov,  or  Kostrow,  kos'Uof,  (£RMIL 
IVANOVITCII,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  the  province  of 
Viatka  ;  died  in  1796. 

Kothouz.     See  KOOTOOZ. 

Kotouz  or  Kotftz.     See  KOOTOOZ. 

Kotter  or  Cotter,  kot'ter,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
enthusiast,  born  in  Silesia  in  1585.  He  obtained  notoriety 
bv  visions  and  predictions.  Died  in  1647. 

'Kotzebue,  von,  fon  kot'seh-boo,  (AUGUST  FRIED- 
RICH  FERDINAND,)  a  prolific  and  popular  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1761.  He  went  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1781,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
government  of  Esthonia.  He  produced  in  1789  "The 
Indians  in  England,"  and  "  The  Stranger,"  which  were 
very  successful.  About  1800  he  settled  in  Berlin.  He 
wrote  abusive  articles  against  Goethe  and  other  great 
German  authors,  who  had  refused  to  admit  him  into 
their  literary  circle  at  Weimar.  Between  1802  and  1806 
he  made  journeys  in  different  countries  of  Europe,  and 
published  "Souvenirs  of  Paris  in  1804,"  (2  vols.,  1805.) 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806)  he  took  refuge  in  Russia, 
and  edited  two  journals,  called  "The  Bee,"  (1808-10,) 
and  "  The  Cricket,"  (1811-12,)  in  which  he  wrote  against 
Napoleon.  In  1817  he  was  sent  to  Germany  by  the 
Russian  government  to  watch  and  report  the  state  and 
tendency  of  public  opinion.  He  expressed  such  hostility 
and  contempt  for  liberal  principles  and  institutions  that 
he  rendered  himself  odious  to  many  Germans,  especially 
the  students.  He  was  assassinated  at  Mannheim  in  1819 
by  Karl  Ludwig  Sand,  who  was  actuated  by  a  fanatical 
zeal  against  one  whom  he  considered  a  traitor  to  liberty. 
Among  his  dramas  are  "The  Two  Klingsbergs,"  a 
comedy,  (1807,)  and  "  Pizarro,"  ("  Die  Spanier  in  Peru.") 
His  works,  which  were  very  numerous,  were  formerly 
more  popular  than  they  are  at  the  present  time.  Kot 
zebue  possessed  a  ready  invention  and  a  great  facility  in 
composition ;  but  his  productions  are  deficient  in  depth 
and  power. 

See  F.  CRAMER,  "  Kotzebue's  Leben,"  1820 ;  "  Kotzebue,  sein 
Leben,  Wirken  und  trauriges  Ende,"  Frankfort,  iSig;  H.  DORING, 
"  Kotzebue's  Leben,"  1830;  GEISER,  "  Kotzebue  als  Knabe,  .[ting 
ling,  Mann,  Schriftstellerund  Exulant,"  1803:  "  Literary  and  Political 
Life  of  Aug.  Kotzebue,"  translated  from  the  German  ;  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1801,  September,  1805,  and  August, 
1806. 

Kotzebue,  von,  (OTTO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Reval,  in  Russia,  in  1787.  After  having  made  the 
voyage  around  the  world  with  Krusenstern,  he  set  sail 
again  in  1815,  accompanied  by  Chamisso,  Eschscholtz, 
and  others.  He  discovered  several  islands  in  the  South 
Sea,  and  the  sound  southeast  of  Behring's  Strait  called 
by  his  name.  He  published,  after  his  return,  a  "Voyage 
of  Discovery  in  the  South  Sea  and  to  Behring's  Strait, 
to  find  a  Northeast  Passage,"  (1821.)  Having  sailed 
for  the  third  time  in  1823,  he  made  other  discoveries, 
which  are  described  in  his  "  New  Voyage  around  the 
World  in  1823-26,"  (1830.)  He  died  at  Reval  in  1846. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 


See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 
€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


Kotzeluch,  kot'seh-looK.',  (LEOPOLD,)  a  Bohemian 
composer  and  musician,  born  at  Wei  warn  in  1753.  He 
succeeded  Mozart  as  composer  to  the  court  at  Vienna, 
^1792.)  He  composed  operas,  symphonies,  and  sonatas, 
which  were  once  very  popular.  Died  in  1814. 

Kouang.     See  KOOANG. 

Koublai  Khan.    See  KOOBI.AI  KHAN. 

Kouck,  kowk,  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
1500  or  1501,  worked  at  Antwerp.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  V.  Died  in  1550. 

Kouli  Khan.     See  NADIR  SHAH. 

Koulneff.     See  KOOLNEF. 

Koumas,  koo'mas,  (  CUNSTANTINE  MICHAEL,  )  a 
modern  Greek  scholar  and  author,  was  born  at  Larissa 
about  1775.  He  published  a  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1826,) 
"Elements  of  Philosophy,"  (4  vols.,)  and  other  scientific 
works.  Died  at  Trieste  in  1836. 

Koung-Fou-Tseu.     See  CONFUCIUS. 

Kourakin.     See  KOORAKIN. 

Kourma  or  Kourmavatara.     See  KURMA. 

Koutouz.     See  KOOTOOZ. 

Koutouzof  or  Koutousof.     See  KOOTOOSOF. 

Kouwenberg,  van,  vSn  kow'en-be'Rg',  (K.RISTIAEN,) 
a  Dutch  painter  of  history,  born  at  Delft  in  1604;  died 
at  Cologne  in  1667. 

Kozlofski,  koz-lof'skee,  or  Koslovski.kos-lov'skee, 
(MiCHAiL  IVANOVITCII,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  became 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  statue  of  Suwarow  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  the  statue  of  Catherine  II.  as 
Minerva.  Died  in  1803. 

Kozlov.     See  KOSI.OF. 

Kozmian,  koz'me-an,  ?  (GAETAN  or  C  AJETAN,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  Lublin  in  1771.  He  wrote  odes  which  were 
highly  esteemed, — "The  Georgics  of  Poland," — and  an 
epic  poem  entitled  "  Stephen  Czarniecki."  Died  in  1856. 

See  F.  MORAWSKI,  "Notice  sur  Kozmian,"  Posen,  1856. 

Kraflft,  kRaft,  (ADAM,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Nuremberg  about  1429.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  tabernacle  in  the  church  of  Saint  Lawrence  at  Nu 
remberg,  the  celebrated  Ciborium  in  the  minster  at  Ulm, 
and  a  number  of  beautiful  bas-reliefs.  Died  in  1507- 

Krafft,  (JOSEPH,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Hanau  in 
1787,  was  a  brother  of  Peter,  noticed  below.  He  worked 
in  Vienna.  Died  in  1828. 

Krafft,  (PETER,)  a  German  painter,  and  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  Vienna,  born  at  Hanau  in  1780.  Among 
his  works  we  may  name  "  Rudolph  of  Habsburg"  and 
"  Belisarius."  Died  in  1856. 

Kraft.     See  CRATO. 

Kraft,  kRaft,  or  Krafft,  (GEORG  WOLFGANG,)  a  Ger 
man  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1701, 
was  professor  of  physics  at  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  geometry  and  physics.  Died  in  1754- 

Kraft  von  Toggenburg,  kRaft  fon  tog'gen-booRG',  a 
German  minnesinger.  Died  in  1259. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kraitsir,  kRlt'sir,  (CHARLES,)  a  Hungarian  physician 
and  scholar,  born  in  1804.  He  emigrated  to  America 
in  1833,  and  became  in  1842  professor  of  modern  lan 
guages  and  history  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He 
published  "Glossology,"  and  several  other  works.  Died 
in  Westchester  county,  New  York,  in  1860. 

Kramer.     See  CRAMER. 

Kramp,  kR5N,  (CHRETIEN,)  a  French  mathematician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg ;  died  about  1828. 

Kranach.     See  CRANACH. 

Kraiitor.     See  GRANTOR. 

Krantz  or  Crantz,  kRants,  (ALBERT,)  a  German  his 
torian  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Hamburg  about  1450, 
was  employed  on  several  important  embassies  to  Eng 
land  and  France.  Among  his  principal  works,  which 
are  written  in  Latin,  are  "  Chronicles  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,"  and  "Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Saxony."  Died  in  1517. 

See  WII.KENS,  "Leben  Alberlii  Crantzii,"  1722;  BAYLE,  "His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  MOLLER, 
"Cimbria  Literata." 

Kranz,  (DAVID.)     See  CRANZ. 

Krasheninnikof  or  Krascheninnikov,  kRash-en- 
nin'ne-kof,  (STEPHEN  PETROVITCH,)  a  Russian  natural- 


trilled;  s,  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^~See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KRASICKI 


KREUTZER 


ist,  born  at  Moscow  in  1713.  He  travelled  in  Siberia 
and  Kamtschatka,  and  wrote  a  "  Description  of  Kamt- 
schatka,"  (2  vols.,  1755.)  Died  in  1755. 

See  GRETCH,  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Krasicki,kRa-set'skee,  (IGNATIUS,)  an  eminent  Polish 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Dubiecko  in  1734.  Having 
taken  orders  as  a  priest,  he  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Erme- 
land  in  1767,  and  in  1795  Archbishop  of  Gnesen.  His 
wit  and  conversational  powers  made  him  a  favourite 
with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  once  said  to 
him,  "  I  hope,  my  lord  bishop,  you  will  take  me  into 
Paradise  with  you  under  your  mantle."  "  No,  sire,"  he 
replied,  (alluding  to  the  loss  of  some  revenues:)  "your 
majesty  has  made  it  so  short  that  I  cannot  conceal  any 
thing  contraband  under  it."  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  the  mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The 
Mousiad,"  ("Myszeis,")  founded  on  the  tradition  of  King 
Popiel  being  devoured  by  rats  and  mice,  "  War  of  the 
Monks,"  ("  Monachomachia,")  and  a  number  of  fables 
and  satires  of  great  merit.  His  novel  of"  Pan  Podstoli" 
is  also  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1801. 

See  S.  K.  POTOCKI,  "Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Krasicki,"  1808; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  DMOCHOWSKI,  "  Eloge  de  Kra 
sicki,"  1801. 

Krasinski,  kRa-sin'skee,  (VALERIAN,)  COUNT,  a  dis 
tinguished  Polish  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  White 
Russia  about  1780.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1830  he  repaired  to  England,  where  he 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Re 
formation  in  Poland,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  "  Panslavism  and 
Germanism,"  (1848,)  and  "  Religious  History  of  the  Sla 
vonic  Nations,"  (1851.)  Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1855. 

Kraszewski,  kka-shev'skee,  (JOSEPH  IGNATIUS,)  a 
Polish  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  War 
saw  in  1812.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous,  con 
sist  of  novels,  poems,  travels,  and  historical  treatises. 
His  romances  are  very  popular  in  Poland,  and  have  in  a 
great  measure  superseded  the  French  novels.  Among 
the  best  are  "The  Magic-Lantern,"  (1843,)  "Ulana," 
(1843,)  a"d  "Sviat  i  Poeta."  His  epic  poem  "Ana- 
fielas,"  and  a  "  History  of  Wilna,"  are  also  ranked  among 
his  best  productions. 

Krateros.    See  CRATERUS. 

Krates.    See  CRATES. 

Kratinos.     See  CRATINUS. 

Kratippos.     See  CKATIPPUS. 

Kratzensteiu,  kRat'sen-stln',  (CHRISTIAN  GOTT 
LIEB,)  a  German  natural  philosopher,  mechanical  inventor, 
and  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in  1723,  became  pro 
fessor  of  physics  at  Copenhagen  in  1754.  Died  in  1795. 

Kraus,  kRowss,  (CHRISTIAN  JAKOB,)  a  learned  Ger 
man  writer,  professor  of  philosophy,  etc.  at  Konigsberg, 
was  born  at  Osterode  in  1753.  He  published  a  treatise 
on  "  Political  Economy,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1807. 

Kraus,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  historical  painter,  born  in 
Suabia  about  1704;  died  about  1750. 

Kraus  or  Krauss,  krowss,  (JOHANN  BAPTIST,)  a 
German  prelate  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Ratisbon 
in  1700.  He  was  prince-abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Saint 
Emmeran.  Died  in  1762. 

See  PETRI,  "  Ehrengedachtniss  des  Priilaten  J.  B.  Kraus,"  1762. 

Kraus,  QOIIANN  ULRICH,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
at  Augsburg  about  1645  ;  died  in  1719. 

Kraus,  (MARTIN.)     See  CRUSIUS. 

Krause,  kRow'zeh,  (GEORG  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
economist  and  writer  on  the  science  of  forests,  born  at 
Prenzlow  in  1768;  died  in  1836. 

Krause,  (GEORG  MEI.CHIOR,)  a  German  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1737  ;  died  in  1806. 

Krause,  (JoHANN  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Artern  in  1749.  Among  his  works  is  a  "His 
tory  of  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1789-98.)  Died  in  1799. 

Krause,( JOHANN  GOTTLIEB,)  a  German  bibliographer, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1684,  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Umstandliche  Biicher-Historie,"  (3  vols.,  1716.)  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Wittenberg.  Died  in  1736. 

See  KIRCHMAIER,  "  Programma  ad  Exequias  J.  G.  Krausii,"  1736. 

Krause,  (KARL  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
philosopher  and  masonic  writer,  born  at  Eisenberg  in 
1781.  He  devoted  several  works  to  the  display  of  the 
merits  of  freemasonry,  of  which  he  was  a  zealous  advo 


cate.  Among  his  other  works  is  "Urbild  der  Mensch- 
heit,"  ("The  Type  of  Humanity,"  1811.)  Died  in  1832. 

See  LINDEMANN,  "  Darstellung  des  Lebens  und  der  Wissen- 
sclinftslehre  Krauses,"  1839. 

Krause,  (\VILHELM,)  a  German  landscape  and  marine 
painter,  born  at  Dessau  in  1803.  He  has  produced  some 
excellent  pictures  of  Norwegian  scenery. 

Kraut,  kRowt,  (WiLHELM  THF.ODOR,)  professor  of 
law  at  Gottingen,  was  born  at  Liineburg  in  1800.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  legal  works. 

Krauth,  krawth,  (CHARLES  PORTERFIELD,)  D.D.,  a 
Lutheran  divine  and  accomplished  scholar,  the  son  of 
Dr.  Charles  Philip  Krauth,  (late  president  of  Pennsyl 
vania  College  at  Gettysburg,)  was  born  at  Martinsburg, 
Virginia,  March  17,  1823.  He  graduated  at  Pennsyl 
vania  College  in  1839.  Ordained  in  1842,  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Baltimore,  and  was  subsequently 
settled  at  Winchester,  Virginia,  and  Pittsburg,  Pennsyl 
vania.  In  1859  he  was  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  of 
Saint  Mark's  Lutheran  Church,  Philadelphia,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  In  1861  he  became  editor  of  "The 
Lutheran  and  Missionary,"  issued  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1864  professor  of  theology,  church  history,  etc.  in  the 
Lutheran  Seminary  of  that  city.  In  1868  he  was  unani 
mously  elected  to  the  chair  of  moral  and  intellectual 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Among 
his  various  publications  we  may  name  his  edition  of 
Fleming's  "Vocabulary  of  Philosophy,"  to  which  he 
added  a  valuable  bibliographical  and  synthetical  Index, 
etc.,  and  his  translation  of  Tholuck's  "Commentary  on 
Saint  John,"  (1859,)  which  has  been  reprinted  in  Eng 
land.  He  has  now  (1870)  in  press  "The  Conservative 
Reformation  and  its  Theology,"  (pp.  800,  8vo.) 

Kray,  von,  fon  kul'  or  'Krajof,  von,  fon  kiu'of, 
(PAUL,)  BARON,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Kesmark, 
in  Hungary,  in  1735.  He  fought  against  the  French  in 
the  Low  Countries  and  on  the  Rhine  in  1793-95,  and 
became  a  field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1796.  In  1799 
he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army,  defeated 
Scherer  twice  in  Italy,  and  took  Mantua.  Having 
failed  in  a  campaign  against  Moreau  in  Germany  in  1800, 
he  was  removed  from  the  command.  Died  in  1804. 

See  ALISON,  "History  of  Europe." 

Krayenhoff,  kRl'en-hof,  written  also  Kraijenhoff, 
(CORNELIS  ROELF,)  a  Dutch  general,  born  atNymwegen 
in  1758,  became  minister  of  war  under  Louis  Bonaparte. 
He  published  several  excellent  charts.  Died  about  1840. 

Krayer.     See  GRAYER. 

Krebs,  kReps,  (JoiiANN  AUGUST,)  a  learned  German 
writer,  born  at  Heinaugen  in  1681  ;  died  in  1713. 

Krebs,  (JoiiANN  TOHIAS,)  a  German  scholar  and  an 
tiquary,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1718  ;  died  in  1782. 

Krehl,  kRal,  (  AUGUST  LUDWIG,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Eisleben  in  1784,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1834.  Died  in  1855. 

Kreil,  kkll,  (KARL,)  an  able  astronomer,  bom  at  Ried, 
in  the  Tyrol,  in  1798,  became  director  of  the  Observatory 
of  Prague  in  1845.  ^e  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Nature  and  Motion  of  Comets,"  (1843.) 

Kreitniayer  or  Kreytmayr,  kRlt'mTR,  written  also 
Kreittmayr,  (ALOYS  WIGULAUS,)  a  German  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  at  Munich  in  1705.  Among  his  works 
we  may  name  "Code  of  Bavarian  Judicial  Law,"  (1751,) 
and  "Bavarian  Civil  Code."  Died  in  1790. 

See  J.  A.  KAI.B,  "Biographic  des  Staatskanzlers  A.  W.  von 
Kreittmayr,"  1825. 

Kremer,  kRa'mer,  (CHRISTOPH  JAKOB,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Worms  in  1722.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  German  history.  Died  in  1777. 

Kremer,  kRa'mer,  (PETER,)  an  eminent  Belgian 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1801. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Maritis  at  Carthage,"  and  "  David 
Teniers  Designing  after  Nature." 

Kresa,  kRa'sa,  FATHER,  a  Moravian  priest  and  lin 
guist,  born  in  1648;  died  in  1715. 

Kretschmann,  kRetsh'miln,  (KARL  FRIF.DRICH,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Zittau  in  1738,  published  "Songs 
of  the  Bard  Ringulph,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1809. 

Kreutzer,  kRoit'ser,  (KONRADIN,)  a  German  com 
poser  of  operas  and  songs,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Baden 
in  1782;  died  in  1849. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moonj 


KREUTZER 


1343 


KR  UGER 


Kreutzer,  kRUt'saik',  (RUDOLF,)  a  celebrated  com 
poser  and  musician,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Ver 
sailles  in  1766,  became  violinist  at  the  imperial  chapel, 
and  a  member  of  the  Conservatory  in  Paris.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  "Lodoiska"  and  "  Paul 
and  Virginia."  Died  in  1831. 

See  F£TIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Kreysig,  kRl'zic,  (FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG,)  a  medical 
writer,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1770,  studied  medicine  at 
Pavia  under  Spallanzani.  In  1803  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  Elector  Frederick  Augustus,  afterwards 
King  of  Saxony.  He  became  in  1815  professor  of  thera 
peutics  and  pathology  at  Dresden.  Died  in  1839. 

Kreysig,  (GEOKG'CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  historian, 
born  near  Annaberg  in  1697.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  Saxony.  Died  in  1758. 

Kreyt'mayr.     See  KRKITMAYER. 

Krichna.     See  KRISHNA. 

Kriloff  or  Krilov.     See  KRYLOF. 

Krishna,  Crishna,  Krichna,  or  Krischna,  kRish'- 
na,  [a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "dark  blue  :"  see  below,] 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  eighth  avatar  of  Vishnu, 
usually  regarded  as  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  manifesta 
tions  of  that  deity.  It  is  said  by  the  votaries  of  Krishna 
that  in  the  other  avatars  Vishnu  manifested  only  a 
portion  of  his  godhead,  but  that  in  this  instance  he  ap 
peared  in  all  the  fulness  of  his  power  and  glory.  He 
was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Mathura  ;  his  mortal  parents 
were  Vasudeva  and  Devaki.  It  had  been  predicted  that 
the  son  of  Devaki  should  deprive  Kansa,  the  tyrannical 
king  of  that  country,  of  his  life  and  crown.  Kansa  there 
fore  sought  by  force  and  stratagem  to  destroy  the  young 
child ;  but  the  parents,  assisted  and  guided  by  power 
divine,  succeeded  in  baffling  all  his  efforts.  It  is  related 
that,  when  Krishna  was  only  seven  years  old,  Indra, 
jealous  of  the  popularity  of  the  child-god,  attempted  to 
destroy  the  worshippers  of  the  latter  by  a  fearful  storm 
of  lightning,  rain,  and  hail.  But  Krishna  raised  above 
them  on  the  tip  of  his  little  finger  Mount  Goverdhen, 
the  Hindoo  Parnassus,  thus  affording  complete  shelter 
to  his  trembling  followers. 

"  Them  the  heavenly  child 
Called,  and  with  looks  ambrosial  smiled; 
Then  with  one  finger  reared  the  vast  Goverdhen, 
Beneath  whose  rocky  burden, 
On  pastures  dry,  the  maids  and  herdsmen  trod : — 
The  lord  of  thunder  felt  a  mightier  god." 

SIR  WILLIAM  JONES:  Hymn  to  Indra. 

One  of  Krishna's  earliest  exploits  was  the  destruction  of 
the  great  serpent  Kaliya,  (or  Kalinaga,)  which  poisoned 
the  waters  of  the  river  Jumna.  Not  long  afterwards 
he  slew  his  malignant  enemy  Kansa,  having  first  para 
lyzed  him  with  fear.  A  remarkable  resemblance  between 
Krishna  and  the  Grecian  Apollo  has  been  pointed  out 
by  Sir  William  Jones  and  other  writers.  "  In  honour  of 
Krishna's  triumph,"  (over  Kaliya,)  says  Moor,  "games 
and  sports  are  annually  held  in  India,  as  the  Pythic 
games  at  stated  times  were  exhibited  in  Greece.  .  .  . 
Apollo  and  Krishna  are  both  inventors  of  the  flute. 
One  was  disappointed  by  Daphne,  who  was  turned  into 
the  Laitrtis,  hence  sacred  to  Apollo;  Krishna's  coy 
nymph  was  transformed  into  the  Tnlasi,  alike  sacred  to 
him."  Krishna  was  pre-eminently  a  pastoral  god,  and 
his  followers  were  principally  milkmaids  and  herdsmen. 
Apollo  was  regarded  as  the  protector  of  flocks  and  herds, 
(his  name  of  Nomios  theos  (i'<y«of  0edf)  is  derived  from 
nome,  (vopi,)  a  "meadow"  or  "pasture;")  and,  when 
compelled  to  pass  some  time  on  earth,  he  employed  him 
self  in  tending  the  flocks  of  Admetus,  King  of  Thessaly. 

The  pictures  of  Krishna  are  usually  painted  a  dark 
blue,  (the  colour  of  VISHNU,  which  see,)  this  colour  cor 
responding  to  the  signification  of  his  name.  Among  his 
other  names  are  BHAGAVAT,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
b'hug'a-vut,)  the  "adorable;"  KESAVA  (ka'sa-va)  or 
KESHAVA,  "having  fine  or  beautiful  hair;"  GOVINDA  or 
GOPALA,  the  "cow-herd,"  etc. 

See  "  Biographic  Uniyerselle,"  (Partie  mythologique ;)  MOOR, 
"Hindu  Pantheon;"  COLEMAN,  "Hindu  Mythology;"  SIR  W. 
JONES,  "On  the  Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in  "Asiatic 
Researches,"  vol.  i.  ;  see,  also,  the  episode  of  the  "  Mahabharata," 
entitled  "  Bhagavat  Gita,"  (i.e.  the  "  Song  of  Krishna.") 

Kritias.     See  CRITIAS. 
Kritolaos.     See  CRITOLAUS. 


Kriton  or  Krito.     See  CRITO. 

Kroeyer.    See  KROYER. 

Krohn,  ki<5n,  (HERMANN  GEORG,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  1705 ;  died  in  1756. 

Kromayer,  kRo'miR,  (HIERONYMUS,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Zeitz  in  1610,  wrote  "  His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1670. 

See  G.  LEHMANN,  "  Leichpredigt  auf  H.  Kromayer,"  1670. 

Kromayer,  (JoiiANN,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Misnia  in  1576,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  superintendent  (Protestant  bishop)  at  Weimar, 
and  published  several  works.  Died  in  1643. 

Krommer,  kuorn'mer,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  composer, 
born  at  Kamenitz,  in  Moravia,  in  1759  ;  died  in  1831. 

Krosick,  von,  fon  kRo'zik,  (BERNHARD  FRIEDRICH,) 
BARON,  a  German  savant,  born  in  1656,  erected  a  private 
observatory  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1714. 

Kroyer  or  Kroeyer,  kRo'yer,  (HENDRIK  NICOLAUS,) 
a  Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1799.  He 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  South  America  in  1840.  He 
published,  besides  other  works  on  natural  history,  "  The 
Fishes  of  Denmark,"  (2  vols.,  1838-43.) 

Kriideiier  or  Kruedener,  (JULIANA,)  a  Russian 
mystic  or  enthusiast,  born  at  Riga  in  1766,  was  the 
daughter  of  Baron  Vietinghof,  and  was  married  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  to  Baron  Krudener,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  a  few  years.  She  was  intimate  with  Madame 
de  Stae'l.  Having  lived  for  a  time  in  fashionable  dissipa 
tion,  she  adopted  the  views  of  the  Pietists  about  1806, 
and  gave  herself  up  entirely  to  preaching  the  gospel  and 
prophesying.  After  travelling  in  Germany,  where  she 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Stilling,  she  visited  Paris, 
but,  owing  to  the  disturbances  caused  by  her  meetings, 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  city,  and  soon  after  her  arrival 
in  Germany  she  was  ordered  by  the  government  to  return 
to  Russia.  She  died  in  1824.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
romance  entitled  "  Valeria,"  (1803.)  She  is  said  to  have 
had  much  influence  over  Alexander,  Czar  of  Russia,  who 
heard  her  preach  in  Paris  in  1815,  and  who  submitted  to 
her  revision  his  plan  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  In  the  latter 
part  of  her  life  she  abounded  in  works  of  charity  towards 
the  poor. 

See  CH.  EYNARD,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Kriidener,"  1849;  ADEI.B 
DU  THOU,  "Notice  sur  Julienne  de  Krudener,"  1827;  "Vie  de  Ma 
dame  de  Krudener,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1849;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Por 
traits  de  Femmes  ;"  W.  T.  KRUG,  "  Gesprach  unter  vier  Augen  mil 
Fran  von  Kriideiier,"  1818;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January, 
1852. 

Krueger.    See  KRUGER. 

Kruenitz.     See  KRUNITZ. 

Krug,  kRooc,  (JOHANN  PHILIFP,)  a  German  historian 
and  numismatist,  born  at  Halle  in  1764,  wrote  on  Rus 
sian  history  and  coins.  Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1844. 

Krug,  (WiLHELM  TRAUGOTT,)  a  German  philoso 
phical  writer,  born  near  Grafenhaynchen,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  1770.  Having  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Wit 
tenberg,  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic 
in  1809.  He  was  chosen  in  1833  a  deputy  to  the  first 
constitutional  Diet,  where  he  was  a  warm  advocate 
of  liberalism.  Among  his  principal  writings  are  his 
"  Fundamental  Philosophy,"  (1803,)  and  "  History  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Ancients,  especially  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,"  (1815.)  He  professed  a  system  called 
"transcendental  synthetism,"  which  was  very  popular 
in  Germany.  Died  in  1842. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Meine  Lebensreise  in  sechs  Stationen," 
1826;  EMIL  F.  VOGEL, '"Dr.  W.  T.  Krug,  in  drei  vertraulichen 
Briefen  an  einen  Freund  im  Aus'ande  biographisch-literarisch  ge- 
schildert,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Kriiger  or  Krueger,  kRiic'er,  (EPHRAIM  GOTTLIEB,) 
a  German  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1756.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "Ariadne  at  Naxos."  Died  in  1834. 

Kriiger  or  Krueger,  (FRANZ,)  a  skilful  German 
painter,  born  at  Anhalt-Dessau  in  1796.  He  worked 
in  Berlin,  where  he  painted  good  portraits  and  became 
court  painter.  His  favourite  subjects  were  hunting- 
scenes  and  landscapes  with  animals.  Died  in  1857. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kriiger,  (JOHANN  GOTTLOI?,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Halle  in  1715,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  Physics,"  ("Naturlehre,"  3  vols.,  1740- 
49.)  Died  in  1759. 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  n,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KR  UGER 


1344 


KUGLER 


Kriiger,  (THKODOR,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born 
at  Stettin  in  1694;  died  in  1751. 

Kriiger,  (THKODOR,)  a  German  engraver,  born  about 
1575  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1650. 

Kruilof.    See  KRYLOF. 

Krummacher,  kRoom'maK'er,  (FRIEDRICH  ADOLF,) 
a  distinguished  German  theologian  and  writer,  born  at 
Tecklenburg,  in  Westphalia,  in  1768.  He  was  succes 
sively  professor  of  theology  at  Duisburg,  councillor  of 
the  consistory,  and  court  preacher  at  Bernburg.  His 
"  Parables"  (in  verse)  (1805)  enjoy  great  popularity  both 
in  Germany  and  in  other  countries.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Die  Kinderwelt,"  consisting  of  religious 
poems  for  children,  "  Sufferings,  Death,  and  Resurrec 
tion  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  (1817,)  "Cornelius  the 
Centurion,"  (1829,)  and  "The  Life  of  Saint  John," 
(1833.)  He  was  attached  to  evangelical  religion  as 
distinguished  from  rationalism.  Died  in  1845. 

See  MOI.LER,  "  F.  A.  Krummacher  mid  seine  Freunde,"  2  vols., 
1849. 

Krummacher,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHKI.M,)  an  eminent 
pulpit  orator  and  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1796.  He  was  for  a  time  pastor  in  Wupperthale, 
where  he  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  older  Lutheran- 
ism,  and  gave  great  offence  by  his  denunciation  of  the 
rationalists.  As  preacher  of  a  reformed  community, 
he  went  to  New  York  in  1843.  After  a  few  years  he 
returned  to  Germany,  and  settled  at  Berlin  in  1847. 
Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name  "The  Church's 
Voice  of  Instruction,"  "Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  and  "  Sab 
bath  Bells,"  (1851.)  Died  in  December,  1868. 

Krummacher,  (GOTTFRIED  DANIEL,)  an  uncle  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Tecklenburg  in  1774.  He 
became  in  1816  reformed  preacher  at  Elberfeld,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Pietists. 
Among  his  works  are  a  series  of  sermons,  entitled  "  The 
Wanderings  of  the  Israelites  through  the  Wilderness  to 
Canaan,"  (1850,)  and  "Daily  Manna,"  which  have  been 
translated  into  English.  Died  in  1837. 

See  FRIEDRICH  W.  KRUMMACHER,  "G.  D.  Krummacher's  Le- 
ben,"  1838. 

Kriinitz  or  Kruenitz,  kRii'nits,  QOHANN  GEORG,)  a 
German  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1728,  is 
principally  known  as  the  publisher  of  the  "  Economico- 
technological  Encyclopaedia,"  seventy-three  volumes  of 
which  had  appeared  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1796. 
The  work  has  been  continued  by  the  brothers  Florke 
and  others,  and  in  1853  numbered  two  hundred  and 
fourteen  volumes. 

Kruse,  kRoo'zeh,  (FRIEDRICH  KARL  HERMANN,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1790.  In  1825 
he  published  his  principal  work,  entitled  "Hellas,"  and 
in  1828  was  appointed  professor  of  universal  and  Russian 
history  at  the  University  of  Dorpat.  lie  also  wrote  a 
valuable  "Chronicle  of  the  Northmen,"  (1850.) 

Kruse,  (KARSTEN  or  CHRISTIAN,)  a  learned  German 
writer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Olden 
burg  in  1753.  He  published  "  Atlas  and  Tables  for  the 
Survey  of  the  History  of  all  European  Countries,"  (1804.) 
Died  in  1827. 

Kruse,  kRoo'zeh,  (LAURIDS  or  LAURENT,)  a  Danish 
litterateur,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1778.  Among  his  nu 
merous  works  are  comedies,  novels,  etc.  He  translated 
into  Danish  and  German  some  works  of  Ingemann,  and 
others.  Died  in  Paris  in  1839. 

See  liis  Memoirs  of  liis  Life,  "  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben," 
2  vols.,  1829. 

Kruseman,  kRoo'zeh-man',  (CoRNELis,)  a  Dutch 
historical  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1797.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  A  Burial-Scene," 
"The  Preaching  of  John  the  Baptist,"  and  "  Belisarius." 
Died  in  1857. 

Kruseman,  (JAN  ADAM,)  a  painter  of  portraits  and 
sacred  history,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1804. 

Krusemark,  kRoo'zeh-maRk'^FRiEDRiCH  WILHKLM 
LUDWIG,)  a  Prussian  commander  and  diplomatist,  served 
against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  from  1806  to  1813, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was 
employed  successively  on  important  missions  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  Paris,  and  Vienna.  Died  in  1822. 


Krusenstern,  kkoo'zen-steun',  (ADAM  JOHN,)  a  cele 
brated  Russian  navigator  and  traveller,  born  in  Esthonia 
in  1770.  In  1803  he  sailed  from  Cronstadt,  and  during 
an  absence  of  three  years  discovered  the  Orloff  Islands, 
and  obtained  much  information  respecting  countries  pre 
viously  little  known.  He  brought  out  in  1810  his  "  Voy 
age  around  the  World  from  1803  to  1806,"  (3  vols., 
with  an  atlas  and  104  plates,)  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.  He  also  published 
"  Contributions  to  the  Hydrography  of  the  Greater 
Oceans,"  "  Atlas  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,"  and  other  similar 
works.  Krusenstern  was  the  first  Russian  navigator  who 
sailed  around  the  world.  Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
June  and  July,  1814. 

Krylof,  kRe-lof,  or  Kruilof,  almost  kRwe-lof,  (!VAN 
ANDREIEVITCH,)  written  also  Krylow,  Kriloff,  and 
Krilov,  a  celebrated  Russian  fabulist,  born  at  Moscow 
in  1768.  At  an  early  age  he  became  familiar  with  the 
French  language,  and  read  with  avidity  the  works  of 
Moliere,  Racine,  and  Boileau.  His  first  compositions 
were  dramas,  which  were  not  favourably  received.  He 
was  successively  editor  of  "The  Spirit  Post,"  "The 
Spectator,"  and  the  "Petersburg  Mercury,"  and  in  1801 
was  appointed  secretary  to  Prince  Gallitsin.  In  1808  he 
published  a  collection  of  fables,  which  met  with  great 
favour.  He  was  elected  to  the  Petersburg  Academy  in 
1811,  and  subsequently  received  a  large  pension  from 
the  emperor  Alexander,  who  also  loaded  him  with  hon 
orary  distinctions.  His  "  Fables,"  which  vie  with  those 
of  La  Fontaine  in  naivete  and  humour,  are  the  delight 
of  all  ages  and  classes  in  Russia,  and  many  sentences 
in  them  have  become  proverbs.  They  have  been  trans 
lated  into  German,  French,  and  Italian;  but  no  version, 
it  is  thought,  does  justice  to  the  original.  Krylof  was 
intimate  with  Pooshkin,  (Pushkin,)  Karamzin,  and  other 
eminent  writers.  Died  in  1844. 

See  PI.ETNEF,  "Life  of  Kri'off,"  prefixed  to  his  Works;  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  for  September  i,  1852;  ALFRED  BOUGEAULT, 
"  Kry!off,  ou  le  La  Fontaine  Russe,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Fables,"  Paris, 
1852  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneYale  ;"  also  an  article  on  the  Rus 
sian  Fabulists,  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1839. 

Kryns  or  Krijns,  kRins,  (EVERARD,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  lived  at  the  Hague  about  1600. 

Kshat'ri-ya,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kshut'ri-ya,] 
written  also  Kshetriya  and  Kshattriya,  the  name  of 
the  second  or  military  caste  among  the  Hindoos.  It 
originally  included  all  princes  and  professional  warriors. 
But  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  exceptions  to 
this  general  rule  :  many  of  the  Brahmans  nowadays  are 
professional  soldiers.  (See'  BRAHMANISM.) 

Kublai  Khan.     See  KOOHLAI  KHAN. 

Kiicken  or  Kuecken,  kiik'ken,  (FRIEDRICH  WIL- 
HELM,)  a  popular  German  composer,  born  at  Bleckede  in 
1810.  His  songs  and  ballads  are  great  favourites  both 
in  Germany  and  England.  In  1851  he  was  appointed 
court  chapel-master  at  Stuttgart.  He  has  produced  two 
successful  operas. 

Kuecken.     See  KUCKEN. 

Kuegelgen.     See  K(JGELGEN. 

Kuehn.     See  KUHN. 

Kuehne.     See  KUHNE. 

Kuehnoel.     See  KUHNOL. 

Kuesel.     See  KUSEL. 

Kuester.     See  KUSTER. 

Kiigelgen  or  Kuegelgen,  kii'gel-gen,  (KARL  and 
GERHARD,)  German  painters,  born  at  Bacharach,  on 
the  Rhine,  in  1772,  were  twin-brothers,  and  pursued 
their  studies  together  at  Rome.  In  1799  they  visited 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  they  married  two  sisters  of 
high  rank.  Karl  remained  in  Saint  Petersburg,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  while  Ger 
hard  returned  to  Dresden.  He  perished  by  the  hand  of 
a  robber  near  that  city  in  1820.  His  works  are  chiefly 
portraits  and  historical  pictures.  Among  Karl's  pro 
ductions  are  a  series  of  Crimean  and  Finnish  landscapes, 
executed  by  order  of  the  emperor.  In  1823  he  published 
"A  Painter's  Journey  in  the  Crimea."  Died  in  1832. 

See  HASSE,  "Leben  G.  von  Kiigelgen,"  etc.,  1824;  NAGI.ER, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kugler,  kooc/ler,  (FRANZ  THEODOR,)  an  eminent 
German  critic  and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Stettin  in  1808, 
became  in  1833  professor  of  the  history  of  art  in  the 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long ;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  moor.; 


KUH 


'345 


KURTZ 


Academy  at  Berlin.  About  1835  he  visited  Italy,  and 
in  1837  brought  out  his  "  Hancl-Book  of  the  History 
of  Painting  from  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  Present 
Time,"  which  was  followed  by  his  equally  valuable 
"Manual  of  the  History  of  Art,"  (1841,)  and  other  simi 
lar  works.  Died  in  Berlin  in  1858. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Generate. " 

Kuh,  koo,  (Ei'HRAiM  MOSES,)  a  German  poet,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Breslau  in  1731,  wrote  songs, 
odes,  fables,  and  epigrams.  He  was  a  triend  of  Lessing 
and  Mendelssohn.  Died  in  1790. 

Kuhl,  kdol,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  naturalist,  born 
at  Hanau  in  1797;  died  at  Java  in  1821. 

See  T.  VAN  SWIXDEREN,  "Bijdragen  tot  eene  Schets  van  het 
Leven,  het  Karakter,  etc.  van  H.  Kuhl,"  1822. 

Kuhlau,  koo'low,  (FRIEDRICH  DANIEL,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  in  Hanover  in  1786  or 
1787.  He  composed  operas  which  were  popular,  and 
music  for  the  flute.  Died  in  1832. 

Kuhlmann,  kuTmdN',(CHARLKS  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
chemist  and  writer,  born  at  Colmar  in  1803. 

Kuhlmann,  kool'man,  (Qi;iRi.\us,)  a  German  vision 
ary,  born  at  Breslau  in  1651.  He  led  a  wandering  life, 
and  published  several  extravagant  writings.  He  was 
burned  at  Moscow  in  1689. 

See  ( 1.  WHKNSIMIRF,  "  De  Fanaiicis  Silesiorum  et  speciatiin  de 
Q.  Kulilinanno,"  169^. 

Kuhn,  koon,  or  Kuhnius,  koo'ne-us,  (JoACHiM,)  j. 
German  philologist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1647.  He 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Strasburg  in  1676.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Quasstiones  Philosophical  ex  Sacris  Veteris 
et  Novi  Testament!  Scri])toribus,"  (1698.)  Died  in  1697. 

Kiihn  or  Cuehn,  kiln,  (KARL  GOTTLOB,)  a  German 
physician,  born  near  Merseburg  in  1754,  published  a 
complete  edition  of  the  "  Extant  Works  of  the  Greek 
Physicians,"'  ("Opera  Medicorum  Graecorum  qua?  super- 
sunt,")  in  the  original,  with  a  Latin  translation,  29  vols., 
(1821.)  Died  in  1840. 

Ktihne  or  Kuehne,  ku'neh,  (GUSTAV,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1806,  published  "Clois 
ter  Novels,"  ("  Klosternovellen,")  and  other  romances. 

Kiihner,  kii'ner,  (RAFAEL,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1802,  published  a  "Complete  Gram 
mar  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1834,)  ami  "Elementary 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1837.) 

Kuhnius.     See  KIHN. 

Kiihnol  or  Kuehnoel,  kii'nol,  (CHRISTIAN  GGTT- 
LIEIJ,)  a  German  biblical  critic,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1768. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  about  1809, 
and  published  "  Commentaries  on  the  New  Testament," 
(4  vols.,  1807-18.)  Died  in  1841. 

Kuick.     See  KUYK. 

Kuli  Khan.     See  NADIR  SHAH. 

Kullack  or  Kullak,  kool'lak,  (TiiKODOR,)  a  Ger 
man  composer  and  pianist,  born  in  Posen  in  1818.  He 
received  the  title  of  pianist  to  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1846. 

Kulm,  koolm,  (JoHANN  ADAM,)  a  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1689;  died  in  1745. 

Kulmann,  kool'mln,  (ELISABETH,)  a  Russian  poetess, 
of  German  extraction,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1808. 
She  spoke  many  languages,  and  composed  lyric  poems, 
published  in  three  volumes  in  1833.  Died  in  1825. 

Kummer,  koom'mer,  (GEORG  ADOLF,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Ortrand  in  1786  ;  died  near  Kakonda, 
Africa,  in  1817. 

Kummer,  (KARL  WILHELM,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  about  1780,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
produced  globes  and  maps  en  relief.  Died  about  1840. 

Kun,  van  der,  (PKTER.)     See  CUN/EUS. 

Kuiickel,  koonk'kel,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  chemist, 
born  at  Rendsburg  in  1630.  He  is  said  to  have  dis 
covered  phosphorus.  Died  at  Stockholm  in  1702. 

See  MOI.I.ER,  "  Ciinbria  Literata  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Kundmann,  koont'man,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a 
German  numismatist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1684  ;  died  in  1751. 

Kunigunde,  the  German  of  CUNEGONDE,  which  see. 

Kunrath,  koon'rat,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  chemist 
and  alchemist,  born  at  Leipsic  about  1560;  died  in  1605. 

Kunst,  koonst,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1493  ;  died  in  1544. 


Kunth,  von,  fon  koont,  (KAUL  SIGISMUND,)  an  emi 
nent  German  botanist,  bom  at  Leipsic  in  June,  1788.  He 
was  patronized  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  who  fur 
nished  him  with  the  means  to  study  in  the  University  of 
Berlin,  and  took  him  to  Paris  in  1813.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  botany  at  Berlin  in  1819.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Nova  Genera  et  Species  Plantarum  quas 
collegerunt  Bon  pi  and  et  Humboldt,"  which  treats  of  the 
plants  collected  in  America  by  Bonpland  and  Humboldt, 
(7  vols.,  1815-25,)  "The  Grasses  of  South  America,"  (a 
vols.,  1825-33,)  and  an  "Enumeration  of  all  the  Plants 
hitherto  known,"  (5  vols.,  1833-50.)  Died  in  1850. 

Kuntz,  koonts,  (KARL,)  a  skilful  German  painter  of 
animals  and  landscapes,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1770,  was 
also  an  engraver.  He  worked  mostly  at  Carlsruhe,  where 
he  was  court  painter.  He  engraved  Claude  Lorrain's 
picture  of  "  Abraham  Sending  away  Hagar."  Died  in 
1830. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-I-exikon." 

Kuntz,  (RUDOLF,)  a  German  lithographer  and  painter 
of  horses,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1797. 

Kunzeii,  koont'sen,  (FRIKDRICH  LUDWIG  EMIL,)  a 
musical  composer,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1761,  produced  a 
number  of  successful  operas.  Died  in  1817. 

Kupetzky  or  Kupetzki,  koo-pets'kee,  (JoHANN,)  an 
eminent  German  portrait-painter,  born  at  Pesing,  on  the 
borders  of  Hungary,  in  1667.  After  a  residence  of  many 
i  years  in  Italy,  where  he  was  patronized  by  John  Sobieski, 
I  he  returned  to  Vienna.  He  was  treated  with  great  dis- 
!  tinction  by  the  emperors  Joseph  I.  and  Charles  VI., 
whose  portraits  he  painted,  as  well  as  those  of  the  prin 
cipal  nobles  of  the  court.  He  painted  in  the  style  of 
Rembrandt,  and  ranks  among  the  best  artists  of  the 
time  in  his  department.  Died  in  1740. 

See  J.  C.  FUESSLI,  "  Leben  G.  P.  Rugendasund  J.  Kupetzki, "1758. 

Kurma,  kooR'ma,  called  also  Kurmavatara,  koor- 
mt'va-ta'ra,  (i.e.  the  "avatar  of  the  tortoise,")  the  second 
of  the  avatars  of  Vishnu,  on  which  occasion  he  took  the 
form  of  a  tortoise  that  he  might  furnish  a  support  to 
Mount  Mandara  while  the  gods  and  Asurs  churned 
the  ocean.  The  mountain  being  the  churn-stick,  the 
great  serpent  Sesha  was  made  use  of  for  the  string.* 
The  churning  of  the  ocean  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  popular  fables  related  in  the  mythology  of  the  Hin 
doos.  It  resulted  in  the  production  of  the  fourteen  gems,, 
as  they  are  called, — namely,  I.  Chandra,  (the  moon  ;)  2. 
Lakshmi,  the  incomparable  consort  of  Vishnu;  3.  Sura- 
clevi,  or  the  goddess  of  wine  ;  4.  Oochisrava,  a  won 
derful  eight-headed  horse;  5.  Kustubha,  a  jewel  of  ines 
timable  value ;  6.  Parijata,  a  tree  that  yielded  whatever 
one  might  desire ;  7.  Surabhi  or  Kamadhenu,  a  cow 
similarly  bountiful ;  8.  Dhanwantara,  a  wondrous  phy 
sician  ;  9.  Iravata  or  Iravat,  the  elephant  of  Indra  ;  10. 
Shank,  a  shell  which  conferred  victory  on  whoever 
sounded  it ;  n.  Danusha,  an  unerring  bow  ;  12.  Vish,t  a 
remarkable  drug  or  poison;  13.  Rembha,  (or  Rambha,) 
an  Apsara  possessed  of  surpassing  charms;  14.  Amrita, 
or  Amrit,  the  beverage  of  immortality. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kurmavatara.     See  KfJKMA. 

Kurreem  Khan.     See  KKKK.KM  KHAN. 

Kurrer,  kdor'rer,  (JAKOB  \VILHELM  HEINRICH,)  born 
in  \Yurtemberg  in  1781,  wrote  "On  the  Art  of  Dyeing 
and  Printing  Cloth,"  (3  vols.,  1848-50.)  and  other  works. 

Kurschner,  (CONRAD.)     See  PELLICAN. 

Kurtz,  kooRts,  (JoHANN  HK.INRICH,)  a  Prussian  theo 
logian,  born  at  Montjoie  in  1809,  became  in  1850  pro 
fessor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Dorpat.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "  The  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis,"  and 
other  religious  works. 


*  It  maybe  proper  to  observe  that  in  India  churning  is  usually 
performed  by  causing  a  body,  termed  the  churn-stick,  to  revolve 
rapidly  in  the  cream  or  milk,  by  means  of  a  string,  in  the  same  man 
ner  as  a  drill  is  made  to  revolve.  In  some  of  the  Hindoo  pictures  of 
the  churning  of  the  ocean,  the  gods  are  represented  as  standing  on  one 
side  of  Mount  Mandara,  and  the  Asurs  on  the  other,  both  grasping 
in  their  hands  the  serpent  Sesha.  which  is  wound  round  the  mountain. 
This  rests  upon  the  back  of  the  tortoise.  (Vishnu.)  At  the  same 
time,  the  preserving  deity,  in  consequence  of  his  ubiquitous  character, 
is  seen  standing  among  the  gods  and  grasping  Sesha,  and  also  as 
dancing  on  the  top  of  MandSra.  (See  Plate  49  in  Moor's  "  Hindu 
Pantheon.") 

t  Called  Bikh  in  some  of  the  modern  Hindoo  dialects. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

85 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KURZ 


1346 


LABARRE 


Kurz,  kooRts,  (HKINRICH,)  a  litterateur  and  Oriental 
scholar,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 
He  wrote  chiefly  in  German. 

Kiisel  or  Kuesel,  kii'sSI,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  German 
engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1621  ;  died  in  1682. 

Kiisel  or  Kuesel,  (MKLCHIOR,)  a  skilful  engraver, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Augsburg  in  1622. 
He  engraved  (with  the  burin)  and  etched  portraits,  sacred 
history,  and  landscapes.  He  resided  mostly  at  Augsburg. 
Died  in  1683. 

Kuster  or  Kuester,  kiis'ter,  (GEORG  GOTTFRIED,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Halle  in  1695.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Ancient  and  Modern  Berlin,"  (3 
vols.,  1752-59.)  Died  in  1776. 

Kuster,  (LUDOI.PH,)  an  eminent  German  scholar, 
born  at  Blomberg,  in  Westphalia,  in  1670.  He  published 
"  Historia  Critica  Homeri,"  (1696,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Romanorum"  of  Groe- 
vius.  He  also  published  editions  of  Suidas  (3  vols.,  1705) 
and  Aristophanes,  (1710.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  Paris.  Died  in  1716. 

Kiittiier,  kut'ner,  (KARL  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  trav 
eller,  born  near  Delitzsch  in  1755.  He  published  several 
books  of  travel  and  descriptive  works  on  England, 
France,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  Died  in  1805. 

Kutuzof  or  Kutusow.     See  KOOTOOZOF. 

Kuvdra  or  Cuvera,  koo-va'ra,  [a  Sanscrit  word  sig 
nifying  "deformed,"  "lazy,"  "slow,"*]  the  name  of  the 
Hindoo  Plutus  or  god  of  riches,  said  to  be  a  half-brother 
of  the  famous  giant  Havana.  He  is  said  to  reside  in  the 
splendid  city  of  Alaka,  and  is  sometimes  borne  through 
the  air  in  a  gorgeous  car  called  Push'paka.  His  consort 
(Sakti)  is  called  Kauveri,  (kow-va'ree.) 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kuyk,  koik,  or  Kuick  van  Wouterszoon,  (vfn 
wow'ter-zon',)  (JAN,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter  on  glass, 
born  at  Dort  in  1530.  Having  opposed  the  Jesuits,  he 
was  charged  with  heresy,  and  burned  at  Dort  in  1572. 

Kuyp.    See  CUYP.  ' 

Kiizing  or  Kiitzing,  kiit'sing,  (FRIEDRICH  TRAU- 
GOTT,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1807, 
published,  among  other  works,  "Elements  of  Philo 
sophical  Botany." 

Kvasir,  kva'sir,  [etymology  unknown,]  a  mythic  per 
sonage  mentioned  in  the  Norse  legends.  He  was  so 
wise  and  knowing  that  no  one  could  ask  him  a  question 
which  he  could  not  answer.  He  was,  however,  entrapped 
and  slain  by  two  dwarfs  who  had  invited  him  to  a  feast. 
With  his  blood  they  mingled  honey,  and  thus  composed 
a  mead  which  makes  every  one  who  drinks  of  it  a  skald, 
or  wise  man. 

See  THORPE'S  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 


*  The  signification  of  the  name  of  Kuvera  has  doubtless  allusion  to 
the  fact  that,  to  those  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  it  usually 
seems  to  come  with  a  very  slow  and  hobbling  pace.  In  like  manner 
the  Plutus  of  the  Greeks  was  represented  as  not  only  blind,  (because 
he  bestowed  his  favours  with  so  little  discernment,)  but  lame,  because 
he  seemed  to  come  so  slowly  and  reluctantly  to  those  who  sought 
him. 


Kyau,  von,  fon  kee'ow,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,) 
BARON,  a  Prussian  nobleman,  celebrated  for  his  wit  and 
blunt  honesty,  was  born  in  1654.  He  was  a  favourite  of 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  who  made  him  adjutant- 
general.  Died  in  1733. 

Kyd,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  flourished 
about  1580,  a  short  time  before  Shakspeare.  His  only 
works  extant  are  entitled  "Cornelia,  or  Pompey  the 
Great  his  fair  Cornelia's  Tragedy,"  "  The  First  Part  of 
Geronimo,"  and  "  The  Spanish  Tragedy,  or  Hieronymo 
is  mad  again."  The  last-named  production  displays 
uncommon  power,  and  is  supposed  to  have  suggested 
to  Shakspeare  some  parts  of  "  Hamlet." 

See  COLLIER,  "  History  of  Dramatic  Poetry." 

Kydermynster.     See  KIDDERMINSTER. 

Kyffhauser,  klf'hoi'zer,  an  ancient  palace  (now  in 
ruins)  of  the  emperors  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  is 
situated  on  a  high  eminence  near  the  village  of  Tilleda, 
in  Germany.  There  is  a  popular  tradition  that  at  the 
Kyffhauser,  in  a  magnificent  subterranean  palace,  Fred 
erick  Barbarossa  ("Red-beard")  exists  in  a  state  of  en 
chantment,  with  his  knights  and  squires  seated  round 
a  stone  table,  through  which  his  beard  has  grown.  Once 
in  one  hundred  years  (or,  as  some  say,  in  sixty  years) 
he  partially  awakes  from  his  enchanted  sleep,  and  sends 
out  some  one  to  inquire  how  the  time  is  passing.  It  is 
supposed  that  after  a  certain  period  he  will  awake  and 
revisit  his  empire,  and  then  a  better  time  will  prevail. 
One  of  Freiligrath's  finest  poems,  entitled  "  Barbaros- 
sa's  First  Awaking,"  ("  Barbarossa's  erstes  Erwachen,") 
has  reference  to  the  above  tradition. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  100-102;  S. 
BAKING-GOULD,  "  Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  p.  103. 

Kylian,  kil'e-an,  (JACOB,)  a  Bohemian  astronomer, 
born  at  Prague  in  1714;  died  in  1774. 

Kyii'as-ton  or  Kin'as-ton,  (Sir  FRANCIS,)  an  Eng 
lish  poet,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1587,  translated  Chau 
cer's  "Troilus  and  Cressida"  into  Latin,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "Leoline  and  Sydanis."  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Museum  Minervas  in  Covent 
Garden.  Died  in  1642. 

See  WOOD,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Kynaston,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Ches 
ter  in  1728,  was  a  Fellow  of  Brazennose  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1783. 

Kyper,  kee'per,  (ALBRECHT,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  about  1605.  He  became 
first  physician  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  professor 
of  medicine  at  Leyden  in  1648.  Died  in  1655. 

Kypke,  kip'keh,  (GEORG  DAVID,)  a  German  Oriental 
ist,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1724,  wrote  "  Observationes 
Sacras  in  Novi  Foederis  Libros,"  (1755.)  Died  in  1779. 

Kyrle,  kerl,  (JoHN,)  an  English  benefactor,  eulogized 
by  Pope  in  the  verses  on  the  Man  of  Ross,  was  born 
about  1664.  He  was  a  native  or  resident  of  Ross,  in 
Herefordshire,  where  he  built  a  church  and  endowed  a 
hospital.  He  owned  an  estate  of  ^500  a  year.  Died 
in  1754,  aged  ninety. 


L. 


Laale,  lau'leh,  (Pr.DER,)  a  Danish  poet  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Lolland.  He  wrote  "Latin-Danish 
Proverbs,"  ("Adagia  Latino-Danica.") 

Laar.     See  LAKR,  VAN. 

Labadie,  It'bt'de',  (JEAN,)  a  French  Protestant  min 
ister,  regarded  by  some  as  a  mystic  or  a  fanatic,  was  born 
at  Bourg,  in  Guienne,  in  1610.  After  joining  the  Jesuits 
and  obtaining  success  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  he  turned 
Protestant  in  1650,  and  was  for  eight  years  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Montauban.  lie  subsequently  preached  at 
Geneva,  Middelburg,  etc.,  where  he  made  many  prose 
lytes  or  friends,  among  whom  were  Anna  M.  Schur- 
niann  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  the  Rhine.  The 
sect  called  Labadists,  which  he  formed  in  Germany, 
continued  for  nearly  a  century.  Died  in  1674. 

See  MAUCDUICT,  "Avis  charitable  a  Messieurs  de  Geneve  tou- 
chant  la  Vie  du  Sieur  Jean  Labadie,"  etc.,  Lyons,  1664;  NIC^RON, 
"  Memoires." 


La'baii,  [Heb.  p/,]  the  son  of  Bethuel,  lived  at 
Haran,  in  Mesopotamia,  about  1740  B.C.  He  had  two 
daughters,  Leah  and  Rachel,  who  became  the  wives  of 
Jacob.  (See  Genesis  xxix.  and  xxx.) 

Labanof  (Labanov  or  Labanow)  de  Rostof, 
la-ba'nof  deh  ros'tof,  (Prince  ALEXANDER,)  a  Russian 
general  and  writer,  born  in  1788,  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  the  emperor  from  1817  to  1828.  His  principal  work 
is  "  Letters,  Instructions,  and  Memoirs  of  Mary  Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (7  vols.,  1844.) 

La  Barbinais  le  Gentil,  If  bfta'be'ni'  leh  zh6N'- 
te',  a  French  traveller,  born  probably  at  Saint-Malo. 
He  visited  Chili,  Peru,  and  China,  as  a  merchant,  about 
1715,  and  published  "A  New  Voyage  round  the  World 
with  a  Description  of  China,"  (3  vols.,  1727.) 

Labarraque,  It'bt'raV,  (ANTOINE  GERMAIN,)  a 
French  chemist,  born  at  Oloron  in  1777  ;  died  in  1850. 

Labarre.     See  BARRE. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LABARRE 


'347 


LAEITTE 


Labarre,  Ifbik',  (£i,ui,)  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1764,  built  the  Bourse  and  Tribunal  of  Com 
merce  in  Paris,  (finished  about  1826.)  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1827.  Died  in  1833. 

Labarre,  (THEODORE,)  a  French  composer,  and  a 
skilful  performer  on  the  harp,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 
He  composed  several  popular  ballads  and  operas. 

Labarre  de  Corcelles,  de,  deh  It'biR'  deh  koR's£l', 
(FRANCOIS  Tirecuy — teit'ku-e',)  a  French  liberal  poli 
tician,  born  in  1801.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cavaignac, 
who  in  1848  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  pope. 

La  Barre-Duparc,  de,  deh  IfbaV  dii'ptRk',  (Nico- 
LAS  EDOUARD,)  a  French  military  writer  and  officer,  born 
at  Saint-Cloud  in  1819. 

Labarthe,  lt'ba"Rt',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  geographer 
and  writer,  born  at  Dax  in  1760;  died  in  1824. 

La  Bastie,  de,  deh  la"  bts'te',  (JOSEPH  BIMARD,) 
BAHON,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1703  ; 
died  in  1742. 

Labat,  li'bt',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  monk  and 
successful  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1663.  He  went  in 
1694  to  the  West  Indies  as  a  missionary,  and,  having 
returned  to  France  in  1706,  published  a  "Description 
of  the  West  Indies,"  (6  vols.,  1722,)  a  work  of  some 
merit.  In  1728  he  published  an  excellent  Description 
of  Senegal  and  adjacent  regions,  ("  Relation  de  1'Afrique 
occidentale,"  5  vols.,  1728,)  the  data  of  which  were  fur 
nished  by  De  Brue.  Died  in  1738. 

Labat,  (LEON,)  a  French  traveller  and  physician, 
born  at  Agde  in  1803.  He  cured  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
who  gave  him  the  title  of  prince.  Died  in  1847. 

Labbe,  lib,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  volumi 
nous  writer,  born  at  Bourges  in  1607.  He  lived  many 
years  in  Paris,  and  published  several  useful  works  on 
history  and  chronology,  among  which  is  "Chronological, 
Technical,  and  Historical  Agreement,"  ("  Concordia 
Chronologica,  Technica  et  Historica,"  1656.)  He  is 
chiefly  known  at  the  present  time  by  his  valuable  work 
on  Latin  pronunciation,  entitled  "Eruditae  Pronuntia- 
tionis  Catholic!  Indices,"  which  was  enlarged  by  E. 
Leeds  and  republished  in  London  in  1751.  Died  in  1667. 

See  XICERON,  "Memoires." 

Labbe  de  Monveron,  It'ba'  deh  moN'va'roN', 
(CHARLES,)  a  French  philologist  and  advocate,  born  in 
Paris  in  1582.  He  published,  as  editor,  besides  other 
\\Kiks,  "  Glossaries  of  Cyrillus,  Philoxenus,  and  other 
Ancient  Writers,"  ("Cyrilli,  Philoxeni  et  aliorum  vete- 
nim  Glossaria,"  1679.)  Died  in  1657. 

Labe,  iS'ba',  (LouiSE,)  a  French  lady,  known  by  the 
name  of  LA  HELLE  CORDIERE,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1526, 
and  became  the  wife  of  Ennemond  Perrin,  a  merchant 
who  dealt  in  cordage.  She  was  learned  in  languages 
and  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  ardent  imagination. 
She  composed  elegies,  sonnets,  and  a  drama  named 
"De'bat  de  la  Folie  et  de  1'Amour."  Died  in  1566. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  LOVGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  C.  J.  DE  RUOLZ,  "  Discours  sur  la  Personne  et  les 
Ouvrages  de  L.  Labe,"  1750. 

La  Eedolliere,  It  ba'do'le-aiR',  (£MILE  GIGAULT,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Amiens  in  1812.  He  be 
came  an  editor  of  the  "Siecle."  Among  his  works  are 
a  "Life  of  La  Fayette,"  (1833,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Manners  and  Private  Life  of  the  French,"  (3  vols., 
1847.)  He  translated  into  French  Fenimore  Cooper's 
works,  Mrs.  Stowe's  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  and  the 
Waverley  Novels. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Labedoyere  or  La  Bedoyere,  de,  deh  It'ba'dwa'- 
yaiR',  (CHARLES  ANGELIQUE  HUCHET,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  noted  for  graceful  manners  and  chivalrous  spirit, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Marshal  Lannes  in  1808.  At  Essling,  in  1809,  he  was 
wounded  by  the  side  of  Lannes,  who  was  killed  at  the 
same  time.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  Eugene  Beauhar- 
nais  in  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  Moskwa 
and  Berezina.  In  1814  he  accepted  from  Louis  XVIII. 
the  command  of  a  regiment  stationed  at  Grenoble.  He 
was  one  nf  the  first  officers  that  in  1815  joined  the  stan 
dard  of  Napoleon,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  general 
of  division  ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  last  to  leave  the  field 


at  the  battle   of   Waterloo.     Having  been    arrested  in 
Paris  and  tried  by  court-martial,  he  was  shot,  in  1815. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La'be-o,  (Quivrus  ANTISTIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  about  50  B.C.  He  fought  for  Brutus  at  Phi- 
lippi,  and,  after  the  battle  was  lost,  died  by  his  own  hand. 
His  son,  QUINTUS  or  MARCUS  ANTISTIUS  LAHEO,  was  a 
more  eminent  jurist,  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  an 
inflexible  republican.  He  lived  during  the  reign  of  Au 
gustus,  to  whom  he  sometimes  expressed  his  mind  with 
boldness.  He  was  the  founder  or  head  of  a  school  of 
law,  and  was  the  rival  of  Capito.  He  wrote  Commen 
taries  on  the  Twelve  Tables,  and  many  treatises,  extracts 
from  which  are  preserved  in  the  Digest.  Labeo  and 
Capito  are  styled  "ornaments  of  Peace"  ("decora  Pads") 
by  Tacitus.  The  disciples  of  Labeo  were  called  Procu- 
liani,  from  Proculus,  his  successor. 

See  Aui.us  GEI.LIUS,  "  Noctes  Attics;"  C.  VAN  ECK,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Vita,  Moribus  et  Studiis  Q.  Antistii  Labeor.is,"  i6g2. 

Laberge,  de,  deh  iS'binzh',  (CHARLES  AUGUSTE,) 
an  excellent  French  landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1805.  He  represented  human  nature  with  surprising 
fidelity  in  a  picture  of  a  "  Diligence  passing  through  a 
Village  and  announcing  the  Revolution  of  1830."  His 
"Country  Physician"  (1832)  is  called  his  master-piece. 
His  works  are  finished  very  minutely,  without  impairing 
the  general  effect.  Died  in  1842. 

Labergerie,  de,  deh  li'be'Kzh're',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE 
ROUGIER,)  BARON,  an  eminent  French  agriculturist,  bora 
in  Touraine  in  1759.  He  published  several  approved 
historical  works  on  the  agriculture  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  Gauls,  also  treatises  on  Practical  Agricul 
ture.  Died  in  1836. 

La-be'ra-us,  (DECIMUS,)  a  Roman  knight,  distin 
guished  as  a  writer  of  mimes,  was  born  about  107  B.C. 
In  the  year  45  Caesar  signified  a  wish  that  he  should  act 
his  mimes  in  public.  He  reluctantly  complied,  such 
practice  being  deemed  degrading,  and  acquitted  him 
self  with  credit,  at  the  same  time  availing  himself  of  the 
opportunity  to  turn  his  wit  against  the  dictator.  The 
prologue  which  he  spoke  on  this  occasion  has  been 
preserved,  and  is  much  admired.  Only  small  fragments 
of  his  works  are  extant.  Died  in  43  B.C. 

La-bi-e''nus,  (QuiNTUS,)  was  a  son  of  Titus,  noticed 
below.  He  commanded  an  army  of  Parthians  which 
defeated  the  forces  of  Mark  Antony  in  Cilicia.  Having 
been  captured  by  the  Romans,  he  was  put  to  death  in  39 
Ji.c.  His  brother,  TITUS  LABIENUS,  was  an  eloquent 
orator,  and  an  enemy  of  Augustus  Cassar.  He  died  in 

12  A.I). 

Labienus,  (Trrus,)  a  Roman  general,  born  98  B.C., 
was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  63,  and  praetor  a  few- 
years  later.  About  60  B.C.  he  became  lieutenant  of  Caesar. 
He  was  the  ablest  general  that  served  under  Caesar  in 
the  conquest  of  Gaul,  where  he  gained  victories  over  the 
Treviri.  He  abandoned  his  late  chief  at  the  passage  of 
the  Rubicon,  and  took  arms  for  Pompey  and  the  senate  in 
49  B.C.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  commanded  in 
Africa,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Munda,  in  Spain, 
in  45  B.C. 

See  CAESAR,  "De  Bello  Gallico ;"  DION  CASSIUS,  "History  of 
Rome." 

Labillardiere  or  La  Billardiere,  de,  deh  It'be'ytR'- 
de_^aiR',  (JACQUES  JUI.IEN  HOUTON,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Alei^on  in  1755.  After  he  had  explored  Cyprus, 
Syria,  and  Mount  Lebanon  as  a  botanist,  he  was  em 
ployed  as  naturalist  in  the  expedition  which  was  sent  in 
search  of  La  Perouse  in  1791.  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  published  two  valuable  works,  viz.,  "Narrative 
of  a  Voyage  in  Search  of  La  Perouse,"  (1800,)  and  a 
"Flora  of  New  Holland,"  (1804-06.)  The  former  has 
enriched  the  various  branches  of  natural  history.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in  1834. 

See  P.  FI.OURENS,  "E"loge  de  J.  J.  de  Labillardiere,"  1837; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Labitte,  iS'bet',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  critic,  born  at 
Chateau-Thierry  in  1816,  became  professor  of  foreign 
literature  at  Rennes  in  1840.  He  wrote  for  the  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  able  articles  on  M.  |.  Chenier  and 
other  authors.  Died  in  1845.  Two  volumes  of  his 
'Etudes  litteraires"  were  published  in  1846. 


<:  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gtitttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LABLACHE 


1348 


LA  CALPRENEDE 


Lablache,  la'blish',  (Louis,)  a  celebrated  singer  and 
actor,  born  of  French  parentage  in  Naples  in  1794.  He 
performed  many  seasons  in  Paris  and  London.  His 
voice  embraced  two  full  octaves  ;  it  was  firm  and  sonorous, 
powerful  and  expressive.  He  was  successful  both  in 
the  serious  and  comic  opera.  It  is  stated  that  he  gave 
lessons  in  music  to  Queen  Victoria.  "  He  has  given 
form  and  life,"  says  M.  D'Ortigue,  "to  the  immortal 
types  traced  by  musicians  of  genius;  he  has  delighted 
civilized  Europe  for  nearly  half  a  century  as  a  tragedian 
full  of  dignity  and  as  an  inimitable  buffoon."  Died  in 
1858. 

See  CASTII.-BLAZE,  "Biographic  de  Lablache;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Labile,  It'bla',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  writer  of  fiction 
and  verses,  born  at  Beaugency  in  1751 ;  died  in  1841. 

La  Boetie.     See  BOETIE. 

La  Borde.     See  BORDE. 

Laborde,  (GENERAL.)     See  DELABORDE,  (HENRI  F.) 

Laborde,  It'bord',  (MAXIMILIAN,)  an  American  phy 
sician,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  Edgefield,  Soutli 
Carolina,  in  1804.  He  became  in  1838  secretary  of  state. 
In  1842  he  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  and  belles- 
lettres  in  South  Carolina  College,  and  afterwards  of 
metaphysics  and  physiology  in  the  same  institution. 

Laborde,  18'boiul',  (VmiEN,)  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1680.  He  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  de  Noailles.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Essence,  Distinction,  and  Limits  of  the  Spiritual  and 
Temporal  Powers,"  "Familiar  Conferences,"  and  other 
admired  religious  works.  Died  in  1748. 

Laborde,  de,  deh  It'boiul',  (ALEXANDRE  Louis  JO 
SEPH,)  COUNT,  a  French  antiquary  and  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1774,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph,  (1724-94.) 
He  accompanied  Lucien  Bonaparte  in  his  embassy  to 
Spain  in  1800,  after  which  he  devoted  some  years  to  the 
study  and  delineation  of  Spanish  monuments,  scenery, 
etc.  He  published  the  results  in  a  large  and  costly 
work, — "  Picturesque  and  Historic  Journey  in  Spain," 
("Voyage  pittoresque  et  historique  en  Espagne,"4  vols., 
1807-18,  with  900  engravings,)  which  is  highly  com 
mended.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1822  and  1827,  and  risked  his  life  for  the  popular 
cause  in  July,  1830,  after  which  he  became  a  councillor 
of  state.  Among  his  important  works  are  "The  Monu 
ments  of  France  classed  Chronologically,"  (24  parts, 
1816-26,)  and  a  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Austria,"  (3 
vols.,  1821-23.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'neVale ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
August  and  October,  1810. 

Laborde,  de,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  MARQUIS,  a  French 
financier,  born  at  Jacca,  Aragon,  in  1724.  He  acquired 
a  very  large  fortune  by  commerce,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  liberality.  He  was  appointed  banker  to  the 
court  by  the  Duke  of  Choiseul,  who  gave  him  the  title 
of  marquis.  He  was  guillotined  in  1794,  on  suspicion 
of  having  conspired  against  the  dominant  party. 

Laborde,  de,  (LEON  EMMANUEL  SIMON  JOSEPH,) 
COUNT,  a  French  traveller  and  writer  on  art,  a  son  of 
Count  Alexandre  Louis  Joseph,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1807.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to  La  Fa- 
yette  in  1830,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu 
ties  in  1840.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  He  produced  a  splendid  work  entitled 
"  Travels  in  the  East,"  ("Voyage  en  Orient,"  etc.,  con 
taining  four  hundred  views  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  36 
parts,  1837-55,)  "The  Renaissance  of  the  Arts  at  the 
Court  of  France,"  (1850-55,)  and  other  works  on  art. 
In  1857  he  was  chosen  director  of  the  archives  of  the 
empire. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  June,  1837. 

Labouchere,  la'boo'shaiR',  (HENRY,)  Baron  Taun- 
ton,  an  English  Whig  minister  of  state,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1798,  was  descended  from  a  family  of  French 
Protestants.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Taunton 
in  1830,  became  privy  councillor  in  1835,  and  president 
of  the  board  of  trade  in  1839.  Having  resigned  with 
his  party  in  1841,  he  was  chosen  chief  secretary  for  Ire 
Jand  in  1846.  He  was  president  of  the  board  of  trade 


from  July,  1847,  till  February,  1852,  and  was  colonial 
secretary  from  the  accession  of  Palmerston,  in  1855,  until 
February,  1858.  His  mother  was  a  Baring,  sister  of 
Lord  Ashburton.  Died  in  July,  1869. 

Labouchere,  la'boo'shaiR',  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1807. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Colloquy  of  Geneva  in  1549  : 
Calvin,  Beza,  and  Fare!,"  and  "Luther  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms,"  (1857.) 

Labouderie,  It' bood're',  (JEAN,)  a  French  religious 
writer  and  abbe,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1776  ;  died  in  1849. 

Laboulaye,  la'boo'li',  (£DOUARD  REN£  LKKEIJURE.) 
a  French  jurist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1811.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Landed 
Property  in  Europe,"  (1839,)  a  "History  of  the  United 
States  of  America,"  (3  vols.,  1855.)  and  an  ingenious 
and  witty  work  entitled  "  Paris  in  America."  He  trans 
lated  into  French  several  of  the  works  of  Dr.  Channing, 
(1853.)  In  1845  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Inscriptions.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Union 
during  the  great  civil  war,  (1861-65,)  ar|d  >s  a  Liberal  in 
French  politics. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Labourdormaie  or  La  Bourdonnaie,  de,  deh  13'- 
boou'do'i^V,  (ANNE  FRANCOIS  AUGUSTIN,)  COUNT,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Guerande  in  1747.  In  1792  he 
was  made  a  general,  and,  having  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  the  North,  was  denounced  by  Dumouriez  for 
obstructing  his  operations  in  Belgium,  and  was  recalled. 
He  afterwards  commanded  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Died  in  November,  1793. 

Labourdonnaie,  de,  (FRANQOIS  REGIS,)  COUNT,  a 
French  legislator,  born  at  Angers  in  1767.  In  1815 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  for 
about  fifteen  years  he  was  one  of  the  chief  orators  of 
the  extreme  royalists.  He  obtained  the  portfolio  of  the 
interior  in  the  Polignac  ministry  in  1829,  but  resigned 
about  the  close  of  that  year.  Died  in  1839. 

Labourdonnais,  de,  (M.-uiE.)     See  MAIIE. 

Labourdonnais,  de,  deh  la'booit'dc/ni',  (M.-\HE, 
mt'a',)  a  Frenchman,  snrnamed  "The  King  of  Chess," 
was  born  in  1795.  After  the  death  of  Philidor  he  was 
probably  the  most  skilful  chess-player  in  France.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Malic  de  Labourdonnais,"  (his  grand 
father.)  Died  in  1840. 

Laboureur,  Le,  leh  It'boo'rUR',  (JEAN.)  a  French 
priest,  whose  works  have  thrown  light  on  the  history  of 
France,  was  born  at  Montmorency  in  1623.  He  became 
one  of  the  almoners  of  the  king.  He  published  "Monu 
ments  of  Illustrious  Persons,"  (1641,)  "Memoirs  of 
Michel  de  Castelnau,"  (1659,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1675. 

Labrador,  la-bRa-D6R',  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  painter  of 
the  Seville  school,  was  born  in  Estremadura.  He  painted 
flowers  and  fruits  with  great  success.  His  works  are 
highly  prized  in  Spain.  Died  in  1600,  at  an  advanced  age. 

Labrousse,  de,  deh  li'bRooss',  (CLOTII.DE  SUZANNE 
de  Courcelles — deh  koou'sel',)  a  French  enthusiast, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1747.  She  professed  to  be  a  pro 
phetess.  In  the  Revolution  she  advocated  the  popular 
cause.  Died  in  1821. 

LaBrousse,  de,  (Nicoi,\s,)Comtede  Verteillac,  (deh 
vcR'tA'yJtk',)  a  French  general,  born  in  1648,  was  killed 
near  Mons  in  1693.  Louis  XIV.  said,  "I  have  lost  in 
the  Count  of  Verteillac  the  best  officer  of  infantry  that  I 
have  had  since  Turenne." 

La  Brune,  de,  deh  It  biuin,  (JEAN,)  a  French  Prot 
estant  minister  and  writer,  lived  about  1690-1720. 

La  Brunerie,  de,  deh  It  bRiin're',  (GuiLLAUME,)  Vi- 
comte  Dode,  a  French  general,  born  in  Isere  in  1775. 
He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  engineers  of  the  army 
which  invaded  Spain  in  1823,  and  directed  the  fortifica 
tions  of  Paris,  (1840-45.)  He  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1847.  Died  in  1851. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Brxiyere.     See  BRUYERE,  DE  LA. 
La  Caille.     See  CAILLE,  DE  LA. 
La  Calleja,  de,  elk  la  kal-ya'na,  (ANDRES,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  La  Riojain  1705  ;  died  in  Madrid  in  1785. 
La  Calprenede.     See  CAI.PRENEDE,  DE  LA. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LACARRY 


'349 


LACORDAIRE 


Lacarry,  ll'kf're',  (GiLLES,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit 
and  historian,  horn  in  the  diocese  of  Castres  in  1605,  was 
for  many  years  rector  of  the  College  of  Cahors.  He  pub 
lished  several  esteemed  historical  works,  among  which 
is  a  "  History  of  Rome  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Constan- 
tine  I.,"  (1671.)  Died  in  1684. 

Lacaussade,  Ia"'k5'.sa"d',  (AucusTF.,)  a  French  poet 
and  critic,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1820.  He  made 
a  good  version  of  Ossian's  poems,  (1842,)  and  became 
secretary  to  M.  Sainte-Beuve.  In  1852  he  published 
"  Poemes  et  Paysages,"  ("Poems  and  Landscapes.") 

Lacaze,  de,  deli  It'kiV,  (Louis,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  Beam  in  1703.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Idee  de  1'Homme  physique  et  moral,"  ("  Ideal  of  the 
Physical  and  Moral  Man,"  1755.)  Died  in  1765. 

Lacepede,  de,  deh  It'si'pld',  (BERNARD  GERMAIN 
EriKNNK  DE  LA  VlLLE,)  COUNT,  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1756.  He  was  carefully  edu 
cated  at  home  by  his  father,  who  was  of  a  distinguished 
family,  and  in  early  youth  chose  natural  history  as  his 
favourite  study  and  Buffon  as  his  model.  Having  sent 
to  Buffon  an  account  of  some  experiments  on  electricity 
and  received  a  complimentary  answer,  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1777,  and  formed  an  intimacy  with  that  naturalist  and 
Daubenton.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  Electricity" 
in  1781,  and  soon  after  became  the  favourite  pupil  of 
Buffon,  who  selected  him  to  continue  his  "Natural  His 
tory."  In  1785  Lacepede  was  appointed  curator  and 
sub-demonstrator  in  the  Cabinet  du  Roi.  He  published, 
as  a  sequel  to  Buffon's  work,  in  1788,  a  "Natural  His 
tory  of  Oviparous  Quadrupeds  and  Serpents,"  which 
was  commended  by  Cuvier.  In  1791  he  entered  the 
Legislative  Assembly  as  a  moderate  friend  of  the  new 
regime,  and  during  the  reign  of  terror  found  refuge  in  the 
country.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  zoology  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  in  1795,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1796.  His  "Natural  History  of  Fishes"  (6 
vols.  4to,  1798-1803)  is  elegant  in  style,  but  defective  in 
philosophy.  Having  been  chosen  president  of  the  senate 
in  1801,  grand  chancellor  of  the  legion  of  honour  in 
1803,  and  minister  of  state  in  1804,  he  was  very  assiduous 
in  the  performance  of  his  public  duties.  His  "Natural 
History  of  Cetacea"  (2  vols.,  1804)  is  called  his  best  I 
work.  After  the  restoration  he  was  made  a  peer  of  ! 
France.  Died  in  1825. 

See  CrviER.  "  filoge  Imtorique  du  Comte  de  T.acepede."  1826;  | 
VILI.EXAVE,    "fi'.oge   liistorique   du   Comte    de   Lacepede."    1826: 
AMAI.KIC,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  le  Comte  de 
Lacepede:''  QTERARD,  '"La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Xouveile    l>io- 
grapliie  Generate. " 

La  Cerda.     See  CERDA,  DE  LA. 

Lacerda  e  Almeida,  de,  da  la  s§R'dJ  a  al-ma'e-da, 
(FRANCISCO  Jo/,6,)  a  Portuguese  traveller,  explorecTparts 
of  Brazil,  and  portions  of  Africa  between  io°and  26°  south 
latitude.  Died  in  Africa  about  1798. 

La  Chabeaussiere,  de,  deh  \%.  sht'bo'se-aJR',  (ANGF. 
ETIENNE  XAVIF.R  POISSON,)  a  French  comic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1752  ;  died  in  1820. 

La  Chaise  or  Lachaise,  de,  deh  IS  shiz,  (FRANgois 
D'Aix,)  or  La  Chaise  d'Aix,  (FRANCOIS  DE,)  PERK, 
a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  Forez  in  1624.  After  teaching 
philosophy  at  Lyons,  he  obtained  in  1675  the  place  of 
confessor  to  Louis  XIV.,  which  he  kept  for  thirty-four 
years.  He  had  much  influence  with  the  king,  and  ap 
pears  to  have  acted  with  moderation  and  prudence. 
Voltaire  calls  him  a  "mild  person,  with  whom  the  ways 
of  conciliation  were  always  open."  He  is  partly  respon 
sible,  however,  for  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Died  in  1709.  A  large  cemetery  of  Paris  bears  the  name 
of  Pere  La  Chaise. 

See  VOLTAIRK.  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "Ale- 
moires;"  "Nouvel'e  biographic  Generate." 

La  Chalotais.     See  CHALOTAIS,  DE  LA. 

Lachambeaudie,  It'shoN'bo'de',  (PIERRE,)  a  French 
fabulist,  born  at  Sarlat  in  1806.  He  joined  the  Saint- 
Simonians  about  1832,  and  published,  in  1839,  "  Popular 
Fables,"  (7th  edition,  1849,)  which  gained  a  prize  of  2000 
francs  from  the  French  Academy. 

La  Chambre.     See  CHAMKRE,  DE  LA. 

Lachapelle  or  La  Chapelle,  de,  deh  li'sht'ne'i', 
(ARMAND  Boisbeleau — bwa'beh'lo',)  a  French  Prot 
estant  minister,  was  born  in  Saintonge  in  1676.  After 


preaching  in  London,  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  at 
the  Hague  in  1725.  He  was  the  editor  of  the  last  ten 
volumes  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  Anglaise,"  or  "Literary 
Journal  of  Great  Britain,"  (15  vols.,  1717-27,)  which  was 
commenced  by  Laroche,  and  wrote  several  theological 
works.  Died  in  1746. 

La  Chapelle,  de,  (JEAN,)  a  mediocre  French  poet, 
born  at  Bourges  in  1655,  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  wrote  several  successful  tragedies,  among 
which  was  "  Za'ide,"  and  "The  Amours  of  Catullus," 
(1680.)  Died  in  1723. 

La-eh'a-res,  [Aa.\ap??o,]  an  Athenian  demagogue  and 
tyrant,  who  obtained  the  chief  power  at  Athens  in  296 
i:.C.  He  was  expelled  by  Demetrius  in  295. 

La  Chatre,  de,  deh  It'shatR',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French 
general  and  courtier,  born  about  1536;  died  in  1614. 

La  Chaussee.     See  CHAUSSEE. 

La'-ehes,  [Atrp/c,]  an  Athenian  general,  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  to  Sicily  in  427  B.C.  He  was  one  of 
the  commanders  of  the  army  sent  to  Argos  in  418  H.C., 
and  was  killed  at  Mantinea  in  that  year. 

La-eh'e-sis,  [Aa^w^c,]  a  Greek  word  signifying  "lot" 
or  "destiny,"  the  name  of  one  of  the  PARC^,  (which  see.) 

La  Chetardie.     See  CHETARDIE,  DE  LA. 

Lachmann,  laK/man,  (KARL,)  an  eminent  German 
critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  March,  1793. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingen.  After  having 
lectured  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg,  he  became 
in  1827  professor  in  that  of  Berlin,  where  he  acquired 
a  high  reputation.  In  1830  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin.  He  published  excellent 
critical  essays  on  Homer  and  on  the  "  Niebelungen- 
Lied."  Between  1829  and  1845  he  edited  the  works  of 
Catullus,  Tibullus,  Terence,  and  Avianus.  He  published 
an  edition  of  Lucretius,  (1850.)  He  also  wrote  "  De 
Choreis  Systematis  Tragicorum  Grascorum,"  (1819,)  and 
many  other  works.  Died  in  Berlin  in  1851. 

See  JACOB  GRIMM,  "Rede  auf  Lachmann,"  iSji  ;  MARTIN 
HERTZ,  "  K.  Lachmann,  eine  Biographic,"  1851;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
granhie  Generate;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
1847. 

Lachner,  laK'ner,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  musical  com 
poser,  born  at  Rain,  in  Bavaria,  in  1804.  He  composed 
symphonies,  which  are  his  chief  title  to  fame,  and  sev 
eral  operas  and  oratorios.  After  acting  as  chapel-master 
in  Vienna  some  years,  he  became  royal  chapel-master  in 
Munich  in  1836.  He  ranks  among  the  greatest  com 
posers  of  symphonies  in  recent  times.  In  1852  he  was 
chosen  general  director  of  music  in  Munich. 

Lackemacher,  lak'keh-maK'er,  QOHANN  GOTT 
FRIED,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Osterwick  in 
1695  ;  died  in  1736. 

Lack'ing-tpn,  (JAMES,)  an  English  bookseller,  born 
about  1745;  died  in  1816. 

See  his  "  Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  1792. 

Lackmann,  lak'man,  (ADAM  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Weningen  in  1694;  died  in  1753. 

La  Clede  or  Laclede^de,  deh  It'klid',  (N.,)  a  French 
historian,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.  He  published  a  "  Gen 
eral  History  of  Portugal,"  (2  vols.  410,  1735,)  of  which 
a  Portuguese  version  appeared  in  i6vols.,  (1781-97.)  He 
died  young  in  1736. 

Laclos  or  La  Clos,  de,  deh  IS'klo',  (PIERRE  AM- 
RROISE  FRANCOIS  Choderlos — sho'deR'los',)  a  French 
officer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1741.  He  was  secretary  to 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  during  the  Revolution.  In  the 
army  he  served  as  marechal-de-camp  under  the  Republic. 
He  published  a  licentious  romance,  "The  Dangerous 
Liaisons."  Died  in  1803. 

La  Colonie,  de,  deh  It  ko'lo'ne',  QEAN  MARTIN,)  a 
French  historical  writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1674.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Bordeaux,"  (3  vols.,  1757.)  Died 

'"  '759- 

Lacombe,  If  koMb',  (JACQUES,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1724.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  in  prose  and  verse,  are  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Fine 
Arts,"  (1759,)  a  "History  of  Revolutions  in  Russia," 
(1763,)  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Trades,"  (8  vols., 
1789-91.)  Died  in  iSit. 

La  Condamiiie.     See  CON  DA  MINE,  LA. 

Lacordaire,  If  kou'diR',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  HENRI,)  a 
celebrated  French  preacher,  and  founder  of  a  new  order 


t  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LACORDAIRE 


1350 


LACR  UZ 


of  Dominicans,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource  (Cote  d'Or) 
in  1802.  He  was  educated  for  the  law,  which  he  re 
nounced  in  1823  for  the  church,  having  been  converted 
from  Voltairian  views  by  the  "  Essay  on  Indifference" 
of  Lamennais.  In  1830  he  was  associated  with  Lamen- 
nais  and  Montalembert  as  an  editor  of  the  "  Avenir," 
which  was  ultramontane  in  religion  but  liberal  or  r-adical 
in  politics.  Mis  unity  and  co-operation  with  Lamen 
nais  ceased  in  1832,  after  a  visit  to  Rome  with  his  two 
friends  above  named,  and  after  the  pope  had  denounced 
the  "Avenir."  In  1835  the  archbishop  opened  to  him 
the  pulpit  of  Notre-Dame,  Paris,  where  he  attracted 
immense  crowds  by  the  novel  and  brilliant  style  of  his 
sermons,  in  which  he  availed  himself  freely  of  the  various 
interests  and  excitements  of  the  time.  He  became  a 
Dominican  friar  in  1840,  and  published  a  "  Life  of  Saint 
Dominic."  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Constituent 
Assembly ;  but  he  resigned  his  seat  in  May  of  that  year, 
having  failed  as  a  parliamentary  speaker.  He  after 
wards  preached  in  Paris  and  other  cities.  He  pub 
lished  "  Considerations  on  the  Philosophic  System  of 
Lamennais,"  (1834,)  "Sermons  (Conferences)  at  Notre- 
Dame,"  (3  vols.,  1835-50,)  "Letter  on  the  Holy  See," 
(1838,)  and  other  works.  In  1859  or  1860  he  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  place  of  De  Tocqueville. 
Died  in  November,  1861. 

See  MONTALEMBKRT,  "  Vie  de  Lacordaire  ;"  "  Notice  sur  Lacor- 
daire,"  Lyons,  1845;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome 
i.  :  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "Le  Pere  Lacordaire,"  1844  :  PIERRE  LOKRAIN, 
"  Biographic  historique  de  Lncordaire,"  1847  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1863;  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1864;  PERE  CHOCARNE,  "  Vie  du  Pave 
Lacordaire."  (and  English  translation  of  the  same,  Dublin  and  New 
York,  !S67.) 

Lacordaire,  (JEAN  THEODORE,)  a  French  naturalist, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource 
in  1801.  He  travelled  extensively  in  South  America 
between  1825  and  1832.  Among  his  works  are  an  "In 
troduction  to  Entomology,"  (2  vols.,  1834-37,)  and  a 
"  Natural  History  of  Insects  :  Genera  of  Coleoptera," 
(4  vols.,  1857.) 

Lacoste,  iS'kost',  (fiuE,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at 
Montagnac,  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  On 
the  gth  Thermidor,  1794,  he  spoke  with  energy  against 
Robespierre,  and  procured  the  suppression  of  the  revo 
lutionary  tribunal.  Died  in  1803. 

Lacour,  It'kooR',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  painter  and 
archaeologist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1778. 

Lacretelle,  de,  deh  IS'kReh-tel',  (JEAN  CHARLES 
DOMINIQUE,)  a  popular  French  historian,  born  at  Metz 
in  1766.  He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Revolution,  and  was 
a  zealous  partisan  of  the  moderate  Constitutionalists. 
After  the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  jennesse  doree,  and  gained  distinction  as  an  elo 
quent  writer  and  editor  of  a  political  journal.  On  the 
1 8th  Fructidor,  1797,  he  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
being  a  royalist,  and  imprisoned  twenty-three  months. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (5 
vols.,  1801-6,)  which  obtained  great  success,  a  "His 
tory  of  France  since  the  Restoration,"  (3  vols.,  1829-35,) 
and  many  other  works  on  French  history.  Among  his 
best  productions  is  a  "  History  of  France  during  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (6  vols.,  1808,)  and  "The  National 
Convention,"  (3  vols.,  1825.)  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1811,  and  was  professor  of  history 
at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  from  1809  to  1848.  In  1827  he 
was  the  prime  mover  of  a  protest  which  the  French 
Academy  made  against  a  proposed  law  to  subvert  the 
freedom  of  the  press.  Died  in  1855. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  TASTEL,  "Histoire  des 
quarante  Fauteuils  de  1'Academie  Francaise,"  4  vols.,  1855;  "Lon 
don  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1814;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1805. 

Lacretelle,  de,  (PIERRE  Louis,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
successful  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Metz  in  1751.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  at  an  early 
age.  He  gained  reputation  by  his  "filoge  de  Montau- 
sier,"  by  a  prize  essay  "  Sur  la  Prejuge  des  Peines  infa- 
mantes,"  ("On  the  Prejudice  against  [the  Families  of 
those  who  suffer]  Infamous  Penalties,"  1784,)  and  other 
works,  for  which  the  Academy  in  1786  awarded  him  the 
prize  founded  for  the  work  most  useful  to  morals.  In 
1791  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where 


he  acted  with  the  moderate  Constitutionalists.  About 
1802  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  place 
of  La  Ilarpe.  After  the  restoration  of  1814  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "Minerve  Francaise."  He  was 
author  of  "Portraits  and  Tableaux"  and  "Melanges  of 
Philosophy  and  Literature,"  (5  vols.,  1802-07.)  Died  in 
1824  or  1825. 

Lacroix,  llt'kRwa',  (JULES,)  a  French  novelist  and 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1809,  published  "  The  Parasites," 
(2  vols.,  1837,)  "  Memoirs  of  a  Somnambulist,"  (5  vols., 
1845,)  and  other  novels. 

Lacroix,  (PAUL,)  a  prolific  writer  and  novelist,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  and  is 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  P.  L.  JACOB  BIBLIOPHILE. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in 
France,"  (4  vols,  1834,)  a  "History  of  Napoleon  III.," 
(4  vols.,  1854,)  and  other  historical  works.  The  manners, 
arts,  and  sciences  of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages  and  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  are  illustrated  in  his 
"  Moyen-Age  et  la  Renaissance,"  (5  vols.,  1847-51,)  which 
is  regarded  as  a  valuable  and  important  work.  Among 
his  novels  are  "  Soirees  of  Walter  Scott  at  Paris,"  (2  vols., 
1829-31,)  "The  Good  Old  Time,"  (1835,)  and  "Lover 
and  Mother,"  ("  Amante  et  Mere,"  2  vols.,  1839.) 

Lacroix,  (SILVESTRE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  mathema 
tician,  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  was  professor  in  the 
Polytechnic  School,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the  College  of 
France  for  about  sixty  years,  and  rendered  important 
services  to  science  by  his  elementary  works  on  geometry, 
algebra,  etc.  lie  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Differ 
ential  and  Integral  Calculus,"  (2  vols.,  1797,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lacroix  or  La  Croix,  de,  deh  It'knwa',  (EMERIC,) 
a  French  writer  against  war,  born  in  Paris  about  1590. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  New  Cyneas." 

Lacroix,  de,  (FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  PAMPHILK,)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1774; 
died  in  1842. 

Lacroix,  de,  (J.  P.,)  a  French  regicide  and  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Pont-Audemer  in  1754.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Convention,  and  became  a  political  friend 
of  Danton,  with  whom  he  was  executed  in  April,  1794. 

Lacroix,  de,  (Louis  ANTOINE  NICOLLE,;  a  French 
geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  published  a 
"  Modern  Geography,"  (1747,)  which  was  used  in  colleges 
for  about  fifty  years.  Died  in  1760. 

Lacroix,  de,  (MARIE  NICOLAS  CHRESTIEN,)  a  French 
engineer  and  topographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  lie 
enjoyed  high  consideration  as  chief  of  the  topographical 
bureau  in  the  department  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  1836. 
Lacroix  du  Maine,  de,  deh  13'kRwa'  dti  m|n, 
(FRANQOIS  GRUDE,)  SIEUR,  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
at  Mans  in  1552.  Having  collected  many  books  and  lite 
rary  materials,  he  published  in  1584  his  "  Bibliotheque 
Franfaise,"  which  contains  valuable  information  on 
French  works  and  their  authors,  and  is  commended  for 
accuracy.  He  was  assassinated  in  1592  by  some  fanatics 
who  suspected  that  he  secretly  favoured  the  Reformed 
religion. 

Lacrosse,  de,  deh  13'kRoss',  (BERNARD  THEOBALD 
JOSEPH,)  BARON,  a  French  politician,  born  at  Brest  in 
1796.  In  December,  1848,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
public  works.  He  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Lacrosse,  de,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  RAYMOND,)  BARON, 
a  French  admiral,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Meilhan  in  1765.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  flotilla  at  Boulogne.  Died  in  1829. 
Lacroze,  de,  deh  iS'kRoz',  (MATHURIN  VEYSSIERE,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1661,  became 
librarian  of  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1697,  and  professor 
of  philosophy  in  Berlin.  He  wrote  an  "  Egyptian  Dic 
tionary,"  and  several  historical  treatises.  Died  in  1739. 
Lacruz  or  La  Cruz,  de,  da  la-kRooth',  (JuAN,)  a 
skilful  Spanish  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born 
at  Valencia  in  1545,  and  was  surnamed  PANTOJA.  He 
was  patronized  by  Philip  II.,  for  whom  he  painted  por 
traits  and  religious  pieces  for  the  Escurial. 

Lacruz,  de,  (JUANA  INEZ,)  a  Spanish  or  Mexican 
poetess,  born  near  Mexico  in  1651.  She  published  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LACK  UZ 


LAENNEC 


1670  a  volume  of  dramas  and  other  poems,  religious  and 
secular,  which  were  greatly  admired  for  grace  and  sensi 
bility.  She  retired  to  a  convent  in  1668,  and  died  in 
1695.  She  was  often  called  "the  Tenth  Muse." 

Lacruz  y  Caao,  de,  da  la-kRooth'  e  ka'no,  (RAMON,) 
a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Madrid  in  1731.  He 
had  great  facility  in  versification,  and  excelled  in  ridicule 
or  facetiae.  He  produced  many  successful  comedies,  in 
which  characters  are  skilfully  treated.  Died  in  1795- 

Lacshmi.     See  LAKSHMI. 

Lactance.     See  LACTANTIUS. 

Lactantius, lak-tan'shfxus^Fr.  LACTANCE,  If k'toNss'; 
It.  LATTANZIO,  lat-tin'ze-o,]  (Lucius  CCELIUS  FIRMI- 
ANUS,)  an  eloquent  Latin  Father,  who  flourished  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Africa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Arnobius.  About 
290  A.D.,  Diocletian  employed  him  as  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Nicomedia.  Some  writers  think  he  was  converted 
from  paganism  after  that  date.  Between  310  and  320  he 
was  preceptor  of  Crispus,  the  son  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine,  and  during  that  period  lived  in  Gaul.  His 
principal  work  is  " Institutiones  Divinse,"  ("Divine  In 
stitutions,")  a  defence  of  Christianity.  He  is  reputed 
the  most  eloquent  and  polished  of  the  Latin  Fathers, 
and  was  called  by  Saint  Jerome  "the  Christian  Cicero." 
Died  probably  about  325  A.D. 

See  BROOKE  MOUNTAIN,  "  Summary  of  the  Writings  of  Lactan 
tius,"  London.  1839;  FLECRY,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique ;"  SAINT 
JEROME,  "  l)e  Scriptoribus  Ecc'esiasticis  ;"  P.  ECKERMAN,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  I, actantio,  Cicerone  Christiano,"  1754  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generate. " 

Lacuee,  It'ku'i',  (GERARD  JEAN,)  Comte  de  Cessac, 
a  French  general  and  administrator,  born  near  Agen  in 
1752.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  minister 
of  state,  (1807,)  and  minister  of  the  administration  of 
war  in  1810.  Died  in  1841. 

Lacuna.     See  LACUNA. 

La/cy,  (foHN,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Doncaster.  He  obtained  such  popularity  as  a  comic 
actor  that  Charles  II.  had  his  portrait  painted  in  several 
characters.  He  wrote,  besides  other  comedies,  "The 
Dumb  Lady,"  and  "  Sir  Hercules  Buffoon."  Died  in  1681. 

Lacy,  de,  da  laV//ee',  (Luis,)  an  able  Spanish  general, 
born  near  Gibraltar  in  1775.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  restore  the  authority  of  the  Cortes,  he  was  shot  in  1817. 

Lacy,  von,  (JOSEPH  FRANZ  MOKITZ.)     See  LASCY. 

La-9y'des,  [Aa/ct'^f,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Pla 
tonic  school,  was  a  native  of  Gyrene.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Arcesilaus,  whose  successor  he  became  at  Athens 
about  240  B.C.  His  writings  are  not  extant.  Died 
about  215  B.C.,  (one  account  says  241  B.C.) 

Ladd,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in  1778,  was  one  of  the 
originators  of  the  American  Peace  Society,  of  which  he 
became  president.  He  was  successively  editor  of  the 
"Friend  of  Peace"  and  the  "Harbinger  of  Peace,"  and 
wrote  several  essays  on  that  subject.  Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1842. 

Ladenberg,  voii,  fon  la'den-beRc',  (ADALBERT,)  born 
at  Anspach  in  1798,  filled  many  important  posts  under 
the  Prussian  government.  Died  in  1855. 

Ladenberg,  von,  (PHILIPP,)  a  Prussian  lawyer,  the 
father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1769, 
became  in  1837  privy  minister  of  state.  Died  in  1847. 

Ladislaus,  lad'is-lawss  or  la'dis-lowss,  [Fr.  LADISLAS, 
It'de'slas':  Polish,  WLADISLAW,  vla'de-slav'  or  vla'de- 
slaf,]  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  and  SAINT,  born  in  1041,  was 
a  son  of  Bela  I.  He  began  to  reign  in  1078,  and  died  in 
1095.  He  was  canonized  by  the  pope. 

See  GANOCZY,  "Dissertatio  de  S.  Ladislao,"  etc.,  Vienna,  1775. 

Ladislaus  II.,  of  Hungary,  a  son  of  Bela  II.,  was 
born  about  1134;  died  in  1162,  after  a  reign  of  about 
six  months.  He  is  omitted  from  some  lists  of  the  kings 
of  Hungary. 

Ladislaus  II.  or  IT!.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1185,  was  a  son  of  Emeric.  He  was  elected  in  1204,  and 
died  in  1205. 

Ladislaus  III.  or  IV.,  surnamed  CUMAN,  King  of 
Hungary,  succeeded  his  father,  Stephen  IV.,  in  1272.  In 
his  reign  Hungary  was  ravaged  by  the  Tartars  or  Mon 
gols.  He  was  assassinated  in  1290. 


Ladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1400,  was  a  son  of  Jagellon  or  Ladislaus.  He  inherited 
the  throne  of  Poland  in  1434,  and  was  elected  King  of 
Hungary  in  1440.  His  army  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Turkish  invaders.  (See  HUNIADES.)  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Varna  by  the  Turks  in  1444.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  infant  son  of  Albert  II.,  who 
was  styled  Ladislaus  VI.,  and  who  died  in  1457,  aged 
seventeen. 

See  FESSLER,  "Geschichte  der  Ungarn." 

Ladislaus  VI.  or  VII.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1450,  was  a  son  of  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland.  He  was 
elected  King  of  Hungary  in  1490.  During  his  reign  the 
conquests  of  Matthias  Corvinus  in  Austria  were  lost. 
He  died  in  1516,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Louis. 

See  COUNT  VON  MAILATH,  "  Geschichte  der  Ungarn." 

Ladislaus  or  Lancelot,  King  of  Naples,  was  the 
son  of  Charles  III.,  and  began  to  reign  in  1386.  His 
rival,  Louis  II.,  had  possession  of  Naples,  but  was  ex 
pelled  in  1399.  Ladislaus  excited  the  Romans  to  revolt 
against  Innocent  VII.,  and  in  1408  made  himself  master 
of  Rome.  Died  in  1414. 

Ladislaus  OF  POLAND.     See  VLADISLAUS. 

Ladmiral,  Ifd'me'rtl',  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  of 
French  descent,  born  at  Leyden  in  1680. 

Ladoucette,  de,  deh  It'doo'seV,  ([KAN  CHARLES 
FRANCOIS,)  BARON,  a  meritorious  French  administrator, 
born  at  Metz  in  1770;  died  in  1848. 

Ladowski,  la-dov'skee,  (REMIE,)  a  Polish  naturalist, 
born  at  Volhynia  in  1738,  published  a  "Natural  History 
of  Poland,"  (1783.)  Died  in  1798. 

Ladvocat,  Itd'vo'kt',  QEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at  Vaucouleurs  in  1709, 
was  learned  in  philosophy,  history,  Oriental  languages, 
etc.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the  Sorbonne, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
"  Bibliotheque  annuelle,"  (1748-51,)  and  a  "Historical 
Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1752.)  An  enlarged  edition  of  the 
last  was  published  in  5  vols.  in  1822.  Died  in  1765. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Ladvocat,  (Louis  FRANC.OIS,')  a  French  philosophical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1644.  He  became  a  counsellor 
and  dean  of  the  chamber  of  accounts.  He  wrote  several 
metaphysical  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  a  "  New 
System  of  Philosophy."  Died  in  1735. 

Ladvocat,  (N.,)  a  French  publisher  and  bookseller, 
born  in  1790;  died  in  1854. 

Laelius,  lee'le^us,  (CAius,)  surnamed  NEPOS,  an  emi 
nent  Roman  general.  He  had  a  high  command  under 
Scipio  Africanus  in  the  expedition  against  Spain  in  210 
B.C.  In  205  he  gained  a  victory  over  Syphax  in  Africa, 
for  which  he  received  a  crown  of  gold.  He  was  elected 
praetor  in  197,  and  consul  in  190.  His  notes  furnished 
Polybius  with  materials  for  his  history  of  Scipio's  cam 
paigns  in  Spain. 

Laelius,  (C'Aius,)  surnamed  SAPIENS,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  studied  philosophy  with  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and 
became  an  eminent  orator.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  his  friend  Scipio  the  Younger  at  the  siege  of  Car 
thage,  and  was  chosen  consul  in  140  B.C.  He  favoured  the 
aristocratic  party,  and  was  an  opponent  of  T.  Gracchus. 
The  celebrity  of  the  friendship  between  Laelius  and 
Scipio  caused  Cicero  to  place  the  name  of  the  former  at 
the  head  of  his  dialogue  "De  Amicitia."  Horace  com 
mends  his  mild  philosophy, — "mitis  sapientia  Laelii," 
(Serm.  ii.  Sat.  i.)  Died  about  115  B.C. 

See  CICERO,  "  Brutus"  and  "  De  Oratore  ;"  HENDRIK  HANA, 
"Dissertatio  de  C.  Ljelio  Sapiente,"  1832. 

Laennec,  It'neV,  (GUILLAUME  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Quimper  in  1748,  was  the  uncle  of 
the  following.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to  the 
king  in  1779.  Died  in  1822. 

Laennec,  (RENE  THEODORE  HYACINTHS,)  an  eminent 
French  physician,  born  at  Quimper  in  February,  1784, 
went  to  Paris  in  1800  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  anatomy,  in  which  he  made  several 
discoveries.  He  had  already  acquired  a  reputation  by  his 
practice  and  writings,  when  he  invented  the  stethoscope 
in  1815,  and  opened  a  new  era  in  medicine  by  his  impor 
tant  discovery  of  auscultation.  Having  been  chosen  chief 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAENSBERGH 


1352 


LA  FATETTE 


physician  of  the  Hopital  Necker  in  1816,  he  studied  the 
diseases  of  the  thorax  with  great  diligence,  sagacity,  and 
success.  His  "Treatise  on  Mediate  Auscultation,"  etc. 
("Traite  de  1' Auscultation  mediate  et  des  Maladies  des 
Poumons  et  du  Coeur,"  2  vols.,  1819)  produced  a  great 
sensation,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  important 
contribution  to  medical  science  made  in  the  present  cen 
tury.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
College  of  France  in  1822,  and  obtained  the  chair  of 
clinic  medicine  in  1822  or  1823.  He  died  of  consump 
tion  in  1826. 

See  PARISET,  "  filoge  de  Laennec,"  1840  ;  A.  L.  J.  RAYI.E,  "  No 
tice  histonque  sur  H.  T.  H.  Laennec,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Geneiale. " 

Laeusbergh,  iSns'beiui  or  lans'be'Rg,  (  MATHIEU,) 
a  Fleming,  who  lived  about  1630,  was  the  author  of  a 
famous  almanac,  first  published  about  1635.  An  almanac 
bearing  his  name  continues  to  be  published  at  Liege. 

La  ihiziiia  or  Enciiia.     See  LNZINA. 

Laer  or  Laar,  van,  vSn  iSn,  (PIKTER,)  a  celebrated 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1613.  He  studied 
and  worked  sixteen  years  in  Rome,  where  he  was  inti 
mate  with  N.  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorrain  and  received 
the  surname  of  BAMHOCCIO.  In  1639  he  returned  to 
Holland  and  settled  in  Haarlem.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  hunting-scenes,  rural  sports,  fairs,  fisheries,  and 
rustic  festivals,  which  he  treated  with  great  vivacity.  He 
excelled  in  design,  colour,  and  aerial  effects.  His  etch 
ings  of  his  own  designs  are  also  much  admired.  Died 
in  1673. 

Laerte.     See  LAKRTES. 

La-er'tes,  [Or.  Aai'/)7//f ;  Fr.  LAERTK,  It'eRt',]  King 
of  Ithaca,  and  father  of  Ulysses,  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  the  Argonauts.  lie  resigned  the  crown  to  his 
son  just  named. 

Laertius,  (DiooF.NES.)     See  DIOGENES. 

Laet,  van,  vitn  1st,  (J.\N,)  a  Flemish  geographer,  born 
at  Antwerp,  was  well  versed  in  languages  and  history. 
He  published  valuable  descriptive  works  on  Spain,  Italy, 
Persia,  etc.  His  "  Description  of  the  West  Indies"  (1640) 
is  highly  commended.  Died  about  1650. 

See  NICERON,  "  Me'moires." 

Laeviiius,  le-vi'nus,  (MARCUS  VALERIUS,)  a  Roman 
general,  who,  having  obtained  the  office  of  praetor  in  214 
H.C.,  fought  with  success  against  Philip,  King  of  Mace- 
don,  at  Oricum.  He  became  consul  in  210  B.C.,  and 
obtained  by  lot  the  command  of  Italy,  which  was  then 
invaded  by  Hannibal ;  but  he  exchanged  this  province 
with  Marcellus  for  Sicily.  He  quickly  expelled  the  Car 
thaginians  from  this  island.  Died  in  200  n.C. 

See  Livv,  "History  of  Rome;"  POLYEIUS,  "  History." 

Laevinus,  (Puuuus  VALERIUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  was  consul  in  280  li.C.  He  obtained  the  chief  com 
mand  in  the  war  against  Pyrrhus  and  the  Tarentines. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  Pyrrhus  in  a  great  battle  on 
the  Siris,  near  Heraclea,  in  280  B.C. 

Lceviiius,  la-vee'nus,  (  TORRENTIUS,  )  called  also 
Vander  Beken,  vtn  der  ba'ken,  a  Flemish  prelate, 
born  at  Ghent  about  1525,  was  distinguished  as  a  Latin 
poet.  He  founded  a  college  of  Jesuits  at  Louvain,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Mechlin.  Died  in  1595. 

Lasvius,  lee've-us,  a  Latin  poet,  of  whom  little  is 
known.  He  lived  in  the  first  century  before  Christ,  and 
wrote  "  Erotopasgnia." 

Lafabrique,  IS'fS'bKek'.fNicoLAS,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Xamur  ;  died  at  Liege  in  1736. 

La  Fage,  IS  ttzh,  (RAIMOND,)  a  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Lisle  (Albigeois)  about  1650,  studied 
and  worked  at  Rome  and  at  Paris.  He  was  renowned 
for  boldness  of  touch  and  facility  of  execution.  The 
pen  was  his  favourite  instrument  in  design.  He  left 
many  etchings.  His  habits  were  very  intemperate. 
Died  about  1690. 

La  Faille,  de,  deh  It  ftl  or  ff'ye,  (CLEMENT,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1718;  died  in 
1782. 

Lafaist.     See  LAFAYK. 

La  Fare,  de,  deh  It  flu,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTS,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Valgorge  in  1644.  He 
served  several  campaigns  in  the  army,  (1667-74,)  and 
became  a  friend  of  Turenne.  Besides  some  trifling 


poetical  pieces,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  and  Reflections  on 
the  Principal  Events  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.," 
(1715,)  which  is  commended.  Died  in  1712. 

La  Farge,  15  fSRzh,  (JOACHIM,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Paris  about  1750,  originated  a  system  of  tontine 
which  is  called  by  his  name.  Died  about  1825. 

La  Farge,  (MARIE  CAITELI.E,  )  a  Frenchwoman, 
notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  born  in  I'icardy  in  1816. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  colonel  of  artillery,  and  was 
married  in  1838  to  M.  La  Farge,  who  died  soon  after,  it 
was  supposed,  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered 
by  his  wife.  About  the  same  time  she  was  accused  of 
having  stolen  from  one  of  her  friends  some  diamonds  of 
great  value.  The  trial  which  followed  was  of  the  most 
exciting  kind,  several  eminent  chemists  having  declared, 
alter  an  examination  of  the  remains,  that  there  were  no 
marks  of  poison,  while  M.  Orfila  asserted  that  arsenic 
was  present.  Madame  La  Farge  was  condemned  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  but  after  twelve  years  she  was 
released,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  died  in  1852. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Mnrie  Cappelle  Veuve  La  targe,"  by  herself, 
4  vols.,  1840;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Ji:ly,  1842. 

La  Farina,  la  fA-Ree'na,  (GiusEiTE,)  an  Italian  lawyer 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Messina  in  1815.  He 
founded  several  liberal  journals,  which  were  successively 
suppressed  by  the  government.  lie  afterwards  settled 
at  Florence,  where  he  found  more  liberty,  and  published 
a  democratic  anti-papal  journal,  "  1,'Alba."  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  unsuccessful  revolution  in  Sicily 
in  1848,  after  which  he  again  became  an  exile.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Italy  from  1815  to  1850," 
(6  vols.,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  of  Sicily  in 
1848-49,"  (2  vols.) 

Lafaye,  It'tY,  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  Protestant  min 
ister,  born  at  Chateaudun,  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Geneva  in  1584.  He  wrote  several  theological  works, 
and  a  "Life  of  Beza,"  (1606.)  Died  in  1615. 

Lafaye  or  Lafaist,  li'tY,  (PIERRE  BENJAMIN,)  a 
French  philologist,  born  in  the  department  of  Yonne  in 
1808.  His  chiet  works  are  "French  Synonvmes,"  (1841,) 
crowned  by  the  Institute,  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Synonymes  of  the  French  Language,"  (1858.) 

Lafaye,  de,  deh  It'tV,  (JEAN  £LIE,)  an  able  French 
engineer,  born  at  Yienne  in  1671.  He  served  in  the 
army  many  years  as  engineer,  and  made  discoveries  in 
the  science  of  war.  Died  in  1718. 

Lafaye,  de,  (JEAN  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
distinguished  for  his  wit  and  accomplishments,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Vienne  in  1074.  lie  was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1731. 

La  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  de.'cleh  It'tYeV,  (GEORGE 
WASHINGTON,)  the  only  son  of  General  La  Fayette,  was 
born  in  1779.  He  entered  the  army  young,  and  served 
in  Italy  about  1796.  As  aide-de-camp  of  General  Grou 
chy,  he  made  the  campaigns  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Poland,  (1805-07.)  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1822,  and  again  in  i8:?7,  by  the  voters  of 
Seine-et-Marne,  whom  he  continued  to  represent  until 
1848.  In  politics  he  was  an  advanced  liberal.  Died  in  1849. 

La  Fayette,  de,  (GILHERT,)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1380.  He  fought  for  the  dauphin  Charles  against 
the  English,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1420. 
He  was  afterwards  one  of  the  chief  counsellors  of 
Charles  VII.,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Joan 
of  Arc  at  Orleans  in  1429.  He  aided  in  expelling  the 
English  from  Normandy  in  1449.  Died  in  1462. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Fayette,  de,  (LOUISE,)  a  French  lady,  born  in 
1616,  was  a  daughter  of  Count  Jean  de  la  Fayette. 
She  gained  the  affection  of  Louis  XIII.  about  1634,  and 
encouraged  him  to  become  more  independent  of  Riche 
lieu.  She  entered  a  convent  about  1636.  Died  in  1665. 

La  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  de,  (MARIK  (KAN  PAUL 
Roch  Yves  Gilbert  Motier — rosh  ev  zhel'baiR'  nu/- 
te-a',)  MAROUIS,  an  illustrious  French  statesman  and 
patriot,  was  born  at  Chavagnac,  September  6,  1757.  1  lis 
father,  who  was  a  marquis  and  marechal-de-camp,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Minden  in  1757.  Alter  leaving 
the  College  Du  Plessis,  in  Paris,  he  married  in  1774 
Mdlle.  d'Ayen,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Ayen.  He 
was  the  heir  of  an  immense  fortune,  and  had  brilliant 


a,  e, T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  tar,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LA  FATETTE 


'353 


LA  FERTE 


prospects  at  court,  when,  with  generous  enthusiasm  for 
liberty,  he  offered  his  services  to  the  new-born  republic 
of  America.  Silas  Deane,  commissioner  of  the  United 
States  in  Paris,  accepted  his  offer,  and  promised  him 
the  grade  of  major-general,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
American  Congress.  In  the  spring  of  1777  he  arrived 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  the  same  year  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Brandywine,  where  he  was  wounded. 
He  gained  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Washington, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  his  conduct  at 
Monmouth  in  1778.  The  French  court  having  recog 
nized  the  independence  of  the  United  States,  La  Fayette 
recrossed  the  ocean  in  1779  and  returned  with  material 
aid  to  the  scene  of  war.  He  commanded  the  advanced 
guard  of  Washington  in  1780,  and  contributed  to  the 
decisive  victory  of  Yorktown,  (1781,)  where  the  war  was 
virtually  ended. 

On  his  return  to  France,  with  a  prestige  magnified 
by  distance,  he  was  received  with  unbounded  applause, 
which  reanimated  or  confirmed  his  devotion  to  the  cause 
of  liberty.  In  1787  he  advocated  the  rights  of  the  French 
Protestants  and  various  reforms  in  the  government.  His 
principal  parliamentary  act  in  the  States-General  of  1789 
was  his  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  which  was 
adopted  by  that  body.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  by  ac 
clamation  commandant  of  the  Parisian  militia,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  the  National  Guard.  At  this  period 
he  was  the  popular  favourite  of  the  nation.  "  The  federa 
tion  of  1790,"  says  Lamartine,  "was  the  apogee  of  La 
Fayette.  He  overshadowed  on  that  day  both  the  king 
and  the  Assembly."  ("  History  of  the  Girondists.") 
Aiming  to  reconcile  his  loyalty  to  the  king  with  his  duty 
to  the  cause  of  freedom,  he  acted  with  the  FeuHlants, 
the  friends  of  constitutional  monarchy.  In  the  main 
tenance  of  order  he  often  risked  his  life,  and  he  enforced 
martial  law  against  the  insurgents  in  the  Champ-de-Mars 
in  July,  1791,  soon  after  the  arrest  of  the  king  at  Va- 
rennes.  Before  the  end  of  that  year  he  resigned  his  com 
mand,  and  was  a  candidate  for  the  mayoralty  of  Paris  ;  but 
the  intrigues  of  the  queen  and  court,  who  hated  or  feared 
him,  decided  the  election  in  favour  of  Pethion,  who  was 
a  radical  revolutionist.  The  large  majority  of  Pethion 
showed  that  the  star  of  La  Fayette  was  declining.  In  the 
winter  of  1791-92  he  was  chosen  commander  of  one  of 
the  three  armies,  and,  war  having  been  declared  against 
Austria  in  April,  he  directed  some  small  operations  on 
the  frontier  of  Flanders,  at  the  same  time  striving,  with 
out  success,  to  defeat  the  Jacobins  at  Paris.  Indignant 
at  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  (June  20,  1792,)  La  Fayette 
went,  with  a  single  officer,  to  Paris,  and,  in  a  short 
harangue  before  the  bar  of  the  Assembly,  demanded  the 
punishment  of  the  offenders.  "  In  this  a'ttempt  to  act  as 
dictator,"  says  Lamartine,  "the  motive  was  generous, 
the  peril  great,  but  the  means  null."  Returning  to  the 
army,  he  devised  a  plan  to  save  the  king  by  transferring 
him  from  the  capital  to  his  camp ;  but  the  court  rejected 
the  offer. 

The  insurrection  of  August  10  gave  the  ascendency  to 
the  republicans,  who  deprived  La  Fayette  of  his  command. 
He  then  fled  towards  Holland,  intending  to  emigrate  to 
the  United  States,  but  was  arrested  by  the  Austrians  and 
detained  in  the  dungeons  of  Neiss  and  Olmiitz,  where 
he  was  treated  with  much  rigour.  In  a  treaty  with  Aus 
tria  in  1797,  Bonaparte  insisted  on  his  liberation,  which 
was  effected  in  September  of  that  year.  Having  passed 
about  two  years  in  Holland,  he  returned  to  France  in 
1800,  and,  refusing  several  offers  of  public  employment 
under  Bonaparte,  maintained  his  political  consistency  in 
retirement  at  La  Grange.  Some  one  having  complained 
that  La  Fayette  censured  the  government,  the  First 
Consul  replied,  "  Let  him  alone  :  he  will  not  say  more 
against  me  than  he  has  expressed  openly  before  me." 

In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1815,  he  opposed  the 
claims  of  Bonaparte  and  of  the  Bourbons,  and  wished  to 
rally  round  the  standard  of  1789  for  "liberty,  equality, 
and  order."  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
spoke  frequently  in  the  Chamber  in  opposition  to  the 
ministry.  In  1824  he  revisited  the  scene  of  his  youthful 
exploits,  where  he  was  received  with  cordial  demonstra 
tions  of  honour  and  gratitude,  and  passed  about  a  year 
in  a  triumphal  progress  through  the  twenty-four  States  of 


the  Union.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  voted 
$200,000  in  recompense  for  his  services  in  the  war  of 
independence.  The  arbitrary  measures  of  Charles  X. 
again  roused  him  to  political  action.  He  took  a  promi 
nent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  as  the  chief  of  the 
popular  camp  in  Paris,  and  president  of  the  commission 
which  exercised  a  sort  of  dictatorship  after  the  expul 
sion  of  Charles  X.  He  was  also  chosen  commander 
of  all  the  National  Guards  of  France.  He  acquiesced 
in  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  which  Lamartine 
thinks  he  might  easily  have  prevented  by  proclaiming 
a  republic.  On  this  occasion  he  said  to  the  nesv  king, 
"You  know  that  I  am  a  republican,  and  that  I  regard 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  as  the  most  perfect 
that  ever  existed."  He  died  May  20,  1834,  leaving  one 
son  and  several  daughters.  Perhaps  no  man  ever  lived 
through  such  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  and  such  severe 
trials  of  his  virtue,  with  a  character  more  free  from  just 
reproach  than  La  Fayette.  The  high-toned  consistency 
of  his  conduct  is  expressed  in  the  assertion  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  "  that  you  could  certainly  predict  what  he  would 
do  in  every  contingency." 

See  SARR.ANS,  "Lafayette  et  la  Revolution  de  1830,"  2  vols., 
1834;  CLOQUET,  "Souvenirs  de  la  Vie  de  La  Fayette,"  1836;  "  Me- 
nioires  et  Correspondance  du  General  Lafayette,"  (published  by 
his  family,)  6  vols.,  i83S;  J.  Q.  ADAMS,  "  Oration  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  Lafayette,"  1*34;  WILLIAM  CUTTKR,  "  Life  of  General 
Lafayette,"  New  York,  1X49  ;  L.  DE  LO.MENIE,  "  M.  de  LnfnyMte,  par 
un  Homme  de  Rien,"  iS42;  P.  C.  HEADLEY,  "Life  of  Lafayette," 
Auburn,  1851;  SAINTE-BHUVE,  "  Critiques  et  Portraits  litteraires, " 
tome  v.  ;  £MILE  DE  LA  BEDOI.LIERE,  "Vie  poliiique  dn  Marquis  de 
Lafayette,"  1833:  BANCROFT,  "History  of  the  United  States."  vol. 
ix.  ;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1825,  (by  GEORGE 
TICKNOR,)  and  January.  1830,  (by  EDWARD  EVERETT;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1832;  "Foreign  Quarterly"  for 
October,  1832;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1833. 

La  Fayette,  de,  (MARIE  MADELEINE  Pioche  de  la 
Vergne — pe'osh'  deh  It  vinn,)  COUNTESS,  a  popular 
French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1634,  was  eminently 
beautiful.  She  married  the  Count  de  la  Fayette  in  1655, 
and  her  house  became  the  resort  of  La  Fontaine,  La 
Rochefoucauld,  Menage,  and  other  eminent  authors. 
She  wrote  two  successful  novels,  "  Zayde,"  (1670,)  and 
"The  Princess  of  Cleves,"  (1678,)  which  were  the  first 
French  works  of  fiction  that  truly  represented  the  man 
ners  of  the  higher  classes.  She  left  also  "  Memoirs  of 
the  French  Court"  for  the  years  1688  and  1689,  (1731,) 
and  a  few  other  works.  Died  in  1693. 

See  LEMONTEY,  "Notice  sur  Madame  de  la  Fayette,"  1822; 
SAINTE-BEUVB,  "Portraits  de  Femmes."  1844;  AUGER,  "Notice 
biographiqne  sur  Madame  de  Lat'ayette,"  (prefixed  to  her  Letters,) 
1823  ;  "  Nouvel'e  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Osc,\R,)  a  son  of  George  \V.,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He  served  in  the 
army  in  Africa,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  In 
1846  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  in 
1848  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted 
with  the  republicans. 

Laferriere  or  La  Ferriere,  It'ft're-aiR',  (Louts 
FIRMIN  JULIEN,)  a  French  jurist,  and  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  was  born  at  Jonzac  in  1798.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "History  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Rome  and  of 
French  Law,"  (6  vols.,  1846-53.)  Died  in  1861. 

La  Ferriere,  de,  deh  It  fi're-aiR',  (Louis  MARIE,) 
COUNT,  born  at  Redon  in  1776,  became  a  general  of 
division.  He  Tost  a  leg  at  Craonne  in  1814.  Napoleon 
left  him  a  legacy  of  100,000  francs.  Died  in  1834. 

La  Ferte-Imbault,  de,  deh  It  feVti'  aN'bo',  (MARIE 
THERESE  GEOFFRIN,)  MARQUISE,  a  literary  French  lady, 
born  in  Paris  in  1715,  was  a  daughter  of  the  well-known 
Madame  de  Geoffrin.  She  was  trained  up  in  the  society 
of  such  men  as  Fontcnelle  and  Montesquieu,  who  were 
habitues  of  her  mother's  salon.  Her  moral  or  pious  prin 
ciples  caused  her  to  close  her  door  against  D'Alembert 
and  the  other  Encyclopaedists.  She  \\asgrand  maifresse 
of  the  order  of  Lanturelus,  designed  for  literary  diver 
sion,  and  composed  several  volumes  of  moral  maxims. 
Died  in  1791. 

See  MARMONTEL,  "  Memoires." 

La  Ferte-Senneterre,  de,  deh  It  feVta'  sgn'taiR', 
(HKNRI,)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  1600,  com 
manded  a  wing  at  the  battle  of  Rocroy,  (1645.)  He 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1651,  after  which  Tu- 
renne  and  he  recovered  Bar,  Arras,  and  other  towns 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  FEVILLADE 


1354 


LA  FONTENELLE 


which  the  Prince  of  Concle  had  captured.  Died  in 
1681. 

La  Feuillade.     See  FEUILLADE,  DE  LA. 

Laffitte,  It'fet',  (JACQUES,)  an  eminent  French  finan 
cier  and  liberal  statesman,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1767,  was 
the  son  of  a  carpenter.  In  1788  he  entered  as  clerk  the 
banking-house  of  Perregaux  at  Paris.  He  became  a  part 
ner  about  1802,  and  the  head  of  the  firm  in  1809.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  governor  of  the  Bank  of 
France.  The  great  fortune  which  he  had  acquired  was 
freely  offered  for  the  defence  of  Paris  from  the  invaders 
in  1814,  and  for  the  restoration  of  the  public  credit  in 
1815.  Napoleon  deposited  with  him  5,000,000  francs 
just  before  his  departure  to  Saint  Helena,  with  the  ex 
pression  of  perfect  confidence  in  his  honesty.  In  1816 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  Liberal  opposition  and  spoke  with  ability 
on  financial  questions.  "  Placed  in  the  vanguard  of  the 
defenders  of  the  Charter,"  says  M.  de  Lomenie,  "as 
popular  by  his  opinions  as  by  his  princely  munificence, 
the  opulent  banker  beheld  himself  surrounded  by  all  the 
notabilities  of  the  press  and  the  tribune."  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  dethronement  of  Charles  X.  in  1830, 
and  used  his  influence  in  favour  of  Louis  Philippe,  to 
whom  in  a  critical  hour  he  wrote,  "No  more  hesitation  ! 
Choose  between  a  crown  and  a  passport."  He  entered 
the  first  ministry  of  the  new  reign  as  minister  without  a 
portfolio.  This  ministry  having  been  speedily  dissolved, 
Laffitte,  on  the  3d  of  November,  1830,  became  prime 
minister  (president  du  conscil)  and  minister  of  finance. 
Failing  to  command  a  majority  in  the  chamber,  he  re 
signed  in  March,  1831.  The  financial  crisis  which  fol 
lowed  ruined  his  fortune,  which  had  been  reduced  by 
large  donations  to  the  popular  cause  in  1830.  A  national 
subscription  relieved  him  from  embarrassment  about 
1833.  Died  in  1844. 

See  M.  C.  MARCHAI.,  "Souvenirs  tie  J.  Laffitte,  mem-lie's  par  lui- 
nieme,"  1844;  "Jacques  Laffitte,"  Paris,  1844;  "Vie  He  M.  Laffitte," 
Paris,  1844;  LOMENIE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illustres." 

Laffon  de  Ladebat,  It'foN'  deh  li'da'bi',  (ANDR£ 
DANIEL,)  a  French  financier,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1746, 
was  a  merchant  in  early  life.  He  was  a  moderate  mem 
ber  of  the  Assembly  in  1791,  and  of  the  Council  of  Elders 
in  1795.  The  coup  d'etat  of  September  4,  1797,  sent  him 
as  an  exile  to  Guiana.  After  his  return  to  France  he 
published  several  treatises  on  finance,  economy,  etc.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Protestant  Bible  Society 
in  1818.  Died  in  1829. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  HAAG,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Lafitau,  It'fe'to',  (JOSEPH  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Jes 
uit,  born  at  Bordeaux.  Having  been  for  many  years  a 
missionary  in  Canada,  he  returned  to  France,  and  pub 
lished  "Manners  of  the  American  Savages  compared 
with  the  Manners  of  Primitive  Ages,"  and  two  other 
works.  Died  in  1740. 

Lafitau,  (PIERRE  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1685.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Clement  XL,"  (1752,)  and  other  works.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Sisteron  in  1719.  Died  in  1764. 

Lafite,  It'fet',  (MARIE  ELISABETH  Bouee — boo'a',) 
a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  about  1750.  She 
wrote  several  juvenile  books,  among  which  are  "  Moral 
Conversations  and  Tales,"  etc.,  (1781,)  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1794. 

Lafitte,  It-fit'  or  It'fet',  (JEAN,)  a  notorious  French 
privateer,  born  about  1780,  became  about  1813  the  leader 
of  a  band  of  pirates  who  established  themselves  at 
Grande  Terre,  in  Barataria  Bay,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
In  1814  he  was  offered  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  a 
commission  in  the  navy,  on  condition  of  his  assisting 
the  British  in  their  attack  on  New  Orleans.  He  refused 
these  proposals,  and  offered  his  services  to  defend  Loui 
siana  on  condition  of  pardon  to  himself  and  followers, 
which  offer  was  accepted.  The  time  and  circumstances 
of  his  death  are  unknown.  The  adventures  of  Lafitte 
have  formed  the  subject  of  several  tales  and  romances. 

Lafolie,  It'fo'le',  (CHARLES  JEAN,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  published  "Notices  of  the 
Public  Monuments,  Palaces,  Museums,  Colleges,  etc. 
of  Paris,"  (1820.)  Died  in  1824. 


Lafolie,  (Louis  GUILLAUME,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1739.  He  discovered  the  yellow  dye  ex 
tracted  from  gaude,  (dyer's  weed,)  and  wrote  an  imagina 
tive  work  called  the  "  Philosopher  without  Pretension," 
("  Philosophesans  Prevention,"  etc.,  1775.)  Died  in  1780. 

Lafon,  It'foN',  (PIERRE,)  a  famous  French  tragic 
actor,  born  in  Perigorcl  in  1775,  made  a  successful  debut 
in  Paris  in  1800,  and  was  considered  by  his  admirers  a 
rival  of  Talma.  Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Lafons,  de,  deh  It'foN',  (  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  ALEX- 
ANDRE,)  Baron  de  Mellicocq,  a  French  botanist  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Noyon,  Oise,  in  1802. 

Laforit,  It'foN',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE,)  a  popular  mu 
sician,  born  in  Paris  in  1781,  was  appointed  in  1809  first 
violinist  to  the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia,  and  on  his 
return  to  Paris  in  1815  filled  the  same  office  at  the  royal 
chapel.  Died  in  1839. 

Lafont,  (PIERRE  CHERI,)  a  French  actor,  born  at  Bor 
deaux  in  1801. 

Lafont,  de,  deh  It'foN',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1686,  wrote  successful  comedies,  among 
wh  ch  was  "  The  Festivals  of  Thalia,"  ("  Les  Fetes  de 
Thalie,"  1714.)  Died  in  1725. 

Lafontaine,  It'foN'tin',  (AUGUST  HEINRICH  JULIUS,) 
a  popular  novelist,  of  French  origin,  born  at  Brunswick 
about  1758.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  was  employed 
as  pastor  or  professor  at  Halle.  He  published,  in  Ger 
man,  a  great  number  of  novels,  which  had  a  temporary 
success  and  were  translated  into  French.  Among  them 
are  "The  Singular  Man,"  ("  Der  Sonderling,")  "The 
Family  De  Maiden,"  and  "Agnes  and  Bertha,"  (1818.) 
Died  at  Halle  in  1831.  His  style  is  easy  and  agreeable, 
but  his  sentimentality  is  considered  excessive. 

See  JOHANN  G.  GRUHER,  "A.  Lafbntaine's  Leben  und  Wirken," 
1833;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  February,  1834. 

La  Fontaine  or  Lafontaine,  de,  deh  It'foN'tan', 
(JEAN,)  a  famous  French  fabulist,  born  at  Chateau- 
Thierry,  July  8,  1621,  was  the  most  popular  French  poet 
of  his  time.  He  was  remarkable  for  an  easy,  careless, 
and  indolent  temper,  and  passed  the  age  of  twenty-one 
before  he  manifested  his  poetical  genius.  He  married 
Marie  Hericart  to  please  his  father,  who  procured  for 
him  the  office  of  master  of  waters  and  forests ;  but  he 
soon  sold  his  office  and  separated  from  his  wife.  The 
Duchess  de  Bouillon,  pleased  with  his  first  literary 
efforts,  became  his  patroness  and  took  him  to  Paris.  He 
received  a  pension  from  Fouquet,  and  about  1662  com 
posed  an  admirable  elegy  on  the  fall  of  that  minister. 
He  enjoyed  for  about  twenty  years  the  hospitality  of 
Madame  Sabliere,  a  lady  of  Paris,  who  generously  pro 
tected  him  from  the  effects  of  his  improvidence  and 
incapacity  for  business.  His  first  tales  appeared  in  1664, 
and  six  books  of  Fables  in  1668.  Ten  years  later,  he 
produced  the  last  six  books  of  those  inimitable  works. 
At  the  death  of  Colbert  (1683,)  La  Fontaine  and  Boileau 
were  rival  candidates  for  the  place  which  he  left  vacant 
in  the  French  Academy ;  and  the  former  was  successful. 
Moliere  and  La  Fontaine  are  reckoned  the  two  most 
original  writers  of  the  brilliant  age  of  Louis  XIV.  Many 
anecdotes  are  related  of  his  simplicity,  naivete,  and  ab 
sence  of  mind.  "  His  lines,"  says  Hallam,  "  have  a 
proverbial  truth  and  a  humour  of  expression  which 
render  them  constantly  applicable.  .  .  .  Many  of  his 
fables  are  admirable  :  the  grace  of  the  poetry,  the  happy 
inspiration  that  seems  to  have  dictated  the  turns  of 
expression,  place  him  in  the  first  rank  among  fabulists." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  died 
in  Paris  in  April,  1695,  having  expressed  penitence  for 
the  licentious  passages  in  his  tales. 

See  LA  HARPE,  "  filoge  de  Lafontaine,"  1774  ;  WAI.CKENAER, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  de  La  Fontaine,"  1820  ; 
MARAIS,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  desOuvrages  de  J.  de  La  Fontaine," 
1811 ;  CHAMFORT,  "  FJoge  de  La  Fontaine,"  1774;  SAINTE-BEUVK, 
"  Portraits  litteraires,"  tome  i.,  and  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vii.  ; 
DES  RENAUDES,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  de  Lafontaine,"  1852: 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1820. 

La  Fontenelle  or  Lafoiitenelle,  de,  deh  IS  foNt'nel', 
(ARMAND  DESIRE,)  a  French  antiquary  and  biographer, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1784.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  His- 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LAFOSSE 


1355 


LAGRANGE 


tory  of  Oliver  de  Clisson,"  (2  vols.,  1826,)  and  the  "  Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Du  Plessis-Mornay,"  (with  Au- 
guis,  12  vols.,  1822-42.)  Died  in  1847. 

Lafosse,  iS'foss',  (PHILIPPE  ETTENNE,)  a  French  vete 
rinary  physician,  wrote  "The  Farrier's  Guide,"  (1766,) 
and  a  "Manual  of  Veterinary  Medicine,"  (1803.)  Died 
in  1820. 

Lafosse  or  La  Fosse,  de,  cleh  It  foss,  (AXTOINE,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1653, 
was  accounted  by  some  the  first  tragic  poet  of  his  time. 
He  produced,  besides  other  dramas,  "  Polyxene,"  (1686,) 
and  "  Manlius  Capitolinus,"  (1698,)  a  tragedy,  which  is 
highly  praised  by  La  Harpe.  Died  in  1708. 

Lafosse,  de,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  historical  painter 
of  high  reputation,  born  in  Paris  in  1640,  was  an  uncle 
of  the  preceding.  He  studied  under  Lebrun,  and  in 
Rome.  He  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  adorn  the 
Trianon  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  the  frescoed  dome 
of  which  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  1683,  when  he  exhibited 
the  "Abduction  of  Proserpine."  Died  in  1716. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lafosse,  de,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  JOSEPH,)  a  skilful 
French  engraver,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1721  ;  died  about 

1775- 

Lafrery,  ItfVre'  or  It'fReh-re',  (AXTOIXE,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Salins  in  1512.  He  worked  in  Rome, 
where  he  published  maps  and  engravings,  and  "Mirror 
of  Roman  Grandeur,"  ("  Speculum  Romanae  Magni- 
tudinis,''  in  118  plates,  1554-73.) 

La  Fuente.     See  FUENTE,  LA. 

La  Fuente,  la  fwen'ta,  (ALCANTARA  MIGUKI.,)  a 
Spanish  historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  the  province  of 
Malaga  in  1817.  He  died  at  Havana  in  1850,50011  after 
he  had  been  made/fov7/  (attorney-general)  of  Cuba.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Granada,"  (4  vols.,  1843-48.) 

Lagalla,  Id-gal'la,  (GiULio  CESARE,)  an  Italian  phy 
sician  and  philosopher,  born  at  Padula  in  1576,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Roman  College  from  1597 
till  his  death.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Comets," 
(1613,)  and  "  De  Immortalitate  Animorum,"  (1621,)  an 
effort  to  prove  that  Aristotle  admitted  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Died  in  1624. 

La  Gallissoniere.     See  GALLISSONIERE,  DE  LA. 

Lagaraye,  de,  deh  IJt'gS'ri',  (CLAUDE  TOUSSAIXT 
MAROT,)  COMTE,  a  French  chemist  and  philanthropist, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1675.  He  founded  infant-schools, 
and  hospitals  for  the  sick  and  aged.  He  made  some 
improvements  in  vegetable  analysis,  and  published  a 
treatise  on  "Hydraulic  Chemistry,"  ("Chimie  hydrau- 
lique,"  1746.)  Died  in  1755. 

See  "  Les  Epoux  charitab'es,  ou  Vies  du  Comte  et  de  la  Comtesse 
de  La  Garaye,"  Rennes,  1782. 

Lagarde.     See  DESHOULIERES. 

La  Gardie.     See  GARDIE,  DE  LA. 

La  Gasca.     See  GASCA,  DE  LA. 

Lagerbring,  la'ger-bKing,  (SVEX  or  SVEX  BRING,) 
a  Swedish  historian,  born  in  1707,  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Lund.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Sweden"  down  to  1457,  (3  vols., 
1769-76,)  a  work  of  much  research,  but  defective  in 
style  and  method.  Died  in  1788. 

See  C.  WOLLIN",  "Parentation  ofver  S.  Lagerbring,"  1788. 

Lagerlof  or  Lagerloef,  la'ger-lof,  (PEHR,)  a  Swedish 
scholar  and  writer,  born  in  1648,  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Upsal.  He  was  learned  in  languages,  and 
wrote  Latin  verse  with  much  purity  of  style.  He  pub 
lished  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died'  in  1699. 

See  JOCHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

LagerstromorLagerstroem.von,  fonla'ger-stRom', 
(MAGNUS,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1696, 
was  a  friend  of  Linnaeus.  He  translated  French  and 
German  works  into  Swedish,  and  availed  himself  of  his 
advantages  as  director  of  the  East  India  Company  to 
collect  scientific  facts  and  specimens  and  to  promote 
researches  in  natural  history.  Died  in  1759. 

See  KRYGER,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  M.  Lagerstroeni,"  1760. 

Lagny,  de,  deh  Itn'ye',  (THOMAS  FANTET,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1660.  He  removed  to 
Paris  in  1678,  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences 


in  1695,  and  chosen  professor  of  hydrography  at  Roche- 
fort  in  1697.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  He  published,  besides  other  ingenious  treatises, 
"The  Cubature  of  the  Sphere,"  (1703,)  "which,"  says 
Fontenelle,  "would  prove  him  to  be  a  great  geometer." 
Died  in  1734. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  FJoge  de  M.  de  Lagny." 

Lagomarsini,  la-go-mau-see'nee,  (GIROLAMO,  )  an 
eminent  Italian  philologist  and  Jesuit,  born  in  1698.  He 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Florence  for  many  years,  and 
about  1750  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Roman 
College.  He  published  Latin  orations  (1746)  and  epis 
tles,  a  poem  "On  the  Origin  of  Springs,"  ("De  Origine 
Fontium,"  1749,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1773. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vita;  Italorum  doctrina  excelientium ;"  PARTHE- 
Nirs,  "  De  Vita  et  Studiis  H.  Lagomarsini,"  1801. 

La  Grange,  (ANTOIXE.)   See  RIVET  DE  LA  GRANGE. 

Lagrange  or  La  Grange,  It  gRdxzh,  (JOSEPH  Louis,) 
one  of  the  most  eminent  geometers  of  modern  times,  was 
born  at  Turin  on  the  251)1  of  January,  1736.  His  parents 
were  of  French  origin.  He  was  educated  in  the  College 
of  Turin,  where  his  mathematical  genius  was  rapidly 
developed  and  was  specially  directed  to  the  study  of 
modern  analysis.  It  has  been  said  that  all  he  learned 
seemed  to  be  only  a  reminiscence  of  what  he  had  before 
known.  Having  examined  Euler's  work  on  "  Isoperi- 
metrical  Problems,"  he  sent  to  the  author  in  1755  the 
first  essays  of  his  *"  Method  of  Variations,"  which  alone 
would  immortalize  his  name,  and  which  he  had  invented 
to  respond  to  the  desire  of  Euler.  About  the  age  of 
nineteen  he  was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
military  college  of  Turin.  The  first  volume  of  the  "  Me 
moirs  of  the  Academy  of  Turin"  (1759)  consisted  chiefly 
of  the  admirable  essays  of  Lagrange  on  the  most  im 
portant  and  difficult  points  of  analysis  and  mechanics, 
such  as  the  propagation  of  sound  and  the  vibration  of 
chords.  He  published  in  1762  some  applications  of  his 
great  discovery,  which  was  afterwards  called  the  "  Method 
of  Variations."  In  1764  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  for  a  "Theory  of  the 
Libration  of  the  Moon."  Invited  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  he  removed  to  Berlin  in  1766,  and  was  for  twenty 
years  director  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  which 
he  enriched  with  numerous  treatises  on  "  Tautochronous 
Curves,"  "  Numerical  Equations,"  the  "  Integral  Cal 
culus,"  "  Partial  Differences,"  and  on  the  most  arduous 
questions  of  general  astronomy  and  celestial  mechanics. 
He  was  chosen  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Paris 
in  1772.  The  persuasion  of  Mirabeau  and  the  offer  of  a 
pension  from  the  king  induced  him  to  settle  in  Paris  in 
1787.  He  published  in  1788  his  magnificent  work  "La 
Mecanique  analytique,"  ("Analytical  Mechanics,")  which 
is  considered  one  of  the  master-pieces  of  the  human  in 
tellect.  His  interest  was  vividly  excited  by  the  Revolu 
tion,  in  which,  however,  he  took  no  active  part.  In  1792 
he  married  Mademoiselle  Lemonnier.  He  was  the  first 
professor  of  geometry  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  founded 
about  1794;  and  his  name  was  the  first  inscribed  on  the 
list  of  the  members  of  the  Institute,  founded  in  1795. 
Napoleon,  who  highly  appreciated  the  great  talents  of 
one  so  incapable  of  intrigue  and  adulation,  gave  him  the 
office  of  senator  and  the  titles  of  count  of  the  empire  and 
grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  died  in  April, 
1813.  "Among  the  inventors  who  have  most  enlarged 
the  boundaries  of  our  knowledge,"  says  La  Place,  "New 
ton  and  Lagrange  appear  to  have  possessed  in  the  highest 
degree  the  power  which,  by  the  discovery  of  general 
principles,  constitutes  the  true  genius  of  science."  "After 
Newton's  discovery  of  the  elliptic  orbits  of  the  planets," 
says  Playfair,  "  Lagrange's  discovery  of  their  periodical 
inequalities  is,  without  doubt,  the  noblest  truth  in  phy 
sical  astronomy ;  and,  in  respect  of  the  doctrine  of  final 
causes,  it  may  trulybe  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  all." 

See  DELAMBRE,  "  FJoge  de  Lagrange;"  VIREY  et  POTEI., 
"Precis  histnrique  sur  la  Vie  de  Lagrange,"  1813;  PIETRO  COSSALI, 
"  Klogio  di  G.  L.  Lagrange,"  1813  ;  MAGISTRINI.  "  Discorso  in  Lode 
di  Lagrange,"  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Grange,  (N.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1738,  translated  the  great  poem  of  Lucretius  "  De 
Rerum  Natura,"  with  notes,  (1768,)  and  the  works  of 
Seneca,  (7  vols.,  1779.)  The  former  passes  for  one  of 
the  best  versions  in  the  French  language.  Died  in  1775. 


€  as  k;  9  as  $;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  GRANGE 


1356 


LAIGNELOT 


La  Grange  or  Lagrange,  de,  deh  If  guON/.h,  (ADE 
LAIDE  BLAISE  FRANCOIS  I.K  LIEVKE,)  Marquis  de  Fou- 
rilles,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  became  general  of  division 
in  1809.  Died  in  1833. 

La  Grange,  de,  (ADELAIDE  EDOUARD,)  MARQUIS,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  an  active  member  ot  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1834  to  1848,3110!  voted  with 
the  friends  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  the  Assembly  of  1849. 
In  1852  he  became  a  senator.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  treatises  on  numismatics. 

La  Grange,  de,  (  AMAND  CHARLES  Louis  I.E  LIEVRE,) 
a  French  general,  born  in  1783,  served  with  distinction 
under  Napoleon  I. 

Lagrange,  de,  (JOSEPH,)  COMTE,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1763;  died  in  1836. 

La  Grange,  de,  (JOSEPH  DE  CHANCEL,)  a  French 
dramatic  and  satiric  poet,  commonly  called  La  Grange- 
Chancel,  was  born  at  Perigueux  in  1676.  His  drama 
of  "  Jugurtha"  was  performed  with  success  in  1694.  He 
produced  other  tragedies,  among  which  "  Amasis'"  (1701) 
and  "  Ino  and  Melicerta"  (1713)  are  called  the  best.  He 
was  imprisoned  or  exiled  some  years  for  three  remark 
able  odes,  named  "  Philippiques,"  (1720,)  which  were 
libellous  satires  against  the  Regent  of  France.  "  As  a 
satiric  poet,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale," 
"he  has  left  a  work  which,  in  spite  of  its  imperfections 
and  crying  injustice,  is  the  monument  of  satire  in  France." 
Died  in  1758. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene"rale ;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "Me- 
moires. " 

Lagrene,  de,  deh  litgR'ni'  or  It'gReh-na',  (TiiEooosE 
MARIE  MELCHIOR  JOSEPH,)  a  French  diplomatist,  was 
born  at  Amiens  in  1800.  He  went  to  Athens  as  minister 
in  1836,  and  to  China  in  1844. 

Lagrenee,  It'gRa'na',  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1740.  He  worked  in  Paris 
with  success,  and  reproduced  antique  paintings  by  incrus 
tation  on  marble  and  glass.  Died  in  1821. 

Lagrenee,  (Louis  JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  called  AINE,  a 
French  historical  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  was  surnamed  "the  French 
Albano."  Me  studied  at  Rome,  became  Academician 
in  1755,  and  for  some  time  was  first  painter  to  the  Em 
press  of  Russia.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1805. 

See  RENOV,  ''Notice  sur  Lngrenee  1'aine,"  1815. 

La  Gueronniere  or  Lagiieronniere,  de,  deh  la"  g.V- 
ro'ne-aiR',  (ARTHUR,)  VICOMTE,  a  French  political 
writer  and  Bonapartist,  born  in  1816.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  Lamai  tine's  new  journal,  the  "Pays,"  in  1850. 
A  dissension  arose  between  him  and  Lamartine  on  the 
subject  of  a  historical  study  on  Louis  Napoleon,  which 
the  former  published  in  the  "  Pays,"  and  which  increased 
his  reputation  as  a  brilliant  writer.  He  was  elected  a 
deputy  in  1852,  and  appointed  a  councillor  of  state  in 
1854.  His  pamphlet  entitled  "Napoleon  III.  and  Eng 
land"  (1858)  produced  a  great  sensation  on  both  sides 
of  the  Channel.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  "  Consti- 
tutionnel." 

Laguerre  or  La  Guerre,  It'gaiu',  (Louis,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Brun.  He  went 
to  England  about  1684,  and  worked  with  or  for  Verrio. 
He  painted  "The  Labours  of  Hercules"  in  Hampton 
Court  Palace.  Died  in  1721. 

La  Guiche  or  Laguiche,  de,  deh  la"  gesh,  (PuiLi- 
BERT,)  a  French  general,  born  about  1540.  He  refused  to 
execute  the  order  of  the  court  for  the  massacre  of  Prot 
estants  in  1572.  He  commanded  the  artillery  at  Ivry, 
and  contributed  largely  to  the  victory.  Died  in  1607. 

His  nephew,  JEAN  FRANC.OIS,  born  in  1569,  was  a 
marshal  of  France.  Died  in  1632. 

Laguille,  IS'geTor  la'ge'ye,  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Autun  in  1658,  wrote  an  "Ancient  and  Modern 
History  of  Alsace,"  (2  vols.  folio,  1727.)  Died  in  1742. 

Laguna,  la-goo'na,  or  Lacuna,  li-koo'na,  (ANDRES,) 
a  learned  Spanish  physician,  born  at  Segovia  in  1499. 
He  obtained  the  confidence  of  Charles  V.,  who  appointed 
him  physician  of  the  army  in  Flanders.  He  practised 
in  Metz,  (1540-46,)  and  in  Rome,  where  he  was  patron 
ized  by  the  pope,  who  made  him  a  count.  He  died  in 


Spain  in  1560,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  Commentaries  on  Galen  and  Hippocrates,  and 
"Anatomica  Methodus,"  (1535.) 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Laharpe  or  La  Harpe,  ItV/itRp',  (FREDERIC  CESAR,) 
a  Swiss  officer  and  republican,  born  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud 
in  1754.  He  was  for  some  years  preceptor  of  Alexander, 
afterwards  Czar  of  Russia,  and  about  1798  became  the 
chief  or  most  powerful  director  of  the  Helvetic  Republic. 
He  went  out  of  power  in  jSoo.  In  1814  he  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Alexander,  who  was  in  Paris  and  gave  him  the 
rank  of  general  in  his  army.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  Swiss  politics.  Died  in  1838. 

See  CHARLES  MONNAKD,  "Notice  biographique  sur  le  General 
F.  C.  cle  Liharpe,"  iS3S:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Harpe  or  Laharpe,  de,  deh  It'/ftiq/,  (JEAN 
FRANC.OIS,)  a  celebrated  French  critic  and  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739,  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Haicourt.  He  produced  in  1763  the  tragedy  of"  War 
wick,"  which  was  very  successful,  and  wrote  to  Voltaire  a 
letter  on  the  dramatic  art  which  procured  him  the  favour 
and  patronage  of  that  philosopher.  He  composed,  be- 
sktes  other  dramas,  the  applauded  tragedies  of  "  Me- 
lanie,"  (about  1770,)  and  "  Philoctete."  His  talents 
found  a  congenial  employment  in  academic  competitions. 
He  wrote  admirable  eulogies  on  Fenelon,  Henry  IV., 
Lafontaine,  and  others,  and  he  received  several  prizes 
from  the  French  Academy,  of  which  he  was  chosen  a 
member  in  1776.  About  1786  he  began  to  lecture  at 
the  Lycee  of  Paris  on  literature.  These  lectures,  en 
titled  "Cours  de  Litterature,  ancienne  et  moderne,"  (18 
vols.,)  constitute  his  most  durable  title  to  fame.  His 
criticisms  on  French  authors  are  much  better  than  those 
on  the  ancient  classics.  "The  seventeenth  century," says 
Sainte-Beuve,  "in  some  of  its  parts  and  some  of  its 
works,  was  never  better  analyzed,"  [than  by  La  Harpe.] 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  was  a 
republican.  He  was  imprisoned  a  few  months  during 
the  reign  of  terror.  Died  in  1803. 

See  SAINTB-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v. ;  LEON 
THIESSE,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Laharpe,"  1X27; 
MKLY-JANIN,  "Vie  de  J.  F.  de  La  Harpe."  1813  ;  DAUNOII,  "  Notice 
sur  La  Harpe;"  SAlNT-SllRiN,  "Notice  sur  La  Harpe,"  1X22; 
ArcER,  "Vie  de  La  Harpe,"  1813;  SERIEVS,  "J.  F.  de  La  Harpe, 
peint  par  lui-meme,"  1817. 

La  Haye,  (French  engraver.)     See  DEI.AHAYE. 

Lahire  or  Lahyre,  1S7/CK',  (£TIENNE  Vigiioles — 
ven'yol',)  a  famous  French  captain  or  bandit.  He  per 
formed  many  exploits  against  the  English  in  France  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  VII.  He  never  obtained  a  very 
high  rank  in  the  army.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
rescue  Joan  of  Arc  at  Rouen,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but 
soon  escaped.  Died  in  1442. 

La  Hire  or  Lahyre,  de,  deh  lS7/eR',  (LAURENT,)  an 
eminent  French  painter  and  engraver  of  merit,  born  in 
Paris  in  1606.  He  adorned  many  of  the  churches  of 
Paris  with  his  works,  among  which  the  "  Apparition  of 
Christ  to  the  Three  Marys"  is  called  the  master-piece. 
His  easel-pictures  are  very  finely  finished.  He  received 
the  title  of  painter  to  the  king,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Died  in  1656. 

Lahire,  de,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  geometer,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1640.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1678,  and  was  employed 
by  the  government  in  continuing  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  commenced  by  Picard.  For  many  years  he  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  of  France.  I  le 
was  also  versed  in  experimental  physics.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Conic  Sections,"  (1685,)  a  "Treat 
ise  on  Mechanics,"  (1695,)  a"d  "Astronomical  Tables," 
(1702.)  Died  in  1718  or  1719. 

See  FOXTENELI.E,  "  filoge  de  Lahire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
GineYale." 

La  Huerta.     See  HUERTA. 

Lahyre.     See  LA  HIRE. 

Laid'law,  (WILLIAM,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  1780; 
died  in  1845. 

Laignelot,  LWyeh-lo',  (JOSEPH  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  Jacobin,  born  at  Versailles  in  1750,  com 
posed  a  tragedy  called  "  Rienzi.''  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Convention  from  1792  to  1795,  and  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died  in  1829. 


I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAINE 


'357 


LAKE 


Laine,  14'na',  (JOSEPH  HENRI  JOACHIM,)  VICOMTE, 
an  eminent  French  orator  and  statesman,  born  at  Bor 
deaux  in  1767.  He  acquired  distinction  as  an  advocate 
at  Bordeaux,  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revo 
lution,  and  was  for  several  years  under  the  empire  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body.  In  1813,  as  chairman 
of  a  committee  of  that  house,  he  made  an  important 
report  on  the  state  of  the  nation,  which  gave  great  offence 
to  Napoleon.  Having  become  a  royalist,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1814  and  in 
1815.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  and 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior  in  1816.  He  retired 
from  office  in  December,  1818,  became  secretary  of  state 
without  a  portfolio  in  1821,  and  was  created  a  peer  of 
France  in  1823.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  mode 
rate  royalists.  Died  in  1835.  "  M.  Laine  and  De  Serres," 
says  Lamartine,  "  were  the  two  greatest  characters  and 
the  two  most  pathetic  orators  of  the  restoration." 

See  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  "  Noitvel'e  Bio- 
graphie  Generate. " 

Laiuez,  li'na',  (ALEXANDRE,  )  a  French  poet  and 
linguist,  born  at  Chimay  about  1650.  After  travelling 
several  years  in  Europe  and  Asia,  he  became  a  resident 
of  Paris.  He  was  courted  by  the  great  for  his  brilliant 
conversation  and  extensive  knowledge,  and  composed 
brief  poetical  effusions,  which  were  admired  for  grace 
and  vivacity.  Died  in  1710. 

Laiuez  or  Laynez,  IT-nSth',  sometimes  improperly 
written  Leynez,  (  |.\GO  or  DIEGO,)  the  second  general 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  born  in  Castile,  Spain,  in 
1512.  About  1536  he  was  associated  with  Ignatius  Loy 
ola  in  organizing  the  society  of  Jesuits.  (See  LOYOLA.) 
He  was  deputed  by  the  pope  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
where  he  signalized  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the 
court  of  Rome.  In  1558  he  succeeded  Loyola  as  gen 
eral  of  the  order.  The  Council  of  Trent  having  re 
sumed  its  session,  he  made  there  a  famous  speech,  in 
which  he  argued  the  necessity  of  a  supreme  head  of 
the  Church.  Died  in  1565.  The  polity  of  the  Jesuits 
appears  to  have  been  mainly  the  product  of  the  intelli 
gence  and  subtlety  of  Lainez. 

See  RIBADENEIRA,  "  Vida  del  P.  V.  D.  Laynez,"  1604;  F.  SOUER, 
"Vie  du  P.  J.  Laynez,"  1599;  F.  RAINALDI,  "Vita  di  J.  Laynez," 
Rome,  1672. 

Laiiig,  lang,  (ALEXANDER  GORDON,)  MAJOR,  a  resolute 
Scottish  traveller,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1793,  enlisted  in 
the  army  in  1810.  In  1822  the  Governor  of  Sierra  Leone 
sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  Mandingo  country.  He 
also  explored  Solimana  and  adjacent  regions.  In  1824 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  was  employed 
by  Lord  Bathurst  to  explore  the  Niger.  Proceeding 
from  the  north,  he  arrived  in  August,  1826,  at  Timbuctoo, 
after  having  been  wounded  by  the  Tuariks.  On  his  way 
to  Sansanding  he  was  murdered  by  his  guide,  an  Arab 
sheik,  in  September,  1826.  His  journal  has  not  been 
recovered. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1825. 

Laing,  (MALCOLM,)  an  able  Scottish  historian  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Orkney  in  1762.  He  practised  law  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1785. 
In  1800  he  published  a  "History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Union  of  the  Crowns  [1603]  to  the  Union  of  the  King 
doms  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne,"  which  is  a  work 
of  merit  and  remarkable  for  critical  acumen,  but  defect 
ive  in  style.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  authenticity 
of  Ossian's  poems,  and  a  few  other  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  and  he  was  a  friend  of  Charles 
J.  Fox.  His  political  principles  were  liberal.  Died  in 
1818. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1801. 

Laing,  (SAMUEL,)  a  British  lawyer  and  politician,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1810. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1852,  and 
was  president  of  the  company  which  owned  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  from  1850  to  1854.  He  was  ap 
pointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  India  in  1860. 

Lair,  laR,  (PIERRE  AIME,)  a  French  writer  on  agricul 
ture,  born  at  Caen  in  1769,  was  noted  for  his  beneficence. 
Died  in  1853. 


Laire,  laR,  (FRANCOIS  XAVIER,)  an  eminent  Fiench 
bibliographer  and  monk,  born  at  Vadans  in  1738.  Dur 
ing  the  Revolution  he  saved  valuable  historical  documents 
from  destruction.  He  published  a  "Series  of  Aldine 
Editions,"  a  "  Specimen  of  Roman  Typography  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century,"  an  "Index  of  Books  from  the  In 
vention  of  Printing  to  the  Year  1500,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1801. 

Laire,  IT'reh,  (SlGlSMOND,)  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Bavaria  about  1550  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1636. 

Lairesse,  li'ress',  (GERAUD,)  a  skilful  Flemish  his 
torical  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Liege  in  1640,  was 
a  pupil  of  his  father.  He  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His 
facility  as  an  artist  was  remarkable.  He  had  a  rich 
imagination,  and  was  skilful  in  costume  and  composi 
tion.  His  engravings  are  much  esteemed.  He  died  in 
1711,  leaving  an  able  "Treatise  on  Painting." 

La'is,  [AmV.J  a  celebrated  Greek  courtesan,  lived  at 
Corinth  in  the  fifth  century  u.c.,  and  was  notorious  for  her 
avidity  and  caprice.  Among  her  lovers  was  the  phi 
losopher  Aristippus.  The  citizens  of  Corinth  erected  a 
monument  to  her.  Another  courtesan  of  that  name  was 
supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicily.  She  lived  at 
Athens  or  Corinth  about  400  H.c. 

La'I-us,  | (Jr.  Aui'of,]  a  king  of  Thebes,  and  the  father 
ofCEdipus.  An  oracle  having  declared  that  he  should 
be  killed  by  his  own  son,  he  exposed  his  son  soon  after 
birth  on  Mount  Cithseron.  The  child  was  preserved  by 
strangers,  was  named  (Edipus,  and  remained  ignorant 
of  his  parentage.  (See  (EDU'US.) 

Lajard,  li'zhik',  (jKA.x  BAITISTE  FELIX,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Lyons  in  1783,  went  to  Persia  as  sec 
retary  of  embassy  in  1807.  lie  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Researches  into  the  Public  Worship  and  the  Mysteries 
of  Mithra  in  the  East  and  West,"  (1848.)  He  pro 
pounded  a  novel  theory  on  the  relations  of  the  Greeks 
with  the  Oriental  races,  which  has  since  been  partially 
confirmed.  Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lajard,  de,  deli  iS'zhtR',  (PIERRE  AUGUSTE,)  an  able 
French  statesman,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1757,  was 
minister  of  war  in  1792.  During  the  empire  he  was  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body.  Died  in  1837. 

La  Jonchere,  de,  deh  la"  zho.N'shaiR',  (ETIENNE  LE- 
CUYER,)  a  French  engineer,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1690. 
He  projected  the  connection  of  the  Saone  and  the  Yonne 
by  a  canal,  the  construction  of  which,  however,  was  given 
to  another  engineer.  Died  about  1740. 

Lakanal,  It'kS'ntl',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Serres  (Ariege)  in  1762.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95,)  he  protected  the  interests  of  the 
arts  and  sciences.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  Institute,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
In  1814  he  retired  to  the  United  States,  was  welcomed 
by  Jefferson,  and  obtained  from  Congress  five  hundred 
acres  of  cotton-land.  He  was  afterwards  president  of 
the  University  of  Louisiana,  and  returned  to  France  in 
1833.  Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

See  I.  GEOFFROY  SAIN-T-HII.AIKK,  "Lakanal,  sa  Vie,  ses  Travaiix 
a  la  Convention,"  etc.,  1849;  MIGNET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  M. 
Lakanal,"  1X57. 

Lake,  (ARTHUR,)  a  learned  English  preacher,  born  at 
Southampton,  was  appointed  Dean  of  Worcester  in  1608, 
and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1616.  Died  in  1626. 
Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

Lake,  (GERARD,)  Viscount  Lake,  a  British  general, 
was  born  in  1744.  Having  served  in  the  American  war 
and  in  the  war  against  the  French  republic,  he  was  ap 
pointed  commander  of  the  army  in  Ireland  during  the 
rebellion  which  began  in  1797,  and  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Castlebar.  In  1800  he  obtained  the  chief 
command  in  India,  and  in  1803  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Mahrattas  near  Delhi.  He  defeated  them  again  the 
same  year  at  Laswarree.  Between  1804  and  1806  he 
waged  a  successful  war  against  Holkar,  and  received 
the  title  of  Baron  Lake  of  Delhi,  etc.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1807,  and  was  created  a  viscount.  Died  in 
1808. 

Lake,  (JOHN,)  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1624,  became 
Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1685.  He  was  imprisoned,  in 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,giittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAKSHMI 


1358 


LALLI 


company  with  six  other  prelates,  in  the  Tower  of  London 
in  1688.  Died  in  1698. 

See  AGNES  STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops." 

Laksh'mi,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  luksb/mee;  ety 
mology  obscure,]  called  also  Sri,*  snee,  or  Shri,  shnee, 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  goddess  of  wealth,  and  the 
consort  of  Vishnu,  is  fabled  to  have  sprung  from  the 
churning  of  the  ocean.  (See  KUKMA.)  There  is  a  striking 
analogy  between  the  origin  of  Lakshmi  and  that  of  the 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  Anaclyomene  of  the  Greeks,  who 
also  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea. 
(See  VENUS.)  But  Lakshmi,  though  represented  as 
extremely  beautiful,  is  not,  like  Venus,  the  patroness  of 
love,  but  the  goddess  of  wealth  and  prosperity.  She  is 
represented  with  four  arms  and  arrayed  with  the  most 
beautiful  ornaments  and  gems.  She  is  sometimes  called 
Padma,  (from  pddmd,  the  "lotus,")  in  allusion,  perhaps, 
to  her  divine  beauty,  and  by  many  other  names.  She  is 
sometimes  identified  with  the  beautiful  Apsara  Rambha, 
(or  Rembha.) 

See  MOOR'S  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Lalamant  or  Lallemaiit,  laTmSN'',  (JEAN,)  a  French 
physician  and  scholar,  who  lived  about  1550-90,  was  a 
native  of  Autun.  He  produced,  besides  works  on  medi 
cine,  history,  etc.,  a  French  version  of  Demosthenes' 
"Philippics,"  (I549-) 

Lalande,  de,  deh  iS'lftxd',  (JACQUES,)  a  meritorious 
French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1622.  He  published 
"  Specimen  Juris  Romano-Gallici  ad  Pandectas,"  (1690.) 
Died  in  1703. 

Lalande,  de,  (JOSEPH  jEi<6ME  LEFRANC.AIS,)  one  of 
the  most  eminent  French  astronomers,  was  born  at 
Bourg  (Ain)  in  July,  1732,  and  was  the  only  child  of 
Pierre  Lefrai^ais.  He  manifested  at  an  early  age  the 
love  of  fame  which  was  his  ruling  passion.  He  was  a 
student  in  a  college  of  Lyons  when  the  great  eclipse  of 
July,  1748,  inspired  him  with  a  determination  to  be  an 
astronomer.  Having  been  sent  by  his  parents  to  Paris 
to  study  law,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Messier  and 
Lemonnier  on  astronomy  and  mathematics,  and  became 
the  favourite  pupil  of  both  professors.  The  Academy 
having  resolved  to  send  an  astronomer  to  Berlin  to 
make  observations  and  to  second  La  Caille,  who  was 
stationed  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Lalande  was 
selected  in  1751,  through  the  influence  of  Lemonnier. 
Returning  in  1752,  his  labours  were  approved,  and  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
his  twentieth  year.  He  next  ascertained  the  diameter 
of  the  moon,  and  began  to  work  on  the  theory  of  the 
planets,  which  became  one  of  the  most  constant  occu 
pations  of  his  life.  He  assisted  "Clairaut  in  computing 
the  effect  of  planetary  perturbations  on  the  return  of 
Halley's  comet  about  1759. 

He  was  chosen  in  1760  editor  of  the  "Connaissances 
des  Temps,"  in  the  plan  of  which  he  introduced  impor 
tant  improvements,  and  succeeded  Delisle  as  professor 
of  astronomy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1762.  For 
forty-six  years  he  discharged  the  functions  of  this  place 
with  great  zeal  and  Mat.  In  1764  he  published  his  great 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  ("Traite  d' Astronomic,")  in 
which  the  theory  and  practical  part  of  the  science  are 
extensively  treated.  He  produced  in  1772  a  "  Memoir 
on  the  Transit  of  Venus  of  1769,"  and  a  year  later  a 
speculation  on  the  possibility  of  a  collision  of  comets 
with  the  earth,  which  caused  a  panic  among  the  un 
learned,  although  he  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
such  a  collision  was  very  improbable.  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Encyclopedic  Methodique"  and  the 
"Journal  des  Savants,"  and  published  "The  History, 
Theory,  and  Practice  of  Navigation,"  ("  Abrege  de  Na 
vigation,1'  etc.,  1793.)  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Astronomical  Bibliography,"  (1803,)  "  Histoire  celeste 
Frai^aise,"  (1801,)  containing  the  observations  of  many 
French  astronomers,  and  "Memoirs  on  the  Parallax  of 
the  Moon."  He  died  in  1807.  "Though  in  many  re 
spects  only  an  astronomer  of  the  second  order,"  says 
Delambre,  "he  was  the  foremost  of  all  as  a  professor, 
and  did  more  than  any  other  to  promote  the  study  of 

*  I.e.  "prosperity;"  also  "beauty"  or  "splendour." 


the  science."     His  temper  was  irritable,  but  candid  and 
benevolent. 

See  DKI.AMBRE,  "  filoge  de  Lalande;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Ge'nera'e. " 

Lalande,  de,  (MICHEL  JEAN  JEROME  LEFRANC.AIS,) 
an  astronomer,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Normandy  in  1766.  Under  the  direction  of  his  uncle  he 
made  observations  in  Paris,  and  ascertained  the  theory 
of  the  orbit  of  Mars.  He  became  a  member  of  the  In 
stitute  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes.  Died  in  1839. 

Lalande,  de,  (MICHEL  RICHARD,)  a  French  com 
poser,  born  in  Paris  in  1657,  became  superintendent  of 
music  of  Louis  XIV.  about  1683.  He  composed  many 
motets.  "  He  was,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "  the  most  skilful 
French  composer  of  religious  music  of  his  time."  Died 
in  1726. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

La  Laiidelle  or  Lalandelle,  de,  deh  It  ISN'dcl', 
(GUILI.AUME  JOSEPH  GABRIEL,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1812,  wrote  "The  Naval  Crown,"  (9 
vols.,  1848,)  and  other  maritime  novels. 

Lalanne,  li'lftn',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  didactic 
poet,  born  at  Dax  in  1772. 

Lalanne,  (LEON  Louis  CHRETIEN,)  a  French  civil 
engineer  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 

Lalanne,  (MARIE  LUDOVIC  CHRETIEN,)  a  French 
writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1815. 
Among  his  works  is  "Curiosites  litteraires,"  (1845.) 

Laliemand,  laTinox',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS  AN- 
TOINK,)  BARON,  a  French  general,  called  LALI.EMAND 
AINE,  was  born  at  Mctz  in  1774.  He  served  in  Spain, 
where  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  (1811.) 
During  the  Hundred  Days  he  joined  Bonaparte,  and 
commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo.  As  a  fugitive,  he 
sought  refuge  in  the  United  States,  and  attempted  to 
found  a  colony  in  Texas  about  1818,  but  failed.  In  1830 
he  returned  to  France,  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  gene 
ral,  and  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  Died  in  1839. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Laliemand,  (CLAUDE  FRANQOIS,)  an  eminent  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1790.  He  was  professor 
of  clinic.il  surgery  at  Montpellier  from  1819  to  1823,  and 
again  from  1826  to  1845.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
settled  in  Paris.  He  wrote,  besides  other  medical  treat 
ises,  an  important  work  entitled  "Anatomico-Pathologic 
Researches  on  the  Brain,"  (5  vols.,  1820-36,)  which  was 
translated  into  many  languages.  He  was  once  called  to 
Egypt  to  attend  Ibraheem  Pasha.  Died  in  1854. 

See  QUEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Laliemand,  (HENRI  DOMINIQUE,)  born  in  1777,  was 
a  brother  of  Charles  Fran£ois  Antoine,  noticed  above, 
and  a  brave  partisan  of  Napoleon,  who  made  him  general 
of  division  in  the  Hundred  Days.  He  fought  at  Water 
loo,  (1815,)  after  which  he  went  as  an  exile  to  the  United 
States.  Died  at  Borrientown  in  1823. 

Laliemand,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  painter  of 
landscapes  and  sea-views,  born  at  Dijon  in  1710,  worked 
some  years  in  Rome,  and  painted  several  pieces  for  the 
Vatican.  Died  in  1802. 

Lallemandet,  Itl'm&N'di',  (JEAN,)  a  theologian,  born 
at  Besan$on  in  1595,  wrote  "Philosophical  Decisions," 
("  Decisiones  Philosophicae,"  1644,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1647. 

Lallemant.     See  LALAMANT. 

Lallemant,  lal'mSN',  (JACQUES  PHILIPPE,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  near  Abbeville  about  1660.  He  published 
a  remarkable  work,  entitled  "The  True  Spirit  of  the 
New  Disciples  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (4  vols.,  1706  et 
seq.,)  and  "  Moral  Reflections,  with  Notes,  on  the  New 
Testament,"  (u  vols.,  1714.)  Died  in  1748. 

Lallemant,  (PIERRE,)  a  mystical  French  writer,  born 
at  Rheims  in  1622,  published  "  The  Spiritual  Testament," 
(1672,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1673. 

Lalli,  lal'lee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  diplomatist,  born  at  Norcia,  in  Umbria,  in  1572, 
was  employed  in  several  negotiations  by  the  courts  of 
Rome  and  of  Parma.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
by  his  epic  poem  "Titus  Vespasian,  or  the  Destruction 
of  Jerusalem,"  ("  II  Tito  Vespasiano,  overo  La  Geru- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,y,long;  a,  e,  o,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LALLY 


1359 


LAM  ART  IN  E 


salemme  Desolata,"  1629.)  He  also  produced  some 
popular  burlesque  poems,  among  which  is  "  The  /Eneid 
Travestied,"  (1633.)  Died  in  1637. 

Lally,  de,  deh  li'le',  (THOMAS  ARTHUR,)  COUNT, 
Baron  of  Tollendal,  in  Ireland,  a  French  general,  of 
Irish  descent,  born  in  Dauphine  about  1700.  For  his 
conduct  at  Fontenoy,  in  1745,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general.  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  in  Scotland  in 
the  same  year.  In  1756,  while  France  was  at  war  with 
England,  he  was  appointed  commandant-general  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India,  commissary  of  the  king, 
and  syndic  of  the  French  East  India  Company.  He 
took  Fort  Saint  David  in  1758,  and  attacked  Madras 
without  success.  His  plans  were  thwarted  by  the  cor 
rupt  agents  of  the  company.  In  1761  he  surrendered 
Pondicherry  to  Sir  E.  Coote,  and  was  taken  as  prisoner 
to  England.  After  having  been  imprisoned  for  four  years 
in  the  Bastille,  he  was  executed  for  treason  in  1766.  In 
1778  the  royal  council  annulled  his  sentence,  the  injustice 
of  which  was  generally  recognized. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XV." 

Lally-Tollendal,  de,  deh  It'le'  to'IS.N'dtl',  (TRo- 
PHIME  GERARD,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  orator  and  writer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1751.  He 
devoted  many  years  to  the  successful  vindication  of  his 
father's  memory.  In  1789  he  was  deputed  by  the  no 
blesse  to  the  States-General,  and  was  one  of  the  minority 
of  his  order  who  united  with  the  Tiers-Etat  and  favoured 
reform.  He  emigrated  to  England  in  1792,  and  returned 
to  France  in  1800.  In  1815  he  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers,  where  he  showed  himself  a  moderate  royalist.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1816.  He  died 
in  1830,  leaving  many  political  treatises. 

See  QU^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

La  Longe  or  Lalonge,  It  loxzh,  (HURF.RT  or  RO 
BERT,)  called  IL  FIAMMINGO,  (i.e.  "the  Fleming,")  a 
skilful  painter,  bom  at  Brussels,  lived  mostly  in  Italy. 
Died  in  1/09. 

La  Loubere.     See  LOUBERE,  LA. 

La  Luzerne.     See  LUZER.NE,  LA. 

Lama,  la'ma,  (GIOVANNI  BERNARDO,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  was  born  about  1510. 
He  painted  religious  subjects  and  portraits  with  success. 
Died  about  1580. 

Lam'a-ehus,  [Aatm.i'Of,]  an  Athenian  general,  born 
about  470  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Xenophanes,  and,  accord 
ing  to  Plutarch,  was  a  man  of  great  courage  and  honour. 
In  415  Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and  Lamachus  were  chosen 
generals  of  the  expedition  against  Syracuse.  The  people 
having  recalled  Alcibiades,  Nicias  had  the  principal 
direction  of  the  enterprise,  though  Lamachus  was  the 
abler  general.  He  was  killed  at  Syracuse  in  414  B.C. 

Lamalle.     See  DUREAU. 

Lamanon,  de,  deh  It'mt'noN',  (ROBERT  DE  PAUL,) 
CHEVALIER,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Salon  in  1752. 
He  lived  some  years  in  Paris,  wrote  memoirs  on  fossil 
bones,  etc.,  and  accompanied  the  expedition  of  La 
Perouse  as  naturalist  in  1785.  He  was  murdered  by 
some  natives  of  one  of  the  Navigator  Islands  in  1787. 

La-mar',  (MIRABEAU  B.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Louisville,  Georgia,  in  1798.  He  removed  in 
1835  to  Texas,  and  was  elected  first  Vice-President  in 
1836,  and  in  1838  President  of  the  republic.  Died  in  1859. 

Lamarche  or  La  Marche,  It  mtRsh,  (JOSEPH 
DROUOT,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Vosges  in  1733. 
At  the  death  of  Dampierre  (1793)  the  chief  command 
devolved  on  Lamarche,  until  he  was  superseded  by 
Custine  in  July,  1793.  Died  about  1800. 

La  Marche,  (OLIVIER.)     See  MARCHE,  LA. 

La  Marck,  (ROBERT.)     See  MARCK,  LA. 

Lamarck  or  La  Marck,  de,  deh  It  mtRk,  (JEAN 
BAPTISTE  PIERRE  ANTOINE  DE  MONET,)  CHEVALIER,  a 
celebrated  French  naturalist,  born  in  Picardy,  August 
I,  1744.  He  was  educated  for  the  church  at  a  college  of 
Amiens,  but  entered  the  army  in  1761  and  fought  in  one 
campaign  with  distinction.  Having  been  disabled  for 
action  by  an  accidental  injury,  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  studied  medicine,  which,  however,  he  did  not  prac 
tise.  He  devoted  himself  to  botany,  in  the  classification 
of  which  he  made  some  innovations,  and  published 


in  1778  "Flore  Fran9aise,"  ("French  Flora,")  which 
opened  to  him  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Taking  the 
most  general  conformations  as  the  point  of  departure, 
proceeding  by  a  dichotomic  path,  and  presenting  at 
each  step  a  choice  between  two  opposite  characters,  it 
was  found  a  convenient  guide.  Having  received  a  com 
mission  as  botanist  to  the  king,  he  was  employed  in 
botanical  researches  in  Holland  and  Germany,  from 
which  he  returned  in  1782.  He  extended  his  reputation 
by  the  article  Botany  in  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique," 
(about  1783.)  In  1788  he  became  an  assistant  of  the 
director  of  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  which  was  reorganized  in 
1793,  under  the  name  of  the  "Museum  of  Natural  His 
tory."  Lamarck  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  in 
that  institution.  His  sagacious  and  zealous  researches 
and  writings  in  the  department  of  invertebrata  (which 
devolved  on  him  because  the  other  professors  deemed 
them  beneath  their  notice)  constitute  his  principal  title 
to  celebrity,  and  raise  him  to  the  rank  of  a  legislator  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  In  1809  he  propounded,  in  his 
"  Philosophic  zoologique,"  several  novel  or  absurd  hy 
potheses  on  the  production  of  animals, — as  the  theory 
of  metamorphosis  or  progressive  development,  and  that 
of  spontaneous  generation.  His  capital  work,  entitled 
"Natural  History  of  Invertebrate  Animals,"  ("  His- 
toire  naturelle  des  Animaux  sans  Vertebres,"  7  vols., 
1815-22,)  ranks  among  the  noblest  monuments  of  human 
science.  He  had  published  an  outline  of  the  same  in 
1801.  Died  in  1829. 

See  CUVIER,  "  filoge  de  Lamarck;"  GROFFROY  SAINT-HILAIRE, 
"Discours  prononce  sur  !a  Tombe  de  Lp.marck  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graplrie  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixv.,  1811  et  seq., 
(Appendix.) 

Lamare-Picquot,  It'mSR'  pe'ko',  (N.,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Bayeux  about  1785,  travelled  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  which  he  brought  specimens  of  zoology 
of  eight  hundred  and  fifty-five  species.  Between  1841 
and  1848  he  explored  North  America. 

La  Marmora.     See  MARMORA,  DELLA. 

Lamarque,  It'mtKk',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  regicide, 
born  in  Perigord  about  1755,  was  elected  to  the  Con 
vention  in  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  four  deputies  who 
attempted  to  arrest  Dumouriez  at  the  head  of  his  army 
in  1793,  and  who  were  by  him  delivered  to  the  Austrians. 
Died  in  1839. 

Lamarque,  (MAXIMILTEN,)  an  able  French  general 
and  orator,  born  at  Saint-Sever  (Landes)  in  1770.  He 
served  as  a  general  of  brigade  at  Austerlitz  in  1805, 
obtained  command  of  a  division  in  1807,  and  took  Caprasa 
from  the  English  in  1808.  At  the  battle  of  Wagram,  in 
1809,  his  courage  was  conspicuous.  He  joined  the 
standard  of  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba,  and 
commanded  with  success  in  several  actions  against  the 
Vendeans  in  1815.  In  1828  he  became  a  liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Died  in  1832.  A  bloody 
conflict  occurred  between  the  troops  and  the  populace 
at  his  funeral  in  Paris. 

See  Louis  BLANC,  "  Histoire  de  dix  Ans :"  "  Memoires  et  Sou 
venirs  du  General  Lamarque,"  published  by  his  family,  3  vols.,  1835- 
36;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Martelliere  or  Lamartelliere,  It  mta'ti'le-aiR', 
QEAN  HENRI  FERDINAND,)  a  French  dramatic  author, 
born  at  Ferrette  in  1761 ;  died  in  1830. 

Lamartine,  de,  deh  It'inta'ten',  (ALPHONSE,)  a 
French  poet,  orator,  and  historian  of  great  celebrity,  was 
born  at  Macon,  on  the  Saone,  on  the  2ist  of  October, 
1792.  His  father  served  for  a  short  time  in  the  army 
as  captain  or  major,  and  was  imprisoned  as  a  royalist 
in  the  Revolution.  His  mother's  name  was  Alix  des 
Roys.  The  name  of  De  Prat  has  been  erroneously  given 
to  the  subject  of  this  article  by  some  biographers.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  of  Belley,  which  he  left 
about  1809,  and  afterwards  passed  some  time  at  home, 
where  he  read  and  admired  Dante,  Petrarch,  Shakspeare, 
Milton,  and  Ossian.  In  1811-12  he  visited  Rome  and 
Naples.  He  entered  the  life-guards  of  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1814,  and  when  his  company  was  disbanded  on  the  re 
turn  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  he  retired  into  Switzerland, 
where  he  remained  during  the  Hundred  Days.  In  1820 
he  published  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  "Meditations 
poetiques,"  which  excited  general  admiration,  and  of 
which  45,000  copies  were  sold  in  four  years.  This  volume 


of  which   he   made   some   innovations,  and   published    which  45,000  copies  were  sold  in  four  years.  This  volume 
c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z:  th  as  in  this.     (E^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAM  ART  IN  E 


1360 


LAMB 


contained  "The  Lake,"  ("  Le  Lac,")  a  beautiful  elegy, 
(composed  in  1817,)  in  which  he  expresses  the  contrast 
between  the  permanence  of  nature  and  the  instability  of 
human  affairs.  Lamartine  was  appointed  in  1820  secre 
tary  of  legation  at  Florence,  (or,  as  one  writer  says,  at 
Naples,)  and  married  an  English  heiress  named  Eliza 
Marianna  Birch.  His  "  Nouvelles  Meditations  poetiques" 
appeared  in  1823.  He  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Florence 
for  several  years,  ending  in  1829,  and  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1830.  He  professed  devotion  to  the 
church  and  the  throne  in  his  "  Harmonies  poetiques  et 
religieuses,"  (1830,)  which  are  considered  by  some  critics 
as  his  best  productions. 

After  the  Revolution  of  1830  he  adopted  more  liberal 
political  principles,  and  resolved  to  make  a  change  in  his 
pursuits.  lie  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  election 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  was  defeated.  In  1832, 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  daughter  Julia,  he  visited 
Palestine,  the  favourite  scene  of  his  youthful  reveries  and 
aspirations,  travelling  like  a  prince  in  a  vessel  which  he 
had  chartered.  His  daughter  Julie  died  at  Beyroot.  He 
returned  in  the  autumn  of  1833,  and  published,  in  prose, 
"  Souvenirs,  Impressions,  Pensees  et  Paysages  pendant 
un  Voyage  en  Orient,"  (3  vols.,  1835,)  the  English  ver 
sion  of  which  is  entitled  "A  Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land."  During  his  absence  he  had  been  elected  by  the 
voters  of  Bergues  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which 
he  maintained  a  position  independent  of  party,  but  spoke 
often  with  success  on  questions  of  social  and  political 
philosophy.  He  displayed  a  marvellous  affluence  of 
pure  sentiments  and  beautiful  images  in  his  poem  of 
"  Jocelyn,"  (1836,)  announced  or  designed  as  an  episode 
of  a  great  poem  on  the  progressive  phases  of  humanity. 
He  became  the  representative  of  Macon  in  the  Chamber 
in  1837,  and  was  classed  for  some  years  among  the 
"progressive  conservatives ;"  but  he  censured  the  im 
mobility  of  Guizot's  policy,  and  in  1843  became  a  deter 
mined  opponent  of  the  ministry  and  conservative  party. 
The  public  were  greatly  surprised  by  the  avowal  of 
democratic  principles  and  sympathies  which  he  made  in 
his  eloquent  and  brilliant  "  History  of  the  Girondists," 
(8  vols.,  1847,)  which  had  an  important  political  influ 
ence  as  a  cause  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.  He  is  cen 
sured  for  inaccuracy  as  a  historian,  and  for  his  imitation 
of  a  habit  of  many  ancient  writers  who  ascribe  to  historical 
persons  imaginary  speeches.  "  This  work,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848,  "brings  before 
us  that  most  stirring  and  important  period  with  a  clear 
ness  and  vividness  that  all  previous  descriptions,  except 
some  of  Carlyle's,  have  failed  to  realize :  it  presents  us 
on  the  same  page  with  distinct,  highly-finished  sketches 
of  the  principal  actors.  ...  M.  de  Lamartine  seems  to 
us,  on  the  whole,  to  have  brought  to  the  consideration 
of  the  Revolution  a  more  candid  spirit  and  more  whole 
some  sympathies  than  any  preceding  writer."  He  kept 
himself  aloof  from  the  reform  banquets  of  1847,  and  took 
no  part  in  the  first  two  days  of  the  ensuing  revolution. 
On  the  24th  of  February  he  entered  the  Chamber,  and, 
rejecting  the  claims  of  the  falling  dynasty,  advocated 
the  formation  of  a  provisional  government.  As  a  mem 
ber  of  the  government  formed  in  that  momentous  crisis, 
he  assumed  the  functions  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
He  became  at  once  the  master-spirit  and  moderator  of 
the  Revolution,  and  repressed  the  spirit  of  anarchy  and 
homicide  by  memorable  demonstrations  of  eloquence, 
courage,  and  magnanimity.  His  harangue  to  the  se 
ditious  and  infuriated  bands  who  demanded  the  red  flag 
instead  of  the  tricolonred  (February  25)  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  triumphs  of  eloquence  recorded  in 
history.  He  addressed  a  pacific  manifesto  to  Europe, 
(March  4,)  and  was  successful  in  averting  a  general  war. 
For  some  months  his  popularity  was  immense  among 
nearly  all  classes.  In  April  he  was  elected  by  ten  de 
partments  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  which  met  on 
the  5th  of  May.  He  WHS  the  fourth  on  the  list  of  the 
Executive  Commission  of  Five  chosen  by  the  Assembly 
on  the  loth  of  May.  The  decline  of  his  popularity 
shown  by  this  fact  is  ascribed  to  his  connection  or  col 
lusion  with  Ledru-Rollin, — a  collusion  which  he  com 
pared  to  that  of  the  lightning-rod  with  the  pernicious 
power  which  it  averts.  Lamartine  and  his  colleagues 


resigned  in  consequence  of  the  insurrection  of  June  22, 
which  they  were  unable  to  suppress. 

On  the  6th  of  October  he  made  a  remarkable  speech 
in  the  Assembly,  in  which  he  advocated  the  election  of 
president  by  the  people,  and  said,  "If  the  republic  suc 
ceeds,  I  have  won  my  game  (partic)  against  destiny.  If 
it  fails,  either  in  anarchy  or  in  a  reminiscence  of  despot 
ism,  my  name,  my  responsibility,  and  my  memory  will 
fall  with  it."  He  also  expressed  his  foreboding  that  the 
result  of  the  popular  vote  would  not  accord  with  his  own 
choice.  At  the  election  of  president  in  December,  1848, 
he  received  only  about  8000  votes.  After  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  1851,  he  took  no  part  in  political  affairs. 
He  published  in  1849  a  "  History  of  the  Revolution  of 
1848,"  (2  vols.,)  "  Les  Confidences,"  containing  memoirs 
of  his  early  life,  and  "  Raphael,  Pages  de  la  vingtieme 
Annee."  Among  his  later  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 
Restoration,"  (7  vols.,  1851-52,)  "  Histoire  des  Cons 
tituents,"  (4  vols.,  1854,)  and  a  "  History  of  Turkey," 
(8  vols.,  1855.)  Many  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  nearly  all  European  languages.  His  neglect  of 
economy  and  his  expensive  habits  involved  him,  many 
years  ago,  in  pecuniary  embarrassments,  which  his  great 
literary  industry  and  success  failed  to  relieve.  His  friends 
in  1858  opened  a  national  subscription  in  his  favour  ;  but 
the  results  of  this  appeal  to  the  public  gratitude  were 
not  very  satisfactory.  Died  in  February,  1869.  "There 
is  in  the  most  imperfect  sketches  of  Lamartine,"  says  an 
anonymous  French  critic,  "a  grand  current  of  inspiration 
which  imparts  to  each  passion  and  idea  its  appropriate 
life  and  lustre.  God  and  man,  society  and  nature,  religion 
and  politics,  all  objects  of  thought  and  sentiment,  con 
tribute  to  this  resplendent  focus  of  universal  poetry." 

See  CHARLES  RODIN,  "Biographic  de  Lamartine,"  1848;  CHA- 
PUYS  MONTI. AVII.I.H,  "  Vie  de  Lamartine;"  LOMENIE,  "Galerie  des 
Contemporains ;"  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Portraits  conteniporains,"  tome 
i.  :  LURINK,  "Histoire  de  A.  de  Lamartine,"  1848;  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  E.  FRENSDORFF,  "Lamartine," 
Berlin,  1848;  COKMENIN,  "Lamartine  et  le  Gouvernement  provi- 
soire,"  1848  ;  A.  DE  LAMARTINE,  "  Trois  Mois  an  Pouvoir,"  (and  Eng 
lish  version  of  the  same,  entitled  "Three  Months  in  Power:  a  History 
and  a  Vindication  ;")  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835,  and 
March,  1852;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848,  and  January, 
1850;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1844,  and  September, 
1847;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1836;  "Blackwood'a 
Magazine"  for  August,  1849. 

La  Martiiiiere.     See  MARTlNlfeRE,  DE  LA. 

Lamb,  lam,  (Lady  CAROLINE,)  an  English  authoress, 
daughter  of  Frederick  Ponsonby,  Earl  of  Besborough,  wa< 
born  in  1785.  She  was  married  in  1805  to  William  Lamb, 
afterwards  Lord  Melbourne.  Her  romances,  entitled 
"Glenarvon,"  "Graham  Hamilton,"  and  "Ada  Reis," 
procured  her  some  literary  reputation.  Her  friendship 
or  love  for  Lord  Byron  attracted  much  attention,  and 
gave  rise  to  some  scandal.  Died  in  1828. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1822 ;  MADAME  Guic- 
CIOLI,  "Recollections  of  Lord  Byron,"  pp.  100-101  et  seq. 

Lamb,  (CHARLES,)  a  popular  English  essayist  and 
humorist,  was  born  in  London  in  February,  1775,  and 
was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital,  where  he /formed  an 
intimacy  with  Coleridge.  In  1792  he  entered  the  ser 
vice  of  the  East  India  Company  as  clerk  in  the  India 
House,  London.  He  began  his  literary  career  with  a 
small  volume  of  poems  published  in  1798  in  connection 
with  some  verses  of  Coleridge  and  Llo'yd.  Affer  the 
faithful  performance  of  his  irksome  duties  at  the  desk 
for  thirty-three  years,  he  retired  in  1825,  with  a  pension 
of  ^441.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  prose 
works,  especially  the  "Essays  of-  Elia,"  (1830.)  His 
exquisite  taste  and  critical  sagacity  are  manifested  in 
his  "  Essays  on  the  Tragedies  of  Shakspeare,"  and  other 
works.  His  character  was  amiably  eccentric,  abounding 
in  whims  and  quaint  humours,  and  most  of  his  writings 
are  strongly  expressive  of  his  mental  individuality.  He 
remained  unmarried,  and  lived  with  his  sister  Mary,  who 
in  a  fit  of  insanity  killed  her  mother  about  1796.  She 
was  restored  to  a  sound  mind,  and  found  an  affectionate 
guardian  in  her  brother  until  his  death  in  1834.  His 
sister  died  in  1847. 

See  T.  N.  TALKOURD,  "  Life  of  Charles  Lamb ;"  BRYAN  \V. 
PROCTER,  "  Charles  Lamb:  a  Memoir,"  1866;  DE  QUINCEY,  "Lite 
rary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  i.  ;  PERCY  FITZGERALD,  "Charles  Lamb 
and  his  Friends ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1837  ;  "  Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1818,  and  August,  1849;  "British 
1  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1867. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LAMB 


1361 


LAMBERT 


Lamb,  (GEOROK,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1784, 
was  a  younger  son  of  the  first  Lord  Melbourne,  and  a 
brother  of  prime-minister  Lord  Melbourne.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Whigs  in  1818,  and  was 
several  times  re-elected.  He  contributed  to  the  "Edin 
burgh  Review,"  of  which,  said  Byron,  "Jeffrey  and  Lamb 
were  the  Alpha  and  Omega,"  and  published  a  trans 
lation  of  Catullus.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  under 
secretary  of  the  home  department.  Died  in  1834. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Lamb,  (Sir  JAMES  BLAND  BURGES.)  an  English  poli 
tician  and  writer,  born  at  Gibraltar  in  1752  ;  died  in  1824. 

Lamb,  (WILLIAM.)     See  MELBOURNE,  LORD. 

Lamballe,  de,  deh  IfiN'bSK,  (MARIA  THEUESE  LOUISE 
de  Savoie  -  Carignan  —  deh  st'vwa'  kit'ren'ySN', ) 
PRINCESS,  born  at  Turin  in  1749,  was  a  member  of  the 
royal  family  of  Sardinia,  and  distinguished  for  beauty 
and  virtue.  In  1767  she  became  the  wife  of  the  Prince 
of  Lamballe,  (the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Penthievre,)  and  one 
year  later  was  left  a  widow.  She  was  a  favourite  attendant 
of  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  whose  danger  and  adverse 
fortune  she  shared  during  the  Revolution.  Having  been 
imprisoned  in  La  Force,  she  was  massacred,  with  cir 
cumstances  of  great  atrocity,  in  September,  1792. 

See  "  Memoires  de  la  Princesse  de  Limballe."  par  MADAME 
GUENARD,  4  vols.,  1801  ;  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Lam'barde,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  antiquary,  was  born  in  London  in  1536.  He  be 
came  a  master  in  chancery  in  1592,  keeper  of  the  rolls 
in  1597,  and  keeper  of  the  records  of  the  Tower  in 
1600.  He  published  a  work  on  old  Saxon  laws,  entitled 
"  Archaionomia,"  (1568,)  "The  Perambulation  of  Kent," 
and  "Eirenarcha;  or,  The  Office  of  the  Justices  of  the 
Peace."  lie  founded  a  hospital  for  the  poor  at  Green 
wich.  Died  in  1601. 

See  NICHOLS,  "Life  of  Lambarde." 

Lambeccius  or  Lambecius.     See  LAMBECK. 

Lambeck,  lam'bek,  |Lat.  LAMREC'CIUS  or  LAMBF/- 
cius,]  (PETER,)  an  eminent  German  bibliographer,  born 
at  Hamburg,  April  13,  1628.  He  became  professor  of 
history  in  his  native  place  in  1652,  and  librarian  of  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  at  Vienna,  about  1662.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "History  of  Hamburg,"  (1652,)  and  "A 
Catalogue  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,"  ("Com- 
mentaria  de  Augusta  Bibliotheca  Caesarea  Vindobo- 
nensi,"  8  vols.,  1665-79,)  said  to  be  the  most  extensive 
ever  compiled.  Died  in  Vienna  in  1680. 

See  "  Leben  des  Petri  Lambeccii,"  Hamburg,  1724. 

Lamberg,  von,  fon  lam'be'RG,  (JOSEPH  MAXIMILIAN,) 
COUNT,  a  learned  and  ingenious  German  writer,  born 
at  Briinn,  Moravia,  in  1729,  corresponded  with  Voltaire 
and  Hume.  He  published  (in  French)  an  "Essay  on 
the  Impossible,"  (1764.)  and  "Memoriel  d'un  Mondain," 
("Memorial  of  a  Worldling,"  1775.)  Died  in  1792. 

Lam'bert,  the  son  of  Gui,  Duke  of  Spoleto,  Emperor 
and  King  of  Italy,  succeeded  his  father  at  an  early 
age,  in  894  A.D.  His  rivals  Berenger  and  Arnulf  were 
masters  of  parts  of  Italy.  He  took  Milan  in  895,  and 
was  killed  by  falling  from  a  horse  in  898. 

Lam'bert,  (AYI.MK.R  BOURKE,)  an  English  botanist, 
born  in  1762,  contributed  memoirs  to  the  "Linnnsan 
Transactions,"  and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  scientific 
men.  His  herbarium  was  one  of  the  finest  in  England. 
Died  in  1842. 

Lambert,  16N'baiRr,  (CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  called  Lam 
bert  Bey,  a  French  engineer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in 
1804.  About  1832  he  entered  the  service  of  Mehemet 
Ali  of  Egypt,  who  appointed  him  director  of  the  Poly 
technic  School  and  the  Observatory  of  Boolak. 

Lambert,  (CLAUDE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  compiler, 
born  at  Dole,  lived  in  Paris.  He  published  numerous 
mediocre  works,  among  which  was  a  "History  of  all 
Nations,"  (15  vols.,  1750.)  Died  in  1765. 

Lambert,  (DANIEL,)  a  famous  giant,  born  at  Leices 
ter,  England,  in  1770.  He  was  five  feet  eleven  inches  in 
height,  and  at  twenty-three  years  of  age  weighed  four 
hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds.  He  was  also  remark 
able  for  his  strength,  and  performed  wonderful  feats  as 
a  swimmer  and  pedestrian.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
(1809)  he  weighed  seven  hundred  and  thirty-nine  pounds. 


Lambert,  [Lat.  LAMBER'TUS,]  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
Protestant  Reformer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1487,  became  a 
monk  in  early  youth.  Having  embraced  the  Reformed  re 
ligion,  he  fled  to  Switzerland  in  1522,  assumed  the  name 
of  JOHANNES  SF.KRANUS,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Marburg  in  1527.  He  published  com 
mentaries  on  the  Bible,  and  other  works.  He  contributed 
greatly  to  the  propagation  of  the  Reformed  doctrines  in 
Thuringia  and  Hesse.  His  system  of  theology  is  ex 
plained  in  his  "  Farrago  of  almost  all  Theological  Mat 
ters,"  ("  Farrago  Omnium  fere  Rerum  Theologicarum.") 
Died  in  1530. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  JOHANN  W. 
BAUM,  "  F.  Lambert  von  Avignon  nach  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1840; 
NICERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lambert,  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent  English  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Kent  about  1710.  He  painted  land 
scapes  in  the  manner  of  Gaspard  Poussin,  and  had  a 
great  talent  for  etching.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Beefsteak  Club.  Died  in  1765. 

Lambert,  lam'beRt,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  profound 
and  original  philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  born  of  a 
French  Protestant  family  at  Mulhouse,  Alsace,  in  August, 
1728.  From  1748  to  1759  he  was  preceptor  to  the  sons 
of  Count  de  Salis.  About  1763  he  became  a  resident 
of  Berlin  and  a  pensioned  member  of  the  Berlin  Acad 
emy  of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  civil 
affairs,  with  the  title  of  councillor.  He  cultivated  with 
great  success  mathematics  and  astronomy,  on  which  he 
wrote  many  treatises,  and  he  demonstrated  the  incom 
mensurability  of  the  circumference  and  diameter  of  a 
circle.  His  "  Cosmological  Letters"  (1761)  attracted 
much  attention.  He  produced,  in  German,  a  celebrated 
work  on  dialectics  entitled  "  Novnm  Organon,"  (1763,) 
and  "  Photometria,  sive  de  Gradibus  Luminis,"  ("  On 
the  Degrees  of  Light,"  etc.)  He  belonged  to  the  Prot 
estant  church.  Died  in  Berlin  in  1777. 

See  MATTHIAS  GRAF,  "  J.  H.  Lamberts  Leben,"  1829;  FORMEY, 
"  E"loge  de  Lambert ;"  DANIEL  HUHKR,  "  J.  H.  Lambert  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  Wirken,"  1829;  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Lambert,  (JoHN,)  a  prominent  English  republican 
general,  born  about  1620,  was  a  favourite  of  the  Inde 
pendents.  He  entered  the  army  of  the  Parliament,  fought 
as  colonel  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  first  civil  war  had  obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  second  in  command  under  Cromwell  in  Scotland 
in  1649,  and  led  the  van  at  Dunbar  in  1651.  In  1653  he 
made  the  proposition  that  the  title  of  Protector  should 
be  given  to  Cromwell.  "  Lambert,  his  creature,"  says 
Hume,  "who,  under  an  appearance  of  obsequiousness 
to  him,  indulged  an  unbounded  ambition,  proposed  to 
temper  the  liberty  of  a  commonwealth  by  the  authority 
of  a  single  person."  After  the  death  of  Oliver  he  plotted 
against  Richard  Cromwell  in  1659,  and  commanded  the 
army  in  opposition  to  the  Parliament  until  the  triumph 
of  the  royalists  under  Monk.  In  1662  he  was  condemned 
to  death  ;  but  this  penalty  was  commuted  to  banishment 
in  Guernsey,  where  he  survived  thirty  years. 

See  HTME,  "History  of  England;"  GRANGER,  "Biographical 
History  of  England." 

LambertjfloSEi'H,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  moralist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1654,  became  prior  of  Saint-Martin-cle- 
Palaiseau.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Evangelical 
Year,  or  Homilies  on  the  Gospels,"  (7  vols.,  1693-97,) 
and  "  Instruction  respecting  the  Creed,"  ( Symbol?,)  (2 
vols.,  1728;  gth  edition,  1830.)  Died  in  1722. 

Lambert,  lam'bert,  (JossE,)  a  Flemish  printer  and 
engraver,  lived  at  Ghent,  and  died  in  1556  or  1557. 

Lambert,  (MicHKL,)  a  French  musician,  born  near 
Poitiers  in  1610,  was  patronized  by  Richelieu  and  praised 
by  Boileau.  His  songs  and  cantatas  were  greatly  ad 
mired.  Died  in  1696. 

Lambert,  (N.,)  a  French  dramatist,  lived  about  1650. 
Among  his  works  is  a  drama  in  verse,  called  "Magic 
without  Magic,"  ("La  Magie  sans  Magie,"  1668.) 

Lambert,  SAINT.     See  SAINT  LAMBERT. 

Lambert,  SAINT,  Bishop  of  Maestricht,  was  assassin 
ated  in  708  by  order  of  Alpheide,  mother  of  Charles 
Martel,  for  having  censured  her  profligacy. 

Lambert,  de,  deh  ISN'baiR',  (ANNE  THEKESE  DE 
Marguenat  de  Courcelles — mfKg'na'deh  kooR'seM',) 
MARQUISE,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1647, 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

86 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAMBERT 


1362 


LA  MESNARDIERE 


was  the  wife  of  General  Henri  Lambert,  noticed  below. 
She  was  a  friend  of  Fenelon  and  Fontenelle.  She  wrote 
"Treatises  on  Friendship,  Taste,  and  Riches,"  (1732,) 
"Advice  of  a  Mother  to  her  Daughter,"  (1734,)  and 
other  works,  commended  for  purity  of  style  and  of  morals. 
Died  in  1733. 

Her  son,  HENRI  FRANCOIS,  (1677-1754,)  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1720. 

See  FONTENELI.E,  "  E"loge  de  la  Marquise  cle  Lambert,"  prefixed 
to  her  "CEuvres  completes,"  1767;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du 
Lundi,"  tome  iv. 

Lambert,  de,  (HENRI,)  Marquis  de  Saint-Bris,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1631  ;  died  in  1686. 

Lambert  le  Chanoine,  l6.\'baiR'  leh  sht'nwan',  a 
learned  compiler,  produced  a  book  called  "Liber  Flori- 
dus."  Died  at  Saint  Omer  in  1125. 

Lambert  voii  Aschaffeiiburg,  lam'beKt  fon  a-shaf- 
fen-booKC/,  a  German  historical  writer,  born  about  1020, 
was  author  of  well-written  "Annals"  published  in  1525. 
Died  about  1080. 

Lamberti,  Idm-ben'tee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Venice  in  1757;  died  in  1832. 

Lamberti,  (BONAVENTURA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Carpi  in  1651,  was  a  pupil,  and  one  of  the  best  imi 
tators,  of  Cignani.  He  worked  in  Rome.  Died  in  1721. 

Lamberti,  (Luioi,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  born  at 
Reggio  about  1758.  In  1797  he  became  a  member  of 
the  grand  council  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and  in  the 
next  year  a  member  of  the  Directory  of  the  same.  lie 
was  afterwards  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  of 
Milan,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Italian  Institute.  His 
most  important  work  was  a  beautiful  edition  of  Homer, 
(3  vols.,  1808.)  He  published  an  ode  to  Napoleon,  and 
other  mediocre  poems.  Died  in  1813. 

Lambertini,  lam-beR-tee'nee,  (MiCHELE,)  a  painter 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  lived  from  1426  to  1469.  He 
painted  a  celebrated  Madonna  in  fresco  at  Bologna. 

Lambertini,  (PROSPER.)     See  BENEDICT  XIV. 

Lambertus.     See  LAMUERT,  (FRANgois.) 

Lambilotte,  16.\'be'lot',  ( Pere  Louis,)  a  French 
composer,  born  atCharleroi  in  1797.  His  fugues,  motets, 
etc.  had  great  success.  The  "  Restoration  of  the  Gre 
gorian  Chant"  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  in  1855. 

Lambin,  ISN'bax',  [Lat.  LAMIH'NUS,]  (DENIS,)  a 
learned  French  professor  and  classical  scholar,  born  at 
Montreuil-sur-Mer,  in  Picardy,  about  1516.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Paris  in  1561.  He  published  esteemed  editions  of 
Cicero,  Horace,  (1561,)  and  Lucretius,  (1563,)  and  Latin 
versions  of  Demosthenes  and  Aristotle,  (in  part.)  He 
died  of  grief  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1572. 

See  GHILINI,  "  Teatro  degli  Uomini  illustri ;"  TEISSIER,  "  Eloges 
des  Hommes  savantes." 

Lambinet,  lo.x'be'n.Y,  (£MILE,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Versailles  about  1812. -z't"/V/*7'r 

Lambinet,  (PIKRRK,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
near  Mezieres  in  1742,  wrote  "Researches  into  the  Ori 
gin  of  Printing,"  (I7QS.)  Died  in  1813. 

Lambinus.     See  LAMBIN. 

Lamblardie,  lo.N'blftR'de',  (JACQUES  ELIE,)  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Loches,  in  Touraine,  in  1747.  He  wrote 
an  able  "Memoir  on  the  Coasts  of  Upper  Normandy  in 
Relation  to  the  Collection  of  Shingle,"  (Galet,)  (1789.) 
He  was  the  h'rst  director  of  the  "ficole  centrale  des 
Travaux  publics,"  the  name  of  which  was  changed  to 
Polytechnic  School  in  1795.  Died  in  1797. 

Lam'bruu,  (MARGARET,)  a  Scottish  woman,  whose 
zeal  for  the  cause  of  Mary  Stuart  induced  her  to  make 
an  attempt  against  the  life  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Her 
pistol  having  dropped  from  her  hand  when  she  was 
about  to  fire,  her  design  was  frustrated,  and  she  was 
pardoned. 

Lambruschini,  lam-bRoos-kee'nee,  (Luici,)  an  Ital"- 
ian  cardinal,  born  at  Genoa  in  1776.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs  by  Gregory  XVI.  In  1846 
he  obtained  more  votes  for  pope  in  the  first  scrutiny 
than  any  other  candidate,  but  was  not  elected.  He  be 
came  a  member  of  Pius  the  Ninth's  council  of  state  in 
1846,  and  fled  from  Rome  during  the  short  triumph  of 
the  popular  cause  in  1848.  Died  in  1854. 

Lambton,  (JOHN  GEORGE.)  See  DURHAM,  EARL  OF. 


Lambton,  lam'ton,  (WILLIAM,)  LIEUTENANT-COLO 
NEL,  an  English  officer,  who  acquired  distinction  by  his 
astronomical  and  geodesic  labours  in  Hindostan,  was 
born  about  1748.  He  was  employed  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley  about  1801  to  direct  the  trigonometrical  sur 
veys  which  were  designed  to  connect,  by  a  series  of  tri 
angles,  the  eastern  with  the  western  coast  of  India.  l!y 
the  assiduous  labour  of  more  than  twenty  years,  he  had 
extended  his  operations  from  the  Carnatic  to  Ellichpoor, 
and  measured  an  arc  of  the  meridian  12°  in  extent.  He 
died  in  India,  of  fever,  in  1823.  The  Records  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  contain  several  Memoirs  on  the  opera 
tions  above  mentioned. 

Lame,  It'nuV,  (GAimiEL,)  a  French  geometer  and 
engineer,  born  at  Tours  in  1795,  became  professor  of 
physics  at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  about  1832. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  able  "Treatise 
on  Physics,"  (3  vols.,  1836,)  "Lessons  on  the  Inverse 
Functions  of  Transcendents,"  etc.,  ("  Lefons  sur  les 
Fonctions  inverses  des  Transcendantes,"  etc.,)  and 
"  Lectures  on  the  Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Elasticity 
of  Solid  Bodies,"  (1852.)  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Institute. 

La'me-eh,  [TIeb.  "p 7,]  the  son  of  Methusaleh,  and 
the  father  of  Noah,  died  five  years  before  the  Flood, 
aged  seven  hundred  and  seventy-seven  years.  Another 
Lamech,  a  descendant  of  Cain,  is  the  first  patriarch 
mentioned  in  Scripture  as  having  more  than  one  wife. 

See  Genesis  iv.,  v. 

La  Meilleraie  or  Meilleraye.  See  MEILLKRAIF.,  LA. 

Lamennais  or  La  Mennais,  de,  deh  l£  nrVni', 
(HUGUES  FEI.TCIT£  ROHEKT,)  AHKE,  a  celebrated  Fiench 
writer  on  religion  and  politics,  was  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
June,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  home,  where  lie  learned 
Greek,  Latin,  etc.  without  a  teacher.  Having  received 
the  tonsure  in  1811,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  at  Rennes 
in  1816,  and  acquired  sudden  celebrity  by  the  publication 
of  his  eloquent  "Essay  on  Indifference  to  Religion," 
("Essai  sur  I'lndifference  en  Matiere  de  Religion,"  4 
vols.,  1817-23,)  in  which  he  appeared  as  an  orthodox 
champion  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  1824  he  visited 
Rome,  and  declined  the  offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat  from 
Leo  XII.  He  published  in  1825  "Religion  considered 
in  its  Relations  with  the  Civil  and  Political  Order," 
which  favoured  the  ultramontane  doctrines.  Before  the 
revolution  of  1830  his  mind  had  made  great  progress 
towards  liberal  or  democratic  principles,  without  depart 
ing  from  his  religious  faith.  In  that  year  he  founded  the 
"Avenir,"a  journal  which,  in  bold  and  fervent  words, 
advocated  religious  and  political  reforms.  Lacordaire 
was  his  disciple  and  coadjutor  in  this  journal,  which  was 
condemned  by  the  pope  in  1832  and  suppressed,  lie 
announced  in  1834  his  final  revolt  from  the  Church  of 
Rome,  in  his  "  Words  of  a  Believer,"  ("  Paroles  d'un 
Croyant,")  which  is  one  of  his  most  important  and 
powerful  productions  and  was  stigmatized  by  the  pope 
as  "small  in  volume  but  immense  in  perversity."  A 
great  outburst  of  enthusiasm  and  indignation  followed  the 
publication  of  this  work.  He  became  ultra-democratic, 
and  wrote  several  political  works,  among  which  were 
"The  Affairs  of  Rome,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Book  of  the 
People,"  (1837.)  His  "Outlines  of  Philosophy"  ("  Es- 
quisse  d'une  Philosophic,"  1840-46)  obtained  great  suc 
cess.  In  1840  he  was  sentenced  for  one  of  his  writings 
to  an  imprisonment  of  one  year.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1848.  Died  in  1854.  His  com 
plete  works  appeared  in  12  vols.  8vo,  1837. 

See  E.  RENAN,  "Lamennais  et  ses  E"crits,"  in  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,"  August,  1857;  SAINTE-BWVE,  "  Portraits  contem- 
porains,"  1846,  vol.  i.  ;  E.  R<  BINET,  "  E"tudes  sur  1'Abbe  de  La 
mennais,"  1835:  MADRoi.t.E,  "  Histoire  secrete  du  Partie  et  de 
1'Apostasie  de  M.  de  Lamennais,"  1843;  L.  DE  LOMEMI',  "  M.  de 
Lamennais,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
GeneVale  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838;  "West 
minster  Review"  for  April,  1859. 

Lamennais,  de,  (JEAN  MARIE  ROBERT,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Saint-Malo  about  1775,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  several  religious  works,  and 
became  canon  of  the  diocese  of  Rennes.  Died  in  1860. 

La  Mesiiardiere,  de,  deh  IS  m.VnaR'de-aiR',  (HIPPO- 
LYTE  JULES  Pi  LET,)  a  mediocre  French  poet,  born  at 
Loudun  in  1610  ;  died  in  1663. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  6,  6.  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAMET 


1363 


LAMORICIERE 


Lamet,  de,  deh  IS'nii'.f  ADRIEN  AUGUSTIN  DE  BUSSY,) 
a  French  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  in  1621.  He 
wrote  "Solutions  of  Many  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (1714.) 
Died  in  1691. 

Lameth,  de,  deh  li'm^t',  (ALEXANDRE,)  COUNT,  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  In  1/89  he 
was  one  of  the  deputies  of  the  noblesse  who  united  with 
the  Third  Estate  to  form  the  National  Assembly,  and  he 
acted  the  part  of  a  zealous  patriot  in  that  body.  After 
the  death  of  Mirabeau,  (1791,)  Barnave  and  the  Lameths 
were  for  a  short  time  among  the  master-spirits  of  the 
Assembly.  He  co-operated  with  his  brother  and  La 
Fayette  in  their  efforts  to  defend  the  constitution  and  the 
king  after  his  arrest  at  Varennes.  He  was  a  general  in 
La  Fayette's  army  when  the  crisis  of  August  10,  1792, 
compelled  him  to  fly  with  his  general,  and  both  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  Lameth  recovered  his 
liberty  in  1795,  and  returned  to  France  in  1800.  In  1820 
he  acted  and  voted  with  La  Fayette  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  Died  in  1829. 

See  TIIIERS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  QUERARD, 
"La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Xouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Lameth,  de,  (CHARLES  MALO  FRANCOIS,)  COUNT, 
a  French  politician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1757.  He  served  at  Yorktown,  Virginia, 
in  1781.  In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  States-General, 
in  which  he  acted  with  the  popular  party.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  Barnave,  and  aspired  to  be  a  rival  of 
Mirabeau.  Changing  his  course  in  1791,  he  became  the 
friend  of  the  king,  and  resisted  the  progress  of  the  Revo 
lution  to  extreme  issues.  lie  emigrated  about  1793,  anc' 
returned  home  in  1801.  Under  the  regime  of  Napoleon 
he  was  a  general  of  brigade.  Died  in  1832. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "Xouvelie 
Biographic  Generale." 

Lameth,  de,  (THEODORE,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1756.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
marechal-de-camp  in  1791,  and  was  in  that  year  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted  with 
the  constitutional  royalists.  He  defended  the  king  and 
queen  by  his  voice  with  courage  and  energy,  and  was  an 
exile  from  1792  to  1800.  Died  in  1854. 

La  Metherie,  de,  deh  It  ma'tRe',  QEAN  CLAUDE,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  in  Maconnais  in  1743.  He  pub 
lished  "  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (2  vols., 
1787,)  "Considerations  on  Organized  Beings,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  "Lectures  on  Geology,"  (3  vols.,  1816,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1812.  Died  in  1817. 

La  Mettrie.     See  MKTTKIK,  LA. 

Lamey,  la'nil,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  historical  writer, 
born  at  Minister  in  1726,  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  ot  Mannheim.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Diplomatic  History  of  the  Counts  of  Ravensberg," 
(1779.)  Died  in  1802. 

Lami  or  Lamy,  Ift'me',  (BERNARD,)  a  learned  French 
priest  of  the  Oratory,  born  at  Mans  in  1640.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Saumur,  Angers,  and  other 
places,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Descartes.  He  published 
successful  works  on  religion  and  science,  among  which 
are  a  "  Treatise  on  Rhetoric,"  "  Elements  of  Geometry," 
(1685,)  "  Apparatus  Biblicus,"  (1696,)  and  a  "Descrip 
tion  of  the  Temple  and  Holy  City  of  Jerusalem,"  (in 
Latin,  1720.)  His  work  called  "Conversations  on  the 
Sciences"  ("  Entretiens  sur  les  Sciences,"  1684)  was 
highly  esteemed  by  J.  J.  Rousseau.  Died  in  1715. 

See  BOUILI.IER,  "  Histoire  du  Carte'sianisme  ;"  "  Xouvelie  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Lami  or  Lamy,  (Dom  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Bene 
dictine  monk,  born  near  Chartres  in  1636.  He  passed 
his  last  twenty  years  in  the  abbey  of  Saint-Denis.  He 
was  noted  for  his  skill  and  alacrity  in  disputation,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  theological  works,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  "  On  the  Knowledge  of  One's 
Self,"  (6  vols.,  1694-98.)  Died  in  1711. 

Lami,  la'mee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
litterateur  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Santa  Croce,  a 
village  between  Pisa  and  Florence,  in  1697.  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  and  became  professor  of  eccle 
siastical  history  at  Florence  about  1732.  From  1740  to 


1770  he  edited  an  able  literary  periodical  named  "No- 
velle  Letterarie."  He  contributed  much  to  explain  or 
elucidate  the  civil  and  literary  history  of  Tuscany,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Delights  of  Learned 
Men,"  (Delicias  Eruditorum,"  18  vols.,  1736-69,)  and  the 
lives  of  many  eminent  Italian  literati,  "Memorabilia 
Italorum  Eruditione  praestantiutn,"  (3  vols.,  1742-48.) 
Died  in  1770. 

See  his  Autobiography  in  the  isth  volume  of  his  "Deliciae  Eru 
ditorum;"  FONTANI,  "  Elosjo  di  Lami,"  1789;  FABRONI,  "Vita; 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Lami,  (PIERRE  REMI  CRUSSOLLE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798;  died  in  1832. 

La'mi-a,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  renowned  for  wit 
and  profusion,  was  the  mistress  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
about  300  B.C. 

Lamiee,  la'mi-ee,  [Gr.  \auiai ;  Fr.  LAMIES,  13'me',] 
fabulous  monsters  of  classic  mythology,  sometimes  rep 
resented  as  having  the  head  and  breast  of  a  woman  and 
the  body  of  a  serpent.  They  were  supposed  to  have  the 
power  of  changing  their  forms.  According  to  one  tradi 
tion,  there  was  a  queen  of  Libya  named  Lamia,  who  was 
notorious  for  her  cruelty  and  was  accustomed  to  murder 
children.  The  name  of  Lamia  was  used  to  frighten 
children  in  the  nurseries  of  antiquity. 

Lamies.     See  LAMI/E. 

Lamliii  or  Laemlin,  lem-leen',  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Ger 
man  painter,  born  at  Hohenfeld,  Bavaria,  in  1813,  became 
a  citizen  of  Paris  in  his  youth.  Among  his  works  are  "  The 
Awaking  of  Adam, "( 1841,)"  The  Ladder  of  Jacob,"  ( 1 847,) 
and  portraits  for  the  palace  of  Versailles. 

Lamoignon,  de,  deh  It'mwan'yox',  (CHRETIEN 
FRANCOIS,)  a  French  magistrate,  eminent  for  his  integ 
rity  and  talents,  born  in  Paris  in  1644,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  President  Guillaume  de  Lamoignon.  He  was  chosen 
master  of  requests  about  1668.  For  twenty-five  years 
(1673-98)  he  performed  with  honour  the  duties  of  advo 
cate-general  to  the  Parliament.  He  was  made  president 
a  mortier  in  1690.  He  was  intimate  with  Racine,  and 
with  Boileau,  who  addressed  to  him  his  Sixth  Epistle.  In 
1704  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip 
tions,  after  declining  zfautenil  in  the  Academic  Fran- 
£aise.  Died  in  1709. 

His  son  GUILLAUME,  Seigneur  de  Malesherbes,  born 
in  1683,  became  successively  advocate-general,  president 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  chancellor  of  France, 
(1750.)  He  maintained  the  virtuous  reputation  of  his 
family,  and  died  in  1772,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  the 
eminent  Malesherbes. 

Lamoignon,  de,  (CHRETIEN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
judge,  born  probably  in  Paris  in  1735.  He  became 
president  a  mortier  in  1758,  and  shared  the  exile  of  Par 
liament  in  1772.  He  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  seals 
in  1787.  Died  in  1789. 

Lamoignon,  de,  (GUILLAUME,)  an  eminent  judge, 
and  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  was  born 
in  1617.  His  father,  Chretien  de  Lamoignon  de  Baville, 
was  a  highly  meritorious  magistrate.  Guillaume  became 
master  of  requests  in  1644,  and  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  in  1658.  In  announcing  his  nomination,  the 
king  said  to  him,  "  If  I  had  known  a  better  man,  I  should 
have  appointed  him."  He  received  much  praise  for  the 
part  he  took  in  relation  to  the  ordinances  of  1667  and 
1670,  and  in  several  instances  preferred  the  claims  of 
duty  to  the  favour  of  the  court.  He  laid  the  basis 
of  an  important  judiciary  reform  in  his  "Decisions," 
("Anetes,")  printed  in  1702.  Died  in  1677. 

SeeGAir.LARii,  "  Viede  Lamoignon,"  1782  ;  FI.ECHIER,  "  Funeral 
Oration:"  SAINT- SIMON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lamoignon  de  Baville,  If'mwan'yoN'  deh  ba'vel', 
(NICOLAS,)  the  fifth  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1648.  He  was  appointed  master  of  requests  in  1673. 
Died  in  1724. 

Lamoignon-Malesherbes.     See  MALESHERBES. 

La  Mcnnoye.     See  MONNOYE. 

Lamoriciere,  de,  deh  lit'nu/re'se-aiR',  (CiiRiSTorHE 
Louis  LEON  Juchault — zhii'sho',)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Nantes  in  1806.  He  gained  distinction  as  colonel 
of  zouaves  in  Algeria,  and  became  a  marechal-de-camp 
in  1840.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in 
1843,  returned  to  France  in  1846,  and  was  elected  a 


as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  MOT  HE 


1364 


LAMPS  ON 


deputy  in  1847.  In  the  Re/olution  of  1848  he  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  support  the  Orleans  dynasty.  lie 
was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  com 
manded  a  division  of  the  army  in  the  fight  against  the 
insurgents  of  Paris  in  June,  1848.  He  was  Cavaignac's 
minister  of  war  about  six  months  ending  in  December, 
1848.  Having  shown  hostility  to  the  power  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  he  was  arrested  on  the  2cl  of  December,  1851, 
and  confined  a  few  weeks  in  the  Castle  of  Ham.  He  be 
came  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  pope  in  1860,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  Sardinians  at  Castelfidardo.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  soon  after  this  action.  Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  February,  1866. 

La  Mothe.     See  MOTHE,  LA. 

La  Mothe,  It  mot,  (N.,)  a  French  historian,  born 
about  1680,  was  also  called  La  Hode.  He  wrote  "  His 
tory  of  the  Revolutions  of  France,"  (1738,)  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (5  vols.,  1740.)  Died  about  1740. 

Lamothe,  de,  deh  It'mot',  (PIKRRE  LAMBERT,)  a 
French  priest,  born  in  1624.  He  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Siam  about  1662,  and  died  there  in  1679. 

La  Mothe-Houdaiicourt,  de,  deh  It  mot  hoo'doN'- 
kooR',  (Pmui'PE,)  Due  de  Cardone,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1605,  gained  successes  over  the  Spaniards,  and 
received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1642.  Having  been  de 
feated  at  Lerida  in  1644,  he  was  deprived  of  command. 
Died  in  1657. 

Lamothe- Langon,  de,  deh  If'mot'  l&N'g6N',  (fvn- 
ENNK  LEON,)  BARON,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1786.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  poems, 
historical  memoirs,  and  romances. 

La  Mothe  le  Vayer.     See  MOTHE,  LA. 

La  Motte.     See  Morn-,,  LA. 

Lamotte,  li'mot',  (JKANNK  DE  Luz  DE  SAINT-REMY 
DE  VALOIS,)  MADAME,  an  artful  Frenchwoman,  who 
acquired  notoriety  in  the  affair  of  the  "  Diamond  Neck 
lace,"  was  born,  probably,  at  Bar-sur-Aube  about  1750. 
She  became  the  wife  of  a  person  who  styled  himself 
Count  Lamotte.  Having  practised  with  success  on  the 
credulity  of  Cardinal  Rohan,  she  induced  him  to  nego 
tiate  for  a  diamond  necklace  valued  at  about  a  million 
and  a  half  of  francs,  which  he  designed  as  a  present  to 
the  queen.  Her  husband  absconded  with  the  diamonds, 
which  she  had  obtained  by  fraud.  She  was  whipped 
and  imprisoned  for  this  offence,  and  died  in  1791. 

See  "  Memoires  justificatifs  de  la  Comtesse  de  Valois  de  la 
Motte,"  by  herself,  London,  1788;  M  I.I.E.  BERTIN,  "  Memoires  sur 
la  Reine  Marie  Antoinette." 

Lamotte-  (or  La  Motte-)  Fouque,  If'mot'  foo'ka', 
(CAROLINE,)  a  German  authoress,  wife  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Nermhausen  in  1773.  She  published  suc 
cessful  novels  entitled  "  Feodora,"  "Lady  of  Falken- 
stein,"  and  "  Ida,"  also  "  Letters  on  Female  Education" 
and  "  Letters  on  Greek  Mythology,"  which  were  received 
with  favour.  Died  in  1831. 

Lamotte-Fouque,  de,  deh  It'mot'  foo'ka',  (FRIED- 
RICH  HEINKICH  KARL,)  often  called  simply  Fouque, 
BARON,  a  German  poet  and  romance-writer  of  rare  genius, 
was  born  at  Brandenburg,  February  12,  1777.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  Henry  Augustus  Fouque.  (See  FoUQUE.) 
Having  served  in  several  great  battles  of  the  war  against 
Napoleon,  about  1813  he  retired  from  the  army  on  ac 
count  of  ill  health,  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  afterwards 
resided  in  Paris,  at  Halle,  and  on  his  estate  of  Nenn- 
hausen.  He  found  a  congenial  sphere  for  his  fertile 
imagination  in  the  Northern  traditions  and  the  old  Ger 
man  poetry,  and  produced  many  beautiful  poems  and 
works  of  fiction,  among  which  are  "Undine,"*  a  tale, 
(1813,)  one  of  the  most  exquisite  creations  of  German 
genius,  "Corona,"  a  poem,  (1814,)  "  Der  Zauberring,' 
("The  Magic  Ring,"  1816,)  "Eginhard  and  Emma,' 
a  drama,  and  "Bertrand  du  Guesclin,"  an  epic  poem, 
(1821.)  Died  in  1843. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Lebensgeschichte,"  etc.,  1840 
GERVINUS,  "  Geschichte'der  Deutschen  Dichtung;"  "Monthly  Re 
view"  for  October,  1820. 

Lamourette,  It'moo'ret',  (ADRIEN,)  AKKE,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Picardy  in  1742.  He  became  an 
auxiliary  of  Mirabeau  in  1789,  and  wrote  the  address  on 


*  Called  in  French  Ondine. 


the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  which  that  orator  pro- 
lounced.  In  1791  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Rhone-et- 
Loire,  and  deputed  to  the  National  Assembly.  Having 
•esisted  the  extreme  measures  of  the  dominant  party,  he 
was  guillotined  in  1794.  He  had  published  several  re- 
igious  works. 

Lamouroux,  It'moo'roo',  (JEAN  VINCENT  FELIX,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1779.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1807,  and  was  chosen  professor  of  botany  or 
atural  history  at  Caen  about  1810.  He  gave  special 
attention  to  those  marine  productions  which  are  found 
on  the  borders  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  king 
dom,  and  which  he  described  in  several  capital  works. 
Among  these  is  a  "Description  of  Coral-forming  Polypi 
or  Zoophytes,"  ("  Histoire  des  Polypiers  coralligenes 
flexibles,"  1816.)  He  also  published  "  Lectures  on  Phys- 
cal  Geography."  Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Lamouroux,"  by  his  brother,  1829. 

Lampadius,  lam-pa'de-us,  (Wii.HELM  AUGUST,)  a 
German  chemist,  called  the  founder  of  metallurgy,  was 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1772.  He  became 
professor  of  chemistry  or  metallurgy  at  Freiberg  in  1795. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  General  Metal 
lurgy,"  (3  vols.,  1801-09.)  Died  in  1842. 

See  CAU.ISEN,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "Bio 
graphic  Medicale." 

Lampe,  lam'peh,  (FRIF.DRICH  ADOLPH,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Detmold  in  1683.  lie 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht  in  1720,  and 
published  sermons  and  other  works,  among  which  was 
a  "Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John."  Died 
in  1729. 

Lampe,  (JOHANN  FRIKORICH,)  a  German  composer  of 
songs  and  operas,  born  about  1692,  lived  in  London. 
Died  in  1756. 

Lampetia,  lam-pee'she-a,  [Gr.  Aajiwrer/jy;  Fr.  LAM- 
PETIK,  16.N'pa'te',]  a  daughter  of  Helios,  whose  flocks 
and  herds  she  tended  in  the  island  of  Thrinakia.  Ulysses 
having  been  long  detained  on  the  island  by  stress  of 
weather,  his  companions  killed  some  of  the  sacred  oxen, 
for  which  the  offended  gods  afterwards  sent  against  them 
a  great  tempest,  in  which  all  perished  except  Ulysses, 
who  saved  himself  on  the  piece  of  a  mast. 

Lampetie.     See  LAMPETIA. 

Lampillas,  lam-peel'yas,  or  Llampillas,  lam-peel'- 
yis,  (FRANCISCO  XAVIEK,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Catalonia  in  1731.  He  lived  at  Genoa  after  the  expul 
sion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  in  1767.  His  principal 
work  is  a  defence  of  Spanish  literature  against  Bettinelli 
and  Tiraboschi,  "Saggio  storico-apologetico  della  Let- 
teratura  Spagnuola,"  (6  vols.,  1778-81.)  Died  in  1810. 

Lamplugh,  lam'ploo,  ?  (THOMAS,)  an  English  prelate,  , 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1615.   He  became  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1676,  and  was  a  partisan    of  James  II.  in    1688,  but 
after  his  flight  recognized  William  III.,  who  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  York.     Died  in  1691. 

Lampredi,  lam-pRa'dee,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  Ital 
ian  publicist  and  writer  on  law,  born  near  Florence  in 
1732  ;  died  in  1793. 

Lampredi,  (URBAN,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at 
Florence  in  1761  ;  died  in  1838. 

Lampride.     See  LAMPKIDIUS. 

Lampridio,  lam-pRee'de-o,  (BENEDETTO,)  a  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Cremona.  After  being  professor  of  Greek 
in  Rome,  he  opened  a  school  in  Padua  in  1521.  He 
composed  admired  odes,  epigrams,  and  elegies.  "It 
cannot  be  denied,"  says  Tiraboschi,  "that  he  has  imi 
tated  Pindar  happily  in  nobleness  of  ideas  and  in  imagi 
native  power."  Died  about  1540. 

See  TIRAPOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  PAOLO 
GIOVIO,  "  Elogia  Virorum  illustrium." 

Lam-prid'i-us,  [Fr.  LAMPRIDE,  Ic-N'pRed',]  (^LIUS,) 
a  Latin  historical  writer,  who  flourished  about  310  A.D. 
He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Augusta  Historia," 
to  which  he  is  said  to  have  contributed  the  lives  of 
Commodus,  Diadumenus,  Heliogabalus,  and  Alexander 
Severus. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis ;"  D.  W.  MOLLER,  "  Dis- 
putatio  circularis  de  A.  Lampridio,"  1688. 

Lampson,  lamp'son,  [Lat.  LAMPSONIUS,  lamp-so'ne- 
us,]  (DOMINIC,)  a  Flemish  painter  and  Latin  poet,  born 


i,  e,  T,  5,  ii,  y,  long;  a.,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LAMPSONIUS 


'365 


LANDEN 


at  Bruges  in  1532.  His  paintings  are  rare  and  esteemed. 
Died  in  1599. 

Lanipsonius.     See  LAMPSON. 

Lampugnani,  lam-poon-ya'nee,  (AGOSTINO,)  an  Ital 
ian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in  1588.  He  wrote  many  works 
which  were  once  popular.  Died  in  1668. 

Lamy.     See  LAMI,  (BERNARD.) 

Laua,  la'na,  (Luici,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  M6- 
dena  in  1597.  He  worked  in  that  city,  and  imitated 
Guercino  with  success.  His  picture  of  "  Modena  de 
livered  from  the  Plague"  is  called  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  1646. 

Laiia-Terzi,  Li'na-teRd'zee  or  -te'Rt'zee,  (FRANCESCO,) 
(or  FRANCESCO  Terzi-Lana,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  natu 
ral  philosopher,  born  at  Brescia  in  1631.  He  was  at  one 
time  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  place,  and  was 
a  diligent  observer  and  experimenter  in  natural  science. 
He  published,  besides  a  few  other  works,  "Magisterium 
Naturae  et  Artis,"  (3  vols.,  1684-92,)  which  treats  of  natu 
ral  philosophy.  Died  in  1687. 

La  Nauze,  de,  deh  It  noz,  (Louis  JOUARD,)  a  French 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1696  ; 
died  in  1773. 

Laiic'as-ter,  (EDMUND,)  EARL  OF,  the  son  of  Henry 
III.  of  England,  was  born  in  London  in  1245.  Edward 
I.  sent  him  with  an  army  to  conquer  Guienne,  but,  before 
he  could  effect  that  purpose,  he  died  in  1296.  His  son 
THOMAS,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  was  the  most  powerful  sub 
ject  of  his  time  in  England.  He  was  a  mortal  enemy 
to  Piers  Gaveston,  whose  death  he  procured  in  1312. 
Having  rebelled  against  Edward  II.,  he  was  defeated 
and  beheaded  in  1322.  His  brother  HENRY  became  his 
heir,  and  aided  Queen  Isabella  to  depose  the  king  in 
1326.  He  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  young  king 
Edward  III.  in  1327. 

Lancaster,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  English  navigator,  who 
made  a  voyage  to  India  in  1591,  and  conducted  the  first 
expedition  which  the  East  India  Company  sent  to  that 
region  (1600-03)  for  the  purpose  of  forming  commercial 
relations.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the  King  of  Acheen. 
Died  in  1620.  Narratives  of  his  voyages  may  be  found 
in  Hakluyt  and  Purchas.  An  inlet  of  Baffin's  Bay  was 
named,  in  honour  of  him,  Lancaster  Sound. 

See  J.  BARROV*,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign." 

Lancaster,  (JOHN  OF  GAUNT,)  DUKE  OF.  See  JOHN 
OF  GAUNT. 

Lancaster,  (JOSEPH,)  an  Englishman,  who  acquired 
distinction  as  the  founder  of  "  Lancasterian  Schools," 
was  born  in  London  between  1771  and  1778,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  society  of  Friends.  About  the  age  of 
twenty  he  opened  a  school  in  Southwark,  and  tried  with 
success  the  system  of  mutual  instruction.  He  was  pa 
tronized  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  and  other  noblemen. 
By  lectures  and  writings  he  rendered  his  system  popular, 
and  gave  an  impulse  to  the  cause  of  education  in  Eng 
land  and  other  countries.  Having  become  insolvent,  he 
went  to  the  United  States  about  1818,  and  continued  to 
labour  in  the  same  cause.  Died  in  New  York  in  1838. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1811  ;  "  Living 
Age"  for  April,  1845. 

Lancaster,  (NATHANIEL,)  a  learned  English  writer, 
born  in  Cheshire  about  1700.  He  was  for  some  time 
rector  of  Stamford-Rivers.  His  principal  work  is  an 
"Essay  on  Delicacy,"  (1748,)  a  poem.  Died  in  1775. 

Lance,  (GKOKGE,)  an  excellent  English  painter  of 
fruit  and  still  life,  was  born  in  Essex  in  1802.  He  re 
ceived  lessons  in  "  high"  or  "  historical"  art  from  Haydon, 
and  pursued  his  master's  favourite  branches  of  painting, 
until  he  discovered  that  his  genius  was  more  adapted  to 
the  treatment  of  fruit,  flowers,  game,  etc.  In  this  depart 
ment  he  is  considered  to  have  excelled  all  the  English 
oil-painters  of  his  time.  He  produced  some  historical 
pieces  and  tableaux  de  genre.  Died  in  1864. 

Lance,  (\VILI.IAM,)  an  American  lawyer  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1791.  He 
published  a"  Life  of  Washington"  in  Latin.  Died  in  1840. 

Lancelot,  16.\s'lo',  (AxroiNE,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he  wrote  many 
learned  antiquarian  treatises.  For  a  few  years  he  had 


the  office  of  secretary  to  the  king,  which  he  sold  in  1725. 
Died  in  1740. 

Lancelot,  (Dom  CLAUDE,)  an  able  French  gram 
marian,  born  in  Paris  in  1615.  He  became  one  of  the 
recluses  of  Port-Royal  in  1638,  and  was  the  first  regent 
of  the  schools  of  Port-Royal,  which  flourished  from  1646 
to  1660  under  the  care  of  such  men  as  Arnauld  and  Pas 
cal.  Lancelot  was  the  first  master  of  Racine.  "  He  threw 
some  additional  lustre,"  says  Hallam,  "  around  Port- 
Royal  by  the  Latin  and  Greek  Grammars  (1644  and 
1655)  which  are  more  frequently  called  by  the  name  of 
that  famous  cloister  than  by  his  own."  They  were  used 
for  a  long  time  in  the  French  schools.  He  published  in 
1660  "Grammaire  generale  et  raisonnee,"  a  treatise  on 
the  philosophy  of  all  languages,  which  is  esteemed  a 
work  of  the  first  class.  Died  in  1695. 

SeeS/MNTE-BEUVE,  "  Port- Royal ;"  MORERI,  "  Dictiounaire  His- 
torique  ;"  NICERON',  ''  Memoires." 

Lancelot  OF  NAPLES.     See  LADISLAS. 

Lancelotti,  lan-cha-lot'tee,  written  also  Lanceloti, 
(GIOVANNI  PAOLO,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Perugia  in 
I ^ii.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "Institutes  of  Canon  Law," 
which  were  approved  by  Pope  Paul  IV.  Died  in  1591. 

Lancillotti,  lan-chel-lot'tee,  or  Lancelloti,  lan-che!- 
lo'tee,  (SECoNDO,)  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  born  at 
Perugia  in  1575.  He  published  in  1630  a  successful  work 
entitled  "To-Day,"  ("  L'Hoggidi,")  intended  to  prove 
that  the  world  was  not  morally  or  physically  worse  than 
it  had  been  in  ancient  times.  He  wrote  other  learned 
works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1643. 

Lancilotti,  lan-che-lot'tee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  poet,  born  at  Florence,  lived  about  1500. 
He  excelled  in  nocturnal  scenes. 

Laiicisi,  lan-chee'see,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Rome  in  1654.  For 
thirteen  years  he  lectured  on  anatomy  with  eclat  at  the 
College  of  Sapienza,  Rome.  He  became  the  chief  phy 
sician  of  Pope  Innocent  XI.  in  1688,  and  served  Clement 
XI.  in  the  same  capacity.  Besides  other  professional 
works,  he  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Treatise  on  Sudden 
Deaths,"  (1707,)  and  one  "On  the  Noxious  Effluvia  of 
Marshes,"  (1717.)  Died  in  1720. 

See  ASSALTI,  "Vie  de  Lancisi,"  prefixed  to  his  treatise  "  De 
Motu  Cordis  ;"  FABRONI,  "  Vitae  Italorum,"  etc. ;  G.  M.  CRESCI.M- 
BENI,  "Vita  di  G.  M.  Lancisi,"  1721  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Lancival.     See  LUCE  DE  LANCIVAL. 

Lancjean,  loN'zh&N',  (!\EMI,  )  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Brussels,  was  a  pupil  of  Van 
Dyck.  Died  in  1671. 

Lancre,  loNkR,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  lawyer,  and  writer 
on  demonology  and  sorcery,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  ;  died 
in  1630. 

Lancret,  16N'kR<Y,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1690.  He  imitated  the  manner  of  Watteau 
with  success.  His  reputation  was  higher  in  his  own 
time  than  at  the  present.  Died  in  1743. 

Lancrinck  or  Lankrink,  lan'kidnk,  (PROSPER 
HENRY,)  a  skilful  landscape-painter,  of  German  ex 
traction,  born  about  1628.  He  worked  in  England,  and 
was  employed  by  Sir  Peter  Lely  to  paint  the  landscapes, 
flowers,  etc.  of  his  pictures.  Died  in  1692. 

Landa,  de,  da  lan'da,  QUAN,)  a  Spanish  painter,  lived 
at  Pampeluna  from  1570  to  1630. 

Landais  or  Landois,  loN'di',  (PIERRE,)  a  French 
parvenu  of  low  birth,  born  at  Vitre,  became  the  favourite 
of  Francis  II.,  Duke  of  Brittany,  who  gave  him  absolute 
power.  Landais  was  hated  by  the  nobles,  who  conspired 
against  him  and  put  him  to  death  in  1485. 

Lande.     See  LA  LAN  HE. 

Laudelle,  loN'del',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Laval,  Mayenne,  about  1816.  He  ob 
tained  a  medal  at  the  Great  Exposition  of  1855  for  his 
picture  of  the  "  Repose  of  the  Virgin." 

Laii'den,  (JOHN,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  at 
Peakirk  in  1719.  He  began  to  write  for  the  "Ladies' 
Diary"  in  1744,  and  published  in  1755  "Mathematical 
Lucubrations,"  in  which  various  parts  of  high  analysis 
are  treated.  In  1766  he  was  admitted  into  the  Royal 
Society.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  dynamics  and 
the  integral  calculus.  Among  his  principal  works  is  his 
"Residual  Analysis,"  (1/64.)  Died  in  1790. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANDER 


1366 


LAN DOR 


Lan'der,  (FREDERICK  WILLIAM,)  an  American  en 
gineer  and  general,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
1822.  He  commanded  an  expedition  to  open  a  wagon- 
road  across  the  plains  to  California  in  1858.  It  is  stated 
that  he  made  five  explorations  across  the  continent, 
having  been  employed  by  the  government  to  survey  a 
route  for  a  Pacific  railroad.  In  July,  1861,  he  was  ap 
pointed  a  brigadier-general.  He  was  wounded  at  Ed- 
wards's  Ferry,  October,  1861,  and  signalized  his  courage 
at  Blooming  Gap,  Virginia,  in  February,  1862.  He  died 
at  Pawpaw,  Virginia,  in  March,  1862,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  enterprise  and  bravery. 

Lan'der,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  1807. 
He  accompanied  his  brother  Richard  in  an  expedition  to 
explore  the  river  Niger  in  1830.  (See  LANDER,  RICHARD.) 
Died  in  1839. 

Lander,  (Lou ISA,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  about  1835,  studied  at  Rome 
under  Crawford.  Among  her  best  works  may  be  named 
statues  of  "  Evangeline"  and  of  "Virginia  Dare,"  and 
a  bust  of  Hawthorne. 

Lander,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  traveller,  who  has 
rendered  his  name  memorable  by  solving  the  problem 
of  the  course  of  the  Niger,  was  born  at  Truro  in  1804. 
He  had  been  employed  as  a  servant  by  several  gentle 
men  before  1825,  when,  hearing  of  Captain  Clapperton's 
proposed  expedition  to  Africa,  he  offered  his  services 
and  was  engaged  by  that  officer  as  his  confidential  ser 
vant.  (See  CLAPPKRTON,  HUGH.)  After  performing 
the  last  offices  to  his  master  near  Saccatoo  in  April, 
1827,  he  returned  with  the  papers  of  Clapperton  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  1828.  The  offer  which 
he  made  to  renew  the  enterprise  was  accepted  by  gov 
ernment.  Accompanied  by  his  brother  John,  he  sailed 
from  England  in  January,  1830,  traced  the  Niger  from 
Yaoori  (or  Yauri)  to  its  mouth  in  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
and  returned  home  in  1831.  A  "Journal  of  an  Expe 
dition  to  Explore  the  Course  and  Termination  of  the 
Niger,"  (2  vols.,)  by  Richard  and  John  Lander,  was 
published  in  1832.  The  voyage  from  Yaoori  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  occupied  about  four  months,  from 
August  2  to  December  I,  1830.  Having  undertaken 
another  expedition  to  Western  Africa  in  the  service  of 
a  mercantile  company,  he  was  killed  by  the  natives  in 
1835.  1  "ne  most  prominent  trait  of  his  character  was 
indomitable  perseverance. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1832  ;  "  North  American  Re 
view"  for  October,  1832. 

Landi,  Lin'dee,  (COSTANZO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  phi 
lologist  and  numismatist,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1521 ;  died 
in  1564. 

Landi,  (GASFARO,)  CHEVALIER,  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1756.  lie 
worked  mostly  in  Rome,  and  became  professor  of  paint 
ing  in  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  He  excelled  in  car 
nation  tints  and  in  truth  of  expression.  Some  Italian 
critics  considered  him  as  one  of  their  best  painters. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  "The  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin."  Died  at  Rome  in  1830. 

Landi,  (GiULio,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Piacenza  about  1500,  wrote  a  romance  entitled  "The 
Life  of  Cleopatra,"  (1551.)  Died  about  1580. 

Landi,  (ORTENSIO,)  a  witty  and  extravagant  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Milan.  He  was  for  some  time  in  the 
service  of  the  Bishop  of  Trent,  and  passed  many  of  his 
later  years  in  Venice.  He  published  several  scandalous 
and  paradoxical  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Dialogue 
on  the  Death  of  Erasmus,"  (1540,)  "  Paradoxes,"  ("  Para- 
dossi,")  and  the  "  Scourge  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Au 
thors,"  (1550.)  Died  about  1560. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Landi,  (STEFANO,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  in  Rome, 
lived  about  1630.  He  composed  sacred  music,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  inventive  genius. 

Landini,  lan-dee'nee,  or  Landino,  lan-clee'no, 
(CHRISTOFORO,)  an  Italian  critic  and  scholar,  born  at 
Florence  in  1424,  was  reputed  one  of  the  principal  orna 
ments  of  the  Platonic  Academy  of  that  city.  He  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Florence  in  1457,  and  was 
chosen  by  Pietro  de'  Medici  to  finish  the  education  of 
his  two  sons.  He  wrote  several  Latin  poems,  and  es 


teemed  commentaries   on   Horace,  Virgil,  and  Dante. 
Died  in  1504. 

See  GiNCiUENE,  "Histoirede  la  LitteVature  Italienne;"  NEGRI, 
"  Istoria  de'  Scrittori  Fiorentini." 

Landini,  (TADDEO,)  a  Florentine  sculptor,  who  worked 
in  Rome  and  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII.,  Sixtus  V., 
and  Clement  VIII.  Died  about  1594. 

Landino,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  organist  and  com 
poser,  surnamed  CIKCO,  (the  "Blind,")  was  born  at  Flor 
ence  about  1325  ;  died  in  1390. 

Lan'do  or  Lan'don,  a  native  of  Sabina,  was  elected 
pope,  as  successor  to  Anastasius  III.,  in  913.  He  died 
in  914  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  X. 

Lando,  lan'do,  (PIETRO,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1539.  During  his  reign  the  Venetians  made  peace 
with  the  Turks,  and  resisted  the  efforts  of  Charles  V. 
and  Francis  I.  to  engage  them  in  new  hostilities.  Died 
in  1545,  aged  eighty-four. 

Laudon,  iS.x'doN1',  (CHARLES  PAUL,)  a  French  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Normandy  in  1760.  He 
studied  in  Rome  as  a  pensioner  of  the  king,  and  worked 
in  Paris,  but  acquired  more  reputation  by  his  writings 
than  by  his  paintings.  lie  published  many  magnificent 
illustrated  works,  among  which  are  "The  Lives  and 
Works  of  the  Most  Eminent  Painters  of  all  Schools,'' 
(25  vols.,  1803  ct  st'y.,)  and  "Annals  of  the  Museum/' 
etc.,  ("Annalesdu  Muse'e  et  de  1'Iicole  des  Beaux-Arts," 
(33  vols.,  1808.)  Died  in  1826. 

See  Qi'ERAKi),  "  Li  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lan'don,  (LETITIA  EI.IZAHETH,)  a  popular  English 
poetess,  born  in  a  suburb  of  London  in  1802,  She  began 
to  write  verse  about  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  in  1820 
became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Literary  Gazette,"  under 
the  signature  of  L.  E.  L.  These  poetical  efforts  pro 
cured  for  her  an  extensive  reputation,  and  enabled  her 
to  support  herself.  She  produced,  anonymously,  two 
novels,  entitled  "Romance  and  Reality"  and  "Ethel 
Churchill,"  and  poems  called  "The  Troubadour,"  "Ze 
nana,"  etc.  Her  poems  are  chiefly  of  a  sentimental  or 
romantic  character.  In  1838  she  was  married  to  George 
Maclean,  Governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Africa,  whither 
they  went  to  reside.  Her  death,  which  occurred  in  1839, 
is  ascribed  to  prussic  acid,  which  she  \va*s  in  the  habit  of 
taking  as  medicine. 

See  LAMAN  BLANCHARD,  "Life  and  Literary  Remains  of  L.  E. 
L.,"  3  vols.,  1840;  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  ; 
MRS.  EI.WOOD,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from 
the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843;  ALLIIJONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1825; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  March,  1865. 

Lan'dor,  (WALTER  SAVAGE,)  an  eminent  English 
author,  born  at  Ipsley  Court,  Warwickshire,  January 
30,  1775,  was  a  son  of  Walter  Landor,  who  married  a 
rich  heiress  named  Elizabeth  Savage.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  became 
master  of  an  independent  fortune,  and  followed  no  pro 
fession  except  that  of  author.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1795,  and  a  poem  entitled  "Gebir"  in  1798. 
In  1806  he  sold  his  large  estates,  quitted  England  in 
disgust,  and  removed  to  the  continent.  lie  served  as  a 
colonel  in  the  Spanish  army  against  Napoleon  from  1808 
to  1814.  In  1811  he  married  Julia  Thnillier,  of  Bath. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Florence  about  1816,  and  occu 
pied  the  palace  of  the  Medici  for  several  years.  He  pub 
lished  in  1820  Latin  poems,  entitled  "  Idyllia  Heroica." 
His  reputation  was  extended  by  his  "  Imaginary  Con 
versations  of  Literary  Men  and  Statesmen,"  (5  vols., 
1824-29,)  which  presented  many  novel  and  paradoxical 
ideas.  Among  his  other  works  are  "Count  Julian,"  a 
poem,  (1831,)  "Pericles  and  Aspasia,"  (1836,)  "Andrea 
of  Hungary,"  a  drama,  (1839,)  "The  Hellenics,"  (1847,) 
and  "The 'Last  Fruit  of  an  Old  Tree,"  (1853.)  He  was 
a  friend  of  Robert  Southey.  Died  at  Florence  in  Sep 
tember,  1864. 

See  JOHN  FOSTER.  "Walter  S.  Landor;  a  Biography,"  1869; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1824,  February,  1837, 
and  October,  1839;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1846,  and  April, 
i8;;o;  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1846,  and  July,  1869; 
''Nouvelle  Biographic  Ginerale;"  R.  W.  EMERSON,  "English 
Traits  ;'"  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  by  HARRIET  MARTINEAU  ;  Miss 
FIELD,  "Last  Days  of  W.  S.  Landor," in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  April,  May,  and  June,  1866. 


a,  e,  T,  5, u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  mooi 


LAND  RUN  I 


LANGBAINE 


Landriani,  lan-dRe-a'nee,(PAOLO  CAMILLO,)  a  painter 
of  the  Milanese  school,  born  about  1570  ;  died  about  1618. 

Land'seer,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  painter,  a  son  of 
John  Landseer,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1799.  He 
received  lessons  from  Haydon,  and  acquired  a  fair  repu 
tation  as  an  artist.  His  subjects  are  chiefly  taken  from 
English  history  and  poetry.  His  "Monks  of  Melrose" 
(1843)  gained  a  prize  of  about  £T,OO.  He  was  chosen 
an  Academician  in  1845,  and  keeper  of  the  Academy  in 
1851. 

Landseer,  (Sir  EDWIN,)  the  most  celebrated  modern 
painter  of  animals,  was  born  in  London  in  1803.  He 
learned  to  draw  after  nature  in  his  childhood,  under  the 
direction  of  his  father,  began  to  exhibit  in  1817,  and  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  painted  his  admirable  "  Dogs  of  Saint 
Gotharcl."  Between  1821  and  1830  he  produced  "The 
Prowling  Lion,"  "The  Return  from  Deer-Stalking," 
(1827,)  and"  Hunting  of  Chevy  Chase."  He  was  elected 
Royal  Academician  in  1830,  after  which  he  exhibited  "  Sir 
Walter  Scott  and  his  Dogs,"  (1833,)  "  Bolton  Abbey  in  the 
Olden  Time,"  "The  Old  Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner," 
(1837,)  highly  praised  by  Ruskin  "  as  one  of  the  most  per 
fect  poems  or  pictures '(I  use  the  words  as  synonymous) 
which  modern  times  have  seen."  His  humorous  picture 
of  "Laying  Down  the  Law"  appeared  in  1840.  His 
marvellous  technical  skill  is  subordinated  to  the  expres 
sion  of  sentiment  or  pathos  in  a  "  Pastoral  Scene,"  (1845,) 
"  Peace"  and  "War,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  portrait  of  a  Newfoundland  dog, 
styled  "A  Member  of  the  Humane  Society,"  (1838,)  "A 
Scene  from  the  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'"  (1851,) 
and  "The  Children  of  the  Mist,"  (1853.)  Many  of  his 
works  have  been  engraved. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1856. 

Landseer,  (JOHN,)  an  English  engraver,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lincoln  in  1769.  Having 
acquired  reputation  by  excellent  engravings  of  animals, 
after  Rubens  and  other  artists,  he  was  chosen  associate 
engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy  about  1807.  He  lec 
tured  on  art  in  London,  and  published  several  treatises 
on  art,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Sabasan  Researches," 
(1823.)  Died  in  1852. 

Landseer,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  artist  and  eminent 
engraver,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  before  1800. 
Among  his  most  admired  productions  are  engravings  of 
his  brother  Edwin's  pictures  of  animals,  and  of  Rosa 
Bonheur's  "  Horse-Fair." 

Lan'dulph,  [Fr.  LANDULPHK,  IS.N'dulf',]  a  mediaeval 
historian  and  priest,  born  at  Milan  about  1080,  was  a 
pupil  of  Anselm  of  Laon.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "His 
tory  of  Milan  from  1095  to  1137." 

Lane,  (EDWARD  WILLIAM,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Hereford  in  1801.  He  resided  several  years  in 
Egypt,  and  published  an  interesting  and  valuable  work 
"On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyp 
tians,"  (1836,)  and  a  very  complete  "Arabic-and-Eng- 
lish  Lexicon,"  (in  two  Parts,  1863-65.) 

Lane,  (HENRY  S.,)  an  American  Senator  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Montgomery  county,  Kentucky,  in  1811,  removed 
to  Indiana.  He  represented  a  district  of  Indiana  in  Con 
gress,  1841-43,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
as  a  Republican  in  1861.  Having  been  chosen,  a  Sen 
ator  of  the  United  States  in  1861,  he  resigned  the  office 
of  Governor. 

Lane,  (JAMES  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Law- 
rencebui-g,  Indiana,  in  1814.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1852,  and  removed  in  1855  to  Kansas,  where  he  be 
came  a  leader  of  the  Free  State  party.  He  was  elected 
major-general  by  the  legislature  of  Kansas  in  1857,  and 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1861.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  in  the  first  year  of  the  civil  war,  but  retained 
his  seat  in  the  Senate.  Died  by  suicide  in  July,  1866. 

Lane,  (JOSEPH,)  an  American  general  and  politician, 
born  in  North  Carolina  in  1801.  He  distinguished  him 
self  in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Mexican  war  of 
1846-47,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
became  Governor  of  Oregon  Territory  in  1848,  and  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  from  the  State  of  Oregon 
in  1859.  In  1860  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
Vice-President,  John  C.  Breckinriclge  being  the  nominee 
for  President. 


Lane,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
Northamptonshire.  He  was  counsel  for  the  Earl  of 
Strafford  in  1640,  and  was  an  adherent  of  the  king  in  the 
civil  war.  In  1645  he  became  keeper  of  the  great  seal. 
Died  in  1651. 

Lane,  (RICHARD  JAMES,)  an  English  lithographer, 
born  in  Hereford  about  1800. 

Lan'franc,  [Lat.  LANFRAN'CUS  ;  It.  LANFRANCO,  Ian- 
fRan'ko,]  a  distinguished  prelate,  Archbishop  of  Canter 
bury,  was  born  at  Pavia  about  1005.  Having  embraced 
the  monastic  life,  he  became  celebrated  for  piety  and 
learning.  He  was  a  counsellor  of  William  of  Normandy 
before  his  conquest  of  England,  and  in  1070  was  chosen 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  "  His  zeal  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  the  papacy,"  says  Hume,  "was  indefati 
gable."  He  enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence 
of  the  king,  who  consulted  him  in  affairs  of  state.  He 
crowned  William  Rufus  in  1087,  and  died  in  1089,  leaving 
several  works  on  theology. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  ii.  ;  A.  CHARMA,  "  Lanfranc,  Notice  biographique,  lit- 
teraire,"  etc.,  1849  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Laiifraiico.     See  LANFRANC. 

Lanfranco,  lan-fRan'ko,  or  Lanfranc,  lan-fRank', 
[Lat.  LANFRAN'CUS,]  an  Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Milan 
about  1250.  He  removed  in  1295  to  P.iris,  where  he 
practised  and  lectured  with  a  high  reputation.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  on  surgery,  entitled  "  Chirurgia  magna 
et  parva,"  (1490.) 

Lanfranco  or  Lanfranc,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Parma  in  1581.  He  received 
lessons  from  the  three  Caracci,  whom,  in  design  and 
expression,  he  imitated.  He  worked  in  Rome  for  the 
Dukes  Farnese  and  the  Borghese  family,  and  afterwards 
in  Naples.  His  painting  on  the  cupola  of  San  Andrea 
della  Valle,  Rome,  was  much  admired.  His  works  in  oil 
and  fresco  are  very  numerous.  Died  at  Rome  in  1647. 

SeeV.ASARi,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy." 

Lanfrancus.     See  LANFRANC  and  LANFRANCO. 

Lang,  (JOHANN  MICHAEL.)     See  LANGE. 

Lang,  lang,  (KARL  NIKOLAUS,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  1670.  He  practised  medicine  with 
success  in  his  native  place,  cultivated  natural  history, 
and  acquired  fame  by  his  work  on  the  figured  stones  of 
Switzerland,  "  Idea  Historian  naturalis  Lapidum  figurato- 
rum  Helvetia?,"  (1705.)  Died  in  1741. 

Lang,  (Louis,)  born  in  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  in 
1814,  studied  painting  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  at 
Rome.  In  1845  he  settled  in  New  York  City,  where 
he  has  executed  numerous  works. 

Lang,  von,  fon  lang,  (KARL  HEINRICH,)  a  German 

historical  writer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1764,  was  appointed 

I  in  181 1  director  of  the  archives  of  the  kingdom  at  Munich, 

He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  Bavaria,"  and 

other  works  relative  to  that  country.     Died  in  1835. 

See  KARL  HEINRICH  LANG,  "  Memoiren,"  1842. 

Langallerie,  de,  deh  ISs'gtKre',  (PHILIPPE  DE  GEN- 
TILS,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  military  adventurer,  born  at 
Lamotte-Charente  in  1656.  He  gained  the  rank  of  gene 
ral  in  the  <French  army,  and  afterwards  fought  under 
Prince  Eugene  against  the  French.  He  died  in  1717, 
leaving  two  volumes  of  Memoirs,  (1709,)  which  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

Langara,  de,  da  lan-ga'ra,  (Don  JUAN,)  a  Spanish 
admiral,  born  about  1730.  He  was  defeated  near  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  in  1780  by  an  English  fleet  under  Rodney, 
but  was  in  the  same  year  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
navy.  He  commanded  the  Spanish  fleet  which  took 
Toulon  in  1793.  Died  in  1800. 

Langbaine,  lang'ban,  (GERARD,)  D.D.,  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1608.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1644  keeper 
of  the  archives  of  the  university.  He  edited  Longinus, 
and  left  several  useful  catalogues,  which  remain  in  manu 
script.  Died  in  1658. 

Langbaine,  (GERARD.)  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Oxford  in  1656.  Having  collected  many  old 
plays,  (nine  hundred  and  eightv,)  he  published  a  cata 
logue  of  the  same,  called  "  Momus  Triumphans,"  which 
was  improved  and  reprinted  in  1691,  with  the  title  of 


tor  president.  I  was  improved  and  reprinted   in  1091,  witn  tne  title  ot 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ' ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANGBEIN 


1368 


LANGHORNE 


"Account  of  the  English  Dramatic  Poets."  This  work 
is  prized  for  the  information  it  affords,  but  has  little 
critical  merit.  Died  in  1692. 

Langbein,  lang'bln,  (AUGUST  FRIF.DRICH  ERNST,)  a 
German  poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Radeburg, 
near  Dresden,  in  1757.  He  became  a  resident  of  Berlin 
in  1800.  He  published  a  number  of  romances,  songs, 
and  humorous  poems,  which  had  a  transient  popularity. 
Among  his  prose  works  are  "Talismans  against  Ennui," 
"The  Wings  of  Time,"  and  "Ganymeda,"  (1823.)  He 
had  an  agreeable  style,  but  little  imagination.  Died  in 

1835- 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Langdale,  LORD.     See  BICKERSTETH,  (HENRY.) 

Lang'dale,  (Sir  MARMADUKK,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Yorkshire.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil 
war,  and  commanded  with  success  at  the  siege  of  Ponte- 
fract  Castle.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  Naseby 
in  1645,  and  was  defeated  by  Cromwell  at  Preston  in 
1648.  On  the  restoration  he  returned  to  England  in 
1660,  after  many  years  of  exile,  and  was  chosen  lord 
lieutenant  of  Yorkshire.  Died  in  1661. 

Lang'don,  (JuHN,)  LL.D.,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1739.  He 
became  successively  a  delegate  to  the  General  Congress, 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate  in  1789,  and  Gov 
ernor  of  New  Hampshire  several  times  between  1805 
and  1811.  He  acted  with  the  Republican  party.  Died 
in  1819. 

Langdoii,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
theological  writer,  born  at  Boston  about  1723,  became 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1774,  and  resigned  in 
1780.  Died  in  1797. 

Lange,  lang'eh,  (JOACHIM,)  a  German  linguist  and 
writer,  born  at  Gardelegen  in  1670.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1709,  and  published,  be 
sides  some  theological  works,  a  Latin  Grammar  and  a 
Greek  Grammar,  which  were  successful.  Died  in  1744. 

Lange,  [Lat.  LAN'GIUS,]  (JoHANN,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1485.  He 
was  first  physician  to  several  Electors-Palatine.  He 
wrote  professional  works  which  are  commended.  Died 
in  1565. 

Lange  or  Lang,  lang,  (JOHANN  MICHAEL,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine,  eminent  as  an  Orientalist,  born  at 
Ezelwangen  in  1664.  He  lived  as  inspector  at  Prentzlau 
from  1710  until  his  death,  in  1731.  He  published  a 
treatise  "On  Mohammedan  Fables,"  (1697,)  and  several 
critical  essays. 

Lange,  (JOSEPH.)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Kai- 
sersberg.  He  published  editions  of  Martial,  Juvenal,  and 
Persius,  also  "  Florilegium,"  (1598.)  Died  about  1630. 

Lange,  (JOSEPH,)  a  celebrated  actor,  born  at  Wurz- 
burg,  Bavaria,  in  1751.  He  became  a  favourite  on  the 
theatre  of  Vienna,  where  he  performed  many  years.  Died 
about  1820. 

Lange,  lang'eh,  (LARS,)  a  Danish  or  Swedish  traveller, 
born  at  Stockholm.  Having  entered  the  Russian  service 
as  an  officer  of  engineers,  he  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Pekin  in  1719,  and  again  in  1726.  Several  narratives  of 
these  journeys  were  published.  The  Journal  of  Lange 
contains  some  interesting  notices  of  the  nomadic  tribes 
of  Siberia. 

Lange,  [Lat.  LAN'GIUS,]  (RUDOLPH,)  of  Minister,  a 
German  writer,  born  about  1438.  He  published  some 
Latin  poems.  Died  in  1519. 

Lange,  de,  deh  lang'eh,  written  also  Langhe,  [Lat. 
LAN'GIUS,]  (CHARLES,)  an  eminent  Flemish  philologist 
and  critic,  born  at  Ghent  or  Brussels.  He  edited  Cicero's 
treatises  "  De  Officiis,"  "  De  Amicitia,"  and  "  De  Senec- 
tute."  Lipsius  pronounced  him  the  most  learned  Fleming 
of  his  time.  Died  at  Liege  in  1573. 

See  F^MX  VAN  HULST,  "C.  de  Langhe (CarolusLanguis)et  Lievin 
Vanderbeke,"  1846. 

Langeac,  de,  deh  loN'zhtk',  (N.  DE  L'ESPINASSE,) 
CHEVALIER,  a  French  poet,  born  about  1748.  He  pro 
duced,  besides  a  number  of  original  poems,  a  version  of 
Virgil's  "Bucolics,"  (1806.)  Died  in  1839. 

Langebeck,  lang'eh-bek',  (JACOB,)  a  learned  Danish 
writer,  born  in  Jutland  in  1710.  He  was  employed  by 
the  king  to  collect  manuscripts,  inscriptions,  etc.  He 


became  keeper  of  the  national  archives,  and  councillor 
of  state.  His  principal  work  is  a  great  collection  of 
Danish  writers,  under  the  title  of  "  Danish  Historians 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  ("Scriptores  Rerum  Danicarum 
medii  ^Evi,"  1772.)  Died  in  1774. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Langelaud.     See  LONGLAND. 

Langenbeck,  lang'en-bek',  (KONKAD  JOHANN  MAR 
TIN,)  a  German  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  in  the  king 
dom  of  Hanover  in  1776,  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Anatomy," 
(1806,)  "  Icones  Anatomicas,"  (8  vols.,  1826-39,)  and 
other  valuable  works.  Died  in  1851. 

See  SAINT-.MAURICHCABANY,"C.  J.  M.  Lansenbeck,"  etc.,  if<52. 

Langendyk,  lanc/en-dik',  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1662.  He  excelled  in  humorous 
composition,  and  was  the  author  of  several  epigrams 
and  comedies,  among  which  is  "  Don  Quixote  at  the 
Wedding  of  Camacho."  Died  in  1735. 

Langemi,  von,  fon  lang-en',  (FRIEDRICH  ALHRECIIT,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Merseburg  in  1 798,  was  appointed 
in  1835  tutor  to  Prince  Albert. 

Langenstein,  lang'en-stin',  (HEINRICH,)  a  German 
astronomer  and  theologian,  born  in  Hesse,  was  called 
HENRICUS  DE  HASSIA.  Died  at  Vienna  in  1397. 

Langer,  lang'er,  (JoHANN  PETER,)  a  German  painter, 
born  in  1756,  became  successively  director  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Arts  at  Dusselclorf  and  at  Munich,  where  he 
obtained  great  reputation  and  success  as  a  teacher.  His 
best  picture  represents  "Christ  Blessing  Children." 
Died  in  1824.  His  son  ROBERT,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in 
1783,  was  distinguished  as  a  fresco-painter  and  designer. 
Died  in  1846. 

Langeron,  de,  deh  IS.v/.h'roN',  (ANDRAULT,)  COUNT, 
a  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He  emigrated  in  1789, 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  1799.  He  commanded  a  Russian  division  at 
Austerlitz,  in  1805,  and  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  1813.  Died  in  1831. 

Langetti,  lan-jet'tee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Ital 
ian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1635  ;  died  in  1676. 

Langham,  lang'am,  de,  (  SIMON,)  an  English  car 
dinal,  born  in  Rutlandshire.  He  was  appointed  by  the 
king  chancellor  in  1364,  became  Archbishop  of  Can 
terbury  in  1366,  and  a  cardinal  in  1368.  He  was  hostile 
to  Wycliffe,  whom  he  removed  from  the  mastership  of 
a  college  at  Oxford.  The  temporalities  of  his  see  were 
seized  by  Edward  III.  about  1368.  Died  in  1376. 

See  \V.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  iv.  chap.  xiii. 

Langhans,  lang'hans,  (KARL  GOTTHARD,)  an  eminent 
German  architect,  born  at  Landshut  in  1733.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  public  buildings  of  Berlin,  and 
adorned  that  city  with  several  fine  structures,  among 
which  are  the  Brandenburg  Gate  and  a  theatre.  He 
was  the  author  of  some  treatises  on  architecture.  Died 
in  1808. 

Langhe,  de,  (CHARLES.)     See  LANGE. 

Lang'horne,  (Rev.  DANIEL,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London.  He  published  "Chronicle  of  the 
Kings  of  England,"  ("Chronicon  Regum  Anglorum," 
1679.)  Died  in  1681. 

Langhorne,  (JOHN,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1735.  Having  taken  holy 
orders,  he  obtained  a  curacy  in  London  in  1764.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  successful  sentimental  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  among  which  are  "Letters  of  Theoclosius  and 
Constantia,"  and  "  The  Fatal  Prophecy,"  a  drama.  About 
1768  he  obtained  the  living  of  Blagden,  Somersetshire. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  translation  of  Plu 
tarch's  "Lives,"  (1770,)  which  is  correct  and  literal. 
He  was  assisted  in  this  by  his  brother  William.  He 
vindicated  the  Scotch  against  the  satire  of  Churchill  in 
a  poem  called  "Genius  and  Valour."  His  versification 
is  easy  and  harmonious.  Died  in  1779- 

See  JOHNSON  and  CHALMERS,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;" 
CAMPBEU.,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Langhorne,  (WILLIAM,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1721,  and  became  rector  of  Folkstone.  He 
assisted  his  brother  in  the  translation  of  Plutarch,  and 
published  "Job,  a  Poem,"  and  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of 
a  part  of  Isaiah.  Died  in  1772. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ft,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


LANGINI 


1369 


LANJUINAIS 


Langini,  lan-jee'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  called  also  Antonio 
da  Carrara,  because  he  was  born  at  Carrara,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  lived  about  1530. 

Laiigius.     See  LANGE. 

Langlade,  de,  cleh  ISN'glSd',  (JACQUES,)  Baron  de 
Saumieres,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Perigord  about 
1620.  He  was  secretary  to  Cardinal  Mazarin.  Died 
iu  1680. 

Langle,  15N'gla',  (HONORE  FRANCOIS  MARIE,)  an  able 
writer  on  music,  born  at  Monaco  in  1741.  He  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Harmony  and  Modulation,"  (1797,)  and 
composed  several  operas.  Died  in  1807. 

Langle,  de,  cleh  16.\gl,  (JEAN  MAXIMILIEN,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Evreux  in  1590; 
died  at  Rouen  in  1674. 

Langle,  de,  (PAUL  ANTOINE  MARIE  FLEURIOT,)  an 
able  French  naval  officer,  born  in  1744.  He  sailed  as 
second  in  command  of  La  Perouse's  exploring  expe 
dition.  He  was  killed  by  the  savages  on  one  of  the 
Navigator  Islands  in  1787. 

Langles,  lo.v'gless',  (Louis  MATHIEU,)  a  French  Ori 
entalist,  born  near  Saint-Didier  in  1763.  He  gave  special 
attention  to  Arabic  and  Persian,  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  professor  of  Persian  in 
Paris,  and  keeper  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  of  the 
National  Library,  (1795.)  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  a  French  version  of  the  "  Political  and  Military 
Institutes  of  Tamerlane,"  translations  from  the  Eng 
lish  of  several  books  of  travels  in  the  East,  a  Mantchoo 
Dictionary,  and  "Ancient  and  Modern  Monuments  of 
Hindostan,"  (2  vols.,  1812-21,  unfinished.)  Died  in  1824. 

See  ABEL  REMUSAT,  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques;"  J.  P. 
A.  REMUSAT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  L.  M.  Langles," 
1825;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Laiiglet.     See  LEXGLET. 

Laiig'ley,  (BATTY,)  an  English  architect,  who  pro 
posed  to  improve  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  by  an 
absurd  imitation  of  the  Grecian  orders.  lie  published 
several  works  on  architecture.  Died  in  1751. 

Langlois,  lo.N'ghva',  (EusTACHE  HVACINTHE,)  a  skil 
ful  French  designer  and  engraver,  born  in  Normandy  in 
1777,  worked  chiefly  at  Rouen.  His  reputation  is  said 
to  have  increased  since  his  death.  He  published  a 
"  Collection  of  Views,  Sites,  and  Monuments  of  France," 
and  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1837. 

See  GILBERT,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M.  Langlois,"  1839. 

Langlois,  (JEAN,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1649,  became  a  resident  of  Rome. 

Langlois,  (JEAN  CHARLES,)  a  French  painter  of  bat 
tles  and  panoramas,  born  in  Calvados  in  1789.  Among 
his  works  are  panoramas  of  the  "  Battle  of  Moskwa," 
(1835,)  and  the  "  Burning  of  Moscow,"  (1839.) 

L'Anglois,  ISs'glwa',  (MICHEL,)  [Lat.  MICHAEL 
ANGLI'CUS,]  a  Flemish  priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Beaumont  about  1470. 

Langlois,  (SIMON  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  in  1788.  lie  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Inscriptions  in  1835.  Among  his  works  is  "  Rig 
Veda,  ou  Livre  des  Hymnes,"  translated  from  the  San 
scrit,  (4  vols.,  1849-52.)  Died  in  1854. 

Langrish,  lang'grish,  (BROWNE,)  an  English  physi 
cian,  born  about  1700,  wrote  several  works  on  medicine. 
Died  in  1759. 

Laiigsdorff,  langs'doRf,  (GEORG  HEINRICH,)  BARON, 
a  German  naturalist  and  physician,  born  in  Suabia  in 
1774,  accompanied  Krusenstern's  expedition  to  the 
North,  (1803,)  and  afterwards  visited  Brazil.  He  pub 
lished  a  Treatise  on  "Plants  collected  during  the  Rus 
sian  Voyage  around  the  World,"  (1810,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1852. 

Lang'toft,  (PETER,)  an  English  chronicler,  who  lived 
about  1300,  was  a  canon-regular  of  the  order  of  Saint 
Austin  at  Bridlington.  He  compiled  a  "  Chronicle  of 
England,"  (in  French  verse,)  which  extends  to  the  year 
1307.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  the  reign  of  Ed 
ward  II. 

Lang'ton,  (STEPHEN,)  an  English  cardinal,  Arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury.  In  1206  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
was  made  a  cardinal.  The  election  of  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  being  contested  in  1207,  Innocent  III.  com 
pelled  the  monks  to  choose  Langton,  whom  King  John 


refused  to  recognize  until  the  pope,  by  laying  his  king 
dom  under  an  interdict,  reduced  him  to  submission  in 
1213.  He  co-operated  with  the  insurgent  barons  in 
asserting  the  national  liberties  against  King  John  in 
1215,  and  was  suspended  by  the  pope  for  refusing  to 
publish  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the 
barons.  Died  in  1228. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  xii. 

Languet,  IS.N'gi',  (HUBERT,)  a  French  Protestant 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1518,  was  a 
friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He  entered  the  service  of 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  in  1568,  and  was  the  envoy 
of  that  prince  to  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  from  which  he  escaped.  He  was 
afterwards  employed  as  negotiator  by  William,  Prince 
of  Orange.  In  1579  he  published,  under  the  name  of 
Junius  Brutus,  a  famous  work,  entitled  "  Vindicias  contra 
Tyrannos,"  a  bold  assertion  of  the  right  of  resistance  to 
tyrants.  Died  in  1581. 

See  PHILIBERT  UE  LA  MARE,  "Vie  d'Hubert  Languet,"  1700; 
CHKVKEUL,    "Hubert   Languet,"    1852;    BAVLE,    "Historical   and, 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NILERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Languet  de  Gergy,  ISN'g.V  cleh  zheu/zhe',  (JEAN 
BAPTTSTE  TOSEI'H,)  a  French  philanthropist  and  bene 
factor,  svas  born  at  Dijon  in  1675.  lie  became  vicar  of 
Saint-Sulpice,  Paris,  and  built  the  magnificent  church 
of  Saint-Sulpice,  finished  in  1745.  He  also  founded  in 
Paris  an  institution  in  which  poor  women  and  girls  were 
supported  and  educated.  It  is  said  that  he  several  times 
refused  a  bishopric.  Died  in  1750. 

Languet  de  Gergy,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  theo 
logian,  born  at  Dijon  in  1677,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  Jansenists, 
and  gained  distinction  by  his  polemical  writings.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1721,  and 
Archbishop  of  Sens  in  1730.  He  published  Catechisms, 
and  other  religious  books.  Died  in  1753- 

Lanier  or  Laniere,  la-ne-aii<',  (Niccoi.6,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  musician,  was  born  in  1568.  He  lived  in  Eng 
land  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  who  patronized  him  and 
employed  him  to  purchase  pictures.  He  was  more  eminent 
as  a  musician  than  as  a  painter,  and  became  the  king's 
chapel-master  in  1626.  Lanier  was  also  a  dealer  in 
pictures,  and  purchased  several  at  the  sale  and  dispersion 
of  the  collection  of  Charles  I.  Died  about  1660. 

Lan'i-gan,  (Jons,)  an  Irish  writer  and  Roman  Cath 
olic  priest, 'born  at  Cashel  in  1758.  Among  his  works  is 
an  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland,"  (4  vols.,  1822.) 
Died  in  1828. 

Lanino,  la-nee'no,  or  Lanini,  !a-nee'nee,  (BERNAR 
DINO,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Vercelli,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
worked  at  Milan  and  Novara.  His  design  and  composi 
tion  are  admired.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Scenes 
in  the  Life  of  the  Virgin,"  "The  Sibyls,"  (at  Novara,) 
and  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Catherine,"  (in  fresco,)  at 
Milan.  Died  about  1570. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  pf  the  Painters  ;"  LANZI,  "  Storia  pittorica." 

Lanjuinais,  loN'zlui-e'ni',  (JEAN  DENIS,)  COUNT,  a 
French  lawyer  and  liberal  legislator,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1753.  He  was  deputed  to  the  States-General  in  1789, 
and  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  In  the  latter  body  he 
boldly  defended  the  king  during  his  trial,  and  resisted 
the  terrorists  with  great  energy.  His  defence  of  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793,  is  praised  by  Lamartine.  He 
was  proscribed  with  the  Girondists,  but  escaped,  and 
kept  himself  concealed  during  the  reign  of  terror.  He 
was  chosen  a  senator  in  1800,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1808.  He  published  many 
political,  religious,  and  historical  treatises.  Died  in  1827. 

See  DUPIN,  "  Notice  sur  Lanjuinais,"  1827  ;  DACIER,  "  Notice  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Lanjuinais:"  MICHEL  BERR,  "Notice 
biosraphique  sur  le  Comte  Lanjuinais,"  1827;  V.  DE  LANJUINAIS, 
"Notice  historique  sur  J.  D.  de  Lanjuinais,"  1832;  LAMARTINE, 
"  History  of  the  Girondists;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lanjuinais,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  writer,  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Bretagne.  Having  removed  to 
Moudon,  in  Switzerland,  he  turned  Protestant,  and  became 
a  school-teacher.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANJUINAIS 


137° 


LANTARA 


"The  Accomplished  Monarch  ;  or,  Prodigies  of  Goodness 
and  Wisdom  which  make  the  Eulogy  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,"  (3  vols.,  1774.)  Died  in  1808. 

Laujuinais,  (VICTOR,)  a  French  lawyer,  a  son  of  Jean 
Denis,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1838,  and  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848. 

Lank'es-ter,  (EDWIN,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist 
and  popular  lecturer,  born  at  Melton,  in  Suffolk,  in  1814, 
graduated  as  M.D.  at  Heidelberg  in  1839.  He  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1845,  and  professor  of 
natural  history  at  New  College,  London,  in  1850.  He 
lectured  on  natural  history  at  the  Royal  Institution  and 
other  places,  and  contributed  scientific  papers  to  various 
periodicals.  He  became  joint  editor  of  the  "  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Microscopical  Science"  in  1853.  Among  his 
works  are  an  article  on  sanitary  science  in  the  "  Ency 
clopaedia  Britannica,"  and  "  Half-Hours  with  the  Micro 
scope,"  (1859.) 

Lankriiik.     See  LANCRINK. 

Lanner,  lan'ner,  (JOSEPH  FRANZ  KARL,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1802.  His  works  consist 
chiefly  of  overtures,  ballet-pieces,  marches,  and  waltzes. 
Died  in  1843. 

Lannes,  iSn,  (JEAN,)  Duke  of  Montebello,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  marshals  of  the  French  empire,  was 
born  of  humble  parentage  at  Lectoure  (Gers)  in  1769. 
He  entered  the  army  as  a  volunteer  in  1792,  and  was 
rapidly  promoted  until  the  coup  ifefat  of  the  gth  Thermi- 
dor,  1794,  when  he  was  forced  to  retire  from  the  army. 
As  chef-de-bataillon,  he  served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy 
in  1796,  and  was  made  a  colonel  for  his  conduct  at  Mon- 
tenotte.  In  1798  he  followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where 
he  became  a  general  of  division  and  rendered  important 
service  at  Aboukir.  His  courage  and  capacity  were  very 
conspicuous  at  the  battles  of  Montebello  and  Marengo, 
in  1800.  He  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Por 
tugal  in  1801,  and  on  his  return,  in  1804,  was  created  a 
marshal  of  the  empire  and  Duke  of  Montebello. 

Lannes  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  grand  army 
in  the  campaign  of  1805,  and  added  to  his  already 
brilliant  reputation  at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  (1806.)  His 
military  skill  was  exerted  with  success  at  the  memorable 
siege  of  Saragossa,  where  he  commanded  in  chief,  in 
1809.  In  the  second  war  against  Austria  he  contributed 
to  the  victory  at  Eckmiihl,  (1809,)  and  directed  the  suc 
cessful  attack  on  Ratisbon,  where,  when  his  men  faltered, 
he  seized  a  scaling-ladder  and  ran  forward  through  "  the 
imminent  deadly  breach."  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Aspern  and  Essling,  in  May,  1809.  In  the 
midst  of  the  conflict,  Napoleon  paused  to  address  the 
dying  general,  who  said,  "Adieu,  Sire!  Live  for  the 
world  ;  but  bestow  a  few  thoughts  on  one  of  your  best 
friends,  who  in  a  few  hours  will  be  no  more."  The  em 
peror  is  said  to  have  been  more  deeply  affected  by  this 
scene  than  he  ever  was  before.  "  Lannes  was  at  once," 
said  Napoleon,  "  the  Roland  of  the  army  and  a  giant  in 
capacity.  He  had  been  in  fifty-four  pitched  battles.  He 
was  cool  in  the  midst  of  fire,  and  possessed  a  clear, 
penetrating  eye.  Violent  and  hasty  in  his  temper,  some 
times  even  in  my  presence,  he  was  yet  ardently  attached 
to  me.  As  a  general,  he  was  greatly  superior  to  Moreau 
or  Soult.  I  found  him  a  mere  swordsman  ;  I  raised  him 
to  the  highest  point  of  art."  He  left  a  son,  Napoleon 
Auguste,  Duke  of  Montebello. 

See  RENE  PERIN,  "  Viemiiitairede  J.  Lannes,"  1810;  CHATEAU- 
NEUF,  "  Vie  du  Marechal  Lannes,"  1813:  THIERS,  "History  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Lannes,  (NAPOLEON  AUGUSTE,)  Duke  of  Montebello, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1802.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Naples  in  1838,  and  became  minister 
of  the  marine  in  1847.  In  1849  ne  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  ma 
jority.  He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1858, 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army  at  Rome 
about  June,  1862. 

Lanno,  It'no',  (FRANCOIS  GASPARD  AIME,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Rennes  in  1800.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1827  for  his  Mucius  Scaevola.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Fenelon  and  Pascal. 

Lannoi.     See  LANNOY. 


Lannoy,  IS'nwa',  (JULIANA  CORNELIA,)  BARONESS  OF, 
an  eminent  Dutch  poetess,  born  at  Breda  in  1738.  Her 
poetical  talents  were  displayed  in  satires,  odes,  and  epis 
tles,  which  are  admired  for  elegance  and  spirit-stirring 
power.  She  produced  three  successful  tragedies,  "  Leo 
the  Great,"  (1767,)  "The  Siege  of  Haarlem,"  (1770,)  and 
"Cleopatra,"  (1776.)  Died  in  1782. 

Lannoy  or  Lannoi,  de,  deh  IS'nwa',  (CHARLES,)  a 
famous  general  of  the  Spanish  armies,  was  born  in  Flan 
ders  about  1470.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
various  campaigns,  he  received  the  badge  of  the  Golden 
Fleece  in  1516,  and  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Naples  by 
Charles  V.  in  1521.  After  the  death  of  Prosper  Colonna, 
he  commanded  the  imperial  armies,  and  in  1525  gained 
the  decisive  victory  of  Pavia,  where  he  exchanged  swords 
with  Francis  I.  Died  in  1527.  (See  AVALOS,  FERDINANDO 
D',  MARQUIS  DE  PESCARA.) 

His  son  FERDINAND,  Duke  of  Boyennes,  born  in  Italy 
about  1510,  was  versed  in  mathematics,  and  was  reputed 
the  inventor  of  the  demi-cannon.  lie  attained  the  rank 
of  general  of  artillery  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  was  after 
wards  Governor  of  Holland  and  of  Gray.  Died  in  1579. 

La  Noue.     See  NOUK,  LA. 

Lanoue,  It'noo',  (FELIX  HIPPOLYTE,)  a  French  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Versailles  in  1812.  He  gained  the 
first  prize  for  landscapes  in  1841. 

Laiisberg,  lans'beiu/,  or  Lansperg,  lans'pgRC/, 
(JoHANN,)  an  ascetic  German  writer  and  monk,  born  at 
Landsberg,  in  Bavaria.  Died  in  1539.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  a  "Manual  of  the  Christian  Warfare,"  ("En 
chiridion  Militia?  Christiana;,"  1546,)  which  he  wrote  in 
opposition  to  the  "  Miles  Christiamis"  of  Erasmus. 

Lansberg,  lans'beRgor  lans'bCRH,  written  also  Lans- 
berghe,  (PHILIPPUS,)  a  Dutch  astronomer  and  geometer, 
born  in  Zealand  in  1561.  lie  was  for  many  years  pastor 
of  the  Protestant  church  at  Ter-Goes.  He  published, 
besides  other  works  on  mathematics,  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Diurnal  and  Annual  Motion  of  the  Earth,"  (1630,)  in 
which  he  advocates  the  Copernican  system,  and  "Geom 
etry  of  Triangles,"  (1631.)  Died  in  1632. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  FOPPENS, 
"  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Lansdowne.     See  GRANVILLE,  (GEORGE.) 

Lansdowne,  lanz'down,  (HENRY  PETTY  FITZ-MAU- 
RICE,)  third  MARQUIS  OK,  an  eminent  English  statesman, 
born  in  1780,  was  the  second  son  of  the  first  Marquis. 
(See  SHELHURNE.)  About  1795  he  was  placed  under 
the  tuition  of  Dugald  Stewart  in  Edinburgh,  and  several 
years  later  he  graduated  at  Cambridge.  In  1802  Lord 
Henry  Petty  entered  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he 
at  length  became  a  successful  debater.  He  was  ap 
pointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  when  the  Whig 
ministry  of  Grenville  and  Fox  came  into  power  in  1806, 
but  retired  from  that  office  in  March  of  the  ensuing 
year.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ilchester 
in  1808.  At  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  1809.  he  in 
herited  the  title  of  marquis,  and  passed  into  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  cordially  supported  at  different  times  the 
efforts  to  abolish  slavery,  spoke  ably  in  favour  of  Catholic 
emancipation,  and  acted  generally  with  the  Whig  party. 
In  1827  he  was  secretary  for  the  home  department  under 
Canning  for  three  or  four  months  ;  and  during  the  brief 
ministry  of  Lord  Goderich,  which  resigned  about  the 
end  of  1828,  he  was  secretary  of  foreign  affairs.  On  the 
formation  of  a  Whig  ministry  by  Lord  Grey  in  1831,  Lord 
Lansdowne  became  president  of  the  Council,  which  po 
sition  he  filled  with  credit  until  1841.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  opposition  in  the  House  of  Lords  from  1841  until 
1846,  when  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  Lord  John  Russell 
as  president  of  the  Council.  He  resigned  in  1852.  Died 
about  February  I, 1863. 

His  son,  the  fourth  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  born  in 
1816,  died  in  July,  1866. 

Lansdowne,  MARQUIS  OF.  See  SHELBURNE,  EARL 
OF. 

Lantara.lSN'tf'rt',  (SIMON  MATHURIN,)  an  excellent 
French  landscape-painter,  born  nearMilly  in  1729,  or, -as 
some  say,  in  1745.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  passed  his 
life  in  poverty,  caused  by  his  indolent  and  improvident 
habits.  His  manner  reminds  one  of  Claude  Lorrain. 
He  excelled  in  aerial  perspective,  and  represented  in  a 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LANTERI 


LAO-TSE 


marvellous  manner  the  different  periods  of  the  day.  The 
skies  of  his  pictures  present  a  vapory  tone  and  an  ex 
quisite  lightness  of  touch.  Died  in  Paris  in  1778. 

See  CHARLES  BLAXC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  LA  CHAVIGNE- 
RIE,  "  Recherches  historiques,  biographiques  et  Ktteraires  sur  le 
Peintre  Lantara,"  1852;  "  Nouveile  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Lanteri,  lan-ta'ree,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Briga  in  1801.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History 
of  the  House  of  Savoy,"  ("  Storia  della  Monarchia  di 
Casa  Savoja,"  1835.)  Died  in  1843. 

Laiithenas,  Juxt'nas',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  revolu 
tionist,  born  in*  Forez  about  1740.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  National  Convention,  and  was  proscribed  with  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793  ;  but  his  name  was  erased  from 
the  fatal  list  by  Marat  with  an  expression  of  contempt. 
Died  in  1799. 

Lantier,  de,  deh  l&N'te-i',  (£TIENNE  FRANC.OIS,)  a 
popular  French  author,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1734,  was 
called  "the  Anacharsis  of  the  Boudoirs/'  His  comedy 
"  L'Impatient"  was  performed  with  great  applause  in 
1778.  He  is  ranked  by  some  critics  among  the  best 
disciples  of  the  school  of  Voltaire.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  (1793)  he  was  imprisoned  at  Lyons.  He  after 
wards  produced  a  fictitious  narrative  of  the  "  Travels  of 
Antenoiy'  ("Voyages  d'Antenor,"  1798,)  which  had  a 
prodigious  success  and  was  translated  into  nearly  all 
modern  languages.  At  the  age  of  ninety  he  composed 
a  poem,  called  "  Geoffroy  Rudel,  or  the  Troubadour." 
Died  in  1826. 

See  '•  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Lanusse,  la'niiss',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Habas  (Les  Landes)  in  1772.  As  general  of 
brigade  he  rendered  important  services  at  Lodi  and 
Castiglione,  and  as  general  of  division  followed  Bona 
parte  to  Egypt  in  1798.  He  commanded  in  the  Delta 
during  the  expedition  against  Syria,  and  was  killed  by 
the  English  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  or  Aboukir,  in 
March,  1801. 

See  ADRIEV  PASCAL,  "  Biographies  du  Lieut.-General  de  Lanusse 
et  du  Lieut-General  Baron  de  Lanusse,"  1843. 

Laii'yon,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  architect  and  civil 
engineer,  born  in  Sussex  in  1813.  He  designed  Queen's 
College,  in  Belfast,  and  other  public  edifices. 

Lanzani,  lan-za'nee,  or  Lanzano,  lan-za'no,  (AN 
DREA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  about  1648, 
studied  under  Carlo  Maratta.  He  worked  at  Milan  and 
Vienna,  where  he  was  employed  by  the  emperor.  Among 
his  works  are  a  Saint  Charles  Borromeo,  and  a  "Holy 
Family."  Died  at  Vienna  in  1712. 

Lanzano.     See  LANZANI. 

Lanzi,  lan'zee,  (LuiGi,)  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  near  Macerata  in  1732.  He 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  had  acquired  the 
reputation  of  an  able  professor  and  writer,  when  the 
suppression  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  opened  to  him  a  new  career.  He  was  chosen 
sub-director  of  the  Gallery  of  Florence  in  1773.  In  1789 
he  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Etruscan  Language,"  (3 
vols.,)  which  was  highly  prized  by  the  learned.  His 
reputation  was  increased  by  his  "History  of  Painting 
in  Italy  from  the  Renaissance  of  Art  to  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  ("  Storia  pittorica  della  Italia," 
etc.,  1792  ;  3d  edition,  6  vols.,  1809,)  which  is  character 
ized  by  good  taste  and  judicious  criticism.  It  was  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Thomas  Roscoe.  Died  in  1810. 

See  ZANXONI.  "  Elogio  storico  di  L.  Lanzi;"  MAURO  BONI, 
"  Sajrgio  di  Studj  di  L.  Lanzi,"  iSis;  A.  CAPPI,  "  Bioc;rafia  di  L. 
Lanzi,"  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

Lanzoui,  lan-zo'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1663.  He  obtained  in  1684 
a  professorship  of  philosophy  at  Ferrara,  which  he  re 
tained  until  his  death.  His  works  have  been  collected 
under  the  title  "Opera  Omnia  Medico-Physica  et  Philo- 
sophica,"  (3  vols.,  1738.)  Died  in  1730. 

La-oc'o-on,  [Gr.  AaoKour,]  a  Trojan  hero,  and  a  priest 
of  Apollo  or  of  Neptune,  was  variously  represented  as  a 
son  of  Antenor  or  a  son  of  Priam.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  admission  of  the  wooden  horse  into  the  city 
of  Troy,  and  thrust  his  spear  into  that  structure.  While 
he  was  offering  a  sacrifice  to  Neptune  with  his  two  sons, 
two  huge  serpents,  issuing  from  the  sea,  attacked  them 


and  crushed  them  all  to  death.  His  story  was  a  favourite 
subject  with  the  ancient  poets  and  artists,  and  has  derived 
especial  celebrity  from  a  magnificent  marble  group  of 
Laocoon  and  his  sons  which  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican 
in  Rome,  and  which  was  described  by  Pliny  as  superior 
to  all  other  master-pieces  of  ancient  sculptors.  This 
group  was  executed  by  Agesander,  his  son  Athenodorus, 
and  Polydorus. 

See  VIRGIL'S  "sEneid,"  book  ii.  41-50  and  199-233;  also,  LES- 
SING'S  "  Laocoon." 

Laodameia.     See  LAODAMIA. 

La-o-da-nii'a  or  La-o-da-mei'a,  [Gr.  Aaodu^sia  ; 
Fr.  LAODAMIE,  li'o'dt'me',]  a  daughter  of  Acastus,  and 
wife  of  Protesilaus,  the  first  Greek  who  fell  at  Troy.  To 
keep  alive  the  memory  of  her  husband,  whom  she  ten 
derly  loved,  she  caused  a  wooden  image  of  him  to  be 
made.  Her  father,  in  the  hope  of  dispelling  her  grief, 
ordered  it  to  be  burned,  when  she  threw  herself  into  the 
flames  and  perished  with  it. 

Laodamie.     See  LAODAMIA. 

La-od'i-ce,  [Aaofc;;,]  the  name  of  several  Grecian 
princesses,  one  of  whom  was  the  mother  of  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator,  founder  of  a  Syrian  dynasty.  Another  was  the 
wife  of  Antiochus  Theos,  whom  she  poisoned  in  246  B.C. 
Her  son,  Seleucus  Callinicus,  then  became  king. 

La-om'e-don,  [Gr.  Aao//a5on>,]  the  king  and  founder 
of  Troy,  and  the  father  of  Priam.  According  to  ancient 
legends,  Neptune  and  Apollo  were  condemned  to  serve 
Laomedon  for  one  year,  and  the  former  built  the  walls 
of  Troy  for  a  stipulated  price,  but  after  the  work  was 
finished  the  perfidious  king  refused  to  pay  Neptune. 
Laomedon  was  killed  by  Hercules  for  another  breach 
of  faith. 

Laomedon,  a  Greek  general  in  the  service  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great,  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  that  king  in 
a  high  degree.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  he  became 
governor  of  Syria,  in  323  H.c.  He  was  driven  out  by  the 
army  of  Ptolemy  about  321  B.C. 

Lao-Tse,  la'o'tseh/  or  laVtsiih',  or  Lao-Tseu,  liV- 
tsuh',  written  also  Laou-Tsze  andLao-Tze,  sometimes 
called  Lao-Kiun,  (kyoon,)  a  celebrated  Chinese  phi 
losopher  or  sage,  who  was  born,  it  is  said,  in  the  province 
of  Honan,  565  years  before  Christ,  or  fourteen  years  be 
fore  the  birth  of  Confucius.  He  was  born,  we  are  told, 
I  with  white  hair  and  eyebrows,  whence  he  was  named 
Lao-Tse,  the  "hoary  or  aged  child,"  and  Lao-JCiun,  the 
"aged  prince."  His  white  hair  seems  to  have  been  re 
garded  as  an  indication  of  his  early  wisdom.  Many  other 
marvels  are  told  concerning  his  birth,  which  need  not  be 
related  here.  It  seems  probable  that  Lao-Tse  was  not 
wholly  unacquainted  with  the  religious  doctrines  of  India, 
not  only  those  of  the  Brahmans,  but  perhaps  also  of  the 
Booddhists.  For  some  years  he  was  archivist  and  his 
toriographer  to  one  of  the  Chinese  princes.  He  was,  it 
is  said,  profoundly  versed  in  the  doctrines  and  institutions 
of  the  ancients.  He  taught  the  existence  of  a  supreme 
Being,  under  the  name  of  Ttio,  or  the  "  supreme  reason." 
His  followers  are  called  Tao-Sse  (ta'o  si)  or  Taose, — 
that  is,  the  "disciples  of  Reason."  Instead  of  referring, 
like  Confucius,  to  the  authority  of  the  ancient  sages,  he 
taught  that  we  must  seek  for  the  principles  of  right 
within  ourselves,  in  complete  retirement  from  all  worldly 
pursuits  and  thoughts.  On  one  occasion  Confucius  had 
an  interview  with  Lao-Tse,  who  cautioned  him  against 
seeking  the  honours  of  the  world.  Lao-Tse  observed 
that  the  possessor  of  true  wisdom  seeks  rather  to  hide 
than  to  display  his  riches.  Confucius  left  him  deeply 
impressed  with  his  extraordinary  character,  and  evidently 
regarded  him  as  something  wonderful,  if  not  divine.  We 
are  told  that  after  this  interview  Confucius  said  to  his 
disciples,  "  It  does  not  astonish  me  to  see  the  birds  fly, 
the  fishes  swim,  or  the  beasts  run  ;  I  know  that  the  fishes 
may  be  taken  with  nets,  the  beasts  with  snares,  and  that 
the  birds  may  be  shot  with  an  arrow.  But  I  cannot  tell 
how  the  dragon*  can  fly  on  the  wind  through  the  clouds 
and  raise  himself  to  heaven.  To-day  I  have  seen  Lao- 
Tse  :  he  can  be  compared  only  to  the  dragon."  The 
date  of  Lao-Tse's  death  is  unknown.  He  was  undoubt- 

*  The  dragon  of  the  Chinese  is  regarded  as  a  supernatural  or 
divine  being. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;';  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (ftJf^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAO-TSEU 


1372 


LAPLACE 


edly  an  extraordinary  man,  and  his  influence  is  not  yet 
lost  in  China.  The  following  sayings  of  his  may  serve 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  cast  and  calibre  of  his  mind  :  "  He 
only  can  be  called  wise  (or  enlightened)  who  knows  him 
self;  he  only  can  be  called  valiant  who  subdues  him 
self;  he  only  can  be  called  rich  who  knows  what  is 
necessary."  Like  the  Brahmans  of  India,  Lao-Tse 
taught  the  final  absorption  of  pure  and  enlightened  souls 
into  the  supreme  eternal  Spirit,  and  that,  "having  thus 
become  one  with  the  supreme  Reason,  they  will  exist 
eternally."  He  inculcated  universal  benevolence  :  we 
ought  to  show  kindness  not  only  to  the  sincere  and  vir 
tuous,  but  also  to  the  insincere  and  wicked.  "Those 
who  are  holy,"  he  says,  "will  treat  all  men  as  a  father 
treats  his  children."  The  religion  of  the  Tao-Sse,  at 
the  present  day,  seems  closely  allied  to  Boocldhism ; 
and  many  of  its  votaries  of  both  sexes,  like  the  followers 
of  Gautama,  spend  their  lives  in  monasteries.  The 
modern  Tao-Sse  are  much  addicted  to  superstitions 
observances,  and  deal  largely  in  sorcery.  They  are  very 
popular  with  the  common  people,  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  empire  their  influence  rivals  that  of  the  Booddhists. 

See  PAUTHIER,  "Chine, "pp.  110-120;  LEGGE,  "  Life  and  Teach 
ings  of  Confucius,"  chap,  v  ,  London,  1X67,  Triibner&  Co.  ;  BKOCK- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon,"  article  "  Lao-Tse  ;"  LOOMIS,"  Con 
fucius  and  the  Chinese  Classics,"  p.  278  et  seq  ;  J.  P.  A.  RKMUSAT, 
"  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Opinions  de  Lao-Tseu,"  1829. 

Lao-Tseu.     See  LAO-TSE. 

Laou-Tse  or  Laou-Tsze.     See  LAO-TSE. 

La  Paix,  the  French  of  EIRKNE,  which  see. 

Laparelli,  la-pa-rel'Iee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Cortona  in  1521.  lie  planned  the 
city  of  Valetta,  Malta,  and  assisted  Michael  Angelo  in 
the  design  of  Saint  Peter's,  at  Rome.  Died  in  1570. 

La  Perouse.     See  PEROUSE,  DE  LA. 

La  Peyrere.     See  PEVRERE,  LA. 

La  Peyronie,  de,  deh  13  pi'n/ne',  (FRANC/MS  GIHOT,) 
a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1678.  He  re 
ceived  the  title  of  first  surgeon  to  the  king,  (Louis  XV.,) 
and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Brain,"  (1708.) 
Died  in  1747. 

La  Peyrouse,  de,  deh  13  p-Vroo//,  (PHILIPPE  PICOT,) 
BARON,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1744. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora  of  the  Pyr 
enees,"  (1795-1801.)  Died  in  1818. 

See  DECAMPE,  "filoge  de  M.  le  Baron  de  La  Peyrouse,"  1819. 

Lapham,  lap'am,  (INCREASE  A.,)  an  American  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  in  1811.  He  has 
fublished  "Wisconsin  ;  its  Geography  and  Topography, 
listory,  Geology,  and  Mineralogy,"  (1844,)  "Antiquities 
of  Wisconsin,"  (1855,)  anc'  °ther  scientific  works. 

Lapi,  la'pee,  (NiccoL6,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  in  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Luca  Giordano.  The 
gallery  of  Florence  contains  a  "Transfiguration"  by  him. 
Died  in  1732. 

Lapide,  a,  a  la'pe-di',  called  also  Steen,  (stan,) 
(CORNELIUS,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Liege.  He  wrote  "Commentaries  on  the  Bible."  Died 
in  1657. 

Lapis,  la'pess,  (GAETANO,)  a  painter  of  the  Roman 
school,  born  in  Umbria  in  1704  ;  died  in  1776. 

Lapisse,  13'pess',  (PIERRE  BELON,)  Baron  de  Sainte- 
Helene,  a  French  general,  born  at  Lyons  in  1762,  was 
killed  at  Talavera  in  July,  1810. 

Lapithse,  lap'T-///ee,  [Gr.  AamOcu  :  Fr.  LAPITHES,  13'- 
pet',  ]  a  fabulous  tribe  of  Thcssalians,  whose  story  is 
intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  Centaurs.  They 
were  ruled  by  a  chief  named  Pirithons,  to  whose  mar 
riage  the  Centaurs  were  invited.  At  this  marriage-feast 
occurred  the  celebrated  fight  of  the  Lapithas  and  the 
Centaurs,  which  was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  ancient 
poets  and  artists. 

Lapithes.     See  LAPITH/E. 

Lapito,  iS'pe'to',  (Louis  AUGUSTF.,)  a  French  land 
scape-painter,  born  near  Paris  in  1805.  Many  of  his 
works  are  in  the  royal  galleries  of  Luxembourg,  Tuile- 
ries,  etc. 

Laplace,  It'pltss',  (CYRILI.E  PIERRE  THEODORE,)  a 
French  navigator,  born  in  1793.  He  commanded  two 
scientific  expeditions,  of  which  he  gave  accounts  in  the 
following  works:  a  "Voyage  around  the  World,  per 


formed  in  1830-31-32,"  (5  vols.,  1833-39,)  and  "Circum 
navigation  of  the  Artemisia,  1837-40,"  (4  vols.,  1845-48.) 
lie  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in  1853. 

La  Place,  (PIERRE.)     See  PLACE,  DE  LA. 

Laplace,  (PIERRE  SIMON,)  one  of  the  greatest  as 
tronomers  and  mathematicians  of  any  age  or  country, 
was  born  at  Beaumont-en-Auge,  (Calvados,)  in  France, 
March  23,  1749.  His  father  was  a  peasant  or  poor 
farmer.  After  making  great  progress  in  the  high  mathe 
matics  at  the  Academy  of  Beaumont,  he  went  to  Paris, 
where,  through  the  influence  of  D'Alembert,  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  military  school  about 
1 768.  He  was  chosen  a  membre-adjoint  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1773,  and  about  that  time  produced  a  capital 
"'Memoir  on  Differential  Equations  and  the  Secular  In 
equalities  of  the  Planets."  Addressing  himself  to  the 
arduous  questions  of  mathematical  astronomy,  he  began 
to  confirm  the  theories  of  his  predecessors  and  to  demon 
strate  in  detail  the  principles  of  Newton.  In  1785  he 
became  a  titular  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  he  enriched  with  memoirs  on  pure  mathematics, 
general  astronomy,  and  the  theory  of  the  planets.  He 
favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  offered 
homage  to  the  rising  star  of  Bonaparte,  who  in  1799  nomi 
nated  him  minister  of  the  interior,  thinking,  perhaps, 
that  the  man  who  ascertained  the  laws  of  the  planetary 
perturbations  might  also  regulate  the  disturbing  forces 
of  the  social  and  political  spheres.  This  experiment  was 
a  failure,  and  Laplace  was  removed  from  that  office  to 
the  senat  consen'ateur  in  December,  1799.  "He  was," 
said  Napoleon,  "below  mediocrity  as  a  minister.  He 
looked  at  no  question  in  its  proper  point  of  view,  but, 
always  searching  for  subtleties,  aimed  to  conduct  the  gov 
ernment  on  the  principles  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus." 

In  1796  he  published  important  discoveries  in  his 
"  Exposition  of  the  System  of  the  Universe,"  ("Exposi 
tion  du  Systeme  du  Monde,")  which  is  a  kind  of  trans 
lation  into  popular  language,  without  analytical  formulas, 
of  his  greater  work,  "  La  Mecanique  celeste."  It  was 
the  "  Exposition"  that  procured  for  him  the  reputation 
of  a  pure  and  elegant  writer,  and  eventually  opened  to 
him  the  Academic  Frar^aise  in  1816.  The  clearness 
and  facility  with  which  he  explains  and  demonstrates  the 
great  laws  of  astronomy  render  this  work  one  of  the  most 
admirable  resumes  which  have  ever  appeared.  "  No  work 
of  that  kind  existed  at  that  time,"  says  Parisot,  "which 
combined  the  same  merits  in  the  same  degree."  He 
received  the  title  of  count  in  1806.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  member,  and  eventually  president,  of  the  bureau 
of  longitudes.  In  1814  he  voted  to  erect  a  provisional 
government  on  the  ruins  of  Napoleon's  empire,  and  he 
remained  aloof  from  the  Imperialist  party  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  He  was  created  Marquis  Laplace  in 
1817,  and  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  had  been  chosen  an  associate 
of  many  foreign  Academies.  Among  his  important  pro 
ductions  are  "  The  Analytic  Theory  of  Probabilities," 
(1812,)  and  a  "Philosophic  Essay  on  Probabilities," 
(1814.)  The  capital  monument  of  his  genius  is  his 
"Treatise  on  Celestial  Mechanics,"  ("  Traite  de  la  Me 
canique  celeste,"  5  vols.,  1799-1825,)  which  will  doubt 
less  preserve  his  memory  to  the  latest  posterity.  Among 
his  great  discoveries  are  the  theory  of  Jupiter's  satel 
lites,  and  the  causes  of  the  grand  inequality  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn,  and  of  the  acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean 
motion.  He  shares  the  honour  of  proving  the  stability 
of  the  planetary  system  with  Lagrange,  than  whom  he 
has  attained  a  higher  celebrity  by  ranging  over  a  wider 
field  of  discovery.  One  of  his  last  expressions  was, 
"  What  we  know  is  but  little,  (pen  de  chose ;)  that  which 
we  know  not  is  immense."  Died  in  1827. 

See  FOURIER,  "  FJoge  de  La  Place;"  AKAGO,  "Biographic  de 
La  Place,"  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  published  in  1859;) 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale ;"  PUISIEUX  et  CHARLES,  "No 
tices  snr  Malherbe,  Laplace."  etc.,  1847:  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  February,  1809;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1808, 
and  January,  1810;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

La  Place  or  Laplace,  de,  deh  13'pltss',  (CHARLES 
EMILE  PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  MARQUIS,  a  son  of  the  great 
astronomer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1789.  He  entered 
the  army  young,  and  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Ger 
many,  (1809,)  of  Russia,  (1812,)  and  of  France,  (1814.) 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


LA  PLACE 


'373 


LARDNER 


In  1827  he  was  admitted  into  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1843,  and  a  senator  in  1853. 

La  Place,  de,  [Lat.  PLAC.-E'US,]  (JosuE,)  a  French 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Bretagne  about  1605.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Saumur  in  1633.  Among 
his  works  are  a  treatise  "On  the  Imputation  of  the  First 
Sin  of  Adam,"  ("De  Imputatione  Primi  Peccati  Adami," 
1655,)  in  which  he  opposes  the  doctrine  that  the  sin  of 
Adam  is  imputed  to  all  his  posterity,  and  "An  Argument 
for  the  Divinity  of  Christ,"  (1657.)  Died  in  1665. 

La  Placette,  \'&  plf'seY,  (JKAN,)  a  French  Protestant 
divine  and  moralist,  born  at  Pontac  in  1639.  lie  emi 
grated  when  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  in  1685, 
and  was  pastor  of  the  French  church  in  Copenhagen 
from  1686  to  1711.  Among  his  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed,  are  "  Essays  on  Morality,"  (2d  edition,  4  vols., 
1697,)  and  "Christian  Morals  reduced  to  Three  Princi 
pal  Duties  :  the  Repentance  of  Sinners,  the  Perseverance 
of  the  Righteous,  and  Growth  in  Grace,"  (1695.)  Died 
in  1718. 

See  NICERON,  "  Me'moires  ;"  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litte'raire." 

La  Planche.     See  REGMER,  (Louis.) 

Lapo,  la'po,  a  Florentine  architect,  was  the  pupil  of 
NVcolo  de  Pisa,  and  a  friend  of  Arnolfo  di  Lapo.  Va- 
sari  represents  him  as  a  German,  (whose  proper  name 
was  Jacob  or  Jacopo,)  and  as  the  father  of  Arnolfo  ;  but 
others  have  disproved  both  of  these  statements.  lie 
adorned  Florence  with  many  fine  edifices,  which  time 
has  destroyed.  Died  about  1275. 

Lapo,  (diminutive  of  Jacopo,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  in  Tuscany,  taught  canon  law  at  Florence  more  than 
twenty  years,  and  was  chosen  captain  or  chief  of  the 
Guelph  party.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  researches 
for  manuscripts  of  classic  authors,  and  had  the  good  for 
tune  to  find  Cicero's  oration  for  Miloand  the  Philippics, 
which  he  sent  to  his  intimate  friend  Petrarch.  Died  in  1381. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Lapo  Gianni,  la'po  jan'nee,  an  Italian  poet,  a  native 
of  Florence,  lived  about  1250. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lapo,  di,  de  la'po,  (ARNOI.FO,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  near  Florence  about  1232, 
was  the  son  of  Cambio,  and  the  pupil  of  Cimabue  in  de 
sign,  lie  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  Tuscan 
architect  in  his  time.  About  1294  he  began  to  erect 
the  church  of  Santa  Croce  in  Florence.  His  greatest 
work  is  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  called  also 
the  Duomo,  or  Cathedral,  of  Florence,  which,  however, 
he  left  unfinished.  Its  noble  and  beautiful  dome  was 
the  work  of  Brunelleschi.  Among  his  master-pieces  of 
sculpture  is  the  tabernacle  of  the  basilica  of  San  Paolo, 
near  Rome.  Died  about  1300. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Lapointe,  iS'pwaxt',  (SAVINIF.N,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Sens  (Yonne)  in  1812,  was  a  shoemaker  in  his  youth. 
He  was  befriended  by  Be'ranger  and  Victor  Hugo,  with 
whose  aid  he  published  a  volume  of  verses  called  "A 
Voice  from  Below,"  ("  Une  Voix  d'en  bas,"  1844.)  He 
wrote  interesting  "Memoirs  of  Beranger,"  (1857.) 

Laponneraye,  13'pon'ri',  (ALHERT,)  a  French  his 
torical  writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1808,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1789  to  1840,"  (3  vols.,  1840.)  Died  in  1849. 

Laporte  or  La  Porte,  de,  deh  li'poRt',  (HIPPOLYTE,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1770. 
Among  his  works  are  "Ivelina,"  (3  vols.,  1830,)  and 
"Recollections  of  an  Emigrant,"  (1843.)  Died  in  1852. 

La  Porte,  de,  ( JOSEPH,)  AiU!E\  a  French  critic  and 
compiler,  born  at  Befort  in  1713.  The  most  important 
or  popular  of  his  compilations  was  the  "French  Trav 
eller,"  ("Voyageur  Frai^ais,")  a  melange  of  romantic 
adventures  and  historical  narratives,  (42  vols.,  1765-95.) 
Died  in  1779. 

Laporte  du  Theil.     See  DUTHEIL  r>E  LA  PORTE. 

Lappe,  lap'peh,  (KARL,)  a  popular  German  poet,  born 
near  Wolgast  in  1774,  published  "Funereal  Garlands," 
("  Friedhofskranze,")  and  other  works. 

Lappenberg,  lap'pen-be'RG',  (JoiiANN  MARTIN,)  an 
able  German  historian,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1794.  He 
studied  in  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Berlin,  and  was  ap 


pointed  minister  to  the  court  of  Berlin  in  1820.  In  1823 
he  became  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  senate  of  Ham 
burg.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  continua 
tion  of  Sartorius's  "Authentic  History  of  the  Origin 
of  the  German  Hanse  Towns,"  (1830,)  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  England  under  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings," 
(2  vols.,  1834-37,)  which  has  been  translated  into  Eng 
lish  by  Thorpe.  Died  in  1865. 

Lappoli,  lap'po-lee,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1492.  He  worked  in  Rome  and  at 
Arezzo.  Died  in  1552. 

Laprade,  de,  deh  It'pRJtd',  (PIERRE  MARIN  VICTOR 
RICHARD,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Montbrison  in  1812, 
is  called  a  disciple  of  Lamartine.  His  "Symphonies" 
(1856)  opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  French  Academy 
in  1858,  and  are  praised  by  M.  Villemain. 

La  Primaudaye,  de,  deh  IJt  pue'mf/di',  (PIERRE,) 
a  French  writer,  born  about  1545.  Among  his  works 
was  "L'Acade'mie  Fran£oise,"  (1577,  often  reprinted.) 

La  Quintiivie.     See  QUINTINIE,  DE  LA. 

Larauza,  It'ro'zi',  QEAN  Louis,)  a  French  teacher, 
born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Pas 
sage  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal,"  (1826.)  Died  in  1825. 

La  Ravardiere,  de,  deh  la"  r&'vaVde-aiR',  (DANIEL 
DE  LA  TOUSCHE,)  SIEUR,  a  French  explorer,  born  in 
Poitou  about  1570.  He  conducted  an  expedition  to 
Brazil  in  1611,  and  planted  a  colony  on  the  island  of 
Maranham  ;  but  they  were  expelled  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1615.  Died  after  1630. 

Larcher,  ItR'sha',  (PIERRE  HENRI,)  a  French  littcra- 
teiir  and  Hellenist,  born  at  Dijon  in  1726.  After  trans 
lating  several  works  from  the  English,  he  published  in 
1767  an  able  work,  entitled  "Supplement  to  the  Phi 
losophy  of  History,"  which  was  designed  to  refute  Vol 
taire,  from  whom  it  drew  a  sarcastic  reply.  His  chief 
work  is  a  translation  of  Herodotus  into  French,  with  a 
commentary,  (1786,)  which  is  highly  prized  as  a  monu 
ment  of  learning,  but  has  no  beauty  of  style.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  third  class  of  the  Institute  or  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  Died  in  1812. 

See  DACIKR,  "  filoge  de  Larcher;"  ROISSONADE,  "Notice  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  M.  Larcher,"  1813;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lardizabal,  de,  da  laR-de-tha-bal',  (Don  MANUEL,) 
a  Spanish  minister  of  state,  born  in  Biscay  about  1750. 
In  1814  Ferdinand  VII.  appointed  him  minister  of  the 
Indies.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  imprisoned  for  some 
unknown  reason,  and  died  in  exile  in  1823. 

Lard'ner,  (DiONYSius,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  scien 
tific  writer  and  editor,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1793, 
and  educated  at  Trinity  College.  He  wrote  at  college  a 
"  Treatise  on  Algebraic  Geometry,"  (1823.)  His  "  Popu 
lar  Lectures  on  the  Steam  Engine"  (1828)  passed  through 
many  editions.  In  1828  he  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  London  University,  and  projected  the 
"Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,"  to  which  Hersche),  Brewster, 
and  other  eminent  authors  contributed.  For  this  work, 
which  appeared  in  134  volumes,  (1830-44,)  Dr.  Lardner 
wrote  the  treatises  on  hydrostatics,  pneumatics,  geome 
try,  etc.  Between  1840  and  1845  he  delivered  in  the 
chief  cities  of  the  United  States  scientific  lectures,  which 
were  published,  and  favourably  received.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1845,  after  which  he  published 
hand-books  of  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  other 
sciences.  Died  in  1859. 

Lardner,  (NATHANIEL,)  D.D.,  an  English  theologian 
of  great  merit,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1684.  He  studied 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  became  a  dissenting  minis 
ter.  From  1713  to  1729  he  was  chaplain  in  the  family 
of  Lady  Treby.  He  began  to  preach  to  the  Presbyterian 
congregation  of  Old  Jewry,  London,  in  1723.  In  1727 
he  published  the  first  part  of  his  "Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,"  a  work  of  profound  reasoning  and 
research,  and  one  of  the  most  successful  arguments  in 
defence  of  Christianity  ever  given  to  the  world.  Re 
ferring  to  this  work,  Sir  James  Mackintosh  remarks  that 
it  "soon  wearies  out  the  greater  part  of  readers,  though 
the  few  who  are  more  patient  have  almost  always  been 
gradually  won  over  to  feel  pleasure  in  a  display  of  know 
ledge,  probity,  charity,  and  meekness  unmatched  by  an 
avowed  advocate  in  a  case  deeply  interesting  his  warmest 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  Mw. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  RENAUDIERE 


'374 


LAROON 


feelings."  (See  his  remarks  on  Paley  in  the  "  View  of 
the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.")  Between  1731 
and  1743  he  produced  five  more  volumes  of  the  same 
work.  He  was  the  author  of  other  treatises,  one  of 
which  ("Letter  on  the  Logos,"  or  "Word")  advocates 
Socinian  doctrines.  Died  in  1768. 

See  KIP  PIS,  "  Life  of  N.  Lardner,"  prefixed  to  his  complete  Works, 
ii  vols.,  1788;  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  the  Rev.  N.  Lardner," 
London,  1769. 

La  Renaudiere,  de,  deh  It  reh'ii5'd(>aiR',  (PHILIPPE 
FRANCOIS,)  a  French  geographer,  born  at  Vire,  in  Nor 
mandy,  in  1781,  was  associated  with  Malte-Bi  un  as  editor 
of  the  "  Annales  des  Voyages,"  (54  vols.,  1826-39.)  He 
published  several  geographical  works.  Died  in  1845. 

Larentia.     See  ACCA  LAUKENTIA. 

La/res,  a  name  applied  to  genii,  or  inferior  gods  of 
human  origin,  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans.  The 
Lares  were  believed  to  preside  over  houses  and  families, 
and  were  divided  into  several  classes,  as  Lares  domestic!, 
Lares  public!,  Lares  urbani,  etc.  They  were  supposed 
to  be  the  spirits  of  good  men  who  had  died,  and  were 
partly  identified  with  the  Manes.  (See  MANES.) 

Lareveillere-Lepaux  or  Larevelliere-Lepeaux, 
de,  deh  iS'ra'vil'ytxjJit'  la'po',  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Mortagne  in  1753.  He  was  deputed  to  the  Con 
vention  in  1792,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
defended  the  proscribed  Girondists  in  1793,  for  which  he 
was  doomed  to  die,  but  escaped  by  concealing  himself. 
In  1795  he  resumed  his  place  in  the  Convention,  where 
he  acquired  the  reputation  of  an  effective  speaker,  and 
in  October  of  that  year  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Directory.  lie  presided  over  the  department 
of  science,  morals,  and  religion,  and  showed  his  hostility 
to  the  Catholics,  who  stigmatized  him  as  a  fanatic  and 
"  theophilanthropist."  He  acted  with  Barras  and  the 
majority  of  the  Directors  in  the  coup  tfftat  of  the  iSth 
Fructidor,  (September,  1797.)  The  Directors  became 
divided  into  two  parties,  in  which  Lepaux  was  opposed 
to  Barras,  and,  finding  himself  in  a  minority,  he  re 
signed  in  June,  1799.  Died  in  1824. 

See,  also,  THIERS.  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Lareveillere-Lepeaux,  (OssiAN,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
He  wrote  important  articles  for  the  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Largilliere,  ItR'zhe'ye-aiR',  (NICOLAS,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  of  portrait-Tand  history,  born  in  Paris  in 
1656,  was  called  "the  French  Van  Dyck."  He  worked 
some  years  in  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  of 
James  II.  and  his  queen.  In  1686  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Paris.  He  surpassed  all  his 
French  rivals  in  portraits  except  Rigaud,  worked  with 
great  facility,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Charles  Lebrun.  Died 
in  1746. 

See  CHARLES  BI.ANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  :"  HORACE  WAL- 
POI.E,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

La  Riboisiere  or  Lariboisiere,  de,  deh  It're'bwa'- 
zcj-aiR',  (JEAN  AMUROISE  BASTON,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Fougeres  in  1759.  He  became  a  general  of  di 
vision  in  1807,  and  directed  the  artillery  with  skill  at 
Eylau,  Dantzic,  and  Friedland.  Died  in  1813. 

La  Rive,  de,  deh  It  rev,  (AUGUSTE,)  a  Swiss  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1790,  was  a  son  of  the 
following.  He  became  professor  of  physics  in  his  native 
city,  and  wrote  many  treatises  on  electricity,  the  voltaic 
pile,  etc. 

La  Rive  or  Larive,  de,  (CHARLES  GASPARD,)  a  Swiss 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1 770.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  voltafc  electricity,  and  about  1820 
constructed  a  pile  of  five  hundred  pairs.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  action  of  the  electric 
current  on  the  magnetic  needle.  Died  in  1834. 

Larive  or  La  Rive,  de,  deh  la  rev,  (JEAN  Mauduit 
— mo'dti-e',)  a  popular  French  tragedian,  born  at  La  Ro- 
chelle  about  1746.  He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1770, 
and  for  many  years  was  a  prime  favourite.  His  voice  and 
gestures  were  admirable.  No  actor  of  his  time  possessed 
in  such  perfection  the  tone  of  command,  of  disdain,  of 
irony,  and  of  menace.  He  performed  "  Achilles,"  "  Spar- 


tacus,"   "  Philoctetes,"  "Bayard,"  and  "William  Tell" 
with  great  success.     He  was  imprisoned  more  than  a 
year  by  the  Jacobins  in  1793-94.     Died  in  1827. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Larivey,  de,  deh  It're'va',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  drama 
tist,  born  at  Troves  about  1550.  He  published  in  1579 
the  "  Laquais,"  and  other  comedies,  which  in  humour 
are  compared  to  those  of  Moliere.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  in  France  who  chose  subjects  for  comedy  from  real 
life,  and  the  first  Frenchman  who  wrote  original  dramas 
in  prose.  Died  about  1612. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneYale." 

La  Riviere.     See  RIVIERE. 

Lariviere,  It're've^-aiR',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1802.  He 
obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1824,  and  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  at  the  Exposition  of  1855.  Among  his  works  is 
"Bayard  wounded  at  Brescia,"  (about  1838.) 

Lariviere  or  La  Riviere,  de,  deh  Izt'rc've-aiR', 
(PIERRE  JOACHIM  HENRI,)  a  French  lawyer  and  orator 
of  the  Girondist  party,  was  born  at  Falaise  in  1761.  lie 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  struggle  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793.  He  found  refuge  in  Calvados, 
and  resumed  his  seat  in  1795.  Died  in  1838. 

Larmessin,  IttR'm.VsaN',  (NICOLAS,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1640,  produced  numerous 
portraits  of  illustrious  men.  His  son,  NICOLAS,  born  in 
1683,  surpassed  his  father  in  the  same  art.  lie  engraved 
portraits  and  history  with  equal  success,  and  received 
the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king.  Died  in  1755. 

Laniac,  laVntk',  (FRANQOIS,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1760;  died  in  1840. 

Lar'ned,  (Rev.  SYLVESTER,)  an  American  Presbyte 
rian  divine,  born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1796.  He 
studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  subsequently  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  New  Orleans,  where  he  died  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever  in  1820.  A  collection 
of  his  sermons  was  published  in  1844. 

Laroche  or  La  Roche,  It'rosh',  (BENJAMIN,)  a 
French  poet  and  translator,  born  in  1797,  produced  good 
translations  of  "  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  Shakspeare's 
works,  (6  vols.,)  Byron's  complete  works,  (4  vols.,)  and 
the  complete  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  wrote  a 
poem  called  "The  Funeral  of  Liberty,"  (1820.)  Died 
in  1852. 

Laroche,  It'rosh',  (MARIE  SOPHIE,)  a  German  mis 
cellaneous  writer,  born  at  Kaufbeuren  in  1731,  was  the 
author  of  "  Moral  Tales,"  "  Rosalie's  Letters,"  and  sev 
eral  popular  romances.  Died  in  1807. 

Laroche  du  Maine.  See  LUCHET,  (JEAN  PIERRE 
Louis.) 

La  Rochefoucauld.     See  ROCHEFOUCAULD. 

Larochejacquelin.     See  ROCHEJAQUELEIN. 

La  Rochejaquelein.    See  ROCHEJAQUELEIN. 

Laromiguiere,  la'ro'me'gexuK',  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent 
French  metaphysical  philosopher,  born  in  Rouergue 
(now  Aveyron)  in  November,  1756.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Toulouse  in  1784.  Having 
removed  to  Paris,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1796.  As  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of 
Letters,  he  delivered,  in  1811  and  1812,  a  series  of  lec 
tures  which  were  attended  and  admired  by  the  elite  of 
the  capital.  He  retained  the  title  of  professor  after  1812, 
but  ceased  to  lecture,  and  published  in  1815  "Lectures 
on  Intellectual  Philosophy,  or  on  the  Cause  and  Origin 
of  our  Ideas,"  ("  Lemons  de  Philosophic  sur  les  Principcs 
de  1'Intelligence,  ou  sur  les  Causes  et  sur  les  Origines 
de  nos  Idees,"  2  vols.)  This  work  was  adopted  by  the 
government  as  a  text-book  for  public  instruction.  Died 
11  August,  1837.  "  He  left  a  fair  and  pure  renown,"  says 
M.  Cousin,  who  delivered  an  oration  at  his  funeral. 

See  DAUXOU,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages   de  Laromi- 

.  uiere,"  iS-jq;  MIGNET,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits 

de  Laromiguiire,"  1856;  VALETTE,  "  Laromiguiere  et  1'liclectisme," 

"42;  article  by  C.  MAI. LET  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Laroon,  la-ron',  (MARCELLUS,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  the  Hague  in  16^3,  was  skilful  in  copying  the  works 
of  great  masters.  He  worked  some  years  in  England. 
Died  in  1705. 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat:  met:  not;  good;  moon; 


LARRA 


1375 


LA  SALLE 


Larra,  de,  da  Idr'ra,  (Don  MARIANO  JOSE,)  a  popular 
and  witty  Spanish  author,  born  at  Madrid  in  1809.  He 
had  no  profession  except  literature.  In  1832  he  pub 
lished  a  satirical  journal,  "El  Pobrecito  Hablador," 
which  was  suppressed  after  the  appearance  of  the  four 
teenth  number,  and  a  few  years  later,  as  chief  editor  of 
the  "Spanish  Review,"  ("  Revista  Espanola,")  produced, 
under  the  signature  of  "  Figaro,"  able  articles  on  Span 
ish  politics,  manners,  literature,  etc.  He  published 
"  Macias,"  and  other  dramas.  All  his  works  bear  the 
decided  stamp  of  the  Spanish  national  character.  He 
committed  suicide  in  1837,  before  which  he  had  been 
subject  to  deep  melancholy. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Larrameiidi,  lar-ra-men'dee,  (MANUEL,)  a  Spanish 
philologist,  born  in  Guipuzcoa.  He  wrote  on  the  Basque 
language.  Died  in  1750. 

Larrey,  It'ri',  (CLAUDE  FRANCOIS  HILAIRE,)  a  French 
physician  and  writer,  born  in  1774,  was  a  brother  of 
Dominique  Jean,  noticed  below.  He  practised  at  Nimes. 
Died  in  1819. 

Larrey,  (DOMINIQUE  JEAN,)  BARON,  a  French  surgeon 
of  great  merit,  born  near  Bagneres-de-Bigorre  (Plaut- 
Pyrenees)  in  1766.  Having  served  a  short  time  in  the 
navy,  he  entered  the  land-army  about  1792,  and  rendered 
important  services  by  the  invention  of  the  ambulances 
Z'olantes,  (flying  hospital.)  He  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  published  a  "Historical  and  Sur 
gical  Account  of  the  Expedition  to  the  East,"  (1803.) 
He  received  the  title  of  baron  about  1810,  and  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  grand  army  in  1812.  At  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  in  1815,  he  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner.  Under  the  restoration  he  was  chief  surgeon 
of  the  royal  guards  and  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  until 
he  resigned  in  1836.  He  died  in  1842,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  virtue  and  talents.  He  had  published 
"Memoirs of  Medicine  and  Military  Surgery,"  (1812-18,) 
"Collection  of  Treatises  on  Surgery,"  ("Recueil  de  Me- 
moires  de  Chirurgie,"  1821,)  and  other  excellent  works. 
Bonaparte  in  his  will  mentions  Larrey  as  "the  most 
virtuous  man  I  have  ever  known." 

See  Louis  DE  LOMENIE,  "  I.e  Baron  Larrey,  par  un  Homtne  de 
Rien,"  1840;  J.  SAINT-AMOUR,  "Notice  necrologique  sur  D.  J. 
Larrey,"  1844 ;  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Biographic 
Meciicale  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  March,  1819. 

Larrey,  (FELIX  HIPPOLYTE,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1810.  He 
became  surgeon-ordinary  to  Napoleon  III.,  and  in  1858 
medecin-inspecteur  of  the  army. 

Larrey,  de,  deli  It'ri',  (ISAAC,)  a  French  Protestant 
historian,  born  at  Montivilliers  in  1638.  Having  become 
an  exile  for  the  sake  of  religion,  he  took  up  his  residence 
in  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  an  aulic  councillor  by  the 
Elector.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  Augustus,"  (1690,)  a  "History  of  England,"  (1697- 
1713,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Seven  Sages  of  Greece," 
(1713-16,)  which  were  favourably  received.  Died  in 
Berlin  in  1719. 

Larrivee,  iS're'va',  (HENRI,)  a  celebrated  French 
operatic  performer  and  singer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1733. 
lie  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1755,  and  maintained 
his  reputation  in  the  opera  for  thirty  years.  Died  in 
1802. 

Larroque,  IS'rok',  (DANIEL,)  born  at  Vitre  in  1660, 
became  a  Catholic,  and  lived  in  Paris,  where  he  was  a 
clerk  in  the  bureaus  of  De  Torcy,  secretary  of  state. 
He  displayed  literary  talents  in  several  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Proselyte  Abused,"  (1684,)  and  the  "Life 
of  Mezeray."  Died  in  1731. 

Larroque,  de,  deh  IS'rok',  (MATHIEU,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  theologian,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lairac,  near  Agen,  in  1619.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  church  of  Vitre  from  1643  to  1669,  after  which  he 
preached  at  Rouen.  His  "History  of  the  Eucharist" 
(1669)  was  highly  esteemed.  He  wrote  several  other 
works.  Died  in  1684. 

See  "  Life  of  M.  Larroque,"  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  his  "Adver 
saria  Sacra,"  1688 ;  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Larruga,  lar-roo'ga,  (Don  EUGENIC,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  political  economy,  commenced  a  work  entitled  "  Po 


litical  and  Economical  Memoirs  on  the  Industry,  Mines, 
and  other  Resources  of  Spain."  Forty-eight  volumes 
had  been  issued  at  his  death,  in  1804. 

La  Rue  or  Larue,  de,  deh  IS'rii',  [Lat.  RU/E'US,] 
(CHARLES,)  a  French  poet  and  eloquent  preacher,  born 
in  Paris  in  1643.  He  composed,  in  Latin,  tragedies  and 
other  poems,  one  of  which,  on  the  victories  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  translated  into  French  by  P.  Corneille,  (1667.) 
His  Sermons  were  published  in  4  vols.,  1719.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Sylla"  is  commended.  He  prepared  an 
edition  of  Virgil  "in  usum  Delphini,"  (1675,)  °ftei1  re 
printed.  Died  in  1725. 

La  Rue,  It  rii,  [Lnt.  RU^E'US,]  (FRANgois,)  a  Flemish 
naturalist,  born  at  Lille  about  1520;  died  in  1585. 

La  Rue,  It  rii,  (PIERRE,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  biographer, 
born  at  Middelburg  in  1695. 

Larue,  de,  (GERVAIS.)     See  DELARUE. 

La  Sabliere.     See  SABLIERK,  DE  LA. 

La  Sabliere,  de,  deh  It  sS'ble-aiR',  (ANTOINE  DE 
RAMBOUILLET,)  SIEUR,  a  French  poet  and  financier, 
born  in  Paris  in  1624;  died  in  1679. 

Lasagni,  la-san'yee,  (BARTOLOMMEO  VINCENZO  GIU 
SEPPE,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Rome  in  1773.  He  was 
a  judge  or  counsellor  in  the  French  court  of  cassation 
in  Paris  from  1810  to  1850.  Died  in  1857. 

La  Sale  or  La  Salle,  de,  deh  If  sal,  (ANTOINEJ  a 
French  writer,  born  about  1398.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  satire  entitled  "  Les  quinze  Joyes  de  Mariage," 
("The  Fifteen  Comforts  of  Matrimony,")  which  was  often 
reprinted.  Died  after  1461. 

La  Sale,  de,  (ROBERT  CAVELIER.)     See  LA  SALLE. 

Lasalle  or  La  Salle,  de,  deh  It  sfl,  (ANTOINE,)  a 
French  metaphysician,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  published 
"The  Natural  Balance,"  (1788,) and  "Moral  Mechanics," 
(2  vols.,  1789.)  He  translated  the  works  of  Lord  Bacon 
into  French,  (15  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1829. 

Lasalle,  de,  (ANTOINE  CHARLES  Louis  COI.LINET,) 
COUNT,  a  French  officer,  born  at  Metz  in  1775,  served 
in  several  campaigns  in  Italy.  In  1798  he  followed 
Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where  he  gave  proof  of  courage 
at  the  Pyramids  'and  Thebes.  As  general  of  brigade, 
he  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Austerlitz  (1805)  and 
Jena,  (1806.)  At  the  end  of  1806  he  was  made  general  of 
division.  In  the  second  Austrian  war  he  commanded 
the  cavalry  of  the  advanced  guard  at  Raab,  Essling,  and 
finally  at  Wagram,  where  he  was  killed  in  July,  1809. 

See  E.  A.  BEGIN,  "Vie  mi'itaire  du  Comte  de  Lasalle,"  1830; 
PIGAUI.T-  LEBRV.V,  "  filoge  historique  du  General  de  Lasalle," 
1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Salle  or  La  Sale,  de,  (ROBERT  Cavelier — kSv'- 
le-i',)  an  enterprising  Frenchman,  who  has  rendered  his 
name  memorable  by  his  exploration  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  was  born  at  Rouen  about  1635.  He  emigrated 
to  Canada  in  1667,  and  engaged  in  the  fur-trade,  making 
long  excursions  among  the  native  tribes.  In  1675  he  was 
appointed  by  Colbert  governor  of  Fort  Frontenac,  and 
was  encouraged  to  pursue  discoveries  which  his  own 
ambition  or  enterprising  spirit  had  suggested.  Having 
built  a  vessel  on  Lake  Erie,  he  began  his  voyage  in 
August,  1679,  and  passed  through  Lakes  Huron  and 
Michigan.  He  built  a  fort  at  Peoria,  Illinois,  and,  as  his 
vessel  had  been  wrecked,  returned  by  land  to  Frontenac 
in  1680.  In  1682  he  renewed  the  enterprise  with  a  nume 
rous  party,  and  descended  the  Mississippi  in  canoes  from 
the  Illinois  River  to  its  mouth,  where  he  arrived  in  April, 
1682.  The  part  of  this  river  below  the  Arkansas  had  never 
before  been  explored  by  a  European.  In  1683  he  went 
to  France,  and,  having  obtained  a  commission  to  plant 
a  colony  in  Louisiana,  undertook  a  voyage  to  that  region 
by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  1684,  but"  failed  to  find  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  landed  in  Texas.  There 
he  encountered  great  difficulties,  and  at  last  was  mur 
dered  by  his  own  mutinous  crew,  in  March,  1687.  "  His 
capacity  for  large  designs,"  says  Professor  Jared  Sparks, 
"  and  for  procuring  the  resources  to  carry  them  forward, 
has  few  parallels  among  the  most  eminent  discoverers. 
To  him  must  be  mainly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the 
vast  regions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

See  "  Memoir  of  La  Salle,"  in  SPARKS'S  "American  Biography," 
vol.  i,  2d  series;  "Journal  historique  du  dernier  Voyage  de  La 
Salle,"  par  MICHEL,  1723;  HII.DKETH,  "History  of  the  United 
States,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  xviii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (33f='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  SANTE 


1376 


LASOURCE 


La  Sante  or  Lasante,  de,  cleh  It  soNt,  (GILLES 
ANNE  XAVIER,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Bretagne  in  1684,  taught  belles-lettres  in  Paris,  and 
numbered  Turgot  among  his  pupils.  Died  in  1762. 

Lasaulx,  von,  fon  l&'so',  (ERNST,)  a  German  phi 
lologist  and  writer  of  classic  antiquities,  was  born  at 
Coblentz  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of  philology 
at  Munich  in  1844,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  On 
the  Oracle  of  Dodona,"  (1841,)  "On  the  Myth  of  Pro 
metheus,"  (1843,)  and  "  Studies  on  Classical  Antiquity," 
(1854.)  Died  in  1861. 

La  Saussaye,  de,  cleh  It  so's&',  (JKAN  FRANCOIS  DE 
PAULK  Lours  PETIT,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Blois 
in  1801.  His  "  Numismatics  of  Narbonese  Gaul"  ("Nu- 
mismatique  de  Gaule  Narbonnaise,"  1842)  opened  to  him 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

Lasca,  lils'ka,  (ANTONIO  FRANCESCO  GRAZZINI,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Florence  in  1503.  In 
1540  he  founded  the  Florentine  Academy,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Lasca,  ("  Mullet.")  He  afterwards  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  new  Academy,  called  Delia  Crusca,  the  aim 
of  which  should  be  to  perfect  the  Tuscan  language.  His 
most  famous  work  is  a  collection  of  tales,  entitled  "  The 
First  and  Second  Supper,"  ("  La  prima  e  la  seconda 
Cena.")  He  also  composed  sonnets,  satirical  poems,  and 
"Gtlosia"  and  other  comedies  in  prose.  His  works  are 
recognized  as  authorities  (testi  di lingua)  by  the  Academy 
Delia  Crusca.  Died  in  1583. 

See  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Lascaris  or  Lascari.     See  CARBURIS,  (MARINO.) 

Lascaris,  lis/ka-res,  (AGOSTINO,)  Marquis  of  Vinti- 
miglia,  an  Italian  general  and  agriculturist,  born  at  Turin 
in  1776.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  agriculture.  Died 
in  1838. 

Las'ca-ris,  (ANDREAS  JOHANNES,)  surnamed  RHYN- 
DACENUS,  a  noble  Greek  scholar.  About  1454  he  went 
as  a  fugitive  to  the  court  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  by  whom 
he  was  patronized.  In  or  before  1495  he  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  taught  Greek  to  Budceus  and  others. 
Leo  X.  placed  him  at  the  head  of  a  Greek  college  in 
Rome  about  1508.  Between  1518  and  1534116  resided 
chiefly  in  Paris  or  Venice,  whither  Francis  I.  sent  him 
as  ambassador.  He  edited  "The  Greek  Anthology," 
(1494,)  "Commentaries  on  Sophocles,"  (1518,)  and  other 
Greek  works.  Died  in  1535. 

See  BAYI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  PAOLO  Giovio, 
"  Elogia  Virorum  illustrium." 

Lascaris,  (CONSTANTINE.)  a  Greek  scholar,  who 
contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  learning,  was  a  de 
scendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Constantinople.  After 
the  conquest  of  that  city  by  the  Turks,  he  took  refuge  in 
Italy,  (1454,)  and  was  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Milan 
to  give  lessons  in  Greek  to  his  daughter  Ippolita.  He 
afterwards  taught  Greek  at  Rome,  Naples,  and  Messina, 
where  he  died  about  1494.  His  Greek  Grammar  (1476) 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  work  printed  in  Greek 
characters. 

See  Hooius,  " De  Grscis  illustribus ;"  VJLI.EMAIN,  "Lascaris, 
on  les  Gvfccs  du  quinzieme  Siecle,"  7825. 

Lascaris,  Its'kf'ress',  (PAUL  Louis,)  a  French  trav 
eller,  born  in  Provence  in  1774.  In  the  service  of  Bona 
parte,  he  traversed  Syria  and  Asiatic  Turkey  between 
1803  and  1814  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  friendship 
of  the  Bedouins  and  preparing  the  way  for  an  expedi 
tion  to  India.  He  died  at  Cairo  in  1815,  leaving  notes, 
which  were  published  by  Lamartine. 

Lascaris,  (THEODORE  I.,)  a  Greek  emperor,  eminent 
for  political  and  military  talents,  born  about  1175.  He 
married  about  1200  the  daughter  of  Alexis  III.,  who 
had  usurped  the  throne  of  his  brother  Isaac.  After  a 
brave  resistance  to  the  crusaders,  who  took  Constanti 
nople  in  1204,  he  was  elected  emperor  and  made  himself 
master  of  Bithynia.  He  was  crowned  as  emperor  at 
Nic?ea  in  1206.  He  waged  war  for  several  years  against 
the  French  or  Latins,  and  defeated  Alexis  (above  named) 
near  Antioch  in  1210.  He  died  in  1222,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son-in-law,  John  Ducas  Vatatzes. 

Lascaris,  (THEODORE  II.,)  the  son  of  John  Ducas, 
became  Emperor  of  Nicasa  in  1255.  He  waged  a  suc 
cessful  war  against  the  Bulgarians.  He  died  in  1259, 


leaving  an  infant  son,  John,  whose  throne  was  usurped 
by  Michael  Palaeologus. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Mi- 
CHAUD,  "  History  of  the  Crusades;"  LE  BEAU,  "Histoire  du  Bas- 
Enipire. " 

Las  Casas.     See  CASAS,  DE  LAS. 

Las  Cases,  de,  cleh  las  kaz,  (KMMANUEL  AUGUSTIN 
DIKUDO.NNE  MARIN  JOSEPH,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  officer, 
distinguished  as  a  companion  of  Bonaparte  at  Saint 
Helena,  was  born  near  Revel,  in  Languedoc,  in  1766. 
He  served  some  years  in  the  navy,  emigrated  in  1789, 
fought  for  the  royal  cause  at  Quiberon,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1800.  He  became  chamberlain  to  Bonaparte 
in  1810,  and  followed  him  into  exile  in  1815.  In  Novem 
ber,  1816,  he  was  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
he  was  imprisoned  several  months,  after  which  he  was 
taken  to  Europe.  He  had  kept  a  journal  of  Napoleon's 
conversation,  which  he  published,  under  the  title  of  "  Me 
morial  of  Saint  Helena,"  (Svols.,  1822-23.)  Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Memoires  d'E.  A.  D.  Comte  de  Las  Cases,  communiques 
par  lui-meme,"  etc.,  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
"Mouthy  Review"  for  March  and  May,  1823. 

Las  Cases,  de,  (EMMANUEL  PONS  DIEUDONNE,)  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Finisterre  in  1800.  lie 
fought  for  the  popular  cause  in  Paris  in  July,  1830,  and 
sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1848.  He 
became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Lasco  or  Laski.     See  A   LASCO. 

Las'9Jf,  (or  La'cy,)  de,  (PETER,)  COUNT,  an  Irish 
general,  father  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Limerick 
in  1678.  Having  entered  the  Russian  service,  he  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  in  1709  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  Pultowa.  The  Czar  Peter  appointed  him  general -in- 
chief  of  the  infantry  about  1722.  In  1734  he  commanded 
an  army  against  the  Poles  under  Stanislas, -and  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  He  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Swedes  at  Helsingtors  in  1742.  Died 
in  1751. 

Lascy  or  Lacy,  von,  fon  las'see,  (JOSEPH  FRANCIS 
MAURICE,)  COUNT,  a  general  in  the  Austrian  army,  born 
in  .Saint  Petersburg  in  1725.  Having  saved  the  army  at 
Lowositz  in  1756,  he  was  promoted  from  the  rank  of 
colonel  to  that  of  general.  For  his  services  at  Hoch- 
kirchen,  in  1758,  he  was  made  general  of  artillery.  He 
received  from  Maria  Theresa  a  marshal's  baton  in  1762. 
After  the  peace  he  entered  the  aulic  council,  and  dis 
played  much  ability  as  minister  of  war.  Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Hiildigung  dargebracht  der  Wahrheit  und  den  Manen  des 
Grafen  von  Lascy,"  1801. 

La  Sena,  la  sa'na,  or  La  Seine,  13  sin,  (PIETRO,) 
also  written  Lascena,  an  Italian  philologist,  born  in 
Naples  in  1590,  practised  law  in  that  city.  He  wrote 
"  Homeri  Nepenthes,  sen  de  Abolendo  Luctu  Liber," 
(1621,)  and  several  treatises  on  philology.  Died  in  1636. 

See  BULCARDI,  "  Vita  P.  La  Senae,"  1637. 

Laserna.     See  SANTANDKR. 

Lasiiiio,  la-see'ne-o,  (CARLO,)  COUNT,  an  able  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Treviso  about  1765.  He  engraved 
numerous  works  of  early  Italian  masters.  Among  his 
plates  is  a  collection  called  "Etruria  pittrice."  Died 
about  1837. 

His  son,  GIOVANNI  PAOLO,  was  an  engraver  at  Flor 
ence. 

Lasius,  la'ze-us,  (LORENZ  OTTO,)  a  German  philolo 
gist,  born  at  Ruclen  in  1675;  died  in  1751. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Lebensbei-chreibung,"  1730. 

Lasne,  Ian,  (MiCHEL,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Caen  in  1596,  engraved  chiefly  after  Italian  mas 
ters.  Died  in  1667. 

Lasnier,  la'ne-i',  (REMI,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
celebrated  oculist,  practised  in  Paris.  He  was  very 
successful  in  the  treatment  of  cataract.  Died  in  1690. 

Laso,  (GARCIAS.)     See  GARCILASO. 

Lasource,  It'sooRss',  (MARIE  DAVID  ALBIN,  )  a 
French  Girondist  revolutionist,  born  near  Montpellier 
in  1762.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792,  he 
strove  to  establish  order  in  the  republic.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  committee  of  public  safety. 
He  attacked  Robespierre  in  a  speech  in  April,  1793, 
was  arrested  about  June  I,  and  executed  with  the  other 
Girondist  chiefs  in  October  of  that  year. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LASPHRISE 


'377 


LATER  OP 


Lasphrise,  de,  deh  la'fKez',  (  MARC  DE  Papillon — 

pt'pe'yoN',)  SKIGNEUR,  a  French  poet,  born  at  Amboise 
in  1555,  composed  many  admired  sonnets,  songs,  elegies, 
and  epitaphs.  He  was  living  in  1599. 

Lassaigne,  iS'sin',  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800.  lie  became  professor  of  chem 
istry  or  pharmacy  at  Alfort  in  1828.  Among  his  dis 
coveries  were  delphine,  cathartine,  and  phosphoric  ether. 
He  published  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Organic  and 
Inorganic  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  Died  in  1859. 

Lassala,  las-sa'la,  or  Lasala,  (MANUEL,)  a  Spanish 
historian  and  poet,  born  at  Valencia  in  1729.  He  be 
came  a  Jesuit,  and  as  such  was  banished  in  1767,  after 
which  he  lived  at  Bologna.  He  published  an  "Essay 
on  Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (3  vols.,  1755.)  Died 
in  1798. 

Lassay,  de,  deh  It's.V,  (ARMAND  LEON  DE  MADAIL- 
LAN  DE  LESPARRF.,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  officer,  distin 
guished  for  his  gallantry  and  talents,  was  born  in  1652. 
He  was  intimate  with  Fontenelle  and  Voltaire.  He  died 
in  1 738,  leaving  a  volume  entitled  "  Recueil  de  differentes 
Choses,"  or  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  de  Lassay." 

See  PAUI.IN  PARIS,  "  Le  Marquis  de  Lassay  et  1'Hotel  de  Las 
say,"  1848;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  ix. 

Las'sels,  (RICHARD,)  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in 
1603,  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
lie  wrote  "Travels  in  Italy,"  (2  vols.,  1670.)  Died  at 
Montpcllier  in  1668. 

Lassen,  las'sen,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Norwegian  scholar, 
distinguished  for  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  Ori 
ental  languages  and  Indian  antiquities,  was  born  at  Ber 
gen  in  1800.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  at  Bonn, 
where  in  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  ancient 
Indian  language  and  literature.  He  rendered  most  im 
portant  services  to  philology  by  his  excellent  editions  of 
standard  works  in  Sanscrit,  and  published  "Contribu 
tions  to  the  History  of  the  Greek  and  Indo-Scythian 
Kings  in  Bactria,  Cabool,  and  India,"  "  Indian  Antiqui 
ties,"  (2  vols.,  1844-52,)  and  "The  Old  Persian  Inscrip 
tions  in  the  Arrow-Headed  Characters,"  which  he  was 
the  first  to  decipher  and  explain.  His  "  Institutiones 
Linguae  Pracriticse"  (1837)  is  esteemed  the  best  work 
that  has  appeared  on  the  subject  of  the  ancient  popular 
dialects  of  India. 

See  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Gene'rale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  October,  1837. 

Lassis,  llt'sess',  (N.,)  a  French  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing  in  1772,  devoted  his  atten 
tion  chiefly  to  the  subject  of  contagion.  He  practised 
in  the  army  in  1812  and  1813,  during  the  prevalence  of 
the  typhus  fever.  Died  in  1835. 

La'sso,  di,  de  las'so,  (ORLANDO,)  [Lat.  ORLAN'DUS 
LAS'SUS,]  sometimes  called  ROLAND  DE  LATTRE,  (deh 
iStR,)  a  famous  musical  composer,  born  at  Mons,  in  Flan 
ders,  in  1520.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  taken  to  Italy 
by  Gonzago,  Viceroy  of  Sicily.  After  passing  a  few  years 
in  Rome  and  Antwerp,  he  was  invited  by  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria  to  Munich,  whither  he  went  in  1557  and  became 
•maitre-de-chapelle.  He  was  invited  to  Paris  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1574;  but  that  king  died  before  the  arrival  of 
Lasso.  By  the  number,  originality,  and  richness  of  his 
compositions  he  acquired  a  higher  rank  than  any  com 
poser  of  his  time  except  Palestiina.  Among  his  works 
are  masses,  motets,  magnificats,  songs,  and  other  music. 
Died  about  1595. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biograpliie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  DEI.MOTTE, 
"  Noiice  sur  R.  Delattre,"  1^36;  MATHIEU,  "Roland  de  Lattre," 
1838  ;  BURNEY,  "  History  of  Music ;"  F.  C.  KIST,  "  Levensgefdiie- 
denis  van  O.  de  Lassus,  1841. 

Lasso  or  Lassus,  von,  fon  las'sus,  (RUDOLF,)  a  mu 
sician,  born  at  Munich,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  organist  to  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.  Died  in  1625. 

Lassone,  It'son',  (JOSEPH  MARIE  FRANCOIS,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1717.  Having 
practised  with  success  in  Paris  for  many  years,  he  became 
physician  to  the  queen  in  1751.  After  her  death  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  medicine  and  chemistry,  which  were  inserted 
in  the  collections  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in 
1788. 

See  FELIX  VICQ  D'AZVR,  "filoge  de  J.  M.  F.  Lassone,"  17^9. 


Lassus.     See  LASSO  and  LASUS. 

Lassus,  It'suV,  ( PIERRE,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  in  1741,  was  professor  of  external  pathology 
in  Paris  for  many  years.  Died  in  1807. 

Lasteyrie,  de,  deh  Its'tiYre',  (FERDINAND,)  an  anti 
quary,  born  in  Paris  in  1810.  He  acted  with  the  Liberal 
party  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  (1842-48,)  and  with 
the  moderate  republicans  in  the  Assembly,  (1848-50.) 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Painting  on  Glass,"(  1837-58.) 

Lasteyrie,  de,  (Jui.ES,)  a  grandson  of  General  La 
Fayette,  was  born  in  1810.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  in 
1842  and  in  1846.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  be 
came  a  member  of  the  Assembly.  He  has  written  articles 
for  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Monties." 

Lasteyrie-Dusaillaiit,  de,  deh  Ifs'uVre'  dii'zf yftli', 
(CHARLES  PHILIBERT.)  COUNT,  a  French  philanthro 
pist  and  economist,  the  father  of  Ferdinand,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Correze  in  1759.  He  wrote  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  on  the  natural  history  of  the  sheep, 
the  horse,  etc.  Died  in  1849. 

Lastic,  de,  deh  laVtek',  QEAN  BONPAR,)  a  brave 
French  captain,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1370.  He  was 
chosen  grand  master  of  the  order  of  Saint  John  of  Jeru 
salem  in  1437.  In  1444  he  defended  the  city  of  Rhodes 
with  success  against  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  Died  in  1454. 

See  VKRTOT,  "Histnire  de  1'Ordre  de  Saint  Jean  de  Jerusalem;" 
"Achievements  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,"  by  ALEXANDER  SUTHER 
LAND,  Philadelphia,  1846. 

Lastman,  last/man,  (PiETKR,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Haarlem  between 
1562  and  1581.  He  visited  Rome  in  1604.  He  was  one 
of  the  masters  of  Rembrandt.  His  son  NICOLAS,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1619,  was  a  skilful  artist. 

La'sus,  [Adoof,]  an  eminent  Greek  dithyrambic  poet, 
born  at  Hermione,  in  Argolis,  flourished  at  Athens  in  the 
sixth  century  F.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  master 
of  Pindar.  His  works  are  not  extant.  He  was  some 
times  reckoned  among  the  Seven  Wise  Men. 

La  Suze.    See  COLIGNI,  (HENRIETTE.) 

Latapie,  li'tt'pe',  (FRANC.OIS  DE  PAUL,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1739;  died  in  1823. 

Lateirade,  It'ti'rSd',  QKAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
botanist  of  Bordeaux,  born  about  1780;  died  in  1858. 

La'tham,  (JoHN,f  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  at  Elthain,  in  Kent,  in  1740.  He  began 
to  practise  at  Dartford  in  1763,  and,  in  the  intervals  of 
business,  pursued  the  study  of  natural  history,  especially 
ornithology.  Between  1781  and  1787  he  produced  his 
"  General  Synopsis  of  Birds,"  (6  vols.,  with  plates,)  a 
work  of  much  merit.  In  1796  he  removed  to  Romsey, 
in  Hampshire,  and  ceased  to  practise  medicine.  He 
afterwards  received  the  title  of  physician  to  the  prince- 
regent.  He  also  wrote,  besides  medical  treatises,  a  "  Gen 
eral  History  of  Birds,"  (1821-24,)  of  which  the  figures 
were  drawn  and  engraved  by  his  own  hand.  Died  in 

1837- 

Latham,  (ROBERT  GORDON,)  F.R.S.,an  eminent  Eng 
lish  philologist  and  ethnologist,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1812.  He  took  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.D.  at  Cam 
bridge,  where  he  acquired  proficiency  in  ancient  and 
modern  languages.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  . 
of  English  literature  in  University  College,  London.  He 
published  "The  English  Language,"  (1841,)  which  is  con 
sidered  a  standard  book,  and  several  English  grammars, 
which  are  extensively  used  in  the  schools.  Among  his 
other  productions  are  an  excellent  work  entitled  "Natu 
ral  History  of  the  Varieties  of  Man,"  (1850,)  "Man  and 
his  Migrations,"  (1851,)  "Ethnology  of  Europe,"  (1852,) 
and  "Nationalities  of  Europe,"  (1863.)  Dr.  Latham 
has  attained  eminence  as  a  physician.  He  was  suc 
cessively  physician  to  the  Saint  George's  and  the  Saint 
James's  Dispensary. 

La'thrpp,  (JoHN,)  born  at  Boston  in  1772,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Speech  of  Canonicus,  or  an 
Indian  Tradition,"  (1803.)  Died  in  1820. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Lathrop,  (Rev.  JOSEPH,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presby 
terian  divine,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1731. 
Having  graduated  at  Yale  College,  he  became  pastor 
of  the'Congregational  church  at  West  Springfield.  He 
published  a  collection  of  sermons,  entitled  "  Wolves  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

87 


LATIMER 


1378 


LATOURETTE 


Sheep's  Clothing,"  which  obtained  extensive  popularity. 
Died  in  1820. 

Lat/i-mer,  (Hucn,)  a  celebrated  English  Reformer, 
distinguished  for  his  courage,  zeal,  and  piety,  was  born 
in  Leicestershire  about  1472.  Having  graduated  at  Cam 
bridge  and  entered  into  holy  orders,  he  gained  distinctio 
as  a  zealous  and  eloquent  preacher  of  the  Reformed  re 
ligion.  He  was  patronized  by  Thomas  Cromwell,  who 
in  1529  gave  him  a  benefice  in  Wiltshire  and  saved  him 
from  persecution  which  certain  bishops  raised  against 
him.  He  became  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn  and  Bishop 
of  Worcester  in  1535.  On  account  of  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  six  articles  in  1539,  he  resigned  his  bishopric,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  until  the  death  of  Henry 
VIII.,  in  1547.  He  was  again  arrested  in  1553,  and 
compelled  by  his  enemies  to  be  present  at  a  dispute  on 
transubstantiation  at  Oxford  in  1554.  In  1555  he  was 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  company  with  Ridley,  to  whom 
he  said,  "Be  of  good  cheer,  brother;  we  shall  this  day 
kindle  such  a  torch  in  England  as  I  trust  shall  never  be 
extinguished." 

See  W.  GILPIN,  "  Life  of  Hugh  Latimer,"  1780;  FROUDE,  "  His 
tory  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi.  ;  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi., 
1822;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1755. 

Latimer,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  scholar  and  reviver 
of  classical  learning.  He  became  Fellow  of  a  college  at 
Oxford  in  1489,  and  taught  Greek  to  Erasmus,  who  ex 
pressed  a  good  opinion  of  him.  Died  in  1545. 

Latini,  Id-tee'nee,  (BRUNETTO,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
poet,  orator,  and  grammarian,  born  at  Florence  about 
1230.  He  taught  philosophy  and  grammar  in  Florence, 
where  Dante  was  his  pupil,  and  he  held  some  of  the 
highest  offices  in  the  republic.  He  was  attached  to  the 
Guelph  party.  His  greatest  work,  entitled  "The  Trea 
sure,"  ("  Le  Tresor,")  is  written  in  French,  and  consists 
of  extracts  and  translations  from  classic  authors  on  his 
tory,  philosophy,  rhetoric,  etc.  He  also  composed  "  The 
Little  Treasure,"  ("  II  Tesoretto,")  a  poem,  and  a  treatise 
on  rhetoric.  Died  in  1294. 

See  NEGRI,  "  Istoria  degli  Scrittori  Fiorentini :"  TIRABOSCHI, 
"Storiadella  Letteratura  Italiaua;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Latini,  la-tee'nee,  or  Latinio,  la-tee'ne-o,  (LATINO,) 
[Lat.  LATI'NUS  LATIN'IUS,]  a  learned  and  judicious 
Italian  critic,  was  born  at  Viterbo  in  1513.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Rome  in  1552,  and  served  as  secretary  to 
several  cardinals,  among  whom  was  Cardinal  Colonna. 
He  published  "  Letters,  Conjectures,  and  Observations," 
(1659,)  in  Latin,  which  treat  of  many  points  of  history, 
antiquity,  and  criticism.  Died  in  1593. 

Latino.     See  LATIN  us. 

La-ti'nus,[Gr.  Aara-of ;  It.  LATINO,  la-tee'no,]  a  legen 
dary  king  of  Latimn,  a  son  of  Faunus,  and  the  father  of 
Lavinia,  who  became  the  wife  of  /Eneas.  According  to 
some  authors,  he  was  an  incarnation  of  Jupiter  Latiaris. 

See  VIRGIL'S  "/Eneid,"  book  vii. 

Latiiius  Latinius.     See  LATINI. 

Lat'o-mus,  (or  IS'to'miiss',)  the  Latin  name  of  a  Flem 
ish  theologian,  sometimes  called  JAMES  MASSON,  who 
was  born  in  Hainault  about  1475.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Louvain,  and  was  one  of  the  ablest  adver 
saries  of  Luther.  He  wrote  several  works  against  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformers.  Died  in  1544. 

Latomus,  (BARTH^LEMY,)  a  scholar,  born  in  Luxem 
burg  about  1485,  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the 
College  Royal  of  Paris  in  1534.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Cicero,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1566. 

La-to'na,  [Gr.  AT/TV  ;  Fr.  LATONE,  It'ton',]  in  classic 
mythology,  a  daughter  of  the  Titans  Creus  and  Phoebe, 
was  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  the  mother  of  Apollo  and 
Diana.  The  poets  relate  that,  persecuted  by  Juno,  she 
wandered  about  until  she  came  to  Delos,  which  was 
then  a  floating  island,  but  became  stationary  when  she 
touched  it.  Here  Apollo  and  Diana  were  born.  Latona 
received  from  Niobe  an  affront  which  Apollo  and  Diana 
severely  revenged. 

Latoue.     See  LATONA. 

Latouche  or  La  Touche,  de,  deh  If'toosh',  (HYA- 
CINTHE  THABAUD,)  a  French  poet  and  romancer,  born 
at  La  Chatre,  in  Berry,  in  1785,  was  known  by  the  name 
of  HENRI  DE  LATOUCHE.  He  edited  the  posthumous 


poems  of  Andre  Chenier  about  1819.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  fictitious  "Correspondence  of  Clement 
XIV.  and  Carlin,"  (1827,)  and  several  short  poems. 
Died  in  1851. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeriesdu  Luudi,"  tomeiii. ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

La  Touche-Treville,  de,  deh  13  toosh  tua'vel', 
(Louis  RENE  MADELEINE  LE  VASS'OR,)  a  French  admiral, 
born  at  Rochefort  in  1745.  He  was  elected  to  the  States- 
General  in  1789,  and  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1792.  He 
commanded  in  a  naval  battle  against  Nelson  in  1801. 
Died  in  1804. 

Latour.     See  TOUR,  DE  LA. 

Latour  or  La  Tour,  li'tooR',  (DOMINIQUE,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  in  1749,  was  chief 
physician  to  Louis  Bonaparte  while  he  was  King  of 
Holland.  Died  about  1820. 

Latour,  (JEAN  RAIMOND  JACQUES  AMEDEE,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1805.  He  founded 
in  1847  the  "Union  Medicale,"  a  journal. 

Latour,  de,  (CAGNIARD,)  BARON.     See  CAGNIARD. 

Latour,  de,  deh  IS'toou',  (Louis  ANTOINK  TENANT,) 
a  French  poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  Haute-Vienne  in 
1808,  published  "Far  from  the  Fireside,"  ("Loin  du 
Foyer,"  1841,)  and  other  poems. 

Latour,  de,  (MAURICE  Qui<:.\TiN,)an  eminent  French 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1704.  He 
removed  to  Paris  about  1727,  and  became  a  fashionable 
painter  of  portraits  in  pastel.  In  1750  he  received  the 
title  of  painter  to  the  king.  Among  his  works  are  por 
traits  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau.  Died  in  1788. 

Latour.voii,  fon  la'tooR',  (KARL  ANTON  MAXIMILIAN 
BAILLET,)  COUNT,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1737. 
He  obtained  command  of  the  army  of  the  Lower  Rhine 
in  1796.  In  this  campaign  he  was  opposed  to  Moreau, 
and,  in  concert  with  the  Archduke  Charles,  fought  seve 
ral  battles,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  worsted.  He 
became  president  of  the  council  of  war,  and  died  in  1806. 

La  Tour  (or  Latour)  d'Auvergne,  de,  deh  Is'tooR' 
do'viRfi',  (TiiEoi'HiLE  MALO  CORRKT,)  a  brave  officer, 
surnamecl  "  the  first  grenadier  of  France,"  was  born  at 
Carhaix  in  1743.  He  was  eminent  for  modesty  and 
generosity.  Having  become  captain  about  1789,  he  re 
fused  further  promotion  ;  but  in  1793  he  became  com 
mander  of  a  division  of  8000  grenadiers,  which  formed 
the  vanguard  of  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees  and  was  called 
"the  infernal  column."  By  the  rapidity  of  his  move 
ments  he  usually  decided  the  victory  before  the  main 
body  of  the  army  reached  the  field  of  battle.  Napoleon 
having  presented  him  a  sabre  inscribed  to  "the  first 
grenadier  of  France,"  he  answered,  "Among  us  soldiers 
there  is  no  first  nor  last."  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Oberhausen,  in  1800.  He  learned  many  languages,  and 
published  "Researches  into  the  Language,  Origin,  and 
Antiquities  of  the  Bretons,"  (1792.) 

See  BITHOT  DE  KKKSERS,  "  Histoire  de  La  Tour  d'Auven;ne," 
1841;  CALOHAR,  "Notice  siir  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1841;  Roux 
DE  ROCHELLE,  "  Nolice  sur  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  iSoo;  PKIOU, 
"  Notice  surT.  M.  de  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1843;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Latour  du  Pin  Gouvernet,  de,  deh  15'tooR'  du 
paN  goo'veVni',  (JEAN  FREDERIC,)  Comte  de  Paulin, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1727.  He  was 
elected  in  1789  to  the  States-General,  and  was  minister 
of  war  from  August,  1789,  to  November,  1790-.  He  was 
executed  in  1794. 

Latour  -  Maubourg,  de,  deh  li'tooK'  irm'booR', 
(MARIE  CHARLES  CESAR  FAY,)  COUNT,  a  French  gene 
ral,  born  in  1758.  He  was  one  of  the  three  commis 
saries  who  escorted  the  king  from  Varennes  to  Paris  in 
1791,  after  which  he  was  marechal-de-camp  in  the  army 
of  La  Fayette.  He  escaped  with  La  Fayette  in  1792, 
and  shared  his  long  captivity  in  Austria.  Died  in  1831. 

Latour  -  Maubourg,  (MARIE  VICTOR  DE  FAY,) 
MARQUIS,  a  general,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1766.  Having  become  a  general  of  division  in  1807, 
be  distinguished  himself  in  Spain  and  Russia,  and  lost  a 
leg  at  Leipsic,  (1813.)  He  was  minister  of  war  about 
two  years,  (1820-21.)  Died  in  1850. 

See  A.  SAI.A,  "Le  General  de  Maubourg,"  Paris,  1850;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Tourette.     See  TOURETTE,  DE  LA. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LATREILLE 


1379 


LAVDERDALE 


Latreille,  It'tR&I'  or  It'tki'ye,  (PiF.KRE  ANDRE,) 
eminent   French  naturalist,  surnamed    "the   Prince 


of 


Entomology,"  was  born  at  Brives  (La  Correze)  in  1762. 
While  a  student  in  the  college  of  Cardinal  Lemoine, 
Paris,  he  gained  the  favour  of  Abbe  Haiiy.  In  1786  he 
retired  to  his  native  province,  where  he  spent  all  his 
leisure  in  the  study  of  insects,  having  adopted  the  pro 
fession  of  a  priest.  In  consequence  of  the  revolutionary 
troubles,  he  abandoned  that  profession,  and  applied  him 
self  to  his  favourite  science  as  his  chief  business.  He 
published  in  1796  a  treatise  "  On  the  Generic  Characters 
of  Insects."  About  1798  he  was  employed  to  arrange 
insects  in  the  Museum  of  Paris,  in  which  position  he 
remained  nearly  thirty  years.  In  1814  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1829  lie  succeeded  La 
marck  as  professor  of  zoology.  lie  had  published  "The 
Natural  History  of  Ants,"  (1802,)  "  The  Natural  History 
of  Reptiles,"  (1802,)  "A  Memoir  on  the  Sacred  Insects 
of  the  Egyptians,"  and  many  other  works.  Latreille  was 
the  author  of  the  entomological  part  of  Cuvier's  "  Regne 
Animal,"  and  of  the  portion  of  Buffon's  and  Sonnini's 
work  which  treats  of  Crustacea  and  insects.  His  capital 
work  is  "The  Genera  of  Crustacea  and  Insects,  arranged 
according  to  the  Natural  Order,"  ("Genera  Crustaceo- 
rum  et  Insectorum  secundum  Ordinem  naturalem  dis- 
posita,"  4  vols.,  1806-09.)  Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale  ;"  QCERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;" 
V.  AunouiN,  "Discours  prononce  sur  la  Tombe  tie  M.  Latfeille," 
1833;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol. 
Ivi'.,"  iSoS,  (Appendix.) 

La  Tremouille.     See  TRIMOUII.LK,  DF.  LA. 

La  Trimouille,  de,  deli  It  tRe'mool'  or  M  tRe'moo'ye, 
(CLAUDE,)  Due,  a  French  Protestant  commander,  born 
in  1566,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the  prince  Henri  de 
Conde.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Ivry.  Died  in  1604. 

His  son  HENRI,  born  in  1599,  became  a  general  in  the 
service  of  Louis  XIII.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange.  Died  in  1674. 

La'tro,  (M.  PORCIUS,)  a  Latin  rhetorician,  born  about 
50  B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Seneca  the  elder.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  declaimer,  and  was  master  of  a  cele 
brated  school  in  Rome,  where  Ovid  was  his  pupil.  He 
was  called  by  Quintilian  "imprimis  clari  nominis  pro 
fessor."  Died  in  4  B.C. 

Latrobe,  It'tro!/,  (BENJAMIN  HENRY,)  an  architect, 
born  in  England  in  1763.  He  emigrated  to  America  in 
1795,  and  was  employed  as  engineer  by  the  State  of  Vir 
ginia.  He  was  architect  of  the  United  States  Bank  in 
Philadelphia,  and  of  the  first  Hall  of  Representatives  at 
Washington.  Died  in  1820. 

Latrobe,  (CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  an  English  traveller, 
who  visited  the  United  States  and  Mexico  in  1832,  pub 
lished  "The  Rambler  in  North  America,"  (London, 
1835,)  also  entitled  "The  Rambler  in  Mexico."  It  is 
commended  by  Prescott  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1835;  "West 
minster  Review"  for  January,  1837. 

Lattaignant.     See  ATTAIGNANT,  DE  L'. 

Lattanzio.    See  LACTANTIUS. 

Lattre.     See  LASSO. 

Latude.    See  MASERS. 

Laube,  low'beh,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  poet  and  lit 
terateur,  born  in  Silesia  in  1806.  His  "Tales  of  Travel," 
("  Reisenovellen,")  published  in  1834,  resemble  those 
of  Heine,  and  are  by  some  critics  preferred  to  them. 
Among  his  other  productions  we  may  cite  "  The  Countess 
Chateaubriand,"  a  romance,  (1843,)  "Prinz  Friedrich," 
and  other  dramas,  and  an  interesting  work  entitled  "The 
First  German  Parliament,"  (3  vols.,  1849.) 

See  "Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

L'Aubespiiie.     See  AUBESPINE,  DE  L'. 

Laud,  lawd,  (WILLIAM,)  a  celebrated  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  born  at  Reading,  in  Berkshire,  in  1573, 
and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  one  of  the  chap 
lains  of  the  king  about  1615,  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1621,  and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1626.  After  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.  he  rose  rapidly  into  great  influ 
ence  at  court.  In  1628  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
London,  and  became  the  chief  minister  or  favourite  of 
the  king.  He  disgraced  himself  by  the  persecution  of 
the  Puritans,  and  was  suspected  of  a  strong  bias  in  favour 


of  popery.  In  1633  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  "Of  all  the  prelates  of  the  Anglican 
Church,"  says  Macaulay,  "  Laud  had  departed  farthest 
from  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  and  had  drawn 
nearest  to  Rome/'  "Of  all  men  then  living,"  says  Gar 
diner,  "he  [Laud]  was  the  least  fitted  to  be  intrusted 
with  political  power.  .  .  .  His  thorough  belief  in  the 
unbounded  efficacy  of  external  forms  and  institutions, 
combined  with  his  complete  ignorance  of  human  nature, 
would  be  sufficient  to  goad  to  madness  any  nation  which 
might  be  subjected  to  his  control."  ("History  of  Eng 
land  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  p.  41.)  In  1640 
he  was  impeached  by  the  Commons  and  committed  to 
the  Tower.  After  he  had  been  tried  for  treason,  without 
obtaining  a  judicial  sentence,  the  Commons  passed  an 
ordinance  for  his  execution,  and  he  was  beheaded  in 
1645.  "His  zeal  was  unrelenting,"  says  Hume,  "in  the 
cause  of  religion, — that  is,  in  imposing  by  rigorous  meas 
ures  his  own  tenets  and  pious  ceremonies  on  the  obsti 
nate  Puritans,  who  had  profanely  dared  to  oppose  him." 
See  "Life  of  Laud,"  by  PRYNNE,  1644,  HEYLIN,  1671,  LAWSON, 
1829,  BAINES,  1855;  WHAKTON,  "Troubles  and  Trial  of  W.  Laud, 
to  which  is  prefixed  the  Diary  of  his  own  Life,"  1794;  HUME,  "  His 
tory  of  England,"  chap.  lii.  ;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  1*23. 

Laudati,  low-da'tee,  (GiosEFFO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Perugia  in  1672,  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.  Died  after  1718. 

Lau'der,  (Sir  JOHN,)  Lord  Fountainhall,  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1646.  He  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary 
policy  of  James  II.  Died  in  1722. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lauder,  (ROBERT  SCOTT,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1803.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"The  Bride  of  Lammermuir,"  "Trial  of  Effie  Deans," 
and  other  scenes  from  Scott.  He  worked  mostly  in 
London  and  Edinburgh. 

Lauder,  (Sir  THOMAS  DICK,)  a  Scottish  author,  born 
in  1784,  inherited  a  baronetcy  from  his  father,  and  lived 
near  Edinburgh.  He  was  one  of  the  early  contributors 
to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  author  of  various 
works,  among  which  are  "Lochandhu,"a  novel,  "  High 
land  Rambles,"  (1837,)  and  a  "Tour  round  the  Coasts 
of  Scotland."  Died  in  1848. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lauder,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scotchman,  who  gained  no 
toriety  by  literary  impostures  designed  to  prove  that 
Milton  was  a  plagiarist.  In  1751  he  published  an  "Es 
say  on  Milton's  Use  and  Imitation  of  the  Moderns  in 
his  Paradise  Lost,"  in  which  he  charged  Milton  with 
making  too  free  use  of  the  ideas  of  Grotius  and  others. 
He  was  convicted  of  having  interpolated  in  Grotius's 
Latin  drama  "  Adamus  Exsul"  several  verses  copied 
from  an  obscure  version  of  Milton's  poem.  He  died  in 
Barbacloes  in  1771. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lau'der-dale',  (JAMES  MAITLAND,)  EARL  OF,  an  able 
Scottish  Whig  statesman,  born  in  1759,  was  the  son  of 
the  seventh  Earl  of  Lauderdale,  and  was  first  styled 
Lord  Maitland.  About  1781  he  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  where  he  acted  as  the  political 
friend  of  Fox,  and  in  1787  was  chosen  one  of  the  man 
agers  of  the  impeachment  of  Hastings.  He  inherited  the 
title  of  earl  in  1789,  and  was  chosen  one  of  the  Scottish 
representative  peers  in  1790.  He  favoured  the  French 
republic,  and  opposed  the  war  against  the  French  which 
began  in  1793.  In  1806  he  became  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  keeper  of  the  seal  of  Scotland,  and  was 


He 

rote 


sent  by  Mr.  Fox  to  Paris  with  full  powers  to  negotiate 
a  peace,  but  without  success.     On  the  fall  of  the  Whig 
ministry  in  1807  he  gave  up  the  seal  of  Scotland, 
died  in  1839,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son  James.    He  w 
several  treatises  on  finance  and  political  economy. 

Lauderdale,  (Jonx  MAITLAND,)  DUKE  OF,  a  British 
courtier,  born  at  Lethington  in  1616,  was  a  grandson 
of  John  Lord  Maitland,  Chancellor  of  Scotland.  His 
father  was  first  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  He  was  conspicu 
ous  among  the  Scottish  insurgents  of  1638,  and  began  his 
public  career  as  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  Covenant. 
After  the  restoration  of  1660  he  became  the  prime  fa 
vourite  of  Charles  II.,  and  in  1670  was  a  member  of  that 


e  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  n,  H,  K,  guttural:  N.  nasal:  R.  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAUD  IV 10 


1380 


LAURENCE 


corrupt  cabinet  called  the  Cabal.  "Under  the  outward 
show  of  boisterous  frankness,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  was 
perhaps  the  most  dishonest  man  in  the  whole  Cabal." 
He  was  created  duke  in  1672.  In  1678  he  became  min 
ister  for  Scottish  affairs,  which  he  managed  in  a  violent 
and  arbitrary  manner.  "  He  had  the  fortune,  beyond 
any  other  minister,"  says  Hume,  "to  maintain  an  ascend 
ant  over  Charles  II.  during  the  greater  part  of  his  reign." 
("  History  of  England.")  Died  in  1682.  As  he  left  no 
male  issue,  his  brother  inherited  the  earldom. 

See  MACAULAY,  "History  of  England;"  BURNET,  "  History  of 
his  Own  Time." 

Laudivio,  low-dee've-o,  (ZACCARIA,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Genoa,  lived  about  1470.  He  wrote  "  Letters 
of  the  Grand  Turk,"  ("Epistolae  Magni  Turci,"  1473,) 
often  reprinted,  and  "On  the  Praises  of  Wisdom  and 
Virtue,"  ("De  Laudibus  Sapientiae  et  Virtutis.") 

Laudon,  von,  fon  low'don,  written  also  Laudohn 
and  London,  (GIDEON  ERNST,)  BARON,  a  famous  field- 
marshal  of  the  Austrian  army,  was  born  in  Livonia  in 
1716.  He  entered  the  service  of  Maria  Theresa  in  1743, 
and  for  his  exploits  in  several  campaigns  was  rewarded 
with  the  rank  of  general  in  1757.  The  next  year  he  was 
made  lieutenant-general,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
victory  of  Hochkirchen  over  the  Prussians.  In  1759  he 
gained  a  complete  victory  at  Kunersdorf,  where  Frederick 
the  Great  commanded  in  person.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  in  1778,  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Turks  in  1788,  and  was  chosen  generalissimo 
in  1789.  Died  in  1790. 

See  TOLNAY,  "Laudon's  Ehrendenkmal  ;"  JOHANN  PEZZI,,  "Le- 
bensgesthichte  Laudon's,"  1790;  FRIKDRICH  VON  DER  TRENCK, 
"Denkmai  und  Trauerrede  bei  dem  Grabe  des  Feldmarschalls  Lau 
don,"  1790;  "  Leven  en  Heldendaden  van  G.  E.  van  Loudon,"  1792. 

Lauffer,  lowf'fer,  (  JAKOB,  )  a  Swiss  historian  and 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Zoffingen  in  1688.  He  wrote, 
in  German,  a  "History  of  Helvetia,"  (or  Switzerland,) 
("  Helvetische  Geschichte,"  18  vols.,  1736-38.)  Died 

i'11734- 

Laugel,  lo'zhel',  (AUGUSTS,)  a  French  writer,  visited 
the  United  States  of  North  America  in  1864.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  entitled  "  The  United  States  during  the 
War,"  ("  Les  fitats-Unis  pendant  la  Guerre,"  1866.) 
There  is  a  good  English  translation  of  it,  said  to  be  by 
the  author. 

Laugier,  lo'zhe-i',  (ANDRE,)  an  able  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1^770.  hi  1809  he  succeeded  Fourcroy 
as  professor  of  chemistry  in  his  native  city.  His  lectures 
were  published  with  the  title  of  "  Cours  de  Chimie  gene- 
rale,"  (3  vols.,  1828.)  He  excelled  in  chemical  analysis, 
and  wrote  numerous  memoirs  on  the  analysis  of  minerals. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  P.  J.  ROBIQUET,  "  Notice  bistorique  sur  A.  Laugier,"  1832; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale. " 

Laugier,  (ERNEST,)  an  astronomer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  bom  in  Paris  in  1812,  obtained  in  1841  the 
Lalande  medal  for  the  discovery  of  a  comet  and  the  cal 
culation  of  its  orbit. 

Laugier,  (JEAN  NICOLAS,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Toulon  in  1785,  worked  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
are  "Leonidas  at  Thermopylae,"  and  "Trance  of  Saint 
Paul,"  after  Poussin. 

Laugier,  (MARC  ANTOINE, )  a  French  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Manosque  in  1713.  He  preached  in  sev 
eral  pulpits  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  obtained  the  abbey 
of  Ribeaute  in  1757.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  successful  "Essay  on  Architecture,"  (1753-55,)  anc'  a 
"History  of  Venice,"  (12  vols.,  1759-68,)  which  was  the 
best  which  had  appeared  until  that  of  Daru  was  pub 
lished  in  1819.  Died  in  1769. 

__  Laugier,  de,  deh  15'zhe-i',  (CESAR  DE  BELLECOUR,) 
COUNT,  a  general,  was  born  in  the  isle  of  Elba  in  1789. 
He  is  ranked  among  the  best  military  writers  of  Italy. 
In  May,  1848,  he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  Tus 
can  corps  raised  to  fight  against  Austria.  With  about 
5000  men  he  resisted  30,000  Austrians  for  six  hours  near 
Mantua.  He  was  minister  of  war  under  Leopold  II.  in 
1850  and  1851.  Among  his  works  is  "Annals  and  Vicis 
situdes  of  the  Italian  Peoples  from  1801  to  1815,"  (13 
vols.,  1829-32.) 

Laujon,  lo'zhoN',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Paris  in  1727.  He  composed  admired  songs  and  lyrical 


dramas.  In  1807  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Insti 
tute.  Died  in  1811. 

See  "  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixviii.,  1812,  (Appendix.) 

Lauman,  law'man,  or  Lan'man,  (JACOB  G.,)  an 
American  general,  born  in  Maryland  in  1813.  He  com 
manded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7, 
1862,  and  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  June  and 
July,  1863. 

Laumoiit,  de,  deh  IO'IYION',  (FRANgois  PIERRE  NI 
COLAS  Gillet — zhe'yi',)  a  French  mineralogist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1747.  He  discovered  several  minerals,  and 
wrote  memoirs  which  were  printed  in  the  "  Annales  des 
Mines"  and  other  journals.  Died  in  1834. 

Launay,  de,  deh  lo'n^',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Angers  in  1612.  He  was  professor  of  French 
law  at  the  College  Royal,  and  published  several  legal 
works.  Died  in  1693 

Launay,  de,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  Protestant  theo 
logian,  born  at  Blois  in  1573.  He  received  the  title  of 
counsellor  to  the  king,  and  taught  Greek  gratis  at  the 
Academy  of  Saumur.  He  wrote  a  "  Paraphrase  on  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  (2  vols.,  1650,)  and  other  com 
mentaries  on  Scripture,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1661. 

Launey,  de,  deh  lo'n.V,  (BERNARD  RENE  JOURDAN,) 
the  last  governor  of  the  Bastille,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1740,  and  became  governor  in  1776.  The  storming  of 
that  state  prison  by  the  populace,  being  the  first  violent 
symptom  of  the  Revolution,  has  rendered  his  name 
historical.  On  the  I4th  of  July,  1789,  he  repulsed  the 
insurgents  for  several  hours  with  cannon  and  other 
guns,  and  attempted  to  blow  up  the  building  by  firing 
the  magazine,  but  was  prevented.  He  was  massacred 
immediately  after  the  capture  of  the  place. 

Launey,  (EMMANUEL  DE.)     See  ENTRAIGUES,  D'. 

Launoi  or  Launoius.     See  LAUNOY. 

Launoy  or  Launoi,  de,  deh  If/nwa',  [Lat.  LAUNO'- 
ius,]  (JEAN,)  a  French  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  near 
Valogne  in  1603,  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning.  In 
1643  he  was  chosen  royal  censor  of  books.  lie  published, 
besides  many  works  on  theology,  a  "  History  of  the  Col 
lege  of  Navarre,"  (1677,)  and  defended  the  liberties  of 
the  Gallican  Church  against  the  pretensions  of  the  court 
of  Rome.  He  was  noted  for  his  zeal  and  sagacity  in 
expunging  the  names  of  spurious  saints  from  the  calen 
dar,  and  was  said  to  have  dethroned  more  saints  than 
ten  popes  had  canonized.  Died  in  1678. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"Memoires  ;"  J.  REISER,  "J.  Launoius  Tbeologus,"  etc.,  1685. 

Laura.     See  NOVES,  DE,  and  PETRARCH. 

Laura,  (FILIPPO.)     See  LAURI. 

Lauraguais,  de,  deh  lo'rf'gi',  (Louis  LEON  FELI- 
crr£,)  COMTE,  Due  de  Brancas,  an  eccentric  Prench 
nobleman,  born  at  Versailles  in  1733.  lie  patronized 
literature  and  science,  and  by  his  chemical  experiments 
associated  his  name  with  those  of  Lavoisier  and  Daicet. 
He  wrote  many  political  treatises.  Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Laurati.     See  LORENZETTI,  (PIETRO.) 

Laurati,  low-ra'tee,(PiETRO,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1282;  died  in  1340. 

Laurel.    See  LAURELIUS. 

Laurelius,  low-rii'le-us,  or  Laurel,  low'rel,  (Oi.Atis,) 
a  Swedish  theologian,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1585. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Westerns  in  1647.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "System  of  Theology,"  (1641,) 
which  was  esteemed  a  standard  work.  Died  in  1670. 

Laurenberg,  low'ren-beRo',  or  Lauremberg,  low'- 
rern-be'Ro',  (JOHANN,)  a  poet  and  philologist,  born  at 
Rostock  in  1590.  He  ranked  high  among  the  poets  of 
his  time.  Among  his  works  are  four  poetical  satires, 
(1652-70,)  and  "Grsecia  Antiqua,"  a  description  of 
ancient  Greece,  (1661.)  Died  in  1658. 

Laurenberg,  (PETER,)  a  botanist  and  anatomist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rostock  about 
1575.  He  became  professor  at  Rostock  in  1624,  and 
published  several  works  on  anatomy.  Died  in  1639. 

Lau'rence  or  Law'rence,  (Dr.  FRENCH,)  an  eminent 
English  civilian  and  author,  born  at  Bristol,  graduated 
at  Oxford  about  1780.  "He  was, "says  Lord  Brougham, 
"  one  of  the  most  able,  most  learned,  and  most  upright 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LAURENCE 


1381 


LAUZUN 


men  that  ever  adorned  the  legal  profession.  .  .  .  He 
united  in  himself  the  indefatigable  labour  of  a  Dutch 
commentator  with  the  alternate  playfulness  and  sharp 
ness  of  a  Parisian  wit.''  He  was  a  member  of  Parlia 
ment  about  twenty  years.  About  1797  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford.  He  was  the  intimate 
friend  and  executor  of  Edmund  Burke.  He  wrote  some 
of  the  "Probationary  Odes,"  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  epigrams  and  satires,  in  prose  and  verse,  of  "The 
Kolliad."  Died  in  1809. 

Laurence,  (RICHARD,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Bath  in  1760.  lie  became  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Oxford  in  1814,  and  Archbishop  of  Cashel 
in  1822.  Died  in  1838. 

Laurencin,  de,  deh  16'rS.N'sax',  QEAN  ESPERANCE 
ELAN  DINK,)  COMTE,  a  French  poet,  born  near  Valence 
in  :733  ;  d'ed  in  1812. 

Laurens.    See  Du  LACK  ENS. 

Lau'rens,  (!!KNRY,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1724.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  he  was  elected  a  dele 
gate  to  the  General  Congress,  of  which  he  subsequently 
became  president,  in  November,  1777.  While  on  his 
voyage  as  ambassador  to  the  Hague,  in  1780,  he  was 
taken  by  the  British  and  imprisoned  for  fourteen  months 
in  the  Tower  of  London.  In  conjunction  with  Franklin 
and  Jay,  he  afterwards  signed  the  preliminaries  to  a  treaty 
with  England,  November,  1782.  Died  in  1792. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Laureus,  (JOHN,)  an  American  patriot  and  soldier, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1756,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  entered  the  army  early  in  1777,  became 
an  aide-de-camp  to  Washington,  and  was  wounded  at 
Germantown.  It  is  stated  that  he  distinguished  him 
self  in  every  action  of  the  army  which  Washington 
commanded.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  General 
Hamilton.  In  1781  he  was  sent  to  France  on  a  special 
mission,  for  which  he  was  selected  by  Washington.  He 
was  successful,  and  returned  in  time  to  take  part  in 
the  victory  at  Yorktown,  October,  1781.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  on  the  Combahee  River,  South  Carolina, 
in  August,  1782.  Colonel  Laurens  is  represented  as 
having  been  a  man  of  rare  endowments,  as  blending  in 
harmonious  union  the  character  of  a  gallant  officer,  a 
fine  scholar,  and  an  accomplished  gentleman. 

Laurent.     See  LAWRENCE,  SAINT. 

Laurent,  15'roN',  (AUGUSTS,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
near  Langres  in  1807.  He  became  assayer  of  the  mint 
at  Paris  in  1848,  and  wrote  a  "Method  of  Chemistry," 
(1854.)  Died  in  1853. 

Laurent,  (PAUL  MARIE,)  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Ardeche  in  1793.  His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of 
Napoleon,"  with  500  designs  by  Horace  Vernet,  (9  vols., 
1838-42.) 

Laurent,  (PIERRE.)  a  skilful  French  engraver,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1739,  worked  in  Paris.  He  excelled  in 
landscapes  and  animals,  and  published  engravings  of 
the  master-pieces  of  the  Louvre.  Died  in  1809. 

Laurent,  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  skilful  Flemish  mecha 
nician,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1715.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  the  canals  of  Flanders  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  and  gained  reputation  by  the  junction  of  the  Somme 
with  the  Scheldt.  He  was  very  skilful  in  the  fabrication 
of  artificial  limbs.  Died  in  1773. 

Laurentie,  lo'rfiN'te',  (PIERRE  SEBASTIEN,)  a  French 
historical  and  political  writer,  born  at  Houga  (Gers)  in 
1793.  He  edited  several  royalist  journals  in  Paris,  and 
published  "Studies,  Literary  and  Moral,  on  the  Latin 
Historians,"  (2  vols.,  1822,)  and  a  "  History  of  France," 
(1841-43.) 

Laurentius,  (JOANNES.)     See  LYDUS. 

Laurentius,  (LYDUS.)     See  LYDUS. 

Laurentzen,  low'rent-zen,  or  Lorentsen,  lo'rent- 
sen,  (JoHAN,)  a  Danish  historical  writer,  born  at  Ribe. 
He  wrote  on  Danish  history,  and  produced  a  Danish 
version  of  the  Bible,  (1719.)  Died  about  1728. 

Lauretti,  low-ret'tee,  or  Laureti,  low-ra'tee,  (ToM- 
MASO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Palermo,  worked  at 
Rome  for  Gregory  XIII.,  and  became  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  His  pictures  of"  Brutus  Judging 


his  Sons"  and  "  Horatius  Codes  Defending  the  Bridge" 
were  much  admired.     Died  about  1600,  aged  eighty. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Lauri,  low'ree,  (BALTHASAR,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1570;  died  at  Rome  in 
1642. 

Lauri  or  Laura,  low'ra,  (FiLiPPO,)  an  eminent  painter 
of  history  and  landscapes,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Rome  in  1623.  Filippo  painted  in  preference  small 
cabinet  pictures  which  were  remarkable  for  imagination 
and  spirit.  He  also  painted  figures  for  the  landscapes 
of  Claude  Lorrain.  His  design  and  composition  are 
highly  commended  by  E.  Breton  in  the  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Ge'nerale."  Died  in  1694.  His  brother 
FRANCESCO  was  a  promising  artist  when  he  died  in 
1635,  aged  twenty-five. 

See  LANZI.  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Lauria,  (ROGER  DE.)     See  LORIA. 

Lauriere.  de,  deh  16're-aiR',  (EusEBE  JACOB,)  a  pro 
found  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1659.  He  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  legal  science,  and  attained  grent 
proficiency  in  literature.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Origin  of  the  Law  of  Amortizement,"  (1692,) 
and  "  Library  of  Common  Law,"  ("  Bibliotheque  des 
Coutumes,"  1699.)  Died  in  1728. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Laurillard,  lo're'ySu',  (CHARLES  LEOPOLD,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  artist,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1783,  was  a 
pupil  of  Cuvier,  who  employed  him  in  the  execution  of 
his  anatomical  designs.  He  published  "The  Mammifera 
and  Human  Races,"  (1849.)  Died  in  1853. 

Laurimanus.     See  LAUWKRMAN. 

Lauristou,  de,  deh  lo'res'tiN',  (JACQUES  ALEXAN- 
DRE  BERNARD  LAW,)  MARQUIS,  a  marshal  of  France, 
was  born  in  India  in  1768,  and  was  great-nephew  of 
John  Law,  the  famous  projector.  In  1800  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte,  and  served  at  the  battle  of 
Marengo.  lie  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in  1802, 
general  of  division  in  1805,  and  governor-general  of 
Venice  in  1807.  Having  received  the  title  of  count, 
as  commander  of  the  artillery  of  the  imperial  guard,  he 
took  part  in  several  victories  over  the  Austrians  in  1809. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1811,  and  com 
manded  a  corps  in  the  campaign  of  1813.  He  was  created 
a  marquis  in  1817,  became  minister  of  the  royal  house 
hold  in  1821,  received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1823,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  state  in  1824.  Died  in  1828. 

See  DE  COURCELI.ES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Fran^ais :" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lauro,  low'ro,  (GIOYANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  modern  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  in  1581 ;  died  at  Rome  in  1629. 

Laus  du  Ferret.    See  DUPERRET. 

Lauterbach,  low'ter-baK',  (WOLFGANG  ADAM,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  in  1618,  wrote  a  work  on  the  Pan 
dects,  (3  or  4  vols.,  1690-1714.)  Died  in  1678. 

Lauth,  lot,  (ALEXANDRE,)  a  skilful  French  anatomist, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1803.  He  published  a  "Manual 
for  the  Anatomist,"  (1829,)  and  other  able  professional 
works.  Died  in  1837. 

Lautrec,  15'tReV,  (ODET  DE  Foix,)  MARSHAL,  a 
brave  French  general,  was  a  cousin  of  Gaston  de  Foix. 
He  was  wounded  at  Ravenna  in  1512.  Just  after  Con 
stable  Bourbon  had  resigned  the  command,  Francis  I. 
appointed  Lautrec  his  lieutenant-general  in  Italy,  (1516.) 
He  was  defeated  at  Bicoque  in  1522,  and  fought  by  the 
side  of  Francis  I.  at  Pavia  in  1525.  In  1527  he  resumed 
command  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  was  besieging  Naples, 
when  he  died  of  fever  in  1528. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

LauwermanJow'er-man'.ILat.  LAURIMA'NUS,](COR- 
NELIS,)  a  Dutch  teacher  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1520;  died  in  1573. 

Lauzun,  Due  DE.  See  BIRON,  (ARMAND  Louis  DE.) 
Lauzun,  de,  deh  IO'ZU.N',  (ANTOINE  NOMPAR  DE 
CAUMONT,)  DUKE,  a  French  courtier  and  general,  whose 
life  presents  remarkable  vicissitudes,  was  born  in  Gascony 
in  1632.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
gave  him  a  high  rank  in  the  army  before  he  had  merited 
it  by  services.  In  1671  he  commanded  the  army  which 


€  as.  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


1382 


LA  VERNE 


accompanied  the  king  to  Flanders.  He  was  engaged  to 
Anna  Maria,  Duchess  of  Montpensier,  a  granddaughter 
of  Henry  IV.,  but  the  match  was  broken  off,  and,  having 
incurred  the  enmity  of  Madame  Montespan,  he  was  im 
prisoned  from  1671  to  1681,  when  his  penalty  was  com 
muted  into  exile  from  court.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
secretly  married  to  the  lady  first  above  named.  When 
the  throne  and  person  of  James  II.  of  England  were 
menaced  by  revolution,  (1688,)  that  king  confided  his 
wife  and  son  to  Lau/un,  who  escorted  them  to  Paris 
and  by  that  service  regained  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV. 
He  commanded  the  French  army  sent  to  Ireland  to  fight 
for  James  II.,  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  in 
1690,  and  returned  to  France  about  the  end  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1723.  "His  life  was  like  a  romance,"  said  La 
Bruyere,  "except  that  it  lacked  probability." 

See  LA  BRUYERE,  "  Caracteres;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Me'moires ;" 
DANGEAU,  "Journal ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate ;"  DKLORT, 
"  Histoire  cle  la  Detention  de  Fouquet,  de  Pellisson  et  de  Lauzun," 
3vols.,  1829;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Laval,  It'vSK,  (ANNE  ADRIEN  PIKRRE  DE  MONT- 
MOKENCY,)  Due  de  Laval,  born  in  Paris  in  1768,  was 
the  son  of  the  Due  cle  Laval.  He  was  sent  as  ambas 
sador  to  Spain  in  1814,  to  Rome  about  1820,  and  to 
Vienna  in  1828.  In  1829  he  was  transferred  to  the  court 
of  Saint  James.  Died  in  1837. 

Lavalette,  de,  deh  lit'vi'leY,  (Pere  ANTOINE,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  1707.  He  was  chosen  superior- 
general  of  the  missions  of  South  America  in  1754.  He 
engaged  in  mercantile  speculations  which  resulted  in  a 
disgraceful  bankruptcy.  This  affair  was  one  of  the 
causes  or  pretexts  of  the  abolition  of  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  France  in  1762. 

Lavalette,  de,  (CHARLES  JEAN  MARIE  FELIX,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Senlis  in  1806.  He 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Sublime  Porte  from 
1851  to  1853,  and  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator  in 
the  latter  year.  In  1865  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior.  He  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
December,  1868. 

La  Valette,  de,(  JEAN  PARISOT.)  See  VALETTE,  DE  LA. 

Lavalette,  de,  (MARIE  CHAMANS,)  COUNT,  a  favour 
ite  officer  and  minister  of  Bonaparte,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1769.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  obtained 
the  grade  of  captain  at  Arcola  in  1796.  Soon  after  this 
date,  Bonaparte  employed  him  in  important  missions, 
and  gave  him  for  his  svife  fimilie  de  Beauharnais,  a 
niece  of  Josephine.  During  the  Egyptian  campaign 
(1798)  he  was  one  of  Bonaparte's  favourite  attendants. 
In  1800  he  was  called  to  preside  over  the  post-office 
department,  first  with  the  title  of  commissary,  and  soon 
after  with  that  of  director-general.  At  the  restoration 
of  1814  he  retired  to  private  life,  but  on  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  he  resumed  his  functions  as  post 
master-general  on  the  2oth  of  March,  1815.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  arrested  by  the  agents  of  Louis  XVIII.  and 
condemned  to  death.  Just  before  the  day  of  execution, 
Madame  Lavalette  visited  him  in  prison,  and  remained 
in  his  place  while  he  escaped  disguised  in  her  dress.  By 
the  aid  of  Sir  R.  Wilson  and  other  Englishmen,  he 
reached  Flanders  safely.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  king 
in  1822,  and  died  in  1830,  leaving  two  volumes  of  me 
moirs  of  his  life,  (1831.)  He  wife  was  tried  and  ac 
quitted,  but  became  permanently  insane  in  consequence 
of  the  exertion  and  excitement. 

See  LAVALETTE,  "  Me'moires  et  Souvenirs,"  2  vols.,  1831,  and 
"  Notice  btographique  sur  le  Comte  de  La  Valette,"  Paris,  1830. 

La  Vallee,  IS  vt'li',  (JOSEPH,)  Marquis  de  Bois-Ro- 
bert,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1747.  Among 
his  works  is  a  piquant  journal  called  "  Semaines  cri 
tiques,"  (4  vols.,  1797.)  Died  in  London  in  1816. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxxv.,  1818,  (Appendix.) 

Lavallee,  (THEOPHILE  SEBASTIKN,)  a  French  histo 
rian,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  the  French  from  the  Time  of  the  Gauls  to  1830,"  (3 
vols.,  1839;  loth  edition,  1854,)  and  other  works. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxxiv.,  1817,  (Appendix.) 

La  Valliere.     See  VALLIERE,  DE  LA. 

Lavardiu,  de,  deh  IS'vttR'daN',  MARSHAL,  a  French 
general,  whose  proper  name  was  JEAN  DE  BEAUMANOIR, 
was  born  in  Maine  in  1551.  He  fought  as  second  in 


command  of  the  Catholic  army  at  Coutras  in  1578,  but 
entered  the  service  of  Henry  IV.  in  1595,  and  was 
then  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was  riding  in  the 
carriage  with  the  king  when  the  latter  was  assassinated 
in  1610.  Died  in  1614. 

Lavardin,  de,  (HENRI  CHARLES  DE  BEAUMANOIR,) 
MARQUIS,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  In 
1687  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  with  a  large 
retinue  of  armed  men,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a 
claim  to  certain  privileges  or  franchises  which  the  pope 
refused  to  grant.  (See  INNOCENT  XI.)  Lavardin  en 
tered  Rome  as  a  victor  at  the  head  of  an  army,  but  was 
excommunicated,  and  returned  to  France  in  1689.  Died 
in  1701. 

Lavater,  la'va-ter  or  iS'vt'taiR',  (Jonx  CASPAR,)  a 
celebrated  Protestant  minister  and  writer  on  physiog 
nomy,  born  at  Zurich  in  1741.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  which  profession  was  congenial  to  his  character. 
In  1763  he  made  a  journey  to  Berlin  with  Henry  Fuseli 
the  artist.  lie  produced  in  1767  his  admirable  "Swiss 
Songs,"  and  in  1768  an  ingenious  work  entitled  "Pros 
pects  into  Eternity,"  ("Aussichte  in  die  Ewigkeit.")  He 
was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1769,  and  a  few  years  later 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Zurich.  His  sermons 
were  much  admired,  and  widely  diffused  by  the  press  ; 
but  he  was  censured  by  some  for  a  tendency  to  paradox, 
superstition,  and  mystical  theology.  In  1775-78  he  pub 
lished,  in  German,  his  celebrated  "Physiognomic  Frag 
ments  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Knowledge  and  Love 
of  Mankind,"  ("  Physiognoinischen  Fragmente  x.ur  ]>e- 
fdrderung  der  Menschenkenntniss  und  Menschenliebe," 
4  vols.)  This  is  the  result  of  multiplied  and  curious 
observations  generalized  into  an  ingenious  system,  lie 
was  the  author  of  numerous  religious  and  moral  works 
in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  are  "Pontius  Pilau-," 
(1782,)  and  two  poems,  "The  Messiah"  (4  vols.,  1783-86) 
and  "The  Human  Heart,"  (1789.)  lie  was  a  friend  of 
Goethe,  with  whom  he  corresponded.  In  the  commo 
tions  which  followed  the  French  Revolution  he  displayed 
courage  and  firmness  in  opposing  the  French  party, 
(though  not  with  carnal  weapons  ;)  and  at  the  capture 
of  Zurich  by  Massena,  in  September,  1799,  he  was  shot 
in  the  street  by  a  soldier.  After  suffering  from  the  wound 
more  than  a  year,  he  died  in  1801.  His  character  was 
eminently  honest  and  noble.  "Lavater's  spirit,"  says 
Goethe,  in  his  Autobiography,  "was  altogether  im 
posing.  Near  him,  you  could  not  resist  his  decided  in 
fluence  ;  and  I  had  to  submit  to  observing  brow  and 
nose,  eyes  and  mouth,  in  detail,  and  to  weighing  their 
relations  and  proportions  to  each  other.  .  .  .  Many 
times  in  my  after-life  I  had  occasion  to  think  about  this 
man,  who  is  one  among  the  most  excellent  with  whom  I 
have  ever  attained  to  so  intimate  a  relation." 

See  MEISTH:R,  "J.  C.  Lavater,"  1802;  GESSNER,  "Lavater's 
Lebensbeschreibung,"  3  vols.,  1802;  GOETHE,  "  Briefe  an  Lavater," 
1833:  lioDEMANN,  "Life  of  Lavater,"  1856:  P.  I.  HEISCH,  "Me 
moirs  of  J.  C.  Lavater."  London,  1842;  C.  L.  HAI.I.ER,  "  Denkmal 
auf  Lavater,"  1801 ;  F.  W.  JUNG,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Lavater,"  1812; 
F.  HERBST,  "Lavater  nach  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1832. 

Lavater,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  clergyman,  born 
in  1527.  He  lived  in  Zurich,  and  wrote  many  theological 
and  other  works,  among  which  is  a  curious  treatise  on 
spectres,  apparitions,  etc.,  (1570.)  Died  in  1586. 

Laveaux,  If  vo',( JEAN  CHARLES  THIBAULT,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Troyes  in  1749.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Lan 
guage,"  (1826.)  Died  in  1827. 

Lavergne,  de,  deh  lt'v<\Rn',  (Louis  GABRIEL  LEONCE 
Guilhaud — ge'15',)  a  French  economist  and  writer,  born 
at  Bergerac  in  1809.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Memoir 
on  the  Rural  Economy  of  France,"  (1857,)  and  many 
important  articles  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mor.des" 
on  Spanish  history,  literature,  etc. 

La-ver'iia,  [Fr.  LAVERNE,  It'veRn',]  in  Roman  my 
thology,  was  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  thieves  and 
impostors. 

Laverne.     See  LAVERNA. 

La  Verne,  de,  deh  15  VCRU,  (LEGER  MARIE  PHILIPPE 
Tranchant — trftN'shox',)  COMTE,  a  French  tactician 
and  writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  near  Vesoul  in  1769. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of  General  Suwarow," 
(1809.)  Died  in  1815. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m5t;  not;  good;  moOn; 


1383 


LAWES 


Laves,  love's,  (GEORG  LUDWIG  FRIEDRICH,)  an  emi 
nent  German  architect,  and  chief  director  of  buildings 
for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  was  born  at  Uslar  in  1789. 
In  1852  he  finished  the  new  theatre  at  Hanover,  which  is 
regarded  as  his  best  work. 

Lavigne,  de,  deh  iS'ven',  (ANNE,)  a  French  poetess, 
born  at  Vernon,  in  Normandy;  died  in  1684. 

La  Ville  de  Mirmont,  de,  deh  la"  vel  deh  meR'moN', 
(ALEXANDRE  JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1782.  His  drama  "  Le  Li  be  re" 
(1835)  gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Acad 
emy.  Died  in  1845. 

La  Villemarque,  de,  deh  IS  vel'mt  R'ki',  (THEODORE 
CLAUDE  HENRI  Hersart — heR'saV,)  VICOMTE,  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Quitnperle  in  1815.  He  published 
"The  Popular  Songs  of  Bretagne,"  (1839,)  with  a  French 
version,  and  other  works. 

Lav'ing-toii,  (GEORGE,)  a  learned  English  prelate, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1683.  He  became  a  canon  of  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  in  1732,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1747. 
He  published,  besides  sermons,  "  The  Enthusiasm  of  the 
Methodists  and  Papists  Compared."  Died  in  1762. 

La-vin'I-a,  [Fr.  LAVINIE,  If've'ne',]  a  daughter  of 
Latinns,  King  of  Latium,  and  his  wife  Amata,  who 
promised  her  to  Tnrnns.  She  was  married  to  /Eneas 
instead  of  Turnus  because  an  oracle  had  declared  that 
she  should  be  the  wife  of  a  foreign  prince.  She  was  the 
mother  of  /Eneas  Sylvius. 

See  VIRGIL,  "/Eneid,"  book  vii. 

Lavinie.     See  LAVINIA. 

Lavocat,  If  vo'kt',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  mechanician 
and  inventor,  born  near  Nancy  in  1707;  died  in  1788. 

Lavoisier,  iS'vwa'ze-i',  (ANTOINE  LAURENT,)  an 
illustrious  French  chemical  philosopher,  and  the  chief 
founder  of  modern  chemistry,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the 
26th  of  August,  1743.  After  leaving  the  College  Maza- 
rin,  where  he  obtained  high  honours,  he  pursued  with 
zeal  the  study  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  especially 
chemistry.  In  1766  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1763  for  an  improved  method 
of  lighting  the  streets  of  Paris,  and  in  1768  was  chosen 
an  associate  of  that  institution.  About  this  period  he 
entered  the  public  service  as  farmer-general,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  funds  required  for  his  scientific  researches, 
to  which  he  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his  time.  He 
acquired  durable  celebrity  by  the  discovery  of  a  new 
chemical  theory  of  combustion,  (called  the  anti-phlo 
gistic,)  which  was  partially  developed  in  1773  in  a  work 
entitled  "Physical  and  Chemical  Essays,"  ("Opuscules 
physiques  et  chimiques,")  and  which  forms  a  great  epoch 
in  the  science  of  chemistry.  In  a  memoir  which  he  read 
to  the  Academy  in  1775,  he  announced  that  calcination 
and  combustion  are  the  results  of  the  union  of  a  "highly 
respirable  gas"  (oxygen)  with  combustible  bodies,  and 
soon  after  proposed  the  theory  that  the  heat  produced 
during  combustion  was  disengaged  from  that  respirable 
air.  ""  These  two  propositions,"  says  Cuvier,  "belong 
to  Lavoisier  in  his  own  right,  and  form  the  basis  and 
fundamental  character  of  the  new  chemical  theory."  In 
1776  he  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  fabrication  of 
saltpetre  and  gunpowder,  of  which  he  greatly  improved 
the  quality.  Co-operating  with  other  French  chemists,  he 
rendered  an  important  service  by  reforming  the  chemical 
nomenclature,  and  published  in  1787  "  Method  of  Chemi 
cal  Nomenclature,"  ("  Methode  de  Nomenclature  chi- 
mique,")  in  which  a  simple,  systematic,  and  expressive 
terminology  was  substituted  for  the  absurd  or  fanciful 
terms  of  "the  alchemists.  He  displayed  his  admirable 
talent  for  explaining  the  truths  which  he  had  discovered 
in  his  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  ("Traite 
elementaire  de  Chimie,"  2  vols.,  1789.)  He  invented  the 
pneumatic  cistern,  che  gasometer,  and  other  chemical 
apparatus.  His  glorious  career  was  prematurely  closed 
by  an  unjust  suspicion  against  the  farmers  of  the  revenue, 
although  in  this  service  he  had  acquitted  himself  with 
great  honour  and  success.  In  the  reign  of  terror  La 
voisier  and  many  of  his  colleagues  were  condemned  to 
death  on  frivolous  charges,  one  of  which  was  that  they 
moistened  with  water  the  tobacco  of  which  they  had  the 
monopoly.  His  request  for  a  respite  of  a  few  days,  in 
order  to  finish  some  important  experiments,  was  refused 


and  he  was  executed  in  May,  1794.  About  that  time  he 
liad  published  two  volumes  of  a  large  and  important 
ivork  on  chemical  philosophy,  entitled  "Memoires  de 
Chimie,"  which  remained  unfinished. 

See  article  on  Lavoisier,  by  CUVIER,  in  the  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle  ;"  FOURCROY,  "  Notice  sur  Lavoisier,"  1796;  J.  J.  LE  FRANCOIS 
DE  LAI.ANDE,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Lavoisier," 
1796:  DR.  F.  HOEFER,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  KIREEVSKY,  "  HistoiredesLegislateurs-Chimistes  :  Lavoisier, 
Berthollet,  H.  Davy,"  1845. 

Law,  (EDMUND,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  metaphy 
sician,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1703,  was  the  father  of  Lord 
Ellenborongh.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and, 
while  a  student  there,  published  a  translation  of  King's 
"  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  with  notes,  and  an  "  En 
quiry  into  the  Ideas  of  Space  and  Time."  He  became 
rector  of  Graystock,  Cumberland,  in  1737,  and  arch 
deacon  of  Carlisle  in  1743.  Soon  after  this  date  appeared 
his  admired  "Reflections  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Christ."  He  was  appointed  master  of  Peter-House, 
Cambridge,  about  1755,  professor  of  casuistry  in  1764, 
and  prebendary  of  Durham  in  1767.  In  1769  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Carlisle.  He  published  in  1777  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Locke,  with  a  life  of  the  author, 
of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  He  belonged  to  the  rational 
and  liberal  school  of  theology.  Died  in  1787. 

Law,  (EDWARD.)     See  ELLEN  is  OROI;C.I. 

Law,  (JoiiN,)  of  Lauriston,  a  famous  Scottish  pro 
jector  and  financier,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1671, 
and  inherited  an  estate  called  Lauriston.  About  1694 
he  went  to  London,  where,  by  means  of  his  handsome 
figure  and  graceful  address,  he  gained  admission  into 
fashionable  society,  and  supported  himself  by  gaming. 
Having  killed  a  man  in  a  duel,  he  fled  to  the  continent, 
where  he  followed  the  trade  of  a  gambler  with  great 
success  in  Paris,  Venice,  Genoa,  etc.  About  1715  he 
persuaded  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France,  to 
favour  a  scheme  by  which  he  promised  to  greatly  im 
prove  the  financial  condition  of  the  kingdom.  In  1716 
he  obtained  a  charter  for  a  general  bank  of  issue  and 
discount,  under  the  name  of  Law  &  Company.  In 
connection  with  this  bank  he  formed  the  Mississippi 
Company,  with  a  capital  of  one  hundred  million  francs, 
and  with  the  exclusive  right  of  the  trade  between  France 
and  Louisiana,  China,  India,  etc.  The  stock  of  these 
companies  was  bought  up  with  avidity,  and  the  former 
was  soon  erected  into  the  Royal  Bank,  with  the  privilege 
of  coining  gold  and  silver.  The  hope  of  enormous  profits 
infatuated  the  public  so  generally  that  the  stock  of  the 
company  rose  to  twenty  times  its  original  value.  In 
January,  1720,  Law  was  appointed  contrSleur-general  of 
finances,  (i.e.  prime  minister.)  The  fall  of  his  baseless 
fabric  was  sudden  and  ruinous  in  1720,  when  the  public 
confidence  began  to  fail,  and  the  notes  of  his  bank  fell 
to  one-tenth  of  the  nominal  value.  Law  was  compelled 
to  leave  France;  and  he  died  poor  at  Venice  in  1729. 
His  system  is  often  called  the  "  South  Sea  Bubble." 


VIAL,  "J.  Law  et  le  Systeme  du  Papier-Monnaie  de  1716,"  1849; 
J.  HEYMANN,  "Law  und  sein  System,"  1853;  CHAMBERS,  "Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Law,  (WILLIAM,)  a  pious  and  mystical  English  au 
thor,  born  at  King's  Cliff,  Northamptonshire,  in  1686. 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
but  forfeited  his  fellowship  by  refusing  to  take  the  re 
quired  oath  at  the  accession  of  George  I.  in  1714.  He 
lived  some  years  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Gibbon,  (father 
of  the  historian,)  to  whom  he  was  related,  and  was  after 
wards  chaplain  to  Miss  Hester  Gibbon  at  King's  Cliff. 
He  adopted  the  mystical  doctrines  of  Jacob  Bohme,  (or 
Behmen,)  which  he  inculcated  in  his  "Way  to  Know 
ledge,"  "Spirit  of  Love,"  and  "Letters."  Mr.  Law 
published  many  other  works,  of  which  the  most  popular 
is  his  "Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and  Holy  Life,"  (1729.) 
This  was  praised  by  Dr.  Johnson  and  by  Gibbon.  "  In 
mere  dialectical  skill,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  had  very  few 
superiors."  Died  in  1761. 

See  RICHARD  TIGHK,  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Wil 
liam  Law,"  1813. 

Lawes,  lawz,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  composer, 
born  probably  at  Salisbury  in  1600.  He  was  one  of  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2IT"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAWES 


LAWRENCE 


gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel,  and  clerk  of  the  cheque 
to  Charles  I.,  in  whose  service  he  continued  until  1649. 
He  composed  the  music  for  Milton's  "Comus,"  (per 
formed  in  1634,)  in  which  the  poet  compliments  him  as 

one 

"  Whose  artful  strains  have  oft  de'ayed 
The  huddling  brook  to  hear  his  madrigal, 
And  sweetened  every  musk-rose  of  the  dale." 

In  1653  he  published  "  Ayres  and  Dialogues,"  consisting 
of  songs,  duets,  and  trios.  "  Milton  probably  took  lessons 
[in  music]  from  him."  (Masson.)  Died  in  1662. 

Lawes,  (WILLIAM,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  skilful  musician  and  composer,  and  was  one  of  the 
gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel.  lie  fought  for  the  king 
in  the  civil  war,  and  was  killed  at  Chester  in  1645.  He 
composed  music  for  Sandys's  paraphrase  of  the  1'salms, 
and  many  other  works. 

Law'less,  (JoHN,)  an  Irish  agitator  and  orator,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1772,  was  often  called  "honest  Jack  Law 
less."  Died  in  London  in  1837. 

See  THOMAS  McGEE,  "  Sketches  of  O'Connell  and  his  Friends." 

Lawless,  (VALENTINE.)     See  CLONCURRY. 

Law'rance,  (JoHN,)  a  judge,  born  in  Cornwall,  Eng 
land,  in  1750.  lie  emigrated  in  1767  to  the  city  of  New 
York,  where  he  practised  law,  and  rose  to  distinction  in 
his  profession.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  in  1785-87,  and  represented  the  city 
of  New  York  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from 
1789  to  1793.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
district  court  for  New  York.  He  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  for  New  York  in  1796,  and  resigned 
his  seat  in  1800.  He  was  a  Federalist,  and  a  personal 
friend  of  Alexander  Hamilton.  Died  in  1810. 

Law'reiice,  (AnnoTT,)  an  eminent  American  mer 
chant  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Groton,  Massachusetts, 
in  1792.  As  the  partner  of  his  brother,  Amos  Law 
rence,  he  acquired  a  large  fortune,  a  portion  of  which 
was  invested  by  them  in  the  cotton-factories  of  Lowell, 
which  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  these  enterprising 
merchants.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1839,  and  in 
1843  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle 
the  northeast  boundary  question  with  Great  Britain.  He 
was  United  States  minister  to  England  in  1849.  He 
died  in  1855.  Among  his  numerous  and  munificent  do 
nations  was  that  of  $100,000  to  Harvard  University  to 
found  the  scientific  school  called  by  his  name.  He  also 
bequeathed  the  sum  of  $50,000  towards  erecting  model 
lodging-houses. 

See  APPLETON,  "  Life  of  Abbott  Lawrence;"  HUNT,  "Lives  of 
American  Merchants." 

Lawrence,  (AMOS,)  a  distinguished  philanthropist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Groton,  Massa 
chusetts,  in  1786.  Having  acquired  an  immense  fortune 
as  a  merchant,  he  spent  a  great  part  of  it  in  various 
charities  and  donations  to  public  institutions ;  and  the 
amount  of  his  benefactions  is  estimated  at  $700,000. 
Among  the  colleges  to  which  he  gave  large  sums  were 
Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  Williams  College,  and  the  Theo 
logical  Seminary  at  Bangor,  Maine.  He  died  in  1852, 
and  his  "Life  and  Correspondence"  was  published  by 
his  son  in  1855. 

Law'rence,  (Sir  HENRY  MONTGOMERY,)  an  English 
officer,  born  in  Ceylon  in  1806,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  campaigns  of  the  Sutlej.  He  was  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  board  of  government  in  the  Punjaub  about 
1850,  and  chief  commissioner  of  Oucle  in  1857.  He 
rendered  important  service  by  the  defence  of  Lucknow 
against  the  mutinous  Sepoys,  and  was  killed  during  the 
siege  of  that  city  in  July,  1857. 

See  J.  W.  KAYE,  "Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  London,  1867; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1857;  "North  British  Review" 
for  May,  1860. 

Lawrence,  (JAMES,)  an  American  naval  officer,  of 
distinguished  bravery,  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey, 
in  1781.  He  served  under  Commodore  Decatur  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  succes 
sively  to  the  command  of  the  Vixen,  the  Wasp,  the  Argus, 
and  the  Hornet.  In  1813  he  captured  the  Peacock  from 
the  British  after  a  short  engagement,  and  was  soon  after 
made  post-captain,  and  commander  of  the  frigate  Ches 
apeake.  On  the  ist  of  June,  1813,  he  encountered  near 


Boston  the  British  frigate  Shannon,  and  after  a  severe 
contest,  in  which  he  was  mortally  wounded,  his  vessel 
was  boarded  and  taken  by  the  English.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  he  uttered  the  memorable  words,  "Don't 
give  up  the  ship."  The  remains  of  Captain  Lawrence 
were  subsequently  removed  to  Trinity  church-yard, 
where  a  monument  has  been  erected  to  him.  He  left  a 
widow  and  two  children.  He  had  been  in  command  of 
the  Chesapeake  only  a  few  days,  and  was  a  stranger  to 
the  crew,  who  were  not  well  disciplined. 

Lawrence,  (JoHN,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born  at 
Colchester  in  1756,  became  a  merchant  in  London,  lie 
published  a  "Philosophical  and  Practical  Treatise  on 
I  forses,"  and  several  treatises  on  rural  economy.  Died 
about  1836. 

Lawrence,  (Sir  JOHN  LAIKD  MAIR,)  an  English 
administrator  of  great  ability,  a  brother  of  Sir  Henry  M. 
Lawrence,  was  born  in  1810.  He  entered  the  civil  service 
of  the  East  India  Company  about  1830,  and  became  chief 
commissioner  of  the  Punjaub  soon  after  the  conquest  of 
that  country.  He  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  the 
suppression  of  the  mutiny  of  1857,  and  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India  in  November,  1863. 

See  "  Rlackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  May,  and  June,  1869; 
"  Hritish  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1869. 

Lawrence,  (JONATHAN,)  an  American  poet  and  law 
yer,  born  in  New  York  in  1807.  He  died  in  1833,  leaving 
a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays. 

See  GRISWOI.D,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Law'rence,  [Lat.  LAUREN'TIUS;  Fr.  LAURENT,  15'- 
roN1';  It.  LORENZO,  lo-rSn'xo  ;  Ger.  LORENZ,  lo'rcnts,] 
SAINT,  a  martyr,  born  in  Rome  in  the  third  century, 
was  in  257  appointed  by  Pope  Sixtus  treasurer  of  the 
Church.  In  consequence  of  edicts  issued  against  the 
Christians  by  Valerian,  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  258. 
It  is  said  he  was  burned  to  death  on  a  gridiron. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Lawrence,  (STRINGER,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1697,  commanded  in  India  for  many  years.  Died  in  1775. 

Lawrence,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1711.  lie  became  a  Fellow  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  in  1744,  and  was  president  of 
the  same  from  1767  to  1774.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Wil 
liam  Harvey,"  and  several  medical  treatises  in  Latin. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Died  in  1783. 

Lawrence,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  English  por 
trait-painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1769.  His  artistic  talents 
were  marvellously  developed  in  early  childhood,  when 
he  was  also  remarkable  for  his  memory,  musical  voice, 
and  personal  beauty.  It  is  stated  that  he  drew  with  a 
crayon  accurate  likenesses  of  eminent  persons  about  the 
age  of  six  years.  In  1782  he  became  a  pupil  of  Prince 
Iloare  at  Bath,  and  soon  acquired  the  grace,  inspiration, 
and  delicacy  of  manner  which  rendered  him  unrivalled 
among  contemporary  English  artists  in  the  expression 
of  female  beauty.  He  removed  to  London  in  1787,  and 
was  admitted  as  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1791.  In  1792  he  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
first  painter  to  the  king.  From  that  time  he  was  abun 
dantly  patronized  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  guineas  for 
a  full-length  portrait.  In  1797  he  painted  a  portrait  of 
Mrs.  Siddons,  which  is  one  of  his  master-pieces.  Be 
tween  1814  and  1820  he  painted,  by  order  of  the  prince- 
regent,  the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
Pope  Pius  VII.,  Wellington,  and  many  famous  generals 
and  statesmen.  He  received  the  honour  of  knighthood 
in  1815,  and  visited  Vienna  and  Rome  in  1819.  On  the 
death  of  Benjamin  West,  in  1820,  Sir  Thomas  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Died  in  1830.  He 
excelled  in  the  art  of  imparting  ideal  beauty  to  his  sub 
jects  without  departing  from  the  reality.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  portraits  of  Benjamin  West,  John 
Kemble,  Curran,  Lord  Erskine,  Lady  Cowper,  and.  the 
Duchess  of  Sutherland. 

See  D.  E.  WILLIAMS,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  T.  Law 
rence,"  3  vols.,  1831;  CHARLES  HLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres;" 
BRYAN,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  De 
cember,  1831. 

Lawrence,  (WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1785.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London, 


1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAWSON 


1385 


LAZZARO 


about  1816,  and  delivered  "Lectures  on  the  Physiology, 
Zoology,  and  Natural  History  of  Man,"  which  attracted 
much  attention.  Among  his  works  are  "  Anatomico- 
Chirurgical  Descriptions  and  Views  of  the  Nose,  Mouth, 
Larynx,  and  Fauces,"  a  "Treatise  on  Ruptures,"  (5th 
edition,  1838.)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Eye.'' 
D'ied  in  1867. 

Law'son,  (GEORGE,)  a  learned  Scottish  divine,  born 
in  West  Lin  ton  in  1749;  died  in  1820.  His  memory 
was  so  extraordinary  that  he  knew  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Bible  by  heart.  It  was  his  own  belief  that  if  the 
Holy  Scriptures  should  be  destroyed  he  could  restore 
them  all  from  his  memory,  with  the  exception  of  two  or 
three  chapters  in  the  Old  Testament. 

See  the  "  Sketch  of  Professor  George  Lawson"  in  the  "Watch 
man  and  Reflector,"  1867. 

Law'son,  (HENRY,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  savant,  born 
at  Greenwich  in  1774.  He  erected  an  observatory  at 
Bath,  and  published  a  "  History  of  the  New  Planets," 
(1847.)  Uied  in  l858- 

Lawson,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at 
Hull,  became  a  captain  before  the  encf'of  the  civil  war. 
He  co-operated  with  Monk  in  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  and  was  made  rear-admiral.  About  1664  he  and  De 
Ruyter  were  sent  with  combined  fleets  into  the  Medi 
terranean  in  order  to  chastise  the  pirates  of  Barbary. 
He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Dutch  in  1665. 

See  CAMPHELL,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Lawson,  (JOHN,)  a  native  of  Scotland,  emigrated  to 
America,  where  he  became  surveyor-general  of  North 
Carolina.  He  was  captured  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Indians  in  1712.  He  published  "A  New  Voyage  to 
Carolina,"  etc.,  (1709.) 

Law'ton,  (ALEXANDER  R.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Georgia  about  1820,  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
Confederate  army  in  1861. 

Lax,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in 
1751.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy  and  geometry 
at  Cambridge  in  1795.  Died  in  1836. 

Laxmaiin,  laks'man,  (ADAM,)  a  Russian  officer,  who 
in  1792  was  sent  by  his  government  to  Japan  for  the 
purpose  of  opening  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
Japanese.  He  failed  in  this  object,  and  wrote  a  succinct 
narrative  of  his  journey. 

Lay,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  eccentric  philanthropist,  born  in 
England,  became  a  resident  of  Abington,  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  zealous  opponents 
of  slavery  in  the  United  States,  and  the  coadjutor  of 
Franklin  and  Benezet.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  in  which  he  bore  a  faithful  testimony  against 
the  practice  of  slaveholding,  then  prevalent  among  them. 
He  resolutely  refused  to  partake  of  any  food  or  wear  any 
clothing  which  was  wholly  or  in  part  produced  by  the 
labour  of  slaves.  Died  in  1760. 

See  "Life  of  Benjamin  Lay,"  by  R.  VAUX,  Philadelphia,  1815. 

Laya,  li'yt',  (AI.EXANDRE,)  a  French  jurist  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  published  a  work 
on  English  law,  "Droit  Anglais,  ou  Resume  de  la  Legis 
lation  Anglaise,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "  Studies  on 
the  Life  of  M.  Thiers,"  (2  vols.,  1846.) 

Laya,  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  French  dramatist,  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  His  comedy 
"The  Friend  of  the  Laws"  was  received  with  great 
favour  in  1793,  but  was  proscribed  by  the  terrorists. 
He  wrote  various  other  works,  and  was  chosen  a  mem 
ber  of  the  French  Academy  in  1817.  Died  in  1833. 

See  "Notice  biographique  sur  J.  L.  Laya,"  Paris,  1833;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Laya,  (LEON,)  a  French  dramatist,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  He  produced  many 
popular  comedies,  among  which  are  "  Emma,  or  -the 
Guardian  Angel,"  (1844,)  and  "  An  April  Fool,"  ("Un 
Poisson  d'Avril,"  1845.) 

Lay'ard,  (AUSTEN  HENRY,)  an  Orientalist  and  anti 
quary,  a' grandson  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris,  of 
English  parents,  in  March,  1817.  He  visited  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  etc.  about  1840,  and  a  few  years  later  discovered 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh  near  Mosul.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  and  in  conjunction  with 
M.  Botta,  he  made  extensive  excavations  at  Nimroud, 
where  he  found  monuments  marked  with  cuneiform 


nscriptions,  and  colossal  emblematic  figures  in  the  form 
of  winged  bulls  and  lions, — memorials  of  a  civilization 
which  existed  before  the  commencement  of  profane  his 
tory.  These  sculptures,  bas-reliefs,  etc.  are  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum.  Mr.  Layard  returned  to  England 

n  1847,  ancl  published  an  account  of  his  researches  in 
"  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  (2  vols.,  1849.)  He  resumed 
the  enterprise  in  1849,  and  published  a  second  work, 
entitled  "  Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Baby 
lon,  with  Travels  in  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  the  Desert," 
(1853.)  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament. 
He  was  uncler-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  from 
August,  1861,  to  June,  1866.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Liberal  party.  In  December,  1868,  he  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  public  works,  and  ambassador  to  Spain 
in  1869. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1848;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1849;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1853. 

Layard,  (CHARLES  PETER, )  an  English  divine,  of 
French  descent,  born  about  1748,  was  grandfather  of 
the  preceding.  He  obtained  the  Seatonian  prize  for 
poetry  at  Cambridge  about  1774.  In  1800  he  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Bristol.  Died  in  1803. 

Layens,  de,  deh  IT'ens  or  It'yo.N',  (  MATHIEU,  )  a 
Flemish  architect  of  Louvain.  He  designed  the  Hotel- 
de-Ville  of  Louvain,  an  excellent  specimen  of  what  is 
termed  ogival  architecture.  Died  in  1484. 

Laynez.     See  LAINEZ,  (JAGO.) 

Lazare.     See  LAZARUS. 

Laz'a-rus,  [Gr.  Aufapoc;  Fr.  LAZARE,  If'zaV  ;  It.  LAZ- 
ZARo,  Id't'sa-ro,]  one  of  the  personal  friends  of  Christ,  and 
a  brother  of  Mary  and  Martha.  The  Saviour  wrought 
one  of  his  most  memorable  miracles  by  recalling  Lazarus 
to  life  after  he  had  been  dead  four  days. 

See  John  xi.  and  xii. 

Lazeri,  lad-x.a'ree,  ?  (Pi  ETRO,)  an  Italian  writer  on  eccle 
siastical  history,  born  at  Sienna  in  1710;  died  in  1789. 

Lazius,  lat/se-us,  (WOLFGANG,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1514,  practised  medicine  in  that  city. 
About  1550  the  emperor  Ferdinand  appointed  him  his 
physician.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "On 
the  Migrations  of  Nations  and  Origin  of  Languages," 
etc.,  ("  De  Gentium  aliquot  Migrationibus,  Linguarumque 
Initiis,"  etc.,  1557.)  Died  in  1565. 

See  NIC^RON,  "Memoires;"  SAX,  "  Onomasticon." 

Lazzarelli,  lat-sa-reKlee,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  satirical  poet,  born  at  Gubbio  in  1621.  His 
principal  works  are  "  La  Cicceide,"  a  personal  satire, 
and  "Cosmopoli,"  (1691.)  "  He  was,"  says  Tiraboschi, 
"  among  the  small  number  of  poets  who  did  not  follow 
the  bad  taste  of  his  age."  Died  in  1694. 

Lazzarelli,  (Luici,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  San  Seve- 
rino  in  1450.  He  wrote  "  The  Cup  of  Hermes,"  ("  Crater 
Hermetis,")  and  "  Bombyx,"  a  poem  on  silk-worms, 
(1518.)  Died  in  1500. 

Lazzari.     See  BRAMANTE,  (DONATO  LAZZARI.) 

Lazzarini,  lat-sa-ree'nee,  (DoMENico,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  near  Macerata  in  1668.  He  composed  a 
few  dramas,  sonnets,  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1734. 

Lazzarini,  (GIOVANNI  ANDREA,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter  and  elegant  writer,  was  born  at  Pesaro  in  1710, 
and  became  a  canon  of  the  church.  His  master-piece 
is  a  "  Virgin  with  Saint  Catherine,"  (at  Gualda,)  some 
figures  of  which  Lanzi  pronounces  "truly  Raffaelesque." 
lie  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Painting,"  which 
was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1786,  or,  as  others  say,  in 
1801.  "  Lazzarini  was  perfectly  master  of  good  painting 
as  well  as  good  writing,"  says  Lanzi ;  "easy,  yet  always 
studied  in  every  part ;  at  once  noble  and  graceful,  .  .  . 
yet  free  from  affectation  and  parade." 

See  MONTANARI,  "  Biojrrafia  del  Canonico  G.  A.  Lazzarini," 
1836;  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  FANTUZZI,  "  Notizie 
del  Canonico  Lazzarini." 

Lazzarini,  (GUEGORIO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Venice  in  1655.  He  excelled  in  design  and 
colouring.  His  "  S.  Lorenzo  Giustiniani"  was  greatly 
admired.  He  was  one  of  the  best  Venetian  painters 
of  his  time.  Died  in  1730  or  1740. 

Sec  L    szi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Lazzaro.     See  LAZARUS. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEA 


1386 


LEBAS 


Lea,  lee,  (HENRY  C.,)  a  son  of  Isaac  Lea,  noticed 
below,  and  a  grandson  of  Mathew  Carey,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  September  19,  1825.  He  wrote  "  Supersti 
tion  and  Force — Essays  on  the  Wager  of  Law,  the  Wager 
of  Battle,  the  Ordeal  and  Torture,"  (1866,)  and  "  Studies 
in  Church  History,"  etc.,  (1869.)  Mr.  Lea  is  the  present 
representative  of  the  celebrated  publishing-house  estab 
lished  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  by  Mathew 
Carey  &  Sons,  which  for  a  long  period  held  the  first 
place  among  all  the  establishments  of  the  kind  in  the 
United  States. 

Lea,  (ISAAC,)  LL.D.,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  1792.  He  became  in  1821 
the  partner  of  his  father-in-law,  Mathew  Carey,  a  promi 
nent  publisher  in  Philadelphia.  His  "Observations  on 
the  Genus  Unio"  came  out  in  1827,  and  was  followed 
by  "Contributions  to  Geology,"  (1833.)  He  also  pub 
lished  "  Fossil  Footmarks  in  the  Red  Sandstones  of 
Pottsville,"  "  Synopsis  of  the  Family  of  Naiades,"  and 
other  scientific  treatises.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  in  1858. 
Mr.  Lea's  contributions  on  conchology  to  the  "Trans 
actions"  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  are 
esteemed  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  appeared 
on  that  subject. 

Lea,  (THOMAS  GIBSON,)  a  botanist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  1785  ; 
died  in  1844. 

Leach,  leech,  (WILLIAM  ELFORD,)  an  eminent  Eng 
lish  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1790. 
He  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  about  1812, 
and  was  appointed  curator  of  the  natural  history  depart 
ment  of  the  British  Museum  in  1813.  Thenceforth  he 
devoted  his  time  to  the  study  of  natural  history,  espe 
cially  zoology.  In  181=;  he  published  the  first  part  of 
his  excellent  "  History  of  the  British  Crustacea,"  which 
was  never  completed.  He  largely  promoted  the  intro 
duction  into  England  of  the  natural  system  which  La 
marck  and  Cuvier  had  adopted.  About  1821  he  resigned 
the  place  of  curator,  on  account  of  ill  health.  Died  in 
Italy  in  1836. 

Lead  or  Ledde,  ISd,  (JANE,)  an  English  mystical 
writer,  born  in  1623,  was  a  disciple  of  Jacob  Bohmen. 
She  wrote  a  number  of  works,  among  which  is  "The 
Wonders  of  the  Creation  in  Eight  Different  Worlds,  as 
they  were  revealed  to  the  Author,"  (1695.)  Died  in  1704. 

See  LEE,  "Life  of  Jane  Lead." 

Leake,  leek,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1656,  was  the  son  of  Captain  Richard  Leake, 
noticed  below.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  battle 
of  La  Hogue,  in  1692,  and  displayed  skill  as  commander 
at  Gibraltar  in  1705.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which 
took  Alicante,  Majorca,  etc.  in  1706.  In  1707  he  was 
made  an  admiral  and  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the 
fleet,  and  in  1709  became  a  lord  of  the  admiralty.  Died 
in  1720. 

See  S.  M.  LEAKE,  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Leake,"  1750. 

Leake,  (JOHN,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Ain- 
stable.  He  practised  with  success  in  London,  and  ex 
celled  in  obstetrics.  He  wrote  treatises  "  On  Puerperal 
Fever,"  the  "Diseases  of  Women,"  etc.  Died  in  1792. 

Leake,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born  at 
Harwich  in  1629.  He  displayed  great  courage  in  a  battle 
against  the  Dutch  in  1673,  anc^  was  appointed  master- 
gunner  of  England.  Died  about  1690. 

Leake,  (STEPHEN  MARTIN,)  a  nephew  of  Sir  John, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  England  in  1702.  He  ob 
tained  a  high  office  in  the  Heralds'  College,  and  pub 
lished  a  "History  of  British  Coins,"  (1726,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Sir  John  Leake,"  (1750.)  Died  in  1774. 

Leake,  (Colonel  WILLIAM  MARTIN,)  an  English  trav 
eller,  distinguished  by  his  researches  in  the  antiquities 
of  Greece,  was  born  in  1777.  Having  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  he  commenced  about 
1800  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Morea,  and  other 
parts  of  Greece.  He  returned  to  England  in  1810,  and 
afterwards  published  a  number  of  valuable  works, — viz., 
"  Researches  in  Greece,"(  1814,)"  Topography  of  Athens," 
(1821,)  "Travels  in  the  Morea,"  (1830,)  "Travels  in 
Northern  Greece,"  (1835,)  and  "Numismata  Hellenica," 
a  catalogue  of  Greek  coins,  (1854.)  By  his  thorough 


research  and  critical  sagacity  he  has  done  more,  probably, 
than   any  other  traveller   to   illustrate   the   history  and 
geography  of  ancient  and  modern  Greece.    Died  in  1860. 
See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1814. 

Le-an'der,  [Gr.  AemwSpof ;  Fr.  LEANDRE,  la'd.NclR',] 
a  youth  of  Abydos,  and  a  lover  of  Hero.  He  swam 
across  the  Hellespont  every  night  to  visit  Hero  at  Sesto?;. 
As  he  was  once  attempting  to  cross  in  a  storm,  he  was 
drowned.  (See  HERO.) 

Leander,  [Fr.  LEANDRE,]  SAINT,  Archbishop  of  Sev 
ille,  in  Spain,  was  a  brother  of  Saint  Isidore.  He  was 
a  zealous  opponent  of  Arianism.  He  died  about  600 
A.D.,  leaving  a  work  "De  Institutione  Virginum,"  ("On 
the  Education  of  Virgins.") 

Leandre.     See  LEANDER. 

Leang-Oo-Tee,  (or  -Ou-Ti,)  li'ang'  oo'tee,  Emperor 
of  China,  and  founder  of  the  Leang  dynasty,  usurped  the 
throne  about  502  A.D.  Through  devotion  to  the  doc 
trines  of  Fo  and  the  mysticism  of  the  Bonzes,  (priests 
of  Fo  or  Boocldha,)  he  neglected  the  care  of  the  empire. 
He  died  in  549,  soon  after  he  had  been  dethroned  by 
one  of  his  officers,  Heoo-King. 

Leao.     See  LEO. 

Leao,  la-owN',  or  Liao,  do,  do  IC-OWN',  (DUARTE 
NUNEZ,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at  Ev'ora  in  1608. 

Lea'por,  (MARY,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in  North 
amptonshire  in  1722,  was  the  daughter  of  a  gardener, 
and  received  the  usual  education  of  the  lower  class.  At 
her  death,  in  1746,  she  gave  her  father  several  poems 
which  she  had  kept  secret,  and  which  have  considerable 
merit.  One  of  them  is  called  "The  Temple  of  Love." 

Lear,  leer,  (ToiHAS,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Ports 
mouth,  New  Hampshire,  about  1760.  He  became  pri 
vate  secretary  to  General  Washington  in  1785,  and 
negotiated  a  peace  with  Tripoli  in  1805.  Died  in  1816. 

Le-ar'-ehus,  [Gr.  Aea/j^of ;  Fr.  LEARQUE,  la'3Kk',J  an 
ancient  Greek  statuary  of  Rhegium,  lived  about  600  or 
700  13. C.  Pausanias  states  that  he  saw  at  Sparta  a  bronze 
statue  of  Jupiter  executed  by  Learchus. 

Learque.     See  LEARCHUS. 

Lebaillif,  leh  bt'yef,  ( AI.EXANDRE  CLAUDE  MARTIN,) 
a  French  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Saint-Fargeau  in 
1764.  He  constructed  excellent  micrometers  and  elec 
trometers,  and  invented  a  sideroscope.  Died  in  1831. 

Lebailly,  leh-bS'ye',  (ANTOINE  FUANC.OIS,)  a  French 
fabulist,  born  at  Caen  in  1756.  He  published  a  collec 
tion  of  fables  in  1784,  and  another  in  1811.  They  are 
praised  for  wit,  imagination,  style,  and  good  morality. 
He  also  wrote  operas,  etc.  Died  in  1832. 

Lebarbier,  leh-btR'be-i',  (JEAN  JACQUES  FRANC.OIS,) 
a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Rouen  in  1738, 
worked  in  Paris.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  Died  in  1826. 

Lebas  or  Le  Bas,  leh-ba',  (JACQUES  PHILIPPE,)  an 
eminent  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1707.  lie 
was  for  a  long  time  the  most  popular  of  French  engravers. 
In  1743  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Painting. 
He  engraved  many  works  of  Teniers,  Wouwerman,  and 
Vernet,  and  some  of  his  own  designs,  which  are  also 
admired.  In  1782  he  received  the  title  of  engraver  to 
the  king.  Died  in  1784. 

See  BASAN,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Lebas  or  Le  Bas,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  APOLLINAIRE,) 
a  French  engineer,  born  in  the  department  of  Var  in 
1797.  He  superintended  the  removal  of  an  obelisk  from 
Luxor,  Egypt,  to  Paris  in  1836,  and  published  an  account 
of  that  difficult  enterprise. 

Le  Bas,  (Louis  HIPPOLYTE,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1782.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
His  principal  works  are  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Lorette,  commenced  about  1825,  and  the  prison  of  La 
Roquette,  Paris. 

Lebas,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  archaeologist,  son  of  the 
succeeding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  became  in 
1820  the  preceptor  of  Louis  Napoleon,  (late  emperor,) 
returned  to  France  in  1828,  and  in  1842  was  sent  on 
a  scientific  mission  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The 
results  of  this  mission  were  published  by  order  of  the 
government  in  his  "Antiquarian  Journey  in  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,"  ("  Voyage  archeologique  en  Grece  et  en 
Asie  Mineure,"  about  12  vols.,  1847  et  seq.) 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me1 1;  not;  good;  moon; 


LEBAS 


1387 


LEBR  UN 


Lebas,  (PHILIPPE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born 
near  Arras  in  1765.  He  became  the  devoted  personal 
friend  and  partisan  of  Robespierre,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention.  As  the  commis 
sary  of  the  Convention  in  the  departments  of  the  Rhine, 
he  seconded  Saint-Just  in  the  direction  of  the  army,  and 
arrested  several  generals.  At  his  own  request,  he  was 
included  in  the  decree  against  Robespierre  on  the  gth 
Thermidor,  1794,  and  killed  himself  on  the  same  day. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lebeau  or  Le  Beau,  leh-bo',  (CHARLES,)  a  learned 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1701.  lie  obtained 
the  chair  of  eloquence  in  the  College  of  France  in  1752, 
and  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  in  1755.  He  published  Latin  verses,  ("Car- 
mina,"  3  vols.,  1782,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Lower  Em 
pire  from  the  Time  of  Constantine  the  Great,"  ("  Histoire 
du  Bas-Empire  en  commei^ant  a  Constantin  le  Grand," 
22  vols.  I2mo,  1757-79,)  which  is  a  judicious  and  accu 
rate  resume  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  but  is  faulty 
in  style.  Having  been  left  unfinished  by  Lebeau,  it  was 
completed  by  Ameilhon  and  published  "in  twenty-seven 
volumes.  A  revised  edition  was  published  by  Saint- 
Martin  and  Brosset,  (21  vols.,  1836.)  Died  in  1778. 

See  CHARLES  F.  DUPUIS,  "  FJoge  de  C.  Lebeau,"  1779:  "  Nou- 
velle  Biugrapliie  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July  and  August, 
1770. 

Lebeau,  QEAN  Louis  JOSEPH,)  a  Belgian  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Huy  in  1794.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  April,  1840,  to  April,  1841.  Died  in  1865. 

See  L.  DE  LOMEXIE,  "M.  Lebeau,  parun  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Lebedef,  leb'eh-deT,  (GUERASIM  or  HERASIM,)  a 
Russian  traveller  and  Orientalist,  born  in  1749.  He 
passed  some  years  at  Madras  and  Calcutta,  and  pub 
lished  a  "Grammar  of  the  Pure  and  Mixed  East  Indian 
Dialects,"  (London,  1801.)  Died  after  1815. 

Lebeed,  Lebid,  or  Lebyd,  leb-eed',  a  popular  Ara 
bian  poet,  born  about  530  A.D.  He  had  acquired  a  great 
reputation  when,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  he  was  converted 
to  Islamism  by  Mohammed,  whom  he  followed  in  his 
flight  to  Medina.  Under  the  reign  of  Omar  he  settled 
at  Koofah,  where  he  died  about  673  A.D.,  at  the  extra 
ordinary  age  of  one  hundred  and  forty-five.  Another 
account  states  that  he  died  in  662,  aged  about  ninety. 
His  poems  are  said  to  abound  in  original  ideas. 

See  DE  SACV,  "Notice  sur  le  Poete  Lebyd;"  D'HCRBELOT, 
"  Bibliotheque  Orientale;"  CAUSSIN  DE  PERCEVAL,  "Essai  sur 
1' Histoire  des  Arabes." 

Leberecht,  von,  fon  la'beh-re'Kt',  (KARL,)  a  German 
engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1749.  He 
settled  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1775,  and  became  in  1800 
director  of  the  Russian  mint,  or  Cour  des  Monnaies. 
Died  in  1827. 

Le  Berriays,  leh  bi're'A',  (R.ENE,)  a  French  horticul 
turist,  born  near  Avranches  in  1722,  wrote  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  Gardens,"  (2  vols.,  1775.)  Died  in  1807. 

Lebeuf,  leh-buf,  (JEAN,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1687.  In  1740  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  memoirs.  He  published  several  dissertations 
on  French  history.  Died  in  1760. 

Lebid.     See  LEBEED. 

Leblanc  or  Le  Blanc,  Ieh-bl5x',  (FRANCOIS,)  a 
French  numismatist,  born  in  Dauphine  ;  died  in  1698. 

Leblanc  or  Le  Blanc,  (JEAN  BERNARD,)  AKBE,  a 
mediocre  French  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1707.  He 
published  various  works,  two  of  which  had  a  transient 
popularity,  viz.,  "Abensaid,"  a  tragedy,  and  "Letters 
of  a  Frenchman  on  the  English  Nation,"  (3  vols.,  1745.) 
Died  in  1781. 

Leblanc,  (Louis,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Pon- 
toise,  practised  at  Orleans  about  1770. 

Le  Blanc  or  Leblanc,  (MARCEL,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
who  was  sent  to  Siam  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  and  not  released 
until  1690.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Siam,"  (1692.)  Died  at  Mozambique  in  1693. 

Le  Blanc,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Issoudun  in  1753,  was  attached  as  a  surgeon  to  the 
household  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  discovered  about 
1790  a  method  of  obtaining  soda  from  sea-salt,  and  thus 


rendered  an  important  service  to  the  industrial  arts. 
Died  in  1806. 

Le  Blanc,  (THOMAS,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Vitry 
in  1599,  wrote  many  works  for  the  promotion  of  religion 
and  morality.  Died  in  1669. 

Leblanc  de  Castillon,  leh-bldN'  deh  kfs'te'yiN', 
(JEAN  FRANCOIS  ANDRE,)  a  French  magistrate,  born  at 
Aix  in  1719,  was  eminent  for  his  legal  knowledge  and 
eloquence.  Died  in  1800. 

Leblanc  de  Guillet,  leh-blSN'  deh  ge'yi',  (ANTOINE 
BLANC,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1730. 
He  produced,  besides  other  works,  two  tragedies,"  Manco 
Capac,"  (1763,)  and  "The  Druids,"  (1772.)  Died  in  1799. 

Leblond,  leh-bloN',  (AUGUSTE  SAVINIEN,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "Dictionary  of  Celebrated  Men  of  Antiquity 
and  Modern  Times,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)  Died  in  1811. 

Leblond  or  Le  Blond,  (GASPARD  MICHEL,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Caen  in  1738,  lived 
in  Paris.  He  was  keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library,  and 
a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  medals.  Died  in  1809. 

Leblond,  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  was  selected  in  1751  by  Louis 
XV.  to  teach  mathematics  to  the  princes-royal.  He 
published  "Elements  of  Fortification,"  "Elements  of 
Tactics,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1781. 

Leblond,  (JEAN  BAFFISTE,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Toulongeon  in  1747.  He  travelled  in  South  America 
many  years  between  1767  and  1802,  and  published 
"Travels  in  the  Antilles  and  South  America,"  (1813.) 
Died  in  1815. 

Leboii  or  Le  Bon,  leh-b6N',  (JEAN,)  a  French  medi 
cal  writer,  born  in  Champagne,  was  physician  to  Charles 
IX.  He  published  numerous  works,  (1554-76.) 

Lebon,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  revolutionist,  who  ren 
dered  his  name  infamous  by  his  cruelties,  was  born  at 
Arras  in  1765.  He  became  a  partisan  of  Robespierre 
and  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1793.  He  was 
executed  in  1795. 

Lebon,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  chemist  and  engineer, 
born  near  Joinville  in  1769.  He  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  use  of  gas  for  illumination.  Died  in  1804. 

Lebossu,  leh-bo'sii',  (RENE,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1631.  lie  joined  the  canons-regular  of  Saint- 
Genevieve  in  1649,  and  taught  the  humanities  in  various 
schools.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Epic  Poetry," 
(1675,)  which  was  praised  by  Boileau  as  one  of  the  best 
works  on  poetry  that  have  appeared  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1680. 

Le  Boucq,  leh  book,  (SlMON,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Valenciennes  in  1591.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
and  antiquities  of  Valenciennes.  Died  in  1657. 

Le  Bouvier,  leh-boo've-i',  (Gn.LES,)  a  French  chroni 
cler,  born  at  Bourges  in  1386,  wrote  a  "History  of 
Charles  VII.  of  France."  Died  about  1460. 

Lebret,  la'bRgt  or  leh-bRi',  QOHANN  FRIEDRICH,) 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1732,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ger 
many,"  (1772,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1807. 

Lebretou  or  Le  Breton,  leh-bReh-to.N',  (ANDRE 
FRANQOIS,)  a  French  bookseller,  born  in  Paris  in  1708. 
He  was  the  publisher  of  Diderot's  "  Encyclopedic," 
commenced  in  1751,  and  took  the  liberty  to  suppress 
or  modify  furtively  some  passages  which  were  offensive 
to  the  court  and  clergy.  Diderot  was  extremely  angry 
when  he  detected  the  fact.  Died  in  1779. 

Lebreton,  (JOACHIM,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1760  ;  died  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1819. 

Lebreton,  (THEODORE,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1803.  He  was  befriended  by  Beranger  and  Lamar- 
tine,  and  published  a  collection  of  poems,  "Leisure 
Hours  of  a  Workman,"  ("  Heures  de  Repos  d'un  Ou- 
vrier,"  1837.) 

Lebrixa,  (ANTONIO.)     See  NEBRISSENSTS. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  leh-bruN',  (ANNE  CHARLES,) 
Duke  of  Piacenza,  (Plaisance,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1775,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  statesman  C.  F. 
Lebrun.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  Desaix  at  Marengo, 
(1800,)  distinguished  himself  at  Jena,  (1806,)  and  became 
a  general  of  brigade  in  1807.  He  svas  an  aide  to  Napo 
leon  at  Eylau  and  Wagram  in  1809,  and  was  made  a 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LEBRUN 


1388 


LEG  CHI 


general  of  division  in  1812.  During  the  Hundred  Days 
he  took  the  field  for  Napoleon.  He  inherited  the  title 
of  duke  in  1824.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  a  senator. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Biographic  des  Membres  du  Sennt,"  1852. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  (ANTOINE  Louis,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1680,  wrote  verses  in  Latin  and 
French.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  collection  of  fables, 
(1722.)  Voltaire  imputed  to  Lebrun  the  authorship 
of  the  satire  for  which  the  former  was  confined  in  the 
Bastille.  Died  in-  1743. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Bruu,  (CHARLES,)  a  celebrated  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  March,  1619.  lie  was  a  pupil 
of  Vouet  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  studied  six  years  with 
Poussin  at  Rome.  In  1648  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Painting,  and,  having  acquired  a  high  repu 
tation,  he  became  first  painter  to  Louis  XIV.  in  or  before 
1662.  He  displayed  his  genius  as  a  painter,  and  his  ex 
traordinary  powers  of  invention,  in  a  series  of  pictures  of 
the  battles  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  are  among  his 
most  admired  productions.  "  The  Family  of  Darius"  is 
called  his  master-piece.  He  was  appointed  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy  and  director  of  the  Gobelin 
manufactory,  and  exercised  a  sort  of  dictatorship  in 
the  arts  for  many  years.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on 
Physiognomy."  Died  in  1690. 

See  FELIBIEN,  "Vies  des  Peintres ;"  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres;"  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS,)  Duke  of 
Piacenza,  a  French  statesman  and  author,  born  in  Nor 
mandy  in  1739.  He  was  versed  in  ancient  and  modern 
languages.  He  composed  many  discourses  and  edicts 
for  his  patron  Maupeou  during  his  contest  with  the  par 
liaments.  In  1776  he  published  an  esteemed  version 
of  Homer's  "  Iliad."  Elected  to  the  States-General  in 
1789,  he  acted  with  the  moderate  friends  of  reform. 
Lebrun  became  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  Coun 
cil  of  Elders  in  1796,  and  was  appointed  Third  Consul 
by  Bonaparte  in  1799.  He  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
the  First  Consul,  (who  afterwards  designated  him  as  one 
of  the  best  writers  of  France,  and  a  man  of  strict  probity.) 
He  was  appointed  chief  treasurer  in  1804,  and  made  Duke 
of  Piacenza  (Plaisance)  in  1808.  In  1810  he  was  chosen 
Viceroy  or  Lieutenant-General  of  Holland,  the  throne  of 
which  Louis  Bonaparte  had  just  resigned.  The  Dutch 
were  pleased  with  his  modest  temper  and  methodical 
habits.  From  1811  to  1813  inclusive  he  was  Governor- 
General  of  Holland.  He  published  an  admired  version 
of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  MAKIE  DU  MBSNIL,  "  Me"moire  sur  le  Prince  Lebrun,  Due 
de  Plaisance,"  1828;  THIKRS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;" 
"  Opinions,  Rapports  et  Choix  d'ficrits  poHtiques  de  C.  F.  Lebrun," 
preceded  by  a  "Notice  biographique"  by  his  son  CHARLES,  1828; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Lebrun,  (DENIS,)  a  French  jurist,  became  an  advo 
cate  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1659  ;  died  in  1706. 

Lebrun,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  PIERRE,)  a  French  picture- 
dealer,  critic,  and  amateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1748.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  best  connoisseur  of  paintings  in 
Europe.  His  wife,  in  her  "  Souvenirs,"  says  he  ruined 
her  fortune  by  his  passion  for  gaming  and  other  vices. 
They  lived  separately  many  years.  Died  in  1813.  He 
published  a  "  Gallery  of  Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German 
Painters,"  containing  two  hundred  plates. 

Lebrun,  leh-bruN',  (KARL  AUGUST,)  born  at  Halber- 
staclt,  in  Germany,  in  1792,  acquired  celebrity  as  an  actor, 
and  wrote  several  successful  dramas.  Died  in  1842. 

Lebruu,  MADAME,  (nee  MAKIE  LOUISE  SLISAUETH 
Vigee — ve'zha',)  a  French  lady,  eminent  for  her  beauty 
and  her  skill  as  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  1755.  In 
1776  she  was  married  to  J.  B.  P.  Lebrun,  a  painter  and 
dealer  in  pictures.  She  became  a  fashionable  artist,  and 
was  welcomed  in  aristocratic  society  as  an  accomplished 
woman.  Between  1779  and  1789  she  painted  several 
portraits  of  Marie  Antoinette.  Her  soirees  were  thronged 
with  people  of  rank  and  celebrity.  After  her  return  to 
Paris,  in  1801,  she  painted  Lord  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael, 
etc.  In  1835  she  published  well-written  "Souvenirs" 
of  her  life.  The  number  of  her  portraits  is  over  six 
hundred.  Died  in  1842. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1837. 


Lebrun,  (  PIERRE,  )  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Brignolles  in  1661,  was  professor  in  several  colleges. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Critical  History  of 
Superstitious  Practices  which  have  seduced  the  People," 
(1702.)  Died  in  1729. 

Lebrun,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Mont- 

|  pellier   in  1761.     He   wrote  agreeable  verses,  and  was 

the   author   of  the  version  of  Horace's  "  Ars  Poetica" 

published  by  Count  Daru,  who  was  his  brother-in-law. 

Died  in  1810. 

Lebrun,  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  a  popular  French  lyric 

and  dramatic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.     In  1805  he 

received  a  pension  for  his  "  Ode  to  the   Grand  Army." 

His  tragedy  "  Ulysses"  was  received  with  favour  in  1814. 

j  After  the  restoration  he  produced  "  Joan    of  Arc"  and 

I  other  odes,  and  a  poem  on  the    death  of  Napoleon, 

,  (1821,)  which  was  much  admired.      His  drama  "Marie 

Stuart"   (1820)    had  a  great    success,  and  is  called    his 

capital  work.     In  1828  he  was  elected   to   the  French 

Academy  in  place  of  Frai^ois  de  Neufchateau.     From 

1831  to  1848  he  was  director  of  the  royal  printing-estal> 

lishment,  anil  in  1839  he  was  admitted  to  the  Chamber 

of  Peers.      He  became  a  senator  in  1853. 

See  SAINTS  BBOVE,  "  Portraits  con  temporains  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Gene'rale." 

Lebrun,  (PIERRE  HENRI  HEI.ENE  MARIE  TONDU,)  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Noyon  in  1763.  He  was  ap 
pointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  August,  1792,  and 
was  executed  in  1793. 

Lebrun,  (  PONCE  DENIS  £COUCHAKD,  )  a  popular 
French  lyric  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1729,  was  called  LE- 
HKUN  PINDAKE,  (paN-'dSk',)  or  the  French  Pindar.  In 
early  life  he  began  a  poem  on  Nature,  which  was  never 
finished.  He  composed  a  number  of  beautiful  odes 
before  the  Revolution,  and  during  the  Republic  favoured 
the  popular  cause.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Conven 
tion,  and  afterwards  by  Napoleon,  who  in  1801  granted 
him  a  pension  of  6000  francs.  In  1803  he  produced  a 
National  Ode  on  the  prospective  invasion  of  England. 
"Although  he  excelled  in  epigram,"  says  Marie  J.  Che- 
nier,  "and  though  he  displayed  remarkable  beauties  in 
poems  which  he  left  unfinished,  he  will  owe  chiefly  to 
his  odes  his  durable  reputation,  and  will  pass  to  pos 
terity  as  one  of  the  three  great  French  lyric  poets."* 
La  Harpe  judged  him  less  favourably.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  Died  in  1807. 

See  GINGUENE,  "  Notice  sur  Lebrun,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of 
Lebrun's  works,  4  vols.,  1811;  M.  J.  CIIBNIER,  "Tableau  de  la 
Literature;"  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  litte'raires,"  tome  i.,  and 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  y.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixvii.,  1812,  (Appendix.) 

Lebrun  de  Charmettes,  leh-bRuN'  deh  shtR'met', 
(PHILIPPE  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  poet  and  historian, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1785.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"History  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  (4  vols.,  1817,)  and  "L'Orle- 
anicle,"  a  poem,  (2  vols.,  1819.) 

Lecamus.  See  CAMUS,  LE,  (ANTOINE  and  ETIENNE.) 

Lecanu,  leh-kS'nu',  (Louis  RENE,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  1800,  published  numerous  works. 

Lecat,  leh'ka"',  (CLAUDE  NICOLAS,)  an  eminent  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Picardy  in  1700.  He  settled  about  1733 
at  Rouen,  where  he  lectured  on  anatomy  and  practised 
with  success.  In  1744  he  founded  a  Royal  Academy  at 
Rouen.  He  was  a  skilful  lithotomist,  and  published 
several  treatises  on  that  branch  of  surgery.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Senses,"  (1740,)  and  other  professional 
works.  Died  in  1768. 

See  L.  A.  VALF.NTIN,  "  filoge  de  Lecat,"  1769;  MONFALCON,  in 
the  "Biographic  Mddicale  ;"  HALLER,  "  Bibhotheca  Chirurgica;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Lecchi,  lek'kee,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Milan  in  1702.  He  obtained  in 
1739  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  Pavia,  where  he  taught 
with  great  success  for  twenty  years.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  by  Maria  Theresa  mathematician  of  the  court 
at  Vienna.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Ele 
ments  of  Geometry,"  ( 1 753,)  a  "  Theory  of  Light,  including 
Optics,"  (1759,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Hydrostatics,"  (1765.) 
Died  in  1776. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 


*  J.  B.  Rousseau  and  Malherbe  being  the  other  two. 


a,  e,  1, 6,u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LECENE 


1389 


LECLUSE 


Lecene,  leli-sin',  (CHARLES,)  a  learned  French  Prot 
estant  theologian,  born  at  Caen  about  1647.  He  retired 
to  Holland  in  1685,  and  afterwards  to  London,  where 
he  attempted  to  found  an  Arminian  church,  but  failed, 
because  he  was  suspected  of  holding  Socinian  views. 
He  made  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1741,) 
which  deviates  too  much  from  the  literal  sense,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  London  in  1703. 

Lechevalier  or  Le  Chevalier,  leh  sheh-vt'leji', 
(JEAN  BAPTISTK,)  a  French  traveller  and  savant,  born 
near  Coutances  in  1752.  In  17^4  he  went  to  the  Levant 
as  secretary  of  Choiseul-Gotilrier,  ambassador  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  and  made  diligent  researches  in  the 
plain  of  Troy,  which  attest  the  accuracy  of  Homer's 
descriptions.'  He  published  his  "Voyage  de  la  Troade," 
(1798  or  1800,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  the  Propontis  and  the 
Euxine,"  (1800.)  Died  in  1836. 

Leck'y,  (W.  E.  H.,)  an  English  philosopher,  pub 
lished  in  1865  a  "History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of 
the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe,"  (London,  2  vols.) 
"We  closed  them,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
(April,  1865,)  "with  the' conviction  that  Mr.  Lecky  is 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  writers  and  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  thinkers  of  the  time."  He  also  wrote 
a  "History  of  European  Morals,  from  Augustus  to 
Charlemagne,"  (1869.) 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1869;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1865;  "Eraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  November,  1865,  and  September,  1869. 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  leh-klaik',  (DANIEL,)  a  Swiss 
physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1652,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean  the  eminent  critic.  He  practised  with  distinction 
in  Geneva,  became  a  counsellor  of  the  republic,  and 
published,  besides  some  other  works,  a  "Complete 
Surgery,"  (1695,)  and  a  "History  of  Medicine,"  (1696,) 
which  was  translated  into  English.  Died  in  1728. 

Leclerc,  (DAVID,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1591  ;  died  in  1654. 

Leclerc,  (DAVID,)  a  skilful  Swiss  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Berne  in  1680,  worked  many  years  in  Frankfort, 
and  painted  portraits  in  oil  and  miniature  of  numerous 
German  princes.  Died  in  1738. 

Leclerc,  leh-klaiR',  (GAHRIEL,)  a  French  physician, 
practised  in  Paris.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to 
Louis  XIV.,  and  published  between  16943110!  1706  several 
professional  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Convenient 
Medicine,"  ("  La  Medecine  aisee.") 

Leclerc,  [Lat.  CLKR'ICUS,]  (JEAN,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
critic  and  divine,  born  at  Geneva  in  1657.  He  became 
a  champion  of  Arminianism,  and  removed  to  Holland  in 
1683.  After  preaching  for  a  short  time  in  the  church  of 
the  Remonstrants  in  Amsterdam,  he  obtained  in  that  city 
the  chair  of  philosophy  and  Hebrew,  which  he  retained 
until  his  death.  In  1686  he  commenced  the  "Biblio 
theque  Universelle,"  the  first  of  those  three  celebrated 
series  of  reviews  to  which  he  owes  much  of  his  fame, 
and  which  was  issued  monthly  until  1693.  It  was  fol 
lowed  by  the  "  Bibliotheque  Choisie,"  (1703-13,)  and  the 
"  Bibliotheque  ancienne  et  moderne,"  (1714-27.)  "These 
journals,"  says  Hallam,  "enjoyed  an  extraordinary  in 
fluence  over  Europe,  and  deserved  to  enjoy  it.  ...  He 
is  generally  temperate  and  judicious,  and  displays  a  very 
extensive  erudition."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  He  published  many  other  valuable  works, 
among  which  are  "Ars  Critica,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  "  Par- 
rhasiana,"  (2  vols.,  1699-1701,)  and  a  "Commentary  on 
the  Bible."  Died  in  1736. 

See  J.  CI.ERICI,  "Vita  et  Opera  ad  Annum  1711  Amici  ejus  Optis- 
culum;'1  VAN  DER  HOEVKX,  "Dissertationes  II.  de  J.  Clerico  et 
Pliilippo  4  Limborch,"  1843;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate ;" 
MM.  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Leclerc,  (JEAN  BAPTTSTE,)  a  French  legislator  and 
writer,  born  at  Angers  in  1756.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  (1795-99.)  He  wrote  "Pastoral  Poems," 
(1786,)  and  other  literary  works.  Died  in  1826. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'rale. " 

Leclerc,  (JEAN  Louis.)     See  BUFFON. 

Leclerc,  (JOSEPH  VICTOR,)  a  French  classical  scholar, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1 789.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  Latin 
eloquence  at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  in  1824,  and  was  ad 


mitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1834.  H* 
published,  besides  some  original  works,  "The  Thoughts 
of  Plato,"  in  Greek  and  French,  (1818,)  and  "The  Com 
plete  Works  of  Cicero,"  with  a  French  version,  (30  vols., 
1821-25.) 

Leclerc,  (LAURENT,)  a  French  priest,  born  in  Paris  in 
1677,  was  a  son  of  Sebastien  Leclerc  the  engraver.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "A  Critical  Letter  on 
Bayle's  Dictionary."  Died  in  1736. 

Leclerc,  (MICHEL,)  a  French  poet  and  advocate, 
born  at  Albi  in  1622.  His  principal  work  is  "Virginia 
the  Roman  Girl,"  ("  Virginie  Komaine,"  a  tragedy, 
1645.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1691. 

Leclerc,  (NICOLAS  GABRIEL.)     See  CLERC. 

Leclerc,  (Osc.vR,)  known  as  Leclerc  Tlioiiin,  an 
agriculturist,  born  in  Paris  in  1798,  was  a  son  of  Jean 
Baptiste,  noticed  above,  and  a  nephew  of  Andre  Thou'in. 
He  published  treatises  on  agriculture.  Died  in  1845. 

Leclerc,  (SEHASTIEN,)  a  skilful  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Metz  in  1637,  removed  to  Paris  in 
1665.  In  1672  he  was  chosen  professor  of  perspective 
in  the  Academy  of  Painting.  His  works  were  nearly 
all  designed  by  himself.  Louis  XIV.  appointed  him 
engraver  of  his  cabinet  and  professor  in  the  ficole  des 
Gobelins.  Leclerc  published  a  "  System  of  Vision," 
"  Systeme  sur  la  Vision,"  1679,)  and  an  esteemed  treat 
ise  on  Architecture,  (1714.)  Died  in  1714. 

See  VALI.EMOXT,  "Eloge  de  M.  Leclerc  Dessiiiateur,"etc.,  1715; 
QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  (SEBASTIEN,)  a  good  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1684,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  about  1704.  Died  about  1765. 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  ( VICTOR  EMMANUEL,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Pontoise  in  1772.  He  served  at  the 
siege  of  Toulon,  (1793,)  where  he  formed  a  friendship  with 
Bonaparte,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Italian  cam 
paign  of  1796.  lie  followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
and  promoted  the  success  of  the  coup  d'etat  of  i8th  Bru- 
inaire,  1799.  Soon  after  this  event  he  married  Pauline 
Bonaparte,  with  the  consent  of  her  brother,  the  First 
Consul,  who  in  1801  gave  him  command  of  a  large 
armament  (35,000  men)  sent  to  subjugate  the  revolted 
negroes  of  Hayti.  He  obtained  some  successes,  and 
sent  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  as  a  captive  to  France ;  but 
his  army  was  wasted  by  the  yellow  fever,  of  which  he 
died  in  November,  1802. 

See  THIERS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  His 
tory  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  "  NouveUe  Biographie 
Geuerale." 

Leclerc  des  Essarts,  leh-klaiR'  di  zi'stR',  (Louis 
NICOLAS  MARIN,)  a  French  general,  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Pontoise  in  1770.  For  his  services 
at  Eckmuhl,  Wagram,  etc.,  in  1809,  he  received  the  title 
of  count.  He  commanded  a  division  in  Russia  in  1812, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and  skill. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Leclercq  or  Le  Clercq,  leh-klARk',  (CHRETIEN,)  a 
French  missionary,  born  in  Artois  about  1630.  In  1655 
he  was  sent  to  Canada,  where  he  laboured  many  years. 
After  his  return  to  France  he  published  "The  History 
of  the  French  Colonies  in  New  France,  and  of  Lasalle's 
Expedition  to  Explore  the  Mississippi,"  (1691.) 

Leclerq,  (MICHEL  THEODORE,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1777.  He  published  "Dramatic  Pro 
verbs,"  (4  vols.,  1823-26,)  which  were  very  popular. 
Died  in  1851. 

Lecluse  or  L'ficluse,  de,  deh  la'kluz',  written  also 
L'Escluse,  (CHARLES,)  [Lat.  CAR'OLUS  CLU'SIUS,]  a 
savant,  who  made  important  contributions  to  the  science 
of  botany,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1526.  He  studied  at 
Louvain,Wittenberg,  and  Montpellier.  At  the  last-named 
place  he  graduated  as  physician  in  1555.  After  travelling 
many  years  in  France,  Spain,  etc.,  for  botanical  informa 
tion,  he  was  director  of  the  emperor's  garden  at  Vienna 
from  1573  to  1587.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Descrip 
tion  of  the  Rare  Plants  of  Spain,"  (1576,)  and  a  "De 
scription  of  the  Rare  Plants  of  Austria,"  (1583,)  both  of 
which  were  afterwards  united  in  his  "  Rariorum  Plan- 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LECLUSE 


1390 


LEDESMA 


tarum  Historia,"  ("History  of  the  Rarer  Plants,"  1601,) 
with  figures.  In  1593  he  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Leyden,  where  he  died  in  1609.  lie  was  endowed  with 
a  great  memory  and  a  rare  sagacity,  and  excelled  in 
description.  He  left  a  work  on  foreign  animals  and 
plants,  entitled  "Exoticorum  Libri  Decem,  quibus  Ani- 
malium,  Plantarum,  Aromatumque  Historian  describun- 
tur,"  (1605.) 

See  HALI.ER,  "  Bibiiotheca  Rotanica ;"  NICE^RON,  "  Me'moires ;" 
fii.ov,  "  Dictiounaire  de  la  Medecine  ;"  MORREN,  "Ala  Mdmoire 
de  C.  de  L'Kscluse,  un  des  Peres  de  la  Botnnique,"  etc.,  Lie^e,  1853. 

Lecluse,  de,  (FLEURY,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1774.     Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  Greek 
and  Latin  Literature,'7  (2  vols.,  1837.)     Died  in  1845. 
Lecointe.     See  COINTE,  LE. 

Lecointe-Puiraveau,  leh-kwaNt'  pii-e'rS'vo',  (Mr- 
CHKL  MATHIEU,)  a  French  legislator,  born  at  Saint- 
Maixent  about  1750,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Con 
vention,  (1792-95.)  Died  in  1825. 

Lecointre,  leh-kwa.NtR',  (LAURENT,)  a  French  regi 
cide.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the  Con 
vention,  and  instigated  the  execution  of  the  queen. 
Died  in  1805. 

Lecomte  or  Le  Comte,  leh-koxt',  (FELIX,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  a  pupil  of  Falconet. 
He  was  received  as  Academician  in  1771.  By  order  of 
the  king,  he  executed  statues  of  Fenelon  and  Kollin. 
He  is  classed  in  the  second  rank  of  French  sculptors. 
Died  in  1817. 

Lecointe,  (Jui.ES,)  an  able  French  litteratenr,\>Q\\\  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1812.  He  edited  several  journals, 
and  published  "Letters  on  French  Authors,"  (1837,)  a 
"History  of  the  Revolution  of  1848,"  (1850,)  and  "The 
English  Pontoons,"  ("  Les  Pontons  Anglais,"  a  maritime 
novel,  5  vols.,  1850-52.)  Died  in  1864. 

Lecointe,  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Bor 
deaux,  was  one  of  six  mathematicians  sent  as  mission 
aries  to  China  in  1685.  He  laboured  some  years  in 
the  mission  of  Shensee,  (Chensi,)  and,  having  returned 
to  France,  published  in  1696  "Memoirs  on  the  Present 
State  of  China,"  which  was  censured  by  the  Faculty  of 
Theology.  Died  in  1729. 

Leccmte,  leh-kc-Nt',  [Lat.  CON'TIUS,]  (ANTOINE,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Noyon,  was  a  cousin-german  of 
Calvin,  but  an  opponent  of  his  doctrines.  He  lectured 
on  law  at  Orleans  and  Bourges,  and  left  several  legal 
works.  Died  in  1586. 

Le  Conte,  Ie-k5nt,  (Jonx,)  an  American  naturalist, 
and  officer  in  the  corps  of  United  States  engineers,  was 
born  near  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  in  1784.  He  pub 
lished  "  Descriptions  of  the  Species  of  North  American 
Tortoises,"  "  Monographs  of  the  North  American  Spe 
cies  of  Utricularia,"  etc.,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1861. 

Leconte,  (Jimx  L.,)  M.D.,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  New  York  in  1825,  is  distinguished  as  an  ento 
mologist.  He  has  published  numerous  treatises,  etc. 
on  entomology,  among  which  is  one  "  On  the  Classifi 
cation  of  the  Carabidae  of  the  United  States." 

Lecoiite,  (Jonx,)  M.D.,  an  American  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  in  Liberty  county,  Georgia,  in  1818.  He 
became  in  1856  professor  of  natural  and  mechanical 
philosophy  in  South  Carolina  College,  Columbia. 

Lecoiite,  (JOSEPH,)  M.D.,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Liberty  county,  Georgia,  in  1823.  In  1851 
he  accompanied  Professor  Agassiz  on  a  scientific  tour  in 
Florida,  and  in  1856  became  professor  of  chemistry  and 
geometry  in  South  Carolina  College.  He  has  published 
several  chemical  and  geological  works. 

Lecoiite  de  Lisle,  ]eh-ko.\t/  deh  lei,  (CHARLES 
MARIE,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in 
1820,  removed  to  Paris  in  1847.  He  produced  in  1852 
a  volume  of  "  Poe'mes  antiques,"  which  obtained  a  prize 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1854  "  Poesies  nou- 
velles."  "His  character,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "is  one  of 
the  most  decided  (prononce)  and  most  worthy  among 
the  poets  of  our  time."  "  His  art,"  says  Villemain,  "  is 
at  the  same  time  skilful  and  bold,  more  worthy  of  glory 
than  sure  of  popularity."  The  form  of  his  poetry  is 
compared  to  an  exquisitely-finished  antique  statue. 

See  "  Rapports  de  M.  Villemain  a  1'Academie  Fratifaise  sur  les 
Prix  decernes  en  1853,"  etc.;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lnndi," 
tome  v. 


Lecoq  or  Le  Coq,  leh-kok',  (HENRI,)  a  French  nat 
uralist,  born  at  Avesnes  (Nord)  in  1802.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  geology,  chemistry,  and  botany.  His  most 
important  work  is  "  Studies  on  the  Botanical  Geography 
of  Europe,"  (7  vols.,  1854-57.) 

Lecoq,  von,  fon  leh-kok',  (KARL  CHRISTIAN  ERD- 
MANN  EDLER,)  an  able  German  general,  born  at  Torgau 
in  1767.  He  fought  for  the  French  at  \Vagram  in  1809, 
and  commanded  a  division  of  Saxon  troops  in  the  Rus 
sian  campaign  of  1812.  After  1815  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  Saxon  army.  Died  in  1830. 

Le  Courayer  or  Le  Courraye'r.  See  COURAYEU,  LE. 

Lecourbe  or  Le  Courbe,  leh-kooRb',  (CLAUDE 
JOSEPH,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Lons-le-Saulnier  in 
1760.  In  1799  he  defeated  the  Austrians  in  Switzerland. 
Having  been  selected  by  Moreau  to  command  the  right 
wing  of  his  army  in  1800,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
Hochstadt  and  other  places.  On  account  of  his  attach 
ment  to  Moreau,  he  was  deprived  of  command  in  1804. 
Died  in  1815. 

Lecouvreur  or  Le  Couvreur,  Ieh-koov'ruR',  ( Aniu- 
ENNE,)  a  popular  French  actress,  born  near  fipernay 
about  1690.  She  excelled  in  tragedy,  and  was  a  great 
favourite  in  Paris  from  1717  until  her  death.  Voltaire 
and  other  poets  offered  poetical  homage  to  her  talents. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Lect,  lekt,  [Lat.  LEC'TIUS,]  (JACQUES,)  a  learned 
Swiss  jurisconsult,  born  in  1560,  at  Geneva.  He  obtained 
a  chair  of  law  in  that  city  in  1583,  and  the  next  year  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  In  the  critical 
times  which  followed  he  showed  firmness  and  ability. 
He  wrote  several  legal  works,  an  edition  of"  Poetac  Grrcci 
veteres  Carminis  heroici  Scriptores,"  (1606,)  and  short 
Latin  poems,  "  Poemata  Varia,"  (1609.)  Died  in  1611. 

Lectius.     See  LECT. 

Lecurieux,  leh-ku're'uh'.fjACQUES  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Dijon  in  1801.  Among  his 
works  are  "Saint  Louis  at  Damietta,"  and  "Mary  of 
Burgundy." 

Le'da,  [Gr.  Ar/tSa,]  the  wife  of  Tyndareus,  King  of 
Sparta,  and  mother  of  Castor,  Pollux,  Helen,  and  "Cly- 
temnestra.  According  to  the  popular  legend,  two  of 
these  were  the  offspring  of  Jupiter,  who,  when  he  visited 
Leda,  assumed  the  form  of  a  swan. 

Le  Dain,  leh  daN,  (OLIVIER,)  a  Flemish  barber,  who 
became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XI.  of  France.  He  was 
hung  by  Charles  VIII.  in  1484. 

Ledebour,  von,  fon  la'deh-booR'.fKARL  FKIEDRICH,) 
an  eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1785. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  at  Dorpat  from  181 1  to  1836, 
and,  after  a  journey  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  published 
"  Flora  Altaica,"  (4  vols.,  1829-34.)  His  "  Flora  Rossica" 
(3  vols.,  1842-51)  is  regarded  as  the  best  work  that  has 
appeared  on  the  flora  of  Russia.  He  also  published 
"Illustrations  of  New  Russian  Plants,  in  five  hundred 
coloured  plates,"  (5  vols.,  1829-34.)  Died  in  1851. 

Ledebur,  von,  fon  la'deh-booR',  (LEOPOLD  KARL 
WILHELM  AUGUST,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1799,  published  a  number  of  geographical,  historical, 
and  antiquarian  works. 

Lederlin,  leh-deVlaN',  (JEAN  HENRI,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1672.  He  published 
editions  of  the  "  Onomasticon,"  by  Pollux,  of  ,/Elian's 
History,  (1713,)  znid  of  other  works.  Died  in  1737. 

Ledermuller,  la'der-mul'ler,  (MARTIN  FROHENIUS,)  a 
German,  distinguished  for  his  researches  with  the  micro 
scope,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1719.  He  published 
"Microscopic  Studies,"  (1759,)  and  "Microscopic  Amuse 
ments,"  ("Mikroskopische  Gemuths-  und  Augenergot- 
zen,"  3  vols.,  1760-64,)  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1769. 

Ledesma,  de,  da  la-Des'ma,  (ALONZO,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Segovia  in  1552.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Gongora,  and,  notwithstanding  the  obscurity  and  other 
defects  of  his  poetry,  acquired  a  high  reputation.  Lope 
de  Vega,  in  his  "Laurel  d'Apollo,"  mentions  him  in 
favourable  terms.  He  published  "Spiritual  Thoughts," 
"Conceptos  Espirituales,"  1600-16,)  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1623. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


a, e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  melon; 


LEDESMA 


LEE 


Ledesma,  de,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Bur 
gos  in  1630;  died  in  1670. 

Ledieu,  leh-de-uh',  (FRANgois,)  ABBE,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Peronne,  was  private  secretary  to 
the  celebrated  Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Meaux.  lie  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Bossuet,"  (4  vols., 
1856.)  Died  in  1713. 

Ledoux,  leh-doo',  (CLAUDE  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Uornians  in  1736.  The  most  remark 
able  monuments  of  his  invention  are  the  Barrieres 
of  Paris.  lie  published  a  "Treatise  on  Architecture." 
Died  in  1806. 

Ledran,  leh-di<6N',  (HENRI  FRANgois,)  an  eminent 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1685,  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
professional  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Lithotomy,"  (1730,) 
"Observations  on  Surgery,"  (1731,)  and  "Practical  Re 
flections  on  Gunshot  Wounds,"  (1737.)  Died  in  1770. 

Ledru,  leh-diui',  (ANDRE  PIERRE,)  a  French  priest 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Maine  in  1761,  was  employed 
as  botanist  in  Baudin's  expedition  to  the  Canaries  and 
the  Antilles  in  1796.  He  wrote  several  works.  Died 
about  1825. 

Ledru,  (NICOLAS  PHILIPPE,)  a  French  experimenter 
in  natural  philosophy,  bom  in  Paris  in  1731,  was  a 
grandfather  of  Ledru-Rollin.  Pie  made  discoveries  in 
magnetism.  Died  in  1807. 

Ledru-Rollin,  le-drti'  rol'lin  or  leh-duii'  ro'laN', 
(ALEXANDRIA  AUGUSTE,)  a  distinguished  French  socialist 
and  radical  republican,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  His  family 
name  was  Ledru,  to  which  he  added  that  of  Rollin.  lie 
became  an  advocate  about  1830,  and  was  employed  as 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  many  political  trials  between 
1832  and  1848.  In  1841  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  by  the  voters  of  Mans,  and  became  the  chief 
orator  of  the  extreme  gauche,  or  ultra-democrats.  As  a 
tribune  and  popular  agitator  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
audacity  and  vehemence,  but  had  not  much  influence 
in  the  Chamber.  He  founded  "  La  Reforme,"  a  political 
journal,  and  took  a  prominent  part  at  the  reform  ban 
quets  of  1847. 

During  the  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  he  entered 
the  Chamber  when  the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of  Or 
leans  was  under  discussion.  By  the  exertion  of  great 
physical  force  he  occupied  the  tribune,  and,  amidst  the 
violent  tumult,  spoke  against  the  regency.  He  was  chosen 
by  acclamation  as  a  member  of  the  provisional  govern 
ment,  and  became  minister  of  the  interior.  (See  LAMAR- 
TINE.)  His  measures  in  this  capacity  were  not  approved 
by  the  majority  of  his  colleagues.  He  was  censured  for 
an  attempt  to  proscribe  the  defeated  party ;  but  he  is  said 
to  have  saved  the  government  from  the  violence  of  the 
insurgents  on  the  i6th  of  April.  At  the  election  of  five 
members  of  the  executive  commission  by  the  Assembly 
in  May,  he  was  the  lowest  of  the  successful  candidates, 
receiving  four  hundred  and  fifty-eight  votes  out  of  about 
eight  hundred.  He  owed  this  election  to  the  influence 
of  Lamartine.  He  lost  his  popularity  with  the  masses, 
and  retired  from  power  in  June,  1848,  when  Cavaignac 
became  dictator.  In  December,  1848,  Ledru-Rollin  re 
ceived  only  370,119  votes  for  president,  having  failed  to 
obtain  the  support  of  the  socialists.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  "Mountain"  in  the  Assemblies  of  1848  and  1849, 
to  the  latter  of  which  he  was  elected  by  five  departments, 
and  made  eloquent  speeches  against  the  government. 
In  Tune,  1849,  he  demanded  the  impeachment  of  the 
president,  and,  when  this  was  refused,  called  on  his 
partisans  to  rise  in  arms.  The  few  who  obeyed  this  call 
were  quickly  dispersed  by  the  troops,  and  Ledru-Rollin 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  remained  many  years.  In 
his  absence  he  was  condemned  to  deportation.  He  pub 
lished  a  book  "On  the  Decline  of  England,"  (2  vols., 
1850,)  and  united  with  Kossuth  and  Mazzini  to  form  a 
revolutionary  committee  for  the  promotion  of  the  demo 
cratic  cause  in  Europe.  Among  his  publications  is 
"French  Jurisprudence,"  etc.,  ("Jurisprudence  Fran- 
9aise,  ou  Repertoire  du  Journal  clu  Palais,"  8  vols., 
1843-48.)  Availing  himself  of  the  general  amnesty,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1870. 

See  N.  GAI.LOIS,  "  Vie  politique  cle  Ledru-Rollin,"  1850;  "Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'- 
rale." 


Leduc  or  Le  Due,  leh-diik',  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  the  Hague  about  1638,  was  a  pupil 
and  skilful  imitator  of  Paul  Potter.  He  painted  interiors, 
guard-rooms,  robbers,  etc.  About  1671  he  entered  the 
army,  in  which  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain,  and 
abandoned  his  art. 

Led'wich,  (EDWARD,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born  in 
1739,  became  vicar  of  Aghaboe.  He  published  a  valu 
able  work  entitled  "The  Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (1794,) 
and  a  few  other  treatises.  He  offended  many  of  his 
countrymen  by  denying  the  truth  of  the  legend  of  Saint 
Patrick.  Died  in  1823. 

Led'yard,  (Joux,)  a  celebrated  American  traveller, 
born  at  Groton,  in  Connecticut,  in  1751.  At  an  early 
age  he  took  passage  as  a  common  sailor  on  a  vessel 
bound  for  Gibraltar,  and  thence  repaired  to  London, 
where  in  1776  he  set  sail  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  third 
voyage  around  the  world.  After  his  return,  in  1780,  he 
published  a  journal  of  the  voyage,  including  an  account 
of  the  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Captain 
Cook.  Having  projected  an  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  he  set  out  in  1786,  and,  after  a  journey  of  great 
hardships,  he  arrived  at  Irkootsk  in  January,  1787.  Here 
he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  by  order  of  the  empress,  and 
forbidden  again  to  enter  Russia.  He  next  went  to  Lon 
don,  where  he  was  most  kindly  received  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  and  in  June,  1788,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
African  Association,  set  out  on  a  voyage  of  discovery 
to  Central  Africa.  He  reached  Cairo  in  August,  but, 
while  making  preparations  for  his  journey,  was  attacked 
by  a  fever,  of  which  he  died.  The  news  of  his  death 
was  heard  with  deep  regret  by  his  friends  in  England, 
who  had  formed  the  highest  opinion  of  his  qualifica 
tions  for  the  arduous  task  of  African  exploration.  He 
was  described  by  Mr.  Beaufoy,  secretary  of  the  African 
Association,  as  "  adventurous  beyond  the  conception  of 
ordinary  men,  yet  wary  and  considerate,  and  appeared 
to  be  formed  by  nature  for  achievements  of  hardihood 
and  peril." 

See  SPARKS,  "Life  of  Ledyard,"  in  his  "American  Biography;" 
"Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1828,  (by  SOUTHEV  ;)  "  North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1828;  CLEVELAND,  "Compendium  of  Ameri 
can  Literature." 

Ledyard,  (WILLIAM,)  COLONEL,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Connecticut  about  1750,  commanded  at  Fort 
Griswold  during  the  attack  made  by  the  British  in  1781. 
He  was  brutally  'stabbed  by  the  English  commander, 
Major  Bromfield,  after  he  had  delivered  up  to  him  his 
sword.  lie  was  an  uncle  of  the  distinguished  traveller 
John  Ledyard. 

Lee,  (ALFRED,)  an  American  theologian,  born  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1807,  was  consecrated 
Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Delaware  in  1841.  He 
has  published  a  "Life  of  the  Apostle  Peter,"  and  a  "Life 
of  Saint  John." 

Lee,  (ANNE,)  founder  of  the  sect  called  Shakers,  was 
born  at  Manchester,  in  England,  in  1735.  Having  re 
moved  to  America,  she  settled  near  Albany,  New  York, 
where  she  gathered  a  number  of  proselytes  around  her. 
She  taught  many  strange  doctrines,  —  among  others,  that 
all  marriage  is  sinful,  and  is  to  be  shunned  under  all 
circumstances.  She  was  usually  styled  by  her  fol 
lowers  "Mother  Anne."  She  died  in  1784.  Among 
the  principal  settlements  made  by  her  followers  are  those 
at  New  Lebanon,  near  Albany,  and  at  Harvard,  Massa 
chusetts. 

See  ALLEN'S  "American  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Lee,  (ARTHUR,)  an  American  statesman  and  revolu 
tionist,  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1740, 
was  a  brother  of  Richard  Henry  Lee.  He  studied  medi 
cine  in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  became  a  student 
of  law  in  London.  He  there  published  a  number  of 
eloquent  political  essays,  under  the  name  of  "Junius 
Americanus,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  cause  of  the 
American  people.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France 
in  1776;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Franklin  and  Deane, 
he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  French.  He  was  recalled 
in  1779.  After  his  return  he  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1782,  and  was  subsequently  made  a  counsellor  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  and  a  member  of 
the  board  of  treasury,  (1784.)  He  was  never  married. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEE 


1392 


LEE 


He  was  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  an  intimate  friend  of 
Sir  William  Jones.     Died  in  1792. 

See  R.  H.  LEE,  "  Life  of  Arthur  Lee,"  2  vols.,  1829:  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1830  ;  "  Encyclopedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  American 
Revolutionary  war,  was  a  native  of  Wales.  Having  served 
for  a  time  in  the  British  army,  he  removed  to  America. 
He  was  appointed  major-general  by  Congress  in  June, 
1775.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  Southern  colonies.  He  was  surprised  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  English  while  marching  through  New 
Jersey  to  join  Washington  in  Pennsylvania,  (December, 
1776;)  but  after  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  in  October, 
1777,  he  was  exchanged.  Having  disobeyed  General 
Washington's  orders  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  in  1778, 
he  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  suspended  from 
service  for  a  year.  Died  in  1782.  General  Lee  was  the 
author  of  several  political  works. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Kent  in 
1482.  He  became  chaplain  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  em 
ployed  him  in  several  diplomatic  missions.  In  1529 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  for  the  divorce  of  the 
king,  and  in  1531  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  York. 
He  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  favoured  the 
innovations  which  Henrv  VIII.  made  in  the  Church. 
He  wrote  "  Epicedia  Clarorum  Virorum,"  and  other 
works  in  Latin.  Died  in  1544. 

Lee,  (  ELIZA  BUCKMINSTKK,  )  an  American  writer, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Buckminster,  was  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Sketches  of  a  New  England  Village,"  and 
"  Naomi,  or  Boston  Two  Hundred  Years  Ago."  She 
has  also  translated  the  "Life  of  Jean  Paul  Richter,"  and 
portions  of  Richter's  works,  from  the  German. 

Lee,  (EzuA,)  an  American  officer,  who  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  was  born  in  1749  ;  died  in  1821. 

Lee,  (FiTZ-IIuGH,)  an  American  general,  a  nephew 
of  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1835. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856,  and  commanded 
a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  Confederate  army  in  the 
summer  of  1863. 

Lee,  (FRANCIS  LIGHTFOOT,)  an  American  statesman 
and  patriot,  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in 
October,  1734,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Richard  Henry 
Lee.  He  inherited  a  large  estate,  and  married  a  daugh 
ter  of  Colonel  John  Tayloe  in  1772.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Congress  in  1775,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  in  1776.  Having  been  re-elected,  he 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1779.  He  was  too 
diffident  to  gain  distinction  as  a  debater,  but  took  an 
active  part  in  legislative  business.  Died  without  issue, 
at  Richmond,  in  1797.  He  was  eminent  for  conversa 
tional  powers,  and  was  a  general  favourite  in  society. 

Lee,  (FREDERICK  RICHARD,)  a  popular  English  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Barnstaple  about  1800.  He  began 
to  exhibit  at  the  Royal  Academy  about  1824,  and  was 
chosen  an  Academician  in  1838.  He  is  most  successful 
in  river-scenery  and  in  landscapes  where  trees  are  promi 
nent  objects.  His  pencil  has  been  employed  exclusively 
on  British  scenery.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Mill," 
"  The  Storm  on  the  Lake,"  and  "  The  Avenue  of  Sher- 
brooke  Park." 

Lee,  (HANNAH  F.,)  an  American  novelist  and  mis 
cellaneous  writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts. 
Her  "Three  Experiments  of  Living,"  published  in  1838, 
passed  through  numerous  editions  both  in  America  and 
Europe.  Among  her  works  are  "  Grace  Seymour," 
"Eleanor  Fulton,"  "Luther  and  his  Times,"  and  a 
"History  of  Sculpture  and  Sculptors." 

Lee,  (HARRIET,)  an  English  writer  of  fiction,  was 
born  in  London  in  1756.  In  partnership  with  her  sister 
Sophia,  she  taught  school  for  many  years  (1780-1803) 
at  Bath.  After  publishing  "Clara  Lennox"  and  other 
novels,  which  are  now  neglected,  she  produced  between 
1797  and  1805  five  volumes  of  the  "Canterbury  Tales," 
which  were  very  successful.  Died  in  1851.  Lord  Byron, 
referring  to  "  Kruitzner"  in  Lee's  "  Canterbury  Tales," 
(from  which  he  took  the  subject  of  his  "  Werner,")  says, 
"  I  am  not  sure  it  ever  was  very  popular  ;  .  .  .  but  I 
have  generally  found  that  those  who  had  read  it  agreed 


with  me  in  their  estimate  of  the  singular  power  of  mind 
and  conception  which  it  develops.  .  .  .  Amongst  those 
whose  opinions  agreed  with  mine  upon  this  story  I  could 
mention  some  very  high  names."  (See  Preface  to  the 
tragedy  of  "  Werner.") 

Lee,  ( HENRY,)  an  eminent  American  general,  born  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  January,  1756.  His 
father,  Henry  Lee,  was  a  first-cousin  of  Richard  Henry 
Lee.  He  became  a  captain  of  cavalry  in  1776,  joined 
the  main  army  in  September,  1777,  and  performed  several 
daring  exploits.  He  captured  a  British  fort  at  Paulus 
Hook  in  July,  1779-  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieu 
tenant-colonel  about  1780,  after  which  year  he  served  in 
the  army  of  General  Greene  as  an  officer  of  cavalry.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Guilford  Court-House, 
March,  1781,  and  at  the  attack  on  Fort  Ninety-Six.  His 
legion  of  cavalry  also  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Eutaw 
Springs,  September  8,  1781.  He  was  appointed  a  dele 
gate  to  the  General  Congress  in  1786,  and  was  elected 
Governor  of  Virginia  in  1791  or  1792.  He  was  again  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1799,  and  was  selected  by  Con 
gress  to  pronounce  a  eulogy  on  Washington,  whom  he 
characterized  as  "first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in 
the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."  He  wrote  about  the  year 
1809  valuable  "Memoirs  of  the  War  in  the  Southern 
States."  In  1814  he  was  severely  injured  by  a  Baltimore 
mob,  against  which  he  fought  to  defend  a  printing-office 
and  editor.  He  never  recovered  from  this  injury,  and 
died  in  Georgia  in  March,  1818,  leaving  four  sons, — 
Henry,  Charles  C.,  Robert  E.,  (the  famous  general,)  and 
Sidney  Smith.  He  was  often  called  LIGHT-  HOKSK 
HARRY.  In  a  letter  to  Henry  Lee,  General  Greene 
wrote,  "Everybody  knows  I  have  the  highest  opinion  of 
you  as  an  officer.  .  .  .  No  man  in  the  progress  of  the 
campaign  had  equal  merit  with  yourself." 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ; 
"  Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (JESSE,)  an  American  Methodist  divine,  born 
in  Virginia  in  1758,  was  for  many  years  a  chaplain  to 
Congress.  Died  in  1816.  ' 

Lee,  (JoiiN,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  professor  of  divinity, 
born  about  1780.  He  became  principal  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  about  1840,  and  afterwards  professor  of 
divinity  there.  Died  in  1859. 

Lee,  (LKROY  MADISON,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergy 
man  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  born  at  Peters 
burg,  Virginia,  in  1808.  He  published  several  religious 
works,  and  in  1836  became  editor  of  the  Richmond 
"Christian  Advocate." 

Lee,  (LUTHER,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Scho- 
harie  county,  New  York,  in  1800.  He  was  editor  of  the 
"New  England  Christian  Advocate"  and  "The  True 
Wesleyan."  He  became  president  and  professor  of  the 
ology  in  Michigan  Union  College  in  1856.  He  has  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  "  Slavery  Examined  in  the 
Light  of  the  Bible,"  and  "The  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 

Lee,  (MARY  E.,)  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1813,  was  the  author  of  "Tales  from  History,"  and 
made  a  number  of  translations  from  the  French,  Italian, 
and  German.  Died  in  1849. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lee,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  about 
1658.  After  he>had  appeared  as  an  actor  on  the  London 
stage  without  success,  he  composed  thirteen  tragedies, 
two  of  which — viz.,  "Alexander  the  Great"  and  "Theo- 
closius" — obtained  public  favour.  He  was  confined  in 
Bedlam  for  insanity  in  1684,  and  released  about  ]688. 
Died  in  1691.  His  imagination  is  extravagant,  and  in 
clined  to  bombast.  "  Among  our  modern  English  poets," 
says  Acldison,  "there  is  none  who  was  better  turned  for 
tragedy  than  Lee,  if,  instead  of  favouring  the  impetuosity 
of  his  genius,  he  had  restrained  it  within  proper  bounds." 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  1821. 

Lee,  (RACHEL  FANNY  ANTONINA,)  an  eccentric  Eng 
lish  authoress,  originally  named  DASHWOOD,  was  born 
about  1770.  She  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Government," 
which  was  commended  by  Wordsworth.  Died  in  1829. 

See  DE  QUINCEV,  "Autobiographic  Sketches,"  chap.  iv. 

Lee,  (RICHARD  HENRY,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LEE 


'393 


LEE 


dependence,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Westmoreland, 
Virginia,  in  1732.  He  was  educated  in  England,  and, 
after  his  return,  was  elected  about  1757  to  the  House  of 
Burgesses  in  Virginia.  He  married  Miss  Aylett  in  early 
life.  In  1765  he  eloquently  defended  the  resolutions 
against  the  Stamp  Act,  introduced  by  Patrick  Henry. 
He  was  a  delegate  from  Virginia  in  1774  to  the  Conti 
nental  Congress,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  pro 
ceedings  of  that  body.  The  memorial  to  the  people  of 
British  America,  authorized  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
is  attributed  to  his  pen.  In  June,  1776,  he  introduced 
into  Congress  the  measure  declaring  the  colonies  free 
and  independent  States,  which  motion  he  supported  by 
a  most  eloquent  and  powerful  speech.  Mr.  Lee  was 
again  elected  to  Congress  in  1778  ;  he  became  president 
of  that  body  in  1784,  and  was  elected  a  United  States 
Senator  from  Virginia  in  1789.  Like  most  other  Vir 
ginians,  he  disapproved  the  Federal  Constitution.  Died 
in  1794. 

Set;  GOODRICH.  "I  ives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  In 
dependence;"  ''  Memoirs  <>t"  the  Life  of  R.  H.  I.ee,"  by  his  grand 
son,  R  H.  LEI-;,  2  vob..  1825  ;  '•  North  American  Review"  for  April, 
1X26,  (by  KUWARU  EVEKKTT.) 

Lee,  (ROBERT,)  I).  D  ,  a  theologian,  born  at  North  Dur 
ham  in  1804,  was  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  became  professor  of  biblical  criticism  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1846.  Died  in  1868. 

Lee,  (RuiiKKT  EDML'.ND,)  a  celebrated  American 
general,  a  son  of  General  Henry  Lee,  noticed  above, 
was  born  ar  Stratford,  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia, 
in  1806.  His  mother's  name  was  Anne  Carter.  He 
graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class  at  West  Point  in  1829, 
and  married  in  1832  a  daughter  of  George  Washington 
Parke  Custis,  who  was  the  adopted  son  of  General 
Washington.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1838, 
and  served  in  the  Mexican  war  (1846-47)  as  chief  engi 
neer  of  the  army  of  General  Scott,  by  whom  his  conduct 
was  highly  commended.  For  his  services  in  Mexico  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brevet  colonel.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  Academy  at  West  Point  from 
September,  1852,  to  April,  1855.  By  his  marriage  he 
became  proprietor  of  the  Arlington  House,  on  the  Poto 
mac,  where  his  family  resided  when  the  civil  war  began. 
He  \vas  appointed  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  March,  1861. 
On  the  2oth  of  April,  1861,  he  resigned  his  commission 
by  a  letter  to  General  Scott,  to  whom  he  wrote,  "My 
resignation  would  have  been  presented  at  once,  but 
for  the  struggle  it  has  cost  me  to  separate  myself  from 
a  service  to  which  I  have  devoted  all  the  best  years  of 
my  life." 

About  the  2ist  of  April  he  was  appointed  major- 
general  in  command  of  all  the  forces  of  Virginia.  In 
July  ensuing,  his  rank  was  fixed  as  brigadier-general  in 
the  Confederate  army,  and  he  took  command  of  a  force 
in  Northwestern  Virginia.  He  was  opposed  to  General 
Rosecrans  in  this  campaign,  the  results  of  which  were 
rather  favourable  to  the  Unionists;  though  no  impor 
tant  battle  was  fought.  About  December,  1861,  he  was 
ordered  to  take  charge  of  the  coast-defences  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  He  returned  to  Richmond  in 
March,  1862,  and  on  the  3d  of  June  took  the  chief  com 
mand  of  the  army  destined  to  defend  the  capital.  On 
the  2fith  of  June  he  attacked  the  army  of  General 
McClellan  at  Mechanicsville.  The  conflict  was  renewed 
on  the  27th  at  Gaines's  Mill,  where  both  armies  suffered 
heavy  losses.  Having  been  attacked  at  Savage's  Sta 
tion  on  the  2gth,  the  Union  army  retired  to  Malvern 
Hill,  close  to  the  James  River.  Lee's  army  was  defeated 
at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  losing  about  6500  killed  and 
wounded.  General  McClellan  was,  nevertheless,  soon 
after  compelled  to  retreat,  and  to  abandon  the  siege  of 
Richmond.  The  seat  of  war  having  been  transferred 
to  the  northern  part  of  Virginia,  General  Lee  gained  a 
victory  over  General  Pope  at  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas, 
on  the  2gth  and  ^oth  of  August,  and  invaded  Maryland 
about  the  4th  of  September.  He  commanded  in  person 
at  the  great  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  where  he 
had,  according  to  Pollard,  about  70,000  men.  His  loss 
at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam  is  reported  to  have 
been  1842  killed  and  9399  wounded,  besides  several 
thousand  prisoners.  General  Lee  retired  to  Virginia  on 


the  1 8th,  but  was  not  pursued,  and  occupied  a  strongly- 
fortified  position  at  Fredericksburg,  where  General 
Burnside  attacked  him  on  the  I3th  of  December  and 
was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  On  the  2d  and  3d  of 
May,  Generals  Lee  and  Hooker  fought  a  great  battle  at 
Chancellorsville,  where  the  former  had  the  advantage; 
but  the  losses  were  nearly  equal,  and  the  retiring  Union 
army  was  not  pursued.  Having  been  largely  reinforced, 
he  assumed  the  offensive  with  an  army  of  about  95,000 
men,  and  crossed  the  Potomac  on  the  24th  of  June,  1863, 
for  the  invasion  of  Pennsylvania.  Marching  against 
Harrisburg,  he  was  confronted  at  Gettysburg  by  the 
Union  army,  commanded  by  General  Meade  and  posted 
on  a  range  of  hills.  The  Union  army  acted  on  the 
defensive  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  which  began  on 
the  ist  of  July  and  was  renewed  on  the  2d  without  a 
decisive  result.  On  the  3d,  General  Lee  made  several 
desperate  assaults,  which  were  repulsed,  and  the  Union 
army  was  finally  victorious.  According  to  the  report  of 
General  Meade,  the  Federals  took  here  13,621  prisoners, 
including  the  wounded.  General  Lee  retired  in  the 
night  of  the  4th  of  July,  through  the  rain,  and  returned 
to  Virginia.  His  army  was  not  engaged  in  any  great 
battles  during  the  ensuing  winter. 

The  campaign  of  1864  was  opened  about  the  4th  of 
May  by  General  Grant,  who  crossed  the  Rapidan  and 
advanced  towards  Richmond.  A  severe  and  indecisive 
battle  ensued  at  the  Wilderness  on  the  5th  and  6th  of 
May.  General  Grant  continued  to  approach  his  objective 
point  by  a  series  of  flank  movements,  alternating  with 
great  battles  at  Spottsylvania  Court-House,  May  9-12, 
at  the  North  Anna  River,  May  23,  and  Cold  Harbour, 
June  3.  In  these  battles  General  Lee  acted  mostly  on 
the  defensive  in  fortified  positions,  and  his  losses  were 
probably  less  than  those  of  Grant.  General  Grant,  how 
ever,  referring  to  those  battles,  says,  "  Bloody  and  terrible 
as  they  were  on  our  side,  they  were  even  more  damaging 
to  the  enemy."  Having  crossed  the  James  River  about 
June  15,  the  Union  army  commenced  the  long  siege  of 
Petersburg,  near  which  several  actions  were  fought  in 
July  and  August.  (See  GRANT,  ULYSSKS  S.) 

In  February  or  March,  1865,  General  Lee  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Confederate  armies.  During 
the  winter  of  1864-65  the  army  of  Virginia  had  been 
mostly  inactive,  and  greatly  trammelled  by  the  necessity 
of  defending  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  About  the  3OtB 
of  March  the  armies  operating  against  these  cities  began 
to  move,  and  to  cut  the  Danville  and  Southside  Railroads, 
by  which  Lee's  army  received  supplies.  The  right  wing 
of  his  army  was  defeated  by  General  Sheridan  at  Five 
Forks  on  the  1st  of  April,  and  General  Grant  made  a 
general  and  successful  assault  on  the  works  at  Peters 
burg  on  the  2d.  General  Lee  evacuated  Richmond  and 
Petersburg  in  the  night  of  April  2,  and  retreated  towards 
Danville  with  about  35,000  men.  He  was  pursued  by 
the  cavalry  under  General  Sheridan,  who  attacked  him 
On  the  6th  near  the  Appomattox  River  and  took  about 
6000  prisoners.  He  received  pacific  overtures  from 
General  Grant  on  the  7th,  and  surrendered  his  army  at 
Appomattox  Court-House  on  the  9th  of  April,  1865.  It 
was  then  agreed  by  the  contracting  parties  that  "each 
officer  and  man  will  be  allowed  to  return  to  his  home, 
not  to  be  disturbed  by  United  States  authority  so  long 
as  they  observe  their  paroles  and  the  laws  in  force  where 
they  reside."  Soon  after  the  end  of  the  war,  General  Lee 
became  president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington, 
Virginia.  Speaking  of  the  character  of  Lee  as  a  general, 
Mr.  Greeley  remarks  that  he  knew  how  to  make  the 
most  of  a  good  defensive  position,  "the  single  point  in 
which  (but  it  is  a  vital  one)  his  admirers  can  justify 
their  claim  for  him  of  a  rare  military  genius.  No  other 
American  has  ever  so  thoroughly  appreciated  and  so 
readily  seized  the  enormous  advantage  which  the  in 
creased  range,  precision,  and  efficiency  given  to  musketry 
by  rifling  have  insured  to  the  defensive,  when  wielded 
by  a  commander  who  knows  how  speedily  a  trench  may 
be  dug  and  a  slight  breastwork  thrown  up,  which  will 
stop  nine-tenths  of  the  bullets."  ("American  Conflict," 
vol.  ii.  p.  581.)  He  died,  at  Lexington,  October  12,  1870. 

See  "Southern  Genera's,"  (anonymous.)  New  York,  1865;  E.  A. 
POLI.ARD,  "Lee  and  his  Lieutenants, "1867. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  K,  gtittural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEE 


1394 


/ EFEB^RE 


Lee,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  London  in  1625.  He  preached  in  London  for 
some  years,  and  emigrated  to  New  England  about  1686. 
He  published  several  religious  works,  among  which  is 
"The  Temple  of  Solomon."  Died  in  1691. 

Lee,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Longnor,  in  Shropshire,  in  1783.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  which  he  followed  for  some 
years,  during  which  he  studied  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Arabic,  etc.  About  1817  he  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  at  Cambridge,  and  entered  holy  orders.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  in  1819,  and 
professor  of  Hebrew  about  1832,  after  which  date  he 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Barley.  He  published  a  Hebrew 
Grammar,  (1830,)  a  "Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  and  English 
Lexicon,"  (1840,)  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature,  Progress, 
and  End  of  Prophecy,"  (1849,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1852. 

Lee,  (SAMUEL  P.,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Virginia,  became  a  midshipman  in  1825.  lie  commanded 
the  Oneida  in  the  battle  against  the  forts  and  gun 
boats  below  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862,  and  in  1^ 
was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron. 

Lee,  (SARAH,)  (Mrs.  BOWDICH,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1800,  was  the  wife  of  T.  E.  Bowdich,  whom 
she  accompanied  to  South  Africa.  She  wrote  "Stories 
of  Strange  Lands,"  (1825,)  a  "  Memoir  of  Baron  Cuvier," 
(1833,)  and  other  works.  She  was  married  again  to  a 
Mr.  Lee.  Died  in  1856. 

Lee,  (  SOPHIA,  )  an  English  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  London  in  1750,  was  a  sister  of  Harriet,  noticed 
above.  She  began  her  literary  career  in  1780  by  the 
"Chapter  of  Accidents,"  a  comedy,  which  was  success 
ful,  and  was  followed  by  novels  entitled  "The  Recess," 
(1785,)  and  "The  Life  of  a  Lover."  In  1796  she  com 
posed  "  Almeyda,  Queen  of  Granada,"  a  tragedy,  of  which 
Mrs.  Siddons  performed  the  principal  rdle  with  applause. 
She  wrote  two  of  the  "Canterbury  Tales"  published  by 
her  sister,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1824. 

See  BOADEN,  "Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  chap.  vi.  p.  103. 

Lee,  (THOMAS,)  a  Virginian  planter,  distinguished  for 
his  talents,  was  president  of  the  Council  of  Virginia.  He 
was  the  father  of  Richard  Henry,  Francis  Lightfoot,  and 
Arthur  Lee.  Died  in  1750. 

Lee,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Charles 
ton,  South  Carolina,  in  1769.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Monroe  judge  of  the  United  States  district 
court  for  South  Carolina  in  1823.  Died  in  1839. 

Lee,  (THOMAS  BLAND,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1762.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1789  to  1795.  Died  in  1827. 

Leeb,  lap,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Memmingen  in  1790;  died  about  1856. 

Leech,  (JOHN,)  an  English  artist  and  caricaturist, 
born  in  London  about  1816.  He  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
designer  of  the  humorous  figures  which  illustrate  the 
London  "  Punch."  His  sketches  are  excellent  as  works 
of  art,  though  drawn  with  rapidity  and  haste.  He  pub 
lished  "Pictures  of  Life  and  Character,"  and  "The 
Rising  Generation,"  (1848,)  which  display  a  rare  percep 
tion  of  the  varieties  of  character  and  the  keenest  sense 
of  the  ludicrous.  Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  March,  1863. 

Leech/man,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  Scottish  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Lanarkshire  in  1706.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Glasgow  for  seventeen  years.  His  lectures 
in  defence  of  revealed  religion  against  Voltaire  and  Hume 
are  commended.  He  published  a  collection  of  sermons, 
and  a  work  "  On  the  Nature,  Reasonableness,  and  Ad 
vantages  of  Prayer,"  (1743.)  Died  in  1785. 

Leeds,  DUKE  OF.     See  DANHY,  EARL  OF. 

Leemans,  la'mans,  (CONRAD,)  a  Dutch  archaeologist, 
bom  at  Zalt  Boemel  in  1809,  published  an  extensive 
work  "On  the  Egyptian  Monuments  of  the  Museum  of 
Levden,"  (1835-52.) 

Leepe,  van  der,  v3n  der  la'peh,  (JAN  ANTOON,)  a 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1664, 
excelled  in  marine  views.  His  execution  is  easy,  his 
touch  light,  and  his  colour  good.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Flight  into  Egypt."  Died  in  1720. 


Lee'ser,  (ISAAC,)  a  Jewish  theologian  and  religious 
writer,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1806,  emigrated  to  Amer 
ica,  and  became  in  1829  rabbi  of  the  principal  synagogue 
of  Philadelphia.  Died  in  1868. 

Leeu,  Leuw,  or  Leeuw,  van  der,  vtn  der  lo  or  luh, 
(GAiiRiEL,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  animals,  born  at  Dort  in 
1643.  He  worked  at  Amsterdam,  Paris,  Naples,  and 
Rome  with  success,  and  adopted  the  Italian  manner. 
His  touch  was  grand  and  decided.  His  works  represent 
flocks  of  sheep,  herds  of  cattle,  etc.  Died  in  1688. 

Leeu  or  Leeuw,  van  der,  (PIKTER,)  a  painter  of  land 
scapes  and  cattle,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1645.  His  style  resembles  that  of  Van  der  Velde. 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  painted  with  facility.  Died 
about  1705. 

Leeuw  or  Leuw,  van  der,  vSn  der  15  or  luh,  (WiL- 
LEM,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1600. 
He  engraved  many  works  of  Rubens,  among  which  is 
"  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  and  several  works  of  Rem 
brandt,  including  "  David  Playing  on  the  Harp."  Died 
about  1665. 

Leeuwen,  van,  vjtn  luh'wen  or  16'wen,  (  SIMON,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1625  ;  died  in  1682. 

Leeuwenhoeck.     See  LF.UWENHOEK. 

Leeves,  leevz,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1749,  was  the  author  of  the  air  of  "  Auld  Robin 
Gray."  Died  in  1828. 

Lefebure,  leh-fa'biiu',  (Louis  HKNRI, )  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  wrote  a  prize 
essay  against  lotteries,  besides  several  treatises  on  music 
and  botany.  Died  in  1839. 

Lefebure  de  Foxircy,  1eh-fa'buV  deh  fooR'se', 
(Louis,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Saint  Do 
mingo  in  1785.  He  succeeded  Lacroix  as  professor  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences  in  Paris,  and  published  "De 
scriptive  Geometry,"  (4th  edition,  1843,)  and  "Analytic 
Geometry,"  (1827.) 

Lefebvre.     See  LEFEVRE. 

Lefebvre,  leh-f.\vR'  or  leh-fevit',  (CHARLEMAGNE 
TuEoriULF.,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Nantes  in 

181 1,  became  an  officer  in  the  navy.     He  wrote  "  Travels 
in  Abyssinia,"  (6  vols.,  1845-50,)  a   scientific  work  of 
much  merit. 

Lefebvre,  (FRANQOIS  JOSEPH,)  Duke  of  Dantzic,  a 
French  marshal,  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  in  1755.  He 
was  rapidly  promoted  in  the  war  which  began  in  1792,  and 
became  a  general  of  division  in  January,  1794.  lie  con 
tributed  greatly  to  the  victories  of  Fleurus  (1794)  and 
Altenkirchen,  (1796.)  In  August,  1799,  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Directory  commander  of  the  military  division  of 
which  Paris  was  the  head-quarters.  On  the  i8th  Bru- 
maire  he  acted  as  lieutenant  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  he 
rendered  important  services  in  that  coup  d'etat  which 
made  him  dictator.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  the 
empire  in  1804,  commanded  the  foot-guards  at  the  battle 
of  Jena,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  success  at  the  siege 
of  Dantzic  in  1807  by  the  title  of  Duke  of  Dantzic.  In 
the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809  his  skill  and  courage 
were  conspicuous  at  Eckmiihl  and  Wagram.  He  com 
manded  the  imperial  guard  in  the  Russian  campaign  of 

1812,  and  defended  France  at  Montmirail,  etc.  in  1814. 
On  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Lefebvre  ac 
cepted  a  place  in  his  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  conse 
quently  was   excluded   from   that   of   Louis    XVIII.   in 
1816.     He  was  reinstated  in   his   military  rank  in  1819. 
Died  in  1820.     He  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  best  generals  of  the  army,  uniting  great  intrepidity 
with  superior  judgment,  and  had  the  faculty  of  animating 
his.  men   as  if  by  an   electric  influence.     "His  military 
genius,"  says  Marshal   Suchet,  "  found  on  the  scene  of 
action,  and  without  any  previous  combination,  extraor 
dinary  resources  to  decide  the  victory." 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  History 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  DE  COURCEI.I.KS,  "Dictionnaire 
des  GeneVanx  Frnngais;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lefebvre,  (TANNEGUY.)     See  LEFEVRE. 

Lefebvre  or  Lefevre,  (VALENTIN.)  See  FERRE,  LE. 

Lefebvre  de  Cheverus,  (JEAN  Louis  ANNE  MADE 
LEINE.)  See  CHEVERUS. 

Lefebvre  -  Desnouettes,  leh  -  flvu'  cli'noo'et', 
[CHARLES,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  Jong;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LEFEVRE 


1395 


LEGARE 


1773.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  Bonaparte's  aides-de-camp  in  1800.  As  colonel 
he  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz  in  1805.  He  be 
came  a  general  of  division  in  1808,  commanded  the  chas 
seurs  of  the  emperor's  guard  in  1809,  and  was  employed 
near  Napoleon's  person  in  Russia,  (1812.)  At  the  first 
restoration  he  was  retained  in  his  command  by  Louis 
XVIII. ;  but  he  joined  the  standard  of  Bonaparte  in 
March,  1815,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  Having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  a  council  of  war,  he  escaped  to 
the  United  States  in  1816.  He  perished  in  the  wreck 
of  the  Albion  packet-ship,  as  he  was  returning  to  Europe, 
in  April,  1822. 

Lefevre.  See  CAUMARTIN,  DACIER,  FEVRE,  LE- 
FHHVRK,  and  FABER,  (JEAN.) 

Lefevre,  (CHARLES  SHAW.)     See  EVERSLEY. 

Lefevre  or  Lefebvre,  (CLAUDE.)     See  FEVRE,  LE. 

Lefevre,  leh-favR',  (JEAN,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Lisieux,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1682.  He  edited  the  "  Connaissances  des 
Temps"  from  1684  to  1701.  Died  in  1706. 

Lefevre,  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  liberal  French  publisher, 
born  at  Neufchateau  in  1779,  settled  in  Paris  in  his 
youth.  He  published  excellent  editions  of  many  Greek, 
Latin,  and  French  classics,  for  some  of  which  he  wrote 
notes.  Died  in  1858. 

Lefevre,  (NICOLAS,)  an  able  French  chemist,  emi 
grated  ;o  England  in  1664  at  the  invitation  of  Charles 
II.,  who  gave  him  the  direction  of  a  "laboratory  in  his 
palace.  He  wrote  "Theoretical  and  Practical  Chem 
istry,"  (1660.)  Died  in  1674. 

Lefevre,  (PIERRE  FRANC.OIS  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1741,  produced 
tragedies  entitled  "  Zuma,"  (1776,)  and  "Elisabeth  de 
France,"  (1783,)  also  "Gustavus  Vasa,"  an  epic  poem. 
Died  in  1813. 

Lefevre,  (ROBERT,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Bayeux,  in  Calvados,  in  1756,  removed  to  Paris  in 
1784.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation,  he  painted 
portraits  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine,  which  were  so 
much  admired  that  more  than  twenty  copies  were  or 
dered  by  various  cities,  courts,  and  other  parties.  About 
1815  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1830. 

Lefevre  or  Lefebvre,  1eh-fivR',  (TANNEGUI  or  TAN- 
NEGUY,  tSn'ge',)  [Lat.  TANAQUIL'LUS  FA'HER,]  an  emi 
nent  French  scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Caen  in  1615,  was 
the  father  of  the  renowned  Madame  Dacier.  He  was 
appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  inspector  of  the  royal 
printing-establishment  in  Paris.  After  the  death  of 
Richelieu  he  joined  the  Protestants,  and  was  chosen  a 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Saumur  about  1655.  He 
published  annotated  editions  of  Lucretius,  (1662,)  Lon- 
ginus,  (1663,)  Horace,  (1671,)  Virgil,  and  other  classics, 
and  translated  into  French  several  Greek  works.  Died 
in  1672. 

See  F.  GRAVEROL,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  la  Vie  de  T.  Le 
fevre, "1686;  NICEHON,  "Memoires;"  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France 
protestante  ;"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Lefevre  de  la  Boderie,  leh-ftvR'  deh  It  bod're', 
(GuY,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  near  Falaise  in  1541. 
He  co-operated  with  Arias  Montanus  in  the  Polyglot 
Bible  of  Antwerp,  for  which  he  edited  and  translated 
into  Latin  the  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
(1572.)  He  also  wrote  some  poems.  Died  in  1598. 

Lefevre  d'fitaples,  leh-fivR'  da'tfpl',  [Lat.  FA'ISER 
STAPULEN'SIS,]  (JACQUES,)  an  eminent  French  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  at  fitaples  about  1455.  ^e  was 
condemned  as  a  heretic  by  the  Sorbonne,  but  was  justi 
fied  by  Francis  I.,  who  employed  him  as  preceptor  to 
his  son.  Lefevre  produced  the  first  complete  French 
version  of  the  Bible,  (1530.)  His  version  is  used  in  the 
French  Protestant  churches.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  works  of  Aristotle.  Erasmus  expressed  veneration 
for  his  character,  (singularem  vita:  sanctimoniam  veneror.) 
Died  in  1537. 

^ee  C.  H.  GRAF,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Kcrits  de  J.  Lefevre 
d'Etaples,"  1842;  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
HAAG,  "  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale ." 

Lefevre  de  Saint-Remy,  leh-ftvR'  deh  sa.\  ra'me', 
(JEAN,)  a  French  chronicler,  born  near  Abbeville  about 
1394  ;  died  in  1468. 


Lefevre-Deumier,  leh-ftvR'  duh'me^i',  (JULES,)  a 
French  poet,  born  about  1804.  He  became  private 
librarian  of  President  Louis  Napoleon  in  1849,  and 
librarian  at  the  Tuileries  in  1852.  Died  in  1857. 

Leflo,  leh-flo',  (AnoLPHE  CHARLES  EMMANUEL,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Lesneven  in  1804.  lie  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1848,  and  was  banished  in 
1852. 

Lefort  or  Le  Fort,  leh-foii',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  Swiss 
general,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1656.  He  entered  the 
Russian  service,  and  fought  several  campaigns  against 
the  Turks  before  the  peace  of  1681.  He  rendered  valu 
able  service  to  the  Czar  Peter  in  his  contest  with  Sophia, 
his  sister  and  rival ;  and  when  that  prince  triumphed,  in 
1689,  Lefort  became  his  favourite  and  chief  minister,  a 
dignity  which  he  merited  by  his  virtues  and  talents.  He 
gave  wise  counsels  to  the  young  autocrat,  and  was  the 
author  of  many  of  the  reforms  which  marked  that  reign. 
Lefort  was  appointed  general-in-chief  and  admiral  about 
1693.  Died  in  1699. 

See  BASSEVILLE,  "Vie  de  F.  Lefort,"  1784;  GOLIKOF,  "Vie  de 
Lefort,"  Moscow,  i?oo;  VOI.TAJRE.  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  le  Grand.Jljy— 

'Tl'Afse  iC,  2tf.     7^t  ",i  z  •?>  *Srtr£~.  zi^,    ^'-t-r^TTTT^   > 

Lefranc.     See  POMPIGNAN. 

Lefranc,  (MARTIN.)     See  FRANC,  LE. 

Lefranc,  leh-fkS.N',  (VICTOR,)  a  French  advocate  and 
writer,  born  at  Garsin  in  1809. 

Lefran9ais.     See  LALANDE. 

Lefren,  la'fRen  or  Ifi'fuen,  (LARS  ULOF,)  a  Swedish 
Orientalist,  born  in  1722;  died  in  1803. 

Lefuel,  leh-fu-el',  (MARTIN  HECTOR,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  at  Versailles  in  1810.  In  1853  he  succeeded 
Visconti  as  architect  of  the  structures  by  which  the 
Louvre  is  joined  to  the  Tuileries.  He  designed  the 
fafades  and  distributed  the  interiors  of  this  work,  which 
was  finished  in  1857.  He  designed  the  palace  of  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  1855. 

See  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Ge^ieVa!e." 

Legallois  or  Le  Gallois,  leh-gi'lwa',  QULIEN  JEAN 
CESAR,)  a  French  physiologist,  born  near  Dol,  in  Bre- 
tagne,  in  1770.  In  1801  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D., 
and  wrote  an  able  treatise  entitled  "Is  the  Blood  iden 
tical  in  all  the  Vessels  through  which  it  passes  ?"  He 
merited  a  high  rank  among  physiologists  and  experi 
menters  by  his  "Experiments  on  the  Principle  of  Life, 
especially  on  that  of  the  Movements  of  the  Heart  and 
on  the  Seat  of  this  Principle,"  (1812.)  Died  in  1814. 

See  BOISSEAU,  in  the  "  Biographie  Medicale;"  "Nouveile  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Le  Gallois,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Finest  Libra 
ries  of  Europe,"  (1680.) 

Legare,  pronounced  leh-gree',  (HUGH  SWINTON,)  an 
American  statesman  and  scholar,  of  Huguenot  descent, 
was  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  January  2,  1797. 
He  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  College  about  1815, 
after  which  he  pursued  his  studies  in  Paris  and  Edin 
burgh.  He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  other  lan 
guages.  He  also  studied  law,  and  gave  much  attention 
to  juridical  philosophy.  In  1830  he  was  elected  attorney- 
general  of  South  Carolina.  He  contributed  many  able 
articles  to  the  "  Southern  Review,"  and  was  an  adherent 
of  the  Union  when  nullification  was  agitated  in  his  State. 
Having  served  as  charge-d'affaires  at  Brussels  for  about 
three  years,  he  returned  home  in  1836,  and  was  elected 
by  the  voters  of  Charleston  a  member  of  Congress,  in 
which  he  served  one  term,  (1837-39.)  As  a  lawyer  he 
stood  high  in  his  profession.  In  1840  he  advocated  the 
election  of  General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency  by  several 
eloquent  speeches  in  New  York,  Virginia,  etc.  He  was 
appointed  in  September,  1841,  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  under  President  Tyler.  He  died  at  Boston 
in  June,  1843.  Among  his  writings  are  an  "Essay  on 
Classical  Learning,"  an  "Essay  on  Roman  Literature," 
and  "The  Constitutional  History  of  Greece."  "The 
impression  left  by  his  collected  writings,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "  is  that  his  mind  was  of  the  first  order,  but  that 
it  did  not  hold  in  that  order  a  very  prominent  place." 

See  GRISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America,"  and  a  Memoir  pre 
fixed  to  Legare's  collected  works,  2  vols.,  1846. 

Legare,  (Bullen,)  (MARY  SWINTON,)  sister  of  Hugh 
S.  Legare,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^T^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


LEGJZPI 


1396 


LEGOUVE 


Carolina,  about  1800.  She  has  acquired  distinction  as  an 
artist. 

Legazpi,  de,  da  la-gath-pee',  (MIGUEL  LOPE/,,)  a 
Spanish  commander,  born  at  Zubarraja.  He  went  to 
Mexico  in  1545,  and  commanded  an  expedition  sent  in 
1564  against  the  Philippine  Isles,  which  he  conquered 
about  1565-70.  Died  in  1572. 

Legendre  or  Le  G-endre,  leh-zhoNclu',  (ADRIEN 
MARIE,)  an  eminent  French  geometer,  and  one  of  the 
most  profound  analysts  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Tou 
louse  in  1752.  He  was  educated  at  Mazarin  College, 
Paris,  and  in  early  life  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics 
in  the  Ecole  militaire  of  that  city.  Having  written  a 
prize  essay  on  the  balistic  problem,  and  a  memoir  on 
the  attraction  of  spheroids,  (1782,)  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783.  lie  was  associated 
in  1787  with  Cassini  and  Mechain  in  the  operation  to 
connect  the  Observatories  of  Paris  and  Greenwich  by  a 
series  of  triangles.  In  1794  he  published  his  admirable 
"Elements  of  Geometry,"  which  has  been  extensively 
used  as  a  text-book  in  various  languages,  and  has  done 
more  to  popularize  his  name  than  any  other  work.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  bureau  of  longitudes,  and  from 
1807  to,  1815  an  honorary  councillor  of  the  Imperial 
University.  In  1807  he  produced  an  important  work 
called  "Exercises  on  Integral  Calculus,"  etc.,  ("Exer- 
cices  de  Calcul  integral  sur  divers  Ordres  de  Transcen- 
dantes,"  3  vols.,)  which  contains  his  discoveries  on  the 
subject  of  elliptic  functions.  This  subject  was  more 
fully  developed  in  his  "Traite  des  Fonctions  elliptiques 
et  des  Integrates  Euleriennes,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  He  also 
made  valuable  additions  to  the  theory  of  numbers,  on 
which  he  published  an  essay.  Died  in  1833.  Laplace, 
Lagrange,  and  Legendre  formed  a  mathematical  trium 
virate,  which  the  French  consider  entitled  to  pre 
eminence  among  European  geometers  of  that  age. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Hiographie  Gene'rale ;"  "  Memoir  of  Legendre" 
in  the  "Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution"  for  1867,  translated 
from  tlie  French  of  fii.iE  DK  BEAUMONT;  "North  American  Re 
view"  for  July,  1828. 

Legendre,  (Louis,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1655.  He  became  a  canon  of  the  church  of 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  France,  ending  at  the  Death  of  Louis 
XIII.,"  (3  vols.,  1718.)  Died  in  1733. 

Legendre,  (Louis,)  a  subaltern  demagogue  of  the 
French  Revolution,  born  in  1756.  He  was  deputed  in 
1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  with  the 
"Mountain."  "He  was,"  says  Lamartine,  "the  most 
courageous  friend  of  Danton,  and  was  by  turns  the 
agitator  and  moderator  of  the  people."  The  next  day 
after  the  arrest  of  Danton,  Legendre  openly  defended 
him  in  the  Convention  by  a  speech.  Died  in  1797. 

Legendre,  (Nicoi.AS,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Etampes  in  1619,  worked  in  Paris.  His  subjects  are 
chiefly  religious.  Died  in  1671. 

Le  Gentil.     See  LA  BARIUNAIS. 

Legentil  de  la  Galaisiere,  leh-zh6N'te'  cleh  IS  gi'- 
LVze-a,iR',  (Guiu.AUME  JOSEPH  HYACINTHS  JEAN  BAP- 
TiSTnT)  a  French  astronomer  and  traveller,  born  at 
Coutances  in  1725.  In  1769  he  went  to  Pondicherry  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  but  failed,  because  the  sun 
was  hidden  by  clouds.  He  published  a  "Voyage  in  the 
Indian  Seas,"  (1779,)  which  contains  valuable  observa 
tions  on  monsoons,  currents,  and  tides,  and  information 
respecting  the  manners,  religion,  and  science  of  the 
Hindoos.  Died  in  1792. 

See  JEAN  DOMINIQUE  CASSINI,  "  filoge  de  M.  Legentil,"  1810. 

Leger,  la'zha'  or  la'zhaiit',  (ANTOINE,)  a  Protestant 
.divine,  born  in  Savoy  in  1594.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Geneva  from  1645 
until  his  death,  in  1661.  He  published  a  Greek  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  (1638.) 

Leger,  (ANTOINE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Geneva  in  1652,  and  was  ordained  a  minister  He 
filled  the  chair  of  philosophy  for  twenty-four  years  at 
Geneva  with  eminent  success.  He  published  several 
scientific  treatises  and  many  sermons.  Died  in  1719. 

Leger,  (JEAN,)  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Savoy  in  1615.  He  was  a  pastor  of  a  church  of  the 
Waldenses,  and,  having  escaped  from  the  massacre  of 


1655,  he  went  to  France,  and  solicited  the  intervention 
of  the  court  for  his  countrymen.  In  1663  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Walloon  church  in  Leyclen.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Churches  of  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont," 
(the  Waldenses,  1669.)  Died  about  1670. 

See  "  Abrege  de  la  Vie  de  Jean  Leger,  ecrite  par  lui-meme,"  at 
the  end  of  his  "  History  of  the  Waldenses." 

Leger,  SAINT.     See  SAINT-!, EC.EK. 

Legge,  leg,  (GEORGE,)  Lord  Dartmouth,  an  English 
admiral,  born  about  1648.  lie  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  the  Dutch  in  1671,  was  made  Baron  of 
Dartmouth  in  1682,  and  admiral  in  1683.  At  the  acces 
sion  of  James  II.,  in  1685,  he  was  appointed  master  of 
the  horse  and  general  of  the  ordnance.  He  commanded 
the  fleet  in  1688,  and  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  pre 
vent  the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  After  taking 
the  oath  to  William  III.,  he  joined  a  Jacobite  conspiracy 
in  1690.  "  He  laid  a  plan,"  says  Macaulay,  "for  betray 
ing  Portsmouth  to  the  French."  He  was  arrested  for 
treason,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  where,  after  a  short 
confinement,  he  died  of  apoplexy  in  1691. 

Leg'gett,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  American  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1802.  In 
1828  he  founded  in  his  native  city  a  literary  gazette  en 
titled  "The  Critic,"  which  was  subsequently  united  with 
"The  Mirror."  To  these  journals  he  contributed  a  num 
ber  of  spirited  tales  and  sketches,  afterwards  published 
under  the  titles  of  "Sketches  of  the  Sea"  and  "Tales  by 
a  Country  Schoolmaster."  He  married  Elmira  Waring 
in  1828,  and  became  associated  with  Mr.  Bryant  as 
editor  of  the  "  Evening  Post"  in  1829,  and  in  1836  estab 
lished  "The  Plaindealer,"  (issued  weekly,)  which  soon 
acquired  a  high  reputation  for  its  independent  spirit  and 
the  distinguished  ability  with  which  it  was  conducted. 
He  was  appointed  a  diplomatic  agent  from  the  United 
States  to  the  republic  of  Guatemala  in  April,  1838,  but, 
while  preparing  for  his  departure,  died  suddenly,  on 
the  29th  of  May,  1838.  Two  volumes  of  his  political 
writings,  with  a  Memoir,  were  published  by  his  friend 
Mr.  Theodore  Sedgwick,  who  says,  in  his  preface,  "It  is 
not  the  suggestion  of  a  too  fond  affection,  but  the  voice 
of  a  calm  judgment,  which  declares  that,  whatever  public 
career  he  had  pursued,  he  must  have  raised  to  his 
memory  an  imperishable  monument." 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOI.D,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  Duvc- 
KINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "London 
Quarterly  Review,"  1828;  "Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1840, 
(with  portrait.) 

Legillon,  leh-zhe'yo.N',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1739;  died  in  Paris  in  1797. 

Legipont,  leh-zhe'p6.N',  (OLIVER,)  a  learned  monk 
and  writer,  born  at  Soiron,  in  Limburg,  in  1698;  died 
in  1758. 

Le  Glay,  leh  gli,  (ANDRE  JOSEPH  GHISLAIN,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Arleux  in  1785. 

Legnani,  len-ya'nee  or  lan-ya'nee,  (S'l'EFANO,)  an 
Italian  painter,  also  called  Legnanino,  born  at  Milan  in 
1640,  was  a  pupil  of  Cignani  and  Carlo  Maratta.  He 
painted  frescos  at  Milan.  Died  in  1715. 

See  E.  CORAZZI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  Legnani,"  1720. 

Legobien,  leh-go'be^N',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1653,  became  secretary  of  the 
missions  to  China.  He  published,  about  1702,  a  collec 
tion  of  letters  from  missionaries  in  China,  etc.,  entitled 
"  Lettres  edifiantes  et  curieuses  ecrites  des  Missions 
etrangeres."  This  interesting  publication  was  continued 
by  Duhalde.  Died  in  1708. 

Le  Gonidec,  leh  go'ne'dek',  (JEAN  FRANQOIS  MARIE,) 
a  French  philologist,  born  at  Conquet,  in  Bretagne,  in 
1775.  He  published  a  good  "  Dictionnaire  Breton- 
Frai^ais,"  (1821.)  Died  in  1838. 

Legote,  la-go'ta,  (PAULO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
about  1600  ;  died  at  Cadiz  about  1670. 

Legouve,  leh-goo'va',  (ERNEST  WILFRID,)  a  French 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  obtained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  his  poem  "  On  the  In 
vention  of  Printing,"  (1829,)  and  produced  several  dramas. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1855. 

SeeQuiiRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Legouve,  (GABRIEL  MARIE  JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 


5,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LE  GOUZ 


1397 


LEHNBERG 


in  1764.  He  produced  "The  Death  of  Abel,"  (1792,) 
which  was  very  successful,  and  other  tragedies.  He  he- 
came  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1798.  His  tragedy 
"Henry  IV.  of  France"  (1806)  displays  dramatic  skill 
and  elegant  diction.  He  composed  several  popular 
poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Female  Merit,"  ("  Me- 
rite  des  Femmes,"  1800.)  Died  in  1812,  or,  according 
to  some  authorities,  in  1814. 

See  "  Notice  of  Legouve,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by  KOUILI.Y  and 
MA i.o,  1826;  QUERAKD,  "La  France  Litte'raire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Le  Gouz.     See  Gouz. 

Legoyt,  leh-gwa',  (ALFRED,)  a  French  economist  and 
statistician,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1815,  became 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  general  statistics,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "La  France  statistique,"  (1843.) 

Legraiii  or  Legrin,  leh-gRiN',  (JEAN  BAPTISTK,)  a 
French  historian,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1565.  He  held 
some  office  at  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  master 
of  requests  of  the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.,  ("Decade 
con  tenant  la  Vie  et  les  Gestes,"  etc.,  1614,)  and  "The 
History  of  Louis  XIII.  from  1610  to  1617,"  (1618.) 
Died  in  1642. 

Legrand  or  Le  Grand,  leh-gRSN',  (ANTOINE,)  a 
French  writer  and  monk,  born  at  Douay,  lived  about 
1650-80.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology 
in  Douay,  and  was  a  disciple  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy, 
on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  published  a 
"Sacred  History  from  the  Creation  to  Constantine  the 
Great,"  (1685,)  and  other  works. 

Le  Grand,  (B.U'TisTE  ALEXIS  VICTOR,)  a  meritorious 
French  engineer  and  administrator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1791.  He  became  engineer-in-chief  of  the  first  class, 
and  in  1834  was  appointed  director-general  of  bridges, 
roads,  and  mines.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  five  times.  It  is  stated  that  no  person  con 
tributed  more  to  the  success  of  the  vast  plan  conceived 
in  his  time  to  increase  the  riches  of  France  by  facility  of 
transport.  His  moral  dignity,  public  spirit,  and  various 
merits  are  highly  commended  by  M.  Villemain,  who 
calls  him  a  true  model  of  the  able  and  zealous  adminis 
trator.  Died  in  1848. 

See  VII.I.E.MAIN'S  article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Legrand,  (CLAUDE  JUST  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  the  department  of  Oise  in  1762.  As 
general  of  division,  he  commanded  under  Morean  at 
Hohenlinden,  (1800,)  and  served  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.) 
He  maintained  his  reputation  at  Jena  (1806)  and  at 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  commanded  the  second  corps- 
d'armee  at  the  Berezina,  (1812.)  Died  in  1815. 

Legrand,  (JACQUES  GUILLAUME,)  an  eminent  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1 743,  was  a  pupil  of  Clerisseau, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  After  he  had  travelled  in 
Italy  and  acquired  a  pure  taste,  he  was  employed  as 
architect  of  several  public  edifices  in  Paris,  among  which 
are  the  Halle  aux  Bles,  (Corn-Market,  1783,)  Halle  aux 
Draps,  (Cloth-Market,  1786,)  and  Theatre  Feydeau, 
(1790.)  Molinos  was  associated  with  him  in  these  works. 
Legrand  published  a  "  Comparison  between  Ancient  and 
Modern  Architecture,"  (1799,)  and  wrote  an  "  Fssay  on 
the  History  of  Architecture,"  (1809.)  Died  in  1807. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Legrand,  (JOACHIM,)  a  French  historian  and  abbe, 
born  at  Saint-Lo  in  1653,  was  a  person  of  great  erudi 
tion.  He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  Spain  about  1702, 
and  was  afterwards  employed  in  the  foreign  office.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  Divorce' of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,"  (1688,)  and  a  few  other  historical  works. 
Died  in  1733. 

Legrand,  (Louis,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  Bur 
gundy  in  1711.  He  became  professor  or  maitre  des  etudes 
in  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  Paris,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Word,"  (1751.)  He  composed  the  censures  which 
the  Faculty  of  Theology  published  against  Rousseau's 
"Emile"  (1762)  and  Buffon's  "  Cpoques  de  la  Nature." 
Died  in  1780. 

Legrand,  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French  'dramatist  and 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1673.  He  composed  a  number 
of  popular  comedies,  among  which  are  "The  Blind 


Clairvoyant,"  (1716,)  and  "  Roi  de  Cocagne,"  1719.  Died 
in  1728. 

Legrand  d'Aussy,  leh-gR&N'  do'se',  (PIERRE  JEAN 
BAPTISTE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Amiens  in  1737. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Fabliaux,  or  Tales  of 
the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries,"  (1779.)  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  French  manuscripts  of  the 
National  Library.  Died  in  1800. 

Legranzi,  la-gRan'zee,  or  Legrenzi,  la-gRSn'zee, 
(GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  near  Bergamo 
about  1625  ;  died  about  1690. 

Legras,  leh-gua',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1680.  lie  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Works  of  the  Fathers  who  lived  in 
the  Time  of  the  Apostles,  with  Notes,"  (1717.)  Died 
in  1751. 

Legraverend,  leh-gkaVRoN',  (JEAN  MARIE  EMA- 
NUEL,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1776,  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Criminal  Legislation  in  France,"  (1816,) 
and  other  approved  works.  Died  in  1827. 

Legrenzi.     See  LKORANZI. 

Legrin.     See  LKGRAIN. 

Legris-Duval,  leh-gue'  dii'vtl',  (RENE  MICHEL,)  a 
French  priest,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1765,  was  a  zealous 
and  efficient  promoter  of  benevolent  institutions.  Died 
in  1819. 

Legroing  de  la  Maisonneuve,  leh-gitwaN'  deh 
IS  ini'zo'nuv',  (FRANC.OISE  THERESE  ANTOINETTE,) 
COUNTESS,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1764. 
She  wrote  "Zenobia,"  a  novel,  (1800,)  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Education  of  Women,"  (iSoi,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Gauls  and  of  France  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  Hugh  Capet,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1837. 

Legros  or  Le  Gros,  leh-gRo',  (NicoLAS,)  a  French 
Jansenist  theologian,  born  atRheimsin  1675.  He  passed 
the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  in  Holland,  to  which 
he  retired  for  refuge  from  persecution.  Among  his  works 
are  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1739,)  which  is 
esteemed  for  fidelity,  and  a  "Manual  for  the  Christian," 
(1740.)  Died  in  1751. 

Legros,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
in  1666.  He  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  executed  many 
admired  works.  His  statue  of  Saint  Dominic  is  reckoned 
among  the  master-pieces  of  the  Basilica  of  Saint  Peter. 
He  also  adorned  the  chateau  of  Versailles.  He  sacri 
ficed  less  to  the  depraved  taste  of  the  time  than  most 
other  French  artists.  Died  in  Rome  in  1719. 

Le  Guaspre.     See  DUGHET. 

Lehmann,  la'man,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTFRIED  WIL- 
HELM,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1765. 
He  published  a  "  Summary  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Man,"  (1799.)  Died  in  1823. 

Lekmami,  (HEINRICH,)  a  skilful  German  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Kiel  in  1814.  He  became 
in  youth  a  resident  of  Paris,  where  he  obtained  medals 
of  the  first  class  in  1840,  1848,  and  1855,  and  was  em 
ployed  by  the  emperor  to  adorn  the  palace  of  Luxem 
bourg. 

Lehmann,  (JoHANN  GEORG,)  a  German  topographer, 
born  in  1765,  invented  about  1793  a  new  method  of  sur 
veying,  since  called  by  his  name.  Died  in  1811. 

Lehmami,  (JOHANN  GEORG  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  about  1794,  was  professor  of  botany  at 
Hamburg.  He  wrote  monographs  of  several  genera, 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1861. 

Lehmann,  (JoiiANN  GOTTLOU,)  a  German  philoso 
pher,  who  acquired  a  European  reputation  as  a  mine 
ralogist.  In  1761  he  removed  from  Berlin  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  in  compliance  with  an  invitation  from  the 
empress,  who  gave  him  a  place  in  the  Academy  of  that 
city.  He  published  a  work  on  mineralogy  for  the  use 
of  schools,  (1759,)  and  other  treatises  on  that  science. 
Died  in  1767. 

Lehmann,  (Runoi.F,)  a  painter,  and  a  brother  of 
Heinrich,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1819.  lie  worked 
mostly  in  Rome,  and  received  medals  at  the  Salon  of 
Paris.  Many  of  his  works  represent  the  manners,  cos 
tumes,  and  scenery  of  Italy. 

Lehiiberg,  lan'be'RG,  (MAGNUS,)  an  eloquent  Swedish 
writer  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  1758,  became  Bishop 
of  Linkoping.  Died  in  1809. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Mi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23 


LEHOC 


1398 


LE1DT 


Lehoc,  leh-ok',  (Louis  GREGOIRE,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  bom  in  Paris  in  1743.  Among  his  works  is  "Pyr- 
rhus,"  a  tragedy,  (1807.)  Died  in  1810. 

Lehrberg,  lai/beRG,  (ARON  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Russian 
scholar,  born  at  Dorpat,  in  Livonia,  in  17/0.  He  re 
moved  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  wrote  "Inquiries  into 
the  Early  History  of  Russia,"  (1814.)  Died  in  1813. 

Le  Huerou,  leh  hii-a'Roo',  QULIEN  MARIE,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Prat  in  1807.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  the  Franks,  Gauls,  etc.  Died  in  1843. 

Leibnitz  or  Leibniz,  von,  fon  lib'nlts  or  llp'nlts, 
[Lat.  LEIBNITZ'IUS,]  (GOTTFRIED  WILHELM,)  BARON,  a 
German  philosopher  and  mathematician  of  the  first 
order,  pre-eminent  among  the  moderns  as  a  universal 
genius,  was  born  at  Leipsic  on  the  6th  of  July,  1646. 
He  was  a  son  of  Friedrich  Leibnitz,  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Leipsic.  After  learning  Latin  and  Greek 
at  the  school  of  Saint  Nicholas,  he  entered  the  University 
of  Leipsic  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  studied  law,  philoso 
phy,  mathematics,  etc.  He  acquired  a  profound  know 
ledge  of  the  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  whose  systems 
he  endeavoured  to  harmonize.  In  1666  he  produced  a 
remarkable  treatise  on  the  combination  of  numbers  and 
ideas,  "  De  Arte  Combinatorial'  and  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  laws  at  Altorf.  He  accepted  in  1667  the  office 
of  councillor  of  state  at  Frankfort,  and  published  his 
"New  Method  of  Learning  and  Teaching  Jurispru 
dence,"  ("Nova  Methodus  discendae  docendseque  Juris- 
prudentias,"  1668,)  an  ingenious  and  profound  essay  on 
Roman  law,  which  raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  philo 
sophic  writers. 

Attracted  by  a  tendency  to  universality  in  science,  he 
meditated  the  plan  of  an  encyclopaedia,  which  became 
one  of  his  favourite  projects,  and  produced  in  rapid 
succession  works  on  politics,  religion,  and  philosophy, 
in  Latin  and  French, — for  he  scarcely  ever  wrote  in  his 
mother-tongue.  He  advanced  new  and  bold  theories  of 
motion  in  his  "Theory  of  Concrete  Motion"  ("Theoria 
Motus  concreti")  and  "Theory  of  Abstract  Motion," 
("Theoria  Motus  abstract!,"  1671.)  In  1672  he  visited 
Paris,  where  he  met  Cassini  and  Iluyghens,  and  declined 
to  enter  the  Academy  of  Sciences  with  the  condition  that 
he  should  abjure  the  Protestant  religion.  Proceeding 
to  London,  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Newton, 
Boyle,  and  others,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1676  he  removed  to  Hanover,  having  been 
appointed  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Luneburg  his  coun 
sellor  {Hofrath}  and  librarian.  About  this  time  he  made 
the  great  discovery  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus,  nearly 
identical  with  Newton's  method  of  fluxions.  Many 
years  later  an  acrimonious  controversy  was  carried  on 
between  the  friends  of  these  two  rivals,  respecting  the 
priority  of  claim  to  this  discovery.  A  committee  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  (about  1705)  decided  in 
favour  of  Newton ;  but  M.  Biot  maintains  that  Leibnitz 
anticipa-ted  Newton  in  respect  to  publicity  by  a  letter  to 
Oldenburg  in  1676,  and  accords  to  both  the  honour  of 
the  original  invention.  Leibnitz  developed  the  power 
of  this  calculus  with  a  marvellous  felicity  in  its  applica 
tion  to  the  theory  of  curves,  to  mechanical  problems,  etc. 

In  1682  he  became  editor  of  the  "Acta  Eruditorum" 
of  Leipsic,  a  journal  which  he  rendered  celebrated.  He 
wrote  in  1693  a  treatise  on  geology,  entitled  "Protogasa," 
"which,"  says  Hallam,  "no  one  can  read  without  per 
ceiving  that  of  all  the  early  geologists  Leibnitz  came 
nearest  to  the  theories  which  are  most  received  in  the 
English  school  at  this  day."  He  was  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin  in  1702,  with 
out  being  required  to  change  his  residence  or  to  retire 
«  from  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Brunswick.  Charles 
VI.  of  Germany  gave  him  the  titles  of  baron  and  of  aulic 
councillor,  but  could  not  prevail  on  him  to  enter  his 
'service.  Between  1690  and  1700  he  was  engaged  in  a 
long  epistolary  negotiation  with  Bossuet  in  order  to  re 
store  the  unity  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches. 
He  crowned  his  career  as  author  by  his  great  work 
entitled  "Essay  of  Theodicea  on  the  Goodness  of  God, 
the  Liberty  of  Man,  and  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  ("Essai  de 
Theodicee  sur  la  Bonte  de  Dieu,  la  Liberte  de  1'Homme, 
et  1'Origine  du  Mai,"  1710.)  According  to  his  system, 
God  is  the  supreme  Reason  of  the  universe,  the  first  and 


last  term  in  the  series  of  efficient  causes,  as  in  that 
of  final  causes.  In  forming  the  world  He  has  realized 
the  ideal  models  of  truth,  beauty,  and  perfection  which 
existed  eternally  in  His  mind.  To  the  parallelism  estab 
lished  in  the  divine  mind  between  the  reign  of  efficient 
causes  and  that  of  final  causes,  corresponds  another  har 
mony,  of  a  superior  order,  between  the  kingdoms  of  nature 
and  of  grace.  From  the  infinite  perfection  of  the  divine 
attributes  he  deduces  the  celebrated  theory  of  Optimism, 
— that  among  all  possible  plans  of  creation  the  Almighty 
has  chosen  the  best,  the  one  which  combines  the  greatest 
variety  with  the  greatest  order, — in  which  matter,  space, 
and  time  are  most  wisely  economized.  He  died  at  Hano 
ver,  November  14,  1716.  Among  his  important  works 
is  one  entitled  "New  Essays  on  the  Human  Understand 
ing,"  ("Nouveaux  Essais  sur  1'Entendement  humain," 
about  1765,)  in  which  he  controverts  the  opinions  of  Locke. 
Another  of  his  works  is  called  "  Pre-Established  Har 
mony,"  ("  Harmonic  pre-etablie.")  His  "  Monadologie," 
(1714,)  in  which  his  metaphysical  system  is  developed, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  his  intel 
lectual  power.  "There  was  only  one  man  in  the  world," 
says  Hallam,  "who  could  have  left  so  noble  a  science  as 
philosophical  jurisprudence  for  pursuits  of  a  still  more 
exalted  nature  and  for  which  he  was  still  more  fitted  ; 
and  that  man  was  Leibnitz  himself."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  was  never  married.  His 
disposition  was  cheerful,  his  manners  were  affable,  and 
his  habits  temperate.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
has  recently  been  published  by  Foucher  de  Careil,  Paris. 
See  FONTENEI.LE,  "  filoge  de  Leibnitz;"  J.  A.  EBEKIIAKP, 
"  Characteristik  des  Freilierrn  von  Leibnitz,"  1817;  LAMPKECHT, 
"  Leben  des  Freilierrn  G.  W.  von  Leibnitz,"  1740;  HISSMANN, 
"Versuch  iiber  das  Leben  des  Freiherrn  von  Leibnitz,"  1783;  I)H 
JAUCOUKT,  "  Vie  de  Leibnitz,"  1734;  GUHRAUKR,  "  G.  VV.  von  Leib 
nitz,  Biographic,"  2  vols.,  1845;  G.  SCHILLING,  "Leibnitz  als 
Denker,"  1846 ;  JEAN  SVLVAIN  BAIU.V,  "  FJoj;e  de  Leibnitz,"  i-6g  ; 
JOHN  M.  MACKIE,  "  Lite  of  G.  \V.  Leibnitz,"  Boston,  1845;  EMIL 
F.  VOCEL,  "G  W.  von  Leibnitz,"  Leipsic,  1846;  DK.  F.  HOEI--EK, 
article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  BIOT,  article  in  the 
"Biographic  Universelle :"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1846; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1858.  ^a.y7e-,  JJr'elmittvy  .  <-->:(,(,(. 

Leibnitzius.     See  LEIKMTZ. 

Leicester,  EARL  OF.     See  DUDLEY,  (ROBERT.) 

Leicester,  les'ter,  OF  HOLKHAM,  (THOMAS  WILLIAM 
COKE,)  EARL  OF,  an  eminent  English  agriculturist,  was 
the  son  of  Wenman  Roberts,  of  Norfolk,  and  was  born 
in  1752.  His  father  assumed  the  name  of  Coke  when 
he  inherited  the  estates  of  his  uncle  Thomas  Coke,  who 
was  Earl  of  Leicester  and  a  descendant  of  Sir  Edward 
Coke.  From  1776  to  1832  he  represented  the  county  of 
Norfolk  in  Parliament,  and  was  a  constant  supporter  of 
the  Whig  party.  He  owned  a  very  large  and  highly- 
cultivated  estate  at  Holkham,  and  became  distinguished 
for  his  liberality  and  zeal  in  the  improvement  of  agricul 
ture.  After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford  (1802)  he 
was  reputed  to  hold  the  highest  place  among  English 
cultivators.  In  1837  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Earl  of  Leicester  of  Holkham.  The  last  name  of  this 
title  was  annexed  to  distinguish  him  from  another  Earl 
of  Leicester.  Died  in  1842. 

Leich,  UK,  (JOHANN  HKINRICH,)  a  German  philolo 
gist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1720,  became  professor  of  phi 
losophy  at  that  city  in  1748.  He  wrote  the  "Life  and 
Reign  of  Cons  tan  tin  us  Porphyrogenitus,"  and  several 
other  works.  Died  in  1750. 

Leichiier,  llK/ner,  (EcCARD,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  born  in  Tliuringia  in  1612.  He  practised 
at  Erfurt,  where  he  died  in  1690. 

Leichner,  (JOHANN  GEORG  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1684;  died  in  1769. 

Leidy,  li'de,  (JOSEPH,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  naturalist,  of  German  extraction,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  September  9,  1823.  He  graduated  as  M.I), 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1844,  and  the  same 
year  commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  for  more  congenial  pursuits.  From  1846 
to  1852  he  gave  private  courses  of  lectures  on  anatomy 
and  physiology.  In  1853  he  was  elected  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  position 
he  still  holds.  Besides  anatomy,  human  and  compara 
tive,  he  has  devoted  much  attention  to  natural  history, 
more  especially  zoology  and  palaeontology.  Since  1846 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEIGH 


'399 


LEKAIN 


he  has  occupied  the  position  of  chairman  of  the  curators 
in  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  The  third  volume 
of  the  "Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers,"  compiled  and 
published  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  gives  a  list 
of  one  hundred  and  eleven  of  his  published  papers  up 
to  1860.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
"  Flora  and  Fauna  within  Living  Animals,"  and  the 
"Ancient  Fauna  of  Nebraska,"  both  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Since  1860,  besides  publishing 
an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Human  Anatomy,"  he  has 
largely  added  to  his  list  of  scientific  papers.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  are  the  "Cretaceous  Rep 
tiles  of  the  United  States,"  published  in  the  fourteenth 
volume  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Know 
ledge,"  in  1865,  and  "The  Extinct  Mammalian  Fauna 
of  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  together  with  a  Synopsis  of  the 
Mammalian  Remains  of  North  America,"  (410,  with  30 
plates,)  published  as  the  seventh  volume  of  the  "Journal 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences"  of  Philadelphia. 

Leigh,  lee,  (BENJAMIN  W ATKINS,)  an  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia,  in 
1781.  He  practised  law  at  Richmond,  and  became  one 
of  the  most  prominent  politicians  in  the  State.  He  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature 
of  Virginia  in  1834  or  1835,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  1837. 
Died  in  1849. 

Leigh,  lee,  (CHARLES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Lancashire  about  1650.  He  practised  medicine 
in  London  and  other  cities,  and  published  several  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  a  "Natural  History  of  Lan 
cashire,  Cheshire,  and  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire,"  (1700.) 

Leigh,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  English  writer  and  biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1602,  was  educated  for 
the  law.  In  the  civil  war  he  favoured  the  popular  cause, 
and  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  in  1648  by  the  extreme  opponents  of  the  king. 
He  displayed  much  learning  in  his  "  Critica  Sacra, 
or  the  Hebrew  Words  of  the  Old  and  the  Greek  of  the 
New  Testament,"  (1639,)  and  published  a  "Treatise  of 
Divinity,"  (1646,)  and  other  esteemed  religious  works. 
Died  in  1671. 

Leighton,  la'ton,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  clergy 
man,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1568.  He  was  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  that  city  for  several  years  prior  to 
1613,  when  he  removed  to  London  and  obtained  a  lec 
tureship.  For  libellous  or  offensive  expressions  against 
the  king,  queen,  and  the  bishops  in  his  book  called 
"  Zion's  Plea,"  (1629,)  he  was  punished  by  the  Star 
Chamber  with  mutilation,  the  pillory,  and  long  imprison 
ment.  He  was  released  in  1640,  and  died  about  1646. 
Laud  appears  to  be  responsible  for  the  cruel  treatment 
of  Leighton. 

Leighton,  la'ton,  (ROBERT,)  a  British  divine  of  emi 
nent  merit  and  piety,  born  in  London  about  1612,  was 
the  son  of  the  preceding.  About  1641  he  became  min 
ister  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Newbottle,  near 
Edinburgh.  Finding  that  his  moderation  was  unaccept 
able  to  the  contentious  spirit  and  fierce  zeal  which  then 
prevailed,  he  retired  from  the  pulpit,  and  was  chosen 
principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  "When  Charles 
II.  resolved  to  restore  Episcopacy  in  Scotland,  (about 
1661,)  Leighton  was  made  Bishop  of  Dumblane.  About 
1670  he  became  Archbishop  of  Glasgow.  His  conduct 
was  more  conciliatory  than  that  of  the  other  bishops. 
He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  published 
sermons  and  other  works,  which  are  greatly  esteemed. 
His  commentary  on  the  first  epistle  of  Peter  was  often 
reprinted.  In  1674  he  resigned  his  archbishopric,  prob 
ably  from  an  abhorrence  of  the  violent  contest  which 
disturbed  the  Church  and  State.  Died  in  1684. 

See  JOHN  X.  PEARSON.  "  Life  of  R.  Lei.shton,"  1832  ;  GEORGE 
JEKMENT,  ''Remains  of  the  Life  of  R.  Leighton,"  1808;  BCRNET, 
"  History  of  his  Own  Time;"  "  R.  Leighton  ein  apostolischer 
Mann,"  etc.,  Berlin,  1834;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leiningen,  von,  fon  H'ning-en,  (CHARLES,)  PRINCE, 
a  German  prince,  born  in  1804,  was  a  half-brother  of 
Victoria,  Queen  of  England.  Died  in  1856. 

Leinster,  lin'ster  or  leen'ster,  (WILLIAM  ROBERT 
FITZGERALD,)  DUKE  OF,  an  Irish  peer,  born  in  1749, 
entered  the  British  House  of  Lords  in  1776,  and  acted 
with  the  Tories.  Died  in  1805. 


Leisewitz,  H'zeh-wits',  (JOHANN  ANTON,)  a  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1752,  wrote  a  popular 
tragedy,  entitled  "Julius  von  Tarent."  Died  in  1806. 

Leisler,  lis'ler,  (JACOB,)  an  adventurer  and  revolu 
tionist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  Germany,  emi 
grated  to  America  in  1660,  and  became  a  resident  of 
Albany.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  court  of  admiralty  in  1683.  In  1689  he  was  the 
leader  of  a  mob  which  seized  the  fort  and  public  funds 
of  New  York,  "for  the  preservation,"  as  he  said,  "of  the 
Protestant  religion."  Having  declared  himself  for  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  he  strengthened  the  fort,  and  was 
proclaimed  by  his  adherents  commander:in-chief  of  the 
province.  Sloughter  having  been  soon  after  appointed 
Governor  of  the  coloTiy,  Leisler  was  arrested,  and  exe 
cuted  in  r6gi. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Jacob  Leisler,"  by  C.  F.  HOFFMAN,  in  SPARKS'S 
"  American  Biography,"  vol.  Hi.  2d  series. 

Leismann,  lis'man,  (JOHANN  ANTON,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Salzburg  in  1604.  He  settled  in  Venice, 
painted  landscapes  and  battles,  and  had  a  high  reputa 
tion.  His  manner  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  Salvator 
Rosa.  Died  in  1698. 

Leith,  leeth,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  in  1763.  He  served  as  major- 
general  under  Sir  John  Moore  in  the  Peninsula,  and 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Corunna,  in  1809.  He  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  forces  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1814.  Died  in  1816. 

Lejay,  leh-zhi',  (GABRIEL  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Jes 
uit,  born  in  Paris  about  1660.  He  was  eminent  as  a 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  Paris,  where  Voltaire  was  his 
pupil.  He  published,  besides  other  works  in  Latin, 
"  Bibliotheca  Rhetorum,"  ("  Library  of  Orators,"  1725,) 
which  is  said  to  be  a  valuable  systematic  treatise  on 
eloquence.  Died  in  1734. 

Lejay  or  Le  Jay,  (Gui  MICHEL,)  a  Frenchman,  known 
by  the  Polyglot  Bible  which  bears  his  name,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1588.  He  expended  the  labour  of  seventeen 
years  and  a  large  patrimony  in  the  publication  of  his 
"Bible  in  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Chaldee,"  etc.,  ("Biblia 
Hebraica,  Samaritana,  Chaldaica,  Graeca,  Syriaca,  Latina, 
Arabica,"  1645,)  which  is  a  master-piece  of  typography. 
Lejay  was  assisted  in  editing  this  work  by  Morin,  Gabriel 
Sionita,  and  other  learned  men.  He  was  made  a  privy 
councillor.  Died  in  1674. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lejeune,  leh-zhun',  (CLAUDE,)  a  famous  French 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Valenciennes  about 
1540.  He  received  the  title  of  composer  to  Henry  IV. 
Died  about  1600. 

Le  Jeune,  (JEAN.)     See  JEUNE,  LE. 

Lejeuiie  or  Le  Jeune,  (Louis  FRANgo'is,)  BARON, 
a  French  general  and  painter,  born  at  Strasburg  in  I77v 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  was  made  chef-de-batail- 
lon  in  1805.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
at  Borodino  in  1812,  and  is  said  to  have  saved  the  army 
of  Oudinot  at  Hoyerswerda.  He  painted,  besides  other 
subjects,  "The  Battle  of  Marengo,"  (1801,)  "The  Battle 
of  Lodi,"  (1804,)  and  "The  Battle  of  the  Moskwa," 
(1824.)  Died  in  1850. 

Lejeune,  (PAUL,)  a  French  missionary,  born  in  1592, 
laboured  in  Canada  for  many  years.  He  published  a 
descriptive  work  on  Canada  and  its  native  tribes,  (7 
vols.,  1640.)  Died  in  1664. 

Lejeune-Dirichlet,  (GUSTAV.)     See  DIRICHLET. 

Lekain,  leh-ka.v',  (HENRI  Louis,)  a  famous  French 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1728.  He  was  patronized  by 
Voltaire,  who  discerned  in  him  the  germ  of  great  talent 
while  he  was  acting  in  a  private  troupe.  He  made  his 
debut  in  1750,  and  attained  a  celebrity  scarcely  equalled 
by  that  of  any  actor  of  modern  times  except  Garrick. 
Lekain  was  most  successful  in  tragedy  and  in  the  ex 
pression  of  deep  emotion.  Voltaire  designated  him  as 
the  only  truly  tragic  actor.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
career  he  performed  at  Berlin,  by  request  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  Died  in  1778. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Lekain,"  published  by  his  son,  1801  :  F.  J. 
TAI.MA,  "Memoire  sur  Lekain  et  sur  I'Art  diamatiqne,"  1827: 
VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xxxvi.,  1801,  (Appendix.) 


Wltn  me    lories.      JJICCI  in  1005.  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xxxvi.,  1801,  (Appendix.) 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gu(tural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JH^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IE  KEUX 


1400 


LEMAIRE 


Le  Keux,  leh-kooks,  ?  (HENRY,)  a  skilful  English 
engraver,  born  in  1788.  Me  engraved  some  works  of 
Turner  and  Prout,  illustrations  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Poems,  etc.  Died  in  1868. 

Le  Keux,  (foiix,)  an  English  architectural  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1783 
or  1784.  He  excelled  in  the  engraving  of  Gothic  ar 
chitecture,  the  principles  and  details  of  which  he  had 
diligently  studied.  His  works  have  contributed  much 
to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  the  Gothic  style  in  England. 
He  engraved  part  of  Britton's  "Cathedral  Antiquities," 
and  of  Pugin's  "Antiquities  of  Normandy"  and  "Gothic 
Specimens,"  and  other  works.  He  died  in  1846. 

Le  Keux,  (Jon.M  HENRY,)  an  excellent  engraver  and 
draftsman,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1812. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  engraver  of  architec 
ture.  Among  his  works  are  numerous  plates  in  Ruskin's 
"  Modern  Painters." 

Le  Laboureur,  ([EAX.)     See  LABOUREUR,  LE. 

Ls'laud,  (CHARLES  GODFREY,)  an  American  littera 
teur,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1824.  He  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine"  and  other  periodicals. 
He  published  in  1855  the  "Sketch-Book  of  Meister 
Karl"  and  "The  Poetry  and  Mystery  of  Dreams,"  and 
in  1856  a  translation  of  Heine's  "Pictures  of  Travel," 
("  Reisebilder.") 

Lel'and  or  Laylonde,  la'lond,  (Joiix,)  an  eminent 
English  antiquary  and  linguist,  born  in  London  soon 
after  1500.  lie  learned  the  ancient  and  modern  lan 
guages  at  Oxford  and  Paris.  Having  entered  into  holy 
orders,  he  became  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  em 
ployed  him  as  librarian  and  in  1533  gave  him  the  title 
of  his  antiquary,  with  orders  to  explore  the  antiquities 
of  England.  He  spent  about  seven  years  in  collecting 
materials  for  history,  and  in  1545  compiled  his  "Account 
of  British  Authors,"  ("Commentarii  de  Scriptoribus  Bri- 
tannicis.")  He  became  insane  in  1550,  and  died  in  1552, 
leaving  many  manuscripts,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
Bodleian  Library.  His  "Itinerary"  (9  vols.)  was  edited 
by  Hearne  in  1710. 

See  HunDKSFORD,  "  Lives  of  Leland,  Hearne,  and  Wood,"  1772  ; 
BAVLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  WOOD,  "Athena; 
Oxonienses. " 

Leland,  (Jonx,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1691.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Presby 
terian  congregation  in  Dublin  in  1716.  In  1733  ne  pub 
lished  an  "Answer  to  Tindal's  '  Christianity  as  Old  as 
the  Creation.'"  He  wrote  other  approved  treatises  in 
defence  of  Christianity,  and  in  1754  published  his  chief 
work,  a  "  View  of  the  Principal  Deistical  Writers  that 
have  appeared  in  England  in  the  Last  and  Present  Cen 
tury."  Died  in  1766. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1754,  March,  1755,  and 
June,  1764. 

Leland,  (Joux,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  born  at 
Grafton,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He  published  nume 
rous  sermons,  and  essays  on  various  subjects.  Died  in 
1841. 

Leland,  (THOMAS,)  a  classical  scholar  and  historical 
writer,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1722.  He  took  orders,  and 
became  eminent  as  a  preacher.  In  1756  he  produced 
the  first  volume  of  an  excellent  translation  of  Demos 
thenes'  Orations,  which  was  finished  in  1770.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  oratory  in  Trinity  College  in  1763. 
His  principal  works,  besides  the  above-named,  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon," 
(1758,)  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Principle  of  Human  Elo 
quence,"  (1764,)  and  a  "History  of  Ireland,"  (1773.) 
Died  in  1785. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1758,  and  September  and 
November,  1773. 

Leleux,  leh-luh',  (ADOLPHE,  )  a  popular  French 
painter  of  genre,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Spanish  Smugglers,"  and  "  The  Return 
from  Market,"  (1847.) 

Leleux,  (ARMAXD,)  a  painter  of  genre,  etc.,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Lelewel,  la-la'vel,?  (JOACHIM,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
ner.t  Polish  historians  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Warsaw  in  1786.  He  conspired  with  the  insurgents  at 
Warsaw  against  Constantine  of  Russia  in  November, 


1830,  and  was  proposed  for  dictator;  but  Chlopicki  was 
preferred.  Lelewel  held  several  high  offices  in  the  new 
government  for  a  short  time,  until  the  victories  of  the 
Russians  drove  him  into  exile  in  1831.  After  1833  he 
resided  at  Brussels.  Among  his  most  popular  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Poland,"  (1829,)  a  "  History  of  Poland 
under  Stanislas  Augustus,"  (1831,)  and  "Poland  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  (1846-51.)  He  published  (in  French)  an 
important  work  on  "Mediaeval  Geography,"  (1852,)  and 
various  other  books.  Died  in  1861. 

See  L.  CHODZKO,  "Notice  biographique  stir  J.  Lelewel,"  4th 
edition,  1834. 

Lelli,  lel'lee,  (ERCOLE,)  an  Italian  painter  and  modeller 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  in  1702.  He  excelled  in 
the  art  of  anatomical  preparations.  Died  in  1766. 

Lelong,  leh-loN1',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  priest  and 
bibliographer  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Paris  in  1665, 
was  learned  in  languages  and  literary  history.  He  be 
came  librarian  in  the  Maison  Saint- Honore,  at  Paris. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Bibliotheca  Sacra;  or, 
Syllabus  of  nearly  all  Editions  and  Versions  of  the 
Scriptures,"  (2  vols.,  1709,)  and  "Bibliotheque  historique 
de  la  France,"  (1719,)  containing  a  catalogue  of  works 
which  treat  on  French  history,  with  notes.  An  enlarged 
edition  of  the  latter  was  published  by  Fevret  de  Fon- 
tette,  (5  vols.,  1768-78.)  Died  in  1721. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Le  Lorrain,  leh  k/rax',  (Louis  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
engraver  and  mediocre  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1715; 
died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1760. 

Lelorrain  or  Le  Lorrain,  (RoiiKRT,)  a  French  sculp 
tor,  born  in  Paris  in  1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Girardon.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1701. 
His  works  display  good  talents,  but  are  censured  for 
mannerism.  Died  in  1743. 

Lelut,  li'lii',  (Louis  FKANC.OIS,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Haute-Saone  in  1804.  He  wrote  able  treatises 
on  psychology,  insanity,  etc. 

Le'ly,  (STr  PETER,)  or  Van  der  Faes,  vtn  der  fas,  a 
successful  portrait-painter,  of  Dutch  descent,  was  born 
at  Soest,  in  Westphalia,  in  1617.  He  removed  to  Lon 
don  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  He  excelled  in  the  repre 
sentation  of  female  beauty,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  artists  of  that  time.  After  the  restoration 
in  1660,  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  Charles 
II.,  the  beauties  of  whose  court  were  the  subjects  of 
his  master-pieces.  His  works  are  generally  censured  for 
immodesty.  Died  in  1680. 

See  BRYAN,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  WALPOLE,  "Anecdotes 
of  Painting.1' 

Lemaire,  leh-maV,  (HENRI,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1756.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
French  Gil  Bias,  or  Adventures  of  Henri  Laii9on,"  (3 
vols.,  1792.)  Died  in  1808. 

Lemaire,  leh-maV,  (JACQUES,)  a  Dutch  navigator  and 
merchant,  who  was  director-general  of  a  company  which 
in  1615  sent  an  expedition  to  find  a  new  route  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  He  discovered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name  and  separates  Staten  Land  from  Terra  del 
Fuego,  in  1616,  doubled  Cape  Horn  for  the  first  time, 
and  sailed  to  the  East  Indies.  He  died  at  sea  in  1616. 
C.  Schouten  was  captain  of  the  ship  which  made  this 
voyage. 

See  A.  G.  CHOTIN,  "Notice  sur  J.  Lemaire,  Navigateur." 

Lemaire,  (JEAN,)  a  Belgian  poet  and  historian,  born 
in  Hainault  about  1473.  ^e  entered  the  service  of 
Margaret  of  Austria  as  librarian.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Illustrations  of  the  Gauls,"  ("  Illustrations 
des  Gaules,"  1512.)  Died  about  1548. 

Lemaire,  (NICOLAS  fiLOi,)a  French  classical  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Triancourt  (Mense)  in  1767.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  Latin  poetiy  in  the  Faculty  of 
Letters,  Paris,  in  iSn.  He  composed  Latin  verses  with 
remarkable  facility.  Among  his  productions  is  a  Latin 
"Ode  on  the  Birth  of  the  King  of  Rome,"  (1812.)  He 
acquired  reputation  among  classical  literati  by  the  pub 
lication  of  all  the  best  Latin  authors,  in  154  vols.  8vo, 
under  the  title  of  "  Bibliotheca  Classica  Latina."  This 
is  said  to  be  the  best  collection  of  the  classics  that  exists. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  "  Notice  sur  N.  E.  Lemaire,"  Paris,  1842. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEMA1RE 


1401 


LEMOINE 


Letnaire,  (PHILIPPE  HENRI,)  a  French  sculptor,  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in 
1798.  He  gained  the  first  prize  in  1821,  and  studied  in 
Rome.  His  design  for  the  fronton  or  pediment  of  the 
church  of  Madeleine,  Paris,  was  preferred  in  1836.  This 
vast  composition  is  called  his  capital  work. 

Lemaire,  (  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  )  a  French  classical 
scholar,  a  nephew  of  Nicolas  filoi,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Triancourt  in  1802.  He  edited  Lucan,  Lucre 
tius,  and  other  classic  authors. 

Lemaistre,  leh-mitk',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1608,  was  a  brother  of  Lemaistre  de  Sacy. 
He  acquired  a  great  reputation  by  his  eloquence,  and 
afterwards  retired  to  the  cloister  of  Port-Royal.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Pascal,  and  a  nephew  of  Arnauld  d'Andilly. 
Referring  to  his  published  forensic  speeches,  Hallam 
says,  "  Lemaistre  is  fervid  and  brilliant;  he  hurries  us 
with  him.  Both  Lemaistre  and  Patru  do  great  honour 
to  the  French  bar."  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of 
the  Port-Royal  New  Testament.  Died  in  1658. 

See  Pmui'PE  SIMON  DCPIX,  "Notice  sur  A.  Lemaistre,"  1822; 
VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV:"  FOURNEL,  "Histoire  des  Avo- 
cats;"  u  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lemaistre,  (JEAN,)  a  French  magistrate,  who  in  1591 
was  nominated  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
by  the  chiefs  of  the  League.  At  a  critical  period  in  the 
contest  between  the  League  and  Henry  IV.  he  procured 
a  decree  of  Parliament  in  favour  of  the  latter,  (1593.) 
Died  in  1596. 

Lemaistre  de  Saci  or  Sacy,  1eh-m.\tK'  deh  st'se', 
(ISAAC  Loris,)  a  French  Jansenist  theologian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1613,  was  a  nephew  of  Antoine  Arnauld  le 
Grand.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1650,  and  became 
confessor  or  principal  director  of  the  recluses  of  Port- 
Royal.  He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  two  years,  (1666- 
68,)  during  which  he  made  a  French  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament.  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the 
New  Testament  of  Mons,  (1667,)  which  was  often  re 
printed.  In  consequence  of  renewed  persecution,  he  left  | 
Port-Royal  in  1679.  He  published  French  versions  of  I 
several  works,  among  which  were  the  fourth  and  sixth 
books  of  the  "yEneid."  Died  in  1684. 

See  FONTAINE,  "Memoires  sur  Port-Royal;"  SAINTE-BEUVE, 
"Port-Royal,"  tome  ii.  ;  LELONG,  "  Bibliotheque  sacree;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lemaitre.  leh-m<\tR',(FREDERic,)  a  celebrated  French 
actor,  born  at  Havre  in  1798,  was  called  "the  Talma 
of  the  Boulevards."  He  was  successful  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  and  excelled  in  the  romantic  drama. 

Le'maii,  (Rev.  THOMAS,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1751  ;  died  in  1827. 

Le  Marchant,  leh  mSR'shftN',  (JACQUES,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  born  at  Fumes  in  1537,  wrote  several  works 
on  the  history  of  Flanders.  Died  in  1609. 

Lemare,  leh-mtR',  (PIERRE  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1766,  published 
several  successful  works  on  grammar.  Died  in  1835. 

Lemazurier,  leh-mi' zii're-a',  (PIERRE  DAVID,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Gisors  in  1775;  died  in  1836. 

Lembke,  lemp'keh,  (JOHANN  PHILIPP,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1631,  painted 
battles,  sieges,  and  hunting-scenes  with  success.  He 
was  invited  to  the  court  of  Sweden  by  Charles  XL,  who 
gave  him  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.  Died  in  1721. 

Lemchen.     See  LEMNITS,  (SIMON.) 

Lemerie,  la-ma'na,  (FRANCESCO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Lodi  in  1634.  Me  composed  many  elegant 
Latin  verses,  but  his  principal  poems  were  written  in  the 
Italian  language.  He  had  a  rich  and  poetic  imagination, 
and  contributed  much  to  reform  the  poetry  of  his  country. 
Died  in  1704. 

See  TOMMASO  CEVA,  "  Memorie  di  alcune  Virtu  del  Signor 
Conte  F.  di  Lemecie,"  1706;  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana." 

Lemens,  van,  vfn  la'mens,  (BALTHASAR,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1637,  worked  in 
London.  Died  in  1704. 

Lemercier,  leh-meR'se-i',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  at  Pontoise  about  1600.  By  order  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  he  built  about  1635  the  church  of  the  Sor- 
bonne  at  Paris,  and  the  Chateau  Richelieu.  He  obtained 
the  title  of  chief  architect  to  the  king.  Among  his  most 


admired  works  are   the  church  of  the  Annonciade   at 
Tours,  and  that  of  Saint-Koch  in  Paris.     Died  in  1660. 

See  FONTENAY,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  "Xouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale  ;"  QUATKEMERE  DE  QUINCY,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres 
Architectes." 

Lemercier,  (Louis  JEAN  NEPOMUCENE,)  a  popular 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris,  April  21, 
1771.  He  was  a  republican  in  the  Revolution  and 
through  all  the  changes  which  followed.  His  tragedy 
of  "Agamemnon,"  m  verse,  (1797,)  procured  for  him 
a  triumph  of  which  the  annals  of  the  theatre  offer  few 
examples.  He  afterwards  produced  "Ophis,"  "Louis 
XL,"  (1821,)  and  other  successful  tragedies.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1810.  He 
wrote  a  poem  entitled  "The  French  Ages,"  (1803,)  and 
many  other  works.  Talleyrand  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  Lemercier  conversed  better  than  any  other  man  in 
France.  Died  in  1840.  " 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lemery,  lam're',  (Louis,)  a  skilful  physician  and 
chemist,  a  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1677.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  for  which  he  wrote  many  memoirs.  For  thirty- 
three  years  he  was  physician  to  the  Hotel-Dieu,  Paris. 
Died  in  1743. 

Lemery,  (NICOLAS,)  M.D.,  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1645,  was  educated  a  Protestant.  In  1672 
he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  lectured  on  chemistry  with 
eclat,  and  published  a  "Course  of  Chemistry,"  ("Cours 
de  Chimie,"  1675,)  which  was  very  successful.  It  was 
often  reprinted,  and  was  translated  into  many  languages. 
After  suffering  much  persecution  for  religion,  he  abjured 
Calvinism  in  1686.  He  was  received  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1699.  Died  in  1715. 

See  PAUL  ANTOINE  CAP,  "  Lloge  de  X.  Lemery,"  if.iS;  J.  TON- 
NET,  "  Xotice  sur  X.  Lemery,"  1^44:  FONTENELI.E,  '•  FJloge  de  N. 
Lemery,"  1715;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lemierre,  leh-me-aiR',  (ANTOINE  MARIN,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1723.  He  produced 
in  1758  "  Hypermnestre,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  com 
pletely  successful.  His  tragedies  "\Villiam  Tell"  (1766) 
and  "The  Widow  of  Malabar"  (1770)  were  often  per 
formed  with  applause.  He  composed  a  poem  on  Painting, 
(1769,)  which  contains  several  fine  passages.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1781.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  PEKRIN,  "  Notice  de  Lemierre,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
works,  Paris,  3  vols.,  1810;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemire,  leh-meR'  or  leh-meeR',  [  Lat.  MIR/E'US,  ] 
(AuitERT,)  a  Flemish  compiler,  born  at  Brussels  in  1573. 
He  studied  for  the  clerical  profession,  and  became  vicar- 
general  at  Antwerp  in  1624.  He  published,  besides  other 
Latin  works,  "Eulogies  of  Eminent  Belgian  Authors," 
(1602,)  and  "Annals  of  Belgium,"  ("Rerum  Belgicarum 
Annales,"  1624.)  Died  in  1640. 

See  NIC^RON,  "Memoires;"  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Lemire,  leh-meR',  (NoEi.,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1724,  was  a  pupil  of  Lebas.  He  engraved 
landscapes,  portraits,  etc.,  and  excelled  in  vignettes. 
"The  Partition  of  Poland"  (designed  and  engraved  by 
him)  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  in  1801. 

Lemrnens.     See  LEMNIUS. 

Lemnius,  lem'ne-us,  or  Lemmens,  lem'me'ns,  (LiE- 
VIN,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  philosopher,  born  at  Zierikzee 
in  1505.  He  practised  in  his  native  place,  and  acquired 
a  European  reputation  by  his  skill.  He  wrote,  in  elegant 
Latin,  "  De  occultis  Naturae  Miraculis,"  ("The  Secret 
Wonders  of  Nature,"  1559,)  and  other  scientific  or  moral 
works,  which  were  very  successful.  Died  in  1568. 

See  HARDERWIJCK,  "Jets  over  L.  Lemnius,"  1843;  M.  ADAM, 
"Vita;  Medicorum  Germanorum." 

Lemnius,  le'm'ne-us,  (SIMON,)  a  Swiss  poet,  whose 
proper  name  was  Lemchen,  (l£m'Ken,)  was  born  in  the 
Grisons.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  whence  he  was 
banished  by  the  influence  of  Luther  or  Melanchthon 
about  15^8,  probably  on  account  of  his  writings.  He 
published  Latin  epigrams  and  other  verses.  Died  in  1550. 

Lemoiiie,  leh-mwan',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  officer,  a 
brother  of  DTberville,  was  born  at  Montreal  in  1683.  He 
became  Governor  of  Cayenne,  where  he  died  about  1730. 
(See  IBERVILLE,  D'.) 


«  ask;  9  ass;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEMOINE 


1402 


LEN4U 


Lemoine  or  Lemoyiie,  leh-mwan',  (CHARLES,)  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1656,  at  Montreal, 
of  which  he  afterwards  became  governor.  Died  in  1729. 

Lemoiiie  or  Lemoyne,  (firiENNE,)  a  French  Prot 
estant  divine  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Caen  in  1624, 
wrote  "Varia  Sacra."  Died  in  1689. 

Lemoine,  (FRANCOIS,)  an  eminent  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  pupil  of  Galloche. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1718,  in 
consideration  of  his  "  Hercules  and  Cacus."  He  made 
a  short  visit  to  Italy  in  1723,  and  at  his  return  was  chosen 
professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy.  His  master 
piece  is  "The  Apotheosis  of  Hercules,"  (1736,)  an  oil- 
painting,  which  adorns  a  ceiling  in  the  palace  of  Ver 
sailles,  and  is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  Europe,  (64  feet 
by  54.)  He  excelled  in  composition,  and  had  probably 
a  higher  reputation  than  any  French  painter  of  his  time  ; 


was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1736,  and  assisted  Mau- 
pertuis  and  Clairaut  in  measuring  a  degree  of  the  me 
ridian  at  Tornea,  within  the  polar  circle,  in  1736-37.  In 
I746he  ascertained  the  inequalities  of  Saturn  caused  by 
the  attraction  of  Jupiter,  and  in  1748,  during  an  eclipse, 
measured  the  diameter  of  the  moon  on  the  disc  of  the 
sun.  He  was  for  many  years  a  professor  of  physics 
in  the  College  of  France.  lie  published  "  Histoire  ce 
leste,"  (1741,)  "Astronomic  Institutes,"  ("Institutions 
astronomiques,"  1746,)  a  good  elementary  work  on 
astronomy,  "Nautical  Astronomy,"  (1771,)  and  other 
treatises  on  astronomy,  navigation,  etc.  Died  in  1799. 
See  LALANDE,"  Bibliographic ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 
Lemontey,  leh-mc-N'ti',  (PIERRE  EDOUARD,)  an  able 
French  historical  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1762.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 


but  his  design  wasjncorrect.  ^  In  1736  he  became  first  j  I79I.     During  the  empire  he  gained  the  confidence  of 

1  Napoleon,  who  ordered  him  to  write  the  "  History  of 
France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century."  He  published  in 
1818  an  "Essay  on  the  Monarchical  System  ( '  Etablisse- 


painter  to  the  king,  and  in  the  next  year  committed 
suicide. 

See  BRVAN,  "Dictionary  of  Painters. 

Lemoine,  (JEAN,)  a  French  cardinal  and  canonist, 
born  at  Crecy.  He  founded  in  Paris  the  college  which 
bears  his  name.  Died  in  1313. 

Lemoine,  (JOSEPH,)  brother  of  Charles,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Montreal  in  1668.  In  1719  he  took  Pen- 
sacola  from  the  Spaniards.  Died  in  France  in  1734. 

Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  (PIERRE.)  a  French  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  at  Chaumont,  in  Bassigny,  in  1602.  He 
took  part  in  the  dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jan- 
senists.  His  principal  work  is  a  bombastic  epic  poem  en 
titled  "  Saint  Louis,  or  the  Holy  Crown  recovered  from 
the  Infidels,"  (1653,)  which  obtained  little  favour  with 
the  public.  His  "Devotion  Made  Easy" ("La  Devotion 
aisee,"  1652)  was  criticised  by  Pascal  in  the  eleventh  of 
his  "  Provincial  Letters."  Died  in  1671. 

Lemoine,  (SAUVOLI.E,)  brother  of  Joseph,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Montreal  about  1671.  He  accom 
panied  his  brother  D'Iberville  on  his  western  expedition, 
and  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  governor  of  the 
colony  of  Louisiana  in  1699.  Died  in  1701. 

Lemoine  d'Iberville.     See  IHERVIU.K,  n'. 

Lem'pn,  (GEORGE  WILLIAM,)  an  English  gramma 
rian,  born  in  1726.  He  published  an  "Etymological 
English  Dictionary."  Died  in  1797. 

Lemon,  (MARK,)  an  English  dramatist,  humorist, 
and  editor,  born  in  London  in  1809.  lie  produced  a 
large  number  of  farces,  melo-dramas,  etc.,  among  which 
are  "The  Serious  Family"  and  "The  Ladies'  Club." 
Several  of  his  plays  are  quite  popular.  He  became 
editor  of  the  London  "Punch"  soon  after  its  first  pub 
lication,  and  literary  editor  of  the  "Illustrated  London 
News."  Died  in  May,  1870. 

Lemonnier,  leh-mo'ne-S/,  (ANICET  CHARLES  GA 
BRIEL,)  a  French  painter,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1743. 
Among  his  works  are  "Cleombrotus"  and  the  "Death 
of  Antony."  Died  in  1824. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lemonnier,  (GUILLAUME  ANTOINE,)  a  French  abbe 
and  litterateur,  born  in  1721,  produced  French  trans 
lations  of  Terence  and  Perseus,  and  wrote  a  volume  of 
"Fables  and  Tales."  Died  in  1797. 

Lemonnier  or  Le  Monnier,  (Louis  GUILLAUME,) 
a  French  physician  and  botanist,  born  in  1717,  was  a 
brother  of  Pierre  Charles,  noticed  below.  He  succeeded 
Bernard  Jussieu  as  professor  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi  in  1777,  and  received  the  title  of  first  physician  to 
the  king  about  1780.  He  was  for  some  time  chief  phy 
sician  of  the  army.  He  rendered  considerable  service 
to  the  science  of  botany,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
which  were  inserted  in  the  collection  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Died  in  1799. 

See  CHALLAN,  "  Essai  historique  surlaVie  de  L.  G.  Lemonnier," 
1800. 

Le  Monnier,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
in  Normandy  in  1675.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  the  College  of  Harcourt,  and  published  a  work  called 
"  Course  of  Philosophy,"  ("  Cursus  Philosophiae,"  6  vols., 
1750.)  Died  in  1757. 

Lemomiier  or  Le  Monnier,  (PIERRE  CHARLES,)  a 
distinguished  French  astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  1715, 


Sy* 

tucnt)  of  Louis  XIV.,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  French 

Academy  in  1819.  Died  in  1826.  In  1832  appeared  his 
"History  of  the  Regency  and  the  Minority  of  Louis 
XV.,"  a  part  of  his  unfinished  "  History  of  France." 

See  VILI.EMAIN,  "Discours  prononc.5  aux  Fune'railles  de  Lemon 
tey;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  PASSERON,  "Notice  snr 
Lemontey." 

Lemos,  Ia'm6s,  (ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  theologian,  born 
in  Galicia,  was  professor  at  Valladolicl  in  1594  when  the 
Thomists  and  Molinists  began  a  controversy  about  grace. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  favour  of  the  former,  and 
wrote  many  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "  Panoply 
of  Grace,"  ("  Panoplia  Gratia?,"  1676.)  Died  in  1629. 

Lemos,  de,  da  la'mos,  (Don  PEDRO  FERNANDEZ  DE 
CASTRO,)  COUNT,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Madrid 
about  1564.  He  became  president  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies  in  1603,  and  Viceroy  of  Naples  about  1610.  He 
was  a  patron  of  Cervantes.  Died  in  1634. 

Lemot,  leh-iiH/,  (FRA.xgois  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Lyons  in  1773.  Having  gained  the 
grand  prize  about  1790,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 
He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  was  chosen  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Institute.  Among  his  admired  works  are 
statues  of  Henry  IV.,  Lycurgus,  Leonidas,  Brutus,  and 
Cicero.  Died  in  1827. 

See  J.  S.  PASSERON,  "  Notice  sur  Lemot." 

Lemoyne.     See  LEMOINE. 

Lemoyne,  leh-mwfn',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1704;  died  in  1778. 

Lemoyne,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  MOYNE,)  a  French  com 
poser,  born  in  Perigord  in  1751.  He  composed  "  Phedre," 
(1786,)  and  other  successful  operas.  The  poem  of 
"Phedre"  was  written  by  Hoffman.  Died  in  1796. 

L'Empereur.     See  EMPEKKUK,  L'. 

Lempriere,  lem'pre-er  or  lem-preer',  (JoiiN,)  D.D., 
a  teacher  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of 
Jersey  about  1760.  He  published  in  1788  an  excellent 
classical  dictionary,  which  has  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity 
and  is  still  in  extensive  use.  After  acting  as  master  of 
the  grammar-school  at  Exeter,  he  obtained  the  rectory 
of  Meeth,  in  Devonshire,  about  1811.  He  also  pub 
lished  a  "Universal  Biography,"  (1808.)  Died  in  1824. 

Lem'u-res,  [Fr.  LEMUKES,  la'miiR',]  a  name  applied 
by  the  ancient  Romans  to  spectres  or  departed  spirits, 
which,  as  they  believed,  returned  to  the  world.  If  benefi 
cent,  they  were  called  Lares;  and  if  malign,  Lan'tE. 
Some  authors,  however,  considered  the  Lemures  and 
Larvas  as  identical.  To  propitiate  them  or  counteract 
their  influence,  solemn  rites  were  annually  performed. 

Lenaeus,  le-nee'us,  (PoMi'Eius,)  a  grammarian,  born 
at  Athens,  lived  about  50  n.c.  He  was  once  a  slave  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  who  liberated  him.  He  defended 
Pompey  against  the  charges  of  Sallust. 

Lenain.     See  TILLEMONT. 

Lenau,  la'now,  (NIKOI.AUS,)  an  eminent  poet,  born 
in  Hungary,  August  15,  1802.  His  family  name  in  full 
was  NIEMBSCH  VON  STREHLENAU,  (neempsh  fon  stRa'- 
leh-now'.)  After  he  left  the  University  of  Vienna  he 
studied  law,  medicine,  and  natural  sciences,  and  visited 
the  United  States  in  1832.  He  produced  about  1832  a 


e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LENCLOS 


H°3 


LENOIR 


collection  of  lyric  poems  in  German,  which  had  great 
success.  He  also  wrote  several  epic  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Albigenses,"  ("  Die  Albigenser,"  1841.) 
He  is  ranked  by  the  "Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale" 
among  the  first  lyric  poets  of  Germany.  Died  in  1850. 

See  UFFO  HORN,  "  N.  Lenan.  seine  Ansichten  und  Tendenzen," 
1838  ;  THEODOR  OPITZ,  "  N.  Lenau  ;  ausfiihrliclie  Characteristik 
des  Dichters,"  1850;  L.  A.  FRANKL,  "  Zu  Lenau's  Biographie," 
1854- 

Lenclos  or  L'Enclos,  de,  deh  15N'klo',  (ANNE  ; 
commonly  called  NINON,)  a  French  courtesan,  celebrated 
for  her  wit  and  beauty,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1616.  She 
was  courted  by  many  men  of  high  rank  and  of  eminent 
talents,  with  whom  she  formed  liaisons.  Among  her 
female  friends  were  Madame  de  Maintenon  and  Madame 
de  La  Fayette.  She  was  never  married.  It  appears  that 
venality  was  not  one  of  her  vices.  Her  letters  are 
marked  by  an  elegant  simplicity  of  style.  Moliere  is 
said  to  have  had  such  a  high  opinion  of  her  literary 
taste  that  he  often  consulted  her.  Died  in  1706. 

See  BRET,  "  Memoire  sur  Ninon  de  L'Enclos,"  1750;  GUYON  DE 
SARDIERE,  "  Vie  de  Ninon  de  L'Enclos;"  L.  DAMOUKS,  "  Lettres 
de  Ninon  de  Lenclos  an  Marquis  de  Sevigne,  au;>nientees  desa  Vie," 
2  vols.,  1752,  (translated  into  English,  London,  1761.) 

Lenet,  leh-ni',  (PIERRE,')  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Dijon,  was  devoted  to  the  Prince  of  Conde  during  the 
war  of  the  Fronde.  He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Civil 
War  which  began  in  1649,"  (2  vols.,  1729.)  Died  in  1671. 

Le  Neve,  leh-neev',  (JoHN,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  about  1679.  He  published  "  Fasti  Ecclesiaa  Angli- 
canoe."  Died  about  1740. 

Le  Neve,  (PETER,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1662,  became  Norroy  king-at-arms.  Died  in  1729. 

Lenfaiit,  IdN'fdN*',  (ALEXANDRE  CHARLES  ANNE,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  eminent  as  a  preacher,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1726.  He  preached  in  Paris  and  other  cities,  and 
was  reputed  one  of  the  most  eloquent  pulpit  orators  of 
his  time.  He  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  massacre 
in  Paris  in  September,  1792. 

Lenfant,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  of 
great  merit,  born  at  Bazoche  in  1661.  He  was  educated 
at  Saumur  and  Geneva,  and  in  1689  removed  to  Berlin, 
where  he  preached  forty  years.  About  1705  he  became 
chaplain  to  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  and  in  1724 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  valuable  works,  among  which 
are  a  "History  of  the  Council  of  Constance,"  (2  vols., 
1714,)  a  "  Preventive  against  Reunion  with  the  See  of 
Rome,"  (1723,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Hussites  and  of  the  Council  of  Basle,"  (2  vols.,  1731.) 
In  partnership  with  Beausobre,  he  produced  a  French 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  notes  and  a 
learned  introduction  by  Lenfant,  (1718.)  Died  in  1728. 
His  histories  are  admitted  to  be  impartial  and  moderate. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Leng,  (JoHN,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at  Norwich 
in  1665.  He  became  chaplain  to  George  I.,  who  ap 
pointed  him  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1723.  He  pub 
lished  "The  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  (1695,)  and  a 
good  edition  of  Terence,  (1701.)  Died  in  1727. 

Leiigard.     See  LENNARD. 

Leugerke,  von,  fon  leng'er-keh,  (ALEXANDER,)  a 
celebrated  agricultural  writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1802. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  the  "Agricultural  Con 
versations-Lexicon,"  (4  vols.,  1835-38.)  Died  in  1853. 

Lengerke,  von,  (CXsAK, )  a  learned  theologian, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1803. 
His  principal  works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Prophet 
Daniel  and  the  Psalms." 

Lenglet-Dufresnoy,  lox'gli'  dii'fRi'nwa',  (NICOLAS,) 
a  French  abbe,  noted  as  a  voluminous  and  sarcastic  writer, 
was  born  at  Beauvais  (Oise)  in  1674.  He  was  several 
times  confined  in  the  Bastille  for  his  freedom  or  impru 
dence  as  a  writer.  He  displayed  great  erudition  in  his 
numerous  works,  which  are  chiefly  historical.  Among 
his  most  important  works  are  "Method  for  the  Study 
of  History"  (2  vols.,  1713)  and  "Method  for  the  Study 
of  Geography,"  (4  vols.,  1716.)  He  also  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Hermetic  Philosophy,"  (3  vols.,  1742,)  and 
edited  the  works  of  various  authors.  Died  in  1755. 

See  MICHAULT,  "  Memoire  de  Lenglet-Dnfresnoy,"  1761  ;  Qci- 
RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Lengnich,  le'ng'niK,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  Prussian  his 
torian  and  publicist,  born  at  Dantzic  about  1690.  He 
published  a  "History  of  Polish  Prussia  from  1526  to 
1748,"  (9  vols.,  1723-48,)  "The  Public  Law  of  Poland," 
(1742,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1774. 

Lengnich,  (KARL  BENJAMIN,)  a  German  numismatist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1742  ;  died  in  1/95. 

Lenhossek,  de,  deh  le'n-hosh'e'k,  ?  (MICHAEL,)  a 
Hungarian  physician,  born  at  Presburg  in  1773.  lie 
obtained  the  title  of  first  physician  of  Hungary,  and 
published  many  able  professional  works.  Died  in  1840. 

Len'nard  or  Lengard,  Igng'garcl,  (SAMPSON,)  an 
English  antiquary,  who  fought  under  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
at  Zutphen.  He  translated  from  the  French  Charron's 
"  La  Sagesse,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1633. 

Leniie,  li'na',  (PETER  JOSEPH,)  born  at  Bonn  in  1789, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  throughout  Germany  for  his 
skill  and  taste  in  landscape-gardening. 

Lennep,  van,  vin  lei/nep,  (DAVID  JACOB,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1774.  He 
became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Leyden,  and  was 
eminent  as  a  classical  scholar.  He  wrote  philological 
essays  and  elegant  verses,  and  published  editions  of 
Hesiod  and  of  Ovid.  Died  in  1853. 

See  KOENEN,  "  Lijkrede  op  D.  J.  van  Lennep,"  1853. 

Lennep,  van,  (JACOB,)  a  celebrated  novelist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1802.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  the  law,  in  which  he  attained 
eminence.  Among  his  early  productions  are  poems 
entitled  "National  Legends,"  (" Vaderlandsche  Legen- 
den.")  In  1830  he  produced  "The  Village  on  the 
Frontier,"  a  political  farce,  which  had  immense  success. 
He  published  many  popular  novels,  among  which  are 
"Our  Forefathers,"  ("  Onze  Voorouders,")  and  "The 
Rose  of  Dekama."  He  translated  into  Dutch  some  plays 
of  Shakspeare,  and  poems  of  Byron  and  Tennyson.  He 
is  often  called  "  the  Walter  Scott  of  Holland." 

Lennep,  van,  (JAN  DANIEL,)  a  Dutch  linguist  and 
critic,  born  at  Leeu warden  in  1724.  He  was  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Groningen  from  1752  to  1768.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  a  work  "  On  the  Analogy 
of  the  Greek  Language,"  and  by  his  "Etymology  of  the 
Greek  Language,"  ("  Etymologicum  Linguae  Grascae,") 
(published  by  Scheide,  2  vols.,  1790.)  Died  in  1771. 

See  SAX,  "Onomasticon." 

Lenngren,  len'gRen,(  ANNA  MARIA,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
originally  named  Malmstedt,  (malm'ste"!,)  born  at  Upsal 
in  1754,  was  the  author  of  poems  of  a  humorous  character. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Len'npx,  (CHARLOTTE,)  an  ingenious  authoress,  born 
at  New  York  in  1720,  was  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Ram 
say,  lieutenant-governor  of  that  place.  She  went  to  Eng 
land  in  her  youth,  and  appears  to  have  been  dependent 
on  her  literary  talents  for  support  before  and  after  her 
marriage  with  Mr.  Lennox.  She  wrote  "The  Female 
Quixote,"  (1752,)  "  Henrietta,"  a  successful  novel,  (1758,) 
and  other  works  of  fiction.  In  1753  she  published 
"Shakspeare  Illustrated,"  a  collection  of  tales  on  which 
the  plays  of  that  dramatist  are  founded,  translated  from 
various  languages.  She  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  who  expressed  a  high  opinion  of  her  works. 
Died  in  1804. 

Lenoble,  leh-nobl',  (EUSTACHE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Troves  in  1643.  He  wrote  many  works  in  prison, 
where  he  was  confined  for  forgery,  and  acquired  some 
popularity  as  a  gay,  sprightly  writer.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Political  Dialogues,"  (1690,)  and  "The  School  of  the 
World."  Died  in  1711. 

Lenoir,  leh-nwaR',  (ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  In  the  Revolution  he 
saved  from  destruction  many  monuments  and  works  of 
art  found  in  convents  and  churches.  He  was  chosen 
keeper  (administratfiir)  of  the  Museum  of  French  Monu 
ments  in  1801.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  Painting  on  Glass,"  (1804,)  and  a  "History 
of  the  Arts  in  France  proved  by  Monuments,"  (1810,) 
Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lenoir,  (ALEXANDRE  ALBERT,)  an  architect,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  was 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanatiens,  p.  23.  ) 


LENOIR 


1404 


LEO 


architect  of  the  museum  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Palais  des  Thermes  with  the  Hotel  de  Cluny. 

Leiioir,  (firiKNNF.,)  a  Frenchman  distinguished  for 
his  skill  in  the  fabrication  of  astronomical  and  mathe 
matical  instruments,  was  born  at  Mer  in  1744.  He  fur 
nished  the  instruments  for  the  expeditions  of  La  Perouse 
and  Baudin,  and  those  used  by  the  savants  whom  Bona 
parte  took  to  Egypt  in  1798.  Died  in  1832. 

Leiioir,  (NICOLAS,)  called  LK  ROM  AIM,  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  was  employed  as  an 
architect  by  Voltaire  at  Ferney.  Died  in  1810. 

Lenormand,  leh-noR'mS.N',  (MARIE  ANNE  ADE 
LAIDE,)  a  French  fortune-teller,  born  at  Alen£on  in  1772. 
She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Em 
press  Josephine,"  (1829,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
English.  Died  in  1843. 

See  F.  GIRAULT,  "  Mademoiselle  Le  Normand,  sa  Biographic,  ses 
Predictions,"  etc.,  1843. 

Lenormant,  leli-noii'mSN',  (CHARLES,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  lie  accompanied 
Champollion  to  Egypt  in  1828,  and  was  chosen  a  substi 
tute  of  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  Paris  in  1835. 
He  wrote  an  "  Introduction  to  Oriental  History,"  (1838,) 
and  other  works. 

Lenotre,  leh-notR',  (ANDRE,)  a  French  architect  and 
designer  of  the  royal  gardens,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1613. 
He  displayed  his  inventive  genius  in  adorning  the  park 
and  garden  of  Versailles  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  designed 
or  embellished  other  royal  gardens  at  Chantilly,  Saint- 
Cloud,  and  the  Tuileries.  In  1675  the  king  granted 
him  letters  of  nobility.  Died  in  1700.  "The  gardens 
of  the  Tuileries  and  of  Versailles,"  says  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  "  will  always  be  the  master-pieces  of  the 
style  invented  by  Lenotre." 

See,  also,  MOKEKI,  "Dlctionnaire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  GeneVale." 

Lenourry,  leh-noo're',  (DEN  is  NICOLAS,)  a  learned 
French  monk,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1647.  He  devoted 
many  years  to  a  work  entitled  "Apparatus  ad  Bibliothe- 
cam  maximam  Patrum  Veterum,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1694-97,) 
which  contains  critical  dissertations  on  the  works  of  the 
Fathers.  Died  in  1724. 

Lgn'ox,  (MATTHEW  STUART,)  EARL  OF,  a  Scottish 
nobleman,  was  the  father  of  Lord  Darnley.  In  1544  he 
was  driven  out  of  Scotland  by  the  hostility  of  the  regent 
Arran,  and  went  to  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  gave 
him  his  niece  Margaret  Douglas  in  marriage.  lie  was 
invited  to  return  to  Scotland  with  his  son  in  1564.  In 
1570  he  was  chosen  Regent  of  Scotland  by  the  party 
which  was  hostile  to  Queen  Mary.  Her  partisans  sur 
prised  him  at  Stirling  in  1572,  and,  perceiving  that  his 
friends  were  likely  to  rescue  him,  instantly  put  him  to 
death. 

See  ROBERTSON,  "History  of  Scotland." 

Lens,  Igns  or  ION,  (ANDREAS  CORNELIS,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1739.  He  worked  in  Brus 
sels,  and  painted  history  and  portraits.  He  excelled  in 
design,  colouring,  and  chiaroscuro.  Died  in  1822. 

See  DE  STASSART,  "A.  C.  Lens,"  1846. 

Lens,  (BERNARD,)-  a  Belgian  painter  and  engraver, 
excelled  in  miniature.  He  became  court  painter  to 
George  II.  of  England.  Died  in  1741. 

Lenstrbm  orLenstroem,  leVstrdm,  (KARL  JULIUS,) 
a  Swedish  writer,  born  at  Gefle  in  1811.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  his  native  place,  and  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Theories 
of  Art,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  and  a  "History  of  Swedish 
Poetry,"  (1840.) 

Leiithal  or  Lenthall,  Ignt'al,  ?  (WILLIAM,)  an  English 
statesman  and  lawyer,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1591.  He 
was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1639,  and  in  1640  was 
chosen  Speaker  of  the  Commons  by  the  popular  or  re 
publican  party.  When  the  king  attempted  to  arrest 
Hampden,  and  four  other  members,  in  the  House,  and 
asked  Lenthal  if  they  were  present,  he  prudently  re 
plied,  "  I  have  neither  eyes  to  see  nor  tongue  to  speak 
in  this  place,  but  as  the  House,  whose  servant  I  am,  is 
pleased  to  direct  me."  In  1653  he  ceased  to  be  Speaker, 
the  Parliament  having  been  violently  dissolved  by  Crom 
well,  but  was  elected  by  the  new  House  to  the  same 


office  in  1654.  He  also  acted  as  Speaker  for  a  short 
time  in  1660,  before  Charles  II.  was  restored.  Died  in 
1682,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1662. 

See  HUMK,  "History  of  England;"  CLARENDON,  "History  of 
the  Rebe  lion." 

Leii'tu-lus,  the  name  of  a  noble  Roman  family,  a 
branch  of  the  gens  Cornelia,  which  produced  several 
distinguished  men.  PUISLIUS  CORNELIUS  LENTULUS 
SURA,  a  man  of  corrupt  character  but  popular  manners, 
was  chosen  consul  in  73  B.C.,  and  was  afterwards  ex 
pelled  from  the  senate  for  some  misconduct.  He  was 
an  accomplice  in  Catiline's  conspiracy,  and  was  per 
suaded  by  the  soothsayers  that  he  was  the  third  member 
of  the  Cornelia  gens  destined  by  the  fates  to  have  the 
chief  power  in  Rome.  By  the  orders  of  Cicero  and  the 
senate,  he  was  put  to  death  in  62  B.C. 

P.  CORNELIUS  LENTULUS  SI-INTHER  was  consul  in 
57  B.C.,  when  he  promoted  the  recall  of  Cicero.  In  the 
civil  war  he  took  arms  for  Pompey,  was  made  prisoner 
and  liberated  by  Caesar,  but  fought  for  Pompey  at  Phar- 
salia,  and  fled  to  Rhodes.  Nothing  further  is  known 
respecting  him. 

Lentulus,  len'too-lus,  (CviUACUs,)  a  German  publi 
cist,  born  at  Elbingen  about  1620.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
"Arcana  of  Kingdoms  and  Republics,"  (1653,)  and  "  The 
Absolute  Prince,"  (1663,)  which,  with  his  other  works, 
form  an  ample  commentary  on  Tacitus.  Died  in  1678. 

Lenz,  lents,  (HEINRICH  FRIEDRICH  EMIL,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Dorpat  in  1804.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters 
burg  in  1834,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  medicine 
at  the  university  in  that  city,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  the  imperial  princes. 

Lena,  (JAKOB  MICHAEL  REINHOLD,)  a  German  poet 
and  intimate  friend  of  Goethe,  born  in  Livonia  in  1750. 
He  became  insane  in  consequence  of  an  unrequited 

Eassion  for  Frederica  Brion,  who  has  been  celebrated 
y  Goethe.     He  wrote  several  comedies.     Died  in  1792. 

See  A.  STOBER,  "  Der  Dichter  Lenz  und  Friederike  von  Sesen- 
heim,"  1842. 

Lenz,  (KARL  GOTTHOLD,)  a  German  philologist  and 
writer,  born  at  Gera  in  1763  ;  died  at  Gotha  in  1809. 

Lenz,  (SAMUEL,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Stendal 
in  1686;  died  about  1760. 

See  HUCH,  "  S.  Lenz's  Leben,"  1758. 

Le'o  [Fr.  LEON,  la'oN'j  I,  Fla'vi-us,  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  was  a  native  of  Thrace.  At  the  death  of 
Marcianus,  in  457  A.D.,  he  held  a  high  rank  in  the  army, 
by  which  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  through  the  influ 
ence  of  Aspar,  who  designed  to  make  him  only  a  nominal 
monarch.  Having  gained  a  victory  over  the  Huns,  he 
sent  an  expedition  against  Gensericin  Africa,  which  was 
unsuccessful.  He  is  represented  as  an  able  ruler.  He 
died  in  474  A.IX,  having  named  as  his  successor  his 
grandson,  Leo,  an  infant,  who  died  after  a  nominal  reign 
of  a  few  months.  Zeno,  the  father  of  Leo  II.,  then  began 
to  reign. 

SeeGiBHON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  LE  BEAU, 
"Histoire  du  Bas  Empire,"  edited  by  SAINT-MARTIN. 

Leo  II.,  born  about  47OA.D.,  succeeded  Leo  I.  511474, 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Leo  III,  called  ISAU'RICUS,  one  of  the  most  able 
emperors  of  the  East,  was  born  in  Isauria,  of  obscure 
parentage.  In  the  army  of  Justinian  II.  he  rose  to  the 
highest  rank.  When  Anastasius  II.  was  dethroned,  in 
716  A.D.,  Leo  and  Theodosius  aspired  to  succeed  ;  and 
the  former  prevailed  in  717.  The  first  important  event 
of  his  reign  was  his  great  victory  over  the  Saracens,  who 
had  besieged  Constantinople  for  two  years,  (718-19.) 
The  prosperity  of  his  reign  was  soon  blasted  by  a  dis 
pute  about  the  use  of  images,  which  Leo  prohibited 
in  727,  and  which  the  Greek  patriarch  and  the  pope 
defended.  Thus  began  the  schism  of  the  Iconoclasts, 
which  convulsed  the  empire  with  persecutions,  revolts, 
and  great  calamities  to  the  end  of  his  reign,  and  caused 
the  final  separation  of  the  Latin  from  the  Greek  Church. 
He  died  in  741  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Constantine  Copronymus. 

See  GIBBON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  LE  BEAU, 
"Histoire  du  Bas-Empire ;"  THEOPHANES,  "History;"  "Nouvelle 
.Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m?t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LEO 


1405 


LEO 


Leo  IV.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  born  in  751 
A. ix,  was  the  son  of  Constantine  Copronymus,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  775.  His  wife  was  the  ambitious  Irene. 
He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast,  and  is  charged  with  perse 
cuting  the  orthodox  or  image-worshippers.  He  died  in 
780,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  minor  son,  Constantine  VI. 

See  CEDRENUS,  "  History." 

Leo  V.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  is  called  THE  ARMENIAN, 
because  his  father  was  a  native  of  Armenia.  Supported 
by  the  army,  which  he  had  corrupted,  he  rebelled  against 
Michael  Rangabe,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  813  A.I). 
He  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  who  invaded  his  dominions, 
in  814.  He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast,  and  violently  per 
secuted  the  image-worshippers,  who  appear  to  have  been 
the  majority.  He  was  assassinated  in  820  A. I).,  and 
Michael  the  Stammerer  became  emperor. 

See  GIBBON,  "  Dec'ine  and  Fall  of  ihe  Roman  Empire." 

Leo  VI.,  surnamed  THE  PHILOSOPHER,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  born  in  865  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Basilius  the 
Macedonian,  whom  he  succeeded  in  886.  He  exiled  the 
patriarch  Photius.  His  empire  was  invaded  by  the  Sara 
cens,  who  gained  several  victories.  After  a  weak  and 
inglorious  reign,  he  died  in  911,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  Leo  was  more 
successful  as  an  author  than  as  a  ruler.  He  wrote  an 
esteemed  treatise  on  Tactics,  a  poem  on  the  desolation 
of  Greece,  moral  discourses,  and  other  works. 

See  GIBBON%  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  LE 
BEAU,  "  Histoiredu  Has- Empire  ;"  FABRICIUS,"  KibliothecaGraca." 

Le'o[Fr.  LEON,  la'oN';  It.  LEONE,  li-o'ni;  Sp.  LEON, 
la-on';  Port.  LEAO,  la-owN']  I.,  POPE,  called  THE 
GREAT,  an  ambitious  and  able  pontiff,  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of  that  see  in  440  A.D.,  as 
successor  to  Sixtus  III.  His  talents  and  learning  had 
been  approved  in  several  important  missions.  In  445 
he  reversed  the  decision  of  Hilaire,  (Hilarius,)  a  French 
bishop,  on  a  question  of  discipline.  It  was  the  con 
stant  aim  of  his  policy  to  promote  the  supremacy  of  the 
Bishops  of  Rome.  He  pronounced  against  the  heresy 
of  Eutyches,  which  was  condemned  in  the  oecumenic 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  Tradition  informs  us  that 
Attila,  marching  against  Rome  in  452,  was  persuaded 
by  the  prayers  of  Leo  to  spare  that  city.  He  failed 
to  prevent  the  pillage  of  Rome  by  the  Vandal  king 
Genseric  in  455.  He  died  in  461  A.D.,  leaving  many 
sermons  and  epistles,  which  are  valuable  for  the  light 
they  throw  on  the  history  of  the  age.  Hilarius  I.  was 
his  successor. 

See  P.  DE  MORNAV,  "  Histoire  pontificate, "  1612;  P.  DUMOUI.IN, 
"Vie  et  Religion  de  deux  bons  Papes,  Leon  I  et  Gregoire  I,"  1650; 
E.  PERTHEI.,  "Pap-t  Leo's  I.  Leben  und  Lehren."  1843:  W.  A. 
ARENDT,  "  Leo  der  Grosse  und  seine  Zeit,"  1835;  SAINT-CHERON, 
"Histoire  du  Pontifical  de  S.  Leon  le  Grand,"  2  vols.,  1845. 

Leo  II.,  POPE,  a  native  of  Sicily,  succeeded  Agathon 
in  682  A.D.  He  is  praised  for  virtues  and  learning  by 
Catholic  writers.  He  died  in  May,  684,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Benedict  II. 

Leo  III.,  a  Roman  by  birth,  was  chosen  pope  in  795 
A.D.,  in  place  of  Adrian  I.  His  first  act  was  the  recog 
nition  of  his  subjection  or  allegiance  to  Charlemagne,  to 
whom  he  sent  the  keys  of  Saint  Peter's.  In  799  he  was 
attacked  by  a  band  of  conspirators,  and  escaped  with 
several  wounds.  Charlemagne  visited  Rome  in  800,  and 
was  crowned  by  the  pope  as  Emperor  of  the  Romans, 
with  the  title  of  Augustus.  Thus  the  Western  Empire 
was  restored,  after  it  had  been  subverted  three  hundred 
and  twenty-five  years.  Leo  died  in  816  A.D.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Stephen  IV. 

See  J.  G.  FADER,  "Dissertatio  de  Leone  III.  Papa  Romano," 
1748. 

Leo  IV.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  chosen  pope  in  847 
A.D.,  in  place  of  Sergius  II.  He  bravely  defended  Rome 
against  the  Saracens,  who,  however,  pillaged  the  basilica 
of  Saint  Peter.  He  built  a  suburb  of  his  capital,  which 
was  named  Leonina.  His  character  is  said  to  have  been 
good.  He  died  in  855,  and  was  succeeded  by  Benedict 
III.  The  fabulous  female  pope  Joan  was  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  the  successor  of  Leo  IV. 

See  BARONIUS,  "Annales." 

Leo  V.,  a  native  of  Ardea,  was  elected  pope  in  903 
A.D.,  after  the  death  of  Benedict  IV.  About  two  months 


after  his  election  he  was  deposed  by  his  rival  Christopher, 
and  died  in  prison,  according  to  one  account,  in  903. 

Leo  VI.  succeeded  John  X.  in  928  A.D.,  when  the 
Church  was  in  a  deplorable  state  and  Italy  was  filled 
with  disorder.  After  a  reign  of  seven  months,  he  died, 
in  929,  and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VII. 

Leo  VII.  was  chosen  pope  after  the  death  of  John 
XL,  in  937  A.D.  He  has  the  reputation  of  a  wise  and 
pious  pontiff.  His  reign  was  not  marked  by  important 
events.  He  died  in  939,  and  Stephen  VIII.  then  became 
pope. 

Leo  VIII.  was  elected  pope  in  963  A.D.,  in  place  of 
John  XII.,  who  had  been  deposed  by  a  council.  John 
returned,  expelled  Leo  from  Rome,  and  held  the  place 
until  his  death,  in  964.  The  Romans  then  elected  Bene 
dict  V.  ;  but  Leo  was  restored  by  the  emperor  Otho.  He 
died  in  965,  and  was  succeded  by  John  XIII. 

See  PI.ATINA,  "Vita;  Pontificnm  Romanorum." 

Leo  IX.,  originally  Bruno,  buoo'no,  was  born  in 
Alsace  in  1002,  and  was  a  cousin-german  of  the  emperor 
Conrad  the  Salic.  He  was  noted  for  learning,  and  be 
came  Bishop  of  Toul.  In  1049  he  succeeded  Damasus 
II.  He  held  frequent  councils,  and  laboured  zealously 
to  reform  the  morals  of  the  clergy  Having  raised  an 
army  to  oppose  the  Normans,  he  was  defeated  by  them 
and  made  prisoner,  but  was  at  last  released.  He  died  in 
1054,  and  was  succeeded  by  Victor  II. 

See  F.  X.  HUNKI.ER,  "Leo  IX.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1851 ;  MURA- 
TORI,  "Reruni  Italicarum  Scriptores,"  vol.  iii.,  1733. 

Leo  X.,  (Cardinal  GIOVANNI  de'  Medici — da  med'- 
ee-chee,)  celebrated  as  a  munificent  patron  of  literature 
and  the  arts,  the  second  son  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  (the 
Magnificent,)  was  born  at  Florence  in  1475.  He  was 
created  a  cardinal  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  In  1512  he 
was  made  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Ravenna,  but  soon 
regained  his  liberty.  Julius  II.  having  died,  Cardinal  de' 
Medici  was  elected  pope,  March  n,  1513,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Leo  X.  He  announced  his  patronage  of 
literature  by  choosing  two  eminent  authors,  Bembo  and 
Sadolet,  as  his  apostolical  secretaries.  The  pontificate  of 
Leo  is  a  memorable  epoch  in  religion,  politics,  and  the  fine 
arts.  In  1515  he  negotiated  and  signed,  with  Francis  I.  of 
France,  an  important  concordat,  which  remained  in  force 
nearly  three  centuries  and  gave  to  the  king  the  right  of 
nominating  bishops  in  his  own  dominions.  One  of  the 
most  momentous  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  im 
mense  issue  and  sale  of  indulgences, which  were  authorized 
in  1517,  (ostensibly  for  the  completion  of  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  Peter's,)  and  which  impelled  Luther  to  denounce 
the  corruptions  and  defy  the  power  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  (See  LUTHER.)  He  is  censured  by  many  Catho 
lics  for  his  lenity  towards  Luther.  By  violence  and  craft 
he  annexed  Urbino  and  Perugia  to  the  Papal  State.  In 
1521  he  made  a  treaty  with  Charles  V.,  and  became  the 
ally  of  that  prince  in  a  war  against  Francis  I.  The 
capture  of  Milan  had  just  been  achieved  by  the  allies, 
when  Leo  died  in  December,  1521,  not  without  suspicion 
of  poison.  He  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  VI.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  Leo  was  rather  worldly  and 
luxurious  as  the  head  of  the  Church.  His  fondness  for 
buffoonery  gave  much  offence  to  the  stricter  Catholics. 
As  a  temporal  ruler  he  is  considered  more  meritorious. 
Under  his  auspices  Michael  Angelo  obtained  celebrity 
at  Florence  and  the  splendid  works  of  Raphael  were 
completed  in  the  Vatican.  He  restored  its  alienated 
revenues  to  the  Roman  University,  in  which  one  hundred 
professors  received  salaries,  founded  a  Greek  college  at 
Rome,  and  liberally  patronized  poets,  scholars,  and 
artists.  The  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  which  learn 
ing  and  art  flourished  most  remarkably  is  generally 
designated  as  the  "  age  of  Leo  the  Tenth." 

See  VV.  ROSCOE,  "  Life  of  Leo  X.,"  3d  edition,  1840;  A.  FAPRONT. 
"  VitaLeonisX.,"  1797:  A  mix,  "  Histoire  de  Le'onX,"  1844:  PAUI.O 
GIOVIO,  "Vita  Leonis  X.,"  1651  ;  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Hisloire 
des  souverains  Pontifes,"  vol.  iv. :  BAVI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  GUICCIARDINI,  "  Istoria  d'ltalia;"  RANKE,  "History 
of  the  Popes;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1806. 

Leo  XL,  (Cardinal   AI.ESSANDRO  de'  Medici — da 

m§d'e-chee,)  was  advanced  in  years  when  he  succeeded 
Clement  VIII.  on  the  ist  of  April,  1605.  He  died  on 
the  27th  of  the  same  month,  probably  from  the  fatigue 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  gas  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEO 


1406 


LEON HARD 


of  the  coronation.  He  had  been  legate  to  France  under 
Clement  VIII.,  and  had  the  reputation  of  a  virtuous  and 
moderate  prelate.  Paul  V.  was  his  successor. 

Leo  XII,  (Cardinal  ANN  IB  ALE  della  Genga— del'13. 
je'n'ga',)  was  born  in  the  district  ofSpoletoin  1760.  Having 
acted  for  some  years  as  nuncio  in  Germany  and  France, 
he  became  a  cardinal  in  1816.  In  September,  1823,  he 
succeeded  Pope  Pi^Jp  VII.  He  proclaimed  a  jubilee  in 
1825,  and  made  reforms  in  the  civil  administration.  His 
biographers  give  him  credit  for  political  prudence.  In 
a  circular  letter  of  1825  he  denounced  the  Bible  Socie 
ties.  He  died  in  February,  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Pius  VIII. 

See  P.  RUDONI,  "Leone  XII.  e  Pio  VIII.,"  1829:  C.  SCHMID, 
"  Trauerrede  auf  Leo  XII,"  1829;  ARTAUU  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire 
du  Pape  Leon  XII.,"  2  vnls.,  1843;  CARDINAL  WISEMAN,  "Recol 
lections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes." 

Leo,  an  astronomer,  who  lived  at  Constantinople. 
He  was  invited  to  Bagdad  by  the  caliph  Al-Mamoon, 
but  the  emperor  refused  to  part  with  him.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  but  was  deprived 
of  that  office,  for  his  opposition  to  image-worship,  in 
849  A.D. 

Leo  [Gr.  Aewv]  OF  BYZANTIUM,  [Fr.  LEON  DE  BY- 
ZANCE,  la'6.\'  deh  be'z5.\ss',]  a  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  350  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Plato.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  His  writings  have 
not  come  down  to  us. 

Leo  OF  MODENA,  a  celebrated  Jewish  rabbi,  whose 
proper  name  was  Juda  Ari£  or  Arje,  (ak'ya,)  was  born 
at  Venice  about  1572,  and  lived  mostly  in  that  city.  He 
wrote  verses  in  Hebrew  and  Italian,  and  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  a  Hebrew  dictionary,  and  an  "Ac 
count  of  the  Rites  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,"  (1637.) 
Died  about  1650. 

See  WOLF,  "  Bib'iotheca  Hebraica." 

Leo  OF  ORVIETO,  [Lat.  LEO  URBEVETA'NUS,]  an 
Italian  chronicler,  who  flourished  about  1320.  He  wrote, 
in  barbarous  Latin,  a  chronicle  of  the  emperors,  ending 
in  1308,  and  a  chronicle  of  the  popes,  ending  in  1314. 

Leo,  la'o,  (HEINRICH,)  an  eminent  German  historian, 
born  at  Rudolstadt  in  1799.  He  obtained  about  1828 
the  chair  of  history  at  Halle,  which  he  filled  for  twenty- 
five  years  or  more.  In  1830  he  published  a  "  Manual  of 
Mediaeval  History"  and  a  "History  of  the  Italian  States," 
(5  vols.,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  is  an 
adversary  of  the  Liberal  or  radical  party  in  politics. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "Guide  to  Universal  His 
tory,"  ("  Leitfaden  der  Universal-Geschichte,"  1838-40.) 

See  EouARoMEVEN,  "H.  Leo  der  verhallerte  Pietist,  "etc.,  1839. 

Leo,  la'o,  (JUAN,)  surnamed  AFRICA'NUS,  a  Moorish 
geographer,  born  at  Granada,  was  a  child  when  his  pa 
rents,  flying  from  the  victorious  Spaniards,  took  him  to 
Africa  in  1491.  He  travelled  extensively  in  Africa  and 
Asia,  was  taken  captive  by  Christian  corsairs,  and  pre 
sented  to  Pope  Leo  X.  about  1517.  He  abjured  Islam- 
ism,  and  wrote,  in  Arabic,  a  "  Description  of  Africa," 
(1526,)  which  was  published  by  Ramusio  in  1550  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  best  work  on  that  subject. 

See  CASIRI,  "  Hibliotheca  Arabico-Hispana. " 

Leo,  la'o,  (LEONARDO,)  an  eminent  Italian  composer, 
born  in  Naples  in  1694,  was  a  pupil  of  Scarlatti.  He 
composed  admired  Italian  operas,  but  acquired  a  more 
durable  reputation  by  his  "Miserere,"  "  Dixit  Dominus," 
and  other  pieces  of  sacred  music,  in  which  a  grand  effect 
is  produced  by  means  comparatively  simple.  He  was 
the  master  of  Piccini  and  of  other  excellent  composers. 
His  death  is  variously  dated  1742,  1745,  or  1755. 

See  FHTIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Ge"nerale." 

Leo  Allatius.     See  ALLATIUS. 

Le'o  Di-ac'o-iius,  a  Byzantine  historian,  was  born  at 
Caloe,  in  Ionia,  about  950  A.D.,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  events  from 
959  to  975,  which  is  called  a  valuable  supplement  to  the 
Byzantine  history. 

Leo  the  Grammarian,  one  of  the  Byzantine  his 
torians.  He  wrote  about  1013  (as  a  continuation  of 
Theophanes)  a  history  of  Leo  V.  and  seven  succeeding 
emperors,  entitled  "  Chronographia  Res  a  recentioribus 
Imperatoribus  gestas  complectens,"  from  813  to  929. 


Leo  the  Great.     See  LEO  I.,  POPE. 

Leo  Juda.     See  JUDA,  (LEO.) 

Leo  Pi-la'tus  or  Leon'tius  (le-on'she-us)  Pila'tus, 
[Fr.  LEONCE  PILATE,  la'oxss'  pe'laY,]  a  Greek  scholar, 
who  taught  Greek  at  Florence,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  translated  Homer  into  Italian  or  Latin.  He 
was  killed  by  lightning  at  sea  about  1364. 

See  HODIUS,  "De  Gnecis  illustribus ;"  PETRARCH,  "Epistolas," 
v.  and  vi. 

Leo  Urbevetanus.     See  LEO  OF  ORVIETO. 

Le-o-eh'a-res,  [ A? (J^ap^c, ]  an  excellent  Greek  sculp 
tor,  flourished  at  Athens  in  the  fourth  century  before 
Christ.  His  master-pieces  were  the  "  Rape  of  Gany 
mede,"  a  statue  of  Apollo  wearing  a  diadem,  and  one 
of  Jupiter  Tonans,  which  was  placed  in  the  Capitol  of 
Rome.  He  executed,  in  gold  and  ivory,  portrait-statues 
of  King  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great.  Died  after 
338  H.C. 

Le-od'a-mas,  [AfwA'^af,]  an  Athenian  orator  of  high 
reputation,  was  a  disciple  of  Isocrates,  and  flourished 
about  400-350  n.c. 

Leon,  the  French  for  LEO,  which  see. 

Leon,  !a-6n',  (DIEGO,)  a  Spanish  general,  born  in 
1804.  In  the  civil  war  which  began  in  1833  he  fought 
for  the  queen  against  Don  Carlos.  He  was  reputed  the 
best  general  of  cavalry  in  Spain.  In  1840  he  became  a 
partisan  of  Christina  in  her  contest  with  Espartero,  and 
was  appointed  by  her  captain-general  of  Madrid.  He 
conspired  against  Espartero,  was  made  prisoner,  and 
executed  in  1841. 

Leon,  ( PONCE  DE.)     See  PONCE  DE  LEON. 

Leon  de  Saint-Jean,  la'6.N'  deh  sd.N  zhoN,  or  Leo 
of  Saint  John,  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Rennes 
in  1600.  He  wrote  "Studium  Sapientiae  universalis." 
Died  in  1671. 

Leonard,  LVo'naV,  (NICOLAS  GERMAIN,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1744,  came  to  France  in 
early  youth.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  seasons,  and 
several  idyls,  (1766.)  Died  at  Nantes  in  1793. 

Leonard  de  Limousin,  la'o'nSi<'  deh  le'moo'zaN', 
or  Limosin,  le'mo'za'N',  a  French  painter  and  enamel- 
ler,  born  at  Limoges  about  1500.  He  was  director  of  a 
manufactory  of  enamels  which  Francis  I.  founded  at 
Limoges.  His  works  are  admirable  in  design  and  colour. 
He  copied  the  master-pieces  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Romano, 
and  other  Italian  painters.  Died  about  1580. 

Leonardi,  la-o-naR'dee,  or  Leouardoni,  la-o-naR- 
do'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice 
in  1654,  excelled  in  portraits.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1711. 

Leonardo,  la-o-naR'do,  (AUGUSTIN,  )  a  Spanish 
painter  and  friar,  born  at  Valencia  about  1580.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success  in  Seville  and 
Madrid.  Died  about  1640. 

Leonardo  (or  Lionardo,  le-o-naii'do)  da  Pisa,  la- 
o-nak'do  dS  pee'sd,  called  also  Lionardo  Pisauo 
(pe-sii'no)  and  Leonardo  Bonacci  (bo-nJt'chee)  or 
Fibonacci,  (fe-bo-naVchee,)  an  Italian  mathematician, 
who  flourished  about  1200.  He  was  probably  the  first 
who  introduced  into  Europe  the  Arabic  numeration  and 
the  knowledge  of  algebra,  which  he  derived  from  the 
Saracens.  He  wrote  a  work  which  remained  in  manu 
script  and  is  described  in  Cossali's  "  History  of  Algebra." 

See  GUGLIHLMINI,  "  Elogio  di  Lionardo  Pisano,"  1813. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.     See  VINCI. 

Leonarducci,  la-o-naR-doot'chee,  (GASPARE,)  an  Ital 
ian  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1685.  His  principal  poem  is 
"  Providence,"  ("La  Providenza,"  1739.)  Died  in  1752. 

Leonatus.     See  LEONNATUS. 

Leonbruno,  li-on-bRoo'no,  (LORENZO,)  a  painter  of 
the  Mantuan  school,  born  in  1489;  died  about  1537. 

See  PRANDI,  "  Notizie  spettanti  la  Vita  di  L.  Leonbruno,"  1825. 

Leonce.    See  LEONTIUS. 

Leonce  Pilate.    See  LEO  PILATUS. 

Leone.     See  LEO. 

Lepnelli,  la-o-nel'lee,  (ZECCHINI,)  an  Italian  mathe 
matician  and  architect,  born  at  Cremona  in  1776;  died 
in  1847. 

Leonhard,  von,  fon  la'on-haRt',  (KARL  CAESAR,)  an 
eminent  German  geologist,  born  near  Hanau  in  1779. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1818  was  appointed 
professor  of  geology  at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  numerous 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a, e,  j,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n3t;  good;  moon; 


LEON HARD I 


1407 


LEOPARDI 


works  we  may  name  his  "Topographical  Mineralogy," 
(3  vols.,  1805-09,)  and  "Geology,  or  Natural  History  of 
the  Earth,"  (8  vols.,  1836-45,)  which  have  been  trans 
lated  into  English,  French,  and  Dutch. 

Leonhardi,  la-on-haR/dee,  QOHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1746.  He  became 
physician  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Died  in  1823. 

Leoni,  la-o'nee,  (GiACOMO,)  a  Venetian  architect,  who 
removed  to  England.  Died  about  1746. 

Leoni,  (LEONE,)  a  skilful  sculptor  and  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  V.,  for  whom  he  worked  at  Brussels  and 
Madrid.  He  made  marble  statues  of  Charles  and  his 
empress,  and  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  the  former  at 
Madrid.  Died  about  1592.  His  son  POMPEIO  was  also 
skilful  in  the  same  arts,  and  was  enriched  by  the  favours 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Pompeio  died  at  Milan  in  1660. 

See  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Leoni,  (Luioi,)  an  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  en 
graver,  surnamed  PADOVANO,  was  born  at  Padua  in 
1531.  He  practised  his  three  arts  at  Rome  with  nearly 
equal  success.  His  paintings  are  landscapes  and  his 
torical  pieces.  Died  in  1606. 

Leoni,  (OrrAVio,)  surnamed  IL  PADOVANO  or  PADO- 
VANINO,  the  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Rome  about  1576,  and  became  one  of  the  most  famous 
portrait-painters  of  his  time.  He  was  chosen  principal 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Rome.  Died  about  1630. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Leoniceno,  la-o-ne-cha'no,  [Lat.  LEONICF/NUS,](NIC- 
COI.6,)  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Lonigo,  in 
the  Vicentine,  in  1428.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
or  philosophy  at  Ferrara,  and  gained  a  high  reputation 
by  his  writings.  He  was  the  first  who  translated  Galen's 
work  into  Latin.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "On 
Syphilis,"  ("  De  Morbo  Gallico,"  1497.)  Died  in  1524. 

See  PAOLO  GIOVIO,  "  Elogia  Virorum  ilhistrium  ;"  TIRABOSCHI, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Leonicenus.     See  LEONICENO. 

Le-on-i-ce'iius  Om-m-bo'nus,  [It.  OcNiBudNo  DI 
LONIGO,  on-ye-boo-o'no  cle  lo-nee'go,]  an  eminent  Ital 
ian  grammarian,  born  at  Lonigo  about  1420.  He  lived 
in  Venice,  where  it  is  supposed  he  taught  rhetoric.  He 
published  a  Latin  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1473,)  anc^ 
Commentaries  on  Lucan,  Cicero,  and  other  classics. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  media;  et  infima?  ./Etatis." 

Leonico,  la-on'e-ko,  (TOMMASO  NiccoiA)  an  Italian 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in  1456.  He  translated 
some  works  of  Aristotle  and  other  ancient  Greeks.  Died 


in  1531. 
Le-on'I-das, 


[  Aeon'«5af,  ]    a    heroic  king  of   Sparta, 


renowned  for  his  invincible  courage,  patriotic  devotion, 
and  noble  and  tragical  end,  was  the  son  of  Anaxandrides. 
He  succeeded  his  brother,  Cleomenes  I.,  in  492  B.C.  When 
Xerxes  invaded  Greece  with  his  countless  myriads,  in 
480,  the  Greek  Congress  resolved  to  defend  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae,  and  Leonidas  commanded  the  small  band 
to  which  that  task  was  confided.  With  about  4000  men, 
he  resisted  the  Persian  army  for  several  days,  until  a 
treacherous  Greek  guided  io,coo  of  the  enemy  through 
a  secret  path  over  the  mountain.  Leonidas,  perceiving 
that  his  position  was  turned,  dismissed  all  his  men  ex 
cept  300  Spartans  and  about  1000  other  Greeks.  The 
Spartans  maintained  their  post  until  they  were  all  slain. 
The  Persians  are  said  to  have  lost  there  20,000  men.  The 
monument  raised  on  the  grave  of  the  Spartans  bore  this 
inscription:  "Go,  traveller,  and  tell  at  Lacedasmon  that 
we  fell  here  in  obedience  to  her  laws."  He  left  a  son, 
Pleistarchus,  who  became  king. 

See  HERODOTUS,  books  v.  and  vii.  ;  GROTE,  "  History  of  Greece ;" 
JUSTIN,  book  ii.  ;  P.  ECKERMAN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Virtute  Leonidae,1' 
1762. 

Leonidas  II.,  King  of  Sparta,  the  son  of  Cleonymus, 
ascended  the  throne  in  256  B.C.  He  factiously  opposed 
the  reforms  of  Agis  IV.,  his  colleague,  who  wished  to 
restore  the  regulations  of  Lycurgus.  After  having  been 
deposed  for  a  short  time,  he  regained  his  power  in  240, 
and  procured  the  death  of  Agis.  In  236  B.C.  he  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Cleomenes  III. 

Leonidas  OF  TARENTUM,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at 
Tarentum,  flourished  about  275  B.C.  He  wrote  about 


one  hundred  epigrams,  which  are  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology  and  are  much  admired. 

See  FAHRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Leonio,  la-o'ne-o,  (ViNCENZO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Spoleto  in  1650.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Arcades,  and  contributed  by  his  precepts 
and  example  to  reform  Italian  poetry.  Died  in  1720. 

Leonnat.     See  LEONNATUS. 

Le-on-na'tus  or  Le-o-na'tus,  [Gr.  Aeovvurof ;  Fr. 
LEONNAT,  la'o'nt',]  a  Macedonian  general  of  Pella,  ac 
companied  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion  of  Persia 
in  334  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  officers  employed  about 
that  king's  person  and  on  occasions  requiring  entire 
confidence.  In  the  attack  on  Malli  the  life  of  Alexander 
was  saved  by  the  personal  bravery  of  Leonnatus  and 
Peucestas.  At  the  death  of  his  chief  he  obtained  the 
satrapy  of  Phrygia  Minor,  and  was  soon  urged  by  An- 
tipater  to  aid  him  against  the  revolted  Greeks.  For 
this  purpose  he  marched  with  an  army  into  Thessaly, 
where  he  was  killed  in  battle  in  322  B.C. 

See  ARRIAN,  "Anabasis,"  books  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  vi.,  and  vii.;  Dio- 
DORDS  SICULUS,  "History." 

Le-on-ti'a-des,  |Gr.  AeovTtacJjjfJ  a  leader  of  the  oli 
garchical  party  which,  aided  by  the  Spartan  army,  ob 
tained  the  mastery  at  Thebes  about  382  B.C.  He  was 
killed  in  his  own  house  by  Pelopidas  in  379  B.C. 

Leontief  or  Leontiew,  la-on'te-ef,  (ALEXIS  LEON- 
TIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  savant,  who  obtained  in  1779  the 
title  of  aulic  councillor,  and  held  other  high  offices.  He 
was  deeply  versed  in  the  Chinese  literature,  and  trans 
lated  into  Russian  several  Chinese  works  on  history, 
geography,  etc.  Died  in  1786. 

Leontium,  le-on'she-um,  [Gr.  Aeovnov,]  an  Athenian 
courtesan,  the  disciple^and  mistress  of  Epicurus.  She 
acquired  some  distinction  as  a  philosopher,  and  com 
posed  in  answer  to  Theophrastus  a  work  on  philosophy, 
the  style  of  which  is  praised  by  Cicero  as  written  "  scito 
quidem  sermone  et  Attico."*  Among  her  various  lovers 
was  Metrodorus,  the  disciple  and  intimate  friend  of  Epi 
curus. 

Leontius,  le-on'she^s,  [Gr.  Aeovnof ;  Fr.  LEONCE, 
la'oNss',]  Emperor  of^he  East,  was  born  about  650  A.n. 
He  became  a  general,  and  gained  several  victories.  In 
695  A.D.  he  rebelled  against  Justinian  II.,  and  usurped 
the  throne.  He  was  deposed  by  Apsimerus  in  698, 
and  in  705  A.D.  was  put  to  death  by  Justinian,  who  had 
recovered  his  power. 

See  GinnoN,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Leontius  OF  BYZANTIUM,  called  SCHOLAS'TICUS,  an 
ecclesiastical  writer,  lived  about  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century.  He  wrote  "De  Sectis,"  and  other  works. 

Leontius  Pilatus.     See  LEO  PII.ATUS. 

Leopardi,  la-o-paR'dee,  (AI.ESSANDRO,)  an  excellent 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Venice.  Among 
his  works  are  the  mausoleum  of  Doge  Andrea  Vendra- 
mini,  (Venice,)  and  the  three  bronze  columns  in  the 
Piazza  di  San  Marco,  on  which  the  standards  of  the  re 
public  were  suspended.  The  elegance  and  proportions 
of  these  are  equally  admirable.  Died  in  1515. 

See  CICOGXARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario." 

Leopardi,  (GiACOMO,)  COUNT,  an  eminent  Italian 
poet  and  philologist,  born,  at  Recanati,  in  the  Papal 
States,  in  June,  1798.  Between  1818  and  1820  he  won  a 
place  among  the  first  lyric  poets  of  Italy  by  canzoni  "To 
Italy,"  and  "On  the  Monument  which  Florence  was 
about  to  erect  to  Dante."  In  1822  he  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  produced  an  excellent  criticism  on  the 
publication  of  the  "Chronicon"  of  Eusebius  by  Mai 
and  Zohrab,  (1823.)  His  poems,  published  collectively 
under  the  title  of  "Canti,"  (1831,)  contain  passages  of 
great  eloquence  and  pathos.  His  prose  essays,  "  Operette 
morali,"(i827,)  are  esteemed  among  the  finest  models  of 
Italian  prose  which  the  present  century  has  produced. 
Died  in  Naples  in  1837.  "We  believe,"  says  the  "Quar 
terly  Review"  for  April,  1850,  "it  may  be  said  without 
exaggeration  that  he  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
men  whom  this  century  has  produced,  both  in  his  powers 
and  likewise  in  his  performances,  achieved  as  they  were 
under  singular  disadvantages.  For  not  only  did  he  die 

*  I.e.  "  In  a  skilful  and  elegant  style." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEOPOLD 


1408 


LEOPOLD 


at  thirty-eight,  almost  ncl  mezzo  dd  cammin  di  nostra 
&;Vrt,'but  likewise 'Heaven's  unimpeached  decrees,'  in 
his  case,  nearly 

'  Made  that  shortened  span  one  long  disease.' 
With  a  life  thus  limited,  .  .  .  Count  Giacomo  Leopardi 
amassed  great  stores  of  deep  and  varied  learning,  proved 
himself  to  be  possessed  of  profound  literary  judgment, 
exquisite  taste,  and  a  powerful  imagination,  and  earned 
in  his  own  country  the  character  summed  up  in  the  words 
of  one  of  his  editors,  as  sommo  filologo,  soinmo  focta  e 
sommo  filosofo."  Leopardi  sympathized  with  the  efforts 
to  liberate  Italy  from  foreign  domination. 

See  MONTANARI,  "  Biografia  del  Conte  Leopardi,"  1838  ;  SAINTE- 
BEUVE.  "  Portraits  conteniporains,"  tome  iii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;"  "Eraser's  Magazine  for 
December,  1848. 

Le'o-pold  [It.  LEOPOT.DO,  la-o-pol'do]  I.,  often  called 
Leopold  the  Great,  [Ger.  LEOPOLD  DKR  GKOSSK,  la'- 
o-polt  clCK  gRos'seh  ;  Lat.  LEOPOI/DI'S  MAG'NUS,]  Em- 
peror  of  Germany,  of  the  house  of  Austria,  the  second  son 
of  Ferdinand  III.  and  of  Maria  Anna  of  Spain,  was  born 
in  T«ne>  1640.  lie  became  King  of  Hungary  in  1655, 
and  King  of  Bohemia  in  1657.  After  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  a  competition  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
Leopold  was  elected  emperor  on  the  iSth  of  July,  1658. 
The  Turks,  having  invaded  Hungary  with  a  large  army, 
were  defeated  at  Saint  Gothard  in  1664,  and  Leopold 
then  made  with  them  a  truce  of  twenty  years.  In  1674 
he  commenced  war  against  Louis  XIV.,  which,  after 
indecisive  campaigns  on  the  Rhine,  was  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen  in  1678.  The  Hungarians,  driven 
by  his  despotic  measures  to  revolt,  chose  Tekeli  as  their 
leader  in  1682,  and  were  aided  by  a  Turkish  army  of 
200,000  men,  which  besieged  Vienna  in  July,  1683.  So- 
bieski,  King  of  Poland,  saved  the  capital  by  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Turks  in  September  of  that  year.  The 
Austrians,  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene,  finished  the  war 
by  a  victory  at  Zenta  in  1697,  in  which  year  also  a  second 
war  against  France  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick. 
The  claim  of  his  family  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  vacated 
by  the  death  of  Charles  IT.  in  1700,  involved  Leopold 
in  another  war  with  Louis  XIV.  He  renewed  his  alli 
ance  with  England  and  Holland  in  1701.  His  army, 
commanded  by  Prince  Eugene,  gained  several  victories 
in  Italy  in  1701-02,  and  shared  the  triumph  of  the  allies 
at  Blenheim  in  1704.  Before  the  termination  of  this 
long  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  died,  in  May, 
1705,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Joseph  I.  He  had 
had  three  wives,  the  first  of  whom  was  a  Spanish  prin 
cess,  Margarita  Theresa.  His  prosperity  is  ascribed  to 
the  merit  of  his  ministers  and  generals,  rather  than  to 
his  own  abilities.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  recognition  of  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover, 
in  1692,  as  an  Elector  of  the  empire. 

See  "Life  of  Leopold  I.,"  London.  1706;  MKNCKR,  "  Leben 
Leopolds  I.."  1707 ;  WAGNER.  "  Historia  Leopoldi  Mnsrni,"  1719-31  ; 
RINCK,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  Leopolds  des  Grossen,"  1708  ;  RKINA, 
"Vita  ed  Imperio  di  Leopoldo  I. ,"1710;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Leopold  II.  OF  GERMANY,  the  second  son  of  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa,  was  born  May  5,  1747.  At  the 
death  of  his  father,  Francis  I.,  in  1765,  he  inherited  the 
grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  which  he  ruled  twenty-five 

Sears  in  a  wise  and  liberal  spirit.  During  this  period 
e  made  many  reforms  in  the  administration.  He  sup 
pressed  the  Inquisition,  abolished  the  penalty  of  death, 
and  co-operated  with  Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia,  in  the 
reformation  of  monastic  discipline,  which  caused  an 
angry  contest  between  him  and  the  court  of  Rome.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Joseph  II.,  February  20,  1790, 
Leopold  became  heir  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  which 
was  then  not  in  a  prosperous  condition.  The  Low  Coun 
tries  were  in  revolt,  Hungary  was  discontented,  Turkey 
and  Prussia  were  hostile,  and  France  was  estranged  from 
Austria  by  the  Revolution.  He  quickly  reduced  the 
Low  Countries  to  obedience  by  an  army,  and  pacified 
his  other  subjects  by  a  conciliatory  policy.  In  1791  he 
concluded  peace  with  Turkey  at  Sistova,  and  was  elected 
Emperor  of  Germany.  The  alarming  progress  of  the 
French  Revolution  induced  him  to  form  an  alliance  with 
Prussia  at  Pilnitz,  in  1791,  for  the  restoration  of  Louis 
XVI.  Hostilities  were  about  to  begin,  when  he  died 


suddenly  on  the  1st  of  March,  1792,  leaving  the  repu 
tation  of  an  able  and  just  ruler.  His  wife  was  Maria 
Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II.,  (of  Germany,)  who 
in  reference  to  Austria  is  styled  Francis  I. 

See  "Leben  Leopolds  II.,"  Prague,  1791  :  FOUCAUI.T,  "Histoire 
de  Leopold  II,"  1791;  AI.XINGEK,  "  Ueber  Leopold  II.,"  1792; 
SARTORI,  "  Leopoldinische  Annalen,"  2  vols.,  1792;  J.  B.  SCHEI.S, 
"  Leopold  II.,"  1837. 

Leopold  I.,  King  of  Belgium,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and 
Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  was  born  at  Coburg  in 
1790.  He  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saal- 
feld,  was  a  brother  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  and  uncle  of 
the  British  queen  Victoria.  In  May,  1816,  he  married 
the  princess  Charlotte,  daughter  of  George  IV.  and  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  who  died  in 
childbirth  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He  refused  the 
crown  of  Greece,  offered  to  him  in  1830.  On  the  4th  of 
June,  1831,  he  was  elected  King  of  the  Belgians,  who 
were  separated  from  Holland  by  the  revolution  of  1830. 
Hostilities  were  renewed  by  the  Dutch,  and  a  French 
army  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Belgians.  In  1832  Leopold 
married  Louise  Marie  Therese,  a  daughter  of  King  Louis 
Philippe.  He  was  quite  popular  among  his  subjects, 
towards  whom  his  policy  was  marked  by  liberality  and 
a  scrupulous  regard  for  their  constitutional  rights.  He 
died  in  December,  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leopold  II. 

See  L.  HVMAXS,  "  Histoive  cln  Re^ne  de  Leopold  I."  1804  ;  RAS- 
Tot'i.  DE  MONGEOT,  "  Leopold  I.  Roi  des  Beiges,  sa  Vie  mi  itaire  et 
politique,"  1850;  TMEODOKK  JUSTK,  "Leopold,  Roi  des  Beiges," 
1X68;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale:"  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  April,  i86g;  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1866. 

Leopold  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  was  born  in  1157.  He 
served  under  Richard  I.  of  England  at  the  siege  of  Acre. 
In  1193,  to  gratify  his  avarice  and  to  revenge  an  insult 
he  fancied  he  had  received  from  Richard,  he  arrested 
him  at  Vienna  on  his  homeward  journey  and  threw  him 
into  prison.  He  received  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the 
transfer  of  the  royal  captive  to  the  emperor  Henry  Vf. 
Died  in  1194. 

Leopold  II.,  Duke  of  Austria,  born  in  1292,  was  the 
third  son  of  Albert  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  was 
killed  in  1308,  leaving  his  dominions  in  joint-tenancy  to 
his  sons.  Leopold  ruled  Suabia,  Alsace,  and  Switzer 
land.  His  brothers,  Frederick  and  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
were  competitors  for  the  imperial  throne.  In  1315  Leo 
pold  attacked  the  Swiss,  (who  favoured  the  cause  of 
Louis  of  Bavaria,)  and  was  defeated  at  Morgarten.  In 
1325  a  treaty  was  made  between  the  two  parlies,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  Louis  and  Frederick  should  reign  jointly. 
Leopold  died  about  1326. 

See  I.ICHNOWSKV,  "Geschichte  Hauses  Habsburg." 

Leopold  III.,  Duke  of  Austria,  the  son  of  Albert  TL, 
was  born  about  1350.  He  became  ruler  over  Suabia, 
Tyrol,  etc.  War  having  broken  out  between  him  and 
the  Swiss  cantons,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1386  at 
the  famous  battle  of  Sempach,  where  Arnold  of  Win- 
kelried  decided  the  victory  by  throwing  himself  on  the 
Austrian  spears  and  breaking  the  phalanx. 

See  KUKZ,  "  Oestreich  unter  Albrecht  III." 

Leopold  I.  OF  TUSCANY.  See  LEOPOLD  II.,  (Em 
peror.) 

Leopold  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1797,  and  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  III.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1824.  He  conceded  a  constitution  to 
Tuscany  in  1847.  In  consequence  of  the  triumph  of 
the  democratic  party,  he  retired  from  Florence,  but  was 
restored  by  the  Austrian  army  in  July,  I.V49-  He  was 
forced  to  abdicate  by  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
the  spring  of  1859,  and  Tuscany  was  annexe."!  to  Sardinia, 
lie  published  a  fine  edition  of  the  works  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  (4  vols.,  1825.) 

Leopold  OF  ANHAI.T-DESSAU.  See  ANHALT-DESSAU. 

Leopold  OF  LORRAINE.     See  LORRAINE. 

Leopold,  la'o-pold',  (CARL  GTSTAF,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1756.  In  1778  he 
composed  an  "Ode  on  the  Birth  of  the  Prince-Royal 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  and  in  1788  he  became  private 
secretary  of  Gustavus  III.,  who  treated  him  with  much 
favour  and  confidence.  He  produced  two  successful 
tragedies,  "Odin"  (1790)  and  "Virginia,"  and  sang  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mit;  not;  good;  moon; 


LEOPOLD 


1409 


LEPIDUS 


martial  exploits  of  the  Swedes  in  several  admired  odes. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  1818.  Died  in  1829. 

See  MAGNUS  AF  PONTIN,  "  Minne  af  C.  G.  Leopold,'^  1830; 
EHKKNSTROEM,  "Notice  biographique  sur  M.  cle  Leopold,  1838; 
SKJOEI.UEBRAND,  "Tal  vid  C.  G.  af  Leopolds  Graf,"  1829;  LONG 
FELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Leopold  Friedrich,  la'o-polt/  fReed'riK,  Duke  of 
Anhalt-Dessau,  was  born  in  1794.  On  the  death  of  his 
grandfather,  in  1817,  he  succeeded  to  the  government, 
and  in  1853  to  that  of  Anhalt-Kothen. 


Leopold    Friedrich 

fRants,    Duke  of  Dessau, 


Franz,  la'o-polt/  fReed'riK 
born  in  1740.  In  1758  he 

assumed  the  government,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  able  administration  and  his  patronage  of  learning 
and  the  arts.  He  died  in  1817,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson,  the  subject  of  the  preceding  article. 

Leopoldo.     See  LEOPOLD  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Leosthene.     See  LEOSTHENES. 

Le-os'the-iies,  [Gr.  Awoferw  ;  Fr.  LEOSTHENE,  1k'- 
os'tin',]  an  Athenian  general,  who  makes  his  first  ap 
pearance  in  history  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great,  324  B.C.  He  was  attached  to  the  party 
of  Demosthenes,  and  seems  to  have  had  a  high  repu 
tation,  as  he  was  chosen  commander  of  the  combined 
Greek  army  in  the  Lamian  war,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  liberate  Greece  from  the  Macedonian  yoke.  He  de 
feated  Antipater  in  Thessaly,  and  besieged  him  in  Lamia. 
At  this  siege  Leosthenes  was  killed,  in  323  li.c.,  after 
which  success  deserted  the  Athenian  arms. 

See  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece;"  THIRLWALL,  "History  of 
Greece." 

Leotaud,  la'o'to',  (VINCENT,)  an  able  French  geome 
ter,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Embrun  in  1595.  He  was  a 
professor  at  the  College  of  Dole.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Elements  of  Practical  Geometry,"  ("  Geometries 
practice  Elementa,"  1631,)  and  "  Cyclomathia,"  etc., 


(1663.)     Died  in  1672. 
Le-o-ty-eh'i-des,  [Gr. 


Fr.  LEOTYCHIDE, 


la'o'te'ked',]  a  Spartan  king,  the  son  of  Menares,  suc 
ceeded  Demaratus,  who  was  deposed  about  491  B.C. 
Leonidas  I.  was  his  colleague  in  the  government.  He 
obtained  command  of  the  Greek  fleet,  and  shared  with 
Xanthippus  the  honour  of  the  signal  victory  over  the 
Persians  at  Mycale  in  479  B.C.  Having  been  accused  of 
receiving  a  bribe  from  some  Thessalians,  he  was  banished 
in  469,  and  died  in  exile  at  Tegea. 

See  HERODOTUS,  "  History,"  books  vi.,  viii.,  and  ix. 

Leowitz,  la'o-wits',  [Lat.  LEOVI'TIUS,]  (CYPRIAN,) 
a  Bohemian  astronomer,  born  near  Hradisch  in  1524; 
died  in  1574. 

Le  Paige,  leh-pizh',  (THOMAS,)  a  French  religious 
writer,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1597  ;  died  in  1658. 

Lepaute,  leh-pot',  QEAN  ANDRE,)  a  French  clock- 
maker,  born  at  Montmedy  in  1709.  He  lived  in  Paris, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  his  works.  He 
made  time-pieces  for  many  public  edifices  of  Paris,  and 
for  the  most  of  the  observatories  of  Europe.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Treatise  on  Clockwork,"  (Horlogerie.)  Died 
in  1789. 

His  wife,  nee  NICOLE  REINE  Stable  de  Labriere  — 
a'ttb'l'  deh  IS'bRe'aiR',  born  in  Paris  in  1723,  acquired 
distinction  as  an  astronomer.  She  was  a  friend  of  Clai- 
raut  and  Lalande,  whom  she  assisted  in  the  calcula 
tions  on  the  return  of  Halley's  comet,  (1757.)  She  was 
the  author  of  "  Observations"  inserted  in  the  "Connais- 
sances  des  Temps,"  of  "  Tables  of  the  Sun,  Moon,  and 
Planets,"  and  of  several  memoirs  on  astronomy.  Died 
in  1788. 

Lepautre  orLepotre,leh-potR',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1614.  He  was  first  architect 
of  Louis  XIV.  In  1652  he  published  an  esteemed  work 
entitled  "  The  Architecture  of  A.  Lepautre."  He  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  decoration,  and  abounded  in  new 
inventions.  The  church  of  Port-Royal,  in  a  suburb  of 
Paris,  was  designed  by  him.  Died  in  1691. 
See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 
Lepautre,  (JEAN,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris  in  1617,  was  a  skilful  designer  and  engraver. 
He  designed  and  etched  many  subjects  which  are  ad 
mirable  models  for  architects  and  other  artists.  Dice1 
in  1682. 


Lepautre,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
n  1660,  was  a  son  of  Antoine,  noticed  above.  He  studied 
and  worked  in  Rome  for  fifteen  years,  and  then  returned 
to  Paris,  where  he  obtained  success,  though  his  works 
are  defective  in  taste.  His  chief  production  is  the  group 
of  /Eneas  and  Anchises,  at  the  Tuileries.  Died  in  1744. 

Lepaux.     See  LAREVEILLERE. 

Le  Pays,  de,  deh  leh  piV,  (  RENE,  )  Sieur  Plessis- 
Villeneuve,  a  gay  and  witty  French  versifier,  born  at 
Nantes  or  Fougeres  in  1636.  He  was  for  many  years 
director-general  of  the  salt-tax  (gabelle)  in  Dauphine  and 
Provence.  He  was  noted  for  his  bans  mots.  His  "  Friend- 
Jiips,  Loves,  and  Little  Loves"  ("Amities,  Amours  et 
Amourettes,"  1664)  had  a  great  success.  He  published 
many  letters,  sonnets,  etc.  Died  in  1690. 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  MORERI, 
1  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Lepee,  (AnBE.)     See  F,PEE. 

Lepekhiii  or  Lepechin,  lep-eh-Keen'  or  lep-eh-Kin', 
IVAN  IVAXOWITCH,)  a  Russian  naturalist,  born  about 
1740.  He  was  charged  by  Catherine  II.  to  explore 
Russia,  and  published  the  results  in  a  "  Journal  of 
Travels  through  the  Various  Provinces  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1771-80.)  Died  in  1802. 

Lepelletier,  leh-pel'te-i',  (CLAUDE.)  a  French  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1670,  became  canon 
of  Rheims.  He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against  the 
Jansenists,  and  many  religious  works.  Died  in  1743. 

Lepelletier  or  Le  Pelletier,  (JEAN,)  a  French  an 
tiquary  and  merchant,  born  at  Rouen  in  1633.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Noah's  Ark,"  (i  704.) 
Died  in  1711. 

Lepelletier  (or  Le  Peletier,  leh  peh-leh-te-i')  de 
Saint-Fargeau,  leh-pel'te-a'  deh  saN'faVzho',  (Louis 
MICHEL,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760, 
was  president  a  mortier  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and 
was  the  owner  of  an  immense  fortune.  He  became  a 
partisan  of  the  new  regime,  and  in  1792  was  an  influen 
tial  member  of  the  Convention.  It  appears  that  he  had 
given  the  royalists  reason  to  expect  he  would  fav 
lenity  in  the  king's  trial,  but  was  impelled  by  the 
roris'm  of  the  Jacobins  to  vote  for  death.  For  this  act 
he  was  assassinated  by  Paris,  a  royalist,  in  January,  1793. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  FELIX  LE 
PELLETIER,  "Vie  de  M.  Lepelletier,"  1793. 

Le  Pere,  leh  paiR,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  He  accompanied  the  expe 
dition  to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  was  directed  by  Bonaparte 
to  draw  up  a  plan  for  the  restoration  of  the  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  Died  in  1844. 

Lepicie,  la/pe'seji,  (BERNARD,)  a  skilful  French  en 
graver  and  painter,"was  born  in  Paris  in  1698.  He  went 
to  England,  and  engraved  Raphael's  Cartoons  at  Hamp 
ton  Court.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  Academy  in  1740.  His  manner  is  broad 
and  mellow,  and  his  design  correct.  Died  in  1755. 

Lepicie,  (NICOLAS  BERNARD,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1735.  He  was  a  pupil  of  C.  Vanloo,  became  professor 
in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  king.  His  works  are  marred  by  the  faults  which 
prevailed  in  the  French  school  at  'that  time.  Died 
in  1784. 

Lep'i-da  Do-mi'ti-a,  (clo-mish'e-a,)  a  Roman  lady 
of  great  personal  beauty  but  infamous  character.  She 
svas  the  daughter  of  Drusus,  and  aunt  of  the  emperor 
Nero. 

Lep'i-dus,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Roman  family 
of  the  patrician  gens  Emilia.  MARCUS  ^MILIUS  LEPI 
DUS  was  elected  consul  in  187  B.C.,  pontifex  maximus 
in  I  So,  and  censor  in  179.  He  was  six  times  chosen  by 
the  censors  princeps  Senatns.  Died  about  152  B.C.  The 
triumvir  of  the  same  name  was  his  lineal  descendant. 

Lepidus,  (MARCUS  /EMII.IUS,)  a  Roman  orator,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  137  B.C.  In 
the  next  year  he  commanded  in  several  battles  in  Spain, 
and  was  defeated.  Cicero  represents  him  as  the  greatest 
orator  of  his  age. 

Lepidus,  (MARCUS  /EMILIUS,)  the  father  of  the  tri 
umvir,  was  prastor  in  Sicily  in  81  B.C.  In  79  he  was 
chosen  consul  by  the  partisans  of  Marius,  and  attempted 


our 
ter- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEPIDUS 


1410 


LERMA 


to  nullify  or  repeal  the  measures  of  Sulla,  who  had  just 
died.  A  violent  contest  ensued  between  the  factions.  In 
77  Lepidus  was  declared  by  the  senate  a  public  enemy, 
and  was  defeated  in  battle  by  Ponipey  near  Rome.  lie 
died  about  76  B.C. 

Lepidus,  (MARCUS  ^EMILIUS,)  THE  TRIUMVIR,  was 
prrctor  when  the  civil  war  broke  out  between  Pompey 
and  Caesar,  in  49  B.C.  He  joined  the  party  of  Cassar, 
who,  at  his  departure  for  Spain,  left  Lepidus  in  charge 
of  the  capital.  In  48  he  obtained  the  province  of  Nearer 
Spain,  with  the  title  of  proconsul,  and  in  46  became  the 
colleague  of  Caesar  in  the  consulship.  He  was  master 
of  the  horse  when  Caesar  was  killed,  in  44  B.C.  When 
the  senate  and  Antony  came  to  an  open  rupture,  Lepidus 
joined  the  latter  with  an  army,  and  in  October,  43,  he 
united  with  Antony  and  Octavian  to  form  the  famous 
triumvirate.  He  put  his  own  brother  on  the  list  of  the 
proscribed  who  were  sacrificed  by  this  coalition.  In 
the  division  of  provinces,  Spain  and  Narbonese  Gaul 
were  allotted  to  Lepidus,  who  remained  in  Italy,  while 
the  other  two  led  their  army  against  Brutus.  After  their 
victory  at  Philippi,  Octavius  and  Antony  ceased  to  treat 
him  as  their  equal,  and  deprived  him  of  his  provinces 
in  42,  but  gave  him  a  command  in  Africa.  When  the 
triumvirate  was  renewed,  however,  (37  B.C.,)  he  was 
nominally  included  in  it.  In  36  he  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  recover  power,  and,  being  deserted  by  his  troops,  sur 
rendered  to  Octavius,  who  spared  his  life  but  banished 
him  from  Rome.  He  died  in  13  B.C. 

See  DION  CASSIUS,  "Hislory  of  Rome;"  APPIAN,  "Bellum 
Civile;"  MKRIVALE,  "The  Romans  under  the  Emperors." 

Lepidus,  (MARCUS  /EMILIUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
formed  a  conspjracy,  in  30  B.C.,  to  kill  Augustus  on  his 
return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Actium.  Maecenas 
detected  the  plot,  and  sent  Lepidus  to  Augustus,  who 
put  him  to  death. 

Lepidus,  (PAULUS  ^EMILIUS,)  a  brother  of  the  tri 
umvir,  became  aedile  about  55  B.C.,  praetor  in  53,  and 
consul  in  50.  After  the  death  of  Caesar,  44  B.C.,  he  acted 
with  the  aristocratic  party  in  opposition  to  the  triumvirs. 
Died  about  40  B.C. 

Leplat,  leh-pla"',  QOSSE,)  a  Belgian  jurist  and  canonist, 
born  at  Malines  in  1732  ;  died  in  1810. 

Lepois.     See  Pois,  LE. 

Le  Poittevin,  leh  pwat'vaN',  a  successful  French 
painter  of  landscapes,  genre,  and  marine  pieces,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  His  proper  name  is  EDMONDE 
MODESTE  EUGENE  POIDEVIN.  He  gained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1836. 

Le  Prevost  d'Iray,  leh  pRa'vo'  de'ri',  (CHRETIEN 
SIMEON,)  a  French  poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  Nor 
mandy  in  1768.  Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of 
Egypt  under  the  Romans,"  (1816.)  Died  in  1849. 

Leprince  or  Le  Prince,  leh  pRaNss,  (JEAN,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Metz  in  1733.  ^e  worked  several  years 
in  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  adorned  the  imperial 
palace.  He  returned  to  France  many  years  before  his 
death,  \vhich  occurred  in  1781. 

Le  Prince  de  Beaumont,  leh  praNss  deh  bo'miN', 
(MARIE,)  a  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen 
in  1711.  She  was  divorced  from  M.  Beaumont  in  1745, 
and  removed  to  London,  where  she  was  employed  as 
governess  or  teacher  for  many  years.  She  published 
many  useful  and  successful  juvenile  books,  moral  tales, 
etc.  Her  "  Magazine  for  Children"  ("  Magasin  des  En- 
fan  ts,"  1757)  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.  She 
was  author  of  a  popular  "  Magazine  for  Young  Ladies," 
'The  Modern  Mentor,"  (1772,)  "Complete  Education," 
etc.  About  1764  she  went  to  reside  at  Annecy,  in  Savoy. 
Died  in  1780. 

Lepsius,  Igp'se-us,  (KARL  PETER,)  a  German  anti 
quary,  born  at  Naumburg,  on  the  Saale,  in  1775,  was  the 
father  of  Karl  Richard,  noticed  below.  He  studied  law, 
and  obtained  several  civil  offices  under  the  Saxon  and 
Prussian  governments.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Mediaeval  Architectural  Monuments  of  Saxony  and 
Thuringia,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died  in  1853. 

Lepsius,  (KARL  RICHARD,)  a  German  philologist  and 
antiquary,  highly  distinguished  for  his  Egyptian  re 
searches,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  born 
at  Naumburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  December  20,  1813, 


and  received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father.  He 
pursued  his  studies  in  the  Universities  of  Leipsic  and 
Gottingen,  giving  special  attention  to  languages  and  phi 
lology.  In  1834  he  published  "  Palaeography  as  an  Aid 
to  Philology,"  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute,  and  was  followed  by  an  "  Essay  on  the  Affinity 
of  the  Semitic,  Indian,  Ancient  Persian,  Egyptian,  and 
Ethiopian  Languages,"  (1835.)  In  1836  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Bunsen, 
and  wrote  a  "  Letter  to  Rosellini  on  the  Hieroglyphic 
Alphabet,"  (1837,)  which  attracted  great  attention.  He 
visited  England  in  1838,  and  afterwards  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Berlin.  He  produced  a  treatise  on  the  "  Etrurian 
and  Oscan  Dialects,"  (1841,)  and  "Obituary  of  the  Egyp 
tians,"  ("  Das  Todtenbuch  cler  Aegypter,"  1842.)  Lep 
sius  having  projected  a  great  historical  and  antiquarian 
work  on  Egypt,  the  King  of  Prussia  was  induced  by 
Bunsen  and  Humboldt  to  send  to  Egypt  an  expedition 
under  his  direction.  Assisted  by  artists  of  various 
sorts,  he  investigated  the  antiquities  of  that  country  from 
1842  until  1846.  On  his  return  he  was  chosen  a  pro 
fessor  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  1849  produced 
the  first  volume  of  his  "Chronology  of  the  Egyptians." 
lie  published  the  interesting  and  important  results  of 
his  late  expedition  in  a  splendid  work  entitled  "The 
Monuments  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,"  ("  Denkmaler  aus 
Aegypten  und  Aethiopien,"  1849-59.)  Among  his  prin 
cipal  works  are  "  Letters  on  Egypt,  Ethiopia,  and  the 
Peninsula  of  Sinai,"  (1852,)  and  "Alphabet  of  Universal 
Linguistic,"  ("Das  allgemeine  linguistische  Alphabet," 

I855-) 

Leptine._  See  LEPTINES. 

Lep'tl-nes,  [Gr.  AeTrmv/?;  Fr.  LEPTINE,  ISp'ten',]  a 
Syracusan  commander,  was  a  brother  of  Dionysius  the 
Elder.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  defeat  of  the 
Carthaginians  at  Syracuse  about  396  B.C.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Cronium,  in  383  B.C. 

Lequien,  leh-ke-aN',  (MICHEL,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1661.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Defence  of  the  Hebrew  Text,  and  of  the 
Vulgate,"  (1690,)  and  "Oriens  Christianus,"  (3  vols., 
1740,)  an  account  of  the  churches,  patriarchs,  etc.  of 
the  East,  which  is  commended.  Died  in  1733. 

Lequien  de  la  Neuville,  leh-ke-aN'  deh  \%.  nuh'vel', 
(JACQUES,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1647.  He 
accompanied  the  French  ambassador  to  Lisbon  in  1713, 
and  there  composed  his  principal  work,  a  "  History  of 
Portugal,"  (2  vols.,  1700-20.)  Died  in  1728. 

Leray,  leh-ri',  (THEODORE  CONSTANT,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Brest  in  1795  ;  died  in  1849. 

Lerche,  leR'iceh,  (JOHANN  JAKOB,)  a  German  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1703;  died  at  Saint  Peters 
burg  in  1780. 

Lerchenfeld,  le'R'Ken-fe'lt',  (MAXIMILIAN,)  BARON 
OK,  a  German  statesman  of  liberal  opinions,  born  at 
Munich  in  1779;  died  in  1843. 

Lerebours,  leh-reh'booR',  (Nofe'L  JEAN,)  a  French 
optician,  born  in  Normandy  in  1762.  He  made  tele 
scopes  of  superior  quality,  and  other  optical  instruments. 
Died  in  1840. 

Leri,  de,  deh  leh-re',  (JEAN,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  1534.  He  laboured  in  Brazil  about  two 
years,  (1556-58,)  and  published  "An  Account  of  his 
Voyage  to  Brazil,"  (1577.)  Died  in  1611. 

Lerma,  de,  da  leVma,  (FRANCISCO  DE  ROXAS  (or 
ROJAS)  DE  SANDOVAL,)  DUKE,  a  Spanish  statesman  of 
moderate  ability.  He  was  equerry  to  Don  Philip,  who 
in  1598  became  king  as  Philip  III.  and  appointed  the 
subject  of  this  article  prime  minister.  He  was  then 
created  Duke  of  Lerma,  having  previously  been  called 
Marquis  of  Denia.  lie  equipped  a  large  fleet  which 
was  ordered  to  cruise  on  the  English  coast,  but  was 
destroyed  by  a  storm,  after  which  he  made  a  peace  on 
terms  favourable  to  England.  For  twenty  years  he 
retained  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  had  entire  control 
of  the  government.  His  policy  was  mild,  pacific,  and 
prudent  in  some  respects,  but  was  not  successful  in 
relation  to  finances.  He  was  supplanted  in  1618  by  his 
son,  the  Duke  of  Uzeda.  Died  in  1625. 

See  WATSON,  "History  of  Philip  1 1.;"  MOTLEY,  "  United  Nether 
lands,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xlviii. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure; far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


LERMINIER 


141 1 


LE  SAGE 


Lerminier,  le'R'me'neJi',  (JEAN  Louis  EUGENE,)  a 
French  publicist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He 
obtained  in  1831  a  chair  of  legislation  in  the  College  of 
France,  where  his  eloquent  lectures  were  much  admired 
by  the  ardent  youth.  Amona;  his  works  are  "The  Phi 
losophy  of  Law,"  (2  vols.,  1831,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Legislators  and  Constitutions  of  Ancient  Greece,"  (2 
vois.,  1852.)  He  wrote  the  article  "  Guizot"  in  the  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale."  He  was  remarkable  for 
animation  of  style,  vigour  of  images,  and  nobleness  of 
expression.  Died  in  1857. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lerminier,  (THEODORIC  NELAMOND,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Saint-Valery-sur-Somme  in  1770.  In 
1808  he  was  appointed  physician  par  quartier  for  the 
service  of  the  imperial  household.  He  attended  Na 
poleon  in  the  campaigns  of  Spain,  Russia,  (1812,)  and 
Saxony,  and  gave  proof  of  great  professional  talent 
and  courage.  Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

LErmite.     See  ERMITE,  L'. 

Lermontof,Lermoiitov,  or  Lermoiitow,  leR'mon- 
tof,  (MIKHAIL  IVANOVITCH,)  a  popular  Russian  poet, 
born  in  1811,  became  an  officer  in  the  guards.  In  1837, 
by  a  poem  "On  the  Death  of  Pushkin,"  he  offended  the 
emperor,  who  ordered  him  to  join  the  army  of  the  Cau 
casus.  While  serving  there  in  the  army,  he  wrote  "The 
Circassian  Boy,"  and  other  popular  poems,  and  a  suc 
cessful  novel,  called  "A  Hero  of  our  Own  Time,"  (1840.) 
He  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1841.  Like  Byron,  he  ex 
presses  his  own  character  and  feelings  in  his  writings, 
and  is  the  principal  person  in  the  tales  or  pictures  which 
his  imagination  produces. 

See  SAINT-RENE  TAII.I.ANDIER,  "Le  Poete  du  Cancase,"  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  February  i,  1855;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Lernaean  Hydra.     See  HYDRA. 

Lernout,  leVnoo',  QEAN,)  [Lat.  JA'NUS  LERNU'TIUS,] 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Bruges  in  1545.  He  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  English  in  1587,  and  detained  five  years. 
His  "Carmina,"  odes,  epigrams,  etc.,  published  in  1579, 
are  said  to  have  considerable  merit.  Died  in  1619. 

Leruutius.     See  LERNOUT. 

Leroi.     See  LEROY. 

Leroux,  leh-roo',  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Sevres  in  1749.  Having  been  elected  to  a  high 
municipal  office  in  Paris  in  1790,  he  exposed  his  life  in 
his  efforts  to  defend  the  royal  family,  for  which  he  was 
proscribed.  Died  in  1832. 

Leroux,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  socialist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1798.  He  founded,  in  partnership  with  Madame  George 
Sand,  the  "Revue  Inde'pendante."  His  principal  work 
is  "On  Humanity:  its  Principle  and  its  Prospects," 
("  De  1'Humanite  :  de  son  Principe  et  de  son  Avenir," 
2  vols.,  1840.) 

Leroy,  leh-Rwa',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1726,  was  a  son  of  Julien,  noticed  below.  He 
published  two  valuable  works,  viz. :  "  Memoirs  and  Ob 
servations  on  Medicine,"  and  "  Melanges  of  Philosophy, 
Chemistry,"  etc.,  (1771.)  Died  in  1779. 

Leroy,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  Paris,  was  a  son  of  Julien,  noticed  below.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1751,  and  wrote 
several  memoirs  on  electricity.  Died  in  1800. 

Leroy,  (JEAN  BAFHSTEONESIME,)  a  French  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1788.  He  produced  suc 
cessful  comedies. 

Leroy  or  Le  Roy,  (JULIEN,)  a  French  watchmaker, 
bom  at  Tours  in  1686.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  ac 
quired  a  European  reputation  by  the  excellence  of  his 
workmanship.  He  obviated  the  changes  of  temperature 
by  a  mechanism  of  compensation,  invented  horizontal 
clocks,  and  made  many  improvements  in  the  art.  In 
1739  he  received  the  title  of  horloger  to  the  king.  Died 
in  1759.  His  sons  CHARLES,  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  JULIEN 
DAVID,  and  PIERRE  are  noticed  in  this  work. 

Leroy  or  Leroi,  (  JULIEN  DAVID,)  a  French  architect, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1726. 
Having  visited  and  studied  the  ancient  models  in  Greece, 
he  published  in  1758  an  excellent  work  entitled  "Ruins 
of  the  Finest  Monuments  of  Greece,"  which  contributed 
greatly  to  reform  the  vitiated  taste  that  prevailed  in 


France  before  its  appearance.  The  lectures  which  he 
gave  for  forty  years  as  professor  of  architecture  finished 
the  revolution  which  that  book  commenced.  He  wrote, 
also,  "  Observations  on  the  Edifices  of  Ancient  Nations," 
(1767,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1803. 

See  GABET,  "  D'ctionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Leroy  orLeRoy,[  Lat.  RK/GIUS,J(LOUIS,)  an  excellent 
French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Coutances.  He  trav 
elled  much  in  his  youth,  and  on  his  return  home  gained 
distinction  by  translations  of  Demosthenes'  "  Philippics" 
and  of  some  works  of  Plato.  He  was  an  old  man  when 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  in  the  College  Royal  in 
1572.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Budaeus,"  in 
elegant  Latin,  (1540,)  "The  Origin  and  Excellence  of 
the  Art  of  Government,"  (TArt  folitiqite,)  (1567,)  and 
"The  Vicissitude  and  Variety  of  Things,"  (1576.)  He 
is  reputed  one  of  the  first  French  writers  who  attained 
harmony  in  prose.  Died  in  1577. 

See  NIC^RON,  "Memoires;"  TEISSIEK,  "  filoges." 

Leroy,  (PIERUE,)  a  French  satirical  writer,  who  lived 
about  1590,  was  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Rouen.  He 
was  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  a  very  popular  satire 
and  master-piece  of  pleasantry,  entitled  "Menippean 
Satire  on  the  Virtue  of  the  Spanish  Catholicon,"  ("  Satyre 
Menippee  de  la  Vertu  du  Catholicon  d'Espagne,"  1593,) 
"which,"  said  Voltaire,  "was  as  profitable  to  the  cause 
of  Henry  IV.  as  the  battle  of  Ivry." 

Leroy,  (PIERRE,)  a  skilful  watchmaker,  born  in  Paris 
in  1717,  was  the  son  of  Julien,  noticed  above.  He  was 
chiefly  noted  for  the  perfection  he  attained  in  marine 
time-pieces,  and  received  a  prize  from  the  Academy  for 
the  best  method  of  measuring  time  at  sea.  He  has  the 
credit  of  discovering  the  isochronism  of  spiral  springs. 
He  published  several  remarkable  treatises  on  his  art, 
— one  called  "Etrem-es  chronometriques  pour  1'Annee 
1760."  Died  in  1785. 

Leroy  d'fitiolles,  leh-inva'  da'te^'ol',  (JEAN  JACQUES 
JOSEPH,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1798,  is 
distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  instruments  used  in 
lithotrity.  This  invention  was  also  claimed  by  M.  Ci- 
viale ;  but  a  committee  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarded  a  prize  to  Leroy  d'fitiolles  "  for  having  first 
made  known  [in  1822]  the  instruments  which  he  had 
invented."  He  invented  other  surgical  instruments. 

Leroy  de  la  Corbinaye,  leh-Rwa'  deh  It  koR'be'ni', 
(CHARLES,)  a  French  lexicographer,  born  at  Saint-Brieuc 
in  1690.  He  published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  French 
Orthography,  in  the  Form  of  a  Dictionary,"  (1739,)  which 
is  praised  for  accuracy,  method,  etc.  Died  in  1739. 

Leroy  de  Saint- Arnaud,  leh-Rwa'  deh  saxt  aVno', 
(ARNAUD  JACQUES,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris 
about  1800.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Algeria,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-cle-camp  in  1847,  and  that 
of  general  of  division  in  1851,  as  a  reward  for  his  suc 
cessful  operations  against  the  Kabyle  tribes.  Having 
become  minister  of  war  in  October,  1851,  he  promoted 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  and  was  made  a  marshal 
of  France  in  December,  1852.  He  obtained  the  chief 
command  in  the  Crimean  war,  which  began  in  1854, 
and,  although  suffering  severely  from  disease,  displayed 
his  usual  energy  and  skill  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma, 
September  20,  1854.  He  was  obliged  by  the  state  of  his 
health  to  resign  the  command,  and  he  died  on  the  291)1 
of  September,  1854. 

See  DUPERREI.  SAINTE-MARIE,  "M.  le  General  Leroy  de  Saint- 
Arnaud,"  1852;  CHARRAS,  "  Les  trois  Marechaux  MM.  de  Saiut- 
Arnaud.  Magnan  et  Castellane,"  1851. 

Lery,  li're',  or  Leri,  (JEAN,)  a  French  Protestant  and 
traveller,  born  at  Margellte  in  1534.  He  went  as  a  mis 
sionary  to  Brazil  in  1556,  and  returned  in  1558.  He 
published,  in  French  and  in  Latin,  "A  Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  to  Bra/il,"  with  a  good  description  of  that  re 
gion,  "(1578.)  Diedini6n. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  leh  sSzh,  (ALAIN  RENE,)  a  cele 
brated  French  romancer  and  dramatist,  born  at  Sarzeau, 
near  Vannes,  (Morbihan,)  May  8,  1668.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  lawyer,  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Vannes,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  employed  several  years  in  the 
collection  of  taxes.  In  1692  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
law  and  philosophy.  There  his  handsome  figure  and  his 
intelligence  and  fine  literary  taste  procured  for  him  free 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IE  SAGE 


1412 


LESDIGUIERES 


access  to  the  most  polished  and  aristocratic  society.  In 
1694  he  married  Mademoiselle  Iluyard,  of  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  as  advocate  of  the  Parliament,  but  soon  relin 
quished  all  other  pursuits  that  he  might  devote  himself 
to  literature.  He  studied  Spanish,  and  improved  his 
style  by  translating  or  imitating  several  Spanish  come 
dies.  His  comedy  "  Don  Caesar  Ursin,"  imitated  from 
Calderon,  was  a  failure;  but  his  "Crispin  Rival  de  son 
Maitre"  ("Crispin  the  Rival  of  his  Master")  was  per 
formed  with  brilliant  success  in  1707.  In  the  same  year  he 
produced  "  Le  Diable  boiteux,"  (i.e.  "The  Lame  Devil," 
popularly  called  in  English  "The  Devil  on  Two  Sticks," 
and  sometimes  "Asmodeus,")  a  romance,  the  idea  and 
name  of  which  he  derived  from  a  work  of  Luis  Velez  de 
Guevara.  By  its  satire  on  all  conditions,  its  nervous 
style,  and  its  truthful  portraits,  this  book  attained  great 
popularity.  He  increased  his  reputation  by  an  original 
prose  play  called  "Turcaret,"  which  exposed  the  iniqui 
ties  of  the  traitants  and  other  agents  of  the  revenue. 
These  parties  offered  him  one  hundred  thousand  francs 
to  suppress  the  piece  ;  but  he  refused  the  bribe,  and  it 
was  performed  with  immense  applause  in  1709.  It  is 
superior  to  any  play  which  he  imitated  from  the  Spanish. 

In  1715  Le  Sage  published  two  volumes  of  his  most 
celebrated  work,  "Gil  Bias  de  Santillane,"  which  is 
perhaps  a  more  universal  favourite  than  any  other  novel, 
and  owes  its  success  to  its  admirable  and  natural  pictures 
of  human  life  in  all  its  conditions  and  all  its  phases. 
It  has  been  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Voltaire  and  others  attempted,  without  success,  to 
convict  him  of  borrowing  or  purloining  the  story  from 
some  Spanish  writer.  Their  charges  have  been  refuted 
by  Fransois  de  Neufchateau.  He  employed  the  period 
between  1713  and  1738  chiefly  in  writing  comic  operas 
and  other  pieces,  which  were  exhibited  at  the  fair  of 
Saint-Germain  and  were  extremely  popular.  He  pub 
lished  "Roland  1'Amoureux,"  (1717-31,)  an  imitation  of 
"Orlando  Innamorato,"  and  "The  Adventures  of  Guz 
man  d'Alfarache,"  (1732,)  an  amusing  novel,  superior 
to  the  Spanish  work  of  which  it  is  a  version  or  imitation. 
In  1735  he  produced  a  dialogue  full  of  witty,  wise,  and 
original  thoughts,  entitled  "  A  Day  of  the  Parcae,"  ("  Une 
Journee  des  Parques,")  and  finished  the  last  volume  of 
"Gil  Bias."  After  composing  several  other  works  and 
enjoying  a  large  share  of  domestic  happiness,  he  died  at 
Boulogne  in  November,  1747.  He  had  the  reputation 
of  a  high-minded  and  honourable  man.  His  eldest  son, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  MONTM&NIL,  became  a  famous 
play-actor. 

See  AUDIFFRET,  "  Notice  stir  A.  R.  Lesage,"  1822 ;  SIR  WALTER 
SCOTT,  "Biographical  Noiice  of  Le  Sage,"  (in  his  Miscellaneous 
Works:)  MAI.ITOURNF:,  "  Slogede  Le  Sage,"  1822  :  SAINTE-BEUVE, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tomeii  ;  HENRI  PATIN,  "  filoge  de  Lesage," 
1822;  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  VlLLBMAIN, 
"  Literature  Frangaise  du  dix-huitienie  Siecle,"  tome  i.  :  SAINT- 
MARC  GIRARDIN,  "  filose  de  Lesage,"  1822;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  (BERNARD  MARIE,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792, 
and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  As  a  Girondist  he 
was  proscribed  and  outlawed  in  1793,  but  escaped  by 
flight.  Died  in  1796. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  (GEORGE  Louis,)  a  Swiss  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1724.  He  studied  medicine, 
but  did  not  practise  it.  I  lis  favourite  studies  were  natural 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  mechanics.  In  1750  he  be 
came  a  teacher  of  mathematics  at  Geneva.  He  published 
an  "Essay  on  Mechanical  Chemistry,"  (1758,)  an  inge 
nious  treatise  called  "  Newtonian  Lucretius,"  ("Lucrece 
Newtonien,"  1782,)  and  "Fragments  on  Final  Causes," 
and  left  many  works  in  manuscript.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  corresponded  with 
D'Alembert  and  other  eminent  savants.  Died  in  1803. 

See  P.  PREVOST.  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  G.  L.  Lesage,"  1805; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Le  Sage  (or  Lesage)  de  Montmenil,  leh  stzh  deh 
moN'ma'neK,  (RENE  ANDRE,)  a  son  of  the  author  of  "Gil 
Bias,"  was  born  in  Paris  in  1695.  He  made  his  debut  on 
the  stage  in  1726,  and  performed  various  rdles  in  comedy 
with  success.  He  soon  became  one  of  the  most  cele 
brated  French  actors  of  that  time.  His  private  character 
is  said  to  have  been  noble.  Died  in  1743. 


Les-bo'nax,  [A.ca6tiva%,]  a  Greek  sophist  and  rheto 
rician  of  Mitylene,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.,  in 
the  time  of  Augustus.  He  was  the  father  of  Polemon, 
the  preceptor  of  Tiberius.  His  philosophic  works  have 
not  come  down  to  us  ;  but  we  have  two  orations  of  some 
merit,  which  are  ascribed  to  him.  Another  Lesbonax,  a 
Greek  grammarian,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  a  later 
period.  He  was  author  of  a  small  work  on  grammatical 
figures,  Ilepi  IiX?i[iu,-uv,  which  is  extant. 

See  SUIUAS,  "Lesbonax." 

Lescaille,  li'kil'  or  LVkt'ye,  (CATHERINE,)  a  Dutch 
poetess,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1649,  was  called  "the 
Sappho  of  Holland."  -She  wrote  tragedies, — "  Genseric," 
"Cassandra,"  "  Herod  and  Mariamne,"etc.  Died  in  171 1. 

See  MOKEKI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique. " 

Lescaille,  (JACQUES,)  a  Flemish  or  Dutch  poet  and 
publisher,  born  in  1610,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1677. 

Lescale.     See  SCALIGER. 

Lescallier,  li'ka'leji'  or  l.Yktl'ya',  (DANIEL,)  a 
French  officer  of  the  niaTine,  born  at  Lyons  in  1743.  He 
wrote  a  "  French-English  Vocabulary  of  Marine  Terms," 
(1777,)  and  "Travels  in  England,  Russia,"  etc.,  (1800.) 
Died  in  1822. 

Lescarbot,  la'kiu'bo',  (M/\RC,)  a  French  writer  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Vervins.  He  contributed  to  form  the 
first  French  colony  in  Canada,  and,  having  returned  to 
France,  published  in  1609  a  "  History  of  New  France." 

Lesceiie-Desmaisons,  KVsin'da'nKyzoN',  (JACQUES,) 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Granville  in  1750. 
He  published  in  1781  a  "  History  of  the  Last  Revolution 
in  Sweden,"  and  in  1789  a  "  Political  History  of  the 
French  Revolution."  Died  in  1808. 

Leschassier,  LVshS'se-a',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1550;  died  in  1625. 

Leschenault  de  La  Tour,  I.\sh'n5'  deh  If  IOOR, 
(JEAN  BAPTISTE  Louis  CLAUDE  THEODORE,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in 
1773.  He  travelled  in  Hindostan  about  five  years,  (1816- 
21.)  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Vegetation 
of  New  Holland."  Died  in  1826. 

Lgs'-ehes  [At'a,p;r]  or  Les'cheus,  [Aec^evf,]  a  Greek 
poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  lived  about  700  or 
600  B.C.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  poem  called 
"The  Little  Iliad,"  ('I2.«tc  /u/(pu.) 

L'Escluse.     See  L'ficLUSE. 

Lesconvel,  de,  deh  LYkiN'vel',  (PIERRE,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  about  1650  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1722. 

Lescot,  leVko',  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent  French  archi 
tect,  born  in  Paris  about  1510.  Little  is  known  of  his 
life,  except  that  he  was  abbe  of  Clagny.  He  designed 
the  Louvre,  which  was  begun  about  1541.  The  part  of 
this  palace  called  the  Fa£ade  de  1'Horloge  is  considered 
a  master-piece.  Another  specimen  of  his  good  taste  is  the 
Salle  des  Caryatides,  in  the  same  edifice.  "He  will  ever 
be  regarded,"  says  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "  as 
one  of  the  greatest  architects  of  France."  Died  in  1571. 

See  QUATKEMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Archi- 
tectes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lescun,  de,  deh  leYkuN',  (THOMAS  DE  Foix,)  SKI- 
GNEUR,  a  French  general,  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Lautrec.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1521. 
After  fighting  the  armies  of  Charles  V.  at  several  places 
in  Italy,  he  was  mortally  wounded  at  Pavia  in  1525. 

Lescure,  de,  deh  li'kiiR',  (Louis  MARIE,)  MARQUIS, 
a  French  royalist  and  Vendean  chief,  was  born  in  1766, 
and  svas  a  cousin  of  Larochejaquelein.  He  was  the  most 
scientific  officer  in  the  Vendean  army,  and  was  noted  for 
his  cool  bravery.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Fontenay 
and  Torfou,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Tremblaye 
in  October,  1793.  "His  humanity,"  says  Alison,  "was 
angelic.  Alone  of  all  the  chiefs  in  that  memorable 
struggle,  it  could  be  said  with  truth  that  his  glory  was 
unstained  by  human  blood."  ("  History  of  Europe.") 

See  MADAME  DE  LA  ROCHEJAQUEI.EIN,  "Memoires." 

Lesdiguieres,  de,  deh  l.Yde'ge-aiR',  (FRANCOIS  DE 
BONNE,)  DUKE,  a  distinguished  French  marshal,  born  in 
Dauphine  in  1543.  He  fought  for  the  Protestants  in 
the  civil  war  which  began  about  1562,  and  obtained  the 
chief  command  of  the  Protestant  army  in  1575.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  most  effectually  aided  Henry  IV.  in 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LESEUR 


H'3 


LESLIE 


obtaining  the  throne.     In  1608  he  was  rewarded  with  the  I 
rank  of  marshal  and  a  dukedom,  and  about  1610  com-  I 
manded  the  army  in  Italy,  where  he  defeated  the  Span-  j 
iards.     He  was  accused  by  some  writers  of  conspiring  | 
with  other  Protestant  leaders  to  form  a  republic  after  j 
the  death  of  Henry  IV.  ;  but  he  refused  to  fight  against  j 
the  court  in  the  civil  war  that  began   about  1620.     In 
1622   he   abjured   Calvinism,  and    was    appointed  Con 
stable  of  France.     Died  in  1626.     Henry  IV.  once  said 
he  would  acknowledge  his  own  inferiority  to  no  captain 
in  Europe  except  Lesdiguieres. 

See  Louis  VIDEL,  "Vie  du  Marechal  de  Lesdiguieres,"  1638: 
BRANTOME,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  ;"  DE'I'HOU,  "  Historia  sui 
Temporis ;"  J.  C.  MARTIN,  "  Histoire  abregee  de  la  Vie  de  F.  de 
lionne,"  1802;  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Leseur,  leh-zua',  (THOMAS,)  an  able  French  geometer, 
born  at  Rethel  in  1703.  lie  became  a  professor  of  ma 
thematics  in  the  College  of  Sapienza,  in  Rome.  There 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  F.  Jacquier,  whom  he  as 
sisted  in  two  works,  viz.,  a  "Commentary  on  Newton's 
Principia"  and  "Elements  of  the  Integral  Calculus," 
(1748.)  Died  in  1770. 

Leske,  les'keh,  (XATHAMK.I.  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Muskau  in  1757;  died  in  1786. 

Lesley.     See  LKSI.IE,  (AI.KXANDKR.) 

Les'ley,  ([OHN,)  Bishop  of  Ross,  a  Scottish  Catholic 
prelate,  chiefly  noted  for  his  zeal  and  fidelity  in  the 
service  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  was  born  in  1527.  He 
escorted  Mary  from  France  to  Scotland  in  1561,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  Bishop  of  Ross.  When  Queen 
Mary  was  detained  as  a  prisoner  in  England,  and  com 
missioners  were  ordered  to  examine  her  cause  in  1568, 
Lesley  was  one  of  the  commissioners  whom  she  chose 
to  defend  her.  Having  taken  part  in  the  matrimonial 
intrigue  between  Mary  and  the  Duke  ol  Norfolk,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  1571,  and  released  in  1573. 
He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  exile.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  work  "  On  the  Origin,  Customs,  and  Achievements 
of  the  Scotch,"  (1578,)  eloquent  arguments  in  defence  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1596. 

See  RoBF.RTs-iN,  "History  of  Scotland;"  LAING,  "History  of 
Scotland;"  BCRTON,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xli.  ; 
FROUDE,  "  History  of  England;"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dic 
tionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Les'lie  (les'le)  or  Lesley,  (ALEXANDKR,)  Earl  of 
Leven,  an  eminent  Scottish  general.  He  served  some 
years  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden,  who  pro 
moted  him  to  tlie  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1628  he 
defended  Stralsund  with  success.  Having  returned 
home  in  1639,  when  the  Covenanters  were  preparing  to 
resist  Charles  I.,  he  was  chosen  general-iii-chief  of  their 
army  ;  but  before  any  battle  was  fought  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  made.  War  was  renewed  in  1640.  Leslie  defeated 
the  king's  army  at  Newburn,  and  another  treaty  followed. 
He  commanded  the  large  Scottish  army  which,  in  Jan 
uary,  1644,  marched  to  assist  the  Engli>h  Parliament. 
Having  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Fairfax,  he 
led  a  division  at  Marston  Moor,  (1644,)  where  he  was 
driven  off  the  field,  though  his  allies  gained  the  victory. 
In  May,  1646,  Charles  I.  delivered  himself  up  to  the 
army  of  Leslie,  then  encamped  at  Newark.  On  account 
of  his  great  age,  he  resigned  his  command  in  1650.  Died 
in  1 66 1. 

See  HUME,  "History  of  England;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leslie,  (CHARI.KS,)  a  British  polemical  writer  on 
politics  and  religion,  was  born  in  Ireland  about  1650. 
He  took  orders  about  1680  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and 
gained  distinction  as  a  disputant  against  the  Catholics. 
In  the  Revolution,  however,  (1688,)  he  was  a  staunch 
Jacobite  and  nonjuror,  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  preferment 
in  the  church.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works 
against  the  Jews,  Deists,  Socinians,  and  other  sects.  In 
his  "  Snake  in  the  Grass"  he  attacked  the  Society  of 
Friends.  After  the  death  of  James  II.,  Leslie  joined  the 
court  of  the  Pretender  in  France.  He  died  in  Ireland 
in  1722.  His  most  esteemed  work  is  a  "Short  and 
Easy  Method  with  the  Deists,"  (1694.)  Dr.  Johnson 
pronounced  him  the  only  one  of  the  nonjurors  that 
could  reason. 

See  BURXET,  "History  of  his  Own  Time;"  MORERI,  "Diction- 
naire  Historique. " 


Leslie,  (CHARLES  ROUERT,)  an  eminent  English  his 
torical  painter,  born  of  American  parents  in  Ixmdon  in 
1794,  was  a  brother  of  Eliza  Leslie  the  authoress.  After 
passing  twelve  years  in  Philadelphia  with  his  parents, 
he  removed  in  1813  to  London,  where  he  was  instructed 
in  the  study  of  art  by  West  and  Allston.  Among  his 
first  successful  works  was  "Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  going 
to  Church,"  (1820.)  He  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1821,  and  Royal  Academician  in  1826. 
His  subjects  are  mostly  of  a  homely  and  familiar  char 
acter,  illustrative  of  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Moliere, 
Cervantes,  and  other  humorous  writers.  Among  his 
most  admired  productions  are  his  illustrations  of  "  Don 
Quixote."  He  was  also  successful  in  portraits.  In  1847 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  painting  in  the  Royal  Acad 
emy.  He  published  a  "Life  of  John  Constable,"  (1843,) 
and  a  "Hand-Book  for  Young  Painters,"  (1855.)  Died 
in  1859.  "The  more  I  learn  of  art,"  says  Ruskin,  "the 
more  respect  I  feel  for  Mr.  Leslie's  painting  as  such. 
Given  a  certain  quantity  of  oil-colour  to  be  laid  with  one 
touch  of  the  pencil  so  as  to  produce  at  once  the  subtlest 
and  largest  expressional  result  possible,  and  there  is  no 
man  now  living  who  seems  to  me  to  come  at  all  near  Mr. 
Leslie,  his  work  being  in  places  equal  to  Hogarth  for 
decision." 

See  RI-SKIX,  "Modern  Painters;"  C.  R.  LESLIE,  "Autobio 
graphic  Recollections,"  edited  by  TOM  TAYLOR.  Boston,  1865; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1860 ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1861. 

Leslie  or  Lesley,  (DAVID,)  an  able  Scottish  general. 
After  serving  with  distinction  under  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden,  he  returned  to  Scotland  about  1642.  He 
had  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  when  he  fought 
against  Charles  I.  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644.  The  suc 
cess  of  this  action  was  ascribed  chiefly  to  Cromwell  and 
Leslie.  In  1646  he  defeated  Montrose  at  Philiphaugh. 
On  the  resignation  of  the  Earl  of  Leven,  (1650,)  Leslie 
was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  Scottish  army 
raised  to  restore  Charles  II.  He  intrenched  his  army 
between  Edinburgh  and  Leith,  and  prudently  declined 
Cromwell's  offer  of  battle.  Leslie  followed  the  English 
army  to  Dunbar,  where  they  were  reduced  to  extremi 
ties  for  want  of  provisions.  Against  his  own  judgment, 
he  was  induced  by  the  clergy  to  descend  from  his  ad 
vantageous  position  and  offer  battle.  The  result  was  a 
signal  defeat  of  the  Scotch,  September  3,  1650.  Leslie 
was  second  or  third  in  command  at  Worcester  in  1651. 
In  the  retreat  from  this  battle  he  was  made  prisoner,  and 
was  confined  in  the  Tower  until  1660.  He  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Newark  in  1661.  Died  in  1682. 

See  HUME,  "History  of  England  ;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  "Scotsmen  ;"  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the 
Rebellion:" 

Leslie,  (ELIZA,)  an  American  writer,  sister  of  Charles 
Robert,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1787. 
She  was  the  author  of  numerous  tales  and  sketches, 
which  display  uncommon  powers  of  humour  and  satire 
and  acquired  extensive  popularity.  Among  the  principal 
of  these  are  "  Pencil  Sketches,  or  Outlines  of  Character 
and  Manners,"  (1833,)  "  Atlantic  Tales,"  "The  American 
Girl's  Book,"  and  "Althea  Vernon,"  (1841.)  She  also 
published  "The  Domestic  Cookery  Book,"  the  "Beha 
viour  Book,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1857. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1833. 

Leslie,  (JOHN,)  born  in  Scotland  about  1570,  was  the 
father  of  Charles  Leslie,  (1650-1722.)  He  spoke  Latin 
and  several  modern  languages.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1633,  and  built  a  strong  castle, 
which  he  defended  against  Cromwell  in  the  civil  war. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  last  in  Ireland  to  submit 
to  the  victor.  In  1661  he  became  Bishop  of  Clogher. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leslie,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  eminent  Scottish  geometer  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Largo,  in  Fifeshire,  in  1766. 
He  was  educated  at  Saint  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh,  and 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  1790.  In  1793  he  pro 
duced  a  translation  of  Buffon's  "  Natural  History  of 
Birds,"  which  was  very  favourably  received.  About 
1795  he  invented  the  Differential  Thermometer.  He 
published  in  1804  his  ingenious  "  Experimental  Inquiry 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( 3^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LES  P1N4SSE 


1414 


LESSING 


into  the  Nature  and  Propagation  of  Heat,"  for  which 
the  Royal  Society  awarded  him  the  Rumford  medal.  In 
1805  he  was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  although  the  clergy  formally 
protested  against  his  election,  because  he  had  com 
mended  Hume's  "Theory  of  Causation."  He  succeeded 
Playfair  as  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  Edinburgh 
in  1819,  and  contributed  much  to  the  perfection  of  the 
apparatus  and  experiments  of  that  department.  lie 
wrote  many  scientific  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica"  and  "Edinburgh  Review."  Among  his 
separate  publications  were  "  Elements  of  Geometry," 
etc.,  (1809,)  and  "Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy," 
(1823.)  He  wrote  an  interesting  and  excellent  "  Dis 
course  on  the  Progress  of  Mathematical  and  Physical 
Sciences  during  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  which  is  one 
of  the  preliminary  dissertations  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  new  edition  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Hritannica."  His 
treatise  on  "Heat,"  above  noticed,  indicates  a  remarka 
ble  original  genius,  and  constitutes  an  era  in  the  history 
of  that  branch  of  science.  Died  in  1832. 

See  MACVEY  NAPIER,  "Memoir  of  Sir  John  Leslie,"  1838; 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;"  CHAMBERS,  '*  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  •'  Edinburgh  Review"  tor  October,  1805,  and 
Ju!y,  1812. 

Lespinasse.     See  ESIMNASSE,  DK  L'. 

Lespiaasse,  leVpe'nt-/,  (  AUGUSTIN,  )  COUNT,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Prenilly  in  1737.  In  1796  he 
fought  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  directed  the  artil 
lery  at  Mantua,  Castiglione,  and  Arcola  with  great  skill, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  Died  in  1816. 

Lessart,  de,  deh  li'stk',  (ANTOINK  DK  VALDEC,)  a 
French  minister  of  state,  born  in  Gnienne  in  1742.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior  about  January  i, 
1791,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  December  of  that 
year.  His  policy  offended  the  dominant  party,  which 
impeached  him  in  March,  1792.  He  was  imprisoned, 
and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  September,  1792. 

See  THIKRS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lesseps,  de,  deh  l.Vse;/,  (FERDINAND,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1805.  He  became 
consul  at  Cairo  about  1833,  and  in  1842  was  appointed 
consul  at  Barcelona.  During  the  bombardment  of  this 
city  by  Espartero,  Lesseps  performed  perilous  acts  of 
humanity,  for  which  he  received  testimonials  of  honour 
from  several  governments.  He  was  minister  at  Madrid 
from  April,  1848,  to  February,  1849.  In  May,  1849,  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  the 
popular  party  and  the  French  army.  He  was  recalled 
in  disgrace  in  June  of  that  year,  because  he  was  too 
favourable  to  the  Roman  republic.  He  expended  many 
years  in  a  great  project  to  construct  a  ship-canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  for  which  purpose  a  joint-stock 
company  was  formed  under  his  direction.  This  canal, 
about  one  hundred  miles  long,  was  completed  and 
opened  in  November,  1869,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  sixty 
millions  of  dollars. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Lesseps,  de,  (J KAN  BAPTISTE  BARTHELEMI,)  a  French 
traveller  and  civil  officer,  born  at  Cette  in  1766.  As 
interpreter  he  accompanied  La  Perouse's  expedition  in 
1785,  and  on  their  arrival  at  Kamtchatka  (1787)  was 
sent  home  by  land  with  despatches,  etc.  He  published 
a  Journal  of  his  Travels  from  Kamtchatka  to  France, 
(1790.)  Died  in  1834. 

Lesser,  leVser,  (FRIEDRICH  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Nordhansen  in  1692. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Nordhausen  in  1739. 
His  most  popular  work  is  the  "Theology  of  Insects," 
(1738.)  "The  plan  of  this  work  is  excellent,"  says 
Walckenaer  ;  "  but  the  art  of  describing  with  precision 
and  narrating  with  elegance  is  not  found  in  it."  He  also 
wrote  the  "Theology  of  Stones,"  (1735.)  Died  in  1754. 

See  J.  P.  F.  LESSKR,  "  Nacluicht  von  dem  Leben  und  den 
Schriften  F.  C.  Lessers,"  1755;  MKUSEL,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Lesser,  de,  (AUGUSTIN  CREUZE.)     See  CREUZE. 

Lessing,  les'sing,  (GOTTHOI.D  KPHRAIM,)  an  eminent 
author,  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  new  era  of  German 
literature,  was  born  at  Kamentz,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  in 
1729.  When  twelve  years  old,  he  was  sent  to  the  high 
school  at  Meissen,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by 


his  application  and  his  rapid  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Being  destined  by  his  parents  to  the  ministry,  he  entered, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  the  university  at  Leipsic.  While 
here,  his  taste  for  general  literature  and  his  fondness  for 
the  theatre  caused  him  to  neglect,  and  ultimately  to 
abandon,  the  study  of  theology,  that  he  might  devote 
himself  wholly  to  his  favourite  pursuits.  Not  to  mention 
several  dramas  of  minor  importance,  Lessing  brought 
out  in  1755  "Miss  Sarah  Sampson,"  a  tragedy,  which 
was  received  by  the  German  public  with  extraordinary 
favour,  and  was  translated  into  other  languages.  In 
1757  he  commenced,  in  concert  with  Mendelssohn  and 
Nicolai,  the  publication  of  the  "  Bibliothek  der  schonen 
Wissenschaften,"  (literally,  the  "  Library  of  the  Beautiful 
Sciences,") — .1  literary  journal  of  great  merit.  He  pub 
lished  in  1766  his  "Laocoon,  or  the  Limits  of  Poetry 
and  Painting."  This  work  has  exerted  a  great  and  per 
manent  influence  on  the  science  of  criticism  in  Germany, 
both  in  literature  and  art.  In  1768  appeared  the  "  Dra 
maturgic," — another  critical  work,  in  which  Lessing 
opposes  the  French  and  defends  the  English  drama. 
He  completed  in  1772  his  "Emilia  Galotti/'  which  has 
been  styled  "the  master-piece  of  German  tragedy,  as 
the  '  Laocoon'  is  the  master-piece  of  German  criticism  ;" 
and  in  177^  he  brought  out  his  "Minna  von  Barnhclm," 
regarded  as  the  most  perfect  of  his  comedies.  His 
last  important  work  was  "Nathan  the  Wise,"  ("Nathan 
der  Weise,'') — a  sort  of  controversial  drama  in  iambic 
verse,  directed  against  religions  intolerance.  Our  limits 
will  scarcely  permit  us  to  do  more  than  allude  to  his 
various  minor  productions,  nearly  all  of  which,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  bear  the  decided  impress  of  an 
earnest,  independent,  and  original  mind.  We  may, 
however,  mention  his  "  Letters  on  Literature,"  ("  Lite- 
rattirbriefe,")  his  "  Education  of  the  Human  Race." 
("  Erziehung  des  Menschengeschlechts,")  and  especially 
his  "  Fables,"  so  rich  in  wit  and  original  thought :  many 
of  these  have  a  literary  application. 

One  of  the  great  objects  for  which  Lessing  earnestly 
laboured  was  to  build  up  a  national  literature.  The 
Germans  had  previously,  to  a  great  extent,  neglected 
or  despised  the  rich  native  resources  of  their  own 
tongue.  Lessing  sought  by  precept  and  example  to  re 
call  his  countrymen  from  the  almost  exclusive  study  of 
the  French,  recommending  in  preference  the  English 
dramatic  models,  as  superior  in  themselves  nnd  better 
adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  German  people. 

In  1760  Lessing  was  made  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  soon  after  accom 
panied  General  Tauenzien,  Governor  of  Silesia,  as  his 
secretary,  to  Breslau,  where  lie  resided  five  years.  During 
this  period  he  became  addicted  to  gambling;  but  this 
vice  does  not  appear  to  have  materially  interfered  with 
his  application  to  literature.  In  1770  he  obtained  the 
office  of  head  librarian  of  the  Wolfenbiittel  Library. 
Soon  after,  he  discovered  and  published  the  famous 
"  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,"  (on  the  discrepancies  of  the 
gospel  narratives,)  by  Reimarus,  who,  however,  at  that 
time  was  not  known  as  the  author.  This  publication 
brought  upon  Lessing  much  censure  and  reproach  :  he 
was  accused  of  a  deliberate  design  to  undermine  Chris 
tianity.  If,  however,  we  may  believe  his  friend  Herder, 
he  gave  those  "Fragments"  to  the  public  "  purely  for 
the  interests  of  truth,  for  the  sake  of  freer  inquiry  and 
of  examination  and  confirmation  on  all  sides."  A  candid 
examination  of  Lessing's  own  writings  will,  we  are  per 
suaded,  go  far  to  justify,  if  not  fully  to  confirm,  Herder's 
opinion.  The  extraordinary  activity  and  incessant  appli 
cation  of  Lessing's  mind  at  length  wore  out  his  physical 
constitution.  He  died  at  Brunswick  1781,  aged  fifty-two. 

SeeE.  P.  EVANS,  "Life  and  Works  of  G.  E.  Lessing,"  from  the  Ger 
man  of  ADOLF  W.  T.  STAHR,  2  vols.,  1867  ;  DANZHI,  "  G.  E.  Lessing. 
sein  Leben  nnd  seine  Wrrke,"  1850  ;  C.  G.  LESSING,  "  G.  E.  Lessing's 
Leben."  etc.,  3  vols.,  1793;  DOKINU,  ''G.  E.  Lessmg's  Biographic," 
1853;  DlLLBK,  "  Erinnerungen  an  G.  E.  Lessing,"  1841;  SCHINK, 
"  Cliaracteristik  G.  E.  Lessing's,"  iRzs  :  GROSSMANN,  "Lessing's 
Denkmal,"  1791;  A.  TOLHAUSEN,  "Klopstock,  Lessing,  and  Wie- 
land,"  London,  1848;  H.  G.  GRAEVE.  "-G.  E.  Lessing's  Lebensge- 
schichte,"  etc.,  182-);  F.  SCHI.EGEL.  "  Characteristics  and  Criticisms" 
('"  Characteristiken  nnd  Kritiken")  on  L<-ssing,'°  1801  ;  "Charac 
teristics  of  Men  of  Genius,"  by  E.  P  WHIPPI.E,  1840:  "  Mlack- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1826.  (by  DK  QUINCEY  ;)  HEDGE, 
"  Prose  Writers  of  Germany,"  1847  ;  "  Hiographie  Universelle." 


a,  c,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LESSING 


1415 


LETELLIER 


Lessing,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  an  eminent  German 
painter,  and  grand-nephew  of  the  celebrated  critic,  was 
born  at  \Yartenberg  in  1808.  He  studied  architecture 
for  a  time,  but  soon  yielded  to  his  stronger  attraction 
for  painting.  In  1825  he  finished  his  picture  of  "The 
Church-Yard,"  which  excited  great  admiration.  He 
soon  after  studied  historical  painting  under  Schadow  at 
Dusseldorf.  In  this  department  he  produced  in  1829 
"The  Battle  of  Iconium,"  and  completed  other  illustra 
tions  of  the  life  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  left  unfinished 
by  Cornelius.  His  next  productions,  representing  scenes 
from  Burger's  "  Lenore"  and  Uhland's  "Royal  Mourn 
ers,"  display  great  originality  and  poetic  fancy.  Among 
his  master-pieces  we  may  also  name  "  Huss  before  the 
Council  of  Constance,"  "The  Robber  and  his  Child," 
and  a  "Scene  in  the  Eifel,"  with  several  other  exqui 
site  landscapes.  Lessing,  while  retaining  many  of  the 
peculiar  excellencies  of  the  ideal  or  romantic  school, 
has  avoided  the  formality  of  style  into  which  it  has 
sometimes  degenerated. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Ktinstler-Lexikon." 

Leasing,  (KARL  GUTTHELF,)  a  German  dramatist, 
born  in  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  author.  He 
published  several  comedies,  and  a  "  Life  of  Gotthold 
Ephraim  Lessing." 

Lessius,  les'se-us,  (LEONARD,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Brechtan,  in  Brabant,  in  1554.  He  lectured  on  the 
ology  with  eclat  at  Louvain  from  1585  until  1623.  He 
wrote  several  popular  works,  among  which  are  one 
"On  Justice  and  other  Cardinal  Virtues,"  (1621,)  and 
another  ''On  the  Power  of  the  Pope."  He  was  charged 
with  favouring  semi-Pelagianism.  Died  in  1623. 

Lessmarm,  les'man,  (DANIKL,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Soldin  in  1794.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  and 
a  number  of  novels  and  tales.  He  died  in  1831,  it  is 
supposed  by  suicide. 

Lesson,  Ii's6.\',  (RENE  PRIMEVERE,)  a  French  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Rochefort  in  1794.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  a  "Manual  of  Ornithology,"  (2  vols.,  1828,) 
and  a  "Supplement  to  the  Works  of  Buffon,"  ("Com 
plement  des  CEuvres  de  Buffon,"  10  vols.,  1828  et  seq.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  AMEDEE  LEFEVRE,  "FJoge  historique  de  R.  P.  Lesson," 
1850. 

Les'ter,  (CHARLES  EDWARDS,)  an  American  littera 
teur,  born  in  New  London  county,  Connecticut,  in  1815. 
He  published  the  "  Life  and  Voyages  of  Americas 
Vespucius,"  "Artists  of  America,"  and  various  other 
works,  and  made  several  translations  from  the  Italian. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1846. 

Lestiboudois,  les'te'boo'dwa',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Douay  in  1715;  died  in  1804. 
His  grandson,  THEMISTOCLES,  born  at  Lille  in  1797,  is 
a  physician  and  writer  on  botany,  etc. 

Lestocq  or  Lestoq,  leVtok',    QOHANN   HERMAN,) 
a  surgeon,  born  of  French  parents   in   Hanover  about 
1695.     He  removed    in   1713  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
became  surgeon   to  Peter  the  Great.     In   1725  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  princess  Elizabeth.     He  was 
the  master-spirit  of  the  plot  or  revolution  which  made 
her  empress   in  1741.     For  some   years  afterwards   he 
\yas  treated  with  much  favour,  and  took  an  influential  j 
part  in  affairs  of  state;   but  in  1750  he  was  disgraced  ' 
and   exiled.     He  was   recalled   by  Peter  III.  in   1762.  i 
Died  in  1767. 

Lestoile  or  Letoile.     See  F/TOILE,  DE  L'. 

L'Estrange,  ISs-tranj',  (Sir  ROGER,)  an  English  par 
tisan  writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1616,  was  a  zealous 
royalist  in  the  civil  war.  Having  been  detected  in  a  plot 
to  surprise  Lynn,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  as  a  spy  in 
1644,  but  obtained  a  respite,  and  escaped  in  1648.  After 
passing  a  few  years  in  exile,  he  returned  in  1653  and 
obtained  from  Cromwell  a  release  from  the  sentence.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  censor  of  the  press.  He 
translated  the  works  of  Josephus,  Seneca's  "  Morals," 
and  /Esop's  Fables,  and  wrote  many  popular  political 
tracts.  His  style  is  censured  for  vulgarity,  and  his  works 
abound  in  slang.  After  the  restoration  he  edited  several 
political  journals.  "  His  /Esop's  Fables,"  says  Hallam, 
"will  present  everything  that  is  hostile  to  good  taste." 


("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")     Died  in 
1704. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Lesueur  or  Le  Sueur,  leh-sii'uR',  (CHARLES  ALEX- 
ANDRE,)  a  French  naturalist  and  designer,  born  at  Havre 
in  1778.  He  explored  with  Peron  the  coasts  of  Aus 
tralia,  and  wrote  many  memoirs  on  mollusca,  etc.  Died 
in  1846. 

Lesueur,  (CiCERON  JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  near  Rambouillet  in  1794,  became  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  He  published  a  "Chronology  of  the 
Kings  of  Egypt,"  (1848-50.) 

Lesueur,  (EUSTACHE,)  an  excellent  painter  of  history, 
surnamed  "the  French  Raphael,"  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1617.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet.  He  excelled  in  com 
position,  expression,  and  chiaroscuro.  Among  his  works 
are  "Saint  Paul  Preaching  at  Ephesus,"  "The  Annun 
ciation,"  "The  Life  of  Saint  Bruno,"  (in  22  pictures,) 
and  "The  Death  of  Tabitha."  The  first  is  called  a 
master-piece  of  invention  and  style.  He  died  prema 
turely  in  1655. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Francais,"  and  "  £tude 
sur  E.  Lesueur,"  1845;  Louis  VITKT,  "  E.  Lesueur,  sa  Vie  et  ses 
CEuvres,"  1853:  L.  DUSSIKUX,  "  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  Vie 
d'E.  Lesueur,"  1852. 

Lesueur,  (JEAN,)  a  French  historian  and  Protestant 
minister.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  and  Em 
pire  from  the  Birth  of  Christ,"  (1672.)  Died  in  1681. 

Lesueur  or  Le  Sueur,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  cele 
brated  French  composer,  born  near  Abbeville  about 
1760.  Having  gained  reputation  by  his  motets  and 
masses,  he  was  chosen  chapel-master  of  Notre-Dame, 
Paris,  in  1786.  His  opera  "La  Caverne"  (1792)  was 
very  successful.  In  1804  he  became  chapel-master  of 
Napoleon,  and  produced  "The  Bards,"  ("  Les  Bardes,") 
an  opera,  which  was  greatly  applauded.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1815.  He  composed  other 
operas,  an  "Essay  on  Sacred  Music,"  and  a  "Treatise 
on  Ancient  Music,"  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
in  1837. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Le  Sueur,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in 
Paris  about  1540,  became  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Inquests  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  He  made  a  good 
translation  of  Pindar's  Odes  into  Latin  verse,  (1575.) 
Died  in  1594. 

Lesueur,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  engraver  of  cameos, 
born  in  Paris  in  1690;  died  in  1764.  His  uncle  PIERRE, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1636,  was  one  of  the  best  engravers  on 
wood  of  his  time.  Died  in  1716. 

Leszczinski.     See  STANISLAS. 

Letaiiduere,  de,  deh  la'toN'dii'aiR',  (HENRI  FRAN 
gois  DESHERRIERS,)  MARQUIS,  an  able  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Angers  in  1682.  He  was  made  chef  d"es- 
cadre  in  1745.  In  that  year  he  captured  four  English 
frigates  near  Brest.  Died  in  1750. 

Letellier.     See   Louvois,   COURTANVAUX,   DE,  and 

ESTREES,  D',  (LOUIS  C6SAR.) 

Letellier,  leh-ti'le  a',  a  French  painter,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1614,  was  a  nephew  and  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
Poussin.  His  favourite  subjects  were  devotional.  He 
excelled  in  expression  and  linear  perspective.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "Holy  Family,"  an  "Ascension," 
and  an  "  Annunciation."  Died  in  1676. 

Letellier  or  Le  Tellier,  ( MICHEL,)  a  French  states 
man,  born  in  1603.  By  the  patronage  of  Mazarin,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the  war  department 
soon  after  1642.  During  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  he 
was  an  adherent  of  Mazarin.  The  latter  having  with 
drawn  from  France  about  1651,  Letellier  was  employed 
as  minister  by  the  queen-regent  during  the  short  period 
of  his  absence.  In  1677  he  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  France.  He  sealed  with  alacrity  the  fatal  edict  against 
the  Protestants  which  in  1685  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Died  in  1685.  Louvois,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  was 
his  son. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  CHOISY,  "Memoires." 

Letellier,  (MICHEL,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Vire, 
in  Normandy,  in  1643.  He  edited  Quintus  Curtius  for 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LETHE 


1416 


LEURET 


the  use  of  the  dauphin  (in  usum  Delphini)  in  1678,  and 
wrote  against  Jansenism.  In  1709  he  became  confessor 
to  Louis  XIV.,  with  the  privilege  of  presenting  subjects 
for  benefices.  D'Alembert  and  others  accuse  him  of 
giving  the  king  perfidious  counsels.  At  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV.  (1715)  he  was  exiled.  Died  in  1719. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 'XIV;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "Me"- 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Le'the,  [A//0/;,]  a  Greek  word  signifying  "forgetful- 
ness"  or  "  oblivion,"  and  forming  the  name  of  one  of 
the  streams  of  Hades.  See  PLUTO. 

Lethiere,  leh-te-aiR',  (GUILLAUME  GUII.LON,  )  an 
eminent  French  landscape-  and  historical  painter,  was 
born  in  Guadeloupe  in  1760.  lie  studied  in  Rome,  and 
worked  in  Paris  with  success.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Cassar,"  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  and 
"Homer  reciting  his  Poems."  Died  in  1832. 

Lethington.     See  MAITLAND,  (WILLIAM.) 

Leti,  la'tee,  (GREGORIO,)  an  Italian  historical  writer, 
born  at  Milan  in  1630.  He  went  to  Geneva,  turned 
Protestant,  and  opened  a  school  in  1660.  In  1669  he 
published  a  "Life  of  Sixtus  V.,"  which  is  his  most 
popular  work.  His  satirical  humour  involved  him  in 
difficulties,  which  compelled  him  to  leave  Geneva  in 
1679.  He  passed  some  time  at  the  court  of  Charles 
II.  of  England,  and  was  ordered  to  quit  that  kingdom 
in  1682.  He  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1701,  leaving  many 
histories  and  biographies,  which  are  unreliable. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Leto.     See  LATONA. 

Leto,  (POMPONIO.)     See  POMPONIUS  L/ETUS. 

Letourneur,  leh-tooR'nUR',  (CHARLES  Louis  FRAN 
COIS  HONORE,)  a  Director  of  the  French  republic,  was 
born  in  Basse-Xormandie  in  1751.  He  was  deputed  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  with  the  Girondists 
for  the  death  of  the  king.  He  was  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Executive  Directory  elected  in  October,  1795  or 
1796.  He  was  exiled  as  a  regicide  in  1816,  and  died 
in  1817. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Le  Tourneur,  (PIERRK.)     See  TOURNEUR,  LE. 

Letronne,  leh-tRon',  QEAN  ANTOINE,)  an  eminent 
French  antiquary  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1787,  was 
remarkable  for  sagacity,  mental  activity,  and  variety  of 
acquirements.  After  returning  from  his  travels  in  Italy 
and  other  countries,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1816.  In  1823  he  published 
a  "  Historical  Essay  on  Egypt  during  the  Domination 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans."  He  wrote  able  articles 
for  the  "  Biographic  Universelle"  and  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes."  He  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the 
College  of  France  about  1831,  and  keeper  of  the  archives 
of  France  in  1840.  Among  his  principal  works  is  "A 
Collection  ofthe  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  of  Egypt," 
(2  vols.  410,  1842-48.)  He  proved  that  the  zodiac  of 
Denderah  belonged  to  the  time  ofthe  Roman  emperors, 
thus  exploding  the  theory  of  Dupuis.  Died  in  1848. 

See  BURNOUF  et  QUATREMERE,  "  Discours  prononce's  aux  Fune'- 
railles  de  Letronne,"  1848;  WAI.CKENAER,  "  Eloge  de  Letronne," 
1850;  Ko.MoNoGARNiER,  "  Notice  sur  Letronne  ;"  ALFRED  MATRY, 
"  Notice  sur  Letronne,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Letrosne,  leh-tR5n',  (GUILLAUME  FRANC.OIS,)  a 
French  advocate  and  economist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1728. 
He  published  a  treatise  in  favour  of  free  trade  in  grain, 
and  other  works  on  political  economy.  Died  in  1780. 

Lette,  let'teh,  (\\'ILHKLM  ADOLPH,)  a  Prussian  econ 
omist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Kienitz  in  1799. 
He  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly  of  Prussia 
several  times  between  1850  and  1856. 

Lattice,  let'tiss,  (JoHN,)  an  English  poet  and  clergy 
man,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1737.  His  poem  on 
the  conversion  of  Saint  Paul  gained  a  prize  at  Cam 
bridge  in  1764.  He  attained  eminence  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
In  1785  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Peasemarsh, 
Sussex.  He  was  author  of  "  Fables  for  the  Fireside," 
(1812,)  "Strictures  on  Elocution,"  (1821,)  sermons,  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1832. 

Lett'sovn,  (JoHN  COAKLEY,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  the  West  Indies,  near  Tortola,  about  1744.  His 
parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He 
studied  in  Edinburgh,  Paris,  and  Leyden,  and  in  1769 


settled  in  London,  where,  through  the  influence  of  Dr. 
Fothergill,  he  obtained  a  large  practice.  He  acquired  an 
extensive  scientific  reputation,  and  was  elected  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1771.  Besides  several  profes 
sional  treatises,  he  published  "The  Natural  History  of 
the  Tea-Tree,"  (1772,)  the  "Naturalist's  and  Traveller's 
Companion,"  (1774,)  and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Fothergill," 
(1783.)  Died  in  1815. 

See  "Memoirs  of  J.  C.  Lettsom,"  by  T.  J.  PETTIGKEW,  1817; 
DESOBNETTES,  in  the  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Leu,  loi,  [Fr.  pron.  luh,]  (JoiiANN  JAKOB,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1689.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Switzerland,"  (20 
vols.,  1746-63,)  which  treats  of  the  civil,  religious, 
literarv,  and  natural  history  of  that  country.  Died  in 
1768.  ' 

Leuchtenberg,  DUKE  OF.     See  BEAUHARNAIS,  DE, 

(ElHJENK.) 

Leuchtenberg,  de,  deh  loiK'ten-beRC/,  (KARL  AU 
GUST  NAPOLEON,)  PRINCE,  the  eldest  son  of  Eugene  de 
Beauharnais,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  was  bom  at  Milan  in 
1810.  His  mother  was  Augusta  Amelia,  daughter  ofthe 
King  of  Bavaria.  He  passed  his  youth  in  Bavaria. 
About  1834  he  was  made  the  first  peer  of  Bavaria  by 
his  uncle,  Louis  I.  He  married  Maria,  Queen  of  Por 
tugal,  in  January,  1835,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Santa 
Cruz,  but  died  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

Leucippe.     See  LKUCIPPUS. 

Leu-cip'pus,  [Gr.  A«'KCT7roc;  Fr.  LEUCIPPE,  luh'sep',] 
a  famous  Greek  philosopher,  who  is  generally  reputed 
the  author  ofthe  atomic  philosophy.  lie  was  a  disciple 
of  Zeno  of  Elea.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are 
unknown  ;  but,  as  he  was  the  teacher  of  Democritus,  he 
probably  lived  earlier  than  450  U.c.  Different  accounts 
state  that  he  was  born  at  Elea,  Abdera,  or  Miletus.  His 
works  have  not  come  down  to  us.  His  doctrines  are 
supposed  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  Democritus. 

See  RITTER,  "History  of  Philosophy  ;"  DIOGENES  LAKRTICS. 

Leuckfeld,  loik'felt,  QOHANN  GEORO,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1668  ;  died  in  1726. 

Leu'con,  [A«'/cwi>,]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old 
comedy,  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Aristophanes. 

Leu'-coth'e-a,  (or  lu-ko'the-a,)  [Gr.  Afwofltn  ,•  Fr. 
LEUCOTHEE,  luh'ko'ta',]  i.e.  "White  Goddess,"  a  name 
given  to  I  NO,  which  see. 

Leucothee.     See  LEUCOTHEA. 

Leunclavius,  loin-kla've-us,  (JoiiANN,)  an  excellent 
German  scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  LOWENKLAU 
or  LOEWENKLAU,  (16'wen-klow',)  was  born  at  Amel- 
bauern,  in  Westphalia,  in  1533.  lie  was  well  versed  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  public  law.  A  large  part  of  his  life  was 
passed  at  the  courts  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  of  other 
princes.  He  published  editions  with  Latin  versions  of 
Xenophon,  (1569,)  Dion  Cassius,  Zosimus,  (1579,)  Pro- 
copius,  and  other  Greek  authors.  Scaliger,  Bayle,  and 
others  praise  him  highly  as  a  translator.  lie  wrote  a 
few  original  works,  among  which  was  a  "History  of 
the  Moslems,"  ("  Musulmanicae  Historian  Libri  XVIII.," 
J595-)  Died  at  Vienna  in  1593. 

See  BAVI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"Memoires;"  M.  ADAM,  "Vita;  Philosophorum  Germanorum." 

Leupold,  loi'polt,  (JAKOB,)  an  ingenious  Saxon 
mechanician,  born  at  Planitz  in  1674.  He  excelled  in 
the  fabrication  of  mathematical  and  philosophical  instru 
ments.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  appointed  him  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Mines.  He  published  in  1723-27  an 
important  work  called  "Theatre  of  Machines,"  ("Thea- 
trurn  Machinarutn,")  which  treats  of  machines,  statics, 
hydrostatics,  mechanical  sciences,  etc.  Died  in  1727. 

See  TETTELBACU,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  J.  Leupold,"  1735. 

Leupoldt,  loi'polt,  (JOHANN  MICHAEL,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Weissenstadt,  Bavaria,  in  1794.  He 
published  a  number  of  treatises  on  pathology,  physi 
ology,  and  hygiene,  and  a  "  General  History  of  Medi 
cine,"  (1825.) 

Leuret,  luh'ii',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1797.  Having  given  special  attention 
to  mental  maladies,  he  acquired  distinction  by  his  "  Psy 
chological  Fragments  on  Insanity,"  (1834,)  and  other 
works,  among  which  is  one  "On  the  Moral  Treatment 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEUSDEN 


1417 


LEfERRIER 


of  Insanity,"  (1840.)     He  became  chief  physician  of  the 
Bicetre  in  Paris.     Died  in  1851. 

See  U.  TKELAT,  "Notice  sur  F.  Leuret,"  1851;  CHARLES  HE- 
QUET,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  la  Vie  du  Docteur  Leuret,"  1852. 

Leusden,   lus'den,    [Lat.    LEUSDE'NIUS,]    QAN,)   a 
Dutch   philologist,  eminent   as  a   Hebrew  scholar,  was 
born  in  1624,  at  Utrecht.     He  studied  the  Oriental  lan 
guages  in  that  city  and  Amsterdam.    In  1649  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Utrecht,  which  he  held  until  his 
death.     He  explained  many  curious   Biblical  questions  ' 
in  three  works,  entitled  "Hebrew  Philologist,"  ("  Philo-  ' 
logus  Hebraeus,"  1656,)  "  Philologus  Hebraso-Mixtus," 
(1663,)  and  "  Hebrew-Greek  Philologist,"  ("Philologus 
Hebrx'o-Graecus,"  1670.)     Among  his  other  works  are 
"Scholia    Syriaca,"    "Compendium    Biblicum,"   (1674,)  ! 
and  a  Greek  edition  of  the  Nesv  Testament,    (1675.) 
Died  in  1699. 

See  NICERON-,  "  Memoires  ;"  BURM ANN,  "  Trajectum  Eruditum  ;"  | 
G.  DE  VKIES,  "  Oratio  in  Obitum  J.  Leusdenii,"  1699. 

Leusdenius.     See  LKUSDEN. 

Leutholf.     See  LUDOLPH,  (Joi!.) 

Leutinger,  loi'ting-er,  (XiKOLAUS,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1547.  He  published 
about  1587  a  "History  of  Brandenburg."  Died  in  1612. 

Leutze,  loit'seh,  (EMANUEI,)  a  distinguished  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Gmiind,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1816.  At  an  early  age  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
Philadelphia,  where  his  talents  attracted  the  notice  of 
Mr.  Carey,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to  visit 
Europe.  He  studied  at  Dusseldorf  under  Leasing,  and 
about  1842  produced  his  "Columbus  before  the  Council 
at  Salamanca,"  which  gave  him  a  high  reputation. 
Among  his  pictures,  many  of  which  illustrate  American 
history,  we  may  mention  "The  Landing  of  the  North 
men,"  "Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware,"  "John 
Knox  and  Mary  Stuart,"  "  Washington  at  Princeton," 
and  "Columbus  before  the  Queen."  Died  at  Washing 
ton  in  July,  1868. 

See  H.  T.  TL'CKERMAN,  "American  Artist  Life,"  1867,  and 
"Book  of  the  Artists." 

Leuwenhoek,  van,  vfn  luh'wen-hook',  (AvrooN,) 
sometimes  written  Leeuwenhoek  or  Leeuwenhoeck, 
a  celebrated  Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Delft  in  1632. 
He  first  acquired  reputation  by  his  skill  in  the  fabrica 
tion  of  microscopes.  By  his  successful  use  of  the  micro 
scope  in  researches  into  the  intimate  structure  of  the 
human  system  and  the  composition  of  animal  fluids,  he 
afterwards  obtained  celebrity  as  an  anatomist  and  physi-  j 
ologist.  He  communicated  many  of  his  discoveries  to 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  in  1680.  He  discovered  the  so-called  animalcules 
in  the  spermatic  fluid  in  1677.  About  1690  he  proved 
the  continuity  of  the  arteries  with  the  veins,  and  success-  | 
fully  combated  the  prevalent  hypothesis  of  the  fermen 
tation  of  the  blood.  He  described  with  accuracy  the 
structure  of  the  lamina  which  compose  the  crystalline 
lens  of  the  eye.  In  1698,  Peter  the  Great,  passing 
through  Delft,  requested  the  favour  of  seeing  Leuwen 
hoek  and  his  microscopes,  which  was  accorded.  Died 
in  1723.  Leuwenhoek's  works  were  printed  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions,"  (London.)  Four  vol 
umes  of  his  collected  works  were  published  at  Leyden 
in  1724,  under  the  title  of  "Opera  Omnia." 

See  I.  VAN  HAASTERT,  "A.  van  Leeuwenhoeck,  vereerend  Her- 
dacht  in  eene  korte  Levensschets,"  etc.,  1823  ;  HALBFRTSMA,  ''Dis- 
sertatio  historico-medica  de  A.  Leeuwenhoeckii  Mentis,"  etc.,  1843. 

Leva.     See  LEYVA. 

Le  Vacher  de  Chamois.     See  CHARNOIS,  DE. 

Le  Vaillant.     See  VAII.LAXT,  LE. 

Leval,  leh-vil',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1761.  As  general  of  division,  he  ob 
tained  success  at  Philipsburg  in  1799.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806.  Died  in  1834. 

Levasseur,  leh-vJt'srR',  a  French  anatomist,  who 
wrote  about  1540.  "He  appears,"  says  Hall  am,  "to 
have  known  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
lungs,  as  well  as  the  valves  of  the  arteries  and  veins, 
and  their  direction  and  its  purpose, — treading  closely 
on  an  anticipation  of  Harvey." 

Levasseur,  (JEAN  CHARLES,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Abbeville  in  1734.  He  engraved  some  works 
of  Boucher,  Lemoine,  Vanloo,  etc.  Died  about  1810. 


Levasseur  de  la  Sarthe,  leh-vt'sua'  deh  \$  stRt, 
(R.E.\£,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in  Maine  in  1747,  voted 
in  the  Convention  of  1792  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
was  a  violent  enemy  of  the  Girondists.  Died  in  1834. 

See  ACHII.I.E  ROCHE,  "Memoires  de  R.  Levasseur,"  2  vo!s.,  1829. 

Levassor,  leh-vi'soR',  (MiCHEL,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest,  born  at  Orleans.  About  1675  he  became  a 
Protestant,  and  emigrated  to  Holland.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  England,  and  published  a  "History  of  Eu 
rope  in  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (lovols.,  1700-11.) 
Voltaire  calls  him  "  un  declamateur  odieux,"  ("  an  odious 
declaimer,")  and  says  he  was  thought  to  be  erroneous  in 
nearly  all  his  judgments.  Died  in  1718. 

Levati,  la-va'tee,  (CARLO  AMBROGIO,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Biassono  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Illustrious  Women  of  all 
Ages  and  Nations,"  (3  vols.,  1822.)  Died  in  1841. 

Levau  or  Leveau,  leh-vo',  (Louis,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  in  1612.  He  built  the  Hotel  Lambert  and 
Hotel  Colbert,  at  Paris.  He  obtained  the  title  of  first 
architect  to  Louis  XIV.,  by  whose  order  he  added  to  the 
chateau  of  the  Tuileries  the  Pavilions  de  Flore  and  de 
Marsan.  Died  in  1670. 

See  QL'ATREMERE  DE  QUINCY,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Archi- 
tectes." 

Le  Vayer.     See  MOTHE,  LA. 

Leven,  EARL  OF.     See  LESLIE,  (ALEXANDER.) 

Leve"que,  la'vfk',  (PIERRE,)  an  able  French  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Nantes  in  1746.  To  a  sound  judgment 
he  added  extensive  acquirements  in  various  sciences  and 
languages.  He  published  "  The  Navigator's  Guide," 
(1779,)  which  was  praised  by  Lalande,  and  other  nautical 
works.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  1801.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  DELAMRRE,  "  filoge  de  LevSque,"  1816;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Le'ver,  (Sir  ASHTON,)  an  English  naturalist,  born 
near  Manchester.  He  formed  a  museum  of  natural  his 
tory.  Died  in  1788. 

Le'ver,  (CHARLES  JAMES,)  a  popular  Irish  novelist, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1806.  He  practised  medicine  a 
few  years,  but  abandoned  that  profession  when  he  be 
came  editor  of  the  "Dublin  University  Magazine,"  about 
1842.  He  has  written  a  multitude  of  novels,  among 
which  are  "  Harry  Lorrequer,"  "  Charles  O'Malley," 
"The  Knight  of  Gwynne,"  (1854,)  "The  Daltons,"  and 
"Davenport  Dunn,"  (1859.)  After  1845  he  resided  for 
many  years  at  Florence.  In  1858  he  was  appointed 
vice-consul  at  Spezzia,  and  transferred  to  Trieste  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1862  ;  "  Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  September,  1840,  and  October,  1842. 

Lever,  (THOMAS,)  an  eloquent  English  divine,  born 
in  Lancashire.  He  was  ordained  a  Protestant  minister 
in  1550.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  (1553)  he  retired  to 
the  continent.  He  afterwards  dissented  from  the  Angli 
can  Church,  from  a  partiality  to  Calvinism.  He  pub 
lished  sermons,  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in  1577. 

Lev'e-rett,  (FREDERICK  PERCIVAL,)  an  American 
scholar,  born  at  Boston  in  1803.  He  published  a  "  Lexi 
con  of  the  Latin  Language,"  an  edition  of  Caesar's  "Com 
mentaries,"  and  other  educational  works.  Died  in  1836. 

Leverett,  (Sir  JOHN,)  born  in  England  in  1616, 
emigrated  to  America,  where  he  was  elected  in  1673 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  made  a  baronet 
by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1679. 

Leverett,  (JoHN,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Boston  in  1662,  became  president  of  Harvard  University 
in  1708.  He  was  a  distinguished  jurist  and  scholar,  and 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1724. 

Lev'e-ridge,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  singer,  song 
writer,  and  musical  composer,  was  born  about  1670.  He 
published  two  volumes  of  his  own  songs,  and  composed 
the  music  for  many  of  Purcell's  songs.  Died  in  1758. 

Leverrier  or  Le  Verrier,  leh  vi're-i',  (URKAIN 
JEAN  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Saint-L6  (La  Manche)  in  March,  1811.  He  entered  the 
Polytechnic  School  about  1830,  and  after  leaving  it  de 
voted  himself  with  success  to  chemistry  and  mathematics. 
He  became  a  tutor  (repetiteur)  in  the  Polytechnic  School, 
and  in  1839  wrote  two  treatises  on  astronomy,  which  pro 
cured  for'him  the  friendship  of  Arago.  In  January,  1846, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


LE  VERT 


1418 


LEWIS 


he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Before  that  date  he  had  undertaken  to  rectify  the  tables 
of  Uranus,  the  orbit  of  which  was  subject  to  perturba 
tions  from  an  unknown  cause.  Conjecturing  this  cause 
to  be  a  planet,  he  calculated  its  orbit,  mass,  and  position, 
and  announced  the  results  in  a  memoir  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  June,  1846.  The-planet  was  observed  by 
telescope  near  the  place  indicated,  by  Galle,  of  Berlin,  in 
September  of  that  year,  and  received  the  name  of  Nep 
tune.  Leverrier  acquired  a  just  celebrity  by  this  great 
discovery,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  In  1849  he  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly.  Having  supported  Louis 
Napoleon's  policy,  he  was  chosen  a  senator  in  1852.  He 
succeeded  Arago  in  1853  as  astronomer  to  the  bureau 
of  longitudes  and  director  of  the  Imperial  Observatory. 
He  has  published,  besides  other  works,  "Annales  de 
1'Observatoire  de  Paris,"  (1856.)  About  1860  he  pre 
sented  to  the  Institute  an  interesting  memoir  on  Mer 
cury.  He  observed  a  movement  of  the  perihelion  of  that 
planet  which  suggested  the  existence  of  a  small  planet 
between  Mercury  and  the  sun.  In  1870  he  was  removed 
from  the  position  of  director  of  the  Observatory. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Biographic  des  Membres 
du  Senat,"  1852. 

lie  Vert,  leh  vert,  (OCTAVIA  WALTON,)  an  American 
writer,  born  in  Georgia  about  1820.  She  has  published 
"Souvenirs  of  Travel,"  (1857,)  and  made  various  con 
tributions  to  English  and  American  periodicals. 

Levesque,  li  vtk',  (PIERRE  CHARLES,)  a  French  his 
torian  and  translator,  born  in  Paris  in  1736.  He  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1773. 
In  1780  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  published  his  "His 
tory  of  Russia,"  ("  Histoire  de  Russie,"  6  vols.,  1782,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  classic  work.  He  afterwards  was 
chosen  a  professor  in  the  Royal  College  and  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  In  1795  he  produced  a  successful  trans 
lation  of  Thucydides.  He  wrote  other  historical  works, 
and  translated  some  of  the  writings  of  Plutarch  and 
Xenophon.  Died  in  1812. 

See  DACIER,  "  filosre  de'  Levesque;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  liv.,  1807  et  sey.,  (Appendix.) 

Levesque  de  Burigiiy.     See  BURIGNY,  DE. 

Levesque  de  la  Ravaliere,  la'vSk'  deh  IS  rt'vjt'- 
le-aiR',  (PIERRE  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Troves  in  1697.  He  was  chiefly  known  by  his  edition 
of  the  poems  of  Thibault  de  Champagne,  King  of  Na 
varre,  (1742,)  which  was  accompanied  by  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Revolutions  of  the  French  Language  from  Charle 
magne  to  Saint  Louis."  Died  in  1762. 

Levesque  de  Pouilly,  la'vik'  deh  poo'ye',  (Louis 
JEAN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rheims  in  1691.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1722. 
He  corresponded  with  Fontenelle,  Voltaire,  and  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Theory  re 
specting  the  Agreeable  Sentiments,"  ("  Theorie  des 
Sentiments  agreables,"  1747,)  revised  and  enlarged  in 
1749.  Died  in  1750. 

His  son,  JEAN  SIMON,  (1734-1820,)  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Chancellor  L'Hopital,"  (1764,)  and  a  work  called 
"Theory  of  the  Imagination,"  (1803.) 

Le'vi,  [Heb.  'lS ;  Gr.  Aew,]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  a 
son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  was  born  in  Mesopotamia  about 
1750  B.C.  He  died  in  Egypt,  aged  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven,  leaving  three  sons,  one  of  whom  was  the 
grandfather  of  Moses. 

See  Genesis  xxix.,  xxxiv.,  xlix.,  and  Exodus  vi.  16. 

Levi,  (DAVID,)  a  learned  Jew,  born  in  London  in  1740. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lingua  Sacra,  or  a 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the  Hebrew,  Chalclee,  and 
Talmuclic  Dialects,"  (3  vols.,  1789.)  Died  in  1799. 

Levi,  la/vee,  (LEONE,)  a  writer  on  commerce  and 
commercial  law,  born  at  Ancona  in  1821.  He  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  in  King's  College,  London. 
Among  his  works  is  an  important  treatise  on  "  The  Com 
mercial  Law  of  Great  Britain,"  (4  vols.,  1850-52.) 

Levieil,  leh-ve-kl',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  painter  on 
glass,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1708.  He  restored  the 
painted  windows  of  Notre-Dame,  and  wrote  a  com 
plete  technical  "  Treatise  on  Painting  on  Glass."  Died 
in  1772. 


Levieux,  leh-ve-uh',  (RENAUD,)  a  French  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Nismes  about  1630.  By  correctness  of 
design  and  brilliancy  of  colour  he  merited  a  place 
among  artists  of  the  second  order. 

Le"v'ing-ston,  (FAMES,)  Earl  of  Callenclar,  a  Scottish 
officer,  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  Died  in 
1672. 

Levis,  de,  deh  la've'  or  la'vess',  (FRANC.OIS,)  Due, 
marshal  of  France,  was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1720.  He 
succeeded  Montcalm,  who  was  killed  at  Quebec  in  1759, 
and  took  up  his  winter-quarters  at  Montreal.  He  de 
fended  Canada  several  months-;  but  he  was  forced  by 
want  of  stores  to  capitulate  to  the  English  about  1760. 
He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1783.  Died  in  1787. 

Levis,  de,  (PIERRE  MARC  GASTON,)  Due,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1760.  In  1789  he  was  de 
puted  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  favoured 
moderate  reforms.  He  emigrated  in  1792  to  England, 
and  returned  in  1800.  He  acquired  literary  distinction 
by  his  "Maxims  and  Reflections"  (1808)  and  "Souve 
nirs  and  Portraits,"  (1813,)  and  wrote  several  other 
works.  In  1816  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  and  of  the  privy  council.  Died  in  1830. 

See  LE  HAS,"" Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Levita.     See  ELIAS  LKVITA. 

Levitschiiigg,  la'vit-shnik',  (HEINRICII,)  a  popular 
Austrian  poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1810,  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  lyric  and  romantic  poems. 

Levizac,  cle,  deh  leh-ve/zSk/,  (JEAN  PONS  VICTOR 
LECOUIY.,)  ABBE,  a  French  grammarian,  born  in  Langue 
doc.  Having  been  driven  into  exile  by  the  Revolution, 
he  emigrated  to  London,  where  he  taught  French.  He 
published  in  1797  a  "Grammar  of  the  French  Lan 
guage,"  which  was  extensively  used  by  persons  to  whom 
the  French  is  a  foreign  tongue.  He  wrote  other  educa 
tional  works.  Died  in  1813. 

Levret,  leh-vK<Y,  (ANDRE,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1703,  had  a  high  reputation  for  skitl  in  accouche- 
ments.  He  was  called  to  court  to  attend  the  dauphiness, 
mother  of  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  excellent  works  on 
obstetrics,  among  which  is  "The  Accoucheur's  Art 
demonstrated  by  Physical  and  Mechanical  Principles," 
("L'Art  des  Accouchements  demontre  par  des  Principes 
de  Physique  et  Mecanique,"  1753.)  Died  in  1780. 

Lewald,  la'walt,  (FANNY,)  a  popular  authoress,  and 
a  relative  of  the  writer  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Kdnigsberg  in  1811.  Her  principal  works  are  novels, 
tales,  and  sketches  of  travel.  She  was  married  to  Adolf 
Stahr,  the  author,  about  1854. 

Lewald,  (JOHANN  KARL  AUGUST,)  a  German  littera 
teur,  born  at  Konigsbergin  1792.  He  produced  a  number 
of  dramatic  works,  novels,  and  tales,  and  in  1835  founded 
a  journal  entitled  "  Europe,  or  Chronicle  of  the  Educated 
World." 

See  "Aquarelle  aus  dem  Leben,"  4  vols.,  1837. 

Lewenhaupt.     See  LOWENHAUPT. 

Lewes,  lu'iss,  (GEORGE  HENRY,)  a  popular  English 
author,  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  versatility,  was 
born  in  London  in  1817.  He  studied  medicine,  but  soon 
exchanged  that  profession  for  literature,  in  which  his 
labours  have  been  very  abundant  and  diversified.  He 
contributed  many  literary,  historical,  scientific,  and  phi 
losophical  essays  to  the  "  Edinburgh,"  "  Westminster," 
and  other  quarterly  reviews.  He  also  wrote  articles  for 
Blackwood's  and  Fraser's  Magazines  and  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia."  Among  his  principal  separate  works  we 
may  mention  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy," 
(1845,)  "  Rose,  Blanche,  and  Violet,"  a  novel,  (i84'8,) 
"Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences,"  (1853,)  "The 
Life  and  Works  of  Goethe,"  (1855,)  which  is  one  of 
his  most  popular  productions,  and  "Sea-Side  Studies," 
(1858.)  He  is  the  author  of  a  successful  tragedy,  "The 
Noble  Heart,"  (1850,)  and  of  other  dramas.  In  1865 
he  became  for  a  short  time  the  chief  editor  of  the 
"Fortnightly  Review."  ZJt'*X-,fi>7i' 

See  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1864. 

Lewis  or  Ltidwig,  lood'wic,  (KARL  AUGUST,)  I.,  King 
of  Bavaria,  born  in  August,  1786,  was  the  son  of  King 
Maximilian  Joseph.  He  married  in  1810  the  princess 
Therese  of  Saxe-Hildburghausen.  Before  his  accession  he 


a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEWIS 


1419 


LEWIS 


built  the  Glyptothek,  a  splendid  museum  for  the  master 
pieces  of  sculpture.  He  became  king  in  1825,  and  made 
economical  reforms  in  the  government.  His  reign  is 
remarkable  for  the  great  impulse  given  by  his  liberality 
and  taste  to  the  fine  arts,  especially  architecture.  He 
assembled  in  his  capital  many  scholars  and  artists,  and 
adorned  Munich  with  numerous  fine  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  Odeon,  the  Pinakothek,  the  royal  palace, 
university,  and  several  churches.  He  built  the  famous 
Walhalla  at  Ratisbon,  (Regensburg,)  and  made  a  canal 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1829  lie  published  a  collection 
of  poems.  The  latter  part  of  his  reign  did  not  correspond 
with  the  beginning.  He  excited  disaffection  by  restoring 
convents  and  restricting  the  political  and  religious  liber 
ties  of  his  subjects.  The  influence  of  Lola  Montez  over 
the  king  was  another  cause  of  offence.  Stimulated  by 
the  revolution  in  France,  (1848,)  the  Bavarians  revolted, 
demanding  reforms,  in  consequence  of  which  he  abdi 
cated  in  March,  1848,  in  favour  of  his  son,  Maximilian 
IF.  Otho,  ex-King  of  (*reece,  is  his  second  son.  Died 
at  Nice  in  February,  1868. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 
Lewis,  (Kings  of  France.)  See  Louis.  - 
Lew'is  or  Louis,  loo'is,  [Ger.  Lumvio,  lood'wir, ; 
Lat.  Lunovi'ci's,]  I.,  King  of  Germany,  styled  LK  GKR- 
MANiQt'K,  (or  GF.KMAN'ICUS,)  the  third  son  of  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  was  born  in  806,  and  became  King  of  Ba 
varia  in  817  A.D.,  when  his  father  divided  his  dominions 
among  his  three  sons.  Having  revolted  against  his 
father,  he  seized  Saxony,  and -assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Germany.  In  alliance  with  Charles  the  Bald,  he 
defeated  his  brother,  Lothaire  I.,  at  Fontenoy  in  841. 
He  died  in  876  A.D.,  leaving  three  sons,  Carloman, 
Lewis,  and  Charles. 

See  H.  LUDEN.  "  Geschiclite  des  Deutschen  Volkes,"  12  vols., 
182^-37  ;  •'  Xouvel'.e  Biographic  Generale.'' 

Lewis   (Ludwig)  II.  or  IIL  of  Germany  was   the 

»      second  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  876. 

The  same  year  he  defeated  his  uncle,  Charles  the  Bald, 

who  had  invaded  his  kingdom.      He  died  at  Frankfort 

in  882,  while  waging  war  with  the  Normans. 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  III.  or  IV.,  called  THE  INFANT, 
(DAS  KINO,)  born  in  893  A.rx,  was  the  son  of  the 
emperor  Arnulph,  and  became  King  of  Germany  in 
900.  He  died  in  912,  and  was  the  last  prince  of  the 
race  of  Charlemagne  in  Germany. 

Lewis  TV.  or  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  1286, 
was  the  son  of  Lewis,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Matilda, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Rudolph  of  I  laps- 
burg.  After  the  death  of  Henry  VII.  (1314)  Lewis 
and  his  cousin,  Frederick  of  Austria,  were  rival  candi 
dates  for  the  throne,  and  both  claimed  to  have  been 
elected.  A  long  civil  war  was  the  result,  in  which  the 
Ghibelines  fought  for  Lewis  and  the  Guelphs  for  Frede 
rick,  who  was  taken  prisoner  in  1322.  Lewis  released 
him  after  he  had  signed  an  act  of  renunciation  of  the 
empire,  and  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1328.  About 
this  time  he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  John  XXII., 
against  whom  he  retorted  the  charge  of  heresy.  In  1346 
Clement  VI.  issued  a  bull  against  Lewis,  and  attempted 
to  transfer  the  crown  to  Charles  IV. ;  but  Lewis  defended 
himself  until  his  death,  in  1347. 

See  CONRAD  MANNERT,  "Kaiser  Ludwig  IV.,"  1812;  N.  BUR- 
(U'NDCs,  "Historia  Havarica,  sive  Ludovicus  IV.."  etc.,  1636;  J. 
SCHLETT,  "  HioRraphie  von  Kaiser  LiMwiji  deni  Bayer,"  1822  ;  KOT- 
ZEBUE,  "Geschichte  Kaiser  Ludwigs  IV.,"  1812. 

Lewis  I.,  surnamed  THE  GREAT,  King  of  Hungary 
and  Poland,  born  in  1326,  was  the  son  of  Charobert, 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Hungary  in  1342. 
He  waged  successful  wars  against  the  Venetians  and 
against  Joan,  Queen  of  Naples.  After  the  death  of  his 
uncle  Casimir,  in  1370,  he  was  elected  King  of  Poland. 
He  died  in  1382,  leaving  three  daughters,  one  of  whom 
was  married  to  Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  just  and  wise  ruler. 

See  BONFINIUS,  "  De  Rebus  Hungaricis;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate. " 

Lewis  H.  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  was  born  in 
1506,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Ladislaus  VI.,  in  1516. 
Owing  to  his  youth  and  the  factious  conduct  of  the 
nobles,  his  power  was  only  nominal.  In  1521  he  mar- 


,  ried  Mary,  a  sister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  His 
:  kingdom  was  invaded  by  the  Turks,  and  his  army  com- 
|  pletely  defeated  at  M  oh  Acs,  where  Lewis  was  killed  in 
1  1526.  He  left  no  issue,  and  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria 
became  master  of  Hungary. 

Lewis,  (Kings  of  Italy  and  Spain.)     See  Louis. 
Lewis  |Sp.  Luis,  loo-ess']  I.  of  Spain,  the  eldest  son 
|  of  Philip  V.,  was  born  in  1707.     Philip  V.,  having  fallen 
into  a  melancholy  mood,  retired  to  the  solitude  of  Saint 
lidefonso,  and   resigned   the  crown  to  Lewis,  who  was 
I  proclaimed  in  January,  1724.     A  few  months  after  his 
;  accession  he  died  of  smallpox,  and  Philip  V.  resumed 
|  tlie  cares  of  royalty. 

Lewis  [Ger.  LUDWIG,  lood'ftic]  I.,  Grand  Duke  of 
j  Hesse-Darmstadt,  born  in  1753,  succeeded  his  father  in 
!  1790.  He  joined  the  alliance  against  Napoleon  in  1813. 
!  Died  in  1830. 

See  STEINER,  "Ludwig  I.  von  Hessen-Darmstadt,"  1842. 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  H.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 

in  1777,  and  became  grand  duke  in  1830.     Died  in  1848. 

Lewis,   (Ludwig,)    Prince  of  Prussia,  often    called 

Ludwig  Ferdinand,  was  a  nephew  of  Frederick  the 

Great,  and  was  born  in  1772.     He  was  a  son  of  Prince 

August  Ferdinand.     He  served  in  the  campaign  against 

!  the  French  in   1792.     In  1806  he  was  the  head  of  the 

1  war-party  which  urged  the  king  into  a  disastrous  contest 

j  with   Bonaparte.     Having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieuten- 

I  ant-general,  he  engaged  a  superior  force  under  Lannes 

at  Saalfeld,  October  10,  1806,  when  he  was  defeated  and 

killed,  preferring  to  die  rather  than  to  surrender. 

Lew'is,  (A.NDKKW,)  born  in  Ireland  about  1730,  emi 
grated  to  Virginia,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  being  made  brigadier-general 
about  1775.  His  statue  occupies  a  place  near  Washing 
ton's  Monument  at  Richmond.  Died  in  1780.  His  three 
brothers,  THOMAS,  WILLIAM,  and  CHARLES,  were  a!s.> 
noted  as  patriots  and  soldiers. 

Lewis,  (Dixo.v  HALL,)  a  Senator  and  lawyer,  born 
in  Hancock  county,  Georgia,  in  1802,  removed  to  Ala 
bama.  He  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  1830  to  1844,  and  became  a  United 
States  Senator  in  the  latter  year.  Died  in  1848. 

Lewis,  (EDMONIA,)  an  American  sculptor,  of  negro 
and  Indian  extraction,  born  near  Albany,  New  York, 
about  1845.  Among  her  works  are  "  The  Freedwomau 
on  first  hearing  of  her  Liberty,"  and  a  bust  of  Colonel 
Shaw. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 
Lewis,  (ELLIS,)  LL.D.,  an  able  American  jurist,  bora 
in  York  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1798.    He  rose  through 
various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the   supreme  court 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1854. 

Lewis,  (ENOCH,)  a  distinguished  American  mathema 
tician,  born  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1776. 
He  became  teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  Friends'  Acad 
emy,  Philadelphia,  in  1799,  and  subsequently  at  the  West- 
town  Boarding-School,  established  by  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  algebra, 
trigonometry,  etc.,  a  "Life  of  William  Penn,"  and  other 
valuable  works.  In  1847  ne  became  editor  of  the 
"Friends'  Review,"  Philadelphia.  Died  in  1856. 

Lewis,    (EsTEi.i.E   ANNA  ROKINSON,)  an    American 
poetess,  born   in   Maryland   about    1825,   has   published 
"Records   of  the    Heart,"  (1844,)  and   "Myths  of  the 
Minstrel,"   etc.,  (1852,)  and   has  been  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Democratic  Review"  and  other  periodicals. 
See  GRISWOLD,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 
Lewis,  (FRANCIS,)  one  of  the  siejners  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  American  Independence,  born  in  Wales  in  1713, 
emigrated  to  New  York  in  1735.     He  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1775.     Died  in  1803. 

Lew'is,  (Sir  GEORGE  CORNEWALL,)  Bart.,  an  eminent 
English  statesman  and  author,  born  in  London  in  Octo 
ber,  1806,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Frankland 
Lewis.  He  graduated  with  high  honours  in  the  classics 
at  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831,  but  never 
practised  law.  In  1844116  married  a  sister  of  the  Earl 
of  Clarendon.  In  1847  he  was  elected  by  the  Liberal 
party  member  of  Parliament  for  Herefordshire,  and  was 
appointed  secretary  to  the  board  of  control.  He  became 
under-secretary  for  the  home  department  in  1848,  and 


as  K:  c  j^  ^:  g  hi.  rd:  g  as/;  c,,  H,  IK.,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  tkis. 


Explanations,  ;>.  23  ) 


LEWIS 


1420 


LETDEN 


secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1850.  He  resigned  this  office 
when  Lord  John  Russell  ceased  to  be  premier,  in  March, 
1852.  In  this  year  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Method  of  Observing  and  Reasoning  in  Politics."  He 
became  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  1854,  but 
retired  from  that  post  in  the  early  part  of  the  next  year. 
From  February,  1855,  until  February,  1858,  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  Pahnerston's  cabinet. 
On  the  formation  of  a  new  Liberal  ministry  under  Pal- 
merston,  in  June,  1859,  Sir  George  was  appointed  home 
secretary.  He  succeeded  Lord  Herbert  as  secretary  of 
war  in  July,  1861.  He  wrote  several  able  political  and 
philosophical  works,  among  which  is  an  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Credibility  of  Early  Roman  History,"  and,  with 
the  Right  Hon.  H.  Tufnel,  made  a  translation  of  K.  O. 
Miiller's  "Die  Dorier,"  ("The  Dorians,"  2  vols.,  1830.) 
Died  in  1863. 

See  article  entitled  "Lewis  on  Early  Roman  History,"  in  the 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  Feb 
ruary,  1848. 

Lewis,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  theologian  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1675.  He  became  curate  of  Margate 
and  rector  of  Saltwood  and  Eastbridge.  Besides  many 
works  on  theology,  he  published  a  "  History  of  John 
Wickliff,"  (1720,)  and  a  "Life  of  Caxton,"  (1737.)  Died 
in  1746. 

Lewis,  (JoH.\  FREDERICK,)  an  excellent  English 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1805,  received  instruction 
from  his  father,  F.  C.  Lewis,  a  landscape-painter.  After 
a  visit  to  Spain,  he  produced  about  1835  several  admired 
pictures  in  water-colours  of  Spanish  scenes,  among  which 
was  a  "Bull-Fight  in  Seville."  Between  1840  and  1850 
he  worked  and  travelled  in  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Levant.  After  his  return  he  increased  his 
reputation  by  excellent  and  finely-finished  pictures  of 
"The  Harem,"  (1850,)  "An  Arab  Scribe,"  and  "Mount 
Sinai."  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water-Colours  in  1855,  and  became  an  asso 
ciate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1859. 

Lewis,  (Lady  MARIA  THERESA,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1803,  was  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  She 
was  married  to  Thomas  Henry  Lister  in  1830,  and  to 
Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  in  1844.  She  wrote  novels 
entitled  "The  Semi-Detached  House"  and  "The  Semi- 
Attached  Couple."  Died  in  iS6v 

Lewis,  (MATTHEW  GREGORY,)  a  successful  English 
novelist  and  dramatist,  often  called  Monk  Lewis,  was 
born  in  London  in  1775.  He  inherited  from  his  father 
an  ample  fortune,  which  consisted  partly  in  an  estate 
and  slaves  in  Jamaica.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he 
produced  "  The  Monk,"  a  novel  which,  by  an  artful  com 
bination  of  mysterious  horrors  and  voluptuous  images, 
obtained  a  large  circulation,  but  was  stigmatized  as  per 
nicious  by  the  stricter  moralists.  He  composed  several 
successful  dramas,  among  which  were  "  The  Castle 
Spectre,"  "Adelgitha,"  a  tragedy,  and  "Timour  the 
Tartar,"  (1812.)  He  also  wrote  other  romances  and  a 
few  poetical  pieces.  He  died  at  sea,  on  a  voyage  from 
Jamaica  to  England,  in  1818. 

See  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  M.  G.  Lewis,"  London,  1839; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1803,  (by  SYDNEY  SMITH.) 

Lewis,  (  MERIWETHER,  )  an  enterprising  American 
traveller,  born  in  Virginia  in  1774.  He  became  private 
secretary  to  President  Jefferson  about  1801,  and  was 
soon  after  employed  by  the  United  States  government, 
conjointly  with  Captain  Clarke,  to  explore  the  northwest 
part  of  the  American  continent.  They  gave  the  names 
of  Jefferson,  Gallatin,  and  Madison  to  the  three  streams 
which  form  the  Missouri.  They  also  explored  the  Co 
lumbia  River  to  its  mouth.  After  his  return,  in  1806, 
Captain  Lewis  was  made  Governor  of  Missouri  Territory. 
He  committed  suicide  in  1809,  in  a  fit  of  temporary  in 
sanity.  One  of  the  principal  affluents  of  the  Columbia 
River  was  named  in  his  honour.  A  "  Memoir"  of  Cap 
tain  Lewis  was  written  by  Jefferson. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  February,  1815;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  August, 
and  September,  1815. 

Lewis,  (MORGAN,)  an  American  general  and  Gov 
ernor,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1754,  was  a  son 
of  Francis,  noticed  above.  He  served  with  distinction 


in  the  Revolutionary  war,  at  the  end  of  which  he  had 
the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1801  he  became  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York.  He  was  Governor 
of  that  State  from  1805  to  1807,  and  commanded  the 
forces  in  New  York  in  1814,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  Died  in  1844. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Lewis,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Falmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1799,  settled  in  Ohio, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  promoting 
education  and  other  reforms.  Died  in  1854. 

Lewis,  (TAYLER,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  author,  born  in  Saratoga  county,  New  York, 
in  1802,  became  professor  of  Greek  in  Union  College 
in  1849.  Ue  nas  written  several  critical  and  theological 
works,  evincing  much  learning  and  ability. 

See  ALUBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Lewis,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  chemist  and  physician, 
who  practised  at  Kingston,  Surrey.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  employed  to  read  lectures 
on  chemistry  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  at  Kew.  He  pub 
lished  "An  Experimental  History  of  the  MateriaMedica," 
(1760,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1781. 

Ley  or  Leigh,  lee,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1552.  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in  1621,  and  lord 
high  treasurer  in  1625.  lie  was  afterwards  created  Earl 
of  Marlborough.  Died  in  1628.  His  "Reports  of 
Cases  in  the  Courts  of  Westminster"  were  published. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Ley,  (JOHN,)  an  English  controversial  writer,  born  at 
Warwick  in  1583.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Parliament 
in  the  civil  war.  Died  in  1662. 

Leyba,  de,  da  la'e-na,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish 
dramatic  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  works 
are  highly  commended. 

Leybourn,  la'burn,  ?  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  mathe 
matician,  who  was  in  his  youth  a  printer  in  London. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Gunter,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Complete  Surveyor,"  "Mathematical 
Course,"  ("Cursus  Mathematicns,"  1690,)  and  "The 
Trader's  Guide,"  (1693.)  He  died  about  1690. 

Leydecker,  li'dek'er,  (MKi.nnoK,)  a  learned  Dutch 
Calvinist  theologian,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1642.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht  in  1678,  and 
published  (in  Latin)  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  are  a  "History  of  the  African  Church,"  (1690,) 
"On  the  Hebrew  Republic,"  (1704,)  and  a  treatise 
against  the  philosophy  of  Descartes,  called  "The  Torch 
of  Truth,"  ("Fax  Veritatis.")  Died  in  1721. 

Leyden,  li'den,  (JoHN,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
antiquary,  eminent  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at 
Denholm,  on  the  Teviot,  in  1775.  At  a  college  of  Edin 
burgh  he  studied  the  principal  ancient  and  modern 
languages.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine,  and  in 
1802  went  to  Madras  as  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company.  There  he  learned 
Sanscrit,  Persian,  Hindostanee,  and  other  Asiatic  lan 
guages.  About  1806  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Hindostanee  at  Calcutta.  He  became  assay-master  of 
the  Calcutta  Mint  in  1810.  He  contributed  to  Scott's 
"  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border,"  wrote  other  poetical 
pieces,  and  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Languages  and 
Literature  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Nations."  Died  in  Java 
in  1811. 

See  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT,  "Essay  on  the  Life  of  Leyden,"  in 
SCOTT'S  Miscellaneous  Works;  and  a  Memoir  by  MOKTON  pre 
fixed  to  the  "  Poems  of  Leyden,"  1819;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July, 
1822. 

Leyden,  (JOHN  OF.)     See  JOHN  OF  LEYDEN. 

Leyden,  van,  vtn  li'den,  (LUCAS,)  [Fr.  LUCAS  DE 
LEYDE,  lii'kas'  dehlid,|  or  LUCAS  Dammesz,  a  cele 
brated  Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  in 
1494.  He  received  his  first  lessons  in  design  from  his 
father,  Hugh  Jacobs  or  Jacobze,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
painted  in  distemper  a  picture  of  Saint  Hubert,  which 
was  greatly  admired.  He  painted,  with  equal  success, 
landscapes  and  portraits.  As  an  engraver  he  excelled 
in  aerial  perspective  and  chiaroscuro,  and,  according  to 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LETNEZ 


1421 


VHQP1TAL 


Vasari,  surpassed  Albert  Dtirer  in  composition.  "As  a 
painter,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "he  passes 
for  the  greatest  artist  of  the  Flemish  school  in  his  time." 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  painting  of  the  "  Last 
Judgment,"  an  "  Ecce  Homo,"  dated  1510,  an  engraving 
of  "  Mary  Magdalene  Dancing,"  and  another  called  "  Eu- 
lenspiegel,"  of  which,  it  is  said,  only  five  or  six  proofs 
are  extant.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Albert  Diirer. 
Died  in  1533. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  DESCAMPS,  "Viesdes 
Peii.tres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Leynez.     See  LA  INEZ. 

Leys,  Us  or  1&,  (JEAN  AUGUSTE  HENRI,)  an  eminent 
Belgian  historical  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1815.  He 
obtained  one  of  the  grand  medals  at  the  Exposition  of 
Paris  in  1855,  when  he  exhibited  "The  New  Year  in 
Flanders,"  and  other  pictures. 

Leyser,  von,  ton  li'zer,  (AucusriN,)  an  eminent 
German  jurist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1683.  He  pub 
lished  many  legal  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  "Thoughts  on  the  Pandects,"  ("Meditationes  ad  Pan- 
dectas,"  u  vols.,  1717-47.)  Died  in  1752. 

Leyser,  von,  written  also  Lyser,  [Lat.  LYSE'RUS,] 
(Poi.YCARP,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine,  was  born  in 
Wurtemberg  in  1552.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1576.  From  1594  until  his 
death  he  was  the  first  preacher  at  the  court  of  Dresden. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  continuation  of 
Chemnitz's  "  Harmonia  Evangelica."  Died  in  1610. 

Leyssens,  lls'sens,  (XIGOLAAS,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1660,  worked  with  success  in  his 
native  city.  Died  in  1720. 

Leyva,  de,  da  la'e-va,  or  Leva,  la'va,  (ANTONIO,) 
one  of  the  ablest  generals  of  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
was  born  in  Navarre  about  1480.  He  fought  at  Ravenna 
in  1512,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Rebec  in  1524. 
He  commanded  in  Pavia  when  it  was  besieged  by  Francis 
I.  His  obstinate  defence  occasioned  the  battle  of  Pavia, 
(1525,)  during  which  he  made  a  sortie,  and,  falling  upon 
the  rear  of  the  French,  decided  the  fate  of  the  day.  In 
1532  he  was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Italian  league 
against  Francis  I.  He  accompanied  Charles  V.  in  his 
expedition  against  Tunis  in  1535,  and  had  the  chief 
direction  of  the  army  which  invaded  Provence  in  1536. 
He  died  of  an  epidemic  in  the  same  year. 

See  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Charles  V." 

Leyva,  de,  (JAGO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  about 
1580.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  worked  at  Burgos. 
Died  in  1637. 

Lezardiere,  de,  cleh  la'ztk'dejuR',  (MARIE  CHAR 
LOTTE  PAULINE  ROBERT,)  a  French  female  publicist, 
born  in  La  Vendee  in  1754.  She  produced  in  1791  a 
work  of  some  merit,  entitled  "Theory  of  the  Political 
Laws  of  the  French  Monarchy,"  reprinted  in  4  vols., 
1844.  Died  in  1835. 

Lezay-Marnesia,  de,  cleh  leh-zi'  ml Rn'zeJI/,  (Ao- 
RIEN,)  COUNT,  a  French  publicist,  born  near  Orgelet 
in  1770.  He  published  a  tract  against  the  Constitution 
of  1795,  a  work  "On  the  Causes  of  the  Revolution," 
(1797,)  and  other  political  treatises.  He  was  prefect  of 
Strasbourg  when  he  died,  in  1814. 

Lezay-Marnesia,  de,  (CLAUDE  FRANCOIS  ADRIEN,) 
MARQUIS,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Metz  in  1735.  He  was  a  liberal  member  of  the  States- 
General  in  1789.  He  published,  besides  several  prose 
works,  a  poem  of  some  merit,  called  "Essays  on  Rural 
Nature,"  ("Essais  sur  la  Nature  champetre,"  1787.) 
Died  in  iSoo. 

L'Heritier  de  Brutelle,  la're'te-i'  cleh  bRii'te'l', 
(CHARLES  Louis,)  a  French  botanist,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1746.  He  was  admitted  into  the  court  of  aids  in  1775. 
After  the  Revolution  he  was  twice  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  civil  tribunal  of  Paris.  His  principal  works  are 
"  New  or  Rare  Plants,"  ("  Stirpes  novae  aut  minus  cog- 
nitae,"  1784,)  and  "  Sertum  Anglicum,"  (1788,)  a  descrip 
tion  of  plants  in  the  royal  garden  of  Kew,  in  England. 
"  His  works,"  says  Cuvier,  "  are  prized  throughout 
Europe  for  the  exactitude  of  the  descriptions  and  the 
finish  of  the  plates."  He  left  in  manuscript  a  "Flora  of 
Peru,"  which  he  compiled  from  the  notes  and  herbal  of 
Dombey.  He  was  assassinated  near  his  house  in  1800. 


Neither  the  author  nor  the  motive  of  this  crime  was  evtr 
discovered. 

See  CUVIER,  "  FJoge  de  L'Heritier,"  in  the  "  Me'moires  de  1'Ins- 
titut;"  ''Xouvelle  liiographie  Generale." 

L'Heritier  de  Villandon,  la're'te-i'  deh  ve'lftN'- 
d6N',  (MARIE  JEANNE,)  a  French  authoress,  born  in 
Paris  in  1664,  wrote  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1734. 

L'Heritier  de  Villandon,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
about  1613;  died  in  1680. 

L'Hermite,  leR'met',  (FRANgois,)  a  popular  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  known  under  the  name  of  TRISTAN, 
was  born  in  La  Marche  in  1601.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy  in  1649.  Died  in  1655. 

L'Homondor  Lhomond,  IO'IDON',  (CHARLES  FRAN 
COIS,)  a  French  teacher,  born  at  Chaulnes  in  1727,  was 
a  professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  He  was  a  friend 
of  the  eminent  Haiiy,  whose  first  scientific  efforts  he 
directed.  He  published  two  elementary  works  which 
are  used  in  many  schools  of  France,  England,  and 
America,  viz.,  "  Viri  Romae,"  and  "  Epitome  of  Sacred 
History,"  ("Epitome  Historiae  Sacrae.")  Died  in  1794. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

L'Hopital,  de,  deh  IS'pe'ta"!',  (FRANC.OIS,)  Comte  de 
Rosnay,  a  marshal  of  France,  born  in  1583,  was  a  brother 
of  Marshal  de  Vitry.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  com 
manded  in  Lorraine,  where  he  gained  several  victories 
between  1638  and  1642.  He  received  a  marshal's  baton 
in  1643,  anc'  was  selected  to  advise  the  young  Prince  of 
Conde,  who  had  just  taken  command  of  the  army  in 
Flanders.  Against  the  orders  of  the  ministry  and  the 
advice  of  L'Hopital,  Conde  risked  a  battle  at  Rocroy 
in  1643,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards.  Died 
in  1660. 

See  DE  COURCEI.I.ES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gene'raux  Fran<jais." 

L'Hopital  or  L'Hospital,  de,  (GUILLAUME  FRANC.OIS 
ANTOINE,)  Marquis  de  Saint-Mesme  and  Count  d'En- 
tremont,  a  distinguished  French  geometer,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1661.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  is  said  to  have 
been  a  profound  mathematician.  In  early  life  he  was 
forced  to  renounce  the  military  profession  by  the  weak 
ness  of  his  sight.  In  1692  he  learned  from  John  Ber 
noulli  the  new  geometry  which  Leibnitz  had  discovered. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about 
1694.  In  1696  Bernoulli  challenged  the  geometers  of 
Europe  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  the  problem  of  the  brachys- 
tochron, — i.e.  line  or  curve  of  quickest  descent.  At  the 
expiration  of  the  stated  time  (ten  months)  solutions  were 
furnished  by  only  four  persons, — Newton,  Leibnitz, 
L'Hopital,  and  James  Bernoulli.  The  result  was  the 
paradoxical  cycloid.  In  1696  he  published  "Analyse  des 
infiniment  petits,"  ("Analysis  of  Infinitesimals,")  which, 
being  the  first  work  adapted  to  initiate  students  in  the 
mysteries  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus  of  Leibnitz,  was 
received  with  great  eagerness  and  marked  the  epoch  of 
a  revolution  in  the  science.  He  died  in  1704.  His  post 
humous  work,  "Analytic  Treatise  on  Conic  Sections," 
(1707,)  had  a  high  reputation. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  FJoge  du  Marquis  de  L'Hopital;"  MON- 
TUCI.A,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques  ;"  "Acta  Eruditorum,"  1721. 

L'Hopital  or  L'Hospital,  de,  (MiCHEL,)  Chancellor 
of  France,  an  illustrious  legislator  and  statesman,  was 
born  at  Aigueperse,  in  Auvergne,  in  1505.  His  father, 
Jean,  was  physician  to  Constable  Bourbon,  to  whom  he 
adhered  in  his  defection  from  the  service  of  Francis  I. 
to  that  of  Charles  V '.  He  studied  law  at  Padua  for  six 
years,  and  about  1534  settled  in  Paris.  Three  years  later, 
Morin,  lieutenant-criminel,  gave  him  his  daughter,  and  the 
office  of  counsellor  to  the  Parliament  as  her  dowry.  His 
promotion  was  hindered  by  the  connection  of  his  father 
with  the  defection  of  Bourbon,  and  by  his  own  modesty  ; 
but  he  at  last  found  a  patron  in  Chancellor  Olivier,  and 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1547.  About  1554  he  was  chosen  by  Henry  II.  superin 
tendent  of  the  finances,  in  the  management  of  which  he 
made  important  reforms.  In  1560  the  regent  Catherine 
de  Medicis  appointed  him  chancellor  of  France.  On  his 
arrival  at  court  he  found  that  the  chiefs  of  the  house  of 
Guise  had  resolved  to  establish  the  Inquisition  and  to 
ruin  the  Protestants.  He  defeated  the  first  project,  and 
opposed  the  other  with  partial  success.  He  caused  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  \a,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.     (E^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


UHQP1TAL 


1422 


L1BERWS 


States-General  to  be  convoked  at  Orleans  in  December, 
1560,  and  obtained  edicts  favourable  to  liberty  or  tolera 
tion.  But,  in  spite  of  his  mediatorial  efforts,  the  war 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  began  in  1562.  His 
advice  was  no  longer  listened  to  at  court,  and  he  was 
removed  from  office  in  1568.  He  was  at  his  country- 
seat  at  Vignay  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo 
mew,  and  his  life  was  spared  through  the  mediation  of  a 
lady  at  court.  He  died  in  1573,  leaving  a  name  greatly 
venerated  for  wisdom  and  integrity.  As  a  statesman 
and  legislator  he  holds  a  high  rank.  His  political  prin 
ciples  are  announced  in  a  Latin  poem,  (composed  on 
occasion  of  the  coronation  of  Francis  II.,)  which  was 
much  admired.  He  wrote  other  elegant  Latin  poems 
and  discourses,  which  have  been  published. 

See  M.  VII.I.EMAIN,  "Vie  de  L'Hopital,"  in  his  "  fitudes  d'His- 
toiremoderne;"  LEVF;SQUK  DE  POUILLY,  "Vie  de  Michel  de  L1  Hospi 
tal,"  1764;  CHARLES  BUTLER,  "Essay  on  the  Life  of  M.  de  L'Hopi 
tal,"  1814;  BAYLH,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  DE  THOU, 
"Historia  sui  Temporis;"  M.  CRESSON,  "  l?loge  lu'storique  de  M. 
de  L'HSpita',"  1850;  TAILLANDIER'S  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Genera'e." 

L'Hdpital,  de,  (MICHEL  HURAUI.T,)  Seigneur  de 
Belesbat,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
chancellor  of  Henry  of  Navarre  before  the  latter  became 
King  of  France,  (1589.)  He  was  also  employed  by  Henry 
as  ambassador  to  Holland  and  Germany,  and  wrote  two 
able  political  treatises  "On  the  State  of  France,"  (1588- 
93.)  Died  in  1592. 

L'Hote  or  Lhdte,  lot,  (NESTOR,)  an  artist  and  anti 
quary,  born  of  French  parents  at  Cologne  in  1804.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  sent  in  1828  to  ex 
plore  Egypt  under  the  direction  of  Champollion,  who 
employed  him  as  draughtsman.  In  1838  he  made  fur 
ther  explorations  and  illustrations  of  Egypt,  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  more  complete  Champollion's 
posthumous  work  on  the  monuments  of  that  country. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1842. 

Lhoyd,  loid,  written  also  Lhuyd  and  Llwyd, 
(HUMPHRY,)  a  learned  British  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Denbigh,  in  Wales.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Cambria 
from  Caradoc,"  "  On  Mona,  the  Island  of  the  Druids," 
("  De  Mona  Druidum  Insula,")  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1570. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athens  Oxonienses." 

Lhuyd,  commonly  pronounced  loid,  (EnwARD,)  an 
eminent  Welsh  antiquary,  born  in  Carmarthenshire 
about  1665.  He  became  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Mu 
seum  in  1690.  He  published  a  catalogue  of  the  figured 
fossils  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  called  "  Lythophylacii 
Britannic!  Iconographia,"  (1699,)  and  a  treatise  on 
British  antiquities,  "  Archasologia  Britannica,"  (1707.) 
Died  in  1709. 

Liadieres,  le't'de^aJR',  (PIERRE  CHARLES,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Pan  in  1792.  He  composed  several 
dramas,  and  other  mediocre  works  in  prose  and  verse. 
Died  in  1858. 

Liais,  le'.V,  (EMMANUEL,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
at  Cherbourg  in  1826.  He  was  appointed  an  assistant 
in  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in  1852. 

Liancourt,  de,  cleh  le'SN'kooR',  (JEANNE  DE  SCHOM- 
BERG,)  DUCHESS,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  her 
talents  and  piety,  born  in  1600,  was  the  daughter  of 
Henri  de  Schomberg,  marshal  of  France.  She  became 
the  wife  of  the  Due  de  Liancourt.  Her  house  was 
frequented  by  Pascal,  Arnauld,  and  other  recluses  of 
Port-Royal.  Died  in  1674. 

See  J.  J.  BOILEAU,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  Liancourt,"  1698. 

Liano,  da,  da  le-a'no,  (TEonoRO  FELIPE,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1575,  excelled  in  miniatures, 
and  was  surnamed  THE  LITTLE  TITIAN.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Lope  de  Vega.  Died  in  1625. 

Liard,  le'ta',  an  eminent  French  engineer,  bom  in 
Lorraine  in  1747.  His  principal  work  is  the  important 
canal  which  connects  the  Rhine  with  the  Rhone.  It  was 
commenced  about  1805  and  completed  in  1832.  Died 
in  1832. 

Liban,  lee'ban,  [Lat.  LIBA'NIUS,]  (GEORGE,)  a  Polish 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Liegnitz  in  1490.  He  taught 
Greek  at  Cracow.  Died  in  1550. 

Libanius.     See  LIBAN. 


Li-ba'iii-us,  [  Gr.  At&ivtoc,  ]  a  celebrated  heathen 
sophist  and  rhetorician,  born  at  Antioch  in  314  A.D.  He 
studied  with  Diophantes  of  Athens  and  others.  After 
he  had  taught  rhetoric  for  several  years  at  Constanti 
nople  and  Athens  with  success,  he  settled  in  354  at  An 
tioch,  where  he  opened  a  school,  which  became  very 
celebrated.  Among  his  pupils  were  Saint  Basil  and 
Saint  Chrysostom.  He  accepted  the  office  of  quaestor 
from  the  emperor  Julian,  who  was  his  friend  and  ad 
mirer.  He  died  probably  about  390  A. IX,  leaving  many 
works,  which  are  still  extant,  and  display  a  brilliant 
imagination.  They  consist  chiefly  of  declamations  on 
events  of  Greek  history,  and  have  been  designated  by 
Gibbon  as  "the  vain  and  idle  compositions  of  an  orator 
who  cultivated  the  science  of  words."  But  this  is  re 
garded  by  other  eminent  critics  as  too  harsh  a  judgment. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  Bios  17  Aoyos  irepi  TTJ?  eavTou 
riixi? ;  KUNAPIUS,  "Vita;  Sophistarum  ;"  KABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca ;"  J.  G.  BBKGBR,  "  De  Libanio  Disputationes  sex,"  1696: 
C.  PETERSEN,  "  Cotnmentatio  de  Libanio  Sophista,"  1827;  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Gihierale." 

Libavius,  le-ba've-us,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  physi 
cian  and  chemist,  born  at  Halle.  He  was  chosen  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  of  Coburg  in  1605.  He  gained  repu 
tation  by  works  on  chemistry,  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  refute  the  reveries  of  Paracelsus.  His  "  Alchymia 
recognita  emendata  et  aucta"  (1597)  was  the  best  manual 
of  chemistry  which  had  appeared  at  that  time.  Died 
in  1616. 

See  FREIIER,  "Theatrum  Eruditorum ;"  LINDEN,  "De  Scriptori- 
bus  Medicis." 

Libelt,  lee'belt,  (KAROL,)  an  able  Polish  writer  on 
philosophy  and  politics,  was  born  at  Posen  in  1806.  He 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  Russians  in  the  Polish 
insurrection  which  began  in  1830.  For  his  share  in  a 
democratic  conspiracy  he  was  imprisoned  at  Berlin  in 
1846,  but  was  released  by  the  revolution  of  1848.  Soon 
after  his  release  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Slavonic 
congress  of  Prague.  While  a  prisoner  in  Berlin  'in  1847 
he  wrote  "The  Maid  of  Orleans."  Among  his  works 
are  excellent  philosophical  and  critical  essays,  "  Filo- 
zofia  i  Krytyka,"  (1845-50.) 

See  BROCKIIAUS,  "  Conversations  Lexikon." 

Ll'ber,  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the  Bac 
chus  or  Dionysus  of  the  Greek  mythology.  Liber  was 
an  ancient  Italian  divinity.  See  BACCHUS. 

Lib'e-ra,  in  the  Roman  mythology,  was  the  wife  of 
Liber,  and'  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  culti 
vation  of  the  vine.  She  was  sometimes  identified  with 
Proserpine. 

Liberale  da  Verona,  le-ba-ra'la  da  va-ro'na,  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona  in  1451. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  artists  of  his  country 
at  that  time.  His  painting  of  the  "Epiphany"  is  said 
to  be  still  visible  at  Verona.  Died  in  1536. 

Lib-er-a'tus,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Carthage. 
He  was  sent  to  Rome  about  535  by  a  council  of  African 
bishops. 

Libere.    See  LIBERIUS. 

Liberi,  lee'ba-ree,  (PiKTRO,)  CAVALIERE,  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  LIBERTINO,  (le-be~R-tee'no,) 
born  at  Padua  in  1605,  was  a  pupil  of  Padovanino.  lie 
pursued  his  studies  in  Rome,  Parma,  Venice,  etc.,  and 
formed  a  style  in  which  the  characteristics  of  several 
schools  were  united.  "  He  was  regarded,"  says  the  "  Bio 
graphic  Universelle,"  "as  the  most  skilful  draftsman  of 
the  Venetian  school."  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  at  Venice,  "The  Gene 
ral  Deluge,"  "  Noah  coming  out  of  the  Ark,"  "  The  Judg 
ment  of  Paris,"  and  several  pictures  of  Venus  nude.  His 
style  was  sometimes  grand  and  sometimes  graceful.  It 
is  said  that  when  he  worked  for  connoisseurs  his  manner 
was  bold  and  free,  but  for  other  patrons  he  finished  his 
work  with  much  care  and  precision.  Died  in  1687. 

See  GUAI.DO  PRIOR ATO,  "Vita  del  Cavnliere  P.  Liberi,"  1818; 
RIOOLFI.  "Vite  dei  Pittori  Veneti ;"  WINCKELMANN,  "  Neues 
Mahler-Lexikon." 

Li-be'ri-us,  [Fr.  LIBERE,  le'baiR';  It.  LIKF.RIO,  le- 
ba're-o,]  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  352 
or  353  A.D.,  and  succeeded  Julius  I.  He  favoured  the 
orthodox  in  the  controversy  with  the  Arians  ;  and,  the 
Council  of  Milan  having  condemned  Athanasius  in  355, 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LIBERT  AS 


M23 


LICHTWER 


he  refused  to  sanction  that  act.  For  this  cause  he  was 
banished  by  the  emperor  Constantius  to  Bercea.  After 
an  exile  of  two  years,  he  recovered  his  see  in  358, 
by  signing  the  formula  of  Sirmium,  a  modification  of 
Arianism.  He  refused  to  subscribe  the  confession  of 
the  Council  of  Rimini,  (359,)  where  the  Arians  again 
prevailed.  He  died  in  366  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Damasus  I. 

See  BARONIUS,  "Annales;"  LARKOQUE,  "Dissertatio  de  Liberio 
Romano,"  1670. 

Lib'er-tas,  [Fr.  LIBKRTE,  le'beVta',]  the  goddess  of 
liberty  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans.  She  was 
represented  as  a  matron,  holding  in  one  hand  a  broken 
sceptre  and  in  the  other  a  pike  surmounted  by  a  cap, 
(f  ileus.) 

Liberte.     See  LIHERTAS. 

Libertine.     See  LIKERI. 

Libes,  lib,  (ANTOINK,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Be'ziers  in  1752.  For  many  years  he  taught  the  physi 
cal  sciences  in  the  College  Charlemagne,  Paris.  'He 
discovered  that  pressure  is  one  of  the  elements  of  the 
intensity  of  electric  tension  developed  by  contact,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Physical  and 
the  Moral  World,"  (1815.)  Died  in  1832. 

Li-beth'ri-des,  [Gr.  A«(?//0/j/Jef,|  a  name  of  the  Muses, 
which  they  derived  from  Mount  Libethrius,  or  from  a 
well  called  Libethra,  in  Thrace.  (See  MUS/E.) 

Lib-I-ti'iia,  [Fr.  LIBITINE,  le'be'ten',]  a  Roman  god 
dess,  supposed  to  preside  over  funerals.  All  things 
needful  for  funerals  were  kept  for  sale  in  her  temple. 
The  business  of  an  undertaker  was  also  called  libitina. 

Libitiiie.     See  LIBITINA. 

Li'bon  or  Li'bo,  [Gr.  Ai6uv,]  a  Greek  architect,  a 
native  of  Elis,  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  built  near 
Pisa  or  Olympia,  in  the  Doric  style,  the  magnificent 
temple  of  Olympian  Jove,  245  feet  long  by  100  wide.  In 
the  vicinity  of  this  the  Olympic  games  were  celebrated, 
and  the  master-pieces  of  art  were  accumulated  for  many 
ages.  It  contained  a  celebrated  statue  of  Jupiter  by 
Phidias. 

See  QUATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "Jupiter  Olympian." 

Libri,  dai,  da-e  lee'bRee,  (GIROLAMO,)  a  Venetian 
painter  and  illuminator,  born  at  Verona  in  1472,  was  one 
of  the  most  skilful  artists  of  his  time.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  and  "  The  Expulsion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Eden."  He  painted  many  books 
for  the  Church,  and  excelled  in  miniature.  Died  in  15^5. 

His  son  FRANCESCO  was  a  promising  painter,  who 
died  young. 

Libri-Carrucci,  lee'bRee  kar-root/chee,  (GUILLAUME 
BRUTUS  ICILIUS  TIMOI.EON,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Florence  in  1803.  He  became  a  pro 
fessor  of  mathematics  at  Pisa  in  1823,  and  emigrated  to 
France  in  1830.  Having  been  naturalized  as  a  French 
citizen,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1833,  and 
was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  libraries  of 
France.  On  a  false  charge  of  purloining  books  of  great 
value  from  the  public  libraries,  he  was  condemned  in 
1850  to  imprisonment  for  ten  years;  but  he  had  pre 
viously  escaped  to  London.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"  History  of  Mathematical  Sciences  in  Italy,"  (4  vols., 
1838-41,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Died  in  1869. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Liburnio,  le-booR'ne-o,  (NiCCOiA)  an  Italian  gram 
marian,  born  at  Venice  in  1474,  became  a  canon  of  San 
Marco,  in  that  city.  Died  in  1557. 

Liceti,  le-cha'tee,  or  Liceto,  le-cha'to,  (FORTUNIO,) 
an  Italian  physician  and  professor,  famous  in  his  time 
as  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rapallo,  near 
Genoa,  in  1577-  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Padua  in  1609,  and  professor  of  medicine  in  1645.  He 
published  a  treatise  on  the  nature  of  monsters,  (1616,) 
and  other  works,  the  majority  of  which  are  now  justly 
neglected.  lie  had  more  erudition  than  judgment. 
Died  in  1657. 

See  BAYI.K,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Lichnowsky,  von,  fon  h'K-nov'skee,  (£DUARD  MA 
RIA,)  PRINCE,  a  German  historian,  born  in  1789.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,"  (4  vols., 
1836-44,)  which  is  commended.  Died  in  1845. 


Lichnowsky,  von,  (FELIX,)  PRINCE,  a  Prussian 
general,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1814.  He 
fought  for  Don  Carlos  in  Spain  about  1839.  In  German 
politics  he  was  a  conservative  or  absolutist.  He  was 
killed  by  a  mob  at  Frankfort  in  1848. 

See  KOSTI.IN,  "Auerswald  und  Lichnowsky,"  1853. 

Lichteiiau,  von,  fon  liK'teh-now',  (WILHELMINE 
ENKK,)  COUNTESS,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1754,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  poor  musician.  She  became  the  mistress 
of  the  crown -prince  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William. 
kAfter  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1786,  she  was  a 
powerful  and  influential  person  until  the  death  of  the 
king.  Died  in  1820. 

See  her  "Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  1808. 

^  Lichtenberg,  liK'ten-beur/,  (GEORG  CHRISTOPH,)  a 
German  savant  and  witty  author,  born  near  Darmstadt 
in  July,  1742.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  made  great 
progress  in  nearly  all  departments  of  knowledge.  In 
1770  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  and  exact 
sciences  at  Gottingen.  He  visited  England,  where  he 
associated  with  the  most  eminent  literati.  He  wrote 
excellent  scientific  articles  for  two  periodicals  of  Gottin 
gen, — "The  Magazine  of  Science  and  Literature,"  (1780- 
85,)  and  "The  Almanac,"  (1778-99,)  which  owed  their 
great  success  chiefly  to  him.  The  charms  of  his  style 
contributed  greatly  to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  the 
sciences.  He  particularly  excelled  in  what  in  English 
is  called  "humour."  Among  his  most  popular  works  is 
his  "Ample  Commentary  on  the  Engravings  of  Hogarth," 
which  he  began  to  publish  in  1794,  and  left  unfinished 
at  his  death.  It  abounds  in  wit  and  satire,  and  displays 
much  insight  into  human  nature.  His  autobiography  is 
said  to  be  the  most  candid  and  piquant  ever  written. 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1799.  "  He  is,"  says  Stapfer,  "gay 
without  the  least  trace  of  levity,  versatile  and  profound 
without  ceasing  to  be  solid  and  clear."  ("  Biographic 
Universelle.") 

See  his  Autobiography,  in  an  edition  of  his  works,  Gottingen,  9 
vols.,  1800-1806;  "  Elogium  Lichtenbergii,"  by  KASTNER,  1799; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  HKINRICH  DOKING,  "  Lebens- 
umrisse  von  Karl  August  von  Sachsen-Weimar,  J.  D.  Falk,  Lich- 
teiibeip,"  etc.,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1804; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1836. 

Liechtenstein,  liK'ten-stln',  (  MARTIN  HEINRICH 
KARI.,)  a  German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1780.  About  1802  he  became  physician 
to  the  Governor  of  Cape  Colony,  Africa,  and  in  1810 
published  "Travels  in  Southern  Africa,"  (2  vols.,)  a 
valuable  contribution  to  natural  history.  In  1813  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Zoological  Museum  of 
Berlin,  which,  under  his  care,  became  one  of  the  largest 
in  Europe.  His  favourite  pursuit  was  ornithology.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  CALLISEN,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supple 
ment.) 

Liechtenstein,  von,  fon  liK'ten-stln',  QOHANN  JO 
SEPH,)  PRINCE,  a  general,  the  head  of  one  of  the  most 
noble  families  of  Austria,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1760. 
After  serving  in  several  campaigns  against  the  French, 
he  negotiated  the  conditions  of  peace  at  Presburg  in 
1805.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Essling  and  Wagram 
in  1809.  Died  in  1836. 

Liechtenstein,  von,  (JOSEPH  WENZEL,)  PRINCE,  an 
Austrian  general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1696.  His  services 
in  the  campaigns  of  1733  aiic'  !734  were  rewarded  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Having  been  made  field- 
marshal,  he  commanded  the  army  in  Italy  in  1746,  and 
ained  a  victory  at  Piacenza.  He  was  afterwards  em 
ployed  with  success  in  diplomatic  affairs.  Died  in  1772. 

Liechtenstein,  von,  (Ui.Ric,)  one  of  the  early  Ger 
man  poets,  was  born  about  1199.  His  principal  poem, 
entitled  "  Frauendienst,"  though  possessing  no  great 
literary  merit,  is  a  valuable  monument  of  the  manners 
of  that  time.  Died  about  1275. 

Lichtwer,  llKt'wer,  (MAGNUS  GOTTFRIED,)  one  of 
the  most  popular  German  fabulists,  was  born  at  "\Vurzen 
n  1719.  He  published  the  first  edition  of  his  "Fables" 
n  1748,  and  in  the  next  year  removed  from  Wittenberg 
to  Halberstadt,  where  he  obtained  a  canonicate.  In 
1758  he  produced  another  edition  of  the  "Fables."  The 
German  critics  rank  him  as  a  fabulist  with  Lessing  and 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (2^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LIC  IN  I A 


1424 


L1EBIG 


Gellert,  whom    perhaps  he  surpasses   in    piquancy  of 
style  and  talent  for  narration.     Died  in  1783. 

See  EICHHOI.Z,  " Lichtwer's  Leben,"  1784;  HIRSCHING,  "His- 
torisch-literarisches  Handbucli." 

Li-ciii'i-a,  (or  li-sin'e-a,)  the  name  of  the  wife  ot  C. 
Gracchus.  Also  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Maecenas,  said 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  her  conjugal  tenderness. 

Li-cin-I-a'iius  Gra'nI-us,  a  Roman  historian,  who 
lived  probably  in  the  first  century  n.C.  In  1853  Mr. 
Pertz,  of  Berlin,  discovered  a  portion  of  his  "  Annals" 
among  some  Syriac  manuscripts  brought  from  the  desert, 
of  Nitria  in  1847. 

Licinio,  le-chee'ne-o,  (BERNARDINO,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Pordenone,  was  one  of  the  best 
pupils  of  Pordenone,  who  was  his  relative.  Me  painted 
portraits  and  Madonnas.  He  was  living  in  1540. 

Licinio,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO.)    See  PORDENONE. 

Licinio,  (Giui.io,)  called  n.  ROMANO,  (el  ro-ma'no,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  about  1500,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pordenone.  Died  at  Augsburg  in  1561. 

Li-ciii'I-us,  (or  le-siu'e-us,)  (Fi.Avius  VALERIUS,) 
(called  by  some  writers  Pub'lius  Fla'vius  Gale'rius 
Valeria'nus  Licinia'nus,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in 
Dacia  about  263  A.ix,  was  originally  a  peasant.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  general  in  the  army,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  Galerius,  who  in  307  made  him  a  partner  in  the 
empire,  with  the  title  of  Augustus.  In  313  he  married 
Constantia,  sister  of  Constantine  the  Great,  and,  having 
defeated  Maximin,  became  master  of  all  the  Eastern 
provinces.  A  war  soon  ensued  between  him  and  Con 
stantine,  which  ended  in  the  complete  defeat  of  Licinius 
at  Chalcedon,  near  Byzantium,  in  323.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  victor  in  324  A.D.  He  was  noto 
rious  for  cruelty  and  other  vices. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Li-cin'i-us  Cal'vus,  (C/\ius,)  an  eminent  Roman 
orator  and  poet,  son  of  C.  Licinius  Macer,  was  born  in 
82  li.C.  Cicero  thought  his  style  was  too  laboured,  but 
admitted  that  he  had  wit,  judgment,  and  much  learning. 
His  style  was  eulogized  by  Quintilian  as  grave,  chaste, 
and  sometimes  vehement.  As  a  poet  he  was  usually 
ranked  with  Catullus,  and  was  very  popular.  His  works 
are  all  lost  except  fragments  of  his  poems,  which  con 
sisted  of  elegies  and  epigrams  or  lampoons.  He  died 
about  the  age  of  thirty-five. 

See  WEICHERT,  "  De  C.  Licinio  Calvo  Oratore  et  Poeta,"  1825  ; 
PLINV,  "  Natural  History,"  vii.  and  xxxiv. 

Licinius  Macer.     See  MACER. 

Li-ciii'i-us  Sto'lo,  or,  more  fully,  Ca'ius  Licin'ius 
Cal'vus  Sto'lo,  a  Roman  legislator,  of  plebeian  family, 
who  effected  important  changes  in  the  constitution  of 
Rome.  In  375  B.C.,  he  and  his  friend  L.  Sextius  La- 
teranus  were  chosen  tribunes  of  the  people,  and  pro 
posed  the  enactment  of  these  laws  :  1st.  That  in  future 
one  of  the  two  consuls  chosen  annually  should  be  a  ple 
beian,  and  that  no  more  military  tribunes  should  be 
appointed  ;  2d.  That  no  citizen  should  possess  more 
than  five  hundred  acres  (jugcra)  of  public  land.  These 
innovations  were  strenuously  resisted  by  the  patricians 
for  about  ten  years,  a  period  of  anarchy,  during  which 
Camillus  was  chosen  dictator.  The  land  in  question 
had  been  acquired  by  conquest,  and  had  been  appro 
priated  by  the  patricians.  The  laws  above  named  were 
passed  in  366,  and  Licinius  was  elected  consul  in  364 
B.C.  He  was  re-elected  in  360,  and  was  fined  ten  thou 
sand  asses  in  356  for  the  violation  of  his  own  agrarian 
law. 

See  NIEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  LIVY,  "History  of  Rome," 
books  vi.  and  vii. ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Li-ci'nus  Por'cius,  (por'she-us,)  a  Roman  poet,  men 
tioned  by  Aulus  Gellius,  lived  about  120  B.C. 

Licquet,  le'ki',  (FRANC.OIS  ISIDORE,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  l>orn  at  Caudebec,  Normandy,  in  1787.  He  wrote, 
besides  several  dramas,  a  "History  of  Normandy,"  (2 
vols.,  1835,)  a  work  of  merit,  which  was  completed  by 
Depping.  Died  in  1835. 

Lid'del,  (DUNCAN,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1561.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  mathematics  at  Helmstedt  in  1591,  after  which 
he  was  first  physician  at  the  court  of  Brunswick.  Having 
returned  to  Scotland  in  1607,  he  founded  a  professorship 


at  Aberdeen.  He  was  author  of  several  medical  works, 
one  of  which  is  called  "  Ars  Meclica,"  (1607.)  Died  in 
1613. 

See  STUART,  "Life  of  Duncan  Liddel,"  1790;  CHAMBERS,  "  Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lid'dell,  (Rev.  HENRY  GEORGE,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1812.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  prince-consort 
about  1845,  and  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1855. 
He  produced,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Scott,  an  excel 
lent  "Greek-English  Lexicon,"  (1843,)  on  tne  basis  of 
the  Greek-German  Lexicon  of  Passow,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Rome." 

Liddell,  (Sir  JOHN,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  physician,  born 
at  Dumblane  in  1794.  He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  royal 
navy,  was  knighted  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  the  medical  department  of  the  royal  navy 
about  1854.  In  1859  he  became  honorary  physician  to 
Queen  Victoria. 

Liden,  le-diin',  (JoHAN  HENRIK,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
born  at  LJnkoping  in  1741,  was  struck  in  the  prime  of 
life  with  palsy,  which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his 
limbs.  He  composed  a  "  History  of  Swedish  Poets," 
and  several  literary  memoirs.  Died  in  1793. 

See  WAI.LIN,  "  Amiimelse-Tal  ofver  J.  H.  Liden,"  1797. 

Lidner,  lid'ner,  (BENGT,)  a  Swedish  poet,  born  in 
1759,  resided  some  time  in  Paris.  His  chief  work,  "The 
Countess  Spastara,"  is  commended  for  eloquence  and 
pathos.  Died  in  1793. 

Lidskialf,  (Hlidskialf.)    See  ODIN. 

Liebault,  le'a'bS',  (JEAN,)  a  French  writer  on  medi 
cine  and  agriculture,  born  at  Dijon  about  1535;  died  in 
1596. 

Liebe,  lee'beh,  (CHRISTIAN  SIGISMOND,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  in  Misnia  iu  1687.  He  was  a  large 
contributor  to  the  "  Acta  Eruditorum."  Died  in  1736. 

Lieber,  lee'ber,  (FRANCIS,)  a  German  historical  and 
political  writer  of  distinguished  ability,  born  at  Berlin, 
March  18,  1800.  He  served  against  the  French  in  1815, 
and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Ligny  and  Waterloo. 
Being  imprisoned  some  years  after  for  his  liberal  opinions, 
he  was  released  through  the  influence  of  Niebuhr,  and 
sought  refuge  in  1827  in  the  United  States.  In  1829  he 
edited  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (13  vols.,)  taking 
for  its  basis  Brockhaus's  "  Conversations-Lexikon,"  (pub 
lished  at  Leipsic,  in  Germany.)  He  was  appointed  in  1835 
professor  of  history  in  Columbia  College,  in  South  Caro 
lina,  which  position  he  held  until  1856.  He  afterwards 
became  professor  of  the  law  of  nations  and  constitutional 
law  in  the  same  institution.  Among  his  numerous  and 
popular  works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Political  Ethics," 
(1838,)  "Laws  of  Property:  Essays  on  Property  and 
Labour,"  (1842,)  "Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government," 
(2  vols.,  1853,)  and  "  Reminiscences  of  Niebuhr  the 
Historian." 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  DUVCKINCK,  "  Cyclo 
paedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  January,  1832. 

Lieber,  (THOMAS.)     See  ERASTUS. 

Lieberkuhn,  lee'ber-koon',  (JOHANN  NATHANIEL,)  a 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1711,  practised  in 
that  city.  He  was  very  skilful  in  the  art  of  injections. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon 
don.  Died  in  1756. 

Liebhard.     See  CAMFRARIUS,  (JOACHIM.) 

Liebig,  von,  fon  lee'bio,  (JUSTUS,)  BARON,  one  of  the 
greatest  chemists  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at 
Darmstadt,  in  Germany,  in  May,  1803.  He  entered  the 
University  of  Bonn  in  1819,  and  in  1822  went  to  Paris, 
\\here  he  became  acquainted  with  Humboldt  and  Gay- 
Lussac.  Favoured  by  the  influence  of  Humboldt,  Liebig 
obtained  in  1824  the  appointment  of  professor  of  chem 
istry  in  the  University  of  Giessen.  He  founded  there 
the  first  model  laboratory  of  Germany,  which  became 
very  celebrated  and  made  that  university  the  central 
point  of  attraction  to  the  chemical  students  of  Europe. 
Although  his  services  have  been  great  in  every  depart 
ment  of  chemical  science,  he  owes  his  celebrity  chiefly 
to  his  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry.  He  produced 
in  1840  an  important  work  entitled  "Organic  Chem 
istry  in  its  Application  to  Agriculture  and  Physiology," 
("Die  organische  Chemie  in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LIEBKNECHT 


142, 


LIGQNIER 


Agricultur  und  Physiologic.")  His  principal  works, 
besides  the  above,  are  "Animal  Chemistry,  or  Chemistry 
in  its  Application  to  Physiology  and  Pathology,"  (1842,) 
"Researches  on  the  Chemistry  of  Food,"  (1849,)  and 
a  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (5  vol.s.,  1837-51,)  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Wohler.  He  received  the  title 
of  baron  in  1845,  am'  accepted  the  chair  of  chemistry 
at  Munich  in  1852.  In  1848  Liebig  and  Professor 
Kopp  began  to  issue  an  annual  report  on  the  progress 
of  chemistry.  His  "Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry" 
(1844)  are  much  admired,  and  are  well  adapted  to 
render  the  science  popular.  His  principal  works  above 
named  have  been  translated  into  English  and  French. 

See  CALI.ISEX,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftstelier-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Hiopraphie  Generate  ;"  "  London  Quarter, y  Review"  for  June, 
1^42;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1X41,  April,  1842,3110! 
October,  1842. 

Liebknecht,  leep'kneKt',  (JoiiAXN  GF.ORG,)  a  Ger 
man  antiquary,  born  at  Wassungen  about  1680,  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Discourse  on  the  Great  Deluge," 
("  Discursus  de  Diluvio  Maximo,"  1704.)  Died  in  1749. 

Liemaecker  or  Liemaker,  lee'ma'ker,  (\IKOI.AAS,) 
a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  surnamed  KUOSK,  was  born  at 
Ghent  in  1575,  and  was  a  friend  of  Rubens.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  mostly  of  large  dimensions,  are  "The 
Last  Judgment,"  and  "The  Transfiguration."  Died  in 
1646. 

Lieoo-  (or  Lieou-)  Pang,  le-oo'  pang,  a  Chinese 
emperor,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  I  Ian,  was  born 
about  250  li.c.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  202. 
One  of  his  generals,  named  King-Poo,  having  revolted, 
a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  Lieoo- Pang  gained  the  vic 
tory,  but  received  a  wound  of  which  he  died  in  195  l!.C. 

Lieutaud,  le-uh'to',  (JoSKPH,)  a  skilful  French  physi 
cian,  born  in  1703,  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1752.  In  1774  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  Louis  XVI.  He  published, 
besides  other  professional  works,  "  Synopsis  of  Univer 
sal  Medical  Practice,"  ("Synopsis  Universse  Praxeos 
Medicoc,"  1765,)  a  work  of  much  merit.  Died  in  1780. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  filoge  de  Lieutaud,"  1780;  LASSERVOLLE, 
"  filojre  historique  de  M.  Lieutaud,"  1781;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lieven,  de,  deh  lee'ven,  (DOROTHEA,)  PRINCESS,  a 
Russian  lady,  of  German  extraction,  celebrated  for  her 
diplomatic  talents  and  political  intrigues,  was  born  in 
1784.  Her  maiden  name  was  BKNKKXDORF.  She  went 
to  London  about  1812  with  her  husband,  who  was 
Russian  ambassador  at  that  court,  and  acquired  much 
influence  by  her  conversational  powers.  After  1838 
she  resided  in  Paris,  where  her  salon  was  frequented  by 
many  diplomatists,  statesmen,  etc.  She  was  often  called 
the  "  Egeria  of  Guizot."  Died  in  1857. 

Lieven,  von,  ton  lee'ven,  (JoHAN  HKNRIK,)  COUNT, 
a  Swedish  general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1670.  After  the 
defeat  of  Charles  at  Pultowa,  in  1709,  Lieven  was  sent 
by  the  council  of  regency  on  a  mission  to  that  king, 
then  in  Turkey.  Died  in  1733. 

Lievens,  lee'vens,  (J.\x,)  |Lat.  JOHAN'NES  LIVINE'- 
IUS,]  a  Flemish  Hellenist,  born  about  1546.  He  was 
canon  of  Antwerp.  He  edited  and  translated  some  works 
of  Chrysostom  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  Died  in  1599. 

See  PAQVOT,  "  Memoires." 

Lievens  or  Livens,  (J.\N,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  in  1607.  About  1630  he 
went  to  England,  and  painted  portraits  of  the  royal 
family.  He  afterwards  worked  at  Antwerp,  chiefly  on 
historical  subjects,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation.  As  an 
engraver  he  is  said  to  rival  Rembrandt.  Died  in  1663. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peir.tres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ligario,  le-ga're-o,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  the  Yaltellina  in  1086;  died  in  1752. 

Li-ga'rI-us,  (QUIXTUS,)  a  Roman  officer,  who  fought 
for  P(  mpey  in  the  civil  war,  and  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia  renewed  the  war  against  Caesar  in  Africa.  He  was 
pardoned  by  the  victor,  but  was  forbidden  to  enter  Italy. 
"When  his  friends  made  efforts  to  restore  him  to  citizen 
ship,  they  were  opposed  by  Ttibero,  who  became  his 
public  accuser  in  a  trial  before  the  dictator,  in  45  or  46 
B.C.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  pronounced  his  admirable 
oration  "Pro  Ligario."  Plutarch  informs  us  that  Caesar 


had  resolved  to  condemn  Ligarius,  but  that  in  the 
course  of  the  speech  his  colour  often  changed,  his  frame 
trembled,  and  a  verdict  of  acquittal  was  obtained  from 
him  through  the  transcendent  powers  of  the  orator. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Cicero." 

Liger,  le'zha',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  on  agricul 
ture,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1658.  He  published  several 
mediocre  but  useful  works.  Died  in  1717. 

Light'foot,  (Joiix,)  an  English  divine,  eminent  as  a 
biblical  commentator,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1602. 
He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar.  In  1630  he  be 
came  rector  of  Ashley,  and  in  1642  obtained  the  living  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  in  London.  He  was  identified  with 
the  Presbyterians  during  the  civil  war.  About  1644 
he  was  chosen  master  of  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge, 
and  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Great  Munden.  In 
Rabbinical  literature  he  had  few,  if  any,  superiors.  He 
published  "  Horse  Hebraicae  et  Talmudicae,"  (1658,)  and 
many  Latin  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  one  of 
which  is  called  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists," 
(1644-50.)  Died  in  1675. 

See  "  Brevis  Descriptio  Vitae  J.  Lightfooti,"  1699;  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Lightfoot,  (JoHN,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  Gloucestershire  in  1735.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  became  chaplain  to 'the  Duchess  of  Portland, 
and  obtained  the  livings  of  Sheldon  and  Gotham.  In 
company  with  Pennant,  he  explored  the  Hebrides  about 
1772,  and  published  in  1777  a  valuable  ''Flora  of  Scot 
land,"  ("  Flora  Scotica,"  2  vols.,)  with  excellent  figures. 
His  herbal  was  purchased  by  the  king,  and  was  after 
wards  consulted  with  profit  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  PENNANT,  "Life  of  J.  Lightfoot." 

Lignac.de,  deh  len'yik',  (JOSEPH  Amu  EN  LE  LARGE,) 
a  French  abbe  and  author,  born  of  a  noble  family  of 
Poitiers.  He  wrote  "  Letters  to  an  American  on  Bnffon's 
Natural  History,"  (1751-56,  4  vols.,)  and  a  few  other 
works.  Died  in  1762. 

Ligue,  de,  deh  len,  (KARi.  JOSEPH,)  PRINCE,  an  able 
Austrian  general  and  witty  author,  born  at  Brussels, 
May  12,  1735,  was  the  son  of  a  field-marshal  in  the  Aus 
trian  service.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  was  made  a  general-major  in 
1765.  In  1782  he  was  ambassador  to  Russia,  and  was 
highly  favoured  by  Catherine  II.  He  commanded  a 
corps  at  the  capture  of  Belgrade  in  1789.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1808.  His  generous  and 
chivalrous  character  rendered  him  the  idol  of  his  army. 
He  died  at  Vienna  in  1814,  leaving  interesting  memoirs, 
letters,  and  other  works,  (in  French,)  which  contain 
curious  anecdotes  and  piquant  passages.  Madame  de 
Stael  published  in  1809  a  volume  of  "Letters  and 
Thoughts  of  Prince  de  Ligne."  He  had  published 
"Military,  Literary,  and  Sentimental  Miscellanies," 
("Melanges  militaires,  litteraires  et  sentimentaires," 
34  vols.,  1795-1811.)  According  to  Madame  de  Stael, 
"  he  was  the  only  foreigner  that  became  a  model  in  the 
French  style,  instead  of  an  imitator." 

See  "  I  etters  and  Reflections  of  the  Austrian  Field-M.irshal 
Prince  de  Ligne  ;"  SOUBIRAN,  "  Biographic  tin  Prince  C.  de  Li.nne," 
1807;  SAINTE-HEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "  Xouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Ligniville,  de,  deh  len'ye'vel',  (RENE  CIIAKI.KS  ELI 
SABETH,)  COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  1/57;  died 
in  1813. 

Lignon,  len'y6Nr,  (firiENNE  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1779;  died  in  1833. 

Lig'on,  ?  (RICHARD,)  an  English  traveller,  who  emi 
grated  to  Barbadoes  in  1647  and  returned  to  England 
in  1650.  He  published  "A  True  and  Exact  History 
of  Barbadoes,"  a  work  of  some  value.  He  was  the 
overseer  of  the  female  slave  Yarico,  whose  story  is 
narrated  in  his  book  and  furnished  Steele  a  subject  for 
the  eleventh  number  of  the  "  Spectator." 

Ligonier,  lig'o-neer',  (JoHN,)  EARI.,  an  eminent  gene 
ral  of  the  British  army,  was  born  of  Protestant  parents  in 
France  in  1678,  and  emigrated  to  England  in  early  youth. 
He  fought  at  Blenheim, (1 704,)  Ramillies,  and  Malplaquet, 
(1709,)  and  commanded  the  infantry  at  Fontenoy,  (1745.) 
In  1746  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 


l/jallvrll  A    l\J     A^J^ttl  1U.  £IUl«Ul*ll     llJ»V-MUlr>     US     LiJttL     V*cC5-<U  ill        1  /^O       1IC        >\  as       appUIIIlVU       V.UIllllltllH.H-1  -J  l|-l_lllt  I       ^1        lilt 

€  as k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  IT,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ';  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJJT^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

90 


LIGORIO 


1426 


L1MATRAC 


British  forces  in  Flanders.  He  displayed  great  skill  and 
courage  at  Laffeldt  in  1747,  but  was  there  made  prisoner. 
He  became  an  English  peer,  with  the  title  of  Earl  Ligo- 
nier,  in  1766,  and  was  a  field-marshal  and  privy  coun 
cillor  at  his  death,  in  1770. 

See  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Ligorio,  le-go're-o,  (PiRRo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
painter,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Naples  about  1530,  or, 
as  others  say,  1498.  He  was  appointed  by  Paul  IV. 
architect  of  the  Vatican  and  of  Saint  Peter's  Church, 
which  Michael  Angelo  had  previously  superintended. 
The  latter  left  Rome  about  that  time.  Ligorio,  having 
deviated  from  the  plan  of  Michael  Angelo,  which  he  was 
ordered  to  follow,  was  discharged  in  1568.  He  then  was 
employed  as  architect  by  Alphonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
He  died  about  1580,  leaving  in  manuscript  voluminous 
writings  on  antiquities  and  architecture,  which  are 
praised  by  Muratori. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  LANZI,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Ligozzi,  le-got'see,  (JACOI'O,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Verona  in  1543,  was  a  pupil 
of  Paul  Veronese.  He  painted  both  in  fresco  and  in  oil. 
Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  at  Verona,  he  re 
moved  to  Florence,  where  he  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Four  Crowned  Saints,"  at  Imola,  and  the 
"  Martyrdom  of  Saint  I  )orothea,"  at  Pescia.  His  smaller 
pictures  are  highly  finished.  Died  in  1627. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "Diziona- 
rio  ;"  LOMAZZO,  "Idea  del  Tenipio  della  Pittura." 

Liguori,  da,  da  le-goo-o'ree,  (Ai.Koxso  MARIA,)  an 
Italian  priest  and  casuist,  born  at  or  near  Naples  in 
1696.  He  founded  in  1732  an  order  of  missionaries  to 
convert  or  instruct  the  lower  classes,  and  named  it  the 
Order  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  In  1762  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Saint  Agatha  dei  Goti.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  approved  works,  a  "  Moral  Theology," 
('755')  which  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1787. 

See  GIATTINI,  "Vita  del  beate  A.  M.  Liguori,"  1815  ;  G.  KI.OTH, 
"  Leben  des  heiligen  A.  M.  Liguori,"  1835;  "Life  of  Saint  A.  M.  de 
Liguori,"  London,  2  vols.,  184$. 

Lil'burne,  (JoHN,)  an  English  Puritan  enthusiast  and 
radical  agitator,  was  born  in  Durham  in  1618.  He  was 
accused  before  the  Star  Chamber  in  1637  of  distributing 
seditious  pamphlets,  and  was  condemned  to  be  whipped 
and  imprisoned.  He  was  released  in  1640,  and  obtained 
^2000  damages.  In  1644  he  fought  bravely  against  the 
king  at  Marston  Moor,  where  he  led  a  regiment.  He 
afterwards  attacked  Prynne,  Lenthal,  and  others  in  pam 
phlets,  for  which  he  was  committed  to  Newgate.  He 
was  one  of  the  master-spirits  of  the  "  Levellers,"  and 
a  stubborn  opponent  of  Cromwell's  authority.  In  1651 
he  was  tried  for  treason  and  acquitted  by  the  jury.  He 
became  a  Quaker  a  few  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1657.  Hume  designates  him  as  "the  most 
turbulent,  but  the  most  upright  and  courageous,  of  human 
kind."  ("  History  of  England.") 

See,  also,  CLARENDON,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  "Monk's 
Contemporaries,"  by  GUIZOT,  London,  1865. 

Lilieblad,  lee'le-eh-blad',  or  Liljenblad,  leel'yen- 
blad',  (GusTAVUs,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and  linguist,  born 
at  Strengnes  in  1651.  He  was  for  many  years  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Upsal,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
"History  of  Egypt,"  (1698.)  Died  in  1710. 

See  GEZEI.IUS,  "Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Lilienberg  or  Liljenberg,  lee'le-e'n-be'Rg',  (ERIK 
GUSTAF,)  KARON  OF,  a  Swedish  general,  who  served  in 
the  French  army  at  Laufelcl  and  in  other  battles.  Died 
in  1770. 

Lilienkrantz  or  Liljenkrantz,  lee'le-en-kRants',  or 
Liliecrantz,  lee'le-eh-kKants',  QOHANN,)  COUNT  DE,  a 
Swedish  financier,  born  about  1730.  On  the  accession 
of  Gustavus  III.  (1771)  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
finances,  which  he  managed  with  success  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  GEYER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede." 

Lilienthal,  lee'le-en-til',  (MICHAEL,)  a  learned  Prus 
sian  philologist,  born  at  Liebstadt  in  1686.  He  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 


of  Konigsberg.  He  was  the  principal  editor  of  the 
"Erlautertes  Preussen,"  (1724-28,)  a  highly-esteemed 
literary  journal,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Historical  and  Literary  Selections,"  ("Selecta  His 
torica  et  Literaria,"  1711-19.)  Died  in  1750. 

See  HIRSCHING,  "Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch ;"  MEUSEI., 
"  Lexikon." 

Lilienthal,  (THEODOR  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  theo 
logian  and  writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Konigsberg  in  1717;  died  in  1782. 

Lilio,  lee'le-o,  or  Lilli,  lel'lee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ancona  in  1555.  He  worked  at  Rome 
for  Sixtus  V.,  and  at  Ancona.  Died  in  1610. 

Lilip,  (Luioi,)  [Lat.  AI.OY'SIUS  LII/IUS,]  an  Italian 
physician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Calabria.  He  is 
remembered  only  for  the  part  he  had  in  the  reform  of 
the  calendar  under  the  auspices  of  Gregory  XIII.  lie 
applied  the  epacts  to  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  and, 
by  adding  one  day  to  the  end  of  each  cycle,  he  arrived 
at  an  approximative  equation  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
years.  He  died  in  1576,  just  after  he  had  finished  the 
work.  His  method  was  approved  by  the  pope  in  1582. 

Lilio  Giraldi.     See  GIRAI.DI. 

Lilius.     See  LILIO. 

Liljenblad.     See  LILIERLAD. 

Liljenkrantz.     See  LILIENKRANTZ. 

Lil'lo,  (GEORGE,)  a  successful  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1693,  became  a  jeweller  of  London.  He  holds  a  high 
rank  among  English  dramatists  of  the  second  order. 
"The  Fatal  Curiosity,"  a  tragedy,  (1737,)  is  called  his 
master-piece,  and  is  constructed  with  remarkable  skill. 
His  "George  Karmvell"  and  "Arden  of  Feversham" 
were  also  popular.  Died  in  1739. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the 
British  Poets." 

Lil'ly,  written  also  Lily  and  Lyly,  (JOHN,)  an  English 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Kent  about  1553.  He  wrote 
several  dramas,  which  were  performed  with  success,  and 
flourished  as  a  wit  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth.  About  1580 
he  published  "  Euphues  :  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,"  which 
became  very  popular  with  that  pedantic  generation  for 
its  affected  and  dainty  style,  called  "Euphuism."  "It 
deserves  notice,"  says  Hallani,  "on  account  of  the  influ 
ence  it  is  recorded  to  have  had  upon  the  court  of  Eliza 
beth  and  over  the  public  taste."  He  was  the  author  of 
a  famous  satirical  pamphlet  against  Martin  Mar-Prelate, 
called  "  Pap  with  a  Hatchet."  Died  about  1600. 

See  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  John  Lyly,  with  some  Account 
of  his  Life,"  etc.,  by  T.  W.  KAIRHOLT,  1858;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1861. 

Lilly,  (WILLIAM,)  a  famous  English  astrologer,  born 
in  Leicestershire  in  1602.  In  early  life  he  was  employed 
as  a  servant  in  London.  He  began  to  study  astrology 
in  1632,  and  acquired  fame  as  a  fortune-teller.  He  pro 
fited  by  the  credulity  of  Charles  I.,  who  consulted  him 
on  political  affairs  in  the  civil  war.  Some  agents  of  the 
popular  party  also  patronized  him.  He  published  an 
nually  an  almanac,  called  "  Merlinus  Anglicus  Junior," 
(1644-81.)  His  character  is  represented  by  Kutler  under 
the  name  of  "Sidrophel."  Died  in  1681. 

See  "Life  and  Times  of  \V.  Lilly,"  by  himself,  1715;  "  Retro- 
spective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Lil'y  or  Lil'ly,  (WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  English 
schoolmaster,  born  at  Odiham,  in  Hampshire,  about 
1468.  After  studying  languages  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
he  settled  in  London  in  1509,  and  opened  a  grammar- 
school.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught 
Greek  in  London.  In  1512  he  became  master  of  Saint 
Paul's  School,  just  founded  by  Colet.  He  published, 
besides  Latin  poems,  "  Brevissima  Institutio  sen  Ratio 
Grammatices  cognoscendae,"  (1513,)  commonly  called 
"Lily's  Grammar,"  which  was  for  a  long  time  more 
used  in  English  schools  than  any  other  Latin  grammar. 
He  was  intimate  with  Erasmus.  Died  in  1523. 

See  WARTON,  "History  of  Poetry." 

Lima,  de,  da  lee'ma,  (Luiz  CAETANO,)  a  Portuguese 
historian  and  grammarian,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1671  ;  died 
in  1757. 

Limayrac,  le'mi'rfk',  (PAULIN,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Caussade  in  1817.  He  became  chief  editor  of 
"La  Patrie,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris,  in  1858. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m5t;  not;  good;  moon; 


LIMBORCH 


1427 


LINCOLN 


Limborch,  van,  vtn  lim'boRK',  written  also  Lini- 
borg,  (HKNDRIK,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague 
in  1680,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Adrian  van  cler 
Werf,  of  whose  works  he  made  fine  copies.  Died  in  1758. 

Limborch,  van,  (PHILIPPUS,)  a  learned  Dutch  theolo 
gian,  was  born  in  Amsterdam  the  igth  of  June,  1633.  He 
was  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of  the  Remonstrant 
or  Arminian  doctrines,  which  were  condemned  by  the 
Synod  of  Dort  in  1619.  After  preaching  f  r  ten  years 
at  Gouda,  he  became  in  1668  pastor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Amsterdam.  He  corresponded  for  a  long 
time  with  John  Locke.  His  most  important  work  is 
"Theologia  Christiana,"  (1686,)  "a  system  of  divinity 
and  morals  which,"  says  Hallam,  "  is  the  fullest  delinea 
tion  of  the  Arminian  scheme."  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Inquisition,"  (1692.)  Died  in  1712. 

See  LKCI.EKC.  "  Oratio  fimebris  in  OLiuun  P.  Limborch,"  1712; 
VAN  DEK  HOEVKN,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  J.  Clerico  et  P.  a  Lim 
borch,"  etc.,  1^43;  NICEKON,  "  MemoTes." 

Limbourg,  van,  vtn  Hm'booKG',  (J.vx  PHILIPPUS,) 
a  Flemish  medical  writer,  born  near  Spa  in  1726.  He 
practised  at  Spa  with  great  success.  Died  in  1811. 

Limburg-Brouwer,  van,  \tn  lin/buRH  bRow'er, 
(Pu.TER,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  in  1795;  died  in  1847. 

Limnaeus  or  Limnaus,  lim-na'us,  (JoHANX,)  a  Ger 
man  publicist,  born  at  fena  in  1592.  lie  was  preceptor 
of  the  M«rgrave  of  Anspach  and  of  Albert  of  Branden 
burg,  who  afterwards  employed  him  as  chancellor  and 
privy  councillor.  lie  wrote  an  esteemed  work  on  "The 
Public  Law  of  the  Romano-Germanic  Empire,"  (3  vols., 
1645-57.)  and  an  "Account  of  the  French  Monarchy  and 
Constitution,"  ("  Xotitia  Regni  Galliae,"  2  vols.,  1655.) 
Died  in  1663. 

See  STKEBEL,  "Leben  und  Schriften  des  Staatslehrers  J.  Lim- 
na^us,"  1741. 

Limousin  or  Limosin.  See  LEONARD  DE  LIMOUSIN. 

Lin.     See  LINTS. 

Lin,  van,  vtn  lin,  (IlAXS,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  genre, 
who  flourished  about  1650,  was  surnamed  STILHEID.  He 
excelled  in  battle-pieces,  and  painted  horses  better  than 
any  other  Dutch  artist  except  Wouwerman. 

Linacre,  lin'a-ker,  written  also  Linacer  (or  Lina- 
ker)  and  Lynacer,  (  THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English 
physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Canterbury  about  1460. 
He  learned  Greek  of  Demetrius  Chalcondylas  at  Flor 
ence,  and  studied  medicine  at  Rome.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  lectured  on  medicine,  and  taught  Greek  at 
Oxford  for  several  years,  until  Henry  VIII.  employed 
him  as  physician  and  preceptor  of  Prince  Arthur.  He 
was  the  principal  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Col 
lege  of  Physicians,  London.  At  an  advanced  age  he  took 
orders,  and  obtained  the  rectory  of  Mersham,  a  prebend 
in  York  Cathedral,  and  other  benefices.  He  was  an  ex 
cellent  classical  scholar,  and  a  correspondent  of  Erasmus. 
He  translated  several  of  Galen's  works  into  Latin,  and 
wrote  "On  the  Correct  Structure  of  Latin  Prose,"  ("  De 
Emtndata  Structura  Latini  Sermonis,")  which  Hallam 
calls  "the  first-fruits  of  English  erudition,"  and  which 
must,  he  says,  have  been  highly  valuable.  Died  in  1524. 

Ste  "  Lives  of  British  Physicians,"  London,  1857:  BAYLE,  "His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON,  "Me'moires." 

Liuant,  Ie'n6.\',  (MLCHEL,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Louviers  in  1708.  Voltaire,  who  was  his  friend,  spoke 
highly  of  his  taste  and  imagination.  Linant  lived  in 
Paris,  and  was  employed  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of  M. 
Hebert.  He  wrote  odes,  epistles,  and  other  short  poems, 
which  gained  several  prizes  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
also  published  an  edition  of  Voltaire's  works,  (1738.) 
Died  in  1749. 

Linck,  link,  (JoiiANX  HEINRICJI,)  a  German  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1674;  died  in  1734. 

Lincoln,  link'on,  (ABRAHAM,)  the  sixteenth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hardin  county,  Ken 
tucky,  (in  a  part  now  included  in  Larue  county,)  the 
1 2th  of  February,  1809.  His  ancestors  were  of  English 
descent ;  they  are  supposed  to  have  originally  emigrated 
to  America  with  the  followers  of  William  Penn.  A 
little  before  the  middle  of  last  century  they  resided  in 
Berks  ctunty,  Pennsylvania,  whence  a  part  of  the  family 
removed  in' 1750  to  Virginia.  About  the  year  1780 
Abraham  Lincoln,  the  grandfather  of  the  subject  of  this 


notice,  settled  in  Kentucky,  where  not  long  after  he  was 
stealthily  shot  by  an  Indian.  I  le  left  three  sons,  of  whom 
the  eldest,  Thomas  Lincoln,  married  and  settled  in  Har 
din  county  in  1806.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  his  second 
child  and  oldest  son.  His  childhood  was  passed  in  the 
midst  of  hardship  and  toil.  When  he  was  scarcely 
eight  years  old,  his  parents  removed  to  Spencer  county, 
Indiana.  It  was  a  difficult  and  wearisome  journey,  and 
he  ever  afterwards  retained  a  vivid  recollection  of  the 
trials  and  hardships  which  he  passed  through  on  that 
occasion.  Before  he  was  eleven  years  of  age,  he  ex 
perienced  a  bitter  and  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of 
his  mother.  Under  her  guidance  he  had  learned  to 
read  and  prize  the  Bible,  and  to  her  influence,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  he  was  largely  indebted  for  the  develop 
ment  of  those  rare  and  noble  moral  traits  which  have 
conferred  upon  him,  if  not  a  brilliant,  at  least  a  spotless 
and  ever-enduring  fame.  Among  the  books  which,  as  a 
boy,  he  particularly  valued,  was  a  Life  of  Washington  ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
character,  which  united  to  plain  and  practical  common 
sense  moral  qualities  of  the  highest  order,  may  have 
contributed  not  a  little  to  that  combination  of  straight 
forward  simplicity  and  moral  grandeur  for  which  Lin 
coln  was  afterwards  distinguished.  The  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress"  was  also  one  of  his  favourite  books;  and  its 
influence  upon  his  style  may  perhaps  be  traced  not 
merely  in  his  preference  for  forcible  and  racy  Saxon 
words,  but  also  in  that  homely  directness  of  expression 
by  which  all  his  speeches  and  writings  are  characterized. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Black  Hawk  war,  in  the 
early  part  of  1832,  Lincoln  promptly  volunteered  for  the 
defence  of  the  frontier  settlements,  and  was  chosen  captain 
of  his  company.  The  war,  however,  having  been  speedily 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  had  an  opportunity  of  meet 
ing  the  enemy,  he  returned  to  the  pursuits  of  peace.  In 
the  political  contest  which  took  place  between  General 
Jackson  and  Henry  Clay  in  the  autumn  of  1832,  he  zeal 
ously  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter,  for  whom  he 
had  felt  an  enthusiastic  admiration  from  his  boyhood. 
He  himself  was  a  candidate  for  the  State  legislature; 
and,  although  unsuccessful,  he  received  in  his  own  pre 
cinct  two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  votes  out  of  the 
two  hundred  and  eighty-four  which  had  been  cast;  that 
is,  thirty-nine  fortieths  of  the  whole  number.  In  1834 
he  was  again  a  candidate  for  the  legislature,  and  was 
elected.  He  was  re-elected  in  1836.  In  March,  1837, 
he  gave  proof  of  the  uprightness  as  well  as  independ 
ence  of  his  character  by  recording  his  protest  on  the 
journal  of  the  House  against  some  extreme  pro  slavery 
resolutions  which  had  been  passed  by  the  Democratic 
majority  in  the  legislature.  At  that  time  the  expression 
of  any  anti-slavery  sentiments  was  extremely  unpopular 
in  every  part  of  the  United  States,  but  perhaps  nowhere 
north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  was  it  more  so  than  in 
j  Illinois.  Lincoln  and  another  member  who  shared  his 
I  views  declared  in  their  protest  that  "  they  believe  that 
the  institution  of  slavery  is  founded  in  injustice  and  bad 
policy."  Having  been  again  elected  to  the  legislature 
in  1838,  he  became  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
Whigs  in  the  House,  and  received  the  entire  vote  of  his 
party  for  the  speakership,  which  he  lost  by  only  one  vote. 
'  He  had  been  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and  in  April, 
1837,  he  established  himself  permanently  in  Springfield 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  law  in  earnest,  with  John 
T.  Stuart  as  his  partner.  In  November,  1842,  he  mar 
ried  Miss  Mary  Todd,  daughter  of  Robert  S.  Todd,  Esq., 
of  Lexington,  Kentucky.  Having  accepted  the  nomi 
nation  for  Congress  in  1846,  he  was  triumphantly  elected, 
being  the  only  Whig  out  of  the  seven  representatives 
sent  by  Illinois  to  the  national  legislature.  During  the 
time  that  he  was  in  Congress  he  uniformly  gave  his  voice 
in  favour  of  freedom,  voting  against  laying  on  the  table 
without  consideration  the  petitions  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  always  supporting  the  doctrines  of  the 
Wilmut  Proviso  whenever  any  measure  of  this  kind 
was  before  the  House.  The  passage  of  the  Nebraska 
bill  in  May,  1854,  involving  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  gave  everywhere  fresh  interest  and  ar 
dour  to  the  contest  between  freedom  and  slavery.  A 
United  States  Senator  was  to  be  chosen  by  the  Illinois 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  25 


LINCOLN 


1428 


LINCOLN 


legislature.  Lincoln  had  been  nominated  by  the  Repub 
lican  party  as  their  candidate  for  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States.  Judge  Douglas,  confessedly  the  ablest  politician 
and  best  debater  among  all  the  Democratic  leaders  of 
the  West,  was  the  opposing  candidate.  Lincoln  chal 
lenged  his  opponent  to  a  series  of  public  discussions 
respecting  the  views  and  policy  of  the  two  contending 
parties.  That  political  contest  first  fully  revealed  the 
versatility,  depth,  and  comprehensiveness  of  Mr.  Lin 
coln's  mind.  Even  some  of  those  belonging  to  the  party 
of  Judge  Douglas  admitted  that  the  latter  was  inferior 
to  his  opponent  both  in  learning  and  in  argument, — in 
short,  in  every  essential  qualification  for  the  discussion 
of  those  great  principles  which  were  then  agitating  the 
country  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  As  the  elec 
tion  of  United  States  Senator  depended  on  the  legisla 
ture,  and  not  on  a  direct  vote  by  the  people,  Douglas 
was  the  successful  competitor;  but  the  extraordinary 
ability  displayed  by  Lincoln  in  the  discussion  above  re 
ferred  to,  led  to  his  nomination  by  the  Republican  party 
in  1860  as  their  candidate  for  the  Presidency.  No  Presi 
dential  contest  involving  issues  so  momentous  had  ever 
before  occurred.  The  general  election  then  about  to 
take  place  was  to  decide  the  all-important  question 
whether  the  blighting  influence  of  slavery  should  be 
allowed  to  extend  to  every  part  of  the  republic,  or  should 
thenceforward  be  restricted  to  the  territory  which  it 
already  possessed.  Never  before  had  any  Presidential 
election  so  strongly  excited  all  the  hopes  and  fears  of  the 
patriot,  all  the  affections  and  passions  of  the  people. 
It  took  place  on  the  6th  of  November,  1860.  Lincoln 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the  free  States  except 
New  Jersey,  which  was  divided,  giving  him  four  votes 
and  Douglas  three.  Breckinridge  received  the  votes 
of  all  the  slave  States  except  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten 
nessee,  and  Missouri ;  the  three  former  voted  for  Bell, 
the  last  for  Douglas.  Lincoln  received  in  all  one  hun 
dred  and  eighty  electoral  votes,  Breckinridge  seventy-two, 
Bell  thirty-nine,  and  Douglas  twelve. 

No  sooner  was  the  result  of  the  election  known  than 
several  of  the  Southern  States  made  preparations  for 
formally  separating  themselves  from  the  Federal  Union. 
South  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  the  secession  movement. 
The  legislature  convened  in  November  and  passed  an 
act  calling  a  State  convention  to  meet  on  the  I7th  of 
December.  It  met  accordingly,  and  on  the  2Oth  an 
ordinance  was  passed  unanimously  dissolving  the  union 
till  then  "  subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and  other 
States  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America." 
It  was  evident,  from  the  language  of  the  leading  men  in 
that  convention,  that  the  ordinance  of  secession  was  not 
the  result  of  any  sudden  excitement  or  hastily-adopted 
resolution,  but  was  the  deliberate  fulfilment  of  a  settled 
and  long-cherished  purpose.  "The  secession  of  South 
Carolina,"  said  Mr.  Rhett,  "was  not  the  event  of  a  day." 
It  was  "a  matter  which  had  been  gathering  head  for 
thirty  years."  Mr.  Inglis  said  that  most  of  them  had 
had  it  "under  consideration  for  the  last  twenty  years." 
"  So  far,"  says  Raymond,  "as  South  Carolina  was  con 
cerned,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  her  action  was  de 
cided  by  men  who  had  been  plotting  disunion  for  thirty 
years,  not  on  account  of  any  wrongs  her  people  had  sus 
tained  at  the  hands  of  the  Federal  government,  but  from 
motives  of  personal  and  sectional  ambition,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  government  which  should  be 
permanently  and  completely  in  the  interest  of  slavery." 
("Lincoln's  Administration,"  chap,  i.)  Following  the 
example  of  South  Carolina,  Mississippi  passed  an  ordi 
nance  of  secession  on  the  gth  of  January,  1861,*  Florida 
January  10,  Alabama  January  n,  Georgia  January  18, 
Louisiana  January  26,  Texas  February  I.  Thus,  more 
than  a  month  previous  to  the  expiration  of  Mr.  Buch 
anan's  term  of  office,  seven  Stntes  had  done  all  that 
lay  in  their  power  to  dissolve  their  connection  with  the 
Union.  Delegates  appointed  by  the  conventions  of  the 
seceding  States  met  at  Montgomery  early  in  February, 
and  formed  a  new  Confederacy,  of  which  Jefferson  Davis, 
of  Mississippi,  was  elected  President,  and  Alexander  II. 

*  These  dates,  and  most  of  the  others  in  this  article  connected 
with  the  events  of  the  rebellion,  are  taken  from  Greelev's  "American 
Conflict:" 


Stephens,  of  Georgia,  Vice-President.  Not  long  after, 
Mr.  Stephens,  in  an  elaborate  speech  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Savannah,  attempted  to  vindicate  the  course 
of  the  seceders  in  setting  up  a  new  government  in  oppo 
sition  to  that  of  the  United  States.  On  that  occasion  he 
said  that  the  prevailing  ideas  of  Jefferson  and  "  most 
of  the  leading  statesmen  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of 
the  old  Constitution  were  that  the  enslavement  of  the 
African  was  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  that  it  was 
wrong  in  principle,  socially,  morally,  politically.  .  .  . 
These  ideas,  however,  were  fundamentally  wrong.  They 
rested  upon  the  assumption  of  the  equality  of  races. 
This  was  an  error.  .  .  .  Our  new  government  was 
founded  upon  exactly  the  opposite  ideas  ;  its  foundations 
are  laid,  its  corner-stone  rests,  upon  the  great  truth  that 
the  negro  is  not  equal  to  the  white  man ;  that  slavery, 
subordination  to  the  superior  race,  is  his  natural  and 
normal  condition.  This,  our  new  government,  is  the 
first  in  the  history  of  the  world  based  upon  this  great 
physical,  philosophical,  and  moral  truth." 

While  President  Buchanan  took  the  ground  that  the 
Federal  government  had  no  right  to  coerce  the  seceding 
States,  several  members  of  the  cabinet  had  not  neglected 
the  opportunities  which  their  official  position  afforded,  of 
promoting  the  interests  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
The  secretary  of  war,  John  B.  Floyd,  took  care  to  make 
such  a  disposition  of  the  Federal  arms  and  ammunition 
that  in  case  the  new  administration  should  be  disposed 
to  adopt  a  more  decisive  policy  it  would  find  its  energies 
paralyzed  by  a  total  want  of  the  material  of  war,  while 
the  revolted  States,  in  case  of  necessity,  might  readily 
possess  themselves  of  that  very  material  which  had  been 
thus  adroitly  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Federal 
'  government.  An  official  report  from  the  ordnance 
department,  dated  January  16,  1861,  shows  that  during 
the  year  1860  115,000  muskets  had  been  removed  from 
Northern  armories  and  sent  to  Southern  arsenals  by  a 
single  order  of  the  secretary  of  war  ;  and  it  was  claimed 
for  him,  by  one  of  his  eulogists  in  Virginia,  that,  while 
a  member  of  President  Buchanan's  cabinet,  Mr.  Floyd 
"thwarted,  resisted,  and  forbade"  certain  measures 
which,  if  carried  into  effect,  would  have  rendered  the 
formation  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  impossible. 

It  was  under  such  circumstances  as  these — with  seven 
of  the  most  influential  of  the  United  States  in  open  re 
volt,  and  several  others  on  the  eve  of  secession, — with 
timorous  indecision  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and 
secret  treason  lurking  not  only  among  the  members 
of  the  cabinet,  but  also  among  the  officers  of  the  army 
and  navy — that  Abraham  Lincoln,  on  the  nth  of  Feb 
ruary,  1861,  left  his  Western  home  and  proceeded  to 
Washington  to  take  into  his  hands  the  reins  of  govern 
ment.  His  brief  parting  words  to  his  friends  at  Spring 
field  reveal  at  one  view  the  simple,  manly  earnestness 
of  his  character,  and  that  humble  but  unfaltering  trust 
in  God  by  which  he  was  sustained  through  all  the  perils 
and  darkness  which  surrounded  his  administration.  "  My 
Friends  :  No  one  not  in  my  position  can  appreciate  the 
sadness  I  feel  at  this  parting.  To  this  people  I  owe  all 
that  I  am.  Here  I  have  lived  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century ;  here  my  children  were  born,  and  here  one  of 
them  lies  buried.  I  know  not  how  soon  I  shall  see  you 
again.  A  duty  devolves  upon  me  which  is,  perhaps, 
greater  than  that  which  has  devolved  upon  any  other 
man  since  the  days  of  Washington.  He  never  would 
have  succeeded  except  for  the  aid  of  divine  Providence, 
upon  which  he  at  all  times  relied.  I  feel  that  I  cannot 
succeed  without  the  same  divine  aid  which  sustained 
him ;  and  on  the  same  almighty  Being  I  place  my  reli 
ance  for  support ;  and  I  hope  you,  my  friends,  will  all 
pray  that  I  may  receive  that  divine  assistance,  without 
which  I  cannot  succeed,  but  with  which  success  is 
certain.  Again  I  bid  you  all  an  affectionate  farewell." 

A  rumour  was  current  some  time  before  the  President 
elect  left  his  home  in  Illinois,  that  he  would  never  reach 
the  national  capital  alive.  An  attempt  was  made  (Feb 
ruary  it)  on  the  Toledo  and  Western  Railroad  to  throw 
from  the  track  the  train  on  which  he  was  ;  and  after 
wards,  just  as  he  was  leaving  Cincinnati,  a  hand-grenade 
was  found  to  have  V>een  secreted  on  the  car.  A  plot  had 
likewise  been  formed  to  take  his  life  during  his  passage 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  m  ion- 


LINCOLN 


1429 


LINCOLN 


through  Baltimore  on  his  way  to  Washington.  Mr. 
Se\vird  and  General  Scott,  having  been  informed  of 
that  fact,  arranged  it  that  Lincoln  should  pass  through 
Baltimore  several  hours  earlier  than  had  at  first  been 
proposed.  The  plans  of  the  conspirators  were  thus 
frustrated,  and  the  President-elect  reached  Washington 
in  safety  on  the  morning  of  the  2jd  of  February. 

Mr.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated  as  President  of  the 
United  States  on  the  4th  of  March,  1861.  In  his  ad 
dress  on  that  occasion  he  mildly  but  distinctly  and 
firmly  announced  his  purpose  to  "take  care  that  the 
laws  of  the  Union  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the  States." 
"I  trust,"  he  adds,  "this  will  not  be  regarded  as  a 
menace.  .  .  .  There  need  be  no  bloodshed  or  violence  ; 
and  there  shall  be  none,  unless  it  be  forced  upon  the 
national  authority.  The  power  confided  to  me  will  be 
used  to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  the  property  and  places 
belonging  to  the  government,  and  to  corlect  the  duties 
and  imposts ;  but,  beyond  what  may  be  necessary  for 
these  objects,  there  will  be  no  invasion,  no  using  of  force 
against  or  among  the  people,  anywhere.  .  .  .  The  mails, 
unless  repelled,  will  continue  to  be  furnished  in  all  parts 
of  the  Union.  So  far  as  possible,  the  people  everywhere 
shall  have  that  sense  of  perfect  security  which  is  most 
favourable  to  calm  thought  and  reflection.  .  .  .  Physically 
speaking,  we  cannot  separate.  We  cannot  remove  our 
respective  sections  from  each  other,  nor  build  an  impass 
able  wall  between  them.  A  husband  and  wife  may  be 
divorced  and  go  out  of  the  presence  and  beyond  the 
reach  of  each  other;  but  the  different  parts  of  our  coun 
try  cannot  do  this.  They  cannot  but  remain  face  to  face  ; 
and  intercourse,  either  amicable  or  hostile,  must  continue 
between  them.  Is  it  possible,  then,  to  make  the  inter 
course  more  advantageous  or  more  satisfactory  after 
separation  than  before?  .  .  .  THE  CHIEF  MAGISTRATE 

DERIVES  ALL  HIS  AUTHORITY  FROM  THE  PEOPLE  ;  AND 
THEY  HAVE  CONFERRED  NONE  UPON  HIM  TO  FIX  TERMS 
FOR  THE  SEPARATION  OF  THE  STATES.  .  .  .  HlS  DUTY  IS 
TO  ADMINISTER  THE  PRESENT  GOVERNMENT  AS  IT  CAME 
INTO  HIS  HANDS,  AND  TO  TRANSMIT  IT  UNIMPAIRED  BY 
HIM  TO  HIS  SUCCESSOR. 

"My  countrymen,  one  and  all,  think  calmly  and  well 
upon  this  whole  subject.  Nothing  valuable  can  be  lost 
by  taking  time.  If  there  be  an  object  to  hurry  any  of 
you  in  hot  haste  to  a  step  which  you  would  never  take 
deliberately,  that  object  will  be  frustrated  by  taking 
time  ;  but  no  good  object  can  be  frustrated  by  it.  ... 

"  In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow-countrymen, 
and  not  in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war. 
.  .  .  You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves 
the  aggressors.  You  have  no  oath  registered  in  heaven 
to  destroy  the  government,  while  I  shall  have  the  most 
solemn  one  to  'preserve,  protect,  and  defend'  it."  Mr. 
Lincoln  did  not  deny  that  the  laws  of  the  Federal  gov 
ernment,  and  even  the  Constitution  itself,  might  perhaps 
bear  unequally  and  hardly  upon  some  sections  of  the 
country;  but  he  thought  that  all  grievances  of  this  kind 
would  be  far  more  likely  to  be  properly  redressed  through 
a  calm  and  friendly  appeal  to  the  sense  of  justice  in  the 
people  than  by  violence  or  war. 

It  was  enough,  hosvever,  for  the  slave-holding  party 
that  he  denied  not  merely  the  expediency  but  the  right 
of  any  State  or  sectional  combination  of  States  to  se 
cede.  This  was  considered  equivalent  to  a  declaration 
of  war  ;  and  active  preparations  for  the  coming  struggle 
were  at  once  commenced  throughout  the  seceded  States. 
The  moderate,  reasonable,  and  conciliatory  tone  of  the 
Inaugural  had,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  a  most  happy  effect, 
not  only  in  uniting  and  consolidating,  so  to  speak,  the 
public  sentiment  of  the  North,  but  also  in  encouraging 
all  those  in  the  border  States  who,  whatever  may  have 
been  their  views  in  relation  to  slavery,  had  not  yet  cast 
off  all  attachment  to  the  national  flag  and  the  Federal 
Union.  Fort  Stimter,  in  the  harbour  of  Charleston,  was 
occupied  by  a  United  States  garrison,  under  the  com 
mand  of  Major  Anderson.  General  Beaurec;ard,  on  the 
part  of  the  .Southern  Confederacy,  demanded  its  sur 
render.  To  this  demand,  which  was  made  on  the  nth 
of  April,  Major  Anderson  at  once  replied  that  his  "sense 
of  honour  and  his  obligations  to  his  government  prevented 
his  compliance."  Early  on  the  I2th  an  attack  on  the  fort 


was  commenced,  and  kept  up  with  the  utmost  fury  with 
shells  and  red-hot  cannon-balls,  in  consequence  of  which 
Major  Anderson,  after  a  gallant  resistance  of  thirty-three 
hours,  was  at  length  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place,  which 
he  did  on  the  morning  of  the  I4th.     The  bombardment 
of  Fort  Sutnter  was  the  first  aggressive  act  committed 
on  either  side.     It  produced  a  deep  and  intense  excite 
ment  throughout  the  Northern   States,  breaking  down 
j  for  a  time  all   party  distinctions,  and   uniting  the  whole 
'  people  in  an  earnest,  unfaltering  purpose  to  support  the 
government.*     The   President,  justly  regarding  this  un 
provoked  attack  upon  a  United  States  fort  as  the  com 
mencement  of  actual  war,  issued  on  the  next  day  (April 
!  15)  a  proclamation  directing  both   Houses  of  Congress 
1  to  meet   in  extra  session  on  the  4th  of  July  following, 
and  calling  out  "the  militia  of  the  several  States  of  the 
Union,  to  the  aggregate  number  of  75,000,"  for  the  pur- 
1  pose  of  supporting  the  authority  and  enforcing  the  laws 
1  of  the  Federal  Union.     It  was  not,  however,  merely  for 
maintaining  the  authority  of  the  government  that  troops 
were  needed,  but  for  the  defence  of  the  national  capital 
itself.     The  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  had 
'  declared,  more  than  a  month  before,  that  whenever  war 
'  should  commence  the  North  and  not  the  South  should 
i  be  the  battle  field  ;  and  the  recent  attack  on  Fort  Sumter 
I  was  a  sufficient  proof  that  no  veneration  t  >r  the  national 
flag  nor  any  lurking  scruples  of  any  kind  would  be  likely 
to  prevent  the  carrying  out  of  that  threat  if  it  were  pos 
sible  to  accomplish  it.  All  the  Northern  States  responded 
1  to  the   demand  of  President  Lincoln   with  the   utmost 
:  alacrity  and  zeal.      Massachusetts — be   it    said    to    her 
'  immortal    honour — was    the    first    in    the    field.     The 
i  next  day  after  the  issue  of  the  proclamation,  her  Sixth 
regiment  left   Boston   for  the    national    capital.      Two 
more  regiments  set  out  within  forty-eight  hours.     The 
Sixth   regiment  was  attacked    (April    19)    in    Baltimore 
by  a   mob    carrying  a   secession    flag,   and    several    of 
the  soldiers   were  killed   or  severely   wounded.      Gov 
ernor  Hicks  having  united  with  Mayor  Brown,  of  Balti 
more,  in   urging,  for  prudential   reasons,  that  no  more 
troops  should  be  brought  through  that  city,  it  was  ar 
ranged  that  those  needed  for  the  defence  of  Washington 
should  in   future  be  sent  thither  by  way  of  Annapolis. 
On  the  iQth  of  April  President  Lincoln  issued  a  procla 
mation  blockading  the  ports  of  the  seceded  States.  The 
excitement  caused  by  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
which  tended  so  powerfully  to  unite  public  sentiment  at 
the  North,  appeared  to  have   produced  a  still   greater 
effect    in    the   Southern   States,  where    the    enthusiasm 
of  the  people  was  inflamed  almost  to   frenzy  by  what 
seemed  the  brilliant  success  of  the  Confederates,  in  re 
ducing  so  quickly  a  fortress  which  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  strongest  in  the  United  States,  though  it  was  at 
that  time  feebly  garrisoned  and  supplied  with  provisions 
for  a  few  clays  only.     Yielding  to  this  whirlwind  of  ex 
citement,   the   legislature  of  Virginia,   on  the   I7th   of 
April,   (three   days  after   the   taking  of    Fort  Sumter,) 
passed  an  ordinance  of  secession  by  a  vote  of  88  to  55. 
Not  long  after,  the  State  Convention  of  North  Carolina, 
elected  during  the  excitement  which  followed  the  cap 
ture  of  Sumter,  passed  unanimously  an  ordinance  of 
secession. 

The  most  active  preparations  were  made  on  both  sides 
for  the  contest  which  was  now  inevitable.  In  the  seceding 
States  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  troops  had  been 
raised,  of  which  the  larger  portion  had  been  marched 
towards  the  Northern  border.  The  greatness  of  the  force 
arrayed  against  the  government  made  an  additional  sup 
ply  of  troops  necessary  for  the  security  of  the  national 
capital.  A  second  proclamation  was  issued  on  the  3d 
of  May,  calling  into  the  United  States  service  a  large 
numbe'r  of  volunteers,  and  greatly  increasing  the  force 
both  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  difficulties  surrounding 
the  new  administration  were  rendered  still  more  for 
midable  by  the  precipitate  action  of  the  French  and 
English  governments,  which,  as  soon  as  information  was 

*  The  very  next  day  after  Major  Anderson  had  evacuated  the  ruin? 
of  Fort  Slimier,  a  leading  journal  of  New  York  (the  "  Tribune")  aptly 
and  forcib'y  observed,  "  Fort  Sumter  is  lost,  but  freedom  is  saved. 
...  It  is  liard  to  lose  Sumter;  it  is  a  consolation  to  know  that  ir 
losing  it  we  have  gained  a  united  people." 


€  zs>k;  9  as.?;  %hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  ^trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LINCOLN 


H3° 


LINCOLN 


received  that  hostilities  had  actually  begun  in  America, 
determined,  in  concert,  to  acknowledge  the  Southern 
Confederacy  as  a  belligerent  power. 

In  accordance  with  the  proclamation  of  the  1 5th  of 
April,  Congress  met  in  extra  session,  July  4,  1861.  In 
the  message  which  on  that  occasion  the  President  ad 
dressed  to  the  Senators  and  representatives,  after  re 
viewing  the  condition  of  the  country  and  explaining 
the  course  of  the  government,  he  proceeds  to  say, — 

"It  is  thus  seen  that  the  assault  upon  and  reduction 
of  Fort  Sumter  was  in  no  sense  a  matter  of  self-defence 
upon  the  part  of  the  assailants.  They  well  knew  that 
the  garrison  in  the  fort  could  by  no  possibility  commit 
aggression  upon  them.  They  knew,  they  were  expressly 
notified,  that  the  giving  of  bread  to  the  few  brave  and 
hungry  men  of  the  garrison  was  all  which  would  on  that 
occasion  be  attempted,  unless  themselves,  by  resisting 
so  much,  should  provoke  more.  They  knew  that  this 
government  desired  to  keep  the  garrison  in  the  fort,  not 
to  assail  them,  but  to  maintain  visible  possession,  and 
thus  to  preserve  the  Union  from  actual  and  immediate 
dissolution,  trusting,  as  before  stated,  to  time,  discussion, 
and  the  ballot-box  for  final  adjustment ;  and  they  assailed 
and  reduced  the  fort  for  precisely  the  reverse  object,  to 
drive  out  the  visible  authority  of  the  Federal  Union  and 
thus  force  it  to  immediate  dissolution.  ...  In  this  act, 
discarding  all  else,  they  have  forced  upon  the  country 
the  distinct  issue,  'immediate  dissolution  or  blood.' 

"And  this  issue  embraces  more  than  the  fate  of 
these  United  States.  It  presents  to  the  whole  family  of 
man  the  question  whether  a  constitutional  republic  or 
democracy — a  government  of  the  people  by  the  same 
people — can  or  cannot  maintain  its  territorial  integrity 
against  its  own  domestic  foes.  .  .  . 

"  It  was  with  the  deepest  regret  that  the  Executive 
found  the  duty  of  employing  the  war-power  in  defence 
of  the  government  forced  upon  him.  He  could  but  per 
form  this  duty  or  surrender  the  existence  of  the  govern 
ment.  .  .  .  As  a  private  citizen,  the  Executive  could  not 
have  consented  that  these  institutions  should  perish  ; 
much  less  could  he,  in  betrayal  of  so  vast  and  so  sacred 
a  trust  as  these  free  people  have  confided  to  him.  He 
felt  that  he  had  no  right  to  shrink,  or  even  to  count  the 
chances  of  his  own  life,  in  what  might  follow." 

There  were  a  few  members  in  both  Houses  who  in 
sisted  that  any  employment  of  the  war-power  against 
the  rebels  was  unconstitutional  ;  but  the  general  senti 
ment  of  Congress  fully  sustained  the  President  in  the 
course  he  had  taken.  On  July  15,  Mr.  McClernand,  a 
Democratic  member  from  Illinois,  offered  a  resolution 
pledging  the  House  to  vote  any  amount  of  money  and 
any  number  of  men  necessary  to  suppress  the  rebellion 
and  restore  the  authority  of  the  government.  This  reso 
lution  was  adopted  with  but  five  dissenting  votes.  The 
spirited  action  of  Congress  seemed  to  inspire  the  people 
everywhere  throughout  the  North  with  renewed  hope 
and  confidence.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  June,  a  large 
rebel  force  had  occupied  a  strong  position  on  Bull  Run 
Creek,  near  Manassas.  It  was  resolved  on  the  part  of 
the  Federal  government  to  attack  and  drive  back  this 
force  ;  and  the  belief  was  generally  entertained  that  a 
single  decided  success  on  the  part  of  the  Union  armies 
would  put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  Federal  forces,  com 
manded  by  General  McDowell,  made  an  attack  upon 
the  position  of  the  rebels  on  the  2ist  of  July;  but  they 
met  with  a  disastrous  defeat,  and  were  driven  back  in 
great  disorder  towards  \Vashington.  Then,  for  the  first 
time,  the  Northern  States  realized  the  greatness  of  the 
conflict  which  was  before  them.  They  then  understood 
how  great  were  the  advantages  possessed  by  the  Con 
federates  in  consequence  of  their  having  been  for  years 
preparing  for  war.  No  inconsiderable  portion  of  their 
troops  had  been  thoroughly  disciplined  under  excellent 
officers,  while  many  of  the  Northern  troops  had  scarcely 
any  discipline  at  all.  Add  to  this  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  best  and  most  experienced  officers  in  the  regular 
army  of  the  United  States  had  resigned  their  commis 
sions  and  joined  the  Confederate  cause.  All  the  prin 
cipal  Confederate  officers,  with  scarcely  an  exception, 
had  been  educated  at  the  national  military  academy  at 
West  Point,  and  had  afterwards  held  important  positions 


in  the  regular  army.  It  may  suffice  to  cite  the  names  of 
Generals  Joseph  E.  and  Albert  Sydney  Johnston,  Jeffer 
son  Davis,  the  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy, 
and  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  regarded,  at  the  time  of  the 
breaking  out  of  the  rebellion,  as  by  far  the  ablest  officer 
in  the  United  States  army,  General  Scott  having  become 
through  age  and  infirmities  unequal  to  the  duties  of  the 
field.  Hut  the  disaster  of  Bull  Run  damped  the  hopes 
of  the  Unionists  for  a  moment  only.  After  the  first 
surprise  was  over,  its  effect  was  to  rouse  the  courage  and 
determination  of  the  people  to  the  highest  point.  Vol 
unteers  flocked  by  thousands  to  join  the  national  army. 
From  the  time  of  Lincoln's  inauguration,  through  all  the 
anxious  months  of  the  spring  and  summer  of  1861,  Gene 
ral  Scott  had  retained  his  position  as  commander  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  and  had  given  the  govern 
ment  the  benefit  of  his  wisdom  and  experience  and  the 
support  of  his  'great  influence  and  unwavering  loyalty. 
At  length,  on  the  3 1st  of  October,  in  consequence  of  ill 
health  and  advancing  age,  he  applied  to  the  secretary  of 
war  to  be  released  from  active  service.  He  was  accord 
ingly  placed  upon  the  list  of  retired  officers  of  the  army 
of  the  United  States,  but  retaining  his  full  pay,  according 
to  a  special  provision  passed  by  Congress  in  the  summer 
session.  At  the  recommendation  of  General  Scott,  Gene 
ral  McClellan,  who  had  obtained  marked  distinction  by 
his  success  dining  the  summer  of  1861  in  clearing 
Western  Virginia  of  rebel  troops,  was  called  to  Wash 
ington  and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Federal 
forces.  He  at  once  commenced  a  thorough  reorganiza 
tion  of  the  army,  and  before  many  months  brought  it 
into  a  state  of  high  and  efficient  discipline.  Unfortunately, 
his  sympathies  were  rather  with  the  moderate  slave 
holders  than  with  the  staunch  supporters  of  the  govern 
ment,  and,  when  it  became  necessary  to  sacrifice  slavery 
in  order  to  save  the  republic,  he  could  not  nerve  himself 
to  the  task.  In  a  war  of  a  different  kind,  requiring  simply 
vigilance,  skill,  and  the  spirit  of  conciliation,  he  might 
have  earned  enduring  laurels.  But  the  Confederates  had 
gone  too  far  to  be  won  back  by  conciliation.  As  nothing 
could  satisfy  them  short  of  breaking  up  the  Union,  so 
nothing  was  left  for  the  Federal  government,  if  it  would 
escape  general  disruption  and  utter  ruin,  but  to  suppress 
the  rebellion  by  force  of  arms. 

The  forces  under  the  immediate  command  of  General 
McClellan  having  remained  inactive  during  most  of  the 
winter  of  1861-62,  President  Lincoln  issued  on  the  271!! 
of  January,  1862,  an  order  that  on  the  22cl  of  February  a 
general  movement  against  the  insurgents  should  be  made 
by  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States.  Gene 
ral  McClellan  at  first  objected,  in  a  letter  to  the  secre 
tary  of  war,  to  the  plan  of  operations  which  he  had  been 
directed  to  pursue.  At  length,  on  the  131)1  of  March,  a 
council  of  war  was  held,  in  which  it  was  decided  to  ad 
vance  against  Richmond  from  Fortress  Monroe.  The 
army  was  conveyed  by  water  down  the  Potomac  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  James  River.  Soon 
after  the  commencement  of  the  campaign,  General 
McClellan  began  to  complain  that  he  was  not  properly 
supported  by  the  Executive  at  Washington.  Advancing 
into  the  heart  of  a  hostile  country,  where  his  enemies, 
by  means  of  the  railroads,  which  they  could  completely 
control,  might  concentrate,  at  a  very  short  notice,  all  their 
available  force  at  or  near  the  point  of  threatened  attack, 
it  behooved  him,  undoubtedly,  to  use  great  circumspec 
tion.  Unhappily,  the  extreme  precautions  which  he  took 
against  a  doubtful  or  contingent  peril  had  no  other  effect 
than  to  surround  him  with  real  dangers  of  the  most  for 
midable  character.  His  movements  were  so  slow  and 
hesitating  that  the  Confederates  not  only  had  time  to 
assemble  their  forces  from  distant  points  and  erect  ex 
tensive  fortifications,  but  even  to  raise  and  discipline 
large  reinforcements  of  fresh  troops.  Had  he  early  in 
April  advanced  with  his  army  against  Yorktown,  he 
would  have  met  with  a  feeble  resistance,  and  might,  in 
all  probability,  have  pushed  on  at  once  to  the  conquest 
of  Richmond.  But  he  decided  to  approach  it  by  a  regular 
siege  ;  extensive  earthworks  were  thrown  up,  and  the 
campaign  was  protracted  into  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer.  His  troops,  compelled  to  encamp  among  the 
swamps  adjacent  to  theChickahominy,  perished  in  great 


a,  e,  I,  o,  fi,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LINCOLN 


LINCOLN 


numbers  from  disease.  At  last,  after  a  series  of  sangui 
nary  but  indecisive  conflicts,  the  army  was  forced  to 
retreat.  It  was  moved  in  August  from  James  River  by 
water  to  Aqui'a  Creek,  on  the  Potomac,  some  forty  miles 
below  Washington.  About  the  same  time  the  army  of 
General  Pope,  after  several  days  of  hard  fighting  near 
Manassas  and  Centreville,  was  driven  back  with  heavy 
loss  upon  Washington.  There  was  perhaps  no  darker 
period  during  the  whole  war  than  that  in  which  the 
summer  of  1862  came  to  a  close  ;  and  we  may  safely  say 
that  no  one  throughout  the  land  felt  more  deeply  the 
reverses  and  sufferings  of  his  countrymen  than  President 
Lincoln. 

On  the  2d  of  September,  General  McClellan  took 
command  of  all  the  available  troops  for  the  defence  of 
the  capital.  General  Lee,  having  crossed  the  Potomac 
(September  5)  into  Maryland,  was  attacked  and  de 
feated  by  McClellan  at  Antietam  on  tile  i6th  and  I7th 
of  September.  He  retreated  into  Virginia,  and  was  not 
pursued.  Early  in  October  McClellan  was  ordered  to 
cross  the  Potomac  and  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  drive 
him  southward  ;  but,  having  delayed  his  advance  for 
about  three  weeks,  he  was  removed  from  his  command, 
by  an  order  dated  November  5.  General  Burnside,  who 
succeeded  McClellan  as  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  attacked  (December  13)  General  Lee,  then 
occupying  a  strongly-fortified  position  at  Fredericks- 
burg,  and  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  Again,  on  the 
2d  and  3d  of  May,  1863,  General  Hooker  was  worsted 
by  General  Lee  in  a  very  hard-fought  battle  at  Chancel- 
lorsville.  The  great  and  repeated  disasters  experienced 
by  the  Union  armies  from  the  beginning  of  the  war,  but 
more  particularly  those  of  the  summer  of  1862,  appear 
to  have  prepared  the  people  of  the  Northern  States  for 
the  adoption  of  a  more  radical  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
government.  At  first  it  had  been  the  aim  of  the  Execu 
tive  to  preserve  the  Union  with  all  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  as  it  was  originally  adopted.  But,  the  slave 
holders  having  by  their  rebellion  forfeited  all  claim  to 
the  protection  of  that  instrument,  it  might  become  ex 
pedient  or  necessary  to  assail  them  on  the  side  where 
they  were  confessedly  weakest, — viz.,  through  the  institu 
tion  of  slavery.  President  Lincoln  had  been  censured 
by  some  for  not  taking  a  more  decided  position  on  the 
subject  of  slavery  at  the  commencement  of  the  war;  but 
he  had  very  strong  reasons  for  the  line  of  policy  which 
he  had  hitherto  thought  proper  to  pursue.  So  powerful 
was  the  influence,  so  plausible  the  arguments,  brought 
by  the  Confederates  to  bear  upon  the  border  States,  that 
it  was  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  Maryland, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri  could  be  prevented 
from  following  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and  joining 
the  rebellion.  If,  then,  the  Federal  government,  with 
those  States  standing  neutral  or  divided,  was  able  to  re 
establish  its  authority  only  after  years  of  conflict  and  the 
loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives,  what  might  have 
been  the  issue  had  those  four  populous  and  warlike 
States  from  the  very  commencement  of  the  war  been 
closely  and  firmly  united  with  the  Confederacy?  Had 
President  Lincoln  at  once,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
rebellion,  attempted  the  overthrow  of  slavery,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  all  the  above-named  States  would 
have  arrayed  themselves  against  the  government,  and 
the  theatre  of  war,  instead  of  being  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  territory  of  the  slave  States,  would,  in  all 
probability,  have  been  extended  to  the  adjacent  free 
States, — to  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  if  not  still  farther. 
Nor  would  this  have  been  the  only  misfortune  ;  such  an 
attempt  would,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  have  divided 
the  people  in  many  of  the  free  States,  and  prevented 
them  from  giving  the  government  that  cordial  and  united 
support  so  indispensable  to  the  Union  cause  in  such  a 
crisis. 

The  conscientious  and  anxious  desire  evinced  by  the 
President  to  respect  the  constitutional  rights  of  every 
section  of  the  country,  if  it  produced  no  favourable  influ-  j 
ence  upon  the  mind's  of  the  Confederates,  had  at  least 
the  effect  of  gaining  over  to  his  cause  multitudes  of  his 
political  opponents  in  the  Northern  as  well  as  in  the  bor 
der  States  ;  so  that  tens  of  thousands  who  had  opposed 
his  election  in  1860  became,  before  the  close  of  his  first 


Presidential  term,  of  the  number  of  his  most  cordial 
supporters.  He  considered  it,  indeed,  to  be  not  merely 
expedient,  but  to  be  his  imperative  duty,  to  weigh  care 
fully  all  the  circumstances  by  which  he  was  surrounded. 
A  religious  or  moral  reformer  may  very  properly  content 
himself  with  merely  proclaiming  and  expounding  great 
truths,  and  then  leave  the  minds  of  men  to  embrace 
them,  as  they  may  be  prepared  to  do  so.  But  he  who, 
being  placed  at  the  head  of  a  government,  neglects  to 
consider  the  question  whether  his  measures  are  prac 
ticable,  or  whether  they  are  or  are  not  adapted  to  the 
actual  condition  and  wants  of  the  people,  can  have  no 
claim  to  the  name  of  statesman,  although  he  may  pos 
sibly  merit  that  of  a  far-seeing  reformer  or  philanthropist. 

To  some,  who  were  urging  him  to  issue  at  once  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  intimating  that  they  felt 
assured  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  he  should  do  so, 
Lincoln  replied,  "I  hope  it  will  not  be  irreverent  for  me 
to  say  that,  if  it  is  probable  that  God  would  reveal  his 
will  to  others  on  a  point  so  connected  with  my  duty,  it 
might  be  supposed  he  would  reveal  it  directly  to  me  ; 
for,  unless  I  am  more  deceived  in  myself  than  I  often 
am,  it  is  my  earnest  desire  to  know  the  will  of  Providence 
in  this  matter  ;  and  if  I  can  learn  what  it  is,  I  will  do  it." 
At  another  time  he  said,  "There  are  50,000  bayonets  in 
the  Union  army  from  the  border  slave  States.  It  would 
be  a  serious  matter  if,  in  consequence  of  a  proclamation 
such  as  you  desire,  they  should  go  over  to  the  rebels. 
.  .  .  Every  day  increases  their  Union  feeling."  He  dili 
gently  sought  every  opportunity  of  informing  himself  re 
specting  the  condition  of  public  sentiment,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  question  of  emancipation.  A  great  change 
in  the  minds  of  the  people  had  undoubtedly  taken  place 
in  this  respect,  not  only  in  the  North,  but  also  in  several 
of  the  slave  States.  After  mature  deliberation,  being  at 
length  satisfied  that  the  welfare  of  the  country  would  be 
promoted  by  such  a  measure,  and  that  public  senti 
ment  would  sustain  it,  he  issued  (September  22,  1862)  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  in  which  it  was  declared 
that  on  the  first  day  of  January,  1863,  "all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  any  State,  or  designated  part  of  a  State, 
the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever 
free  ;  and  the  executive  government  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will 
recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  such  persons, 
and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons,  or 
any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  their 
actual  freedom." 

After  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  the  tide  of  success 
seemed  to  turn  in  favour  of  the  Union  cause.  This  is 
not  the  place  to  go  into  any  detailed  account  of  the 
movements  of  the  different  armies.  It  may  suffice  briefly 
to  notice  a  few  of  the  principal  battles  which  constituted, 
so  to  speak,  turning-points  in  the  history  of  the  war,  and 
which  had  an  immediate  and  important  influence  in 
bringing  it  to  a  close. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  1863,  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
under  General  Meade,  defeated  the  rebel  forces,  com 
manded  by  General  Lee,  in  a  great  battle  (which  had 
lasted  three  days)  near  Gettysburg,  in  Pennsylvania. 
On  the  4th  of  the  same  month,  General  Grant  cap 
tured  Vicksburg,  after  a  long  and  most  obstinate  defence 
on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  and  in  spite  of  the  strenuous 
efforts  of  the  Confederate  general  Joseph  E.  Johnston  to 
raise  the  siege.  The  number  of  Confederate  troops 
paroled  at  Vicksburg  was  about  27,000,  of  whom  only 
15,000  were  fit  for  duty.  "This,"  says  Mr.  Greeley, 
"  was  the  heaviest  single  blow  ever  given  to  the  muscu 
lar  resources  of  the  rebellion  ;  and  no  other  campaign 
in  the  war  equals  in  brilliancy  of  conception  and  general 
success  in  execution  that  which  resulted  in  the  capitula 
tion  of  Vicksburg."  As  Commander  Farragut,  supported 
by  a  land-army  under  General  Butler,  had  already  (April, 
1862)  taken  possession  of  New  Orleans,  the  conquest 
of  Vicksburg  gave  to  the  Unionists  the  command  of  the 
Mississippi  throughout  its  entire  length. 

The  courage,  skill,  and,  above  all,  the  unconquerable 
energy  displayed  by  General  Grant  in  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Vicksburg,  seemed  to  point  him  out  to  the 
government  as  pre-eminently  qualified  to  conduct  a  war 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LINCOLN 


LINCOLN 


in  which  a  wise  foresight,  an  untiring  vigilance,  and  an 
indefatigable  activity  were  equally  necessary  to  success. 
There  was  another  point  also  wherein,  to  adopt  the 
language  of  Mr.  Greeley,  "his  fitness  for  the  chief  com 
mand  was  decided,  if  not  pre-eminent ;  and  that  was  an 
utter  disbelief  in  the  efficacy  of  any  rose-water  treatment 
of  the  rebellion."  In  his  report  to  the  government, 
General  Grant  says,  "  From  the  first  I  was  firm  in  the 
conviction  that  no  peace  could  be  had  that  would  be 
stable  and  conducive  to  the  happiness  of  the  people,  both 
North  and  South,  until  the  military  power  of  the  rebel 
lion  was  entirely  broken."  On  the  1st  of  March,  1864, 
in  compliance  with  a  recommendation  of  Congress,  the 
President  appointed  General  Grant  lieutenant-general  of 
the  armies  of  the  United  States.  When  he  presented 
General  Grant  with  his  commission,  Mr.  Lincoln  ad 
dressed  him  with  these  words  :  "The  nation's  apprecia 
tion  of  what  you  have  already  done,  and  its  reliance  upon 
vou  for  what  still  remains  to  be  done,  in  the  existing 
great  struggle,  are  now  presented  with  this  commission, 
constituting  you  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  States.  With  this  high  honour  devolves  upon 
you  also  a  corresponding  responsibility.  As  the  country 
herein  trusts  you,  so,  under  God,  it  will  sustain  you.  I 
scarcely  need  to  add  that  with  what  I  here  speak  for 
the  nation,  goes  my  own  hearty  personal  concurrence." 
General  Grant,  having  taken  immediate  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  commenced  early  in  May  the 
ever-memorable  campaign  of  1864  against  Richmond. 
After  many  severe  and  bloody  conflicts,  and  the  display 
of  consummate  military  skill  on  the  part  of  the  rival  com 
manders,  and  an  obstinate  bravery  on  the  part  of  their 
troops,  rarely  paralleled  in  the  history  of  warfare,  Gen 
eral  Lee  was  at  length  (April  2,  1865)  forced  to  abandon 
the  defence  of  Richmond,  which  was  evacuated  the  fol 
lowing  night,  and  on  the  gth  of  April  he  surrendered  to 
General  Grant  with  all  his  army.  On  the  iyth  of  the 
same  month,  General  J.  K.  Johnston,  commander  of  the 
southern  division  of  the  Confederate  army,  then  in  North 
Carolina,  entered  into  terms  of  capitulation  with  Gen 
eral  Sherman,  according  to  which  all  the  Confederate 
troops  still  remaining  in  the  field  were  to  lay  down  their 
arms  and  return  to  their  respective  States.  Thus  the 
war  of  the  rebellion  was  brought  to  a  close.  But,  before 
the  final  arrangement  between  Sherman  and  Johnston 
was  completed,  the  universal  joy  of  the  Northern  States 
was  changed  into  bitter  mourning  by  the  death  of  Presi 
dent  Lincoln,  who  was  cut  off  in  the  very  hour  of  triumph 
by  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  A  desperate  band  of  con 
spirators,  of  whom  John  Wilkes  Booth,  a  native  of 
Maryland,  was  the  ringleader,  had  for  some  time  enter 
tained  the  design  of  seizing  the  President  and  making 
him  a  prisoner.  Finding  no  opportunity  to  carry  their 
purpose  into  effect,  they  resolved  at  length  to  take  his 
life.  The  great  object  of  Lincoln's  administration — the 
restoration  of  the  authority  of  the  government — having 
been  at  last  accomplished,  on  the  evening  of  the  I4th  of 
April  he  sought  at  Ford's  Theatre  a  brief  relaxation  from 
the  duties  and  cares  of  his  high  office.  Booth,  being  an 
actor  by  profession,  had  free  admittance  to  the  theatre. 
While  the  President's  attention  was  absorbed  by  the 
scene  before  him,  the  assassin  approached  him  from 
behind,  unperceived.  To  make  sure  of  his  victim,  Booth 
discharged  his  pistol  when  the  muzzle  was  not  more 
than  a  few  inches  from  the  head  of  the  President,  who, 
as  the  ball  entered  his  brain,  sank  slightly  forward  with 
out  uttering  a  sound  ;  and,  although  he  continued  to 
breathe  for  several  hours,  he  was  evidently  wholly  un 
conscious  from  the  time  that  he  received  the  fatal  wound 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  half-past  seven  on  the 
morning  of  the  I5th.  Mr.  Lincoln  had  often  received 
anonymous  letters  threatening  him  with  death;  but  his 
thoughts  were  too  much  occupied  with  the  affairs  of 
the  nation  to  permit  him  to  feel  anxiety  for  his  personal 
safety  ;  and,  indeed,  it  was  impossible  for  him,  as  he 
intimated  to  some  of  his  friends  who  urged  him  to  be 
more  on  his  guard,  to  render  his  life  secure  without 
adopting  precautions  alike  repugnant  to  his  own  feel 
ings  and  to  the  universal  usage  of  his  country.  We 
believe  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  since  the  dawn 
of  history,  no  more  upright  or  conscientious  ruler  than 


President  Lincoln  ever  presided  over  the  destinies  of  a 
great  nation  ;  nor  has  there  been  any  more  free  from 
every  taint  of  selfish  ambition  or  personal  resentment. 

Among  the  many  eminent  men  who,  in  their  writings 
or  public  speeches,  have  attempted  to  portray  the  char 
acter  and  commemorate  the  virtues  of  President  Lincoln, 
we  know  of  none  who  has  been  more  successful  than 
Mr.  Emerson.  The  admirable  fitness  of  his  remarks 
must  be  our  apology,  if  any  be  needed,  for  giving  the 
following  extracts  from  his  discourse  delivered  at  the 
funeral  services  held  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  April 
19,  1865  : 

"A  plain  man  of  the  people,  an  extraordinary  for 
tune  attended  him.  Lord  Bacon  says,  '  Manifest  virtues 
procure  reputation;  occult  ones,  fortune.'  lie  offered 
no  shining  qualities  at  the  first  encounter;  he  did  not 
offend  by  superiority.  Me  had  a  face  and  manner  which 
disarmed  suspicion,  which  inspired  confidence,  which 
confirmed  good  will.  He  was  a  man  without  vices.  He 
had  a  strong  sense  of  duty,  which  it  was  very  easy  for 
him  to  obey.  Then  he  had  what  fanners  call  a 'long 
head  ;'  was  excellent  in  working  out  the  sum  for  himself, — 
in  arguing  his  case  and  convincing  you  fairly  and  firmly. 
.  .  .  He  had  a  vast  good  nature,  which  made  him  tolerant 
and  accessible  to  all.  .  .  .  Then  his  broad  good  humour, 
running  easily  into  jocular  talk,  in  which  he  delighted 
and  in  which  he  excelled,  was  a  rich  gift  to  this  wise 
man.  It  enabled  him  to  keep  his  secret,  to  meet  every 
kind  of  man,  and  every  rank  in  society,  ...  to  mask 
his  own  purpose  and  sound  his  companion,  and  to  catch 
with  true  instinct  the  temper  of  every  company  he  ad 
dressed.  His  occupying  the  chair  of  state  was  a  triumph 
of  the  good  sense  of  mankind  and  of  the  public  conscience. 
This  middle-class  country  had  got  a  middle-class  Presi 
dent  at  last.  Yes,  in  manners  and  sympathies,  but  not 
in  powers;  for  his  powers  were  superior.  This  man 
grew  according  to  the  need  ;  his  mind  mastered  the  prob 
lem  of  the  day;  and  as  ihe  problem  grew,  so  did  his 
comprehension  of  it.  Rarely  was  a  man  so  fitted  to  the 
event.  ...  It  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  any  exagger 
ation  of  his  worth.  If  ever  a  man  was  fairly  tested,  he 
was.  There  was  no  lack  of  resistance,  nor  of  slander, 
nor  of  ridicule.  .  .  .  Then  what  an  occasion  was  the 
whirlwind  of  the  war!  Here  was  place  for  no  holiday 
magistrate,  no  fair-weather  sailor  :  the  new  pilot  was 
hurried  to  the  helm  in  a  tornado.  In  four  years — f< mi- 
years  of  battle-days — his  endurance,  his  fertility  of  re 
sources,  his  magnanimity,  were  sorely  tried  and  never 
found  wanting.  There,  by  his  courage,  his  justice,  his 
even  temper,  his  fertile  counsel,  his  humanity,  he  stood 
a  heroic  figure  in  the  centre  of  a  heroic  epoch.  He  is 
the  true  history  of  the  American  people  in  his  time — the 
true  representative  of  this  continent — father  of  his  country, 
the  pulse  of  twenty  millions  throbbing  in  his  heart,  the 
thought  of  their  minds  articulated  by  his  tongue." 

"The  name  of  Lincoln,"  says  the  eminent  historian 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  "will  remain  one  of  the  greatest  that 
history  has  to  inscribe  on  its  annals."  "This  man," 
observes  Henry  Martin,  "  will  stand  out  in  the  traditions 
of  his  country  and  the  world  as  an  incarnation  of  the 
people,  and  of  modern  democracy  itself." 

See  RAYMOND,  "Life  and  Administration  of  President  Lincoln," 
1864;  GREEI.EY,  "American  Conflict,"  2vols.  8vo,  Hartford,  1864-66; 
DR.  J.  G.  HOLLAND,  "Life  of  A.  Lincoln,"  1865;  and  the  noble 
and  eloquent  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Lincoln  in  MRS.  STOWE'S 
"Men  of  our  Time,"  Hartford,  1868. 

Lincoln,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  January,  1733.  He  was 
originally  a  farmer.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  militia,  and  joined  the  army  of  Washington 
with  reinforcements  in  February,  1777.  In  this  year  he 
was  appointed  major-general  by  Congress,  and  was  or 
dered  to  join  the  Northern  army,  commanded  by  General 
Gates.  In  October,  1777,  he  received  a  wound  which 
disabled  him  for  nearly  a  year.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  chief  command  of  the  Southern  department  about 
September,  1778,  and  defended  Charleston  against  Gen 
eral  Prevost  in  the  spring  of  1779.  In  October  of  that 
year  General  Lincoln  and  Count  D'Estaing  made  an 
unsuccessful  assault  on  Savannah.  He  was  besieged  by 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  Charleston,  which  he  was  com 
pelled  to  surrender  in  May,  1780.  He  afterwards  com- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  Jr,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LINCOLN 


H33 


LINDET 


manded  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  in  October, 
1781.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  prudent 
general.  In  October,  1781,  he  became  secretary  of  war. 
He  retired  from  this  office  about  the  end  of  1784,  and 
was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts  in 
1787  by  the  Federalists.  Died  at  Hingham  in  1810. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Benjamin  Lincoln,"  by  FRANCIS  BOWEN,  in 
SFARKS'S  "American  Biography,"  second  series,  vol.  xiii. ;  "Na 
tional  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Lincoln,  link'pn,  (EDWARD  CLINTON,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  1512,  was  the  only  son  of 
Thomas  Lord  Clinton.  He  was  appointed  lord  admiral 
for  life  in  1550.  In  1557  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  English  army  at  Saint-Quentin.  On  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  (1558)  he  was  retained  in  the  office  of  lord 
admiral.  In  the  peaceful  reign  that  followed  he  had 
little  opportunity  to  acquire  renown.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Lincoln  in  1572.  Died  in  1584,  leaving  the  title 
to  his  son  Henry.  A  Henry  Clinton,  Earl  of  Lincoln, 
married  the  daughter  of  Henry  Pelhanl,  who  was  prime 
minister  about  1750.  In  1768  he  inherited  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Lincoln,  (ENOCH,)  a  lawyer,  brother  of  Levi,  noticed 
below,  (1782-1868,)  was  born  at  Worcester,  Massachu 
setts,  in  1788.  He  represented  a  district  of  Maine  in 
Congress  from  1819  to  1826,  and  was  Governor  of  that 
State  in  1827-29.  Died  in  1829.  He  wrote  several 
poems,  including  one  entitled  "The  Village,"  (1816.) 

Lincoln,  QOHN  LARKIN,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar 
and  critical  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1817.  He  was 
appointed  in  1844  professor  of  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  in  Brown  University.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Horace  for  the  use  of  schools. 

Lincoln,  (LKVI,)  an  American  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1749,  graduated  at 
Harvard  College.  He  practised  law  at  Worcester,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  in  the  State. 
In  1799  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress.  He  was 
a  Democrat  or  Republican  in  party  politics,  and  was 
attorney-general  under  Jefferson  from  1801  to  December, 
1805.  In  1807-08  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Mas 
sachusetts.  Died  at  Worcester  in  1820. 

Lincoln,  (Li-:vr,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1782.  He 
was  chosen  Governor  of  his  native  State  in  1825,  being 
supported  by  both  parties,  and  was  a  member  of  Con 
gress  during  three  terms,  (1835-41.)  Died  in  1868. 

Lind,  (/AMES,)  an  English  physician,  born  about  1716, 
published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  the  Scurvy,"  (1753,) 
and  "  Essay  on  the  Diseases  to  which  Europeans  are 
exposed  in  Hot  Climates,"  (1768,)  which  were  often 
reprinted.  Died  at  Gosport  in  1794, 

Lind,  ([ENNY,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  vocalist,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1821,  was  the  daughter  of  a  teacher  of 
languages.  She  began  to  sing  on  the  stage  about  the 
age  of  ten  years,  and  performed  in  vaudevilles  with 
success.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  became  the  prime 
favourite  of  the  Stockholm  Opera,  where  she  made  her 
debut  as  Agatha  in  "  Der  Freischiitz."  In  1841  she 
became  a  pupil  of  Garcia,  the  celebrated  singing-master 
in  Paris,  where  she  met  Meyerbeer,  who  engaged  her 
for  the  Opera  of  Berlin.  She  sang  in  Berlin  in  1844  and 
1845,  exciting  great  and  unabated  enthusiasm.  After 
performing  in  several  capitals  of  Germany,  she  visited 
London,  where  she  was  greeted  with  the  warmest  ap 
plause,  in  1847  and  the  two  ensuing  years.  Having 
made  an  engagement  with  P.  T.  Barnum  to  sing  in  the 
United  States,  she  arrived  at  New  York  in  September, 
1850.  Her  concerts  in  this  country  excited  enthusi 
astic  admiration,  and  were  repeated  in  the  chief  cities  of 
the  Union  until  1852,  when  she  returned  to  Europe  with 
Otto  Goldschmidt,  a  skilful  pianist,  to  whom  she  had 
been  married  in  1851.  She  gave  many  thousand  dollars 
for  charitable  purposes  in  the  United  States.  Her 
private  character  is  excellent.  Her  voice  is  a  soprano, 
remarkable  for  sweetness.  Since  her  marriage  she  has 
ceased  to  perform  on  the  stage. 

See  N.  P.  WILLIS,  "  Memoranda  of  the  Life  of  Jenny  Lind  ;"  J. 
A.  BECHER,  "J.  Lind:  Skizze  ihres  Lebens,"  etc.,  1847;  "Memoir 
of  J.  Lind,"  London,  1847;  HANS  CHRISTIAN  ANDERSEN,  "True 
Stoiy  of  my  Lite ;"  the  same  notice  in  the  "  Living  Age"  for  No 
vember,  1850. 


Linda.     See  LINDANUS. 

Lindanus,  lin-da'nus,  or  Linda,  lin'cla,  (WILLIAM 
DAMASUS,)  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  noted  as  a  con 
troversialist,  was  born  at  Dort,  Holland,  in  1525.  He 
was  remarkable  for  the  severity  with  which  he  per 
formed  the  office  of  Inquisitor  of  the  faith.  In  1562 
he  was  appointed  by  Philip  II.  Bishop  of  Ruremond. 
His  most  popular  work  was  "Evangelical  Panoply," 
("Panoplia  Evangelica,"  1563.)  Died  in  1568  or  1588. 

See  A.  HAVENSIUS,  "Vita  G.  Lindani,"  1609. 

Lindberg,  llnd'beKG,  (JACOB  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish 
theologian  and  numismatist,  born  at  Ripen,  Jutland,  in 
1797.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Curie  Coins," 
(1830,)  a  "Hebrew-Danish  Hand-Lexicon,"  (1835,)  and 
able  works  on  theology,  etc. 

Lindblom,  Hnd'blom,  (jACOis  AXEL,)  a  Swedish  prel 
ate,  born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1747.  He  was  professor  of 
belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Upsal,  and  published 
a  "  Latin-Swedish  Dictionary"  before  he  became  Bishop 
of  Linkoping,  (1789.)  He  was  afterwards  chosen  Arch 
bishop  of  Upsal.  Died  in  1819. 

See  HEDBORN,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  J.  A.  Lindblom,"  1819. 

Linde,  von,  fon  lin'deh,  (JUSTIN  TIMOTHEUS  BAL- 
THASAR,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1797, 
published  numerous  legal  treatises. 

Linde,  von,  fon  lin'deh,  (SAMCEL  GOTTLOB,)  an  emi 
nent  Polish  lexicographer,  born  at  Thorn  in  1771.  About 
1803  he  became  rector  of  the  Lyceum  and  chief  librarian 
of  the  University  in  Warsaw.  In  1807  he  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  "Dictionary  of  the  Polish  Lan 
guage,"  (6  vols.,)  regarded  as  the  best  work  of  the  kind. 
From  1833  to  1838  he  was  director  of  the  gymnasium 
of  Warsaw.  He  wrote  a  "  Historical  Outline  of  the 
Literature  of  the  Slavonic  Races,"  (1825.)  Died  at  W'ar- 
saw  in  1847. 

See  SAINT-MAURICE  CABANY,  "  S.  T.  de  Linde,"  etc.,  1853. 

Lindeblad,  lin'deh-blad',  (AssAR,)  a  Swedish  poet, 
born  near  Lund  in  1800.  Among  his  best  productions 
is  "The  Missionary,"  (1839.) 

Linden,  van  der,  vtn  der  lin'den,  (DAVin,)  a  Flemish 
poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ghent  about  1570;  died 
about  1635. 

Linden,  van  der,  vtn  der  lin'den,  (JAN  ANTOMDES,) 
a  learned  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Enkhuysen  in  1609. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about  1650. 
He  published  a  "Medical  Bibliography,"  ("  De  Scriptis 
Medicis,"  1637,)  "Physiological  Medicine,"  ("  Medicina 
Physiologica,")  and  a  good  edition  of  Hippocrates,  in 
Greek.  Died  in  1664. 

See  BAVLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ; "  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Lindeiiau,  von,  fon  lin'deh-now',  (BERNHARD  AU 
GUST,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1780. 
Between  1826  and  1843  he  served  the  King  of  Saxony 
as  privy  councillor,  minister  of  the  interior,  etc.  In  1843 
he  retired  from  political  life  to  devote  himself  to  as 
tronomy.  Among  his  publications  are  "  Tables  of  Venus," 
(1810,)  "Tables  of  Mars,"  (1811,)  and  a  "  History  of 
Astronomy  during  the  First  Decade  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (181 1.)  Died  in  1854. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lindenbrog,  lin'den-bRoc/,  or  Lindenbruch,  lin'- 
den-bRooK',  [Lat.  TILIOBRO'GA,]  (£RPOLD,)  a  German 
historical  writer,  born  at  Bremen  in  1540.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Kings  of  Denmark,"  and  "  Chronicle 
of  the  Life  and  Actions  of  Charlemagne."  He  also 
edited  the  "  Historians  of  Northern  Germany."  Died 
in  1616. 

See  WILKENS,  "Leben  der  beriihmten  Lindenbrogiorum,"  1723. 

Lindenbrog  or  Lindenbruch,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  jurist 
and  classical  scholar,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1573  ;  died  in  1648. 

Lindenschmit,  lin'den-shmit',  (WiLHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  historical  painter,  born  at  Mentz  in  1806.  Among 
his  works  are  frescos  painted  for  Prince  Ludwig  in 
the  Hofgarten,  Munich,  and  in  the  Pinakothek.  Died 
in  1848. 

Lindet,  laN'dV,  QEAN  BAPTISTE  ROBERT,)  a  French 
Jacobin  and  financier,  born  at  Bernay,  Normandy,  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LIN  DIET 


H34 


L1NGELBACH 


1743.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  am 
was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  after 
its  number  was  reduced  and  after  it  was  invested  with 
supreme  executive  power,  (1793.)  He  was  reputed  one 
of  the  least  violent  but  most  subtle  chiefs  of  the  domi 
nant  faction.  He  was  minister  of  finances  from  June, 
1799,  until  Bonaparte  became  First  Consul,  in  Novembei 
of  that  year.  Died  in  1825. 

Llnd'ley,  (JoHN,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  botanists  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at 
Catton,  near  Norwich,  England,  in  1799.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  proprietor  of  a  nursery-garden.  About  1821 
he  became  a  resident  of  London,  and  was  employed  to 
write  the  descriptions  of  London's' "  Encyclopaedia  of 
Plants,"  (1829.)  In  1830  he  published  an  "  Introduction 
to  the  Natural  System  of  Botany."  Of  this  system  he 
is  a  zealous  advocate,  and  has  contributed  more  than 
any  other  English  botanist  to  render  it  popular.  His 
"  Introduction  to  Systematic  and  Physiological  Botany' 
(1832)  is  highly  commended.  In  1836  he  produced  "A 
Natural  System  of  Botany,"  which  was  expanded  into 
"The  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  (1846,)  with  engravings, — 
probably  the  most  excellent  and  comprehensive  work 
that  has  ever  appeared  on  that  subject.  He  adopted  in 
this  work  an  improved,  or  at  least  new,  system  of  classi 
fication,  and  explained  the  uses  of  plants.  In  1829  Dr. 
Lindlcy  became  professor  of  botany  in  the  University 
College,  London,  where  he  was  very  successful  as  a  lec 
turer.  His  "Flora  Medica"  (1838)  describes  the  plants 
used  in  medical  practice.  He  wrote  many  botanical 
articles  for  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  and  a  good  ele 
mentary  work  on  Botany  inserted  in  the  "Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge."  In  his  excellent  work  entitled 
"Theory  of  Horticulture,"  (1844,)  he  successfully  ap 
plied  science  to  practical  utility.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  popular  treatises,  entitled  "Ladies'  Botany," 
"  School  Botany,"  "  British  Pomology,"  and  "  Orchard 
and  Kitchen  Garden."  About  1841  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Gardener's  Chronicle,"  a  valuable  periodical. 
Died  at  Acton  Green,  November  i,  1865. 

Lindner,  llnt'ner,  (FKIKDIUCH  LumviG,)  a  German 
political  writer,  born  at  Mitau,  Courland,  in  1772.  In 
1824  he  published  "Secret  Papers,"  and  in  1825  became 
editor  of  the  "Political  Annals,"  at  Munich.  He  also 
wrote  "  Europe  and  the  Orient,"  (1839,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1845. 

Lindner,  (FRIEDRICH  WII.HELM,)  a  German  teacher 
and  theologian,  born  at  Weida  in  1779.  He  became 
professor  of  the  science  of  teaching  at  Leipsic  in  1825. 
He  published  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  art  of  teaching, 
"  De  Finibus  et  Praesidiis  Artis  paedagogicas,"  (1825,) 
and  a  work  on  free- masonry. 

Lindner,  (\VILHELM  BRUNO,)  a  writer  on  theology, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1814.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1846. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  the  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  (2  vols.,  1848-54.) 

Lindpaintner,  lint'pint'ner,  (PETER  JOSEPH,)  a  Ger 
man  composer,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1791.  He  produced 
symphonies,  overtures,  instrument  pieces,  and  operas 
entitled  "The  Sicilian  Vespers"  ajid  "The  Vampyre." 
Died  in  1856. 

Lindsay,  lin'ze,  (ALEXANDER  WILLIAM  CRAW 
FORD,)  LORD,  a  British  author,  the  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Crawford,  was  born  in  Cumberland  in  1812.  After 
making  a  tour  in  the  East,  he  published  in  1838  "  Letters 
on  Egypt,  Edom,  and  the  Holy  Land,"  which  passed 
through  several  editions.  He  increased  his  reputation 
by  an  important  and  novel  work,  entitled  "  Sketches  of 
the  History  of  Christian  Art,"  (1847,)  which  displays 
much  research  and  contains  eloquent  passages.  In  1849 
he  published  the  "Lives  of  the  Lindsays,"  a  family  his 
tory  of  much  merit. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1847. 
Lindsay,  (Sir  DAVID,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  about 
1495.  lie  became  in  1512  a  page  or  servitor  to  the 
prince,  (afterwards  James  V.,)  and  continued  in  his  ser 
vice  until  1524.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The 
Dream,"  "The  Complaint  of  the  King's  Papingo,"  (a 
satire  on  the  clergy,)  a  "  Satire  on  the  Three  Estates," 
and  "The  Monarchic."  He  excelled  in  sarcasm,  which 


he  directed  with  much  effect  against  the  Romish  Church. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  after  1567. 

See  LORD  LINDSAY,  "Lives  of  the  Lindsays,"  1849;  CHALMERS, 
"  Life,"  prefixed  to  Lindsay's  works,  1806  ;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Monthly  Review"  tor  June, 
1808. 

Lindsay,  lin'ze,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  nonjnring  minis 
ter,  born  about  1686.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Regal 
Succession,"  (1720.)  Died  in  1768. 

Lindsay,  (JoHN,)  Earl  of  Crawford,  an  able  British 
general,  born  in  1702.  For  his  conduct  at  Fontenoy  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  renowned 
for  generosity,  talents,  and  other  popular  qualities.  Died 
in  1749. 

See  RICHARD  ROI.T,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Lindsay,"  etc., 
'753;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lindsay,  (WILLIAM  SHAW,)  a  British  merchant,  born 
in  Ayrshire  in  1816,  is  reputed  one  of  the  largest  ship 
owners  in  the  kingdom.  He  was  once  a  cabin-boy,  and 
has  raised  himself  to  affluence  by  industry  and  prudence. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Tynemouth  in  1854. 

Lindsey,  EARL  OF.     See  BERTIE,  (ROBERT.) 

Liudsey,  lin'ze,  (MONTAGUE  BERTIE,)  EARL  OF, 
born  in  1608,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Bertie.  (See  BERTIE.) 
He  fought  for  Charles  I.  at  Edgehill  and  Nasebv,  and, 
when  the  king  was  imprisoned  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  Newport.  Died  in  1666. 

Lindsey,  (THEOPHILUS,)  an  English  Unitarian  min 
ister,  born  in  Cheshire  in  1723.  Having  taken  orders 
in  the  Anglican  Church,  he  obtained  in  1763  the  living 
of  Catterick,  Yorkshire.  He  became  so  dissatisfied  with 
the  Trinitarian  creed  that  in  1773  he  resigned  his  living 
and  published  an  "  Apology"  for  his  course,  which  is  a 
work  of  much  research.  He  then  removed  to  London, 
where  he  was  successful  in  forming  a  Unitarian  congre 
gation,  and  preached  about  twenty  years.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  State  of 
the  Unitarian  Doctrine  and  Worship,"  (1783.)  Died  in 
1808. 

See  THOMAS  BKI.SHAM,  "Memoirs  ofTheophilus  Lindsey,"  1812. 

Lindsley,  linz'le,  (PHILIP,)  D.D.,  an  American  di 
vine  and  scholar,  born  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  in 
1786.  He  became  in  1850  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
archaeology  in  the  New  Albany  Theological  Seminary, 
Indiana.  Died  in  1855. 

Ling,  (PKHR  HENKIK,)  born  in  Smaland,  in  Sweden, 
in  1776,  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modern  gym 
nastic  institutions,  the  first  of  which  he  established  at 
Stockholm.  They  were  subsequently  adopted  at  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  other  German  cities.  Died  in  1839. 

Liiiga,  ling'ga,  or  Liugarn,  llng'gam,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  a  phallic  symbol,  or  type  of  the  reproductive 
power,  which  is  regarded  as  the  especial  attribute  of 
Siva.  (See  SIVA.) 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon;"  GUIGNIAUT,  "Religions  del'An- 
tiquiie,"  book  i.  chap.  ii. 

Lingard,  ling'gard,  (Joiix,)  an  eminent  English  histo 
rian,  born  at  Winchester  in  1771.  He  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  and  settled  at  Hornby,  Lancashire,  about 
1811.  He  published  in  1819  the  first  volume  of  his 
"  History  of  England  from  the  First  Invasion  by  the 
Romans  to  the  Accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  1688," 
of  which  the  sixth  edition,  in  10  vols.,  appeared  in 
1855-  This  work  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  style,  accu 
racy,  and  other  merits.  He  also  wrote  "  The  Antiquities 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,"  (1806,)  and  other  works. 
He  visited  Rome  in  1825,  and,  it  is  said,  refused  the 
offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat.  Died  in  1851. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1825,  (vol.  xlii..)  and  March, 
1831,  (vol.  liii.  ;)  "Month'y  Review"  for  Jniy  and  September,  iSig, 
and  September,  1825;  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1846. 

L'Ingegno.  See  LUIGI,  (ANDREA  DI.) 
Lingelbach,  Hng'el-baK',  (JOHANN,)  sometimes  writ 
ten  Linglebach,  an  eminent  painter  of  genre  and  land 
scapes,  was  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1625.  He 
studied  in  Rome,  and  settled  in  Holland  about  1650. 
He  excelled  in  the  treatment  of  markets,  fairs,  and  sea- 
aorts.  His  colour  is  good,  his  touch  free  and  spirited, 
and  his  works  remarkable  for  variety.  His  blue  dis 
tances  and  lightly-clouded  skies  produce  an  exhilarating 
effect.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Sea- Port  in  the  Levant," 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LINGENDES 


H35 


LINN JE  US 


and  "The  Vegetable  Market."     Died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1687. 

See  C.  BLANC,  "Les  Peintres  de  toutes  les  ficoles;"  NAGLER, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Lingendes,  de,  deh  laN'zhftxcK,  (Ci.AUDE,)  a  French 
pulpit  orator  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Moulins  in  1591 ;  died 
in  1660. 

Lingendes,  de,  (JF.AN,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Mou 
lins  about  1 580,  composed  stanzas,  odes,  and  other  verses. 
Died  in  1616. 

Lingendes,  de,  (JEAN,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Moulins  in  1595.  He  became  an  eminent 
preacher,  and  chaplain  to  Louis  XIII.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Macon  in  1650.  Died  in  1665. 

Linguet,  la.x'gi',  (SIMON  NICOLAS  HENRI,)  an  elo 
quent  French  advocate  and  polemical  writer,  born  at 
Rheims  in  1736.  He  pleaded  with  success  at  the  bar  of 
Paris,  but  made  many  enemies  by  his  sarcasms  and  his 
impetuous  temper.  He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  two 
years,  ending  in  1782.  He  published  numerous  works, 
which  display  learning  and  talent  but  are  censured  as 
paradoxical.  Among  them  are  a  "  History  of  the  Age  of 
Alexander  the  Great,"  (1762,)  and  "The  Fanaticism  of 
Philosophers,"  (1764.)  He  fell  a  victim  to  the  reign  of 
terror  in  1794. 

See  GARDAZ,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Linguet," 
1808;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Liniere,  de,  deh  le'ne-aiR',  (FRANCOIS  PAYOT,)  a 
French  satiric  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  gay 
votary  of  pleasure.  He  composed  songs  and  epigrams 
with  facility.  Boileau,  in  his  ninth  Satire,  mentions 
Liniere  as  a  judicious  critic.  Died  in  1704. 

Link  or  Linck,  link,  (HKINRICH  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
German  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1767.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  and 
chemistry  at  Breslau  in  1811,  and  in  1815  filled  the 
same  chair  at  Berlin.  He  published  numerous  works 
on  botany,  of  which  we  may  name  "The  Anatomy  of 
Plants,"  (1807,)  and  "Elements  of  Botanical  Philos 
ophy,"  (1824.)  Died  in  1851. 

See  VON  MARTIUS,  "  Denkrede  auf  H.  F.  Linck,"  1851;  "  Bio 
graphic  Medicale." 

Liii'ley,  (THOMAS,)  an  excellent  English  musical 
composer,  born  at  Wells  about  1725,  was  a  pupil  of  Pa- 
radies.  In  his  early  life  he  conducted  the  concerts  and 
oratorios  at  Bath.  He  composed  the  music  for  Sheri 
dan's  "  Duenna,"  which  had  great  success,  in  1775.  In 
1776  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  one  of  the 
proprietors  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  in  partnership  with 
his  son-in-law,  R.  B.  Sheridan,  the  great  orator.  Mr. 
Linley  directed  the  musical  department,  and  composed 
for  it  the  "Carnival  of  Venice,"  "  The  Camp,"  etc. 
Among  his  admired  productions  are  "Six  Elegies," 
"Twelve  Ballads,"  and  a  madrigal  to  these  verses  of  | 
Cowley, 

"  Let  me,  careless  and  unthoughtful  lying, 

Hear  the  soft  winds  above  me  flying." 
Died  in  1795. 

See  BURNEY,  "  History  of  Music." 

Linley,  (THOMAS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Bath  about  1756,  and  inherited  his  father's  musical  j 
talent.  He  studied  under  the  best  masters  of  Italy,  and 
became  very  intimate  with  Mozart.  He  composed  seve 
ral  admired  airs  for  the  theatre.  He  was  drowned  in 
1778,  while  sailing  in  a  pleasure-boat  in  Lincolnshire. 

Linley,  (WILLIAM,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1766.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  India  as  a 
clerk,  and  rose  to  the  office  of  sub-treasurer  at  Fort  Saint 
George.  He  returned  to  England  in  the  prime  of  life, 
and  devoted  himself  to  music  and  literature.  He  com 
posed  several  glees,  songs,  and  other  verses,  and  pub 
lished  the  dramatic  songs  of  Shakspeare.  Died  in  1835. 

Linn,  (Jon.\  BLAIR,)  D.D.,  an  American  poet  and 
divine,  born  at  Shippensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1777, 
was  brother-in-law  of  the  celebrated  novelist  Charles 
Brockden  Brown,  and  son  of  William  Linn,  who  was 
also  a  divine.  He  became  assistant  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia  in  1798.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  The  Powers  of  Genius,"  and  other 
poems,  and  a  reply  to  Dr.  Priestley's  "Comparison 
between  Socrates  and  Christ."  Died  in  1804. 

See  DUVCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature." 


Linn,  (LEWIS  FIELDS,)  M.D.,  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1795,  and 
removed  to  Missouri  about  1816.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Senate  by  the  Democrats  in  1833,  and  again  about  1838. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "Life  of  L.  F.  Linn,"  by  E.  A.  LINN  and  N.  SARGENT, 
1857- 

Linnaeus,  lin-nee'us,  [Sw.  VON  LINNE,  fon  lin-nn',] 
(CHARLES  or  CARL,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  botanist, 
and  the  most  influential  naturalist  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Rashult,  in  Smaland,  on  the  24th 
of  May,  1707.  He  was  the  son  of  Nicholas  Linnaeus,  a 
village  curate,  who,  it  is  said,  so  far  underrated  his  son's 
capacity  that  he  made  him  an  apprentice  to  a  shoemaker 
after  he  had  reached  the  age  of  seventeen  without  mak 
ing  much  progress  in  his  studies.  In  1727,  however,  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Lund  to  study  medicine, 
and  his  inclination  for  natural  history  was  favoured  by 
Professor  Stobasus.  Although  nearly  destitute  of  pecu 
niary  resources,  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Upsal,  (1728,) 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Olaus  Celsius,  who  relieved 
him  from  his  extreme  poverty.  About  1730  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  reform  in  botanical  method  and  nomencla 
ture,  and  began  the  composition  of  several  great  works, 
noticed  below.  At  the  expense  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Upsal,  he  made  a  botanical  excursion  on  foot  through 
Lapland  in  1732,  the  results  of  which  appeared  in  his 
"Flora  Lapponica,"  (1737.) 

Between  173^5  and  1738  he  passed  three  years  in  the 
house  of  George  Cliffort,  a  rich  Dutch  gentleman  living 
between  Leyden  and  Haarlem,  who  employed  him  to 
arrange  his  fine  garden  and  museum.  Linnaeus  has 
expressed  his  gratitude  to  this  benefactor  for  the  facilities 
he  there  enjoyed  for  his  favourite  pursuits,  and  has 
honoured  his  memory  by  a  work  entitled  "The  Garden 
of  Cliffort,"  ("  Hortus  Cliffortianus.")  He  perceived 
that  it  was  necessary  to  invent  methods  of  distribu 
tion  capable  of  embracing  all  creatures,  and  founded  on 
characters  well  defined ;  to  invent  terms  sufficiently 
numerous  to  designate  the  prodigious  variety  of  their 
conformation,  and  define  these  terms  with  precision ; 
finally,  to  make  a  general  review  of  all  beings  described 
in  former  works,  or  to  be  found  by  the  exploration  of 
nature.  The  first  sketch  of  this  great  enterprise  ap 
peared  in  two  small  volumes,  entitled  "  System  of  Nature, 
or  the  Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature  exhibited  methodically 
in  Classes,  Orders,  Genera,  and  Species,"  ("  Systema  Na 
turae,  seu  Regna  tria  Naturae  systematice  proposita,  per 
Classes,  Ordines,  Genera  et  Species,"  1 735,)  and  "  Funda- 
menta  Botanica,"  (1736.)  The  characters  of  genera  were 
largely  developed  in  his  "  Genera  of  Plants  according  to 
the  Number,  Figure,  Position,  etc.  of  the  Parts  of  Fruc 
tification,"  ("Genera  Plantarnm  secundum  Numerum, 
Figuram,  etc.  omnium  Fructificationis  Partium,"  1737.) 
He  removed  in  1738  to  Stockholm,  where  he  practised 
medicine,  lectured  on  botany,  and  received  the  title  of 
physician  to  the  king.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Dr. 
More  in  1739.  In  1741  he  obtained  at  Upsal  the  chair 
of  botany,  which  he  occupied  thirty-seven  years,  witness 
ing  the  continuous  growth  of  his  fame  and  influence,  and 
exerting  his  unabated  activity  to  improve  his  scientific 
productions.  Thunberg,  Kalm,  Hasselquist,  Forskal,  and 
other  eminent  naturalists,  who  had  been  his  pupils,  visited 
various  foreign  countries  and  brought  back  willing  tribute 
to  enrich  his  collections  and  publications.  The  botanical 
philosophy  of  Linnaeus  was  reproduced  in  its  ensemble, 
arranged  in  its  parts,  and  enforced  by  examples  in  his 
"  Philosophia  Botanica,"  (1751.)  "This  work,"  says 
Cuvier,  "  which  exhibits  on  every  page  proofs  of  the 
rarest  ingenuity  (finesse  cTesprit)  and  the  most  sur 
prising  profoundness  of  observation,  has  enjoyed  a  suc 
cess  which  was  previously  unexampled.  It  has  become 
as  it  were  a  fundamental  law,  to  which  all  botanists  con 
form  in  their  descriptions  and  in  their  use  of  terms." 
His  artificial  sexual  system  was  for  a  long  time  uni 
versally  adopted,  but  has  been  superseded  in  a  great 
measure  by  the  natural  method  of  Jussieu.  In  1753  he 
produced  his  "Species  Plantai  um,"  an  important  work, 
in  which  he  adopted  the  happy  idea  of  designating  each 
species  by  a  single  epithet  added  to  the  name  of  the 
genus.  He  also  applied  his  methods  with  success  to  the 


e  as  k;  c  as  /;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanation  s,  p.  23.) 


LINNAEUS 


H36 


LIPPI 


animal  kingdom  in  several  enlarged  editions  of  his 
"  Systema  Naturae,"  in  his  "Fauna  Suecica,"  ("Swedish 
Fauna,"  1744,)  or  history  of  Swedish  animals,  and  va 
rious  other  works.  Died  in  January,  1778. 

See  PULTENEY,  "Life  of  Linnaeus,"  1781;  AGARDA,  "  Antiqiii- 
tates  Linnaeanae,"  1826;  A.  L.  A.  FEE,  "Vie  de  LiimeY'  1832; 
Miss  HRIGHTWEU.,  ''  Life  of  Linnaeus  ;"  VAN  HALL,  "  Epistolse  Lin- 
nasi  ;"  J.  TRAPP,  "  Life  of  Linnaeus,"  1794;  STOEVER,  "  Leben  des 
Ritters  C.  von  LimieV'  2  vols.,  1792;  ADAM  AFZEI.IUS,  "  Egenhan- 
diga  Anteckniiisar  af  C.  Linnaeus  om  sie  sjelf,"  1823;  ANTONIO 
CATTANRO,  "  Cenni  sulla  Vita  di  C.  Linne,"  1838;  "  Nouveile  Bio 
graphic  Gdnerale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1785. 

Linnaeus,  (Linne,)  von,  (CHARLES  or  CARL,)  only 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Fahlun  in  1741.  He 
was  chosen  demonstrator  of  botany  at  the  Royal  Garden 
of  Upsal  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  succeeded  his  father 
as  professor  in  the  university  of  that  place  in  1778.  He 
published  "Two  Decades  of  Rare  Plants  of  the  Gar 
den  of  Upsal,"  "Methodus  Muscorum,"  ("Method  of 
Mosses,")  and  a  few  other  small  works.  His  talents 
were  moderate.  lie  died  in  1783,  and  the  family  then 
became  extinct. 

See  SVKN  ANDERS  HEDIN,  "  Minne  af  C.  von  Linne,  Fader  och 
Son,"  1808. 

Linne.     See  LTNN^US. 

Lin'nell,  (JoHN,)  a  successful  English  portrait-  and 
landscape-painter,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  has 
represented  English  scenery  with  success  in  the  "Heath 
Scene,"  "The  Windmill,"  (1847,)  and  "The  Forest 
Road,"  (1853.)  Among  his  other  great  works  are  the 
"  Eve  of  the  Deluge,"  (1848,)  "The  Return  of  Ulysses," 
(1849,)  and  "  Christ  and  the  Woman  of  Samaria,"  (1850.) 
His  portraits  of  Thomas  Carlyle  (1844)  and  Sir  Robert 
Peel  are  admired.  He  is  called  an  excellent  colorist. 

Linschooten,  van,  vtn  lin'sKo'ten,  (ADRIAAN,)  a 
skilful  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Delft 
in  1590.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Repentance  of  Saint 
Peter."  Died  about  1678. 

Linschooten  or  Linschoten,  van,  (JAN  HUGO,)  a 
Dutch  voyager,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1563.  He  went  to 
Goa  in  1583,  and  remained  there  several  years  in  the 
service  of  Archbishop  Fonseca.  After  his  return,  he 
published  in  1596  an  "Account  of  his  Voyage,  with  a 
Description  of  the  Portuguese  East  Indies,"  which  is 
said  to  be  reliable,  and  has  often  been  reprinted.  Died 
in  1633. 

Linseiibahrt,  lin'sen-baRt',  [Lat.  ROSI'NUS  LEN- 
TII/IUS,  |  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Waldenburg 
in  1657;  died  at  Stuttgart  in  1733. 

Lint,  van,  vtn  lint,  (HENDRIK,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  lived  probably  about  1630-50.  He 
worked  in  Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  surname  of 
STUDIO.  Among  his  works  :s  "Views  near  Rome." 

Lint,  van,  (PiKTKR,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1609.  He  worked  in  Rome,  and 
afterwards  at  Antwerp,  to  which  he  returned  in  1639, 
and  was  patronized  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark.  lie 
was  a  good  colorist,  a  correct  designer,  and  painted 
history  with  equal  success  in  large  or  small  pictures. 
Died  about  1668. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Lin'ton,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Liverpool  about  1790.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  travelled 
extensively  in  the  South  of  Europe.  The  subjects  of  his 
best  works  are  Italian  and  Grecian  scenes,  among  which 
are  "The  Bay  of  Naples,"  "Lake  Lugano,"  "Ruins 
of  Paestum,"  "Athens,"  and  "An  Arcadian  Landscape." 
His  style  is  simple  and  rather  austere. 

Li'nus,  [Gr.  Aivof,]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the 
ancients  regarded  as  a  son  of  Apollo  or  Mercury,  and  as 
one  of  the  inventors  of  poetry.  lie  is  called  by  some 
authors  a  personification  of  the  dirge.  Among  the  an 
cient  Greeks  circulated  a  plaintive  song  or  dirge  called 
"Linus,"  which  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  ("Iliad,"  xviii. 
569.)  According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  Hercules, 
who  was  his  pupil. 

Li'nus,  [Fr.  LIN,  laN,]  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  native 
of  Volterra,  in  Tuscany.  According  to  some  accounts, 
he  became  bishop  in  66  A.D.,  and  was  the  immediate 
successor  of  Saint  Peter.  Little  is  known  of  his  history  ; 
but  it  is  supposed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  about  78 


A.D.  He  is  mentioned  in  Saint  Paul's  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  chap.  iv.  21. 

Lin'wood,  Miss,  an  English  artist,  born  at  Birming 
ham  in  1755,  made,  in  needle-work,  copies  of  many  pic 
tures  of  the  old  masters.  She  was  offered,  it  is  said,  three 
thousand  guineas  for  one  of  her  works.  Died  in  1845. 

Liouardo  da  Vinci.     See  VINCI,  DA. 

Li'o-nel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  the  third  son  of  Edward 
III.  of  England,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1338.  He  died 
in  1368,  leaving  no  issue  except  a  daughter,  Philippa, 
who  was  married  to  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March. 

Lionne,  de,  deh  le'on',  (HucUKS,)  Marquis  de  Berny, 
a  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Grenoble 
in  1611.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1655. 
He  succeeded  Mazarin  in  1661  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  which  he  directed  with  great  ability  for  ten  years. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires  ;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
cais." 

Lionnet.     See  LYONNET. 

Liotard,  le'o'ta"R',  (JEAN  ETIENNE,)  a  Swiss  portrait- 
painter,  surnamed  THE  TURK,  because  he  adopted  the 
Turkish  costume,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1702.  In  1725 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  reputation  by  his 
skill  in  crayon  and  enamel  miniatures.  He  worked  four 
years  in  Constantinople,  (1738-42),  painting  Turkish  cos 
tumes,  etc.  He  afterwards  painted  portraits  of  the  royal 
families  of  Austria  and  France.  Died  in  1790. 

See  NAGI.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Liotard,  (JEAN  MICHEL,)  a  twin-brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1702,  was  an  engraver,  and 
one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Benoit  Audran.  He  engraved 
the  great  cartoons  of  C.  Cignani  in  Italy,  and  afterwards 
worked  in  Paris.  He  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he 
died  about  1760. 

Liotard,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  botanist,  born  near 
Grenoble  in  1729,  was  originally  a  poor  peasant.  He 
acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  the  plants  of  the  Alps, 
and  was  employed  as  guide  by  J.  J.  Rousseau  ar.d 
Desfontaines.  He  corresponded  for  some  years  with 
Rousseau.  Died  in  1796. 

Liouville,  le'oo'vel',  (JOSEPH,)  an  able  French  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1809.  He  became  in 
1839  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  several  im 
portant  treatises,  and  edited  for  a  long  time  a  journal 
of  pure  mathematics  called  by  his  name. 

Lipano,  de,  da  le-pa'no,  COUNTESS,  was  the  title 
assumed  by  Caroline,  Queen  of  Naples,  after  the  death 
of  Murat,  her  husband.  See  BONAPARTE,  (CAROLINE 
MARIE.) 

Liparini,  le-pa-ree'nee,  (LUDOVICO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Bologna  in  1800  ;  died  in  1856. 

Lipenius,  le-pa'ne-us,  (MARTIN,)  a  learned  German 
bibliographer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1630,  was  rector 
of  gymnasiums  at  Halle  and  Stettin.  He  compiled 
"Bibliotheca  Juridica,"  (1679,)  "Bibliotheca  Realis,  etc. 
Philosophica,"  (2  vols.,  1682,)  "Bibliotheca  Realis  The- 
ologica,"  (2  vols.,  1685,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Lubeck  in  1692. 

See  J.  H.  VON  SEEI.EN,  "Vita  M.  Lipenii,"  edited  by  JENICHEN, 
'737;  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Lipinski,  le-pen'skee,  (CHARLES,)  a  celebrated  Polish 
violinist,  born  at  Radzin  in  1790.  He  received  the  title 
of  first  violinist  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia. 

Lippert,  lip'peRt,  (PHILIPP  DANIEL,)  a  German  artist 
and  glyptographer,  was  bom  at  Meissen  in  1703.  He 
published  "  Dactyliotheca ;  or,  A  Collection  of  Two 
Thousand  Prints  of  Antique  Gems."  Died  in  1785. 

Lippe-Schaumburg,  von,  fon  lip'peh  showm'booRG, 
(FRIEDRICII  WILHELM,)  COUNT,  a  German  general,  born 
in  London  in  1724.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  the 
Austrian  army,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  Italy.  He 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  British  troops  sent 
in  1761  to  aid  Portugal,  which  he  defended  with  success 
against  the  Spaniards.  Died  in  1777. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lippi,  lep'pee,  (ANNIBALE,)  a  Roman  architect,  who 
lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Lippi,  (FiiJPPO,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  old 
Italian  painters  in  oil  and  fresco,  born  at  Florence  in  1412, 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  i.focure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LIP  PI 


H37 


L  IS FRANC 


was  a  pupil  of  Masaccio.  Before  he  was  of  age  he  was 
captured  by  pirates  and  enslaved  in  Africa.  His  master 
was  so  pleased  with  a  portrait  of  himself,  drawn  with  a 
coal  on  the  wall,  that  he  gave  the  artist  his  liberty. 
Lippi  then  returned  to  Florence,  and  adorned  the 
churches  and  convents  of  that  city,  and  of  Spoleto, 
Prato,  etc.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  Madonna, 
in  oil,  "The  Life  ot  Saint  Stephen,"  "The  Death  of  San 
Bernardo,"  in  oil,  at  Prato,  two  "Annunciations,"  and 
"The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  in  fresco.  He  excelled 
in  invention,  design,  and  colouring,  and  is  ranked  among 
the  greatest  painters  before  Raphael.  Died  in  1469. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy;"  BALDINUCCI,  "  Notizie  ;"  TIUIZZI,  "  Dizionario ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Lippi,  (FiLiPPO  or  FIUPPINO,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1460,  and  became  an  excellent 
painter.  He  studied  with  Sandro  Botticelli,  and  worked 
chiefly  in  Florence  and  Rome.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  good  taste  and  correctness  of  design,  and  was 
perhaps  the  first  painter  among  the  moderns  who  treated 
costumes  and  other  accessories  with  propriety.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul  before 
the  Proconsul,"  the  "  Death  of  Lucretia,"  at  the  Pitti 
palace  in  Florence,  several  Madonnas,  and  frescos  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  in  the  same  city.  Died  in  1505. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Painters  ;"  LANZI,  ''  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Lippi,  (GiACuMO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Bo 
logna  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  L.  Caracci. 

Lippi,  (LiiTO,)  called  LIPPO  OF  FLORK.NCK,  a  Floren 
tine  painter,  born  in  1354,  was  the  father  of  Filippo 
Lippi,  (1412-69.)  His  works,  which  are  praised  by 
Vasari,  are  not  now  extant.  Died  in  1415. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Lippi,  (LORENZO,)  a  successful  Italian  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1606,  received  lessons  in  art 
from  Roselli.  He  worked  in  Florence,  and  was  reputed 
one  of  the  best  draughtsmen  of  his  time.  "The  Martyr 
dom  of  Saint  Sebastian"  and  "The  Triumph  of  David" 
are  called  his  master-pieces.  He  wrote  a  facetious  poem 
called  "II  Malmantile  racquistato,"  (1676,)  which  was 
admired  and  recognized  by  the  Academy  della  Crusca 
among  the  testi  di  lingua.  Died  in  1664. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;"  LANZI, 
"History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  BALDINUCCI,  "Notizie." 

Lip'pin-cott,  (JosHUA  B.,)  an  American  publisher, 
distinguished  for  his  ability,  energy,  and  enterprise, 
was  born  in  Burlington  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1814 
About  1828  he  came  to  Philadelphia  and  engaged  him 
self  in  a  small  bookstore.  At  an  early  age  he  com 
menced  the  publishing  and  bookselling  business,  which 
he  conducted  successfully.  In  1850  he  purchased  the 
business  of  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  and  the  firm  of 
which  he  became  the  head  soon  took  its  place  among 
the  most  distinguished  publishing  houses  in  the  United 
States. 

Lippincott,  (SARAH  G.,)  a  popular  American  writer, 
whose  original  name  was  CLARKE,  was  born  at  Pompey, 
in  Onondaga  county,  New  York,  about  1825.  Her  first 
productions  appeared  in  the  New  York  "  Mirror,"  under 
the  pseudonym  of  GRACE  GREENWOOD.  She  also 
contributed  to  the  "National  Era,"  Washington.  Her 
principal  works  are  "Greenwood  Leaves,"  (1850-52,) 
"  History  of  my  Pets,"  (1850,)  "Poems,"  (1851,)  "Recol 
lections  of  my  Childhood,"  (1851,)  "Haps  and  Mishaps 
of  a  Tour  in  Europe,"  (1852,)  "Forest  Tragedy,  and 
other  Tales,"  (1856,)  and  "Stories  and  Legends  of  His 
tory  and  Travel,"  (1857.)  She  was  married  in  1853  to 
Leander  K.  Lippincott,  of  Philadelphia,  where  she  be 
came  editor  of  a  popular  juvenile  periodical  called  "The 
Little  Pilgrim." 

See  Ci.KVEi.AND,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature;"  ALI.I- 
BUNE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Lippo  OF  FLORENCE.     See  LIPPI. 

Lippomani,  lep-po-ma'nee,  (ALOISIO,)  a  learned  Ital 
ian  prelate,  born  at  Venice  about  1500.  He  obtained 
successively  the  bishoprics  of  Modon,  Verona,  and  Ber 
gamo,  and  was  one  of  three  prelates  selected  to  preside 
over  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  1556  he  became  secretary 
to  Pope  Julius  III.  He  wrote,  besides  a  few  other  works, 


commentaries  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  and  the  Psalms.  Died 

'n  1559- 

Liprandi,  le-puan'dee,  (PAUL  PETROVITCH,)  a  Rus 
sian  general,  born  in  1796,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
taking  of  Warsaw,  in  1831,  and  in  the  Crimean  war  took 
(October  25,  1854)  the  Turkish  fortress  at  Kadikoi. 

Lips,  lips,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  Swiss  painter,  de 
signer,  and  engraver,  born  near  Zurich  in  1758.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  engravings  for  Lavater's  "  Phys 
iognomical  Fragments,"  and  a  "  Saint  Sebastian,"  after 
Van  Dyck.  Died  in  1817. 

Lipse,  (JusTK.)     See  Lirsius. 

Lipsius,  lip'se-us,  (JUSTUS,)  [Fr.  JUSTE  LIPSE,  zhiist 
16ps,]  a  Flemish  scholar,  critic,  and  philologist  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Isque,  between  Brussels  and 
Louvain,  in  1547.  lie  was  educated  at  Brussels  and 
Louvain.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  produced  "Various 
Readings,"  ("  Varise  Lectiones,")  which  were  received 
with  favour.  He  was  professor  of  history  in  Jena  two 
years,  ending  in  1574,  and  occupied  the  same  chair  at 
Leyclen  from  1579  to  1592.  About  this  time  he  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  history 
at  Louvain.  He  wrote  many  works  on  history,  criticism, 
antiquities,  etc.,  which  were  very  popular  in  his  time. 
His  best  work,  according  to  Scaliger,  is  a  commentary 
on  Tacitus,  (1574,)  whose  history,  it  is  said,  he  knew  by 
heart.  His  admiration  of  Tacitus  and  Seneca  spoiled 
his  Latinity,  which  was  affectedly  concise.  His  moral 
character  is  said  to  have  been  good.  Died  in  1606. 

See  MIK^KUS,  "Vita  Justi  Lipsii,"  1606;  SCRIBANI,  "Justi  Lipsii 
D-feiisio  ;"  CHARLES  NISARD,  "  Le  Triumvirat  litteraire  an  XVle 
Siecie,  J.  Lipse,  Joseph  Scaliger  et  I.  Casanbon,"  1852;  EDWARD 
VAN  EVKN,  "  J.  Lipsius  alsVaderlander,"  1849:  HAYLE,  "  Historical 
andCiiiical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Liron,  le'riN',  (JEAN,)  a  learned  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Chartres  in  1665,  lived  in  Paris  and  at 
Mans.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Amenities  of  Criti 
cism,"  (2  vols.,  1717,)  and  a  curious  book  called  "His 
toric  and  Literary  Oddities,"  ("  Singularites  historiques 
et  litteraires,"  4  vols.,  1734-40.)  Died  in  1749. 

Liruti,  le-roo'tee,  (GIOVANNI  GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  Friuli  about  1710;  died  in  1780. 

Lis,  11s  or  less,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTS,)  a  Belgian  com 
poser,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1784;  died  in  1845. 

Lis  or  Lys,  liss,  or  Van  der  Lys,  vtn  der  liss,  QAN,) 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1570.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  Venice,  taking  for  his  models  Titian  and 
Paul  Veronese.  Some  critics  find  in  his  works  the  good 
colouring  of  the  former  with  the  grace  of  the  latter. 
Among  his  productions  are  "Adam  and  Eve  Mourning  for 
Abel,"  and  "The  Prodigal  Son."  Died  at  Venice  in  1629. 

Lis  or  Lys,  van  der,  (TAN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Breda  about  1600.  A  picture  of  "Diana  Bathing"  is 
called  his  best  work. 

Lisboa,  de,  di  les-bo'a,  (MARCOS,)  a  Portuguese  his 
torian  and  Franciscan  friar,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1511. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Order  of  Friars  of  Saint 
Francis,"  (3  vols.,  1556,  1570,  1660,)  and  is  ranked  among 
the  classic  authors  of  Portugal.  Died  in  1591. 

Liscov,  lis'kof,  (CHRISTIAN  Lumvic,)  the  most  ex 
cellent  satirist  and  prose  writer  of  Germany  before  Les- 
sing,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1701.  He  lived  at 
Lubeck,  Dresden,  etc.,  and  about  1741  became  secretary 
to  Bruhl,  the  Saxon  minister.  In  1745  he  obtained  the 
title  of  Kriegsrath,  (councillor  of  war,)  but  a  few  years 
later  he  was  removed  from  office.  He  published  in  1739 
a  "Collection  of  Satirical  and  Serious  Writings."  His 
style  was  remarkable  for  purity.  His  works  are  per 
vaded  by  a  sound  philosophical  spirit,  and  have  been 
more  highly  appreciated  since  his  death  than  before. 
He  was  a  complete  master  of  the  weapons  of  irony. 
One  of  his  treatises  is  entitled  "The  Excellence  and 
Utility  of  Bad  Writers."  Died  in  1760. 

See  LISCH,  "L'scovs  Lcben,"  1845;  KARL  GUSTAV  HELBIG, 
"  C.  L.  Liscovv:  Beitrag  zur  Literatur-  und  Cultur-Geschichte, "  etc., 
1844. 

Lisfranc,  le'fR6,N',  (JACQUES,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  the  department  of  Loire  in  1790.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Diseases  of  the  Uterus,"  ("  Maladies  de 
rUterus,"  1836.)  Died  in  1847. 

See  L.  A.  COUTOURIER,  "  Biographie  de  J.  Lisfranc,"  1852  ;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographie  Generaie." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  n,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LISLE 


H38 


L1TTA 


Lisle,  IT!,  (Lady  ALICE,)  was  the  widow  of  an  English 
lawyer  who  took  an  active  part  against  Charles  I.  She 
was  condemned  to  death  by  Judge  Jeffreys,  and  executed 
in  1685. 

See  MACAULAV,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 

Lisle,  (Sir  GKORGK,)  an  English  royalist  officer,  dis 
tinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Newbury.  Having 
been  taken  prisoner  at  Colchester  in  1648,  he  was  shot. 

L'Isle-Adam.     See  VILUERS. 

Lisle,  de.     See  DEI.  is  I.E. 

Lisle,  de,  deh  lei,  (JEAN  BAI-TISTE  ISOARD,)  a  prolific 
French  writer,  called  also  DELISLE  DE  SALES,  was  born 
at  Lyons  in  1743.  He  was  condemned  to  exile  for  the 
alleged  immorality  of  his  "  Philosophy  of  Nature," 
which  consequently  attracted  attention  ;  but  his  sentence 
was  annulled  or  remitted.  He  wrote  many  other  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Lismanin,  lis-ma-neen',  (FRANCIS,)  a  Socinian  theo 
logian,  born  at  Corfu,  became  confessor  to  the  Queen  of 
Poland  about  1546.  Died  about  1563. 

Lisola,  de,  deh  le'zo'lS',  (FRANC.OIS  PAUL,)  BARON, 
an  able  diplomatist,  born  at  Salins,  France,  in  1613.  He 
was  successively  employed  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
as  minister  to  England,  (1743,)  to  Poland,  and  to  Spain. 
He  wrote  several  successful  political  treatises,  one  of 
which,  called  "Shield  of  the  State  and  of  Justice," 
(1667,)  was  directed  against  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  about  1675. 

List,  list,  (FRIEDRICII,)  a  German  political  economist, 
was  born  at  Reutlingen  in  1789.  In  1825  he  emigrated 
to  Pennsylvania,  where  he  was  extensively  engaged  in 
coal-mining,  and  published,  in  English,  "Outlines  of  a 
New  System  of  Political  Economy,"  (Philadelphia,  1827.) 
Having  been  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Leipsic, 
he  returned  to  Europe  in  1832,  and  in  several  publica 
tions  efficiently  advocated  the  construction  of  railroads 
in  Germany.  He  published  "A  National  System  of  Po 
litical  Economy,"  (Stuttgart,  1841,)  in  which  he  favours 
the  protection  of  native  industry.  He  committed  suicide 
in  1846.  Since  his  death  his  merit  has  been  more  fully 
recognized  throughout  Germany. 

See  "  Life  of  List,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works  published 
at  Stuttgart,  1851. 

Lista  y  Aragon,  les'la  e  a-ra-gon',  (Don  ALBERTO,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  critic,  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Triana,  a  suburb  of  Seville,  in  1775.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  nau 
tical  college  of  Seville.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric 
and  poetry  in  the  university  of  that  city  in  1807,  but  lost 
it  in  consequence  of  the  French  invasion  of  1808.  He 
passed  about  four  years  as  an  exile  in  France,  from  1813 
to  1817.  In  1820  he  began  to  edit  "The  Censor,"  at 
Madrid.  After  various  removals  and  adverse  fortunes, 
he  became  about  1833  editor  of  the  "Gaceta  de  Madrid," 
which  in  his  hands  was  an  able  and  successful  political 
journal.  In  1822  he  published  a  volume  of  poems,  which 
are  greatly  admired.  His  superior  critical  ability  is  dis 
played  in  his  "Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Literature  of 
Spain,"  (1839.)  He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  Pure 
and  Mixed  Mathematics,"  which  is  a  standard  work. 
As  a  lyric  poet  he  united  the  fervour  and  splendid  colour 
of  the  old  Spanish  school  with  the  purer  taste  and  depth 
of  reflection  of  the  moderns.  His  imitations  of  Horace, 
in  his  "Philosophic  Poems,"  are  admirable.  Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Lis'ter,  (JOSEPH  JACKSON,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mer 
chant  of  London,  who  attained  distinction  by  his  know 
ledge  of  optics  and  by  his  improvement  of  the  achromatic 
microscope.  He  had  been  led  to  the  use  of  that  in 
strument  by  a  love  of  natural  history.  About  1828  he 
produced  a  combination  of  lenses  which  was  perfectly 
achromatic,  with  a  large  focal  pencil,  thus  surmounting 
what  had  before  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  perfection 
of  the  microscope.  He  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  an 
account  of  it,  which  was  inserted  in  their  "Philosophical 
Transactions." 

Lister,  (MARTIN,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Radcliffe  (Bucks)  about  1638.  In  1670  he  settled 
at  York,  where  he  practised  medicine.  He  removed  to 
London  in  1684,  and  published  "Synopsis  Conchylio- 


rum,"  (1685-93,)  a  valuable  work  on  conchology,  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Linnaeus.  In  1709  he  became 
physician  to  Queen  Anne.  He  wrote  three  excellent 
treatises  on  English  Spiders,  Fluviatile  Shells,  and 
Marine  Shells,  (1678,)  and  other  works.  "Lister  may 
be  reckoned,"  says  Hall  am,  "one  of  those  who  have 
done  most  to  found  the  science  of  conchology."  ("  In 
troduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in  1711. 

See  THOMPSON,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

Lister,  (Sir  MATTHEW,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1565.  He  became  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  London,  and  physician  to  Charles 
I.  Died  in  1657. 

Lister,  (THOMAS  HENRY,)  an  English  author  and 
gentleman,  born  about  1800,  was  the  son  of  Thomas 
Lister,  Esq.,  of  Armitage  Park.  He  obtained  the  office 
of  registrar-general  of  births.  He  published  two  novels, 
entitled  "Granby,"  (1826,)  and  "  Herbert  Lacy,"  and  a 
"Life  of  Lord  Clarendon  the  Historian."  He  married 
the  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  known  as  the  au 
thoress  of  "  Sketches  of  the  Contemporaries  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Clarendon."  Died  in  1842.  In  1844  his 
widow  became  the  wife  of  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Lord  John  Russell. 

Lis'ton,  (JoHN,)  a  popular  English  comedian,  born 
in  London  in  1776,  appeared  on  the  London  stage  about 
1805.  lie  excelled  in  low  comedy,  and  acted  many  years 
at  the  Haymarket,  Covent  Garden,  and  Drury  Lane 
Theatres.  Died  in  1846. 

Lis'ton,  (RoiiERT,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Scottish  phy 
sician,  born  in  1794.  About  1817  he  began  to  practise 
in  Edinburgh,  where  he  attained  great  eminence  as  a 
surgeon.  In  1833  he  published  his  "Principles  of  Sur 
gery."  He  removed  to  London  in  1834,  practised  with 
success,  and  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
University  College.  Died  in  1848. 

See  CHAMHERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Liszinski,  le-shen'skee,  (CASIMIR,)  a  Polish  philoso 
pher,  who  was  beheaded  in  1689  on  a  false  charge  of 
heresy  or  atheism. 

Liszt,  list,  (FRANZ,)  a  Hungarian  musician,  and  the 
most  celebrated  pianist  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Rai 
ding  in  1811.  He  was  instructed  by  Czerny  and  Salieri 
at  Vienna,  and  afterwards  repaired  to  Paris,  where  his 
performance  made  a  great  sensation.  About  1823  he 
visited  England,  and  was  received  with  equal  enthusiasm. 
Having,  after  his  return  to  Paris,  heard  Pagan ini,  he  re 
solved  to  obtain  the  same  mastery  over  the  piano  which 
that  great  musician  had  gained  over  the  violin  ;  and  it  is 
generally  allowed  that  he  has  succeeded.  He  visited 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  and  everywhere  excited 
the  warmest  admiration.  Though  he  produced  several 
compositions,  he  chiefly  excelled  as  a  performer.  Liszt 
was  distinguished  for  generosity,  and  gave  largely  to 
charitable  and  useful  institutions.  In  1848  he  was  ap 
pointed  leader  of  the  orchestra  in  the  imperial  chapel 
at  Weimar.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life  of  Frederick 
Chopin."  Died  in  1868. 

See  L.  REI.I.STAB,  "  F.  Liszt:  Beurtheilungen,  Berichte,  Lebens- 
sltizze,"  1842;  GUSTAV  SCHILLING,  "  F.  Liszt;  sein  Leben  \ind 
Wirken."  1844  :  F.  KEMPE,  "  F.  Liszt ;"  RICHARD  WAGNER,  "Apho- 
ristische  Memoiren,"  etc.,  1852. 

Lith'gow,  (WILLIAM,)  a  traveller,  who  traversed  on 
foot  a  large  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  pub 
lished  in  1614  an  entertaining  narrative  of  his  travels. 
At  Malaga  he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  and  heretic,  and 
tortured  by  the  Inquisition. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  1825. 

Lithov,  lit'hov,  ?  (GusTAVUS,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  in 
Sweden  in  1692.  In  1734  he  published  "Heroic-Mis 
cellaneous  Poems,"  (  Poemata  hero'ico-miscellanea." ) 
His  "Panegyric  on  Charles  XII."  (1720)  produced  a 
great  sensation.  Died  in  1753. 

Litta,  let'ta,  (PoMi'KO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  historical 
writer,  born  in  Milan  in  1781.  He  entered  the  French 
army  in  1804,  fought  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and,  having 
obtained  the  grade  of  chef-de-bataillon,  left  the  service  in 
1814.  In  1819  he  began  to  publish  at  Milan  his  famous 
and  costly  work,  "  Celebrated  Italian  Families,"  which 
was  continued  until  his  death,  and  contains  accounts  of 


5,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LITTLE 


H39 


L1V1A 


seventy-five  families.     It  is  considered  remarkable  for 
historical  accuracy.     Died  in  1852. 
See  BRCJCKHAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Little.     See  MOORE,  (THOMAS.) 

Lit'tle,  (HENRY,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Bal 
timore,  served  in  Mexico  in  1846,  and  entered  the  Con 
federate  army  in  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
lukn,  in  1862. 

Lit'tle,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  historian,  called  NAU- 
BRIGENSIS,  was  born  at  Bridlington,  Yorkshire,  in  1136. 
He  became  a  monk  of  Newborough  Abbey,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Conquest  to  1197,"  which 
is  a  work  of  merit. 

Lit'tle-tpn,  (ADAM,)  an  English  divine,  eminent  as 
a  philologist  and  Orientalist,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1627.  He  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  rector  of 
Chelsea,  and  prebendary  of  Westminster.  His  Latin 
Dictionary  (1679)  was  esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  He 
published  many  sermons,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1694. 

Littleton,  (EDWARD,)  LORD,  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  of  England,  born  at  Munslow,  Shropshire,  in  1589, 
was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  jurist  Thomas  Littleton. 
After  finishing  his  studies  in  the  Inner  Temple,  he  soon 
rose  to  the  summit  of  his  profession.  In  1626  he  entered 
Parliament,  where  he  was  at  first  a  zealous  adherent  of 
the  popular  party,  but  afterwards  went  over  to  the  court 
with  Wentworth  and  others.  He  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas  in  1640,  and  reluctantly  accepted 
the  great  seal  in  January,  1641.  He  was  then  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Lord  Littleton.  The  vacillation  which 
he  displayed  in  the  contest  between  Charles  I.  and  the 
Parliament  is  ascribed  to  lack  of  moral  courage  ;  but  he 
was  suspected  of  perfidy  by  the  royalists  and  by  the  king. 
In  1642  the  king,  then  at  York,  ordered  Falkland  to  de 
mand  the  great  seal  from  the  "traitor."  Littleton  soon 
joined  the  court  at  York,  and,  through  the  intercession 
of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  retained  in  office  until  his  death, 
in  1645.  "He  was,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "a  man  of 
excellent  private  character." 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  Eng 
land,"  1X46;  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Littleton,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  poet.  He  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Maple  Durham  about  1727, 
and  was  afterwards  chaplain  to  the  king.  He  was  author 
of  Verses  on  a  Spider,  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1734. 

Littleton,  LORD.     See  LYTTLKTON. 

Littleton  or  Lyttleton,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated 
English  judge  and  jurist,  born  probably  about  1420,  was 
the  son  of  Thomas  Westcote,  of  Devonshire,  and  Eliza 
beth  Littleton.  He  studied  in  the  Inner  Temple.  In 
1455  he  was  appointed  king's  Serjeant,  and  rode  the 
northern  circuit  as  judge  of  assize.  After  the  triumph 
of  the  house  of  York,  he  received  a  pardon  from  Edward 
IV.,  about  1462,  and  was  retained  in  the  office  of  king's 
sergeant.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas  in  1466,  and  created  a  knight  of  the  Bath 
in  1475.  He  died  in  1481,  leaving  three  sons,  from  whom 
the  lord  keeper  Lyttleton  and  other  eminent  men  de 
scended.  His  treatise  on  "  Tenures,"  written  in  Norman 
French,  is  regarded  as  the  principal  basis  of  the  laws 
of  property  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  indispensable  to 
students  of  English  law.  The  style  is  remarkably  clear 
and  pure.  Sir  Edward  Coke  wrote  a  celebrated  com 
mentary  on  Littleton. 

See  Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England." 

Littre,  letR,  (ALEXIS,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Cordes  in  1658,  practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote  many 
memoirs  on  pathological  anatomy.  Died  in  1725. 

Littre,  le'tRa',  (MAXIMILIEN  PAUL  EMILE,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "Nationel,"  a  democratic  journal,  from 
1831  to  1851.  His  most  important  work  is  an  edition 
of  Hippocrates  with  a  French  version,  (8  vols.,  1839-52,) 
which  is,  say  the  French  critics,  the  best  edition  extant. 

Littrow^  lit'tRof  or  lit'tRo,  (JOSEPH  JOHANX,)  an 
eminent  astronomer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1781.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cracow  in  1807,  and 
at  Kazan  in  1810.  In  1819  he'became  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  Vienna,  which  he  greatly  improved,  and 
lectured  on  astronomy  with  success  in  that  city.  He 
published  many  valuable  scientific  works,  among  which 


are  "Theoretic  and  Practical  Astronomy,"  (1822-26.) 
'"  Dioptrics,"  (1830,)  and  "The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens," 
0853.)  The  last  is  called  one  of  the  best  popular  books 
on  that  subject.  Died  in  1840. 

Littrow,  (KARL  LUDWIG,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Kazan  in  1811.  He  succeeded  his  father 
as  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Vienna  in  1842.  The 
Annals  of  this  observatory  which  have  appeared  since 
his  appointment  are  esteemed  among  the  most  valuable 
astronomical  registers.  In  1847  Eittrovv  and  W.  Struve 
were  employed  to  connect  Austria  and  Russia  by  trian- 
gulation. 

Lit-jf-er'ses,  [Gr.  AJTW^C,]  a  son  of  Midas,  King 
of  I'hrygia,  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Liutprand.     See  LUITPRAND. 

Liutprandus.     See  LUITPRANDUS. 

Livens.     See  Li  EVENS. 

Liverani,  le-va-ra'nee,  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at 
Castel-Bolognese  in  1823,  published  in  1861  a  work 
against  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope. 

Liv'er-more,  (AKIEL  ABBOTT,)  an  American  Unita 
rian  divine,  born  at  Wilton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1811, 
became  in  1850  pastor  of  a  church  at  Cincinnati.  He 
has  published  a  number  of  works  in  prose  and  verse. 

Liy^er-pool,  (CHARLES  JENKINSON,)  first  EARL  OF, 
a  British  statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1727,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  Jenkinson.  In  1761  he  entered  Par 
liament,  and  was  appointed  by  Lord  Bute  under-secretary 
of  state.  After  the  retirement  of  Lord  Bute,  in  1763,  he 
acquired  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  incurred  much 
popular  odium  as  the  chief  of  the  secret  cabinet.  He 
became  one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury  in  1767,  was 
secretary  of  war  under  Lord  North  from  1778  to  1782, 
and  was  afterwards  president  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
the  ministry  of  the  younger  Pitt.  He  was  created  Lord 
Hawkesbury  in  1786,  and  Earl  of  Liverpool  in  1796.  In 
1758  he  had  published  a  "Discourse  on  the  Conduct  of 
Great  Britain  with  respect  to  Neutral  Nations."  He  died 
in  1808,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  who  became  premier. 

Liverpool,  (ROBERT  BANKS  JENKINSON,)  EARL  OF, 
a  conservative  British  statesman,  eminent  for  his  pru 
dence  and  prosperity,  born  in  1770,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1790  he 
entered  Parliament  as  a  political  friend  of  Pitt.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  his  candour  in  debate,  by  abilities 
more  solid  than  brilliant,  and  by  his  persistent  hostility 
to  innovation  or  reform.  About  1796  he  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Hawkesbury,  and  married  a  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Bristol.  He  became  foreign  secretary  in  the 
ministry  of  Addington  in  March,  iSoi,  and  made  peace 
with  Napoleon  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802.  In 
1804  he  accepted  the  office  of  home  secretary  under  Pitt, 
who  had  returned  to  power.  The  ministry  having  been 
dissolved  by  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  Lord  Hawkesbury 
was  requested  by  the  king  to  form  a  new  ministry ;  but 
he  declined  the  task.  He  took  office  as  home  secretary 
in  the  cabinet  of  the  Duke  of  Portland  in  1807,  and  suc 
ceeded  to  his  father's  earldom  in  1808.  In  June,  1812, 
he  obtained  the  place  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  or 
premier,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Percival,  which  he  re 
tained  until  he  was  prostrated  by  a  stroke  of  apoplexy 
in  February,  1827.  "He  presided  over  the  councils  of 
England,"  says  Brougham,  "  for  a  longer  time  than  any 
other,  excepting  Walpole  and  Pitt.  It  happened  to  him 
that  the  years  during  which  the  helm  of  the  state,  as  it 
is  called,  were  intrusted  to  his  hands,  were  those  of  the 
greatest  events,  alike  in  negotiation,  in  war,  in  commerce, 
and  in  finance,  which  ever  happened  to  illustrate  or  to 
checker  the  annals  of  Europe.  ...  So  long  and  so  little 
interrupted  a  course  of  official  prosperity  was  never, 
perhaps,  enjoyed  by  any  other  statesman."  Brougham 
also  represents  him  as  remarkable  for  discretion  and 
as  a  model  of  safe  mediocrity.  He  is  censured  for  op 
posing  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  for  the  part 
he  took  in  the  persecution  of  Queen  Caroline.  Died 
in  December,  1828. 

See  BROUGHAM,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;" 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Public  Life  of  Lord  Liverpool, "  London,  1827. 

Livl-a,  [Fr.  LIVIE,  le've',]  or,  more  fully,  Livl-a 
Dru-sil'la,  a  Roman  empress,  born  in  58  B.C.,  was 
first  married  to  Tiberius  Nero.  After  becoming  the 


c  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (33f=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


L1VIA 


1440 


LIVINGSTONE 


mother  of  Tiberius  and  Drusus  Germanicus,  she  was 
married  in  38  H.C.  to  the  emperor  Augustus,  over  whom 
she  acquired  an  ascendency  which  she  retained  until  his 
death.  She  persuaded  him  to  adopt  her  son  Tiberius  as 
his  successor.  By  his  last  will  he  appointed  Livia  and 
Tiberius  his  heirs,  and  directed  her  to  assume  the  name 
of  Julia  Augusta.  She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents. 
Died  in  29  A.D. 

See  J.  D.  KOEULER,  "Dissertatio  de  Livia  Augusta,"  1715; 
TACITUS,  "Annales,"  i.  and  v.  :  "Nmivelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Liv'I-a  Liv-il'la,  a  granddaughter  of  the  preceding, 
was  the  s'ister  of  Germanicus.  She  became  the  wife  of 
her  cousin  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  and  was  sus 
pected  of  poisoning  her  husband  in  concert  with  Sejanus. 
She  was  put  to  death  for  that  crime,  by  order  of  Tiberius, 
about  30  A.D. 

Livie.     See  LIVIA. 

Livineius.     See  LIKVENS,  (JoiiN.) 

Liv'iug-stpn,  (BROCKHOLST,)  an  American  jurist  and 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  in  1764,  served  with  distinc 
tion  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  subsequently  rose  to 
be  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  a  son  of  William  Livingston,  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.  Died  in  1823. 

Livingston,  (EDWARD,)  an  eminent  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Clermont,  Columbia  county,  New 
York,  on  the  26th  of  May,  1764,  was  a  son  of  Robert 
Livingston,  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York. 
His  mother  was  Margaret  Beekman.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  in  1781,  studied  law, 
and  began  to  practise  in  the  city  of  New  York  about 
1785.  He  married  Mary  McEvers,  of  New  York.  After 
he  had  acquired  great  eminence  as  an  advocate,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1794  by  the  Democrats. 
He  was  re-elected  in  1796  and  in  1798.  In  1801  he  was 
appointed  district-attorney  of  the  United  States  for  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  elected  mayor  of  the  city  of 
New  York  for  two  years.  In  the  autumn  of  1803  he 
became  a  public  defaulter  in  consequence  of  the  mis 
conduct  of  one  of  his  clerks.  He  made  an  assignment 
of  his  property,  resigned  his  offices,  and  removed  in 
1804  to  New  Orleans.  Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he 
married  a  Creole,  named  Louise  Moreau  de  Lassy,  in 
1805.  lie  enjoyed  great  professional  success  in  New 
Orleans,  and  paid  in  full  the  debt  which  he  owed  to 
the  government.  He  was  involved  in  a  long  controversy 
and  litigation  about  the  title  to  some  land,  called  the 
Batture,  which  he  purchased  in  New  Orleans.  President 
Jefferson  was  one  of  his  adversaries  in  this  dispute  ; 
but  Livingston  gained  his  cause.  At  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  January  8,  1815,  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Jackson,  who  was  his  intimate  friend.  In  1821 
he  was  authorized  by  the  legislature  of  Louisiana  to 
revise  the  system  of  criminal  law.  I  fe  acquired  celebrity 
by  his  "  System  of  Penal  Law  or  Criminal  Codes,"  pub 
lished  in  1833,  in  which  he  opposed  capital  punishment. 
"This  volume,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July, 
1864,  "is  a  perfect  treasure-house  of  juridical  and  legis 
lative  schemes  and  suggestions,  doctrines  and  contri 
vances  ;  and  its  indirect  influence  has  been  immense." 
M.  Villemain  declared  the  "System"  to  be  "a  work 
without  example  from  the  hand  of  any  one  man.  .  .  . 
The  lapse  of  time  has  deepened  and  strengthened  the 
foundations  of  his  fame." 

He  represented  a  district  of  Louisiana  in  Congress 
from  1823  to  1829,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in  the 
latter  year.  In  April  or  May,  1831,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Jackson.  Having  re 
signed  this  office  in  May,  1833,  he  was  immediately 
appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  France,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  "hit  the  happy  medium  between  firm 
ness  and  conciliation  in  diplomacy."  He  returned  home 
about  the  end  of  1835,  and  died  r.t  Rhinebeck,  New 
York,  in  May,  1836.  He  had  several  children. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Edward  Livingston."  by  CH  AKI.ES  HAVENS  HUNT, 
with  an  Introduction  by  GEORGE  I'ANCROFT,  1864;  "National  Por 
trait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans, "  vol.  i.  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1836. 

Liv'ing-stpn,  (Jons,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  in  1603.  Having  declined  to  take  the  oath  of  alle 


giance  in  1663,  he  was  banished,  and  retired  to  Rotter 
dam,  where  he  died  in  1672. 

See  CIIAMHKKS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
A.  GUNS,  "Memoirs  of  j.  Livingston,"  New  York,  1829. 

Livingston,  (Rev.  JOHN  H.,)  an  American  divine 
of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  born  at  Poughkeepsie, 
New  York,  in  1746.  Having  studied  at  Yale  College 
and  in  Holland,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D., 
he  became,  on  his  return,  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Church 
in  New  York.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Queen's  College,  New  Jersey,  in  1807,  and  president 
of  that  institution  in  1810.  Died  in  1825. 

Livingston,  (I'mi.ti',)  an  American  revolutionist,  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Al 
bany  in  1716.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1737, 
and  in  1759  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General  Assem 
bly  of  the  colony  from  the  city  of  New  York.  In  1770 
he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to  correspond 
with  the  celebrated  Edmund  Burke,  then  agent  for  the 
colony  of  New  York.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Congress  of  1774  and  1776.  Died  in  1778. 

Livingston,  (Runnier,)  the  first  possessor  of  the 
Livingston  Manor,  New  York,  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1654.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  about  1672,  and  ob 
tained  a  grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land  near  the  Hudson 
River.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  several  eminent  men  named 
Livingston.  He  had  three  sons,  Pinup,  ROBKRT,  and 
Gii.iiKUT,  from  the  second  of  whom  the  statesmen  Robert 
R.  and  Edward  Livingston  were  descended. 

Livingston,  (RoiiKKT  R.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  New  York  in  1746,  was  a  brother  of  Edward 
Livingston,  the  great  jurist.  He  graduated  at  King's 
College,  New  York,  in  1765.  He  was  a  descendant  of 
Robert,  noticed  above.  As  a  member  of  the  Congress 
of  1776,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  committee  to  draw 
up  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  became  chan 
cellor  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1777,  was  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  about  two  years,  (1781-83,)  and  in 
1801  was  sent  as  minister  to  France,  where  he  was  very 
favourably  received  by  Napoleon  and  assisted  in  the 
negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  He  returned 
home  in  1805,  after  which  he  aided  Robert  Fulton  in 
the  introduction  of  steam-navigation,  and  promoted 
improvements  in  agriculture.  Died  in  February,  1813. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Livingston,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  jurist,  brother 
of  Philip,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1741. 
Having  removed  to  New  Jersey,  he  was  elected  to  the 
first  Congress  from  that  State  in  1774.  He  became 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1/76,  which  office  he  filled 
for  fourteen  years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution,  (1787.)  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Review  of  the  Military  Operations  in  North 
America  from  1753  to  1758;"  also  of  several  political 
works,  and  of  a  poem  entitled  "Philosophical  Solitude." 
Died  in  1790. 

See  "  Memoir  of  William  Livingston,"  by  THEODORE  SEDG- 
WICK,  JR. 

Liv'ing-stone  or  Liv'ing-ston,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish 
missionary,  distinguished  as  an  explorer  of  Africa,  was 
born  at  Blantyre,  near  Glasgow,  about  1815.  He  worked 
in  a  cotton -factory  in  his  youth.  Having  studied  medi 
cine  and  theology,  with  an  intention  to  labour  as  a  mis 
sionary,  he  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society 
to  South  Africa  in  1840.  He  laboured  and  travelled  in 
the  interior  of  Africa  for  sixteen  years,  and  made  im 
portant  discoveries,  for  which  the  Geographical  Society 
awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1856,  and  published  an  interesting  work  entitled  "  Mis 
sionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,"  etc., 
(1857.)  In  iS<;S  he  again  went  to  Africa,  as  consul  at 
Quilimane  or  KiHimane,  with  a  view  to  explore  the  river 
Zambesi,  to  promote  the  production  of  cotton,  and  to 
open  commercial  intercourse  with  the  natives  of  that 
region.  He  returned  to  England  in  1864,  and  about  the 
end  of  1865  published  a  "Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to 
the  Zambesi,  1858-64."  He  set  out  again  for  Africa  in 
1865.  A  report  reached  Europe  in  the  spring  of  1867 
that  Dr.  Livingstone  had  been  killed  near  Lake  Nyassa ; 
and,  although  later  information  showed  that  rumour  to 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  fhort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n&    gooa;  moon; 


L1V1N 


1441 


LLOTD 


have  been  false,  great  uncertainty  still  prevails  respecting 
his  fate. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1866:  "West 
minster  Review"  tor  January,  1866 ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
January,  1858. 

Livin  Menus,  lee'vin  ma'nus,  ?  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1630,  worked  for  many 
years  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1691. 

Livius,  (TiTus.)     See  Livv. 

Liv'i-us  An-dro-iil'cus,  a  popular  Roman  dramatist 
and  actor,  who  began  his  career  as  an  author  about  240 
li.C.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  earliest  dramatic  writer  of  Rome.  He  composed 
both  tragedies  and  comedies,  of  which  only  small  frag 
ments  now  remain,  and  was  the  sole  performer  of  his 
own  plays,  which  were  used  in  schools  in  the  time  of 
Horace.  He  was  a  writer  of  industry  and  learning 
rather  than  original  genius. 

See  PROFESSOR  SELLARS,  "  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic," 
chap.  iii. 

Livonniere,  de,  deh  le'vo'ne-aiR',  (CLAUDE  Poc- 
quet — po'ki',)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1652  ; 
died  in  Paris  in  1726. 

Livoy,  de,  deh  le'vwa',  (Pere  TIMOTHEE,)  a  French 
friar  and  litterateur,  born  at  Pithiviers  in  1715.  He  pub 
lished,  in  1767,  a  "Dictionary  of  French  Synonyms.'' 
Died  in  1777. 

Liv'y,  [Lat.  Liv'ms,]  (Trrus,)  [It.  TITO  LIVIO,  tee'to 
lee've-o  ;  Fr.  TITE  LIVE,  let  lev,]  a  celebrated  Roman 
historian,  was  born  at  Patavium  (now  Padua)  in  59  H.c. 
Ancient  writers  furnish  us  few  particulars  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  was  patronized  by  Augustus  and  became 
a  person  of  consideration  at  court.  He  appears  to  have 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  Rome.  Niebuhr 
favours  the  opinion  that  he  was  in  early  life  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  His  great  history  of  Rome,  from  the  origin  of 
the  city  to  the  year  9  H.C.,  was  called  by  him  "  Annales," 
and  was  comprised  in  one  hundred  and  forty-two  books, 
of  which  thirty-five  have  come  clown  to  us  entire, — viz., 
the  first,  third,  and  fourth  decades,  and  five  books  of  the 
fifth  decade.  We  have  also  epitomes,  by  an  unknown 
hand,  of  one  hundred  and  forty  books.  The  first  book 
was  probably  published  or  written  between  29  and  25 
B.C.  His  dialogues  on  philosophy  and  politics,  which, 
according  to  some  writers,  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Augustus,  are  not  now  extant. 

The  great  popularity  of  his  history  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  excellence  and  beauty  of  his  style  and  his  wonder 
ful  powers  of  description.  The  numerous  orations  by 
which  the  history  is  diversified  are  models  of  eloquence. 
"  The  painting  of  the  narrative,"  says  Macaulay,  in  his 
essay  entitled  "  History,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
"  is  beyond  description  vivid  and  graceful.  The  abun 
dance  of  interesting  sentiments  and  splendid  imagery  in 
the  speeches  is  almost  miraculous."  But  he  was  desti 
tute  of  many  qualifications  essential  to  a  historian  of  the 
first  order.  Incapable  of  broad  philosophic  views,  and 
indisposed  to  profound  research,  he  was  more  studious 
to  exalt  the  national  glory  and  produce  a  picturesque 
effect  than  to  compose  a  true  history.  He  made  little 
use  of  public  documents,  and  was  not  familiar  with  the 
antiquities  of  his  country.  His  work  is  also  deficient 
in  the  explanation  of  the  original  constitution  of  the 
state,  the  contests  between  the  orders,  the  progress 
of  civilization,  and  other  domestic  affairs.  Livy  was 
married,  and  had  two  or  more  children.  Died  at  Padua 
in  17  A.D. 

See  N.  MACHIAVEI.I.I,  "Discorso  sopra  la  prima  Decada  di  Tito 
Livio,"  1532,  (translated  into  Engiit-h  by  E.  DACRES,  1636:)  D.  W. 
MOI.LER,  "Disputatio  circulaiis  de  'liio  Livio."  1688;  A.  M.  MENE- 
GHKI.I.I,  "Vita  di  Tito  Livio."  1^35;  G.  V.  TOMMASIXI,  "  Vita  Titi 
Livii,"  1630;  J.  C.  HAND,  "  De  Tito  Livio  Oratore,"  1773. 

Llanos  de  Valdez,  la'nos  da  val'deth,  (Don  SF.UAS- 
TIAX.)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Granada  about  1602; 
died  after  1670. 

Llewellyn  or  Llywelyn,  loo-eM'in,  L,  Prince  of 
Wales,  began  to  reign  about  1 190,  and  married  a  daughter 
of  John,  King  of  England.  The  latter  afterwards  invaded 
Wrales  and  forced  him  to  do  homage.  Llewellyn  waged 
war  against  Henry  III.  about  1228.  Being  harassed  by 
the  rebellion  of  his  youngest  son  Griffith,  he  made,  in 
1237,  a  treaty  with  Henry,  and  purchased  peace  by 


acknowledging  himself  the  vassal  of  that  king.    He  died 
in  1240,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David. 

Llewellyn  II.  was  the  son  of  Griffith,  and  successor 
of  his  uncle  David.  He  renewed  the  homage  to  Henry 
III.,  but  conspired  with  the  Earl  of  Leicester  against 
him  in  1263.  Llewellyn  and  his  allies  were  defeated  at 
Evesham  in  1265.  In  1276  he  was  summoned  by  Edward 
I.  to  come  and  do  homage ;  but  he  declined.  Wales 
was  then  invaded  and  conquered  by  Edward  in  1277. 
Llewellyn,  having  again  revolted,  was  killed  in  battle, 
about  1280. 

Llorente,  lo-ren'ta,  (BERNARDO  GERMANO,)  a  Span 
ish  painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1685  ;  died  in  1757. 

Llorente,  (Don  FELIX,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Valencia  in  1712,  was  successful  in  history,  landscapes, 
and  portraits.  Died  in  1787. 

Llorente,  (Don  JUAN  ANTONIO,)  a  learned  Spanish 
historian,  born  near  Calahorra,  in  Aragon,  in  1756. 
Having  l>een  ordained  as  a  priest,  he  was  chosen  vicar 
general  of  the  see  of  Calahorra  in  1782.  Favoured  by 
Florida-Blanca  or  the  king,  he  was  appointed  in  1789 
secretary-general  of  the  Inquisition,  of  which  he  became 
a  determined  adversary.  Iiri794  the  Grand  Inquisitor 
directed  Llorente,  whose  opinions  were  known  to  be 
liberal,  to  write  an  exposition  of  the  abuses  of  the  In 
quisition.  In  1808  he  embraced  the  party  of  the  French 
invaders,  was  admitted  into  the  council  of  state  by  King 
Joseph,  and  promoted  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition 
in  1809.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Spain,  in 
1814,  he  went  as  an  exile  to  Paris,  where  he  published 
in  1817  his  "Critical  History  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi 
tion,"  which  was  his  great  work.  It  is  said  by  Prescott 
to  be  the  only  authentic  account  of  that  institution.  He 
also  wrote  "  Historical  Notices  of  the  Basque  Provinces," 
(1806-8.)  Died  in  1823. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella."  vol.  i.  parti.  ; 
his  autobiographic  Memoirs,  "  Noticia  biografica  o  Memorias  para 
la  Historia  de  su  Vida,"  1818  ;  J.  A.  MAHUL,  "  Notice  biographique 
sur  Don  J.  A.  Llorente,"  1823  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix.) 

Lloyd,  loid,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  banker,  eminent 
as  a  scholar  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Birmingham 
in  September,  1748,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  conspicuous  as  an  advocate  of  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  was  a  man  of  great  in 
fluence  in  the  community.  He  was  an  uncle  of  Thomas 
F.  Buxton,  and  father  of  Anna  Braithwaite.  Died  in  1828.. 

Lloyd,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in  Buck 
inghamshire  in  1784.  He  was  appointed  regius  professor 
of  divinity  in  Oxford  in  1822,  and  Bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1827.  Died  in  1829. 

Lloyd,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Birming 
ham,  was  a  son  of  Charles  Lloyd,  banker,  noticed  above, 
and  was  a  friend  of  Coleridge,  Lamb,  and  Southey.  In 
1796  he  went  to  Bristol,  and  lived  in  the  same  house 
with  Coleridge.  Lloyd  produced,  besides  other  poems, 
"  Nugae  Canorae,"  ("Sounding  Trifles,"  1819,)  "Desul 
tory  Thoughts  in  London,"  (1821,)  and  "The  Duke 
of  Ormoncl,"  a  tragedy,  (1822.)  He  translated  the 
tragedies  of  Alfieri  into  English.  Died  in  1839. 

See  DE  QLMNCEY,  "Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii. ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  May,  1816,  July,  1820,  and  July,  1823. 

Lloyd,  (DAVID,)  a  British  biographer,  born  in  Merio 
nethshire  in  1625.  He  took  orders,  and  successively 
held  several  benefices.  Among  his  principal  works  is 
"The  Statesmen  and  Favourites  of  England  since  the 
Reformation,"  (1665.)  Died  in  1691. 

Lloyd,  (HENRY,)  a  British  officer,  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  tactics,  was  born  in  Wales  about  1725.  He 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  first  in  the  Austrian 
army  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Prussia.  About  1770 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Russian 
army,  and  was  employed  in  a  war  against  the  Turks,  but 
was  suspected  of  being  a  secret  agent  of  the  English 
government.  Suddenly  quitting  the  Russian  service,  he 
went  to  Gibraltar,  and  gave  valuable  counsel  to  General 
Elliott  respecting  the  siege  of  that  fortress.  He  died  at 
Huy  in  1783,  leaving  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  War  between  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Empress 
Maria  Theresa,"  (1781,)  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Invasion  and 
Defence  of  England,"  (1798,)  and  other  works. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

91 


LLOYD 


1442 


LOB STEIN 


Lloyd,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  British  .writer,  born  in  Flint 
shire  in  1634.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Newington, 
Surrey,  in  1672.  In  1670  he  published  a  "  Historical, 
Geographical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary,"  which  was  once 
esteemed.  Died  in  1680. 

Lloyd,  ( ROBERT,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  West 
minster  in  1733.  He  became  an  usher  in  the  West 
minster  School,  and  a  companion  of  Churchill,  Colman, 
etc.  His  health  and  fortune  were  injured  by  dissipated 
habits.  He  composed  an  admired  poem,  "The  Actor," 
(1760,)  "The  Capricious  Lovers,"  a  comic  opera,  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1764. 

See  NEWTON,  "Life  of  R.  Lloyd;"  KENRICK,  "Life  of  Lloyd," 
1774- 

Lloyd,  (WILLIAM,)  a  pious  and  learned  English 
bishop,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1627.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1680,  and  was  one  of  the 
bishops  imprisoned  by  James  II.  in  1688  for  refusing  to 
publish  in  their  churches  the  declaration  of  indulgence 
to  Catholics  and  dissenters.  He  became  almoner  to 
William  III.,  Bishop  of  Li ch field  in  1692,  Bishop  of 
Worcester  in  1699  or  1700,  and  almoner  to  Queen  Anne 
a  few  years  later.  lie  furnished  Burnet  valuable  mate 
rials  for  his  history,  and  wrote  several  religious  treatises. 
Died  in  1717. 

See  BURNET,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times;"  MACAULAY,  "  His 
tory  of  England  ;"  Miss  STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops," 
London,  1866.  J3<Vj1<^,  &«:&*»« *y  7//3Z  , 

Llywelyn.     See  LLEWELYN. 

Loaysa,  lo-I'sa,  (GARCIAS,)  a  Spanish  cardinal  and 
eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Talavera  about  1480.  About 
1524  he  became  confessor  to  Charles  V.  He  was  after 
wards  Bishop  of  Seville,  and  president  of  the  Royal 
Council  of  the  Indies.  Died  in  1546. 

Lobau,  de,  cleh  lo'bS',  (GEORGES  Mouton — moo'- 
t6x',)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  in  Phalsbourg  in 
1770.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  became  aide-de 
cani])  of  Joubert  in  1798,  and  aide-de-camp  of  Bonaparte 
in  1805.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1807.  He  displayed  great  courage 
at  Eckmiihl,  Aspern,  and  Lobau  in  1809,  and  received 
the  title  of  Count  de  Lobau.  In  the  invasion  of  Russia 
(1812)  he  was  aide-major-general  of  the  imperial  guard. 
He  fought  at  Lutzen  and  Bautzen  in  1813,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Waterloo  in  1815,  after  which  he  passed  many 
years  in  retirement.  During  the  revolution  of  1830  he 
favoured  the  cause  of  Louis  Philippe,  who  appointed  him 
commander  of  the  national  guard  in  December,  1830,  and 
gave  him  a  marshal's  baton  in  1831.  Died  in  1838. 

See  J.  NOI.LET-FABKKT,  "  Le  Marechal  Mouton,"  1832 ;  PIERRE 
PHILIPPE  DE  SEGUR,  "  E"loge  historique  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Lobau," 
1839. 

Lobb,  (THEOPHILUS,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1678.  He  practised  with  success  in  that  city, 
and  wrote  medical  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Small -Pox,"  (1731,)  and  "Medical  Practice  in 
Curing  Fevers,"  (1735.)  Died  in  1763. 

Lobe,  lo'beh,  QOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  mu 
sical  composer,  born  at  Weimar  in  1797.  He  produced 
in  1833  "The  Princess  of  Granada,"  an  opera.  His 
theoretic  works  are  highly  esteemed. 

Lobeck,  lo'bek,  (CHRISTIAN  AUGUST,)  one  of  the 
most  thorough  and  acute  philologists  and  antiquaries  of 
recent  times,  was  born  at  Naumburg,  in  Prussia,  in  1781. 
lie  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  and  eloquence 
at  Konigsberg  in  1814.  He  published  valuable  editions 
of  the  "  Ajax"  of  Sophocles,  (1810,)  and  of  Phrynicus, 
(1820.)  Among  his  other  most  important  works  is  "  Pa- 
thologiee  Linguae  Graecae  Elementa,"  (1853.)  Died  in 

1859- 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Lobeira  or  Lobeyra,  de,  da  lo-ba^e-ra,  written  also 
Loveira,  (VASCO,)  a  celebrated  Portuguese  author,  was 
born  at  Oporto  about  1360.  He  was  knighted  by  King 
John  I.  of  Portugal  on  the  battle-field  of  Aljubarrota  in 
1386,  and  died  in  1403.  He  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
romance  "  Amadis  de  Gaul,"  which  is  now  seldom  read. 
The  earliest  edition  now  known  was  printed  in  1519.  It 
passed  for  the  best  of  the  romances  of  chivalry  until  the 
satire  of  Cervantes  rendered  them  all  unpopular. 

See  TICKNOR'S  "  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi.  p.  221 
et  seq. 


Lobel  or  L'Obel,  k/bel',  (MATHIKU,)  an  eminent 
botanist,  born  at  Lille,  France,  in  1538.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Antwerp,  and  became  physician  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  after  whose  death  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  passed  the  most  of  his  life.  In  1570  Lobel  and  Pena 
published  in  London  "  Stirpium  Adversaria,"  which  pre 
sents  the  first  sketch,  though  rude,  of  a  natural  method 
of  botany,  with  neat  engravings  of  about  two  hundred 
and  seventy  plants.  He  published  in  1581  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Icones  Stirpium,"  which  contains  figures 
of  about  two  thousand  plants,  and  is  still,  says  Duvau, 
often  consulted.  Lobel  was  also  physician  to  James  I. 
Died  near  London  in  1616.  The  genus  Lobdia  was 
named  in  honour  of  him. 

See  C.  F.  A.  MORRKN,  "  Notice  biographique  surM.  de  L'Obel," 
1853  :  EI.OY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Lobell  or  Loebell,  16'bel,  (JOHANN  WILHELM,)  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Berlin  in  1786.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Bonn  about  1830. 

Loben or Loebeii, lo'ben,  (Orro  H KINRICH,)  COUNT, 
a  German  writer  of  the  romantic  school,  born  at  Dresden 
in  1786,  is  known  by  the  name  of  ISIDORUS  OKIKNTALIS. 
He  wrote,  besides  numerous  tales  and  poems,  romances 
entitled  "  Guido"  (1808)  and  "Arcadion,"  (1811.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Lobera,  lo-Ba'ra,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile.  He  was  physician  to  Charles 
V.,  and  published  treatises  on  anatomy  and  medicine, 
(1542-51.) 

Lobiiaeau,  lo'be'no',  (Gui  ALEXIS,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  at  Rennes  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  the  "  History  of  Bretagne"  (1707)  by  Legallois,  and 
another  of  Felibien's  "History  of  Paris,"  (5  vols.,  1725.) 
Died  in  1727. 

Lobkowitz.     See  CARAMUEL. 

Lobkowitz.     See  HASSENSTEIN. 

Lobkowitz,  von,  fon  lob'ko-wits',  (GEORG  CHRIS 
TIAN,)  PRINCE,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1702.  He 
took  command  of  the  army  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
in  1741,  and  gained  advantages  over  the  French  at  Brau- 
nau  and  Prague.  Died  in  17^3.  His  son  JOSEPH,  born 
in  1725,  distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  as 
major-general.  In  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  he  was  made 
a  field-marshal.  Died  in  1802. 

Lobo,  lo'bo,  (FRANCISCO  RODRIGUEZ,)  a  celebrated 
Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Lein'a  about  1550.  He  was  the 
author  of  songs,  pastoral  romances,  sonnets,  and  of  a 
prose  work  entitled  "Court  in  the  Country  and  Winter 
Nights."  lie  has  been  styled  "the  Portuguese  Theocri 
tus."  "He  was,"  says  Longfellow,  "a  scholar  of  great 
erudition  ;  and  the  services  he  rendered  to  the  Portu 
guese  language  and  style  make  an  era  in  that  literature." 

See  LONGFELLOW'S  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lobo,  IO'HO,  (GERARDO,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Old 
Castile.  He  became  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Philip 
IV.,  who  sometimes  required  his  companions  to  talk 
in  verse  to  him.  Lobo  had  a  remarkable  facility  for 
improvisation,  and,  it  is  said,  could  converse  all  day 
without  descending  to  prose.  His  productions  consist 
of  odes,  sonnets,  etc.  Died  in  1668. 

Lobo,  (JEUONIMO,)  an  enterprising  Portuguese  mis 
sionary  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1^93.  He  was 
sent  to  labour  in  the  mission  of  Goa  in  1622.  In  1625, 
with  other  missionaries,  he  undertook  to  evangelize 
Abyssinia,  whose  sultan,  Seged,  (Segued,)  had  become  a 
Roman  Catholic,  or  at  least  was  friendly  to  that  Church. 
The  sultan  having  died,  the  missionaries  were  expelled 
by  his  successor  in  1634.  In  1640  he  went  again  to  Goa, 
where  he  was  chosen  provincial  of  his  order.  He  re 
turned  to  Lisbon  in  1656,  and  published  a  valuable  rela 
tion  of  his  travels  in  Abyssinia,  entitled  a  "  History  of 
Ethiopia,"  (1659,)  which  was  translated  into  English  by 
Dr.  Johnson.  Died  in  1678. 

See  BARBOSA  MACHADO,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Lobstein,  15p'stm  or  lob'staN',  (JEAN  FREDERIC,)  a 
French  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  near  Strasburg  in 
1736  ;  died  in  1784. 

Lobstein,  (JEAN  FREDERIC,)  an  anatomist,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Giessen  in  1777,  lived  at  Stras 
burg.  Died  in  1835. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOC4TELLI 


H43 


LOCKE 


Locatelli,  lo-ka-tel'lee,  or  Lucatelli,  loo-ka-tel'lee, 
(ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter  of  landscapes  and  genre, 
horn  at  Rome.  He  adorned  his  landscapes  with  figures 
which  are  admired,  and  displayed  good  taste  in  familiar 
scenes.  His  works  are  praised  by  Lanzi.  Died  in  1741. 

Locatelli,  (LuiGl,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Ber 
gamo,  invented  the  "balm  of  Lucatel."  Died  in  1637. 

Locatelli  or  Lucatelli,  (Pi F.TKO,)  a  historical  painter, 
born  in  the  Roman  States.  lie  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1690. 

Locatelli,  (PIETKO,)  an  Italian  violinist,  born  at  Ber 
gamo  in  1693  ;  died  in  1764. 

Locceilius,  lok-sa'ne-iis,  (JoHAN,)  a  Swedish  histo 
rian,  born  in  Holstein  about  1598.  Queen  Christina  gave 
him  the  title  of  historiographer  of  Sweden.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (1654,)  and  several  works 
on  law.  Died  in  1677. 

See  M.  STEUCH,  "  Memoria  J.  Locceuii,"  1678;  OLOF  A.  KNOES, 
"  Letvernes  Beskrifning  0111  J.  Loccenius,"  1807. 

Loch,  lok  or  loK,  ([AMES,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1780.  He  was  employed  as  auditor  by  the  Earl  of  Elles- 
mere  and  other  noblemen,  and  was  for  many  years  a 
Literal  member  of  Parliament.  He  published  a  "  Sta 
tistical  and  Historical  Account  of  the  County  of  Suther 
land."  Died  in  1855. 

Locher,  loK'er,  (JAKOB,)  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Suabia  in  1470,  was  surnamed  PHII.OMUSUS.  He  was 
crowned  poet-laureate  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  poem  on  Lazarus 
and  Dives,  and  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  (1501.)  Died 
in  1528. 

Lochner,  loK'ner,  (MICHAEL  FKIEDRICH,)  a  skilful 
German  physician  and  botanist,  born  near  Nuremberg 
in  1662  ;  died  in  1720. 

Lock,  (MATTHEW,)  an  excellent  English  composer, 
born  at  Exeter  about  1635.  Soon  after  the  restoration 
(1660)  he  received  the  title  of  composer-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.  He  is  called  the  first  English  composer  for 
the  stage.  Some  of  his  sacred  compositions  appeared  in 
the  "  Harmonia  Sacra."  His  chief  title  to  durable  fame 
is  the  admirable  "  Music  in  Macbeth."  Died  in  1677. 

See  BURNEY,  "  History  of  Music." 

Lock'art,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1675.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Scot 
land."  Died  in  1732. 

Locke,  lok,  [Lat.  LOC'KIUS,]  (JOHN,)  a  celebrated 
English  philosopher  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Wring- 
ton,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1632,  was 'the  son  of  Captain 
Locke,  who  served  in  the  parliamentary  army  during 
the  civil  war.  He  studied  at  Westminster  School,  and  in 
1651  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  soon  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  his  talents  and  acquirements.  He 
left  Oxford  with  no  very  favourable  views  of  the  system 
of  instruction  there  pursued.  He  had,  indeed,  been  far 
more  indebted  for  his  mental  culture  to  his  own  efforts 
than  to  the  skill  or  labour  of  his  tutors, 'and  was  himself 
an  example  of  that  self-teaching  which  in  his  writings 
he  so  strongly  recommends.  In  1665  Locke  accom 
panied,  as  secretary,  Sir  Walter  Vane,  royal  envoy  to 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  returned  to  England 
in  February,  and  soon  after  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
Lord  Ashley,  (afterwards  Shaftesbury,)  who  received  him 
into  the  number  of  his  most  intimate  and  confidential 
friends.  In  1672,  Shaftesbury  being  then  lord  chancellor, 
Locke  was  appointed  secretary  for  the  presentation 
of  benefices,  but  quitted  this  office  in  1673,  when  his 
patron,  having  quarrelled  with  the  court,  resigned  the 
great  seal.  In  1675  Locke  visited  the  south  of  Frame 
on  account  of  his  health.  He  resided  more  than  a  year 
at  Montpellier,  and  afterwards  spent  much  time  in  Pan's. 
He  returned  to  his  own  country  in  1679;  but,  Shaftes 
bury  having  been  compelled  by  his  enemies  to  leave 
England  towards  the  close  of  1682,  Locke  followed  him 
to  the  continent  in  1683,  and  passed  several  years  in 
Holland.  In  1688  he  returned  to  his  native  land  in 
the  same  fleet  that  conveyed  the  Princess  of  Orange  to 
England.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  he  was  offered  by  Lord 
Mordaunt  the  position  of  envoy  to  one  of  the  European 
courts  ;  but  he  declined  the  office  on  account  of  his 
feeble  health  :  he  accepted,  however,  the  post  of  com 
missioner  of  appeals,  which  yielded  him,  it  is  said, 


two  hundred  pounds  a  year, — no  inconsiderable  sum  for 
that  period.  The  asthmatic  affection  under  which  he 
had  been  suffering  for  many  years  having  become  more 
aggravated,  he  resigned,  in  1700,  his  position  under 'the 
government,  and  retired  to  Oates,  in  Essex.  Here  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  at  the  house  of  Sir 
Francis  Masham,  whose  accomplished  lady  was  the 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Cudworth.  He  died 
October  28,  1704. 

Locke  was  no  less  distinguished  for  his  virtues  and 
piety  than  for  his  extraordinary  intellectual  endowments. 
All  his  writings  may  be  said  to  have  had  for  their  object 
the  improvement  of  mankind  in  knowledge,  liberty,  and 
virtue.  Although  he  was  in  favour  of  the  utmost  free 
dom  of  investigation  in  regard  to  religious  as  well  as 
other  truths,  he  entertained  for  the  Holy  Scriptures  the 
profoundest  veneration.  To  a  friend  inquiring  the  best 
way  to  attain  a  true  knowledge  of  the  Christian  religion, 
he  answered,  "Study  the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially 
the  New  Testament :  therein  are  contained  the  words 
of  eternal  life.  It  has  God  for  its  author,  salvation  for 
its  end,  and  truth  without  any  mixture  of  error  for  its 
matter."  A  little  before  his  death,  while  acknowledging 
that  his  life,  on  the  whole,  had  been  a  happy  one,  he 
pronounced  all  sublunary  enjoyments  to  be  "vanity," 
and  earnestly  exhorted  his  friends  to  prepare  for  the 
endless  life  to  come.  He  extolled  the  goodness  of  God 
in  providing  for  the  salvation  of  mankind  through  faith 
in  Jesus  Christ,  and  expressed  particular  gratitude  that 
he  had  been  led  through  divine  goodness  to  the  know 
ledge  of  the  Saviour.  (See  a  letter  by  Coste,  the  French 
translator  of  the  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding," 
published  February,  1 7*05.)  As  a  controversialist,  Locke 
was  remarkable  not  only  for  the  clearness  and  cogency 
of  his  arguments,  but  also  for  the  perfect  fairness  and 
respect  with  which  he  treated  his  opponents.  His  con 
versation,  we  are  told,  was  a  "happy  union  of  wit  and 
good  sense  ;"  so  that  his  company  was  sought  by  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  that  period, — such  as 
Halifax,  Buckingham,  etc.  As  an  evidence  of  the  variety 
and  extent  of  his  attainments,  we  may  mention  that  the 
great  Sydenham,  alluding  to  Locke's  skill  in  medicine, 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "in  genius,  penetration,  and 
accurate  judgment  he  had  in  that  age  few  equals  and 
scarcely  any  superior."  From  the  character  of  Locke 
as  given  by  Le  Clerc,  which  he  assures  us  "  is  an  accu 
rate  and  by  no  means  flattered  description,"  we  take  the 
following:  "  He  was  a  profound  philosopher,  and  a  man 
fit  for  the  most  important  affairs.  He  had  much  know 
ledge  of  belles-lettres,  and  his  manners  were  very  polite 
and  particularly  engaging.  He  knew  something  of  almost 
everything  which  can  be  useful  to  mankind,  and  was 
thoroughly  master  of  all  that  he  had  studied  ;  but  he 
showed  his  superiority  by  not  appearing  to  value  himself 
in  any  way  on  account  of  his  great  attainments.  .  .  .  He 
was  very  charitable  to  the  poor,  provided  they  were  not 
the  idle  nor  the  profligate.  .  .  .  He  was  an  exact  ob 
server  of  his  word,  and  what  he  promised  was  sacred. 
He  was  scrupulous  about  recommending  people  whom 
he  did  not  know  ;  and  he  could  not  bring  himself  to 
praise  those  whom  he  did  not  think  worthy."  (See  "Life 
of  Locke,"  by  Lord  King,  pp.  267-271.) 

Locke's  great  work,  entitled  an  "  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding,"  was  first  published  in  1690,  (three  years 
after  the  appearance  of  Newton's  "  Pn'ncipia,")  although 
the  original  copy,  still  preserved  and  in  his  own  hand 
writing,  is  dated  1671, — an  evidence  of  his  great  caution 
(evinced  also  in  his  other  works)  with  respect  to  offering 
his  views  to  the   public.     The   leading   position  of  his 
essay  is  that  the  human  mind  has  no  innate  ideas,  and 
that  all  ideas,  with  their  various  combinations,  are  to  be 
j  referred  to  sensation  and  reflection.     His  other  publica 
tions  were, — three  "  Letters  on  Toleration,"  (1690-92,) 
'  a  "Treatise  on  Education,"  (1690,)  one  on  the  value  of 
|  money,  (1691,)  "The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity," 
I  (1695,)  a  m"st  and  second  Vindication  of  the  last-named 
work,  (1696,)  and  three  elaborate  letters  in  defence  of 
the    "  Essny   on    the    Human    Understanding"   against 
Stillingfleet,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  (1697-99.)     Locke's 
work  on  the  "Conduct  of  the  Human  Understanding," 
1  and  his  "  Discourse  on   Miracles,"  and  "  Commentaries 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as 2;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 


LOCKE 


1444 


LODER 


on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  were  published  after  his 
death." 

See  "Life  of  Locke,"  by  LORD  KING;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale ;"  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  article^"  Locke"  in  the 
'•Encyclopaedia  Briiannica  ;"  JEAN  LECI.ERC,  "  £loge  hislorique  cle 
feu  M.  Locke,"  1711  ;  "Memoirs  of  the  Lite  of  J.  Locke,"  1742; 
J.  G.  MELI.RING,  "Merita  J.  Lockii  in  Phiiosophiam,"  1702;  LlL- 
JENROTH,  "Dissertatio  Vitam  J.  Lockii  exponens,"  1793;  EDOUARO 
LABOUI.AYE,  "  Locke  Legislateur  de  la  Caroline,"  1850;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1854. 

Locke,  (Jonx,)  M.D.,  an  American  geologist,  born 
at  Fryeburg,  Maine,  in  1792.  lie  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Cincinnati  in  1836.  He  was  well  versed 
in  geology  and  natural  history.  Died  in  Cincinnati 
in  1856. 

Locke,  (JOSEPH,)  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
railway-engineer,  born  near  Sheffield  in  1805.  He  learned 
the  business  of  engineering  with  the  celebrated  George 
Stephenson.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  engineer 
of  the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  (of  whic.i  Birmingham 
is  one  of  the  termini,)  completed  in  1837.  The  London 
and  Southampton  Railway,  under  his  direction,  was 
opened  in  1840.  He  was  afterwards  employed  as  en 
gineer  of  the  railways  connecting  Paris  and  Rouen,  and 
Havre  and  Rouen,  in  France.  For  several  years  before 
his  death  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  Liberal  party.  Died  in  1860.  , 

See  "  Life  of  Joseph  Li  eke,"  by  J.  DEVEY,  1862. 
Lock'er,  (EmvARD  HAWKE,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Kent  in  1777.  He  was  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Exmouth  about  fifteen  years,  commencing  in  1800.  He 
was  one  of  the  projectors  and  editors  of  "The  Plain 
Englishman,"  a  useful  periodical  adapted  to  the  instruc 
tion  of  the  people.  He  also  published  "Lectures  on  the 
Bible  and  Liturgy."  Died  in  1849. 

Lockhart,  lok'art,  (Sir  GKOKGK,)  an  eminent  Scot 
tish  lawyer,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  William,  noticed  be 
low.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1656,  and  was 
appointed  lord  president  of  the  court  of  sessions  in  1685. 
He  was  murdered. in  Edinburgh  in  1689. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  ol  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Lockhart,  (GKOKGK,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  near  Edinburgh  in  1673.  He  was  a  zealous  and 
prominent  partisan  of  the  Pretender  about  the  time  of 
the  rebellion  of  1715.  lie  wrote  "Memoirs  concern 
ing  the  Affairs  of  Scotland,"  which  are  of  some  historical 
value.  Died  in  1731. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Lockhart,  (Jonx  GIHSON,)  a  distinguished  British 
author,  poet,  and  critic,  was  born  at  the  manse  of  Cam- 
busnethan,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1794.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who  removed  to  Glasgow 
while  the  subject  of  this  article  was  in  his  infancy.  As 
a  student  in  the  Glasgow  University  he  obtained  a  valua 
ble  bursary,  in  virtue  of  which  he  entered  Baliol  College, 
Oxford.  lie  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  Scottish 
bar  in  1816,  but  preferred  the  profession  of  literature. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  about  seven  years  after  it  was  first  estab 
lished,  in  1817.  He  advocated  Tory  principles  in  politi 
cal  articles  which  displayed  a  great  mastery  of  sarcasm 
and  invective.  In  1820  he  married  Sophia,  daughter  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  produced  in  1821  "Valerius,  a 
Roman  Story,"  which  is  much  admired,  and  was  fol 
lowed  by  "Reginald  Dalton,  a  Story  of  English  Univer 
sity  Life,"  (1823.)  About  this  time  he  published  elegant 
translations  of  "Ancient  Spanish  Ballads."  In  1825  01 
1826  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  editor  of  the 
"  Quarterly  Review,"  which  he  conducted  with  success 
until  1853,  and  for  which  he  wrote  many  excellent  criti 
cal  and  biographical  articles.  In  1843116  was  appointee" 
to  the  lucrative  office  of  auditor  of  the  duchy  of  Corn 
wall.  His  most  important  work  is  his  "Life  of  Sii 
Walter  Scott,"  (7  vols.,  1838,)  which  ranks  very  high  ii 
respect  to  literary  merit,  and  is  surpassed  in  interest 
by  few,  if  any,  biographies  in  the  English  language. 
He  also  published  a  "Life  of  Robert  Burns,"  (1825,' 
which  was  received  with  favour,  and  Lives  of  Theodore 
Hook  and  Napoleon  I.  His  manners  were  reserved 
and  even  chilling.  His  last  years  were  rendered  un 
happy  by  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  two  sons.  He  died  ii 
1854,  leaving  a  daughter,  who  was  the  only  surviving 


lescendant  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  when  she  was  married 
.o  Mr.  Hope. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
Supplement;)  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  by  HAKKIKT  MARTINEAU, 
London,  1869;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1864; 
'  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1830,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Lockhart,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  of  Lee,  an  able  British 
statesman,  born  in  1621.  He  fought  for  Charles  II., 
and  was  made  prisoner  at  Preston,  (1650.)  In  1652  he 
entered  the  civil  service  of  Cromwell,  and  in  1655  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He  com- 

nanded  the  British  at  the  siege  of  Dunkirk  in  1658,  and 
then  became  governor  of  that  place.     At  the  restoration 
of  1660  he   was  recalled.     Died   in    1675.     "He  was," 
says  Clarendon,  "a  man  of  great  address  in  treaty." 
SeeCnAMBKK.s,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 

'  North  British  Review"  for  February,  1862. 

Lockius.     See  LOCKK,  (JoiiN.) 
Lockmaii.     See  LOKMAN. 

Lock'man,  (|OHN,)  an  English  writer  on  various 
subjects,  born  in  1698;  died  in  1771. 

Lock'wood,  (IlKNKY  II.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kent  county,  Delaware,  about  1814,  graduated  at 
West  Point.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  United 
States  volunteers  in  August,  1861,  and  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 
Locmaii.  See  LOKMAN. 

Locie  de  Roissy,  lo'kua'  deli  uwa'se',  JEAN  Gtui.- 
LAUME,)  a  jurist,  born  of  a  French  family  at  Leipsic  in 
1758,  came  to  France  in  his  youth.  He  published  "The 
Spirit  of  the  Code  Napoleon,"  ("  Esprit  du  Code  Napo 
leon,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1806,)  and  "The  Civil,  Commercial, 
and  Criminal  Legislation  of  France,"  (31  vols.,  1826-32.) 
Died  in  1840. 

Loder,  lo'der,  ( JUSTUS  CHRISTIAN,)  an  anatomist, 
born  at  Riga  in  1753.  In  1809  the  Czar  Alexander  called 
him  to  Moscow  and  chose  him  for  his  first  physician. 
He  published  "Anatomical  Plates,"  ("Tabula;  Ana- 
tomicae,"  1794,)  with  explicative  text,  a  work  of  great 
merit.  Died  in  Moscow  in  1832. 

See  MEUSKI.,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Lodge,  (Ei>MUM>,)  an  English  herald  and  biographer, 
born  in  London  in  1756.  lie  became  Norroy  king-at- 
arms  in  1822,  and  Clarenceux  king-at-arms  in  1838.  He 
published  valuable  "Illustrations  of  British  History," 
(3  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages 
of  Great  Britain,"  (4  vols.,  1821-34,)  which  is  his  prin 
cipal  work.  It  was  republished  in  8  vols.,  1849.  In 
reference  to  it  Sir  Walter  Scott  remarked,  "It  is  impos 
sible  for  me  to  conceive  a  work  which  ought  to  be  more 
interesting  to  the  present  age  than  that  which  exhibits 
before  our  eyes  our  'fathers  as  they  lived,'  accompanied 
with  such  memorials  of  their  lives  and  characters  as 
enable  us  to  compare  their  persons  with  their  sentiments 
and  actions."  Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1792. 

Lodge,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist  and  versatile 
writer,  born  probably  about  1556.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  in  early  life  a  soldier  and  play-actor.  Ac 
cording  to  some  authorities,  he  practised  medicine  with 
success  in  London,  and  died  of  the  plague  in  1625.  He 
translated  Josephus  and  Seneca  into  English,  and  wrote 
successful  dramas,  novels,  and  other  works.  Among  his 
principal  productions  are  "The  Wounds  of  Civil  War," 
a  tragedy,  (1594,)  a  "  Looking-Glass  for  London  and 
England,"  (a  drama,  of  which  R.  Greene  was  joint  author,) 
and  "Rosalynde:  Euphues'  Golden  Legacie,"  (1590,)  a 
novel  which  furnished  the  incidents  of  Shakspeare's  "As 
You  Like  It."  Hal  lam  calls  him  one  of  the  best  poets 
of  the  age.  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  WOOD,  "Athense  Oxonienses  ;"  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Lodge,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
bom  at  Leeds  in  1649.  He  travelled  in  Italy  and  in  his 
native  country,  and  published  engravings  of  places,  etc. 
which  he  had  designed.  He  translated  into  English 
Barri's  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Italy,"  (1679,)  and  en 
graved  with  remarkable  skill  a  series  of  portraits  of 
eminent  persons.  Died  in  1689. 

Lodi,  (CALISTO  DA.)     See  PIAZZA,  (CALISTO.) 

Lo'dur,  [related  to  the  German  lodern,  to  "  blaze,"] 
one  of  the  gods  of  the  Norse  mythology,  who  assisted 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LOEBELL 


1445 


LOHAIA 


Odin  in  the  creation  of  mankind.  He  is  supposed  to 
typify  vital  warmth.  As  Loki  is  named  from  the  perni 
cious  qualities  of  fire,  so  Lodur  would  seem  to  represent 
its  beneficent  properties.  (See  LOKI,  also  HOENMK.) 

Loebell.     See  LOBKLL. 

Loebeii.     See  Lou  EN. 

Loefling.     See  LOFLING. 

Loehr.     See  LOHR. 

Loenurot.     See  LONNROT. 

Loescher.     See  LOSCHER. 

Loesel.     See  LOSEL. 

Loeve-Veimars,  lo'ev'  va'miR',  (FRANCOIS  ADOL- 
I'HE,)  BARON,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1801. 
He  published  translations  from  the  German,  tales,  cri 
tiques,  a  "History  of  Ancient  Literature,"  (1825,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1854. 

Loewen.    See  I  .OWEN. 

Loewenklau.     See  LK.UNCLAVIUS. 

Lofft,  (C.\PEL,)  an  English  writer  on  various  subjects, 
born  in  London  in  1751,  was  a  gentleman  and  lawyer. 
He  patronized  the  poet  Hloomfield,  advocated  the  abo 
lition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  wrote  political  pamphlets, 
dramas,  verses,  etc.  He  died  in  France  in  1824. 

Lofliug  or  Loefling,  lof/ling,  (PETER,)  a  Swedish 
botanist,  born  at  Tollforsbruch  in  1729.  He  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  by  whose  mediation  he  was 
appointed  botanist  to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1751.  He 
accompanied  as  naturalist  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
Spanish  government  to  South  America  in  1754.  After 
brief  explorations  of  the  districts  of  Cuniana  and  Guiana, 
he  died  in  1756.  His  "Excursion  in  Spain"  ("Iter  His- 
panicum")  was  published  in  1758  by  Linnaeus. 

Lofn,  lofn,  or  Lov'ua,  [from /#/",  "praise,"  also 
"  leave,"  "  favour  :"  compare  the  German  Lob  and  Ver- 
laub,\'m  the  Norse  mythology,  a  goddess,  who  is  espe 
cially  favourable  to  lovers,  by  whom  she  is  principally 
worshipped.  Power  is  given  to  her  to  unite  those  who 
love  each  other,  whatever  obstacles  may  stand  in  the 
way.  From  a  root  cognate  with  her  name  the  Swedes 
derive  their  fdrlofva  and  the  Germans  their  verloben, 
signifying  to  "betroth." 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology;"  MALI.ET,  "Northern 
Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fable  XVIII. 

Lof'tus,  (DUDLEY,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  versed  in  Orien 
tal  lore,  was  born  near  Dublin  in  1618.  He  became  a 
master  in  chancery  and  a  judge  of  the  prerogative  court. 
He  translated  several  works  from  the  Syriac,  and  made 
the  Latin  version  of  the  /"Kthiopic  New  Testament  which 
was  published  in  Walton's  Polyglot.  Died  in  1695. 

Lof'tus,  ( WILLIAM  KENNETT,)  an  English  archaeolo 
gist,  born  at  Rye  about  1820.  He  explored  the  sites  of 
ancient  cities  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  pub 
lished  a  valuable  work  entitled  "Travels  and  Researches 
in  Chaldaea  and  Susiana,"  etc.,  (1857.)  Died  in  1858. 

Lo'gan,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Cayugas,  whose  original  name  was  Tah-gah-jute,  was 
born  about  1725.  His  family  having  been  murdered 
by  a  party  of  white  men,  he  avenged  himself  by  waging 
a  destructive  war  on  the  Western  settlers,  in  which  the 
Indians  were  at  length  defeated.  He  was  killed  in  1780 
in  a  skirmish  with  a  party  of  Indians.  Logan's  regard 
for  the  whites  caused  him  to  be  called  by  his  country 
men  "the  P'riend  of  the  White  Man."  A  granite  monu 
ment  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Fair  Hill  Cemetery, 
near  Auburn,  in  Cavuga  countv,  New  York. 

Logan,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  physician  and  philan 
thropist,  born  near  Philadelphia  in  1753,  was  a  grandson 
of  James  Logan,  noticed  below.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  peace,  and  went  to  France  in  1798  in  order 
to  prevent  a  war  between  France  and  America.  He 
represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  from  1801  to  1807.  He  acted  with  the  Repub 
licans,  and  was  denounced  by  the  Federalists  for  his 
voluntary  services  in  France.  Died  in  1821. 

Lo'gan,  (JAMES,)  a  colonial  statesman  and  author, 
born  at  Lurgan,  Ireland,  in  1674,  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  master  of  the  Greek,  Latin. 
French,  and  German  languages.  In  1699  he  accompanied 
William  Penn  to  America  as  his  secretary.  Under  the 
patronage  of  William  Penn  he  was  much  employed  in 
public  affairs.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  pro 


vince  in  1701,  after  which  he  became  chief  justice  and 
president  of  the  council.  He  acted  as  Governor  about 
two  years  after  the  death  of  Governor  Gordon,  in  1736. 
Among  his  works  is  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  generation 
of  plants,  "  Experimenta  et  Meletemata  de  Plantarum 
Generatione,"  (1739.)  He  produced  a  good  version  of 
Cicero  "  De  Senectute,"  (1744.)  He  collected  a  library 
of  about  3000  volumes,  which  is  known  under  the  name  of 
the  Loganian  Library  and  is  included  in  the  Philadelphia 
Library.  Died  near  Philadelphia  in  October,  1751. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  James  Logan,"  by  W.  ARMISTEAD. 

Lo'gan,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  poet,  born  at 
Soutra  in  1748.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  Leith  in 
1773,  and  became  an  eloquent  and  popular  preacher. 
He  delivered  in  Edinburgh  lectures  "On  the  Philosophy 
of  History,"  which  were  published  in  1781.  In  this  year 
he  published  a  volume  of  admired  poems,  chiefly  lyrical, 
among  which  is  an  "Ode  to  the  Cuckoo."  Having  given 
offence  to  his  church  by  writing  "  Runnimede,"  a  tragedy, 
(1783,)  he  removed  to  London  in  1785.  There  he  wrote 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Review  of  the  Charges  against 
Warren  Hastings,"  advocating  the  cause  of  Hastings. 
It  led  to  the  celebrated  trial  of  Stockdale,  his  publisher. 
Died  in  1788.  His  sermons  were  published  in  1790,  and 
are  highly  esteemed. 

See  "  Life  of  Logan,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  poems,  1805 ; 
CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Logan,  (JoHN  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Jackson  county,  Illinois,  in  February,  1826.  He  studied 
law,  which  he  practised  with  success  until  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Democrats  of  the  ninth 
district  of  Illinois,  in  1858.  In  1860  he  was  again  elected 
to  Congress.  Having  raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers, 
he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  same  in  September, 

1861,  and   was  wounded  at  Fort  Donelson,   February, 

1862.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  March,  1862, 
and  a  major-general  about  the  end  of  that   year.     He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign  against  Vicks- 
burg  which  ended  July  4,  1863.     In  October,  1863,  he 
obtained  command   of  the   fifteenth   army  corps,   with 
which  he  contributed  to  the  victories  gained  by  Sherman 
between  Chattanooga  and  Atlanta,  after  McPherson  was 
killed.     He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Tennessee  in  a 
battle  near  Atlanta,  July  22,  1864.     He  also  led  a  corps 
of  Sherman's  army  in  the  march  from  Savannah  through 
South  Carolina  and   North   Carolina  in  February  and 
March,  1865.     He  was  one  of  the  most  successful  of  the 
civilian  or  political  generals  in  the  civil  war.     In  1866 
he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Radical.     He  was  one 
of  seven  members  elected  March  2,  1868,  as  managers 
to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.     He 
was  again  elected  to  Congress  in  1868. 

Logan,  (Sir  WILLIAM  EDMOND,)  a  distinguished  geol 
ogist,  born  at  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1798.  About  1842 
he  was  appointed  to  superintend  a  geological  survey  of 
Canada.  He  received  the  gold  medal  of  honour  at  the 
Paris  Industrial  Exhibition  of  1855,  and  in  1856  the 
i  Wollaston  palladium  medal. 

Logau,  von,  fon  lo'gow,  (FRIEDRICH,)  KARON,  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born  in  Silesia  in  1604.  He  passed  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz, 
and  died  in  1655,  leaving  a  great  number  of  epigrams, 
which  were  highly  praised  by  Lessing  and  are  remark 
able  for  irony  and  pathos. 

Loges,  des,  di  lozh,  MADAME,  a  Protestant  French 
lady,  whose  maiden  name  was  MARIE  BRUNEAT,  (bRii'- 
no'J  was  born  at  Sedan  about  1584.  Her  house  in  Paris 
was  frequented  by  Malherbe  and  other  eminent  wits, 
attracted  by  the  charm  of  her  conversation.  Died  in  1641. 

Log'gan,  (I)AVID,)  an  eminent  engraver  and  designer, 
born  at  Dantzic  about  1635.  He  became  a  resident  of 
London,  where  he  published  Engravings  of  the  Colleges 
of  Oxford,  ("Oxonia  Illustrata,")  and  similar  illustra 
tions  of  those  of  Cambridge.  After  the  restoration  of 
1660,  he  engraved  portraits  of  Charles  II.,  and  of  many 
dukes,  earls,  prelates,  etc.  of  his  time.  Died  in  1693. 

See  STRI-TT,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Lohaia,  Ibn,  ib'n  lo-hi'a,  or  Ibn-Lahia,  Ib'n  la-hee'a, 
a  Moslem  doctor,  born  about  710  A.D.  He  was  appointed 
Cadee  of  Egypt  in  771,  and  died  about  790.  The  tra 
ditions  transmitted  through  him  are  of  great  authority 


c  3&k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  giittnral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (25f=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOHEXSTEIN 


LOKI 


among  Egyptians.  Silvestre  de  Sacy  attaches  importance 
to  the  historical  traditions  derived  from  him. 

Lohenstein,  von,  ton  U/en-stin',  (DANIEL  CASPAR,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Nimptsch,  in  Silesia,  in  1635. 
He  founded  a  literary  school  which  corrupted  the  na 
tional  taste,  and  wrote  tragedies  and  other  poems.  "  He 
was  always  tumid,"  says  Hullam,  "and  striving  at  some 
thing  elevated,  so  that  the  '  Lohenstein  swell'  became  a 
byword  with  later  critics."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera 
ture  of  Europe.")  Died  in  1683. 

See  PASSOW,  "  D.  C.  von  Lohenstein,  seine  Tnuierspiele,"  etc., 
1852. 

Lohr  or  Loehr,  IOR,  (JOHANN  ANDREAS  CHRISTIAN,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1764,  published 
several  popular  works  for  children.  Died  in  1823. 

Lohurasp,  lo'hoo-rSsp',  written  also  Lohrasp,  a 
Persian  king,  who  was  (according  to  the  "  Shah  Nameh") 
the  father  of  Gushtasp.  He  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
about  550  li.C.  According  to  the  Arabian  chronicles, 
his  army  took  Jerusalem. 

See  J.  ATKINSON'S  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Fir- 
dausi,"  London,  1832. 

Loir,  IwaR,  ( NICOLAS  PIKRRE,  )  a  skilful  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1624.  After  a  visit  to  Rome, 
he  returned  in  1649,  was  received  as  Academician  in 
1663,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  him 
a  pension  of  four  thousand  francs.  lie  worked  with 
facility,  and  was  successful  in  history  and  landscapes. 
The  picture  of  "Cleobis  and  Biton  drawing  the  Chariot 
of  their  Mother"  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  etched 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  his  own  and  of 
other  artists.  Died  in  1679. 

His  brother  ALEXIS,  born  about  1640,  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver.  He  engraved  several  works 
of  Ponssin,  Lebrun,  etc.  Died  at  Paris  in  1713. 

See  NAGI.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kunsder-Lexikon." 

Loiseau  de  Mauleon,  Iwa'xo'  deh  mo'la'As',  (ALKX- 
ANDRE  JEROME,)  an  eloquent  French  advocate,  born  in 
Paris  in  1728.  lie  was  a  friend  of  Rousseau,  who  ad 
vised  him  to  defend  good  causes  exclusively.  "  He  fol 
lowed  my  counsel,"  says  Rousseau,  "  and  has  found  the 
advantage  of  it.  His  defence  of  M.  de  Portes  is  worthy 
of  Demosthenes."  Died  in  1771. 

See  ROUSSEAU,  "Confessions." 

Loisel,  Iwa'zeV,  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Beauvais  in  1536.  He  wrote,  besides  other  legal  works, 
"Institutes  coutumieres,"  (1607,)  a  treatise  on  common 
law.  Died  in  1617. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  Iwaz'lUR'da'ldN'shd.N', 
(AuousTE  Louis  AKMAND,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1805,  gave  special  attention  to  the  Sanscrit. 
His  most  important  work  is  "The  Book  of  the  Laws  of 
Manu,"  ("  Manava-Dharma-Sastra,"  1832.)  Died  in  1840. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  (JEAN  Louis  Au- 
GUSTE,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Dreux  in  1775,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  a  diploma  as 
physician  in  1805.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Flora  Gal- 
lica,"  (2  vols.,  1806-7,)  and  "  Le  Nouveau  Duhamel,"  or 
"Treatise  on  Trees  and  Shrubs  cultivated  in  the  Open 
Air  in  France,"  (7  vols.,  1812-19.)  Died  in  1849. 

See  LECLERC,  "filoge  de  M.  Loiseleur-Deslongchanips,"  1851. 

Loison,  lwa'z6Nr,  (Louis  HENRI,)  a  French  general 
of  division,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1770,  received  the 
grand  cross  of  honour  for  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz, 
(1805.)  Died  in  1816. 

Lojsalfar.     See  ELVES. 

Lok  or  Loke.     See  LOKI. 

Loki,  lo'ke,  or  Loke,  lo'keh,  written  also  Lok,  [from 
the  old  Norse  logi,  (Ger.  Lo/ie,}  "flame,"  allied  to  the 
Latin  luc-eo,  to  "shine,"  and  to  the  Scottish  lug,  "fire;" 
probably  so  named  because  he  united  the  subtlety  and 
untrustworthiness  (or  treachery)  of  fire  with  its  destroy 
ing  properties,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  god  of  evil 
and  deceit,  corresponding  in  the  main  with  the  Ahriman 
of  the  Zoroastrians.  He  is  of  Jotim  (giant)  descent,  but 
was  received  among  the  gods,  and  in  the  beginning  was 
a  foster-brother  of  Odin.  From  his  association  with  the 
/Esir,  he  is  often  styled  ASA-LOKI  or  ASALOKE.  He  is 
called  by  various  appellations  ;  among  others,  the  Slan 
derer  or  Accuser, — epithets  exactly  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  6iu8oAo<;,  (Latin  Diab'olus.}  He  is  the  enemy  and 


mocker,  as  well  as  tempter,  of  gods  and  men.  As  proof 
of  his  subtlety,  he  often  changed  his  sex,  assuming  on 
different  occasions  the  form  of  a  mare,  a  cow,  an  old 
woman,  etc.,  as  well  as  that  of  the  gods.  The  /Esir  often 
made  use  of  his  cunning  and  strength  ;  but  still  more 
frequently  they  had  cause  to  rue  those  very  powers  em 
ployed  against  themselves.  Professor  Petersen  furnishes 
perhaps  the  most  philosophical  and  most  satisfactory 
account  of  Loki  and  his  various  attributes  that  can  any 
where  be  found.  Among  other  things,  he  observes  that 
"Asaloke  forms  an  antagonism  (modstztning)  to  all  the 
other  gods.  He  is  the  [principle  of]  evil  exerting  itself 
in  every  direction.  He  runs  in  the  veins  of  mankind  as 
sensuality.  He  is  the  destructive  [power)  of  nature  in 
air,  in  fire,  and  in  water.  In  the  bosom  of  the  earth  [he 
shows  himself]  as  volcanic  fire;  in  the  sea  as  a  devour 
ing  serpent ;  in  the  lower  world  (underverden)  as  pale 
Death.  He  is  not  confined  to  any  one  part  of  nature, 
but,  like  Odin,  pervades  it  all.  .  .  .  And  all  that  he  is 
in  [external]  nature,  the  same  is  he  in  the  mind  of  man  : 
shrewdness,  but  also  cunning  and  falsehood  at  the  same 
time  ;  spirit,  but  likewise  craft,  deceit,  and  malice.  .  .  . 
And  in  each  of  these  forms  he  continually  becomes  worse 
and  worse  ;  according  to  the  old  proverb,  that  '  every 
thing  grows  worse  as  it  grows  older.'  "  ("  Nordisk  My- 
thologi,"  pp.  355-6.) 

Through  the  deceitful  malice  of  Loki,  Balder,  the 
beautiful  and  good,  was  slain  by  the  hand  of  his  blind 
brother  Hoder.  (See  BALDER.)  By  the  female  Jotun 
Angurboda,  Loki  was  the  father  of  the  wolf  Fenrir,  of 
the  World-Serpent,  (or  Midgard's  Ormr,)  and  of  Ilela, 
the  goddess  of  death.  He  is  also  fabled  to  have  been  (by 
a  change  of  sex)  the  dam  of  the  horse  Sleipnir.  The 
/Esir,  exasperated  on  account  of  the  death  of  Balder, 
determined  at  length  to  take  vengeance  on  Loki.  He 
had  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  there  built  himself  a 
house  which  was  open  on  four  sides,  whence  he  could 
see  everything  that  happened  throughout  the  world.  By 
day  he  often  transformed  himself  into  a  salmon,  and  hid 
himself  in  a  waterfall.  The  gods,  learning  his  hiding. 
place,  attempted  to  catch  him  with  a  net ;  he  sprang 
over  the  net,  but  Thor  caught  him  by  the  tail.  This  is 
the  reason,  we  are  told,  why  the  salmon  has  so  thin  and 
pointed  a  tail.  Having  thus  captured  Loki,  the  gods 
bound  him  with  magic  cords  to  three  sharp  stones.  A 
venomous  snake  was  then  hung  above  his  head,  so  that 
the  poison  might  continually  drip  on  his  face.  But  his 
faithful  wife  Sigyn  (sig'in)  stands  by  him  and  catches  the 
falling  venom  in  a  cup.  When  the  cup  is  full,  while  she 
is  emptying  it  the  poison  falls  upon  his  face,  which  makes 
him  howl  with  anguish  and  writhe  his  body  so  that  the 
whole  earth  trembles.  Loki  will  break  loose  from  his 
bonds  at  Ragnarock,*  (the  "  twilight  or  evening  of  the 
gods,")  when  he  will  become  the  leading  spirit  among 
the  enemies  of  the  /Esir.  He  is  not  only  the  leader  of 
Fenrir  and  the  other  progeny  of  evil,  but  he  is  said 
to  steer  the  fatal  ship  Naglfar  which  conveys  the  sons 
of  Muspel  over  the  ocean.  In  the  final  conflict  he  will 
encounter  Heimdall,  and  they  will  slay  each  other.  Frey 
falls  under  the  sword  of  Surt.  Tyr  slays  and  is  slain  by 
the  dog  Garni.  Odin  is  devoured  by  the  wolf  Fenrir, 
which  in  turn  is  killed  by  Vidar.  Thor  slays  the  world- 
serpent,  but  dies  immediately  afterwards  from  the  effects 
of  its  venom.  Then  Surt  scatters  fire  over  the  earth, 
and  the  whole  world  is  consumed.  (See  FENRIR.)  We 
are  told,  however,  that  this  destruction  is  not  to  last 
forever.  A  new  earth,  forever  green  and  beautiful,  will 
rise  out  of  the  sea.  Vali  and  Vidar  (the  slayer  of  Fen 
rir)  will  survive  the  conflagration,  and  will  be  joined  by 
Modi  and  Magni,  the  sons  of  Thor  and  Balder,  and 
Hoder  will  return  from  the  realms  of  Mela.  The  sun 
before  her  destruction  bore  a  daughter  more  beautiful 
than  herself.  As  successor  to  her  mother,  she  will  pursue 
her  appointed  path  through  the  renovated  world.  A  new 
race  shall  fill  the  earth,  and  all  evil  come  to  an  end. 

See  KEYSER,  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by  PEN- 
NOCK,  pp.  101-104 ;  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  MAL 
LET,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fable  XV 1.,  also  XXX.  tc 
XXXIII.  inclusive;  PETEKSEN,  "Nordisk  Mythologi." 


*  Derived,  according  to  Keyser,  from  Regin,  the  "  ruling  powers," 
and  hence  "gods,"  and  Rokkr,  "darkness,"  also  "twilight." 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LOKMAN 


'447 


LOMBARDUS 


Lokman  or  Locman,  lok'mai/,  written  also  Loq- 
man,  an  ancient  Arabian  sage,  celebrated  for  his  wis 
dom,  and  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a.  collection  of 
popular  Oriental  fables.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  Koran, 
and  is  regarded  as  a  contemporary  of  David  and  Solo 
mon.  One  Arabian  writer  tells  us  that  Lokman  (who  is 
called  "  the  oldest  sage")  was  an  Abyssinian  slave  be 
longing  to  an  Israelite  in  the  time  of  King  David,  and 
that  he  was  a  tailor  by  trade.  Another  writer  says  he 
had  read  more  than  10,000  wise  sayings  and  maxims,  but 
none  finer  than  those  of  Lokman.  It  is  related  that 
Lokman,  being  asked  whence  he  had  learned  his  wisdom, 
replied,  "From  the  blind,  who  do  not  set  down  their 
feet  until  they  know  the  place  ;"  and  when  asked  from 
whom  he  had  learned  good  manners,  lie  said,  "  From 
the  ill-mannered,  because  I  avoid  everything  offensive 
in  them."  Coincident  traditions  suggest  the  possible,  if 
not  probable,  identity  of  Lokman  and  yEsop.  "Many 
passages  of  his  history,"  says  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  "seem 
evidently  borrowed  from  the  life  of  yEsop."  "  Nothing 
in  his  fables  is  characteristic  of  Arabian  genius;  and 
they  have  received  the  name  of  Lokman  only  because 
he  was  renowned  for  wisdom."  They  were  edited  and 
translated  into  Latin  by  Erpenius  in  1615. 

See  HAMMER-PURUSTAU.,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber," 
vol.  i.  p.  31  et  seq. 

Lola  Montez,  lo'la  mon'tez,  (MARIA  DOLORES  POR- 
Ris  GILBERT,)  a  famous  female  adventurer,  was  born 
about  1820,  at  Limerick.  At  an  early  age  she  made  her 
debut  at  Paris  as  a  danseuse,  and  by  her  beauty  and 
genius  attracted  many  admirers.  About  1846  she  went 
to  Munich,  where  she  captivated  the  king,  Louis,  who 
gave  her  the  title  of  Countess  of  Lansfeld.  After  several 
ministers  had  been  discarded  by  her  influence,  her 
enemies  prevailed  in  1848,  and  she  retired  from  Bavaria. 
She  was  afterwards  married  twice,  and  lived  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  where  she  lectured  with  success 
in  various  cities.  She  published  a  volume  of  lectures, 
and  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  work  called  "The  Arts 
of  Beauty,  or  Secrets  of  a  Lady's  Toilet."  She  died  in 
New  York  in  1861. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1848. 

Loli,  lo'lee,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1612,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
Reni.  His  most  admired  works  are  etchings,  after  Guido, 
Sirani,  etc.  Died  in  1691. 

Lol'lard  or  Lol'hard,  (WALTER,)  a  person  of  whom 
we  have  little  information,  except  that  he  was  burned 
to  death  as  a  heretic  at  Cologne  in  1322.  His  followers 
or  fellow-believers,  called  "  Lollards,"  were  a  numerous 
sect  in  England  many  years  after  his  death.  Their  doc 
trines  appear  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  Prot 
estants.  The  term  Lollard  was  applied  to  the  disciples 
of  Wickliffe  by  their  opponents.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
V.  (1414)  the  Lollards  were  persecuted,  and  revolted 
without  success.  (See  COBHAM,  LORD.) 

Lolli,  lol'lee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  violinist,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1728;  died  in  1802. 

Lol'li-a  Pau-li'na,  a  Roman  empress,  whose  beauty 
captivated  Caligula.  She  was  married  to  him  in  38  A.D., 
but  was  soon  discarded  by  the  capricious  emperor.  She 
was  put  to  death  in  49  A.n.  by  the  order  of  Agrippina, 
who  was  prompted  to  this  act  by  jealousy. 

Lol-li-a'rms,  [Ao/./<avof,]  a  Greek  sophist  and  writer 
on  rhetoric,  born  at  Ephesus,  lectured  at  Athens  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  (117-138  A.n.) 

See  KAVSF.R,  "  P.  Hordeonius  Lollianus  gescliildert,"  etc.,  1841. 

Lollio,  lol'le-o,  (Al.HERTO,)  an  Italian  orator  and 
poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1508.  He  published  elegant 
orations  and  letters,  and  several  poems,  among  which  is 
"  Arethusa,"  a  pastoral  drama,  (1563.)  Died  in  1568. 

Lol'li-us,  (M.,)  a  Roman  general  in  the  service  of 
Augustus.  lie  was  defeated  in  Gaul  by  the  Germans  in 
16  B.C.  Died  in  3  A.n. 

Lolme.     See  DE  LOLME. 

Loni'ax,  (JOHN  TAYLOR,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Caroline  county,  Virginia,  in  1781,  was  appointed  in 
1826  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Virginia. 

Lomazzo,  lo-mat'so,  (GIOVANNI  PAOLO,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  able  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1538.  He  was  appointed  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  keeper 


of  his  vast  gallery  of  pictures  in  Florence.  He  was 
versed  in  belles-lettres  and  various  sciences,  and  ac 
quired  a  profound  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge 
of  the  fine  arts.  Having  become  blind  in  the  prime  of 
life,  he  composed  his  "Trattato  della  Pittura,"  (1584,) 
"  the  most  complete  treatise  on  painting,"  says  the  "  Bio 
graphic  Universelle,"  "  that  has  hitherto  appeared."  His 
praises  were  sung  by  the  first  Italian  poets  of  his  time. 
He  also  published  "Idea  (or  Image)  of  the  Temple  of 
Painting,"  ("Idea  del  Tempio  della  Pittura,"  1591.) 
Died  about  1600. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Paint'n.z  in  Ita'y;"  WINCKELMANN, 
"  Neues  Mnhler-Lexikon  ;"  TICOZZI,  "Dizionaiio." 

Lombard,  lo.x'ba'R',  (CLAUDE  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Dole  in  1741;  died  in  1811. 

Lombard,  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  French  artillerist,  bom 
at  Strasburg  in  1723,  was  learned  in  languages,  etc.  He 
published  a  translation  of  Robins's  "  Principles  of  Ar 
tillery,"  (1783,)  and  other  esteemed  works  on  gunnery. 
Died  in  1794. 

Lombard,  lom/baut,  (JoiiANN  WILIIELM,)  a  Prus 
sian  politician,  born  at  Berlin  about  1767.  He  was  ap 
pointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  about  1800.  He 
favoured  the  P'rench  interest  by  promoting  the  neutrality 
in  which  Prussia  persisted  until  1806.  Died  in  1812. 

Lombard,  loN'baV,  |Lat.  LOMHAR'D;:S]  (LAMBERT,) 
an  excellent  Flemish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Liege 
about  1500.  He  studied  in  Italy  under  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
and  returned  to  his  native  city.  In  his  school  of  design 
were  formed  several  eminent  artists,  among  whom  was 
Frans  Floris.  His  style  is  Italian.  Among  his  master 
pieces  is  an  oil-painting  of  the  "Last  Supper."  Died  in 

1565- 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  tlie  Painters;"  DOMINICUS  LAMI'.SONIUS, 
(or  LAMPSON.)  "  Lamberti  Lombard!  apud  EbnronesPictoris  celeber- 
rimi  Vita,"  1565. 

Lombard,  (TuEonoRE,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  An- 
nonay  in  1609  ;  died  about  1770. 

Lombard  de  Langres,  loN'bitR'  deh  loNgR,  (VIN 
CENT,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Langres  about  1765. 
He  wrote  "Neslie,"  (1798,)  and  other  poems,  and  "Me 
moirs  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (2  vols.,  1823.)  Died 
in  1830. 

Lombard!,  lom-baR'dee,  (ALFONSO,)  an  Italian  sculp 
tor,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1487.  He  had  an  excellent 
talent  for  portraits.  Among  his  works  were  portraits  of 
Bembo,  Ariosto,  and  Charles  V.,  and  a  group  in  terra 
cotta  representing  the  "Death  of  the  Virgin."  Died 
in  1536. 

See  G.  BARUFFALUI,  "Vita  di  A.  Lombardi,"  i83q :  VASARI, 
"Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  CICOGNARA,  "Storia  della 
Scultura." 

Lombardi,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Rimini,  became  a  Protestant,  and  a  professor  of  philoso- 
phv  and  medicine  at  Marburg,  where  he  died  in  1669. 

Lombardi,  (GIOVANNI  DOMENICO.)  called  L'(.)MINO, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1682  ;  died  in  1752. 

Lombardi,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Ferrara,  lived  about  1550.  He  was  employed,  under  the 
direction  of  Sansovino,  on  the  church  of  San  Marco, 
Venice. 

Lombardi,  (GIROLAMO,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born 
at  Verona  in  1707  ;  died  in  1792. 

Lombardo,  lom-baR'do,  (PIETRO,)  a  Venetian  archi 
tect  and  sculptor.  He  made  the  monument  raised  to 
Dante  at  Ravenna  in  1482,  and  designed  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  de'  Miracoli  at  Venice.  Among  his  works  is 
the  tower  for  the  clock  on  the  Piazza  San  Marco.  Died 
about  1520.  His  sons  ANTONIO  and  TULLIO  were  able 
sculptors  and  architects.  The  latter  designed  the  church 
of  San  Salvator,  Venice.  His  finest  works  as  a  sculptor 
were  two  marble  bas-reliefs  in  the  Chapel  del  Santo  at 
Padua.  Died  in  1559. 

See  CICOC;NARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Lombardo,  (SANTE,)  an  architect  and  sculptor,  born 
at  Venice  in  1504,  was  a  nephew  of  Tullio.  Among  his 
works  was  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco  at  Venice.  Died 
in  1560. 

Lombardo,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Lugano,  lived  about  1530. 

Lombardus.     See  LOMBARD,  (LAMBERT.) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (SJjT^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOME  ART 


1448 


LONDONDERRY 


Lombart,  lA.x'btR',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1612.  Among  his  works  are  twelve 
portraits,  after  Van  Dyck,  a  "  Nativity,"  after  Poussin, 
and  a  "  Penitent  Magdalene,"  after  Titian.  Died  in  1682. 
Lombert,  lox'baiR',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  translator, 
born  in  Paris,  was  an  associate  of  the  Port-Royalists. 
He  produced  French  versions  of  the  works  of  Saint 
Cyprian,  (2  vols.,  1672,)  and  of  Saint  Augustine's  "City 
of  God,"  (2  vols.,  1675.)  Died  in  1710. 

Lomeier,  lo'mi'er,  written  also  Lomeir,  (JAN,)  a 
learned  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Zutphen  in  1636.  He 
became  minister  of  the  church  in  that  town  in  1674,  and 
professor  of  belles-lettres  there  in  1686.  He  published 
a  curious  treatise  "On  Libraries,"  ("  De  Bibliothecis," 
1669,)  and  a  work  on  ancient  history  and  philology,  en 
titled  "Dierum  Genialium."  Died  in  1699. 
See  SAX,  "  Onoinasticon." 

Lomeni,  lo-ma/nee,  (ToNA/.io,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
rural  economy,  born  at  Milan  in  1779;  died  in  1838. 

Lomenie,  de,  deli  lo'ma'ne',  (HENRI  AUGUSTE,) 
Count  de  Brienne,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1594.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  obtained  the  reversion 
of  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  which  his  father  had 
held.  In  1624  he  was  sent  to  England  to  draw  up  the 
articles  of  the  marriage  between  Henrietta  of  France 
and  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  retired  from  office  in  1661, 
and  died  in  i66'>. 

Lomenie,  de,  (Louis  HENRI,)  Count  de  Brienne,  the 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1635.  About  the  age 
of  twenty-six  he  resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory.  lie  wrote 
poems,  memoirs,  and  other  works,  which  have  some 
literary  merit.  He  was  expelled  from  the  order  of  the 
Oratory  for  eccentric  or  improper  conduct,  and  was 
deranged  many  years.  Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Memoires  de  L.  H.  de  Lomenie,"  2  vols.,  1720. 
Lomenie,  de,  (Louis  LEONARD,)  a  French  author, 
born  in  Haute-Vienne  in  1818.  He  began  his  literary 
career  by  a  series  of  biographies,  entitled  "Gallery  of 
Illustrious  Contemporaries,  by  a  Man  of  no  Account," 
{"  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illnstres,  par  nn  Homme 
de  Rien,"  10  vols.,  1840-47.)  which  procured  for  him  an 
honourable  reputation  for  good  taste,  discretion,  and 
other  merits.  Many  of  these  biographies  have  been 
published  separately.  Among  his  works  is  "  Beaumar- 
chais  and  his  Times  :  Studies  on  French  Society,"  (2 
vols.,  18^5.) 

Lomenie  de  Brienne,  de,  deh  lo'ma'ne'  deli  bRe'e'i/, 
(£TIKNNE  Cll  \RI.ES,)  a  French  cardinal  and  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  1727.  He  was  appointed  Arch 
bishop  of  Toulouse  in  176^.  In  1770  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  In  May,  1787,  he  succeeded 
Calonne  as  contrdleur-ghtfral  Q{  finances,  without  abili 
ties  adequate  to  the  crisis.  An  exciting  contest  arose 
between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  which  j 
was  exiled  from  the  capital  and  deprived  of  political  : 
power.  In  1788  he  was  invested  with  the  title  of  prime 
minister  and  made  Archbishop  of  Sens.  In  this  year, 
yielding  to  the  importunate  appeals  of  the  people,  then 
in  a  state  of  great  excitement,  he  convoked  the  States- 
General  for  May,  1789.  Having  been  so  unsuccessful  as 
a  financier  that  he  was  compelled  to  suspend  payments, 
he  was  dismissed  on  the  241)1  of  August,  1788.  and  Necker 
becanie  premier.  He  was  one  of  those  in  the  new  regime 
who  took  the  oath  as  a  constitutional  bishop.  Died  in 
1794- 

Set-  DROZ.  "  Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Lomi,  lo'inee,  (ARTEMISIA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Pisa  in  1590,  was  a  daughter  of  Orazio  Lomi,  and  a 
pupil  of  Guido.  She  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait- 
painter,  and  painted  some  historical  works,  among  which 
is  "Judith  and  Holofernes."  She  died  in  London  or 
Naples  about  1644. 

Lomi,  (AiiREi.io,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pisa  in 
1556,  is  called  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  school  of  Pisa. 
He  painted  frescos  and  oil-paintings  in  Rome,  Genoa, 
Florence,  Pisa,  etc.  Among  his  admired  works  are  a 
Saint  Jerome  and  "Adoration  of  the  Magi."  Died  in  1622. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  BALDINUCCI,  "  No- 
l-.zie." 


Lomi,  (BACCIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Pisa,  lived  about  1570-1600.  He 
worked  at  Pisa  with  success,  and  founded  a  school. 

Lomi,  (ORAZIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  GENTI- 
LESCHI,  a  brother  of  Aurelio,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Pisa  about  1563.  He  worked  in  Rome,  where  he  was 
employed  by  Agostino  Tassi  to  paint  figures.  About 
1623  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Repose  in 
Egypt,"  and  an  "Assumption."  Died  in  London  in  1646. 

Lomm,  lom,  [Lat.  LOM'MIUS,]  (JossE,)  one  of  the 
most  skilful  physicians  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Buren, 
in  Holland,  in  1500.  He  practised  at  Tournai  and  at 
Brussels,  whither  he  removed  about  1557.  In  his  "  Medi 
cinal  Observations"  ("  Observations  Medicinales,"  1560) 
many  diseases  are  accurately  described.  He  wrote  other 
works,  in  Latin  of  uncommon  purity.  Died  after  1562. 

See  PAQUOT,  "  Me'moires." 

Lommius.     See  LOMM. 

Lomonosof,  Lomonossov,  Lomonosov,  or  Lom- 

onosow,  lom-o-no'sof,  (MiCHAEL  VASII. i  KVITCH,)  a  cele 
brated  Russian  poet,  born  at  or  near  Kolmogory,  in  the 
government  of  Archangel,  in  1711,  is  called  the  father 
of  modern  Russian  literature.  He  was  the  son  of  a  serf, 
whom  he  assisted  in  the  business  of  a  fisherman  until 
his  thirst  for  knowledge  led  him  to  Moscow,  and  thence 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  in  1734.  lie  became  learned  in  an 
cient  and  modern  languages  and  in  abstract  and  natural 
sciences.  In  1746  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chem 
istry,  and  in  1760  rector  of  the  gymnasium  and  Uni 
versity  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  rendered  the  Russian 
language  more  polished  and  more  rich  by  his  multifarious 
productions,  in  prose  and  verse,  on  grammar,  history, 
chemistry,  rhetoric,  etc.  His  poem  entitled  "  Petriade" 
(an  unfinished  epic,  of  which  Peter  the  Great  is  the 
hero)  is  one  of  his  most  popular  works.  lie  also  pro 
duced  two  volumes  of  odes,  religious  and  secular,  and 
an  abridged  "  History  of  Russia."  He  was  made  council 
lor  of  state  in  1764.  Died  in  1765.  Polevoi  has  published 
a  work  entitled  "  M.  V.  Lomonossov,"  (1836,)  which  is 
said  to  be  a  biography  blended  with  fiction. 

See,  also.  G.  GKITI.IN,  "  Dissertatio  He  Mentis  liternriis  Lomo- 
nossovii,"  1829;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'ra'.e ;"  "Foreign  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  July,  1X39. 

Londe,  16\d,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Caen  in  1798.  His  "Elements  of  Hygiene" 
(1827)  have  been  translated  into  many  languages. 

Londe,  de  la,  deh  It  loxd,  (FRANQOIS  RICHARD,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Caen  in  1685;  died  in  1765. 

Londerseel,  lon'der-sal',  (AssiJR,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1550. 

Londerseel,  van,  vf  n  lou'der-sal',  QAN,)  a  Flemish 
engraver,  born  at  Bruges  about  1580. 

Lon'dpn-dei'ry,  (  CHARLES  WILLIAM  STEWART,) 
third  MAKQUIS  OK,  born  in  Dublin  in  1778,  was  a  son 
of  Robert  the  first  Marquis,  and  a  half-brother  of  Lord 
Castlereagh.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Lord  Chan 
cellor  Camden.  He  entered  the  army  in  1793,  became 
colonel  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  king  in  1803,  and  dis 
tinguished  himself  in  Portugal  under  Sir  John  Moore. 
He  served  as  adjutant-general  under  Sir  Arthur  \Vel- 
lesley  for  several  years  in  the  Peninsula.  In  1813  Sir 
Charles  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  the  court  of  Berlin, 
and  was  officially  attached  to  the  head-quarters  of  Ber- 
nadotte.  Much  importance  is  ascribed  to  the  efforts 
and  menaces  by  which  he  induced  Bernadotte  to  co 
operate  with  the  allies  at  Leipsic.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Lord  Stewart,  in  1814,  and  was  one  of  the 
plenipotentiaries  sent  by  England  to  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  Having  married  a  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Sir  Harry  Vane  Tempest  in  1819,  he  assumed  the 
name  of  Vane.  He  succeeded  his  half-brother  as  Mar 
quis  of  Londonderry  in  1822,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  in  1837.  In  politics  he  was  an  ultra-conserva 
tive.  He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,"  (1813.)  He  died  in  1854,  leaving  two  sons,  WIL 
LIAM  ROISERT,  who  inherits  the  tille  of  marquis,  and 
GEORGE,  who  is  Viscount  Seaham. 

See  T.  P.  FITZGERALD,  "Life  of  Lord  Londonderry;"  "Bio 
graphical  Sketches,"  by  HARRIET  MAKTINKAU. 

Londonderry,  MARQUIS  OK.     See  CASTLEREAGH. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LONDON  10 


1449 


LONG  HI 


Londonio,  lon-do'ne-o,  (  FRANCESCO,  )  an  Italian 
painter  of  animals,  born  at  Milan  in  1723  ;  died  in  1783. 

Long,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Corn 
wall  in  1734.  He  emigrated  in  1757  to  Jamaica,  where 
he  was  appointed  a  judge.  Having  returned  to  England 
in  1769,  he  published  a  "History  of  Jamaica,"  (1774,) 
and  several  minor  works.  Died  in  1813. 

Long,  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
editor,  born  at  Poulton,  Lancashire,  in  1800.  Having 
been  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  became  professor  of 
ancient  languages  in  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1824, 
and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  London  University  in 
1826.  About  this  time  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,"  under 
whose  auspices  he  edited  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  with 
great  ability,  from  1832  to  1843.  He  afterwards  edited 
for  the  same  society  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary,"  which 
was  discontinued  at  the  end  of  the  letter  A.  He  has 
contributed  many  articles  to  Smith's  "Classical  Diction 
ary,"  edited  Cicero's  Orations,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "France  and  its  Revolutions,"  (1850,)  and 
"The  Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (3  vols.,  1864- 
69  ;  yet  unfinished.)  He  has  translated  into  English  the 
"  Thoughts  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus." 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  professors  in  the 
college  at  Brighton. 

Long,  (KoGKR,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer,  born 
in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  1680.  He  became  Lowndes 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1749,  and  after 
wards  obtained  the  rectory  of  Brad  well.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  of  which  the  first  volume  was 
published  in  1742  and  the  second  in  1764.  Died  in  1770. 

Long,  (STEIMIEN  II.,)  an  American  engineer,  born  at 
Hopkinton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784.  About  1816  he 
set  out  on  a  tour  for  exploring  the  western  frontier  from 
Texas  to  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  published 
in  1824  his  "Expedition  to  the  Source  of  Saint  Peter's 
River,  Lake  of  the  Woods,"  etc. 

Long,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at  Exe 
ter  in  1621.  About  1660  he  obtained  a  prebend  in  Exeter 
Cathedral,  from  which  he  was  ejected  as  a  nonjuror  in 
1688.  He  wrote  a  "Vindication  of  the  Primitive  Chris 
tians  in  Point  of  Obedience  to  their  Prince,"  (1683,)  and 
other  polemical  works.  Died  in  1700. 

Long,  Le.     See  LEI.O.NG. 

Longchamps,  de,  deh  lo.x'shfiN',  (PiF.RUK,)  a  French 
writer,  born  probably  at  Rochelle.  He  translated  the 
Elegies  of  Propertius  into  French  prose,  and  wrote 
"  Memoirs  of  a  Nun,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1812. 

Longepierre,  de,  deh  lo.xzh'pe-aiR',  (HILAIRE  BER 
NARD  J)K  RKQUELEYNE,)  BARON,  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1658.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  and 
produced  poetical  versions  of  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Bion, 
and  Moschus.  His  tragedy  of  "Medea,"  says  Voltaire, 
although  too  full  of  declamation,  is  superior  to  Corneille's 
"Medea."  Died  in  1721. 

Longet,  lo.x'zhi',  (FRANCOIS  ACHILLE,)  a  French 
physician  and  physiologist,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en- 
Laye  in  1811.  He  published  "  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  the  Nervous  System,"  (2  vols.,  1843-46,)  and  a  "  Com 
plete  Treatise  on  Physiology,"  (1850-55.)  He  became 
one  of  the  consulting  physicians  of  the  emperor. 

Long'fel-low,  (HENRY  WADSWORTH,)  an  eminent 
American  poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Portland  (Maine) 
the  271(1  of  February,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1825,30011  after  which  he  was  appointed  pro 
fessor  of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  that  institu 
tion,  with  the  understanding  that  he  should  have  the 
privilege  of  spending  some  time  in  Europe  in  order  more 
fully  to  qualify  himself  for  his  new  position.  He  left 
home  in  1826,  and  spent  four  years  abroad,  chiefly  in 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  In  1835  he  suc 
ceeded  Mr.  George  Ticknor  in  the  chair  of  modern 
languages  and  belles-lettres  at  Harvard.  The  same  year 
he  visited  Europe  the  second  time  ;  and,  after  making 
an  extensive  tour  through  Denmark,  Sweden,  Germany, 
etc.,  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  professorship  in 
1838.  In  1839  appeared  his  romance  of  "  Hyperion," 
and  a  collection  of  his  poems,  entitled  "Voices  of  the 
Night,"  which  attracted  great  attention  and  raised  him 
at  once  to  the  first  rank  among  American  poets.  In 


1841  he  published  "Ballads,  and  other  Poems:"  his 
charming  drama  of  "The  Spanish  Student"  appeared 
in  1843.  This  was  followed  by  his  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  (1845,)  "The  Belfry  of  Bruges,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1846,)  and  "  Evangeline,"  (1847,)  one  of  the 
most  admired  of  all  his  productions.  It  has  been  pro 
nounced  (and  we  think  justly)  "the  most  perfect  speci 
men  extant  of  the  rhythm  and  melody  of  the  English 
hexameter."  It  was  followed  by  "The  Golden  Legend," 
(1851,)  "The  Song  of  Hiawatha,"  (1855,)  perhaps  the 
most  popular  of  all  his  works,  "The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,"  (1858,)  and  "Tragedies  of  New  England," 
(1868.)  Of  his  prose  writings,  besides  "Hyperion," 
already  referred  to,  we  may  mention  "Outre-Mer:  a 
Pilgrimage  beyond  the  Sea,"  (1835,)  "Kavanagh,"  a 
novel,  (1849,)  and  his  contributions  to  the  "North 
American  Review."  His  last  important  work  is  a  trans 
lation  of  Dante's  "Divina  Commedia,"  (1867,)  remark 
able  for  its  literalness  and  fidelity  to  the  original.  Mr. 
Longfellow  resigned  his  chair  at  Harvard  in  1854,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Professor  Lowell. 

As  a  poet,  Longfellow  is  characterized  by  tenderness 
and  depth  of  feeling,  to  the  expression  of  which  the  pic 
turesque  and  graceful  simplicity  of  his  language  often 
imparts  an  indescribable  charm.  He  seldom  or  never 
attempts  to  excite  admiration  by  far-sought  conceits,  by 
wild  or  lofty  flights  of  imagination,  or  by  the  exhibition 
of  dark  and  terrible  passions.  He  relies  chiefly  for  his 
success  on  a  simple  and  direct  appeal  to  those  sentiments 
which  are  common  to  all  mankind, — to  persons  of  every 
rank  and  of  every  clime. 

It  is,  in  fact,  to  his  command  over  those  feelings  which 
are  universal  in  the  human  heart,  that  we  must  ascribe 
the  extraordinary  popularity  of  his  Indian  story  of  "  Hia 
watha."  It  is,  perhaps,  not  too  much  to  say  that  he  is 
not  merely  the  first  but  the  only  writer  who  has  suc 
ceeded  in  giving  a  deep  and  living  interest  to  a  story  of 
Indian  life.  Restricted  as  he  necessarily  was  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject, — by  the  extreme  simplicity,  not  to 
say  meagreness,  of  the  character  of  our  aborigines, — he 
has  yet  produced  a  poem  which  not  only  comes  home  to 
the  hearts  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  but  which  must  ex 
cite  the  admiration  of  the  cultivated  reader  who  will  take 
into  consideration  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  task, 
and  the  limits  and  restrictions  which  the  poet,  in  selecting 
such  a  subject,  had  necessarily  to  impose  upon  himself. 
The  form  of  the  verse  is  in  admirable  keeping  with  the* 
simplicity  of  the  story.  But,  "  unhappily  for  the  poet,"  as 
"Blackwood"  for  February,  1856,  justly  observes,  "this 
is  the  very  measure  to  attract  the  parodist.  '  Punch' 
has  opened  the  assault ;  and  we  will  not  venture  to  pre 
dict  how  many  gleeful  voices  may  echo  his  good-humoured 
mockery  before  the  year  is  out."  We  may,  indeed,  safely 
assert  that  whatever  declension  there  has  been  from  the 
first  popularity  of  "Hiawatha"  must  in  a  great  measure 
be  attributed  to  the  "good-humoured  mockery"  of  the 
countless  parodies  that  have  been  made  upon  it.  Happily, 
there  are  those  (and  we  would  fain  hope  their  number 
is  not  small)  who  can  judge  of  a  poem  by  its  intrinsic 
merits,  and  who  will  not  permit  a  whole  "college  of  wit- 
crackers"  to  destroy  their  enjoyment  of  what  is  truly 
beautiful  or  prevent  their  admiration  of  what  is  truly 
excellent.  A  writer  in  the  "London  Examiner"  thinks 
"  Hiawatha"  "the  most  original  of  all  his  [Longfellow's] 
productions."  Several  different  translations  of  it  have 
been  made, — one  by  the  distinguished  German  poet  Frei- 
ligrath, — and  it  has  been  read  and  admired  in  every  part 
of  Europe. 

See  A  i.i.i  BONK.  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  GRISWOI.D,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America  :"  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Litera 
ture,"  vol.  ii.  :  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1840,  July, 
1842,  Jnlv,  1845,  and  January,  1848  ;  "  Kraser's  Magazine"  for  March, 
1848;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January  and  April,  1864. 

Longheiia,  lon-ga'na,  (BAI.DASSARE,)  an  Italian  archi 
tect,  worked  at  Venice  about  1640. 

Longhi.     See  LUNGHI. 

Longhi,  loi/gee,  (AI.ESSIO  or  AI.ESSANDRO,)  a  Vene 
tian  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1726  ;  died  about  1790. 

Longhi,  (GiUSEi'PE,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Monza,  in  Lombardy,  in  1766.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Vincenzo  Vangelisti.  He  worked  mostly  at  Milan, 
where  he  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (ftgf^See  Explanation  s,  p.  23.) 


LONG HI 


1450 


LONGSTREET 


His  works  are  admired  for  the  magical  effect  of  the  chiaro 
scuro.  He  was  an  excellent  draftsman.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "The  Marriage  of  the  Virgin,"  after 
Raphael,  "The  Magdalene,"  after  Correggio,  a  "Gala 
tea,"  after  Albani,  and  "The  Last  Judgment,"  after  Mi 
chael  Angelo.  He  published  "  La  Calcographia,"  (1830,) 
an  able  treatise  on  engraving.  Died  in  1831. 

See  V.  LONGHKNA,  "  Nolizie  bioprafiche  di  G.  Longhi,"  1831  ; 
SACCHI,  "  Biografia  di  G.  Longhi,"  1831  ;  TIPAI.IX),  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri ;"  G.  BERETTA,  "Vita  del  Cavaliere  G.  Longhi," 
1837- 

Longhi,  lon'gee,  or  Lunghi,  loon'gee,  (LucA,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1507,  always  resided 
in  that  city.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  and  also  painted 
some  subjects  of  sacred  history  with  success.  Died  in 
1580.  "  His  conceptions,"  says  Lanzi,  "  are  sweet,  varied, 
and  graceful,  with  a  powerful  union  of  colours."  His 
daughter  BARBARA  was  also  a  painter. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Longhi,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  masquerades, 
dances,  and  other  gay  or  familiar  scenes,  born  at  Venice 
in  1702  ;  died  in  1762. 

Longin.     See  LONGINUS. 

Longino.     See  LONGINUS. 

Longinus.     See  DI.UGOSZ. 

Loii-gi'nus,  [Gr.  Aoj-j'troc;  Fr.  LONGIN,  !6N'zhaN';  It. 
LONGINO,  lon-jee'no,]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher 
and  critic,  was  born  probably  in  Syria,  and  flourished 
in  the  third  century.  Some  ancient  writers  call  him 
LONGINUS  CASSIUS,  or  DIONVSIUS  CASSIUS  LONGINUS. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Phronto  of  Emesa,  and  was 
a  Platonist  in  philosophy.  He  opened  at  Athens  a 
school  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  which  became  very 
celebrated.  The  famous  Porphyry  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
After  passing  many  years  at  Athens,  he  accepted  the 
invitation  of  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  to  reside  at 
her  court.  He  taught  her  Greek,  and  served  her  as 
councillor  or  prime  minister  during  her  war  against  Au- 
relian,  Emperor  of  Rome.  The  latter,  having  captured 
Palmyra,  put  Longinus  to  death  in  273  A.D.  Longinus 
was  the  first  to  whom  was  applied  the  phrase,  often  re 
peated  since,  "a  living  library,"  and  is  considered  the 
greatest  philosopher  of  his  age.  He  wrote  many  critical 
and  philosophical  works,  none  of  which  have  come  down 
to  us  except  his  admirable  "Treatise  on  the  Sublime," 
(Htpl  ''T^'ot'f,)  which  Boileau  translated  into  French  and 
called  a  "  master-piece  of  good  sense,  learning,  and  elo 
quence."  Some  writers,  however,  have  doubted — but  with 
little  reason,  it  would  seem — whether  Longinus  was  the 
real  author  of  this  work.  (See,  on  this  subject,  the  arti 
cle  "Longin"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

It  has  been  truly  said  that  to  be  a  good  critic  one  must 
be  something  of  a  poet.  This  qualification  Longinus 
possessed  in  a  pre-eminent  degree.  Pope,  addressing 
him,  says, 

"Thee,  bold  Lonpinus  !  all  the  Nine  inspire, 
And  bless  their  critic  with  a  poet's  fire  ; 
An  ardent  judge,  who,  zealous  in  his  trust, 
With  warmth  gives  sentence,  yet  is  always  just ; 
Whose  own  example  strengthens  ail  his  laws, 
And  is  himself  that  great  sublime  he  draws." 

Essay  on  Criticism,  part  iii. 

OfLonginus's  "Treatise on  the  Sublime," several  good 
French  translations  have  been  made, — one  by  the  cele 
brated  critic  and  poet  Boileau,  (1674.)  It  has  also  been 
translated  into  German  by  Schlosser,  and  into  English 
by  W.  Smith. 

See  D.  RUHNKEN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Sciiptis  Longini," 
1776:  P.  EKKRMAN,  "  Dissertatio  de  D.  Longino  Cassio,"  1750; 
L.  VAUCHER,  "Etudes  critiques  sur  la  Tiaite  du  Sublime  et  sur 
les  ficrits  de  Longin,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1779;  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography." 

Long'land  or  Lang'laud,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Henley  in  1473.  HC  became  confessor  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  in  1520.  On  the  question 
of  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  he  gave  the  king 
such  counsels  as  were  most  agreeable  to  the  latter.  His 
sermons  were  published.  Died  in  1547. 

Longlaud,  written  also  Langelande,  (ROBERT,)  an 
early  English  poet,  a  native  of  Shropshire,  was  a  con 
temporary  of  Chaucer,  and  a  disciple  of  Wickliffe.  He 
was  the  reputed  author  of  a  celebrated  poem  called  the 


"Visions  of  Piers  Plowman,"  (1369.)  It  is  a  satire 
directed  against  the  vices  of  the  clergy  and  other  pro 
fessions,  and  displays  considerable  fancy  and  originality. 

Long'man,  (THOMAS  NORTON,)  an  English  merchant 
and  publisher,  born  about  1770,  was  honourably  and 
widely  known  as  the  head  of  the  great  publishing-firm 
of  Longman  &  Company,  Paternoster  Row,  London. 
He  published  works  for  Scott,  Wordsworth,  and  Thomas 
Moore.  Died  in  1842. 

Longobardi,  lon-go-baR'dee,  (Niccoi.6,)  a  Jesuit, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1565.  He  went  to  China  as  a  mission 
ary  in  1596,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Confucius  and  his 
Doctrine,"  ("  De  Confucioejusque  Doctrina  Tractatus.") 
Leibnitz  published  a  new  edition  of  this  work,  with  notes. 
Died  at  Pekin  in  1655. 

Longolius.     See  LONGUEIL. 

Longolius,  long-go'le-us,  (JoiiANN  DANIEL,)  a  Ger 
man  scientific  writer,  born  at  Meissen  in  1677  >  died  in 
1740. 

Longolius,  (PAUL  DANIEL,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  near  Dresden  in  1704.  He  was  rector  of  the  gym 
nasium  of  Hof  for  forty-four  years,  and  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "German  Encyclopaedia,  or  Universal 
Lexicon,"  of  Zedler,  (Leipsic,  1731-50.)  He  also  pub 
lished  editions  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  and  of  Aulus 
Gellius.  Died  in  1779. 

See  G.  W.  KIRSCH,  "  Vier  Programme  von  P.  D.  Longolii  Leben," 
1779-81;  "Life  of  Longolius,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Notitia  Hermun- 
dorum  maxinueque  Partis  Germanise,"  by  KRNESTI,  1793. 

Longomoiitan.     See  LONGOMONTANUS. 

Longomontanus,  lon'go-mon-ta'nus,  [Fr.  LONGO- 
MONTAN,  loN'go'moN'tS.N',  ]  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish 
astronomer,  born  in  1562  at  Langsberg,  (Jutland,)  of 
which  place  lie  assumed  the  name,  Latinizing  it,  accord 
ing  to  the  custom  of  the  time.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
poor  labourer,  whose  family  name  was  SEVEUIN.  He 
obtained  the  favour  of  Tycho  Brahe,  whom  he  assisted 
in  calculations  and  observations  at  Huen,  or  Hoe'ne, 
from  1589  to  1597.  From  1605  to  1645  he  was  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen.  He 
died  in  1647.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "First 
Part  of  a  Mathematical  System,"  ("  Systematis  Mathema- 
tici  Pars  I.,"  1611,)  "  Danish  Astronomy,"  ("  Astronomia 
Danica,"  1622,)  "  Pentas  Problematum  Philosophic," 
(1623,)  and  "Invention  of  the  Quadrature  of  the  Circle." 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  L.  SCAVENIUS,  "  Prograinma  Lon- 
goinontani." 

Loiigperier,  de,  deh  loN'pa're-i',  (HENRI  ADRIEN 
PREVOST,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1816, 
wrote  treatises  on  numismatics,  etc. 

Long'street,  (AUGUSTUS  BALDWIN,)  son  of  William, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  in  1790. 
He  became  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the  South  Caro 
lina  College  in  1857. 

Longstreet,  (JAMES,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1821,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
was  breveted  major  for  his  conduct  at  Molino  del  Rey. 
In  1852  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  He  resigned 
his  commission  about  June,  1861,  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  Confederate  army  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  and  be 
came  a  major-general  soon  after  that  date.  He  took 
part  in  the  battles  near  Richmond  in  May  and  June, 
1862,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  of  General  Lee's 
army  at  Antietam,  September  17.  Having  been  raised 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  a  corps 
at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  2-3,  1863.  In  the  Sep 
tember  ensuing  he  joined  the  army  of  General  Bragg, 
under  whom  he  served  at  Chickamauga,  September  19- 
20.  He  commanded  a  force  which  General  Bragg  sent 
against  Burnside  in  October,  1863;  and  he  attempted  to 
take  Knoxville  in  November,  without  success.  In  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  6,  1864,  he  was  wounded 
in  the  throat  by  a  ball  fired  by  a  Confederate  soldier  in 
mistake.  He  was  disabled  for  five  months  by  this 
wound. 

See  a  Memoir  of  General  J.  Longstreet  in  "Southern  Generals," 
(anonymous,)  1865. 

Longstreet,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  inventor,  born 
in  New  Jersey,  removed  to  Georgia.  He  obtained  a 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LONG  VEIL 


1451 


LOON 


patent  for  an  improvement  in  the  cotton-gin.  Died  in 
1814. 

Longueil,  de,  deh  loN'guI'  or  lox'guh'ye,  [Lat.  LON- 
GO'LIUS,]  (CHRISTOPHE,)  an  eminent  French  scholar, 
born  at  Malines  in  1490.  He  practised  law  in  Paris, 
and  was  chosen  comeiller  ait  parlement.  Afterwards  he 
removed  to  Padua,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
He  was  one  of  the  Latin  scholars  whose  fastidious  purity 
Erasmus  ridiculed  in  his  "Ciceronianus,"  and  who 
affected  to  use  no  terms  which  were  not  found  in  Cicero's 
works.  He  was  author  of  discourses  against  Luther,  of 
"Letters  to  Bembo  and  Sadolet,"  etc.  Died  in  1522. 

See  Poi. us,  "Vita  I.ongnlii :"  PAOLO  GIOVIO,  "  Elogia  Virorum 
illustrium ;"  NICEKON-,  "  Memoires;"  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Bel- 
gica." 

Longueil,  de,  deh  loN'guT,  [Lat.  LONGO'LIUS,]  (GiL- 
liERT,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1507.  He 
taught  school  at  Deventer  and  Cologne,  and  practised 
medicine.  He  published  a  "Latin-Greek  Lexicon," 
(1533,)  and  notes  on  Ovid,  Plautus,  and  Cicero.  Died 
at  Cologne  in  1543. 

Longueil,  de,  (  JOSEPH,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Givet  in  1736;  died  in  1792. 

Longuemar,  de,  deh  lo.Ng'mtu',  (ALPHONSE  I.E 
ToUkE,)  a  French  geologist  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Saint- Dizier  about  1800. 

Longuerue,  de,  deh  loNg'iu',  (Louis  DUFOUR,) 
A  null,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  eminent  for  learning,  was 
born  at  Charleville  in  1652.  He  was  deeply  versed  in 
languages,  history,  philosophy,  etc.,  and  wrote  many 
works,  but  published  none.  His  friends,  however,  pub 
lished  for  him  an  "Essay  on  the  Antiquities  of  Chaklea  j 
and  Egypt,"  "Description  of  France,  Ancient  and  Mod 
ern,"  (1719,)  "Annals  of  the  Arsacidae,"  (1732,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1733. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique,"  edition  of  1759;  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Loiigueval,  loNg'vtK,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  near  Peronne  in  1680.  He  taught  rhetoric  and 
theology  in  various  colleges,  and  was  author  of  the  first 
eight  volumes  of  a  "  History  of  the  Gallican  Church," 
(1730-49,)  which  was  continued  by  Fontenay  and  others. 
Died  in  1735. 

Longueville,  loNg'vel',  (£DME  PAUL  MARCELLTN,)  a 
French  Hellenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1785;  died  in  1855. 

Longueville,  de,  deh  loNg'vel',  (ANNE  GENEVIEVE 
de  Bourbon -Conde —  deh  booR'b6N'  ki.x'da', ) 
DUCHESS,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  beauty,  tact, 
and  talent,  was  born  at  Vincennes  in  1619.  She  was  a 
sister  of  the  great  Conde,  and  was  married  to  the  Due 
de  Longueville,  noticed  below,  in  1642.  The  enmity 
between  the  parliaments  and  Mazarin  gave  rise  to  the 
faction  or  conspiracy  of  the  Fronde,  of  which- she  became 
the  heroine.  Her  nonchalance  and  languor  were  agree 
ably  diversified  by  surprising  and  splendid  awakenings 
of  genius.  She  exercised  great  influence  over  the  chiefs 
of  the  Fronde,  and  had  a  liaison  with  La  Rochefou 
cauld,  who  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  that  party.  When 
her  husband  and  brothers  were  imprisoned  by  Mazarin 
in  1650,  she  escaped  to  Stenay,  the  head-quarters  of 
Turenne,  whom  she  induced  to  join  the  party  of  the 
Fronde.  With  his  aid  she  effected  the  release  of  her 
three  friends  in  1651,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  triumph. 
Peace  was  made  between  the  Frondeurs  and  the  court 
in  1659,  after  which  she  ceased  to  meddle  with  politics. 
She  became  devout,  and  spent  much  time  in  her  latter 
years  at  the  cloister  of  Port-Royal.  Cardinal  Mazarin 
once  said,  "  We  have  three  women  in  France  who  would 
be  competent  to  govern  or  overturn  three  great  king 
doms,  name!}-,  the  Duchess  de  Longueville,  the  Princess 
Palatine,  and  the  Duchess  de  Chevreuse."  Died  in  1679. 

See  BOCRGOING  DE  VII.I.EFORE,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Loncue- 
ville,"i738:  V.  CorsiN,  "La  Jeunesse  de  Mme.  de  Longueville," 
1853;  LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Longueville,  de,  (CHARLES  PARIS  D'ORLEANS,) 
Due,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1640, 
inherited  the  brilliant  qualities  of  his  mother.  He  served 
in  the  army  of  his  uncle  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  was 
killed  at  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  in  1672,  when  the 
Polish  deputies  were  on  their  way  to  offer  him  the  crown 
of  Poland. 


Longueville,  de,  (HENRI,)  Due,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1595,  was  the  son  of  Henri  d'Orieans,  a  prince 
of  the  blood,  and  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Henry  IV.  In 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  he  distinguished  himself  by 
military  exploits  in  Italy,  etc.  He  married  the  sister  of 
the  Prince  of  Conde  in  1642,  and  supported  the  party  of 
the  latter  in  the  time  of  the  Fronde.  Died  in  1663. 

Lon'gus,  [Aoyj-of,]  a  Greek  sophist  or  author,  of  whom 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  of  our  era,  and  to  have  been 
the  author  of  an  ingenious  prose  romance  entitled 
TloifisviKu  -a  Kara  Autyviv  /cat  X/IOT/P,  ("Pastorals  relating 
to  Daphnis  and  Chloe,")  sometimes  called  "Loves  of 
Daphnis  and  Chloe."  It  is  admired  for  a  charming, 
elegant  style,  and  other  literary  merits.  In  1810  Paul 
Louis  Courier  found  at  Florence  a  manuscript  of  Longus 
which  supplied  a  hiatus  of  all  the  other  manuscripts. 
He  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  original  and  a 
corrected  edition  of  Amyot's  French  version. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliolheca  Grseca;"  DUNI.OP,  "  History  of 
Fiction;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Long'worth,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  American  cultivator, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1782.  Having  removed 
to  Cincinnati,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  culture  of  native 
grapes  and  the  manufacture  of  wine,  by  which  he  acquired 
an  immense  fortune.  Died  in  1863. 

Loni,  lo'nee,  (ALESSANDKO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1655,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Dolce.  Died 
in  1702. 

Lonicer,  lo'nu-ser,  [Lat.  LONICE'RUS,]  (ADAM,)  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Marburg  in 
1528,  was  a  son  of  Johann,  noticed  below.  He  obtained 
in  1554  the  place  of  pensioned  physician  of  Frankfort, 
which  he  occupied  thirty-two  years.  He  published 
several  treatises  on  medicine,  and  a  Latin  work  on  Plants, 
Animals,  and  Minerals,  called  "  Naturalis  Historian  Opus 
Novum,"  (1551-55,)  which  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in 
1586. 

His  son,  JOHANN  ADAM,  born  in  1557,  was  a  physician 
of  Frankfort.  He  published  Latin  poems,  and  a  treatise 
on  the  chase,  called  "  Venatus  et  Aucupium." 

Lonicer,  [Lat.  LONICE'RUS,]  (JOHANN,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Mansfeld  in  1499.  From  1527  until  his 
death  he  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Mar 
burg.  He  made  good  Latin  translations  of  several  Greek 
authors,  among  whom  were  Pindar,  Isocrates,  and  De 
mosthenes.  He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Melanchthon.  Died  in  1569. 

See  M.  ADAM,  "Vitae  Philosophorum  Germanorum." 

Lonicerus.     See  LONICER. 

Lonjumeau.     See  GAILLARD  DE  LONJUMEAU. 

Lbmirot  or  Loennrot,  lon'rot,  (Ei.iAS,)  a  Finnish 
philologist,  born  in  the  district  of  Helsingfors  in  1802. 
He  became  a  zealous  student  of  the  national  literature 
of  Finland.  About  1835  he  discovered  and  published 
the  famous  Finnish  poem  of  "Kalevala,"  which  is  said 
to  resemble  the  "Hiawatha"  of  Longfellow.  He  suc 
ceeded  Castren  as  professor  of  Finnish  at  Helsingfors  in 
1852,  and  published  several  collections  of  old  legends, 
proverbs,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  revive  the  use  of  the  Finn 
ish  language. 

Lons'dale,  (IlENRY,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Carlisle  in  1816.  He  gained  distinction 
by  his  researches  in  the  toxicology  of  prussic  acid  ar.d 
other  subjects. 

Lonsdale,  (WILLIAM  LOWTHER,)  EAKL  OF,  an  Eng 
lish  peer,  born  in  1787.  He  was  postmaster-general  from 
1841  to  1845,  and  was  lord  president  of  the  council  in 
the  cabinet  of  Lord  Derby  in  1852. 

Loo.     See  VAN  LOO. 

Loo'mis,  (ELIAS,)  an  American  astronomer  and  phy 
sicist,  born  in  Tolland  county,  Connecticut,  in  1811, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1830.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio,  in  1837,  and  obtained  a  similar  chair  in 
the  New  York  University  in  1844.  He  made  valuable 
contributions  to  magnetism,  astronomy,  and  meteor 
ology.  Among  his  works  are  "  Elements  of  Natural 
Philosophy,"  and  an  "  Introduction  to  Practical  As 
tronomy." 

Loon.     See  VAN  LOON. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  //4w.     (JiJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOON 


1452 


LOREDJNO 


Loon,  van,  v8n  Ion,  (THEODORE,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  about  1630.  His  design  was  correct, 
and  his  colouring  excellent.  After  working  with  Carlo 
Maratta  at  Rome,  he  returned  to  Brussels,  where  he  con 
firmed  his  reputation  by  many  historical  paintings  in  the 
manner  of  Maratta.  Some  of  the  churches  of  Rome  and 
Florence  are  adorned  with  his  works.  Died  in  1678. 

Loopolof,  Loupolov,  or  Lupolow,  kx/po-lof, 
(PRASCOVIA,)  a  Russian  heroine,  born  in  1784,  was  a 
daughter  of  an  officer  exiled  to  Siberia.  She  performed 
on  foot  the  journey  from  Tobolsk  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  obtained  a  pardon  for  her  father.  Her  adventures 
form  the  subject  of  Madame  Cottin's  "Elizabeth,  or  the 
Exiles  of  Siberia."  Died  in  1809. 

Loos,  15s,  [Lat.  CALUD'IUS,]  (CoRNELis,)  a  Dutch 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Gouda  about  1545.  He 
was  persecuted  for  opposing  the  prevalent  superstitious 
notions  respecting  magic  in  his  book  "  De  vera  et  falsa 
Magia,"("On  True  and  False  Magic,")  and  for  con 
demning  the  practice  of  burning  those  called  witches. 
He  wrote  other  works.  Died  in  1595. 

See  '•  Callidius,"  in  BAYLE'S  "Historical  and  Critical  Diction 
ary;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Loosjes,  los'yes,  (ADRIAAN,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  novel 
ist,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1761,  was  a  dealer  in  books. 
He  passed  his  life  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  works 
are  novels  entitled  "  John  De  Witt"  (1805)  and  "  Susanna 
Bronkhorst,"  (6  vols.,  1806,)  and  a  poem  called  "The 
Last  Campaign  of  De  Ruyter."  Died  in  1818. 

See  "  Hulde  aan  de  Nagedachtenis  van  A.  Loosjes,"  by  P.  H. 
PEERLKAMP,  C.  UE  KONING,  A.  VAN  DER  WII.I.IGEN,  and  H.  MEIJEK, 
i8iS. 

Loots,  lots.  (CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1774;  died  about  1850. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lope  de  Rueda,  lo'pi  da  roo-a'na,  a  Spanish  actor 
and  dramatic  author,  born  at  Seville  about  1500.  He 
was  the  leader  of  the  first  troupe  of  strolling  players  in 
Spain,  and  was  praised  by  Cervantes  as  an  actor  and 
writer.  His  plays  were  dialogues  between  a  few  shep 
herds.  Died  in  1564. 

Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,  lo'pi  da  va'ga  kaR'pe-o, 
(FELIX,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Madrid  on  the  25th  of  November,  1562,  was  a  con 
temporary  of  Cervantes  and  Shakspeare.  His  father 
was  a  hidalgo,  (gentleman,)  but  rather  poor.  Felix  began 
to  write  verses  in  early  childhood,  and  composed  dramas 
about  the  age  of  twelve.  While  a  student  at  the  Uni 
versity  of  Alcala,  he  found  a  powerful  patron  in  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  whose  service  he  entered,  and  at  whose 
request  he  wrote  his"  Arcadia,"  a  pastoral  heroic  poem, 
which  first  revealed  his  superior  genius.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1598,  though  finished  many  years  earlier.  He 
quitted  the  service  of  Alva,  and  married  Dona  Isabel 
de  Urbino.  Having  in  a  duel  wounded  his  antagonist, 
he  fled  from  Madrid,  and  passed  a  few  years  in  Valencia. 

His  grief  for  the  death  of  his  wife  is  assigned  as  his 
motive  for  becoming  a  soldier.  In  1588  he  enlisted  as 
a  private  volunteer,  and,  with  ardent  zeal  for  what  he 
deemed  a  holy  cause,  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the 
Invincible  Armada,  during  which  he  wrote  his  admired 
poem  the  "  Beauty  of  Angelica,"  ("  Hermosura  de  An 
gelica,")  a  continuation  of  Ariosto's  "Orlando."  Re 
nouncing  martial  pursuits  in  1590,  he  returned  to  Madrid, 
where  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  by  his  mar 
vellous  fertility  of  invention  rapidly  acquired  fame  and 
affluence.  He  required  only  a  single  day  to  compose  a 
versified  drama.  This  astonishing  facility  enabled  him 
to  produce  two  thousand  original  dramas,  consisting  of 
spiritual  plays,  historical  comedies,  and  dramas  of  in 
trigue,  called  De  Capa  y  Espada,  ("  Of  the  Cloak  and 
Sword,")  which  were  performed  with  immense  applause. 
There  is  scarcely  an  example  on  record  of  an  equal 
popularity.  His  name  became  a  synonym  for  the  super 
lative  degree,  and  it  was  the  fashion  to  say  a  Lope  dia 
mond,  a  Lope  dress,  etc.,  to  express  the  splendour  or 
perfection  of  those  articles.  He  was  styled  the  "Centre 
of  Fame,"  the  "Darling  of  Fortune,"  the  "Phoenix  of 
Ages,"  etc.  Among  his  dramas  we  may  mention  "  The 
Beautiful  Deformed,"  ("La  Hermosa  fea," )  "The 
Prude,"  ("  La  Dama  melindrosa,")  "  The  Certain  for 


the  Doubtful,"  ("  Lo  Cierto  por  lo  Dudoso,")  and  "Es- 
trella  de  Sevilla,"  or  "  Don  Sancho  Ortiz."  In  richness 
of  invention,  vivacity  of  dialogue,  and  variety  of  ideas 
he  is  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  any  dramatist.  For  the 
sake  of  trying  the  public  taste,  he  published,  without 
his  name,  a  poem  entitled  "Soliloquies  on  God,"  which 
was  received  with  much  favour.  After  the  death  of  his 
second  wife  he  became  a  priest,  (1609,)  but  continued  to 
write  for  the  stage.  He  also  wrote  epic  poems,  entitled 
"Circe,"  "Andromeda,"  and  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
which  are  considered  much  inferior  to  his  dramas.  Died 
in  1635.  (For  some  very  interesting  remarks  on  Lope  de 
Vega,  particularly  in  reference  to  the  marvellous  fertility 
of  his  genius,  see  Prescott's  "  Miscellanies,"  pp.  137-139.) 
See  MONTAI.VAN,  "  Fama  posthuma  a  la  Vida  y  Muerte  del  Lope 
de  Vega  Carpio,"  Madrid,  1636;  LORD  Hoi. r. AND,  "Some  Account 
of  the  Lite  of  Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,"  1817  ;  LAKRAMENDI,  "  Pianto 
funebre  en  la  Muerte  de  L.  F.  de  Vega  Carpio,"  1635:  TICKNOR, 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova;"  SEDANO,  "  Parnaso  Espaiiol ;"  FAITRIEL,  "  Lope  de 
Vega,"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  September  i,  1X39,  and 
September  15,  1843;  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;" 
ENK  VON  DER  BUNG,  "  Studien  iiber  Lope  de  Vega,"  Vienna,  1839; 
"  Notivelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

Lopes,  lo'pgs,  (FERNANDO,)  a  Portuguese  historian, 
born  about  1380;  died  in  1449. 

Lopez.     See  AYAI.A,  I>E,  GOMARA,  and  CASTANHEDA. 

Lopez,  lo'|>5th,  (Ai.oN/.o,)  a  Spanish  critic,  born  at 
Valladolid.  He  practised  medicine  with  such  success 
that  he  received  the  title  of  physician  to  Maria  of  Castile, 
daughter  of  Charles  V.  He  published  in  1596  "Ancient 
Poetical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  antiqua  poetica.") 

Lopez,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  artist,  who  became 
painter  to  Philip  III.  about  1602,  and  adorned  the  Prado 
with  frescos.  He  was  living  in  1638. 

Lopez,  lo'pes  or  k/pe'th,  (Don  FRANCISCO  SOLANO,) 
an  able  South  American  general  and  political  leader, 
born  about  1826.  He  was  elected  in  September,  1862, 
President  of  Paraguay,  as  the  successor  of  his  father, 
Don  Carlos  Lopez.  He  declared  war  against  Brazil  in 
1865,  and  commanded  his  army  in  person  with  various 
success.  He  was  killed  in  battle  or  retreat  in  March,  1870. 

Lopez,  (I AGO  or  DIEGO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Toledo  about  1465  ;  died  about  1530. 

Lopez,  (Don  JOAOUIN  MARIA,)  an  able  and  eloquent 
Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Villena  in  1802,  was  a  zeal 
ous  adherent  of  the  constitutional  party.  In  1836  he 
became  minister  of  the  interior  under  Calatrava.  He 
resigned  in  March,  1837.  He  was  prime  minister  for  a 
short  time  in  1843. 

Lopez,  (JoSE,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville 
about  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Murillo. 

Lopez,  lo'pSs  or  lo'pfith,  (NARCISSO,)  an  American 
revolutionist  or  filibuster,  born  in  Venezuela  in  1799. 
He  served  some  time  as  an  officer  in  the  Spanish  army, 
and  in  1849  organized  in  the  United  States  an  expedition 
for  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  which  failed.  He  renewed  the 
enterprise  in  August,  1851,  was  captured,  and  garroted 
at  Havana  the  same  year. 

Lopez,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  was  a  pupil  of 
Greco.  His  chief  work  is  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
(dated  1608,)  at  Toledo,  which  is  much  admired. 

Lopez  de  Lereiia,  lo'pe'th  dali-ia'na,  (Don  PEDRO,) 
a  Spanish  financier,  born  at  Val  de  Moro  in  1734.  lie 
was  appointed  in  1785  secretary  of  state  for  the  finances, 
which  he  managed  with  success  until  his  death,  in  1792. 

Loqman.     See  LOKMAN. 

Lorch,  IORK,  written  also  Lorich,  (MELCHIOR,)  a 
Danish  painter  and  eminent  engraver,  born  in  Sleswick 
in  1527.  He  visited  many  foreign  countries,  and  died  in 
Rome  in  1586.  Among  his  works  are  engravings  of 
Luther,  of  Albert  Diirer,  and  of  the  Deluge. 

Lord,  (NATHAN,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1792.  He  graduated 
at  Bowdoin,  and  in  1828  became  president  of  Dartmouth 
College.  Died  in  1870. 

Lordon,  loR'doN',  (PIERRE  JEROME,)  a  French  histori 
cal  painter,  born  in  1780,  worked  in  Paris.  Died  in  1838. 

Loiedano,  lo-ra-da'no,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  a 
mediocre  Italian  poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Venice  in 
1606.  He  became  a  senator,  and  obtained  other  high 
offices.  About  1630  he  founded  the  academy  of  the  In- 
cogniti.  He  wrote  numerous  works  in  verse  and  prose, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


LORED4NO 


H53 


LORRAINE 


among  which  are  "The  Agreeable  Jests,"  ("Gli  Scherzi 
geniali,"  1632,)  "  L'lliade  giocosa,"  a  burlesque  of  the 
"Iliad,"  (1654,)  and  "Amorous  Tales."  Died  in  1661. 

See  A.  LIU-IS  "Vi;a  di  G.  F.  Loredano,"  1663;  G.  BRUNACCI, 
"Vita  di  G.  F.  Loredano,  Senatore  Veneto,"  1662. 

Loredano,  (LKOXAKDO,)  was  Doge  of  Venice  from 
1501  until  1521,  when  he  died,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  His 
administration  was  disturbed  by  the  wars  which  were 
consequent  on  the  League  of  Cambray,  and  was  a  period 
of  disaster  to  the  republic.  lie  waged  war  against  a 
powerful  coalition  consisting  of  France,  Germany,  and 
the  pope.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  doges  of  Venice. 

Loreiitz,  h/rcnts,  (JoHANN  FKIKDRICH,)  a  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Halle  in  1738;  died  in  1807. 

Loreiitz  or  Lorenz,  lo'rflx',  (JOSEPH  ADAM,)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Alsace  in  1734;  died  in  1801. 

Loreriz.     See  LORENZO  and  LAWRENCE. 

Lorenz,  lo'rents  or  lo'ruN',  (JKAN  MICHEL,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1723,  became  pro 
fessor  of  history  in  his  native  city,  and  oi"  eloquence  in 
1784.  He  published,  (in  Latin,)  besides  other  works  of 
merit,  a  "Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  ("  Annales  1'aulini,"  1769,) 
a  "  History  of  Ancient  Gaul,"  and  "  Rudiments  of  Ger 
man  History,"  (1776.)  Died  in  1801. 

See  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Lorenzetti,  lo-rSn-zet'tee,  or  Lorenzetto,  lo-ren- 
zet'to,  (AMUROGIO,)  sometimes  called  AMUKOGIO  ni 
LORENZO,  an  old  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna  about 
1260,  was  a  pupil  of  his  father  Lorenzo,  and  was  a 
brother  of  Pietro.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  about 
1257,  1277,  and  1300.  Ambrogio  and  Pietro  worked 
together  in  Sienna,  and  were  among  the  greatest  artists 
of  their  time.  The  works  of,  Ambrogio  are  nearly  all 
destroyed  ;  but  some  of  his  frescos  are  still  visible  in 
Sienna.  He  was,  says  Vasari,  universally  admired.  Died 
in  1340,  1348,  or  1360. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  LANZI,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy  ;"  BAI.UINUCCI,  "  Noti/.ie." 

Lorenzetti,  (PiKTKO,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
worked  in  Sienna,  Florence,  Rome,  and  Pisa,  and,  ac 
cording  to  Vasari,  surpassed  Cimabiie  and  Giotto.  In 
the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  is  preserved  his  picture  repre 
senting  the  "  Life  of  the  Fathers  in  the  Desert,"  in  fresco. 
lie  painted  several  Madonnas,  which  have  been  de 
stroyed.  He  is  sometimes  called  LAURATI.  His  last 
works  are  dated  1355. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  LANZI,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Lorenzetto.     See  CAMPANAIO. 

Lorenzi,  lo-reVx.ee,  (BARTOI.OMMF.O,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  near  Verona  in  1732,  had  an  excellent 
talent  for  improvisation.  Died  in  1822. 

Lorenzi,  (!>ATTISTA,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  engraver, 
born  in  Tuscany  in  1528;  died  in  1593. 

Lorenzi,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Verona  in  1719  ;  died  in  1783. 

Lorenzi,  (STOl.no  nt  GINO,  stol'do  de  jee'no,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Settignano  about  1540. 

Lorenzini,  lo-ren-zee'nee,  (FRANCKSCO  MARIA,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  in  Rome  in  1680.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  poet,  and  was  remarkable  for  the 
energy  of  his  style.  In  1728  he  succeeded  Crescimbeni 
as  president  of  the  Academy  of  Arcades.  He  was  the 
author  of  satires,  epigrams,  dramas,  and  other  poems  in 
Italian  and  Latin.  Died  in  1743. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitae  Italorum." 

Lorenzini,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1665.  He  engraved  the  works  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  and  other  Italian  masters.  Died  in  1740. 

Lorenzini,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1652.  For  some  political  offence  he  was 
imprisoned  at  Volterra  twenty  years,  ending  about  1700, 
and  in  this  period  wrote  an  able  work  on  conic  sections. 
Died  in  1721. 

Lorenzo.     See  LAWRENCE,  SAINT. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici.     See  MEDICI. 

Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  See  MEDICI,  (LO 
RENZO  DE'.) 

Loret,  lo'rk',  (JEAN,)  a  French  rhymer,  born  in  Nor 
mandy.  He  began  to  issue  in  1650  a  weekly  newspaper, 
called  "Gazette  en  Verses  burlesques,"  which  was  very 


successful.  From  1656  to  1665  it  was  published  undtr 
the  title  of  "  Muse  historique."  Died  about  1665. 

Lorge,  loRzh,  (JEAN  THOMAS  GUILLAUME,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Caen  in  1767  ;  died  in  1826. 

Lorges.     See  DURFORT,  DE,  (Gui  AI.PHONSE.) 

Lorgna,  loRn'ya,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  an  Italian  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Verona  about  1734.  After  obtaining 
the  rank  of  colonel  of  engineers,  he  became  professor 
in  the  military  school  of  Verona.  He  had  the  reputation 
of  being'  one  of  the  best  geometers  of  Italy.  Died  in 
1796.  Among  his  works  are  treatises  on  Statics  and 
Mechanics,  and  "  Essays  on  Mathematics  and  Physics," 
("Opuscula  Mathematica  et  Physica,"  1770.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Loria,  di,  de  lo're-a,  or  Lauria,  low're-a,  (ROGER,) 
an  able  Italian  admiral,  born  at  Loria,  (or  Lauria.)  In 
1282,  as  admiral  of  Peter  II.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Sicily, 
he  defeated  the  fleet  of  Charles  I.  of  Naples  near  Mes 
sina.  He  gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  P'rench  near 
Barcelona  in  1285,  and  another  over  the  Neapolitans 
before  Castellamare  in  1287.  Having  entered  into  the 
service  of  Jayme  of  Aragon,  he  defeated  the  Sicilian 
fleet  at  Cape  Orlando  in  1299,  and  again  in  1300.  Died 
in  1305.  Sismondi  considers  him  the  greatest  admiral 
that  Italy  has  produced. 

See  QUINTANA,  "Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards;'1  SISMONDI, 
"  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  GIOVANNI  VII.I.ANI,  "  Isto- 
rie  Florentine." 

Lorichon,  lo're'sho.N',  (ANTOINE  CONSTANT  Louis,) 
a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Lorieux,  lo're-uh',  (AUGUSTE  JULIEN  MARIE,)  a 
French  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Croisic  in  1797.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  X.,"  and  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Royal  Prerogative  in  France  and  Eng 
land,"  (1840.)  Died  in  1842. 

Lorin,  lo'raN',  (JEAN,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Avignon  in  1559;  died  in  1634. 

Lo'ring,  (WILLIAM  W.,)  an  American  major-general, 
born  in  North  Carolina  about  1815.  He  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  was  employed  in  the 
defence  of  Vicksburg  in  the  spring  of  1863. 

Lorinser,  lo'rin-ser,  (KARL  IGNAZ,)  a  German  medi 
cal  writer,  born  at  Nimes,  in  Bohemia,  in  1796;  died  in 
1853. 

Loriot,  lo're'o',  (ANTOINE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  me 
chanician,  born  near  Pontarlier  in  1716.  He  gained  a 
wide  reputation  by  his  ingenious  .and  useful  inven 
tions,  among  which  were  a  loom  for  ribbons,  machines 
•for  working  mines,  and  a  new  mortar  or  water-proof 
cement  which  bears  his  name.  Died  in  1782. 

Loriot,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Salins,  be 
came  professor  of  law  at  Leipsic  in  1550;  died  about 
1568. 

Loriquet,  lo're'ki',  (JEAN  NICOLAS,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  bom  at  Epernay  in  1760.  He 
published  many  school-books  in  which  history  was  ex 
purgated  or  falsified  to  promote  sectarian  and  partisan 
opinions.  He  stated  in  one  of  his  works  that  "In  1809 
the  Marquis  of  Bonaparte,  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
King  of  France,  entered  Vienna  at  the  head  of  an  army." 
Died  in  1845. 

Loritz.     See  GLARE  AN  us. 

Lorme,  de.     See  DEI.ORME. 

Lorn,  LORD.  See  CAMPUELL,  (ARCHIKALD,)  Marquis 
of  Argyle. 

Lorrain,  (CLAUDE.)     See  CLAUDE  LORRAIN. 

Lorrain,  Le,  (RonEUT.)     See  LELORRAIN. 

Lorraine.  See  CHARLES  II.,  CHARLES  III.,  FRAN 
CIS  I.,  GUISE,  HARCOURT,  (HENRY,)  and  MAYENNE. 

Lorraine,  lor-ran'  or  lo'rin',  (ANTOINE,)  DUKE  OF, 
the  son  of  Rene  II.,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1489. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1508,  and  married  Renee  de 
Bourbon,  a  French  lady.  He  maintained  a  neutrality  in 
the  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  and  reigned 
mostly  in  peace,  except  some  bloody  contests  with  the 
German  Protestants.  He  died  in  1544,  leaving  the  duchy 
to  his  son,  Francis  II. 

Lorraine,  CARDINAL.     See  GUISE,  (CHARLES  DE.) 

Lorraine,  lo'rin',  (CHARLES  IV.,)  DUKE  OF,  the  son 
of  Fran£ois,  Comte  de  Vaudemont,  was  born  in  1604,  and 
succeeded  his  uncle  Henry  (whose  daughter  he  had  mar- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LORRAINE 


'454 


LOTAR10 


ried)  in  1624.  Louis  XIII.  of  France  invaded  Lorraine 
in  1632,  and  took  without  much  resistance  Nancy  (the 
capital)  and  several  fortresses.  In  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  which  began  about  1620,  Charles  fought  for  the 
German  empire,  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the 
Swedes  at  Nordlingen  in  1634,  and  as  an  ally  of  Spain 
fought  against  the  French  in  several  ensuing  campaigns. 
By  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659)  Lorraine  was  re 
stored  to  him,  but  France  retained  the  duchy  of  Bar.  In 
1662  he  appointed  Louis  XIV.  his  heir,  but  soon  took 
arms  against  him,  and  became  a  general  in  the  imperial 
army.  Died  in  1675. 

See  DOM  CAI.MET,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine;"  C.  A.  BIIGIN,  "  His- 
toire  Hes  Ouches  de  Lorraine  et  Bar,"  1834;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene'rale." 

Lorraine,  (CHARLES  V.,)  DUKE  OF,  an  able  general 
and  statesman,  born  at  Vienna  in  1643,  was  the  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  lie  was  the  son  of  Francis,  (a  brother 
of  Charles  IV.)  At  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  the  duke 
dom  was  claimed  by  the  subject  of  this  article,  and  by 
the  French  king,  who  had  possession  ;  but  Charles  was 
recognized  as  duke  by  the  other  powers  of  Europe. 
Having  entered  the  Austrian  service,  he  was  made  a 
general  in  1672,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Senef  in 
1675.  His  reign  over  Lorraine  was  only  nominal.  He 
was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  imperial  army  in  1676. 
In  1678  he  married  a  sister  of  the  Austrian  emperor,  and 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Nymwegen  to  his  duchy, 
with  the  condition  of  ceding  Nancy  to  France  ;  but  he 
refused  to  accept  these  terms.  He  rendered  signal 
services  to  Austria  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  which 
began  in  1683,  and  commanded  a  corps  against  the 
French  in  1689.  He  died  in  1690,  leaving  his  title  to  his 
son,  Leopold  I. 

See  JKAN  DE  LA  P.RUNE,  "Vie  de  Charles  V,"  i6qi  ;  C.  FRBS- 
CUOT,  ''Vita  di  Caroli  V.,"  1692;  DUPONT,  "  Abrege  historiquede  la 
Vie  de  Charles  V,"  1701. 

Lorraine,  (HENRI,)  DUKE  OF,  surnamed  THE  Goon, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1563,  was  the  son  of  Charles  III.  and 
Claude,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  He  married 
Catherine  de  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  King  Henry  IV.,  and 
in  1608  succeeded  his  father.  He  died  in  1624,  leaving 
the  duchy  to  his  nephew,  Charles  IV. 

Lorraine,  (LEOPOLD  I.,)  DUKE  OF,  born  at  Innspruck 
in  1679,  was  the  son  of  Charles  V.  By  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick,  in  1697,  he  recovered  Lorraine,  with  the  con 
dition  that  he  should  not  repair  the  dismantled  forts  nor 
keep  an  army.  He  married  Elizabeth  Charlotte,  niece 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  showed  himself  a  wise  ruler,  and 
improved  the  condition  of  his  dominions,  which  had  been' 
desolated  by  long  wars.  In  reference  to  him,  Voltaire 
says,  "One  of  the  petty  sovereigns  of  Europe  has  done 
the  most  good  to  his  people/'  He  died  in  1729,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis,  who  married  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  exchanged  Lorraine  for  Tuscany. 
He  was  the  last  Duke  of  Lorraine. 

Lorraine,  (RENE  II.,)  DUKE  OF,  born  in  1451,  be 
came  duke  in  1473.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
Rene  of  Anjou,  and  heiress  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  His 
dominions  having  been  invaded  by  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  Rene,  with  his  Swiss  allies,  defeated  Charles 
at  Moral  in  1476.  The  next  year  he  gained  another 
famous  victory  near  Nancy,  where  Charles  was  killed  in 
battle.  lie  formed  an  alliance  with  Venice,  and  in  1480 
was  appointed  captain-general  of  that  republic;  but  on 
the  death  of  Louis  XI.  of  PYance  he  left  the  service 
of  Venice  to  urge  his  claims  to  Anjou  and  Provence, 
which  he  failed  to  obtain.  He  died  in  1508,  leaving  two 
sons,  Antoine,  who  was  his  heir,  and  Claude,  the  first 
Duke  of  Guise. 

See  DOM  CAI.MET,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine." 

Lorrain,  de,  (CHARLES  I.)  See  CHARLES  DE  FRANCE. 

Lorraine,  de,  (CHARLES  II.)  See  CHARLKS  II.,  Duke 
of  Lorraine. 

Lorraine,  de,  (CHARLES  III.)  See  CHARLES  III., 
called  THE  GREAT. 

Lorraine,  de,  deh  lor-ran',  (CHARLES,)  an  Austrian 
general,  called  PRINCE  CHARLES  OF  LORRAINE,  born  at 
Luneville  in  1712,  was  the  second  son  of  Duke  Leopo'd 
I.,  and  a  brother  of  Francis  I.  of  Austria.  He  commanded 
the  Austrians  in  the  war  between  Maria  Theresa  and 
Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  at  Czas- 


lau  in  1742.  In  1744  he  forced  Frederick  to  evacuate 
Bohemia,  married  a  sister  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries.  At  the  be 
ginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  was  commander  of 
the  Austrians,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Prussians 
at  Breslau  in  1757  ;  but,  having  been  completely  defeated 
in  the  great  battle  of  Leuthen,  in  the  same  year,  he  re 
signed  his  command.  Died  in  1780. 

Lorraine,  de,  (FKANC.OIS,)  grand-prieiir  of  France, 
was  born  in  1534,  and  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Guise. 
After  serving  with  distinction  in  naval  war  against  the 
Turks,  he  was  made  general  of  the  galleys,  and  com 
manded  several  expeditions.  Died  in  1563. 

Lorris,  de,  deh  lo'ress',  (GUII.LAUME,)  a  mediaeval 
French  bard,  born  at  Lorris,  on  the  Loire.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  "Romance  of  the  Rose,"  ("Roman  de  la 
Rose,")  a  remarkable  poem,  which  had  a  great  influence 
on  French  literature.  The  subject  is  the  art  of  love,  and 
is  treated  in  an  agreeable  style.  lie  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1240. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lorry,  lo're',  (ANNE  CHARLES,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Crosne  in  1726.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and 
attained  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession.  He  became 
docteiir-regcntv>i\\\<i  faculty,  and  attended  Louis  XV.  in  his 
last  illness.  He  published  a  valuable  treatise  "On  Cuta 
neous  Diseases,"  (1777;)  also  an  edition  of  the  "Apho 
risms"  of  Hippocrates,  and  other  wciks.  Died  in  1783. 

See  Vic  IJ'AZYR,  "  fiioge  de  Lorry;"  "  Nuuvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lort,  (MICHAEL,)  an  English  writei  on  theology,  born 
in  1725.  lie  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge 
about  1759.  Died  in  1790. 

Lortic,  lou'tek',  (ANDR^,)  a  French  Protestant  min 
ister  and  writer,  born  at  Saintonge,  lived  between  1650 
and  1700.  Died  in  London. 

Lortzing,  loiu'sing,  (ALHEKT  AUGUST,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  Berlin  in  1803;  died  in  1851. 

Losada,  lo-sa'na,  ( DIEGO,)  a  Spanish  officer,  who 
conquered  the  native  tribes  of  Venezuela,  and  founded 
Santiago  de  Leon.  Died  in  1569. 

Losana,  lo-sa'na,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  priest,  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1738.  He  published  useful  treatises  on 
rural  economy,  insects,  etc.  Died  in  1833. 

Loscher  or  Loescher,  lo'sher,  (VALENTIN  ERNST,) 
a  German  theologian,  born  at  Sondershausen  in  1672. 
He  taught  theology  at  Wittenberg  for  many  years,  and 
published  there  a  monthly  journal  of  theology  and  lite 
rature,  (1701-20,)  which  had  great  success.  Died  in  1749. 

Loschge,  losh'geh,  (FRIEURICH  HEINRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Anspach  in  1755; 
died  in  1840. 

Losel  or  Loesel,  lo'zel,  QOHANN,)  a  German  bota 
nist,  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1607.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  anatomy  and  botany  at  Konigsberg,  and  died 
in  1656,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  "Flora  Prussica," — a 
mere  catalogue  of  plants, — which  Gottsched  published 
in  1703. 

Losenko,  lo-scn'ko,  written  also  Losseiiko,  (IVAN,) 
an  eminent  Russian  painter,  born  about  1720.  He  was 
director  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Saint 
Petersburg.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Parting  of  Hec 
tor  and  Andromache."  Died  in  1773. 

Los'siiig,  (BENSON  JOHN,)  an  American  historian  and 
engraver,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1813. 
He  published  numerous  illustrated  works,  most  of  which 
have  enjoyed  a  great  and  deserved  popularity.  Among 
the  most  important  are  "The  Pictorial  Field-Book  of 
the  Revolution,"  (2  vols.,  1850-52,)  "The  Life  and  Times 
of  Philip  Schuyler,"  (2  vols.,  1860,)  a  "Life  of  Washing 
ton,"  (3  vols.,  1860,)  and  a  "  Pictorial  History  of  the 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States,"  (3  vols.,  1866-69.) 

Lossius,  los'se-iis,  (LuCAS,)  a  German  musician  and 
writer,  born  at  Vach  in  1508;  died  in  1582. 

Lot,  [Heb.  DI1? ;  Fr.  LOTH,  lot,]  a  Hebrew  patriarch, 
who  lived  about  1900  K.C.,  was  the  son  of  Haran,  and 
nephew  of  Abraham.  He  resided  in  Sodom  until  he 
was  warned  by  angels  of  its  impending  destruction. 

See  Genesis  xi.,  xii.,  xiii.,  xix.  ;  II.  Peter  ii.  7. 

Lotario.     See  LOTHAIRE  I. 


*.  e,  I.  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOT  EN 


H55 


LOUD ON 


Loten,  lo'ten,  (JoiiN  or  JACOB,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  who  excelled  in  wild,  rocky  scenery,  and  storms. 
lie  worked  mostly  in  England,  where  he  died  in  1681. 

Loth.     See  LOT. 

Loth,  lot,  or  Loti,  lo'tee,  [in  Italian,  Lorn,]  (JoiiANX 
KARI.,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Munich  in  1632.  He 
acquired  a  high  rank  among  the  realists,  whom  the  Ital 
ians  call  " Xaturalisti."  Among  his  chief  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Abel,"  and  a  "Nativity."  Me  received 
the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  Died 
at  Venice  in  1698. 

Lothaire,  lo-thair',  [Fr.  pron.  lo'taV ;  Lat.  LOTHA'- 
RIUS  ;  Ger.  LOTHAR,  lo-taR' ;  It.  LOTARIO,  lo-ta're-o,]  I., 
Emperor  of  the  West  or  of  Rome,  born  about  795  A.D., 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire.  His  father  as 
sociated  him  with  himself  in  the  empire  in  817,  and  made 
him  King  of  Italy  in  822.  Pepin  and  Louis,  brothers  of 
Lothaire,  received  respectively  Aquitaine  and  Germany. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  840,  he  claimed  supremacy 
as  emperor  ;  but  his  brothers,  Louis  the  Germanic  and 
Charles  the  Bald,  united  to  dispute  his  title,  and  defeated 
him  at  the  great  battle  of  Fontanet,  (now  Fontenailles,)  in 
841.  I5y  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843)  Lothaire  retained 
Italy,  with  some  provinces  of  France.  His  capital  was 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  died  in  855  A.D.,  leaving  three  sons, 
Louis,  Charles,  and  Lothaire,  among  whom  the  empire 
was  divided. 

See  ASTROXOMUS,  "Vita  Ludovici  Pii  ;"  FAI-RIEI..  "  Histoire  de 
la  Gaule  meridionale,"  tome  iv.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Lothaire   [Lat.   LOTHA'RIUS;  Ger.  LOTHAR]  II.  or 
III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  sometimes  called  LOTHAIRE 
OF  SAXONY,  was  born  in  1075.     He  was  the  son  of  Geb- 
hard,   Count   of  Arnsberg.     After  the  death   of  Henry  i 
V.  he   was  elected  emperor,  in   1125.      Conrad,  Duke  j 
of  Franconia,  protested   against  the   election,  and   was  j 
crowned  at  Milan  by  his  partisans.   About  1132  Lothaire  j 
inarched  to  Rome  and  restored  Pope  Innocent  II.,  who 
had    been    expelled    by  his    rival    Anaclete.      He   was  j 
crowned  at  Rome  by  Innocent,  and  performed  acts  of 
homage  to  the  pope  which  were  afterwards  cited  as  an 
evidence  that  the  empire  was  a  fief  of  the   Roman  See. 
He  died  in  1137,  and  Conrad  III.,  above  named,  became 
emperor.   In  the  reign  of  Lothaire  the  Diet  of  the  empire 
asserted  its  exclusive  right  to  impose  taxes  and  make 
war  or  peace. 

See  GFRVAIS,  "Geschichte  Deutschlands  unter  Kaiser  Heinrich 
V.    und    I.otliar  III.."   2  vols..   1842:    MASCOV,  "  Commentarii  de  i 
Rebus  Imperil  Romano-Germanici  sub  Lotliario  II.,"  1755;  JAFFE.  | 
"  Geschichte  des  Deutscheu  Reiches  unter  I.othar  von   Sachsen," 
184.?. 

Lothaire,  lo-thair' or  lo'tSR',  King  of  France,  the  son 
of  Louis  d'Outremer,  was  born  in  941  A.n.,  and  suc 
ceeded  his  father  in  954.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by 
contests  with  powerful  vassals,  among  whom  was  Hugh 
Capet,  and  he  waged  war  with  Otho  II.  of  Germany.  He 
died  in  986,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  V. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lothaire,  King  of  Italy,  was  the  son  of  Hugh  of 
Provence,  who  admitted  him  to  a  share  of  the  royal 
power  in  931.  He  reigned  alone  a  few  years,  and  died 
in  950,  leaving  an  only  child,  Emma,  who  was  married  to 
Lothaire  of  France.  His  successor  was  Berenger  II. 

Lothaire,  King  of  Lorraine,  was  the  second  son  of 
the  emperor  Lothaire  I.  In  855  he  inherited  the  country 
situated  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  which  was 
called  Lotharingia, — Gallice  Lorraine.  He  weakened  the 
royal  power  by  yielding  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
clergy,  and  by  other  impolitic  measures.  Died  in  869  A.D. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lothar.     See  LOTHAIRE. 

Lotharius.     See  LOTHAIRE. 

Lotharius,  CARDINAL.     See  INNOCENT  III. 

Lotich,  lo'tiK,  (JoHANN  PETER,)  a  German  physician 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Nauheim  in  1598,  was  a  nephew 
of  Peter,  noticed  below.  He  lived  at  Frankfort,  where 
he  died  in  1669.  He  was  the  author  of  Latin  epigrams 
and  of  several  historical  and  medical  works. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Lotich,  [Lat.  LOTICH'IUS,]  (PETER,)  a  celebrated 
German  poet,  born  at  Schluchtern,  Hesse-Cassel,  in 
1528,  was  called  SECUNDUS,  to  distinguish  him  from  his 


uncle  of  the  same  name.  He  fought  for  the  Protestant 
League  of  Schmalkalden,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
civil  service  of  the  Elector-Palatine.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Heidelberg  in  1557,  and  died  in 
1560.  He  owes  his  fame  to  Latin  elegies  and  other 
poems,  (1551,)  which  were  highly  praised  by  eminent 
critics.  "  Lotich,"  says  Hallam,  "is  a  very  elegant  and 
classical  versifier,  and  perhaps  equal  in  elegy  to  any 
Cisalpine  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century."  ("Intro 
duction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  JOHANN  HAOF.N-,  "Vita  Peiri  Lotichii  Secundi,"  1586;  NICE- 
RON,  "  Memoires;"  M.  ADAM,  "  VitxGermanorum  Philosophorum." 

Lotichius.     See  LOTICH,  (PETER.) 

Lotteri,  lot-ta'ree,  (ANGEI.O  LUIGI,)  an  Italian  mathe 
matician,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1760.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Principles  of  the  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus,"  (1788.)  Died  at  Milan  in  1839. 

Lotti.     See  LOTH. 

Lotti,  lot'tee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Venice  about  1665;  died  in  1740. 

Lotti,  (Cosmo,)  a  Florentine  painter  and  architect, 
was  noted  for  mechanical  ingenuity,  and  made  several 
automata  at  Florence.  About  1628  he  was  invited  by 
Philip  IV.  to  Madrid,  where  he  built  the  theatre  Buen 
Retire. 

Lottin,  lo'taV,  (AUGUSTix  MARTIN,)  a  French  book 
seller,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  published  a  "Return 
from  Saint-Cloud  by  Land  and  Sea,"  a  facetious  work. 
Died  in  1793. 

Lotto,  lot'to,  (LORENZO,)  an  excellent  Italian  painter, 
was  born  at  Venice  about  1490.  He  worked  chiefly  at 
Bergamo,  and  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
best  painters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Among  his  master 
pieces  are  several  Madonnas  at  Bergamo.  His  first 
works  are  dated  about  1515,  and  his  last  about  1560. 
"His  master-pieces,"  says  Lanzi,  "place  him  almost  on 
a  level  with  the  first  luminaries  of  the  art." 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  I.ANZI,  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy;"  RIDOLFI,  "Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti." 

Louandre, loo'5NdR',  (CHARLES  LEOPOLD,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1813. 

Loubere,  de  la,  deh  It  loo'baiR',  (  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
geometer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1600.  He  taught  va 
rious  sciences  in  the  colleges  of  the  Jesuits,  and  pub 
lished  several  learned  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1664. 

Loubere,  de  la,  (SiMON,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1642.  lie  was  sent  as  envoy 
to  Siani  in  1687.  After  his  return  he  published  a  work 
"On  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,"  (1691,)  which  is  praised  for 
fidelity  and  judicious  observations.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1693.  Died  in  1729. 

Loubon,  loo'bA.N',  (  CHARLES  JOSEPH  EMILE,  )  a 
French  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Aix 
in  1809. 

Louchet,  loo'shi',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin,  who 
became  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He  was 
the  first  who  ventured,  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794,  to 
move  the  arrest  or  trial  of  Robespierre.  Lamartine 
calls  him  an  obscure  representative.  Died  in  1815. 

Loudou,  (GIDEON  ERNST.)  See  LAUDON. 

Loudon,  low'don,  (JANE,)  the  wife  of  J.  C.  London, 
noticed  below,  and  daughter  of  Thomas  Webb,  was  born 
near  Birmingham  in  1808.  She  was  married  in  1381, 
before  which  she  had  published  a  novel  called  "The 
Mummy."  She  gave  efficient  aid  to  her  husband  in  his 
literary  enterprises,  and  after  his  death  published  new 
editions  of  some  of  his  works.  She  also  wrote  "The 
Ladies'  Flower-Garden,"  (  1841,)  "Botany  for  Ladies," 
(1852,)  "Gardening  for  Ladies,"  and  other  esteemed 
works.  Died  in  1858. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xvii.; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1842. 

Loudon,  (JoiiN  CLAUDIUS,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer  on  horticulture  and  agriculture,  was  born  at 
Cambuslang  in  1783.  Having  learned  the  business  of 
a  landscape-gardener,  he  removed  to  London  in  1803. 
A  few  years  later  he  rented  a  farm,  on  which  he  tried 
new  modes  of  cultivation  with  success,  and  soon  acquired 
an  easy  fortune.  After  visiting  various  countries  of 
Europe,  he  returned  to  London,  and  published  "The 
Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,"  (1822,)  which  had  a  very 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Kt  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (ft^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOUET 


1456 


LOUIS 


large  sale.  He  afterwards  produced  "  Encyclopaedia  of 
Agriculture,"  (1825,)  and  "Encyclopaedia  of  Cottage, 
Farm,  and  Villa  Architecture,"  (1832.)  The  last  was 
especially  popular,  lie  was  editor  of  the  "Gardener's 
Magazine,"  commenced  in  1826,  and  of  the  "Magazine 
of  Natural  History,"  (1828-36.)  His  industry  and  ex 
tensive  learning  were  displayed  in  an  expensive  work  on 
the  trees  and  shrubs  of  Britain,  entitled  "  Arboretum  et 
Fruticetum  Britannicmn,"  (1838.)  Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Memoir  of  J.  C.  London,"  by  his  wife,  1845  J  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  "  Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  July,  1839. 

Louet,  loo'i',  (GF.ORGKS,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Angers  about  1540;  died  in  1608. 

Lough,  liif,  (JoHN  GR  \H.\M,)  an  English  sculptor, 
born  at  Greenhead,  in  Northumberland.  He  produced 
about  1827  an  admirable  statue  of  Milo  for  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  went  to  Italy  in  1834.  After  his  return 
home,  in  1838,  he  exhibited  "  ( )phelia,"  "  Hebe  banished," 
"The  Roman  Fruit-Girl,"  a  statue  of  Victoria,  (1845,) 
and  a  statue  of  Prince  Albeit,  (1847.)  Among  his 
greatest  works  is  a  colossal  marble  group  of  "  Satan 
subdued  by  the  Archangel  Michael,"  (1851.) 

Loughborough,  LORD.     See  WKDDKIUHIRN. 

Lours,  loo'iss,  [It.  LUIGI,  loo-ee'jee,|  I.,  King  of  Etru- 
ria,  born  at  Parma  in  1773, -was  the  son  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Parma.  In  1795  he  married  Maria  Louisa,  a 
daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain.  By  a  treaty  between 
the  Spanish  court  and  Napoleon  in  1801,  Louis  acquired 
Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Pirmn,  and  the  name  of  the 
former  was  changed  to  Etmria.  lie  died  in  1803, 
leaving  a  son,  Louis  II. 

Louis,  loo'iss,  [Fr.  pron.  looV ;  Ger.  I.umvio,  loocl'- 
ftir, ;  Lat.  Lunovi'cus,]  the  name  of  many  kings  of 
France.  Louis  I.,  surnamed  I.K  DEBONN  AIKE  and  THK 
Pious,  [Lai.  LUDOVI'CUS  Pi'us ;  Ger.  Lunwu;  DER 
FROMMK,]  Emperor  of  the  West,  and  King  of  France, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Charlemagne,  was  born  at 
Casseneuil  in  778  A.I).  Two  elder  brothers  having  died 
before  their  father,  Louis  became  heir  of  all  the  vast 
dominions  of  Charlemagne  in  814;  but  his  character 
was  too  feeble  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  empire. 
He  had  three  sons,  Lothaire,  Pepin,  and  Louis,  whom 
about  820  he  made  his  colleagues  in  the  government, 
giving  Italy  to  the  first,  Aqniuine  to  the  second,  and 
Bavaria  to  the  third.  After  this  division  another  son, 
Charles  the  Bald,  was  born  to  him.  His  sons  Lothaire 
and  Pepin  revolted  in  830,  and  deposed  him.  He  was 
compelled  to  do  public  penance,  and  confined  in  a  con 
vent.  By  the  efforts  of  his  sons  Louis  and  Pepin,  he  was 
restored  to  the  throne  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  840. 

See  FR  \vriv,  "Louis  le  Pieux  et'son  Siecle,"  2  vols,  1840; 
FR\NCK.  "  Ludwig  der  Fromnie,"  1832;  "  Nouvelle  biographic 
(iauerale." 

Louis  II.,  surnamed  I.K  BKGUE,  leh  bin,  (i.e.  "the 
Stammerer,")  King  of  France,  the  son  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  was  born  in  846  A.D.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
877.  He  propitiated  his  turbulent  nobles  by  granting  to 
them  many  duchies,  earldoms,  and  seignories.  He  died 
in  879,  leaving  three  sons,  Louis,  Carloman,  and  Charles 
the  Simple. 

See  MICHEI.ET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  III.,  King  of  France,  born  about  863,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  II.  In  879  the  kingdom  was  divided 
between  Louis  and  Carloman,  the  former  of  whom  re 
ceived  for  his  share  Netistria.  He  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Normans  who  invaded  France,  when  he  died,  with 
out  issue,  in  882  A.D.,  aged  about  twenty,  and  Carloman 
became  sole  king  of  France. 

See  MICHEI.ET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  IV.,  surnamed  n'OuTRKMF.R  (dootR'niaik') 
because  he  had  visited  England  in  infancy,  was  the  son 
of  Charles  the  Simple.  He  was  born  in  920  A.n.,  and 
crowned  king  in  936.  Among  the  events  of  his  reign 
was  a  war  between  him  and  Hugh,  the  father  of  Hugh 
Capet.  He  died  in  954,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Lothaire  II. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Louis  V.,  King  of  France,  surnamed  LE  FAINEANT, 
(i.e.  "the  Idle"  or  "Do-Nothing,")  the  son  of  Lothaire 


II.,  was  born  about  966.  He  inherited  the  title  of  king  in 
986,  and  died  in  987,  without  issue,  being  the  last  king 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  Hugh  Capet  was  elected 
as  his  successor. 

See  MICHKI.ET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  VI.  of  France,  surnamed  LE  GROS,  (leh  gRo,) 
was  the  son  of  Philip  I.  and  of  Bertha.  He  was  born 
in  1078,  and  became  king  in  1108.  Before  his  accession 
the  royal  power  had  been  much  reduced  by  the  preva 
lence  of  the  feudal  system,  and  in  his  reign  many  sei 
gneurs  asserted  by  arms  the  sovereign  power  over  their 
rtefs.  He  waged  war  against  -Henry  I.  of  England  for 
the  possession  of  Normandy,  but  was  not  successful. 
He  is  represented  as  a  brave  and  generous  prince,  and 
is  honoured  for  the  establishment  of  communes  and 
municipal  governments,  by  which  he  promoted  the  politi 
cal  influence  of  the  third  estate.  He  died  in  1137,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VII. 

See  SISMONUI,  "Histoire  des  Francais;"  MICHEI.ET,  "Histoire 
de  France." 

Louis  VII.,  King  of  France,  surnamed  LE  JKUNE, 
("the  Young,")  born  in  1120,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VI., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1137.  He  married  Eleanor, 
heiress  of  the  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  Having  been  anathe 
matized  by  the  pope,  he  became  penitent,  and,  in  order 
to  expiate  his  sins,  he  joined  the  second  crusade  to  Pal 
estine  in  1147,  and  was  followed  by  a  large  army  of 
Frenchmen  and  others.  After  many  defeats  ami  disas 
ters,  by  which  he  lost  nearly  all  his  men,  he  returned  in 
1149.  His  wife  Eleanor,  having  been  divorced  in  1152, 
married  Henry  II.  of  England,  who  by  this  marriage 
acquired  Guienne  and  Poitou.  War  ensued  between 
Louis  and  Henry,  but  no  decisive  advantage  was  gained 
by  either.  He  died  in  1180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Philip  Augustus. 

See  MICHEI.ET,  "Histoire  de  F  ranee:"  MICHAUD,  "  History  of 
the  Crusades  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Louis  VIII.,  surnamed  C(EUK-DK-LiON,  (kuk'deh- 
IC'ON',)  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  was  born  in  1187, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1223.  His  wife  was  Blanche 
of  Castile.  He  recovered  by  arms  Poitou  and  several 
places  which  the  English  held  in  France.  Instigated  by 
the  pope,  he  led  a  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and 
waged  an  unjust  war  against  the  Count  of  Toulouse, 
who  was  denounced  as  a  heretic.  At  the  end  of  the  first 
campaign  he  died,  in  1226,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Louis  IX. 

See  RYMER,  "  Fcedern,"  1704  ;  VAISSETTE,  "  Histoire  generale 
du  Languedoc."  5  vols.,  1730-45. 

Louis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France,  was  born 
in  1215,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  VIII.,  in  1226. 
His  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  was  regent  during  his 
minority,  and  defended  his  throne  with  wisdom  against 
Thibaut  de  Champagne  and  other  barons  who  were 
leagued  with  him.  Louis  married  Margaret  of  Pro 
vence  in  1234.  In  1244  he  recovered  from  a  dangerous 
illness,  and  made  a  vow  to  conduct  a  crusade  against 
the  infidels.  Having  raised  a  large  army,  he  departed 
in  1248,  and  in  the  next  year  entered  Egypt.  There  his 
army  was  ravaged  by  disease,  and  defeated  at  Mansourah 
by  the  Saracens,  who  took  Saint  Louis  prisoner.  By 
paying  a  ransom  he  obtained  his  liberty,  and  pursued 
his  course  to  Palestine,  where  he  remained  about  three 
years.  He  returned  to  France  in  1254,  and  employed 
himself  in  improving  the  condition  of  the  people  by  svise 
laws.  His  foreign  policy  was  pacific  towards  European 
nations,  but  his  zeal  against  infidels  urged  him  to  another 
crusade  in  1270.  He  first  directed  his  operations  against 
Tunis,  but  before  he  had  reached  that  place  he  died,  near 
Carthage  or  Tunis,  in  August,  1270.  He  was  canonized 
in  1297.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philippe  le  Hard!. 
"  Louis  was,"  says  Voltaire,  "  in  all  respects  a  model  for 
men.  His  piety,  which  was  that  of  an  anchorite,  did  not 
deprive  him  of  royal  virtues.  He  made  a  profound  policy 
agree  and  concur  with  exact  justice ;  and  perhaps  he  is 
the  only  sovereign  who  merits  this  praise." 

See  G.  UK  NANGIS,  "Vie  de  Saint-Louis;"  JOINVII.I.E,  "Vie  de 
Saint-Louis;"  FIT.I.KAU  r>E  I.A  CHAISE.  "Histoire  de  Saint-Louis," 

2  vols  ,  1688;  BUKY,  "Histoire  de  Saint  Louis,"  1775;  MICHEI.ET, 
"  Histoire  de  France  ;"  MICH  A  tin,  "  History  of  the  Crusades  ;"  Vn.- 
I,ENEUVE-BARC;EMONT,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Louis,  Roi  de  France," 

3  vols.,  1836;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  Jong;  a,  e.  6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o, obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LOUIS 


'457 


LOUIS 


Louis  X.,  sin-named  LK  HUTIN,  (leh  hii'taN',)  King  of 
France,  the  son  of  Philippe  le  Bel,  was  born  in  1289, 
and  became  king  in  1314.  He  married  Clemence,  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Hungary.  Among  the  chief 
events  of  his  short  reign  was  his  unfortunate  expedition 
against  Flanders.  He  died,  without  male  issue,  in  1316, 
and  his  brother,  Philippe  le  Long,  was  his  successor. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  cles  Francais." 

Louis  XI.,  King  of  France,  born  at  Bourges  in  1423, 
was  the  son  of  Charles  VII.  He  married  Charlotte,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  His  ambitious  and  un 
scrupulous  character  was  early  manifested  by  revolts 
against  his  father.  He  became  king  in  1461,  soon  after 
which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  other  nobles  formed 
against  him  the  "  League  of  the  Public  Good."  Besieged 
in  his  capital  by  the  army  of  this  league  in  1465,  he  in 
duced  them  to  retire  and  disband  by  the  large  conces 
sions  of  a  treaty  which  he  intended  to  violate  at  his  own 
convenience.  By  crafty  policy,  superior  abilities,  and 
vigorous  measures,  he  greatly  increased  the  royal  power 
at^the  expense  of  the  nobles,  many  of  whom  fell  victims 
to  his  cruelty.  His  inveterate  enemy,  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  having  been  killed  in  battle  at  Nancy  in 
1477,  Louis  availed  himself  of  the  occasion  to  seize  his 
large  domains,  but  was  resisted  with  partial  success  by 
Maximilian  of  Austria  in  a  war  of  several  years.  Louis 
had  made  peace  with  Edward  IV.  of  England  in  1475. 
He  died  in  1483,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Charles 
VIII.  The  reign  of  Louis  XI.  is  remarkable  for  the 
multitude  of  important  events,  and  for  the  complete 
revolution  which  the  monarchy  then  passed  through. 
Post-offices  were  first  established  by  him  in  France. 

See  COMINES,  "  Memoires  contenant  les  Choses  ndvenues  chirant 
le  Regne  de  Louis  XI,"  1523  ;  the  same  in  English  ;  DUCJI.OS,  "  His 
toire  de  Louis  XI,"  1745;  JEAN  DE  TROVES,  "  Chroniqiie  scanda- 
leuse  ;"  MATHIEU,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XI,"  1610;  BASIN,  "  De 
Rebus  gestis  Caroli  VII.  et  Ludpvici  XI.:"  MICHEI.ET,  "Histoire 
de  France:  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Louis  XII.  of  France,  born  at  Blois  in  1462,  was  the 
son  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  Marie  of  Cleves. 
At  the  accession  of  Charles  VIII.  (1483)  he  was  the 
first  prince  of  the  blood.  Before  that  date  he  had  been 
compelled  to  marry  Jeanne,  the  daughter  of  Louis  XI. 
In  1495  he  attended  his  cousin,  Charles  VIII.,  in  his 
expedition  against  Naples,  and  in  1498  became  the  suc 
cessor  of  that  king,  who  left  no  issue.  I  le  married  Anne 
de  Bretagne,  the  widow  of  the  late  king,  thus  securing 
the  province  of  Bretagne  for  the  crown.  His  army  con 
quered  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  brought  Duke  Francis 
Sforza  a  captive  to  France  in  1500.  He  resolved,  also, 
to  prosecute  the  claims  of  his  family  to  Naples,  then 
ruled  by  Frederick  of  Aragon.  In  1501  Louis  and  Fer 
dinand  of  Spain  agreed  to  partition  between  themselves 
the  kingdom  of  Frederick,  who,  finding  resistance  im 
possible,  retired  to  France  and  received  a  pension  from 
Louis.  The  quarrel  that  ensued  between  Louis  and 
Ferdinand  ended  in  1503  by  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Naples  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova.  The  pope,  Julius 
II.,  having  formed  a  league  against  Louis,  the  French 
were  defeated  at  Novara  in  1513  and  driven  out  of  Italy. 
At  the  age  of  fifty-three  he  married  Mary,  a  sister  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He  died  on  the  1st  of  Janu 
ary,  1515,  leaving  two  daughters,  Claude  and  Renee. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Francis  I.  Louis  XII.  gained  the 
affection  of  his  subjects  by  reducing  the  taxes  and  pro 
moting  justice,  and  received  the  surname  of  "  Father  of 
the  People." 

See  JEAN  D'AUTON,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XII."  1615;  CLAUDE 
DE  SEVSSEL,  "Les  Louanges  du  bon  Roi  Louis  XII,"  1508;  JAY, 
"  Histoire  de  Louis  XII  :"  BRANTOME,  "  CEuvres  ;"  A.  VARII.LAS, 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XII,"  t6SS;  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
£ais ;"  P.  L.  GINGUENE,  "  filoge  de  Louis  XII,"  1788. 

Louis  XIII.  of  France,  the  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  of 
Marie  de  Medicis,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on  the 
27th  of  September,  1601.  He  succeeded  his  father 
May  14,  1610,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  was  de 
clared  of  age  in  1614,  and  married  Anne  of  Austria,  a 
daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  in  1615.  Soon  after 
that  date  Marie  de  Medicis  was  exiled  from  court,  and 
the  Duke  de  Luynes  became  the  royal  favourite.  In 
1620  Louis  marched  against  his  Protestant  subjects,  who 
had  been  provoked  into  a  revolt.  During  the  progress 


of  this  war  Richelieu  obtained  the  favour  and  confi 
dence  of  the  king,  who  made  him  prime  minister  in 
1624.  As  Louis  was  very  deficient  in  political  ability, 
Richelieu  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  government  from 
that  time  until  his  death.  Among  the  memorable  events 
of  this  reign  was  the  capture  of  Rochelle  from  the  Prot 
estants,  (1628,)  after  a  siege  of  about  a  year.  The  great 
talents  and  policy  of  Richelieu  were  directed  with  suc 
cess  to  the  subjection  of  the  Huguenots,  the  establish 
ment  of  absolutism  in  France,  and  the  abatement  of  the 
overgrown  power  of  Austria.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
war  the  French  armies  obtained  frequent  successes 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Imperialists,  and  extended 
the  boundaries  of  France  by  the  conquest  of  Roussillon, 
Alsace,  and  the  duchy  of  Bar.  Louis  died  in  May,  1643, 
leaving  the  crown  to  his  son,  Louis  XIV.  His  character 
was  timid,  and  not  adapted  to  win  the  favour  or  admira 
tion  of  the  French.  He  is  said,  however,  to  have  given 
proof  of  personal  courage  in  several  battles. 

See  MALINGRR,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XI 1 1,"  1646;  Cn.  BERNARD, 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XII  I,"  1646;  J.  HHWEI.L,  "Life  of  Lewis 
XIII,"  1646;  LE  VASSOR,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis  XIII," 
1700-11;  BAZIN,  "Histoire  de  France  sous  Louis  XIII,"  1837; 
"  Nouveile  Biographic  Generate." 

Louis  XIV.,  surnamed  LK  GRAND,  (lehgRoN,)  or  "  the 
Great,"  often  called  even  by  English  speakers  Louis 
QUATOKZE,  (loo'e'  kt'touz',)  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  XIII. 
and  Anne  of  Austria,  was  born  on  the  i6th  of  September, 
1638.  At  the  age  of  five  he  ascended  the  throne,  in  1643, 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain.  During  his  minority  the  government 
was  directed  by  Cardinal  MAZAKIN,  (which  see,)  a  for 
eigner,  whose  ministry  was  very  unpopular,  and  who  was 
involved  in  a  civil  war,  against  a  faction  called  La  Fronde, 
from  1648  until  1653.  In  1649  Louis  and  his  mother  were 
driven  out  of  the  capital  by  the  Frondeurs,  of  whom 
Conde  was  the  chief.  The  Thirty  Years'  war  was  ended 
in  1648  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  on  terms  favourable 
to  France  ;  but  Spain,  refusing  to  unite  in  this  treaty,  con 
tinued  the  war  against  the  French  until  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees,  (1659,)  when  Louis  married  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

At  the  death  of  Mazarin,  in  1661,  Louis  resolved  to  be 
his  own  prime  minister,  and  was  fortunate  in  obtaining 
the  services  of  so  able  a  financier  as  Colbert.  France 
was  then  without  doubt  the  greatest  and  most  compact 
power  in  Europe.  To  the  arduous  duties  of  his  new 
position  the  king  brought  imposing  and  popular  personal; 
qualities,  and  political  talents  of  a  high  order.  His  am 
bition  was  to  make  France  prosperous  and  the  monarchy 
absolute.  His  policy  was  briefly  summed  up  in  his  fa 
mous  saying,  " L'litat,  c'est  mo/ !"  ("The  State — that  is 
myself!")  The  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  in  1665, 
furnished  him  a  pretext  for  the  extension  of  his  domin 
ions  towards  the  Rhine.  In  exchange  for  the  dowry 
promised  to  his  queen,  which  the  Spanish  court  neglected 
to  pay,  he  claimed  Flanders  and  Franche-Comte,  which 
he  invaded  with  success  in  1667.  The  emperor  Leopold 
and  the  Dutch  aided  the  Spaniards  against  him  until  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen,  (1678,)  by  which  Louis  retained 
Franche-Comte  and  a  large  part  of  Flanders.  In  the 
mean  time  the  administration  had  been  reformed  and 
centralized  by  Louis,  and  the  taxes  had  been  reduced 
and  the  revenue  increased  by  Colbert.  In  1670  Louis 
made  a  secret  treaty  with  Charles  II.  of  England,  whose 
alliance  he  purchased  by  a  pension.  Commerce,  manu 
factures,  arts,  literature,  etc.  were  liberally  encouraged  in 
his  reign  ;  but  the  intolerant  zeal  of  the  king  betrayed 
him  into  one  very  unjust  and  impolitic  measure  when, 
in  1685,  he  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  had  se 
cured  the  religious  liberty  of  Protestants.  His  Catholic 
zeal,  however,  did  not  de'ter  him  from  a  serious  quarrel 
with  the  pope,  on  the  question  of  franchises,  in  1687. 
About  this  time  he  secretly  married  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon,  a  lady  of  obscure  origin  but  eminent  merit.  (See 
MAINTKNON.) 

A  second  general  war  broke  out  in  1688,  between  Louis 
on  one  side,  and  Spain,  Austria,  England,  and  the  Prince 
of  Orange  on  the  other.  Louis  failed  in  his  attempt  to 
restore  James  II.  of  England,  and  found  a  formidable 
adversary  in  James's  successor,  William  III.  After  many 
sieges  and  indecisive  actions  in  Flanders,  the  war  was 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as>;  o,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

O3 


LOUIS 


1458 


LOUIS 


suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  (1697.)  By  the  will 
of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  (1700,)  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou, 
a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  appointed  heir  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  This  occasioned  a  great  European  coali 
tion  against  the  French  king,  and  the  long  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  in  which  he  had  to  contend  against 
the  English  and  Austrians,  under  Marlborough  and  Eu 
gene,  who  won  great  victories  at  Blenheim,  Malplaquet, 
etc.  ;  but  the  French  prince  Philip  remained  master  of 
Spain,  and  hostilities  were  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
in  April,  1713.  After  a  reign  of  seventy-two  years,  he 
died,  on  the  1st  of  September,  1715,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  great-grandson,  Louis  XV.  The  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  svas  the  most  brilliant  in  the  literary  history  of 
France,  and  he  was  a  very  judicious  as  well  as  a  very 
munificent  patron  of  literary  merit.  He  preserved  his 
equanimity  in  his  successes  and  his  reverses. 

"  No  sovereign,"  says  Macaulay,  in  his  review  of  Du- 
mont's  "Recollections  of  Mirabeau,"  "has  ever  repre 
sented  the  majesty  of  a  great  state  with  more  dignity 
and  grace.  ...  He  was  not  a  great  general ;  he  was  not 
a  great  statesman  ;  but  he  was,  in  one  sense  of  the  words, 
a  great  king.  Never  was  there  so  consummate  a  master 
of  what  our  James  I.  would  have  called  king-craft. 
Though  his -internal  administration  was  bad,  though  the 
military  triumphs  of  his  reign  were  not  achieved  by 
himself,  though  his  later  years  were  crowded  with  de 
feats,  ...  he  succeeded  in  passing  himself  off  on  his 
people  as  a  being  above  humanity." 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV,"  1752  ;  PELI.ISSON,  "  His- 
toire  de  Louis  XIV,"  1749;  DANGEAU,  "Journal  de  la  (Jour  de  Louis 
XIV  ;"  "  Letters  of  Madame  de  Maintenon  ;"  J.  DE  LARKHY,  "  His- 
toire  de  France  sons  la  Regne  de  Louis  XIV,"  1718-22  ;  CAPEFIGUE, 
"  Louis  XIV,  son  Gouvernement,"  etc.,  6  vols.,  1837  :  SAINT-SIMON, 
"Memoires;"  G.  P.  R.  JAMES,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Louis 
XIV.,"  4  vols.,  1X38;  LORD  HOLINGBROKE.  "Siecle  politique  de 
Louis  XIV,"  2  vols.,  1754;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1818. 

Louis  XV.  of  France,  the  great-grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  the  15111  of  February, 
1710.  His  father  was  the  virtuous  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  his  mother  was  Maria  Adelaide  of  Savoy.  Louis 
became  king  on  the  1st  of  September,  1715,1)16  Duke  of 
Orleans,  a  nephew  of  Louis  XIV.,  being  then  appointed 
regent.  The  minority  of  Louis  was  a  period  of  scan 
dalous  corruption  in  morals  and  politics.  Among  the 
ruinous  errors  of  the  regent's  administration  was  his 
adoption  of  the  financial  system  of  the  famous  projector 
Law.  (See  LAW,  JOHN.)  In  1723  the  king  was  declared 
of  age,  the-  Duke  of  Orleans  died,  and  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon  became  prime  minister.  In  1725  Louis  married 
Marie  Leczinska,  daughter  of  Stanislas,  the  dethroned 
king  of  Poland,  and  in  the  next  year  Bourbon  was  super 
seded  by  the  eminent  statesman  Cardinal  Fleury,  who 
had  been  preqeptor  of  the  young  king  and  had  merited 
his  confidence..  By  his  prudent  and  pacific  administra 
tion  Fleury  restored  some  degree  of  order  and  prosperity 
in  the  state,  and  arrested  the  downward  progress  of  the 
monarchy.  A  war  which  began  between  the  French  and 
Austrians  in  1733  was  waged  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Italy 
until  1735,  when  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna.  Against  the  advice  of  Fleury,  Louis 
joined  in  1741  the  iniquitous  coalition  against  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  sent  an  army  into  Bohemia. 
The  English  then  declared  war  against  France.  In  1743 
Cardinal  Fleury  died,  and  Louis  resolved  to  dispense 
with  a  prime  minister.  Among  the  principal  events  of 
this  war  was  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  (1745,)  where  in 
presence  of  Louis  his  army  defeated  the  English  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Hostilities  were  suspended 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  About  this 
period  Louis  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  govern 
ment,  and  abandoned  himself  to  scandalous  vices  in  the 
harem  called  the  "  Pare  aux  Cerfs." 

Rival  claims  of  the  French  and  English  in  Canada 
were  the  cause  or  pretext  of  a  war  which  began  in  1755, 
and  the  French  court  was  at  the  same  time  involved  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war  as  the  ally  of  Maria  Theresa.  The 
disasters  and  disgraces  of  this  war  increased  the  un 
popularity  of  the  king,  who  was  stabbed  by  a  fanatic 
named  Damiens  in  1757,  but  only  slightly  hurt.  The 
French  were  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Ross- 
bach  (1757)  and  at  Minden,  (1759,)  and  in  various  nava! 


battles  by  the  English.  After  losing  Canada  and  other 
colonies,  the  French  court  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris  in 
1763,  and  ended  a  war  the  odium  of  which  was  thrown 
on  Madame  de  Pompadour.  Under  the  auspices  of  the 
Due  de  Choiseul,  then  chief  minister,  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits  was  suppressed  about  1762.  Louis  died  in  May, 
1774,  leaving  the  kingdom  impoverished,  oppressed,  and 
demoralized.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Louis 
XVI.,  whose  father,  the  dauphin,  had  died  in  1765. 

See  LACRETEI.I.E,  "  Histoire  de  France  pendant  le  dix-huitieme 
Siecle,"  5  vols.,  1809;  BAUER,  "  Ludwij;  XV.,  Kbuig  von  Frank- 
reich,"  1804;  VOLTAIRE,  "Histoire  du  'Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  DE 
ToCQUBVlLLH,  "Histoire  pliilnsophique  du  Regne  de  Louis  XV,'.' 
1847;  MAUREPAS,  "  Memoires,"  1791  ;  M.  CAPKFIGUE,  "  Louis  XV 
et  la  Societ^  du  XVI He  Siecle;"  CARLYLK,  "  French  Revolution.'' 

Louis  XVI.,  the  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born 
at  Versailles,  August  23,  1754.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  and  Marie  Josephe  of 
Saxony,  and  received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Due  de 
Berry.  In  1770  he  married  Marie  Antoinette,  a  daughter 
of  Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Austria.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  1774,  and  appointed  Turgot  minister  of  the 
finances,  which  were  then  in  great  disorder.  Turgot, 
a  man  of  probity  and  ability,  undertook  wise  and  exten 
sive  reforms;  but  these  were  resisted  by  the  nobility 
and  clergy,  and  he  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1776. 
Necker  then  became  controleur-getieral,  or  prime  minister. 
(See  NKCKKR,  J.)  In  1778  the  French  court  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States,  declared  war 
against  England,  and  sent  a  fleet  and  army  to  fight  for 
the  new  republic.  Peace  was  restored  between  France 
and  England  in  1783,  and  the  French  soldiers  returned 
home  enthusiasts  for  liberty. 

Necker  having  resigned  in  1781,  Calonne  was  ap 
pointed  contrdleiir-general.  He  not  only  failed  to  supply 
the  deficit  in  the  revenue,  but  increased  the  public  dis 
tress  by  his  prodigality,  and  called  an  Assembly  of  Nota 
bles  in  1787.  In  this  year  Calonne  was  superseded  by 
Lomenie  de  Brienne,  who  also  was  found  incompetent 
to  guide  the  state  through  that  great  financial  and  politi 
cal  crisis,  and  advised  the  king  to  convoke  the  States- 
General,  which  had  not  been  assembled  since  1614. 
Louis  recalled  Necker  to  the  place  of  prime  minister 
about  September  i,  1788,  and  convoked  the  States-Gene 
ral  at  Versailles  in  May,  1789.  This  event  was  the  signal 
for  the  explosion  of  passions,  ambitions,  and  resentments 
which  had  accumulated  and  fermented  during  a  long 
period  of  misrule.  The  popular  cause  derived  great 
advantage  from  Necker's  ordinance  that  the  number  of 
the  deputies  of  the  Third  Estate  should  be  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  noblesse  and  clergy.  After  a  contest 
between  the  Third  Estate  and  the  other  orders  on  the 
question  whether  they  should  vote  together  or  separately 
by  orders,  the  Third  Estate  prevailed,  and  took  the  name 
of  the  National  Constituent  Assembly.  Necker  having 
been  dismissed  in  July,  1789,  the  populace  of  Paris  de 
stroyed  the  Bastille  a  few  days  later.  Thenceforth  the 
progress  of  revolution  was  rapid  and  irresistible.  The 
Assembly  madi  a  great  and  sudden  change  in  the  po 
litical  and  social  condition  of  France  by  the  abolition  of 
tithes,  titles  of  nobility,  feudal  privileges,  and  inveterate 
abuses.  The  landed  estates  of  the  Church,  comprising 
nearly  one-third  of  France,  were  confiscated.  The  king, 
who  was  disposed  to  make  large  concessions  and  lacked 
firmness  to  resist  popular  aggressions,  remained  as  a 
hostage  of  the  old  regime  in  the  hands  of  the  nation. 
The  position  of  Louis  became  so  irksome  and  perilous 
that  he  attempted,  in  June,  1791,  to  escape  with  his 
family  from  Paris,  but  was  arrested  at  Varennes  and 
compelled  to  return.  He  then  accepted  the  new  consti 
tution,  which  proclaimed  liberty,  equality,  and  universal 
suffrage.  In  March,  1792,  a  Girondist  ministry  was 
formed,  in  which  Dumouriez  and  Roland  were  the  chief 
ministers,  and  war  was  declared  against  Austria  and 
Prussia.  By  the  insurrection  of  August  10,  the  Jacobins, 
led  by  Danton  and  Robespierre,  effected  the  total  sub 
version  of  the  monarchy  and  initiated  the  reign  of  terror. 
Louis  was  confined  in  a  prison  called  the  Temple,  after 
being  subjected  to  indignities  and  outrages  from  the  mob. 
He  was  tried  for  treason  by  the  National  Convention, 
which  met  in  September,  1792,  defended  by  Deseze  and 
Tronchet,  and  condemned  to  death,  the  vote  being  387 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LOUIS 


H59 


LOUIS 


for  death  and  334  for  banishment  or  detention.  He  was 
executed  January  21,  1793,  and  died  with  tranquil  forti 
tude.  He  left  a  son,  Louis,  styled  the  Seventeenth,  and 
a  daughter,  Elizabeth.  His  virtues  were  better  adapted 
to  a  private  station  than  to  a  throne. 

See  GASSIER,  "  Vie  de  Louis  XVI,"  1814  ;  DURDENT,  "  Histoire 
de  Louis  XVI,"  1817;  J.  DROZ,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis 
XVI, "3  vols.,  1839-42;  FAU.OUX,  "  Louis  XVI,"  1840;  CAHEFIGUE, 
"Louis  XVI.  son  Administration,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1844:  SOULAVIE, 
"Memoires  du  Regne  de  Louis  XVI,"  6  vols.,  1801;  THIEKS, 
"History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  LAMAKTINE,  "History  of 
the  Girondists,"  1847;  CAKI.YLE,  "French  Revolution;"  "Last 
Years  of  the  Reign  and  Life  of  Louis  XVI.,"  by  FKANCIS  Hue. 

Louis  XVII.  of  France,  the  second  son  of  Louis 
XVI.,  was  born  in  1785.  He  became  dauphin  at  the 
death  of  an  elder  brother  in  1789,  and  was  recognized  as 
king  in  January,  1793,  by  the  French  royalists  and  several 
foreign  courts,  but  was  closely  confined  by  the  Jacobins. 
The  cruel  treatment  which  he  received  from  his  jailers 
hastened  his  death,  which  occurred  in  prison  in  June, 

1795- 

See  A.  DE  BEAUCHESNE,  "Life,  Sufferings,  and  Death  of  Louis 
XVII.,"  translated  by  W.  HAZLITT;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1853. 

Louis  XVIII.  of  France,  born  at  Versailles  in  No 
vember,  1755,  was  the  third  son  of  the  dauphin,  and 
younger  brother  of  Louis  XVI.  He  received  at  his 
birth  the  names  of  Louis  Stanislas  Xavier,  and  the  title 
of  Count  de  Provence.  He  was  also  styled  MONSIEUR 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  In  1771  he  married 
Marie  Josephine  de  Savoy.  He  favoured  the  Revolu 
tion  in  its  first  stages,  and  by  his  influence  determined 
that  the  Third  Estate  should  send  to  the  States-General 
as  many  deputies  as  both  of  the  other  orders.  He  re 
mained  in  Paris  until  the  flight  of  the  king  to  Varennes, 
in  June,  1791,  when  lie  escaped  by  another  route.  During 
the  republic  and  empire  he  resided  at  Verona,  Mitati, 
Warsaw,  and  Hartwell,  England.  In  April,  1814,  he 
returned  to  France  and  ascended  the  throne  vacated 
by  Bonaparte.  He  hastened  to  accept  a  constitutional 
charter  which  his  ministers  presented.  By  the  escape 
of  Napoleon,  his  daring  march  to  Paris,  and  the  defec 
tion  of  the  army,  Louis  was  forced  to  fly  on  the  2oth  of 
March,  1815,  and  retired  to  Ghent.  (See  BoNAi'AKTK.) 

He  was  again  restored  by  the  allied  armies  in  July, 
1815,  at  one  of  the  most  disastrous  epochs  in  French 
history.  "  The  king  must  have  had,"  says  Lamartine, 
"great  courage  or  a  great  thirst  of  power,  to  accept  a 
throne  and  a  nation  buried  under  so  many  ruins."  Louis 
dismissed  Talleyrand,  and  selected  for  prime  minister 
the  Due  de  Richelieu ;  but  M.  Decazes,  minister  of 
police,  was  his  chief  favourite.  The  majority  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  were  extreme  royalists,  and  main 
tained  an  opposition  to  the  ministry.  Several  Bona- 
partists  were  executed,  and  others  banished.  On  Sep 
tember  5,  1816,  the  king  dissolved  the  Chamber,  and  by 
this  coup  d'etat  gained  much  popularity.  The  next  elec 
tions  resulted  in  favour  of  the  moderate  royalists.  In 
December,  1818,  a  new  liberal  ministry  was  formed,  and 
Decazes  became  prime  minister.  (See  DHCAZES.)  The 
ultra-royalists,  with  Villele  as  premier,  came  into  power 
in  February,  1820,  and  passed  an  electoral  law  less 
favourable  to  the  liberal  party.  In  1823  the  French 
court  sent  an  army  into  Spain,  and  supported  the  cause 
of  absolutism,  as  an  ally  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Louis  died 
in  September,  1824,  without  issue,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Charles  X.  "  His  qualities,"  says  Michaud, 
"were  rather  brilliant  than  solid."  He  had  respectable 
literary  attainments  and  an  easy  elocution.  He  is  re 
puted  the  author  of  the  saying,  "  Punctuality  (exactitude) 
is  the  politeness  of  kings." 

See  ALPHONSE  L>E  BF.AUCHAMP,  "Vie  de  Louis  XVIII,"  1821; 
LACRETELI.E,  "Histoire  de  France  depuis  la  Restauration,"  4  vols., 
1829-36;  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "Memoires 
de  Louis  XVIII,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1832;  CHATEAUBKIAND, 
"  Me'moires  d'Outre-'i'ombe  :"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
EYRE  EVANS  CROWE,  "  History  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.," 
2  vols.,  1854;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1833. 

Louis,  (Kings  or  princes  of  Germany.)     See  LEWIS. 

Louis  [It.  LUIGI,  loo-ee'jee]  II.,  King  and  Emperor  of 
Italy,  the  son  of  Lothaire  I.,  was  born  about  822  A.D. 
He  became  the  colleague  of  his  father  in  850,  and  at  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  855,  inherited  the  throne  of  Italy. 
Among  the  events  of  his  reign  were  battles  which  he 


fought  with  various  success  against  the  Saracens  who 
invaded  Italy.  He  died  in  875,  leaving  a  daughter 
Ermengarcle,  who  was  married  to  Boson,  King  of  Aries. 
They  had  a  son,  who  was  styled  Louis  III. 

See  MURATORI,  "Annales  d'ltalia;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Louis  (Luigi)  III.,  King  or  Emperor  of  Italy,  sur- 
named  THE  BLIND,  born  about  879,  was  a  grandson  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  son  of  Boson,  King  of  Aries, 
and  Ermengarde.  In  900  he  was  invited  to  Italy  by 
several  barons,  and  was  crowned  in  place  of  Berenger, 
who  took  Louis  prisoner  in  905  and  put  out  his  eyes. 
Died  in  929. 

Louis  (Luigi)  OF  TARENTUM,  King  of  Naples,  born 
in  1320,  was  a  grandson  of  Charles  the  Lame.  He  was 
a  cousin  of  Queen  Joan  of  Naples,  who  married  Louis 
in  1346,  after  she  had  strangled  her  husband  Andrew. 
Died  in  1362. 

Louis  (Luigi)  II.,  King  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Jerusa 
lem,  born  in  1377,  was  a  son  of  Louis  I.  He  was  crowned 
by  the  pope  in  1389,  and  obtained  possession  of  Naples, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  by  Ladislaus  in  1399.  Died 
in  1417. 

Louis  (Luigi)  III,  of  Naples,  Duke  of  Anjou,  born 
in  1403,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  inherited  his 
father's  title  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  which,  however, 
was  occupied  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon.  He  invaded  Italy, 
and  conquered  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom,  but  died  in 
1434,  before  his  enterprise  was  finished. 

Louis  [Port.  Luis,  loo-ess' 1 1.,  King  of  Portugal,  born 
in  1838,  began  to  reign  at  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Pedro  V.,  in  November,  1861,  before  which  he  was  the 
Duke  of  Oporto.  He  married  Maria  Pia,  a  daughter  of 
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  in  1862. 

Louis  (Luigi)  I.,  King  of  Sicily  or  of  Naples,  Count 
of  Provence,  Duke  of  Anjou,  etc.,  born  in  1339,  was 
a  younger  son  of  Jean  II.  of  France.  At  the  instigation 
of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  Queen  Joan  of  Naples  adopted 
Louis  as  her  successor  in  1380,  but  his  title  was  disputed 
by  Charles  of  Durazzo,  who  afterwards  became  King  of 
Naples.  Died  near  Bar!  in  1384. 

Louis  [Sp.  Luis,  loo-ess']  OF  ARAGON,  King  of  Sicily, 
born  in  1338,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Peter  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1342.  Died  in  1355. 

Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Maria  Theresa,  was  born  in  1661,  and  was  called 
MONSEIGNEUR.  His  education  was  directed  by  Bossuet, 
who  wrote  for  him  his  "Discourse  on  Universal  His 
tory."  The  dauphin,  however,  had  a  great  aversion  to 
study,  and  appears  to  have  had  only  moderate  abilities. 
He  married  Marie  Christine  of  Bavaria,  and  became 
father  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  of  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  who  was  afterwards  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  In  1688 
Louis  XIV.  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the 
Rhine,  under  the  direction  of  Vauban.  As  commander 
of  the  army  in  Flanders  in  1694,  the  dauphin  received 
credit  for  a  march  which  protected  Dunkirk.  His  last 
years  were  passed  in  compulsory  idleness.  Died  in  1711. 

Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XV., 
was  born  in  1729.  His  virtues,  talents,  and  attainments 
are  highly  commended  by  M.  Michaud,  Jr.  In  1747  he 
married  Marie  Josephe  of  Saxony,  by  whom  he  had 
three  sons,  who  became  kings,  viz.,  Louis  XVI.,  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  He  was  excluded  by  his  father 
from  all  participation  in  the  government.  Died  in  1765. 

Louis,  loo'e',  (ANTOINE,)  a  celebrated  French  sur 
geon,  born  at  Metz  in  1723.  He  settled  in  Paris  at  an 
early  age,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings 
on  surgery.  He  wrote  many  able  surgical  articles  for 
the  "  Encyclopedic."  He  was  for  many  years  the  oracle 
and  counsel  of  the  tribunals  in  questions  of  medical 
jurisprudence.  Died  in  1792. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneYale." 

Louis,  (Louis  DOMINIQUE,)  BARON,  a  successful 
French  financier,  better  known  as  AKH^  Louis,  was  born 
at  Toul  in  1755.  He  emigrated  to  England  in  1792,  and 
returned  about  the  end  of  1799.  During  the  empire  he 
became  administrator  of  the  treasury,  councillor  of  state, 
and  a  baron.  From  April,  1814,  until  August,  1815,  he 
served  Louis  XVIII.  as  minister  of  finance.  He  was  re 
called  to  the  same  office  in  1818  by  Decazes,  and  resigned 


as  k;  c  as  s;  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  is.,  guttural;  N,  nasai;  K,  trilled:  sasz:  t-h  as  in  this. 


e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOUIS 


1460 


LOURDOUEIX 


in  November,  1819.     He  was  also  appointed  minister  of 
finance  by  Louis  Philippe  in  1830.     Died  in  1837. 

See  "Souvenirs  sur  le  Baron  Louis,"  Paris,  1842:  CoMTE  UE 
SAINT-CRICQ,  ''^loge  de  Baron  Louis,"  1838;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Louis,  (PIERRE  CHARLES  ALKXANDRE,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Ai  (Marne)  in  1787.  Among  his 
works  is  "Researches  on  Typhoid  Fever,"  (2  vols., 
1828.) 

Louis  Napoleon.     See  NAPOLEON  III. 

Louis  Philippe,  loo'e'  fe'lep',  Duke  of  Orleans,  King 
of  the  French,  often  called  "the  Citizen  King,"  was 
born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  October,  1773,  and  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Duke  of  Orleans," 
who  was  styled  Philippe  Egalite.  His  mother  was  Louise 
Marie  de  Bourbon,  a  daughter  of  the  Due  de  Pen- 
thievre.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  Madame 
de  Genlis,  who  taught  him  liberal  principles  and  formed 
him  to  habits  of  prudence  and  self-control.  During  the 
life  of  his  father,  who  was  executed  in  1793,  he  was  styled 
the  Duke  of  Chartres.  About  1790  he  entered  the  army 
as  colonel,  and  merited  two  civic  crowns  by  saving  the 
lives  of  two  priests  in  an  emcute.  lie  favoured  the 
popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  served  in  the  first 
campaign  against  the  Austrians  in  1792.  In  November 
of  that  year  he  commanded  the  centre  at  Jemmapes, 
and  was,  says  Lamartine,  the  favourite  lieutenant  of 
Dumonriez,  the  general-in-chief.  Having  been  sum 
moned  to  appear  at  the  tribunal  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety  in  April,  1793,  he  escaped  across  the  Bel 
gian  frontier  with  Dumouriez,  in  whose  conspiracy  with 
the  Austrians  he  was  implicated.  He  afterwards  wan 
dered  as  an  exile  and  in  disguise  through  various  coun 
tries  and  strange  vicissitudes,  and  was  for  some  months 
(1794)  professor  in  the  College  of  Reichenau,  under  the 
name  of  M.  Chambaud.  In  1796  he  came  tor  greater 
safely  to  the  United  States,  where  he  travelled  more  than 
a  year.  From  1800  until  1808  the  Duke  of  Orleans  re 
sided  in  England.  He  married  Maria  Amelia,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples,  in  1809.  At  the  restora 
tion  of  the  Bourbons  (1814)  he  returned  to  France,  and 
was  reinstated  in  his  hereditary  honours  and  possessions. 
\\  hen  the  escape  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba  became  known 
at  Paris,  Louis  XVIII.  appointed  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
commander  of  the  army  of  the  North  ;  but  he  soon  re 
signed  this  place.  He  took  little  part  in  public  affairs 
until  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  had  dethroned  Charles 
X.,  and  a  provisional  government  was  formed,  under  the 
direction  of  La  Fayette,  Lafitte,  Guizot,  Thiers,  and  others. 
A  powerful  party  then  urged  the  claim  of  Louis  Philippe 
to  the  throne,  while  others  wished  a  republic.  The  scale 
appears  to  have  been  turned  by  La  Fayette,  (who  did  not 
consider  France  yet  prepared  for  a  republic,)  and  the 
crown  was  offered  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans  by  the  Deputies 
and  Peers,  on  the  gth  of  August,  and  accepted,  with  a 
remodelled  constitution.  The  king  called  into  his  cabi 
net  the  Due  de  Broglie,  Count  Mole,  M.  Guizot,  and 
Lafitte.  He  was  soon  after  recognized  by  the  great  powers 
of  Europe.  In  October,  1830,  M.  Lafitte  became  premier, 
and  in  March,  1831,  was  superseded  by  Casimir  Perier. 
The  first  part  of  this  reign  was  disturbed  by  riots  and 
conspiracies  of  the  Carlists  and  republicans,  and  several 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  the  king.  In  October, 
1832,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  of  which  Marshal  Soult 
was  premier  and  Guizot  and  Thiers  were  members,  the 
majority  being  Doctrinaires.  Frequent  changes  of  the 
ministry  afterwards  occurred,  by  which  Couut  Mole,  the 
Due  de  Broglie,  Thiers,  and  Guizot  were  successively 
raised  to  the  office  of  prime  minister.  In  October,  1836, 
Louis  Napoleon  made  at  Strasbourg  an  abortive  attempt 
to  dethrone  Louis  Philippe,  for  which  he  was  banished  to 
the  United  States.  Louis  Philippe  followed  a  pacific  policy, 
and  waged  no  wars  against  the  great  European  powers ; 
but  his  army  made  important  conquests  in  Algeria.  His 
reign,  however,  though  successful,  was  not  generally 
popular.  It  was  stigmatized  as  reactionary,  temporizing, 
"egotistical."  The  peace  which  had  been  the  chief  merit 
of  this  reign  was  at  last  imperilled  by  the  impolitic  mar 
riage  of  the  king's  son,  the  Duke  of 'Montpensier,  to  the 
eventual  heiress  of  the  Spanish  crown.  Electoral  reform 
became  the  rallying-cry  of  a  plan  of  agitation  concerted 


by  a  coalition  of  republicans,  Bonapartists,  and  royalists 
in  1847.  'l*ne  forcible  opposition  of  the  ministry  to  this 
open  agitation  at  reform  banquets  caused  a  collision  be 
tween  the  troops  and  the  Parisian  populace  on  February 
24,  1848.  Unwilling  to  authorize  a  great  slaughter  of 
the  people,  the  king  then  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
grandson,  Count  of  Paris;  but  the  republic  proclaimed 
by  Lamartine,  Arago,  and  others  prevailed.  Louis  Phi 
lippe  escaped  in  disguise  to  England,  where  he  was  kindly 
received.  He  died  at  Claremont,  England,  in  August, 
1850,  leaving  four  sons,  styled  the  Due  de  Nemours, 
the  Due  de  Montpensier,  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  and 
the  Due  d'Aumale. 

SeeHouDiN,  "  Histoirede  Louis  Philippe."  1847;  I,.  G.  MICHAUD, 
lkThe  Public  and  Private  Lite  of  Louis  Philippe,"  in  French,  1849; 
NOUVION,  "Viede  Louis  Philippe,"  1849;  G.  N.  WRK;HT,  "The 
Lite  and  Times  of  Louis  Philippe,"  1842  ;  Louis  HI.ANC,  "  Histoire 
de  dix  Ans,"  (1830-40)  Paris,  1842;  ALFRED  E.  DOUGLAS,  "Lite 
and  Times  of  Louis  Philippe,  ex- King  of  the  French,"  1X4$;  GUIZOT, 
"  Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  de  mon  Temps;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and 
October,  1850. 

Louis  Quatorze.     See  Louis  XIV. 

Louisa  (or  Luise)  Auguste  Wilhelmine  Amalie, 
Queen  of  Prussia,  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  was  born  at  Hanover  in  1776.  She  was 
married  in  1793  to  the  prince-royal,  who  in  1797  became 
King  Frederick  William  III.  After  becoming  the  mother 
of  several  children,  she  died  in  1810.  Her  beauty  and 
accomplishments  are  highly  praised. 

See  CHARI.OTTK  RICHAKDSON,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Private  Life  of 
Louisa,  Queen  of  Prussia,"  1847;  J.  F.  SCIIINK,  "Louise  Preus- 
sens  Schutzgeist,"  1817;  "Nouvelle  liiographie  Generale." 

Louise  de  Lorraine,  loo'ez'  deh  lo'rin',  Queen  of 
France,  born  in  15^4.)  was  the  daughter  of  Nicolas, 
Count  de  Vaudemont.  In  1575  she  was  married  to 
Henry  III.,  who  treated  her  with  neglect.  Died  in  1601. 

Louise  de  Savoie,  loo'ez'  deh  sS'vwa',  Regent  of 
France,  born  at  Pont  d'Ain  in  1476,  was  the  daughter 
of  Philip,  Duke  of  Savoy.  She  married  Charles  of  Or 
leans,  and  had  a  son  who  became  king  as  Francis  I. 
On  his  departure  to  Italy,  in  1515,  he  appointed  her 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  caused  the  loss  of  the 
Milanese  by  appropriating  to  herself  the  money  destined 
to  pay  the  troops,  and  by  her  unjust  treatment  provoked 
Constable  Bourbon  to  join  the  enemy.  She  obtained 
the  regency  again  in  1524,  and  retained  it  during  the 
captivity  of  the  king.  In  1529  she  negotiated  with  Mar 
garet  of  Austria  the  treaty  of  Cambray  between  Francis 
I.  and  Charles  V.  Died  in  1532. 

See  MARII.LAC,  "Vie  du  Connetable  de  Bourbon  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Louise  d'Orleans,  loo'ez'  dou'la'oN',  (MARIE  TIIE- 
RESK  CAROLINE  ISABELLK,)  Queen  of  Belgium,  born  at 
Palermo  in  1812,  was  a  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe  of 
France.  She  was  married  to  Leopold,  King  of  Belgium, 
in  1832.  Died  in  1850. 

SeeT.  SCHEI.I.INCK,  "Ken  Engel  in  den  Hemel  of  Leven  van  H. 
M.  Louise  Marie,"  etc.,  1850;  MOKREN,  "Heliotrope;  Immortalite 
de  Louise  Marie,  Reme  des  Beiges,"  1850. 

Louise  (or  Luise)  Ulrike,  loo-ee'zeh  ool're-keh, 
Queen  of  Sweden,  born  at  Berlin  in  1720,  was  a  sister 
of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia.  She  became  ac 
quainted  with  Voltaire,  who  wrote  verses  in  praise  of 
her  agreeable  qualities.  In  1744  she  was  married  to 
Prince  Adolphus  Frederick,  who  became  king  in  1751. 
She  founded  an  Academy  of  Belles-Lettres  at  Stockholm 
in  1753.  Died  in  1782.  Gustavus  III.  was  her  son. 

Loup,  loo,  [Lat.  SERVA'TUS  Lu'i'us,]  Abbe  of  Fer- 
rieres,  is  regarded  as  the  most  polished  writer  that 
France  produced  in  the  ninth  century.  He  was  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Sens  in  805.  He  was  employed  by  Charles 
the  Bald  in  important  missions,  and  corresponded  with 
the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time,  including  several 
kings.  His  letters  are  prized  for  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  events  of  that  period. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneraJe." 

Loupolof.     See  LOOPOLOF. 

Louptiere,  de  la,  deh  It  loo'te-ain',  (JEAN  CHARLES 
me  Relongue — reh-loNg',)  a  French  poet,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Sens  in  1727;  died  in  1784. 

Lourdoueix,  looR'doo'i',(SoPHIE  TESSIER,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  She  married  M. 


S,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOURE1RO 


1461 


LOPE  JOT 


Lourdoueix,  an  editor  of  the  "Gazette  de  France." 
Among  her  works  is  "The  Son  of  his  Works,"  ("  Le 
Fits  de  ses  CEuvres,"  2  vols.,  1845.) 

Loureiro,  de,  da  lo-ra^e-ro,  (JuAO.)  a  Portuguese  bot 
anist,  born  about  1715.       He  practised  medicine  many 


and  was  esteemed  a  valuable  contribution  to  botanical 
science.     Died  in  1796. 

Loutherbourg,  loo'teVbooa',  or  Lutherburg,  loo'- 
teR-booRC/,  (PHILIPPE  JACQUES,)  a  skilful  French  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Strasburg  about  1735,  was  a  pupil 
of  Casanova.  After  working  some  years  in  Paris,  he 
removed  in  1771  to  London,  where  he  painted  decora 
tions  for  the  Opera.  He  excelled  in  landscapes,  battle- 
pieces,  and  views  on  the  sea-coast.  His  execution  is 
remarkable  for  facility  and  vigour.  He  etched  some  of 
his  own  designs.  He  died  in  London  about  1812. 

See  NAGLEK,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Louvard,  loo'viR',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Jansenist 
and  polemical  writer,  born  in  Maine  in  1661  ;  died  in  1739. 

Louvel,  loo'vel',  (PIERRE  Louis,)  a  French  assassin, 
born    at   Versailles    in   1783,  was    a   saddler   by    trade. 
Prompted  by  party  spirit  and  enmity  to  the   Bourbons, 
he  assassinated  the  Due  de  Berry,  February  13,  1820. 
This  act  caused  great  political  excitement,  and  led  to  the  j 
resignation  of  the  prime  minister  Decazes.     Louvel  was  j 
executed  in  June,  1820. 

Louverture.     See  TOUSSAINT. 

Louvet,  loo'vi',  (PiERRE,)  a  mediocre  French  histo 
rian,  born  at  Beauvais  in  1617.  He  wrote  histories  of 
Languedoc,  Aquitaine,  and  Provence.  Died  about  1680. 

Louvet,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  near 
Beauvais  about  1570;  died  in  1646. 

Louvet  de  Couvray,  loo'vi'  deli  koo'vRi',  (JEAN 
BAPTISTS,)  a  French  Girondist  orator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1760.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
became  a  prominent  member  of  the  Girondist  party.  In 
October,  1792,  he  attacked  Marat  and  Robespierre  in  a 
bold  and  effective  speech.  He  was  proscribed  with  the 
Girondist  chiefs  about  June  i,  1793,  but  escaped  by  flight 
to  Normandy.  In  April,  1794,  he  entered  Paris,  where 
he  concealed  himself  until  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In 
1795  he  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Convention,  from  which 
he  passed  into  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  He  pro 
duced  several  successful  romances,  comedies,  and  polit 
ical  tracts.  Died  in  1797.  In  reference  to  the  above- 
named  speech,  which  is  inserted  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Girondists,"  Lamartine  says,  "Louvet  was  one  of  those 
men  whose  political  destiny  is  composed  of  a  single  day; 
but  this  day  conquers  futurity  for  them,  because  it  asso 
ciates  with  their  name  the  memory  of  a  sublime  talent 
and  a  sublime  courage." 

See  LAMARTIKE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists  :"  THIKRS,  "  His 
tory  of  the  Frencli  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Louviers,  de,  deh  loo've-a',  (CHARLES  JACQUES,)  a 
French  writer,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state  by  Charles  V.  in  1376.  He  is  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  famous  "  Dream  of  the  Orchardist," 
("Songe  du  Vergier,")  the  aim  of  which  is  to  prove  that 
the  pope  has  no  temporal  power  over  princes.  The  book 
is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue. 

Louville,  de,  deh  loo'vel',  (CHARI.KS  AUGUSTE  d'Al- 
lonville — dt'lox'vel',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  1668.  In  1701  he  was  chosen  gentleman  of  the 
chamber  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  afterwards  employed 
him  in  missions  to  Paris  and  Rome.  Died  in  1731. 

Louville,  de,  (JACQUES  EUGENE  d'Alloiiville,) 
CHEVALIER,  a  French  astronomer,  born  in  the  C'hartrain 
in  1671,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  devoted 
himself  to  astronomy,  and  erected  an  observatory  near 
Orleans.  Having  been  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  he  contributed  to  it  "New  Tables  of  the  Sun," 
"Observations  on  the  Obliquity  of  the  Ecliptic,"  etc. 
Died  in  1732. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  FJoge  de  M.  Louville." 

Louvois,  de,  deh  loo'vwa',  (CAMILLE  LETEI.I.IF.R,) 
AKBE,  born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated 
minister  of  war.  He  was  included  by  Baillet  among  the 
"enfants  celebres,"  and  was  elected  to  the  French 


Academy  in  1706.     He  added  30,000  books  to  the  Royal 
Library.     Died  in  1718. 

Louvois,  de,  CHEVALIER.  See  ESTREES,  D',  (Louis 
CESAR  LETELLIER.) 

Louvois,  de,  (FRANgois  MICHEL  LETELLIER,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  powerful  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris 
in  1641,  was  a  son  of  Michel  Letellier,  chancellor  of 
France.  In  1654  his  father,  who  was  then  secretary  of 
war,  obtained  the  reversion  of  that  office  for  Louvois, 
who,  having  qualified  himself  by  diligent  studies  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  king,  became  sole  minister  of 
war  in  1666.  While  Colbert  managed  the  finances  and 
increased  the  resources  of  France,  Louvois  contributed 
greatly  to  the  military  successes  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
supplanted  Colbert  in  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  in 
stigated  Louis  to  persecute  the  Protestants.  By  the 
counsels  of  this  unscrupulous  and  haughty  minister,  who 
was  then  extremely  powerful,  the  edict  of  Nantes  was 
revoked  in  1685,  and  the  Palatinate  was  wasted  by  fire 
and  sword  in  1689.  The  atrocity  of  the  latter  measure 
excited  general  horror.  His  insolence  at  last  exhausted 
the  patience  of  the  king.  In  1691  Louvois  excited  the 
anger  of  Louis  by  proposing  to  burn  Treves,  and  would 
have  been  dismissed  if  he  had  not  died  suddenly  in  the 
same  year.  He  is  censured  for  having  caused  the 
derangement  of  the  finances,  and  for  fomenting  the  ag 
gressive  martial  ambition  of  his  master.  "He  was  the 
greatest  adjutant-general,  the  greatest  quartermaster- 
general,  the  greatest  commissary-general,"  says  Macau- 
lay,  "that  Europe  had  seen.  He  may,  indeed,  be  said 
to  have  made  a  revolution  in  the  art  of  disciplining,  dis 
tributing,  equipping,  and  provisioning  armies."  His 
son,  the  Marquis  of  Barbesieux,  was  his  successor  as 
minister  of  war. 

See  CHAMLAY,  "Meinoires  pour  servir  4  1'Histoire  du  Marquis 
de  Louvois  ;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Meinoires  ;"  DANGKAU,"  Journal  ;" 
VOLTAIRK.  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
gais  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Louvrex,  de,  deh  loo'vRa',  (MATHIAS  GUILLAUME,) 
a  Belgian  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1665  ; 
died  in  1734. 

Lovat,  luv'at,  (SiMON  Fraser,)  LORD,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite  conspirator,  born  near  Inverness  about  1666. 
At  the  death  of  Lord  Lovat,  who  was  chief  of  the  Fraser 
clan,  Simon  Fraser  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain 
the  title  and  estates.  To  evade  the  penalty  of  some 
crime,  he  passed  over  to  France  about  1700,  and  turned 
a  Roman  Catholic.  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
Pretender,  he  was  sent  to  Scotland  in  1702  to  incite  the 
Highlanders  to  rebellion  ;  but  he  betrayed  his  trust,  and 
acted  the  part  of  informer  against  the  Jacobites.  For 
this  offence  he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  several  years. 
In  1715  Fraser  fought  against  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  at 
Inverness,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  estates  of  the 
Erasers  and  the  title  of  Lord  Lovat.  In  the  rebellion 
of  1745  he  was  detected  in  treasonable  acts  against  King 
George,  for  which  he  was  executed  in  London  in  1747. 

See  AKBUTHNOT,  "Life  of  Simon  Fra^er,"  1746:  FOSTER,  "  Me 
moirs  of  Lord  Lovat,"  1746;  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Lovat,"  by  him 
self,  1797;  JOHN  Hn.L  BURTON,  "Lives  of  Lord  Lovat  and  Duncan 
Forbes,"  1846;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1847. 

Love,  liiv,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  a  Presbyterian  theologian, 
was  born  at  Cardiff,  Wales,  in  1618.  He  began  to 
preach  in  London  in  1644,  after  which  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
I.,  he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  called  Love's  Plot,  the 
design  of  which  was  to  restore  Charles  II.  For  this 
cause  he  was  executed  in  August,  1651.  His  Sermons, 
and  other  works,  were  published  in  three  volumes. 

Love,  (JAMES.)  the  assumed  name  of  a  dramatist  and 
actor,  who  was  a  son  of  Mr.  Dance,  a  London  architect. 
A  satire  against  Walpole  having  appeared  under  the 
title  "Are  these  Things  so?"  he  wrote  an  answer,  en 
titled  "Yes,  they  are:  What  then  ?"  for  which  Walpole 
gave  him  a  present.  He  acted  at  Drury  Lane  from  1762 
until  his  death,  and  wrote  "  Pamela,"  and  other  come 
dies.  Died  in  1774. 

Loveira.     See  LOBEIRA. 

Love'joy,  (luv'joi,)  (ELIJAH  P.,)  an  American  clergy 
man  and  opponent  of  slavery,  born  at  Albion,  in  Maine, 
in  1802,  graduated  at  Waterville  in  1826.  He  began  to 
edit  at  Alton,  Illinois,  about  1836,  an  anti-slavery  paper, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


'LOl'EJOr 


1462 


LOWELL 


called  "The  Alton  Observer."  His  press  was  twice  de 
stroyed  by  a  pro-slavery  mob.  While  defending  his 
premises  at  Alton  against  a  third  attack,  he  was  shot 
and  mortally  wounded,  in  November,  1837. 

See  GREEI.KY,  "Ameiic.m  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  130-142. 

Lovejoy,  (O\VK.\,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Albion,  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  1811.  He 
was  employed  as  minister  of  a  Congregational  church  at 
Princeton,  Illinois,  from  1838  to  1854,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Republicans  of  the  third 
district  of  Illinois  in  1856.  He  was  re  elected  in  1858, 
1860,  and  1862.  He  was  a  radical  opponent  of  slavery. 
Died  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  March,  1864. 

Love'lace,  (ADA  AUGUSTA  BYRON,)  COUNTESS  OK, 
the  only  child  of  the  poet  Lord  Byron,  was  born  in  1815. 
She  was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Lovelace,  who  was  a^on 
of  Lord  Peter  King.  Died  in  1852. 

Lovelace,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Kent 
in  1618.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  spent  his  fortune 
in  the  royal  cause,  he  entered  the  French  service  in 
1646.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1648,  he  was  impris 
oned  for  political  reasons.  In  1649  he  was  released, 
and  published  a  volume  of  poems,  consisting  of  odes, 
sonnets,  etc.  addressed  to  "Lucasta."  Some  of  these  are 
admired  for  grace  and  vigour.  He  died  poor  in  1658. 

See  WOOD,  "Atlienae  Oxonienses ;"  EI.I.IS,  "Specimens  of 
Poetry;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iv.,  1821. 

Lovell,  liiv'el,  (MANSFIELD,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1822,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  lived  in  New  York  City 
when  the  civil  war  began.  In  October,  1861,  he  took 
command  of  the  disunion  army  at  New  Orleans.  After 
the  Union  fleet  had  passed  the  forts  below  the  city,  he 
evacuated  New  Orleans,  which  he  transferred  to  the  cus 
tody  of  the  mayor  on  the  251)1  or  26th  of  April,  1862. 

Lover,  liiv'er,  (SAMUEL,)  an  Irish  novelist,  poet,  and 
painter,  born  in  Dublin  in  1797.  He  acquired  in  his  youth 
a  good  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter,  and  afterwards 
became  a  successful  author.  Besides  numerous  ballads 
and  dramas,  he  produced  "  Legends  and  Stories  of  Ire 
land,"  and  a  novel  entitled  "  Handy  Andy,"  (1842,)  and 
"  Rory  O'Moore,"  a  song.  Among  his  later  publications 
is  "Metrical  Tales,  and  other  Poems,"  (1859.)  Died  in 
July,  1868. 

Lov'i-bond,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  poet,  was  born 
in  Middlesex,  and  inherited  an  easy  fortune.  He  con 
tributed  several  essays  to  "The  World,"  a  popular  pe 
riodical,  and  was  the  author  of  various  poems,  among 
which  "The  Tears  of  Old  May-Day"  (1754)  is  highly 
praised.  Died  in  1775. 

Lovini.     See  LUINL 

Low,  (GKORr.K.,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born  in  Forfar- 
shire  in  1746.  He  became  a  clergyman  in  Pomona,  one 
of  the  Orkney  Isles,  in  1774.  He  wrote  "Fauna  Or- 
cadensis,"  (1813,)  which  treats  of  the  animals  of  the 
Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles.  Died  in  1795. 

Lowe  or  Loewe,  lo/weh,  the  name  of  a  German 
family,  distinguished  in  various  departments  of  art. 
AUGUST  LEOPOLD  LOWE,  born  at  Schwedt  in  1767,  was 
the  composer  of  a  popular  opera  entitled  "The  Island 
of  Temptation."  Died  in  1816.  His  son  FERDINAND, 
born  in  1787,  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  tragedian. 
Died  in  1832.  His  daughter  SOI-HIE,  born  in  1815, 
became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  vocalists  in  Germany. 
She  was  married  about  1840  to  Prince  Frederick  of 
Liechtenstein.  Her  brother,  FRANCIS  Louis  FEODOR, 
born  in  1816,  distinguished  himself  as  an  actor  and  a 
poet.  JULIA  LOWE,  aunt  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1790, 
was  very  successful  as  an  actress  at  Vienna.  Died  about 
1850. 

Lowe,  lo,  (Sir  HUDSON,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1770.  He  served  many  campaigns  in 
Egypt,  Italy,  Germany,  etc.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  1814.  In  1815  he  was  selected  to  be 
the  jailer  of  Bonaparte  in  Saint  Helena.  He  was  cen 
sured  by  many  French  and  English  writers  for  arbitrary, 
rude,  and  illiberal  treatment  of  the  captive,  who  in  1816 
refused  to  see  him  or  have  any  further  intercourse  with 
him.  Died  in  1844. 

See  a  "  Histoiy  of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon,  from  the  Letters 
of  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,"  etc.,  by  W.  FORSYTH,  4  vols.,  1853. 


Lowe,  (JoHANN  KARL  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  com 
poser,  born  near  Halle  in  1796.  His  works  include 
operas,  sonatas,  ballads,  and  oratorios  :  of  the  last  we 
may  name  "  The  Seven  Sleepers." 

Lowe,  (PETER,)  a  Scottish  medical  writer,  practised 
medicine  in  Paris.  He  wrote  a  "  Discourse  on  Chi- 
rurgery,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1612. 

Lowe,  (KoliKKT,)  an  English  financier  and  eminent 
orator,  born  at  Bingham  in  1811.  He  graduated  at  Ox 
ford  in  1833,  and  practised  as  a  barrister  in  Australia 
from  1843  to  1850.  In  1852  he  was  returned  to  Parlia 
ment  for  Kidderminster.  He  was  appointed  vice-presi 
dent  of  the  education  board  in  1859,  but  was  removed  a 
few  years  later.  Mr.  Lowe  is  an  editor  or  contributor  to 
the  London  "Times."  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Adullam- 
ites,  (nominal  Liberals,  who  opposed  the  Reform  bill 
of  Russell  and  Gladstone  in  1866,)  and  is  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  brilliant  debaters  in  Parliament.  Having 
supported  Gladstone's  motion  for  the  disestablishment 
of  the  Anglican  Church  in  Ireland,  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  when  the  Liberal  party 
came  into  power,  in  December,  1868.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  University  of  London 
in  November,  1868. 

Low'ell,  (CHARLES,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  a  son 
of  Judge  Lowell,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1782.  He  became  minister  of  the  West  Congregational 
Church  in  that  city  about  1806.  He  travelled  exten 
sively  in  Europe  and  the  East,  returning  home  in  1840. 
Among  his  publications  are  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
(1855.)  Died  January  20,  1861. 

Lowell,  (Colonel  CHARLES  RUSSELL,)  an  American 
officer,  born  in  Boston  in  1835,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
poet,  J.  R.  Lowell.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1854 
with  the  first  honours.  lie  served  as  captain  of  cavalry 
in  the  peninsular  campaign  in  1862,  and  commanded 
a  body  of  cavalry  which  protected  Washington  in  the 
summer  of  1863,  after  which  lie  served  under  General 
Sheridan  and  commanded  a  brigade.  He  had  thirteen 
horses  shot  under  him.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Cedar  Creek,  Virginia,  October  19,  1864.  He  was  a 
young  man  of  great  promise. 

Lowell,  (FRANCIS  CAHOT,)  brother  of  John  Lowell, 
(the  second  of  the  name,)  born  at  Newburyport  in  1775, 
was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  city  of  Lowell, 
to  which  he  gave  his  name.  He  was  a  merchant  and 
manufacturer  of  cotton.  Died  in  1817. 

Lowell,  (JAMES  RUSSELL,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  critic,  and  scholar,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born  February  22,  1819. 
Having  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1838,  he  entered  the 
law  school  <  f  that  institution,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841  ;  but  he  soon 
abandoned  the  profession,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
wholly  to  literature.  He  published  in  1844  a  volume 
of  poems  containing  a  "Legend  of  Brittany,"  "Pro 
metheus,"  and  a  number  of  smaller  pieces.  In  1848 
appeared  a  second  collection  of  poems,  and  in  a  small 
volume  (separately)  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal."  In 
the  same  year  he  also  published  the  "Biglow  Papers," 
a  witty  and  humorous  satire,  written  in  the  "Yankee" 
dialect,  on  the  events  of  the  Mexican  war,  and  a  "Fable 
for  Critics,"  a  charming_/w  <f esprit,  which,  in  the  words 
of  Professor  Bowen,  is  "a  very  witty  review  article  done 
into  rhyme."*  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  best 
parts  of  this  poem  (which,  by  the  way,  is  very  unequal) 
are  scarcely  surpassed  either  in  wit  or  in  felicity  of  ex 
pression  by  anything  of  a  similar  kind  in  the  English  lan 
guage.  In  the  summer  of  1851  Mr.  Lowell  visited  Europe, 
and  returned  home  after  an  absence  of  somewhat  more 
than  a  year.  In  the  winter  of  1854-55  he  delivered  in 
Boston  a  very  popular  course  of  lectures  on  the  British 
poets.  Professor  Longfellow  having,  in  1854,  resigned 
the  chair  of  the  modern  languages  and  belles-lettres  at 
Harvard,  Mr.  Lowell  was  appointed  his  successor  in 
January,  1855.  On  the  establishment  of  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  in  1857,  Professor  Lowell  became  the  editor, — 
a  position  which  he  held  about  five  years, — and  under 
his  auspices  this  magazine  acquired  a  wide  and  deserved 

*  See  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1849. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


LOWELL 


1463 


LOWNDES 


popularity.  Among  his  more  recent  poetical  produc 
tions  we  may  mention  "Under  the  Willows,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1869,)  and  "The  Cathedral,"  (1870.)  Besides 
the  various  collections  of  his  poems  referred  to  above, 
he  has  published  a  volume  of  his  prose  writings,  entitled 
"  Among  my  Books,"  ( 1 870,)  consisting  of  literary  essays, 
contributions  to  Reviews,  etc. 

Among  the  poets  of  America,  Lowell  is  distinguished 
by  the  great  range,  (if  we  may  use  the  expression,)  as 
well  as  by  the  versatility,  of  his  powers.  He  seems 
equally  at  home  in  the  playful,  the  pathetic,  or  the  medi 
tative  realms  of  poetry.  And  we  always  rise  from  the 
perusal  of  his  productions  with  the  impression  that  he 
has  not  put  forth  all  his  strength,  but  that,  had  he  as 
pired  to  something  still  higher,  it  would  not  have  been 
beyond  the  reach  of  his  genius. 

Several  editions  of  his  collected  poems  have  been 
published  in  England  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 

See  ALI.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "North  American  Re 
view"  for  April,  1841,  April,  1844,  and  January,  1849;  and  the  article 
on  "American  Humour,"  in  the  "North  British  Review"  for  No 
vember,  iS6o. 

Lowell,  (JOHN,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Xewburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1743.  He  began  to 
practise  law  in  Boston  about  1777.  As  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  formed  the  Constitution  of  Massachu 
setts  in  1780,  he  efficiently  promoted  the  liberation  of 
slaves  held  in  that  State.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1781,  and  appointed  a  judge  of  the  dis 
trict  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1789.  He  had  three 
sons,  John,  Francis  C.,  and  Charles.  Died  at  Roxbury 
in  1802. 

Lowell,  (JOHN,)  an  able  lawyer  and  political  writer, 
born  at  Xewburyport  in  October,  1769,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1786, 
practised  law  at  Boston,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
About  1803  he  visited  Europe.  He  was  a  Federalist, 
wrote  much  for  the  public  journals,  and  exerted  great 
influence  in  New  England,  but  declined  to  enter  the 
public  service.  He  published  twenty-five  or  more  pam 
phlets,  mostly  political,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Boston  Athenaeum  and  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  colloquial  powers. 
Died  at  Boston  in  1840. 

Lowell,  (JOHN,)  the  founder  of  Lowell  Institute,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1799,  and  was  a  son 
of  Francis  Cabot  Lowell,  noticed  above.  Having  lost 
his  wife  and  children  about  1831,116  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  He  died  at  Bombay  in 
March,  1836,  leaving  by  his  will  about  $250,000  to  main 
tain  in  Boston  annual  courses  of  gratuitous  lectures  on 
various  subjects.  * 

Lowell,  (MARIA  WHITE,)  an  American  poetess,  the 
wife  of  James  Russell  Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Watertown,  Massachusetts,  in  1821.  She  was  married 
to  Mr.  Lowell  in  1844.  She  died  in  1853.  She  is 
described  as  having  been  singularly  beautiful  both  in 
person  and  character.  A  volume  of  her  poems  appeared 
in  1855. 

See  GRISWOLD'S  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lowell,  (MARY.)     See  PUTNAM,  (Mrs.  MARY.) 

Lowell,  (ROBERT  TRAILL  SPENCK,)  son  of  the  Rev. 
Charles  Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1816.  He  was  ordained  a  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1842,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of 
Christ  Church,  Duanesburg,  New  York.  He  has  pub 
lished  a  novel  entitled  "The  New  Priest  in  Conception 
Bay,"  and  a  collection  of  poems. 

Lowen  or  Loewen,  16'wen,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,) 
a  German  poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Klausthal 
in  1729  ;  died  in  1771. 

Loweiidahl  or  Loewendahl,  lo'wen-dal',  written 
also  Loevendahl,  (Ui.RiCH  FRIEDRICH  WOLDEMAR,) 
a  celebrated  general,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1700,  was 
a  great-grandson  of  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Russia  in  the  reign  of  Anne,  about 
1736,  and  as  general  of  artillery  gained  victories  over  the 
Turks  and  Tartars.  In  1743  he  passed  into  the  French 
service  as  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1745  commanded 
the  reserve  corps  at  Fontenoy.  As  second  in  command 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  he  took  many  towns  in  Flanders 


in  the  same  year.  For  the  capture  of  Bergen-op-Zoom, 
in  1747,  he  was  rewarded  with  a  marshal's  baton.  He 
died  in  1755. 

See  CARL  C.  ROTHE,  "  Grev  von  Loevendals  Liv  og  Levnet," 
1750;  M.  RANFT,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  des  Grafen  von  Lowenthal," 
1754;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lowenhaupt  or  Loewenhaupt,  16'wen-howpt', 
(ADAM  Louis,)  COUNT,  a  skilful  Swedish  general,  born 
in  1659.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Riga  in  1706. 
On  his  march  to  join  the  army  of  Charles  XII.,  who  had 
invaded  Russia,  he  was  attacked  by  the  Czar  Peter  at 
Liesna  in  1708,  and  lost  about  4000  men,  but  pursued 
his  course.  He  displayed  great  courage  at  Pultowa, 
July,  1709,  and  when  Charles  fled  to  Turkey  the  command 
of  the  Swedish  army  devolved  on  Lowenhaupt,  who  was 
forced  to  capitulate  in  1709.  He  was  kept  as  a  prisoner 
in  Russia  until  his  death,  in  1719. 

Lowenhaupt  or  Loewenhaupt,  von,  fon  lo'wen- 
howpt',  (CARL  EMIL,)  COUNT,  a  Swedish  general,  born 
in  1692.  War  having  been  declared  against  Russia,  he 
was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  an  army  sent  to  invade 
Finland  in  1742.  His  success  was  hindered  by  dissen 
sions  among  the  Swedish  officers,  and  he  surrendered 
at  Helsingfors,  in  September,  1742.  The  anti-war  party 
having  become  dominant,  he  was  tried  for  that  reverse, 
and  executed  in  1743. 

Lowenhielm  or  Loewenhielm,  lo'wen-he-elm', 
(CARL  GUSTAF,)  COUNT  OF,  a  Swedish  statesman,  was 
the  chief  of  the  party  of  "Caps."  His  party  having 
gained  the  ascendency  in  1765,  he  was  then  made  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  for 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in  1768. 

Lowenhielm  or  Loewenhielm,  (GUSTAF  CARL 
FREDERIK,)  COUNT  OF,  a  Swedish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1771.  He  served  in  the  army,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  general.  He  represented  Sweden  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  (1814,)  and  was  Swedish  minister 
at  the  court  of  Paris  from  1818  .until  1856.  He  wrote 
several  military  treatises,  and  a  remarkable  work  on  the 
organization  of  government.  Died  in  1856. 

Lowenklau.     See  LEUNCLAVIUS. 

Low'er,  (RICHARD,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
anatomist,  born  in  Cornwall  about  1630.  He  became  a 
friend  and  coadjutor  of  Dr.  Willis,  whom  he  assisted  in 
his  work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the  Brain."  In  1661  he 
confirmed  the  Harveian  theory-  by  experiments  on  the 
transfusion  of  blood.  He  practised  medicine  in  London 
many  years,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Heart,  on  the  Motion  of  the  Blood,"  etc.  Died 
in  1691. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Lower,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Cornwall ;  died  in  1662. 

Lowitz,  lo'wits,  (GEORG  MORITZ,)  a  German  astrono 
mer,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1722.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  mathematics  at  Gotlingen  about  17551  and  was 
afterwards  director  of  the  observatory  at  that  place.  In 
1766  he  removed  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  by  which  he  was  employed 
in  astronomical  observations.  He  was  killed  by  some 
rebels  at  Dmetriefsk  in  1774.  He  had  written  several 
memoirs  on  astronomy. 

His  son  TOKIAS,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1757,  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent  members  of  the  Imperial  Acad 
emy  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  professor  of  chemistry. 
Died  in  1804. 

Low'man,  (MosES,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  London  in  1680.  About  1710  he  settled  at  Clapham, 
where  he  preached  many  years  to  a  congregation  of  Dis 
senters.  He  wrote  a  "  Rationale  of  the  Ritual  of  the 
Hebrew  Worship,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1752. 

Lowndes,  lowndz,  (RAWLINS,)  born  in  the  British 
West  Indies  in  1722,  settled  at  Charleston,  South  Caro 
lina,  where  he  rose  to  eminence  as  a  statesman  and  law 
yer.  He  was  elected  president  or  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1778.  Died  in  1800. 

Lowndes,  (WILLIAM  JONES,)  an  eminent  American 
statesman,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Charles 
ton,  South  Carolina,  on  the  7th  of  February,  1782.  He 
studied  law,  and  married  a  daughter  of  General  Thoma's 
Pinckney.  In  1810  or  1811  he  was  elected  a  member  of 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   ((5^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOW  N  DES 


1464 


LUBBOCK 


Congress  for  a  district  of  South  Carolina.  lie  was  an 
eloquent  debater,  and  was  eminent  for  his  wisdom  and 
logical  acumen.  He  is  said  to  have  been  modest  and 
unambitious.  He  continued  to  serve  in  Congress  about 
eleven  years,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means  from  1818  to  1822.  It  appears  that  he 
was  a  general  favourite,  and  was  reputed  to  stand  in  the 
first  rank  of  American  statesmen.  His  health  having 
failed,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  but  died  on  the  voyage  in 
October,  1822. 

See  "  Encyclopedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Lowiides,  (WILLIAM  THOMAS,)  an  English  bibliog 
rapher,  lived  in  London.  He  published,  about  1834, 
"  The  Bibliographer's  Manual,"  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1843. 

L6w'ry,  (Wn.SOX,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
at  Whitehaven  in  1762,  became  a  resident  of  London. 
He  contributed  to  the  perfection  of  his  art  by  several 
important  inventions,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
especially  as  an  engraver  of  architecture  and  mechanism, 
in  which  he  was  unsurpassed.  He  engraved  many  figures 
for  Kees's  "Cyclopaedia."  Died  in  1824. 

Lowth,  lowth,  (KuKERT,)  an  English  bishop  and  emi 
nent  writer,  born  at  Winchester  in  1710,  was  the  son  of 
William  Lowth,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated  at  Ox 
ford,  and  became  eminent  as  a  biblical  scholar.  Having 
been  chosen  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  (1741,)  he 
delivered  "  Lectures  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  (in 
Latin,)  which  were  published  in  1753,  and  often  reprinted. 
This  work  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  most  eminent 
critics.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1766,  translated  to  the  see  of  Oxford  in  the  same  year, 
and  to  that  of  London  in  1777.  Among  his  most  impor 
tant  works  is  an  excellent  "  Translation  of  the  Prophet 
Isaiah,"  (1778.)  Died  in  1787. 

See  P.  HALL,  "Life  of  Bishop  Lowth,"  1834  :  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  Robert  Lowth,"  London,  1797;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
February  and  March,  i779,*and  April,  1780. 

Lowth,  (  SIMON,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1630.  He  was  vicar  of  Saint 
Cosmus  and  Damian-on-the-Blean.  He  published  "Let 
ters  between  Dr.  G.  Burnet  and  Simon  Lowth,"  (1684,) 
and  other  writings.  Died  in  1720. 

Lowth,  (WILLIAM,)  a  scholar  and  commentator,  the 
father  of  Robert,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  London  in 
1661.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  became  rector  of  Buriton  about  1700.  He  wrote 
several  highly  esteemed  works,  among  which  are  "  Di 
rections  for  the  Profitable  Reading  of  the  Holy  Scrip 
tures,"  (1708,)  and  a  "Commentary  on  the  Four  Greater 
Prophets,"  (4  vols.,  1714-26.)  Died  in  1732. 

Lowther,  (WILLIAM.)     See  LONSIMLE,  EARL  OF. 

Loyd,  loid,  (LKWis,)  an  English  banker,  born  in  1768. 
He  was  a  partner  of  the  banking-house  of  Jones,  Loyd 
&  Co.,  London,  and  was  distinguished  as  a  financier.  He 
died  in  1858.  His  son,  Samuel  J.  Loyd,  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Overstone. 

Loyer,  Le,  leh  Iwd'ya',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  Anjou  in  1550,  was  learned  in  antiquities  and 
Oriental  languages.  He  wrote  a  curious  work  on  de- 
monology,  entitled  "On  Spectres,  Angels,  and  Demons 
distinctly  manifesting  themselves  to  Men,"  ("Quatres 
Livres  des  Spectres,  Anges  et  Demons  se  montrant  sen- 
siblement  aux  llommes,")  and  other  works.  Died  in  1634. 

Loyola,  loi-o'la,  [Sp.  pron.  lo-yo'la,]  (IGNATIUS,) 
originally  Don  INIGO  LOPEZ  de  Recalde,  (da  ra-kal'cli,) 
often  called  Saint  Ignatius,  (ig-na'she-us  ;)  [Fr.  SAINT- 
IGNACE,  saN'ten'yfs';  It.  SANT'  ICNAZIO,  sant  en-ydt'- 
se-o,]  a  celebrated  Spanish  reformer,  and  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Loyola  Castle,  in  Biscay,  in  1491.  He  received  from 
nature  an  ardent,  imaginative  temperament,  and  in  youth 
was  the  very  prototype  of  the  hero  of  Cervantes,  an 
enthusiastic  votary  of  chivalrous  romance.  After  signal 
izing  his  gallantry  in  several  campaigns,  he  received 
about  1520,  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  a  wound  which 
made  him  a  cripple  for  life.  During  the  tedious  con 
finement  which  followed,  his  attention  was  directed  to 
the  mysteries  of  religion.  Ascribing  his  recovery  to  a 
miracle  of  grace,  he  dedicated  himself  to  arduous  re 
ligious  enterprises  and  to  the  service  of  the  Blessed.Vir- 


gin.  He  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  renowned 
for  his  penances  and  vigils.  In  1523  he  performed  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  from  which  he  returned  to 
Spain  in  1524.  He  passed  several  ensuing  years  at  Al- 
cala  and  Salamanca  in  the  study  of  grammar,  philosophy, 
etc.,  which  he  had  neglected  to  learn  in  his  youth.  In 
1528  he  became  a  student  in  the  University  of  Paris, 
where  he  found  several  congenial  spirits,  among  whom 
were  Francis  Xavier  and  James  Lainez.  With  these  he 
formed  in  1534  a  religious  society  devoted  to  the  educa 
tion  of  youth,  the  renovation  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  the  conversion  of  the  infidels. 

After  they  had  digested  the  polity  and  peculiar  maxims 
of  the  new  order,  Paul  III.  gave  it  his  formal  sanction 
in  154°)  9X\A  Loyola  was  chosen  superior  or  general 
(with  absolute  power)  of  the  order,  which  was  styled  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Loyola  thenceforth  remained  in  Rome, 
and  witnessed  the  extraordinary  success  of  his  efforts. 
"Under  his  rule,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  order  grew 
rapidly  to  the  full  measure  of  its  gigantic  powers.  With 
what  vehemence,  with  what  policy,  with  what  exact 
discipline,  with  what  dauntless  courage,  with  what  self- 
denial,  with  what  unscrupulous  laxity  and  versatility  in 
the  choice  of  means,  the  Jesuits  fought  the  battles  of 
their  Church,  is  written  in  every  page  of  the  annals  of 
Europe  during  several  generations.  In  the  Order  of 
Jesus  was  concentrated  the  quintessence  of  the  Catholic 
spirit;  and  the  history  of  the  Order  of  Jesus  is  the 
history  of  the  great  Catholic  reaction.  This  order  pos 
sessed  itself  at  once  of  all  the  strongholds  which  com 
mand  the  public  mind, — of  the  pulpit,  of  the  press,  of 
the  confessional,  of  the  academies.  .  .  .  Nor  was  it  less 
their  office  to  plot  against  the  thrones  and  lives  of  apos 
tate  kings,  to  spread  evil  rumours,  to  raise  tumults,  to 
inflame  civil  wars,  to  arm  the  hand  of  the  assassin." 
(See  Review  of  Ranke's  "History  of  the  Popes.")  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  that  Loyola  was  responsible 
for  the  corruptions  referred  to  in  the  above  quotation. 
His  chief  work  is  "Spiritual  Exercises,"  ("  Exercicios 
espirituales,"  1548,)  in  which  he  gives  rules  and  counsels 
for  the  guidance  of  believers.  lie  died  in  1566,  and  was 
canonized  as  a  saint  by  the  pope  in  1622. 

See  RIBADENEIRA,  "Vida  de  S.  Ignazio,"  1570;  G.  P.  MAFFKI, 
"De  Vita  et  Moribus  Ignatii  Loyolze,"  1584 ;  STEIN,  "Vita  Ignatii 
Loyolas,"  isgS;  P.  BOIIHOURS,  "  Vie  de  Saint-Ijtnace,"  1679;  I'OM- 
BINA,  "Vita  S.  Ignatii,"  1615;  M.  WALPOLK,  "  Life  of  Saint  Igna 
tius,"  1617;  ISAAC  TAYLOR,  "  Lite  of  Ignatius  Loyola;"  HARTOLI, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Societe  de  Jesus  ;"  GRETSER,  "  Apologia  pro  Vita 
S.  Ignatii,"  1509-1604;  GENELM,  "  Leben  des  Ignatius  von  Loyola," 
i84S;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824. 

Loyseau.     See  LOISEAU. 

Loyseau,  hva'zo',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Nogent-le-Roi  in  1566;  died  in  1627. 

Loysel.     See  LOISEL. 

Loyson,  (CHARLES.)     See  HYACINTHE. 

Loyson,  Iwa'zox',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Mayenne  in  1791,  was  matt  re  des  conferences  in  the 
Normal  School.  He  published,  in  1819,  a  volume  of 
elegies  and  epistles,  which  abound  with  beautiful  verses. 
"He  approaches  Lamartine,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "in 
elevation  and  spiritualisme  of  sentiments."  Died  in  1820. 

Lu'a,  [from  lito,  to  "purge"  or  "purify,"]  a  Roman 
goddess,  who  presided  over  things  purified  by  lustra 
tions.  By  some  she  is  identified  with  Ops  or  Rhea. 

Lubbert,  Itib'bert,  or  Luthbert,  liit'be' Rt,  (SIBRAND,) 
a  learned  Dutch  Calvinist,  born  in  Friesland  about  1555. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker, 
and  was  deputed  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  about  1618.  He 
wrote  controversial  works  against  Socinus,  Arminius, 
and  Grotius.  Died  in  1625. 

Lub'bock,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  banker  and  savant, 
a  son  of  Sir  John  William,  noticed  below.  He  is 
spoken  of  by  the  "Spectator"  for  February  19,  1870, 
as  "an  accomplished  economist  and  financier,  a  man 
of  the  deepest  and  widest  scientific  culture,  a  thorough 
physiologist,"  etc.  He  was  nominated  as  Liberal  candi 
date  to  represent  Maidstone  in  Parliament  in  1870. 

Lubbock,  (Sir  JOHN  WILLIAM,)  Bart.,  an  English 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  in  London  in  1803, 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  About  1830  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  he  served  as  treas 
urer  for  many  years.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophic 
Transactions"  treatises  on  the  "Tides,"  "On  Meteor- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LUBERSAC 


1465 


LUCAS 


ology,"  "  Researches  in  Physical  Astronomy,"  etc.  In 
1833  he  produced  a  work  "On  the  Theory  of  the  Moon 
and  on  the  Perturbations  of  the  Planets."  Died  in  1865. 

Lubersac,  de,  deh  Ki'beVstk',  (N.,)  a  French  writer 
and  amateur  of  art,  born  in  Limousin  in  1730;  died 
in  1804. 

Lubert,  de,  deh  Ki'baiR',  MADEMOISELLE,  a  French  | 
romance-writer,  born  in   Paris  about  1710.      She  com-! 
posed  successful  romances  and  fairy-tales,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "Princess  Rose-Colour  and  Prince  Celadon."  | 
Voltaire  complimented  her  with  -the  title  of  "Muse  et 
Grace."     Died  about  1780. 

Lubieniecius.     See  LUBIENIECKI. 

Lubieniecki,  loo-be-en-e-e'ts'kee,  written  also  Lu- 
bienetski  or  Lubienietski,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  a  painter, 
of  Polish  extraction,  born  at  Stettin  in  1659.  He  settled 
in  Amsterdam,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  history. 
Died  in  1729. 

Lubieniecki  or  Lubienietski,  [Lat.  LUBIENIF/- 
cius,]  (STANISLAS,)  a  Polish  Socinian  and  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Cracow  in  1623.  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Lublin,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Polish 
Reformation,"  (1685.)  He  was  exiled  from  Lublin  for 
his  opinions  in  theology,  aijd  died  at  Hamburg  in  1675. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  "Theatrum  Cometi- 
cum,"'  (1667,)  which  gives  an  ample  account  of  four 
hundred  and  fifteen  comets  which  appeared  from  the 
Deluge  to  his  own  time. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Lubieniecki  or  Lubienetski,(TiiEODORE,)  a  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Cracow  in  1653,  was  a  brother  of 
Christopher,  noticed  above.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Berlin,  where  he  painted  landscapes  and  historical  pic 
tures.  A  Socinian  treatise  which  he  wrote  having  been 
burnt  by  the  hangman,  he  resigned  his  place,  and  re 
turned  to  Poland,  in  1706.  Died  in  1720. 

Lubin,  lii'bd.N',  (AucusTiN,)  a  French  monk,  born  in 
Paris  in  1624.  He  received  the  title  of  geographer  to 
the  king,  and  published,  besides  other  learned  works 
on  ancient  and  sacred  geography,  "  Plates  of  Sacred 
Geography,"  ("Tabulae  Sacra;  Geographicae,"  1670.) 
Died  in  1695. 

Lubin,  loo'bin,  (EiLHARD,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Oldenburg  in  1565.  He  became  in  1595  pro 
fessor  of  belles-lettres  at  Rostock,  where  he  died  in  1621, 
leaving,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Key  to  the  Greek  Lan 
guage,"  ("Clavis  Lingua;  Grsecae,"  1622,)  and  notes  on 
Horace,  Persius,  and  Juvenal. 

Li  .n,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1637  ;  died  about  1695. 

Lubis,  lii'bess',  (E.  P.,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  in  1806,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Restoration," 
(in  French,  6  vols.,  1836.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1859. 

Lublink,  lub'link,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  writer,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1735.  He  translated  into  Dutch  Thom 
son's  "  Seasons"  and  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts,"  and 
wrote  other  works.  Died  about  1815. 

Lubomirski,  loo-bo-meR'skee,  (STANISLAS  HERA- 
CLIUS,)  a  noble  Polish  writer,  born  about  1640.  He 
became  grand  marshal  of  Poland,  and  defended  the 
national  independence  with  his  pen  and  sword.  One 
of  his  works  is  a  political  treatise  called  "  Consultations  ; 
or,  On  the  Vanity  of  Counsels,"  ("Consultationes,  sive 
de  Vanitate  Consiliorum,"  170x3.)  Died  in  1702. 

Luc,  the  French  for  LUKE,  which  see. 

Luc,  SAINT.     See  LUKE,  SAINT. 

Luc,  de.     See  DELUC. 

Luc  de  Bruges.     See  LUCAS  BRUGENSIS. 

Luca.     See  LUKE. 

Luca,  loo'ka,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  prelate,  born  at  Venosa  in  1614.  He  published 
"Theatre  of  Truth  and  Justice,"  ("  Theatrum  Veritatis 
et  Justitiae,"  7  vols.,  1697,)  which  treats  on  canon  and 
civil  law  and  was  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1683. 

Luca  or  Lucae,  loo'tsa,  (SAMUEL  CHRISTIAN,)  a 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1787;  died  in 
1821. 

Luca,  von,  fon  loo'ka,  (!GNAZ.)  a  German  historian 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Vienna  in  1746  ;  died  in  1799. 

Luca  Santo,  loo'ka  san'to,  or  Saint  Luke,  a  Flor 
entine  painter  of  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century.  He  is 


supposed  to  have  painted  the  Madonnas  which  were 
ascribed  to  Saint  Luke  the  Evangelist. 

Lucain.     See  LUCAN. 

Lu'can,  (GEORGE  CHARLES  BINGHAM,)  EARL  OF,  a 
British  general,  a  son  of  the  Earl  of-Lucan,  was  born  in 
London  in  1800.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  about 
1840,  and  voted  with  the  Conservative  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  In  1854  he  obtained  command  of  the  cavalry 
in  the  Crimea,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He 
was  censured  for  the  disastrous  result  of  the  cavalry 
charge  at  Balaklava. 

Lu'can,  [Lat.  LUCA'NUS;  Fr.  LUCAIN,  lii'kaN' ;  It. 
LUCANO,  loo-ka'no,]  (MARCUS  ANN--EUS,)  a  Roman  epic 
poet,  born  at  Corduba,  (Cordova,)  Spain,  in  38  A.D.,  was 
a  nephew  of  the  philosopher  Seneca.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome.  His  early  poems  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Nero,  who  appointed  him  quaestor  and  augur  and  con 
descended  to  appear  as  his  rival  in  a  literary  contest. 
Lucan  gained  the  prize,  but  at  the  same  time  lost  the 
favour  of  the  tyrant,  whom  he  had  formerly  addressed 
with  gross  adulation.  Nero  forbade  him  to  read  any  more 
poems  in  public.  Lucan,  with  Piso  and  others,  conspired 
against  the  life  of  Nero ;  the  plot  was  detected,  and  the 
poet  was  put  to  death  in  65  A.I).  His  fame  rests  on  a 
poem  entitled  "  Pharsalia,"  which  treats  of  the  civil  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  and  displays  great  beauties 
with  great  defects.  Among  the  latter  is  an  inflated, 
declamatory  style.  Conieille  and  Voltaire  were  warm 
admirers  of  Lucan.  "  His  genius,"  says  Villemain,  re 
ferring  to  his  early  death,  "  had  only  time  to  produce 
grandeur,  without  naturalness  or  truth."  Among  his 
merits  are  exalted  imagination,  intense  energy,  and 
impressive  diction. 

See  KARL  H.  WEISE,  "  Vita  Lucani,"  1835  ;  JACOB  PALMER, 
"Apologia  pro  Lucano,"  1704:  V;>LTAIKE,  "  Essai  siir  la  Poesie 
epique  ;"  J.  G.  MECSEL,  "  Dissertntiones  II.  de  Lucano,"  1767; 
SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Lucano.     See  LUCAN. 

Lucanus.     See  LUCAN. 

Lucar,  (CYRIL.)     See  CYRIL-LUCAR. 

Lu'cas,  (CHARLES,)  an  Irish  physician,  patriot,  and 
politician,  born  in  1713.  He  was  a  popular  member  of 
the  Irish  Parliament,  and  an  opponent  of  the  court. 
Died  in  1771. 

Lu'cas,  (FREDERICK,)  an  English  lawyer  and  editor, 
was  born  in  Westminster  in  1812.  About  1840  he  was 
converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  soon  after 
became  editor  of  "The  Tablet,"  a  newspaper  published 
in  London.  Having  removed  to  Dublin,  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1852,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  to  promote  the  political  power  or  privileges  of  the 
Irish  Catholics.  Died  in  1855. 

Lucas,  lii'ka',  (HIPPOLYTE  JULIEN  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Rennes  in  1807.  He 
produced  in  1834  two  volumes  of  verse  and  prose, 
entitled  "The  Heart  and  the  World."  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  a  "  Philosophic  and  Literary  His 
tory  of  the  French  Theatre,"  (1843.) 

Lucas,  (JEAN,)  a  French  poet  and  Jesuit,  born  in 
Paris  about  1650.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"  Actio  Oratoris,"  (1675,)  which  treats  on  gesture  and 
elocution. 

Lucas,  (JEAN  ANDR£  HENRI,)  a  French  mineralo 
gist,  born  in  Paris  in  1780 ;  died  in  1825. 

Lucas,  (JEAN  JACQUES  ETTENNE,)  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Marennes  in  1764.  In  1803  he  obtained 
command  of  the  Redoutable.  At  the  battle  of  Trafalgar 
(1805)  his  ship  grappled  with  Nelson's  flag-ship,  the  Vic 
tory,  and  one  of  his  crew  gave  Nelson  a  mortal  wound. 
Lucas  was  taken  prisoner  in  this  action.  Died  in  1819. 

Lucas,  (JEAN  MARIE  CHARLES,)  a  French  economist, 
born  at  Saint-Brieuc  in  1803.  He  wrote  "On  the  Re 
form  of  Prisons,"  (3  vols.,  1836-38,)  and  other  works. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1836. 

Lucas,  (MARGARET.)    See  CAVENDISH,  (MARGARET.) 

Lucas,  (PAUL,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1664,  was  in  early  life  a  dealer  in  jewels.  He  visited 
Upper  Egypt,  Syria,  Persia,  etc.,  and  published  "Voyage 
to  the  Levant,"  (1704.)  Having  received  a  commission 
from  Louis  XIV.  to  collect  medals  and  other  monu 
ments  of  antiquity,  he  again  explored  the  Levant,  (1705- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUCAS 


1466 


LUCILIUS 


08,)  and  published  a  narrative  of  his  journey.  In  1719 
he  produced  his  best  work,  entitled  a  "  Journey  in  Turkey, 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,"  (performed  in  1715-16.) 
Many  of  his  stones  are  exaggerated  and  absurd.  Died 
in  1737. 

See  MOREKI,  "Dictionnaire  Historique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generaie." 

Lu'cas,  (RICHARD,)  a  learned  British  divine,  born 
in  Radnorshire  in  1648.  lie  settled  in  London  about 
1684,  and  became  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1696. 
lie  published  an  "Enquiry  after  Happiness,"  and  "Prac 
tical  Christianity,"  which  are  highly  commended,  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1715. 

Lucas,  SAINT.     See  LUKK,  SAINT. 

Lucas,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  journalist  and  miscel 
laneous  writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1818.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "  Press"  and  of  "  Once  a  Week."  He  contributed 
to  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  Reviews.  Died  in  1865. 

Lu'cas  Bru-gen'sis,  [or  Luc  DK  BRUGES,  liik  deh 
briizh,]  (FRA.NC.ois,)  a  Flemish  theologian  and  excellent 
linguist,  born  at  Bruges  in  1549.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Concordances  of  the  Vulgate  Edition  of 
the  Sacred  Books,"  ("  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  Vulgatre 
Editionis  Concordantiae,"  1617;  and  5  vols.,  1712.)  Died 
in  1619. 

Lucas  de  Cranach.     See  CRANACH. 

Lucas  van  Leyden.     See  LEYDEN. 

Lucatelli.     See  LOCATELU. 

Lucceius,  luk-see'us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  orator  and 
friend  of  Cicero,  flourished  about  60  U.C. 

Lucchesiui,  look-ka-see'nee,  (CESARE,)  an  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1756,  was  a  brother  of 
the  marquis,  noticed  below.  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  numerous  works  on  philology,  among 
which  is  "The  Sources  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Lan 
guages."  Died  in  1832. 

SeeTipALix),  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Lucchesiui,  (GIOVANNI  LORENZO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1638.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  refutation  of  Machiavel's  work  on  Politics,  (1697.)  Died 
about  1710. 

Lucchesini,(GiovANNi  ViNCENTzo,)an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1660.  He  lived  in  Rome,  and  obtained 
from  Clement  XII.  the  high  office  of  secretary  of  briefs. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Demosthenes'  Orations,  with 
notes  and  a  good  Latin  translation,  and  a  "History  of 
Europe  from  1678  to  about  1735."  Died  in  1744. 

See  FABRONM,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Lucchesiiii,  da,  da  look-ka-see'nee,  (GIROLAMO, ) 
MARQUIS,  an  able  diplomatist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1752. 
He  removed  to  Berlin  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  his  librarian 
and  reader.  He  was  sent  as  minister  of  Prussia  to  Vi 
enna  in  1793,  and  to  Paris  in  1802.  After  the  battle  of 
Jena  (1806)  he  negotiated  a  truce  with  the  victor  ;  but  it 
was  not  ratified  by  the  Prussian  court.  Soon  after  this 
event  he  returned  to  Lucca.  He  wrote  a  work  called 
"  On  the  Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine,"  (1819.)  Died  in  1825. 

See  TIPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Luce,  the  French  of  Lucius,  (Pope,)  which  see. 

Luce  de  Lancival,  His  deh  ISN'se'vSl',  (  JEAN 
CHARLES  JULIEN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Picardy 
in  1764.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  belles-lettres  in 
the  Prytanee,  a  college  of  Paris,  about  1797.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  poem  called  "Achilles  at 
Scyros,"  (1805,)  and  "  Hector,"  a  tragedy,  (1809,)  which 
Villemain  pronounces  "truly  Homeric."  Died  in  1810. 

See  VILI.EMAIN,  notice  in  the  "  Magasin  Encyc'opedique  ;"  H. 
GRELLET,  "  Luce  de  Lancival:  Notice  biographique,"  1857. 

Lucena,  de,  di  loo-sa'na,  (JoXo,)  a  Portuguese  writer, 
born  at  Trancoso  about  1548.  He  was  professor  of  phi 
losophy  at  Ev'ora,  and  author  of  an  excellent  "  Life  of 
Francis  Xavier,"  (1600,)  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1600. 

Lucena,  de,  (VASCO  FERNANDEZ,)  COUNT,  a  Portu 
guese  historian  and  statesman,  born  about  1410.  He 
translated  Quintus  Curtius  into  French  for  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy.  He  received  the  title  of  chancellor 
of  Portugal.  Died  about  1500. 

Lu-ce'rI-us,  ["  light-bringing,"]  a  surname  of  JUPI 
TER,  which  see. 


Luchet,  lii'shi',  (AucusTE,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
democrat,  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  was  sentenced  in 
1842  to  an  imprisonment  of  two  years  for  one  of  his 
works. 

Luchet,  de,  deh  lii'sh.Y,  (JEAN  PIERRE  Louis,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  prolific  French  author,  born  at  Saintes  about 
1740,  was  styled  Marquis  de  la  Roche  du  Maine.  He 
published  many  superficial  works.  His  "  Literary  His 
tory  of  Voltaire"  (1782-)  furnishes  some  curious  details. 
Died  in  1792. 

Luchetto  da  Genova.     See  CAMHIASO,  (LucA.) 

Lucian,  loo'she^n,  [Gr.  Aowaai'of;  Lat.  LUCIA'NUS; 
Fr.  LUCIEN,  lii'se-aN' ;  It.  LUCIANO,  loo-cha'no,]  one 
of  the  most  witty  and  original  Greek  writers,  was  born 
at  Samosata,  (Someisat,)  on  the  Euphrates,  about  120 
A.D.  He  practised  law  a  short  time  at  Antioch,  and 
exchanged  that  profession  for  the  more  lucrative  pursuit 
of  sophist  and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  which  he  followed 
with  success  in  Gaul  until  he  was  about  forty  years  old. 
Again  changing  his  profession,  he  returned  to  the  East, 
and  lived  many  years  at  Athens,  where  he  was  intimate 
with  Demonax  and  employed  his  time  in  literary  com 
position.  His  principal  works  are  dialogues,  written 
in  pure  and  elegant  Greek,  on  history,  mythology,  phi 
losophy,  and  various  other  subjects.  His  object  appears 
to  have  been  to  cure  men  of  their  prejudices  and  super 
stitions  and  their  foolish  admiration  of  philosophic  char 
latans.  His  genius  is  eminently  satirical,  and  his  works 
are  remarkably  humorous;  but  some  of  them  are  cen 
sured  as  offensive  to  morality  and  religion.  Among  the 
titles  of  his  dialogues  are  "Timon  the  Misanthrope," 
"Charon,"  "Menippus,"  and  "The  Assembly  of  Gods." 
English  versions  of  his  dialogues  have  been  published  by 
T.  Franklin  (1780)  and  William  Tooke,  (1820.)  Wieland 
produced  a  good  German  translation.  Good  editions  of 
the  Greek  text  have  been  published  by  Dindorf  (Paris, 
1840)  and  Bekker,  (1853.) 


losophie,"  1804;  EDUARD  EMU.  STRUVE,  "  Specimina  II.  de  /Etate 
et  Vita  Luciani,"  1829-30;  PASSOW,  "Lucian  und  die  Geschrchte," 
1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie;"  ""Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
January,  February,  April,  May,  and  June,  1839  :  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Lucian,  [Fr.  LUCIEN,  Ki'se'ax',]  SAINT,  a  Christian 
martyr,  born  at  Samosata  in  the  third  century,  was  emi 
nent  for  piety  and  learning.  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
or  presbyter  at  Antioch.  lie  prepared  a  revised  edition 
of  the  .Scriptures,  which,  Jerome  says,  was  more  correct 
than  those  of  Hesychius  and  Pamphilus.  Diocletian 
having  issued  an  edict  against  the  Christians,  Lucian 
suffered  martyrdom  in  312  A.D. 

See  SAINT  JEROME,  "De  Viris  illustribus;"  EUSEBIUS,  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastica.* 

Luciano.     See  PIOMHO,  (SEHASTIANO  DEL.) 

Lucianus.     See  LUCIAN. 

Lucien,  the  French  of  LUCIAN,  which  see. 

Lu'cl-fer,  Bishop  of  Calaris,  (now  Cagliari,)  in  Sar 
dinia,  was  noted  for  his  intolerance  and  zeal  against 
Arianism.  About  355  A.D.  he  was  banished  by  Constan- 
tius,  who  favoured  the  Arians.  He  wrote  a  "Defence 
of  Athanasius,"  and  other  works.  He  refused  to  recog 
nize  as  orthodox  those  bishops  who  signed  the  formula 
of  Rimini,  (359,)  or  to  have  fellowship  with  any  who 
recognized  them,  and  finally  became  the  author  of  a 
schism.  He  had  many  followers,  who  formed  a  distinct 
sect,  called  Luciferians.  Died  about  370  A.D. 

Lu-cil'i-us,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  satiric  poet,  born  at 
Suessa  Aurunca,  (now  Sessa,)  in  Italy,  about  148  li.c.,  was 
a  great-uncle  of  Pompey  the  Great.  In  early  youth  he 
served  under  Scipio  Africanus  at  the  siege  of  Numan- 
tia,  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of  that  general.  He 
composed  thirty  satires  and  various  other  poems;  but 
only  fragments  of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us. 
Horace  asserts  that  he  was  the  first  writer  of  satire 
among  the  Romans,  (Sat.,  lib.  2,  i.  62.)  His  satires 
were  much  admired  by  many  ancient  critics,  including 
Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny.  "  He  was,"  says  Professor 
Sellar,  "vehement  in  invective,  because  he  was  thor 
oughly  earnest  in  his  purpose  to  expose  vice  and  base 
ness  among  the  high  and  low  with  impartial  severity. 
Although  probably  few  writers  of  verse  have  had  less 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


LL'CILIUS 


1467 


LVCVLLVS 


poetical  faculty,  yet,  by  his  originality  and  force  of  char 
acter,  he  became  the  favourite  of  his  own  time  and  coun 
try;  and  he  alone  among  Roman  writers  has  introduced 
a  new  and  permanent  form  of  poetry  into  the  world." 
Died  about  100  B.C. 

See  SELI.AR,  "Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,"  chap.  vi.  ;  PETER- 
MANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Luci  ii  Vita,"  1842  ;  SMITH,  "Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  liiograpliy." 

Lucil'ius  Ju'nior,  a  Roman  poet  and  naturalist, 
lived  in  the  first  century,  and  was  a  friend  of  Seneca. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  poem  of  six  hun 
dred  and  forty  hexameter  verses,  entitled  "  y£tna,"  which 
presents  some  fine  passages. 

Lu-ci'na,  [Fr.  LUCINF.,  lii'sen',]  the  name  of  the  god 
dess  that  brings  to  light  and  presides  over  the  birth  of 
children,  was  used  as  a  surname  of  Juno  and  of  Diana,  ' 
both  of  whom  were  supposed  to  assist  women  in  partu 
rition,  and  were  sometimes  called  LUCIN^E.  The  Greek 
goddess  IUTHYI'A  or  EII.KITHYIA  ['EtMdvta]  appears  to 
be  essentially  the  same  as  Diana  (Artemis)  in  her  char 
acter  of  Lucina. 

See  MOT-TIGER,  "  Ilithyia,"  Weimar,  1799. 

Lucine.     See  LUCINA. 

Lucius.     See  Luz. 

Lucius,  loo'she-us,  [Fr.  LUCK,  liiss,]  I.,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Cornelius  in  October,  252  A.D.,  and 
died  in  March,  253.  Stephen  I.  was  his  successor. 

Lucius  II.,  a  native  of  Bologna,  was  elected  pope  in 
March,  1144,  as  successor  to  Celestine  H.  He  died  in 
1145,  after  a  pontificate  of  eleven  months,  and  Eugenius 
III.  was  chosen  in  his  place. 

Lucius  III.  (Cardinal  UBALDO  OF  Lucc\)  was  elected 
pope  in  1181,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  HI.  His 
election  was  the  first  that  was  decided  by  the  cardinals, 
the  clergy  and  people  being  excluded  from  the  right  to 
vote.  A  revolt  of  the  people  of  Rome  obliged  him  to 
leave  the  city,  and  he  retired  to  Verona.  He  died  in 
1185,  and  was  succeeded  by  Urban  III. 

Lucius,  (C.rSAR,)  a  Roman  prince,  born  17  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  M.  Agiippa  and  Julia,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
the  emperor  Argustus.  He  and  his  brother  Cains  were 
heirs-presumptive  of  the  empire,  but  they  died  before 
Augustus.  Lucius  died  in  2  A.n.  The  Maison  Carree 
at  Nimes  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  Caius  and  Lucius. 

Lucius,  lu'she-r.s,  fit.  Lucio,  loo'cho,]  (GIOVANNI,) 
a  historian,  born"~at  Trail,  in  Dalmatia.  He  published 
in  1666  a  "History  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia."  Died  in 
1684. 

Lucius  Verus.     See  VKRUS. 

Liicke  or  Luecke,  Hik'keh,  (GOTTFRIED  CHRISTIAN 
FRIF.DRICH,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Egeln,  near  Magdeburg,  in  1791.  He  studied  at 
Halle  in  1810,  and  subsequently  at  Gottingen,  where 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Bunsen  and  Lachmann. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and 
soon  after  published,  conjointly  with  Schleiermacher  and 
De  Wette,  the  "Theological  Journal."  His  "Commen 
tary  on  the  Writings  of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist"  (4 
vols.,  1820—32)  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  works  of  its  j 
kind.  In  1827  he  succeeded  Staucllin  in  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Gottingen.  Died  at  Gottingen  in  1855. 

Luckner,  look'ner,  (\IKOLAUS,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
born  at  Kampen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1722.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  service  of  Prussia,  for  which  he  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  (1756-63.) 
About  1763  he  accepted  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
in  the  French  army,  which  for  many  subsequent  years 
was  not  called  into  active  service.  Having  submitted 
to  the  new  regime,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  mar 
shal  in  December,  1791.  In  the  spring  of  1792  he  ob 
tained  command  of  one  of  the  armies  which  defended  the 
frontier  against  the  Austrians,  and  a  few  weeks  later 
succeeded  Rochambeau  as  general-in-chief.  The  domi 
nant  party,  distrusting  both  his  fidelity  and  capacity,  de 
prived  him  of  the  command  in  1792.  He  was  guillotined 
in  January,  1794. 

See  THIEKS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lucotte,  Ki'kot',  (EmiF.  AIME,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1770.  The  Bourbons  con 
fided  to  him  the  defence  of  Paris  in  March,  1815.  Died 
in  1815. 


Lucrece.     See  LUCRETIA  and  LUCRETIUS. 

Lucretia,  loo-kree'she-a,  [It.  LUCREZIA,  loo-kReY- 
se-a ;  Fr.  LUCRECE,  lu'kRis',]  a  Roman  lady,  distin 
guished  for  her  beauty,  virtue,  and  tragical  destiny,  was 
the  wife  of  Collatinus,  who  was  related  to  Tarquin  the 
Proud,  King  of  Rome.  The  outrage  offered  to  her  honour 
by  Sextus  Tarquin,  and  the  voluntary  sacrifice  of  her 
life,  (507  B.C.,)  have  furnished  a  favourite  theme  for  poets 
and  painters,  and,  according  to  a  doubtful  legend,  caused 
the  dethronement  of  Tarquin,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Roman  state  into  a  republic,  under  the  direction  of 
Junius  Brutus. 

Lucretius,  lu-kree'she-us,  [Fr.  LUCRECE,  Iti'kRiss' ; 
It.  LUCRF.ZIO,  loo-kRet'se-o ;  Sp.  LUCRECIO,  loo-ki<a'- 
t/ie-o,]  or,  to  give  his  full  name,  Ti'tus  Lucre'tius 
Ca'rus,  one  of  the  greatest  Latin  poets,  was  born  in 
Italy  in  95  B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with  Cicero. 
The  records  of  antiquity  throw  scarcely  any  light  on  his 
life,  which  was  probably  passed  in  studious  retirement. 
It  is  not  known  whether  he  ever  visited  Greece  ;  but 
it  is.  evident  from  his  writings  that  he  had  profoundly 
studied  the  language,  philosophy,  and  manners  of  that 
people.  A  doubtful  tradition  asserts  that  he  was  subject 
to  insanity  caused  by  a  love-potion  ;  and  the  statement 
that  he  committed  suicide  in  his  forty-fourth  year  is  gen 
erally  credited.  He  left  only  one  work, — a  philosophic 
and  didactic  poem,  in  six  books,  entitled  "  De  Rerum 
Natura,"  ("  On  the  Nature  of  Things,")  in  which  he  ex 
pounds  and  illustrates  the  physical  and  ethical  doctrines 
of  Epicurus,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  From  such 
abstruse  speculations  and  intractable  subjects  he  lias 
produced  one  of  the  most  admirable  poems  in  the  lan 
guage.  Although  his  system  is  erroneous  and  incoherent, 
his  reasoning  is  remarkably  clear  and  close.  Probably 
no  other  work  so  amply  demonstrates  the  power  of  the 
Latin  language  to  utter  the  sublimest  conceptions  with 
a  sustained  majesty  and  harmony.  "A  great  atheistic 
poet,"  says  Villemain,  "is  surely  a  surprising  phenom 
enon.  His  genius  finds  sublime  accents  to  attack  all 
the  inspirations  of  genius.  He  renders  even  nothing 
ness  poetic  ;  he  insults  glory  ;  he  enjoys  death.  Out  of 
the  abyss  of  skepticism  he  sometimes  soars  to  a  height 
of  enthusiasm  which  is  rivalled  only  by  the  sublimity  of 
Homer."  Referring  to  this  work,  Macaulay  remarks, 
"The  finest  poem  in  the  Latin  language — indeed,  the 
finest  didactic  poem  in  any  language — was  written  in 
defence  of  the  silliest  and  meanest  of  all  systems  of 
natural  and  moral  philosophy."  Ovid  appears  to  be 
the  only  contemporary  writer  who  fully  appreciated  the 
genius  of  Lucretius. 

See  the  article  on  Lucretius,  by  VII.I.EMAIN.  in  the  "  Eiographie 
Ur.iverselle ;"  SELLAR,  "Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic;"  CAKI.  F. 
SCHMID,  "Dissertatio  de  T.  Lucretio  Caro,"  1768;  J.  SIKBKLIS, 
"  Quzstiones  Lucretianas,"  1844  :  J.  I.EGRIS,  "  Rome,  ses  Novateurs, 
ses  Conservateurs,  etc.  fitudeshistoriques  sur  Lucrece,  Catulle,"  etc., 
1846;  FABRICIUS,  ''  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  SMITH,  "Dictionaiy  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Lucrezia.     See  LUCRETIA. 

Lucrezio.     See  LUCRETIUS. 

Lu-cul'lus,  (Lucius  LICINIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
general,  born  of  a  patrician  family  about  no  B.C.  In 
the  year  87  he  went  to  Asia  as  quaestor  under  Sulla, 
who  gave  him  many  proofs  of  his  confidence.  After  an 
absence  of  several  years,  during  which  the  civil  war  be 
tween  Marius  and  Sulla  raged  at  Rome,  he  returned,  and 
was  elected  consul  in  74  B.C.  In  this  year  he  obtained 
the  chief  command  in  the  war  against  Mithridates,  whom 
he  defeated  at  Cyzicus  in  73,  and,  after  other  victories, 
drove  him  out  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  He  afterwards 
defeated  Tigranes  of  Armenia,  whose  capital  he  took 
about  68  B.C.  The  mutiny  of  his  troops  prevented  his 
final  triumph  over  Mithridates,  and  he  was  superseded 
by  Pompey  in  the  year  66.  Cicero  expressed  the  opinion 
that  so  great  a  war  was  never  conducted  with  more 
prudence  and  courage.  ("  Pro  Muraena.")  Lucullus  then 
retired  from  public  affairs,  and  expended  part  of  the  im 
mense  fortune  he  had  acquired  in  the  East  in  building 
magnificent  villas,  giving  sumptuous  entertainments,  and 
collecting  expensive  paintings  and  statues.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Sulla  had  dedi 
cated  to  him  his  Commentaries.  Plutarch,  after  com 
paring  him  with  Cimon,  says  it  is  hard  to  say  to  which 


•e  as>£;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  giittural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2®=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUCUMO 


1468 


L  UIN1 


side  the  balance  inclines.     He  was  living  in  59,  but  was 
not  living  in  56  B.C. 

See  "  Lucullus,"  in  PLUTARCH'S  "Lives;"  CICERO,  "Pro  Lege 
Manilla;"  JOHAN  UPMARCK,  "Dissertatio  historica  de  Lucullo," 
1703;  DION  CASSIOS,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxv.  and  xxxvii. ; 
DKU.MANN,  "  Geschiclite  Koms, "  vol.  iv.  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lucumo.     See  TARQUINIUS  PRISCUS. 

Ludeke,  loo'deh-keh,  or  Ludecke,  loo'dek-keh, 
(CHRISTOPH  WILHKLM,  )  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Schonberg  in  1737,  was  minister  of  a  German  church 
in  Stockholm.  lie  published  a  "  Historical  Account 
of  Turkey."  Died  in  1805. 

Laden,  loo'den,  (HF.INRICH,)  a  distinguished  Ger 
man  historical  and  political  writer,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Bremen  in  1780.  lie  became  in  1810  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Jena,  where  he  also  lectured  on  history. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  German 
Nation,"  ("Die  Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Volkes,"  12 
vols.,  1825-37,)  brought  down  to  1237.  He  also  wrote 
general  histories  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  and  of  the 
middle  ages,  a  "Life  of  Hugo  Grotius,"  (1806,)  se.veral 
biographies,  etc.  Died  at  Jena  in  1847. 

See  bis  Autobiograpby,  "Riickblicke  in  mein  Leben,"  1847. 

Luden,  (HEINRICH,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Jena  in  1810.  He  became  a  professor  of  law,  and  a 
member  of  the  court  of  cassation  at  Jena.  He  published 
several  legal  works. 

Liiders,  lu'ders,  (ALEXANDER  NIKOLAIEVITCH,)  a 
Russian  general,  of  German  origin,  born  in  1790.  lie 
defeated  the  Hungarians  under  Bern  in  July,  1849,  and 
succeeded  Gortchakof  in  the  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Danube  in  1855.  He  was  commander-in-chief  in 
the  Crimea  for  a  fesv  weeks  between  the  fall  of  Sebas- 
topol  and  the  end  of  the  war. 

Ludewig.     See  LUDOVICI,  (KARI.  GUNTHF.R.) 

Ludewig,  von,  fon  loo'deh-ftio',  QOUANN  PETER,) 
a  learned  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Suabia 
about  1670.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Halle  in  1695,  and  of  history  in  1703.  The  King  of 
Prussia  made  him  a  privy  councillor  in  1709.  Among 
his  works  are  "Germania  Princeps,"  (1702,)  treating 
on  the  rights,  privileges,  etc.  of  the  house  of  Austria 
and  of  the  Electors,  "  Writers  of  German  History," 
("  Scriptores  Reruni  Germanicarum,"  1718,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Justinian,"  (1730.)  Died  in  1743. 

See  FRIKDRICH  WIKOEBURG,  "Dc  Vita  et  Script  is  J.  P.  de  Lude 
wig,"  Halle,  1757;  HIKSCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Hand- 
bucli. " 

Lu'dl-US,  a  Roman  painter,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  of  whom  we  know  little.  He  gained 
renown  by  decorating  walls  with  landscapes  of  large 
dimensions. 

Liid'low,  (  EDMUND,  )  an  able  English  republican 
general,  born  in  Wiltshire  about  1620.  He  fought  against 
the  king  at  Edgehill  in  1642,  and  led  a  regiment  at  the 
battle  of  Newbury.  Elected  to  Parliament  in  1645,  he 
voted  for  the  conversion  of  the  kingdom  into  a  republic, 
and  was  one  of  the  judges  who  condemned  Charles  I. 
in  1649.  In  this  year  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state,  in  which  he  opposed  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Cromwell.  In  1650  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
lieutenant-general.  On  the  death  of  Ireton,  November, 
1651,  the  command  of  the  army  devolved  on  Ludlow. 
As  he  refused  to  support  the  government  of  the  Pro 
tector,  (1653,)  he  was  deprived  of  command.  After  the 
death  of  Oliver  (1658)  he  resumed  his  seat  in  Parliament, 
and  obtained  command  of  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1659. 
At  the  restoration  (1660)  he  escaped  through  France  to 
Vevay,  where  he  resided  mostly  until  his  death,  in  1693. 
He  left  Memoirs  of  his  life,  (2  vols.,  1698.)  Macaulay 
refers  to  him  as  "almost  the  only  survivor,  [in  1689,] 
certainly  the  most  illustrious  survivor,  of  a  mighty  race 
of  men,  the  judges  of  a  king,  the  founders  of  a  repub 
lic.  .  .  .  There  was  but  a  single  blemish  on  his  fame," — 
i.e.  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 

See  CLARENDON,  "  Hi-story  of  the  R-hsllion  ;"  HUME.  "  History 
of  England;"  GUIZOT,  "  Hi^toire  de  la  Resolution  de  1'Anpleterre  :" 
WM.  SftWEL,  "  Memoirs  of  E.  Ludlow."  3  vols  ,  1698-99;  "  Monk's 
Contemporaries,"  by  GUIZOT,  London,  18^4 

Ludolf,  loo'dolf,  (HiERONYMUS,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1679  ;  died  in  1728. 


Ludolph,  loo'dolf,  (HEINRICH  WILHEI.M,)  a  nephew 
of  the  following,  was  born  at  Erfurt  in  1655.  He  became 
secretary  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who  married 
Queen  Anne  of  England.  He  published  a  Russian 
Grammar,  (Oxford,  1696,)  and  several  small  religious 
treatises.  Died  in  1711. 

Ludolph  OF  SAXONY,  a  monk,  who  died  at  Mentz 
about  1370.  He  composed,  in  Latin,  a  "  Life  of  Christ," 
which  was  popular  and  often  reprinted. 

Ludolphus,  loo-dol'fiis,  written  also  Ludolph  and 
Ludolf,  originally  Leutholf,  loit'holf,  (Jon,)  an  emi 
nent  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1624.  He 
is  said  to  have  acquired  twenty-five  languages,  among 
which  was  the  Abyssinian.  The  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha 
employed  him  to  educate  his  sons,  and  appointed  him 
an  aulic  councillor.  Ludolf  published,  in  Latin,  an 
esteemed  "History  of  Abyssinia,"  (1681,)  an  Ethiopian 
Grammar,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1704. 

See  C.  JUNCKKR,  "Coinmentarius  de  Vita  J.  Ludo'fi,"  1710; 
VOCKERODT,  "Memoria  J.  Ludolfi  renovata,"  1723;  NICEKON, 
"  Me  moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ludovici,  loo-do-veet'see,  or  Ludwig,  lood'wio, 
(GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Baruth,  in 
Prussia,  in  1670.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Universal  History,"  (2  vols.,  1716.)  Died  in  1724. 

Ludovici,  (KARL  GUNTHER,)  a  learned  German  pro 
fessor,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1707.  He  wrote  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Commerce,"  (5  vols.,  1752-56,)  and  a  "Plan  of  a 
History  of  the  Philosophy  of  Leibnitz,"  (1737.)  Died  in 
1778.  He  spelled  his  name  LUDKWIG  in  his  latter  years. 

Ludovisio.     See  GREGORY  XV. 

Ludwig.     See  LEWIS,  Louis,  and  LUDOVICI. 

Ludwig,  (Kings  of  Germany.)     See  LEWIS. 

Ludwig,  lood'wio,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIEB,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Brieg,  Silesia,  in  1709.  About  1732  he 
made  a  botanical  excursion  to  Africa.  He  was  chosen 
professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic  in  1747.  He  contributed 
to  reform  botanical  science  by  his  writings,  among  which 
are  works  "On  the  Sexes  of  Plants,"  "Definitions  of 
Plants,"  (1737,)  and  "  Botanical  Aphorisms,"  (1738.)  J. 
J.  Rousseau  expressed  the  opinion  that  Ludwig  was  the 
only  botanist  besides  Linnaeus  that  viewed  botany  like  a 
philosopher.  Died  in  1773. 

See  HIKSCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbnch;"  "Nou 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ludwig,  (DANIEL,)  a  German  writer  on  materia 
medica,  born  at  Weimar  in  1625  ;  died  in  1680. 

Ludwig,  (JOHANN,)  a  self-taught  German  peasant, 
born  near  Dresden  in  1715,  became  a  proficient  in  as 
tronomy. 

See  C.  L.  BRIGHTWELL,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius." 

Luecke.     See  LUCKE. 

Luetzelburger.    See  LUTZELBURGER. 

Luetzow.     See  Lth'zow. 

Lufft,  looft,  (IL\NS,)  a  German  printer  and  bookseller, 
born  in  1495,  resided  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  published 
the  first  editions  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible. 
This  work  appeared  complete  in  1534.  Within  fifty 
years  one  hundred  thousand  copies  were  issued  from 
Lufft's  office  ;  and  he  has  been  surnamed  THE  Bun.K 
PRINTER.  Died  in  1584. 

Luganski.     See  DAHL,  (VLADIMIR  IVANOVITCH.) 

Lugo,  de,  da  loo'go,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1583.  lie  taught  theology  at  Rome  twenty 
years,  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1643,  and  wrote  several 
theological  works,  which  were  often  reprinted.  Died  in 
1660.  His  brother  FRANCISCO  (1580-1652)  was  also  a 
Jesuit,  and  author  of  several  works  on  theology. 

Luigi,  di,  de  loo-ee'jee,  (ANDRF.A,)an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  L'INGEGNO,  (len-je'n'yo,)  and  sometimes  called 
ANDREA  in  ASSISI,  was  born  at  Assisi  about  1470.  He 
assisted  Perugino  in  adorning  the  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
and  worked  mostly  at  his  native  place.  He  painted  a 
coat  of  arms  for  the  town-hall  of  Assisi.  It  appears 
that  nothing  is  known  certainly  of  his  other  works. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Luini,  loo-ee'nee,  (AuREi.io,)  an  Italian  painter,  a 
son  of  Bernardino,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1530. 
He  worked  at  Milan,  and  painted  scriptural  subjects, 
among  which  is  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


L  UINI 


1469 


LUMSDEN 


died,  according  to  Lanzi,  in  1593  ;  but  some  date  his 
death  many  years  earlier. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Luiiii,  Luvini,  loo-vee'nee,  or  Lovini,  lo-vee'nee, 
(BERNARDINO,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Luino,  on  Lake  Maggiore.  He  is  called  the  most  ex 
cellent  imitator  and  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Lo- 
mazzo  says  he  was  already  a  distinguished  painter  in 
1500.  Luini  worked  both  in  fresco  and  oil,  and  painted 
at  Milan  several  works  which  are  still  in  good  preserva 
tion.  "  Few  painters,"  says  Lanzi,  "deserve  to  be  com 
pared  to  him."  Among  his  master-pieces  in  oil  are  a 
"Magdalene,"  a  "Madonna,"  and  a  "Saint  John  with  a 
Lamb,"  all  at  Milan.  He  excelled  in  colouring,  chiaro 
scuro,  and  the  expression  of  feminine  grace.  He  died 
after  1530.  His  sons,  AURELIO  and  EVANGKLISTA,  were 
skilful  painters. 

?ee  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  LANZI,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Luini,  (EVANGELISTA,)  a  decorative  painter  of  Milan, 
.was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  Died  after  1584. 

Luini,  (ToMMASO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome 
about  1597.  He  was  called  CARAVAGGINO,  because  he 
imitated  Caravaggio.  Died  about  1632. 

Luino,  loo-ee'no,  or  Luini,  loo-ee'nee,  (FRANCESCO,) 
an  Italian  geometer,  born  at  Milan  in  1740.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  successively  in  a  college  of 
Milan  and  in  the  University  of  Pavia.  He  published  a 
treatise  on  "Progressions  and  Series,"  ("Sulle  Progres 
sion!  e  sulle  Serie,"  (1767,)  "Philosophic  Meditation," 
and  a  few  other  works.  Died  in  1792. 

Luis,  the  Spanish  for  Louis,  which  see. 

Luis  de  Granada.     See  GRANADA,  (Luis  BE.) 

Luisini,  Luisino,  or  Luisinus.  See  LUVIGINI, 
(FRANCESCO.) 

Luithold  von  Savene,  loit'holt  fon  sa'veh-neh,  or 
Liitolt  von  Saven,  lu'tolt  fon  si'ven,  a  German  minne 
singer  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Luitprand,  loo'it-prand  or  lut'prand,  written  also 
Liutprand,  King  of  the  Lombards,  the  son  of  Ans- 
prand,  reigned,  from  712  A.I),  until  744.  His  valour  and 
wisdom  are  praised  by  Sismondi.  In  739  he  marched 
into  France  to  aid  Charles  Martel  against  the  Saracens. 
He  died  in  744,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Hil- 
debrand. 

See  MCRATORI,  "  Annales  d'ltalia." 

Luitprand  or  Liutprand,  [Lat.  LUITPRAN'DUS,]  a 
historical  writer,  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
the  age.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople 
in  946  by  Berenger,  Marquis  of  Ivrea.  Having  been 
chosen  Bishop  of  Cremona,  he  attended  in  963  a  council 
(at  Rome)  which  deposed  Pope  John.  In  968  the  em 
peror  Otho  I.  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  maltreated  by  the  emperor.  He  was  au 
thor  of  an  esteemed  "  History  of  Europe  from  862  to  964." 

See  KOEPKE,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Luitprandi,"  1842;  "Nouvelle 
Biojrraphie  Generale. " 

Lukaszewitsch,  loo-ki'she'-witch,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  near  Posen  about  1800,  published  several 
valuable  works  on  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Poland. 
Among  these  we  may  name  the  "  History  of  the  Churches 
of  the  Helvetic  Confession  of  Faith  in  Lithuania,"  (1842.) 

Luke,  |Gr.  AOVKUC;  Lat.  LU'CAS  ;  Fr.  Luc,  liik ;  It. 
LUCA,  loo'ka,]  SAINT,  one  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  was  a 
companion  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in  his  mission  to  the  Gen 
tiles,  between  50  and  66  A.D.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  That  he  was  liberally  educated  is 
made  evident  by  the  classical  style  of  his  writings  and 
by  the  learned  details  which  he  gives  on  historical  and 
geographical  subjects.  His  Gospel  contains  valuable 
accounts  which  are  not  found  in  the  others.  He  also 
wrote  "  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  which,  as  well  as  his 
Gospel,  is  in  the  Greek  language.  Tradition  indicates 
that  Saint  Luke  is  the  same  as  the  physician  Luke 
mentioned  by  Saint  Paul  in  Colossians  iv.  14,  and  the 
same  as  Lucas  named  in  Philemon  24.  (See  II.  Tim 
othy  iv.  II.) 

Lu'kin,  (LIONEL,)  an  English  mechanic,  noted  as  the 
inventor  of  the  life-boat,  was  born  about  1742;  died  in 
1834. 


€  as,/-.-  c  ;is  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Lull.     See  LULLI,  (RAYMOND.) 

Lulli  or  Lulle,  lool'lee,  [Fr.  LULLE,  liil,]  (ANTONIO,) 
a  grammarian,  born  in  Majorca.  He  corresponded  with 
Erasmus,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  called  "De 
Oratione."  Died  in  1582. 

Lulli  or  Lully,  lii'le',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  called  "the  father  of  French  dramatic 
music,"  was  born  at  Florence  in  1633.  About  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  skilful 
performer  on  the  violin,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.  In  the  fetes  which  were  often  repeated  at  court, 
he  found  occasion  to  try  his  talents  for  operatic  music. 
In  1672  the  king  gave  him  the  privilege  or  direction  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  from  which  time  dates 
the  foundation  of  the  Grand  Opera  in  France.  Co-ope 
rating  with  Quinault  the  poet,  Lulli  composed  in  fifteen 
years  nineteen  operas,  which  were  very  successful.  He 
finally  became  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  king.  Died 
in  1687. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens :"  DE  LA 
BORDE,  "  Essai  sur  la  Musique,"  1780  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bioyraphie  Gend- 
rale:"  LE  PROVOST  u'ExMES,  "Lulli  Musicien." 

Lulli  or  Lully,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  1665.  With  his  brother  Louis  he  com 
posed  an  opera  called  "Orphee,"  (1690.)  Died  in  1701. 

Lulli,  (JEAN  Louis,)  born  in  1667,  succeeded  his 
father,  Jean  Baptiste,  as  composer  to  the  king.  Died 
in  1688: 

Lulli,  (Louis,)  a  musician,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1664.  He  became  composer  to  the 
king  in  1688.  Died  about  1736. 

Lulli,  written  also  Lully,  Lulle,  and  Lull,  [Lat. 
LUI/LUS  or  LUI/LIUS,]  (RAYMOND,)  a  philosopher, 
surnamed  THE  ENLIGHTENED  DOCTOR,  was  born  at 
Palma,  in  Majorca,  about  1235.  He  professed  to  believe 
that  he  was  called  to  convert  the  Moslems,  and  he  pre 
pared  himself  for  the  task  by  learning  Arabic.  In  order 
to  prove  that  the  mysteries  of  faith  were  not  opposed 
to  reason,  he  composed  a  treatise,  or  method,  called 
"  Ars  Lulli,"  or  "Ars  Magna  Lulli,"  ("The  Great  Art 
of  Lulli,")  designed  also  to  systematize  knowledge  and 
facilitate  the  process  of  reasoning  on  all  questions. 
His  method  obtained  great  celebrity;  but,  according 
to  Hallam,  it  was  an  "idle  and  fraudulent  attempt  to 
substitute  trick  for  science."  "  He  was  one  of  those 
innovators  in  philosophy  who,  by  much  boasting  of  their 
original  discoveries  in  the  secrets  of  truth,  gain  credit 
for  systems  of  science  which  those  who  believe  in  them 
seldom  trouble  themselves  to  examine."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  made  several  attempts 
to  convert  the  Moors  in  Northern  Africa,  and  was 
violently  persecuted.  Died  in  1315. 

See  WADDING,  "Viede  R.  Lulle;"  SEGUI.  "Vie  de  R.  Lulle." 
1605:  COLLETET,"  Vie  de  R.  Lulle/'  1646;  LOEV,  "  De  Vita  K.  Lulli 
Specimen,"  1830;  PERROQUET,  "Vie  et  Martyre  de  R.  Lulle,"  1667; 
HEI.FFEREICH,  "Raymond  Lull,"  Berlin,  1858;  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Lullin  de  Chateauvieux,  Hi'laN1'  cleh  sha'tf/ve-uh', 
(jACou  FREDERIC,)  a  Swiss  agriculturist  and  writer, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1772;  died  in  1840. 

Lullin  de  Chateauvieux,  (MICHEL,)  a  Swiss  writer 
and  experimenter  on  agriculture,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1695  ;  died  in  1781. 

Lully.    See  LULLI. 

Lulof,  lii'lof,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  astronomer,  born  at 
Zutphen  in  1711.  He  wrote  several  works  on  astronomy. 
Died  in  1768. 

Lumene  van  Marck,  lu'meh-neh  (?)  vin  niank,  [Lat. 
LUMIN.-E'US,  |  (JACQUES  CORNEILLE,)  a  Flemish  scholar 
and  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Ghent  about  1570.  He 
produced  many  Latin  poems.  Died  in  1629. 

Luminasus.     See  LUMENE  VAN  MARCK. 

Lump'kin,  (JOSEPH  HENRY,)  brother  of  Governor 
Lumpkin,  noticed  below,  born  in  Oglethorpe  county, 
Georgia,  in  1799,  became  professor  in  the  Lumpkin  Law 
School  at  Athens,  in  his  native  State. 

Lumpkin,  (  WILSON,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Pittsylvania  county,  Virginia,  in  1/83.  He  was  twice 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia,  and  became  a  United 
States  Senator  in  1838. 

Lums'den,  (  MATTHEW,  )  a  distinguished  Scottish 
Orientalist,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1777.  He  was 


ianations,  p.  23.) 


LUNA 


1470 


LUSSI 


chosen  professor  of  Persian  and  Arabic  in  the  College 
of  Calcutta  in  1805.  In  1810  he  published  an  excellent 
"Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language,"  and  in  1813  an 
"Arabic  Grammar."  About  1820  he  returned  to  Great 
Britain.  Died  in  London  in  1835. 

His  brother  THOMAS,  an  officer,  published  a  Journey 
from  Merut,  India,  to  London,  (1822.) 

See  ZENKER.  "BibHotheca  Orientalis." 

Lu'na,  [Fr.  LUNE,  liin,]  the  Moon,  a  goddess  wor 
shipped  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Luna,  loo'na,  (FAHRIZIO,)  an  Italian  lexicographer, 
bom  at  Naples,  is  said  to  have  been  the  compiler  of 
the  first  Italian  dictionary,  called  "Vocabulary  of  Five 
Thousand  Tuscan  Words,"  ("  Vocabulariodi  cinque  mila 
Vocabuli  Toschi,"  1536.)  Died  in  1559. 

Luna,  de,  da  loo'na,  (Don  ALVARO,)  a  Spanish  cour 
tier  and  poet,  who  became  the  chief  favourite  and  min 
ister  of  John  II.  of  Castile.  In  1423  he  was  made  Con 
stable  of  Castile.  Through  the  enmity  of  the  grandees, 
he  was  exiled  in  1427,  and  again  in  1439.  In  1445  he 
was  recalled,  and  obtained  command  of  the  army,  with 
which  he  defeated  the  malcontents.  Having  lost  the 
favour  of  the  king,  he  was  executed  in  1453. 

See  a  well-written  biography,  entitled  "  Cronica  del  Condestable 
Don  Alvaro  de  Luna,"  by  an  anonymous  contemporary  writer,  pub 
lished  in  1546,  and  "  Histoire  de  Alvaro  de  Luna,"  Paris,  1720. 

Lund,  loond,  (CAKi.,)  a  Swedish  writer  on  law,  born 
at  Jonkoping  in  1638,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Sweden."  Died  in  1715. 

Lund,  (DANIEL,)  a  Swedish  professor  of  Hebrew, 
born  in  1666;  died  in  1747. 

Lunden.     See  LUNDIN. 

Lttn'din  or  Lun'den,  (Sir  ALAN,)  an  ambitious  Scot 
tish  politician,  was  born  in  Forfarshire.  He  married  a 
natural  daughter  of  Alexander  II.,  and  in  1243  was 
chosen  lord  justiciar  of  Scotland.  Having  opposed  the 
coronation  of  the  minor  son  of  the  late  king,  he  was 
dismissed  from  office  about  1250.  He  was  afterwards 
pardoned,  and  held  the  same  office  for  several  years. 
Died  in  1275. 

Lundorp.      See  LONDORP. 

Liin'd^,  (BENJAMIN.)  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Sussex  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1789.  He  founded 
in  1815  an  anti-slavery  association,  called  the  "Union 
Humane  Society,"  and  subsequently  became  editor  of 
the  "Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,"  originally 
published  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Ohio,  but  removed  to 
Baltimore  in  1824.  He  was  also  active  in  promoting 
lectures  on  slavery  and  in  advocating  abstinence  from 
the  products  of  slave-labour.  Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "  Life,  Travels,  etc.  of  Benjamin  Lundy,"  by  THOMAS 
EARI.E;  GREEI.KV,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  111-115. 

Luneau  de  Boisjermain,  Ki'no'  deh  bwa'zhe'R'- 
max',  (PIERRE  JOSEPH  FRANCOIS,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1732.  He  became  a  school 
teacher  in  Paris,  and  published  several  educational  works 
on  history  and  languages.  He  also  edited  the  works  of 
Racine,  (1768.)  Died  in  icoi. 

Lunghi,  (Luc.x.)     See  LONGHI. 

Lunghi,  loon'gee,  (MARTINO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  the  Milanese.  He  was  employed  in  Rome  by 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  erected  the  Campanile  of  the  Capi 
tol,  and  built  the  elegant  palace  of  Prince  Borghese. 
His  last  works  were  built  about  1600.  His  grandson, 
MARTINO,  was  an  architect,  and  worked  in  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Milan.  Died  in  1657. 

See  QUATREMERE  DE  QuiNCv,  "  Dictionnaire  d'Architecture," 
and  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres." 

Lunghi,  written  also  Loiighi  and  Longo,  (Sn.LA 
GIACOMO,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Vigiu,  in  the 
Milanese  ;  died  about  1625. 

Lunig,  loo'nio,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  com 
piler  and  publicist,  born  in  1662.  lie  published  valua 
ble  works  entitled  "  Archives  of  the  German  Empire," 
(24  vols.,  1713-22,)  "Diplomatic  Code  of  Italy,"  ("Codex 
Italiae  Diplomaticus,"4  vols.,  1725-35,)  and  "Diplomatic 
Code  of  Germany,"  ("Codex  Germanise  Diplomaticus," 
2  vols.,  1733.)  Died  in  1740. 

Lflnt,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  lawyer  and  miscella 
neous  writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts.  He 
was  appointed  in  1849  district  attorney  for  Massachu 


setts,  and  in  1857  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"  Boston  Courier." 

See  GR-SWOI.D,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Lupercalia.     See  PAN. 

Luperci.     See  PAN. 

Lu-per'cus,  an  ancient  deity,  who  was  worshipped 
by  the  Italian  shepherds  as  the  guardian  of  their  flocks 
against  wolves,  and  sometimes  identified  with  Pan. 

Lupi,  loo'pee,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1695  ;  died  in 

I737- 

Lupi,  (MARIO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1720;  died  in  1789. 

Lupin,  von,  fon  loo-peen',  (FRIEDUICH,)  BARON,  a 
German  writer  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Memmingen  in 
1771 ;  died  in  1844. 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("Selbstbiographie,")  2  vols.,  1844-47. 

Lupoli,  loo'po-lee,  (ViNCENZio,)  an  Italian  canonist 
and  jurist,  born  near  Aversa  in  1737,  published  several 
works  on  law.  Died  in  1 800. 

Lup'set,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1496.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at 
Oxford,  and  corresponded  with  Erasmus  and  Sir  Thomas 
More.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Charity,"  and  other 
religious  works,  and  translated  parts  of  the  writings  of 
Cyprian  and  Chrysostom.  Died  in  1532. 

Lup'ton,  (DONALD,)  an  English  biographer,  of  whom 
little  is  known.  He  published  in  1637  a  "  History  of  the 
Modern  Protestant  Divines,"  (translated  from  the  Latin,) 
and  "  The  Glory  of  their  Times ;  or,  The  Lives  of  the 
Primitive  Fathers,"  (1640.) 

Lu'pus,  or  Wolf,  wolf,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Ypres  in  1612.  He  became  a  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Louvain,  and  published  several 
works  on  dogmatic  theology.  Died  in  1681. 

Lupus  Servatus.     See  Lour. 

Luque,  de,  da  loo'ka,  (HERNANDO,)  a  Spanish  bishop 
of  Peru.  He  was  a  priest  of  Panama  when,  in  1525,  he 
associated  himself  with  Pizarro  and  Almagro  in  an  ex 
pedition  for  the  conquest  of  Peru.  De  Luque  furnished 
the  money  for  this  enterprise.  Died  in  1532. 

See  HERRERA,  "  Historia  general  de  los  Viajes  en  las  Inriias  Occi- 
dentales  ;"  PKESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 

Lurine,  Ki'ren',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  of  fiction,  • 
satire,  etc.,  born  in  1816.     He  contributed  many  articles 
to  the  public  journals. 

Luscinius,  loos-see'ne-us,  (OTHMAR,)  a  litferatenr, 
whose  proper  name  was  Nachtigall,  (naK'te-gal,)  was 
born  at  Strasburg  about  1480.  He  removed  from  Augs-  . 
burg  to  Bale  in  1526,  and  afterwards  lodged  with  Eras 
mus  at  Freyburg.  He  edited  some  works  of  Lucian  and 
Martial,  and  published  various  other  works.  Died  about 

1535- 
Liish'ing-ton,  (Right  Hon.  STEPHEN,)  D.C.L.,  an 

eminent  English  civilian  and  statesman,  born  in  London 
in  1782,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Stephen  Lushington.  lie 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1806. 
Between  1807  and  1841  he  represented  Yarmouth,  II- 
chester,  the  Tower  Hamlets,  and  other  places,  in  Par 
liament,  voting  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  (1807) 
and  for  other  liberal  measures.  He  also  contributed 
greatly  to  the  abolition  of  slavery.  He  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline, 
(1821.)  In  1838  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  admi 
ralty,  and  privy  councillor. 

Lusignan,  (Guv  DE.)     See  GUY  DE  LUSIGNAN. 

Lusignan,  de,  deh  Ki'zen'yoN'  or  loo-sen-yan',  (STE-  >x 
FANO,)  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Cyprus,  was 
born  in  that  island  in  1537.  He  became  a  priest,  and 
emigrated  to  Italy  in  1571.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Cyprus  from  the  Time  of  Noah  until  1572,"  and  other 
works.  Died  about  1590. 

Lussan,  de,  deh  lii'sox',  (MARGUERITE,)  a  French 
novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1682.  In  1730  she  published 
the  "  Story  of  the  Countess  de  Gondes,"  which  was  suc 
cessful.  She  also  wrote  "  The  Life  of  the  Brave  Crillon," 
(1757,)  and  several  historical  romances.  Died  in  1758. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Lussi,  loos'see,  (MELCHIOR,)  a  Swiss  general  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Stanz  in  1529;  died  in  1606. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o.  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m5t;  not;  good:  moon; 


LUTATIUS 


1471 


LUTHER 


Lutatius  Catnlus.  See  CATULUS. 
Luthbert  See  LUBBERT,  (SIBRAND.) 
Lu'ther,  (MARTIN,)  [Ger.  pron.  maR'tin  loo'ter;  Lat. 
MARTI'NCS  LUTHE'RUS;  It.  MARTINO  LUTERO,  maR- 
tee'no  loo-ta'ro ;  Sp.  MARTIN  LUTERO,  maR-ten'  loo- 
ta'ro,]  the  great  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
was  born  at  Eisleben,  the  loth  of  November,  1483.  He 
was  the  son  of  Hans  Luther,  a  miner.  His  mother's 
maiden  name  was  Margarethe  Lindemann.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin  school  at  Eisenach, 
then  under  the  direction  of  Trebonius.  In  1501  he  en 
tered  the  university  at  Erfurt.  While  here,  he  found 
in  the  university  library  a  rare  and  precious  book, — a 
Latin  Bible, — which  became  an  object  of  extraordinary 
interest  to  him.  About  this  time  a  severe  attack  of  ill 
ness,  and,  soon  after,  the  sudden  death  of  one  of  his 
intimate  friends,  (caused,  as  some  historians  state,  by  a 
stroke  of  lightning,)  produced  such  an  impression  on 
the  mind  of  young  Luther,  that  he  made  a  solemn  vow 
to  become  a  monk,  and  in  July,  1505,  he  entered  the 
Augustine  convent  at  Erfurt.  In  1507  he  was  ordained 
a  priest,  and  in  the  following  year,  through  the  influence 
of  Staupitz,  (the  provincial  of  his  order,  and  subsequently 
vicar-general,)  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Luther's  visit  to  Rome, 
made  in  1510,  in  fulfilment  of  a  previous  vow,  opened  to 
him  new  views  of  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
Romish  Church.  In  1512  he  was  made  licentiate  and\ 
doctor  of  divinity,  and  began  about  this  time  to  declare' 
openly  his  views  of  scriptural  theology,  which  he  ex 
plained  according  to  the  system  of  Saint  Augustine,! 
resting  the  doctrine  of  justification  solely  on  faith  in  thej 
sacrifice  of  the  Saviour.  In  1517,  Tetzel,  a  Dominican' 
monk,  received  from  the  pope,  (Leo  X.,)  through  the 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  a  commission  for  the  sale  of 
indulgences.  With  a  view  to  increase  the  demand  for 
his  merchandise,  Tetzel  asserted,  what  few  or  none  of 
the  other  Catholics  appear  to  have  ever  claimed,  that 
the  indulgences  not  only  released  the  purchasers  from 
the  necessity  of  penance,  but  absolved  them  from  all  the 
consequences  of  sin  both  here  and  hereafter.  Indignant 
at  what  he  regarded  as  an  insult  to  reason  and  religion, 
Luther  drew  up  his  celebrated  ninety-five  propositions, 
in  which  he  set  forth  in  the  strongest  language  the  theo 
logical  unsoundness  as  well  as  the  pernicious  effects  of 
'  Tetzel's  doctrine  of  indulgences.  This  publication  in 
volved  Luther  in  violent  controversies.  Among  the 
most  conspicuous  of  his  opponents  was  Dr.  Eck,  (in 
Latin,  Eckius  or  Eccius,)  professor  of  divinity  at  Ingol- 
.stadt.  But  the  cause  of  the  Reformer  steadily  gained 
ground,  and  among  the  number  of  his  favourers  was 
Frederick  the  Wise,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,— one  of  the 
most  powerful  princes  of  Germany.  Leo  having  sum 
moned  Luther  to  plead  his  cause  at  Rome,  the  Elector 
interposed,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  examination  or 
trial  should  take  place  at  Augsburg,  before  Cardinal 
Cajetan,  (Caietano,)  the  legate  of  the  pope.  The  car 
dinal  having  refused  to  enter  into  any  discussion  with 
Luther,  at  the  same  time  insisting  that  the  latter  should 
submit  himself  unreservedly  to  the  authority  of  the 
papal  see,  Luther,  fearing — perhaps  with  too  much 
reason — the  fate  of  John  Huss,  secretly  withdrew  from 
Augsburg,  leaving  an  "appeal  to  the  pope  when  he 
should  be  better  informed."  Soon  after  Leo  issued  a 
bull  *n  support  of  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  ;  where 
upon  Luther  appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council 
of  the  Church. 

^With  a  view  to  restore  tranquillity  to  the  Church,  Leo 
ent  his  chamberlain  Mikitz — a  Saxon  by  birth,  and  a 
man  of  great  tact  and  intelligence — as  nuncio  into  Ger 
many.  By  kindness  and  flattery,  Miltitz  obtained  from 
Luther  (March,  1519)  a  promise  that  he  would  submit 
to  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  discontinue  the  con 
troversy  respecting  indulgences,  on  condition  that  his 
adversaries  should  also  preserve  silence  on  the  subject. 
Dr.  Eck,  however,  would  not  permit  the^controversy  to 
slumber.  He  soon  after  challenged  Carlstadt,  one  of 
Luther's  disciples,  to  a  public  dispute  at  Leipsic  ;  so  that 
Luther  himself  was  again  almost  unavoidably  involved 
in  the  contest.  The  result  was  a  confirmation  of  his 
former  views  of  the  fallibility  of  the  pope  and  the  errors 


of  the  Church,  which  found  expression  in  several  publi 
cations,  and  especially  in  a  work  entitled  "  De  Captivi- 
tate  Babylonica  Ecclesiae,"  ("  On  the  Babylonian  Cap 
tivity  of  the  Church.")  Leo  had,  a  short  time  previously 
to  this  publication,  issued  a  bull  condemning  forty-one 
propositions  which  had  been  selected  from  the  works  of 
Luther,  and  directing  the  bishops  to  search  diligently 
for  the  writings  in  which  those  errors  were  contained, 
and  to  have  them  publicly  burned.  Luther  resolved  to 
anticipate  the  blow,  and  at  the  same  time  to  render  the 
breach  between  himself  and  Rome  forever  impassable. 
Attended  by  a  crowd  of  doctors,  professors,  and  students, 
he  proceeded  to  a  spot  fixed  on  for  the  purpose,  without 
the  walls  of  Wittenberg,  near  the  east  gate,  and  there 
burned  before  the  assembled  multitude  the  bull,  with 
the  accompanying  decretals  and  canons  relating  to  the 
pope's  supreme  authority. 

Up  to  this  period,  it  would  appear  that  the  reverence 
for  the  Church  in  which  Luther  had  been  educated  had 
always  exercised  a  controlling  influence  upon  his  mind  ; 
for,  although  he  denounced  in  the  boldest  manner  the 
abuses  of  the  ecclesiastical  power,  he  had  ever  mani 
fested  a  profound  respect  for  the  sovereign  pontiff  him 
self.  But  now  he  broke  through  all  restraint,  and  not 
only  denied  the  authority  of  the  pope,  but  he  assailed 
him  with  all  the  fierce  invective  and  vituperation  which 
were  so  common  in  that  age. 

After  this  additional  provocation,  it  was  not  to  be  ex 
pected  that  the  thunders  of  the  Church  should  slumber. 
Not  content  with  merely  excommunicating  Luther  and 
laying  every  place  which  should  harbour  him  under  an 
interdict,  Leo  urged  the  newly-elected  emperor,  Charles 
V.,  to  come  forward  as  the  champion  of  Catholicism 
and  inflict  upon  the  arch-heretic  and  his  adherents  the 
punishment  due  to  their  apostasy.  But  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  to  whom  Charles  had  been  indebted  for  his  new 
dignity,  interposed  a  second  time,  and  so  far  prevailed 
that  it  was  determined  the  cause  of  Luther  should  he 
tried  before  the  Diet  of  the  empire.  The  Diet  assem 
bled  at  Worms  early  in  the  year  1521.  It  was  the  wish 
and  intention  of  the  legate  Aleander  and  the  other 
advocates  of  the  papal  cause  that  Luther  should  not  be 
present  at  his  own  trial.  But  the  majority  of  the  Diet, 
whether  influenced  by  friendship  for  the  Reformer  or  b'y 
the  desire  to  preserve  the  appearance  of  justice  in  their 
proceedings,  insisted  that  Luther  should  not  be  con 
demned  unheard.  The  emperor  was  prevailed  upon  to 
grant  him  a  safe-conduct,  (dated  March  6,  1521.)  The 
greater  number  of  Luther's  friends  earnestly  dissuaded 
him  from  going  to  Worms.  Even  Spalatin,  the  secretary 
and  confidential  adviser  o£  the  Elector  Frederick,  sent 
him  a  pressing  message  exhorting  him  on  no  account  to 
enter  that  city.  Luther  replied,  "Were  there  as  many 
devils  in  WTorms  as  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses, 
still  would  I  enter,"  ("  Wenn  so  viel  Teufel  zu  Worms 
waren  als  Ziegel  auf  den  Dachern,  doch  wollt'  ich 
hinein.")  He  arrived  in  the  city  on  the  i6th  of  April, 
and  appeared  before  the  Diet  the  following  day.  When 
asked  if  he  was  the  author  of  the  works  produced  against 
him,  containing  the  passages  which  had  been  condemned, 
he  replied  in  the  affirmative.  On  being  again  asked 
whether  he  was  prepared  to  retract  the  objectionable 
doctrines  contained  in  them,  he  answered  that,  as  this 
question  concerned  the  word  of  God,  the  Christian  faith, 
and  the  salvation  of  souls,  it  was  of  great  importance 
that  he  should  not  speak  rashly,  lest  he  should  offend 
against  the  word  of  God  :  he  therefore  desired  that  time 
might  be  allowed  him  for  consideration.  The  next  day 
he  was  again  brought  before  the  Diet.  While  he  ad 
mitted  that  in  some  instances  he  might  have  written 
with  less  humility  and  more  violence  than  became  his 
ecclesiastical  character,  he  refused  to  retract  anything 
that  he  had  said,  unless  it  could  be  shown  to  be  con 
trary  to  the  Scriptures ;  at  the  same  time,  he  Jxildly 
repeated  and  defended  several  of  his  positions  which 
had  been  objected  to.  Hereupon  Charles  and  the  other 
favourers  of  the  Catholic  cause  refused  to  hear  him  any 
further.  He  was  commanded  to  leave  Worms.  He 
accordingly  returned  to  Saxony.  As  he  was  journeying 
on  the  borders  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  he  was  sud 
denly  seized  by  a  number  of  warriors  in  masks,  and 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


L UTHER 


1472 


LUTI 


hurried  off  to  the  solitary  castle  of  Wartburg,  where 
his  ecclesiastical  habit  was  exchanged  for  the  dress 
and  sword  of  a  knight.  This  whole  proceeding  was  a 
stratagem  of  Frederick  to  protect  the  Reformer  against 
the  designs  of  his  enemies.  Luther  had  previously  been 
apprised  of  the  contemplated  scheme.  He  remarks,  in 
one  of  his  letters,  that  he  scarcely  knew  himself  in  his 
strange  disguise. 

Immediately  after  the  departure  of  Luther,  Aleander, 
the  Papal  legate,  prevailed  on  Charles  to  give  the  edict 
against  him  the  sanction  of  the  imperial  signature  and 
seal.  It  was  declared,  in  tfoe  name  of  the  emperor,  that, 
as  soon  as  the  term  of  his  safe-conduct  had  expired, 
Luther  should  be  seized  and  held  in  durance  until  they 
should  be  informed  how  to  deal  with  him. 

Luther  remained  in  the  castle  of  Wartburg  about  ten 
months.  Me  left  it  in  March,  1522,  and  returned  to  Wit 
tenberg  in  order  to  rebuke  the  excesses  into  which  some 
of  his  former  disciples  had  fallen.  In  1524  he  laid  aside 
the  monastic  dress;  and  in  1525  he  married  Catharina 
von  Dora,  who  had  once  been  a  nun.  Luther  completed 
his  German  version  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1534;  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  had  appeared  in  1522. 
These  translations,  by  their  extensive  circulation,  as  well 
as  by  the  force  and  beauty  of  the  language,  have  exerted 
a  most  important  influence  upon  German  literature, 
which  may  almost  be  said  to  date  its  origin  from  their 
composition. 

Frederick  the  Wise,  Luther's  faithful  friend  and  pro 
tector,  died  in  1525,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
John,  who  was  an  open  and  devoted  adherent  of  the 
great  Reformer.  During  the  latter  portion  of  his  life, 
Luther  was  held  in  the  highest  consideration  by  most 
of  the  princes  of  Germany,  where  his  doctrines  continued 
to  spread,  and  finally,  even  during  his  lifetime,  extended 
to  Moravia,  Bohemia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  He  died 
at  Eisleben,  the  l8th  of  February,  1546;  in  the  sixty-third 
year  of  his  age.  Among  Luther's  voluminous  works, 
his  translation  of  the  Bible,  already  mentioned,  is  the 
most  important.  Besides  his  controversial  writings,  he 
has  left  numerous  letters,  sermons,  etc.  His  "Table- 
Talk,"  ("  Tischreden,")  which  is,  says  Carlyle,  "the 
most  interesting  now  of  all  the  books  proceeding  from 
him,"  consists  of  sayings  and  anecdotes  collected  by 
Luther's  friends  after  his  death. 

Although  the  character  of  Luther  was  especially  dis 
tinguished  by  ardent  zeal  and  unconquerable  courage, 
yet  on  important  occasions  he  could  exercise  the  greatest 
moderation  as  well  as  discretion.  The  intrepidity  with 
which  he  faced  the  dangers  that  threatened  him  at  Worms 
is  not  more  deserving  of  our  praise  than  the  admirable 
prudence  and  tact  which  he  displayed  in  his  defence  on 
that  memorable  occasion.  The  fierce  invective  and  coarse 
vituperation  for  which  his  controversial  writings  have 
been  censured,  are  palliated  by  the  consideration  that 
such  was  the  almost  universal  custom  of  that  age.  It 
his  opposition  was  violent,  it  was  not  malignant  or  un 
forgiving.  When  his  bitterest  enemy,  Tetzel, — the  man 
who  had  excited  Luther's  fiercest  indignation, — was  in 
misfortune  and  disgrace,  forsaken  by  all  his  friends,  he 
received  from  his  generous  adversary  a  letter  of  con 
dolence  and  consolation.  As  a  reformer,  Luther  sought 
to  introduce  such  changes  only  as  he  deemed  to  be  im 
peratively  demanded  ;  and  to  the  last  he  clung  to  some 
of  the  doctrines  of  his  early  faith  which  were  rejected 
by  all  or  nearly  all  the  other  Protestants.  He  was  always 
an  advocate  of  peace  where  peace  could  be  had  without 
the  sacrifice  of  any  great  principle  ;  and,  so  long  as  he 
lived,  he  steadfastly  opposed,  both  by  his  counsels  and 
by  his  influence,  those  religious  contests  which  after  his 
death  desolated  Germany. 

"Justification  by  Faith"  formed  the  great  central  doc 
trine  in  Luther's  system  of  theology,  as  unconditional 
election  and  reprobation  was  the  central  idea  of  that  of 
Calvin.  The  great  aim  of  the  latter  would  seem  to  have 
been  to  prove  the  utter  and  absolute  helplessness  of 
man  ;  and,  in  the  march  of  his  inexorable  logic,  he  some 
times  appears  equally  regardless  of  the  hopes  of  man 
kind  and  of  the  justice  of  God.  Luther,  while  ascribing 
everything  in  the  act  of  conversion  to  the  grace  of  God, 
seems  not  so  completely  to  close  the  door  to  human 


aspirations, — taking  for  his  motto,  "  If  thou  canst  believe 
— all  things  are  possible  to  him  that  believeth." 

Luther  is  described  as  a  man  of  low  stature  but  hand 
some  person,  with  a  lively  complexion  and  falcon  eyes. 
His  voice  was  clear  and  of  great  power.  On  behold 
ing  his  picture,  Melanchthon  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, 
"  Each  one  of  thy  words  was  a  thunderbolt !"  ("  Fulmina 
erant  singula  verba  tua.")  Carlyle  says  of  him,  "No 
more  valiant  man  ever  lived  in  that  Teutonic  kindred 
whose  character  is  valour  :  the  thing  he  will  quail  before 
exists  not  on  this  earth  or  under  it."  "  He  was,"  observes 
Heine,  "not  only  the  greatest,  but  the  most  German, 
man  of  our  history.  In  his  character  all  the  faults  and  all 
the  virtues  of  the  Germans  are  combined  on  the  largest 
scale.  He  had  qualities  which  are  very  seldom  found 
united,  which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  irrecon 
cilable  antagonisms.  .  .  .  He  was  not  only  the  tongue, 
but  the  sword,  of  his  time.  Sometimes  he  was  wild 
as  the  storm  that  uproots  the  oak,  and  again  he  was 
as  gentle  as  the  zephyr  which  dallies  with  the  violet." 
In  a  not  dissimilar  strain,  Carlyle  contrasts  the  wild, 
unconquerable  energy  with  the  affectionate  tenderness 
of  Luther's  character:  "A  most  gentle  heart  withal, 
full  of  pity  and  love,  as,  indeed,  the  truly  valiant  heart 
ever  is."  Alluding  to  Luther's  fondness  for  music,  he 
adds,  "Death-defiance  on  the  one  hand,  and  such  love 
of  music  on  the  other, — between  these  two,  all  great 
things  had  room." 

Those  who  may  desire  to  see  a  less  favourable  view  of 
the  great  Reformer's  character  and  influence,  are  referred 
to  the  article  "  Luther"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene'rale,"  from  the  pen  of  the  editor,  Dr.  Hoefer. 

See  D'AuniGNi*,  "  History  of  the  Reformation ;"  MICIIF.I.ET, 
"Memoires  de  Luther,"  2  vols.,  1835;  MELANCHTHON,  "Life  of 
Luther,"  ("Vita  Lutheri ;")  JOHANN  MATHKSIUS,  "  Historia  von 
Dr.  M.  Luther'*  Anfang,  i.ehr,  Leben, "etc.,  15^5  :  IMMANUEI.VKGA, 
"  De  M.  Lutheri  Vita  et  Miracu'is,"  1586;  M  DRESSER,  "  Historia 
M.  Lutheri."  1598;  T.  HAYNE,  "Life  and  Death  of  Martin  Luther," 
1641  :  C.  JCNCKKR.  "Vita  Lutheri,"  etc.,  161)9;  C.  M.  SEIDEI.,  "  Kr- 
bauliches  Leben  Dr.  M.  Luther's,"  1718;  J.  COLKRUS,  "  Lutherus 
Redivivus,"  1718  ;  J.  COCHI.AEUS,  "  Commentaria  de  Actiset  Scriptis 
M.  Lutheri,"  1549;  N.  TAII.I.F.PIED,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  M.  Lu 
ther,"  1577  ;  GLOCERUS,  "  Historia  von  der  Lehre,  Leben.  etc.  Dr.  M. 
Lutheri,"  1586;  J.  D.  HERRENSCHMIDT,  "Vita  Dr.  M.  Luilieri," 
etc.,  1742;  C.  J.  WAGENSEIL,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Dr.  M.  Luther's," 
1782:  TISCHEK,  "Leben,  Thaten  und  Meinungen  Dr.  M.  Luther's," 
1783;  F.  O.  ZIMMF.KMANN,  "  Memoria  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,"  iVoS;  A. 
BOWER,  "  Life  of  Dr.  M.  Luther,"  1813;  UKERT,  "Dr.  M.  Luther's 
Lebeu,"  1817  ;  H.  MUELLER,  "  Dr.  M.  Luthers  Lebeu  und  Wirken," 
1817  ;  STANG,  "  M.  Luther,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  1835  ;  G.  PFIZER,  "  M. 
Luther's  Leben,"  1836;  J.  E.  RIDDLE,  "Luther  and  his  Times," 
1X37  ;  JOHN  SCOTT,  "  Luther  and  the  Lutheran  Reformation,"  1838; 
AuoiN,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  M.  Luther,"  2  vols.,  1830;  HANNAH 
LEK,  "  Life  and  Times  of  M.  Luther,"  Boston,  1839  ;  M.  MKURER, 
"M.  Luther's  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1846;  CARL  JURGENS,  "M.  Luther's 
Leben,"  3  vols.,  1847;  R.  FERGUSON,  "Luther:  his  Times,  Charac 
ter,  and  Works,"  1848;  F.  W.  GENTHE,  "Leben  und  Wirken  Dr. 
M.  Luther's."  1842:  IGNAZ  Dor. LINGER,  "Luther:  eine  Skir/.e," 
1851;  E.  HAAG,  "Vie  de  M.  Luther,"  1840;  JANUER,  "Luther's 
Leben,"  etc.,  1853:  N.  M.  PETF.RSEN,  "M.  Luther's  Levuet,"  1840; 
J.  A.  CRAMER,  "Luther  und  Melanchthon,"  1817:  PAUL  SEIDKI., 
"  Historic  und  Geschichte  des  Vaters  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,"  1581  ;  CARL 
R.  RICHTER,  "Geschichte  Dr.  M.  Luther's,"  1817;  K.  F.  A. 
KAHNIS,  "  Lutherische  Dogmatik,"  2  vols.,  1861-68;  DR.  C.  P. 
KRAUTH,  "The  Conservative  Reformation  and  its  Theology."  etc., 
1870  :  CARLYLE,  "  On  Heroes  and  Hero- Worship  ;"  HEDGE,  "  Prose 
Writers  of  Germany  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1839, 

Luther,  (PAUL,)  a  chemist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1533.  He  became  physician  to 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  to  his  successor,  Chris 
tian.  Died  at  Leipsic  in  1593. 

Luther,  (RonKKT,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  ^ibout 
1810,  lived  near  Dusseldorf.  He  discovered  eight  small 
planets  or  asteroids  between  1852  and  1858- 

Lutherburg.     See  LOUTHKRUOURG. 

Luti,  loo'tee,  or  Lutti,  loot/tee,  (BENEDETTO,)  an 
excellent  Italian  painter  of  history,  born  at  Florence  in 
1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Gabbiani.  He  worked  chiefly  in 
Rome,  and  was  patronized  by  Clement  XI.  According 
to  Lanzi,  many  connoisseurs  designated  him  the  last 
master  of  the  Florentine  school.  Among  his  merits  are 
forms  delicate  and  graceful,  and  a  skilful  distribution  of 
colours  and  shadows.  He  painted  in  oil,  in  fresco,  and 
in  pastel.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  an  "Annun 
ciation,"  "  San  Ranieri  taking  the  Habit,"  and  "  The 
Prophet  Isaiah,"  in  the  Lateran.  Died  in  1724. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy:"  TICOZZI,  "Diziona- 
rio;"  WINCKELMANN,  "  Neues  Mahler- Lexikon." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ft,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a.  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LUTON 


H73 


LUTNES 


Luton,  IU'ION',  (Loins,)  a  French  chemist  and  painter 
on  glass,  born  in  Paris  in  1757;  died  in  1852. 
Luttrell,  COLONEL.     See  WII.KKS,  (JOHN.) 
Lut'trell,  (NARCISSUS,)   an  English   political  writer, 
who  kept  a  diary  of  public  events  during  the  Revolution 
of  1688  and   subsequent  years,   which   Macaulay  often 
quotes   and   calls  a  valuable   manuscript.     Died  about 
1732.     His  diary  was  published  in  1857. 

See  "Xor.h  British  Review"  for  November,  1857. 

Liitzelburger  or  Luetzelburger,  lut'sel-booRr/er, 
sometimes  erroneously  written  Leutzelburger,  (HANS,) 
also  called  HANS  FRANK,  a  Swiss  wood-engraver,  of 
whom  very  little  is  known,  lived  about  1520-40.  Among 
the  most 'important  works  attributed  to  him  is  the 
"  Dance  of  I  )eath,"  (usually  ascribed  to  Holbein,)  "  Illus 
trations  of  the  Old  Testament,"  a  portrait  of  Erasmus, 
and  "  The  Sale  of  Indulgences." 

See  NAGI.EK,  "Allgemi-ines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Liitzow  or  Luetzow,  liit'so,  (I.unwio  ADOLF  WIL- 
HKLM.)  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1782;  died  at  Ber 
lin  in  1834. 

Liitzow,  von,  fon  liit'so,  (THERESA  VON  STRUVF.,) 
M  \n\MK,  a  German  authoress,  born  at  Stuttgart  in 
1804.  She  wrote  several  novels  and  books  of  travel. 
Died  in  Java  in  1852. 

Luvigini,  loo-ve-jee'nee,  Luisini,  loo-e-see'nee,  or 
Luisino,  loo-e-see'no,  [Lat.  LuiSl'NUS,]  (FRANCESCO,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Udine  in  1523.  He  was  pre 
ceptor  of  the  son  of  Ottavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Paimn. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  I^itin  Commentary  on  Horace's 
Art  of  Poetry,"  (1554-)  His  poetical  talent  is  praised 
bv  Mu ret  and  Giraldi.  Died  in  1568. 

'Luvigini  or  Luisino,  (Luioi,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Udine,  was  a  physician  at  Venice.  Among 
his  works  is  a  version  of  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hippocrates, 
in  Latin  hexameters,  (1552.) 

Lux,  looks,  (ADAM,)  a  German  republican,  born 
Mentz  about  17/0.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  in  March,  1793, 
to  solicit  the  annexation  of  his  country  to  France.  He 
witnessed  with  sympathy  and  admiration  the  conduct  of 
Charlotte  Corday  at  her  execution.  A  few  days  later  he 
published  an  apology  for  that  heroine.  For  this  and 
other  offences  be  was  executed  in  November,  1793. 

Luxdorf,  looks'doRf,  (BoLLE  WILLUM,)  a  Danish 
writer  and  lawyer,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in  1716 
He  cultivated  Latin  poetry  with  success.  Died  in  1788 

Luxembourg,  luk's5NvbooR',  (CHRISTIAN  Louis  DF 
MONTMORENCI,)  Prince  de  Tingri,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  the  fourth  son  of  the  great  Mar 
shal  Luxembourg.  For  his  services  at  Oudenarde  and 
Lille  (1708)  he  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
He  commanded  at  Ettlingen  in  1734,  and  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France  in  the  s'ame  year.  From  that  time  he 
was  called  MARSHAL  DE  MONTMORENCI.  Died  in  1746 

See  PINARIJ,  "Chronologic  militaire." 

Luxembourg,  de,  deh  luk'sS.x'booR',  (C  HA  RLE: 
FRANCOIS  FREDERIC  DK.  MONTMORENCI,)  MARSHAL 
born  in  1702,  was  a  grandson  of  the  first  Marshal  Lux 
embourg.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  Louis  XV.  in  thi 
war  of  1741,  and,  having  served  with  distinction  in  Ger 
many,  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  gave  a  home  it 
J.  J.'  Rousseau  at  Montmorenci.  (See  the  notice  of  hi 
wife,  below.)  Died  in  1764. 
See  ROUSSEAU,  "  Confessions." 

Luxembourg,  de,  written  also  Luxemburg,  (FRAN 
gots  HENRI  DE  MONTMORENCI,)  Due,  a  celebrated  mar 
shal  of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  son  of  th 
Count  de  Montmorenci-Bouteville,  and  acousin-germa 
of  the  great  Prince  de  Conde.  For  his  conduct  at  Len 
in  1648  he  was  made  marechal-de-camp.  From  devotio 
to  the  Prince  of  Conde,  he  served  several  campaign 
against  France  between  1653  and  1659,  during  whic 
period  Conde  commanded  the  Spanish  army.  Hnvin 
received  a  pardon  from  the  king  in  1660,  he  married  th 
heiress  of  the  house  of  Luxembourg,  and  assumed  thr 
name.  In  1672  he  obtained  command  of  an  army  whic 
invaded  Holland  and  took  several  towns.  His  skilfi 
retreat  from  Utrecht  to  Charleroi  in  November,  167 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  first  captains  of  that  ag 
In  1674  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  Conde's  arm 
at  Senef,  and  in  1675  received  a  marshal's  baton. 


€  as  k  •  9  as  s  •  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

93 


gained  victories  over  the  allies  in  Flanders  in  the  cam 
paign   of   1677,  which    was    followed  by   a  long   peace. 
Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Louvois,  he  was  confined 
in  the  Bastille  fourteen  months  on  a  charge  of  sorcery. 
In  1690,  Louis  XIV.,  against  whom  Austria,  Spain,  and 
England  had  formed  a   coalition,   gave  the  chief  com 
mand  of  his  army  to  Marshal    Luxembourg,  who,  since 
the  death  of  Turenne  and  Conde,  was  the  ablest  of  his 
generals.     He  defeated   the  allies   at    Fleurus   in   1690. 
In   the  campaign  of  1691   he  defeated  William  III.  of 
England  at  the  great  battle  of  Steenkei  ke.    He  was  victo 
rious  over  the  same  enemy  and  leader  at  Neerwinden, 
r   Landen,  in  1693.     He   died   in   January,   1695,  after 
hich  the  army  of  Louis  gained  few  victories.     "Even 
he   admirers  of  William    III.,"  says  Macaulay,  "were 
irced  to  own  that  in  the  field  he  was  not  a  match  for 
.uxembourg,"  whose  "judgment  was  clearest  and  surest 
hen  responsibility  pressed  heaviest  on  him  and  when 
iffkulties  gathered  thickest  around  him."    "  He  gained 
nmense  renown  at  William's  expense;  but  he  had  not 
le  art  of  improving  a  victory,  while  William,  of  all  gen- 
rals,  was  best  qualified  to  repair  a  defeat."     ("  History 
f  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xix.) 

See  BK.AUKAIN.  "  Histoire  militaire  du  Due  de  Luxembourg," 
756;  "Memoirs  of  Marshal  Luxemburg,"  written  by  himselt,  1758; 
OI.TAIRE,  "  Sieclede  Louis  XIV:"  SAINT-SIMON,  _" 'Memo.res  ; 
JBSORMFM-X  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorenci,  vols.  iv.  and 
.  ;  L.  ARTOING.  "LeMarechal  de  Luxembourg,"  1853:  "Nouvelle 
iiographie  Generate." 

Luxembourg  or  Luxemburg,  de,  (Louis,)  Comte 
e  Saint-Pol,  an  ambitious  French  general,  born  in  1418. 
le  fought  against  Louis  XI.  at  Montlheii  about  1464, 
nit  wa-T  soon  after  won  over  by  the  high  office  of  Con- 
table  of  France,  and  married  the  queen's  sister,  Marie 
le  Savoie.  He  was  called  the  pivot  of  the  principal 
ntrignes  of  that  time.  His  perfidy  provoked  Louis  XI. 
nd 'Charles  the  Bold  to  declare  him  their  common 
nemy.  He  was  beheaded  in  1475. 

See  COMIXES.  "Memoire*;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  desFrancais;'1 
'  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Luxembourg  de,  (MADF.LENE  ANGELIQUE  de  Neuf 
ville-Villeroi— deh  nuf'vel'  vel'Rwa',)  MARECHALK- 
OUCHF.SSE,  born  in  1707,  was  a  granddaughter  of  Marshal 
Villeroi.  She  was  married  to  Marshal  C.  F.  de  Luxem 
bourg  in  1750.  About  1758  this  couple  gave  Rousseau 
an  asylum  at  Montmorenci.  Rousseau  has  commemo- 
•ated'in  his  "Confessions"  her  charming  conversation 
and  liberality.  Her  rank  and  talents  gave  her  great 
social  influence  in  Paris.  Died  in  1787. 

Luxembourg-Ligni,  de,  deh  luk'sON'booR'  len  ye  , 
t  .VALERAN,)  Comte  de  Saint-Pol,  was  born  in  1355,  of 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  Europe.  While 
fighting  for  the  French  king,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  English  in  1374.  He  married  Matilda,  a  sister  of 
Richard  II.  of  England.  Having  been  chosen  Con 
stable  of  France  in  1412,  he  defeated  the  Armagnacs 
in  battle.  Died  in  1417. 

Luxemburg.     See  LUXEMBOURG. 

Luyken  or  Luycken,  loi'ken,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  en 
graver,  born  in  1649,  lived  in  Amsterdam.  He  etched, 
after  his  own  designs,  many  admired  works,  which  dis 
play  a  fertile  invention,  the  "Death  of  Coligny"  is 
called  his  best  production.  Died  in  1712. 

Luynes  or  Luines,  de,  deh  Hi-en',  (CHARLES  D' AL 
BERT,)  Due,  the  favourite  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France, 
was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1578.  As  the  companion 
of  Louis  in  youth,"  he  acquired  an  ascendency  over  him, 
and  about  1616  he  became  his  most  powerful  minister. 
His  cupidity  and  ambition  excited  many  enemies,  among 
whom  was  the  king's  mother;  but  through  his  influence 
she  was  sent  into  exile.  In  1621  he  was  appointed  Con 
stable  of  France,  and  declared  war  against  the  Hugue 
nots.  It  appears  that  Louis  had  resolved  to  discard  him  ; 
but  before  that  purpose  was  effected  Luynes  died,  in 
December,  1621.  He  was  a  brother  of  Marshal  Chaulnes, 
noticed  in  this  work. 

See  BAZIN,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XIII:"  RASSOM  PIERRE  .  "  Me- 
moires;"  S.ISMOXDI,  "Histoire  des  Krancais ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phie  Gdnera'e." 

Luynes,  de,  (HONORS'  TIIEODORIC  PAUL  JOSEPH 
D'Ai.KKRT,)  Due,  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in 
1802,  was  a  liberal  patron  of  arts  and  sciences.  He  was 

>ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUTTS 


'474 


LTCURGUS 


admitted  in  1830  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  to 
which  he  contributed  many  valuable  treatises  on  antiqui 
ties  and  medals. 

Luyts,  loits,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  astrono 
mer,  born  at  Horn  about  1660,  became  professor  of 
physics  at  Utrecht.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy.  Died  in  1721. 

Luz,  liiz,  ?  [Lat.  Lu'cius,]  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  Protest 
ant  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1577.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Jesuits,"  (1626,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1642. 

Luzac,  lii'zak/,  (Ei.iAS,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and 
jurist,  born  near  Leyden  in  1723.  He  published  in  1756 
"  Researches  into  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge." 
His  "Riches  of  Holland,"  (1778,)  a  history  of  Dutch 
commerce,  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1796. 

Luzac,  (JAN,)  a  philologist  and  publicist  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Leyden  in  1746.  lie  practised  law  in  his 
native  place.  In  1775  he  became  chief  editor  of  the 
"Gazette  de  Leyde."  From  1785  until  1796  he  was 
professor  of  Greek  in  Leyden  University.  He  corre 
sponded  with  Washington  and  Jefferson,  the  former  of 
whom  wrote,  "America  is  under  great  obligations  to  the 
writings  and  actions  of  such  men  as  you."  Among  his 
works  are  "  Socrates  as  a  Citizen,"  ("  De  Socrate  Give,") 
dedicated  to  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  "Attic 
Readings,"  ("  Lectiones  Atticas,"  1809.)  He  was  killed 
by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder  at  Leyden  in  1807. 

See  SIEGENBEEK,  "  Notice  snr  la  Vie  et  lesTravaux  de  J.  Ltizac." 

Luzac,  (  STEVEN,)  the  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1706.  He  became  in  1738  proprietor  and 
editor  of  the  "Gazette  de  Leyde,"  which  is  described 
as  a  model'of  accuracy  and  wisdom,  and  possessed  much 
historical  value.  Died  in  1787. 

Luzan,  loo-than',  (Don  IGNACIO,)  a  Spanish  critic, 
poet,  and  literary  reformer,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1702. 
About  1750  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  mint,  a 
councillor  of  state,  and  minister  of  commerce.  To  coun 
teract  the  vicious  poetical  style  of  Gongora,  he  wrote 
his  celebrated  "Art  of  Poetry,"  ("La  Poetica,  o  Reglas 
de  la  Poesia  en  general,"  1737,)  which  is  said  to  have 
been  effectual  in  rectifying  the  national  taste.  He  pro 
duced  several  admired  poems,  one  of  which  is  "  The 
Judgment  of  Paris."  Died  in  1754. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature:"  LONGFELLOW, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Luzarches,  de,  deh  Ki'zSush',  (ROBERT,)  a  French 
architect,  designed  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  Amiens, 
which  was  commenced  in  1220  and  finished  in  1269. 

Luzerne,  de  la,  deh  It  Ki'ziRn',  (ANNE  CESAR,) 
CHEVALIER,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1741. 
In  1779  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  had  much  influence,  and  performed  with  credit 
the  duties  of  a  position  which  the  absence  of  instructions 
made  more  responsible.  He  left  the  United  States  in 
1783.  He  was  ambassador  from  France  to  London  from 
1788  until  his  death,  in  September,  1791. 

Luzerne,  de  la,  (CESAR  GUILLAUME,)  a  learned  prel 
ate,  born  in  Paris  in  1738,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Langres  in  1770,  and  was 
elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  emigrated  in 
1791,  returned  in  1814,  and  was  made  a  cardinal' in  1817. 
Among  his  numerous  works  is  "  Considerations  on 
Divers  Points  of  Christian  Morality,"  (5  vols.,  1795.) 
Died  in  1821. 

See  Qt-ERARD,  "La  France  Litte'raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
GeneVale. " 

Luzerne,  de  la,  (CESAR  HENRI,)  COUNT,  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  Malesherbes.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  marine  in  1787.  The  hostility 
of  the  dominant  party  caused  him  to  resign  in  1790.  He 
emigrated  in  1791,  and  died  in  Austria  in  1799. 

Lygeus,  H-ee'us,  [Gr.  AuoZoc,  from  Ai>«,  to  "  free"  or 
"  loosen,"]  a  surname  given  to  Bacchus,  because  he  (wine) 
frees  the  mind  from  care  ;  though  some  say  it  is  because 
[he  loosens  the  limbs  of  his  votaries,  rendering  them  un 
able  to  walk.  (See  BACCHUS.) 

Lycambes.     See  ARCHILOCHUS. 

Ly-ca'oii,  |Gr.  AVKUUV,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Arcadia, 
and  a  son  of  Pelasgus.  He  and  his  numerous  sons  were 


notorious  for  impiety  and  cruelty  The  poets  feigned 
that  Jupiter  in  disguise  once  visited  Lycaon,  who  offered 
him  human  flesh  to  eat,  for  which  offence  he  was  changed 
into  a  wolf. 

Lycius,  lish'e-us,  [Ai'/aoc,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  in 
Bceotia,  lived  about  425  H.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Myron. 

Lycomede.     See  LYCOMEDES. 

Lycomede,  le'ko'm.W',  the  assumed  name  of  GIU 
SEPPE  MARIA  ARRIGHI,  (ar-ree'gee,)  a  Corsican  writer, 
born  in  1768.     He   published,  in   Italian,  a  "Historical 
Essay   on   the    Civil    and   Political    Revolutions   of  the 
j  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (3  vols.,  1812.)     Died  in  1834. 

Lyc-o-me'des,  (Gr.  Avico[u/6rj£ ;  Fr.  LYCOMEDE,  le'- 
ko'm.\d',]  a  king  of  Scyros  and  of  the  Dolopians,  was 
the  father  of  Deidamia,  who  became  the  mother  of 
Pyirhus  by  Achilles.  The  poets  relate  that  young 
Achilles  was  committed  to  his  care  by  Thetis  to  prevent 
him  from  going  to  the  Trojan  war.  Lycomedes  is  said 
to  have  murdered  Theseus,  who  sought  refuge  at  his 
court. 

Lycomedes,  [Gr.  \vKop/h]f,]  an  Arcadian  general, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Megalopolis,  (370  :;.c.)  He 
defeated  the  Spartans  in  369,  and  took  Pellene.  He  was 
murdered  about  366  H.c. 

Ly'coii,  [Ai'/cwv,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  acquired 
notoriety  as  one  of  the  accusers  of  Socrates.  He  was 
banished  with  Anytus  for  this  offence. 

Lycon,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Laodicea,  lived 
about  300  H.C.     He  was  the  successor  of  Strain,  and  for 
about  forty  years  was  the  head  of  the  Peripatetic  school 
j  of  Athens.      He  had  a  high  reputation  for  eloquence. 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Lyc'o-phroii,  \\vKo6pui',}  a  Greek  poet  and  gram 
marian,  born  at  Chalcis,  in  Etiboca.  He  lived  at  the 
court  of  Ptolemy  Phiiadelphus,  in  Alexandria,  from  280 
to  250  is.C.  lie  was  one  of  the  seven  poets  who  were 
styled  the  "  Pleiades."  The  numerous  tragedies  which 
he  wrote  have  all  been  lost,  but  his  lyric  poem  called 
41  Cassandra,"  or  "Alexandra,"  has  come  down  to  us.  It 
is  very  obscure  and  enigmatical,  but  is  admired  as  a 
prodigy  of  learning  and  valued  as  a  treasury  of  facts 
and  traditions. 

SeeOsiANDER,  " Bemerksmgen zuLycophron."  1826;  FABRICIUS, 
"  I'ib'iotlieca  Graeca ;"  VOLKKR,  "De  Lycophronis  Cassandra," 
1820;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ly-cor'tas  [Av/coprof]  of  Megalopolis,  an  Achaian 
general,  was  the  father  of  Polybius  the  historian,  and  a 
friend  of  Philopcemen.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Rome  in  189  H.C.  Died  after  168  B.C. 

Lycosthenes,  le-kos'ta-nes,  (CONRAD,)  the  Greek 
name  of  CONRAD  WOLFKHART,  a  scholar,  born  in  Alsace 
in  1518.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Bale  in 
1545,  and  published  a  curious  work  on  "  Prodigies," 
("  Prodigiorum  Chronicon,")  a  new  edition  of  Gesner's 
"  Bibliotheca,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1561. 

Ly-cur'gus,  [Gr.  Awcorpj-of ;  Fr.  LYCURGUE,  le'kiiRg',] 
in  classic  mythology,  a  king  of  Thrace,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  a  persecutor  of  Bacchus,  and  to  have  been  punished 
with  madness.  According  to  another  tradition,  Jupiter 
deprived  him  of  sight. 

Lycurgus,  [Gr.  Avuovpyot; :  Fr.  LYCURGUE,  le'kiiKg'; 
Ger.  LYKURGUS,  le-kdoR'gdos,]  a  famous  Spartan  law 
giver,  who  belongs  to  the  period  anterior  to  authentic 
history.  Plutarch  begins  his  biography  with  the  remark 
that  nothing  certain  can  be  said  concerning  him.  Accord 
ing  to  Aristotle,  he  lived  more  than  850  years  H.C.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  King  Eunomus,  who  was 
succeeded  by  another  son,  Polydectes.  At  the  death  of 
the  latter,  Lycurgus  refused  the  crown,  and  defended  the 
right  of  Charilaus,  a  posthumous  son  of  Polydectes.  lie 
visited  many  foreign  countries,  whose  institutions  he 
studied,  and,  after  a  long  absence,  returned  to  Sparta, 
where  he  made  social  and  political  changes  of  the  most 
radical  kind.  His  constitution  was  considered  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  model  of  a  perfect  aristocracy,  but  con 
tained  a  strong  democratic  element.  The  executive 
power  was  divided  between  two  persons  called  kings.  A 
remarkable  feature  in  his  system  was  the  equal  division 
or  community  of  property,  which  existed  to  an  extent 
unequalled  in  any  other  country  in  ancient  or  modern 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


'475 


LTX4R 


times.  The  interference  of  the  state  with  domestic  affairs 
and  relations  was  carried  to  a  great  excess.  His  laws  were 
based  on  the  idea  that  men  are  made  for  the  government, 
rather  than  the  government  for  men.  He  is  said  to  have 
prohibited  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  money,  and  abol 
ished  all  professions  among  the  Spartans  except  that  of 
arms,  assigning  all  mechanical  and  menial  employment 
to  the  slaves,  (Helots,)  who  appear  to  have  been  treated 
•with  great  severity.  Having  imposed  on  the  people  an 
oath  that  they  would  not  alter  his  laws  during  his  ab 
sence,  he  went  into  voluntary  exile,  from  which  he  never 
returned.  Tradition  informs  us  that  he  vanished  myste 
riously  from  the  earth.  The  Spartans  erected  a  temple 
to  him,  and  paid  him  divine  honours.  According  to  one 
legend,  he  ordered  his  ashes  to  be  cast  into  the  sea  after 
his  death,  fearing  that  if  his  body  were  conveyed  to 
Sparta  the  Spartans  might  think  themselves  absolved 
from  their  oath. 

See  PI.I/TARCH,  ''Life  of  Lycurgus;"  GROTE,  "History  of 
Greece-."  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi.  :  PLATO,  "  De  I,egibus ;"  K.  O.  MUI.LKR, 
"  Die  Dorier  ;"  ARISTOTLE,  '•  Politica  ;"  THIKLWALL,  _'•  History  ot 
Greec-:"  WEICHKRT,  "  Questionum  Lycnrgearuni  Specimen."  1^44: 
J.  WKOEI.IS-.  "  Politische  und  moraiische  Betrachtimcen  iiber  die 
Si-artanische  Gesetzgebung  des  Lycurgus,"  1763;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
j.rapl<ie  Generale." 

Lycurgus,  an  eminent  Athenian  orator,  born  about 
400  B.C.,  was  the  aon  of  Lycophron.  He  is  said  to  have 
studied  philosophy  under  Plato,  and  eloquence  under 
1st  it-rates.  For  about  fifteen  years  he  presided  over  the 
public  revenue  with  a  high  reputation  for  integrity  and 
financial  ability.  In  the  contest  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
he  supported  the  democratic  party.  He  was  one  of  the 
orators  whom  Alexander  required  Athens  to  deliver  up 
to  him  in  335  B.C.  This  demand  was  firmly  refused. 
Fifteen  of  his  orations  were  extant  in  the  time  of  Plu 
tarch,  and  only  one  (that  against  Leocrates)  has  come 
clown  to  us.  His  style  is  noble  rather  than  elegant. 
Died  in  323  B.C. 

See  NISSKN,  "  Disseitatio  de  I.ycurgi  Oratoris  Vita,"  1833;  G.  A. 
HLUME,  "Narratio  de  Lycurgo  Oratore,"  1834:  PLUTARCH,  "Vitae 
Decem  Oratormii." 

Lyde.     See  JOYXER,  (WILLIAM.) 

Lyd'gate,  (jonx,)  an  old  English  poet,  born  about 
1375.  became  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  Bury  Saint  Ed 
mund's.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1397,  after  which 
he  travelled  on  the  continent.  On  his  return,  he  opned 
at  the  abbey  above  named  a  school,  in  which  he  taught 
languages,  rhetoric,  and  versification.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  poet.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Story  of  Thebes,"  "The  Fall  of  Princes,"  and 
the  "History,  Siege,  and  Destruction  of  Troy."  Died 
about  1460. 

See  \V.\RTON-,  "History  of  English  Poetry." 

Lyd'i-at,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  chronologer  and 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Okerton  in  1572.  He  be 
came  rector  of  Okerton  about  1612.  During  the  civil 
war  he  suffered  persecution  for  his  loyalty  to  Charles  I., 
and  he  died  very  poor  in  1646.  His  adversities  are 
commemorated  in  these  verses  of  Dr.  Johnson  : 

"  If  dreams  yet  flatter,  once  again  attend: 
Hear  Lydiat's  life  and  Galileo's  end." 

Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  Censure  of  Scaliger's 
Chronology,  ( "  Emendatio  Temporum  contra  Scalige- 
rum,"  1609,)  "The  Period  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,"  and 
"The  Measurement  of  the  Solar  Year." 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  WOOD,  "Athe- 
nje  Oxonienses;"  NICERON,  "  Me'moires." 

Lydius,  lid'e-us,  (  JAKOB,  )  a  Dutch  scholar  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  a  minister  of  Dort.  He  pub 
lished  "  Belgium  Gloriosum,"  and  other  works. 

Ly'dus,  a  son  of  Atys  and  Callithea,  was  the  sup 
posed  ancestor  of  the  ancient  Lydians. 

Lydus,  [Gr.  Aw56o,|  the  surname  of  JOANNES  LAU- 
KENTIUS,  ['luainvK  AavpevTiof,]  a  Greek  historical  writer, 
born  at  Philadelphia,  in  Lydia,  about  490  A.n.  He  was 
employed  many  years  in  various  official  functions  in  the 
imperial  palace  at  Constantinople.  He  resigned  his 
offices  about  550,  and  afterwards  wrote  many  works, 
some  of  which  are  lost.  An  important  treatise,  "  On  the 
Magistrates  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  is  still  extant. 

See  PHOTIUS,  "  BibHotheca  ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Gra=ca  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Lye,  IT,  (En\VARD,)  an  English  philologist  and  clergy 
man,  born  at  Totness  in  1704.  Soon  after  he  left  college 
he  obtained  the  living  of  Houghton  Parva,  and  in  1750 
became  vicar  of  Yardley  Hastings.  He  acquired  dis 
tinction  by  his  researches  into  the  Saxon  language  and 
literature.  In  1743  'le  published  the  "  Etymologicon 
Anglicanum,"  which  Francis  Junius  had  left  in  manu 
script.  His  chief  work  is  his  "Anglo-Saxon  and  Gothic 
Dictionary,"  (1772.)  Died  in  1767. 

Ly'ell,  (CHARLES,)  a   Scottish   botanist,  born    about 
1767,  resided  at  Kinnordy,  Forfarshire.     He  was   the 
father  of  the  geologist  of  the  same  name.    Died  in  1849. 
Lyell,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  an  eminent  British   geologist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kinnordy,  in  Forfar 
shire,  in  November,  1797.      He  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1821,  and  studied  law,  but  soon  relinquished  the  prac 
tice  of  that   profession  in  order  to  devote   his   time  to 
geology.     About    1826    he   began   to   contribute   to  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Geological    Society"  a  series  of 
papers   which   display  superior   powers   of  observation 
and  comparison,  and  in  1830  published  the  first  volume 
of  his    important   work,    "  Principles    of  Geology,"    (3 
vols.,  1830-33,)  which  was  very  favourably  received.     It 
reached  the  fifth  edition  in  1837.    He  afterwards  divided 
i  the  work  into   two  parts,  one  of  which  was  published 
I  under  the  title  of  "Elements  of  Geology,"  (1838.)     In  a 
i  subsequent  edition  the  name  was  changed  to  "  Manual 
I  of  Elementary  Geology."     It  is  generally  admitted  that 
'  his  work  contributed  much  to  place  geology  on  a  philo- 
:  sophical  basis  as  an  inductive  science.     Having  visited 
!  the  United  States  in  1841,  he  lectured  on  geology  at  Bos 
ton,  and   after  his  return  published  "  Travels  in  North 
America,  with  Geological  Observations  on  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Nova  Scotia,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)     lie 
also  wrote  many  treatises  on  the  geology  of  America, 
which  were  printed  in  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Geo 
logical  Society,  and  in  other  journals.     In  1845  ^e  made 
another  excursion   to  the   United   States,  the  result  of 
which   was  a  "  Second  Visit  to  the   United   States,"  (2 
vols.,  1849.)    Both  of  these  books  of  travel  contain  much 
to  interest  the  general  reader.     Mr.  Lyell  was  knighted 
in  1848.     He   was  elected   president  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1836,  and  again   in    1850.     He  published  in 
1863  "The  Geological   Evidences  of  the  Antiquity  of 
Man,  with  Remarks  on  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  Species 
by  Variation."     He  was  formerly  prominent  among  the 
opponents  of  the  "development"  or  Darwinian  theory; 
but  within  the  last  few  years  he  has  changed  his  views 
in  that  respect. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale :"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1839,  and  July,  1863;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1849,  and  October,  1851  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  February, 
1851 ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845. 

Ly'ford,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Berkshire  about  1598.  He  became  a  Calvinistic  minister 
at  Sherborne,  Dorsetshire,  and  wrote  several  works,  one 
of  which  is  called  "  Principles  of  Faith  and  of  a  Good 
Conscience."  Died  in  1653. 

Lykurgos,  le-koor'gos,  (LoGOTHETis,)  a  modern 
Greek  patriot,  born  in  the  island  of  Samos  in  1772. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  independence 
in  Greece,  (1821,)  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  Samos.  He  was  also  appointed  civil  and 
military  governor  of  the  island,  which  office  he  held  till 
1826.  He  afterwards  became  a  senator  under  the  new 
monarchy  of  Greece.  Died  in  1850. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Lykurgus  or  Lykurgos.     See  LYCURGUS. 

Lyly,  (Jonx.)     See  LILLY,"  TjuiiN.) 

Ly'man,  (PHINEAS,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Durham,  in  Connecticut,  in  1716.  He  served  with  dis 
tinction  against  the  French  in  Canada  under  General 
Johnson,  Abercrombie,  and  others,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  major-general.  Died  in  1775. 

Lyna.     See  HLINA. 

Lynacer.     See  LINACRE. 

Lynar,  von,  fon  lee'naR,  (FRIEDRICH,)  COUNT,  a 
German  statesman  and  scholar,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia 
in  1708.  He  held  several  high  offices  in  Denmark 
between  1740  and  1749.  He  wrote  political  treatises, 
"Travels  in  Germany,"  etc.  Died  in  1781. 


•e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LTNCEE 


1476 


LYONS 


Lyncee.     See  LYNCEUS. 

Ljfn'9eus,  [  Gr.  Avyneve ;  Fr.  LYNC£K,  l&N'sa',  ]  a 
king  of  Argos,  was  a  son  of  /Egyptus,  and  married 
Hypermnestra,  one  of  the  Uanaides.  She  saved  his  life 
when  her  forty-nine  sisters  killed  their  husbands.  (See 
DANAIDES.) 

Lynceus,  one  of  the  Argonauts,  was  a  son  of  Apha- 
reus,  and  celebrated  for  his  keenness  of  sight.  He  was 
killed  by  Pollux. 

Lynch,  (JoHN,)  a  learned  Irish  priest  and  writer, 
born  at  Gahvay  about  1600.  Me  took  refuge  in  France 
in  1652,  and  returned  to  Ireland  after  the  restoration, 
(1660.)  He  wrote  a  historical  work  in  Latin,  entitled 
"  C;imbrensis  Eversus,"  (1662,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1674. 

Lynch,  (THOMAS,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  American  Independence,  was  born  in  Prince 
George's  Parish,  South  Carolina,  in  1749.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Cambridge,  England,  and  soon  after  his  return 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  company  in  the  first 
South  Carolina  regiment  of  provincial  regulars.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1776.  While  on  a  voyage 
for  his  health,  he  was  lost  at  sea  in  1779. 

Lynch,  (WILLIAM  F.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1805.  He  set  out  in  1847  on 
an  expedition  to  explore  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
of  which  he  published  an  interesting  account,  entitled 
"  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Expedition  to  the  River 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,"  (1849.)  Died  in  1865. 

Lyncker,  von,  fun  link'er,  (NiKpi.AUS  CHRISTOPH,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Marburg  in  1643.  He  was  a 
mtmber  of  the  aulic  council  at  Vienna,  and  wrote  many 
legal  works.  Died  in  1726. 

Lynde,  lind,  (Sir  HUMPHRY,)  an  English  author,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1579.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  several  years.  He  published  "Ancient  Characters 
of  the  Visible  Church,"  and  "  Via  Tula,  or  the  Safe 
Way,"  which  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1636. 

Lynd'hurst,  (JOHN  SINGI.KTON  COPI.KY,)  LORD,  an 
eminent  English  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  Massachu 
setts,  in  1772,  was  the  son  of  the  distinguished  painter 
John  S.  Copley,  who  took  him  to  England  about  1775. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  chose  the  profes 
sion  of  law.  Having  gradually  risen  to  be  the  leader 
of  the  Midland  circuit,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  as 
a  Tory  in  1818,  and  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1819, 
when  he  was  also  knighted.  Sir  John  became  attorney- 
general  in  1824,  and  was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  1826.  After  opposing  the  bill 
for  Catholic  emancipation,  he  accepted  the  office  of  lord 
chancellor  in  the  Liberal  ministry  of  Canning  in  April, 
1827,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Lyndhurst. 
Having  been  retained  in  his  office  by  the  Duke  of  Wel 
lington,  he  voted  in  concurrence  with  his  colleagues  for 
Catholic  emancipation  in  1829.  In  November,  1830,  the 
Liberal  party,  under  Earl  Grev,  came  into  power,  and 
Lord  Lyndhurst  was  deprived  of  the  great  seal ;  but 
in  1831  he  was  appointed  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer. 
He  made  an  able  speech  against  the  Reform  bill  in  1832. 
In  the  court  of  exchequer  he  displayed  eminent  judicial 
qualifications.  He  was  again  lord  chancellor  during  the 
brief  ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1834.  In  August, 
1841,  Sir  Robert  became  premier,  and  Lord  Lyndhurst 
lord  chancellor,  of  a  new  Conservative  ministry,  which 
was  deprived  of  power  by  the  triumph  of  the  Whigs  in 
1846.  After  that  date,  until  near  his  death,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  orators  of  his  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  advocated  the  prosecution  of  the  Russian 
war  (1854-56)  in  several  eloquent  speeches.  Died  in  1863. 

See  LORD  CAMPBF.I.L,  "Life  of  Lord  Lyndhurst,"  i86g;  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England."  vol.  ix.  ;  "Biographical  Sketches  from 
the  Note-Book  of  a  Law  Reporter,"  by  W.  H.  BENNETT,  London 
1867. 

Lyndsay.     See  LINDSAY. 

Lynedoch,  Hn'doK,  (THOMAS  GRAHAM,)  BARON,  a 
British  general,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1750.  Having 
obtained  the  rank  of  general,  he  served  under  Sir  John 
Moore  in  Portugal  in  1808-9.  He  gained  a  victory  at 
Barossa  in  1811,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  in  1813.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1814.  Died  in  1843. 


Ljfn'wood,  Lynd'wood,  or  Lin' wood,  (WIL 
LIAM,)  an  English  canonist,  and  Bishop  of  Saint  David's. 
Died  in  1446. 

Ly'pn,  (GKORGK  FRANCIS,)  an  English  navigator, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1795,  entered  the  navy  in  his  youth. 
In  1818-19  he  was  the  companion  of  J.  Ritchie  in  an 
expedition  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  of  which  he  pub 
lished  an  account  in  1821.  Captain  Lyon  commanded 
one  of  the  ships  in  Parry's  voyage  to  the  Northern 
Ocean,  (1821-23,)  and  kept  a  journal,  which  was  pub 
lished.  Both  of  the  works  above  named  are  commended. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821. 

Ly'on,  (MARY,)  a  meritorious  teacher,  born  at  Buck- 
land,  Massachusetts,  in  1797,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Mount  Holyoke  Female  Seminary  in  that  State.  It  was 
opened  in  1837,  and  soon  acquired  a  very  high  reputa 
tion  and  extensive  patronage.  "  She  presided  for  years 
over  an  admirable  school,"  says  Allen.  Died  at  South 
Haclley  in  1849. 

See  DR.  HUMPHREY'S  "  Life  of  Mary  Lyon,"  and  "Recollections 
of  Mary  Lyon,"  by  Miss  F.  FISK,  Boston,  1866;  AI.I.EN'S  "Amer 
ican  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Lyon,  (MATTHEW,)  born  in  Wicklow  county,  Ireland, 
in  1746,  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  poli 
tician  of  the  Democratic  party.  Died  in  1822. 

Lyon,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
at  Ashforcl  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  July,  1819, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1851. 
Early  in  1861  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  United 
States  Arsenal  at  Saint  Louis,  where  he  rendered  im 
portant  services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.  He  captured 
a  large  band  of  secessionists  at  Camp  Jackson,  Missouri, 
in  May,  and  was  appointed  commander  of  the  depart 
ment  of  Missouri  in  June,  1861.  He  defeated  the  insur 
gents  at  Booneville,  June  17,  after  which  he  marched  to 
Springfield.  He  commanded  an  army  of  about  6000 
men  which  engaged  a  superior  force  at  Wilson's  Creek, 
where  he  was  killed,  August  10,  1861.  His  loss  was 
deeply  lamented  as  a  national  disaster.  He  left  by  will 
about  thirty  thousand  dollars  to  the  public  treasury. 

See  TENNKV,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  "Last  Po- 
liiical  Writings,  etc.  of  Nathaniel  Lyon,"  New  York,  1861. 

Lyomiet,  le'o'ni',  (PIERRE,)  a  skilful  anatomist,  natu 
ralist,  and  engraver,  of  PVench  origin,  was  born  at  Maes- 
tricht  in  1707.  He  studied  law,  and  was  employed  at 
the  Hague  as  secretary  and  translator  for  Latin  and 
French  by  the  government.  About  1760  he  published 
an  "Anatomical  Treatise  on  the  Caterpillar  which  eats 
the  Willow,"  which,  says  Cuvier,  "is  among  the  master 
pieces  of  human  industry."  The  engravings  are  ex 
quisitely  neat  and  delicate.  Died  in  1789. 

See  1'.  H.  MARKON,  "Notice  hiographique  snr  P.  Lyonnet," 
'7951  Joi'iMJAN,  in  the  "Biographic  Medicale,"  vol.  vi.  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lyomiet,  (ROHERT,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Puy-en-Velay.  He  became  physician  to  Louis  XIII., 
and  published  a  treatise  on  the  Plague,  (1639.) 

Ly'ons,  (EDMUND,)  LORD,  a  British  admiral,  born 
near  Christchurch,  Hants,  in  1790.  He  entered  the 
navy  about  iSoi.  In  1811  he  performed  a  daring  exploit 
when  he  captured  by  storm  the  Dutch  fort  Marrack  in 
the  island  of  Java.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1814, 
after  which  a  long  peace  followed.  In  1828  he  com 
manded  a  vessel  at  the  blockade  of  Navarino.  He  was 
knighted  in  1835,  and  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  the  court  of  Athens,  where  he  remained  until  1849. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war  against  Russia,  (1853,)  Sir 
Edmund  was  appointed  second  in  command  in  the  Black 
Sea.  His  ship,  the  Agamemnon,  was  engaged  with  the 
enemy  on  the  shore  at  the  battle  of  Alma,  in  September, 
1854.  He  planned  a  successful  expedition  against  the 
forts  on  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  became  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  fleet  in  June,  1855.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Baron  Lyons  of  Christchurch,  in  1856.  Died 
in  1858. 

Lyons,  (ISRAEL,)  a  Polish  Jew,  taught  Hebrew  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  published  a  Hebrew 
Grammar.  Died  in  1770. 


a, e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LTONS 


1477 


LTSONS 


Lyons,  (ISRAEL,)  an  English  botanist  and  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1739,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Fluxions," 
and  a  work  on  the  plants  growing  near  Cambridge.  At 
the  invitation  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  he  went  to  Oxford 
about  1762,  and  lectured  there  on  botany.  The  bureau 
of  longitude  selected  him  to  accompany  Captain  Phipps 
in  a  voyage  towards  the  North  Pole  in  1773.  Died  in 

1775- 

Lyons,  (RICHARD  BICKERTON  PEMKI.I.,)  LORD,  a 
son  of  Edmund,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1817,  and 
inherited  the  title  of  baron  in  1858.  He  was  ambassador 
to  the  United  States  from  1859  to  1865.  About  the  end 
of  1865  he  was  sent  in  the  same  capacity  to  Constanti 
nople. 

Lyra,  de,  cleh  le'ra"',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  monk  and 
exegetical  writer  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Lyre  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  was  a  good  Hebrew  and 
Greek  scholar.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Bible, 
"  Postillae  Perpetuae,"  which  was  esteemed  and  often 
reprinted.  The  first  edition  appeared  at  Rome  in  1472, 
(5  vols.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1340. 

Lys.     See  Lis. 

Ly-san'der,  [Gr.  \vaavftpoq;  Fr.  LYSANDRK,  le'- 
/oNclit' ;  Ger.  LYSAXDROS,  le-zln'dRos,]  one  of  the  ablest 
generals  and  statesmen  of  ancient  Sparta,  makes  his 
first  appearance  in  history  near  the  close  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  Fu  407  B.C.  he  was  chosen  commander  of 
the  fleet,  with  which  lie  gained  a  victory  over  the  Athe 
nians  at  Notium  in  that  year.  He  made  himself  very 
popular  with  the  Persian  allies  of  Sparta,  and  he  de 
feated  the  Athenian  fleet  in  a  decisive  battle  at  /Egos- 
potami  in  405.  In  404  he  captured  Athens,  and  changed 
its  democracy  into  an  oligarchy  ruled  by  thirty  archons, 
(usually  called  the  Thirty  Tyrants.)  He  was  then  the 
most  powerful  man  in  Greece,  but  soon  found  an  able 
rival  in  Agesilaus,  who  became  King  of  Sparta  in  398 
H.C.  and  thwarted  his  ambitious  designs.  Lysander 
meditated  a  revolution  in  Sparta  by  the  abolition  of 
hereditary  royalty.  Before  his  design  was  matured,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  an  army  sent  against  the 
Thebans,  and  was  killed  in  battle  at  Haliartus  in  395 
n.C.  In  Plutarch's  "Lives"  Lysander  is  brought  into 
comparison  with  the  Roman  Sulla. 

See  XKNOPHON,  "  Hellenica;"  CORNET. it's  NEPOS,  "Vita  Lysan- 
dri ;"  W.  VISCHKR,  "  A'cibiades  und  I.ysandros,"  11545:  PLUTARCH, 
"Life  ot"  Agesilaiis;"  THIRLWALL,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Lysandre.     See  LYSANDER. 

Lysandros,  the  German  of  LYSANDER,  which  see. 

Lyschander  or  Lyscander,  lis-kin'der,  (CLAUDIUS 
CHRISTOPHORSEN,)  a  Danish  chronicler,  born  in  1557. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Greenland,"  in  Danish  verse, 
(1608,)  and  flattered  the  national  vanity  in  a  fabulous 
work  on  the  genealogy  of  the  Danish  kings,  entitled 
"Synopsis  of  Danish  History,"  ("Synopsis  Historian 
Danicre,"  1622.)  Died  in  1623. 

Lyser,  lee'zer,  originally  Leonhardt,  la'on-haRt', 
(CAROLINE,)  a  German  authoress,  born  at  Dresden  in 
1817.  Among  her  works  are  fugitive  poems,  "Sketches 
of  Character  for  German  Matrons  and  Maids,"  (1838,) 
and  "Albert  Diirer,"  a  drama,  (1840.) 

Lyser,  (MICHAEL,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  at 
Leipsic  about  1650.  He  published  a  good  manual  of 
anatomy,  entitled  "  Culter  Anatomicus,"  (1653.)  He 
shares  with  Bartholin  the  honour  of  the  discovery  of 
the  lymphatic  vessels. 

Lyser  or  Lyserus,  (POLYCARP.)     See  LEYSER. 

Lysias,  lish'e-as,  [Auoiaf,]  one  of  the  ten  Athenian 
orators,  was  born  at  Athens  in  458  B.C.,  and  was  the  son 
of  Cephalus,  in  whose  house  Plato  placed  the  scene  of 
his  famous  dialogue  "On  the  Republic."  From  443  until 
411  he  lived  at  Thurium,  in  Italy,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  by  the  victorious  Spartans  at  the  latter  date. 
He  then  returned  to  Athens,  where  his  property  was 
confiscated  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  who  would  have  put 
him  to  death  if  he  had  not  escaped,  404  B.C.  Soon  after 
that  date  he  united  with  Thrasybulus  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Thirty,  and  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric  in  Athens. 
His  orations,  amounting  to  more  than  two  hundred, 
were  mostly  composed  after  his  return  to  Athens,  (411.) 
Thirty-five  of  these  have  come  down  to  us.  Lysias 


died  at  Athens  about  378  B.C.,  leaving  a  high  reputation 
as  a  writer  of  orations,  only  one  of  which,  it  is  said,  was 
spoken  by  him.  His  diction  is  eminently  graceful,  pure, 
and  perspicuous.  "  He  resembles,"  says  Quintilian, 
"  rather  a  pure  fountain  than  a  great  river,"  ("  puro  fonti 
quam  inagno  flumini  propior.") 

See  PLUTARCH,  "VitaeDecem  Oratorum  ;"  FRANZ,  "  Dissertatio 
de  Lysia  Oratore  Attico,"  (in  Greek,)  iS-jS;  SUIDAS,  "Lysias:" 
L..  HOKI.^CHKK,  "Dissertatio  de  Lysiz  Vita  et  Dictione,"  1837; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ly-sic'ra-tes,  [Avoocpdr^c,]  an  Athenian,  who  lived 
about  335  H.C.,  and  whose  name  has  been  preserved  by 
means  of  a  beautiful  choragic  monument  built  for  him  at 
Athens.  It  has  been  commonly  called  "the  Lantern  of 
Demosthenes,"  from  a  tradition  that  he  used  it  as  a 
place  of  study. 


Ly-sim'a--ehus,  [Gr.  Aiw'aa^oo;  Fr.  LYSIMAQUE, 
le'ze'mf  k',]'  King  of  Thrace,  was  born  in  Macedonia 
about  355  B.C.  In  his  youth  he  was  so  distinguished 
for  courage  and  strength  that  Alexander  the  Great 
chose  him  as  one  of  his  body-guards.  In  the  division  of 
provinces  at  the  death  of  Alexander,  (323,)  Lysimachus 
obtained  Thrace  and  some  adjacent  districts.  In  315 
he  joined  Seleucus,  Cassander,  and  Ptolemy  in  a  coali 
tion  against  Antigonus.  Lysimachus  marched  into  Asia 
Minor,  formed  a  junction  with  Seleucus,  and  fought  a 
battle  at  Ipsus  in  301  B.C.,  where  Antigonus  was  defeated 
and  killed.  By  this  victory  he  acquired  the  northwest 
ern  part  of  Asia  Minor.  Demetrius  of  Macedon  having 
been  defeated  and  dethroned  by  the  allied  armies  of 
Lysimachus,  Pynhus,  and  Seleucus,  the  first  annexed 
Macedon  to  his  dominions  in  286.  He  was  soon  after 
involved  in  a  war  with  Seleucus,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
at  Corupedion  in  281  B.C. 

See  ARRIAN,  "Anabasis;"  JUSTIN,  "  History,"  books  xiii.,  xv., 
and  xviii.  :  DIODORUS  Sicui  us,  books  xviii.,  xix.,  and  xx. 

Lysimaque.     See  LYSIMACHUS. 

Lysippe.     See  LYSIPPUS. 

Ly-sip'pus,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  born  in 
Arcadia,  flourished  about  434  B.C. 

Lysippus,  [Gr.  Ai'ai-rroc;  Fr.  LYSIPPE,  le'zep',]  a 
Greek  statuary  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  at  Sicyon, 
and  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great,  about 
330  B.C.  He  formed  his  style  by  the  imitation  of  nature, 
without  much  respect  to  the  conventionalities  of  the 
schools.  His  statues,  according  to  Pliny,  amounted  to 
six  hundred  and  ten,  all  or  nearly  all  of  which  were  of 
bronze.  None  of  his  works  are  now  extant.  Among 
his  master-pieces,  described  by  Pliny,  Pausanias,  and 
others,  were  colossal  statues  of  Zeus  and  Hercules,  a 
statue  of  Time  or  Opportunity,  (K(wpoo,)  and  several 
images  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  is  said  to  have 
issued  an  edict  that  no  one  should  make  his  statue  but 
Lysippus. 

See  PLINY,  "Natural  History,"  book  xxxiv.  ;  PAUSANIAS,  i.,  ii., 
vi.,  and  ix.  ;  SILI.IG,  "  Catalogus  ;"  NAGLKR,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinst- 
ler-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ly'sis,  [AVOTC,]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Tarentum,  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have 
received  lessons  from  Pythagoras.  Having  been  driven 
from  Italy  by  persecution,  he  settled  at  Thebes,  and  be 
came  the  teacher  of  Epaminondas. 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  DIOGENES  LAERTIUS. 

Lysistrate.     See  LYSISTRATUS. 

Ly-sis'tra-tus,[Fr.  LYSISTRATE,  le'ze'stRft/,]  a  Greek 
statuary  of  Sicyon,  was  a  brother  of  Lysippus,  and  flour 
ished  about  425  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  used  gypsum  moulds  in  the  formation  of  wax 
figures. 

Ly'spns,  (DANIEL,)  an  English  physician,  practised 
at  Bath,  'where  he  died  in  1800.  He  had  published  several 
medical  treatises. 

Lysons,  (Rev.  DANIEL,)  an  English  topographical 
writer,  born  at  Rodmarton  in  1760,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  The 
Environs  of  London,''  (1792-96,)  and  became  rector  of 
Rodmarton.  In  partnership  with  his  brother  Samuel, 
he  published  another  excellent  topographical  work, 
"Great  Britain,"  ("Magna  Britannia,"  1806-22.)  Died 
in  1834. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1807,  and  January,  1812. 


€  as/e;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LTSONS 


1478 


MACADAM 


Lysons,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  antiquary,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rodmarton  in  1763.  He 
was  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
About  1804  he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  records  of 
the  Tower  of  London.  His  principal  work  is  "Great 
Britain,"  ("Magna  Britannia,"  1806-22,)  in  which  he 
was  aided  by  his  brother  Daniel.  Died  in  1819. 

Lyte,  (HENRY,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in  Somer 
setshire  in  1529.  He  published,  in  1578,  an  English 
version  of  Dodoen's  "  History  of  Plants,"  with  many 
engravings.  Died  in  1607. 

Lytle,  IT'tel,  (Wn.UAM  HAINES,)  an  American  gene 
ral,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1826.  He  served  as 
colonel  in  Western  Virginia  in  1861,  and  was  wounded 
at  Perryville,  Kentucky,  in  October,  1862.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  20,  1863. 

Lyt' tie-ton  or  Lyt'tel-toii,  (CHARLES,)  an  English 
antiquary,  born  at  llagley  in  1714,  was  a  brother  of  Lord 
George,  'noticed  below.  He  became  Bishop  of  Carlisle 
in  1762.  Died  in  1768. 

Lyttleton  or  Lyttelton,  (GEORGE,)  LORD,  an  Eng 
lish  author  and  statesman,  born  in  1709,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Lyttleton,  of  Hagley,  in  Worcester 
shire,  and  a  descendant  of  the  great  jurist  Littleton. 
About  1730  he  entered  Parliament,  where  he  became  a 
successful  speaker  and  acted  with  the  opponents  of 
Walpole.  He  was  afterwards  secretary  to  Frederick, 


Prince  of  Wales,  and  in  1744  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
the  treasury.  In  1747)16  published  "Observations  on 
the  Conversion  and  Apostleship  of  Saint  Paul,"  a  work 
of  superior  merit.  lie  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
for  several  months  in  1756,  and  resigned  that  office  (for 
which  he  was  not  well  qualified)  when  Pitt  became  prime 
minister.  In  1759116  was  created  Baron  Lyttleton.  He 
was  author  of  a  popular  work  entitled  "Dialogues 
of  the  Dead,"  (1760,)  of  a  valuable  "  History  of  Henry 
II.,"  and  of  several  poems,  "which,"  says  Dr.  Johnson, 
"have  nothing  to  be  despised,  and  little  to  be  admired." 
Died  in  1773. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  PHII.I.IMORE,  "  Lite  of  Lord 
Lyttleton,"  1845;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  tor  June,  1X46; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  April  and  May,  1772,  and  December,  1774. 

Lyttleton,  (THOMAS.)     See  LITTLETON. 

Lyttleton,  (THOMAS,)  LORD,  a  son  of  Lord  George, 
noticed  above,  was  born  about  1744.  The  day  ot  his 
death  is  said  to  have  been  announced  to  him  three  days 
before  it  occurred,  by  means  of  a  dream  or  vision.  Died 
in  1779. 

Lytton,  LORD.     See  BULWER,  (EDWARD.) 

Lyvedeii,  liv'den,  (ROBERT  VERNON  SMITH,)  LORD, 

I  born  in   London   in  1800,  was  a  nephew  of  the   famous 

Rev.  Sydney  Smith.      He  represented  Northampton  as 

a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  from  1831  to  1859.  and 

was  secretary  at  war  for  a  few  months  in  1852. 


M. 


Maaii,  infix,  (JEAN,)  a  French  historian  and  eccle 
siastic,  born  at  Mans,  became  canon  of  Tours  in  1648. 

Maaiien,  van,  vfn  ma'nen,  (CORNELLS  FELIX,)  a 
Dutch  statesman,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1769.  After  the 
accession  of  King  William  he  was  made  president  of 
the  Assembly  of  Notables,  and  minister  of  justice,  (1815.) 
His  unpopular  measures  contributed  to  bring  about  the 
Belgian  revolution,  and  in  1830  he  resigned  his  office. 
Died  in  1843. 

Maas,  nias,  (ARNOULT  VAN  AART,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Gouda  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of 
D.  Teniers.  Died  after  1650. 

See  PII.KINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Maas  or  Maes,  mils,  (DiRK  or  DIEDRIK,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  Berg- 
hem  and  Hnchtenburgh.  He  excelled  in  battle-pieces 
and  hunting-scenes.  Died  in  1715. 

See  PII.KINGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  DESCAMPS,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Maas  or  Maes,  mas,  (Goi)KRiED,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  a  pupil 
of  his  father.  He  was  chosen  a  director  of  the  Academy 
in  1682,  and  acquired  a  fair  reputation  as  an  artist.  He 
died  in  1722,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  about 
1710. 

Maas  or  Maes,  (NICOLAAS,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter 
of  genre  and  portraits,  born  at  Dort  in  1632,  was  a  pupil 
of  Rembrandt.  In  his  youth  he  imitated  the  manner 
of  that  master  with  success.  He  afterwards  adopted  a 
different  style.  About  1678  he  removed  to  Amsterdam, 
where  he  applied  himself  chiefly  to  portraits  and  became 
a  fashionable  artist.  Died  in  1693. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Maass,  mSss,  (JOHANN  GEBHARD  EHRENREICH,)  a 
German  philosopher  and  savant,  born  near  Halberstadt 
in  1766.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle 
in  1798,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Essays  on 
the  Imagination,"  (1792,)  the  "  Passions,"  (1805-07,)  and 
the  "Sentiments,"  (1811.)  Died  in  1823. 

Mabellini,  ma-bel-lee'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA 
CARLO  MARIA,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  known  in  France 
by  the  name  of  AliBfi  MAIU.IN  or  MAKI.INI,  was  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1774.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  1834. 

Mabil  or  Mabille,  ma-beel/  or  mi'bel',  (PiERRE 
Louis,)  a  learned  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1752.  He  made  a  good  translation  of  Livy 
into  Italian,  and  published  "  Mabiliania,"  "  The  Influence 


of  Poetry  on  the  Customs  of  Nations,"  (1804,)  and  other 
works.     Died  in  1836. 

See   TIPAI.PO.    "  Biografia   degli    Italian!     illustri;"     CATULLO, 

i  "Cenni  biografici  del  Cavaliere  P.  L.  Mabil,"  1836. 

Mabillon,  mS'be'yix',  (JEAN,)  a  very  learned  French 

j  author,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims  in  1632,  became  a 
Benedictine  monk.  In  1685  he  visited  Italy,  by  order  of 
the  king,  to  collect  manuscripts  and  historical  documents, 
and  on  his  return  published  his  "  Museum  Italicum," 
(1687-89.)  His  "Treatise  on  Monastic  Studies"  (1691) 
was  received  with  favour.  Among  his  most  important 
works  is  a  treatise  on  Diplomatics,  (1681.)  Died  in  1707. 
See  CHAVIN  DE  MAI.AN,  "  Hisloire  de  Mabillon,"  184.1;  J.  LA- 
POUDERIE,  "Notice  sur  Dom  Mabillon;"  THIERKY  RUINART, 
"Abreg»  de  la  Vie  de  Dom  J.  Mabillon,"  1709;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Mably,  de,  deh  mS'ble',  (GABRIEL  BONNOT,)  Ai;is6, 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1709, 
was  a  brother  of  Etienne  Bonnot  de  Condillac.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  his  youth,  and  produced 
in  1740  his  "Parallel  between  the  Romans  and  French 
in  Respect  to  Government,"  which  was  very  successful. 
In  1743  he  negotiated  a  secret  treaty  with  Prussia  against 
Austria.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Observations 
on  the  Romans,"  (1751,)  and  "Observations  on  the  His 
tory  of  France,"  (1765.)  Died  in  1785. 

See  L.  BAKTHKI.EMY,  "Vie  privee  de  Mably,"  1791  ;  BRIZARD, 
"  FJoge  de  Mably."  1787;  P.  C.  LEVFSQUK,  "  Kloge  historique  de 
1'Abbe  de  Mably,"  1787;  QUI^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Maboul,  mS'bool',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  pulpit  orator, 
Bishop  of  Alet,  born  in  Paris  about  1650;  died  in  1723. 

Mabuse,  mS'biiz',  or  Maubeuge,  mo'buzh',  (JAN,) 
a  famous  Flemish  painter,  whose  family  name  was  GES- 
SART  or  GASSAERT,  was  born  at  Maubeuge  in  1499.  He 
is  said  to  have  studied  in  Italy.  He  worked  in  Micldel- 
burg  and  in  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  of  the 
royal  family  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII I.,  and  historical 
pictures,  which  are  still  admired.  Among  his  master 
pieces  was  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  was  de 
stroyed  by  lightning  at  Middelburg,  and  "The  Wise 
Men's  Offering,"  now  owned  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle. 
His  habits  were  very  intemperate  and  prodigal.  Died 
about  1562. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  PIERART, 
"  Recherches  historiques  sur  Maubeuge,"  1853. 

Macaber,  ma'ka-ber,  a  German  poet,  was  the  author 
of  a  work  called  "The  Dance  of  Death." 

Mac-ad'am,  (JoiiN  LOUDON,)  a  Scottish  surveyor, 

noted  for  his   improvement  in  roads,  was  born  in  Ayr- 

]  shire  in  1756.     He  made  the  first  macadamized  roads, 


a,e,  i,  5,  u,  y, 


,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MACA1RE 


'479 


MACAULAY 


near  Bristol,  about  1815,  and  explained  his  system  in  his 
"  Kssay  on  the  Scientific  Repair  and  Preservation  of 
Public' Roads,"  (1819.)  In  1827  he  was  made  general 
surveyor  of  the  metropolitan  roads,  and  afterwards  re 
ceived  a  grant  of  ^10,000  for  his  services.  Died  in  1836. 
See  "  Annual  Register,"  1836  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup 
plement.) 

Macaire.     See  MACARIUS. 

Mac-a-nal'ly,  (D.\vin  RICF.,)  an  American  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Granger  county,  Tennessee,  in  1810.  He 
hns  published  "Sketches  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Mrs.  Ramsay,"  and  other  biographical  works. 

Mac-Ar'dell,  (J,\MK.s,)  nn  excellent  English  engraver 
in  mezzotinto,  born  about  1710.  He  engraved  portraits 
of  many  eminent  contemporaries,  and  subjects  after  Rem 
brandt,  Van  Dyck,  Murillo,  and  other  masters.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Moses  on  the  Nile,"  after  Van  Dyck,  and 
an  "Assumption,"  after  Murillo.  Died  in  1765.  Of 
MacArdell  Basan  observes  that  he  "  was  one  of  the  best 
engravers  in  mezzotinto  that  England  ever  produced." 

Pee  STRUTT,  article  "Ardeil"  in  his  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Macarel,  mS'ki're'l',  (Louis  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1790.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Elements  of  Administrative  Jurispru 
dence,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1851. 

Ma-ca'ri-us,  [Gr.  Maaupiof ;  Fr.  MACAIRK,  mfkiu',] 
an  eminent  ascetic  or  hermit  of  Egypt,  born  about  300 
A.D.,  has  been  canonized  as  a  saint  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  Fifty  extant  Greek  homilies  are  ascribed  to 
him.  Died  about  390  A.I). 

Another  SAINT  MACARIUS,  called  Junior,  lived  at 
Alexandria  in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  noted  for 
his  ascetic  piety.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a 
work  called  the  "Rule  of  Saint  Macarius." 

See  TII.I.EMONT,  "  Memoires  :"  CEII.LIKR.  "  Hi'toire  des  Anteurs 
sacres;"  SCHATTEMAN.  "  Leven  van  den  H.  Macarius,"  1623;  GEN- 
NADIUS,  "De  Viris  illustribus." 

Mac-ar'tkur,  (DUNCAN,)  an  American  soldier  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1772. 
He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1830.  Died  in  1840. 

Mac-Ar'thur,  (JOHN,)  a  general,  born  in  Scotland 
about  1826,  emigrated  to  Illinois  about  1850.  He  com 
manded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  Shiloh,  April, 
1862,  and  at  Corinth,  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

MacArthur,  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  architect,  born 
;>t  Bladenoch,  in  Wigtonshire,  Scotland,  May  13,  1823, 
tame  to  Philadelphia  when  only  ten  years  of  age.  He 
learned  the  business  of  a  carpenter,  and  studied  drawing 
:>nd  architecture  in  his  evenings.  In  1848  he  was 
."warded  the  first  premium  for  his  plan  of  a  new  House 
(  f  Refuge,  and  was  given  the  entire  charge  of  the  erection 
t  f  the  building.  Among  the  prominent  buildings  erected 
l.y  him  in  Philadelphia,  we  may  name  the  Continental 
liotel  and  Jayne's  splendid  mansion  at  the  corner  of 
Nineteenth  and  Chestnut  streets.  He  was  architect  for 
the  war  department  during  the  war,  and  after  its  close 
for  the  navy  department,  for  which  he  built  the  Naval 
Hospital  at  Philadelphia,  and  other  similar  works. 

Mac-art'iiey,  (GF.ORGK,)  LORD,  a  statesman,  of'Scot- 
tish  descent,  born  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1737.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1768,  and  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  in  1769.  In  1775  he  was  chosen 
Governor  of  the  island  of  Granada,  which  the  French 
captured  from  him  in  1779.  From  December,  1780,  to 
1786,  he  was  Governor  of  Madras.  He  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India,  as  successor  to  Warren 
Hastings,  but  declined  on  account  of  ill  health.  His 
most  remarkable  public  service  was  his  embassy  to 
China,  where  he  arrived  in  August,  1793,  being  the  first 
English  ambassador  to  that  court.  He  refused  to  pros 
trate  himself  before  the  emperor,  according  to  Chinese 
etiquette.  Though  he  failed  to  obtain  a  commercial 
treaty,  he  maintained  his  reputation  as  an  able  negotiator. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Macartney,  in 
1/96.  He  died  in  1806,  after  which  appeared  a  "Jour 
nal  of  the  Embassy  to  China  in  1792-94." 

See  an  "Account  of  the  Public  Life,  elc.  of  Lord  Macartney." 
by  JOHN  BARROW.  1807;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  August  and  September,  1808. 


Macaulay,  ma-kaw'le,  (CATHARINE,)  an  English 
authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was  SAWBRIDGE,  was 
born  in  Kent  in  1733.  She  was  married  to  Dr.  George 
Macaulay,  of  London,  about  1760,  and  published  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  I.  to 
the  Elevation  of  the  House  of  Hanover,"  (1763,)  which 
is  favourable  to  republicanism.  In  1785  she  visited 
Washington  at  Mount  Vernon.  She  wrote  several  po 
litical  treatises.  "  Her  history,"  says  T.  B.  Macaulay, 
"is  more  distinguished  by  zeal  than  either  by  candour 
or  skill."  Died  in  1791. 

See  WILKES,  "  Life  and  Letters  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March 
1765,  May,  1769,  and  August,  1771. 

Macaulay,  (THOMAS  BAKINGTON,)  BARON,  an  emi 
nent  English  scholar,  critic,  and  historian,  was  born  at 
Rothley  Temple,  in  Leicestershire,  October  25,  1800. 
His  father,  Zachary  Macaulay,  was  a  native  of  Scotland, 
of  Highland  descent ;  his  mother,  Selina  Mills,  the 
daughter  of  a  bookseller  of  Bristol,  was  of  a  Quaker 
family.  His  home  education  was  religious  and  somewhat 
austere.  Mrs.  Hannah  More,  who  was  intimate  with 
his  parents,  has  given  in  her  letters  many  interesting 
particulars  of  the  future  historian.  From  his  earliest 
childhood  he  was  passionately  fond  of  poetry, — so  much 
so  that  he  could  hardly  be  prevailed  on  to  read  prose. 
Later,  however,  we  find  him  deeply  interested  in  history, 
and  warmly  discussing  with  a  friend  of  his  own  age  the 
respective  merits  of  Marlborough  and  other  eminent 
commanders.  (See  "  Letters  of  Hannah  More  to  Zach 
ary  Macaulay,  containing  Notices  of  Lord  Macaulay's 
Youth,"  1860.) 

When  about  twelve  years  of  age,  he  was  placed  under 
the  instruction  of  Mr.  Preston,  with  whom  he  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  acquaintance  with  the  classics.  At 
eighteen  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  having  twice  won  the 
chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse, — the  first  time  for 
a  poem  on  "  Pompeii,"  in  1819,  the  second  for  one  on 
"Evening,"  in  1820.  He  graduated  as  B.A.  in  1822,  and 
soon  after  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  his  college.  He 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1826.  "The  Battle  of  Ivry,"  one  of  the  most 
universally  admired  of  his  shorter  poems,  was  published 
in  "Knight's  Quarterly  Magazine"  in  1824.  In  1825  he 
contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  an  article  on 
Milton,  which  at  once  placed  him  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  the  most  distinguished  essayists  of  the  age.  This 
was  the  commencement  of  that  splendid  and  fascinating 

\  series  of  review-articles,  the  publication  of  which  maybe 

'  said  to  form  an  era  in  the  history  of  literature,  when  for 
the  first  time  the  critical  or  historic  essay  threatened  to 

!  bear  away  the  palm  of  popularity  from  the  most  brilliant 
works  of  fiction. 

Macaulay  entered  Parliament  in  1830,  as  a  representa- 

!  live  of  the  borough  of  Calne.  While  at  Cambridge  he 
had  distinguished  himself  as  an  orator,  and  he  now  more 
than  justified  the  high  expectations  which  his  friends 
had  formed  of  his  parliamentary  career.  His  speeches 
on  the  Reform  bill  (in  1830-32)  established  his  fame  as 
an  able  and  eloquent  speaker.  It  is  said,  however,  that, 
owing  to  his  rapid  and  somewhat  monotonous  delivery, 
his  speeches  were  more  effective  and  convincing  when 
they  appeared  in  print  than  when  spoken  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  One  of  his  most  remarkable  efforts  was 
his  great  speech  (1833)  on  the  bill  for  the  renewal  of  the 
charter  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  was  soon  after 
made  a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of  India,  and 

!  placed  at  the  head  of  the  law  commission  to  prepare  a 
new  code  for  the  government  of  that  country.  Although 
it  was  found  impossible  to  carry  into  immediate  effect 
many  of  the  reforms  which  he  sought  to  introduce,  his 
efforts  in  this  cause  have  not  been  without  important 
results.  Since  the  government  of  India  was  transferred 
to  the  imperial  crown,  his  code  has  been  made  the  basis 
of  the  legal  system  of  the  country.  His  sojourn  in  India 
(from  1835  to  1838)  had  made  him  acquainted  with  its 
history  and  with  the  character  of  its  various  peoples; 
and  to  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  in  a  field  hitherto 
untrodden  by  him,  we  are  indebted  for  two  of  his  most 
effective  and  most  brilliant  essays, — those  on  Clive  and 
Warren  Hastings. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACAULAY 


1480 


MACAULAT 


Having  returned  to  England  in  1838,  he  again  entered 
Parliament,  as  a  representative  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh, 
and  soon  after  received  the  appointment  of  secretaty 
at  war  in  the  Melbourne  ministry.  On  the  fall  ot  the 
Whigs  in  1841,  he  went  into  the  opposition.  When  they 
returned  to  power  in  1846,  he  was  made  paymaster-gene 
ral.  He  had  been  regularly  re-elected  from  Edinburgh 
until  1847,  when,  owing  to  an  unusual  combination  of 
different  party  elements,  he  was  defeated.  The  mor 
tification  of  this  repulse  stung  him  very  deeply.  He 
resolved  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  studious 
retirement.  He  seems  to  have  felt,  indeed,  that  his 
proper  vocation  was  the  pursuit  of  literature,  apart  from 
the  excitements  of  the  political  arena.  One  of  the  im 
portant  results  of  his  withdrawal  from  public  life  was  his 
being  able  to  apply  himself  without  interruption  to  the 
composition  of  his  great  work,  the  "History  of  Eng 
land,"  the  first  two  volumes  of  which  made  their  appear 
ance  near  the  close  of  1848.  Never  before  in  the  annals 
of  literature  was  any  work  of  history  welcomed  by  the 
public  with  such  enthusiastic  admiration.  His  work  was 
read  by  tens  of  thousands  with  as  much  eagerness  and 
delight  as  a  fresh  novel  by  Scott  or  Bulwer  would  have 
been.  In  1849  Macaulay  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  Not  long  after,  in  a  speech  which 
he  made  in  that  city,  he  took  a  formal  leave  of  political 
life,  explaining  at  the  same  time  the  principles  by  which 
he  had  sought  to  guide  his  course  while  he  was  con 
nected  with  the  government.  Among  other  things,  he 
said  on  that  occasion,  "  I  cannot  accuse  myself  of  having 
ever  been  untrue  either  to  the  cause  of  civil  or  religious 
liberty,  or  to  the  cause  of  property  and  law.  I  reflect 
with  pleasure  that  I  bore  a  part  in  some  of  those  reforms 
which  corrected  great  abuses  and  removed  just  discon 
tents.  I  reflect  with  equal  pleasure  that  I  never  stooped 
to  the  part  of  a  demagogue,  and  never  feared  to  confront 
what  seemed  to  me  to  be  an  unreasonable  clamour."  In 
1852  the  people  of  Edinburgh,  as  some  atonement  for 
the  injustice  which  they  felt  had  been  done  him  five  years 
before,  again  returned  Macaulay  to  Parliament,  without 
his  having  so  much  as  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  or 
having  made  the  smallest  effort  to  procure  his  re-elec 
tion.  Although  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Com 
mons,  his  declining  health  did  not  permit  him  to  take 
any  active  part  in  the  debates.  During  the  whole  time 
that  he  was  in  the  House  he  spoke  but  twice  :  on  both 
occasions  he  was  listened  to  with  the  most  respectful 
and  eager  attention.  An  imperfect  and  extremely  in 
accurate  collection  of  his  speeches  having  been  printed 
without  his  sanction,  a  correct  edition  was  by  his  au 
thority  issued  in  1854.  In  1856,  on  account  of  ill  health, 
he  resigned  his  seat  in  Parliament.  In  1855  the  third 
and  fourth  volumes  of  his  History  made  their  appearance. 
They  were  welcomed  as  warmly  and  read  as  eagerly  as 
the  two  former  had  been.  It  was  his  original  purpose 
to  bring  his  History  from  the  accession  of  James  II. 
down  to  a  time  within  the  memory  of  persons  still  living. 
But  in  the  last  volume  he  had  only  reached  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  After  his  decease  another  frag 
mentary  volume  was  published,  including  an  account 
of  the  death  of  William  1 1 1. 

In  1857  Macaulay  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Macaulay  of  Rothley.  Although  his 
health  continued  to  decline,  he  still  applied  himself  to 
his  literary  labours  until  very  near  the  time  of  his  death. 
His  disease  was  an  affection  of  the  heart,  of  which  he 
died  suddenly  on  the  28th  of  December,  1859. 

Besides  the  various  productions  of  his  pen  already 
referred  to,  he  contributed  a  series  of  valuable  biogra 
phies  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  Not  content 
with  his  acknowledged  mastery  in  the  different  depart 
ments  of  prose,  he  became  again  in  1842  a  candidate  for 
poetic  laurels,  and  gave  to  the  world  his  "  Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome,"  of  which  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that, 
for  a  combination  of  picturesqueness,  simplicity,  and 
power,  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind  superior  to  them  in 
the  English  language. 

It  is,  however,  as  a  writer  on  history  that  the  name 
of  Macaulay  is  destined  to  take  its  most  distinguished 
place  and  descend  to  the  remotest  posterity.  Already, 
in  his  essays,  he  had  proved  his  mastery  in  this  depart 


ment  of  composition.  A  perfect  history,  according  to 
his  ideal,*  would  not  be  content  with  merely  recording 
wars  and  revolutions,  the  lives  of  kings  and  heroes,  but 
would  include  literature  and  the  arts,  manners  and 
usages,  the  progress  of  civilization, — in  short,  the  whole 
life  of  the  nation  ;  not  of  the  aristocracy  only,  but  of  the 
people  in  every  rank  and  condition.  Referring  to  Mac- 
aulay's  historic  essays,  Dean  Milman  well  observes,  "The 
variety  of  topics  is  almost  as  nothing  to  the  variety  of 
information  on  every  topic."  Of  the  style  he  remarks, 
"  It  was  eminently  his  own.  ...  Its  characteristics  were 
vigour,  animation,  copiousness,  clearness, — above  all, 
sound  English,  now  a  rare  excellence.  .  .  .  His  English 
was  pure  both  in  idiom  and  in  words  ;  pure  to  fastidious 
ness  ;  not  that  he  discarded  or  did  not  make  free  use 
of  the  plainest  and  most  homely  terms,  .  .  .  but  every 
word  must  be  plain  English, — nothing  that  approached 
real  vulgarity,  nothing  that  had  not  the  stamp  of  popu 
lar  use  or  the  authority  of  sound  English  writers." 

That  Macaulay  possessed  in  a  pre-eminent  degree 
many  of  the  highest  attributes  of  a  great  historian,  none 
will  deny.  In  that  power  of  imagination  by  which  he 
was  enabled  to  clothe  the  dead  past  with  all  the  activity 
and  fulness  of  life,  he  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  the 
most  gifted  writers  of  fiction.  In  the  extent  and  variety 
of  his  knowledge,  in  the  quickness  and  strength  of  his 
intellect,  by  which  he  was  able  to  grasp  with  facility  the 
most  difficult  political  and  moral  problems,  in  his  thor 
ough  acquaintance  with  all  the  springs  of  human  action, 
in  the  vividness  of  his  descriptions,  in  the  animation 
and  sustained  interest  of  his  nairative,  in  the  clearness, 
force,  and  brilliancy  of  his  style,  in  his  command,  in 
short,  over  every  species  of  eloquence,  whether  declama 
tory,  argumentative,  or  poetical,  he  has,  even  among  the 
greatest  masters  of  historical  composition,  few,  if  any, 
superiors.  He  is,  however,  it  must  be  confessed  with 
regret,  deficient  in  one  important  or  rather  essential 
qualification, — impartiality.  His  feelings  were  so  intense, 
his  attachments  and  aversions  so  strong,  that,  where 
these  chanced  to  enter  into  the  subject  to  be  weighed, 
the  balance  was  too  seldom  held  with  an  equal  hand. 

Macaulay's  great  work  has  been  compared  to  a  vast 
painting,  in  which  the  different  figures  correspond  to 
prominent  historic  characters.  It  may  be  said  that  as 
in  his  style  he  too  often  sacrifices  simplicity  to  his  love 
of  antithesis,  so  in  his  history  he  is  too  apt  to  exagger 
ate,  for  the  sake  of  effect,  the  lights  and  shadows  of  his 
portraits. 

In  relation  to  his  conversational  powers,  Dean  Milman 
observes,  "In  the  quiet  intercourse  with  the  single 
friend,  no  great  talker  was  more  free,  easy,  and  genial 
than  Macaulay.  There  was  the  most  equable  interchange 
of  thought ;  he  listened  with  as  much  courtesy  as  he 
spoke  with  gentle  and  pleasant  persuasiveness.  In  a 
larger  circle,  such  as  he  delighted  to  meet  and  assemble 
around  him  to  the  close  of  his  life,  a  few  chosen  in 
timates,  some  accomplished  ladies,  foreigners  of  the 
highest  distinction  who  were  eager  to  make  his  acquaint 
ance,  his  manners  were  frank  and  open.  In  conversation 
in  such  a  circle,  a  commanding  voice,  high  animal  spirits, 
unrivalled  quickness  of  apprehension,  a  flow  of  language 
as  rapid  as  inexhaustible,  gave  him,  perhaps,  a  larger 
share,  but  a  share  which  few  were  not  delighted  to  yield 
up  to  him.  His  thoughts  were  like  lightning,  and  clothed 
themselves  at  once  in  words.  .  .  .  And  the  stores  which 
his  memory  had  at  instantaneous  command  !  .  .  .  With 
these  came  anecdotes,  touches  of  character,  drollery,  fun, 
excellent  stories  excellently  told." 

"Lord  Macaulay,"  observes  the  same  writer,  "was 
never  married ;  his  strong  domestic  affections  were 
chiefly  centred  in  his  sister — happily  married  to  his 
friend  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan — and  her  family.  Her 
children  were  to  him  as  his  own,  and  cherished  with 
almost  parental  tenderness.  As  a  friend  he  was  singu 
larly  steadfast.  He  was  impatient  of  anything  dispar 
aging  of  one  for  whom  he  entertained  a  sincere  esteem. 
In  the  war  of  political  life  he  made,  we  believe,  no  lasting 
enemy  ;  he  secured  the  unswerving  attachment  of  his  po 
litical  friends,  to  whom  he  had  been  unswervingly  true." 


See  his  essay  on  "  History,"  in  the  ''  Edinburgh  Review,"  1828. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MACAULAY 


1481 


All  Macaulay's  works  have  been  reprinted  in  Germany. 
His  "  History"  has  been  translated  into  French,  the  first 
two  volumes  by  M.  Jules  de  Peyronnet,  the  second  and 
third  by  M.  Amedee  Pichot. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Lord  Macaulay,"  written  for  the  Royal  Society 
by  DEAN  Mi  I.MAN  ;  the  excellent  article  in  A  LI.  i  RONE'S  "Dictionary 
of  Authors;"  ''  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale ;"  "Biographical 
Sketches,"  by  HARRIKT  MARTINEAU.  1860;  WHIFFLE"  s  "Essays 
and  Reviews,"  2  vols.,  1852;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  Ju'y,  1849. 
October.  1^54,  January,  1857,  and  October,  1861  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  March,  1843,  April,  1849,  and  April,  1868  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Maga/ine"  for  Anril,  1849,  August  and  September.  1856,  Ju'y  and 
August,  iSjq;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1856,  and  Novem 
ber'  iS6o  ;  "  Kraser's  Magazine" for  February,  1856  ;  J.  PAGKT,  "  New 
Examen  ;"  "  J.ihrbuch  7.11111  Conversations- Lexikon"  for  1860. 

Macaulay,  (ZACHARY,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  philan 
thropist,  of  Scottish  descent,  born  about  1768,  was  the 
father  of  Lord  Macaulay,  the  historian.  He  was  a 
zealous  coadjutor  of  Wi'lberforce  in  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade,  in  which  cause  he  laboured  many  years. 
Died  in  1838.  His  father,  John  Macaulay,  minister  at 
Inverary,  is  mentioned  in  Dr.  Johnson's  "Tour  to  the 
Hebrides." 

Mac-Au'ley,  (CATHERINE  E.,)  an  Irish  lady,  eminent 
for  benevolence  and  piety,  born  in  the  county  of  Dublin 
in  1787.  She  was  educated  a  Catholic.  Having  lost 
her  parents  in  early  life,  she  was  adopted  by  Mr.  Cal- 
lahan,  a  wealthy  gentleman,  who  at  his  death,  in  1822, 
left  her  his  entire  fortune.  She  founded  in  1827,  in 
Maggot  Street,  Dublin,  an  institution  designed  as  a 
temporary  home  for  poor  women  out  of  employment, 
and  a  school  for  children.  It  was  afterwards  called  the 
Institute  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  of  Mercy,  having  for  its 
object  the  care  of  the  sick.  She  became  in  1831  superior 
of  the  Order  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  This  order  has 
been  introduced  into  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
Australia,  and  South  America.  Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Life  of  Catherine  MacAuley,"  by  a  member  of  the  Order 
of  Mercy,  New  York,  1866. 

Mac-beth'  or  Macbeda,  mak-ba'iha,  a  king  of 
Scotland,  who,  according  to  the  common  tradition,  was 
a  cousin  of  King  Duncan,  and  originally  Thane  of  Gla- 
mis.  About  1040  Macbeth  assassinated  Duncan  and 
usurped  the  throne.  Malcolm,  the  lawful  heir,  fled  to 
England,  and,  having  returned  with  an  army,  defeated 
Macbeth,  who  was  killed  in  1056  or  1057. 

The  story  of  Macbeth's  usurpation  would  seem  to 
possess  scarcely  any  positive  historic  basis.  "  However 
he  may  have  gained  his  power,"  says  Burton,  "  he  exer 
cised  it  with  good  repute,  according  to  the  reports  nearest 
to  his  time.  It  is  among  the  most  curious  of  the  an 
tagonisms  that  sometimes  separate  the  popular  opinion 
of  people  of  mark  from  anything  positively  known  about 
them,  that  this  man,  in  a  manner  sacred  to  splendid  in 
famy,  is  the  first  whose  name  appears  in  the  ecclesiastical 
records  both  as  a  king  of  Scotland  and  a  benefactor  of 
the  Church.  .  .  .  He  had  a  wider  dominion  than  any 
previous  ruler,  having  command  over  all  the  country 
now  known  as  Scotland,  except  the  isles  and  a  portion 
of  the  western  highlands."  ("  History  of  Scotland,"  vol. 
i.  chap,  x.)  The  legend  of  Macbeth  forms  the  subject 
of  one  of  Shakspeare's  most  celebrated  tragedies. 

See  HOLINSHED,  "Chronicles  of  Englande,  Scotlande,"  etc.; 
BUCHANAN,  "Historia  Scotica." 

Mac-Bride',  (DAVin,)  an  eminent  surgeon,  born  in 
the  county  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1726,  settled  in  Dublin 
in  1749.  Besides  other  works,  he  published  an  "Intro 
duction  to  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (1772,) 
which  is  much  esteemed.  Died  in  1778. 

Maccabaeus,  ( JUDAS.)     See  JUDAS. 

Mac'ca-bees,  |Gr.  'M.aKKaBa'ioi;  Fr.  MACCAHEES,  ma"'- 
kf'ba',1  a 'celebrated  Jewish  family,  which  attained  the 
royal  dignity  in  Judea.  The  surname  MACCAH/EUS,  from 
the  Hebrew  Makkab,  a  "hammer,"  was  first  given  to 
Judas  for  his  victories  over  the  King  of  Syria,  about  165 
li.c.  His  family  and  descendants  were  also  called  Mac 
cabees  or  Asmonaeans.  Judas,  who  was  the  son  of 
Mattathias,  had  three  brothers,  John,  Simon,  and  Jona 
than,  noticed  in  this  work. 

See  Apocryphal  Book  of  Maccabees;  JOSEPHUS,  " Antiquitates 
Judaicae." 

Mac-Call',  (GEORGE  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1802,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822. 


He  took  command  of  a  division  or  corps  called  the  Penn 
sylvania  Reserves,  about  May,  1861,  and  commanded  the 
same  at  Mechanicsville  and  Gaines's  Mill,  June  26-27, 
1862.  He  was  taken  prisoner  June  30  of  that  year. 
Died  in  February,  1868. 

Mac-Caul',  (Rev.  ALEXANDER,)  an  English  Hebraist 
and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  about  1800.  He  be 
came  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  1845.  Died 
in  1863. 

Macchi,  mak'kee,  (MAURO,)  an  Italian  political 
writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1815.  He  was  a  moderate  Lib 
eral  in  politics. 

Macchiavelli  or  Machiavelli,  de,  da  ma-ke-a-vei'- 
lee,  often  Anglicized  as  Machiavel,  mak'e-a-ve'l,  |Lat. 
MACHIA VEL'LUS ;  Fr.  MACHIAVEL,  mfshe'i'veV,]  (Xic- 
COI.6  DI  BERNARDO,)  a  famous  Italian  statesman, 
diplomatist,  and  writer,  whose  character  abounds  in 
enigmas  and  paradoxes,  and  from  whose  name  has  been 
derived  a  svnonym  of  perfidious  policy,  ( Machiiwellism.) 
He  was  born  at  Florence  on  the  ^d  of  May,  1469.  In 
1499  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Ten  who  managed 
the  diplomatic  affairs  of  the  republic.  He  retained  this 
office  about  fourteen  years,  during  which  he  was  em 
ployed  in  many  foreign  missions  to  France,  etc.,  and 
acquitted  himself  with  great  dexterity.  In  1510,  for  the 
third  time,  he  was  sent  to  France,  and  negotiated  an 
alliance  with  Louis  XII.  He  zealously  exerted  his  talents 
and  influence  to  maintain  the  independence  of  Florence, 
but  without  success.  In  1512  the  Medicis  obtained  sove 
reign  power  in  Florence  by  the  aid  of  the  pope  and  the 
emperor,  and  Macchiavelli  was  banished  from  the  city, 
but  forbidden  to  leave  the  country.  He  passed  several 
ensuing  years  in  retirement,  and  during  this  period  com 
posed  a  treatise  on  the  "Art  of  War,"  and  his  important 
work  entitled  "The  Prince,"  ("  Del  Principe,"  or  "  De 
Principatibus,")  which  has  entailed  a  large  portion  of 
conventional  infamy  on  his  name.  It  was  written  for  the 
private  use  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  not  designed  f-~>r 
publication.  "Few  books,"  says  Hallam,  "have  been 
more  misrepresented.  His  crime,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world,  was  to  have  cast  away  the  veil  of  hypocrisy." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  About 
1520  he  was  recalled  into  public  service  by  Leo  X.,  and 
was  employed  on  several  missions,  the  last  of  which  was 
to  the  army  of  the  league  against  Charles  V.,  (1526.)  He 
died  at  Florence  in  June,  1527.  His  last  work  was  an 
excellent,  luminous,  and  picturesque  history  of  Florence, 
("  Storie  Florentine,"  1525,)  the  style  of  which  is  greatly 
admired.  He  was  also  author  of  several  comedies  of 
some  merit,  and  of  valuable  "Discourses  on  Livy." 
"  The  character  of  Macchiavelli,"  says  Macaulay,  "  was 
hateful  to  the  new  masters  of  Italy.  His  works  were 
misrepresented  by  the  learned,  misconstrued  by  the 
ignorant,  censured  by  the  Church,  abused  with  all  the 
rancour  of  simulated  virtue  by  the  minions  of  a  base 
despotism  and  the  priests  of  a  baser  superstition.  .  .  . 
The  name  of  a  man  whose  genius  had  illuminated  all 
the  dark  places  of  policy,  and  to  whose  patriotic  wisdom 
an  oppressed  people  had  owed  their  last  chance  of 
emancipation,  passed  into  a  proverb  of  infamy.  .  .  .  The 
terms  in  which  he  is  commonly  described  would  seem 
to  import  that  he  was  the  tempter,  the  evil  principle,  the 
discoverer  of  ambition  and  revenge,  the  original  inventor 
of  perjury,"  etc.  "  His  History  of  Florence,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "is  enough  to  immortalize  the  name  of  Machiavel. 
Seldom  has  a  more  giant  stride  been  made  in  any  de 
partment  of  literature  than  by  this  judicious,  clear,  and 
elegant  history."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  GAI.ANTI,  "  Elopr'o  di  Niccolq  Machiavel'i,"  1779:  BAL- 
DEI.I.I,  "  Elogio  di  Niccol6  Machiavelli,"  1794;  PERIES,  "Histoire 
de  N.  Machiavel,"  1823  ;  ARTAUU  DE  MONTOK,  "  Machiavel,  son 
Genie  et  ses  Erreurs,"  1837  :  MACAULAY'S  "Essays,"  article  "  Ma 
chiavelli  ;"  T.  MUNDT,  "Macchiavelli  uncl  der  Gang  der  Euro- 
paisrheu  Po'itik,"  1852;  GINCUIENE,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Italienne;"  GERVINUS,  "Historische  Schriften  :"  F.  W.  EBEI.ING, 
"  N.  di  Bernardo  de  Macrhiavelli's  ro'itisches  System."  etc.,  1850; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge'uerale  ;''  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  Septem 
ber,  1816,  p.  209,  (by  SIR  JAMES  MACKINTOSH;)  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  March,  1827  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Macchietti,  mak-ke-et'tee,  (GlROLAMO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  DEL  CROClFiSSAjo,(kRo-che-fes-sa'yo,) 
(because,  as  we  are  told,  his  master  painted  crucifixes,) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MJCCLELLAN 


1482 


MACCLINTOCK 


was  born  at  Florence  about  1 540.  He  worked  at  Florence 
and  Rome,  and  painted  history  and  portraits  with  great 
success.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  a  picture  of  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Magi." 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Mac-Clel'laii,  (GEORGE,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  American 
surgeon,  born  at  Woodstock,  Windham  county,  Con 
necticut,  in  1796.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1815,  and  studied  medicine  in  the  University  of  Penn 
sylvania,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1819. 
He  founded  about  1826  the  Jefferson  Medical  College 
in  Philadelphia,  in  which  he  became  professor  of  surgery 
and  a  very  popular  lecturer.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in 
the  United  States  to  introduce  the  system  of  clinical 
instruction  into  the  medical  schools.  He  was  particu 
larly  distinguished  as  a  bold  and  successful  surgical 
operator.  Died  in  1847. 

See  S.  D.  GROSS,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  1861  ;  SAMUEL 
G.  MORTON,  "Biographical  Notice  of  Dr.  George  McClellan,"  "849; 
VV.  DARRACH,  "  Memoir  of  Dr.  George  McClellan,"  1847. 

MacClellaii,  (GKOKCK  BRINTON,  )  a  distinguished 
American  general,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  December  3,  1826.  He  entered  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  graduated  there  in 
the  summer  of  1846,  standing  second  in  general  rank  in 
a  large  class.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  lieutenant 
of  engineers  in  1847,  and  was  breveted  captain  for  his 
services  at  the  capture  of  Mexico.  In  the  spring  of  1855 
the  government  sent  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the  Crimea  a 
military  commission  to  examine  the  military  systems  of 
the  European  powers,  etc.  Captain  McClellan  was  one 
of  the  three  officers  selected  for  this  mission.  He  re 
turned  home  in  April,  1856,  and  gave  the  results  of  his 
observations  in  a  valuable  report  to  the  war  department. 
He  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army  in  1857,  and 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Railroad. 

In  May,  1861,  he  took  command  of  the  Union  forces 
in  Western  Virginia,  which  defeated  the  enemy  at  Rich 
Mountain  and  Cheat  River  in  July.  A  few  days  after 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run  (July  21,  1861)  he  was,  at  the  re 
commendation  of  General  Scott,  appointed  commander 
of  the  army  at  Washington.  He  reorganized  that  army 
and  brought  it  into  a  high  state  of  discipline.  When 
General  Scott  retired  from  active  service,  November  i, 

1861,  McClellan  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States.     About  the  end  of  January, 

1862,  the    President  ordered  that  a  general   movement 
should  be  made  by  all  the  armies  on  the  22cl  of  February. 
Having  been  relieved  from  the  command  of  all  the  de 
partments  except  that  of  the  Potomac,  McClellan  began 
to  move  towards  Richmond  about  the   loth  of  March. 
He  conveyed  his  army  by  water  down  the  Potomac  and 
Chesapeake   Hay  to  the  mouth  of  James  River.     Soon 
after  the  opening  of  this  campaign  he  began  to  complain 
that  he  was  not  properly  supported  by  the  President. 
He  commenced  active  operations  about  the  5th  of  April, 
by  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  which  the  insurgents  evacuated 
on  the  3d  or  4th  of  May.     On  the  next  day  he  fought  an 
indecisive  battle  at  Williamsburg,  from  which  he  slowly 
followed  the  retiring  enemy  to  the  Chickaliominy. 

According  to  his  biographer  and  admirer,  Mr.  Hillard, 
"the  mind  of  McClellan  was  constantly  burdened  with 
a  conviction  that  his  troops  were  not  numerous  enough." 
He  had  about  95,000  men  at  Yorktown.  The  Union 
army  was  attacked  at  Fair  Oaks  on  the  3 1st  of  May  by 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  who  was  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss.  According  to  Hillard,  McClellan  was  confined  to 
bed  by  illness  during  this  battle.  His  army  remained 
nearly  inactive  in  the  swamps  of  the  Chickahominy  for 
about  three  weeks,  during  which  he  lost  great  numbers 
by  sickness.  Active  hostilities  were  renewed  by  the 
enemy  on  the  26th  of  June,  and  then  began  the  Seven 
Days'  battles,  at  Mechanicsville,  Savage's  Station, 
White  Oak  Swamp,  Gaines's  Mill,  and  Malvern  Hill, 
(July  i,  1862,)  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  Union 
army  was  compelled  to  retreat  and  abandon  the  con 
quest  of  Richmond.  lie  wrote  to  Secretary  Stan  ton, 
June  28,  "If  I  save  this  army  now,  I  tell  you  plainly 
that  I  owe  no  thanks  to  you  or  to  any  other  persons  in 
Washington.  You  have  done  your  best  to  sacrifice  this 
army."  In  July,  1862,  he  wrote  the  President  a  letter 


on  the  policy  which  ought,  in  his  view,  to  be  adopted 
in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  "Military  power,"  he 
wrote,  "should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  rela 
tions  of  servitude.  ...  A  declaration  of  radical  views, 
especially  upon  slavery,  will  rapidly  disintegrate  our 
present  armies." 

In  August  his  army  left  the  peninsula,  and  was 
moved  by  water  from  the  James  River  to  Aqui'a  Creek. 
About  the  2cl  of  September  he  was  appointed  general-in- 
chicf  of  the  army  which  had  been  commanded  by  Pope 
and  had  been  driven  back  to  Washington.  General 
Lee,  having  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  was 
pursued  by  McClellan,  who  gained  a  victory  at  Antictam 
Creek  on  the  i6th  and  171)1  of  September,  1862.  The 
Union  army  lost  in  this  battle  11,426  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  was  unprepared  or  unable  to  pursue  Lee, 
who  retired  to  Virginia  on  the  iSth  of  September.  On 
the  6th  of  October  McClellan  was  ordered  to  cross  the 
Potomac  and  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  drive  him 
south  ;  but  he  delayed  his  advance  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  was  removed  from  command  by  an  order  dated  the 
5th  of  November  and  received  on  the  7th.  In  August, 
1864,  he  was  nominated  as  Democratic  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  by  the  Convention  at  Chicago.  He  received 
at  the  election  only  twenty-one  electoral  votes,  cast  by 
the  States  of  Kentucky,  Delaware,  and  New  Jersey. 
He  resigned  his  commission  as  major-general  of  the 
regular  army,  November  8,  1864,  and  made  a  long  visit 
to  Europe,  from  which  he  returned  in  1868.  (See  the 
article  on  LINCOLN,  (AuK.Mi AM,)  in  this  work.) 


Mac-Cler'naiid,  (Jonx  A.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Breckinridge  county,  Kentucky,  in  1812.  lie 
removed  to  Illinois,  and  served  as  a  member  of  Congress 
from  that  State  from  1843  to  1861.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  a  division 
at  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7  of  that  year.  He  succeeded 
General  Sherman  as  commander  of  an  army  in  Missis 
sippi  in  January,  1863,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the  siege 
of  Vicksburg  in  May.  lie  was  removed  from  this  com 
mand  before  the  end  of  that  siege. 

Mac-Clint'ock,  (Sir  FRANCIS  LEOPOLD,)  a  successful 
Arctic  explorer,  born  at  Dundalk,  Ireland,  in  1819.  He- 
entered  the  navy  about  1831,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
I  lieutenant  in  1845.  I'1  J^4^  and  1849  he  served  under 
Sir  James  Ross  in  his  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  enterprise, 
skill,  and  energy  in  several  subsequent  expeditions  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  performed  remarkable  feats  in 
sledge-travelling.  In  1857  Captain  McClintock  received 
command  of  the  "  Fox"  screw-steamer,  fitted  out  by  Lady 
Franklin  for  a  final  effort  to  obtain  tidings  of  the  lost 
navigator.  In  the  winter  of  1858-59  he  and  his  officers 
performed  extensive  sledge-journeys,  and  in  May  found 
at  Point  Victory,  on  King  William's  Island,  the  record 
of  Franklin's  death  and  the  remains  of  the  last  sur 
vivors  of  his  party.  (See  FRANKLIN,  Sir  JOHN.)  Soon 
after  his  return,  September,  1859,  he  was  knighted,  and 
received  various  honours  and  rewards.  lie  published  a 
"  Narrative  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,"  (1860.) 

Mac-Clint'pck,  (JOHN,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
scholar  and  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1814,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1835.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Dickinson 
College  at  Carlisle,  became  editor  of  the  "Methodist 
Quarterly  Review"  in  1848,  and  conducted  the  same  with 
great  ability  for  eight  years.  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  he  acquired  distinction  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He 
accepted  in  1860  the  charge  of  the  American  Chapel 
in  Paris.  During  the  civil  war  he  rendered  important 
services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  by  his  pen  and  voice, 
and  his  home  in  Paris  became  a  rallying  centre  for  pa 
triotic  Americans.  Having  returned  home  about  1865, 
he  resumed  his  literary  labours,  and  was  selected  in  1867 
to  organize  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  His  most 
important  work,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Dr.  W. 
Strong,  is  a  "  Theological  and  Biblical  Cyclopaedia,"  still 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MAC-CLURE 


H83 


MACDIARMID 


unfinished,)  of  which  three  volumes  have  been  published, 
(1867-69.)  Died  in  March,  1870. 

Mac-Clure'  or  Maclure,  (Sir  ROBERT  LF.  MESU- 
RIKK,)  a  navigator,  was  born  at  Wexford,  Ireland,  in 
1807.  After  serving  many  years  in  the  navy,  he  accom 
panied  Sir  James  Ross  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin 
in  1848.  On  his  return,  in  1849,  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  captain.  In  1850,  as  captain  of  the  Investigator, 
he  was  directed  to  renew  the  enterprise  by  advancing 
eastward  from  Behring's  Strait.  Fie  entered  a  strait 
which  he  named  the  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  and,  after 
his  ship  was  frozen  fast,  he  pursued  the  exploration  by 
sledges  until  he  reached  Melville  or  Barrow's  Strait,  in 
the  winter  of  1850-51.  This  is  called  the  first  discovery 
of  the  Northwest  Passage.  In  the  next  season  he  dis 
covered  a  second  passage,  on  the  north  side  of  Baring 
Island.  In  1853  he  was  extricated  from  a  perilous  situ 
ation  by  Captain  Kellet,  who  arrived  at  Melville  Island 
from  the  east  ;  but  he  was  forced  to  abandon  the  Inves 
tigator.  On  his  return  home  he  received  a  reward  of 
^5000  for  his  discoveries. 

See  OSROKN,  "  Narration  of  the  Discovery  of  the  North-West 
Passage,"  iS56. 

Mac-clurg',  (JAMES,)  an  American  physician,  born 
at  Hampton,  Virginia,  in  1747,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Human  Bile,"  which  was  translated 
into  several  languages.  Died  in  1825. 

Mac-con'nel,  (JOHN  L.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  Illinois  in  1826.  He  has  published  "  Tal- 
bot  and  Vernon,"  and  other  sketches  of  Western  life. 

Mac-Cook',  (ALEXANDER  McDowEi.i.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Coltimbiana  county,  Ohio,  in  1831,  grad 
uated  at  West  Point  in  1852.  He  served  as  colonel  at 
Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  September  of  that  year,  and  fought  at 
Shiloh  in  April,  1862.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  ensuing  July,  he  commanded  a 
corps  at  the  battle  of  Perryville,  October  8,  1862.  He 
led  the  right  "wing  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which 
ended  January  2,  1863,  and  commanded  a  corps  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  September  19  and  20  of  that  year. 

MacCook,  (ROBERT  L., )  an  American  general,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Jefferson  county, 
Ohio,  in  1837.  He  was  a  lawyer  before  the  war.  He 
served  as  colonel  at  Mill  Springs,  Kentucky,  January, 
1862.  He  was  murdered  by  guerillas  near  Salem,  Ala 
bama,  in  August  of  the  same  year. 

Mac-cord',  (DAVID  J.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Saint  Matthew's  parish,  South  Carolina,  in  1797,  con 
tributed  a  number  of  essays  to  the  "  Southern  Review" 
and  "I)e  Bow's  Review."  Died  in  1855.  His  wife, 
Louisa  S.  (Cheves,)  published  "Caius  Gracchus,"  a 
tragedy,  and  several  other  works. 

Mac-Cor'mic,  (CHARLES,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1/44,  wrote  "The  Reign  of  George  III.  to 
1783,''  and  other  works.  Died  in  1807. 

Mac-Cosh',  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scottish  writer 
on  theology  and  metaphysics,  was  born  in  Ayrshire  about 
1810.  He  became  a  minister  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  about  1852  professor  of  logic  at  Belfast, 
Ireland.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Method  of  the 
Divine  Government,  Physical  and  Moral,"  (1850,)  "The 
Intuitions  of  the  Mind  Inductively  Investigated,"  (1860,) 
and  "  Examination  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Philosophy,"  (1866,) 
and  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  George  Dickie,  of  Belfast, 
"Typical  Forms  and  Special  Ends  in  Creation,"  (1869.) 
Dr.  MacCosh  is  a  very  clear  as  well  as  a  profound 
thinker,  and  has  thrown  valuable  light  on  some  of  the 
abstrusest  questions  of  the  philosophy  of  the  human 
mind.  At  the  earnest  invitation  of  the  trustees  and 
other  friends  of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  he  came 
to  America  in  1868  and  assumed  the  office  of  president 
in  that  institution,  to  the  prosperity  of  which  his  name 
and  influence  appear  to  have  given  a  new  impulse. 

Maccovius.     See  MAKOWSKF. 

Mac-C6wn',  (JOHN  PORTER,)  an  officer,  born  in  Ten 
nessee,  served  in  the  Mexican  war  in  1847,  and  became 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army  in  1861. 

MacCrea,  mak-kta',  (JANE,)  a  daughter  of  a  Scottish 
clergyman  in  Xew  Jersey,  was  murdered  in  1777  by  the  In 
dian  allies  of  Burgoyne,  near  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson. 


MacCrie,  mak-kree',  (THOMAS,)  an  eloquent  Scottish 
Presbyterian  writer,  born  at  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire,  in 
1772.  He  belonged  to  "  the  most  straitest  sect"  of  his 
religion,  styled  "  Anti-Burghers,"  a  part  of  the  Secession 
Church.  About  1795  he  was  ordained  minister  of  a  con 
gregation  in  Edinburgh.  In  1811  or  1812  he  published 
a  "  Life  ot  John  Knox,"  which  obtained  great  popularity. 
His"  Life  of  Andrew  Melville"  (1819)  displays,  with  warm 
sectarian  partiality,  much  learning  and  ability.  He  after 
wards  produced,  besides  other  works,  an  interesting 
"  History  of  the  Progress  and  Suppression  of  the  Re 
formation  in  Italy,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1835.  In  reference 
to  his  "  Life  of  Knox,"  Lord  Jeffrey  says,  "  We  do  not 
hesitate  to  pronounce  it  by  far  the  best  piece  of  history 
which  has  appeared  since  the  commencement  of  our 
critical  career.  It  is  extremely  accurate,  learned,  and 
concise,  and  at  the  same  .time  very  full  of  spirit  and 
animation." 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812;  CHAMBERS,  "Biogra 
phical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

MacCullagh,  mak-kul'laH,  (JAMES,)  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  the 
county  of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1809,  was  educated  in 
TrinitV  College,  Dublin.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
that  college  in  1832,  and  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  1843.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  researches  in  the 
wave  theory  of  light,  and  other  subjects,  on  which  he 
wrote  several  treatises.  In  1846  he  received  the  Copley 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  for  his  contributions  to  the 
science  of  light.  He  died,  by  suicide,  in  1847. 

MacCulloch,  mak-kul'loh,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  in  1814. 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1861.  He  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Wilson's  Creek,  Missouri,  August  10,  1861,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862. 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  1865. 

MacCulloch,  mak-kul'loh  or  mak-kul'loK,  (HoRA- 
TIO,)  a  skilful  Scottish  landscape-painter,  born  in  Glas 
gow  in  1806,  worked  in  Edinburgh.  Died  in  1867. 

MacCulloch,  mak-kul'loh,  (JOHN,)  F.R.S.,  a  Brit 
ish  geologist  and  naturalist,  born  in  Guernsey  in  1773. 
He  studied  medicine,  which  he  practised  for  a  short 
time.  About  1812  he  began  to  make  a  scientific  survey 
and  exploration  of  Scotland  in  the  service  of  the  govern 
ment,  and  while  thus  employed  he  examined  the  geology 
and  mineralogy  of  that  region.  He  became  well  versed 
in  many  natural  sciences  and  in  several  arts.  In  1821 
he  published  a  "Geological  Classification  of  Rocks," 
etc.,  and  in  1824  "The  Highlands  and  Western  Isles  of 
Scotland,  in  a  Series  of  Letters  to  Sir  W.  Scott."  For 
many  years,  ending  in  1832,  he  was  employed  in  the 
geological  and  mineralogical  survey  of  Scotland.  He 
afterwards  published  the  results  of  this  survey  in  an 
excellent  mineralogical  map.  Died  in  1835. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1820,  and  January,  1831. 

MacCulloch,  (JOHN  RAMSAY,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer  on  political  economy  and  commerce,  was  born  in 
Wigtonshire  about  1789.  He  edited  the  "Scotsman" 
in  Edinburgh  for  a  few  years,  and  contributed  many 
articles  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  About  1828  he 
removed  to  London  and  became  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  new  university.  He  wrote  many  works, 
which  are  highly  esteemed.  Among  these  are  "The 
Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1825,)  a  valuable 
"Dictionary  of  Commerce  and'  Commercial  Naviga 
tion,"  (1832,)  often  reprinted,  and  a  "Dictionary,  Geo 
graphical,  Statistical,  and  Historical,"  etc.  About  1838 
he  became  comptroller  of  the  stationery  office,  London. 
Died  in  1864. 

Macdiarmid,  mak-der'mid,  ?  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish 
author,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1790.  In  1817  he 
became  editor  of  the  "Dumfries  Courier,"  which,  under 
his  direction,  was  an  excellent  and  successful  journal 
for  many  years.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Cowper," 
"  Sketches  from  Nature,"  "  The  Scrap-Book,"  and  a  few 
other  works.  Died  in  1852. 

Macdiarmid,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1779.  He  settled  in  London,  where  he 
edited  "The  Saint  James's  Chronicle."  He  was  author 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACDONALD 


1484 


MAC  EDO 


of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  System  of  Military  Defence," 
and  "Lives  of  British  Statesmen."  Died  in  1808. 

See  DISKAKU,  ''Calamities  of  Authors;"  CHAMBERS,  "  Bio- 
graphic.tl  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-doii'ald,  (ANDREW,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Keith'  about  1755.  He  was  an  Episcopal  clergyman  in 
Glasgow  for  a  lew  years.  He  wrote  "  Velina,"  a  poem, 
and  a  tragedy  called  "  Vimonda,"  which  was  performed 
with  success  in  Edinburgh.  Having  retired  from  the 
clerical  profession,  he  removed  about  1786  to  London, 
where  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  poverty.  Died  in  1788. 

SeeCuAMHEKS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
DISRAELI,  "  Calamities  of  Authors." 

Macdonald,  [Fr.  pi  on.  maVdo'nfl',]  (firiENNE 
JACQUES  JOSEPH,)  Duke  of  Tarentum,  an  able  French  I 
marshal,  was  born  of  a  Scottish  family  at  Sancerre  in  j 
1765.  For  his  conduct  at  Jemmapes  (1792)  he  was  made 
a  colonel.  In  1793,  as  general  of  brigade,  he  served  under 
Pichegru  in  Flanders.  He  svas  made  a  general  of  division 
in  1795  or  1796,  and  joined  the  army  of  Italy  in  1797.  In 
February,  1799,  he  succeeded  Championnet  in  the  chief 
command  at  Rome,  where  his  operations  were  success 
ful.  I  le  commanded  at  the  great  battle  of  Trebbia,  (June, 
1799,)  where  the  superior  numbers  of  the  allied  forces 
under  Suwarow  were  victorious.  In  November,  1800,  he 
led  an  army  to  Italy  by  the  celebrated  passage  of  the 
S  phi  gen,  which,  says  Alison,  "was  perhaps  the  most 
wonderful  achievement  of  modern  war."  ("  History  of 
Europe.")  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Denmark  in 
1802,  and  returned  in  1804.  After  this  he  passed  about 
five  years  without  employment,  having,  it  is  supposed, 
offended  Bonaparte  by  his  public  expressions  in  favour 
of  Moreati.  Having  received  command  of  a  division  in 
1809,  he  displayed  great  skill  and  courage  at  Wagram, 
(|uly,  1809,)  where  Bonaparte  gave  him  a  marshal's 
baton  on  the  field  of  battle.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Tarentum.  In  the  Russian  cam 
paign  of  1812,  Marshal  Macdonald  commanded  the  tenth 
corps.  He  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Lutzen  and 
Bautzen,  (1813,)  and  served  the  emperor  with  fidelity  to 
the  last  in  the  campaign  of  1814.  When  Napoleon  was 
about  to  abdicate,  he  expressed  his  grateful  sense  of 
Macdonald's  services,  and  presented  to  him  a  Turkish 
sabre.  Having  declared  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII., 
he  refused  to  serve  his  former  master  during  the  Hun 
dred  Days,  and  in  1816  was  appointed  grand  chancellor 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  commander  of  a  military 
division.  He  died  in  1840,  leaving  his  title  of  duke  to 
an  only  son. 

•See  THIEKS,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  1'Empire;"  JOMINI, 
"Precis  des  Operations  militaires  ;"  THIBAUDKAU,  "Histoire  de 
Napoleon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Macdonald,  (  FLORA,  )  a  Scottish  heroine,  born  in 
one  of  the  Hebrides  in  1720.  After  the  battle  of  Cul- 
loden,  (1746,)  the  Pretender  Charles  Edward  Stuart  be 
came  a  fugitive,  and  was  hunted  from  place  to  place  by 
the  king's  troops  until  he  was  rescued  by  the  courageous 
exertions  of  Flora,  who  conducted  him  (disguised  as  her 
female  servant)  to  the  Isle  of  Skye.  She  was  imprisoned 
a  few  months  for  this  offence.  About  1750  she  was  mar 
ried  to  Macdonald  of  Kingsburgh.  They  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  of  North  America  about  1774,  and 
afterwards  returned  to  Skye,  where  she  died  in  1790. 

See  the  "  Autobiography  of  Flora  Macdonald,"  Edinburgh,  1869. 

Macdonald,  (JAMES,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  While  Plains,  New  York,  in  1803.  He  pub 
lished  an  "  Essay  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of 
Insane  Hospitals, "and  other  similarworks.  Died  in  1849. 

Macdonald,  (JoHN,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  officer  and 
writer,  was  the  son  of  Flora,  above  noticed,  and  was  born 
at  Kingsburgh  in  1759.  He  passed  many  years  in  the 
military  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  became 
a  captain  in  the  corps  of  engineers.  About  1800  he  re 
turned  to  England.  He  published  a  valuable  "Treatise 
on  Telegraphic  Communications,"  (1808,)  and  wrote 
many  articles  on  magnetism  and  other  sciences,  some  of 
which  were  inserted  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine." 
He  translated  from  the  French  several  works  on  military 
tactics.  Died  in  1831. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1831;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 


Macdonald,  (LAURENCE,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born 
about  1815,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life  at 
Rome.  His  subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Greek 
and  Roman  mythology,  and  are  treated  in  the  pure 
classical  style. 

Macdonough,  mak-don'oh,  (THOMAS,)  an  American 
commodore,  born  in  New  Castle  county,  Delaware,  in 
1784.  As  commander  ot  the  American  fleet  on  Lake 
Champlain,  he  gained  a  splendid  and  decisive  victory 
over  the  British  in  September,  1814,  in  an  action  of  little 
more  than  two  hours.  For  this  service  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  captain.  Died  in  1825. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Macdougal,  mak-doo'gal,  (ALEXANDER,)  an  Amer 
ican  officer,  born  about  1750,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  rose  to  be  major-general,  and 
commnnded  at  the  battle  of  White  Plains,  (1776.)  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1781.  Died 
in  1786. 

Mac-DSw'ell,  (!RWIN,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Franklin  county,  Ohio,  about  1818,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1838.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846- 
47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1847.  Jn  May>  1861,  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regular  army. 
He  commanded  the  Union  forces  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  July  21,  1861.  In  April,  1862,  he  took  command  of 
the  department  of  the  Rappahannock.  He  commanded 
a  corps  of  the  army  of  General  Pope,  and  took  part  in 
several  battles  near  Manassas  in  August,  1862.  He 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  of  the 
Pacific  in  1862  or  1863,  and  commander  of  the  fourth 
military  district  (Mississippi  and  Arkansas)  in  Decem 
ber,  1867.  He  was  removed  by  President  Johnson  in 
June,  1868. 

MacDowell,  (JAMES,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia,  in  1796.  He  was  Gov 
ernor  of  Virginia  from  1842  to  1845,  and  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1845  to  1851.  Died  in  1851. 

Mac-B6w'ell,  (PATRICK,)  a  skilful  sculptor,  born  at 
Belfast,  in  Ireland,  in  1799.  After  he  had  served  sev 
eral  years  as  an  apprentice  to  a  coachmaker  of  London, 
lie  became  a  self-taught  sculptor.  His  marble  statue 
of  a  "Girl  Reading"  (1838)  was  greatly  admired,  and 
procured  for  him  liberal  patronage.  In  1844  he  pro 
duced  a  marble  group  called  "Love  Triumphant."  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1846.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Psyche,"  "Eve,"  "Early  Sorrow," 
and  "The  Day-Dream. " 

Mac-Duf'fie,  (GEOUGE,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  in  Columbia  county,  Georgia,  about 
1788.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1821  to 
1835,  supported  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828,  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1834.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  public  speaker,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  debates  of  Congress,  in  which  he 
advocated  State  rights  and  the  policy  of  J.  C.  Calhoun. 
In  1843  'ie  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina.  He  resigned  his 
seat  in  1846,  on  account  of  ill  health.  Died  in  1851. 

Mace,  mS'.sa',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
biblical  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1640.  He  wrote 
"La  Science  de  1'Ecriture  sainte,"  (1708,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1721. 

Mace,  mas,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  musician,  born  in 
1613,  published  a  book  called  "Music's  Monument," 
(1676.)  Died  in  1709. 

See  BURNEV,  "History  of  Music." 

Macedo,  de,  da  ma-sa'do,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1612.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Portuguese  Popes  and  Cardinals,"  (1663.)  Died 
in  1693. 

Macedo,  de,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Portuguese  monk  and 
prolific  writer,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1596,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  Died  at  Padua  in  1681. 

See  HAYI.H,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires  :"  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Geiie"rale." 

Macedo,  de,  (Jo/,6  AGOSTINHO,)  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Ev'ora  about  1770. 
He  adopted  the  profession  of  a  priest,  and  became  a 
popular  preacher  in  Lisbon.  He  edited  the  official 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a.,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MACE  DON 


1485 


Gazette  of  Lisbon,  and  wrote  several  political  tracts. 
About  1811  he  produced  an  epic  poem  called  "Gama." 
A  revised  edition  appeared  with  the  title  "The  Orient," 
("O  Oriente.")  He  was  also  author  of  poems  entitled 
"Meditation"  ("  Meditacao")  and  "Newton."  Died  in 
1831. 

Ma9/e-doii,  [Ma/ca5an>,]  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Thyia,  and  a  brother  of  Magnes.  From  his 
name  that  of  Macedonia  is  supposed  to  be  derived. 

Macedon'icus,  a  surname  of  Q.  C^CILIUS  METEL- 
LUS.  See  METELLUS. 

Mag-e-do'm-us,  [Gr.  MfMC«56wofJ  the  founder  of  a 
heretical  sect  called  Macedonians.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  Semi-Arians,  and  was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constan 
tinople  by  the  Arians  about  341  A.D. ;  but  the  Catholics 
refused  to  recognize  him.  In  360  he  was  deposed.  lie 
afterwards  denied  the  divinity  or  personality  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  found  followers.who  composed  a  separate  sect. 

See  TII.I.KMONT,  "  Me'moires  ;"  SAINT  AUGUSTINE,  "  De  Hjeresi- 
bus;"  SAINT  ATHANASIUS,  "  Historia  Arianoruin." 

Macer.     Sec  CAI.VUS,  (C.  LTCINIUS  MACER.) 

Ma'cer,  (/EMILIUS,)  a  Roman  poet  of  Verona,  was 
contemporary  with  Virgil.  He  wrote  a  poem  or  poems 
on  Birds,  Snakes,  and  Medicinal  Plants.  His  works  are 
not  extant.  Died  in  16  B.C. 

Macer,  (/EMILIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  Severus.  He  wrote  several  legal 
works,  of  which  extracts  are  given  in  the  "Digest." 
Among  the  titles  of  these  are  "De  Appellationibus"  and 
"  De  Re  Militari." 

Macer,  (C.  LICINIUS,)  a  Roman  historian,  born  about 
110  B.C.,  was  the  father  of  C.  Licinius  Calvus,  and  a 
leader  of  the  democratic  party.  He  became  praetor 
about  the  year  70.  His  history  of  Rome,  entitled  "An- 
nales,"  or  "Rerum  Romanorum  Libri,"  is  referred  to  by 
Livy  with  respect.  Having  been  impeached  by  Cicero, 
and  convicted  under  the  law  "  De  Repetundis,"  in  66 
i:.c.,  he  committed  suicide. 

See  LIVY,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  iv.,  vii.,  ix.,  and  x. 

Macfarlane,  mak-far'len,  (CHARLES,)  a  British  au 
thor,  who  published,  besides  other  works,  "Our  Indian 
Umpire,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  "The  French  Revolution,"  (4 
vols.,  1845,)  anc'-  '"  conjunction  with  George  L.  Craik, 
"The  Pictorial  History  of  England,"  (8  vols.,  1849,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1858. 

Macfarlane,  (ROHERT,)  a  Scottish  writer,  bom  in 
1734.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  George 
III.,"  edited  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  London,  and  is 
said  to  have  assisted  Macpherson  in  the  preparation  of 
Ossian.  Died  in  1804. 

See  CHAMBERS,  ''  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-far'ren,  (GEORC.E  ALEXANDER,)  an  eminent 
English  musical  composer,  born  in  London  in  1813.  He 
became  a  professor  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
produced  many  successful  operas,  songs,  duets,  etc. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Devil's  Opera," 
(1838,)'  "Don  Quixote,"  (1846,)  "King  Charles  II.," 
(1849,)  "Robin  Hood,"  (1860,)  and  "Jessie  Lea,"  (1863.) 

Mac-fei 'rill,  (JoiiN  KERRY,)  an  American  Method 
ist  divine,  born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  in 
1807,  became  editor  of  the  "Southwestern  Christian 
Advocate,"  Nashville,  in  1840. 

Mac-gil'li-vray,(  ALEXANDER,)  born  in  Coosa  county, 
Alabama,  about  1740,  became  chief  of  the  Creek  Indians 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  in  which 
he  sided  with  the  British.  Died  in  1793. 

Mac-gil'li-vray,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Harris  in  1796.  He  became  con 
servator  of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  professor  of  civil  and 
natural  history  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  zoologist,  and  also  cultivated 
botany  and  geology.  His  principal  work  is  a  "History 
of  British  Birds," '(3  vols.,)  two  volumes  of  which  were 
published  after  his  death.  Among  his  other  works  is  a 
"History  of  British  Quadrupeds."  Died  in  1852. 

See  "Brief  Biographies,"  by  SAMUEL  SMILES;  "North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1853. 

Mac-greg'or,  (JoiiN,)  a  British  statistician  and 
economist,  born  at  Stornoway,  county  of  Ross,  in  1797. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  British  America,"  (1832,) 


and  became  assistant  secretary  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
1840,  and  a  member  of  Parliament  about  1847.  Among 
his  works  is  "The  Progress  of  America  from  the  Dis 
covery  of  Columbus  to  the  Year  1846,"  (2  vols.,  1847.) 
Died  In  1857. 

Machado.     See  BARDOSA-MACHADO. 

Ma-ehan'I-das,  a  tyrant  of  Sparta,  was  killed  by 
Philopoemen  in  207  li.C. 

Ma-eha'on,  [Ma#«uv,]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician, 
a  son  of  /Esculapius.  He  is  said  to  have  served  as 
surgeon  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  was  one  of  the  Greek  heroes  inclosed  in  the 
wooden  horse. 

See  VIKGII.'S  ",/Eneid,"  book  ii.,  1.  263. 

Machault,  de,  deh  mt'sho',  ( JACQUES,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  Paris  in  1600.  He  wrote  "The  History 
of  Japan,"  ("  De  Rebus  Japonicis,"  1646,)  and  a  work 
on  the  Indian  and  Persian  Missions.  Died  in  1680. 

Machatilt,  de,  QEAN,)  a  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1561,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  Died  in 
1629. 

Machault  d'Arnouville,  mi'sho'  dtn'iioo'vel', 
(JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  an  able  French  financier  and  statesman, 
born  in  1701.  He  was  appointed  contrMeur-gtntrol  of 
the  finances  in  1745,  and  received  in  addition  the  office 
of  keeper  of  the  seals  in  1750.  In  order  to  divide  the 
imposts  more  equally,  he  encroached  on  the  pecuniary 
privileges  of  the  clergy,  and  thus  made  powerful  enemies. 
In  1754  he  was  removed  from  the  control  of  the  finances, 
but  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  marine.  He  was  dis 
missed  finally  from  office  in  1757.  Died  in  1794. 

See  MARTIN,  "  Histoire  de  France;"  BRESSON,  "Histoire  finan- 
ciere  cle  la  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Machet,  mi'sh.Y,  (GERARD,)  a  French  cardinal,  born 
at  Blois  about  1380.  He  was  confessor  to  Charles  VII., 
and  presided  over  the  examination  of  Joan  of  Arc  in 
March,  1429,  (while  the  king  was  yet  doubtful  whether 
to  trust  her  predictions,)  when  he  declared  that  the 
advent  of  a  liberatress  was  announced  by  prophecy,  and 
that  he  had  read  it  in  books.  Died  in  1448. 

See  H.  GREUOIRE,  "  Histoire  des  Confesseurs,"  1824. 

MacCheyne,  mak-shaV,  (ROBERT  MURRAY,)  a  Scot 
tish  divine,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1813.  He  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Chalmers  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  and  in  1836  was  ordained  minister  of  Saint 
Peter's,  Dundee.  His  earnest  and  faithful  labours  were 
instrumental  in  converting  great  numbers  during  the 
memorable  revival  of  1839.  He  died  in  1843,  leaving  a 
number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty. 

See  "  Memoir  and  Remains  of  Robert  M.  McClieyne,"  by  REV. 
A.  A.  BONAR,  1844;  REV.  ROBERT  STKEL,  "Burning  and  Shining 
Lights,"  1864;  CIIAMIIERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Machiavel.     See  MACCHIAVELLT. 

Machin,  mak'in,  ?  (JoHN,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  mathema 
tician,  was  made  professor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  Col 
lege  in  1713.  He  wrote  "On  the  Laws  of  the  Moon's 
Motions,"  a  "  Solution  of  Kepler's  Problem,"  and  a  treat 
ise  "On  the  Curve  of  Quickest  Descent."  Died  in  1751. 

See  WARD,  "Livesof  the  Professors  of  Gresham  College,"  1740. 

Ma'-ehon,  [Ma^ow,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  born  at 
Corinth  or  Sicyon,  lived  at  Alexandria  between  300  and 
260  B.C.  According  to  Athenasus,  he  was  one  of  the 
best  poets  of  the  "Pleiad."  His  works  are  lost,  except 
small  fragments. 

Machy,  de,  deh  mt'she',  (PIERRE  ANTOINK,)  a  French 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1722  ;  died  in  1807. 

Macias,  ma-///ee'as,  one  of  the  most  admired  Span 
ish  poets  of  his  age,  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
was  surnamed  EL  E.NAMOKADO,  ("the  Enamored,")  in 
reference  to  an  unhappy  passion  which  inspired  his  best 
poetical  effusions.  He  had  many  imitators  among 
Spanish  poets.  lie  was  assassinated  by  a  man  whose 
motive  was  jealousy. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Maciejowski,  mat-se-a-yov'skee,  (WENCESLAUS 
ALEXANDER,)  a  Polish  historian  and  jurist,  born  in  1792. 
He  published  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Historya  Pra- 
woclawstw  Slowianskich,"  (4  vols.,  1835,)  which  treats  of 
the  political  and  civil  institutions  of  the  Slavonic  nation. 

Macllvaine,  mak-il-van',  (CHARLES  PETTIT,)  D.D., 
LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine  and  writer,  born  at 


€  as/£;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACINTOSH 


1486 


MACKENZIE 


Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1798.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  ethics  and  chaplain  in  the  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  in  1825.  In  1832  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Ohio. 
His  lectures  on  "The  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  deliv 
ered  in  New  York  in  1831,  and  published  in  1832,  have 
had  an  extraordinary  success,  and  have  been  i  epublished 
in  London  and  Edinburgh. 

Mac'In-tosh,  (fon.N,)  an  American  soldier  of  the 
Revolution,  was  a  native  of  Georgia;  died  in  1826.  His 
son,  JAMES  S.  MACINTOSH,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  of  1812  and  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  mor 
tally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Molino  del  Key,  in  1847. 

Macintosh  or  Mackintosh,  (L\ciii,\N,)  born  near 
Inverness,  Scotland,  in  1727,  emigrated  to  Georgia, 
where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
American  army.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1784. 
Died  in  1806. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Macintosh,  (MARIA  J.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Sunbtiry,  Georgia.  She  has  published  "Jessie 
Graham,"  "Praise  and  Principle,"  (1845,)  "Charms 
and  Counter-Charms,"  (1848,)  and  several  other  tales. 

See  DUVCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Mack  von  Leiberich,  mak  fon  IT'beh-dK',  (K..\ui.,) 
BARON,  an  Austrian  general,  noted  for  his  ill  success, 
was  born  at  Neuslingen  in  1752.  He  served  as  quarter 
master-general  against  the  French  in  1793.  In  1794  he- 
was  sent  to  London  to  concert  with  the  English  minis 
ters  the  operations  of  the  war.  The  court  of  Naples 
having  in  1798  requested  that  of  Austria  to  send  a  gene 
ral  to  command  the  army  against  the  French,  Mack  was 
selected.  He  was  quickly  defeated  by  Championnet, 
and  sought  refuge  from  the  rage  of  the  Neapolitans  in 
the  French  camp,  (1799.)  In  1805  he  obtained  com 
mand  of  the  Austrian  army,  which  was  invested  by  Na 
poleon  in  person  at  Ulm.  On  the  2Oth  of  October  he 
ignominiously  surrendered  his  army  of  30,000  men  as 
prisoners.  Mack  was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  pun 
ished  by  imprisonment  for  several  years.  Died  in  1828. 

See  THIF.RS,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Ausox, 
"History  of"  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mac-kail',  (WILLIAM  W.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1818,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Mexican  war  of  1846-47,  and  became 
in  1861  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army. 

Mackau,  mt'ko',  (ANGE  RENE  ARMAND,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  from  July,  1843,  to  May,  1847.  Died  in  1855. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mac-kay',  (ANDREW,)  an  English  mathematician, 
author  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Longitude."  Died  in  1809. 

Mac-kay',  (CHARLES,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  writer  of 
songs,  was  born  at  Perth  in  1814.  Between  1835  and 
1844  he  published  "The  Salamandrine,"  a  poem,  and 
several  other  works.  His  "Voices  from  the  Crowd" 
(1846)  included  a  popular  song  called  "The  Good  Time 
Coming."  He  afterwards  published  several  volumes  of 
verses,  entitled  "Voices  from  the  Mountains,"  (1847,) 
"Town  Lyrics,"  (1848,)  and  "  Egeria,  or  the  Spirit  of 
Nature,"  (1850.) 

Mac-Kean',  (THOMAS,)  an  American  patriot  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in 
Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1734.  In  1765  he  rep 
resented  the  counties  of  Newcastle,  Kent,  and  Sussex, 
in  Delaware,  in  the  so-called  Stamp- Act  Congress.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774  from  Delaware,  in 
which  post  he  continued  till  1783.  He  had  been  appointed 
in  1777  president  of  the  State  of  Delaware,  and  chief 
justice  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  Governor  of  the  latter 
State  from  1799  to  1808.  Died  in  1817.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  Jefferson. 

See  GOODRICH,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence  ;"  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans  " 
vol.  iv. 

MacKean,  (THOMAS  J.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Bradford  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1810,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  became  a  brigadier-general 
about  November,  1861,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Corinth,  October  4,  1862. 


MacKean,  (WILLIAM  W.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  iSoi,  was  a  nephew  of  Governor 
Thomas  McKean,  noticed  above.  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron  in 
1861.  Died  in  1865. 

Mac-Kee'ver,  ( ISAAC,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1793.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  of  1812,  and  in  1851  commanded  the  squadron 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Died  in  1856. 

Mackeldey,  mak'kel-dt',  (FERDINAND,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  P.runswick  in  1784.  He  became  first  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and  published  a  "Manual 
of  the  Institutes  of  Roman  Law  of  the  Present  Time," 
(1814.)  Died  in  1834. 

Mac-Kel'lar,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  poet,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1812.  He  became  a  printer, 
and  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1833.  On  the  death  of 
Mr.  Johnson,  in  1860,  Mr.  Mackellar  succeeded  him  as 
the  head  of  the  type-foundry  of  L.  Johnson  &  Co.,  (now 
of  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan,)  perhaps  the  most  ex 
tensive  establishment  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States. 
He  lias  published  several  small  volumes  of  poems,  some 
of  which  have  been  warmly  commended  by  N.  P.  Willis, 
W.  C.  Bryant,  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  AI.MBONE'S  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Mac-ken'dree,  (WILLIAM,)  born  in  King  William 
county,  Virginia,  in  1 757,  entered  the  ministry  about  1 788. 
He  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1808.  Died  in  1835. 

Mac-keii'zie,  (Sir  ALEXANDER,)  an  enterprising 
Scotchman,  born  at  Inverness  about  17^5.  In  his  youth 
he  emigrated  to  Canada,  and  became  a  clerk  in  the 
service  of  the  Northwest  Fur  Company.  From  1781  to 
1789  he  spent  eight  years  in  trading  with  the  Indians  at 
Lake  Athabasca,  and  in  the  latter  year  discovered  the 
river  which  bears  his  name,  and  traced  it  from  its  source 
to  its  entrance  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  he  arrived 
in  July,  1789.  In  1792  he  led  another  exploring  party 
westward  to  the  Pacific.  On  his  return  to  England,  in 
iSoi,  he  published  his  "Voyages  from  Montreal  to  the 
Frozen  and  Pacific  Oceans,"  which,  says  Chateaubriand, 
"is  a  work  of  great  merit."  Died  in  1820. 

See  CHATEAUBRIAND,  "Voyages  en  Amerique ;"  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  July  and  August,  iSoj. 

Mac-ken'zie,  (ALEXANDER  SLIDELL,)  an  American 
naval  officer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  New  York 
in  1803.  Having  visited  Europe  in  1825,  he  published, 
soon  after  his  return,  his  "Year  in  Spain,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour.  In  1835  he  made  another 
voyage  to  Europe,  the  result  of  which  was  his  two  works 
entitled  "The  American  in  England"  and  "Spain  Re 
visited."  While  commander  of  the  Somers,  in  1842,  he 
ordered  the  mutineer  Spencer  and  two  of  his  associates 
to  be  hanged  from  the  yard-arm  of  the  vessel,  which  act 
was  publicly  approved  by  a  high  court  of  inquiry  after 
his  return.  He  died  in  1848.  Besides  the  above-named 
works,  he  wrote  a  "Life  of  Paul  Jones,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography." 

See  DUVCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Mackenzie,  (CHARLES  FRAZER,)  a  Scottish  mission 
ary,  born  in  Peebleshire  in  1825.  lie  went  to  Southern 
Africa  in  1860,  and  began  to  labour  near  the  Zambesi 
River.  He  died  in  Africa  in  January,  1862. 

Mackenzie,  (DONALD,)  a  merchant,  born  in  Scot 
land  in  1783.  He  became  in  1809  a  partner  of  John 
Jacob  Astor  in  the  fur-trade,  and  made  an  overland 
journey  to  the  Pacific.  Died  in  1851. 

Mackenzie,  (GEORGE,)  Earl  of  Cromarty,  a  Scottish 
politician  and  writer,  born  in  1630.  He  was  appointed 
justice-general  in  1678,  and  a  lord  of  session  in  1681. 
In  1685  he  was  created  Viscount  Tarbat,  and  in  1703 
Earl  of  Cromarty.  He  was  secretary  of  state  for  Scot 
land  from  1701  to  1704.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Synopsis  Apocalyptica,"  (1708,)  and  an  "Account  of 
the  Conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie  against  James 
VI.,"  (1713.)  Died  in  1714. 

See  WALPOI.R,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors;"  CHAMBERS,  "Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mackenzie,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  at  Dundee  in  1636.  He  attained  eminence 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  fang :  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MACKENZIE 


1487 


MACKINTOSH 


in  his  profession,  and  about  1661  was  appointed  justice- 
depute,  or  judge.  He  published  "Religio  Laid,"  a  treat 
ise  on  religion  and  morality,  (1663,)  "Moral  Gallantry," 
(1667,)  "  Institutions  of  the  Laws  of  Scotland,"  (1684,1 
and  other  works.  From  1674  to  1685  he  was  employed 
as  king's  advocate,  and  in  this  period  had  some  agency 
in  the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  who  designated 
him  "the  bloodthirsty  advocate."  Died  in  1691. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  G.  Mackenzie."  prefixed  to  his  works  ;  KURNHT, 
"  History  of  his  Own  Times;"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionaiy 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mackenzie,  (GEORGE,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
writer,  who  practised  in  Edinburgh  with  success,  and 
published  "Lives  and  Characters  of  the  Most  Eminent 
Writers  of  the  Scottish  Nation,"  (3  vols.,  1708-22.) 
Died  in  1726. 

Mackenzie,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  Scottish  novelist 
and  essayist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1745.  In  his  youth 
he  obtained  the  office  of  attorney  in  the  Scottish  court  of 
exchequer.  In  1771  he  published,  anonymously,  "The 
Man  of  Eeeling,"  a  novel,  which  is  his  principal  work. 
and  was  generally  admired.  He  edited  "The  Mirror,'' 
a  periodical  resembling  the  "Spectator,"  which  was  first 
issued  in  1779,  and  was  discontinued  the  next  year. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  articles  in  this  popular  work 
were  written  by  him.  He  afterwards  produced  "The 
Man  of  the  World,"  a  novel,  several  political  treatises 
favourable  to  the  Tory  party,  "  The  Prince  of  Tunis," 
and  other  dramas.  He  contributed  many  essays  to  "  The 
Lounger,"  a  successful  periodical,  of  which  he  was  editor 
in  1785-86.  In  1804  he  obtained  the  lucrative  office  of 
comptroller  of  taxes  for  Scotland.  Died  in  1831. 

See  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT'S  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale ;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Kminent  Scotsmen;"  ALUBONK,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Mackenzie,  (ROISERT  SHEI.TU.N,)  D.C.L.,  a  writer 
and  journalist  of  much  ability,  born  in  Limerick  county, 
Ireland,  in  1809.  He  was  editor  successively  of  the 
"  Liverpool  Journal"  and  various  other  British  periodi 
cals,  and  in  1852  settled  in  America,  where  he  became 
literary  and  foreign  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  "  Press." 
He  has  published  "Lays  of  Palestine,"  (1828,)  "Life 
of  Curran,"  (1855,)  "Tressilian,  or  the  Story-Tellers," 
(1857,)  a  valuable  "Life  of  Charles  Dickens,"  (1870,) 
and  many  other  works. 

Mackenzie,  (WILLIAM  LYON,)  a  Canadian  journalist 
and  politician,  born  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  in  1794.  He 
emigrated  to  Canada  in  early  life,  and  became  the  editor 
of  a  paper.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  parly  which  took 
arms  against  the  government  in  December,  1837,  and 
was  quickly  dispersed.  He  took  refuge  in  New  York. 
Died  in  1861. 

Mackey,  mak'ee,  (ALKERT  GAI.LATIX,)  an  American 
physician  and  journalist,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1807.  He  published  a  "Text-Book  of 
Masonic  Jurisprudence,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Mackey,  mak'ee,  (Jonx,)  an  Englishman,  who,  as 
an  agent  of  William  III.,  watched  the  movements  of  the 
Jacobite  exiles  after  the  revolution  of  1688.  He  wrote 
a  "Picture  of  the  Court  of  Saint  Germain,"  (1695.) 
Died  in  1726. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Secret  Services  of"  John  Mackey,"  London, 
'833. 

Mackie,  mak-kee',  (Jon.x,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  Fifeshire  in  1 748,  published,  besides  medical  treatises, 
"  A  Sketch  cf  a  New  Theory  of  Man."  Died  in  1831. 

Mackie,  (Joiix  MILTON,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Wareham,  Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He  has  written  a 
"Life  of  Godfrey  William  von  Leibnitz,"  (1845,)  "Life 
nf  Schamyl,  the  Circassian  Chief,"  (1856,)  and  contrib 
uted  various  articles  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 

Mac-kin'non,  (D,\xiEi.,)  COLONEL,  a  British  officer, 
born  in  1791.  He  commanded  a  regiment  of  Coldstream 
Guards  at  Waterloo,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Cold- 
stream  Guards."  Died  in  1836. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminei.t  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Mackinnon,  (HENRY,)  a  British  general,  born  near 
Winchester  in  1773.  He  served  many  campaigns  against 
the  French.  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  actions 
in  Spain,  obtained  command  of  a  brigade  in  1809,  and 
was  killed  at  Ciudad  Roclrigo  in  1812. 


Mack'iii-tosh,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  illustrious  British 
author,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Aldourie, 
near  Inverness,  on  the  241)1  of  October,  1765.  He  was 
the  son  of  Captain  John  Mackintosh,  of  the  army,  and 
Marjory  Macgillivray.  At  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
which  he  entered  in  1780,  he  profited  by  the  congenial 
society  of  Robert  Hall,  who  was  his  fellow-student  and 
intimate  friend.  He  studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh, 
and,  having  obtained  his  diploma,  in  1788  removed  to 
London,  where  he  married  Catherine  Stuart  in  1789.  His 
fluent  elocution,  admirable  temper,  and  refined  manners 
procured  his  admission  into  the  best  society.  He  had  a 
"boundless  literary  ambition,"  and  a  most  capacious  and 
accurate  memory.  In  defence,  or  rather  ardent  eulogy, 
of  the  first  reforms  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  produced, 
in  answer  to  Burke's  famous  "Reflections,"  his  "  Vindi- 
cise  Gallicae,"  (1791,)  which  raised  him  into  sudden 
celebrity  and  caused  him  to  be  warmly  caressed  bv  Fox, 
Sheridan,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Whig  party.  About 
this  time  he  renounced  medicine  and  became  a  student 
of  law.  lie  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1795,  gave  special 
attention  to  public  law,  and  practised  with  success  in  the 
home  circuit.  In  1799  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures 
"On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,"  which  were 
highly  applauded  by  the  most  eminent  judges  of  all 
parties  as  a  noble  monument  of  intellectual  power  and 
wisdom.  He  expressed  in  these  lectures  more  conserva 
tive  views  than  those  of  his  "  Vindicias  Gallica;."  In 
1803  he  gained  a  high  reputation  for  forensic  eloquence 
by  his  defence  of  M.  Peltier,  a  French  emigrant,  who 
was  tried  for  a  libel  on  Bonaparte,  and  was  acquitted. 
This  speech  was  translated  into  French  by  Madame  de 
Stae'I.  He  accepted  the  office  of  recorder  of  Bombay, 
where  he  arrived  in  1804,  and  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  admiralty  court  in  1806.  Sir  James  returned  to 
England  in  1812,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the 
Whigs  in  1813.  He  won  and  maintained  a  high  place 
among  parliamentary  speakers.  From  1818  to  1824  he 
was  professor  of  law  and  politics  in  the  college  at  llai- 
leybury.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review," 
and  wrote  an  important  "  Dissertation  on  the  Progress 
of  Ethical  Philosophy,"  which  appeared  among  the  pre 
liminary  essays  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  In 
1830  he  accepted  office  as  commissioner  for  the  affairs 
of  India  under  the  ministry  of  Earl  Gray.  He  made  a 
powerful  and  luminous  speech  in  the  House  on  the  Re 
form  bill  in  1831.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  England."  a 
work  of  great  merit,  which  was  published  in  "Lardner's 
Cyclopaedia,"  (1831.)  He  died  in  May,  1832,  leaving 
unfinished  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  England 
in  1688,"  which  was  published  in  1832.  "We  have  no 
hesitation,"  says  Macaulay,  "in  pronouncing  this  frag 
ment  decidedly  the  best  history  now  extant  of  the  reign 
of  James  II.  ...  The  intellectual  and  moral  qualities 
which  are  most  important  in  a  historian,  he  possessed  in 
a  very  high  degree.  He  was  singularly  mild,  calm,  and 
impartial  in  his  judgments  of  men  and  of  parties."  The 
same  critic  adds,  "He  distinguished  himself  highly  in 
Parliament.  But  nevertheless  Parliament  was  not  ex 
actly  the  sphere  for  him.  The  effect  of  his  most  success 
ful  speeches  was  small,  when  compared  with  the  quantity 
of  ability  and  learning  which  was  expended  on  them." 

"  It  would  be  difficult,"  says  Mr.  Whipple,  "to  men 
tion  any  writer  whose  name  has  been  connected  with  the 
literary  journals  of  the  nineteenth  century,  who  has 
carried  into  the  task  of  criticism  so  much  fairness  and 
moderation  as  Mackintosh.  His  nature  was  singularly 
free  from  asperity  and  dogmatism.  To  a  large  under 
standing  and  boundless  stores  of  knowledge  he  united 
candour  and  even  humility  in  their  employment.  .  .  . 
The  beauty  of  his  character  will  long  continue  to  exert  an 
influence  in  insensibly  moulding  the  minds  of  scholars 
and  statesmen."  (See  article  on  "  British  Critics"  in 
the  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845.) 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh."  eriiied  by 
his  son,  ROHFRT  J.  MACKINTOSH,  2  vols.,  1835:  "Historical  Char 
acters,"  by  SIR  H.  L.  BUIAVEK,  London,  1868;  "Encyclopedia 
Biitannica;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  "  Nouvelle  Bioeraphie  Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  October,  1835,  (by  JEPKRKV  ;)  "  Hii.ish  Quarterly  Review" 
for  November,  1846;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1832, 
(by  A.  H.  EVERETT;)  and  the  very  elaborate  article  on  "Mackin 
tosh"  in  ALUBONE'S  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 


€  as k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  c,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (ftrj^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAC  KLIN 


1488 


Mac-klin',  (CHARLES,)  a  popular  Irish  actor  and 
dramatist,  (whose  family  name  was  McLaughlin,)  was 
born  at  Westmeath  in  1690.  He  appeared  on  the  Lon 
don  stage  in  1725,  and  did  not  retire  until  1789.  He 
excelled  in  the  r&le  of  "Shylock,"  and  wrote,  besides 
several  other  plays,  a  successful  comedy  called  "The 
Man  of  the  World."  Died  in  1797,  at  the  age  of  107. 

See  J.  T.  KIRKMAN,  "  Memoirs  of  Charles  Macklin,"  1790:  WIL 
LIAM  COOKK,  "  Memoirs  of  C.  Macklin,"  1804  ;  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  November  and  December,  1799. 

MacKiiight,  mak-mt',  (J.-\MKS,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Irvine  in  1721.  He  became 
minister  at  Maybole  in  1753,  and  published  his  "  Har 
mony  of  the  Gospels,"  (1756,)  which  is  esteemed  an  ex 
cellent  standard  work  and  has  been  often  reprinted.  In 
1763  he  produced  "The  Truth  of  the  Gospel  History," 
which  was  received  with  favour.  From  1772  until  1778 
he  preached  in  Lady  Yester's  parish  in  Edinburgh,  and 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  was  minister  of  the 
Old  Church  of  that  city.  In  1795  he  published  a  "  Lite 
ral  Translation  of  all  the  Apostolic  Epistles,"  a  work  of 
high  reputation.  Died  in  1800. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Macknisht,"  by  his  son;  CHAMBERS,  "  Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Maclane,  mak-lan',  (ARCHIBALD,)  an  Irish  clergyman, 
born  at  Monaghan  about  1722.  He  preached  for  the 
Anglican  Church  of  the  Hague  about  fifty  years,  ending 
in  1796.  He  published  a  volume  of  sermons,  and  trans 
lated  Mosheim's  "History  of  the  Church,"  (1765.) 
Died  in  1804. 

MacLane,  mak-lan',  (Louis,)  an  American  states 
man,  born  at  Smyrna,  Delaware,  in  May,  1786.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and  represented  Delaware 
in  Congress  from  1817  to  1827.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legis 
lature  of  Delaware.  He  served  as  minister  to  England 
about  two  years,  (1829-31,)  and  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  by  President  Jackson  in  April  or  May, 
1831  ;  but,  not  approving,  it  is  said,  of  the  removal  of  the 
deposits  from  the  United  States  Bank,  he  was  in  1833 
removed  from  the  treasury  and  made  secretary  of  state, 
which  position  he  resigned  in  June,  1834.  In  1845  he 
went  to  England  as  ambassador.  After  the  question  of 
the  boundary  of  Oregon  was  settled,  he  returned  home. 
Died  in  October,  1857. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Mac-lar'eii,  (CHARLKS,)  a  Scottish  journalist  and 
geologist,  born  about  1783.  He  was  chief  editor  of  the 
"  Scotsman"  (a  leading  political  journal  of  Edinburgh) 
from  1820  to  1847.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Geology  of  Fife  and  the  Lothians,"  (1839.)  Died 
in  September,  1866. 

Mac-lau'riii,  (Coi.iN,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Kilmodan  in  1698.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  mathematics  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
in  1717.  In  1720  he  published  "  GeometriaOrganica  sive 
Descriptio  Linearum  Curvarum  universalis,"  a  treatise 
on  curve  lines,  which  is  said  to  have  excited  the  admira 
tion  of  Newton.  In  1725  he  was  appointed  assistant  of 
Professor  Gregory  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where 
he  remained  about  twenty  years.  While  he  was  em 
ployed  in  fortifying  Edinburgh  against  the  Pretender's 
army,- in  1745,  he  contracted  a  disease  which  hastened 
his  death,  lie  shared  with  D.  Bernoulli  and  Euler  the 
prize  awarded  in  1740  by  the  Academy  of  Paris  for  a 
memoir  on  Tides.  He  was  the  author  of  several  original 
and  profound  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise  on 
Fluxions,"  (1742,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Algebra,"  (1748.) 
Died  in  1746. 

See  MONTUCI.A,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Maclaurin,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Edin 
burgh  in  1734,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
a  judge  about  1787,  when  he  received  the  title  of  Lord 
Dreghorn.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Literary  Property," 
a  drama  entitled  "  Hampden,"  and  several  other  works 
in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1796. 

See  "  Life  of  Lord  Dreghorn,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Mac-Laws',  (LAFAYKTTE,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Georgia.  He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Lee's 
army  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 


Mac-lay',  (ARCHIBALD,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Scotland  in  1778,  emigrated  to  America  in  1805,  and 
became  pastor  of  a  chinch  in  New  York.  He  was 
thirteen  years  general  agent  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  Died  in  1860. 

MacLeaii  or  Maclean,  mak-lan',  (JoHN,)  an  Ameri 
can  statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  Morris  county,  New 
Jersey,  in  March,  1785.  He  removed  with  his  father  to 
Ohio  about  1798,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1807,  and 
began  to  practise  at  Lebanon.  In  1812  lie  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  acted  with  the 
Democrats,  and  supported  the  war  against  England. 
He  was  again  elected  by  a  unanimous  vote  in  1814, 
was  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio  from  1816  to 
1822,  and  became  postmaster-general  in  1823.  He  filled 
this  office  with  great  credit  and  ability  until  March,  1829, 
during  which  period  he  introduced  many  improvements 
and  brought  the  department  into  a  state  of  the  highest 
efficiency.  lie  declined  a  place  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi 
dent  Jackson,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  in  1829.  He  dissented  from 
the  decision  of  the  court  in  the  Dred  Scott  case,  as  given 
by  Chief-Justice  Taney  in  1857,  and  opposed  the  exten 
sion  of  slavery.  At  the  Republican  National  Convention 
of  1856  he  received  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  votes  as 
a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States. 
Died  in  Cincinnati  in  April,  1861. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Maclean,  (Mrs.  L.  E.)     See  LANDON,  (L.  1-:.) 
Mac-Lel'lan,  (!SAAC-,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Port 
land,    Maine,  about   1810.      Among   his   works   we    may 
mention    "The   Fall   of  the    Indian,   (1830,)   and   "The 
Year,  and  other  Poems,"  (1832.) 

See  GRi-iwoi.n,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  CLEVELAND, 
"Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Macleod,  mak-lowd',  (ALKXANDKR,)  D.D.,  born  in 
the  island  of  Mull  in  1774,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  became  in  1801  pastor  of  a  Reformed  Pres 
byterian  church  in  New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"Ecclesiastical  Catechism,"  "Negro  Slavery  Unjustifi 
able, ""The  Life  and  Power  of  True  Godliness,"  and 
other  religious  works.  Died  in  1855. 

MacLeod,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  at  Bun- 
hill  in  1782.  He  became  in  1817  surgeon  of  the  Alceste, 
which  conveyed  Lord  Amherst  to  China,,  and  in  1818 
published  "The  Voynge  of  the  Alceste  along  the  Coast 
of  Corea,"  etc.  Died  in  1820. 

See  WALCKENAER,  "  Collection  des  Relations  des  Voyages." 

MacLeod  or  Macleod,  (Rev.  NORMAN,)  a  Scottish 
divine,  born  at  Campbelton  in  1812.  He  became  min 
ister  of  London  in  1838,  of  Dalkeith  in  1843,  and  of  the 
Barony  Parish,  Glasgow,  in  1851.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Home  Education,"  and  "  The  Earnest 
Student,"  and  is  editor  of  a  monthly  periodical  called 
"Good  Words." 

Macleod,  (XAVIKR  DONALD,)  a  son  of  Alexander, 
noticed  above,  horn  in  New  York  in  1821,  published 
numerous  works  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  we 
may  name  a  "  Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,"  (1857,)  and 
a  poem  entitled  "The  Saga  of  Viking  Torquil."  Died 
in  1865. 

Maclise,  mak-leess',  (DANIEL,)  a  popular  historical 
painter,  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in  i8u.  He  went  to 
London  in  1828,  and  became  a  student  in  (he  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  quickly  won  several  prize  medals. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  "  Vow  of  the  Ladies 
and  the  Peacock,"  (1835,)  and  "Merry  Christmas  in  the 
Baron's  Hall,"  (1838.)  In  1840  he  was  elected  an 
Academician.  Among  his  admired  productions  are 
"The  Sleeping  Beauty,"  (1841,)  "The  Play  Scene  in 
Hamlet,"  (1842,)  "  Noah's  Sacrifice,"  (1847,)  and  "  Shak- 
speare's  Seven  Ages,"  (1848.)  He  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  original  of  English  painters  of  the  present 
time.  Died  in  April,  1870. 

Maclure.     See  MACCLUKK. 

Mac-lure',  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  naturalist,  and 
pioneer  of  American  geology,  born  at  Ayr,  in  Scotland, 
in  1763.  Having  made  an  extensive  scientific  tour  in 
Europe,  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  about 
1806  entered  upon  a  geological  survey  of  that  Country. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f  41',  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MACMAHON 


1489 


MACPHERSON 


In  the  accomplishment  of  this  task,  he  visited  nearly 
every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union,  and  crossed  and 
recrossed  the  Alleghanies  fifty  times.  An  account  of  his 
tour  was  published  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Ameri 
can  Philosophical  Society,"  (1809.)  A  revised  edition 
of  his  "Observations  on  the  Geology  of  the  United 
States,"  with  a  coloured  map  and  sections,  came  out  in 
1817.  It  ranks  among  the  most  valuable  contributions 
to  American  science.  In  1812  Mr.  Maclure  became  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
just  founded  at  Philadelphia,  and  was  elected  president 
of  that  institution  in  1817.  He  continued  to  fill  this 
post  for  twenty-two  years,  and  the  "Journal"  of  the 
Academy  was  begun  under  his  auspices.  His  donations 
of  books  to  the  Academy  amounted  to  nearly  fifteen 
hundred  volumes,  comprising  valuable  works  on  natural 
history,  antiquities,  etc..  and  he  gave  the  sum  of  $20,000 
towards  the  erection  of  the  building  on  Broad  Street, 
finished  in  1840.  He  died  in  1840,  at  San  Angel,  in 
Mexico,  whither  he  had  gone  on  account  of  his  health. 
See  "Memoirs  of  Win.  Mature,"  by  SAMUEL  G.  MORTON. 

MacMahon,  mJtk'mt'o.N'',  (MARIE  EDME  PATRICE 
MAI'KICK,)  Due  de  Magenta,  a  French  marshal,  of  Irish 
extraction,  born  at  Sully,  on  the  Loire,  in  1808.  He  was 
a  son  of  Marquis  Charles  Lanre  de  MacMahon,  a  peer 
of  France.  lie  served  in  Algeria  from  1830  to  1850, 
having  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1845  and  general 
of  brigade  in  1848.  In  1852  he  became  a  general  of 
division.  In  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  he  commanded  the 
division  which  took  the  Malakoff  by  assault  on  the  8th 
of  September,  1855.  He  commanded  the  second  corps- 
d'armee  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Magenta.  This  service 
was  rewarded  (1859)  by  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France 
and  the  title  of  Due  de  Magenta.  lie  also  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Solferino,  June  24,  1859.  In  the  recent 
war  with  Prussia  he  was  defeated  at  Worth  (August  6, 
1870)  and  at  the  great  battle  of  Sedan,  (about  September 
I,)  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

MacMichael,  mak-ml'kel,  (WILLIAM.)  an  English 
physician,  born  in  1784.  He  published  a  "Journey  from 
Moscow  to  Constantinople,"  (1819.)  Died  in  1839. 

Mac-Nab',  (Sir  ALLAN,)  an  officer  in  the  British  ser 
vice,  'born  in  Canada  in  1798.  He  studied  law,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Canada  West.  During  the 
insurrection  of  1837  he  commanded  near  Niagara,  and 
sent  over  the  falls  the  steamboat  Caroline,  which  had 
been  captured  from  the  insurgents.  He  was  the  prin 
cipal  minister  during  part  of  the  period  in  which  Lord 
Elgin  governed  Canada,  (1846-54.)  He  was  knighted 
for  his  services  in  the  rebellion  above  mentioned.  Died 
in  Canada  in  August,  1862. 

MacNaghten,  mak-naw'ten,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  British 
officer  in  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
was  sent  as  envoy  to  Shah  Soojah  about  1840,  and  was 
assassinated  at  Cabool  by  Akbar  Khan  in  1841. 

Mac-Nal'ly,  (LEONARD,)  an  Irish  barrister  and  dram 
atist,  born  in  Dublin  in  1752.  He  wrote  "Fashionable 
Levities,"  a  successful  comedy,  and  several  operas  and 
farces,  also  "The  Rules  of  Evidence."  Died  in  1820. 

Mac-neil',  (HKCTOR,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  near 
Roslin  in  1746.  He  passed  many  of  his  early  years  in 
the  West  Indies,  probably  as  overseer,  and  returned  to 
Scotland  about  1788.  He  published  "The  Harp,"  (1789,) 
"Scotland's  Skaith,"  (1795,)  which  was  much  admired, 
and  other  poems.  Died  in  1818. 

See  CIIAMBKRS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-neil',  (JoiiN,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Hampshire  in  1784,  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battle  of  Chippewa  in  1814.  Died  in  1850. 

Macneile,  mak-neel',  (Rev.  HCGH.)  D.D.,  an  Irish 
Protestant  clergyman,  born  in  the  county  of  Antrim  about 
1794.  He  preached  several  years  in  London,  and  be 
came  the  incumbent  of  Saint  Paul's,  near  Liverpool,  in 
1848.  He  published  "The  Church  and  the  Churches 
of  Christ,"  (1847,)  and  other  works. 

MacNeill,  mak-neel',  (Sir  JOHN,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
officer  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Colonsay  in  1795.  He 
passed  several  years  in  the  army  of  the  East  India  Com 
pany.  From  1835  until  1844  he  was  British  ambassador 


to  the  court  of  Persia,  where  he  gained  important  in 
formation  respecting  the  policy  and  resources  of  several 
Asiatic  nations.  In  the  winter  of  1854-55  he  was  one 
of  two  commissioners  sent  to  the  Crimea  to  inspect  the 
commissariat  department.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  privy  council  in  1857. 

Mac-iiev'in,  (WILLIAM  JAMES,)  born  in  Galway 
county,  in  Ireland,  in  1763,  joined  the  United  Irishmen 
in  the  rebellion  of  1791,  and  subsequently  entered  the 
French  army.  In  1805  he  removed  to  America,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical 
College,  New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Rambles 
in  Switzerland,"  and  several  scientific  works.  Died  in 
1841. 

Mac-nish',  (ROBERT,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1802.  He  became  one  of  the  editors  of 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  in  1831.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
Philosophy  of  Sleep,"  (1830.)  Died  at  Glasgow  in  1837. 

See  D.  MOIR,  "Life  of  R.  Macnish,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of 
his  ''Tales,  Essays,  and  Sketches,"  1839  and  1844;  CHAMBERS. 
"Biographical  Dictiona:y  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;) 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1835,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Macornb,  ma-koom'  or  ma-kom',  (ALEXANDER,)  a 
distinguished  American  general,  born  at  Detroit  in  1782. 
He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and,  as  brigadier-general, 
in  1814,  gained  the  victory  of  Plattsburg  over  the  British 
|  at  the  same  time  that  Commodore  Macdonough  signally 
defeated  them  on  the  Jake.  General  Macomb  was  ap 
pointed  in  1835  commander-in-chief  of  the  United  States 
army.  Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Ma'cpn,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Warren  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1757.  He  served 
as  a  private  in  the  army  from  1778  to  1782,  and  opposed 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
(1788.)  In  1791  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
for  a  district  of  North  Carolina,  which  he  represented 
until  1815.  He  was  always  a  Democrat,  and  a  strict- 
constructionist.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  National  House 
of  Representatives  for  three  terms,  (1801-06,)  and  be 
came  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1816.  His 
speeches  were  short,  but  effective.  He  served  in  the 
Senate  until  1826,  having  then  been  a  member  of  Con 
gress  for  thirty-seven  consecutive  years.  He  died  in 
Warren  county,  North  Carolina,  in  June,  1837.  John 
Randolph  called  him  "the  best  and  wisest  man  that  I 
ever  knew." 

Mac-pher'spn,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  poet,  celebrated 
as  the  .translator  or  author  of  "  Ossian,"  was  born  in  In 
verness-shire  in  1738.  After  leaving  college  he  became 
a  school-teacher  at  Ruthven,  and  in  1758  published  "  The 
Highlander,"  a  poem,  which  was  not  successful.  In  1760 
he  surprised  the  literary  world  by  the  publication  of 
"Fragments  of  Ancient  Poetry  collected  in  the  High 
lands  of  Scotland,  and  translated  from  the  Gaelic  or  FIrse 
Language."  These  were  admired  by  the  poet  Gray  and 
others,  and  a  subscription  was  raised  to  aid  Macpherson 
in  exploring  the  Highlands  for  other  similar  treasures. 
The  ostensible  result  of  this  search  appeared  in  "Fingal, 
an  Epic  Poem,"  (1762,)  and  "  Temora,  an  Epic  Poem," 
(1763,)  which  purported  to  be  the  work  of  Ossian,  a 
poet  of  the  third  century.  These  poems  found  many 
enthusiastic  admirers  throughout  Europe.  An  anirrrated 
controversy  ensued  about  their  authenticity,  which  was 
defended  by  Dr.  Blair  and  other  eminent  critics.  Dr. 
Johnson,  on  the  other  hand,  confidently  maintained  that 
they  weie  forgeries.  Many  others  adopt  the  theory  that 
he  caught  the  spirit  of  the  Ossianic  poetry  from  the 
tales  of  the  old  Celtic  bards,  but  supplied  from  his  own 
invention  much  of  the  peculiar  imagery  and  cloudy 
verbiage  which  abound  in  his  pretended  translations. 
About  1772  he  settled  in  London,  and  produced  a  prose 
version  of  the  "  Iliad,"  which  was  a  failure,  a  "  History 
of  Great  Britain,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member 
of  Parliament  from  1780  to  1790.  Died  in  1796. 

Sec  BI.AIR.  "  Ciitical  Dissertation  on  the  P<  ems  of  OsHan,"  1763  ; 
H.  MACKKNZIK,  "Report  of  the  Committee  ot  the  Highland  Society 
of  Scotland,''  etc.  :  J.  SINCLAIR.  "On  the  Authenticity  of  OSMBII'S 
Poems."  iSo<> :  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  :"  CHAMBF.RS,  "  Hio- 
graphical  Diciionaiy  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;''  Review  of  "  Ossian," 
in  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January  and  February,  1762. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  \,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  ////>. 

94 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


M4CPHERSON 


1490 


M4CROBIUS 


Mac-Fher'son,  (JAMES  Hi  KUSEYE,)  an  eminent  Amer 
ican  general,  born  in  Sandusky  county,  Ohio,  in  Novem 
ber,  1828.  He  entered  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point  in  1849,  and  graduated  at  the  head  ot"  his  class  in 
1853.  Having  been  assigned  to  the  corps  of  engineers, 
he  was  employed  as  engineer  at  New  S'ork,  Fort  Del 
aware,  and  Alcatraz  Island,  California.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  first  lieutenant  in  1858,  and  that  of  captain 
in  August,  1861.  In  November  ensuing  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  General  Halleck,  with  the  rank  of  lieu 
tenant-colonel.  He  served  as  chief  engineer  on  General 
Grant's  staff  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7,  1862.  In  May  of  that 
year  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army, 
and  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a 
division  which  broke  through  the  lines  of  General  Price, 
then  investing  Corinth,  and  marched  in  to  the  relief  of 
the  garrison  in  October.  For  this  service  he  was  pro 
moted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  on  the  8th  of  Octo 
ber,  1862.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  seventeenth 
army  corps  in  December,  he  served  under  General  Grant 
in  the  campaign  against  Yicksburg.  His  corps  gained  a 
victory  at  Raymond  on  the  I2th  of  May,  1863,  and,  with 
the  aid  of  General  Sherman's  corps,  defeated  General 
loseph  E.  Johnston  at  Jackson  on  the  I4th.  General 
McPherson  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Champion's 
Hills,  and  took  part  in  two  unsuccessful  assaults  on 
the  works  of  Vicksburg  in  May.  For  his  services  in  this 
campaign  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army,  to  date  from  the  capture  of  Vicksburg, 
and  was  appointed  commander  of  the  district  of  Vicks 
burg,  July,  1863.  He  served  under  Sherman  in  the 
expedition  to  Meridian  in  February,  1864.  In  the  next 
month,  General  Grant,  who  had  just  been  nominated 
general-in-chief  of  all  the  Union  armies,  wrote  a  letter 
to  Sherman,  in  which  he  expressed  his  thanks  to  Sher 
man  and  McPhersou  as  the  men  to  whom  he  was  most 
indebted  for  his  success.  On  the  I2th  of  March,  McPher 
son  was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  and 
army  of  the  Tennessee. 

As  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee,  he 
maintained  his  high  reputation  in  the  campaign  which 
Sherman  conducted  in  Georgia.  His  army  fought  with 
success  against  the  rebels  at  Dallas  on  the  28th  of  May. 
On  the  27th  of  June,  Generals  Thomas  and  McPherson 
assaulted  the  fortified  lines  of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but 
were  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  By  a  flank  movement 
of  the  army  of  McPherson,  General  Johnston  was  induced 
to  abandon  his  strong  position  at  Kenesaw  about  July  3, 
and  to  retreat  to  Atlanta.  After  the  Union  armies  had 
advanced  to  the  vicinity  of  Atlanta,  the  enemy  adopted 
.a  bolder  policy,  and  made  several  attacks,  in  one  of  which 
McPherson  was  killed,  July  22,  1864.  "About  i  I'.M. 
of  this  day,"  says  General  Grant,  "the  brave,  accom 
plished,  and  noble-hearted  McPherson  was  killed."  (Re- 
.port,  dated  July  22,  1865.) 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Macpherson,  (Sir  JOHN,)  born  in  Skye,  Scotland, 
about  1767,  became  a  member  of  the  supreme  council 
•of  Bengal  in  1781.  He  acted  as  Governor-General  of 
India  alter  the  retirement  of  Warren  Hastings,  (Feb 
ruary,  1785,)  until  July,  1786.  Died  in  1821. 

Macquarie,  ma-kwor're,  (LACHLAN,)  a  British  gene- 
,ral,  born  in  the  island  of  Mull  in  1762.  lie  served  many 
years  in  India,  and  fought  against  the  French  in  Egypt  in 
1801.  From  1809  to  1821  he  was  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales.  About  1814  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general. 
.Died  in  1824. 

Macquart,  mi'kti<',  (Louis  CHARLES  HENRI,)  a 
•Fiench  mineralogist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1745.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Manual  of  the  Properties  of  Water,"  (1783,) 
and  a  "  Dictionary  of  Health  and  Education,"  (2  vols., 
1800.)  Died  in  1808. 

Macquer,  mfkaik',  (Pnn.ii'i'K,)  a  French  litterateur 
.and  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1720.  He  was  author 
of  a  "Chronological  Abridgment  of  Ecclesiastical  His 
tory,"  (2  vols.,  1751,)  "Roman  Annals,"  (1756,)  and  an 
•"Abridged  History  of  Spain  and.  Portugal,"  (2  vols., 
1759,)  (all  in  French,)  which  were  received  with  favour. 
Died  in  1770. 

See  QUEKARD,  "  Li  France  Litteraire." 


Macquer,  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  meritorious  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1718,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  discovered  new  properties 
in  many  chemical  substances,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  proved  that  the  diamond  is  combustible, 
(1771.)  lie  published  "  Elements  of  Theoretical  Chem 
istry,"  (1741,)  and  a  valuable  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1766.)  In  1745  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  Bourdelin  as  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  edited  the  scientific 
department  of  the  "Journal  des  Savants''  from  1768  to 
1776.  Died  in  1784. 

See  F.  HOEFEK,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Macready,  ma-kree'de,  (WILLIAM  CHARLES,)  a 
popular  English  tragic  actor,  born  in  London  in  1793. 
He  made  a  successful  debute  Birmingham  in  1810,  and 
appeared  on  the  London  stage  in  1816,  when  he  per 
formed  "Orestes"  at  Covent  Garden  with  great  applause. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  performance  of  the 
"  Virginius"  of  Sheridan  Knowles,  and  ot  "  Richard  III." 
and  other  leading  characters- of  Shakspeare.  From  1837 
to  1839  he  was  lessee  and  manager  of  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  About  1842  he  assumed  the  management  of 
Drury  Lane;  but,  as  he  failed  to  make  it  profitable,  he 
kept  it  only  two  or  three  seasons.  He  performed  with 
great  success  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States 
in  1848  and  1849.  While  he  was  in  this  country,  a 
quarrel  between  him  and  Edwin  P'orrest  resulted  in  a 
serious  riot  in  New  York.  He  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1851. 

See  LITTLETON,  "Biography  of  W.  C.  Macready,"  1851;  R- 
H.  HOKNK,  "New  Spirit  ot'  the  Age,"  1844;  "New  American  Cy^ 
clopaedia." 

Macret,  mS'kR.V,  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS  ADKIEN,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1750;  died  in 

I783- 

Mac-ii-a'nus,  [Fr.  MACRIEN,  mt'kRe^N',]  (MARCUS 
FULVIUS,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Egypt.  lie  rose 
from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army.  The 
emperor  Valerian  having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Persians,  a  part  of  the  army,  in  261  A.D.,  chose  for  his 
successor  Macrianus,  who  was  then  an  old  man.  In 
262  he  was  defeated  in  Illyricum,  and  put  to  death,  by 
Domitian,  a  general  of  Gallienus. 

See  TILI.EMONT,  "Histoire  des  Kmpereurs." 

Macrien.     See  MACRIANUS. 

Macrin.     See  MACRINUS,  and  SALMON,  (JEAN.) 

Macriiio  d'Alba,  ma-kkee'no  ddl'ba,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Alba,  near  Turin,  about  1460.  He  was 
among  the  most  skilful  artists  of  his  time,  and  one  of  the 
first  to  adopt  the  modern  style.  Many  of  his  works  are 
preserved  at  Turin  and  Alba.  Died  about  1520. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Macrinus,  mt'kRe'nuss',  (CHARLES  SALMON,)  a 
French  writer,  was  a  brother  of  Jean  the  poet,  and  pre 
ceptor  to  Catherine  of  Navarre.  He  was  a  victim  of  the 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 

Ma-cri'nus,  [Fr.  MACRIN,  mt'kKa.v',]  (M.  OPELIUS 
or  Ol'lLius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  of  obscure 
parents  in  Mauritania  in  164  A.I).  He  obtained  the  high 
office  of  prefect  of  the  praetorians  under  Caracalla.  In 
April,  217  A.D.,  he  instigated  the  assassination  of  Cara 
calla,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army,  whose 
choice  was  confirmed  by  the  senate.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Parthians  at  Nisibis.  lie  was 
defeated  near  Antioch  in  June,  218,  by  the  partisans  of 
Elagabalus,  and  put  to  death. 

See  TII.LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Ma'cro,  [Fr.  MACRON,  mS'kRo.N',]  (N/EVius  SEKTO- 
RIUS,)  a  profligate  Roman  courtier,  who  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  emperor  Tiberius  and  was  the  principal 
agent  in  the  arrest  of  Sejanus.  After  the  death  of 
Sejanus,  he  became  prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard.  He 
was  put  to  death  by  Caligula  in  38  A.D. 

See  TACITUS,  "Annales." 

Macrobe.     See  MACROHIUS. 

Ma-cro'bI-us,[Fr.  MACROHK,  mf  kRol/,](AMBRosius 
AURELIUS  THEODOSIUS,)  a  grammarian  and  writer,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Rome  in  the  fifth  century. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


M  ACT  Y  EIRE 


1491 


MADISON 


It  is  not  known  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a  pagan,  a 
Greek  or  a  Roman.  He  was  the  author  of  three  Latin 
works  which  have  come  down  to  us,  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Verb,"  a  "Commentary  on  the  Dream 
of  Scipio,"  and  a  series  of  curious  and  valuable  essays 
on  history,  mythology,  criticism,  etc.,  entitled  "Saturna- 
liorum  Conviviorum  Libri  Septem." 

See  FABRICR-S.  "  Bib'iotheca  Latina;"  AI.PHONSK  MAHUL, 
"  Dissertation  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Macrobe,"  1817  ;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Mactyeire,  mak-te-air',  ?  (HOLLAND  NIMMONS,) 
1). I).,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1824,  became  editor  of  the  "Christian  Advocate,"  at 
Nashville. 

Mac-vick'ar,  (JoHN,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episcopal 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1787.  He  was  appointed 
in  1817  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  rhetoric  in 
Columbia  College.  He  has  published  "Outlines  of  Po 
litical  Economy,"  "The  Professional  Years  of  Bishop 
Hobart,"  and  other  works. 

Macwhorter,  mak-hwur'ter,  ?  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Pres 
byterian  minister,  born  in  New  Castle  county,  Delaware, 
iii  1734.  He  preached  many  years  at  Newark,  New  Jer 
sey.  Died  in  1807. 

Madai,  von,  von  mod'oy,  (DAVID  SAMUEL,)  a  Hun 
garian  numismatist,  born  at  Schemnitz  in  1709.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  entitled  "A  Complete  Cabinet  of  Medals," 
(1765-74.)  Died  in  1780. 

Mad'aii,  (MARTIN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  near 
Hertford* in  1726.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  at  the 
Lock  Hospital,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Thelyphthora,"  in  which  he  advocated  polygamy.  Died 
ffi  1790. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  October  and  November,  17^0. 

Madan,  (SPENCER,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  be 
came  Bishop  of  Peterborough.  Died  in  1813. 

Madaii,  (Rev.  SPENCEK,)  a  son  of  Martin,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1759.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  obtained  the  living  of  Ibstock  and  the  prebend  of 
Peterborough.  For  about  thirty  years  he  was  chaplain 
to  the  king.  Died  in  1836. 

Mad'den,  (Sir  FREDERICK,)  an  eminent  English 
antiquary,  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1801,  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum  in 
1837.  He  was  a  valuable  contributor  to  British  history, 
and  edited  many  works,  among  which  are  "  Havelock 
the  Dane,"  (1828,)  and  "Layamon's  Brut,  or  Chronicle 
of  Britain,"  (1847.) 

Mad'den,  (RICHARD  ROBERT,)   an  Irish   physician 
and  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born   in   Dublin  in 
1798.      Among   his   numerous   works   are   "Travels   in  I 
Turkey,   Egypt,  and    Palestine,"    (2  vols.,  1829,)   "The  j 
Lives   and  Times   of  the  United    Irishmen,"    (7  vols.,)  j 
and  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington,"  (3  vols.,  1855.) 

Madden,  (SAMUEL,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and  writer, 
whom  Dr.  Johnson  said  Ireland  ought  to  honour,  was 
born  in  1687.  I  le  was  noted  for  public  spirit,  and  founded 
at  Dublin  a  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  by  pre 
miums.  He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Twentieth  Cen 
tury,"  (1732,)  and  the  "Monument  of  Boulter,"  a  poem. 
Died  in  1765. 

See  NICHOLS  and  BOWYER,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Maddersteg,  mad'der-steV,  (MICHAEL,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  marine  views,  etc.,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1659,  worked  in  Berlin.  Died  in  1709. 

Maddius.     See  MAGGI,  (CARLO.) 

Mad'dox,  (ISAAC,)  born  in  London  in  1697,  became 
Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1743.  '^e  wrote  a  "  Review  of 
Nerd's  History  of  the  Puritans."  Died  in  1759. 

Madeleine.     See  MAGDALENE. 

Madelenet,  mtci'leh-ni',  (G.MiRiEL,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  the  Auxerrois  about  1587,  lived  mostly  in  Paris. 
He  composed  elegant  Latin  odes.  Died  in  1661. 

Mader,  ma'cler,  (JOACHIM  JOHANN,)  a  German  philol 
ogist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1626.  He  published  editions 
of  some  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers,  and  wrote  "  DeCoro- 
nis  sacris  et  profanis,"  (1662.)  Died  in  1680. 

Maderno,  ma-deR'no,  (CARLO,)  an  eminent  Italian 
architect,  born  in  Lombardy  in  1556.  He  studied  or 
worked  with  his  uncle,  Domenico  Fontana,  in  Rome. 


Having  acquired  a  great  reputation,  he  obtained  about 
1614  the  title  of  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  and 
was  charged  by  the  pope  to  finish  the  anterior  part.  He 
deviated  from  the  original  plan  by  adopting  the  form  of 
a  Latin  cross  instead  of  a  Greek  cross.  His  additions 
to  this  edifice  are  condemned  by  Milizia  and  others. 
Among  his  best  works  is  the  Mattei  palace.  Died  in 
1629. 

See  QL-ATREMEKE  I>E  QUINCY,  "  Vies  des  plus  celebres  Arclii- 
tectes;"  CICOGNAKA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura;  TICOZZI,  "  Dizio- 
nario  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Hiograjihie  Generale. " 

Maderno,  (STKKANO,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  near 
Conio  in  1576.  He  adorned  some  churches  of  Rome 
with  bas-reliefs  and  statues.  Died  in  1636. 

Madeweis,  ma'deli-wis',  (FRIEDKICH,)  a  learned  Ger 
man  writer,  born  at  Sammentin  in  1648;  died  in  1705. 

Madier  de  Montjau,  mt'de-a'  deli  mo.M'zho',  (PAU- 
LIN,)  a  French  advocate  and  judge,  born  at  Bourg-Saint- 
Ancleol  in  1785.  He  showed  firmness  and  sagacity  in  the 
repression  of  the  excesses  committed  by  the  royalists 
about  1816-20. 

Mad'i-son,  (JAMES,)  D.I).,  an  American  prelate,  born 
in  Rockingnam  county,  Virginia,  in  1749,  became  Episco 
pal  Bishop  of  Virginia  in  1790.  He  had  been  previously 
elected  president  of  William  and  Mary  College.  Died 
in  1812. 

Madison,  (JAMES,)  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
the  fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  born  in  King 
George  county,  Virginia,  on  the  i6th  of  March,  1751, 
was  a  son  of  Colonel  James  Madison  and  Eleanor  or 
Nelly  Conway.  He  entered  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey,  in  1769,  and  graduated  in  1771,  after  which  he 
studied  law.  In  1776  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  or  Convention  of  Virginia.  He  was  defeated 
in  the  election  of  1777  because  he  refused  to  "treat"  the 
voters  ;  but  he  was  ehected  a  member  of  the  General 
Congress  by  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  in  1779.  From 
this  period  he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  in 
the  political  history  of  the  republic.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1786,  and  was  a  member  of  the  National  Convention 
which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  1787  to  form  the  Constitu 
tion  of  the  United  States.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  on  the  Constitution,  and  advocated  the 
adoption  of  the  same  by  a  series  of  able  essays,  forming 
part  of  "The  Federalist,"  which  is  the  joint  production 
of  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay.  Madison  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Virginia  Convention  which,  after  a  spirited 
contest,  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution  by  a  small 
majority  in  June,  1788.  He  became  a  member  of  Con 
gress  in  1789,  and  united  with  the  Republicans  as  a 
moderate  opponent  of  the  administration  of  Washington 
and  the  financial  measures  of  Hamilton.  He  was  dis 
posed  to  be  a  mediator  rather  than  a  partisan  in  the 
dissensions  which  arose  among  the  founders  of  the  re 
public.  In  1794  he  married  Dorothy  Todd,  originally 
Dorothy  Paine,  a  woman  eminent  for  her  virtues  and 
accomplishments.  He  declined  the  office  of  secretary 
of  state  vacated  by  Jefferson  in  December,  1793,  and 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1797.  He  opposed 
the  alien  and  sedition  laws  of  1798,  and  was  the  author 
of  a  series  of  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Assembly  of 
Virginia  and  known  as  the  Resolutions  of  1798,  which 
protested  against  all  attempts  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  Federal  government  by  forced  constructions  of  gen 
eral  clauses  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Jefferson  in  March,  1801, 
and  filled  that  office  for  eight  years  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  acquire  the  confidence  and  approbation  of  the  people. 
Having  been  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  a  caucus 
of  Republican  members  of  Congress,  he  was  elected  in 
1808,  receiving  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  electoral 
votes  out  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five,  which  was 
the  whole  number.  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  the  Federal 
candidate,  received  forty-seven  votes.  On  entering  upon 
the  office  of  President,  March  4, 1809,  he  found  the  United 
States  involved  in  difficulties  and  disputes  with  the  British 
government,  which  had  offended  the  Americans  by  im 
pressing  seamen  and  by  searching  American  vessels  for 
deserters,  and  had  injured  their  commerce  by  orders 
in  council.  His  cabinet  at  first  consisted  of  Robert 
Smith,  secretary  of  state,  Albert  Gallatin,  secretary  of 


€  as  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasai:  R,  trilled:  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIDLER 


1492 


MAECENAS 


the  treasury,  William  Eustis,  secretary  of  war,  and  Paul 
Hamilton,  secretary  of  the  navy. 

In  May,  1810,  Congress  passed  a  non-intercourse  act. 
The  President  sent  to  Congress  a  special  message  on 
the  subject  of  British  aggressions  about  the  1st  of  June, 
1812,  and  war  was  declared  on  the  iSth  of  the  same 
month.  A  few  days  later  the  British  ministry  repealed 
their  orders  in  council  in  relation  to  the  rights  of  neu 
trals,  but  they  refused  to  satisfy  the  Americans  in  relation 
to  the  impressment  of  seamen.  In  the  autumn  ot  1812 
Mr.  Madison  was  re-elected  to  the  Presidency  by  one 
hundred  and  twenty  eight  electoral  votes.  His  com 
petitor  was  De  Witt  Clinton,  who  received  eighty-nine 
votes.  The  slave  States,  with  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Vermont,  voted  for  Madison.  A  strong  party  in  the 
United  States  was  opposed  to  the  war  of  1812,  which 
was  waged  with  various  success  on  land  and  sea.  Com 
modore  Perry  gained  a  naval  victory  on  Lake  Erie  in 
September,  1813.  About  the  3d  of  July,  1814,  a  small 
American  army  invaded  Canada,  gained  a  victory  at 
Chippewa,  and  fought  a  severe  battle  at  Lundy's  Lane, 
or  Niagara,  (July  25,)  in  which  the  Americans  lost  743 
killed  and  wounded  and  the  British  lost  878.  In  August 
of  that  year  a  small  British  force  ascended  the  Chesa 
peake,  took"  Washington  by  a  sudden  movement,  and 
burned  the  Capitol.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Ghent,  December  24,  1814;  but,  before  the  tidings  of 
this  event  had  reached  the  United  States,  General  Jack 
son  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  British  at  New 
Orleans,  January  8,  1815.  In  1816  Madison  approved  a 
bill  which  Congress  had  passed  to  charter  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  for  twenty  years.  On  the  4th  of  March, 
1817,  he  retired  from  public  life.  lie  passed  the  re 
mainder  of  his  days  on  his  farm  at  Montpelier,  Orange 
county,  Virginia.  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Convention  called  in  1829  to  revise  the  Constitution  of 
the  State.  Died  at  Montpelier,  June  28,  1836. 

"This  great  statesman  and  philosopher,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "  was  the  confidential,  personal,  and  political 
friend  of  Jefferson  ;  but  in  almost  every  respect  their 
characters  were  essentially  different.  Mr.  Madison's  in 
tellect  was  of  a  far  higher  order,  and  its  ascendency  over 
his  passions  was  nearly  perfect.  His  triumphs  were 
those  of  pure  reason.  His  public  and  private  life  were 
above  reproach.  .  .  .  His  writings  on  the  Constitution 
and  other  subjects  were  second  only  to  those  of  Hamilton 
in  ability  and  influence;  and  his  extensive  information, 
sound  judgment,  skill  as  a  logician,  and  unvarying  cour 
tesy,  secured  him  the  highest  consideration  in  the  Con 
gresses  of  which  he  was  a  member.''  ("  Prose  Writers 
of  America.")  He  left  in  manuscript  "  Reports  of  the 
Debates  in  the  National  Convention  of  1788,"  which 
were  purchased  by  Congress  after  his  death,  and  pub 
lished  in  3  vols.,  (1840.)  This  is  a  work  of  great  value  to 
students  of  political  philosophy. 

See  WM.  C.  RIVES,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  James 
Madison,"  3  vols.,  1859-1868,  (unfinished.  This  work  extends  only 
to  1797;)  JOHN  Q.  ADAMS,  '"Lite  of  James  Madison,"  1850:  BAN 
CROFT,  "  History  of  the  United  States;"  "National  Portrait-Gallery 
of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "New  American  Cyclopae 
dia;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  tor  September,  1812. 

Madler  or  Maedler,  med'ler,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH, 
a  German  astronomer,  born  in  Berlin  in  1794.  In  con 
junction  with  Beer,  he  produced  an  excellent  lunar  chart, 
— "  Mappa  Selenographica,"  (1834-36  )  In  1840  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  Dorpat.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Existence  of  a  Central  Sun,"  (1846,) 
and  "  Researches  into  the  System  of  Fixed  Stars,"  which 
is  highly  commended. 

See  HKOCKHAUS,  "  Con  venations- Lexikon." 

Mad'oc  or  Madog,  the  second  son  of  Owen  Gwy- 
nedd,  Prince  of  Wales,  lived  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Some  writers  favour  the  hypothesis  that  he  discovered 
America  about  1170,  at  which  period  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  Wales  by  a  successful  rebellion  against  his 
dynasty.  Tradition  informs  us  that  he  sailed  from  Wales 
on  a  second  expedition  to  the  newly-discovered  shores, 
and  was  never  heard  from  after.  His  history  furnishes 
the  subject  of  Southey's  poem  entitled  "Madoc." 
See  OWEN,  "British  Remains,"  1777. 


Madog.     See  MADOC. 

Madox,  (ISAAC.)     See  MADDOX. 

Mad'px,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
was  an  inmate  of  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  about  1704.  He  was  a  diligent 
collector  of  old  legal  and  historical  records,  and  obtained 
the  title  of  royal  historiographer.  His  principal  work 
is  "The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Exchequer  of 
the  Kings  of  England  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
the  End  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  II.,"  (1711.)  He  also 
published  "  Finna  Burgi  ;  or,  A  Historical  Essay  con- 
erning  the  Cities,  Towns,  and  Boroughs  of  England," 
(1726.) 

See  NICHOLS  and  BOWVER,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Madoz,  ma-doth',  (PASCUAL,)  a  Spanish  author  and 
iberal  statesman,  was  born  at  Pampeluna  in  1806.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  was  appointed  a 
judge  at  Barcelona  in  1835.  He  edited  a  "Universal 
Geographical  Dictionary,"  (1831-34,) — a  work  of  de 
cided  merit.  Having  been  elected  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes,  he  removed  to  Madrid,  where  he  devoted  much 
time  to  an  arduous  and  successful  enterprise,  as  editor 
of  a  voluminous  "  Geographical  -  Historical  Dictionary 
of  Spain,"  (1848,)  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most  com 
plete  and  excellent  work  of  the  kind  ever  published. 
Madoz  became  a  leader  of  the  party  called  Progre- 
sistas,  and  was  minister  of  finance  for  about  four  months 
in  1855. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Madrazo,  de,  da  ma-Dua'tho,  (Don  FKDKKICO,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1815.  He  painted  portraits  with  success,  ami 
became  court  painter  at  Madrid.  He  gained  a  medal  ot 
the  first  class  in  1855. 

Madrazo  y  Agudo,  de,  da  ma-DRa'tho  e  a-goo'no, 
(Don  Jus£, )  a  Spanish  painter  of  history  and  portraits, 
born  at  Santander  in  1781.  He  became  court  painter  to 
Ferdinand  VII.,  and  director  of  the  Academy  of  Madrid. 
Died  in  1859. 

Madrid,  de,  da  man-rei/,  (Jos£  FKRNANDK/.,)  born 
at  Carthagcna,  South  America,  in  1789.  He  was  chosen 
president  of  the  republic  of  New  Granada  in  1816,  but 
in  the  same  year  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards. 
After  an  imprisonment  of  nine  years  in  Havana,  he 
escaped  in  1825,  after  which  he  was  employed  by  Bolivar 
as  secret  agent  in  Paris.  He  wrote  "  Atala,"  a  tragedy. 
Died  in  1830. 

Madrolle,  mi'cluol',  (ANTOINK,)  a  French  writer  on 
religion  and  politics,  born  at  Saint-Seine  in  1792.  He 
published  numerous  works,  in  which  he  advocated  ultra 
montane  doctrines.  Died  in  1861. 

Madvig,  mad'vig,  (JoiiANN  or  JKNS  NIKOLAI.)  a 
Danish  philologist,  born  in  the  isle  of  Bornholm  in  1804. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction  in  1848. 
Among  his  works  is  "Opuscula  Academica,"  2  vols., 
(1834-42.) 

Maecenas,  me-see'nas,  [It.  MF.CENATK,  ma-cha-na'ta, 
orMKCKNATO;  Fr.  M£CENK,  ma'sin',]  (CAius  CII.NIUS,) 
a  celebrated  patron  of  literature  at  Rome,  was  born  prob 
ably  about  70  K.C.  lie  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
and  royal  Etruscan  family,  and  belonged  to  the  eques 
trian  order.  (Horace,  Carm.  I.  1-20.)  He  was  the  friend 
of  Octavius  before  his  accession  as  the  emperor  Augus 
tus.  His  fidelity  and  talents  having  been  approved  in 
many  important  negotiations,  Octavius  intrusted  to  him 
the  administration  of  Rome  during  his  absence  in  36  n.C. 
when  he  went  to  war  against  Sextus  Pompeius.  After 
the  battle  of  Actinm  (31  A.n.)  had  rendered  Octavius 
master  of  Rome,  he  is  said  to  have  followed  the  counsel 
of  Maecenas  in  founding  an  empire  instead  of  restoring 
the  republic.  Agrippa  and  Maecenas  were  the  favourites 
and  chief  ministers  of  Augustus  for  many  years.  The 
political  career  of  the  latter  ended  about  16  li.c.  Mae 
cenas  was  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  and 
rendered  his  name  memorable  by  his  liberal  patronage 
of  Horace,  Virgil,  and  other  poets,  who  were  his  intimate 
friends.  His  name  had  become  proverbial  as  a  patron 
of  letters  as  early  as  the  time  of  Martial.  It  is  said  that 
Virgil's  "  Georgics"  was  written  at  the  request  of  Mae 
cenas.  In  the  councils  of  state  he  advocated  mild  and 
liberal  measures  and  the  free  expression  of  opinions. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


M&CIANVS 


1493 


MAGAT1 


He  wrote  several  mediocre  works,  of  which  only  small 
fragments  are  extant.     Died  in  8  E.G. 

See  A.  RIVINUS,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  Maecenate,"  1649-52; 
HEN'KI  RICHER,  "Vie  de  Mecenas,"  1746;  R.  SCHOMBERG,  "Lite 
of  Maecenas,"  London,  1766;  C.  CAPORALI,  "Vila  di  Mecenate," 
1604;  S.  VIOLA,  "Storia  di  C.  C.  Mecenato,"  1816;  FRANUSEM.  "  C. 
C.  Maecenas,"  etc.,  1843;  MEIBOMIUS,  "De  C.  C.  Maecenatis  Vita," 


Meecianus,  me-se-a'nus,  (Lucius  VOLUSIUS,)  a 
Roman  jurist  of  the  second  century.  He  was  a  legal 
adviser  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  a  preceptor  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  wrote  "  De  Fideicommissis,"  and  other 
works,  of  which  extracts  are  found  in  the  "Digest." 

Maedler.     See  MADI.ER. 

Maelzel.     See  MAI./.EL. 

Masiiades,  mcn'a-diz,  [from  [tairopai,  to  "rave,"]  a 
name  of  the  priestesses  of  BACCHUS,  (which  see.) 

Maeoiiides,  me-on'I-deez,  [Or.  Mowwifyf,]  or  Maeonian 
bard,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Homer,  because  he 
was  reported  to  have  been  born  in  Lydia,  the  ancient 
name  of  which  was  Maeonia.  (See  HOMKR.) 

Maerland  or  Maerlant,  van,  vftn  mar'lant,  (JACOB,) 
an  early  Flemish  poet,  born  about  1235,  is  called  "the 
father  of  Flemish  poetry."  He  was  a  person  of  uncom 
mon  information  and  learning  for  that  age.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Sentences  from  Aristotle,"  "  The  \Var  of 
Troy,"  and  "  Wapen  Martyn."  Died  in  1300. 

See  J.  F.  Wn. I.E.MS.  "J.  van  Maerlant,"  1838;  VISSCIIER,  "Jets 
over  J.  de  Coster  van  Maerlant,"  1838. 

Maes.     See  MAAS. 

Maes,  mis,  (ANDREAS,)  a  Belgian  Orientalist,  born 
in  Brabant  in  1515  or  1516;  died  in  1573. 

Maestlin.     See  MASTI.IN. 

Maevius,  mee've^us,  an  obscure  Roman  poetaster  of 
the  Augustan  age,  acquired  notoriety  by  his  envious 
attacks  on  the  best  poets  of  his  time.  His  name  has 
been  saved  from  oblivion  by  the  ridicule  of  Virgil,  who 
mentions  him  in  his  Third  Eclogue.  The  name  of 
GifforcFs  satiric  poem  "The  Masviad"  is  derived  from 
Maeviup. 

Maffei,  maf-fa'ee,  (BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
bom  in  15 13,  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  Cicero's  Epistles." 
Died  at  Rome  in  1553. 

Maffei,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Vicenza.  He  imitated  Paul  Veronese  in  colouring.  His 
style  is  grand,  but  rather  exaggerated.  Died  about  1660. 

'Maffei,  (FRANCESCO  SCIPIONE,)  MARQUIS,  a  cele 
brated  Italian  scholar  and  author,  born  at  Verona  in 
June,  1675.  He  made  a  campaign  in  the  service  of 
Bavaria,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Donauwerth  in 
1704,  but  soon  renounced  the  military  profession  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  In  1713  he  produced 
"Merope,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  highly  applauded,  and 
ran  through  seventy  editions  in  forty  years.  His  prin 
cipal  work,  "Verona  Illustrata,"  (2  vols.  fol.,  1731,) 
treats  of  the  origin,  history,  and  literary  history  of 
Verona.  It  is  admirable  for  profound  research,  sound 
criticism,  and  elegant  style.  He  also  wrote  "Introduc 
tion  to  the  Science  of  Diplomatics,"  ("Istoria  diplo- 
matica  che  serve  dTntroduzione  all'  Arte  critica  in  tal 
Materia,")  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of  Berlin.  Died  in  1755. 
See  FABROXI,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  exceilentium ;"  PINDK- 
MONTE,  "  Elogio  dei  Marchese  Maffei,"  17^4;  TIPAI.DO,  ''Biografia 
deg.i  Italian!  illustri ;"  "  Nouvelle  Kingraphie  Generale." 

Maffei,  [Lat.  MAFF.-E'IUS  or  MAPH/E'US,]  (GIOVANNI 
PIETKO,)  an  excellent  Italian  writer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1535.  He  went  to  Rome  and  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  in  1565,  after  which  he  lectured  on  eloquence  for 
six  years  at  the  Roman  College  with  great  success.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  "Historian  Indicae,"  ("History 
of  India,"  1588,)  of  which  the  style  is  the  chief  merit. 
"Maffei,"  says  Hallam,  "threw  all  the  graces  of  a  pure 
Latin  style  over  his  description  of  the  East."  He  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  Loyola,"(i585,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1603. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratnra  Italiana;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Maffei,  (PAOLO  ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Volterra  in  1653.  He  published  a  "Collection 
of  Ancient  and  Modern  Statues,  with  Critical  Observa 


tions,"  and  another  esteemed  work,  illustrative  of  ancient 
gems,  ("Gemme  antiche  figurate,"  1707.)  Died  in  1716. 

Maffei,  (RAFFAELLO,)  also  called  Raffaello  Volter- 
rano,  raf-fa-el'lo  vol-ier-ra'no,  an  Italian  scholar,  born 
at  Volterra  in  1451.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Com- 
mentarii  Urbani,"  which  treats  of  geography,  biography, 
sciences,  etc.  It  was  reprinted  at  Paris  in  1526.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1522. 

See  FALCONINI,  "Vita  di  Raffaello  Volterrano,"  1722. 

Maffeo  ( or  Maffei )  Vegio,  maf-fa'o  va'jo,  [Lat. 
MAPH/E'US  VE'GIUS,]  one  of  the  most  eminent  Latin 
poets  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  born  at  Locli  in  1406. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  briefs  and  datary  by  Eugene  IV.  Besides 
several  religious  works  in  prose,  he  composed  Latin 
poems,  entitled  "The  Golden  Fleece,"  ("  Astyanax  Vel- 
Itis  Aureum,")  and  "yEneidos  Supplementum,"  (1471,) 
a  continuation  of  Virgil's  great  epic.  The  last  was  the 
most  admired  of  his  works.  He  was  highly  praised  by 
Scaliger.  Died  in  1458. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratnra  Italiana;"  BAVLE, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Maf'fitt,  (JoiiN  NEWLAND,  )  a  noted  Methodist 
preacher,  born  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1794.  Having 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1819,  he  became 
in  1833  associate  editor  of  the  "Western  Methodist," 
published  at  Nashville,  Tennessee.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  elocution  at  La  Grange  College,  Alabama, 
in  1837.  Died  in  1850. 

Mafoma.     See  MOHAMMED. 

Ma§al!iaeii3.     See  MAGELLAN. 

Magalhaens,  ma-gal-yd'exs,  (GABRIEL,)  a  Portu 
guese  missionary,  born  near  Coimbra  in  1609,  laboured 
in  the  Jesuit  missions  in  China  from  1640  until  his  death, 
in  1677,  and  wrote  a  "Description  of  China,"  (1688.) 

Magalhaens  de  Gaiidavo,  de,  da  ma-gal  -ya'e.vs 
da  gan-da'vo,  (PEDRO,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at 
Braga  about  1550.  He  passed  some  years  in  Brazil,  and 
published  at  Lisbon  in  1576  a  "History  of  Brazil,"  a 
work  of  some  merit. 

Magalon,  mt'gi'ioN',  (JEAN  DENIS,)  a  French  writer 
and  journalist,  born  at  Bagnoles  in  1794;  died  about  1840. 

Magalotti,  ma-ga-lot'tee,  (  LORENZO,  )  COUNT,  an 
Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Rome  in  1637,  was  versed 
in  ancient  and  modern  languages.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Florence,  the  grand  duke  of  which  employed  him  on 
diplomatic  missions  to  Vienna  and  Mantua.  Among  his 
works  are  a  treatise  against  atheism,  called  "Familiar 
Letters,"  (1719,)  "Scientific  and  Learned  Letters," 
("  Lettere  scientifiche  ed  erudite,"  1721,)  and  "Ana- 
.creontic  Songs,"  (1723.)  "The  Letters  of  Magalotti 
and  of  Redi,"  says  Hallam,  "seem  to  do  more  credit 
than  anything  else  to  this  period,"  (of  Italian  literature.) 
Died  in  1712. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitse  Italoruin  doctrinn  excellentutm  ;"  P.  Poz- 
ZETTI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  L.  Magalotti,"  1787  ;  TIRABOSCHI, 
"Storia della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Maganza,  ma-gan'za,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1556.  He  imitated 
Paul  Veronese  with  moderate  success.  Died  in  1630. 
Alessandro  had  three  sons,  who  were  promising  artists  ; 
but  they  died  prematurely  before  their  father. 

See  A.  M.  MENEGIIEI.I.I,  "  Elogio  di  A.  Maganza,"  1845;  LANZI, 
"  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Maganza,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  MAGAGNO,  (el  ma-gan'yo,)  born  at  Vicenza 
in  1509,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian,  and  was  successful  in  portraits  and  his 
tory.  He  was  author  of  a  volume  of  poems,  ("  Rime,") 
published  in  1570.  Died  in  1589. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  BALDINUCCI,  "  No- 
tizie." 

Maganza,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1577,  was  a  son  and 
pupil  of  Alessandro,  noticed  above.  Died  in  1617. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ma'gas,  [Gr.  Muj-ac,]  a  king  of  Cyrene,  and  a  step 
son  of  Ptolemy  Soter.  Died  in  258  B.C. 

Magati,  ma-ga'tee,  or  Magatti,  ma-gat'tee,  [Lat. 
MAGA'TUS,]  (CESARE,)  an  eminent  Italian  surgical  writer, 


e  as  R;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^=>See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAGATUS 


1494 


MAGL1ABECCHI 


born  at  Scancliano  in  1579.  He  wrote  "  I)e  rara  Medi- 
catione  Vulnertim,"  (1616.)  Died  in  1647. 

Magatus.     See  MAC, ATI. 

Mag'da-lene  or  Mag'da-len,  [Fr.  MADELEINE  or 
MADKI.ENE,  mld'l&n',]  (MARY,)  an  eminent  Christian 
saint,  was  probably  born  at  Magdala,  in  Galilee.  She 
was  one  of  the  personal  followers  of  Christ,  by  whom 
she  was  "healed  of  evil  spirits  and  infirmities."  (See 
Luke  viii.  2.)  Nothing  appears  to  be  known  of  her  his 
tory  in  addition  to  the  facts  narrated  by  the  four  Evan 
gelists.  (See  Matthew  xxvii.  and  xxviii.,  Mark  xvi.,  and 
John  xix.  25  and  xx.  1-18.)  The  learned  differ  on  the 
question  of  her  identity  with  Mary  the  sister  of  Lazarus 
of  Bethany.  The  prevalent  notion  that  her  morals  were 
very  depraved  before  her  conversion  appears  to  have  no 
real  foundation. 

Ma-gae',  (WILLIAM,)  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1765.  lie  opposed  Unitarianism  in 
"  Discourses  on  the  Scriptural  Doctrines  of  the  Atone 
ment,"  (2  vols.,  1801,)  which  procured  for  him  a  wide 
reputation.  He  became  Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1819,  and 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1822.  Died  in  1831. 

Magellan,  ma-jel'lan,  [Sp.  pron.  ma-hel-yan';  Port. 
MAGALHAKNS,  ml-gal-yi'ftNs,]  (FERNANDO,)  a  Portu 
guese  navigator,  distinguished  for  his  skill,  enterprise, 
and  important  discoveries,  was  born  about  1470.  He 
served  several  years  in  the  East  Indies  under  Albu 
querque,  and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Malacca  in 
1511.  A  few  years  later  he  offered  his  services  to 
Charles  V.,  and  received  command  of  a  fleet  of  five 
vessels  and  230  men.  With  these  he  sailed,  September, 
1519,  with  a  view  to  find  a  western  route  to  the  East 
Indies.  He  passed  the  winter  of  1520  (from  May  to 
September)  in  the  Hay  of  Saint  Julian,  about  49°  south 
latitude,  where  a  serious  mutiny  or  conspiracy  was  sup 
pressed  by  the  execution  of  two  captains  of  vessels.  In 
October,  1520,  he  discovered  and  passed  through  the 
strait  which  bears  his  name.  Pursuing  his  course  through 
the  great  ocean  of  which  he  was  the  first  navigator, 
and  which  he  named  the  Pacific,  he  discovered  the  La- 
drones  about  the  6th  of  March,  1521.  He  proceeded 
thence  to  the  Philippine  Isles,  and  was  amicably  received 
by  the  Prince  of  Zebu  or  Cebu.  Having  become  an  ally 
of  this  prince  in  a  war  against  another  small  island  of 
the  same  group,  Magellan  was  killed  in  battle  in  April, 
1521.  One  of  his  ships,  the  Vittoria,  commanded  by 
Sebastian  del  Cano,  returned  to  Spain,  and  was  the  first 
that  circumnavigated  the  globe.  An  Italian  named  Pi- 
gafetta  accompanied  Magellan  in  this  last  voyage,  and 
kept  a  journal,  which  was  published.  (See  PIGAKKTTA.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  Eu.  CHAKTON,  "Voya- 
geurs  anciens  et  modernes." 

Magellan  or  Magalhaens,  (  JOAO  JACINTO,)  was 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1723.  He  emigrated  to  England 
about  1764,  cultivated  natural  philosophy  with  success, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  (1774.) 
He  wrote  a  "  Description  of  English  Octants  and  Sex 
tants,"  and  other  scientific  treatises.  Died  near  London 
in  1790. 

Magendie,  mi'zhS.N'de',  (FRANCOIS,)  an  eminent 
French  physiologist  and  physician,  was  born  at  Bor 
deaux  on  the  1 5th  of  October,  1783,  and  was  educated 
in  Paris.  He  became  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris,  about  1805.  In  1816  he 
produced  a  manual  of  physiology,  "Precis  elementaire 
de  Physiologic,"  which  was  translated  into  German  and 
English.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sci 
ences  about  1821,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  or 
medicine  in  the  College  of  France  in  1831.  His  experi 
ments  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  physiology. 
Among  his  important  services  was  the  discovery  or 
demonstration  of  the  functions  of  the  spinal  nerves.  The 
honour  of  this  discovery,  however,  is  shared  by  Charles 
Bell.  Magendie  discovered  that  in  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  the  arteries  act  not  by  irritability,  but  by  elas 
ticity,  and  proved  that  the  veins  are  organs  of  absorption. 
He  experimented  on  living  animals  more  than  any  of  his 
predecessors.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Lectures 
on  the  Physical  Phenomena  of  Life,"  ("  Le9ons  sur  les 
Phenomenes  physiques  de  la  Vie,"  4  vols.,  1836-42,) 
and  "  Lectures  on  the  Functions  and  Diseases  of  the 


Nervous  System,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  He  founded  in  1821 
the  "Journal  of  Experimental  Physiology,"  which  he 
continued  to  edit  until  1831.  He  was  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  board  of  public  health  (ccmiite  consultatif 
d' hygiene  pnblique )  in  1848.  Died  in  October,  1855. 

See  KLOURENS,  "  Eloge  historique  de  F.  Magendie,"  1858  ;  Bu- 
BOIS  U'AMIENS,  "  £loge  de  Magendie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Magenta,  Due  DE.     See  MACMAHON. 

Mageoghegan,  mi-ge-Su'e-gan,  ( JAMES,)  an  Irish 
historian,  born  in  1702,  became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and 
a  priest.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Ireland,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  (3  vols.,  1758-63.)  Died  in  1764. 

Maggi,  mad'jee,  [Lat.  MAI/DIUS,)  (C.-uu-o  MARIA,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in  1630.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca,  and  professor 
of  Greek  in  Milan.  His  works  consist  of  Greek,  Latin, 
and  Italian  poems,  of  Letters,  etc.  "Maggi  bore  an 
honourable  part,"  says  Hallam,  "in  the  restoration  of 
poetry."  Died  in  1699. 

See  L.  A.  MUKATORI,  "  Vita  di  C.  M.  Maggi,  Milanese,"  1700; 
TIKABOSCHI,  "  Stori.i  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Maggi,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  painter  and  etcher, 
born  in  Rome  about  1566;  died  after  1618. 

Maggi,  (GiKOLAMo,)  a  lawyer  and  writer,  born  at 
Anghiari,  in  Tuscany.  About  1560  he  settled  in  Venice, 
where  he  published  several  works,  among  which  were 
"The  War  of  Flanders,"  a  poem,  and  "  Varirc  Lec- 
tiones."  Having  been  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks  in 
Cyprus,  he  attempted  to  escape,  was  recaptured,  and 
strangled  in  Constantinople  in  1572. 

Maggi,  (LuciLlo  FII.ALTKO.)  a  learned  Italian  physi 
cian,  was  born  at  Brescia  about  1510.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Pavia  about  1553. 
He  wrote  "Familiar  Letters"  ("  Epistolae  Familiares") 
on  the  literary  history  of  Italy.  Died  about  1570. 

Maggio,  mad'jo,  or  Magio,  ma/jo,  (FRANCESCO 
MARIA,)  a  monk,  born  at  Palermo  in  1612,  became 
skilled  in  Oriental  languages.  He  was  employed  as  a 
missionary  in  Syria,  Georgia,  etc.,  and  wrote  a  "Gram 
mar  of  the  Georgian  Language."  Died  in  1686. 

Ma'gi,  a  religious  sect  or  priestly  caste  of  ancient 
Persia,  which  had  exclusive  possession  of  scientific 
knowledge.  They  worshipped  fire  and  the  sun,  and 
were  reformed  by  Zoroaster.  In  the  Gospel  certain 
members  of  this  caste  are  mentioned  as  "  wise  men  of 
the  East."  (  See  Matthew,  ii.  i.)  In  process  of  time 
the  term  Magi  became  synonymous  with  philosophers, 
learned  men,  astronomers,  and  soothsayers,  or  dealers 
in  magic  arts. 

Magini,  ma-jce'nee,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Padua  in  1555.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Bologna  from  1588  to  1617,  and  wrote 
many  works,  among  which  are  "  Ephemerides."  and 
"  New  Theories  of  the  Celestial  Orbs,"  ("  Novae  Creles- 
tium  Orbium  Theorise,"  1589.)  Died  in  1617. 

See  LALANDE,  "  Hibliotheque  astronomique." 

Ma-ginn',  (WILLIAM,)  a  witty  and  versatile  writer, 
born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  about  1793.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1824,  and  adopted  literature  as  a  profes 
sion.  About  this  time  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
"  Black  wood's  Magazine,"  in  which  he  appears  as  the 
"Morgan  O'Doherty"  of  the  "Nodes  Ambrosianae." 
About  1828  he  became  sub-editor  of  "The  Standard."  a 
Tory  paper,  and  began  to  write  able  and  caustic  articles 
for  "  Eraser's  Magazine."  He  also  wrote  a  novel  called 
"Whitehall."  Died  in  1842. 


Magirus,  nia-gee'rus,(ToniAS,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Angermiinde  in  1586,  taught  logic  and  physics 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  Died  in  1651. 

Magistris,  de,  deli  mri-jes'tRess,  (GiACiNTO,)  an  Ital 
ian  missionary,  born  in  the  diocese  ot  Cremona  in  1605  ; 
died  at  Goa,  India,  in  1666. 

Magistris,  de,  (SiMONK,)  an  Italian  priest,  noted  for 
his  mastery  of  ancient  languages,  was  born  in  Corsica  in 
1728;  died  at  Rome  in  1802. 

Magliabecchi,  mal-ya-bek'kee,  (ANTONIO,) an  Italian 
bibliomaniac  and  librarian,  noted  for  his  prodigious 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscttre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


M4GN4N 


1 49  5 


MAGO 


memory  and  learning,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1633.  He 
devoured  a  great  number  of  books  with  avidity,  became 
veised  in  languages  and  antiquities,  and  was  regarded  as 
an  oracle  by  the  learned.  His  habits  were  very  eccentric. 
He  was  for  many  years  librarian  of  Cosimo  III.,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  of  his  successors.  At  his  death, 
in  1714,  he  left  his  rich  library  to  the  city  of  Florence, 
by  which  it  is  kept  open  to  the  public. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  LetteraUira  Italiana;"  FABRONI, 
"Vits  Iialorum  doctrina  exceilentium :"  L.  BKIOHTWELI,,  "  By- 
P.iths  of  Biography;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate;"  A.  M. 
SAI.VINI,  "Orazione  funerale  in  Lode  di  A.  MagUabecchi,"  1715. 

Magnan,  mtn'yfiN',  (BERNARD  PIERRE,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  He  served  as  captain  at 
Waterloo,  (1815,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  about 
1827,  after  which  he  was  employed  in  Algeria.  He 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845,  an<^  commanded 
the  army  of  the  Alps  in  1849.  In  July,  1851,  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Paris,  and 
in  December,  1852,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France.  Diecl  in  1865. 

See  J.  LASSAGN'E,  "  Notice  sur  le  General  Magnan,"  1852. 

Magnan,  (DOMINIQUE,)  a  French  antiquary  and  monk, 
born  at  Raillane  in  1731.  He  lived  in  Avignon  and 
Rome,  and  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  works, 
among  which  are  a  "  Description  of  the  City  of  Rome," 
(1763,)  and  several  treatises  on  numismatics.  Died  in 
I7Q6. 

Magnani,  man-ya'nee,  (CRISTOFORO,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pizzighettone  before  1550,  was  a  pupil 
of  Bernardino  Campi. 

Magiiasco,  man-yas'ko,  (Ai.KSSANDRO.)  called  Lis- 
SANURIXO,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1681. 
His  favourite  subjects  were  processions,  etc.  Died  in 

1747- 

Magnasco,  (STEFANO,)  a  painter,  born  about  1630, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1665. 

Magne,  nitii,  (PiKRRE,)  a  French  advocate  and  min 
ister  of  state,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1806.  He  was  ap 
pointed  minister  of  public  works  in  January,  1851,  and 
minister  of  finance  in  February,  185$.  He  retired  from 
this  office  about  1861.  -ZJ^<=«£'  > 

Magnence.     See  MAGNKNTIUS. 

Magnentius,  mag-ne'n'she-us,  [Fr.  MAGNENCE,  mtn'- 
y6.\ss',]  (Fi. AYR'S,)  a  Roman  general,  born  in  Germany 
about  300  A.D.  While  commanding  an  army  in  Gaul, 
he  revolted  against  the  emperor  Constans,  and  usurped 
the  empire  of  the  West  in  350.  Constans  was  killed  by 
his  orders.  Magnentius  made  himself  master  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  A  war  ensued  between  him  and  Constantius, 
who  defeated  the  usurper  on  the  river  Drave  in  351. 
He  retreated  to  Gaul,  was  again  defeated,  and  killed 
himself  in  August,  353  A.D. 

See  GIBBON,  "Dec'ine  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  LE 
BEAT,  "Histoiredu  Bas-Empire." 

Mag'nes,  [Mu;r»/r.]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old 
comedy,  was  born  in  Icaria,  and  lived  about  450  B.C. 

See  FABRICIUS.  "Biblioiheca  Gra:ca." 

Magni,  (JoiiAN.)     See  MAGNUS. 

Magni,  mag'nee,  written  also  Magne,  [from  Afagtt, 
"  strength,"]  a  son  of  Thor,  who,  with  his  brother  Modi, 
will  survive  the  conflagration  of  the  world  at  Ragnarock. 
(See  Mom.) 

Magni,  mag'nee,  or  Magnus,  mag'nus,  (JoiiAN  or 
JONAS,)  a  Swedish  bishop,  born  at  Wexio  in  1583,  wrote 
"  Synopsis  Historian  universalis,"  (1622,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1651. 

Magni,  man'yee,  fLat.  MAG'NUS,]  (VALERTAXO,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  Capuchin  friar,  born  at  Milan  about 
1586.  He  wrote  against  the  Jesuits.  "  This  fere"  says 
Pascal,  in  a  letter  to  the  Jesuits,  "has  found  the  secret 
of  stopping  your  mouth."  Among  his  works  is  "  Or- 
ganum  theologicum,"  (1643.)  Died  in  1661. 

See  PASCAL.  "  Lettres  Provinciates. " 

Magnien-Graiidpre,  mtn'ye-n.N'  gRON'pRi',  (N.,)  a 
French  financier  and  writer,  born  at  Challon  in  1745; 
died  in  181 1. 

Magnier,  mi n'ye-a',(LAURENT,)  called  also  MANIERE, 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1618;  died  in  1700. 

Magniii,  mt  i'ya.\',  (CHARLK.s,)  a  French  critic,  born 
in  Paris  in  179^.  He  acquired  reputation  as  a  critic  of 


dramatic  literature.  Among  his  works  are  a  series  of 
"Lectures  on  the  Drama,"  (1838,)  and  "Causeries  et 
Meditations  historiques  et  litteraires,"  (2  vols.,  1842.) 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Portraits  contemporains." 

Magnocavalli,  man-yo-ka-val'lee,  (FRANCESCO  OT- 
TAVIO,)  Count  de  Varengo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Casal  in  1707,  wrote  "Corradin,  Marquis  de  Mont- 
ferrat,"  and  other  tragedies.  Died  in  1788. 

Magnol,  mtn'yol',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  botanist  and 

physician,   born   at  Montpellier   in   1638.       He   became 

professor  of  botany  in   his  native   city  in   1694,   before 

which  he  had  published   "Introduction  to  the  General 

History    of  Plants,"    ("Prodromus    Historias    generalis 

Plantarum,"    1689.)      He    had    some    sound    ideas    on 

botanical   philosophy,  and  shares  with  other  botanists 

of  his  time  the  merit  of  favouring  the  progress  of  the 

|  natural   method.      He  wrote  several    minor    works    on 

I  botany.     The  genus  Magnolia  was  named  in  his  honour. 

|  Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Magnon,  mSn'ydN',  (JEAN,)  a  mediocre  French  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Tournus.  He  left  unfinished  a 
poem  entitled  "La  Science  universelle,"  (1663.)  He 
was  assassinated  at  Paris  in  1662. 

Mag'nus  I.,  King  of  Norway,  surnamed  THE  GOOD, 
was  the  son  of  Saint  Olaiis.  He  became  king  in  1034, 
and  at  the  death  of  Canute  II.,  in  1042,  obtained  the 
throne  of  Denmark.  He  died  in  1047,  leaving  Norway 
to  Ilaiold,  and  Denmark  to  Sweyn,  a  nephew  of  Canute 
the  Great. 

See  ToRFyEus,  "Historia  Rerum  Norvegicarum." 

Magnus,  surnamed  LADULOS,  King  of  Sweden,  born 
in  1240,  was  the  second  son  of  Birger.  He  deposed  his 
own  brother,  Waldemar,  and  reigned  many  years.  He 
died  in  1298,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Birger. 

Magnus,  surnamed  SMEK,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in 
1316,  was  the  son  of  Duke  Eric,  and  succeeded  Birger 
in  1320.  His  actual  reign  began  in  1337.  He  was  placed 
under  interdict  by  the  pope,  and  deposed  by  his  nobles 
about  1363,  when  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  became  king. 
Magnus  died  in  1374. 

See  F.  RUHS,  "Geschichte  Schwedens." 

Mag'nus,  a  Greek  physician,  lived  about  100  A.D. 
He  was  one  of  the  Pneumatic  sect. 

Magnus,  (ALBERTUS.)     See  ALBERTUS  MAGNUS. 

Magnus,  mag'nus,  (EDUARD,)  a  German  painter  of 
genre  and  portraits,  born  at  Berlin  in  1799.  His  works 
are  commended  as  excellent  in  colour  and  correct  in 
design. 

Magnus,  mag'nus,  or  Magni,  mag'nee,  (Jon AN  or 
JONAS,)  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  was  born  at  Linkoping  ir. 
1488.  He  opposed  the  Reformation  in  Sweden  without 
success,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1544. 
He  was  author  of  a  "History  of  Sweden,"  in  Latin, 
("Historia  Gothorum  Suevorumque,"  1554.) 

See  XICERON,  "Memoires;"  SCHEFFER,  "  Suecia  L:terata." 

Magnus,  (Oi.\us  or  OI.OF,)  a  Swedish  prelate, brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Linkoping  about  1490.  lit 
was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  III.  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1546.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  "  History  of  the  Northern 
Nations,"  (1555,)  which  was  translated  into  English, 
Dutch,  German,  and  Italian.  Died  in  Rome  in  1568. 

See  ANDERS  NORBERG,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  Meritis  tt  Fatis  J. 
et  O.  Magnorum,"  1741-43. 

Mag'nus,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  emissary,  sent  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey  to  Scotland  in  1524,  in  the  twofold 
capacity  of  ambassador  and  spy.  He  sent  to  the  Eng 
lish  court  some  curious  details  (preserved  in  the  state 
papers  of  Henry  VIII.)  relating  to  the  young  King  of 
Scotland  and  the  customs  of  those  times. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland."  chaps,  xxxii.  and  xxxvii. 

Magnusen,  mag'nu*-en,  or  Magnusson,  mag'nus- 
son,  (FiNN,)  an  Icelandic  historian  and  antiquary,  born 
at  Skalholt  in  1781.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
a  "Translation  and  Explanation  of  the  Elder  Edda," 
(1821.)  Died  in  1847. 

See  ERSI.EW.  "  Forfatter-L^xikon  :"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1828,  and  April,  1*29. 

Ma'go,  [Gr.  MU-/UV  ;  Fr.  MAGON,  mt'giN',]  a  Cartha 
ginian  admiral,  who  gained  a  victory  over  the  fleet  of 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  in,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAGO 


1496 


MAHMOOD 


Syracuse  about  396  n.c.  A  few  years  later  he  was  de 
feated  by  Dionysius  in  Sicily.  He  returned  to  Carthage, 
and  was  elected  chief  magistrate.  Having  led  another 
land-army  into  Sicily,  he  was  killed,  and  his  army  was 
defeated  at  Cabala  by  Dionysius,  about  382  b.c.  His 
son,  MAGO,  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army,  and 
prosecuted  the  war  with  success. 

Another  MAGO  commanded  a  fleet  which  the  senate 
of  Carthage  sent,  in  280  H.C.,  to  aid  the  Romans  against 
Pynhus.  He  was  grandfather  of  Hannibal. 

See  DIODOKUS  SICULUS. 

Mago,  a  Carthaginian  writer  of  uncertain  period,  was 
called  "the  father  of  agriculture"  by  Columella.  lie 
wrote  an  extensive  work  on  agriculture,  which  was  trans 
lated  into  Latin  by  the  order  of  the  Roman  senate  after 
the  destruction  of  Carthage. 

Mago,  a  brother  of  the  famous  Hannibal,  followed 
him  in  the  invasion  of  Italy,  and  held  a  high  command 
at  the  battle  of  Cannae,  216  n.c.  He  carried  the  news 
of  this  victory  to  Carthage,  and  solicited  reinforcements, 
but  was  ordered  to  Spain,  where  he  and  Hasdrubal  com 
manded  for  several  years  against  the  Scipios  with  vari 
ous  success.  After  gaining  some  advantages  in  Liguria, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded,  he  was  ordered  to 
hasten  to  the  defence  of  Carthage,  but  he  died  during 
the  voyage,  in  203  li.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxx.  ;  POLYBIOS, 
"  History,"  books  iii.,  x.,  and  xi. 

Magoii.     See  MAGO. 

Magou  de  Clos-Dore,  mS'g6\'  deh  klo'do'ra', 
(CliARLKS  RKN£,)  a  French  rear-admiral,  born  in  Paris 
in  1763.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  in  1805. 

Ma-goon',  (Ei.isHA  L.,)  I). I).,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Lebanon,  New  Hampshire,  in  1810, 
published  "Proverbs  for  the  People,"  "Orators  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  and  other  works. 

Magri,  ma'guee,  (DoMKNico,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
in  Malta  in  1604.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon  of  Ec 
clesiastic  Terms  and  Rites,"  ("Notizia  de'  Vocaboli 
ecclesiastic!.")  Died  in  1672. 

Magruder,  ma-groo'der,  (JoiiN  B.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Virginia  about  1810,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1830.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1846-47.)  With  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
fought  against  the  Union  at  White  Oak  Swamp  and 
Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  He  commanded  the  army 
in  Texas  in  1863  and  1864. 

Maguire,  ma-gwir',  (JOHN  FRANCIS,)  M.P.,  an  Irish 
Catholic  politician,  born  at  Cork  about  1815,  wrote,  be 
sides  other  works,  "Rome  and  its  Rulers,"  (1857.) 

MAHA,m-A.-\\l!,  [from  the  adjective mtihdt,  "great,"]  a 
Sanscrit  prefix  forming  a  portion  of  many  Indian  names, 
as  MAHADKVA,  "great  god,"  M.\HA-PRALYA,the  "great 
destruction,"  etc.  See  these  names  in  their  alphabetical 
place. 

Maha-Bali.     See  BAI.I. 

Mahabhaiata,  ma-ha'ba'ra-ta,  or  Mahabharat, 
ma-ha'ba'rat,  [from  the  Sanscrit  mdhd,  "great,"  and 
Bharata,  a  descendant  of  Bharata,  a  famous  Hindoo 
prince,]  the  name  of  the  great  epic  poem  of  the  Hindoos, 
so  called  because  it  treats  of  the  war  waged  among  the 
descendants  of  Bharata.  It  is  said  to  contain  200,000 
lines,  or  100,000  double  verses.  Tradition  ascribes  it 
to  Viyasa,  the  arranger  or  editor  of  the  Vedas.  (See 
VIYASA.)  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the 
production  or  compilation  of  several — perhaps  of  many 
— writers,  living  in  different  ages,  both  before  and  after 
the  Christian  era.  It  was  made  a  kind  of  cyclopaedia 
of  such  knowledge  as  was  deemed  desirable  for  the 
Kshatriyas,  or  warrior  caste. 

See  the  article  on  "Sanscrit  Literature"  in  the  "  New  American 
Cyclopaedia, "  (by  PKOFESSOK  WHITNEY,)  xiv.,  p.  337. 

Mahaddva,  ma-ha'da'va,  or  Maha-Deo,  ma-ha'  da'o, 
(i.e.  the  "great  god,")  the  name  by  which  Siva  is  com 
monly  known  in  many  parts  of  India.  (See  SIVA.) 

Maha-Kala,  ma-ha'  ka'la,  a  name  of  Siva,  regarded 
as  Time,  which  is  the  great  destroyer.  (See  SIVA.) 

Maha  Kali.     See  KAI± 

Maha-Maya,  ma-ha'  ma'ya,  the  name  of  the  mother 
of  Boocldha.  See  GAUTAMA. 


Ma-ha'  Pral'ya,  [  modern  Hindoo  pron.  ma-li.i' 
prul'ya,]  (i.e.  the  "great  end"  or  "great  destruction,")  a 
term  applied  to  the  final  consummation  of  all  things, 
which,  it  is  supposed,  will  take  place  after  a  hundred 
years  of  Brahma  have  elapsed,  in  which  each  day  (with 
its  night)  is  reckoned  as  8640  millions  of  our  years.  At 
the  time  referred  to,  all  the  gods,  including  Brahma,  as 
well  as  all  creatures,  will  be  annihilated  ;  Brahm,  the 
eternal,  self-existent  Spirit,  will  alone  remain. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindoo  Pantheon." 

Maharbal.     See  MAHKKISAL. 

Maha-Rudra,  a  name  of  Siva.     See  RUDRA. 

Mahdee,  Mahdy,  or  Mahdi,  Al,  Si  mah'dee,  (Mo- 
HAMMKD,  mo-Hani'med,)  the  third  Abbasside  caliph  of 
Bagdad,  succeeded  his  father,  Al-Mansoor,  in  775  A.D. 
He  waged  war  against  the  Greeks  with  such  success  that 
the  empress  Irene  sued  for  peace.  He  died  in  785,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hadee,  (or  Hady.) 

See  WEIL,  "  Geschichte  der  Clialifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  iii. 

Mah6  de  la  Bourdormais,  mS'a'  deh  IS  booR'do'- 
n \',  (BKRNARD  FRANCOIS,)  a  distinguished  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1699.  About  1718  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  French  East  India  Company. 
He  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Isles  of 
France  and  Bourbon  in  1734,  and  received  command  of 
a  squadron  in  1741.  War  having  begun  between  France 
and  England,  he  repulsed  an  English  fleet  near  Madras, 
and  captured  that  place,  in  1746.  He  quarrelled  with 
Dupleix,  governor  of  the  French  possessions  in  Hin- 
dostan,  who  refused  to  give  up  Madras,  which  La  Bour- 
donnais  by  treaty  had  agreed  to  restore  to  the  English. 
Having  been  recalled  to  France,  where  he  arrived  in 
1748,  he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  three  years,  and 
then  tried  and  acquitted.  His  talents  and  virtues  are 
praised  by  Saint-Pierre  in  the  preface  to  "Paul  and 
Virginia."  Died  in  1754  or  1755. 

See  GHRARD,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Marina  Francais,"  1825; 
MILL,  "  History  of  British  India."  1826. 

Ma-heii'dra,  called  also  Mahin'do,  a  son  of  Asoka, 
introduced  Booddhism  into  Ceylon  about  200  B.C. 

Ma-her'bal  or  Ma-har'bal,  [Gr.  Maapffor,]  a  Car 
thaginian  general,  who  followed  Hannibal  into  Italy, 
fought  at  Thrasymene,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  at 
the  battle  of  Cannae,  in  216  n.c.  He  urged  Hannibal  to 
advance  on  the  Roman  capital,  and,  when  the  latter 
rejected  this  counsel,  said  to  him,  "You  know  how  to 
gain  victories,  but  not  how  to  improve  them." 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxiii. 

Mahesa,  ma-ha'sa,  or  Mahdsha,  ma-ha'sha,  and 
Maheswara,  ma-has' wa-ra,  names  of  SIVA,  which  see. 

Mahindo.     See  MAHKNDRA. 

Mahlmann,  mal'man,  (SIKGFKIKD  AUGUST,)  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771.  Some  of  his  produc 
tions  were  very  popular.  Died  in  1826. 

Mahmed.     See  MOHAMMKD. 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud,  man-mood', 
I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1696,  was  the  son  of 
Mustafa  II.  lie  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ahmed  (Achmet) 
III.,  in  1730.  In  1734  he  began  a  war  against  the  Rus 
sians,  who  were  assisted  by  the  Austrians.  The  latter 
made  peace  and  gave  up  Belgrade  to  Turkey  in  1739. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Russia.  Mahmood  left  the  direction  of  affairs  to  his 
ministers.  Died  in  December,  1754. 

See  Vox  HAMMKR,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reiclis;" 
LEVF.SQUK,  "  Histoire  dc  la  Russie." 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud  II.,  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  a  younger  son  of  Sultan  Abdool  Haniid, 
was  born  July  20,  1785.  His  youth  was  passed  in  seclu 
sion  or  confinement  and  in  literary  pursuits.  During 
the  reign  of  his  brother,  Mustafa  IV.,  the  deposed  Sul 
tan,  Selim  III.,  was  his  fellow-captive,  and  initiated  him 
in  those  projects  of  reform  which  he  himself  had  failed 
to  effect.  In  Tll'y.  1808,  Mustafa  was  deposed  by  the 
military,  and  Mahmood  was  proclaimed  Sultan  at  one  of 
the  most  critical  periods  in  the  history  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  pashas  of  Asia  and  Africa  had  rendered 
themselves  nearly  independent  of  the  Sultan,  and  the 
disaffection  of  the  Janissaries  threatened  a  revolution  in 
the  capital.  He  began  the  work  of  reform  in  the  army, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAHMOOD 


H97 


MAHMOOD 


which  he  ordered  to  be  organized  after  the  European 
system.  In  November,  1808,  the  Janissaries  rebelled, 
attacked  the  Sultan's  palace,  and  proclaimed  Mustafa. 
Mahmood  suppressed  this  dangerous  revolt  by  the  exe 
cution  of  Mustafa  and  his  heirs,  after  which  he  remained 
the  only  surviving  prince  of  his  race. 

A  war  with  Russia,  in  which  the  Turks  had  been  de 
feated,  was  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  May,  1812. 
He  pursued  his  projects  of  reform  with  courage  and 
energy,  amidst  the  violent  opposition  of  his  subjects. 
About  1822  began  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Greeks, 
who,  after  a  war  of  several  years,  were  liberated  from 
the  Turkish  yoke.  During  this  war  he  continued  his 
bold  innovations  against  the  old  customs  and  traditions  ; 
he  dressed  himself  in  the  European  fashion,  and  finally 
accomplished  his  most  important  measure, — the  destruc 
tion  of  the  Janissaries,  who  had  instigated  a  formidable 
insurrection  in  the  capital.  The  next  day  (June  15)  the 
standard  of  the  prophet  was  unfurled,  and  all  good 
Mussulmans  were  summoned  to  arms.  The  Janissaries 
were  outnumbered  and  speedily  overpowered,  and  many 
thousands  of  them  were  killed.  On  the  i6th  an  edict 
was  issued  for  the  abolition  of  their  organization. 

On  the  20th  of  October,  1827,  Mahmood's  fleet  was 
defeated  and  ail-but  annihilated  at  Navarino  by  the  allied 
French,  English,  and  Russians,  who  fought  there  for  the 
liberty  of  Greece.  Mahmood  is  censured  for  rashness 
in  renewing  the  war  with  Russia  in  1828.  The  Russian 
general  Diebitsch  defeated  the  Turks  at  Shumla,  crossed 
the  Balkan,  and  took  Adrianople  in  1829.  The  existence 
of  the  Turkish  empire  was  in  peril  ;  but,  through  the 
mediation  of  England  and  other  powers,  the  Sultan  ob 
tained  peace  (September,  1829)  by  paying  a  large  sum 
of  money  and  resigning  the  sovereignty  of  Moldavia, 
Wallachia,  and  Servia.  In  1832  he  was  involved  in  war 
with  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt,  whose  army,  commanded 
by  his  son  Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  gained  a  decisive  vic 
tory  at  Konieh,  (December,  1832."  Russia  interposed 
to  protect  Mahmood  against  his  rebellious  vassal.  The 
Ottoman  empire  was  apparently  on  the  verge  of  disso 
lution,  when  the  Sultan  died,  in  June,  1839,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Abdool-Mejeed. 

See  VoN'MuN'CH,  "Mahmud  II.,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  1*39;  POUQUK- 
VII.LE,  "  Histoire  cle  la  Regeneration  de  la  Grece,"  and  article 
"  Mahmoud"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biogrnphie  Ganerale." 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud,  man'mood', 
(Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah,  or  Abul- 
(Aboul-)  Kasim-Yemin-ed-Daulah,  a'bool  ka'sim 
yeh-meen'  ed-dow'lah,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
the  Mohammedan  conquerors,  the  founder  of  the  Gazne- 
vide  dynasty,  and  the  first  who  established  a  permanent 
Moslem  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  Gazna  (or  Ghiznee) 
in  967  A.n.  lie  was  the  son  of  Sabuktageen,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  governor  of  the  province  of  Candahar,  (or 
Gazna.)  At  an  early  age  he  distinguished  himself  while 
fighting  under  his  father  against  the  enemies  of  Nooh, 
(or  Nouh,)  the  Samanide  sovereign  of  Persia,  from  whom 
he  received  the  title  of  Seif-ed-Dowlah,  ("  Sword  of  the 
State.")  But  afterwards,  having  been  ill  treated  by 
Mansoor,  a  successor  to  Nooh,  he  overthrew  the  throne 
of  the  Samanides,  and  established  his  empire  over  a 
vast  territory,  including  what  is  now  called  Afghanistan, 
besides  an  extensive  region  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Persia.  But,  still  unsatisfied,  he  resolved  on  the  subju 
gation  of  the  countries  beyond  the  Indus.  During  a  reign 
of  rather  more  than  thirty  years,  he  made  no  fewer  than 
twelve  expeditions  into  India,  besides  carrying  on  several 
important  wars  in  Central  Asia.  He  extended  his  con 
quests  not  only  over  the  whole  of  the  Punjab,  but  pene 
trated  as  far  as  Bundelcund  on  the  east  and  Guzerat  on 
the  south.  Moore,  in  his  beautiful  poem  of  "  Paradise 
and  the  Peri,"  gives  a  striking  picture  of  Mahmood's 
sanguinary  and  desolating  career  through  Hindostan. 
Apostrophizing  India,  he  says, 

"  Land  of  the  sun  !  what  foot  invades 
Thy  pagods  and  thy  )  illared  shades? 
'Tis  he  of  Gazna. — fierce  in  wrath 

******* 

He  comes,  and  India's  diadems 
Lie  scattered  in  his  ruinous  path. 
His  bloodhounds  he  adorns  with  gems 
Torn  from  the  violated  necks 
Of  many  a  young  and  loved  sultana  ; 


Maidens  within  their  pure  zenana, 
Priests  in  the  very  fane  he  slaughters. 
And  chokes  up  with  the  glittering  wrecks 
Of  golden  shrines  the  sacred  waters." 

Lalla  Rookh. 

It  is  related  by  Ferishta,  a  celebrated  Moslem  his 
torian,  that,  having  hoard  of  the  immense  riches  de 
posited  in  the  temple  of  Somnath,  famous  throughout 
all  India  for  its  sanctity,  Mahmood  determined  to  take 
possession  of  that  place.  The  priests  of  Somnath  had 
boasted  that,  if  he  dared  approach  their  holy  shrine,  he 
would  receive  from  the  avenging  gods  the  just  reward 
of  his  temerity.  The  temple  stood  on  the  extremity 
of  a  point  of  land  in  Guzerat,  and  was  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  sea.  It  was  defended  by  the  Hindoos 
with  all  the  courage  of  religious  enthusiasm  and  all  the 
obstinacy  of  despair.  But  nothing  could  withstand  the 
valour  of  the  fierce  invaders.  Mahmood,  having  entered 
the  temple,  was  about  to  demolish  a  gigantic  image,  the 
object  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Hindoos.  The 
Brahmans,  in  great  trepidation,  offered  him  an  immense 
sum  of  gold  if  he  would  spare  their  idol.  Some  of  his 
officers  advised  him  to  accept  the  ransom  ;  but  his  zeal 
as  a  true  Moslem  forbade  such  a  compromise.  He 
smote  the  image  and  broke  it  to  pieces.  It  proved  to 
be  hollow,  and  a  countless  treasure  of  diamonds,  rubies, 
and  pearls  was  poured  from  its  cavity  upon  the  ground, 
thus  richly  rewarding  the  incorruptible  zeal  of  the  con 
queror,  and  at  the  same  time  explaining  the  pious  libe 
rality  of  the  Brahmans.  In  the  extensive  wars  which 
Mahmood  carried  on  in  Central  Asia,  after  his  first  ex 
pedition  into  India,  he  appears  to  have  been  mainly 
indebted  for  his  success  to  the  elephants  used  in  his 
army.  It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  Ilij  (or  Elich) 
Khan,  a  Turkish  prince,  invaded  Khorassan  with  a  large 
army.  Mahmood  hastily  assembled  an  inferior  force, 
which  was  accompanied,  however,  by  five  hundred  ele 
phants.  The  hostile  armies  met  near  Bulkh,  (or  Balkh,) 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  A  moo,  or  Oxus.  Mahmood 
was  mounted  on  a  superb  elephant,  which,  during  the  heat 
of  the  battle,  rushed  forward,  and,  seizing  with  his  trunk 
the  chief  standard-bearer  of  the  Turks,  hurled  him  into 
the  air.  The  other  elephants  followed  the  example  of 
their  great  leader  :  with  their  trunks  they  lifted  the  horse 
men  from  their  saddles  and  dashed  them  on  the  ground, 
so  that  the  Turkish  army  was  soon  broken  and  put  to  a 
total  rout.  Later,  the  military  establishment  of  Mah 
mood  is  said  to  have  comprised  no  fewer  than  thirteen 
hundred  elephants  and  more  than  fifty  thousand  horse. 

Along  with  great  military  talents  and  a  fierce,  uncon.- 
querable  energy  and  courage,  Mahmood  possessed  some 
virtues  of  a  more  exalted  kind.  A  woman  from  a  dis 
tant  province,  it  is  said,  complained  one  day  to  the  Sultan 
that  her  son  had  been  killed  and  her  property  carried 
off  by  robbers.  He  replied  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  prevent  all  disorders  in  a  region  so  remote. 
"Why,  then,"  said  the  woman,  "do  you  conquer  king- 
doms'which  you  cannot  protect,  and  for  which  you  will 
have  to  answer  at  the  day  of  judgment  ?"  Far  from 
resenting  the  freedom  of  this  rebuke,  he  immediately 
took  effective  measures  for  establishing  order  in  that  dis 
tant  part  of  his  dominions.  After  his  Indian  conquests 
he  not  only  greatly  embellished  Gazna,  which  still  con 
tinued  to  be  the  capital  of  his  empire,  so  that  it  rivalled, 
it  is  said,  the  most  splendid  cities  of  the  East,  but  he 
showed  himself  a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  espe 
cially  of  poetry.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  Firdousee, 
(or  Firdausi,)  the  greatest  of  all  the  poets  of  Moham 
medanism,  flourished.  (See  FIUDOUSEE.)  Seven  other 
distinguished  poets,  according  to  Von  Hammer,  lived  at 
his  court  and  chanted  his  praises.  Mahmood  was  the 
first,  it  is  said,  of  the  great  Moslem  rulers  who  employed 
the  Persian  language  in  official  documents.  Died  in  1030. 
See  FERISHTA,  "  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Mahomedan  Power 
in  India, "(translated  by  GENERA t.  Bmr.r.s;)  IBN  KHAI.LIKAN,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  Hiographique  ;"  WII.KKN,  "  Historia  Ghasnevidarum  ;" 
VON  HAMMER,  ''Geschichte  der  schonen  Redekunste  Persiens  ;" 
HAMDAU.AH  MESTOUFI,  "  Histoires  choisies;"  "  History  of  British 
India,"  in  "Harper's  Fanii'y  Library,"  vol.  i.  ;  VON  HAMMER, 
"  Gemahldesaal  grosser  Mosleinischer  Herscher." 

Mahmood  (Mahmoud  or  Mahmud)  II.,  surnamed 
NASIR-OOD-DEEN,  (NAsiR-oun-Dix,)  na'sir  ood-deen', 
(i.e.  "  Defender  of  the  Faith,")  an  eccentric  though  able 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  //«'.?.     (I^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


M  AH  MOOD 


1498 


MAI 


Sultan  of  Delhi,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1246.  After 
the  death  of  his  father,  Altmish,  (ilt'mish,)  he  was  im 
prisoned  by  his  step-mother,  and  remained  in  confine 
ment  several  years.  During  this  period  he  voluntarily 
earned  his  bread  by  copying  manuscripts.  Even  after 
he  was  raised  to  the  throne  he  continued,  it  is  said,  to 
earn  his  subsistence  by  his  pen.  As  a  king  he  was  dis 
tinguished  for  his  ability,  justice,  and  liberality  ;  he  was 
a  patron  of  learning,  the  protector  of  his  people,  and  a 
friend  of  the  poor.  He  was  a  successful  general,  and 
speedily  reduced  several  insurrections  which  broke  out 
during  his  reign.  Contrary  to  the  custom  of  Moslem 
princes,  Mahmood  had  but  one  wife,  whom  he  required 
to  be  as  industrious  as  himself,  and  to  perform  all  the 
homely  duties  of  housewifery  like  the  meanest  of  her 
subjects.  Her  majesty,  having  one  day  burned  her 
fingers  while  cooking,  begged  Mahmood  to  let  her  have 
a  maid  to  assist  her  ;  but  he  refused,  saying  he  was  but  a 
trustee  of  the  state  and  had  no  right  to  burden  it  with 
needless  expenses.  He  used  to  say,  "  Those  who  will 
not  work  for  their  bread  do  not  deserve  it."  Mahmood 
Nasir-ood-Deen  was  a  half-brother  of  the  distinguished 
Sultana  Ruzeea  Begum.  (See  RUZEEA  BEGUM.)  He 
died  after  a  reign  of  twenty  years. 

See  FERISHTA,  "Rise  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
(BRIGGS'S  translation.)  vol.  i  ;  "  History  of  British  India,"  vol.  i.,  in 
"Harper's  Family  Library." 

Mahmood  (Mahmoud  or  Mahmud)  Shah,  (Na- 
sir-ed-Deen  or  -Eddyn,  na'sir  ed-deei/,)  Emperor  of 
Ilindostan,  was  the  son  of  Mohammed  HI.  He  ascended 
the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1394,  and  was  a  feeble  ruler.  1 1  is 
reign  was  a  disastrous  period  of  intestine  wars  and  an 
archy.  Timur  (Tamerlane)  invaded  India,  defeated  the 
army  of  Mahmood  in  1399,  and  took  Delhi.  A  few  years 
later,  Mahmood  returned  to  Delhi,  but  lie  obtained  but 
little  power.  He  died  in  1413,  being  the  last  of  his 
dynasty.  &e.ff~*  '**&**&* ,1*1*1*- )  lf-'*l*  ~  < 

Mahmood,  (Sultan  of  Syria  and  Egypt.)  See  NOOK- 
ED- I  )KKN.) 

Mahmoud.     See  MAHMOOD. 

Mahmud.     See  MAHMOOD. 

Mahomet,  (the  Prophet.)     See  MOHAMMED. 

Ma-hom'et*  [  Fr.  pron.  mt'o'mi']  or  Mohammed 
(mo-ham'med)  I.,  Emperor  or  Sultan  of  the  Ottomans, 
born  in  1374,  was  a  younger  son  of  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  I., 
who  was  defeated  by  Tamerlane  at  Ancyra  in  1401.  At 
this  time  he  was  governor  of  Amasia,  of  which  the  victor 
left  him  in  possession.  Mahomet  and  his  brother  Moosa 
(Mousa)  having  appealed  to  arms  for  a  decision  of  their 
claims  to  the  throne,  the  latter  was  killed  in  battle  in  1413. 
Mahomet  restored  the  Ottoman  empire  to  its  former  sta 
bility,  subjected  the  Bosnians  and  Servians,  and  was  the 
first  Sultan  that  disputed  with  the  Venetians  the  empire 
of  the  sea.  He  died  in  1421,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Amurath  II. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reiclis." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  IL, styled  THE  GREAT,  the 
st>n  of  Amurath  II.,  was  born  in  1430,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  1451.  Having  raised  an  army  of  about  300,000 
men,  he  attacked  Constantinople,  defended  by  the  Greek 
emperor  Constantine  Palaeologus.  After  a  siege  of  fifty- 
five  days,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm  on  the  2gth  of  May, 
1453,  and  Constantine  was  killed  fighting  in  the  breach. 
Great  numbers  of  the  Greek  citizens  were  massacred  by 
the  orders  or  permission  of  the  victor,  who  in  1456  returned 
to  Adrianople,  his  former  capital.  In  that  year  he  was 
defeated  at  Belgrade  by  the  Hungarian  chief  Huniades. 
He  conquered  Trebizoncl  from  David  Comnenus  in  1461, 
and  afterwards  acquired  by  his  arms  Bosnia,  and  seve 
ral  islands  in  the  Archipelago.  In  1465  he  was  defeated 
by  Scanderbeg  in  Albania.  He  waged  successful  wars 
against  the  Venetians  and  the  Persians,  (1470-78,)  and 
invaded  Italy  in  1480.  Death  arrested  his  progress  to 
further  conquest  in  1481, and  delivered  Christian  nations 
from  a  formidable  adversary.  He  left  the  throne  to  his 
son,  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  II. 

See  GUIU.ET  DE  SAINT  GEORGES,  "  Histoire  du  Regne  de  Ma 
homet,"  1682:  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen 
Reichs;"  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

*  For  some  remarks  on  the  pronunciation  of  this  name,  see  MO 
HAMMED,  (the  Prophet.) 


Mahomet  or  Mohammed  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
was  born  about  1568,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Amurath 
III.,  in  1595.  He  put  his  brothers  to  death  in  the  first 
days  of  his  reign.  He  was  a  feeble  ruler,  and  preferred  the 
pursuit  of  pleasure  to  his  duties  as  a  monarch.  Among 
the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  with  the  emperor 
Rudolph  in  Hungary,  where  the  Turks  lost  several 
towns.  He  died  in  1603,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ahmed  (Achmet)  I. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  IV.,  the  son  and  succes 
sor  of  Ibraheem  I.,  was  seven  years  old  when  his  father 
was  killed  by  the  Janissaries  in  1649.  Having  a  ruling 
passion  for  the  chase,  he  permitted  the  grand  vizier, 
Mahomet  Koprili,  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  empire. 
That  able  minister  took  Lemnos  and  Mitylene  from  the 
Venetians  in  1660,  and  about  the  same  time  waged  war 
against  the  Austrhtns  in  Hungary.  After  several  victories, 
the  Turks  were  defeated  at  Saint  Gothard  on  the  Raabin 
1663,  and  the  svar  was  suspended  by  a  treaty.  In  that  year 
Koprili  died,  and  his  son  Ahmed  (Achmet)  became  grand 
vizier.  He  took  the  capital  of  Candia  in  1669,  after  a 
long  siege.  In  1683  a  Turkish  army  of  about  200,000 
men  under  Cara  Mustafa  invaded  Austria  and  besieged 
Vienna,  from  which  the  emperor  Leopold  fled  without 
offering  battle.  After  a  siege  of  nearly  two  months,  John 
Sobieski  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  put  the 
Turks  to  a  total  rout.  In  consequence  of  this  and  other 
later  reverses,  Mahomet  was  deposed  in  1687,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Solyman  II.  Mahomet  was 
imprisoned  until  his  death,  in  1691. 

See  VON  HAMMKR.  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs ;" 
DF.VIZK,  "  Histoire  de  Mahomet  IV  depose  en  1687,"  Amsterdam, 
1688. 

Mahoii,  LORD.     See  STANHOPE,  EAKL  or. 

Mahon,  mS'oN',  (PAUL  AIH;USTIN  OLIVIER,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Chartres  in  1752.  lie  wrote  "  Mikle- 
cine  legale,"  (3  vols.,  1802.)  Died  in  1801. 

Ma-ho'ny,  (FRANCIS,)  an  Irish  writer  and  wit,  born 
about  180:5,  wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  "Father 
Prout."  He  contributed  many  able  articles  to  "  Eraser's 
Magazine,"  which  were  published  separately  in  1860. 
He  also  wrote  as  correspondent  for  several  daily  jour 
nals  of  London.  Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1836. 

Mahudel,  mt'ii'del',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Langres  in  1673.  He  practised  medicine  in 
Paris  for  many  years.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Ancient  Medals  or  Coins  of  Spain,"  (1725,)  and  several 
antiquarian  treatises  inserted  in  the  records  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Inscriptions.  Died  in  1747. 

Mahul,  infill',  (AI.PHONSE  JACQUES,)  a  French  po 
litical  writer,  born  at  Carcassone  in  1793.  He  published 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Annuairc  necrologique,  ou 
Supplement  annuel  et  Continuation  de  toutes  les  Bio 
graphies,"  (6  vols.,  1821-26.) 

Mai,  ma'ee  or  ml,  (ANOELO,)  CARDINAL,  a  celebrated 
Italian  critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Schilpario,  in  the 
province  of  Bergamo,  on  the  7th  of  March,  1782.  He 
became  an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  about  1808 
was  admitted  as  an  associate  in  the  Ambrosian  Library 
of  Milan,  which  was  rich  in  ancient  manuscripts.  He 
applied  himself  to  the  task  of  deciphering  palimpsests, 
and  discovered  portions  of  Cicero's  orations  and  other 
classic  works  which  had  never  been  printed.  In  1819 
he  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
The  discovery  which  made  the  greatest  sensation  was 
that  of  six  books  of  Cicero,  "  De  Republica,"  which  he 
published,  with  able  critical  notes,  in  1822.  These 
books,  which  had  been  lost  since  the  twelfth  century, 
were  found  by  him  in  the  Vatican.  Among  the  monu 
ments  of  his  critical  sagacity  and  patient  research  are 
three  collections,  entitled  "A  New  Collection  of  Ancient 
Authors,  produced  from  the  Library  of  the  Vatican," 
("  Scriptorum  Veterum  nova  Collectio  e  Vaticanis  Cocli- 
cibus  edita,"  10  vols.  410,  1825-38,)  "Classic  Writers 
published  from  the  Manuscripts  of  the  Vatican,"  ("  Clas 
sic!  Scriptores  ex  Codicibus  Vaticanis  editi,"  10  vols., 
1828-38,)  and  "  New  Library  of  the  Fathers,"  ("Nova 
Bibliotheca  Patrum,"  6  vols.,  1845-53.)  ^e  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  in  1838,  was  chosen  a  foreign 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MAIA 


1499 


MAILLET-D  UCLA1R  ON 


associate  of  the  French  Institute  in  1842,  and  librarian 
of  the  Roman  Church  in  1853.  Died  in  September,  1854. 

See  P.  A.  MUTTI,  "  Elogio  di  Angelo  Mai,"  1828;  "  Noiivelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Ma'ia,  [Mala  or  Mawic,]  in  Greek  mythology,  is  repre 
sented  as  the  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  (whence 
she  was  called  Atlantis  and  Pleias,)  and  the  eldest  of  the 
Pleiades.  She  was  the  mother  of  Hermes,  (Mercury.) 

Another  MAIA,  alias  MAJESTA,  was  a  goddess  of  the 
Romans,  who  named  one  of  the  months  in  honour 
of  her. 

Maiaiio  or  Majaiio,  da,  da  ma-ya'no,  (BENEDETTO,) 
an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  was  born  in 
Tuscany,  perhaps  in  Florence,  in  1424,  or,  according  to 
other  authorities,  in  1442.  He  acquired  fame  first  by 
his  unrivalled  skill  in  inlaid  work,  and  afterwards  de 
voted  himself  to  sculpture  in  marble.  He  worked  in 
Florence  and  Naples.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
a  bust  of  Giotto,  and  a  marble  pulpit  of  Santa  Croce, 
(in  Florence,)  in  which  he  represented  the  life  of  Saint 
Francis.  Died  in  1498. 


Maiaiio  or  Majano,  da,  (Giui.iANo,)  an  excellent 
Italian  architect,  born  in  Naples.  His  birth  is  variously 
dated  1377,  1387,  and  1432.  He  designed  at  Naples  the 
royal  palace  of  Poggio  Reale  and  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Castello  Nuovo.  Having  been  invited  to  Rome  by  Paul 
II.,  he  built  between  1464  and  1471  one  of  the  courts  of 
the  Vatican  and  the  palace  and  church  of  San  Marco. 
Died  about  1490. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;Ticozzi,  "Di/ionario." 

Maichel,  ml'Kel,  (DANIEL,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1693,  became  professor  of  philoso 
phy  at  Tiibingen  in  1724.  lie  published  an  "Introduc 
tion  to  Literary  History,"  in  which  he  describes  the 
great  libraries  of  Paris.  Died  in  1752. 

Maidalchini-Pamfili.     See  MALDACHINI-PAMFILL 

Maienne.     See  MAYENNE. 

Maier.     See  MAYKK. 

Maier,  ml'er,  (MICHAEL,)  a  famous  German  alchemist, 
born  in  Holstein  in  1568.  He  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Rudolph,  but  left  his  service,  and  wasted  his 
time  and  money  in  the  researches  of  alchemy.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Jocus  Scverus,"  "  Atalanta  fu- 
giens,"  (1618,)  and  "  Tripus  Aureus,"  ("  Golden  Tripod,") 
which  are  prized  by  amateurs.  Died  in  1622. 

See  HOKFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Maignan,  min'yS.N',  [Lat.  MAIGNA'NUS,](EMANUEL,) 
a  French  monk,  eminent  as  a  geometer  and  philosopher, 
w;  s  born  at  Toulouse  in  1601.  He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  Rome  In  1636.  He  wrote  "  Perspec- 
tiva  Horaria,"  an  able  "  Treatise  on  Catoptrics, "(1648,) 
and  a  few  other  works.  Died  in  1676. 

See  S.UHTENS,  "  De  Vita,  Moribus,  etc.  E.  Maignani,"  1697; 
NiCKRON',  "Memoires." 

Maignaiius.     See  MAIGNAN. 

Maigrot,  mi'gRo',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  missionary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1652.  He  laboured  in  China  from  1683 
to  1706,  and  wrote  "  De  Sinica  Religione,"  (unpublished.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1730. 

See  MAII.LA,  "  Histoire  geiierale  de  la  Chine." 

Maikof,  Maikov,  Maikoff,  or  Maikow,  ml-kof', 
(VASII.  IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  soldier  and  poet,  born 
at  Yaroslaf  in  1725.  He  obtained  some  reputation  for 
humour  and  comic  power  by  his  "  Yelisei,  or  Bacchus 
Enraged,"  a  burlesque  poem.  He  also  wrote  several 
dramas  and  fables.  Died  in  1778. 

Mailath  or  Majlath,  ml'lat,  (JA\os  NEPOMUK,) 
COUNT,  an  eminent  Hungarian  poet  and  historian,  was 
born  at  Pesth  in  1786.  He  was  employed  many  years 
in  the  civil  service  of  Austria.  In  the  affairs  of  Hun 
gary  he  was  identified  with  the  conservatives,  or  adver 
saries  of  Kossuth.  lie  published,  in  German,  two 
important  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Magyars,"  (1828- 
31,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Austrian  Empire,"  (1834-50.) 
The  revolution  of  1848  deprived  him  of  his  official  em 
ployment  as  judcx  citria:  at  Pesth,  and  reduced  him  to 
extreme  poverty.  He  and  his  daughter  Henrietta  drowned 
themselves  in  Lake  Starnberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1855.  lie 


left   several   poems   and    translations.     He  was  highly 
respected  as  a  man. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  also  an  article  on 
the  "Language  and  Literature  of  the  Magyars"  in  the  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828,  and  October,  1839. 

Mailhe,  mil,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  revolution 
ist,  born  in  1754,  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792. 
During  the  trial  of  the  king,  he  voted  for  an  appeal  to 
the  people ;  but  he  was  counted  among  those  who  voted 
for  death  conditionally.  Died  in  1834. 

Mailla,  Maillat,  mt'yt',  orMaillac,  de,  deh  mt'yik', 
(JOSEPH  ANNE  MARIE  DE  MOYRIA,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  near  Nantua  in  1679.  He  was  sent  to 
China  in  1702,  resided  at  court,  and  received  the  title  of 
mandarin.  He  translated  into  French  a  "General  His 
tory  of  China,"  (12  vols.,  1777-83.)  "This  work," says 
Weiss,  "with  the  Memoirs  published  by  Batteux,  Bre- 
quigny,  etc.,  (1775-1816,)  forms  the  most  extensive  and 
valuable  collection  that  has  yet  appeared  on  China."  He 
died  in  Pekin  in  1748. 

Maillac.     See  MAII.LA. 

Maillane.     See  DUKAND  DE  MAILLANE. 

Maillard,  mt'yt K'.  (OLIVIER,)  a  celebrated  French 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  Bretagne.  He  preached  in  Paris 
in  1494,  and  gave  much  offence  by  his  boldness.  Louis 
XI.  having  threatened  to  throw  him  into  the  river,  Mail- 
lard  said  to  the  person  who  conveyed  the  menace,  "Go 
tell  the  king  that  I  shall  arrive  at  heaven  by  water  sooner 
than  he  can  by  post-horses."  Died  about  1505. 

See  NICKRON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle   Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Maillard,  (SEBASTIAN,)  a  scientific  Austrian  general, 
born  at  Luneville  in  1746.  He  wrote  "The  Mechanics 
of  Arches,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1822.  ' 

Maillard  de  Chambure,  mS'yfR'  deh  sho.VbuR', 
(CHARLES  HIPPOLYTE,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
Semur  in  1772  ;  died  in  1841. 

Maillat.     See  MAILLA. 

Maillebois,  de,  deh  maTbwa'  or  mt'ye-bwa',  (JEAN 
BAPTISTE  FRANCOIS Desmarets — cli-mt'ii',)  MARQUIS, 
a  famous  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1682,  was  a  son 
of  Nicolas  Desmarets,  contrdleitr-general,  and  a  grandson 
of  the  great  Colbert.  After  many  services,  he  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1731,  commanded  a  division  in  Italy 
in  1 733,  and  took  Corsica  in  1 739.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  marshal  in  1741,  defeated  the  Austrians  on  the  Po  in 
September,  1745,  and  was  forced  to  retreat  at  the  battle 
of  Piacenza,  in  June,  1746.  Died  in  1762. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des 
Francais  ;"  MASSON  DE  PKZAY,  ''  Histoire  des  Campagnes  du  Maie1- 
chal  de  Maillebois  en  Italie,"  3  vols.,  1775. 

Maille-Breze,  de,  deh  mt'ya'  bReh-zi',  (URBAIN,)  a 
French  general,  who  obtained  command  of  the  French 
army  in  Germany  in  1634,  and  defeated  the  Spaniards 
at  Avesnes  in  1635.  Having  gained  several  advantages 
in  Flanders  between  1642  and  1650,  he  was  made  a 
marshal  of  FYance.  His  wife  was  Nicole,  a  sister  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  died  in  1650. 

His  son,  ARMAND,  born  in  1619,  became  Due  de 
Fronsac  and  de  Caumont.  As  admiral  of  France,  he 
defeated  the  Spaniards  off  Cadiz  in  1640,  and  was  killed 
at  Orbitello  in  1646. 

See  GRIHFET,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XIII." 

Maille  de  Breze,  de,  deh  mt'ya'  deh  bReh-za', 
(SlMON,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1515.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Tours  in  1554,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Died  in  1597. 

Maillet,  mS'y.V,  (  JACQUES  LEONARP,  )  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1847. 

Maillet,  de,  deh  mt'yi',  (BENOIT,)  a  French  writer, 
)orn  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1656.  He  was  consul-general  of 
France  in  Egypt  about  ten  years,  ending  in  1702,  and 
published  a  "Description  of  Egypt,"  (1735,)  which  has 
some  merit.  lie  also  wrote  a  singular  treatise  on  cos 
mology,  entitled  "Telliamed,"  (anagram  of  De  Maillet.) 
Died  in  1738. 

Maillet-Duclairon,  mt'yi'  clifkli'roN',  (ANTOINE,) 
a  French  author,  born  near  Macon  in  1721.  He  cor 
responded  with  Voltaire  and  Turgot,  and  wrote  several 
works,  among  which  is  "  Cromwell,"  a  tragedy,  (1764.) 
Died  in  1809. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  if.,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MA1LLT 


1500 


MAINTENON 


Mailly.mS'ye',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  respectable  French 
historian,  horn  at  Dijon  in  1744.  He  lectured  on  his 
tory  at  Godran  College  in  Dijon,  and  published  "  Spirit 
of  the  Fronde,"  ("  L'Esprit  de  la  Fronde,"  1772,)  and 
"Spirit  of  the  Crusades,"  ("L'Esprit  des  Croisades,"  4 
vols.,  1780.)  Died  in  1794. 

Mailly  d'Hautcourt,  de,  deh  mS'ye'  do'kooR',  (JO 
SEPH  AUGUSTIN,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1708.  After  the  peace  of  1763  he  was  commandant-in- 
chief  of  Roussillon.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  marshal 
in  1783.  lie  was  beheaded  as  a  royalist  in  1794. 

Maimbourg,  maN'booR',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  historian,  born  at  Nancy  in  1620.  He  acquired 
reputation  by  his  historical  works,  which,  however,  are 
neither  accurate  nor  impartial.  Having  written  a  treatise 
in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,  and 
thus  offended  the  pope,  he  was  expelled  from  the  order 
of  fesuits.  Among  his  works  are  (in  French)  a  "His 
tory  of  the  Iconoclasts,"  (1674,)  a  '•History  of  the 
Crusades,"  (1675,)  a  "History  of  Arianism,"  (1682,)  a 
"  History  of  Calvinism,"  (1682.)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Pontificate  of  Saint  Leo,"  (1687.)  His  style  is  agree 
able.  Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that  he  was  "  over 
rated  at  first,  and  too  much  neglected  afterwards."  Died 
in  1 686. 

See  DUPIN',  "  Bibliotheque  eccUsiastique  ;"  BAYLE,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Maimoii.     See  MAIMONIDES. 

Maimon,  mi'mon,  (SOLOMON,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1753.  He  had  a  talent 
for  metaphysical  speculations,  and  a  skeptical  spirit. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "Critical  Researches  on  the 
Human  Mind,"  ("  Kritische  Untersuchungen  liber  den 
menschlichen  Geist,"  1797,)  and  memoirs  of  his  own  life, 
entitled  "  Lebensgeschichte,"  (2  vols.,  1793.)  Died  in 
1800. 

See  WOI.F,  "Rhapsodien  zur  Characteristik  S.  Maimons,"  1813. 

Maimonide.     See  MAIMONIDKS. 

Maimoiiides,  nn-moi/e-des,  [  Fr.  MAI'MONIDE,  mt'e'- 
mo'ned',  ]  or  Mo'ses-Beii-Maimon,  (  bcn-mT'mon, ) 
called  by  the  Arabs  Moosa-Ibn-Maimoon,  (Musa- 
Ibii-Maimuii  or  -Maimouii,)  moo'sa  Tb'n  mi'moon',  a 
Jewish  rabbi  and  philosopher  of  great  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  about  1135.  He  studied  philosophy 
and  medicine  under  the  famous  Averroes,  with  whom  he 
formed  a  lasting  friendship,  and  was  also  versed  in  mathe 
matics  and  several  languages.  Having  removed  to  Egypt 
about  1 165,  he  became  chief  physician  to  the  Sultan 
Saladin  and  his  successor.  lie  acquired  a  great  repu 
tation  for  talents  and  learning.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "The  Strong  Hand,"  a  digest  of  Hebrew 
laws,  and  "  More  Nebokhim ;  or,  Teacher  of  the  Per 
plexed,"  (in  Arabic,)  which  explains  difficult  and  obscure 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament.  Died  in  1209. 

See  AKRAHAM  GEIGER.  "  Mose  Hen  Maimon,  seine  Lebensge- 
scliichte,"  iS;o:  OLAUS  CELSIUS.  "  De  Maimonide,"  1727;  PETER 
BKER,  "Das  Leben  Moses  ben  Maimon,"  1835:  LEMANS,  "  Levens- 
beschrijvine  van  Maimonides,"  1815;  STEIN,  "Moses  Maimonides," 
1846;  R.  M.  MAIMONIDRS,  "Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Maimoni 
des,"  London,  1837;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mainardi,  ml-naR/dee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  about  1550.  He  was  sometimes  called 
CHIAVEGHINO,  (ke-a-va-gee'no.)  Died  after  1613. 

Mainardi,  (]>ASTIANO,)  a  painter  of  the  Florentine 
school,  born  in  Tuscany,  lived  about  1500. 

Mainardi,  (LATTANZIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
P>ologna,  lived  about  1590.  He  was  employed  by  the 
pope  SixUis  V.  to  adorn  with  frescos  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore,  and  the  Vatican.  Died  at  the  age  of 
twenty-seven. 

Maindron,  maN'dRoN',  (firiENNK  HIPPOLYTE,)  a 
French  statuary,  born  in  the  department  of  Maine-et- 
Loire  in  1801. 

Maine,  (LACROIX  DU.)     See  LACROIX  r>u  MAINE. 

Maine  de  Biran,  min  deh  be'ro.x',  (MARIE  FRAN 
COIS  PIERRE  GONTHIER,)  an  eminent  French  metaphy 
sician,  born  near  Bergerac  in  1766.  After  opposing  the 
excesses  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  deputed  from  Dor- 
dogne  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  From 
1809  to  1814  he  was  a  member  of  the  legislative  body. 
After  the  restoration  of  1816  he  was  a  moderate  royalist 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  gained  in 


1803  a  prize  of  the  Institute  for  his  essay  "On  the  Influ 
ence  of  Habit  on  the  Faculty  of  Thought,"  ("  De  ['Influ 
ence  de  1'Habitude  sur  la  Faculte  de  Penser.")  He  also 
wrote  the  metaphysical  part  of  the  article  "Leibnitz"  in 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  a  "Memoir  on  the  De 
composition  of  Thought,"  ("Sur  la  Decomposition  de  la 
Pensee,"  1805,)  and  several  other  works.  M.  V.  Cousin 
estimated  him  as  the  greatest  metaphysician  of  P'rance 
since  Malebranche.  Died  in  1824. 

See  ERNKST  NAVIU.K,  "Maine  de  Biran,  sa  Vie  et  sts  Pensee^," 
1857;  DAMIRON,  "  Essai  sur  i'Histoire  de  la  Philosophic  en  Trance 
an  dix-neuvieme  Siecle ;"  SAINTK-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;" 
COUSIN,  Preface  to  the  "  CEuvres  philosophiques  de  Maine  de 
Biron,"  1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale  ;"  "  British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  iS66. 

Maine,  du,  du  m;\n,  (Louis  AUGUSTE  DE  BOURI:ON,) 
DUKE,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  Monies- 
pan,  was  born  in  1670,  and  legitimated  in  1673.  lie  was 
appointed  general  of  the  galleys  in  1688,  and  grand 
master  of  the  artillery  in  1694.  The  king  recognized 
him  as  a  prince  of  the  blood  and  capable  of  succeeding 
to  the  throne.  The  duke  appears  to  have  displayed  a 
gentle  and  liberal  spirit,  with  moderate  literary  talents. 
Died  in  1736. 

See  SAINT-SIMON',  "Memoires;"  LEMONTEY,  "  Histoire  de  la 
R'>;;eiice  ;"  M  \D\MK  DE  SKVIGNE,  "Lettres." 

Mainfioi.    See  MANFRED. 

Maiiio,  ml'no,  (GiASoNE,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Pesaro  in  1435.  He  \vas  professor  of  law  at  Pavi'a  from 
1467  to  1486.  After  an  absence  he  returned  to  Pavi'a  in 
1491,  and  lectured  to  large  classes  of  Italian,  French, 
and  German  students.  He  published  commentaries  on 
the  Digest,  three  Latin  orations,  and  "  Consilia  sive 
Responsa."  Died  in  1519. 

See  FABRONI.  "Vita:  Italonim  doctrina  excellentium." 

Mainteiion,  de,  deh  maNt'noN',  (FRANCOIS  D'Au- 
KIGNE,)  MAKOOISK,  a  French  lady,  whose  life  was 
marked  by  romantic  adventures  and  surprising  vicissi 
tudes,  was  born  in  1635,  in  the  prison  of  Niort,  (where 
her  father,  Constant  d'Aubigne,  was  detained.)  She  was 
a  granddaughter  of  the  eminent  author  T.  A.  d'Aubigne. 
Having  become  a  poor  orphan,  she  was  constrained 
by  her  guardians  to  abjure  Calvinism.  To  escape  the 
miseries  of  dependence  on  her  unkind  godmother,  she 
married  in  1652  Scarron  the  burlesque  poet  and  wit,  who 
was  infirm  and  deformed  in  person.  His  house  was  a 
fashionable  resort  of  the  most  brilliant  wits  and  noblesse 
of  Paris.  He  died  in  1660,  leaving  her  again  destitute 
of  resources  except  her  rare  beauty  and  talents.  Her 
eyes  are  described  as  dark,  intensely  spiritual,  and  inex 
pressibly  lustrous.  She  received  a  pension  of  2000  li vres 
from  the  queen-mother  for  several  years  preceding  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  1666. 

About  1670  Madame  Scarron  was  selected  as  govern 
ess  of  the  Due  du  Maine,  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
Madame  de  Montespan.  The  king  presented  to  her  the 
estate  of  Maintenon  in  1674,  after  which  she  was  called 
Madame  de  Maintenon.  She  gradually  gained  a  com 
plete  ascendant  over  Louis,  and  was  secretly  married  to 
him  in  1685.  The  marriage  was  never  formally  avowed 
by  him.  "  It  would  be  hard  to  name  any  woman,"  says 
Macaulay,  "who,  with  so  little  romance  in  her  temper, 
has  had  so  much  in  her  life.  ...  A  just  understanding  ; 
an  inexhaustible  yet  never  redundant  flow  of  rational, 
sprightly  conversation  ;  a  temper  of  which  the  serenity 
was  never  for  a  moment  ruffled  ;  a  tact  which  surpassed 
the  tact  of  her  sex  as  much  as  the  tact  of  her  sex  sur 
passes  the  tact  of  ours  :  such  were  the  qualities  which 
made  the  widow  of  a  buffoon  first  the  confidential  friend 
and  then  the  spouse  of  the  proudest  and  most  powerful 
of  European  kings."  Madame  de  Sevigne  describes  her 
society  as  "truly  delicious." 

She  laboured  assiduously  to  convert  the  king  to  vital 
religion.  Louis  transacted  business  with  his  ministers 
in  her  apartment,  discussed  the  most  important  ques 
tions  in  her  presence,  and  often  asked  her  advice  in  these 
terms:  "Qu'en  pense  votre  Solidite?"  (  "  What  does 
your  Solidity  think  about  it?")  He  was  once  dissuaded 
by  her  from  the  cruel  purpose  of  burning  the  city  of 
Treves.  As  the  king  grew  old  and  fretful,  her  task  of 
entertaining  him  became  very  arduous.  "I  have  seen 
her,"  says  Mile.  d'Aumale,  "divert  the  king  by  a  thou- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  yi  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


MAINflELLE 


1501 


MA1TLAND 


sand  inventions  for  four  hours  together,  without  repeti 
tion,  yawning,  or  slander."  She  founded  a  good  school 
for  girls  at  Saint-Cyr.  She  died  in  1719.  Her  letters 
and  other  works  have  been  published  by  M.  Lavallee,  in 
lovo's.,  (1854  et  seq.)  This  edition  includes  "Souvenirs 
de  Mine,  de  Caylus,"  and  "  Memoires  de  Mile.  d'Au- 
male." 

See  CARMTCIOI.I,  "Viede  Madame  de  Main  tenon,"  1786;  MA 
DAME  SUARD,  "  Madame  de  Maintenon  peinte  par  elle-meme,"  1810; 
MONMEKQUE,  "Notice  snr  Madame  de  Mamienon,"  1820;  LA 
BKAUMKI.I.E,  "Memoires  potir  servir  al'Histoir.?  de  Mnie.  de  Main- 
tenon,"  1756 ;  LE  Due  DE  NOAILI.ES  "Histoire  de  Madame  de 
M.iintenon,"  4  vols.,  i84S-5g;  LA  FONT  D'AUSOSMH,  "Histoire  dc 
Madame  de  Maintenon,"  1814;  VOLTAIRE,  ".Siecie  de  Louis  XIV;" 
SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Canseries  dn  Lundi,"  tome  iv.  ;  "  Noiivelle  Bio 
graphie  Ge'nerale  ;"  W.  H.  D.  ADAMS,  "  Famous  Beauties  and 
Historic  Women,"  vol.  i.,  London,  1865;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
?ine"  for  February,  1850;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849; 
"  Letters  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  in  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1753. 

Mainvielle,    maN've'SK,    or    Mainville,    maN'vel', 

(PiERRE,)  a  member  of  the  French  Convention  of  1792, 
*  ^  » •  .1-1 


was   born  at  Avignon   in  1765.      He 
the  Girondists  in  October,  1793. 
See  LAMARTINE,  "  Histoire  des  Girondi: 


Mairobert,  de,  deh  mi'ro'baiR',  (MATHIEU  FRAN 
COIS  PiDANSAT,)a  French  writer,  born  in  Champagne  in 
1707.  Among  his  works  is  the  "Observateur  Anglais," 
(4  vols.,  1778,)  reprinted  under  the  title  of  "Espion 
Anglais,"  ("English  Spy.'")  Died  in  1779. 

Maironi  da  Fonte,  mi-ro'nee  da  pon'ta,  (Gio- 
VANNI,)  an  Italian  naturalist  and  writer,  born  at  Ber 
gamo  in  1748;  died  in  1833. 

Maiseaux,  Des.     See  DKSMAISEAUX. 

Maison,  ma'/ox',  (Nicoi.,\s  JOSEPH,)  COUNT,  a  mar 
shal  of  France,  was  born  at  Epinay,  near  Paris,  in  1771. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Jemmapes  in  1792.  In  1799 
he  became  adjutant-general  or  chief  of  the  staff  in  the 
army  of  Bernadotte.  For  his  services  at  Austerlit/,,  in 
1805,  he  was  made  a  general  of  brigade.  He  took  part 
in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  during  which  he  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  In  1814  he 
received  from  Louis  XVIII.  the  title  of  peer  and  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Paris.  He  refused  to  recog 
nize  Bonaparte  on  his  return  from  Elba.  He  commanded 


Mainzer,  nnnt'ser,  (JOSEPH,)  a  German  musician  and 
writer  on  music,  born  at  Treves  in  1801  ;  died  in  1851. 

Maio  or  Majo,  da,  da  ma'yo,  (FRANCESCO  or  Cic- 
Cio,)  an  excellent  Italian  composer  of  operas  and  sacred 
music,  born  at  Naples  in  1745,  (some  say  about  1740.) 
Among  his  operas  are  "  Montezuma,"  (1765,)  and 
"Ipermnestra,"  (1770.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1/74. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universel'e  des  Mus  ciens." 

Maioli  or  Majoli,  ma-yo'lee,  (Ci.s\ui,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Forli  in  1746.  He  obtained  a  chair 
of  philosophy  at  Rome  in  1781.  He'wnite  many  works 
on  botany  and  zoology,  the  most  of  which  remain  in 
manuscript.  Died  in  1823. 

See  FARINI,  "Memorie  sopra  la  Vita  del  Majoli,"  1^24. 

Maioli  or  Majoli,  (SIMONE,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  at  Asti  about  1520. 

Maioragio  or  Majoragio,  ma-yo-ra'jo,  [Lat.  MA- 
JOKA'GIUS,]  (MARCANTONIO,)  an  eloquent  and  learned 
Italian  writer,  whose  proper  name  was  ANTONIO  MARIA 
CONTI,  was  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1514.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-six  he  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence  at 
Milan.  He  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  Works  of 


was  executed  with  the  expedition  against  the  Turks  of  the  Morea  in  1828, 
and  on  his  return  received  a  marshal's  baton.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1830,  and  became  min- 


>ther 


>rks. 


ister  of  war  in  1835.     Died  in  1840. 

See  THIERS,  "  Histoire  de  la  Republique,  du  Consu'at  et  de 
I'Empire  ;"  MARMONT,  "  Memoires  ;"  VICTOR  DE  BKOC;I.IB,  "  Elogi 
historique  du  Marechal  Maison,  "  1842  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Maisonfort,  de  la,  deh  It  mi'zdN'foR',  (Louis  Du- 
r.ois  DESCOURS,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  biographer,  born 
in  Berry  in  1763,  was  a  royalist.  He  published  a  bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  those  who  figured  in  the  French 
Revolution,  (3  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1827. 

Maisonneuve,  de,  deh  mi'zo'nuv',  (Louis  JEAN 
BAPTISTE,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Saint-Cloud 
about  1745.  His  tragedy  of  "  Roxelane  et  Mustapha" 
(1785)  had  a  prodigious' success.  He  produced,  also, 
"  Odmar  and  Zulma,"  (1788.)  Died  in  1819. 

Maissiat,  mi'se't',  (MiCHEL,)  a  French  topographical 
engineer,  born  at  Nantua  in  1770.  He  published  several 
professional  works.  Died  in  1822. 

Maistral,  mi'tntr,  (Espurr  TRANQUILLE,)  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Quimper  in  1763  ;  died  in  1805. 

Maistre.     See  SACY. 

Maistre,  (ISAAC.)     See  LEMAISTRE. 

Maistre,  de,  deh  mitR,  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  COUNT,  an 
eminent  political  writer  and  philosopher,  was  born  at 


Cicero,"  poems,  harangues,   and   vari 

Died  in  1555.  j  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1754,     He  was  a  warm  oppo- 

Maiquez,    mT-keth',  (IsiDORO.)   a    ponular    Spanish  !  nent  of    the    French    Revolution,  and    attached    to  the 
comedian,  born  at  Carthagena  about   1766.      He  intro-    ultramontane  school  of  theology.     In  1796  he  published 


cluced  at   Madrid  a  more  simple  and  natural  style   of 
action,  and  was   reputed   the  most  excellent    comedian 
that  Spain  had  produced.     Died  in  1820. 
Mair,  (JOHN.)     See  MAJOR,  (Joirx.) 


Considerations  on  France,"  which  obtained  great  suc 
cess.  He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  grand 
chancellor  in  1799.  From '1802  to  1816  he  was  ambas 
sador  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and,  on  his  return  to  Turin 


Mairaii,  de,  deh  mi'iSx',  JEAN  JACQUES  DORTOUS,)  in  1817,  became  minister  of  state.  His  most  important 
a  distinguished  French  savant  and  litterateur,  born  at  '  work  is  entitled  "On  the  Pope,"  ("  Du  Pape,"  1819,)  an 
Beziers  in  1678.  About  1718  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  j  argument  for  the  cause  of  popery  and  absolutism.  Died 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he  in  1821.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  original  thinker, 
wrote  many  memoirs  on  geometry,  physics,  and  other 
sciences.  He  published  a  "  Dissertation  on  Ice,"  ("  Dis 
sertation  sur  la  Glace,")  "Letters  on  China,"  and  other 
works.  In  1740  he  succeeded  Fontenelle  as  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1743  was  elected  to 


See  RAYMOND,  "  E"!oge  du  Comte  J.  M.  de  Maistre."  1827 ;  VIL- 
T.EMAIN,  "Cours  de  Litterature  -£v;b»£»&e  au  dix-ln  itieme  Siece;" 


the  French  Academy.     He  was  intimate  with  Voltaire. 
Died  in  1771. 

See  VILI.KMAIN.  "Tableau  de  la  I.itterature  Francaise  au  dix- 


VILLENEL-VE-ARIFAT,  "  E"lope  du  CVmte  J.  de  Maistre."  1^5.3; 
SAINTE-BF.UVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  and  "  Portraits  contempo- 
rains;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate;"  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1852  ;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849. 

Maistre,  de,  (XAVIER,)  a  popular  and  witty  author, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chambery 
in  1764.  He  entered  the  Russian  service  about  iSco, 


^"iSd:^  the   Persians,  and  obtained   the  rank  of 

de  Mairan,"  1771;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale."  j  major-general.      Ill  1794  he  produced  (ill  French)  his  m- 

TVTairaiiltL  rifi    deh   ma'ro'.    fAnRiEN    MAURICE.)    a    genious  and  humorous  "  Journey  around  my  Chamber," 


Mairault,  de,   deh  mi'ro',   (ADRIEN   MAURICE,) 
French  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1708.     He  aided  Desfon- 
taines  in  his  critical  works.     Died  in  1746. 

Maire,  Le.     See  LEMAIRE. 

Mairet,  mi'ri',  (JEAN,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1604:  In  1629  he  produced  his  principal 
work.  "  Sophonisba,''  a  tragedy,  which  was  very  suc 
cessful,  and  formed  an  epoch  in  the  annals  of  the  French 
theatre,  being  the  first  in  which  the  rule  of  unities  was 
observed.  He  wrote  many  other  tragedies  and  come 


dies.     Died  in  1686. 


genious  „  . 

("Voyage  autour  de  ma  Chambre.")  lie  maintained 
his  reputation  as  an  elegant  writer  by  tales  entitled 
"  Prisoners  of  the  Caucasus,"  and  "  Prascovie,  ou  la 
jeune  Siberienne."  After  1817  he  lived  alternately  in 
France  and  Saint  Petersburg.  Died  in  1852. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Portraits  contemporaius  ;"  "  Nouveile  Bio 
graphie  Generale." 

Maitani,  ml-ta'nee,  (LORENZO,)  an   Italian  architect, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1240;  died  after  1310. 


Mait'land,  (Sir  FREDERICK  LEWIS,)  a  British  naval 

„  r  ..r       •„     officer,  horn  in  Scotland  in  1779.    As  captain,  he  served 

et  S^P^ONT^  ^C^eille^'^     C°rne'"e  I  with  distinction  against  the  French  on  the  coast  of  Egypt 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as>;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MA  IT  LAND 


1502 


MAJORAG1O 


in  1801.  In  1815  he  was  ordered  to  keep  watch  on  the 
coast  of  France  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Na 
poleon,  who  surrendered  himself  to  Captain  Maitland  in 
[uly  and  was  conveyed  by  him  in  the  Bellerophon  to 
England.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  Died 
in  1839. 

Maitland,  (TAMES.)     See  LAUDERDALE,  EARL  OF. 

Maitland,  (JOHN.)     See  LAUDERDALE,  DUKE  OF. 

Maitland,  (JOHN,)  of  Thirlestane,  first  Lord  Mait 
land,  an  eminent  Scottish  statesman,  born  about  1540, 
was  the  second  son  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland,  noticed 
below,  and  grandfather  of  the  Duke  of  Lauderdale.  He 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  in  1567.  For  his 
loyalty  to  Queen  Mary  he  was  proscribed  by  the  domi 
nant  party  about  1570  and  imprisoned  several  years.  In 
1584  he  was  made  secretary  of  state,  and  became  in  fact 
the  chief  minister  of  James  VI.  He  was  appointed  chan 
cellor  of  Scotland  in  1586  or  1587,  and  created  Baron 
Maitland  in  1590.  lie  is  praised  for  his  moderation  and 
integrity  as  well  as  for  his  talents.  Several  of  his  Latin 
epigrams  have  been  published.  Died  in  1595. 

See  MACKENZIE,  "Scotch  Writers;"  LODGE,  "Lives  of  Eminent 
Personages." 

Maitland,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  of  Lethington,  a  Scottish 
writer  and  judge,  born  in  1496,  was  the  father  of  Sir  Wil 
liam  Maitland,  noticed  below,  and  of  John,  first  Lord 
Maitland.  He  studied  law  in  France,  and  held  several 
high  offices.  About  1550  he  was  chosen  a  lord  of  session, 
and  in  1562  lord  privy  seal,  lie  acquired  distinction 
as  a  poet  and  collector  of  Scottish  poetry.  One  of  his 
poems  is  entitled  "Creation  and  Paradise  Lost."  Died 
in  1586. 

See  IRVINK,  "  Lives  of  the  Scottish  Poets  ;"  MACKENZIE,  "  Scotch 
Writers;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men." 

Maitland,  (Rev.  SAMUEL  ROFFEY,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an 

able  English  essayist  and  writer  on  ecclesiastical  history, 
etc.,  was  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  was  librarian  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  1837  to  1848.  lie 
was  author  of  numerous  essays  on  theology,  morals,  etc. 
Among  his  principal  and  most  popular  works  is  "The 
Dark  Ages  :  being  a  Scries  of  Essays  intended  to  Illus 
trate  the  State  of  Religion  and  Literature  in  the  Ninth, 
Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Centuries,"  (1844.)  He 
aims  to  prove  that  those  ages  were  not  so  dark  as  they 
are  commonly  represented.  Died  in  1866. 

Maitland,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  of  Lethington,  Lithington, 
or  Lidington,  an  able  Scottish  minister  of  state,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Richard,  noticed  above.  In  1558 
he  became  principal  secretary  to  Mary  of  Guise,  queen- 
regent;  but  in  1559  he  joined  the  Protestant  chiefs  who 
had  taken  arms  against  her.  He  was  restored  to  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state  by  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in 
1561.  Though  not  a  Catholic,  he  enjoyed  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  the  queen,  who  sent  him  >>n  several  em 
bassies  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  Mary  was  imprisoned, 
(1567,)  he  adhered  to  her  cause,  and  united  with  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk  in  an  effort  to  save  her.  Having  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  mediate  between  the  two  hostile  parties, 
in  1570  he  declared  openly  for  the  queen.  His  enemy, 
Regent  Morton,  took  him  prisoner,  and  would  probably 
have  hung  him  if  Maitland  had  not  died  soon  after,  as 
some  suppose,  by  his  own  hand,  in  1573.  "All  the  con 
temporary  writers,"  says  Robertson,  "mention  him  with 
an  admiration  which  nothing  could  have  excited  but  the 
greatest  superiority  of  penetration  and  abilities."  "  His 
name,"  says  Burton,  "was  a  by-word  for  subtlety  and 
state-craft.  Yet,  ...  if  we  look  at  his  life  and  doings, 
we  do  not  find  he  was  one  of  those  who  have  left  the 
mark  of  their  influence  upon  their  age.  .  .  .  He  had 
great  abilities,  but  they  were  rather  those  of  the  wit  and 
rhetorician  than  of  the  practical  man."  ("History  of 
Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  55-57.)  Hume  styles  Maitland 
"  Secretary  Lidington."  Queen  Elizabeth  called  him 
"the  flower  of  the  wits  of  Scotland." 

See  FROUDE,  "Reign  of  Elizabeth,"  passim,  but  particularly 
chans.  xix.  and  xxiii. ;  HUME,  "  History  of  England  ;"  ROBERTSON, 
"  History  of  Scotland." 

Maitland,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  antiquary,  born  at 
Brechin  about  1693.  He  became  a  resident  of  London, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 


published  a  "  History  of  London,"  (1739,)  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  Edinburgh."     Died  in  1757. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Maittaire,  mi'tiu',  (MICHEL,)  an  eminent  scholar 
and  bibliographer,  born  in  France  in  1668,  was  the  son 
of  Protestant  parents,  svho  emigrated  to  England  when 
the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  (1685.-)  lie  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  and  edited  many  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  lie  resided  many  years  in  London.  Among 
his  most  important  productions  are  "  Dialects  of  the 
Greek  Language,"  (1706,)  and  "Typographic  Annals 
from  the  Invention  of  Printing  to  1557,"  ("Annales  Ty 
pographic!  ab  Artis  Inventoe  Origine  ad  Annum  1557," 
•9  vols.,  1719-41,)  a  work  of  great  research,  and  superior 
to  any  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.  Died  in  1747. 
See  DIHDIN,  "Bibliomania;"  P.  CHASI.BS,  "Dissertation  on  the 
Life  and  Works  of  M  Maittaire,"  London,  1819. 

Maitz  de  Goimpy,  du,clum;\tsdehgwaN'pe',  (FRAN 
COIS  Louis  EI>MK  GAIJKIK.I.,)  COUNT,  a  French  astrono 
mer  and  naval  officer,  born  in  Beau:e  in  1729  ;  died  after 
1784. 

Maius.     See  MAY. 

Maizeroy,  de,  deh  m.\//rwa',  (PAUL  GEDEON  JULY,) 
a  French  officer  and  eminent  tactician,  was  born  at  Metz 
in  1719.  He  served  several  campaigns,  ending  at  the 
peace  of  1763,  and  became  lieutenant-colonel.  He  wrote 
numerous  works  on  tactics  and  military  science,  which 
had  a  transient  success,  but  are  now  obsolete.  Died  in 
1780. 

Maiziere.3,  de,  deh  mi'ze-aiit',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French 
writer,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens  in  1312.  He  insti 
gated  the  Kings  of  France  and  of  Cyprus  to  conduct  a 
crusade  against  the  Saracens  of  Egypt  in  1365.  He 
wrote  an  allegory,  "  Le  Songe  du  vieil  Pelerin,"  etc. 
Died  in  1405. 

See  "  Noiivelle  1'iographie  Generale." 

Majano.     See  MAIANO. 

Majlath.     See  MAI  LATH. 

Majo.     See  MAIO. 

Majoli.     See  MAIOI.I. 

Major,  ma'yoR,  or  Meier,  ml'er,  (GF.ORG,)  a  German 
Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1502.  He 
studied  under  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  afterwards  professor  of  theology  for  many 
years.  He  published  commentaries  on  the  New  Testa 
ment,  and  many  theological  works.  Died  in  1574- 

See  C.  UI.ENBKRG,  "Vita  et  Res  gests  M.  Lutheri,  P.  Melanch- 
thonis  et  G.  Majoris,"  1622. 

Major,  (ISAAC,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1576.  He  engraved 
a  number  of  large  landscapes  representing  scenes  in 
the  mountains  of  Bohemia.  Died  in  1630. 

Major,  ([OIIANN*  DANIEL,)  a  German  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Breslau  in  1634.  He  practised  with 
success  at  Hamburg.  In  1665  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
medicine  at  Kiel,  where  he  planted  a  botanic  garden. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  learned  professional  treatises. 
Died  in  1693. 

Ma'jor,  (JoiiN,)  written  also  Mair,  a  Scottish  his 
torian  and  theologian,  born  near  North  Berwick  about 
1470.  He  passed  a  number  of  years  in  Paris  as  a  stu 
dent  and  then  as  a  professor  of  scholastic  philosophy. 
In  1519  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  some  years  later 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Saint  Andrew's,  where 
George  Buchanan  and  John  Knox  were  his  pupils.  lie 
wrote,  (in  Latin,)  besides  other  works,  "  Commentaries 
on  the  Four  Books  of  Sentences,"  and  a  "  History  of 
Scotland."  Died  about  1550.  Robertson  calls  him  a 
"  succinct  and  dry  writer." 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ma'jor,  (RICHARD  HENRY,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1818.  He  edited  several  works,  and 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,"  (1868.) 

Major,  (THOMAS,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
about  1715.  He  engraved  landscapes  after  Berghem, 
Teniers,  Claude  Lorrain,  etc.  Among  his  most  ad 
mired  works  are  twenty-four  views  of  the  Ruins  of 
Paestum,  after  J.  B.  Borra,  published  at  London,  (1768.) 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Majoragio.     See  MAIORAGIO. 


a,  e,  T,  a,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAJORAG1W 


Majoragius.     See  MAIORAGIO. 

Majoraiio,  (GAETANO.)     See  GAFFARELI.I. 

Ma-jo'ii-an,  [Lat.  MAJORIA'NUS;  Fr.  MAJORIEN, 
m&'zho're-^N', ]  (Jui.tus  VALERIUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  succeeded  Avitus  as  Emperor  of  the  West  in  457 
A.I).  He  defeated  Theodoric  the  Visigoth  in  Gaul  in  459, 
and  afterwards  waged  war  against  Genseric.  He  was 
deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Kicimer  in  461. 

See  TII.I.EMONT,  "  Histoire  cles  Empereurs ;"  SMITH,  "Diction 
ary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Majorien.     See  MAJORIAX. 

Majus,  ma'yiis,  (HKINRICH,)  aGerman  natural  philos 
opher,  born  at  Cassel  in  1632  ;  died  in  1696. 

Majus,  (JoHAr'N  BUKKHARD,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Pfortzhelm  in  1652.  He  wrote  "  De  Rebus 
Badensibus,"  (1678,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1726. 

Majus  or  Maius,  (JoiiANN  HEINRICH,)  an  Oriental 
ist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1653.  He  wrote 
on  theology  and  Hebrew  antiquities.  Died  in  1719. 

Makeblyde,  ma'keh-bli'deh,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish 
religious  writer,  born  at  Poperingue  in  1564;  died  in 
1630. 

Makkaree,  Makkari,  or  Makkary,  Al,  Si  mak'- 
ka-ree,  (AiiMED-lBN-MoHAMMKD, ail'mOd  ib'n  mo-ham'- 
mcd,)  an  Arabian  historian,  born  at  Tlemcen  about 
1585.  He  became  a  resident  of  Cairo  about  1620,  and 
wrote  numerous  historical  and  theological  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  a  valuable  "  History  of  Spain 
during  the  Domination  of  the  Moors,"  which  was  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Pascnal  cle  Gayangos,  under  the 
title  of  a  "History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  (2  vols.,  1843.)  Died  in  1631. 

See  "  Nouvelie  Hiographie  Generale." 

Mako,  mok'ko,  (PAUL,)  a  learned  Hungarian  Jesuit, 
born  in  1723.  He  wrote  on  geometry,  physical  science, 
etc.  Died  in  1793. 

Makouski.     See  MAKOWSKT. 

Makowski,  ma-kov'skee,  written  also  Makouski, 
[Lat.  MACCC/VIUS,]  (JOHN,)  a  Polish  Protestant  divine, 
born  at  Lob/.enick  in  1588.  He  was  noted  for  disputa- 
tiousness  and  fondness  for  scholastic  subtleties.  Died 
in  1644. 

See  JOHANN  COCCEJI,  "Oratio  in  Funere  J.  Maccovii,"  1644. 

Makreezee  or  Makrizi,  Al,  tl  ma-kRee'zee,  sur- 
namecl  TAKYAH-ED-DEEN  or  TAKY-ED-DEEN,  (or  TAKI- 
EDi>L\r,)  tak'yed  deei/,  (i.e.  the  "  Support  of  Religion,")  a 
celebrated  Arabic  writer,  born  at  Cairo  about  1360.  He 
held  several  civil  and  religious  offices  in  his  native  city. 
He  wrote  many  historical  works,  which  attest  the  variety 
and  extent  of  his  knowledge.  His  "  Historical  and  Topo 
graphical  Description  of  Egypt"  gives  an  ample  account 
of  the  events  which  occurred  after  the  conquest  of  the 
Saracens,  and  of  the  customs  and  antiquities  of  that 
country.  He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  Saladin  and 
his  Successors,"  and  a  treatise  on  Moslem  Coins.  The 
above-named  works  have  been  translated  into  French 
by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  Al  Makreezee  has  the  reputa 
tion  of  being,  on  the  whole,  an  impartial,  trustworthy, 
and  eminently  judicious  writer.  Died  in  1442. 

See  SILVESTRE  DE  SACY,  "  Chrestomathie  Arabe." 

Makrizi.     See  MAKREEZEE. 

Malabranca,  ma-la-buan'ka,  (LATINO,)  an  Italian 
Dominican,  called  also  Frangiparii,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pope  Nicholas  III.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Ostia  and 
Velletri  in  1278.  His  diplomatic  talents  were1  employed 
and  approved  by  several  successive  popes.  Died  about 
1294.  The  celebrated  hymn  "  Dies  Iras"  is  attributed 
to  him  by  many  writers. 

Malacarne,  ma  la-kaR'na,  (MiciiELE  VINCENZO,)  an 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Saluzzo  in  1744.  He  contributed 
by  his  works  to  the  progress  of  science  in  Italy.  He  was 
professor  of  surgery  at  Padua  from  1794  until  his  death, 
in  1816.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  on  Encepha- 
lotomy. 

Ma'1'a-ehi,  [Heb.  'D.sSo.]  the  last  of  the  minor  He 
brew  prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  prophesied  about 
420  r,.C.  Nothing  is  positively  known  of  his  history. 
The  name  signifies  "  angel,"  or  "  messenger  of  the  Lord." 
The  book  of  Malachi  is  the  last  book  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment,  in  the  order  of  time  as  well  as  of  position. 


Malachowski,  ma-la-Kov'skee,  (CASIMIR,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1765.  He  had  the  chief  command  at 
Warsaw  when  that  place  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
1831.  Died  in  1845. 

Malagrida,  ma-la-gRee'da,  (GAURIELE,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1689.  He  removed  to 
Portugal,  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  wrote  several 
works.  He  was  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  attempt 
to  assassinate  the  King  of  Portugal,  (1758.)  and  was 
convicted  of  heresy,  for  which  he  was  burned  in  1761. 

See  SMITH,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal  ;"  VOLTAIRE, 
"  Precis  clu  Siecle  de  Louis  XV  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Generale  ;" 
PI.ATEL,  "  Relazioue  della  Condamna  ed  Esecuzione  del  Gesuita  G. 
Malagrida,''  1761. 

Malaguti,  ma-la-goo'tee,  (FRANgois,)  a  distinguished 
chemist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1802.  Having  settled  in 
France,  he  studied  in  the  laboratory  of  Gay-Lussac,  and 
became  in  1850  professor  of  chemistry  at  Rennes.  He 
published  several  valuable  works,  among  which  is  "  Les 
sons  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,"  (1848.) 

Malaiiie,  mi'l&n',  (JOSEPH  LAURENT,)  a  French 
painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Tournai  in  1745;  died  in 
Paris  in  1809. 

Mal'a-la,  Mal'e-la,  or  Mal'e-las,  [Gr.  MoAa/ia  or 
Ma/.£'/.a,j  called  also  JOHN  OF  ANTIOCH,  was  the  author 
of  a  Greek  chronicle  which  extends  from  the  creation 
to  the  year  566  A.D.  It  was  first  printed  by  Chilmead, 
at  Oxford,  in  1691.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  not  known.  He  was,  perhaps,  the  same  as 
John  of  Antioch  the  Scholastic. 

See  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Malan,  mi'l6NT/,  (ABRAHAM  HENRI  CESAR,)  a  Swiss 
theologian,  born  at  Geneva  in  1787,  was  the  leader  of  a 
sect  sometimes  called  momiers.  Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "Life,  Labours,  etc.  of  Caesar  Malan,"  by  his  son,  Lon 
don,  1869. 

Malapert,  mt'lS'paiR',  (CHARLES,)  a  Flemish  poet 
and  geometer,  born  at  Mons  in  1581.  He  became  a 
Jesuit,  and  a  professor  of  mathematics  in  various  col 
leges.  He  published  Latin  poems,  and  several  works 
on  geometry.  Died  in  Spain  about  1630. 

Malarme,  de,  deh  mS'lium',  (CHARLOTTE,)  COUNT 
ESS,  a  novelist,  born  at  Metz,  France,  in  1753,  was  a 
sister  of  Count  de  Bournon,  the  mineralogist.  She 
wrote  "Niralba,"  (1800,)  and  other  novels.  Died  about 
1830. 

Malaspiiia,  ma-ia-spee'na,  (RICORDANO,)  the  earliest 
historian  of  Florence,  was  born  in  that  city  in  the  thir 
teenth  century.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Florence  from 
its  Origin  to  the  Year  1281." 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Malaspina  di  Sannazaro,  ma-la-spee'na  de  san- 
nad-za'ro,  (Luici,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian  writer  and  politi 
cal  economist,  born  at  Pavia  in  1754.  He  founded  a 
school  of  fine  arts  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1834. 

Malatesta,  ma-la-teVta,  a  noble  Italian  family,  which 
acquired  the  lordship  of  Rimini  in  the  thirteenth  cen 
tury,  and  furnished  several  leaders  of  the  Guelph  party. 
MALATESTA  II.  and  GALEOTTO  MALATESTI,  sons  of 
Pandolfe  I.,  began  to  reign  over  Rimini  in  1335.  They 
had  a  great  military  reputation,  and  next  to  the  Visconti 
were  perhaps  the  most  powerful  princes  of  Italy.  The 
former  died  in  1364,  and  Galeotto  in  1385,  leaving  two 
sons,  CARLO  and  PANDOLFO  III.  These  two  became 
able  generals,  and  commanded  the  army  of  Visconti, 
Duke  of  Milan,  from  1393  to  1408.  Carlo,  who  was 
Lord  of  Rimini,  died  without  issue  in  1429.  The  de 
scendants  of  Pandolfo  HI.  possessed  Rimini  until  1528, 
when  it  was  added  to  the  papal  dominions. 

Malatesta,  (BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  lady  of  eminent 
talents,  was  married  in  1405  to  Galeotto  Malatesta, 


Seigneur  of  Pesaro.     She  taught  philosophy  in  public, 

and 
wrote  some  admired  verses. 


. 
made  Latin  orations  before  the  emperor  and  pope,  and 


Malaval,  mt'li'vtl',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  mystic, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1627,  became  blind  in  infancy, 
but  studied  Latin  with  success.  He  published,  besides 
several  prose  works  of  a  mystical  character,  "  Poesies 
spirituelles,"  ("Spiritual  Poems.")  Died  in  1719. 

Mai-bone',  (EDWARD  G.,)  an  American  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1777.  He 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAicnm 


1504 


MALEBRANCHE 


visited  Europe  in  iSoi  in  company  with  Washington 
Allston,  hut  returned  the  same  year  to  America,  where 
he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  his  art.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Di'Ni.Ap,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap,  ii.  ;  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mal'-ehus  [Gr.  Mu^oc]  OF  Pnn.AnKi.PHiA,  called 
THE  SOPHIST,  a  Byzantine  historian,  lived  about  600 
A.D.  Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Malchus,  vou,  fon  mil'Kus,  (KART.  AUGUST,)  BARON, 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1770,  was  ap 
pointed  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  kingdom  of  West 
phalia  in  1813.  Me  published  several  works  on  political 
economy.  Died  in  1840. 

Malcolm  (maKkprn)  I.,  King  of  Scots,  the  son  of 
Donald  IV.,  succeeded  his  cousin,  Constantine  III.,  in 
938  A.I).  lie  was  killed  by  some  of  his  own  subjects  who 
had  revolted  ;  but  the  date  of  this  event  is  not  known. 

Malcolm  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  the  son  of  Ken 
neth  III.  He  began  to  reign  in  1003,  and  resisted  seve 
ral  hostile  incursions  of  the  Danes  with  success.  He- 
died  in  1033,  leaving  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was 
the  mother  of  Duncan  I. 

Malcolm  III.,  surnamed  CANMORE,  ("  Great  Head,") 
was  the  sou  of  King  Duncan,  whose  virtues  and  tragical 
fate  are  commemorated  in  Shakspeare's  "  Macbeth." 
When  Duncan  was  killed,  in  1040,  Malcolm  escaped  to 
England.  (See  MACHKTH.)  He  returned  with  an  army, 
defeated  Macbeth,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1057. 
About  1090  a  war  commenced  between  William  II.  of 
England  and  Malcolm,  who  was  killed  in  battle  at  Aln- 
wick  Castle  in  1093.  His  sons  Alexander  and  David 
became  kings. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi. 

Malcolm  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  born  about 
1140,  and  succeeded  his  grandfather,  David  I.,  in  1153. 
He  made  peace  with  Henry  II.  of  England  by  ceding 
to  him  Northumberland.  lie  died  in  1165,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  William. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xiii.,  xiv.  ; 
BUCHANAN,  "  Rerum  Scoiicarum  Historia." 

Malcolm,  mal'kom,  (|AMKS  PEI.LER,)  an  engraver 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1768.  He 
visited  Europe  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  student  in 
the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  He  published  "  Lon- 
dinum  Redivivum  ;  or,  The  Ancient  History  and  Modern 
Description  of  London,"  (1802-05,)  "Seventy  Views 
taken  within  the  Compass  of  Twelve  Miles  round  Lon 
don,"  (iSu,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1815. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1815. 

Malcolm,  mal'kom,  (Sir  JOHN,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
general  and  eminent  historian,  born  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Scotland,  in  1769.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  India  as  a 
cadet  in  the  army  of  the  Company.  After  performing 
an  important  political  mission  to  Persia,  (1799,)  he  was 
appointed  to  the  presidency  of  Mysore  in  1803.  He 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Persia  in 
1809  and  1810.  Having  collected  information  respect 
ing  Persia,  he  went  to  England  in  1812,  and  published 
a  valuable  "History  of  Persia"  (1815)  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  date  of  publication.  He  returned  to  India 
in  1817,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and,  as 
second  in  command,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Mehidpoor,  where  Holkar  was  defeated.  For  several 
ensuing  years  he  governed  Malwa  and  the  adjacent 
provinces  in  a  manner  which  is  highly  commended.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1821,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Bombay  in  1827, 
and  resigned  that  post  about  the  end  of  1830.  Sir  John 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Political  History  of 
India,"  (from  1784  to  1823,)  and  left  a  "Life  of  Lord 
Clive,"  which  appeared  in  1836.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Admiral  Sir  Pulteney  Malcolm.  Died  in  1833. 


Malcolm,  (Sir  PUI.TKNEY,)  G.C.B.,  a  British  admiral, 
born  near  Langholm,  Scotland,  in  1768,  was  a  brother  of 


the  preceding.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1778,  fought 
against  the  Erench  in  the  West  Indies,  and  was  made 
a  post-captain  in  1794.  He  escorted  the  army  of  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  to  Portugal  in  1808,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1813.  In  1816  and  1817  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Saint  Helena  station,  where 
his  duty  called  him  into  intercourse  with  Bonaparte,  who 
expressed  himself  much  pleased  with  his  manners  and 
conduct.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  full  admiral 
in  1837.  Died  in  1838. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,'' 
(Supplement.) 

Mal'cpm,  (HOWARD,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1799,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Tract  Society  and  of  the  American  Sunday- 
School  Union.  In  1835,  as  a  missionary,  he  visited 
India  and  China,  and  on  his  return  published  "Travels 
in  South-Eastern  Africa,"  (1839.)  He  published  a  "  Dic 
tionary  of  the  Bible,"  which  had  an  extensive  circulation, 
and  other  religious  works. 

Malczewski,  nuil-elieVskee,  written  also  Mal- 
czeski,  (ANTONI,)  an  excellent  Polish  poet,  born  in  Vol- 
hynia  about  1792,  was  a  son  of  a  general  in  the  Russian 
service.  He  received  a  French  education,  and  entered 
the  army  in  1811.  Having  quitted  the  army  in  1816,  he 
travelled  for  some  years,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Pole  that  ascended  Mont  Blanc.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  a  single  poem,  entitled  "Maria;  a  Tale  of 
the  Ukraine,"  (Warsaw,  1826,)  which  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  poems  in  the  Polish  language,  lie  died  poor  at 
Warsaw  in  1826. 

See  BIELOWSKI,  "A.  Malczewski,"  etc.,  1843. 

Maldachini  -  Famfili,  mal-cla-kee'nee  pam-fee'lce, 
(Donna  Ol.lMPlA,)  an  Italian  woman,  noted  for  her  am 
bition,  vices,  and  political  influence,  was  born  at  Viterbo 
in  1594.  She  was  married  to  a  man  whose  brother,  J.  15. 
Pamfili,  was  elected  pope  in  1644  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Innocent  X.  Died  in  1656. 

Mal'den,  (HENRY,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1800,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1822.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  in  University  College,  London,  about 
1830. 

Maldonado,  mal-do-na'no,  (Loi-K/,,)  a  Spanish  poet 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  contemporary  with  Cer 
vantes,  who  mentions  him  with  eulogy. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Maldonado,  (LoRKNXo  FKKKEK,)  a  navigator,  who 
was  born  probably  in  Spain.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  a 
voyage  which  he  made,  or  pretended  to  have  made,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  through  Behring  Strait  in  1588. 
The  majority  of  geographers  have  discredited  his  story. 

See  V.  DK  NAVARRETK,  "  Historia  de  la  Nauticei." 

Maldonat, mai-do-nat',  [ Lat.  MAI.DON.V'TIIS,](JIJAN,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  theologian,  born  in  Estremadura 
in  1534.  Having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  he  went 
to  Paris  about  1564,  and  and  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  professor  of  theology.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
person  of  great  talents,  learning,  and  piety,  and  to  have 
written  Latin  with  much  purity.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Commentaries  on  the  Four  Evangelists," 
(1596,)  which,  says  Ilallam,  "have  been  highly  praised 
by  theologians  of  the  Protestant  side."  Died  in  1583. 

See  PRAT,  "Maldonat  et  1'Universite  de  Paris."  1857;  BAYLR, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICKRON,  "Memoires." 

Maldonatus.     See  MAI.DONAT. 

Malebranche,  mSl'bR6Nsh/,[Lat.  MALEBRAN'CHIUS,] 
(NICOLAS,)  a  French  metaphysical  philosopher  of  great 
eminence,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  August,  1638. 
His  habits  in  youth  were  retired  and  studious.  lie  became 
a  priest  of  the  Oratory  in  1660,  and  was  a  zealous  Carte 
sian  in  philosophy,  which  was  his  favourite  study.  In  1674 
he  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  admirable  and  original 
"Search  for  Truth,"  ("  Recherche  de  la  Verite,")  which 
was  quickly  and  highly  appreciated.  New  and  enlarged 
editions  of  it  rapidly  followed.  The  general  design  of 
this  work  is  to  demonstrate  the  harmony  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy  with  revealed  religion.  His  style  is  eminently 
pure,  perspicuous,  and  elegant,  having,  says  Fontenelle, 
"all  the  dignity  which  the  subject  requires,  and  all  the 
grace  or  ornament  which  it  could  properly  receive." 


a,  e,  T.  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,6,  ii,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  met:  not;  good;  moon; 


M4LEBRANCHIVS 


MALHERBE 


"He  was,"  says  Hallam,  "a  warm  and  almost  enthusi 
astic  admirer  of  Descartes,  but  his  mind  was  independent, 
searching,  and  fond  of  its  own  inventions  ;  he  acknow 
ledged  no  master,  and  in  some  points  dissents  from  the 
Cartesian  school.  .  .  .  The  fame  of  Malebranche,  and, 
still  more,  the  popularity  in  modern  times  of  his  '  Search 
for  Truth,'  have  been  affected  by  that  peculiar  hypothe 
sis,  so  mystically  expressed,  the  seeing  all  things  in  God, 
which  has  been  more  remembered  than  any  other  part 
of  that  treatise."  "  He  bears  a  striking  resemblance," 
adds  the  same  critic,  "  to  his  great  contemporary  Pascal. 
Both  of  ardent  minds,  endowed  with  strong  imagination 
and  lively  wit,  sarcastic,  severe,  fearless,  disdainful  of 
popular  opinion  and  accredited  reputations.  .  .  .  But 
in  Malebranche  there  is  a  less  overpowering  sense  of 
religion  ;  his  eye  roams  unblenched  in  the  light  before 
which  that  of  Pascal  had  been  veiled  in  awe.  He  has 
less  energy,  but  more  copiousness  and  variety."  ("  Intro 
duction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  "This  ingenious 
philosopher  and  beautiful  writer,"  says  Mackintosh,  "is 
the  only  celebrated  Cartesian  who  has  professedly 
handled'  the  Theory  of  Morals.  .  .  .  The  manner  in 
which  he  applied  his  principles  to  the  particulars  of 
human  duty  is  excellent.  He  is  perhaps  the  first  phi 
losopher  who  has  precisely  laid  down,  and  rigidly  ad 
hered  to,  the  great  principle  that  virtue  consists  in  pure 
intentions  and  "dispositions  of  mind,  without  which  actions, 
however  conformable  to  rules,  are  not  truly  moral."  He 
was  involved  in  a  long  and  intemperate  controversy  with 
Arnauld  on  the  theory  of  ideas  and  on  the  doctrine  of 
grace. 

In  1687  he  combined  all  the  parts  of  his  system,  and 
developed  them  more  fully,  in  "Conversations  on  Meta 
physics  and  Religion,"  ("  Entretiens  sur  la  Metaphysique 
et  la  Religion.")  He  was  author  of  other  religious  and 
mystical  works,  among  which  are  "Christian  and  Meta 
physical  Meditations,"  (1683,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Mo 
rality,"  ("Traite  de  Morale,"  1684.)  He  gave  proof  of 
his  profound  attainments  as  a  geometer  by  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Communication  of  Motion."  Died  at  Paris  in 
October,  1715. 

See  FONTENEU.E,  "  filoge  de  Ma'ebranche ;"  MACKINTOSH, 
"View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;"  J.  E.  ERDMANN, 
"Ma'ebranche,  Spinoza  uncl  die  Sceptiker  und  Mystiker  des  sieb- 
zehnten  Jahrhunderts,"  1836;  KARI.  RELKTAG,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Malebrai.chio  Phi'.osnpho."  1846;  NICEKON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Malebraiichius.     See  MALEBRANCHE. 

Maleguzzi-Valeri,  mi-la-goot'see  va-la'ree,  (VERO 
NICA,)  COUNTESS,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  gifted 
women  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Reggio,  Lombardy,  in  1630. 
She  wrote  a  drama  called  "  Innocence  Recognized." 
Died  in  1690. 

Malek-Ibn-Anas,  ma'lek  Ib'n  an'as,  the  chief  or 
founder  of  one  of  the  four  Moslem  sects  which  are  ac 
counted  orthodox,  was  born  at  Medina  in  714  A.D.  His 
doctrines,  of  which  he  published  an  explanation,  were 
generally  adopted  by  the  Mussulmans  of  Spain,  Egypt, 
and  Barbary.  Died  about  795. 

See  HAMMER  Pi'RGSTAi.L,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber  ;" 
"  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Malek-Shah.     See  MALIK-SHAH. 

Malela.     See  MALALA. 

Malermi,  ma-len'mee,  or  Malerbi,  ma-leR'bee,  (Nic- 
COI.6,)  an  Italian  translator,  born  in  Venice  in  1422.  He 
produced  (1471)  the  first  Italian  version  of  the  Bible 
that  was  ever  printed. 

Malesherbes,  de,  deh  maTziRb',  (CHRETIEN  GUIL- 
I.AUME  DE  Lamoigiion — li'mwii/yoN',)  a  meritorious 
French  judge  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Paris  in  1721, 
was  a  son  of  Chancellor  de  Lamoignon.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  was  chosen  a  counsellor  in  the  Parliament, 
and  in  1750  became  president  of  the  Conr  des  Aides.  He 
was  directntr  de  la  librairie,  or  censor  of  books,  from 
1750  to  1768,  and  was  praised  for  his  liberality  or  indul 
gence  by  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  and  the  Encyclopaedists. 
He  acquired  great  popularity  by  his  defence  of  the  Parlia 
ment  against  the  ministry  about  1772.  In  1775,  having 
been  indicated  by  the  public  voice,  he  was  appointed  a 
colleague  of  Turgot  in  the  new  ministry,  as  minister  of 
the  king's  household  and  of  the  police,  but  he  resigned 
in  1776,  when  Turgot  was  dismissed.  He  was  elected 


to  the  French  Academy  in  1775,  though  he  had  not  pro 
duced  any  purely  literary  work.  He  was  author  of 
treatises  on  rural  economy  and  finances,  and  of  a  "  Me 
moir  on  the  Liberty  of  the  Press."  When  Louis  XVI. 
was  arraigned  by  the  Convention  in  1792,  Malesherbes 
generously  offered  to  him  his  services  as  counsel,  which 
were  accepted.  This  act  of  fidelity  having  rendered  him 
suspected  by  the  terrorists,  he  was  executed  in  April, 
1794.  His  virtues  are  warmly  eulogized  by  both  royal 
ists  and  republicans. 

See  DELISLE  DE  SALES,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  publique  et  privee 
de  Malesherbes,"  1803;  GAILI.ARD,  "Vie  ou  filoge  histoiique  de 
Malesherbes,"  180=;;  J.  B.  DUBOIS,  "Notice  sur  Lamoignon- Males 
herbes,"  1806  ;  BOISSY  D'ANGLAS,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Males 
herbes,"  avols..  1818;  C.  P.  DUFI.ESSIS,  "filoge  de  Malesherbes," 
1820;  DUPIN  A!SE,  "filoge  de  Lamoignon-Malesherbes,"  1841; 
SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Malesherbes,"  in  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  ii. 

Malet,  de,  deh  mS'li',  (CLAUDK  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French 
general  and  conspirator,  born  at  Dole  in  1754.  About 
1806  he  was  dismissed  from  the  service,  and  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  plotted  against  Bonaparte,  and  was  im 
prisoned  from  1808  to  1812.  Having  formed  another 
conspiracy,  he  announced  at  the  barracks,  in  Paris,  on 
the  24th  of  October,  1812,  that  Bonaparte  had  died  in 
Russia,  and  that  he  (Malet)  had  been  appointed  gov 
ernor  of  Paris  by  the  senate.  By  forged  orders  he  im 
posed  on  the  prefect  of  Paris,  made  Savary  prisoner,  and 
shot  General  Hullin.  At  this  crisis  his  audacity  was 
baffled  by  Laborde,  who  made  him  prisoner.  Malet  and 
his  accomplices  were  shot,  after  a  summary  process,  in 
October,  1812. 

See  LAFOX,  "Histoire  de  la  Conspiration  du  General  Malet," 
1814;  DOUKILLE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conspiration  de  Malet,"  1840. 

Mare-vill  or  Mel'vill,  (GEOFFREY,)  a  Scottish  states 
man,  became  lord  justiciary  of  Scotland  in  1171.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  held  that  office. 

Maleville,  de,  deh  mSl'vel',  (JACQUES,)  MARQUIS,  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Perigord  in  1741.  He  aided  Po<-- 
talis  and  others  in  framing  the  Civil  Code,  about  1800, 
and  wrote  an  "  Analysis  of  the  Discussion  of  the  Civil 
Code,"  (4  vols.,  1805.)  Died  in  1824. 

Maleville,  de,  (LEON,)  a  French  advocate  and  poli 
tician,  born  at  Montauban  in  1803.  He  was  minister  of 
the  interior  for  a  short  time  in  December,  1848.  He 
was  a  moderate  royalist,  and  a  devoted  friend  of  Thiers. 

COLONEL  DE  MALEVILLE,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Domme  in  1813,  was  killed  at  Solferino  in  July, 
1859. 

Malezieu,  de,  deh  mal'ze-ur/,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  i65o^He  was  a  friend  of  Fene- 
lon  and  Bossuet,  whose  influence  procured  for  him  the 
place  of  preceptor  of  the  Due  du  Maine.  He  after 
wards  taught  mathematics  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1701,  and  pub 
lished  "  Elements  of  Geometry  for  the  Duke  of  Bur 
gundy,"  (1715.)  Died  in  1729. 

Malfilatre  or  Malfillatre,  de,  deh  rnfl'fe'latR', 
(JACQUES  CHARLES  Louis,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Caen  in  1733.  He  composed  a  poem  on  the  "Transla 
tion  of  Elijah  to  Heaven,"  and  another  called  "  Narcissus 
in  the  Island  of  Venus,"  (1769,)  which  is  said  to  possess 
great  beauties.  Died  in  1767. 

See  DE  BAUDKH,  "Discours  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Malfilatre,"  1825  ; 
LA  HAKPE,  "  Cours  de  Litterature." 

Malgaigiie,  mSl'gan',  (JOSEPH  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
medical  writer  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  about  1806. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Sur 
gical  Anatomy  and  Experimental  Surgery,"  (2  vols., 
1838.)  Died  in  1865. 

Malherbe,  de,  deh  mi'liRb',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  dis 
tinguished  French  lyric  poet,  born  at  Caen  about  1555. 
He  served  several  campaigns  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
League,  and  married  Madeleine  de  Carriolis  in  1581. 
In  1587  he  composed  his  first  work,  "The  Tears  of  Saint 
Peter."  An  "Ode  to  the  Queen  Mariede  Medicis"  (i6co) 
was  the  foundation  of  his  fame.  He  came  to  Paris  a  few 
years  later,  and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Henry  IV. 
during  the  life  of  that'prince.  Malherbe  was  called  the 
poet  of  princes  and  the  prince  of  poets.  He  died  in  1628. 
"  He  was,"  says  La  Harpe,  "  the  first  [French]  model  of 
the  noble  style,  and  the  creator  of  lyric  poetry.  He  has 
its  enthusiasm,  its  movements,  and  its  toitrmtres."  "  Mal- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

95 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MALHOUET 


1506 


MALLET 


herbe,"  says  Hallain,  "gave  a  polish  and  a  grace  to  the 
lyric  poetry  of  France,  which  has  rendered  his  name  cele 
brated  in  her  criticism.  In  general,  \ve  find  in  his  poems 
neither  imagery  nor  sentiments  that  yield  us  delight." 
Comparing  him  with  Horace,  the  same  critic  remarks, 
"  He  is  far  from  deficient  in  that  calm  philosophy  which 
forms  the  charm  of  the  Roman  poet."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.'1) 

SeeRoux-Ai.pHERAN,  "  Recherches  sur  Malherbe  et  sa  Famille," 
1840;  '•  Malherbe,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  by  M.  DE  GOURNAV, 
1852  ;  SAINTK-BEUVE,  "  Causeriesdu  Lundi,"  tome  viii. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Malhouet.     See  MALOUET. 

Malibran,  mt'le'bRdN',  (MARIA  FELicrrA,)  a  cele 
brated  singer  and  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1808,  was  the 
daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  a  Spanish  tenor  singer.  She 
made  her  debut  in  London  in  1825,  and  in  1826  visited 
New  York,  where  she  married  M.  Malibran,  a  banker. 
After  he  had  become  a  bankrupt,  she  separated  from  him 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  she  performed  with  complete 
success  in  1828.  In  Italy,  England,  and  Germany  she 
also  obtained  triumphs  almost  unexampled  in  the  his 
tory  of  artistes.  Her  voice  was  a  mezzo-soprano  of  great 
volume.  She  was  very  successful  as  an  actress.  She 
died  in  England  in  1836,  soon  after  a  second  marriage 
with  M.  de  Beriot,  a  violinist. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Uinverselle  des  Musiciens;"  "Memoirs 
of  Madame  Malibran,"  by  the  COUNTESS  OF  MERLIN. 

Malik  (mal'ik)  or"  Melik,  mel'ik,  El  Adel,  el  a'clel, 
I.,  (Seif-ed-Deen  Aboobeker  Mohammed,  or  Saif- 
Eddyn  Aboubekr  Mohammed,  slf  ed-deen'  a'boo- 
bek'er  mo-ham'med,)  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Damascus, 
born  at  Baalbec  in  1139,  was  a  brother  of  the  famous 
Saladin.  He  gained  victories  over  the  crusaders  in  1174 
and  1187.  In  1201  he  became  Sultan  of  Egypt.  He 
extended  his  dominions  by  conquest  in  Syria.  Died 
in  1218. 

See  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  iii. 

Malik-Shah,  mal'ik  shah,  written  also  Malek- 
(Malec-  or  Melek-)  Shah,  a  famous  Seljookicle  sove 
reign,  the  son  of  Alp- Arslan,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1072. 
Under  Malik-Shah  the  Seljookian  empire  reached  its 
highest  point  of  power  and  glory.  His  character,  like 
that  of  his  father,  appears  to  have  been  singularly  noble. 
His  succession  to  the  throne  had  been  disputed  by  his 
brother  Toortoosh,  (Tourtousch.)  Before  giving  battle 
to  his  rival,  he  asked  his  minister,  Nizam-ool-Moolk,  as 
they  came  out  of  the  mosque  together,  what  he  had 
prayed  for.  "  I  have  prayed,"  answered  the  minister, 
"  that  God  would  give  you  the  victory  over  your  brother." 
"And  I,"  said  Malik-Shah,  "  that  God  would  take  away 
my  life  and  crown,  if  my  brother  is  worthier  to  reign  than 
I."  Perhaps  the  only  stain  upon  the  character  of  this 
great  prince  is  his  having,  at  the  instigation  of  his  Sul 
tana,  the  Khatoon  Tdorkan,  removed  from  office  his 
minister,  the  illustrious  Nizam-661-Mdolk,*  to  whose 
wise  administration  the  empire  was  chiefly  indebted  for 
its  long-continued  prosperity.  Hizam  ool-Mdolk  died 
soon  after  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin.  Malik-Shah 
survived  his  minister  only  a  few  months.  He  died  in  1092. 

"There  is  no  instance,"  says  Sir  John  Malcolm,  "in 
Persian  history,  of  so  vast  an  empire  enjoying  so  long  a 
period  of  tranquillity.  The  kingdom  he  inherited,  which 
extended  from  the  plains  of  Tartary  to  those  of  Syria, 
was,  during  the  twenty  years  of  his  reign,  only  disturbed 
by  a  short  contest  with  his  uncle  and  brother.  .  .  .  Agri 
culture  was  promoted,  learning  was  encouraged  ;  an  as 
sembly  of  astronomers  from  every  part  of  Malik-Shah's 
wide  dominions  were  employed  for  several  years  in  re 
forming  the  calendar." 

See  MALCOLM,  "History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. 

Malinche  or  Malintzin.     See  MARINA. 

Malingre,  mt'laNgk',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  histo 
rian  of  little  merit,  born  at  Sens  about  1580.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  French  history,  which  were  not  suc 
cessful.  Died  about  1653. 

Mal'la-ry,  (CHARLES,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in 
Poultney,  Vermont,  in  1801,  removed  to  Georgia.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Mercer  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Penfield,  Georgia. 


*  This  name,  the  only  one  by  which  he  was  known,  signifies  the 
"  regulator  of  the  state  or  kingdom." 


Mallary,  (ROLLIN  CARLOS,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in 
1784.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1819  until 
his  death,  in  1831. 

Mallemaiis,  mSl'mSN',  QEAN,)  a  French  writer,  noted 
for  singul.ir  and  extravagant  opinions,  born  at  Beatine 
in  1649,  was  a  brother  of  Claude,  noticed  below.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  before  the  Reign  of 
Jovian,"  (1704,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1740. 

Mallemaiis  de  Messanges,  mal'moN'  deh  mi'sdNzh', 
(CLAUDK,)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Beaune  in  1653.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  for  thirty-four  years  at  the 
College  du  Plessis,  Paris.  He  published  "A  Physical 
Treatise  on  the  World,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1723. 

Malleolus.     See  HAMMERLEIN. 

Mallery,  de,  deh  mtl're',  (CHARLES,)  a  Flemish  en 
graver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1576.  His  son  PHILIP,  bom 
in  1600,  was  a  skilful  engraver. 

See  F.  BASAN,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Mallet,  m$.'}Y,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTE,)  a  French  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Lille  in  1807.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Etudes  philosophiques,"  (2  vols.,  1837- 
38,)  which  gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
wrote  numerous  articles  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Mal'let  or  Malloch,  mal'loK,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Crieff,  in  Perthshire,  about 
1698,  was  the  son  of  James  Malloch.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1724,  and  changed  his  name  to  Mallet.  In 
1728  he  produced  "The  Excursion,"  a  poem,  and  in  1731 
"  Eurydice,"  a  tragedy.  He  became  intimate  with  Pope, 
who  procured  him  a  situation  as  travelling  tutor.  His 
tragedy  "  Mustapha"  (1739)  was  performed  with  ap 
plause.  About  1740  he  was  appointed  under-secretary 
to  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales.  Among  his  other  works 
are  "  Amyntor  and  Theodora,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Bacon.  ' 
He  is  censured  for  acting  as  the  venal  agent  of  Boling- 
broke  in  an  attempt  to  blast  the  memory  of  Pope,  (1749.) 
Died  in  1765.  "As  a  writer,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "he 
cannot  be  placed  in  any  high  class.  His  dramas  had 
their  day, — a  short  day, — and  are  forgotten  :  his  blank 
verse  seems  to  my  ear  the  echo  of  Thomson." 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  RUFFHEAD,  "  Life  of  Pope  ;" 
BOSWELL,  "  Life  of  Johnson  ;"  DISRAELI,  "  Quarrels  of  Authors  ;" 
CHAMBERS,  ''Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mallet,  (El)ME,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Melun 
in  1713.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Study  of 
Belles-Lettres,"  and  translated  into  French  Davila's 
"  History."  Died  in  1755. 

Mallet,  mal'ler,  (FREDRICK,)  a  Swedish  writer  on 
science,  born  in  1728,  was  for  many  years  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Upsal.  He  published  many  treatises 
between  1752  and  1774,  and  co-operated  with  Bergman 
in  a  general  description  of  the  earth.  Of  this  work 
Mallet  wrote  the  astronomical  part.  Died  in  1797. 

Mallet,  m&'li',  (JACQUES  ANDRE,)  called  Mallet- 
Favre,  a  Swiss  astronomer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1740,  was 
a  favourite  pupil  of  Daniel  Bernoulli.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  astronomy  at  Geneva  about  1770,  and  built  an 
observatory  there.  He  wrote  memoirs  on  astronomy, 
mechanics,  etc.  for  the  Academy  of  Paris  and  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Died 
in  1790. 

See  PICOT,  "  filogede  J.  A.  Mallet,"  1790. 

Mallet,  (PAUL  HENRI,)  a  Swiss  historian,  bom  at 
Geneva  in  1730.  He  taught  French  to  the  Prince-Royal 
of  Denmark,  (Christian  VII.,)  and  returned  to  Geneva 
in  1760.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the 
Academy  of  that  city.  Among  his  works  (in  French) 
are  "Monuments  of  the  Mythology  and  Poetry  of  the 
Celts,"  (1756,)  "Memoirs  on  the  Literature  of  the 
North,"  (6  vols.,  1760,)  and  a  "History  of  Denmark," 
(3  vols.,  1777,)  which  is  highly  esteemed  and  has  been 
translated  into  English,  German,  etc.  Died  in  1807. 

His  "Introduction  a  1'Histoire  de  Danemark"  was 
translated  into  English,  under  the  title  of  "Northern  An 
tiquities,"  which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on 
Northern  mythology. 

See  SISMONDI,  "De  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  P.  H.  Mallet,"  1807; 
HAAG,  "  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene"- 
rale;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1771. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MJLLET-DVPJN 


1507 


MALTE-BRUN 


Mallet-Dupan,  mt'l&'  du'pdN',  (J.ACQUF.s,)  a  distin 
guished  publicist  and  editor,  born  at  Geneva  in  1749. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  1782,  and  editor  of  a 
journal  called  "  Mercure  historique  et  politique,"  which 
was  very  successful.  In  the  Revolution  he  defended  the 
royalist  cause,  and  in  1792  was  compelled  to  suspend 
the  publication  of  the  "  Mercure,"  of  which  he  had 
written  the  political  editorials.  He  then  became  an 
exile,  and  in  1799  began  to  issue,  in  London,  the  "  Mer 
cure  Britannique,"  which  was  ranked  among  the  ablest 
political  journals  of  that  time.  Died  in  England  in  1800. 

See  "  Memoires  et  Correspondance  de  Mallet-Dupan."  Paris, 
1851  ;  SAINTE-KEUVE,  "  Causeries  cht  Lundi  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
Generate  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Mallet-Prevost,  mt'li'pRa'vo',  (HENRI,)  a  scientific 
Swiss  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1727.  He  published  a 
valuable  "Metrologic  Manual,  or  Repertory  of  Weights, 
Measures,  and  Coins  of  Various  Nations,"  (1802,)  and  a 
"Description  of  Geneva,"  (1807.)  Died  in  1811.  He 
was  a  brother  of  Paul  Henri  Mallet,  noticed  above. 

Malleville,  de,  deh  mtl'vel',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French 
minor  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1597,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  Academic  Frai^aise.  "  He  seldom 
produced  a  finished  piece,"  says  Hallam,  "though  not 
deficient  in  spirit  and  delicacy."  His  poems  are  son 
nets,  one  of  which  is  called  "  The  Fair  Early-Riser," 
("La  belle  Matineuse.")  Died  in  1647. 

See  "  Histoire  de  1'Academie  Francaise." 

Mallinkrot,  von,  fon  mal'lin-knot',  (BERNARD,)  a 
German  philologist,  was  dean  of  the  chapter  of  Minister. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Rise 
and  Progress  of  the  Art  of  Printing."  Died  in  1664. 

Mallio,  mal'le-o,  (MiCHELE,)  an  Italian  writer  of  verse 
and  fiction,  born  at  Sant'  Elpidio  in  1756;  died  in  1831. 

Malloch.     See  MALLET,  (DAVID.) 

Mal'lo-rjf,  (STEPHEN  R.,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  about  1810.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Florida  in  1850, 
and  re-elected  in  18*56.  He  served  as  secretary  of  the 
navy  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March,  1861,  to 
1865. 

Malmesbury,  EARL  OF.     See  HARRIS,  (JAMES.) 

Malmesbury,  ma"ms'ber-e,  (JAMES  HOWARD  HAR 
RIS,)  third  EARL  OF,  a  British  Tory  statesman,  a  grand 
son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Malmesbury,  was  born  in  1807. 
He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  at  the'  death  of  his  father, 
in  1841,  before  which  he  was  styled  LORD  FITZHARRIS. 
In  February,  1852,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  Derby  ministry,  which  was  dissolved  in 
December  of  that  year.  He  again  became  foreign  secre 
tary  under  Lord  Derby  in  1858,  and  on  the  formation 
of  the  Liberal  ministry  in  June,  1859,  was  succeeded  by 
Lord  John  Russell.  He  edited  the  "Diaries  and  Official 
Correspondence  of  the  First  Earl  of  Malmesbury,"  (1844.) 
About  July  i,  1866,  he  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal. 
He  retired  from  office  in  December,  1868. 

Malmesbury,  (WILLIAM  OF,)  an  old  English  histo 
rian,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Somerset 
shire  about  1095.  He  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery 
of  Malmesbury,  where  he  held  the  office  of  librarian. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  England  from 
450  to  H27,"("De  Gestis  Regum  Anglornm,")  "Recent 
History,"  ("Historia  Novella,")  wherein  he  relates  events 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness,  and  a  "  History  of  the 
English  Prelates,"  ("  De  Gestis  Pontificum."  )  These  are 
highly  prized  for  accuracy,  veracity,  and  critical  judg 
ment.  He  died  in  or  after  1143. 

Malmstrom  or  Malmstroem,  malm'stRom,  (ELis,) 
a  Swedish  poet,  born  in  1816.  He  published  a  collection 
of  elegies  entitled  "Angelica,"  (1840,)  and  an  epic  poem 
of  "  Ariadne."  Died  at  Stockholm  in  June,  1865. 

Malombra,  ma-lom'bRa,(PiETRO,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1556.  He  was  successful  in  portraits  and  in 
historical  pictures.  Died  in  1618. 

Malon,  mi'loN',  (JULIUS,)  a  Belgian  statesman  and 
prominent  leader  of  the  Catholic  party,  bom  at  Ypres 
in  1810.  He  became  minister  of  finance  in  1845. 

Ma-lone',  (EDMUND,)  an  Irish  critic,  chiefly  distin 
guished  as  an  editor  and  commentator  of  Shakspeare, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1741.  Having  inherited  an  easy 
fortune,  he  removed  to  London  and  devoted  himself  to 


literature.  He  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Burke,  and 
other  eminent  authors.  In  1790  he  published  his  edition 
of  Shakspeare,  with  commentaries.  He  excelled  Stee- 
vens,  a  rival  commentator,  in  candour  and  love  of  truth  ; 
but  "neither  seems,"  says  Hallam,  "to  have  had  a  full 
discernment  of  Shakspeare's  genius."  Malone  published 
an  edition  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  works,  with  a  Me 
moir  of  his  Life,  (1797,)  and  other  works.  He  died  in 
1812,  leaving  unfinished  an  improved  edition  of  Shak 
speare,  since  published,  (1821.) 

See  JAMES  BOSWF.I.L,  "  Biographical  Memoir  of  Edmund  Ma- 
lone  :"  SIR  JAMES  PRIOR,  "Life  of  Edmund  Malone,"  1860; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1793. 

Malouet  orMalhouet,  mt'loo'a',  (PIERRE  VICTOR,) 
a  French  statesman,  born  at  Riom  in  1740.  In  1789  he 
was  elected  to  the  States-General,  where  he  became 
prominent  as  a  liberal  royalist  and  co-operated  with 
Clermont-Tonnerre.  He  took  refuge  in  England  in 
1792,  returned  about  1802,  and  was  chosen  a  councillor 
of  state  in  1810.  Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Malouin,  mt'loo-aN',  (PAUL  JACQUES,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Caen  in  1701.  He  be 
came  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  Paris, 
in  1745,  wrote  many  articles  on  that  science  for  the 
"Encyclopedic,"  and  published  an  esteemed  work  on 
"Medical  Chemistry,"  (1750.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in  1778. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  E"loge  de  P.  J.  Malouin  ;"  "  Biographic  Medi- 
cale." 

Malpighi,  mal-pee'gee,  (MARCELLO,)  [Lat.  MARCEI/- 
LUS  MALPIG'HIUS,]  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist  and 
naturalist,  born  near  Bologna  in  1628.  Having  gradu 
ated  as  a  physician  in  1653,  he  became  professor  at  Pisa 
in  1656,  and  at  Messina  about  1664.  He  published,  be 
tween  1661  and  1665,  treatises  "On  the  Lungs,"  ("  De 
Pulmonibus,'')  "  On  the  Tongue,"  ("  De  Lingua,")  and 
"On  the  Brain,"  ("  De  Cerebro.")  Malpighi  was  the 
first  who  used  the  microscope  in  the  study  of  anatomy. 
In  1670  he  returned  to  Bologna,  and  wrote  an  important 
work  on  the  anatomy  of  plants,  "  Anatome  Plantarum," 
(1675,)  a  science  which  was  first  cultivated  by  Grew  and 
Malpighi.  He  made  discoveries  in  the  structure  of  the 
skin  and  glands.  In  1691  he  was  chosen  chief  physician 
to  Pope  Innocent  XII.  He  died  in  Rome  in  1694. 

See  REGIS,  "Vita  Malpighii,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Opera  posthuma," 
1698;  FABRONI,  "  Viue  Ita!orum  t'octiina  exceilentium  ;"  G.  ATTI, 
"  Notizie  biografiche  di  M.  Malpighi,"  etc.,  1847;  NICE'RON,  "Me 
moires;"  CUVIER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Malpighius.     See  MALPIGHI. 

Malsburg,  mals'booRG,  (ERNST  FRIEDRICH  GEORG 
OTTO,)  BARON,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Hanau  in 
1786,  translated  Calderon's  dramas  into  German,  and 
published  a  number  of  religious  poems.  Died  in  1824. 

Malt'by,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1770.  He  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in 
1836,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died 
in  1859. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1820. 

Malte-Brun,mault/brun/ormSl/teh-briiN',(CoNRAD,) 
a  Danish  author  and  geographer  of  great  merit  and  celeb 
rity,  was  born  at  Thister,  Jutland,  in  1775.  His  original 
name,  MALTHE  CONRAD "BRUUN,  (bRoon,)  was  changed 
by  the  French  into  Malte-Brun,  by  which  he  is  now 
universally  known.  He  had  a  great  facility  for  learning 
languages,  and  wrote  French  with  an  ease  and  elegance 
which  perhaps  no  other  foreigner  ever  acquired.  In  his 
enthusiasm  for  liberty,  he  wrote  some  political  articles, 
for  which  he  was  banished  in  1796.  He  composed  several 
admired  odes ;  that  on  the  death  of  Count  Bernstorf 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Danish  language. 
Induced  partly  by  admiration  of  Napoleon,  he  became 
an  adopted  citizen  of  Fiance  about  1800.  In  1806  he 
was  engaged  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Journal  des 
Debats"  of  Paris,  for  which  he  wrote,  during  many  years, 
able  articles  on  foreign  politics,  history,  languages,  science, 
etc.  Malte-Brun  and  Eyries  edited  in  1808  the  "  An 
nals  of  Voyages  of  Geography  and  of  History,"  ("Annales 
des  Voyages  de  la  Geographic  et  de  1'Histoire.")  Be 
fore  this  period  he  had  devoted  his  attention  chieflv  to 


€  as*;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  TH,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  ass;  %h  as  in  this.     (3^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MALTE-BRUN 


MAMM&A 


the  science  of  geography,  in  which  he  surpassed  all  his 
predecessors  by  his  happy  union  of  philosophy  with  a 
highly  poetic  imagination.  In  1810  he  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  work,  "A  System  of  Universal 
Geography,"  ("  Precis  de  la  Geographic  universelle,") 
the  plan  of  which  was  too  vast  for  one  man  to  execute. 
The  sixth  volume  was  finished  in  1825.  Exhausted  with 
excessive  labour  and  study,  he  died  in  December,  1826, 
leaving  his  task  unfinished.  The  language  of  this  work 
is  graphic,  picturesque,  and  at  times  highly  poetical.  In 
order  to  complete  the  plan,  two  more  volumes  were  sub 
sequently  added  by  M.  Huot.  There  is  a  good  English 
version  of  Malte-Brun's  Geography,  by  J.  G.  Percival,  the 
American  poet  and  savant. 

See  BORY  DE  SAINT-VINCENT,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M. 
Malte-Brun."  1827;  QUKRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  EKSLEW, 
"  Formatter- Lexicon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Malte-Brun,  (VICTOR  ADOLPHE,)  a  geographer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Pamiers  in  1838.  He 
published  a  new  edition  of  his  father's  Geography,  (8 
vols.,  1852-55.) 

Mal'thus,  (THOMAS  ROBERT,)  an  English  political 
economist,  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  Malthusian 
theory,  was  born  near  Dorking,  Surrey,  in  1766.  He 
graduated  as  M.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1797,  took  orders, 
and  settled  in  a  parish  near  his  native  place.  In  1798 
he  controverted  the  theories  of  Godwin  and  others  on 
the  progress  and  perfectibility  of  human  nature,  in  his 
"  Essay  on  the  Principle  of  Population  as  it  affects  the 
Future  Improvement  of  Society."  Much  attention  was 
excited  by  his  fundamental  principle,  that  population 
tends  to  increase  in  geometrical  progression,  and  that 
the  supply  of  food  and  other  necessaries  of  life  can  only 
be  increased  in  an  arithmetical  progression.  After  ex 
ploring  several  countries  of  Europe  in  search  of  facts  to 
confirm  his  system,  he  published  in  1803  an  enlarged 
edition  of  his  essay.  His  principles  were  approved  by 
many  statesmen  and  political  economists.  From  1805 
until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  modern  history  and 
political  economy  in  the  college  at  Haileybury.  He  was 
author  of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Progress  of 
Rent,"  (1815,)  "  Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1820,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1834. 

See  OTTER,  "Memoir  of  Malthus:"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1837;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  1803.  January,  1804,  and  May,  1821. 

Maltitz,  mal'tits,  (FRANZ  FRIEDRICH,)  BARON,  a 
Russian  statesman,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  1794, 
was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  of  Russia  at  the 
Hague.  He  was  the  author  of  poems  and  dramas,  (in 
German,)  and  wrote  a  continuation  of  Schiller's  "  Deme 
trius." 

Maltiz,  mal'tits,  (APOLLONius,)  z  litterateur  a.nA  diplo 
matist,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  1795,  was  ambas 
sador  from  the  Russian  court  to  Lisbon.  He  wrote 
epigrams  and  other  poems. 

Maltiz,  mal'tits,  (Gornui.F  AUGUST,)  BARON,  a 
German  writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1794,  published 
several  dramas,  and  a  political  satire  entitled  "Pepper- 
Corns,"  ("  Pfefferkorner.")  Died  in  1837. 

Mal'ton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  geometer  and  artist, 
born  between  1735  and  1750,  lived  in  London.  He 
published  about  1776  a  "Complete  Treatise  on  Per 
spective,"  which  is  highly  commended.  He  also  pub 
lished  various  engravings,  designed  by  himself,  among 
which  were  "  Views  of  London."  Died  about  1802. 

Mains,  mt'luV,  (£TTENNE  Louis,)  an  eminent  French 
optician  and  military  engineer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1775. 
He  became  a  student  of  the  Polytechnic  School  about 
1794,  and,  aided  by  the  tuition  of  Monge,  made  great 
progress  in  mathematics.  "Of  all  the  pupils  who  then 
attended  that  school,"  says  Biot,  "  he  showed  himself 
the  first  in  application  and  talents."  In  1798  he  accom 
panied  as  engineer  the  army  to  Egypt,  and  was  employed 
at  the  sieges  of  Jaffa,  Cairo,  etc.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1801,  devoted  his  leisure  to  analytic  optics,  and  pub 
lished  an  excellent  "Traite  d'Optique."  In  1808  the 
Institute  proposed  a  prize  for  a  memoir  on  the  double 
refraction  of  crystals.  Malus  won  this  prize,  after  a  mul 
titude  of  experiments,  in  which  he  happened  to  make 
one  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  physical 


science, — viz.,  the  property  or  phenomenon  which  he 
named  the  "polarization  of  light."  lie  was  elected  to 
the  Institute,  and  in  1811  received  the  Rtimford  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  the  discovery  just 
named.  He  was  chosen  examiner  for  physics  and  geome 
try  at  the  Polytechnic  School.  "  While  thus  surrounded," 
as  Biot  observes,  "with  numerous  friends  who  appre 
ciated  his  genius,  honoured  with  eminent  positions  to 
which  his  talents,  services,  and  probity  had  raised  him, 
already  celebrated  for  great  discoveries,"  etc.,  he  died 
prematurely,  in  February,  1812. 

See  ARAGO,  "Notices  biographiques,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Malvasia,  mal-va-see'a,  (CARLO  CESARE,)  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bologna  in  1616,  was  versed 
in  law,  medicine,  and  theology.  He  became  professor 
of  law  in  the  University  of  Bologna,  and  published,  be 
sides  numerous  other  works,  one  on  the  Bolognese 
painters,  "  Felsina  Pittrice,  Vite  e  Ritratti  de'  Pittori 
Bolognesi,"  (1678.)  Died  in  1693. 
See  CRESPI,  "Vita  di  C.  C.  Malvasia." 

Malveiida,  mal-ven'da,  (TOMAS,)  a  learned  Spanish 
Dominican,  born  at  Xativa  in  1566,  was  a  good  Hebrew 
scholar.  lie  lived  at  Rome  and  Valencia.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Old  Testament,"  with  a  literal 
Latin  version,  and  a  "Commentarius  de  Paradiso," 
("Account  of  Paradise.")  Died  in  1628. 

Malvezzi,   mal-veYsee,    (ViRGii.io,)    MARQUIS,    an 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bologna  in  1599.     He  served  in 
the  Spanish  army,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Eng 
land  by  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.     He  wrote,  besides  other 
historical  and  political  works,  "A  Life  of  Romulus,"  and 
a  "Life  of  Tarquin  the  Proud."     Died  in  1654. 
Malvoisine.     See  MAWMOISINE. 
Malzel  or  Maelzel,  melt'sel,  (LEON HARD,)  a  Ger 
man  mechanician,  noted  for  ingenuity,  was  born  at  Rat- 
isbon  in  1776.      He  made  an   automaton    chess-player, 
and  invented  the  metronome,  which  is  said  to  be  useful 
i  to  musicians.     Died  at  Vienna  in  1855. 

Maniachi,  ma'ma-kee,  (TOMMASO  MARIA,)  a  monk, 
bom  in  the  isle  of  Scio  in  1713.  He  went  to  Rome  in 
1740,  and  became  professor  in  the  College  of  the  Propa 
ganda.  He  wrote  "On  the  Oracles  of  the  Heathen," 
(1738,)  and  "Christian  Antiquities,"  ("Origines  et  Anti- 
quitates  Christianse,"  4  vols.,  1749-55.)  Died  in  1792. 

Mambelli,  mam-bel'lee,  (MARCANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
grammarian,  born  at  Forli  in  1582  ;  died  in  1644. 

Mambrun,  rnoN'buuN',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  critic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1600.  He 
became  a  Jesuit,  and  taught  philosophy  at  Caen  and 
theology  at  La  Fleche  with  a  high  reputation.  Taking 
Virgil  for  his  model,  he  composed  Latin  eclogues,  an 
epic  poem  called  "  Constantinus,"  (1658,)  and  an  "  Essay 
on  Epic  Poetry."  His  epic  obtained  a  transient  favour 
with  the  public.  Died  in  1661. 

Ma-nier'cus  [Gr.  M«//fyjKO£]  was  tyrant  of  Catana 
when  Timoleon  invaded  Sicily  in  344  B.C.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Ilicetas  and  the  Carthaginians  against 
Timoleon,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  executed  about 
338  is.c. 

Mamiani,  ma-me-d'nee,  (TERENZIO  DELLA  ROVERE,) 
COUNT,  an  Italian  philosopher  and  poet,  born  at  Pesaro 
about  1802.  He  produced  "  Nuove  Poesie,"  (1836,)  and 
"  Dialoghi  di  Scienza  prima,"  (1846.)  He  was  minister 
of  the  interior  and  president  of  the  ministry  at  Rome 
from  May  to  July,  1848.  In  politics  he  was  a  moderate 
Liberal,  and  opposed  to  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope, 
on  which  he  published  an  able  work,  "Del  Papato," 
(1851.)  He  became  minister  of  public  instruction  under 
Victor  Emmanuel  in  1860,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Greece  in  1861. 

Mammeea,  mam-mee'a,  or  Mameea,  ma-mee'a,  (J u- 
LIA,)  a  Roman  lady  or  princess,  born  at  Emesa,  was  the 
daughter  of  Julia  Mtesa,  and  the  aunt  of  Elagabalus.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Gessius  Marcianus  and  the  mother 
of  Alexander  Severus,  whose  moral  education  she  guarded 
with  watchful  diligence.  Severus  having  been  chosen 
emperor  in  222  A.D.,  she  acted  as  regent  during  his 
minority.  She  and  her  son  were  assassinated  by  the 
partisans  of  Maximin  in  235  A.D. 
See  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of  Rome." 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MAMOON 


1509 


MANCINI 


Mamoon,  Mamoun,  or  Mamun,  Al,  al-ma'moon', 
(Abool-  (or  Abul-)  Abbas-Abdallah,  a'bool'  ab'bis' 
ab-dal'ldh,)  the  seventh  Abbasside  caliph,  was  born  at 
Bagdad  in  786  A.D.,  and  was  the  son  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  After  defeating  his  brother  Alameen  in  battle, 
he  ascended  the  throne  in  813.  His  reign  was  disturbed 
by  rebellions  excited  by  princes  of  the  race  of  Alee  and 


Mau'by,  (Captain  GEORGE  WILLIAM,)  a  British 
officer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1765.  Having  entered  the 
army,  lie  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  About  1808 
he  invented  a  mode  of  saving  life  by  shooting  from  a 
mortar  a  rope  to  mariners  shipwrecked  near  the  coast. 
Several  crews  having  been  rescued  by  this  means,  the 
government  provided  mortars  and  other  apparatus  at 


others.     He  enforced  by  persecution  the  dogma  that  the    numerous  stations,   and   presented  to    Captain    Manby 
Koran  was  created  and  not  eternal,  which  was  considered    several  sums,  amounting  to  £7000.     Died  in  1854. 


heretical  by  many  of  the  Moslem  doctors.  While  he 
was  prosecuting  a  war  against  the  Greek  emperor  The- 
ophilus  in  Cilicia,  he  died,  in  833,  leaving  his  extensive 
empire  to  his  brother  Motassem.  Mamoon  was  cele 
brated  as  a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  and  was 


See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1823. 

Man'ches-ter,  (Sir  EDWARD  MONTAGU,)  EARL  OF, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1602,  was  the  son  of  Henry, 
first  Earl  of  Manchester.  He  was  styled  Lord  Kimbolton 
before  his  father's  death,  (1642.)  Having  joined  the 


praised  by  Eastern  writers  for  his  talents  and  liberality.  Opj)osjtion  to  the  court  about  1640,  he  acquired  great 
He  founded  colleges,  collected  Greek  and  Hindoo  manu-  |  popularity.  In  1642  he  was  impeached  for  treason,  with 
scripts,  which  were  translated  at  his  expense,  and  invited  \  HamClen  and  four  other  members  of  Parliament,  whom 

' 


the  scholars  and  savants  of  all  nations  to  his  capital,    tne 


(Bagdad,)  then  the  great  centre  of  learning  and  science 
in  the  world. 

See  HAMMER-PURGSTALL,  "  Littraturjieschichte  der  Araber;" 
ABOOLFEDA,  "  Annales  Moslemici ;"  ELMACIN,  "  Historia  Sara- 
ceiionim  ;"  CONDE,  "Historia  de  la  Domination  de  los  Arabes;" 
WEIL,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii. ;  CASIKI,  "  Bibiio- 
theca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Mamoun.     See  MAMOON. 

Mamvm.     See  MAMOOX. 

Ma-mu'ri-us  Ve-tu'ri-us,  a  worker  in  brass  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Numa,  was  employed  to  make 
other  shields  exactly  like  the  one  which  was  said  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven.  He  asked  no  other  reward 
but  that  his  name  might  be  sung  at  the  feast  of  the  An- 


attempted   to  seize  in    the  House.     He  was 


cilia,  (shields.) 
Ma-mur'ra, 


a  Roman   knight,  was   the   commander 

He 


of  the  engineers  in  Julius  Caesar's  army  in  Gaul, 
amassed  a  large  fortune. 

Man  or  Maaii,  man,  (CORNELLS.)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1621.  Having  studied  and 
worked  in  Rome  and  Venice  some  years,  he  settled  at 
Delft.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  his  style  is  said  to 
have  resembled  that  of  Titian.  His  portraits  of  surgeons 
and  physicians  in  the  Surgeons'  Hall  of  Delft  are  highly 
praised.  Died  in  1706. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Maiiaigo,  ma-m'go,  (SiLVESTRO,)  a  historical  painter, 
born  in  Venice  about  1680. 

Maiiara,  ma-na'ra,  (PROSPERO,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Taro,  near  Parma,  in  1714.  He  became 
a  councillor  of  state,  and  afterwards  prime  minister  of 
the  Prince  of  Parma.  He  translated  into  Italian  verse 
Virgil's  "Georgics"  and  "  Eclogues,"  and  wrote  sonnets, 
eclogues,  and  other  short  poems.  Died  in  1800. 

See  ANTONIO  CERATI,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Manara,"  1801. 

Maiiardi,  ma-naR'dee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1462 ;  died  in 

1536. 

Manasse.     See  MANASSEH. 

Ma-nas'seh  or  Ma-nas'ses,  [Heb.  r\Wtt  ;  Fr.  MA 
NASSE,  mt'nt'sa',]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  born  in  Egypt 
about  1712  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath. 
(See  Genesis  xli.  51.)  His  descendants  formed  a  half- 
tribe  among  the  tribes  of  Israel. 

Manasseh,  [Heb.  HtyjO,]  King  of  Judah,  the  son  of 
Hezekiah,  was  twelve  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded 
his  father,  in  697  li.C.  Having  forsaken  the  true  worship 
and  Income  an  open  idolater,  he  %vas  taken  captive  by 
the  King  of  Assyria,  and  detained  at  Babylon  some 
years.  He  repented,  and  was  restored  to  his  kingdom. 
After  a  reign  of  fifty-five  years,  he  died,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  Amon. 

See  II.  Kings  xxi.  and  II.  Chronicles  xxxiii. 

Ma-nas'ses,  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  Greek  writer  of  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a  general  chronicle,  in  verse,  from 
the  creation  to  the  year  1081  A.D.  It  is  of  some  value 
for  the  history  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

Ma-iias'ses  Ben-Jb'seph-Een-Is'rael,  a  learned 
Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  Spain  about  1604.  He  resided 
mostly  at  Amsterdam.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"On  the  Harmony  of  the  Scriptures,"  ("  De  Convenien- 
tia  Locorum  Sanctse  Scripturae,"  etc.,)  and  "The  Hope 
of  Israel,"  ("  Spes  Israelis.")  Died  in  1659. 


appointed  a  general  of  the  army  of  Parliament  in  1643, 
and  co-operated  with  Fairfax  at  the  victory  of  Marston 
Moor,  (1644.)  Manchester  and  Essex  were  charged  by 
Cromwell  with  temporizing  and  with  being  averse  to  a 
decisive  victory  of  the  popular  party,  and  the  command 
was  taken  from  them  by  the  "  Self-denying  Ordinance," 
(1644.)  At  the  restoration  (1660)  he  was  appointed  lord 
chamberlain  by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1671.  "He  was 
distinguished,"  says  Hume,  "by  humanity,  generosity, 
and  every  amiable  virtue." 

See  CLARENDON,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  LODGE,  "  Por 
traits  of  Illustrious  Personages." 

Manchester,  (HENRY  MONTAGU,)  first  EARL  OF,  an 
English  statesman,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1562.  He  became  lord  chief 
justice  about  1617,  and  lord  treasurer  of  England  in 
1620.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Manchester  in  1626. 
Died  in  1642. 

Manchoo  or  Manchu  Khan.     See  MANGOO. 

Mancinelli,  man-che-nel'lee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Velletri  in  1452.  He  taught  grammar  at 
Rome,  Venice,  etc.,  and  wrote  several  works  on  gram 
mar.  He  was  author  of  "The  Mirror  of  Morality," 
("  Speculum  de  Moribus,")  "  Carmen  de  Vita  sua,"  (a 
poem  on  his  own  life,)  and  other  poems.  Died  about 
1506. 

See  BAVI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  NICERON 
"  Memoires." 

Mancini,  man-chee'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  the  Romagna  in  1725.  He  worked  in 
Rome,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  best  painters  of  his 
time.  Died  in  1758. 

Mancini,  (HORTENSIA,)  Duchess  of  Mazarin,  an 
Italian  lady  of  remarkable  beauty,  born  at  Rome  in 
1646,  was  a  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  refused  to 
give  her  in  marriage  to  Charles  II.  of  England,  then  an 
exile.  She  made  in  1661  an  ill-assorted  marriage  with 
the  French  Due  de  la  Meilleraie,  who  then  received  the 
title  of  the  Due  de  Mazarin.  She  soon  separated  from 
him,  and  lived  many  years  in  London,  where  her  house 
was  the  resort  of  men  of  wit  and  pleasure.  Died  in 
1699.  According  to  Macaulay,  she  was  one  of  the  sul 
tanas  of  Charles'll.  in  the  last  years  of  his  reign. 

See  A.  RENEE,  "Les  Nieces  de  Mazarin." 

Mancini,  (Louis  JULES.)     See  NIVERNOIS. 

Mancini,  (MARIA,)  Princess  of  Colonna,  a  sister  of 
Hortensia,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1640, 
and  was  a  daughter  of  Cardinal  Mazarin's  sister.  Louis 
XIV.  was  so  well  pleased  with  her  in  his  early  youth 
that  he  was  inclined  to  marry  her ;  but  Mazarin  sent 
her  to  a  convent.  In  1661  she  was  married  to  Prince 
Colonna.  She  ran  away  from  him  in  1672,  obtained  a 
divorce,  and  became  a  nun.  Died  about  1715. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  A.  RENEE,  "Les  Nieces  de 
Mazarin." 

Mancini,  (MARIA  ANNA,)  Duchess  of  Bouillon,  a  niece 
of  Mazarin,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1649.  She  was  mar 
ried  in  1662  to  the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  and  became  the 
mother  of  the  Prince  de  Turenne.  She  was  the  first 
person  who  patronized  La  Fontaine  the  fabulist,  who  has 
praised  her  in  his  letters.  She  died  in  1714. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;"  A.  RENEE,  "  Les  Nieces 
de  Mazarin." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (£p=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANCINI 


1510 


MANET HO 


Mancini,  (OLYMPIA,)  Countess  de  Soissons,  another 
sister  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1642,  was  married  to 
Eugene  Maurice  of  Savoy,  Count  de  Soissons.  She  was 
the  mother  of  the  celebrated  Prince  Eugene,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Austrian  armies. 

Mancini,  (PAOLO,)  the  founder  of  the  Academy  of 
Umoristi,  was  born  at  Rome,  lie  was  the  grandfather 
of  Hortensia  and  Maria  Mancini,  noticed  above.  Died 

in  1635- 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Man'co  Ca-pac'  (or  mang'ko  ka-pak')  was,  according 
to  tradition,  the  first  Inca  of  Peru.  He  instituted  the 
worship  of  the  sun,  of  which  he  pretended  to  be  the 
offspring,  founded  the  city  of  Cuzco,  and  gave  laws  to 
the  natives  of  that  region,  whom  he  found  in  a  savage 
state.  He  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  1000 
A.D.  (See  INCA.) 

Manco  Capac,  Inca  of  Peru,  was  the  son  of  Huayna 
Capac.  He  became  heir  to  the  throne  after  Atahualpa 
was  killed  by  Pizarro,  in  1533.  He  made  a  treaty  with 
Pizarro,  but,  finding  himself  treated  as  a  captive,  he 
escaped  in  1535,  raised  a  native  army,  and  besieged 
Cuzco.  The  approach  of  Almagro  forced  him  to  retire. 
He  was  assassinated  by  a  Spaniard  about  1544. 

See  PKESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
iii. ;  G.  DE  VEGA,  '•  Historia  general  del  Peru." 

Mandajors,  de,  deli  mS.N'dS'zhok',  (JEAN  PIERRE 
DES  OURS,)  a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Alais  in 
1679.  He  published  a  "Critical  History  of  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,"  (1733.)  Died  in  1747. 

Man'da-ne,  [Gr.  Mavt5ow?,j  a  daughter  of  Astyages, 
King  of  Media,  and  mother  of  Cyrus  the  Great. 

Mandar,  mun'clur,  the  same  as  MANDARA,  which  see. 

Mandar,  moN'cla'K',  (MicuKi.  PHILIPPE,)  better  known 
as  THEOPHILE  MANDAR,  a  French  political  writer  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Marines  in  1759.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  several  insurrections  in  Paris  from  1789  to  1793. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  councils  of  his  party  he  attempted 
to  arrest  the  massacre  of  September,  1792,  and  proposed 
a  dictatorship  for  that  purpose.  He  wrote  "The  Genius 
of  Ages,"  and  other  poems,  and  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Louis  BI.ANC,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Francaise." 

Maii'da-ra,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  mun'da-ra,]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  a  famous  mountain  used  by  the  gods 
in  churning  the  ocean.  (See  K<JRMA.) 

Mandel,  man'del,  (EDUARD,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1810.  His  portrait  of  Charles  I.,  after 
Van  Dyck,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece.  He  obtained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  at  the  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Mandelot,  de,  deli  moNd'lo',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
fanatic  and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1529.  He  was 
commandant  at  Lyons,  and  co-operated  with  the  king  in 
the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1572.  Died  in  1588. 

Mander,  van,  vtn  man'der,  (CAREL,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  painter,  poet,  and  biographer,  born  at  Meule- 
beke,  near  Courtrai,  in  1548.  He  received  lessons  in  art 
from  Lucas  de  Heere  of  Ghent,  and  about  1574  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  worked  three  years  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  of  frescos. 
In  1583  he  settled  at  Haarlem,  where  he  remained 
twenty  years  and  founded  an  academy  of  painting. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Adam  and  Eve  in  Eden," 
and  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He  translated  the 
"  Iliad,"  and  Virgil's  "  Bucolics'' and  "  Georgics."  He 
was  author  of  "  Dina,"  a  drama,  and  of  other  poems. 
His  best  literary  work  is  "Lives  of  Flemish  and  Italian 
Painters,"  (1604,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1606. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
GESLACHT,  "Vie  de  Care]  van  Mander,"  prefixed  to  his  works; 
NAGI.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Mander,  van,  (CAREL,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Delft  in  1580.  He  worked  at  the 
court  of  Denmark.  Died  about  1665. 

Man'de-ville,  de,  (or  deh  mfixd'vel',)  (BERNARD,)  an 
ingenious  author,  born  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  about  1670. 
He  became  a  resident  of  London,  where  he  practised 
medicine  before  he  appeared  as  an  author.  In  1 7 14  he  pub 
lished  a  poetical  satire  called  "  The  Grumbling  Hive,  or 


Knaves  Turned  Honest."  This  having  been  censured  as 
immoral  by  William  Law  and  other  writers,  he  published, 
with  notes,  a  new  edition,  with  the  title  of  "The  Fable 
of  the  Bees,  or  Private  Vices  Public  Benefits,"  (1723.) 
It  was  denounced  by  the  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  as  a 
pernicious  book.  (For  an  analysis  of  this  remarkable 
work,  see  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  article 
" Mandeville,  B.  de.")  He  also  wrote  "Free  Thoughts 
on  Religion,  the  Church,  and  National  Happiness." 
Died  in  1733. 

See  BIKTH,  "Life  of  Bernard  de  Mandeville;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica." 

Mandeville,  de,  deh  man'deh-vil',  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  fa 
mous  English  traveller,  born  at  Saint  Alban's  about  1300. 
In  early  life  he  practised  medicine.  In  1327  he  went 
to  Palestine,  enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  various  countries  of 
Asia.  He  spent  about  three  years  in  Cambalu,  (Peking,) 
and  returned  home  in  1360.  He  wrote  an  account  of 
his  travels,  which  obtained  a  wide  reputation.  Ilis  book 
abounds  in  marvellous  and  extravagant  stories,  partly 
borrowed  from  Pliny  and  from  mediaeval  romances.  Died 
in  1372.  He  is  called  the  first  English  prose  writer. 

See  DISRAELI,  "Amenities  of  Literature;"  SPRENGEI.,  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  geographischen  Entdeckungen ;"  "Retrospective  Re 
view,"  vol.  iii.,  (1821.)  m . 

Maiidosio,  man-do'se-o,  (  PROSPERO,)  a  mediocre 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Rome.  He  compiled  a  work 
called  "  Bibliotheca  Roinana,"  consisting  of  biographies 
of  about  five  hundred  Roman  writers,  ancient  and 
modern,  (2  vols.,  1682-92.)  Died  about  1700. 

Manes.     See  LARES. 

Ma'nes,  Ma'ni,  or  Manichaeus,  man-e-kee'us,  the 
founder  of  the  heretical  sect  of  Manichseans,  was  prob 
ably  born  in  Persia  in  the  early  part  of  the  third  cen 
tury.  He  corrupted  the  Christian  religion  by  mixing 
with  it  some  doctrines  of  the  Magi,  teaching  that  the 
world  is  made  or  ruled  by  two  eternal  and  opposing 
principles  of  light  and  darkness.  He  rejected  the  Old 
Testament,  professed  that  he  was  the  Comforter  promised 
in  John  xvi.,  held  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and 
published  a  book  which  he  pretended  contained  a  revela 
tion  from  heaven.  Manes  obtained  proselytes  in  Persia, 
Egypt,  and  other  countries.  Saint  Augustine  was  a  zealot 
of  this  sect  in  his  youth.  The  Oriental  accounts  of  Manes, 
differing  widely  from  those  of  the  Greek  or  Catholic 
writers,  state  that  he  was  born  of  the  race  of  Magi,  lived 
in  Susiana,  was  an  adept  in  painting  and  other  arts, 
produced  a  "gorgeous  picture-book,"  which  was  re 
ceived  as  sacred  by  his  disciples,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Varanes,  King  of  Persia,  about  272  A.D.  The  Latin 
and  Greek  writers  say  that  his  original  name  was  CuiiRl- 
cus,  that  he  derived  his  doctrines  from  an  impostor 
named  Terebinthus,  and  was  punished  with  death  for 
his  heresy,  in  277  A.D. 

See  BEAUSOHRE,  "  Histoire  du  Manicheisme  ;"  BASNAGE,  "His 
toire  des  Eglises  reformers ;"  SAINT  AUGUSTINE,  "  De  Moribus 
Manichreorum;"  WALCH,  "  Geschichte  der  Ketzereien  ;"  PLUCQUET, 
"  Dictionnaire  des  Heresies;"  HITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy;" 
BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  article  "  Manicheism." 

Manesse,  mi'ness',  (DENIS  JOSEPH,)  a  French  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Landrecies  in  1743  ;  died  in  1820. 

Manesson-Mallet,  mt'n.YsoN'  mS'li',  (ALAIN,)  a 
French  geometer  and  military  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1630.  He  published  a  "Description  of  the  World," 
("Description  de  1'Univers,"  5  vols.,  1683.)  Died  in  1706. 

Man'e-tho,  [Gr.  Wiaviduv  and  Mai-eflwc;  Fr.  MANE- 
THON,  nit'na'to.N',]  a  celebrated  Egyptian  writer  and 
priest,  was  a  native  of  Sebennytus,  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  of  Diospolis,  and  flourished  in  the  reigns  of 
Ptolemy  Soter  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  between  300 
and  250  H.C.  He  was  reputed  to  have  attained  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  wisdom.  lie  was  keeper  of  the  sacred 
archives  at  Ileliopolis,  and  author  of  several  important 
works,  among  which  was  a  "  General  History  of  Egypt," 
in  Greek.  This  is  lost,  except  fragments  preserved  by 
Josephus  in  his  "Reply  to  Apion,"  and  by  George  Syn- 
cellus.  He  was  the  first  Egyptian  who  wrote  in  Greek 
an  account  of  the  religion,  history,  and  chronology  of 
Egypt.  A  poem,  in  Greek,  on  the  influence  of  the  stars, 
entitled  "Apotelesmatica,"  (which  has  come  down  to  us 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


M4NETHON 


1 5i 


MAN GUM 


entire,)  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Manetho,  but  was  proba 
bly  written  by  a  later  author. 

See  BI-NSEN,  "  Egyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte  ;"  BOECK, 
"  Manetho  und  die  H'undssternperiode,"  1845;  FABRICIUS,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Gra?ca  ;"  FRUIN,  "  Dissertatio  historica  de  Manethone,"  1847  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Manethon.     See  MANETHO. 

Maiietti,  ma-net'tee,  [Lat.  MANET'TUS,]  (GiAN- 
NOZZO,)  an  Italian  statesman  and  author,  bom  at  Flor 
ence  in  1396,  was  one  of  those  who  contributed  to  the 
revival  of  learning  in  Italy.  He  was  versed  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time.  After  holding  other  high  offices 
in  Florence,  he  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Ten,  and 
was  secretary  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Life  of  Petrarch,"  and  a  "  Specimen  of  the  Lite 
rary  History  of  Florence  during  the  Thirteenth  and 
Fourteenth  Centuries,"  in  Latin,  (1747.)  Died  in  1459. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  J.  B. 
REQCIEK,  "Vie  de  G.  Manetti,  Senateur  de  Florence,"  1762;  NAI.DO 
NALDI,  "Vita  Manetti,"  in  MURATORI'S  "  Scriptores  Rerum  Itali- 
cartim. " 

Manetti,  (RuTii.io,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  Francesco  Vanni.  His  design 
and  style  are  commended  as  correct  and  noble.  He 
painted  both  in  oil  and  freito  with  equal  success.  Died 
in  1639. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  BALDINUCCI,  "  No- 
tizie." 

Manetti,  (SAVERIO,)  an  Italian  physician  and  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Florence  in  1723.  He  became  keeper  of 
the  botanic  garden  of  that  city,  and  corresponded  with 
the  most  eminent  savants  of  Europe.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Different  Species  of 
Grain  and  Bread,"  (1765,)  and  a  splendid  work  on  the 
"  Natural  History  of  Birds,"  with  coloured  plates,  (1767.) 
Died  in  1785. 

Maiiettus.     See  MANETTI,  (GIANNOZZO.) 

Man'fred,  [It.  MANFREDI,  man-fra'dee;  Lat.  MAN- 
FRE'DUS;  FT.  MAINFROI,  ma.N'I'Rwa',]  King  of  Naples, 
born  about  1234,  was  a  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frede 
rick  II.,  from  whom  he  seems  to  have  inherited  noble  or 
at  least  popular  qualities.  By  the  will  of  Frederick,  who 
died  in  1250,  Manfred  became  Regent  of  the  Tsvo  Sicilies 
until  the  arrival  of  Conrad,  the  lawful  heir,  who  was 
in  Germany.  Conrad  died  in  1254,  leaving  an  infant 
son,  Conradin  or  Corradino,  and  Manfred  again  became 
regent.  A  rumour  of  Conradin's  death  having  obtained 
credence,  Manfred  was  proclaimed  king  in  1258,  and  he 
refused  to  relinquish  the  royal  power  when  that  report 
was  proved  to  be  false.  He  became  an  ally  of  the  Ghibe- 
linesof  Northern  Italy  against  the  Guelphs.  Urban  IV., 
who  became  pope  in  1261,  and  who  had  long  been  an 
enemy  to  the  house  of  Suabia,  excommunicated  Manfred, 
and  offered  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Charles 
of  Anjou,  a  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France.  Charles 
accepted  it  as  a  fief  of  the  see  of  Rome,  marched  an 
army  into  Naples,  and  gained  a  victory,  in  which  Man 
fred  was  killed,  in  1266. 

See  BLTRIGNI,  "  Histoire  de  Sicile;"  SlSMONDI,  "  Histoire  des 
Republiques  Italiennes :"  GIUSEPPE  DE  CESARE,  "Storia  di  Man 
fredi  Re  di  Sicilia,"  2  vols.,  1837  ;  VON  MUNCH,  "Konig  Manfred," 
1840;  C.  M.  RICCIO,  "A'iCiini  Studii  storiri  intonio  a  Manfredi," 
etc.,  1850;  F.  A.  SEHIRE,  "fitude  historique:  Les  Partis  au  Moyen- 
Age,"  etc.,  1853. 

Manfredi.     See  MANFRED. 

Manfredi,  man-fKa'dee,  (BARTOI.OMMEO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Mantua  about  1580.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Caravaggio,  whom  he  imitated  so  well  that  good  judges 
mistook  his  works  for  those  of  his  master.  Among  his 
productions  is  "A  Party  of  Men  drinking."  Died  in 
Rome  in  1617. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Manfredi,  (EusTAcmo,)  an  eminent  Italian  geometer 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1674.  He  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Bologna  in  1698,  and  astronomer  to  the  Institute  of  that 
city  in  1711.  He  published  Ephemerides  from  1715  to 
1750,  "Elements  of  Chronology,"  (1744,)  "Institutes  of 
Astronomy,"  ("  Instituzioni  astronomiche,")  and  other 
works.  Manfredi  also  wrote  admired  sonnets  and  can- 
zoni.  He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of 


Sciences  of  Paris,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  Died  in  1739. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  f.'.oge  de  Manfredi;"  G.  P.  ZANOTTI,  "Vita 
di  E.  Manfredi,"  1743;  FABRONI,  "Vitz  Italorum  doctrina  excel- 
lentium  ;"  FANTUZZI,  "  Scrittori  Bolognesi." 

Manfredi,  (GARRIELE,)  born  at  Bologna  in  1681,  be 
came  professor  of  mathematics  in  Bologna  in  1720.  He 
succeeded  his  brother  Eustachio  in  1739  as  superin 
tendent  of  the  waters.  He  wrote  an  able  treatise  "On 
Equations  of  the  First  Degree,"  and  several  Memoirs 
for  the  Institute  of  Bologna.  Died  in  1761. 

See  MONTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Manfredini,  man-fRa-dee'nee,  (  FEDERIGO,  )  MAR 
QUIS,  an  Italian  minister  of  state,  born  at  Rovigo  in 
1743.  He  became  prime  minister  of  the  archduke  Fer 
dinand  of  Tuscany  in  1790.  His  prudent  measures  pre 
served  Tuscany  from  invasion  by  the  French  until  1799, 
when  Ferdinand  and  his  minister  were  forced  to  retire 
into  exile.  Died  in  1829. 

Manfredus.     See  MANFRED. 

Mangeart,  mSN'zhaR',  (THOMAS,)  a  French  nu 
mismatist  and  monk,  born  at  Metz  in  1695,  WI"fte  an 
''Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  Medals,"  (1763.) 
Died  in  1762. 

Mangenot,  mSNzh'no',  (Louis,)  ABPE,  a  French  poet 
and  priest,  born  in  Paris  in  1694.  He  \\rote  an  admired 
eclogue  called  "The  Rendezvous."  Died  in  1768. 

Manget,  moN'zhcV,  (JEAN  JACOB,)  a  Swiss  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1652.  He  practised  in 
that  city,  and  published  many  scientific  works,  among 
which  are  "Anatomical  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Ana- 
totnica,"  1685,)  and  "Curious  Chemical  Library,"  ("Bi 
bliotheca  chemica  curiosa,"  1702.)  In  1699  he  received 
the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1742. 

See  SENKBIER,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Man'gey,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theological  writer, 
born  at  Leeds  in  1684.  He  obtained  the  first  stall  of 
Durham  in  1722.  Died  in  1755. 

See  HUTCHINSON,  "History  of  Durham." 

Mangili,  man-jee'lee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  natu 
ralist  and  physician,  born  at  Caprino  in  1767;  died  in 
1829.  He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises. 

Mangin,  mdN'zhaN',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  architect, 
born  near  Meaux  in  1721,  designed  several  important 
edifices  in  Paris,  among  which  were  the  Halle  au  Ble 
(Grain-Market)  and  the  Church  du  Gros-Caillou.  Died 
in  1807. 

Mangin,  (JEAN  HENRI  CLAUDE,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  at  Metz  in  1786.  He  wrote  several  legal  works. 
Died  in  1835. 

•  Manglard,  mSN'glfR',  (ADRIEN,)  a  French  painter 
of  landscapes  and  marine  views,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1695  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1-760. 

Mangles,  mang'g'lz,  (Captain  JAMES,)  a  British  trav 
eller,  who  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  in  the  navy 
in  1815.  In  1816,  accompanied  by  Captain  Irby,  he  be 
gan  an  extensive  journey,  in  which  they  explored  the 
Upper  Nile,  the  ruined  city  of  Petra,  and  the  Dead 
Sea.  They  returned  to  England  in  1820.  See  IRBY, 

(CHARLES  L.) 

Man'goo'  (or  Mangou)  Khan,  written  also  Meng- 
ko  and  Moengke,  Emperor  or  Grand  Khan  of  the 
Mongols,  was  the  son  of  Toolee,  (Touli,)  and  grandson  of 
Jengis  Khan.  He  ascended  the  throne  about  1250.  His 
empire  included  Tartary,  India,  a  part  of  China,  and 
Persia.  One  of  his  armies,  under  his  brother  Kooblai 
Khan,  subdued  Thibet ;  and  another  army  at  the  same 
time  (1256)  conquered  in  Persia  the  Ismaeelian  dynasty. 
Two  years  later  he  took  Bagdad  and  made  himself  mas 
ter  of  the  caliph's  dominions.  While  pursuing  his  con 
quests  in  China,  he  was  killed  in  battle,  in  1259.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Kooblai  Khan. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Histoire  des  Ilkans  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Ger.erale." 

Mangum,  mang'gum, (  WILLIE  PERSON,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Orange  county,  North  Carolina,  in 
1792.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  North  Carolina  in  1831,  and  acted 
with  the  Whigs  until  that  party  was  dissolved.  He 
also  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  Senate  for  two 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ¥i, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANHES 


1512 


MANN 


SCAI.IGKR,  "Prolegomena  in  Mamlium,"   ifioo  ;  F.   JACOH, 
.  Manilio  Poeta,"  etc.,  1832;  "  Noitvelle  Biographic  Gene- 


terms,  (1841-53,)  and  was  president  of  that  body  during 
the  administration  of  Tyler.  Died  in  1861. 

Manhes,  mi'neV,  (CHARLES  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Aurillac  in  1777.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Muratin  1809,  and  suppressed  brigandage  in  Calabria 
with  extreme  severity.  Died  in  1854. 

Mani.     See  MANES. 

Manichaeus.     See  MANES. 

Mauigault,  man'e-go',  ?  (GABRIEL,)  a  wealthy  Amer 
ican  merchant  and  patriot  of  the  Revolution,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1704;  died  in  1781. 

Ma-nil'i-a  Gens,  the  name  of  a  plebeian  Roman 
ife/is,  'which  was  not  numerous  and  consequently  was 
not  divided  into  families.  MARCUS  MANILIUS,  who  be 
came  consul  in  149  B.C.,  was  the  first  member  of  this 
gens  that  figures  in  history. 

Ma-uil'i-us,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  and  partisan 
of  Pompey.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  66  B.C. 
He  proposed  a  bill  called  "  Lex  Manilla,"  granting  to 
Pompey  the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithridates  in 
place  of  Lucullus.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  uttered  his 
celebrated  oration  "  Pro  Lege  Manilla." 

Manilius,  (MARCUS  or  CAIUS,)  a  Latin  poet,  known 
as  the  author  of  an  astrological  poem  called  "Astro- 
noinica."  His  name  is  sometimes  written  MALLUJS  or 
MANLIUS.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  nativity 
or  history  ;  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Rome 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  of  Tiberius.  His  poem, 
first  discovered  by  Poggio  about  1410,  is  a  work  of 
much  learning,  and  contains  some  fine  passages,  but  is 
faulty  in  style. 

See 

"De  M 
rale. 

Manin,  ma-neen',  (DANIEI.E,)  an  eminent  Italian 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  Venice  in  May,  1804,  was 
educated  for  the  profession  of  advocate.  He  was  a  re 
publican,  and  promoted  the  liberation  of  Venetia  by  legal 
means  rather  than  by  arms.  In  March,  1848,  he  pro 
claimed  a  republic  at  Venice,  and  became  president  of 
the  provisional  government.  Having  vainly  opposed 
the  annexation  of  Venetia  to  Piedmont,  he  resigned  in 
July,  1848.  He  was  soon  recalled,  and  governed  Venice 
as  dictator  during  the  siege,  which  lasted  a  year,  and 
ended,  after  a  heroic  struggle,  in  August,  1849.  He 
went  into  exile,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1857.  His  remains 
were  honoured  with  a  magnificent  public  funeral,  by 
order  of  the  Italian  Parliament,  in  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Venice,  in  March,  1868. 

See  HENRI  MARTIN,  "Life  of  Daniel  Manin,"  1859:  G.  V. 
ROVANI,  "Memoria  storica  di  T>.  Manin,"  Turin,  1850;  H.  CAS- 
TII.LR,  "Manin;"  CHASSIN,  "Manin  et  1'Italie,"  1859;  KDMOND 
FLAGG,  "Venice,  the  City  of  the  Sea,"  New  York,  1853  ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  November,  1857;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April, 
1860. 

Manin  or  Manini,  ma-nee'nee,  (Lonovico,)  the  last 
Doge  of  Venice,  was  born  about  1727.  He  was  elected  in 
1788,  a  period  when  the  republic  manifested  evident  signs 
of  approaching  ruin.  He  refused  to  join  Austria  in  a 
coalition  against  the  French  in  1792,  and  remained  neutral 
in  the  war  that  ensued.  Venice  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1797,  the  form  of  the  government  was  changed, 
and  Manini  retired  to  private  life. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Manini,  ma-nee'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
theology  and  history,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1750;  died 
in  1834. 

Manini,  (Lonovico.)     See  MANIN. 

Man'ley,  (JAMES  R.,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  became 
professor  in  the  Medical  College  of  New  York.  Died 
in  1851. 

Maiiley,  (JOHN,)  CAPTAIN,  an  American  naval  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  1734.  He  performed  several 
important  services.  Died  in  Boston  in  1793. 

Man'ley,  (DE  LA  RIVIERE,)  MRS.,  a  popular  English 
authoress,  born  in  Guernsey  about  1672,  was  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Roger  Manley.  To  procure  a  subsistence,  she 
wrote  "  The  Royal  Mischief,"  (1696,)  a  tragedy,  which 
was  successful.  Her  next  work  was  a  romance  called 
"  Memoirs  of  the  New  Atalantis,"  containing  severe 
strictures  on  some  of  the  persons  in  power,  which  caused 


her  to  be  prosecuted  and  imprisoned  for  libel.  She 
wrote  political  articles  for  the  Tory  ministry  between 
1710  and  1714,  and  edited  the  "  Examiner"  with  ability 
after  Dean  Swift  had  retired  from  the  direction  of  that 
paper.  Died  in  1724. 

See  GIBBER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Man'li-a  Gens,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  cele 
brated  of  the  patrician  genles  or  tribes  of  Rome.  The 
family  names  of  the  Manlii  were  Cincinnatus,  Acidimis, 
Capitolinus,  Torquatus,  and  Vulso.  Among  the  emi 
nent  persons  of  this  ^cns  was 

Maii'li-us  Cap-it-o-ll'nus,  (MARCUS,)  who  was 
elected  consul  in  392  B.C.  In  399  the  Gauls  under  Bren- 
nus  captured  Rome  and  besieged  the  Capitol,  which 
Manlius  and  others  defended.  According  to  tradition,  an 
attempt  of  the  Gauls  to  surprise  this  fortress  by  night  was 
defeated  by  Manlius,  who  was  awakened  by  the  clamour 
of  a  flock  of  geese.  For  this  service  he  received  the 
surname  of  CAPITOLINUS.  He  became  a  champion  of 
the  popular  party,  or  plebeians,  in  385,  spent  his  for 
tune  freely  for  the  relief  of  those  who  were  oppressed 
by  debt,  and  was  accused  of  aspiring  to  royalty.  His 
enemy  Camillus  was  appointed  dictator,  and  Manlius, 
having  been  tried  for  treason  and  condemned  to  death 
by  the  patricians,  was  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  in 
381  B.C. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  CICERO,  "  De  Republica  ;"  AURE- 
LIUS  VICTOR,  "  De  Viris  illustrious." 

Man'li-us  Tor-qua'tus,  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tus  Man'- 
lius  Capitoli'nus  Torqua'tus,  a  popular  Roman  hero, 
was  the  son  of  L.  Manlius  Imperiosus,  who  was  dictator 
in  362  or  363  B.C.  He  signalized  his  filial  affection  by 
extorting  from  Pomponius  an  oath  that  he  would  desist 
from  the  prosecution  of  his  father.  In  359  he  was  elected 
a  military  tribune.  He  killed  in  battle  a  Gaul  of  gigantic 
stature  and  despoiled  him  of  a  chain,  (torques,)  from 
which  he  derived  the  surname  TORQUATUS.  He  was  ap 
pointed  dictator  in  353,  and  again  in  349  B.C.  Having 
been  elected  consul  for  the  third  time  in  340,  he  defeated 
the  Latins,  and  punished  with  death  his  own  son,  who 
had  violated  orders  by  fighting  a  single  combat  with 
one  of  the  enemy. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  vii.,  viii.  ;  AURF.I.IUS  VIC 
TOR,  "  De  Viris  illustribus  ;"  P.  EKERMAN,  "  Dissertatio  de  T.  M.in- 
lio  Torquato,"  1767. 

Manlius  Torquatus,  (Trrus,)  a  Roman  general,  of 
the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  235  B.C. 
Sardinia  having  been  subjected  by  him  in  that  year,  the 
temple  of  ] anus  was  shut,  for  the  second  time  in  the  his 
tory  of  Rome,  because  the  Romans  enjoyed  a  universal 
peace.  He  was  re-elected  consul  in  224,  and  made  a 
speech  against  the  motion  to  ransom  the  prisoners  taken 
by  Hannibal  at  Cannae,  (216.)  In  215  B.C.  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  in  Sardinia.  He 
was  appointed  dictator  in  208,  and  died  in  202  B.C. 

See  LIVY,  ''  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.,  xxiii.,  xxv.,  etc. 

Man'lius  Vul'so,  (CNEius,)  a  Roman  general,  elected 
consul  about  190  B.C.  He  conquered  the  Gauls  of  Ga- 
latia,  and  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph  in  186  B.C. 

Man'ly,  (BASIL,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in  Chatham 
county,  North  Carolina,  in  1798.  He  became  president 
of  the  University  of  Alabama  in  1837.  Died  in  1868. 

Mann,  (HORACE,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  edu 
cationist,  born  in  Franklin,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu 
setts,  May  4,  1796.  His  father  was  a  farmer  in  limited 
circumstances,  so  that  Horace  was  obliged  to  procure  by 
his  own  exertions  the  means  of  obtaining  an  education. 
The  books  to  which  he  had  access  in  early  life,  as  he 
informs  us,  "were  few,  and  their  contents  meagre  and 
miserable."  "My  teachers,"  he  adds,  "were  very  good 
people,  but  they  were  very  poor  teachers."  There  was, 
however,  no  lack  of  hard  work,  and  in  summer  his 
labours  often  encroached  upon  the  hours  which  should 
have  been  devoted  to  sleep  ;  yet,  with  all  these  disad 
vantages,  his  mind  gave  early  proof  of  uncommon  power 
and  intense  activity.  He  had  earned  his  school-books, 
when  a  child,  by  braiding  straw;  and  his  severe  and 
frugal  life  gave  him  the  habit  of  depending  solely  upon 
himself  for  the  gratification  of  all  his  wants.  When 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Latin,  and  in  six  months  prepared  himself  to  enter  the 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


MANN 


1513 


MANNING 


sophomore  class  in  Brown  University,  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  where  he  graduated  with  the  highest 
honours  in  1819.  The  subject  of  his  discourse  on  that 
occasion  was  "  The  Progressive  Character  of  the  Human 
Race."  This  was  always  a  favourite  theme  with  him, 
and  his  first  oration  may  be  said  to  have  foreshadowed 
his  subsequent  career  as  philanthropist  and  statesman. 
While  at  Providence  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
young  lady  whom  he  afterwards  married.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Dr.  Messer,  president  of  the  university.  In 
1821  he  entered  the  law  school  at  Litchfield,  and  in  1823 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  commenced  the  practice 
of  law  at  Dedham.  He  was  elected  in  1827  to  the  State 
legislature,  and  during  his  connection  with  that  body  was 
distinguished  for  the  zeal  with  which  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  interests  of  education  and  temperance.  In  the 
practice  of  his  profession  he  had  adopted  the  principle 
never  to  take  the  unjust  side  of  any  cause  :  it  is  said  that 
he  gained  four  out  of  five  of  all  the  contested  cases  in 
which  he  was  engaged.  The  extraordinary  influence 
which  he  exerted  over  the  minds  of  the  juries  was  owing 
in  a  great  measure  to  the  confidence  which  all  felt  in 
his  honesty  of  purpose.  In  1833  he  removed  from 
Dedham  to  Boston,  and  soon  after  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate.  In  1836,  and  again  in  1837,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Senate.  About  this  time  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dr.  W.  E.  Channing  and  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe, 
for  whom  he  ever  afterwards  cherished  the  sincerest 
respect  and  affection. 

To  his  enlightened  philanthropy  and  untiring  efforts 
was  due  the  establishment  of  the  State  Lunatic  Hospital 
at  Worcester.  In  1837  he  was  elected  secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  (then  recently  organ 
ized,)  and  was  unanimously  re-elected  to  the  same  posi 
tion  for  eleven  successive  years.  From  the  moment  that 
he  entered  upon  his  new  duties,  he  devoted  himself  to 
them  with  undivided  attention  and  unremitting  zeal.  By 
his  lectures  and  writings  he  awakened  an  interest  in  the 
cause  of  education  that  had  never  been  felt  before. 
Through  his  influence,  important  changes  were  made  in 
the  school  laws  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  thorough  reform 
was  effected  in  the  educational  system  of  the  State. 

In  May,  1843,  Mr.  Mann  married  as  his  second  wife 
Miss  Mary  Peabocly,  daughter  of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Peabocly 
and  sister-in-law  of  Mr.  Hawthorne  ;  and  immediately 
afterwards  he  sailed  for  Europe,  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  visiting  European  schools,  particularly  those  of  Ger 
many.  He  returned  to  his  native  country  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year. 

In  the  spring  of  1848,  Mr.  Mann  was  elected  to  Con 
gress,  as  successor  to  J.  Quincy  Adams,  who  had  died 
in  February  of  that  year.  His  first  speech  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  was  in  advocacy  of  the  right  and  duty 
of  Congress  to  exclude  slavery  from  the  territories.  He 
says,  in  a  letter  dated  December,  1848,  "I  think  the 
country  is  to  experience  serious  times.  Interference 
with  slavery  will  excite  civil  commotion  at  the  South. 
Still,  it  is  best  to  interfere.  Now  is  the  time  to  see 
whether  the  Union  is  a  rope  of  sand  or  a  band  of  steel." 
In  another  letter,  dated  January,  1850,  he  says,  "Dark 
clouds  overhang  the  future ;  and  that  is  not  all :  they  are 
full  of  lightning."  Again,  "  I  really  think  if  we  insist 
upon  passing  the  Wilmot  Proviso  for  the  territories  that 
the  South — a  part  of  them — will  rebel.  But  /  would 
pass  it,  rebellion  or  not.  /  consider  no  mil  so  great  as  that 
of  the  extension  of  slavery  "  On  the  7th  of  March,  1850, 
Webster  delivered  his  great  speech  against  the  Wilmot 
Proviso.  This  led  to  an  open  rupture  between  him  and 
Mann.  Through  the  influence  of  Webster's  friends,  in 
the  following  November  Mann  failed  by  a  single  vote  to 
obtain  a  re-nomination  in  the  Whig  convention.  He, 
however,  appealed  to  the  people  as  an  independent  can 
didate,  and  was  triumphantly  re-elected. 

In  September,  1852,  Mr.  Mann  was  chosen  president  of 
Antioch  College,  at  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio.  On  the  same 
day  he  was  nominated  for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  by 
a  convention  of  the  Free  Democracy  (otherwise  called 
the  Free-Soil  party)  assembled  at  Lowell.  Although  not 
elected  Governor,  his  popularity  was  shown  by  his  vote 
running  far  ahead  of  that  of  the  other  Free-Soil  candi 
dates.  He  accepted  the  presidency  of  Antioch  College, 


which  under  his  able  management  attained  a  large 
measure  of  success.  But  the  labours  and  anxieties  of 
that  responsible  position  proved  at  length  too  much  for 
his  health,  never  strong,  and  now  undermined  by  a  life 
of  the  most  intense  and  unremitting  activity.  He  died 
August  2,  1859.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  death  was 
doubtless  the  extraordinary  and  unceasing  mental  effort 
called  forth  at  the  college  commencement  in  July,  1859. 
His  address  to  the  graduating  class  on  that  occasion* 
is  an  eloquent  resume  of  the  great  principles  by  which 
his  life  was  governed,  and  forms  an  appropriate  close  to 
the  labours  of  this  heroic  and  gifted  philanthropist. 

See  "  Life  of  Horace  Mann,"  by  his  wife,  Boston,  1865;  "New 
American  Cyclopaedia." 

Mann,  man,  (THEODORE  AUGUSTIN,)  ABB£,  a  Flem 
ish  writer  and  antiquary,  born  about  1740,  resided  at 
Brussels.  He  published  a  "Tableau  of  the  Coins, 
Weights,  and  Measures  of  Different  Nations,"  (1779,)  a 
"Description  of  Brussels,"  (1785,)  and -other  works. 
Died  at  Prague  in  1809. 

Marine,  de,  deh  mtn,  (Louis  CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  librarian,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  became  in 
1820  keeper  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  in  which  he 
classified  300,000  volumes.  Died  in  1832.  His  son 
EDMUND  succeeded  him  as  librarian. 

Manners.     See  RUTLAND,  DUKE  OF. 

Manners,  (JuiiN.)     See  GRANBY,  MARQUIS  OF. 

Man'ners,  (JOHN  JAMES  ROBERT,)  LORD,  a  second 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland,  was  born  in  1818.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1841,  and  identified 
himself  with  the  Tory  party.  He  was  first  commissioner 
of  the  board  of  works  for  a  short  time  in  1858-59,  and 
obtained  the  same  position  in  the  Derby  cabinet  in  July, 
1866.  He  resigned  in  December,  1868. 

Manners,  (ROBERT,)  LOUD,  a  younger  son  of  John, 
Marquis  of  Granby,  was  a  brother  of  the  fourth  Duke 
of  Rutland.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at  a  battle  in 
the  West  Indies  in  August,  1782,  where  he  commanded 
the  ship  Resolution. 

Manners,  (ROBERT  WILLIAM,)  LORD,  an  English 
general,  born  in  1781.  He  entered  the  army  in  1798, 
served  Wellington  as  aide-de-camp  in  the  Peninsular 
war  from  1808  to  1813,  and  was  wounded  at  Waterloo, 
(1815.)  In  1830  he  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  frequently  elected  to  Parliament.  Died  in  1835. 

Mannert,  man'ne'Rt',  (KoNRAD,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Altdorf  in  1756,  was  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Vandals,"  (1785,)  "  History  of  Bavaria,"  (1826,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Mamii,  man'nee,  (DOMENICO  MARIA,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  antiquary  and  printer,  born  at  Florence  in  1690. 
He  published  new  editions  of  early  Italian  works,  which 
he  enriched  with  prefaces,  notes,  etc.,  and  wrote  valuable 
dissertations  on  the  history  of  Florence.  His  "  Historic 
Observations  on  the  Seals  of  the  Middle  Ages"  (30  vols., 
1739-86)  is  a  work  of  merit.  Died  in  1788. 

See  TOMITANO,  "  Elogio  di  D.  M.  Manni,"  1789. 

Manni,  (GIANNICOLA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Perugia  about  1478,  was  a  pupil  of  Perugino.  Died  in 

1544- 

Man'ning,  (HENRY  EDWARD,)  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  born  in  London  in  1809,  graduated  at  Oxford. 
He  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and  became 
Archdeacon  of  Chichester  in  1840.  In  1851  he  entered 
the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Archbishop  of  Westminster  in  1865.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Unity  of  the  Church,"  (1843,)  and 
"The  Temporal  Sovereignty  of  the  Popes,"  (1860.)  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  CEcumenical  Council  which 
held  its  sessions  in  Rome  from  December,  1869,  to  May, 
1870,  and  he  maintained  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli 
bility. 

Man'ning,  (TAMES,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  di 
vine,  born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  in  1738,  was 
the  first  president  of  Brown  University,  Rhode  Island. 
Died  in  1791. 

Manning,  (OWEN,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1721.  He  became  Vicar  of  Godal- 
ming  and  rector  of  Pepperharrow,  (1769.)  He  wrote  the 


*  Printed  in  bis  "Life,"  pp.  554-575. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANNING 


1514 


MANSO 


"  History  and  Antiquities  of  Surrey,"   and    completed 
Lye's  "  Saxon  Dictionary."     Died  in  iSoi. 

SeeW.  BRAY,  "  Life  of  O.  Manning,"  prefixed  to  the  first  volume 
of  his  "  Antiquities  of  Surrey." 

Manning,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1774.  He  resided  for  a  long  time  in  Thibet, 
and  accompanied  Lord  Amherst  to  China  in  1816.  Died 
in  1840. 

Maimini,  man-nee'nee,  (JACOPO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1646;  died  in  1732. 

Maimo,  man'no,  (FKANCKSCO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1754;  died  in  1831. 

Mamiory,  mt'no're',  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1696.  He  published  "  Voltairiana," 
(1748,)  and  "  Plaicloyers  et  Memoires,"  (18  vols.,  1759.) 
Died  in  1777. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "Correspondance." 

Maimozzi,  man-not'see,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  excellent 
Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at  San  Giovanni,  near  Flor 
ence,  in  1590,  was  sometimes  called  GIOVANNI  DA  SAN 
GIOVANNI.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rosselli.  In  1621  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted,  in  rivalry  with  Guido's 
"Aurora,"  a  picture  of  "Night  in  a  Chariot."  Having 
returned  to  Florence,  he  painted  "  The  Judgment  of 
Paris,"  "Aurora  and  Tithonus,"  etc.  The  picture  of 
"  The  Patronage  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  by  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici"  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  in  1636. 

See  BALDINUCCI,  "  Notizie  ;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Maii'nyng  or  Man'niiig,  (ROBERT,)  an  English 
monk,  was  also  called  ROBERT  DK  BRUNNE.  He  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  II.,  and  was  a 
canon  in  the  monastery  of  Brunne  or  Bourne.  He  trans 
lated  into  English  rhyming  chronicles  from  the  "  Brut 
d'Angleterre"  and  "  Roman  le  Rou." 

Manoel.     See  MANUEL, 

Maiioel  OF  PORTUGAL.    See  EMMANUEL. 

Manoncourt.     See  SONNINI. 

Manrique,  man-ree'ka,  (JoRGE,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  about  1420.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
moral  poems,  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
about  1485. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe. " 

Mansard  or  Mansart,  mSs'stR',  (FRANCOIS,)  an 
excellent  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1598.  He 
restored  the  Hotel  Toulouse,  and  erected  the  chateaus 
of  Berny  and  of  Choisy-sur-Seine,  and  several  churches 
in  Paris.  The  Chateau  de  Maisons,  a  few  miles  from 
Paris,  is  one  of  his  most  admired  works.  His  designs 
are  remarkable  for  nobleness  and  majesty.  He  invented 
the  curb-roof  called  "  Mansard."  Died  in  1666. 

See  FONTENAY,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Mansard  or  Mansart,  (JULES  HARDOUIN,)  a  cele 
brated  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1645,  was  a  son  of 
Jules  Hardouin,  a  painter.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of 
F.  Mansard,  noticed  above.  He  studied  the  art  with 
this  uncle,  and  assumed  his  name.  Having  obtained 
the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  he  designed  the  most  im 
portant  architectural  works  of  his  reign.  He  had  a  rare 
opportunity  to  display  his  genius  in  the  chateau  or  royal 
palace  of  Versailles,  which,  though  imposing  in  dimen 
sions  and  rich  in  ornaments,  faiis  to  satisfy  the  require 
ments  of  good  taste.  He  built  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
— in  the  grand  dome  of  which  he  attempted  to  rival  Sir 
Christopher  Wren, — the  Chateau  de  Marly,  the  Place 
Vendome,  and  other  public  works.  In  1699  he  was 
chosen  superintendent  of  buildings,  arts,  and  manufac 
tures.  Died  in  1708. 

See  QUATREMERK  DE  QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres  Archi- 
tectes  ;"  FONTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  JEAN  DUCHESNE, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  H.  Mansart,"  1805. 

Mansart.     See  MANSARD. 

Man'sel,  (Rev.  HENRY  LONGUEVILLE,)  a  prominent 
English  writer  on  metaphysics  and  theology,  logic,  etc., 
was  born  at  Cosgrove,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1820. 
He  became  professor  of  moral  and  metaphysical  philos 
ophy  at  Oxford  about  1859,  and  regius  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  1867.  Among  his  works  is 
"The  Limits  of  Religious  Thought  Examined,"  (1858,) 
which  has  attracted  much  attention  and  no  little  criti 


cism  and  has  passed  through  a  number  of  editions.  In 
this  treatise  he  takes  as  the  basis  of  his  argument  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  position  that  "the  unconditioned  is 
incognizable  and  inconceivable  ;"  and  the  work  is  justly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  applications  of 
the  Hamiltonian  philosophy  to  questions  of  religion. 
He  edited  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  works  on  logic  and  meta 
physics.  He  also  contributed  to  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Bntannica"  a  valuable  treatise  on  metaphysics,  which 
has  since  been  published  in  a  separate  form.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  October,  1868. 

Mansfeld,  von,  fon  mans'felt,  (ERNST,)  COUNT,  one 
of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  time,  born  in  1585,  was 
the  natural  son  of  Peter  Ernst,  noticed  below.  After 
fighting  for  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  Emperor  of  Ger 
many,  he  left  their  service  about  1610,  and  became  an 
enemy  of  the  house  of  Austria.  He  avowed  himself  a 
convert  to  the  Reformed  faith,  and  in  1618  was  chosen 
general-in-chief  of  the  Bohemian  insurgents.  In  the 
service  of  Frederick,  whom  those  insurgents  had  elected 
king,  he  fought  many  battles,  and  defeated  the  Bavarians 
in  1622.  He  afterwards  marched  into  Flanders  and  re 
pulsed  the  Spaniards  at  Fleurus.  Having  raised  another 
army  to  attack  Austria,  he  was  defeated  by  Wallenstein 
in  1626,  and  died  near  Zara  in  the  same  year.  He  was 
one  of  those  generals  who  are  as  formidable  after  defeat 
as  before. 

See  "Acta  Mansfeldica,"  1624;  NIKMANN,  "  Geschichte  der  Gia- 
fen  von  Mansfeld,"  1834;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mansfeld,  von,  (PETER  ERNST,)  COUNT,  an  able 
German  general,  born  in  1517.  In  his  youth  he  entered 
the  army  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  After  serving  in 
several  campaigns,  he  commanded  an  army  against  the 
French  in  1552,  and  in  1569  led  another  army  to  aid 
Charles  IX.  against  the  Huguenots.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Moncontour.  He  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  Parma  as  Governor-General  of  the  Low  Coun 
tries  in  1592.  Died  in  1604. 

See  SCHANNAT,  "  Histoire  du  Comte  de  Mansfeld,"  1707;  Mo- 
RERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  MOTLEY,  "  United  Netherlands," 


Mans'field,  QARKD,)  an  American  mathematician, 
born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point.  lie  published  several  scientific  works. 
Died  in  1830. 

Mansfield,  (JOSEPH  KING  FENNO,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822.  lie  served  as  captain 
in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  colonel  in 
1853.  He  commanded  the  department  of  Washington 
in  June  and  July,  1861,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  where  he  was  killed,  September  17, 
1862.  He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army. 

See  TENNEY,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Mansfield,  LORD.     See  MURRAY,  (WILLIAM.) 

Mausi,  mdn'see,  (GIOVANNI  DOMENICO,)  a  learned 
Italian  prelate,  born  at  Lucca  in  1692.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Calmet's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  and  the 
"Commentaiy"  of  the  same  author,  and  edited  several 
works  of  theology.  One  of  the  most  important  of  his 
works  was  an  edition  of  the  "Collection  of  Councils," 
("Sacrorum  Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  Collectio," 
1757  et  seq.,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  N.  Coleti.  He 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Lucca  in  1765.  Died  in 
1769. 

See  ZATTI,  "Vita  di  D.  Mansi,"  1772. 

Manso,  man'so,  orManzo,  man'zo,  (GIOVANNI  BAT- 
TISTA,)  Marquis  de  Villa,  an  Italian  author,  eminent  as 
a  patron  of  literature,  was  born  in  Naples  about  1560. 
He  expended  part  of  his  fortune  in  founding  in  Naples 
the  Academy  degli  Oziosi,  He  was  intimate  with  the 
poet  Tasso,  who  commemorated  their  friendship  in  his 
dialogue  entitled  "  II  Manso."  Milton,  who  had  been 
his  guest  in  Naples,  addressed  to  him  in  complimentary 
terms  a  beautiful  Latin  poem  or  eclogue  entitled  "  Man- 
sus."  Manso  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  (1619,) 
and  several  poems.  Died  in  1645. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Manso,  man'so,  QOHANN  KASPAR  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
German  scholar  and  historian,  born  in  the  duchy  of 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


MJNSOOR 


MANTUANO 


Gotha  in  1759.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Constantine 
the  Great,"  (1817,)  and  a  number  of  poems  and  an 
tiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1826. 

See  KLUG,  "Manso  als  Scluilmann  und  Ge'ehrter,"  1826. 

Mansoor,  (Aboo-Aniir-Mohammed.)  See  AL 
MA  NSOOK. 

Mansoor,  Mansour,  Mangour,  or  Mansur,  Al,* 
al  mansooR',  (Aboo-Jaafar-  (or  Djafar-)  Abdallah, 
a'boo  ja'far  ab-dal'lah,  the  second  Abbasside  caliph  of 
the  Arabian  empire,  succeeded  his  brother  As-Seffah  (or 
Al-Saffah)  in  754  A.D.  About  765  he  founded  Bagdad, 
which  thenceforth  was  the  capital  of  the  empire  for  five 
centuries.  He  waged  war  with  success  against  the 
Turcomans  and  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  but  lost 
Spain,  which  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Omevyads. 
He  is  said  to  have  united  superior  talents  with  great 
cruelty  and  other  vices.  He  died  in  775  A.D.,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  son  Mahdee,  (or  Mahdi.) 

See  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Manstein,  von,  fon  man'stin,  (CiiRisroPH  HER 
MANN,)  an  able  general  and  historical  writer,  born  in 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1711.  In  1745  he  entered  the  ser 
vice  of  Prussia,  and  a  few  years  later  became  a  major- 
general.  He  was  employed  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
important  political  affairs,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Prague,  (1757.)  He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  the  same 
year.  He  left  "Historical,  Political,  and  Military  Me 
moirs  of  Russia,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1772.)  This  work 
has  been  translated  into  English. 

See  HUBER,  "Vie  de  Manstein,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Memoires." 

Mansueti,  man-soo-a'tee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Venice  about  1450;  died  after  1500. 

Mant,  (RicHARD,)  an  English  bishop  and  commen 
tator,  born  at  Southampton  in  1776.  In  conjunction 
with  D'Oyly,  he  prepared  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  with 
notes,  (1817.)  He  became  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor 
about  1823.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Church  in  Ireland."  Died  in  1848. 

See  BERKNS  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Bishop  Mant,"  1849  ;  "  Lon 
don  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1812. 

Mantegna,  man-ten'ya,  (ANDREA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
historical  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Padua  about 
1430,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Squarcione,  who  adopted  him 
as  a  son.  After  he  had  worked  at  Padua  and  Verona, 
he  went  to  Milan,  where  he  painted  the  "Triumph  of 
Julius  Caesar/'  which  Vasari  esteemed  his  master-piece, 
and  which  was  purchased  by  Charles  I.  of  England.  It 
is  now  at  Hampton  Court.  He  painted  several  frescos 
in  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  and  worked  some  years  in  Man 
tua,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Marquis  de  Gon- 
zaga.  Among  his  most  admired  oil-paintings  is  the 
"Delia  Vittoria,"  (1495,)  (a  picture  of  the  Marquis  of 
Mantua  rendering  thanks  to  the  Virgin  for  his  victory 
at  Fornovo,)  which  still  retains  its  beauty.  He  was 
probably  the  first  engraver  of  his  time.  Died  in  1506. 

See  VASAKI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  RIDOI.FI,  "Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti  ;" 
LOMAZZO,  "  Idea  del  Tempio  della  Pittura  ;"  MRS.  JAMESON,  "Me 
moirs  of  Eariy  Italian  Painters;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate. " 

Mantegna,  (BERNARDINO,)  a  painter  of  the  Mantuan 
school,  born  in  1490,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  pre 
ceding.  Died  in  1528. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Mantegna,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  son 
of  Andrea,  noticed  above.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father, 
and  completed  several  works  which  the  latter  left  un 
finished  at  Mantua.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  first 
master  of  Correggio.  Died  after  1514. 

Maiitegna,  del,  del  man-ten'ya,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  a  relative  and  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna, 
noticed  above.  In  1514  he  was  master  of  a  school  of 
artists  in  Genoa. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Maii'tell,  (GIDEON  ALGERNON,)  an  eminent  English 
geologist  and  palaeontologist,  born  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex, 
in  1790.  He  adopted  the  medical  profession,  which  he 
practised  many  years  at  Lewes.  A  mine  near  that  place 
offered  him  a  rich  field  for  observations  in  geology,  to 
which  his  attention  was  early  directed.  He  collected 


*  Al  Mansoor  surnities  ''the  Victoiious." 


from  the  Weaklen  formation  and  the  chalk  a  museum  of 
specimens  of  extinct  reptiles,  fishes,  and  plants,  which  was 
afterwards  bought  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum 
for  .£5000.  About  1825  he  discovered  the  Iguanodon, 
an  extinct  reptile  about  sixty  feet  long,  and  in  that  year 
was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society.  He  also  discovered 
three  other  genera  of  the  colossal  Dinosaurian  reptiles. 
In  1822  he  published  "The  Fossils  of  the  South  Downs." 
He  removed  to  Clapham  in  1839,  and  a  few  years  later 
to  London.  He  not  only  enriched  the  science  by  his 
discoveries,  but  was  unsurpassed  by  any  English  geolo 
gist  of  his  time  as  a  lecturer  and  a  popular  expounder 
of  geological  facts.-  His  most  important  works  are  "On 
the  Iguanodon,"  "The  Geology  of  the  Southeast  of 
England,"  (1838,)  "The  Wonde'rs  of  Geology,"  (1838,) 
and  "The  Medals  of  Creation,"  (1844.)  Died  in  1852. 

See  AGASSIZ  and  STRICKLAND,  "  Bibiiographia  Zoologias  et 
Geologic." 

Manteuffel,  man'toiffel,  (Orro  THEODOR,)  BARON, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Liibben  in  1805.  He  was 
appointed  director  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1846, 
and  minister  of  the  interior  about  November,  1848. 
Many  of  the  notes  and  diplomatic  circulars  of  1848  and 
1849  were  written  by  him.  He  was  president  of  the 
council  of  ministers  from  December,  1850,  to  December, 
1858. 

See  G.  HESKKIEL,  "O.  T.  Manteuffel:  ein  Preussisches  Leber.s- 
bild,"  1851. 

Mantica,  man-tee'ka,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  prel 
ate  and  jurist,  born  at  Pordenone  in  1534,  published 
"Decisiones  Romaiias,"  (1618.)  Died  in  1614. 

Man'to,  [Gr.  Marru,]  a  prophetess,  daughter  of  Tire- 
sias,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Argives  at  Thebes,  and 
was  dedicated  to  Apollo,  under  whose  auspices  she  is 
said  to  have  uttered  oracles  at  Delphi.  She  was  some 
times  called  DAPHNE.  She  became  the  wife  of  Rhakius 
or  Rhacius,  and  the  mother  of  Mopsus. 

Man'ton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1620.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Stoke 
Newington  in  1643,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Covent 
Garden  in  London.  He  was  eminent  for  eloquence  and 
learning,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in 
1653.  In  1660  he  became  a  chaplain  to  Charles  II., 
but  was  ejected  from  his  church  in  London  for  non 
conformity  in  1662.  Several  volumes  of  his  sermons, 
lectures,  etc.  were  published.  Died  in  1677. 

Mantouan,  Le.  See  MANTUANO. 

Mantovano.  See  MANTUANO. 

Mantuan,  man-too-an',  or  Mantuano,  man-too-a'no, 
(BATTISTA,)  or  Battista  Spagnuoli,  (span-yoo-o'lee,) 
a  Latin  poet,  once  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  at  Mantua 
in  1448.  He  had  great  facility  as  a  versifier,  but  was  de 
ficient  in  taste,  and  his  works,  consisting  of  eclogues, 
silva,  etc.,  are  now  entirely  neglected.  "He  was,  and 
long  continued  to  be,"  says  Hallam,  "the  poet  of 
school-rooms.  Erasmus  says  that  he  would  be  placed 
by  posterity  not  much  below  Virgil."  He  was  a  Car 
melite  friar.  Died  in  1516. 

Mantuano,  man-too-a'no,  (ADAMO  GHISI,)  an  able 
engraver,  born  at  Mantua  about  1530,  was  a  son  of 
Giovanni  Battista,  noticed  below.  He  engraved  after 
Michael  Angelo,  Giulio  Romano,  and  other  masters. 

Mantuano,  (GiORGio  GHISI,)  born  at  Mantua  about 
1522,  was  a  skilful  engraver  and  painter.  He  worked 
many  years  in  Rome,  and  engraved  the  finest  works  of 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  other  masters.  Among 
them  are  "  The  Last  Judgment,"  after  Angelo,  and  the 
"  Holy  Family"  and  "School  of  Athens,"  after  Raphael. 
He  was  living  in  1578. 

His  sister,  DIANA  MANTUANA,  a  skilful  artist,  en 
graved  several  works  of  Raphael  about  1570-80. 

Mantuano,  [Fr.  LE  MANTOUAN,  leh  mS.N'too'oN',] 
(GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  BERTANO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
sculptor,  engraver,  and  architect,  the  father  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Mantua  about  1500.  He  was  the 
head  of  a  family  which  produced  several  artists,  and 
whose  proper  name  was  GHISI.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Giulio  Romano.  His  engraving  of  the  "Burning  of 
Troy"  is  highly  praised. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Mantuano,  (TEODORO.)     See  GHISI. 


c  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANU 


1516 


MAN  WOOD 


Manu,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  miin'oo,]  written  also 
Menu,  [from  the  Sanscrit  mdn,  to  "know,"]  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  sage,  the  son  of  Brahma,  and  the  revealer  of  the 
code  of  laws  known  as  the  "Institutes  of  Manu." 

See  WILSON,  "Sanscrit  Dictionary;"  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Maiiuce,  (Ai.DK.)  See  MAXUTIUS,  (ALDUS.) 
Man'u-el  I.  Com-ne'mis,  [Or.  Maiw///.  f>  Kop>r}v6e  ; 
Fr.  MANUEL  COMXENE,  mS'iiu'el'  kom'nin',]  a  Greek 
emperor,  born  about  1120,  was  a  younger  son  of  John 
Comnenus,  who  designated  him  for  his  successor.  Manuel 
began  to  reign  at  Constantinople  in  1143.  He  was  am 
bilious,  brave,  and  licentious.  He  is  accused  of  perfidy 
towards  the  crusaders  Conrad  of  Germany  and  Louis 
VII.,  King  of  France,  who  passed,  with  their  armies, 
through  his  dominions  in  1147,  and  with  whom  he  had 
made  a  treaty  of  alliance.  He  afterwards  waged  war 
against  Roger,  King  of  Sicily,  the  Hungarians,  and  the 
Turks,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories.  Peace 
was  made  between  him  and  Roger  in  1155.  In  1176  he 
was  defeated  disastrously  by  Az-ed-Deen,  the  Turkish 
Sultan,  near  Myriocephalus,  where  Manuel  fought  in 
person.  The  Turks  were  defeated  in  turn  by  his  army 
in  Lydia,  in  1177,  when  the  war  was  ended  by  treaty. 
He  died  in  1180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son, 
Alexis  II. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  LE  BEAU, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Manuel  II.  Palaeologus,  (pal-e-ol'o-gus,)  [Gr.  Mrz- 
vovrfAo  ria?.a«)/(/; (if ;  Fr.  MANUEL  PAI.EOLOGUE,  int'iiu'el' 
pi'la'o'log',]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  the  second 
son  of  John  VI.,  who  admitted  him  as  his  associate  in 
the  empire  about  1372.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1391,  Manuel  was  held  as  a  hostage  by  Sultan  Bayazeed 
I.  He  escaped  from  Xic?ea,  and  fled  to  his  own  capital, 
in  the  same  year.  The  enraged  Sultan  inarched  against 
him,  and  besieged  Constantinople.  The  French  and 
German  chivalry  came  to  his  assistance  with  a  large 
army,  and  forced  Bayazeed  to  raise  the  siege  ;  but  he  de 
feated  those  allies  at  Xicopolis  (Nicopol)  in  1396.  The 
Sultan  prosecuted  the  siege  for  several  years,  until  the 
alarming  progress  of  Tamerlane  called  him  away  for  the 
defence  of  his  own  kingdom.  After  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Bayazeed,  in  1403,  Manuel  reigned  in  peace.  He  died 
in  1425,  aged  seventy-seven,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  John  VII.  Palaeologus. 

See  GIBBON,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  VON  HAMMER,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
BERBER  DE  XIVREY,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Ma 
nuel  Paleologue,"  1853. 

Manuel,  ma-noo-el',  or  Manoel,  ma-no-el',  (FRAX- 
Cisco,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
1734.  He  wrote  admired  odes,  sonnets,  and  epistles, 
and  attained  the  reputation  of  the  most  excellent  modern 
lyric  poet  of  Portugal.  Among  his  poems  is  an  ode  to 
Washington.  The  liberality  of  his  principles  subjected 
him  to  a  charge  of  heresy,  for  which  he  was  summoned 
before  the  Inquisition,  lie  escaped,  and  retired  to  Paris 
in  1788.  He  made  admirable  Portuguese  versions  of  La 
Fontaine's  "Fables,"  Chateaubriand's  "Martyrs,"  and 
Wieland's  "Oberon."  His  poems  were  published,  under 
the  name  of"  Filinto  Elysio."  Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Manuel,  mS'iiu'el',  (JACQUES  AXTOIXE,)  a  French 
orator  and  republican,  born  at  Barcelonnette  (Low  Alps) 
in  1775.  In  the  profession  of  advocate  he  attained 
eminence  at  Aix.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  during  the  Hundred  Days,  (1815,)  when  he 
spoke  against  the  pretensions  of  Bonaparte  and  of  the 
Bourbons.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  by  the  liberals,  and  was  ranked  among  the 
ablest  debaters  of  that  assembly.  "Of  all  the  revolu 
tionary  orators,"  says  Lamartine,  "he  was  the  most 
feared  and  hated  by  the  majority."  After  a  speech  in 
reply  to  Chateaubriand,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Cham 
ber  in  1823.  Died  in  1827.  "He  had  no  one  to  con 
sole  him,"  says  Lamartine,  "but  Beranger,  whose  heart 
loved  in  Manuel  the  antique  stamp  of  the  premature 
but  intrepid,  moderate,  and  upright  republican.  ...  He 
was  more  remarkable  for  character  than  eloquence ;  he 
preferred  action  to  speech,"  etc. 

See  FADEVILLE,  "  Manuel  juge  par  ses  Actions,"  1824  ;  RAMOND 
DE  LA  CROISETTE,  "  M.  Manuel,"  1824;  FOURTANIER,  "  E"loge  de 
Manuel,"  1849;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Manuel,  ma-noo-el',  (Don  JUAN,)  a  Spanish  prince 
and  author,  was  a  nephew  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile.  He 
was  Regent  of  Castile  during  part  of  the  minority  of 
Alfonso  XL,  and  distinguished  himself  in  battle  against 
the  Moors.  He  wrote  many  works,  in  prose  and  verse. 
His  political  and  moral  treatise  called  "The  Count  of 
Lucanor"  ("  El  Conde  de  Lucanor")  was  esteemed  by 
Bouterwek  as  the  finest  monument  of  Spanish  literature 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  Died  about  1350. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  TICKNOR, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Manuel,  (Linns  PIERRE,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Montargis  in  1751.  According  to  Bcaulieu,  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  riot  of  the  loth  of  August, 
1792,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Danton.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  conducted  the  royal  captives  to  the  prison  of  the 
Temple.  He  rescued  ftladame  de  Stael  and  Beaumar- 
chais  from  the  massacre  of  September.  Asa  member 
of  the  Convention,  he  voted  against  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI.  For  this  he  was  proscribed  and  executed  in  1793. 

See  PRUDHOMME,  "  Les  Revolutions  de  Paris  ;"  Louis  BLANC, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Manuel,  mt'nu'el',  (NICOLAS,)  a  Swiss  artist,  author, 
and  Reformer,  bom  at  Berne  in  1484,  was  sometimes 
called  DEUTSCH,  in  Italian TEDESCO,  (i.e.  the  "German.") 
About  1510  he  went  to  Venice  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Titian.  He  returned  to  Berne,  and  painted  "The  Dance 
of  Death,"  in  fresco.  He  wrote  satirical  poems  and 
songs,  and  "Dramatic  Moralities  and  Mysteries,"  a  hu 
morous  composition.  In  his  latter  years  he  held  several 
public  offices,  and  was  an  active  promoter  of  the  Swiss 
Reformation.  Died  in  1530. 

Manutius,  ma-nu'she^us,  (AL'DUS,)  [It.  ALDO  MA- 
xrzio,  al'do  ma-noot'se-o ;  Fr.  ALDE  MAXUCE,  Sid 
mf'niiss',]  a  celebrated  Italian,  printer  and  scholar,  bom 
at  Bassiano,  in  the  Papal  States,  in  1447.  With  the 
patronage  of  Pico  de  Mirandola  and  Alberto  Pio,  he 
established  a  printing-press  at  Venice  about  1490.  He 
invented  the  form  of  type  called  Italic,  procured  manu 
scripts  from  various  countries,  and  published  editions  of 
classics  which  surpassed  all  others  in  correctness.  About 
1500  he  formed  at  Venice  a  literary  association  called  the 
Alcline  Academy,  the  design  of  which  was  to  promote 
literature  by  perfecting  the  copies  of  the  models  of  an 
tiquity.  He  compiled  a  Greek-and-Latin  Lexicon,  (1497.) 
Died  in  1515. 

See  UNGER,  "De  Aldi  Pii  Manutii  Vita  Meritisque,"  1752;  D. 
M.  MANNI,  "Vita  di  Aldo  Pio  Manuzio,"  1749;  A.  RENOUARD, 
"Annales  de  1'Imprimerie  des  Aide;"  AMBKOISE  FIRMIN  DIDOT, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Manutius,  (ALDUS,)  or  Manuzio,  (ALDO,)  THE 
YOUXGER,  born  at  Venice  in  1547,  was  a  son  of  Paolo, 
noticed  below.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  published  a 
"  System  of  Orthography,"  ("  Orr.hograph.ia:  Ratio.")  He 
was  professor  of  eloquence  at  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  Rome. 
He  wrote,  besides  antiquarian  treatises,  "  The  Life  of 
Cosimo  I.  de'  Medici,"  and  "The  Accomplished  Gentle 
man,"  ("II  perfetto  GentiPuomo.")  Died  in  1597. 

See  A.  RENOUARD,  "Annales  des  Aide." 

Manutius,  (PAULUS,)  or  Manuzio,  (PAOLO,)  an 
Italian  printer,  author,  and  critic,  born  at  Venice  in  1512, 
was  a  son  of  Aldus  Senior.  As  the  successor  of  his 
father  in  the  printing-establishment,  he  published  excel 
lent  editions  of  Latin  classics  in  Venice.  About  1562 
he  removed  his  press  to  Rome,  whence  he  returned  to 
Venice  in  1570.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
critic  and  as  a  writer  of  elegant  Latin.  Among  his  prin 
cipal  works  are  "On  the  Roman  Senate,"  ("De  Senatu 
Romano,")  "On  the  Roman  State,"  ("De  Civitate  Ro- 
mana,")  "  Roman  Antiquities,"  and  a  volume  of  Latin 
Epistles.  "  The  letters  of  Manutius,"  says  Hallam,  "  pall 
on  the  reader  by  their  monotonous  elegance.  .  .  .  Sciop- 
pius  thinks  him  consummate  in  delicacy  and  grace." 
["  Introduction  'to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1574- 

See  A.  RENOUARD,  "Annales  de  1'Imprimerie  des  Aide,"  1834; 
J  G.  KR  \USE,  "Apparatus  ad  P.  Manutii  Vitam,"i66g;  AMFIROISE 
KIK.MIN*  DIUOT,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Manuzio.     See  MANUTIUS. 

Man'wood,  (JoHX,)  an  English  jurist,  flourished 
about  1600,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Laws  of  the 
Forest." 


a,  e,  I,  o,  11,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAN  WOOD 


M4RANS1N 


Manwood,  (Sir  ROGER,)  probably  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  chief  baron  of  the  court  of  exchequer. 
Died  in  1593. 

Manzi,  man'zee,  (GuLiELMO,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Civita  Vecchia  in  1784.  He  made  a  good  Italian 
version  of  Lucian,  (1819,)  and  wrote  a  "Discourse  on 
the  Spectacles,  Festivals,  and  Luxury  of  the  Italians  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1821. 

See  TIPALDO.  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Rossi,  "  Elogio 
storico  di  G.  Manzi,"  1822. 

Manzi,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Civita 
Vecchia  in  1785,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
published  "The  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  (1817,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1839. 

Manzo.     See  MAN  so. 

Manzolli,  man-zol'lee,  or  Manzoli,  tnan-zo'lee,  (PiE- 
TRO  or  PIER  ANGELO,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Stellata,  on 
the  Po,  in  Italy,  flourished  about  1510-40.  He  was  bet 
ter  known  by  his  assumed  name,  PALINGENIO  or  PALIN- 
GE'NIUS  STELLA'TUS.  The  events  and  circumstances 
of  his  life  are  unknown.  He  wrote  a  long  moral  poem, 
entitled  "  Zodiac  of  Life,"  ("  Zodiacus  Vitae,"  Bale,  1537,) 
the  books  of  which  are  named  from  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  "It  is  not  very  poetical,"  says  Hal  lam,  "but 
by  no  means  without  strong  passages  of  sense  and 
spirit,  in  a  lax  Horatian  metre.  The  author  has  said 
more  than  enough  to  incur  the  suspicion  of  Lutheran- 
ism."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  GERDES,  "  Historia  Reformationis  ;"  "  Palingene,"  in 
BAYLE'S  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Manzoni,  man-zo'nee,  (ALESSANDKO,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  novelist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Milan,  March  8, 
1784.  His  father  bore  the  title  of  count,  and  his  mother 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Marquis  Beccaria,  the  eminent 
jurist  and  writer.  About  1805  he  made  a  long  visit 
to  Paris,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Fauriel  and  produced  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Carlo 
Imbonati,  (1806.)  He  married  Henriette  Louise  Blonde], 
of  Geneva,  in  1808,  and  became  a  zealous  member  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
produced  several  hymns  on  the  Nativity,  the  Passion, 
the  Resurrection,  etc.,  which  have  much  literary  merit. 
His  next  work  was  a  tragedy,  called  "II  Conte  di  Car- 
magnola,"  (1820,)  in  which  the  three  unities  are  not  ob 
served.  This  drama  was  warmly  applauded  by  Goethe. 
He  published  another  tragedy,  entitled  "  Adelchi,"  and 
an  admirable  ode  on  the  death  of  Napoleon,  "  II  cinque 
Maggio."  His  capital  work  is  the  historical  novel  of 
"  I  promessi  Sposi,"  (3  vols.,  1827,)  an  English  version 
of  which  has  appeared  under  the  title  of  "  The  Betrothed 
Lovers."  It  presents  a  vivid  picture  of  Italian  society 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  style  is  natural,  elo 
quent,  and  beautiful.  Manzoni  became  a  senator  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia  in  1860. 

See  Louis  DE  LOMENIE,  "  M.  Manzoni,  par  un  Hoinnie  deRien," 
1*42;  SAINTK-BECVE,  "  A.  Manzori :  Fragment  biographkjne," 
1*45;  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate;"  "Foreign  Quarter' y  Review"  for  July  and 
November,  1827;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1826; 
"  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1840. 

Manzoni,  (FRANCESCA,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  in 
the  Milanese  in  1710,  was  versed  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages.  Died  in  1743. 

Manzuoli,  man-zoo-o'lee,  (TOMMASO,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  near  Florence  in  1536,  was  also  called 
MASO  DA  SAN  FRIANO.  He  adorned  several  churches 
of  Florence.  His  master-piece  is  the  "  Visitation,"  which 
is  preserved  in  the  gallery  of  the  Vatican.  Died  in  1575. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mapes,  map,?  or  Map,  (WALTER,)  an  old  English 
author,  born  in  the  Welsh  marches  about  1150.  He 
became  a  favourite  of  Henry  II.,  who  sent  him  on  a  mis 
sion  to  the  King  of  France  and  gave  him  several  bene 
fices.  In  1196  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Oxford. 
He  wrote  satirical  Leonine  Latin  poems,  among  which 
is  an  ode  which  begins  "  Meum  est  propositum  in  taberna 
mori."  In  Latin  prose  he  wrote  a  curious  and  interesting 
work  called  "  De  Nugis  Curialium."  He  was  the  re 
puted  author  of  several  romances  in  French  or  Anglo- 
Norman. 

See  G.  PHILLIPS,  "W.  Map,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  Konig 
Heinrichs  II.  von  England,"  1853. 


Maphaeus.     See  MAFFEI  and  MAFFKO. 

Mapletoft,  ma'pel-toft,  (JoHN,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1631.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  in  Gresham  College,  London,  in 
1675.  About  1680  he  took  holy  orders.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Sydenham's  "Observations,"  at  the  request 
of  the  author,  and  wrote  "The  Principles  and  Duties 
of  the  Christian  Religion."  Died  in  1721. 

Mapp,  niSp,  [Lat.  MAP'PUS,]  (MARC,)  a  French  bot 
anist  and  physician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1632.  He  wrote 
a  mediocre  "Description  of  the  Plants  of  Alsace."  Died 
in  1701. 

Mappus.     See  MAPP. 

Maquet,  mi'ki',  (AuGUSTF,,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.  He  was  author  (in  part)  of  a  number 
of  works  which  were  published  under  the  name  of  Alex- 
andre  Dumas.  Among  these  is  "  Monte-Cristo." 

Mar,  EARL  OF.     See  ERSKINE,  (JoHN.) 

Mara,  ma'ra,  a  famous  deva  of  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
mentioned  in  the  history  of  GAUTAMA,  (which  see.) 

Mara,  ma'ra,  originally  named  Schmelling,  (ELIZA 
BETH,)  a  celebrated  German  singer,  was  born  at  Cassel 
in  1749.  She  was  a  pupil  of  Paradisi,  and  became  the 
wife  of  J.  Mara,  a  violoncellist  of  Berlin.  Between  1784 
and  1787  she  appeared  four  times  as  first  vocalist  at  the 
Handel  Commemoration,  and  was  greatly  admired.  She 
afterwards  performed  with  applause  in  Paris  and  Berlin. 
She  sang  in  four  languages.  Died  in  1833. 

See  GROSHEIM,  "Das  Leben  der  Kiinstlerin  Mara,"  1823. 

Mara,  de,  deh  mt'rt',  (GuiLLAUMF.,)  a  priest  and 
Latin  poet,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Coutances,  France, 
about  1470;  died  about  1530. 

Maracci.     See  MARRACCI. 

Maracci,  ma-rat'chee,  or  Marracci,  mar-rat'chee, 
(GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  historical  painter,  born  at  Lucca 
in  1637,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Died  in  1704. 

Marais,  mi'ii',  (M.\RIN,)  a  French  musical  composer, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1656.  Among  his  works  is  an  opera 
entitled  "Alcyone,"  (1706.)  Died  in  1728. 

Marais,  (MATHIEU,)  a  French  jurist  and  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1664.  He  wrote  some  articles  for  Bayle's 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  and  a  "Life  of 
La  Fontaine,"  (1811.)  Died  in  1737. 

Marais,  des.     See  REGNIER-DESMARAIS. 

Maraldi,  ma-ral'dee,  (JACQUES  PHILIPPE,)  an  as 
tronomer,  born  at  Perinaldo,  in  the  county  of  Nice,  in 
1665,  was  a  nephew  of  Giovanni  Domenico  Cassini, 
under  whom  he  studied  astronomy  in  Paris.  About 
1700  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  spent  many  years  in  astronomical  observations,  and 
in  forming  a  Catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  which  he  left 
in  manuscript  when  he  died,  in  1729. 

See  FARROXI,  "Vita:  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  FONTE- 
NELLE,  "  filoge  de  Maraldi." 

Maraldi,  (TEAN  DOMINIQUE,)  a  nephew  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Perinaldo  in  1709.  He  became 
assistant  astronomer  at  the  Paris  Observatory,  and  made 
many  observations,  which  were  inserted  in  the  collection 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in  1788. 

Maran,  mf  ro.\',  [Lat.  MARA'NUS,]  (Dom  PRUDENT,) 
a  learned  French  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Sezanne  in 
1683.  He  wrote  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Semi-Arians," 
and  edited  the  works  of  Saint  Cyprian.  Died  in  1762. 

Marana,  ma-ra'na,(GiovANNi  PAOLO  or  GIAMPAOLO,) 
an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1642.  He  was 
imprisoned  four  years  (1670-74)  for  a  political  reason. 
About  1682  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  obtained  a  pen 
sion  from  the  king.  In  1684  he  published,  in  French,  the 
first  volume  of  "  The  Turkish  Spy,"  ("  L'Espion  Turc,") 
which  was  very  successful.  "The  Turkish  Spy,"  says 
Hallam,  "is  no  ordinary  production,  but  contains  as 
many  proofs  of  a  thoughtful,  if  not  very  profound,  mind, 
as  any  we  can  find.  It  suggested  the  Persian  Letters 
to  Montesquieu."  He  published  a  second  volume  in 
1686.  Died  in  1693. 

Marangoui,  ma-ran-go'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1673.  He  wrote  a  learned 
treatise  on  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  and  "Thesaurus 
Parochorum."  Died  in  1753. 

Maransin,  mt'r&N'saN',  QEAN  PIERRE,)  BARON,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Lourdes  in  1770;  died  in  1828. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAR  ANT A 


1518 


MARCEL 


Maranta,  ma-ran'ta,  (BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  bot 
anist  and  physician,  lived  at  Venosa,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  He  assisted  Ferrante  Imperato  in  writing  his 
"  Natural  History,"  and  wrote  an  esteemed  elementary 
work  on  botany,  entitled  "  Methodus  Cognoscendorum 
Medicamentorum  simplicium,"  (1559.)  "The  author," 
says  Hallam,  "  is  independent,  though  learned,  extremely 
acute  in  discriminating  plants  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
has  discovered  many  himself."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  about  1554. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mar  an  us.     See  MAR  AN. 

Marat,  mS'rS',  (|KAN  PAUL,)  a  notorious  Jacobin 
demagogue,  born  near  Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland,  in 
1744.  He  practised  medicine  in  Paris  before  the  Revo 
lution,  and  published  many  treatises  on  electricity, 
optics,  etc.  In  1789  he  incited  the  populace  to  anarchy 
and  bloodshed  by  his  journal  "The  Friend  of  the  Peo 
ple,"  ("  L'Ami  du  Peuple.")  Among  the  Jacobin  leaders 
^  lie  was  probably  the  most  rancorous  enemy  of  the  royal 
ists  and  the  Girondists.  In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the 
Convention,  and,  uniting  with  Danton  and  Robespierre, 
formed  the  bloody  triumvirate  of  the  reign  of  terror. 
He  became  a  self-constituted  public  accuser  before  the 
commune  and  the  Convention.  In  May,  1793,  the  ma 
jority  of  the  Convention  ordered  his  arrest  for  outrages 
committed  against  that  assembly.  He  was  tried,  but 
was  acquitted  by  the  tribunal  and  brought  back  to  the 
Convention  in  triumph  by  the  mob.  "The  hesitation 
of  Danton,"  says  Lamartine,  "and  the  temporizing  of 
Robespierre,  raised  Marat  at  this  moment  to  the  apogee 
of  his  popularity  and  power.  He  shrugged  his  shoulders 
at  the  names  of  Danton  and  Robespierre,  expressing  his 
doubts  of  their  capacity  to  guide  the  Revolution."  He 
was  assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday  in  his  own  house 
in  July,  1793.  (See  CORDAY,  CHARLOTTE.) 

See,  also,  DES.MAREST,  "Vie  de  Marat  depuis  1789:"  VAL- 
LOUISE,  "Marat,"  1840;  "  Skizzen  aus  Marats  Leben,"  Hamburg, 
1846;  PAUL  LACKOIX,  "Marat  Philosophe,  Naturaliste,"  etc.,  1854; 
THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Maratta,  ma-rat'ta,  or  Maratti,  ma-rat'tee,  (CARLO,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Camurano,  in  the  March  of 
Ancona,  in  May,  1625,  enjoyed  in  his  time  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  best  painters  in  Europe.  He  became 
a  pupil  of  Andrea  Sacchi  and  a  devout  student  of  Ra 
phael's  works,  and  chose  Rome  as  his  permanent  resi 
dence.  He  was  employed  by  Clement  IX.  and  by  four 
other  successive  popes,  and  received  the  title  of  painter- 
ordinary  to  Louis  XIV.,  for  whom  he  painted  a  picture 
of  Daphne.  His  Madonnas  are  admired  for  modest 
dignity  and  amiable  expression.  He  preferred  to  paint 
pictures  for  galleries  and  altars,  rather  than  large  works. 
Maratta  also  excelled  in  the  art  of  etching.  He  was  the 
last  great  painter  of  the  Roman  school.  Died  in  1713. 

See  BEI.LORI,  "Vita  del  Cavalier  Maratti,"  1732;  LANZI,  "His 
tory  of  Painting  in  Italy:"  PASCOI.I,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  modern! ;" 
TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Maratta  or  Maratti,  (MARIA,)  a  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  painter  and  a  poetess.  She  was  mar 
ried  to  G.  Zappe,  the  poet. 

Maratti.     See  MARATTA. 

Maraviglsa,  ma-ra-vel'ya,  (GIUSEPPE  MARIA,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  moralist,  born  at  Milan.  His 
Latin  name  was  MlRABH.lA.  Died  in  1684. 

Marazzoli,  ma-rdt-so'lee,  (MARCO,)  an  Italian  com 
poser  of  operas  and  oratorios,  born  at  Parma;  died  in 
1662. 

Marbach,  maR'baK,  QOHANN,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Lindau  in  1521.  Among  his  works 
is  "  The  Faith  of  Jesus  and  of  the  Jesuits,"  ("  Fides  Jesus 
et  Jesuitarum.")  Died  in  1581. 

Marbeau,  mfR'bo',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  FRANC.OIS,)  a 
French  writer  on  social  economy,  born  at  Brives  in  1798. 
He  founded  in  1844  charitable  institutions  called  Creches, 
for  infants  whose  mothers  serve  as  labourers  out  of  their 
own  houses. 

Mar'beck,  QOHN,)  an  English  composer  of  cathedral 
music,  was  organist  of  Windsor  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  composed  the  notes  to  the  Prcces  and  Re 
sponses  used  in  the  English  cathedrals.  Having  iden 
tified  himself  with  the  Protestant  cause,  he  was  con 


demned  to  be  burned  for  heresy  about  1545,  but  was 
pardoned, — perhaps  on  account  of  his  musical  skill.    He 
published  a  "Book  of  Common  Prayer  Noted,"  (1550,) 
and  a  "Concordance."     Died  in  1585. 
See  HAWKINS,  "  History  of  Music." 

Marbeuf  01  Marbceuf,  mtu'buP,  (Louis  CHARLES 
REN:E,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born  near  Renues 
in  1712.  He  commanded  in  Corsica  against  Paoli,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  in  1768.  Died  in  1786. 

Marbois,  mf  a'bwa',  (  FRANC.OIS  de  Barbe — deh 
baVba',)  MARQUIS,  called  also  MARQUIS  DE  MARBOIS, 
a  French  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1745. 
About  1780  he  was  charge -d'affaires  and  consul-general 
to  the  United  States.  In  1792  Louis  XVI..  who  esteemed 
him  for  his  probity,  sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Vienna. 
He  was  elected  in  1795  to  the  Council  of  Elders,  in  which 
he  spoke  often  and  with  ability.  In  September,  1797,  he 
was,  with  others,  deported  to  Guiana  by  the  Directory. 
Bonaparte  appointed  him  director  of  the  treasury,  or  min 
ister  of  finance,  in  1801.  Marbois  was  dismissed  in  1805, 
but  in  1808  became  first  president  of  the  Cour  des 
Comptes,  (Chamber  of  Accounts,  or  exchequer.)  He  held 
this  office  about  thirty  years.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals 
and  minister  of  justice  in  1815  and  1816,  and  received 
the  title  of  marquis  in  1817.  He  wrote  numerous  moral, 
political,  and  historical  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Conspiracy  of  Arnold  against  the  United  States," 
(1816,)  and  a  "  History  of  Louisiana,"  (1828.)  Died  in 

1837- 

See  ANTOINE  PASSY,  "  Notice  sur  le  Marquis  de  Barbe- Marbois," 
1838;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Marbot,  maVbo',  (ANTOINE  ADOI.PHE  MARCELLIN,) 
a  French  general,  born  at  Altillac  in  1781  ;  died  in  1844. 

Marbot,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  ANTOINE,)  a  general,  born 
at  Altillac  in  1782,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Na 
poleon  left  him  a  legacy  of  one  hundred  thousand  francs. 
Died  in  1854. 

Marc,  the  French  for  MARK,  which  see. 

Marc,  mituk,  (CHARLES  CHRETIEN  HENRI,)  a  physi 
cian,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1771,  settled  in  Paris  in  1798. 
About  1818  he  became  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
who,  on  his  accession  as  Louis  Philippe,  in  1830,  gave 
him  the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  king.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Insanity,"  ("  De  la 
Folie,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1840,)  and  published  several  able 
medical  treatises.  Died  in  1841. 

See  PARISET,  "  FJoge  de  Ch.  Ch.  H.  Marc,"  1842;  REVEILLB- 
PARISSE,  "Notice  sur  C.  C.  H.  Marc,"  1842. 

Marc,  SAINT.     See  MARK,  SAINT,  and  MARCUS. 

Marc  Antoine,  the  French  for  MARK  ANTONY.  See 
ANTONIUS,  (MARCUS.) 

Marc  Antonio.     See  RAIMONDI. 

Marc  Aurel,  the  German  for  MARCUS  AURELIUS. 

Marc  Aurele.     See  AURELIUS,  (MARCUS.) 

Marca,  de,  deh  maVka"',  (PIERRE,)  an  ambitious  and 
learned  French  prelate,  born  in  Beam  in  1594.  At  the 
request  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  wrote  his  famous 
treatise  on  the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  Church,  entitled 
"De  Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii,"  (1641,)  which 
offended  the  court  of  Rome.  He  was  made  Bishop  of 
Toulouse  in  1652,  minister  of  state  about  1658,  and 
Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1661.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  History  of  Beam."  Died  in  1662. 

See  DE  FACET,  "Viede  Pierre  de  Marca;"  BOMPART,  "FJoge 
de  Marca,"  1672. 

Marceau,  maVso',  (FRANC.OIS  SEVERIN  DESGRA- 
VIERS,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Chartres  in  1769.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1786,  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  In  1793  he  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  army  sent  against  the  Ven- 
deans,  whom  he  defeated  at  Mans.  In  1795  and  1796  he 
commanded  a  division  on  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Palati 
nate,  where  he  gained  advantages  over  the  Austrians. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Altenkirchen  in  1796. 
Kleber,  who  was  his  friend,  said,  "I  have  never  known 
any  general  so  capable  as  Marceau  to  change  the  plan 
of  battle  on  the  spot  with  sang-froid  and  judgment." 

See  CLAUDE  DESPREZ,  "Kleber  et  Marceau,"  1857;  LAVALLE, 
"  filoge  historique  du  General  Marceau,"  1797;  SEKGENT-MAR- 
CEAU,  "Notice  sur  le  General  Marceau,"  1820. 

Marcel.     See  MARCELLUS  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MAR  CEL 


1519 


MARCEL  LUS 


Marcel,  mlk'sel',  (£TIEXNE,)  a  French  partisan  chief 
and  agitator  of  reform,  was  provost  of  the  merchants  of 
Paris  when  King  John  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
at  Poitiers,  in  1356.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  popular 
party  in  its  contest  with  the  dauphin  Charles,  who  acted 
as  regent.  Marcel  was  predominant  in  Paris,  and  con 
trolled  a  majority  in  the  States-General,  which  refused 
to  vote  supplies  for  the  war  unless  their  grievances 
should  be  redressed.  A  revolution  was  effected  which 
rendered  the  government  almost  republican.  Having 
given  the  command  of  Paris  to  Charles  the  Bad,  of 
Navarre,  he  was  betrayed  by  him,  and  was  assassinated 
in  1358. 

See  NAUDET,  "Conjuration  cl'Fltienne  Marcel, "etc.  ;  FROISSART, 
"Chronique  ;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Marcel,  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  chronologist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1647.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the 
Dey  of  Algiers  in  1677.  He  published  valuable  "Chro 
nological  Tablets,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Origin  and 
Progress  of  the  French  Monarchy,"  (1686,)  which  is 
commended  for  accuracy  in  dates.  Died  in  1708. 

Marcel,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  writer  and  priest, 
born  about  1612.  He  wrote  Latin  and  French  verse, 
etc.  Died  in  1702. 

Marcel,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  French  Orien 
talist  and  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  November,  1776. 
He  went  to  Egypt  in  1798  as  a  member  of  the  scientific 
commission,  and,  having  returned  to  France  in  1801, 
was  selected  as  one  of  the  redadeitrs  of  the  "Descrip 
tion  of  Egypt."  He  was  director  of  the  national  printing 
department  (imprhnerie)  from  1802  to  1814.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "Melanges  Orientaux,"  (1833,) 
a  "  History  of  Egypt  from  the  Arabian  Conquest  to  the 
French  Expedition,"  (2d  edition,  1844,)  ar>d  a  "Scien 
tific  and  Military  History  of  the  French  Expedition 
in  Egypt,"  (with  Louis  Reybaud,)  (10  vols.,  1830-36.) 
Died  in  1854. 

See  BELIN,  "Notice  sur  J.  J.  Marcel,"  in  the  "Journal  Asi- 
atique,"  iS^-t;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marcel,  maRt'sel,  (N.,)  a  German  painter  of  flowers, 
fruits,  etc.,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1628;  died  in  1683. 

Mar-cel'la,  a  Roman«  lady,  was  a  daughter  of  C. 
Marcellus  and  Octavia,  who  was  a  sister  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  She  was  married  first  to  M.  V.  Agrippa, 
divorced  in  21  B.C.,  and  married  again  to  a  son  of  Mark 
Antony  the  triumvir. 

Marcelliii.     See  MARCET.LINUS. 

Mar  -  eel -II' mis,  [  Fr.  MARCELLIN,  ml R'si'lax',  ] 
SAINT,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Caius  as  Bishop  of 
Rome,  or  pope,  in  295  A.D.  During  his  tenure  of  that 
office  the  Church  was  persecuted  by  Diocletian.  He 
died  in  304  or  305,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marcellus  I. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Remains." 

Marcellinus  Ammianus.     See  AMMIANUS. 

Marcellis,  mar-sel'lis,  (Onto,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
flowers  and  animals,  was  born  in  1613.  He  worked 
with  success  in  Paris,  Rome,  and  Amsterdam.  Died 
in  1673. 

Marcello,  maR-chel'lo,  (BENEDETTO,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer  and  poet,  born  of  a  patrician  family  at 
Venice  in  1686,  was  a  pupil  of  Gasparini.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  for  fourteen  years  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  Forty.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  poet  by  a  number 
of  sonnets  and  canzoni.  His  capital  work  is  a  collection 
of  psalms,  entitled  "  Estro  poetico-armonico  Parafrasi 
sopra  i  50  primi  Salmi,"  (1724.)  These  were  received 
with  universal  enthusiasm  throughout  Europe,  and  mer 
ited  for  the  author  the  appellation  of  the  Pindar  and 
Michael  Angelo  of  musicians.  Died  in  1739. 

See  BURNEY,  "General  History  of  Music;"  FETIS,  "  Bio?raphie 
Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  F.  FONTANA,  "Vita  di  R.  Marcello," 
iyS8;  F.  CAFFI,  "Delia  Vita  e  del  Comporre  di  B.  Marcello,"  1830: 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marcello,  (PiETRo,)  an  Italian  biographer,  lived  at 
Venice  about  1500,  and  wrote  "  De  Vita  Principum  et 
Gestis  Venetorum,"  (1554.) 

Mar-cel'lus  [Fr.  MARCEL,  min'sel';  It.  MARCELLO, 
maR-chel'io]  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  Roman  by  birth, 
and  was  elected  in  308  A.n.  His  efforts  to  maintain 
strict  discipline  are  said  to  have  caused  a  schism  and 


sedition  among  the  believers.  He  died  in  309  or  310, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Eusebius. 

Marcellus  II.,  POPE,  born  at  Fano  in  1501,  was 
named  MARCELLUS  CEKVIUS.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
April,  1555,  after  the  death  of  Julius  IH.  About  three 
weeks  after  his  election  he  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Paul  IV. 

See  A.  BOWER,  "  History  of  the  Popes ;"  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR, 
"  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes  Remains. " 

Mar-cel'lus,  (CAIUS  CLAUDIUS,)  a  Roman  consul, 
who  married  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavius  Caesar. 
He  became  consul  in  50  B.C.,  before  which  he  had  at 
tached  himself  to  the  party  of  Pompey.  While  in  this 
office  he  made  a  motion  in  the  senate  to  deprive  Caesar 
of  his  command,  but  did  not  succeed.  He  remained  in 
Italy  during  the  civil  war,  and  shared  the  clemency  of 
Caesar  after  the  victory  of  the  latter.  Died  about  40  B.C. 

Mar-cel'lus,  [It.  M'ARCELLO,maR-chel'lo,](Do.\ATO,) 
an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Mantua.  He  wrote  "  De 
Historia  Medica  mirabili,"  (1586.) 

Marcellus,  (MARCUS  CLAUDIUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
celebrated  as  the  conqueror  of  Syracuse,  born  about  266 
B.C.,  was  the  greatest  member  of  a  consular  plebeian 
family  which  produced  several  eminent  men.  In  222 
he  became  consul,  (with  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio,)  defeated 
the  Insubrians  on  the  Po,  and  obtained  the  honour  of  a 
triumph.  After  Hannibal  had  invaded  Italy  in  the  second 
Punic  war,  Marcellus  was  chosen  praetor  for  the  year  216 
B.C.,  in  which  the  battle  of  Cannae  was  fought.  He  was 
not  present  at  this  battle.  The  command  of  the  forces 
which  escaped  from  that  defeat  having  devolved  on  him, 
he  repulsed  the  attack  of  Hannibal  on  Nola,  and  was  the 
first  that  checked  his  victorious  progress.  He  was  elected 
for  the  third  time  consul  for  the  year  214,  with  the  great 
Fabius  Maximus  as  his  colleague.  His  most  famous 
exploit  was  the  conquest  of  Syracuse,  which,  though 
defended  by  the  genius  of  Archimedes,  he  took,  after  a 
siege  of  two  years  and  some  months,  in  212  B.C.  He 
again  obtained  the  consulship  in  210  B.C.,  with  the  com 
mand  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  fought  an  indecisive  bat 
tle  with  Hannibal  at  Ntimistro.  Marcellus  and  Hannibal 
commanded  the  respective  armies  at  Canusium,  (209,) 
where  the  Romans  claimed  the  victory.  Marcellus  was 
elected  consul  for  the  fifth  time  in  208  B.C.  Plaving 
advanced  to  reconnoitre  near  Venusia,  he  fell  into 
an  ambuscade,  and  was  killed  in  the  skirmish  with  the 
advanced  posts  of  Hannibal,  in  that  year.  Plutarch 
has  drawn  a  parallel  between  Marcellus  and  Pelopidas, 
"  who,"  he  says,  "  were  both  men  of  heroic  strength,  and 
were  equal  in  courage  and  magnanimity."  Polybius 
denies  that  Marcellus  ever  defeated  Hannibal. 

See  PLUTARCH'S  "Lives;"  AURELIUS  VICTOR,  "De  Viris  illus 
trious;"  Livv.  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.-xxvii.  ;  POLYBIUS, 
"History;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marcellus,  (MARCUS  CLAUDIUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
skirmish  in  which  his  father  was  killed.  He  was  elected 
praetor  in  198  B.C.,  and  consul  in  196,  when  he  com 
manded  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  defeated  the  Insubrians. 
In  189  he  was  censor.  Died  in  177  B.C. 

Marcellus,  (MARCUS  CLAUDIUS,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  obtained  the  consulship  in  166  B.C.  He  was 
chosen  consul  again  in  155,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Ligurians.  In  152  he  obtained  a  third  consulship, 
with  command  of  the  army  in  Spain,  where  he  subdued 
the  Celtiberians  and  founded  Corduba,  (Cordova.)  He 
perished  by  shipwreck  in  148  B.C. 

Marcellus,  (MARCUS  CLAUDIUS,)  the  friend  of  Cicero, 
and  the  subject  of  the  admirable  oration  "  Pro  M.  Mar- 
cello,"  was  a  descendant  of  the  great  Marcellus.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  Elected  consul  in 
52  B.C.,  he  urged  the  senate  to  extreme  measures  against 
Caesar.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  an  adherent  of  Pompey 
and  the  senate.  He  fled  from  Rome  in  49,  and  joined 
the  army  in  Epirus.  After  the  ruin  of  his  cause  at  Phar- 
salia,  he  exiled  himself  to  Mitylene.  Overcome  by  the 
warm  intercession  of  the  senators,  Caesar  granted  him  a 
pardon  in  47  B.C.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  expressed  his 
thanks  to  the  dictator,  and  his  high  estimate  of  the  merit 
of  Marcellus,  in  the  oration  which  bears  his  name. 
Marcellus  was  on  his  homeward  journey  when  he  was 


MFICI  discipline  are  saici  to   nave  caused  a  scnism  ana    Marcellus  was  on  his  Homeward  journey  when  he  svas 
e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /„•  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARCELLUS 


1520 


MARCHETTI 


assassinated,  near  Athens,  by  P.  Magius,  one  of  his  at 
tendants,  about  46  B.C. 

See  CICRRO,  "  Pro  M.  Marcello ;"  DRUMANN,  "  Geschichte 
Roms;"  ORELI.I,  "  Ononiasticon  Tulliammi." 

Marcellus,  (MARCUS  CLAUDIUS,)  was  the  son  of  C. 
Claudius  Marcellus,  noticed  above,  and  Octavia.  About 
the  year  25  B.C.  he  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  the  empe 
ror  Augustus,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Julia  in  mar 
riage.  He  was  a  youth  of  promising  talents,  and  was  a 
general  favourite.  He  died  in  his  twentieth  year,  in  the 
autumn  of  23  B.C.  His  memory  was  embalmed  by  Vir 
gil  in  a  beautiful  passage  of  his  epic  poem,  (book  vi.,  v. 
872,  etc.,)  which  was  recited  by  the  poet  in  the  presence 
of  Octavia  and  Augustus.  (See  OCTAVIA.) 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  Marcellus ;"  TACITUS,  "Annales." 

Mar-cel'lus  Em-pir'i-cus,  a  Latin  writer,  born  at 
Burdigala,  (Bordeaux.)  He  was  magister  officioritm  in 
the  re'ign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  (379-395  A-IX)  .He 
was  author  of  a  pharmaceutical  work,  "  De  Medica- 
mentis  Empiricis,  Physicis,"  etc. 

Mar-cel'lus  Si-de'te§,  a  native  of  Side,  in  Pam- 
phylia,  lived  about  140  A.D.  He  wrote  a  long  Greek 
medical  poem,  of  which  fragments  are  extant. 

Mar-cel'lus  Ul'pl-us,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  nourished 
about  150  A.D.,  and  was  a  legal  adviser  of  the  emperor 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  author  of  thirty-one  books  of 
"  Digesta,"  six  books  on  the  "Leges  Julia  et  Papia," 
and  one  book  of  "  Responsa."  About  one  hundred  and 
fifty  excerpts  from  his  works  are  found  in  the  "Digest." 
He  is  often  quoted  as  high  authority  by  Ulpian,  Paulus, 
and  other  jurists. 

See  M.  TYDEMAN,  "  De  Marcelli  Vita,"  1762  :  J.  T.  SEGBR,  "  Ul- 
pius  Marcellus,"  1768. 

Marcellus,  de,  deh  maVsa'Hiss',  (MARIE  Louis 
JEAN  ANDRE  CHARLES  Demarthi  du  Tirac — deh- 
mfR'taN'  du  te'rtk',)  CoMTE,  a  French  writer,  critic, 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Guienne  in  1795-  During  a  mis 
sion  to  the  Levant,  in  1820,  he  brought  away  the  statue 
of  Venus  of  Milo.  He  published  "  Souvenirs  of  the 
Levant,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  "  Popular  Songs  of  Greece," 
(1851,)  and  "Chateaubriand  and  his  Times,"  (1859.) 

Marcet,  mar'seV  or  maVs.V,  (A.LKXANDRK,)  F.R.S., 
a  skilful  Swiss  physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1770.  Having  been  exiled  for  political  reasons,  he  settled 
in  London  about  1797,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  practitioner  and  a  lecturer  on  chemistry.  In  1815  he 
returned  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  supreme 
council.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Essay  on  the  Chem 
ical  History  and  Treatment  of  Calculous  Disorders," 
(1817,  in  English.)  Died  in  1822. 

Marcet,  QANE  HALDIMAND,)  a  popular  writer  on 
science,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
1785.  She  published  "Conversations  on  Chemistry," 
(in  English,)  which  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
"Conversations  on  Political  Economy,"  (1816.)  "Every 
girl,"  says  Macaulay,  "  who  has  read  Mrs.  Marcet's  dia 
logues  on  political  economy  could  teach  Montague  or 
Walpole  many  lessons  on  finance."  Died  in  1858. 

See  a  notice  of  Mrs.  Marcet,  by  PROFESSOR  DE  LA  RIVE,  in  the 
"  Bibliotheque  Umverselle,"  new  series,  1858,  vol.  iii. ;  HARRIET 
MARTINEAU,  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  London,  1869. 

Marcgraf,  maRk'gRaf,  or  Marggraf,  inaRr/gRaf, 
(GEORC,,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Liebstadt  in  1610, 
was  author  of  a  "Natural  History  of  Brazil,"  (in  Latin,) 
published  at  Leyden  in  1648.  "The  descriptions  of 
Marcgraf,"  says  Hallam,  "  are  good,  and  enable  us  to 
identify  the  animals.  They  correct  the  imperfect  notions 
of  Gesner,  and  add  several  species  which  do  not  appear 
in  his  work."  Died  in  Guinea  in  1644. 

March,  maRch,  (AusiAS  or  OSIAS,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Valencia.  He  imitated  Petrarch  with  success, 
and  wrote  many  short  poems  on  love,  morals,  etc.,  which 
were  printed  in  1543.  Died  in  1460. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

March,  (MIGUEL,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  religious 
subjects,  born  at  Valencia  in  1633  ;  died  in  1670. 

March  de  les  Batallas,  mauch  da  las  ba-tdl'yas, 
(EsTEBAN,)  a  Spanish  painter,  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Valencia.  He  acquired  a  great  reputation 
as  a  painter  of  battles.  He  died  at  Valencia  in  1660. 

See  CEAN-BERMUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 


Marchais,  des,  di  mtu'shi',  (RENAUD,)  a  French 
traveller,  wrote  a  description  of  Western  Africa,  which 
was  published  by  Labat,  in  4  vols.,  (1731.)  Died  about 
1728. 

Marchal,  mia'shil',  (FRANC.OIS  JOSEPH  FERDINAND,) 
a  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1780.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.,"  (1857.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Marchand,  mSn'sliox',  (F/riENNE,)  a  French  navi 
gator,  born  in  the  island  of  Grenada  in  1755.  He  made 
a  voyage  round  the  world  in  1790-92,  and  discovered 
several  small  islands  in  the  Northern  Pacific  Ocean.  A 
narrative  of  the  voyage  was  published.  Died  in  1793. 

Marchand,  (JEAN  GAURIEL,  )  COMTE,  a  French 
general,  born  near  Saint-Marcellin  in  1765.  He  served 
as  general  of  division  at  the  battles  of  Jena  (1806)  and 
Friedland,  (1807.)  When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba, 
(1815,)  Marchand  adhered  to  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in 
1851. 

Marchand,  (|EAN  HENRI,)  a  witty  French  writer  in 
prose  and  verse.  Among  his  works  are  "  Memoirs  of 
an  Elephant,"  (1771,)  and  "Political  Testament  of  M. 
de  V.,"  (Voltaire.)  Died  about  1785. 

See  BARISIEK,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Anonymes." 

Marchand,  (Louis,)  a  French  organist,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1669.  He  became  organist  of  the  royal  chapel 
at  Versailles.  Died  in  1732. 

Marchand,  (PROSPER,)  a  learned  French  bibliogra 
pher,  born  in  Picardy  about  1675.  Having  become  a 
Protestant,  he  removed  to  Amsterdam  in  1711.  He 
published  editions  of  rare  books,  collected  literary  anec 
dotes,  and  wrote  a  "Historical  Dictionary,  or  Critical 
and  Literary  Memoirs,"  (1758,)  a  work  of  considerable 
interest.  (See  ALLAMAND.)  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Journal  Litteraire,"  an  able  periodical  published 
at  the  Hague,  (1713-37,)  and  author  of  a  "History  of 
the  Art  of  Printing."  Died  in  1756. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Marchangy,  de,  deh  mtR'shoN'zhe',  (Louis  AN- 
TOINE  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  author  and  advocate,  born 
at  Clamecy  in  1782.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  History  of  France,  considered  in  its  Relations  with 
Poetry,  Eloquence,  and  the  P'ine  Arts,"  ("  La  Gaule 
poetique,"  etc.,  1813.)  Died  in  1826. 

Marchant,  mSR'shSN',  (Nicoi.AS,)  a  French  botanist, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
(1666.)  Died  at  Paris  in  1678. 

Marchant,  (Nicoi.AS  DAMAS,)  BARON,  a  French 
antiquary  and  physician,  born  in  1767;  died  in  1833. 

Marche,  de  la,  deh  l£  nia'Rsh,  (OLIVIER,)  a  poet  and 
chronicler,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1426.  He  served  Charles 
the  Bold  as  captain  of  his  guards,  and  was  made  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Nancy,  (1477.)  He  was  afterwards 
maitre-d''h<)tel  (steward)  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  and  her 
son  Philip.  He  wrote,  in  French,  "  Historical  Memoirs," 
(of  events  which  occurred  from  1435  to  1492,)  which  are 
considered  valuable  and  candid.  He  also  wrote  several 
poems,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Le  Chevalier  clelibere, 
ou  la  Vie  de  Charles  le  Temeraire."  Died  in  1501. 

See  COMINES,  "  Memoires;"   "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marcheiia,  maR-cha'na,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  litterateur, 
born  in  Andalusia  in  1768,  went  to  France  about  1790. 
Being  an  expert  linguist,  he  was  employed  as  secretary 
by  General  Moreau,  (1798-1804.)  He  translated  into 
Spanish  Moliere's  "  Tartuffe,"  Rousseau's  "  fimile,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1821. 

Marches!,  maR-ka'see,  or  Zaganelli,  (FRANCESCO,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cotignola.  He  lived  about 
1520,  and  worked  at  Ravenna. 

Marches!,  (GIROLAMO,)  a  painter,  was  born  about 
1480.  He  painted  portraits  and  history  at  Rome  and 
Naples.  Vasari  dates  his  death  about  1550. 

Marches!,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1699;  died  in  1771. 

Marches!,  (POMPEO,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  born 
in  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  Canova.  Among  his  works  are 
a  marble  statue  of  Goethe  at  Frankfort,  and  a  Saint  Am 
brose  at  Milan.  Died  at  Milan  in  1858. 

Marchetti,  maR-ket'tee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  poet  and  professor,  was  born  at  Pontormo,  in 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m5t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MARCHETTI 


1521 


MARCUS 


Tuscany,  in  1633.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Pisa  from  1659  to  1679.  In  the  latter  year  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Pisa.  He  published  an  able 
treatise  "  On  the  Resistance  of  Solids,"  and  other  works 
on  physics  and  mathematics.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  Italian  versions  of  Anacreon  and  Lucretius.  The 
version  of  Lucretius,  in  sciolti,  or  blank  verse,  is  generally 
admired  for  fidelity  and  elegance.  He  wrote,  also,  short 
original  poems.  Died  in  1714. 

See  FRANCESCO  MAKCHETTI,  "Vita  di  A.  Marchetti,"  1755  :  FA- 
BROM,  "Vitne  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium;"  NICERON,  "Me 
moires;"  TIKABOSCHI,  ''  Storia  della  Letterntura  Italiana." 

Marchetti,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  at  Empoli  in  1753.  He  defended  the  cause 
of  the  pope  in  some  of  his  numerous  works.  Among 
these  is  a  "Critique  on  Fleury's  History  of  the  Church," 
(2  vols.,  1782.)  Died  in  1829. 

Marchetti,  (GIUSEPPE  Salvagnoli — sal-van-yo'lee,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Empoli  in  1799.  He  com 
posed  several  small  poems,  and  translated  Virgil's 
Eclogues  into  Italian  verse.  Died  in  1829. 

Marchetti,  (MARCO,)  called  MARCO  DA  FAENZA,  a 
skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at  Faenza  ;  died  in  1588. 

Marchettis,  di,  dee  maR-ket'tess,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  surgery,  born  at  Padua  in  1593.  He  published 
"  Sylloge  Observationum  Medico-Chirurgicarum,"  (1664, 
often  reprinted.)  Died  in  1673. 

Marchi,  da,  damaR'kee,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  engineer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1506.  He  served 
the  King  of  Spain  as  military  engineer  in  Flanders  for 
thirty  years,  and  made  inventions  in  fortification.  His 
reputation  was  founded  on  a  work  entitled  "On  Forti 
fication,"  (Delia  Architettura  militare,"  1599.)  Died 
about  1599. 

See  MARINI,  "Vitadi  F.  Marchi,"  1810  ;  GINGUENE,  "Histoire 
de  la  Litterature  Italienne." 

Marchin,  de,  deh  maVshaN',  (FERDINAND,)  COUNT, 
sometimes  written  Marsin,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1656.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  King  of  Spain 
in  1701.  He  returned  to  France  in  1703,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal.  At  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (1704) 
he  was  second  in  command,  and,  after  Tallart  was  made 
prisoner,  conducted  the  retreat  in  good  order.  He  com 
manded  under  the  Duke  of  Orleans  at  the  great  battle 
of  Turin,  (1706,)  where  the  French  were  defeated  by 
Prince  Eugene  and  Marchin  was  killed. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires ;"  DE  COURCELI.ES,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Generaux  Francais. " 

Marchini,  maR-kee'nee,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1713.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Divinity  of  the  Sacred  Books," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1774. 

Marchione  (mai<-ke-o'na)  OF  AREZZO,  a  mediaeval 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  flourished  about  1200. 
One  of  his  works,  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pieve, 
is  extant  at  Arezzo. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Marchmoiit,  EARL  OF.  See  HUME,  (Sir  PATRICK,) 
and  HUME,  (Huc.H  CAMPBELL) 

Marcia  or  Martia  (mar'she-a)  Gens,  a  Roman 
gens,  originally  patrician,  claimed  to  be  descended  from 
Ancus  Marcius.  The  family  of  Coriolanus  belonged  to 
this  gc/ts. 

Marcian,  mar'she-an,  [Lat.  MARCIA'NUS  ;  Gr.  M«f>/«- 
ai'oc;  Fr.  MARCIEN,  mfR'se-aN',]  Emperor  of  the  East, 
was  born  of  obscure  parents  in  Thrace  about  ^90  A.n. 
He  had  risen  by  his  merit  to  a  high  rank  in  the  army 
when  Theodosius  the  Younger  died,  in  450.  He  then 
accepted  from  Pulcheria.  a  sister  of  Theodosius,  the 
offer  of  her  hand,  and  became  emperor.  His  reign 
was  wise  and  peaceful.  He  refused  to  pay  the  tribute 
demanded  by  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  saying,  "I 
have  gold  for  my  friends,  and  iron  for  my  enemies." 
He  died,  without  issue,  in  457  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Leo  I. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  LE 
BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire." 

Marcianus.     See  MARCIAN. 

Marcianus,  mar-she-a'nus,  (/Euus,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
who  wrote  in  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Cara- 
calla.  He  survived  the  latter,  who  died  in  217  A.D.  The 


Digest  contains  many  excerpts  from  his  "  Institutiones," 
his  "  Publica  Judicia,"  and  other  works. 

See  OEI.RICHS,  "De  Vita  /Elii  Marciani,"  1754. 

Marcianus  OF  HERACLEIA,  (in  Pontus,)  [Fr.  MAR- 
CIF.N  D'llERACLEE,  nilR'se-a.N'  da'rt'Ula',]  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fourth 
century.  He  wrote  a  "  Periplus  of  the  External  Sea, 
both  Eastern  and  Western,"  of  which  fragments  have 
come  down  to  us  and  are  esteemed  valuable. 

See  UKERT,  "Geographic  der  Griechen  und  Komer." 

Marcien.     See  MARCIAN. 

Marcile.     See  MARCILIUS. 

Marcilius,  mar-see'le-us,  [Fr.  MARCILE,  mfR'sel',] 
(TiiKODORUS,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Arnheni  in 
1548.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  several  colleges 
of  Paris  from  1578  to  1617.  He  published  notes  on 
Persius,  Horace,  Lucian,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote 
"  Lusus  de  Nemine,"  (1586,)  a  poem,  and  a  "History 
of  New- Year's  Gifts,"  ("  Historia  Strenarum,"  1599.) 
Died  in  1617. 

See  P.  VALENS,  "  Marcilii  Elogium,"  1620. 

Marcion,  mar'she-on,  [Gr.  Mapniuv,]  a  celebrated 
heresiarch  of  the  second  century,  was  born  at  Sinope,  in 
Pontus.  Having  been  excommunicated  for  some  youthful 
fault,  he  went  to  Rome  about  140  A.D.  He  devised  a 
new  creed  or  system,  which  was  accepted  by  numerous 
disciples  (Marcionites)  and  was  opposed  by  Tertullian, 
Origen,  and  other  Fathers.  He  taught  the  existence  of 
two  original  principles, — the  authors  of  good  and  evil, — 
and  ascribed  the  Mosaic  law  to  the  evil  principle.  He 
also  rejected  a  large  part  of  the  New  Testament. 

See  TII.I.EMONT,  "  Memoires  ecclesiastiques ;"  LARDNER,  "  His 
tory  of  Heretics;"  SCHEJ.UNG,  "  Dissertatio  de  Marcione,"  1795; 
NEAXDER.  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  :"  CAVE,  "  Historia 
Literaria;"  TEKTUI.LIAN",  "  Contra  Marcionem." 

Marck,  de  la,  deh  If  maRk,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  Flemish 
chief,  born  in  1446,  was  noted  for  his  ferocity,  and  was 
surnamed  THE  WILD  BOAR  OF  ARDENNF.S.  He  assas 
sinated  the  Bishop  of  Liege,  and  ravaged  Brabant,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  archduke  Maximilian.  He  then 
made  an  alliance  with  Rene  of  Lorraine  in  order  to  re 
new  the  war.  Maximilian  captured  him,  and  put  him  to 
death  in  1485.  William  de  la  Marck  is  a  conspicuous 
character  in  Scott's  romance  of  "Quentin  Durward." 

Marck,  de  la,  (ROHERT,)  COUNT,  was  master  of  the 
duchy  of  Bouillon  and  of  Sedan.  He  was  an  ally  of 
France  in  the  war  against  the  Austrians.  He  was  driven 
out  of  his  dominions  by  the  armies  of  Charles  V.,  but 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  (1526.)  Died  in 
1535.  His  son  Robert  became  marshal  of  France.  (See 
FLEURANGES.) 

Marco  Calabrese,  maR'ko  ka-la-bRa'si,  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  flourished  from  1508 
to  1541.  His  proper  name  was  CARDISCO. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Marco  da  Faeiiza.     See  MARCHETTI,  (MARCO.) 

Marco  da  Forli.     See  PALMEGIANI. 

Marco  Polo.     See  POLO. 

Marconville,  de,  deh  mtR'koN'vel',  or  Marcou- 
ville,  mi R'koo'vel',  (JEAN,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Le 
Perche  about  1540.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Origin  of  the  Diversity  in  the  Opinions  of  Men," 
and  one  "On  the  Goodness  and  Depravity  of  Women," 
("  La  Bonte  et  Mauvaistie  des  Femmes.") 

Marcot,  mfR'ko',  (EUSTACHK,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1686.  He  became  first  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king.  Died  in  1755. 

Marcuife,  mar'kulf,  a  French  monk,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  650  A.D.  He  formed  a  collection  of 
formulas  of  contracts,  deeds,  and  public  acts  which  were 
used  and  approved  in  his  time.  This  collection  is  valued 
as  a  monument  of  French  history  and  jurisprudence. 

Mar'cus,  [Fr.  MARC,  m^Rk,]  a  native  of  Rome,  was 
elected  Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome,  in  place  of  Sylvester, 
in  336  A.D.  He  died  about  nine  months  after  his  elec 
tion,  and  was  succeeded  by  Julius  I. 

Marcus  Aurelius.     See  AURELIUS  ANTONINUS. 

Mar'cus  G-rae'cus  (gree'kus)  passes  for  the  author 
ot  a  Latin  work  on  the  art  of  destroying  enemies  by  fire, 
("  Liber  Ignium  ad  Comburendos  Hostes,")  a  manuscript 
of  which  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  Royal  Library  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this, 

96 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


MARCr 


1522 


M4RG4RET 


Paris.  No  ancient  writer  mentions  him,  and  nothing  is 
known  of  his  history.  G.  Fournier  (of  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle")  conjectures  that  he  wrote  near  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  thinks  the  "  Liber  Ignium' 
is  a  rather  bad  version  of  a  Greek  original.  "  It  is  a 
tissue  of  errors,"  he  adds,  "and  a  collection  of  recipes, 
one  or  two  of  which  give  almost  exactly  the  composition 
of  gunpowder." 

See  V.  HOEKER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Mar'cy,  (RANDOLPH  B..)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Massachusetts  about  1812,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1832.  He  became  a  captain  in  1846,  and  colonel  in 
iSrji.  He  served  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  in  1862,  under  General  McClellan,  his  son-in- 
law. 

Marcy,  (WILLIAM  L.,)  a  distinguished  American 
statesman  of  the  Democratic  party,  born  at  Southbridge, 
Massachusetts,  in  1786.  Having  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1808,  he  studied  law  at  Troy,  New  York. 
He  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  in  several 
engagements  in  Canada.  About  1820  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Troy  Budget,"  a  Democratic  journal,  and  in  1823 
was  elected  comptroller  of  the  State.  He  became  a 
United  States  Senator  in  1831,  and  was  chosen  Governor 
of  New  York  in  1832,  1834,  and  1836.  He  was  a  candi 
date  in  1838,  but  was  defeated  by  Mr.  Seward.  He  was 
appointed  by  President  Polk  secretary  of  war  in  March, 
1845,  and  displayed  much  ability  in  this  position,  which 
was  rendered  more  arduous  by  the  occurrence  of  the 
Mexican  war.  He  retired  from  office  in  March,  1849, 
after  which  he  passed  four  years  in  private  life.  He 
supported  General  Cass  in  the  Presidential  election  of 
1848,  and  was  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi 
dent  Pierce  from  March  4,  1853,  to  March  4,  1857. 
During  this  period  he  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a 
diplomatist.  He  died  at  Ballston  Spa  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1857^ 

Mar-do'm-us,  [Gr.  MaptWiwr,]  an  able  Persian  gen 
eral,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Darius  Hystaspes.  In  492  li.C. 
he  commanded  a  large  armament  sent  by  Darius  against 
the  Grecian  states.  Having  lost  a  great  part  of  his  fleet 
in  a  storm,  he  returned  without  success.  In  481  he 
held  a  high  command  in  the  expedition  which  Xerxes 
led  against  the  Greeks.  After  the  Persians  had  been 
defeated  at  Salamis,  (480  B.C.,)  Xerxes  returned  home, 
leaving  300,000  men  under  Mardonius,  who  captured 
Athens  without  much  resistance.  lie  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Plataea  in  479  B.C.  by  the  army  of  Pausanias. 

See  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece;"  HERODOTUS,  "History," 
books  vi.-ix. 

Mare,  de  la,  deh  If  ma"R,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  magis 
trate,  born  near  Paris  in  1639.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Police,"  ("Traite  de  la  Police,"  4  vois.,  1707-38.) 
Died  in  1723. 

Mare,  de  la,  (PHILIHERT,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1615.  He  wrote  "  De  Bello  Burgundico," 
(1641,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1687. 

Marec,  mt'rek',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  legislator,  born 
at  Brest  in  1759,  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Conven 
tion,  (1792-95.)  He  rendered  valuable  services  in  the 
committees  of  finance  and  marine.  Died  in  1828. 

Marechal,  mt'ra'shf  1',  (GEORGES,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Calais  in  1658.  lie  was  appointed  in  1703  first 
surgeon  to  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  several  valuable  treat 
ises  on  surgery.  Died  in  1736. 

Marechal,  (LAURENT  CHARLES,)  a  French  painter 
on  glass,  bom  at  Metz  about  1800,  adorned  many  of  the 
grand  churches  of  France  with  windows  of  painted  glass. 

Marechal,  (PIERRE  SYLVAIN,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1750,  is  said  to  have  been  an  atheist. 
He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Atheists,"  (1800,)  and 
many  other  works.  His  chief  production  is  "  Travels  of 
Pythagoras  in  Egypt,  Chaldea,  India,"  etc.,  ("  Voyages 
de  Pythagore  en  Egyptc,"  etc.,  6  vols.,  1799,)  which  dis 
plays  much  learning  and  research.  Died  in  1803. 

See  LALANDE,  "Notice  sur  S.  Mardclial,"  1803;  "  Nouvelle 
Biosraphie  Generate. " 

Marenco,  ma-reVko,  (VINCENZO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Mondovi  in  1752.  He  wrote  "Osiris,  sive  De 
Legum  Origine,"  (1797,)  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1813. 


Marenzeo,  ma-ren'ze-o,  (LucA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Brescia  about  1550.  His  works  are 
principally  madrigals,  which  are  esteemed  models  of  ten 
derness  and  harmony.  Died  in  1599. 

Marescalchi,  ma-res-kll'kee,  (FERDINANDO,)  an 
Italian  diplomatist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1764.  lie  was 
employed  in  1803  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between  the 
Italian  republic  and  the  court  of  Rome.  Died  in  1816. 

Marescalco,  ma-res-kal'ko,  (PIETRO,)  sometimes 
called  LA  SI-ADA,  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born 
at  Feltre,  lived  about  1500. 

Marescot,  de,  deh  mt'res'ko',  (ARMAND  SAMUEL,) 
COUNT,  a  skilful  French  military  engineer,  born  at 
Tours  in  1758.  lie  was  appointed  first  inspector-general 
by  Bonaparte  in  1800,  and  was  made  a  count  in  1804. 
Died  in  1831. 

Maresius.     See  DESMARETS,  (SAMUEL.) 

Marestier,  mi'reVte-a',  (JE\\  BAI-TISTK,)  an  able 
French  engineer  and  naval  architect,  born  at  Saint-Scr- 
van  about  1780.  He  constructed  the  first  steamboat 
used  by  the  military  marine  for  the  service  of  seaports. 
He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Steamboats  of  the 
United  States,"  etc.,  (1824.)  Died  in  1832. 

Maret,  mt'r.V,  (HuouES,)a  learned  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1726.  lie  was  a  corre 
sponding  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris, 
and  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  chemist  Guyton  de  Mor- 
veau.  One  of  his  sons  was  the  Duke  of  Bassano, 
noticed  below.  Died  in  1786. 

Maret,  (Huc.UES  BERNARD,)  Duke  of  Bassano,  an 
able  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1763.  lie  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  in  1789  reported 
the  debates  of  the  National  Assembly  in  a  daily  "  Bul 
letin."  This  was  soon  united  with  'the  "  Moniteur," 
which  owed  its  success  to  the  reports  of  Maret.  Under 
the  new  regime  he  was  rapidly  advanced  in  the  depart 
ment  of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  sent  on  missions  to 
England  and  Naples  in  1793.  On  his  way  to  Naples  he 
was  arrested  by  the  Austrians,  and  confined  in  a  dun 
geon  about  two  years.  From  1800  to  1811,  as  secretary- 
general,  or  secretary  of  state,  he  directed  the  home 
department  with  great  credit,  had  a  large  share  of  Bona 
parte's  confidence,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  cam 
paigns.  In  1811  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Bassano.  On  the 
return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Maret  became  again  his 
secretary.  He  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  a  peer  of 
France  in  1831,  and  in  1834  was  minister  of  the  interior 
for  a  short  time.  lie  had  been  admitted  into  the  Institute 
(Academic  Franchise)  in  1803.  Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  LAS  CASES,  "Memorial 
de  Sainte-Helene." 

Maret,  ([K.AN  PHILIHERT,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1705;  died  in  1780. 

Marets,  des.     See  DESMARETS. 

Marezoll,  ma'ret-sol',  (GUSTAV  LUDWIG  THEODOR,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1794.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  legal  works. 

Mar'ga-ret  OF  ANJOU,  [Fr.  MARGUERITE  D'ANJOU, 
maVgRet'  d6.\'zhoo',]  a  daughter  of  Rene  of  Anjou, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  was  born  in  Lorraine  in  1429.  She 
was  married  in  1445  to  Henry  VI.,  King  of  England, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  imbecility,  had  the  principal 
share  in  the  government.  In  the  ensuing  contest  be 
tween  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  her  troops 
were  several  times  victorious  over  the  former ;  but  they 
suffered  a  fatal  defeat  at  Towton  in  1461.  After  several 
unsuccessful  efforts  to  repair  her  fortunes,  Margaret  was 
again  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner  at  Tewksbury  by 
Edward  IV.  in  1471.  She  was  ransomed  by  the  French 
king,  Louis  XL,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  her  life  in 
France,  where  she  died  in  1481. 

See  AGNES  STRICKLAND,  "  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England  ;" 
ABBE  PREVOST,  "Histoire  de  Marcuerite  d'Anjou,"  2  vols.,  1750; 
Louis  LAI.I.EMAND.  "  Marguerite  d' Anjou- Lorraine,"  1855;  J.  J. 
ROY,  "  Histoire  de  Marguerite  d'Anjon,"  1857. 

Margaret  OF  AUSTRIA,  [Ger.  MARGARETHE  VON 
OESTREICH,  maR-ga  ra'teh  fon  ost'rlK,]  daughter  of  Max 
imilian,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
was  born  at  Ghent  in  1480.  She  was  betrothed  when  a 
child  to  Charles  VIII.  of  France.  But  he  refused  to 
keep  the  engagement,  and  married  in  1491  Anne,  the 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARGARET 


1523 


M ARGON 


heiress  of  Brittany.  Margaret  was  married  in  1497  to 
Don  Juan,  Infant  of  Spain,  son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa 
bella,  who  survived  but  a  few  months.  She  was  again 
married  in  1501  to  Philibert  the  Handsome,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  who  died  in  1505.  In  1517  Margaret  was  ap 
pointed  by  her  father  ruler  of  the  Netherlands,  in  which 
post  she  displayed  signal  ability.  She  had  a  part  in  the 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  in  1508  by  the  principal 
European  powers  against  Venice.  She  died  in  1530, 
leaving  a  number  of  works  in  prose  and  verse,  including 
her  "Correspondence,"  which  was  published  in  1839, 

(2  V01S.) 

See  MUNCH,  "  Leben  Margarethes,"  1833;  AI.TMEVER,  "Vie 
de  Marguerite  d'Autriche,"  in  the  "Revue  Beige,"  1839;  P.  J. 
D'AVOINE,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Marguerite  d'Autr'.clie,"  1849. 

Margaret  OF  AUSTRIA,  Duchess  of  Parma,  born  at 
Brussels  in  1522,  was  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles 
V.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  She  was  married  in  1533  to 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Florence,  and  after  his 
death  to  Ottavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma.  In  1599  she 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Netherlands  by  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.  This  difficult  post  she  occupied  till  1567, 
when  she  resigned  it  to  the  Duke  of  Alva.  The  cele 
brated  Alexander  Farnese,  afterwards  Duke  of  Parma, 
was  her  son  and  only  child. 

See  MOTLEY,  "  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic ;"  PRESCOTT, 
"History  of  Philip  II.;"  SCHILLER,  "Geschichte  des  Abfails  der 
Niederlande." 

Margaret,  [Danish,  MARGARETHE,  maR-ga-ra'teh,] 
daughter  of  Waldemar  III.,  King  of  Denmark,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1353,  was  married  in  1363  to  Haquin, 
King  of  Norway.  In  1376  she  was  appointed  Regent  of 
Denmark  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Olaus,  then  but 
five  years  old.  On  the  death  of  Haquin,  in  1380,  she  be 
came  Queen  of  Norway,  and,  her  son  dying  in  1387,  the 
Danes  also  acknowledged  her  as  their  sovereign.  Soon 
after  this,  Margaret  engaged  in  a  war  with  Albert,  King 
of  Sweden,  against  whom  his  subjects  had  rebelled.  Her 
army  defeated  the  Swedes  and  captured  Albert,  (1388,) 
who  obtained  his  liberty  only  by  renouncing  the  crown 
of  Sweden.  At  an  assembly  of  the  estates  of  the  three 
kingdoms,  held  at  Calmar  in  1397,  the  famous  treaty 
called  "the  Calmar  Union"  was  formed.  By  this  it  was 
agreed  that  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway  should  in 
future  be  united  under  one  sovereign,  and  Eric  VII., 
nephew  of  Margaret,  was  appointed  her  successor.  Died 
in  1411. 

See  SUHM,  "Historic  af  Danmark;"  MAGNUS,  "Gothorum  His- 
toria  ;"  WICHMANN,  "Margarethe  Dronmng  til  Danmark  Norge  og 
Sverrig,"  1824. 

Margaret  [Fr.  MARGUERITE,  mf  R/gRet']  OF  FRANCE, 
daughter  of  Francis  I.,  born  in  1523,  was  distinguished 
for  her  learning  and  accomplishments  and  her  patron 
age  of  literature.  She  was  married  in  1559  to  Emmanuel 
Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy.  Died  in  1574. 

See  BRANTOME,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres;"  MEZERAY,  "  His- 
toire  de  France." 

Margaret  OF  FRANCE,  or  OF  VAI.OIS,  [Fr.  MARGUE-  j 
RITE  DE  VALOIS,  mtR'gRet'  deh   vtl'wa',]  a   daughter 
of  Henry  II.  and   Catherine   de   Medicis,  was  born   in  j 
1553.     She  had  respectable  talents,  but  little  virtue.     In  ! 
1572  she  was  married  to   Henry  of  Navarre;  but  love  I 
apparently  had  no  part  in  this  fatal  alliance.     During  [ 
the  festivities  that  followed  the  marriage,  the  perfidious  : 
court  of  Charles   IX.  ordered   the   Massacre   of  .Saint  j 
Bartholomew.     She  had  lived  separately  from  her  hus 
band  some  years  before  he  became  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
and  their  union  was  formally  dissolved  about  the  year 
1600.     Died  in  1615. 

See  MONGES,  "  Hi«;toire  de  la  Reine  Marguerite  de  Valois,"  etc., 
1777  :  BRANTOME,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres." 

Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre,  originally  Margaret 
of  Angouleme,  [Fr.  MARGUERITE  D'ANGOULEME, 
mtR'gRet'  dSN'goo'lim',]  daughter  of  Charles,  Count  of 
Angouleme,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  sister  of  Francis 
I.,  was  born  in  1492.  She  was  married  in  1509  to 
Charles,  Duke  of  Alen£on,  who  died  in  1525,  and  in  1527 
she  became  the  wife  of  Henry  d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre. 
She  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  supe 
rior  culture,  and  exercised  great  influence  in  the  govern 
ment  of  her  brother,  Francis  I.,  to  whom  she  was  warmly 
attached.  The  mildness  and  toleration  she  displayed 


towards  the  Protestants,  and  particularly  her  protection 
of  Calvin,  brought  upon  her  the  imputation  of  heresy 
from  the  Catholic  party.  She  was  the  author  of  nume 
rous  works  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  may  be 
named  the  "  Heptameron,"  a  collection  of  tales  in'  the 
style  of  Boccaccio's  "  Decamerone,"  and  a  devotional 
treatise  entitled  "Mirror  of  the  Sinful  Soul."  She  died 
in  1549,  leaving  a  daughter,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  afterwards 
the  mother  of  Henry  IV.  of  France. 


:le   Francois  I,"   2   vols.,   1^48;    "Foreign   Quarterly    Review"  for 
October.  1842. 

Margaret  OF  PROVENCE.     See  MARGUERITE. 

Margaret,  SAINT,  [Lat.  SANC'TA  MARGARI'TA  ;  Fr. 
SAINTK-MARGUERITE,  sa.Nt  miVgRet/,]  a  virgin  of  An- 
tioch,  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  275  A.D. 
According  to  tradition,  she  was  solicited  in  marriage  by 
Olibrius,  governor  of  Antioch,  and  on  her  refusal  was 
tortured  and  put  to  death  by  his  order.  This  legend  has 
formed  the  subject  of  Milman's  "Martyr  of  Antioch," 
and  of  numerous  works  of  art. 

See  BAII.LET,  "Vies  des  Saints;"  MRS.  JAMESON,  "Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art." 

Margaret,  SAINT,  daughter  of  Edward,  a  Saxon 
prince,  and  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  was  born  in  1046. 
She  was  married  about  1070  to  Malcolm  III.,  King  of 
Scotland,  and  died  a  few  days  after  the  death  of  her 
husband  and  son,  who  fell  in  battle  in  1093. 

See  SAINT  ^ELRED,  "Vita  Sanctz  Margarita;"  BAILLET,  "Vies 
des  Saints." 

Margaret  OF  SCOTLAND,  daughter  of  James  I.,  was 
married  in  1436  to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards 
Louis  XI.  Died  in  1445. 

See  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Francais;"  DUCLOS,  "  Histoire  de 
Louis  XI." 

Margarit,  maR-ga-ret',  or  Marguerit,  de,  da  maR- 
ga-ret',  (JosE,)  Marquis  d'Aguilar,  a  Spanish  soldier, 
born  in  Catalonia  in  1602,  was  a  prominent  leader  in 
the  insurrection  of  that  province  against  the  Spanish 
government  in  1640.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
Governor  of  Catalonia  by  Louis  XIII.  Died  in  1685. 

Margarit  or  Marguerit,  de,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  car 
dinal,  born  at  Girona  about  1415,  rose  to  be  chancellor 
of  Aragon.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Spain,  entitled  "  Para- 
iipomenon  Hispaniaj."  Died  in  1484. 

Margarit,  (PEDRO,)  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
Ferdinand  V.  He  sailed  with  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1492,  and  discovered  the  archipelago  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Marguerite  Isles. 

Margaritone,  maR-ga-re-to'na,  an  Italian  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1236.  His 
pictures  were  executed  in  fresco  on  wood  and  on  copper, 
and  he  sculptured  in  wood  as  well  as  marble.  His 
monument  to  Pope  Gregory  X.,  in  the  cathedral  of 
Arezzo,  is  ranked  among  his  best  works.  Died  about 

I3'3- 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.  ;  LANZI. 
"History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Margeret,  mtRzh'ri',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  officer, 
born  in  Burgundy.  He  entered  the  Russian  service, 
which  he  exchanged  about  1610  for  that  of  Poland.  He 
wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Russian  Empire,  etc.  from 
1590-1606,"  (in  French,  1607,)  which  was  translated  into 
Russian. 

Marggraf,  maRg'gRaf,  (ANDREAS  SIGISMUND,)  an 
eminent  German  chemist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1709.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1738,  and  director  of  the  class  of  physics  about  1762.  He 
was  an  ingenious  and  sagacious  experimenter,  and  wrote 
many  able  treatises  or  memoirs,  which  were  inserted  in 
the  records  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin.  He  made  the 
important  discovery  that  sugar  can  be  procured  from 
the  beet.  Died  in  1780. 

See  F.  HOEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Marggraf,  (GEORG.)     See  MARCGRAF. 

Margon,  de,  deh  maVgoN',  (GUILLAUME  PLANT AVIT 
DE  LA  PAUSE,)  ABBE,  a  French  satirist,  born  near  Beziers 
about  1685.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works,  dis 
tinguished  for  their  virulence  and  bitter  personalities, 


<;  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

Vs. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARGUERIE 


1524 


and  directed  alternately  against  the  Jesuits  and  the  Jan- 
senists.  Died  in  1760. 

Marguerie,  mSug're',  (JK.AN  JACQUES,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  writer,  born  near  Caen  in  1742.  He 
served  as  lieutenant  in  the  navy  against  the  British 
in  1778-79,  and  was  killed  near  Grenada  in  1/79. 

Marguerit.     See  MARGAKIT. 

Marguerite.     See  MARGARET. 

Marguerite  de  Provence,  iniK'gRet'  deh  pRo'- 
vdxss',  daughter  uf  Raymond  Herenger,  Comte  de  Pro 
vence,  born  in  1221,  was  married  in  123410  Louis  IX., 
King  of  France,  commonly  called  Saint  Louis.  She 
accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  and  while 
in  Damietta  gave  birth  to  a  son.  She  died  in  a  convent 
in  1295. 

See  JOINVIU.E,  "MJmoires;"  GUILLAUME  DE  NANGIS,  "Viede 
Saint-Louis." 

Marguerittes,  maVgRet',  (JEAN  ANTOINE  TKISSIER,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  royalist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1744, 
was  a  deputy  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  was 
executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Margunius,  maK-goo'ne-us,  or  Margunio,  maR- 
goo'ne-o,  (M.-\xiM  us,)  a  modern  Greek  prelate  and 
scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Candia  about  1525.  He 
founded  a  printing-office  at  Venice,  where  he  published 
numerous  editions  of  the  Greek  classics,  remarkable  for 
their  accuracy.  In  1585  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Cerigo.  He  wrote  "  Anacreontic  Hymns,"  and  several 
ecclesiastical  works.  Died  in  1602. 

Marheineke,  maR-h!'neh-keh,  (Pmi.irp  KONRAD,) 
a  German  Protestant  theologian  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  llildesheim  in  1780,  became  successively  professor  of 
theology  at  Erlangen,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin.  He  pub 
lished  a  "History  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,"  (4 
vols.,  1816,)  "Christian  Symbolics,"  and  several  philo 
sophical  works,  in  which  he  favours  the  system  of  Hegel. 
Died  in  1846. 

Maria,  the  Latin  of  MARY  and  MARIE,  which  see. 

Ma-ri'a  OK  AUSTRIA,  a  daughter  of  the  archduke 
Philip  the' Handsome  and  Joanna  of  Aragon,  was  born 
at  Brussels  in  1503.  She  was  married  in  1521  to  Louis 
II.,  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  after  his  death 
was  appointed  by  her  brother,  Charles  V.,  ruler  over  the 
Netherlands.  Soon  after  the  abdication  of  the  emperor 
she  resigned  her  office  and  retired  to  Spain,  where  she 
died  in  1558. 

See  LANZ,  " Correspondenz  Karls  V. ;"  BRANTOME,  "Vies  des 
Dames  illustres  " 

Maria,  ma-ree'a,  II.,  (DA  GLORIA,  da  glo're-a,)  daugh 
ter  of  Don  Pedro,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  Leopoldine, 
Archduchess  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1819. 
Her  father  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Portugal  in  March, 
1826,  but  renounced  his  right  in  favour  of  Dona  Maria. 
Her  uncle  Don  Miguel  usurped  the  throne  about  May, 
1828,  and  was  supported  by  the  absolutist  party.  A  civil 
war  ensued,  Don  Miguel  was  defeated,  and  Dona  Maria 
became  queen  about  September,  1833.  She  married 
Duke  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Kohary  in  April,  1836. 
Her  reign  was  disturbed  by  emeutes  and  insurrections. 
She  died  in  November,  1853,  and  was  succeeded  by  her 
son,  Pedro  V. 

Maria,  ma-ree'a,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  surnamed  FALCON ETTI,  born  at  Verona  in  1458. 
He  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  the  celebrated  Louis 
Cornaro,  in  whose  household  he  lived  for  twenty-two 
years.  Died  in  1534. 

Maria,  di,  de  ma-ree'a,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter,  born  in  1623,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino.  Died 
in  1690. 

Ma-ri'a  El-e-o-no'ra  OF  BRANDENBURG,  daughter 
of  John  Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  She  was 
married  in  1620  to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden, 
whom  she  accompanied  in  his  campaigns  in  Germany. 
Died  in  1655. 

See  GEIJER,  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (translated  by  TURNER.) 

Maria  Leszcinska,  ma-ree'd  la-chens'ska,  daughter 
of  Stanislas  Leszcinska,  King  of  Poland,  born  in  1703, 
was  married  in  1721;  to  Louis  XV.  of  France.  Died  in 
1768. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  PROYART,  "Vie  de 
Marie  Leszcinska." 


Maria  Louisa,  ma-ri'aloo-ee'za,  [Fr.  MARIE  LOUISE, 
mS're'  loo'ez',  ]  daughter  of  the  emperor  Francis  I. 
of  Austria  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Naples,  was  born  at 
Vienna  in  1791.  She  was  married  in  1810  to  Napo 
leon  I.,  Emperor  of  France,  to  whom  she  bore  a  son 
in  March,  1811.  On  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  in 
1814,  she  retired  to  Vienna,  and  in  1816  the  allied 
powers  gave  her  the  duchy  of  Parma.  She  was  pri 
vately  married  to  Count  Neipperg,  her  chamberlain. 
Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Maria  Theresa,  ma-ree'a  ta-ra'sa,  [Fr.  MARIE  THE- 
RESK,  mS're'  ta'i;\//,[  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 
was  married  in  1660  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  (See 
Louis  XIV.) 

Maria  Theresa,  ma-rl'a  te-ree'sa,  [Fr.  MARIE  THE- 
RESK,  ma" re'  ti'riz'  ;  It.  MARIA  TKRESIA,  ma-ree'a  ta- 
ra'se-a,]  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  Elizabeth  Christina  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel,  was 
born  in  May,  1717.  She  was  married  in  173610  Francis, 
Duke  of  Lorraine.  Charles  VI.  having  died  in  1740, 
his  daughter  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  of  Germany, 
in  accordance  with  the  act  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 
Her  title  was  soon  disputed  by  the  Electors  of  Saxony 
and  Bavaria  and  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Spain,  and  Sar 
dinia,  each  claiming  some  portion  of  Germany  in  the 
name  of  the  Austrian  princesses  with  whom  they  were 
connected.  Maria  Theresa  imme'diately  repaired  to  Vi 
enna,  where  she  received  the  homage  of  her  Austrian 
states,  and  thence  proceeding  to  Presburg  was  crowned 
Queen  of  Hungary  in  1741.  She  received  offers  of  as 
sistance  from  Frederick  IT.  of  Prussia  on  condition  of 
her  ceding  to  him  Lower  Silesia,  but  she  firmly  refused. 
Her  capital  being  soon  after  threatened  with  a  siege  by 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria  and  his  French  allies,  the  empress 
convoked  the  Hungarian  Diet  at  Presburg,  where,  with 
her  infant  children,  she  said  to  the  deputies  that,  "being 
assailed  by  enemies  on  every  side,  she  had  no  hopes  ex 
cept  in  their  loyalty,  and  she  had  come  to  place  under 
I  their  protection  the  daughter  and  son  of  their  kings." 
The  Hungarian  nobles  responded  with  enthusiasm  to 
this  appeal,  and  drew  their  swords,  exclaiming,  "  We 
will  die  for  our  king,  Maria  Theresa!''  ("Moriamur 
pro  rege  nostro,  Maria  Theresia  !")  The  French  and 
Bavarians  were  soon  driven  out  of  her  hereditary  states 
by  the  Imperial  forces  under  General  Kevenhuller  and 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine.  In  1742  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  between  Maria  Theresa  and  the  King  of 
Prussia,  by  which  the  latter  obtained  Silesia.  The  Elec 
tor  of  Bavaria,  wjio  had  been  previously  chosen  Emperor 
of  Germany  under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.,  having  died 
in  1745,  Francis,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  was 
elected  to  that  dignity.  In  1746  the  Imperialists  gained 
important  victories  in  Italy,  and  defeated  the  French  and 
Spaniards  at  Piacenza.  The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
in  1748,  put  an  end  to  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession, 
leaving  the  empress  in  possession  of  all  her  hereditary 
estates  except  Silesia.  The  Seven  Years'  war,  carried 
on  by  Prussia  against  France,  Russia,  and  Austria,  ter 
minated  in  1763,  leaving  the  boundaries  of  Austria  and 
Prussia  the  same  as  before.  The  emperor  Francis 
having  died  in  1765,  his  son  Joseph  was  elected  to  the 
imperial  dignity  ;  but  Maria  Theresa  still  retained  the 
administration  of  the  government.  She  is  said  to  have 
refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  partition  of  Poland  (1772) 
until  prevailed  upon  by  the  representations  of  Joseph  II. 
and  Prince  Kaunitz.  Among  the  important  reforms  of 
her  reign  was  the  abolition  of  the  torture  (1776)  and 
of  feudal  service.  She  also  abolished  the  Inquisition 
at  Milan,  and  suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits.  She 
died  in  November,  1780,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son, 
Joseph  II. 

See  PAOI.O  FRISI,  "  Elogio  di  Maria  Teresia,"  1783;  SABATIER 
DE  CASTRES,  "Abrege  de  la  Vie  de  Marie  Therese,"  1773;  RICH- 
TER,  "  Lebens-  und  Staatsgeschichte  Maria;  Theresia;,"  3  vols., 
1745;  DULLER,  "Maria  Theresia  und  ihre  Zeit,"  1844;  RAUTEN- 
STRAUCH,  "  Biographic  der  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresia,"  1780;  REN- 
NER,  "  Maria  Theresia  und  Friedrich  der  Grosse,"  1831  ;  WOLF, 
"Oestreich  unter  Maria  Theresia,"  1855;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene1  rale." 

Marialva,  ma-re-al'va,  (Dom  JOAO  Coutinho  — 
ko-ten'yo,)  COUNT,  a  Portuguese  officer,  fought  under 


a ,  e,  I, 5,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MARIALVA 


1525 


MARIE 


Alphonso  V.  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  and  was  killed 
while  assisting  in  the  capture  of  Arzilla,  in  1471. 

Marialva  y  Menezes,  ma-re-al'va  e  ma-na'ze's, 
(ANTONIO  Luiz,)  Count  de  Castanhede,  an  able  Portu 
guese  general  and  statesman,  born  about  1627.  In  1659 
he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Castilians  at  Elvas, 
and  soon  after  became  principal  minister  of  state,  Marquis 
of  Marialva,  and  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies  of  the 
kingdom.  Died  about  1668. 

See  LACLEOE,  "  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Ma-ri-am'iie,  [Gr.  Mapiufivr],]  a  beautiful  Jewess,  a 
granddaughter  of  the  high-priest  Hyrcanus  II.,  became 
in  38  B.C.  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great,  who,  when  he 
departed  from  his  capital  to  meet  Octavian,  gave  secret 
orders  that  she  should  be  put  to  death  in  case  he  did 
not  return  in  safety.  This  secret  having  been  revealed 
to  her,  she  received  him  coldly  on  his  return,  and  excited 
his  jealousy,  which  was  increased  by  the  intrigues  of 
Herod's  sister  Salome,  who  suborned  the  royal  cup 
bearer  to  testify  that  Mariamne  designed  to  poison  the 
king.  She  was  put  to  death  in  29  B.C.  This  story  is  the 
subject  of  one  of  Voltaire's  tragedies. 

See  JOSEPHS,  "  History  of  the  Jews;"  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Mariana,  de,  da  ma-re-a'na,  (Ju.\N,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian,  born  atTalavera  in  1536.  He  studied 
at  Alcala,  and,  having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  their  college  at  Rome, 
(1560.)  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1574,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement,  devoted  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  published  in  1599  his  "Treatise  on  Roy 
alty,"  ("De  Rege  et  Regis  Institutione,")  in  which  he 
maintains  that  it  is  lawful  in  certain  cases  to  put  a  king 
to  death.  This  work  caused  a  great  sensation,  particu 
larly  in  France,  where  it  was  denounced  by  the  Sorbonne, 
and  soon  after  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV.  it  was 
publicly  burned  by  order  of  the  Parliament.  In  1592  he 
brought  out  his  great  work  entitled  "  Historia  de  Rebus 
Hispanias,"  ("History  of  Spain,")  which  was  received 
with  great  favour  and  was  soon  after  translated  by  him 
into  Spanish.  His  Latin  style  is  characterized  by  great 
elegance  and  animation,  and  has  been  compared  to  that 
of  Livy  ;  while  his  Spanish  history  is  generally  esteemed 
the  most  admirable  work  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 
"Noble,  pure,  and  rich  without  diffuseness,  it  unites 
with  rare  felicity,"  says  a  French  critic,  "the  picturesque 
vivacity  of  the  chroniclers  with  the  dignity  of  history;" 
and  Ticknor,  in  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature," 
observes,  "Its  admirably  idiomatic  style,  so  full  yet  so 
unencumbered,  so  pure  and  yet  so  rich,  renders  it,  if 
not  the  most  trustworthy  of  annals,  at  least  the  most  i 
remarkable  union  of  picturesque  chronicling  with  sober  j 
history  that  the  world  has  ever  seen."  Mariana  also  ' 
published  a  treatise  "On  Weights  and  Measures,"  "On 
Death  and  Immortality,"  and  other  learned  works,  in 
Latin,  and  an  essay  entitled  "De  las  Enfermedades  de 
la  Compania  y  de  sus  Remedies,"  ("On  the  Disorders 
of  the  Society  [of  Jesuits]  and  their  Remedies,"  1625,) 
in  which  he  boldly  exposes  and  condemns  the  errors  of 
the  Jesuits.  Died  in  1623. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  :"  TAMAJO  (or 
TAMAYO)  DE  VARGAS,  "Vid.i  del  P.  Juan  Mariana;"  N.  ANTONIO, 
"  Kibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  ACOSTA,  "Vida  de  Mariana;"  F. 
B 

J 

gn 
apl 

Mariani,  ma-re-a'nee,  (CAMII.LO,)  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1565  ;  died  in  1611. 

Mariani,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ascoli  about  1650.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
"Baptism  of  Saii.t  James,"  at  Rome. 

Ma-ri-a'iius  Sco'tus,  a  Scottish  chronicler,  born  in 
1028.  is  said  by  Matthew  of  Westminster  to  have  been 
a  relative  of  the  Venerable  P>ede.  •  His  principal  work  is 
a  "  Universal  Chronicle  from  the  Creation  to  the  Year 
1083,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1086. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Marichl,  ma-ree'chi,  a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage  or 
demi-god,  was,  according  to  one  account,  the  son  of 
Brahma, — according  to  another,  the  son  of  Bhrigu.  He 
was  the  father  of  Kasyapa.  By  some  he  is  considered 


was  the  tatner  ot  Kasyapa.     r>y  some  ne  is  considered    stmacy  ana  violent  temp 
€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


as  the  god  of  "light,"  which  appears  to  be  the  etymo 
logical  signification  of  his  name. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  "  Institutes  of  Manu,"  chap.  i. 

Marie,  the  French  for  MARY,  which  see. 

Marie,  mf  re',  (ALEXANDER  THOMAS,)  a  French  ad 
vocate  and  republican,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1795.  He 
was  minister  of  public  works  from  February  to  June, 
1848,  and  minister  of  justice  from  July  to  December  of 
that  vear.  He  was  elected  to  the  Corps  Legislatif  in 
1863.' 

Marie  Adelaide  de  Savoie,  ml 're'  f 'da'lf'ed'  deh 
sf'vwd',  daughter  of  Victor  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
born  at  Turin  in  1685,  was  married  in  1697  to  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  She 
died  in  1712,  leaving  one  son,  afterwards  Louis  XV. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires  de  Louis  XIV,"  etc.;  MADAME 
DE  MAINTENON,  "  Lettres." 

Marie  Amelie  de  Bourbon,  mf're'  f'ma'Ie'  deh 
booR'bo.N'',  Queen  of  France,  born  near  Naples  in  1782, 
was  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sici 
lies.  She  was  married  in  1809  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
afterwards  King  Louis  Philippe.  After  his  death  she 
retired  to  England,  where  she  resided  at  Claremont, 
near  London.  Died  in  1866. 

Marie  Anne  Christine  Victoire  de  Baviere, 
mf'ie'  fn  kKes'ten'  vek'twaR'deh  bi've-aiR',  daughter  of 
Ferdinand,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  was  born  at  Munich  in 
1660.  In  1680  she  was  married  to  Louis,  the  Dauphin 
of  France,  son  of  Louis  XIV.  She  died  in  1690,  leaving 
three  sons. 

Marie  Antoinette  Josephe  Jeanne  d'Autriche, 
mt're'  ON'twa'neV  zho'zaf  zhtn  do'tResh',  (commonly 
called  simply  Marie  Antoinette,)  born  at  Vienna  in 
1755,  was  the  daughter  of  -Maria  Theresa  and  the  em 
peror  Francis  I.  of  Germany.  She  was  married  in 
1770  to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  Louis  XVI. 
High-spirited  and  energetic,  she  strove  during  the 
revolutionary  troubles  to  inspire  the  king  with  her  own 
courage  ;  but  her  counsels  often  led  him  into  greater 
difficulties.  It  was  her  misfortune  and  the  misfortune  of 
France  that  she  resisted  all  those  reforms  which  might 
have  prevented  or  moderated  the  violence  of  the  Revo 
lution.  Possessing  extraordinary  personal  charms  and 
great  vivacity  of  disposition,  the  freedom  of  her  manners 
was  often  misconstrued  by  her  enemies  ;  but  their  accu 
sations  are  generally  believed  to  have  been  groundless. 
During  the  terrible  scenes  which  followed  the  captivity 
of  the  royal  family,  she  displayed  the  greatest  firmness 
and  dignity,  showing  on  all  occasions  more  concern  for 
her  husband  and  children  than  for  herself.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists,  Marie  Antoinette  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  October,  1793. 
(See  Louis  XVI.) 

See  MADAME  CAMPAN,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Marie  Antoi 
nette  ;"  "Memoires  de  Mademoiselle  Benin  sur  la  Reine  Marie 
Antoinette  ;"  MADAME  VIGEE-LEBRUX,  "  Souvenirs,"  1835  :  THIHRS, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Franchise  ;"  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of 
the  Girondists  ;"  WEBER,  "Memoires  concernant  Marie  Antoinette," 
1822. 

Marie  Clotilde  Adelaide  Xaviere  de  France, 
mf're'  klo'teld'  f'da'lf'ed'  za've-aik'  deh  fRfiNss,  sister 
of  Louis  XVI.,  born  at  Versailles  in  1759,  was  married 
in  1775  to  the  Prince  of  Piedmont,  afterwards  Charles 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia.  Died  in  1802. 

Marie  de  Bourgogne.     See  MARY  OF  BURGUNDY. 

Marie  de  Guise.     See  MARY  OF  GUISE. 

Marie  de  I'lncarnation,  mf're'  deh  laN'kf R'na'- 
SC-ON',  a  French  missionary,  whose  original  name  was 
GI'YARD,  born  at  Tours  in  1599,  visited  Canada  in  1639, 
where  she  made  many  converts  among  the  Indians,  and 
fc  unded  a  convent  of  her  order.  Died  in  1672. 

See  "  Vie  de  la  Mere  Marie  de  I'lncarnation,"  by  P.  CHARLE- 
voix. 

Marie  de  Lorraine.     See  MARY  OF  GUISE. 

Marie  Madeleine.     See  MAGDAI.F.NK. 

Marie  de  Medicis,  mf're'  deh  ma'de'sess',  or  Maria 
de'  Medici,  ma-ree'a  da  med'e-chee,  the  daughter  of 
Francis,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  archduchess 
Joan  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1573.  She  was 
married  in  1600  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  She  had 
moderate  abilities,  but  exorbitant  ambition  ;  and  her  ob 
stinacy  and  violent  temper  were  the  source  of  constan- 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARIE 


i  526 


MARINEO 


dissension  between  her  and  her  husband.  On  the  death 
of  Henry  she  became  regent,  for  which  office  she  proved 
herself  utterly  incompetent.  Having  given  offence  to  her 
subjects  by  her  partiality  for  unworthy  favourites,  she 
was  deposed  and  imprisoned,  but,  effecting  her  escape, 
again  took  part  in  the  government.  She  introduced 
Richelieu  into  the  administration,  who  soon  possessed 
himself  of  the  highest  power,  and  induced  her  son, 
Louis  XIII.,  to  imprison  her  (1630)  at  Compiegne.  After 
a  second  escape,  she  died  at  Cologne  in  1642. 

See  Miss  PARDOE,  "Life  of  Marie  de'  Medici;"  RICIIRLIEU, 
"  M  >moires  ;"  SISMUNUI,  "  Histoiredes  Francois  ;"  RUAU,  "  Tableau 
de  ia  Kegence  de  Marie  de  Medicis,"  1615. 

Marie  d'Orleans,  mi're'  doii'la'oN',  (MARIE  CHRIS- 
TINK  CAROLINE  ADELAI'DK.  FRANC.OISE  D&OPOLDINE  DE 
VAI.OIS,  mS're'  kkes'tei/  kiWlen'  S'da'lf 'ccK  fRd.Vswaz' 
la'o'pol'den'  deh  vtl'wa',)  Duchess  of  Wiirtemberg, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1813,  was  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Louis  Philippe,  King  of  France.  Having  early  mani 
fested  a  love  for  the  arts,  she  studied  sculpture  and  de 
sign  under  Ary  Scheffer.  Among  her  works  the  statue 
of  Joan  of  Arc  is  the  most  generally  admired.  She  was 
married  in  1837  to  Duke  Alexander  of  Wiirtemberg. 
Died  in  1839. 

Marie  Therese.     See  MARIA  THERESA. 

Mariette,  mi're'eV,  (Aur.usTE  EDOUARD,)  a  cele 
brated  French  archaeologist,  born  at  Boulogne  in  1821. 
Having  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
he  was  charged  in  1850  with  a  scientific  mission  to 
Egypt,  where  he  discovered  the  site  of  the  city  of  Mem 
phis  and  disinterred  the  temple  of  Serapis  and  a  ne 
cropolis  of  vast  extent.  In  this  were  found  the  granite 
sarcophagi  of  the  bulls  of  Apis,  hewn  out  of  a  single 
stone,  fifteen  feet  long,  nine  in  width,  and  the  same  in 
height.  He  also  removed  the  sand  from  the  colossal 
Sphinx,  which  was  cut  entire  from  a  rock.  He  published, 
about  1856,  a  work  on  the  monuments  discovered  during 
the  disinterring  of  the  Serapeum  at  Memphis,  a  specimen 
of  a  larger  work  which  he  has  in  preparation. 

Mariette,  (JEAN,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1660,  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  Poussin  and 
Le  lirun.  Died  in  1742. 

Mariette,  (PIERRE  JEAN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris  in  1694,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  ama 
teurs  of  his  time,  and  became  director  of  the  Imperial 
Gallery  at  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting  in  Paris,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Design  at 
Florence.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Treat 
ise  on  the  Engraved  Gems  of  the  Royal  Cabinet."  Died 
in  1774. 

See  DUMESNIL,  "  Histoire  des  plus  ce'lebres  Amateurs  Francais," 
1856;  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Marignano,  ma-ren-ya'no,  written  also  Melegnaiio, 
[Fr.  MAKIGNAN,  mt'rfen'ydx',]  (GiAN  GIACOMO,)  Mar 
quis  de  Medichino,  a  celebrated  Italian  soldier,  born  at 
Milan  in  1497.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  who  sent  him  in  1540  to  reduce  the  city  of 
Ghent,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  appointed  governor. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  siege  of  Metz,  in  1552,  and 
was  subsequently  employed  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo 
de'  Medici  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  the  republic  of 
Sienna,  where  he  ravaged  the  country  and  was  guilty  of 
great  barbarity  towards  the  inhabitants.  Died  in  1555. 

See  DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  BRANTOME,  "Vies 
des  grands  Capitaines;"  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Republiques 
Italiennes;"  MISAGI.IA,  "Vita  del  Marchese  di  Marignano,"  1605; 
ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,*'  book  xi. 

Marignie,  de,  deh  mt'ren'ye-i',  (JEAN  ETIENNE 
FRANCOIS,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Languedoc  about 
1755,  was  O1ie  °f  tne  "lost  zealous  defenders  of  Louis 
XVI.  in  the  National  Convention.  He  published  a  num 
ber  of  dramas  and  political  treatises.  Died  about  1830. 

Marigny,  de,  deh  mt'ren'ye',  ( ABEL  FRANCOIS  Pois- 
son — pwa'soN',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Paris  in  1727,  was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
through  whose  influence  he  was  appointed  in  1751  di 
rector-general  of  the  royal  buildings.  Died  in  1781. 

Marigny,  de,  (ENGUERRAND,)  a  French  statesman, 
filled  several  high  offices  under  Philippe  le  Bel,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  prime  minister.  Soon  after  the  ac 
cession  of  Louis  X.,  he  was  condemned  to  death  on  the 
false  accusations  of  his  enemies,  and  executed  about  1315. 


Marigny,  de,  (FRANCOIS  AUGIER,)  a  French  Orien 
talist  and  historian,  born  about  1690.  He  produced  a 
"History  of  the  Twelfth  Century,"  (5  vols.,  1750,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Arabs  under  the  Government  of  the 
Caliphs,"  (4  vols.,  1750.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1762. 

Marigny,  de,  (GASPARD  AUGUSTIN  RENE  BERNARD,) 
a  French  officer,  born  at  Lu£on  in  1754,  was  one  of  the 
royalist  chiefs  in  the  Vendean  war.  He  was  condemned 
to  death  by  his  own  party  for  alleged  neglect  of  duty, 
and  executed  in  1794. 

Marigny,  de,  (JACQUES  CARPENTIER,  )  a  French 
priest,  noted  for  his  wit,  born  near  Nevers.  He  wrote 
several  poems,  and  Letters,  (1678.)  Died  in  1670. 

Marillac,  de,  deh  mt're'yaV,  (CHARLES,)  an  able 
French  negotiator,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1510.  He 
was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  and  conducted  suc 
cessfully  some  important  negotiations  in  Germany  and 
Rome.  He  was  at  the  head  of  a  small  number  of  French 
bishops  known  by  their  tendency  to  a  philosophic  spirit. 
Died  in  1560. 

Marillac,  de,  (Louis,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Auvergne  in  1572.  He  served  with  distinc 
tion  in  the  armies  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  made  a  mar 
shal  of  France  in  1629.  Being  afterwards  suspected  of 
conspiring  against  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  was  executed, 
on  a  charge  of  peculation,  in  1632. 

See  "  Procas  du  Marechal  de  Marillac,"  etc.,  1633 ;  RICHELIEU, 
"Journal." 

Marillac,  de,  (MiciiEL,)  a  French  statesman,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1563.  lie  was 
appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  keeper  of  the  seals, 
(1626.)  Having  subsequently  incurred  the  enmity  of 
the  cardinal,  he  was  imprisoned  at  Chateaudun  in  1630, 
where  he  died  in  1632. 

Mariii.     See  MARINUS  OF  TYRE. 

Marin,  mS'raN',  a  French  mechanician,  and  a  native 
of  Lisieux,  invented  the  air-gun,  which  he  exhibited  in 
the  presence  of  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Marin,  (FRANC.OIS  Louis  CLAUDE,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  born  in  Provence  in  1721.  Among  his  principal 
works  is  a  "  History  of  Saladin,  Sultan  of  Egypt,"  etc. 
Died  in  1809. 

Marin,  (MiciiEi,  ANGE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
devotional  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1697.  He  pub 
lished  "  Lives  of  the  Hermits  of  the  East,"  (3  vols.  410, 
1761,)  and  numerous  other  works.  Died  in  1767. 

See  CHAUDON,  "  filoge  historiquedu  Pere  M.  A.  Marin,"  1769. 

Marina,  ma-ree'na,  Malinche,  ma-len'cha,  written 
also  Malintzin,  the  daughter  of  a  Mexican  chief,  born 
about  1505,  was  sold  as  a  slave,  and  subsequently  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Cortez,  whom  she  accompanied  in  all 
his  expeditions.  She  possessed  rare  beauty  and  talents, 
and,  from  her  knowledge  of  the  Spanish  as  well  as 
Mexican  languages,  was  of  great  service  as  an  inter 
preter.  After  the  death  of  Cortez,  she  was  married  to 
Don  Juan  de  Xamarillo,  a  Spanish  officer.  Marina  has 
been  celebrated  by  the  Spanish  poet  Moratin  in  his 
"  Noves  de  Cortes." 

See  BERNAL  DIAZ,  "Historia  de  la  Conquista  del  Mexico;" 
PRKSCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  book  ii. 

Marina,  ma-ree'na,  (Don  FRANCISCO  MARTINEZ,)  a 
Spanish  political  writer  of  the  liberal  party,  born  about 
1757.  He  published  the  "  Theory  of  the  Cortes,"  (1821,) 
"  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy," 
etc.,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1833. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella." 

Marinali,  ma-re-na'lee,  (ORAZIO,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Bassano  in  1643  ;  died  in  1720. 

Marinari,  ma-re-na'ree,  (ONORIO,)  a  Florentine 
painter,  born  about  1660,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator  of 
Carlo  Dolce.  Died  in  1715. 

Marinas,  de  las,  da  las  ma-ree'nas,  (ENRIQUEZ,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1620,  was  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  his  marine  views,  from  which  he 
derived  his  surname.  Died  in  1680. 

Marinella,  ma-re-nel'la,  or  Marinelli,  ma-re-nel'lee, 
(LucREZlA,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Venice  in  1571. 
She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Life  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,"  ("  Vita  di  Maria  Vergine,"  1617.)  Died  in  1653. 

Marineo,  ma-re-na'o,  (Lucio,)  a  Sicilian  scholar  and 
historian,  born  at  Bidino  about  1460.  He  became  chap- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MAR  IN  I 


1527 


MARIUS 


lain  and  historiographer  to  Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and 
was  also  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  He  wrote  several  works  on  Spanish  history, 
(in  Latin.)  Died  about  1535. 

Marini,  ma-ree'nee,  (BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Urbino,  lived  about  1625. 

Marini,  (GAETANO  LUIGI,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  San  Arcangelo  in  1740.  Me  wrote  several  valuable 
works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Acts  and  Monu 
ments  of  the  Rural  Brothers,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1795.)  Died 
in  1815. 

Marini  or  Marino,  ma-ree'no,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples  in  1569,  was  a  friend  of 
Tasso.  He  produced  "Adonis, "and  many  other  poems, 
which  were  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries,  but 
are  marred  by  affected  conceits  and  extravagant  meta 
phors.  He  passed  several  years  in  Paris,  and  received 
a  pension  from  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  Died  in  1625. 

See  BAIACCA,  "Vita  del  Cavalier  Marino,"  1625;  F.  CHIARO, 
"Vita  del  Cavalier  Marino,"  1626:  LOKKDANO,  "Vita  del  Cavalier 
Marino,"  1633:  CAMOI.A,  "Vita  di  (1.  P>.  Marini,"  1633;  POPPE, 
"VitaJ.  B.  Marini,"  1771;  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  REV.  HENRY  STEB- 
BING,  London,  1831. 

Marini,  (GIOVANNI  AMBROGIO,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Genoa  about  1594.  He  wrote  two  popular 
romances,  entitled  "II  Caloandro  fedele"  and  "Quarrels 
of  the  Desperadoes,"  ("  Le  Gare  de'  Desperati.")  Died 
about  1650. 

Marini,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  a  Piedmontese  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  in  1726;  died  in  1806. 

Marini,  (GIOVANNI  FII.IPPO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  near  Genoa  in  1608.  lie  resided  four 
teen  years  at  Tonquin,  and  published  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "A  New  and  Curious  Account  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Tonquin  and  Laos,"  (1666.)  Died  in  1677. 

Marino.     See  MARINI,  (GIAMBATTISTA.) 

Marinoni,  ma-re-no'nee,  (GIOVANNI  GIACOMO,)  an 
Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Udine  in  1676.  He  was 
appointed  court  mathematician  by  the  emperor  Leopold 
I.,  and  drew  a  plan  of  Vienna  and  its  environs.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Military  Science 
at  Vienna  in  1717,  and  subsequently  built  at  his  own 
expense  an  observatory,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  in  Europe.  He  published  several  scientific  works. 
Died  in  1755. 

Ma-ri'nus,  [Gr.  Mapnwc,]  a  native  of  Samaria,  studied 
philosophy  at  Athens  under  Proclus,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  a  teacher  in  485  A.D.  His  only  work  extant  is  a  "  Life 
of  Proclus." 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grsecis." 

Ma-ri'iius,  SAINT,  [It.  SAN  MARINO,  san  ma-ree'no; 
Fr.  SAINT-MARIN,  saN  nit'raN',]  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Dalmatia,  and  lived  as  a 
hermit  near  Rimini,  in  Italy.  The  miracles  said  to  have 
been  wrought  at  his  tomb  drew  thither  many  pilgrims, 
who  in  time  built  a  town  called  San  Marino,  which  for 
ten  centuries  has  formed  the  centre  of  a  little  republic. 

See  BAILLET,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Marinus  OF  TYRE,  [Fr.  MARIN  DE  TYRK,  mt'raN' 
deh  teR,]  a  Greek  geographer,  who  lived  about  150  A.D. 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
but  none  of  them  are  extant. 

See  UKERT,  "Geographic  der  Griechen  und  Romer." 
Mario  Nuzzi.     See  FIOKI,  DE',  (MARIO.) 
Marion,  mt're'oN',  (fii.iE,)  a  leader  of  the  Camisards 
in  France,  born  in  1678,  was  the  author  of  several  re 
ligious  works  and  so-called  prophecies. 

Mar'I-pn,  (FRANCIS,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1732. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  he  entered  the 
army,  and  assisted  in  the  defence  of  Sullivan's  Island 
against  the  British  in  1776.  The  enemy  having  taken 
possession  of  Georgia  and  besieged  Charleston,  Marion 
raised  a  brigade  of  soldiers,  at  the  head  of  whom  he 
carried  on  for  more  than  three  years  a  guerilla  warfare, 
often  attended  with  brilliant  successes,  and  baffling  all 
the  attempts  of  the  British  generals  to  effect  his  capture. 
Died  in  1795. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Marion,"  by  P.  HORRY  and  M.  L 
WEEMS,  and  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri 
cans,"  vol.  iii. 


Marion  Delorme.     See  DELORME. 

Marion -Dufresne,  mt're'oN'  dii'frin',  (  NICOLAS 
THOMAS,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
1729,  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  South  Sea 
in  1771.  Soon  after  landing  at  New  Zealand,  Marion 
was  treacherously  murdered  by  the  natives,  together 
with  the  greater  part  of  his  men,  (1772.) 

Marion  du  Mersan,  mt're'oN'  clii  meR'sSiV,  (THEO- 
PHILK,)  a  French  antiquary  and  dramatist,  born  in  1780, 
published  a  great  number  of  popular  comedies  and  prose 
essays  on  various  subjects.  Died  in  1849. 

Mariotte,  mt're'ot',  (EDME,  )  an  eminent  French 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was  a  resident  of  Dijon. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  experimental  philosophers  in 
France,  and  discovered  the  law  of  elastic  fluids  called 
by  his  name.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Dis 
course  on  the  Nature  of  Air,"  (1676,)  "Treatise  on  the 
Movement  of  Waters,"  (1690,)  "Experiments  on  the 
Colours  and  Congelation  of  Water,"  and  an  "  Essay  on 
Logic,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  Condorcet.  Died 
in  1684. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  Eloges  des  Academiciens,"  etc. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Mariti,  ma-ree'tee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  traveller 
and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1736,  visited  the  isle  of 
Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  and  published  in  1769  an 
account  of  his  journey,  which  was  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Swedish.  Died  in  1806. 

Maritz,  ma'rits  or  mtt'rets',  (JEAN,)  a  Swiss  mecha 
nician,  born  at  Berne  in  1711,  invented  a  machine  for 
boring  and  turning  cannon.  For  this  service  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  French  government.  Died  in  1790. 

Mariuccia.     See  MAROZIA. 

Ma'ri-us,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  general,  distinguished 
for  his  splendid  talents,  indomitable  energy,  and  unprin 
cipled  ambition,  was  born  near  Arpinum  (now  Arpino) 
in  157  B.C.  Mrs  parents  were  poor  and  plebeian.  He 
served  under  Scipio  Africanus  at  the  siege  of  Numantia, 
and  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  119.  He  ob 
tained  the  praetorship  in  115,  though  strongly  opposed 
by  the  patrician  party,  and  about  the  same  time  married 
Julia,  an  aunt  of  Julius  Caesar.  Having  accompanied 
Metellus  as  legate  and  second  in  command  into  Africa, 
(109  li.C.,)  he  won  such  popularity  by  his  skill  and  bravery 
that  he  was  elected  consul  for  107  li.C.  and  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  He  defeated 
Jugurtha,  who  was  made  prisoner  in  106.  In  104  K.C. 
Marius  was  again  chosen  consul,  as  being  the  only  one 
capable  of  defending  the  state  from  the  threatened  in 
vasion  of  the  Teutones  and  Cimbri.  He  defeated  the 
barbarians  at  Aix,  (Aquae  Sextiae,)  in  Gaul,  in  102  r,.c. 
Having  been  elected  consul  the  next  year,  for  the  fifth 
time,  Marius,  in  conjunction  with  Catulus,  gained  a  sig 
nal  and  overwhelming  victory  over  the  Cimbri  in  the 
plain  of  Vercellse,  (Vercelli.)  By  the  aid  of  the  tribune 
Saturninus,  Marius  became  consul  for  100  B.C.,  in  spite 
of  the  determined  hostility  of  the  patricians.  During 
this  consulate  an  agrarian  law  was  passed,  and  Metellus 
Numidicus  was  exiled  for  refusing  to  conform  to  it.  On 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  Marius  went  to  Asia, 
under  the  pretext  of  sacrificing  to  Cybele,  but  really  in 
order  to  excite  Mithridates  to  a  war  with  Rome,  that  he 
might  again  distinguish  himself  in  his  congenial  element. 
In  90  B.C.  both  Marius  and  Sulla  entered  the  service 
of  the  consuls  Octavius  and  China  in  the  Marsian  or 
Social  war;  but,  jealous  of  the  reputation  of  his  rival, 
the  former  soon  resigned.  Sulla,  having  become  consul 
in  88  B.C.,  obtained  the  command  in  the  Mithridatic 
war,  upon  which  Marius,  assisted  by  his  friends,  caused 
a  law  to  be  passed  transferring  it  to  him.  He  was  soon 
driven  from  the  city  by  Sulla  and  his  adherents,  and 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  Africa.  When  Sextilius,  Gov 
ernor  of  Libya,  sent  him  orders  to  leave  the  country,  on 
pain  of  being  treated  as  an  enemy,  Marius  replied  to  the 
messenger,  "Go  tell  him  that  you  have  seen  the  exile 
Marius  sitting  on  the  ruins  of  Carthage."  The  next 
year,  while  Sulla  was  absent  in  Greece,  Marius,  joined 
by  the  consul  Cinna,  entered  Rome  and  ordered  a 
general  massacre  of  the  opposite  party.  Among  the 
patricians  who  perished  was  M.  Antonius,  the  orator  so 
highly  praised  by  Cicero.  Marius  and  Cinna  became 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (SJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


1528 


MARLBOROUGH 


consuls,  (86  B.C.,)  but  the  former  was  attacked  by  a  fever, 
of  which  he  died  the  same  year. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Marius:"  GEORGE  LONG,  "Life  of 
Manns,"  London,  1844;  MERIMEE,  "Etudes  sur  1'Histoire  Ro- 
maine."  etc.  ;  SALLUST,  "Jugurtha;"  F.  WEILAND,  "C.  Marii  sep- 
ties  Consulis  Vita,"  Berlin,  1845  :  P.  EKERMAN,  "Dissertatio  de  C. 
Mario  septies  Consule,"  1742;  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Marius,  (CAius,)  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  took  refuge,  after  the  proscription  of  his  uncle. 
with  Hiempsal,  King  of  Numidia.  He  was  made  consul 
in  82  B.C.,  and  signalized  himself  by  many  acts  of  in 
justice  and  cruelty.  Having  been  defeated  by  Sulla,  he 
caused  himself  to  be  killed  by  one  of  his  officers. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Marius." 

Marius,  (MARCUS  AURELIUS,  )  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  of  Gaul,  was,  on  the  death  of  Victorinus  the 
Younger,  chosen  emperor  by  the  army.  He  was  assas 
sinated  about  268  A.D.,  after  a  reign  of  a  few  months. 

Marivaux,  de,  deh  mt're'vo',  (PIERRE  CARI.ET  DE 
CHAMBI.AIN,)  a  French  novelist  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1688.  His  principal  works  are  his  ro 
mances  entitled  "Marianne"  and  "  Le  Paysan  parvenu," 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  at  the  time,  and  were 
among  the  first  novels  which  delineated  real  life  and 
manners.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  comedies.  The 
affected  style  and  false  sentiment  of  these  productions 
have  given  rise  to  the  term  marruaudage,  "  Never," 
says  La  Harpe,  "did  any  one  turn  common  thoughts  in 
so  many  ways,  each  more  affected  than  the  last ;"  and 
Voltaire,  admitting  that  Marivaux  knew  "the  paths  to 
the  heart,"  maintains  that  "  he  was  ignorant  of  the  high 
road."  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1743, 
having  Voltaire  for  a  competitor.  Died  in  1763. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "Correspondance  avec  D'Alembert ;"  GRIMM, 
"  Correspondance  litteraire ;"  LA  HARPE,  "  I.ycee  ;"  VII.LEMAIN, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Franchise  au  dix-hnitieme  Siecle ;" 
SAINTE-BEUVK,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Marivetz,  de,  deh  mt're'vi',  (£TIENNE  CLEMENT,) 
BARON,  a  French  savant,  born  at  Langres  in  1728,  pub 
lished  several  treatises  on  physics,  etc.  He  was  executed, 
by  order  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  in  1793. 

'Marjolin,  mtR'zho'la.N',  (JEAN  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
writer  and  surgeon,  born  in  17^0;  died  in  1850. 

Mark,  |Gr/MupKOf;  Lat.  MAR'CUS  ;  It.  MAR'CO;  Fr. 
MARC,  mtRk,]  SAINT,  THE  EVANGELIST.  He  was  a 
companion  of  Saint  Peter  in  his  travels,  (see  I.  Peter  v. 
13,)  and  is  supposed  to  have  planted  the  Church  at  Alex 
andria.  The  early  Christian  writers  believed  that  he  was 
the  interpreter  of  Saint  Peter,  and  that  he  wrote  his 
Gospel  in  Greek,  under  the  direction  and  with  the  appro 
bation  of  that  apostle.  Saint  Augustine  thought  it  was 
an  abridgment  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  According  to 
tradition,  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  Egypt  in  68  A.D. 
By  many  critics  he  is  identified  with  John  surnamed 
Mark,  who  was  a  companion  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in 
their  mission  to  the  Gentiles  about  45  A.D.,  (Acts  xii. 
12,  25,  xiii.  13,  xv.  37,)  and  who  was  in  Rome  with 
Paul  in  63  A.D. 

See  Colossians  iv.  i<5 ;  II.  Timothy  iv.  n. 

Markham,  mark'am,  (GERVASE,)  an  English  soldier 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Nottinghamshire 
about  1570,  served  in  the  royalist  army  in  the  civil  war. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "Herod  and 
Antipater,"  "The  Poem  of  Poems,  or  Sion's  Muse," etc., 
and  other  works.  Died  about  1655. 

See  WARTON,  "  History  of  English  Poetry  ;"  LANGBAINE,  "  Dra 
matic  Poets;"  DRAKE,  "Shakespeare  and  his  Times." 

Mark'land,  (JEREMIAH,)  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1693.  He  published 
editions  of  the  "Sylvae"  of  Statius  (1728)  and  the 
"Supplices"  of  Euripides,  which  are  esteemed  master 
pieces  of  acute  criticism.  He  also  assisted  Dr.  Taylor 
in  preparing  his  editions  of  Demosthenes  and  Lysias, 
and  published  "  Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to 
Brutus,"  etc.,  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  them  spu 
rious.  Died  in  1776. 

See  NICHOLS  and  BOWYER,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Markof,  maR'kof,  Markov,  or  Markow,  (ARCADI 

IVANOVITCH,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  diplomatist.     On  the 


accession  of  Alexander  I.   he  was  appointed  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  France,  (1800.) 

Marlborough,  mal'bur-uh,  (popularly  called  in 
French  MALBROUK,  maTbrook';  Sp.  MAMHRU,  mam- 
broo',)  DUKE  OF,  originally  John  Churchill,  an  English 
;eneral,  whose  military  genius  and  triumphs  have  been 
quailed  by  those  of  few  men  of  modern  times,  was  born 
at  Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  June  24,  1650.  He  was  the  son 
of  Sir  Winston  Churchill  and  of  Elizabeth  Drake.  His 
ducation  was  rather  defective.  He  received  from  nature 
an  eminently  handsome  person,  a  bland  temper,  and  all 
the  qualities  essential  to  a  successful  general  and  cour 
tier.  In  1672,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  he  served  in  the 
army  which  fought  in  alliance  with  France  against  the 
Dutch.  His  bravery  in  this  and  the  ensuing  campaigns 
attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  Turenne  and  Louis 
XIV.  At  the  peace  of  1678  he  returned  to  England, 
and  married  Sarah  Jennings,  whose  talents  and  impe 
rious  temper  enabled  her  to  exert  an  important  influence 
over  his  political  conduct. 

He  was  the  favourite  attendant  and  confidential  agent 
of  the  Duke  of  York  before  his  accession  as  James 
II.,  in  1685  ;  and  soon  after  that  event  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Churchill  of  Sandriclge.  Having 
contributed  to  the  defeat  of  Monmouth  at  Sedge- 
moor,  he  was  made  a  major-general.  His  wife  was  the 
favourite  of  the  king's  daughter,  Princess  Anne,  over 
whom  she  had  a  complete  ascendency.  In  the  combi 
nations  and  intrigues  which  preceded  the  revolution  of 
1688,  Lord  Churchill  acted  with  deep  duplicity.  After 
secretly  committing  himself  to  the  cause  of  William 
of  Orange,  he  professed  his  devotion  to  James  in  Novem 
ber,  1688,  and,  a  few  days  later,  deserted  to  the  stronger 
party.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Marlborough  on  the 
accession  of  William  III.,  (1689,)  and  made  a  lord  of 
the  bedchamber. 

He  commanded  the  English  forces  employed  against 
the  French  in  the  Low  Countries  in  1689,  and  led  a  suc 
cessful  expedition  against  Cork  and  Kinsale  in  Septem 
ber,  1690.  While  he  was  thus  trusted  by  William  and 
hated  as  an  arch-traitor  by  the  Jacobites,  he  opened  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  dethroned  king, 
who  was  at  Saint  Germain's.  According  to  Macaulay, 
he  undertook  to  corrupt  the  army,  with  which  his  bril 
liant  successes  and  winning  manners  rendered  him  a 
favourite  in  spite  of  his  sordid  avarice.  The  country 
being  apprised  of  this  plot,  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices 
in  January,  1692,  and  committed  to  the  Tower  a  few 
months  later.  Though  he  was  quickly  admitted  to  bail, 
he  passed  the  next  four  years  in  disgrace.  About  the 
end  of  1696  he  was  restored  to  his  military  rank  and 
command,  and  admitted  to  the  privy  council.  (Respecting 
Macaulay's  charges  against  Marlborough,  see  J.  Paget's 
"New  Examen,"  1861,  and  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1868.) 

In  1701,  William  took  Marlborough  to  Holland,  gave 
him  command  of  his  army,  and  invested  him  with  ample 
powers  to  negotiate  with  the  allies  in  relation  to  the  im 
pending  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  He  displayed 
here  the  sagacity  and  address  of  a  consummate  diplo 
matist.  The  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  in  March,  1702, 
opened  to  him  a  brilliant  career  of  glory  abroad  and 
power  at  home.  He  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
allied  army,  and  at  the  end  of  the  campaign  in  Flanders, 
December,  1702,  was  created  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
About  this  time  he  and  Prince  Eugene  began  to  act  in 
concert,  and  formed  a  cordial  friendship,  which  greatly 
promoted  the  success  of  the  allies.  Among  their  most 
celebrated  achievements  was  the  decisive  victory  at  Blen 
heim  over  the  French  marshal  Tallard,  August  13,  1704. 
Marlborough  gained  a  great  victory  at  Ramilliesin  1706, 
and  shared  with  Eugene  the  triumph  at  Oudenarde  in 
1708.  The  allies  also  claimed  the  victory  over  Mar 
shal  Villars  at  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  although  their  loss 
amounted,  it  is  said,  to  25,000  men. 

During  these  foreign  transactions,  Godolphin,  the 
duke's  personal  and  political  friend,  had  been  the  head 
of  the  English  Tory  ministry.  The  Tories,  who  had  the 
warm  sympathy  of  the  queen,  wished  to  discontinue  the 
war,  and  fomented  intrigues  against  Marlborough.  His 
duchess,  a  zealous  Whig,  with  much  importunity  pre- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MARLBOROUGH 


1529 


MARMONTEL 


vailed  on  him  to  coalesce  with  the  Whigs,  who  insisted 
on  prolonging  the  war.  The  fondness  of  the  queen  for 
the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  was  at  length  turned  into 
violent  aversion.  The  Tories  obtained  a  complete  as 
cendency  in  1710,  and  Marlborough  was  dismissed  with 
disgrace  from  all  his  employments  at  the  end  of  1711. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  was  restored  to 
favour,  and  again  became  captain-general  and  master  of 
the  ordnance.  He  died  in  1722,  leaving  his  titles  and 
estate  to  the  male  heirs  of  his  daughter,  who  was  mar 
ried  to  Charles  Spencer,  Earl  of  Sunderland. 

See  CIIXR,  "  Memoirs  of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  3  vols., 
1818;  SIR  A.ALISON,  "Life  of  Marlborough,"  1847;  M  ACAULAY, 
"  History  of  England  ;"  THOMAS  LEDYARD,  "  History  of  John, 
Duke  of  Marlborough,"  3  vols.,  1736;  JOHN  CAMPBELL,  ''Military 
History  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  2  vols., 
1736;  CHARLES  BUCKE,  "Life  of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough," 
1839;  J.  F.  HUGUES  DUTEMS,  "  Histoire  de  J.  Churchill,"  etc., 
3  vols.,  1806-08,  written  by  the  order  of  Napoleon  I.;  GEORGE 
Mt'KKAY,  "History  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough;"  ABRAHAM  DE 
VRYER,  "  Historic  van  J.  Churchill,"  etc  ,  4  vols.,  1738-40 ;  "  History 
of  Prince  Eugene  and  Marlborough,"  by  DCMONT  and  ROUSSET, 
translated  from  the  French,  1736;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
May.  1820;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July  and  November,  1846, 
and  June,  iS$q. 

Marlborough,  (SARAH  JENNINGS,)  DUCHESS  OF,  the 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1660,  was  celebrated  for 
her  beauty,  ambition,  and  political  influence.  She  was 
brought  up  from  childhood  with  the  princess  Anne,  who 
regarded  her  with  romantic  fondness,  combined  with  the 
deference  which  the  weak  feel  for  superior  minds.  Im 
patient  of  the  restraints  of  etiquette,  Anne,  in  conversa 
tion  and  correspondence  with  her  favourite,  assumed  the 
name  of  Mrs.  Morley,  and  addressed  her  friend  as  Mrs. 
Freeman.  In  1678  Miss  Jennings  was  married  to  Colo 
nel  Churchill,  in  whom  she  found  an  uxorious  husband. 
"  History,"  says  Macaulay,  "  exhibits  to  us  few  specta 
cles  more  remarkable  than  that  of  a  great  and  wise  man 
who  could  carry  into  effect  vast  and  profound  schemes 
of  policy  only  by  inducing  one  foolish  woman,  who  was 
often  unmanageable,  to  manage  another  woman  who  was 
more  foolish  still.  .  .  .  To  the  last  hour  of  her  hus 
band's  life,  she  enjoyed  the  pleasure  and  distinction  of 
being  the  one  human  being  who  was  able  to  mislead 
that  far-sighted  and  sure-footed  judgment,  who  was  fer 
vently  loved  by  that  cold  heart  and  servilely  feared 
by  that  intrepid  spirit."  Having  been  supplanted  in 
the  royal  favour  by  Mrs.  Masham,  she  was  dismissed  from 
court  in  1710,  and  became  an  inveterate  misanthrope. 
Died  in  1744. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  LOUISA  S.  Cos- 
TEI.I.O,  London,  1844. 

Marliani,  maR-le-a'nee,  (BARTOI.OMMEO,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Milan.  He  wrote  "Topography  of 
Rome,"  ("  Urbis  Romae  Topographia,")  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1560. 

Marlorat,  mtR/lo'rt',  (AucusTiN,)  a  French  Prot 
estant  theologian,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1506.  He  be 
came  minister  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Rouen  in  1560, 
and  acquired  a  great  influence  by  his  talents.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  other  works.  He  was 
put  to  death  at  Rouen  in  1563. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Marlowe,  mar'lo,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  English  drama 
tist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1564.  He  studied  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  1587.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  dramatic 
writing,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  became  an 
actor.  He  was  addicted  to  low  vices,  and  was  killed  in  a 
quarrel  with  a  footman  in  1593.  The  principal  dramas 
known  to  be  his  are  "The  Jew  of  Malta,"  "Edward 
the  Second,"  and  "The  Tragical  History,  etc.  of  Dr. 
Faustus,"  [the  last-named  was  the  original  of  Goethe's 
celebrated  "  Faust."]  Marlowe  is  characterized  by  the 
French  critic  Villemain  as  a  genius,  whose  rude  dramas, 
disorderly  as  his  life,  contain  splendid  beauties  and  a 
gloomy  audacity,  the  influence  of  which  has  not  been 
lost  upon  Shakspeare.  His  "  Faust"  is  less  elegant  and 
less  ironical  than  that  of  Goethe,  but  every  thing  that 
the  pathos  of  such  a  subject  can  effect — the  fever  of 
doubt  in  a  superstitious  imagination,  the  boldness  of 
impiety  in  a  despairing  heart — stamps  this  work  with 
the  impress  of  extraordinary  power.  His  "  Edward  II." 
was  greatly  admired  by  Charles  Lamb,  who  says  that 


one  of  its   scenes   moves   pity  and   terror  beyond  any 
scene,  ancient  or  modern. 

See  WARTON,  "  History  of  English  Poetry  ;"  CAMPBELL,  "  Speci 
mens  of  the  British  Poets;"  VILLEMAIN,  "Melanges  iitteraires ;" 
DRAKE,  "Shakspeare  and  his  Times;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  iv.,  (1821.) 

Marmier,  ml  u/me-i',  (X.A.VIER,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  traveller,  was  born  at  Pontarlier  in  1809.  He  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  "Studies  on  Goethe,""  Poetic 
Sketches,"  and  "  History  of  Literature  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden,"  (1839,)  and  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  English  and  German. 

Mar'mi-on,  (SHAKERLY,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  in  1602.  His  principal  works  are 
the  comedies  of  "  Holland's  Leaguer,"  "  A  Fine  Com 
panion,"  and  "The  Antiquary."  Died  in  1639. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatica  ;"  WOOD,  "Athenae  Oxo- 
nienses." 

Marmitta,  maR-met'ti,  (LtiDOVico,)  an  Italian  gem- 
engraver,  born  at  Parma.  Among  his  master-pieces  is 
a  cameo  representing  a  head  of  Socrates.  He  lived 
about  1500. 

Marrnol,  de,  da  maR-moK,  (Luis  CARAVAJAL,)  a 
Spanish  writer,  born  at  Granada  about  1520,  accom 
panied  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  his  African  campaigns. 
He  wrote  a  "General  Description  of  Africa,"  (1599,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Rebellion,  etc.  of  the  Moors  of 
Granada,"  (1600.) 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  PRESCOTT, 
"  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Marmont,  de,  deh  miR'miN',  (AUGUSTE  FREDERIC 
Louis  VIESSE,)  Duke  of  Ragusa,  a  celebrated  French 
marshal,  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1774,  received 
his  military  education  at  the  artillery  school  of  Chalons. 
He  accompanied  Bonaparte  as  aide-de-camp  in  the  Ital 
ian  campaign  of  1794,  and,  as  general  of  brigade,  took 
part  in  the  invasion  of  Egypt  in  1798.  He  fought  with 
distinguished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Marengo,  (1800,) 
obtained  command  of  a  division,  and  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  artillery  about  1802.  Having  as 
sisted  at  the  capture  of  Ulm,  in  1805,  Marmont  became 
in  1806  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Dalmatia,  and 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  a  superior  force  of  Russians 
and  Montenegrins  at  Castelnuovo.  In  1807  he  carried 
out  a  system  of  public  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  a  line  of  road-way  two  hundred  and  ten  miles 
in  length  ;  and  for  this  service  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Ragusa.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Wagram  (1809)  he 
was  made  a  marshal  of  France,  and  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  the  Illyrian  provinces.  As  commander  of 
the  second  corps,  in  1813  he  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Bautzen,  Dresden,  and  Leipsic,  and  closed  the  cam 
paign  of  1814  by  his  engagement  near  Paris  with  the 
allied  army  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  (March  30.) 
Though  contending  against  a  greatly  superior  force, 
Marmont  and  Mortier  refused  to  capitulate  until  au 
thorized  to  do  so  by  Joseph  Bonaparte.  In  April,  1814, 
Marshal  Marmont,  after  stipulating  with  Prince  Schwar- 
zenberg  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  into 
Normandy,  entered  the  service  of  the  allies.  He  subse 
quently  filled  several  high  offices  under  the  Bourbons. 
Being  called  upon  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  July,  1830, 
he  brought  great  opprobrium  upon  himself  by  his  failure 
in  this  difficult  task  ;  his  name  was  struck  off  the  army 
list,  and  he  was  exiled.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1852, 
leaving  "Memoires  du  Due  de  Raguse,"  (8  vols.,  1856.) 

See  THIERS,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;" 
VAULABELLE,  "Histoire  des  deux  Restaurations;"  BoL'RRIKNNR, 
"Memoires;"  LAMARTIXE,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  MAU- 
DUIT,  "Derniers  Jours  de  la  grande  Armee ;"  L.  DE  LOMENIE, 
"  M.  le  Marechal  Marmont,  par  tin  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844; 
SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vi. ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generate;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1845; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1857. 

Marmontel,  niaVmoN'tel',  (JEAN  FRANC.OIS,)  a  cele 
brated  French  critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in 
Limousin  in  1723.  His  family  was  poor,  and  he  was 
educated  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Mauriac,  but  he  did 
not  enter  their  order.  At  an  early  age  he  acquired  the 
friendship  and  patronage  of  Voltaire,  on  whose  recom 
mendation  he  visited  Paris  in  1746,  and  published  the 
same  year  a  translation  of  Pope's  "  Rape  of  the  Lock." 
He  brought  out  in  1748  his  "Dionysius  the  Tyrant," 


*  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  a.sj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


MARMORA 


'53° 


MA  RON  I 


("  Denys  le  Tyran,")  which  was  soon  followed  by  "  Aris- 
tomene"  and  "Cleopatre,"  three  tragedies,  which  hac" 
considerable  success  at  the  time.  His  "  Moral  Tales' 
("Contes  moraux,"  1761)  were  received  with  extraor 
dinary  favour,  and  were  translated  into  the  principal 
languages  of  Europe,  including  Danish  and  Hungarian. 
They  are  written  with  great  elegance  and  animation  ; 
though  their  morality  is  often  questionable.  About  this 
time  Marmontel  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in 
the  Bastille,  on  a  false  accusation  of  having  satirized  a 
person  of  rank.  He  published  in  1763  his  "Poetique 
Frai^aise,"  and  in  1767  his  political  romance  of  "  Beli- 
saire,"  which  obtained  great  popularity  and  has  taken 
its  place  among  the  classics  of  the  language.  The 
empress  Catherine  II.  ordered  a  translation  of  it  into 
Russian,  and  versions  of  it  appeared  in  nearly  all  the 
European  languages.  Some  passages  in  the  book,  how 
ever,  which  favoured  toleration,  were  denounced  by  the 
Sorbonne,  and  the  work  was  condemned  by  the  Arch 
bishop  of  Paris,  as  containing  impious  and  heretical 
propositions.  In  the  exciting  controversy  which  followed, 
Voltaire  took  an  active  part,  and  published  several  witty 
and  caustic  pamphlets  in  defence  of  his  protege.  Mar 
montel  was  soon  after  appointed  historiographer  of 
France.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  works 
we  may  name  "  Les  Incas,"  a  romance,  dedicated  to 
Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  the  comic  operas  of  "  Le  Hu 
ron,"  "Sylvain,"  and  "Zemire  et  Azor,"and  the  tragedy 
of  "  Les  Ile'raclides,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  La 
Harpe.  His  "Elements  de  Litterature"  (6  vols.,  1787) 
is  also  ranked  among  his  best  productions.  In  1783 
Marmontel  succeeded  D'Alembert  as  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  French  Academy.  He  lived  in  retirement  in  the 
country  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Revolution,  and 
died  in  1799,  leaving  "  Memoires"  of  his  life.  He  had 
married  about  1778  the  niece  of  Abbe  Morellet. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance  ;"  SAINT-SURIN,  "Notice  sur 
Marmontel,"  1824:  LA  HARPE,  "Lycee;"  GRIMM,  "Correspon 
dance  litteYaire;"  VILI.ENAVF,,  "Notice  sur  les  Ouvrages  de  Mar 
montel."  1820;  SAINTE-BKUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  iv.  ; 
MOKKI.I.ET,  "  Elo^e  de  Marmonte!,"  1805;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  November  and  December,  1805. 

Marmora,  della,  del'la  mau'mo-ra,  (ALBERTO  Fer- 
rero — fe'r-ra'ro,)  COUNT,  a  Sardinian  general  and  savant, 
born  in  1789.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and  rose 
to  be  military  commander  in  the  island  of  Sardinia  in 
1849.  He  published  "Travels  in  Sardinia;  or,  Statis 
tical,  Physical,  and  Political  Description  of  that  Island." 

Marmora,  della,  (ALESSANDRO  FERRERO,)  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1799,  fought  in  the  war  for 
Italian  independence  in  1848,  and  became  a  major-gene 
ral,  lie  died  in  the  Crimea  in  1855. 

Marmora,  della,  (Ai.Foxso  FERRERO,)  an  Italian 
general  and  statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Turin  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
war  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  in  November,  1849,  resigned 
in  February,  1855,  and  the  same  year  took  command  of 
the  Sardinian  forces  in  the  Crimean  war,  after  which  he 
again  served  as  minister  of  war.  He  was  president  of 
the  Council  of  Ministers  from  July,  1859,  to  July,  1860. 
In  September,  1864,  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
and  president  of  the  Council  of  Ministers  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ricasoli  in  June,  1866, 
took  command  of  the  army,  and  was  defeated  by  the 
archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  at  Custozza,  in  July  of  the 
same  year.  -27-»>«<<  -  ' 

Marmora, della,  (CARLO  FERRERO,)  MARQUIS,  Prince 
of  Masserano,  eldest  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1788.  Having  been  made  lieutenant-general  and  sen 
ator  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  he  accompanied  Charles 
Albert  as  first  aide-de-camp  in  the  campaigns  of  1848 
and  1849.  Died  in  1854. 

Marue,  de,  deh  maun,  QEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Flemish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Douai  in  1699,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  County  of  Namur,"  which  has  a  high 
reputation.  Died  in  1756. 

Marne,  de,  or  Demarne,  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1744.  He  was  reduced  to  the  neces 
sity  of  working  at  the  porcelain-manufactory  of  Sevres, 
and  fell  into  a  mannerism  called  the  manttre  porcelaine. 
His  early  style  was  much  more  graceful.  Died  in  1829. 


Marner,  maR'ner,  (KoNRAD,)  a  German  minnesinger, 
flourished  about  1250-70. 

Marnesia  or  Marnezia.     See  LEZAY-MARNESIA. 

Marnix  de  Saint- Aldegonde,  van,  vSn  maVneks' 
deh  sax'tal'deh-goN'd',  (Pmi.iiM'K,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
writer  and  Protestant  Reformer,  was  born  at  Brussels  in 
1538.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  where  he  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Calvin  and  adopted  his  faith.  In  1566 
he  drew  up  the  celebrated  formulary  of  the  Flemish 
nobles  against  the  Inquisition.  As  burgomaster  of  Ant 
werp,  he  defended  that  city  in  1584  against  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Parma  ;  but  he  was  forced  to  capitulate  in  1585. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Picture  of  the  Difference  be 
tween  the  Christian  Religion  and  Popery,"  and  "The 
Romish  Bee- Hive."  He  also  translated  the  Psalms  into 
Dutch  verse,  and  was  engaged  on  a  Flemish  version  of 
the  Scriptures  when  he  died,  in  1598.  "He  was,"  says 
Motley,  "a  man  of  most  rare  and  versatile  genius. 
Scholar,  theologian,  diplomatist,  swordsman,  orator, 
poet,  pamphleteer,  he  had  genius  for  all  things,  and  was 
eminent  in  all." 

See  MOTI.EV,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
iii.  ;  STKADA,  "  De  Hello  Helgico;"  JOHANNES  PRIMS,  "Leven  van 
P.  van  Marnix,"  1782;  DRKSSEI.HUIS,  "  F.  van  Marnix,  Heer  van 
Mont  Saint- Aldegonde,"  1832;  WILLKM  BROES,  "  F.  van  Marnix, 
Heer  van  Saint-Aldegonde,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1838-40.  J^nLTt.  .  73/ •:/•«> " 

Maro,  the  cognomen  of  PUHLIUS  VIRGILIUS  MARO. 
(See  VIRGIL.) 

Marochetti,  ma-ro-ket'tee,  (CHARLES,)  BAROX,  a 
celebrated  Sardinian  sculptor,  born  at  Turin  about  1805. 
After  executing  several  works  in  Paris,  among  which 
was  an  equestrian  statue  of  Emmanuel  Philibert,  Duke 
of  Savoy,  he  went  to  London  in  1848.  Under  the  patron 
age  of  the  court  and  the  nobility,  he  produced  a  colossal 
equestrian  statue  of  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion,  (1851.)  a 
bust  of  Prince  Albert,  an  equestrian  statue  of  Queen 
Victoria  at  Glasgow,  (1854,)  a  statue  of  Lord  Clyde, 
(1867.)  and  several  groups  of  statuary.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1866.  Died  in  December,  1867. 

Marochetti,  (ViNCENZio,)  an  Italian  scholar,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Piedmont  about  1768. 
He  was  appointed  advocate  to  the  court  of  cassation  in 
Paris.  Died  in  1820. 

Maroli,  ma'ro-lee,  (Do.MEXico,)  a  Sicilian  painter, 
born  at  Messina  in  1612.  lie  was  killed  in  the  revolu 
tion  of  Naples,  (1676.) 

Marolles,  de,  deh  mS'roT,  (MiCHEL,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  in  Touraine  in  1600,  was  Abbe  de  Villeloin. 
He  made  translations  from  Juvenal,  Statins,  and  other 
classics,  which  were  much  esteemed  at  the  time.  lie 
made  a  valuable  collection  of  prints,  which  were  added 
to  the  royal  cabinet.  Died  in  1681. 

See  NICERON,  "Me'moires:"  M.  DE  MAROLLES,  "Memoires," 
1656,  (and  in  3  vols.,  1755.) 

Ma'ron,  SAINT,  written  also  Maroun,  an  anchorite 
of  the  fourth  century,  resided  in  Asia  Minor.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  founder  of 
the  Maronites,  while  others  ascribe  the  origin  of  that 
sect  to  another  of  the  same  name,  living  in  the  seventh 
century. 

Maroncelli,  ma-ron-chel'lee,  (PiERo,)  an  Italian  pa 
triot,  musician,  and  poet,  born  at  Forli  in  1795.  He 
published  in  1819"  a  hymn,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned 
a  short  time.  He  was  -again  arrested  in  1820,  and  con 
demned  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment  in  the  fortress 
of  Spielberg,  where  his  intimate  friend  Silvio  Pellico 
was  confined  at  the  same  time.  They  were  at  first  sepa 
rated,  but  at  the  end  of  three  years  were  permitted  to 
enjoy  each  other's  society.  They  were  released  in  1830, 
Maroncelli  having  previously  suffered  the  amputation  of 
one  of  his  legs,  in  consequence  of  a  disease  contracted 
in  the  prison.  Died  in  New  York  in  1846. 

See  SILVIO  PELLICO,  "My  Prisons;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Marone,  ma-ro'na,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  improvisa- 
tore,  born  in  the  Friuli  in  1474,  was  celebrated  for  his 
skill  in  improvising  Latin  verse  on  any  given  subject. 
Died  in  1527. 

Maroni,  da,  da  ma-ro'nee,  or  Maron,  ma-ron', 
(THERESA,)  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Raphael  Mengs, 
ivas  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  miniatures.  Having 
accompanied  her  brother  to  Rome,  she  was  there  mar- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MAROOF 


MARRY AT 


ried  to  the  Chevalier  da  Maroni,  an  artist.  Died 
in  1806. 

Maroof-  (or  Marouf-)  el-Karkhi,  ma-roof  51  kan'- 
Kee,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Soofees,  (Soufis,)  or 
Mussulman  mystics,  born  near  Bagdad  about  750; 
died  about  815. 

See  HAMMER-PURGSTALL,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber." 

Maroof-  (or  Marouf-)  Mohammed-ben-Abdel- 
Khalik,  ma-roof  mo-ham'me'd  bgii  ab'cle"!  Ka'lik,  an 
Arab  lexicographer  of  the  ninth  century.  His  principal 
work  is  an  Arabic  Lexicon,  in  which  words  are  explained 
in  Persian. 

Marot,  ma'n/,  (Ci  EMENT,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Cahors  in  1495,  was  a  son  of  Jean,  noticed  below.  He 
was  patronized  at  the  court  of  Francis  I.,  and  became  a 
page  to  his  sister,  Margaret  of  Valois.  He  was  impris 
oned  in  1526  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  during  his  con 
finement  composed  his  "  Enfer,"  ("  Hell,")  an  allegorical 
satire,  and  prepared  a  new  edition  of  the  "Roman  du 
Rose."  After  his  release  he  visited  Geneva,  where  he 
professed  Calvinism  ;  but  he  was  subsequently  obliged 
to  leave  the  place,  on  account  of  some  misdemea 
nour,  and,  having  renounced  his  new  faith,  accompanied 
Francis  I.  in  his  Italian  campaign  of  1535.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  lyric  poems,  epigrams,  etc.,  which 
were  greatly  admired  for  their  grace  and  vivacity ;  and 
the  style  Marotique  has  been  imitated  by  La  Fontaine 
and  other  French  writers.  His  version  of  the  Psalms 
was  very  popular  at  the  time.  Died  in  1544. 

See  Arcuis.  "Vie  de  Marot,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  wniks, 
5  vols.,  1823:  BAVI.E.  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  JAN 
Si'KT.  "  Leven  en  Kecliijf  van  C.  Marot,"  1655;  SAINTE-BBUVE, 
"  Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Francaise  an  seizieme  Siecle :"  "  XmivelJe 
Biosraphie  Genera'.e ;"  NICEROX,  "Memoires;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Marot,  (DANIEL,)  son  of  the  architect  Jean  Marot 
noticed  below,  was  l>orn  in  Paris  about  1660.  He  be 
came  architect  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  England  in  1688. 

Marot,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris 
in  1667  ;  died  in  1719. 

Marot,  (JEAN,)  a  French  poet,  born  near  Caen  in 
1463,  was  patronized  by  Anne  of  Brittany,  queen  of 
Charles  VIII.  He  subsequently  accompanied  Louis 
XII.  in  his  expedition  to  Venice  and  Genoa,  of  which  he 
wrote  an  account.  Died  in  1523. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "La  Poesie  Francaise  an  seizieme  Siecle." 

Marot,  (  JEAN,)  a  French  architect  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1630.  He  furnished  the  design  for  the 
principal  fa9ade  of  the  Louvre.  Although  a  Protestant, 
he  was  appointed  royal  architect.  Died  in  1679. 

Maroto,  ma-n/to,  (Don  RAFAEL,)  a  Spanish  Carlist 
general,  born  at  Conca  in  1785.  On  the  death  of  Zu- 
mala-Carreguy,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
in  Biscay,  and  soon  after  defeated  Espartero  at  Arrigoria. 
In  1839  he  concluded  with  the  queen's  party  the  treaty 
ofBergara.  Died  in  1847. 

Maroun.     See  MA  RON. 

Maroutha.     See  MARUTHA. 

Marozia,  ma-rot'se-a,  or  Mariuccia,  ma-re-oot'cha, 
a  Roman  lady,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  profligacy, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  famous  Theodora.  She  was 
successively  married  to  Duke  Alberic  of  Tuscany,  Guido, 
Marquis  of'Tuscany,  and  Hugo,  King  of  Italy  and  Aries. 
In  928  she  caused  Pope  John  X.  to  be  murdered,  and 
afterwards  raised  three  others  to  the  tiara,  among  whom 
was  her  son  by  Pope  Sergius  III.  Her  son  Alberic  hav 
ing  revolted  against  her,  she  was  imprisoned  for  the 
remainder  of  her  life. 

Mar-pes'sa,  [Gr.  MapT^cruo :  Fr.  MARPESSE,  mf  R'- 
pess',1  a  daughter  of  Eveuus,  beloved  by  Apollo. 

See  HOMER'S  "  Iliad,"  book  ix. 

Marpurg,  mau'pS&RG,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  an 
eminent  writer  on  music,  born  at  Seehausen,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  1718.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Treat 
ises  on  Fugue,"  "Critical  Introduction  to  the  History 
of  Music,"  (17^4,)  and  "  Rudiments  of  Theoretic  Music," 
(1760.)  Died  in  1795. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Marquard.     See  FRKHER,  (MARQUARD.) 
Marquet,  maVki',  (FRANC.OIS  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
botanist,  and  physician  to   Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 


was  born  at  Nancy  in  1687.  He  wrote  several  medical 
and  botanical  works.  Died  in  1759. 

Marquette,  maVket',  (JACQUES,)  a  celebrated  French 
missionary  and  discoverer,  was  born  in  Picardy.  He 
travelled  and  laboured  several  years  in  Canada  and  other 
regions.  The  first  Europeans  who  are  certainly  known 
to  have  discovered  and  explored  the  Mississippi  River 
were  Father  Marquette  and  M.  Joliet,  who  in  1673  con 
ducted  a  small  exploring  party  from  Quebec.  Entering 
the  great  river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  they  de 
scended  in  canoes  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas, 
or  to  latitude  34°,  which  they  reached  in  July,  1673.  They 
were  deterred  from  pursuing  the  voyage  by  reports  that 
the  river  below  was  infested  by  armed  savages,  and  they 
returned  in  canoes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  which 
they  ascended.  Marquette  wrote  a  narrative  of  this 
expedition,  which  was  published  in  Paris  in  1681.  "  He 
writes,"  says  Professor  Sparks,  "as  a  scholar  and  as  a 
man  of  careful  observation  and  practical  sense.  In  every 
point  of  view,  this  tract  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
among  those  that  illustrate  the  early  history  of  America." 
Having  resumed  his  missionary  labours  among  the 
Miamis  on  Lake  Michigan,  he  died  there  in  1675. 

See  CHARI.EVOIX,  "  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France;"  MORERI, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique;"  SPARKS,  "American  Biography,"  vol. 
x.,  ist  series. 

Marquis,  maVke',  (ALEXANDRE  Louis,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Dreux  in  1777.  He  published  "  Frag 
ments  of  Botanic  Philosophy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1828. 

Marracci,  mar-rat'chee,  (LuiGi,)   an  Italian  priest, 

eminent   as  an  Oriental   scholar,  was  born  at  Lucca  in 

1612.     He  became  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  di 

Sapienza,  Rome.      His   principal  work  is  an  excellent 

-.  edition  of  the   Koran   in   Arabic,  with   a  Latin  version, 

|(i698.)      "This,"  says    Hallam,  "is   still   esteemed  the 

best."    ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Died  in  1700. 

See  NICERON',  "Memoires." 

Marrast,  mt'ras',  (ARMAND,)  a  French  republican 
journalist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Haute-Garonne 
in  1801.  Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1830  he  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Tribune,"  the  organ  of  the  ultra- 
Liberal  party.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1834  on  a  charge 
of  being  implicated  in  the  "  Conspiracy  of  April,"  but 
he  soon  effected  his  escape,  and  repaired  to  England, 
where  he  married  Lady  Fitz-Clarence.  On  his  return 
to  France  he  succeeded  Armand  Carrel  (1836)  as  prin 
cipal  editor  of  "  Le  National,"  a  popular  daily  journal, 
which  he  conducted  with  great  ability  for  nearly  twelve 
years.  After  the  abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  (1848,) 
Marrast  became  successively  secretary  of  the  provisional 
government,  mayor  of  Paris,  and  president  of  the  Con 
stituent  Assembly.  He  made  valuable  contributions  to 
the  "  Paris  Revolntionnaire"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1852. 

See  REGNAULT,  "Armnnd  Marrast,"  in  "  Le  Siecle,"  1859; 
"Nouvelle  Bioi_rraplrie  Generale." 

Marre,  van,  vtn  maR,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1696.  His  principal  works  are  tragedies 
entitled  "Jacqueline  of  Bavaria"  and  "  Marcus  Curtius." 
Died  in  1763. 

Marrier,  mt're-i',  (MARTIN,)  a  learned  French  Bene 
dictine  monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1572.  He  published 
"Bibliotheca  Cluniacensis,"  (1614.)  Died  in  1644. 

Marron,  mt'roN',  (MARIE  ANNE  CARRELKT,)  Ba- 
ronne  de  Meillonaz,  a  French  artist  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1725.  She  was  a  friend  and  corre 
spondent  of  Voltaire.  Died  in  1778. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondar.ee. " 

Marron,  mf'roN',  (PAUI.HENPI,)  a  Protestant  divine, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Leyden  in  1754.  He  be 
came  pastor  of  a  church  in  Paris  in  1788,  and  favoured 
the  Revolution.  He*  contributed  numerous  valuable 
articles  to  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  and  published 
other  works,  on  various  subjects.  He  died  in  1832, 
leaving  a  large  collection  of  engraved  portraits,  which 
were  purchased  by  Louis  Philippe. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Mar'ry-at,  (FREDERICK,)  a  popular  English  novelist 
and  naval  officer,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  entered 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARS 


1532 


MARSHALL 


the  service  as  midshipman  under  Lord  Cochrane  in 
1806,  and  distinguished  himself  during  the  three  follow 
ing  years  in  numerous  engagements  in  the  Mediterra 
nean  and  off  the  French  coasts.  Me  was  made  a  captain 
in  1815,  and  in  1821  commanded  the  Rosario,  which 
brought  to  the  English  government  the  news  of  the 
death  of  Napoleon.  He  assisted  in  the  attack  on  Ran 
goon  in  1823,  and  in  the  expedition  against  the  Malays 
in  1824.  He  published,  besides  other  novels,  "  Peter 
Simple,"  (1834,)  "Jacob  Faithful,"  (1834,)  "  Japhet  in 
Search  of  his  Father,"  (1836,)  "Mr.  Midshipman  Easy," 
(1836,)  and  "  Masterman  Ready,"  (1841.)  Among  his 
works  is  "Valerie,"  an  Autobiography,  and  a  "Diary 
in  America,"  (6  vols.,  1839.)  Died  in  1848. 
See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839. 

Mars,  [Gr.  "A^c,  (Ares;)  It.  MARTE,  mau'ta,]  the 
name  of  the  Roman  god  of  war,  was  a  contraction  of 
MAYORS.  He  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  and  was  identified  with  the  Ares  of  Greek  my 
thology.  According  to  Ovid,  he  was  a  son  of  Juno,  but 
had  no  father.  He  was  worshipped  with  extraordinary 
honours  by  the  Romans,  of  whom  he  was  one  of  the 
tutelary  deities.  Homer  and  other  poets  relate  that 
Mars  fought  for  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy  and 
was  wounded  by  Diomede.  He  was  called  Gradivus, 
Quirinus,  Mavors,  Salisubulus,  Mamers,  Enyalus,  and 
Camulus.  The  amours  of  Mars  and  Venus  are  very 
celebrated.  He  was  said  to  be  the  father  of  Romulus, 
Remus,  Cupid,  Harmonia,  and  Meleager.  Ares  was  one 
of  the  twelve  great  Olympian  gods  of  the  Greeks,  and 
was  especially  worshipped  in  Thrace.  According  to 
tradition,  he  fled  to  Egypt  during  the  contest  between 
Typhon  and  the  gods,  and  changed  himself  into  a  fish. 
Having  killed  a  son  of  Neptune,  he  was  prosecuted 
before  the  Areopagus  (Mars  Hill)  at  Athens,  and  was 
acquitted.  Mars  was  believed  to  love  war  for  its  own 
sake,  and  to  delight  in  carnage.  He  is  usually  repre 
sented  as  a  grim  soldier  in  full  armour, — sometimes  as 
driving  furiously  in  a  war-chariot. 

Mars,  marz  or  mtRs,  (ANNE  FRAMBOISE  HIPPOLYTE 
Boutet  Monvel — boo'ti'  m6N'vel',)  MADEMOISELLE, 
a  celebrated  French  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1779.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Monvel,  a  popular  actor  at  the 
Theatre  Francais,  and  an  actress  named  Mars,  and 
was  early  trained  for  the  stage.  She  excelled  in  genteel 
comedy,  in  which  she  was  considered  unrivalled  among 
the  actors  of  her  time.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1841.  Died  in  1847. 

See  A.  LIREUX,  "Mademoiselle  Mars;  Notice  biographique," 
1847;  L.  Fusn,  "Notice  stir  Mademoiselle  Mars,"  1847;  R.  DE 
BEAUVOIR,  "  Memoires  de  Mademoiselle  Mars,"  2  vols.,  1849; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marsais,  du.     See  DUMARSAIS. 

Marsaiid,  maR-sand',  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  littera 
teur,  born  at  Venice  in  1765.  He  published  an  excellent 
edition. of  Petrarch's  poems,  with  a  memoir,  and  several 
original  works  on  various  subjects.  Died  in  1842. 

Marschall  von  Bieberstein,  maR'shal  fon  bee'ber- 
stin',  (FRIEDRICH,)  FREIHKRR,  a  German  botanist,  born 
in  1766,  removed  to  Russia,  where  he  became  a  council 
lor  of  state.  He  published  "Flora  Taurico-Caucasica," 
(1808-19.)  Died  in  1826. 

Marschner,  maRsh/ner,  (HKiXRiCH,)a  German  com 
poser  and  musician,  born  at  Zittau  in  1795,  was  appointed 
chapel-master  at  Hanover.  Among  his  most  popular 
works  are  the  operas  of  "  The  Vampyre,"  "  The  Templar 
and  the  Jewess,"  and  "Hans  Heiling."  Died  in  1861. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  (Jniverselle  des  Musiciens." 

Mars'd^n,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  Orientalist,  of 
English  extraction,  born  at  Dublin  in  1754.  Having  en 
tered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  he  sailed 
in  1771  to  Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  where  he  was  appointed 
principal  secretary  to  the  government  and  devoted  him 
self  to  the  study  of  the  Malay  language.  He  returned 
in  1779  to  England,  and  was  soon  after  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  in  1782  his  "His 
tory  of  Sumatra,"  which  was  very  favourably  received 
and  was  translated  into  French  and  German.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  chief  secretary  to  the  board  of 
admiralty,  with  the  war  salary  of  ^4000  per  annum. 
Having  resigned  this  post  in  1807,  he  brought  out  in 


1812  his  "Grammar"  and  "Dictionary"  of  the  Malay 
language,  which  are  esteemed  standard  works.  He  also 
made  an  excellent  translation  of  the  "  Travels  of  Marco 
Polo,"  with  a  commentary,  and  wrote  a  description  of 
Eastern  coins,  entitled  "Numismata  Orientalia  Illus- 
trata,"  (1823.)  He  gave  up  his  pension  to  the  gov 
ernment  in  1831,  and  soon  after  presented  his  valuable 
collection  of  coins  ard  medals  to  the  British  Museum, 
and  his  library  to  King's  College.  Died  in  1836. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  William  Marsden,"  by  himself, 
1838. 

Marsh,  (ANNA  CALDWELL,)  MRS.,  an  English  au 
thoress,  born  in  Staffordshire  about  1798.  Among  her 
most  popular  works  we  may  name  "  Tales  of  the 
Woods  and  Fields,"  (1836,)  "  Ravenscliffe,"  "Mount 
Sorel,"  (1843.)  and  "Emilia  Wyndham,"  (1846.) 

Marsh,  (CATHERINE,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Colchester  about  1815.  Among  her  works  are  "Me 
morials  of  Captain  Hedley  Vicars,"  "English  Hearts 
and  English  Hands,"  and  "Light  for  the  Line,  or  the 
Story  of  Thomas  Ward,"  which  have  gained  extensive 
popularity. 

Marsh,  (DEXTER,)  an  American  geologist,  born  in 
1806,  made  a  large  and  choice  collection  of  specimens 
of  fossil  footprints,  obtained  chiefly  in  the  Connecticut 
valley.  Died  in  1853. 

Marsh,  (GEORGE  PERKINS,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
philologist  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Windsor  county, 
Vermont,  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  minister  resi 
dent  at  Constantinople  in  1849,  and  in  1852  was  sent  on 
an  embassy  to  Greece.  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "Compendious  Grammar  of  the  Old  Northern 
or  Icelandic  Language,  compiled  and  translated  from 
the  Grammar  of  Rask,"  (1838,)  and  "  Man  and  Nature," 
(1864.)  His  wife,  Caroline  C.  Marsh,  has  published  a 
number  of  poems  and  made  translations  from  the  Ger 
man.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Italy. 

See  GKISWOLD,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Marsh,  (HERBERT,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  in  London  in  1757.  He  became  professor  of  di 
vinity  at  Cambridge  in  1807,  and  rose  to  be  Bishop  of 
Peterborough  in  1819.  He  published  several  religious 
and  controversial  treatises,  and  translated  Michaelis's 
"  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament"  into  English. 
Died  in  1839. 

Marsh,  (JAMES,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  1789, 
was  the  inventor  of  an  apparatus,  called  by  his  name, 
which  detects  the  presence  of  arsenic  in  liquids,  how 
ever  minute  the  quantity.  Its  utility  and  certainty  were 
verified  by  Orfila  and  other  toxicologists.  Died  in  1846. 

Marsh,  JAMES,)  D.I).,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Hartford,  Vermont,  in  1794. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  classics  at  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  Virginia,  and  in  1826  president  of  the 
University  of  Vermont.  He  translated  from  the  German 
Herder's  "Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  and  contributed 
religious  and  philosophical  essays  to  the  "Christian 
Spectator"  and  other  journals.  Died  about  1842. 

Marsh,  (NARCISSUS,)  a  learned  prelate,  born  in  Wilt 
shire  in  1638,  became  successively  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
and  of  Armagh.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  an  Introduc 
tion  to  the  Theory  of  Sounds,"  which  was  inserted  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1713. 

Mar'shail,  (CHARLES  KIMHALI.,)  an  American  Meth 
odist  divine,  born  at  Durham,  Maine,  in  1812,  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Natchez,  Mississippi. 

Marshall,  (HUMPHRY,)  an  American  botanist,  was 
a  resident  of  Pennsylvania.  He  published  in  1785  his 
"  Arbustum  Americanum,"  or  catalogue  of  the  trees  and 
shrubs  of  America,  which  was  translated  into  French. 
Died  about  1805. 

See  W.  DARLINGTON,  "Memorials  of  John  Bartram  and  H. 
Marshall, "  1849. 

Marshall,  (JoiiN,)  an  eminent  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Germantown,  Fauquier  county,  Vir 
ginia,  on  the  24th  of  September,  1755.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Colonel  Thomas  Marshall  and  Mary  Keith, 
who  had  fifteen  children.  He  never  attended  a  college, 
but  he  was  well  educated  under  the  care  of  his  father. 
He  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1776,  became  a  captain  in 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsatre;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARSHALL 


'533 


MARSTON 


May,  1777,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Brandy  wine, 
September,  1777,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  June, 
1778.  Having  resigned  his  commission  in  1781,  he  be 
gan  to  practise  law,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Delegates  in  1782.  In  1783  he  married  Mary 
Willis  Ambler,  of  York,  Virginia,  and  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Richmond.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention 
of  Virginia,  in  1788,  he  advocated  the  adoption  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  by  several  powerful  speeches.  He 
contributed  more  to  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution 
by  Virginia  than  any  man  except  James  Madison.  He 
became  identified  with  the  Federal  party,  and  cordially 
supported  the  administration  of  Washington.  His 
reputation  was  widely  extended  by  a  speech  in  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  in  favour  of  the  treaty  negotiated 
by  John  Jay  with  Great  Britain  in  1794.  In  1797  he 
was  associated  with  General  Pinckney  and  Mr.  Gerry  in 
a  special  mission  to  the  French  Directory.  His  incli 
nation  or  interest  induced  him  to  decline  several  high 
offices,  but,  at  the  special  request  of  General  Washing 
ton,  he  became  a  candidate  for  Congress,  and  was  elected, 
in  1799.  He  made  a  great  speech  in  Congress,  defend 
ing  President  Adams  for  his  surrender  of  Thomas  Nash, 
alias  Kobbins,  who  was  claimed  by  the  British  govern 
ment  as  a  fugitive  from  justice.  This  speech  settled 
forever  the  question  whether  such  cases  should  be 
decided  by  the  executive  or  the  judiciary.  "That  argu 
ment,''  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "deserves  to  be  ranked 
among  the  most  dignified  displays  of  human  intellect." 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Adams 
in  May,  1800,  and  displayed  great  diplomatic  ability  in 
his  correspondence  with  Rufus  King,  minister  to  Eng 
land.  On  the  3 ist  of  January,  1801,  he  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
lie  pei formed  the  functions  of  this  high  office  for  thirty- 
four  years,  and  rendered  important  services  by  the  just 
and  liberal  principles  according  to  which  he  construed 
the  Constitution.  His  profound  learning  and  wisdom, 
his  moral  courage,  and  his  high-toned  virtue  secured  for 
him  universal  respect  and  confidence.  His  services  as 
an  expounder  of  constitutional  law  are  commended  by 
Judge  Story  in  the  following  terms:  "If  all  others'  of 
the  chief  justice's  judicial  arguments  had  perished,  his  | 
luminous  judgments  on  these  occasions  would  have  j 
given  an  enviable  immortality  to  his  name."  In  1804 
he  published  a  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  (5  vols.,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Judge  Marshall  was  distin 
guished  for  his  benevolence,  modesty,  urbanity,  and 
simplicity.  He  was  a  devout  believer  in  Christianity, 
and  was  happy  in  his  domestic  relations.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia  (whither  he  had  gone  for  medical  advice) 
in  July,  1835.  "To  one  who  cannot  follow 'his  great 
judgments, "says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "in  which  at  the  same 
time  the  depths  of  legal  wisdom  are  disclosed  and  the 
limits  of  human  reason  measured,  the  language  of  just 
eulogy  must  wear  an  appearance  of  extravagance.  In 
his  own  profession  he  stands  for  the  reverence  of  the 
wise  rather  than  for  the  enthusiasm  of  the  many." 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Prose  Writers  of  America:"  JUDGE  JOSEPH 
STORY,  notice  of  John  Marshall,  in  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery 
of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i.  :  HORACE  BINNEV,  "Eulogy 
on  the  Life  and  Character  of  John  Marshall;"  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1828,  and  January,  1836. 

Mar'shall  or  Mareschal,  (THOMAS,)  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  about  1621.  He  became 
successively  rector  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  chaplain- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king,  and  Dean  of  Gloucester,  (1681.) 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Oriental 
tongues  and  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  published  "  Ob 
servations  on  Two  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Gospels, — 
the  Gothic  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,"  (in  Latin,  1665,)  also 
a  "  Life  of  Archbishop  Usher."  Died  in  1685. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athense  Oxonienses." 

Marshall,  (WILLIAM  CALDER,)  a  Scottish  sculptor, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1813,  was  a  pupil  of  Chantrey. 
He  visited  Rome  about  1836,  and  settled  in  London  in 
1839.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Sabrina,"  "Una 
and  the  Lion,"  the  "Dancing-Girl  Reposing,"  (1846,) 
which  gained  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds,  and  a 
statue  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Marshall,  (WILLIAM  HUMPHREY,)  an  English  bota 
nist  and  agricultural  writer,  born  in  1745.  He  published 


a  number  of  works  which  contributed  greatly  to  the  im 
provement  of  agriculture  in  England.  He  also  wrote 
"  The  American  Grove  ;  or,  Catalogue  of  the  Trees,  etc. 
of  the  United  States."  Died  in  1818. 

Marsh'am,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  chronologist,  born 
in  London  in  1602.  He  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
royalists  in  the  civil  war.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Chronologicus  Canon  /Egyptiacus,  Ebraicus," 
etc.,  (1672,)  in  which  he  attempts  tojeconcile  Egyptian 
chronology  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  by  supposing 
four  collateral  dynasties  of  Egyptian  kings  reigning  at 
the  same  time.  This  theory  has  been  adopted  by  several 
eminent  scholars.  Died  in  1685. 

See  Worm,  "Athens  Oxonienses;"  SHUCKFORD,  "Sacred  and 
Profane  History." 

Marsh'maii,  (JOSHUA,)  an  eminent  English  divine 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1767.  Being  sent 
by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  to  India  in  1799, 
he  became  a  proficient  in  the  Chinese,  Sanscrit,  and 
Bengalee  languages.  He  translated  the  four  Gospels 
into  Chinese,  and  assisted  Dr.  Carey  in  preparing  a 
Sanscrit  Grammar  and  a  Bengalee-and-English  Diction 
ary.  He  also  translated  the  works  of  Confucius,  and 
wrote  a  "Defence  of  the  Deity  and  Atonement  of  Jesus 
Christ,  in  Reply  to  Rammohun  Roy,"  (1822.)  Died  in 

1837. 

See  Cox,  "  History  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society." 
Marsigli,  maR-sel'yee,  (Luici  FERIMNANDO,)  a  dis 
tinguished  Italian  naturalist  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1658.  He  served  in  the  Austrian  army 
against  the  Turks  in  1683  and  in  several  succeeding 
campaigns,  and  was  made  a  colonel  in  1689.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Sciences  and  Arts 
at  Bologna,  (1712,)  to  which  he  gave  a  very  valuable 
scientific  collection.  He  afterwards  visited  England, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Newton  and  Halley 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Physical  History  of  the  Sea,"  (1725,)  a 
description  of  the  shores  of  the  Danube,  entitled  "  Danu- 
bius  Pannonico-Mysicus,"  etc.,  (1726,  7  vols.  fol.,  finely 
illustrated,)  "The  Military  State  of  the  Ottoman  Em 
pire,"  (1732,)  and  other  works.  He  had  been  elected 
in  1725  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  Quixcv,  "  Memoires  stir  la  Vie  du  Comte  de  Marsigli,"  1741 ; 
FONTENEU.E,  "  Eloges  des  Academiciens ;"  FABRONI,  "Vita;  Ita- 
lorum  doctvina  excellentiiim  ;"  G.  FAXTUZZI,  "  Memoria  delia  Vita 
del  Conte  Marsigli,"  1770;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marsilio  (maR-see'le-o)  [Lat.  MARSIL'IUS]  OF  PADUA, 
an  Italian  jurist,  sometimes  called  MENANDRINO,  born 
at  Padua.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  in  whose  favour  he  wrote  his  "  Defensor  Pads," 
an  attack  on  the  papacy,  for  which  he  was  excommuni 
cated  in  1327.  Died  in  1328. 

Marsilius.     See  MARSILIO. 

Marsilius  Ficinus.     See  FICINUS. 

Marsin.     See  MARCHIN. 

Marso,  maR'so,  [Lat.  PISCI'NUS,]  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian 
savant,  said  to  have  been  born  at  Piscina.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  "  Fasti"  of  Ovid,  published  in  1485, 
and  several  Latin  poems. 

Marsollier,  nitk'so'le-i',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1647,  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Inquisition  and  its  Origin,"  (1693,)  an^  several  other 
works.  'Died  in  1724. 

See  NICEKON,  "  Memoires." 

Marsollier  des  Vivetieres,  mfR'so'le-a'  d£  vev'- 
tej-aiu',  (BENofr  JOSEPH,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1750,  produced  numerous  comic  operas,  which 
had  great  popularity.  Died  in  1817. 

Mars'tou,  (JOHN,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  the 
author  of  tragedies  entitled  "Antonio  and  Mellida," 
"  Sophonisba,"  and  "  Antonio's  Revenge,"  and  several 
comedies  ;  he  was  also  associated  with  Ben  Jonson  and 
Chapman  in  writing  "Eastward,  Ho  !"  His  comedy  of 
"  The  Malecontent"  is  esteemed  his  best  work  ;  but  he 
is  said  to  have  borrowed  a  great  part  of  it  from  Webster. 
Died  in  1634. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Marston,  (\VESTLAND,)  an  English  poet  and  drama 
tist,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1819.  He  wrote  "The 


«  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARSUPIUS 


MARTIAL 


Patrician's  Daughter,"  "  The  Heart  and  the  World," 
and  several  other  popular  dramas. 

Marsupius.     See  MARSUPPINI. 

Marsuppiiii,  maR-soop-pee'nee,  [Lat.  MARSU'PIUS,] 
(CARLO,)  an  Italian  scholar,  sometimes  called  ARE- 
TINO,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1399.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Florence  in  1434,  and  secretary 
of  the  Florentine  republic  in  1444.  He  translated  into 
Latin  hexameter  verse  Homer's  "  Batrachomyomachia," 
and  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems.  Died  in  1453. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mar'sus,  (Doxirnus,)  a  Roman  poet  under  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  was  a  friend  of  Virgil  and  Tibullus.  Among 
his  extant  works  is  a  poem  entitled  "  Cicuta,"  and  a 
number  of  fragments  have  been  collected  by  Broek- 
huisen  in  his  edition  of  Tibullus. 

See  WEICHERT,  "De  Domitio  Marso,  Poeta." 

Marsy,  mSk'se',  (GASPARDand  BALTHASAR,)  brothers 
and  distinguished  French  sculptors,  born  at  Cambray, 
the  former  in  1625  and  the  latter  in  1628.  Among  their 
master-pieces  are  the  figures  of  the  Baths  of  Apollo, 
representing  the  "Tritons  showering  the  Horses  of 
the  Sun,"  and  the  group  of"  Latona  and  her  Children." 
Both  brothers  were  members  of  the  Academy  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture.  Balthasar  died  in  1674,  and  Gaspard 
in  1681. 

See  LENOIR,  "Muse'e  des  Monuments  Francais." 

Marsy,  de,  deh  m^R'se',  (FRANCOIS  MARIE,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1714.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Mary  Stuart,"  and  a  Latin 
poem  entitled  "  Painting,"  ("  Pictura,")  which  was  much 
admired.  Died  in  1763. 

See  LA  HARPE,  "  Cours  de  LitteYature." 


Mar'sy-as,  [Gr.  Mapo-mf,]  a  personage  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  called  by  some  authors  a  Satyr,  and  a 
son  of  Olympus.  According  to  tradition,  he  found  a 
flute  which  Minerva  had  thrown  away,  (because  her 
face  was  distorted  by  playing  on  it,)  and  challenged 
Apollo  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  music,  on  the  condition 
that  the  victor  might  do  what  he  pleased  with  the  van 
quished.  Apollo  gained  the  victory,  and  flayed  Marsyas 
alive.  This  story  was  a  favourite  subject  of  ancient 
poets  and  artists. 

Martainville,  mSR'taN'vel',  (  AI.PHONSE  Louis  DIEU- 
DONNE,)  a  litterateur  3X\A  journalist,  of  French  extraction, 
born  at  Cadiz  in  1776.  He  became  associate  editor  of 
several  political  journals  of  Paris.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  bold  and  witty  satires  on  the  Jacobins,  and  several 
popular  comedies.  Died  in  1830. 

Martange,  de,  deh  maVtoNzh',  (N.  BONNET,)  a 
French  general  and  writer,  born  at  Beauce  in  1722, 
served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
He  wrote  several  poems  and  tales.  Died  in  1806. 

Marteilhe,  mSn'til'  or  mtR'ti'ye,  (JEAN,)  a  French 
Protestant,  born  at  Bergerac  in  1684,  was  condemned  in 
1702  to  the  galleys  at  Dunkirk,  where  he  spent  seven 
years.  Died  in  1777. 

See  "The  Huguenot  Galley-Slave,  "  New  York,  1867;  ".Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1866. 

Martel,  (CHARLES.)     See  CHARLES  MARTEL. 

Martel,  mtu'ieT,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Perigueux  in  1549.  He  became  first  surgeon  to  Henry 
IV.  Died  about  1610. 

Martel,  maR-teT,  (GERONIMO,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "Forma  de  celebrar 
Cortes."  He  became  royal  historiographer  in  1597. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i. 
pin  i. 

Marteliere,  de  la,  deh  It  mtut'le-aiR',  (PIERRE,)  a 
celebrated  French  lawyer,  was  born  at  Bellesme  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  published  a  number  of 
pleas,  one  of  which,  in  favour  of  the  University  of  Paris 
against  the  Jesuits,  was  very  much  admired.  Died 
in  1631. 

Martelli,  maR-tel'lee,  (Lunovico,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence  in  1499.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  and 
"Tullia,"  a  tragedy.  Died  in  1527. 

See  GINGUENE',  "  Histoire  litteVaire  d'  Italic." 

Martelli  or  Martello,  maR-tel'lo,  (PIETRO  GIACOMO,) 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1665.  He  wrote 


poems   and  dramas,  which  were   popular  at  the  time. 
Died  in  1727. 

See  FABR'iNi,  ''Vita:  Italorum  doclrina  excellentium  ;"  "Vitadi 
Martelli,"  (written  by  liimself,)  in  CAI.OC;EKA'S  "  Raccolta,"  vol.  ii. 

Martelly,  de,  deh  mSk'ti'le',  (HONORE  FRANCOIS 
RICHARD,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Aix  in 
1751,  published  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Two  Figaros," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1817. 

Martene,  maVt.\N',  (Dom  EDMOND,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  of  the  order  of  Benedictines,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Dijon  in  1654.  In  1708  he  visited  the  abbeys 
and  cathedrals  of  France,  in  order  to  procure  materials 
for  a  new  edition  of  the  "Gallia  Christiana."  He  also 
published  a  "Collection  of  Old  Authors  and  Historical 
Monuments,"  (1700,)  in  Latin,  and,  conjointly  with  his 
friend  Durand,  "Literary  Travels  of  Two  Benedictines 
of  Saint-Maur,"  (1717.)  Died  in  1739. 

See  TASSIN,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
Maur." 

Martens,  mau'tens,  written  also  Mertens,  [Lat. 
MARTI'NUS,]  (THIERRY,)  a  Flemish  printer,  born  at  Alost 
about  1450,  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  art  of  printing 
into  the  Netherlands.  He  exercised  his  profession  at 
his  native  town,  and  subsequently  at  Louvain  and  Ant 
werp.  He  printed  in  Roman  characters,  hitherto  un 
known,  and  his  editions  of  the  classics  were  highly  prized. 
Martens  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  com 
posed  a  Latin  epitaph  upon  him.  Died  in  1534. 

See  MAITTAIRH,  "Annales  Typographies  ;"  MARCHAND,  "His 
toire  de  1'Iinprimerie  ;"  F.  A.  VAN  ISEGHKM.  "  Hio-jraphie  de  Thierry 
Martens,"  iS^;  THKODORK  JUSTE,  "Notice  biographique  sur  1. 
Martens,"  1849. 

Martens,  von,  fon  maR'tens,  (GEORG  FRIEDIUCH,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  in  Hamburg  in  1756.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  chiefly  written  in  French,  we  may  name 
his  "Collection  of  Treaties,"  (1791,)  and  "Summary  of 
Modern  European  Law,"  (1821.)  Died  in  1821. 

Martens,  von,  (KARL,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1790.  He  was  employed  as  a  diplomatist 
by  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  published,  besides  other 
works  in  French,  "Causes  celebres  du  Droit  de  Gens," 
(3  vols.,  1827,)  and  "Guide  diplomatique,"  (2  vols.,  1832.) 

Martensen,  maR'ten-sen,  (HANS  LASSEN,)  a  Danish 
theologian,  born  at  Flensborg  in  1808.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Seeland  in  1843,  and  court  preacher  at  Copen 
hagen  in  1845.  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise  on 
Christian  Doctrine,  "  Den  Christelige  Dogmatik,"  (1849.) 

Mar'tha,  |Gr.  JAupBa;  Fr.  MARTHE,  ma"Rt,]  a  sister  of 
Mary  and  Lazarus  of  Bethany. 

See  John  xi.  ;  Lai-e  •<. 

Marthe.     See  MARTHA. 

Marthe,  mtm,  (ANNE  Biget — be'zVuV,)  a  French 
nun,  called  SISTER  MARTHA,  born  at  Besan£on  in  1749, 
devoted  herself  during  the  Revolution  to  the  relief  of  the 
sick  and  wounded,  and  of  prisoners  of  all  nations.  Died 
in  1824. 

Marti,  maR'tee,  [Lat.  MARTI'NUS,]  (MANUEL,)  a 
Spanish  scholar  and  poet,  born  near  Valencia  in  1663. 
He  published  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled  "  Amalthea 
Geographica,"  and  made  several  translations  from  the 
Latin.  Died  in  1737. 

See  M  \Y.\N,  "Vita  EmanueHs  Martini,"  1735. 

Martial,  mar'she-aj,  [Fr.  MARTIAL,  ma'R'se'a'K ;  Lat. 
MARTIA'I.IS  ;  It.  MARZIALE,  maKt-se-a'li,]  or,  more  fully, 
Mar'cus  Vale'rius  Martia'lis,  a  famous  Latin  epi 
grammatic  poet,  born  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain,  about  40  A.D., 
went  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  resided  there 
thirty-five  years.  The  events  of  his  life  are  very  imper 
fectly  known  ;  but  it  appears  that  he  devoted  his  atten 
tion  chiefly  to  poetry.  Some  epigrams  which  he  wrote 
on  the  occasion  of  the  public  spectacles  given  by  Titus 
about  the  year  80,  procured  him  the  favour  of  that  prince. 
He  was  also  patronized  by  Domitian,  who  made  him  a 
tribune  and  a  Roman  knight.  He  was  intimate  with 
Juvenal,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny  the  Younger.  About  98 
A.r>.  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  died  a  few 
years  later.  Fourteen  books  of  his  "  Epigrams"  are  still 
extant,  and  are  much  admired  by  some  eminent  critics, 
such  as  Scaliger,  Lipsius,  and  Malte-Brun.  The  latter 
thinks  his  writings  are  among  the  most  interesting  monu 
ments  of  Roman  literature,  though  many  of  them  offend 
against  good  taste  and  pure  morality.  Probably  no  poet 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARTIAL 


1535 


MARTIN 


ever  estimated  his  works  more  justly  than  he  did  in  the 
following  line  : 

"Sunt  bona,  sunt  quasdam  mediocria,  sunt  plura  mala." 
("  Some  are  good,  some  indifferent,  and  more  are  bad.") 
See  CRUSIUS,  "  Life  of  Martial,"  in  "  Lives  of  the  Roman  Poets," 
1726:  LESSING,  "Vermischte  Schriften  ;"  A.  PERICAI-D.  "  Essai  sur 
Martial,"  1816  :  FABRICIUS,   "  Bibliotheca  Latina;"    "  M.  V.  Mar- 
tialis  a!s  Mensch  nnd   Dichter,"    Berlin,  1843;  "Martial   and   his 
Times,"  in  the  ''Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1853. 

Martial  d'Auvergne.  See  AUVERGNE,  D',  (MAR 
TIAL.) 

Martialis.     See  MARTIAL. 

Martianay,  mSR'se'S'ni',  (Dom  JEAN,)  a  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  theological  writer,  born  in  1647  ; 
died  in  1717. 

Martignac,  de,  deh  miVten'yik',  (IvriENNE  ALGAY,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde  about 
1620.  He  published  "Memoirs  of  Gaston,  Duke  of 
Orleans,"  and  made  translations  from  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  other  classics.  Died  in  1698. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Martignac,  de,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  SYLVERE  GAVE,) 
YICOMTE,  an  able  and  eloquent  French  statesman  under 
Charles  X.,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1776.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1821.  As  the 
head  of  the  ministry  that  came  into  power  in  January, 

1828,  he  held  the  o'ffice  of  minister  of  the  interior,  and 
sought  to  unite  conflicting  parties  for  the  support  of  the 
throne ;  but,  unable  to  effect  this  object,  and  forsaken  by 
the  king  and  the  court,  he  resigned  his  place  in  August, 

1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  Polignac.     On  the  trial  of 
the    latter,    Martignac    became    his    eloquent    defender 
in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.     He  died  in  1832,  leaving  a 
"  Historical   Essay  on   the    Spanish   Revolution,"   and 
other  works. 

See  CAPEFIGUE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Restauration  ;"  CHATEAUBRIAND, 
"  Memoires  d'Outre-Tombe ;"  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "  M.  de  Martignac, 
par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Martigues,  ml R'teg',  (SEBASTIEN  DE  LUXEMBOURG,) 
VISCOUNT,  a  brave  French  officer,  who  assisted  at  the 
siege  of  Metz,  (1552,)  and  in  the  capture  of  Calais  by 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  (1558.)  He  was  killed  in  1569. 

Mar'tin  [Lat.  MARTI'XUS]  I.  succeeded  Theodore  as 
pope  in  649  A.D.  Having  condemned  the  Monothelites, 
he  was  banished  by  the  emperor  Constans  II.,  who 
favoured  that  sect,  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  where 
he  died  in  655  A.D. 

Martin  II.,  or  Marinus  I.,  succeeded  John  VIII.  as 
pope  in  882  A.D.  Died  in  884,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Adrian  III. 

Martin  III.,  or  Marinus  II.,  born  at  Rome,  suc 
ceeded  Stephen  VIII.  in  942,  and  died  in  946.  His 
successor  was  Agapetus  II. 

Martin  IV.,  (Cardinal  SIMON  de  Brion  —  deh 
bRe'o.N',  (or  Brie — bRe,))  a  native  of  Touraine,  in  France, 
succeeded  Nicholas  III.  in  1281.  He  adhered  to  the 
cause  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  and  when,  after  the  Sicilian 
Vespers,  that  sovereign  lost  his  power  in  Sicily,  Martin 
excommunicated  Peter  of  Aragon,  who  had  been  chosen 
king  of  that  country.  He  died  in  1285,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Honorius'lV. 

Martin  V.  (Cardinal  OTHO  Colonna  —  ko-lon'na) 
was  elected  pope  in  1417,  in  the  place  of  John  XXIII., 
deposed  by  the  Council  of  Constance.  In  1431  he 
called  a  council  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  a  reform  in  the  Church,  and  sent  Cardinal 
Julian  Cesarini  as  his  legate.  He  died 'soon  after,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Eugene  IV. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Remains." 

Martin,  son  of  Martin,  King  of  Aragon,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Sicily  in  1399.  He  married  in  1401,  as  his 
second  wife,  Blanche,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Navarre. 
He  died  in  1409,  and  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  was  united 
to  that  of  Aragon  by  his  father,  who  survived  him. 

Martin,  surnamed  GALLUS,  a  French  ecclesiastic  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  was  a  missionary  to  Poland,  and 
wrote  a  history  of  that  country,  ("  Chronica  Polonorum,") 
a  valuable  work,  and  the  earliest  one  written  on  that 
subject. 

Mar'tin,  (ALEXANDER,)  born  in  New  Jersey  about 
1740,  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution, 


and  was  chosen  Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1782. 
Died  in  1807. 

Martin,  mfR'taN',  (ANDRE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1621.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest 
advocates  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  and  wrote 
"Christian  Moral  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  Moralis 
Christiana.")  Died  in  1695. 

Mar'tin,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1704.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Philo 
sophical  Grammar,"  (1735,)  "New  System  of  Optics," 
(1740,)  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1782. 

Martin,  (BoN  Louis  HENRI,)  an  eminent  PVench 
historian,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1810.  He  has  pub 
lished  a  "History  of  France  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
1789,"  (18  vols.,  1838-53,)  "  Monarchy  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century,"  (1848,)  a  "Life  of  Daniel  Manin,"  (1859,)  and 
other  similar  works.  The  first  enjoys  a  high  reputation, 
and  has  gained  a  prize  of  the  Academic  Frai^aise.  He 
published  a  revised  edition  of  his  "  History  of  France," 
(1855-60.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1857. 

Martin,  (CHRISTIAN  RKINHOLD  DIETRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  jurist,  born  near  Gottingen  in  1772,  was  the  author 
of  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1857. 

Martin,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  soldier,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1732.  He  accompanied  General  Lally  to  India,  and  sub 
sequently  entered  the  English  service.  Having  amassed 
a  large  fortune,  he  built  a  magnificent  palace  near  Luck- 
now.  He  died  in  1800,  leaving  numerous  bequests  for 
charitable  purposes. 

See  G.  MARTIN,  "  filoge  historique  de  C.  Martin,"  1830. 

Martin,  (CLAUDE,)  a  learned  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Tours  in  1619,  published  several  devo 
tional  works.  Died  in  1696. 

Martin,  (DAVID,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
born  at  Revel  in  1639.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  "  Treatise  on  Natural 
Religion,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputa 
tion.  Died  in  1721. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Martin,  (FKANC.OIS,)  an  agent  of  the  East  India  Com 
pany,  born  in  France.  In  1674  he  formed  a  colony  at 
Pondicherry,  of  which  city  he  afterwards  became  gov 
ernor.  Died  about  1725. 

Martin,  (EDME,)  a  French  jurist,  born  near  Sens 
about  1714,  became  professor  of  canon  law  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1793. 

Martin,  (FRANCOIS  XAVIER,)  LL.D.,  born  at  Mar 
seilles,  France,  in  1764,  emigrated  about  1785  to  North 
Carolina,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Louisiana.  He 
attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  jurist,  and  published  His 
tories  of  Louisiana  and  North  Carolina.  Died  in  1846. 

Martin,  (GREGORY,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian, 
was  a  native  of  Sussex.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Douai,  and  subsequently  at  Rheims.  His  principal 
work  is  an  English  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 
appeared  in  1610.  Died  in  1582. 

Martin,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  painter,  surnamed 
DES  BATAILLES,  ("of  battles,")  born  in  Paris  in  1659. 
On  the  death  of  Van  der  Meulen,  in  1690,  he  was  ap 
pointed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  paint  his  battles.  Died  in  1735. 

Martiii,  (JEAN  BI.AISE,)  a  celebrated  French  vocalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1767.  He  held  the  place  of  tenor  solo 
in  the  imperial  chapel  under  Napoleon  and  his  succes 
sors,  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  Died  in  1837. 

Martin,  (JOHN,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  North 
umberland  in  1789.  He  studied  under  Bonifacio  Musso, 
and  in  1815  obtained  the  prize  at  the  British  Institution 
for  his  picture  of  "  Joshua  commanding  the  Sun  to  stand 
still."  This  was  followed  by  "The  Fall  of  Babylon," 
(1818,)  "Belshazzars  Feast,"  (1821,)  "The  Deluge," 
(1826,)  "The  Fall  of  Nineveh,"  (1828,)  and  other 
works  on  similar  subjects,  which  enjoyed  great  tem 
porary  popularity.  He  published  in  1828  "A  Plan  for 
supplying  with  Pure  Water  the  Cities  of  London  and 
Westminster."  Died  in  1854. 

See  "Autobiography  of  John  Martin,"  in  the  "Athenzum," 
1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Martin,  (Louis  AIME,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1781,  became  professor  of  rhetoric,  history, 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, gitttural ';  N,  nasal;  :<..  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARTIN 


1536 


MARTINET 


etc.  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  Paris,  about  1815.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  whose 
widow  he  married.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Letters  to  Sophia  on  Physics,  Chemistry,"  etc.,  (1810,) 
"Collection  of  Tales,  etc.  in  Verse  and  Prose^''  (1813,) 
and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works  of  Bernardin  de 
Saint-Pierre,"  (1820.)  Died  in  1847. 

See  LAMARTINK,  "  Discours  prononce  sur  la  Tonibe  de  M.  Aimt* 
Martin  ;''  QUERAKD,  "  La  Franca  Litteraire." 

Martin,  (LUTHKK,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  about 
1745.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Maryland  to  the  conven 
tion  which  in  1787  formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  this  body  he  advocated  the  sovereignty  and 
equality  of  the  States,  contending  that  a  small  State 
should  send  as  many  members  to  Congress  as  a  large 
Stale.  Died  in  1826. 

Martin,  (MARGARET  MAXWELL,)  born  at  Dumfries, 
Scotland,  in  1807,  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  mar 
ried  in  1836  to  the  Rev.  William  Martin,  a  Methodist 
divine.  She  has  published  "  Methodism,  or  Christianity 
in  Karncst,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Martin,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Bonn,  in 
Prussia,  in  1814.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Karl  Sim- 
rock  the  poet.  Among  his  works  is  "Le  Presbytere, 
Epopee  domestique,"  (1856.) 

Martin,  (PIERRE,)  an  admiral,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  Canada  in  1752.  In  1795  he  maintained  a 
prolonged  fight  with  a  superior  English  fleet  under 
Hothain,  and  was  soon  after  made  vice-admiral.  Died 
in  1820. 

Martin,  (ROBERT  MONTGOMERY,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ireland,  about  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Colonies  of  the  British  Em 
pire,"  (1834-38,)  and  "The  Indian  Empire:  its  History, 
Topography,  Geology,  Government,"  etc.,  (1858-61.) 

Martin,  [Lat.  MAKTI'NUS,]  SAINT,  an  eminent  eccle 
siastic  of  the  fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Pannonia. 
He  was  converted  to  Christianity  at  an  early  age,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Tours  about  360  A. D.  He  founded 
the  abbey  of  Marmoutier,  near  the  river  Loire,  and  he 
also  established  a  monastery  at  Liguge,  near  Poitiers, 
said  to  be  the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  France. 
Died  about  396. 

See  C'.ERVAISE,  "Vie  de  Saint-Martin,"  1699;  MRS.  JAMESON, 
"Sacred  and  Legendary  Art ;"  A.  DUPUV,  "  Histoire  de  Saint- 
Martin,"  1852. 

Martin,  SAINT,  born  in  Hungary,  became  Archbishop 
of  Braga,  in  Portugal,  and  founded  a  number  of  monas 
teries  in  Galicia.  He  was  the  author  of  several  theo 
logical  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  580  A.I). 

Martin,  (SARAH,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born  near 
Yarmouth  in  1791,  was  distinguished  for  her  labours  in 
the  cause  of  prison-reform.  Died  in  1843. 

See  " Brief  Biographies,"  by  SAMUEL  SMILES;  REV.  ERSKINE 
NEM.E,  "Christianity  and  Infidelity  Contrasted  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  April,  1847. 

Martin,  (THEODORE,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Edin 
burgh  in  1816.  He  became  a  resident  of  London  about 
1846.  In  conjunction  with  Professor  Aytoun,  he  pro 
duced  a  version  of  Goethe's  poems  and  ballads,  (1858.) 
He  also  translated  the  Odes  of  Horace,  (1860.) 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1862,  and  March, 
1866. 

Martin,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1697.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
Thetford,"  published  after  his  death  by  Gough,  (1779,) 
and  was  a  contributor  to  Le  Neve's  "  Monumenta  Angli- 
cana."  Died  in  1771. 

Martin,  (THOMAS  HENRI,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Bellesme,  in  Orne,  in  1813.  His  "  Studies  on 
the  Timaeus  of  Plato"  (2  vols.,  1841)  obtained  a  prize  of 
the  French  Academy.  lie  also  published  a  "History 
of  the  Physical  Sciences  in  Antiquity,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 

Martin,  (Wn.i.iAM,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Nottinghamshire  in  1769.  He  published  "  Figures  and 
Descriptions  of  Petrifactions  in  Derbyshire,"  and  other 
scientific  works.  Died  in  1810. 

Martin,  (WILLIAM  D.,)  an  American  jurist  and  poli 
tician,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1789;  died  in  1833. 

Martin,  de,  deh  miVtaN',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Mirepoix  in  1684.     He  published,  ' 
among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Gauls  and  of  i 


their  Conquests,"  etc.,  and  "  The  Religion  of  the  Gauls." 
Died  in  1751. 

Mar'tiii-dale,  (JoHN  HENRY,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Sandy  Hill,  New  York,  about  1815,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1835.  He  was  a  lawyer  before  the 
civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battles  of 
Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  I,  1862. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  in 
the  summer  of  1864.  In  November,  1866,  he  was  elected 
attorney-general  of  New  York. 

Mar'tlne,  (GEORGE,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
1702,  accompanied  Lord  Cathcart  to  America,  where 
he  died  in  1743.  lie  published  "Commentaries  on  the 
Anatomical  Tables  of  Eustachius,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other 
works. 

Martineau,  mar'te-no,  (HARRIET,)  an  English  mis 
cellaneous  writer,  born  at  Norwich  in  1802,  was  de 
scended  from  a  French  Huguenot  family.  Being  left  in 
limited  circumstances  on  the  death  of  her  father,  she 
devoted  herself  to  literature  as  a  means  of  support,  and 
published,  in  1823,  "  Devotional  Exercises  for  the  Use 
of  Young  People,"  which  was  succeeded  by  a  number 
of  popular  tales,  among  which  we  may  name  "Christmas 
Day,"  "The  Rioters,"  (1826,)  "Mary  Campbell," (1827,) 
"The  Turn-Out,"  and  "My  Servant  Rachel,"  (1828.) 
Her  "Traditions  of  Palestine"  came  out  in  1831,  and 
were  soon  followed  by  a  series  of  tales  illustrating  po 
litical  economy,  which  were  received  with  great  favour 
and  were  translated  into  French  and  German.  In  1835 
she  visited  the  United  States,  where  she  spent  about 
two  years,  and  published,  after  her  return,  "  Society  in 
America,"  (1837,)  and  "  Retrospect  of  Western  Travel," 
(1838.)  Her  novel  of  "  Deerbrook"  appeared  in  1839, 
and  in  1840  the  romance  of  "The  Hour  and  the  Man." 
Her  health  becoming  impaired  about  this  time,  she  was 
obliged  to  suspend  her  literary  labours.  After  her  re 
covery  she  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Life  in  a 
Sick-Room,"  (1845,)  anf'  "  Forest  anc^  Game  Law  Tales," 
(1845.)  Among  her  later  publications  are  a  "History 
of  England  during  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace,''  (2  vols., 
1850,)  "  Letters  between  Miss  Martineau  and  Mr.  II.  G. 
Atkinson,"  etc.,  (1857,)  and  "  Biographical  Sketches," 
(London,  1869.)  She  has  also  been  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Westminister  Review"  and  other  literary  journals. 

See  "Men  and  Women  of  tlie  Time;"  "Brief  Biographies,"  by 
SAMUEL  SMILES;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1833,  April,  1838, 
and  April,  1847  :  "  London  Quarterly"  for  January,  1839;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1851. 

Martineau,  (JAMES,)  a  Unitarian  divine,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Norwich,  in  England,  about 
1805.  He  became  professor  of  moral  and  metaphysical 
philosophy  in  Manchester  New  College,  London,  in  1853, 
and  in  1858  associate  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Chapel  in 
Little  Portland  Street.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Rationale  of  Religious  Inquiry,"  (1839,)  "Endeavours 
after  the  Christian  Life,"  (1843,)  and  "Studies  of  Chris 
tianity,"  (1858.)  Mr.  Martineau  occupies  a  prominent 
position  both  as  theologian  and  philosopher,  being  the 
representative  on  the  one  hand  of  Unitarianism  as  op 
posed  to  Trinitarian  orthodoxy,  and  on  the  other  of 
Theism  and  Spiritualism  as  opposed  to  the  materialistic 
tendencies  of  the  age. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Martinelli,  maR-te-nel'lee,  (!)OMEMCO,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1650.  Among 
his  best  works  is  the  palace  of  Prince  Lichtenstein  at 
Vienna.  Died  m  1718. 

Martinengo,  maR-te-nen'go,  (GIROLAMO  SILVIO,) 
COUNT,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1753,  pub 
lished  a  translation  of  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost"  ("  II 
Paradiso  Perduto")  into  Italian  verse.  Died  in  1834. 

Martinengo,  (Trro  PKOSI-KKO,)  a  learned  Italian 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Brescia,  published  a  number  of 
devotional  poems,  in  Latin  and  Greek.  Died  in  1595. 

Martinengo-Coleoiii,  maK-te-ncn'go  ko-la-o'nee, 
(GIOVANNI  ETTORE,)  an  Italian  officer  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1754,  entered  the  French  service. 
Died  about  1830. 

Martinet,  mfK'te'ni',  a  French  officer,  who  lived 
about  1660-80  and  introduced  great  improvements  into 
military  tactics  and  the  organization  of  the  army. 

See  VOLTAIME,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 


a,  e  ~ 


5,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  v.,  y.  xAoff;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MARTINET 


'537 


MARTINIERE 


Martinet,  nit k'te'ni',  (JAN  FLORF.XS,)  a  Dutch  divine 
and  writer,  born  about  1735,  was  pastor  of  the  Men- 
nonite  church  at  Zutphen.  Died  in  1796. 

Martinet,  (Louis  ACHILLE,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1806,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1830.  He 
engraved  several  works  of  Raphael  and  other  old 
masters. 

Martinetti,  maR-te-net'tee,  (GlAMBATTlSTA,)  an  Ital 
ian  architect,  born  at  Hironico  in  1764;  died  in  1829. 

Martinez,  mar-tee'ne'th,  (  DOMINGO,  )  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1690  ;  died  in  1750. 

Martinez,  (GRF.GORIO,)  a  Spanish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Valladolid,  worked  at  Madrid.  Among  his  best 
works  is  a  "  Holy  Family  with  Saint  Francis  d'Assisi." 
Died  about  1610. 

Martinez,  (JosE.)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Sara 
gassa  in  1612,  became  painter  to  King  Philip  IV.  Died 
in  1682. 

Martinez,  (SEBASTIAN,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Jatn  in  1602.  On  the  death  of  Velasquez  he  became 
first  painter  to  King  Philip  IV.  Among  his  master 
pieces  are  a  " Nativity"  and  a  "Saint  Jerome."  Died 
in  1667. 

Martinez,  (ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  painter,  was  a  native 
of  Seville.  He  imitated  successfully  the  style  of  Mu- 
rillo.  His  "Mater  Dolorosa"  is  esteemed  a  master 
piece.  Died  in  1734. 

Martinez  del  Barranco,  maR-tee'neth  del  bar-ran'- 
ko,  (BERNARDO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cuesta  in 
1738  ;  died  in  1791. 

Martinez  de  la  Plaza,  maR-tee'nlth  da  la  pla'tha, 
(Lris,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Antequera  in  1585  ;  died 
in  1635. 

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  maR-tee'neth  da  la  ro'sa, 
(FRANCISCO,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  poet,  orator,  and 
statesman,  born  at  Granada  in  1789.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1808,  he  ably  defended  the  cause  of 
the  patriots  both  by  his  tongue  and  pen.  About  1811 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  London,  where  he  published 
his  first  poem,  entitled  "Zaragoza."  After  his  return  to 
Spain  he  wrote  his  tragedy  "  The  Widow  of  Padilla," 
("La  Viuda  de  Padilla,")  and  the  comedy  of  "The 
Consequences  of  Holding  Office,"  ("  Lo  que  puede  un 
Empleo,")  which  were  brought  out  on  the  stage  at  Cadiz 
while  that  city  was  besieged  by  the  French,  and  were 
received  with  enthusiasm.  In  1812  he  was  chosen  a 
deputy  to  the  Cortes.  On  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand, 
in  1814,  he  was  imprisoned  six  years  in  the  fortress  of 
Gomera,  on  the  African  coast.  In  1821  he  obtained  an 
office  in  the  ministry  ;  but,  being  accused  of  want  of  zeal 
by  the  Liberal  party,  he  retired  to  Paris.  Having  re 
turned  to  Spain,  he  became  prime  minister  in  1834,  and 
drew  up  the  "  Estatuto  Real,"  granting  a  new  constitu 
tion.  He  was  obliged  to  resign  his  post  in  1836,  and 
resided  for  a  time  in  Paris  and  London.  In  1851  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  Among 
his  most  popular  productions  are  the  dramas  entitled 
"The  Conspiracy  of  Venice"  and  "  CEdipus,"  "The 
Girl  at  Home  and  the  Mother  at  the  Masquerade,"  a 
comedy,  and  "El  Arte  poetica,"  a  didactic  poem.  He 
also  published  a  historical  work,  called  "  El  Espiritu  del 
Siglo,"  ("The  Spirit  of  the  Age,")  in  10  vols.,  and  the 
romance  of  "  Isabel  de  Solis."  Martinez  held  the  post 
of  perpetual  secretary  at  the  Spanish  Academy.  Died 
in  February,  1862. 

See  JAMES  KENNEDY,  "  Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  ;" 
LONGFELLOW.  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  LOMENIE,  "  Galerie 
des  Contemporains ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  prelate, 
born  at  Prnto  in  1720,  was  created  Archbishop  of  Flor 
ence  in  1781.  He  published  an  Italian  translation  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  several  original  works. 
Died  in  1809. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Belgian  writer 
on  logic  and  metaphysics,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1567; 
died  in  1621. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (FERDINAND  HEINRICH  WIT,- 
HF.I.M.)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Gotha 
in  1729.  Among  his  works  are  the  first  three  volumes 
of  a  "Systematic  Cabinet  of  Shells,"  ("  Conchylien- 
Cabinet,"  10  vols.,  1768-88.)  Died  in  1778. 


Martini,  (GEORG  HEINRICH,)  a  German  archaeologist, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1722.  He  wrote  on  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquities.  Died  in  1794. 

Martini,  (GIAMUATTISTA,)  an  eminent  Italian  musi 
cian  and  composer,  sometimes  called  PADRE  MARTINI, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1706.  His  compositions  are  chiefly 
of  a  religious  character,  and  possess  great  merit ;  but  his 
reputation  rests  principally  on  his  "  History  of  Music" 
(3  vols.,  1757-81)  and  "Essay  on  Counterpoint,"  (1775.) 
He  has  been  styled  "the  most  profound  harmonist,  and 
the  best  acquainted  with  the  art  and  science  of  music,  in 
Italy."  Died  in  1784. 

See  DF.I.LA  VALI.E,  "  Memorie  storiche  intomo  alia  Vita  di  G.  B. 
Martini,"  1785;  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Martini,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  musician,  a  native 
of  Milan,  visited  England,  where  he  was  patronized  by 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales.  He  was  an  excellent  per 
former  on  the  hautboy,  and  composed  a  number  of  con 
certos  and  sonatas,  which  are  greatly  admired.  Died 
in  1750. 

Martini,  (JEAN  PAULEGIDIUS,)  often  called  MARTINI 
IL  TEDESCO,  ("the  German,")  a  German  musician  and 
composer,  whose  original  name  was  SCHWARTZENDORF, 
born  at  Freistadt  in  1741.  In  1767  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Choiseul  and 
the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  brought  out  in  1771  his  opera 
of  "The  Lover  of  Fifteen,"  ("  L'Amoureux  de  quinze 
Ans,")  which  had  a  brilliant  success ;  it  was  followed 
by  "  Henri  IV,"  "  Sapho,"  "  Annette  et  Lubin,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  which  had  great  popularity. 
Martini  was  also  distinguished  for  his  improvements  in 
military  music.  Died  in  Paris  in  1816. 

See  FETIS.  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens:"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Martini,  (MARTINO,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born  at 
Trent  in  1614,  visited  China,  and  published  after  his 
return  a  "  History  of  the  Tartar  War  in  China,"  ("  De 
Bello  Tartarico  in  Sinis,")  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages ;  also  an  excellent 
map  of  China,  ("Atlas  Sinensis,")  and  a  "History  of 
China  previous  to  the  Christian  Era,"  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1661. 

Martini,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
in  Waldeck  in  1572,  published  a  good  "Lexicon  Philo- 
logicum"  (1623)  of  the  Latin  language.  Died  in  1630. 

Martini,  (ViNCENZO,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  composer, 
born  at  Valencia  in  1754.  He  visited  Italy  and  Germany, 
where  his  operas  were  received  with  great  favour,  and  in 
1788  took  up  his  residence  at  Saint  Petersburg.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Italian  Opera  in  that  city  by  the 
emperor  Paul  I.  Among  his  best  works  we  may  name 
"  Ipermnestra,"  "  L'accorta  Cameriera,"  ("The  Prudent 
Chambermaid,")  and  "  La  Cosa  rara,"  from  which  Mo 
zart  borrowed  a  portion  of  his  "Don  Giovanni."  Died 
in  1810. 

See  FETIS,  '•  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Martini,  di,  de  mar-tee'nee,  or  Martino,  mar-tee'no, 
an  Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  SIMONE  DI  MEM- 
MI,  and  SIMON  OF  SIENNA,  was  born  in  Sienna  about 
1280.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Giotto,  and  a  friend  of  Petrarch, 
for  whom  he  painted  a  portrait  of  Laura.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  the  frescos  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella  at  Florence.  Petrarch  dedicated  two 
sonnets  to  Martini,  who  was  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  his  time.  Died  in  1344. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Martiniere,  de  la,  deh  If  mtK'te'nej-aiR',  (ANTOINE 
AUGUSTIN  Bruzen  —  bRii'zoN',)  a  FreiTch  writer,  born 
at  Dieppe  about  1680,  was  appointed  first  geographer 
to  Philip  V.,  King  of  Spain.  His  works  are  numerous 
and  valuable.  Among  the  most  important  we  may  name 
"  The  Historical,  Geographical,  and  Critical  Dictionary," 
do  vols.,  1726,)  and  a  "Life  of  Moliere."  Died  at  the 
Hague  about  1748. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Martiniere,  de  la,  (PIERRE  MARTIN,)  a  French  phy 
sician  and  traveller,  born  at  Rouen,  accompanied  the 
expedition  sent  by  the  King  of  Denmark  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1653,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "  New 
Voyage  to  the  North,"  etc.,  (1671.) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

97 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


MAR  TIKO 


1538 


MAR  WAN 


Martino.     See  MARTINI,  (SIMONE.) 

Martiuot,  maVte'no',  (HENRI,)  a  French  mecha 
nician,  born  in  Paris  in  1646,  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  employed  him  to  make  the  clocks  for  Ver 
sailles  and  the  Trianon.  Died  in  1725. 

Martins,  maVtas1',  (CHARLES  FREDERIC.)  a  French 
botanist,  b'»rn  in  Paris  in  1806,  became  professor  of 
botany  at  Montpellier  in  1847.  He  published  several 
scientific  works,  among  which  we  may  name  his  treatise 
"On  Vegetable  Teratology,"  and  "Botanical  Journey  in 
Norway,"  ( 1841.) 

Martinus.     See  M \RTENS  and  MARTI. 

Mar-ti'nus  Fo-lo'nus  or  Bo-he'mus,  a  Polish 
chronicler  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Troppau,  in  Silesia. 
He  became  chaplain  and  confessor  to  Pope  Clement  IV. 
and  several  of  his  successors,  and  was  appointed  in  1278 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work, 
entitled  "Chronicon  de  Summis  Pontificibus,"  ("Chron 
icle  of  the  Popes.")  Died  in  1278. 

See  NiCBKOS',  "  Memoires. " 

Martirauo,  maR-te-ra'no,  (CORIOLANO,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza.  was  Bishop  of  San  Marco, 
in  Calabria.  He  wrote  a  number  of  dramas.  Died  in 

'557- 

Martire,  (PIETK<>.)     See  PETER  MARTYR. 

Martins,  von,  fon  maiu'se-us,  (K\Ri.  FKIEDRICH 
PHILTPP,)  an  eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Erlangen 
in  1794.  He  studied  medicine  in  his  native  city,  and  in 
1817  joined  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Austrian 
and  Bavarian  governments  to  Brazil.  After  his  return 
he  published,  in  1824,  his  "Brazilian  Travels,"  a  work 
very  attractive  in  its  style,  and  full  of  valuable  infor 
mation  concerning  the  natural  history  of  that  country. 
In  1832  he  brought  out  his  "Nova  Genera  et  Species 
Plantarum,"  (3  vols.,  with  coloured  plates,)  and  in  1845 
his  superb  "Genera  et  Species  Palmarum,"  being  a 
complete  description  of  the  palms,  (3  vols.,  with  219 
coloured  plates.)  Besides  the  above,  we  may  name  the 
"Flora  Brasiliensis,"  and  "The  Plants  and  Animals  of 
Tropical  America,"  (1831.)  Von  Martins  was  appointed 
director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Munich,  and  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  other 
institutions  of  the  kind.  Died  in  December,  1868. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830. 

Martorelli,  maR-to-rel'lee,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Naples  in  1699.  He  published  a  treat 
ise  "On  the  Ancient  Colonies  of  Naples,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1777. 

Martos,  mar'tos,  (IVAN  PETROVITCH,)  a  Russian 
sculptor,  born  in  Little  Russia  about  1760.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  mausoleum  of  the  emperor  Alexander 
at  Taganrog,  the  colossal  group  in  bronze  of  the  patriots 
Minin  and  Pozharsky  at  Moscow,  and  the  monument  of 
Potemkin  at  Cherson,  also  the  bas-relief  on  the  monu 
ment  of  the  grand  duchess  Helena  Paulovna.  Martos 
was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Saint  Peters 
burg.  Died  in  1835. 

See  NAGI.EK,  "  Neues  Allpemeines  Ktinstler-Lexikon." 

Mar'ty^i,  (HENRY,)  an  able  English  lawyer  and  ex 
cellent  scholar,  known  as  a  contributor  to  the  "Specta 
tor."  His  name  appears  in  No.  555  of  the  "Spectator" 
at  the  head  of  a  list  of  contributors  given  by  Steele,  who 
says,  "  He  can  hardly  be  mentioned  in  a  list  wherein  he 
would  not  deserve  the  precedence."  He  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  imports  and  exports,  to  reward  him 
for  the  service  he  rendered  the  government  by  the 
publication  of  "The  British  Merchant,  or  Commerce 
Preserved,"  (about  1713.)  Died  in  1721. 

Martyn,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  missionary 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1781.  He 
studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  classics, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  college  in  1802.  Having 
become  acquainted  with  the  Rev.  Charles  Simeon  about 
this  time,  and  experienced  deep  religious  convictions,  he 
embarked  in  1805  as  a  missionary  for  India.  He  made 
rapid  progress  in  acquiring  the  language  of  the  country, 
and  was  soon  able  to  translate  the  New  Testament  into 
Hindostanee,  and  subsequently  into  Persian.  He  also 
made  a  Persian  translation  of  the  Psalms.  His  health 
at  length  gave  way  under  his  devoted  labours,  and  he 


died  at  Tokat,  in  Asia  Minor,  while  on  his  way  to  Eng 
land,  in  1812. 

See  REV.  .J.  SARGENT,  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Mnrtyi." 
1821;  J.  W.  KAYE,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  iS67;  '•  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  Ju'y,  1^21. 

Martyn,  (|"OHN,)  an  English  physician  and  botanist, 
born  in  London  in  1699.  He  was  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1727,  and  in  1733  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Cambridge.  His  "  History  of  Rare  Plants,"  (in  Latin, 
1728,)  illustrated  by  Van  Hnysum,  was  the  best  work 
of  the  kind  then  published,  and  was  translated  into 
German.  Martyn  also  made  an  excellent  translation 
of  Virgil's  "Bucolics"  and  "  Georgics,"  and  was  a  con 
tributor  to  the  "Grub  Street  Journal."  The  genus 
Martynia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1768. 

See  GORHAM,  "Memoirs  of  John  and  Thomas  M.irtyn,"  1830; 
CUVIER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  " 

Martyn,  (THOMAS,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Chelsea  in  1735.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
of  botany  at  Cambridge  in  1761.  He  wrote  several  bo 
tanical  works  and  miscellaneous  treatises.  Died  in  1825. 

See  GORHAM,  "  Memoirs  of  John  and  Thomas  Martyn,"  18-50. 

Martyn,  (Wiu.iAM,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Exeter  in  1562,  was  the  author  of  the  "  History  and  Lives 
of  the  Kings  of  England  from  William  the  Conqueror 
to  the  End  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII."  Died  in  1617. 

Martyr.     See  JUSTIN  MARTYR. 

Martyr,  (PKTER.)     See  PETER  MARTYR. 

Martyr,  (PKTER.)     See  ANGHIERA. 

Marucelli,  ma-roo-chel'lee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Florence  in  1625, 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  learned  men.  Died  in  1713. 

Marucelli,  (GIOVANNI  STEFANO,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  at  Umbria  in  1586;  died  in  1646. 

Marullo,  ma-rool'lo,  (MiCHEi.E  Tarcagnota— laR- 
kan-yo'ta.)  [Lat.  MARUI/I.UST.\RCHANU/TKS,]  a  modern 
Greek  scholar  and  poet,  born  at  Constantinople.  lie 
was  the  author  of  numerous  Latin  hymns  and  epigrams 
of  great  elegance.  Died  in  1500. 

See  GiNCU'RNE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Literature  Italienne." 

Marullus.     See  MARUI.LO. 

Ma-rul'lus,  (MARCUS,)  a  Latin  satiric  poet  in  the  time 
of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  style  is  commended  by  Saint 
Jerome.  There  is  only  a  fragment  of  his  works  extant. 

Marut  [Hindoo  pron.  mur'oot]  or  Ma-rut,  ma'root, 
a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "wind,"  and  applied  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology  to  the  genii  (or  gods)  presiding  over 
the  winds'  In  'the  Vedas  the  Maruts  are  often  ad 
dressed  as  the  attendants  and  allies  of  Indra,  anil  are 
called  the  sons  of  Prisni,  (or  Pi^ni,)  or  the  Earth  ;  they 
are  also  called  Rudras,  or  the  sons  of  Rudra,  (rood'ra.) 

See  the  Introductions  to  the  several  volumes  of  PROFESSOR  WIL 
SON'S  translation  of  the  "Rig- Veda  ;"  Moon,  "  Hindu  Pantheon.'' 

Ma-ru'tha  01  Maroutha,  ma-roo'tha,  SAINT,  a  Syrian 
prelate,  became  Bishop  of  Martyropolis.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Council  of  Nice,"  and  other  works.  Died  about  420. 

Mar'vell,  (ANDREW,)  an  eminent  English  patriot  and 
satirical  writer,  born  at  Kingston-upon-Hull  in  1620. 
Having  travelled  through  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Hol 
land,  where  he  acquired  the  languages  of  those  countries, 
he  was,  after  his  return  to  England,  appointed  assistant 
to  Milton,  then  Latin  secretary  to  Cromwell,  (1657.)  He 
was  first  elected  to  Parliament  in  1660,  and  in  this  office 
gave  such  entire  satisfaction  to  his  constituents  that  he 
continued  to  represent  them  till  his  death.  Marvell's 
wit  and  distinguished  abilities  rendered  him  formidable 
to  the  corrupt  administration  of  Charles  II.,  and  attempts 
were  made  to  win  him  over  by  the  offer  of  a  large  sum 
of  money,  which  he  promptly  refused,  thus  proving  his 
integrity  to  be  equal  to  his  talents.  As  a  writer  he  is 
chiefly  known  by  his  "  Rehearsal  Transposed,"  written 
in  answer  to  Dr.  Parker,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Oxford,  a 
fanatical  defender  of  absolute  power.  Died  in  1678. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Andrew  Marvell,"  by  JOHN  DOVE  ;  HARTLEY 
COLERIDGE,  "Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns:"  CAMPBELL, 
"Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  DISRAELI,  "Quarrels  of  Au 
thors  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vols.  x.  and  xi..  (1824,  1825:) 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1844;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  January,  1833. 

Marville,  de,  (VIGNEUI,.)     See  ARGONNE,  D'. 
Marwan.     See  MERWA"N. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


'539 


MART 


Marx,  mai<ks,  (Anor.pH  BERNHARD,)  a  German  com- 
poser  and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Halle  in  1799,  became 
professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1830. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Theory  of  Musical  Compo 
sition,"  (1837,)  and  "  General  Theory  of  Music,"  ("  Allge- 
meine  Musiklehre,"  1839.) 

Ma'ry,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  was  born 
in  1497.  She  became  in  1514  the  third  wife  of  Louis 
XII.  of  France,  who  died  in  the  following  year.  A  few 
months  after  .she  was  married  to  Charles  Brandon,  Duke 
of  Suffolk.  She  left  one  daughter,  named  Frances,  who 
was  the  mother  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  Died  in  1534. 

Mary,  commonly  called  BLOODY  QUEEN  MARY,  on 
account  of  her  cruel  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
daughter  of  Henry  VI IF.  by  his  first  wife,  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  was  born  at  Greenwich  in  1516.  During  her 
childhood  several  negotiations  were  entered  into  for  her 
marriage,  none  of  which,  however,  were  carried  into 
effect.  After  the  divorce  of  Catherine,  the  title  of 
Princess  of  Wales  was  transferred  from  Mary  to  the 
princess  Elizabeth.  In  15^6,  on  the  execution  of  Queen 
Anne,  Mary  was  induced  to  acknowledge  Henry's  eccle 
siastical  supremacy  and  the  nullity  of  his  marriage  with 
her  mother.  Having,  by  her  outward  compliance  with 
her  father's  whims,  in  some  degree  gained  his  favour, 
the  inheritance  was  secured  to  her,  after  her  brother 
Edward  and  his  heirs,  in  the  act  of  succession  of  1544. 
When  Edward  succeeded  to  the  throne,  Mary  resisted  all 
his  entreaties,  and  those  of  his  ministers,  to  change  her 
religious  views,  upon  which,  by  the  advice  of  Northum 
berland,  he  made  over  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
(See  GKKY,  Lady  JANE.)  Mary's  first  act  when  estab 
lished  on  the  throne  was  to  restore  to  their  sees  Bonner, 
Gardiner,  and  other  bishops  who  had  been  deposed  during 
the  late  reign  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  Cranmer  and  Lati- 
mer  were  committed  to  the  Tower.  These  measures  gave 
rise  to  an  insurrection  of  the  Protestants,  headed  by  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt,  in  15^4,  which,  being  soon  quelled,  was 
followed  by  the  execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  her  hus 
band  and  father,  and  of  Wyatt  himself.  In  July,  1554, 
Mary  was  married  to  the  son  of  Charles  V.,  afterwards 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  In  the  November  following,  Par 
liament  passed  acts  restoring  the  authority  of  the  pope 
and  reviving  the  former  statutes  against  heresy.  From 
this  time  began  a  fierce  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  two  hundred  and  eighty  victims 
died  at  the  stake  between  the  years  1555  and  1558. 
Among  the  most  eminent  of  these  martyrs  were  Bishops 
Latimer  of  Worcester  and  Ridley  of  London,  and  Cran 
mer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  1557  Mary  was 
induced  to  assist  Philip  in  his  war  against  France,  and 
the  united  forces  of  England  and  Spain  obtained  a  victory 
over  the  French  at  Saint-Quentin.  But  the  following 
year  Calais  was  taken  by  the  Duke  of  Guise.  This 
was  a  severe  blow  to  Mary,  and  probably  hastened  her 
death,  which  took  place  in  November,  1558.  She  was 
succeeded  by  her  half-sister  Elizabeth. 

Without  defending  the  cruelties  with  which  Mary's 
reign  has  been  reproached,  the  candid  historian  will  find 
many  palliations  for  her  conduct  in  the  spirit  of  that  age, 
which  favoured  persecution,  in  the  injustice  with  which 
she  had  been  treated  by  her  father,  and  in  the  state  of 
her  health  during  that  part  of  her  reign  when  the  per 
secutions  were  at  their  height,  which  made  it  impossible 
for  her  to  know  the  true  state  of  affairs.  Fronde,  who 
will  hardly  be  suspected  of  any  bias  in  her  favour,  says, 
"To  the  time  of  her  accession  she  had  lived  a  blameless 
and,  in  many  respects,  a  noble  life;  and  few  men  or 
women  have  lived  less  capable  of  doing  knowingly  a 
wrong  thing."  He  adds  that  her  trials  and  disappoint 
ments,  "it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  affected  her  sanity." 
And  he  ends  with  laying  the  chief  blame  of  the  persecu 
tions  of  her  reign  first  on  Gardiner,  and  secondly,  and 
more  especially,  on  Cardinal  Pole. 

See  FROUDE,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxviii.,  and 
the  whole  of  vol.  vi.  ;  STHICKI.AND,  "Queens  of  England;"  also, 
HUME'S  and  LINGARD'S  "  History  of  England." 

Mary,  [Gr.  Maf«'a  ;  Lat.  MART/A  ;  Fr.  MARIE,  mi're'; 
It.  MARIA,  ma-ree'a,]  SAINT,  a  Hebrew  woman,  cele 
brated  as  the  mother  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  styled 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 


(Beata  Virgo  Maria,)  also  the  Mother  of  God  and  Queen 
of  Heaven. 

See  Matthew  i.  :  Luke  i.  ;  John  i.  and  xix.  25  ;  DUVERGIER  DE 
HAURANNE,  ''Vie  de  la  sainte  Vierge,"  1664;  F.  W.  GENTHE.  "  Die 
Jungfrau  Maria,"  etc.,  1852;  CARLO  MASSINI,  "Vitadella  samissinia 
Vergine  Maria,"  1830;  OKSINI,  "  La  Vierge :  Histoire  de  la  Mere 
de  Dieu,"  etc.,  1837. 

Mary  of  Burgundy,  [  Fr.  MARIE  DE  BOURGOGNE, 
mS're'  deh  booR'gon',]  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold 
and  Isabella  de  Bourbon,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1457. 
On  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1477,  she  became  heiress 
of  Burgundy,  and  was  married  the  same  year  to  the 
archduke  Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
She  died  in  1482,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  her  horse. 
She  left  two  children,  Philip,  the  father  of  Charles  V., 
and  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Savoy. 


Mary  of  Guise,  (gweez,)  [Fr.  MARIE  DK  GUISE, 
mi're'  deh  gii-ez',]  or  Mary  of  Lorraine,  [Fr.  MARIE 
DE  LORRAINE,  ma"/re/  deh  lo'rin',]  a  daughter  of  Claude, 
Duke  of  Guise,  born  in  1515,  was  married  in  1534  to 
Louis  d'Orleans,  Duke  of  Longueville,  who  died  the 
following  year.  In  1538  she  was  married  to  James  V. 
of  Scotland,  and  after  his  death  became,  for  a  short  time, 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  is  described  by  the  histo 
rian  De  Thou  as  naturally  inclined  to  justice  and  tolera 
tion,  but  she  was  influenced  by  the  court  of  France  and 
her  brothers,  the  Duke  and  Cardinal  of  Guise.  She 
died  in  1560,  leaving  a  daughter  Mary,  afterwards  the 
celebrated  Queen  of  Scots. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xxxvii.  and 
xxxviii.  :  DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sni  Temporis;"  ROBERTSON,  "His 
tory  of  Scot'and  ;"  FROUDE,  "  History  of  England." 

Mary  Magdalene.     See  MAGDALENE. 

Mary  de'  Medici.     See  MARIE  DE  MEDICIS. 

Mary  Stu'art,  Queen  of  Scots,  born  at  Linlithgow 
about  the  7th  of  December,  1542,  was  the  only  surviving 
child  of  James  V.  and  Mary  of  Guise,  (or  Lorraine,)  who 
was  a  daughter  of  the  French  Duke  of  Guise.  James 
V.  died  a  few  days  after  the  birth  of  Mary,  who  was 
crowned  in  September,  1543,  by  Cardinal  Beatoun.  This 
ambitious  and  unscrupulous  prelate,  who  was  the  head 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  usurped  the  office  of  re 
gent.  A  treaty  having  been  negotiated  for  the  marriage 
of  Mary  with  the  Dauphin  of  France,  she  was  sent  to 
France  in  the  summer  of  1548  to  complete  her  education. 
Before  the  year  just  mentioned,  Scotland  had  been  in 
volved  in  a  war  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who 
wished  to  obtain  the  hand  of  Mary  for  his  son  and  thus 
unite  the  two  countries  under  one  crown. 

Educated  at  the  polite  and  voluptuous  court  of  Paris, 
Mary  excelled  in  various  accomplishments,  and  at  an 
early  age  became  mistress  of  the  Latin,  French,  and  Ital 
ian  languages.  About  the  age  of  fourteen  she  composed 
and  pronounced  before  Henry  II.  a  Latin  oration,  in 
which  she  maintained  that  it  is  becoming  for  women  to 
learn  literature  and  liberal  arts.  Her  rare  and  radiant 
personal  beauty,  her  intellectual  graces,  and  her  fasci 
nating  manners  rendered  her  a  general  favourite  and  the 
chief  ornament  of  the  French  court.  "Graceful  alike  in 
person  and  intellect,"  says  Froude,  "she  possessed  that 
peculiar  beauty  in  which  the  form  is  lost  in  the  expres 
sion,  and  which  every  painter,  therefore,  has  represented 
differently.  Rarely,  perhaps,  has  any  woman  combined 
so  many  noticeable  qualities  as  Mary  Stuart :  with  a 
feminine  insight  into  men  and  things  and  human  life, 
she  had  cultivated  herself  to  that  high  perfection  in 
which  accomplishments  were  no  longer  adventitious 
ornaments,  but  were  wrought  into  her  organic  constitu 
tion.  .  .  .  She  had  vigour,  energy,  tenacity  of  purpose, 
with  perfect  and  never-failing  self-possession,  and,  as  the 
one  indispensable  foundation  for  the  effective  use  of  all 
other  qualities,  she  had  indomitable  courage."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  vii.  chap,  iv.) 

In  April,  1558.  she  was  married  to  the  dauphin,  who 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Henry  II.,  ascended  the 
throne  of  France,  as  Francis  II.,  in  1559.  On  the  death 
of  the  English  queen  Mary,  Francis  and  Mary  assumed 
the  titles  of  King  and  Queen  of  England,  refusing  to 
recognize  the  right  of  Elizabeth  to  the  throne.  The 
brilliant  prospects  of  Mary  were  suddenly  clouded  by 


€  as/e:  c  as  s:  g  h  ira;  g  as//  G,  H,  v;  ,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MART 


1540 


MART 


the  death  of  Francis,  who  died,  without  issue,  in  De 
cember^  1560.  One  great  obstacle  to  her  prosperity 
was  her  zealous  attachment  to  the  Roman  Catholic  re 
ligion,  which  was  rejected  or  abhorred  by  a  majority  of 
her  subjects.  The  Scottish  Estates  sent  Lord  James 
Stuart,  Mary's  half-brother,  to  invite  her  to  Scotland 
and  to  offer  her  the  free  exercise  of  her  religion.  Having 
resolved  to  return  to  her  native  land,  she  requested 
permission  to  pass  through  England  on  her  way  thither ; 
but  Elizabeth  would  not  grant  this  favour  to  a  rival 
claimant  of  her  crown.  Mary  was  thus  reduced  to  the 
alternative  of  a  voyage  by  sea,  with  the  risk  of  being 
captured  by  the  English  fleet.  She  embarked  in  August, 
1561,  and  parted  with  regret  from  la  belle  France,  at 
which,  with  eyes  bathed  in  tears,  she  continued  to  gaze 
until  it  was  hidden  by  the  darkness.  After  a  passage  of 
four  days,  she  arrived  safely  at  Leith,  and  chose  for  her 
chief  advisers  Lord  James  Stuart  and  William  Maitland, 
of  Lethington,  both  Protestants.  She  made  friends  even 
among  the  Protestants,  but  failed  to  propitiate  John 
Knox,  with  whom  she  had  an  interview.  According  to 
Randolph,  he  made  her  weep  on  this  occasion. 

Soon  after  her  arrival  in  Scotland,  Mary  sent  Secretary 
Maitland  to  London  as  ambassador.  Me  made  overtures 
of  peace  and  friendship,  requiring,  however,  as  an  indis 
pensable  condition,  that  Elizabeth  and  the  English  Par 
liament  should  recognize  Mary  as  her  successor  in  case 
the  former  should  die  without  issue.  On  this  condition 
Mary  promised  she  would  not  claim  the  English  crown 
during  the  life  of  Elizabeth.  "  Elizabeth,"  says  Fronde, 
"refused  positively  to  name  Mary  Stuart  her  successor, 
knowing  that  she  would  be  signing  her  own  death- 
warrant."  These  words  suggest  the  probable  assassina 
tion  of  P.lizabeth  by  the  partisans  of  her  rival.  Mary 
attempted  to  open  the  chapel  royal  for  public  Catholic 
service,  but  the  Protestant  mob  drove  away  the  priest 
with  a  broken  head,  and  the  queen  made  concession  to 
the  popular  will  by  ordering  that  the  service  should  be 
performed  privately.  In  1562  Mary  wrote  a  letter  to 
Elizabeth,  and  expressed  a  great  desire  to  have  an  inter 
view  with  her.  Several  courteously-worded  letters  were 
exchanged  by  them,  and  their  correspondence  grew  more 
and  more  cordial  ;  but  a  serious  difference  arose  on  the 
choice  of  a  husband  for  Mary.  Elizabeth  objected  to 
her  proposed  marriage  with  Don  Carlos  of  Spain,  and 
suggested  Lord  Robert  Dudley,  her  own  favourite  ;  but 
Mary  preferred  her  cousin  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darnley, 
(a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox,)  whom  she  married  on 
the  2gth  of  July,  1565.  By  this  act  she  provoked  the 
violent  hostility  of  the  English  queen,  and  estranged 
from  her  support  her  half-brother,  James  Stuart,  Earl 
of  Murray,  the  ablest  Scottish  statesman  of  his  time. 
"Her  gentle  administration,"  says  Robertson,  "had 
secured  the  hearts  of  her  subjects,  who  were  impatient 
for  her  marriage  and  wished  the  crown  to  descend 
in  a  right  line  from  their  ancient  monarchs.  She 
herself  was  the  most  amiable  woman  of  her  age.  .  .  . 
No  event  in  that  age  excited  stronger  political  fears  and 
jealousies,  none  interested  more  deeply  the  passions 
of  several  princes,  than  the  marriage  of  the  Scottish 
queen."  ("  History  of  Scotland.")  Mary  made  an  un 
wise  choice  at  last ;  for  the  character  of  Darnley  was  at 
once  weak,  capricious,  and  obstinate.  She  gave  him 
the  title  of  king,  by  a  stretch  of  her  prerogative  which, 
according  to  Robertson,  was  a  strong  proof  of  the  vio 
lence  of  her  love  or  the  weakness  of  her  counsels.  In 
stigated  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  Scottish  malcontents, 
including  the  Earl  of  Murray,  took  arms  against  Mary 
in  August,  1565  ;  but  this  revolt  was  quickly  suppressed 
by  the  queen,  who  rode  on  horseback  at  the  head  of  her 
army,  and  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents  took  refuge  in 
England.  Elizabeth  disclaimed  all  responsibility  for  their 
conduct,  and  expressed  her  abhorrence  of  their  treason. 

In  1566  Mary  Stuart  joined  the  King  of  France,  the 
pope,  and  others,  in  a  Catholic  league  for  the  extirpation 
of  heresy,  and  began  to  attempt  the  restoration  of  popery 
in  Scotland.  "To  this  fatal  resolution,"  says  Robertson, 
"  may  be  imputed  all  the  subsequent  calamities  of  Mary's 
life."  She  took  into  her  confidence  and  favour  David 
Rizzio,  (or  Ritzio,)  an  Italian  musician,  who  became  her 
French  secretary  and  inseparable  companion,  even  in 


the  council-room.  "  He  had  the  control,"  says  Fronde, 
"of  all  the  business  of  the  state."  Mary  soon  repented 
of  her  union  with  the  insolent  and  dissolute  Lord  Darn- 
ley,  who  treated  her  with  rudeness  and  neglect  and 
became  jealous  of  Rizzio,  whom  he  resolved  to  remove 
by  violence.  Rizzio  was  dragged  from  the  queen's  pres 
ence  by  the  accomplices  of  Darnley,  and  killed,  in  March, 
1566.  This  act  was  the  result  of  a  plot  in  which  the 
Earl  of  Morton,  Ruthven,  Maitland,  and  other  Protestants 
united  for  political  reasons.  Deserted  and  betrayed  by 
Darnley,  they  failed  to  recover  power,  and  fled  to  Eng 
land.  Although  Mary  deeply  resented  the  conduct  of  her 
husband,  she  plied  him  with  caresses  and  gained  him  over 
to  her  interest.  About  this  time  a  new  favourite  acquired 
an  ascendant  over  her  heart  and  began  to  influence  her 
counsels.  This  was  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
a  man  of  some  ability,  but  unscrupulous  and  reckless  t<> 
the  last  degree.  In  June,  1566,  occurred  an  event  which 
apparently  tended  to  confirm  the  power  and  promote 
the  interest  of  Queen  Mary, — the  birth  of  her  son  James. 
In  January,  1567,  Darnley  was  attacked  with  a  severe 
illness  at  Glasgow,  where  Mary  visited  him,  and,  having 
employed  her  artifices  to  gain  his  confidence,  persuaded 
him  to  be  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  Edinburgh.  He 
was  lodged  in  a  detached  house  at  Kirk-a-Field,  very 
near  the  capital.  Mary  attended  her  husband  assidu 
ously,  and  slept  two  nights  in  the  house  at  Kirk-a-Field, 
which  she  left  on  the  gth  of  February  at  u  P.M.  About 
three  hours  later  the  house  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
and  Darnley  was  found  dead  in  the  garden.  Suspicion 
fell  on  Bothwell  as  the  chief  perpetrator  of  this  crime, 
and  on  Mary  as  an  accessary.  She  outraged  public  sen 
timent  so  far  that  she  not  only  screened  Bothwell  from  a 
fair  trial,  but  married  him  in  May,  1567.  Robertson  and 
Froude  agree  in  the  opinion  that  Mary  was  responsible 
for  the  death  of  Darnley. 

Impelled  bya  justand  burning  indignation,  the  Scottish 
lords  and  people,  both  Protestant  and  Catholic,  rose  in 
arms  against  Mary  and  Bothwell,  who,  in  June,  1567, 
met  them  at  Carberry  Hill  with  a  small  army.  The 
troops  of  the  queen,  however,  refused  to  fight,  and  she 
was  compelled  to  surrender  herself  to  her  adversaries, 
who  confined  her  on  a  little  island  in  Loch  Lcven.  Queen 
Elizabeth  now  interposed  in  favour  of  Mary,  thinking 
the  treatment  she  received  a  dangerous  example,  and  de 
manded  her  release, — without  effect.  The  captive  queen 
abdicated  in  favour  of  her  son,  and  the  Earl  of  Murray 
became  regent,  (July,  1567.)  Letters  which  Mary  had 
written  to  Bothwell  were  produced  in  the  Scottish  Par 
liament,  by  which  she  was  declared  to  be  accessory  to 
the  murder  of  the  king.  By  the  aid  of  George  Douglas, 
a  youth  of  eighteen,  she  escaped  from  prison  in  May, 
1568,  and  was  quickly  joined  by  an  army  of  six  thousand 
men,  which  Regent  Murray  routed  at  Langside  on  the 
I3th  of  May.  Mary  fled  to  England,  and  rashly  threw 
herself  on  the  generosity  of  her  rival,  who  refused  to 
admit  her  into  her  presence  because  she  was  not  yet 
cleared  from  the  charge  of  murder.  Treated  as  a  pris 
oner,  Mary  was  confined  at  Bolton  Castle,  Coventry,  and 
Fotheringay.  She  had  many  adherents  in  England,  who 
made  several  attempts  against  the  power  and  life  of 
Elizabeth.  In  1586  she  was  accused  of  complicity  in 
Babington's  conspiracy,  for  which  she  was  tried  by  a 
commission,  and  condemned  without  proof.  She  was  be 
headed  at  Fotheringay  Castle  on  the  8th  of  February,  1 587. 

"All  contemporary  authors,"  says  Robertson,  "agree 
in  ascribing  to  Mary  the  utmost  beauty  of  countenance 
and  elegance  of  shape  of  which  the  human  form  is  ca 
pable.  Her  hair  was  black,  her  eyes  were  a  dark  gray, 
her  complexion  was  exquisitely  fine,  and  her  hands  and 
arms  remarkably  delicate  both  as  to  shape  and  colour. 
Her  stature  was  of  a  height  that  rose  to  the  majestic." 

See  BURTON,  "History  of  Scotland;"  FROUDE,  "History  of 
England  ;"  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  TYTLER,  "  His 
tory  of  Scotland;"  HUME,  "History  of  England;"  SAMUEL  JEHU, 
"  Life  of  Mary  Stuart,"  1725  ;  CHALMERS,  •'  Life  of  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots,"  1818;  Miss  BENGER,  "Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots," 
1823;  BELL,  "  Life  of  Mary  Stuart,"  1831;  BUCKINGHAM,  "Life  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,"  1X44;  DE  MARSY,  "  Vie  de  Marie  Stuart," 
3  vols.,  1743;  GENTZ,  "Marie  Stuart's  Leben,"  1799;  SCHUETZ, 
"Leben  Marie  Stuart's,"  1839;  MIGNET.  "  Histoirede  Marie  Stuart," 
2  vols.,  1854;  DARGAUD,  "Histoirede  Marie  Stuart,"  2  vols.,  1850; 
STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland,"  8  vols.,  1854; 
LABANOFF,  "RecueildesLettres  de  Marie  Stuart,"  7  vols.,  1844. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  f>,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MARZAR1 


1541 


MASERS 


Marzari  -  Fencati,  maRd-za'ree  pe"n-ka'tee,  (Giu- 
SKi'i'K,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  mineralogist,  born  at  Vicenza 
in  1777,  discovered  in  1810  the  mine  of  fossil  coal  at 
Borgo  di  Valsugna.  He  invented  an  instrument  for 
measuring  angles,  called  "  Tachigonimetro."  Died  in 
1836. 

Masaccio  Guidi  da  San  Giovanni,  ma-sat'cho 
goo-ee'dee  da  sail  jo-vdn'nee,  (TuMMASo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  born  near 
Florence  in  1401,  ranks  first  among  the  artists  of  the 
second  or  middle  age  of  modern  painting.  His  works 
were  studied  by  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.  His  figures  are  characterized  by  great  anima 
tion  and  fidelity  to  nature  and  graceful  arrangement  of 
the  draperies.  He  also  excelled  in  perspective,  which 
he  learned  under  Brunelleschi.  "  Masaccio,"  says  Fuseli, 
'•  was  a  genius,  and  the  head  of  an  epoch  in  the  art.  He 
may  be  considered  as  the  precursor  of  Raphael,  who 
imitated  his  principles  and  sometimes  transcribed  his 
figures."  Among  his  most  admired  works  are  the  frescos 
of  San  Fietro  del  Carmine  at  Florence,  and  the  picture 
of  "  Christ  Curing  the  Demoniacs."  Masaccio  died  in 
1443,  and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned. 
See  VA^ARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  MRS.  JAMESON,  "Me 
moirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Masaiiiello,  md-sd-ne-el'lo,  or  TOMMASO  Aniello, 
horn  at  Amalfi,  in  Italy,  in  1622,  was  the  son  of  a  fisher 
man,  and  in  1647  became  leader  of  a  revolt  against  the 
Duke  of  Arcos,  Spanish  Viceroy  of  Naples.  At  the  head 
of  50,000  insurgents,  he  compelled  the  duke  to  abolish 
a  tax  which  he  had  imposed,  and  also  to  give  up  the 
charter  of  exemption  granted  to  Naples  by  Charles  V. 
The  intoxication  produced  by  this  sudden  change  of 
fortune  seems  to  have  affected  the  reason  of  Masaniello, 
and,  having  by  his  conduct  alienated  his  friends,  he 
was  soon  after  assassinated  by  the  adherents  of  the 
viceroy. 

See  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  Masaniello."  by  FRANCIS 
Minox.  London.  1729;  A.  GIRAFFO,  "  Rivoluzioni  di  Napoli,"  1647  : 
MEISSNER,  "Masaniello:  historisches  Bruchstiick,"  1785;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Au 
gust,  1829. 

Mascagni,  mas-kan'yee,  (DONATO,)  an  Italian  monk 
and  painter,  called  FRA  ARSENIO,  born  at  Florence  in 
1570  ;  died  in  1636. 

Mascagni,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  anatomist,  born  near 
Sienna  in  1752.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  University  of  Sienna  in  1774.  He  wrote  an  admi 
rable  work  entitled  "  History  and  Iconography  of  the 
Lymphatic  Vessels  of  the  Human  Body,"  an  outline 
of  which  had  previously  obtained  the  prize  offered 
by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris.  In  1801  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy,  chemistry,  and  physi 
ology  at  the  hospital  of  Santa  ^Iaria  Xuova  at  Florence. 
Among  his  works  is  "Anatomia  universa."  Died  in 
1815. 

See  G.  SARCHIANM,  "  E'ogio  del  P.  Mascagni,''  1816;  TIPAT.DO, 
"Biogr,ifiadegli  Italian!  illustri;"  DESGENETTES,  article  in  the  "  Bio 
graphic  Medicale." 

Mascardi,  mas-kaR'dee,(AoosTiNo,)an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Sarzana  in  1591.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope 
Urlvin  VIII.  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  della 
Sapienza  at  Rome,  (1628.)  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "  Five  Treatises  on  the  Art  of  Writing  History." 
Died  in  1640. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  delia  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mascardi,  (GIUSKPPE,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and 
writer  on  jurisprudence,  born  at  Sarzana,  near  Genoa, 
was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1588. 

Mascaroii,  inits'ki'ro.N',  (JULES,)  an  eminent  French 
prelate  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Aix  in  1634.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  funeral  oration  on 
Anne  of  Austria,  (1666,)  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
preacher-in-ordinary  to  Louis  XIV.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Tulle  in  1671,  and  of  Agen  in  1679.  He  is 
said  to  have  converted  many  Calvinists  in  the  latter  dio 
cese  to  Catholicism.  He  died  in  1703,  leaving  all  his 
property  to  the  poor,  to  whom  his  virtues  had  greatly 
endeared  him.  A  volume  of  his  "  Funeral  Orations" 
was  published  in  1704.  That  on  Marshal  Turenne  is 
eulogized  by  La  Harpe  as  a  master-piece. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Masch,  mash,  (ANDREAS  GOTTLIEB,)  a  German 
writer  and  theologian,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in  1724. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Contributions 
towards  the  History  of  Remarkable  Books,"  (1769,)  and 
an  excellent  edition  of  Lelong's  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra." 
Died  in  1807. 

Mascheroni,  mas-ka-ro'nee,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  near  Bergamo  in  1750.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Pavia,  and  subsequently  of  geom 
etry  at  Bergamo.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislative  body  in  the 
Cisalpine  Republic.  He  published  "  Researches  on  the 
Equilibrium  of  Vaults,"  (1785,)  and  other  mathematical 
treatises  of  a  high  character,  also  a  curious  work  called 
"The  Geometry  of  the  Compass,"  (1797,)  and  a  number 
of  poems.  Died  in  Paris  in  1800. 

See  S^VIOLI,  "Memorie  alia  Vita  dell'Abate  L.  Mascheroni," 
1801  :  G.  M  \NGILI,  "  Eloaio  storicodi  L.  Mascheroni,"  iHoq;  MON- 
TUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Masclef,  mfs'kleT',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1662.  He  published  a  "Hebrew 
Grammar,"  ("  Grammatica  Hebraica,")  in  which  he  op 
poses  the  use  of  vowel-points.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  best  works  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1728. 

See  QUEKARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Mascov,  mas'kof,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1698.  He  lectured  at  Gottingen,  and 
published  several  works.  Died  in  1760. 

Mascov,  [Lat.  MASCO'VIUS,]  (JOHANN  JACOB,)  a 
German  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1689, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Leipsic  in  1719,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Public  Law," 
and  other  legal  works,  in  Latin.  He  also  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Germany  to  the  Commencement  of  the 
Franconian  Monarchy,"  (unfinished.)  Died  in  1761. 

See  "Memoria  J.  J.  Mascovii,"  Leipsic,  1761. 

Mascovius.     See  MASCOV. 

Mascrier,  Le,  leh  mts'kue-i.',  QKAN  BAPTISTE,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1697.  He  assisted 
in  the  translation  of  De  Thou's  "Universal  History," 
and  published  several  original  works.  Died  in  1760. 

Masdeu,  mas'de'-oo,  (JuAN  FRANCISCO,)  a  Span-ish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  was  born  at  Barcelona  in  1740.  He 
wrote  a  "Critical  History  of  Spain  and  of  Spanish  Cul 
ture  in  every  Department."  (20  vols.,  1783-1800,)  which 
has  a  high  reputation  for  learning  and  accuracy.  Died 
in  1817. 

Masen.     See  MASEMUS. 

Masenius,  ma-sa'ne-us,  or  Masen,  md'sen,  (TAMES,) 
a  Flemish  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Juliers  in  1606. 
He  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  college  of 
Cologne,  and  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"  Sarcotis,"  or  "  Sarcothea,"  which,  it  is  pretended  by 
Lander,  suggested  to  Milton  the  idea  of  "  Paradise 
Lost."  Died  in  1681. 

Maseres  or  Mazeres,  mt'zaiR',  (FRANCIS,)  BARON, 
a  distinguished  mathematician,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  London  in  1731.  He  was  for  a  time  attorney- 
general  for  Canada,  and  in  1773  was  appointed  cursitor- 
baron  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Dis 
sertation  on  the  Use  of  the  Negative  Sign  in  Algebra," 
and  other  similar  works,  and  reprinted  at  his  own  ex 
pense  a  collection  of  the  writings  of  Kepler  and  other 
mathematicians,  also  one  containing  the  optical  works 
of  Descartes,  Huyghens,  Gregory,  and  Halley.  The 
latter  was  completed  by  Mr.  Babbage.  He  was  recorder 
of  the  city  of  London  for  about  forty  years.  Died  in 
1824. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1824. 

Masers  de  Latude,  mi'zaiR'  deh  li'tiid',  (HENRI,) 
was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1725.  Having  given  offence 
to  Madame  de  Pompadour,  he  was  by  her  orders  im 
prisoned  in  the  Bastille.  After  remaining  captive  nearly 
three  years,  he  effected  his  escape,  (1756,)  with  the  assist 
ance  of  a  fellow-prisoner  and  by  means  of  the  mos; 
persevering  toil.  He  was  soon  arrested,  with  his  com 
panion,  D'Alegre,  and,  after  suffering  an  imprisonment 
of  thirty  years,  was  at  length  released,  by  the  efforts 
of  Madame  Legros,  who  interested  Cardinal  Rohan, 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


M4SIIJM 


1542 


MJSON 


Madame  Necker,  and  others,  in  his  behalf.  His  "Me 
moirs"  were  published  by  M.  Thierry.  Died  in  1805. 

See  THIERRY,  "  Le  Despotisme  devoid,  ou  Memoires  de  La- 
Uide,"  3  vols.,  1792. 

Mash'am,  (AIJIGAIL  HILL,)  born  in  London  about 
1670,  was  a  cousin  of  the  celebrated  Duchess  of  Marlbo- 
rough,  upon  whose  recommendation  she  became  waiting- 
maid  to  the  princess,  afterwards  Queen  Anne.  She 
continued  in  this  post  after  Anne  ascended  the  throne, 
and  by  her  arts  supplanted  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough 
in  the  royal  favour.  She  was  married  in  1707  to  Mr. 
Masham,  who  was  made  a  peer  in  1711.  It  appears 
that  her  influence  raised  Harley  and  the  Tories  to  power 
in  1710,  deprived  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  of  the  com 
mand  of  the  army,  (1712,)  and  made  important  changes 
in  the  politics  of  Europe.  In  allusion  to  her  intrigues, 
Macaulay  says,  "  The  great  party  which  had  long  swayed 
the  destinies  of  Europe  was  undermined  by  bedchamber- 
women."  Died  in  1 734. 

See  MACAUI.AY'S  Review  of  LORD  MAHON'S  "  History  of  the 
War  of  the  Succession." 

Masham,  (Lady  DAMARIS,)  the  daughter  of  Dr. 
Ralph  Cudworth,  born  at  Cambridge,  England,  in  1658, 
was  married  to  Sir  Francis  Masham,  of  Essex.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  piety  and  for  her  attainments  in 
history,  philosophy,  and  divinity.  She  was  a  friend  and 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Locke,  who  died  at  her  house, 
having  resided  there  for  some  time.  Lady  Masham 
wrote  several  religious  treatises.  Died  in  1708. 

See  LORD  KING,  "Life  of  Locke." 

Mas-I-nis'sa,  [Gr.  'Maaaaruaor/c,]  King  of  Numidia, 
the  son  of  Gula,  who  reigned  in  Massylia,  was  born  about 
250  B.C.  In  the  second  Punic  war  he  fought  at  first  for 
the  Carthaginians  in  Spain,  but,  having  been  generously 
treated  by  Scipio  Africanus,  he  became  a  zealous  and 
faithful  ally  of  the  Romans.  He  waged  war  with  Syphax, 
a  Numidian  prince,  and  was  defeated  by  him  twice.  The 
Romans  under  Scipio  came  to  his  assistance,  and  in  203 
the  allies  gained  a  decisive  victory.  Among  the  captives 
was  the  charming  Sophonisba,  a  Carthaginian  lady, 
whom  Masinissa  married.  Being  sternly  reproved  by 
Scipio  for  this  impolitic  act,  he  sent  her  a  cup  of  poison, 
which  she  drank,  it  is  said,  with  heroic  spirit.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  victory  of  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of 
Zama,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  kingdom  of  Numidia. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  wise  ruler  and  to  have  done 
much  to  civilize  his  subjects.  He  died  about  the  age  of 
ninety-seven,  leaving  the  kingdom,  under  the  guardian 
ship  of  Scipio  /Emilianus,  to  his  three  sons,  Micipsa, 
Gulussa,  and  Mastanabal. 

See  NIEHUHR,  "Lectures  on  Roman  History,"  vol.  i.  ;  Livv, 
"History  of  Rome,"  books  xxiv.-xxx.  ;  SALLUST,  "Jugurtha;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Masius.     See  MAES,  (ANDREAS.) 

Mas'ke-lyne,  (NsviL,)  an  English  astronomer  of 
great  merit,  born  in  London  in  1732.  He  was  sent  to 
Saint  Helena  in  1761  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus, 
in  which  enterprise  he  failed  because  the  sun  was  ob 
scured  by  clouds.  In  1765  he  succeeded  Mr.  Bliss  as 
astronomer  royal.  He  originated  the  "Nautical  Alma 
nack,"  (1767,)  and  superintended  its  publication  till  his 
death.  It  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  Europe,  and  was 
styled  by  Lalande  ''the  most  perfect  Ephemeris  that 
had  ever  been  made."  For  forty-seven  years  Maskelyne 
made  exact  observations  of  the  sky  at  Greenwich,  and 
was  the  first  to  give  a  standard  catalogue  of  stars,  (1790.) 
In  1772  he  visited  Scotland,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
density  of  the  earth  by  observing  the  effect  of  the  moun 
tain  Schehallien  upon  the  plumb-line.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  astronomical  treatises  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  also  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sci 
ences  in  Paris.  Died  in  1811. 

See  DKLAMBRE,  "Notice  svir  la  Vie  de  N.  Maskelyne,"  1813; 
REES,  "Cyclopaedia;"  DEI.AMBRE,  "  Histoire  de  1'Astronomie  an 
dix-ruiitieme  Siecle  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1786. 

Mas-Latrie,  de,  deh  ma'lt'tRe',  (JACQUES  MARIK 
JOSEPH  Louis,)  a  French  archaeologist  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Castelnaudary  in  1815.  He  published  a 
"  Historic  Chronology  of  the  Popes,  General  Councils," 
etc.,  (1837,)  "History  of  the  Isle  of  Cyprus  under  the 


Rule  of  the  Princes  of  the  House  of  Lusignan,"  (1852,) 
and  other  works. 

Maso.     See  FINIGUEKRA. 

Maso  da  San  Friano.     See  MANZUOLI. 

Ma'spn,  (AKMISTK.M)  THOMSON,)  a  son  of  Stevens 
T.  Mason,  (1760-1803,)  was  born  in  London  county, 
Virginia,  in  1787.  lie  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  Democrats  in  1815,  and  was  killed 
in  a  duel  by  J.  M.  McCarty  in  1819. 

Ma'son,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  astronomer,  who 
assisted  Dr.  Bradley  in  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Green 
wich.  He  published  an  improved  edition  of  Mayer's 
"Lunar  Tables,"  and,  in  company  with  Mr.  Dixon,  was 
sent  to  America  to  determine  the  limits  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  They  measured  a  degree  of  the  meridian, 
and  in  1768  Dr.  Maskelyne  published  an  account  of  their 
operations  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions''  for  that 
year.  Died  in  1787. 

Mason,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Durham  in  1566,  became  Archdeacon  of  Norwich.  He 
published  a  "Defence  of  the  Anglican  Church,"  ("  Vin- 
dicias  Ecclesiae  Anglicanae.")  Died  in  1621. 

Mason,  (FRANCIS,)  D.D.,  a  learned  Baptist  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  York,  England,  in  1709.  Having 
emigrated  to  America,  he  studied  theology  at  Newton, 
Massachusetts,  and  sailed  for  India  in  1830.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Memoir  of  Mrs.  Helen  M.  Mason,"  (1847,) 
"  Burmah,  its  People  and  Natural  Productions,''  (1852,) 
"  Life  of  Kotha-byn,  the  Karen  Apostle,"  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  the  Karen  language,  (1853,)  and  other 
works.  lie  was  also  editor  of  a  Karen  journal,  entitled 
"  The  Morning  Star." 

Mason,  (GEORIIE,)  COLON KL,  an  English  statesman 
and  soldier  under  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  Charles 
II.,  emigrated  to  America  about  1654,  and  settled  in 
Virginia-. 

Mason,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  statesman,  a  de 
scendant  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Stafford  county, 
now  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  in  1726.  He  wrote  the 
Declaration  of  Rights  and  the  Constitution  of  Virginia, 
(1776,)  after  which  he  served  in  the  legislature.  In  1777 
he  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was 
reputed  one  of  the  ablest  debaters  that  Virginia  ever 
produced.  He  was  a  member  of  the  national  convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  but 
he  refused  to  sign  that  Constitution,  and  vehemently 
opposed  its  adoption  in  the  Virginia  Assembly,  for  the 
alleged  reason  that  it  tended  to  monarchy.  He  was 
highly  eulogized  by  Jefferson.  Died  in  1792. 

Mason,  (GKOKGE,)  an  English  litterateur,  who  wrote 
a  "Life  of  Lord  Howe,"  an  "Answer  to  Thomas  Paine," 
and  an  "Essay  on  Designs  in  Gardening."  Died  in  1806. 

Mason,  (JAMES,)  a  distinguished  English  engraver, 
born  about  1710,  executed  a  number  of  landscapes  after 
Claude  Lorrain,  G.  Poussin,  Hobbema,  and  other  artists. 
Died  about  1780. 

Mason,  (JAMES  MURRAY,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  about  1798. 
He  became  a  member  of  Congress  in  1837,  and  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legisla 
ture  of  Virginia  in  1847.  He  continued  to  be  a  member 
of  the  Senate  for  fourteen  years,  and  was  the  author  of 
the  fugitive-slave  law  of  1850.  He  was  sent  with  J. 
Slidell  on  a  mission  to  England  by  Jefferson  Davis  in 
1861.  During  the  passage  in  the  steamer  Trent  they 
were  seized  by  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  Federal  navy,  in 
November,  1861.  They  were  claimed  by  the  British 
government,  and  were  liberated  in  January,  1862,  after 
which  Mr.  Mason  passed  several  years  in  England, 
remaining  abroad  during  the  civil  war. 

Mason,  (  JEREMIAH,)  an  American  statesman  and 
lawyer  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut, 
in  April,  1768,  graduated  at  Yale  College.  He  practised 
law  many  years  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  to 
which  he  removed  in  1797.  He  was  a  Federalist,  and 
a  friend  of  Daniel  Webster,  who  expressed  a  very  high 
opinion  of  him.  He  represented  New  Hampshire  in  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  from  1813  to  1817.  In  1832 
he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  died  in  October,  1848. 
He  was  considered  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen 
tury  to  be  the  foremost  lawyer  in  New  England. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MASON 


'543 


M4SS4SSOIT 


Mason,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  statesman,  born  at 
Abingdon  in  1500.  He  was  privy  councillor  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  Died 
in  1566. 

Mason,  (JoHN,)  a  native  of  England,  born  in  1600, 
emigrated  to  America,  where  he  became  Deputy  Gov 
ernor  of  Connecticut.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Pequot  War."  Died  in  1672. 

See  G.  E  ELLIS,  "  Life  of  John  Mason,"  in  SPARKS'S  "Amer 
ican  Biography,"  vol.  iii.,  2d  series. 

Mason,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine  and  religious  writer, 
born  in  Essex  in  1706,  was  the  author  of  a  popular  work, 
entitled  "Self-Knowledge,"  (1745,)  which  was  translated 
into  several  languages.  Died  in  1763. 

Mason,  (JOHN  MITCHELL,)  a  celebrated  American 
theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  New  York  in  1770. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1789,  and  subse 
quently  finished  his  theological  studies  in  Edinburgh. 
In  1793  he  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Cedar  Street,  New  York,  where 
he  attracted  great  numbers  by  his  eloquence.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  first  theological  seminary  in  the  United 
States,  of  which  he  was  appointed  professor.  He  be 
came  editor  of  the  "  Christian's  Magazine"  in  1807,  and 
was  elected  in  1811  provost  of  Columbia  College,  and 
in  1821  president  of  Dickinson  College,  Pennsylvania. 
Among  his  most  admired  writings  is  his  "  Oration  on 
the  Death  of  Alexander  Hamilton,"  who  was  his  intimate 
friend.  Dr.  Mason  died  in  1829.  His  works  (in  4  vols.) 
were  edited  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Mason. 

See  "Memoirs  of  J.  M.  Mason,"  by  J.  VAN  VECHTKN,  1856; 
DUYCKIXCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i  :  CLEVE 
LAND,  "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mason,  (JoHN  THOMSON,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  son  of  Thomson  Mason,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Stafford  county,  Virginia,  in  1764.  He  was  a 
personal  friend  of  Jefferson,  who  appointed  him  to  seve 
ral  high  offices.  Died  in  1824. 

Mason,  (JoHN  THOMSON,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  in  1815,  became 
collector  of  the  port  of  Baltimore  under  President 
Buchanan. 

Mason,  (JoHN  Y.,)  born  in  Sussex  county,  Virginia, 
about  1795,  was  secretary  of  the  navy  under  President 
Tyler,  and  attorney-general  and  secretary  of  the  navy 
(1846-49)  under  President  Polk.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  minister  to  France  by  President  Pierce.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1859. 

Mason,  (LOWELL,)  an  American  composer  and  teacher 
of  music,  born  at  Medfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music  from  the  New 
York  University  in  1855.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to 
the  "Musical  Review,"  and  has  published  numerous 
works  on  music,  both  original  and  compiled. 

Mason,  (RICHARD  B.,)  grandson  of  George  Mason, 
noticed  above,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war  of  1848,  and  became  civil  and  military  Governor  of 
California.  Died  in  1850. 

Mason,  (STEVENS  THOMSON,)  a  nephew  of  George 
Mason,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1760.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1794.  Died  in  1803. 

Mason,  (STEVENS  THOMSON,)  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Loudon  county,  Virginia,  in  1811. 
He  was  elected  in  1835  nrst  Governor  of  Michigan. 

Mason,  (THOMSON,)  younger  brother  of  George  Ma 
son,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1730.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  jurist  and  a  patriot,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  able  political  essays.  Died  in  1785. 

Mason,  i  WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Hull  in 
1725.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke  College  in 
1747,  and,  after  taking  orders,  became  chaplain  to  the 
king.  Mason  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  friend  and 
biographer  of  the  poet  Gray.  His  principal  works  are 
two  tragedies,  entitled  "  Elfrida"  and  "  Caractacus," 
several  odes,  and  "The  English  Garden,"  a  descriptive 
poem.  He  was  also  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  paint 
ing  and  music.  Died  in  1797. 

See  HARTLEY  COLERIDGE,  "  Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns;" 
CAMPBELL,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets  ;"  WARTON.  "  History 
of  English  Poetry  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1816  ; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1772,  June,  1783,  and  August,  1796. 


Masoodee  Alee-Abool-Hassan,  Mas'udi  Ali- 
Abul-Hassan,  or  Masoudy  Ali-Aboul-Hassan, 

ma-soo'dee  a'lee'  a'bool'  has'san,  often  called  Al-Ma- 
soodee,  (or  Al-Mas'udi,)  an  eminent  Arabian  historian, 
born  at  Bagdad  in  the  ninth  century.  His  profound  and 
various  attainments  in  almost  every  department  of  know 
ledge  have  obtained  for  him  the  admiration  of  Europeans 
as  well  as  of  his  own  countrymen.  He  travelled  over  a 
great  part  of  Asia,  and  as  far  west  as  Morocco  and  Spain. 
Among  his  most  important  works  are  his  "  History  of 
the  Times,"  and  his  "  Meadows  of  Gold  and  Mines  of 
Gems,"  the  latter  of  which  comprises  the  history,  poli 
tics,  religion,  and  geography  of  Eastern  and  European 
nations.  Masoodee  is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Cairo, 
in  956  A.D. 

See  EViKNNE  QUATREMERE,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  lesOuvrages 
de  Mas'oudy,"  1839;  REINAUD,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Masotti,  ma-sot'tee,  (DoMENico,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Faenza  in  1698,  was  appointed 
professor  of  physiology  and  surgery  at  Florence,  and 
afterwards  of  lithotomy.  In  1763  he  published  his  prin 
cipal  work,  entitled  "Lithotomy  for  Women  Perfected." 
Died  in  1779. 

Masoudi.     See  MASOODEE. 

Masque  de  Fer,  mSsk  deh  feR,  (L'Homme  au, 
lom  5,)  (the  "Man  with  the  Iron  Mask,")  an  unknown 
person,  who  in  1662  was  imprisoned  in  the  chateau  of 
Pignerol,  afterwards  conveyed  to  the  isle  of  Sainte-Mar- 
guerite,  and  in  169810  the  Bastille,  where  he  died  in  1703. 
Various  conjectures  have  been  formed  concerning  this 
mysterious  prisoner,  who  was  evidently  a  person  of  high 
rank  and  refined  tastes.  Some  writers  have  supposed 
him  to  have  been  a  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV. ;  others, 
that  he  was  the  Count  of  Vermandois,  the  Duke  of 
Beaufort,  or  Count  Mattioli. 

See  G.  J.  \V.  A.  ELLIS,  (LORD  DOVER.)  "History  of  the  State 
Prisoner  called  The  Iron  Mask,"  1826  ;  PAUL  LACROIX,  "  L'Homme 
au  Masque  de  FT,"  1837  ;  L.  LETOUKNEUR,  "  Histoire  de  I'Homme 
au  Masque  de  Fer,"  1849:  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  tor  June,  1826. 

Masquelier,  misk'leji',  (Louis  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  near  Lille  in  1741.  In  1802  he  obtained 
from  the  gallery  of  Florence  a  gold  medal  for  his  en 
gravings.  Died  in  i8ti. 

Massa,  mas'sa,  (NiCCOLO,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Venice  ;  died  about  1563. 

Massard,  nit'stR',  QKAN,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Belleme  in  1740.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Painting  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  and,  on  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  was  made,  in  1814,  engraver 
to  the  king.  His  most  admired  works  are  "  The  Family 
of  Charles  I.,"  after  Van  Dyck,  and  "  The  Death  of 
Socrates,"  after  David.  Died  in  1822. 

Massard,  (JEAN  BAPTISTK  RAPHAEL  URBAIN,)  a  skil 
ful  French  engraver,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1775.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael, 
Giulio  Romano,  and  David.  Died  in  1849. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Massaredo.     See  MAZARREDO  Y  SALAZAR. 

Massari,  mas-sa'ree,  (Lucio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1569,  was  a  pupil  of  Ludovico  Caracci. 
He  was  intimate  with  Albano,  and  took  part  in  some  of 
his  labours.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  "Mar 
riage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  and  a  "  Noli  me  Tangere." 
"  Some  of  his  works,"  says  E.  Breton,  "  are  so  graceful 
that  they  defy  the  severest  criticism."  Died  in  1633. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  BALDINUCCI,  "  No- 
tizie;"  MALVASIA,  "  Felsina  pittrice." 

Massaria,  mas-sa-ree'a,  (ALESSANDRO,)  a  learned 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1510.  He 
studied  under  Fracantianus  and  Fallopius,  and  in  1587 
succeeded  Mercuriale  as  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Padua.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Plague"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Bleeding,"  which  are 
highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1598. 

See  PORTAL,  "Histoire  de  1'Anatomie." 

Mas'sas-soit,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Womponoags, 
born  in  Massachusetts.  In  1621  he  formed  a  league  with 
the  colonists  at  Plymouth,  which  was  never  violated.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  warrior  King  Philip. 
Died  in  1661. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( JJF^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MASSE 


'544 


MAS  SINGER 


Masse,  mi'sa',  QEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  artist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1687,  engraved  the  pictures  which  Le- 
brun  had  executed  for  the  gallery  of  Versailles.  Masse 
became  painter  to  Louis  XV.  Died  in  1767. 

Masse,  (VICTOR,)  a  French  composer,  born  at  Lorient 
in  1822.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  a  comic 
opera  entitled  "  Galathee." 

Massena,  mS'si'nS',  [It.  MASSENA,  mas-sa'na,]  (AN 
DRE,)  Prince  of  Essling,  Duke  of  Rivoli,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  marshals  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Nice  in  1758.  He  enlisted 
in  1775  as  a  private  of  the  royal  Italian  regiment,  from 
which  he  retired  at  the  expiration  of  fourteen  years, 
having  attained  no  higher  rank  than  that  of  a  sergeant. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  again  en 
tered  the  army,  and  in  a  short  time  was  successively  pro 
moted  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  general  of  brigade,  and 
general  of  division.  In  1794  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Austrians  near  Tanaro,  took  Ormea,  and  rendered  effi 
cient  service  at  the  battle  of  Saorgio.  The  following  year, 
while  serving  under  General  Scherer,  he  drove  the  Aus 
trians  from  their  position  at  Vado  and  gained  over  them 
the  decisive  victory  of  Loano.  In  1796  he  acquired 
great  distinction  at  the  engagements  of  Montenotte,  Mil- 
lesimo,  Castiglione,  and  Arcola.  His  gallant  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Rivoli,  in  1797,  subsequently  procured  for 
him  the  title  of  Duke  of  Rivoli.  The  next  year  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  in  the  Papal 
States  ;  but  his  rapacity  and  avarice  excited  so  great 
hostility  both  in  his  soldiers  and  in  the  inhabitants  that 
he  was  soon  after  compelled  to  resign.  In  1799,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  Switzerland  and  the 
Danube,  he  exhibited  the  highest  order  of  military  talent, 
especially  at  Zurich,  where  he  gained  an  important  and 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Russians.  In  1804  he  was 
created  a  marshal  of  France.  The  next  year  he  was  sent 
to  Italy,  to  command  against  the  Archduke  Charles, 
whom  he  finally  succeeded  in  driving  back  into  Germany. 
In  1806  he  reduced  the  insurgent  Calabrians  to  subjec 
tion,  took  the  fortress  of  Gaeta,  and  enabled  Joseph 
Bonaparte  to  seat  himself  firmly  upon  the  Neapolitan 
throne.  He  reaped  further  laurels  in  1809,  at  the  battles 
of  Landshut  and  Eckmiihl  and  by  the  capture  of  the 
fortress  of  Ebersdorf.  The  same  year  he  was  created 
Prince  of  Essling,  for  his  distinguished  services  at  the 
battle  of  that  place.  Massena  was  appointed  in  1810 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Portugal,  where,  although 
he  exhibited  his  usual  courage  and  military  skill,  he  was 
ultimately  obliged  to  yield  to  the  superior  genius  of  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley.  He  has,  however,  received  the  highest 
commendation  from  English  as  well  as  French  historians 
for  the  strategic  skill  with  which  he  conducted  his  re 
treat  into  Spain.  In  1812  Marmont  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  The  year  following,  Mass;na  joined  the 
Bourbons.  He  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Napoleon 
when  he  returned  from  Elba,  but  took  no  part  in  the 
affairs  of  government  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
National  Guard  in  Paris,  and  also  received  several  marks 
of  distinction  from  Louis  XVIII.  He  died  in  Paris, 
April  4,  1817. 

See  GENERAL  KOCH,  "  M^moires  de  Masse'na,"  1849;  NAPIER, 
"  History  of  the  Peninsular  War  ;"  MAJOR-GENERAL  J.  MITCHELL, 
"  Biographies  of  Kminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries," 
1*65  :  PONS.  "  Notice  historique  sur  le  Marechal  Masse'na,"  1837  ; 
THIERS,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Massenbach,  von,  fon  mas'sen-baK.',  (CHRISTIAN,) 
a  Prussian  officer,  born  at  Schmalkalden  in  1768.  He 
published  several  historical  works.  Died  in  1827. 

Mas'sey,  (GKRALD,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Hert 
fordshire  in  1828.  The  child  of  indigent  parents,  he 
was  obliged  at  an  early  age  to  work  in  a  factory,  and  re 
ceived  no  other  instruction  than  that  of  a  penny  school. 
He  published  in  1847  "  Poems  and  Chansons,"  which 
were  followed  in  1853  by  "The  Ballad  of  Babe  Chris- 
tabel,  with  other  Lyrical  Poems." 

See  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  SAMUEL  SMILES. 

Massiac,  de,  deh  mt'se'fk',  (GABRIEL,)  a  French 
officer  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Narbonne  in  1657. 
He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Most  Important  Events  of 
the  War  from  1688  to  1698."  Died  in  1727. 


Massias,  mi'se'as',  (NICOLAS,)  BARON,  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1764.  Among  his 
philosophical  works  is  an  "Essay  on  Instinct,  Intelli 
gence,  and  Life,"  (4  vols.,  1822.)  Died  in  1848. 

Massie,  mas'se,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  American  soldier 
and  pioneer,  born  in  Goochland  county,  Virginia,  in  176^;, 
settled  in  Ohio,  where  he  became  one  of  the  largest  land 
owners  in  the  State.  He  founded  in  1796  the  town  of 
Chilicothe.  Died  in  1813. 

Massieu,  mt'se-yh',  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1665.  lie  was  appointed  in 
1710  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
translated  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  and  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  French  Poetry,"  brought  down  to  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.  Died  in  1722. 

See  GROS  DE  BOZE,  "fi^oge  de  Massieu;"  THERY,  "Notice  sur 
1'Abbe  Massieu." 

Massieu,  (JEAN  BAPTISTK,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Picardy,  became  constitutional  Bishop  of  L'Oise 
in  1791.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  in  the 
National  Convention.  Died  in  1818. 

Massillon,  ma'sel'yoN'  or  mt'se'yi.v',  (JK.,\\  BAI>- 
TISTK,)  a  French  pulpit  orator  of  great  celebrity,  born 
at  Hieres,  in  Provence,  in  1663.  lie  was  educated  in 
the  college  of  that  town,  and  became  a  priest  of  the 
Oratory.  After  professing  belles-lettres  and  theology  at 
Montbrison  and  Vienne,  and  pronouncing  some  funeral 
orations,  he  was  called  to  Paris  in  1696  to  direct  the 
Seminary  of  Saint-Magloire.  His  talent  was  gradually 
developed  by  the  ecclesiastic  conferences  which  he  com 
posed  at  this  period.  He  admired  the  austere  eloquence 
of  Bourdaloue,  but  chose  for  himself  a  different  style, 
characterized  by  profound  pathos  and  an  insight  into 
the  most  secret  motives  of  the  human  heart.  In  1699 
he  preached  at  Paris  the  Lent  sermon,  which  was  warmly 
applauded.  The  same  year  he  was  chosen  to  preach  the 
Advent  at  court,  on  which  occasion  Louis  XIV.  said  to 
him.  "  I  have  heard  many  great  orators  and  been  pleased 
with  them  ;  but  after  hearing  you  I  am  displeased  with 
myself."  The  death  of  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue,  in 
1704,  left  him  at  the  head  of  French  pulpit  orators.  In 
this  year  he  again  preached  before  Louis  XIV.,  whose 
funeral  oration  he  pronounced  in  1715.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Bishop  of  Clermont  in  1717,  and  preached  before 
the  young  king  the  Lent  sermon  called  "  Petil-Careme," 
which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  His  diction  is  noble, 
simple,  and  unaffected.  Voltaire  kept  a  volume  of  his 
sermons  constantly  on  his  desk,  as  a  model  of  eloquence. 
Massillon  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1719.  In  the  government  of  his  diocese  he  was  moderate, 
charitable,  and  conciliatory.  He  died  in  1742.  His  pub 
lished  works  consist  of  Sermons,  Ecclesiastical  Con 
ferences,  Paraphrases  of  certain  Psalms,  Letters,  etc. 
Voltaire  thought  him  "  the  preacher  who  best  understood 
the  world, — whose  eloquence  savoured  of  the  courtier, 
the  academician,  the  wit,  and  the  philosopher." 

See  LA  HARPE.  "  Cours  de  Litte'rature ;"  MAURY,  "Eloquence 
de  la  Chaire  ;"  F.  THEREMIN,  "  Demosthenes  und  Massillon,"  1*45  ; 
D'AI.EMBERT.  "  FJoge  de  Massillon;"  SAINTE-BEUVK,  "  Causeries 
du  Lundi  ;"  TAI.BKRT,  "  FJoge  de  Massillon,"  1773;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Massimiliano.     See  MAXIMILIAN. 

Massimo.     See  MAXIMUS. 

Mas'siii-ger,  (Pnn.ip,)  an  eminent  English  dramatic 
poet,  was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1584.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  entered  Saint  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford,  supported 
by  the  Earl  of  Pembroka.  Here,  according  to  Anthony 
Wood,  "he  spent  his  time  in  reading  poetry  and  ro 
mances  instead  of  logic  and  philosophy,  which  he  ought 
to  have  done,  as  he  was  patronized  to  that  end."  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  about  1606,  and  assisted 
Fletcher  in  the  composition  of  several  dramas.  The 
first  production  of  Massinger  was  the  "Virgin  Martyr," 
(1622.)  Eighteen  of  his  dramas  are  extant,  mostly 
tragedies  and  tragi-comeclies.  Among  the  most  admired 
are  "  The  City  Madam,"  "  The  Maid  of  Honour," 
"A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,"  and  "The  Fatal 
Dowry."  The  latter  has  given  to  Rowe  the  outline  of 
the  "  Fair  Penitent."  Massinger's  dramas  are  remark 
ably  free  from  profanity;  and  the  coarseness  which  dis 
figures  some  of  them  is  probably  to  be  attributed  to  his 
coadjutors.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  only  dramatist 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mfit;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MASS  MANN 


J545 


MATHAM 


of  that  time  who  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right 
of  kings.     Died  in  1640. 

See  DAVIES,  "Some  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  P. 
Malinger,"  17^9:  "Lives  of  the  British  Dramatists,"  by  CAMP 
BELL.  LEIGH  HUNT,  etc. 

Massmann,  mas'man,  (H.\NS  FERDINAND,)  a  Ger 
man  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1797.  He  published  an 
edition  of  the  "Explanation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
John"  in  Gothic. 

Massolino,  da,  da  mas-so-lee'no,  (PANICALE,  pa-ne- 
ka'ia,)  an   Italian  painter,  born    near   Florence  in  1378. 
His  master-pieces  are  the  pictures  in  the  chapel  of  San 
Pietro  al  Carmine,  representing  leading  incidents  in  the 
life  of  Saint  Peter.      He  numbered  among  his  pupils  the 
celebrated  Masaccio.     Died  in  1415. 
See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 
Masson.     See  LATOMUS. 

Masson,  mf'soN',  (A.vroiNE,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  near  Orleans  in  1636.  He  excelled  particularly  in 
representing  colour  and  the  different  textures  of  objects. 
His  print  of  the  "Disciples  at  Emmaus,"  after  Titian,  is 
esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces,  though  not  free  from 
a  fantastic  style  of  executing  the  hair,  peculiar  to  himself. 
Masson  was  also  a  painter,  and  his  engravings  from  his 
own  portraits,  as  well  as  from  those  of  other  artists, 
are  greatly  admired,  many  of  them  representing  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  that  time.  He  was  engraver- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king.  Died  in  1702. 

His  daughter,  MADELENE  MASSON,  born  in  1666,  was 
a  skilful  imitator  of  her  father's  style,  and  executed  the 
portraits  of  Maria  Theresa,  the  Duchess  d'Ale^on,  and 
several  others. 

See  DUMESNIL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Masson,  (.\UGUSTE  MICHEL  BENO! T  GAUDICHOT,)  a 
French  novelist  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Masson,  (BARTHOLOMEW.)     See  LATOMUS. 

Masson,  (CHARLES  FRANC.OIS  PHILIBERT,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1762.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  He  wrote  "Me 
moirs  of  Russia,"  (3  vols.,  1800-02,)  and  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Helvetians."  Died  in  1807. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mas'son,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1823,  became  a  contributor  to  "Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  and  the  "  North  British"  and  "  Quarterly 
Reviews,"  and  other  publications.  In  1859  he  became 
editor  of  "Macmillan's  Magazine,"  and  in  1865  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  pjigHsh  literature 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  His  principal  works 
are  ''The  Life  and  Times  of  Milton,"  (1859,)  "British 
Novelists  and  their  Styles,"  (1859,)  and  "Critical  and 
Biographical  Essays." 

Masson,  (FRANCIS,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  botanist, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1741.  About  1771  he  visited  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  he  made  a  valuable  collec 
tion  of  plants  for  the  Kew  Gardens.  After  having  spent 
some  time  in  Portugal  and  the  West  Indies,  he  was  sent 
to  Canada,  where  he  died  in  1805.  He  left  an  admirable 
work  entitled  "  Stapeliae  novas,"  in  folio,  with  41  coloured 
plates. 

See  REES,  "Cyclopaedia." 

Masson,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Nor 
mandy  in  1745.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  several 
groups  in  the  garden  of  the  Tileries,  the  bas-reliefs  of 
the  Pantheon,  the  sculptures  qri  the  tomb  of  Vauban, 
and  an  exquisite  rigure  of  Flora.'  Died  in  1807. 

See  REGNACLT,  "  Notice  historique  stir  Francois  Masson." 

Masson,  (JEAN,)  a  French  litterateur  and  Protestant 
divine,  born  about  1680,  wrote  the  Lives  of  Horace  and 
Ovid,  and  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1750. 

Masson,  (JEAN  Papire — pf'peR',)  [Lat.  PAPIR'IUS 
MASSO'NCS, |  a  French  writer,  born  at  Saint-Germain- 
Laval  in  1544.  He  became  an  advocate  of  Parliament  in 
1576.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Annals  of  France,"  (1577,) 
a  "  Description  of  the  Rivers  of  France,"  (1618,)  and  a 
collection  of  biographies  of  eminent  persons,  entitled 
"  Elogia."  Masson  was  a  friend  of  the  historian  De 
Thou,  who  has  written  his  Life.  Died  in  1611. 

See  DE  THOI',  "Vita  P.  Massoni ;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Masson  de  Pezay.     See  PEZAY. 


Massooa  or  Massoua,  mas'soo'a,  written  also  Ma- 
sua  and  Mesue,  a  celebrated  Arabian  savant,  who  was 
physician  to  the  caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Massuet,  mt'sii-i',  (PIERRE,)  a  learned  French  phy 
sician,  born  near  Sedan  in  1698,  studied  under  the 
celebrated  Boerhaave.  He  wrote  several  historical 
treatises.  Died  in  1776. 

Massuet,  (RENE,)  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Normandy  in  1666.  On  the  death  of  Mabillon  and 
Ruinart,  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Annals  of  the 
Benedictine  Order."  He  also  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  works  of  Saint  Irenaeus.  Died  in  1716. 

Mastelletta.     See  DONDUCCI. 

Mas'ters,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  in  1713,  published  a  "History  of  the  College  of 
Corpus  Christi,"  (1753,)  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Died  in  1798. 

Masters,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Glou 
cestershire  about  1600.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lord  Her 
bert  of  Cherbury,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  assisted  in 
some  of  his  writings.  He  wrote  a  Greek  poem  on  the 
"  Passion  of  Christ,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1643. 

See  WOOD,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Mastlin  or  Maestlin,  mgst-leen',  (MICHAEL,)  aGer- 
I  man  astronomer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  about  1550.  He 
I  passed  a  portion  of  his  early  life  in  Italy,  where  he  asso- 
:  ciated  with  Galileo.  Having  returned  home,  he  was 
j  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Tubingen,  where 
j  he  was  the  tutor  and  generous  friend  of  Kepler.  He 
accepted  the  Copernican  theory.  He  was  author  of 
"  Thesis  de  Eclipsibus,"  "  Epitome  Astronomiae,"  (1597,) 
and  other  works.  Hallam  designates  him  as  "the  illus 
trious  master  of  Kepler."  Died  in  1590  or  1631. 

See  KASTXER,  "  Geschichte  der  Mathematik  ;"  Vossius,  "De 
Scientiis  Mathematicis.", 

Mastropetro,  mas-tRo-pa'tRO,  (ORio,)  was  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1179.  He  abdicated  in  1191,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  cele 
brated  Dandolo. 

Masucci,    ma-soot'chee,    (AGOSTINO,)    an     Italian 
painter,   born   at   Rome  in    1691,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Maratta.    Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "  Holy  Family." 
!  Died  in  1758. 

Masuccio,  ma-soot'cho,  L,  an   Italian   architect  and 

,  sculptor,  born  at  Naples  in  1230.     He  built  the  church 

of  San  Domenico  Maggiore,  and  completed  that  of  Santa 

Maria  del  Ntiova,  begun  by  Giovanni  Pisano.  Died  in  1305. 

Masuccio  II.,  (TOMMASO  DE'  STEFAN i.)  a  pupil  of  the 

\  preceding,  was  born  in  1291.     Among  his  works  are  the 

castle  of  Saint  Enno,  and  the  church  of  San   Lorenzo 

|  at  Naples.     He  also  executed  sculptured  monuments  of 

i  great  merit.     Died  in  1338. 

See  CIC<X;NARA,  "  Storia  deila  Scultura." 
Masudi  or  Al-Masudi.     See  MASOODEE. 
Matall,  ma'ta-li,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  chariot 
eer  of  Indra. 

See  WILLIAMS'S  translation  of  "  Sakoontala,"  Act  vi. 
Mataiii,  ma-ta'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  a  learned  Italian  phy 
sician,  born  at  Pistoia  in  1730.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  published 
a  treatise  "On  the  Figure  of  the  Earth,"  and  several 
medical  works.  Died  in  1779. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 
Match'am,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
1755,    published   a    "Journey  from   Aleppo  to  Bagdad 
'  across  the  Arabian  Desert."     Died  in  1833. 

Matelief,  ma'teh-leef,(CoRNELis,)  a  Dutch  navigator, 
I  born   about  1570,  was  sent  in  1605  as  commander  of  a 
'  squadron  to  the  East  Indies,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing 
j  the  Portuguese  and  of  opening  relations  with  China  and 
Japan.     He  died  about  1628,  and  an  account  of  his  voy 
age  was  published  at  Amsterdam,  (1705.) 

See  MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xlix. 

Maternus.     See  FIRMICUS. 

Matham,  ma'tam,  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Goltzius. 
Died  in  1631. 

Matham,  (THEODORUS,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1589,  engraved  a  number  of  portraits,  and 
several  historical  pieces  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1677. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


MATHER 


1546 


MATILDA 


Math'er,  (COTTON,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  American 
theologian  and  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1663,  was  a  son 
of  Increase  Mather,  noticed  below.  He  was  ordained 
as  a  minister  in  1684,  and  preached  in  Boston.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "The  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,"  (1693,)  "  Magnalia  Christi  Americana,  or 
The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England,"  (1702,) 
"Essays  to  do  Good,"  (1710,)  "Psalterium  America- 
num,"  (1718,)  "The  Christian  Philosopher,"  (1721,)  and 
"  Illustrations  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,"  (in  manuscript.) 
His  character  exhibits  a  remarkable  compound  of  ardent 
piety,  (which,  however,  was  not  without  a  tincture  of 
self-conceit,)  uncommon  activity,  and  force  of  intellect 
joined  to  a  credulity  which,  even  in  that  age,  had 
scarcely  any  parallel  among  educated  men.  From  the 
first  he  was  eager  to  bring  to  trial  and  punishment  those 
supposed  to  be  guilty  of  witchcraft,  and,  when  others 
began  clearly  to  see  the  folly  and  injustice  of  these  cruel 
persecutions,  he  earnestly,  though  vainly,  strove  to  stem 
the  reaction  in  the  popular  mind. 

See  Dl'VCKiNCK.  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  .Literature,"  vo'.  i.  ; 
"  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1840;  HILDKETH,  "History  of 
the  United  States,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xx. 

Mather,  (!NCRKASF.,)  son  of  Richard  Mather,  a  non 
conformist  divine  who  removed  from  Lancashire  to  New 
England,  was  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1635. 
He  was  sent  about  1685  to  England  as  agent  of  the 
province  for  the  redress  of  grievances.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Remarkable  Provi 
dences."  Died  in  1723. 

Mather,  (MosK.s,)  D.D.,  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1719.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Systematic  View  of  Divinity,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1806. 

Mather,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  in  Lan 
cashire  in  1596,  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1635. 
He  preached  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  for  many 
years.  Died  in  1669. 

See  a  "  Life  of  R.  Mather,"  by  his  son  Increase. 

Matheson.     See  MATTHESON. 

Math'ew,  (Rev.  THKOHALD,)  the  celebrated  Apostle 
of  Temperance,  a  Catholic  priest,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1790.  He  was  appointed  after 
his  ordination  to  a  missionary  charge  at  Cork,  where  he 
established  a  charitable  association  on  the  model  of  that 
of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul.  About  1838  he  became  presi 
dent  of  a  temperance  society,  and  in  a  few  months  admin 
istered  the  pledge  to  150,000  persons  in  Cork  alone. 
He  afterwards  visited  different  parts  of  Ireland,  the  cities 
of  London,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool,  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  being  everywhere  received  with  en 
thusiasm.  For  these  eminent  services  in  the  cause  of 
religion  and  morality,  Queen  Victoria  bestowed  upon 
Father  Mathew  an  annuity  of  ^500.  Died  in  1856. 

See  "Father  Mathew,  a  Kiography,"  by  J.  F.  MAGUIRE;  P.  M. 
MOKKIS  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Theobald  Mathew,"  New  York, 
1841  :  I.  S.  HENSHAW,  "Life  of  Father  Mathew,"  New  York,  1849; 
"Biographical  Sketches,"  by  HARKIET  MARTINEAU,  1869 ;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1841. 

Math'ews,  (CHARLKS,)  a  celebrated  English  come 
dian,  born  in  London  in  1776.  Having  visited  the  United 
States  in  1822,  he  brought  out  on  his  return  his  enter 
tainment  entitled  "A  Trip  to  America,"  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  extraor 
dinary  talent  for  imitation,  in  the  exercise  of  which  he 
was  seldom  if  ever  ill-natured  or  offensive.  He  died  in 
1836,  leaving  "Memoirs"  of  his  life,  which  were  finished 
by  his  widow,  (4  vols.,  1839.) 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1836;  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  December,  1839;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu 
ary,  1839. 

Mathews,  (CHARLES  JAMES,)  an  English  comedian, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1803.  He  mar 
ried  Madame  Vestris  in  1838,  and,  after  her  death,  in 
1857,  another  actress,  Mrs.  Davenport.  He  produced 
several  dramas,  among  which  is  "My  Wife's  Mother," 
(1833.)  JD^cC^-fiv 

Math'ews,  (CORNELIUS,)  a  distinguished  American 
litterateur  and  journalist,  born  at  Port  Chester,  New 
York,  in  1817.  Having  previously  contributed  numerous 
articles  in  prose  and  verse  to  the  "American  Monthly 
Magazine,"  "  New  York  Review,"  and  "  Knickerbocker 


Magazine,"  he  published,  in  1839,  "  Behemoth,  a  Legend 
of  the  Mound-Builders."  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  "The  Politicians,"  a  comedy,  (1840,)  "Poems 
on  Man  in  the  Republic,"  (1843,)  "  Witchcraft,"  a  tragedy, 
(1846,)  "Money-penny,  or  the  Heart  of  the  World," 
(1850,)  and  a  comedy  entitled  "False  Pretences,"  (1856.) 
Mr.  Mathews  has  been  a  zealous  advocate  of  inter 
national  copyright. 

See  DUVCKINCK,  "Cvclopssdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
GRISWOI.D,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Mathews,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  jurist,  born  near 
Staunton,  Virginia,  in  1774,  removed  to  Louisiana,  where 
he  was  appointed  presiding  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 
Died  in  1836. 

Mathias,  ma-thl'as,  (THOMAS  JAMES,)  an  English  lit 
terateur^  born  about  1757, wrote  a  poem  entitled  "  Pursuits 
of  Literature,"  (1794,)  "  Runic  Odes,"  and  other  English 
works  ;  also  a  number  of  poems  in  Italian.  He  died  at 
Naples  in  1835.  He  translated  Milton's  "  Lycidas"  into 
Italian. 

Mathieu,  mf'te-uh',  (AooLPHE  CHARLES  GHISLAIN,) 
a  Belgian  poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Mons  in  1804,  pub 
lished  numerous  works. 

Mathieu,  ma"'te-uh',  (CLAUDE  Louis,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  at  Macon  in  1784. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1817. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Francis  Arago. 

Mathieu  de  la  Redorte,  mit'te-uh'  deh  la  reh-doiu', 
(DAVID  MAURICE  JOSEPH,)  CoMnCa  French  general, 
born  at  Saint- Affrique  in  1768.  lie  became  general 
of  division  in  1799,  and  peer  of  France  in  1819.  lie 
married  Mademoiselle  Clery,  a  sister  of  Joseph  Bona 
parte's  wife.  Died  in  1833. 

Mathieu  de  Dombasle,  mt'te-uh'  deh  do.Vbal', 
(CHKISTOPHE  JOSEPH  ALEXANDRE,)~a  French  agricul 
tural  writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1777  ;  died  in  1843. 

Mathieu-Mirampal,  mt'te-ul/  me'roN/pir,  (JEAN 
BAPTISTE  CHARLES,)  born  at  Compiegne,  in  France, 
in  1764,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention  in 
1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died  in  1833. 

Mathilde.     See  MATILDA. 

Mathon  de  la  Cour,  mt'toN'  deh  It  UOOR,  (CHARLES 
JOSEPH,)  a  French  litterateur,  son  of  Jacques,  noticed 
below,  born  at  Lyons  in  1738.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Danger  of  reading  Books  hostile  to  Religion," 
(1770,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Inscrip 
tions,  and  other  works.  He  was  guillotined  at  Lyons 
in  1793. 

Mathon  de  la  Cour,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1712.  He  published  several 
scientific  treatises.  Died  about  1770. 

Mathusalem.     See  METHUSELAH. 

Matignoii,  mt'ten'yoN',  (CHARLES  AUGUSTK  de 
Goyon — deh  gwa'yoN',)  Comte  de  Gace,  a  French 
marshal,  born  in  1647,  accompanied  James  II.  of  Eng 
land  in  his  Irish  campaign.  He  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  at  Fleurus,  Mons,  and  Namur,  and  was  created 
a  marshal  in  1708.  Died  in  1729. 

Matignon,  de,  deh  mS'tin'yoN',  (JACQUES  DE  GOYON,) 
COMTE,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Normandy  in  1525. 
He  served  in  the  wars  of  Henry  II.  and  Henry  III. 
against  the  Protestants.  He  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1579.  Died  in  1597. 

See  BKANTOME.  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  Francais;"  CAL- 
I.IERES,  "  Histoire  du  Mareschal  de  Matignon,"  1661. 

Ma-til'da,  Maud,  or  Maude,  [Fr.  MATHILDE,  inf 
ield',]  Empress  of  Germany  and  Queen  of  England,  born 
about  1 102,  was  a  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  She 
was  married  in  mo  to  Henry  V.  of  Germany,  who  died 
in  1125.  About  1127  she  became  the  wife  of  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet,  Count  of  Anjou,  and  was  recognized  by 
her  father  as  his  successor.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
(1135)  her  title  was  disputed  by  Stephen  of  Blois,  and  a 
long  civil  war  ensued  between  them.  Matilda  prevailed 
in  1141,  and  was  crowned  in  London.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Henry  II.  Died  in  1167. 

See  MATTHEW  PARIS,  "  Historia  major." 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Boniface  III.,  Marquis  of  Tus 
cany,  was  born  about  1046.  She  was  first  married  to  God 
frey  le  Bossu,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  He  died  in 
1076,  and,  her  mother  having  died  the  same  year,  Matilda 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


MATILDA 


>547 


MATTHESON 


came  into  possession  of  her  vast  estates,  including  the 
greater  part  of  Northern  Italy.  In  the  contest  for  su 
premacy  between  Pope  Gregory  VII.  and  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  she  espoused  with  great  zeal  the  cause  of 
the  former ;  and  it  was  at  her  castle  of  Canossa  that 
Henry  IV.  underwent  the  humiliating  penance  imposed 
by  the  pope.  In  1077  she  made  a  reversionary  grant 
of  all  her  dominions  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  She  was 
married  in  1089  to  Guelph,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1095.  Uied  in  1115. 

See  FKIKENTINI,  "  Meinorie  di  Matilda  la  Contessa  di  Toscana," 
1642;  AMEOKK  KKNEE,  "La  arande  Italienne,"  1859 ;  Mozzi  DE' 
CAPITANI.  "Sulia  Contessa  Matilda,"  etc.,  1845  ;  "  Nouvelle  I3io- 
£raphie  Generale." 

Matilda,  (CAROUNK.)     See  CAROLINE  MATILDA. 

Matius.     See  CAI.VKNA. 

Matius,  ma'she-us,  written  also  Mattius,  (CxKius,) 
a  Rinnan  poet  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  whose  friend 
ship  and  patronage  he  enjoyed.  Me  was  the  author  of 
epic  and  dramatic  poems,  and  mimiambi.  Of  the  last- 
named  there  are  fragments  extant,  which  are  greatly 
admired.  lie  also  translated  the  "Iliad"  into  Latin 
verse.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  as  CAL- 
vi:\  \,  (which  see.) 

Maton  de  la  Varenne,  mS'tox'  deh  It  vi'ren',  (P. 
A.  L.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  about  1760; 
died  in  1813. 

Matooan-  (or  Matouan-)  lin,  ma-too-an'  lin,  a  very 
learned  Chinese  writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Kiang-si 
about  1250.  He  was  the  author  of  a  historical  work, 
entitled  "  Wen-hian-thoon-khao,"  which  displays  im 
mense  erudition  and  embraces  a  great  variety  of  sub 
jects.  Abel  Remusat  says  of  this  production,  "It  is  in 
it-elt  worth  a  library,  and,  if  Chinese  literature  contained 
no  other,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  learn  Chinese  in 
order  to  read  it." 

Matos,  de,  da  ma'tos,  (JoAO  XAVIER,)  a  Portuguese 
poet  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  sonnets,  odes,  etc.,  and  of  a  tragedy  entitled 
''  Viriacia." 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Matos  Fragoso,  ma't6s  fka-go'so,  (JUA.x,)  a  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Elvas,  in  Portugal,  about  1630,  was  the 
author  of  numerous  popular  comedies,  (in  Spanish.) 
Died  in  1692. 

Matsko,  motsh'ko,  (JoHX  MATTHIAS,)  a  Hungarian 
astronomer,  born  at  Presburg  in  1721  ;  died  in  1796. 

Mats'ya,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  muts'ya,]  a  Sanscrit 
word  signifying  a  "fish,"  and  forming  the  na/ne,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  of  the  first  avatar  of  Vishnu.  On 
that  occasion  the  preserving  deity  is  said  to  have  as 
sumed  the  form  of  a  great  fish  shining  like  gold,  and, 
according  to  one  account,  "extending  a  million  leagues," 
that  he  might  protect  the  ark  which  contained  Satyavrata 
and  the  seven  Rishis  with  their  wives,  all  the  rest  of  the 
human  race  having  been  destroyed  by  the  deluge. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Matsys,  mat-sis',  (CORXELIS,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish 
engraver,  born  about  1500;  died  in  1560. 

Matsys,  (J.-\x,)  a  relative  of  Quentin,  noticed  below. 
His  pictures  are  few  in  number,  but  of  great  merit,  and 
painted  in  the  style  of  Quentin  Matsys.  Died  about 
1560. 

Matsys,  mat-sis',  or  Metsys,  me"t-sls',  written  also 
Messis,  (QUENTIN,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1450.  He  was  originally  a  blacksmith, 
and  is  said  to  have  changed  his  vocation  in  order  to 
obtain  the  hand  of  a  lady  he  loved,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  an  artist.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  "The 
Misers,"  in  the  Gallery  at  Windsor,  and  the  "  Portrait 
of  a  Jeweller,"  in  the  imperial  collection  of  Vienna.  Died 
in  1529. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  E.  VAN 
EWEN.  "Notice  biographique  sur  Q.  Metsys,"  1846. 

Mat-ta-thl'as,  a  Jewish  priest,  appointed  to  officiate 
in  the  Temple,  was  the  founder  of  the  family  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  the  father  of  the  celebrated  warrior 
Judas  Maccabaeus.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Jews 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his 
zeal  in  the  defence  of  his  religion,  and,  with  a  band  of 


his  followers,  marched  against  the  idolaters  and  over 
threw  their  altars.  Died  in  166  B.C. 

Matte,  mtt,  (NICOLAS  AUGUSTIX,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1781.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
busts  of  Racine  and  Corneille.  Died  about  1840. 

Matteani,  mat-ta-a'nee,  (AXGEI.O,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Marostica  in  1535.  He  be 
came  professor  of  law  at  Padua  in  1589.  Died  in  1600. 

Mattel,  mat-ta'ee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Rome  in  1744.  In  1777  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Ferrara,  and  in  1797  he  was  sent  to  negotiate  with 
Bonaparte,  then  inarching  towards  Rome.  Died  in  1820. 

Mattel,  (LORETTO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Rieti  in 
1622.  He  was  the  author  of  "  II  Salmista  Toscano,"  a 
paraphrase,  in  verse,  of  the  Psalms.  Died  in  1705. 

Mattel,  (SAVERIO,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  in  Cala 
bria  in  1742.  He  became  in  1767  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Naples.  His  translation  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms  was  very  popular.  Died  in  1795. 

Mattel,  (STAXISLAO,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1750;  died  in  1825. 

Matteis,  mat-ta'ess,  or  Mattel,  mat-ta'ee,  (PAOLO,) 
an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Naples  in  1662. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  pictures  of  the  "  Sa 
viour  and  Saint  Gaetano,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  Paul 
at  Pistoia,  and  the  "  Meeting  of  Erminia  and  the  Shep 
herds,"  in  the  Museum  of  Vienna.  Died  in  1728. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Matte-Lafaveur,  mtt  li'ffvUR7,  (SEHASTIKN,)  a 
French  chemist,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Practice  of 
Chemistry."  Died  about  1684. 

Matteb  da  Siena,  mSt-ta'o  da  se-a'na,  or  Matteo 
di  Giovanni,  mat-ta'o  de  jo-van'nee,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1420.  He  adorned  the  cathedral  of 
that  city  with  his  works.  Died  in  1495. 

Matter,  nit'taiR',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  historian  and 
philosopher,  born  near  Saverne  in  1791.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Critical  History  of  Gnosticism," 
etc.,  (2  vols.,  1828,)  a  "General  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,"  (4  vols.,  1828-35,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Religion,"  (1857,)  all  in  French.  He  became  in  1845 
inspector-general  of  the  libraries  of  France. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Matteucci,  mat-too'chee,  [It.  pron.  mat-te'oot-chee,] 
(CARLO,)  an  Italian  writer,  distinguished  for  his  researches 
in  electro-physiology,  was  born  in  1811.  He  published, 
besides  other  valuable  works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Physico- 
Chemical  Phenomena  of  Living  Bodies,"  (1844,)  for  which 
he  received  the  prize  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
He  became  minister  of  public  instruction.  Died  at  Flor 
ence  in  1868.  (For  two  of  his  works,  see  "  Smithsonian 
Reports"  for  1865  and  1867.) 

Matteucci,  (PETROMO,)  an  Italian  astronomer.  In 
1786  he  gave  an  account  of  the  transit  of  Mercury.  Died 
in  1810. 

Matthaeus,  mat-ta'us,  (ANTOON,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1635  ;  died  in  1710. 

Matthai  or  Matthaei.  mat-ta'ee,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1744,  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg,  and  subse 
quently  of  classic  literature  at  Moscow.  He  published 
a  number  of  critical  treatises  and  editions  of  various 
Greek  classics.  Died  in  1811. 

Matthai  or  Matthaei,(  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Meissen  in  1777.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Casanova,  and  subsequently  of  Fiiger, 
at  Vienna,  and  was  appointed  in  1809  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Painting  at  Dresden.  Died  in  1832.  His 
brother,  ERNST  GOTTLIEK,  born  in  1779,  was  a  sculptor 
of  great  merit,  and  was  appointed  honorary  professor  in 
the  university  at  Rome.  Died  in  1842. 

Matthesius,  mat-ta'ze-us,  (JoHAXX,)  a  German  Prot 
estant  minister,  born  at  Rochlitz  in  1504.  He  became 
first  preacher  at  Joachimsthal  about  1543.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Luther's  Doctrine,  Life,  and  Death,"  (in 
German,  1565.)  Died  in  1568. 

Mattheson,  mat'teh-son,  (JOHAXX,)  a  German  mu 
sician  and  composer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1681.  His 
works  are  very  numerous,  comprising  operas,  church 
music,  sonatas,  etc.  He  also  published  several  treat- 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this, 


anations,  p.  23.) 


MATTHEW 


1548 


MATTIOLI 


ises  on  music,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Handel.  Died  in  1764. 

See  BUKNKY,  "  History  of  Music;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G6n6- 
rale. " 

Matthew,  math'u,  [Gr.  MarMoc;  Fr.  MATTHIEU, 
mt'te-uh' ;  It.  MATTKO,  mat-ta'o,]  SAINT,  THE  EVAN- 
GKl.isKa  native  of  Galilee,  is  generally  believed  to  have 
been  the  same  person  as  Levi,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  men-, 
tioned  in  Mark  (ii.  14)  and  Luke,  (v.  27.)  His  employ 
ment  was  that  of  a  publican,  or  collector  of  customs, 
under  the  Romans,  and  while  engaged  in  this  function 
he  was  called  by  Christ  to  be  one  of  the  apostles.  The 
history  of  Matthew  alter  the  ascension  of  Christ  is  not 
known,  some  writers  asserting  that  he  suffered  death 
at  Nacldabar,  in  Ethiopia,  and  others  that  he  was  one 
of  the  apostles  who  escaped  martyrdom. 

Matthew  OK  CRACOW,  [Lat.  MATTHI'AS  CRACOVI- 
KN'SIS,]  a  German  bishop  and  Reformer,  born  in  Foine- 
rania.  He  became  Bishop  of  Worms  in  1405,  and  wrote 
against  the  corrupt  practices  of  the  Church.  Among  his 
works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Pollutions  of  the  Romish 
Court."  Died  in  1410. 

See  HODGSON,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Matthew  OK  WESTMINSTER,  an  English  monk  and 
historical  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  author 
of  "Flowers  of  History,"  ("Flores  Historiarum,")  ex 
tending  from  the  creation  to  the  death  of  Edward  I.  It 
is  highly  valued  for  its  accuracy. 

Matthew,  math'u,  (ToniAS,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  Bristol  in  1546.  In  1572  he  was  chosen  president  of 
Saint  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  one  of  the  queen's 
chaplains-in-ordinary.  In  1595  he  was  created  Bishop 
of  Durham,  and  in  1606  Archbishop  of  York.  The 
learning  and  piety  of  Archbishop  Matthew  have  been 
warmly  eulogized  by  Camden.  Died  in  1628. 

See  WOOD,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Matthew,  (ToiUA.s,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Oxford  in  1578,  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  was 
employed  by  James  I.  in  1621  to  negotiate  the  marriage 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales  with  the  Infanta  of  Spain.  He 
was  knighted  in  1623.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life 
of  Saint  Theresa,"  and  a  "Collection  of  Letters  includ 
ing  a  Character  of  Lucy,  Countess  of  Carlisle."  Died  in 

1655- 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Matthew  Paris,  math'u  par'iss,  a  celebrated  English 
chronicler,  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Henry  III.,  from 
whom  he  obtained  important  privileges  for  the  Univer 
sity  of  Oxford.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historia  Major 
Angliae,"  and  "  Historia  Minor  Angliae."  The  former 
extends  from  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  HI.  Died  in  1259. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Matthews,  math'uz,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Augusta  county,  Virginia,  in 
1739.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia  in  1780,  and 
again  in  1794.  Died  in  1812. 

Matthews,  (THOMAS,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born 
in  Wales  in  1681,  distinguished  himself  in  the  engage 
ment  at  Cape  Passaro  under  Admiral  Byng,  (1718,)  and 
in  other  campaigns  of  the,  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue.  Died  in 
1751. 

See  VAN  TENAC.  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Marine." 

Matthia  or  Matthiae,  mat-tee'a',  (AUGUST  II  KIN - 
RICH,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1769. 
He  published  "  Elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  Litera 
ture,"  a  "  Complete  Greek  Grammar,"  which  was  trans 
lated  into  French,  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Tragedies 
of  Euripides,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1835. 

Matthia,  (JoHAN,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born  in  Ostro- 
gothia  in  1592,  became  court  preacher  and  almoner  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  pre 
ceptor  to  Christina,  the  daughter  of  that  monarch,  and 
was  created  Bishop  of  Strengn'as  in  1643.  He  wrote 
several  moral  and  theological  works.  Died  in  1670. 

Matthiae.     See  MATTHIA. 

Matthias,  ma-thl'ass,  [Ger.  pron.  mat-tee'ass ;  It. 
MATTIA,  mat-tee'a,]  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  1557, 
was  the  son  of  Maximilian  II.  and  Mary,  daughter  of 


Charles  V.  He  was  invited  in  1578,  by  the  Catholics 
of  the  Netherlands,  to  assume  the  government  of  that 
country,  which  office  he  soon  resigned.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Stadtholder  of  Austria  in  1595,  and  in  1611  was 
invited  by  the  Bohemians  to  become  their  ruler.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother  Rudolf,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
in  1612,  Matthias  succeeded  to  the  throne.  In  the  en 
suing  contest  between  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  fac 
tions  he  pursued  a  vacillating  policy,  and  while  striving 
to  direct  made  himself  distrusted  by  both.  He  con 
cluded  a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  the  Turks,  then  in 
possession  of  Hungary,  (1615,)  and  soon  after  caused 
his  cousin  Ferdinand  to  be  proclaimed  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary.  (See  FERDINAND  II.)  Matthias  died  in 
1619,  in  the  midst  of  the  dissensions  which  preceded  the 
Thirty  Years'  war. 

See  KHEVENHUI.I.ER,  "  Annales  Ferdinandei  ;"  P.  SANTORIO, 
"Vite  di  Ridolfo  e  Mattia  Imperatori,"  1604;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene'rale." 

Matthias,  ma-thi'ass,  an  American  fanatic  and  impos 
tor,  originally  named  MATTHEWS,  born  in  Washington 
county,  New  York,  about  1790,  became  a  street-preacher 
in  Albany,  and  prophesied  the  destruction  of  that  city. 

See  "Matthias  and  his  Impostures,"  by  WM.  L.  STONH,  New 
York,  1835;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1X35. 

Matthias  OK  JANOW,  (ya'nov,)  a  German  priest  and 
Reformer,  preached  in  Prague.  He  wrote  against  popery, 
and  published  "The  Abomination  of  Carnal  Priests  and 
Monks."  Died  in  1394. 

See  HODGSON,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Matthias  Corvinus.     See  CORVINUS. 

Matthieu,  the  French  for  MATTHEW,  which  see. 

Matthieu,  mt'te-uh',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  poet  and 
historical  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1563.  He 
became  historiographer  of  France  under  Henry  IV., 
wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "  La  Guisiade,"  of  which  the 
Duke  of  Guise  is  the  hero;  also  a  "History  of  Henry 
III.  and  Henry  IV."  Died  in  1621. 

See  POIKSON,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Henri  IV;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Matthieu  de  Veiidome,  mi'te-uh'  deh  v6.\'dom',  a 
French  statesman  and  ecclesiastic,  born  about  1220,  was 
appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  by  Louis  IX.  on  his 
departure  for  Palestine.  After  the  accession  of  Philip 
he  was  made  prime  minister  in  1270.  Died  in  1286. 

Matthieu  de  Vendome,  a  French  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  lived  about  1180-1200. 

Matthiolus.     See  MATTTOLI. 

Matthisson,  von,  von  mat'te-son',  (FiUKDRicH,)  an 
eminent  German  lyric  poet,  born  near  Magdeburg  in 
1761.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1794  accompanied 
the  Princess  of  Anhalt-Dessau  on  her  tour  through 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  the  Tyrol.  In  1812  the  King 
of  Wurtemberg  appointed  him  his  chief  librarian  and 
conferred  upon  him  a  title  of  nobility.  His  poems  are 
characterized  by  great  tenderness  of  feeling,  graceful 
versification,  and  faithful  delineations  of  nature.  lie 
also  published  an  interesting  work  entitled  "  Remi 
niscences,"  ("  Erinnerungen,"  5  vols.,  1810-16,)  being  an 
account  of  persons  and  places  he  had  visited.  Died  in 
1831. 

See  DORING,  "  Matthisson's  Leben,"  1833  ;  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets 
and  Poetry  ot  Europe;"  F.  VON  MATTHISSON,  "  Selbstbiographie," 
1818.  * 

Matthys,  mat-tls',  (GERARD,)  a  Flemish  philosopher 
and  Greek  scholar,  born  in  Gelderland  in  1523.  He 
published  a  number  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  and 
other  critical  works.  Died  in  1574. 

Matti,  mat'tee,  (EMANUEL,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Oropesa  in  1663,  was  appointed 
Dean  of  Alicante.  Died  in  1737. 

Mattioli,  mit-te-o'lee,  (Luici,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Crevalcore  in  1662,  executed  a  number  of  prints 
after  the  Caracci.  He  was  also  distinguished  as  a 
painter.  Died  about  1745. 

See  G.  ATTI,  "Vita  di  L.  Mattioli,"  1836. 

Mattioli,  [Lat.  MATTHI'OLUS,]  (PIETRO  ANDREA,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1500.  Being  invited  to  Prague  by  the  emperor  Fer 
dinand,  he  was  made  aulic  councillor,  and  subsequently 
appointed  first  physician  to  Maximilian  II.  He  published 


a,  e,  i,  Q,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


MATT  I  US 


1549 


MAUPEOU 


"  Commentaries  on  the  Materia  Medica  of  Dioscorides," 
(in  Latin,  1554,)  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages;  also  a  number 
of  medical  and  botanical  treatises.  The  well-known 
genus  Matthiola  (Stock-gilliflower)  was  named  in  honour 
of"  this  botanist.  Died  in  1577. 

See  CUVIEK,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles:"  HAI.LER, 
"  Hibliotheca  Botanica  ;"  VAN  DEK  LINDEN,  "De  Scriptorlbus  Me- 
dicis." 

Mattius.     See  MATIUS. 

Mat'u-rin,  (CHARLES  ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  i»oet, 
novelist,  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Dublin  in  1782,  was 
descended  from  a  French  Protestant  family.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
curate  of  Saint  Peter's,  Dublin.  He  published  in  1807 
"The  Fata!  Revenge,  or  the  Family  of  Montorio,"  which 
was  followed  by  "  The  Milesian  Chief,"  "Women,  or 
Pour  et  Contre,"  "Melmoth  the  Wanderer,"  and  other 
romances  of  the  Radcliffe  school.  His  tragedy  of  "Ber 
tram,"  brought  out  at  the  Drury-Lane  Theatre  in  1816, 
met  with  brilliant  success.  It  has  been  translated  into 
French,  as  well  as  several  of  his  romances.  In  1824  he 
published  "  Controversial  Sermons,"  directed  against  the 
corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church,  which  obtained  great 
popularity.  Died  in  1824. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1818;  "London  Quar 
terly  Review"  lor  December,  iSiS,  and  January,  1821;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  August,  iSiS,  et  seq. 

Maturino  di  Firenze,  ma-too-ree'no  de  fe-ren'za, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Plorence  about  1490,  was  a 
pupil  of  Raphael,  and  a  friend  of  Polidoro  Caravaggio, 
in  conjunction  with  whom  he  executed  a  number  of 
frescos  at  Rome.  These  works  are  preserved  in  the 
engravings  of  Cherubino,  Albert!,  Goltzius,  and  other 
artists.  Died  about  1528. 

Matttszewic,  ma-too'sha-vits,  (THADDKUS,)  a  Polish 
statesman,  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1815. 
Died  in  1818. 

Maty,  ma'tee,  (MATTHEW,)  an  eminent  physician  and 
writer,  born  near  Utrecht  in  1718,  studied  at  Leyclen, 
and  subsequently  settled  in  England,  (1740.)  He  founded 
in  1750  the  "Journal  Britannique,"  a  literary  periodical 
of  great  merit,  which  was  highly  commended  by  Gibbon. 
He  was  elected  in  1758  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
of  which  he  became  perpetual  secretary  in  1765.  In 
1772  he  succeeded  Dr.  Knight  as  chief  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  the 
Character  of  the  Great  Physician,  or  a  Critical  Eulogy 
on  Boerhaave,"  (in  French,  1747,)  "Authentic  Memoirs 
of  Richard  Mead,"  (1755,)  and  "  Memoirs  of  Lord  Ches 
terfield."  Died  in  1776. 

See  NICHOLS.  "Literary  Anecdotes;"  GIBBON,  "Memoirs." 

Maty,  (PAUL  HENRY,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  in  1745.  He  became  one  of  the  secre 
taries  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1778.  He  published  a 
translation,  from  the  German,  of  Riesbeck's  "Travels," 
(1787.)  Died  in  1787. 

Maubert  de  Gouvest,  mo'baiR'  deh  goo'vi',  QEAN 
HENRI,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1721, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Political  History  of  the  Age," 
which  was  commended  by  Lord  Bolingbroke.  Died  in 
1767. 

Maubeuge.     See  MABUSE. 

Maubreuil,  de,  deh  mo'bRuI'  or  mo'bRUh'ye,  (MA 
RIE  ARMAND  GUERRI,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  political 
adventurer,  bom  in  Bretagne  in  1782.  He  served  in  the 
army  as  captain.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he 
was  authorized  and  bribed  by  certain  members  of  the 
provisional  government  in  181410  assassinate  Napoleon 
and  to  rob  the  Queen  of  Westphalia  of  her  diamonds. 
He  performed  the  latter  part  of  his  mission,  and  was 
cast  into  prison  for  that  offence.  Died  in  1855. 

Mauburne,  mo'buRn',  or  Momboir,  mo.N'bwaR', 
(JEAN,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic  and  devotional  writer, 
born  at  Brussels  about  1460,  was  a  friend  and  corre 
spondent  of  Erasmus.  Died  in  1502. 

Maucomble,  mo'koMbl',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS  DIEU- 
DONNE,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1735,  pub 
lished  a  "  History  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  City  of 
Nimes,"  (1767.)  Died  in  1768. 

Maucroix,  de,  deh  mo'kRwa',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  at  Noyon  in  1619.  He  made  translations 


from  the  "  Philippics"  of  Demosthenes,  the  "  Homilies" 
of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  other  Greek  classics.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Boileau,  Racine,  and  La  Fontaine, 
and  published  conjointly  with  the  last-named  a  collection 
of  works  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1708. 

Maud  or  Maude.     See  MATILDA. 

Maudsley  or  Maudslay,  mawdz'le,  (HENRY,)  an 
English  artisan,  born  at  Woolwich  in  1771,  was  an  em 
ploye  of  Joseph  Bramah.  He  made  several  valuable 
mechanical  inventions.  Died  in  1831. 

See  SMILES,  ''  Industrial  Biography." 

Mauduit,  mS'du-e',  (  ANTOINE  RENE,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1731.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Conic  Sections  De 
monstrated,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  Lalande. 
Died  in  1815. 

Mauduit,  mo'dwe',  (ISRAEL.)  an  English  writer,  of 
French  extraction,  born  at  Bermondsey  in  1708,  was 
appointed  agent  for  the  province  of  Massachusetts.  He 
published  a  "Short  View  of  the  History  of  the  New 
England  Colonies,"  (1769,)  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1787. 

Mauduit,  (MICHEL,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Vire,  in  Normandy,  in  1644.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"Analysis  of  the  Gospel,  according  to  the  Historic 
Order,"  etc.,  a  "  Treatise  on  Religion,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1709. 

Mauduit  du  Plessis,  mo'dii-e'  dii  plk'se',  (THOMAS 
ANTOINE,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Hennebon  in  1753, 
served  in  the  American  war,  where  his  courage  and 
abilities  won  for  him  the  particular  regard  of  Washington. 
Having  joined  the  royalists  soon  after  the  breaking  out 
of  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  killed  in  attempting 
to  suppress  a  mutiny  among  his  soldiers  in  Hayti,  in 
1791. 

Maugras,  mo'gRa',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  phi 
losopher  and  writer,  born  near  Bourbonne-les-Bains  in 
1762  ;  died  in  1830. 

Mauguin,  mo'gaN"',  (FRANCOIS,)  an  eloquent  French 
advocate,  born  at  Dijon  in  1785.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  sat  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  until  1848.  Died  in  1854. 

See  M.  DE  CORMENIN,  "  Le  Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  L.  DELoM^NiE, 
"  M.  Mauguin,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1840. 

Maule,  (Fox.)     See  PANMURE,  LORD. 

Maulmont,  mol'moN',  or  Malmont,  de,  deh  m&Y- 
mc>N',  (JEAN,)  a  French  scholar  and  theologian,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  J.  C.  Scaliger. 

Maultrot,  mo'tRo',  (GABRIEL  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1714,  published  numerous  treat 
ises  on  canon  law.  Died  in  1803. 

Mauii'der,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  compiler,  born 
about  1790.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  Treasury  of  Useful  Knowledge,"  and  a  "  Biographical 
Treasury,"  (6th  edition,  1847.)  Died  in  1849. 

See  WM.  JERDAN,  "Men  I  have  known." 

Maundeville.     See  MANDEVILLE,  (Sir  JOHN.) 

Maun'drell,  (HENRY,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
about  1650,  visited  Palestine  in  1697,  and  published  in 
1698  his"  Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem, "etc.,  which 
was  translated  into  French.  Died  about  1710. 

Maunoir,  mo'iiwau',  (JULIE.N,)  a  learned  French  ec 
clesiastic,  born  in  1606,  wrote  several  theological  treat 
ises  in  Latin,  and  a  number  of  works  in  the  dialect  of 
Brittany,  including  a  grammar  and  dictionary.  Died  in 
1683. 

Maupas,  de,  deh  mo'pa',  (CHARLES  CAUCHON,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  at  Rheims  in  1566,  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state  by  Henry  IV.,  and  was  subsequently 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  England.  Died  in  1629. 

Maupas  du  Tour,  de,  deh  mo'pa'  dii  tooR,  (HENRI 
CAUCHON,)  a  French  writer,  born  near  Rheims  in  1600, 
rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Evreux  in  1661.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Saint  Francis  de  Sales,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1680. 

Maupeou,  de,  deh  mS'poo',  (  RENE  CHARLES,)  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1688.  He  was  suc 
cessively  appointed  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  keeper  of  the  seals,  and  vice-chancellor,  (1763.) 
Died  in  1775. 

See  DE  TOCQUF.VILLE,  "  Hbtoire  de  Louis  XV;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 


t  as  fc;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/:  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  ttai  il ;  R,  trilled ;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAUPEOU 


1550 


MAURICEAU 


Manpeou,  de,  (RENE  NICOLAS  CHARLES  Auc-us- 
TIN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1714,  rose  through 
various  high  offices  to  be  chancellor  of  France  in  1768. 
In  this  post  he  directed  all  his  efforts  towards  the  over 
throw  of  the  parliament,  which,  by  his  intrigues,  was 
accomplished  in  1771.  The  president  Lamoignon  and 
several  distinguished  members  were  exiled  ;  but  on  the 
accession  of  Louis  XVI.  (1774)  they  were  recalled,  and 
the  former  system  was  re-established.  Maupeou  was  ban 
ished  to  his  estate,  near  Les  Andelys,  where  he  died 
in  1792,  having  bequeathed  to  the  nation  the  sum  of 
800,000  livres.  He  was  the  last  chancellor  of  the 
ancient  monarchy. 

See  "Lettres  de  Madame  du  Beff.md  :"  DP.TOCQUEVILLE,  "  His- 
toire  de  Louis  XV;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoive  des  Fraucais." 

Maupertuis,  de,  deh  mo'peK/tii-e',  (PIERRE  Louis 
MOKEAU,)  an  eminent  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Saint- Malo  in  1698.  He  finished  his  studies  in  Paris, 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1723,  and  in 
1727  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  London. 
In  1736  he  was  the  chief  of  a  party  of  savants,  in 
cluding  Clairaut  and  Lemonnier,  who  were  sent  to 
Lapland  by  the  Academy  in  order  to  measure  a  degree 
of  the  meridian.  The  result  of  this  experiment,  which 
is  his  chief  title  to  celebrity,  exposed  the  error  which 
had  been  made  by  Dominic  and  Cassini  in  their  measure 
ment  in  France,  and  tended  to  confirm  Newton's  theory 
of  the  oblate  form  of  the  earth.  On  the  invitation  of 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  Maupertuis  repaired  in  1740  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Sciences.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  "The  Balistic  Arithmetic,"  "The 
Measure  of  the  Northern  Degree,"  "  Discourse  on  the 
Figure  of  the  Stars,"  and  several  able  treatises  on  geom 
etry.  Died  in  1759. 

See  L.  A.  UK  I.A  KKAUMKI.I.R,  "  Vie  de  Maupertuis,"  1856 ;  DAM£- 
RON,  "  Menu-ire  stir  Maupertuis;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance 
Generale;"  J.  H.  FORMKV.  "  Eloge  de  Maupertuis."  1761;  "  Noti- 
velle  Biographic  Gaiie'rale. " 

Mauquest  de  la  Motte,  mo'k.V  deh  If  mot,  (GuiL- 
LAUMK,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Valognes  in  1655, 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1722.)  Died 
in  1737. 

Maur.     See  RAUAN  MAUK. 

Maurand  or  Mauran,  mo'rfiN',  (PIERRE,)  the  first 
leader  of  the  Albigenses,  was  born  at  Toulouse.  It  is 
said  that,  under  the  pressure  of  severe  persecution,  he 
abjured  his  doctrines.  Died  in  1199. 

Maureillan,  nio'ii'yoN',  (CASIMIR  POITEVIN,)  Vr- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1772, 
succeeded  the  Duke  of  Ragusa  as  Governor  of  Dalmatia 
in  1806.  Died  in  1829. 

Maurepas,  de,  deh  mok'pa',  QEAN  FREDERIC  Phe- 
lypeaux — fa'le'po',)  COMTK,  a  French  statesman,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1701,  was  a  grandson  of  Chancellor  Pont- 
chartrain.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Jerome  de  Pontchar- 
train,  as  secretary  of  state  in  1715,  and  in  1725  became 
minister  of  marine.  Though  frivolous  in  his  character 
and  superficial  in  his  attainments,  he  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learned  men,  and  promoted  the  scientific  expeditions 
of  Maupertuis  and  his  companions  to  Lapland  and  of 
Tussieu  to  South  America.  Having  offended  Madame 
de  Pompadour  by  an  epigram,  he  was  banished  from 
court  ;  but  after  twenty-five  years  he  was  recalled.  The 
principal  measure  of  his  subsequent  administration  was 
the  restoration  of  the  parliaments.  Died  in  1781. 

See  CONDORCRT.  "  fi'oge  de  M.  de  Maurepas,"  1782;  VOLTAIRE, 
"Siecle  de  Louis  XV  :"  UROZ,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XVI;"  MAR- 
MONTKL,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  l.iographie  Generale." 

Maurer,  mow'rer,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  Swiss  painter  and 
engraver,  son  of  Josias,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1558.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Tobias  Slimmer.  Died  in 
1614. 

Maurer,  mow'rer,  (GF.ORG  Lumvio,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  near  Durkheim,  in  Bavaria,  in  1790,  became  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs  and  of  justice  in  1847.  He  pub 
lished  a  number  of  treatises  on  German  law. 

Maurer  or  Murer,  inoo'rer,  (JosiAS,)  a  Swiss  artist 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Zurich  in  1530,  excelled  as  an 
engraver  and  painter  on  glass.  Died  in  1580. 

Maurice,  EMPEROR  OF  THK  EAST.     See  MAURICIUS. 

Maurice,  the  French  for  MAURICIUS,  which  see. 


Maurice,  mo'ress',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Provence  in  1677. 
He  became  professor  of  history,  Oriental  languages,  and 
theology  at  Geneva.  Died  in  1756. 

Maurice,  (ANTOINE,)  a  theological  writer,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1716,  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  chair  of  theology  in  that  city,  (1756.)  Died 
in  1795. 

Maiirice,  (FREDERIC  GUILLAUME,)  BARON,  a  Swiss 
writer,  sou  of  Ajituine,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  bom 
at  Geneva  in  1750,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Bi- 
Bliotheque  Britannique,"  -(1796,)  and  published  several 
agricultural  works.  Died  in  1826. 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  (Jon.\  FREDERICK  DENNI.SON,) 
an  English  divine  and  prominent  leader  of  the  "  Broad 
Church"  party,  born  in  1805.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col 
lege,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the 
London  "Athenaeum."  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Theological  Essays,"  "Prophets  and  Kings  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  "Unity  of  the  New  Testament,"  "The 
Kingdom  of  Christ,"  (1841,)  "Religions  of  the  World," 
"  Philosophy  of  the  First  Six  Centuries,"  "  Doctrine  of 
Sacrifice  deduced  from  the  Scriptures,"  "Lectures  on 
National  Education,"  "  Philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
"Claims  of  the  Bible  and  of  Science,"  (1862,)  and  "The 
Conflict  ot  Good  and  Evil  in  our  Day,"  (1865.)  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Cambridge 
in  1866. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1854;  "  New  American  Cy 
clopaedia." 

Maurice,  (Rev.  THOMAS,)  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Hertford  in  1755,  became  vicar  of  Cud- 
ham,  in  Kent.  He  was  the  author  of  "Indian  Antiqui 
ties,"  (7  vols.,  1797,)  "History  of  Hindostan,"  (3  vols., 
1799,)  and  "Modern  History  of  Hindostan,"  (2  vols., 
1804.)  He  also  translated  into  verse  the  "(Edipus 
Tyrannus"  of  Sophocles,  and  published  several  poems 
and  dramas.  Died  in  1824. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Rev.  Thomas  Maurice,"  1819,  by  himself: 
"Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1824. 

Maurice  OK  NASSAU.     See  NASSAU. 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  [Ger.  MO'RITZ;  Lat.  MAURI'TIUS,] 
Elector  of  Saxony,  a  celebrated  general  and  champion 
of  the  Protestant  cause,  was  born  at  Freiberg,  March 

21,  1521.     He  succeeded    his   father,   Henry,   Duke   of 
Saxony,  in  1541,  and  married  Agnes,  a  daughter  of  Philip, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse.    In  1546  he  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with   the    emperor   Charles  V.    against    the    Protestant 
League  of  Schmalkalden,  with  a  design  to  supplant  John 
Frederick   as  Elector  of  Saxony,   whose  dominions   he 
invaded  with  success.     The   title  ot  elector  was  trans 
ferred  to  him  by  Charles  V.     In  consequence  of  his  un 
expected  hostility  to  the  Protestants,  the  Imperial  army 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Muhlberg  in  April,  1547,  and 
the   Protestant   cause  was  apparently  ruined.      Having 
changed  his  policy,  and  formed,  in  1551,  a  secret  treaty 
with  Henry  PL  of  France,  Maurice,  aided  by  several  Ger 
man  princes,  in   the  spring  of  1552  took  arms  for  the 
assertion  of  religious  liberty,  and  marched  against  Charles 
V.,  who  was  at  Innspruck.     Surprised  by  this  sudden 
movement,  Charles  was  compelled  to  retreat,  the  Council 
of  Trent  was  dispersed  in  confusion,  and  hostilities  were 
terminated  by  the  memorable  treaty  of  Passau,  August 

22,  1552,  which  secured  religious  liberty  to  the  Protest 
ants  of  Germany.     Maurice  was  killed  in  a  battle  against 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  at  Sievershausen,  in  July,  1553. 

See  J.  CAMERARIUS,  "Vita  M.iuritii  Electoris  Saxonix,"  1569; 
GEORC;  ARNOLD,  "Vita  Mauritii,"  1719;  F.  A.  vox  LANGENN, 
"  Moritz  Herzog  und  Clutrfiirst  von  Sachsen,"  2  vols.,  1841  ;  SCHLKX- 
KERT,  "  Moritz  Churfiirst  von  Sachsen,"  4  vols.,  1798-1X00  ;  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  [Fr.  pron.  mo'ress',]  SAINT,  a 
Christian  martyr,  was  commander  of  the  Theban  Legion, 
which  was  composed  entirely  of  Christians.  Being  or 
dered  by  the  emperor  Maximian  to  make  a  sacrifice  to 
the  gods  for  the  success  of  the  Roman  arms,  he  refused 
to  comply,  and  was  put  to  death,  together  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  legion  he  commanded,  (286  A.D.) 

See  J.  DE  LISLE,  "  Defense  de  la  Verite  du  Martyre  de  la  Ldgicn 
Thebeenne,"  1737. 

Mauriceau,  mS're'so',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  in  Paris,  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Dis- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MAURICUNUS 


1551 


MAYOR 


eases  of  Pregnancy,"  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  Died  in  1709. 

Mauricianus,  mau-rish-i-a/nus,  (JV.Nius,)  a  Roman 
juri>t  under  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius. 

Mauricius  or  Mauritius,  mau-rish'i-us,  [Gr.  Mav- 
p'tKiof ;  Fr.  MAURICK,  mo'ress'  ;  It.  MAURISIO,  mow- 
ree'se-o,]  (Fi.AVius  TIBERIUS,)  Emperor  of  the  East, 
born  in  Cappadocia  in  539  A.I).  Having  been  appointed 
by  the  emperor  Tiberius  commander  of  his  armies 
against  the  Persians,  he  gained  several  important  victo 
ries,  and  was,  on  his  return,  rewarded  by  Tiberius  with 
his  daughter's  hand.  After  carrying  on  war  for  some 
time  with  the  Abares,  a  barbarous  tribe  on  the  Danube, 
a  mutiny  broke  out  among  his  soldiers,  who  chose  for 
their  leader  a  centurion  named  Phocas.  Mauritius  was 
put  to  death,  having  previously  witnessed  the  execution 
of  five  of  his  sons,  (602.) 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire:"  LE 
BEAT,  "  Kistcire  du  Bas  Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Maurisio,  mow-ree'se-o,  (GERARDO,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1200-1240. 
He  served  under  the  Ghibeline  commander  Ezzelino 
da  Komar.o,  and  subsequently  wrote  a  history  of  his 
achievements,  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation. 

Mauritius.  .See  MAURICE  of  Saxony,  and  MAURI- 
Cius. 

Mauro,  FRA,  fRa  mow'ro,  an  eminent  Italian  geog 
rapher,  wa  •  a  monk  of  the  order  of  the  Camaldules, 
near  Yenic'  .  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  map 
of  the  won  1,  executed  about  1458.  Several  copies  of 
it  ha\x  be<  n  made  ;  one  of  the  best  of  these  is  in  the 
British  Mu  eum. 

See  PI...CI   o  Z'  RI.A,  "II  Mappamundo  di  Fra  Mauro,"  1806. 

Mauru<  entis.     See  MUROSINI. 

MAUro^ordato.     See  MAVKOCORD  vros. 

Maurolico,  mow-n/ie-kr,  (  KRANCKSCO,)  a  celebrated 
Sicilian  geometer,  born  at  Messina  in  1494,  was  for  many 
years  piote>sor  of  mathematics  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Conic  Sections,"  "  Op 
tical  Theorem,"  and  other  valuable  works  in  Latin,  and 
made  translations  from  Euclid,  Apollonius,  and  Auto- 
lycus.  Died  in  1575. 

See  F.  MAUKOI.ICO,  "Vita  del  Abbate  Francesco  Maurolico," 
1613;  D.  SC.INA,  '•  E:o;;io  di  F.  Mauroiico,"  iSo-j. 

Mau'rus  Terentia'nus,  (te-rSn-she-a'nus,)  a  Latin 
writer,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Carthage,  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  on  the  rules  of  Latin  versification, 
entitled  "  De  Literis,  Syllabi's,  Pedibus,"  etc. 

Maury,  mo're',  (  JEAN  SIFFREIN,)  a  celebrated  French 
prelate  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  the  Venaissin  in  1746. 
He  repaired  to  Paris  about  1766,  and  soon  acquired  a 
high  reputation  by  his  "  Funeral  Oration  on  the  Dauphin." 
and  his  "  Eulogy  of  Fenelon."  He  published  in  1777 
his  "Treatise  on  Pulpit  Eloquence,"  and  in  1778  was  ap 
pointed  to  preach  the  Careme  (Lent)  sermon  before  the 
king.  His  "  Panegyric  on  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  which 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  appeared  in  1785,  and  he 
was  soon  after  chosen  a  member  ot  the  French  Academy. 
In  1789  he  was  a  deputy  of  the  clergy  of  Pe'ronne  to  the 
States-General,  where  he  was  conspicuous  as  the  elo 
quent  advocate  of  the  Church  and  of  the  royalist  party 
and  the  most  powerful  opponent  of  Mirabeau.  On  the 
dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  country,  and  at  the  invitation  of  Pius  VI. 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  was  made 
a  cardinal  in  1794.  In  1804  he  wrote  a  letter  of  con 
gratulation  to  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and  henceforth 
attached  himself  to  the  interests  of  the  new  sovereign. 
He  was  successively  created  by  him  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  first  almoner  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  and  Arch 
bishop  of  Paris,  (1810.)  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons,  Cardinal  Maury  was  deprived  of  his  place, 
and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1817.  Maury  was 
noted  for  his  brilliant  repartee,  of  which  the  following 
instances  may  be  given.  Beinc;  asked  by  Napoleon  how  j 
he  stood  with  regard  to  the  Bourbons,  he  replied,  "Sire, 
my  respect  for  them  is  unalterable  ;  but  I  have  lost  faith  j 
and  hope,  and  there  remains  to  me  only  charity."  Once,  : 
in  the  Assembly,  some  ladies  of  rank,  known  for  their  j 
republican  opinions,  attempted  by  their  loud  conversa-  j 


tion  to  drown  his  voice,  when,  turning  to  the  president, 
he  said,  "  I  pray  you  silence  those  Sans-culottes." 

See  "Viedu  Cardinal  Maury,"  1827, by  his  nephew;  POUJOUI.AT, 
"  Le  Cardinal  Mauiy.  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1855  ;  •'  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixix.,  1812,  (Appen 
dix  ) 

Maury,  movv-ree',  (JUAN  MARIA,)  a  Spanish  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Malaga,  published  in  1826  a  collection 
of  Spanish  lyrics,  entitled  "Poetical  Spain,"  ("  Espagne 
poetique,")  which  were  translated  into  elegant  French 
verse  and  accompanied  with  critical  and  biographical 
notices.  Died  in  1845. 

Maury,  (Louis  FERDINAND  ALFRED,)  a  French  anti 
quarian  writer,  born  at  Meaux  in  1817.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1857.  He  pub 
lished  a  number  of  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which 
is  his  "History  of  the  Religions  of  Ancient  Greece." 
(3  vols.,  1857.)' 

Mau'ry,  (MATTHEW  FONTAINE,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
hydrographer  and  naval  officer,  born  in  Spottsylvania 
county,  Virginia,  in  1806.  About  1826  he  sailed  in  the 
Vincennes  on  a  voyage  around  the  world,  and  after  his 
return  was  made  a  lieutenant  in  1836.  He  has  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Navigation,"  (about  1835,)  "Letters  on 
the  Amazon  and  the  Atlantic  Slopes  of  South  America," 
"Relation  between  Magnetism  and  the  Circulation  of 
the  Atmosphere,"  "Astronomical  Observations,"  (1853,) 
and  "  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,"  (1855,  sixth  edi 
tion,  1856,)  a  work  which  has  been  highly  praised  by 
competent  judges. 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858. 

Mausole.     See  MAUSOLUS. 

Mau-so'lus,  [Gr.  Mat'owAoc:  Fr.  MAUSOLE,  m5'zol',] 
son  of  Hecatomnus,  became  King  of  Caria,  in  Greece, 
about  377  B.C.  He  made  considerable  conquests  in 
Persia  and  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  and  was,  accord 
ing  to  Demosthenes,  one  of  the  instigators  of  the  Social 
war.  From  his  name  is  derived  the  word  "  Mausoleum." 
(See  ARTEMISIA.) 

See  CLINTON,  "  Fasti  Hellenic!." 

Maussac,  de,  deh  mo'stk',  [Lat.  MAUSSA'CUS,] 
(PHILIP  JACQUES,)  an  eminent  French  critic  and  scholar, 
born  near  Beziers  about  1590.  He  became  first  president 
of  the  Chambre  des  Comptes  at  Montpellier  in  1647. 
He  published  the  "Greek  Lexicon"  of  Harpocration, 
with  notes,  (1614,)  an  edition  of  Aristotle's  "History  of 
Animals, "and  of  Psellus"On  the  Virtues  of  Minerals." 
Maussac  was  one  of  the  first  Greek  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Salmasius.  Died  in  1650. 

See  BAILLET,  "  Jugements  des  Savants." 

Maussacus.     See  MAUSSAC. 

Mautour,  de,  deh  mo'tooR',  (PHII.TKERT  BERNARD 
MOREAU,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Beaune  in  1654. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Dissertation  on  the  History  of 
the  Amazons."  Died  in  1737. 

Mauvais,  mo'vi',  (FELIX  VICTOR,)  a  French  astron 
omer,  born  at  Maiche,  in  Doubs,  in  1809;  died  in  1854. 

Mauvillon,  mo've'yoN',  (ELEAZAR,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  in  Provence  in  1712,  became  secretary  to 
Frederick  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,"  (5  vols.,  1740,) 
a  "History  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (1742,)  "History  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  (1764,)  and  other  works,  (in 
French.)  Died  at  Brunswick  in  1779. 

Mauvillon,  (  FACOK,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1743,  became  professor  of  military  science  at 
Cassel  in  1771.  He  wrote  a  "  Historical  Essay  on  the 
Art  of  War,"  etc.,  (in  French,  1784,)  and  other  works 
in  French  and  German,  also  "The  Prussian  Monarchy," 
("La  Monarchic  Prussienne,")  in  conjunction  with 
Mirabeau,  who  was  his  intimate  friend.  Died  in  1794. 

See  HAAC;,  "La  France  protestante  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
GeneVale." 

Mauzinho  Quevedo  de  Castello  Branco,  mow- 
zen'yo  ka-va'do  da  kas-tel'lo  bRan'ko,  a  Portuguese 
poet,  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Alphonso  the  African," 
commemorating  the  achievements  of  King  Alphonso  V. 

Ma'vor,  (WILLIAM  FORDYCE,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born 
near  Aberdeen  in  1758,  became  tutor  to  the  children 
of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  published  a  number 
of  useful  compilations,  among  which  we  may  name  a 


«  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard:'%?&j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAYORS 


1552 


MAXIMILIAN 


"Historical  Account  of  the  Most  Celebrated  Voyages," 
"Elements  of  Natural  History,"  and  "The  British  Cor 
nelius  Nepos."  Died  in  1837. 

Mavors.     See  MARS. 

Mavrocordatos,  mav-ro-kor-da'tos,  or  Mavrocor- 
dato,  mav-ro-kor-da'to,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  modern  Greek 
physician,  statesman,  ami  scholar,  born  about  1636.  He 
studied  at  Rome  and  Padua,  and  took  his  medical  degree 
at  Bologna.  Having  settled  at  Constantinople,  his  pro 
found  knowledge  of  both  Oriental  and  European  lan 
guages  procured  for  him  the  post  of  grand  dragoman  to 
the  Ottoman  Porte,  (1673.)  He  was  afterwards  employed 
in  important  embassies  to  Vienna,  and  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Carlowitz,  (1698.)  His  services  to  Austria  on 
this  occasion  were  rewarded  by  the  emperor  Leopold 
with  the  title  of  count  of  the  empire,  while  he  was  ap 
pointed  secretary  of  state  by  the  Sultan,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  He  was  the  author  of  a  medical 
work  entitled  "  Pneumaticum  Instrumentum,"  etc.,  which 
was  translated  into  French,  German,  and  Spanish,  a 
"  Modern  Greek  Grammar,"  and  a  collection  of  letters. 
Died  in  1709. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Mavrocordatos,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Greek  statesman, 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1791.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Turks  in  1821,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
executive  committee  in  January,  1822,  soon  after  which 
he  took  command  of  the  army.  Having  been  rendered 
almost  powerless  by  the  dissensions  among  the  Greeks 
and  by  the  enmity  of  Colocotronis  and  Ypsilanti,  he  re 
signed  or  refused  the  office  of  president  in  1823.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  cabinet  by  King  Otho, 
whom  he  served  as  ambassador  to  Munich,  Berlin,  and 
London  between  1834  and  1840.  He  was  prime  minis 
ter  for  a  short  time  in  1841,  and  president  of  the  council 
in  1844.  About  May,  1854,  he  was  restored  to  power, 
which  he  resigned  a  few  months  later.  Died  in  1865. 

See  TRICOUPIS,  "  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  (in  modern 
Greek,)  4  vois.,  1*53-56;  '•  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Ge'nerale;"  L.  DE 
LOMENIE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains. " 

Mavrocordatos,  (CONSTANTINE,)  was  appointed 
Ilospodarof  Wallachia  in  1735.  He  abolished  serfdom, 
and  introduced  great  improvements  in  the  agriculture 
of  the  country.  Died  in  1765. 

Mavrocordatoa,  (NICHOLAS,)  son  of  Alexander, 
(the  first  of  the  name,)  was  appointed  successively 
dragoman  to  the  Sultan,  Hospodar  of  Moldavia  (1709) 
and  of  Wallachia,  (1711.)  Died  in  1730. 

Mavromichalis,  mav-ro-me-Ka'lis,  known  also  as 
PIETRO  BEY,  a  modern  Greek  patriot,  born  in  the  Morea 
about  1775.  He  fought  against  the  Turks  in  the  revo 
lution  which  began  in  1821,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  provisional  government.  Died  in  1848. 

Mawe,  maw,  (JosKi'H,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Derbyshire  in  1764,  published  "Travels  in  the  Interior  of 
Brazil,"  etc.,  (1812,)  "Treatise  on  Diamonds  and  Precious 
Stones,"  (1813,)  "Mineralogy  of  Derbyshire,"  and  other 
scientific  treatises.  Died  in  1829. 

Mawmoisiiie,  maw'moi-zin,  or  Malvoisine,  de, 
deh  mal'vo-/,in,  (WILLIAM,)  a  prelate,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  France.  Having  visited  Scotland,  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1202.  He  estab 
lished  many  monasteries  in  that  country,  and  was  active 
in  promoting  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 

Maxcy,  mak'see,  (JUNATHAN,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  at  Attleborough,  Massachusetts,  in 
1768.  He  became  successively  professor  of  divinity  at 
Brown  .University,  Rhode  Island,  (1791,)  president  of 
Union  College,  New  York,  (1802,)  and  president  of 
South  Carolina  College,  (1804.)  Died  in  1820. 

See  the  "  Literary  Remains  of  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxcy,"  with  a 
Memoir  by  R.  ELTON,  D. D.,  1844. 

Maxence.     See  MAXENTIUS. 

Maxentius,  maks-6n'she-us,  [Fr.  MAXENCE,  mfk'- 
s6Nss',]  (MARCUS  AuREUtTs  VALERIUS,)  a  Roman  em 
peror,  was  the  son  of  Maximian,  who  abdicated  in  305 
A.D.  He  married  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  Galerius. 
He  thought  himself  slighted  by  the  promotion  of  Con- 
stantine  to  the  rank  of  Caesar  in  306,  and  excited  a 
revolt  among  the  Praetorian  guards,  who  proclaimed  him 


emperor  at  Rome  in  the  same  year.  Galerius,  who  was 
then  in  a  distant  province,  sent  against  him  an  army 
under  Severus,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  aid 
of  Maximian.  Maxentius  and  his  father  reigned  together 
for  a  short  time,  and  made  an  alliance  with  Constantine, 
who  married  Fausta,  a  sister  of  Maxentius.  Maximian 
was  expelled  from  Rome  in  308,  in  consequence  of  a 
quarrel  with  his  son.  In  312  the  army  of  Constantine 
defeated  that  of  Maxentius,  who,  in  the  retreat,  was 
drowned  in  the  Tiber. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  TII.I.E- 
MONT,  ''  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Maxime.     See  MAXIMUS. 

Maxime  de  Tyr.     See  MAXIMUS  TYRIUS. 

Max-ini'I-an,  [Fr.  MAXIMIEX,  mSk'se'me^N' ;  Lar. 
MAXIMI A'NUS, ]  or,  more  fully,  Mar'cus  Vale'rius 
Maximia'rms,  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Pannonia, 
was  the  son  of  a  peasant.  He  had  obtained  high  rank  in 
the  army  when  Diocletian,  in  286  A.D.,  adopted  him  as 
his  colleague  in  the  empire.  In  the  division  of  the  e'm- 
pire,  Italy  and  Africa  were  assigned  to  Maximian.  In 
305  Diocletian  and  Maximian  formally  abdicated  in 
favour  of  Galerius  and  Constantius  Chlorus.  The  next 
year  he  joined  his  son  Maxentius  in  an  effort  to  recover 
power,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor.  In  the  war  that 
ensued  between  him  and  Constantine  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed  in  310.  (See  MAXENTIUS.) 

See  GIBBON,  "  Dec  ine  and  P'all  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  TILLE- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Maximianus.     See  MAXIMIAN. 

Maximien.     See  MAXIMIAN. 

Max-i-mil'i-an  [Ger.  pron.  mak-se-mee'le-an  ;  Fr. 
MAXIMII.IEX,  maVse'me'le'a.N';  Lat.  MAXIMILIA'NUS  ; 
It.  MASSIMILIANO,  mas-se-me-le-a'no]  I.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  born  at  Neustadt  in  1459,  was  the  son  of 
Frederick  III.  and  Leonora  of  Portugal.  He  married, 
in  1477,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  who  died  in  1482,  leaving  two  children, 
Philip  and  Margaret.  In  accordance  with  the  stipulations 
of  the  peace  of  Arras,  (1482,)  he  betrothed  his  daughter 
Margaret  to  the  Dauphin,  (afterwards  Charles  VIII.  of 
France,)  with  Burgundy,  Artois,  and  Flanders  for  her 
portion.  For  several  years  following  he  was  involved  in 
a  contest  with  France,  and  with  his  subjects  in  the  Neth 
erlands,  incited  to  revolt  by  Louis  XI.  About  1492  he 
prepared  to  make  war  on  Charles  VIII. ,  who  not  only 
refused  to  keep  his  engagement  with  Maximilian's  daugh 
ter,  but  had  deprived  him  of  his  intended  bride,  Anne, 
the  wealthy  heiress  of  Brittany.  By  the  mediation  of 
Philip,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  between  the  two  sovereigns  at  Senlis,  (1493,) 
by  which  Charles  was  compelled  to  give  up  the  dowry 
of  the  princess.  Maximilian  was  crowned  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  in  1494  married  Bianca  Sforza,  daugh 
ter  of  the  Duke  of  Milan,  which  alliance  gave  rise  to  a 
succession  of  wars  in  Italy.  He  soon  after  joined  the 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  between  Pope  Julius  II., 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  Louis  XII.  of  France,  against 
the  Venetians ;  but,  that  republic  having  soon  after 
become  reconciled  to  the  pope,  Maximilian  joined  the 
so-called  Holy  League  between  England,  Spain,  Venice, 
and  the  pope,  in  opposition  to  the  French,  who  were 
signally  defeated  by  the  forces  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the 
emperor,  in  the  "  battle  of  the  spurs,"  near  Guinegate, 
(1513.)  Francis  I.,  having  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
France,  captured  Milan,  and  compelled  Maximilian  to 
give  up  Verona  to  the  Venetians  for  200,000  ducats.  By 
the  treaty  of  Bale  (1499)  he  had  been  obliged  to  acknow 
ledge  the  independence  of  Switzerland.  Though  often 
unsuccessful  in  his  wars,  he  had  the  fortune  to  acquire 
extensive  territories  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Philip 
with  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  and  of  his  grandchildren  Fer 
dinand  and  Maria  with  the  son  and  daughter  of  Ladislaus, 
King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  His  daughter  Mar 
garet  was  married  to  the  Spanish  prince  Don  Juan,  a 
son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Among  the  important 
acts  of  his  reign  were  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial 
Chamber  and  Aulic  Council,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia ;  he  also  created  a  stand 
ing  army  and  introduced  military  discipline.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and  was  the  author  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  \, /img:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moou; 


MAXIMILIAN 


1553 


MAX1MUS 


several  works  in  prose  and  verse.     He  died  in  January, 
1519,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Charles  V. 

See  COXE,  "History  of  the  House  of  Austria:"  HF.GEWISCH, 
"  Geschichte  der  Regiening  Maximilians  I.,"  1782:  KAKI.  HALTAI'S, 
"Geschichte  des  Kaisers  Maximi  ian,"  1850;  VAN  DKK  V.MIRT, 
"  Maximilian  van  Oosteurijk,"  1844  ;  LICHNOWSKY,  "  Gescliichte 
des  Hauses  Habsburg." 

Maximilian  IL,  born  in  1527,  was  the  son  of  Fer 
dinand  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1564  as  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  was  soon  after  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
Turks,  who  had  established  themselves  in  Hungary. 
After  the  death  of  Solyman  II.  a  truce  of  eight  years 
was  concluded  between  his  successor  and  the  emperor.  ; 
Maximilian  was  favourably  inclined  towards  the  Protest 
ants,  whom  he  allowed  to  fill  important  offices;  but  the 
influence  of  the  pope,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Catho 
lic  princes  of  Germany  prevented  him  from  formally 
embracing  their  doctrines.  He  died  in  1576,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Rudolph. 

See  COXE,  '•  History  of  the  House  of  Austria;"  DeTHOU,  "  His- 
toria  sui  Temporis;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Ganerale." 

Maximilian  I.,   Elector  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1573. 
On  the  formation  by  the   Protestants  of  the  confederacy 
called  the  Union,  (1608,)  Maximilian  put  himself  at  the  j 
head  of  the  opposing  Catholic  faction  of  the  League.  ; 
In  conjunction  with  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  he  fought 
in  the  Thirty  Years' war  against  the  Palatine  Frederick  V'.,  j 
and  conquered  the  Upper  and  Lower  Palatinate.   In  1623  j 
he  obtained  the   electoral  dignity  of  the   Palatinate  and  | 
the  hereditary  domains  of  Frederick  V.   Maximilian  was  j 
an  able  ruler,  and  founded  a  number  of  colleges  and  other 
useful  institutions.     Died  in  1651. 

See  KARI,  MARIA  VON  ARETIS,  "Geschichte  des  Herzogs  und  j 
Kurfiirsten  Maximi  ian  I.,"  1842. 

Maximilian   H.,    (JOSEPH,)    King   of   Bavaria,    the 
eldest  son  of  King  Lewis,  was  born  in  iSil.     He  mar-  ! 
ried  in  1842  a  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  William  of  | 
Prussia.     In  March,  1848,  he  succeeded  his  father,  who  | 
abdicated  the  throne.     He  opposed  the  project  to  unite 
the  German  peoples  into  one  nation  or  confederacy  of 
which  the  King  of  Prussia  should  be  the  head.     He  died 
in  March,  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Lewis. 

Maximilian,  (FERDINAND  JOSEPH, )  Emperor  of 
Mexico  and  Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  July,  1832, 
was  a  brother  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  lie 
married  Carlotta,  or  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  Leopold, 
King  of  Belgium,  about  1858.  In  1859  he  was  appointed 
an  admiral  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  navy. 
In  1863  he  was  tempted  by  Napoleon  III.  to  act  the  part 
of  emperor  in  Mexico,  then  partly  conquered  by  the 
French  and  partly  governed  by  the  republican  President 
luarez.  He  arrived  at  the  Mexican  capital  in  June,  1864. 
He  issued  a  decree  that  all  who  adhered  to  the  republic 
or  resisted  his  authority  should  be  shot.  Many  prisoners, 
including  General  Orteaga,  accordingly  suffered  death  by 
his  order.  According  to  the  New  York  "Evening  Post," 
fuly  i,  1867,  he  ordered  the  enslavement  of  the  whole 
labouring  population  of  Mexico.  The  United  States 
refused  to  recognize  him  as  emperor,  and  required  Na 
poleon  to  withdraw  his  army.  Maximilian  was  much 
embarrassed  by  the  want  of  money,  and  offended  the 
clerical  party  (which  had  favoured  him)  by  refusing  to 
restore  the  property  of  the  Church,  which  had  been 
confiscated  by  the  Liberals.  The  French  troops  de 
parted  about  the  end  of  1866,  after  which  the  republicans 
gained  several  victories  and  the  empire  quickly  collapsed. 
Maximilian  was  captured  at  Queretaro  in  May,  and  shot 
on  the  I  gth  of  June,  1867. 

See  his  "Recollections  of  my  Life,"  3  vo!s.,  1868;  F.  HALL, 
"  Lii'e  of  Maximilian,"  1868. 

Maximilian,  (ALEXANDER  PHII.IPP,)  Prince  of  Neu- 
wied,  a  German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Neu- 
wied  in  1782.  In  1815  he  set  out  on  a  journey  through 
Brazil,  where  he  spent  two  years  and  made  a  rich  col 
lection  of  specimens.  On  his  return  he  published  his 
"  Travels  in  Brazil"  and  a  "  Description  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Brazil."  In  1833  he  visited  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States.  His  "Journey  through  North 
America,"  a  magnificent  work,  illustrated  with  eighty- 
one  engravings,  came  out  in  1843,  and  is  said  to  be 
superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  that  had  hiiherto 
appeared  in  Germany. 


Maximilian  Mari'a  Eman'uel,  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
born  in  1662,  was  a  grandson  of  Maximilian  I.  In  1685 
he  married  Maria  Antonia,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Leopold  I.,  and  was  appointed  in  1692  Governor  of  the 
Netherlands.  Having  taken  part  with  the  French  in 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  delivered  up  to 
them  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  After  his  defeat  at  the 
battle  of  Schellenberg,  he  was  obliged  by  the  emperor 
to  give  up  his  possessions,  which,  however,  were  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Baden  in  1714.  Died  in  1726. 

Max'i-min,  [  Lat.  MAXIMI'NUS;  Fr.  MAXIMIN,  mtk'- 
se'ma\',j  or,  more  fully,  Cai'us  Ju'lius  Ve'rus  Max- 
imi'iius,  a  native  of  Thrace,  born  in  173  A.D.,  served 
in  the  Roman  army  under  Septimius  Severus.  Having 
followed  Alexander  Severus  in  his  German  campaign, 
he  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  A.D.  235,  and  was 
proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead.  In  consequence  of  his 
cruelties,  the  province  of  Africa  soon  after  revolted,  and 
Gordianfis  was  made  emperor  by  'the  senate  of  Rome, 
A.D.  237.  Maximinus,  having  defeated  and  slain  Gor- 
diamis,  laid  siege  to  Aquileia,  during  which  he  was  killed 
in  a  mutiny  of  his  soldiers,  together  with  his  son,  in  238 
A.D.  If  we  may  trust  the  concurrent  testimony  of  ancient 
writers,  Maximin  was  above  eight  feet  high,  well  propor 
tioned,  and  of  such  strength  that  he  could  easily  draw  a 
loaded  wagon,  and  with  a  kick  break  the  leg  of  a  horse. 
He  is  said  to  have  used  his  wife's  bracelet  for  a  finger- 
ring. 

See  TU.LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Max-I-mi'iius  Da'za,  an  Illyrian  peasant,  a  relative 
of  Galerius,  was  raised  by  him  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar, 
A.D.  305.  He  ruled  over  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  perse 
cuted  the  Christians.  On  the  death  of  Galerius,  in  311, 
Maximinus  took  possession  of  all  the  Asiatic  provinces. 
He  afterwards  made  war  on  Licinius,  but  was  defeated, 
and  died  by  poison  at  Tarsus  in  313  A.D. 

Maxl-iiius,  |Fr.  MAXIME,  mtk'sem';  It.  MASSIMO, 
mas'se-mo,  ]  (MAGNUS  CI.KMKNS,  )  a  usurper  of  the 
Roman  empire,  was  a  native  of  Spain.  Having  for  sev 
eral  years  commanded  the  Roman  army  in  Britain  with 
success,  he  revolted  against  Gratian  about  381  A.D., 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers.  He  then 
invaded  Gaul  to  offer  battle  to  Gratian,  who  was  defeated, 
or  fled  without  fighting,  and  was  killed  in  383.  Theo- 
dosius  and  Valentinian  recognized  him  as  Emperor  of 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain.  Attempting  to  obtain  Italy 
also  by  conquest,  he  was  defeated  by  Theodosius,  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed  in  388  A.D. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  TU.LEMONT,  "  His 
toire  des  Empereurs." 

Maximus,  [Fr.  MAXIME,  mfk'sem',]  SAINT,  sur- 
named  THE  CONFESSOR  and  THE  MONK,  an  eminent 
Greek  theologian,  born  at  Constantinople  about  580 
A.D.  He  zealously  opposed  the  heresy  of  the  Monothe- 
lites,  and  wrote  many  works  on  theology,  which  were 
highly  esteemed  in  the  middle  ages.  Died  in  662  A.D. 

Max'I-mus  THE  GREEK,  a  native  of  Albania,  was 
invited  to  Russia  by  the  grand  duke  Vassili  Ivanovitch, 
in  order  to  examine  numerous  Greek  manuscripts  re 
cently  discovered.  He  made  translations  of  the  princi 
pal  ones  into  Latin,  which  were  rendered  by  others  into 
Slavonian.  At  the  request  of  the  Czar,  he  undertook 
to  revise  the  early  translations  of  the  books  of  the 
Greek  Church  ;  but  the  numerous  corrections  which  he 
made  gave  great  offence,  and  he  was  excommunicated 
as  a  heretic  in  1525.  Died  in  1556. 

Maximus  Fabius.     See  FABIUS. 

Max'I-mus  Fe-tro'nI-us,  an  ambitious  Roman  cour 
tier,  born  in  395  A.D.  He  was  twice  chosen  consul. 
In  455  he  procured  the  assassination  of  Valentinian 
III.,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  married  Eudoxia,  the 
widow  «f  Valentinian.  Genseric  the  Vandal,  invited  by 
Eudoxia,  marched  an  army  towards  Rome,  when  Maxi 
mus  attempted  to  escape  by  flight,  but  was  killed  by  his 
soldiers,  or  by  the  officers  of  Eudoxia,  in  455  A.D. 

See  TII.I.KMONT.  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Max'I-mus  Ru-til'I-us,  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  Severus  and  Caracalla.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Ad  Legem  Falcidiam,'1  or  Commentary  on 
•  the  Lex  Falcidia. 

Max'I-mus  Tyr'I-us,  [Fr.  MAXIME  DE  TYR,  mik'- 
sem'  deh  teH,]  an  eminent  Platonic  philosopher,  born  at 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 

98 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAXWELL 


"554 


MAYER  US 


Tyre  in  the  second  century,  lived  at  Athens  and  Rome 
in  the  reigns  of  the  Antonines  and  of  Com  mod  us.  He 
wrote,  in  Greek,  numerous  philosophical  dissertations, 
the  style  and  sentiments  of  which  are  commended.  Two 
of  these  are  entitled  "On  the  Daemonium  of  Socrates," 
and  "On  Plato's  Opinion  respecting  the  Deity." 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 
Gr.-eca." 

Max'well,  (Sir  MURRAY,)  a  Scottish  naval  officer, 
born  near  Perth  in  1766,  served  with  distinction  in  sev 
eral  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
in  1815  accompanied  Lord  Amherst  on  his  embassy  to 
China.  He  was  made  a  knight  in  1818.  Died  in  1831. 

See  BASH.  HALL,  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  Western  Coast 
o!'  Corea,"  etc.  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October  and  November, 
1842. 

Maxwell,  (ROKKRT,)  one  of  the  Scottish  lords  of  the 
regency  during  the  absence  of  James  V.  in  France,  had 
a  share  in  the  mutiny  at  Solway  Moss.  In*  the  first 
Parliament  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  (1543,)  he  intro 
duced  a  bill  to  allow  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 
vulgar  tongue,  which  was  passed  in  spite  of  the  oppo 
sition  of  the  lord  chancellor,  the  bishops  and  priests. 
Died  in  1546. 

Max'well,  (Wn.UAM  HAMILTON,)  a  writer,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1795.  He  published,  besides  several  novels, 
a  "  Life  of  Wellington,"  and  contributed  to  "  Bentley's 
Miscellany."  Died  in  1850. 

Maxwell,  (WILLIAM  STIRLING.)     See  STIRLING. 

May,  (CAROLINE,)  an  American  writer,  and  resident 
of  New  York,  has  published  several  poems  and  prose 
works,  and  prepared  an  edition  of  the  "American  Female 
Poets,"  with  notes. 

May,  (EDITH.)     See  DRINKER. 

May,  (EDWARD  H.,)  an  American  painter,  of  English 
extraction,  resided  in  New  York  City.  He  studied  under 
Couture,  in  Paris,  and  produced  a  number  of  pictures 
which  were  highly  commended  by  French  critics.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Jewish  Captives  at  Babylon," 
"  Francis  I.  at  Prayer  after  hearing  of  the  Death  of  his 
Son,"  and  a  "  Scene  from  Waverley." 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

May,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Sussex 
about  1595,  was  appointed  by  Cromwell  secretary  and 
historiographer  to  the  Parliament.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  English  Parliament  which  began 
November,  1640,"  which  is  commended  by  Warburton  ; 
also  the  tragedies  of  "  Antigone"  and  "Agrippina,"  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Heir,"  and  other  works.  He 
likewise  translated  Lucan's  "  Pharsalia,"  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  it,  in  Latin  and  English.  It  is  eulogized 
by  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  critics.  Died  in  1650. 

See  GIBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  WARBURTON,  "Letters  to 
Hard;"  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  GUIZOT,  London,  1X64. 

May,  (THOMAS  ERSKINE,)  an  English  historian  and 
writer  on  law,  born  about  1815.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Constitutional  History  of  England  from 
176010  1860,"  (1861-63.) 

May  de  Rom ain-Mo tier,  mi  deh  ro'miN'  mo'te-i', 
(EMMANUEL,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Berne  in  1734, 
published  a  "  Military  History  of  the  Swiss,"  etc.,  (1772.) 
Died  in  1799. 

Maya,  ma'yt,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  Illusion," 
and  applied  by  the  Hindoos  in  a  philosophical  or  mys 
tical  sense  to  that  Power  which  caused  or  created  the 
visible  phenomena  of  the  universe,  it  being  assumed  that 
external  objects  have  no  absolute  existence,  but  that 
they  are  mere  impressions  on  the  mind,  according  to 
the  theory  held  by  Berkeley  and  some  other  European 
philosophers.  The  Maya  of  the  Hindoo  mythology  is, 
according  to  some,  a  mighty  goddess,  regarded  as  the 
wife  or  consort  of  Brahma. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindoo  Mythology ;"  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dic 
tionary." 

Mayans  y  Siscar,  ml-5ns'  e  ses-kaR',  [Lat.  MAIAN'- 
sius,]  (GREGORIO,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  scholar,  born 
at  Oliva  in  1699.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Miguel  Cer 
vantes,"  (1738,)  and  a  number  of  legal  and  critical  works 
of  a  high  character.  Died  in  1781. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  STRODTMANN, 
"  G.  Maiansii  Vita,"  1756. 


Maydieu,  m.Vde-uh',  (JEAN,)  a  French  litterateur, 
who  was  born  at  Troyes,  and  lived  about  1760-1800.  He 
wrote  several  works  of  fiction. 

Mayemie  or  Maiemie,  de,  deh  mt'yeV,  (CHARLES 
DE  LORRAINE,)  Due,  an  able  French  general,  born  in 
1554,  was  the  second  son  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise. 
He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil  wars 
under  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.  His  brother  Henry 
and  he  organized  the  Catholic  League  in  1577.  (See 
GUISE,  DE,  HENRY,  DUKE.)  On  the  death  of  his  brother 
Henry,  in  1588,  the  Duke  of  Mayenne  became  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  League.  He  occupied 
Paris  in  February,  1589,  and  opposed  the  succession  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  defeated  Mayenne  at  Ivry  in  March, 
1590.  The  duke  retained  possession  of  Paris  until  1593, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Henry  IV.  in  1596. 
Died  in  1611. 

See  NKRVEZE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Due  de  Mayenne,"  1618 ; 
SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais  ;"  DAVII.A,  "  History  of  the 
Civil  Wars  of  France  ;"  H.  MARTIN,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Mayenne,  de,  (HENRI  DE  LORRAINE,)  Due,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1578.  He  acted  a  prominent 
part  in  the  tumults  and  violent  feuds  which  prevailed 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII.  In  1621  he  was 
killed  at  Montauban,  where  he  fought  against  the  Prot 
estants. 

Mayer,  mi'er,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1716;  died  in  1782. 

May'er,  (BRANZ,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  at  Baltimore  in  1809.  He  published  "  Mexico 
— Aztec,  Spanish,  and  Republican,"  (1851,)  "Observa 
tions  on  Mexican  History  and  Archaeology,"  etc.,  and 
"Mexican  Antiquities,"  (1858.) 

Mayer,  mt'ya',  (CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  a  French  novel 
ist  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Toulon  in  1751  ;  died 
about  1825. 

Mayer,  (JOHANN  CHRISTOPH  ANDREAS,)  a  German 
anatomist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1747,  became  physician 
to  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1789.  Died  in  1801. 

Mayer,  mi'er,  [Lat.  MAYE'RUS,]  (JOHANN  TOHIAS,) 
an  eminent  German  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Marbach  in  1723.  At  an  early  age  he  devoted  him 
self  to  the  study  of  the  e.xact  sciences,  and  in  1750 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Gottingen,  and  the  next  year  director  of  the  observatory 
in  that  place.  In  1755  he  published  his  "  Lunar  Tables," 
a  work  of  the  greatest  accuracy  and  which  at  once 
gained  him  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  many  able 
productions  we  may  name  the  "  Zodiacal  Catalogue,"  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Libration  of  the  Moon,"  "  Solar  Tables," 
and  "  Terrestrial  Refractions."  Mayer  also  discovered 
the  principle  of  the  repeating  circle,  since  developed  by 
Borda  and  employed  by  him  to  measure  the  arc  of  the 
meridian.  After  Mayer's  death,  which  took  place  in 
1762,  the  British  Parliament,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
board  of  longitude,  paid  to  his  widow  the  sum  of  ^3000, 
being  the  prize  offered  for  the  "Lunar  Tables." 

See  A.  G.  KASTNER,  "  Eloginm  T.  Mayeri,"  1762;  NOPITSCH. 
"  Lebensbeschreibnng  Tobias  Mayers,"  1805;  "  Nouvelle  Biograplue 
Generate. " 

Mayer  or  Mayr,  miR,  (SiMON,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer,  born  at  Mendorf,  in  Bavaria,  in  1763.  He 
studied  under  Lenzi  and  Bertoni  in  Italy,  and  in  1802 
became  chapel-master  at  Bergamo.  He  composed  a 
great  number  of  operas,  among  the  most  popular  of 
which  are  his  "  Medea,"  "  Lodoiska,"  and  "  Music-Mad," 
("  II  Fanatico  per  la  Musica.")  Died  in  1845. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Mnsiciens." 

Mayerne  -  Turquet,  de,  deh  mi'verm'  tuVki', 
(Louis,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons  about  1550,  was 
the  author  of  a  "General  History  of  Spain,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1618. 

Mayerne-Turquet,  de,  (THEODORE,)  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1573,  became  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  In  1611  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  James  I.  of  England,  and 
held  the  same  office  under  Charles  I.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  medical  works  in  Latin.  Died 
in  1655. 

See  SENEBIER,  "Histoire  litte'raire  de  Geneve." 

Mayerus.     See  MAYER,  (JOHANN  TOBIAS.) 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


MAT EUR 


555 


MAZARIN 


Mayeur  de  Saint-Paul,  mt'yUR'  deh  saN'pol', 
(FRANCOIS  MARIE,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1758,  published  a  number  of  comedies, 
romances,  and  poems.  Died  in  1818. 

Maygrier,  mi'gRe'a',  (JACQUES  PIERRE,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1771,  wrote  on  anatomy 
and  medicine.  Died  in  1835. 

May'hew,  (HENRY,)  an  English  litterateur  and  jour 
nalist,  born  in  London  in  1812.  He  was  one  of  the  found 
ers  of  the  periodical  entitled  "  Figaro  in  London,"  and 
in  1841  became  the  first  editor  of  "  Punch."  He  sub 
sequently  edited  the  "Comic  Almanac."  Among  his 
works  may  be  named  "  What  to  Teach,  and  How  to 
Teach  it,"  (1842,)  "London  Labour  and  the  London 
Poor,"  (1851,)  and  "The  Wonders  of  Science."  In 
conjunction  with  his  brothers  Augustus  and  Horace, 
he  published  a  series  of  comic  sketches. 

May'hew,  (JONATHAN,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1720,  was  distinguished  as 
a  preacher  and  controversialist,  and  published  a  number 
of  theological  works.  Among  these  we  may  name 
"Observations  on  the  Charter  and  Conduct  of  the  So 
ciety  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,"  and 
"  Christian  Sobriety."  Died  in  1766. 

Mayuard,  m^'naa',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1582,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Malherbe. 
He  was  the  author  of  odes,  epigrams,  and  other  poems, 
which  are  characterized  by  La  Harpeas  possessing  great 
eloquence  of  diction,  but  are  deficient  in  warmth.  Died 
in  1646. 

May'nard,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1602.  He  became  Cromwell's  sergeant 
in  1653,  and,  after  the  restoration,  filled  the  same  office 
under  Charles  II.  He  was  active  in  promoting  the  Revo 
lution  of  1688,  and  was  appointed  in  1689  one  of  the 
lords  commissioners  of  the  great  seal  of  England.  Died 
in  1690. 

Mayne,  man,  (JASPER,)  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1604.  He  obtained  several  offices 
under  Charles  I.,  of  which  he  was  deprived  after  Crom 
well's  usurpation.  On  the  restoration  he  was  appointed 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.,  and  Archdeacon  of 
Chichester.  He  was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled 
"The  City  Match,"  and  a  tragi-comedy  called  "The 
Amorous  Warre."  Died  in  1672. 

See  WOOD,  "Athenae  Oxonienses ;"  PRINCE,  "Worthies  of 
Devon;"  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Mayno,  ml'no,  (JuAN  BAUTISTA,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Toledo  about  1590,  was  drawing-master  to  Philip 
IV.  Among  his  best  productions  are  "The  Nativity" 
and  "The  Resurrection."  Died  in  1654. 

See  QUILLIET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Maynwaring,  man'a-ring,  (ARTHUR,)  an  English 
satirist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1668. 
He  was  for  a  time  attached  to  the  cause  of  James  II., 
and  satirized  the  government  of  William  III.,  to  which, 
however,  he  was  afterwards  reconciled.  After  the  peace 
of  Ryswick  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  ac 
quaintance  of  Boileau.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  Preston  in  1705.  Maynwaring's  productions,  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  were  much  esteemed,  and  Sir  Richard 
Steele  dedicated  to  him  the  first  volume  of  the  "Tatler." 
Died  in  1712. 

See  OLD.MIXON,  "Life  and  Posthumous  Works  of  A.  Mayn 
waring." 

Mayo,  ma'o,  (AMORY  DWIGHT,)  an  American  divine, 
born  at  Warwick,  Massachusetts,  in  1823,  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  Unitarian  Church  in  Albany. 
He  published  "Graces  and  Powers  of  the  Christian 
Life,"  (1852,)  "Symbols  of  the  Capital, "and  other  works. 
His  wife,  S.  C.  EDGARTON  MAYO,  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  poems  of  great  beauty,  chiefly  on  religious 
subjects.  She  died  about  1850. 

Ma'yo,  (HERUERT,)  an  English  physician,  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  acquired  distinction  as  a  lecturer.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geological 
Society.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Outlines  of 
Human  Physiology,"  (1827,)  "  Outlines  of  Human  Pa 
thology,"  (1836,)  (translated  into  German,)  "Philosophy 
of  Living,"  (1837,)  "The  Nervous  System  and  its  Func 


tions,"  (1842,)  and  "Letters  on  the  Truths  contained  in 
Popular  Superstitions,"  (1849.)    Died  near  Mentz  in  1852. 

Ma'yo,  (RICHARD  SOUTHWELL  BOURKE,)  EARL  OK, 
and  Lord  Naas,  a  Conservative  statesman,  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  1822.  He  was  appointed  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland  in  1852,  in  1858,  and  again  in  1866.  In  1868 
he  became  Governor-General  of  India.  Died  in  1870. 

Mayo,  (WILLIAM  STARHUCK,)  an  American  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Ogdensburg,  New  York,  in  1812.  He 
published,  in  1849,  "  Kaloolah,"  a  fictitious  tale  of  African 
adventure,  which  was  followed  by  "  The  Berber,  or  the 
Mountaineer  of  the  Atlas,"  (1850,)  and  "Romance-Dust 
from  the  Historic  Placer." 

Mayow,  ma'o,  ?  (JOHN,)  an  English  .physician,  born 
in  Cornwall  in  1645,  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
"On  Nitre  and  Nitro-Aerial  Spirit,"  in  which  he  origi 
nated  some  of  the  most  important  modern  discoveries 
in  pneumatic  chemistry.  Died  in  1679. 

Mayr,  von,  fon  miR,  (JOHANN  MARIE  ECK,)  a  Ger 
man  general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1716,  fought  for  Frede 
rick  the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  Died  in  1759. 

Mayseder,  ml'zeh-der,  (JOSEPH,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1789. 

Mazarin,  maz'a-reen',  [Fr.  pron.  mi/za"/raN/ ;  It.  MA- 
ZARINI,  mad-za-ree'nee  ;  Lat.  MAZARI'NUS,]  (GiULio  or 
JULES,)  CARDINAL,  a  celebrated  courtier  and  prime  min 
ister  of  France,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1602.  He  was,  edu 
cated  in  a  college  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  (where  his  father, 
Pietro  Mazarini,  resided,)  and  adopted  the  profession  of 
law.  He  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  an  adroit  nego 
tiator  in  the  service  of  the  pope,  when,  in  1630,  he  met 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  secured  his  attachment  to  the 
interest  of  France.  When  the  French  and  Spanish  were 
about  to  engage  at  Casal,  he  prevented  a  battle,  and  ne 
gotiated  the  treaty  of  Cherasco  in  1631.  He  was  nuncio 
extraordinary  to  France  in  1634,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  the  French  king,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
Savoy  in  1640.  Through  the  influence  of  the  French 
court,  Mazarin  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1641.  The  next 
year  he  was  admitted  into  the  supreme  council.  The 
death  of  Richelieu  (in  1642)  and  of  Louis  XIII.  (in  1643) 
opened  a  wider  sphere  to  the  ambition  of  Mazarin,  whom 
Richelieu  recommended  as  his  successor.  By  the  will 
of  the  late  king  he  was  declared  sole  adviser  of  the 
queen-regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  in  respect  to  ecclesiastic 
affairs,  and  he  soon  acquired  the  principal  power  in  the 
government,  as  well  as  the  confidence  of  that  queen.  He 
used  his  power  at  first  with  moderation,  and  courted 
popularity  by  gracious  and  affable  manners.  He  prose 
cuted  the  war  against  Spain  which  began  under  his  pre 
decessor,  and  in  which  Conde  and  Turenne  maintained 
the  honour  of  the  French  arms.  A  dispute  which  arose 
between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  was  fo 
mented  by  Cardinal  de  Retz  into  the  revolt  of  the  Paris 
ians  called  "  the  Day  of  the  Barricades,"  (August  27, 
1648,)  and  was  followed  by  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde. 
The"  queen,  with  her  son,  Louis  XIV.,  and  Mazarin,  were 
driven  out  of  Paris  in  1649  by  the  Frondeurs.  This  civil 
war  was  more  remarkable  for  the  levity  of  the  people  than 
for  their  military  exploits.  Ladies  directed  the  several 
factions,  and  cabals  were  made  or  broken  by  amorous 
intrigues.  In  the  midst  of  these  domestic  broils,  Maza 
rin  had  been  so  fortunate  or  politic  as  to  conclude  with 
the  German  emperor  the  famous  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
(1648,)  by  which  the  latter  ceded  to  France  the  province 
of  Alsace.  In  1651  the  cardinal  was  exiled  to  Cologne  ; 
but  about  two  years  later  he  returned  to  the  capital  in 
triumph,  and  the  end  of  the  rebellion,  in  1654,  restored 
him  to  his  former  power.  He  made  in  1655  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Cromwell,  who,  being  solicited  as  an  ally 
by  the  French  and  the  Spanish  courts,  preferred  the 
former.  He  acquired  the  same  influence  over  the. king, 
who  had  attained  his  majority,  as  he  had  exerted  over 
the  queen.  It  is  said  that  Louis  XIV.  wished  to  marry 
Marie  Mancini,  a  niece  of  his  minister,  but  the  latter 
discouraged  the  match,  and  in  1659  negotiated  a  marriage 
with  a  Spanish  princess.  Mazarin  once  said  "  Louis  con 
tained  the  material  for  four  kings  and  one  honest  man." 
He  died  at  Vincennes  in  March,  1661.  His  person  was 
remarkably  handsome,  and  his  manners  fascinating. 
"Mazarin,"  says  Mignet,  "had  a  far-seeing  and  invent- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAZARINl 


1556 


M4ZZINI 


ive  mind,  a  character  rather  supple  than  feeble.  His 
device  was  'Le  Temps  et  moi.'"  Much  diversity  of 
opinion  exists  respecting  his  merit  as  a  statesman  ;  but 
it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  he  was  able  and  skilful, 
and,  though  avaricious,  he  was  not  a  cruel  or  revengeful 
minister. 

See  AUBERV,  "  Histoire  clii  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  1751  ;  MIGNET, 
"  Memoires  relatifs  a  la  Succession  d'Espagne;"  SAINT-AUI.AIRE, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Fronde  ;"  HAZIN,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  Mi- 
nistere  du  Cardinal  Mazarin  ;"  VOI.TAIRK,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;" 
GUAI.DO-PKIORATO,  "Vita  del  Cardinal  Mazarini,"  1662;  JOHN 
CALVERT,  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Ma/.arin."  1670;  RETZ,  "Memoires:" 
SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Francais  ;"  GRAMONT,  "Memoires;"  V. 
COUSIN,  "  La  Jeunesse  de  Ma/.arin;"  "Nmivelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1831,  and  February,  1832. 

Mazaiini.     See  MAZARIN. 

Mazarinus.     See  MAZARIN. 

Mazarredo  y  Salazar,  ma-thar-ra'Do  e  sa-la- 
than',  (JosE  MARIA,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Bilbao 
in  1714,  distinguished  himself  by  his  defence  of  Cadiz 
against  the  English  in  1797.  He  was  appointed  by  Joseph 
Bonaparte  minister  of  the  marine  in  1808.  Died  in  1812. 

Mazdak,  maz'dak,  or  Maz'dek,  a  Persian  impostor, 
who  was  born  about  470  A.D.,  professed  to  be  a  prophet, 
and  advocated  a  community  of  property.  He  induced 
King  Kobad  to  adopt  his  system,  and  effected  great 
changes  in  the  social  order. 

Mazdek.     See  MA/.DAK. 

Mazeas,  mt'za'a',  (Gun.i.AUME,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Lamlernau  in  1712,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Died  in  1776. 

Mazel,  mi'zel',  (ABRAHAM,)  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Camisards  in  France,  born  at  Saint-Jean-du-Gard. 
After  the  insurrection  of  the  Cevennes,  in  1702,  he  was 
imprisoned,  but,  having  escaped,  he  again  attempted  to 
rouse  the  people  to  revolt,  and  was  killed  in  a  skirmish 
near  Uzes  in  1710. 

See  COUKT,  "  Hisioire  des  Camisards." 

Mazeline,  maV/len',  (PiKRRF.,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1633.  The  palace  of  Versailles  is 
adorned  with  several  ot  his  works.  Died  in  1708. 

Ma-zep'pa,  (I VAN  STEPANOVITCH,)  a  celebrated  Po 
lish  adventurer,  burn  in  the  government  of  Kief  in  1644, 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  John  Casimir,  King  of 
Poland.  I  laving  been  detected  in  an  intrigue  with  the  wife 
of  a  nobleman,  he  was  bound  by  his  orders  to  one  of  the 
wild  horses  of  the  Ukraine  and  carried  to  the  country 
of  the  Cossacks.  He  was  kindly  received  by  them, 
and  rose  to  be  hetman,  or  commander-in-chief  of  their 
armies,  about  1687.  When  Peter  the  Great  attempted 
to  take  possession  of  the  Ukraine,  Mazeppa  strongly 
opposed  the  measure,  but,  finding  resistance  vain,  en 
tered  into  a  negotiation  with  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
for  the  independence  of  his  country.  The  plan  being 
discovered,  and  Mazeppa  deserted  by  his  troops,  lie 
joined  the  Swedish  army,  and  after  the  battle  of  Pultava 
took  refuge  in  Turkey,  where  he  died  in  1709.  The  ad 
ventures  of  Mazeppa  have  formed  the  subject  of  one  of 
Byron's  poems. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "Histoire  de  Charles  XII;"  LESUR,  "Histoire 
des  Cosaques;"  ADI.KRFEI.D,  "  Hist<  ire  militaire  de  Charles  XII  ;" 
K.AMKNSKI,  "Life  of  Mazepra,"  (in  Russian,)  1834. 

Mazois,  nii'zwa',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
architect  and  antiquary,  born  at  Lorient  in  1783,  vvas 
employed  by  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  to  restore  the 
Portici  palace,  and  other  edifices.  He  afterwards  in 
vestigated  the  antiquities  of  Pompeii.  He  published  in 
iSu  his  principal  work,  "The  Ruins  of  Pompeii,"  the 
last  two  volumes  of  which  appeared  after  his  death. 
Died  in  1826. 

Mazolini,  mad-zo-lee'nee,  [Lat.  PRIE'RIAS,  derived 
from  the  name  of  his  birthplace,]  (SiLVESTRO,)  an  Italian 
theologian,  born  at  Prierio  about  1460;  died  in  1523. 

Mazo-Martinez,  del,  del  ma'tho  maR-tee'neth, 
(JUAN  BAUTISTA,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid 
about  1620,  was  a  pupil  and  son-in-law  of  Velasquez, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1661  as  painter  to  Philip  IV.  His 
portraits  and  landscapes  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1687. 

Mazure,  mt'zuR',  (F.  A.  J.,)  a  French  journalist  and 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1776,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  English  Revolution  of  1688,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Vol 
taire."  Died  in  1828. 


Mazza,  mat'sa,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Parma  in  1724.  He  published  "Select  Chap 
ters  of  Church  History,"  (in  Latin,  1757.)  Died  in  1797. 

Mazza,  (ANGEI.O,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  in 
1741,  became  professor  of  Greek  in  his  native  city,  (1768.) 
He  was  the  author  of  an  ode  entitled  "Aura  Armonica," 
and  a  number  of  lyrics,  which  obtained  for  him  a  high 
reputation.  Died  in  1817. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Ita'hni  illustri." 

Mazza,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Bo 
logna  in  1652  ;  died  in  1741. 

Mazzinghi,  mat-sen'gee  ?  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  mu 
sician  and  composer,  born  in  London  in  1768,  was 
patronized  by  George  III.  and  George  IV.  Among  his 
most  popular  operas  we  may  name  "The  Blind  Girl," 
"The  Exile,"  and  "Paul  and  Virginia."  Died  at  Bath 
in  1844. 

Mazzini,  mat-see'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  patriot  and  writer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1807,  was 
educated  for  the  profession  of  law.  In  his  youth  he 
wrote  a  number  of  literary  articles  for  the  "  Inclicatore 
Genovese"  and  other  journals,  and  was  an  adherent  of 
the  romantic  school.  He  devoted  himself  at  an  early 
age  to  the  liberation  and  unity  of  Italy,  which  was  then 
degraded  and  oppressed  by  Austria  and  by  various  petty 
despots.  In  1830  he  joined  the  Society  of  Carbonari, 
which  he  proposed  to  reform.  Having  been  banished 
or  proscribed,  he  retired  in  1831  to  Marseilles,  where  he 
organized  a  political  association  called  "  Young  Italy," 
(La  Giovine  Italia,)  whose  watchword  was  "God  and 
the  People,"  and  whose  fundamental  idea  was  that  the 
liberty  of  the  Italians  can  only  be  secured  by  the  union 
of  the  several  states  or  kingdoms  into  one  nation.  He 
propagated  his  principles  by  writings,  and,  during  a 
long  period  of  exile  and  adversity,  pursued  his  purpose 
witli  invincible  constancy. 

About  1842  he  became  a  resident  of  London,  and 
began  to  contribute  political  and  scientific  articles  to 
various  journals,  among  which  was  the  "  Westminster 
Review."  His  letters  were  opened  in  the  post-office  in 
1844  by  the  British  secretary  for  the  home  department, 
Sir  James  Graham.  The  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848  restored  him  to  his  native  country.  He  issued  a 
journal  called  "  Italia  del  Popolo,"  and,  although  he 
preferred  a  republic,  was  disposed  to  co-operate  with 
King  Charles  Albert  in  resistance  to  Austrian  domina 
tion,  and  he  enlisted  under  the  standard  of  Garibaldi. 
In  February,  1849,  he  went  to  Rome,  in  which  a  republic 
had  recently  been  organized  after  the  flight  of  the  pope. 
He  was  quickly  recognized  as  the  leader  and  master 
spirit  of  the  republicans,  and  in  March  of  that  year 
Mazzini,  Saffi,  and  Armellini  were  appointed  triumvirs. 
They  defended  Rome  resolutely  against  the  French 
army,  by  which  that  city  vvas  at  length  captured  in  July, 
1849.  Mazzini  then  went  into  exile,  and  chose  London 
as  the  base  of  his  operations.  He  associated  himself 
with  Kossuth  and  Ledru-Rollin  to  form  an  international 
revolutionary  committee  about  1851. 

In  1857  he  incited  an  insurrection  in  Northern  Italy, 
and  went  to  Genoa  to  direct  it ;  but  the  movement  failed. 
He  co-operated  with  Garibaldi  in  his  victorious  expedi 
tion  to  Sicily  in  1860,  and  opposed  the  project  which 
Napoleon  III.  formed  for  a  confederation  of  Italian 
states.  In  1861  he  republished,  with  additions,  an  es 
say  "On  the  Unity  of  Italy,"  in  which  he  says,  "  I  know 
that  the  idea  of  a  confederation  is  both  the  counsel  and 
design  of  one  whom  many  Italians  still  regard  as  the 
friend  and  protector  of  Italy ;  but  I  know,  too,  that  he  is 
treacherous,  a  foreigner,  and  a  despot.  That  he  should 
seek  to  weaken  in  order  to  dominate  us  is  easily  under 
stood  ;  but  the  mere  fact  that  the  suggestion  springs 
from  such  a  source  ought  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful 
warnings  against  it." 

Some  of  his  predictions  have  been  verified  by  recent 
events  in  Italy,  which  have  tended  to  raise  his  reputation 
for  sagacity  and  practical  wisdom.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  "The  Duties  of  Man,"  (1858;  English 
version,  1862,)  which  enjoys  great  popularity  in  Italy, 
and  of  many  other  works.  In  1864  appeared  the  first 
volume  of  the  "Life  and  Writings  of  Joseph  Mazzini," 
in  English,  (6  vols.) 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i.  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  radon? 


MAZZOCCHI 


'557 


MEADE 


The  character  of  Mazzini  is  well  described  by  Thomas 
Carlyle  in  a  letter  to  the  London  "Times,"  June,  1844, 
reprinted  in  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  September 
of  that  year.  He  says,  "  I  have  had  the  honour  to  know 
M.  Mazzini  for  a  series  of  years  ;  and  I  can,  with  great 
freedom,  testify  to  all  men  that  he,  if  I  have  ever  seen 
one  such,  is  a  man  of  genius  and  virtue,  a  man  of  sterling 
veracity,  humanity,  and  nobleness  of  mind, — one  of  those 
rare  men,  numerable,  unfortunately,  but  as  units  in  this 
world,  who  are  worthy  to  be  called  martyr-souls  ;  who 
in  silence  piously  in  their  daily  life  understand  and 
practise  what  is  meant  by  that." 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  6  vols.,  1864;  JULES  DK  BREVAL, 
"  Mazzini  jtigd  par  lui-meme,"  1853  ;  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations 
Lexikon"  for  1859. 

Ma-zzocchi,  mat-sok'kee,  or  Mazzoccolo,  mat-sok'- 
ko-lo,  (ALESSio  SIMMACHO,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Santa  Maria  di  Capua  in  1684.  He  became  professor 
of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Naples,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  of  Paris.  He  wrote  many 
valuable  treatises  in  Latin  and  Italian.  Died  in  1771. 

Mazzoccolo.     See  MAZZOCCHI. 

Mazzola,  mat-so'la,  (GIROI.AMO  BEDOLO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  sometimes  called  MAZZOLINO,  born  near  Parma 
in  1 503,  was  the  most  distinguished  pupil  of  Parmigiano. 
He  excelled  as  a  colorist  and  in  perspective.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  "  Madonna  with  Saint  Cathe 
rine,"  and  "Miracle  of  the  Multiplication  of  Loaves." 
Died  about  1590. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mazzola,  Mazzuola,  mat-soo-o'la,  or  Mazzuoli, 
mat-soo-o'lee,  (GiROLAMO  FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  an  emi 
nent  Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  PARMIGIANO,  ("the 
Parmesan,")  born  at  Parma  in  1503.  He  visited  Rome 
in  1523,  and  was  employed  by  Clement  VII.  to  execute 
a  number  of  works  in  that  city.  His  style,  formed 
on  that  of  Correggio  and  Raphael,  is  characterized  by 
exceeding  grace  and  delicacy  of  form  and  softness  of 
colouring,  and  it  was  said  by  his  admirers  that  "  the 
spirit  of  Raphael  had  passed  into  him."  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  the  "  Madonna  della  Rosa,"  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden,  an  "Annunciation,"  in  the  principal 
church  of  Viadana,  the  "Madonna  with  Saint  Margaret, 
Saint  Jerome,"  etc.,  in  the  Museum  at  Bologna,  the 
"  Madonna  dello  Lungo  Collo,"  at  Florence,  and  the 
"  Vision  of  Saint  Jerome,"  in  the  National  Gallery,  Lon 
don.  Mazzola  was  the  first  Italian  artist  who  engraved 
with  aquafortis.  Died  in  1540. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  AFFO,  "Vita  di  F- 
Mazzo'a,"  1784;  MRS.  JAMESON,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian 
Painters;"  F.  BELLINI,  "Cenni  intorno  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  di 
F.  Mazzola,"  1844;  MORTARA,  "  Memoria  della  Vita  di  F.  Maz 
zuola,"  1846. 

Mazzolari,  mat-so-la'ree,  (GIUSEPPE  MARIA,)  called 
also  MARIANO  PARTENIO,  an  Italian  writer  and  excellent 
Latin  scholar,  born  at  Pesaro  in  1712.  He  published 
poems,  orations,  critical  essays,  commentaries,  etc.  Died 
in  1786. 

See  MONTENARI,  "  Biografia  di  G.  M.  Mazzolari,"  1837. 

Mazzoli     See  MAZZOLA. 

Mazzoliiio,  mat-so-lee'no,  (Lunovico,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  II.  FERKARESK,  was  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1481.  His  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and 
"  Christ  in  the  Midst  of  the  Scribes,"  are  ranked  among 
his  master-pieces.  Died  about  1530. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mazzoni,  mat-so'nee,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Cesena  in  1548.  He  produced  several  critical 
and  philosophical  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  his  "Defence  of  Dante,"  ("Defesa  di  Dante,"  1573.) 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso.  Died  in  19^8. 

See  SERASSI,  "Vita  di  G.  Mazzoni,"  1790;  GINGUEN^,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Litterature  Italienne." 

Mazzuchelli,  mat-soo-kel'lee,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,) 
COUNT,  an  Italian  biographer,  born  at  Brescia  in  1707. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical  and  Critical  Notices 
of  the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Learned  Italians,"  ("Scrit- 
tori  d'ltalia,  cioe  Notizie  storiche  e  critiche  intorno  alle 
Vite  ed  agli  Scritti  de  letterati  Italian!,")  a  work  of  great 
merit,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  published 
two  volumes  of  this  work,  (1753-63.)  Among  his  other 


works  are  a  "Life  of  Archimedes,"  (1737,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Pietro  Aretino,"  (1741.)     Died  in  1765. 

See  RODEI.LA,  "Vita  del  Conte  G.  Mazzuchelli,"  1766;  FABSONI, 
"  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  TIPALDO,  "Biografia  degli 
Italian!  illustri;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Mazzuchelli,  (PIERO  FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  MORAZZONE,  was  born  at  the  village  of  that 
name  in  1571.  He  studied  at  Milan,  where  he  after 
wards  established  a  school.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  a  "  Flagellation,"  and  "  Saint  Michael  Triumphant." 
Died  in  1626. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mazzuola.     See  MAZZOLA. 

Mazzuoli.     See  MAZZOLA. 

Mazzuoli,  mat-soo-o'lee,  or  Mazzola,  mat'so-la, 
(FILIPPO  or  GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL 
BASTARUOLO,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1530;  died  in  1589. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mead,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1629.  He  was  the  author 
of  "The  Young  Man's  Remembrancer,"  and  "Sermons 
on  Ezekiel's  Wheels."  Died  in  1699. 

Mead,  (RICHARD,)  a  celebrated  English  physician, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stepney  in  1673.  He 
studied  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  visited  Italy,  where 
he  took  his  medical  degree  at  Padua.  He  was  after 
wards  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  and  on  the  accession  of  George 
II.  (1727)  became  his  physician-in-ordinary.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Mechanical  Account  of  Poisons," 
(1702,)  "A  Short  Discourse  concerning  Pestilential  Con 
tagion,"  (1720,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and 
Latin,  "  Medicina  Sacra,"  (1749,)  or  an  account  of  dis 
eases  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  other  medical  works 
of  a  high  character.  Dr.  Mead  numbered  among  his 
friends  Pope,  Newton,  and  Boerhaave.  Died  in  1754. 

See  MATV,  "Authentic  Memoirs  of  Richard  Mead,"  1755;  LE- 
MAN,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Dr.  Richard  Mead." 

Meade,  meed,  (GEORGE  G.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  was  born  in  1816,  at  Cadiz,  in  Spain,  where 
his  father,  R.  W.  Meade,  was  United  States  consul. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1856. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
August,  1861,  and  served  in  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
June  27,  1862.  At  Malvern  Hill  he  received  two  wounds, 
July  i.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Antietam,  Sep 
tember  17,  1862.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general,  he  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg,  December  13,  1862,  and  at  that  of  Chancel- 
lorsville,  May  2-3,  1863.  On  the  28th  of  June  ensuing, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
the  Potomac.  Just  before  the  date  last  named,  Gen 
eral  Lee  had  invaded  Pennsylvania  with  a  large  army, 
which  the  Union  army  encountered  at  Gettysburg  on 
the  ist  of  July.  General  Meade,  whose  forces  occu 
pied  a  good  position  on  a  range  of  hills,  acted  mostly  on 
the  defensive  at  this  battle,  which  lasted  three  clays  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  triumph  of  the  Union  cause. 
(See  LEE,  R.  E.)  General  Meade  reported  that  he  took 
at  Gettysburg  13,621  prisoners,  some  of  whom  were 
probably  wounded,  and  he  lost  16,643  killed  and  wounded. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regu 
lar  army  by  a  commission  dated  July  3,  1863.  About 
the  1 8th  of  July  he  moved  his  army  across  the  Potomac 
into  Virginia,  where  he  had  several  skirmishes  with  the 
enemy  in  October  and  November,  1863.  He  was  second 
in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  its  operations 
against  Richmond  in  1864.  "  I  tried  as  far  as  possible," 
says  General  Grant,  "to  leave  General  Meade  in  inde 
pendent  command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  My 
instructions  for  that  army  were  all  through  him,  and 
were  general  in  their  nature,  leaving  all  the  details  and  the 
execution  to  him.  The  campaigns  that  followed  proved 
him  to  be  the  right  man  in  the  right  place."  In  August, 
1864,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  of  the  regular 
army.  The  army  of  which  he  had  the  immediate  com 
mand  fought  great  battles  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsyl- 
vania  Court- House,  and  Cold  Harbour,  and  was  em 
ployed  many  months  in  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  (See 
GRANT,  U.  S.)  General  Meade  was  appointed  com- 


•e  as  k;  $  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


MEADE 


1558 


MEDICI 


mander  of  the  third  military  district,  comprising  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  Alabama,  in  December,  1867. 

Meade,  (RICHARD  KIDDER,)  an  American  soldier  of 
the  Revolution,  born  in  Nansemond  county,  Virginia, 
about  1 750,  was  one  of  General  Washington's  aides.  Died 
about  1810. 

Meade,  (WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Clarke  county,  Virginia,  in  1789.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1808,  and  in  1841  succeeded 
Bishop  Moore  as  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  Virginia.  He  published  several  theological 
works.  Died  in  1862. 

Meadowcourt,  m§d'o-kort,  (RICHARD,)  an  English 
critic,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1697,  published  Notes  on 
Milton's  "  Paradise  Regained."  Died  in  1769. 

Meagher,  ma'ner  or  ma'er,  (THOMAS  FRANCIS,)  a 
general,  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  in  1823.  He  joined 
the  movement  for  the  independence  of  Ireland,  and  was 
condemned  in  1848  to  banishment  or  penal  servitude 
for  life.  He  escaped  from  Tasmania  in  1852,  and  took 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  He  raised  in  1861  an  Irish 
brigade,  which  he  commanded  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  at  Antietam,  September  17,  and  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862.  Died  in  1867. 

Mean,  de,  deh  ma'6N',  (CHARI.KS,)  BARON,  a  Belgian 
jurist,  born  at  Liege  in  1604;  died  in  1674. 

Means,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born 
in  North  Carolina  in  1801.  He  became  professor  of 
natural  science  in  Emory  College  in  1838,  and  professor 
of  chemistry  in  a  medical  college  at  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
in  1855. 

Meaume,  mom,  (finotTARD,)  a  French  jurist  and 
archaeologist,  born  at  Ronen  in  1812.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Life  of  Jacques  Callot,"  (2  vols.,  1860.) 

Mecenate.    See  MAECENAS. 

Mecene,  the  French  of  M<«CENAS,  (which  see.) 

Mechain,  ma'sha.N',  (PIERRE  FRANC.OIS  ANDR£,)  an 
eminent  French  astronomer,  born  at  Laon  in  1744. 
Having  visited  Paris,  he  acquired  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  Lalande.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  about  1782,  and  in  1785  succeeded 
Jeaurat  as  editor  of  the  "  Connaissances  des  Temps.7'  In 
1791  he  was  appointed,  conjointly  with  Delambre,  to 
measure  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona.  Dissatisfied  with  the  result  of  his  calcula 
tions,  he  was  preparing  to  prolong  the  measurement  to 
the  Balearic  Isles,  when  he  was  attacked  with  fever,  and 
died  on  the  journey,  (1805.) 

See  DELAMBRE,  "Histoire  de  1'Astronomie  au  dix-huitieme 
Siecle." 

Mechel,  mek'el,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Swiss  engraver,  born 
at  Bale  in  1737;  died  in  1817. 

Mecheln,  mgK'eln,  or  Meckenen,  van,  vSn  mek'- 
keh-nen',  (ISRAEL,)  a  celebrated  German  painter  and 
engraver,  said  to  have  been  born  near  Bocholt,  in  the 
bishopric  of  Munster.  It  is,  however,  supposed  by  many 
that  there  were  two  artists  of  the  name.  The  principal 
works  attributed  to  Meister  Israel,  as  he  was  called,  are 
in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  They  possess  great  excel 
lence,  and  entitle  him  to  rank  with  Van  Eyck,  Memling, 
and  other  eminent  painters  of  the  Flemish  school.  Died 
in  1503. 

Mecheriiio.     See  BKCCAFUMI. 

Mechi,  m§k'e,  ?  (JOHN  JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  cul 
tivator  and  agricultural  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born 
in  England  about  1800.  Having  made  a  fortune  by  trade 
in  London,  he  purchased  in  Essex  a  farm,  which  is  es 
teemed  one  of  the  finest  in  England.  He  also  published 
"Letters  on  Agricultural  Improvement,"  "Experience 
in  Drainage,"  and  "  How  to  Farm  Profitably,"  (1859.) 

Mechitar.     See  MKKHITAR. 

Meckel,  me'k'kel,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  an  eminent 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Wetzlar  in  1714.    He  became 
surgeon  to  the  King  of  Prussia.     He  made  discoverie 
in  anatomy,  and  wrote  numerous  medical  and  anatomical 
works.     Died  in  1774. 

See  J.  H.  S.  FORMEY,  "  filoge  de  M.  Meckel,"  1774. 

Meckel,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  anatomist, 
born  at  Halle  in  1781,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy  at  Halle 
in  1806.  He  published  "  Contributions  to  Comparative 


Anatomy,"  and  translated  Cuvier's  "  Comparative  Anat 
omy,"  to  which  he  added  valuable  notes.  Died  in  1833. 

Meckenen.     See  MECKELN. 

Meda,  ma'df,  or  Merda,  mea'df,  (CHARLES  AN 
DRE,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1775,  served  in  the  prin 
cipal  wars  of  the  Revolution,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
general  of  brigade,  (1808.)  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Moskwa,  (1812.) 

Mede,  meed,  (JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  divine,  born  in  Essex  in  1586.  He  studied  at  Christ 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  afterwards  became  pro 
fessor  of  Greek.  His  "Clavis  Apocalyptica,"  published 
in  1627,  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  Died  in  1638. 

See  "Life  of  Joseph  Mede,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  1672. 

Me-de'a,  [Gr.  M//<5«a;  Fr.  MEDEK,  ma'cla',]  a  famous 
sorceress,  daughter  of  /Eetes,  King  of  Colchis.  Having 
assisted  Jason  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece,  she  became 
his  wife  and  accompanied  him  to  Greece.  Being  after 
wards  deserted  by  him,  she  destroyed  their  two  sons. 
The  story  of  Medea  has  formed  the  subject  of  tragedies 
by  Euripides  and  Sophocles  among  the  ancients,  and 
Corneille  among  the  moderns.  Those  written  by  Soph 
ocles,  /Eschylus,  and  Ovid  are  lost. 

Medee.     See  MEDKA. 

Mederer,  ma'deh-rer,  (JOHANN  NEPOMUK,)  a  Ger 
man  litterateur,  born  in  1734,  published  several  works  on 
German  history.  Died  in  1808. 

Med'hurst,  (WALTER  HENRY,)  an  English  mission 
ary  and  Chinese  scholar,  born  in  London  in  1796.  Hav 
ing  spent  many  years  in  China,  Java,  and  Malacca,  and 
become  thoroughly  versed  in  the  languages  of  those 
countries,  he  published  a  "  Chinese-and-English  Dic 
tionary,"  (1842,)  "Chinese  Dialogues,"  (1844,)  "English- 
and-Japanese  Vocabulary,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 

1857- 

Medici,  (A  LESS  AN  DUO  DE'.)     See  LEO  XI. 

Medici,  de',  da  m£d'e-chee  or  ma'de-chee,  (  ALESSAN- 
DRO,)  the  subverter  of  the  liberties  of  Florence,  born  in 
1510,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  natural  son  of 
Lorenzo,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  by  others,  of  the  cardi 
nal  Giulio  de'  Medici,  afterwards  Clement  VII.  After 
the  sacking  of  Rome,  in  1527,  the  latter  made  a  treaty 
with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1529,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Medici  should  be  restored  to  their 
former  rank  at  Florence,  with  Alexander  as  chief  of  the 
republic.  A  marriage  was  also  arranged  betsveen  him 
and  Margaret  of  Austria,  a  natural  daughter  of  the  em 
peror.  In  1530  Florence  was  taken  by  the  Imperial 
troops  under  Ferdinand  de  Gonzaga,  and  soon  after  the 
pope  obtained  from  the  emperor  a  diploma  which  was 
to  decide  the  constitution  of  Florence.  By  this  article 
Alexander  was  declared  head  of  the  republic,  but  the 
Florentines  were  left  in  possession  of  the  same  privileges 
they  had  enjoyed  under  the  former  Medici.  At  length,  by 
the  united  intrigues  of  Clement  VII.  and  Alexander,  the 
latter  was  declared  duke  of  the  republic  in  1532,  and  the 
old  form  of  government  was  abolished.  He  now  sig 
nalized  himself  by  every  species  of  cruelty  and  oppres 
sion.  In  1535,  Cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici,  whom  he 
had  long  feared  as  a  rival,  was  poisoned  by  his  orders  ; 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  his  own 
mother  in  the  same  manner.  In  1537,  Lorenzino  cle" 
Medici,  a  distant  relative  of  the  duke,  desiring  to  rid 
his  country  of  such  a  tyrant,  procured  his  assassination. 
Alexander  left  a  son,  named  Giulia.no. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  MADAME 
ALLART,  "  Histoire  de  la  Republique  cle  Florence." 

Medici,  de',  (CosiMo  or  COSMO,)  surnamed  THE 
ELDER,  a  celebrated  statesman  of  the  Florentine  repub 
lic,  was  born  in  1389.  lie  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  made  a  munificent  use  of  the  immense 
fortune  he  had  accumulated  by  commerce,  in  adorning 
his  native  city  with  public  edifices  and  founding  institu 
tions  for  educational  and  charitable  purposes.  Among  the 
most  important  of  these  was  an  academy  at  Florence  for 
teaching  the  Platonic  philosophy,  at  the  head  of  which 
he  placed  Marsilio  Ficino.  He  also  made  a  large  col 
lection  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Oriental  manuscripts,  which 
he  bestowed  on  the  Laurentian  Library.  These  benefits, 
and  the  urbanity  and  moderation  of  his  character,  won 
for  him  great  personal  popularity  and  the  title  of  "  Father 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


MEDICI 


1559 


MEDINA 


of  his  Country."  To  give  a  detailed  account  of  his  ser 
vices  to  literature  and  art  would  be  to  write  the  history 
of  the  Renaissance  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  cen 
tury.  Li  the  words  of  Ginguene,  "  One  saw  at  Florence 
Masaccio  and  Lippi  adorn  churches  and  palaces  with 
the  productions  of  their  pencil,  Donatelli  give  life  and 
expression  to  marble,  and  Brunelleschi,  architect,  sculp 
tor,  and  poet,  raise  the  magnificent  cupola  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore  ;  while  the  Greek  refugees,  in  return 
for  the  noble  asylum  he  had  given  them,  spread  abroad 
the  treasures  of  their  beautiful  language  and  the  master 
pieces  of  their  orators,  philosophers,  and  poets."  Cosimo 
died  in  1464,  leaving  a  son,  named  Piero. 

Medici,  de',  (CosiMO,)  called  THE  GREAT,  [Lat. 
COS'MUS  MEDICE'US  MAG'NUS,]  son  of  the  general 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  was  born  in  1519.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander  he  was  declared  his  successor  in  1537,  through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Cibo,  which  choice  was  con 
firmed  by  Charles  V.  In  1537  he  obtained  a  victory  at 
Montemerlo  over  the  hostile  Florentines.  Cruel  and 
suspicious  in  his  disposition,  he  caused  upwards  of  four 
hundred  Florentine  emigrants  to  be  put  to  death  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign,  and,  having  deprived  the  magis 
trates  of  all  authority,  was  invested  with  absolute  power. 
In  1554  the  Marquis  de  Marignano,  one  of  his  generals, 
defeated  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Strozzi,  at 
Siamiagallo,  and  soon  after  Philip  II.,  having  succeeded 
the  emperor,  conferred  upon  the  Duke  of  Florence  the 
state  of  Sienna,  with  the  exception  of  the  ports.  In  1562 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  a  son  of  Cosimo,  died  suddenly, 
as  is  supposed,  by  the  hand  of  his  brother  Don  Garcias. 
A  short  time  'after,  the  latter  also  died,  and  his  father 
was  charged  with  his  death.  Eleonora  of  Toledo,  wife 
of  the  grand  duke,  soon  followed  her  sons,  and  her  death 
was  likewise  attributed  to  Cosimo.  These  fatal  events 
form  the  subject  of  Alfieri's  tragedy  of  "Don  Garcias." 
In  1564  Cosimo  made  his  son  Francesco  his  associate  in 
the  government,  and  in  1569  he  was  declared  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  by  a  bull  of  Pius  V.  He  died  in  1574, 
leaving  three  legitimate  sons,  Francesco,  Ferdinand,  and 
Piero. 

See  BAI.DINI,  "Vita  di  Cosmo  de'  Medici  1.,"  1578;  FAHRONI, 
"  Magni  Cosmi  Medicei  Vita ;"  ALDO  MANUCCI,  "Vita  di  Cosimo 
de'  Medici,"  1586;  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Repubiiques  Itali- 
ennes. " 

Medici,  de',  (CosiMO  II.,)  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
born  in  1590,  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  I.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1609,  and  ruled  with  moderation  and  clemency. 
Died  in  1621. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Repubiiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (CosiMO  III.,)  a  son  of  Ferdinand  II., 
was  born  in  1642,  and  became  grand  duke  in  1670.  He 
married  Marguerite  d'Orleans,  (a  daughter  of  Gaston  de 
France,)  who  regarded  Cosimo  with  extreme  dislike  and 
caused  him  much  trouble.  He  died  in  1723,  and  his 
family  then  became  extinct. 

See  BOTTA,  "Storia  d' Italia." 

Medici,  de',  (GIOVANNI.)     See  LEO  X. 

Medici,  de',  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  statesman,  born 
in  1360,  was  the  father  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  noticed 
above.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  commerce,  and 
rose  through  various  offices  to  be  gonfaloniere  of  justice 
in  1421.  Died  in  1428. 

See  MACHIAVKL,  "  Storie  Florentine." 

Medici,  de',  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  general,  of  the 
same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1498.  He 
distinguished  himself  both  by  his  courage  and  his 
ferocity  in  the  civil  wars  of  his  country,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  French  service.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
in  battle  in  1526. 

Medici,  de',  (GIULIANO,)  youngest  son  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent,  was  born  in  1478.  He  married  in  1515 
Philiberta  of  Savoy,  aunt  of  Francis  I.,  by  whom  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Nemours.  Died  in  1516. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Giui.io.)     See  CLEMENT  VII. 

Medici,  de',  (Ippoi.rro,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Urbino  in  1511,  was  a  natural  son  of  Giuliano,  noticed 
above.  He  possessed  immense  wealth,  and  was  noted 
for  his  accomplishments  and  his  profligacy.  He  died 
in  1535,  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered,  it  is 


supposed,   by   order  of  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke 
of  Florence. 

See  VARCHI,  "  Istoria  Fiorentina." 

Medici,  de',  (LORENZO  I.,)  surnamed  THE  MAGNIFI 
CENT,  [Fr.  LAURENT  LE  MAGNIFIQUE,  16'roN'  leh  mSn'- 
ye'fek' ;  Lat.  LAUREN'TIUS  MED'ICES  or  MEDICE'US  ; 
It.  LORENZO  IL  MAGMFICO,  lo-re"n'zo  el  man-yef'e-ko,] 
Prince  of  Florence,  was  born  in  1448.  He  was  the  son 
of  Piero  I.,  and  grandson  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  and, 
having  early  entered  public  life,  succeeded  to  the  influ 
ence  and  popularity  of  his  predecessors.  He  was  care 
fully  educated  by  the  best  masters  of  the  time,  being 
instructed  in  the  Platonic  philosophy  by  the  celebrated 
Marsilio  Ficino.  In  1478  he  narrowly  escaped  falling 
a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  formed  by  the  Pazzi  family  of 
Florence  in  conjunction  with  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa 
and  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  His  brother  Giuliano  was  assas 
sinated,  and  he  received  a  slight  wound.  The  Arch 
bishop  of  Pisa  was  hanged  for  this  offence,  and  Lorenzo 
was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  In  1484  the 
latter  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  VIII.,  who 
became  a  friend  and  ally  of  Lorenzo.  Florence  enjoyed 
great  prosperity  under  the  government  of  Lorenzo,  who 
acquired  the  favour  of  the  people  by  his  munificence, 
prudence,  and  clemency.  He  was  highly  distinguished 
as  a  patron  of  literature  and  art,  founded  at  Florence  an 
academy  for  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  expended  large 
sums  in  the  erection  of  public  edifices  and  in  the  collec 
tion  of  libraries.  He  also  attained  considerable  eminence 
as  a  poet.  Died  in  April,  1492. 

See  ROSCOE,  "Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici."  2  vols.  4to,  1795: 
ANCELO  FABRONI,  "  Laurentii  Medicis  Magnifici  Vita,"  2  vols., 
1784;  PAMRE-MASSON,  "  Vita  Laurentii  Medicis,"  1587;  MACCHIA- 
VEM.I,  "  Istorie  Florentine  ;"  N.  VALORI,  "  Laurentii  Medicei  Vita," 
1749;  SCIPIONH  AMMIRATO,  "  Istorie  Florentine;"  SISMONDI,  "  His 
toire  des  Repubiiques  Italiennes;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen£- 
rale;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  REV.  HENRY  STEBBING,  London,  1831. 

Medici,  de',  (LORENZO  II.,)  eldest  son  of  Piero  II., 
born  at  Florence  in  1492,  was  placed,  through  the  in 
fluence  of  his  uncle,  Leo  X.,  at  the  head  of  the  republic. 
He  married  in  1518  Madeleine  de  La  Tour,  daughter  of 
Jean,  Count  d'Auvergne,  and  died  in  1519,  leaving  an 
infant  daughter,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  afterwards  Queen 
of  France. 

Medici,  de',  (Luoovico,)  Duke  of  Sarto,  called  also 
the  CHEVALIER  DE  MEDICI,  a  Neapolitan  statesman,  born 
in  1760.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1810, 
and  in  1815  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna.  Died 
in  1830. 

Medici,  de',  (PIERO  I.,)  eldest  son  of  Cosimo  the 
Elder,  born  in  1414,  succeeded  his  father  as  chief  of  the 
Florentine  republic.  He  had  powerful  rivals  in  the 
Pitti  family  and  other  nobles  of  Florence,  whose  attempt 
to  assassinate  him  was  defeated  by  the  prudence  of  his 
son  Lorenzo.  Died  in  1469. 

See  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Repubiiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (PiERO  II.,)  eldest  son  of  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1471.  He  succeeded 
to  the  rank  and  influence  of  his  father  in  the  republic  ; 
but  his  arrogance  and  rashness  soon  deprived  him  of  the 
popularity  hitherto  enjoyed  by  his  family.  On  the  in 
vasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.,  in  1494,  Piero  made 
overtures  to  the  French  king,  into  whose  hands  he  sur 
rendered  several  important  places.  Having  subsequently 
entered  the  French  army,  he  shared  in  its  defeat  at  the 
Garigliano  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  in  1503,  and  was 
drowned  in  attempting  to  cross  the  river. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Repubiiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (SALVESTRO,)  a  Florentine  statesman, 
belonged  to  the  Ghibeline  faction,  and  was  one  of  the 
principal  rivals  of  the  Albizzi  family.  He  was  made 
gonfaloniere  of  justice  in  1378;  but,  the  Guelph  party 
having  again  come  into  power,  he  was  banished  in  1381. 

See  NOBLE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Medici." 

Medicis.     See  CATHERINE  DE  MEDICIS. 

Medicus,  ma'de-kus,  (FRIEDKICH  CASIMIR,)  a  Ger 
man  botanist,  born  at  Grumbach  in  1736.  He  published 
several  able  botanical  and  medical  works.  Died  in  1808. 

Medina,  ma-dee'na,  (Sir  JOHN  BAPTIST,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Brussels  in  1630, 
resided  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Great  Britain.  He 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as_/;  G,  H,  it.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEDINA 


i  560 


MEHEMET-ALEE 


was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation. 
Died  in  171 1. 

Medina,  ma-Dee'na,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
at  Seville  about  1510,  was  the  author  of  several  historical 
and  mathematical  works,  and  a  treatise  on  navigation, 
entitled  "  Arte  de  Navegar,"  (1545,)  wliich  was  trans 
lated  into  several  languages. 

Medina,  de,  da  ma-Dee'na,  (SALVADOR  JACINTO 
POLO,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Murcia,  wrote  the  "  Fable 
of  Apollo  and  Daphne,"  and  a  number  of  epigrams, 
lyrics,  etc.  Died  about  1660. 

Medina  de  Medinilla,  de,  cli  ma-Dee'na  da  ma-oe- 
nel'ya,  (PKDRO,)  a  Spanish  poet,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Seville.  He  wrote  an  eclogue  on  the  death 
of  Isabella,  wife  of  Lope  de  Vega,  his  intimate  friend. 

Medina  -  Sidonia,  de,  da  ma-nee'na  se-do'ne-a, 
(CASPAR  ALONZO  Perez  de  Guzman  —  pa'reth  da 
gooth-man',)  DuKii,  a  Spanish  grandee,  who  lived  about 
1640,  was  a  nephew  of  the  prime  minister  Olivarez.  He 
formed  a  project  to  make  himself  King  of  Andalusia; 
but  his  design  was  discovered  before  he  began  to  exe 
cute  it. 

Medinilla,  ma-ne-nel'ya,  (  BALTHASAR  EI.ISIO,)  a 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toledo  in  1585,  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Lope  de  Vega,  who  wrote  an  elegy  on  his 
early  death. 

Med-I-tri'na,  a  Roman  goddess  of  medicine,  in  whose 
honour  the  festival  of  Meditrinalia  was  celebrated  in  the 
month  of  October. 

MSd'owI,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  1738.  He  served  in  America,  and  was  wounded  in 
the  battle  of  Brandywine,  (1777.)  He  was  made  lieu 
tenant-general  in  1792,  and  in  1801  succeeded  Lord 
Cornwall's  as  Viceroy  of  Ireland.  Died  in  1813. 

Medraiio.de,  da  ma-Dua'no,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish 
lyric  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century,  whose  works  are 
highly  praised.  Little  is  known  of  his  life. 

Me-du'sa,  [Gr.  Medovaa ;  Fr.  MEDUSE,  ma'diiz',]  one 
of  the  Gorgons,  was  represented  as  a  beautiful  woman 
who  captivated  Neptune  and  offended  Minerva  by  re 
ceiving  his  embraces  in  her  temple.  The  goddess  changed 
her  hairs  into  serpents,  after  which  Perseus  cut  off  her 
head  and  gave  it  to  Minerva,  who  placed  it  in  the  centre 
of  her  aegis.  (See  GORGON.) 

Meduse.     See  MKDUSA. 

Meek,  (ALKXANDER  BEAUFORT,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  writer,  born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  in  1814. 
As  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Alabama,  he  procured 
the  adoption  of  a  system  of  free  schools  about  1853. 
Among  his  works  is  a  volume  of  "  Songs  and  Poems  of 
the  South,"  (1857.) 

Meel.     See  Mi  EL. 

Meer,  van  der,  vfn  der  maR,  (JAN,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Schoenhoven  in  1627.  His  fa 
vourite  subjects  were  sea-views,  landscapes,  and  animals, 
in  which  he  attained  great  excellence.  Died  about  1690. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Meer,  van  der,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Haarlem  about  1665,  was  a  pupil  of  Nicholas 
Berghem.  Died  in  1704. 

Meerbeeck,  van,  vitn  mau'bak,  (ADRIAN,)  a  Flemish 
writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  several 
historical  works  in  Latin  and  Flemish.  Died  about  1630. 

Meerman,  maR'miin,  (GERAART,)  a  learned  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1722,  was  appointed  pensionary 
of  Rotterdam.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  civil 
law,  entitled  "  Novus  Thesaurus  Juris  Civilis,"  etc.,  (7 
vols.,  1751,)  and  "Origines  Typographical,"  (1765,)  a 
treatise  on  the  origin  of  printing.  Died  in  1771. 

Meerman,  (/AN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1753.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  took 
bis  degree  of  doctor  of  law  at  Leyden.  He  was  made  a 
senator  and  count  of  the  empire  by  Napoleon,  (1811,) 
and  became  minister  of  public  instruction  under  Louis 
Bonaparte.  He  wrote  a  supplement  to  his  father's 
"Thesaurus,"  and  published  several  works  in  French. 
He  died  in  1815. 

See  CRAS,  "  Elogium  Johannis  Meerman,"  1817. 

Meerveldt,  von,  fon  maR'fglt',  (MAXIMILIAN,) 
COUNT,  a  German  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1766, 


commanded  a  corps  of  Austrians  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 
Died  in  1814. 

Meerza  or  Mirza,  meeR'zS,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Persian  his 
torian,  born  near  Ispahan  about  1490,  was  a  son  of  Shah 
Ismail,  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Softs.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Poets."  Died  after  1550. 

Meerza-  (or  Mirza-)  Iskander-Kazem-Beg,  meeR'- 
i\  is-Uan'der  ka'zem-beg,  (Moham'med  Al'ee,)  a 
Persian  philologist,  born  in  the  province  of  Ghilan  in 
1803.  Having  settled  in  Russia,  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity  in  1822,  and  subsequently  became  professor 
of  the  Persian  language  and  literature  at  the  University 
of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  Arabic 
Literature,"  (in  Persian,)  and  other  works  in  Russian  and 
Persian,  and  has  written  a  "  Concordance  of  the  Koran," 
(in  Arabic,)  and  a  "General  History  of  the  Turks,"  (in 
Russian.) 

Meetkercke.     See  METKERKK,  (ADOI.IMIUS.) 

Megabyze.     Sec  MKGAHVX.US. 

Meg-a-by'zus  or  Meg-a-ba'zus,  [Gr.  Me-ya6vfa  or 
M.t-yu8ay>g ;  Fr.  MEGAHYZE,  ma'gt'bez',  or  MEGAISAZK, 
ma'gt'ba'z',]  a  Persian  nobleman,  and  one  of  the  seven 
who  conspired  against  Smerdis  the  Magian  in  521  n.c. 
He  afterwards  commanded  an  army  of  Darius  I.  in 
Europe. 

See  HKHODOTUS,  books  iii.  and  vii. 

Megaera.     See  FURI^E. 

Meg'a-ra,  [Gr.  Mejupa,-  Fr.  MEGAKK,  mi/giti*',]  a 
daughter  of  Creon,  King  of  Thebes,  was  a  wife  of  Her 
cules,  who,  after  he  had  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity  killed 
her  children,  gave  her  to  lolas. 

Megare.     See  MKGARA. 

Megasthene.     See  MK.GASTHENES. 

Me-gas'the-nes,  [Gr.  Msj'aaOfvw  ,•  Fr.  MEGASTHENK, 
ma'gts'tan',]  a  Greek  geographer  under  the  reign  of 
Seleucus  Nicator,  King  of  Syria,  whom  he  served  as 
secretary  about  300  H.c.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Indica,"  extracts  from  which  are  contained  in 
the  writings  of  Strabo,  /Elian,  and  Arrian. 

Megerie.     See  AHRAM  A  SANCTA  CLARA. 

Meggot.     See  ELWES. 

Megingjord  or  Megingjardar.     See  THOK. 

Me-gis'tl-as,  [Mejwrmf,)  a  celebrated  soothsayer,  a 
native  of  Acarnania,  fell  with  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae 

Meglio,  del,  del  mel'yo,  (J/\COI'O  Corn,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1523,  assisted 
Vasari  in  painting  the  pictures  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio. 
Died  in  1591. 

Mehegan,  mi'a'goN',  (GUILLAUME  ALEXANDRIA)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Salle  in  1721.  He  became 
professor  of  French  literature  at  Copenhagen  in  1751. 
His  most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Picture  of  Modern 
History  from  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1766.)  Died  in  1766. 

Mehemet-Alee,  (or  -Ali,)  meM/heli-met  a'lee,  or 
Mo-ham'med-Al'ee,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  born  at 
Kavala  in  1769.  Having  lost  his  parents  at  an  early  age, 
he  was  protected  by  the  Turkish  governor  of  the  town. 
His  distinguished  abilities  and  energy  soon  won  for  him 
a  high  reputation,  and  he  was  sent  in  1799  to  assist  the 
British  in  expelling  the  French  from  Egypt.  lie  was 
appointed  in  1804  Pasha  of  Cairo,  for  his  services  in 
defending  that  city  from  the  oppression  of  the  Mame 
lukes,  and  in  1806  was  made  Governor  of  Upper  Egypt 
by  the  Sultan.  After  a  protracted  contest  with  the  Mame 
lukes,  who  had  for  centuries  been  the  scourge  of  the 
country,  Mehemet  Alee  invited  them  to  a  festival  at 
Cairo,  and,  having  enclosed  them  in  the  citadel,  ordered 
a  general  massacre,  in  which  four  hundred  and  seventy 
perished,  (1811.)  This  sanguinary  act  was  followed  by 
the  destruction  of  the  Mamelukes  in  other  parts  of  Egypt. 
In  1830  lie  invaded  Syria,  which  he  soon  subdued,  and 
which,  after  the  interference  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe, 
was  ceded  to  him  by  the  Sultan,  on  condition  of  his  being 
a  vassal  of  the  Porte,  (1833.)  The  Sultan,  becoming 
jealous  of  his  powerful  rival,  made  a  treaty,  in  conjunc 
tion  with  several  European  powers,  in  1841,  by  which  Me 
hemet  was  obliged  to  relinquish  Syria,  but  his  family  was 
permitted  to  retain  the  pashalic  of  Egypt.  He  died  in 
1849,  having  the  previous  year  resigned  the  government 
to  his  son,  Ibraheem  Pasha.  As  a  ruler,  Mehemet  Alee 


a,  e,  T,  6, u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MEHEMET-ALEE 


1561 


MEINICKE 


displayed  talents  of  a  very  high  order,  and  few  princes 
have  founded  more  beneficent  institutions  or  shown  a 
more  just  and  liberal  spirit.  He  established  schools  and 
colleges,  created  an  army  and  navy,  and  introduced  the 
manufactures  of  Europe.  He  protected  his  Christian 
subjects,  and  aided  by  his  liberality  the  researches  of 
Champollion,  Lepsius,  and  other  eminent  savants. 

See  F.  MENGIN,  "  Histoire  de  1'figypte  sous  le  Gouvernement  de 
Mohammed  All,"  1839;  A.  DE  VAUI.ABEI.LE,  "  Histoire  de  1'figypte." 

Mehemet-Alee,  (Pasha,)  meVheh-mgt  a'lee  pa'shi', 
an  Ottoman  minister  of  state,  born  at  Trebizond  about 
1807.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1840,  and  mar 
ried  a  daughter  of  Sultan  Mahmood  in  1844.  He  was 
grand  vizier  of  Turkey  from  October,  1852,  to  May,  1853. 
Died  in  1865. 

Mehul,  nii'iil',  (fitlENNE  HENRI,)  a  celebrated  French 
composer,  born  in  the  department  of  Ardennes  in  1763. 
Having  previously  received  some  instruction  from  Hau- 
ser,  a  German  organist,  he  repaired  in  1778  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Gluck.  In  1790  he  brought 
out  his  opera  of  "Euphrosyne  and  Coradin,"  which  met 
with  brilliant  success  and  was  pronounced  by  Gretry  equal 
to  the  finest  productions  of  Gluck.  Among  his  operas, 
which  are  more  than  forty  in  number,  we  may  name 
"  Stratonice,"  "Joseph  in  Egypt,"  and  "The  Blind  Man 
of  Toledo."  His  "Hong  of  Victory"  and  other  popular 
melodies  of  the  kind  are  also  greatly  admired.  Mehul 
was  one  of  the  inspectors  of  the  Conservatory  of  Music, 
and  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.  Died  in  1817. 

See  QUATKEMERE  DE  QuixcY,  "Notice  snr  Mehul  :"  FETIS. 
"Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  :"  VIEILLAKD,  "Notice  sur 
Mehul,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1859;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Mehus,  mi'iis',  (Livio,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Ouclenarde  in  1630,  studied  in  Italy  under  Pietro  da 
Cortona,  and  died  at  Florence  in  1691. 

Mehus,  ma'oos,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  scholar,  a 
native  of  Florence,  lived  about  1730-50. 

Meibom,  mi'bom,  [Lat.  MEIBO'&IIUS,]  (HEINRICH,) 
a  German  historian  and  philologist,  born  at  Lemgo 
in  1555.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  history  of 
Germany  in  the  middle  ages.  Died  in  1625. 

Meibom,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1590,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  wrote  a  number  of  medical  treatises, 
and  also  a  "  Life  of  Maecenas."  Died  in  1655.  His  son, 
HEINRICH  MEIBOM,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1638,  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Helmstedt  in  1661,  and  of  his 
tory  and  poetry  in  1678.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
able  medical  works  and  a  "History  of  Germany,"  (in 
Latin.)  Died  in  1700. 

Meibom,  (MARKUS,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Tonningen  in  1630.  He  was  a  profound  classical  scholar, 
and  published  a  work  entitled  "  Seven  Greek  Writers 
on  Music,"  (2  vols.,  1652,)  which  he  dedicated  to  Chris 
tina  of  Sweden,  at  whose  court  he  resided  for  a  time. 
He  afterwards  became  professor  of  history  at  Amsterdam, 
where  he  died  in  1711. 

Meibomius.     See  MEIBOM. 

Meier.     See  MAJOR,  (GEORGE.) 

Meier,  mi'er,  (GEORG  FRIEDKICH,)  a  German  critic 
and  philosopher,  born  near  Halle  in  1718,  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1746.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Critique  on  the  Poetry  of  Gottsched," 
"  Thoughts  on  Spectres,"  (1748,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1777. 

See  S.  G.  LANGE,  "Leben  G.  F.  Meier's,"  1778. 

Meier,  (MORITZ  HERMANN  EDUARD,)  a  German  an 
tiquary  and  philologist,  born  at  Glogau  in  1796,  was 
appointed  in  1848  to  the  chair  of  eloquence  at  Halle. 
Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Life  and  Orations 
of  Lycurgus."  Died  in  1855. 

Meierotto,  ml'eh-rot'to,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH  Lun- 
WIG,)  a  German  scholar  and  popular  teacher,  born  at 
Stargard  in  1742,  became  in  1772  professor  of  eloquence 
in  Joachim  College,  Berlin.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On 
the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Romans,"  etc.,  and 
other  works,  in  Latin  and  German.  Died  in  1800. 

See  BRUNNKR,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Meierottos,"  1803. 

Meigs,  megz,  (JAMES  ATKINS,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Philadelphia 


in  1829.  He  became  in  1856  librarian  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  and  in  1859  professor  of  the  insti 
tutes  of  medicine  in  Pennsylvania  College.  In  1868  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
Jefferson  Medical  College  as  successor  to  Dr.  Dunglison. 
He  has  published  several  ethnological  treatises,  among 
which  we  may  name  "  The  Cranial  Characteristics  of  the 
Races  of  Men." 

Meigs,  (MONTGOMERY  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Georgia  about  1816.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1836,  served  several  years  as  an  engineer,  and  was 
appointed  about  1852  to  superintend  the  extension  of 
the  Capitol  at  Washington.  In  May,  1861,  he  became 
quartermaster-genera]  of  the  Union  army,  the  duties  ot 
which  office  he  continued  to  perform  with  distinguished 
zeal  and  ability  till  the  end  of  the  civil  war. 

Meigs,  (RETURN  JONATHAN,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1740,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  Died  in  1823. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  became  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1810,  and  in  1814  was  appointed  postmaster-general. 
Died  in  1825. 

Meikle,  mik'el,  ?  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  at  Carnwath  in  1730.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Metaphysical  Maxims, "  ( 1 797,)  and  "  Soli 
tude  Sweetened,"  (1803.)  Died  in  1799. 

Meikle,  (WILLIAM  J.)     See  MICKI.E. 

Meil,  mil,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  skilful  German 
designer  and  engraver,  born  nt  Gotha  in  1729,  furnished 
illustrations  for  Gellert's  and  La  Fontaine's  Fables  and 
Burger's  poems.  Died  in  1803. 

Meil,  (JOHANN  WILHEI.M,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Altenburg  in  1732.  He  became  director  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin.  His  prints  and 
vignettes  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1805. 

Meilleraie,  de  la,  deh  It  mST'i  \'  or  mi'ye-r J', 
(CHARLES  de  la  Porte — deh  It  pout.)  Dec,  a  French 
general,  was  cousin-german  to  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He 
served  in  several  campaigns,  and  in  1639  was  created 
marshal  of  France.  He  was  regarded  as  the  most  skil 
ful  general  of  his  time  in  conducting  sieges.  He  died 
in  1664,  leaving  an  only  son,  who  married  Hortense 
Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin. 

Meineke,  ml'neh-keh,  (JOHANN  ALBRECHT  FRIED- 
RICH  AUGUST,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Soest  in  1791. 
He  published  excellent  editions  of  Menander  and  Phi 
lemon,  and  wrote  a  number  of  critical  treatises  on  the 
classics,  among  which  are  "  Commentationes  Miscel- 
lanece,"  (1822.)  His  "  Fragments  of  the  Greek  Comic 
Poets,"  ("  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Groecorum,"  5  vols., 
1839-43,)  preceded  by  biographical  notices  of  the  same, 
is  highly  esteemed. 

Meiiier,  ml'ner,  (JorANN  WERNER,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  in  Francoi  ia  in  1723  ;  died  in  1789. 

Meiners,  ml'ners,  (CuRiSTOi'H,)  a  learned  German 
writer  and  aniicjuary,  born  near  Otterndorf,  in  ITanover, 
in  1747.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen 
about  1774,  and  published  numerous  and  various  works, 
among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Origin,  Progress, 
and  Decline  of  the  Sciences  in  Greece  and  Rome,"  (2 
vols.,  1782,)  and  "Biographies  of  the  Eminent  Men  of 
the  Time  of  the  Renaissance,"  ("  Lebensbeschreibung 
beriihmter  Manner  aus  den  Zeiten  der  Wiederherstell," 
etc.,  3  vols.,  1796-99.)  Died  in  1810. 

See  C.  G.  HEVNK,  "  Memoria  C.  Meiners,"  1810;  "Nouvelle 
Biopraphie  Generale." 

Meinhold,  min'holt,  (JOHANN  WILHEI.M,)  a  German 
writer  and  divine,  born  in  the  island  of  Usedom.  He  was 
the  author  of  various  poems,  and  a  novel  entitled  "The 
Amber  Witch,"  ("Die  Bernstein  Hexe,"  1843,)  which 
made  a  great  sensation  and  was  for  some  time  regarded 
as  a  true  narrative.  It  was  translated  into  English,  and 
is  characterized  by  a  writer  in  the  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  as  a  tale  worthy  of  De  Foe.  He  also  published 
"  Sidonia  the  Sorceress,"  etc.,  ("  Sidonia  von  Borck  die 
Kloster-Hexe,"  New  York,  1850.)  Died  in  1851. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1844;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  Februaiy,  1846;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
October,"  1848. 

Meinicke,  mi'n^k-keh,  (KARL  EDUARD,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1803.  Among  his 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEIR 


1562 


MELANCHTHON 


works  we  may  name  a  "  History  of  the  European  Colo 
nies  in  the  West  Indies,"  (1831,)  and  "The  Continent 
of  Australia,''  (1837.) 

Meir  ben  Todros,  m&r  b§n  to'duis,  a  learned 
Spanish  rabbi,  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  the  Tal 
mud  and  the  Mosaic  rites.  Died  in  1244. 

Meisner,  mis'ner,  (BALTHASAR,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  1587;  died  in  1626. 

Meissel,  (CONRAD.)     See  CEI.TES. 

Meissner,  mis'ner,  (ALFRED,)  a  German  poet,  born 
at  Toplitz  in  1822,  lias  published,  among  other  works, 
"Ziska,"  an  epic  poem,  "The  Son  of  Atta  Troll,"  and 
"Recollections  of  Heinrich  Heine." 

Meissner,  (AUGUST  GOTTI.IEH.)  a  celebrated  German 
litterateur  and  dramatist,  born  in  Upper  Silesia  in  1753. 
He  wrote  several  dramas,  of  which  his  "John  of  Suabia" 
is  esteemed  the  best.  He  owes  his  reputation  princi 
pally  to  his  "Sketches,"  ("Skizzen,")  consisting  of  nar 
ratives,  anecdotes,  fables,  etc.,  which  obtained  extensive 
popularity  and  have  had  many  imitators.  Died  in  1807. 

See  MKUSEI,,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Meissonier,  mi'so'ne-i',  (JEAN  Louis  ERNEST,)  a 
celebrated  French  painter,  born  at  Lyons  about  1811. 
Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "  The  Little  Mes 
senger,"  "The  Painter  in  his  Studio,"  and  "  The  Chess- 
Players."  His  pictures  are  of  small  size  but  of  exquisite 
finish,  and  command  high  prices.  He  was  made  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1856,  and  has  received  a 
number  of  medals. 

Meissonier,  (JusTK  AUKEI.E,)  a  French  artist,  born 
at  Turin  in  1675,  was  skilled  in  painting,  sculpture,  and 
architecture.  lie  excelled  particularly  in  ornamental 
gold-work,  and  became  goldsmith  to  the  king,  Louis 
XV.  Died  in  1750. 

Meister,  nris'ter,  (JACQUES  HENRI,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1744,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Necker, 
Diderot,  and  Grimm.  lie  wrote  "  Letters  on  Imagina 
tion,"  (1794,)  "Studies  on  Man,"  (1805,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1826. 

Meister,  (LEONHARD,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born  near 
Zurich  in  1741,  wrote  several  historical  works.  Died 
in  1811. 

Meister,  mis'ter,  (SiMON,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Coblentz  in  1803,  studied  under  Horace  Vernet,  and 
acquired  great  skill  in  painting  battles  and  horses.  Died 
in  1844. 

Mejanes,  de,  deh  ma'zhtn',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  MARIE 
de  Piquet — deh  pe'ki',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  at  Aries  in  1729,  was  the  owner  of  a  library  of  more 
than  seventy-five  thousand  volumes,  which  at  his  death, 
in  1786,  he  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  Aix. 

Mejia.     See  MEXIA. 

Mekhitar  or  Mechitar,  meK'e-tar',  (PETER,)  an 
Armenian  priest  and  reformer,  born  at  Sebaste  in  1676. 
Having  embraced  Catholicism,  he  became  a  distinguished 
and  popular  preacher,  and  founded,  in  1740,  an  Armenian 
monastery  at  Venice.  He  also  established  there  a  print 
ing-house  for  the  Armenian  language.  Among  the  works 
issued  from  this  press  were  an  Armenian  Grammar  and 
Lexicon. 

Mekhitar  Kosh,  THE  BEARDLESS,  a  learned  Arme 
nian  ecclesiastic,  born  about  1140,  founded  a  monastery 
in  the  valley  of  Dandsoud,  in  Eastern  Armenia,  of  which 
he  became  the  first  abbot.  Died  in  1213. 

Me'la,  (PoMPoNlUS,)  an  eminent  Roman  geographer, 
born  in  Spain,  flourished  probably  about  50  A.D.  He 
wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "On  the  Situation  of  the 
Earth,"  ("  De  Situ  Orbis.")  A  good  edition  of  it  was 
published  by  Tzschucke,  Leipsic,  (7  vols.,  1807  et  seq.) 

See  MALTF.  HRUN,  article  on  "  Mela"  in  the  "  Biographic  Univer- 
selle." 

Melampe.     See  MELAMPUS. 

Me-lam'pus,  [Gr.  MeAu^Trouf .-  Fr.  MELAMPE,  ma'- 
16.N]/,]  a  mythical  personage  of  Argos,  famous  as  a 
soothsayer,  was  a  son  of  Amythaon.  He  was  considered 
as  the  first  mortal  that  possessed  prophetic  power,  and 
the  first  that  practised  medicine. 

Me-lan-eh'thpn  [Ger.  pron.  ma-lamc'ton]  or  Me- 
lan'thon,  (PHILIP,)  an  eminent  German  Reformer  and 
scholar,  whose  original  name  was  SCHWA  RZERD  or 
SCHWARZERDT,  (shwaRts'eRt :  i.e.  "  Black  Earth,")  which, 


according  to  the  usage  of  the  time,  he  changed  into  Greek, 
was  born  at  Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate,  February  16,  1497 
His  father  was  a  skilful  and  prosperous  armourer.  He 
entered  in  1507  the  Academy  of  Pforzheim,  where  he  en 
joyed  the  patronage  of  Reuchlin,  who  was  hisgreat-uncle. 
About  the  age  of  twelve  he  passed  to  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
arts,  and  went  in  1512  to  finish  his  studies  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Tiibingen.  He  learned  the  Greek  language, 
mathematics,  jurisprudence,  etc.,  and  remained  in  this 
university  a  number  of  years,  during  which  he  gave 
public  lectures  on  the  classics  and  other  subjects.  In 
1518  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Wittenberg,  then  recently  founded,  and  there 
became  the  colleague  and  friend  of  Luther,  whose  doc 
trines  he  adopted.  The  renown  of  his  learning  and 
eloquence  soon  attracted  multitudes  of  students  from 
all  parts  of  Germany.  In  1519  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
held  a  public  disputation  at  Leipsic  with  Eckius,  one 
of  the  ablest  champions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Melanchthon  married  in  1520  Katharina  Krapp,  daugh 
ter  of  a  burgomaster  of  Wittenberg.  It  appears  that 
he  was  never  ordained  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  He 
gave  much  attention  to  biblical  exegesis,  and  became  a 
prominent  advocate  of  the  Reformed  religion  by  his 
writings.  Compared  with  the  other  Reformers,  he  was 
distinguished  for  moderation  and  gentleness,  which 
tended  to  restrain  the  impetuosity  of  Luther.  In  1521 
he  published  an  able  defence  of  the  Reformed  doctrines, 
in  a  systematic  treatise  on  theology,  entitled  "  Loci  com 
munes  Rernm  theologicarum,"  which  enjoyed  great  popu 
larity.  It  was  commended  by  Luther  as  being  "next  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures  the  most  excellent  work  on  theol 
ogy."  He  aided  Luther  in  his  German  translation  of 
the  Bible,  on  which  he  expended  much  time,  (1522-34.) 
In  1529  he  attended  the  Diet  of  Spire.  Having  been 
appointed  by  the  leading  Reformers  to  compose  a  formal 
exposition  of  the  Lutheran  faith,  he  wrote  the  celebrated 
"Augsburg  Confession,"  which  was  presented  to  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  important  symbolical  book  of 
the  Lutheran  Church.  A  Latin  version  of  this  Con 
fession  was  published  under  the  title  of  "Confessio  Ficlei 
exhibita  invictissimo  Imperatori  Carolo  V.,"  etc.,  (1531.) 
He  also  wrote,  in  reply  to  certain  Catholic  theologians, 
an  "Apology  of  the  Confession,"  ("  Apologie  dcr  Augs- 
burgischen  Confession.")  lie  was  invited  by  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  and  Francis  I.  of  France  to  visit  their  courts  ; 
but  he  declined  both  invitations,  and  remained  at  Wit 
tenberg.  He  was  one  of  the  theologians  that  disputed 
with  the  Roman  Catholics  at  the  Conference  of  Worms 
(1540)  and  the  Conference  of  Ratisbon,  (1541,)  where  he 
proposed  concessions  and  compromises  which  the  other 
Reformers  rejected.  After  the  death  of  Luther,  in  1546, 
Melanchthon  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Refor 
mation  in  Germany.  His  conduct  was  conformed  to  the 
maxim  "In  necessariis  unitas,  in  dubiis  libertas,  in  om 
nibus  caritas,"  ("  In  essentials  unity,  in  doubtful  points 
liberty,  in  all  things  charity,")  which  subjected  him  to 
violent  denunciations  from  some  Protestant  zealots.  In 
1551  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which,  however,  was  dispersed  by  the  hostile  movements 
of  Maurice  of  Saxony  before  Melanchthon  arrived  at 
Trent.  The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  greatly  troubled 
by  the  acrimonious  dissensions  among  the  Protestant 
theologians.  He  died  at  Wittenberg  on  the  igth  of  April, 
1560,  leaving  three  surviving  children.  He  was  a  man 
of  small  stature.  Among  his  numerous  works  were 
"  Elements  of  Logic  and  Ethics,"  a  Greek  Grammar, 
Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  editions  of  several 
classic  authors,  with  notes,  and  an  extensive  corre 
spondence  with  his  eminent  contemporaries.  An  edi 
tion  of  his  works  was  published  at  Wittenberg  by  his 
son-in-law,  Pence r,  in  1562-64. 

See  CAMKRARrus,  "Vita  P.  Melanchthonis,"  1566:  F.  A.  Cox; 
"  Life  of  P.  Mt-lanchthon,"  1815;  A.  H.  NIEMEVER,  "P.  Melanch 
thon  als  Praece;  tor  Germanise."  1817  ;  C.  MATTMES,  "  P.  Melanch 
thon,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1841  ;  M.  FACIUS,  "P.  Melancht lion's 
Leben,"  1X32;  F.  GAI.I.E,  "Versuch  einer  Characteristik  Melanch- 
thon's,"  etc.,  1840:  LRDDERHOSE.  "P.  Melanchthon  nach  seinem 
Uussern  mid  innern  Leben  dargestellt,"  1847;  D.  NISARD,  "  fitudes 
sur  la  Renaissance;"  D'AumGNii.  "  History  of  the  Reformation;" 
DR.  F.  HOEFEK'S  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MELANDER 


1563 


MELETWS 


Melander,  ma-lan'der,  or  Melanderhjelm,  ma-lan' 
der- he  Sim',  (DANIEL,)  an  eminent  Swedish  astronomer, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1726.  He  succeeded  Stromer 
as  professor  of  astronomy  at  Upsal  in  1761,  and  sub 
sequently  became  perpetual  secretary  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  was  also  ennobled  by  Gustavus  III., 
(1801.)  He  wrote  a  "  Synopsis  of  Astronomical  Lessons," 
and  other  treatises,  (in  Latin.)  Melander  was  a  corre 
sponding  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  LALANDE,  "  Bibliographic  astronomique ;"  KJELLIN,  "  Are- 
mimie  bfver  D.  Melanderhjelm,"  iSn. 

Me-la'nI-a,  [Fr.  MELANIE,  ma'lt'ne',}  SAINT,  called 
THE  YOUNGER,  a  Roman  lady  of  a  noble  family,  born 
about  388  A. D.  Having  been  converted  to  Christianity, 
she  founded  a  convent  in  Palestine,  and  subsequently  a 
monastery  near  Mount  Calvary. 

Sae  MACE,  "  Histoire  de  Sainte-Melanie." 

Melanie.     See  MELANIA. 

Melauippide.     See  MKLANIPPIDES. 

Mel-an-ip'pl-des,  [Gr.  Mt 'AavixniArjc ;  Fr.  MELA- 
NiPiMDE,  nia'lt'ne'ped',)  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Melos,  lived  in  the  time  of  Perdiccas,  King  of 
Macedonia,  (about  450  li.c.,)  at  whose  court  he  died.  He 
is  styled  by  Xenophon  one  of  the  greatest  dithyrambic 
poets  of  Greece  ;  and  he  also  excelled  in  music.  His 
only  writings  extant  are  to  be  found  in  Bergk's  "  Poetae 
Lyrici  Graeci." 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  De  Musica;"  XENOPHON,  "  Memorabi/ii  ;" 
FADRICIUS,  "  Bibiiotheca  Grzca  ;"  ScHBIBBL,  "  Dissertatio  de  Me- 
lanippide,"  1848. 

Melanthe.     See  MELANTHIUS. 

Me-laii'tM-us  or  Me-lan'thus,  [Gr.  M&uvdiof  or 
MehavOoc  ;  Fr.  MELANTHE,  nia'ISNt',]  an  eminent  Greek 
painter,  was  contemporary  with  Apelles,  with  whom  he 
studied  under  Pamphilus.  He  ranked  among  the  first 
artists  of  the  time,  and  his  pictures  commanded  very 
high  prices. 

Melauthius,  [MehavOtoc,]  a  Greek  tragic  poet  of 
Athens,  flourished  about  400  H.C.,  and  was  noted  for  his 
wit.  lie  was  satirized  by  Aristophanes  and  other  comic 
poets.  His  works  are  lost. 

Melanthus.     See  MELANTHIUS. 

Melas,  ma'las,  (MICHAEL,)  BARON,  an  Austrian  gen 
eral,  born  in  Moravia  in  1730.  He  served  under  Mar 
shal  Daun  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  and  in  several  subse 
quent  campaigns  against  the  French,  and  in  1796  became 
commander-iii-chief  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  Italy.  He 
was  signally  defeated  by  the  French  army  at  Marengo, 
(1800,)  and  was  obliged  to  sign  a  capitulation.  Died  in 
1806. 

See  TIIIERS,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire." 

Melbourne,  mel'burn,  (WILLIAM  LAMB,)  VISCOUNT, 
a  popular  English  statesman,  son  of  Sir  Peniston  Lamb, 
afterwards  Lord  Melbourne,  was  born  in  1779.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1805,  and  advocated 
a  moderate  Whig  policy.  His  father  dying  in  1828,  he 
inherited  his  title,  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  on 
the  formation  of  Earl  Grey's  ministry,  in  1830,  became 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  1834;  but  the  Tories,  under  Peel  and  Wel 
lington,  soon  gaining  the  ascendant,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign.  In  1835  he  succeeded  in  forming  a  Whig 
ministry,  which  lasted  six  years.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  tact  and  popular  qualities  and  accomplishments. 
Died  in  1848.  Lord  Melbourne  was  the  author  of  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Fashionable  Friends."  His  wife 
was  known  as  an  authoress.  (See  LAMB,  CAROLINE.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1849. 

Melchthal,  von,  fon  mSlK'til,  (ARNOLD,)  a  Swiss 
patriot,  became,  in  concert  with  his  friends  Furst  and 
Stauffacher,  one  of  the  founders  of  Swiss  liberty.  In 
1307,  in  conjunction  with  thirty  of  their  countrymen, 
they  formed  a  confederacy  for  the  defence  of  Switzer 
land  against  Austrian  oppression.  In  the  course  of  the 
following  year  the  adventure  of  William  Tell  with  Gess- 
ler  brought  affairs  to  a  crisis.  (See  TELL.)  These 
incidents  form  the  subject  of  "Wilhelm  Tell,"  one  of 
Schiller's  most  popular  dramas. 

SeeTscHARNER,  "  Histoire  des  Confederes;"  MULLBR,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Confederation  Suisse." 


Melcombe,  LORD.     See  DODINGTON. 

Melder,  mel'der,  (GERARD,)  a  Dutch  miniature- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1693;  died  in  1740. 

Meldolla,  mSl-dol'la,  (ANDRKA,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Dalmatia  about  1520,  was  a  pupil 
of  Mazzuoli,  (Parmigiano.)  He  is  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  the  same  as  Andrea  Schiavone. 
Died  in  1582. 

See  LE  BLANC,  "Manuel  de  1' Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Me-le-a'ger,  [Gr.  Me /leuypof  ;  Fr.  MELEAGRE,  ma'la'- 
tgR',]  a  famous  hero  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  son  of 
CEneus  and  Althaea,  or,  as  others  say,  a  son  of  Mars. 
According  to  tradition,  when  he  was  seven  days  old  the 
Moir?e  (or  Fates)  warned  his  mother  that  he  would 
die  as  soon  as  the  billet  which  was  burning  on  her 
hearth  should  be  consumed.  Althaea  then  extinguished 
the  fatal  brand  and  hid  it  in  a  chest.  He  signalized  his 
valour  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  and  the  Calydonian 
hunt.  He  fought  with  the  Calydonians  against  the 
Curetes,  and  offended  his  mother  by  killing  her  brothers. 
She  therefore  cast  the  above-mentioned  brand  into  the 
fire,  and  Meleager  speedily  died. 

Meleager,  [Gr.  Me/lEuy/wc,]  a  Macedonian  general, 
who  served  under  Alexander  the  Great,  and,  after  the 
death  of  that  monarch,  attempted  to  raise  Arrhidaeus  to 
the  throne  in  opposition  to  Perdiccas.  His  partisans 
were  defeated,  and  he  was  put  to  death,  323  B.C. 

See  DROVSEN,  "Geschichte  Alexanders  des  Grossen." 

Meleager,  a  Greek  poet,  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  first  century  before  the  Christian  era,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  made  a  collection  of  fugitive  poems 
and  epigrams  called  an  "  Anthology,"  ("  Anthologia.") 

See  BRUNCK,  "  Analecta,"  vol.  i. 

Meleagre.     See  MELEAGER. 

Melece.     See  MELETIUS. 

Melek  Shah,  (a  Seljookide  Sultan.)  See  MALIK 
SHAH. 

Melendez-Valdez,  ma-le'n'de'th  val'd&h,  or  Valdes, 
val'dSs,  (JiJAN  ANTONIO,)  an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Estremadura  in  1754.  He  studied  law  at  Salamanca, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  the  poet  Cadalso,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  English 
literature,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  admirer.  His 
idyl  "Batilo"  (1780)  won  the  prize  at  the  Spanish 
Academy,  and  another  was  given  to  his  "Pindaric  Ode 
on  the  Fine  Arts"  by  the  Academy  of  San  Fernando. 
He  published  in  1785  a  collection  of  lyric  and  pastoral 
poems,  which  established  his  reputation  as  the  first  Span 
ish  poet  of  his  time.  He  had  been  appointed  in  1781, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Jovellanos,  professor 
of  humanities  at  Salamanca.  In  1791  he  obtained  an 
important  office  in  the  chancery  of  Valladolid,  and  in 
1798  became  fiscal  of  the  supreme  court  of  Madrid.  He 
published  in  1797  another  collection  of  poems,  dedicated 
to  Godoy,  who  soon  after  appointed  him  to  a  high  office 
at  court.  On  the  fall  of  the  minister  Jovellanos,  Melen- 
dez  was  exiled  from  Madrid,  to  which  he  was  not  per 
mitted  to  return  until  the  fall  of  Godoy,  (1808.)  Having 
subsequently  joined  the  French  party  in  Spain,  he  was 
created  councillor  of  state  and  minister  of  public  in 
struction  by  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  died  in  France  in 
1817.  Of  Melendez,  Ticknor  observes,  "There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  was  better  fitted  to  form  a  new  school, 
and  give  a  guiding  impulse  to  the  national  poetry,  than 
any  writer  that  had  appeared  in  Spain  for  above  a 
century." 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  KF.NNEDY, 
"  Modem  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe;"  QUINTANA,  "Life  of  Melendez-Valdez,"  pre 
fixed  to  PII  edition  of  his  works,  Madrid,  4  vols.,  1820;  "  Nouvelle 
Bio^raphie  GeneVale." 

Meletius,  me-lee'she-us,  [Gr.  Me/U'rtoc,]  Bishop  of 
Lycopolis,  was  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  his  name. 
Having  been  deposed  by  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
about  301  A.D.,  he  formed  a  schism,  and  united  with  the 
Arians. 

Meletius,  [Fr.  MELECE,  ma'lis',]  SAINT,  called  THE 
GREAT,  born  in  Little  Armenia,  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Sebaste  in  357  A.D.,  and  in  360  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  Arians,  he  was  thrice  de 
posed  from  his  office  and  exiled,  being  finally  restored 


«  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J]^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MELETWS 


1564 


MELO 


in  378.  He  presided  over  the  first  General  Council  at 
Constantinople,  (381,)  and  died  the  same  year,  having 
previously  confirmed  the  nomination  of  Saint  Gregory 
Nazianzen  as  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  His  funeral  oratior 
was  delivered  by  Saint  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

See  TII.I.EMONT,  "  Memoires,"  etc.  ;  BAILLET,  "  Viesdes  Saints;' 
MAIMMOURG,  "  Histoire  de  1'Arianisme. " 

Meletius,  a  Greek  prelate  and  geographer,  born  at 
Janina  in  1661.  He  wrote  an  "  Ecclesiastical  History,'" 
(3  vols.,  1798.)  Died  in  1714. 

Me-le'tus,  [Me/b/roc,]  written  less  correctly  Me-li'tus 
a  Greek  tragic  poet,  is  chiefly  known  as  one  of  the  three 
principal  accusers  of  Socrates.  He  was  a  licentious 
writer,  and  a  man  of  profligate  habits.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Athenians  when  they  repented  of  their 
treatment  of  Socrates. 

Mel'fort,  (JoHN  DRUMMOND,)  DUKE  OF,  was  prime 
minister  to  King  James  II.  of  England,  whom  he  ac 
companied  in  his  exile  to  France.  Being  accused  of 
planning  a  second  invasion  of  England,  he  was  banishec 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  Angers,  where  he  died  in  1716. 

Meli,  ma/lee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent  Sicilian  poet, 
born  at  Palermo  about  1740.  His  works,  consisting 
chiefly  of  eclogues,  odes,  and  sonnets,  are  written  in  the 
Sicilian  dialect,  to  which  he  gave  a  grace  and  refinement 
hitherto  unknown.  His  pastoral  poems  are  exquisite 
specimens  of  their  kind,  especially  the  "Ecloghe  Pesca- 
torie,"  or  fishermen's  dialogues,  distinguished  for  their 
humour  and  the  graceful  simplicity  of  their  language. 
Meli  also  wrote  satires  and  fables,  and  a  mock-heroic 
poem  entitled  "Don  Quixote."  Died  in  1815. 

See  LOMBARDO,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1829;  A.  GAM.O,  "Cenni  biogra 
fici  di  G.  Meli,"  1836. 

Mel-I-cer'ta  or  Mel-I-cer'tes,  [Gr.  Mt^Tpr^c;  Fr. 
MELICEKTE,  mi'le's^Rt',]  a  son  of  Athamas  and  Ino. 
The  poets  feigned  that  Ino  threw  herself  and  her  son 
into  the  sea,  and  Neptune  changed  them  into  sea-deities. 
Melicerta  then  received  the  name  of  Palaemon. 

Melicerte.     See  MKMCKKTA. 

Melingue,  ma'laNg',  (£TIENNE  MARTIN,)  a  French 
actor  and  sculptor,  born  at  Caen  in  1808. 

Meliorati.     See  INNOCENT  VII. 

Me-lis'sa,  [Gr.  Msfaaaa;  Fr.  MELISSE,  ma'Iess',]  a 
daughter  of  Melissus,  King  of  Crete,  was  said  to  have 
fed  the  infant  Jupiter  with  the  milk  of  goats. 

Melissa,  in  classic  mythology,  a  nymph  who  first  dis 
covered  the  use  of  honey,  or  the  method  of  procuring  it ; 
whence  bees  (in  Greek  Mefaoaai)  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  name. 

Melisse.     See  MELISSA. 

Me-lis'sus,  [MeAwaoc,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at 
Samos,  flourished  about  440  li.C.  He  was  also  distin 
guished  as  a  naval  commander,  and  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Athenians.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Par- 
menides,  and  was  the  author  of  philosophical  works  of 
which  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Melissus,  ma-lis'sus,  (PAUL,)  a  German,  distinguished 
as  a  Latin  poet,  born  in  Franconia  in  1539  ;  died  in  1602. 

MeTi-tou  or  Mel'I-to,  [Gr.  Msfaniv,]  an  ecclesias 
tical  writer  of  the  second  century  A.D.,  became  Bishop 
of  Sardis  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  works 
were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries,  but  they 
have  been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments. 

See  TII.I.EMONT,  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  ecclesias- 
tique. " 

Melitus  or  Melitos.     See  MELETUS. 

Me'lJ-us  or  Maelius,  mee'le-us,  (Spuiuus,)  a  Roman 
knight,  who  gained  the  favour"of  the  people  by  the 
liberal  or  profuse  use  of  his  large  fortune.  He  was  ac 
cused  by  L.  Minucius  Augurinus  of  a  design  to  make 
himself  king,  and  was  summoned  before  Cincinnatus, 
who  was  appointed  dictator  for  this  occasion.  Refusing 
to  submit,  he  was  killed  by  Servilius  Ahalain  439  B.C. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  NIKBIUIR,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Mellan,  mi'IfiN',  (CLAUDE,)  an  eminent  French  en 
graver  and  painter,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1598,  studied 
under  Villamena  and  Vouet  at  Rome.  He  originated  a 
new  method  of  engraving,  which  consisted  in  producing 
light  and  shade  by  varying  the  thickness  of  the  single 
lines  instead  of  crossing  one  set  by  another.  Among 


his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Peter  Nolascus  borne  by 
Two  Angels,"  the  "Face  of  Christ,"  "Rebecca  at  the 
Well,"  and  a  portrait  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Died  in 
1688. 

See  RENOUVIER,"  Des Types  et  ManieresdesMaitres-Graveurs  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

Melle,  mel'leh,  (jACOii,)  a  German  numismatist,  born 
at  Lubeck  in  1659.  He  published  several  works  on 
numismatics,  etc.  Died  in  1743. 

Mel'len,  (GKENVII.LE,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Biddeford,  in  Maine,  in  1799,  was  a  son  of  Chief-Justice 
Mellen,  LL.  1).,  of  that  State.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "Our  Chronicle  of  Twenty-Six,"  (1827,) 
"Glad  Tales  and  Sad  Tales,"  (in  prose,  1829,)  "The 
Martyr's  Triumph,"  and  "Buried  Valley,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1834.)  Died  iu  1841. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  CLEVELAND, 
"Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mellin,  mel-Ieen',  (GusrAK  HENRIK,)  one  of  the  most 
popular  Swedish  novelists  and  historians,  born  in  Fin 
land  in  1813.  Among  his  romances,  which  are  generally 
founded  on  Swedish  history,  we  may  name  "  Flickorna 
i  Askersund,"  (1832,)  "Helena  Wrede,"  (1834,)  and 
"Johannes  Fjallman."  His  "Den  Skandinaviska  Nor- 
dens  Historia"  (1850)  and  "Faderlandets  Historia" 
(1852)  are  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  The 
greater  part  of  his  romances  have  been  translated  into 
German. 

Mellin  de  Saint-Gelais,  m.VlflN'deh  saN  zheh-LV,  a 
French  poet,  born  in  1491,  was  the  author  of  ballads, 
sonnets,  elegies,  etc.  Died  in  1558. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Melling,  mel'ling,  (ANTON  IGNAZ,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1763  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1831. 

Mellini,  mel-lee'nee,  (GIUSEPPE  ZAMA,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  religion,  born  at  Bologna  in  1788;  died  in 
1838. 

Mello,  de,  da  mel'lo,  or  Melo,  ma'lo,  (FRANCISCO 
MANOEL,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1611, 
wrote  (in  Spanish)  a  valuable  history  of  the  Catalo- 
nian  revolution,  entitled  "  Historia  de  los  Movimientos  y 
Separacion,  etc.  de  Cataluiia,"  (1645.)  He  also  wrote 
a  number  of  dramas  and  poems,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Three  Muses  of  Melodino,"  ("Las  tres 
Musas  de  Melodino.")  Died  in  1665. 

See  BARBOSA-MACHADO,  "Bibliotbeca  Lusitana." 

Mello,  de,  (P.  Jo7,E,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  jurist, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Portuguese  Civil  Law,"  (3d  edition, 
1800.)  Died  in  1798. 

Melloiii,  niSI-h/nee,  (M.ACEDONIO,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Parma  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1839  di 
rector  of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades  at  Naples, 
lie  wrote  several  scientific  works,  one  of  which  was 
entitled  "La  Termocrasi,"  etc.,  explaining  his  theory 
concerning  the  radiation  of  heat  and  the  coloration  of 
light.  He  originated  valuable  discoveries  on  these  sub 
jects,  for  which  the  Royal  Society  of  London  bestowed 
upon  him  the  Rum  ford  medal.  Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

MeTmoth,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1666,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Great  Impor 
tance  of  a  Religious  Life,"  which  was  ascribed  by  Walpole 
to  the  first  Earl  of  Egmont.  One  hundred  thousand 
copies  of  this  work  were  printed  after  the  author's  death. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  NICHOLS,  "  Literary  Anecdotes  ;"  "  Memoirs  of  a  Late  Emi 
nent  Advocate." 

Melnioth,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  litterateur,  a  P-m 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1710.  He  published  in 
1747  a  translation  of  the  "Letters  of  Pliny,"  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  versions  of  a  Latin  author  in 
[he  English  language,  and  is  mentioned  by  Warton  as 
"one  of  the  few  that  are  better  than  the  original."  1  [e 
also  translated  the  "  Letters  of  Cicero  to  Several  of  his 
Friends,"  and  the  treatises  "On  Friendship"  ("De 
Amicitia")  and  "On  Old  Age"("De  Senectute")  of  the 
ame  author.  Died  in  1799. 

See  NICHOLS,  "  Literaiy  Anecdotes." 

Melo.     See  MELLO. 


a, e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MELON 


1565 


MEMNON 


Melon,  meh-IoN',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS.)  .1  French  lit- 
tiraieitr,  resided  at  Bordeaux,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Duke  de  la  Force,  founded  the  Academy  of  that  city 
in  1712.  He  afterwards  became  secretary  to  the  regent 
Orleans.  He  wrote  "  Mahmoud  the  Gaznevide,"  an  alle 
gorical  history  of  the  regency,  and  a  "  Political  Essay  on 
Commerce."  The  latter  work  was  highly  commended 
by  Voltaire.  Died  in  1738. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siicie  de  Louis  XV,"  chap.  iii. 

Melot,  meh-lo',  (ANICET,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1697,  became  in  1738  a  member  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Inscriptions,  to  which  he  contributed  several 
able  treatises.  In  1741  he  was  appointed  royal  librarian. 
He  wrote  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Capture  of  Rome 
by  the  Gauls,"  and  other  antiquarian  works.  Died  in 

1759- 

Melozzo  da  Forli,  ma-lot'so  da  foR-lee',  (FRAN 
CESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forli  in  1438,  invented 
the  sotto  in  sit,  and  discovered  the  rules  of  vertical  per 
spective.  Among  his  finest  extant  frescos  is  "  Sixtus  IV. 
giving  to  Platina  charge  of  the  Vatican  Library,"  now  in 
the  Vatican.  His  works  are  highly  commended  by  Vasari. 
He  excelled  in  foreshortening.  Died  in  1492. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Mel-pom'e-ne,  [Gr.  ME/.-O/JEVTI  ;  Fr.  MELPOMENE, 
mel'pu'mii/,]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
tragedy,  and  was  represented  as  holding  in  her  hand  a 
tragic  mask.  She  was  said  to  be  the  mother  of  the 
Sirens.  (See  MuSyB.) 

Melun,  de,  deh  meh-luN',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  states 
man  under  Louis  XI.,  was  appointed  in  1465  grand 
master  of  Fiance.  Having  subsequently  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  king,  he  was  condemned  to  death  and 
executed,  (1468.) 

Melvil.     See  MELVILLE,  (Sir  JAMES.) 

Mel'vill,  (Rev.  HENRY,)  an  eloquent  English  divine, 
and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  was  born  in 
Cornwall  about  1800.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  East  India  College, 
Haileybury,  about  1840.  He  published  several  volumes 
ot  sermons. 

Melvill  van  Carnbee,  mel'vil  vtn  karn'ba,  (  PIE- 
TER,)  BARON,  a  geographer  and  naval  officer,  born  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He  produced  the  "  Mariner's 
Guide,"  ("Zeeman's  Gid,"  1842.)  Died  in  1856. 

Melville,  mel'vil,  (ANDREW,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
Reformer  and  scholar,  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1545-  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  became  professor  of 
humanities  at  Geneva.  After  his  return  to  Scotland  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  Glasgow  College,  where  he 
introduced  great  improvements  in  the  discipline  and 
was  eminently  successful  as  a  teacher.  He  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  religious  controversies  of  the  time,  and 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  abolition  of  episcopacy 
in  Scotland.  He  became  in  1580  principal  of  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Saint  Andrew's,  where  he  also  filled  the 
chair  of  theology  and  the  Oriental  tongues.  Having 
given  offence  to  King  James  by  his  bold  opposition  to 
the  measures  of  the  court,  he  was  imprisoned  five  years, 
and  subsequently  retired  to  France,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Sedan.  Died  in  1622. 

See  T.  McC'RiE,  "Life  of  Andrew  Melville,"  1819;  GARDINER, 
"History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ix.  ;  CHAM 
BERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1824. 

Melville,  (GEORGE  WHYTE,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  about  1820.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  Coldstream 
Guards.  He  produced  popular  novels,  entitled  "  Dighy 
Grand,"  (1853,)  "General  Bounce,"  "Kate  Coventry," 
and  "Holmby  House,"  (1860.) 

Melville,  (HENRY  DUNDAS,)  VISCOUNT,  a  British 
general,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1801.  He  served  in  India 
against  the  Sikhs  in  1849,  and  inherited  the  peerage  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1851. 

Melville,  (HERMAN,)  an  American  novelist  and  trav 
eller,  born  in  New  York  in  1819.  Having  made  a  voy 
age  to  the  Pacific  in  1841,  he  spent  several  months  on 
one  of  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and  subsequently  visited 
the  Sandwich  and  Society  Islands.  He  published,  after 
his  return,  a  narrative  of  his  adventures,  entitled 


"Typee,"  (1846,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour, 
both  in  the  United  States  and  England.  Among  his 
other  principal  works  are  "  Omoo,  a  Narrative  of  Ad 
ventures  in  the  South  Seas,"  "White  Jacket,  or  the 
World  in  a  Man-of-War,"  (1850,)  and  "The  Piazza 
Tales." 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Melville  or  Melvil,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  Scottish  states 
man  and  historian,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1530.  Having 
been  appointed  page  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  during 
her  residence  in  France,  lie  accompanied  her  on  her 
return  to  Scotland,  and  was  made  her  privy  councillor 
and  employed  in  several  important  negotiations.  He 
died  in  1606,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  work  published  in 
1683,  under  the  title  of  "Memoirs  of  Sir  James  Melvil 
of  Halhill,"  etc.,  which  are  highly  valuable  as  records 
of  his  time.  Froude  speaks  of  Melville  as  "  a  man  who, 
without  the  faintest  pretensions  to  statesmanship,  was 
as  skilled  an  intriguer  as  Europe  could  boast."  ("  His 
tory  of  England,"  vol.  viii.  chap,  viii.) 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Melville,  LORD.     See  DUNDAS,  (HENRY.) 

Melville,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  officer,  born  in  Fife- 
shire  in  1723,  served  against  the  French  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1762,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  the  pos 
sessions  conquered  from  France.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Died  in  1809. 

Melzi,  mll'zee,  (GAETANO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  littera 
teur,  born  at  Milan  in  1783,  published  a  "Biography  of 
Italian  Romances  and  Poems  of  Chivalry,"  (1838,)  and 
"Dictionary  of  Pseudonyms  and  Anonymous  Works  of 
Italian  Writers,"  etc.,  (1848,)  both  of  which  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  the  owner  of  a  library  of 
more  than  thirty  thousand  volumes,  consisting  chiefly 
of  rare  and  valuable  works.  Died  in  1852. 

Melzi  d'Eril,  mel'zee  cli-rel',  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Ital 
ian  statesman,  born  at  Milan  in  1753.  On  the  invasion 
of  Italy  by  the  French  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  of  which  he 
was- made  vice-president  in  1802.  He  was  afterwards 
created  by  Napoleon  high-chancellor  of  Italy,  and  Duke 
of  Lodi,  (1809.)  He  was  a  grandee  of  Spain.  Died 
in  1816. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Memling,  mem'ling,  Hemling,  hem'ling,  or  Mem- 
melinck,  mem'meh-link',  an  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
the  date  and  place  of  whose  birth  are  unknown.  He 
flourished  about  1450-85.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  "  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  and  a  "  Baptism  of 
Christ." 

See  P.  HEDOUIV,  "  Memlinj:.  E"tvide  sur  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages," 
1847  ;  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Memmi.     See  MARTINI,  (SIMONE  DA.) 

Memminger,  mem'min-jer,  ?  (CHARLES  GUSTAVUS,) 
a  native  of  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  born  in  1803,  settled 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  he  became  distin 
guished  as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  He  zealously  opposed 
the  State  Rights  party,  which  he  satirized  in  his  "Book 
of  Nullification,"  (1832.)  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  treasury  in  the  cabinet  of  Jefferson  Davis  in  February, 
1861,  and  resigned  in  June,  1864. 

Mem'ml-us,  (C.\ius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  was  a  strenu 
ous  opponent  of  the  aristocrats.  He  became  tribune 
of  the  people  in  in  H.C.,  and  exposed  the  venality  and 
corruption  of  the  aristocratic  leaders  in  their  manage 
ment  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  While  a  candidate  for  the 
consulship,  he  was  killed  by  the  mob  led  by  Saturninus 
in  100  B.C. 

Memmius,  (CAius  GEMELLUS,)  a  Roman  orator, 
poet,  and  politician,  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  66 
H.C.,  and  praetor  in  58.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  Sulla, 
and  friend  of  Lucretius,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  poem 
"  De  Rerum  Natura."  He  is  also  frequently  mentioned 
by  Cicero.  Having  been  accused  of  bribery,  (ambitus,) 
he  went  into  exile  about  54  B.C. 

Mem'non,  [Gr.  Me/n-wv,]  a  mythical  personage,  sup 
posed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Tithonus  and  Eos,  (Aurora,) 
and  a  king  of  Ethiopia  or  Egypt.  According  to  tradition, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEMNON 


c66 


ME  NCI  US 


he  fought  for  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  slew  An- 
tilochus,  and  was  killed  by  Achilles.  The  poets  feigned 
that  the  dew-drops  which  appear  in  the  morning  are  the 
tears  which  Aurora  shed  for  the  death  of  Memnon.  Many 
writers  identify  Memnon  with  Amenophis  II.  of  Egypt, 
in  whose  honour  was  erected  the  celebrated  colossal 
statue  near  Thebes.  This  statue,  which  is  still  extant 
and  is  about  fifty  feet  high,  was  commonly  believed  by 
the  ancients  to  emit  a  sound  when  it  was  first  touched 
by  the  beams  of  the  morning  sun.  Some  writers,  in 
cluding  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  believe  that  the  phe 
nomenon  was  the  result  of  imposture. 

See  SIR  J.  GARDNER  WILKINSON,  "Topography  of  Thebes," 
PP-  33-37- 

Mem/non,  a  Greek  general  in  the  service  of  Da 
rius.  King  of  Persia,  attained  the  rank  of  high  admiral, 
and  Governor  of  Western  Asia.  He  had  great  military 
talents.  Died  in  333  B.C. 

See  CLINTON,  "Fasti  Hellenic!." 

Memnon,  a  Greek  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  the  Antonines.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  Heraclea,  of  which  only  fragments 
are  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grjecis." 

Mena,  de,  da  ma'na,  (FELIPE  Gil,)  a  Spanish  por 
trait-painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1600; 
died  in  1674. 

Mena,  de,  (JUAN,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Cordova 
about  1410.  He  was  patronized  by  John  II.,  King  of  Castile, 
who  made  him  his  Latin  secretary  and  historiographer. 
His  principal  work  is  an  allegorical  poem,  entitled  "The 
Labyrinth,"  ("El  Labirinto,")  which  enjoyed  a  high  repu 
tation  in  his  time.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Henry 
de  Villena,  the  Marquis  de  Santillana,  and  other  eminent 
writers  of  that  age.  Died  in  1456. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  PRESCOTT, 
"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  pp.  18,  19,  20;  LONG 
FELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Menabrea,  ma-na-bua'a,  (LEON  CAMII.I.E,)  a  littera 
teur,  born  near  Chambery  in  1804.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  mediaeval  antiquities,  and  left  unfinished  an 
important  work  entitled  "  Les  Alpes  historiques."  Died 
in  1857. 

Meiiabrea,  ma-na-bRa'a,  (Luioi  F.,)  COUNT,  an  Ital 
ian  general  and  statesman,  born  about  1809.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of 
the  council  of  ministers  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in 
October,  1867. 

Meuaechmus,  me-neVmus,  [  Mn'aqy/oc,  |  a  Greek 
sculptor,  born  at  Naupactus,  lived  about  480  B.C.  His 
principal  work  was  a  statue,  in  gold  and  silver,  of 
Diana  Laphyra  at  Calydon,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  Soidas. 

Menage,  ma'nfzh',  (Gil.LES,)  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Angers  in  1613.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
an  advocate  to  the  Parliament.  He  subsequently  de 
voted  himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits,  and  his  house 
became  the  resort  of  the  distinguished  wits  and  writers 
of  the  time,  including  Balzac,  Sarrazin,  and  Madame 
Rambouillet.  He  was  patronized  by  Paul  de  Gondi, 
afterwards  Cardinal  de  Retz,  whose  favour  he  subse 
quently  lost,  owing  to  his  arrogance  and  strong  propen 
sity  for  satire.  He  was  also  involved  in  a  literary  feud 
with  Boileau,  who  has  severely  satirized  him  in  one  of 
his  poems,  and  with  Moliere,  who  introduced  him  into 
his  "  Femmes  savantes,"  in  the  character  of  Vadius. 
His  reputation  rests  principally  on  his  "Etymological 
Dictionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1650,)  which  is 
still  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  also  published  a 
number  of  poems  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian,  and 
a  collection  of  witticisms,  etc.,  entitled  "  Menagiana," 
(1693,)  which  ranks  among  the  best  productions  of  the 
kind.  His  "  Request  of  the  Dictionaries,"  a  satire  on 
the  Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy,  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  cause  of  his  exclusion  from  that  institu 
tion.  Died  in  1692. 

See  ANTOINE  GAI.LAND,  "Menagiana,"  1693;  BAYLE,  "His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  M^moires  pour  servir  a  la  Vie  de 
Manage,"  prefixed  to  the  "  Me'nagiana,"  1715;  MOR^RI,  "  Diction- 
naire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Meiiageot,  ma'ni'zho',  (FRANQOIS  GUILI.AUME,)  a 
painter,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1744. 
He  studied  in  Paris  under  Vien  and  Boucher,  and  was 
appointed  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in 
1787.  Among  his  works  may  be  named  "Time  arrested 
by  Study,"  and  "  Diana  seeking  Adonis."  Died  in  1816. 

Men'a-hem,  [Heb.  DHJO,]  the  son  of  Gadi,  having 
slain  Shallum,  King  of  Samaria,  usurped  his  throne 
and  reigned  ten  years  over  that  country. 

See  II.  Kings  \v.  14. 

Me-iian'der,  [Gr.  M£'vat>(5/»f ;  Fr.  MEN  AN  DUE,  mi'- 
nfi.N'dK/;  Ger.  MENANDKOS,  ma-nan'di<os, ]  a  Greek 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Athens  in  341  B.C.,  is  called  the 
originator  of  the  new  comedy,  giving  representations  of 
actual  life  and  manners.  He  enjoyed  the  highest  repu 
tation  among  his  contemporaries,  and  is  eulogized  by 
Julius  Csesar,  Plutarch,  and  other  eminent  men  of  anti 
quity.  His  dramas  were  very  numerous,  but  they  have 
been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  the  fragments  preserved 
in  the  works  of  several  Greek  writers. 

See  CLINTON,  "Fasti  Hellenic!;"  K.  O.  MUI.I.ER,  "History 
of  Greek  Literature;"  HAUPTMANN,  "  De  Menandro  atque  illius 
Comoediis,"  1743;  G.  GUIZOT,  "Menandre;  Etude  historique," 
etc..  1855;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1856. 

Menander,  a  Macedonian  general,  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Lydia  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331  B.C. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  Antigonus,  for  whom  he  fought 
against  Eumenes  in  320  B.C. 

Menander,  a  Roman  jurist  under  the  reigns  of 
Severus  and  Caracalla. 

Me-naii'der  Fro-tec'tor,  a  Greek  historian  of  the 
sixth  century,  was  one  of  the  body-guard  of  the  emperor 
at  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  the  Eastern  Empire  from  559  to  582  A.D.,"  of  which 
only  fragments  are  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Menandre.     See  MENANDER. 

Menandrino,  ma-nan-dRee'no,  (MAR.sn.io,)an  Italian 
jurist,  sometimes  called  MARSILIUS  OK  PADUA.  He  was 
counsellor  to  Louis  of  Bavaria,  for  whom  he  wrote  a 
treatise  entitled  "Defender  of  the  Peace,"  in  support  of 
the  authority  of  the  emperor  over  the  pope.  For  this 
he  was  excommunicated  by  John  XXII.  Died  in  1328. 

Menandros.     See  MENANDER. 

Menard,  mi'iiiu',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Sauinur  about  1574,  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of 
Anjou,"  which  is  commended  by  Menage.  He  also  edited 
Joinville's  "  History  of  Saint  Louis,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1652. 

Menard,  (JEAN,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1637,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Fle'chier. 
Died  in  1710. 

Menard,  (LEON,)  a  French  jurist  and  antiquary,  born 
at  Tarascon  in  1706.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  City 
of  Nimes,"  a  treatise  "  On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Greeks,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Died  in  1767. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "  Eloge  de  Menard,"  in  the  "  Me'moires"  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

Menard,  (NICOLAS  HUGUES,)  a  French  theologian 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1585,  wrote  several 
religious  and  ecclesiastical  works.  Died  in  1644. 

Me'nas,  [Gr.  M??faf,j  a  freedman  of  Pompey  the 
Great  and  of  his  son,  Sextus  Pompey.  He  commanded 
a  fleet  sent  against  Octavius,  afterwards  deserted  Pom 
pey  for  the  service  of  Octavius,  and  was  slain  (B.C.  35) 
at  the  siege  of  Siscia. 

Meii-as'seh  Ben  Is'ra-el,  an  eminent  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  Spain  about  1604,  studied  in  Holland, 
and  was  appointed  to  explain  the  Talmud  in  the  syn 
agogue  at  Amsterdam.  He  published  a  treatise  "On 
the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead,"  and  a  work  on  the  Pen 
tateuch,  entitled  "Conciliador  nel  Pentateucho,"  which 
was  recommended  by  Grotius  to  students  of  theology. 
Died  in  1659. 

Meiicius,  m^n'shenis,  the  Latinized  form  of  Meng- 
Tse,  meng'tseh',  or  Ivleng-Tseu,  meng'tsuh',  (named 
also  Meng-Kho,  in  his  youth,)  was,  after  Confucius,  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  Chinese  philosophers.  He 
was  born  in  the  little  state  of  Tsow,  (or  Tsou,)  which 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m5t;  not;  good;  moon; 


ME  NCI  US 


MENCIUS 


was  subsequently  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Loo,  and 
in  the  modern  province  of  Shan-Toong,  (or  Shan-Tung,) 
about  370  years  before  Christ :  he  was,  therefore,  a  con 
temporary  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  He  lost  his  father  in 
his  early  childhood.  To  his  mother,  who  appears  to  have 
been  a  woman  of  rare  intelligence  and  worth,  he  was 
indebted,  in  a  great  measure,  not  merely  for  his  inclina 
tion  towards  learning  and  philosophy,  but  also  for  that 
pure  and  lofty  virtue  for  which  he  was  so  distinguished. 
It  is  related  that  after  the  death  of  her  husband  she  re 
sided  for  a  short  time  near  a  butcher's  shop,  but,  fearing 
that  the  frequent  sight  of  scenes  of  blood  might  harden 
and  deprave  the  heart  of  her  son,  she  removed  to  another 
abode.  This  happened  to  be  near  a  cemetery,  and  young 
Mencius  amused  himself  with  acting  the  various  scenes 
which  he  witnessed  at  the  tombs.  "This,"  said  his 
mother  to  herself,  "is  no  place  for  my  son."  She  again 
changed  her  dwelling,  and  took  a  house  in  the  market 
place.  But  here  he  soon  began  to  play  the  part  of  a 
salesman,  vaunting  his  wares  and  chaffering  with  cus 
tomers.  The  watchful  and  anxious  mother  was  not  yet 
satisfied.  At  last  she  found  a  house  close  by  a  school. 
Her  son's  attention  was  attracted  by  the  various  studies 
and  exercises  which  he  saw  pursued  in  the  school,  and  a 
desire  for  learning  was  awakened  in  his  mind.  Soon 
after  she  sent  him  to  the  school ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
distinguished  himself  by  the  quickness  of  his  intellect, 
and  subsequently  by  his  earnest  application  to  study. 
The  following  story  may  serve  to  show  his  mother's  con 
scientious  watchfulness  in  regard  to  the  moral  education 
of  her  son.  Seeing  a  butcher  killing  pigs,  he  asked  her 
what  that  was  done  for.  She  replied  rather  thoughtlessly, 
(as  it  appears,)  "  It  is  to  furnish  you  with  food."  Her 
conscience  at  once  reproved  her  for  saying  what  was  not 
strictly  true,  and,  anxious  not  to  set  him  an  example  of 
untruthfulness,  she  went  and  bought  some  pork  in  order 
to  make  good  her  words.  One  day  when  he  returned 
home  from  school,  she  looked  up  from  the  web  which 
she  happened  to  be  weaving,  and  asked  him  how  he  was 
getting  on.  He  answered,  carelessly,  that  he  was  doing 
well  enough,  whereupon  she  took  a  knife  and  cut  through 
her  web.  Alarmed,  he  inquired  what  she  meant.  She 
then  showed  him  that  she  had  only  done  what  he  was 
doing  :  she  had  lost  her  labour  and  thrown  away  the  time 
she  had  spent  in  weaving  the  web,  he  also  was  throwing 
away  his  precious  time  through  neglect  of  his  studies. 
The  lesson  was  not  lost  upon  him,  and  did  not  need  to 
be  repeated. 

Some  writers  represent  Mencius  as  having  studied 
under  Tseu-sse,  (or  Tsze-sze,)  the  grandson  of  Confucius. 
But  this  is  scarcely  possible,  since  Tseu-sse,  had  he  been 
living,  would  have  been  more  than  a  hundred  years  old 
when  Mencius  was  born.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  he 
diligently  studied  the  writings  of  Confucius,  to  the  neglect 
of  whose  precepts  he  attributed  the  miserable  state  of 
things  which  he  saw  everywhere  around  him,  faith  and 
justice  being  disregarded,  the  bonds  of  society  breaking 
asunder,  and  the  whole  empire  hastening  to  decay.  He 
resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  correcting  these  evils  and 
restoring,  so  far  as  it  lay  in  his  power,  the  virtues  of  the 
primitive  ages. 

Although  Mencius  considered  himself  a  follower  of 
Confucius,  yet  in  his  mode  of  instruction,  and  especially 
in  his  behaviour  towards  those  rulers  who  sought  his 
counsel,  he  differed  materially  from  his  master.  In  his 
reasoning,  if  less  grave  than  Confucius,  he  displayed 
more  art  and  more  acuteness.  His  method,  indeed,  was 
not  unlike  the  dialectic  of  Socrates  ;  he  pushed  his  ad 
versary  from  one  admission  to  another,  until  he  obliged 
him  either  to  confess  his  defeat  or  else  to  maintain  the 
most  obvious  and  palpable  absurdities.  In  his  inter 
course  with  kings  he  was  more  bold  and  severe  than 
Confucius,  both  in  exposing  folly  and  denouncing  injus 
tice  and  oppression.  Mencius  appears  to  have  been 
held  in  great  respect  by  most  of  the  Chinese  princes  to 
whom  his  fame  had  penetrated.  It  is  not  known  at  what 
time  in  his  life  he  first  began  to  teach  publicly ;  but  we  are 
told  that  when  he  felt  that  he  was  sufficiently  conversant 
with  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  great  teachers 
of  Chinese  philosophy,  he  commenced  his  travels  for  the 
purpose  of  offering  his  counsels  to  the  different  petty 


sovereigns  who  ruled  in  the  states  adjacent  or  neighbour 
ing  to  Loo.  But,  although  he  seems  to  have  enjoyed 
more  consideration  than  Confucius  had  done,  he  was 
scarcely  more  successful  in  carrying  into  practice  his 
ideal  plans  of  government.  His  theory  of  morals  was 
too  high  and  difficult  for  human  nature  in  its  ordinary 
condition.  He  appears  not  to  have  succeeded  in  a  single 
instance  in  prevailing  on  any  of  the  princes  to  embrace 
and  consistently  carry  out  his  principles  ;  and  accordingly 
he  had  little  inducement  to  continue  at  any  of  the  courts 
longer  than  was  necessary  in  order  to  make  a  fair  trial 
of  what  his  influence  could  effect.  He  is  said  to  have 
passed  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  in  the  more  con 
genial  society  of  his  disciples,  and  in  writing  those  works 
by  which  he  has  perhaps  exerted  a  greater  influence  on 
after-ages  than  he  did  upon  that  in  which  he  lived.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  an  advanced  age  about  290 
B.C.  According  to  Dr.  Legge,  he  died  288  B.C. ;  some 
other  authorities,  however,  place  the  date  of  his  death 
many  years  earlier.  The  descendants  of  Mencius,  like 
those  of  Confucius,  constitute  at  the  present  day  a  class 
of  what  may  be  termed  hereditary  nobles, — the  only 
hereditary  nobility  in  China. 

One  of  the  chief  doctrines  of  Mencius  was  that  man  is 
naturally  good,  although  he  admitted  that  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  mankind  had,  through  unfavourable  cir 
cumstances  or  influences,  become  perverted.  He  says 
the  way  in  which  a  man  loses  his  natural  goodness  is 
like  the  way  in  which  trees  are  deprived  by  the  svood- 
man  of  their  branches  and  foliage.  And  if  they  still 
send  forth  some  buds  and  sprouts,  "then  come  the  cattle 
and  goats  and  browse  upon  them.  As  in  the  tree  all 
appearance  of  life  and  beauty  is  destroyed,  so  in  man, 
after  a  long  exposure  to  evil  influences,  all  traces  of 
native  goodness  seem  to  be  obliterated.  But  he  main 
tains  that  there  is  an  original  power  of  goodness  in  the 
race,  and  that  all  men  may,  if  they  will,  become  like 
Yao  and  Shun,  two  of  the  early  sages  and  kings,  who 
were  pre-eminent  for  their  virtue.  A  distinguished 
Chinese  scholar  says  the  great  object  of  Mencius,  in  his 
writings,  is  to  rectify  men's  hearts.  "  If  a  man  once 
rectify  his  heart,"  says  Mencius,  "  little  else  will  remain 
for  him  to  do."  In  another  place  he  says,  "  The  great  or 
superior  man  is  he  who  does  not  lose  his  child's  heart," 
an  expression  which  vividly  recalls  those  beautiful  lines 
of  the  great  German  poet, — 

"  Wolii  dem  der  frei  von  Schuld  und  Fehle 
Bewahrt  die  kindiich  reine  Seele. "* 

It  is  evident,  however,  that,  owing  to  his  sanguine  and 
ardent  nature,  or  to  some  other  cause,  Mencius  did  not 
very  fully  realize  the  exceeding  difficulty  of  "  rectifying 
one's  heart."  Yet  Confucius,  who  was  regarded  by 
Mencius  as  the  most  perfect  of  human  beings,  recognized 
this  great  but  melancholy  truth,  when  he  said  it  was 
only  at  the  age  of  seventy  that  "  he  could  follow  what 
his  heart  desired  without  transgressing  what  was  right." 
("Analects,"  book  ii.) 

Confucius  had  always  inculcated  the  reciprocal  obli 
gation  between  kings  and  subjects.  .  Mencius,  without 
denying  the  general  obligation  of  obedience  on  the  part 
of  subjects,  taught  nevertheless  that  among  the  various 
elements  in  a  state  "  the  people  are  the  most  important 
element,  and  the  sovereign  the  least  important  ;"  and 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  draw  the  legitimate  inference  from 
such  a  position  that  a  bad  sovereign  ought  to  be  de 
throned,  and  even  slain,  if  his  life  should  endanger  or  in 
any  way  interfere  with  the  public  good. 

The  distinguished  Orientalist  Remusat,  in  drawing  a 
comparison  between  Confucius  and  Mencius,  says  the 
former  "is  always  grave,  and  even  austere;  he  exalts 
men  of  virtue  of  whom  he  presents  an  ideal  portrait; 
he  speaks  of  bad  men  only  with  a  cool  indignation. 
Mencius,  with  the  same  love  of  virtue,  seems  to  feel 
for  vice  rather  contempt  than  abhorrence.  He  assails 
it  with  the  force  of  argument ;  he  does  not  disdain  to 
even  employ  against  it  the  weapons  of  ridicule."  Men 
cius  combined  a  certain  modesty  with  a  just  and  manly 
appreciation  of  himself.  He  seemed  greatly  surprised 


"  Happy  he  who,  free  from  sin  and  fault, 
Preserves  the  pure  childlike  soul." 

SCHILLER'S  Kraniche  des  Ibiciu. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this,     (jy  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MENCKE 


1568 


MENDOZA 


when  one  of  his  disciples  was  disposed  to  rank  him  as  a 
sage;  yet  he  said  on  another  occasion,  "When  sages 
shall  rise  up  again,  they  will  not  change  my  words."  He 
believed  that  he  was  appointed  by  Heaven  to  uphold  or 
restore  the  doctrines  of  the  ancient  sages,  such  as  Yao, 
Shun,  and  Confucius.  Hun-Yu,  a  celebrated  Chinese 
critic,  says,  "If  we  wish  to  study  the  doctrines  of  the 
sages,  we  must  begin  with  Mencius.  ...  It  is  owing  to 
his  words  that  learners  nowadays  still  know  to  revere 
Confucius,  to  honour  benevolence  and  righteousness,  to 
esteem  the  true  sovereign,  and  to  despise  the  mere 
pretender."  We  have  already  noticed  some  of  the  lead 
ing  opinions  of  Mencius.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his 
most  characteristic  sayings  :  "  I  love  life  ;  I  also  love 
righteousness.  If  I  cannot  keep  both,  I  will  let  life  go, 
and  choose  righteousness."  (The  Works  of  Mencius, 
book  vi.  chap,  x.)  "There  is  a  nobility  of  Heaven,  and 
there  is  a  nobility  of  man.  Benevolence,  righteousness, 
self-consecration,  and  fidelity,  with  unwearied  joy  in  these 
virtues, — these  constitute  the  nobility  of  Heaven."  (Book 
vi.  chap,  xvi.)  "Benevolence  subdues  its  opposite,  just 
as  water  subdues  fire.  Those,  however,  who  practise 
benevolence  nowadays  do  it  as  it  with  one  cup  ot  water 
they  could  save  a  whole  wagon-load  of  fuel  on  fire,  and, 
when  the  flames  are  not  extinguished,  should  say  that 
water  cannot  subdue  fire.  This  conduct,  moreover,  greatly 
encourages  those  who  are  not  benevolent."  (Book  vi. 
chap,  xviii.)  "There  is  no  greater  delight  than  to  be 
conscious  of  sincerity  on  self-examination."  (Book  vii. 
chap,  iv.)  Kung-Sun-Chow  said  to  Mencius  that  his 
principles  were  admirable,  but  they  were  too  difficult 
and  lofty  for  ordinary  minds,  and  asked  him  why  he  did 
not  adapt  his  teachings  to  the  capacity  of  the  learners. 
He  replied,  "A  great  artificer  does  not,  for  the  sake  of  a 
stupid  workman,  alter  or  do  away  with  the  marking-line." 
(Hook  vii.  chap,  xli.) 

See  the  excellent  notice  of  Mencius  prefixed  to  the  works  of  that 
philosopher,  in  the  second  volume  of  DR.  I.KGGE'S  "  Chinese  Clas 
sics, "  Hong- Kong,  1861  ;  also  PAUTHIKK'S  "Chine,"  pp.  187-193; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate, "  article  "Mencius,"  by  LEON 
ROSNY  ;  "  Les  quatre  Livres  de  Philosophic,  Morale  et  Politique  de 
la  Chine,"  translated  by  G.  PAUTHIER.  Paris,  1851  ;  the  Chinese 
Classical  \Vorks,  translated  by  the  late  RE.V.  DAVID  COLLIE,  Malacca 
Mission  Press,  1828  ;  STANISLAUS  JUI.IEN'S  translation  (into  Latin) 
of  the  Works  of  Mencius,  Paris,  1824;  "Confucius  and  the  Chinese 
Classics,"  (book  iv..)  by  REV.  A.  W.  LOOMIS,  San  Francisco,  1867. 

Mencke,  menk'keh,  (FkiKDKicii  OTTO,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  son  of  Johann  Burkhard,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1708.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  history  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Life  of  Angelo  Poliziano,"  (in  Latin,  1736.)  Died 
in  1754. 

Mencke,  (JOHANN  BURKHARD,)  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1675,  became  in  1708  historiographer  to  Frederick 
Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
"Two  Orations  on  the  Charlatanry  of  the  Learned," 
(1715,)  and  a  work  entitled  "Writers  of  German  His-' 
tory,"  (3  vols.,  1728-30.)  The  former  caused  a  great 
sensation,  and  was  translated  into  several  foreign  lan 
guages.  Mencke  also  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  and, 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  conducted  the  "Acta  Eru- 
ditorum."  Died  in  1732. 

See  R.  TREITSCHKK,  "  K.  Mencke,  Professor  der  Geschich'e  zu 
Leipzig,"  1842;  JOCHER,  "  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Mencke,  (Orro,)  a  learned  German,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1644.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Leipsic.  In  1682  he 
founded  the  first  literary  and  scientific  journal  published 
in  Germany.  It  was  entitled  "Acta  Eruditorum,"  and 
numbered  among  its  contributors  Leibnitz  and  other 
eminent  savants.  Died  in  1707. 

See  SEUGMANN.-"Leichenpredigtauf  O.  Mencken,"  1707;  NICE- 
RON,  "Memoires." 

Mendana  de  Neyra,  me'n-dan'ya  da  na^e-ra,  (AL- 
VARO,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  born  in  1541,  saTled  on  a 
voyage  to  the  Pacific  in  1567,  and  discovered  between 
7°  and  12°  south  latitude  the  islands  of  Saint  Chris 
topher,  Isabella,  and  Guadalcanal  He  discovered  in 
1595  the  isles  since  called  by  Admiral  Byron  the  Dan 
gerous  Islands,  and  the  large  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  to 
which  Carteret  gave  the  name  of  Egmont  in  1767.  He 
also  established  a  colony  at  Bahia  Graciosa.  The  part 


of  Australasia  which  includes  the  Marquesas  has  been 
named  the  Mendana  Archipelago.  Died  in  1595. 

See  Dtj  BKOSSKS,  "  Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  australes," 
'756. 

Mendelssohn,  men'dels-son',  (MosES,)  an  eminent 
philosopher,  born  at  Dessau,  in  Germany,  in  1729,  was 
the  son  of  a  Jewish  schoolmaster.  In  consequence  of 
the  limited  means  of  his  family,  he  owed  his  early  educa 
tion  chiefly  to  his  own  exertions.  In  1745  he  repaired 
to  Berlin,  where  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  the  philosophy  of  Wolf  and  Leibnitz. 
In  1754  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Lessing, 
in  conjunction  with  whom  he  afterwards  wrote  the  treat 
ise  entitled  "  Pope  a  Metaphysician."  He  next  pub 
lished  his  "  Letters  on  the  Sensations,"  and  in  1767  his 
"  I'haedo,  a  Dialogue  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 
The  latter  work  was  received  with  great  favour,  and  was 
translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  Men 
delssohn  was  one  of  the  most  profound  thinkers  of  his 
time,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries  for 
the  excellence  of  his  character,  as  well  as  his  intellectual 
endowments.  Died  in  1786. 

See  MIK  \UEAU,  "  Sur  M.  Mendelssohn,"  etc.,  1787;  "Memoirs 
of  Moses  Mendelssohn,"  by  M.  SAMUKLS;  WINCKI.KK,  "  Notice  sur 
M.  Menddssolin,"  179*;  HKINKMANN,  "  M.  Mendelssohn,"  1819; 
J.  A.  L.  RiciiTKR,  "M.  Mendelssohn  als  Mensch,"  etc.,  1829; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneYale." 

Mendelssohii-Bartlioldy,  men'dels-son'  baR-toK- 
dee,  (FKLiX,)  an  eminent  German  composer,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1809,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  At 
an  early  age  he  manifested  extraordinary  musical  talent, 
which  received  the  most  elaborate  culture  under  Zelter 
and  Ludwig  Berger.  He  performed  with  brilliant  suc 
cess  in  Berlin  and  Paris  before  lie  had  completed  his 
tenth  year,  and  in  1827  he  brought  out  at  Berlin  his 
"Overture  to  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  and  his 
opera  of  "  The  Wedding  of  Camacho."  He  subsequently 


visited  London  and  Paris,  where  the 
named  was  received  with  enthusiasm. 


'  Overture"  above 
After  his  return 


to  Germany,  he  was  appointed,  in  1835,  director  of  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts  at  Leipsic.  In  1836  he  brought 
out  his  oratorio  of  "  Saint  Paul,"  at  Dusseldorf  and 
Leipsic,  -and  the-  following  year  at  Birmingham,  Eng 
land.  His  "Elijah."  an  oratorio,  performed  at  the  Bir 
mingham  Festival  in  1846,  caused  a  greater  sensation 
in  the  musical  world  than  had  been  known  in  England 
since  the  days  of  Handel.  Subsequently,  Mendelssohn's 
health,  which  had  been  some  time  declining,  failed 
rapidly,  and  he  died  soon  after  his  return  to  Germany, 
in  November,  1847.  Among  the  more  important  of  his 
other  compositions,  we  may  name  the  overtures  of 
"  F'ingal's  Cave,"  "  A  Calm  Sea  and  Happy  Voyage," 
("  Meeresstille  und  gliickliche  Fahrt,")  and  "The  Beau 
tiful  Melusina,"  ("  Die  schone  Melusine,")  besides  a 
great  number  of  cantatas  and  instrumental  pieces.  His 
"  Songs  without  Words"  are  particularly  admired.  As  a 
musician  and  composer,  he  is  esteemed  second  only  to 
Handel  and  Mozart. 

See  JULIUS  BENEDICT,  "Life  and  Works  of  F.  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,"  1X50  ;  W.  A.  LAMPADIUS,  "  Life  of  Felix  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,"  1865;  F^TIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;" 
V.  MAC;NIEN,  "Etude  biographique  sur  Mendelssohn- Bartholdy," 
1850;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1848,  by  MRS.  AUSTIN; 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1862. 

Mendez  Pinto.     See  PINTO. 

Meiidizabal,  y,  e  men-de-tha-bal',  (Don  JUAN  AL 
VAREZ,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born 
at  Cadiz  about  1790.  Having  amassed  a  large  fortune 
by  trade,  he  rose  to  be  minister  of  finance  in  1835.  Died 
in  1853. 

Mendoga  or  Mendoza,  de,  da  me'n-do'sa,  (ANDREA 
HURTADO,)  a  Portuguese  naval  commander,  who  ren 
dered  great  services  to  his  country  by  clearing  the  South 
Seas  of  pirates  and  thus  protecting  the  Portuguese  es 
tablishments  in  the  East  Indies.  Died  about  1606. 

Mendoza,  de,  da  me'n-do'tha,  (ANTONIO  HURTADO,) 
a  Spanish  writer,  born  about  1590,  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  Philip  IV.  He  wrote  a  number  of  popular 
dramas,  also  tyric  poems  and  prose  works.  Died  in  1644. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Mendoza,  de,  (ANTONIO  SARMIENTO,)  a  Spanish 
writer,  a  native  of  Burgos,  lived  about  1630.  He  trans 
lated  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  into  Spanish. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MENDOZA 


1569 


MENESTHEUS 


Mendoza,  de,  (Don  BERNARDINO,)  a  Spanish  his 
torian  and  diplomatist,  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  in 
several  missions  to  France  and  England.  He  had  a 
prominent  share,  while  in  France,  in  the  formation  of  the 
Catholic  League.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
the  Netherlands  from  156710  1577,"  and  a  treatise  "On 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  War." 

See  MOTI.KY,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  cliap. 
iii.  ;  CAPKFICIUH,  "  Histoire  de  la  ReTorme  et  In  Ligue. " 

Mendoza,  de,  (DiKoo  HURTADO,)  a  celel)rated  Span 
ish  writer,  soldier,  and  diplomatist1,  born  at  Granada  in 
1503,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Marquis  de  Santillann, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  classics, 
theology,  and  civil  and  canon  law.  He  was  afterwards 
patronized  by  Charles  V.,  who  sent  him  in  1538  on  an 
embassy  to  Venice.  While  in  this  post,  he  devoted  him 
self  to  the  collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  of 
which  he  acquired  a  great  number,  comprising  works  of 
Saint  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Archimedes.  They 
were  subsequently  ceded  to  the  Library  of  the  Escurial. 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  by  the  emperor  ambassador 
at  Rome  and  governor  of  Sienna.  Having  returned  to 
Spain  in  1554,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Philip  II., 
who  banished  him  from  court.  He  devoted  himself 
thenceforth  to  literary  pursuits,  and  published  in  1610 
his  "  History  of  the  Wars  against  the  Moors,"  ("Guerra 
de  Granada  contra  los  Moriscos.")  This  work,  which 
has  taken  its  place  among  Spanish  classics,  is  charac 
terized  by  great  accuracy  and  impartiality,  and  is  esteemed 
the  best  imitation  of  the  Latin  historians  in  modern  lite 
rature.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems, 
and  the  celebrated  comic  romance  of  "  Lazarillo  de 
Tonnes,"  (1554,)  in  which  he  originated  the  so-called 
Picaresque  school  of  fiction,  afterwards  followed  by  Le 
Sage  in  his  "Gil  Bias."  "  Mendoza,"  says  Prescott,  "by 
the  brilliant  success  which  he  achieved  as  a  statesman, 
a  diplomatist,  a  novelist,  a  poet,  and  a  historian,  has 
established  a  reputation  for  versatility  of  genius  second 
to  none  in  the  literature  of  Spain."  Died  in  1575. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  SISMONDI, 
"  Histnire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  PRESCOTT,  "History  of 
Philip  II.;"  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe:"  N. 
ANTONIO,  "  Bibiiotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  BOUTKRVVKK.  "Histoire 
de  la  J, literature  Espagnole;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
Norce  of  "Lazarillo  de  Tonnes"  in  the  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Mendoza,  de,  (I.\ic,o  LOPEZ.)  See  MONDEJAR,  MAR 
QUIS  I)K. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Ixioo  LOPEZ,)  Marquis  de  Santillana, 
(di  san-tel-yi'na,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  1398,  was  a 
friend  of  Juan  de  Mena  and  the  Marquis  de  Villena,  and 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  of  the  court  of  John  II. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  sonnet  into  Spanish 
poetry.  Among  his  best  works  is  an  "  Elegy  on  the 
Marquis  de  Villena."  Mendoza  was  also  a  distinguished 
soldier,  and  was  created  a  marquis  as  a  reward  for  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  Olmedo,  (1445.)  Died  in  1458. 

See  TICKNOK,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature:"  BOPTERWEK, 
"  Geschichte  der  Spanische  Poesie  und  Beredtsamkeit ;"  LONGFEL 
LOW.  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mendoza,  de,  ( JUAN  GONZALEZ,)  a  Spanish  mission 
ary,  born  at  Toledo  about  1540.  He  visited  China  in 
1580,  and  subsequently  South  America  and  Mexico. 
He  died  as  Bishop  of  Popayan  in  New  Granada,  (1617.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Great  Kingdom 
of  China,"  (1586,)  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation  and 
has  been  translated  into  French. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Don  PEDRO,)  a  wealthy  Spaniard, 
born  at  Cadiz  about  1487.  He  offered  his  services,  in 
1529,  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  to  complete,  at  his  own 
expense,  the  exploration  of  the  rivers  La  Plata  and  Para 
guay.  Having  been  created  by  the  emperor  military 
chief  of  the  country  adjacent  to  those  rivers,  he  set  sail 
in  1534,  and  founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1535. 
He  died  soon  after,  while  at  sea  on  his  return  to  Spain. 

Mendoza,  de,  (PEDRO  GONZALEZ,)  a  Spanish  prelate 
and  statesman,  called  THE  GRAND  CARDINAL,  born  in 
1428.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  John  II.  and  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  created  successively  Bishop  of  Siguenza, 
Chancellor  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  cardinal,  (1473.) 
Under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  became  Archbishop 


of  Toledo.  He  also  distinguished  himself  in  the  Moorish 
war,  in  which  he  held  a  command.  He  founded  the 
magnificent  College  of  Santa  Cruz  at  Valladolid,  and  a 
hospital  at  Toledo.  Died  in  1495. 

See  MARIANA,  "Historia  Hispanic;"  SAI.AZAR  DE  MENDOZA, 
"Coronica  del  gran  Cardinal  de  Espana,"  1625. 

Mendoza,  de,  (PEDRO  DE  SALAZAK,)  a  Spanish  his 
torical  writer,  born  at  Toledo  about  1550,  published  a 
"  Chronicle  of  the  House  of  Ponce  de  Leon,"  (1620,)  and 
a  "Chronicle  of  the  Grand  Cardinal  of  Spain,  Pedro 
Gonzalez  de  Mendoza,"  (1625.)  Died  in  1629. 

Me-nec'ra-tes,  [Gr.  Meve/cp&n;?,]  a  physician  who 
made  himself  ridiculous  by  calling  himself  Jupiter.  His 
vanity  was  rebuked  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  who  in 
vited  him  to  a  banquet  and  offered  him  only  incense 
and  libations. 

Menedeme.     See  MENEDEMUS. 

Meii-e-de'mus,  [Gr.  MEV«%<OC;  Fr.  MENEDEME, 
mi'ni'djm',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Eretria  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  school  of 
Eretria,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Plato  and  Stilpo.  Died 
about  277  B.C. 

See  C.  MALLET,  "  Histoire  de  1'Ecole  de  Megare  et  d'firetiie ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Meneghelli,  ma-na-gel'lee,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  an 
Italian  litterateur,  born  in  1765,  was  professor  of  law  at 
Padua.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Livy,''  ("  Vita 
di  Tito  Livio,"  1835.)  Died  in  1844. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  La  mia  Vita,"  1845. 

Menelas.     See  MKNEI.AUS. 

Men-e-la'us,  |Gr.  Mtre'Aaoc,  Meve/lewc,  or  Mew'/lac  ;  Fr. 
MENELAS,  mi'ni'lSs',  |  a  Grecian  hero  and  king  of  Sparta, 
was  a  son  of  Atreus.  He  and  his  brother  Agamemnon 
were  called  Atriclae.  He  mairied  the  beautiful  Helen, 
who  preferred  him  to  all  of  her  numerous  suitors,  but 
afterwards  eloped  with  Paris.  At  the  siege  of  Troy, 
which  was  the  consequence  of  the  abduction  of  Helen, 
Menelaus  behaved  with  great  spirit  and  courage,  and 
fought  a  single  combat  with  Paris,  whom  he  was  about 
to  vanquish,  when  Venus  interposed  and  rescued  him. 
He  was  one  of  the  daring  band  that  entered  Troy  in 
the  wooden  horse.  On  the  capture  of  Troy  he  recov 
ered  Helen,  was  reconciled  to  her,  and,  after  a  devious 
voyage  of  several  years,  returned  to  Sparta.  A  temple 
was  erected  in  his  honour  at  Therapne. 

Menelaus,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and  astrono 
mer  of  Alexandria,  resided  in  Rome  under  the  reign  of 
Trajan.  His  only  extant  work  is  a  treatise  on  spherical 
geometry,  which  was  translated  into  Latin. 

Me-ne'm-us  A-grip'pa,  surnamecl  LANA'TUS,  a 
Roman  patrician  and  senator,  was  chosen  consul  in 
503  B.C.  He  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Sa- 
bines,  for  which  a  triumph  was  decreed  him.  Through 
his  mediation  the  contest  between  the  patricians  and 
the  plebeians  was  appeased  in  493.  On  this  occasion 
he  related  the  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  members  to 
the  plebeians. 

Me'nes  [Gr.  M?/r??f,  or  M?/vif]  was  the  first  king  of 
Egypt,  according  to  the  traditions  of  that  country.  lie 
is  said  to  have  founded  Memphis,  and  to  have  introduced 
the  worship  of  the  gods.  He  lived  probably  2000  B.C., 
or  earlier. 

Meneses  or  Menezes,  ma-na'se's,  (ALEixo,)  a  Por 
tuguese  prelate,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1559,  became  Arch 
bishop  of  Gon,  and  in  1607  succeeded  Alphonso  de 
Castro  as  Viceroy  of  the  Indies.  He  was  appointed 
by  Philip  III.  of  Spain  Viceroy  of  Portugal  in  1614. 
Died  in  1617. 

See  VEYSSIEKE  LA  CROZE,  "  Histoire  du  Christianisme  des 
hides." 

Meneses  Osorio,  ma-na/s£s  o-so're-o,  (FRANCISCO,) 
a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1630,  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  Murillo.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Philip  de  Neri  adoring  the 
Virgin,"  and  "  Saint  Catherine."  Died  in  1705. 

Meiiesthee.     See  MENESTHEUS. 

Me-nes'theus,  [Gr.  MnwfltTf  ,•  Fr.  MENESTHEE,  mi'- 
neVta',]  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  Athens,  obtained  the 
throne  in  the  absence  of  Theseus,  who  was  the  lawful 
monarch.  He  commanded  the  Athenians  in  the  Trojan 
war. 


as  K:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

QQ 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


MENESTHEUS 


1570 


MENTCHIKOF 


Menestheus,  [Mevarffrff,]  an  able  Athenian  general, 
was  a  son  of  Iphicrates.  He  was  appointed  commander 
in  the  Social  war,  356  H.C.  He  also  commanded  a  naval 
expedition  against  the  Macedonians  in  335  H.C. 

Menestrier,  meh-nes'tRe-a',  (CLAUDK  FRANC.OIS,)  a 
learned  French  ecclesiastic  and  antiquary,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1631.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  treatises  on 
heraldry,  antiquities,  and  history,  among  which  we  may 
name  "On  Ancient  and  Modern  Chivalry,"  (1673,)  "The 
Origin  of  Armorial  Hearings,"  (1679,)  and  "The  Philos 
ophy  of  Images,"  (2  vols.,  1682-83.)  Died  in  1705. 

Menestrier,  Le,  leh  meh-nes'tRe-i',  (CLAUDE,)  a 
French  antiquary,  whose  principal  work  is  entitled 
"Statue  of  the  Symbolical  Ephesian  Diana  Explained." 
Died  in  1639. 

Menestrier,  Le,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  anti 
quary,  born  at  Dijon  in  1564,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "Medals,  Coins,  and  Antique  Monuments  of  the 
Roman  Empresses,"  (1625.)  Died  in  1634. 

Meneval,  de,  cleh  man'vtl',  (CLAUDK  FRANC.OIS,) 
BARON,  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  During 
the  empire  he  served  Napoleon  as  secretary,  (secretaire 
du portefeuille.)  He  wrote  "Napoleon  et  Marie  Louise, 
Souvenirs  historiques,"  (3  vols.,  1843-45.)  Died  in  1850. 

Menezes.     See  MENESES. 

Menezes.     See  ERICKIRA. 

Mengoli,  men'go-lee,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1625  ;  died  in  1686. 

Mengs,  mengs,  (ANTON  RAFAEL,)  a  celebrated  Ger 
man  painter,  born  at  Aussig,  in  Bohemia,  in  1728.  lie 
was  instructed  by  his  father,  with  whom  he  resided  several 
years  at  Rome.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was  ap 
pointed  court  painter  at  Dresden,  in  1744.  While  on  a 
second  visit  to  Rome,  he  painted  a  "  Holy  Family,"  which 
won  for  him  a  high  reputation.  The  Madonna  in  this 
picture  was  the  portrait  of  a  beautiful  peasant-girl,  whom 
Mengs  afterwards  married,  having  become  a  Catholic 
for  her  sake.  He  became  in  1754  director  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Painting  at  Rome,  and  in  1757  he  executed  his 
celebrated  fresco  of  "Apollo  and  the  Muses"  in  the  villa 
of  Cardinal  Albani.  On  the  invitation  of  Charles  III. 
of  Spain,  he  repaired  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  appointed 
first  painter  to  the  king,  with  a  large  salary.  Here  he 
produced  several  of  his  master-pieces,  among  which  we 
may  name  his  "Temple  of  Glory"  and  "Triumph  of 
Trajan"  in  the  royal  palace.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1779. 
Mengs  is  ranked  among  the  best  painters  of  his  time, 
his  works  being  distinguished  by  great  accuracy  of  de 
sign  and  neatness  of  execution,  but  they  are  censured 
by  critics  as  deficient  in  warmth  and  animation. 

See  GUIBAI.,  "  filoge  liistorique  de  Mengs,"  1781:  J.  J.  MA- 
RIETTE,  "Abecedario ;"  BIANCONI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  R.  Mengs," 
1780;  NAGLBR,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Meng-Tse  or  Meng-Tseu.     See  MENCIUS. 

Menil-Durand,  de,  deh  ma'nel'  dii'iS.N',  (FRANCOIS 
JEAN  DE  Graindorge  d'Orgeville  —  gRaN'doRzl/ 
doRzh'vel',)  BARON,  a  French  officer,  born  at  Lisieux 
in  1729,  published  a  number  of  works  on  military  tactics. 
Died  in  1799. 

Meiiinski,  meh-na.N'ske',  (FRANgois  DE  MESGNIEN,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  whose  original  name  was  MENIN, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1623.  Having  accompanied  the 
Polish  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  he  became  inter 
preter  to  the  embassy,  and  subsequently  ambassador. 
He  was  appointed  in  1671  first  interpreter  of  Oriental 
languages  at  the  court  of  Vienna.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "Dictionary  of  Oriental  Languages,"  ("Thesaurus 
Linguarum  Orientalium,"  3  vols.,  1680,)  which  is  highly 
-esteemed.  Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Menippe.     See  MENIPPUS. 

Me-nip'pus,  [Gr.  Mevimrof ;  Fr.  MENIPPE,  ma'nep',] 
;a  Cynic  philosopher  and  poet,  was  a  native  of  Phoenicia, 
.and  lived  probably  about  60  B.C.  Having  amassed  a 
large  fortune  by  usury,  he  destroyed  himself  in  con 
sequence  of  having  been  robbed  of  his  treasures.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  satires,  none  of  which  are 
extant.  Varro  is  said  to  have  imitated  the  style  of  Menip- 
pus.  He  is  also  mentioned  by  Lucian  in  his  "  Dialogues." 

See  VARRO,  "  Saline  Menippeae ;"  J.  F.  LEY,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Vita  Scriptisque  Menippi  Cynici,"  1843. 


Menippus,  a  Greek  geographer  under  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  was  a  native  of  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor. 

See  "  Menippos  der  Geograph  aus  Pergamon,"  etc.,  1841,  by 
GROTEFHNU  and  ULRICHS. 

Menippus  OF  STRATONICE,  an  eminent  Greek  rheto 
rician,  renowned  throughout  Asia  for  his  eloquence.  He 
is  highly  commended  by  Cicero  in  his  "Brutus." 

Mennander,  me'n-nan'der,  (CARL  FREDRIK,  )  a 
learned  Swedish  prelate,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1712. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Abo,  in  Finland,  and  subsequently 
Archbishop  of  Upsal,  (1775.)  Died  in  1786. 

Mennechet,  nieii'sh.y,  (finoUARD,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Nantes  in  1794.  He  produced  odes, 
dramas,  and  "  Le  Plutarque  Francais,"  a  collection  ot 
lives  of  eminent  Frenchmen,  (8  vols.)  Died  in  1845. 

Mennes,  menz,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  poet  and 
royalist,  born  in  Kent  in  1591  ;  died  in  1671. 

Menuo,  men'no,  [Fr.  MENNON,  ma'no.N',]  (SiMONis,) 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mennonites,  was  born  in  Fries- 
land  in  1496.  His  doctrines  resembled  in  some  points 
those  of  the  Anabaptists,  but  were  tree  trom  the  absurd 
ities  and  excesses  of  the  latter.  The  Mennonites  were 
included  in  the  prescriptive  edicts  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  in  1540,  and  a  price  was  set  on  the  head  of  their 
founder.  Menno  died  in  1561.  His  followers  settled  in 
England,  Holland,  and  North  America,  and  are  every 
where  favourably  known  for  their  virtues  and  industry. 

See  Miii.i.KR,  "Cimbria  Literata." 

Mennoii.     See  MENNO. 

Menochio,  ma-no'ke-o,  [Lat.  MENO'CHIUS,]  (GIO 
VANNI  STEFANO,)  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Pa  via  in  1576.  lie  became  rector  of  the  colleges 
of  his  order  at  Rome  and  Modena.  His  principal  work 
is  a  commentary  on  the  Scriptures,  entitled  "  Brevis  Ex- 
positio  Sensus  literalis  totius  Scripturoe,"  (2  vols.,  1630.) 
Died  in  1655. 

Menochio,  (JACOPO,)  an  Italian  jurist,  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Pavfa  in  1532.  lie  was  appointed 
a  president  of  the  Council  of  Milan  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  He  wrote  several  valuable  legal  treatises,  in 
Latin.  Died  in  1607. 

Menochius.     See  MENOCHIO. 

Me-nod'o-tus,  [Gr.  Mr/vwfo-oc,]  a  Greek  physician  of 
Nicomedia,  lived  probably  about  too  A.D.  He  belonged 
to  the  sect  of  Empirici.  He  wrote  a  medical  work, 
which  Erasmus  translated  into  Latin. 

Mencetius,  me-nee'sheHis,  [Gr.  Msvoinof,]  a  son  of 
Actor,  and  father  of  Patroclus,  took  part  in  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition. 

Me'ncm,  [Gr.  Mei'wc,]  a  Thessalian  general,  who 
served  in  the  Larnian  war  against  the  Macedonians.  He 
and  Antiphilus  were  defeated  by  Antipater  at  Cranon  in 
322  H.C.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  321  H.C. 

Menem  de  Turbilly,  de,  deh  meh-noN'  deh  titR7- 
be'ye',  (Louis  FRANCOIS  HENRI,)  MARQUIS,  a  French 
agricultural  writer,  born  near  La  Fleche  in  1712,  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Clearing  Land."  Died  in  1776. 

Menou,  de,  deh  meh-noo',  (JACQUES 
BARON,  a  French  general,  born  in  Touraine  in  1750. 
He  served  in  the  republican  army  in  the  Vendean  cam 
paign  of  1793,  and  in  1795  commanded  the  National 
Guard  which  suppressed  the  insurrection  in  the  Fau 
bourg  Saint-Antoine.  As  general  of  division,  he  accom 
panied  Napoleon  to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  on  the  death  of 
Kleber  was  invested  with  the  chief  command.  In  1801 
he  was  besieged  in  Alexandria  by  Sir  Ralph  Abercrom- 
bie,  to  whom  he  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  After  his 
return  to  France,  in  1802,  he  was  appointed  by  Napo 
leon  Governor  of  Piedmont,  and  subsequently  of  Venice. 
Died  in  1810. 


Ment'chl-koP,  written  also  Mentschikow,  Ment- 
schikof,  and  Menchikof,  (ALEXANDER  DANIELO- 
VITCH,)  PRINCE,  a  celebrated  Russian  statesman  and 
general,  born  at  Moscow  about  1670,  was  the  son  of  a 
pastry-cook.  His  talents  procured  for  him  at  an  early 
age  the  notice  and  favour  of  Peter  the  Great,  and,  having 
served  with  great  distinction  in  several  campaigns  against 
the  Swedes,  he  was  created  a  field-marshal  after  the  battle 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


MENTCHIKOF 


1571 


MER  CER 


of  Pultava,  (1709.)  He  was  also  made  a  prince  of  the 
empire,  and  governor-general  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
obtained  from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  decoration  of  the 
Black  Eagle.  On  the  deatli  of  Peter  (1725)  Mentchikof 
caused  the  empress-dowager  to  be  proclaimed  empress, 
under  the  title  of  Catherine  I.,  and  appointed  a  council 
of  regency  for  the  son  of  Alexis,  afterwards  Peter  II. 
The  latter,  becoming  weary  of  the  insolence  of  Mentchi 
kof,  caused  him  to  be  arrested  for  his  abuse  of  power, 
and  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  i.ied  in  two  years,  (1729.) 
See  M.  RANFT,  "  Leben  des  beriihmteii  Fiirsten  Mentschikow," 
1774  ;  "  Leben  mid  Todt  des  Fiirsten  Men/,ikoff,"  1730  ;  VOLTAIKK, 
"  Histoire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  le  Grand;"  "Anecdotes  secretes 
de  la  Cour  du  Czar,"  1780. 

Mentchikof,  (ALEXANDER  SKRGEIVITCH,)  a  Russian 
admiral,  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1789. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Persia.  lie 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Finland  in  1831, 
and  was  subsequently  created  an  admiral  and  minister 
of  the  marine.  In  the  Crimean  war  he  was  charged  with 
the  defence  of  Sevastopol,  and  was  defeated  at  the  Alma 
by  the  allies  in  September,  1854.  Died  in  May,  1869. 

See  DESESSARTS,  "  Portraits  des  Homines  de  la  Guerre  de 
1'Orient;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Mentel,  mSN'tel',  ([ACQUES,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Chateau-Thierri  in  1597,  wrote  a  Latin  work  in 
which  he  claims  the  invention  of  printing  for  John  Men 
tel  of  Strasburg.  Died  in  1671. 

Mentel,  men'tel,  or  Mentelin,  men'teh-leen',  (Jo- 
HANN,)  the  first  printer  of  Strasburg,  born  at  Schelestadt 
about  1410,  is  said  to  have  been  instructed  in  his  art  by 
Gutenberg.  He  printed  in  1473  tne  "-Specula"  of  Vin 
cent  de  Beauvais,  (10  vols.  fol.)  Mentel  was  ennobled 
by  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  Died  in  1478. 

See  LABORDB,  "Debuts  de  1'Imprimerie  a  Strasbourg,"  1840; 
JACQUES  MENTEL,  "  De  vera  Typographic  Origine,"  1650. 

Mentelle,  mftN'teV,  (ErtME,)  born  in  Paris  in  1730, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Selection  of  Geographical  and 
Historical  Lectures,"  (6  vols.,  1783,)  and  other  similar 
works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  QUBRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  SAI.M-DYCK,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  Mentelle,"  1839. 

Meii'tpr,  [Gr.  M.svn>p,]  a  wise  and  faithful  friend  of 
Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  who,  on  his  departure  to  the 
siege  of  Troy,  intrusted  to  him  the  care  of  his  house. 
Minerva  is  said  to  have  assumed  the  form  of  Mentor, 
and  to  have  accompanied  Telemachus  in  his  travels. 
(See  "Odyssey,"  books  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.)  Minerva,  as 
Mentor,  performs  a  conspicuous  part  in  Fenelon's  cele 
brated  romance  of  "  Telemaque." 

Mentor,  a  Greek  artist  of  the  time  of  Pericles,  was 
celebrated  for  his  exquisite  chased  work  in  gold  and 
silver.  His  productions  are  eulogized  in  the  highest 
terms  by  Pliny,  Cicero,  and  Martial,  and  Crassus  is  said 
to  have  paid  100,000  sesterces  for  one  of  his  goblets. 

Mentor,  a  Greek  general,  and  a  brother  of  Meinnon. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes 
Ochus  about  350  K.C.,  and  led  a  successful  expedition 
against  the  Egyptians.  By  treachery  he  obtained  pos 
session  of  Hermias,  (a  friend  of  Aristotle,)  whom  he 
delivered  to  King  Artaxerxes. 

Mentzel,  ment'sel,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  philologist,  born  at  Fiirstenwald  in  1622.  He  pub 
lished  "  Kurze  Chinesischen  Chronologic,"  ("Chinese 
Chronology  Abridged,"  1696,)  and  several  botanical 
works.  Died  in  1701. 

Menu.     See  MANU. 

Menu  de  Chomorceau,  men-nil'  deh  sho'moR'so', 
(JEAN  ETIENNE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  1724, 
wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Renaud,"  in  imitation  of 
Tasso.  Died  in  1802. 

Menuret  de  Chambaud,  meh-nii'ra'  deh  shSN'bo', 
(JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Monteli- 
mart  in  1733.  He  contributed  several  valuable  articles 
to  the  "Encyclopedic"  of  Diderot.  Died  in  1815. 

Menzel,  ment'yel,  (ADOLPH,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1815.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be 
named  "Frederick  the  Great  at  Sans-Souci,"  (in  oil.) 

Menzel,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  German,  born 
about  1726,  was  private  secretary  at  the  court  of  Saxony. 


Having  revealed  to  the  Russian  ambassador  the  secret 
correspondence  between  Russia,  Saxony,  and  Austria, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Konigstein,  where  he  died,  after  a 
captivity  of  thirty-three  years,  in  1796. 

Menzel,  (KARL  ADOLPH,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Griinberg  in  1784,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
Germany  till  the  Reformation,"  (1815,)  and  a  "Modern 
History  of  Germany  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Act 
of  Confederation,"  (14  vols.,  1848,)  both  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1855. 

Menzel,  (WOLFGANG,)  a  German  critic  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Waldenburg,  in  Silesia,  in  1798.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Stuttgart  about  1825,  and  edited  the  "  Litera- 
turblatt"  for  many  years.  He  attacked  the  old  German 
school  and  the  disciples  of  Goethe.  Among  his  nume 
rous  works  are  a  "History  of  Germany."  (1824-25,) 
"German  Literature,"  ("Die  Deutsche  Literatur,"  2 
vols.,  1828,)  and  a  historical  romance  called  "Furore," 
(3  vols.,  1851.) 

See  L.  WIENBARG,  "Mennel  und  die  Junge  Literatur,"  1835;  L. 
BORNE,  "Menzel  der  Franzosenfresser,"  1X44;  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1835  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  tor  February, 
1840. 

Menzies,  men'zez,  (ARCHIBALD,)  a  Scottish  bota 
nist,  born  in  Perthshire  about  1754.  He  served  as  as 
sistant  surgeon  in  the  navy.  Died  in  1842. 

Menzini,  men-zee'nee,  (BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence  in  1646.  He  visited  Rome  in  1685, 
and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  then 
residing  in  that  city.  His  poems  are  chiefly  sonnets, 
hymns,  and  satires,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  His 
"  Arte  Poetica"  especially  ranks  among  the  classics  of 
the  language.  Died  in  1704. 

See  PAOLUCCI,  "Vita  di  B.  Men/.ini,"  1732;  FABRONI,  "Vita; 
Italorum  doctrina  exceltentium ;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Menzocchi.    See  MINZOCCHI. 

Merat,  ma'rt',  (FRANCOIS  VICTOR,)  a  French  medical 
writer  and  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1780;  died  in  1851. 

Mercadante,  meR-ka-dan'ti,  (SAVERIO,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Altamura  in  1798,  produced  a  num 
ber  of  popular  operas,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Elisa  e  Claudio,"  "  Didone,"  and  "The  Two  Illustrious 
Rivals."  He  was  appointed  in  1839  director  of  the  Con 
servatory  of  Music  at  Naples. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Mercati,  meR-ka'tee,  or  Mercado,  meR-ka'do,  (Mr- 
CHELE,)  an  Italian  naturalist,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1541, 
became  physician  to  Pope  Clement  VIII.  lie  formed  a 
valuable  collection  of  minerals,  which  was  placed  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Vatican,  and  of  which  he  wrote  a  de 
scription  entitled  "  Metallotheca,"  etc.,  (1717.)  Died  in 

1593- 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  MAGELI.I,  "Vita  di  Mercati,"  lire- 
fixed  to  his  "  Metallotheca." 

Mercator.     See  ISIDORE  MF.RCATOR. 

Mer-ca'tor,  [Dutch  pron.  meR-ka'tor,]  (GERARD,)  a 
celebrated  geographer  and  mathematician,  born  at  Rupel- 
monde,  in  East  Flanders,  in  1512,  was  originally  named 
KAUFFMANN,  ("Merchant,"  Lat.  Mercator.}  Through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Granvelle,  he  was  introduced 
to  the  notice  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  pre 
sented  two  globes,  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  that 
had  then  appeared.  He  is  chiefly  known  from  the  method 
of  geographical  projection  called  by  his  name.  He  pub 
lished  in  1569  the  first  hydrographic  map  of  that  kind. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  treatise  "  On  the  Use  of 
the  Astronomical  Ring,"  and  other  works.  He  also 
executed  numerous  maps  and  charts.  Died  in  1594. 

See  ADAM,  "  Vita;  Philosophorum ;"  T.  VAN  RAEMDONCSC, 
"  Gerard  Mercator,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres." 

Mercator,  meR-ka'tor,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  Danish  mathe 
matician,  whose  original  name  was  KAUFFMANN,  born  in 
Holstein  about  1630.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  new 
method  of  constructing  logarithms,  which  he  described 
in  a  work  entitled  "  Logarithmotechnia,"  (1668.)  Having 
visited  England  about  1660,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1687. 

Mer'cer,  (HUGH,)  a  distinguished  general  in  the 
American  Revolutionary  war,  was  a  native  of  Scotland. 
He  fought  against  the  French  and  Indians,  and  served 
under  Braddock  in  the  campaign  of  1.  lie  was 


ituuui  17^0,  was  private  secretary  ai  me  cuuri  ut  oiixony.     iinucr    DIHUUOI-IV    111    LUC    uniiipaigii  l/33- 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


MERCER 


1572 


MERE 


severely  wounded  at  Fort  Du  Quesne,  after  which  he 
travelled  on  foot  to  Fort  Cumberland,  a  distance  of 
more  than  one  hundred  miles.  He  afterwards  took  part 
in  the  engagements  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  latter  place,  January,  1777.  A 
monument  has  been  erected  to  his  memory  at  Laurel 
Hill,  near  Philadelphia. 

Mercer,  (JESSE,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  horn  in 
Halifax  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1769.  He  published 
a  collection  ot  hymns  entitled  "Mercer's  Cluster.''  He 
died  in  1841,  leaving  the  principal  part  of  his  estate  to 
the  university  in  Georgia  called  by  his  name. 

Mercer,  (JOHN,)  an  American  officer  and  statesman, 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  convention  which  framed  the  United  States  Con 
stitution.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Maryland  in 
1801.  Died  in  1821. 

Mercerus.     See  MEKCIK.R,  QKAN.) 

Mercey,  de,  deh  meu'si'  or  mek'sa',  (FREDERIC 
BOURGEOIS,)  a  French  litterateur  and  landscape-painter, 
horn  in  Paris  in  1808.  He  wrote  works  on  art,  and  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Direction  des  Beaux-Arts  in 


S53- 
M 


ercier,  meVse-i',  (BARTHEI.EMI,)  a  French  eccle 
siastic  and  writer,  burn  at  Lyons  in  1734.  He  published  a 
Supplement  to  Prosper  Marchand's  "  History  of  Print 
ing,"  and  several  bibliographical  works.  Died  in  1799. 

Mercier  or  Le  Mercier,  leh  mek'se-a',  [Lat.  MER- 
CE'RUS,]  (JKAN,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Uzes, 
succeeded  Vatable  as  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal 
College  in  1546.  He  made  a  number  of  translations 
from  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  and  published  commenta 
ries  on  various  books  of  the  Scriptures.  Died  in  1570. 

Mercier,  (JosiAS,)  Sieur  des  Bordes  et  de  Grigny, 
a  French  scholar,  born  at  Uzes,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  made  a  councillor  of  state  by  Henry 
IV.  He  published  "Annotations"  on  Tacitus  and  other 
classics.  Mercier  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Sahnasius.  Died  in  1626. 

Mercier,  (Louis  SEBASTIEN,)  an  eccentric  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1740,  became  professor  of  rhet 
oric  in  the  College  of  Bordeaux.  He  was  the  author 
of  "The  Year  2440,"  etc.,  (1770,)  a  caustic  satire  on 
Parisian  society,  entitled  "Picture  of  Paris,"  ("Tableau 
de  Paris,"  1781,)  and  a  number  of  dramas,  romances, 
and  miscellaneous  treatises.  In  his  "Essay  on  the  Dra 
matic  Art"  he  denounces  the  dramas  of  Racine  and 
Corneille  and  proposes  that  his  own  should  take  their 
place  on  the  French  stage.  Among  the  most  successful 
of  his  plays  were  "The  Deserter,"  and  "The  Wheel- 
harrow  of  the  Vinegar-Dealer,"  ("  La  Brouette  du 
Vinaigrier.")  Mercier  was  chosen  in  1792  a  deputy  to 
the  National  Convention,  where  he  acted  with  the 
Girondists,  voted  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  king,  and 
was  proscribed  by  the  Jacobins.  He  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  Died  in  1814. 

See  DELISI.E  DE  SALES,  "Notice  des  Ouvrages  de  Mercier;" 
NODIER,  "Souvenirs  de  1'  Empire  :"  QUEKARD,  "La  France  Litte'- 
raire  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mercier,  (PHILIP,)  a  painter,  of  French  extraction, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1689,  resided  principally  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales. 
His  works  are  commended  by  Walpole.  Died  in  1760. 

See  WAI.POI.E,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Mercier  de  la  Riviere,  meVse-a'  deh  IS  re'vejjJR', 
a  French  writer  on  political  economy,  born  about  1720. 
His  principal  work  is  "The  Natural  and  Essential 
Order  of  Political  Societies,"  (1767.)  Died  about  1794. 

Merck,  menk,  QOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  lit 
terateur,  horn  at  Darmstadt  in  1741,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Goethe.  He  translated  Addison's  "  Cato,"  and 
other  English  works,  and  contributed  to  Lavater's 
"  Physiognomy."  He  also  wrote  for  the  "  Deutschen 
Mercur,"  and  other  literary  journals.  He  died,  by  sui 
cide,  in  1791. 

See  ADOLPH  STAHR,  "  J.  H.  Merck;  ein  Denkmal,"  1840; 
"  Foreign  Quarter')'  Review"  for  Ju'y,  1836. 

Mercklin,  ingRk-leen',  (GEORG  ABRAHAM,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  horn  at  Weissemhurg  in  1644; 
died  in  1702. 


Mercceur,  meR'kuu',  (fiusA,)  a  French  poetess,  born 
at  Nantes  in  1809,  was  patronized  by  Chateaubriand, 
Lamartine,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  the  time. 
Died  in  1835. 

Mercceur,  de,  deh  meR'kuR',  (PHILIPPE  EMMANUKI. 
de  Lorraine — deh  lo'rin',)  Due,  a  French  Catholic 
leader,  born  in  1558,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Brc- 
tagne  in  1582.  He  revolted  against  Henry  III.  in  1589, 
and  afterwards  defied  the  authority  of  Henry  IV.  until 
1598,  when  he  submitted,  and  received  a  large  sum  of 
money  from  the  king.  Died  in  1602. 

See  BRUSI.E  DE  MONTPI.AINCHAMP,  "Vie  de  P.  E.  de  Lorraine," 
1689;  "  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Generale." 

Mercure  or  Mercur.     See  MERCURY. 

Mercuri,  mCR-koo'ree,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
horn  at  Rome  about  1808.  He  worked  with  success  in 
Paris  from  1832  to  1847. 

Mercuriale,  meK-koo-re-a'la,  or  Mercuriali,  meR- 
koo-re-a'lee,  [Latin,  MERCURIA'LIS,]  (GiROLAMO,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Forli  in  1530,  succeeded  Fra- 
cantiani  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  (1569.)  On 
the  invitation  of  Maximilian  II.,  he  visited  Vienna,  and 
was  made  a  chevalier  and  count  palatine  by  the  emperor. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Gymnastic  Art," 
(in  Latin.)  Died  in  1606. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratitra  Italiana;"  F.  BOER- 
NER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  H.  Mercurialis,"  1751. 

Mercurialis.     See  MKRCURIALE. 

Mercurio.     See  MERCURY. 

Mercurius.     See  MERCURY. 

Mer'cu-ry,  [Lat.  MERCU'RIUS  ;  Fr.  MERCURE,  meRx- 
kiiR';  It.  MERCURIO,  meR-koo're-o ;  Ger.  MERCUR, 
meu-kooR',]  in  the  Roman  mythology,  a  god  of  com 
merce  and  gain,  (from  the  Latin  merx,  plural  merces, 
"  merchandise,")  was  regarded  as  the  messenger  of 
the  gods,  the  patron  of  orators,  merchants,  travellers, 
and  thieves.  He  was  identified  by  the  Romans  of  the 
later  ages  with  the  Greek  Hermes,  and  was  said  to  be 
a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia.  The  poets  feigned  that  it 
was  his  office  to  conduct  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  the 
infernal  regions, — that  he  stole  from  Neptune  his  trident, 
from  Venus  her  girdle,  from  Mars  his  sword,  and  from 
Jupiter  his  sceptre, — that  he  could  assume  whatever 
shape  he  pleased,  and  render  himself  invisible.  Having 
invented  the  lyre  and  given  it  to  Apollo,  he  received 
from  that  god  a  golden  wand,  called  cadnceits.  The 
invention  of  the  alphabet,  of  numbers,  of  astronomy,  of 
music,  and  other  things,  was  ascribed  to  Mercury,  who 
was  also  interested  in  alliances  and  treaties.  He  was 
represented  with  a  winged  cap  (fetasits)  and  winged 
sandals,  (talaria.)  He  received  numerous  surnames, 
among  which  are  Cyllenius,  (from  Mount  Cyllene,  where 
he  was  horn,)  Caduceator,  (i.e.  the  "herald"  or  "wand- 
bearer,")  Argeiphontes,  ( the  "slayer  of  Argus,")  and 
many  other  names. 

See  J.  D.  GUIGNIAUT,  "  Commentatio  de  'Ep/j.ov  seu  Merrurii 
Mythologia,"  1835. 

Mercy,  mCR'se',  (CLAUDE  FLORIMOND,)  a  distin 
guished  military  commander,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1666, 
was  a  grandson  of  Frai^ois,  noticed  below.  Having 
entered  the  Austrian  service,  he  fought  against  the 
French  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1702  to  1734, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  and  general-in- 
chief  of  the  Imperial  forces  in  Italy.  He  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Parma,  (1734.) 

Mercy,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  celebrated  general,  born  in 
Lorraine  about  1595.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Austrian  army  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and  gained 
a  decided  advantage  over  Turenne  at  Marienthal,  in 
1645.  He  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  action  with  the 
Duke  of  Enghien,  near  Nordlingen,  the  same  year. 

See  KRAFT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  d'Autriche." 

Mercy  d'Argenteau,  de,  deh  meR'se'  df  R'zhdN'to', 
(FKANC.OIS,)  COMTE,  was  Austrian  ambassador  from 
the  court  of  Vienna  to  Paris  in  1791.  He  advised  the 
flight  of  the  royal  family.  Died  in  1794. 

Mere,  de,  deh  ma'ra',  (GEORGES  Brossin — bRo'saN',) 
CHEVALIER,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Poitou  about 
1610.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Conversations  of 


a,  e, T,  5,  u, y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e, T,  o,  ii, y,  short;  a, e,  i,  o.  ohscure:  far.  fall,  fat;  met:  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MEREDITH 


1573 


MERLET 


Marshal  Clerambault  and  Chevalier  de  Mere."     He  was 
intimate  with  Pascal  and  Balzac.     Died  in  1685. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Derniers  Portraits  litteraires." 

Mer'e-dith,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  novelist,  born  in 
Hampshire  about  1828.     Among  his  works  are  "  Farina,  | 
a  Legend  of  Cologne,"  (1858,)  and  "  Vittoria,"  (1866.)     j 

Meredith,  (HENRY,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in  ; 
1782,  visited  the  northern  part  of  Guinea,  and  wrote  j 
an  "  Account  of  the  Gold  Coast,  with  a  Brief  History  of  , 
the  African  Company."  He  died  in  Guinea  of  injuries  : 
received  from  the  natives,  (1812.) 

See  W.  HUTTON,  "Voyage  to  Guinea,"  1821. 

Meredith,  (OWEN.)     See  BUI.WKR. 
Mgr'e-dith,  (WILLIAM  MORRIS,)  an  eminent  Amer 
ican  lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  8,  1799,  graduated  ! 
with    distinction  at   the   University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1812.     He  commenced  the  practice  of  law  about  1820.  | 
From  1824  to  1828  he  represented  his  native  city  in  the  | 
Pennsylvania  house  of  representatives,  and  from  1834 
to  1849  was  president  of  the  select  council   of   Phila 
delphia.     In  1837  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Con 
vention  for  amending  the  Constitution  of  the  State.    On 
the  inauguration  of  President  Taylor,  in   March,  1849, 
Mr.  Meredith  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
which  position  he  held  till  the  death  of  the  President,  in 
July,  1850.     In  1861  he  became  attorney-general  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  filled  this  office  until  1867. 

As  a  lawyer,  Mr.  Meredith  has  for  many  years  stood 
in  the  foremost  rank  in  his  native  State,  and  has  been 
constantly  engaged  in  important  cases  both  in  the  su 
preme  court  of  Pennsylvania  and  that  of  the  United 
States.  As  an  able  and  ready  legal  debater,  he  has  few 
equals  and  scarcely  any  superior  in  our  country. 

Mer'i-am,  (Er.EN,)  an  American  meteorologist,  born 
at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  in  1/94.  He  was  a  diligent 
collector  of  statistics,  and  originated  a  theory  of  cycles 
of  atmospherical  phenomena.  Died  at  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  in  1864. 

Merian,  ma're'S.N',  (JEAN  BERNARD,)  a  Swiss  littlra- 
tcur,  born  near  Bale  in  1723.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  philosophical  essays  of  great  merit,  and  trans 
lated  into  French  some  of  the  "  Essays"  of  Hume. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  ANCILLON,  "  filoge  de  Merian,"  1810. 
Merian,  ma're-an,  (MARIA  SIBYLLA,)  a  celebrated 
flower-painter  and  naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the 
Main  in  1647,  was  a  pupil  of  Mignon.  She  was  married 
in  1665  to  John  Andrew  Graff,  an  artist,  whose  name, 
however,  she  did  not  assume.  Having  made  a  scientific 
tour  in  South  America  in  1698,  she  published,  after  her 
return,  a  magnificent  work  "  On  the  Metamorphoses  of 
Surinam  Insects,"  (1705,  in  Dutch  and  Latin;)  also  a 
treatise  "On  the  Origin  of  Caterpillars,  their  Nourish 
ment  and  Changes."  These  works  are  illustrated  by 
designs  from  nature  and  painted  with  exquisite  skill  and 
accuracy.  She  died  in  1717,  leaving  two  daughters, 
|ane  Maria  Helena  and  Dorothea  Maria  Henrietta, 
who  were  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  art. 
See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 
Merian,  (MATTHlKf.)  an  eminent  Swiss  engraver, 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1593, 
and  resided  at  Frankfort-on-the  Main.  His  prints  are 
very  numerous,  and  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1651. 
Merian,  (MATTHIEL',)  born  at  Bale  in  1621,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  studied  under  Sandrart  and  Carlo 
Maratta.  and  painted  portraits  of  great  excellence  in  the 
style  of  Van  Dyck.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  an  eques 
trian  portrait  of  Count  Soclerini.  Died  in  1687. 

Meric,  de,  deh  ma'rek',  (JEAN,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Metz  in  1717,  served  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and 
was  killed  in  an  engagement  near  Malines  in  1747. 

Merilhou,  ma'ie'loo',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  at  Montignac  in  1788.  He  gained  distinction  as  an 
advocate  in  political  trials.  In  1830  he  became  minister 
of  public  instruction  in  Lafitte's  cabinet.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1831,  and  in  1837  was 
made  a  peer.  He  published  a  "  Historical  Essay  on  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Mirabeau,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1856. 

See  P.  S.  DUPIN,  "Notice  stir  J.  Merilhou,"  1826;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 


M^rille,  ma'rel'  or  ma-re'ye,  (EDMOND,)  a  French 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Troyes  in  1579;  died  in 
1647. 

Merimee,  ma're'ma',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS  LENORE,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  1765;  died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

Merimee,  (PROSPER,)  a  distinguished  novelist  and 
historian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1803.  He  produced  in  1825,  as  translations  from  the 
Spanish,  several  dramas,  under  the  title  of  "  Theatre  de 
Clara  Gazul."  In  1834  he  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  historical  monuments.  His  novel  of  "Co- 
lomba"  (1841)  was  very  successful.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1844,  and  became  a 
senator  in  1853.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "The 
Double  Mistake,"  ("La "double  Meprise,")  a  moral  tale, 
(1833,)  "Notes  of  a  Journey  in  the  South  of  France," 
(1835,)  "Notes  of  a  Journey  in  the  West  of  France," 
(1836,)  "  Studies  in  Roman  History,"  "The  Conspiracy 
of  Catiline,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1844,)  a  "  History  of  Don 
Pedro  I.,  King  of  Castile,"  (1848,)  "  Les  faux  Deme 
trius;  Episode  de  1'Histoire  de  Kussie,"  (1853,)  and 
"Melanges  historiques  et  litteraires,"  (1855.)  He  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  narration.  Died  in  1870. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  and  "Canse- 
ries  duLundi;"  "  Nouvelle  Bioeraphie  Generale  :"  "  Blackwcod's 
Magazine"  for  March,  1849;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Ju'y,  1850. 

Merino,  ma-ree'no,  (Don  GKRONIMO,)  a  Spanish 
guerilla  chieftain,  born  at  Villasbiado,  in  Old  Castile, 
about  1770,  distinguished  himself  in  the  principal  cam 
paigns  against  the  French  from  1808  to  1811.  Having 
afterwards  embraced  the  cause  of  Don  Carlos,  he  suffered 
a  total  defeat  in  1838,  and  fled  to  France,  where  he  died 
in  1847. 

Me-ri'o-nes,  [Gr.  M^pwi^c;  Fr.  M^RIONE,  ma're'on',] 
a  Cretan  hero,  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  the  celebrated 
Helen.  He  was  a  friend  of  Idomeneus,  whom  he  served 
as  charioteer  in  the  Trojan  war,  in  which  he  acted  a 
prominent  part. 

Mer'I-vale,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  historian,  a  son 
of  John  Herman  Merivale,  noticed  below,  was  born 
about  1808.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1830,  and 
became  rector  of  Lawford,  Essex.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,"  (7  vols.,  1850-62.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1850,  and  July,  1857. 
Merivale,  (HERMAN,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1805.  He  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford  about  1837. 
Among  his  works  are  "Lectures  on  Colonization  and 
the  Colonies,"  (2  vols.,  1841.)  He  completed  the  "  Me 
moirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Francis,"  which  had  been 
commenced  by  Joseph  Parkes,  (2  vols.,  1867.) 

Merivale,  (JOHN  HERMAN,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Exeter 
in  1779.  He  practised  in  the  court  of  chancery,  and 
published  in  1827  a  "  Letter  on  the  Chancery  Com 
mission."  In  1831  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of 
bankruptcy.  He  translated  the  minor  poems  of  Schiller, 
and  various  other  works  from  the  German,  Greek,  and 
Italian.  Died  in  1844. 

Mer'i-weth-er,  (DAVID,)  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Virginia  in  1755,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 
He  was  chosen  to  represent  a  district  of  Georgia  in 
Congress  in  iSco. 

Merkel,  meVkel,  (GARi.iEB,)born  in  Livonia  in  1776, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Kotzebue,  with  whom  he  was 
associated  as  editor  of  the  "Freimuthigen"  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1850. 

Merle,  meRl,  (JEAN  TOUSSAINT,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1785.  Among  his  most  popular 
works  are  "  The  Youth  of  Henry  IV."  and  "The  New- 
Market  Races."  Died  in  1852. 

Merle,  (MATTHIKU,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Uzes, 
in  Languedoc,  in  1548.  He  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Protestants  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  time,  and  was  dis 
tinguished  by  the  favour  of  Henry  IV.  Died  about 
1590. 

Merle,  van.     See  MERULA,  (PAUL.) 

Merle-d'Aubigne.     See  D'AuBiCNE. 

Merler.     See  HORSTIUS,  (JACOBUS.) 

Merley,  me"RW,  (Louis,)  a  French  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Saint-Etienne  in  1815. 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


MERLIEUX 


1574 


MERU 


Merlieux,  mgR'le-uh',  (Louis  PARFAIT,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  lie  was  employed  by 
Cuvier  in  1822  to  reproduce  the  forms  of  extinct  animals. 
His  master-piece  is  a  statue  of  "Capaneus  struck  with 
Thunder,"  (1837.) 

Mer'lin  or  Merdhin,  mer'din,  [Lat.  MERLI'NUS 
AMBRC/SIUS,]  a  celebrated  prophet  and  magician,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  Britain  about  450  A.D.  He 
is  alluded  to  by  Spenser  in  his  "Faerie  Queene,"  and 
forms  the  subject  of  the  metrical  romance  of  "  Merlin." 

Another  MKRLIN,  called  "the  Caledonian,"  is  said  to 
have  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century.  He  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  his  grave,  near  the  Tweed,  is  still  pointed  out.  The 
"  Prophecies"  of  Merlin  have  been  attributed  to  both 
writers  of  the  name. 

See  T.  HEYWOOD,  "Life  of  Merlin  Ambrosius,"  etc. 

Merlin,  meVlaN',  (ANTOINE  FRANCOIS  EUGENE,) 
COUNT,  a  French  general,  son  of  Merlin  de  Douai,  was 
born  at  Douai  in  1778.  Having  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  as  his  aide-de-camp  in  1798,  he  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Aboukir.  He  afterwards  served  with  dis 
tinction  in  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Spain.  Died  in  1854. 

Merlin,  (CHRISTOPHE  ANTOINE,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Thionville  in  1771.  He  served  under 
Joseph  Bonaparte  in  Spain.  Died  in  1839. 

Merlin,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born 
about  1535,  had  much  influence  in  the  Church.  He  pub 
lished  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1603. 

Merlin  de  Douai,  meu'laN'  deh  doo'i',  (PHILIPPE 
ANTOINE,)  COUNT,  a  French  statesman  and  jurist,  born 
at  Arleux  in  1754.  Elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly 
in  1789,  he  at  first  favoured  moderate  measures,  but  sub 
sequently  identified  himself  with  the  republican  party, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  National  Convention  in  1792, 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  1793  he  presented 
to  the  Convention  the  infamous  decree  called  the  law 
of  the  suspected,  (loi  des  suspects.)  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  justice  in  1795,  and  was  subsequently  created 
by  Napoleon  a  councillor  of  state,  count  of  the  empire, 
and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  French  Institute  soon  after  its  founda 
tion.  He  died  in  1838,  leaving  several  legal  treatises. 

See  MATHIEU,  "  filoge  histovique  du  Comte  Merlin,"  1839; 
C.  PAUI.MIEK,  "Merlin,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Merlin  de  Thioiiville,  meR'laN'  deh  te'6-N'vel', 
(ANTOINK  CHRISTOPHE,)  born  at  Thionville  in  1762,  was 
a  brother  of  Christophe  Antoine,  noticed  above.  He 
was  elected  in  1792  to  the  National  Convention,  where 
he  supported  for  a  time  the  measures  of  the  Jacobins, 
whom  he  afterwards  opposed.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.  Died  in  1833. 

See  REYNAUD,  "Vie  et  Corresponclance  de  Merlin  de  Thionville," 
iS6o. 

Merlinus.     See  MERLIN. 

Merniet,  meVmi',  (JULIEN  AUGUSTINE  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Quesnoi  in  1772.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  in  Italy  and  Spain.  Died  in  1837. 

Merode,  ma'ro-deh  or  ma'rod',  (CHARLES  GHISLAIN,) 
a  Belgian  diplomatist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1763.  Having 
been  made  a  senator  by  Napoleon  in  1809,  he  defended 
the  cause  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  Died  in  1830. 

Merode,  (JEAN  PHILIPPE  EUGENE,)  Marquis  of  Wes- 
terloo,  born  at  Brussels  in  1674,  entered  the  Austrian 
service,  and  was  created  a  field-marshal  and  count  of 
the  empire.  He  died  in  1732,  leaving  a  volume  of  "Me 
moirs,"  reprinted  at  Mons  in  1840. 

Merode,  (Luowic  FRIEDRICH  GHISLAIN,)  a  Belgian 
count,  born  in  1792,  was  killed  near  Antwerp  in  1830, 
while  fighting  against  the  Dutch. 

Merode,  de,  deh  ma'ro-deh  or  ma'rod',  (PHILIPPE 
FELIX  BALTHASAR  OTHON  GHISLAIN,)  COUNT,  a  Bel 
gian  minister  of  state,  born  in  1791,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  the  most  eloquent  chief  of  the 
Catholic  party.  He  became  minister  of  state  under 
Leopold  I.  Died  in  1857. 

MeVp-pe,  [Gr.  MepoTr??:  Fr.  MEROPE,  ma'rop',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  and  one  of  the 
Pleiades.  She  was  married  to  Sisyphus.  It  was  fabled 
that  she  appears  less  luminous  than  the  other  Pleiads, 
because  she  was  ashamed  of  her  marriage  with  a  mortal. 


Merouan.     See  MERWAN. 

Merovaeus.     See  MEROVEE. 

Merovee,  ma'ro'va',  [Lat.  MEROV^'US  ;  Ger.  MERO- 
VIG,  ma'ro-viG,]  the  son  of  Clodion,  born  about  411,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  third  king  of  France,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  In  conjunc 
tion  with  the  Roman  general  Aetius,  he  defeated  Attila, 
King  of  the  Huns,  in  451  A.D.  Died  in  457  or  458. 

See  A.  TIIIKKRY,  "  Attila  et  ]' Empire  des  Huns  ;"  GIBBON,  "  De 
cline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Merovee  or  Mer'o-vig,  a  son  of  Chilperic  I.,  King 
of  Neustria.  He  married  in  576  A.D.  Brunehaut,  Queen 
of  Austrasia,  who  was  his  aunt.  By  this  act  he  lost  the 
favour  of  his  father.  lie  was  persecuted  by  Queen 
Fredegunda,  his  step-mother,  who  employed  assassins 
to  kill  him.  After  he  had  fled  for  refuge  to  various 
cities,  he  was  killed  in  577  A.D. 

Merovig.     See  MEROVEE. 

Mer'ret,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  English  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1614,  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
He  published  an  "Account  of  the  Animal,  Vegetable, 
and  Mineral  Productions  of  Great  Britain,"  and  several 
medical  treatises.  Died  in  1695. 

See  WOOD,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Mer'rick,  (JAMES,)  an  excellent  English  divine  and 
poet,  born  in  1720,  published,  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
"The  Messiah,  a  Divine  Essay."  In  1739  he  translated 
the  poem  of  Tryphiodorus  on  the  "Capture  of  Troy." 
lie  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1744. 
He  also  wrote  a  "  Dissertation  on  Proverbs,"  and  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms  into  English  verse,  regarded  as 
one  of  the  best  in  the  language.  "Died  in  1769. 

See  DODDRIDGE,  "  Letters,"  p.  339  ;  COATES,  "  History  of  Read 
ing." 

Merritt,  (TIMOTHY,)  an  American  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Barkhamstead,  Connecticut,  in  1775,  was  editor 
of  "Zion's  Herald,"  Boston,  and  published  several  re 
ligious  works.  Died  in  1845. 

Mer'r^,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  in  London  in  1755,  was  the  author  of  "Lorenzo," 
a  tragedy,  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Ambitious  Vengeance." 
He  died  at  Baltimore,  in  the  United  States,  in  1798. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  vol.  Ixix. 

Mersch,  van  der,  vSn  der  meRsh,  QEAN  ANDRE,) 
a  Belgian  general,  born  at  Menin  in  1734,  headed  the 
revolt  of  his  countrymen  against  the  Austrian  emperor 
Joseph  II.  in  1789.  Having  been  deprived  of  his  com 
mand  and  imprisoned  through  the  intrigues  of  his  rivals, 
he  was  released  when  the  Austrians  regained  their  power 
in  Belgium.  Died  in  1792. 

Mersemie,  meR'sen',  [Lat.  MF.RSEN'NUS,]  (MARIN,) 
a  learned  French  philosopher,  mathematician,  and  theo 
logian,  born  in  Maine  in  1588.  He  studied  at  the  Col 
lege  de  la  Fleche,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  and 
lasting  friendship  with  Descartes.  He  subsequently 
entered  the  religious  order  of  Minims.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  a  commentary  on  Genesis,  entitled 
"Quasstiones  celeberrimae  in  Genesim,"  (1623,)  and  a 
"  Treatise  on  Universal  Harmony,"  (1627.)  Died  in  1648. 

See  HII.ARION  UK  COSTE,  "Vie  du  Pere  Mersemie;"  BAILLKT, 
"Vie  de  Descartes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Merteiis,  meR'tens,  (CHARLES,)  a  Flemish  physician, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1737;  died  in  1788. 

Mer'ton,  de,  (WALTER,)  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  created  chancellor  of  the  kingdom  in 
1258,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1274.  He  was  the 
founder  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.  Died  in  1277. 

Meru,  ma'roo,  or  Merus,  ma'rdos,  [Gr.  Mr/poo,]  a 
word  of  doubtful  etymology,  forming,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  mountain,  said  to 
be  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  seven  continents.  Its 
height  is  supposed  to  be  84,000  yojanas,*  of  which  16,000 
are  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  sacred  river 
Ganges  (Ganga)  falls  from  heaven  on  its  summit,  and 
flows  to  the  surrounding  worlds  in  four  streams,  of 
which  the  southernmost  is  the  Ganges  of  India.  Brahma, 


*  A  yo'jSnS  (called  yo'jiin  in  the  common  dialect  of  India)  is  usu 
ally  reckoned  at  16,000  yards,  or  about  nine  of  our  miles ;  but,  ac 
cording  to  some  authorities,  it  is  only  five  miles. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MER  ULA 


1575 


MESSALA 


attended  by  Rishis  (sages)  and  celestial  minstrels,  is 
supposed  to  reside  on  Mount  Mem,  on  one  of  the  highest 
summits  of  which,  Kailasa,  dwells  also  Siva,  with  his 
consort,  Parvati. 

See  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary  ;"  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 
Merula,  ma'roo-la  or  m§R'oo-la,  (Gioucio,)  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  at  Alessandria  clella  PagHa  in  1424.  He 
brought  out  in  1470  an  edition  of  Martial's  Epigrams, 
said  to  be  the  first  ever  published,  and  wrote  comment 
aries  on  Cicero,  Pliny,  and  other  classics.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Visconti,  Princes  of  Milan," 
(in  Latin.)  Died  in  1494. 

See  GiNGUEN'E,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  NICERON,  "  Me- 
moires  :"  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Merula,  mer'oo-la,  (PAUL,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Dort  in  1558,  was  originally  named  VAN  MKKLE. 
In  1593  he  succeeded  Justus  Lipsius  as  professor  of  his 
tory  at  Leyden.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Erasmus,"  and  a 
number  of  legal  and  historical  works,  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1607. 

Merville,  meVvel',  the  assumed  name  of  PIEKRK 
FKANC.OIS  CAMUS,  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Pontoise 
in  1783  ;  died  in  1853. 

Merwan  or  Merouan  (mer'wtn')  I.,  surnamed  IBN- 
TARID,  caliph  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Omeyyads,  born 
at  Mecca  about  623.  Having  gained  a  victory  over  his 
rival,  Abdallah  ben  Zobeir,  Merwan  was  proclaimed 
caliph  in  684.  He  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  wives 
in  685  A. n. 

See  WKII,,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. 

Merwan  or  Merouan  II.,(Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-) 
Abdelmelek,  a'boo  abd-el-mel'ek,)  one  of  the  Omey- 
yad  caliphs,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Damascus  in  688  A. D.  He  was  victorious  over  several 
rivals,  but  was  at  last  defeated  by  Abool-Abbas,  son 
of  Ibrahim,  in  749  A.D.  He  was  subsequently  killed  by 
the  Christians,  whom  he  had  cruelly  persecuted. 

See  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xvii. 

Mery,  inl're',  (JEAN,)  a  French  surgeon  and  anato 
mist,  born  at  Vatan  in  1645,  published  a  work  entitled 
"New  System  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood,"  (1700,) 
and  other  medical  treatises.  He  was  first  surgeon  of 
the  Hotel-Dieu,  in  Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Died  in  1722. 

See  FONTENELI.E,  "  filoges  des  Academiciens,"  etc. 

Mery,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  near  Mar 
seilles  in  1798,  wrote  numerous  poems,  romances,  and 
dramas. 

Merz,  mSiUs,  (JACOB,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  the  canton  of  Zurich  in  1783;  died  in  1807. 

Merzliakof  or  Merzliakov,  meiv.-le-a'kof,  (Ai.EXis 
FKODOROVITCH,)  a  Russian  critic  and  poet,  born  in 
1778,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  poetry  at 
Moscow.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  Discourse 
ou  the  Poetry  of  the  Ancients,"  etc.  His  lyric  poems 
are  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  He  also  trans 
lated  into  Russian  Tasso's  "Gerusalemme  Liberata," 
and  various  works  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  French.  Died 
in  1827. 

Mesa,  ma'sa,  (CRISTOBAL,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in 
Estremadura  about  1540.  During  a  residence  of  five 
years  at  Rome,  he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  heroic  poems,  which,  how 
ever,  are  much  less  esteemed  than  his  translations  of 
Virgil's  "/Eneid,"  "  Georgics,"  and  "  Bucolics."  Died 
about  1620. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Mesenguy  or  Mesengui,  ma-zdN'ge',  (  FRANQOIS 
PHILIITE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
1677,  was  an  adherent  of  Jansenism,  and  published  sev 
eral  treatises  against  the  constitution  Unigenitus.  He 
also  wrote  an  "Abridgment  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,"  (1737,)  which  is  commended  by 
Rollin.  Died  in  1793. 

See  LKQUEUX,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  1'Abbe  Mesengui,'' 
1763- 

Mesihi,  meVe-hee,  a  celebrated  Turkish  poet,  flour 
ished  in  the  reign  of  Solyman  I.  He  is  one  of  the  seven 
whose  names,  written  in  golden  letters,  are  suspended 
in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  and  who  have  been  styled  by 


their  countrymen  "the  Pleiades."  One  of  his  idyls  has 
been  translated  by  Sir  William  Jones,  in  his  "  Commen 
taries  on  Asiatic  Poetry." 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  der  Osmanischen  Dichtung." 

Mesle,  ni.Vla',  (JEAN,)  a  French  advocate  in  the  Par 
liament  of  Paris,  wrote  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Minori 
ties,"  (1714.)  Died  in  1756. 

Mesmer,  mes'mer,  (FRIKDRICH  ANTON,)  founder  of 
the  doctrine  of  Mesmerism,  or  animal  magnetism,  was 
born  at  Meersburg,  in  Suabia,  in  1733.  Having  made 
various  experiments  with  the  mineral  magnet,  he  was 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  power  since  called  Mesmer 
ism.  This  he  made  public  in  1775,  in  his  "Letter  to 
a  Foreign  Physician  on  Magnetism."  He  soon  after 
established  a  hospital  at  Vienna  for  the  perfection  and 
promulgation  of  his  discovery,  and  repaired  in  1778  to 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cure  of  diseases 
and  made  many  proselytes.  He  subsequently  refused  a 
large  sum  of  money  offered  him  by  the  French  govern 
ment  for  his  secret.  A  number  of  his  adherents  having 
presented  him  with  340,000  livres,  on  condition  of  being 
instructed  in  his  doctrine,  he  received  the  money,  but 
did  not  perform  his  promise.  He  died  in  Germany  in 
1815,  leaving  several  treatises,  one  of  which  was  entitled 
"Memoire  de  Mesmer  sur  ses  Decouveru  s,"  (1799.) 

See  THOURET,  "  Recherches  et  Doutes  sur  le  Magnetisme  ani 
mal,"  1784;  JOZVVIK,  "Sur  le  Magnetisme  animal,"  1832;  L)R. 
HOEFEK,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  15'iographie  Generale." 

Mesmes,  de.     See  AVAUX. 

Mesnies,  de,  deh  mtm,  (HENRI,)  a  French  states 
man,  born  in  Paris  in  1531,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Jacques, 
noticed  below.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  kingdom 
of  Navarre.  Died  in  1596. 

Mesnies,  de,  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  1490,  was  patronized  by  Catherine  of  Navarre 
and  Francis  I.,  and  was  appointed  master  of  requests 
in  1544.  Died  in  1569. 

Mesmon,  de,  deh  mes'moN',  (GERMAIN  HYACINTHS 
de  Romance — deh  ro'moNss',)  MARQUIS,  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  edited  succes 
sively,  at  Hamburg,  the  "  Spectateur  du  Nord,"  the 
"  Re'veil,"  and  the  "Censeur,"  and  afterwards  repaired 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  became  editor  of  the 
"Journal  du  Nord."  Died  in  1831. 

"Mesnager,  Le,  leh  m.Vna'zha',  (NICOLAS  LE  BAILLIF,) 
a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1658.  He  was 
sent  as  a  secret  agent  to  London  in  1711,  to  negotiate 
the  preliminaries  of  peace,  and  he  was  one  of  the  French 
diplomatists  that  signed  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  (1713.) 
Died  in  1714. 

Mesnard,  mi'titu',  (JACQUES  ANDRE,)  A  French 
lawyer  and  senator,  born  at  Rochefort  in  1792.  He 
became  a  counsellor  in  the  court  of  cassation  in  1841, 
and  a  senator  in  1852.  He  translated  into  French  the 
"Divina  Commeclia"  of  Dante,  (3  vols.,  1858.)  Died  in 
1858. 

Mesnardiere  or  Meiiardiere,  de  la,  deh  la  ma'- 
ntu'de-aiR',  (Hii'POLYTE  JULES  PILF.T,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Loudun  about  1610,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  In  1655  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  a  distinction  which  he  owed  chiefly 
to  his  brilliant  conversational  powers.  Died  in  1663. 

Mesnil,  Du.     See  DUMESNIL. 

Mesiiil,  du,  clii  mi'nel',  (JEAN  BAPTISTF.,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1517,  was  appointed  in  1556 
royal  advocate.  Died  in  1569. 

Mes-o-me'des,  [Gr.  Mem^^c,]  a  lyric  poet,  who 
flourished  under  the  emperor  Hadrian.  Three  of  his 
poems  are  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Mesonero  y  Romanes,  de,  da  ma-so-na'ro  e  ro- 
ma'nos.  (RAMON,)  a  popular  Spanish  writer,  born  at 
Madrid  in  1803.  His  principal  works  are  a  "Manual 
of  Madrid,  Description  of  the  Court  and  the  City,"  and 
"  Panorama  of  Madrid,"  ("  Panorama  Matritense,"  1835,) 
which  are  admired  for  their  faithful  delineations  of  life 
and  manners  and  the  elegance  of  their  style. 

Mes-sa'la  (01  Mes-sal'la)  Cor-vi'nus,  (MARCUS  VA 
LERIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman  orator  and  general,  born  59 
B.C.,  at  first  opposed  the  party  of  Antony,  and  commanded 
a  division  of  the  army  of  Brutus  at  the  battle  of  Philippi. 
After  the  death  of  Brutus  he  became  general-in-chief. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MESSALINA 


1576 


METCALFE 


He  was  subsequently  reconciled  to  Augustus,  who  made 
him  consul,  31  B.C.,  and,  five  years  after,  prefect  of  Rome. 
Among  his  other  important  military  services,  he  reduced 
Aquitania  to  subjection,  for  which  he  obtained  a  triumph, 
(27  B.C.)  Died  about  n  A.n.  Of  the  writings  of  Messala 
only  fragments  remain  ;  but  his  eloquence  is  spoken  of 
in  the  highest  terms  by  Quintilian,  Seneca,  and  the  two 
Plinvs.  He  was  intimate  with  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Pollio, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning. 

See  M.  C.  VAX  HAI.I.,  "  M.  V.  Messala  Corvinns."  etc.,  2  vols., 
1821  ;  L.  WIESE,  "  Dissertatio  de  Messalx  Corvini  Vita  et  Studiis," 
i82q;  TACITUS,  "Annales,"  books  iv.  and  vi.  ;  APPIAN,  "Helium 
Civile." 

Mes-sa-H'na,  [Fr.  MESSAI.INE,  mi'sS'len',]  a  Roman 
empress,  notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  a  daughter  of  M. 
Valerius  Messala  Barbatus.  She  was  married  to  Clau 
dius,  who  afterwards  became  emperor.  She  caused  a 
number  of  eminent  Romans  to  be  put  to  death.  She 
was  executed,  by  order  of  Claudius,  in  48  A.D. 

Mes-sa-li'na  Sta-til'I-a,  granddaughter  of  Statilius 
Taurus,  became  the  third  wife  of  the  emperor  Nero,  in 
66  A.D. 

Messalla.     See  MESSALA. 

Messape.     See  MKSSAPUS. 

Messapus,  [Gr.  Meuaa-oc;  Fr.  MESSAPE,  m.Vstp',] 
in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  a  king  of 
Etruria.  He  fought  for  Tiirnus  against  tineas,  and  was 
supposed  to  be  invulnerable. 

Mes-se'ne,  [Gr.  Msaov/i'?/,]  the  wife  of  Polycaon,  whom 
she  induced  to  take  possession  of  the  country  which  was 
afterwards  called,  from  her,  Messenia.  A  temple  was 
erected  to  her  honour. 

Mes-se'm-us,  [Sw.  pron.  mes-sti'ne-us,]  (ARNOLD,) 
son  of  Johan  Messenius,  noticed  below,  was  made  his 
toriographer  to  Christina  of  .Sweden,  and  obtained  a 
title  of  nobility.  Having  been  concerned  with  his  son 
in  writing  a  libel  on  the  royal  family,  they  were  both 
condemned  to  death  and  executed,  (1648.) 

See  "Anecdotes  de  Suede,"  The  Hague.  1716. 

Messenius,  (JOHAN,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  in 
Ostrogothia  in  1584,  was  professor  of  law  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Upsal.  Being  accused  of  a  treasonable  cor 
respondence  with  the  King  of  Poland  and  the  Jesuits,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  1616.  During  his  confinement  of 
nearly  twenty  years  he  wrote  several  historical  works, 
of  which  the  most  important  is  entitled  "  Scandia  Illus 
trated,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1637. 

See  "  Biographiskt-  Lexicon  ofver  namnkimnige  Svenska  Man;'1 
P.  STENBECK,  "  De  Vita  et  Mentis  Messeniorum,"  1741. 

Mes'ser,  (AsA,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
scholar,  botn  at  Methuen,  Massachusetts,  in  1769.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University,  where  he  became  suc 
cessively  professor  of  the  learned  languages,  (1796,)  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  (1799,)  and  presi 
dent  of  the  institution,  (1802.)  Died  in  1836. 

Messier,  mi'se-a',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Badonviller,  in  Lorraine,  in  1730.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  1751,  he  was  employed  by  De  Lisle  in  his  ob 
servatory,  and  distinguished  himself  by  the  accuracy  of  his 
astronomical  observations.  He  is  said  to  have  observed 
forty-six  comets,  of  which  he  discovered  twenty-one. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris, 
and  of  similar  institutions  at  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and 
other  cities.  He  died  in  1817,  leaving  "Memoires"  con 
taining  his  observations.  Lalande  named  in  honour 
of  this  astronomer  a  constellation  situated  between  Ce- 
pheus,  Cassiopeia,  and  the  Camelopard. 

See  DEI.AMRRE,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Messier,"  in  the 
"  Memoires''  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  vol.  ii.  ;  LA  HARPE,  "Cor- 
respondance  litteraire." 

Messina,  da.     See  ANTONELLO  DA  MESSINA. 

Messis.     See  MATSYS,  (QUENTIN.) 

Mes'ton,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire  about  1688,  was  the  author  of  "  Mother  Grim's 
Tales,"  in  verse,  and  a  poem  entitled  "The  Knight." 
Died  in  1745. 

See  "  Life  of  William  Meston,"  prefixed  to  Iris  works  ;  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mestrezat,  mes'tReh-zi',  QEAN,)  a  Protestant  theolo 
gian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Geneva  in  1592,  became 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Charenton,  and  distinguished 


himself  by  his  bold  and  eloquent  defence  of  the  Protest 
ants  against  the  Roman  clergy.  He  was  the  author 
of  theological  treatises  and  sermons,  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1657. 

See  SENEBIER,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Mesue  or  Messua.     See  MASSOOA. 

Meszaros,  mH'si-rosh,  (LAZAR,)  a  Hungarian  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Bacs  in  1796.  In 
1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  the  Hungarian 
cabinet  of  Batthyanyi,  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  joined  the  revolutionary  party.  After  sharing  with 
Dembinski  the  defeat  of  Temesvar,  he  took  refuge  in 
Turkey,  and  afterwards  visited  England  and  America. 
Died  in  1858. 

Metastase.     See  METASTASIO. 

Metastasio,  ma-tas-ta'se-o,  [Fr.  METASTASE,  ma'tts'- 
ttz',]  (PIETRO  BONAVKNTURA,)  an  eminent  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Rome  in  1698,  was  originally  named  TRAPASSI. 
He  manifested  at  an  early  age  extraordinary  talents 
for  improvisation  on  any  subject.  Having  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  celebrated  jurist  Gravina,  he  was  adopted 
by  him,  and  his  name  was  changed  to  Metastasio,  (a 
"changing,")  in  allusion  to  his  adoption.  His  benefactor 
died  in  1718,  leaving  his  property  to  Metastasio,  who 
now  devoted  himself  principally  to  literary  pursuits, 
and  brought  out  in  1721  his  lyric  drama  entitled  "The 
Gardens  of  the  Hesperides,"  ("Gli  Orti  Esperidi.") 
This  piece  was  received  with  great  favour,  one  of  the 
principal  parts  in  it  being  performed  by  Signora  Bnlga- 
rini,  (La  Romanina,)  esteemed  the  first  vocalist  of  her 
time.  At  the  request  of  this  lady,  he  relinquished  the 
legal  profession,  which  he  had  practised  for  a  time,  and 
gave  his  attention  exclusively  to  poetry.  His  opera  of 
"  Didone  Abbandonata"  was  performed  with  great  ap 
plause  at  Naples  in  1724,  and  was  followed  by  his  "  Ca- 
tone,"  "  Semiramide,"  "Artaserse,"  and  other  operas, 
which  established  his  reputation.  On  the  invitation  of 
the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  he  repaired  to  Vienna,  and 
succeeded  Apostolo  Zeno  as  imperial  laureate.  In  1734 
he  lost  his  "inestimable  counsellor  and  friend,"  Signora 
Bulgarini,  who  bequeathed  to  him,  after  the  death  of 
her  husband,  her  property,  amounting  to  twenty-five 
thousand  crowns.  This,  with  characteristic  delicacy,  he 
refused  to  accept.  He  brought  out  during  his  residence 
at  Vienna  two  of  his  most  admired  operas,  the  "Olim- 
piade"  and  "La  Clemenza  di  Tito,"  which  the  music 
of  Mozart  has  contributed  to  render  immortal.  Besides 
the  works  above  named,  he  composed  a  number  of  ora 
torios,  cantatas,  sonnets,  etc.  He  died  at  Vienna  in 
1782.  The  genius  of  Metastasio  is  eulogized  by  Vol 
taire  and  La  Harpe,  the  former  of  whom  compares  some 
of  his  scenes  to  the  most  sublime  of  the  Greek  poets. 
Rousseau,  in  his  "Nouvelle  Heloise,"  pronounces  him 
"the  only  poet  of  the  heart,  the  only  genius  who  can 
move  by  the  charm  of  poetic  and  musical  harmony  ;" 
and  Schlegel  observes  that  his  purity  of  diction,  grace, 
and  delicacy  have  rendered  him  in  the  eyes  of  his  coun 
trymen  a  classic  author, — the  Racine  of  Italy. 

See  BURNEV,  "Memoirs  of  Metastasio,"  3  vo's..  1796;  TORCIA, 
"Elogio  del  Abbate  P.  Metastasio,"  1782;  HII.I.KR,  '"  Ueber  P.  Me 
tastasio  und  seine  VVerke,"  1786:  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  :"  AI.TANESI,  "Vita  di  P.  Metastasio,"  178;  ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gdnerale  ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  REV. 
HKNRY  STEBBING,  London,  1831. 

Metcalfe,  meVkaf,  (CHARLES  THEOPHILUS,)  BARON, 
an  able  English  statesman,  born  in  Calcutta  in  1785,  was 
educated  at  Eton.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  as  a  writer,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  India  in  1827.  He  resigned  his 
office,  returned  to  England  in  1837,  and  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  1839.  For  three  years  lie  per 
formed  the  duties  of  this  difficult  position  with  success. 
He  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada  about 
February,  1843.  In  politics  he  was  a  Liberal.  He  re 
signed  on  account  of  ill  health  in  the  autumn  of  1845, 
and  died  at  Basingstoke  in  September,  1846. 

See  JOHN  WILLIAM  KAYE.  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Charles, 
Lord  Metcalfe,"  1854  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December, 
1846,  and  February,  1855. 

Met'calfe,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  Whig  statesman, 
born  in  Fauquier  county,  Virginia,  in  1780,  removed  at 
an  early  age  to  Kentucky.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of 


a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far.  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


METELLI 


1577 


METRODORUS 


stone-mason  in  his  youth.  He  became  Governor  of 
Kentucky  in  1828,  and  filled  that  office  four  years.  In 
1 8  }.8  he  succeeded  Mr.  Crittenden  in  the  United  States 
Senate.  His  term  expired  in  March,  1849.  Died  in  1855. 

Metelli.     See  MITEI.LT. 

Me-tel'lus,  (QuiNrusC^ECiLius,)  called  MACEDO'NI- 
cus,  an  eminent  Roman  general,  of  a  noble  family,  was 
chosen  praetor  in  148  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Macedonians  in  that  year,  and  took  their  leader,  An- 
driscus,  prisoner,  for  which  a  triumph  was  decreed  him. 
In  146  he  defeated  the  Achasans  near  Thermopylae.  He 
was  made  consul  in  143,  and  was  sent  to  Spain  to  op 
pose  Viriathus.  It  was  during  the  censorship  of  Metellus 
and  Pompeius  (131  B.C.)  that  the  decree  was  passed 
obliging  all  Roman  citizens  to  marry.  He  opposed  the 
Gracchi.  Died  in  115  B.C. 

See  TACITUS,  "Annales;"  LIVY,  "Epitome." 

Metellus,  (QUINTUS  C/ECILIUS  NUMIDICUS,)  an  able 
Roman  general,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  a  leader 
of  the  aristocratic  party.  Having  been  chosen  consul 
for  109  B.C.,  he  obtained  as  his  province  Numidia,  then 
the  seat  of  war  with  Jugurtha,  who  had  hitherto  suc 
ceeded  in  outgeneralling  or  outwitting  all  the  Roman 
commanders  sent  against  him.  Metellus  was  more  suc 
cessful,  and  finally  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  African 
prince  at  the  river  Muthul,  towards  the  close  of  that 
year.  Before  the  end  of  this  war  the  command  was 
transferred  to  Marius ;  but  Metellus  was  honoured  with 
a  triumph  on  his  return  to  Rome  in  107,  and  received  the 
surname  of  NUMID'ICUS.  He  became  censor  in  102,  and 
was  banished  about  100  H.C.,  through  the  influence  of 
Marius  and  Saturninus,  but  he  was  recalled  the  next  year. 
He  was  distinguished  as  an  orator,  and  was  reputed  one 
of  the  most  virtuous  men  of  his  time. 

See  SALI.UST,  "Helium  Jiigurthinum  ;"  PLUTARCH,  "Marius." 

Metellus,  (Quivrus  C^ECILIUS  Pius,)  a  Roman 
general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became  praetor  in  89 
n.c.  In  the  civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  he 
fought  for  the  latter,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Carbo  and  Norbanus,  near  Faventia,  in  82  B.C.  He  was 
chosen  consul  with  Sulla  in  the  year  80,  after  which  he 
commanded  in  Spain  and  spent  several  years  in  un 
successful  efforts  to  conquer  Sertorius.  He  became 
pontifex  maximus.  Died  about  63  B.C. 

Me-tel'lus  Ce'ler,  (Q.  C/ECILIUS,)  a  Roman  states 
man,  and  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  became 
praetor  in  63  B.C.,  acted  with  Cicero  against  Catiline, 
and  was  chosen  consul  for  the  year  60.  During  his 
consulship  he  resolutely  opposed  the  laws  which  his 
colleague  Afranius  desired  to  enact  for  the  benefit  of 
Polnpey.  Died  in  59  B.C. 

Me-tel'lus  Ne'pos,  (QUINTUS,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  63  B.C.,  and 
was  a  partisan  of  Pompey.  As  tribune,  he  opposed 
Cicero  with  some  violence.  He  became  praetor  in  60, 
and  consul  in  57  B.C.  Died  about  55  B.C. 

Meteren,  van,  vfn  ma'teh-ren,  (EMANUEI.,)  a  Flem 
ish  Protestant  historian,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1535,  was 
the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Netherlands  from  the 
Early  Part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  his  Own  Time," 
(in  Latin  and  Flemish.)  It  is  valued  for  its  accuracy; 
but  the  historian  is  accused  by  some  writers  of  injustice 
towards  the  Catholics.  Died  in  1612. 

See  S.  RUVTINCK,  "Biographic  de  Van  Meteren,"  prefixed  to  his 
"Histoire,"  (French  translation.) 

Metezeau,  meh'teh'zo',  (CLEMENT,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  at  Dreux,  constructed  the  great  dyke  of  La 
Rochelle,  which,  suggested  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  was 
the  principal  means  of  reducing  that  city  in  1628.  Died 
about  1650. 

Method  or  Methode.     See  METHODIUS. 

Me-tho'di-us,  [Fr.  METHODE,  ma'tod',]  SAINT,  one 
of  the  early  Christian  martyrs,  surnamed  PATARENSIS 
on  account  of  his  having  been  Bishop  of  Patara.  He 
was  also  Bishop  of  Olympus,  in  Lycia,  and  afterwards 
of  Tyre.  His  piety  and  learning  are  highly  commended 
by  Kpiphanius  and  Jerome.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"The  Banquet  of  Ten  Virgins,"  of  which  a  great  part 
is  extant.  He  suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian 
about  312. 

See  LARDNER,  "  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History." 


Methodius  [Gr.  Metfo&oc]  THE  CONFESSOR,  born  at 
Syracuse,  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
842  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  worship 
of  images,  and  was  the  author  of  several  learned  works. 
Died  in  846. 

See  BARONIUS,  "Annales." 

Methodius,  [Fr.  METHODE,  ma'tod';  Ger.  METHOD, 
ma'tod,]  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  was  sent,  with  his 
brother  Cyrillus,  by  the  Greek  emperor  Michael  III.,  to 
convert  the  Saracens  on  the  Euphrates,  and  about  863 
went  on  a  mission  to  the  Slavonians.  They  invented 
the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  the  Psalter  and 
Gospels  into  Slavonic.  Methodius  resided  in  the  country 
nearly  thirty  years,  and,  it  is  said,  translated  all  the 
Scriptures  into  Slavonic. 

See  F.  X.  RICHTER,  "Cyrill  und  Method  der  Slaven  Apostel," 
1825. 

Me-thu'se-lah,  [Heb.  nStJnrra  ;  Fr.  MATHUSAI.EM,* 
ma"tii'za"'16.N',  or  MATHUSALA,  mf'tu'za'lt',]  a  Hebrew 
patriarch,  noted  for  his  longevity,  was  a  son  of  Enoch. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  six  years  before  the 
deluge,  aged  nine  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years. 

See  Genesis  v. 

Me'tis,  [Gr.  Mrjng ;  Fr.  METIS,  ma'tess',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  personification  of  prudence,  was  the 
daughter  of  Oceanus,  and  the  first  wife  of  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Metius,  ma'te-us,  (ADKIAAN,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1571.  He  studied  under  Tycho 
Brahe  in  Denmark,  and  after  his  return  to  Holland  was 
appointed,  in  1598,  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Franeker.  Among  his  works  is  a  Latin  essay 
"  On  the  Institutes  of  Astronomy."  Died  in  1635. 

See  MONTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mnthematiques." 

Metius,  (JAKOB,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  is  regarded 
by  Descartes  and  some  other  savants  as  the  inventor  of 
the  refracting  telescope. 

See  BARLOW,  "History  of  Optics;"  BOREL,  "  De  vero  Tele- 
scopii  Inventore." 

Metkerke,  van,  vSn  mct'keK'keh,  or  Meetkercke, 
mat'keK'keh,  (AiK)Li'HUS,)  a  distinguished  Flemish  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Bruges  in  1528.  He  was  a  Protestant, 
and  was  sent  by  the  United  Provinces  on  an  embassy  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  He  translated  Theocritus 
into  Latin  verse,  and  published  an  edition  of  Dion  and 
Moschus.  Metkerke  was  president  of  the  Council  of 
P'landers.  Died  in  1591. 

See  MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Metochita,  me't-o-Kee'ta,  ?  (THEODORE,)  a  modern 
Greek  historian,  was  the  author  of  a  "Compendium  of 
Roman  History  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Constantine  the 
Great,''  and  a  "  Paraphrase  of  the  Physics  of  Aristotle." 
Died  in  1332. 

Me'ton,  [Merwv,]  a  Greek  astronomer,  flourished  in 
432  B.C.  He  observed  the  solstice  at  Athens,  and  dis 
covered  the  lunar  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  designed  to 
make  the  solar  and  lunar  years  begin  at  the  same  time. 
This  invention  is  called  the  Metonic  cycle,  and  is  still 
employed  by  the  Western  Churches  in  their  computation 
of  Easter. 

See  SUIDAS,  "Melon;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gshierale." 

Metrodore.     See  METRODORUS. 

Met-ro-do'rus  [Gr.  M^r/xxJwpoe  ;  Fr.  METRODOUE, 
ma'tKo'doR']  OF  CHIOS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  400  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Nature,"  which 
was  very  celebrated.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  mas 
ter  of  Anaxarchus. 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  FABRICIUS, 
"  Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Metrodorus  OF  LAMPSACUS,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  230  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  intimate  friend  of 
Epicurus.  He  sensualized  and  debased  the  doctrines 
which  he  had  received  from  his  master,  and  contributed 
not  a  little  to  bring  the  Epicurean  philosophy  into  con 
tempt  with  the  wise  and  virtuous.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  the  titles  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  Dio 
genes  Laertius. 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 
Grasca." 


*  The  name  was  sometimes  so  written  by  the  old  English  poets. 
Cowley,  in  his  "Fragments,"  says,  "Seven  royal  years  to  a  public 
spirit  will  seem  more  than  the  private  life  of  a  Mathusalem." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


METRODORUS 


1578 


MEX1A 


Metrodorus,  [Or.  MrjTpodupof,]  a  celebrated  Athenian, 
born  about  200  li.c.  After  the  defeat  of  Perseus  by 
Paiilus  Emilius,  in  168  B.C.,  the  latter  commanded  the 
Athenians  to  send  their  best  artist  to  paint  his  triumph 
and  their  greatest  philosopher  to  educate  his  sons.  Me 
trodorus,  being  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  first  in 
both  departments,  was  sent  accordingly,  and  gave  entire 
satisfaction  to  the  Roman  general. 

Mettenleiter,  met'ten-H'ter,  (JoiiANN  MICHAF.L,)  a 
German  engraver,  born  in  1765,  executed  a  number  of 
mezzotints  and  lithographs  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1845. 

Mettermch,  von,  fon  met'ter-n!K/,  (CLEMENS  WEN- 
ZEL,)  PRINCE,  an  emiiuent  Austrian  statesman  and  diplo 
matist,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1773,  was  a  son  of  Count 
Metternich,  who  was  a  minister  of  state  at  Vienna  and 
died  in  1818.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Dresden  in 
1801,  and  to  Berlin  in  1803.  In  1806  he  became  ambas 
sador  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  the  renewal  of 
the  war  in  1809.  After  the  capture  of  Vienna  and  the 
restoration  of  peace,  he  was  appointed  chancellor  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  October,  1809.  For  more 
than  thirty  years  from  that  date  he  had  the  chief  direc 
tion  of  affairs  in  Austria.  He  represented  his  govern 
ment  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  (1814,)  after  which  he 
had  great  influence  in  European  politics.  "No  diploma 
tist,"  says  Alison,  "  even  in  that  age  of  intellectual  giants, 
excelled,  perhaps  hardly  any  equalled,  Metternich  in  the 
sagacious  survey  which  he  took  of  existing  events,  and 
the  admirable  tact  with  which  lie  contrived  to  render 
them  conducive  to  the  interests  of  his  country."  ("  His 
tory  of  Europe.")  In  politics  he  was  extremely  conser 
vative.  He  was  driven  from  power  and  into  exile  by 
the  revolution  of  March,  1848.  He  returned  to  Vienna 
in  1851.  Died  in  1859.  "He  always  comprehended  his 
position,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858, 
"and  never  lost  an  opportunity.  He  acted  with  equal  jus 
tice  and  calculation,  and  never  made  a  retrograde  step. 
His  conduct  was  always  politic,  and  never  precipitate." 

See  HINDER,  "Clement  von  Metternich  uiul  sein  Zeita'ter,"  1836; 
J.  VON  HORMAVR,  "  Kaiser  Fran/,  und  Metternich,"  1X48;  CAPE- 
FIGUK,  "  Diplomates  contemporains  ;"  L.  UK  LOMENIH.  "  M.  de 
Metternich,  par  un  Hornme  de  Rien,"  1840;  TIMERS,  "  History  of 
the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire:"  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by 
HARKIKT  MARTINKAH,  1869:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ginjrale  ;" 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  lor  October,  1859  ;  "  Fraser's  Maga/.ine" 
for  February  and  March,  1844:  "  Jahrbnch  zum  Conversations- Lexi- 
kon"  for  1861. 

Mettermch,  von,  (RICHARD,)  PRINCE,  a  diplomatist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1828.  lie  was 
sent  by  the  Austrian  government  as  ambassador  to  Paris 
in  1859. 

Mettrie,  de  la,  deli  If  mi'tRe',  (JULIEN  OKFRAY,)  a 
French  physician  and  atheistic  writer,  born  at  Saint- 
Malo  in  1709,  published  an  infamous  work  entitled  "The 
Man  Machine,"  which  he  had  the  impertinence  to  dedi 
cate  to  Haller.  Died  in  1751. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance  Generate." 

Metsys.     See  MATSYS. 

Metz,  mets,  (KONRAD  MARTIN,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Bonn  in  1755,  executed  a  number  of  prints  after 
Michael  Angelo  and  Caravaggio.  Died  in  1827. 

Metzger,  inets'ger,  (EnuAKD,)  a  German  architect, 
born  at  Pappenheim  in  1807,  visited  Greece  in  1831. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  architecture. 

Metzu,  met'zii,  (GAHRIEI.,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1615.  Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  name  the  "  Vegetable-Market  at  Amsterdam," 
"  Interior  of  a  Kitchen,"  "Chemist  Reading  near  a  Win 
dow,"  and  a  "  Young  Girl  Looking  at  a  Butterfly." 
Metzu  is  styled  by  Descamps  one  of  the  greatest  artists 
of  his  nation.  Died  in  1658. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc.;  CHARLES 
BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Meulan,  de,  (PAULINE.)  See  GUIZOT,  (ELISABETH 
CHARLOTTE.) 

Meulemeester,  de.     See  DEMEULEMEESTER. 

Meulen,  van  der,  vtn  der  muli'len  or  mo'Ien,  (AN- 
TOON  FKANS,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  battle-painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1634,  was  a  pupil  of  Snayers.  Having 
visited  Paris  about  1666,  he  was  patronized  by  Colbert, 
and  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  represent  his  principal 
engagements.  He  married  the  niece  of  Le  Brun,  and 


assisted  that  artist  in  his  works  at  the  castle  of  Ver 
sailles.  In  1673  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  As  a  painter  of  battles,  Van  der  Meulen 
had  perhaps  no  superior,  and  his  landscapes  also  possess 
great  merit.  Died  in  1690. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  CHARLES 
BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Meulen,  van  der,  (PETER,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
battles,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  went  to 
England  in  1670,  and  was  patronized  by  King  Wil 
liam  III. 

Meulen,  Ver.     See  VERMEULEN. 

Meun,  Meung,  HHTN,  or  Mehun,  ma-iiN',  (JEAN,) 
a  French  poet,  surnamed  CLOPINEL,  from  his  lameness, 
born  about  1280.  He  was  the  author  of  the  principal 
part  of  the  "  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  one  of  the  earliest 
poems  in  the  language,  which  was  begun  by  Guillaume 
de  Lorris.  The  best  edition  was  published  in  Paris  in 
1814,  (4  vols.  8vo.) 

See  FAUCHET,  "Originede  la  Poe'sie;"  MASSIEU,  "Histoire  de 
la  Poesie  Francaise." 

Meurice,  muh'ress',  (FnANgois  PAUL,)  a  French 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1820,  became  a  brother- 
in-law  of  Victor  Hugo.  He  produced  successful  dramas 
called  "Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark,"  and  "  Benvenuto 
Cellini." 

Meurs,  de,  deli  miiRs,  [Lat.  MEUR'SIUS,]  (J.\N,)  a 
Dutch  scholar  and  historian,  born  near  the  Hague  in 
1579.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Leyden 
in  1611,  and  soon  after  historiographer  to  the  States  of 
Holland.  lie  subsequently  became  royal  historiographer 
to  the  King  of  Denmark.  He  published  a  number  of 
treatises  on  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  Denmark,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1639. 

See  SWEEKT,  "Athena;  Belj;ica3 ;"  NICERON,  "  Me  moires  ;" 
MORBRI,  " Dictionnaire  Historique;"  SCHHAMM,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  Meursii,"  1715. 

Meursius.     See  MEURS,  DK. 

Meusebach,  moi'zeh-baK',  (KARL  HARTWIG  GRE- 
GOR,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Artern  in  1781, 
published  a  number  of  critical  essays.  He  numbered 
among  his  friends  Tieck  and  Goethe.  Died  in  1847. 

Meusel,  moi'zel,  (JuiiANN  GEORG,)  a  German  his 
torian  and  bibliographer,  born  near  Bamberg  in  1743. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Erfurt  in  1769,  and 
at  Erlangen  in  1779.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Bibliotheca  Historica,"  (22  vols.,  1782-84,)  which  con 
tains  notices  of  ancient  and  modern  historians,  a  valuable 
collection  of  biographies  of  German  scholars,  entitled 
"  Gelehrtes  Deutschland,"  (15  vols.,  1796-1812,)  to  which 
Ersch  and  Lindner  added  seven  volumes,  and  a  "Dic 
tionary  of  German  Authors  who  died  between  1750 
and  1800,"  (15  vols.,  1802-16.)  All  of  these  are  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1820. 

See  KARL  HKINRICH  RAH,  "  Dem  Andenken  J.  G.  Mensels," 
etc.,  1820  ;  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review," 
itSoo  et  seq.,  (Appendix.) 

Meusel,  written  also  Moezel,  |Lat.  Mus'cui.us,] 
(WOLFGANG,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian  and  He 
braist,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1497.  He  became  minister 
of  a  church  at  Augsburg  in  1531,  and  professor  of  the 
ology  at  Berne  in  1549.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly 
on  his  commentaries  on  Genesis,  Isaiah,  and  the  Psalms. 
Died  in  1563. 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  M.  ADAM, 
"  Vita;  Theologorum." 

Meusnier,  muh'ne-i',  (JEAN  BAI-TISTE  MARIE.)  a 
French  general  and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  in 
vented  several  machines  and  apparatus.  He  was  killed 
in  battle,  near  Mentz,  in  June,  1793. 

Meusnier,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  P'rench  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1656,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  became  treasurer  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  _  He 
excelled  in  architectural  views  and  perspective.  Died 
in  1734. 

Meusnier  de  Querlon,  muh'ne-i'  deh  keR'loN', 
(ANNE  GAHRIEI.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1702.  He  wrote  critiques,  works  of  fiction,  etc.,  and 
translated  Pliny's  "Natural  History"  into  French.  Died 
in  1780. 

Mexia  or  Mejia,  ma-nee'a,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  his 
torian,  born  at  Seville  about  1496,  published  a  compila- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


METENDORFF 


1579 


tion  entitled  "  Silva  de  varia  Leccion,"  and  a  "History 
of  the  Roman  Emperors  from  Julius  Cjesar  to  Maximilian 
of  Austria."  He  was  patronized  by  Charles  V.,  who 
appointed  him  historiographer.  Died  in  1552. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  Histoiy  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Meyendorff,  von,  fon  ml'en-doRf,  (PETER,)  a  Rus 
sian  diplomatist,  born  about  1790.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Berlin  in  1839,  and  represented  Russia 
at  Vienna  from  1850  to  1854. 

Meyer,  ml'er,  (CONRAD,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1618.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  engraver  who  used  soft  instead  of  hard  varnish. 
Died  in  1689. 

Meyer,  ( FELIX,)  an  eminent  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Winterthur  in  1653.  His  delineations  of  the 
mountain-scenery  of  Switzerland  are  esteemed  master 
pieces  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1713. 

See  Pn.KiN'GTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  DESCAMPS,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Klamands,  Alleinancls,"  etc. 

Meyer,  ml'er,  (FKIKDRICH  JOHANN  LORKNZ.)  a  Ger 
man  litterateur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1760  ;  died  in  1844. 

Meyer,  mi'er,  [Lat.  MKVF/RUS,]  (jACois,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  sometimes  called  BALIOLA'NUS,  born  near  Bail- 
leul  in  1491,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Flanders," 
and  other  works,  (in  Latin.)  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus.  Died  in  1552. 

See  SWEERT,  "Athens  Belgicae." 

Meyer,  (JAN  LODEWYCK,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views,  born  in  Amsterdam  about  1809.  He  painted 
landscapes  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  as  a  marine  painter  at  the  Hague. 

Meyer,  (JoHANN  GEORG,)  a  distinguished  German 
painter,  called,  MEYER  VON  BREMEN,  born  in  1813.  His 
best  works  are  delineations  of  domestic  life,  particularly 
those  representing  the  actions  and  sports  of  children. 
Among  these  may  be  named  "  The  Game  of  Blind-Man's 
Buff,"  and  "The  Youngest  Brother." 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Meyer,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  Swiss  artist  and 
amateur,  born  at  Stafa,  on  Lake  Zurich,  in  1759.  While 
on  a  visit  to  Italy,  in  1/84,  he  formed  an  intimate  friend 
ship  with  Goethe  and  Herder.  In  1807  he  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Design  at  Weimar.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Plastic  Arts  among  the 
Greeks,"  (1824,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Pro- 
pylaen"  and  other  works  of  Goethe.  Died  in  1832. 

See  GOETHE,  "  Briefwechseln." 

Meyer,  (JONAS  DANIEL,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Arn- 
liem  in  1780.  He  published,  in  French,  "The  Spirit, 
Origin,  and  Progress  of  the  Judicial  Institutions  of  the 
Principal  Nations  of  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1818-23.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Meyer,  von,  fon  ml'er,  (HERMANN,)  a  German  geol 
ogist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in 
1 80 1,  published  several  works. 

Meyerbeer,  mi'er-baR',  (GiACOMO,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  composer,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin  in  j 
1794,  was  originally  named  Jacob  Meyer  Beer.  He 
studied  under  dementi  and  Vogler,  and  at  the  age  of 
nine  years  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pianists  in 
Berlin.  His  first  operas,  entitled  "  Jephthah's  Daughter" 
and  "Abimelech,  or  the  Two  Caliphs,"  were  coldly  re 
ceived,  but,  having  visited  Italy  in  1815,  he  there  pro 
duced  his  "Romilda  e  Costanza,"  (1818,)  "  Semiramide 
Riconosciuta,"  (1819,)  and  "  Emma  di  Resburgo,"  (1820,) 
which  met  with  enthusiastic  applause.  To  these  suc 
ceeded,  in  1824,  his  "  Crociato  in  Egitto,"  which  was 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  all  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe.  His  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  brought  out 
in  Paris  in  1831,  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest 
point,  and  is  ranked  among  the  master-pieces  of  musical 
art.  He  afterwards  produced  operas  entitled  "The 
Huguenots,"  (1836,)  and  "  Le  Prophete,"  (1849,)  both 
of  which  were  greatly  admired.  About  1842  he  was  ap 
pointed  director-general  of  music  by  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Among  his  later  works  are  "  L'fitoile  du  Xord,"  (1854,) 
and  "  Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel,"  (1859.)  Died  in  1863. 

See  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "M.  Meyerbeer,  par  un  Hnmme  de  Rien," 
1841;  BROCK-HATS,  "Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 


Meyerheim,  mi'er-hlm',  (FRIEDRICH  EDUARD,)  a 
German  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Dantzic  about 
1810.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  and  in  1838  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  that  city.  His  favourite 
subjects  are  rural  and  domestic  scenes,  which  he  repre 
sents  with  exquisite  skill  and  fidelity.  Among  his  master 
pieces  are  "The  Blind  Beggar,"  "The  Village  School," 
and  an  "  Old  Woman  Teaching  her  Granddaughter  to 
Knit."  His  brother  WILHELM  has  distinguished  him 
self  as  a  painter  of  animals,  battles,  and  camp-life. 

Meyering,  mi'er-ing,  (ALIIERT,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645  ;  died  in  1714. 

Meyern,  nri'eRii,  (WILHELM  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  novelist,  born  near  Anspach  in  1762.  He  wrote 
a  political  romance,  entitled  "  Dya-na-Sore,  or  the 
Wanderers,"  (1787.)  Died  in  1829. 

Meyerus.     See  MEYER,  (JACOH.) 

Meygret  or  Meigret,  mi'gRi',  (Louis,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Lyons  about  1510,  produced  in  1550 
a  "Treatise  on  French  Grammar,"  said  to  be  the  first 
which  ever  appeared.  He  attempted  to  introduce  a  new 
orthography  conformed  to  the  sound.  Died  after  1560. 

Meyrick,  mer'ik,  written  alsoMyrick,  (Sir  SAMUEL 
RUSH,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1783.  His  prin 
cipal  work  is  a  "Critical  Inquiry  into  Ancient  Armour, 
with  Special  Reference  to  England  from  the  Norman 
Conquest  to  the  Time  of  Charles  II.,"  (1824,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  knighted  in  1832.  Died  in 
1848. 

Mezence.     See  MEZENTIUS. 

Mezentius,  me-zSn'she-us,  [Gr.  Meaevrtof ;  Fr.  ME 
ZENCE,  ma'zoNSs',]  a  fabulous  king  of  the  Etruscans, 
notorious  for  his  cruelty  and  impiety.  According  to 
Virgil,  he  was  an  ally  of  Turnus,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
by  Aeneas.  He  svas  the  father  of  Lausus. 

See  VIRGIL'S  "^Eneid,"  book  vii.  648,  book  viii.  482,  and  book  x. 
689-908. 

Mezeray,  de,  deh  maz'Ri',  (FRANC.OIS  EUDES,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Lower  Normandy  in  1610,  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  France,"  (3  vols..  1651,)  which  enjoyed 
extraordinary  popularity  at  the  time,  owing  in  great 
part  to  the  engraved  portraits  it  contained.  He  suc 
ceeded  Voiture  as  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1649,  and  became  perpetual  secretary  of  that  institution 
in  1675.  He  was  also  historiographer  of  France.  Died 
in  1683. 

See  LARROQUE,  "Vie  de  Francois  Me"zeray,"  1720;  SAINTE- 
BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Meziriac,  de,  deh  meh-ze're'tk',  (CLAUDE  CASPAR 
BACHET,)  a  French  scholar  and  mathematician,  born  at 
Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1581.  He  published  an  edition  of 
the  "Arithmetic"  of  Diophantus,  (with  notes,)  and  trans 
lated  a  number  of  Ovid's  "  Epistles"  into  French  verse. 
Died  in  1638. 

Mezzofanti,  met-so-fan'tee,  (GIUSEPPE  GASPARO,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  linguist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1774.  He 
studied  at  the  episcopal  seminary  of  his  native  city,  and 
\vas  ordained  a  priest  in  1797.  In  1804  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  Greek  and  the  Oriental  languages  at  Bologna, 
and  in  1815  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  uni 
versity.  Distinguished  foreigners  who  visited  Bologna 
at  this  time  praised  his  extraordinary  attainments  and 
bore  witness  to  the  accuracy  with  which  he  spoke  their 
respective  languages.  On  the  invitation  of  Pope  Gregory 
XVI.,  he  repaired  in  1831  to  Rome,  where  he  succeeded 
Angelo  Mai  as  keeper  of  the  Vatican  Library,  and  in 
1838  was  made  a  cardinal.  A  German  scholar  says  of 
him  at  this  period,  "  He  is  familiar  not  only  with  the 
principal  European  languages,  but  with  the  Irish,  Welsh, 
and  even  Lappish."  He  is  said  to  have  spoken  upwards 
of  fifty  languages,  and  was  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
idioms  and  provincialisms  peculiar  to  each  :  he  could 
entertain  his  English  friends  with  specimens  of  York 
shire  dialect,  and  his  French  or  German  visitors  with  the 
patois  of  their  respective  countries.  Lord  Byron  styles 
Mezzofanti  a  prodigy  of  languages,  who  should  have  lived 
in  the  times  of  the  tower  of  Babel,  to  serve  as  a  universal 
interpreter.  Died  in  1849. 

See  WILLIAM  RUSSKI.I,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti,"  etc., 
1857;  MANAVIT,  '•  Esquisse  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  Mezzofanti," 
1854;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1855. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    O^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MULL 


tcSo 


MICH 'A 'EL  ANGELO 


Mi'all,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  dissenter,  born  at 
Portsmouth  in  1809.  He  founded"  The  Nonconformist," 
in  London,  and  wrote  several  works  against  the  union  of 
Church  and  State.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  Liberal 
member  of  Parliament  for  Rochdale.  He  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  Bradford  in  1869. 

Miaulis  or  Miaoulis,  me-ow'lis,  (ANDRKAS  VOKOS,) 
a  distinguished  patriot  and  admiral  of  modern  Greece, 
born  at  Negropont  about  1768.  In  1821  he  was  ap 
pointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  of  the  Greeks, 
and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Patras. 
In  1825  he  burnt  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  harbour  of 
Modon.  He  was  created  high  admiral  in  1832.  On 
the  accession  of  King  Otho  to  the  throne  of  Greece, 
Miaulis  became  one  of  his  most  zealous  adherents.  He 
died  in  1835,  and  was  buried  near  the  monument  of 
Themistocles. 

See"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1859;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Miazzi,  me-at'see,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Bergamo  in  1699.  Among  his  most  admired 
works  are  the  theatre  at  Treviso  and  the  Spineda 
palace  at  Venegaz/.a.  Died  about  1780. 

Mi'cah,  [Ileb.  HD'O  ;  Fr.  MICHEE,  me'shi',]  one  of 
the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  was  contemporary  with 
Isaiah  and  Hosea,  and  flourished  under  the  reigns  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  from  759  10699  B-c-  "  ^'s 
style,"  says  Bishop  Lowth,  "is  in  many  parts  animated 
and  sublime,  and  in  general  truly  poetical." 

Mical,  me'kal',  (N.,)  an  ingenious  French  mecha 
nician,  born  about  1730,  constructed  several  admirable 
automatons,  among  which  were  two  speaking  heads, 
presented  by  him  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783. 
Died  about  1790. 

See  "Memoires  secrets." 

Micali,  me-ka'lee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Leghorn  about  1780.  His  prin 
cipal  work  is  entitled  "  Italy  before  the  Dominion  of  the 
Romans,"  (4  vols.,  iSlo.)  Died  in  1844. 

Mi'-eha-el,  [Heb.  ^.SDTD  ;  Gr.  MQW/A;  Fr.  MICHEL, 
me'shel'  ;  It.  MiCHELK,  me-ka'la,]  one  of  the  archangels 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  regarded  as  the 
especial  protector  of  the  Jewish  nation.  A  festival  was 
instituted  in  his  honour,  as  a  defender  of  the  Church, 
by  the  Christians  of  the  ninth  century,  which  is  still 
celebrated  on  the  29th  of  September,  (Michaelmas  Day.) 

See  Daniel  x.  13-21  ;  Revelation  xii.  7-9. 

Mi'-eha-el  [Gr.  Mt^a;//.;  Fr.  MICHEL,  me'shel'  ;  It. 
MICHELK,  me-ka'la]  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  surnamed 
RHANGAHK,  (6  Tovj-u/ji?,)  succeeded,  in  811  A.D.,  Stau- 
racius,  whose  sister  Procopia  he  had  married.  Being 
unsuccessful  in  his  war  against  the  Bulgarians,  he  abdi 
cated  his  crown  in  813  and  retired  to  a  convent.  Died 
about  845. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Michael  II.,  THE  STAMMERER,  also  called  MICHAEL 
THE  PHRYGIAN,  succeeded  Leo  the  Armenian,  whom  he 
had  caused  to  be  assassinated,  as  Emperor  of  Constanti 
nople,  in  820  A.D.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  nine  years, 
leaving  the  empire  to  his  son  Theophilus. 

Michael  III.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  a  son  of  The 
ophilus,  ascended  the  throne  in  842  A.D.,  when  he  was 
about  three  years  old.  He  was  assassinated  by  Basil 
the  Macedonian  in  867.  His  character  was  very  de 
praved. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Michael  IV.,  surnamed  THE  PAPHLAGONIAN,  [Gr. 
Mi,\'(«7A  !j  Ilafaaytiv,]  became  emperor  in  1034,  having 
previously  married  Zoe,  widow  of  Romanus  III.,  whom 
she  had  put  to  death.  He  died  in  1041,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  nephew,  Michael  Calaphates. 

Michael  V.,  surnamed  CALAFHATES,  [Gr.  6  KaAa- 
tyuTTjf,]  was  made  Emperor  of  the  East  in  1041,  but  he 
was  deposed  by  his  subjects  in  1042. 

Michael  VI.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  surnamed  STRA- 
TIOT'ICUS,  began  to  reign  in  1056.  He  was  deposed  in 
1057,  and  was  succeeded  by  Isaac  Comnenus. 

Michael  VII.,  surnamed  PARAPINA'CES,  a  son  of 
Constantine  XL,  succeeded  Romanus  III.  in  1071.  He 
was  feeble  and  incompetent  to  reign,  and  he  abdicated 
in  1078. 


Michael  VIII.  Falaeol'ogus,  [Gr.  MI^O^A  6  Ila^ai- 
oAoyoc;  Fr.  MICHEL  PALEOIOGUE,  me'sheKpt/la/o/log',] 
Emperor  of  the  East,  and  a  son  of  Androni'cus  Palaeol- 
ogus,  was  born  in  1224.  He  usurped  in  1260  the  throne 
of  John  Lascaris,  the  infant  heir  of  the  late  Emperor 
of  Nicrea.  In  1261  his  army  took  Constantinople  from 
the  Latin  ruler,  Baldwin  II.  He  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Patriarch  Arsenius  for  his  cruel  treatment  of  John 
Lascaris,  whom  he  deprived  of  sight.  Under  his  auspices 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  made  a  treaty  of 
union  in  1274;  but  this  attempt  to  restore  the  union 
proved  abortive.  In  1281  he  defeated  the  army  which 
Charles  of  Anjou  and  the  pope  sent  to  invade  the  Eastern 
empire.  He  died  in  1282,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Androni'cus  II. 

See  GIBBON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  GEOKGE 
PACHVMERKS,  "  Historia  Rerum  a  Michaele  PaUeologo  gestarum," 
1666;  LE  BEAU,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Mi'-eha-el  An'ge-lo  |Fr.  MICHEL-ANGE,  me'shel' 
6.\zh ;  It.  MICHELANGELO,  me-k£l-an'ja-)o ;  Lat.  MI 
CHAEL  AN'GELUS]  Buonarotti  (boo-o-na-rot'tee)  or 
Buonarroti,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor, 
and  architect,  was  born  in  the  castle  of  Caprese,  in  Tus 
cany,  on  the  6th  of  March,  1474.  He  was  descended 
IK  m  the  noble  family  of  Canossa.  At  the  time  of  his 
birth,  his  father,  Lodovico  Buonarotti  Simone,  was 
podesta  or  governor  of  Chiusi  and  Caprese.  His 
mother's  name  was  Francesca  del  Sera.  He  attended  a 
grammar-school  in  Florence,  and  became  in  1488  a  pupil 
of  Domenico  Ghirlandaio.  Soon  after  that  date  he 
began  to  study  sculpture  in  an  academy,  or  garden,  which 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  had  furnished  with  antique 
statues  and  bas-reliefs,  in  Florence.  He  gained  the 
favour  of  Lorenzo,  who  about  1490  invited  him  to  be 
come  an  inmate  of  his  palace  and  treated  him  with  much 
respect  and  kindness.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
eminent  literary  men,  one  of  whom,  Angelo  Poliziano, 
(Politian,)  became  his  intimate  friend.  Among  his  ear 
liest  works  was  a  marble  bas-relief,  the  subject  of 
which  was  "The  Battle  of  Hercules  with  the  Centaurs." 
This  work,  which  was  approved  by  his  own  mature  judg 
ment,  is  preserved  in  Florence.  His  patron,  Lorenzo 
cle'  Medici,  died  in  1492,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  de 
generate  son  Piero,  by  whose  order  Michael  Angelo 
made  a  colossal  statue  of  snow.  In  1494  he  went  to 
Bologna,  where  he  worked  about  a  year.  Having  re 
turned  to  Florence,  he  executed  a  statue  of  a  "  Sleeping 
Cupid,"  which  some  person  passed  off  as  an  antique 
and  sold  for  a  high  price  to  Cardinal  San  Giorgio.  About 
1497  he  produced  an  admirable  marble  group,  called  a 
"  Pieta,"  representing  "The  Virgin  weeping  over  the 
Dead  Body  of  her  Son."  "  In  none  of  his  works,"  says 
Ernest  Breton,  "has  he  displayed  more  perfect  know 
ledge  of  design  and  anatomy,  or  more  profound  truth  of 
expression."  ("Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.")  This 
group  now  adorns  a  chapel  in  the  church  of  Saint  Peter 
at  Rome.  He  found  another  patron  in  Pietro  Soderini, 
the  gonfaloniere  (chief  ruler)  of  Florence,  who  employed 
him  in  sculpture  and  painting.  He  executed  a  gigantic 
marble  statue  of  the  psalmist  David,  which  stands  in 
front  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  in  Florence.  He  received 
four  hundred  ducats  for  this  work,  on  which  he  spent 
about  eighteen  months  and  which  he  finished  in  1504. 
Having  been  commissioned  by  Soderini  to  paint  in 
fresco  a  historical  picture  in  the  hall  of  the  ducal  palace, 
he  chose  for  his  subject  an  event  in  the  war  between  the 
Florentines  and  the  people  of  Pisa.  He  displayed  in  the 
cartoon  of  this  composition  a  grandeur  of  style  and  a 
knowledge  of  anatomy  which  had  not  been  equalled  by 
any  modern  painter.  "  Such  was  the  excellence  of  this 
work,"  says  Vasari,  "  that  some  thought  it  absolute  per 
fection."  This  cartoon  has  perished,  and  the  painting 
itself  was  never  begun.  Among  his  early  paintings  is 
an  oil-picture  of  the  "Holy  Family,"  (about  1504.)  He 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  II.  soon  after  the  acces 
sion  of  that  pontiff,  who  employed  him  to  build  his 
monument  or  mausoleum.  He  formed  a  magnificent 
design  for  this  work,  which  design  was  approved  by 
the  pope  and  has  been  described  by  Vasari,  but  was 
never  completely  executed.  While  they  were  consulting 
about  a  suitable  place  for  the  monument,  the  architect, 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MICHAEL  ANGELO 


1581 


MICHALLON 


San  Gallo,  suggested  that  a  new  chapel  ought  to  be 
built  expressly  tor  so  superb  a  mausoleum.  The  pope 
concurred  in  his  opinion,  and  determined  to  rebuild  the 
church  of  Saint  Peter.  Thus  Michael  Angelo's  design 
is  said  to  have  been  the  cause  of  the  erection  of  the 
most  magnificent  church  in  the  world.  In  1506  he  was 
offended  at  the  pope  because  he  was  not  admitted  to 
his  presence  when  he  went  to  the  palace  on  business. 
He  therefore  abruptly  quitted  his  service,  and  retired  to 
Florence.  Julius  II.  sent  messengers  to  bring  him  back, 
but  he  refused  to  return,  until  the  pope  had  urged  him 
by  several  letters  and  mandates.  Michael  Angelo  wished 
to  finish  the  monument  which  he  had  begun,  but  Julius 
had  changed  his  mind,  and  ordered  the  great  artist  to 
decorate  with  frescos  the  ceiling  and  walls  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  in  the  Vatican.  He  painted  in  the  Sistine  Chapel 
numerous  scenes  from  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  colossal 
figures  of  prophets  and  sibyls.  "  From  the  commence 
ment,"  says  Duppa,  "to  the  conclusion  of  this  stupen 
dous  monument  of  human  genius,  twenty  months  only 
were  employed.  So  short  a  time  for  the  completion  of 
so  vast  a  work  could  hardly  be  credited,  if  it  were  not 
more  difficult  to  refuse  the  testimony  on  which  it  is 
supported."  It  was  finished  in  1512.  Michael  Angelo 
and  Raphael  worked  in  the  Vatican  at  the  same  time. 

Julius  II.  died  in  1513,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  X., 
who  is  censured  for  his  illiberal  conduct  towards  Michael 
Angelo.  Leo  ordered  him  to  build  the  facade  of  the 
church  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Florence,  and  compelled  him 
against  his  will  to  spend  several  years  in  procuring 
marble  for  that  purpose.  "  It  is  a  mortifying  reflection." 
says  Duppa,  "that  the  talents  of  this  great  man  should 
have  been  buried  and  his  time  consumed,  during  the 
whole  reign  of  Leo  X.,  in  little  else  than  in  raising  stone 
out  of  a  quarry  and  making  a  road  to  convey  it  to  the 
sea."  ("  Life  of  M.  Angelo.")  Under  the  patronage 
of  Clement  VII.,  who  was  elected  pope  in  1523,  he 
began  to  build  the  library  and  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  at 
Florence.  He  erected  fortifications  at  Florence  in  1528 
or  1529,  and  aided  in  the  defence  of  that  city  against  the 
papal  troops.  After  the  accession  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  in 
1534,  Michael  Angelo  was  permitted  to  resume  the 
monument  of  Julius  II.,  which  he  completed  on  a  smaller 
scale  than  that  which  he  first  designed.  It  consists  of 
seven  statues,  one  of  which  represents  Moses,  and  was 
placed  in  the  church  of  San  1'ietro  in  Vinculo.  This 
statue  of  Moses  is  called  one  of  his  master-pieces. 

Among  his  greatest  productions  is  a  picture,  in  fresco, 
of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  Si.stine  Chapel,  Rome. 
This  work,  which  occupied  him  about  eight  years  and 
comprises  nearly  three  hundred  figures,  was  finished  in 
1541.  It  presents  a  confused  mass  of  naked  bodies  in 
the  most  violent  attitudes  and  most  admired  disorder, 
and  excels  chiefly  in  energy  of  expression.  "  In  the 
'  Last  Judgment, '"says  E.  Breton,  "one  will  seek  in  vain 
for  that  celestial  light  and  divine  inspiration  which  ap 
pear  in  the  'Transfiguration,'"  (of  Raphael.) 

In  1546  he  was  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's 
Church,  which  Julius  II.  began  to  build  about  1506. 
Michael  Angelo  accepted  this  appointment  on  the  con 
ditions  that  he  should  receive  no  salary,  and  that  he 
should  deviate  from  the  design  of  San  Gallo,  the  former 
architect  of  the  church.  He  adopted  a  more  simple 
design,  formed  a  model  for  the  dome,  and  devoted  the 
remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  to  that  grand  fabric,  but  did 
not  live  to  see  it  completed.  He  finished  the  Farnese 
palace,  which  is  greatly  admired,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
imposing  edifices  of  modern  Rome.  In  his  latter  years 
he  adorned  the  Capitoline  Hill  with  several  fine  buildings, 
among  which  is  the  senatorial  palace.  He  was  the  au 
thor  of  numerous  sonnets  and  other  poems,  which  are 
distinguished  for  elegance  and  purity  of  style.  These 
were  published  in  1538,  and  often  reprinted.  He  never 
married.  He  died  in  Rome  in  February,  1563,  or,  ac 
cording  to  some  authorities,  in  1564.  His  moral  character 
is  represented  as  good. 

"  He  was  the  bright  luminary,"  says  Sir  Joshua  Rey 
nolds,  "  from  whom  painting  has  borrowed  a  new  lustre, 
under  whose  hands  it  assumed  a  new  appearance  and 
became  another  and  superior  art,  and  from  whom  all 
his  contemporaries  and  successors  have  derived  what 


ever  they  have  possessed  of  the  dignified  and  majestic." 
("Discourses  on  Painting,"  vol.  ii.)  Comparing  him 
with  Raphael,  Quatremere  de  Quincy  remarks,  "If 
Michael  Angelo  is  the  greatest  of  draughtsmen,  Raffaello 
is  the  first  of  painters."  ("Life  of  Raffaello.")  "In 
painting,"  says  Duppa,  "  the  great  work  on  which  Michael 
Angelo's  fame  depends,  and,  taking  it  for  all  in  all,  the 
greatest  work  of  his  whole  life,  is  the  ceiling  of  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel.  .  .  .  His  Sibyls  and  prophets  exhibit  with 
variety  and  energy  the  colossal  powers  of  his  mind.  .  .  . 
In  his  great  works,  his  superior  abilities  are  shown  in 
the  sublimity  of  his  conceptions  and  the  power  and 
facility  with  which  they  are  executed."  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  oil-painting  by  this  artist  is  now  extant. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors  :"  CONDIVI,  "  Vita 
rii  Michelangelo  Buonarroti,"  1553;  LANZI,  "  Storia  della  Pittura  ;" 
RICHARD  DUPPA,  "  Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  London, 1806  :  VIGNALI, 
"Vila  di  Michelangelo,"  1753;  HAUCHECORNK,  "Vie  de  Michel- 
Ange  :"  QuATKBMBRB  DE  QUINCY,  "Vie  de  Michel-Ange."  1833; 
WiM.Kia.MANN,  "  Nenes  Mahier  Lexikon  ;"  NAC;I.ER,  "  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon  ;"  CicoGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scuitura  ;"  B.  CKLI.IM,  "  Me- 
morie  ;"  LANNAU  ROU.AND,  "  Michel-Ange  Puete  ;"  J.  S.  HAK- 
FORD,  "Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  1856;  MAKIK  HKNRI  BHYI.K, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  en  Italic, "  2  vols.,  1817,  (said  to  contain 
an  ample  and  well-written  account  of  Michael  Angelo ;)  HERMANN 
GRIMM,  "Michael  Angelo's  Leben."  and  English  version  of  the 
same,  London,  2  vols.,  1865. 

Michael  Angelo  delle  Battaglie.    See  CERQUOZZI. 

Mi'chael  Feodo'rovitch,  (ti-o-do'ro-vitch,)  Czar 
of  Russia,  born  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Feodor  Romanof. 
He  began  to  reign  in  1613.  His  rule  is  said  to  have 
been  beneficial  to  Russia.  He  had  two  sons  and  three 
daughters.  Died  in  1645. 

See  BERCH,  "Reign  of  Michael  Feodorovitch,"  (in  Russian.) 
1832;  LEVESQUE,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Michaeler,  me-Ka'eh-ler,  (KARI,  JOSEPH,)  a  German 
historian  and  scholar,  born  at  Innspruck  in  1735;  c''ec' 
in  1804. 

Michaelis,  me-Ka-a'lis,  QOHANN  BENJAMIN,)  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born  at  Zittau  in  1746.  He  was  the  author 
of  lyric  poems,  fables,  and  satires:  the  last-named  are 
particularly  esteemed.  He  was  intimate  with  Jacobi  and 
Gleim,  and  resided  with  the  latter  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  (1772.) 

See  SCHMID,  "  Leben  J.  B.  Michaelis,"  1775. 

Michaelis,  (JoiiANN  DAVID,)  an  eminent  German 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Halle  in  1717.  He 
studied  in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  acquired 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Chal- 
dee  languages  and  biblical  exegesis.  He  subsequently 
visited  Holland  and  England,  and  was  appointed  after 
his  return  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen,  (1745.) 
In  conjunction  with  Haller,  he  founded  the  Society  of 
Sciences  in  that  city,  of  which  he  afterwards  became 
director.  He  was  editor  of  the  "  Gelehrte  Anzeigen," 
at  Gottingen,  from  1753  to  1770,  and  about  the  same  time 
held  the  office  of  librarian  at  the  university.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,"  ("Ein- 
leitung  in  die  Gottlichen  Schriften  des  Neuen  Bundes," 
2  vols.,  1750,)  "Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses," 
("  Das  Mosaische  Recht,"  6  vols.,  1770,)  and  other  works, 
which  entitle  him  to  rank  among  the  most  learned  men 
of  his  time.  He  also  published  grammars  of  the  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  and  Chaldee  languages,  and  several  valuable 
treatises  on  chronology  and  geography.  Michaelis  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  Paris,  and  privy  councillor 
of  Hanover.  Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  D.  MICIIAKMS,  ''  Lebensbeschreibung  von  ihm  selbst  abge- 
fasst,"  1793:  C.  G.  HKYNK,  "  Elogium  J.  D.  Michaelis,"  1701; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Michaelis,  ( Jon  ANN  HK.INRICH,)  a  German  Oriental 
ist  and  theologian,  born  at  Klettenberg,  Saxony,  in  1668. 
He  taught  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Chaldee  at  Halle,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  that  place  about  1709. 
He  wrote  works  on  philology,  etc.  Died  in  1738. 

Michailowski.     See  MIKHAII.OFSKI. 

Michallon,  me'shi'lo.N',  (Acmi.LE  ETNA,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  gained  the  first  prize 
in  1817,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  Died  in  1822. 

Michallon,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  sculptor,  the  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lyons  about  1751.  He 
studied  at  Rome.  Died  in  1799. 


€  as/£;  935  s;  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K,  gtitttiral  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MICHAUD 


1582 


Ml  CHE  LI  US 


Michaud,  me'sho',  (Ci.AUDK  IGNACE  FRANCOIS,)  an 
able  French  general,  born  near  the  Jura  Mountains  in 
1753.  Me  became  general  of  division  in  1793,  and  in 
1794  succeeded  Pichegru  as  commancler-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  same  year  he  gained  victories 
at  Kaiserslautern,  Mannheim,  and  other  places.  From 
1806  to  1813  he  was  Governor  of  the  Hanse  town* 
Died  in  1835. 

Michaud,  (JOSEPH  FRANCOIS,)  a  distinguished  French 
writer  and  journalist,  born  in  Savoy  in  1767.  Soon  alter 
the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution  he  repaired 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  associate  editor  for  many  years 
of  the  royalist  journals  the  "Gazette  Frai^aise"  and 
"La  Quotidienne."  In  1811  he  began,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  the  publication  of  the  celebrated  "Bio 
graphic  Universelle,"  (completed  in  1840,  85  vols.  8vo,) 
which  numbered  among  its  contributors  the  most  emi 
nent  literary  and  scientific  men  of  France.  Michaud 
was  the  author  of  an  excellent  "  History  of  the  Crusades," 
(6  vols.,  1841,)  a  poem  entitled  "The  Spring-Time  of  an 
Exile,"  which  had  great  popularity,  and  other  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  besides  a  number  of  contributions  to 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  He  was  for  many  years 
a  prominent  bookseller  and  publisher  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  VII.LENEUVE,  "Notice  historique  stir  Michaud,"  1839; 
SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view'1  for  February,  1830. 

Michaud,  (Louis  GAHRIEL,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1772.  He  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  established  a 
printing-house  in  Paris,  from  which  issued  the  principal 
royalist  publications  of  the  time.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "Historical  Picture  of  the  First  Wars  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,"  "History  of  Saint-Simonism,"  etc.,  and 
made  numerous  contributions  to  the  "Biographic  Uni 
verselle."  Died  in  1858. 

Michault,  me'sho',  (JEAN  BERNARD,)  a  French  phi 
lologist  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1707;  died 
in  1770. 

Michaux,  me'sb.5',  (ANDR£,)  a  distinguished  French 
botanist  and  traveller,  born  at  Versailles  in  1746.  After 
having  traversed  Persia  and  other  countries,  he  was  sent 
by  the  government  to  North  America  in  1785  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  trees  and  plants.  For  about  eleven 
years  he  thoroughly  explored  the  botanical  productions 
of  the  United  States,  Canada,  etc.,  with  a  courage  and 
energy  which  no  danger  or  difficulty  could  overcome. 
In  1796  he  returned  to  France  with  his  collections,  and 
prepared  his  "  Description  of  the  Oaks  of  North  Amer 
ica,"  (1801.)  He  accompanied  Baudin's  scientific  ex 
pedition  to  Australia  in  1800,  and,  while  pursuing  his 
researches  in  Madagascar,  he  died  of  fever  in  1802. 
He  left  a  "  Flora  of  North  America,"  ("  Flora  Boreali- 
Americana,"  2  vols.,  1803,)  which  for  many  years  was 
the  most  complete  that  had  appeared.  Both  of  his  works 
are  adorned  with  excellent  engravings  by  Redoute. 

See  CUBIERES.  "Notice  snr  F.  A.  Michaux,"  1807;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1805  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  November,  1806; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1858. 

Michee,  the  French  for  MICAH,  which  see. 

Michel,  the  French  for  MICHAKI.,  which  see. 

Michel,  me'shel',  (CLAUDE  ETIENNE,)  a  French 
general  of  division,  born  at  Pointre  in  1772.  He  was 
killed  at  Waterloo,  June,  1815. 

Michel,  (FRANCISQUK  XAVIKR,)  a  French  archaeolo 
gist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  He  published  editions  of 
the  "  Romance  of  the  Violet,"  (1834,)  "  Song  of  Roland," 
(1837,)  "Anglo-Norman  Chronicle,"  and  other  works 
of  the  middle  ages. 

Michel,  (JKAN,)  a  French  physician  and  dramatic 
poet.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  and 
was  appointed  first  physician  to  the  king,  Charles  VIII. 
Died  about  1493. 

Michel,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1748,  resided  many  years  in  London,  where 
he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  Died  in  1804. 

See  BASAN,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Michel,  (RoiiERT,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Puy 
in  1720,  worked  mostly  in  Spain.  Died  at  Madrid  in 
1785- 


Michel-Ange.     See  MICHAEL  ANGELO. 
Michelangelo  or  Michelagnolo.     See  MICHAEL 

ANGELO. 

Michel  de  Bourges,  me'shel'  deh  booRzh,  an  elo 
quent  French  advocate,  born  at  Aix  in  1798  ;  died  in  1853. 

Michel  de  Tours,  me'shei'  deh  toou,  (GUILLAUMK,) 
a  French  poet,  who  lived  about  1500,  was  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  "The  Forest  of  Conscience,"  (1516.) 

Michelburne,  mlk'el-burn,  ?  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  Eng 
lish  navigator,  born  about  1574.  He  sailed  in  1604,  with 
John  Davis,  on  a  voyage  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Michelet,  mesh'li',  (JULES,)  an  eminent  French  his 
torian,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  chosen  chief  of 
the  historical  department  of  the  archives  of  France  in 
1830,  before  which  he  had  published  several  historical 
works  for  schools.  About  1832  he  was  appointed  the 
substitute  or  successor  of  Gui/.ot  as  professor  of  history 
at  the  Sorbonne.  He  published  in  1831  a  "Roman 
History:  the  Republic,"  and  in  1833  the  first  volume 
of  his  "History  of  France."  In  1838  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  history  and  moral  science  in  the  College  of 
Fiance,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits  and  of  Romanism.  After  the 
coup-d'etat  of  December,  1851,  refusing  to  take  the  oath, 
he  lost  his  place  in  the  archives,  and  his  chair  in  the 
College  of  France.  His  principal  works  are  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (7  vols.,  1847-53,)  a 
"History  of  France,"  (14  vols.,  1833-62,)  "Love," 
("L'Amour,"  1858,)  and  "Woman,"  ("La  Femme," 
1859.)  These  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
often  reprinted.  His  histories  present  a  profusion  of 
poetical  images,  with  a  brilliant  style  and  ingenious 
generalizations.  He  also  published  "The  Sea,"  ("La 
Mer,"  1861,)  and  "The  Bible  of  Humanity,"  ("La  Bible 
de  I'Humanite,"  1864.) 

See  L.  LOUVET,  "  E~tudes  biographiques :  M.  Michelet;"  "For 
eign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1844. 

Michelet,  mesh'eh-LV,  (KARL  LUDWIG,)  a  distin 
guished  German  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Hegel,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1825  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  and  philology  in  the  French  gym 
nasium  at  Berlin,  and  in  1829  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  in  the  university.  He  published  "  The  Ethics 
of  Aristotle  in  their  Relation  to  the  System  of  Morality," 
(1827,)  "Critical  Examination  of  Aristotle's  Metaphys 
ics,"  (in  French,  1836,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Acad 
emy  of  Moral  Sciences  of  Paris,  "  History  of  the  Last 
Systems  of  Philosophy  in  Germany,  from  Kant  to  Hegel," 
(1837,)  and  other  works  of  a  high  reputation. 

Micheli,  me-ka'lee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
called  ANDREA  VICEN  i  INO,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1539.  He 
was  a  good  colorist,  but  lacked  invention.  Died  in  1614. 

Micheli,  (DOMKNICP,)  a  Venetian  statesman,  became 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1117.  He  conducted  a  fleet  in  a  cru 
sade  to  Palestine  in  1123,  and  took  Tyre  in  1124.  Died 
in  1 130. 

Micheli,  me-ka'lee,  or  Mich'eli,  me-ke-a'lee,  [Lat. 
MICHE'LIUS,]  (PiKRo  ANTONIO,)  an  eminent  Italian 
botanist,  born  at  Florence  in  1079,  was  appointed  by 
Cosimode'  Medici  superintendent  of  his  botanical  garden. 
He  gave  particular  attention  to  the  classification  of  the 
mosses,  fungi,  and  lichens.  His  principal  work,  pub 
lished  in  1729,  is  entitled  "  Nova  Plantarum  Genera,"  in 
folio,  with  plates,  and  is  praised  in  high  terms  by  Haller. 
Linnaeus  has  named  the  genus  Michelia  in  honour  of 
this  botanist.  Died  in  1737. 

See  COCCHI,  "  Elogio  di  P.  A.  Micheli,"  1737:  CUVIER,  "  His- 
toire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  G.  MARSIU,  "  Di  P.  A.  Micheli 
botanico  insigne,"  1845;  FABRONI,  "Vitas  Italorum,"  etc. 

Micheli,  (ViTALE,)  a  Venetian  commander,  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1096,  sent  a  large  fleet  to  co-operate 
with  the  leaders  of  the  first  crusade.  Died  in  IIO2. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Micheli  du  Crest,  mesh'le'dii  kni,  (JACQUES  BAR- 
THlh-KMY,)  a  Swiss  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1690,  published,  among  other  works,  a 

Description  of  a  Universal  Thermometer,"  of  which 
he  was  the  inventor.  Died  in  1766. 

Michelius.     See  MICHELI. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  4,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


Ml  CHE LOT 


1583 


M1DDLETON 


Michelot,  mesh'lo',  (PiKRRK  MAKIK  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1785  ;  died  in  1856. 

Michelozzi,  me-ka-lot'see,  or  Michelozzo,  me-ka- 
lot'so,  a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  was  a  pupil 
of  Brunelleschi.  He  furnished  the  design  for  the  Ric- 
cardi  palace  and  for  the  chapel  of  the  Annunciation  at 
Florence.  Died  in  1470. 

See  VASAKI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Architects,"  etc.  ;  QUATRE- 
MERE  DH  QUISCY,  "  Vies  des  Architectes  illustres." 

Michelsen,  me'Kel-sen,  (ANDREAS  LUDWIG  JAKOB,) 
a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Sleswick  in  1801, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1842. 

Michelson,  mee'Kel-son,  (IVAN,)  a  famous  Russian 
general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1735  ;  died  in  1807. 

Michiel,  me-ke-eT,  (GIUSTINA  REMEK,)  a  learned 
Italian  lady,  born  at  Venice  in  1755.  She  translated 
"Macbeth"  and  "Othello"  into  Italian,  and  published 
"  Feste  Veneziane,"  (5  vols.,  1817-27.)  Died  in  1832. 

Michieli.     See  MICHKLI. 

Michiels,  me'she-eT,  (JOSEPH  ALFRED  XAVIER,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Rome  in  1813.  He  published, 
besides  various  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Flemish  and 
Dutch  Painting,"  (4  vols.,  1845.) 

Mi-9ip'sa,  [Gr.  M(wi/;of,|  King  of  Numidia,  was  a 
son  of  Masinissa,  at  whose  death,  in  148  B.C.,  the  king 
dom  was  divided  between  Micipsa  and  his  brothers, 
Gulussa  and  Mastanabal.  After  the  death  of  these  two, 
who  survived  their  father  but  a  short  time,  he  was  king 
of  all  Xumidia.  He  was  an  ally  of  the  Romans.  Died 
in  118  n.c. 

Mickiewicz,  m!ts-ke-a'vitch,  (ADAM,)  a  celebrated 
Polish  poet,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1798.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Wilna,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
several  distinguished  patriots  and  joined  the  secret 
societies  opposed  to  the  Russian  government.  He  pub 
lished  in  1822  a  collection  of  poems,  which  at  once  es 
tablished  his  reputation  as  the  greatest  poet  his  country 
had  produced.  He  was  banished  in  1824  to  the  interior 
of  Russia,  on  a  charge  of  conspiring  against  the  govern 
ment,  and  while  residing  at  Odessa  wrote  his  "Crimean 
Sonnets."  Having  been  permitted  to  leave  Russia,  in 
1828  he  visited  Germany  and  Rome,  and  in  1834  took 
up  his  residence  in  Paris.  He  was  appointed  in  1840 
professor  of  the  Slavonic  language  and  literature  in 
the  College  of  France,  where  he  lectured  for  a  time 
with  great  success.  His  subsequent  connection  with  the 
Polish  fanatic  Towianski,  who  inculcated  the  worship  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  deprived  him  of  his  popularity, 
and  he  was  ordered  to  quit  Paris  by  the  government. 
He  was  sent  by  Louis  Napoleon  on  a  mission  to 
Constantinople  in  1855,  and  died  soon  after  his  arrival. 
His  principal  works  are  his  "  Grajina,"  a  historic  pic 
ture  of  Lithuania  in  early  times,  "  Konrad  Wallenrod," 
(1830,)  the  "Ancestors,"  ("Dziady,"  1832,) — in  the  first 
part  of  which  he  gives  the  story  of  his  unfortunate  at 
tachment  to  the  sister  of  a  fellow-student,  and  in  the 
latter  describes  his  imprisonment  at  Wilna, — and  "  Pan 
Tadeusz,"  (1833.) 

See  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "  Gaierie  des  Contemporains ;"  GEORGE 
SAND,  "  Essai  sur  le  Drame  famastique ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  ''A.  Mickiev.icz ;  eine  biographische  Skizze,"  1857; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838. 

Mickle  or  Meikle,  mlk'el,  (WILLIAM  JULIUS,)  a 
Scottish  poet  and  translator,  born  in  Dumfriess-shire  in 
1734.  Having  visited  London  in  1763,  he  published 
several  poems,  which  obtained  for  him  the  patronage  of 
Lord  Lyttleton,  and  in  1775  brought  out  his  translation 
of  the  "  Lusiad"  of  Camoens.  It  had  great  popularity 
in  England,  and  procured  for  him  the  honour  of  ad 
mission  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lisbon.  This  work, 
however,  is  far  from  being  a  faithful  version  of  the  origi 
nal  ;  and  Hallam  observes  that  Mickle's  "  infidelities  in 
translation  exceed  all  liberties  ever  taken  in  this  way." 
He  also  published  several  popular  ballads,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "  Cumnor  Hall,"  suggested  to  Sir  Walter  Scott 
his  romance  of  "  Kenilworth."  Died  in  1788. 

See  GARY,  "  Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke 
White  :"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men  ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1771,  and  April,  May, 
and  Ju'y,  1776. 

Mi'con,  [Gr.  MIKUV,]  an  eminent  Athenian  painter 
and  sculptor,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 


century  B.C.  He  was  chosen  by  his  countrymen  to  paint 
the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens.  His 
pictures  representing  the  battles  of  the  Amazons  and 
Centaurs  were  especially  admired  for  the  skill  displayed 
in  the  delineation  of  the  horses.  There  were  several 
other  Greek  artists  named  Micon. 

Micrelius  or  Micr^lius,  me-kRa'le-us,  (JoHANN,) 
a  German  historical  writer,  born  at  Coslin  in  1597.  He 
taught  philosophy  at  Stettin,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Lexicon  Philosophicum,"  (1653,)  and 
"  Royal  Political  Science,"  ("  Regia  Politica  Scientia," 
1654.)  Died  in  1658. 

Mi'das,  [Gr.  M«5ac,]  a  Phrygian  king,  who,  according 
to  tradition,  requested  of  Bacchus  that  all  he  touched 
might  turn  to  gold,  and  was  gratified  by  the  grant  of  that 
wish.  Being  thus  in  danger  of  starvation,  he  could 
only  escape  the  curse  he  had  brought  upon  himself  by 
bathing  in  the  Pactolus,  which  ever  after  flowed  with 
sands  of  gold.  It  is  also  related  of  him  that,  having 
decided  in  favour  of  Pan  in  his  musical  contest  with 
Apollo,  Midas's  ears  were  changed  to  those  of  an  ass, 
which  he  endeavoured  to  conceal.  They  were-at  length 
discovered  by  a  servant,  who,  unable  to  retain  the  secret, 
whispered  it  in  a  pit  in  the  ground,  and  the  reeds  which 
grew  around  the  spot  revealed  his  disgrace,  murmuring 
in  the  winds  the  words,  "  King  Midas  has  asses'  ears." 
This  fable  was  a  favourite  theme  with  the  Athenian 
dramatists. 

Middelburg,  de,  deli  mid'del-buRH',  (PAUL,)  a 
Dutch  mathematician  and  writer,  born  at  Middelburg  in 
1445,  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Fossombrone  in  1494.  Died  in 

1534- 

Middendorp,  van,  vtn  mid'den-doRp',  (JAKOB,)  a 
Dutch  historian,  born  in  Overyssel  in  1537.  His  his 
tories  are  not  reliable.  Died  in  1611. 

Mid'dl-maii,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  engraver,  born 
in  1746.  He  engraved  landscapes  with  success.  Died 
in  1818. 

Mid'dle-ton,    (ARTHUR,)  an    American    statesman, 
born  in  South  Carolina,  succeeded  Nicholson  as  governc 
of  that  colony  in  1725. 

Middleton,  (ARTHUR,)  an  American  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1743,  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
took  the  degree  of  A.B.  at  Cambridge,  England,  and 
after  his  return  was  a  delegate  from  his  native  State  to 
the  United  States  Congress  in  1776.  He  was  subse 
quently  re-elected  in  1782.  Died  in  1787. 

See  GOODRICH,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence." 

Mid'dle-toii,(CoNYERS,)a  celebrated  English  scholar, 
divine,  and  controversialist,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1683. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  Fellow  in  1706.  He  was  created  D.D.  in  1717, 
on  which  occasion  he  opposed  the  claims  of  Bentley  (then 
regius  professor  of  divinity)  to  an  exorbitant  fee.  A  law 
suit  followed,  in  which  Bentley  was  defeated.  Middleton 
published,  soon  after,  "A  Full  and  Impartial  Account 
of  the  Proceedings  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  against 
Dr.  Bentley,"  which,  though  highly  vindictive  in  its 
tone,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece  of  English  style.  He 
was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  university  about 
1720.  Having  visited  Italy  in  1724,  he  published,  after 
his  return,  his  "Letter  from  Rome,"  (1729,)  in  which  he 
maintains  that  "the  religion  of  the  present  Romans  is 
derived  from  their  heathen  ancestors."  Having  brought 
upon  himself  the  charge  of  infidelity  by  this  work  and 
succeeding  publications,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  defence 
of  his  orthodoxy,  which,  however,  failed  to  remove  the 
unfavourable  impression  he  had  made.  He  brought 
out  in  1741  his  "  History  of  the  Life  of  M.  T.  Cicero," 
which,  though  marred  with  some  grave  defects,  was 
received  with  extraordinary  favour.  "  Never,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  was  there  a  character  which  it  was  easier  to 
read  than  that  of  Cicero.  Never  was  there  a  mind 
keener  or  more  critical  than  that  of  Middleton.  But  the 
great  Iconoclast  was  himself  an  idolater,  and,  while  he 
disputed  with  no  small  ability  the  claims  of  Cyprian  and 
Athanasius  to  a  place  in  the  calendar,  was  himself  com 
posing  a  lying  legend  in  honour  of  Saint  Tully."  In 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


MIDDLETON 


1584 


M1ERIS 


1749  he  published  "A  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Miraculous 
Posvers  of  the  Christian  Church,"  in  which  he  insists 
that  the  Protestant  clergy  should  deny  the  authority  of 
the  Fathers  entirely,  or  admit  the  truth  of  the  leading 
Catholic  doctrines.  Died  in  1750. 

See  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;"  E.  MIDOI.ETON,  "Evangelical 
Biography;"  CHALMERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  " Biographia 
Britannica." 

Middleton,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  gentleman,  born 
at  Twickenham,  settled  in  South  Carolina,  and  was  the 
founder  of  a  family  which  produced  several  distinguished 
statesmen. 

Middleton,  (ERASMUS,)  an  English  writer,  published 
a  "Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  and  a  collection 
of  lives  of  eminent  Protestant  theologians,  entitled 
"  Biographia  Evangel ica."  Died  in  1805. 

Middleton,  (HENRY,)  son  of  Arthur  Middleton, 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  was  president  of  Congress 
in  1775. 

Middleton,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
about  1570,  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com 
pany.  In  1610  he  conducted  an  expedition  to  Mocha, 
Surat,  and  Bantam.  Died  in  1615. 

Middleton,  (HENRY,)  an  American  statesman  under 
the  administration  of  President  Monroe,  was  elected 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1820  was  minister 
to  Russia.  Died  in  1846.  His  son  HENRY,  born  in  Paris 
in  1797,  has  published  several  political  treatises. 

Middleton,  (Sir  HUGH,)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London, 
born  about  1565,  is  chiefly  known  from  the  important 
service  he  rendered  to  London  by  uniting  two  streams  in 
Hertfordshire  and  Middlesex,  for  supplying  the  city  with 
water.  The  stream  formed  by  this  junction,  called  the 
New  River,  was  conveyed  a  distance  of  about-  thirty-eight 
miles.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1622.  Died  in  1631. 

See  LYSONS,  "  Environs  of  London." 

Middleton,  (JOHN  IZARD,)  son  of  Arthur,  noticed 
above,  (1743-87,)  was  born  in  1785.  He  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "The  Cyclopean  Walls."  Died  in  1849. 

Middleton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  flou 
rished  during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth,  James  I.,  and 
Charles  I.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  he 
was  chronologer  to  the  city  of  London  in  1620.  Two 
of  his  principal  plays  are  entitled  "A  Mad  World,  my 
Masters,"  and  "The  Roaring  Girl."  The  latter  is  said 
to  be  a  true  picture  of  London  life  at  that  time.  Mid 
dleton  also  assisted  Rowley,  Fletcher,  and  Tonson  in 
the  composition  of  several  of  their  plays.  One  of  his 
dramas,  entitled  "The  Witch,"  is  supposed  to  have  fur 
nished  Shakspeare  with  the  witch-scenes  in  "Macbeth." 
Died  about  1626. 

See  CAMPKKU.,  "Specimens  of  ihe  British  Poets;"  BAKER, 
"  Biocrranhia  Dramatica." 

Middleton,  (THOMAS  FANSHAWE,)  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1769.  He  took  his  degree 
in  1808,  and  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon 
in  1812.  Soon  after  this  the  government  having  decided 
to  constitute  a  bishopric  in  India,  Dr.  Middleton  was 
consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  in  1814.  Having 
previously  been  made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  he 
set  sail  for  India.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Bishops' 
College  at  Calcutta,  in  1820,  and  established  a  consistory 
court  in  that  city.  While  zealously  engaged  in  his  duties, 
he  was  attacked  with  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1822. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The  Doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Article  applied  to  the  Criticism  and  Illustration 
of  the  New  Testament." 

See  the  "Life  of  Thomas  Fanshawe  Middleton,"  by  C.  W.  LE 
BAS  ;  "  Month'y  Review"  for  May,  1810  et  seq. 

Mid'gard's*  Serpent,  (or  Mi5gar$sormr,  mith'- 
garthz-oRmr',)  called  also  the  "World-Serpent,  and 
Jormuugand,  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  great  serpent 
which  surrounds  the  world,  the  offspring  of  Loki  and 
the  female  Jotun  Angurboda,  (AngrboSa.)  The  gods, 
having  learned  that  the  children  of  Loki  and  An 
gurboda  were  destined  at  some  future  day  to  be  fatal  to 
them,  determined  to  get  possession  of  those  children 
while  they  were  still  young.  They  were  accordingly 


*  Midgard'  ("middle-ward")  was  originally  applied  to  man's 
dwelling-place  in  the  middle  of  the  universe,  and  hence  signifies  the 
"  world." 


brought,  and  Midgard's  Serpent  was  cast  into  the 
ocean,  where  it  grew  till  it  encircled  the  world,  biting 
its  own  tail.  At  the  end  of  the  world  (Ragnarock)  the 
world-serpent  will  fight  among  the  enemies  of  the  gods 
and  be  slain  by  Thor,  who,  however,  will  die  immediately 
afterwards  from  the  effect  of  its  venom.  The  myth  of 
the  world-serpent  is  supposed  to  signify  the  deep  or  main 
ocean,  which,  excited  by  Loki,  (subterranean  fire  or  earth 
quake,)  is  thrown  upon  the  land,  thus  proving  scarcely 
less  fatal  to  the  works  of  man  than  the  direct  action  of 
volcanic  fire,  represented  under  the  form  of  FENRIR, 
(which  see.) 

For  further  particulars,  the  reader  mav consult  THORPE'S  "  North 
ern  Mytholngv."  vo!.  i  ;  MAI. LET'S  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol. 
ii.  Fables  XVI.,  XXV..  XXVI.,  XXVII.  ;  KKYSRR'S  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen  :''  a"d  PKTKRSEN'S  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Mieczyslaw,  me-etch'is-lav,  |Lat.  MICCISLA'US  or 
MICISI.A'US,]  I,  surnamccl  THE  GLORIOUS,  called  also 
Miesko,  (me-eVko,)  Duke  of  Poland,  was  born  at  Posen 
in  931.  Having  become  converted  to  Christianity,  he 
showed  great  zeal  in  its  promulgation  and  the  extirpa 
tion  of  paganism.  He  died  in  992.  A  monument,  by 
Ranch,  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Posen. 

See  K.ADI.UHECK-,  "Annales;"  SRIDEL,  "Vondem  ersten  christ- 
lichen  Polnischen  Fiirsten  Miecislas,"  1752. 

Mieczyslaw  or  Miesko  II.,  King  of  Poland,  born 
in  990,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1025.  He  was  de 
ficient  in  talent  and  energy,  and  lost  a  considerable  por 
tion  of  his  territory  to  the  Germans  and  Hungarians. 
He  died  in  1034,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  I. 

Miel,  meel,  or  Meel,  mal,  (!AN,)  or  GIOVANNI  DELI.O 
VITE,  (jo-van'nee  deTlo  vee'ta.)  a  celebrated  Flemish 
painter,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1599.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Andrea  Sacchi,  but  he  afterwards  adopted  the  style 
of  Bamboccio.  His  favourite  subjects  were  pastoral  and 
hunting  scenes,  gypsies,  beggars,  and  carnivals,  in  which 
he  has  never  been  surpassed.  lie  was  patronized  by 
Charles  Emmanuel,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  made  him  his 
painter  and  presented  him  with  a  diamond  cross  of 
great  value.  Many  of  the  best  works  of  this  artist  are 
in  the  Imperial  Gallery  at  Vienna.  Died  in  1664. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  C.  BI.ANC, 
"  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gensrale." 

Mielle,  me'el',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Dole  in  1757.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History 
of  Portugal,"  (10  vols.,  1828,)  in  which  he  was  associated 
with  Fortia  d'Urban.  Died  in  1839. 

Mierevelt  or  Miereveld,  mee'reh-velt',  (MiCHiEi, 
TANSEN,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1567, 
was  a  pupil  of  Blocklandt.  His  works  are  esteemed 
master-pieces  of  the  kind,  and,  though  very  numerous, 
are  finished  with  exceeding  delicacy  and  precision.  His 
portraits  are  stated  by  Sandrart  to  have  amounted  to 
more  than  ten  thousand.  Mierevelt  belonged  to  the 
sect  of  Mennonites,  but,  in  consideration  of  his  genius, 
was  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  his  religion.  Among 
his  best  portraits  we  may  name  those  of  Grotius,  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange, 
Ambrose  Spinola,  Constantine  Huyghens,  the  grand 
pensionary  Barneveldt,  Admiral  de  Coligny,  Maurice  of 
Nassau,  the  Dutch  poet  Jacob  Cats,  and  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham.  Died  in  1641. 

S>-e  PII.KINT.TON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters:"  DESCAMPS,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Hollandais  ;"  CMAKI.ES  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Mieris,  mee'ris,  (FRANS,)  called  THE  ELDER,  a  cele 
brated  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1635,  was  a 
pupil  of  Gerard  Douw,  who  called  him  the  prince  of  his 
disciples.  His  works  are  principally  domestic  scenes, 
conversation-pieces,  and  interiors  of  palaces,  and  are 
distinguished  by  great  brilliancy  of  colouring  and  skilful 
imitation  of  velvet,  satin,  and  other  rich  materials. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  Silk-Mer 
chant,"  which  was  purchased  by  the  archduke  Leopold 
William  of  Austria  for  one  thousand  florins,  a  "  Young 
Girl  Painting,"  an  "  Assembly  of  Ladies,"  bought  by  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  for  one  thousand  dollars,  a 
"  Lady  at  her  Toilet,"  "  The  Pearl-Stringer,"  "  The  Silk- 
Store,"  "Lady  playing  with  a  Parrot,"  and  "The  Sick 
Woman."  Died  in  1681. 

See  SMITH,  "Catalogue  of  the  Most  Eminent  Dutch,  Flemish, 
and  French  Painters;"  CHARLES  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;" 
DF.SCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,  e, 7,  o,  u,y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


MIERIS 


585 


M1KHA1LOFSK1 


Mieris,  (FkANS,)  THE  YOUNGER,  son  of  Willem, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1689.  He  was  a 
skilful  artist,  but  is  better  known  as  a  scholar  and  writer. 
Among  his  works  is  his  "  History  and  Ecclesiastical 
Antiquities  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,"  (1726.) 
Died  in  1763. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Mieris,  (JAN,)  son  of  Frans  the  Elder,  was  born  at 
Leyden  in  1660.  He  painted  portraits  and  historical 
pieces  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1690. 

Mieris,  van,  vfn  mee'ris,  (WILLEM,)  son  of  Frans 
the  Elder,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1662.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  whose  style  he  adopted.  Among  his 
best  pictures  are  a  "Dutch  Kitchen,"  a  "Game-Mer 
chant,"  and  "  Armida  and  Rinaldo."  Died  in  1747. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Mieroslawski,  me  a-ro-slav'skee,  (Louis,)  the  son 
of  a  Polish  officer  and  a  French  lady,  was  born  in  France 
in  1813.  He  wrote,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Revolution,"  (1837,)  and  a  number  of  historical  and 
political  works  in  Polish. 

Mierre,  Le.     See  LEMIERRE. 

Mif'flin,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  patriot  and  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1744. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774, 
became  first  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  in  1775,  served 
with  distinction  at  Long  Island  and  Trenton,  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1777.  He  succeeded 
Franklin  in  1788  as  president  of  the  supreme  executive 
council  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  1787.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from 
1790  to  1/99.  Died  at  Lancaster  in  1800. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Miger,  me'zha',  (PIERRE  AUGUSTS  MARIE,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in  1771  ;  died  in  1837. 

Migliara,  mel-ya'ra,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1785.  He  excelled  in  landscapes, 
perspective,  and  architectural  views.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  "Cathedral  of  Milan,"  "Charles  V.  in  a 
Convent,"  and  "  Interior  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Am 
brose."  Died  in  1837. 

See  TIPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "Westminster 
Review"  for  April,  1841. 

Migliorati.     See  INNOCENT  VII. 

Mignard,  men'ya'K',  (NiCOi.AS,)  a  French  painter, 
engraver,  and  architect,  born  at  Troyes  in  1608.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  brother 
of  Richelieu,  whom  lie  accompanied  to  Rome  in  1644. 
He  painted  portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  his  queen,  and 
adorned  the  Tuileries  with  several  historical  pictures  of 
great  merit.  His  engravings  are  also  highly  esteemed. 
In  1663  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  died  in  1668,  leaving  two  sons,  PIERRE 
and  PAUL,  who  were  artists  of  considerable  merit. 

See  R.  Dt-MESNiL.  "  Le  Peintre  Graveur  F  rascals  ;"  RENOUVIER, 
"Des  Types  et  Manieres  des  Maitres-Graveurs." 

Mignard,  (PIKRRE,)  surnamed  THE  ROMAN,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  painters  of  the  French  school,  was 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  was  born  at  Troyes  in 
1610.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Simon  Vouet,  and  in 
1635  visited  Rome,  where  he  met  with  Poussin,  Claude 
Lorrain,  Dufresnoy,  and  other  celebrated  artists  residing 
in  that  city.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  in  1658,  he  was  pa 
tronized  by  Louis  XIV.,  whose  portrait  he  painted  many 
times.  He  was  also  employed  to  decorate  the  palaces 
of  Versailles  and  Saint-Cloud.  On  the  death  of  Le  Brun 
he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king,  and  director  of  the 
Gobelin  Manufactory.  Mignard  was  ennobled  by  Louis 
XIV.,  and  became  successively  rector,  chancellor,  and 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  Died  in  1695. 

See  DE  Mnxvii.i.E.  "Vie  r!e  Milliard;"  ROBERT  DUMESNIL, 
"  Le  Peintre-Gravenr  Francais;"  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  His:oire  des 
Peintres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mignault,  men'yo',  (CLAUDE,)  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Minos,*  a  learned  French  writer,  born  near 


*  It  may  be  proper  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  final  s  in  Latin 
and  Greek  names  is  sounded  in  French,  contrary  to  the  general  rule 
of  French  pronunciation. 


Dijon  about  1536.  He  edited  several  Latin  classic 
authors,  and  published  "Alciati  Emblemata  cum  Notis 
Minois,"  (1574,)  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1606. 

Mignet,  men'yi',  (FRANCOIS  AUGUSTE  MARIE,)  a  dis 
tinguished  French  historian,  born  at  Aix,  May  8,  1796. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Avignon,  and  studied 
law  in  his  native  city,  where  M.  Thiers  was  his  fellow- 
student.  Having  removed  to  Paris  in  1821,  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Courrier  Fran$ais."  He  brought  out  in 
1824  his  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  from  1789 
to  1814,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  which  had  extraordinary  success 
and  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan 
guages.  In  1830  he  was  associated  with  Thiers  and 
Armand  Carrel  as  editor  of  the  "National,"  and  was 
one  of  the  journalists  who  protested  against  the  sub 
version  of  the  freedom  of  the  press  by  the  edict  of  July, 
1830.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  archivist  in  the 
ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  councillor  of  state.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1832,  and  in  1837  became  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution,  and  succeeded  Raynouard 
in  the  French  Academy.  Mignet  published,  besides  the 
history  above  named,  "  Introduction  to  the  Negotiations 
relative  to  the  Spanish  Succession  under  Louis  XIV.," 
(1842,)  "Antonio  Perez  and  Philip  II.,"  (1845,)  "His 
tory  of  Mary  Stuart,"  (1851,)  "Charles  Quint,  son  Abdi 
cation,  son  Sejour  et  sa  Mort  au  Monastere  de  Yuste," 
(1854,)  which  has  been  highly  commended,  and  "  Eloges 
historiques,"  (1864.) 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  March,  1845  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Janu 
ary,  1849;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1866. 

Miguon,  men'yoN',  written  also  Minjon  or  Minion, 
(AiiRAHAM,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1639, 
was  celebrated  for  his  exquisite  representations  of  flowers, 
fruit,  insects,  birds,  etc.  His  works  are  esteemed  second 
only  to  those  of  Van  Huysum.  Among  his  master 
pieces  is  a  "  Cat  overturning  a  Vase  of  Flowers  on  a 
Marble  Table."  Died  in  1679. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Allemands,"  etc. 

Mignot,  men'yo',  (ETIENNE,)  a  learned  French  ec 
clesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1698,  published  a  number  of 
works  on  theology  and  church  government.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in 
1761.  Died  in  1771. 

Mignot,  (VINCENT,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
about  1725,  was  a  nephew  of  Voltaire.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  its  Origin  to  the 
Peace  of  Belgrade  in  1740,"  (1771,)  and  other  historical 
works.  Died  in  1740. 

See  GRIMM,  "  Correspondance." 

Miguel,  me-gel',  (Dom  or  Don  MARIA  EVARISTO,) 
a  Portuguese  prince,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1802,  was  a 
younger  son  of  John  VI.  He  became  the  head  of  the 
absolutist  party,  and  in  1828  usurped  the  throne,  the 
lawful  heir  of  which  was  his  niece,  Dona  Maria.  The 
partisans  of  this  queen  maintained  her  title  by  arms, 
and  were  aided  by  her  father,  Don  Pedro,  and  Admiral 
Napier.  Miguel  was  defeated  in  several  actions,  and 
was  expelled  from  Spain  in  May,  1834. 

Mih-Teih,  mlh-ta',  or  Me-Teih,  an  eminent  Chinese 
philosopher,  who  lived  about  400  B.C.  Dr.  Legge  says 
of  him  that  he  was  an  original  thinker,  and  exercised  a 
bolder  judgment  on  things  than  Confucius  or  any  of  his 
followers.  He  taught  that  all  the  evils  in  society  arise 
from  the  want  of  mutual  universal  love.  For  example, 
a  prince  loves  only  his  own  state,  and  does  not  love  the 
neighbouring  state.  Therefore  he  makes  war  against  it. 
"If  princes,"  he  asked,  "regarded  other  states  as  their 
own,  who  would  begin  a  war  ?  If  every  one  regarded 
his  neighbour's  person  as  his  own,  who  would  be  found 
to  rob  ?  If  universal  love  prevailed,  all  enmities,  usur 
pations,  and  miseries  would  disappear.  Princes,  loving 
one  another,  would  have  no  battle-fields;  the  chiefs 
of  families,  loving  one  another,  would  attempt  no  usur 
pations  ;  men,  loving  one  another,  would  commit  no 
robberies." 

See  DR.  LEGGE,  "Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  iii. 

Mikhailofski  Danilefski  or  Michailowski  Dani- 
lewski,  me-Ka'e-lof'skee  da-ne-lgf'skee,  (ALEXANDER 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

100 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


M1KLOSICH 


, -86 


MILL 


IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  1790,  served  with  distinction  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French  from  1812  to  1815,  and  in 
the  Turkish  war  of  1829.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  an  "Account  of  the  Campaign  in  France  in  1814." 
Died  in  1848. 

Miklosich,  mik'lo-ziK/,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  linguist, 
profoundly  versed  in  the  Slavonian  language,  born  at 
Luttenberg,  in  Styria,  in  1813.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "Lexicon  of  the  Old  Slavonian  Language," 
(in  Latin,  1850,)  and  a  "Comparative  Grammar  of  the 
Slavonian  Language,"  (unfinished,)  which  "promises  to 
be  for  the  Slavonian  what  the  great  work  of  Grimm  is 
for  the  German  dialects."  (Brockhaus.) 

Milani,  me-li'nee,  (AURKLIO  or  AURELIANO,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1675,  was  a  success 
ful  imitator  of  the  style  of  the  Caracci.  Died  in  1749. 

Milano,  da,  dd  me-la'no,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  a  native  of  Milan.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil 
of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  whom  he  assisted  in  several  important 
works.  He  lived  about  1370-90. 

Milbourne,  mil'burn,  (LuKK,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  born  in  1667,  published  a  "  Poetical  Translation 
of  the  Psalms,"  (1698,)  "Notes  on  Dryden's  Virgil,"  and 
other  works.  He  is  one  of  the  authors  satirized  in 
Pope's  "Dunciad."  Died  in  1720. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Life  of  Dryden ;"  MALONE'S  edition  of  the 
Works  of  Dryden. 

Mil'burn,  (WILLIAM  HENRY,)  a  Methodist  divine, 
known  as  "the  Blind  Preacher,"  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1823.  Having  visited  England  in  1859,  he  gave  lectures 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  attracted  large  audiences  by 
his  eloquence.  He  published  "Ten  Years  of  Preacher 
Life,"  (1859,)  and  "The  Pioneers  and  People  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,"  (1860.) 

Mild'may,  (Sir  WALTER,)  an  eminent  English  states 
man  and  scholar,  born  in  1522,  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.,  and  held  the 
office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  Elizabeth 
for  more  than  twenty  years.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learning,  and  founded  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge. 
Died  in  1589. 

Miles,  mllz,  (DlXON  H.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Maryland  about  1803,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1824. 
lie  became  a  colonel  in  1859,  and  served  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861.  He  commanded  at  Harper's  P'erry,  and 
there  surrendered  about  11,500  men,  September  16, 
1862.  He  was  killed  by  a  shell  thrown  after  the  sur 
render.  "  It  is  impossible,"  says  Greeley,  "  to  resist  the 
conclusion  that  Miles,  in  this  affair,  acted  the  part  of  a 
traitor."  ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  p.  202.) 

Miles,  (JAMES  WARLEY,)  an  American  scholar  and 
missionary,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about 
1819.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  and  history  at 
Charleston  College.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Southern  Review,"  and  published  various  works  in 
prose  and  verse. 

Mil'fort,  (LE  CLERC,)  a  native  of  France,  who  settled 
about  1776  among  the  Creek  Indians  of  Georgia  and 
fought  as  their  ally  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1796,  and  was  created  by  Bona 
parte  a  general  of  brigade.  He  published  a  narrative 
of  his  residence  among  the  Creeks,  entitled  "  Sejour 
dans  la  Nation  Creek."  Died  about  1814. 

Milicz,  mee'litch,  (JoHANN,)  a  priest  and  reformer, 
born  in  Moravia.  He  preached  at  Prague,  and  wrote  a 
work  "On  Antichrist."  Died  soon  after  1374. 

See  HODGSON,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Milius,  me'le'iis',  (PIERRE  BERNARD,)  BARON,  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1773 ;  died  in  1829. 

Milizia,  me-let'se-a,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  archi 
tect  and  writer,  born  in  Otranto  in  1725,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Raphael  Mengs.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lives 
of  the  Most  Celebrated  Architects  of  all  Nations,"  (1768,) 
a  revised  edition  of  which  was  entitled  "  Memorie  degli 
Architetti  antichi  e  moderni,"  ("Memoirs  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Architects,"  2  vols.,  1781,)  which  were  trans 
lated  into  French  and  English,  a  treatise  "On  the 
Theatre,"  (1772,)  "Principles  of  Civil  Architecture," 
("Element!  di  Architettura  civile,"  3  vols.,  1781,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed  and  was  translated  into  various  lan 


guages,  a  "Dictionary  of  Fine  Arts,"  (1797,)  and  other 
works.  He  lived  many  years  in  Rome,  where  he  died 
in  1798. 

See  F.  MII.IZIA,  "  Notizie  intorno  alia  suaVita,"  1804:  L.  Cico- 
GNARA,  "  Memoiia  intorno  all'  Inclole  di  K.  Milizia,"  1808  ;  TIPALDO, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Mill,  (HENRY,)  an  English  engineer,  born  in  London 
about  1680.  He  supplied  the  town  of  Northampton  with 
water,  and  was  appointed  principal  engineer  to  the  New 
River  Company. 

Mill,  (JAMES,)  a  British  historian  and  writer  on  po 
litical  economy,  born  at  Montrose,  in  Scotland,  in  1773. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  attainments  in  the  Greek  language,  metaphysics,  and 
moral  philosophy.  Having  removed  to  London  in  1800, 
he  became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
and  other  periodicals.  He  published  (1817-19)  his 
"History  of  British  India,"  (in  5  vols.  8vo,)  a  work  of 
great  merit,  which  procured  for  him  the  office  of  head 
ot  the  department  of  Indian  correspondence  in  the  India 
House.  "  We  know  of  no  work,"  says  Mr.  Grote,  "  which 
surpasses  his  '  History  of  British  India'  in  the  main 
excellences  attainable  by  historical  writers, — industrious 
accumulation,  continued  for  many  years,  of  original  au 
thorities,  careful  and  conscientious  criticism  of  their 
statements,  and  a  large  command  of  psychological  ana 
lysis,  enabling  the  author  to  interpret  phenomena  of 
society  both  extremely  complicated  and  far  removed 
from  his  own  personal  experience."  (See  "  Review  of 
J.  S.  Mill's  Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Philosophy,"  London,  1868.)  Among  his  other  pro 
ductions  are  a  series  of  essays  on  "Jurisprudence," 
"  Liberty  of  the  Press,"  "  Law  of  Nations,"  etc.  These, 
first  published  in  the  "  Supplement  to  the  Encyclo 
paedia  Britannica,"  were  very  favourably  received,  and 
were  followed  by  his  "Elements  of  Political  Econ 
omy,"  which  appeared  in  1821,  and  his  "Analysis  of  the 
Phenomena  of  the  Human  Mind,"  in  1829.  Mill  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  and  one  of  the  ablest 
expounders  of  his  system.  Died  in  1836. 

See  CHAMRF.RS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  March,  1829;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  August  and  October,  1821. 

Mill,  [Lat.  MII/LIUS,]  (JoHN,)  an  English  theologian 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1645. 
He  became  chaplain-in-orclinary  to  Charles  II.  in  1681, 
and  in  1704  was  made  a  canon  of  Canterbury.  He  pub 
lished  a  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
(1707,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1707. 
See  CHALMKRS,  "General  Biographical  Dictionary." 
Mill,  (JoiiN  STUART,)  an  eminent  English  philosopher 
and  economist,  son  of  James  Mill,  author  of  the  "  His 
tory  of  British  India,"  was  born  in  London  in  May,  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  home  by  his  father,  and  entered  in 
1823  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  as  a  clerk 
in  the  India  House.  In  his  early  life  he  contributed  to 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  and  the  "Westminster  Re 
view."  He  published  in  1843'  a  "System  of  Logic, 
Rationative  and  Inductive,"  (2  vols.,)  and,  in  1844, 
"  Essays  on  some  Unsettled  Questions  in  Political  Econ 
omy."  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  a  popular  work 
entitled  "The  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  with 
some  of  their  Applications  to  Social  Philosophy,"  (1848.) 
As  a  writer  he  is  distinguished  by  originality  of  thought 
and  acuteness  in  reasoning.  In  political  principles  he 
is  an  advanced  Liberal,  and  all  his  sympathies  are  in 
favour  of  liberty  and  progress.  About  1850  he  married 
Harriet  Taylor,  a  lady  of  rare  intellectual  powers.  He 
became  examiner  of  Indian  correspondence  in  1856. 
During  the  late  rebellion  in  the  United  States,  Mr.  Mill 
was  among  the  few  prominent  English  writers  who  de 
fended  the  cause  of  the  North  and  of  the  Federal  Union. 
Among  his  more  recent  works  are  an  "  Essay  on  Liberty," 
and  "An  Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's  Phi 
losophy,"  (i86s,)  of  which  a  highly  favourable  review 
from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Grote,  the  historian,  has  been  pub 
lished,  (London,  1868.)  He  was  for  some  time  editor  of 
the  "Westminster  Review."  In  1865  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Westminster.  He  became  an 
able  debater,  and  made  several  speeches  in  favour  of 
reform  and  extension  of  the  elective  franchise  in  1866 
and  1867.  His  career  as  a  legislator  has  been  very  sue- 


'ff:  a,  e,  o,  s-imp.  less  prolonged;  a.  e,  T,  o,  fi,  v",  short:  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  fir,  fall,  fit:  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


MILL  A  IS 


1587 


MILLER 


cessful.  "Mr.  Mill's  success,"  says  the  "New  York 
Commercial  Advertiser,"  August  29,  1867,  "has  beei 
the  most  marked  and  decided  in  the  annals  of  Parlia 
ment.  No  man  has  ever  before  acquired  so  high  a  con 
sideration  in  so  short  a  time."  He  was,  however, 
.defeated  in  the  general  election  of  1868.  Mr.  Mill  has 
distinguished  himself  as  an  earnest  and  able  advocate  of 
the  rights  of  women.  In  a  recent  work,  entitled  "The 
Subjection  of  Women,"  (1869,)  he  takes  the  ground 
"that  the  principle  which  regulates  the  existing  social 
relations  between  the  two  sexes — the  legal  subordina 
tion  of  one  sex  to  the  other — is  wrong  in  itself,  and  now 
one  of  the  chief  hindrances  to  human  improvement,  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  replaced  by  a  principle  of  perfect 
equality." 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1848,  and  October, 
1869  ;  "  Klackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1848,  and  January,  1866; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1848,  and  May,  1859;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846,  January,  1860,  and  July,  1868  ; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843. 

Millais,  mil'la',  (Joux  EVERETT,)  an  English  painter, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Southampton  in  1829,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  what  is  called  the  "  Pre-Raphaelite 
School."  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  at 
an  early  age  produced  several  works  of  superior  merit, 
among  which  was  "The  Benjamites  seizing  the  Daugh 
ters  of  Shiloh."  His  "  Return  of  the  Dove  to  the  Ark," 
"  Child  of  the  Regiment,"  "  Ophelia,"  "  The  Order  of 
Release,"  and  ''Joan  of  Arc"  are  among  his  most  ad 
mired  productions.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade 
mician  in  1863. 

Mil'lar,  (JuHN,)  an  eminent  Scottish  jurist,  born  in 
Lanarkshire  in  1735.  He  studied  at  Glasgow,  where 
he  became  in  1761  professor  of  civil  law.  The  spirited 
and  attractive  style  of  his  lectures,  which,  says  a  critic 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "gave  to  a  learned  discus 
sion  the  charms  of  an  animated  and  interesting  conversa 
tion,"  drew  great  numbers  to  the  university,  and  made 
it  for  the  time  one  of  the  most  flourishing  and  popular 
in  the  kingdom.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Origin  of  the 
Distinction  of  Ranks,"  (1771,)  and  a  "  Historical  View 
of  the  English  Government  from  the  Settlement  of  the 
Saxons  to  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart","  (1787.) 
The  former  was  translated  into  French,  German,  and 
Italian,  Died  in  1801. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  :" 
"Life  of  Millar,"  by  CRAIG,  prefixed  to  his  "Origin  of  the  Dis 
tinction  of  Ranks;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1806. 

Mil'lard,  (DAVID,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  Ball- 
ston,  New  York,  in  1794,  published  several  theological 
works,  also  "  Travels  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  the  Holy 
Land,"  (1843.) 

Mil/ledge,  (Jonx,)  an  American  patriot  and  states 
man,  born  at  Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1757,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  in  1802  was 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  University  of  Georgia,  and  the  former  capital  of 
the  State  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1818. 

Milledoler,  mil'doi'ar,  (PHILIP,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  born  at  Far- 
mington,  Connecticut,  in  1775.  He  became  president 
of  Rutgers  College,  Xew  Brunswick,  in  1825.  Died  in 
1852. 

Mil'ler,  (EDWARD,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1760,  was  a  brother  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Miller,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  Phy 
sicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York,  and  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Yellow  Fever,"  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
"  Medical  Repository,"  the  first  medical  journal  of 
America.  Died  in  1812. 

Mil'ler,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  musician  and  writer, 
born  at  Norwich,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Burney.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Institutes  of  Music"  and  "  Elements  of 
Thorough  Bass  and  Composition."  Died  in  1807. 

Miller,  me'y^',  (EMANUEI.,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in 
Paris  in  1812,  has  published  a  "Catalogue  of  the  Greek 
Manuscripts  in  the  Escurial,"  (1840,)  and  edited  several 
classical  works. 

Mil'ler,  (HUGH,)  an  eminent  Scottish  geologist  and 
writer,  born  at  Cromarty  on  the  loth  of  October, 


1802,  was  a  son  of  a  mariner  and  shipmaster,  who  per 
ished  in  a  storm  in  1807.  He  attended  the  grammar- 
school  of  the  parish,  and  received  instruction  from  two 
maternal  uncles,  James  and  Alexander  Wright,  one  of 
whom  encouraged  his  taste  for  natural  history.  At  an 
early  age  he  began  to  write  verses,  lie  learned  the 
trade  of  a  stone-mason,  and  commenced  in  1819  his  life 
of  labour  in  a  quarry  of  old  red  sandstone  at  Cromarty. 
"It  was  the  necessity  which  made  me  a  quarrier,"  he 
writes,  "that  taught  me  to  be  a  geologist."  He  worked 
as  a  mason  in  various  parts  of  Scotland,  and  diligently 
improved  the  intervals  of  labour  by  the  cultivation  of 
his  mind.  In  1825  and  1826  he  was  employed  at  Edin 
burgh  as  a  stone-cutter.  He  afterwards  published  a  vol 
ume  of  poems,  and  in  1834  relinquished  his  trade  to 
become  an  accountant  in  a  bank  at  Cromarty.  In  1835 
he  produced  "  Scenes  and  Legends  of  the  North  of  Scot 
land,"  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  married 
about  1836. 

In  1839  he  defended  with  much  ability  the  cause  of 
the  Free  Church,  in  a  "  Letter  from  One  of  the  Scotch 
People  to  Lord  Brougham,"  which  was  praised  by  Mr. 
Gladstone.  He  became  in  1840  editor  of  the  "  Witness," 
an  organ  of  the  Free  Church  or  Non-Intrusionists,  pub 
lished  in  Edinburgh  twice  a  week.  He  continued  to 
edit  this  paper  until  his  death,  and  rendered  it  very 
popular  and  influential.  His  reputation  as  a  geologist 
was  increased  by  his  work  entitled  "  The  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  or  New  Walks  in  an  Old  Field,"  (1841,) 
which  is  written  in  an  attractive  style.  He  afterwards 
published  "Footprints  of  the  Creator,"  (1849,)  "First 
Impressions  of  England  and  its  People,"  (1851,)  an  inter 
esting  autobiography  entitled  "My  Schools  and  School 
masters,  or  the  Story  of  my  Education,"  (1854,)  and 
"  The  Cruise  of  the  Betsey."  These  works  mark  an 
important  epoch  in  the  progress  of  geology.  "There 
was  nothing  in  Miller's  works,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1858,  "which  so  much  surprised  the 
public  as  their  mere  literary  merit.  Where  could  this 
Cromarty  mason  have  acquired  his  style  ?" 

In  consequence  of  excessive  mental  exertion,  his  brain 
became  diseased.  During  a  paroxysm  of  insanity,  he 
killed  himself  with  a  pistol  in  December,  1856.  He  had 
just  finished  a  work  entitled  "The  Testimony  of  the 
Rocks,  or  Geology  in  its  Bearings  on  the  Two  Theologies, 
Natural  and  Revealed,"  (1857.)  In  this  work  he  rejects 
the  theory  that  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  is 
purely  parable,  while  he  censures  those  who  refuse  to 
accept  the  evidences  of  scientific  truths  when  they  seem 
to  clash  with  traditionary  interpretations  of  Scripture. 
His  "Footprints  of  the  Creator"  was  written  to  refute 
the  theory  of  development  advocated  by  the  author  of 
"  The  Yestiges  of  Creation."  "  Hugh  Miller,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  "must  undoubtedly  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  whom  Scotland  has 
produced.  .  .  .  The  interest  of  his  narrative,  the  purity 
of  his  style,  his  inexhaustible  faculty  of  happy  and  inge 
nious  illustration,  his  high  imaginative  power,  and  that 
light  of  genius  which  it  is  so  difficult  to  define  yet  so 
impossible  to  mistake,  all  promise  to  secure  for  the 
author  of  the  'Old  Red  Sandstone'  the  lasting  admira 
tion  of  his  countrymen." 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858,  article  "  Hugh  Mi'- 
er,"  (reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age,"  August  21,  1858;)  "  North 
Jritish  Review"  for  August.  1854;  "North  American  Review"  for 
October,  1851  :  AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Miller,  (JAMES,)  an  English  dramatist  and  satirical 
.vriter,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1703.  He  published  sev 
eral  political  pamphlets,  a  satire  entitled  "The  Humours 
of  Oxford,"  and  a  number  of  comedies.  Died  in  1744. 

Miller,  (JAMES,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  Peter 
borough,  New  Hampshire,  about  17/6.  He  served  as 
colonel  with  distinction  at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and 
Lundy's  Lane,  July  25,  1814.  His  commander  asked 
lim  if  he  could  take  a  certain  battery  at  Lundy's  Lane. 
Pie  answered,  "  I'll  try,  sir,"  and  captured  the  battery. 
Died  in  1851. 

Miller,  mil'ler,  (JOHANN  MARTIN,)  a  German  poet 
and  fictitious  writer,  born  at  Ulm  in  1750.  He  was  the 
author  of"  Correspondence  ofThree  Academic  Friends," 
'  Siegwart,  a  Convent  History,"  (1776,)  which  was  trans- 
ated  into  French,  Dutch,  and  Polish,  and  several  other 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MILLER 


1588 


MUM  AN 


popular  works.  His  lyric  poems  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Klopstock  and  Voss.  Died 
in  1814. 

Miller,  (JOSEPH,)  a  celebrated  English  comedian, 
whose  appreciation  as  an  actor  of  the  wit  of  Congreve's 
plays  contributed  in  a  great  measure  to  their  success, 
was  born  in  1684.  The  jests  ascribed  to  him  were  in 
reality  compiled  by  John  Motley,  author  of  a  "  Life  of 
Peter  the  Great."  Died  in  1738. 

Miller,  (Pinup,)  an  English  botanist  and  florist,  born 
in  1691.  He  published  a  "Catalogue  of  Hardy  Trees, 
Shrubs,  etc.  cultivated  near  London,"  (with  coloured 
plates,  1730,)  "Gardener's  Dictionary,"  (1731,)  which 
was  translated  into  several  languages,  and  "Figures  of 
Plants,"  (2  vols.,  1755,)  adapted  to  the  Dictionary.  The 
genus  Milleria  was  named  by  Dr.  Martyn  in  honour  of 
this  botanist.  Died  in  1771. 

Miller,  (SAMUEL,)  D.I).,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Delaware  in  1769.  He  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  York  in  1793. 
In  1813  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Princeton.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  controversial 
works,  and  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards,"  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography."  Died  in  1850. 
See  SAMUEL  MII.I.EK,  "Life  of  Samuel  Miller,"  2  vols.,  1869. 
Miller,  (STEPHEN  FRANKS,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
journalist,  born  in  North  Carolina,  became  associate 
editor  of  "  De  Bow's  Review"  about  1848.  He  published 
the  "  Bench  and  Bar  of  Georgia,"  and  other  works. 

Miller,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  1718, 
was  appointed  lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1760.  On 
the  death  of  Dundas  he  became  president  of  the  court 
of  sessions,  (1788.)  Died  in  1789. 

Miller,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet  and  basket-maker, 
born  at  Gainsborough  about  1808.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  poet  Rogers,  by  whose  aid  he  began  business  as  a 
bookseller.  He  wrote,  besides  numerous  poems,  novels 
entitled  "  Royston  Gower"  and  "  Fair  Rosamond." 

Miller,  (WILLIAM,)  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Miller- 
ites,  was  born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1781. 
About  1833  he  began  to  prophesy  the  end  of  the  world, 
which  he  affirmed  would  be  destroyed  in  1843.  He  died 
in  1849;  a"d  his  followers,  who  are  said  to  have  num 
bered  nearly  fifty  thousand,  have  since  greatly  decreased. 
Miller,  (\YIU.IAM  AI.I.KN,)  an  English  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Ipswich  in  1817.  He  took  his  medical 
degree  in  London,  and  subsequently  studied  in  the  labo 
ratory  of  Liebig  at  Giessen.  He  was  appointed  pro 
fessor  of  chemistry  in  the  Royal  College  in  1845,  anc^ 
assayer  at  the  Mint  and  Bank  of  England  in  1851.  He 
was  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society  and  president  of 
the  Chemical  Society,  and  wrote  "  Elements  of  Chemistry, 
Theoretical  and  Practical,"  (3  vols.,  1850;  3d  ed.,  1866.) 
Miller,  (WILLIAM  HALLOWS,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  mineralogist  and  physicist,  was  educated  at 
Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.A.  about  1826.  He  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Cambridge  in  1832,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  crystallography.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  new  and  greatly-improved  edition  of  Phillips's 
•'Elementary  Introduction  to  Mineralogy,"  (1852.)  He 
was  a  member  of  a  commission  appointed  by  govern 
ment  in  1843  f°r  tne  restoration  of  the  standards  of 
weight  and  measure,  and  he  constructed  and  verified 
the  new  national  standard  of  weight. 

Milles,  milz,  (JKREMIAH,)  an  English  divine  and  an 
tiquary,  born  in  1714,  became  Dean  of  Exeter  in  1762. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Archaeologia,"  and  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  vindicate  the  authenticity 
of  Rowley's  poems.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Died  in  1784. 

See  NICHOLS,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Millet,  me'y<i',  (AiME,)  a  French  painter  and  sculptor, 
a  son  of  Frederic  Millet,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  about  i8r8. 

Millet,  (FREDERIC,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Charlieu  in  1786,  was  a  pupil  of  Isabey.  He  executed 
a  number  of  portraits  of  great  merit,  among  which  we 
may  name  that  of  the  empress  Josephine.  Died  in  1859. 


Millevoye,  mel'vwa',  (CHARLES  HUBERT,)  a  French 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1782.  He  was 
the  author  of  elegiac  poems  of  great  beauty,  and  ob 
tained  several  prizes  from  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1816. 

See  SAINTB-BKUVK,  "Portraits  Litteraires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Millin,  me'ya.N',*  (AuniN  Louis,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  He  published 
"Elements  of  Natural  History,"  (1794,)  "  Dictionary  of 
the  Fine  Arts,"  (3  vols.,  1806,)  "  Mythological  Gallery," 
(1811,)  and  other  works.  In  1795  he  became  editor'of 
the  "  Magasin  Encyclopedique,"  a  journal  of  high  char 
acter,  which  he  conducted  for  twenty  years,  lie  was  a 
member  of  the  P'rench  Institute  and  of  several  foreign 
Academies,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
In  1794  he  had  been  appointed  keeper  of  the  medals 
and  antiquities  in  the  Royal  Library.  Died  in  1818. 

See  KRAFFT,  "Notice  sur  A.  L.  Miliin,"  1818;  BON  JOSHPII 
DACIKR,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  Millin,"  iSji  ; 
Qi'F.KARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gihie- 
rale." 

Millingen,  mil'ling-gen,  ?  (JAMES,)  an  eminent  anti 
quary,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1774.  He 
published  "  Remarks  on  the  State  of  Learning  and  the 
Fine  Arts  in  Great  Britain,"  "  Ancient  Coins  of  Greek 
Cities  and  Kings,"  (1821,)  and  other  similar  works,  which 
have  a  very  high  reputation.  Died  in  1845. 

Millon,  me'yo.N1',*  (CHARLES,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Liege  in  1754,  wrote  poems,  histories,  etc.  Died 
in  1839. 

Millon,  (EUGENE,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1812.  1  le  published,  besides  other  chemical 
treatises,  "  Elements  of  Organic  Chemistry,  comprising 
the  Applications  of  this  Science  to  Vegetable  Physi 
ology,"  (2  Vols.,  1845-48.) 

Millot,  me'yo',*  (CLAUDE  FRANC.OIS  XAVIER,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1726.  lie 
was  the  author  of  "Elements  of  Universal  History," 
"  Political  and  Military  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
Louis  XIV.,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1777,)  and  other  works  of 
the  kind.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1777,  and  in  1778  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  Due 
d'Enghien.  Died  in  1785. 

See  GRIMM,  "  Correspondance ;"  LINGAV,  "  FJoge  de  1'Abbe 
Millot,"  1814;  QUERAKU,  "La  France  LitteYaire." 

Mills,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Green 
wich  in  1788,  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  Moham 
medanism,"  (1812,)  "  History  of  the  Crusades,"  (1820,) 
"Travels  of  Theodore  Ducas,"  etc.,  (1822,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1825. 

Mills,  (CLARK,)  a  distinguished  American  sculptor, 
born  in  Onondaga  county,  New  York,  in  1815.  Having 
removed  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  he  executed 
several  busts  in  marble,  which  won  for  him  a  high  repu 
tation.  In  1848  he  began  his  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Jackson,  for  which,  owing  to  its  size,  he  was  obliged  to 
construct  a  foundry.  It  was  completed  in  1853,  and 
placed  in  Lafayette  Square  at  Washington.  His  next 
work  was  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
finished  in  1860. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mills,  (SAMUEL  JOHN,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Torringford,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Missionary  Society. 
He  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  in  1817  visited 
Africa,  in  company  with  the  Rev.  E.  Burgess,  for  the 
purpose  of  choosing  a  site  for  the  colony.  He  died  in 
1818,  while  on  his  voyage  home. 

Mil'man,  (Sir  FRANCIS,)  an  eminent  English  phy 
sician,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1746.  He  published 
"Animadversions  on  the  Nature  and  Cure  of  Dropsy," 
(1776,)  "Treatise  on  the  Source  of  the  Scurvy,"  and  other 
works.  He  was  appointed  physician  to  George  III., 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Col 
lege  of  Physicians.  Died  in  1821. 

Milrnan,  (Rev.  HENRY  HART,)  an  English  poet, 
historian,  and  divine,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 


*  There  seems  to  be  some  diversity  respecting  the  pronunciation 
of  these  names:  some  speakers  say  me'laN',  me'loN',  etc.,  omitting 
all  sound  of  tlie  liquid  /. 


a,  e,  i,  5.  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsntre;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


MILNE 


1589 


MILTIADES 


London  in  1791.  He  graduated  at  Brazenose  College, 
Oxford,  where  in  1821  he  became  professor  of  poetry. 
Having  filled  several  inferior  offices  in  the  Church,  he 
was  appointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1849.  rl's  tragedy 
of  "Fazio,"  published  in  1815,  was  well  received,  and 
was  followed  by  the  poems  of  "  Samor,  Lord  of  the 
Bright  City,"  (1818,)  "The  Fall  of  Jerusalem,"  (1820,) 
"The  Martyr  of  Antioch,"  and  others.  In  1840  he 
brought  out  his  "  History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth 
of  Christ  to  the  Extinction  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman 
Empire,"  (3  vols.  8vo,)  and  in  1854  his  "History  of 
Latin  Christianity,  including  that  of  the  Popes  to  the 
Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V."  He  published  excellent 
editions  of  the  works  of  Horace,  with  a  well-written  life 
of  the  poet,  and  of  Gibbon's  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire."  Died  in  September,  1868. 

See  W.  E.  H.  LECKY,  "History  of  European  Morals  from  Au 
gustus  to  Charlemagne,"  (Preface,)  1869  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1858,  January,  1864,  and  January,  1869;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1816,  July,  1818,  May,  1820,  and  April,  1869; 
"  Hlackwood's  Magazine"  for  March  and  July,  1822  ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  November,  1854,  and  March,  1869;  "Eraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  October,  1854. 

Milne,  miln,  (CoLiN,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Aberdeen.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Botanical 
Dictionary,"  "Indigenous  Botany,"'  etc.  Died  in  1815. 

Millie,  miln,  (JuSHUA,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1776,  was  appointed  actuary  of  the  Sun  Life  Assurance 
Office.  He  published  a  valuable  "  Treatise  on  Annui 
ties,"  in  which  he  describes  a  new  system  of  notation  for 
the  calculation  of  life-insurance. 

Milne-Edwards,  miln  ed'wardz,  [Fr.  pron.  meln 
a'doo-tus',)  (HENKI,)  an  eminent  French  naturalist,  of 
English  descent,  born  at  Bruges  in  1800.  After  he  had 
taught  natural  history  for  some  years  in  the  College 
Henri  IV.  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1838.  He  published  "The  Natural  His 
tory  of  the  Crustacea,"  (3  vols.,  1834-41,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  In  1841  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
entomology  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  in  1844  was 
chosen  adjunct  professor  of  zoology  and  comparative 
physiology  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  I. 
Geoffrey  Saint-IIilaire  as  professor  of  zoology  in  1862. 
Among  his  works  are  "Elements  of  Zoology,"  (4  vols., 
1834-37,)  which  obtained  considerable  popularity,  and 
"  Researches  into  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of 
Polypi,"  (1842.) 

See  article  "  Milne,"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mil'iier,  (ISAAC,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
mathematician,  born  near  Leeds  in  1751.  He  studied 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  in 
1783  Jacksonian  professor  of  experimental  philosophy. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  master  of  his  college, 
(1788,)  Dean  of  Carlisle,  (1791,)  and  Lucasian  professor 
of  mathematics,  (1798.)  He  was  also  twice  elected  vice- 
chancellor  of  his  college.  He  was  the  author  of  a  num 
ber  of  sermons  and  miscellaneous  essays,  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  his  brother  Joseph's  "Church  History." 
lie  numbered  among  his  friends  Pitt  and  Wilberforce. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  MARY  MILNER,  "  Life  of  Isaac  Milner,"  1842. 

Milner,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  Roman  Catholic  divine, 
born  in  London  in  1752.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  His 
tory,  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical,  and  Survey  of  the  Anti 
quities,  of  Winchester,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Archaeologia."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.  Died  in  1826. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1810,  and  October, 
iSn. 

Milner,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  theologian,  born  near 
Halifax  in  1628,  became  canon  of  Ripon.  Died  in  1702. 

Milner,  (JosKPH,)  an  English  divine,  born  near  Leeds 
in  1744,  was  a  brother  of  Isaac,  noticed  above.  He 
became  vicar  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Hull 
in  1/97.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  of  Christ," 
(5  vols.,  1794-1812,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
It  was  completed  by  his  brother,  the  Dean  of  Carlisle. 
Milner  also  published  an  "Answer  to  Gibbon's  Attack 
on  Christianity,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1797. 

See  ISAAC  MILNER,  "Life of  J.  Milner,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons, 
Millies,  milnz,  (RICHARD  MONCKTON,)  Baron  Hough- 
ton,   an    English    statesman   and    miscellaneous   writer, 


born  in  Yorkshire  in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1831,  and  in  1837  was  first  elected  a  member  of  Par 
liament  for  Pontefract,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
until  1863,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Houghton.  As  a  member  of  the  liberal  conservative 
party,  he  has  been  a  prominent  advocate  of  reform. 
Among  his  principal  publications  are  "  Poems,  Legendary 
and  Historical."  "Palm-Leaves,"  (1844,)  "Memorials  of 
Many  Scenes,"  and  the  "Life,  Letters,  and  Literary  Re 
mains  of  John  Keats,"  (1848.)  He  contributed  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Review." 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1847,  article  "Literary  Legis 
lators;"  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1839,  and  July, 
1842. 

Mil'iipr,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episcopal 
clergyman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1773,  became  rector 
of  Saint  George's  Church,  New  York,  in  1816.  Died  in 
1845- 

See  "  Memoir  of  James  Milnor,  D.D.,"  by  REV.  J.  S.  STONE. 

Mi'lo,  [Gr.  M&MV  ;  Fr.  MILON,  me'16N',]  an  athlete, 
celebrated  for  his  prodigious  strength,  born  at  Crotona, 
in  Italy,  was  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said  to  have 
once  carried  a  bull  on  his  shoulders  to  the  sacrifice,  and 
killed  it  with  a  blow  of  his  fist.  In  509  B.C.  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Sybarites.  When  advanced  in 
years,  he  found  one  day,  in  passing  through  a  forest, 
a  tree  partly  cleft  by  wedges.  Having  introduced  his 
hands  for  the  purpose  of  severing  it  entirely,  the  wedges 
fell  out,  but,  his  strength  failing  him,  the  parts  closed 
again,  retaining  him  a  prisoner,  and  in  this  helpless  con 
dition  he  was  devoured  by  wild  beasts. 

Mi'lo,  (Trrus  ANNIUS,)  a  famous  Roman  tribune,  was 
a  plebeian,  and  a  man  of  unscrupulous  character.  He 
became  tribune  of  the  people  in  57  H.C.,  and  was  a  par 
tisan  of  Pompey.  By  his  efforts  to  restore  Cicero  from 
exile  he  incurred  the  hostility  of  Clodius,  with  whom  he 
fought  in  several  bloody  affrays.  In  the  year  53  Milo 
was  a  candidate  for  the  consulship.  Before  the  electoral 
contest  was  decided,  Milo  and  Clodius  met,  each  with 
a  band  of  armed  slaves,  and  a  fight  ensued,  in  which 
Clodius  was  killed.  Milo  was  tried  for  homicide,  and, 
though  defended  by  Cicero,  was  condemned,  and  exiled 
himself  to  Marseilles.  Having  taken  arms  against 
Cassar  in  the  civil  war,  he  was  killed  in  Lucania,  48  B.C. 

See  CICERO,  "  Oratio  pro  Milone :"  DKUMANN,  "Geschichte 
Roms;"  DION  CASSIUS.  "History  of  Rome;"  EI.BERI.ING,  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  T.  A.  Milone,"  1840;  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography." 

Milon.     See  MILO. 

Milonof,  Milonov,  or  Milonow,  mee'lo-nof,  (Mi- 
CHAEL  VASSILIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1792, 
was  the  "author  of  satires,  epistles,  and  lyric  poems,  which 
enjoy  great  popularity.  Died  in  1821. 

See  GRETCH,  "  Essai  sur  PHistoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Miloradovitch,  me-lo-ra'do-vitch,  (MICHAEL  AN- 
DRIEVITCH,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general,  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1770.  He  fought  with  distinction  against 
the  Turks  and  Poles  and  in  the  campaigns  against  the 
French  from  1799  to  1814,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
general  of  infantry.  He  was  appointed  military  gov 
ernor  of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1819.  He  was  killed  in 
attempting  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in  that  city,  De 
cember  25,  1825. 

Milosh.     See  OBRENOVITCH. 

Mil'roy,  (ROBERT  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Indiana  about  1814.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  Union  volunteers  about  September,  1861,  and 
served  at  Cross  Keys,  June  8,  1862.  He  commanded 
about  8000  men  at  Winchester,  was  attacked  June  15, 
1863,  and  retreated,  but  lost  nearly  half  of  his  force. 

Miltiade.     See  MII.TIADKS. 

Mil-ti'a-des,  [Gr.  M</.nuoV/c;  Fr.  MILTIADE,  mel'- 
te'td',]  a  'celebrated  Athenian  general,  who  flourished 
about  500  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Cimon.  He  became  suc 
cessor  to  his  uncle  Miltiacles,  who  had  made  himself  a 
despot  or  mas'.er  of  the  Chersonese  in  Thrace,  and  he 
appears  first  in  history  as  an  arbitrary  ruler.  Darius  of 
Persia  having  sent  a  great  armament,  under  Datis  and 
Artaphernes,  to  conquer  Greece,  Miltiades  was  chosen 
one  of  the  ten  generals  of  the  Athenian  army,  which 
awaited  the  enemy  at  Marathon  in  490  B.C.  The  Grecian 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  £«///«>•?/;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  Mis 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MILTITZ 


1590 


MILTON 


army  numbered  about  10,000  men,  and  the  Persian  prob- 
ably'over  100,000.  A  regulation  then  prevailed  that  each 
of  the  ten  generals  should  command  by  turns  for  one  day. 
Some  of  them  were  averse  to  risking  a  battle.  When 
the  command  devolved  on  Miltiades,  he  gained  one  of 
the  most  memorable  and  important  victories  recorded 
in  history.  To  reward  his  patriotism  and  eminent  ser 
vices  to  national  liberty,  the  Athenians  decreed  that  he 
should  have  the  foremost  place  in  a  painting  which  illus 
trated  the  battle.  Having  failed  in  an  attack  on  Paros, 
he  was  fined  fifty  talents,  which  he  could  not  pay,  and 
about  the  year  489  died  in  prison  of  a  wound  received 
in  the  action  just  named.  The  famous  general  Cimon 
was  his  son. 

See  CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  "  Miltiades  ;"  HERODOTUS,  books  iv.  and 
vi.  ;  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  iv.  ;  THIRI.WALL,  "  History 
of  Greece;"  KIRCHMAIER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Miltiade,"  1662. 

Miltitz,  von,  fon  mil'tits,  (K.\RL,)  a  German  prelate, 
born  about  1490,  became  chamberlain  to  Leo  X.,  who 
sent  him  in  1518  as  nuncio  to  Germany,  in  order  to 
conciliate  Luther  or  counteract  his  influence.  On  this 
occasion  he  displayed  much  tact,  and  used  flattery  or 
persuasive  means  with  some  success.  (See  LUTHER.) 
Died  in  1529. 

Miltitz,  von,  (KARL  BORROMAUS  ALEXANDER  STK- 
PHAN,)  a  German  poet  and  musical  composer,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1781.  Among  his  best  compositions  are 
the  operas  of  "Saul"  and  "Georg  Czerny."  Died  in 
1845.  His  brother  ALEXANDER  was  ambassador  to 
Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"The  Manual  of  Consuls."  Died  in  1843. 

Mil'ton,  [Lat.  MILTO'NUS;  It.  MIL'TON  orMiLTONO, 
mel-to'no,]  (JoHN,)  an  immortal  poet,  and,  if  we  except 
Shakspeare,  the  most  illustrious  name  in  English  litera 
ture,  was  born  in  Bread  Street,  London,  on  the  gth  of 
December,  1608.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Milton, 
a  scrivener,  and  Sarah  Bradshaw,  (or  Caston,  according 
to  some  authorities.)  His  early  education  was  directed 
by  a  private  tutor, — Thomas  Young,  a  zealous  Puritan. 
A  portrait  of  his  beautiful  features,  taken  by  C.  Jansen, 
at  the  age  often,  has  been  preserved.  Before  he  entered 
college  he  was  an  excellent  Latin  scholar.  In  severe  and 
systematic  study  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  fame. 
In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  written  some  years  later,  he  says, 
"It  is  my  way  to  suffer  no  impediment,  no  love  of  ease, 
no  avocation  whatever,  to  chill  the  ardour,  to  break  the 
continuity,  or  to  divert  the  completion  of  my  literary 
pursuits."  His  first  English  poems  were  versions  of  the 
Ii4th  and  1361!!  Psalms,  (1623.) 

In  February,  1624,  he  was  admitted  as  pensioner  into 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  distinc 
tion  as  a  Latin  poet.  Dr.  Johnson  expresses  the  opinion 
that  Milton  "was  the  first  Englishman  who,  after  the 
revival  of  letters,  wrote  Latin  verses  with  classic  ele 
gance."  He  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in  1628,  and 
that  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1632, — before  which  he  had 
been  subjected  to  a  temporary  rustication  (and,  some  say, 
to  corporal  chastisement)  for  an  unknown  offence.  "  By 
the  intention  of  my  parents,"  says  Milton  himself,  "  I 
was  destined  of  a  child  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  and 
in  my  own  resolutions.  Till  coming  to  some  maturity 
of  years,  and  perceiving  what  tyranny  had  invaded  the 
Church,  that  he  who  would  take  orders  must  subscribe 
SLAVE,  and  take  an  oath  withal,  ...  I  thought  better 
to  prefer  a  blameless  silence,  before  the  sacred  office  of 
speaking,  bought  and  begun  with  servitude  and  for 
swearing." 

In  1632  he  left  the  university,  and  retired  to  his 
father's  liouse  at  Horton,  Buckinghamshire,  where  he 
remained  five  years,  during  which  he  is  said  to  have 
read  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  He  also  took 
lessons  in  music,  which  he  loved,  and  in  which  he  was 
very  skilful.  In  this  studious  retirement,  it  appears,  he 
wrote  his  beautiful  poems  "  Comus,"  "  L'Allegro,"  "  II 
Penseroso,"  and  "  Lyciclas,"  (1637.)  "  Comus" — a  drama 
in  form,  but  essentially  lyrical — was  written  and  per 
formed  at  Ludlow  Castle  in  1634,  but  not  printed  until 
1637.  "It  is  certainly,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  noblest 
performance  of  the  kind  which  exists  in  any  language." 
"  Lycidas"  is  contemptuously  depreciated  by  Johnson  as 
a  "pastoral,  easy,  vulgar,  and  therefore  disgusting." 


But  Hallam  approves  the  judgment  of  a  certain  critic 
(whom  he  does  not  name)  that  "Lycidas"  is  "a  good 
test  of  a  real  feeling  for  what  is  peculiarly  called  poetry." 
Milton's  "Allegro"  and  "Penseroso"  are  universally 
admired.  "  It  is  impossible  to  conceive,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  that  the  mechanism  of  language  can  be  brought  to  a 
more  exquisite  degree  of  perfection.  These  poems  differ 
from  others  as  ottar  of  roses  differs  from  ordinary  rose- 
water." 

In  1638,  attended  by  a  servant,  he  visited  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Naples,  conversed  with  Galileo,  then  a  "  pris 
oner  to  the  Inquisition,"  and  received  testimonials  of 
honour  and  friendship  from  Carlo  Dati,  Francini,  and 
Manso.  He  was  admired  as  a  great  prodigy  by  these 
Italian  celebrities.  He  returned  in  1639,  and  opened  in 
London  a  small  boarding-school,  in  which  he  adopted  a 
new  system  of  education.  His  nephews,  Edward  and 
John  Philips,  were  among  his  pupils.  In  1641  he  pro 
duced  his  first  prose  work, — a  "  Treatise  of  Reforma 
tion," — which  was  followed  by  other  arguments  against 
the  Established  Church  and  Prelacy.  He  sympathized 
with  the  popular  party  in  the  great  crisis  of  English 
liberty,  but  took  no  active  part  in  the  civil  war  which 
began  in  1642. 

At  Whitsuntide,  1643,  he  married  Mary  Powell,  whose 
father  was  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  a  royalist  of  Ox 
fordshire.  "The  lady,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "seems  not 
much  to  have  delighted  in  the  pleasures  of  spare  diet 
and  hard  study."  A  month  after  the  marriage,  she  made 
a  visit  to  her  father's  house,  from  which  she  refused  to 
return.  Having  resolved  to  repudiate  her,  Milton  pub 
lished  "The  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  Divorce,"  (1644,) 
and  other  treatises  on  that  topic,  in  his  own  justification. 
He  also  paid  his  addresses  to  a  Miss  Davis,  until  his 
wife  implored  forgiveness  and  was  restored  to  favour. 
She  became  the  mother  of  three  daughters,  who  were  all 
the  children  that  Milton  had. 

He  published  in  1644  his  "  Areopagitica,"  or  "  Plea 
for  Unlicensed  Printing," — probably  his  greatest  prose 
work.  "  Many  passages  in  this  famous  tract,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "are  admirably  eloquent :  an  intense  love  of  liberty 
and  truth  glows  through  it."  He  had  taken  a  larger 
house  in  Barbican  (about  1645)  for  the  reception  of 
scholars;  but  his  wife's  relations,  to  whom,  when  ruined 
by  the  civil  war,  he  generously  gave  refuge,  occupied  his 
rooms.  In  March,  1648-49,  he  was  appointed  Latin 
secretary  to  the  council  of  state,  which  was  the  highest 
executive  power  in  the  new  republic.  As  an  antidote  to 
the  "  Eikon  Basilike,"  i.e.  the  "  Image  (or  Portrait)  of  the 
King," — a  work  designed  to  excite  commiseration  for  the 
sufferings  of  Charles  I.,  (see  GAUDEN,) — Milton  pro 
duced  his  "  Iconoclastes,"  (Eikonoklastes,)  or  "Image- 
breaker,"  and,  by  order  of  the  council,  appeared  as  the 
antagonist  of  the  learned  Salmasius,  in  reply  to  whom 
he  wrote,  in  Latin,  his  celebrated  work  entitled  "  Defence 
of  the  English  People,"  ("  Defensio  Populi  Anglicani," 
1650.)  (See  SALMASIUS.) 

About  1654  he  became  totally  blind.  His  "  Defensio 
Secunda"  (1654)  contains  an  eloquent  allusion  to  this 
privation.  His  wife  died  about  1653,  and  in  1656  he  mar 
ried  Catherine  Woodcock,  who  died  in  the  following  year. 
After  serving  the  Protector  Oliver  as  Latin  secretary 
for  four  or  five  years,  he  retired  about  1657  from  public 
life,  with  a  pension  of  ^150.  Before  that  date  he  had 
meditated  the  plan  of  a  great  epic  poem.  One  of  the 
subjects  that  presented  was  the  exploits  of  King  Arthur. 
After  much  deliberation,  "long  choosing  and  beginning 
late,"  he  preferred  the  subject  of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  which 
at  first  he  proposed  to  dramatize.  At  the  restoration, 
(1660,)  his  prosecution  was  ordered,  and  he  concealed 
himself  in  the  house  of  a  friend  until  the  Act  of  Oblivion 
released  him  from  danger.  He  married  his  third  wife, 
Elizabeth  Minshul,  in  1664;  and  when  the  great  plague 
raged  in  London,  (1665,)  he  retired  to  Chalfont,  Bucks, 
where  his  friend  El  I  wood  had  engaged  a  cottage  for  him. 
(See  ELLWOOD,  THOMAS.)  In  the  course  of  the  same 
year  Milton  showed  to  Ellwood  the  finished  manuscript 
of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  which  the  latter  took  home  and 
perused.  On  returning  it  to  the  author,  he  remarked, 
"Thou  hast  said  much  here  of  Paradise  Lost;  but  what 
hast  thou  to  say  of  Paradise  found?"  Milton  sold  his 


a,  1. 1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MILTON 


1591 


MIND 


copy  MI  April,  1667,  to  Samuel  Simmons,  for  an  imme 
diate  payment  of  five  pounds  and  the  promise  of  an 
equal  sum  after  the  sale  of  thirteen  hundred  copies.  It 
was  rather  coldly  received,  only  three  thousand  having 
been  sold  in  the  first  eleven  years.  "  Its  admirers,"  says 
Johnson,  "did  not  dare  to  publish  their  opinion." 

He  published  in  1671  "Samson  Agonistes,"  a  tra 
gedy,  and  "  Paradise  Regained,"  which  he  is  said  to 
have'  esteemed  his  most  perfect  production  ;  but  the 
public  and  the  critics  have  not  sanctioned  this  preference. 
Milton  died  in  London,  by  "a  silent  expiration,"  on  the 
8th  of  November,  1674. 

A  manuscript  of  Milton's  "On  Christian  Doctrine," 
("  De  Doctrina  Christiana,")  found  in  the  State-Paper 
Office,  London,  in  1823,  was  translated  and  published 
in  1825.  The  genuineness  of  this  work,  though  some 
times  called  in  question,  is  considered  by  the  great 
majority  of  critics  to  be  established  beyond  reasonable 
doubt. 

Milton  was  not  connected  with  any  church,  but  ap 
pears  to  have  favoured  the  Independents, — a  politico- 
religious  party.  "He  grew  old  without  any  visible 
worship,"  says  Johnson  ;  who  adds,  "  His  studies  and 
meditations  were  an  habitual  prayer."  His  favourite 
authors  among  the  Greeks  were  Homer  and  Euripides, 
and  Shakspeare  and  Spenser  among  the  English.  His 
stature  was  rather  below  the  middle  height.  In  his  youth 
he  was  so  eminently  and  delicately  beautiful  as  to  be 
called  "the  Lady"  of  his  college,  though  his  habits  were 
far  from  effeminate.  He  had  a  fair  complexion  and 
auburn  hair.  Portraits  of  him  were  taken  at  the  ages 
of  ten,  twenty-one,  and  about  sixty. 

"  Considered  with  respect  to  design,"  says  Johnson, 
'"Paradise  Lost'  may  claim  the  first  place,  and,  with 
respect  to  performance,  the  second,  among  the  produc 
tions  of  the  human  mind.  .  .  .  His  [Milton's]  great  works 
were  performed  under  discountenance  and  in  blindness; 
but  difficulties  vanished  at  his  touch  :  he  was  born  for 
whatever  is  arduous  ;  and  his  work  is  not  the  greatest 
of  heroic  poems,  only  because  it  is  not  the  first."  "  Was 
there  ever  anything  so  delightful,"  says  Cowper,  "as 
the  music  of  'Paradise  Lost'?  It  is  like  that  of  a  fine 
organ. — has  the  fullest  and  the  deepest  tones  of  majesty, 
with  all  the  softness  and  elegance  of  the  Dorian  flute  ; 
variety  without  end,  and  never  equalled,  unless,  perhaps, 
by  Virgil."  Of  Milton's  prose  writings,  Macaulay  ob 
serves,  "They  are  a  perfect  field  of  cloth  of  gold.  The 
style  is  stiff  with  gorgeous  embroidery." 

'•It  is  certain,"  Says  Hume,  "that  this  author,  when 
in  a  happy  mood  and  employed  on  a  noble  subject,  is 
the  most  wonderfully  sublime  of  any  poet  in  any  lan 
guage,  Homer  and  Lucretius  and  Tasso  not  excepted. 
More  concise  than  Homer,  more  simple  than  Tasso, 
more  nervous  than  Lucretius,  had  he  lived  in  a  later 
age  and  learned  to  polish  some  rudeness  in  his  verses, 
had  he  enjoyed  better  fortune  and  possessed  leisure  to 
watch  the  returns  of  genius  in  himself,  he  had  attained 
the  pinnacle  of  perfection  and  borne  away  the  palm  of 
epic  poetry." 

"  It  may  be  doubted,"  says  Walter  S.  Landor, 
"whether  the  Creator  ever  created  one  altogether  so 
great  as  Milton, — taking  into  one  view  at  once  his  manly 
virtues,  his  superhuman  genius,  his  zeal  for  truth,  for 
true  piety,  true  freedom,  his  eloquence  in  displaying  it, 
his  contempt  of  personal  power,  his  glory  and  exultation 
in  his  country's." 

"Milton,"  says  Macaulay,  "did  not  strictly  belong 
to  any  of  the  classes  which  we  have  described.  He 
was  not  a  Puritan.  He  was  not  a  Freethinker.  He 
was  not  a  Cavalier.  In  his  character  the  noblest  quali 
ties  of  every  party  were  combined  in  harmonious  union. 
.  .  .  We  are  not  much  in  the  habit  of  idolizing  either 
the  living  or  the  dead.  But  there  are  a  few  characters 
which  have  stood  the  closest  scrutiny  and  the  severest 
tests,  which  have  been  tried  in  the  furnace  and  have 
proved  pure,  which  have  been  declared  sterling  by  the 
general  consent  of  mankind,  and  which  are  visibly 
stamped  with  the  image  and  superscription  of  the  Most 
High.  These  great  men  we  trust  we  know  how  to  prize  ; 
and  of  these  was  Milton.  .  .  .  His  thoughts  are  power 
ful  not  only  to  delight,  but  to  elevate  and  purify.  Nor 


do  we  envy  the  man  who  can  study  either  the  life  or  the 
writings  of  the  great  poet  and  patriot  without  aspiring  to 
emulate,  not  indeed  the  sublime  works  with  which  his 
genius  has  enriched  our  literature,  but  the  zeal  with 
which  he  laboured  for  the  public  good,  the  fortitude  with 
which  he  endured  every  private  calamity,  the  lofty  dis 
dain  with  which  he  looked  down  on  temptation  and  dan 
gers,  the  deadly  hatred  which  he  bore  to  bigots  and 
tyrants,  and  the  faith  which  he  so  sternly  kept  with  his 
country  and  with  his  fame."  ("Essay  on  Milton.") 

Those  who  desire  to  know  how  this  great  poet  is 
regarded  by  a  nation  whose  taste  and  habits  of  thought 
differ  most  widely  from  those  of  the  English,  may  con 
sult  the  article  "Milton"  in  the  "Biographie  Univer- 
selle,"  from  the  pen  of  the  justly-celebrated  French 
critic  Villemain.  He  admits  that  Milton's  picture  of 
our  first  parents  in  Eden  surpasses,  in  graceful  and 
touching  simplicity,  anything  to  be  found  in  the  creations 
of  any  other  poet,  ancient  or  modern,  and  that  the 
human  imagination  has  produced  nothing  more  grand 
or  more  sublime  than  some  portions  of  "  Paradise  Lost." 

See  the  article  "Milton,"  in  JOHNSON'S  "Lives  of  the  Poets;" 
TODD,  "  Life  of  Milton,"  1801  ;  KEIGHTLEY,  "  Life,  Opinions,  and 
Wri.ings  of  John  Milton,"  1855  ;  MASSON,  "  Life  and  Times  of 
Milton,"  vol.  i.,  1859;  TOLAND.  "  Life  of  Milton,"  1^)8;  SYMMONS, 
"  Life  of  Milton  :"  HAYLEY,  "  Life  of  Milton,"  1794;  J>K.  CH  ANN  ING, 
"Remarks  on  the  Character  and  Writings  of  Milton,"  1828;  MAC- 
AUI.AY,  "Essays;"  HUME,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  Ixii.  ;  J. 
MOSNERON,  "Vie  de  Milton,"  1804;  EDWIN  P.  HOOD,  "J.  Milton, 
the  Patriot  and  Poet,"  1851  ;  JOSEPH  IVIMEY,  "  J.  Milton,  his  Life 
and  Times,"  1832;  C.  R.  EDMONDS,  "J.  Milton:  a  Biography," 
1851;  EDWARD  PHILIPS,  "Life  of  J.  Milton,"  1694;  notice  in  the 
"  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1838,  by  R.  W.  EMERSON;  and 
the  excellent  article,in  AU.IBONE'S  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Milton,  LORD.     See  FLETCHER,  (ANDREW.) 

Milutinovics  or  Milutiiiowitsch,  pronounced 
alike  me-loo-tee'no-vitch,  (SlMON,)  a  Servian  poet,  born 
in  1791.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Popular  Songs  of  the 
Montenegrins,"  etc.,  "  History  of  Servia  from  1813  to 
1815,"  and  other  works. 

Mi'mas,  [Gr.  Mi  fins,]  a  giant  said  to  have  been  de 
stroyed  by  Jupiter.  The  island  of  Prochyte,  near  Sicily, 
was  believed  to  rest  upon  his  body. 

Mim-ner'mus,  [Gr.  Mifivep/jof;  Fr.  MIMNERME,  mem'- 
niRin',]  a  Greek  elegiac  and  lyric  poet,  born  at  Colo 
phon  about  630  u.c.,  was  contemporary  with  Solon. 
The  fragments  of  his  poems  have  been  published  in  the 
collections  of  Estienne,  Brunck,  and  Boissonade  ;  and,  in 
a  separate  edition  by  Bach,  Mimnermus  is  said  to  have 
invented  the  pentameter  verse. 

See  K.  O.  MUI.LER,  "  Geschichte  der  Griechen  Literatur,"  etc.; 
CHRISTIAN  MARX,  "  Dissertatio  de  Mimnermo,"  1831. 

Miiia,mee'na,  (Don  FRANCISCO Espoz  y — es-p6th'e,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  general,  sometimes  called  EL  KEY 
DE  NAVARRA,  ("the  King  of  Navarre,")  born  near  Pam- 
peluna  in  1782.  As  a  guerilla  chieftain,  he  successfully 
defended  Navarre  against  the  French  in  1808  and  the 
succeeding  campaigns.  Having  been  created  marechal 
del  campo  in  1813,  he  endeavoured  to  excite  an  insur 
rection  against  the  government  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  but, 
failing  in  the  attempt,  took  refuge  in  France.  After  his 
return  to  Spain,  in  1820,  he  became  captain-general  of 
the  armies  of  Navarre,  Galicia,  and  Catalonia.  He  held 
several  high  offices  under  Queen  Christina,  for  whom 
he  fought  against  Don  Carlos.  Died  in  1836. 

See  MINANO,  "  Examen  critico  de  las  Revoluciones  de  Espana," 
1837;  MOLINE  DE  SAINT- YON,  "Les  deux  Mina:  Chronique  Es- 
pagnole  du  XIXe  Siecle,"  3  vols.,  1840;  BURCKHARDT,  "  Riego  und 
Mina,"  etc.,  1835. 

Mina,  (XAVIER,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born  in  Navarre 
in  1789,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  undertook 
to  liberate  Mexico,  which  he  entered  in  April,  1817,  with 
a  few  hundred  men.  He  gained  several  victories,  but 
was  captured  and  shot  at  Mexico  in  November,  1817. 

Minano  y  Bedoya,  de,  da  men-ya'no  e  ba-Do'e-a, 
(SEHASTIAN,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born  in  the  province  of 
Palencia  in  1779.  He  wrote  "  Letters  from  a  Resident 
of  Madrid,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Spanish  Revolution 
from  1820  to  1823,"  (in  French.) 

Mind,  mint,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  painter, 
born  at  Berne  in  1768,  was  surnamed  THE  RAPHAEL 
OF  CATS.  He  was  the  child  of  indigent  parents,  and 
a  cretin,  and  was  educated  at  Pestalozzi's  institution  for 
poor  boys.  His  favourite  subjects  were  cats  and  bears, 


«  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MINDER ER 


1592 


MINUTUNUS 


which  he  delineated  with  unequalled  skill  and  fidelity. 
He  died  in  1814,  leaving  numerous  designs,  which  were 
sold  at  a  high  price. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  L. 
BRICHTWKLL,  "  By- Paths  of  Biography." 

Minderer,  min'deh-rer,  (RAIMOND,)  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Augsburg  about  1570,  was  the  discoverer 
of  a  new  chemical  compound,  (acetate  of  ammonia,) 
since  called  Spiritus  Mindereri.  lie  published  several 
medical  works  in  Latin,  and  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Matthias.  Died  in  1621. 

Minderhout,  min'der-howt',  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1577,  excelled  in  marine  views,  seaports, 
ntc.  Died  in  1663. 

Miuelli, me-nel'lee,  [Lat.  MlNKl/LIUS,]  (jAN,)aDutch 
scholar,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1625.  He  translated 
Terence  into  Dutch,  and  published  numerous  editions 
of  the  Latin  classics,  with  notes,  which  had  a  high  repu 
tation  at  the  time.  Died  in  1683. 

Minellius.     See  MINELT.I. 

Mi'ner,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Micldletown,  Connecticut,  in  1777.  He  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Dr.  Tully,  "  Essays  on  Fevers  and  other  Subjects," 
(1823.)  Died  in  1841. 

Mi-ner'va  or  A-the'na,  [  Fr.  Mi  NERVE,  me'n.\Rv',] 
one  of  the  greater  divinities  of  the  Roman  mythology, 
corresponding  nearly  to  the  Greek  Athena  or  Athene, 
[Gr.  'Adf/vrj  or  'A.0rjv<l.]  She  was  regarded  as  the  goddess 
of  wisdom,  arts,  and  sciences,  or  a  personification  of  the 
thinking,  inventive  faculty.  According  to  a  popular  tra 
dition,  she  was  the  offspring  of  the  brain  of  Jupiter,  from 
which  she  issued  in  full  armour.  She  was  always  repre 
sented  as  a  virgin.  In  war  she  was  contradistinguished 
from  Mars  (the  god  of  brute  force)  as  the  patroness  of 
scientific  warfare,  and  hence,  according  to  the  ancient 
poets,  was  always  superior  to  him.  The  favourite  plant 
of  Minerva  was  the  olive,  and  the  animals  consecrated 
to  her  were  the  owl  and  the  serpent.  Athena  was  the 
great  national  divinity  of  Attica  and  Athens,  to  which 
she  is  said  to  have  given  her  name.  Pope,  in  his 
"Temple  of  Fame,"  alludes  to  her  twofold  character  as 
the  patroness  of  arts  and  arms,  where  he  says, 

"There  Oesar,  graced  with  both  Minervas,  shone." 
In  the  Trojan  war  she  fought  for  the  Greeks.  She 
was  sometimes  called  Pallas,  Parthenos,  (i.e.  "virgin,") 
Tritonia  or  Tritogeneia,  and  other  names.  The  poets 
feigned  that  Neptune  and  Minerva  disputed  for  the  pos 
session  of  Attica,  which  the  gods  promised  to  him  or 
her  who  should  produce  the  most  useful  gift  to  mankind. 
Neptune,  striking  the  earth  with  his  trident,  produced  a 
war-horse,  and  Minerva  produced  the  olive,  (the  symbol 
of  peace,)  by  which  she  gained  the  victory.  She  was 
usually  represented  with  a  helmet  on  her  head,  holding 
in  one  hand  a  spear  and  in  the  other  an  aegis,  or  shield, 
in  the  centre  of  which  was  the  head  of  Medusa.  There 
was  a  celebrated  statue  of  Minerva,  called  Palladium, 
which  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  the  sky,  and  on 
which  the  safety  of  Troy  depended. 

See  G.  HERMANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Graeca  Minerva,"  1837 ; 
GUIGNIAUT,  "Religions  de  1'Antiquite ;"  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology  ;"  "  Biographic  Uni- 
verselle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Minga,  del,  del  men'ga,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
of  the  Florentine  school,  lived  about  1550-70. 

Mingarelli,  men-ga-rel'lee,  (  GIOVANKI  LUIGI,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  near  Bologna  in 
1722,  was  a  friend  of  Tiraboschi.  Died  in  1793. 

See  CAVALIERI,  "Vita  di  Mingarelli,"  1817. 

Mingotti,  men-got/tee,  (CATERINA,)  an  Italian  vocal 
ist,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Naples  in  1728.  She 
studied  under  Porpora,  and  performed  with  brilliant  suc 
cess  in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe.  Died  in  1807. 

Miiiiana,  me-ne-a'na,  (JoSE  MANUEL,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Valencia  in  1671.  He  wrote  a  continua 
tion  of  Mariana's  "History  of  Spain,"  (1733.)  Died  in 
1 730. 

Minie,  me'ne-i',  (Ci.AunE  ETIENNE,)  a  French  of 
ficer,  born  in  Paris  in  1810,  was  the  inventor  of  the  rifle 
called  by  his  name.  He  was  appointed  by  Napoleon 
III.  superintendent  of  the  school  of  ordnance  at  Vin- 
cennes,  and  received  from  him  the  sum  of  20,000  francs. 


The  Minie  rifle  was  an  immense  improvement  on  any 
thing  of  the  kind  that  had  previously  been  invented,  both 
as  regards  precision  and  the  extent  of  its  range. 

Minion.     See  MIGNON. 

Minjon.     See  MIGNON. 

Miiio  da  Fiesole,  mee'no  da  fe-eVo-li,  an  eminent 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Fiesole  about  1430.  Among  his 
works  is  a  tomb  of  Paul  II.  at  Rome.  Died  in  1486. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Minoochihr,  Minoutchihr,  or  Minuchihr,  min- 
oo'chlh'r,  written  also  Manucheher,  an  ancient  Persian 
king,  the  grandson  (or,  according  to  some  authorities, 
the  great-grandson)  of  Fereedoon,  (Feridun,)  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  of  his  nation  who  fortified  cities  with 
ramparts  and  ditches.  With  Minoochihr  ended  the  glory 
and  power  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty. 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  SIR  WU.T.IAM 
JONES'S  Works;  ATKINSON,  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  NSiiieh  of 
Firdausi,"  1832. 

Mi'nos,  [Gr.  M/vwf,]  a  celebrated  king  and  lawgiver 
of  Crete,  whose  history  is  much  obscured  or  embellished 
with  fable.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Europa,  a  brother  of  Rhadamanthus,  and  the  father 
of  Ariadne  and  Deucalion.  He  was  renowned  for  his 
justice  and  moderation,  and  it  was  fabled  that  after  his 
death  he  became  a  judge  of  the  souls  which  entered  the 
infernal  regions.  He  has  by  some  writers  been  identified 
with  Manu,  (or  Menu,)  the  great  Hindoo  lawgiver. 

Minos,  a  king  and  lawgiver  of  Crete,  supposed  to 
have  been  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  with  whom,  how 
ever,  he  has  been  confounded  by  some  writers.  He  was 
the  husband  of  Pasiphae,  and  had  many  children.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Greek  prince  that  had  an 
important  naval  power.  The  Cretans  ascribed  to  Minos 
their  laws  and  political  institutions,  which  served  as  a 
model  for  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus.  According  to  one 
tradition,  he  was  cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  compelled  the 
Athenians,  whom  he  vanquished,  to  pay  him  an  annual 
tribute  in  the  form  of  boys  and  virgins,  who  were  devoured 
by  the  Minotaur. 

Min'ot,  ?  (GEORGE  RICHARDS,)  an  American  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Boston  in  1758.  His  principal 
works  are  a  "  Eulogy  on  Washington,"  "  History  of 
Shays's  Rebellion,"  and  "  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay." 
Died  in  1802. 

Min'pt,  ?  (LAWRENCE,)  an  English  poet,  whose  works 
were  discovered  by  Tyrwhitt  while  he  was  preparing  an 
edition  of  Chaucer.  He  lived  about  1330-50. 

Min'o-taur,  [Gr.  Mivuravpof;  Lat.  MINOTAU'KUS  ; 
Fr.  MINOTAURE,  me'no'tSR',]  a  monster  of  classic  my 
thology,  represented  as  half  man'  and  half  bull.  Accord 
ing  to  the  legend,  he  was  the  offspring  of  Pasiphae  and  a 
bull  which  was  sent  to  Minos  by  Neptune  ;  he  was  kept 
in  the  great  labyrinth  of  Crete,  was  fed  with  youths  and 
maidens  whom  the  Athenians  sent  to  Minos  as  tribute, 
and  was  finally  killed  by  Theseus. 

Miii'tha  or  Men'tha,  [Gr.  Mivdr/,]  a  nymph,  fabled 
to  have  been  beloved  by  Pluto  and  changed  by  Ceres 
into  the  plant  known  as  mint. 

Minto,  LORD.     See  ELLIOT. 

Min'to,  (WALTER,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  emigrated  to  America  in  1786.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  scientific  works,  and  became  pro 
fessor  of  mathematics  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey. 
Died  in  1796. 

Mintrop,  mln'trop,  (THEODOK,)  a  distinguished 
German  painter  and  designer,  born  at  Heithausen,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1814.  He  produced  designs  in  crayon,  and 
several  oil-paintings  of  religious  subjects.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Riches  of  the  Year,"  and  "  The  Apo 
theosis  of  Bacchus." 

Minturni,  men-tooR'nee,  (ANTONIO  SEBASTIANO,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  canonist,  born  in  Terra  di  Lavoro,  was 
noted  for  his  learning.  Died  in  1574. 

Miiiut,  de,  deli  me'iiii',  (G  AH  HI  EL,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1520.  He  was  patronized 
by  Catherine  de  Medicis,  and  was  a  friend  of  J.  C. 
Scaliger.  He  published  treatises  on  medicine,  theology, 
and  other  subjects.  Died  in  1587. 

Minutianus,  me-nu-she-a'nus,  [  It.  MINUZIANO,  me 
noot-se-a'no,]  (ALESSANDRO,)  a  learned  Italian  printer, 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, \,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


MINUTIUS 


'593 


MIRABEAU 


born  at  San  Severe  about  14150.  He  published  the  first 
complete  edition  of  Cicero,  and  issued  from  his  press 
numerous  classics  of  great  beauty  and  accuracy.  Died 
about  1525. 

Minutius  or  Minucius  (mi-nu'she-us)  Fe'lix,  an 
early  Christian  writer,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Africa,  lived  in  the  third  century.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  Octavius,"  written  in  defence  of 
Christianity.  A  good  edition  of  it  was  published  by 
Gronovius  in  1707. 

See  BOUCHARD,  "  Dissertatio  de  Mimitio  Felice,"  1685;  HEIN- 
RICH  MKIKR,  " Commentatio  de  Minucio  Felice,"  1825. 

Minutoli,  me-noo'to-lee,  (HEINRICH  MENU,)  BARON, 
a  distinguished  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1772.  He  served  in  the  Prussian  army,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  In  1820  he 
accompanied  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Prus 
sian  government  to  Egypt,  and  published,  (in  German,) 
after  his  return,  a  "Journey  to  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon  and  Upper  Egypt,"  (2  vols.,  1824.)  Among  his 
other  works  is  •'  Recollections  of  a  Soldier."  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and 
was  appointed  by  the  king,  Frederick  William,  tutor  to 
Prince  Charles.  Died  in  1846. 

Minutoli,  (Jui.ius,)  a  lawyer,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Berlin  in  1805.  lie  was  appointed  in  1851 
consul-general  for  Spain  and  Portugal.  He  published 
a  work  entitled  "  Spain  and  its  Progressive  Develop 
ment." 

Min'y-as,  [Gr.  Mwiac,]  a  fabulous  personage,  said 
to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  a  king  of  Boeotia,  and  the  an 
cestor  of  the  MINY^E,  (yitvvai,)  a  race  of  heroes  cele 
brated  in  the  most  ancient  epic  poetry  of  Greece.  The 
Argonauts  were  mostly  descendants  of  Minyas,  and  were 
called  Minyaj. 

Minzocchi,  mtn-zok'kee,  or  Menzocchi,  mfin-zok'- 
kee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forll  about 
1500,  was  a  pupil  of  Genga.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  "The  Sacrifice  of  Melchisedec,"  "The 
Fall  of  Manna,"  and  a  "  Holy  Family."  Died  in  1574. 

Minzoni, men-zo'nee,  (ONOFRIO,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1734,  became  professor  of  phi 
losophy  at  Venice.  He  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  sonnets  of  great  beauty.  Died  in  1817. 

See  Tii'Ai.Do,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Miolaii-Carvalho,  me'o'16.\'  kf  n'vt'lc/,  (CAROLINE 
FEI.IX,)  a  French  vocalist,  born  at  Chateau-Roux  in  1829. 
She  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London  as  an 
operatic  singer. 

Miollis,  me'o'less',  (  SEXTIUS  ALEXANDRE  FRAN 
COIS,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  at  Aix  in  1759.  He 
was  wounded  at  Yorktown,  Virginia,  in  1781.  He  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1799,  and  obtained  command  of 
all  the  French  forces  in  Northern  Italy  in  1805.  In  1809 
he  entered  Rome,  where,  having  expelled  the  pope,  he 
remained,  with  the  title  of  governor,  until  1814.  Died 
in  1828. 

Mionnet,  me'o'ni',  (THEODORE  EDME,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  He  wrote  a  "Descrip 
tive  Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Roman  Medals,"  (7  vols., 
1806-35,)  :l  standard  work,  which  still  ranks  among 
the  best  of  its  kind,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Rarity  and 
Value  of  Roman  Medals,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  other 
similar  works.  Died  in  1842. 

Miot,  me'o',  (ANDRE  FKANgois,)  Comte  de  Melito,  a 
French  statesman,  born  at  Versailles  in  1762.  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  at  Naples  under  Joseph  Bona 
parte.  He  died  in  1841,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  the  Con 
sulate,  the  Empire,  and  King  Joseph,"  (3  vols.,  1858.) 

Mirabaud,  me'rt'bc/,  (JicAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  made  a  transla 
tion  ot  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  which  had  great 
popularity  at  the  time.  He  also  translated  the  "Orlando 
Furioso,"  and  published  several  treatises  on  various 
subjects.  The  atheistical  work  entitled  "  Systeme  de 
la  Nature"  was  for  a  time  attributed  to  Mirabaud,  but  is 
now  known  to  have  been  written  by  Baron  d'Holbach. 
Mirabaud  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1726. 
Died  in  1760. 

See  D'ALKMBERT,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  1'Academie  Fran- 
c.aise." 


Mirabeau,  de,  deh  me'rf'bo',  (BONIFACE  RIQUETTI,) 
VICOMTE,  a  brother  of  Gabriel,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Bignon  in  1754.  He  served  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States  about  1780.  In  1789  he  became  a  royalist  mem 
ber  of  the  States-General,  and  was  opposed  to  his  brother 
in  politics.  He  was  so  bloated  by  drinking  that  he  was 
nicknamed  "  Barrel  Mirabeau,"  ("Mirabeau  Tonneau.") 
He  was  noted  for  his  sarcastic  wit.  "  In  any  other 
family,"  said  he,  "  I  should  pass  for  a  reprobate  (manvais 
snjet)  and  wit ;  but  in  mine  I  am  regarded  as  a  fool, 
but  a  sedate  man."  When  his  famous  brother  reproved 
him  for  his  intemperance,  he  wittily  replied,  "Of  all 
the  vices  of  our  family,  that  is  the  only  one  which  you 
have  left  for  me."  He  emigrated  in  1790,  and  joined  the 
royalist  army  on  the  Rhine.  Died  in  1792. 

Mirabeau,  de,  deh  me'rt'bc/  or  m!r'a-bo',  (HONORE 
GAKRIEL  de  Riquetti,  (deh  re'ka'te',)  originally  Arri- 
ghetti,)  COMTE,  a  famous  French  orator  and  states 
man,  was  born  at  Bignon,  near  Nemours,  March  9,  1749. 
His  family  was  of  Italian  extraction.  He  was  the  oldest 
surviving  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Mirabeau  and  Marie 
Genevieve  de  Vassan.  The  last  representative  of  that 
stormy  and  highly-gifted  race,  he  inherited  a  passionate 
nature,  a  frank  and  open  temper,  and  a  mind  of  great 
amplitude  of  grasp  and  prodigious  activity.  The  edu 
cation  which  he  received  under  the  strict  discipline  of 
his  father  was  far  from  judicious.  In  his  fifteenth  year 
he  was  sent  to  a  boarding-school  in  Paris,  where  he 
made  rapid  progress  in  ancient  and  modern  languages 
and  mathematics,  also  in  music  and  the  fine  arts.  In 
compliance  with  his  father's  will,  he  entered  the  army 
in  1767.  The  next  year,  by  an  amorous  intrigue,  he  pro 
voked  the  ire  of  the  marquis,  who  caused  him  to  be 
imprisoned  in  the  Isle  of  Rhe.  In  1769  he  obtained 
liberty  to  serve  in  Corsica  against  Paoli,  where  he  won 
golden  opinions,  and  returned  in  1770  with  the  brevet 
of  captain.  It  puzzled  his  father  to  find  a  proper  sphere 
for  one  whom  he  called  a  windmill,  a  whirlwind,  one 
who  "  had  swallowed  all  formulas."  On  one  occasion 
he  writes,  "  I  pass  my  life  in  cramming  him  with  prin 
ciples." 

In  1772  young  Mirabeau  married  Marie  fimilie  de- 
Covet,  a  daughter  of  the  Marquis  de  Mariguan,  and 
became  a  resident  of  Aix.  For  running  into  debt,  he  was 
banished  to  Manosque,  near  the  Alps,  where  he  wrote 
an  "Essay  on  Despotism."  Having  again  displeased 
the  grim  marquis  by  some  venial  error,  he  was  confined, 
by  a  Icttre  dc  cachet,  in  the  castle  of  If,  in  1774,  and  was 
finally  separated  from  his  wife,  who  was  not  inconsolable 
on  that  accourt.  He  was  removed  in  1775  to  the  castle 
of  Joux  ;  and,  having  liberty  to  walk  out  on  parole,  he 
formed  an  ardent  attachment  for  Sophie  Monnier,  un 
happily  married  to  a  man  four  times  older  than  herself. 
With  her  he  eloped  in  1776,  and  went  to  Amsterdam, 
where  he  earned  fair  wages  by  translating  Watson's 
"Philip  II."  and  doing  other  literary  jobs.  The  parlia 
ment  of  Besan^on  indicted  him  for  abduction,  and  sen 
tenced  him  to  death.  In  May,  1777',  the  police-officers 
arrested  him  in  Holland  and  consigned  him  to  the  prison 
of  Vincennes,  where  he  was  kept  forty-two  months,  ap 
parently  ruined,  but  still  indomitable  in  spirit.  Presenting 
himself  before  the  court  which  had  condemned  him  as 
contumacious,  he  pleaded  his  cause  with  such  power 
that  the  sentence  was  annulled.  He  again  met  his  father 
on  amicable  terms  ;  for  it  is  recorded  among  his  few 
conventional  virtues  that  he  loved  his  father  to  the  end. 
The  marquis,  however,  left  him  to  his  own  resources 
for  a  supply  of  money. 

From  about  1783  to  1788  he  led  a  wandering  life 
in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  supporting  himself 
by  his  wits,  teeming  with  grand  projects,  and  often  en 
gaging  in  questionable  intrigues.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Franklin,  he  published  an  eloquent  essay  "On  the 
Order  of  Cincinnatus,"  (1784,)  which  was  followed  by  a 
tract  "  On  the  Opening  of  the  Scheldt."  A  polemical 
tract  on  the  water-company  of  Paris,  in  reply  to  Beau- 
marchais,  produced  a  prodigious  effect.  In  1786  Calonne 
(partly  from  a  desire  to  remove  him  out  of  the  way)  sent 
him  on  a  secret  mission  to  Berlin,  where  he  met  the 
Great  Frederick,  and  collected  materials  for  an  important 
work, — "  The  Prussian  Monarchy," — which  appeared  in 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIR  ABE AU 


'594 


MIRANDA 


1788.  The  States-General,  which  were  convoked  for 
May,  1789,  offered  to  him  a  congenial  arena  for  the 
exertion  of  his  gigantic  energies  against  the  system  of 
organized  injustice  and  oppression  which  for  ages  had 
afflicted  France.  After  he  had  been  rejected  with  con 
tempt  by  the  noblesse  of_  Provence,  he  was  chosen  tri 
umphantly  by  the  Tiers-Etat  of  Aix  and  Marseilles.  lie 
preferred  to  represent  Aix.  Aiming  at  reform  by  mod 
erate  means,  he  made  overtures  for  co-operation  with  the 
ministry,  but  was  coldly  received  by  Necker,  and  went 
away  in  ill  humour.  On  the  23d  of  June,  1789,  he  gave 
a  decisive  direction  to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous 
speech  in  reply  to  the  king's  usher,  De  Breze,  who  re 
minded  the  Assembly  that  the  king  had  ordered  them 
to  disperse  : — "  The  Commons  of  France  have  resolved 
to  deliberate.  We  have  heard  what  the  king  has  been 
advised  to  say ;  and  you,  who  cannot  act  as  his  organ  in 
the  States-General, — you,  who  have  here  neither  seat 
nor  vote  nor  right  ot  speech, — you  are  not  the  person 
to  remind  us  of  it.  Go  and  tell  your  master  that  we 
are  here  by  the  will  of  the  nation,  and  that  nothing  but 
the  power  of  bayonets  can  drive  us  hence  !"  The  usher 
quickly  vanished,  and  Mirabeau  became  the  master-spirit 
of  the  National  Assembly.  "  Mirabeau's  spiritual  gift," 
says  Carlyle,  "  will  be  found  to  be  verily  an  honest  and 
great  one  ;  far  the  strongest,  best  practical  intellect  of 
that  time."  His  brief  and  pithy  sentences  became  the 
watchwords  of  the  Revolution  ;  "his  gestures  were  com 
mands,  his  motions  were  coups  d'etat.'1'1  Exchanging  the 
role  of  tribune  for  that  of  a  statesman,  he  soared  above 
the  intrigues  of  party  and  the  ideal  abstractions  that 
were  in  vogue.  "  Where  others  grope  darkly,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  he  aims  surely,  he  advances  directly.  .  .  . 
The  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century,  modified  by 
prudence  and  policy,  flows  out  all  formulized  from  his 
lips.  His  eloquence,  imperative  as  law,  is  only  the  gift 
of  impassioned  reasoning." 

He  advocated  the  abolition  of  the  double  aristocracy 
of  lords  and  bishops,  the  spoliation  of  the  Church,  and 
the  formation  of  the  national  guard,  but  he  demanded  for 
the  king  an  absolute  veto  and  the  initiative  in  making 
war  and  peace.  One  of  his  greatest  triumphs  as  an  orator 
was  won  over  Barnave,  on  the  latter  question,  in  1790. 
Loud  explosions  of  popular  fury  greeted  him  when  it 
was  known  that  he  favoured  the  royal  veto.  As  he  en 
tered  the  Assembly  to  speak  on  the  question,  he  said  to 
a  friend,  "  I  will  either  leave  the  House  in  triumph,  or 
be  torn  to  fragments."  He  gained  his  point,  and  re 
stored  his  popularity.  In  the  last  part  of  his  career  he 
became  more  conservative,  and  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  the  court,  from  which  he  received  large  sums  of 
money.  He  doubtless  cherished  an  ambition  to  be  prime 
minister  of  France. 

In  January,  1791,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Na 
tional  Assembly.  "Never  had  this  office  been  so  well 
filled,"  says  Dumont.  On  parting  with  Dumont,  who 
left  Paris  at  the  date  just  named,  Mirabeau  said,  "  I  shall 
die  at  the  stake,  and  we  shall  never,  perhaps,  meet  again. 
That  base  faction  whom  I  now  overawe  [the  Jacobins] 
will  again  be  let  loose  upon  the  country.  I  have  none 
but  direful  anticipations."  He  died  April  2,  1791. 
Among  his  last  words  were,  "  Envelop  me  with  perfumes 
and  crown  me  with  flowers,  that  I  may  pass  away  into 
everlasting  sleep."  His  strong  constitution  had  been 
ruined  by  inordinate  passions  and  immoral  pleasures 
carried  to  the  greatest  excess,  but  veiled  under  a  decorous 
exterior  after  he  had  attained  eminence  as  a  legislator. 
He  had  the  art  of  enlisting  men  of  talents  in  his  service 
and  appropriating  their  productions,  on  which  he  im 
pressed  the  seal  of  his  originality.  Dumont,  Claviere, 
and  Duroverai  were,  perhaps,  the  chief  persons  who  thus 
assisted  him.  Mirabeau  had  given  development  and 
outward  form  to  the  French  Revolution  ;  but  to  control 
it  was  beyond  his  power.  His  indomitable  will  might 
for  a  time  direct  or  overawe  the  fury  of  the  populace; 
but  he  possessed  no  virtues  which  could  inspire  the 
better  portion  of  the  people  with  that  trust  and  confi 
dence  without  which  there  can  be  no  stability  for  any 
government. 

Alluding  to  the  resemblance  between  Mirabeau  and 
Chatham,  Macaulay  observes,  "  Sudden  bursts  which 


seemed  to  be  the  effect  of  inspiration,  short  sentences 
which  came  like  lightning,  dazzling,  burning,  striking 
down  everything  before  them,  ...  in  these  chiefly  lay 
the  oratorical  power  both  of  Chatham  and  Mirabeau.  .  .  . 
In  true  dignity  of  character,  in  private  and  public  virtue, 
it  may  seem  absurd  to  institute  any  comparison  between 
them  ;  but  they  had  the  same  haughtiness  and  vehemence 
of  temper.  In  their  language  and  manner  there  was  a 
disdainful  self-confidence,  an  imperiousness  before  which 
all  common  minds  quailed.  .  .  .  There  have  been  far 
greater  speakers  and  far  greater  statesmen  than  either 
of  them  ;  but  we  doubt  whether  any  men  have,  in  modern 
times,  exercised  such  vast  personal  influence  over  stormy 
and  divided  assemblies."  (Article  on  "  Dumont's  Recol 
lections  of  Mirabeau,"  in  Macaulay's  "Essays.") 

See  MIRABKAU,  "A  Life-History,"  London,  2  vols.,  1848  ;  LAMAK- 
TINE,  "History  of  the  Girondists,"  book  i. ;  CARI.YLE,  "Essays," 
vol.  i.  ;  HROUGHAM,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  2d 
series;  CHAUSSARD,  "Esprit  de  Mirabeau."  2  vols.,  1797;  VICTOR 
HUGO,  "fitude  sur  Mirabeau,"  1834;  F.  LKWITZ,  "Mirabeau,  Uild 
seines  Lebens,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1852-53:  CADET  DH:  GASSICOURT, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  prive'e  de  Mirabeau,"  1800;  J.  MKRII.HOU,  "  Kssai 
historiqiie  sur  la  Vie  de  Mirabeau,"  1825;  Louis  UK  MONTIC;NV, 
"  Memoires  bingraphiques,  litteraires  et  politiques  de  Mirabeim,"  8 
vols.,  1833-41  ;  DUMONT,  ''Souvenirs  sur  Mirabeau,"  1832;  i'rniou, 
"  Abri5<4e  de  la  Vie  de  Mirabeau,"  1791  ;  "  Memoires  sur  Mirabeau  et 
son  E°poque,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  4  vols.,  1824;  SCHNEIDKWIND, 
"  Mirabeau  uixl  seine  Zeit,"  1831. 

Mirabeau,  de,  (JEAN  ANTOINE  RIQUETTI,)  MAR 
QUIS,  surnamed  SILVERSTOCK,  a  brave  French  officer, 
born  in  Provence  in  1666,  was  the  grandfather  of  the 
great  erator  Mirabeau.  His  ancestors,  the  Arrighettis, 
were  exiled  from  Florence  in  1267.  He  was  called  "  Ven- 
dome's  right  arm."  At  the  battle  of  Cassano,  in  1706, 
where  he  commanded  a  regiment,  he  received  twenty- 
seven  wounds,  one  of  which  was  in  the  neck.  In  conse 
quence  of  this,  he  wore  a  silver  stock  to  support  his  head. 
He  married,  and  lived  many  years  after  that  action. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Mirabeau;"  CARI.YLE,  "Essays,"  vol.  i. 

Mirabeau,  de,  (VICTOR  RIQUETTI,)  MARQUIS,  the 
self-styled  "Friend  of  Men."  born  at  Perthuis  in  1715, 
was  the  son  of  the  preceding,  and  father  of  the  great 
orator.  A  proud,  eccentric  person,  of  violent  passions 
and  powerful  intellect,  he  was  regarded  as  the  reverse  of 
a  "friend"  by  most  men  who  had  intercourse  with  him. 
His  hobby  was  Political  Economy,  in  which  he  w;is  a 
disciple  of  Du  Quesnay.  He  published  on  that  science 
able  and  voluminous  works,  some  of  which  were  re 
ceived  with  favour.  His  "Friend  of  Men,"  ("Ami  des 
Hommes,")  which  appeared  about  1755,  made  a  great 
sensation,  though  its  style  was  extremely  rugged,  quaint, 
and  tortuous.  He  lived  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  am 
bitious  to  diiect  affairs  of  state.  It  is  reported  that  he 
obtained  from  the  ministry  no  less  than  fifty-four  lettres 
de  cachet,  arbitrary  warrants  to  imprison  his  children  and 
others.  Die  i  in  1789.  "  Out  of  all  which  circumstances," 
says  Carlyle.  "there  has  come  forth  this  Marquis  tie 
Mirabeau,  si  aped  into  one  of  the  most  singular,  sublime 
pedants  that  ever  stepped  the  soil  of  France.  There 
never  entered  the  brain  of  Hogarth  or  of  rare  old  Ben 
such  a  piece  of  humour  as  in  this  brave  old  Riquetti 
nature  has  presented  us  ready-made.  For  withal  there 
is  such  genius  in  him,  rich  depth  of  character,  inde 
structible  cheerfulness  and  health  breaking  out  in  spite 
of  these  divorce-papers,  like  strong  sunlight  in  thundery 
weather." 

Mirabella,  me-ra-bel'la,  (ViNCENZO,)  an  Italian  anti 
quary,  born  at  Syracuse  in  1570.  lie  wrote  a  "History 
of  Syracuse,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1624. 

Miraeus.     See  LEMIRK. 

Miramon,  me-ra-m6n',  (MIGUEL,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  1832.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  clerical 
party  which  began  to  wage  war  against  Juarez  in  1858. 
He  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  in  December,  1860, 
and  went  into  exile.  He  afterwards  returned,  and 
fought  for  Maximilian,  and  was  executed  with  him  in 
June,  1867. 

Miranda,  me-ran'da,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  South  American 
patriot,  born  at  Caraccas  about  1750.  Having  entered 
the  French  army,  he  served  in  the  American  campaigns 
of  1779  and  1781,  and  in  1792  became  general  of  division 
under  Dumouriez.  In  the  campaign  of  1793  he  was 
defeated  by  the  allies  at  Neerwinden,  and  was  brought  to 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MIRANDA 


1595 


MITCHELL 


trial  for  mismanagement  on  this  occasion,  but  he  was 
acquitted.  Being  condemned  by  the  Directory  in  1797, 
he  took  refuge  in  England,  and  on  his  return  to  Paris, 
in  1803,  was  a  second  time  banished.  He  sailed  in  1806 
to  Venezuela,  where  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  found  a  republic.  He  was  arrested  in  1812  by  the 
Spanish  government,  and  imprisoned  at  Cadiz,  where 
he  died  in  1816. 

See  J.  BIGGS,  "  History  of  Miranda's  Attempt  to  effect  a  Revo 
lution  in  South  America ;"  DUMOURIEZ,  "  Meinoires." 

Miranda,  de,  da  me-ran'da,  (Don  JUAN  GARCIA,)  a 
Spanish  artist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1677,  became  painter 
to  the  king,  Philip  V.  Died  in  1749.  There  were 
several  other  painters  of  the  same  family. 

See  CEAN-BEKMUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Miranda,  de,  da  me-ran'da,  (SA,)  one  of  the  earliest 
Portuguese  poets,  born  at  Coimbra  about  1495.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Portuguese  literature,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  fir.st  to  employ  the  metres  of  Dante  and 
Petrarch.  He  was  the  author  of  sonnets  and  dramas, 
but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  poetical  epistles 
and  eclogues.  Died  in  1558. 

See  BARBOSA  MACHADO.  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana;"  BOUTF.RVVEK, 
"  Histoire  litteraire ;"  A.  UE  VAKNHAGEX,  "O  Panorama." 

Mirandola.     See  Pico  DF.I.LA  MIRANDOI.A. 

Mirbel,  de,  deh  meu'bel',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS  BRIS- 
SEAU,)  an  eminent  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1776.  lie  was  appointed  by  the  empress  Josephine 
superintendent  of  the  gardens  of  Malmaison  in  1803,  and 
in  1808  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  adjunct  professor  of  botany  and  vegetable  physiology 
to  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  afterwards  held  several 
public  offices,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  professor  of 
culture  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Elements  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physi 
ology,"  (3  vols.,  1815,)  and  "Natural  History  of  Vege 
tables,"  etc.,  (15  vols.,  1826,)  written  in  conjunction  with 
Lamnrck,  also  "  Researches  on  the  Marchantia  Poly- 
morpha,"  and  other  treatises  of  great  value,  contributed 
to  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  and  various  other  scien 
tific  periodicals.  He  likewise  assisted  Sonnini  in  his 
"Natural  History  of  Plants."  Died  in  1854. 

See  PAVEN,  "tflo-e  historique  de  M.  de  Mirbel,"  1858;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mirbel,  de,  (LIZINSKA  ATMEE  ZOE  RUE,)  the  wife  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cherbourg  in  1796.  She  ac 
quired  a  high  reputation  as  a  miniature-painter.  Among 
her  best  works  may  be  named  the  portraits  of  Louis 
Philippe,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
Madame  Guizot,  and  fimile  de  Girardin.  She  obtained 
several  medals,  and  was  appointed  after  the  restoration 
miniature-painter  to  the  king.  Died  in  1849. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux- Arts,"  1849. 

Mirecourt,  meR'kooii',  (CHARLES  JEAN  BAPTISTE 
JACQUOT,)  called  EUGENE  DE  MIRECOURT,  a  French  lit- 
~teratenr,\)m-n  at  Mirecourt,  in  Vosrjes,  in  1812.  Tie  pro 
duced  a  work  called  "Portrait-Gallery  of  Contempo 
raries,"  ("Ga'erie  des  Contemporains,"  60  vols.,  1854- 
57,)  in  which  he  indulged  in  offensive  personalities.  He 
was  prosecuted  by  Lamennais,  George  Sand,  and  others. 

Mirepoix,  de,  deh  meR'pwa',  (CHARLES  PIERRE 
GASTON  FRANQOIS  de  Levis — deh  ll've',)  Due,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1699.  He  became  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1757.  Died  in  1758. 

Mirevelt.     See  MIEREVELT. 

Mir'i-am,  [Heb.  Q'T3.]  a  prophetess,  a  sister  of 
Moses,  the  Hebrew  lawgiver.  She  sang  a  song  of  tri 
umph  after  the  children  of  Israel  had  passed  through 
the  Red  Sea. 

See  Exodus  xv.  20;  Numbers  xii. 

Mirkhoiid,  mir'Kond',  a  celebrated  Persian  histo 
rian,  born  in  1433,  was  tne  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"Garden  of  Purity,  or  History  of  Prophets,  Kings,  and 
Caliphs."  There  are  manuscripts  of  this  history  in  the 
libraries  of  Paris,  London,  Berlin,  and  Vienna,  and  por 
tions  of  it  have  been  translated  into  French  and  several 
other  languages.  Died  in  1498. 

Miromesnil,  de,  deh  me'ro'm£'nel',  (ARMA.ND  THO 
MAS  HUE,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  the  Or- 
leannais  in  1723.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals  from  1774 
to  1787.  Died  in  1796. 


Mirza.     See  MEERZA". 

Mi-se'iius,  [Gr.  Munjvoc :  Fr.  MISENE,  me'zin',]  a 
Trojan  warrior,  distinguished  for  his  valour  and  his  skill 
as  a  trumpeter,  was  called  ^Eoi/iDES  by  Virgil.  After 
the  capture  of  Troy,  he  went  to  Italy  with  y£neas,  whom 
he  served  as  a  trumpeter.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
drowned  by  a  Triton  who  was  envious  of  his  musical  skill. 

See  VIRGIL'S  'VEneid,"  book  vi.  162-174. 

Misri-Effeiidi,  mis'ree  ef-fen'dee,  a  Turkish  poet 
and  enthusiast,  born  in  Egypt  about  1660.  He  cele 
brated  in  verse  the  incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ.  Died 
in  1710. 

Missiessy,  me'se'i'se',  (finouARn  THOMAS  BUR- 
GUES,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Provence  in  1754.  He 
commanded  a  squadron  which,  in  May,  1805,  was  sent 
to  the  Antilles,  and  in  1809  commanded  the  naval  forces 
at  Antwerp.  Died  in  1832. 

Misson,  me's6N',  (FRANC.OIS  MAXIMTI.IEN,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Lyons,  was  of  a  Protestant  family,  and 
settled  in  England  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  Having  visited  Italy  in  1687,  he  published, 
after  his  return,  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  was 
commended  by  Addison  for  its  lively  and  faithful  de 
scriptions.  Died  in  1721. 

Mitch'el,  (JOHN,)  an  Irish  adventurer,  born  in  the 
county  of  Deny  in  1815.  He  was  for  a  time  associate 
editor  of  the  Dublin  "Nation,"  and  subsequently  of 

The  United  Irishman,"  which,  however,  was  soon  sup 
pressed  by  the  British  government,  and  Mitchel  was  sen 
tenced  to  fourteen  years'  banishment  to  Australia  in  1848. 
Having  effected  his  escape  in  1854,  he  came  to  New 
York,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Tennessee,  where  he 
edited  "The  Southern  Citizen."  Soon  after  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1861,  he  became  editor  of  the  Richmond 
"Examiner,"  one  of  the  most  violent  and  scurrilous 
of  the  secession  journals. 

Mitchel,  (ORMSBY  MACKNIGHT,)  an  eminent  Ameri 
can  astronomer,  born  in  Union  county,  Kentucky,  in 
1810.  Having  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  he 
became  in  1834  professor  of  mathematics,  philosophy, 
and  astronomy  at  Cincinnati  College,  Ohio.  He  first 
suggested  the  erection  of  an  observatory  at  Cincinnati, 
and  the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  enterprise  was 
chiefly  due  to  his  efforts  ;  and  the  institution,  of  which  he 
became  director,  was  provided  through  his  exertions  with 
one  of  the  finest  telescopes  to  be  found  in  the  United 
States.  He  delivered  popular  lectures  on  astronomy 
at  various  places,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Planetary  and  Stellar  Worlds,"  which  was  very  favour 
ably  received.  In  1859  he  became  director  of  the  Dud 
ley  Observatory  at  Albany.  He  was  appointed  a  briga 
dier-general  in  the  Union  army  in  August,  1861.  He 
moved  with  a  small  army  from  Tennessee  to  Alabama 
in  April,  1862,  surprised  Huntsville,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energy.  Having  been  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  department  of  the  South,  about  August,  1862.  He 
died  of  yellow  fever  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in 
October  of  that  year. 

Mitch'ell,  (Sir  ANDREW,)  a  distinguished  diplomatist, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1695,  was  elected  to  Parlia 
ment  in  1747,  and  in  1751  was  appointed  resident  min 
ister  at  Brussels.  He  was  ambassador-extraordinary  to 
Berlin  in  1753,  and  acquired  considerable  influence  over 
Frederick  the  Great,  whom  he  succeeded  in  detaching 
from  the  interests  of  France.  Died  in  1771. 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Papers  of  Sir  Andrew  Mitchell,"  by  A.  Bis- 
SF.TT,  1850;  THIEBAUI.T,  "Souvenirs  de  vingt  Ans  de  Sejour  a 
Berlin." 

Mitchell,  (ANDREW,)  a  Scottish  naval  officer,  born 
about  1757,  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the 
white  in  1799,  and  in  1802  was  appointed  Commander- 
in-chief  on  the  coast  of  America.  Died  in  1806. 

Mitchell,  (Sir  DAVID,)  a  naval  commander  under  the 
reign  of  William  III.,  rose  to  be  rear-admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1693.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  important 
missions  to  Russia  and  Holland.  Died  in  1710. 

Mitch'ell,  (DONALD  GRANT,)  a  distinguished  Ameri 
can  writer,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1822. 
Having  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1841,  he  made  the 
tour  of  Europe,  and  published  after  his  return,  under 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MITCHELL 


1596 


MIT FORD 


the  pseudonym  of  IK  MARVEL,  "  Fresh  Gleanings  ;  or,  A 
New  Sheaf  from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Europe,' 
(1847.)  Mis  "  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor"  came  out  in  1850, 
and  "Dream  Life"  in  1851  :  the  former  was  received 
with  great  favour.  He  has  also  been  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine"  and  the  "  Atlantic 
Monthly."  He  was  appointed  in  1853  United  States 
consul  at  Venice.  His  agricultural  writings  have  been 
received  with  much  favour.  One  of  his  latest  works  is 
entitled  "My  Farm  of  Edgewoocl,"  (1863.) 

Mitchell,  (ELISHA,)  D.D.,  an  American  chemist  and 
divine,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut,  in  1793, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  in  1817,  and  subsequently  of  chemistry 
in  the  same  institution.  Being  appointed  State  surveyor, 
he  first  discovered  the  fact  that  the  mountains  of  North 
Carolina  are  the  highest  in  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  While  exploring  one  of  these 
heights,  in  1857,  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  precipice. 
His  name  has  been  given  to  one  of  the  highest  summits. 

Mitchell,  (JOHN  KKARSI.EY,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Jefferson  county,  Virginia,  in  1796. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1841  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Cryptogamous  Origin  of 
Malarious  and  Epidemic  Fevers,"  (1849,)  and  lectures  on 
scientific  subjects,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  foreign  languages.  Died  in  1858. 

Mitchell,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  about  1685,  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled 
"The  Fatal  Extravagance,"  "The  Highland  Fair,"  a 
ballad  opera,  and  a  number  of  poems.  Died  in  1738. 

See  CIUBER.  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Mitchell,  (MARIA,)  a  distinguished  American  astron 
omer,  born  in  the  island  of  Nantucket  in  1818.  She  has 
published,  besides  other  astronomical  treatises,  a  me 
moir  on  a  telescopic  comet  discovered  by  her  in  1847. 
A  gold  medal  was  conferred  upon  her  by  the  King  of 
Denmark  for  this  discovery.  Miss  Mitchell  was"  ap 
pointed  professor  of  astronomy  at  Vassar  College  soon 
after  the  opening  of  that  institution  in  1865. 

See  "Woman's  Record  of  Distinguished  Women,"  by  MRS.  S.  J. 
HALE. 

Mitchell,  (ROBERT  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ohio  about  1825.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
the  Union  army  about  April,  1862,  and  commanded  a 
division  at  Perryville,  October  8  of  that  year. 

Mitchell,  (S'  WEIR,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  physiologist,  a  son  of  Dr.  J.  K.  Mitchell,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  February  15,  1829.  He 
graduated  at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1850.  He 
has  particularly  distinguished  himself  by  his  researches 
on  the  chemical  nature  and  physiological  action  of  the 
venom  of  serpents.  Among  his  numerous  contributions 
to  medical  science  we  may  name  "Researches  upon  the 
Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake,"  etc.,  published  among  the 
Smithsonian  Contributions,  (1860,)  "Experiments  and 
Observations  upon  the  Circulation  in  the  Chelonura 
Serpentina,"  (Snapping-Turtle,)  etc.,  published  among 
the  Memoirs  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
1862,  and  "  Researches  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Cerebel 
lum,"  (see  the  "American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences" 
for  April,  1869.)  He  has  also  published  (with  Drs.  Keen 
and  Morehouse)  an  excellent  work  on  the  "Effects  of 
Gunshot  Wounds  and  other  Injuries  of  the  Nerves," 
(1864.)  Dr.  Mitchell  is  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  of  numerous  other  scientific  institutions. 

Mitchell,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  scholar, 
born  in  London  in  1783.  He  studied  at  Pembroke  Col 
lege,  Cambridge,  and  in  1813  began  the  publication  of  a 
series  of  essays  on  Aristophanes  and  Athenian  manners, 
in  the  "Quarterly  Review,"  which  won  for  him  a  high 
reputation.  He  afterwards  published  an  excellent  trans 
lation  of  several  comedies  of  Aristophanes  into  English 
verse  ;  also  an  edition  of  Sophocles,  and  five  dramas  of 
Aristophanes,  (with  English  notes.)  He  died  in  1845, 
leaving  unfinished  an  edition  of  his  "  Pentalogia  Aris- 
tophanica." 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1820. 


Mitchell,  (Sir  THOMAS  LIVINGSTONE,)  a  Scottish 
traveller,  born  in  Stirlingshire  in  1792.  He  served  in 
the  Spanish  campaigns  from  1808  to  1814,  and  in  1827 
sailed  to  Australia,  where  he  was  soon  after  appointed 
surveyor-general.  He  gave  the  name  of  Australia  Felix 
to  a  region  hitherto  unexplored,  and  ascertained  the 
courses  of  the  Glenelg,  the  Darling,  and  other  rivers. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Outlines  of  a  Sys 
tem  of  Surveying  for  Geographical  and  Military  Pur 
poses,"  (1827,)  "Three  Expeditions  into  the  Interior  of 
Eastern  Australia,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1838,)  and  "  Australian 
Geography,"  etc.,  (1850.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geographical  Society.  Died 
in  1855. 

Mitch'ill,  (SAMUEL  LATHAM,)  M.D.,  LL.IX,  an  Ameri 
can  physician  and  naturalist,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1764. 
In  1786  he  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at  the  Uni 
versity  of  Edinburgh.  He  became  in  1792  professor  of 
chemistry,  natural  history,  and  philosophy  in  Columbia 
College,  New  York.  He  was  tor  many  years  associate 
editor  of  the  "Medical  Repository."  'lie  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1804,  and  in  1820  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  and  materia  medica  in 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  New  York. 
He  published  "Observations  on  the  Absorbent  Tubes 
of  Animal  Bodies,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in 
1831. 


Mitelli,  me-tcl'lee,  or  Metelli,  ma-tel'lee,  (Acos- 
TINO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver  of  great  merit, 
born  near  Bologna  in  1609,  was  a  pupil  of  Dentone  and 
Falcetta.  His  principal  works  are  perspective  and  ar 
chitectural  pieces,  in  which  his  friend  Michael  Angelo 
Colonna  painted  the  figures.  Among  their  master 
pieces  are  the  frescos  in  the  palace  of  Cardinal  Spada 
at  Rome.  Mitelli  died  in  1660,  at  Madrid,  whither  he 
had  been  invited  by  Philip  IV. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mitelli,  (GiusKPi'K  MARIA,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  1634,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
prints  after  Correggio  and  the  Caracci  are  ranked  among 
lis  best  works.  Died  in  1718. 

Mit'ford,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  writer  and  journalist, 
was  editor  of  the  "Bon-Ton  Magazine,"  "Quizzical 
Gazette,"  and  other  periodicals  of  the  kind.  lie  was 
the  author  of  a  naval  romance  entitled  "  fohnny  New- 
come  in  the  Navy,"  and  several  popular  ballads.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  TIMPKRI.EV,  "Encyclopaedia  of  Literary  Anecdote." 

Mitford,  (JoiiN  FREEMAN,)  an  English  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  1748,  was  a  brother  of  the  historian, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  New  College,  Oxford, 
and,  having  been  admitted  to  the  bar,  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Beer-Alston  in  1789.  I  le  became  attorney- 
general  in  1799,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1801,  and  in  1802  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  being 
created  at  the  same  time  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Redesdale.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt  he  resigned  his 
jffice  of  chancellor.  Died  in  1830. 

Mitford,  (MARY  RUSSEI.I.,)  a  charming  English  writer, 
jorn  in  Hampshire  in  1786.  Her  father  was  a  physician 
of  more  than  ordinary  talent  and  culture,  whose  improvi 
dence,  however,  and  luxurious  tastes  had  involved  him 
n  pecuniary  embarrassment.  In  order  to  relieve  his 
necessities,  Miss  Mitford  devoted  herself  to  authorship 
at  an  early  age,  and  published  in  1806  three  volumes  of 
poems,  which  met  with  severe  criticism  from  some  of 
:he  leading  journals.  Her  next  publications  were  the' 
tragedies  of  "Julian,"  (1823,)  "The  Foscari,"  (1826,) 

Rienzi,"  (1828,)  and  "Charles  I.,"  several  of  which 
were  favourably  received.  She  had  previously  contrib 
uted  to  the  "  Ladies'  Magazine"  a  series  of  sketches 
of  English  life,  which  appeared  in  1832  under  the  title 
of  "Our  Village,"  etc.,  (5  vols.)  The  genial  spirit, 
graceful  simplicity,  and  freshness  of  feeling  displayed  in 
these  tales  won  for  them  the  favour  of  all  classes,  and 
:hey  passed  rapidly  through  many  editions.  Among 
Miss  Mitford's  other  works  we  may  name  "  Belford 
Regis;  or,  Sketches  of  a  Country  Town,"  "Stories  of 
American  Life  by  American  Writers,"  "  Recollections 


I, e, 1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MIT FORD 


1597 


M1TSCHERLICH 


of  a  Literary  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1852,)  and  "  Atherton,  and 
other  Tales,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Mary  Russell  Mitford,  told  by  herself  in  Letters 
to  her  Friends,"  edited  by  the  RKV.  A.  G.  K.  L' ESTRANGE,  Lon 
don,  1870;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1824; 
"  Blackwood's  Maj-azine"  for  June,  1854. 

Mitford,  (Wii.LiAM,)  an  English  historian,  born  in 
London  in  1744.  lie  entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
and  subsequently  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple. 
He  was  appointed  in  1769  a  captain  in  the  South  Hamp 
shire  Militia,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gib 
bon,  the  future  historian,  at  that  time  an  officer  in  the 
same  regiment.  Mitford  published  in  1774  his  "  Inquiry 
into  the  Principles  of  Harmony  in  Languages,"  which 
was  followed  by  a  "Treatise  on  the  Military  Force,'' 
etc.  Having  visited  France  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed, 
after  his  return,  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Hampshire 
Militia,  (1779,)  and  was  subsequently  returned  to  Parlia 
ment,  as  a  Tory,  for  Newport,  Beer-Alston,  and  New 
Romney.  He  brought  out  in  1784  the  first  volume  of 
his  "  History  of  Greece,"  completed  in  five  volumes  in 
1818.  Its  style  is  characterized  by  great  spirit  and 
warmth  of  colouring,  and  displays  uncommon  learning 
and  research,  but  it  is  strongly  tinctured  with  the  anti 
democratic  prejudices  of  the  author.  Died  in  1827. 

"The  Athenian  democracy,"  says  an  able  critic  in  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  "  is  treated  by  him 
with  extreme  injustice.  Scarcely  anything  can  be  ima 
gined  more  partial  or  more  false  than  his  picture  of  the 
great  conflict  between  Athens  and  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Philip,  as  he  represents  him,  unites  the  perfections  of  a 
king,  a  hero,  and  an  accomplished  statesman  ;  Demos 
thenes,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  demagogue,  violent,  vena', 
and  dishonest."  "Mitford's  History  of  Greece  is,"  says 
I)e  Quincey,  "as  nearly  perfect  in  its  injustice  as  human 
infirmity  will  allow." 

See  MACAUI.AV,  Review  of  "Mitford's  History  of  Greece;" 
"Edinburgh  Review'' for  July,  iSoS;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1821  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mith'ra  or  Mith'ras,  [Gr.  MiOpaf,  Lat.  MITH'RAS  ; 
Sanscrit,  MIT'KA  or  MITKAS,]  a  deity  of  the  ancient 
Persians,  usually  regarded  as  the  god  of  the  sun  ;  but 
he  is  more  properly  the  god  of  day,  and,  in  a  higher  and 
more  extended  sense,  the  god  of  light,  presiding  over 
the  movements  and  influence  of  the  principal  heavenly 
bodies,  including  the  five  planets  and  the  sun  and  moon. 
By  the  followers  of  Zoroaster  he  was  regarded  as  the 
chief  of  the  Izeds,  (a  class  of  angelic  beings,)  and  in  a 
particular  manner  as  presiding  over  the  light  which 
mortals  enjoy  on  earth,  (but  as  distinct  from  the  sun,) 
and  as  a  mediator  between  men  and  Onnuzd.  The 
primary  signification  of  the  Sanscrit  Mitra  is  a  "  friend  ;" 
and  Mithra  would  seem  to  be  the  representative  of 
light  as  the  friend  of  mankind  and  as  the  mediator 
between  earth  and  heaven.  In  this  character  of  medi 
ator,  as  well  as  in  some  other  respects,  he  would  seem 
to  approach  the  character  of  AGNI,  (which  see.)  In 
the  time  of  the  emperors  the  worship  of  Mithra  was 
introduced  extensively  into  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a  hand 
some  young  man,  seated  or  kneeling  on  a  bull,  into  which 
he  is  thrusting  the  sacrificial  knife  ;  at  his  side  are  the 
evening  and  morning  star,  and  near  at  hand  a  dog,  a 
lion,  and  other  animals,  the  signification  of  which  is  at 
present  very  imperfectly  understood. 

See  GUIGNIAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite."  vol.  i.  book  ii.  ; 
"Biographic  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Mithridate.     See  MITHRIDATKS. 

Mith-ri-da'tes,  [Gr.  MiOputiurrK  or  Midpa^urrjc ;  Fr. 
MITHRIOATE,  me'tRe'dit', |  a  Persian  name,  borne  by 
several  kings  of  Pontus,  who  were  descended  from 
Artabazes,  a  Persian  noble.  It  is  supposed  to  be  de 
rived  from  Mithra,  (the  sun.)  and  signifies  "given  by 
the  sun."  Little  is  known  of  Mithridates  I.,  who  was 
the  son  of  Ariobarzanes. 

Mithridates  II.,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes  II.,  began 
to  reign  about  337  B.C.  He  extended  his  dominions  by 
conquest,  and  was  called  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Pontus.  In  a  war  with  Antigonus  he  was  defeated,  made 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death,  about  303  B.C. 

Mithridates  III.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded 
his  father,  and  made  conquests  in  Paphlagonia.  He 


died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ariobarzanes  III. 

See  CLINTON,  "Fasti  Hellenici.' 

Mithridates  IV,  of  Pontus,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes 
III.,  began  to  reign  probably  about  245  B.C.,  when  he 
was  a  minor.  He  waged  a  successful  war  against 
Seleuctis  Callinicus,  who,  to  obtain  peace,  gave  him  his 
own  sister  in  marriage,  with  one  or  two  provinces  as  a 
dowry.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  190  B.C.  His 
successor  was  Pharnaces  I. 

Mithridates  V.,  surnamed  EVERGETES,  was  a  grand 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Pharnaces  I.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  156  B.C.  He  was  a  steadfast  ally  of 
the  Romans,  who  ceded  to  him  the  province  of  Phrygia. 
After  a  peaceful  reign,  he  died  about  122  B.C. 

Mithridates  VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  surnamed  EU'PA- 
TOR,  and  more  commonly  called  THE  GREAT,  born  about 
135  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Mithridates  V.,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  about  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  had  great  political 
and  military  talents,  and  is  said  to  have  been  master  of 
twenty-five  languages.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he 
found  scope  for  his  ambition  in  the  conquest  of  Colchis 
and  of  the  Scythian  tribes  which  roamed  on  the  north 
of  the  Euxine.  His  attempt  to  acquire  Cappadocia  by 
fraud  and  force  was  resisted  by  the  Roman  senate  about 
93  B.C.  After  forming  an  alliance  with  Tigranes,  King 
of  Armenia, — then  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Asia, 
— he  took  the  field  in  the  year  88  with  about  250,000 
men,  and  defeated  the  Romans  in  several  actions.  In 
the  same  year  he  instigated  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Romans  resident  in  Asia  Minor,  of  whom  it  was  com 
puted  that  80,000  fell  in  one  day. 

In  the  year  87  he  sent  a  large  army  into  Greece,  where 
he  was  opposed  by  Sulla  and  defeated  at  Chasronea,  86 
B.C.  Timbria,  with  another  Roman  army,  invaded  Bi- 
thynia  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  in  the  year  85.  The 
next  year  Sulla  and  Mithridates  made  a  treaty  of  peace, 
by  which  the  latter  abandoned  his  recent  conquests. 
Murasna,  who  had  obtained  command  of  the  Roman 
army,  with  some  flimsy  pretext  renewed  hostilities,  and 
was  completely  defeated  on  the  river  Halys  in  82  B.C. 
As  the  Roman  senate  had  not  ratified  the  treaty  which 
he  signed  with  Sulla,  Mithridates  made  great  preparations 
for  war,  which  was  renewed  in  74,  when  two  Roman 
armies,  under  Lucullus  and  Cotta,  entered  Bithynia.  De 
feated  with  great  loss  by  Lucullus  at  Cyzicus  and  Cabin', 
Mithridates,  retarding  the  pursuit  of  the  Romans  by  the 
riches  he  threw  in  their  way,  took  refuge  in  the  kingdom 
of  Tigranes  (who  was  his  son-in-law)  about  72  B.C.,  and 
gave  orders  that  his  wives  Monima,  Berenice,  etc.  should 
be  put  to  death. 

Tigranes,  having  espoused  his  cause,  was  defeated  at 
Tigranocerta  by  Lucullus  in  69,  and  at  Artaxata  in  68  B.C. 
Mithridates  then  entered  Pontus,  and  in  67  B.C.  gained 
a  great  victory  over  the  Romans  under  Triarius,  and  re 
covered  his  kingdom.  Lucullus,  whose  victorious  career 
had  been  interrupted  by  a  mutiny  of  his  troops,  was 
superseded  in  66  by  Pompey  the  Great,  who  soon  ter 
minated  the  war.  After  losing  a  battle,  the  King  of 
Pontus  fled  to  Lake  Masotis,  (now  the  Sea  of  Azov,)  and 
offered  terms  of  peace,  to  which  Pompey  did  not  accede. 
While  he  was  busy  in  raising  a  new  army  among  the 
Scythians  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  his  son  Pharnaces 
conspired  against  him,  so  that,  to  avoid  the  fate  of  a 
captive,  he  took  poison,  in  the  year  63  B.C.  After  Han 
nibal,  Mithridates  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  Rome 
ever  encountered.  Cicero  considered  him  superior  in 
power  and  character  to  any  other  king  against  whom 
the  Romans  ever  waged  war. 

See  APPIAN,  "  Mithridaticri ;"  Livv,  "History  of  Rome;"  JUS 
TIN,  "History;"  WOLTKRSDORF,  "  Commentatio  Vitam  Mithridatis 
Magni  per  annos  digestam  sistens,"  1X13;  DION  CASSIUS,  "  Frag- 
menta;"  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Lucullus;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  CLINTON,  "Fasti  Hellenici;"  NIEBUHR,  "  Kleine 
Schriften. " 

Mith-ri-da'tis,  [Gr.  NliOptdan c, ]  a  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  died  with  her  father  by  taking  poison,  B.C.  63. 

Mitscherlich,  mltsh'er-liK',  (CuRiSToi'H  WIUIELM,) 
a  distinguished  German  scholar,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1760,  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  published  in  1800  an  excellent  edition  of 
the  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.  Died  in  1854. 


as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


M1TSCHERL1CH 


1598 


MODENA 


Mitscherlich,  (EiLARD,)  an  eminent  German  chem 
ist,  born  near  Jever  in  1794.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg 
and  Gottingen,  and  in  1819  was  invited  to  Stockholm  by 
Berzelius,  whose  notice  he  had  attracted  by  his  valuable 
discoveries  in  isomorphism.  After  his  return  to  Ger 
many  (1821)  he  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  that  city.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute  in  1852.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Chemistry,"  ("Lehrbuch  cler  Chimie,"2  vols.,  1829-40,) 
which  has  a  very  high  reputation,  and  wrote  contribu 
tions  to  Poggendorfs  "  Annalen"  and  to  other  journals. 
Died  in  1863. 

Mittarelli,  met-ta-rel'lee,  (NiccoLd  JACOPO,  after 
wards  GIOVANNI  BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  in.  Venice  in  1707.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Camaldules,"  ("  Annales  Camaldulenses,"  9  vols.,  1755- 
73,)  a  work  of  some  merit.  Died  in  1777. 

Mittermaier,  mit'ter-ml'er.  (IvARi,  JOSEPH  ANTON,) 
a  celebrated  German  statesman  and  jurist,  born  in 
Munich  in  1787.  He  was  successively  professor  of  law 
at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg,  president  of  the  preparatory 
parliament  at  Frankfort  in  1848,  and  soon  after  member 
of  the  National-  Assembly.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  legal  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  "The 
Common  Civil  Process  of  Germany  compared  with  that 
of  Prussia  and  France,"  (1826.) 

Mitzler  (or  Mizler)  von  Kolof,  mits'ler  fon  ko'lof, 
(LoKKNZ  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Anspach  in  1711.  He  published  a  "Musical  Library," 
("Musikalische  Bibliothek,"  4  vols.,  1736-54,)  and  other 
works.  Died  at  Warsaw  in  1778. 

Mjolnir.     See  THOR. 

Miiasalcas,  na-sal'kas,  [Gr.  Mraau/U-nc.]  an  epigram 
matic  poet,  a  native  of  Sicyon,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Mnemoii,  nee'mon,  a  surname  given  to  Artaxerxes 
on  account  of  his  retentive  memory. 

Mnemosyne,  ne-mos'I-ne,  [Gr.  Mrri/xoaivrj ;  Fr.  MNE- 
MOSYNE,  na'mo'zen',]  in  the  Grecian  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  memory,  was  the  daughter  of  Uranus,  and 
the  mother  of  the  nine  Muses. 

Mnesicles,  nes'e-klez,  [Gr.  Mi'7?o(/iA?/c,]  an  able  Greek 
artist,  of  the  age  of  Pericles,  flourished  about  433  }i.C. 
He  was  the  architect  of  the  Propyloea  of  the  Athenian 
Acropolis. 

Mnesimachus,  ne-sim'a-kus,  [Gr.  Mp^a/^a^of ;  Fr. 
MNESIMAQUE,  na'ze'mtk',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  finest  writers  of  the  so-called  middle  comedy. 
There  are  a  few  fragments  of  his  plays  extant. 

Mnestheus.     See  MENESTHEUS. 

Mnioch,  mnee'oK,  (JOHANN  JAKOK,)  a  Prussian  poet, 
born  at  Elbing  in  1765,  wrote  a  number  of  popular  lyrics, 
among  which  we  may  name  "The  Song  ot  the  Grave," 
and  "Song  of  the  Masons  at  Saint  John's  Festival." 
Died  in  1804. 

Mo'ab,  [Heb.  3X10,]  the  son  of  Lot,  was  the  father 
of  the  Moabites,  who  inhabited  the  country  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.  (See  Genesis  xix.) 

Moaweeyah,  Moawiyah,  or  Moawyah,  mo-t'- 
wee'yah,*  written  also  Muawia,  Mauweiah,  and  Moa- 
veah,  [in  German,  MOAWIJAH,  MUAWIJJAH,  or  MOA- 
WIJE,]  a  celebrated  caliph,  born  at  Mecca  in  610  A.D., 
was  the  founder  of  the  Omeyyacl  dynasty.  He  was 
the  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah,  who  was  the  head  of  a 
powerful  family  of  the  Koreish,  and  cousin-german  to 
Abd-el-Moottalib,  the  grandfather  of  Mohammed.  He 
subjected  Arabia  to  his  power  about  660,  and  deposed 
Hassan,  the  son  of  Alee,  (All.)  He  was  an  able  and 
successful  but  unscrupulous  ruler.  He  died  in  680,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Yezeed,  (Yezid.)  His  grand 
son,  MOAWEEYAH  II.,  born  in  660,  became  caliph  in  683. 
He  abdicated  in  683  or  684  A.D. 

See  WEIL,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  irchap.  v. 

Mobius  or  Moebius,  mo'be-us,  ( AUGUST  FERDI 
NAND,)  a  German  astronomer  and  mathematician,  born 


*  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  accentuation  as  well  as  in  the 
spelling  of  this  name.  Hammer-Purgstall,  than  whom  there  is  no 
higher  authority,  places  the  full  accent  on  the  penultima ;  and  we 
have  thought  it  safe  to  follow  his  example. 


at  Schulpforte  in  1790.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  pro 
fessor  of  astronomy  at  Leipsic.  He  published,  among 
other  scientific  treatises,  "The  Barycentric  Calculus,  a 
New  Expedient  for  the  Analytic  Treatment  of  Geome 
try,"  (1827,)  and  "Manual  of  Statics,"  (1837.) 

Mocchetti,  mok-ket'tee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Como  in  1766,  published 
"Philosophical  Odes."  He  became  in  1815  physician  to 
Caroline,  Princess  of  Wales.  Died  in  1839. 

Mocchi,  mok'kee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  near  Florence  in  1580;  died  in  1646. 

Mocenigo,  mo-cha-nee'go,  (Ai.visio,)  born  in  1701, 
was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1763.  He  pursued  a 
pacific  policy.  Died  in  1778. 

Mocenigo,  (GIOVANNI,)  brother  of  Pietro,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  1408.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1478.  The  country  being  devastated  by  famine  and  the 
plague,  and  at  the  same  time  invaded  by  the  Turks, 
he  made  peace  in  1479  with  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  II. 
Died  in  1485. 

See  MARINO  SANUTO,  "  Vite  de'  Duchi  di  Venezia." 

Mocenigo,  (Luioi  I.,)  succeeded  Pietro  Loredano 
as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1570.  The  most  important  events 
of  his  rule  were  the  capture  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  victory  of  Lepanto,  gained  by  the  Vene 
tians  and  their  allies  under  Don  John  of  Austria,  (1571.) 
Died  in  1577. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Mocenigo,  (Luioi  II.,)  succeeded  Valieri  as  doge  in 
1700.  He  governed  with  great  wisdom  and  ability,  and 
prevailed  on  the  Venetians  to  keep  a  strict  neutrality 
during  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  Died  in  1709. 

See  MURATOKI,  "Annales  d' Italia." 

Mocenigo,  (PIETRO,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1474, 
having  previously  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  against  the  Turks.  Died  in  1476. 

Mocenigo,  (SKHASTIANO,)  brother  of  Luigi  II.,  suc 
ceeded  Cornaro  as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1722.  Died  in  1732. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Mocenigo,  (ToMMA.su,)  an  able  Venetian  statesman, 
bom  in  1343.  He  was  elected  doge  in  1414.  The  Vene 
tian  fleet  defeated  that  of  the  Sultan  in  1416.  During  his 
administration  the  republic  was  prosperous  and  power 
ful.  Died  in  1423. 

See  MARINO  SANUTO,  "Vite  de'  Duchi  di  Venezia ;"  ANTONIO 
QUADRI,  "Serto  de'  Dogi  Mocenigo,"  1840. 

Mocetto,  mo-chet'to,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  artist, 
had  a  high  reputation  as  an  engraver.  He  lived  about 
1470-1500. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mochnacki,  moK-nat'skee,  (MAURICE,)  a  Polish 
patriot  and  historian,  born  in  Galicia  in  1804.  He 
became  in  1825  associate  editor  of  the  "  Warsaw  Jour 
nal,"  and  in  1830  published  an  excellent  treatise  "On 
the  Polish  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  which 
was  instrumental  in  founding  a  new  school  of  poetry  in 
Poland.  He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  insurrection 
of  1830  against  the  Russian  government.  On  the  fall 
of  Warsaw  he  took  refuge  in  France,  and  began  a 
"  History  of  the  Polish  Revolution,"  which  he  did  not 
live  to  complete.  Died  in  1834. 

Mocquard,  mo'kSR',  (CONSTANT,)  a  French  poli 
tician  and  litterateur,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1791.  He 
practised  law  in  his  early  life.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  Philippe  he  became  a  friend  and  adherent  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  who  in  1848  appointed  him  his  private 
secretary.  He  performed  an  important  part  in  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851,  after  which  he  was  chef  du 
cabinet  of  the  emperor  for  many  years.  He  published  a 
collection  of  criminal  trials,  "  Nouvelles  Causes  cele- 
bres,"  (6  vols.,  1847.)  Died  in  1864. 

Mo-deer',  [Sw.  pron.  mo-diir',]  (ADOLF,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist  and  economist,  born  in  1738,  published  several 
works.  Died  in  1799. 

Modena,  mod'a-na,  (GUSTAVO,)  a  popular  Italian 
writer  and  tragic  actor,  born  at  Venice  in  1803.  He 
made  his  debut  in  1826  at  Rome.  He  became  an  orator 
of  the  radical  party  during  the  revolutionary  movement 
of  1847,  and  published  "Popular  Dialogues,"  (" Dialo- 
ghetti  popolari.") 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MODENA 


'599 


MOHAMMED 


Modena,  da,  da  mod'a-na,  or  Mutina,  moo'te-na 
(ToMMASo  BARISINI,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  sup 
posed  to  have  been  born  at  Modena  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  name  an  altar-piece  of  the  Virgin  and  Child. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Xotizie  degli  Artifici  Modenesi." 

Mo-des-ti'nus  He-ren'iii-us,  a  Roman  jurist  of  the 
third  century,  was  one  of  the  counsellors  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  Severus,  and  was  appointed  preceptor  to 
Maximinus  the  Younger.  He  wrote  a  number  of  legai 
works,  of  which  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Modi,  mo'de,  or  Mo:5i,  written  also  Mode,  [that  is, 
"  the  Courageous,"  from  a  root  cognate  with  the  Danish 
mod  and  German  ninth,  "courage,"]  a  son  of  Thor,  des 
tined  to  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world  at  Ragna- 
i  ock.  In  the  renovated  world  he  will  share  with  Magni 
the  possession  of  their  father's  hammer,  (mjdlnir,)  and 
direct  their  efforts  towards  putting  an  end  to  all  strife. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  KEYSER,  "  Religion 
or  the  Northmen." 

Modigliano,  mo-del-ya'no,  (GiA.\  FRANCESCO,)  an 
Tialian  painter,  sometimes  called  FRANCESCO  D\  FORM, 
born  at  Forli  about  1550.  His  works  are  principally 
historical  pieces  of  a  religious  character,  some  of  which 
have  great  merit. 

Mo'di-us,  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  Flemish  philologist  and 
jurist,  born  near  Bruges  in  1536;  died  in  1597. 

Moebius.     See  MOBIUS. 

Moehler.     See  MOHLER. 

Moehsen.     See  MOHSKN. 

Moellendorf.     See  MOLLENDORF. 

Moeller.     See  MOLLKR. 

Moerike.     See  MCRIKE. 

Mceris,  mee'ris,  or  Myris,  ml'ris,  [Gr.  Moipir  or 
Mi'/Mc,]  a  king  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  Herodotus, 
reigned  about  1400  li.c.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pa 
cific  monarch,  and  to  have  adorned  the  kingdom  with 
many  monuments  and  temples,  at  Thebes,  Edfou,  etc. 

Mceris  JElius,  mee'ris  ee'li-us,  a  Greek  lexicog 
rapher,  surnamed  ATTICISTA,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  time  of  Adrian.  His  only  work  extant  is  a  "  Lexi 
con  Atticum,"  or  vocabulary  of  Attic  and  Hellenic 
words. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graca." 

Moeser.     See  MOSER. 

Mof'fat,  (RoHERT,)  a  Scottish  missionary,  born  near 
Edinburgh  in  1795,  set  out  for  Africa  about  1816.  He 
spent  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  southern  part  of 
that  country,  and  about  1840  published  "Missionary 
Labours  and  Scenes  in  Southern  Africa."  He  also 
translated  the  New  Testament  and  Psalms  into  the 
Bechuana  tongue.  Mr.  Moffat  is  father-in-law  of  the 
African  explorer,  Dr.  Livingstone. 

Mohallal,  mo-hal'lal,  (Ada-Ben-Rebiah,)  an  Ara 
bian  poet,  born  at  Diarbekir,  lived  about  600  A.D.  He 
first  fixed  the  rules  and  metre  of  Arabian  poetry.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  the  poet  Amrool-Kais. 

Mo-ham'med  or  Ma-hom'et,*  written  also  Mo- 
hamed  and  Muhammed,  [Arabic  pron.  mo-ham'- 
med  ;  Fr.  MAHOMET,  mt'o'ma' ;  Ger.  MOHAMMED,  mo- 
ham'me't,  or  MUHAMMED,  mdo-ham'me't ;  It.  MAOMETTO, 
ma-o-met'to,  or  MACOMETTO,  ma-ko-met'to  ;  Lat.  MO- 
HAM'MED  or  (rarely)  MOHAM'MEDES,  (gen.  of  both,  Mo- 
HAMMEDIS,)  or  MuHAMMKD  ;  Port.  MAKOMA,  ma-fo'ma  ; 
Sp.  MAHOMET,  ma-o-nieV,]  a  celebrated  religious  teacher 
and  pretended  prophet,  the  founder  of  one  of  the  most 
widely  diffused  religions  of  the  globe,  was  born  at  Mecca 
about  570  A.D.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  not  positively 
ascertained  ;  the  authorities  are  divided  between  571  and 
569,  but  the  former  date  appears  to  be  generally  regarded 
as  the  niore  probable  one.  Both  his  parents  belonged 
to  the  Koreish,  at  that  time  the  most  influential  of  all 
the  Arabian  tribes.  His  father,  Abdallah,  who  was  of 
the  family  of  Hashem,  was  regarded  as  the  handsomest 
youth  of  his  time.  He  married  A'minah,  of  the  noble 
family  Zohrah.  Their  only  child  was  Mohammed,  the 


*  This  name  is  often  pronounced,  especially  by  the  poets,  mah'- 
ho-met'orma'ho-met,  an  accentuation  derived,  in  all  probability,  from 
the  French.  (See  Introduction,  page  13.)  Mahom'et  (with  the  accent 
on  the  penultima)  is  not  only  the  prevailing  English  pronunciation, 
but  it  corresponds  more  nearly  with  the  Arabic. 


future  prophet.  Aminah  possessed,  it  is  said,  a  pecu 
liarly  nervous  temperament,  and  used  to  fancy,  while 
between  sleeping  and  waking,  that  she  was  visited  by 
spirits.  It  is  probable  that  Mohammed  inherited  from 
his  mother  his  constitutional  tendency  to  epilepsy,  as  well 
as  his  most  remarkable  mental  peculiarities.  Many  mar 
vellous  stories  are  told  of  the  circumstances  attending 
his  birth.  It  is  related,  among  other  things,  that  his 
mother  experienced  none  of  the  pangs  of  travail.  As 
soon  as  her  child  was  born,  he  raised  his  eyes  to  heaven, 
exclaiming,  "  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  I  am  his 
prophet !"  That  same  night  the  fire  of  Zoroaster,  which, 
guarded  by  the  Magi,  had  burned  uninterruptedly  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  was  suddenly  extinguished, 
and  all  the  idols  in  the  world  fell  clown. t 

When  his  son  was  only  two  months  old,  Abdallah 
died  ;  (according  to  some  accounts,  he  died  two  months 
before  the  birth  of  Mohammed.)  Aminah  for  a  short 
time  nursed  her  infant  herself,  but  sorrow  soon  dried 
the  fountains  of  her  breast,  and  the  young  child  was 
committed  to  the  care  of  Haleemah,  (Halimah,)  a  shep 
herd's  wife,  with  whom  he  remained  about  five  years.  It 
is  related  that  when  Haleemah  showed  the  child  to  a 
celebrated  soothsayer,  (Kahin,)  who  was  an  idolater,  the 
latter  exclaimed,  "  Kill  this  child  !"  Haleemah  snatched 
away  her  precious  charge  and  fled.  Afterwards  the 
Kahin  explained  to  the  excited  multitude  :  "  I  swear  by 
all  the  gods,"  said  he,  "that  this  child  will  kill  those 
who  belong  to  your  faith  ;  he  will  destroy  your  gods, 
and  he  will  be  victorious  over  you."  When  Mohammed 
was  four  years  old,  he  was  seized,  while  at  play,  with  a 
nervous  fit,  which  was  supposed  to  be  epilepsy.  As  this 
disease  was  ascribed  to  supernatural  influence,  his  nurse 
was  alarmed,  and  was  anxious  to  return  him  to  his 
mother  ;  but  she  was  at  last  prevailed  on  to  keep  him 
somewhat  longer.  When  he  had  completed  his  sixth 
year,  his  mother  died.  For  the  next  two  years  he  lived 
with  his  grandfather,  Abd-el-Moottalib,  who  appears  to 
have  regarded  him  with  great  fondness.  At  his  death, 
Abd-el-Moottalib  recommended  the  orphan  to  the  care 
of  his  son,  the  noble-minded  Aboo-Talib. 

When  only  twelve  years  old,  Mohammed  accompanied 
his  uncle  on  a  trading  expedition  to  Syria.  Near  Bostra 
they  met  with  an  Arabian  monk  named  Baheera  or  Ser- 
gius.  It  is  said  that  Aboo-Talib,  for  some  reason  not 
explained,  found  it  necessary  to  send  the  young  Mo 
hammed  home  again,  and  that  Sergius  took  charge  of 
him  and  accompanied  him  to  Mecca.  Early  Christian 
biographers  assert  that  Mohammed  received  his  revela 
tions  from  this  monk  ;  and  he  himself  tells  us  in  the 
Koran  that  he  was  accused  of  having  been  taught  by  a 
foreigner.  It  is  not  improbable  that  on  his  different 
journeys  to  Syria  he  learned  many  facts  respecting  the 
religions  of  Western  Asia  ;  but  how  far  the  knowledge 
of  such  facts  influenced  his  future  career  must  ever 
remain  a  subject  of  conjecture. 

When  Mohammed  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  his 
uncle,  Aboo-Talib,  proposed  to  him  that  he  should  take 
charge  of  the  merchandise  which  Khadijah,  (or  Khadee'- 
jah,)  a  rich  widow  of  Mecca,  was  about  to  send  to  the 
markets  of  Syria.  He  accepted  the  proposal,  and  appears 
to  have  fulfilled  his  charge  with  judgment  and  with  entire 
fidelity.  Khadijah  was  so  well  pleased  with  him  on  his 
return  that  she  offered  him  her  hand.  Although  she 
was  forty  (lunar)  years  of  age,  and  he  but  twenty-five,  it 
tvas  considered  by  the  family  of  Mohammed  as  a  very 
desirable  connection.  Their  nuptials  were  celebrated 
with  a  magnificent  feast  and  great  rejoicings.  This  mar- 
iage  raised  Mohammed  to  an  equal  position  with  the 
wealthiest  inhabitants  of  Mecca.  His  moral  character, 
moreover,  appears  to  have  inspired  universal  esteem 
and  confidence,  and  he  was  generally  known  by  the  sur 
name  of  El-Ameen,  (El-Amin,)  or  "the  Faithful."  For 
several  years  after  his  marriage  he  continued  his  com 
mercial  journeys,  visiting,  with  the  caravans,  the  Arabian 
fairs  and  markets  of  Syria.  But,  being  now  above  the 
necessity  of  anxiously  toiling  for  a  subsistence,  he  had 
"eisure  to  give  free  scope  to  the  natural  tendency  of  his 


t  It  maybe  proper  to  observe  that  some  of  the  most  wonderful 
f  these  stories  are  not  found  in  the  earlier  accounts  of  Mohammed's 
ife,  and  are  clearly  the  inventions  of  a  later  age. 


f  as  k;  c  as  .r;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  ir.  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOHAMMED 


1600 


MOHAMMED 


mind,  which  inclined  him  to  religious  meditation  and 
speculation.  "  He  had,"  says  Carlyle,  "  no  school  learn 
ing  ;  of  the  thing  we  call  school  learning,  none  at  all. 
The  art  of  writing  was  but  just  introduced  into  Arabia  ; 
it  seems  to  be  the  true  opinion  that  Mahomet  never 
could  write.  Life  in  the  desert,  with  its  experiences, 
was  all  his  education." 

Until  his  fortieth  year  Mohammed  appears  to  have 
been  a  devout  worshipper  of  the  gods  of  his  fathers. 
About  this  time  he  began  to  entertain  serious  scruples 
respecting  the  worship  of  idols.  His  followers  ascribe 
the  change  to  a  divine  revelation  ;  but  others  have  sug 
gested  that  his  scruples  were  probably  excited  by  a  more 
extensive  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures,  which  he  may  have  acquired  from  his  wife's 
cousin,  War'aka,  who  had,  it  is  said,  once  been  a  Jew 
and  afterwards  became  a  Christian,  and  who  made  withal 
some  pretensions  to  astrology.  Supposing  these  con 
jectures  to  have  a  basis  of  truth,  it  was  perhaps  fortunate 
for  the  new  prophet's  claims  to  an  original  revelation 
that  Waraka  died  a  short  time  before  Mohammed  pub 
licly  proclaimed  his  divine  mission.  But,  however  his 
thoughts  may  have  been  first  directed  to  the  subject  of 
religion,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was,  at 
least  in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  sincere  and  unselfish 
in  his  desire  to  convert  his  countrymen  to  a  better  faith. 
He  appears  to  have  thought  long  and  deeply,  and  to 
have  had  many  mental  struggles,  before  he  resolved  to 
announce  himself  as  a  divine  teacher.  He  was  of  a 
nervous  and  melancholic  temperament,  and  there  were 
times,  during  the  period  of  doubt  and  conflict  which 
preceded  the  annunciation  of  his  great  mission,  when 
he  was  strongly  tempted  to  commit  suicide  by  throwing 
himself  down  from  a  precipice.  (See  Sprenger's  "Life," 
p.  105.)  In  all  his  trials  he  found  a  great  support  in  his 
faithful  wife  Khaclijah,  who  was  the  first,  as  he  himself 
declared,  among  all  his  nation  that  believed  in  him. 
"God  thus  ordained  it,"  says  Ibn  Ishak,  "  that  his  duties 
might  be  made  easy  to  him  ;  for,  as  often  as  he  had  to 
hear  reproachful  language,  or  was  accused  of  falsehood, 
or  was  cast  down,  she  cheered  him  up  and  inspired  him 
with  courage,  saying,  'Thou  speakest  the  truth.'  "  We 
may  well  suppose,  with  Carlyle,  that  "of  all  the  kind 
nesses  she  had  done  him,  this  of  believing  the  earnest, 
struggling  word  which  he  now  spoke  was  the  greatest." 
For  a  considerable  time  Mohammed  preached  his  new 
doctrines  respecting  the  unity  and  glorious  attributes  of 
God  to  his  household  and  intimate  friends  only.  In  three 
years  he  had  made,  we  are  told,  only  fourteen  converts  ; 
but  among  these  were  the  high-spirited,  devoted,  and 
indomitable  Alee,  (Ali.)  who  was  afterwards  surnamed 
the  "ever-victorious  Lion  of  God,"  (see  ALEK,)  and 
Aboo-Bekr,  whose  character  for  good  sense,  benevolence, 
and  straightforward  integrity  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
respectability  and  ultimate  success  of  the  new  religion. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  mission,  in  obedience,  as  he 
alleges,  to  an  express  command  from  heaven,  Mohammed 
resolved  to  make  a  public  declaration  of  his  faith.  Ele 
addressed  himself  to  the  Koreish  and  others,  asking 
them,  "  If  I  were  to  tell  you  that  there  is  an  army  on  the 
other  side  of  that  mountain,  would  you  believe  me  ?" 
"  Yes,"  they  answered,  "  for  we  do  not  consider  thee  to 
be  a  liar."  He  then  said,  "  I  come  to  warn  you  ;  and  if 
you  do  not  believe  me,  a  great  punishment  will  befall 
you  ;"  he  told  them  they  must  renounce  idolatry,  and 
make  a  profession  of  the  one  true  God  ;  that  unless  they 
did  so  they  could  have  no  true  happiness  in  this  life  nor 
salvation  in  the  life  to  come.  He  formally  separated  him 
self  from  the  polytheists,  and  publicly  condemned  their 
religion.  A  powerful  opposition  was  in  consequence 
organized  against  him, — his  uncle,  Aboo-Lahab,  (lar/hab,) 
and  Aboo-Sofian,  (of  the  family  of  Omeyyah,)  the  prin 
cipal  leader  of  the  Koreishites,  being  among  the  number 
of  his  bitterest  enemies.  Not  only  the  prophet  himself, 
but  his  disciples  were  for  a  time  in  extreme  danger  ;  he 
owed  his  life  to  the  influence  of  the  powerful  family  of 
Hashem,  and  especially  to  the  magnanimity,  courage, 
and  indomitable  firmness  of  his  uncle,  Aboo-Talib,  who, 
although  he  refused  to  accept  the  new  faith,  resolved,  at 
whatever  cost,  to  protect  his  kinsman.  Every  form  of 
persuasion  and  menace  was  tried  upon  him  in  vain.  To 


the  hostile  Koreishites,  who  urged  him  to  give  up  to 
their  vengeance  the  blasphemer  of  his  country's  gods, 
he  answered  with  indignant  scorn,  and  declared  that  if 
they  should  slay  his  nephew  the  lives  of  the  chiefs  of 
their  tribe  should  pay  for  the  life  of  Mohammed.  They 
were  thunder-struck  at  his  boldness  and  awed  by  his 
invincible  determination.  But,  while  they  hesitated  to 
provoke  the  vengeance  of  the  Hashemites  by  laying 
violent  hands  upon  Mohammed,  they  persecuted  his 
disciples  in  a  hundred  ways,  insulting  and  imprisoning 
those  of  the  better  class,  and  starving  and  torturing  such 
as  had  no  wealth,  position,  or  family  connections  to  pro 
tect  them.  Under  the  pressure  of  this  persecution  many 
converts  to  the  new  faith  apostatized  ;  and  Mohammed, 
fearing  that  others  might  desert  him,  advised  some  of  his 
followers  to  leave  Mecca  and  seek  refuge  in  Abyssinia, 
which  was  ruled,  he  said,  by  a  just  and  pious  king.  The 
subsequent  conduct  of  the  Abyssinian  monarch  proved 
that  the  confidence  of  the  prophet  was  not  misplaced. 

In  spite  of  all  opposition,  the  new  doctrines  continued 
to  spread.  In  the  sixth  year  of  Mohammed's  mission 
two  important  conversions  took  place, — the  prophet's 
kinsman  Hamzah,  surnamed,  on  account  of  his  bravery, 
the  "  Lion  of  God,"  and  Omar,  who  had  at  first  been  a 
bitter  opponent  of  the  Islam,  but  afterwards  became  one 
of  its  most  zealous  and  powerful  defenders.  (See  OMAR.) 

Ten  years  after  the  commencement  of  his  mission, 
(that  is,  about  619  A.D.,)  Mohammed  lost  by  death  his 
generous  and  faithful  wife,  Khadijah,  and  his  noble- 
minded  uncle  and  protector,  Aboo-Talib.  He  appears 
to  have  been  greatly  cast  down  by  these  severe  afflictions, 
and  seldom  went  out  of  his  house.  Meanwhile,  his 
enemies  seemed  to  have  become  more  exasperated  than 
ever  by  the  failure  of  all  their  efforts  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  new  religion.  In  this  extremity,  his  uncle, 
Aboo-Lahab,  who  had  hitherto  been  one  of  his  most 
determined  and  bitter  opponents,  but  upon  whom  now 
devolved  the  duty  of  protecting  his  kinsman,  came  for 
ward  with  singular  magnanimity  and  said  to  Mohammed, 
"  Go  wheresoever  thou  wilt,  and  do  what  thou  wast  ac 
customed  to  do  when  Aboo-Talib  was  alive :  I  swear  by 
the  gods  of  my  country  that  no  harm  shall  befall  thee 
while  I  live."  But  a  few  days  afterwards  some  one  said 
to  Aboo-Lahab,  "  Do  you  know  what  your  nephew  says 
of  your  father?  he  says  he  is  in  hell."  Aboo-Lahab 
asked  Mohammed  if  the  charge  was  true.  The  prophet 
had  the  hardihood  to  answer,  "Your  father  died  an 
idolater;  and  every  idolater  goes  to  hell."  Upon  this, 
Aboo-Lahab  withdrew  his  protection. 

Sr>]ong  as  Khadijah  lived,  Mohammed  maybe  said  to 
have  been  a  strict  monogamist.  Shortly  after  her  death 
the  daughter  of  Hakeem  and  wife  of  Othman  asked  the 
prophet  why  he  did  not  marry.  "Whom  shall  I  marry?" 
said  he.  She  replied,  "  If  thou  wishest  a  virgin,  take 
Ayeshah,  the  daughter  of  Aboo-Bekr ;  if  a  widow,  take 
Sawdah,  the  daughter  of  Zamah, — she  believes  in  thee." 
He  instantly  replied,  "I  will  marry  them  both." 

After  Mohammed  was  abandoned  by  Aboo-Lahab, 
another  uncle,  El-Abbas,  (the  brother  of  Aboo-Talib, 
and  ancestor  of  the  Abbassidc  caliphs,)  became  his  pro 
tector.  Meanwhile  the  faith  which  had  been  rejected  at 
Mecca  was  eagerly  embraced  in  the  neighbouring  city 
of  Medina.  A  numerous  and  powerful  deputation  from 
the  most  influential  families  of  the  latter  city  waited  on 
the  prophet,  and  in  a  solemn  covenant  promised,  with 
an  oath,  that  if  he  would  come  and  live  with  them  they 
would  protect  him  as  they  would  protect  their  own  wives 
and  children.  The  offer  of  this  powerful  aid  did  not 
come  a  moment  too  soon.  His  enemies,  headed  by 
Aboo-Sofian,  had  been  unremitting  in  their  efforts  to 
procure  his  destruction.  At  length  it  was  formally  and 
publicly  resolved  that  he  should  be  slain.  In  order  to 
Ijaffle  the  vengeance  of  the  Hashemites,  and  to  divide 
the  guilt  of  his  death,  it  was  agreed  that  one  man  from 
every  family  should  at  the  same  moment  plunge  his 
sword  into  the  heart  of  their  victim.  Nothing  now  re 
mained  for  him  but  death  or  instant  flight.  At  the  dead 
of  night,  accompanied  by  his  faithful  friend  Aboo-Bekr, 
he  silently  escaped  from  his  house.  The  generous  and  de 
voted  Alee,  covered  with  the  shawl  of  the  prophet,  laid 
himself  down  on  the  bed  of  his  master.  Meanwhile 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOHAMMED 


1 60 1 


MOHAMMED 


Mohammed  and  Aboo-Bekr  had  fled  to  the  cave  of  Thor, 
about  a  league  from  Mecca:  there  they  remained  three 
days.  According  to  one  account,  their  enemies,  after 
exploring  every  hiding-place  in  the  vicinity,  came  to  the 
mouth  of  the  cave.  But,  a  spider  having  providentially 
spread  her  web  over  the  entrance,  the  Koreishites,  deem 
ing  it  impossible  that  Mohammed  could  have  entered 
there,  turned  back  from  their  pursuit.  Perhaps  a  more 
probable  explanation  is  that  as  the  Koreishites  knew 
Medina  to  be  the  destination  of  the  fugitives,  they  never 
suspected  that  they  could  be  concealed  in  the  cave  of 
Thor,  which  lay  in  an  opposite  direction.  While  they 
were  in  the  cave,  Aboo-Bekr,  contrasting  their  weakness 
with  the  strength  of  their  enemies,  said,  trembling,  "  We 
are  but  two."  "No,"  replied  Mohammed,  "there  is  a 
third :  it  is  God  himself."  On  the  fourth  night  the 
prophet  and  his  companion  left  their  hiding-place,  and, 
riding  on  camels  which  the  servant  of  Aboo-Bekr  had 
brought,  arrived  safely  at  Medina  sixteen  days  after  his 
flight  from  Mecca,  His  approach  having  been  made 
'known,  several  hundred  of  the  citizens  went  out  to  meet 
him.  lie  was  welcomed  with  loud  acclamations;  and 
he  who  a  few  days  before  had  left  his  native  city  as  a 
fugitive,  with  a  price  upon  his  head,  now  entered  Medina 
more  like  a  king  returning  victorious  from  battle  than 
an  exile  seeking  a  place  of  refuge.  This  separation  or 
flight  of  Mohammed  from  the  city  of  his  nativity  (called 
in  Arabic  Ifej'rak  or  Hifrah*)  marks  the  commence 
ment  of  the  Mohammedan  era.t 

After  Mohammed's  arrival  at  Medina,  a  marked  change 
took  place  in  his  policy.  He  had  hitherto  asserted  liberty 
of  conscience  and  opposed  religious  violence.  He  now 
maintained  that  the  Islam  should,  if  necessary,  be  de 
fended  and  propagated  by  the  sword.  "The  sword," 
said  he,  "  is  the  key  of  heaven  and  of  hell  :  a  drop  of 
blood  shed  in  the  cause  of  God,  or  a  night  spent  in  arms, 
is  of  more  avail  than  two  months  of  fasting  and  prayer  ; 
whoever  falls  in  battle,  his  sins  are  forgiven  him,  and  at 
the  day  of  judgment  the  loss  of  his  limbs  shall  be  sup 
plied  by  the  wings  of  cherubim."  Me  was  not  long  in 
carrying  his  new  principles  into  practice.  His  arch 
enemy,  Aboo-Sofian,  had,  with  only  thirty  or  forty  fol- 
Icnvers,  conducted  a  rich  caravan  of  a  thousand  camels 
to  the  marts  of  Syria.  The  prophet  resolved  to  inter 
cept  it  on  its  return.  Aboo-Sofian,  having  been  informed 
of  his  design,  dispatched  a  messenger  to  Mecca  and 
obtained  a  reinforcement  of  nearly  a  thousand  men.  Mo 
hammed's  troops  amounted  to  considerably  less  than 
half  that  number.  The  hostile  forces  met  in  the  vale 
of  Beclr,  (or  Bedder,)  about  twenty  miles  from  Medina. 
Mohammed  was  placed  on  a  throne  or  pulpit  whence 
his  eye  could  command  the  field  of  battle.  His  followers, 
being  outnumbered,  were  sorely  pressed.  At  that  critical 
moment  the  prophet  started  from  his  throne,  mounted 
his  horse,  and  threw  a  handful  of  dust  into  the  air  towards 
the  Koreishites,  crying,  "Let  their  faces  be  covered  with 
confusion  !"  Both  armies  heard  his  voice  ;  the  Koreish 
ites  were  stricken  with  terror,  while  the  Mussulmans,  \ 
assured  of  victory,  rushed  forward  with  an  enthusiasm 
that  was  irresistible.  Some  of  the  Moslem  writers  state 
that  when  the  prophet  cast  dust  into  the  air  three  thou 
sand  angelic  warriors  on  white  and  black  steeds  made 
their  appearance  and  swept  his  foes  before  them  like  a 
whirlwind.  Seventy  of  the  Koreishites  were  killed,  and 
about  the  same  number  taken  prisoners.  Among  the 
slain  was  Aboo-Jahl,  perhaps  the  most  bitter  and  fero 
cious  of  all  the  enemies  of  Islam.  His  head  was  brought 
to  Mohammed,  who  exclaimed  with  exultation,  "  This  man 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  our  people."  So  great  was  the  terror 
and  hatred  he  had  inspired  that  even  after  his  death  his 
name  was  never  mentioned,  it  is  said,  by  true  believers 
without  the  addition,  "May  he  be  accursed  of  God  !" 


*  This  word  is  often,  but  less  correctly,  written  Hegira  :  it  has, 
properly  speaking,  but  two  syllables.  The  vowel  i  has  doubtless 
been  added  by  the  Italians  or  Germans  to  ind:cate  the  sound  n(j.  (or 
g  soft.)  REISKK,  in  his  Latin  version  of  Aboolfeda's  (Abulfeda's) 
"Moslem  Annals,"  ("Annales  MosJemici,")  invariably  employs  g/  or 
gi  to  represent  the  sound  of  our/. :  thus,  he  writes  for  Khadijah 
Chadlgja,  for  Aboo-Jahl  A  bu  Gjakl,  etc. 

t  The  era  of  the  Hejrah  is  not  calculated  from  the  very  day  of 
Mohammed's  flight,  but  from  the  beginning  of  the  lunar  year  in 
which  it  occurred,  namely,  July  16,  622  A.D. 


The  prophet's  success  at  Bedr  was  the  first  of  that 
wonderful  series  of  victories  which,  by  spreading  the 
new  faith  to  the  borders  of  China  on  the  east  and  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west,  were  destined  to  change  the 
face  of  the  world.  The  Islamites  were  less  successful 
in  a  second  encounter  with  their  foes,  near  Mount  Ohod, 
six  miles  north  of  Medina.  Mohammed  himself  was 
wounded  in  the  face  with  a  javelin,  two  of  his  teeth  were 
shattered  with  a  stone,  and  seventy  of  the  faithful,  in 
cluding  Hamzah,  the  prophet's  uncle,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  of  battle.  But  his  enemies  gained  no  perma 
nent  advantage.  The  Koreishites  signally  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  take  Medina  by  siege.  The  Islam  constantly 
gained  new  adherents.  "Caled  [Khaled]  and  Amrou," 
says  Gibbon,  "  the  future  conquerors  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 
most  seasonably  deserted  the  sinking  cause  of  idolatry." 
Soon  after,  Mecca  itself  was  taken  by  the  followers  of 
the  prophet,  who,  led  by  Khaled,  (surnamed  afterwards, 
on  account  of  his  valour,  the  "  Sword  of  God,")  entered 
the  city  in  three  divisions.  The  chiefs  of  the  Koreish 
were  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  prophet.  "  What  mercy," 
asked  he,  "can  you  expect  from  the  man  whom  you  have 
so  deeply  wronged  ?"  "  We  trust  to  the  generosity  of 
our  kinsman."  "And  you  shall  not  trust  in  vain:  go; 
you  are  safe,  you  are  free."  He  who  seven  years  before 
had  left  his  native  city  as  a  hunted  fugitive  was  now 
received  and  honoured  as  prophet  and  king.  But  in  an 
attempt  made  soon  after  to  reduce  the  Arabian  tribes 
who  still  adhered  to  idolatry,  the  army  of  Mohammed 
was  surprised  in  a  mountain-pass,  and  for  a  time  his 
own  life  was  in  imminent  peril.  Several  of  his  devoted 
followers  who  endeavoured  to  shield  him  with  their 
bodies  fell  dead  at  his  feet.  In  his  distress  he  cried, 
"O  my  brethren,  I  am  the  apostle  of  truth  !  O  man, 
stand  last  in  the  faith  !  O  God,  send  down  thine  aid  !" 
His  uncle  Abbas,  who  was  distinguished  for  the  strength 
of  his  voice,  called  on  the  flying  Moslems,  repeating  the 
promises  of  God  to  the  faithful.  The  battle  was  soon 
restored,  and  what  threatened  to  be  a  disastrous  defeat 
was  changed  into  a  complete  victory.  About  the  year 
630  Mohammed  sent  an  army,  under  the  command  of 
Zeid,  who  had  formerly  been  his  slave,  to  invade  Pales 
tine,  then  belonging  to  the  Greek  empire.  At  the  battle 
of  Muta,  where  for  the  first  time  the  Moslems  encoun 
tered  a  foreign  foe,  Zeid  and  two  other  of  the  leaders 
were  slain.  It  is  related  of  Jaafar,  who  succeeded  Zeid 
in  the  command  of  the  army,  that  when  his  right  hand 
was  struck  off  he  seized  the  banner  with  his  left ;  this 
also  being  severed  from  his  body,  he  embraced  the  stan 
dard  with  his  bleeding  stumps,  until  at  length  he  fell, 
pierced  with  no  fesver  than  fifty  wounds.  The  day  was 
saved  by  the  valour  of  Khaled,  in  whose  hand  it  is  said 
that  nine  swords  were  broken  before  the  hosts  of  the 
enemy  were  turned  backward.  Mohammed  had  to  be 
wail,  on  this  occasion,  not  only  the  death  of  his  faithful 
servant  Zeid,  but  also  that  of  many  of  his  bravest  fol 
lowers.  We  are  told  that  when,  after  the  battle,  he  first 
saw  the  young  orphaned  daughter  of  Zeid,  he  wept  over 
her  in  speechless  sorrow.  "  What  do  I  see?"  said  one 
of  his  astonished  followers.  "  You  see,"  said  he,  "  a  friend 
weeping  the  loss  of  his  most  faithful  friend." 

The  recent  successes  of  the  prophet,  by  inflaming  the 
zeal  of  the  faithful,  confirming  the  wavering,  and  con 
vincing  the  doubtful, — for,  as  it  has  been  well  observed, 
there  is  no  argument  like  success, — contributed  greatly 
to  the  rapid  diffusion  and  final  triumph  of  the  new  faith. 
But  in  the  early  part  of  632,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
organizing  a  formidable  expedition  against  Syria,  he  was 
seized  with  a  violent  malady,  (supposed  by  some  writers 
to  have  been  a  fever,)  which,  before  many  days,  terminated 
fatally.  It  is  related  that  near  the  beginning  of  this  ill 
ness  Mohammed  said  to  one  of  his  attendants,  "  The 
choice  is  given  me  either  to  remain  on  earth  until  the 
end  of  time,  or  soon  to  depart  to  the  presence  of  God  : 
I  have  chosen  the  latter."  When  he  perceived  that  his 
end  was  near,  supported  by  the  arms  of  Alee  and  another 
relative,  he  went  into  the  mosque  and  asked  publicly  if 
he  had  injured  any  one, — if  so,  he  was  ready  to  make 
full  amends,  or  to  suffer  himself  what  he  had  inflicted  on 
others.  As  no  one  answered,  he  asked  again  if  he  owed 
any  man  anything.  A  voice  replied,  "  Yes, — to  me,  three 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  MM.     (Q^^See  Explanations,  p. 

101 


MOHAMMED 


1602 


MOHAMMED 


drachms  of  sih'er."  The  prophet  ordered  the  money  to 
be  paid,  and  thanked  his  creditor  that  he  made  his  com 
plaint  now  instead  of  deferring  it  till  the  day  of  judgment. 
His  last  words  were  the  utterance  of  a  broken  prayer, — 
"  O  God,  pardon  my  sins — yes — I  come  !"  He  died, 
according  to  the  Arabian  historians,  on  his  birthday,  the 
eleventh  year  of  the  Hejrah,  (632  A.D.,)  aged  63,  or,  ac 
cording  to  some  authorities,  65  years.  He  had  ceased 
to  breathe,  but  his  followers  refused  to  believe  that  he 
was  dead.  Omar,  in  his  fierce  zeal,  threatened  to  strike 
off  the  heads  of  the  infidels  who  should  dare  to  assert 
that  the  great  prophet  and  intercessor  with  God  was  no 
more.  The  authority  of  Aboo-Bckr  was  required  to 
appease  the  tumult.  "Is  it  Mohammed,  or  the  God  of 
Mohammed,  whom  you  worship?  God  liveth  forever 
and  ever ;  but  Mohammed,  though  his  prophet  and 
apostle,  was  mortal  like  ourselves,  and,  in  dying,  has 
but  fulfilled  his  own  prediction." 

In  person  Mohammed  was  of  middle  stature,  with 
broad  shoulders  and  chest,  square-built  and  strong,  with 
large  hands  and  feet.  The  unusual  size  cf  his  head  was 
partly  concealed  by  long  and  slightly-curling  locks  of 
hair.  His  forehead  was  broad  and  fair  for  an  Arab,  and 
his  fine  eyebrows  were  separated  by  a  vein  which  swelled 
up  and  became  very  conspicuous  when  he  was  angry. 
His  eyelashes  were  long,  and  his  eyes  dark  and  glowing. 
His  nose  was  large,  prominent,  and  slightly  hooked  ; 
his  mouth  was  wide,  but  adorned  with  a  fine  set  of 
teeth.  According  to  some  accounts,  he  stooped,  and  was 
slightly  round-shouldered.  His  natural  disposition  ap 
pears  to  have  been  in  a  high  degree  kindly  and  humane. 
"He  was  naturally  irritable,"  says  Irving,  "but  had 
brought  his  temper  under  great  control."  One  of  his 
servants  said,  "I  served  him  from  the  time  I  was  eight 
years  old,  and  he  never  scolded  me,  though  things  were 
sometimes  spoiled  by  me."  "  lie  was,"  says  a  writer* 
who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of  exaggerating  his  virtues, 
"  kind  to  women, — never  beat  one,  and  entertained  more 
respect  for  them  than  is  usual  with  nations  addicted  to 
polygamy.  He  frequently  protected  women  who  came 
to  him  for  refuge.  .  .  .  He  forbade  the  believers  to  beat 
their  wives  ;  but  on  the  remonstrance  of  Omar,  who  said 
that  the  wives  would  have  the  upper  hand  over  their 
husbands,  he  allowed  it."  Nevertheless,  he  insisted  that 
women  should  be  fairly  and  justly  treated,  and  not  beaten 
unless  the  occasion  absolutely  demanded  it.  His  own 
wives,  having  once  become  rebellious,  were  brought  to 
submission  by  a  revelation  from  Heaven  and  the  blows 
of  their  relatives,!  the  prophet  himself  being  disinclined 
to  such  severity,  either  from  kindness  of  heart  or  from 
a  regard  to  his  apostolic  dignity. 

"He  was,"  says  Sprenger,  "affectionate  towards  his 
relations  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  gravity  of  his  office, 
he  was  playful  with  his  wives.  Ayeshah,  being  only  nine 
years  of  age  when  she  married  him,  brought  her  toys 
into  his  house,  and  he  occasionally  played  with  her.  She 
also  used  to  race  with  him.  .  .  .  He  would  sometimes 
tell  stories  to  his  wives,  such  as  the  adventures  of  the 
man  who  had  been  carried  away  by  the  jinn  (genii)  and, 
after  along  stay  with  them,  returned  to  his  family." 

The  intellectual  powers  of  Mohammed  were  of  a  very 
high  order,  and  as  a  poet  he  ranks  far  above  all  others 
who  have  ever  written  in  the  Arabic  tongue.  It  was 
usual  tor  his  followers  to  point  to  the  beauty  and  sub 
limity  of  the  Koran  as  an  irrefutable  proof  of  his  divine 
inspiration  ;  and  he  himself,  in  one  of  the  chapters  of 
that  sacred  poem,  boldly  challenges  men  and  angels  to 
produce  anything  to  equal  it,  and  confidently  affirms 
that  God  alone  could  have  dictated  so  incomparable  a 
work.  Probably  no  poet  that  ever  lived  more  fully 
realized  the  state  of  mind  known  as  poetic  furor  than 
Mohammed.  It  is  said  that  while  he  was  composing 
certain  portions  of  the  Koran  he  was  in  a  state  of  such 
intense  excitement  as  amounted  almost  to  frenzy  ;  and, 
if  we  may  believe  those  accounts  of  his  life  which  seem 
best  authenticated,  some  at  least  of  the  revelations  of 
the  Koran  were  actually  communicated  (or  were  believed 
by  him  to  have  been  communicated)  during  his  epileptic 
paroxysms,  while  wholly  unconscious  of  things  around 

*  See  SPRENGER,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  93.     t  Idem.,  loc.  cit. 


him.  With  this  view,  there  may  have  been  no  arrogance 
or  vanity  in  his  claiming  that  to  rival  the  Koran  was 
beyond  the  power  of  men  or  angels.  Referring  to  the 
prophet's  tendency  to  poetic  and  elevated  thought, 
Sprenger  says,  "  His  mind  dwelt  constantly  on  the  con 
templation  of  God:  he  saw  his  finger  in  the  rising  sun, 
in  the  falling  rain,  in  the  growing  crop;  he  heard  his 
voice  in  the  thunder,  in  the  murmuring  of  the  waters, 
and  in  the  hymns  which  the  birds  sing  to  his  praise; 
and  in  the  lonely  deserts  and  ruins  of  ancient  cities  he 
saw  the  traces  of  his  anger."  But  combined  with  all  his 
poetic  and  religious  enthusiasm  was  a  vein  of  strong 
common  sense.  He  was  free  from  all  ostentation  and 
parade  :  that  he  pretended  to  work  miracles,  is  a  cal 
umny  of  his  enemies.  He  considered  it  miracle  enough 
that  he  was  inspired  with  the  Spirit  of  God:  this  he 
doubtless  believed  in  all  sincerity.  One  whom  Heaven 
had  so  highly  honoured  had  no  need  of  earthly  dignity 
or  worldly  splendour.  He  set  a  praiseworthy  example 
of  indifference  to  earthly  riches,  of  patriarchal  simplicity 
of  manners,  and  of  frugality  in  his  diet  and  di;ss.  With 
his  own  hands  he  milked  his  goats,  and  afterwards  at 
tended  to  his  person.  The  costly  presents  which  he 
received  he  gave  to  his  friends.  The  riches  which  he 
obtained  from  the  spoils  of  war  and  from  tribute  were 
spent  in  promoting  the  interests  of  religion  and  in  re 
lieving  the  wants  of  the  poor.  "  His  military  triumphs," 
says  Irving,  "awakened  no  pride  nor  vain-glory.  .  .  . 
In  the  time  of  his  greatest  power  he  maintained  the 
same  simplicity  ot  manners  and  appearance  as  in  the 
days  of  his  adversity.  So  far  from  affecting  regal  state, 
he  was  displeased  if  on  entering  a  room  any  unusual 
testimonial  of  respect  were  shown  him." 

The  most  glaring  moral  defect  of  Mohammed's  char 
acter  was  his  passion  for  women,  to  justify  which  he  pre 
tended  that  he  had  received  a  special  revelation  from 
heaven  ;{  and,  while  only  four  lawful  wives  were  allowed 
to  his  followers,  he  himself  had  eleven  wives,  besides 
several  concubines.  Mohammed's  conduct  in  this  re 
spect,  viewed  in  connection  with  his  pretended  revela 
tions,  would  seem  to  go  very  far  towards  justifying  those 
who  consider  him  to  have  been  simply  an  artful  and  self 
ish  impostor.  "  But,  however  he  betrayed  the  alloy  of 
earth,"  observes  Irving,  "after  he  had  worldly  power  at 
his  command,  the  early  aspirations  of  his  spirit  con 
tinually  returned  and  bore  him  above  all  earthly  things. 
.  .  .  On  the  mercy  of  God  he  reposed  all  his  hopes  of 
heaven."  His  wife  Ayeshah  once  asked  him  if  it  were 
indeed  true  that  none  could  enter  paradise  except 
through  God's  mercy.  "None — none!"  he  replied,  with 
emphatic  earnestness.  And  when  she  again  asked  if  an 
exception  would  not  be  made  in  his  case,  he  answered, 
with  great  solemnity,  "Neither  can  I  enter  paradise 
unless  God  clothe  me  with  his  mercy." 

Until  recently,  the  belief  has  universally  prevailed  in 
Christendom  that  Mohammed  was  not  merely  the  teacher 
of  a  false  religion,  but  a  conscious  impostor,  an  artful, 
self-seeking  charlatan.  But  such  a  theory  of  his  life  and 
character  will  not  bear  examination.  Not  to  mention 
the  thousand  incidental  proofs  of  his  sincerity  which  are 
scattered  through  the  history  of  his  early  life,  it  is  wholly 
incredible  that  a  mere  self-seeking  charlatan  would  have 
exposed  himself  to  universal  obloquy  and  certain  per 
secution,  in  the  wild  hope  that  he  might  at  last  triumph 
over  those  religious  prejudices  which  had  been  for  so 
many  ages  gaining  strength  among  his  countrymen. 
When  Aboo-Talib,  weary  of  defending  his  nephew 
against  the  implacable  hostility  of  the  Koreishites,  be 
sought  him  to  abandon  a  course  attended  with  so  much 
peril  to  himself  and  his  kinsmen,  he  replied,  "O  uncle, 
I  swear  by  God  that  if  they  put  the  sun  on  my  right 
hand  and  the  moon  on  my  left,  I  will  not  renounce  the 
career  I  have  entered  upon  until  God  gives  me  success, 
or  until  I  perish."  Aboo-Talib,  touched  with  his  heroic 
spirit,  solemnly  promised  that  he  would  not  give  him  up, 
whatever  he  might  preach. 

In  considering  the  question  of  Mohammed's  sincerity, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  possessed  not  only  a 


t.  "This  is  a  peculiar  privilege  granted  unto  thee  above  the  rest  cf 
the  true  believers."  (See  SALK'S  "Koran,"  chap,  xxxiii.) 


£,  e,  T,  o,u,  y,  1onp:  1,  e.  <">.  =nme,  'ess  prolonged;  a,e,  T,  o,  u,  y.  .<*•*••(:  a.  e,  i,  o.  ohsrurc:  fir,  fall,  fat;  miM;not;  good;  moo 


MOHAMMED 


1603 


MOHSIN-FANEE 


vivid  and  powerful  imagination,  but  a  very  peculiar  phys 
ical  and  mental  constitution.  It  seems  not  unreasonable 
to  believe,  as  traditions  relate,  that  in  those  nervous 
paroxysms  to  which  he  was  subject  he  had  visions  not 
unlike  those  which  his  mother  saw  between  sleeping  and 
waking.  Such  visions  would  be  almost  certain  to  par 
take  of  the  character  of  those  earnest  thoughts  and 
convictions  with  which  his  waking  soul  was  filled;  and 
nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  for  such  a  mind  not 
merely  to  regard  those  visions  as  a  divine  confirmation 
of  his  peculiar  views,  but  to  employ  them,  modified  as 
they  would  necessarily  be  by  his  powerful  imagination, 
to  give  force  and  authority  to  his  public  teachings.  Nor 
will  it  appear  at  all  unreasonable  to  those  conversant 
with  human  nature  that  one  who  was  perfectly  sincere 
at  the  beginning  of  his  career  should  afterwards — under 
the  stimulus  of  fear,  lust,  hatred,  or  ambition — pretend 
to  visions  which  he  never  had,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
a  divine  sanction  to  his  cherished  opinions,  or,  it  may  be, 
to  his  arbitrary  caprices  or  selfish  desires.  How  often, 
indeed,  have  the  professors  of  a  far  purer  and  higher 
faith  resorted  to  stratagem  and  deceit  to  promote  what 
they  sincerely  believed  to  be  a  good  cause,  which  they 
had  not  faith  enough  to  trust  to  the  care  of  Heaven  or 
to  the  legitimate  operation  of  purely  moral  influences  ! 

While  we  must  admit,  with  one  of  the  prophet's  ablest 
and  most  successful  defenders,  (Carlyle,)  that  in  the 
Moslem  heaven  and  hell  "  there  is  enough  that  shocks  all 
spiritual  feeling  in  us,"  we  must  also  admit,  on  a  candid 
examination,  that  his  religion,  on  the  whole,  made  him 
and  his  followers  better,  and  not  worse.  In  estimating 
the  influence  of  the  Islam  upon  the  nations  which  em 
braced  it,  it  would  be  obviously  unjust  to  take  as  a 
standard  of  comparison  the  highest  forms  of  Christian 
civilization.  We  should  rather  compare  the  condition  of 
those  nations  under  the  sway  of  Mohammedanism  with 
their  condition  as  it  was  before  the  advent  of  the  prophet. 
If  the  religion  of  Mohammed  was  immeasurably  inferior 
to  the  religion  of  Christ,  it  was  in  most  respects  greatly 
superior  to  every  form  of  paganism  of  which  we  have 
any  knowledge,  and  probably  also  to  much  of  that 
spurious  or  half-spurious  Christianity  which  it  displaced 
in  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

"The  general  tenor  of  Mahomet's  conduct,"  says 
Irving,  "up  to  the  time  of  his  flight  from  Mecca,  is  that 
of  an  enthusiast  acting  under  a  species  of  mental  de 
lusion, — deeply  imbued  with  a  conviction  of  his  being  a 
divine  agent  for  religious  reform  ;  and  there  is  something 
striking  and  sublime  in  the  luminous  path  which  his 
enthusiastic  spirit  struck  out  for  itself  through  the  be 
wildering  maze  of  adverse  faiths  and  wild  traditions, — 
the  pure  and  spiritual  worship  of  the  one  true  God, 
which  he  sought  to  substitute  for  the  blind  idolatry  of 
his  childhood.  .  .  .  All  the  parts  of  the  Koran  supposed 
to  have  been  promulgated  by  him  at  this  time — inco 
herently  as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  and  marred  as 
their  pristine  beauty  must  be  in  passing  through  various 
hands — arc  of  a  pure  and  elevated  character,  and  breathe 
poetical,  if  not  religious,  inspiration.  They  show  that 
he  had  drunk  deep  of  the  living  waters  of  Christianity; 
and  if  he  had  failed  to  imbibe  them  in  their  crystal 
purity,  it  might  be  because  he  had  to  drink  from  broken 
cisterns  and  streams  troubled  and  perverted  by  those 
who  should  have  been  their  guardians." 

See  SPRENGER,  "Life  of  Mohammad,  from  Original  Sources," 
Allahabad,  1851,  London,  1852,  (a  work  of  decided  merit ;)  WEIL, 
"  Mohammed  der  Prophet,  sein  Leben  und  sein  Lehre,"  Stuttgart, 
1843;  IKVINC,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors,"  New  York,  2  vols., 
1850;  GAGNIER,  "Vie  de  Mahomet;"  BOULAINVILLIERS,  "Vie  de 
Mahomet ;"  "  Preliminary  Discourse"  prefixed  to  SALE'S  translation 
of  the  Koran;  PKIDEAUX,  "Life  of  Mahomet ;"  MARACCI'S  trans 
lation  of  the  Koran,  (in  Latin,)  with  notes;  RELAND,  "  De  Religione 
Mohammedica  ;"  AUUI.KEDA,  "Moslem  Annals,"  ("  Annales  Mos- 
lemici,")  and  translated  into  Latin  by  RKI.SKE;  ABULFEDA,  "Life  of 
Mohammed,"  rendered  into  Latin  by  GAGNIER,  with  the  title  "  De 
Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Mohamedis,"  Oxford,  1732;  GIBBON,  "Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  1.  ;  CARLYLE,  "Hero  and 
Hero- Worship,  "etc.,  article  "  Mahomet,"  (one  of  the  best  productions 
of  its  author;)  RAMPOLDI,  "Vita  di  Maometto,"  1822;  NOEL  DES 
VKRGKRS,  "  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  1833  ;  GEORGE  BUSH,  "  Life  of  Mo 
hammed,"  New  York,  1830;  SAMUEL  GRHEN,  "Life  of  Mahomet," 
1840;  CHARLES  MILLS,  "  History  of  Mohammedanism,"  etc.,  Lon 
don,  1812;  K.  R.  TURPIN,  "  Histoirede  la  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  2  vols., 
1773;  DE  BREQUIGNY,  "  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  1754;  L.  ADDISON,  "  Life 
of  Mahomet,"  1678. 


Mo-ham'med  II.,  (commonly  pronounced  in  India 
mo-Hurr/mSd,)  Emperor  of  India,  born  about  1150,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gaurian  dynasty.  He  became 
master  of  part  of  Hindostan  in  1171,  after  which  he  ex 
tended  his  dominions  by  conquest.  He  took  Lahore 
and  Delhi  between  1184  and  1192,  and  Benares  in  1193. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1206. 

Mohammed  IV.,  Emperor  of  India,  born  at  Delhi 
in  1360,  succeeded  his  father,  Fyroz  (or  Feroze)  III.,  in 
1386.  Died  in  1394. 

Mohammed  V.,  born  at  Delhi  in  1406,  succeeded 
Moobarek  II.  as  Emperor  of  India  in  1434.  Died  in 

1443- 

Mohammed  VI.  OF  INDIA.     See  BAUER. 

Mohammed  VII.  OF  INDIA.     See  HOOMAYOON. 

Mohammed  IX.  OF  INDIA.     See  AKBAR. 

Mohammed  XI.     See  SHAH  JEHAN. 

Mohammed  XIII.,  Emperor  of  India,  of  the  dynasty 
of  Grand  Moguls,  was  born  at  Agra  about  1685.  He 
began  to  reign  at  Delhi  in  1713.  He  granted  the  East 
India  Company  the  privilege  of  exemption  from  the  pay 
ment  of  duties.  He  was  deposed  in  1718,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Mo'hammed  XIV.,  often  called  Mohammed  Shah, 
Emperor  of  India,  born  at  Delhi  about  1700,  wasacousin 
of  the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  in  1720.  In  1739 
Nadir  Shah  invaded  India,  captured  Delhi,  massacred 
an  immense  number  of  the  people,  and  robbed  Moham 
med  of  the  celebrated  diamond  Kohinoor.  Died  in  1748. 

Mohammed,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  MAHOMET. 

Mohammed  OF  GAZNA.     See  MAHMOOD. 

Mohedano,  mo-a-da'no,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Antequera  in  1561,  excelled  in  fresco- 
painting.  Died  in  1625. 

Mohl,  von,  fon  m51,  (Huco,)  a  German  botanist,  bro 
ther  of  Julius,  noticed  below,  was  a  native  of  Stuttgart. 
He  published  "Contributions  to  the  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  of  Plants,"  (1834,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Mohl,  von,  (JULIUS,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Stuttgart  in  1800.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Remusat 
and  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and  in  1845  became  professor  of 
the  Persian  language  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1852 
,he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  having 
previously  been  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.  He  made  a  number  of  valuable  contribu 
tions  to  the  "Journal  Asiatique,"  and  published  editions 
of  several  Oriental  works. 

Mohl,  von,  (MoRrrz,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1802.  He  published  "Results  of 
a  Journey  in  France  for  the  Purpose  of  studying  Arts 
and  Trades,"  (1845.) 

Mohl,  von,  (ROBERT,)  a  German  jurist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1799.  He  be 
came  professor  of  law  at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  after 
wards  filled  several  important  civil  offices.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works. 

Mohler  or  Moehler,  mo'ler,  (JOHANN  ADAM,)  a 
German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Igersheim  in  1796, 
published  in  1825  a  work  entitled  "  Unity  in  the  Church  ; 
or,  The  Principle  of  Catholicism."  Died  in  1838. 

Mohn,  mon,  (GOTTLOH  SAMUEL,)  a  German  glass- 
painter,  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1789.  His  most  admired 
productions  are  the  painted  windows  of  the  Imperial 
Chapel  at  Laxenburg,  near  Vienna.  Died  in  1825. 

Mohnike,  m5'ne"keh,  (GOTTLIEB  CHRISTIAN  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  writer  and  theologian,  born  in  Pome- 
rania  in  1781,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Literature  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1813.)  Died  in  1841. 

Mohs,  mos,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  at  Gernrode  in  1774.  He  succeeded  Werner  as 
professor  of  mineralogy  at  Freiberg  in  1817,  and  after 
wards  filled  the  same  chair  at  Vienna.  He  became 
counsellor  of  mines  in  1838.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  the 
Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1832.)  Died  in  1839. 

Mbhsen  or  Moehsen,  (JOHANN  KARL  WII.HELM,) 
a  German  medical  writer  and  numismatist,  born  in  Ber 
lin  in  1722.  He  was  physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Died  in  1795. 

Mohsin-Fanee  or  Mohsin-Fani,  mon'sin  fa'nee, 
or  Muhsiii-Fani,  mooii'sin  fa'nee,  (MOHAMMED,)  a 


MOIGNO 


1604 


MOLESCHOTT 


Persian  poet,  born  on  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  in 
1615.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Dabistan,"  which  gives 
an  account  of  ancient  religious  sects.  Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  SIR  JOHN  MALCOLM, 
"  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vii. 

Moigno,  mwan'yo',  (FRANCOIS  NAPOLEON  MARIF.,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Guemene  in  1804,  pub 
lished  "  Lessons  in  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus," 
(1840,)  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Electric  Telegraph,"  (1849,) 
and  other  works. 

Moine,  Le.     See  LEMOINE. 

Moine,  Le,  leh  mwan,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  French  Protest 
ant  divine,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  became 
pastor  of  a  French  church  in  London.  He  translated 
Bishop  Gibson's  "  Pastoral  Letters"  into  French,  and 
published  a  "Sermon  in  Defence  of  the  Sacred  History, 
in  Answer  to  Lord  Bolingbroke."  Died  in  1760. 

Moir,  (DAVID  MACBETH,)  a  distinguished  Scottish 
writer  and  physician,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He 
became  at  an  early  age  a  contributor  to  Constable's 
and  Blackwood's  Magazines,  and  published  a  number 
of  poems  in  the  latter,  under  the  signature  of  the  Greek 
Delta,  (A.)  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named  his 
"  Autobiography  of  Mansie  Wauch,"  a  novel,  which  had 
great  popularity,  "The  Bombardment  of  Algiers,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1816,)  "Outlines  of  the  Ancient  History 
of  Medicine,"  etc.,  (1831,)  "Practical  Observations  on 
Malignant  Cholera,"  (1832,)  and  "Domestic  Verses," 
(1843.)  Died  in  1851. 

See  DK.  T.  AIRU,  "  Notice  of  Moir,"  prefixed  to  his  Poetical 
Works:  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Kminent  Scots 
men,"  (Supplement  ;)  "  Blackwood's  Magazine  for  August,  1851. 

Moira,  EARL  OF.     See  HASTINGS,  MARQUIS  OF. 

Moirae,  moi're,  [Gr.  Moipai,]  a  name  applied  to  the 
Fates.  See  PARC.E. 

Mo'ise.     See  MOSES. 

Moitte,  mwat,  ([KAN  GUII.LAU.ME,)  a  French  sculp 
tor,  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  executed  the  large 
bas-relief  of  the  front  of  the  Pantheon,  and  statues  of 
Cassini  and  General  Cnstine.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  Died  in  1810. 

See  QUATKEMERE  DK  Qui.Nxv,  "  filoge  de  Moitte,"  in  the  "  Mo- 
niteur,"  1810. 

Moivre,  de.     See  DEMOIVKE. 

Mojon,  mo'zhoN',  (BIANCA  Milesi — me-la'see,)  an 
Italian  lady,  distinguished  for  her  talents,  accomplish 
ments,  and  elevated  character,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1790.  She  was  married  in  1825  to  Dr.  Mojon,  physician 
to  the  court  in  Paris.  An  interesting  account  of  her  was 
written  by  her  friend  Emile  de  Souvestre.  Died  in  1849. 

See,  also,  BESSIE  R.  PAKKE,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches," 
London,  1866. 

Moke,  mo'keh,  (HENRI  GUII.LAUME,  )  a  Belgian 
writer,  born  at  Havre  in  1803.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Belgium,"  (2  vols.,  1839-40.) 

Moktader-Billah,  mok'ta-der  bil'lah,  or  Muktader- 
(tnook'ta-der)  Billah,  (Abool-Fadhl-Jaafar,  a'bool 
fad'l  ja'far,)  an  Abbasside  caliph  of  Bagdad,  was  born  in 
894  A. ix,  and  began  to  reign  in  909.  He  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  932  by  Monnes  or  Mounes. 

Mola,  mo'la,  (GIAMHATTLSTA,)  a  painter,  of  Italian 
extraction,  called  MOLA  m  FRANCIA,  born  at  Besai^on 
in  1614.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet,  and  excelled  as  a 
landscape-painter.  Died  in  1661. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mola,  (PiETRO  FRANCESCO,)  sometimes  called  MOLA 
ni  ROMA,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  about  1620, 
was  a  pupil  of  Albano.  He  painted  a  number  of  his 
torical  works  of  great  merit,  but  he  excelled  particularly 
in  landscapes.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Saint 
John  in  the  Desert,"  "  History  of  Joseph,"  and  "Saint 
Bruno."  Died  in  1666. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  VIARDOT,  "  Musees 
de  1' Europe." 

Molai  or  Molay,  de,  deh  mo'li',*  (JACQUES,)  last 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  the  Templars,  was  born  in 
B-jrgundy.  The  wealth  and  power  to  which  this  order 
had  arisen  having  excited  the  jealousy  of  Philippe  le  Bel, 


*  See  Introduction,  V.,  7  and  9. 


King  of  France,  and  Pope  Clement  IV.,  a  plan  was  laid 
by  the  two  sovereigns  for  their  destruction.  Molai,  being 
invited  to  France  in  1306,  was  arrested  on  his  arrival, 
together  with  all  the  Templars  in  that  country,  and,  on 
various  criminal  charges,  condemned  to  death.  Nearly 
sixty  of  the  knights  perished  at  the  stake  ;  and  the  grand 
master,  after  seven  years'  imprisonment,  shared  their 
fate,  in  1314. 

See  PIERRE  Dupiiv,  "  Histoire  de  la  Condamnation  des  Tern- 
pliers,"  1751  ;  G.  (1.  AKDISON,  "The  Knights  Templars,"  1852. 

Molantis.     See  VEKMKULEN,  (JAN.) 

Molard,  mo'lSu',  (FRANCOIS  EMMANUEL,)  a  French 
inventor  of  machinery,  born  in  1774;  died  in  1829. 

His  brother  CLAUDE  PIERRE  (1758-1837)  also  in 
vented  several  useful  machines. 

Molbech,  mol'beK,  (CHRISTIAN,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian,  philologist,  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Soroe 
in  1.783.  After  travelling  in  England  and  other  countries 
of  Europe,  he  became  in  1823  professor  of  the  history 
of  literature,  and  first  secretary  of  the  Royal  Library, 
at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Wars  of  Ditmarschen,"  (1813,)  "  Danish 
Dialect-Lexicon,"  (1837,)  and  "  History  of  Erik  Plogpen- 
ning,"  (1846.)  He  published  between  1814  and  1817  a 
literary  journal  of  great  merit,  entitled  the  "Athene," 
and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the  "Norclisk  Tid- 
skrift"  and  "  Historisk  Tidskrift,"  (1840.)  Molbech  also 
had  a  share  in  the  great  "Dictionary  of  the  Danish  Lan 
guage,"  (unfinished.)  Died  at  Copenhagen  in  1857. 

See  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon. " 

Molbech,  (CHRISTIAN  KNUD  FREDERIK,)  a  Danish 
poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1821.  He  produced  "Dante,"  a  drama,  and  lyric 
poems,  (1846,)  which  are  highly  commended. 

Mole,  mo'la',  (FRANCOIS  RENE,)  a  celebrated  French 
comedian,  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and  director  of  the  Academy  at  the  Theatre 
Fraiifais.  Died  in  1802. 

Mole,  (Louis  MATHIEU,)  COUNT,  an  eminent  French 
statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1781,  was  descended  from 
Mathieu  Mole,  noticed  below.  He  published  in  1805 
"Moral  and  Political  Essays,"  which  procured  for  him 
the  favour  of  Napoleon,  by  whom  he  was  soon  after  ap 
pointed  master  of  requests,  and  prefect  of  the  Cote-d'Or. 
In  1813  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Massa  as  minister  of 
justice.  He  was  created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII.,  and 
in  1817  became  minister  of  the  marine.  Under  Louis 
Philippe  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  August 
to  November,  1830,  and  became  in  April,  1837,  prime 
minister  ;  but,  overcome  by  the  opposition  of  Guizot, 
Thiers,  and  Berryer,  he  resigned  his  post,  March  31, 
1839.  In  1840  he  succeeded  De  Quelen  in  tue  French 
Academy.  Died  in  1855. 

See  Louis  DE  LOMENIE,  "M.  le  Comte  Mole,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  A.  DE  CESENA.  "  Le  Comte  MoleV'  1842;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  GeneVale." 

Mole,  (MATHIEU,)  an  eminent  French  magistrate, 
born  in  1584.  He  was  attorney-general  in  1614,  and  in 
1641  was  appointed  by  Richelieu  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris.  During  the  civil  war  of  the  P'ronde 
he  was  conspicuous  for  his  intrepidity  and  his  energetic 
measures  in  quelling  the  insurrections  of  Paris.  In  1651 
he  became  keeper  of  the  seals.  He  left  interesting  "  Me- 
moires,"  (published  in  4  vols.,  1855.)  Died  in  1656. 

See  BARANTE,  "Vie  de  Mole :"  HENRION  DE  PANSEY.  "  filoge 
de  M.  Mole,"  1773:  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Moleschott,  mo'les-sKot',  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  natural 
ist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1822,  studied 
medicine  and  natural  science  at  Heidelberg,  and  settled 
as  a  physician  at  Utrecht.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Critical  Examination  of  Liebig's  Theory  of  the  Alimen 
tation  of  Plants,"  (1845,)  "  Doctrine  of  Aliments,"  (1850,) 
"Circular  Motion  of  Life,"  (1852,)  and  other  similar 
works.  He  became  professor  of  physiology  and  an 
thropology  at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  of  physiology  at 
Zurich  in  1855.  Among  his  works  are  "  Light  and  Life," 
("Licht  und  Leben,"  1856,)  and  one  on  George  Forster, 
entitled  "Georg  Forster  der  Naturforscher  des  Volks," 
(1854.)  He  is  ranked  among  the  most  prominent  ad 
vocates  of  the  materialistic  philosophy,  (although  he 
recognizes  a  mixture  of  spiritual  life  with  the  material 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOLESWORTH 


1605 


MO  LI  NET 


life  of  the  universe.)  He  totally  rejects  the  idea  of  crea 
tion  in  the  ordinary  signification  of  the  term,  referring 
the  origin  of  all  the  species  of  animals  to  the  operation 
of  universal  and  unchangeable  physical  laws. 

Molesworth,  molz'worth,  (RoMERT,)  VISCOUNT,  a 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  horn  at  Dublin  in  1656.  He 
was  appointed  by  William  III.  a  member  of  his  privy 
council,  and  in  1692  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  Den 
mark.  He  published,  after  his  return,  an  "  Account 
of  Denmark,"  a  severe  criticism  on  the  government  and 
customs  of  the  Danes,  which  gave  great  offence  to  that 
people  but  was  very  popular  in  England.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  numbered  among  his 
friends  Locke  and  Lord  Shaftesbury.  Died  in  1725. 

See  WA I.POLE,  "  Royal  and  Noble  Authors  ;"  LODGE,  "  Peerage." 

Molesworth,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English 
statesman,  born  in  Surrey  in  1810.  Having  completed 
his  studies  at  a  German  university,  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  East  Cornwall  in  1832.  He  was  for  many 
years  associated  with  John  Stuart  Mill  as  editor  of  the 
"  Westminster  Review."  He  represented  Southwark  in 
Parliament  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  first  commissioner 
of  public  works  in  1853,  and  secretary  of  the  colonies 
in  July,  1855.  He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 
Besides  his  articles  in  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  Sir 
William  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of 
Hobbes. 

Moleville,  (.-\NTOIXK  FRANQOIS  BERTRAND.)  See 
BERTRAM)  DE  MOLLKVILLK. 

Moliere,  mo'le-aiii',  a  celebrated  French  comic  au 
thor  and  actor,  whose  original  name  was  Jean  Baptiste 
Poquelin,  (pok'la.x',)  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  151)1  of 
January,  1622.  He  received  instruction  in  private  from 
rhe  philosopher  Gassendi,  and  in  his  youth  assisted  his 
father,  who  was  a  dealer  in  tapestry,  (marchandtapissier.) 
He  became  valet-de-chambre  to  the  king,  Louis  XIII., 
about  1640.  Having  assumed  the  name  of  Moliere,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  comic  actor  about  1644,  and 
a  few  years  later  appeared  in  the  provinces  at  the  head 
of  a  small  troupe  which  he  had  formed.  His  first  regular 
drama  was  "The  Giddy-Head,"  ("  L'Etourdi,")  which 
was  performed  with  success  by  his  troupe  at  Lyons  in 
1653.  Attracted  to  the  capital  by  a  growing  ambition, 
and  favoured  with  royal  patronage,  he  opened  there  a 
theatre  in  1658.  His' "  Affected  Ladies,"  ("  Precieuses 
ridicules,")  a  satire  on  the  affected  style  and  euphuism 
which  were  then  in  fashion,  was  performed  with  great 
applause  in  1659.  "Sganarelle"  came  out  in  1660. 
His  fame  was  increased  by  his  "  School  for  Husbands," 
("ficole  des  Maris,"  1661,)  a  comedy  of  manners,  char 
acter,  and  intrigue.  He  produced  in  1666  "The  Mis 
anthrope,"  esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces.  "The 
dialogue  of  this,"  says  Hallam,  "is  uniformly  of  the 
highest  style  ;  the  female  and  indeed  all  the  characters 
are  excellently  conceived  and  sustained."  Still  more 
popular  was  the  "Hypocrite,"  ("  Tartuffe,"  1667,)  an 
original  creation  in  dramatic  poetry,  and  generally  con 
sidered  the  greatest  effort  of  his  genius.  He  was  the 
author  of  about  thirty  other  comedies,  in  verse  or  prose, 
among  which  "The  Bores,"  ("  Les  Facheux,"  i66t,j 
the  "School  for  Wives,"  ("ficole  des  Femmes,"  1662,) 
"Love  (or  Cupid)  as  Physician,"  ("L'Amour  Medecin," 
1665.)  "  Le  Medecin  malgre  lui,"  (1666,)  "  The  Miser," 
('•  L'Avare,"  1667,)  "  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme," 
(1670,)  "Learned  (or  Pedantic)  Ladies,"  ("  Femmes  sa- 
vantes,"  1672,)  and  "The  Imaginary  Invalid,  (or  Hypo 
chondriac,")  ("  Le  Malade  imaginaire,"  1673,)  are  greatly 
admired.  Died  in  1673. 

There  is  perhaps  in  the  whole  history  of  literature  no 
more  remarkable  instance  of  the  triumph  of  genius  than 
is  presented  to  us  in  the  career  of  Moliere.  Seldom,  if 
ever,  were  the  pride  and  tyranny  of  rank  more  predomi 
nant  than  in  France  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Yet  many  of  the  French  nobility  treated  Mo 
liere  as  a  companion  and  equal.  •'  Come  to  me  at  any 
hour  you  please,"  said  the  great  Prince  de  Comic  to  our 
author  :  "  you  have  but  to  announce  your  name  :  your 
visit  can  never  be  ill-timed."  (See  Scott's  "  Miscellanies.") 
The  success  of  "  Tartuffe"  was  a  signal  victory  achieved  in 
the  face  of  an  all-prevailing  bigotry,  which  was  strongly 
entwined  in  the  very  spirit  of  the  age  and  had  struck 


deep  root  into  the  heart  of  the  king  himself.  But  the 
castle  of  prejudice,  invincible  to  every  other  assault,  was 
fain  to  open  its  reluctant  gates  to  the  transcendent  ge 
nius  of  Moliere.  He  was  remarkable  not  merely  for  his 
wonderful  comic  talent,  but  for  his  admirable  delineation 
of  human  nature  as  it  appears  in  all  countries  and  all  ages. 
"  In  the  more  appropriate  merits  of  comedy,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "  in  just  and  forcible  delineation  of  character,  skilful 
contrivance  of  circumstances,  and  humorous  dialogue, 
we  must  award  him  the  prize."  The  same  eminent  critic 
thinks  "that  Shakspeare  had  the  greater  genius,  but 
perhaps  Moliere  has  written  the  best  comedies.''  He  was 
not  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  After  Moliere's 
death,  that  learned  body  placed  his  bust  in  their  hall, 
with  this  beautiful  and  appropriate  inscription  : 

"  Rien  ne  manque  4  sa  gloire  ;  il  manquait  a  la  notre."* 
See  GKIMAREST,  "Vie  de  J.  B.  Poquelin  He  Moliere,"  1705; 
VOLTAIRE,  "Vie  de  Moliere,"  etc..  1739:  LA  HARPK.  "  Idees  sur 
Moiiere  ;"  CAII.HAVA,  "  Etudessur  Moliere,"  1802  ;  J.  TASCHEREAU, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Mo'iere,"  1825  ;  JEAN  SYLVAIN 
BAII.I.V,  "  Eloge  de  Moliere,"  1770;  SAINTE-BEUVK,  "Portraits 
litteraires  :"  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "Lives  of  the  Most 
Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  MRS.  SHELLEY;"  Essay  on  Moliere, 
in  Scott's  "Miscellanies,"  vol.  i.,  and  the  same  article  in  the  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828;  PRESCOTT,  "Miscellanies;" 
LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  tor  July,  1845. 

Molieres,  de,  deh  mo'le-aiR',  (JOSEPH  PRIVAT,)  a 
French  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Taras- 
con  in  1677,  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Malebranche. 
He  succeeded  Varignon  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1723,  and  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1729.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  scientific  works.  It  is  related,  as 
an  instance  of  his  abstraction  of  mind,  that  when  a 
robber  one  day  entered  his  apartment,  Molieres  showed 
him  where  his  money  was  kept,  but  begged  him  not  to 
disturb  his  papers.  Died  in  1742. 

Molin,  mo'lax',  or  Dumoulin,  dii'moo'laN',  (JAC 
QUES,)  a  celebrated  French  physician,  born  near  Mende 
in  1666,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV. 
He  made  free  use  of  the  lancet  in  his  practice,  and  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  original  of  "  Dr.  San- 
grado"  in  Le  Sage's  "Gil  Bias."  On  his  death-bed  he 
said  to  his  attendants,  "  I  leave  behind  me  three  great 
physicians, — Diet,  Water,  and  Exercise."  Died  in  1755. 

See  "  Eloge  de  M.  Molin,"  1761. 

Molina,  mo-lee'na,  (GIOVANNI  IGNAZIO.)  a  naturalist, 
born  in  Chili  in  1740,  lived  many  years  at  Bologna.  He 
wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  Chili,"  (1782,) 
and  a  "Civil  History  of  Chili,"  (1787,)  both  in  Italian. 
Died  in  1829. 

Molina,  mo-lee'na,  (Luis,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
Jesuit,  born  in  New  Castile  about  1535,  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Ev'ora,  in  Portugal,  for  twenty  years.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  De  Concordia  Gratiae  et 
Liberi  Arbitrii,"  (1588,)  in  which  he  attempts  to  reconcile 
the  free  will  of  man  with  predestination.  This  treatise 
was  severely  assailed  by  the  Calvinists,  Dominicans,  and 
Jansenists,  and  a  bitter  controversy  ensued,  which  was 
partially  suppressed  by  Pope  Paul  V.  Died  about  1600. 

See  BOSSUET,  "  Avertissement  aux  Protestants;"  N.  ANTONIO, 
"  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Molina,  de.     See  ARGOTE  DE  MOLINA. 

Molina,  de,  COUNT.     See  CARLOS  OF  BOURUON. 

Molinaeus,  the  Latin  of  DUMOULIN,  which  see. 

Molinari.     See  MULINARI,  (STKFANO.) 

Molinari,  mo-le-ni'ree,  or  Muliiiari,  moo-le-na'ree, 
(GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  also 
CARACCINO,  born  at  Savigliano  in  1577;  died  in  1640. 

Moline  de  Saint-Yon,  mo'len'  deh  sa.\t'y6N', 
(ALEXANDRE  PIERRE,)  a  French  general  and  writer, 
bow  in  Lyons  in  1786.  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
November,  1845,  until  Ma>'»  :^47-  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse,"  (4  vols.,  1859.) 

Molinet,  mo'le'ni',  (JEAN,)  a  French  poet  and  histo 
rian  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  appointed  librarian 
to  Margaret  of  Austria,  and  historiographer  to  the  house 
of  Burgundy,  and  wrote  numerous  works  in  prose  and 
verse.  Died  in  1507. 

See  REIFFENBERG,  "  Memoire  sur  J.  Molinet,"  1835. 


"  Nothing  is  wanting  to  his  glory;  but  he  was  wanting  to  ours." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (fiJT'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOLINET 


1606 


MOMBR1SIO 


Molinet,  du,  du  mo'le'ni',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  an 
tiquary,  born  at  Chalons  in  1620,  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  the  Principal  Popes,  taken  from  Medals." 
Died  in  1687. 

Moliuetti,  mo-le-net'tee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Venice.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua  in  1649.  He 
wrote  "  On  the  Senses  and  their  Organs,"  ("  De  Sensibus 
et  eorum  Organis,"  1669.)  Died  in  1675. 

Molinier,  rm/le'ne-i',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator,  was  born  at 
Aries  in  1675.  He  published  a  translation  of  the  Psalms 
into  French  verse,  and  "Select  Sermons."  Died  in 

1745- 

Molinos.mo-lee'nos,  (MlGUEL,)  a  Spanish  theologian, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Quietists,  was  born  at  Saragossa 
about  1630.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Spiritual 
Guide,"  (1675,)  and  inculcates,  as  its  leading  doctrines, 
the  abstraction  of  the  mind  from  external  objects,  and 
the  contemplation  of  the  Deity.  The  book  was  con 
demned  by  the  Inquisition,  and  Molinos  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  from  which  he  was  released  by 
death  in  1696. 

See  HODGSON,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867  ; 
PLUQiiET,  "Dictionnaire  des  Heresies;"  SCHARLING,  "  Mystikeren 
M.  Molino's  Laere  <>g  Skjaebne,"  1852. 

Molitor,  mo'le'toR',  (GAHRIEL  JEAN  JOSKHI,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1770.  He  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  Swedish  Pomerania  in 
1807,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  cam 
paigns  from  1808  to  1814.  He  gave  in  his  adhesion  to 
the  Bourbons  after  the  restoration,  and  was  made  cheva 
lier  of  Saint  Louis.  He  commanded  the  second  corps 
of  the  army  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1823,  and  by 
his  skill  and  decision  soon  put  an  end  to  the  war.  He 
was  created  a  marshal  by  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in  1849. 

See  DE  COURCELLES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Molleiidorf  or  Moellendorf,  von,  fon  mol'len- 
douf,  (RICHARD  JOACHIM  HKINRICH,)  a  Prussian  com 
mander,  born  in  1725,  served  under  Frederick  the  Great 
in  the  principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
In  1794  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  as  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Prussian  army.  Died  in  1816. 

Moller,  mol'ler,  [Lat.  MOI.LK'RUS,]  (DANIKL  WIL- 
HELM,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Presburg  in  1642. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  metaphysics  at 
Altorf  in  1674,  and  was  made  a  count  palatine  by  the 
emperor  Leopold.  He  wrote  numerous  Latin  works, 
in  prose  and  verse.  Among  them  are  dissertations  on 
many  Latin  classic  authors.  Died  in  1712. 

See  "  Memoria  Molleri,"  1713. 

Moller,  (GEORG,)  a  German  architect,  born  in  Hano 
ver  in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  opera-house 
at  Darmstadt  and  the  theatre  at  Mentz.  He  published 
"Monuments  of  German  Architecture,"  (3  vols.,  1815- 
45,)  and  other  architectural  treatises.  Died  in  1852. 

Moller  01  Moeller,  mol'ler,  (JoHN,)  a  Danish  biog 
rapher,  born  at  Flensborg  in  1661.  He  published  "Cim- 
bria  Literata,"  containing  biographies  of  authors  born 
in  Sleswick-Holstein,  (3  vols.,  1744.)  Died  in  1725. 

Moller  01  Moeller,  (PETER  LUDWIG,)  a  Danish  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Aalborg  in  1814.  He  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Paris  in  1851.  Among  his  works  are  "Lyric 
Poems,"  (1840,)  and  "  The  Fall  of  the  Leaves,"  (1855.) 

Mollerus.     See  MOU.ER. 

Mollet,  mo'li',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  horticulturist, 
was  first  gardener  to  Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.,  and 
gave  the  designs  for  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  Fon- 
tainebleau,  and  Saint-Germain.  Died  about  1613. 

Mollevaut,  mol'vo',  (CHARLES  Louis,)  a  French  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Nancy  in  1776.  He  wrote  elegies, 
fables,  and  other  original  poems,  and  made  successful 
translations  from  the  Latin  of  Virgil's  "  vlineid"  and 
"Georgics,"  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  and  the  "Ele 
gies"  of  Tibullus  and  of  Catullus,  (al'l  in  verse.)  Died 
in  1844. 

Molleville,  de.     See  P>KRTRAND  DE  MOLLEVII.I.E. 

Mollien,  de,  deh  mo'leJ^N',  (NICOLAS  FRANCOIS,) 
COMTE,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Rouen  in  1758. 
He  was  created  minister  of  the  treasury  by  Napoleon 
in  1806.  He  published  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 


"  Memoires    d'un    Ministre  du  Tresor    public,"   (1780- 
1845.)     Died  in  1850. 

See  PROSPER  L>E  BARANTE,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Comte  Mollien," 
1850;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale;"  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  July,  1852. 

Mol-loy',  (CHARLES,)  an  Irish  dramatist  and  political 
writer,  born  in  Dublin,  became  editor  of  the  London 
journal  called  "  Common  Sense."  He  wrote  comedies 
entitled  "The  Coquette,"  "  Half- Pay  Officers,"  ami 
"The  Perplexed  Couple."  Died  in  1767. 

Mo'lo-eh  or  Mo'leeh,  [lleb.  ~\ 7D,j  a  heathen  duty 
worshipped  by  the  Ammonites  and  other  Oriental  tribes, 
who  offered  to  him  human  sacrifices. 

Molosse.     See  Moi.ossus. 

Mo-los'sus,  [Gr.  Mo/loaaiic;  Fr.  MOLOSSE,  mo']os>',  ] 
a  son  of  Pyrrhns  and  Andromache,  is  said  to  have 
reigned  in  Kpirus.  Molossia  is  supposed  to  have  de 
rived  its  name  from  him. 

Moltke,  molt'keh,  (A DAM  WILHF.LM,)  COUNT,  a 
Danish  statesman,  son  of  Joachim  Godske,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  1785.  He  was  minister  of  finance 
under  Christian  VIII.  tor  many  years.  He  resigned 
in  1848,  and  was  president  of  the  ministry  from  1848 
to  1852. 

Moltke,  (JOACHIM  GODSKE,)  COUNT,  a  Danish  states 
man,  and  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  born  at  Nyegaard 
in  1746,  became  minister  of  state  in  1781.  Died  in  1818. 

Moltke,  (MAGNUS,)  COUNT,  a  Danish  jurist  and 
writer,  born  in  1783.  He  published  a  "  fourney  in  Upper 
and  Middle  Italy,"  (1833,)  and  several  political  treaties. 

Moltke,  von,  fon  molt'keh,  (HELMUTH  KARL  LEO 
NARD,)  BARON,  a  Prussian  general,  eminent  as  a  strate 
gist,  was  bom  in  Mecklenburg  in  1800.  He  became 
major-general  in  1856,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1859. 
He  was  chief  of  the  royal  staff,  and  planned  the  campaign 
which  resulted  in  the  great  and  decisive  victory  of  Sa- 
dowa,  July  3,  1866.  He  directed  in  person  the  operations 
of  the  armies  which,  under  the  nominal  command  of  the 
king,  gained  in  France,  in  1870,  a  series  of  great  and 
memorable  victories,  for  a  notice  of  which  see  WILLIAM  I. 

Moltke,  von,  fon  molt'keh,  (KARL,)  COUNT,  a  Danish 
absolutist  politician,  born  in  1800;  died  in  1858. 

Moltzer,  molt'ser,  (JAKOH,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  at  Strasburg  in  1503.  He  translated  Tacitus  into 
German,  and  edited  Homer.  Died  in  1558- 

Molyn,  (PETER.)     See  TEMPESTA. 

Molyneux,   mol'e-nooks',    (Wn.i.iAM,)    an   eminent 
mathematician,  born  in  Dublin  in  1656.     After  studying, 
law  in  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  for  three  years,  he?' 
returned  to  Ireland  in  1678.     In  1683  he  aided  in  organ-x 
izing   the   Dublin    Philosophical    Society,   of  which   he1; 
afterwards  became   president.     For   his  attainments  in  hi 
the  exact  sciences  he  was  elected  in  1685  a  Fellow  of  ?" 
the  Royal  Society,  whose  "Transactions"  contain  many  ;[. 
treatises  composed  by  him  on  various  subjects.    In  1692  5 
he  produced  his   principal   work,  "  Dioptrica  Nova,"  a  ^ 
treatise  on  optics,  which  was  revised  by  Halley.     It  was  ;. 
the  first  English  work  on  optics  that  had  appeared,  and    ^< 
was  for  a  long  time  the   principal  manual  of  opticians.    ~ 
He  represented   the  University  of  Dublin  in  the  Irish    » 
Parliament  a  few  years  before  his  death.     Died  in  1698.   - 

Molza,  niol'/a,  or  Molsa,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1489.  He  wrote  Latin 
elegies  of  great  elegance,  and  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian,  chiefly  of  a  licentious  character.  Died  in  1544. 

Molza,  (TARQUINIA,)  an  Italian  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  knowledge  of  mathematics,  philosophy,  and 
languages,  was  a  granddaughter  of  the  preceding.  She 
made  translations  from  Plato,  and  wrote  poems  in  Latin 
and  Italian.  The  Roman  senate  conferred  upon  her  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  Tasso  gave  the  name  of  Molza 
to  his  "Dialogue  on  Love."  Died  in  1617. 

See  HILARION  DE  COSTE,  "  filoges  des  Dames  illustres ;"  GIN- 
GUENK,  "  Histoii-e  litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Mombelli,  mom-bel'lee,  (  DOMENICO,  )  an  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  near  Vercelli  in  1751.  He 
was  noted  as  a  tenor  singer.  Died  in  1835. 

Momboir.     See  MAUHURNE. 

Mombrisio,  mom-buee'se-o,  [Lat.  MOMBRI'TIUS,] 
(Bo.NiNo,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Milan 
in  1424.  He  published  several  editions  of  the  classics, 


,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOMBRITIUS 


1607 


MONCRIEFF 


which  are  highly  esteemed,  and  "Lives  of  the  Saints," 
(••  Sanctuarium.")  Died  about  1482. 

Monibritius.     See  MOMBRISIO. 

Momigny,  de,  deli  mo'men'ye',  (JEROME  JOSEPH,)  a 
FYench  composer  and  musician,  born  at  Philippeville  in 
1766.  lie  published  several  works  on  the  theory  of 
music.  Died  in  1838. 

Mommsen,  mom'sen,  (JOHANNES  TYCHO,)  a  German 
scholar,  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  in  1819.  He 
produced  a  good  translation  of  Pindar  into  German 
verse,  (1846,)  and  "Essays  on  Shakspeare,"  (1855.) 

Mommsen,  (THEODOR,)  a  German  jurist,  historian, 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Sleswick-Holstein  in  1817.  He 
became  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Breslau  in  1854. 
Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named  "The  Mone 
tary  System  of  the  Romans,"  "Collection  of  Neapolitan 
Inscriptions,"  (1852,)  and  "Roman  History,"  ("  R6- 
mische  Geschichte,"  3  vols.,  1857.)  He  is  an  associate 
of  the  French  Institute,  and  a  member  of  other  foreign 
Academies. 

Momoro,  mo'mo'ro',  (ANTOINE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Besai^on  in  1756.  He  was  guillotined 
as  a  He'bertist  in  1794. 

Mo'mus,  [Gr.  Mw^of,]  in  classic  mythology,  was  the 
god  of  mockery,  ridicule,  and  irony,  and  was  called  the 
son  of  Night,  (Nox.)  He  is  said  to  have  criticised  the 
gods  with  great  audacity,  and  to  have  censured  Vulcan 
because,  when  he  (according  to  one  of  the  ancient  myths) 
formed  a  man,  he  did  not  place  a  window  or  door  in  his 
breast,  so  that  his  secret  thoughts  might  be  perceived. 

Mona,  mo'na,  Moui,  mc/nee,  or  Monio,  mo'ne-o, 
( DOMEX ico.)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1550; 
died  in  1602. 

Monagas,  mo-na'gas,  (Don  JACI.XTO,)  a  South  Amer 
ican  commander,  born  in  Venezuela  in  1785,  was  one 
of  the  principal  liberators  of  Colombia.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1819. 

Monantheuil,  de,  delj  mo'nS.x'tuI'  or  mo'nSN'tuh'- 
ye,  [Lat.  MONANTHO'LIUS,]  (HENRI,)  a  French  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Rheims  about  1536.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  College,  Paris, 
where  he  numbered  among  his  pupils  Lamoignon  and 
De  Thou.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  treat 
ises  in  Latin.  Died  in  1606. 

See  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Monantholius.     See  MONANTHEUIL. 

Monardes,  mo-nau'des,  (NICOLAS,)  a  Spanish  phy 
sician  and  botanist,  was  a  native  of  Seville.  His  prin 
cipal  work  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Medicines  of  the 
New  World."  Linnaeus  named  in  his  honour  the  genus 
Mcnarda.  Died  in  1578. 

Mon-bod'do,  (JAMES  BURNF.T,)  LORD,  a  learned 
Scottish  jurist  and  eccentric  writer,  born  in  Kincardine- 
shire  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Aberdeen,  and  subsequently 
at  the  University  of  Groningen,  and  was  appointed,  after 
his  return  to  Scotland,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
session,  (1767.)  He  published  (1774)  his  "Dissertation 
on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,"  in  which  he 
manifests  an  enthusiastic  admiration  for  the  literature 
and  philosophy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  advances  the 
theory  that  the  human  race  was  originally  a  species  of 
monkey.  In  his  "Ancient  Metaphysics,  or  the  Science 
of  Universals,"  (1779,)  Lord  Monboddo  has  still  further 
developed  the  same  ideas.  He  was  intimate  with  Dr. 
Johnson  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  time,  by  whom 
he  was  highly  esteemed  for  the  excellence  of  his  charac 
ter.  Died  in  1799. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  Apiil,  1791,  March,  1796,  and 
Januaiy,  1798;  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1799;  TYTLER,  "  Life  of 
Lord  Kanies. " 

Moiibron,   de,  deh  mis-'bRoN',    (N.   Fougeret— 

foozh'ra',)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Peronne,  wrote 
"La  Henriacle  travestie,"  (1745,)  and  "  Le  Cosmopol," 
(1750.)  He  was  extremely  censorious  and  misanthrop 
ical.  Died  in  1761. 

Mcncada,  de,  da  mon-ka'na,  (Don  FRANCISCO,) 
Count  of  Osuna,  a  celebrated  Spanish  general  and  his 
torian,  born  at  Valencia  in  1586,  was  appointed  general 
issimo  of  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Goch,  in  1635.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  valuable  "History  of  the  Expedition  of  the 


Catalans  against  the  Greeks  and  Turks,"  (1623,)  and  othei 
works. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 
Moncada,  de,  written  also  Moncade,  (Huco,)  a 
Spanish  commander,  born  about  1466.  He  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Moors  and  Turks,  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Sicily  by  Charles  V.  about  1522,  and  was 
defeated  in  July,  1524,  in  a  naval  battle,  by  Andrew 
Doria,  who  commanded  the  French  fleet.  In  1526  he 
marched  to  Rome  and  liberated  the  imprisoned  pope, 
Clement  VII.,  on  condition  that  he  should  abandon  the 
French  party.  He  was  killed  in  a  sea-fight  near  Naples 
in  1528. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais  ;"  ROBERTSON,  "  Historv 
of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  iv.  and  v. 

Moncalvo,  II.     See  CACCIA. 

Monceaux,  de,  deh  m6N''s5',  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Arras,  flourished  about  1570-90.  He 
wrote  "  Bucolica  Sacra,"  (1587,)  and  other  works  in 
verse. 

Moncel,  du,  dii  mdx'sel',  (THEODOSE  ACHILI.E 
Louis,)  VICOMTE,  a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris  in 
1821.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Expose  des 
Applications  de  1'filectricite,"  (3  vols.,  1857.)  He  has 
given  special  attention  to  electro-magnetism,  and  has 
invented  several  sorts  of  electrical  apparatus. 

Moncey,  de,  deh  mdN'sV,  (BoN  ADRIEN  JEANNOT,) 
Due  de  Conegliano,  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Besan- 
5011  in  1754.  He  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1793  and 
1794,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  in 
Spain,  Austria,  and  Italy,  and  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1804.  He  soon  after  obtained  the  title  of  Duke  of  Cone 
gliano,  and  the  grand  cordon  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
Tie  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers  under  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  was  appointed  gouverneur  des  Invalides  in 
1834.  Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  DE  COURCEI.LES,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais  ;"  "  £"loge  du  Mar^chal  Moncej," 
by  KARON  C.  DUPIN. 

Monchy.     See  HOCQUINCOURT. 

Monck,  miink,  (CHARLES  STANLEY,)  VISCOUNT,  an 
English  peer,  born  in  Ireland  in  1819.  He  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  a  Liberal  in  1852,  became  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1855,  anc^  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada  and  British  America  in  1861.  He 
was  made  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1866. 

Monclar,  de,  deh  m6N'kltR',  (JEAN  PIERRE  FRAN 
gois  de  Ripert — deh  re'paik',)  MARQUIS,  an  eminent 
French  magistrate  and  writer,  was  born  at  Apt,  in  Pro 
vence,  in  1711.  He  became  procureur-general  in  1732. 
From  about  1749  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous 
assertion  of  the  liberty  of  the  Protestants,  and  in  1762 
he  exposed  the  tendencies  of  the  Jesuits,  in  a  work 
which  Villemain  pronounces  a  master-piece.  Died  in 

1773- 

Monconys,  moN'ko'ne',  (BALTHASAR,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Lyons  in  1611,  visited  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  an  account  of  those  countries.  Died  in  1665. 

Monconiet,  m6N/koR/n&',  (BALTHASAR,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Rouen  about  1615  ;  died  after  1670. 

Moncreiff  or  Moncrieff,  mon-kreef,  (Sir  HENRY 
WKI.LWOOO,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1750,  became  minister  of  Saint  Cuthbert's, 
Edinburgh,  in  1775.  ^e  was  a  zealous  Whig,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  controversies  of  the 
time,  in  relation  to  which  he  published  several  treatises. 
He  also  wrote  "  Discourses  on  the  Evidence  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Revelations,"  (1815,)  and  an  "Ac 
count  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John  Erskine,"  (1818.) 
Died  in  1827. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1828;  CHAMBERS, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moncrieff,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  about  1812.  He  was  lord  advocate 
for  Scotland  from  1851  to  1858,  and  was  re-appointed  in 
1859.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  to  Parliament, 
as  a  Liberal,  by  the  voters  of  Edinburgh. 

Moncrieff,  (Sir  JAMES  WELLWOOD,)  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer  and  judge,  born  about  1776,  was  a  son 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MO  NCR  IF 


1608 


MONK 


of  the  preceding.     He  became  a  judge  of  session,  and 
lord  justiciary.     Died  in  1851. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Moncrif,  de,  deh  m6N'kReP,  (FRANgois  AUGUSTIN 
PARADIS,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1687, 
was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Louis  XV.,  and  became 
secretary  to  Count  d'Argenson.  lie  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1733,  and  was  intimate  with  Vol 
taire,  Marmontel,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  the 
time.  He  was  the  author  of  a  humorous  work  entitled  a 
"History  of  Cats,"  etc.,  "The  Rival  Souls,"  a  romance, 
"Essay  on  the  Necessity  and  Means  of  Pleasing,"  and  a 
number  of  operas,  songs,  and  ballads.  Died  in  1770. 

See  GRIMM,  "  Correspondar.ee  Litteraire  ;"  D'ALKMBERT,  "  His- 
toire  de  1'Acadt'mie  Franchise.", 

Moudejar,  de,  da  mon-da-iiaR',  (CASPAR  IHANEZ  DE 
SKGOVIA,  PERSALTA  Y  MENDO/A,)  MARQUIS,  a  Spanish 
historian,  who  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Cronica  del 
Key  Don  Alonzo  el  Sabio,"  (1783.)  Died  after  1775. 

Mondejar,  de,  (!NIOO  Lopez  de  Meiidoza — lo'- 
peth  da  men-do'tha,)  MARQUIS,  a  distinguished  Spanish 
commander  under  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  was  appointed 
Captain-General  of  Granada,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  the  Moors. 

See  PRKSCOTT,  "History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Mondino  de  Luzzi.     See  MUNDINUS. 

Mondcmville.     See  C ASSAM KA. 

Mondory  or  Mondori,  miN'do're',  a  French  actor, 
born  at  Orleans  about  1580,  is  called  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  French  theatre.  Died  in  1651. 

Mondragoii,  inon-dKa-gon',  (CuisronAL,)  a  brave 
Spanish  general,  surnamed  THE  GOOD  MONDRAGON, 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  Netherlanders,  and 
rose  to  be  governor  of  Antwerj).  Died  in  1596. 

See  MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  chap.  xxxi. 

Moiie,  mo'neh,  (FRANZ  JOSEPH,)  a  German  writer, 
born  near  Heidelberg  in  1792,  became  professor  of  his 
tory  in  that  city  in  1819.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Paganism  in  Northern  Europe,"  (1822,)  and  other  his 
torical  works. 

Monet,  mo'nV,  (PHILTBERT,)  a  French  scholar  and 
philologist,  born  at  Bonneville,  in  Savoy,  in  1566.  He 
wrote  "  Ligatures  des  Langues  Francoise  et  Latine," 
(1629,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1643. 

Mo-ne'ta,  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to  Juno. 
The  temple  of  Juno  Moneta  at  Rome  was  used  as  a 
mint,  which  in  Latin  is  called  moneta. 

See  SMITH,  "Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

Moneti,  mo-na'tee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Cortona  about  1635  ;  died  in  1712. 

Monfalcon,  mi.N'ftl'kox',  (JEAN  BAI>TISTE,)  a  French 
physician  and  historian,  born  in  Lyons  in  1792.  He 
practised  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Code  moral  des  Ouvriers,"  (1835,)  and  a 
"  History  of  Lyons,"  (2  vols.,  1846-47.) 

Moiigault,  m6.\/go/,  (NICOLAS  HUHERT,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1674.  He  made  translations 
of  the  "  History" of  Herodian  and  the  "Letters  of  Cicero 
to  Atticus."  The  latter  is  particularly  esteemed,  and  the 
notes  accompanying  it  are  said  to  have  furnished  Mid- 
dleton  with  important  matter  for  his  "  Life  of  Cicero." 
Moiigault  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Died  in  1746. 

Monge,  moNzh,  (GASPAKD,)  Comte  de  Peluse,  a  cele 
brated  French  savant,  and  the  creator  of  descriptive 
geometry,  was  born  at  Beaune  in  1746.  Soon  after  he 
left  the  College  of  Lyons  he  obtained  a  place  in  the  col 
lege  of  military  engineers  at  Mezieres.  Having  by  his 
skill  in  geometry  made  an  important  improvement  in 
the  process  used  in  the  art  of  fortification,  he  became, 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  professor  of  mathematics  and 
of  natural  philosophy  at  Mezieres.  While  he  filled 
these  chairs  with  great  credit,  he  gradually  perfected 
the  application  of  geometry  to  the  arts  of  construc 
tion,  which  is  now  called  descriptive  geometry.  In 
1780  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci 
ences,  and  in  1783  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
employed  as  examiner  of  candidates  for  the  marine,  for 
whose  use  he  wrote  an  able  "Treatise  on  Statics."  His 
political  affinities  in  the  Revolution  were  with  the  re 


publicans,  who  appointed  him  minister  of  the  marine  in 
1792.  He  resigned  in  April,  1793,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  zealous  services  in  the  fabrication  of  arms, 
gunpowder,  and  other  materials,  which  were  urgently  re 
quired  for  the  national  defence.  In  1795  he  published 
the  first  edition  of  his  excellent  "  Descriptive  Geometry," 
and  assisted  in  organizing  the  Polytechnic  School,  in 
which  he  taught  geometry  and  analysis.  Monge,  Fou 
rier,  and  Berthollet  were  the  directors  of  the  scientific 
commission  which  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in 
1798.  Aided  by  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  they 
executed  the  geodesic  and  monumental  description  of 
that  country.  Having  returned  home  with  Bonaparte, 
he  presided  over  the  arrangement  and  publication  of  the 
great  work  by  which  French  science  and  art  illustrated 
Egypt.  During  the  Napoleonic  regime  he  became  a 
senator,  Count  of  Peluse,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  In  1816  he  was  expelled  from  the  Institute 
on  account  of  his  political  antecedents.  He  died  in  1818. 
He  left  an  important  work  called  "  Application  of  Analy 
sis  to  Geometry."  His  discoveries  in  geometry  form  an 
epoch  in  that  science,  lor  which  he  is  said  to  have  done 
more  than  any  one  since  the  time  of  Archimedes. 

See  D.  F.  ARAGO,  "Biographic  de  G.  Monce,"  1853;  CHARLES 
DUPIN,  "  filoge  de  Monge,"  1849:  DUPIN  AINE,  "  Essai  historique 
surles  Services  de  Monge,"  i8ig;  WAI.CKENAER,  "  Notice  historique 
sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  Monge,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Mongez,  m6>i'zha',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  archaeolo 
gist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1747.  He  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  Names  and  Attributes  of  the  Infernal  Deities," 
and  other  works.  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  Died  in  1835. 

Mongez,  (MARIE  JOSEPHINE  ANGEUQUE  LEVOI.,)  a 
French  artist  of  great  merit,  born  near  Paris  in  1775. 
was  the  wife  of  the  preceding.  She  studied  painting 
under  Regnault  and  David.  Among  her  best  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Astyanax,"  "Orpheus  in  Hades,"  and 
"Perseus  and  Andromeda."  -Died  in  1855. 

Mongitore,  mon-je-to'ra,  (ANTONIO,)  nn  Italian  biog 
rapher  and  priest,  born  at  Palermo  in  1663.  lie  pub 
lished  "Bibliotheca  Sicula,"  (2  vols.,  1708-14,)  which 
contains  notices  of  Sicilian  authors,  ancient  and  modern. 
Died  in  1743. 

Monglave,  de,  deh  moN'glfv',  (FRANC.OIS  EUGENE 
GARAY,)  a  French  novelist  and  historian,  bom  at  Bayonne 
in  1796. 

Moni.     See  MONA. 

Mon'i-ca,  |  Fr.  MONIQUE,  mo'nek',]  S  AINT,  the  mother 
of  Saint  Augustine,  was  born  in  332  A.D.  She  was  edu 
cated  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  became  eminent  for  her 
virtue  and  piety.  She  lived  at  Tagaste,  in  Nmnidia,  and 
had  several  children.  Died  at  Ostia  in  387  A.I). 

See  SAINT  AUGUSTINE,  "  Confessions  ;"  KARL  BRAUNK.  "  Monica 
nnd  Augustinus,"  1846:  PETIT,  "  Histoire  de  Sainte-Monique," 
1848. 

Monier,  mo'ne-a',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Blois  in  1639;  died  in  1703. 

Moniglia,  mo-nel'ya,  (GIOVANNI  ANDREA,)  an  Ital 
ian  dramatic  poet  and  physician,  born  at  Florence  about 
1640;  died  in  1700. 

Mon'i-ma,  |Gr.  Movi/ir/,]  a  beautiful  Greek  woman, 
who  became  a  wife  of  Mithridates  the  Great.  She  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  that  king  in  72  H.C.,  to  prevent 
her  from  being  captured  by  the  victorious  Romans. 

Moniiio.     See  FLORIDA  BLANCA. 

Monio.     See  MONA. 

Monique.     See  MONICA. 

Monk,  miink,  (GEORGE,)  Duke  of  Albemarle,  a  suc 
cessful  English  general,  born  in  1608,  was  the  son  of 
Sir  Thomas  Monk,  of  Merton,  Devonshire.  After  fight 
ing  in  the  service  of  Holland,  he  returned  to  England 
about  the  age  of  thirty.  In  the  civil  war  he  bore  arms 
for  Charles  I.,  and  had  acquired  some  reputation  as  an 
able  officer  when  he  was  made  prisoner  at  Nantwich  in 
1644  by  the  Roundheads,  who  confined  him  in  the  Tower 
of  London  more  than  a  year.  Having  accepted  a  com 
mission  from  the  Parliament,  he  commanded  a  repub 
lican  army  in  the  north  of  Ireland  between  1646  and 
1650.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Cromwell  at 
Dtmbar,  in  1650,  and  the  next  year  was  left  in  Scotland 
as  commander  of  an  army,  with  which  he  speedily  com- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MONK 


1609 


MONOD 


pleted  tne  reduction  of  that  country.  Hume  states  that 
he  put  to  the  sword  all  the  inhabitants  of  Dundee,  which 
he  had  taken  by  assault ;  though  he  elsewhere  says  his 
temper  was  humane  and  his  moderation  remarkable. 
In  1653  the  government  showed  their  confidence  in  his 
skill  by  selecting  him  to  co-operate  with  Admiral  Blake 
in  a  naval  war  against  the  Dutch.  He  commanded  in 
the  sea-fight  where  Van  Trump  was  defeated  and  killed. 
In  16^4  he  was  successful  in  his  efforts  to  enforce  the 
will  and  authority  of  the  Protector  in  Scotland.  At  the 
death  of  Oliver,  in  1658,  Monk  proclaimed  Richard 
Cromwell  as  his  successor.  When  the  officers  of  the 
army  deposed  Richard  and  restored  the  Long  Par 
liament,  he  acquiesced,  and  retained  command  of  the 
army  in  Scotland.  The  royalists  and  republicans  so 
licited  his  aid  in  the  impending  crisis  ;  but  he  kept  all 
parties  in  suspense  by  his  dissimulation  or  irresolu 
tion.  About  the  beginning  of  1660  he  marched  towards 
London,  ostensibly  to  support  the  civil  power  against 
Lambert's  army.  "Cold-blooded  and  taciturn,"  says 
Macaulay,  "zealous  for  no  polity  and  for  no  religion,  he 
maintained  an  impenetrable  reserve"  when  he  was  im 
plored  to  restore  peace  to  the  nation.  Having  cautiously 
removed  from  command  those  whom  he  distrusted,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration,  he  declared  for  a 
free  Parliament,  which  soon  assembled,  amidst  general 
joy  and  exultation.  Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  king 
in  May,  1660,  and  rewarded  the  services  of  Monk  by 
creating  him  Duke  of  Albemarle.  In  1666  Monk  main 
tained  his  reputation  in  a  great  naval  battle  against  the 
Dutch.  He  died  in  1670,  leaving  a  son,  at  whose  death 
the  family  became  extinct.  Hume,  after  a  eulogy  of  his 
character,  says,  "  I  confess,  however,  that  Dr.  Douglas 
has  shown  me  an  original  letter  of  his,  containing  very 
earnest  and  certainly  false  protestations  of  his  zeal  for 
a  commonwealth." 

See  "State  Papers  of  Charles  II. ."edited  by  MRS.  GREEN,  Lon 
don,  1866:  GUIZOT,  "Memoirs  of  Monk;"  "The  Life  of  Genera] 
Monk,"  by  THOMAS  SKEI.TON;  T.  SKINNER,  "Life  of  General 
Monk:"  GUMBLE,  "Life  of  General  Monk,"  1671;  CLARENDON, 
"  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  HAI.I.AM,  "Constitutional  History;" 
MACAUI.AY,  "  Histoiy  of  England  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
xiii.,  (1826;)  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Monk,  (JAMKS  HENRY,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  born  at  Huntingford  in  1784.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  about  1830.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bentley," 
(1831.)  Died  in  1856. 

Monk,  (MARY  MOI.ESWORTH,)  a  distinguished  writer, 
was  a  daughter  of  Robert,  Lord  Molesworth,  and  was 
married  to  George  Monk,  an  Irish  gentleman.  She  died 
in  1715,  leaving  a  collection  entitled  "  Marinda  :  Poems 
and  Translations  on  Several  Occasions,"  (1716.) 

See  CIDBER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Monmerque,  mo.N'meVki',  (Louis  JEAN  NICOLAS,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "  Biographic  Universelle"  of  Mi- 
chaud,  edited  the  "  Letters  of  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
(10  vols.,  1819,)  and  published  other  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1833.  l^ied 
in  1860. 

Monmorel,  de,  deh  miN'mo'reK,  (CHARLES  le 
Bourg — leh  boon,)  a  popular  French  preacher,  born  in 
Normandy;  died  in  1719. 

Moumouth.     See  GEOFFREY  OK  MON MOUTH. 

Moiimouth,  EARL  OF.    See  MORDAUNT,  and  CAREY, 

(HENRY.) 

Monmouth,  mon'miith,  (JAMES  SCOTT,)  DUKE  OF, 
born  in  1649,  was  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  Eng 
land.  His  mother's  name  was  Lucy  Walters.  He  married 
about  1665  Anne  Scott,  Duchess  of  Buccleuch,  said  to 
have  been  the  richest  heiress  in  the  kingdom,  and  as 
sumed  her  name.  He  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Buc 
cleuch,  and  was  loaded  with  royal  favours.  His  personal 
advantages  and  agreeable  manners  rendered  him  very 
popular.  "Though  a  libertine,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  won 
the  hearts  of  the  Puritans."  A  rivalry  or  jealousy  arose 
between  him  and  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James 
II.,  through  whose  influence  Monmouth  was  discarded 
from  court.  He  was  in  Holland  when  Charles  II.  died, 
(1684.)  A  report  that  Charles  II.  had  married  Lucy  Wal 
ters  privately  was  credulously  received  by  the  populace, 
who  regarded  Monmouth  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the 


throne  and  the  champion  of  the  Protestant  cause.  With 
a  party  of  armed  exiles  he  invaded  England  in  June,  1685, 
and  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.  He  was  received 
with  enthusiasm  by  the  people,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  royal  troops  at  Axminster;  but  he  was  completely 
defeated  at  Sedgemoor,  July  6,  and  captured  a  few  days 
later.  Having  been  taken  into  the  presence  of  King 
James,  he  threw  himself  at  his  feet,  and,  with  abject 
spirit,  begged  for  life  at  any  price,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
executed  in  July,  1685. 

See  M  ACAULAY,  "  Histoiy  of  England,"  vol.  i.  ;  GEORGE  ROBERTS, 
"  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,"  1844. 

Momiet,  mo'ni',  (ANTOINE  GRIMOALD,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1734,  was  appointed  in 
spector-general  of  mines.  He  opposed  and  undervalued 
the  discoveries  of  Lavoisier,  Berthollet,  and  others,  and 
thus  injured  his  own  reputation.  He  published  a  "  Treat 
ise  on  the  Solution  of  Metals,"  (1775,)  "Historical  and 
Political  Memoir  on  tne  Mines  of  France,"  (1791,)  and 
numerous  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1817. 

Monnet,  (Louis  CLAUDE,)  BARON,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1766.  He  commanded  at  Flushing  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1809.  For  this  ill  success  he 
was  condemned  to  death  ;  but  he  was  then  a  prisoner  in 
England.  Died  in  1819. 

Monnier,  mo'ne-a',  (HENRI  BONAVENTURE,  )  a 
French  litterateur,  comedian,  and  caricaturist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1805.  He  represented  and  caricatured  the  life 
and  manners  of  the  common  people  with  the  pen,  and 
published  several  volumes  of  "Scenes  populaires  des- 
sinees  a  la  Plume,"  (1830-46.)  Among  his  works  is 
"Memoires  de  M.  Prudhotume,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Momiier,  (JEAN  CHARLES,)  COMTE,  a  French  gen 
eral,  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1758.  He  led  a  division  at 
Marengo  in  June,  1800.  Died  in  1816. 

Monnier,  (Louis  GABRIEL,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Besan£on  in  1733;  died  at  Dijon  in  1804. 

Monnier,  de,  deh  mo'ne-^',  (MARIE  THERESE  Ri 
chard  de  Ruffey — re'shf  u'  deh  ril'li',)  MARQUISE,  a 
French  lady,  known  under  the  name  of  SOPHIE,  and 
celebrated  in  consequence  of  her  connection  with  Mira- 
beau,  was  born  at  Pontarlier  in  1754.  Died  in  1789. 
(See  MIRAHEAU.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Monnier,  Le.     See  LEMONNIER. 

Monnier,  Le,  leh  mo'ne-i',  (  PIERRE,)  a  French  savant, 
born  in  Normandy  about  1675,  published  a  work  en 
titled  "Course  of  Philosophy."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in  1757. 

Monnoie  or  Monnoye,  de  la,  deh  It  mo'nwa', 
(BERNARD,)  a  French  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1641.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Duel 
Abolished,"  which  obtained  the  first  prize  ever  awarded 
by  the  French  Academy.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
that  institution  in  1713.  He  also  published  poems  in 
Latin  and  French,  and  several  critical  treatises.  Died 
in  1728. 

See  R.  DE  JUVIGNY,  "Memoire  historique  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  La 
Monnoye." 

Monnoyer,  mo'nwa'ya',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  cele 
brated  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  at  Lille,  in 
Flanders,  in  1635.  Having  visited  Paris,  he  was  em 
ployed  in  the  decoration  of  Versailles  and  the  Trianon. 
He  afterwards  repaired  to  England,  where  he  executed 
some  of  his  best  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  flower-border  of  a  mirror  at  Kensington,  and  the 
decorations  of  Montagu  House.  His  flower-pieces  have 
never  been  surpassed  for  brilliancy  of  colouring  and  free 
and  graceful  grouping.  He  died  in  1699,  leaving  a  son, 
ANTOINE,  who  was  also  a  flower-painter. 

See  R.  DUMESNII.,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangnis." 

Monod,  mo'nod',  (ADOLi'HE, )  an  eminent  Swiss 
Protestant  minister,  born  about  1800.  He  lectured  on 
theology  and  Hebrew  at  the  College  of  Montauban  from 
1836  to  1852,  and  be.came  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Paris  in  1853.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
a*  a  preacher  and  moralist,  and  wrote  numerous  religious 
treatises.  He  belonged  to  the  most  orthodox  school  of 
French  Protestants.  Died  in  1856. 

Monod,  (FREDERIC,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister, 
born  at  Monnaz,  in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  1794,  was  a 


*  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONOD 


1610 


MONROSE 


brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1832  pastor 
of  the  Protestant  sect  called  "  fivangelistes  libres,"  in 
Paris.  He  edited  for  many  years  "  The  Archives  of 
Christianity,"  and  published  a  number  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1863. 

Monod,  (JEAN,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1765,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Paris,  and  in  1830  became  presi 
dent  of  the  Consistory  of  the  Reformed  Church.  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle"  many 
notices  of  eminent  Swiss  writers,  etc.  Died  in  1836. 

Moiipou,  mi.N'poo',  (IIipPOLYTK.,)  a  French  com 
poser  and  singer,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  composed 
popular  ballads  and  operas,  among  which  is  "  Les  deux 
Reines,"  (1835.)  Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mon-ro',  (ALEXANDER,  distinguished  as  Primus,  i.e. 
the  "first,")  an  eminent  physician  and  anatomist,  born 
in  London  in  1697.  He  studied  successively  in  London, 
Paris,  and  at  Leyden  under  Boerhaave,  and  was  ap 
pointed,  after  his  return,  demonstrator  of  anatomy  to 
the  Surgeons'  Company  at  Edinburgh.  The  lectures  he 
delivered  at  this  time  won  for  him  a  high  reputation, 
and  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  founding  the  Medical 
School  of  Edinburgh.  Under  his  direction  also  was 
established  the  Royal  Infirmary  of  that  city,  in  which 
he  gave  clinical  lectures  on  surgery.  He  published  in 
1726  his  "Osteology,  or  Treatise  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 
Bones,"  which  passed  through  numerous  editions  and 
was  translated  into  French  and  German.  Among  his 
other  works  are  an  "  Essay  on  Comparative  Anatomy," 
(1744,)  and  "Account  of  the  Inoculation  of  Small-Pox 
in  Scotland,"  (1765.)  Dr.  Monro  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Surgery  in  Paris.  Died  in  1767. 

See  A.  DUNCAN,  "Account  of  the  Life.  etc.  of  Alexander  Monro," 
1780;  "Life  of  Alexander  Monro,"  prefixed  to  his  works ;  CHAM 
BERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Monro,  (ALEXANDER  Sccundus,  or  the  "second,") 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1732. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  the  chair  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1759.  He 
died  in  1817,  leaving  a  number  of  medical  treatises  of 
great  merit.  Among  these  we  may  name  "Observations 
on  the  Structure,  etc.  of  the  Nervous  System,"  (1783,) 
and  "  Structure  and  Physiology  of  Fishes,"  (1785.) 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Monro,  (ALEXANDER  Terthis,  or  the  "third,")  a 
physician,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edin 
burgh  about  1774.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Edinburgh,  and  published  several  works  on  anatomy 
and  medicine.  Died  in  1859. 

Monro,  (DONALD,)  brother  of  Alexander,  (1732-1817,) 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1729.  He  was  appointed  chief 
physician  to  the  army,  which  he  accompanied  to  Ger 
many  in  1761.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
treatise  "On  the  Means  of  Preserving  the  Health  of 
Soldiers."  Died  in  1802. 

Monro,  (JoHN,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Green 
wich  in  1715,  was  the  author  of  "Remarks  on  Battle's 
Treatise  on  Madness."  Died  in  1791. 

Monroe,  mun-ro',  (JAMES,)  an  American  statesman, 
and  the  fifth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  April  28,  1758.  lie 
was  a  son  of  Spence  Monroe,  a  planter,  was  educated  at 
William  and  Mary  College,  and  entered  the  army  as  a 
cadet  in  1776.  He  soon  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  army 
of  Washington,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Harlem 
Heights  and  White  Plains.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Trenton,  December,  1776,  and  for  his  conduct 
there  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain.  As  aide- 
de-camp  to  Lord  Stirling,  he  served  with  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  September,  1777,  and  at  that 
of  Monmouth,  June,  1778.  Having  lost  his  rank  in  the 
regular  army  by  becoming  an  aide  to  Lord  Stirling,  he 
retired  from  the  service  in  1778,  and  studied  law  under 
Thomas  Jefferson.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  in  1782,  and  a  delegate  to  the 
General  Congress  in  1783  for  three  years.  He  married, 
about  1785,  a  Miss  Kortright,  of  New  York. 


As  a  member  of  the  Convention  of  Virginia,  in  1788, 
he  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  which,  in  his  opinion,  gave  too  much 
power  to  the  Federal  government.  He  accordingly 
united  himself  with  the  Anti-Federalists,  or  Republican 
party,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  four  years  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1790.  In 
1794  he  was  sent  to  France  as  minister-plenipotentiary. 
He  offended  the  heads  of  the  home  government  by  the 
open  expression  of  sympathy  with  the  French  repub 
licans,  or  by  a  departure  from  a  neutral  policy,  and 
was  recalled  about  the  end  of  1796.  He  was  Governor 
of  Virginia  three  years,  (1799-1802.)  In  1802  he  was 
sent  to  France  as  envoy-extraordinary,  to  unite  with 
Edward  Livingston,  then  the  resident  minister  at  Paris, 
in  a  negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana, — i.e.  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  They  purchased  that 
vast  territory  from  Bonaparte  for  $i5,ooo",ooo.  In  1803 
Mr.  Monroe  was  sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
England,  and  in  1805  performed  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
Spain  in  relation  to  the  boundary  of  Louisiana.  lie 
returned  to  London  in  1806,  and,  aided  by  Mr.  Pinck- 
ney,  negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  protection  of  maritime 
interests  and  neutral  rights ;  but  the  government  of 
the  United  States  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  because 
it  did  not  provide  against  the  impressment  of  seamen. 
Fie  returned  home  in  1808,  and  passed  about  two  years 
in  a  private  station. 

In  1811  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia.  lie 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Madison 
in  November,  1811.  lie  acted  as  secretary  of  war  during 
the  disastrous  and  gloomy  period  that  followed  the  cap 
ture  of  Washington,  September,  i8i4-March,  1815,  and 
rendered  important  services  by  his  energetic  measures 
to  restore  the  public  credit  and  reinforce  the  army.  He 
did  not  cease  to  be  secretary  of  state  until  March,  1817. 
He  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in 
1816,  and  was  elected  by  a  large  majority,  receiving  one 
hundred  and  eighty-three  electoral  votes.  His  competi 
tor  was  Rufus  King,  who  received  thirty-four  votes.  He 
appointed  John  Q.  Adams  secretary  of  state,  William 
H.  Crawford  secretary  of  the  treasury,  John  C.  Calhoun 
secretary  of  war,  and  Smith  Thompson  secretary  of  the 
navy.  The  violence  of  party  spirit  abated  during  his 
administration,  which  encountered  no  strong  opposition. 
In  1819  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the  United  States.  He 
was  re-elected  President  in  1820  without  opposition, 
receiving  every  electoral  vote  except  one.  During  his 
second  term  the  independence  of  the  South  American 
colonies  of  Spain  was  recognized  by  the  United  States. 
In  his  message  of  December,  1823,  he  asserted  the  im 
portant  principle  of  foreign  policy  which  forms  the  cele 
brated  "Monroe  Doctrine,"  in  these  terms:  "We  owe 
it,  therefore,  to  candour  and  to  the  amicable  relations 
existing  between  the  United  States  and  those  powers, 
\i.e.  the  European  powers,]  to  declare  that  we  should 
consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  sys 
tem  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to 
our  peace  and  safety."  He  retired  from  office  in  March, 
1825,  after  which  he  resided  at  Oak  Hill,  London  county, 
Virginia.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  convention 
which  met  in  1829  to  revise  the  Constitution  of  Virginia. 
A  speech  which  lie  made  in  that  Convention  contains 
this  incidental  remark  on  slavery: — "No  imputation  can 
be  cast  on  Virginia  in  this  matter.  She  did  all  that  was 
in  her  power  to  do,  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery 
and  to  mitigate  its  evils  so  far  as  she  could."*  lie  died 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  at  the  residence  of  his  son-in- 
law,  Samuel  L.  Gouverneur,  on  the  41)1  of  July,  1831, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  discreet  and  successful  states 
man,  more  distinguished  for  administrative  talents  than 
for  oratorical  powers. 

See  J.  Q.  ADAMS,  "Eulogy  on  James  Monroe;"  HILDRETH, 
"  History  of  the  United  States,"  vols.  v.  and  vi.  ;  "National  Por 
trait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Monrose,  moN'roz',  the  assumed  name  of  CLAUDE 
Louis  BARRIZAIN,  (bi're'zaN',)  a  French  comic  actor, 
born  at  Besai^on  in  1783;  died  in  1843. 


*  This  remark,  doubtless,  has  reference  to  the  efforts  of  the  English 
government  to  introduce  slaves  into  Virginia  against  the  wishes  of 
many  of  the  colonists. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  £,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONS 


1611 


MONTAGU 


Mons,  van,  vSn  niftns  or  m6;srss,  (|EAN  BAPTISTE,)  an 
eminent  Belgian  chemist  and  pomologist,  was  born  at 
Brussels  in  1765.  Having  learned  the  art  of  pharmacy, 
he  was  chosen  in  1797  professor  of  chemistry,  etc.  in 
Brussels.  He  founded  the  "Journal  cle  Chimie  et  Phy 
sique,"  which  for  many  years  was  a  central  depot  of  the 
progress  of  science  in  Europe.  Having  a  ruling  passion 
for  the  culture  of  fruit,  he  began  at  an  early  age  to  theo 
rize  and  experiment  on  the  production  of  new  varieties. 
About  the  age  of  twenty  he  adopted  the  theory  that 
seedlings  of  new  varieties  have  more  tendency  to  im 
prove  than  those  of  old  varieties,  or,  in  other  words, 
while  good  old  varieties  mostly  produce  inferior  sorts, 
those  which  are  recent  and  bad  tend  to  change  for  the 
better.  Having  planted  a  large  nursery  and  devoted 
his  life  chiefly  to  experiments  on  the  pear,  he  was  suc 
cessful  in  producing  many  fine  varieties,  among  which 
was  the  Beurre  Die!.  Soon  after  1815  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Louvain.  I  le  published  "  Prin 
ciples  of  Electricity,"  (1802,)  "Principles  of  Philosophic 
Chemistry,"  (1818,)  "Fruit-Trees  and  their  Culture," 
(1835,)  alu'  other  works.  He  was  an  associate  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  Died  in  1842.  "The  constant 
springing  up  of  fine  new  sorts  of  fruit  in  the  United 
States,"  says  Downing,  "is  given  with  much  apparent 
force  as  a  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  Van  Mons 
theory." 

See  QUETEI.ET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  J.  B.  van  Mons,"  1843; 
J.  S.  STAS,  "Notice  sur  J.  H.  van  Mons,"  1843. 

Mons,  van,  (THEODORE,)  a  jurist,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1801.  He  published 
several  legal  works. 

Monselet,  moN'.seh-LV,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  born  at  Nantes  in  1825.  He  wrote,  besides  various 
other  works,  "  Statues  et  Statuettes,"  (1851,)  and  "  Figu 
rines  Parisiennes,"  (1854.) 

Mon'sell,  (WILLIAM,)  M.P.,  was  born  in  Limerick 
county,  Ireland,  in  1812.  He  was  appointed  a  privy 
councillor  in  1855,  president  of  the  board  of  health  in 
1857,  was  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade  a  few 
months  in  1866,  and  became  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies  in  December,  1868. 

Monsiau,  mo.s'se-o',  (NICOLAS  ANDRE,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  worked  with 
remarkable  facility.  Died  in  1837. 

Moiisignori,  mon-sen-yo'ree,  (FRANCESCO,)  some 
times  called  BONSIGNORI,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Verona  in  1455.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Man- 
tegna,  and  worked  mostly  at  Mantua.  Died  in  1519. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Monsigiiy,  moN'sen'ye',  (PIERRE  ALKXANDRE,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Artois  in  1729.  He  produced, 
besides  other  operas,  "  Le  Maitre  en  Droit,"  and  "  Le 
Cadi  dupe,"  (1760,)  the  comic  operas  of  "  The  King  and 
the  Farmer"  and  "  Rose  and  Colas,"  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  (1813.)  Died  in  1817. 

See  KETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians ;"  QIIATRB- 
MERE  HE  QUINCY,  "  filoge  He  Monsigny,"  iSiS;  PIERRE  HioouiN, 
"Noiice  historique  sur  P.  A.  Monsigny,"  1821. 

Mcm'son,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  naval  com 
mander,  born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1569,  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  French, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Naval  Tracts,"  which  were  published  in 
Churchill's  "Collection  of  Voyages."  Died  in  1643. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  J.  BARROW,  "  Me 
moirs  i,f  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Monson,  (WILLIAM  JOHN,)  LORD,  an  English  peer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  1796.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Lords  in  1841.  Died  in  1862. 

Monstrelet,  de,  deh  m6N'streh-li',  (ENGUERRAND, 
a  French  chronicler,  born  about  1390,  wrote  an  account 
of  the  wars  of  his  time  between  the  factions  of  Armagnac 
and  Burgundy.  His  "  Chronicles,"  beginning  in  1400 
and  brought  down  to  1444,  fill  the  space  between  the 
histories  of  Froissart  and  Comines,  and  are  highly 
esteemed  for  their  accuracy  and  the  perspicuity  anc 
simplicity  of  their  style.  Died  in  1453. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Montagna,  mon-tan'ya,  (BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italiar 
painter,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1460-1500,  anc 


studied  under  Andrea  Mantegna.  Among  his  master- 
nieces  we  may  name  the  "  Madonna  on  a  Throne  with 
saint  Andrew  and  other  Saints,"  at  the  Museum  of 
Milan. 

Montagna,  (BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  engraver,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Vicenza  about  1458 ; 
died  in  1530. 

See  BARTSCH,  "Le  Peintre-Graveur." 

Montagne,  moN'ttn',  (JEAN  FRANC.OIS  CAMILLE,)  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Vaudoy  in  1784.  Having 
studied  medicine,  he  was  appointed  in  1815  surgeon-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  Murat.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1852,  and  in  1858  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  "  Archives  de  Botanique"  and  to  other 
scientific  journals  a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on 
the  Cryptogamia,  among  which  we  may  name  "Notice 
of  the  Cryptogamous  ^Plants  recently  discovered  in 
France."  Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Montagny,  m6N/tSn'ye/,  (firtENNE,)  a  French  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Saint-fitienne  in  1816.  He  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  for  a  statue  of  Saint  Louis,  in  1859. 

M5n'ta-gu,  (BASIL,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1770,  was  a  natural  son  of 
John  Montagu,  Earl  of  Sandwich.  Having  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1798.  He 
practised  with  ability  and  success,  and  extended  his 
reputation  by  numerous  legal  publications,  the  most  im 
portant  of  which  is  a  "  Digest  of  the  Bankrupt  Laws, 
with  a  Collection  of  the  Statutes  and  of  the  Cases  de 
termined  upon  that  Subject,"  (1805.)  He  was  associated 
with  Romilly  and  Wilberforce  in  successful  effort  to 
abolish  hanging  for  forgery  and  for  certain  other  crimes. 
In  1825  he  produced  a  valuable  edition  of  Lord  Bacon's 
works,  on  which  he  expended  the  labour  of  many  years  ; 
also  a  "  Life  of  Bacon,"  in  reference  to  which  Macaulay 
says,  "About  his  merit  as  a  collector  of  materials  there 
can  be  no  dispute;  and  we  are  indebted  to  his  minute 
and  accurate  researches  for  the  means  of  refuting  what 
we  cannot  but  consider  his  errors."  He  published 

Essays  and  Selections,"  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1851. 

Montagu,  (CHARLES.)     See  HALIFAX,  EARL  OF. 

Montagu,  (EDWARD.)    See  MANCHESTER,  EARL  OF. 

Montagu,  (EDWARD  WORTLEY,)  son  of  Lady  Mary 
Montagu,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1713. 
At  an  early  age  he  manifested  a  propensity  to  low  vices, 
and  great  eccentricity  of  character.  When  placed  at 
school  he  repeatedly  ran  away,  and  at  length  hired  him 
self  as  a  cabin-boy  in  a  ship  bound  for  Spain.  Being 
discovered  and  sent  back  to  his  family,  he  travelled  soon 
after  on  the  continent.  After  his  return  he  was  member 
of  two  successive  Parliaments.  lie  next  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  was  converted  to  Catholicism,  and  not  long 
after  visited  Egypt,  and  there  professed  Mohammedanism. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Rise  and  Fall 
of  Ancient  Republics."  Died  in  1776. 

See  "Memoirs  of  E.  Wortlev  Montagu,"  2  vols.,  1778:  "Auto 
biography  of  Edward  Wortley  Montagu,"  London,  1869;  NICHOLS, 
'•  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Montagu,  (HENRY.)     See  MANCHESTER,  EARL  OF. 

Montagu,  (Lady  MARY  WORTLEY,)  a  celebrated 
English  writer,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  about  1690. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Evelyn  Pierrepont,  Duke  of 
Kingston,  and  Lady  Mary  Fielding,  and  cousin  to  the 
novelist  Henry  Fielding.  She  was  early  distinguished 
for  the  brilliancy  of  her  intellect  and  her  rapid  acquisition 
of  knowledge.  In  1712  she  was  married  to  Edward 
Wortley  Montagu,  Esq.,  and  a  few  years  after,  on  his 
appointment  to  a  place  in  the  treasury,  accompanied 
him  to  London.  Here  she  attracted  general  admiration 
by  her  wit  and  remarkable  beauty,  and  became  intimate 
with  Addison,  Pope,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of 
the  time.  In  1716  she  accompanied  her  husband,  on  his 
being  appointed  ambassador,  to  Constantinople.  During 
her  residence  of  two  years  at  the  Porte,  she  wrote  to 
her  friends  in  England  a  series  of  Letters  containing 
shrewd  and  lively  descriptions  of  Oriental  life  and  man 
ners.  On  her  return  to  England  she  became  the  means 
of  introducing  the  Turkish  practice  of  inoculation,  having 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as>;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTAGUE 


1612 


MONTALEMBERT 


had  the  courage  to  have  the  experiment  first  tried  on 
her  own  son.  The  next  remarkable  event  in  Lady  Mary's 
life  is  her  quarrel  with  Pope,  the  cause  of  which  is  not 
with  certainty  known.  In  1739  she  left  England  for 
Italy,  where  she  resided  upwards  of  twenty  years.  She 
returned  in  1761,  and  died  the  following  year.  Besides 
the  son  mentioned  above,  she  left  a  daughter  Mary,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Bute,  minister  of  George  III. 
Lady  Mary  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  of  which  the 
"Town  Eclogues"  only  are  entitled  to  much  notice. 
Her  literary  reputation  is  owing  chiefly  to  her  "  Let 
ters,"  which  are  ranked  among  the  finest  specimens  of 
epistolary  composition. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  COSTEI.I.O; 
MRS.  Ei.wooi),  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1803,  and  April,  1804,  (by  JEFFREY  ;) 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1837;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  tor  July,  1868,  ("  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign  of 
George  II  :")  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1837;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  May  and  June,  1763  et  seq. 

Montague,  m6n'ta-gu,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Northamptonshire.  lie  was  ail- 
pointed  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in 
1 5 "59,  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1546. 
He  was  one  of  the  counsellors  designated  in  the  will  of 
Henry  VIII.  to  administer  the  government  during  the 
minority  of  Edward  VI.  Died  in  1556. 

See  FULLER,  "Worthies  of  England;"  COLLINS,  "Peerage  of 
England." 

Montague,  (EDWARD,)  Earl  of  Sandwich,  an  English 
naval  commander,  born  in  1625.  He  served  for  a  time 
on  the  side  of  the  Parliament,  but  subsequently  went 
over  to  the  royalists,  and  assisted  General  Monk  in  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  For  this  service  he  was  suc 
cessively  created  an  earl,  a  knight  of  the  Garter,  mem 
ber  of  the  privy  council,  and  admiral  of  the  Narrow 
Seas.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  Holland,  in  1672, 
Lord  Sandwich  commanded  the  squadron  under  the 
Duke  of  York  against  De  Ruyter,  and  perished  in  the 
burning  of  the  Royal  James. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Admirals;"  CLARENDON,  "Me 
moirs." 

Montague,  (ELIZABETH,)  a  celebrated  English  lady, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1720.  Her  early  studies  were 
directed  by  Dr.  Conyers  Middleton,  who  was  connected 
with  her  family.  In  1742  she  was  married  to  Edward 
Montague,  Esq.  After  the  death  of  her  husband,  in 
1775,  she  resided  in  Portman  Square,  London,  where 
she  numbered  among  her  visitors  the  most  eminent  men 
of  the  day,  including  Burke,  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and 
Reynolds.  She  was  also  intimate  with  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Carter  and  Hannah  More.  Mrs.  Montague  contributed 
several  "Dialogues  of  the  Dead"  to  those  published  by 
Lord  Lyttelton;  but  her  principal  work  is  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare,"  which  ob 
tained  for  her  a  high  reputation.  In  this  production 
she  has  ably  refuted  the  false  charges  of  Voltaire  against 
the  great  English  poet.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  the  literary  society  called  the  "Blue-Stocking 
Club."  Her  correspondence  was  published  after  her 
death.  Died  in  1800. 

See  MRS.  Ei.woon,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England." 
etc.;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1809;  "London  Quarter'y 
Review"  for  October,  1813;  "Mrs.  Montague  and  her  Friends,"  in 
"  Kramer's  Magazine"  for  January,  1848;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
October,  1814. 

Montague,  (GEORGE,)  an  Eng'ish  naturalist,  born  in 
Wiltshire.  In  1802  he  published  an  "Ornithological 
Dictionary,  or  Synopsis  of  British  Birds,"  and  soon  after 
his  " Testacea  Britannica,"  or  "Natural  History  of 
British  Shells,"  illustrated.  Both  of  these  works  are 
highly  esteemed.  Montague  was  a  member  of  the  Lin- 
nrcan  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1815. 

Montague,  (JOHN,)  Earl  of  Sandwich,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  1718.  He  was  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty  in  1749  and  1750,  and  obtained  the 
same  office  in  1763.  He  supported  the  administration 
of  Lord  North,  under  whom  he  served  as  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty  from  1771  to  1782.  He  was  more  deficient 
in  principle  than  in  capacity.  Died  in  1792. 

See  J.  COOKE,  "Memoir  of  the  Earl  of  Sandwich." 

Montague,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  scholar  and  theo 
logian.  See  MOUNTAGU. 


Montaigne,  mSn-tan',  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  moN'tin',] 
(MICHEL  Eyquem — a'kox',)  a  celebrated  French  phi 
losopher  and  essayist,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Mon 
taigne,  in  Perigord,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1533.  His 
father,  who  was  one  of  the  noblesse,  placed  him,  while 
very  young,  under  the  tuition  of  masters  who  were 
ignorant  of  French,  and  who  conversed  with  him  only  in 
Latin,  which  thus  became  his  natural  language.  At  the 
age  of  thirteen  he  had  finished  his  studies  at  a  college 
of  Bordeaux.  Having  studied  law,  he  became  a  judge 
at  Bordeaux  about  1554.  In  1565  or  1566  he  married, 
par  fon-'enance,  Frai^oise  de  la  Chassaigne.  In  1580  he 
produced  his  celebrated  "  Essays,"  which  have  enjoyed 
an  almost  unparalleled  popularity.  Soon  after  that  date 
he  made  a  tour  in  Germany,  Italy,  etc.,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  Journal.  He  often  visited  Paris,  in  order  to 
perform  his  duties  as  gentleman  of  the  king's  chamber. 
From  1581  to  1585  he  was  mayor  of  Bordeaux.  During 
the  civil  war  of  the  League  his  impartial  moderation  did 
not  exempt  him  from  danger  and  persecution.  He  died 
in  September,  1592.  "The  Essays  of  Montaigne,"  says 
Ilallam,  "make  in  several  respects  an  epoch  in  litera 
ture,  less  on  account  of  their  real  importance  than  of 
their  influence  on  the  taste  and  opinions  of  Europe.  .  .  . 
No  prose  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century  has  been  so 
generally  read,  nor,  probably,  given  so  much  delight. 
Whatever  may  be  our  estimate  of  Montaigne  as  a  phi 
losopher, — a  name  which  he  was  far  from  arrogating, — 
there  will  be  but  one  opinion  of  the  felicity  and  bright 
ness  of  his  genius."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  "The  author  of  these  '  Essais,' "  says  Leo 
Joubert,  "is  certainly  the  most  independent  spirit  that 
ever  existed, — independent  without  revolt,  and  detached 
from  the  systems  of  others  without  having  any  system 
of  his  own.  .  .  .  We  recognize  in  his  'Essays'  a  nature 
well  endowed,  not  heroic,  perhaps,  but  generous,  exqui 
sitely  sensible,  not  aspiring  to  the  sublime,  capable  of 
devotion,  and  incapable  of  a  base  act, — in  fine,  a  model 
of  what  we  may  call  average  virtue,"  (la  vertn  moyenne.) 
("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.")  Sprightly  humour, 
independence,  naivete,  and  originality  are  the  character 
istics  of  his  mind  ;  and  his  style  is  admired  for  its  graceful 
simplicity.  His  works  are  highly  seasoned  with  his  own 
individuality,  and  afford  much  insight  into  his  character. 

"  The  Essays,"  says  Emerson,  "  are  an  entertaining 
soliloquy  on  every  random  topic  that  comes  into  his 
head, — treating  everything  without  ceremonv,  yet  with 
masculine  sense.  There  have  been  men  with  deeper 
insight,  but,  one  would  say,  never  a  mnn  with  such 
abundance  of  thoughts:  he  is  never  dull,  never  insin 
cere,  and  has  the  genius  to  make  the  render  care  for  all 
that  he  cares  for.  .  .  .  This  book  of  Montaigne  the 
world  has  endorsed  by  translating  it  into  all  tongues 
and  printing  seventy-five  editions  of  it  in  Europe, — and 
that,  too,  a  circulation  somewhat  chosen,  namely,  among 
courtiers,  soldiers,  princes,  men  of  the  world,  and  men 
of  wit  and  generosity."  (See  article  "  Montaigne,"  in 
"  Representative  Men.") 

See  J.  BOUHIKR,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Montaitrne  ;"  VII.I.E- 
MAIN,  "  E"!oge  de  Montaigne,"  1812;  PAYEN.  "Notice  sur  Mon- 
tiigne,"  1837;  GRUN,  "La  Vie  publique  de  M.  Montaigne,"  1855; 
BAVLE  SAINT  JOHN,  "Montaigne  the  Essayist,"  iS:;S  ;  |)K  THOU. 
"  Historia  sui  Temporjs  ;"  SAINTK-  BKUVE.  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;" 
VICTORIN  FABRK.  "  E"'oge  de  Montaigne."  1813:  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  MRS.  SHKI.I.RY,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent 
French  Writers;"  "  Retrospective  Review."  vol.  ii.,(iS2o:)  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1856;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
July,  1838. 

Montalbani,  mon-tal-ba'nee,  (Ovinio,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Bologna  about  1602,  became  succes 
sively  professor  of  physical  science,  mathematics,  and 
medicine  in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  He  pub 
lished  a  number  of  scientific  works  under  the  pseudonym 
of  BUMAI.DI.  Thunberg  gave  the  name  of  Bumaldia  to 
a  genus  of  Japanese  plants.  Died  in  1671. 

See  Gnu. INI,  "  Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  NICERON,  "Me 
moires." 

Montalembert,  (ANDRE.)     See  ESSE. 

Montalembert,  de,  deh  moN'tflSN'baiR',  (CHARLES 
FORMES,)  COMTE,  a  distinguished  statesman,  orator,  and 
political  writer,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  London 
in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Marc  Rene  Anne  Marie,  noticed 
below.  His  mother  was  Miss  Forbes,  a  Scottish  lady. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  \\,y,long;  a,  e,  6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  o,u,  y, short;  a,e,  j,  o,obscttre;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


MONTALEMBERT 


1613 


MONTAUSIER 


He  studied  in  Paris,  and  in  1830  became  associated  with 
Lamennais  and  Lacordaire  as  editor  of  "  L'Avenir,"  in 
which  post  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  eloquent  champion 
of  democracy  and  the  Catholic  Church.  He  entered  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  1831,  and  married,  in  1843,  Made 
moiselle  de  Merode,  a  Belgian  lady.  Devoted  to  the 
Liberal  Catholic  party,  of  which  he  was  regarded  as  the 
most  eminent  leader,  he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  re 
ligious  toleration,  popular  rights,  and  general  education. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848, 
and  in  1849  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in 
which  he  opposed  Victor  Hugo  in  several  brilliant  efforts 
of  oratory,  especially  during  the  debate  on  the  revision 
of  the  constitution,  in  June,  1851.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1852,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  from  1852  to  1857,  during  which  period 
he  represented  the  opposition  almost  alone.  In  1858  he 
was  condemned  to  a  fine,  and  imprisonment  for  six 
months,  for  a  political  essay  entitled  "A  Debate  on  India 
in  the  English  Parliament;"  but  the  penalties  were  not 
actually  inflicted.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"History  of  Saint  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  (1836,)  "On 
Vandalism  and  Catholicism  in  Art,"  (1839,)  "The  Po 
litical  Future  of  England,''  (1855,)  "The  Monks  of  the 
West,  from  Saint  Benedict  to  Saint  Bernard,"  (1860,)  and 
"The  Free  Church  in  the  Free  State,"  ("L'figlise  libre 
clans  1'Etat  libre,"  1863.)  He  sympathized  with  the 
Unionists  in  the  American  civil  war.  In  a  letter  to  an 
English  friend,  dated  December,  1869,  he  wrote,  "Tem 
poral  despotism  has  faded  away  in  a  most  unexpected 
manner;  and  I  sincerely  hope  spiritual  despotism  will 
follow,  sooner  or  later.  ...  I  am  more  convinced  than  '\ 
ever  that  freedom  in  the  sphere  of  religion,  still  more 
than  in  that  of  politics,  is  the  vital  condition  of  truth." 
A  great  sensation  was  produced  by  his  letter  dated  Feb 
ruary  28,  1870,  in  which  he  protested — almost  with  his 
latest  breath — against  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility. 
and  those  ultramontanes  "  who  have  immolated  justice 
and  truth,  reason  and  history,  in  one  great  holocaust 
to  the  idol  they  have  raised  up  for  themselves  at  the 
Vatican."  Died  in  March,  1870. 

See  L.  DE  LOMEXIK.  "M.  cle  Montalembert.  par  1111  Homme  He 
Rien,"  1841  ;  SAINTK-|?RUVE.  "Canseries  du  Lundi  :"  NKTTKMF.NT. 
"  Histoirede  la  Litterature  Frnngaise ;"  "  Nouvel'e  Biographic  Gene 
rale  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Apri1.  iS^6.  and  July,  iXftt  ; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  tor  October.  1861  :  '•  British  Q  ;arter'y  Re 
view"  for  July,  iS6S:  "North  British  Review"  for  August.  iS6i  ; 
and  an  interesting  article  on  Montalembert  in  "  Blackwood's  M.iga- 
zine"  for  April,  1870. 

Montalembert,  de,  (MARC  RENE,)  MARQUIS,  a 
French  general  and  distinguished  military  engineer, 
born  at  Angouleme  in  1714.  His  family  was  noble,  and 
had  produced  several  distinguished  captains.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1732,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1747.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war  (1756-63) 
he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  the  Russian  and  Swedish 
armies,  of  whose  operations  he  rendered  an  official  ac 
count  to  the  French  ministry.  He  published  in  1776  an 
extensive  and  important  work,  named  "Perpendicular 
Fortification,  or  the  Defensive  Art  superior  to  the  Offen 
sive,"  (11  vols.)  He  wrote  several  memoirs  inserted  in 
the  "Collection"  of  the  Academy,  and  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Eloge  historique  du 
General  Montalembert,"  1801. 

Montalembert,  de,  (MARC  RENE  ANNE  MARIE,) 
COMTK,  a  French  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in  1777,  emi 
grated  in  1792.  From  1800  to  1814  he  served  in  the  Eng 
lish  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1814,  and  in  1819  was  created 
a  peer  of  France.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Denmark,  but,  having  offended  the  ministers 
by  a  liberal  speech  in  the  Chamber,  he  was  deprived  of 
that  post.  From  1826  to  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was 
minister  from  France  to  the  court  of  Sweden.  Died  in 
1831.  His  eldest  son,  CHARLES  FORBES,  noticed  above, 
was  an  eminent  orator. 

See  DE  COCRCEI.LES,  "  Genealogie  de  la  Maison  de  Montalem 
bert." 

Montalivet,  de,  deh  moN'tt'le'vl',  (JEAN  PIERRE 
Bachasson — bf'sht'soN',)  COMTE,  a  French  states 
man,  born  near  Sarreguemines  in  1766.  He  was  made 


councillor  of  state  in  1805,  and  minister  of  the  interior  in 
1809.  He  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers  under  the 
ministry  of  Decazes,  in  1819.  Died  in  1823. 

Montalivet,  de,  (MARTHE  CAMILLE  BACHASSON,) 
COMTE,  a  French  minister  of  state,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Valence  in  1801.  He  became  min 
ister  of  the  interior  in  November,  1830,  and  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  March,  1831.  He  served  as  minister 
of  the  interior  from  April,  1837,  to  March,  1839. 

Montalto.     See  DANEDI,  (GIOVANNI  STEFANO.) 

Moiitalvan,  de,  da  mon-tal-van',  (JUAN  PEREZ,)  an 
eminent  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1602,  was 
a  friend  and  disciple  of  Lope  de  Vega.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  comedies  entitled  "  There  is  no  Life  like 
Honour,"  ("  No  hay  Vida  como  la  Honra,")  "  The 
Lovers  of  Teruel,"  ("Los  Amantes  de  Teruel,")  and 
"La  Lindona  de  Galicia."  Died  in  1638. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature:"  A.  F.  VON 
SCHACK,  "Geschichte  der  dramatischen  Literatur  in  Spanien." 

Montalvo.     See  GALVEZ,  (Luis  DE.) 

Montan.     See  MONTANUS. 

Montanari,  mon-ta-na'ree,  (GKMINIANO,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Modena  in  1632,  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Bologna,  and  in  1674  filled  the  chair  ot 
astronomy  at  Padua.  He  wrote  a  number  of  scientific 
treatises,  and  is  said  to  have  discovered  the  method  of 
determining  the  height  of  mountains  by  the  barometer. 
He  was  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  Cassini.  Died  in  1687. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Montanelli,  mon-ta-nel'lee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian 
jurist  and  litterateur,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1813,  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  at  Pisa  in  1839.  He  pub 
lished  a  number  of  lyric  poems  and  dramatic  works. 
Died  in  1862. 

Montano,  mon-ta'no,  [Lat.  MONTA'NUS,]  (GiAM- 
BATTISTA,)  ati  Italian  physician,  of  high  reputation  in  his 
time,  born  at  Verona  in  1488.  He  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  and  published  a  number 
of  medical  works  in  Latin.  Died  in  1551. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  delta  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Montano,  mon-ta'no,  (REGINALD  GONSALVO,)  a 
Spanish  Protestant  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  the  Protestant  martyr  Juan  Ponce 
de  Leon.  He  published  an  account  of  the  Inquisition, 
said  to  be  the  earliest  on  record. 

Moiitanus.     See  ARIAS  MONTANUS. 

Montanus.     See  MONTANO,  (GIAMBATTISTA.) 

Mon-ta'nus,  [Fr.  MONTAN,  m6N't6.N',]  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Montanists,  was  a  native  of  Phrygia,  and 
flourished  in  the  second  century.  He  pretended  to  be 
divinely  inspired,  and  that  he  was  commissioned  to  com 
plete  the  reformation  which  the  Saviour  had  begun  on 
earth.  Among  those  who  embraced  this  delusion  were 
Tertullian  and  Theodotus. 

See  EUSHBIUS,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  PLUQUET,  "  Diction- 
naire  des  Heresies." 

Montarroyo,  de,  da  mon-tar-ro'yo,  (JozE  FREIRK,) 
a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1670.  He  pub 
lished  several  historical  works,  and  commenced  an  annual 
compilation,  entitled  "  Historia  annual  do  Mundo  das 
Gazetas  de  Lisboa,"  (1714-58.)  Died  in  1730. 

Montauban,  moN/t5'b5N',  a  famous  French  captain 
of  buccaneers,  was  born  about  1650.  He  inflicted  great 
damage  on  the  Spaniards  on  the  coasts  of  America. 
Died  in  1700. 

Montausier,  de,  deh  moN'to'ze-i',  (CHARLES  de 
Sainte-Maure — deh  saNt  moR,)  Duc^  a  French  noble 
man  and  general,  bom  in  Paris  in  1610.  He  was  loyal 
to  the  king  during  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde.  He  was 
appointed'by  Louis  XIV.  governor  to  the  dauphin,  in 
1688.  In  conjunction  with  Huet,  he  superintended  the 
editions  of  the  classics  called  "adusum  Delphini,"  ("for 
the  use  of  the  dauphin.")  He  was  distinguished  for  the 
integrity  of  his  character,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  original  of  Moliere's  "Alceste"  in  "  Le  Misanthrope." 
He  died  in  1690,  and  his  funeral  sermon  was  preached 
by  Flechier. 

See  PETIT.  "  Vie  du  Due  de  Montausier,"  1729  ;  PUGET  DE  SAINT- 
PIFRRE,  "  Histoire  du  Due  de  Montausier,"  1784;  AMEDEE  Roux, 
"  Montausier,  sa  Vie  et  son  Temps,"  1860;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
GeneVale." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTAUSIER 


1614 


MONTEM4TOR 


Montausier,   de,  (JunE   LUCINE    d'Angennes — 

ddN'zhen',)  DUCHKSSE,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished 
wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1607.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Marquise  de  Rambouillet, 
(see  RAMBOUILLET,)  and  was  an  ornament  of  the  bril 
liant  society  of  authors  and  wits  who  met  in  the  Hotel 
Rambouillet.  She  was  married  in  1645  to  the  Duke 
of  Montausier,  who,  aided  by  several  poets  and  artists, 
had  composed  the  famous  "Garland  for  Julie,"  ("Guir- 
lande  de  Julie.")  Died  in  1671. 

See  A.  Koi'x,  "Montausier,  sa  Vie  et  son  Temps,"  1860;  "  Nou- 
velle  Hiographie  Ge'nerale." 

Montbarey,  de.deh  moN'bt'r.V,  (AI.EXANDRE MARIE 
LEONOK  DE  SAINT-MAURIS,)  PRINCE,  a  French  officer, 
born  at  Besat^on  in  1732.  He  became  marechal-de- 
camp  in  1761,  and  was  minister  of  war  from  September, 
1777,  till  December,  1780.  Died  in  1796. 

Montbel,  de,  deh  ni6.\'bel',  (GUILLAUME  ISIDORE 
BARON,)  COMTE,  a  French  politician  and  royalist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1787.  He  became  minister  of  public 
instruction  under  Polignac  in  August,  1829,  minister  of 
the  interior  in  November  of  that  year,  and  minister  of 
finance  in  May,  1830.  Died  in  1861. 

Moiitbeliard  or  Montbeillard.     See  GUENEAU. 

Montboissier,  de,  deh  moN'bwa'se-i', •  (PIERRE,) 
called  PIERRE  LE  VENERAULK,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
writer,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1092.  He  was  chosen 
abbe  of  Cluny  in  1122.  A  translation  of  the  Koran  was 
made  under  his  auspices.  Died  in  1156. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana;"  "  Nouve'Ie  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Montbret,  de.     See  COQUEBERT. 

Moiitbrun,  mAN'bRuN',  (  AI.EXANDRE  DU  PUY,)  Mar 
quis  de  Saint- Andre,  a  French  general,  born  in  1600. 
He  entered  the  French  army  as  colonel  in  1638.  He 
declined  the  baton  of  marshal,  which  was  offered  to  him 
if  he  would  abjure  Protestantism.  Died  in  1673. 

Moiitbrun,  (CHARLES  DU  PUY,)  a  French  captain 
and  zealous  Protestant,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Gap  about 
1530.  He  performed  several  daring  exploits  in  the  civil 
wars.  He  was  captured  and  executed  in  1575. 

See  Gri  AI.LAKD.  "Vie  du  brave  Moiitbrun,"  1675  ;  J.  C.  MAR 
TIN,  "  Hi-itoire  de  Charles  Dupuy,"  1816. 

Moiitbrun,  (Louis  PIERRE,)  COMTE,  a  French  gen 
eral,  born  at  Fl  or  en  sac  in  1770,  served  with  distinction 
at  Eckmiihl,  April,  1809,  and  at  Raab,  June,  1809.  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa,  September,  1812. 

Montcalm  (ni6nt-kam')  de  Saint-Veran,  de,  IFr. 
pron.  m6.N'kSlm'  deh  saN  va'roN',]  (Louis  JOSEPH,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born  near  Nimes  in  1712. 
Having  previously  served  in  several  campaigns  in  France 
and  the  Netherlands,  he  was  sent  in  1756  to  defend  the 
French  colonies  in  North  America.  He  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English  forces  commanded  by  Lord  Aber- 
crombie  in  1758,  but  was  defeated  by  General  Wolfe 
at  Quebec,  and  mortally  wounded  in  the  engagement, 
(1759.)  (See  WOLFE.) 

See  MONTGOMERY  MARTIN,  "  History  of  the  British  Colonies;" 
GARNEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Canada." 

Montchal.     See  BARENTIN-MONTCHAL. 

Moiitchal,  de,  deh  miN'shtl',  (CHARLES,)  a  French 
prelate,  born  at  Annonay  in  1589,  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Toulouse  in  1627.  He  was  an  accomplished  scholar, 
and  a  generous  patron  of  literary  men,  and  was  the 
author  of  "  Memoires,"  (2  vols.,  1718.)  Died  in  1651. 

Montchrestien,  de,  deh  moN'kRi'te^N',  (  ANTOINE,) 
a  French  poet  and  economist,  born  at  Falaise  about  1570. 
He  wrote  several  dramas,  etc.  He  joined  the  Protestants 
in  revolt  against  the  king,  and  was  killed  in  1621. 

Monteagle,  mSnt-ee'gel,  OF  BRANDON,  (THOMAS 
SPRING  RICE,)  LORD,  a  distinguished  statesman  of  the 
Whig  party,  born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1790.  He 
represented  Limerick  in  Parliament  from  1820  to  1832, 
having  been  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1830. 
He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  the  Reform  and  Test 
Acts,  and  other  liberal  measures.  He  became  chancel 
lor  of  the  exchequer  in  1835,  retired  from  that  office  in 
1839,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  the  same  year. 
Died  in  1866. 

Montebello.     See  LANNES. 

Moiitecatino,  mon-ti-ka-tee'no,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  philosopher,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1536,  published 


commentaries  on  the  "Politics"  and  "  Physics"  of  Aris 
totle.     Died  in  1599. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 
Moiitecuccoli,  mon-ta-kook'ko-lee,  written  also 
Montecucculi,  (RAIMONDO,)  COUNT,  one  of  the  great 
est  military  commanders  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Modena, 
in  Italy,  in  1608.  Having  entered  the  Austrian  service, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  1637  against 
the  Swedes  ;  but  he  was  subsequently  defeated  by  the 
Swedish  general  Banner,  (1639,)  and  made  prisoner. 
He  was  released  after  two  years'  captivity,  and  in  1664 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Saint  Gothard, 
for  which  he  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He  was  sent 
in  1673  to  oppose  the  celebrated  Turenne  ;  but,  although 
consummate  skill  was  displayed  by  both  generals  in 
their  manoeuvres,  no  decisive  battle  was  fought.  Mon 
tecucculi  regarded  this  his  last  campaign  as  the  most 
glorious  of  all,  since  he  had  encountered  Turenne  and 
Conde  without  being  defeated.  He  died  in  1681,  leaving 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Art  of  War,"  which  is  highly  es 
teemed.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Naturalists  at 
Vienna.  He  had  been  created  by  the  King  of  Spain  a 
knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
principality  of  Ainalfi. 

See  PARADISI,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  Montecucculi,"  1776;  PKZZI., 
''Lebensbeschreibung  Montecucculi's,"  1792;  "  R.  Montecucculi's 
Leben,"  Leipsic,  1792. 

Montecucculi.     See  MONTECUCCOLI. 

Montefalcoiiius.     See  MONTFAUCON. 

Montefeltro,  di,  de  mon-ta-fel'tro,  (FEDERIGO,) 
COUNT,  and  first  Duke  of  Urbino,  was  born  about  1410. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  and  eloquent  princes  of  his 
time.  As  an  ally  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Naples,  he  waged 
war  against  Sigismund  Malatesta  about  1456-60.  In 
1467  he  was  chosen  to  command  the  army  of  Florence, 
and  fought  an  indecisive  battle  with  the  Venetian  general 
Coleoni.  Died  in  1482. 

See  ZUCCARDI,  "Vita  di  Federigo  Ducad'Urbino,"  3  vols.,  1824  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Moiitefiore,  mon-ta-fe-o'ra,  (Sir  MOSES,)  an  English 
few,  distinguished  for  his  philanthropy,  was  born  about 
1786.  He  became  sheriff  of  London  about  1837.  He 
performed  missions  to  several. foreign  countries  for  the 
relief  of  people  who  were  oppressed  on  account  of 
religion. 

Monteggia,  mon-ted'ja,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Lavcno  in  1762,  wrote  several 
treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Institutes  of  Surgery," 
is  highly  commended  by  Scarpa.  Died  in  1815. 

Montegut,  m6N/ta/gii/,  (EMILE,)  a  French  critic  and 
journalist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Limoges  in  1826. 
lie  became  in  1857  associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Moncles." 

Monteil,  min'til'  or  moN-'ti'ye,  (AMANS  ALKXIS,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Rodez  in  1769.  His  princi 
pal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  French,"  etc.,  ("His 
toire  des  Fran9ais  des  divers  Etats,"  ^d  edition,  5  vols., 
1848,)  which  the  French  Academy  judged  worthy  to 
share  the  Gobert  prize  with  Auguslin  Thierry.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Monteith,  mon-teeth',  or  Monteth,  (ROBERT,)  a 
Scottish  historian,  resided  in  Paris,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  published,  in  French,  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Troubles  of  Great  Britain,"  which  was  trans 
lated  into  English.  Died  about  1660. 

Montelupo.     See  BACCIO  DA  MONTE-LUPO. 

Moiitemagnc,  da,  da  mon-ta-man'yo,  (BuoNAC- 
CORSO,)  an  Italian  poet  of  the  fourteenth  century,  wrote 
sonnets  which  are  greatly  admired  for  the  elegance  and 
purity  of  their  style. 

Monteniayor,  de,  da  mon-ta-ma-y6R',  (JORGE,)  a 
Portuguese  poet  and  novelist,  born  near  Coimbra  about 
1520,  was  patronized  at  the  court  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
His  principal  work  is  a  pastoral  romance  entitled  "  Diana 
in  Love,"  ("  Diana  enamorada,")  which  is  written  in 
Spanish.  It  is  praised  by  Cervantes  in  his  "  Don 
Quixote,"  and  has  been  many  times  translated.  Mon- 
temayor  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Spanish  pas- 


i,  ?.  T,  o,  \\,  v,  ?("ig:  a,  b,  6.  same,  less  prolonged:  a.  e.  T.  6,  u,  v,  skort:  a,  e,  i.  o.  obscure:  fSr,  till,  fat:  in.  i;  mi .  good:  in. 


MONTEMOLIN 


1615 


MONTEZUMA 


toral ;  and  "  his  prose,"  says  Bouterwek,  "  has  served  as 
a  model  to  all  romance-writers  of  that  kind." 

See  BOUTERWEK.  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espaenple ;" 
LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  TICKNOR,  "  History 
of  Spanish  Literature;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Montemolin.  See  CARLOS,  or,  more  fully,  CARLOS 
Luis  MARIA  FKRNANDO. 

Montemont,  moN'ta'moN',  (ALBERT,)  a  French  poet 
and  writer  of  books  of  travel,  born  at  Remiremont  in 
1788.  Among  his  works  is  "Letters  on  Astronomy,"  in 
verse  and  prose,  (4  vols.,  1823.)  Died  about  1862. 

Monten,  mon'ten,  (DIETRICH,)  a  German  battle- 
painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1799.  Among  his  prin 
cipal  works  we  may  name  "The  Death  ot  Gustavus 
Adolphus."  Died  in  1843. 

Montenault.     See  MONTHENAUI.T. 

Montepin,  de,  deh  moN'ta'paN',  (XAVIER  AYMON,) 
a  French  novelist,  born  in  Haute-Saone  about  1820. 
He  produced  several  successful  novels,  one  of  which 
was  condemned  in  a  court  of  law  as  subversive  of  good 
morals. 

Moiitereau,  (PIERRE.)    See  PIERRE  DE  MONTERKAU. 

Montesinos,  mon-ta-see'nos,  (FERNANDO,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Osufia,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ancient 
Peru,"  which  has  been  translated  by  Ternaux-Compans 
into  French,  under  the  title  of  "  Memoires  historiques 
de  1'ancien  Perou,"  (1849.)  Died  about  1660. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. 

Montespan,  mon'tes-pan',  de,  |Fr.  pron.  deh  m6\'- 
teVp6N',  (FRANCOIS  ATHENAIS  de  Rochechouart — 
deh  rosh'shoo-tR',)  MARQUISE,  a  French  lady,  of  extra 
ordinary  personal  beauty,  born  in  1641,  was  a  daughter 
of  the  Due  de  Mortemart.  She  was  married  in  1663  to 
the  Marquis  de  Montespan.  She  afterwards  succeeded 
Mademoiselle  de  la  Valliere  as  mistress  of  Louis  XIV. 
She  bore  the  king  eight  children,  among  whom  were  the 
Due  de  Maine,  Louis  Cesar,  the  Comte  de  Vexin,  and 
the  Comte  de  Toulouse,  besides  two  sons  who  died 
young.  Died  in  1707. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  MADAME  DE  SEVIGNE,  "  Let 
ters  ;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Montesqtiieu,  moN'teVke-uh',  BARON,  a  grandson 
of  the  following,  was  born  in  1755.  He  served  as  an 
officer,  with  distinction,  in  the  United  States,  (1779-81.) 
In  1792  he  became  a  royalist  emigre.  He  passed  many 
years  in  England,  where  he  died  about  1824. 

Montesquieu,  mfin'tes-ku',  de,  [Fr.  pi  on.  deh  moN'- 
teVke-uh',]  or,  more  fully,  De  la  Brede  et  (deh  IS  bk<\d 
a)  de~Mcmtesquieu,  (CHARLES  de  Secondat — deh 
seh-ko.N'di',)  BARON,  a  brilliant,  original,  and  popular 
French  author,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  near  Bor 
deaux  on  the  i8th  of  January,  1689.  In  his  childhood 
he  formed  habits  of  intense  application  to  study,  and 
became  an  insatiable  reader.  lie  has  declared  that  he 
never  felt  a  sorrow  which  an  hour's  reading  would  not 
dissipate  or  relieve.  Having  been  educated  for  the  law, 
he  became  a  comeiller,  or  judge,  in  the  parliament  of 
Bordeaux  in  1714,  and  president  a  mortier  of  the  same  in 
1716.  The  favourite  studies  of  his  mature  powers  were 
historical  and  moral  sciences. 

In  1721  he  acquired  a  rather  sudden  celebrity  by  his 
"  Persian  Letters,"  a  work  which  combines  the  attractions 
of  romance  with  the  resources  of  rational  philosophy, 
and  presents  profound  and  luminous  views  of  commerce, 
law,  and  social  phenomena.  Its  prodigious  success  was 
due  partly  to  its  spirited,  keen,  and  witty  satire  on  French 
manners,  and  its  brilliant,  piquant  style,  full  of  happy 
reticences  and  unexpected  contrasts.  In  1726  he  sold 
his  office  of  president,  and  in  1728  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  then  began  a  journey,  in 
which  he  visited  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  He 
passed  two  years  in  England,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1734  he  produced  an  admired 
work,  "Considerations  on  the  Causes  of  the  Grandeur 
and  Decadence  of  the  Romans,"  the  most  complete 
essay  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.  He  afterwards 
devoted  fourteen  years  to  the  composition  of  his  greatest 
work,  "The  Spirit  of  Laws,"  ("L'Esprit  des  Lois,"  1748,) 
which  excited  almost  universal  admiration.  In  eighteen 
months  it  ran  through  twenty-two  editions.  In  this 
arduous  enterprise  of  exploring  the  labyrinths  of  history 


and  political  science  he  was  in  advance  of  his  age  as  an 
advocate  of  liberty  and  humanity.  In  reference  to  this 
work,  Voltaire  said,  "  The  human  race  had  lost  its  titles  ; 
Montesquieu  found  and  restored  them."  He  died  in 
Paris  in  February,  1755.  He  had  married  Mademoiselle 
de  I.artigues  in  1715.  His  personal  character  was  in  a 
high  degree  amiable  and  estimable. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  et  Louis  XV  ;"  D'ALEM- 
BERT,  "Eloge  de  Montesquieu  ;"  VII.I.EMAIN,  "  Kloge  de  Montes 
quieu,"  1826;  FRANCOIS  RIAUX,  "  Notice  sur  Montesquieu."  1849; 
MAUPERTUIS.  "  Eloge  de  Montesquieu,"  1755;  "  Nouvelle  li.o- 
graphie  Generate. " 

Montesquiou,  de,  deh  m6N'teVke-oo',  (PIERRE,) 
Comte  d'Artagnan,  a  French  general,  born  at  the  chateau 
of  Armagnac  in  1645.  He  commanded  the  right  wing 
at  the  battle  of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  soon  after  which  he 
became  a  marshal  of  France.  Died  in  1725. 

Montesqulou-Fezeiisac,  de,  deh  moN'tes'ke-oo' 
feh'zdN'/tk',  (AMBKOISE  ANATOLE  AUGUSTIN,)  COUNT, 
a  French  general  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1788,  was  a 
grandson  of  Anne  Pierre,  noticed  below. 

Montesquiou -Fezensac,  de,  (ANNE  PIERRE,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  general  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1739.  He  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1784, 
and  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  conquered  Savoy  in  1792. 
Died  in  1798. 

See  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  Montesquiou,"  Paris,  1847. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  (FRANC.OIS  XAVIER 
MARC  ANTOINE,)  ABBE,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  near 
Auch  in  1757.  He  was  a  deputy  from  the  clergy  of  Paris 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  twice  elected 
president  of  the  National  Assembly.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  he  took  refuge  in  England,  and,  after  the  second 
restoration,  was  made  a  duke,  and  received  the  title  of 
minister  of  state.  Died  in  1832. 

See  GIUZOT,  "Memoires." 

Montesson,  de,  deh  mc-N'ti'siN1',  (CHARLOTTE 
JEANNE  Beraud — ba'ro',)  MARQUISE,  born  in  Paris  in 
1737,  was  married  in  1773  to  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Orleans.  She  was  the  author  of  numerous  poems  and 
dramas.  Died  in  1806. 

Monteth.     See  MONTEITH,  (ROBERT.) 

Monteverde,  mon-ta-v§R'da,  (CLAUDIO,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Cremona  about  1565.  He 
introduced  several  great  improvements  into  the  science 
of  music,  one  of  which  was  the  employment  of  double 
discords.  His  works  include  sacred  music,  operas,  and 
madrigals.  The  last-named  are  especially  admired.  In 
1613  he  was  appointed  chapel-master  of  Saint  Mark,  at 
Venice.  Died  in  1649. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Montez.     See  LOLA  MONTEZ. 

Mon-te-zu'ma  I.,  called  also  Moctheuzoma,  Aztec 
emperor  of  Mexico,  ascended  the  throne  about  1437. 
Before  this  event  he  had  been  an  eminent  general.  He 
extended  the  boundaries  of  his  dominions  by  the  con 
quest  of  several  adjacent  nations.  He  was  a  powerful 
and  despotic  monarch,  and  multiplied  human  sacrifices. 
Died  about  1470. 

Montezuma  II.,  the  last  Aztec  emperor  of  Mexico, 
was  born  about  1470.  He  was  elected  sovereign  in  ico2 
for  his  superior  merit  as  a  warrior  and  a  priest.  When 
his  election  was  announced  to  him,  he  was  in  the  act  of 
sweeping  the  stairs  of  the  great  temple  Teocalli.  In  the 
former  part  of  his  reign  he  waged  war  with  success 
against  several  peoples,  and  extended  the  limits  of  the 
empire.  He  offended  his  subjects  by  his  haughty  deport 
ment,  and  oppressed  them  by  the  imposition  of  grievous 
taxes  which  were  required  to  support  his  sumptuous  style 
of  living.  In  1519  his  empire  was  invaded  by  Cortez, 
against  whom  he  employed  a  temporizing  policy.  He 
sent  him  a  magnificent  present,  but  forbade  him  to  ap 
proach  the  capital.  "This  was  to  reveal,"  says  Prescott, 
"  both  his  wealth  and  his  weakness."  Cortez  entered  the 
city  of  Mexico,  without  resistance,  in  November,  1519, 
and  found  a  hospitable  reception.  To  secure  himself 
against  contingencies,  the  audacious  Spaniard  next  seized 
Montezuma  and  held  him  as  a  hostage.  His  captors 
tried  to  convert  him  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
but  without  success.  In  compliance  with  the  demand 


Fxnlanations,  p.  2;,  : 


MONTFAUCON 


1616 


MONTGOMERY 


of  Cortez,  he  formally  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  sent  an  immense  quan 
tity  of  gold  as  tribute.  In  May,  1520,  Cortez  absented 
himself  from  the  capital  to  fight  his  rival  Narvaez,  and 
during  his  absence  the  Mexicans  revolted  against  the 
Spaniards.  Montezuma  was  persuaded  or  compelled  by 
Cortez  to  address  his  subjects  and  try  to  appease  the 
tumult.  lie  was  assailed  with  missiles  by  the  insur 
gents,  was  wounded,  and  died  in  June,  1520.  "Stately 
and  decorous,"  says  Prescott,  "he  was  careful  of  his 
own  dignity,  and  might  be  said  to  be  as  great  an  'actor 
of  majesty'  among  the  barbarian  potentates  of  the  New- 
World  as  Louis  XIV.  was  among  the  polished  princes 
of  Europe.  .  .  .  Monteznma's  amiable  and  inoffensive 
manners,  together  with  his  liberality, — the  most  popular 
of  virtues  with  the  vulgar, — made  him  generally  beloved 
by  the  Spaniards." 

See  W.  H.  PRF.SCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;" 
BERNAI,  DIAZ,  "  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Nueva  Espana :" 
OVIEDO,  "Historia  de  las  Indias  ;"  CLAVIGEKO,  "  Storia  antico  del 
Messico,"  i7So. 

Montfaucon,  de,  deh  moN'fd'koN',  [Lat.  MONTEFAL- 
CO'NIUS,]  (BERNARD,)  an  eminent  French  antiquary  and 
philologist,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1655,  was  a  member 
of  the  congregation  of  Benedictines  of  Saint- Maur. 
Having  visited  Italy  in  1698,116  published,  after  his  re 
turn,  his  "  Diarium  Italicum,"  an  account  of  the  libra 
ries  of  Italy,  "  Palaeographia  Graeca,"  a  treatise  on  the 
origin  and  progress  of  Greek  letters,  "  Antiquity  Ex 
plained  and  Represented  in  Figures,"  (10  vols.  fol.,  1719, 
in  French  and  Latin,)  and  "The  Monuments  of  the 
French  Monarchy,"  (5  vols.,  1729.)  He  also  published 
excellent  editions  of  Saint  Chrysostom  and  other  Greek 
writers.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip 
tions.  Died  in  1741. 

See  D.  TASSIN,  "  Histoire  litte'raire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
Maur." 

Montferrat,  de,  (CONRAD.)  See  CONRAD,  Marquis 
of  Tyre. 

Montferrat,  de,  deh  miN'ft'ia",  (BONIFACE,)  MAR 
QUIS,  was  a  brother  of  Conrad,  King  of  Jerusalem.  He 
became  King  of  Thessalonica  in  1183,  and  was  chosen 
the  chief  of  the  fifth  or  fourth  crusade  in  1202.  He 
was  an  able  commander,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople  in  1204.  Died  in  1207. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Genernle." 

Montferrat,  de,  (GUILLAUME,)  MARQUIS,  called 
THE  GREAT,  was  born  in  1243,  and  began  to  reign  in 
1254.  He  was  a  turbulent  prince  and  continually  en 
gaged  in  war  with  the  neighbouring  states.  He  married 
Beatrix,  a  daughter  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  in  1271. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  in  1290,  he  was  confined  in 
an  iron  cage,  and  died  in  1292. 

Montferrier,  de,  deh  m6N'fi're-a',  (ALEXANDRE 
ANDRE  VICTOR  SARRAZIN,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Mathematical  Sciences,  Pure 
and  Applied,"  (3  vols.,  1834-40.) 

Montfleury,  de,  deh  moN'fluh're',  (JEAN  LE  PETIT,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Caen  in  1698  ;  died  in  1777. 

Montfort,  COUNT  DE.     See  JOHN,  Duke  of  Brittany. 

Montfort,  mSnt'fort,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  moN'fok',] 
(SIMON,)  COUNT,  a  French  nobleman  and  military  com 
mander,  born  about  1 150,  was  conspicuous  for  his  courage 
and  for  his  cruelty  in  the  wars  against  the  Albigenses, 
(1208.)  He  was  killed  while  besieging  Toulouse,  in  1218. 

Montfort,  de,  (SlMON,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  ob 
tained  at  an  early  age  the  patronage  of  Henry  III.  of 
England,  who  made  him  Earl  of  Leicester  and  gave  to 
him  in  marriage  his  sister,  the  Countess  of  Pembroke. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  lieutenant-general  in 
Gascony.  In  1258,  a  rupture  having  occurred  between 
Henry  and  his  barons,  the  latter,  headed  by  Montfort, 
compelled  the  king  to  consent  to  the  regulations  called 
the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  which  threw  the  legislative  and 
executive  power  into  the  hands  of  twenty-four  barons. 
Tn  1264  a  battle  took  place  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  which 
the  royalists  were  defeated  and  the  king  taken  prisoner. 
Montfort  summoned  a  Parliament  in  1265,  in  which,  in 
addition  to  the  two  knights  returned  from  every  shire, 
representatives  were  sent  from  the  boroughs  ;  and  in  this 


way  was  founded  the  English  House  of  Commons.  In 
the  battle  of  Evesham,  the  same  year,  Montfort  was  de 
feated  and  slain  by  the  royal  troops  under  Prince  Edward. 
See  R.  PAUI.I.I,  "Life  of  Simon  de  Montfort:"  HUMK,  "  His 
tory  of  England:"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1866. 

Montgaillard,  m6N/ga''ytK',  (Guiu.AUME  HONORE 
ROQUES,)  a  historian,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1772.  He 
wrote  a  "  Chronological  Review  of  the  History  of  France, 
etc.,  1787-1818,"  (1820,)  which  was  once  popular.  Died 
in  1825. 

Montgaillard,  (JEAN  GABRIEL  MAURICE  ROQUES,) 
a  French  adventurer  and  political  writer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1761.  He  was 
employed  as  a  secret  agent  by  the  Bourbons  and  by 
their  enemies.  He  published  a  "Memoir  concerning 
the  Treason  of  Pichegru,"  etc.,  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1841. 

Montgelas,  m6N'zheh-la',  (MAXIMILIAN  JOSEPH,) 
COUNT,  a  German  statesman,  of  Savoyard  extraction, 
born  at  Munich  in  1759,  was  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  1799,  minister  of  the  interior  in  1806, 
and  minister  of  finance  in  1809.  Died  in  1838. 

Montgolfier,  mont-g6l'fc-er,  |  Fr.  pron.  moN'gol'. 
fe^A',]  (JACQUES  firiENNE,)  an  ingenious  Frenchman,  who 
invented  the  air-balloon,  was  born  at  or  near  Annonay 
(Ardeche)  in  1745.  After  studying  mathematics  with 
success  at  Paris,  he  became  an  architect.  At  the  request 
of  his  father,  he  quitted  that  profession  in  order  to  take 
charge  of  the  paper-manufactory  at  Annonay.  He  in 
vented  new  machines  and  more  simple  processes  in  this 
art.  On  reading  Priestley's  treatise  "  On  Different  Kinds 
of  Air,"  he  conceived  the  possibility  of  aerial  navigation, 
and  imparted  the  idea  to  his  brother  Joseph,  who  was  ns 
another  self.  Acting  in  concert  and  community,  they 
contrived  the  means  of  realizing  this  project.  After 
trying  hydrogen  gas  and  other  fluids,  they  made  the  first 
public  experiment  at  Annonay  in  June,  1783,  and  sent 
up  a  balloon  about  thirty-seven  French  feet  in  diameter, 
inflated  with  air  rarefied  by  heat.  This  successful  ex 
periment  made  a  great  sensation,  and  was  soon  repeated 
at  Paris.  The  brothers  were  admitted  into  the  Acad 
emy  of  Sciences.  Their  balloons  were  called  Montgol- 
fieres.  The  first  who  successfully  used  hydrogen  gas  in 
balloons  was  M.  Charles.  Montgolfier  died  in  1799.  (See 
CHARLES,  JACQUES  ALEXANDRIA) 

See  C.  L.  BKIGHTWEI.I.,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius," 
London,  1863. 

Montgolfier,  (JOSEPH  MICHEL,)  an  ingenious  French 
mechanician,  born  at  Annonay  in  1740,  was  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  air-balloon.  In  his  youth  he  assisted 
his  father,  who  was  a  successful  manufacturer  of  paper. 
In  partnership  with  a  brother,  he  carried  on  the  same 
business  at  Voiron  and  Beaujeu.  He  had  made  several 
improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  paper  before  his 
aerostatic  experiments  blazoned  his  name  throughout 
Europe.  (See  the  preceding  article.)  About  1792  he 
made  a  valuable  improvement  in  the  hydraulic  ram. 
He  also  invented  a  hydraulic  press  and  other  mechanical 
instruments.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France.  Died  in  1810. 

See  DKI.\MI;KK.  '•  Ivo-e  de  Joseph  Mont-oltV-r." 

Moiitgomerie,  (ARCIIIHAI.D  WILLIAM.)  See  EGI.IN- 

TON. 

Montgomery,  mont-gum'e-re,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scot 
tish  poet  under  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  was  the  author 
of  an  allegorical  piece  entitled  "The  Cherry  and  the 
Slae."  Died  about  1610. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Montgomery,  mont-gum'e-re,  (GEORGE  WASHING 
TON,)  a  native  of  Spain,  settled  in  America,  where  he 
published  "Bernardo  del  Carpio,"  a  historical  romance, 
and  translated  into  Spanish  Irving's  "Conquest  of 
Granada."  Died  in  1841. 

Montgomery,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  Scottish  politician,  and 
a  chief  of  the  Covenanters.  He  was  appointed  lord 
justice  clerk  in  1689.  "In  parliamentary  ability  and 
eloquence,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  had  no  superior  among 
his  countrymen  except  Sir  John  Dalrymple."  He  was 
turbulent  and  perfidious.  In  1690  he  joined  the  Jacob 
ites  in  plotting  against  William  III. 

See  MACAULAY,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 


I,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m&t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MONTGOMERT 


1617 


MONTIGNT 


Montgomery,  (JAMES,)  a  distinguished  poet,  born  in 
Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in  1771,  was  the  son  of  a  Moravian 
preacher.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  the  Moravian 
school  at  Fulneck,  in  Yorkshire,  where  his  progress  was 
not  very  satisfactory  to  his  teachers,  as  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  in  reading  and  writing  poetry, 
which  was  prohibited  by  the  rules  of  the  school.  After 
leaving  Fulneck,  he  resided  for  a  time,  as  shopman  in  a 
book-store,  in  London,  and  in  1792  began  to  contribute 
political  articles  tc  'he  "Sheffield  Register,"  edited  by 
Mr.  Joseph  Gales.  He  founded  in  1794  a  reform  jour 
nal,  called  the  ".Sheffield  Iris,"  of  which  he  was  editor 
about  thirty  year;..  Several  of  his  articles  having  been 
denounced  as  revolutionary,  he  was  twice  fined  and 
imprisoned.  He  published  in  1806  his  "  Wanderer  of 
Switzerland,"  which  was  followed  by  "  The  West  Indies," 
(1809,)  "The  World  before  the  Flood,"  (1812,)  and  "The 
Pelican  Island,"  (1827.)  These  poems  are  distinguished 
for  depth  and  tenderness  of  feeling,  elevated  moral 
sentiment,  and  graceful  description.  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty,  which  enjoy  exten 
sive  popularity.  One  of  Mr.  Montgomery's  last  works 
was  a  "  History  of  Missionary  Enterprise  in  the  South 
Seas,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  tlie  Life,  etc.  of  James  Montgomery,"  by  J. 
HOLLAND  and  JAMES  EVKRKTT;  "Lite  of  Montgomery,"  by  MRS. 
H.  (_'.  KNIGHT;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,"  (Supplement :)  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Decem 
ber,  1811;  "Blackwood's  Maga/ine"  ior  October,  1827;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1833,  and  October,  1856. 

Montgomery,  (RICHARD,)  a  distinguished  general, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1737,  served  in  Canada  under  Wolfe, 
and  subsequently  entered  the  American  army.  Being 
appointed  commander  of  the  forces  in  the  Northern 
department,  he  took  Fort  Chambly  and  Montreal.  He 
was  killed  in  December,  1775,  in  an  assault  upon  Quebec. 

See  "  Lite  of  Richard  Montgomery,"  by  JOHN  ARMSTRONG,  in 
SPAKKS'S  "American  Biography,"  vol.  i.,  first  series;  "National 
Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. 

Montgomery,  mont-giim'e-re,  (ROBERT,)  an  English 
divine  and  poet,  born  at  Bath  in  1807.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Omnipresence  of  the 
Deity,''  (1828,)  which  had  great  temporary  success,  eight 
editions  being  sold  in  as  many  months.  .  He  became  in 
1843  pastor  of  Percy  Street  Chapel,  London.  The  extra 
ordinary  success  of  his  poetry  was  chiefly  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  nature  of  his  subject  and  the  favour  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  religious  community.  Died  in  1855. 

See  MACAUI.AY,  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830; 
"Autobiography  of  Wiliiam  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xvii.  ;  "New 
Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  HORNK. 

Montgomery,  (WILLIAM  R.,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  New  Jersey,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  became 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  Union  army  in 
1861,  and  military  commandant  of  Philadelphia  in  1862. 

Montgomery,  mont-giiir/e-re,  de,  [  Fr.  pron.  deh 
moN'gom're',]  (GABRIEL,)  a  French  nobleman,  of  Scot 
tish  extraction,  born  about  1530.  Being  present  at  a 
tournament  given  by  Henry  II.  on  the  occasion  of  his 
daughter's  marriage  with  the  King  of  Spain,  Montgomery 
was  summoned  by  the  French  king  to  break  a  lance  with 
him.  lie  complied  reluctantly,  and  had  the  misfortune 
to  inflict  a  mortal  wound  on  his  antagonist.  He  subse 
quently  went  to  England,  where  he  became  a  Protestant, 
and,  after  his  return  to  France  in  1562,  distinguished 
himself  as  a  leader  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil  war  of 
the  time.  Being  made  prisoner  by  Marshal  Matignon 
at  the  siege  of  Saint-Lo,  in  1574,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  and  executed,  by  order  of  Catherine  de  Medicis. 
"The  queen,"  says  Sismondi,  "had  no  great  affection 
for  Henry  II.,  or  cause  to  regret  him  ;  but  she  wished 
that  a  man  should  not  be  considered  innocent  after 
having,  even  by  accident,  caused  the  death  of  a  king." 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais  ;"  BRANTOME,  "  Capi- 
taines  illustres." 

Montgon.de,  deh  mdN'goN',  (CHARLES  AI.EXANDRE,) 
a  French  priest,  born  at  Versailles  in  1690.  He  entered 
the  service  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  sent  him  on  a 
secret  mission  to  the  court  of  Paris.  He  published 
"Diplomatic  Memoirs,"  (5  vols.,  1742.)  Died  in  1770. 

Monthenault  or  Montenault  d'^gly,  moN'teh'no' 
da'gle',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 


Paris  in  1696.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
French  Kings  of  the  Two  Sicilies,"  (4  vols.,  1741.)  Died 
in  1749. 

Monthion,  de,  deh  m6N/te/6N/,  (FRANCOIS  GEDEON 
BAII.I.Y,)  COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon  in  1776;  died  in  1850. 

Montholon,  de,  deh  m6.N'to'16N',  (CHARLES  TRIS 
TAN,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1782. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1798,  and  accompanied  Napo 
leon  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  in  Italy,  Austria,  and 
Prussia.  He  was  sent  in  1811  on  an  important  embassy 
to  the  archduke  Ferdinand  at  Wurzburg,  and  in  1814 
was  made  general  of  brigade.  He  shared  the  emperor's 
exile  at  Saint  Helena,  and  served  him  with  unwearied 
fidelity  till  his  death,  being  appointed  by  him  executor 
of  his  will  and  keeper  of  part  of  his  manuscripts.  After 
his  return  to  France,  Montholon  published,  in  conjunc 
tion  with  General  Gourgaud,  "Memoirs  towards  the 
History  of  France  under  Napoleon,  dictated  by  Himself 
at  Saint  Helena,"  (1823.)  He  also  wrote  an  "Account 
of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Biographic  du  General  Montholon,"  1849;  "  London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  March,  1848. 

Monthyon.     See  MONTVON. 

Monti,  mon'tee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Bologna  in  1688;  died  in  1766. 

Monti,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  at  Bo 
logna  in  1682.  He  published  several  botanical  works. 
Died  at  Bologna  in  1760. 

Monti,  (RAFAEI.LE,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Milan  in  1818.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
the  "  Veiled  Vestal,"  the  "  Boy  catching  a  Grasshopper," 
and  the  "Circassian  Slave."  He  was  an  active  sup 
porter  of  the  popular  cause  in  1847-48,  since  which  he 
has  lived  as  an  exile  in  London. 

Monti,  (ViNCKNZO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  born 
near  Ferrara  in  1753.  ^e  studied  in  the  university  of 
that  city,  and  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  Latin  and 
Italian  poems.  These  compositions  obtained  for  him 
the  notice  and  patronage  of  Cardinal  Borghese,  who  took 
Monti  with  him  to  Rome  in  1778.  He  published  in  1785 
his  tragedy  of  "  Aristodemo,"  which  was  received  with 
great  favour.  His  poem  entitled  "  Bassvilliana,"  (1793,) 
suggested  by  the  murder  of  Hugo  de  Bassville,  envoy  of 
the  French  republic  at  Rome,  had  also  great  popularity, 
and  passed  through  eighteen  editions  in  six  months. 
Upon  the  French  invasion  in  1796,  Monti  repaired  to 
Milan,  where,  accommodating  himself  to  the  new  order 
of  things,  he  wrote  in  favour  of  the  Revolution.  Some 
of  his  writings,  which  originally  contained  bitter  in 
vectives  against  Napoleon,  were  now  altered  so  as 
to  transfer  the  abuse  to  the  allied  sovereigns.  On  the 
Russian  invasion  in  1799  he  took  refuge  for  a  time  in 
France,  and,  soon  after  his  return,  published  his  tragedy 
of  "  Caio  Gracco,"  "La  Mascheroniana,"  a  poem  on 
the  death  of  his  friend  Mascheroni,  and  his  beautiful 
and  popular  hymn  beginning  "  Bell'  Italia,"  etc.  Monti 
became  in  1803  professor  of  eloquence  at  Pavia,  and  on 
the  coronation  of  Napoleon,  in  1805,  was  appointed  his 
historiographer.  He  filled  this  office  rather  as  court 
poet  than  historian,  and  lavished  a  profusion  of  eulogistic 
verses  on  the  emperor  and  his  family.  He  was  created 
by  him  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  and  of  the 
iron  crown,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Notizie  sulla  Vita  e  suil'lnpiepno  di  Vincenzo  Monti,"  1828  : 
ZUCCAI.A,  "  Klogio  storico  cii  V.  Monti,"  1828;  BOZOI.I,  "Ragiona- 
mento  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  cli  V.  Monti,"  1837  '•  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Ge'nerale  :"  TIPATDO.  "Biogiafia  degli  Ita'.iani  illustri ;" 
LONGFF.I.I.OW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  February.  18.26  ;  "  t  raser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1832. 

Montiano  y  Lnyando,  de,  da  mon-te-a'no  e  loo- 
yan'do,  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  1697  ; 
died  in  1759. 

Monticelli,  mon-te-chel'lee,  (ANDREA,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1640,  painted  land 
scapes,  flowers,  fruits,  etc.  Died  in  1716. 

Montigny,  moN'ten'ye',  (FLORENCE  de  Montmo- 
rency — deh  mi.N'mo'roN'se',)  LORD  OF,  a  Flemish 
nobleman,  was  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1562.  Being 
sent  on  a  second  mission  in  1566,  he  was  arrested  by 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

102 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTIGNT 


1618 


MONTMORENCT 


order  of  Philip  II.,  accused  of  high  treason,  and  exe 
cuted  in  1570. 

See  PRBSCOTT,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii.  and  vol. 
ii.  book  iii. 

Montigny,  miN'ten'ye',  (ROSE  MARIE  Cizos,)  a 
popular  French  actress  of  comedy,  known  as  ROSE 
CHEKIE,  was  born  at  fitampes  in  1824. 

Montigny,  de,  deh  moN'ten'ye',  (JEAN,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1637,  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  Bishop  of  Leon.  Died  in  1671. 

Moiitjoie,  m6N'zhwa',  ((JHiusToi'iiE  FELIX  Louis 
VENTRE  DE  LA  TOULOUHKE,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  at  Aix  in  1746.  lie  was  a  royalist  in  the  Revo 
lution  of  1789-95.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Robespierre,"  (1796.) 
Died  in  1816. 

Montjosieu,  de,  deh  moN'zho'ze-uh',  (Louis,)  a 
French  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  Rouergue.  He  visited 
Rome  in  1583.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Frenchman 
a  Guest  at  Rome,"  ("  Callus  Romae  Hospes,"  1585.) 

Montlosier,  de,  deh  m6.N'lo'ze-i',  (KKANC.OIS  DO 
MINIQUE  Reynaud — i  i'no',)  CoMrTT,  a  French  journal 
ist,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1755.  He  was  a  deputy 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  prominent  ad 
vocate  of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  repaired  to  London, 
where  he  edited  an  anti-revolutionary  journal  called  the 
"  Courrier  de  Loud  res."  On  his  return  to  France, 
during  the  consulate,  he  modified  or  abandoned  his  roy 
alist  views.  He  was  also  for  a  time  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Constitutionnel."  Having  attached  himself  to 
the  new  dynasty  on  the  revolution  of  July,  he  was 
made  a  peer  in  1832.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  French 
Monarchy  from  its  Establishment  to  the  Present  Time." 
Died  in  1838. 

See  BARANTE,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Montlo 
sier,"  1842;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1823. 

Montluc,  de,  deh  mdN'liik',  (BuvisE  de  Lasseran- 
Massencome — deh  las'rfiN'  mt'sSN'kom',)  SEIGNEUR, 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  Gascony  in  1501.  He  fought 
against  the  Imperialists  commanded  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  and  assisted  at  the  sieges  of  La  Rochelle 
and  Calais.  In  1573  he  was  made  a  marshal  by  Henry 
III.  He  died  in  1577,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  his  Military 
Life,"  (1592,)  which  were  praised  by  Henry  IV.  and 
often  reprinted. 

Montluc,  de,  QEAN,)  a  bishop,  the  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1508,  and  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.,  who  employed 
him  in  various  embassies.  He  became  Bishop  of  Valence 
in  1553.  He  is  said  to  have  been  secretly  attached  to 
the  Reformed  religion  ;  but  he  retained  the  favour  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis.  Died  in  1579. 

See  BRANTOME,  "  Capitaines  ilhistres." 

Montluc,  de,  (JEAN,)  Seigneur  de  Balagni,  and  mar 
shal  of  France,  a  natural  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1545.  After  he  had  fought  for  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  latter, 
who  made  him  a  marshal  of  France  in  1594.  Died 
in  1603. 

Montmaur,  de,  deh  miN'moR',  (PIERRE,)  a  pedantic 
and  witty  Frenchman,  born  in  Limousin  or  Le  Quercy 
about  1564.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College 
de  France,  and  was  notorious  as  a  parasite.  Died  in  1648. 

See  SALL.ENGRE,  "  Histoire  de  P.  de  Montmaur,"  2  vols.,  1715. 

Montmorency.     See  LUXEMBOURG. 

Montmorency  or  Montniorenci,  m6nt-mo-ren'se, 
[Fr.  pron.  mdN'mo'rSN'se',]  the  name  of  a  noble  French 
family,  whose  celebrity  dates  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh 
century,  and  which  has  produced  many  famous  princes, 
peers,  and  generals.  Among  them  were  six  constables 
and  eleven  marshals  of  France. 

Montmorency,  de,  deh  miN'mo'rSN'se',  (ANNE,) 
Due,  Constable  of  France,  born  at  Chantilly  in  1493, 
was  the  first  of  his  family  that  received  the  title  of  duke. 
He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1522,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Pavia  in  1525.  In  1536,  by  skilful  manoeuvres,  he 
defended  Provence,  which  was  invaded  by  Charles  V.  in 
person.  He  was  appointed  constable  in  1538,  and  was 
chief  minister  of  P'rancis  I.  from  that  date  until  1541, 
when  he  fell  into  disgrace.  Henry  II.  restored  him  to 


favour  and  power  in  1547.  Montmorency  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin,  in  1557. 
The  death  of  Henry  II.,  in  1559,  was  fatal  to  his  am 
bitious  prospects,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  accession 
to  power  of  his  rival  the  Due  de  Guise.  He  fought  for 
the  Catholic  party  in  the  civil  war,  and  in  1562  com 
manded  at  Dreux,  where  he  gained  the  victory,  but 
was  made  prisoner.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Saint-Denis,  in  1567.  He  has  been  censured 
for  austerity  and  excessive  rigour,  but  had  several  great 
qualities. 

See  DE  THOU,  "  Histovia  sui  Temporis  ;"  BRANTOME,  "  Vies  des 
Homines  illnstres;"  LESCONVEI.,  "Anne  de  Montmorency,"  1696; 
DAVII.A,  "  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Ge'ne'rale  ;"  TAVANNES,  "Memoires;"  ROBERTSON,  "  His 
tory  of  Charles  V.,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Montmorency,  de,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  general, 
who  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1343.  He  fought 
against  the  English  at  Crecy  in  1346.  Died  in  1381. 

Montmorency,  de,  (CHARLOTTE  MARGUERITE,)  a 
French  lady,  born  in  1594,  was  the  sister  of  Duke  Henri 
II.  de  Montmorency.  She  was  married  to  Henri,  Prince 
de  Conde,  about  1609.  Her  beauty  made  such  an  im 
pression  on  the  king,  Henry  IV.,  that  her  husband  was 
alarmed,  and  conducted  her  to  a  foreign  country.  She 
was  the  mother  of  the  great  Conde,  of  the  Prince  of 
Conti,  and  of  the  Duchess  of  Longueville.  Died  in  1650. 

See  BAZIN,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XIII  ;"  L'EsxoiLE,  "Memoires," 
etc. 

Montmorency,  de,  (HENRY  I.,)  Due,  the  second 
son  of  Anne,  noticed  above,  was  styled  COMTE  DE 
DAMVILLE  in  his  youth.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Admiral 
Coligni.  At  the  battle  of  Dreux,  in  1562,  he  took  the 
Prince  of  Conde  prisoner,  and  in  1566  obtained  a  mar 
shal's  baton.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Henry 
IV.,  who  appointed  him  Constable  of  France  in  1593. 
Died  in  1614.  It  is  stated  that  a  mutual  passion  was 
felt  by  him  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  whom  he  fol 
lowed  to  Scotland  in  1561. 

Montmorency,  de,  (HENRI  II.,)  Due,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chantilly  in  1595.  His  valour, 
generosity,  and  name  rendered  him  a  great  favourite  with 
the  court,  the  army,  and  the  people.  He  commanded 
for  Louis  XIII.  in  the  civil  war  against  the  Huguenots 
which  began  about  1620,  and  defeated  the  Due  de 
Rohan  in  1628.  For  his  victory  over  the  Imperialists  at 
Veillane,  in  1629,  he  was  made  a  marshal.  Seduced  by 
Gaston,  a  brother  of  Louis  XIII.  and  heir-presumptive 
to  the  throne,  and  incited  by  enmity  to  Richelieu,  he  took 
arms  against  the  government,  and  encountered  the  royal 
army  at  Castelnandary  in  1632.  With  too  impetuous 
valour,  he  exposed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  was 
wounded,  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  tried  for  treason, 
and  beheaded  in  October,  1632.  He  left  no  issue,  and 
the  first  ducal  branch  of  the  Montmorencies  then  became 
extinct.  His  sister  was  the  mother  of  the  great  Prince 
de  Conde  and  of  the  Duchesse  de  Longueville. 

See  DESORMEAUX,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (MATHIEU  I.,)  was  appointed 
Constable  of  France  about  1130,  and  was  the  most  pow 
erful  French  seigneur  of  his  time.  He  married  first 
Aline,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  secondly 
Alix  or  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Louis  le  Gros  and 
mother  of  Louis  VII.  of  France.  He  died  in  1160, 
leaving  several  children  by  his  first  wife. 

See  DESORMEAUX,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (MATHIEU  II.,)  surnamed  LE 
GRAND,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about 
1174.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory  of  the 
French  at  Bouvines,  in  1214.  In  1218  he  obtained  the 
office  of  constable,  which  his  talents  and  merits  raised 
to  be  the  highest  office  of  the  kingdom.  The  Constable 
of  France  was  thenceforth  ex  officio  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  VIII.  and  in  that  of  his  successor.  He  was  nearly 
related  to  two  emperors  and  six  kings.  His  grand 
daughter  married  Louis  de  Bourbon,  a  great-great 
grandfather  of  Henry  IV.  Died  in  1230. 

See  DESORMEAUX,  "Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (  MATHIEU  JEAN  FELICITE 
de  Montmorency-Laval — deh  m6N/mo/r6N/se/  lt'- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONTMORIN 


1619 


MONTTON 


vfl',)  Due,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1766, 
was  a  friend  of  La  Fayette,  in  company  with  whom  he 
served  in  the  war  of  American  Independence.  He  was 
a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  an  ad 
vocate  of  liberal  reform.  On  the  restoration  he  became 
a  zealous  royalist,  and  was  made  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1821, 
president  of  the  cabinet,  and  governor  to  the  Duke  of 
Bordeaux  in  1823.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  Died  in  1826. 

See  DE  GERANDO,  "  filoge  de  M.  de  Montmorency,"  1826;  CHA- 
TEAUHRIAND,  "  Meiiioires  d'Outre-Tombe  ;"  VETILLAKD,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Due  de  Montmorency,"  1826. 

Mcmtmoriu  Saint-Herem,  de,  deh  moN'mo'ra.N' 
saN-/?a'i6N',  (AuMANU  MARC,)  COMTK,  a  French  states 
man,  born  about  1745.  He  succeeded  Count  Vergennes 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1787,  and  became  min 
ister  of  the  interior  in  1791.  He  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and  executed  in 
September,  1792. 

See  DKOZ,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XVI;"  LAMARTINE,  "History 
of  the  Girondists." 

Montmort,  de,  deh  moN'mon',  (PIERRE  REMOND,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in, 1678,  was  a 
pupil  of  Malebranche.  He  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
work  entitled  "  Analytical  Essay  on  Games  of  Chance." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  that 
institution  a  valuable  essay  "On  Infinite  Series."  Died 
in  1719. 

See  KONTENELLE,  "  filoges  des  Academiciens." 

Moiitolieu,  de,  deh  moN'tu'l.e-uh',  (JEANNE  ISAKELLE 
PAULINE  Polier  de  Bottens— po'le-4'  deh  bo't6N',) 
Dame  de  Crousaz  and  Baronne,  a  Swiss  novelist,  born 
at  Lausanne  in  1751  ;  died  in  1832. 

Montorfano,  mon-tou'fa-no,  (GIOVANNI  DONATO,) 
an  Italian  painter  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Montorsoli,  mon-toR'so-lee,  (Fra  GIOVANNI  AN- 
GELO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
at  Montorsoli,  near  Florence,  about  1500.  He  was 
employed  in  several  works  by  Michael  Angelo,  whose 
lasting  friendship  he  acquired.  He  was  selected  by 
Pope  Clement  VII.  to  restore  the  famous  group  of 
Laocoon  and  the  Apollo  Belvedere.  Among  his  master 
pieces  we  may  name  the  fountain  in  front  of  the  cathe 
dral  at  Messina,  and  the  grand  altar  of  the  Church  dei 
Servi  della  Nunziata  at  Bologna.  Died  in  1563. 

See  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura  ;"  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the 
Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Montpensier,  de,  deh  moN'p6N'se-i',  (ANNE  MA 
RIE  LOUISE  D'ORI.EANS,)  DucHKSSE.^Tomrnonly  called 
MADEMOISELLE,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1627.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  cousin  of 
Louis  XIV.  Of  a  bold  and  energetic  character,  she 
became  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  party  of  Conde  in  the 
wars  of  the  Fronde.  She  rendered  several  important 
services  to  that  faction,  among  which  was  the  capture 
of  the  town  of  Orleans.  About  1670  she  was  married 
to  Count  Lauzun.  She  died  in  1693,  leaving  Memoirs 
which  possess  much  interest. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "Mademoiselle's  Campaigns,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  July,  1858. 

Montpensier,  de,  (ANTOINE  MARIK  PHILIPPE  Louis 
D'ORLEANS,)  Due,  a  younger  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe 
of  France,  was  born  at  Neuilly  in  1824.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  Algeria  in  1844  and  1845,  obtained  the 
rank  of  marechal  de  camp  in  1846,  and  married  in  that 
year  Maria  Luisa  Fernanda  de  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  Isa 
bella,  Queen  of  Spain.  In  1858  Queen  Isabella  gave 
him  the  rank  of  captain-general.  He  was  a  candidate  for 
the  vacant  throne  of  Spain  in  1869.  In  March,  1870,  he 
killed  Prince  Henry  of  Bourbon  in  a  duel  near  Madrid. 

Montpensier,  de,  (ANTOINE  PHILIPPE  D'ORI.EANS,) 
Due,  a  younger  brother  of  King  Louis  Philippe  of 
France,  was  born  in  1775.  He  was  arrested  in  April, 
1793,  and  imprisoned  until  1796.  Died  near  London 
in  1807. 


Montpensier,  de,  (CATHERINE  MARIE  de  Lorraine 
— deh  lo'rin',)  DUCHESSE,  a  French  lady,  born  in  1552, 
was  a  sister  of  Henri,  Due  de  Guise.  She  acted  with 
the  League,  and  fomented  rebellion  against  Henry  III. 
of  France.  Died  in  1596. 

Montpetit,  de,  deh  moN'peh-te',  (ARMAND  VIN 
CENT,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Macon  in  1713.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  method  of  painting  which  he  called 
eludoriqite,  (elydoric.)  He  published  an  account  of  his 
invention  in  a  work  entitled  "Note  interessante  sur  les 
Moyens  de  conserver  les  Portraits  peints  a  1'Huile," 
etc.,  (1776.)  Died  in  1800. 

Montreuil,  de,  deh  moN'tRu!'  or  moN'tRuh'ye, 
(ISERNARDIN,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  theologian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1596,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Christ  taken  from 
the  Four  Gospels,"  (1637,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1646. 

Montreuil,  de,  sometimes  written  Montereul,  (MA- 
THIEU,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1611;  died  in 
1691. 

Montrichard,  miN're'shfR',  (JOSEPH  fii.iE  DESIRE 
PERRUQUET,)a  Flench  general,  born  in  1760.  He  com 
manded  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Trebbia,  June, 
1799.  Died  in  1828. 

Montrond,  de,  deh  miN'troN',  (CLEMENT  MELCHIOR 
JUSTIN  MAXIME  FouRCHEUX,)a  French  writer,  born  in 
Gard  in  1805.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "His 
tory  of  the  Crusades,"  (2  vols.,  1841.) 

Montrose,  mont-roz',  (JAMES  GRAHAME,)  MARQUIS 
OF,  a  celebrated  Scottish  general,  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1612.  Having  finished  his  studies  in  France,  after  his 
return  to  Scotland  he  served  for  a  time  in  the  Pres 
byterian  army  ;  but  he  subsequently  went  over  to  the 
royalists.  He  was  appointed  by  Charles  I.,  in  1644, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Scottish  forces.  He  signally  defeated  the  Covenanters  at 
Tippermuir  in  1644,  also  at  Inverlochy  and  at  Kilsyth 
in  1645;  but  his  army  was  surprised  and  totally  defeated 
by  General  Leslie  at  Philiphaugh  in  September,  1645. 
Montrose  soon  after  went  to  Germany,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  distinction  by  the  Austrian  emperor 
and  made  a  marshal  of  the  empire.  Having  collected 
a  small  but  ill-organized  force,  he  returned  to  Scotland 
in  1650,  but  was  soon  after  defeated  and  taken  pris 
oner.  He  was  executed,  without  a  trial,  at  Edinburgh, 
in  May,  1650. 

See  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  MARK  NAPIER, 
"  Montrose  and  the  Covenanters,"  1838  ;  GRANT,  "  Life  of  Grahame, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,"  1859;  GEORGE  WISHART,  "Memoirs  of 
Grahame,  Marquis  of  Montrose  ;"  SIR  EDWARD  CUST,  "Lives  of 
the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  1867  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1846  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1841. 

Montucci,  mon-toot'chee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1762,  became  in  1785 
professor  of  the  English  language  in  the  Tolomei  Col 
lege,  and  subsequently  of  Italian  at  Berlin  and  Dresden. 
He  died  in  1829,  leaving  unfinished  a  Chinese  Dictionary. 

Montucla,  moN'tu'ula"',  QEAN  ETIENNE,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1725.  Having  studied 
philology  and  natural  science  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
Lyons,  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  became  associate  editor 
of  the  "  Gazette  de  France"  and  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Diderot,  D'Alembert,  and  other  savants  of  the  time.  In 
1764  he  accompanied  Turgot  to  Cayenne,  as  first  secre 
tary  and  astronomer  to  the  expedition.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed  royal  censor  of  mathematical  books 
and  commissioner  of  the  royal  buildings.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  of 
the  Institute  of  France.  His  most  important  work  is 
his  "History  of  Mathematics,"  (1758,)  which  was  com 
pleted  by  Lalande.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Researches  for  Determining  the  Quadrature  of  the 
Circle,"  and  several  other  treatises.  Died  in  1799. 

See  A.  SAVINIEN-LEBLOND,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  J. 
fi.  Montucla,"  1800. 

Montureux.     See  BOURCIER. 

Monty  on  or  Monthyon,  de,  deh  moN'te-fiN',  (JEAN 
BAPTISTE  ROHEKT  Auget — o'zhi',)  BARON,  a  wealthy 
and  philanthropic  P'rench  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1733.  He  bequeathed  the  greater  part  of  his  large 
fortune  to  benevolent  and  learned  institutions,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  "Montyon  Prize  of  Virtue"  given 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONPEL 


1620 


MOORE 


by  the  French  Academy.  He  published  "  Researches 
and  Considerations  on  the  Population  of  France,"  and 
other  works.  "  His  name,"  says  Lamartine,  "  was  the 
foremost  on  the  roll  of  the  national  nobility."  Died 
in  1820. 

See  B.  V.  FRANKLIN,  "FJoqje  historique  de  Montyon,"  Paris, 
1834;  CHAZET,  "Vie  de  M.  de  Montyon,"  1829:  ANDRIEUX,  "filoge 
de  A.  J.  B.  R.  Auget,"  etc.,  1834;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'- 
rale. " 

Monvel,  mdN'veV,  (JACQUES  MARIE  BOUTET,)  a 
French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Luneville  in  1745, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  comedies  and  comic  operas. 
Died  in  1812. 

Monville,  de.     See  BOISSEL. 

Monvoisin,  mdN'vwa'zaN',  (  RAYMOND  AUGUSTE 
QUINSAC,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Bordeaux 
in  1795,  studied  in  Paris  under  Pierre  Guerin. 

Moojaert,  mS'ytRt,  written  also  Mooyaert,  (CLAS,) 
a  Dutch  landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Am 
sterdam  about  1590.  He  was  the  master  of  Berghem 
and  Jan  Weeninx. 

Moollah-Firooz  (or  Moullah-Firouz)  Ben-Ka- 
woos,  a  Persian  poet,  born  at  Bombay  in  1759.  He 
wrote  an  epic  poem,  entitled  "  George-Nameh,"  on  the 
conquest  of  India  by  the  British.  Died  in  1831. 

Moonen,  mo'nen,  (ARNOLD,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
distinguished  as  a  poet  and  grammarian,  was  born  at 
Zwolle  in  1644.  He  became  minister  of  a  Protestant 
church  at  Deventer.  His  poems  were  published  in  2 
vols.,  1720.  Died  in  1711. 

Moor,  moor,?  (EDWARD,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1770.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  India, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  major.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Hindu  Pantheon,"  (410,  1810.)  Died 
in  1848. 

Moor,  van,  vtu  moR,  Moro,  or  More,  (ANTONIS  or 
ANTONIO,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1519,  was  a  pupil  of  Jan  Schooreel.  He  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Granvelle,  the  emperor  Charles 
V.,  and  Philip  II.,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the  prin 
cipal  Sovereigns  of  Europe.  His  works  in  this  depart 
ment  are  of  the  highest  order.  He  also  executed  several 
historical  pictures  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1568. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moor,  van,  (KAREL,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Leyden  in  1656,  studied  under  Ge 
rard  Domv  and  Mieris.  Among  his  best  works  are  por 
traits  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marl  borough 
on  horseback.  He  was  created  a  knight  of  the  empire 
by  the  Austrian  emperor  Joseph  I.  His  "Assembly 
of  Notables,"  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  the  Hague,  is  also 
esteemed  a  master-piece.  Died  about  1738. 

See  PII.KINGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  DESCAMPS,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ;  CHARLES  BLANC,  "His- 
toire  des  Peintres." 

Moorad-Alee  or  Mourad-Ali,  moo-rSd  a'lee,  called 
also  Moorad  Khan,  (Kin,)  King  of  Persia,  of  the  Zend 
dynasty,  was  born  at  Ispahan  about  1746.  He  defended 
himself  for  a  time  successfully  against  several  rivals  ;  but 
he  was  at  length  defeated  by  Jaafar  Khan  in  1784.  Died 
in  1785. 

See  MALCOLM,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Moorad  (Mourad  or  Murad)  Bey,  moo-rid  ba,  a 
celebrated  Mameluke  chief,  born  in  Circassia  in  1750. 
On  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French,  in  1798,  he 
opposed  them  with  great  bravery,  but  was  at  length 
compelled  to  retreat.  He  subsequently  made  a  treaty 
with  General  Kleber,  by  which  he  became  Prince  of 
Assouan  and  Djirdjeh,  under  the  protection  of  France. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  GENERAL  PIERTRAND.  "Campagnes  d'fipypte  et  de  Syrie," 
1847;  THIERS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Mooravief  or  Mooraviev,  moo-ra-ve-eT,  written 
in  German  Murawiew  or  Murawjew,  but  pro 
nounced  exactly  like  the  preceding  spellings,  (ANDREW,) 
a  Russian  writer  and  traveller,  was  a  younger  brother 
of  General  Nicholas  Mooravief.  He  published,  in  Ger 
man,  a  "History  of  the  Russian  Church,"  (1845,)  a 
"Description  of  Armenia,"  (3  vols.,  1848,)  and  other 
works. 


Mooravief  or  Murawiew,  (MICHAEL,)  a  Russian 
engineer  and  general,  born  about  1795,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  a  member  of  the  imperial 
council  about  1850.  Died  in  1866. 

Mooravief  or  Murawiew,  (MICHAEL  NIKITICH,)  a 
Russian  litterateur,  born  at  Smolensk  in  1757,  was  ap 
pointed  preceptor  to  the  grand  dukes  Alexander  and 
Constantiue.  He  was  the  author  of"  Historical  Pieces," 
"Letters  of  Emilius,"  and  several  moral  and  literary 
essays,  which  are  ranked  among  Russian  classics.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  GRETCH,  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Mooravief,  Mouraviev,  Muraview,  or  Mura- 
vjeff,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  able  Russian  general,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1793.  He  served  as  general  in  the  war 
against  the  Poles,  (1830.)  In  1854  he  obtained  com 
mand  of  an  army  in  Asia.  He  took  Kars  from  the 
British,  after  a  long  siege,  in  November,  1855.  He 
afterwards  commanded  with  success  against  Schamyl, 
the  Circassian  chief.  Died  in  1866. 

Moorcroft,  moor'kroft,  ?  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  trav 
eller,  born  in  Lancaster  about  1780,  spent  several  years 
in  Hindostan,  and  explored  parts  of  the  country  hitherto 
unknown  to  Europeans.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Travels 
in  the  Himalayan  Provinces  of  Hindostan,"  etc.,  (1841,) 
"On  the  Purik  Sheep  of  Ladakh,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1825. 

Moore,  mor,  (ALFRED,)  an  American  jurist,  son  of 
Maurice,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Brunswick  county, 
North  Carolina,  in  1755.  He  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1799. 
Died  in  1810. 

Moore,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
on  Long  Island  in  1748,  became  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  diocese  of  New  York.  Died 
in  1816. 

Moore,  (CLEMENT  C.,)  LL.D.,son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1779.  He  was  appointed 
in  1821  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  literature  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Seminary  in  New  York.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew-and-English  Lexicon,"  and  other 
works. 

Moore,  mor,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
Berkshire  in  1712.  He  was  the  author  of  "Fables  foi 
the  Female  Sex,"  which  had  great  popularity,  and  "The 
Gamester,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  also  very  successful. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  "The  World,"  a  literary 
journal  having  among  its  contributors  Horace  Walpole, 
Soame  Jenyns,  and  Lord  Chesterfield.  Died  in  1757. 

See  WALPOLE,  "Letters  ;"  JOHNSON  and  CHALMERS,  "English 
Poets." 

Moore,  (EDWARD  M.,)  M.D.,  an  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Rahway,  New  Jersey,  July  15,  1814,  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1838.  In  1838,  in 
conjunction  with  Dr.  C.  L.  Pennock,  of  Philadelphia, 
he  performed  a  series  of  original  experiments  on  the 
physiological  action  of  the  heart,  which  excited  much 
attention  among  physiologists.  About  1840  he  removed 
to  Rochester,  New  York,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  his  profession.  For  many  years  he  has 
filled  the  chair  of  surgery  in  the  medical  college  at 
Buffalo. 

Moore,  (FRANK,)  son  of  Jacob  Bailey,  noticed 
below,  has  published  "Songs  and  Ballads  of  the  Amer 
ican  Revolution,"  the  "  Rebellion  Record,  a  Diary 
of  American  Events,"  (11  vols.,  1861-68,)  and  several 
other  works. 

Moore,  (JACOB  BAILEY,)  an  American  political  writer 
and  editor,  born  at  Andover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1797. 
He  edited  the  "  New  Hampshire  Statesman,"  a  Whig 
paper,  and  became  librarian  to  the  New  York  Historical 
Society.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Laws  of  Trade  in 
the  United  States."  Died  iu  1853. 

Moore  or  More,  (JAMES,)  an  English  writer,  was  the 
author  of  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Rival  Modes,"  and 
was  associated  with  the  Duke  of  Wharton  as  editor  of 
"The  Inquisitor."  Moore  is  satirized  by  Pope  in  his 
"Dunciad."  Died  in  1734. 

Moore,  QOHN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  1644,  be 
came  successively  Bishop  of  Norwich  and  of  Ely.  He 
died  in  1714,  leaving  a  library  of  thirty  thousand  volumes, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  11,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  far.  fall,  fat:  m?t:  not;  good;  moon; 


MOORE 


1621 


MOOSA 


which  was  purchased  by  George  II.  and  presented  to 
the  University  of  Cambridge. 

Moore,  mor,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  distin 
guished  writer,  born  at  Stirling  about  1730.  He  studied 
under  Hamilton  and  Cullen  at  Glasgow,  and  afterwards 
spent  several  years  on  the  continent.  He  published, 
after  his  return,  "A  View  of  Society  and  Manners  in 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,"  (1778,)  which  was 
followed  in  1781  by  a  similar  work  on  Italy.  They  are 
written  in  .a  lively  and  attractive  style,  and  had  great 
popularity  at  the  time.  His  principal  work  is  his  novel 
of  "Zeluco,"  (4  vols.,  1789,)  which  was  received  with 
great  favour  and  still  enjoys  a  high  reputation.  Died 
in  1802. 

See  CHAMBERS  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moore,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Gloucester 
in  1733.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1776,  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1783.  Died  in  1805. 

Moore,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  celebrated  British  general,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1761,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Dr.  John 
Moore,  noticed  above.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  and  was  sent  in  1794  to  Corsica,  where  he 
acted  in  conjunction  with  Paoli,  and  was  conspicuous 
for  his  courage  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Morello  and  at  the 
siege  of  Calvi.  As  general  of  brigade,  he  served  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  in  the  West  Indies  in  1796,  and 
in  1798  assisted  in  quelling  the  Irish  rebellion.  He 
accompanied  General  Abercrombie  to  Egypt  in  1801, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria. 
He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath  on  his  return  to 
England,  and,  after  various  services  in  Sicily  and  Sweden, 
was  created  lieutenant-general,  and  sent  in  1808  to  Spain 
to  unite  with  the  forces  in  the  north  against  the  French. 
On  the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  troops  along 
the  northern  frontier,  and  of  the  numerous  French  armies 
approaching,  he  made  a  rapid  retreat  to  Coruna,  which, 
being  performed  in  the  depth  of  winter,  was  attended 
with  great  suffering.  On  the  i6th  of  January,  1809,  an 
engagement  took  place  at  Corunna,  in  which  the  English 
claimed  the  victory  but  lost  their  brave  commander. 
His  death  has  been  commemorated  by  the  poet  Wolfe 
in  a  beautiful  and  popular  ode,  which  Byron  pronounced 
the  most  perfect  in  the  English  language. 

See  JAMES  C.  MOORE,  "  Life  of  Sir  Jolin  Moore,"  2  vols.,  1834  ; 
R.  SOUTHEV,  "History  of  the  Peninsular  War  ;"  NAHIER,  "His 
tory  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula;"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dic 
tionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moore,  (Sir  JONAS,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1617,  was  appointed  tutor  to  Prince 
James,  son  of  Charles  I.,  and  subsequently  became  in 
spector-general  of  artillery.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  the  author  of  several  scientific  works. 
He  was  instrumental  in  founding  a  mathematical  school 
for  sailors  at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  in  the  construction 
of  an  observatory  at  Flamstead  House.  Died  in  1679. 

See  BIRCH,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

Moore,  (MAURICK,)  an  American  jurist  and  patriot 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Brunswick  county,  North 
Carolina;  died  in  1777.  His  son  ALFRED  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  became  asso 
ciate  justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court  in  1799. 
Died  in  1810. 

Moore,  (NATHANIEL  F.,)  LL.D.,  a  nephew  of  Bishop 
Benjamin  Moore,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Newtown, 
Long  Island,  in  1782.  He  became  professor  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages  in  Columbia  College  in 
1820,  and  in  1842  president  of  that  institution.  He  has 
published  "Ancient  Mineralogy,"  and  other  works. 

Moore,  (RICHARD  CHANNING,)  D.D.,  an  American 
prelate,  born  in  New  York  in  1762.  He  became  rector 
of  Saint  Stephen's  Church,  in  that  city,  in  1809,  and  in 
1814  succeeded  Bishop  Madison  as  Bishop  of  Virginia. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Channing  Moore,"  by  J.  P. 
K.  HENSHAW. 

Moore,  mor,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  Irish  poet,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1779.  He  entered  Trinity  College  at  an 
early  age,  but,  being  a  Catholic,  he  was  unable  to  obtain 
any  of  the  university  honours  or  offices.  He  afterwards 
studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  London.  He  pub 
lished  in  1801  his  translation  of  the  "  Odes  of  Anacreon," 


which  was  very  successful,  and  was  followed  by  "The 
Poetical  Works  of  the  Late  Thomas  Little,"  (1802.)  In 
1804  he  visited  the  United  States  of  America,  on  the 
society  and  institutions  of  which  he  made  many  satirical 
comments  in  his  "Odes  and  Epistles,"  (1806.)  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Lalla  Rookh,"  (1812,)  an 
Oriental  poem,  "The  Twopenny  Post-Bag,  by  Thomas 
Brown,  Jun.,"  (1813,)  a  witty  satire  directed  against  the 
Tories,  which  had  great  popularity,  "The  Fudge  Family 
in  Paris,"  (1818,)  "Loves  of  the  Angels,"  (1823,)  and 
"  Irish  Melodies,"  (1834.)  In  1830  he  published  a  "  Life 
of  Lord  Byron,"  his  most  important  prose  work,  which, 
although  written  entirely  from  the  stand-point  of  friend 
ship,  has  been  highly  commended  by  the  critics.  He 
also  wrote  a  "Life  of  Sheridan,"  (1825,)  "The  Epicu 
rean,"  (1827,)  a  prose  romance,  and  a  "  History  of  Ire 
land,"  (1835.)  Of  his  poems,  his  "Lalla  Rookh"  and 
"Irish  Melodies"  enjoy  the  highest  reputation.  The 
former,  though  deficient  in  the  higher  qualities  of 
poetry,  is  characterized  by  exquisite  melody  of  versifica 
tion  and  splendid  imagery,  and  in  its  moral  tone  affords 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  frivolity  and  licentiousness 
of  his  earlier  productions.  It  obtained  extraordinary 
popularity,  and  was  translated  into  many  languages, 
including  Persian.  Hazlitt,  in  his  critique  on  Moore, 
says  '.hat  "his  is  the  poetry  of  the  toilette,  of  the  saloon, 
of  the  fashionable  world, — not  the  poetry  of  nature, 
of  the  heart,  or  of  human  life.  His  imagination  may 
dally  with  insect  beauties,  but  it  should  not  attempt  to 
span  the  great  outlines  of  nature,  or  keep  pace  with 
the  sounding  march  of  events,  or  grapple  with  the  strong 
fibres  of  the  human  heart." 

See  "Memoirs,  etc.  of  Thomas  Moore,"  by  LORD  RUSSELL; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1817,  and  April,  1854  ;  "  Lon 
don  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1853:  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  September,  1827,  and  January,  1853:  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
October,  1830  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1806. 

Moore,  (ZKPHANIAH  SWIFT,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Palmer,  Massachusetts,  in 
1770,  became  president  of  Williams  College  in  1815, 
and  in  1821  of  Amherst  College.  Died  in  1823. 

Moor'spm,  (Sir  ROBKRT,)  a  brave  English  admiral, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1760.  Being  appointed  in  1805 
commander  of  the  Revenge,  he  had  a  prominent  part 
in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  He  afterwards  represented 
Queensborough  in  Parliament,  and  was  made  an  admiral 
in  1830.  Died  in  1835. 

Moosa.     See  MOSKS. 

Moosa,  Mousa,  or  Musa,  moo'sa,  third  son  of 
Bayazeed  I.,  was  born  at  Brusa  about  1376.  He  was 
made  prisoner  with  his  father  by  Tamerlane  after  the 
battle  of  Angora.  Being  afterwards  appointed  by  the 
latter  governor  of  the  Ottoman  provinces  of  Asia  Minor, 
he  carried  on  a  war  against  his  elder  brother  Solyman, 
whose  capital  Adrianople  he  took  in  1404,  thus  becoming 
master  of  the  European  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  In 
1412  he  besieged  Constantinople,  but,  having  been  forced 
to  retire,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  strangled  by  order 
of  Mahomet  I. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Moosa,  Mousa,  or  Musa,  Ibn,  Tbn  moo'sa,  (Aboo- 
Abdallah-Mohammed,  a'boo  ab-dal'lah  mo-ham'- 
niScl,)  an  Arabian  mathematician,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  algebra  entitled  "  Al  Jebr  e  al  Mokabalah." 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
wrote  on  that  science  ;  and  Europe  is  indebted  to  him 
for  its  introduction  and  its  name. 

Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr,  moo'sa  Tb'n  no-sar',  (or  no- 
sir',)  (Aboo-Abd-er-Rahman,  a'boo  ab'der  rah/man,) 
a  celebrated  Arab  conqueror,  was  born  at  Mecca  about 
660  A.D.  He  was  appointed  in  703  Viceroy  of  Africa, 
and,  having  subjected  the  northern  part  of  that  country, 
from  Tripoli  to  Morocco,  he  turned  his  arms  against 
Spain.  In  conjunction  with  his  lieutenant  Tarik,  he  took 
Seville,  Merida,  Saragossa,  and  other  cities  of  Southern 
and  Central  Spain,  to  which  he  subsequently  added  the 
most  important  towns  of  Catalonia.  Among  other  ar 
ticles  of  great  value  of  which  he  had  possessed  himself 
was  the  emerald  table  called  the  table  of  Solomon,  taken 
at  Medina-Celi.  Moosa,  having  been  summoned  to  Da 
mascus  by  the  caliph,  presented  to  him  this  table,  and, 


«  z&k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJQ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOOSA 


1622 


MORANT 


on  his  expressing  his  surprise  that  it  should  have  three 
legs  of  emerald  and  one  of  gold,  Moosa  replied  that  he 
had  found  it  in  this  condition.  Tarik,  however,  imme 
diately  exposed  the  falsehood  of  his  rival  by  producing 
the  fourth  leg  of  the  table.  For  this  offence  he  was 
condemned  to  a  heavy  fine  by  Solyman,  who  afterwards 
caused  his  son  Abd-el-azeez  to  be  assassinated.  Moosa 
died  in  obscurity  in  718. 

See  ABOOLFKDA,  "  Annales  Moslemici ;"  MAKKARI,  "  History  of 
the  Mohammedan  Empire  in  Spain." 

Moosa-  (Mousa-  or  Musa-)  Ibn-Shakir,  moo'sa 
ib'n  sha'kir,  an  Arab  writer  of  the  early  part  of  the  ninth 
century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Sources  of  History." 
He  left  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  eminent  as 
an  astronomer  and  was  the  author  of  several  valuable 
works. 

Mooyaert.     See  MOOJAERT. 

Mop'sus,  [Gr.  Mo^of,]  a  famous  soothsayer  of  classic 
mythology,  was  called  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Manto. 
According  to  tradition,  he  gained  celebrity  by  the  truth 
of  his  prophecies  at  the  siege  of  Thebes  and  at  the 
temple  of  Claros,  and  he  triumphed  over  Calchas  in  a 
trial  of  skill  in  divination. 

Moquin-Tandon,  mo'kaN'  tSx'diN',  (HORACE  BENE 
DICT  A  I. FRED,)  a  French  physician  and  botanist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  in  1853  pro 
fessor  of  natural  history  in  the  Medical  Faculty  of  Paris, 
and  in  1854  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci 
ences.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Anomalies  of 
Vegetable  Organization,"  (1841,)  and  "Essay  on  the 
Multiplication  of  Organs  in  Vegetables." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Mora,  de,  da  mo'ra,  (JosE  JOAQUIN.)  a  Spanish  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1784.  Having  previously  edited 
a  literary  journal  at  Madrid,  he  repaired  to  South  Amer 
ica,  and  became  editor  of  the  "Cronica  Politica"  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  He  was  appointed  in  1838  consul-general 
of  Bolivia  to  London.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Arabs,"  (1826,)  "Spanish  Legends,"  (1840,)  and  a 
number  of  lyric  poems  and  satires.  He  also  trans 
lated  into  Spanish  Sir  Walter  Scott's  romances  of 
"  Ivanhoe"  and  "The  Talisman." 

See  F.  WOI.F,  "  Floresta  de  Rimas  modernas  Castellanas." 

Morabin,  mo'rS'baN',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  La  Fleche  in  1687.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Cicero,"  and  translated  into  French  Cicero's 
"Treatise  on  Laws"  and  "Treatise  on  Consolation." 
Died  in  1762. 

Moraes,  de,  da  mo-ra'e's,  (  CRISTOVAM  Alao — 
a-low.N',)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  1632,  was  the 
author  of  a  "Genealogy  of  the  Families  of  Portugal," 
and  a  number  of  sonnets  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1693. 

Moraes.de,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born 
at  Braganza.  He  went  to  Paris  as  secretary  of  legation 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  His  chief  work  is  "  Libro 
del  muy  esfoi^ado  Cauallero  Palmerin  de  Inglaterra," 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Sonthey.  Moraes 
was  assassinated  at  Evora  in  I  ^72. 

Moraes  Sarmento,  mo-ra'e\s  saR-men'to,  (  JOAO 
EVANGELISTA,)  a  Portuguese  poet  of  the  present  time. 
Among  his  works  is  an  "  Ode  on  War." 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Morales,  mo-i  a'les,  (CRISTOVAL,)  a  Spanish  musician, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  composers  of  his  time,  was  a 
native  of  Seville.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  III. 
composer  in  the  pontifical  chapel.  He  lived  about  1550. 

Morales,  (JiiAN  BAUTISTA,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  in  Andalusia  about  1598.  He  went  to  China  in 
1633,  but  was  compelled  to  quit  that  country  in  1638 
through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  censured 
for  permitting  their  converts  to  sacrifice  to  idols.  He 
returned  to  China,  where  he  died  in  1664. 

Morales,  de,  da  mo-ra'le's,  (AMKROSIO,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Cordova  in  1513.  He  studied 
at  Alcala,  where  he  subsequently  became  professor,  and 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Don  John  of  Austria.  In 
1570  he  succeeded  Ocampo  as  historiographer  to  Philip 
II.  His  principal  work  is  a  continuation  of  Ocnmpo's 
"Cronica  general  de  Espafia,"  (3  vols.,  1577,)  bringing 
the  history  of  Spain  down  to  1037.  Morales  also  pub 


lished  a  valuable  treatise   "On  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Spanish  Cities."     Died  in  1591. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  BOUTERWEK, 
"Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole." 

Morales,  de,  QUAN,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Anda 
lusia,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  made  admirable 
translations  of  some  odes  of  Horace,  and  wrote  original 
poems  of  much  merit. 

Morales,  de,  (Luis,)  an  eminent  Spanish  painter, 
surnamed  EL  DIVINO,  ("the  Divine,")  born  at  Badajoz 
in  1509.  lie  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  to  decorate 
the  Escurial  ;  but  he  subsequently  lost  the  king's  patron 
age  and  was  reduced  to  great  poverty.  He  was  relieved 
a  few  years  before  his  death  by  a  pension  bestowed  upon 
him  by  Philip.  His  "  Via  Dolorosa,"  in  the  church  of  the 
Hieronymites,  at  Madrid,  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master 
pieces.  Died  in  1586. 

SeeQim.i.iRT,  "Dictionnairedes  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  VIARDOT, 
"  Etudes  sur  I' Histoire  des  Beaux- Arts  en  Espa^ne,"  1835. 

Morali,  mo-ra'lee,  (OrTAVio,)  ABBE,  an  Italian  phi 
lologist,  born  near  Bergamo  in  1763,  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  the  College  of  Brera,  in  Milan.  He  pub 
lished  a  good  edition  of  Ariosto,  (1818.)  Died  in  1826. 

Mo-ran',  (EDWARD,)  an  American  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  born  about  1845.  Among  his  best 
works  are  "The  Swallows'  Cave,  Nahant,"  and  "Pulpit 
Rock."  His  brother  THOMAS  is  also  distinguished  as  a 
landscape-painter. 

See  TUCKKRMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Morand,  mo'rftN7,  (CHARLES  ANTOINE  Louis  ALE 
XIS,)  COMTK,  a  French  general,  born  at  Pontarlier  in  1771. 
He  served  as  general  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  Essling, 
and  Wagram,  (1805-09.)  Died  in  1835. 

Morand,  QEAN  ANTOINK,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Briai^on  about  1727.  He  executed  several  important 
works  at  Lyons,  one  of  which  is  a  wooden  bridge  over 
the  Rhone,  which  bears  his  name.  He  was  condemned 
by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  put  to  death  in  1794. 

Morand,  ([EAN  FKANC.OIS  CLEMENT,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  son  of  Sauveur  Francois,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1726.  He  became  librarian  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  was  a  member  of  several  other  learned 
societies  in  Europe.  Died  in  1784. 

Morand,(SAUVEUR  FRANC.ois,)adistinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1697,  was  the  first  who  intro 
duced  into  France  Cneselden's  method  of  lithotomy, 
having  previously  learned  it  in  London.  He  was  a  Fel 
low  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  appointed  in 
1730  royal  censor  and  sur<jeon-in-chief  of  the  hospital 
of  La  Charite.  He  published  a  number  of  surgical 
treatises.  Died  in  1773. 

See  fii.ov,  "Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Morand,  de,  deh  mo'rft.N7,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  drama 
tist,  born  at  Aries  in  1701,  was  the  author  of  a  comedy 
entitled  "The  Spirit  of  Divorce,"  and  several  tragedies. 
Died  in  1757. 

Moraude,  de,  deh  mo'rdNd',  (CHARLES  Thevenot 
or  Theveneau —  tav'nS',)  a  French  advenlurer  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Arnay-le-l)nc  in  1748,  was  the 
author  of  "The  Cynic  Philosopher,"  and  other  works 
of  a  libellous  character.  Died  about  1803. 

Morandi-Maiizolim,  mo-ran'dee  man-zo-lee'nee, 
(ANNA,)  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1716,  was  the  wife  of  G.  Manzolini,  a  physician,  from 
whom  she  learned  anatomy  and  the  art  of  modelling  in 
wax.  Her  works  in  this  department  were  regarded  as 
the  most  perfect  of  the  kind,  and  obtained  for  her  a 
European  reputation.  She  was  a  member  of  the  Insti 
tute  of  Bologna,  and  in  1758  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  that  city.  Died  in  1774. 

Morandini,  nio-ran-dee'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  called  IL 
POPPI,  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Poppi  in  1544, 
was  a  pupil  of  Vasari.  He  worked  with  great  facility. 
Died  about  1584. 

Morando,  mo-ran'do,  (FiLirro  ROSA,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1732;  died  in  1757. 

Mo-rant',  ? (PHILIP,)  an  English  antiauary,  born  in  the 
isle  of  Jersey  in  1700,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  History  and  Antiquities  of  Colchester,"  and  "History 
of  Essex."  Died  in  1770. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


MORARD 


1623 


MORE 


Morard  de  Galle,  mo'riK/  deh  gSl,  (JusxiN  BONA- 
VENTLKK,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1741  ; 
died  in  1809. 

Morata,  mo-ra'ta,  (OLYMPIA  FULVIA,)  an  Italian  lady, 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  women  of  her  time, 
was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1526.  She  was  married  about 
1550  to  Andrew  Gundler,  a  German  physician,  whom 
she  accompanied  to  Germany.  She  died  at  Heidelberg 
in  1555,  leaving  a  number  of  works,  including  Latin 
orations  and  Greek  poems. 

See  TURN  BUI. I.,  "Olympia  Morata,  her  Life  and  Times,"  1846; 
NOLTKN,  "Vita  Oiympi.e  Morata?,"  1775;  J.  HONNKT,  "Vied'Olym- 
pia  Morata,"  1856;  Wli.UBRMUTH,  "  O.  Morata;  ein  christliches 
Lebensbiid,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moratin,  de,  da  mo-ra-teen',  (LEANDRO  FERNANDEZ,) 
an  eminent  dramatist,  sometimes  called  "the  Spanish 
Moliere,"  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1760.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1787,  through  the  influence  of  Jovellanos, 
secretary  to  the  Spanish  embassy  in  Paris,  and  published, 
soon  after  his  return,  his  comedy  of  "The  Old  Man 
and  the  Young  Girl,"  ("El  Viejo  y  la  Nina,")  which 
was  very  successful.  Among  the  most  popular  of  his 
other  works  are  "The  Impostor,"  ("El  Karon,")  "Yes 
of  the  Maidens,"  ("Si  de  las  Ninas,")  "The  Young 
Hypocrite,"  ("  La  Mogigata,")  and  "  The  New  Comedy," 
("La  Comedia  nueva.")  His  "Origines  del  Teatro 
Espanol,"  (1838.)  a  critical  treatise,  is  also  highly  es 
teemed.  Moratin  became  first  librarian  to  Joseph  Bona 
parte  in  1811,  and  during  the  subsequent  troubles  in 
Spain  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he  died  in  1828. 

See  KENNKDY,  "  Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  ;"  PRKSCOTT, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  li.  part  i. :  OCHOA,  No 
tice  of  Moratin,  prefixed  to  his  "Origines  del  Teatro  Espanol," 
1X38;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  June,  1828. 

Moratin.de,  (NICOLAS  FERNANDEZ,)  a  Spanish  poet 
and  dramatist,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Madrid  in  1737.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Hormesinda," 
and  several  other  dramas  in  the  French  style,  also  of  an 
epic  poem  entitled  "The  Ships  of  Cortez  Destroyed," 
("Las  Naves  de  Cortes  destruidas,")  which  has  a  high 
reputation.  Died  in  1780. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1827. 

Moray,  EARI.  OF.  See  MURRAY,  (JAMES  STUART.) 
Moray  or  Murray,  nun're,  (Sir  KOKERT,)  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  was  a 
native  of  Scotland.  Having  resided  for  a  time  in  France, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIII.  and  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  lie  was  appointed,  after  the  restoration,  to 
several  important  offices.  He  was  the  first  president  of 
the  Royal  Society,  which  he  assisted  to  found  in  1661. 
Died  in  1673. 

See  BIRCH,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  CHAMBERS,  "Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Morazan,  mo  ra-san',  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Central  Amer 
ican  general,  born  in  Honduras  in  1799.  He  became 
president  or  general-in-chief  of  the  republic  of  Central 
America  about  1830,  was  driven  into  exile  in  1840,  and 
put  to  death  in  1842. 

Morazzone.     See  MAZZUCHF.U.I. 

Morcelli,  moR-chel'lee,  (  STEFANO  ANTONIO,)  a 
learned  Italian  antiquary  and  Jesuit,  born  near  Brescia 
in  1737.  Among  his  principal  works  (which  are  mostly 
written  in  Latin)  we  may  name  "Africa  Christiana." 
(3  vols.,  1816-17,)  illustrating  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  Africa,  "Opera  Epigraphica,"  (5  vols.,  1818,)  "Opus- 
coli  ascetici,"  (3  vols.,  1820,)  and  a  treatise  "On  the 
Style  of  Latin  Inscriptions,"  (3  vols.,  1819-22.)  He 
founded  an  academy  of  archaeology  at  Rome,  where  he 
passed  many  years.  Died  in  1821. 

See  P.  LOTTIKRI.  "Elogio  storico  di  S.  A.  Morcelli,"  1821; 
BARU.DI,  "  Notizia  di  Morcolli,"  1825. 

Mordaunt,  mor'dant,  (CilARi.F.s,)  Earl  of  Peter 
borough,  a  famous  English  general,  of  chivalrous  and 
eccentric  character,  born  in  1658,  was  the  son  and  heir 
of  John,  Lord  Mordaunt.  He  first  appears  prominently 
in  history  as  a  staunch  Whig  and  opponent  of  James  II. 
In  1689  he  was  created  Earl  of  M  on  mouth  and  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  but  the  next  year  he  retired 
from  that  office,  which  was  ill  suited  to  his  volatile  and 


generous  character.  He  afterwards  inherited  the  title 
of  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Peterborough.  During  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  commanded  an  Eng 
lish  army  of  5000  men  which  arrived  in  Spain  in  1705 
and  performed  a  series  of  brilliant  exploits,  among  which 
was  the  capture  of  Barcelona  and  Valencia,  (1706.) 
Thwarted  in  his  plans  by  the  archduke  Charles  of 
Austria,  he  obtained  leave  to  retire  from  the  army,  and 
was  recalled  to  England  in  1707.  Through  hostility  to 
Marlborough,  he  supported  the  Tories  in  the  political 
contests  which  ensued,  and  after  the  accession  of  George 
I.  was  consequently  excluded  from  office.  He  died  in 
1735.  His  second  wife  was  Anastasia  Robinson,  a  cele 
brated  singer  and  actress.  In  the  opinion  of  Macauiay, 
he  was  "  the  most  extraordinary  character  of  that  age, 
the  King  of  Sweden  not  excepted.  His  fertility  and 
activity  of  mind  were  almost  beyond  belief.  He  loved 
to  dictate  six  or  seven  letters  at  once.  He  was  a  kind 
friend,  a  generous  enemy,  and  a  thorough  gentleman. 
But  his  splendid  talents  and  virtues  were  rendered 
almost  useless  to  his  country  by  his  levilv,  his  restless 
ness,  his  irritability,  his  morbid  craving  for  novelty  and 
excitement."  ("Essays.") 

See  MACAULAY,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xi.,  and 
his  Review  of  LORD  MAHON'S  "  Hi  toryof  the  Wai  of  the  Succes 
sion  in  Spain;"  FKIKND,  "Account  of  the  Earl  ot  Peterborough, 
etc.  in  Spain;"  BUKNF/T,  "History  of  his  Own  Times;"  LORD 
MAHOK,  "War  ot  the  Succession  in  Spain;"  WAI  POLE,  "  Koyal 
and  Noble  Authors;"  "Eccentric  Personages,"  by  WILLIAM  RUS 
SELL,  1866. 

More,  moR,  [Lat.  MO'RUS,]  (ALEXANDER,)  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Castres 
in  1616.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva  in 
1639,  and  of  history  at  Amsterdam  in  1651.  He  was  the 
author  of  Latin  poems  and  other  works.  Died  in  1670. 

See  SYMMONS,  "Life  of  Milton;"  SENEBIER,  "  Hisloire  litte- 
raire  de  Geneve." 

More,  (ANTONIO.)     See  MOOR. 

More,  (HANNAH,)  an  English  writer,  whose  moral 
and  religious  works  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  her  time, 
was  born  at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  in  1745.  She  pub 
lished  in  1773  a  pastoral  drama,  entitled  "The  Search 
after  Happiness,"  and  in  1774  "The  Inflexible  Cap 
tive,"  a  tragedy,  which  introduced  her  to  the  notice  of 
Garrick,  Dr.  Johnson,  and  other  eminent  men  of  that 
period,  by  whom  she  was  greatly  esteemed  for  the  excel 
lence  of  her  character.  She  was  the  author  of  several 
other  dramas,  which  were  very  favourably  received  ;  but, 
owing  to  her  convictions  of  the  immoral  tendency  of 
the  stage,  she  abandoned  dramatic  writing,  and,  while 
her  popularity  was  still  at  its  height,  devoted  herself  to 
compositions  of  a  moral  and  religious  character.  Among 
the  principal  of  these  we  may  name  "Thoughts  on 
the  Manners  of  the  Great,"  (1788,)  "Strictures  on  the 
Modern  System  of  Female  Education,"  (1799,)  "Hints 
towards  Forming  the  Character  of  a  Young  Princess," 
(1805,)  written  for  Charlotte,  Princess  of  Wales,  "  Ccelebs 
in  Search  of  a  Wife,"  (1809,)  and  several  contributions 
to  the  "Cheap  Repository  Tracts,''  one  of  which  is 
entitled  "The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain."  Died 
in  1833. 

See  WILLIAM  ROBERTS,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Hannah 
More;"  MRS.  H.  C.  KNIGHT,  "  A  New  Memoir  of  Hannah  More;" 
H.  THOMPSON,  "Lite  ot  Hannah  More,"  etc.,  1838  :  MRS.  F.I.WOOD, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  eic  ;  "  Monthly 
Review"  for  Februaiy,  1*09,  April,  1813,  and  February,  1820. 

More,  |Lat.  MO'RUS.]  (HENRY,)  an  English  divine 
and  philosophical  writer,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1614. 
He  studied  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  a  Fellow.  He  refused  several  high  prefer 
ments  in  the  church,  and  passed  his  life  in  retirement, 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Psychozoia,  or  the  Life  of  the  Soul,"  (1640,) 
"  Enchiridium  Metaphysicum,"  "Conjectura  Cabalis- 
tica,"  "The  Mystery  or  Godliness,"  "Discourse  on  the 
Immortality  of 'the  Soul,"  and  other  works,  in  which  he 
favours  the  Platonic  system.  He  was  a  man  of  fine 
genius,  profound  learning,  and  rare  excellence  of  char 
acter.  He  was  one  of  the  first  Fellows  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of  Des 
cartes.  Died  in  1687. 

See  R.  WARD.  "Life  of  Henry  More,"  1710;  BURNKT,  "His 
tory  of  his  Own  Times  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  (1822.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORE 


1624 


MOREAU 


More,  (JAMES.)     See  MOORE. 

More,  [Lat.  MO'RUS  ;  It.  and  Sp.  MO'RO,]  (Sir 
THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  wit,  philosopher,  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  1480,  was  a  son  of  Sir 
John  More,  a  judge  of  the  court  of  king's  bench.  He 
received  the  first  rudiments  of  his  education  at  Saint 
Anthony's  School,  London,  where  he  learned  Latin. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  page  in  the  house  of 
Cardinal  Morton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  prime 
minister,  who  was  much  pleased  with  the  wit  of  young 
More  and  predicted  that  he  would  prove  "  a  marvellous 
man."  In  1497  he  entered  the  University  of  Oxford, 
where  he  studied  Greek  as  a  pupil  of  Grocyn  and  formed 
an  intimate  and  lasting  friendship  with  Erasmus.  He 
gained  distinction  at  Oxford  as  a  writer  of  English  and 
of  Latin  verses.  Having  left  college,  he  studied  law  at 
Lincoln's  Inn.  "He  manifested,"  says  Mackintosh,  "a 
predilection  for  monastic  life,  and  is  said  to  have  prac 
tised  some  of  those  austerities  and  self-inflictions  which 
prevail  among  the  gloomier  and  more  stern  orders." 
He  resolved,  indeed,  at  one  time  to  turn  monk,  and  act 
ually  became  a  lay  brother  of  the  Carthusian  convent 
(the  Charter-House)  in  London,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
passed  several  years,  devoting  himself  at  the  same  time 
to  the  study  of  the  classics,  the  French  language,  and 
music.  He  afterwards  entertained  thoughts  of  becoming 
a  priest ;  but  on  further  reflection,  and  influenced  per 
haps  by  the  general  corruption  of  the  priestly  orders,  he 
abandoned  his  design.  In  the  words  of  Erasmus,  "  Ma- 
luit  maritus  esse  castus  quam  sacerdos  impurus,"  ("he 
preferred  to  be  a  chaste  husband  rather  than  an  impure 
priest.")  About  1502  he  married  Jane  Colt,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  a  gentleman  of  Essex.  He  had  a  slight 
preference  for  her  younger  sister,  but  was  so  good- 
natured  that  he  sacrificed  his  inclination,  that  he  might 
not  wound  the  feelings  of  the  eldest.  This  union  proved 
very  happy,  but  his  wife  died  a  few  years  after  her  mar 
riage,  leaving  him  a  son  and  three  daughters,  of  whom 
Margaret,  the  eldest,  inherited  the  features,  goodness, 
and  genius  of  her  father.  His  graceful  and  varied  learn 
ing  was  only  surpassed  by  his  sprightly,  inexhaustible 
'wit.  "With  him,"  says  Erasmus,  "you  might  imagine 
yourself  in  the  Academy  of  Plato."  He  attained  great 
eminence  at  the  bar,  and  about  1502  became  an  under- 
sheriff  of  London, — i.e.  a  judge  of  the  sheriffs  court.  He 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  Englishman  that  cultivated 
oratory  with  any  great  success.  "  He  is,"  says  Mackin 
tosh,  "  the  first  person  in  our  history  distinguished  by 
the  faculty  of  public  speaking,  and  remarkable  for  the 
successful  employment  of  it  in  Parliament  against  a 
lavish  grant  of  money  to  the  crown."  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  about  1504,  and,  by  persuading  the  Com 
mons  not  to  grant  a  supply  to  Henry  VII.  on  the  occa 
sion  of  the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  deeply  offended 
that  king.  More  had  in  consequence  resolved  to  leave 
the  country ;  but  the  death  of  Henry  relieved  him  from 
all  apprehensions. 

Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he  married  a  widow  named 
Alice  Middleton.  In  1513  he  wrote  a  "History  of 
Richard  III.,"  which,  says  Hallam,  "appears  to  me  the 
first  example  of  good  English  language,  pure  and  per 
spicuous,  well  chosen,  without  vulgarisms  or  pedantry." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Flanders  in  1514,  and  about  that 
date  became  a  favourite  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  not  only 
consulted  him  in  affairs  of  state,  but  preferred  him  as 
the  companion  of  his  amusements  and  convivial  hours. 
In  1516  he  produced  his  famous  Platonic  fiction  of 
"  Utopia,"  (in  Latin,)  describing  an  imaginary  common 
wealth  in  the  island  of  Utopia,  the  citizens  of  which 
had  all  things  in  common.  He  resigned  the  office  of 
under-sheriff  in  1519,  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the 
exchequer  in  1521,  and  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  152}.  He  gave  proof  of  his  firmness 
and  independence  by  his  answer  to  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
who  demanded  a  very  great  subsidy  for  the  king.  About 
1523  More  began  to  write  tracts  against  Luther. 

In  October,  11520,  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor 
in  place  of  Cardinal  Wolsev.  Although  the  Protestants 
were  persecuted  while  he  held  that  office,  it  would  appear 
that  he  was  not  responsible  for  the  persecution.  "  It  is 


a  sufficient  proof  of  his  clemency,"  says  Erasmus,  "  that 
while  he  was  chancellor  no  man  was  put  to  death  for 
these  pestilent  dogmas."* 

Suitors  were  astonished  at  the  contrast  between  the 
affable  More  and  the  haughty  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Sir 
Thomas  resigned  the  great  seal  in  May,  1532,  because 
his  conscience  refused  to  sanction  the  divorce  of  Queeu 
Catherine  and  the  second  marriage  of  the  king.  "  Henry 
had  tried  every  possible  means  to  obtain  at  least  the 
appearance  of  his  spontaneous  approbation."  (Mackin 
tosh.)  In  1533  he  wrote  a  work  called  "The  Apology 
of  Sir  Thomas  More." 

Having  declined  to  take  the  oath  by  which  he  was  re 
quired  to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  king's  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  in 
April,  1534.  After  he  had  been  in  prison  more  than  a 
year,  he  was  charged  with  denying  the  king's  supremacy 
as  the  head  of  the  Church  ;  and,  his  answers  not  having 
been  found  satisfactory,  he  was  pronounced  guilty  of 
treason,  and  was  beheaded  on  the  6th  of  July,  1535. 
"  The  scaffold  had  been  awkwardly  erected,  and  shook 
as  he  placed  his  foot  upon  the  ladder.  '  See  me  safe  up,' 
he  said  to  Kingston  ;  '  for  my  coming  down  I  can  shift 
for  myself.'  .  .  .  The  executioner  offered  to  tie  his  eyes. 
'  I  will  cover  them  myself,'  he  said  ;  and,  binding  them  in 
a  cloth  which  he  had  brought  with  him,  he  knelt,  and 
laid  his  head  upon  the  block.  The  fatal  stroke  was 
about  to  fall,  when  he  signed  for  a  moment's  delay,  while 
he  moved  aside  his  beard.  '  Pity  that  should  be  cut,' 
he  murmured  :  '  that  has  not  committed  treason.'  With 
which  strange  words, — the  strangest,  perhaps,  ever  ut 
tered  at  such  a  time, — the  lips  most  famous  through 
Europe  for  eloquence  and  wisdom  closed  forever." 
(Froude's  "  History  of  England,"  chap,  ix.)  Alluding 
to  his  behaviour  on  the  scaffold,  Addison  remarks, 
"  The  innocent  mirth  which  had  been  so  conspicuous  in 
his  life  did  not  forsake  him  at  the  last.  His  death  was 
of  a  piece  with  his  life  ;  there  was  nothing  in  it  new, 
forced,  or  affected.  He  did  not  look  upon  the  severing 
his  head  from  his  body  as  a  circumstance  which  ought 
to  produce  any  change  in  the  disposition  of  his  mind  ; 
and,  as  he  died  in  a  fixed  and  settled  hope  of  immor 
tality,  he  thought  any  unusual  degree  of  sorrow  and 
concern  improper."  ("  Spectator,"  No.  349.)  According 
to  the  account  of  his  great-grandson,  More  "was  of  a 
middle  stature,  well  proportioned,  of  a  pale  complexion, 
his  hair  of  chestnut  colour,  his  eyes  gray,  his  counte 
nance  mild  and  cheerful." 

See  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Sir  Thomas  More,"  bv  his  great- 
grandson,  C.  MORE,  1626;  WII.I.IAM  ROPER,  "Vita  T.  Mori,"  1626; 
SIR  JAMKS  MACKINTOSH,  "  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  More."  1830;  FKR- 
N\N'DO  DE  HKKRKRA,  "  T.  Moro,"  1592;  F.  WARNER.  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  of  Sir  T  More,"  1758:  C.  MORE,  "  Life  of  Sir  T.  Move," 
1828;  DOMENICO  RRGHI,  "  Vita  di  T.  More."  1675:  ARTHUR  CAY- 
T.KV,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  T.  More,"  2  vols.,  i«o8;  C.  DARKSTE,  "T. 
Morns  et  T.  Campanello,"  1843  ;  AUIMN,  "  Histoire  de  T.  Moms," 
1^2;  LORI>  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  :"  W.  J. 
WALTER.  "  Lite  and  Times  of  Sir  T.  More,"  1847 :  J  HOIMJESDOM, 
"T.  Mori  Vita,"  etc  ,  1652;  FROUDE,  "  History  of  England  ;"  RUD- 
HART.  "  T.  Moms,"  1829. 

Moreau,  mo'ro',  (CESAR,)  a  French  economist  and 
writer  on  statistics,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1791.  He 
has  published  several  works  on  commerce,  etc. 

Moreau,  (FRANCOIS  JOSKPII,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Auxonne  in  1789,  practised  in  Paris.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Traite  des  Accouchements,"  (2  vols.,  1838-41.) 
Died  in  1862. 

Moreau,  (HEGESIPPE,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris 
in  1810,  was  the  author  of  songs,  elegies,  and  satires,  of 

*  This  statement  is  contradicted  bv  Froude,  who  says,  "  Soon  after 
the  seals  changed  hands,  the  Smithfield  fires  recommenced  :  and,  the 
chancellor  acting  in  concert  with  them,  the  bishops  resolved  to  ob 
literate,  in  these  edifying  spectacles,  the  recollection  of  their  neneral 
infirmities."  He  afterwards  cites  the  case  of  Bainham.  who  was 
burned  in  April.  1532,  a  short  lime  before  More  resigned  the  office 
of  chancellor.  The  account  of  Bainham's  execution  appears  to  rest 
nnon  the  single  testimony  of  Foxe,  who,  though  generally  trust 
worthy,  micrht  possibly  ba  mistaken,  especially  when  he  was  obliged 
to  depend  wholly  on  the  statements  of  others.  He  was  but  a  boy 
when  Bainham's  death  took  place.  More,  whose  word  is  not  to  be 
light'y  set  aside,  express'y  denies  in  his  "Apology"  (nublished  the 
next  year)  tint  he  was  guil'y  of  any  cruel  treatment  of  the  heretics. 
If  the  denial  was  false,  there  were  doubtless  many  then  living  who 
could  prove  it  to  be  so.  It  appears,  however,  never  to  have  been 
contradicted.  How  far  he  was  responsible  for  the  acts  of  the  bishops 
it  is  difficult  to  sav. 


i,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon ; 


MOREAU 


1625 


MORELIUS 


considerable  merit,  and  a  prose  work  entitled  "The 
Mistletoe  of  the  Oak,"  ("Le  Gui  de  Chene.")  He  died, 
in  great  poverty,  in  1838. 

Moreau,  (JACOB  NICOLAS,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Saint-Florentin  in  1717,  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  France  under  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  a  "  Discourse 
on  the  History  of  France,"  "Duties  of  a  Prince,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Moreau,  QEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Angers  in  1656,  was  patronized  at  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  employed  by  Racine  to 
compose  the  choruses  for  his  "  Athalie"  and  "Esther." 
Died  in  1733. 

Moreau,  (JEAN  MICHEL,)  a  French  engraver  and 
designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1741,  became  draughtsman  of 
the  royal  cabinet,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  executed  one  hundred  and  sixty  plates 
for  the  "  History  of  France,"  and  upwards  of  one  hun 
dred  for  editions  of  Voltaire  and  Moliere.  Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moreau,  ([KAN  VICTOR,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
generals  of  France,  was  born  at  Morlaix,  in  Brittany, 
August  11,  1763.  He  studied  law,  and  was  provost  of 
law  at  Rennes  just  before  the  Revolution.  In  1792  he 
enlisted  in  the  republican  army,  and,  as  chef  de  bataillon, 
served  under  Dumouriez.  He  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1793,  and  a  general  of  division  in  1794.  In 
the  latter  year  he  commanded  with  eclat  the  right  wing 
of  Pichegru's  army,  which  conquered  Holland.  In  the 
spring  of  1796  he  succeeded  Pichegrti  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  and  opened 
the  campaign  which  was  the  foundation  of  his  military 
fame.  His  passage  of  the  Rhine  at  Strasbourg  was  greatly 
applauded.  He  drove  the  Austrians  back  to  the  Danube, 
and  then,  finding  his  army  outnumbered,  after  several 
indecisive  actions  he  performed  the  famous  and  masterly 
retreat  through  the  Black  Forest,  which  was  one  of  his 
chief  exploits.  He  was  suspended  from  the  command 
in  1 797  by  the  Directory,  who  probably  suspected  him 
of  complicity  in  the  defection  of  his  friend  Pichegru. 

The  reverses  of  the  French  having  rendered  his  ser 
vices  necessary,  he  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  Italy  in  the  spring  of  1799.  At  the  battle  of 
Novi  he  had  three  horses  killed  under  him.  and  made  a 
skilful  retreat,  soon  after  which  he  was  transferred  to 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  political 
crisis  of  i8th  Brumaire,  (November  9,  1799,)  Moreau 
was  in  Paris,  and  consented  to  support  Bonaparte  in 
subverting  the  power  of  the  Directory.  Some  suppose 
that  if  he  had  been  less  modest,  or  more  ambitious,  he 
might  have  acted  the  principal  role  in  that  great  drama. 
The  First  Consul  intrusted  to  Moreau  the  command  of 
the  army  of  Germany,  and  dictated  to  him  a  plan  of  the 
campaign,  which  the  latter  refused  to  adopt.  "Moreau 
would  not  submit,"  says  Alison,  "to  the  indignity  of 
acting  as  second  in  command  to  his  former  rival,  and 
said,  '  I  have  no  notion  of  seeing  a  little  Louis  XIV.  at 
the  head  of  my  army.'"  ("History  of  Europe.") 

After  an  angry  discussion,  he  persisted  in  his  own  plan, 
and,  while  Bonaparte  marched  to  the  conquest  of  Italy, 
he  invaded  the  valley  of  the  Danube  in  May,  1800,  with 
Jbout  100,000  men.  Between  the  1st  and  loth  of  May 
he  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Kray  at  Engen  and 
Biberach.  In  the  next  month  he  gained  a  decisive  vic 
tory  at  Hochstadt,  near  Blenheim.  After  an  armistice 
of  a  few  months,  the  two  armies  met  on  December  3, 
1800,  at  Hohenlinden,  where  Moreau  won  a  very  im 
portant  victory,  which  induced  the  Austrians  to  sue  for 
peace.  The  war  being  thus  ended,  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  became  the  chief  of  a  party  composed  of  royalists 
and  republicans  united  bv  their  enmity  to  Napoleon. 

In  1804  he  was  arrested  as  an  accomplice  in  Pichegru's 
conspiracy,  and,  although  they  failed  to  prove  that  he 
had  any  active  part  in  it,  he  was  sentenced  to  two  years' 
imprisonment,  which  was  commuted  to  exile  in  the 
United  States.  He  resided  with  his  wife  at  Morrisville, 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  city  of  New  York,  until  over 
tures  from  the  Czar  of  Russia  induced  him  to  return  to 
Europe  in  July,  1813.  He  was  caressed  by  the  allied 
sovereigns  and  received  with  triumphal  demonstrations 
by  the  people  of  Germany.  The  Czar  said  to  Moreau, 


(who,  it  appears,  was  still  a  republican,)  "I  know  your 
opinions;  I  will  do  nothing  which  can  thwart  them,  and 
will  leave  France  perfectly  free."  With  these  views,  he 
co-operated  with  the  allies  against  the  French,  and  was 
mortally  worn, dec!  at  Dresden,  August  27,  1813.  He 
announced  the  fact  by  letter  to  his  wife  in  these  terms: 
"At  the  battle  of  Dresden,  three  days  ago,  I  had  both 
legs  carried  off  by  a  cannon-ball.  That  rascal  Bonaparte 
is  always  fortunate.  Excuse  my  scrawl,"  etc. 

See  LEMAIRE,  "  Vie  impartiale  du  General  Moreau,"  1814  ;  "  Me 
moirs  of  General  Moreau, "  by  J.  PMII.IPPART;  GARAT,  "  Kloge  de 
Moreau,"  1814  ;  "  Life  and  Campaigns  of  Victor  Moreau,"  (translated 
from  the  French  ;)  A.  DE  BKAUCHAMP,  "Vie  politique,  militaire  et 
privee  du  General  Moreau,"  1814;  CHATEADNEUF,  "  Histoire  du 
General  Moreau,"  etc.,  1814;  FAUCHE-BOKEL,  "Notices  sur  les 
Generaux  Pichegru  et  Moreau,"  1807;  HASSE,  "Moreau,  sein 
J.eben,"  etc.,  1814;  COUSIN  D'AVAI.UJN,  "Histoire  du  General 
Moreau,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale:"  THIERS,  "His 
tory  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  lor  January, 
1814. 

Moreau-Christophe,  mo'ro'  kRes'tof,  (Louis  MA- 
THURIN,)  a  French  economist,  born  near  Tours  in  1799. 
He  was  sent  to  foreign  countries  to  examine  prisons, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  the  discipline  and  reform 
of  prisons. 

Moreau  de  la  Rochette,  mo'ro'  deh  IS  ro'shgt', 
(FRANC.OIS  THOMAS,)  a  French  horticulturist,  born  in 
Champagne  in  1720,  founded  near  La  Rochette  an  agri 
cultural  school.  Died  in  1791. 

Moreau  de  Jomies,  mo'ro'  deh  zho'neV,  (AI.EXAN- 
DRE,)  a  French  writer,  born  near  Rennes  in  1778,  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises  on  mineralogy, 
statistics,  and  other  scientific  subjects. 

Moreau  de  la  Sarthe,  mo'ro'  deh  IS  sSkt,  (JACQUES 
Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  able  writer,  born  near 
Le  Mans  in  1771.  He  published  several  professional 
works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1826. 

Moreau  de  1'Yonne,  mo'ro'  deh  ICKJII',  a  French 
politician,  born  near  Tonnerre  in  1750,  was  elected  in 
1798  to  the  Council  of  Ancients.  Died  in  1806. 

Moreau  de  Saint-Mery,  mo'ro'  deh  sa.v  ma're', 
(MEDERIC  Louis  ELIE,)  born,  of  French  parentage,  in 
the  isle  of  Martinique  in  1750,  was  administrator-general 
of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  from  1802  to  1806. 
He  wrote  several  descriptive  and  scientific  works.  Died 
in  1819. 

Moreaux,  mo'ro',  (JEAN  RENE,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Rocroi  in  1758.  He  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Moselle  in  1794,  and  took  Treves  and  Coblentz. 
Died  in  February,  1795. 

Moreelze,  mo-ral'zeh,  (PAUL,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  M.  Mirevelt.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter,  and  was 
extensively  patronized  by  the  nobility.  Died  in  1638. 

Morel,  mo're'l',  (Ci.AUUK,)  a  French  printer,  born  in 
1574,  was  a  son  of  Federic  the  Elder,  noticed  below. 
Died  in  1626. 

Morel,  (FEDERIC,)  called  THE  ELDER,  a  celebrated 
French  printer,  born  in  Champagne  in  1523,  was  ap 
pointed  printer  to  the  king  in  1571.  Died  in  1583. 

Morel,  (FEDERIC,)  THE  YOUNGER,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1558.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  Greek  scholar,  and  the  editions  of  the  classics 
issued  from  his  press  were  conspicuous  for  their  accu 
racy  and  the  beauty  of  the  typography.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  royal  printer  in  1583.  Died  in  1630. 

Morel,  (GuiLLAUMK,)  a  French  printer,  born  at  Til- 
leul  in  1505,  was  noted  for  the  beauty  and  accuracy  of 
his  editions  of  the  classics.  He  became  printer  to  the 
king  in  1555.  Died  in  1564. 

Morel,  (JEAN,)  a  French  poet, born  in  Champagne  in 
1539;  died  in  1633. 

Morel.  (JKAN  MARIE,)  a  French  architect  and  gar 
dener,  born  in  Lyons  in  1728.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  designer  of  gardens.  Died  in  1810. 

See  J.  B.  DUMAS,  "  Notice  sur  J.  M.  Morel,"  1825. 

Morel  de  Vinde,  mo'rel'  deh  va.N'da',  (CHARLES 
GILBERT,)  VICOMTE,  a  French  writer  and  agriculturist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1759:  died  in  1842. 

Morel-Fatio,  mo'ieT  ft'te'o',  (ANTOINE  LEON,)  a 
French  landscape  and  marine  painter,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1810. 

Morelius.     See  MORELY. 


€  as  k;  5  as  j;  |  hard;  g  as>;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Q^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORELL 


1626 


MORGAGNI 


Morell,  mo'reT,  (ANDRE,)  a  Swiss  antiquary,  distin 
guished  for  his  profound  knowledge  of  numismatics, 
born  at  Berne  in  1646.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"Thesaurus  Morellianus,"  being  a  description  of  the 
coins  of  the  Roman  families.  It  was  left  unfinished. 
Died  in  1703. 

Mo-rell',  (GEORGE  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Cooperstown,  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1835.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  Union 
volunteers  in  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the 
battles  of  Gaines's  Mill  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862. 

Mo-rell',  (J.  D.,)  an  English  contemporary  writer, 
has  published  "An  Historical  and  Critical  View  of  the 
Speculative  Philosophy  of  Europe  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1846,)  "The  Philosophy 
of  Religion,"  (1849,)  and  other  works.  He  contributed  to 
the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  the  article  on  "National 
Education." 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1846;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  August,  1849;  "  North  British  Review,"  vol.  xi. 

Morell,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic, 
born  at  Eton  in  1703.  He  published  an  edition  of  Hede- 
rich's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1762,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  Hogarth's  "Analysis  of  Beauty."  lie  also  edited 
Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  and  several  Greek  and 
Latin  classics.  Died  in  1784. 

See  HAKWOOD,  "Alumni  Etonenses." 

Morellet,  rm/ri'Uy,  (ANDRE,)  AniiE,  an  eminent 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Lyons  in  1727,  was  educated  in 
the  Sorbonne,  at  Paris.  He  became  a  friend  of  Voltaire, 
Rousseau,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert,  to  whose  "  Ency 
clopedic"  he  contributed.  He  translated  into  French 
Beccaria's  treatise  "On  Crimes  and  Penalties,"  ( 1766,) 
and  wrote  several  treatises  on  political  economy,  and 
many  other  works,  among  which  is  "  Melanges  of  Lite 
rature  and  Philosophy  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (4 
vols.,  1818.)  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy,  the  archives  of  which  he  concealed  at  the  risk 
of  his  life  in  the  reign  of  terror.  Died  in  1819. 

See  LEMONTEY,  "  filoge  de  Morellet."  prefixed  to  Morellet's 
"Memoires,"  2  vols.,  1821;  "  Nouvelle  Biogtanhie  Ge'ne'rale ;" 
"  Morellet  and  his  Contemporaries."  in  ihe  "  North  American  Re 
view"  for  October,  1822,  (by  A.  H.  EVEKKTT.) 

Morelli,  mo-rel'lee,  (CosiMo,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Iinola  in  1732.  He  was  employed  by 
Pope  Pius  VI.  to  construct  the  cathedrals  of  Macerata 
and  Imola,  and  other  edifices  in  the  Pontifical  States. 
Died  in  1812. 

See  TIPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Morelli,  (GlACOMo,)  an  eminent  Italian  critic  and 
bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  in  1745,  became  a  priest, 
and  was  appointed  librarian  at  Saint  Mark's,  Venice,  in 
1778.  He  published,  among  other  valuable  works,  a 
"Historical  Dissertation  on  the  Library  of  Saint  Mark," 
(1774,)  and  "Library  of  Greek  and  Latin  Manuscripts," 
(1802.)  Many  of  his  minor  works  were  published  in 
1820,  under  the  title  of  "Operette,"  (3  vols.  8vo.)  Died 
in  1819. 

See  MOSCHINI,  "  Narrazione  della  Vita  di  G.  Morelli."  i^ig; 
ZBNDKINI,  "Eogio  di  Morelli,"  iSzi  :  TIPAI.DO,  '•  Biografia  degli 
Italian!  illustri ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Morelli,  (MARIA  MADDAI.KNA,)  an  Italian  poetess 
and  improvisatrice,  born  at  Pistoiain  1740;  died  in  1800. 

Morelly,  mo'ri'le',  a  French  writer  on  socialism, 
born  about  1750.  He  published  an  able  work  entitled 
"The  Code  of  Nature,"  which  was  attributed  to  Diderot, 
"The  Basiliade,"  a  political  romance,  and  a  number  of 
treatises  on  various  subjects. 

Morelos,  mo-ia'los,  (Don  JOSE  MARIA,)  a  Mexican 
patriot  and  general,  born  in  New  Mexico  in  17^0.  He 
joined  the  insurgent  army  under  Hidalgo  in  1810,  and 
subsequently  became  leader  of  a  band  composed  chiefly 
of  negro  slaves,  with  whom  he  carried  on  a  successful 
guerilla  warfare  for  a  time  against  the  Spaniards.  He 
was  made  prisoner  in  1815,  and  soon  after  executed  at 
Mexico. 

See  DON  Jos£  GUERRA.  "Historiade  la  Revolucion  de  Nueva 
Espaiia,"  1813. 

Merely  or  Morelly,  mo'iVle',  [Lat.  MORF/I.IUS,] 
(JKAN  BAPTISTH,)  a  French  Protestant,  noted  for  his 
efforts  to  organize  the  Church  on  democratic  principles, 


was  born  in  Paris  about  1510.  His  "Treatise  on  Chris 
tian  Discipline"  (1561)  was  condemned  by  several  Prot 
estant  synods. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Morenas,  mo'reh-nts',  (JOSEPH  EI.ZEAR,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  near  Carpentras  in  1778.  He  wrote 
"On  the  Castes  of  India,"  (1822,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  Mingrelia  in  1830. 

Moreno,  mo-ra'no,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Burgos  in  1642;  died  in  1674. 

See  CEAN-BKRMUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Moreno,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Cadiz 
in  1743  J  (necl  '»  1817. 

Moreri,  mo'ra're',  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  eccle 
siastic,  born  in  Provence  in  1643.  I 'e  published  in  1674 
his  "  Historical  Dictionary,"  ("Grand  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique,"  i  vol.  fol.,)  a  work  of  rare  merit,  lie  died  in 
1680,  leaving  unfinished  his  great  work,  which  h;is  been 
extended  by  subsequent  writers  to  ten  volumes,  (Paris, 
I759-) 

See  NICKRON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mores,  morz,  (EDWARD  ROWK.,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1730.  He  published  several  works  on  English 
antiquities.  Died  in  1778. 

Moret,  mo-reV,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  historian,  bom  at 
Pampeluna  in  1615.  Among  his  works  is  a  History  of 
Navarre,  ("Annales  del  Regno  de  Navarra,"  5  vols., 
1715.)  Died  in  1705. 

Moret,  de,  deli  mo'i.Y,  (ANTOINE  de  Bourbon — 
deh  booR'bi.N',)  COUNT,  a  natural  son  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  was  born  in  1607,  and  legitimated  in  1608.  He 
joined  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  his  revolt  against 
Louis  XIII.  in  1631,  and  was  killed  or  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Castelnaudary,  in  September,  1632.  According 
to  some  accounts,  he  survived  till  1691. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moreto  y  Cabana,  mo-ra'to  c  ka-uan'ya,  (Don  Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist,  bum  about 
1600.  Among  his  best  works  we  may  name  "  The  Brave 
Justiciary,"  ("El  valiente  Justiciero',")  "  El  Lindo  Don 
Diego,"  and  "Disdain  for  Disdain,"  ("  Desden  con  el 
Desden."  The  last  is  said  to  have  been  the  original 
of  Moliere's  "Princesse  d'filide."  Died  in  1669. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  Historyof  Spanish  Literature;"  OCIIOA,  "  Tea- 
tro  Espanol  ;"  A.  F.  VON  SOIACK,  "  Geschichte  der  drarrutisclien 
Literatur  in  Spanicn." 

Moretti,  mo-ret'tee,  (GAETANO,)  an  Italian  astrono 
mer,  born  at  Bologna,  was  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises.  Died  in  1697. 

Moretti,  (GiusKi'i'K,)  an  Italian  savanf,  born  at  Pavia 
in  1783,  became  professor  of  botany  at  that  city  in  1832. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Biblioteca  Agraria."  Died  in  1853. 

Moretto  da  Brescia.     See  BONVICINO. 

Mor'fit,  (CAMi'HEi.i.,)  an  American  chemist,  born  at 
Herculaneum,  Missouri,  in  1820.  He  was  associated 
with  Professor  Booth  in  1848  as  editor  of  the  "  Ency 
clopaedia  of  Chemistry."  He  has  published,  among 
other  works,  "Applied  Chemistry  in  the  Manufacture 
of  Soap  and  Candles,"  (1847,)  "Chemical  and  Phar- 
maceutic  Manipulations,"  (1848,)  and  "Perfumery,  it* 
Manufacture  and  Use." 

Morgagni,  moR-gai/yee,  (GlAMBATTISTA,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Forli  in  1682. 
He  studied  at  Bologna,  where  he  became  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Valsalva,  and  in  1715  he  was  appointed  pro- 
lessor  of  anatomy  at  Padua.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  On  the  Seat  and  Causes  of  1  >iseases  discovered 
by  Anatomy,"  ("De  Sedibtis  et  Causis  Morbonmi  per 
Anatomen  indagatis,"  2  vols.,  1762.)  It  was  translated 
into  French,  Italian,  English,  and  German,  and  still  en 
joys  a  very  high  reputation.  His  "Adversaria  Anato- 
mica"  is  also  highly  esteemed.  Morgagni  made  several 
valuable  discoveries,  and  he  has  been  called  the  founder 
of  pathological  anatomy.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  principal 
Academies  of  Europe.  Died  in  1771. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vita;  Italorum  Hoctiina  excellentium ;"  FON- 
TENKI.I.K,  "  Kloiie  de  Morgagni;"  MOSCA,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Mor 
gagni."  1768:  TOKRKSINI,  "  E'oi'io  storico  di  G.  B.  Morgagni," 
1X44;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MORGAN 


1627 


MORILLO 


Mor'gan,  (CHARLES  W.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1790;  died  in  1853. 

Morgan,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
New  Jersey  in  1736,  served  with  distinction  in  the  war 
of  the  Revolution.  Me  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Burgoyne,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of 
Cowpens,  (1781,)  where  he  gained  a  signal  victory,  for 
which  a  gold  medal  was  awarded  him  by  Congress. 
Died  in  1802. 

See  the  "Life  of  Daniel  Morgan."  by  JAMES  GRAHAM,  1856,  and 
the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Morgan,  ( EDWIN  D.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1811.  lie  became 
at  an  early  age  a  merchant  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  New  York  by  the  Repub 
licans  in  18^8,  and  again  in  1860.  lie  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  from  New  York  in  1863  for 
six  years. 

Mor'gan,  (GEORGE  CADOGAN,)  born  in  Wales  in 
1754,  became  pastor  of  a  dissenting  church  at  Norwich, 
England,  in  1776,  and  subsequently  professor  of  physics 
at  Hackney.  He  published  "Lectures  on  Electricity," 
and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1798. 

Morgan,  (GEORGE  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Western  Pennsylvania  about  1820,  practised  law  in 
Ohio  before  the  civil  war.  He  became  a  brigadier-gen 
eral  of  Union  volunteers  about  November,  1861.  He 
took  Cumberland  Gap  in  June,  1862,  and  evacuated  the 
same  in  September  of  that  year. 

Morgan,  (Sir  1  IENRY,)  a  Welsh  buccaneer,  born  about 
1637,  commanded  several  expeditions  against  the  Span 
iards,  and  captured  Porto  Bello  and  Panama.  He  was 
afterwards  made  a  knight,  and  appointed  Governor  of 
Jamaica  by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1690. 

See  VAN  TKNAC,  "  Histoire  generate  de  la  Marine." 

Morgan,  (JAMES  D.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Boston  in  1810,  removed  in  1834  to  Illinois,  and  in  1862 
became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

Morgan,  (JoiiN  II.,)  an  American  guerilla  chief, 
born  near  Lexington,  Kentucky,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  in  1826.  He  took 
command  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  in  1801,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  audacity  in  several  raids  against  the  rail 
roads  and  other  public  works  in  Kentucky  and  Ten 
nessee.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  1862.  In 
July,  1863,  lie  crossed  the  Ohio  River  with  about  4000 
men,  and  made  a  raid  into  Indiana  and  Ohio,  where  he 
destroyed  railroads,  bridges,  etc.  He  was  captured  in 
Ohio  and  confined  in  the  penitentiary,  from  which  he 
escaped,  by  digginer,  about  the  end  of  November,  1863. 
In  September,  1864,  he  was  surprised  in  the  night  at 
Greenville,  Tennessee,  by  the  troops  of  General  Gillem, 
and  was  killed. 

See  a  Sketch  of  his  Life  in  "Southern  Generals,"  iS6g. 

Morgan,  (Lady  SYDNEY,)  a  distinguished  authoress, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1789,  was  the  daughter  of  an  actor 
named  Owenson.  At  an  early  age  she  published  several 
romances,  one  of  which,  "The  Wild  Irish  Girl,"  (1806,) 
was  very  popular.  In  181 2  she  was  married  to  Sir  Charles 
Morgan,  whom  in  1816  she  accompanied  to  France  and 
Italy,  and  the  result  of  her  travels  appeared  soon  after, 
in  her  two  works  entitled  "  France,"  (1817,)  and  "Italy," 
(1821.)  Among  her  other  productions  we  may  name 
"Florence  Macarthy,"  (1816,)  "Absenteeism,"  (1825,) 
"The  O'Briens  and  O'Flahertvs,"  (1827,)  "The  Book 
of  the  Boudoir,"  (1829,)  and  "Woman  and  her  Master," 
(18^5.)  In  i8<;i  she  published  a  "Letter  to  Cardinal 
Wiseman."  Died  in  1859. 


ser's  Magazine"  for  February.  iS3i.  and  Noven  ber,  1X33  :  "  Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  iSoS.  and  October  and  November,  1817. 

Mor'gan,  (Sir  THOMAS  CHARLES.)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician,' born  in  London  about  1783.  In  1811  he  was 
made  a  baronet,  and  the  next  year  married  Miss  Owen- 
son,  who  was  already  known  as  an  authoress.  lie  soon 
after  settled  in  Ireland,  where  he  advocated  Catholic- 
emancipation.  He  wrote  "Sketches  of  the  Philosophy 
of  Life,"  and  "  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy  of  Morals." 


He  also  contributed  to  Lady  Morgan's  "France"  and 
"The  Book  without  a  Name."  Died  in  1843. 

Morgan,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  divine,  born  in  Wales, 
was  appointed  in  1601  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph.  He 
assisted  in  translating  into  Welsh  the  Bible  published 
in  1588.  Died  in  1604. 

Morgan,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Welsh  mathematician,  born 
in  Glamorganshire,  held  the  office  of  actuary  to  the 
Equitable  Assurance  Company,  London.  He  published 
a  "  Review  of  Dr.  Crasvford's  Theory  of  Heat,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1833. 

Morgan,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  mechanic,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1775,  removed  subsequently  to  Batavia, 
New  York.  In  1826  he  was  abducted  from  his  home  and 
murdered  by  a  band  of  Freemasons  for  having  written  a 
work  professing  to  disclose  the  secrets  of  their  society. 

See  AI.I.EN.  "  American  Biographical  Dictionary  ;"  "  New  Amer 
ican  Cyclopaedia;"  "Gazetteer  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  by  J. 
H.  FKEXCH,  p.  323. 

Morgan,  De.     See  DE  MORGAN. 

Morghen,  moR'gen,  (RAFAEI.LE  SANZIO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  engraver,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born  at  Florence 
in  1758,  became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  his  native  city.  His  prints  are  numerous  and 
of  great  excellence.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his 
"  Transfiguration,"  after  Raphael,  "The  Last  Supper," 
after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Guido's  "Aurora."  He 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.  Died  in  1833. 

See  NAOI.KR.  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  PALMKRINI, 
"  Notice  of  R.  Morghen,"  (in  Italian.)  1824. 

Morgues,  de.     See  MOUKGUF.S,  HE. 

Morhof,  moR'hof,  [  Lat.  MORHO'FIUS,  |  (DANIKI. 
GEORG,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Wismar  in  1639, 
became  professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence  at  Kiel  in 
1665,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  history  at  that  place  in 
1673.  He  published,  besides  many  other  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  a  valuable  contribution  to  literary  history, 
entitled  "Polyhistor,  sive  de  Notitia  Auctorum  et  Rerum 
Commentarii,"  (3  vols.,  1688-92.)  Died  in  1691. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Vita  nropria  ab  Anno  1(139  ad  1671," 
1690:  J.  Moi.t.F.R.  "  De  Vita,  Mentis  Scriptisque  D.  G.  Morhofii," 
1710;  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Morhofius.     See  MORHOF. 

Morice  de  Beaubois,  mo'ress'dehbo'bwa',  (PFERRE 
HYACINTHK,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk  and  writer, 
born  at  Qnimperle  in  1693.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Bretagne,"  (2  vols.,  1750-56.)  Died  in  1750. 

Morier,  mo'n-er,  (JAMES,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  about  1780.  Having  been  appointed  secretary  to 
the  English  embassy  in  Persia,  he  became  versed  in 
the  Oriental  tongues.  He  published,  after  his  return,  a 
"Journey  through  Persia,  Armenia,"  etc.,  (1812,)  "Ad 
ventures  of  Haji  Baba  of  Ispahan,"  (5  vols.,  1824,)  a 
brilliant  and  'entertaining  romance,  giving  the  experi 
ences  of  a  Persian  in  England,  which  had  a  wide  popu 
larity,  "Zohrab  the  Hostage,"  (1832,)  and  "  Ayesha,  the 
Maid  of  Kars,"  (1834.)  Died  in  1849. 

See  the  "London  Qnrterly  Review"  for  December,  7872,  and 
June,  1834;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1832;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  April,  1824. 

Morigia,  mo-ree'ja,  (GiACOMO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Milan  in  1632.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Florence  about  1683.  Died  in  1708. 

Morigia,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Milan 
in  1^25,  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Milan,  etc.  Died 
in  1604. 

Morike  or  Moerike,  mo're-keh,  (EnuARD,)  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born   at  Ludwigsburg  in  1804.     He  was  the* 
author  of  the  "Idyl   of  Lake  Constance,"  (1846,)  and 
several  novels  and  dramatic  tales. 

Morillo,  mo  rel'yo,  (Don  PABLO,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  the  province  of  Toro  in  1777.  Having  carried 
on  a  guerilla  warfare  agairst  the  French  for  several 
years,  he  was  sent  in  1815  to  subdue  the  revolted  prov 
inces  of  South  America.  He  fought  with  varying  suc 
cess  against  Bolivar,  with  whom  he  concluded  a  truce  in 
1820.  After  Morillo's  return  to  Spain  he  served  for  a 
time  in  the  royalist  army.  He  died  in  1838,  leaving 
Memoirs  of  his  campaigns  in  America,  which  were 
translated  into  French. 

See  MORII.LO'S  " Memoirs,  relating  the  Principal  Events  of  his 
Campaigns,"  translated  into  French  by  E.  D.  BLOSSEVII.I.E. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  s;  th  as  in  Ato.    ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORIN 


1628 


MORLIERE 


Morin,  mo'raN',  (ARTHUR  JULES,)  a  French  mathe 
matician  and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1795,  was  ap 
pointed  in  1852  director  of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and 
Trades.  He  published  numerous  important  treatises  on 
mechanics,  hydraulics,  mathematics,  etc.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  GeneYale." 

Morin,  (firiENNE,)  a  French  Protestant  divine,  born 
at  Caen  in  1625.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  became  in 
1686  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Amsterdam. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "Exercises  on  the 
Primitive  Language,"  (in  Latin,  1694,)  in  which  he  at 
tempts  to  prove  that  the  Hebrew  was  the  language  of 
Paradise.  Died  in  1700. 

See  NIC£RON,  "Memoires." 

Morin,  (FREDERIC,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1823,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Scholastic  Theology,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  and  other  works. 
He  also  contributed  to  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Morin,  (JEAN,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Blois 
in  1591.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
Oriental  tongues  and  biblical  literature.  Among  his 
principal  works  we  may  name  "  Biblical  Exercises," 
("Exercitationes  Biblicae,")  and  an  edition  of  the  "Sa 
maritan  Pentateuch,"  with  a  Latin  veision.  Died  in  1659. 

See  PERRAULT,  "  Homines  ilhistres;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Morin,  (JEAN,)  a  French  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Meung-sur-Loire  in  1705.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Le  Mecanisme  universe!,"  (1735.)  Died 
in  1764. 

Morin,  (JEAN.)  a  French  painter  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1609.  Among  his  best  works  are  prints 
of  the  "Madonna,"  after  Raphael,  and  portraits  of  De 
Thou  and  Marie  de  Medicis.  Died  about  1666. 

Morin,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Villefranche  in  1583.  was  appointed  in  1630  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Royal  College.  He  was  devoted  to 
astrology,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  consulted  by  Car 
dinal  Richelieu  and  other  distinguished  men.  He  wrote 
"  Astrolo«;ia  Gallica,"  and  a  number  of  treatises  on 
mathematics  and  astronomy.  Died  in  1656. 

See  DRLAMRRK,  "  Histoire  de  1'Astronomie  inoderne  ;"  NICB 
RON,  "Memoires." 

Morin,  (Louis.)  a  French  physician  and  botanist  of 
high  reputation,  born  at  Mans  in  1636.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  medical  and  scientific  treatises.  In 
1707  he  succeeded  Dodart  as  botanist  to  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in  1715. 

Morin,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in  Paris 
in  15^1,  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII.  and  Sixtus  V. 
on  editions  of  the  Bible  called  Septuagint  and  Vulgate, 
(1500.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1608. 

Morin,  (SiMON.)  a  French  fanatic,  born  near  Anmale, 
in  Normandy,  published  works  of  a  visionary  and  pro 
fane  nature.  He  was  condemned  in  1663  to  be  burned 
alive  for  having  prophesied  the  death  of  the  king. 

See  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Mor'I-son,  (JOHN.)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1791.  He  became  in 
1816  minister  of  Trevor  Chapel,  London,  and  in  1824 
was  appointed  editor  of  the  "  Evangelical  Magazine," 
which  post  he  occupied  for  thirty-two  years.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  popular  works,  amonsr  which  we 
may  name  "  Lectures  on  the  Reciprocal  Obligations  of 
'Life,"  etc.,  (1822,)  "  Book  of  Familv  Worship,"  (1836.) 
and  "Counsels  to  a  Newly-Wedded  Pair."  Died  in  1859. 

See  RF.V.  ROBERT  STEEL,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

Morison,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  emi 
nent  botanist,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1620,  was  patronized 
by  Charles  II.,  who  made  him  his  physician  and  be 
stowed  on  him  a  pension.  He  became  professor  of 
botany  at  Oxford  in  1669.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Universal  History  of  Plants,"  "New  Distribution  of 
Umbelliferous  Plants,"  (1672,)  and  other  works,  (in 
Latin.)  Plumier  named  in  his  honour  the  genus  Mori- 
sonia.  Died  in  1683. 

See  WOOD.  "  Aihense  Oxonienses  :"  CIWIFR,  "  Histoire  Hes  Sci 
ences  natnrelles;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 


Morisot,  mo're'zo',  (Ci.AUDE  BARTHELEMI,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1592,  wrote  a  historical  romance 
entitled  "  Pei  uviana,"  or  the  secret  history  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  Marie  de  Medicis,  and  Gaston,  Duke  of  Or 
leans.  Died  in  1661. 

Moritz,  mo'rits,  (KARL  PHILIPP,)  known  also  by  his 
pseudonym  of  ANTON  REISER,  a  German  writer  of 
considerable  genius  but  eccentric  and  unsteady  char 
acter,  was  born  at  Hameln  in  1757.  Having  visited 
England  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed,  after  his  return, 
professor  of  archaeology  and  aesthetics  at  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts,  Berlin,  (1789.)  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "  Anton  Reiser,"  a  psychological  romance, 
(1785,)  said  to  be  an  autobiography  somewhat  idealized, 
"  Essay  on  German  Prosody,"  (1786,)  and  "  Fragments 
from  the  Journal  of  a  Visionary,"  (1787.)  Moritz  was  a 
friend  of  Goethe,  and  was  the  first,  it  is  said,  to  recognize 
and  encourage  the  genius  of  Jean  Paul  Richter.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  KLISCHNIG,  "  Erinnerungen  aus  den  zehn  letzen  Lebensjah- 
ren  meines  Freundes A.  Reiser,"  1704. 

Mork,  Moerk,  moRk,  or  Moerks,  moRks,  (JACOB 
HENRIK,)  a  Swedish  author  and  minister,  born  at  Stock 
holm  in  1714;  died  in  1763. 

Morla,  mou'la,  (Don  TOM  AS,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  1752.  He  surrendered  Madrid  to  Napoleon  in 
1808,  and  entered  the  service  of  King  Joseph.  Died 
in  1820. 

Morlacchi,  mor-lak'kee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  sacred  music  and  operas,  born  at  Perugia 
in  1784.  He  lived  many  years  at  Dresden.  Died  in  1841. 

Mor'land,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  painter,  bom  in 
London  in  1764,  excelled  in  delineations  of  rural  land- 
scaj>es,  scenes  in  low  life,  and  domestic  animals,  par 
ticularly  pigs.  He  spent  his  leisure  time  chiefly  in 
ale-houses,  and  died  in  1804,  a  victim  of  intemperance. 
His  works  are  numerous,  and  command  high  prices. 

See  CUNNINGHAM,  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  G.  DAWK, 
"Lite  of  Morland :"  J.  HASSEI.,  "Memoirs  of  George  Morland  :" 
W.  Cot. i. INS.  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  George  Morland,"  1806; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  August,  iSoS. 

Morland,  (Sir  SAMUEL,)  an  English  mechanician  and 
inventor,  born  in  Berkshire  about  1625.  He  was  sent  in 
1653  on  an  embassy  to  Sweden,  and  was  subsequently 
employed  by  Cromwell  to  intercede  with  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  on  behalf  of  the  persecuted  Vaudois.  After  the 
restoration  he  was  made  a  baronet  by  Charles  II.,  and 
obtained  other  distinctions.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
the  Tuba  Stentorphonica,  or  speaking-trumpet,  and  an 
arithmetical  machine,  and  effected  great  improvements 
in  the  fire-engine,  steam-engine,  etc.  lie  published  a 
"Description  of  the  Tuba  Stentorphonica,"  (1671,)  and 
other  scientific  works;  also  a  "History  of  the  Evan 
gelical  Churches  of  Piedmont."  (1658.)  Died  in  1695. 

See  REES,  "  Cyclopaedia ;"  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the  Re 
bellion." 

Mor'ley,  (GEORGE,)  born  in  London  in  1597,  became 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  After  the  restoration  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  Worcester  by  Charles  II.  in  1660, 
and  of  Winchester  in  1662.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learning,  and  bequeathed  large  sums  for  charitable 
purposes.  Died  in  1684. 

See  MII.NER,  "History  of  Winchester ;"  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Ox- 
on  lenses." 

Morley,  (HENRY,)  an  English  author  and  journalist, 
horn  in  London  in  1822.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Palissy  the  Potter,"  (1852,)  a  "  Life  of  Jerome  Cardan," 
(1854,)  "Memoirs  of  Bartholomew  Fair,"  (1857,)  and 
other  works.  He  became  the  editor  of  the  "  Examiner," 
a  weekly  paper. 

Morley,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  musician  and  com 
poser.  His  compositions  include  anthems,  madrigals, 
and  canzonets.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
ntitled  "  A  Plaine  and  Easie  Introduction  to  Practical 
Musicke,"  (1597.)  Died  about  1604. 

See  BURNEY,  "  History  of  Music,"  etc.  ;  "  Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Morliere,  de  la,  deh  It  moR'le-aiR',  (CHARLES  JAC 
QUES  LOUIS  AUGUSTE  I)E  LA  RoCHKTTK,)  CHEVALIER, 

a  French  writer  of  romances,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1701.  Among  his  works  is  "Angola,"  (1746.)  Died 
in  1785. 


S,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MORLOT 


1629 


MORREN 


Morlot,  moR'Io',  (FRANCOIS  NICOLAS  MADELEINE,) 
a  French  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Langres  in  1795. 
He  became  Archl)ishop  of  Tours  in  1842,  a  cardinal  in 
1853,  and  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1857.  Died  in  1862. 

Mormando,  moR-man'do,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,) 
an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Florence  about  1455,  was 
patronized  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain.  He 
designed  the  beautiful  church  of  San  Severino,  and  other 
buildings,  in  Naples.  Died  in  1522. 

Mornac,  moR'nik',  (ANTOINK,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
in  1554,  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  and  pub 
lished  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1619. 

Mornand,  moR'noN',  (FELIX,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Macon  in  1815.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  the  "  Courrier  de  Paris"  in  1857. 

Mornay,  de,  deh  moR'ni',  (PHILIPPE,)  Seigneur  du 
Plessis-Marly,  often  called  Du  PLESSIS  MORNAY,  a  noble 
French  Protestant,  eminent  for  virtue  and  talents,  was 
born  at  Buhy,  in  Vexin,  in  1549.  He  studied  law,  the 
ology,  and  other  sciences  in  Paris,  Germany,  and  Italy. 
In  1572  he  narrowly  escaped  from  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew,  and  in  1575  took  arms  for  the  Huguenots, 
of  whom  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs.  He  married  in 
1576.  About  this  time  he  entered  the  service  of  Henry 
of  Navarre,  who  employed  him  in  important  negotiations 
and  reposed  in  him  entire  confidence.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Ivry  in  1590,  and  then  became  a  member 
of  Henry  IV.'s  council.  Mornay  retained  the  favour  of 
Henry  after  the  latter  had  abjured  his  religion.  In  1598 
he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Institution  of  the  Eu 
charist,"  which  provoked  the  Catholics  to  challenge  him 
to  a  dispute.  At  a  public  conference  before  the  king,  in 
1600,  he  was  foiled  by  Duperron.  It  appears  that  one  of 
his  own  party  had  as  unwisely  as  dishonourably  furnished 
him  with  forged  quotations  from  the  Fathers,  which  his 
antagonist  easily  exposed.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
virtual  chief  or  oracle  of  the  French  Reformed  Church, 
and  was  styled  "the  Pope  of  the  Huguenots."  He  left 
many  able  religious  works.  Died  in  1623. 

See  "Memoires  de  Plessis-Mnrnav,"  4  vols.,  1624-52;  M.  CRU- 
sius,  "Sinpularia  Plessica."  1724;  DK  THOU,  "Historia  sui  Tem- 
poris;"  J.  IMBKRT.  "Duplessis-Mortiay,"  1847:  SI^MONOI,  "  His- 
toire  Hes  Krangais  :"  L'EsTon.R.  "Journal:"  "  Notivelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1834. 

Mor'ning-ton,  (GARRET.)  Earl  of  Wellesley,  an  Irish 
nobleman,  distinguished  for  his  musical  talent,  born 
about  1720,  was  father  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He 
became  professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Dublin, 
and  composed  a  number  of  glees  which  are  greatly  ad 
mired.  Died  in  1781. 

Morny,  de,  deh  moR'ne',  (CHARLES  AUGUSTS  Louis 
JOSEPH,)  COMTE,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1811,  was  the  reputed  son  of  Hortense  de  Beauharnois 
and  Count  Flahaut.  He  served  for  a  time  in  Algeria, 
and  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  industrial  and 
financial  speculations.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
coup  d'etat  of  December,  1851,  by  which  his  half-brother, 
Louis  Napoleon,  was  made  president,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior.  He  resigned  in  1852, 
and  became  president  of  the  legislative  body  in  1854. 
Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moro,  (ANTONIO.)     See  MOOR. 

Mo'ro,  (CRISTOFORO,)  was  an  old  man  when  he  was 
elected  Doge  of  Venice,  in  1462.  He  waged  war  against 
the  Sultan  Mahomet  II.,  who  conquered  Negropont 
from  the  Venetians  in  1470.  Died  in  1471. 

Morogues,  de,  deh  mo'rog',  (SEHASTIF.N  FRANC.OIS 
Bigot — be'go',)  VICOMTE,  a  French  naval  officer,  born 
at  Brest  in  1705.  He  wrote  a  good  work  on  naval  tac 
tics,  "Tactique  navale,  ou  Traite  des  Involutions,"  etc., 
(1763.)  Died  in  1781. 

His  grandson,  PIERRE  MARIE  SEBASTTEN,  Baron  de 
Morogues,  (1776-1840,)  wrote  numerous  works  on  rural 
and  political  economy. 

Morone,  mo-ro'na,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Milan  in  i;oq,  was  patronized  by  the  popes 
Clement  VII.,  Paul  III.,  and  Julius  III.,  who  employed 
him  in  several  important  missions.  Suspected  of  favour 
ing  the  Reformation,  he  was  imprisoned  by  Paul  IV.  in 
T557-  Pius  IV.  sent  him  as  his  legate  to  the  Council  of 


Trent,  over  which  Morone  presided  when  it  closed,  in 
1563.  He  had  been  appointed  Bishop  of  Novara  about 
1554.  Died  in  1580. 

See  JACOBRLU,  "  Vita  diCardinale  Morone  ;"  FREDERIC  SCLOPIS, 
"  Le  Cardinal  Jean  Morone,"  1868. 

Morone  or  Moroni,  mo-ro'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BAT- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Albino  in  1510,  was  a 
pupil  of  Buonvicino.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  of  which 
he  executed  a  great  number.  Died  in  1578. 

Morone,  (GiROLAMO,)  a  celebrated  and  adroit  Italian 
diplomatist,  born  in  the  Milanese  about  1450,  was  the 
father  of  Giovanni,  noticed  above.  He  was  employed 
by  the  Dukes  of  Milan.  In  1526  he  became  secretary 
and  chief  counsellor  of  Constable  Bourbon.  He  was  one 
of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  between  Charles  V.  and 
Pope  Clement  VII.  in  1527.  Died  in  1529. 

See  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  ii.  and  iv. 

Morosi,  mo-ro'see,  (GIUSEPPE,)  a  skilful  Italian  me 
chanician,  was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1772.  He  invented 
an  automaton  chess-player,  and  constructed,  at  Milan, 
hydraulic  machines  for  spinning  cotton.  Died  in  1840. 

Morosini,  mo-ro-see'nee,  [Lat.  MAUROCE'NUS,]  (AN 
DREA,)  a  Venetian  senator,  born  in  1558,  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Council  of  Ten,  and  was  appointed  in  1598 
historiographer  of  the  republic.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  Historia  Veneta,"  being  a  history  of  Venice 
from  1521  to  1615.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  accuracy 
and  the  elegance  of  its  style.  Died  in  1618. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Morosini,  (DOMENICO,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  born  in 
1080.  He  took  part  in  the  crusade  in  1 122,  and  captured 
Tyre.  He  was  elected  doge  in  1148.  Died  in  1156. 

Morosini,  (FRANCESCO,)  Doge  of  Venice,  born  in  1618, 
was  one  of  the  first  military  commanders  of  his  time. 
Having  defeated  the  Turks  in  several  actions,  he  was 
appointed  in  1656  Governor  of  Candia.  He  afterwards 
defended  that  island  for  nearly  two  years  against  the 
grand  vizier  Mehemet  Koprili,  to  whom  he  made  an 
honourable  capitulation  in  1669.  For  his  subsequent 
victories  in  the  Morea  he  obtained  the  title  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesiac.  He  was  elected  .Doge  of  Venice  in  1688, 
having  been  previously  appointed  procurator  of  Saint 
Mark.  Died  in  1694. 

See  P*RU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise;"  MARINO  SAXUTO,  "  Vite  de' 
Duchi  Hi  Venezia :"  NAVAGIERO,  "StoriaVeneziana;"  A.  ARKIGHI. 
"Vita  di  F.  Morosini,"  1749;  G.  GKAZIANI,  "  F.  Mauroceni  Gesta," 
etc.,  1698. 

Morosini,  (PAOLO,)  a  Venetian  linguist  and  able 
diplomatist,  born  in  1406;  died  in  1483. 

Morozzo,  mo-rot'so,  (CARLO  LuiGi,)  COUNT,  an 
Italian  savant  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was  born 
at  Turin  in  1744;  died  in  1804. 

Morpeth,  LORD.  See  HOWARD,  (GEORGE  WILLIAM 
FREDERICK.) 

Morphee.     See  MORPHEUS. 

Mor'pheus,  [Gr.  Mop^evf ;  Fr.  MORPHEE,  moR'fa',] 
an  inferior  deity  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
regarded  as  the  son  of  Sleep  and  the  god  of  dreams 
and  also  of  sleep.  The  name  is  derived  from  [inp&r/, 
("  form,")  because  he  was  supposed  to  give  form  to 
the  visions  of  the  sleeper. 

Mor'phy,  (PAUL  CHARLES,)  a  celebrated  American 
chess-player,  born  at  New  Orleans  in  1837.  At  the 
Chess  Congress  in  New  York  in  1857  he  defeated  many 
of  the  best  American  players,  and  in  1858  visited  Lon 
don  and  Paris,  where  the  same  success  attended  him 
in  his  contests  with  the  most  distinguished  players  of 
Europe. 

Morrealese,  H.     See  NOVELLT,  (PIETRO.) 

Mor'rell,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American  navigator,  born 
in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1795.  He  l>e- 
came  captain  of  a  whaling-ship,  and  published  "  Narra 
tives  of  Four  Voyages  round  the  World,'' (1832.)  Died 
in  1839. 

Morren,  mor'ren  or  mo'rON',  (CHARLES  FRANC.OIS 
ANTOINE,)  a  Belgian  naturalist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1807. 
He  became  professor  of  physics  in  that  city  in  1833,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  botany  at  Liege  in  1837.  Among 
his  principal  works  we  may  name  "  Studies  on  Anatomy 
and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  (1841,)  and  "Researches  on 
the  Pubefaction  of  Waters  and  their  Oxygenation  by 


«  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  S  as  z;  th  as  in  this, 


anations,  p.  23.) 


MO  R  RES 


1630 


MORRIS 


Animalcules  and  Algae."  He  also  published  valuable 
treatises  on  palaeontology  and  zoology,  and  was  a  liberal 
contributor  to  the  scientific  journals  of  his  own  and  other 
countries.  Died  in  December,  1858. 

See  ED.  MORKEN,  "  Notice  sur  C.  Morren,"  r86o. 

Morres,  mor'riss  ?  (HARVEY  REDMOND,)  Viscount 
Mountmorres,  an  English  publicist.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  political  and  historical  works,  among  which  we 
may  name  "History  of  the  Principal  Acts  of  the  Irish 
Parliament  from  1634  to  1666,"  etc.,  (1792,)  and  "The 
Crisis  :  a  Collection  of  Essays  on  Toleration,  Public 
Credit,"  etc.,  (1795.)  He  died  by  suicide  in  1797. 

See  COLLINS,  "Peerage  of  Ire'aml." 

Mor'rill,  (JusriN  S.,)  an  American  legislator,  born 
in  Strafford,  Vermont,  in  1810.  He  represented  the 
second  district  of  Vermont,  from  1855  to  1865,  in  the 
National  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  served 
(1864-65)  as  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  Vermont  in  October,  1866.  Pie  acts  with  the  Re 
publican  party. 

Morrill,  (LOT  M.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  1815,  became  a  lawyer. 
He  was  Republican  Governor  of  Maine  three  years, 
(1858-60,)  and  was  chosen  Senator  of  the  United  States 
in  1861.  He  was  re-elected  Senator  in  1863  for  six 
years,  and  again  in  1869. 

Mor'ris,  (CHARLES,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1784.  He  was  first  lieutenant  of  the 
Constitution  when  that  ship  captured  the  British  frigate 
Guerriere,  in  August,  1812.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  naval  commander,  commanded  squadrons  at  several 
foreign  stations,  and  became  chief  of  the  ordnance 
bureau.  Died  in  1856. 

Morris,  ( EDWARD  JOY,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1817.  He  represented  the  second  dis 
trict  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress  from  1857  to  1861, 
and  acted  with  the  People's  party,  which  was  afterwards 
merged  in  the  Republican  party.  About  the  end  of 
1861  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Tour  through  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Egypt." 

Morris,  (FRANCIS  ORPKN,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
clergyman,  born  about  1810.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  British  Birds,"  (6  vols.,)  "Anecdotes  of  Natural  His 
tory,"  and  other  works. 

Morris,  (GEORGE  P.,)  an  American  lyric  poet  and 
journalist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1802.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "New  York  Mirror"  in  1823,  and 
in  1844  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Evening  Mirror,"  a 
literary  journal.  He  founded,  conjointly  with  N.  P. 
Willis,  the  "Home  Journal,"  (1846.)  He  published 
a  number  of  beautiful  and  popular  songs,  among  which 
we  may  name  "My  Mother's  Bible,"  "  Woodman,  Spare 
that  Tree,"  and  "  Long  Time  Ago."  He  also  wrote 
"The  Deserted  Bride,"  and  other  poems,  and  a  drama 
entitled  "  Briercliff,"  and  edited,  conjointly  with  Mr. 
Willis,  "  The  Prose  and  Poetry  of  Europe  and  America." 
Died  in  1864. 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOLD,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  281 ; 
DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  CLEVE 
LAND,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Morris,  (GOUVERNF.UR,)  an  able  American  statesman, 
born  at  Morrisiana,  in  Westchester  county,  New  York, 
in  January,  1752,  was  a  half-brother  of  Lewis  Morris, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  law,  and  was  chosen  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  York  in  1775. 
He  became  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1777,  and  acquired  distinction  as  an  eloquent  public 
speaker.  About  1780  he  removed  to  Philadelphia.  He 
was  appointed  assistant  superintendent  of  finance  by 
Robert  Morris  in  1781,  and  served  in  that  capacity  for 
three  years  or  more.  He  was  one  of  the  Pennsylvania 
delegates  to  the  National  Convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  1787.  His  services 
in  that  convention  were  highly  estimated  by  James 
Madison.  In  December,  1788,  he  went  on  private  busi 
ness  to  Paris,  where  he  passed  several  years  and  kept  a 
diary  which  possesses  much  historical  interest.  He  was 
appointed  minister  from  the  United  States  to  France  early 
in  1792,  and  was  recalled  in  October,  1794.  He  acted 
with  the  Federalist  party,  and  was  a  friend  of  General 


Washington,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  resembled  in  per 
sonal  appearance.  In  1800  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  New  York.  His 
term  in  the  Senate  expired  in  March,  1803,  after  which 
he  returned  to  private  life.  He  married  Anne  C.  Ran 
dolph,  of  Virginia,  in  1809.  He  was  one  of  the  origin 
ators  or  promoters  of  the  Erie  Canal.  Among  his 
writings  are  a  "  Eulogy  on  General  Hamilton,"  and  a 
"  Discourse  on  the  Liberation  of  Europe  from  Military 
Despotism,"  (1814.)  Died  at  Morrisiana  in  November, 
1816.  "Morris  was  endued  by  nature,"  says  James 
Renwick,  "with  all  the  attributes  necessary  to  the  ac 
complished  orator, — a  fine  and  commanding  person,  a 
most  graceful  demeanour,  which  was  rather  heightened 
than  impaired  by  the  loss  of  one  ot  his  legs,  and  a  voice 
of  much  compass,  strength,  and  richness."  ("Life  of 
Clinton.") 

See  JARKD  SPARKS,  "  Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  with  Selections 
from  his  Correspondence,"  3  vols.,  1832;  "Encyclopaedia  Ameri 
cana ;""  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale  :"  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopae 
dia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1832,  and  "North  American  Review"  for  April,  1832. 

Morris,  (HKNRY  W.,)  COMMODORK,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  1805,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Morris, 
a  member  of  the  New  York  bar.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  grandson  of  Gouverneur  Morris.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1856,  and  took  command  in  January,  1862, 
of  the  new  ste.imer  Pensacola,  with  which  lie  contributed 
to  the  victory  gained  by  Captain  Farragut  below  New 
Orleans  in  April  of  that  year.  Died  in  New  York  in 
August,  1863. 

Morris,  (JACOB,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  West- 
Chester  county,  New  York,  in  1755,  was  a  son  °f  Lewis 
Morris,  (1726-98.)  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  General 
Charles  Lee,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  defence 
of  Fort  Moultrie.  Died  in  1844. 

Morris,  (LEWIS,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  West- 
Chester  county,  New  York,  became  chief  justice  of  that 
State,  and  was  elected  in  1738  first  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.  Died  in  1746. 

Morris,  (LEWIS,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  antiquary,  born 
in  1702,  made  a  valuable  collection  of  ancient  manu 
scripts,  and  published  a  number  of  poems  in  the  Welsh 
language.  Died  in  1765. 

Morris,  (LEWIS,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Westchester 
county,  New'  York,  in  1726,  was  a  grandson  of  Lewis 
Morris,  (the  first  of  the  name,)  and  half-brother  of  Gou 
verneur  Morris,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Congress  of  1775,  and  resumed  his  seat  the  following 
year.  Died  in  1798. 

Morris,  (ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  statesman  and 
financier,  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1734.  At  an 
early  age  he  removed  to  America  and  entered  into 
mercantile  business  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  Congress  in  1775,  and  the  following  year  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  finance  in  1781,  being  the  first  who 
had  filled  that  office  in  the  United  States,  and  by  his 
judicious  and  energetic  measures  rendered  the  most 
important  services  to  the  cause  of  the  patriots.  "The 
Americans,"  says  a  distinguished  historian,  "owe  as 
much  acknowledgment  to  the  financial  operations  of 
Robert  Morris  as  to  the  negotiations  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  or  even  the  arms  of  George  Washington." 
He  pledged  his  private  fortune  to  obtain  supplies  for 
the  army,  and  originated  the  Bank  of  North  America  in 
1781.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1784,  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  in  1787,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1788.  He  was  imprisoned  for  debt  in 
his  old  age.  Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1806. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Morris,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  lawyer  and  states 
man,  born  in  Virginia  in  1776.  Having  removed  to 
Ohio,  he  was  elected  in  1830  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  in  1832  a  United  States  Senator.  In  this 
post  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  slavery, 
and  in  1843  ne  was  nominated  for  Vice-President  by  the 
Liberty  party.  Died  in  December,  1844. 

See  "Life  of  Thomas  Morris,"  by  his  son,  B.  F.  MORRIS. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


MORRIS 


1631 


MORTIMER 


Morris,  (THOMAS  A.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Kanawlia  county,  Virginia,  in  1794,  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  Western  Christian  Advocate," 
and  in  1836  became  Bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

Morris,  (THOMAS  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Kentucky  about  1812,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  became  a  citizen  of  Indiana.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  of  the  Union  army  in  Western  Virginia  in  June 
and  July,  1861. 

Morris,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  contemporary  poet, 
who  has  published,  among  other  works,  "The  Defence 
of  Guenevere,"  (London,  1858,)  "Life  and  Death  of 
Jason,"  "  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  and  "  Earthly  Paradise," 
(1870.) 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Mor'ri-spn,  ([OHN  ROHKRT,)  son  of  Rev.  Robert 
Morrison,  noticed  below,  born  at  Macao  in  1814.  He 
succeeded  his  father  as  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the 
British  Factory  at  Canton,  and  was  the  author  of  a  valu 
able  work  entitled  "The  Chinese  Commercial  Guide," 
(1834.) 

Morrison,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  president  of  the  Irish  In 
stitute  of  Architects,  born  at  Cork  about  1767;  died 
in  1849. 

Morrison,  (Rev.  ROBERT,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
Orientalist  and  missionary,  born  in  Northumberland  in 
1782.  Having  previously  studied  the  Chinese  language, 
he  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1807 
to  China,  where  he  became  translator  to  the  East  India 
Company's  Factory  at  Canton.  His  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  came  out  in  1814,  and  was  followed  in 
1815  by  his  "Chinese  Grammar."  In  conjunction  with 
Rev.  Mr.  Milne,  he  next  translated  the  Old  Testament 
into  Chinese.  It  was  completed  in  1818,  (in  21  vols. 
I2mo.)  His  great  "Chinese  Dictionary,"  printed  at  the 
expense  of  the  East  India  Company,  appeared  in  1821. 
He  visited  England  in  1824,  and,  having  remained  there 
two  years,  returned  to  his  missionary  labours  in  China, 
where  he  had  founded  in  1818  an  Anglo-Chinese  Col 
lege.  Among  Dr.  Morrison's  other  works  we  may  name 
'•Horse  Sinicae,"  (1812,)  a  "View  of  China  for'Philo- 
logical  Purposes,"  etc.,  (1817,)  and  "Chinese  Miscel 
lany,"  (1825.)  He  was  the  first  Protestant  missionary 
to  China,  and  as  a  Chinese  scholar  he  occupies  the 
highest  rank.  Died  in  1834.  Cii'ne**.  S«/.*»«fi>y.  *.-3. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Robert  Morrison,"  by  his  widow,  1839;  A. 
REMI'SAT,  in  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  1824. 

Mor'row,  (JEREMIAH,)  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1770,  became  United  States  Senator  from  Ohio  in  1813, 
and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  in  1822.  Died 
in  1852. 

Mors,  [Fr.  LA  MORT,  If  moR,]  the  Latin  name  of  the 
personification  of  Death,  [Gr.  Qavaro^,]  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  Night.  According  to  Homer,  Death  was 
the  brother  of  Sleep. 

Morse,  ([EDEDIAH,)  D.D.,  an  American  geographer 
and  divine,  born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1761. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1789  became  pas 
tor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at  Charlestown, 
Massachusetts.  He  is  principally  known  by  his  geo 
graphical  works,  which  were  the  first  of  the  kind  pub 
lished  in  America,  and  which  also  obtained  a  European 
reputation.  He  likesvise  published  several  historical 
works,  and  a  number  of  sermons.  Died  in  1826. 

Morse,  (SAMUEL  FINLKY  BREESE.)  an  American  in 
ventor  and  artist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts, 
in  April,  170.1,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Yale  College  in  1810,  and  went  to  England, 
where  he  studied  painting  under  Benjamin  West.  He 
returned  home  in  1815,  and  painted  portraits  at  various 
places.  He  visited  Europe  in  1829,  and  returned  in 
1832.  During  the  passage  homeward  he  suggested  the 
idea  of  an  electric  telegraph,  in  conversation  with  his 
fellow-passengers.  He  constructed  the  apparatus  of  a 
recording  electric  telegraph,  by  which  he  conveyed  de 
spatches  through  a  small  distance,  in  1835.  About  the  end 
of  1837  ne  applied  to  Congress  for  aid,  without  success. 
He  went  to  England  in  1838  to  obtain  a  patent,  which 
was  refused.  Wheatstone,  an  Englishman,  had  invented 
a  different  apparatus,  for  the  same  purpose,  about  1837. 


In  the  spring  of  1843,  Congress  voted  thirty  thousand 
dollars  to  enable  him  to  construct  a  line  between  Wash 
ington  and  Baltimore.  His  invention  was  brought  into 
successful  operation  on  that  route  in  1844,  since  which 
it  has  been  rapidly  introduced  into  nearly  all  countries 
of  the  civilized  world.  This  result  has  been  called  the 
greatest  triumph  which  human  genius  has  obtained  over 
space  and  time.  Mr.  Morse  received  gold  medals  and 
insignia  of  honour  from  several  European  sovereigns. 
The  representatives  of  the  principal  European  powers, 
assembled  in  Paris  about  1857,  presented  to  him  the 
sum  of  400,000  francs  as  a  recompense  for  his  invention. 
Morse's  system  is  generally  preferred  to  that  invented 
in  England,  on  account  of  its  greater  simplicity. 

See  DUNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in' America."  vol. 
ii.  chap,  xxiii.  :  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  ol  the  Artists;"  "  North  Amer 
ican  Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Morse,  (SIDNEY  EDWARDS,)  brother  of  the  preced 
ing,  svas  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1811,  and  about  1815 
became  editor  of  the  "  Boston  Recorder,"  a  religious 
journal.  In  1823  he  founded,  conjointly  with  his 
brother,  R.  C.  Morse,  the  "  New  York  Observer."  He 
is  the  author  of  several  popular  school  geographies,  and 
has  invented  a  new  method  of  engraving  maps,  called 
cerotjraphy. 

Morteniart,  de,  deh  moRt'intR',  (CASIMIR  Louis 
VICTURNIEN  de  Rochechouart — deh  rosh'shoo-f  R',) 
Due,  a  French  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1787.  During  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  Charles 
X.  requested  him  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  of  which  he 
was  nominated  president;  but  it  was  too  late.  He  was 
afterwards,  in  1831,  ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg,  and 
was  made  a  senator  in  1852. 

Mortier,  mok'te-a',  (fioouARD  ADOLPHE  CASIMIR 
JOSEPH,)  afterwards  Duke  of  Treviso,  a  celebrated  marshal 
of  France,  born  at  Cateau-Cambresis  in  1768.  He  served 
with  great  distinction  in  the  principal  campaigns  from 
1792  to  1799,  when  he  was  made  general  of  division. 
In  1803  he  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to  Hanover,  of  which 
he  soon  took  possession.  He  was  created  a  marshal  in 
1804,  and  the  year  following  received  the  grand  cordon 
of  the  legion  of  honour.  Being  appointed  in  1805  to 
command  a  corps  of  the  grand  army  in  Germany,  he 
was  attacked  in  November  by  the  Russian  general  Koo- 
toosof  with  30,000  men,  against  whom  he  made  a  most 
gallant  defence  with  greatly  inferior  numbers  until  rein 
forcements  came  up.  For  the  signal  bravery  he  displayed 
at  the  battle  of  Friedland,  June,  1807,  he  was  made 
Duke  of  Treviso.  In  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1808  he 
assisted  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa,  and  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  Ocafia  and  Gebora.  He  accompanied 
Bonaparte  to  Russia  in  1812,  and  was  commissioned  by 
him  to  blow  up  the  Kremlin.  In  1814,  in  conjunction 
with  Marshal  Marmont,  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost 
to  defend  Paris  from  the  allies,  but,  not  succeeding  in 
this,  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  entered  the  service  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and  in  1835,  while  accompanying  that  mon 
arch  to  a  review,  was  one  of  the  victims  of  Fieschi's 
"  infernal  machine." 

See  H.  Bis,  "Notice  sur  le  Marechal  Mortier;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

Mor'tl-mer,  (EDMUND.)  Earl  of  March,  an  English 
nobleman,  who  married  Philippa,  only  child  of  Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence.  They  had  a  son  Roger,  and  were 
ancestors  of  Edward  IV.  Died  in  1381. 

Mortimer,  (EDMUND,)  fifth  Earl  of  March,  born  about 
1390,  was  the  son  of  Roger,  and  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  the  lawful  heir  to  the  crown  after  the 
death  of  Richard  II.  Died  in  1424. 

Mortimer,  (Jon\  HAMILTON,)  an  English  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Eastbourne,  Sussex,  in  1739.  Among 
his  works  are  "Saint  Paul  preaching  to  the  Britons," 
and  "  King  John  signing  Magna  Charta."  He  was  an 
inferior  colorist,  but  his  design  was  admired  by  his 
contemporaries.  Died  in  1779. 

Mortimer,  (ROGER,)  Earl  of  March,  the  paramour 
of  Isabella,  Queen  of  England,  born  about  1287.  Having 
been  twice  convicted  of  treason  and  pardoned  by  Ed 
ward  II.,  he  conspired  with  the  queen  against  the  life  of 


«  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (Jt^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORTIMER 


1632 


MORTON 


the  king,  who  was  barbarously  murdered.     The  guilty 
pair  reigned  for  several  years  in  the  name  of  the  young 
prince  Kdward  III.  ;  but  Mortimer  was  at  length  made 
prisoner  by  order  of  the  prince,  and  executed  in  1330. 
See  HUME,  "  History  of  England  ;"   FROISSART,  "  Chronicles." 

Mortimer,  (ROGER,)  fourth  Earl  of  March,  was  a 
son  of  the  third  earl.  He  died  in  1398,  leaving  a  son 
Edmund  and  a  daughter  Anne,  who  was  married  to 
Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  and  was  a  grandmother  of 
Edward  IV. 

Mortimer,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
London  in  1730.  He  published  "The  British  Plutarch," 
(6  vols.,  1762,)  "Elements  of  Commerce,"  etc.,  (1772,) 
"Compendium  of  History,  Chronology,  and  Biography," 
(1777.)  and  other  valuable  works. 

Morto  da  Feltro.     See  FELTRO,  DA. 

Mor'ton,  (CHAULKS,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  min 
ister,  born  about  1626.  He  was  ejected  for  noncon 
formity  in  1662,  after  which  he  taught  school  in  London 
about  twenty  years.  He  emigrated  to  New  England  in 
1686,  and  became  minister  at  Charlestown,  Massachu 
setts.  He  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1698. 

Morton,  (CHARLKS,)  an  English  physician  and  anti 
quary,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1716.  Elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1752,  he  became  one  of  its  secre 
taries  in  1760,  and  in  1776  succeeded  Dr.  Maty  as  libra 
rian  of  the  British  Museum.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  made 
several  valuable  contributions  to  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1799. 

Mor'ton,  QAMES  DOUGLAS,)  EARL  OF,  Regent  of 
Scotland,  born  in  1530,  was  a  nephew  of  the  Earl  of 
Angus.  He  married  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  James 
Douglas,  third  Earl  of  Morton,  and  inherited  the  earl 
dom  in  1553,  at  the  death  of  the  third  earl,  who  left  no 
male  issue.  He  joined  the  Protestant  party,  and  became 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  congregation  about  1558.  In 
1563  he  was  appointed  lord  high  chancellor  of  Scotland. 
lie  lost  that  office  by  his  complicity  in  the  assassination 
of  Rizzio.  He  was  invited  by  Bothwell  to  join  him  in 
the  plot  for  the  murder  of  Darnley.  He  declined  to  act 
in  that  affair,  but  failed  to  inform  against  Bothwell.  For 
this  course  he  afterwards  offered  the  excuse  that  the 
queen  was  already  aware  ot  the  plot,  so  that  it  would  be 
useless  to  reveal  the  secret  to  her.  He  fought  against 
Bothwell  and  the  queen  at  Carbery  Hill.  In  1567  he 
was  restored  to  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  by  Regent 
Murray.  He  was  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  in 
1572,  and  rendered  himself  odious  by  his  rapacity  and 
oppressive  acts,  but  was  supported  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Having  been  accused  as  an  accessory  to  the  murder  of 
Darnley,  he  was  convicted  and  beheaded  in  June,  1581. 

See  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  BURTON,  "  History  of 
Scotland." 

Morton,  (JAMES  DOUGLAS,)  EARL  OF,  a  Scottish 
astronomer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1707,  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  an  associate  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris.  Died  in  1768. 

Mor'ton,  (JAMES  SAINT  CLAIR,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1829,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Samuel 
George  Morton,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated  at 
West  Point,  where  he  graduated  as  second  of  his  class  in 
1851,  after  which  he  was  employed  as  engineer  at  various 
places.  He  was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  army 
of  the  Ohio  in  May,  1862,  and  commanded  the  Pioneer 
Brigade  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  January  1-2,  1863. 
For  his  services  in  this  action  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  killed  in  an  assault  on 
Petersburg  in  June,  1864. 

Morton,  (JoHN,)  an  English  prelate  and  statesman, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1410.  He  held  several  high 
offices  under  Henry  VI.,  and,  soon  after  the  accession 
of  Edwaid  IV.,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ely,  and  lord 
chancellor  of  England.  He  was  imprisoned  by  Richard 
III.,  but,  having  effected  his  escape,  repaired  to  the  con 
tinent,  where  he  is  said  to  have  formed  the  plan,  in  con 
junction  with  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  of  uniting  the 
parties  of  York  and  Lancaster  by  the  marriage  of  Henry 
to  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  Under  Henry  VII., 
Morton  was  created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1486,) 
and  a  cardinal,  (1493.)  He  was  distinguished  for  his 


learning  and  munificent  spirit,  and  promoted  several 
public  works  of  great  utility.  He  was  the  patron  of  Sir 
Thomas  More,  who  has  eulogized  him  in  his  "Utopia." 
Died  in  1500. 

See  J.  BUDDEN,  "  Life  of  John  Morton,"  1607;  COI.I.IER,  "Ec 
clesiastical  History;"  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of 
Canterbury,"  vol.  v. 

Morton,  (JoHN,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Delaware  county,  Penn 
sylvania,  in  1724.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  of  his  native  State,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774.  Died  in  1777. 

Morton,  (MARCUS,)  an  American  jurist  and  Governor, 
born  at  Freetown,  Massachusetts,  in  1784.  He  was  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  from  1825 
to  1840,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  by  the 
Democrats  in  1840  and  1843.  Died  in  1864. 

Morton,  (NATHANIEL,)  one  of  the  early  settlers  of 
Plymouth,  born  in  England  in  1612,  was  the  author 
of  "New  England's  Memorial,"  and  a  "History  of  the 
Church  at  Plymouth."  Died  in  1685. 

Morton,  (OLIVER  P.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Wayne  county,  Indiana,  in  1823.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847.  He  was  Governor  of 
Indiana  from  1861  to  1865,  and  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in 
January,  1867,  for  a  term  ending  in  March,  1873.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  his  country.  He  is  a  Republican,  and  an  able  speaker. 

Morton,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Suffolk  about  1635,  had  a  high  reputation  for  skill  and 
learning,  and  became  in  1670  physician  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Exercises  on  Phthisis," 
and  other  medical  works,  in  Latin. 

See  REKS,  "Cyclopaedia  of  Medicine." 

Morton,  (SAMUEL  GEORGE,)  an  eminent  American 
naturalist,  ethnologist,  and  physician,  was  born  in  Phila 
delphia,  January  26,  1799.  His  father,  George  Morton, 
who  was  descended  from  a  large  and  highly  respectable 
family  in  Clonmel,  Ireland,  emigrated  to  America  and 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  The  subject  of  out 
sketch  early  evinced  a  passionate  fondness  for  books  and 
thirst  for  knowledge,  and  combined  with  these  a  habit 
of  persevering  and  methodical  industry.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  March,  1820,  and 
in  October  of  the  same  year  entered  as  a  matriculate  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  the  diploma  of  which  insti 
tution  was  conferred  upon  him  in  August,  1823.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1824,  commenced  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  1826,  and  in  1827  married  Rebecca  G., 
daughter  of  Robert  and  Elizabeth  Pearsall,  highly  re 
spected  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  His  first 
scientific  essay,  entitled  "Observations  on  Cornine,  a 
New  Alkaloid,"  was  published  in  the  "Medical  and 
Physical  Journal"  for  1825-26.  In  1827  he  communi 
cated  to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  an  "Analysis 
of  Tabular  Spar  from  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  with 
a  Notice  of  Various  Minerals  found  in  the  same  Locality/' 
During  the  same  year  he  contributed  to  the  "Journal 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,"  Philadelphia,  a 
"  Description  of  a  New  Species  of  Ostrea  Convexa  of 
.Say."  These  papers  were  followed  in  rapid  succession 
by  many  other  scientific  communications,  and  the  Jour 
nal  of  the  Academy  continued  to  be  enriched  by  his 
labours  until  within  a  short  period  of  his  death.  There 
were  not  less  than  forty  of  these  contributions,  besides 
others  published  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,"  and  the  "American  Journal  of 
Science  and  Arts,"  edited  by  Professor  Silliman.  These 
articles,  by  their  varied  range,  exhibited  great  versatility 
of  talent,  treating  as  they  did  upon  subjects  connected 
with  anatomy,  ethnology,  archaeology,  geology,  palaeon 
tology,  zoology,  and  mineralogy.  His  celebrated  mono 
graph  on  the  "Cretaceous  Group  of  the  United  States" 
was  received,  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  with  great 
favour  by  the  most  eminent  geologists  of  Europe.  In 
1834  he  contributed  to  medical  literature  an  important 
work  on  the  "  Anatomical  Character,  Causes,  Symptoms, 
and  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Consumption."  He  early 
began  to  make  his  now  celebrated  collection  of  crania, 
and  up  to  1840  had,  with  great  labour  and  cost,  succeeded 


a  e, T,  o,  u,  y, long-;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  p,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MORTON 


1633 


MOSELET 


in  collecting  no  less  than  1468  crania.  In  1839  he  gave 
to  the  world  his  "Crania  Americana,"  and  in  1844  his 
"  Crania  Egyptiaca,"  both  of  which  were  very  favourably 
received.  He  was  for  some  years  president  of  the  Phila 
delphia  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  He  died  in  May, 
1851.  His  name  is  often  associated  with  Nott  and  Glid- 
don's  "Types  of  Mankind,"  (1854,)  based  to  some  extent 
on  Dr.  Morton's  researches ;  but  that  work,  published 
after  his  death,  and  edited  by  those  who  very  imperfectly 
understood  his  views,  gives  no  just  idea  of  the  modest, 
impartial,  and  thoroughly  scientific  spirit  with  which  he 
conducted  all  his  inquiries.  In  the  annals  of  science  his 
name  will  always  be  associated  with  that  of  Blumenbach, 
the  founder  of  human  craniography.  To  this  study  he 
gave  a  powerful  impetus,  by  demonstrating  the  precise 
method  in  accordance  with  which  it  should  be  pursued, 
and  by  indicating  its  capability  of  throwing  light  upon 
the  origin  and  affiliations  of  the  various  races  of  men. 
Dr.  Morton  left  several  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest,  an 
officer  of  great  merit,  died  fighting  bravely  for  his  country, 
(see  MORTON,  JAMES  SAINT  CI.AIR;)  another  son, 
THOMAS  GEORGE,  has  become  justly  distinguished  as 
one  of  the  most  skilful  surgeons  in  the  United  States. 

See  GROSS'S  "American  Medical  Biography." 

Morton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Durham  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  numerous  comedies 
and  farces,  which  had  great  popularity  in  his  time.  His 
dramas  entitled  "Town  and  Country"  and  "A  Roland 
for  an  Oliver"  still  retain  their  place  on  the  stage. 
Died  in  1838. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatics." 

Morton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  York 
in  1564,  became  successively  Bishop  of  Chester,  of  Lich- 
fieldr-and  of  Durham.  He  published  several  controver 
sial  treatises  against  papists  and  nonconformists.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Casaubon,  to  whose  memory 
he  erected  a  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Died 
in  1659. 

See  r.AiuvicK,  "Life  of  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Durham,"  1660; 
P.ADDII.Y  and  NAYI.OR,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Morton,"  i66g. 

Morton,  (WILLIAM  THOMAS  GREEN,)  M.D.,  an 
Ameiican  dentist  and  physician,  born  at  Charlton,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1819.  He  settled  in  Boston,  as  a  dentist, 
about  1842,  and  made  some  improvements  in  the  fabrica 
tion  of  artificial  teeth.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine 
and  chemistry,  to  which  he  was  attracted  by  a  desire  to 
discover  a  substance  that  would  render  his  patients  in 
sensible  to  painful  operations  on  their  teeth.  He  began 
to  use  sulphuric  ether  as  an  anaesthetic  in  1846.  His 
claim  to  this  invention  was  disputed  by  Dr.  Jackson. 
Died  in  July,  1868.  (See  WELLS,  HORACE.) 

Mortonval,  moR'tfiN'vtK,  the  assumed  name  of 
Furcy  G-iiesdon,  fuu'se'  gi'doN',)  a  French  novelist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1780.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
novels,  "The  Count  of  Villamayor,"  (5  vols.,  1825.) 

Morus.  See  MORE,  (ALEXANDER,  HENRY,  and  Sir 
THOMAS.) 

Morus,  mo'rus,  (SAMUEL  FRIEDRICH  NATHANAEL,) 
a  German  scholar  and  theologian,  born  in  Upper  Lusa- 
tia  in  17^6.  He  published  editions  of  Longinus,  Plu 
tarch,  Isocrates,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote  several 
original  works,  among  which  are  "Theological  and  Philo 
logical  Dissertations,"  (1787,)  and  an  "Epitome  of 
Christian  Theology,"  (1789.)  Died  in  1792. 

Morveau.     See  GUYTON  r>E  MORVEAU. 

Morville,  de,  deh  mou'vel',  (CHARLES  JEAN  BAP- 
TISTK  Fleurian — flu're'S',)  COMTE,  a  French  diploma 
tist,  born  in  Paris  in  1686,  was  ambassador  to  Holland 
in  1718,  and  induced  the  States-General  to  sign  the 
Quadruple  Alliance.  He  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1723,  and  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
the  same  year.  Died  in  1732. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires." 

Morvillier,  de,  deh  mor've'ya',  (JEAN,)  a  French  ne 
gotiator,  born  at  Blois  in  1506.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Orleans  in  1552,  and  was  keeper  of  the  seals  about  two 
years,  (1^68-70.)  Died  in  1577. 

Mor'y-soii  or  Mor'I-son,  (FYNES,)  an  English  travel 
ler,  born  in  1566.  He  visited  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  was  pub 
lished  after  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "Itinerary, 


containing  his  Ten  Years'  Travel,"  (1617.)     Died  about 
1614. 

See  HARRIS,  "  Ireland  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,(i.?25.) 

Morzillo.     See  Fox,  (SEBASTIAN.) 

Mosbourg  or  Mosburg.  See  AGAR,  QEAN  ANTOINF. 
MICHEL.) 

Mosca,  mos'ka,  (FRANCESCO,)  called  MOSCHINO, 
(mos-kee'no,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  near 
Florence  about  1520  ;  died  after  1572. 

Moscati,  mos-ki'tee,  (PlETRO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  about  1740,  was 
made  president  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1798.  He 
was  afterwards  created  by  Napoleon  a  count,  and  sena 
tor  of  Italy.  Died  in  1824. 

Moscheles,  mosh'eh-les',  (!GNAZ,)  a  celebrated  Ger 
man  pianist  and  composer  for  the  piano,  born  nt  Prague 
in  1794,  was  the  son  of  a  Jewish  merchant.  After  visit 
ing  Holland,  France,  and  England,  he  became  in  182; 
professor  of  music  at  the  Academy  in  London.  In  184*1 
he  was  associated  with  his  pupil,  Felix  Mendelssohn,  as 
director  of  the  Conservatory  at  Leipsic.  His  principal 
works  are  sonatas,  songs,  and  instrument-pieces  of 
various  kinds.  Died  in  1870. 

See  FETIS.  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians. " 

Moscheni,  mos-ka'nee,  (COSTANZA,)  an  Italian  poet 
ess,  born  at  Lucca  in  1786;  died  in  1831. 

Moscherosch,  mosh'eh-rosh',  ({OHANN  MICHAEL,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Wilstadt  in  1600.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Wonderful  and  True  Visions  of  Phi 
lander  von  Sittewald,"  (1644,)  a  collection  of  allegorical 
satires  in  the  style  of  Quevedo,  which  are  characterized 
by  great  acuteness,  originality,  and  powers  of  humour. 
Died  in  1660. 

See  GKKVINUS.  "  Geschiclite  der  Deutschen  Nationalli'erntur." 

Moschini,  mos-kee'nee,  (GiANNANTONio,)an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1773.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Venetian  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (4 
vols.,  1807-09,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1840. 

Mos'-ehl-on,  [Mo<7£('«v,]  a  Greek  medical  writer, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the 
Diseases  of  Women,"  which  was  first  published  in  Wolfs 
"Gynaeciorum  Commentarii,"  (1566.) 

See  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr.-Eca." 

Moschopule.     See  MOSCHOPUI.US. 

Mos-eho-pu'lus,  [Gr.  Mocr^oTrwAoc ;  Fr.  MOSCHO 
PULE,  mo'sho'pu'K,]  (MANUEL,)  a  Byzantine  grammarian, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Crete.  There  was  another  writer 
of  the  same  name,  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  and  born  at  Constantinople.  Among  the  works 
attributed  to  them,  which  are  chiefly  grammatical,  we 
may  mention  "Scholia  on  the  Tragedies  of  Euripides," 
"  Erotemata,  or  Grammatical  Questions,"  and  "  Scholia 
on  Hesiod  and  Pindar." 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  MONTUCI.A,  "  Histoire 
des  Mathematiques." 

Mos'-ehus,  |Moo-,Yof,]  a  Greek  pastoral  poet,  born  in 
Syracuse,  flourished  about  200  B.C.  He  was  contempo 
rary  with  Bion,  to  whose  memory  he  wrote  a  beautiful 
elegy.  A  few  idyls  are  the  only  extant  works  of 
Moschus. 

See  "  Eraser's  Maga/ine"  for  January,  1836. 

Moscoso  de  Alvarado,  de,  da  mos-ko'so  da  al-va- 
ra'no,  (Don  Luis,)  a  Spanish  soldier,  born  at  Badaiox 
in  1505.  He  served  under  Ilernando  de  Soto  in  the 
conquest  of  Florida  in  1539  and  1540.  On  the  death  r-f 
De  Soto,  Moscoso  was  chosen  general  in  his  stead.  I  It- 
died  in  Peru  about  1560. 

Moseley,  moz'le,  (BENJAMIN,)  born  in  Essex,  Eng 
land,  became  physician  to  Chelsea  Hospital.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Tropics,"  anr! 
other  works  ;  but  he  is  chiefly  known  from  his  violent 
opposition  to  vaccination.  Died  in  1819. 

Moseley,  (HENRY,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  clergyman 
and  scientific  writer,  born  about  1800.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  natural  philosophy  in  King's  College,  Lender1, 
and  chaplain  to  Queen  Victoria  in  1855.  Among  his 
works  is  "Mechanical  Principles  of  Engineering  and 
Architecture,"  (1855.) 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttttral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOSELL4NUS 


'634 


MOSSOP 


Mosellanus,  mo-zgl-la'nus,  (PETRUS  Schade — 
sha'deh,)  a  German  scholar  and  promoter  of  classical 
learning,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Treves  in  1493.  In 
1514  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  University  of  Leipsic.  He  was  intimate  with 
Melanchthon  and  Erasmus.  Died  in  1524. 

Mosen,  mo'zen,  (JULIUS,)  a  German  litterateur,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1803.  He  wrote  "Andreas  Hofer,"  and 
other  poems,  also  several  novels  and  dramas. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  '•  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Moseiigeil,  mo'zen-gil',  (FiUEDRiCH,)  a  popular  Ger 
man  writer,  born  near  Eisenach  in  1773.  He  published 
"  Summer  Evening  Hours,"  "  Liebenstein  and  the  New 
Arcadians,"  and  other  fictitious  works,  which  have  a 
high  reputation.  Died  in  1839. 

Mo'ser,  (GEORGK  MICHAEL,)  a  Swiss  artist,  born  at 
Schaff  hausen  about  1705.  In  1726  he  settled  in  London, 
where  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  orna 
mental  gold-work  and  enamelling.  In  1768  he  was  ap 
pointed  keeper  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts.  "  Moser," 
says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "had  a  universal  knowledge 
in  all  branches  of  painting  and  sculpture,  and  may  truly 
be  said  in  every  sense  to  have  been  the  father  of  the 
present  race  of  artists." 

See  NAGLEK,  " Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Moser,  mo'zer,  (JoHANN  JAKOB,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1701,  became  in  1727  professor  of 
law  in  the  Imperial  College  at  Tubingen.  In  1736  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  University  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder.  As  a  writer  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
indefatigable  industry,  the  whole  number  of  his  works 
amounting  to  upwards  of  four  hundred.  Died  in  1785. 

See  J.  J.  Moser's  Autobiography,  ("  Lebensgeschichte  J.  J.  Mo- 
ser's,")  1783  :  LEDDERHOSE,  "Ziige  ans  dem  Leben  J.  J.  Moser's," 
1843;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moser  or  Moeser,  mo'zer,  (JUSTUS,)  an  eminent 
German  writer  and  jurist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1720, 
was  chief  director  of  the  government  of  Osnabriick  for 
about  twenty  years,  (1761-81,)  and  rendered  important 
services  to  the  state.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
good  "History  of  Osnabriick,"  (1768,)  and  "Patriotic 
Fancies,"  (3  vols.,  1775,)  which  was  very  popular.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  10  vols.,  1843.  Died 
in  1794. 

See  F.  Nicoi.Ar,  "Leben  J.  Moesers,"  1797:  ABEKEN,  "  Re- 
liquien  von  J.  Moeser,"  1837  :  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1843. 

Moser,  (MARY,)  daughter  of  George  Michael  Moser, 
noticed  above,  acquired  great  celebrity  as  a  flovver- 
painter.  A  room  at  Frogmore,  which  she  adorned  with 
flowers,  is  called  "Miss  Moser's  room."  She  was 
chosen  an  Academician  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lon 
don,  and  was  the  only  lady  besides  Angelica  Kauffman 
who  ever  received  that  honour.  She  became  Mrs.  Lloyd 
by  marriage.  Died  in  1819. 

Moser,  von,  fon  mo'zer,  (FRIEDRICII  KARL,)  a  Ger 
man  jurist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1723,  was  a  son  of  yohann 
Jakob  Moser,  noticed  above.  He  was  successively  aulic 
councillor  at  Vienna,  and  member  of  the  administration 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  (1770.)  He  published  several  legal 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Waldenses,"  and  "  The  Mas 
ter  and  Servant,"  ("  Der  Herr  und  der  Diener,"  1759.) 
The  last-named  production,  illustrating  the  duties  of  a 
sovereign  and  his  minister,  had  great  popularity.  He 
was  for  some  years  editor  of  the  "  Patriotisches  Archiv." 
Died  in  1798. 

See  H.  VON  BUSCHE,  "  F.  C.  von  Moser  ausseinen  Schrifien  sein 
Geist,"  etc.,  1846. 

Mo'ses,  [Heb.  HBO  ;  Gr.  MWOT/C;  Lat.  MO'SKS;  Fr. 
MOYSE  or  Mo'isK,  mo'ez' ;  It.  MOISE,  mo-e-sa'  ;  Arabic, 
MOOSA,  moo'sa,]  an  eminent  Hebrew  legislator  and 
prophet,  born  in  Egypt  about  1570  B.C.,  was  a  son  of 
Amram,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  In  consequence  of  a  royal 
edict  that  all  male  infants  of  the  Hebrews  should  be 
killed,  he  was  deposited  by  his  mother  in  an  ark  or 
basket  on  the  border  of  the  Nile,  and  found  by  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  adopted  him  as  her  son.  He  became 
"learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  and  mighty 
in  words  and  deeds,"  and  about  the  age  of  forty  began 
to  meditate  the  liberation  of  the  oppressed  Hebrews. 
Having  incurred  the  anger  of  the  king  by  his  active 
sympathy  with  his  own  race,  he  fled  to  Midian,  where 


lie  served  as  a  shepherd  about  forty  years.  He  received 
a  divine  mission  to  bring  the  children  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  Under  his  guidance  the 
chosen  people  passed  through  the  Red  Sea  into  the 
Wilderness.  He  was  instrumental  in  composing  for 
them  a  code  of  laws  called  by  his  name,  and  is  the  re 
puted  author  of  the  book  of  Genesis  and  other  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  The  form  of  government  which  he 
prescribed  to  the  Hebrews  was  a  theocracy.  The  funda 
mental  principles  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  that  man  must 
worship  the  only  true  God  exclusively,  and  love  his 
neighbour  as  himself.  Having  appointed  Joshua  as  his 
successor,  and  obtained  a  distant  view  of  the  promised 
land,  Moses  died  on  Mount  Pisgah,  aged  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years.  He  was  pre-eminent  for 
meekness. 

See  Exodus  ii.-xl.  ;  Leviticus  i.-xxvii. ;  Numbers  i.-xxxvi.  ; 
Deuteronomy  i.-xxxiv.  :  Matthew  xvii.  3;  Luke  xxiv.  27;  John  iii. 
14,  v.  45,  vii.  19;  Acts  vii.  20-44;  Hebrews  iii.  2,  3,  5,  xi.  23-29; 
Revelation  xv.  3;  WARBURTON,  "Divine  Legation  of  Moses  De 
monstrated,"  1788;  J.  J.  HESS,  "Geschichte  Mosis,"  1777;  E.  Bous- 
QUET,  "Histoire  de  sept  Reformateurs, "  1853;  D.  W.  MOM. ER, 
"  Dissertatio  de  Mose  Philosopho,"  1707;  JOHN  CAMPBELL,  "Life 
of  Moses,"  1738. 

Mo'ses  -Cho-re-neii'sis,  (i.e.  "of  Chorene,")  an  Ar 
menian  writer  and  bishop,  flourished  about  460  A.D. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Armenia." 

Mosheim,  von,  fon  mos'him,  [Lat.  MOSHK'MIUS  or 
MOSHEI'MIUS,]  (JoiiANN  LORENZ,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  theologian,  pulpit  orator,  and  historian,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1694.  He  studied  at  Kiel,  and  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt  in  1725.  In  1747  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Gottingen,  with  the 
title  of  chancellor  of  the  university.  He  was  eminently 
successful  as  a  teacher,  and  acquired  a  wide  celebrity  for 
his  eloquence.  His  great  work  entitled  "  Institutes  of 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (2  vols.  121110,  1726,)  originally 
written  in  Latin,  has  been  translated  into  French,  Ger 
man,  and  English.  Among  his  other  writings  we  may 
name  "  Commentaries  on  Christianity  before  the  Time 
of  Constantine  the  Great,"  (1753,)  and  "Morality  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (9  vols.)  He  also  translated  into 
Latin  Cud  worth's  "Intellectual  System."  Died  in  1755. 

See  V.  LUCKE,  "  Narratio  de  J.  L.  Moshemio,"  1837;  J.  M. 
GESSNEK,  "  Memoria  J.  L.  Mosheimii,"  1755;  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Moshemius  or  Mosheimius.     See  MOSHEIM. 

Moslemah,  mos'le-mah,  a  famous  Arabian  captain, 
a  son  of  the  caliph  Abd-el-Malek.  He  commanded  the 
armies  of  his  brothers,  Waleed  I.,  Soliman,  Yezeecl  II., 
and  Hesham.  He  defeated  the  army  of  the  Greek  em 
peror  in  716  A.D.  Died  about  740  A.D. 

Mosiieron-Delaunay,  mus'neh-r6.\'  deh-15'ni', 
(JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  BARON,  a  French  litth-atenr,  born  at 
Nantes  in  1738,  translated  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost" 
into  French.  Died  in  1830. 

Mosquera,  mos-ka'ra,  (Don  RUY  GARCIA,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  born  in  1501,  sailed  with  Sebastian  Cabot  on 
his  voyage  to  South  America  in  1526,  and  subsequently 
became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

SeeCHAKLEVoix,  "  Histoire  du  Paraguay;"  SOUTHEY,  "History 
of  Brazil." 

Moss,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  theologian,  a  nephew 
of  Robert,  noticed  below,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Saint 
David's  in  1766.  He  wrote  several  theological  treatises. 
Died  in  1802. 

Moss,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Norfolk 
in  1666.  He  obtained  great  popularity  as  a  preacher, 
and  was  successively  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  William  III. 
and  Queen  Anne.  He  died  in  1729,  leaving  a  number 
of  sermons,  and  some  Latin  and  English  poems. 

Mossen  Jordi  de  San  Jordi,  mos-sen'  hoR-dee'  da 
san  hoR-dee',  a  Spanish  poet,  who  wrote  in  the  Catalonian 
dialect,  lived  about  1230. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mos'som,  (ROBERT,)  an  Irish  prelate,  was  created 
Bishop  of  Londonderry  after  the  restoration.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  "The  Preacher's  Tripartite,"  and 
"  Zion's  Prospect  in  its  First  View."  Died  in  1679. 

Mos'spp,  (HENRY,)  an  Irish  tragedian,  born  in  1729. 
He  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an  actor,  both  on  the 
Dublin  stage  and  in  London,  where  he  was  regarded  as 
nearly  equal  to  Garrick.  Died  in  1773. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


MOSTAERT 


MOTT 


Mostaert,  mos'tiut,  (FRANCIS  and  GILKS,)  Flemish 
painters,  born  at  Ilulst  in  1525,  were  twins,  and  sons  of 
fan,  noticed  below.  Francis  painted  landscapes  with 
success,  and  died  in  1556.  Giles,  who  was  a  historical 
painter,  died  in  1601. 

Moetaert,  mos'tart,  (J/\N,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1499,  was  a  pupil  of  James  of  Haarlem.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  and  was  patronized  by  the 
archduchess  Margaret  of  Austria.  Among  his  master 
pieces  are  a  "  Nativity,"  "  Ecce  Homo,"  and  "  Discord 
throwing  the  Apple."  Died  in  1555. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  DESCAMPS,  ''Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Mostanser-Billah,  mos'tan'ser  bil'lah,  sometimes 
written  Montaser-Billah,  a  caliph  and  patron  of  learn 
ing,  born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  910  A.n.  He  began  to 
reign  in  961.  He  founded  several  colleges,  and  a  library 
of  600,000  volumes.  Died  in  976. 

See  ROMEY,  "  Histoire  d'Espagne." 

Mostasem-Billah,  Al,  tl  mos'ta'sem  bil'lah,  (Aboo- 
Ahmed-Abdallab,  a'boo  ah'med  ab-dal'lah,)  the  last 
Abbasside  caliph  (jf  Bagdad,  was  born  in  1221,  and  suc 
ceeded  his  father  Mostanser  in  1242.  lie  was  conquered 
and  put  to  death  in  1258  by  Hoolagoo. 

See  WEIL,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen." 

Mostowsky,  mos-tov'skee,  (THADDEUS,)  COUNT,  a 
distinguished  Polish  patriot  and  diplomatist,  born  at 
Warsaw  in  1766.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the 
Polish  classics,  (25  vols.,  Warsaw,  1803-05.)  He  lived 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1842. 

Motanebby.     See  AL-MOOTENAHKKK. 

Motasem-  (or  Motassem- )  Billah,  mo'taVsem 
bil'lah,  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  born  near  Samosata  in  794 
A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Haroun-al-Raschid.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Mamoon  in  833.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  cruel 
tyrant.  Died  in  842. 

See  ABOOI.FKIJA,  ''  Annales  Moslemici ;"  WEIL,  "Geschiclite 
der  Cha!ifen  :"  SANDENISURG  MATTHIESSEN,  "Historia  Chalifatus 
Al-Motacimi,"  iS49. 

Motenabbi.     See  AI.-MOOTENABBEE. 

Motenebbi.     See  AI.-MOOTENABBEE. 

Mothe,  La.     See  LA  MOTHE. 

Mothe  le  Vayer,  de  la,  deh  It  mot  leh  vi'yi', 
(F"KA.N\'ois,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1588,  was 
appointed  preceptor  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  (1649,)  and 
to  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XIV.,  (1652.)  He 
published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Virtue  of  the  Pagans," 
(1642,)  in  answer  to  which  Arnauld  wrote  his  tract  "On 
the  Necessity  of  Faith  in  Jesus  Christ."  He  was  the 
author  of  other  works  on  various  subjects,  which  had 
great  popularity  at  the  time.  He  had  been  elected  in 
1639  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1672. 

See  I,.  ETIENNE,  "  Essai  snr  La  Mothe  le  Vayer,"  1849  ;  BAYI.E, 
"Historical  andCritic.il  Dictionary;"  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique  ;"  "  Xonvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Motherwell,  muth'er-wel,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish 
poet,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1798.  He  published  in  1827 
an  interesting  collection  of  ballads,  entitled  "Minstrelsy, 
Ancient  and  Modern."  He  afterwards  edited  succes 
sively  the  "Paisley  Magazine."  "Paisley  Advertiser," 
and  "  Glasgow  Courier."  His  "  Poems,  Narrative  and 
Lyrical,"  published  in  1833,  are  remarkable  for  pathos 
and  earnestness  of  feeling.  Died  in  1835. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement ;)  "  Retros|>ective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1828  ; 
"Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1842. 

Motin,  nu/ta.N"',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  poet,  bqjn  at 
Bomges,  lived  about  1570-1600.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  short  poems,  which  are  commended  for  grace  and 
delicacy  of  sentiment. 

Mot'ley,  (JoiiN  LOTHROP,)  an  eminent  American 
historian,  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
15111  of  April,  1814.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831, 
studied  about  a  year  in  the  University  of  Gottingen,  and 
passed  several  years  in  visits  to  various  countries  of 
Europe.  Having  returned  home,  he  studied  law,  which, 
however,  he  never  practised  to  much  extent.  He  pub 
lished  in  1839  a  novel  entitled  "Morton's  Hope,  or  the 
Memoirs  of  a  Young  Provincial."  In  1840  he  was  ap 
pointed  secretary  of  legation  at  Saint  Petersburg,  where 
he  remained  but  a  short  time.  He  contributed  articles 
to  the  "  North  American  Review"  and  other  periodicals, 


aiid  produced  in  1849  "Merry  Mount,  a  Romance," 
which  had  little  success.  Having  resolved  to  write  a 
work  on  the  history  of  Holland,  he  went  to  Europe  in 
1851  to  collect  materials  and  to  make  researches  on 
that  subject.  He  passed  several  years  at  Dresden,  Ber 
lin,  and  the  Hague,  and  published  "The  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic:  a  History,"  (London,  3  vols.  8vo,  1856,) 
a  work  of  great  merit  and  profound  research,  which  ran 
through  several  editions  and  was  translated  into  French, 
Dutch,  and  German.  Commenting  on  Prescott's  "Philip 
II."  and  Motley's  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  of  January,  1857,  says,  "  They  do 
honour  to  American  literature,  and  they  would  do  honour 
to  any  literature  in  the  world."  His  next  work — a 
continuation  of  the  first — is  entitled  "The  History  of 
the  United  Netherlands  from  the  Death  of  William 
the  Silent  to  the  Synod  of  Dort,"  (4  vols.,  1860-67.) 

"  Mr.  Motley's  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Re 
public,"  says  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu 
ary,  1861,  "is  already  known  and  valued  for  the  grasp 
of  mind  which  it  displays,  for  the  earnest  and  manly 
spirit  in  which  he  has  communicated  the  results  of  deep 
research  and  careful  reflection.  Again  he  appears  before 
us,  rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  to  tell  the  story  of  the 
United  Netherlands  from  the  death  of  William  the 
Silent  to  the  end  of  the  eventful  year  of  the  Spanish 
Armada;  and  we  still  find  him  in  every  way  worthy  of 
this  'great  argument.'  .  .  .  Many  of  Mr.  Motley's  char 
acteristics  as  a  historian  will  appear  from  the  extracts 
which  we  have  made.  It  will  be  seen  how  vividly  he 
can  depict  the  places,  the  men,  the  deeds,  of  other  days. 
But  the  work  itself  must  be  read  to  appreciate  the  vast 
and  conscientious  industry  which  he  has  so  lavishly 
bestowed  upon  it.  ...  Diligent  and  painstaking  as  the 
humblest  chronicler,  he  has  availed  himself  of  many 
sources  of  information  which  have  not  been  made  use 
of  by  any  previous  historical  writer.  At  the  same  time, 
he  is  not  oppressed  by  his  materials,  but  has  sagacity  to 
estimate  their  real  value  ;  and  he  has  combined  and  ar 
ranged  with  scholarly  power  the  facts  which  they  contain." 

In  1861  he  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
Austria.  He  resigned  this  position  early  in  1867,  in 
consequence  of  an  offensive  letter  which  Mr.  Seward, 
secretary  of  state,  addressed  to  him.  In  the  spring  of 
1869  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  England  by  President 
Grant. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1861 ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1859,  and  May,  1861  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1869  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
iS6i  ;  ''  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1861. 

Mott,  originally  Coffin,  (LUCRETIA,)  an  American 
reformer  and  philanthropist,  born  on  the  island  of 
Nantucket  in  1793.  About  1808  her  parents,  who  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  removed 
to  Philadelphia.  In  1811  she  was  married  to  fames 
Mott,  of  New  York,  who  soon  afterwards  came  to  Phila 
delphia  and  entered  into  mercantile  business  with  her 
father.  While  still  very  young,  her  attention  had  been 
called  to  the  iniquity  of  slavery,  and  she  felt  it  her  duty 
to  abstain  from  the  products  of  slave  labour.  She  trav 
elled  extensively  as  a  minister,  preaching  the  peculiar 
doctrines  of  the  society  in  which  she  had  been  educated, 
inculcating  obedience  to  the  Divine  light  within  the 
heart,  and  exposing  the  sinfulness  of  slavery  and  war. 
At  the  time  of  the  separation  in  the  Society  of  Friends, 
in  1827,  she  joined  those  popularly  known  as  "  Hicks- 
ites,"  (see  HICKS,  EI.IAS,)  and  distinguished  herself  by 
the  advocacy  of  Unitarian  views  of  the  most  radical 
kind.  She  took  an  active  part  (1833)  in  the  organization 
of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1840 
went  as  a  delegate  to  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Conven 
tion,  held  in  London  ;  but,  though  otherwise  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  and  courtesy,  she  was  not  admitted 
as  a  delegate,  a  majority  of  the  convention  having  de 
cided  that  women  should  be  excluded  from  any  active 
participation  in  the  business  of  the  assembly. 

Mrs.  Mott  has  long  been  known  as  an  earnest  and 
eloquent  advocate  of  anti-slavery  principles,  of  the  rights 
of  women,  and  of  other  reformatory  movements.  As  a 
speaker  she  is  characterized  by  an  unaffected  simplicity 
and  earnestness  of  manner,  as  well  as  by  clearness  and 
propriety  of  expression.  Her  high  moral  qualities,  her 


s  h:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  /Aw.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOTT 


1636 


MOULIN 


uncommon  intelligence,  the  beauty  and  consistency  of 
her  general  character, — illustrated  in  her  domestic  as 
well  as  in  her  public  life, — are  such  as  to  command  the 
respect  even  of  those  who  in  opinion  differ  most  widely 
from  her  in  regard  to  religious  and  social  questions. 

See  "  Eminent  Women  of  the  Age,"  1868. 

Mott,  (VALENTINE,)  a  famous  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island,  New  York,  in  August, 
1785,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Mott,  of  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  as  M.D.  at  Columbia  College  in  1806,  and 
afterwards  pursued  his  studies  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
He  became  professor  of  surgery  in  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  about  1809.  In  1826  he  united  with  Dr. 
Hosack  and  others  in  founding  Rutgers  Medical  Col 
lege.  He  acquired  a  wide  celebrity  by  his  skill  as  an 
operator  and  by  the  original  operations  which  he  per 
formed.  It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  that  exsected 
the  entire  right  clavicle,  and  that  he  tied  the  common 
carotid  artery  forty-six  times.  Sir  Astley  Cooper  ex 
pressed  the  opinion  that  Dr.  Mott  "had  performed 
more  of  the  great  operations  than  any  man  living."  He 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  surgery  and  relative 
anatomy  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York.  Among  his  writings  are  "Travels  in  Europe 
and  the  East,"  (1842,)  and  "  Mott's  Cliniques,"  (1860.) 
Died  in  1865. 

Motte,  de  la,  deh  If  mot,  (ANTOTNK  Houdart — 
7/oo'diR',)  a  French  critic  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1672.  He  was  the  author  of  the  dramas  of  "  Semele," 
"The  Triumph  of  the  Arts,"  and  "  Ine/.  de  Castro," 
(1723.)  The  last-named  was  very  successful.  He  trans 
lated  Homer's  "  Iliad,"  which  he  abridged  for  the  sake 
of  improving  it,  and  thus,  in  the  words  of  Voltaire, 
"changed  a  form  glowing  with  youth  and  health  into  a 
fleshless  skeleton."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  his  "Reflections  on  Criticism,"  (1715,)  in  which 
he  maintains  the  superiority  of  the  moderns  over  the 
ancients.  It  caused  a  great  sensation,  and  excited 
against  him  no  little  hostility  among  the  literati.  His 
prose  writings  are  esteemed  models  of  elegant  compo 
sition.  La  Motte  had  been  chosen  in  1710  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  having  Rousseau  as  his  com 
petitor.  Died  in  1731. 

See  H^RISSANT,  "Vie  de  Houdart  de  la  Motte  ;"  VII.I.EMAIN, 
"Cours  de  Literature  Francaise ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Motte,  du  Bois  de  la.  dii  bwa  deh  It  mot,  (EM- 
MANUKI,  AUGUSTE  de  Cahideuc — deh  ktV/e'duk',) 
COMTK,  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Rennes  in  1683  ;  died 
in  1764. 

Motte-Cadillac,  de  la,  deh  It  mot  kS'de'yfk',  (Ax- 
TOINE,)  a  French  officer,  noted  as  the  founder  of  Detroit, 
was  born  in  Gascony  about  1660.  He  formed  a  settle 
ment  at  Detroit  in  1701,  and  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Louisiana  about  1711.  Died  after  1717. 

Motte-Guyon.  See  GUYON,  (JEANNE  BOUVIER  DE 
I.A  MOTTE.) 

Motte,  La.     See  LAMOTTE. 

Motteux,  mo'tuh',  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1660.  On  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  settled  in  London,  where  he 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  English  and  pub 
lished  a  nunTber  of  dramas.  Among  the  principal  of 
these  we  may  name  "  The  Amorous  Miser,"  and  "  Beauty 
in  Distress."  He  also  made  an  English  translation  of 
"Don  Quixote,"  which  is  pronounced  by  Lord  Wood  - 
houselee  "by  far  the  best  version  we  have  yet  had  of 
the  romance  of  Cervantes."  Died  in  1718. 

See  GIBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dra- 
matica." 

Motteville,  de,  deh  mot'vel',  (FRANgoisE  Bertaut 
— b§R'to',)  a  French  lady,  born  in  Normandy  about 
1621,  was  a  favourite  and  companion  of  Anne  of  Austria, 
queen  of  Louis  XITT.  She  was  the  author  of"  Memoirs 
towards  the  History  of  Anne  of  Austria."  Died  in  1689. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Mottez,  mo'ti',  (Louis  VICTOR,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Lille  in  1809. 

Mott'ley,  (ToHN,)  an  English  dramatic  and  his 
torical  writer,  born  in  1692.  Among  his  works  is  a 
drama  entitled  "The  Imperial  Captives,"  a  "  Life  of  the 


Czar  Peter  the  Great,"  "  History  of  Catherine  of  Russia," 
and  the  collection  of  witticisms  called  "Joe  Miller's 
Jests."  Died  in  1750. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Moucheron,  moosh'roN',  (FREDERIK,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  landscape  painter,  born  at  Emden  in  1633.  His 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  the  graceful  form  and  group 
ing  of  the  trees  and  the  transparency  of  the  water.  The 
figures  and  animals  in  his  landscapes  were  painted  by 
Helmbreeker  and  Adrian  van  der  Vekle.  Among  hi.s 
master-pieces  are  "The  Setting  Sun,"  and  "Morning." 
Died  in  1686. 

See  DESCAMI-S,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Moucheron,  (!/.AAK,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1670.  He 
painted  in  the  same  style  as  his  father,  and  was  regarded 
as  his  equal.  Died  about  1740. 

Mouchet,  moo'sh.y,  (FRANC.OIS  NICOLAS,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1750;  died  in  1814. 

Mouchon,  moo'shoN',  (PIERRE,)  a  Swiss  litterateur, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1733,  was  a  friend  of  I.  [.  Rousseau. 
He  published  "Table  analytique  et  raisonnee  des  Ma- 
tieres  contenues  dans  1'Encyclopedie,"  (2  vols.,  1780.) 
Died  in  1797. 

Mouchy,  de,  deh  moo'she',  (Pini.ii'pK  de  Noailles 
— deh  no'jtl'  or  no't'ye,)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born 
in  Paris  in  1715,  was  a  son  of  the  Due  de  Noailles.  He 
served  in  all  the  wars  that  the  French  waged  between 
1733  anfl  J7?9-  He  defended  the  king  when  the  palace 
was  attacked  by  a  mob,  in  1792,  and  was  executed  as  a 
royalist  in  1794. 

Mouette,  moo'eV,  (GERMAIN,)  a  French  traveller, 
born  near  Dourdan  in  1652,  was  taken  by  the  Aluerines, 
and  was  kept  in  captivity  for  eleven  years.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  History  of  the  Conquests  of  Mouley  Archy, 
and  his  brother  Mouley  Ismael,  Kings  of  Morocco," 
etc.,  (1683.)  Died  about  1690. 

Moufet,  pronounced,  and  sometimes  written,  Muf  - 
fett,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  in  London  about  1550.  He  was  the  principal 
author  of  the  work  entitled  "Theatre  of  Insects,"  ("  Fn- 
sectorum  sive  Minimorum  Animalium  Theatrum,"  16^4,) 
which  is  highly  commended  by  Cuvier  and  Mailer.  He 
also  published  several  medical  treatises,  among  which 
are  "Health's  Improvement,"  etc.,  and  "  De  Jure  et 
Pnestantia  Chymicorum  Medicamentornm."  Died  in 
1600. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses ;"  CUVIER,  "  Histoire  des 
Sciences  naturelles." 

Mougin,  moo'zhaN',  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  near  Baume-les-Dames  in  1735  ;  died 
in  1816. 

Mouhy,  de,  deh  moo'e',  (CHARLES  de  Fieux — deh 
fe-uh',)  CHEVALIER,  a  French  novelist,  born  at  Metz  in 
1701.  He  wrote  many  works  of  inferior  quality.  Died 
in  1784. 

Moulac,  moo'ltk',  (VINCENT  MARIE,)  an  able  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Lorient  in  1780;  died  in  1836. 

Moulin,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS  AUGUSTE.)    See  MOULINS. 

Moulin,  du,  (CHARLES.)     See  DIJMOULIN. 

Moulin,  du,  dii  moo'laN1',  (Louis,)  a  son  of  the  fol 
lowing,  was  born  in  1606.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and 
afterwards  became  a  zealous  partisan  of  Cromwell  and 
the  Independents,  through  whose  influence  he  was  made 
Camden  professor  of  history  at  Oxford.  Died  in  1683. 

See  WOOD,  "Athena:  Oxonienses." 

Moulin,  du,  \  Lat.  MOLIN/F/US,]  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1568,  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Leyden.  He  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of  theology 
at  Sedan.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Recent  Origin  of  Popery,"  and  of  other  works.  Died 
about  1658. 

See  MEURSIUS,  "Athens  Batavse." 

Moulin,  du,  (PIERRE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  about  1600.  Having  graduated  at  Leyden, 
he  repaired  to  England,  where  he  subsequently  became 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  He  is  chiefly  known 
as  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  The  Cry  of  Royal 


*.  e,  T,  o, u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sbor;:  4,  i,  \,  o,  obscure ;  far,  fall,  fat:  met;  not;  good:  moon; 


MOULINS 


1637 


MOXON 


Blood  to  Heaven,"  written  in  reference  to  the  execution 
of  Charles  I.  He  died  in  1680,  leaving  a  number  of 
controversial  treatises. 

See  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Moulins.     See  DKSMOULINS. 

Moulins  or  Moulin,  moo'laN',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS 
AUGUSTE,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Caen  in  1752.  He 
was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  England 
in  October,  1798.  In  June,  1799,  he  was  elected  one  of 
the  Directors  of  the  republic.  He  united  with  Gohier 
to  oppose  Bonaparte  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Bru- 
maire,  (November,  1799.)  Died  in  1810. 

See  DE  BARANTE,  "Histoire  tin  Directolre." 

Moullah.     See  MOOI.LMI. 

Moulton,  mol'ton,  (JOSEPH  WHITE,)  an  American 
antiquary  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Stratford,  Con- 
ticut,  in  1789,  published  a  "History  of  Early  New 


York,"   (1826,)    and    "New 
Seventy  Years  Ago,"  (1849 


Mount'ain,  (GEORGE  JEHOSHAPHAT,)  a  Protestant 
prelate,  born  at  Quebec,  Canada,  about  1789.  He  be 
came  Bishop  of  Quebec  about  1837.  Died  in  1863. 

Mouiit'fort,  (WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  English 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1659. 
Among  his  principal  plays  are  the  tragedy  of  "Edward 
III.,"  and  a  farce  entitled  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Dr. 
Faust."  Died  in  1692. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Moura,  m5'i  a,  (Joz6  DE  SANTO  ANTONIO,)  a  Portu 
guese  Orientalist,  born  at  Almodovar  ;  died  about  1845. 

Mourad.     See  MOORAD. 

Mouradja  d'Ohsson,  moo-ra'jS  dS'son,  (IGNATIUS,) 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1740,  was  descended  from  an 
Armenian  family.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  ambas 
sador-extraordinary  from  Sweden  to  the  Porte.  He 
published  "A  General  View  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (in 


Moultrie,  moo'tre,  ?  (|OHN,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1804.  He  became  rector  of  Rugby,  in  Warwick 
shire,  and  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1837.  and 
other  works,  among  which  is  "The  Dream  of  Life." 

Moultrie,  moo'tre,  (  WILLIAM,  )  a  distinguished 
general  of  the  American  Revolution,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1731.  In  1776  he  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress  for  his  gallant  defence  of  the  fort  on  Sullivan's 


York    One    Hundred    and    7  vols,)  a  work  which  is  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1807. 
Mouravief.     See  MOORAVIEF. 


Island,  which  was  named  Fort  Moultrie  in  his  honour. 
He  assisted  General  Lincoln  in  the  defence  of  Charles 
ton  in  1780,  after  which  he  was  appointed  major-general 


Mouret,  moo'rV,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  composer, 
born  at  Avignon  in  1682,  produced  a  number  of  popular 
operas  and  songs.  Died  in  1738. 

Mourgues,  mooRg,  (MiCHEL,)  a  learned  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1642,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Toulouse.  Among  his  writings  are 
"  New  Elements  of  Geometry,"  and  a  "  Parallel  between 
Christian  Morality  and  that  of  the  Ancient  Philoso 


phers."     Died  in  1713. 

Mourgues,   de,  deli   mooRg,    or  Morgues,  moRg, 

(M.vniiEU,)   Sieur  de   Saint-Germain,  a  French  writer 

He  was   elected   Governor  of  South   Carolina  in   1785.  I  and    theologian,    born    in    1582.     He    became    in    1620 
He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Revolution  in  the  Carolinas    almoner   to  Marie  de   Medicis,  whom   he  accompanied 


and  Georgia."     Died  in  1805. 


her  exile  to  Brussels,  England,  and    Cologne. 


He 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  I  published,    among     other    works,    a    "Defence    of    the 
vo!-  '•  I  Queen-Mother  and  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (Antwerp,  1637.) 

Mounier,  moo'ne-i',  (CLAUDE  EDOUARD  PHILIPPE,)    Died  in  1670. 

BARON,  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph,  noticed  below,  was  born  j  Mourlon,  mooR'l6N',  (FREDERIC,)  a  French  jurist, 
at  Grenoble  in  1784.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  by  j  ]Jorn  at  Chambon  about  1814.  He  published  several 
Napoleon  secretary  of  his  cabinet,  and  in  this  capacity  ]ega] 


accompanied  him  in  his  campaigns.  He  was  also 
created  a  baron,  and  in  1812  master  of  requests.  Died 
in  1843. 

See  PORTAUS.  "FJoge  de  M.  le  Baron  Mounier,"  1844;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mounier,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  legislator,  eminent 
for  his  talents  and  virtues,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1758. 
He  studied  law,  and,  after  he  had  served  as  judcre  for 
several  years,  was  elected  in  1780  to  the  States-Gene 
ral,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  moderation 
of  his  liberal  opinions.  He  was  chairman  of  the  com 
mittee  appointed  to  form  a  new  constitution,  but  his 
plan  was  rejected.  He  wished  a  legislature  divided 
into  two  chambers.  He  presided  with  credit  over  the 
National  Assembly  from  September  28  to  October  8, 
1789,  during  which  time  the  sessions  of  that  body 
were  disturbed  by  a  mob,  and  then  hastily  retired 
from  the  capital.  Being  denounced  as  a  royalist,  he 
emigrated  in  1790.  and  lived  in  Switzerland,  England, 
and  other  countries,  until  1801.  Having  returned  to 
France,  he  was  appointed  in  1802  prefect  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine.  and  about  1804  councillor  of  state.  He  died 
in  1806,  leaving  several  able  political  works,  one  of 
which  is  "The"  Influence  ascribed  to  the  Philosophers 
and  Free-Masons  on  the  French  Revolution." 

See  BKRRIAT  SAINT-PRIX,  "  fi'oge  li!sloriqne  de  Mounier,"  1806  : 
THIERS.  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  MIGS-ET.  "  History 
of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mount,  (WILLIAM  SIDNEY.)  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Long  Island  about  1808.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  rural  and  domestic  scenes,  and  h^  excelled  in 
humorous  and  comic  delineations.  His  "  Farmers  Noon 
ing,"  "Husking  Corn,"  "Raffling  for  a  Goose,"  and 
"Dance  of  the  Haymakers,"  enjoy  a  wide  popularity. 
Died  in  1868. 

See  IH-NLAP,  "Rise  and  Pro?ress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  TUCKERMAX.  "  Hook  of  the  Artists." 

Mount'a-gu  or  Mont'a-eue,  (RICHARD,)  a  learned 
English  prelate,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1^78.  He 
was  created  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1638.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  church  antiquities,  and  was  also 
engaged  in  many  controversies  with  the  Papists  and  the 
Calvinists.  Died  in  1641. 


Mousa.     See  MOOSA. 

Mouskes,  moosk,  or  Mus,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  born  at  Ghent  about  1215,  became  Bishop 
of  Tournay  in  1274.  He  wrote,  in  verse,  a  History  of 
France,  which  was  commended  by  Du  Cange.  It  was 
published  at  Brussels  in  1836-38.  Died  in  1283. 

Moustier,  de,  (CHARLES  ALBERT.)  See  DEMOUSTIER. 

Moustier,  de,  deli  moo'te-i',  (CLEMENT  EDOU- 
ARD,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Coblentz 
in  1779;  died  in  Paris  in  1830. 

Moustier,  de,  (£LEONORE  FRANCOIS  ELIE,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1751,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Bourbons. 
Died  in  1817. 

Mouton.     See  LOBAU. 

Mouton,  moo'tiN',  (JEAN,)  a  French  composer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Josquin  Desprez,  and 
was  patronized  by  Louis  XII.  and  Francis  I. 

Mouton-Fonteiiille  de  la  Clotte,  moo'toN'  f6.Nt'- 
nel'  deh  It  klot,  (MARIE  JACQUES  PHILIPPE,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1769.  He  wrote  on 
botany  and  ornithology.  Died  in  1837. 

Movers,  mo'vers,  (FRANZ  KARL,)  a  learned  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Kosfeld,  in  Westphalia,  in 
1806.  He  became  in  1839  professor  of  the  theology  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Catholic  faculty  at  Breslau. 
His  greatest  work,  entitled  "The  Phoenicians,"  (1850,) 
illustrates  the  religion,  history,  and  antiquities  of  that 
nation.  He  also  published  several  treatises  on  Biblical 
antiquities,  and  wrote  the  article  "  Phoenicia"  in  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  "  Encyclopaedia." 

Mowatt.     See  RITCHIE,  (ANNA  CORA.) 

Mow'er,  ?  (JOSEPH  A.,)  an  able  American  general  in 
the  service  of  the  Union.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in 
an  attack  on  Vicksburg,  May,  1863,  and  served  under 
General  Banks  in  Louisiana  in  April,  1864.  He  com 
manded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sherman  in 
its  march  through  the  Carolinas,  1865.  Died  in  Janu 
ary,  1870. 

Mox'on,  (JOSEPH,)  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1627,  was 
hydrographer  to  Charles  II.  He  published  several 
treatises  on  mathematics,  navigation,  etc.,  and  carried 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Tli,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     G^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOT  A 


1638 


MUCIANUS 


on  the  manufacture  of  globes  and   maps.     Died  abou 
1700. 

Moya,  de,  da  mo'ya,  (Don  PEDRO,)  a  skilful  Span  is! 
painter,  born  at  Granada  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Jua 
del  Castillo.     He  excelled  as  a  colorist.     Died  in  1666 
See  QUILLIET,  "Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 
Moyle,  moil,  (WALTER,)  an  English  jurist  and  writer 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1672,  was  a  friend  of  Congreve  anc 
Wycherly.     He  was   the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on   the 
Roman  Constitution,"  and  other  works,  and   translate 
Xenophon's   treatise   "  On   the    Revenues  of  Athens.' 
Died  in  1721. 

See  "Life  of  W.  Moyle,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 
Moyreau,  mwa'ro',  (JEAN,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1690.     Among  his  best  prints  are  "The 
Lion-Hunt,"  after  Rubens,  and  "  Bacchus  and  Ariadne,' 
after  Boullongne.     Died  in  1763. 
See  BASAN,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 
Moyse,  the  French  for  MUSKS,  which  see. 
Moy'ses,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer,  born 
at  Lanark  in  1573.      lie  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Affair 
of  Scotland."     Died  in  1630. 

Mozart,  mo'zart',  |Ger.  pron.  mSt'saRt,]  (JoiiANN 
CHKYSOSTOM  WOLFGANG  AMADEUS,)  a  celebrated  Ger 
man  composer,  born  at  Saltzburg  on  the  271)1  of  January, 
1756.  Both  his  parents  were  distinguished  for  personal 
beauty.  He  began  to  perform  on  the  harpsichord  when 
he  was  about  four  years  old,  and  manifested  an  exquisite 
musical  organization.  His  first  teacher  was  his  father, 
who  devoted  much  time  to  his  education.  At  the  age 
of  six  years  he  composed  short  pieces  of  music,  and 
was  regarded  as  a  prodigy  of  musical  genius.  He  had 
a  sister  four  years  his  senior,  who  in  early  childhood 
was  an  excellent  musician.  In  1762  Leopold  Mozart 
took  Wolfgang  and  his  sister  to  Munich,  where  they 
performed  before  the  court  and  excited  great  admira 
tion.  They  also  visited  Vienna,  and  exhibited  their 
skill  before  the  emperor  and  his  family,  by  whom  they 
were  encouraged  and  caressed.  In  1763  young  Mozart 
excited  the  astonishment  of  the  Parisians  by  his  per 
formance  on  the  organ  and  by  his  talent  for  improvisa 
tion.  He  visited  with  his  parents  the  principal  cities  of 
Germany,  and  published  two  of  his  compositions  in  1763. 
The  Mozart  family  passed  the  year  1764  in  London, 
where  they  gave  public  concerts.  About  1766  they 
returned  to  Saltzburg,  where  Wolfgang  continued  his 
studies,  taking  for  models  the  productions  of  Handel 
and  Emanuel  Bach.  He  composed  in  1768  an  opera 
called  "  La  Finta  semplice,"  which  was  not  represented. 
Accompanied  by  his  father,  he  made  the  tour  of  Italy  in 
1769  and  1770,  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  He 
produced  at  Milan  the  opera  of  "  Mitridate,"  which  was 
performed  with  success  in  1770.  During  his  visit  to 
Rome  the  pope  created  him  a  knight  (cavaliere)  of  the 
Golden  Spur.  His  next  works  were  two  serenatas,  called 
"  Ascanio  in  Alba,"  and  "The  Dream  of  Scipio,"  ("  II 
Sogno  di  Scipione,"  1772.)  He  composed  in  1773  an 
opera  entitled  "Lucio  Silla,"  which  was  very  successful. 
He  passed  several  years  in  travel,  and  solicited  employ 
ment  in  various  foreign  countries  without  success. 

In  1779  he  obtained  the  places  of  organist  and  chapel- 
master  to  the  Archbishop  of  Saltzburg.  At  the  request 
ot  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  composed  "Idomeneo,"  an 
opera,  (1781,)  which  was  superior  to  his  former  works 
and  obtained  immense  applause.  "This  work,"  says 
Denne-Baron,  "was  nothing  less  than  a  complete  trans 
formation  of  the  art."  He  quitted  the  service  of  the 
archbishop, — a  coarse  and  sordid  person,  who  required 
him  to  eat  with  his  menial  servants, — and  in  1781  settled 
in  Vienna.  In  1782  he  composed  a  German  opera, 
"The  Abduction  from  the  Seraglio,"  ("Die  Entfuhrung 
aus  clem  Serai],")  and  married  Constance  Weber.  He 
became  a  friend  of  Haydn,  the  great  composer. 

Mozart  composed,  with  unremitting  activity  and  in 
rapid  succession,  symphonies,  sonatas,  quartets,  motets, 
waltzes,  etc.  About  1785  he  produced  "Davidde  peni- 
tente,"  an  oratorio,  which  abounds  in  beauties  of  the 
first  order.  His  comic  opera  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro" 
("Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,"  1786)  was  performed  with 
unbounded  applause,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics, 


formed  an  epoch  in  dramatic  music.  His  master-piece 
is  the  opera  "  Don  Giovanni,"  or  "Don  Juan,"  which 
was  first  performed  at  Prague  in  1787.  The  King  of 
Prussia  offered  him  3000  crowns  a  year  to  attract  him 
to  Berlin  ;  but  he  declined  to  quit  the  service  of  the  em 
peror  Joseph,  who  paid  him  only  800  florins.  He  was 
often  reduced  to  painful  distress  for  want  of  money  while 
he  lived  in  Vienna.  Among  his  later  works  is  "The 
Magic  Flute,"  an  opera,  (1791.)  Mozart,  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano,  surpassed  all  the  German  musicians  of  his 
time.  His  constitution  was  naturally  delicate,  and  his 
health  rapidly  declined  in  1791,  during  which  he  was 
employed  to  compose  a  requiem  by  a  mysterious  stranger, 
or  a  person  who  wished  his  name  to  be  a  secret.  This 
person  was  an  agent  of  Count  Walsegg.  To  his  morbid 
and  depressed  imagination  this  seemed  as  a  warning  of 
his  own  impending  death.  With  this  presentiment,  he 
composed  his  "Requiem,"  which  is  considered  his  most 
sublime  work.  He  died  in  Vienna  in  December,  1791 
or  1792,  leaving  several  children. 

"Mozart  occupies,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "a  unique 
place  in  the  history  of  music,  by  the  universality  of  his 
genius.  ...  He  excelled  in  all  departments,  and  the 
products  of  his  radiant  imagination  improved  the  ait 
in  all  its  parts.  ...  In  dramatic  music  he  was  un 
rivalled.  His  enlightened  mind  and  his  exquisite  sen 
sibility  enabled  him  to  seize  with  equal  tact  and  sagacity 
the  nuances  and  the  true  conditions  of  the  lyrical  drama." 
("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  E.  HOLMES,  "  Life  of  Mozart,"  2  vols.,  1845;  NIHMETSCHEK, 
"Mozart's  Leben,"  1798;  ROKCHUTZ,  "Anecdoies  of  Mozart,"  (in 
German,)  1801  ;  ARNOLD,  "Mozart's  Geist,"  Erfurt,  1X03;  (',.  N. 
VON  NISSEN,  "Biographic  W.  A.  Mozarts,"  1X38:  FKTIS,  '"  Biogra 
phic  Universelle  des  Mnsiciens  ;"  H.  DOKING,  "  W.  A.  Mozart," 
and  a  French  version  of  the  same,  Paris,  i,S6o;  HHKK  OTTO  JAHN, 
"Mo/art's  Leben,"  1X56;  J).\INES  BAKKINCTON,  "  Notice  of  Mo 
zart,"  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  1770;  "Letters  of 
Mozart,"  translated  l>y  LADV  WAI. LACK,  2  vols.,  1865;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1846. 

Mozart,  (LEOPOLD,)  a  German  musician,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1719,  was  the  father  of  the  famous  com 
poser.  He  performed  on  the  violin,  and  became  about 
1762  vice-chapel-master  of  the  Prince-Archbishop  of 
Saltzburg.  He  gave  diligent  attention  to  the  education 
and  training  of  his  son.  He  composed  several  oratorios, 
etc.  Died  in  I7.S7. 

Mozier,  mo'/her,  (JoSKPH,)  an  American  sculptor, 
born  at  Burlingtc  n,  Vermont,  in  1812.  He  passed  many 
years  in  mercantile  business  in  the  city  of  New  York, 

ul  afterwards  s-tuclied  sculpture  in  Italy.  Among  his 
works  are  "Esther."  "  Pocahontas,"  and  ".Silence." 

Mozin,  mo'zaN',  (  .  .  .  ,)  a  French  grammarian,  born 
n  1771,  taught  in  Germany  many  years.  lie  published 
several  woi  ks  on  grammar,  and  a  good  French-German 
Dictionary,  (1812.)  Died  in  1840. 

Mozin,  (CllARLKS  Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1806,  studied  under  Leprince.  His  works  are 
chiefly  marine  views,  which  have  great  merit.  Among 
:he  best  we  may  name  "The  Capture  of  the  Isle  of 
Bommel  by  the  French  Army  in  1794,"  and  "  The  Poit 
of  Honfleur." 

Mozzi,  mol'see,  (MARCANTONIO,)  an  Italian  littera 
teur  and  priest,  born  at  Florence  in  1678;  died  in  1736. 

Muawia  or  Muawias.    See  MOAWEEYAH. 

Muciauus,  imi-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  MUCIEN,  moo'se-a.N'; 

It.  MUZIANO,  moot-se-a/no,]  (LiciNius,)  an  able  Roman 

eneral   and  orator,  whose  character  was  compounded 

uf  good  and  evil  qualities.      lie  was  chosen  consul  in  52 

A.D.,  and  at  the  dgath  of  Nero,  in  68,  commanded  four 

egions  in  Syria.  •'"To  promote  the  interest  of  his  friend 

Vespasian   in   his  contest  against  Vitellius,  he  made  a 

apid  march  to  Rome  in  69  A.D.,  and  acted  the  part  of  a 

overeign  until  the  arrival  of  Vespasian.    Mucianus  was 

consul  in  70  and  in  75  A.D. 

See  TACITUS,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Mucianus,  (P.  LicmusCuASsus  DIVES,)  an  eminent 
Ionian  jurist  and  orator,  was  a  son  of  P.  Mticius  Scae- 
•ola.  He  was  adopted  by  P.  Licinius  Crassus,  suc- 
eeded  Scipio  Nasica  as  pontifex  maximus,  and  became 
onsul  in  131  li.c.  Having  led  an  army  into  Asia  to 
ippose  Aristonicus,  who  attempted  to  obtain  Pergamus, 
ic  was  defeated  and  killed,  in  130  B.C. 


5,  e,  i,  6,  u, y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  tic: ;  good;  moon; 


MUCIEN 


1639 


MUIRHEAD 


Mucien.     See  MUCIANUS,  (LiciNius.) 

M'-cius  Scaevola.     See  SC/EVOI.A. 

Miicke  or  Muecke,  muk'eh,  (HEINRICH  KARL  AN 
TON,)  a  German  historical  painter,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his  master 
pieces  maybe  named  "Saint  Ambrose  and  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,"  "  Ulysses  and  Leucothea  in  the  Tempest," 
and  a  "  Saint  Catherine." 

See  NAGI.KK,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler  Lexikon." 

Mudee,  mu'cLV,  (GABRIKI.  van  der  Muyden — vfn 

der  ml'den,)  an  eminent  Flemish  jurist,  born  near  Ant 
werp  in  1500.  He  wrote  "  De  Restitutionibus  in  Inte- 
grum,"  (1586,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Louvain  in 
1560. 

See  SPINNAEI.,  "Gabriel  Mude'e  et  son  Ecole,"  1X44. 

Mud'ford,  (  WILLIAM,)  an  English  editor  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1782.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,"  (1804,)  and  a 
"  Life  of  Richard  Cumberland,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)  Died 
in  1848. 

Mudge,  muj,  (JOHN,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  optician 
and  surgeon,  was  a  younger  son  of  Zachary,  noticed 
below.  He  practised  many  years  at  Plymouth,  and 
wrote  medical  essays,  some  of  which  were  inserted  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  He  was  distinguished 
as  the  improver  of  the  reflecting  telescope,  and  as  author 
of  "  Directions  for  Making  the  Best  Composition  for  the 
Mirrors  of  Reflecting  Telecopes,  with  a  Description  of 
the  Process  forgiving  the  Great  Speculum  the  True  Para 
bolic  Curve."  For  this  lie  received  the  Copley  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1793. 

Mudge,  (THOMAS,)  an  excellent  English  mechanist, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1716,  was  a  son  of  Zachary  Mudge, 
noticed  below.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  Graham, 
the  famous  watchmaker,  and  acquired  great  eminence 
in  that  art.  About  1771  he  retired  to  Plymouth,  where 
he  employed  several  years  in  perfecting  chronometers. 
In  1793  he  received  from  Parliament  a  recompense  of 
three  thousand  pounds  for  his  improvements  in  these 
instruments.  Died  in  1794.  His  son  THOMAS  wrote  a 
"Description  of  the  Time-Keeper  invented  by  Thomas 
Mudge,"  (Senior.) 

Mudge,  (WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  a  scientific  English  gen 
eral,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  John 
Mudge,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  the  royal  artil 
lery,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  About  1798 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  grand  trigono 
metrical  survey  of  England  and  Wales,  after  he  had 
been  employed  for  several  years  as  assistant  in  that  work. 
During  the  progress  of  the  survey  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general.  The  results  of  his  survey 
were  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
and  procured  him  much  distinction.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.  Died  in  1821. 

Mudge,  (ZACHARY,)  an  eminent  clergyman  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  the  father  of  John  and  Thomas 
Mudge,  above  noticed,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr. 
Johnson.  He  became  master  of  a  free  school  at  Bide- 
ford  about  1716,  and  rector  of  a  church  in  Plymouth  in 
1736.  lie  was  also  prebendary  of  Exeter.  His  ser 
mons,  of  which  a  volume  was  published  in  1727,  were 
highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1769. 

Mu'die,  (RoiiEKT,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  popular 
litterateur,  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1777,  became  a  resi 
dent  of  London.  He  published  "  Conversations  in  Moral 
Philosophy,"  "The  Feathered  Tribes  of  the  British 
Islands,"  "Popular  Mathematics,"  "The  British  Natu 
ralist,"  "  The  Elements  :  The  Heavens,  the  Earth,  the 
Air,  and  the  Sea,"  and  numerous  other  works.  Died 
in  1842. 

Mudo,  El,  el  moo'no,  (JUAN  FERNANDEZ  XIMENES 
de  Navarete — da  na-va-ra'ta,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Logrono  in  1526,  received  the  surname 
of  KL  MUDO  ("the  Mute")  because  he  was  deaf  and 
dumb.  He  was  patronized  by  Philip  II.,  and  painted  for 
the  Escurial  a  "Nativity,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  other 
works  of  great  merit.  lie  has  been  called  "the  Spanish 
Titian."  Died  about  1575. 

Muecke.     See  MUCKF. 

Mueffliiig.     See  MUFFLING. 


Muegge.     See  MUGGE. 

Muehlenbruch.     See  MUHLF.NBRUCH. 

Muelenaere,  de,  deh  mu'el-na'reh,  ?  (FF.LIX  AMAND,) 
COMTE,  a  Belgian  statesman,  born  in  1793.  He  was 
appointed  in  1830  Governor  of  West  Flanders,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1834. 

Mueller.     See  MULLER. 

Muellner.     See  MULLNER. 

Muench.     See  MUNCH. 

Muench-Bellinghausen.     Sec    MUNCH-BELLING- 

HAUSFN. 

Muenchausen.     See  MUNCHAUSEN. 

Muennich.     See  MUNNICH. 

Muenster.     See  MUNSTER. 

Muenster-Ladeiiburg.  See  MUNSTER-LADENBURG. 

Muenter.     See  MUNTER. 

Muenzer.     See  MUNZER. 

Muffling  or  Mueffling,  muffling,  (FRIEDRICH  FER 
DINAND  KARL,)  BARON,  a  Prussian  field-marshal,  born 
at  Halle  in  1775.  lie  was  appointed  in  1815  governor 
of  Paris.  In  1829  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  be 
tween  Russia  and  Turkey.  He  became  governor  of 
Berlin  in  1837,  and  president  of  the  state  council  in  1841. 
He  died  in  1851. 

See  "  Passages  from  my  Life,"  etc.,  by  BARON  WOFFLING. 

Miigge  or  Muegge,  mug'geh,  almo.st  muVkeh, 
(THEODoR,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Berlin  in  1806, 
wrote  several  romances,  also  political  works  entitled 
"  France  and  the  Last  of  the  Bourbons"  and  "  Eng 
land  and  Reform."  He  became  in  1850  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Berlin  "National  Zeitung,"  of  which  he 
was  afterwards  editor.  Died  in  1861. 

Muggleton,  mug'g'1-ton,  (LUDOWICK,)  an  English 
fanatic,  born  in  London  in  1609,  was  the  principal 
founder  of  the  sect  called  by  his  name.  Muggleton  and 
his  coadjutor,  John  Reeve,  professed  to  be  the  last  and 
greatest  prophets  of  Jesus  Christ.  Died  in  1697. 

Mugnoz.     See  MUNOZ. 

Muguet  de  Nanthou,  mu'g.V  deh  nfiN'too',  (FRAN 
COIS  F^LIX  HYACINTHK,)  a  French  lawyer  and  repub 
lican,  born  at  Besai^on  in  1760.  He  was  an  active  and 
influential  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1790-91. 
He  was  one  of  the  commissaries  appointed  to  maintain 
order  in  Paris  on  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  to  Varennes 
in  1791.  He  died  in  1808,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a 
worthy  and  honourable  man. 

Muhammed  or  Muhammad.     See  MOHAMMED. 

Muhaut,  mii'lio',  (£TIENNF,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Thizy  (Rhone)  in  1797.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  Coleoptera  of 
Fiance,"  (1839  et  seq.} 

Muhlenberg,  mu'len-berg,  (GorrHiLF  HENRY 
ERNST,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and  botanist,  son 
of  the  following,  was  born  in  Montgomery  county, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1753.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "Catalogue  of  the  Plants  of  North  America." 
Died  in  1815. 

Muhlenberg,  (HENRY  MELCHIOR,)  D.D.,  born  in 
Hanover,  Germany,  in  1711,  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  founded  the  German  Lutheran  Church,  and 
settled  as  pastor  at  Philadelphia.  Died  in  1787. 

See  the  "  Life  and  Times  of  Henry  M.  Muhlenberg,"  by  M.  L. 
STOEVER,  1856. 

Muhlenberg,  (PETER,)  a  general,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Montgomery  country,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1746.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  1801.  Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Peter  Muhlenberg,"  by  HENRY  A. 
MUIILENBERC;,  1849. 

Miihleiibruch  or  Muehlenbruch,  mu'len-bKooK', 
(CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,)  an  eminent  German  jurist, 
born  at  Rostock  in  1785.  He  filled  the  chair  of  law 
successively  at  Konigsberg  and  Halle,  and  in  1833  be 
came  professor  at  Gottingen.  Among  his  most  important 
works  are  a  "  Compendium  of  the  Institutes  of  Roman 
Law,"  and  "  Doctrine  of  the  Pandects,  for  the  Use  of 
Schools."  Died  in  1843. 

Muirhead,  mur'he'd,  (JAMES  P..)  a  British  writer  of 
the  present  age,  was  a  relative  of  James  Watt,  the  great 
inventor.  He  published  "The  Origin  and  Progress  of 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asj;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUIS 


1640 


MULLER 


the  Mechanical  Inventions  of  James  Watt,  illustrated 
by  his  Correspondence,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1854,)  and  a  "  Life 
of  James  Watt." 

Muis,  de,  cleh  mii-e',  (SIMEON  Marotte — mt'rot',) 
a  French  ecclesiastic  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1587,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal  College. 
He  published  a  number  of  valuable  works,  including  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,"  (1630,)  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared.  Muis  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  learned  Hebraists  and 
Biblical  critics  of  his  time.  Died  in  1644. 

See  DUPIN,  "  BibliotUeciue  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Mul'cas-ter,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at 
Carlisle  about  1535,  became  in  1561  master  of  Merchant 
Taylors'  School,  then  recently  founded  in  London.  He 
wrote  Latin  verses,  some  of  which  were  spoken  before 
Queen  Elizabeth  at  Kenilworth,  also  several  educational 
works.  Died  in  1611. 

Mul'ci-ber,  [supposed  to  be  derived  from  mulceo,  to 
"tame,"  to  "soften,"  because  he  softens  iron  and  makes 
it  tractable,]  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to  VULCAN, 
which  see. 

Mulder,  mul'der,  (GERARD  JAN,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1802,  became  pro 
fessor  of  chemistry  in  his  native  city.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  General  Physiological 
Chemistry,"  (1844,)  and  "Chemical  Researches,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1847. 

Muley  (or  Mouley)  Hassan,  mu'lee  has'san  or 
moo' I  a'  hSs'san,  King  of  Tunis,  began  to  reign  in  1533. 
He  was  driven  from  the  throne  by  Barbarossa,  but  was 
restored  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1535.  Died  in 

1545- 

Muley  Ismail,  moo'la'  is-mt'eel',  Emperor  of  Mo 
rocco,  born  in  1646,  began  to  reign  in  1672.  He  took 
Tangier  from  the  English  about  1680.  In  1697  he 
attacked  the  Algerines,  by  whom  he  was  defeated.  He 
was  extremely  cruel.  Died  in  1727. 

Muley  Soliman,  moo'la'  so-li-mln',  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  began  to  reign  in  1792.  He  abolished  slavery, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  able  ruler. 
Under  his  reign  Morocco  enjoyed  unusual  tranquillity. 
Died  in  1822. 

Mulgrave,  EARL  OF.     See  SHKFFIKI.D. 

Mul'grave,  (CONSTANTINE  JOHN  Pinrps,)  LORD,  a 
distinguished  navigator,  born  about  1740,  was  the 
son  of  an  Irish  peer.  In  1773  he  made  a  voyage  to 
the  Arctic  regions  in  order  to  discover  the  Northwest 
Passage,  in  which  he  was  not  successful.  After  his 
return  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  and  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1784.  He  published,  in  1774,  "J"ur- 
nal  of  a  Voyage  towards  the  North  Pole."  Died  in 
1792. 

Mulgrave,  (HENRY  PHILIP  PHIPPS,)  LORD,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1755-  He  filled  several 
important  offices,  and  became  in  1806  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  He  exchanged  this  place  in  1812  for  that  of 
grand  master  of  artillery,  and  received  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Normanby  and  Viscount  Mulgrave.  He  died  in  1831, 
and  left  a  son,  who  became  Marquis  of  NORMANKY, 
(which  see.) 

Muliuari,  moo-le-na'ree,  or  Molinari,  mo-le-na'ree, 
(STEFANO,)  a  Florentine  engraver,  executed  a  great 
number  of  prints  after  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and 
other  eminent  Italian  masters.  He  published  in  1780 
a  work  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Five  Italian  Schools  of 
Painting." 

Miiller  or  Mueller,  mul'ler,  (ADAM  HKINRICH,)  a 
German  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in, 1779,  became 
aulic  councillor  at  Vienna.  Died  in  1829. 

Mul'ler,  (ALBERT  A.,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about  1800,  published  a 
number  of  lyrics  and  sacred  poems. 

Miiller,  (AT.F.XANDF.R,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  the 
bishopric  of  Fulda  in  1780,  was  the  author  of  "Archives 
for  the  most  Modern  Legislation  of  all  the  German 
States."  Died  in  1844. 

Miiller,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  divine  and  Orientalist, 
born  in  Pomerania  in  1630.  He  assisted  Walton  in  his 
Polyglot  Bible,  and  contributed  to  Castell's  "Lexicon." 
He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  Cathay,"  "Japanese 


Alphabet,"  "Chinese  Basilicon,"  and  other  works.   Died 
in  1694. 

Miiller  or  Mueller,  (AUGUST  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  philosopher,  born  in  1684;  died  in  1761. 
See  J.  A.  EKNESTI,  "  Memoria  A.  F.  Mueller!,"  1761. 

Miiller,  mii'lain',  (CHARLES  Louis,)  a  celebrated 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1815.  Among  his  prin 
cipal  works  may  be  named  "Christ's  Entry  into  Jeru 
salem,"  "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Bartholomew,"  "Lady 
Macbeth,"  "  Marie  Antoinette  at  the  Conciergerie,"  and 
"The  Sleeping  Sylph."  He  obtained  medals  of  the 
first  class  in  1848  and  1855. 

Miiller,  (FRIKDRICH,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Kreuz- 
nach  in  1750,  was  the  author  of  "  Ulrich  von  Kossheim," 
"  Faust,"  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Niobe."  He  was  also 
a  painter  and  engraver.  Died  in  1825. 

Miiller,  (FRIKDRICII  AUGUST,)  a  German  epic  poet, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1767,  wrote  poems  entitled  "  Alfonso," 
(1790,)  and  "Richard  Lowenherz,"  ("Richard  Cceur-de- 
Lion,"  1790.)  Died  in  1807. 

Miiller,  (FRIKDRICH  MAX,)  an  eminent  German 
Orientalist,  a  son  of  the  poet  Wilhelm,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Dessau  in  1823.  He  studied  the  Sanscrit 
language  at  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Paris,  and  subsequently 
visited  England.  In  1847  he  was  charged  by  the  East 
India  Company  to  publish  an  edition  of  the  "  Rigveda." 
He  became  Taylorian  professor  of  modern  languages  at 
Oxford  in  1854.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Buddhism  and  Buddhist  Pilgrims,"  a  "  History  of  An 
cient  Sanscrit  Literature,"  (1859,)  and  "Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language,"  which  were  very  popular.  These 
were  first  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  London 
in  1861.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls' College, 
Oxford,  in  1858. 

Miiller,  (GF.RHARD  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  traveller 
and  historian,  born  in  Westphalia  about  1705.  Having 
visited  Saint  Petersburg,  he  accompanied  Gmelin  and 
De  1'Isle,  as  secretary,  on  their  expedition  to  Siberia  in 
1733-  He  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
of  Russia,  (1747,)  and  keeper  of  the  archives,  (1766.) 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Siberia,"  "Collection  of 
Russian  Histories,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1783. 

See  GRETCH,  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Rnsse." 

Miiller,  (  HEINRICH,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1631,  wrote  numerous  theological 
treatises  in  Latin.  Died  in  1675. 

Miiller,  (JAKOB  and  GKORG,)  brothers,  and  Swiss 
artists,  born  in  Grindelwald,  lived  about  1800,  and  were 
celebrated  for  their  skill  in  painting  on  glass. 

Miiiler,  (JAN.)     See  CADOVIUS. 

Miiller,  (TAN,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam 
about  1570,  imitated  the  style  of  Goltzius.  His  prints 
are  numerous  and  distinguished  for  great  boldness  and 
facility  of  execution. 

Miiller,  (TOHANN.)     See  RF.GIOMONTANUS. 

Miiller,  (ToHANN,)  a  celebrated  German  physiologist 
and  zoologist,  born  at  Coblentz  on  the  I4th  of  July,  1801. 
He  entered  the  University  of  Bonn  about  1819,  studied 
medicine  and  other  sciences,  and  graduated  as  M.I),  in 
1822.  In  1826  he  published  a  remarkable  treatise  "On 
the  Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Sense  of  Sight." 
He  became  professor  of  physiology,  etc.  at  the  Univer 
sity  of  Bonn  in  1830.  His  work  on  the  secreting  glands, 
"  De  Glandularum  secernentium  Structura  penitiori," 
etc.,  (1830,)  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  comparative 
anatomy.  He  succeeded  Rudolphi  as  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Berlin  in  1833,  and  acquired  a  wide  repu 
tation  as  a  lecturer.  lie  made  several  anatomical  dis 
coveries.  His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  Human 
Physiology,"  ("  Handbuch  (or  Lehrbuch)  der  Physiologic 
des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1841-44,)  which  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  works  ever  written  on  that  subject. 
There  are  few  points  of  physiology  on  which  he  has  not 
thrown  light  by  numerous  observations  or  new  ideas. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  Latin  treatise  "  On 
the  Respiration  of  the  Foetus,"  (1823,)  and  "Grundriss 
der  Vorlesungen  iiber  allgemeine  Pathologic,"  (1829.) 
Many  of  his  works  are  illustrated  by  figures  designed 
by  himself.  He  edited  a  journal  called  "  Archives  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  (1834-40.)  In  the  opinion  of 


5,e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y\  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MULLER 


1641 


MULLER 


some  critics,  M tiller  was  the  first  physiologist  of  Europe. 
He  died  in  Berlin  in  April,  1858. 

See  RODOLPH  VIKCHOW,  "Joannes  Miiller,"  iSsS;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  C.  DARESTK,  "Jean  Miiller,  ses  Travaux," 
etc.,  in  the  "Revue  Germaniqne"  for  February,  April,  and  June, 
1859  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Miiller,  ([OHANN,)  a  German  natural  philosopher  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  professor  of  physics 
at  Friburg,  in  Brisgau.  He  published  "Elements  of 
Experimental  Physics,"  (3d  edition,  1852.) 

Miiller,  (Jon ANN  FRIEDRICH  WILHF.I.M,)  a  German 
engraver,  son  of  Johann  Gotthard  von  Miiller,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1 782.  Having  completed 
hi.s  studies  in  Paris,  he  was  appointed  in  1814  professor 
of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dresden, 
where  he  was  charged  with  the  execution  of  a  plate 
after  Raphael's  "Madonna  di  San  Sisto."  His  severe 
application  to  this  work  caused  his  death  soon  after  the 
completion  of  the  print,  (1816.)  Besides  the  above- 
named,  which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  Miiller 
engraved  "The  Four  Seasons,"  after  Jordaens,  "Saint 
John,"  after  Domenichino,  and  portraits  of  Schiller 
and  Hufelancl. 

Miiller,   (JOHANN  GOTTWEKTH,)   a  German  littera 
teur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1744,  was  the  author  of  "  Comic 
Tales  from  the  Papers  of  the  Brown  Man."  Died  in  1828. 
Miiller,  (JOHANN  HF.INRICH,)  a  German  astronomer 
and   natural    philosopher,  born   at   Nuremberg   in   1671, 
published  many  works  on  astronomy,  etc.     Died  in  1731. 
Miiller,   ([OHANN    JAKOU,)   an   excellent   landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Riga  in  1765.     He  worked  at  Stuttgart 
and  in  Italy.      Died  in  1832. 

Miiller,  ([OHANN  SEKASTIAN.)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1715.  His  plates  for  the  "Sexual 
System  of  Linnaeus  Illustrated''  are  among  his  best 
works.  Died  in  1783. 

Miiller,    (KARL  Otfried — ot'fReet,)  a  distinguished 
German  scholar,  historian,  and  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Brieg,  in   Silesia,  in  1797.     He  studied  at  Breslau,  and  j 
subsequently    devoted    himself   to    philology    at    Berlin 
under  the  celebrated  Bockh.     He  became  in  1817  pro-  | 
fessor  of  ancient  languages  in  the  Magdalenum  at  Bres-  j 
lau,  and  in  1819  obtained  the  chair  of  archaeology  and 
Grecian   art   at  Gottingen.     In   this   post  his   able  and  j 
eloquent  lectures,  and  the  numerous  admirable  works 
he  published  during  the  fifteen  years  following,  gave  a  | 
new  impulse  to  the  study  of  philology  and   antiquities  ' 
in  Germany.     In  1839  Miiller  visited  Italy,  and  the  next  j 
year  arrived  at  Athens.      Having  greatly  fatigued  himself  i 
while  making  excavations -at   Delphi,  he  was  soon  after 
attacked  by  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1840.     He  was 
buried  near  the  ruins  of  the  Academy,  and  the  Univer 
sity  of   Athens    erected   a   monument    over    his   grave,  j 
Among   his   principal   works   are   his   "  History   of   the 
Hellenic    Races   and    Cities,"   (1820,)    "The    Dorians," 
("Die    Dorier,"  2  vols.,   1824-30,)    "Introduction    to   a 
Scientific  System  of  Mythology,"  (1825,)  "  On  the  Origin 
and    Ancient    History    of    the    Macedonians,"    (1825,) 
"The  Etruscans,"  (2  vols.,  1828.)  "Manual  of  the  Archae 
ology  of  Art,"  (1830,)  and   "History  of  the  Literature 
of  Ancient  Greece,"  (1840.) 

See  BROCKHAI'S.  "  Conversations-Lexikon  :"  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phie  (lenera'e  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review''  for  January,  1839. 

Miiller,  (Lumvic.  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  engineer 
and  mathematician,  born  in  the  march  of  Pregnitz  in 
1744.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the  Seven  Years' war, 
and  became  in  1786  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Academy  of  Engineers  at  Potsdam.  He  wrote  several 
valuable  treatises  on  military  tactics.  Died  in  1804. 

Miiller,  mul'ler,  (()THO  FRKDKRIK,)  an  eminent  Danish 
naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1730.  Being  appointed 
in  1753  tutor  to  a  young  nobleman,  he  availed  himself, 
while  travelling  with  him,  of  the  facilities  for  increasing 
his  knowledge  of  botany  and  zoology.  In  1764  he  pub 
lished  his  "Fauna  Tnsectorum  Friedrichsdaliana,"  and  in 
1767  his  "Flora  Friedrichsdaliana,"  giving  an  account 
of  the  insects  and  plants  of  Friedrichsdal.  The  great 
merit  of  these  productions  caused  him  to  be  appointed 
by  King  Frederick  V.  to  continue  the  publication  of  the 
"  Flora  Danica,"  a  magnificent  work,  surpassing  anything 
of  the  kind  that  had  hitherto  appeared.  Miiller  added 
two  volumes  to  the  three  already  published  by  Oeder.  '• 


In  1773-74  he  brought  out  a  treatise  (in  Latin)  "On 
Earth  Worms  and  Fresh-Water  Worms."  In  the  first 
part  of  this  work  he  describes  the  infusoria,  of  which  he 
discovered  many  new  species  ;  and  he  was  the  first 
naturalist  who  distributed  animalcules  into  genera  and 
species.  In  1781  his  treatise  "On  the  Hydrachnae" 
appeared,  and  in  1785  one  "On  the  Monoculi,"  both 
'  written  in  Latin  and  illustrated  with  many  plates.  These 
two  works,  together  with  a  treatise  on  the  Infusoria,  (in 
4to,  with  fifty  plates,)  published  in  1786,  are  esteemed 
his  greatest  productions.  Miiller  had  begun  in  1779  a 
"Zoologia  Danica,"  a  superb  work,  of  which  he  pub 
lished  two  parts,  each  with  forty  coloured  plates.  Several 
additions  were  made  to  it  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1784.  Miiller  is  characterized  by  Cuvier  as  one 
of  the  most  laborious  and  accurate  observers  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  and  the  same  writer  adds,  "The  In 
fusoria  form,  as  it  were,  a  new  animal  kingdom,  which 
he  revealed  to  the  world." 

See  HANXSRV,  "Tal  til  Erindrins;  af  O.  F.  Miiiler,"  1787; 
HIRSCHIN-G,  "Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Miiller,  (PETER  ERASMUS,)  a  learned  Danish  theolo 
gian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1776.  Having 
completed  his  studies  in  Germany,  he  was  appointed  in 
1801  professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Copen 
hagen.  In  1830  he  succeeded  Miinter  as  Bishop  of 
Seeland.  Among  his  works  are  "Christian  Moral 
System,"  "  Sagabibliothek,"  or  "Library  of  the  Sagas," 
and  "Critical  Examination  of  the  Traditional  History 
of  Denmark  and  Norway  from  1805  to  1830."  Died 
in  1834. 

See  KRAFT  og  NVERUP,  "  Alinindeligt  Litteraturlexicon,"  etc. 
Miiller,  (SOPHIE,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  tragic 
actresses  of  the  German  stage,  born  at  Manheim  in  1803. 
She   visited   successively  Vienna,  Dresden,  and  Berlin, 
where  her  performances  elicited  the  warmest  applause. 
In  private  life  she  was  highly  esteemed.     Died  in  1830. 
Miiller,   (\\TKNZEL,)  a   popular   German  opera-com 
poser,  born  in  Moravia  in  1767.     He   was  appointed  in 
1786  chapel-master  at  Vienna.      Among   his  numerous 
works  is  "The  Magic  Guitar."     Died  in  18^5. 

Miiller,  (WII.HEI.M,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
lyric  poets  of  Germany,  born  at  Dessau  in  1794.  Having 
visited  Italy  in  1817,  he  published,  after  his  return, 
"  Poems  from  the  Papers  left  by  a  Travelling  Bugle- 
Player,"  ("Gedichten  aus  den  hinterlassenen  Papieren 
eines  reisenden  Waldhornisten,"  2  vols.,  1821,)  "Songs 
of  the  Greeks,"  ("Liedern  der  Griechen,"  1821,)  and 
"  Lyrical  Promenades,"  ("  Lyrischen  Spaziergangen.") 
He  also  published  the  "  Library  of  the  German  Poets  of 
the  Seventeenth  Century."  (1822,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  Ersch  and  Gruber's  "Encyclopaedia."  Died  in  1827. 
See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
Miiller,  (Wiu.iAM  TOHN,)  an  eminent  landscape- 
painter,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Bristol,  in  Eng 
land,  in  1812.  He  studied  under  J.  B.  Pyne,  and  subse 
quently  visited  Egypt  and  Greece,  where  he  executed  a 
number  of  admirable  pictures.  Among  these  we  may 
name  his  "  Memnon  at  Sunset,"  "Turkish  Merchants," 
etc.,  "  View  of  Athens,"  and  "  Prayer  in  the  Desert." 
Died  in  1845. 

Miiller,  von,  fon  mul'ler,  (JonANN  GOTTHARD,)  a 
celebrated  German  engraver,  born  near  Stuttgart  in  1747. 
He  was  patronized  at  an  early  age  by  Duke  Charles 
of  Wiirtemberg,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled 
to  study  in  Paris  under  Wille.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1776,  and  sub 
sequently  became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy 
of  Stuttgart,  and  obtained  the  order  of  the  Wiirtemberg 
Crown.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  the 
"Madonna  della  Seggiola,"  after  Raphael,  "Saint  Ce 
cilia,"  after  Domenichino,  and  "The  Battle  of  Bunker's 
Hill,"  after  Trumbull,  also  a  number  of  excellent 
portraits,  including  those  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  and 
Schiller.  Died  in  1830. 

See  N.ACLER,  "  Allgenieines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Miiller,  von,  fon  mtil'ler,  (JOHANNES,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  historian,  born  at  Schafifhausen,  January  3,  1752. 
He  studied  history  at  Gottingen  under  Schlozer,  and 
in  1772  published  his  "  Cimbric  War,"  ("Bellum  Cim- 
bricum.")  He  became,  soon  after,  professor  of  Greek 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, gjittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MULLER 


1642 


MUNCHAVSEN 


in  the  College  of  Schaffhausen,  from  which  he  removed 
to  Geneva  in  1774.  About  this  date  he  formed  a  friend 
ship  with  Victor  de  Bonstetten.  He  published  in  1780 
the  first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  Swiss,"  which 
raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  historians.  The  second 
edition  of  it  was  entitled  "The  History  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation,"  ("Die  Geschichte  der  Schweizerischen 
Eidgenossen,"  1786.)  He  was  appointed  in  1786  aulic 
councillor  to  the  Elector  of  Mentz  and  librarian  of  the 
University  of  Mentz.  About  1790  he  accepted  from 
Leopold  II.  of  Austria  the  position  of  aulic  councillor; 
but,  the  publication  of  his  Swiss  history  having  been 
prohibited  by  the  Austrian  court,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  as  privy  councillor,  in  1795.  The 
fourth  volume  of  his  great  work  appeared  in  1805.  In 
November,  1806,  he  had  a  private  interview  with  Napo 
leon,  who  had  invited  him  for  that  purpose,  and  who, 
according  to  some  authorities,  effected  some  change  in 
Miiiler's  political  convictions.  Through  the  influence 
of  Napoleon  lie  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state  and 
director  of  public  instruction  by  the  King  of  Westphalia 
in  January,  1808.  lie  died  at  Cassel  in  May,  1809. 
Among  his  works  are  his  correspondence  with  Bonstet- 
ten,  entitled  "Letters  of  a  Young  Savant  to  his  Friend," 
(iSoi,)  and  "Twenty-Four  Books  of  Universal  History," 
(3  vols.,  1811.) 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  1806;  A.  H.  L. 
HKKRKN,  ''J.  von  Miiller  der  Historiker,"  180}  :  C.  G.  HEYNK, 
"Memoria  J.  de  Mueller,"  1810;  HKINKICII  DOKINC,  "  Leben  J. 
von  Miiiler's,"  1835 ;  CHARLES  MONAKD,  "Biographic  de  J.  de 
Mueller,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biopraphie  Generale." 

Miiller  von  Konigswinter,  mtJl'Ier  fon  ko'nics- 
(vin'ter,  (Woi.FGANG,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Konigswinter  in  1816.  He  published  "  Ballads  and 
Romances,"  "Voyage  on  the  Rhine,"  "Lorelei,"  a 
charming  collection  of  legendary  ballads,  and  "The 
May  Queen,"  an  interesting  village  story. 

Mul'li-gaii,  (JAMKS  A.,)  an  officer,  born  at  Utica, 
New  York,  in  1830.  He  removed  in  1836  to  Chicago, 
where  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Western  Tablet,"  a 
Catholic  journal.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  brave 
defence  of  Lexington,  Missouri,  in  1861,  and  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in  1862. 

Milliner  or  Muellner,  mul'ner,  (.\MADKUS  GOTT- 
KRIKD  ADOLF,)  a  German  critic  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  near  Weissenfels  in  1774,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
poet  Pliirger.  He  became  in  1820  associate  .editor  of 
the  "  Morgenblatt."  Among  his  most  popular  dramas 
are  "The  Confidants,"  "The  Twenty-Ninth  of  Febru 
ary,"  and  "Die  Schuld,"  (1816.)  Died  in  1829. 

See  F.  K.  J.  SCHUTZ,  "  Milliner's  Leben  und  Geist,"  1830;  F. 
WAGKNRR,  "  Milliner  in  poetischer,  kritischer  und  religibser  Be- 
ziehunj;,"  1831. 

Mullot  or  Mulot,  rnii'lo',  (FRANCOIS  VALENTIN,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1749.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.  Among 
his  works  is  "  I.e  Museum  de  Florence,  grave  par  David," 
(6  vols.,  1788-05.)  Died  in  1804. 

Mu'lo-eh,  (I)iNAH  MARIA,)  an  excellent  and  popular 
English  author,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1826.  Her 
principal  works  are  entitled  "The  Ogilvies,"  (1849,) 
"Olive,"  "The  Head  of  the  Family,"  "Agatha's  Hus 
band,"  (1852,)  "John  Halifax,  Gentleman,"  (1857,)  "A 
Life  for  a  Life,"  "  A  Woman's  Thoughts  about  Woman," 
"Studies  from  Life,"  "A  Noble  Life,"  (1866,)  and  "A 
Brave  Lady,"  (1870.)  Miss  Muloch  has  written  admirably 
upon  a  variety  of  subjects.  In  1865  she  was  married  to 
George  Lillie  Craik,  (noticed  in  this  work,)  who  died  in 
June,  1866. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1866 ;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  November,  1858. 

Mulot.     See  MULLOT. 

Mulready,  miil'red-e,  (  WILLIAM,  )  a  celebrated 
painter,  born  at  Ennis,  in  Ireland,  in  1786.  He  entered 
the  Royal  Academy  at  an  early  age.  and  subsequently 
formed  his  style  on  the  model  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish 
masters.  His  "Idle  Boys,"  exhibited  in  1815,  caused 
his  election  as  associate  of  the  Academy,  and  a  few 
months  later  he  was  made  a  Royal  Academician.  Among 
his  other  works  are  "The  Fight  Interrupted,"  "The 
Roadside  Inn,"  "Lending  a  Bite,"  "The  Wolf  and  the 
Lamb,"  "Crossing  the  Ford,"  and  "First  Love."  His 


"Choosing  the  Wedding-Gown,"  and  other  illustrations 
of  the  "Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  are  also  master-pieces  of 
the  kind,  and  have  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  modern 
British  artists.  Died  in  1863. 

Mulsant,  muTsftN',  (MARTIAL  ETIKNNF.,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Marnard  (Rhone)  in  1797.  He  pub 
lished  several  works  on  entomology. 

Mum'mi-us,  (Lucius,)  an  able' Roman  general,  sur- 
named  ACHA'ICUS,  was  noted  for  his  integrity.  He 
became  praetor  in  154  K.C.,  and  consul  in  146.  In  the 
same  year  he  defeated  the  Achaean  League,  destroyed 
Corinth,  and  reduced  Greece  to  a  Roman  province. 
Many  works  of  art  found  at  Corinth  were  carried  to 
Rome  to  adorn  the  triumphal  procession  of  Mummius, 
which  occurred  in  145  n.c.  and  formed  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Roman  art.  He  was  censor  in  142  it.c.,  when 
Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger  was  his  colleague. 

See  POI.YBIUS,  "  History  ;"  Livv,  "  Kpitome." 

Mummol.     See  MUMMOI.US. 

Mum'mo-lus,  [  Fr.  MU.V.MOL,  mii'mol',]  (ENNIUS,) 
an  able  Gallic  general,  became  Count  of  Au.xerre  about 
560  A.D.,  and  commander  of  the  army  of  Gontran  of 
Burgundy.  lie  defeated  the  Lombards  near  Embrun 
in  572,  and  Didier,  Count  of  Toulouse,  in  576.  Having 
revolted  against  Gontran,  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  that 
king,  in  585  A.D. 

Mun,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  writer  on  commerce, 
lived  about  1620-40.  He  was  a  merchant  of  London, 
and  wrote  "  England's  Treasure  by  Foreign  Trade  ;  or, 
The  Balance  of  our  Foreign  Trade  is  the  Rule  of  our 
Treasure." 

Mvmari  degli  Aretusi,  moo-na'ree  daKyee  a-i  a-too'- 
see,  J'PF.LLEORINO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  Moclena,  was  a 
pupil  of  Raphael.  Died  in  152^5. 

Munatius  Plancus.     See  PI.ANCUS. 

Muncer.     See  MUN/.KR. 

Munch,  moonk,  (  ANDRKAS,)  a  Norwegian  poet,  cousin 
of  Peter  Andreas,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1811.  He 
was  author  of  "  Poems,  Old  and  New,"  and  other  works. 

Munch  or  Muencli,  munK,  (ERNST  HKRMANN  JO 
SEPH,)  a  Swiss  historian  and  voluminous  writer,  born  at 
Rheinfelden  in  1798.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesias 
tical  history  and  canon  law  at  Liege,  (1828.)  lie  wrote 
(in  German)  a  "  History  of  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau," 
(1831-33,)  "Universal  History  of  Modern  Times,"  (1833 
-35,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  i$}S. 

Munch,  (PETKR  ANDRKAS,)  an  eminent  Norwegian 
antiquary  and  philologist,  born  at  Christiania  in  1810, 
became  professor  of  history  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  (1841.)  He  published  Grammars  of  the 
Runic,  the  Gothic,  and  the  so-called  Old  Norwegian 
languages,  "Historical  and  Geographical  Description 
of  Norway  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849.)  "  History  of 
the  Norse  Nations,"  ("  Det  Norske  Folks  Historic,"  3 
vols.,  1853-59.)  He  also  edited  the  "Ancient  I/uvs  of 
Norway,"  and  the  ancient  "  Edda."  Died  in  186}. 

Miinch-Bellirghauseu  or  Muench-Bellinghau- 
seii,  munK  beKling-how'xen,  (Ei.ioius  FRANX.  fosKrii,) 
BARON,  a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  in  1806,  was  known  by  the  pseudonym 
of  FRIKDRICH  HALM.  He  was  the  author  of  tragedies 
entitled  "  Griseldis,"  (1835,)  "  The  King  and  the  Peas 
ant,"  (1841,)  "The  Son  of  the  Wilderness,"  (1842,)  and 
"The  Gladiator  of  Ravenna,"  (1857.)  The  two  last- 
named  were  received  with  great  favour.  In  1845  he  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna. 

Miinchausen  or  Muenchausen,  mtfiiK'how'zen, 
(GKRLACH  Anoi.F,)  BARON,  a  German  statesman,  born 
at  Hanover  in  1688,  was  for  many  years  curator  of  the 
University  of  Gottingen.  He  made  valuable  contribu 
tions  to  the  library  of  that  institution,  and  founded  the 
Society  of  Sciences  at  Gottingen.  He  was  appointed 
first  minister  of  Hanover  in  1765.  Died  in  1770. 

Miinchausen,  commonly  pronounced  in  English 
mun-chaw'sen,  (HrERONYMUS  KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  ISA- 
RON,  a  famous  German  officer,  whose  name  has  become 
proverbial  as  a  synonym  of  extravagant  boasting,  was 
born  in  Hanover  in  1720.  Having  entered  the  Russian 
service,  he  fought  against  the  Turks  in  1737.  After  his 
return,  he  acquired  great  notoriety  by  his  exaggerated 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MUNCK 


1643 


MUNTER 


stories  of  adventure,  a.  collection  of  which  appeared 
in  England  under  the  title  of  "  Karon  Munchausen's 
Narrative  of  his  Marvellous  Travels  and  Campaigns  in 
Russia."  It  obtained  great  popularity,  and  was  trans 
lated  into  German  by  Burger.  Died  in  1797. 

See  EI.LISF.N,  "Xachricht  iiber  den  Freiherrn  von  Munchausen," 
prefixed  to  his  "Adventures,"  Berlin,  1849;  ALI.IBONE,  "Diction 
ary  of  Authors,"  article  "Raspe." 

Muiick.     See  MU.NK. 

Mundaiiella,  moon-di-nel'ii,  (Luici,)  an  Italian  phy 
sician,  born  at  Brescia,  published  "Theatrum  Galeni," 
(1551.)  Died  about  1570. 

Mun'day,  (ANTHONY,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1554,  wrote  "The  Downfall  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Hun 
tingdon,"  and  "The  Widow's  Charm,"  and  published 
an  enlarged  edition  of  Stowe's  "  Survey  of  London." 
Died  in  1633. 

See  COLLIER,  "  History  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry." 

Mun'den,  (JOSEPH  S.,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in 
London  in  1758;  died  in  1832. 

Muii-di'nus  or  Mondiiio  da  Luzzi,  mon-dee'no 
di  loot'see,  an  Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  became  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Bologna.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  among  the  moderns  who  dissected  human 
bodies.  Died  in  1326. 

See  PORTAL,  "  Histoire  de  1'Anatomie." 

Mundt,  moont,  (TliEODOR,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Potsdam  in  1808.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  general  literature  and  history  at  Breslau  in  1848,  and 
in  1850  librarian  of  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  has 
published  numerous  tales,  romances,  political  essays, 
and  sketches  of  travel.  His  wife — originally  LuiSE 
MuiH.HACH,  (mul'baK,) — has  also  written  a  number  of 
historical  romances  of  a  somewhat  extravagant  character. 
Several  of  them  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
have  enjoyed  great  popularity. 

See  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mun'dy,  (GEORGE  RODNEY,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
a  grandson  of  Admiral  Rodney,  was  born  in  1805.  He 
served  as  captain  against  the  pirates  of  Borneo  in  1846, 
and  published  a  "  Narrative  of  Events  in  Borneo,"  (2 
vols..  1848.) 

Munk  or  Munck,  moonk,  (HAN  or  JOITANN,)  a 
Danish  navigator,  born  about  1589.  He  was  sent  about 
1620  to  search  for  a  Northwest  Passage.  Died  in  1628. 

Munk,  moonk,  (SALOMON,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Glogau  in  1802.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  and  was  appointed  in  1840  one  of  the 
keepers  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  in  the  Imperial 
Library.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1860.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Geo 
graphical,  Historical,  and  Archaeological  Description 
of  Palestine,"  (in  French,  1845.) 

Miiniiich  or  Muennich,  mun'niK,  (  BORKHARD 
CHRISTOPH,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general  and  statesman, 
of  German  extraction,  born  in  1683.  Having  served 
against  the  French  in  1712,  he  was  afterwards  patron 
ized  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  rose  to  be  field-marshal 
under  the  empress  Anna.  He  subsequently  gained  a 
series  of  victories  over  the  Turks.  He  caused  himself 
to  be  made  prime  minister  during  the  minority  of  Prince 
Ivan  ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  exiled 
to  Siberia,  in  1741.  He  was  recalled  by  Peter  III.  in 
1762.  Died  in  1767. 

See  HRMPRI.,  "Leben  Miinnichs."  1742;  VON-  HAMMER,  "Ge- 
schichte  des  Osinanischen  Re:chs;"  G.  A.  VON-  HAI.RM.  "  Lebensbe- 
sclireibiiiiK  des  Grafen  von  Miimiich,"  1803;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Mun'niks,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  anatomist,  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1652  ;  died  in  1711. 

Mmmiks,  (\VINOI.D.)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  in 
Friesland  in  1744;  died  in  1806. 

Muiioz,  moon-yoth',  (EvARiSTA,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Valencia  in  1671,  was  noted 
for  his  gallantry  and  adventures.  Died  in  1737. 

See  QL-II.LIET,  "Die  ionnaire  des  Ptintres  Espagnols." 

Muiioz,  (FERNANDO,)  Duke  of  Kianzares,  a  Spanish 
officer,  born  at  Tarancon  about  1808.  He  was  secretly 
married  to  the  queen-regent  Maria  Christina  in  1833. 
They  were  married  publicly  in  1844. 


Muiioz,  (JuAN  BAUTISTA,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born 
near  Valencia  in  1745,  was  appointed  cosmographer 
to  the  Indies.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  New 
World,"  (1793,)  which  is  highly  eulogized  by  Humboldt. 
Died  in  1799. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  PRESCOTT, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  part  2. 

Muiioz,  sometimes  improperly  written  Mugnoz,  (SE 
BASTIAN,)  a  Spanish  artist,  born  at  Naval  Carnero  in 
1654,  was  one  of  the  best  Spanish  fresco-painters  of  his 
time.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Coello,  and  was  appointed 
painter  to  the  king,  Charles  II.,  in  1688.  Died  in  1690 

See  QUILLIET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagno's,"  etc. 

Muiioz,  (ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  naval  officer  and  en 
gineer,  born  about  1745.  He  defended  the  foundations 
of  Cadiz  against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Died 
in  1823. 

Mun-ro',  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  able  English  general  and 
governor,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1760  or  1761.  He  weiu 
to  India  about  1780,  and  entered  the  army  of  the  East 
India  Company.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
several  campaigns,  he  was  also  employed  in  important 
civil  offices.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Madras,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
died  in  India  in  1826  or  1827. 

See  G.  R.  GLEIC,.  "  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Mnnro,"  2  or  3  vols., 
1830;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830. 

Mun'sell,  (JoEL,)  an  American  printer  and  journalist, 
born  at  Northfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1808,  published 
the  "  Evei  y-Day  Book  of  History  and  Chronology," 
"Annals  of  Albany,"  and  other  works. 

Minister,  von,  fon  mooi/ster,  (ERNST  FRIF.DRICH 
HERBERT,)  COUNT,  a  Hanoverian  politician,  born  in 
1766.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
in  1814.  Died  in  1839. 

Mun'ster,  (GEORGE  FITZCLARENCE,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  general,  born  in  1794,  was  a  natural  son  of  King 
William  IV.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Penin 
sular  war,  and  afterwards  in  India.  He  wrote  a  "Journal 
of  Travels  in  India,"  (1819.)  Died  in  1842. 

Minister  or  Mueiister,  mun'ster,  (SEBASTIAN,)  a 
German  theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Ingelsheim 
in  1489,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Biblical  litera 
ture  at  Heidelberg.  He  published  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  (with  notes,)  and  a  "  Universal  Cos 
mography."  "  Minister,"  says  De  Thou,  "  was  so  learned 
in  theology  and  geography  that  he  was  styled  the  Esdras 
and  Strabo  of  Germany."  Died  in  1552. 

Minister  -  Ledenburg,  mtin'sier  la'den -booRC/, 
(ERNST  FRIF.DRICH  HERBERT,)  a  German  statesman, 
born  at  Osnabriick  in  1766.  He  became  minister  of 
finance  in  1798,  and  was  afterwards  sent  on  missions  to 
England  and  Russia.  Died  in  1839. 

Muntaner  En  Ramon,  moon-ti-naiR'  en  rS-mon', 
a  Spanish  chronicler,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1265.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Achievements  of 
the  Princes  of  Aragon,  from  James  the  Conqueror  to 
Alfonso  IV."  The  writer  narrates,  in  a  pleasing,  un 
affected  style,  events  of  which  he  was  a  witness,  and  his 
chronicle  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  of  the  middle  ages. 

Miinter  or  Muenter,  mun'ter,  (BAI.THASAR,)  a  Ger 
man  pulpit  orator  and  writer  of  sacred  poetry,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1735.  His  "Collections  of  Spiritual  .Songs" 
are  greatly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  In  1772  he 
attended  the  unfortunate  Count  Struensee  a  short  time 
before  his  execution,  and  afterwards  wrote  an  account 
of  his  conversion.  This  work  became  widely  celebrated, 
and  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan 
guages.  Died  in  1793. 

See  FRIEDRICH  MUNTER,  "Leben  und  Character  B.  Miinters," 
1794. 

Miinter,  (FRIF.DRICH,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1761,  became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Co 
penhagen  (1790)  and  Bishop  of  Seeland,  (1808.)  He 
also  attained  great  distinction  as  an  antiquary  and 
Oriental  scholar.  Among  his  most  important  works  is 
a  treatise  "On  the  Symbols  and  Art-Representations 
of  the  Early  Christians."  Died  in  1830.  FREDERIKA 
SOPHIA  CHRISTIANA  BRUN,  sister  of  the  preceding, 
was  likewise  celebrated  as  an  author. 


.  .*  . 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z,  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUNTING 


1644 


MURCHISON 


Munting,  miin'ting,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Groningen  in  1626,  was  professor 
of  botany  and  chemistry  in  the  university  of  that  place. 
He  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  a  "  Curious  Descrip 
tion  of  Plants."  Died  in  1683. 

Miiiizer,  Muenzer,  or  Miincer,  munt'ser,  (THOMAS,) 
a  German  fanatic,  who  held  principles  similar  to  the 
Anabaptists.  Having  collected  forty  thousand  followers, 
they  committed  many  outrages  ;  but  they  were  at  length 
defeated  by  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  and  his  allies,  and 
Miinzer  was  executed,  (1526.) 

See  STROBE!,,  "  Leben,  Schiiften,  etc.  Thomas  Munzers,"  1785; 
SKIDEMANN,  "Thomas  Munzer,"  1842. 

Mura,  da,  da  moo'ra,  (FRANCKSCO,)  sometimes  called 
FRANCKSCHKTTO,  (fran-ches-keYto,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples.  He  painted  several  works  in  the  palace 
of  the  King  of  Sardinia.  Died  about  1745. 

Murad.     See  MOORAIX 

Murad,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  AMURATH. 

Murad  Bey.     See  MOORAD  BEY. 

Muraire,  niii'ra"R',  (HoNOu6,)  COUNT,  a  French  judge 
and  politician,  born  at  Draguignan  in  1750.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  Elders  in  1795,  was  banished 
in  1797,  and  was  appointed  first  president  of  the  court 
of  cassation  in  Paris  in  1804.  Died  in  1837. 

Muralt,  de,  deli  moo'ralt,  (B£.vr  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
litterateur,  born  at  Berne.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Fred 
erick  the  Great  of  Prussia,"  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1760. 

Muralt,  de,  QK.AN,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1645.  He  became  professor  of  physics 
and  mathematics  at  Zurich  in  1645,  and  published  several 
scientific  works.  Died  in  1733. 

Muraiit,  mil-rant',  ?  (EMMANUEL,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1622.  His  works  are 
finely  finished.  Died  at  Leeuwarden  in  1700. 

Murat,  mii'i'S',  (JKAN,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Felletin  in  1807.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1837 
for  a  picture  of  "Noah  Offering  Sacrifice." 

Murat,  [sometimes  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
mil-rat',]  (JoACHiM,)  a  celebrated  marshal  of  the  French 
empire,  and  King  of  Naples,  was  born  near  Cahors,  in 
the  south  of  France,  in  1771.  His  father  was  an  inn 
keeper.  Soon  after  the  Revolution  began,  young  Murat 
entered  the  guard  of  Louis  XVI.,  from  which  he  passed 
into  a  regiment  of  chasseurs.  As  he  was  a  warm  parti 
san  of  the  popular  cause,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and 
in  the  campaign  of  1796  was  a  favourite  aide-de-camp 
of  Bonaparte,  whose  fortunes  he  thenceforth  followed 
and  shared.  Having  signalized  his  impetuous  bravery 
in  the  campaigns  of  Italy  and  Egypt,  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division  in  1799.  Soon  after  Bonaparte  ob 
tained  the  chief  power,  he  gave  to  Murat  his  sister 
Caroline  in  marriage.  Murat  commanded  the  cavalry  at 
Marengo  in  1800,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Paris 
in  1804,  with  the  rank  of  general-in-chief.  He  received 
a  marshal's  baton  in  1804,  and  in  1806  was  created  Grand 
Duke  of  Berg  and  Cleves.  At  Ansterlitz,  Jena,  and 
Eylau  he  directed  the  cavalry  with  brilliant  effect.  He 
was  pronounced  by  Napoleon  "the  best  cavalry  officer 
in  Europe,"  and  was  admired  for  his  handsome  figure, 
gorgeous  costume,  and  chivalrous  demeanour. 

Murat  commanded  the  army  which  invaded  Spain  in 
1808,  and  in  the  same  year  was  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Naples,  where  he  was  received  with  general  joy,  and 
reigned  liberally  and  peacefully  until  1812.  He  shared 
the  reverses  of  the  Russian  campaign,  (1812,)  and  in 
1813  again  fought  for  Napoleon,  whose  cause  he  deserted 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the 
court  of  Vienna  in  January,  1814,  and  engaged  to  sup 
port  the  allies  with  his  army;  but  he  failed  to  aid  them 
efficiently,  and  was  accused' of  duplicity.  As  the  Con 
gress  of  Vienna  appeared  indisposed  to  recognize  his 
claim,  he  secretly  renewed  his  relations  with  the  exiled 
emperor,  whose  cause  he  openly  espoused  in  March, 
1815.  Calling  the  Italians  to  rise  for  liberty,  he  com 
menced  hostilities  against  the  Austrians  in' Northern 
Italy,  but  was  repulsed  and  finally  defeated  at  Macerata 
in  May,  and  then  fled  to  France.  In  October,  1815,  he 
landed  with  about  thirty  men  in  his  former  kingdom,  and 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  recover  it,  but  was  soon 


captured  and  shot.  As  a  ruler,  he  appears  to  have  been 
mild  and  humane,  but  he  was  deficient  in  political  ability 
as  well  as  moral  courage.  His  wife  survived  him  many 
years,  and  took  the  title  of  Countess  of  Li  pan  o.  (See 
BONAPARTE,  CAROLINE.)  Murat  left  two  sons,  Napoleon 
Achille  and  Lucien  Charles  Joseph. 

See  F.  MACIKONE,  "Interesting  Facts  relating  to  the  Fall,  etc. 
ofj.  Murat;"  A.  DE  BEAUCHAMP,  "Catastrophe  de  Murat ;"  LEON 
GAI.LOIS,  "  Histoire  de  Joachim  Murat,"  iSaS  ;  A.  SKRIBVS,  "Vie 
publique  et  privee  de  Joachim  Murat,"  iSi6;  A.  BKUGGEMANS, 
"  Leven  en  Lotgevallen  van  Joachim  Murat,"  1816  ;  C.  MJRAMONT, 
"Vie  de  J.  Murat,  Roi  de  Naples,"  iSj6;  THIKRS,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution  ;"  "  HIackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1826. 

Murat,  (NAPOLEON  ACHILLE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  lie  emigrated  to  Florida 
about  1822.  He  wrote  a  "Moral  and' Political  View  of 
the  United  States,"  (1832,)  and  several  other  short 
works.  Died  in  Jefferson  county,  Florida,  in  1847. 

Murat,  (NAPOLEON  LUCIEN  CHARLES,)  PRINCE,  a 
French  senator,  born  at  Milan  in  1803,  was  a  son  of 
Joachim  Murat.  He  married  Miss  Fraser,  an  American, 
about  1827.  After  a  long  exile,  he  was  permitted  to  enter 
France  in  1848.  He  supported  the  policy  of  Napoleon 
III.,  who  appointed  him  a  senator  in  1852. 

Muratori,  moo-ra-to'ree,  (LuDovico  ANTONIO,)  an 
eminent  Italian  scholar,  historian,  and  antiquary,  born 
near  Modena  in  1672.  He  became  librarian  and  ar 
chivist  to  the  Duke  of  Modena  in  1700,  and  continued  in 
this  office  till  his  death.  He  published  in  1751  his  great 
work  entitled  "Writers  of  Italian  History,"  ("  Rerum 
Italicorum  Scriptores,"  27  vols.  fol.,  1723-38,)  which  was 
followed  by  his  "  Italian  Antiquities  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
(6  vols.,  1738,)  "  New  Treasury  of  Ancient  Inscriptions," 
(6  vols.,  1739,)  and  "Annals  of  Italy,"  (in  Italian,  12  vols., 
1744.)  He  died  in  1750,  with  the  reputation  of  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 

See  G.  F.  MURATORI,  "Vita  del  celebre  L.  A.  Muratori,"  1756; 
TIPAI.DO,  "Biografia  de^li  Itnliaui  illnstri ;"  FAKKONI,  "Vit:c  Itaio- 
rum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  SCHKDONM,  "  Elogiodi  L.  A.  Muratori," 
1818;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Muravief.     See  MOORAVIEF. 

Murawiew  or  Murawjew.     See  MOOKAVIEK. 

Murazan,  moo-ra  san',  (Ji)AN,)  a  South  American 
patriot,  born  at  San  Salvador  in  1796,  was  president 
of  the  republic  of  Guatemala  from  1831  to  1838.  Died 
in  1852. 

Mur'-ehl-son,  (Sir  RODERICK  IMPEY,)  an  eminent 
British  geologist,  born  at  Taradale,  Ross-shire,  Scotland, 
on  the  igth  of  February,  1792,  was  a  son  of  Kenneth 
Murchison.  He  was  educated  at  the  Military  College 
of  Marlow,  entered  the  army  in  1807,  and  served  in  seve 
ral  battles  in  the  Peninsula.  He  was  also  on  the  staff  of 
his  uncle,  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  in  Sicily.  He  mar 
ried  a  daughter  of  General  Hugonin  in  1815,  and  quitted 
the  army  about  1816.  By  the  advice  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  science', 
and  attended  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution.  AboutiSaj 
he  produced  a  "Geological  Sketch  of  the  Northwestern 
Extremity  of  Sussex."  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Geological  Society  in  1825,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1826.  In  company  with  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  he  explored 
in  1828  the  geology  of  Auvergne,  Provence,  and  Pied 
mont,  on  which  they  wrote  jointly  three  memoirs.  In 
1830  he  began  to  examine  the  older  sedimentary  strata 
of  England  and  Wales,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Silurian  system.  He  published  the  results  of  these 
researches  in  an  important  work  entitled  "The  Silurian 
System."  He  was  the  first  who  discovered  the  relations 
of  these  palaeozoic  strata  and  classified  them  according 
to  the  succession  of  organic  remains.  In  1845  Mr. 
Murchison  and  M.  de  Verncuil  published  "The  Geology 
of  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,"  (2  vols.  4to.)  The 
former  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1846.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So 
ciety  in  1844  and  1852,  and  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1849,  for  the  establishment  of  the  Silurian  'system. 
Among  his  numerous  works  is  "  Siluria  :  the  History 
of  the  oldest  known  Rocks  containing  Organic  Remains, 
with  a  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Distribution  of  Gold  over  the 
Earth,"  (1854.)  lie  had  been  chosen  president  of  the 
Geological  Society  several  times  between  1830  and  1842. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  Director-General  of  the  Geo 
logical  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  was  elected 


fu e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


MURDOCH 


1645 


MURPHY 


president  of  the   Royal  Geographical    Society  in   1864, 
and  received  the  Copley  medal  in  1866. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1860;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1868;  "Eclectic 
Matra/i'ne"  for  December,  1864,  (with  a  portrait ;)  "  North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1854;  "Men  of  the  Time"  for  1868. 

Murdoch,  mur'dok,  ( JAMES  EDWARD,)  an  American 
actor  and  elocutionist,  born  in  Philadelphia,  January  25, 
1811.  His  first  public  performance  was  in  Philadelphia 
in  1829.  In  1833  he  appeared  successfully  in  the  charac 
ter  of  "Romeo,"  with  Miss  Fanny  Kemble  as  "Juliet," 
and  from  that  time  became  a  leading  actor  in  tragedy 
and  comedy.  About  five  years  later  he  retired  from  the 
stage,  and  opened  a  school  in  Boston  for  mental  and 
physical  training.  He  afterwards  returned  to  the  stage, 
and  in  1853  he  visited  California.  In  1855  he  went  to 
Kurope,  and  while  in  London  performed  at  the  I  lay- 
market  Theatre  with  great  applause.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1857.  Mr.  Murdoch's  style  is  strictly 
original,  his  articulation  distinct,  and  his  versatility  and 
range  of  character  remarkable.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  war  of  the  rebellion  he  devoted  his  time  and  atten 
tion  to  his  country,  giving  readings  and  recitations  in 
the  camps,  caring  for  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  rousing 
the  people  to  the  aid  of  the  suffering.  He  served  for 
some  time  on  the  staff  of  General  Rousseau.  Since  the 
close  of  the  war  he  has  devoted  himself  to  his  profession. 

Mur'ctock,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  a  learned  American  Con 
gregational  divine,  born  at  Westbrook,  Connecticut,  in 
1776.  lie  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  ancient  languages  at  the  University  of  Ver 
mont  in  1815,  and  in  1819  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  eccle 
siastical  history  in  the  theological  seminary  of  Andover. 
He  translated  from  the  German  Mosheim's  "Institutes 
of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  and  Miinscher's  "Elements 
of  Dogmatic  History,"  (1830,)  and  published  several 
original  works.  Died  in  1856. 

Mure,  miir,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  scholar 
of  great  eminence,  born  at  Caldwell  in  1799.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  at  Bonn,  in  Germany, 
and  after  his  return  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Ren 
frew,  in  1846.  He  published  in  1850  his  "Critical  Ac 
count  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece," 
(5  vols.  Svo,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  a  "Calendar  of  the  Zodiac  of 
Ancient  Egypt,"  (1832,)  and  "Journal  of  a  Tour  in 
Greece,"  (1838.)  He  was  elected  in  1855  lord  rector 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Died  in  1860. 

Mure,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Ayr 
shire  about  1594,  was  the  author  of  traditional  "Ballads 
and  Songs."  Died  in  1657. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October.  1850. 

Mu-re'iia,  ( A.  TKRENTIUS  VARRO,)  was  consul  sujjfectus 
in  23  )!.C.,  and  was  put  to  death  in  22  for  complicity  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Fannius  Caepio. 

Murena,  moo-ra/na,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  1713,  was  a  pupil  of  Vanvitelli.  lie  worked  in 
Rome.  Died  in  1764. 

Murena,  (Lucius  LICINIUS,)  a  Roman  soldier  and 
consul,  was  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Sulla,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  his  campaign  against  Mithridates.  After 
Sulla  made  peace  with  Mithridates,  in  84  U.C.,  Murena 
remained  in  Asia  and  renewed  hostilities.  Died  about 
So  n.c. 

Murena,  (Lucirs  LICINIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
served  under  Lucnllus  in  Asia.  He  was  elected  praetor 
about  65,  and  consul  in  63  B.C.  Having  been  accused 
of  bribery  in  the  year  last  named,  lie  was  defended  by- 
Cicero  and  acquitted. 

See  CICERO,  "  Oratio  pro  Muraena." 

Mures,  moo'r?s,  (Ai.ONZO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  1695.  HC  worked  at  Badajox,  where  he  died  in  1761. 

Muret,  mu'ri',  [Lat.  MURE'TUS,!  (MARC  ANTOINE,) 
a  French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Muret,  in  Limousin, 
in  1526.  He  lectured  on  philosophy  and  law  at  Paris, 
which  he  quitted  about  1552.  He  afterwards  lived  in 
Venice  and  Rome,  and  was  patronized  by  Ippolito 
d'Este.  In  1563  he  opened  a  course  of  philosophy  at 
Rome,  where  he  became  professor  of  civil  law  about 
1566.  He  was  styled  the  "luminary  and  pillar  of  the 


Roman  school"  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  He  composed 
commentaries  on  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Horace,  Tacitus,  and 
other  classic  authors.  Among  his  various  works  are 
Latin  poems  and  "Variae  Lectiones."  Died  in  Rome 
in  1585. 

See  F.  BENCI,  "  Oratio  funebris  Mureti,"  1585  ;  VOGT,  "Apologia 
pro  Mureto ;"  VITRAC,  "  E~loge  cle  Muret."  1775;  "  Menagiana  ;" 
LUNDBI.AD,  "Dissertatio  de  M.  A.  Mureto,"  1819;  NICERON,  "  Me- 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Geuerale." 

Muret,  (THEODORE  CESAR,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1808.  He  wrote  a  number  of  dramas  and 
histories,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Wars  of 
the  West,"  (5  vols.,  1848.) 

Muretus.     See  MURET. 

Murger,  muVzha',  ( HENRI,)  a  French  litteratetir, 
born  in  Paris  in  1822,  contributed  to  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  a  number  of  tales  and  dramas.  His 
most  popular  work  is  entitled  "Scenes  in  Bohemian 
Life."  Died  in  1861. 

See  G.  PLANCHE,  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1853. 

Muriel,  moo-re-SK,  (ANDRES,)  a  Spanish  litterateiir, 
born  in  Old  Castile  in  1776,  settled  in  Paris  about  1812. 
He  wrote  on  Spanish  history,  and  translated  into  French 
Coxe's  "Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House 
of  Bourbon,"  (Paris,  6  vols.,  1827.) 

Murillo,  mu-ril'lo,  [Sp.  pron.  moo-rel'yo,]  (BAR- 
TOLOM6  ESTEBAN,)  the  most  celebrated  painter  of  the 
Spanish  school,  was  born  at  Seville  in  1618,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  his  uncle,  Juan  del  Castillo.  About  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  derived  ad 
vantage  from  the  friendly  counsels  of  Velasquez  and 
perfected  himself  in  his  art.  Having  returned  to  Seville 
in  1645,  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  history, 
portraits,  and  other  branches  of  painting.  He  was  pa 
tronized  by  the  King  of  Spain,  and  adorned  the  churches 
of  Madrid,  Seville,  and  Cadiz  with  his  works.  As  a 
colorist  he  surpassed  all  other  Spanish  artists.  His 
productions  are  remarkable  for  originality,  fidelity  to 
nature,  freedom  of  touch,  and  softness,  splendour,  and 
harmony  of  colour.  He  delighted  and  excelled  in  the 
representation  of  virgin  saints  and  of  beggar-boys  at 
play.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Moses  Striking 
the  Rock,"  "The  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  "Saint 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  "  Christ  Feeding  the  Five 
Thousand,"  a  "Young  Beggar  "  "The  Prodigal  Son,"  a 
"Holy  Family,"  and  "Saint  Anthony  of  Padua."  He 
died,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  a  scaffold,  in  1682. 

See  CEAN-BERMUDEZ,  "Diccionario  Historico,"  etc.  ;  J.  F.  Boi'R- 
fioiNR,  " Tableau  de  1'Espagne  moderne ;"  QUILI.IET,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Peintrts  Espagnols  :"  C.  BLANC,  "  Hisioire  des  Peintres;"  E. 
DAVIES,  "  Life  of  B.  E.  Murillo,"  1819  ;  "  Encyclopedia  Biitannica  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April, 
1846. 

Muris,  de,  deh  mu/ress',  (JEAN,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  sometimes  called  MEURS  or  MURS,  lived 
about  1310-40.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  treat 
ise  on  music,  entitled  "Speculum  Musicas,"  an  abridg 
ment  of  which  has  been  published.  Died  after  1345. 

Murner,  mooR'ner,  (THOMAS,)  a  famous  German 
satirist  and  controversialist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1475. 
He  possessed  uncommon  abilities  and  caustic  wit,  and 
the  offensive  personalities  in  which  he  indulged  kept 
him  in  constant  warfare  with  his  contemporaries.  His 
satires  are  chiefly  directed  against  Luther  and  his  asso 
ciate  Reformers  ;  and  some  of  them  are  regarded  as  the 
ablest  which  have  been  levelled  at  the  Reformation. 
He  also  wrote  "  The  World  of  Fools,"  and  "  The  Mill 
of  Schwinclelsheim,"  in  which  he  keenly  satirized  the 
follies  of  the  time.  Died  about  1536. 

See  WAI.DAU,  "  Nachrichten  von  Murners  Leben,"  1775;  Fi.6- 
GEI,,  "  Geschiclite  der  komischen  Literatur." 

Mur'phy,  (ARTHUR,)  a  dramatic  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Roscommon,  in  Ireland, 
about  1728.  He  edited  for  a  time  "The  Gray's-Inn 
Journal,"  and  wrote,  among  other  plays,  a  tragedy 
entitled  "The  Grecian  Daughter,"  and  "The  Way  to 
Keep  Him,"  a  comedy.  He  also  made  a  translation  of 
Tacitus,  and  wrote  the  Lives  of  Johnson  and  Garrick. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  J.  FOOT,  "Life  of  Arthur  Murphy." 

Murphy,  (JAMES  CAVANAGH,)  a  distinguished  archi 
tect  and  writer,  born  in  Ireland  about  1760.  In  1788  he 


<e  as  K:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2£^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MURPHY 


1646 


MURRAY 


visited  Portugal,  and  after  his  return  published  an  ac 
count  of  that  country.  Among  his  principal  works  we 
may  name  "The  Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain,"  with  97 
plates,  (1813-16.)  Died  in  1816. 

Murphy,  (ROBERT,)  an  excellent  self-taught  Irish 
mathematician,  born  at  Mallow  in  1806.  In  1825  he 
entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  in  1829.  He  became  a  resident  of 
London  in  1836.  Among  his  works  are  "  Analysis  of 
the  Roots  of  Equations,"  and  "The  Theory  of  Algebraic 
Equations,"  published  by  the  Useful  Knowledge  Society. 
Died  in  1843. 

Mtirr,  von,  fon  mooR,  (CiiRisTOPH  GOTTLIEB,)  a 
German  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Nuremberg  about 
1734,  published  an  "Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Greek 
Tragic  Poets,"  (1760,)  "Antiquities  of  Hcrculaneum," 
(6  vols.,  1777-82,)  and  a  number  of  historical  works, 
among  which  is  "Commentatio  de  Re  diplomatica  Fre 
deric!  II.,"  (1756.)  He  was  noted  for  his  various  and 
extensive  learning.  Died  in  1811. 

See  MEUSEL,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschlaml ;"  "  Biographic  Univer- 
selle." 

Murray,  mur're  ?  (ADOLPHUS,)  a  Swedish  physician, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1 750.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Upsal.  Died  in  1803. 

Murray,  mur're,  (ALEXANDER,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
linguist,  born  at  Dunkitterick  in  1775.  The  son  of  a 
shepherd,  his  early  instruction  was  very  limited  ;  but, 
with  the  aid  of  a  powerful  memory  and  his  persevering 
exertions,  he  acquired,  before  the  age  of  twenty,  the 
French,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1794,  where  he 
studied  theology  and  became  versed  in  the  Oriental 
tongues.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  those  languages 
at  Edinburgh  in  1812,  and  soon  after  was  created  D.  D. 
He  died  in  1813,  of  consumption.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  the  European  Languages,"  etc.,  (1813.) 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men  ;"  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i. 

Murray,  mur're,  (ALEXANDER,)  an  American  com 
modore,  born  at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  in  1755.  In 
1802  he  was  commander  of  the  Constellation,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  for  the  protection  of  American  trade. 
Died  in  1821. 

Murray,  mur're,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  actor  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1754.  His  principal 
plays  are  entitled  "The  Experiment,"  and  "The  New 
Maid  of  the  Oaks."  Died  in  1821. 

Murray,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTUS,)  an  English  diplo 
matist,  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Dunmore,  was  born  about 
1806.  He  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Persia  in  1854,  and  as 
minister  to  Saxony  in  1859.  He  wrote  "Travels  among 
the  Indians  of  North  America,"  (1839.)  His  Indian 
tale  or  novel  entitled  "The  Prairie  Bird"  (1844)  has 
been  warmly  praised. 

Murray,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1772.  He  served  in  Flanders  and  Egypt 
with  distinction,  and  rendered  important  services  as 
quartermaster-general  in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14,) 
after  which  he  was  employed  in  France  as  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army  of  occupation.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Woolwich 
about  1819,  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  in 
1828.  In  1841  he  became  master-general  of  the  ord 
nance.  Died  in  1846. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.'1 

Murray,  (HUGH,)  a  Scottish  geographer  and  miscel 
laneous  writer,  born  in  East  Lothian  in  1779.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "Discoveries  and  Travels  in 
America,"  (1829,)  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Geography,"  (1834,) 
and  "  History  of  British  India."  Died  in  1846. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1821. 

Murray,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Dunkeld 
in  1702,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Aletheia; 
or,  A  System  of  Moral  Truths."  Died  in  1758. 

Murray  or  Moray,  (JAMES  STUART,)  EARL  OF,  often 
called  REGENT  MURRAY,  born  about  1533,  was  a  natural 
son  of  James  V.  of  Scotland  and  Margaret  Erskine.  In 
1558  he  joined  the  "  Lords  of  the  Congregation,"  as  the 
Protestant  chiefs  styled  themselves,  and  in  1560  was  sent 
to  France  to  invite  Queen  Mary  (his  half-sister)  to  return 


to  her  kingdom.  She  returned  in  1561,  and  he  bee  une 
her  most  favoured  and  powerful  minister,  and  was  m  ulc 
Earl  of  Murray.  His  talents,  firmness,  and  courage  had 
already  caused  the  Reformers  to  regard  him  as  the  head 
of  their  party.  The  marriage  of  Mary  with  Darnley, 
(1565,)  against  the  advice  of  Murray,  caused  a  breach 
between  him  and  the  queen,  which  was  afterwards  greatly 
widened  by  the  countenance  she  showed  to  Darnley's 
murderers.  Mary  having  been  deposed,  he  was  ap 
pointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  in  August,  1567.  In 
1568  she  escaped  from  Lochleven  Castle,  and  raised  an 
army,  which  was  quickly  routed  by  the  regent  at  Lang- 
side.  At  the  trial  of  Mary,  which  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
stituted,  the  regent  appeared  as  evidence  against  the 
captive  queen.  By  this  and  other  acts  he  had  incurred 
the  bitter  hatred  of  the  queen's  party,  and  they  resolved 
upon  his  destruction.  In  January,  1570,  he  was  waylaid, 
shot,  and  mortally  wounded  by  James  Hamilton  of 
Botluvellhaugh,  a  notorious  desperado,  who  was  after 
wards  selected  by  the  agents  of  Philip  II.  to  assassinate 
the  Prince  of  Orange. 

The  character  of  the  regent  Murray  has  been  estimated 
very  differently,  according  to  the  temper  or  prejudice  of 
those  who  have  judged  him.  By  his  firmness,  modera 
tion,  humanity,  and  impartial  justice,  he  appears  to  have 
well  deserved  the  title  of  "the  Good  Regent,"  by  which 
he  was  known  among  the  people  of  Scotland.  "Those," 
observes  Fronde,  "who  can  see  only  in  the  Protestant 
religion  an  uprising  of  Antichrist,  and  in  the  Queen 
of  Scots  the  beautiful  victim  of  sectarian  iniquity,  have 
exhausted  upon  Murray  the  resources  of  eloquent  vitu 
peration,  and  have  described  him  as  a  perfidious  brother, 
building  up  his  own  fortunes  on  the  wrongs  of  his  in 
jured  sovereign.  .  .  .  But  facts  prevail  at  last,  however 
passionate  the  predilection  ;  and,  when  the  verdict  of 
plain  human  sense  can  get  itself  pronounced,  the  'good 
regent'  will  take  his  place  among  the  best  and  greatest 
men  who  have  ever  lived." 


Murray,  (JOHAN  ANDERS,)  a  Swedish  physician  and 
botanist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1740,  was  a  pupil  of  Lin 
naeus.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Stockholm,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Gottingen, 
and  was  created  a  privy  councillor  by  the  King  of  Eng 
land.  Linnaeus  gave  the  name  of  Mitrrava  exotica  to 
an  East  Indian  tree.  He  was  a  brother  of  Adolphus, 
noticed  above.  Died  in  1791. 

See  C.  G.  HEYNE,  "  Elogium  J.  A.  Murray,"  1791. 

Murray,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  physician,  published  a 
"  System  of  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacy,"  and  "  Ele 
ments  of  Chemistry."  Died  in  1820. 

Murray,  (Jon.v,')  a  celebrated  divine  and  preacher, 
born  in  Hampshire,  England,  in  1741,  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  Universalism  in  America.  Having  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1770,  he  was  appointed  in  1775 
a  chaplain  in  the  army.  He  took  part  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Universalist  Convention  in  1785,  and  subsequently 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Boston.  Died  in  1815. 

See  "Records  of  the  Life  of  John  Murray,"  written  by  himself. 

Murray,  (JoiiN,)  an  eminent  English  publisher,  born 
in  London  in  1778.  He  commenced  in  1803  a  career 
of  publication  which  is  perhaps  unrivalled  in  the  annals 
of  literature.  About  1807  he  projected  the  "Quarterly 
Review,"  in  which  he  obtained  the  co-operation  of  Can 
ning  and  Scott,  and  published  the  first  number  in  1809. 
His  sagacity  in  discerning  the  merits  or  talents  of 
authors,  and  his  tact  in  anticipating  the  wants  of  the 
public,  rendered  him  very  successful.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature,  and  a  generous  friend  to  Byron 
and  other  eminent  authors.  Died  in  1843. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1843;  "Autobiography 
of  Wiliiam  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  ii. 

Murray,  (LiNDLKY,)  a  distinguished  American  gram 
marian  and  educational  writer,  born  near  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  Having  removed  at  an  early  age  to  New  York, 
he  studied  law,  but  he  subsequently  engaged  in  mercan 
tile  pursuits.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MURRAY 


1647 


MUSCULUS 


England,  to  which  he  removed  about  1784.  Among  his 
works,  which  obtained  great  popularity  both  in  England 
and  America,  we  may  name  his  "  Power  of  Religion  on 
the  Mind,"  etc.,  (1787,)  "Grammar  of  the  English  Lan 
guage,"  (1795,)  "English  Reader,"  "Introduction  to  the 
English  Reader,"  and  "  Duty  and  Benefit  of  a  Daily 
Perusal  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (1817.)  He  also  com 
piled  several  French  readers. 
England,  in  1826. 

See  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Lindley  Murray,"  written 


He    died    near    York, 


Murray,  (WILLIAM  VANS,)  an  American  diplomatist, 
born  in  Maryland  about  1762.  Having  studied  law  in 
England,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1791.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  by  Washington  United  States 
minister  at  the  Hague.  Died  in  1803. 

Mursinna,  mooR-sin'na,  (CHRISTIAN  LUDWIG,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon,  born  at  Stolpe  in  1744.  He 
became  chief  surgeon  in  the  army  in  1787,  and  published 
several  surgical  works.  Died  in  1823. 

Murtola,  mooR'to-la,  (GASPARO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
by  himself;  E.  FRANK,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  L.  Murray,"  1826;  |  born  at  Genoa.  He  wounded,  with  a  pistol,  Marini  the 


"National  Portrait-Galleiy  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.   iii 
CLEVELAND,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Murray,  (NICHOLAS,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1803,  studied  theology  at  Princeton, 
New  Jersey,  and  in  1834  became  pastor  at  Eli/.abethtown, 


poet,  who  had  criticised  one  of  his  poems.    Died  in  1624. 

Mus.     See  DKCIUS  Mus. 

Musa.     See  MOOSA. 

Mu'sa,  (ANTONIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman  physician, 
originally  a  slave  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  and  a  brother 


in  that  State.      He  published  several  theological  works,  j  of  ^      h£rb       is  said  to   ,'lave  ^  the  'first  who       e. 
'Letters  to  Bishop  Hughes  '    1847-48,)  under  the  j  ^.^  the    use  of  {he   c<j]d   bath      Haying  curedlthe 


signature  of  KIRWAN,  have  enjoyed  a  great  popularity,  ,  ror  b    this  remed     he  received  his  freedom,  and 

and  have  been  translated  into  several  foreign  languages.  !     J  createc|     k   -   h        M  ,      distinguished  for 

Died  in  1861. 

Murray,  (PATRICK,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  1703,  i 
was  the  filth  Lord  Elibank.      He  published  an  "  Inquiry 


his  literary  tastes,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Virgil 


into  the  Origin  and  Consequence  of  the  Public  Debts," 
"  Thoughts  on  Money,  Circulation,"  etc.,  and  a  "  Let 
ter  to  Lord  Hailes  on  his  Remarks  on  the  History  of 
Scotland."  His  writings  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
in  1778. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Murray,  (Sir  ROUERT.)     See  MORAY. 
Murray,  (WILLIAM,)   Earl   of  Mansfield,  lord  chief 
justice,  a  British  lawyer  and  orator  of  great  merit  and 


celebrity,  was  born  at  Perth,  Scotland,  in  1704. 
a  younger  son  of  Andrew,  Viscount  Stormont. 


He  was 
Having 


gained  distinction  as  a  classical  scholar  at  Oxford,  and 
enlarged  his  mind  by  foreign  travel,  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1731.  He  speedily  rose  into  extensive  practice, 
and  in  1743  was  appointed  solicitor-general.  About  this 
time  he  entered  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  was 
successful  as  an  elegant  and  persuasive  speaker,  and 


See  ACKERMANN,  "De  Antonio  Musa."  1786;  ATTERBURY, 
"Reflections  on  the  Character  of  lapis,  in  Virgil,  or  the  Character 
of  A.  Musa,"  etc.,  1740;  HALI.ER,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Musee,  mu'ze,  [Gr.  MoCovu,]  the  Muses,  sometimes 
called  PIER'IDES,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the  daughters 
of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  (Memory,)  were  supposed  to 
preside  over  poetry,  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  sciences. 
According  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  there  were 
nine  Muses,  namely,  Calliope,  Clio,  Euterpe,  Erato,  Mel 
pomene,  Polyhymnia,  Terpsichore,  Thalia,  and  Urania. 
(See  these  names  under  their  separate  heads.)  The 
places  especially  consecrated  to  the  Muses  were  Mount 
Parnassus,  Mount  Helicon,  and  the  fountains  of  Castalia 
and  Aganippe. 

Musaeus.     See  MUSAUS. 

Musaeus,  mu-zee'us,  [  Gr.  Movo-aZof;  Fr.  MUS£E, 
mii'za',]  a  celebrated  and  ancient  Greek  bard,  commonly 
regarded  as  a  semi-fabulous  personage.  He  was  said  to  be 


defended  the  government  when  Mr.  Pitt  (Lord  Chatham)  :  the  son  of  Eumolpus  and  Selene,  or,  according  to  others, 
was  the  leader  of  the  opposition.  "He  surpassed  Pitt,"  j  of  Orpheus,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  Tradition  in- 
says  Macaulay,  "  in  correctness  of  taste,  in  power  of  ,  forms  us  that  he  presided  over  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
reasoning,  in  depth  and  variety  of  knowledge  ;  but  he  jn  the  time  of  Hercules.  He  was  the  reputed  author 
wanted  the  energy,  the  courage,  the  all-grasping  and  all-  j  of  several  poetical  works,  among  which  were  "Oracles," 

"    and  a  hymn  to  Ceres.     Pausanias  regarded  this  hymn  as 
the   only  genuine   poem  of  Musaeus  that  was  extant  in 


risking  ambition  which  make  men  great  in  stirring  times. 
("  Review  of  the  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.")  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  in  1754,  and  chief  justice  of 
the  king's  bench  in  1756.  Over  that  great  court  he  pre 
sided  with  honour  above  thirty  years.  In  1756  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Mansfield.  On  more 
than  one  occasion  he  refused  high  political  positions, 
among  which  was  that  of  lord  chancellor.  He  had, 
however,  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  for  more  than  a  year.  In 
the  trial  of  Woodfall  for  publishing  "  Junius's  Letters," 
Lord  Mansfield  gave  offence  to  the  popular  party,  and 
was  censured  for  leaning  against  the  freedom  of  discus 
sion  in  cases  of  libel.  During  the  riots  of  1780,  his  house 
in  London  was  burned  down  by  a  mob.  He  died,  with 
out  issue,  in  1793.  "His  mind  and  his  habits,"  says 
Lord  Brougham,  "  were  eminently  judicial  ;  and  it  may 
be  doubted  if,  taking  both  the  externals  and  the  more 
essential  qualities  into  the  account,  that  go  to  form  a 
great  judge,  any  one  has  ever  administered  the  laws  in 
this  country  whom  we  can  fairly  name  as  his  equal." 

See  the  "  Life  of  William,  Earl  of  Mansfield,"  by  JOHN  HOLI.I- 
DAY  ;  BROUGHAM,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.  ;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England  ;"  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief 
Justices  ;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men." 

Murray,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  actor,  born  in  1791, 
performed  in  Edinburgh  for  many  years.  Died  in  1852. 

Murray,  (Rev.  WILLIAM  H.  H.,)  a  popular  and 
eloquent  Congregationalist  minister,  born  at  Guilford, 
Connecticut,  April  26,  1840,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1862. 
Having  been  licensed  to  preach  in  1863,  he  officiated 
during  several  years  as  minister  at  Greenwich  and  other 
places  in  Connecticut.  In  1868  he  accepted  an  invita 
tion  from  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  where  he  was 
installed  as  pastor  in  November  of  that  year.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  on  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  which  has 
attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention. 


his  time.  Onomacritus  collected  the  Oracles  of  Musaeus 
and  mixed  with  them  some  of  his  own  productions, 
which  he  wished  to  pass  for  the  work  of  Musaeus.  For 
this  imposture  he  was  banished  by  Hipparchus,  the  son 
of  Pisistratus. 

See  VIRGIL.  "  J£i\e\d,"  book  vi.  666;  ULRICI,  "  Geschichte  der 
Hellenischen  Dichtkunst.  " 

Musaeus,  surnamed  GRAMMAT'ICUS,  or  "  the  Gram 
marian,"  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century. 
He  is  celebrated  for  his  poem  of  "  Hero  and  Leander," 
a  production  of  rare  merit,  of  which  several  good  editions 
have  been  published. 

See  KROMAYER,  "De  Musaeo  Graminatico." 

Musaus  or  Musaeus,  moo-sa'us,  QOHANN  KARL 
AUGUST,)  a  celebrated  German  writer,  born  at  Jena  in 
1735.  ^'s  principal  works  are  a  novel  entitled  "The 
German  Grandison,"  ("  Der  Deutsche  Grandison,"  1760,) 
"  Physiognomic  Travels,"  (1778,)  a  satire  on  the  theories 
of  Lavater,  "Popular  Legends  of  Germany,"  (1782,) 
which  enjoy  great  popularity,  and  "Friend  Hein's  Ap 
paritions,  in  Holbein's  Manner,"  (1785.)  His  writings 
are  characterized  by  delightful  humour,  simplicity,  and 
genial  satire.  Musaus  was  a  relative  of  Kotzebue,  who 
published  in  1791  his  posthumous  works,  with  an  inter 
esting  notice  of  the  author  prefixed.  Died  in  1787. 

Muschenbroek.     See  MUSSCHENBROEK. 

Muscher.     See  MUSSCHER. 

Mus'cu-lus  [Ger.  pron.  moos'koo-lus]  or  Meusel, 
moi'zel,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  Lutheran  theologian,  born 
at  Schneeberg  in  1540.  He  preached  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  and  wrote  "Compendium  Theologicum." 
Died  in  1581. 

Musculus,  Miisslin,  miis-leen',  orMeusslin,  moiss- 
leen',  (WOLFGANG,)  a  German  Reformer  and  scholar,  born 


cas/c:  cas  s;  g  hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUSEE 


1648 


MUSSO 


in  Lorraine  in  1497,  was  a  monk  in  his  youth.  He 
was  converted  by  Luther  about  1520,  became  minister 
of  a  church  at  Augsburg  in  1531,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  preacher.  Having  been  banished  from 
Augsburg  in  1548,  he  settled  at  Berne.  lie  published 
commentaries  and  other  works.  Died  in  1563. 
See  CRAIK,  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties." 

Musee.     See  MUS/EUS. 

Muselli,  moo-sel'lee,  (GIOVANNI  GIACOMO,)  MAR 
QUIS,  an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  bom  at  Verona  in 
1697  ;  died  in  1768. 

Musemeci,  moo-sa-ma'chee,  (MARIO,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  antiquary,  born  at  Catnnea  in  1778.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  antiquities  and  art,  among  which 
is  "  Opere  archeologiche  ed  artistiche,"  (2  vols.,  1851.) 
Died  in  1852. 

Mus'grave,  (Rev.  GKORGK.,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1798.  He  published  "Rambles  in  Normandy," 
and  other  books  of  travel. 

Mus'grave,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  Irish  historian,  born 
about  1758,  published  in  1801  a  "  History  of  the  Irish 
Rebellion's."  Died  in  1818. 

Musgvave,  (SAMUKI.,)  a  grandson  of  the  following, 
was  a  distinguished  classical  scholar.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  edition  of  Euripides,  and  a  treat 
ise  on  Grecian  Mythology.  Died  in  1782. 

Musgrave,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1657.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1684  became  its 
secretary.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  gout,  and 
a  number  of  dissertations  on  British  and  Roman  An 
tiquities.  Died  in  1721. 

Mush'et,  (DAVin,)  a  Scottish  metallurgist  and  in 
ventor,  born  at  Dalkeith  in  1772.  He  acquired  distinc 
tion  by  his  improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  iron  and 
steel,  on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He 
originated  the  method  of  assaying  iron  ores  which  is 
now  generally  used.  Died  in  1847. 

Mush'et,  (ROBERT,)  an  officer  of  the  royal  mint  in 
England,  wrote  able  treatises  on  the  currency  and  mint 
regulations  and  the  state  of  finances.  Died  in  1828. 

Musis  or  Musi,  de,  (Aoosi'iNO.)  See  AGOSTINO 
VKNEZIANO. 

Musitano,  moo-se-ta'no,  (CARLO,)  a  learned  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1635;  died  in  1714. 

Musius.     See  MUYS,  (CORNELIUS.) 

Mu-so'm-us  Ru'fus,  (CAius,)  a  Stoic  philosopher, 
born  in  Etruria,  flourished  about  70  A.D.  He  was 
banished  from  Rome  by  Nero,  but  he  returned  under 
Vespasian,  and  was  excepted  by  him  from  the  sentence 
of  exile  pronounced  against  the  Stoics.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  other  eminent  writers. 
Fragments  of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  Stobaeus. 

See  NIKUWLAND,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Musonio  Rufo,"  1783; 
TACITUS,  "  Annales,"  books  xiv.  and  xv. 

Muspell,  mus'pel  or  moos'peM,  written  also  Mus- 
pel,  Muspellheim,  and  Muspelheim,  [etymology 
unknown,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  world  of  light 
and  heat,  situated  in  the  south  part  of  the  universe, — 
Niflheim,  the  habitation  of  mist  and  cold,  being  situated 
in  the  north.  (See  HF.I.A.)  The  inhabitants  of  this 
world  are  called  "the  sons  of  Muspell,"  among  whom 
Surt,  or  Surttir,  is  chief,  and  the  ruler  of  Muspellheim. 
(See  SURT.) 

Mus'pratt,  (JAMES  SIIKRIDXN,  )  a  distinguished 
chemist,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1821.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Professor  Graham  at  Glasgow  and  at  London. 
About  1843  he  went  to  Giessen  to  pursue  his  studies 
under  Liebig.  He  produced  at  Giessen  a  remarkable 
treatise  on  Sulphites.  He  founded  a  College  of  Chem 
istry  in  Liverpool,  and  married  Miss  Susan  Cushman,  the 
actress,  in  1848.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Chemistry  ;  or,  Chemistry,  Theoretical,  Practical,  and 
Analytical,"  (2  vols.,  1860.) 

Muss,  (CHARLES,)  a  painter  in  enamel.  Among  his 
works  is  a  picture  of  the  "  Holy  Family."  Died  in  1824. 

Mussato,  moos-sa'to,  (AI.HERTINO,)  an  Italian  his 
torian  and  poet,  born  at  Padua  in  1261.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Actions  of  Henry  VII.,"  and  a 
number  of  eclogues,  hymns,  and  tragedies.  Died  in  1330. 

See  Gis'CUENE,  "  Histoire  Liiteraire  d'ltalie." 


Musschenbroek,  van,  vSn  mus'Ken-bRook',  (Pp.- 
TKR,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  savant,  born  at  Leyclen  in  1692. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  experi 
mental  physics,  in  which  he  was  eminently  successful 
and  made  important  discoveries,  especially  in  magnetism 
and  the  cohesion  of  bodies.  Having  visited  England  in 
1717.  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Newton,  whose  sys 
tem  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  into  Holland. 
I  le  became  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at 
Duisburg  in  1719,  and  afterwards  filled  the  same  chair 
at  Utrecht.  In  1740  he  obtained  the  professorship  of 
philosophy  at  Leyden,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
in  1761.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Physicae 
Experimentales  et  Geonietriae  Dissertationes,"  (1729.) 
and  "  Elementa  Physicae,"  or  "Introduction  to  Natural 
Philosophy,"  (1754.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  principal 
learned  institutions  of  Europe. 

See  SAVKRIKM,  "  Vies  des  Pliilosophes  ;"  CONDORCET,  "  Eloges  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  l.iograplrie  Gsnerale." 

Musscher  or  Muscher,  van,  vSn  mus'Ker,  (Mi- 
CHAEL,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1645.  He  studied  successively  under  Van  Tempel, 
Met/.u,  and  fan  Steen,  and  painted  landscapes,  historical 
subjects,  and  portraits.  The  last-named  are  most  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1705. 

See  DKSCAMPS,  "Vi.-sdes  Peint"es  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Musset,  de,  deh  mu'sV,  (Louis  CHARLES  ALFRED,) 
a  celebrated  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  on  the  nth  of 
November,  1810,  was  a  son  of  Musset-Pathay,  noticed 
below.  lie  was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV.  In 
1830  he  produced  a  volume  entitled  "Tales  of  Spain 
and  Italy,"  ("Contes  d'Espagne  et  d' Italic.")  which  at 
tracted  much  attention.  His  reputation  was  increased 
in  1833  °y  "The  Cup  and  the  Lips,"  ("  La  Coupe  et  les 
Levres,")  a  drama,  "A  quoi  revent  les  jeunes  Filles?" 
and  "  Namounn."  He  fell  into  a  morbid  state  of  mind, 
and  expressed  misanthropic  sentiments  in  several  of  his 
works,  which  are  censured  for  an  immoral  tendency.  He 
published  "  Rolla,"  a  poem,  in  18^5.  and  "Confessions 
of  a  Child  of  the  Age,"  ( Enfant  'tin  Siifl?,)  in  1836. 
He  contributed  to  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  a 
number  of  prose  tales,  which  were  admired.  Under  the 
reign  of  Louis  Philippe  he  was  librarian  to  the  ministry 
of  the  interior.  lie  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  18^2.  Among  his  finest  works  are  four 
poems  entitled  the  "Nights,"  etc.,  ("Nuits:  Li  Nuit  de 
Mai,  La  Nuit  d'Aout,  La  NTnit  d'Octobre,  et  La  Nuit 
de  De'cembre,"  18^-37.)  Died  in  Paris  in  May,  1857. 

"  None  of  his  illustrious  contemporaries,"  says  Leo 
foubert.  "has  surpissed  him  in  spontaneity  of  poetical 
genius,  in  the  ardent  and  sincere  expression  of  passion, 
in  vivacity,  grace,  and  eclat  of  soul,  (esprit :)  no  one 
has  represented  with  more  fidelity  the  spiritual  unrest, 
the  melange  of  skepticism  and  religious  aspirations, 
which  characterize  our  epoch."  ("  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Ge'ne'rale." 


See  SAINTE-BKUVK,   "Portraits   contemnorains,"  and    "Cause- 


I.undi;"   Ci.KMKNT  DK  Ris,  "Portraits  a  la  Plmne:    A.  de 


:  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1857;  "  West- 


ninster  Review"  for  April, 


Musset,  de,  (PAUL  EDMF.,)  a  novelist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  published 
numerous  novels,  which  are  said  to  be  well  written,  and 
among  which  we  notice  "  Lauzun,"  (1835,)  "  The  Brace 
let,"  (1839,)  "Mignard  et  Rigaud,"  (1839,)  and  "Les 
Femmes  de  la  Refjence,"  (2  vols.,  1841.) 

Musset,  de,  (VICTOR  DONATIEN,)  called  MUSSET- 
PATHAY,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  the  Vendomois 
in  1768,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  biographies,  histories,  and  tales,  a  "Life 
of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,"  (2  vote.,  1821.)  Died  in 
1832. 

See  "Souvenirs  historiquesde  Musset-Pathay,"  iSio;  QU^RARD, 
"  La  France  LitteYaire." 

Miisslin.     See  MUSCULUS,  (WOLFGANG.) 
Musso,  moos'so,  (CoRNELio,)  an  Italian  bishop,  dis 
tinguished  as  a  preacher,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1511.     He 
became  Bishop  of  Bitonto.     Died  at  Rome  in  1574. 
See  G.  Musso,  "  Vitadi  Cornelio  Musso,"  1586. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long :  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me't;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MUSTAFA 


1649 


MYLNE 


Mustafa,  Mustapha,  Moustapha,  or  Moustafa, 
moos'ta-fa,  I.,  succeeded  his  brother,  Ahmed  [.,  as  Sul 
tan  of  Turkey,  in  1617.  He  was  soon  after  deposed, 
and  his  nephew,  Osman,  raised  to  the  throne.  Though 
re-established  as  Sultan  in  1622,  Mustafa  was  again 
deposed  in  1623,  and  strangled,  in  1639,  by  order  of 
Amurath  IV. 

See  Vox  HAMMER,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  II.,  son  of 
Mahomet  IV.,  was  born  in  1664,  and  succeeded  Ahmed 
II.  as  Sultan  in  1695.  He  fought  against  the  Austrians 
and  Venetians  with  varying  success,  and  in  1699  con 
cluded  with  those  powers  the  peace  of  Carlowitz.  Being 
deposed  in  1703,  he  died  in  a  few  months,  and  his 
brother,  Ahmed  III.,  became  Sultan. 

See  ''Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  HI.,  son  of 
Ahmed  III.,  born  in  1717,  succeeded  Osman  HI.  in 
1757.  He  began  in  1769  to  wage  war  with  the  Russians, 
who  took  possession  of  the  Crimea  and  Bessarabia.  He 
died  in  1774,  and  his  brother,  Abdool  Hamid,  succeeded 
to  the  throne. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  IV.,  son  of 
Abdool  Hamid,  became  Sultan  on  the  deposition  of  Se- 
lim  III.,  in  1807.  Having  caused  Selim  to  be  strangled, 
Mustafa  was  deposed  by  Bairaktar,  Pasha  of  Rudshuk, 
and  his  brother,  Mahmood,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 
During  the  revolt  of  the  Janissaries,  in  1808,  Mustafa 
was  executed  by  the  orders  of  Mahmood. 

See  F.  MENGIX,  "  Histoire  de  I'figypte  sous  Mehemet  Ali." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  Ben-Ismail, 
moos'ta-fa  ben  is-mS-eel',  an  Arabian  chief,  born  in 
Algeria  about  1770.  He  became  an  able  adversary  of 
Abd-el-Kader,  against  whom,  he  fought  in  co-operation 
with  the  French,  who  gave  him  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  killed  in  battle  in  May,  1843. 

Pee  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Gsnera'e." 

Mustapha.     See  MUSTAFA. 

Mus-tox'y-dis  or  Mustoxidis,  (ANDREAS,)  a  dis 
tinguished  modern  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Corfu  in  1785. 
He  studied  at  Pavi'a,  and  in  1804  was  appointed  histori 
ographer  for  the  republic  of  the  Seven  Islands.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  chiefly  written  in  Italian,  we  may 
name  "Considerations  on  the  Present  Language  of 
Greece." 

Mu-su'rus,  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  Turkish  diplomatist, 
born  in  1807.  He  became  Turkish  ambassador  at  Lon 
don  about  1856. 

Mu-su'rus,  (MARCUS,)  a  learned  modern  Greek,  born 
in  Candia  about  1470,  was  professor  of  the  Greek  lan 
guage  in  the  University  of  Padua.  He  assisted  Aldus 
Mamitius  in  the  revision  of  Greek  manuscripts,  and 
published,  among  other  works,  the  "  Etymologicum 
Magnum  Grsecum."  In  1516  he  was  appointed  by  Leo 
X.  Archbishop  of  Malvasia.  Died  in  1517. 

Mu'ta,  (from  miitus,  "silent,")  the  name  of  the  god 
dess  of  silence  among  the  Romans. 

Mutiano.     See  MUZTANO. 

Mutina.     See  MODENA. 

Mutio.     See  Muzio. 

Mutis,  moo'tess,  ?  (Don  TOSE  CF.T.F.STINO,)  a  cele 
brated  Spanish  botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Cadiz 
in  1732.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Madrid 
in  1757,  and  in  1760  accompanied  the  Spanish  viceroy 
to  South  America  as  his  physician.  He  subsequently 
devoted  himself  to  scientific  explorations,  and  was  ap 
pointed  in  1 790  director  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Natural 
History  at  Santa  Fe.  He  died  in  1808,  leaving  un 
finished  his  "  Flora  of  New  Granada,"  one  of  the  most 
valuable  works  of  the  kind  that  had  then  appeared.  He 
was  the  first  who  distinguished  the  various  species  of 
Cinchona,  (Peruvian  bark,)  the  different  properties  of 
which  he  has  described  in  his  "Historia  de  los  Arboles 
del  Quina." 

See  HrMBoi.DT,  "Voyage  dar.s  les  Regions  equinoxiales;" 
WEDDKI.L,  "Monographic  du  Quinquina." 

Muy,  du,  du'  mii-e',  (Louis  NICOLAS  VICTOR  DE  FE 
LIX,)  COMTE,  a  French  military  commander,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1711.  He  served  in  Germany  in  the  prin- 


cipal  campaigns  from  1741  to  1760.  He  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI.,  and  was  appointed 
by  the  latter  minister  of  war,  (1774,)  and  marshal  of 
France,  (1775.)  Died  in  1775. 

See  BEAUVAIS,  "Oraison  funebre  du  Comte  du  Muy;"  TRESSAN, 
"filoge  du  Marechal  du  Muy." 

Muys,  mois,  [Lat.  Mu'sius,]  (CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Delft  in  1503.  He  was 
hung  by  some  soldiers  at  Leyden  in  1572. 

Muys,  (\VYER  WILLEM,)  a  Dutch  savant  and  writer, 
born  at  Steenwyk  in  1682.  He  was  professor  of  medi 
cine  and  chemistry  at  Franeker.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  one  "  On  the  Matter  of  Light,"  ("  De 
Materia  Luminis,"  1722.)  Died  in  1744. 

Muziano,  moot-se-a'no,  or  Mutiano,  moo-te-a'no, 
(GiROLAMo,)  one  of  the  first  Italian  painters  of  his  time, 
born  near  Brescia  in  1528,  was  the  pupil  of  Romanino. 
At  an  early  age  he  visited  Rome,  where  his  admirable 
landscapes  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  "the  landscape 
youth."  He  also  attained  great  excellence  in  historical 
pictures,  and  his  mosaics  in  the  Gregorian  Chapel  are 
esteemed  the  finest  of  modern  times.  Among  his  best 
productions  are  "  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  in  the 
Quirinal  palace,  and  "A  Company  of  Anchorites  listen 
ing  to  a  Preacher  in  the  Desert,"  in  the  Church  of  the 
Carthusians.  Muziano  completed  the  drasvings  from 
the  Trajan  column  begun  by  Giulio  Romano.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  Died  in 
Rome  in  1592. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  ORI.OFF,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Peinture  en  Italic." 

Muzio,  moot'se-o,  or  Mutio,  moo'te-o,  (GIROLAMO 
Nuzio,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1496. 
He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  which  procured  him  the  surname  of  the  "  Ham 
mer  of  Heretics,"  ("Malleus  Hereticorum,")  also  vari 
ous  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1576. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italians." 

Muz'zey,  (ARTEMAS  BOWERS,)  an  American  Unita 
rian  divine  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Lexington, 
Massachusetts,  in  1802.  He  published  "The  Young 
Man's  Friend,"  (1836,)  "Moral  Teacher,"  (1839,)  and 
other  works. 

Myconius,  me-ko'ne-us,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  Re 
former,  born  in  Franconia  in  1491,  was  a  monk  in  his 
youth.  He  became  a  friend  of  Luther,  whose  doctrines 
he  propagated  with  zeal  and  success.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Gotha,  and  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died 
in  1546. 

See  ANTON  PROBUS,  "Vita  F.  Myconii,"  1547 ;  LOMMATZSCH, 
"  Narratio  de  F.  Myconio,"  1825. 

Myconius,  me-ko'ne-iis,  (OSWALD,)  or  Geisshau- 
ser,  (gis'how'zer,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Lucerne  in  1488,  was  a  pupil  of  Erasmus.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  and  professor  of  divinity  at  Bale. 
He  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  Zuin- 
glius."  Died  in  1552. 

See  KIRCHHOFEK,  "Leben  O.  Myconius  Reformators,"  1814. 

Mydorge,  me'doRzh',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  geometer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1585,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Des 
cartes,  and  furnished  the  glasses  used' by  that  philosopher 
in  his  optical  experiments.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  optics  and  mathematics,  and  a  defence  of  the  works 
of  Descartes  against  the  Jesuits.  Died  in  1647. 

See  BAH. LET,  ''Viede  Descartes." 

My'ers,  (ABRAHAM  C.,)  an  American  officer, born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1814,  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  became  in  1862  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
armv. 

Myers,  (PETER  HAMILTON,)  an  American  novelist, 
born  in  Ilerkimer  county.  New  York,  in  1812,  has  pub 
lished  "  The  First  of  the  Knickerbockers,"  (1848,)  "  The 
King  of  the  Hurons,"  (1850,)  "The  Van  Veldens,"  and 
several  other  historical  romances. 

Mylius,  mee'le-us,  (JoHANN  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  in  Weimar  in  1710.  He  published 
"  Bibliotheca  Anonymorum  et  Pseudonymorum,"  (1740,) 
and  "Historia  Myliana,"  (1752,)  which  contains  biog 
raphies  of  many  men  named  Mylius.  Died  in  1757- 

Mylne,  m?ln,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  architect,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1734.  He  was  appointed  engineer  to  the 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

104 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MTN 


1650 


NADAUD 


N<;W  River  Company,  London,  and  surveyor  of  Saint 
PaJl's  Cathedral.  His  principal  work  is  Blackfriars' 
Bridge,  completed  in  1769.  Mylne  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Luke  at  Rome.  Died  in  1811. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Myn,  van  der,  vin  der  mln,  (  HERMAN,  )  a  Dutch 
artist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1684,  visited  London,  where 
he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  portraits.  His  fruit- 
and  flower-pieces  were  also  admired.  Died  in  1741. 

Mynsicht,  von,  fun  min'siKt,  (ADRIAN,)  a  German 
chemist  and  physician,  flourished  between  1610  and  1650. 

Mynster,  mun'ster  or  min'ster,  (JAKOB  PETKR,)  a 
Danish  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1775,  became  in  1828  court  chaplain.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Seeland  in  1834.  He  published  "Reflections 
on  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  in  1854. 

My-rep'sus,  (NICHOLAS,)  [NocoAaof  6  Mupn/;'V,l  a 
Greek  physician  of  the  thirteenth  century,  practised  in 
Rome  or  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Composition  of  Medicines,"  ("  De  Compositione  Medi- 
camentorum,"  etc.) 

Myrick,  (Sir  SAMUEL  RUSH.)    See  MEYRICK. 

Myrmidon,  mir'me-don,  [Gr.  yivp/Ltiduv,]  in  classic 
mythology,  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Eurymedusa.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was  the 
ancestor  of  the  Myrmidons,  a  people  of  Thessaly,  some 
of  whom  Achilles  led  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 

My'ron,  [Mt'yKJi',]  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor,  born  in 
Boeotia  about  480  B.C.,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in 
representing  the  varied  forms  of  animal  life.  He  worked 
with  equal  success  in  marble,  brass,  and  wood.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  "Cow  lowing  for  its  Calf,"  in 
brpnze,  which  has  been  celebrated  by  the  Latin  and 
G,ii»ik  poets  in  numerous  epigrams,  a  colossal  group  of 


Jupiter,  Athene,  and  Hercules,  the  "Discobolus,  01 
Quoit-Thrower,"  and  "  Perseus  killing  Medusa."  His 
athletes,  clogs,  and  sea-monsters  were  also  greatly  ad 
mired. 

See  K.  O.  MULI.ER,  "  Handbuch  der  Arcliaologie  der  Kunst;" 
GOETHE,  "  Propylaen  ;"  WlNCKELMANN,  "Werke,"  vol.  vi. 

Myroiiide.     See  MYRON  IDES. 

My-roii'i-des,  [Gr.  Mvpuvutys ;  Fr.  MYRONIDK,  me'- 
ro'ned',]  an  Athenian  general,  who  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Corinthians  in  457,  and  another  over  the  Boeotians 
in  456  u.C. 

Myrtis,  mir'tis,  [Mr/me,]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Anthedon,  and  flourished  about 
500  K.c.  Pindar  is  said  to  have  received  instruction 
from  her. 

Mytens,  mT'te'ns,  (ARNOLD,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1541.  Among  his  best  works  is  an  altar- 
piece  representing  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  with 
the  Apostles,"  at  Naples.  Died  in  1602. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Mytens,  (DANIEL,)  THE  ELDER,  a  Dutch  artist,  born 
at  the  Hague  about  1590.  He  was  patronized  by  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  painted  the  portraits 
of  a  number  of  the  royal  family  and  of  the  nobility.  He 
was  regarded  as  second  only  to  Van  Dyck  in  portrait- 
painting.  Died  after  1656. 

Mytens,  (DANIEL,)  THE  YOUNGER,  born  at  the  Plague 
in  1636,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  director 
of  the  Academy  at  the  Hague.  His  principal  work  is 
the  ceiling  of  the  Painters'  Hall.  Died  in  1688. 

Mytens,  mii'tens,  (MARTIN,)  a  Swedish  painter,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1695.  After  visiting  Rome,  he  settled  in 
Vienna,  where  he  became  painter  to  the  court.  Among 
his  best  pieces  is  the  "  History  of  Esther  and  Ahasuerus." 
Died  in  1755. 


N. 


Na'a-man,  [Ileb.  pi'3-1  a  Syrian  general,  commander 
of  the  army  of  Benhadad,  King  of  Damascus,  lived 
about  890  B.C.  He  was  cured  of  leprosy  by  the  prophet 
Elisha. 

See  II.  Kings  v. 

Nabaj  or  Nabadj,  na-btj',  a  Hindoo  poet,  flourished 
about  1580-1600.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "  Bhakta- 
mala,"  which  treats  of  the  adventures  and  miracles  of 
Jayadeva  and  other  ascetics. 

Nabega  -  Ziad  -  Ibn  -  Moaweeah- Aldobiani,  na'- 
be-ga  ze-ad'  ib'n  mo-a-wee'ah  al-do-be-a'nee,  an  Arabian 
poet,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century. 
One  of  his  poems,  and  several  fragments,  are  given  in 
the  "Chrestomathie"  of  Silvestre  de  Sacy. 

Na'bis,  [Gr.  Xdftf,]  tyrant  of  Sparta,  succeeded  Ma- 
chanidas  about  206  B.C.,  and  signalized  himself  by  his 
cruelty  and  avarice.  In  conjunction  with  Philip  II.  of 
Macedon,  he  subjected  different  parts  of  the  Pelopon 
nesus,  but  he  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the  Roman 
consul  Flamininus.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
allies,  (192  B.C.) 

Nab-o-nas'sar,  [Gr.  Nafovacrapof,]  King  of  Babylon, 
lived  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.  He  is  celebrated  for  the 
chronological  era  which  bears  his  name,  and  which  was 
employed  as  a  point  of  departure  in  ancient  astronomical 
tables.  This  era  began  in  747  B.C. 

Nab-o-po-las'sar,  King  of  Babylon,  was  originally 
a  satrap  of  Sardanapalus,  King  of  Assyria.  He  re 
volted  against  that  king,  and,  aided  by  Cyaxares,  King 
of  the  Medes,  took  Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria. 
He  died  in  605  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

See  EUSEBIUS,  " Chronicles ;"  HOEFER,  "La  Phenicie,  la  Baby- 
lonie, "  etc. 

Nacchianti,  nak-ke-an'tee,  [Lat.  NACLAN'TUS,  ] 
(GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Florence. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  wrote 
several  works.  Died  in  1569. 

Nachman,  Ben,  bgn  naK/man,  ?  (MOSES,)  a  Spanish 
rabbi,  born  at  Girone  in  1194,  was  versed  in  the  science 


of  the  Cabala.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Lex 
Hominis,"  (1519,)  and  "  Fons  Jacobi,"  (1547.) 

Nachtigail.     See  LUSCINIUS. 

Nachtigall,  naK'te-gal',  [Lat.  LUSCIN'IUS,]  (OTMAR,) 
a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  about 
1487.  He  preached  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther  at 
Augsburg,  and  taught  Greek  at  Strasburg.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Evangelica  Historia  e  Graeco  versa,"  (1523.) 
Died  about  1535. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Nacke  or  Naecke,  nek'keh,  (GusTAV  HEINRICII,)  a 
German  historical  painter,  born  at  Frauenstein  in  1785. 
He  became  professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of 
Dresden  in  1824.  His  works  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Dresden  in  1835. 

Naclantus.     See  NACCHIANTI. 

Na'dab,  [Ileb.  2~!J:]  son  of  Jeroboam,  King  of  Israel, 
succeeded  him  in  968  K.c.  While  engaged  soon  after  in 
fighting  against  the  Philistines,  he  was  slain  by  Baasha, 
the  son  of  Ahijah,  who  ruled  in  his  stead. 

Nadal,  nS'daM',  (  AUGUSTTN,  )  ABBS',  a  mediocre 
French  author,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1664,  wrote  tragedies 
in  verse,  criticisms,  and  moral  essays.  Died  in  1740. 

Nadasti,  na-das'tee,  ?  written  also  De  Nadzad, 
(THOMAS,)  a  Hungarian  general,  was  an  ancestor  of  the 
following.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  defence  of 
Buda  against  the  Sultan  Solyman  in  1529,  and  afterwards 
rendered  important  military  services  to  Charles  V. 

See  ISTHVANKI,  "  Historia  Hungaronim." 

Nadasti,  de,  deh  na-das'tee,  ?  (FRANCIS,)  COUNT,  a 
patriotic  Hungarian  statesman,  who  opposed  the  des 
potic  policy  of  the  emperor  Leopold.  He  was  accused 
of  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Leopold,  unjustly 
condemned,  and  beheaded  in  1671.  He  was  author 
of  a  "  History  of  Hungary,"  (1664.) 

See  MAII.ATH,  "  Geschichte  der  Magyaren." 

Nadand,  n&'dS',  (GUSTAVF.,)  a  French  musician  and 
writer  of  songs,  born  at  Roubaix  in  1820.  He  produced 
both  the  words  and  the  music  of  many  popular  songs. 


a,e,  T,  6,  u,y,  lor<r;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  n5t;good;  moon; 


NADAULT 


1651 


NAKHIMOF 


Nadault  de  Buffon,  r.S'do'  deh  bii'fo.N',  (BENJAMIN 
HENRI,)  a  French  engineer  and  writer,  born  at  Mont- 
bard  in  1804.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Course  of  Agriculture,"  (4  vols.,  1853-56,)  and  " The 
Correspondence  of  Buffon,"  (2  vols.,  1860.) 

Nadezhdin,  na'dezh-din,  written  also  Nadeshdin, 
(NICHOLAS  IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  in 
Riazan  in  1804.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1856. 

Nadir  Shah,  na'dir  shSh,  written  also  Nader  Chah, 
Nadir  Schah,  and  Nauder  Shah,  also  called  Koolee 
(or  Kouli)  Khan,  koo'lee  Kan,  a  celebrated  Persian 
conqueror,  of  Turkish  extraction,  born  in  Khorassan  in 
1688.  His  courage  and  abilities  early  gained  him  dis 
tinction  in  the  service  of  the  governor  of  that  province  ; 
but,  in  consequence  of  ill  treatment,  he  left  Khorassan 
and  became  the  head  of  a  band  of  robbers.  Being  soon 
after  called  upon  by  Tahmasp,  Shah  of  Persia,  to  oppose 
the  Afghans,  he  succeeded,  within  two  years,  in  expelling 
them  from  the  country,  upon  which  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief,  (1729.)  Tahmasp  having  in  1732  made 
a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  Turkey,  Nadir  resolved 
to  prosecute  the  war,  and  gained  such  popularity  by 
the  success  of  his  arms  that  on  his  return  he  dethroned 
the  Shah  and  assumed  the  supreme  power.  In  1738 
he  conquered  Candahar  and  Afghanistan.  Having  soon 
after  invaded  India,  he  entered  Delhi  in  1739,  and  took 
possession  of  the  imperial  treasures.  The  inhabitants, 
on  a  false  report  of  Nadir's  death,  attacked  his  soldiers. 
After  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  restrain  them,  he  ordered 
a  wholesale  massacre,  in  which,  it  is  stated  by  Fraser, 
120,000  perished.  His  many  acts  of  tyranny  and  cruelty 
at  length  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  (1747.)  In  the 
early  part  of  his  career  Nadir  Shah  appears  to  have  been 
not  only  an  able,  but,  on  the  whole,  a  just  and  humane, 
prince  ;  but  later  in  life,  having  become  a  prey  to  avarice 
and  suspicion,  his  acts,  it  is  said,  "exceeded  in  barbarity 

nil, that  has  been  recorded  of  the  most  bloody  tyrants." 

r+s    i.^'jlff"*si  ¥••''}»    **  *.•»*.     mil  <.~zwrisan.  .8j,r?s)t-j**'<j.-a.(",<*i*> 

See  KRASER,  "History  of  Nadir  Shah,"  1742;   "Life  of  Nadir 

Shall,"  by  his  secretary,  MADHY  KHAN",  translated  into  French  by 

SIR  WILLIAM  JONES;  MALCOLM,  "  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  ii. 

Naecke.     See  NACKE. 

Naenia,  nee'ne-a,  [Fr.  N6NIE,  ni'ne',]  a  Roman  god 
dess  that  presided  over  funerals.  This  word  signifies  a 
"  dirge"  or  "  funeral  song." 

Naerssen,  van,  vfn  nlks'sen,  [Lat.  NARS'SIUS,] 
([AN,)  a  Dutch  writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Dort  in 
1580.  He  became  physician  to  Gustavus  Adolphus  at 
Stockholm,  and  wrote  "Gustavidos  Libri  III.,"  (1632.) 
Died  in  1637. 

Naevius,  nee've-us,  (CxEius,)  a  Roman  poet,  born  in 
Campania  about  272  B.C.,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem 
on  the  Punic  War,  and  of  several  dramas.  A  few  frag 
ments  only  of  his  writings  are  extant.  He  is  praised 
by  Cicero  as  being  in  some  respects  superior  to  Ennius. 
Pie  died  about  204  K.C.  "Cneius  Naevius."  says  Pro 
fessor  Sellar,  "is  the  first  in  the  line  of  Roman  poets 
and  the  first  writer  in  the  Latin  language  whose  frag 
ments  give  indication  of  original  power." 

See  CICF.RO,  "De  Oratore  ;"  SKI.I.AR,  "Roman  Poets  of  the 
Republic,"  chap.  iii. ;  KLUSSMANN,  '•  C.  Nxvii  Poetae  Vita,"  1843. 

Naga,  na'ga,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  snake,"  and 
forming,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  mon 
ster  regarded  as  a  demi-god,  having  a  human  face,  with 
the  tail  of  a  serpent  and  the  expanded  neck  of  a  cobra 
de  capello.  The  race  of  these  beings  is  said  to  have 
sprung  from  Kasyapa,  in  order  to  people  Patala,  or  the 
regions  below  the  earth.  (See  PATALA.) 

See  Wn.sox,  "Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Nagele,  na'geh-leh,  (FRAN/,  KARL,)  a  German  medi 
cal  writer,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1778;  died  in  1851. 

Nag'lee,  (HENRY  M.,)  an  American  general,  borrr  in 
Philadelphia  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1835.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  early  in  1862,  and 
commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31  of  that  year. 

Nagler,  na'gler,  (KARL  FERDINAND  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Anspach  in  1770.  Being 
appointed  in  1823  postmaster-general,  he  effected  a  great 
reform  in  the  postal  system.  He  was  made  minister  of 
state  in  1836.  He  made  a  very  valuable  collection  of 


works  of  art,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  pictures, 
was  purchased  for  the  Museum  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1846. 

Nagy  Sandor,  nocly  (almost  noj)  sti/dor,  (JosEi'H,) 
a  Hungarian  general,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1804.  He 
fought  for  the  national  cause  in  1848,  became  a  general 
about  April,  1849,  and  served  with  distinction  in  several 
battles.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  at  Vilagos,  he  was 
executed  in  October,  1849. 

Naharro,  na-ar'ro,  (BARTOLOME  de  Torres — datoR'- 
r£s,)  a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Torres,  flourished 
about  1500-20.  He  wrote  comedies,  satires,  epistles,  etc. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Nahl,  nil,  (Jon ANN  AUGUST,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1710.  He  adorned  the  public  buildings 
of  that  city  with  his  works.  Died  in  1781. 

Nahl,  (JOHANN  AUGUST,)  a  German  painter,  born 
near  Berne  in  1752,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  lie 
worked  at  Rome  and  Cassel.  He  painted  subjects  of 
Greek  mythology,  and  landscapes.  Died  in  1825. 

Nahl,  (JoHANN  SAMUEL,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Anspach  in  1664.  He  settled  at  Berlin,  where  he  was 
appointed  court  sculptor,  and  rector  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts.  Died  in  1728. 

Nahl,  (SAMUEL,)  a  sculptor,  brother  of  Johann  August, 
(1752-1825,)  was  born  at  Berne  in  1748;  died  in  1813. 

Na'hum,  [  Heb.  Diru,]  one  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets  of  the  Hebrews,  flourished  under  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  about  720  K.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
born  at  Elkosh,  in  Galilee,  from  which  he  was  surnamed 
THE  ELKOSIIITE.  He  foretells  the  destruction  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  and  the  city  of  Nineveh  in  the  most 
glowing  and  forcible  language,  and  in  sublimity  is  equal 
if  not  superior  to  any  other  of  the  minor  prophets. 

Nahuys,  na'hois,  (HUBERT  GERARD,)  BARON,  a 
Dutch  writer  and  military  officer,  born  at  Amsterdr-n 
in  1782.  He  rendered  important  services  in  Ja.d, 
where  he  passed  many  years,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Considerations  on  Dutch  India,"  (1847.)  Died 
in  1858. 

Naiades.     See  NAIADS. 

Naiads,  na'yads,  [Gr.  NowieJef  or  N??«5fc:  Lat.  NAI'A- 
DES,]  in  classic  mythology,  were  fresh-water  Nymphs,  or 
inferior  female  divinities,  supposed  to  preside  over  rivers, 
lakes,  brooks,  and  fountains,  and  to  be  daughters  of 
Jupiter.  They  were  represented  as  young  and  beautiful 
virgins  leaning  upon  an  urn  from  which  flows  a  stream 
of  water. 

Naigeon,  nJi'zhoN',  (JACQUES  ANDRE,)  a  mediocre 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1738.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Diderot,  whose  skeptical  opinions  he  shared, 
and  was  one  of  the  redacteurs  of  the  "Encyclopedic." 
He  edited  the  works  of  Diderot  and  of  other  French 
authors.  DiediniSio. 

See  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sci 
ences  philosophiques." 

Naigeon,  (JEAN,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Beaune 
in  1757,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Naigeon,  (JEAN  GUILLAUME  EI.ZIDOR,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  became  conservator  of  the  Muse'e  Egyptien 
in  1861. 

Naillac,  de,  deh  nf'yfk',  (PHII.TRERT,)  a  French 
chevalier,  born  about  1340,  became  grand  master  of  the 
order  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1396.  He  fought 
against  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  at  the  siege  of  Nicopolis, 
(1396,)  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Council  of 
Pisa.  Died  in  1421. 

Naima,  nl'ma,  a  Turkish  historian,  flourished  about 
1700.  He  wrote  an  "Ottoman  History  from  1591  to 
i6;q,"  which  was  published  in  2  vols.,  (1734.) 

Nain,  Le.     See  TILLEMONT. 

Nairoiii,  nl-ro'nee,  (ANTONIUS  FAUSTUS,)  a  learned 
Maronite,  born  near  Mount  Libanus  in  1631,  was  pro 
fessor  of  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  languages  in  the 
College  della  Sapienza  at  Rome!  Died  in  1711. 

See  DI'PIM,  "  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques,"  etc. 

Naiven,  ni'ven,  (M.,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1570  ; 
died  in  1651. 

Nakhifnof,  na'Ke-mof,  written  alsoNakhimow  and 
Nakhimov,  (AKIM  NIKOLAEVITCH,)  a  Russian  poet, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^T^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  ' 


NAKE 


1652 


N  A  NT  EVIL 


born  at  Kharkof  in  1782.  His  principal  works  are 
satires  in  verse,  fables,  and  a  witty  piece  in  prose  entitled 
"The  Speaking  Monkeys,"  on  the  subject  of  Napoleon's 
attempted  conquest  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1814,  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-one. 

Nake  or  Naeke,  na'keh,  (AUGUST  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Frauenstein  in  1788.  lie 
produced  "Opuscula  Philologica,"  (2  vols.,  1842-44.) 
Died  in  18.38. 

Nakoola  01  Nakoula,  na-koc/la,  (Mooal'lem,)  sur- 
named  KL  TURK,  an  Arabian  historian,  born  in  Syria  in 
1763  ;  died  in  1828. 

Nakwaska,  nak-vas'ki,  (ANNE,)  a  Polish  novelist, 
born  in  1779,  was  the  wife  of  senator  Nakwaska.  Died 
at  Warsaw  in  1851. 

Nal'a,  [Hindoo  pron.  niil'a,]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  name  of  a  monkey  chief,  who,  according  to  some 
authorities,  built  for  Rama  the  bridge  from  continental 
India  to  the  island  of  Ceylon.  (See  RAMA.) 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon," 

Naldi,  nal'dee,  [Lat.  NAI/DIUS,]  (MATTF.O,)  a  learned 
Italian  medical  writer  and  linguist,  born  at  Sienna.  He 
became  chief  physician  to  Pope  Alexander  VII.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1682. 

Naldi,  (NAI.DO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
about  1420,  was  a  friend  of  Politian.  He  wrote  the 
"  Life  of  G.  Manetti,"  and  several  admired  poems. 
Died  about  1470. 

Naldi,  (SKHASTIANO,)  an  Italian  singer,  performed  in 
London.  Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Naldini,  nal-dee'nee,  (H.vmSTA,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1537.  He  painted  in  oil 
and  fresco  at  Rome  and  Florence.  Died  after  1590. 

Naldini,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Rome, 
flourished  about  1650.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1654. 

Naldius.     See  NAI.DI. 

Nalian,  na'le-an,  ( JAMES,)  an  Armenian  religious 
writer,  born  at  Zimara  about  1695.  He  became  Arme 
nian  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1741,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  by  his  writings.  Died  in  1764. 

Nal'spn,  (  JOHN.)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1638.  He  became  rector  of  Doddington  and  prebendary 
of  Ely.  His  chief  work  is  "An  Impartial  Collection  of 
the  Affairs  of  State  from  1639  to  the  Murder  of  Charles 
I.,"  (1683.)  Died  in  1686. 

Naniur,  nf'miiR',  (JEAN  PIF.,)  a  Belgian  bibliographer, 
born  at  Luxemburg  in  1804,  published  several  works. 

Nana-Sahib,  na'na  sa'llib,  a  Hindoo  chief  of  mu 
tineers,  born  in  Poonah  about  1820.  He  committed 
atrocious  cruelties  on  English  women  and  children  at 
Cawnpore  in  1857. 

See  McLnoo  TNNKS.  "  Rons;h  Narrative  of  the  Siepre  of  Lucknow," 
Calcutta,  1X57  ;  K.  D.  FORGUES,  "  La  Revoke  des  Cipayes;"  "  Nou- 
veile  Biographic  Generale. " 

Nancel,  de,  deh  noN'sel',  [Lat.  NANCF/LIUS,]  (Nico- 
I.AS,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  born  in  1539.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Peter  Ramus," 
(ifioo.)  Died  in  1610. 

Nancelius.     See  NANCEL. 

Nan'di,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  niin'dT,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  a  white  bull,  regarded  as  the 
vahan  or  vehicle  of  SIVA,  which  see. 

Nanek,  na'nek,  or  Nanak,  sometimes  written  Na- 
nuk,  called  also  Yanaka,  (ya'na-ka,)  and  Nirankar, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sikhs,  was  born  in  Lahore 
about  1468.  He  wrote  a  book  called  "  Adi-Granth," 
and  taught  a  species  of  monotheism.  Died  in  1539. 

Nangis,  de,  deh  n6.\'/he',  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French 
historian  and  Benedictine  monk.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of 
Saint  Louis,"  a  general  chronicle,  and  a  "  Chronicle  of 
the  Kings  of  France."  Died  about  1302. 

Nangis,  de,  (Louis  ARMAND  de  Brichanteau— deh 
bRe'shSx'to',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  was  born  in 
1682.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  in  Flanders,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1741.  Died 
in  1742. 

Nani,  na'nee,  (GIAMHATTISTA  FELICE  GASPARO,)  a 
Venetian  historian,  born  in  1616.  He  was  for  twenty- 
five  years  ambassador  at  the  court  of  France,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He  was 


successively  appointed  historiographer  and  archivist  of 
the  republic,  and  procurator  of  Saint  Mark,  (1661.)  His 
principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Venetian  Republic 
from  1613  to  1671,"  (2  vols.,  1662-79.)  D'etl  m  IO78. 

See  NICKRON,  "Memoires." 

Nani,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Morbegno 
in  1757  ;  died  in  1813. 

Nanini,  na-nee'nee,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Vallerano  about  1540,  served  as  a 
chanter  in  the  pontifical  chapel  in  Rome.  He  composed 
motets,  madrigals,  and  canzonettas.  Died  in  1607. 

Nan'na,  or  nan'na,  [etymology  uncertain  ;  according 
to  Keyser,  it  is  derived  from  nenna,  to  "be  inclined  to," 
to  "like,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  wife  of  Balder 
"the  Good."  When  her  husband  was  slain,  she  grieved 
so  intensely  that  her  heart  burst,  her  spirit  followed  his 
to  Hela's  realm,  and  her  body  was  laid  on  the  same 
funeral  pile  with  that  of  her  beloved  Balder. 

See  KEYSER,  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen  ;"  THORPE,  "  North 
ern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Nanni,  (GIOVANNI.)     See  ANNIUS  OF  VITERTIO. 

Naniii,  nan'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  called  also  GIOVANNI 
DA  UDINE,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Udine  about  1490. 
He  was  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  his  stuccos  and 
grotesque  ornaments.  Many  of  his  best  works  are  at 
Rome  and  Florence.  Died  in  1564. 

Nanni,  (PETER.)     See  NANMNG. 

Nanni,  (REMIGIO,)  [sometimes  called,  in  French, 
REMI  DE  FLORENCE,  ra'me'  deh  fiVrdNss',]  an  Italian 
Dominican  monk  and  writer  in  verse  and  prose,  was 
born  at  Florence  about  1521.  He  edited  Villani's  "  His 
toric  universal!,"  and  Guicciardini's  "  Istoria  d'ltalia." 
Died  in  1581. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires. " 

Nanni  di  Baccio  Bigio,  nan'nee  deebiU'chobee'jo, 
a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  worked  at  Rome 
about  1530-50.  lie  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  enmity 
to  Michael  Angelo. 

Nanni  di  Banco,  nan'nee  dee  ban'ko,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1383  ;  died  after  1421. 

Nanning,  nan'ning,  or  Nanni,  nan'nee,  |  Lat.  NAN'- 
Nius,]  (PETER,)  a  Dutch  philologist  and  critical  writer, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ob 
servations  on  the  Institutes  of  Civil  Law,"  and  a  trans 
lation  of  the  Psalms  into  Latin  verse.  Died  in  1557. 

Nannini,  nan-nee'nee,  (Aoxoi.o  or  GIOVANNINI,) 
surnamed  FlRENZUOLA,  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Florence  in  1493,  was  trie  author  of  satirical  and  bur 
lesque  poems,  dramas,  and  a  number  of  novels  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio's  "  Decamerone." 

Nannius.     See  NANNING. 

Nannoni,  nan-no'nee,  (ANGELO,)  an  eminent  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Florence  in  1715.  He  became  pro 
fessor  and  chief  surgeon  in  the  Hospital  of  Florence. 
His  success  as  an  operator  and  as  a  lecturer  attracted 
patients  and  pupils  from  the  most  distant  parts  of 
Europe.  He  wrote  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  is  "Delia  Semplicita  del  Medicare,"  (1761-67.) 
Died  in  1790. 

See  Ar.osTiNO  NANNONI,  "  Elogio  del  Professore  A.  Nannoni," 
1790. 

Nannoni,  (LORENZO,)  a  surgeon,  born  at  Florence  in 
1749,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  anatomy 
and  surgery.  Died  in  1812. 

Nansouty,  de,  deh  nfiN'soo'te',  (IvriENNE  ANTOINE 
MARIE  Champion — shoN'pe-ON',)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1768.  He  was  made  a 
general  of  brigade  about  1708,  and  a  general  of  division 
in  1803.  According  to  Chateaubriand,  he  was  one  of 
the  best  cavalry  officers  that  the  war  of  the  Revolution 
produced.  The  same  writer  states  that  he  completed 
the  victory  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and  commenced  that  of 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  was  wounded  at  Borodino,  (1812,) 
and  commanded  the  cavalry  at  Leipsic.  In  1814  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  restored  Bourbons.  Died  in 
February,  1815. 

See  DF.  CoUBCEI.I.KS,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Ge'neranx  Frnngais." 

Nanteuil,  HON'U:!'  or  nSN'tuh'ye,  (CEi.ESTiN,)  a 
French  painter  and  lithographer,  born  in  Rome  in  1813. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


NANTUEIL 


1653 


NAPIER 


Nanteuil,  (CHARLES  FRANQOIS  Lebceuf— leh'buf,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1817.  Among  his  works  is  "Eurydice 
Dying." 

Nanteuil,  (ROBERT.)  a  French  artist,  born  at  Rheims 
in  1630,  painted  excellent  portraits  in  pastel,  but  was 
chiefly  distinguished  as  an  engraver.  Among  his  mas 
ter-pieces  are  the  portraits  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
Simon  Arnaurl  de  Pomponne,  and  Van  Steenbergen, 
the  Dutch  advocate.  In  the  department  of  portrait- 
engraving  Nanteuil  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was 
designer  and  cabinet  engraver  to  Louis  XIV.  Died 
in  1678. 

See  R.  Dt'MEsNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais ;"  BASAN-, 
"  D  ctlonnaire  des  Graveurs  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nanteuil,  de,  deh  nflx'tuT',  (GAUGIRAN,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1778  ;  died  after  1830. 

Nantier-Didiee,  r,6N'te-i'  cle'de-a/,  MADAMK,  a 
French  operatic  singer,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in 
18^2.  She  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London. 

Nantigny  or  Nantie-ni,  de,  deh  nSN'ten'ye',  (Louis 
CHASOT,)  a  French  writer  on  genealogy,  was  born  in 
Burgundy  in  1692.  He  published'"  Historical  Genealo 
gies  of  Kings,  Fmperors,  and  Sovereign  Houses,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1755. 

Napseae,  na-pee'e,  |Gr.  Na-oTat;  Fr.  NAPEES,  nt' pi'.] 
in  the  classic  mythology,  were  nymphs  of  forests,  groves, 
and  glens.  (See  NYMPH/E.) 

Napees.     See  NAP.-E.E. 

Naper.     See  NAPIER,  (JoHN.) 

Na'pi-er,  (Sir  CHARLES  JAMES,)  a  British  general, 
born  at  Whitehall  in  1782,  was  the  son  of  the  Hon. 
George  Napier  and  Lady  Sarali  Lennox,  a  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Richmond.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Admiral 
Charles  John  Napier,  and  a  brother  of  Sir  William, 
the  historian.  He  gained  the  rank  of  major  in  1806, 
was  wounded  in  several  actions  in  Spain  between  1808 
and  1812,  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  1811,  and  was 
employed  in  ravaging  the  coasts  of  the  United  States 
in  1813-14.  He  acted  with  credit  for  several  years  as 
Governor  of  Cephalonia,  from  which  he  was  recalled  in 
1830.  Having  risen  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  in  Bengal  in 
1841.  He  increased  his  reputation  by  the  conquest  of 
Sincle,  (184^.)  in  which  he  performed  several  exploits 
that  were  highly  extolled.  His  efforts  to  reform  the 
civil  administration  of  Sincle  are  also  commended.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1847.  and  was  again  sent  to 
India  in  1849,  to  oppose  the  Sikhs,  but  on  his  arrival 
found  that  the  war  was  ended.  In  1850  he  returned 
home.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lights  and  Shadows 
of  Military  Life,"  and 'other  works.  Died  in  1853. 

See  SIR  W.  F.  P.  NAPIER.  "Life  and  Opinions  of  Sir  Charles 
J.  Napier  ;"  "  Rlackwood's  Magazine"  for  July  and  August,  1857. 

Na'pi-er,  (Sir  CHARLES  JOHN,)  K.C.B.,  an  eminent 
British  admiral,  born  in  Stirling  county,  Scotland,  in 
1786,  was  the  son  of  the  Hon.  C.  Napier,  of  Merchiston 
Hall,  Scotland,  and  a  descendant  of  the  inventor  of 
logarithms.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1790,  and,  after 
fighting  in  several  actions  with  the  French,  distinguished 
himself  at  Baltimore  and  other  places  in  the  United 
States  in  1813  and  1814.  After  1814  he  passed  about 
fifteen  years  in  inaction,  on  half-pay.  He  commanded 
the  Portuguese  fleet  which  in  1833  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  fleet  of  Don  Miguel,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  Portuguese  grandee  of  the  first  class.  As  second 
in  command,  Captain  Napier  served  with  distinction  at 
the  reduction  of  Acre,  in  1840,  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  title  of  knicht  commander  of  the  Bath.  In  1841  he 
became  rear-admiral,  and  commanded  the  Channel  fleet 
for  several  years.  He  advocated  naval  reform  in  letters 
which  were  printed,  and  as  a  member  of  Parliament 
supported  liberal,  or  rather  radical,  measures.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  Russian  war,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Baltic  fleet,  (1854,)  and  proposed  to 
take  Cronstadt.  but  found  it  too  well  fortified,  and  re 
turned  without  any  remarkable  achievement.  After  his 
return  to  Parliament,  in  1855,  he  imputed  his  failure  to 
the  fault  of  the  ministers.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
admiral  in  1858.  Died  in  November,  1860.  "In  his 
name  is  summed  up  all  that  he  was.  A  Napier  is  a  man 


possessed  of  high  spirits,  immense  courage,  great  in 
genuity,  and  prodigious  egotism."  ("  London  Times," 
November,  1860.) 

See  GENERAL  E  NAPIER,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Admirai 
Sir  Charles  J.  Napier,"  1861. 

Napier,  (FRANCIS,)  LORD,  a  British  diplomatist,  a 
son  of  the  eighth  Baron  Napier,  was  born  in  1819.  He 
became  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States 
about  1856.  In  December,  1860,  he  was  appointed  am 
bassador-extraordinary  to  the  court  of  Russia,  and  in 
1864  was  transferred  to  Berlin.  In  1866  he  became 
Governor  of  Madras. 

Napier,  (HENRY  EDWARD,)  an  English  naval  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  1789,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles 
James  Napier.  He  published  "Florentine  History  from 
the  Earliest  Authentic  Records,"  (6  vols.,  1847.)  Died 
in  1853. 

Napier,  written  also  Naper,  Neper,  or  Nepair,  [Lat. 
NAPIE'RUS,]  (JOHN,)  Baron  of  Merchiston,  a  Scottish 
mathematician,  celebrated  as  the  inventor  of  logarithms, 
was  born  at  Merchiston  Castle,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1550. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Archibald  Napier,  master  of  the 
mint.  He  entered  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's 
about  1563,  and  a  few  years  later  travelled  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy.  He  appears  to  have  returned 
about  1571,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  mathe 
matics,  theology,  and  literature.  In  1593  he  published 
an  ingenious  work  called  "  A  Plain  Discovery  of  the 
Revelation  of  Saint  John,"  in  which  he  labours  to  pro\-e 
that  popery  is  antichristian.  It  is  probable  that  prior  to 
1594  he  began  the  train  of  inquiry  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  logarithms.  His  tables  were  first  published 
in  1614,  with  the  title  of  "The  Description  of  the  Won 
derful  Law  of  Logarithms."  ("Mirifici  Logarithmorum 
Canonis  Descriptio.")  "  The  invention  of  logarithms," 
says  Hallam,  "is  one  of  the  rarest  instances  of  sagacity 
in  the  history  of  mankind  ;  and  it  has  been  justly  noticed 
as  remarkable  that  it  issued  complete  from  the  mind  of 
its  author,  and  has  not  received  any  improvement  since 
his  time."  In  solving  the  problems  of  trigonometry, 
this  invention  is  of  immense  utility,  as  it  reduces  the 
labour  of  months  to  a  few  days,  and  liberates  the  ope 
rator  from  the  errors  which  are  almost  inevitable  in  long 
calculations.  He  died  in  1617,  leaving  several  sons,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  named  Archibald,  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1627,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Napier. 

See  "  Life,  Writings,  and  Inventions  of  John  Napier,"  by  EARL 
OF  BUCHAN  and  WALTER  MINTO,  1787:  MARK  NAPIER,  "Memoirs 
of  John  Napier."  1834;  HUTTON,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;" 
CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Na'pi-er,  (JOSEPH,)  an  Irish  lawyer  and  politician,  born 
at  Belfast  in  1804.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831, 
and  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  University  of  Dublin 
in  1848.  He  became  attorney-general  for  Ireland  in 
1852,  and  was  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  March, 
18^8,  to  June,  1859. 

Napier,  (MACVF.Y,)  a  Scottish  editor,  born  in  the 
county  of  Stirling  in  1776.  He  became  professor  of 
conveyancing  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  edited 
the  seventh  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
and  succeeded  Lord  Teffrey  as  editor  of  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  in  1829.  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  po 
sition  with  ability  for  about  eighteen  years.  Among  his 
contributions  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  is  an  article 
on  "  Raleigh,"  (April,  1840.)  Died  in  1847. 

See  "Notice  of  Macvey  Napier,"  London.  7*47;  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Napier,  (ROHF.RT,)  a  Scottish  mechanical  engineer, 
distinguished  forthe  construction  of  steamships,  was  born 
at  Dumbarton  in  1791.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  blacksmith,  and  in  1815  became  master  of  a  smithery 
in  Glasgow.  A  few  years  later  he  began  to  make  engines 
for  steamboats  ;  and  he  has  since  become  the  head  of  the 
large  establishment  of  Robert  Napier  &  Sons,  of  Glas 
gow.  He  constructed  the  machinerv  of  the  British 
Queen,  and  about  1840  furnished  Mr.  Cunard  with  four 
steamships  which  plied  between  England  and  the  United 
States.  In  1856  he  built  the  Persia,  which  was  perhaps 
unrivalled  in  strength  and  speed.  Since  1859  he  has 
built  several  iron-clad  ships  for  the  royal  navy. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (23T"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NAPIER 


1654 


NAPOLEON 


Napier,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Cey 
lon  about  1810.  He  served  as  an  officer  of  the  army 
in  India,  and  became  chief  engineer  of  Bengal.  During 
the  Sepoy  mutiny  of  1857-58  he  rendered  important 
services  as  military  engineer.  He  commanded  an  expe 
dition  sent  against  Abyssinia  about  the  close  of  1867.  He 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Magdala  in  April,  1868,  over 
King  Theodore,  (who  was  killed  in  that  action,)  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Lord  Napier. 

Napier,  (Sir  WILLIAM  FRANCIS,)  a  British  general, 
famous  as  the  historian  of  the  Peninsular  war,  was  born 
at  Castletovvn,  Kilclare  county,  Ireland,  in  1785.  He 
was  a  brother  of  General  Charles  James  Napier,  and 
cousin  of  Admiral  Charles  J.  Napier.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1800,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1804. 
From  1808  to  1814  he  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
during  which  he  was  frequently  wounded.  lie  received 
medals  for  his  conduct  at  Salamanca,  (1812,)  and  at  the 
battles  of  the  Nivelle  and  Orthes,  etc.,  and  became 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1813.  In  1828  he  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Penin 
sula  from  1807  to  1814,"  (6  vols.,)  which  was  finished 
in  1840,  and  found  its  way  to  the  summit  of  public 
favour,  although  its  tenor  was  not  in  accordance  with 
the  popular  and  political  prejudices  of  the  times,  lie 
disapproved  the  policy  of  the  English  government,  and 
estimated  with  candour  the  acts  of  Napoleon  and  his 
army.  The  work  is  admired  for  dignity  of  tone,  fidelity 
to  truth,  and  beauty  of  style.  He  was  made  major- 
general  in  1841,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1851.  His 
wife  was  a  daughter  of  General  H.  E.  Fox,  a  relative  of 
Lord  Holland.  Sir  William  published  a  "History  of 
tiie  Conquest  of  Scinde,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died 
in  February,  1860. 

See  HARRIET  MARTINEAU,  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1869;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1857 ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  tor  December,  1836,  and  April,  1864. 

Napierus.     See  NAPIKR,  (JOHN.) 

Napione,  na-pe-o'na,  (C.  ANTONIO  GALF.ANI,)  an 
Italian  mineralogist,  born  at  Turin  ;  died  at  Rio  Janeiro 
in  1814.  His  brother,  J.  GALKANI,  Count  de  Napione, 
was  a  dramatist  and  litterateur. 

Napione  da  Cocconato,  na-pe-o'na  da  kok-ko-na'to, 
(GiAN  FKANCKSCO  Galeani — ga-la-a'nee,)  COUNT,  a 
learned  Italian  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  at 
Turin  in  1748.  He  was  a  cousin-german  of  the  eminent 
author  Joseph  de  Maistre.  He  held  several  high  civil 
offices.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  an  essay  on 
the  Italian  language,  ("  Dell'Uso  e  dei  Pregi  della  Lin 
gua  Italiana,"  2  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Lives  of  Illustrious 
Italians,"  (3  vols.,  1818.)  Died  in  1830. 

See  L.  MARTINI,  "  Vita  del  Conte  G.  F.  Napione,"  1836  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Napoleon  I.     See  BONAPARTE. 

Napoleon  II.     See  RKICHSTADT,  DUKE  OF. 

Na-po'le-on  [Fr.  NAPOLEON,  nt'po'la'o.N'l  III., 
(CHAULKS  Louis  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTK,)  Emperor  of 
France,  a  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte  and  Hortense  de  Beau- 
harnais,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  the  Tuileries,  April  20,  1808. 
He  was  inscribed  at  the  head  of  the  register  of  the  family 
of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty,  the  emperor  having  recog 
nized  Louis  and  his  heirs  as  successors  to  the  crown 
in  preference  to  his  elder  brothers.  His  mother,  being 
compelled  to  quit  France  in  1815,  took  this  son  with  her 
in  her  exile,  and  gave  him  for  preceptors  P.  Lebas 
and  Colonel  Armandi.  He  passed  several  years  of  his 
youth  at  Arenenberg,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Thurgau. 
On  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  in  1830,  Louis  Napo 
leon  requested  permission  to  return  to  France,  which 
was  not  granted.  He  and  his  brother  then  went  to 
Italy  and  enlisted  in  the  army  of  insurgents,  who  at 
first  gained  some  advantages  over  the  papal  troops,  but 
were  defeated  and  dispersed  by  the  Austrians  in  1831. 
On  the  death  of  the  Due  de  Reichstadt,  in  1832,  Louis 
Napoleon  became  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of  France. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "Political  Reveries,"  and 
a  "Manual  of  Artillery,"  (1836.)  His  ambition,  his 
name,  and  his  unscrupulous  audacity  urged  him  to  enter 
a  career  which  presents  the  most  wonderful  vicissitudes 
of  fortune.  Having  secured  the  aid  of  Colonel  Vaudrey 
and  other  officers  stationed  at  Strasbourg,  he  made  an 


attempt  on  that  place,  with  a  few  adherents,  in  October, 
1836.  He  failed,  was  arrested,  and  was  banished  or  trans 
ported  to  the  United  States  in  November  of  that  year. 

In  1837  he  returned  to  Europe,  attended  Queen  Hor 
tense  in  her  last  illness  at  Arenenberg,  and  took  refuge 
in  England,  where  he  passed  about  two  years.  In  1839 
he  published  his  "Napoleonic  Ideas,"  ("  Idees  Napo- 
leoniennes,")  which  has  been  described  as  a  "melange 
of  liberal  principles  and  praetorian  domination."  It  is 
an  apology  for  the  regime  of  Napoleon  I.  The  unpopu 
lar  measures  of  Louis  Philippe  encouraged  Louis  Napo 
leon  to  engage  in  another  rash  and  desperate  enterprise. 
Attended  by  about  fifty  partisans  and  a  tame  eagle, 
which  was  expected  to  perch  upon  his  banner  as  the 
harbinger  of  victory,  he  sailed  from  England  in  August, 
1840,  and  entered  Boulogne,  where  he  obtained  but  little 
support,  and  was  speedily  arrested  by  the  soldiers  who 
he  had  hoped  would  be  induced  to  join  his  standard. 
He  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason  by  the  House  of 
Peers,  and,  after  he  had  made  a  speech  in  his  own  de 
fence  and  professed  his  devotion  to  the  principle  of 
popular  sovereignty,  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  impris 
onment.  He  was  confined  in  the  Castle  of  Ham,  where 
he  pursued  his  political  studies  and  wrote  several  political 
and  historical  treatises.  Aided  by  his  physician,  Dr. 
Conneau,  and  disguised  as  a  labourer,  he  escaped  from 
Ham  in  May,  1846,  and  retired  to  England. 

The  revolution  of  1848  afforded  him  an  opportunity 
to  return  to  France,  and  thus  opened  a  new  field  to  his 
irrepressible  ambition.  In  June,  1848,  he  was  elected 
to  the  National  Assembly  for  the  department  of  the 
Seine.  He  was  excluded  from  that  body  by  Lamartine 
and  his  colleagues  for  a  time,  but  he  took  his  seat  in 
September,  1848,  and  became  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  president  of  France.  On  the  loth  of  December,  1848, 
he  was  elected  president  for  four  years,  having  received 
5,562,834  votes.  His  chief  competitor  was  General  Ca- 
vaignac,  who  obtained  1,469,166  votes.  He  soon  became 
involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Constituent  Assembly,  the 
republican  majority  of  which  regarded  him  with  hostility 
or  suspicion.  In  April,  1849,  he  sent  an  army  to  Rome 
to  intervene  in  favour  of  the  pope,  who  had  been  ex 
pelled  by  the  republicans.  The  French  army  took  Rome, 
and  continued  to  occupy  that  city  until  1866. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  dissolved  itself,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  May,  1849. 
The  president  appointed  the  celebrated  De  Tocqueville 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  June,  1849.  This  minister, 
perceiving  that  the  president  expected  him  and  his  col 
leagues  to  be  the  pliant  instruments  of  his  will,  resigned 
in  October  of  that  year.  De  Tocqueville  afterwards 
remarked,  "  We  were  not  the  men  to  serve  him  on 
those  terms."  Louis  Napoleon  encountered  a  strong 
opposition  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  which  in  May, 
1850,  restricted  universal  suffrage  and  ordered  that  a 
residence  of  three  years  in  a  commune  must  be  a  qualifi 
cation  of  voters.  A  long  and  violent  struggle  between 
the  president  and  the  representatives  of  the  people 
was  terminated  by  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851. 
Having  secured  the  support  of  the  army,  by  a  reckless 
violation  of  his  plighted  faith  he  raised  himself  to 
the  supreme  power.  The  Assembly  was  forcibly  dis 
solved,  and  the  leading  statesmen  were  arrested.  Legis 
lators  and  felons,  statesmen  and  vulgar  culprits,  were 
huddled  together  in  the  same  vehicle  and  conveyed  to 
prison.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  his  acts  were  ratified 
by  the  form  of  a  popular  election,  and  he  was  chosen 
president  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  A  new  constitution 
was  adopted  in  January,  1852,  and  the  legislative  func 
tions  were  divided  between  two  houses,  the  Senate  and 
the  Corps  Legislatif,  which,  however,  were  so  organized 
that  they  offered  little  or  no  check  to  his  absolute  power. 
The  question  whether  he  should  take  the  title  of  em 
peror  was  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people  in  No 
vember,  1852,  when,  according  to  the  official  report, 
7,824,189  voted  in  the  affirmative.  He  assumed  the 
title  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  married  a  Spanish  lady  of 
great  personal  attractions,  Eugenie  Marie  de  Guzman, 
Countess  de  Teba,  in  January,  1853.  Having  formed 
an  alliance  with  England  and  publicly  announced  that 
his  policy  was  peace,  he,  in  conjunction  with  his  new  ally, 


i,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


NAPOLEON 


1655 


NARASINGHA 


declared  war  against  Russia  in  March,  1854,  and  sent  an 
army  to  the  Crimea.  After  a  long  siege,  the  allies  took 
Sevastopol  in  September,  1855,  and  the  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  March,  1856.  Among  the  events 
of  this  year  was  the  birth  of  the  prince  imperial,  Napo 
leon  Eugene  Louis,  etc. 

One  great  aim  of  Napoleon  III.  appears  to  have  been 
to  reconcile  the  French  people  to  the  loss  of  liberty  by 
promoting  their  material  prosperity,  by  splendid  public 
improvements,  and  by  gratifying  their  passion  for  mili 
tary  glory.  Accordingly,  as  an  ally  of  the  King  of 
Sardinia  in  the  war  caused  by  the  aggressions  of  Aus 
tria,  he  led  a  large  army  into  Italy  in  May,  1859.  He 
commanded  in  person  at  the  battle  of  Solferino,  where 
the  Austrians  were  defeated,  June  24,  1859,  and  in  the 
next  month  concluded  the  peace  of  Villafranca.  (See 
FRANCIS  JOSEPH.)  Among  the  results  of  this  war  was 
the  cession  of  Nice  and  Savoy  to  France  by  the  King 
of  Sardinia,  who  had  extended  his  own  dominions  by 
the  conquest  of  Lombarcly.  In  1861  he  availed  himself 
of  the  opportunity  presented  by  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  America,  to  intervene  in  Mexico,  and  fitted 
out  against  that  republic  an  expedition  which  landed  a 
well-appointed  army  under  General  Forey  early  in  1862. 
After  several  victories  over  the  Mexican  Liberals,  the 
French  forces  entered  the  city  of  Mexico  in  June,  1863. 
Napoleon  offered  the  imperial  crown  of  Mexico  to 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  who  accepted  the  fatal  gift  and 
was  supported  by  a  part  of  the  native  population.  The 
United  States  refused  to  acknowledge  the  Mexican  em 
peror,  and  intimated  to  Napoleon  that  European  powers 
would  not  be  permitted  to  establish  monarchies  by  arms 
in  North  America.  He  accordingly  withdrew  his  army 
from  Mexico  about  the  end  of  1866,  so  that  the  result  of 
the  Mexican  enterprise  was  the  reverse  of  glorious  for 
France.  It  is  well  understood  that  he  sympathized  with 
the  slaveholders  in  their  war  against  the  Union,  at  least 
so  far  as  they  sought  the  disruption  of  the  confederation. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  American  war,  Napo 
leon  was  justly  regarded  as  the  most  adroit  and  most  suc 
cessful  sovereign  in  Europe.  But  his  prestige  was  greatly 
impaired  by  the  events  of  1866.  He  remained  neutral 
in  the  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  which  war  he 
probably  might  have  prevented  ;  but  in  the  diplomatic 
contest  which  ensued  between  France  and  Prussia 
he  appears  to  have  found  more  than  a  match  in  the 
genius  of  Count  Bismarck,  who  suddenly  raised  Prussia 
to  the  rank  of  a  first-rate  power  and  united  the  Germans 
in  a  determined  attitude  against  the  aggressiveness  of 
France.  The  French  felt  themselves  humiliated  by  the 
fact  that  so  great  changes  in  the  map  of  Europe  should 
have  been  effected  without  their  agency  or  concurrence, 
and  condemned  the  policy  by  which  France  was  isolated 
and  excluded  from  the  hope  of  extension  towards  the 
Rhine.  After  the  battle  of  Sadowa,  July  3,  1866,  Napo 
leon  offered  himself  as  a  mediator  between  the  belligerent 
powers.  The  Emperor  of  Austria  ceded  to  him  Venetia, 
instead  of  surrendering  it  to  the  King  of  Italy,  to  whom 
it  seemed  naturally  to  belong.  About  the  loth  of  De 
cember,  1866,  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  finally 
from  Rome,  and  the  pope,  finding  himself  in  a  critical 
position,  addressed  to  Napoleon  language  which  was  far 
from  complimentary.  Napoleon  and  Bismarck  were  in 
volved  in  a  dispute  about  Luxemburg,  which  the  former 
purchased  of  the  King  of  Holland  ;  but  the  Prussians 
occupied  a  strong  fortress  in  that  province,  which  they 
refused  to  relinquish.  It  was  generally  believed  that 
war  was  imminent ;  but  the  difficulty  was  settled  by  a 
European  Convention  which  met  in  London  in  May, 
1867,  and  decided  that  neither  France  nor  Prussia  should 
retain  possession  of  Luxemburg. 

The  exciting  and  warmly-contested  elections  of  May 
and  June,  1869,  showed  so  great  an  increase  of  votes 
against  imperial  despotism,  that  Napoleon  thought  it 
expedient  to  make  large  concessions  to  the  people  and 
the  legislative  body.  He  gave  the  latter  the  right  to 
elect  its  own  officers,  to  have  partial  control  over  the 
expenditure  of  the  public  money,  the  right  of  interpel 
lation,  and  the  privilege  to  share  with  himself  the  power 
of  initiating  laws.  He  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty 
for  political  offences  in  August,  186.  In  December  of 


that  year  he  appointed  Emile  Ollivier  prime  minister, 
and  requested  him  to  form  a  cabinet.  "  Designate  per 
sons,"  he  said,  "  who  will,  associated  with  yourself,  form 
a  homogeneous  cabinet  faithfully  representing  the  legis 
lative  majority."  This  was  regarded  as  the  end  of  per 
sonal  government  in  France,  and  the  beginning  or  resto 
ration  of  a  constitutional  regime.  He  addressed  to  prime 
minister  Ollivier,  March  22,  1870,  an  important  letter,  in 
which  he  says,  "  I  think  it  opportune,  under  present  cir 
cumstances,  to  adopt  all  the  reforms  required  by  the 
constitutional  government  of  the  Empire,  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  the  immoderate  desire  for  change  which  pre 
vails  in  certain  minds."  He  afterwards  issued  an  address 
and  appeal  to  the  people,  asking  their  votes,  in  these 
terms:  "Do  the  people  approve  the  liberal  reforms 
which  have  been  effected  in  the  Constitution  since  1860 
by  the  Emperor,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  great  legis 
lative  bodies  of  the  state,  and  ratify  the  senatus-consultum 
of  April  20,  1870?"  On  the  eve  of  the  election  the 
government  detected  or  concocted  an  extensive  plot  to 
assassinate  Napoleon,  and  arrested  many  suspected  per 
sons.  The  result  of  the  plebiscite  of  the  8th  of  May 
was  that  about  7,000,000  voted  yes,  and  1,500,000  voted 
no.  Louis  Napoleon  has  written  a  "  History  of  Julius 
Caesar,"  (1867,)  in  which  he  carries  out  the  ''  Idees  Na- 
poleoniennes,"  inculcating  the  doctrine  that  certain  gifted 
men  are  appointed  by  Providence  or  destiny  to  rule,  and 
that  it  is  as  necessary  for  the  people  as  for  themselves 
that  this  destiny  should  be  fulfilled. 

Without  a  reasonable  pretext  or  tangible  cause,  he 
declared  war  against  Prussia  about  July  15,  1870,  and, 
having  appointed  the  Empress  regent,  took  the  com 
mand  of  his  army  in  person.  The  Germans  crossed  the 
frontier  early  in  August,  and  assumed  the  offensive.  The 
French  were  outnumbered  and  outgeneralled  in  a  series 
j  of  great  battles  at  Worth,  Metz,  and  near  Sedan.  On 
i  the  2d  of  September,  Napoleon,  who  had  displayed  great 
incapacity  as  a  general,  surrendered  himself,  with  about 
100,000  men  as  prisoners  of  war,  at  Sedan.  The  deche- 
ance  of  Napoleon  was  passed  in  the  corps  legislatif,  and 
a  republic  was  formed,  without  violence,  by  the  citizens 
of  Paris,  September  4,  1870. 

See  AMEDEE  HENNEQUIN,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  Napoleon  Bona 
parte,"  1848  ;  A.  BOUDIN,  "  Histoire  politique  dii  Prince  Louis  Napo 
leon,"  etc.,  1852;  ADRIEN  PASCAL,  "Histoire  de  Napoleon  III," 
1853  ;  VICTOR  HUGO,  "Napoleon  le  Petit,"  1852;  PAUL  LACROIX, 
"  Histoire  de  Napoleon  III,"  1853;  J.  B.  FELLENS,  "Louis  Napo 
leon,  sa  Vie,"  etc.,  1853;  W.  L.  WESCHE,  "Napoleon  III.  Kaiser 
der  Franzosen,"  1853;  SCHOENHUTH,  "Napoleon  III.  Kaiser,"  etc., 
1853;  ABBOTT,  "The  History  of  Napoleon  III.,"  1869;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Nap'per-Taii'dy,  (JAMES,)  an  Irish  insurgent,  born 
near  Dublin  in  1747.  He  invaded  Ireland  with  a  body 
of  French  troops  in  1798,  was  taken  prisoner  and  con 
demned  to  death,  but  was  released  after  an  imprisonment 
of  two  years.  Died  in  1803. 

Narada,  na'ra-da,  written  also  Nareda,  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage  and  lawgiver,  supposed  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Brahma  and  Saraswati.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  Vina,  a  sort  of  lute,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  an  intimate  friend  of  Krishna. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Nar'a-sing'ha,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  nur'a-sing'ha 
or  nur'a-sing',  from  the  Sanscrit  nara,  a  "  man,"  and 
sing/id,  a  "lion,"]  (the  "Man-Lion,")  the  name,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  of  the  fourth  Avatar  of  Vishnu.  It  is 
related  that  Hiranyakasipu,*  by  his  penances  and  sacri 
fices  in  honour  of  Brahma,  had  obtained  as  a  boon  from 
that  deity  that  he  should  possess  universal  monarchy 
and  be  wholly  exempt  from  death  or  injury  from  every 
god,  man,  or  creature  in  existence.  Having  now  nothing 


for  political  offences  in  August,  1809.     in  December  or 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z; 


*  Pronounced  by  the  modern  Hindoos  hl-rfin'ya-kfls'a-poo.  By 
some  blunder,  as  it  would  seem,  on  the  part  of  the  writers  from  whom 
he  has  copied,  Southey  gives  this  name  in  a  strangely  corrupted 
form, — Errenen : 

"  For  often  would  Ereenia  tell 
Of  what  in  elder  days  befell, 
When  other  tyrants  in  their  might 
Usurped  dominion  o'er  the  earth, 
And  Veeshnoo  took  a  human  birth, 
Deliverer  of  the  sons  of  men, 
And  slesv  the  huge  Ermaccasen, 
And  piecemeal  rent  with  lion  force 
ER'RENEN'S  accursed  corse." 

Curse  of  Kchama,  vol.  i.,  x. 


;  th  as  in  this.     (J^F^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


NARATANA 


1656 


NARUSZEW1C2, 


to  fear,  his  arrogance  and  impiety  became  insufferable. 
He  had,  however,  a  son  of  a  wholly  different  character, 
and  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  virtue.  The  son,  re 
proving  his  father's  wickedness,  once  said  to  him  that  the 
Deity  was  present  everywhere.  "  Is  he  in  that  pillar  ?" 
said  the  angry  tyrant.  "  Yes,"  replied  his  son.  There 
upon  Hiranyakasipu,  in  contempt,  struck  the  pillar  with 
his  sword,  when  the  stony  mass  fell  asunder,  and  a  being, 
half  man  and  half  lion,  issuing  from  its  centre,  tore  to 
pieces  the  impious  wretch  who  had  thus  insulted  and 
defied  the  Divine  Power. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Narayana,  nS-ra'ya-na,  a  Sanscrit  word  of  somewhat 
uncertain  etymology,  commonly  supposed  to  signify 
"  moving  upon  the  waters,"  and  applied,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  to  the  universal  Divine  Spirit,  which  existed 
before  all  worlds.  (Compare  Genesis  i.  2.)  In  this  sense, 
Narayana  may  be  regarded  as  another  name  for  BRAHM, 
(which  see;)  but  it  is  also  frequently  used  as  one  of  the 
many  appellations  of  Vishnu. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Narayaiii,  nt-ra'ya-nee',  the  consort  (or  sakti)  of  Na 
rayana,  considered  as  Vishnu,  and  hence  a  name  of 
LAKSHM!,  (which  see.) 

Nai  bonne,  de,  deli  ntR'bon',  (Louis,)  COUNT,  a 
French  courtier  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  of  the 
noble  family  of  Narbonne-Lara  at  Colorno,  in  Parma, 
in  1755.  He  was  taken  to  Paris  in  1760,  and  educated 
at  court,  where  his  mother  was  a  lady  of  honour.  He 
was  handsome,  accomplished,  and  witty,  and  a  favourite 
of  the  royal  family.  In  the  Revolution  he  acted  with 
the  constitutional  party,  and  became  a  confidential  friend 
of  Madame  de  Stae'l,  who  regarded  him  with  admiration. 
"She  exalted  him  in  her  imagination,"  says  Lamartine, 
"  until  she  raised  him  to  the  height  of  her  ideal."  By 
her  influence,  partly,  he  became  minister  of  war  in  De 
cember,  1791.  He  tried  with  success  the  policy  of  frank 
ness  and  confidence  towards  the  Assembly,  and  extorted 
applause  even  from  the  stern  and  suspicious  radicals. 
He  performed  prodigies  of  activity  in  raising  armies  and 
preparing  for  war.  Inspired  by  his  fervent,  rapid,  and 
martial  eloquence,  a  glow  of  patriotism  pervaded  France. 
He  was  suddenly  dismissed  from  office  in  March,  1792, 
in  consequence  of  a  difference  with  his  colleague  and 
rival  De  Lessart.  About  the  loth  of  August  he  was 
proscribed  by  the  Assembly,  but,  by  the  efforts  of  Ma 
dame  de  Stael,  escaped  to  England.  He  returned  to 
P'rance  in  1800,  and  was  restored  to  his  rank  as  lieu 
tenant-general  in  1809.  Soon  after  that  he  was  made 
ambassador  to  Bavaria.  He  attended  Bonaparte  as  aide- 
de-camp  in  the  Russian  campaign,  (1812.)  Died  in  1813. 

See  VILI.EMAIN,  "Souvenirs  contemporains ;"  BIGNON,  "His- 
toire  de  France  sons  Napoleon  ;"  MAKMONT,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Narborough,  nar'biir'eh,  ( Sir  JOHN,  )  an  English 
naval  officer,  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with  the 
Dutch  in  1666.  In  1672  he  served  as  second  captain 
under  the  Duke  of  York  against  De  Ruyter  in  the  en 
gagement  of  Solebay,  where  his  bravery  and  skill  were 
conspicuous.  He  was  created  rear-admiral  and  made  a 
knight  in  1673.  In  1674  he  was  sent  against  the  pirates 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  forced  the  Bey  of  Tripoli  to 
give  up  his  British  captives  and  pay  a  large  sum  of  money 
for  previous  injuries  to  British  trade.  Died  in  1688. 

See  CHARNOCK,  "  Biographia  Navalis. " 

Nar-cis'sus,  [Gr.  Ndfi/cwoof ;  Fr.  NARCISSK,  ntu'sess',] 
a  beautiful  youth,  in  the  Greek  mythology.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  insensible  of  amorous  passion  until  he  saw 
his  own  image  in  the  water,  with  which  he  fell  in  love. 
Having  died  of  disappointed  love,  he  was  changed  into 
the  flower  of  the  same  name. 

Narcissus,  a  profligate  Roman  courtier  and  favourite 
of  the  emperor  Claudius,  was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He 
acquired  unlimited  influence  over  Claudius,  and  pro 
cured  the  death  of  several  innocent  persons.  He  also 
caused  Messalina  to  be  assassinated.  He  was  put  to 
death,  by  order  of  Agrippina,  in  54  A.D. 

Nardi,  naR/dee,  (JACOPO,)  a  distinguished  historian, 
born  at  Florence  in  1476.  His  principal  work  is  a  "His 
tory  of  Florence  from  1494  to  1531,"  (1582.)  He  also 
wrote  a  comedy  entitled  "  L'Amicizia,"  and  made  a 


translation  of  Livy,  (1540,)  esteemed  one  of  the  best  in 
the  Italian  language.  Died  abou:  1555. 

See  C.  NARDI,  "Vita  di  Jacopo  Nardi." 

Nardin,  naVdaN',  QEAN  FREDERIC,)  a  French  Prot' 
estant  minister,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1687.  He 
preached  at  Blamont.  Died  in  1728. 

See  DUVERNOY,  "Vie  dej.  F.  Nardin,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons 
1754. 

Nardin,  (T.,)  a  French  negotiator  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Besai^on  in  1540;  died  in  1616. 

Nardini,  naR-dee'nee,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  musician, 
born  at  Leghorn  in  1725,  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
violinists  of  his  time.  He  composed  a  number  of  pieces 
for  the  violin  and  flute.  Died  in  1796. 

Nareda.     See  NARADA. 

Nares,  narz,  (Rev.  EDWARD,)  nephew  of  James  Nares, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in  1762.  He  became 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford  in  1814.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  novel  entitled  "  Thinks  I  to  Myself,"  and 
of  the  "Life  and  Administration  of  Lord  Burghley," 
which  is  severely  criticised  by  Macaulay  in  the  "  Edin 
burgh  Review,"  (1832.)  Died  in  1841. 

Nares,  (JAMKS,)  an  English  composer,  born  in  Mid 
dlesex  in  1715.  His  principal  compositions  are  anthems 
and  other  church  music;  he  also  published  "Lessons 
for  the  Harpsichord,"  and  various  treatises  on  music. 
In  1756  he  succeeded  Green  as  organist  and  composer 
to  the  king.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the  composer 
Arnold.  Died  in  1783. 

Nares,  (ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  critic  and  theolo 
gian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1753.  lie  be 
came  Archdeacon  of  Stafford,  and  pastor  of  Allhallows 
Church,  London  ;  he  also  held  the  office  of  assistant 
librarian  of  the  British  Museum.  lie  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  Orthoepy,"  (1784,)  and  a 
"Chronological  View  of  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the 
Christian  Church,"  (1805.)  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "British  Critic."  Died  in  1829. 

Narfi.     See  NORVI. 

Narino,  na-rcn'yo,  (ANTONIO,)  a  South  American 
general,  born  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  in  1769.  He  fought 
against  the  Spaniards  in  1812-13,  was  in«ide  prisoner, 
and  was  confined  at  Cadiz,  where  he  died  about  1822. 

See  CAPTAIN  BONNYCASTI.K,  "Spanish  America,"  i.SiS;  L.-M.I.E- 
MANT,  "Histoire  de  la  Colombie,"  1826. 

Narni,  di,  de  nak'nee,  (GiROi.AMo  Mautin — mow- 
teen',)  an  Italian  monk  and  eloquent  preacher,  lived  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Nai'ri-en,  JOHN,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geometer,  born 
at  Chertsey  in  1782,  was  a  maker  of  mathematical  and 
philosophical  instruments  in  his  youth.  lie  contributed 
to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  and  published,  besides 
several  works  on  geometry,  a  "History  of  the  Origin 
and  Progress  of  Astronomy,"  (1838.) 

Nar'ses,  [Gr.  Nopov/c,]  a  celebrated  general  under  the 
emperor  Justinian  I.,  was  a  eunuch,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Asia.  He  was  early  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  and  in  538  A.D.  was  ap 
pointed  to  a  command  under  Belisarius  in  Italy.  Owing 
to  dissensions  arising  between  them,  Narses  was  recalled 
in  539,  but  he  was  sent  again  in  552  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Italian  army.  He  obtained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  Goths,  led  by  Totila,  and  recovered  Rome. 
Having  driven  the  barbarians  from  the  country,  he  was 
appointed  in  553  Exarch  of  Italy.  On  the  accession  of 
Justinus  II.,  Narses  was  superseded  in  his  command  by 
Longinus.  Died  in  558. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall,  of  the  Roman  Empire;'1  LB 
BF.AU,  "Histoire  du  Bas- Empire ;"  PROCOIMUS,  "Belium  Gothi- 
cum." 

Nar'ses  or  Narsi,  nar'see,  [Gr.  Na/w^f,]  a  Sassanide 
king  of  Persia,  a  son  of  Varanes  II.,  began  to  reign  in 
294  A.D.  He  waged  war  against  the  emperor  Diocletian, 
whose  army  he  defeated  in  Mesopotamia  in  296.  Having 
been  defeated  in  the  second  campaign,  Narses  sued  for 
peace,  and  in  297  made  a  treaty  by  which  he  ceded 
Mesopotamia  and  Armenia  to  Diocletian.  Narses  abdi 
cated  in  favour  of  his  son,  Hormisdas  II.,  in  303  A.D. 

Narssius.     See  NAERSSEN. 

Naruszewicz,  na-roo-sha'vitch,  (ADAM  STANISLAS,) 
a  Polish  historian  and  poet,  born  in  1733.  He  was  ap- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  nftt;  good;  moon ; 


UARVAEZ 


1657 


N  AS  MYTH 


pointed  successively  professor  of  poetry  in  the  Jesuits' 
College  of  Nobles  at  Warsaw,  and  Bishop  of  Smolensk. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  Poland,"  an  ex 
cellent  translation  of  Tacitus  into  Polish,  and  a  number 
of  lyrics,  fables,  and  satires.  Died  in  1796. 

See  BENTKOWSKI,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Polonaise." 

Narvaez,  de,  da  nau-va-Sth',  (PANFILO,)  a  Spanish 
commander,  born  at  Valladolid.  He  went  to  America 
in  or  before  1510,  and  served  in  the  army.  When  Ve 
lasquez,  Governor  of  Cuba,  learned  that  Cortez  disowned 
his  authority  in  Mexico,  he  sent  an  army  against  him, 
and  gave  the  command  to  Narvaez,  in  1520.  The  latter 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Cortez  at  Zampoala. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Indians  in  Florida  about  1527. 

See  PKHSCOTT,  "Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Narvaez,  de,  (RAMON  MARIA,)  Duke  of  Valencia,  a 
Spanish  general  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Andalusia 
about  1798.  He  fought  against  the  Carlists  in  1836-38, 
and  was  the  leader  of  the  insurrection  which  drove  Es- 
partero  from  power  in  1843.  He  was  prime  minister 
from  May,  1844,  to  February,  1846,  and  was  restored  to 
power  in  1849.  He  resigned  in  January,  1851,  was  again 
appointed  president  of  the  council  in  October,  1856,  and 
retired  from  office  in  November,  1857.  About  Septem 
ber,  1864,  he  again  became  prime  minister.  Died  in 
April,  1868. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Nascimeiito,  do,  do  nas-se-men'to,  (MANOKL,)  an 
eminent  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1734.  He 
was  driven  into  exile  by  the  persecution  of  the  Inquisi 
tion  in  1778,  after  which  he  lived  in  Paris  until  his  death. 
Among  his  works,  which  he  published  under  the  assumed 
name  ot  "  Filinto  Elysio,"  are  a  number  of  odes  and  a 
translation  of  La  Fontaine's  Fables.  Died  in  1819. 

See  A.  M.  SANE,  "  Poesie  lyrique  Portugaise,"  etc.,  1808  ;  L. 
DE  MKNDOCA,  "  Memorias  de  Litteratura  contemporanea." 

Naseef-al-Yazajee  or  Nasif-al-Yazaji,  na-seef  al 
ya'za-jee,  a  distinguished  Arabic  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  "the  Lebanon,"  probably  near  the  commence 
ment  of  the  present  century.  Although  a  Christian,  he 
is  said  to  have  devoted  his  life  solely  to  the  study  of  the 
language,  history,  literature,  and  grammar  of  the  Arabs. 
In  his  treatise  on  grammar  he  has  condensed,  with  rare 
ability  and  skill,  the  whole  system  of  the  Arab  gram 
marians.  "  No  more  complete  exposition  of  the  subject," 
says  Mr.  Chenery,  "has  ever  been  brought  into  a  vol 
ume  ot  the  same  size."  He  has  also  written  "  Makamat," 
("Assemblies,")  in  imitation  of  Hareeree,  (Hariri.) 
"  NaMt~,"  says  the  same  critic,  "has  little  of  the  poetical 
power  of  his  great  original,  but  in  curious  learning  he 
almost  equals  him." 

See  "  Assemblies  of  Hariri,"  Introduction,  pp.  gS-ioi. 

Naselli,  na-sel'lee,  (FRANCKSCO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ferrara.  The  churches  of  Ferrara  contain  many 
of  his  works.  Died  about  1630. 

Nash,  (AHNER,)  an  American  statesman  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Virginia.  Having  set 
tled  in  North  Carolina,  he  was  elected  in  1779  Governor 
of  that  State.  Died  in  1786. 

Nash,  (FRANCIS,)  an  American  brigadier-general, 
brother  of  Abner  Nash,  noticed  above,  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Germantown,  (1777.) 

Nash,  (FREDERICK,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Newbern,  North  Carolina,  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Abner 
Nash.  He  resided  mostly  at  Hillsborough.  He  became 
a  judsre  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Carolina  in  1844. 
Died  in  1858. 

Nash,  (JoHN,)  an  English  architect,  born  in  London 
in  1752.  He  was  appointed  in  1815  inspector  of  the 
royal  buildings.  He  furnished  the  designs  for  the  Hay- 
Market  Theatre,  Buckingham  Palace,  and  the  Pavilion 
of  Brighton,  also  the  plans  of  Regent  Street  and  Re 
gent's  Park.  Died  in  1835. 

Nash,  (JosF.i'H,)  an  English  painter  and  designer, 
born  about  1812.  He  designed  illustrations  for  "The 
Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1838.)  He  is  dis 
tinguished  as  a  painter  of  architecture. 

Nash,  (RICHARD.)  usually  called  BEAU  NASH,  was 
born  at  Swansea,  Wales,  in  1674.  He  entered  the  Mid 
dle  Temple  as  a  student  of  law,  but  had  an  invincible 
aversion  to  study  and  business.  He  distinguished  him 


self  as  a  man  of  fashion,  a  master  of  the  science  of 
gentility,  and  a  paragon  of  effrontery.  His  skill  as  a 
gambler  yielded  him  an  ample  revenue.  In  1704  he 
found  Bath  a  vulgar  and  mismanaged  watering-place, 
infested  with  ill-bred  people.  He  got  himself  appointed 
master  of  ceremonies,  and,  by  enforcing  the  rules  of  good 
bleeding  at  balls,  public  assemblies,  etc.,  converted  Bath 
into  a  fashionable  and  elegant  place  of  resort.  His 
person  was  coarse  and  ungainly,  but  his  vivacity  and 
benevolent  or  prodigal  habits  rendered  him  popular. 
He  is  said  to  have  taken  measures  to  guard  the  unwary 
youth  from  falling  victims  to  the  designs  of  villains. 
During  a  part  of  his  long  period  of  prosperity  and 
supremacy  at  Bath,  he  rode  in  a  six-horse  coach  with  a 
retinue  of  servants.  In  his  old  age  he  was  impoverished 
by  the  act  of  Parliament  which  suppressed  gaming. 
Died  in  1761. 

See  OLIVER  GOLDSMITH,  "  Life  of  Richard  Nash, "1763;  ''Ec 
centric  Personages,"  by  WM.  RUSSELL,  1866. 

Nash,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  wit  and  dramatist,  born 
in  Suffolk  about  1564.  He  was  the  author  of  '"The 
Supplication  of  Pierce  Penniless  to  the  Devil,"  (1592,) 
"Dido,"  a  tragedy,  (1594,)  a  comedy  entitled  "Sum 
mer's  Last  Will  and  Testament,"  (1600,)  and  several 
other  works,  which  had  great  popularity  in  that  age. 
Died  in  1601. 

See  WARTON,  "History  of  English  Poetry;"  DISRAELI,  "Ca 
lamities  of  Authors." 

Nash,  (TKEADWAY  RUSSKL,)  an  English  divine  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1725  or  1726.  He  published  "Col 
lections  for  a  History  of  Worcestershire,"  and  a  fine 
edition  of  Hudibras,  and  contributed  several  papers  to 
the  "  Archasologia."  Died  in  1811. 

Nasif-al-Yazaji.     See  NASEEF-AL-YAZAJEE. 

Nasiiii,  na-see'nee,  (ANTOMo,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Sienna  in  1641  ;  died  in 
1716. 

Nasiiii,  (GIUSEPPE  NiccoLd,)  a  skilful  painter,  born 
near  Sienna  about  1655,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  fresco  many  works,  the  subjects 
of  which  are  mostly  religious.  Died  in  1736. 

See  LAXZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nasir  -  ed  -  Deen  -  Mohammed  -  Ibn  -  Hassan,  or 
Nassir-eddyn-Mohammed-Ibn-Ha9an,  na'sir  ed- 
deen'  mo-him'med  ib'n  ha'san,  surnamed  AL-TOO'SEE, 
(or  AL-Tnousi,)  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  a  celebrated 
Persian  astronomer,  born  at  Toos,  (Tus  or  Thous,)  in 
Khorassan,  about  1200  A.D.,  became  superintendent  of 
an  observatory  in  Azerbaijan.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Ilchanic  Tables,"  which  are  said  by  Delambre  not  to 
differ  essentially  from  those  of  Ptolemv.  Died  in  1274. 

Nasir-  (or  Nasser-)  Ledeen-  (Ledin-)  Illah,  na'sir 
le-deen'  il'lah,  (Abool- Abbas- Ahmed,  a'bool  ab-baV 
rm'med,)  an  Abbasside  caliph,  began  to  reign  at  Bagdad 
in  1 1 80,  as  successor  of  his  father  Mostadee.  He  founded 
many  colleges,  hospitals,  and  mosques.  Died  in  1225. 

Na'smith,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish  philanthropist,  born 
in  Glasgow  in  1799,  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in 
promoting  religious  and  benevolent  associations.  He 
founded  in  1826  the  Glasgow  City  Mission,  and,  having 
subsequently  visited  England,  Ireland,  France,  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  he  established  missions  in 
their  principal  cities.  The  London  City  Mission,  which 
began  its  operations  in  1835  w'tn  f°ur  missionaries, 
numbered  in  1856  upwards  of  three  hundred.  Nasmith 
also  founded  the  London  Female  Mission,  the  Adult 
School  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  DR.  JOHN  CAMPBELL,  "Memoirs  of  David  Nasmith,"  1844. 

Na'smith,  (JAMES,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1740,  published  editions  of  the 
"  Itineraries"  of  Simon  and  William  of  \Vorcester,  and 
Tanner's  "Notitia  Monastica."  Died  in  1808. 

Na'smyth,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  celebrated  Scottish 
painter,  founder  of  the  so-called  Nasmyth  school,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1758.  He  painted  landscapes  and 
portraits  of  great  merit.  Among  the  latter,  that  of  Burns 
is  highly  esteemed,  and  is  said  to  be  the  only  authentic 
likeness  of  the  poet.  Died  in  1840. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  Ktguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


NASMTTH 


1658 


N4UBERT 


Nasmyth,  QAMES,)  a  Scottish  engineer  and  inventor, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1808. 
He  commenced  business  for  himself  as  a  mechanical 
engineer,  at  Manchester,  in  1834.  He  invented  a  steam 
hammer,  a  steam  pile-driver,  and  other  machines. 

See  SAMUEL  SMILES,  "  Industrial  Biography,"  etc.,  1864. 

Nasniyth,  (PATRICK,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1786.  He  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  landscape-painter,  and  had  five  sisters 
who  were  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  the 
art.  Died  in  1831. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Nassare,  nas-sa'ra,  (Bi.AS  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Alguezar  in  1689;  died  in 

I751- 

Nassau,  nas'saw,  [Ger.  pron.  nas'sow,]  HOUSE  OF, 
a  noble  family,  of  German  origin,  which  produced  many 
great  men,  and  derived  its  title  from  Nassau,  on  the 
Rhine.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  family  acquired 
the  principality  of  Orange,  in  the  southeast  of  France, 
after  which  the  Counts  of  Nassau  took  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Orange.  (See  ORANGE,  and  WILLIAM  III.  of  Eng 
land.) 

See  KKEMKR,  "  Geschichte  des  Nassauischen  Hauses." 

Nassau,  (HENRY,)  COUNT  OF,  a  Flemish  nobleman, 
inherited  from  his  father  large  estates  in  Brabant,  Flan 
ders,  and  Holland.  In  1515  he  married  the  sister  of 
Philibert,  Prince  of  Orange,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  Rene. 
Henry  was  a  confidential  friend  of  Charles  V.,  whose 
governor  he  had  been  in  that  emperor's  boyhood.  "  It 
was  he,"  says  Motley,  "whose  influence  placed  the  im 
perial  crown  upon  the  head  of  Charles."  He  was  the 
uncle  of  William  of  Orange,  the  founder  of  the  Dutch 
republic 

Nassau,  (MAURICE  OF,)  [Dutch,  MAURITS  VAN  NAS 
SAU,  mow'rits  vStn  nas'sow  ;  Ger.  MOKITZ  VON  NASSAU, 
mo'rits  fon  nas'sow,]  one  of  the  greatest  captains  of 
modern  times,  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Dillenburg  in 
November,  1567,  and  was  the  second  son  of  William  the 
Silent,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  founded  the  Dutch  repub 
lic.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  elected  Governor  and 
Captain-General  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  which 
were  then  at  war  with  Spain.  In  1591  he  took  Deventer, 
Zutphen,  and  other  fortified  towns.  He  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  a  great  pitched  battle  at  Turnhout  in  1597, 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Archduke  Albert 
of  Austria  at  Nieuwport  in  1600.  In  the  ensuing  cam 
paigns  his  skill  as  a  tactician  was  exerted  with  uninter 
rupted  success  until  1609,  when  Spa-in  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Dutch,  and  a  truce  of  twelve  years 
was  signed  by  the  two  powers.  The  patriot  Barneveldt, 
by  promoting  this  peace  and  opposing  the  ambitious  pro 
jects  of  Maurice,  incurred  his  enmity,  and  finally  became 
a  victim  of  his  cruelty.  (See  BARNEVELDT.)  Maurice 
received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother,  about  1618.  In  1621  he  renewed  the  war 
against  the  Spaniards,  who  opposed  to  him  the  celebrated 
general  Spinola.  "  His  great  capacity  in  the  military 
art,"  says  flume,  "  would  have  compensated  the  inferior 
ity  of  his  forces,  had  not  the  Spanish  armies  been  com 
manded  by  Spinola."  Maurice  compelled  his  rival  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Bergen -op-Zoom  in  1622,  but  Spinola 
took  Breda  in  1625.  He  died  in  1625,  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  office  of  Stadtholder  by  his  brother,  Frederick 
Henry,  who  was  the  grandfather  of  William  III.  of  Eng 
land.  Maurice  made  important  improvements  in  the 
military  art,  and  excelled  especially  in  the  reduction  and 
defence  of  fortified  places. 

See  STOI.KEK,  "Prins  Maurits,"  1827;  OUDEMANS,  "  Het  Leven 
en  de  Dacien  van  Maurits  Prlns  van  Oranje-Nassau,"  1832  ;  C.  M. 
VAN  DER  KEMP,  "  Manrits  van  Nassau  Prins  van  Oranje,"  etc., 
1844;  MOTI.KY,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands." 

Nassau-Siegen,  de,  deh  nas'sow  see'gen,  (CHARLES 
HENRI  NICOLAS  OTHON,)  PRINCE,  born  in  Nassau  in 
1745,  gained  distinction  by  his  adventures.  He  served 
in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  entered  the  service 
of  Russia.  He  gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  Turks 
in  1788.  Died  about  1809. 

Nassau-Siegen,  de,  (JAN  MAURITS,)  PRINCE, 
called  THE  AMERICAN,  a  Dutch  commander,  born  in 
1604,  was  a  grandson  of  John,  Count  of  Nassau.  He 


was  appointed  captain-general  of  the  Dutch  possessions 
in  Brazil  in  1636,  and  gained  several  successes  over  the 
Portuguese.  He  returned  to  Holland  in  1644,  and  was 
made  general-in-chief  of  the  cavalry.  He  left  in  manu 
script  a  work  on  the  Animals  of  South  America.  Died 
in  1679. 

See  VAN  KAMPEN,  "Johann  Moritz  von  Nassau:  eine  Bio- 
graphie,"  1842;  L.  DRIESEN,  "  Leben  des  Fiirsten  Moritz  von 
Nassau-Siegen,"  1849. 

Nast,  (WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  a  native  of  Germany,  emi 
grated  in  1828  to  America,  where  he  became  a  preacher 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  has  translated 
numerous  Methodist  works  into  German,  and  published 
several  books  in  that  language. 

Natal,  BISHOP  OF.     See  COLENSO. 

Natale,  na-ta'la,  [Lat.  NATA'LIS,]  (GERONIMO,)  a 
Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in  Majorca  in  1507.  He  declined 
the  office  of  general  of  the  order  of  fesuits  in  1558.  He 
wrote  "Commentaries  and  Meditations  on  the  Gospels," 
("  Adnotationes  et  Meditationes  in  Evangelia,"  1594.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1580. 

See  H.  FISQUET,  "Notice  snr  Jerome  Natalis,"  1856. 

Natali,  na-ta'Iee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
physician,  born  at  Messina  in  1642  ;  died  about  1730. 

Natali,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter,  of  the  school 
of  Cremona,  born  in  1652  ;  died  in  1722. 

Natalis.     See  NATALE. 

Natalis,  na-ta'lis,  (MICHAEL,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Liege  about  1609,  worked  at  Rome  and  Paris, 
lie  engraved  some  works  of  Titian,  Rubens,  and  Poussin. 
Died  in  1670. 

Na'than,  [Heb.  jnj  ;  Gr.  Nuflav,]  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
who  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Kings  David  and  Solomon. 
He  wrote  a  Life  of  David,  which  is  not  extant. 

See  II.  Samuel  xii.  ;  I.  Chronicles  xxix.  29;  I.  Kings  i. 

Nathan,  (ISAAC,)  called  also  Mordecai,  a  Jewish 
rabbi  of  the  fifteenth  century,  published  the  first  Hebrew 
Concordance  to  the  Bible.  It  is  entitled  "  MairNetib," 
or  "  Light  to  the  Path." 

Na'than  Ben  Jechiel,  (ben  yek'e-cT,)  a  Jewish  rabbi, 
president  of  the  synagogue  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  Tal 
mud  ical  Lexicon,  which  was  printed  about  1480.  Died 
in  1 1 06. 

Nathanael,  (of  Scripture.)     See  BARTHOLOMEW. 

Natoire,  nf  twau',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1700,  studied  under  Lemoine,  whose  un 
finished  works  he  completed.  Some  of  his  best  pictures 
are  at  Versailles  and  the  Hotel  de  Soubise.  Died  neat 
Rome  in  1777. 

See  DUMKSNIL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Francais." 

Natter,  nat'ter,  (JOHANN  LORENZ,)  a  celebrated  Ger 
man  gem-engraver,  born  in  Suabia  in  1705.  After  re 
siding  for  a  time  at  Rome,  he  visited  the  principal  courts 
of  Europe,  where  his  works  were  in  great  demand.  His 
imitations  of  the  antique  are  so  perfect  as  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  original.  Among  his  best  pro 
ductions  are  a  medal  in  honour  of  Sir  Robert  Wai  pole, 
and  a  victorious  Britannia,  on  a  gem.  Natter  published 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Antique  Method  of  engraving  Gems, 
compared  with  the  Modern."  Died  at  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1763. 

See  NAOI.EK,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Natterer,  nat'ter-er,  (Jon ANN,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Laxenburg,  near  Vienna,  in  1787.  He  travelled 
in  Brazil,  and  wrote  several  works  on  reptiles  and  mam- 
mi  fera.  Died  in  1843. 

Nattier,  nJt'tc-4',  (JEAN  MARC,)  a  French  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  portraits  of  Marshal  Saxe  and  the  Duke  of 
Richelieu.  He  was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts. 
Died  in  1766. 

Natzmer,  von,  fon  nats'mer,  (DUKISLAW  GNEOMAR,) 
a  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1654.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Blenheim,  (1704,)  and  com 
manded  the  Prussian  corpsat  Malplaquet,  (1709.)  Died 
in  1739. 

Naubert,  now'be'Rt,  (CHRISTIANE  BENEDICTS.  EU 
GENIE,)  a  celebrated  romance-writer  of  Germany,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1756.  Among  her  most  admired  works 
are  "Conradin  of  Suabia,"  "Walter  of  Montbarry,"  and 
"Thekla  of  Thurn."  The  latter,  it  is  said,  suggested  to 


3,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


NAUBRIGENSIS 


1659 


NAVEZ 


Schiller  many  fine  passages  in  "  Wallenstein."  Her 
"  Popular  Legends  of  Germany"  are  also  greatly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1819. 

Naubrigensis.    See  LITTLE,  (WILLIAM.) 

Nauclerus,  now-kla'rus,  (JoHANN  VERGEN,)  a  chron 
icler,  born  in  Suabia  about  1430.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  chronicle,  which  was  printed  in  1516.  Died  abouti5io. 

Nau'cra-tes,  |X«wvY>"~W,]  a  Greek  orator,  was  a  pupil 
of  Isocrates,  and  flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  wrote  on 
rhetoric. 

Nau-cy'des,  [Xat'/cwfyc,]  a  celebrated  Greek  sculptor, 
born  at  Argos  about  the  95th  Olympiad.  Among  his 
best  productions  were  two  statues  of  Chimon,  a  Mer 
cury,  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Erinna. 

Naudaeus.     See  NAUDE,  (GABRIEL.) 

Naude,  no'cla',  [Lat.  NAUD/E'US,]  (GABRIEL,)  a  dis 
tinguished  French  bibliographer  and  savant,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  i6co.  He  was  chosen  physician-ordinary  to 
Louis  XIII.  in  1633,  and  librarian  to  Cardinal  Richelieu 
in  1642.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Richelieu  (1642)  he 
became  librarian  to  Mazarin.  He  had  extensive  learning 
and  an  acute  understanding,  and  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Gassendi.  His  principal  works  are  an  "  Apology  for 
Great  Men  falsely  accused  of  Magic,"  (1625,)  "Biolio- 
grnphia  Politica,"  (1633,)  and  "  Considerations  on  Coups 
d'Etat."  A  collection  of  anecdotes  entitled  "  Naudaeana" 
was  published  in  1701.  Died  in  1653. 

See  Louis  JACOB,  "Gabrie'i^  Nauda;i  Tumulus,"  1659  ;  NICERON, 
"  Memoires  ;"  SAINTK-I'KUVE,  "  Portraits  litteraires,"  1855  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Naude,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  mathematician  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Metz  in  1654.  Having 
removed  to  Berlin,  he  was  appointed,  in  1696,  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  and  subsequently 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  soon  after  its  foundation. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  moral  and  theological 
works,  and  of  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1706.)  Died 
in  1729. 

Naudet,  no'di',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  scholar  and  his 
torian,  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1817,  and  professor  of 
Latin  poetry  in  the  College  cle  France  about  1821. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Monarchy  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,"  (1811.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Naudet,  (THOMAS  CHARLES,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1774.  He  travelled  over  a 
considerable  part  of  Europe,  and  made  a  collection  of 
three  thousand  designs.  Died  in  1810. 

Naugerins.     See  NAVAGERO. 

Naumann,  now'man,  ([OHANN  ANDREAS,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  near  Kothen  in  1744.  lie  published  a 
"History  of  the  Birds  of  North  Germany,"  (1795-1804.) 
Died  in  1826. 

Naumann,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  an  ornithologist, 
born  near  Kothen  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "  Natural  History  of  German  Birds," 
(1822-44.)  Died  in  1857. 

Naumann,  (TOHANN  GOTTLIEB  or  AMADEUS,)  a  Ger 
man  composer,  born  near  Dresden  in  1741.  He  pro 
duced  several  popular  operas ;  but  his  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  his  church  music.  Died  in  1801. 

See  MEISSNER,  "  Bruchstiicke  aits  J.  A.  Naumanns  Lebensee- 
schichte,"  2  vols.,  1804;  FETIS,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Mu- 
siciens." 

Naumann,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  mineral 
ogist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  Johann 
Gottlieb,  noticed  above.  He  published  several  suc 
cessful  works  on  mineralogy. 

Naumann,  (MORITZ  ERNST  ADOLPH,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  medical  writer,  was  born  at  Dresden 
in  1798.  He  wrote  an  important  work  on  clinic  medi 
cine,  "  Handbuch  der  medicinischen  Klinik,"  (8  vols., 
1829-39,)  and  other  works. 

Naun'ton,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  English  statesman,  rose 
to  be  secretary  of  state  and  master  of  requests  under 
James  I.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Fragmenta  Regalia," 
or  an  account  of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Died 
in  1635. 

Nausea,  now'za-5,  otherwise  called  Unrath,  oon'rat, 
and  Eckel,  ek'kel,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  theologian, 


born  near  Wurtzburg  about  1480.  He  became  preacher 
to  the  court  at  Vienna  in  1534,  and  Bishop  of  Vienna  in 
1541.  He  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
about  1550. 

See  DUPIN,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Nau-sic/a-a,  [Gr.  Xawi/cda,]  a  daughter  of  Alcinous, 
King  of  the  Phasacians,  showed  kindness  to  Ulysses 
when  he  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Phseacia,  (Corfu.) 
Tradition  adds  that  she  became  the  wife  of  Telemachus. 

Nau-sic'ra-tes,  [SavaiKparrif,]  a  Greek  comic  poet, 
whose  works  are  not  extant.  He  is  classed  by  some 
critics  among  the  writers  of  the  middle  comedy. 

Nauze,  La.     See  LA  NAUZE. 

Navagero,  na-va-ja'ro,[Lat.  NAUGE'RIUS,](ANDREA,) 
an  Italian  scholar  and  eminent  Latin  poet,  born  in  Venice 
in  1483.  He  passed  about  four  years  (1525-28)  at  Madrid 
as  Venetian  ambassador  to  Charles  V.,  and  exercised  an 
important  influence  on  Spanish  literature.  Having  been 
sent  on  a  mission  to  France,  he  died  at  Blois  in  1529. 
His  Latin  and  Italian  poems  are  admired  for  their  ele 
gance  and  purity  of  style. 

See  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  MENEGIIELLI, 
"  Elogio  di  A.  Navagero,"  1813. 

Navagero,  (BERNARDO,)  a  Venetian  statesman  and 
cardinal,  born  at  Venice  in  1507.  He  was  sent  as  am 
bassador  to  France  and  Germany,  and  attended  the 
Council  of  Trent.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Pope  Paul  IV." 
Died  in  1565. 

See  L.  MANIN,  "Elogio  del  Cardinale  Navagero,"  1814;  Au- 
BERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Navailles,  de,  deli  nt'vtl'  or  nt'vt'ye,  (PHILIPPE  de 
Montault  de  Benac — deli  moN'to'deh  ba'ntk',)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1619.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  marshal  of  France  in  1675.  Died  in  1684. 

See  "Memoires  de  sa  Vie,"  etc.,  written  by  himself,  i6qi. 

Navarre  or  Navarrese,  DOCTOR.    See  AZPILCUETA. 

Navarre,  na-var'ri,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  captain,  born 
in  Biscay,  was  a  skilful  engineer.  He  invented  or  im 
proved  the  art  of  undermining,  and  took  the  Castello 
del  Ovo  at  Naples  in  1503.  In  1514  he  entered  the 
service  of  Francis  I.  of  France.  Died  in  1528. 

See  BnANTdME,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Navarrete  or  Navarete.     See  MUDO,  EL. 

Navarrete,  na-var-ra'ta,  (DOMINGO  FERNANDEZ,)  a 
Spanish  Dominican,  born  in  Old  Castile,  was  a  mission 
ary  to  China  in  1646.  After  his  return  he  was  created 
Archbishop  of  Saint  Domingo  in  the  West  Indies.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  on  the  moral,  political, 
and  religious  condition  of  the  Chinese,  entitled  "Tra- 
tados  historicos,  etc.  de  la  Monarchia  de  China,"  (1676.) 
Died  in  1689. 

See  CHURCHILL,  "  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels." 

Navarrete,  (Don  MARTIN  FERNANDEZ,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian  and  geographer,  born  at  Abalos  in 
1765.  He  was  appointed  in  1823  director  of  the  Hydro- 
graphic  Institute  at  Madrid,  and  in  1837  was  made  a 
senator  and  director  of  the  Academy  of  History.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  a  "Collection  of  the  Voyages 
and  Discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  since  the  Close 
of  the  Fifteenth  Century."  It  is  eulogized  by  Humboldt, 
and  has  furnished  Irving  with  material  for  his  "Life  of 
Columbus."  He  also  wrote  a  "  Biography  of  Cervantes," 
and  assisted  in  preparing  a  valuable  "Collection  of  Un 
published  Documents  for  the  History  of  Spain,"  (un 
finished.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Academy, 
and  proposed  a  new  system  of  orthography,  which  was 
adopted  by  that  institution.  Died  in  1844. 

See  D.  DE  MOFRAS,  "Mendoza  et  Navarrete,"  1845. 

Navarro,  na-vaR'ro,  (AuousTiN,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Murcia  in  1754  ;  died  in  1787. 

Navarro,  (FELIPE,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Va 
lencia  about  1680. 

See  QUILLIET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Nave  or  Naeve,  na'feh,  written  also  Nefe,  (KASPAR,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1514; 
died  about  1580. 

Navez,  nt'va',  (FRANC.OIS  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  Bel 
gian  historical  painter,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1787,  was 
a  pupil  of  David.  He  worked  mostly  at  Brussels,  and 


•€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NAV1ER 


1660 


NESENIUS 


painted  many  scriptural  subjects.  He  was  regarded  as 
the  chief  of  the  Academic  school  of  Belgian  artists. 

Navier,  nt've-a',  (PIKRRK  TOUSSAINT,)  a  French 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Saint-Dizier  in  1712,  was 
the  discoverer  of  nitrous  ether.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published 
several  scientific  works.  Died  in  1779. 

Navieres,  de,  deh  njt've^ik',  (CHARLES,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Sedan  in  1544;  died  in  Paris  in  1616. 

Naville,  nf'veK,  (FKANC.OIS  MARC  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
writer  on  education  and  moral  philosophy,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1784.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Legal  Charity,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)  Died  in  1846. 

Nay'lor,  (JAMES,)  an  English  enthusiast,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1616.  He  became  an  eloquent  preacher 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  after  he  had  served  in  the 
army  of  the  Parliament,  which  he  left  in  1649.  Having 
fallen  into  delusions  and  received  acts  of  worship  from 
some  fanatical  persons,  he  was  convicted  of  blasphemy 
by  the  Parliament  in  1656.  He  was  branded,  pilloried, 
and  imprisoned  several  years.  Died  in  1660. 

See  SEWKI.,  "  History  of  the  Quakers  ;"  and  article  in  the 
"Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1846,  (by  WHITTIKK.) 

Nazianzen.     See  GREGORY  NAZIANZEN. 

Ne  or  Ni,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  CONFUCIUS, 
which  see. 

Neagle,  na'gel,  (JOHN,)  an  American  artist,  chiefly 
known  as  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1799. 
He  practised  his  art  in  Philadelphia,  where  lie  married 
a  daughter  of  Sully.  Among  his  works  are  portraits  of 
Washington  and  Henry  Clay.  Died  in  1865. 

See  DUNLAP,  "History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America;" 
TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Neal,  (ALICE  B.)     See  HAVKN,  (Ai.iCK.) 

Neal,  neel,  (DANIKI.,)  a  celebrated  English  dissenter, 
born  in  London  in  1678.  After  completing  his  studies 
at  Utrech't,  he  became  minister  of  a  congregation  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  London.  His  principal  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Puritans,"  (in  4  vols.,)  and  a  "  History 
of  New  England."  Died  in  1743. 

See  WILSON,  "History  of  Dissenting  Churches." 

Neal,  (JoHN,)  an  American  poet  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1793.  His  first  publications  were 
a  series  of  essays  on  the  works  of  Byron,  which  ap 
peared  in  "  The  Portico,"  a  monthly  magazine.  These 
were  soon  followed  by  his  novel  entitled  "  Keep  Cool," 
(1817,)  "The  Battle  of  Niagara,"  (1818,)  "Goldau,  the 
Maniac  Harper,"  and  other  poems ;  also  "  Logan," 
(1822,)  "Seventy-Six,"  (1823,)  and  other  novels.  In 
1824  lie  visited  England,  where  he  contributed  a  num 
ber  of  able  and  interesting  articles  on  American  litera 
ture  to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine."  After  his  return,  he 
published  the  novels  of  "  Rachel  Dyer,"  (1828,)  "The 
Down-Easters,"  (1833,)  "True  Womanhood,"  (1859,) 
and  several  other  works.  In  1870  appeared  his  "Wan 
dering  Recollections  of  a  Somewhat  Busy  Life."  "The 
elements  of  poetry,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  are  poured 
forth  in  his  verses  with  a  prodigality  and  power  alto 
gether  astonishing  ;  but  he  is  deficient  in  the  constructive 
faculty." 

See  GRISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  :"  DUVCKINCK,  "  Cy 
clopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Neal,  (JOSEPH  C.,)  an  American  journalist  and  hu 
morous  writer,  born  at  Greenland,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1807.  Having  settled  in  Philadelphia,  he  became  in  1831 
editor  of  "The  Pennsylvanian,"  and  in  1844  of  a  literary 
journal  entitled  "  Neal's  Saturday  Gazette,"  which  soon 
acquired  extensive  popularity.  He  published  in  1837 
"Charcoal  Sketches,  or  Scenes  in  a  Metropolis,"  which 
were  received  with  great  favour,  and  were  republished 
in  London.  They  were  followed  by  "Peter  Ploddy,  and 
other  Oddities,"  (1844,)  and  another  series  of  "Char 
coal  Sketches."  Died  in  1848. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Ne-al'§es,  [NeaAK^c,]  a  Greek  painter,  born  about 
213  B.C.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicyon. 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
and  are  eulogized  by  Plutarch  and  Pliny.  One  of  his 
principal  pieces  represents  a  battle  between  the  Egyp 
tians  and  the  Persians  on  the  Nile. 


Neale,  neel,  QOHN  MASON,)  an  Ei^Hsh  theologian 
and  historical  writer,  born  about  1818.  He  published, 
besides  several  books  for  children,  u  "  History  of  the 
Holy  Eastern  Church,"  and  other  works. 

Neander,  na-an'der,  (Cir.usTOPH  FRIEDRICH.) 
(changed  from  Neumann,)  a  German  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  Courland  in  1724.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Spiritual  Songs,"  ("  Geistliciie  Lieder,")  which  are 
ranked  among  the  best  compositions  of  that  kind  in  the 
language.  Died  in  1802. 

See  "  Bruchstiicke  von  Neanders  Le'oen,"  Berlin,  1804. 

Ne-an'der,  [Ger.  pron.  na-an'der,]  (JoHANN  AUGUST 
WII.HELM,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and  ecclesi 
astical  historian,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Got- 
tingen  in  1789.  lie  became  in  1812  professor  of  theology 
at  Berlin,  where  he  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the 
duties  of  his  office  and  the  advancement  of  Christianity 
by  his  numerous  writings.  Of  these  the  most  important 
is  his  "Universal  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 
Church,"  (in  5  vols.,  1843.)  Among  his  other  produc 
tions  we  may  name  "The  Emperor  Julian  and  his  Times," 
(1812,)  "Memorable  Occurrences  from  the  History  of 
Christianity  and  Christian  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1822,)  "His 
tory  of  the  Planting  of  the  Apostolic  Church,"  (1832,) 
and  "The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  in  its  Historical  Rela 
tions,"  (1837,)  an  able  refutation  of  the  well-known  work 
of  Strauss.  Neander  was  a  member  of  the  Consistory 
of  the  province  of  Brandenburg.  His  writings  have 
obtained  great  reputation  and  influence  in  foreign  coun 
tries,  as  well  as  in  Germany.  Died  in  Berlin  in  July,  1850. 

"  Neander  still  remains  beyond  doubt  the  greatest 
church  historian,  thus  far,  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Great,  too,  especially  in  this,  that  he  never  suffered  his 
renown  to  obscure  at  all  his  sense  of  the  sinfulness  and 
weakness  of  every  human  work  in  this  world.  With  all 
his  comprehensive  knowledge,  he  justly  regarded  him 
self  as,  among  many  others,  merely  a  forerunner  of  a 
new,  creative  epoch  of  ever-young  Christianity.  .  .  . 
'We  stand,'  he  said,  'on  the  line  between  the  old 
world  and  a  new,  about  to  be  called  into  being  by  the 
ever-fresh  energy  of  the  gospel.  For  a  fourth  time 
an  epoch  in  the  life  of  our  race  is  in  preparation  by 
means  of  Christianity.'"  (Dr.  Schaff's  "History  of 
the  Apostolic  Church.") 

See  KRAHHK,  "A.  Neander,"  1852;  "  Zum  GedSchtniss  A.  Nean- 
der's,"  Berlin,  1850:  HEKZO<;,  "  Real-Encyklopadie  ;"  W.  KARREI.L, 
"Memorial  of  A.  Neander,"  1851;  "North  British  Review"  for 
February,  1851  ;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1868. 

Neander,  (MICHAEL,)  a  German  Protestant  divine 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Lower  Silesia  in  1525,  was 
a  pupil  of  Melanchthon.  He  wrote  a  number  of  Greek 
and  Latin  treatises.  Died  in  1595. 

See  REIN-HARD,  "DeVila  M.  Neander,"  1756:  NICKR.-IN,  "Me- 
nioires ;"  HAVEMANN,  "Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Leben  M.  Nean- 
der's,"  1841. 

Neander,  (MICHAEL,)  a  learned  German  physician, 
born  in  Misniain  1529.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
a  "Synopsis  of  Weights  and  Measures  according  to  the 
Romans,  Athenians,"  etc.  Died  in  1581. 

Ne-ar'-ehus,  [Gr.  Nea/^oc;  Fr.  NEARQUE,  na'Skk',]  a 
celebrated  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  a  native 
of  Crete,  or,  as  some  assert,  of  Amphipolis.  About  327 
i:.C.  he  set  sail  from  the  Indus  for  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
discovered  on  his  passage  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris.  A  detailed  account  of  this  voyage  is 
given  by  Arrian,  the  accuracy  of  which  has  been 
confirmed  by  Vincent  and  other  modern  geographers. 
Nearchus,  on  his  return,  was  received  with  distinguished 
favour  by  Alexander,  who  assured  him  that  he  rejoiced 
more  in  the  success  of  the  expedition  than  in  having 
conquered  Asia.  He  also  received  from  his  sovereign 
a  golden  crown.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Nearchus 
was  made  governor  of  Pamphylia  and  Lycia. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Vita  Alexandri ;"  VINCENT,  "Voyage  of  Near 
chus  to  the  Euphrates,"  etc.,  1797;  GOSSELIN,  "  Geographie  des 
Grecs." 

Nearque.     See  NKARCHUS. 

Nebel,  na'bel,  (DANIKI.,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at 
Heidelberg  in  1664.  He  published  several  works  on 
botany.  Died  in  1733. 

Nebeiiius,  na-ba'ne-us,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  statesman  and  able  writer  on  political  economy, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEBI 


1661 


NECKHAM 


born  near  Landau  in  1784.  He  was  president  of  the 
Council  of  Baden  from  1846  to  1848.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Treatise  on  Public  Credit,"  (1820.)  Died  in  1857. 

See  HROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Nebi,  neb'ee,  an  admired  Turkish  poet  of  the  seven 
teenth  century,  flourished  under  the  reign  of  Mahomet 
IV. 

Neb-ris-sen'sis,  (.-\NTONIUS,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  ANTONIO  DE  LEBKIXA, 
(da  la-bkee'Ha,)  was  born  at  Lebrixa  in  1444.  He  studied 
the  classics  in  Italy,  and,  returning  to  Spain  in  1473,  ')e~ 
came  to  that  country  what  Erasmus  was  to  Germany  or 
Bude  (Budasus)  to  France.  As  professor  in  the  Univer 
sity  of  Salamanca,  he  initiated  a  reform  in  the  method  of 
teaching  Latin  and  Greek.  He  published  a  Latin  Lexi 
con,  (1492,)  a  "Lexicon  of  Civil  Law,"  (1506,)  which  is 
highly  commended,  and  grammars  of  the  Latin,  Greek, 
and  I  iebrew  languages.  About  1514  he  became  professor 
of  ihetoric  at  Alcala.  "The  men  to  whom  Spain  chiefly 
owes  the  advancement  of  useful  learning,"  says  Hallam, 
"  were  Arias  Barbosa  and  the  more  renowned  Antonio 
de  Lebrixa."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu 
rope.")  Died  in  1522. 

See  PRKSCOTT,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Ne'brus,  [Gr.  Xefywc,]  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 
flourished  about  580  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Cos.  When  the  Amphictyons  besieged  the 
town  of  Crissa,  in  Phocis,  Nebrus  assisted  in  reducing 
the  town  by  poisoning  the  water. 

Neb'u-ehad-nez'zar,  [Heb.  1VHJ"'313J ;  Fr.  NA- 
BUCHODOXOSOR,  nt'boo'ko'do'no'zoR',  or  NABOKO- 
PROSSOK,  nt'bo'ko'dRo'soR7,]  King  of  Babylon,  succeeded 
his  father  Nabopolassar.  He  took  Jerusalem  in  606 
B.C.,  and  carried  to  Babylon  many  captives,  among  whom 
was  the  prophet  Daniel.  King  Zedekiah  having  revolted, 
Nebuchadnezzar  took  his  capital  in  588,  destroyed  the 
great  temple  by  fire,  threw  down  the  walls  of  the  city, 
and  transported  the  Jewish  people  to  Babylon.  He 
afterwards  captured  Tyre,  conquered  Egypt,  and  became 
probably  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  that  age  in  the 
world.  Having  become  too  much  elated  by  pride  and 
prosperity,  he  was,  by  divine  visitation,  deprived  of  his 
reason  and  deposed  from  his  throne.  Restored  to  reason 
and  power  a  short  time  before  his  death,  he  published 
a  pious  proclamation  of  his  experience  and  of  his  recog 
nition  of  the  King  of  heaven. 

See  II.  Kings  xxv.  i  ;  Daniel  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.  ;  also,  SAMUEL 
CLARKE,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,"  1664. 

Necham.     See  NECKHAM. 

Ne'-eho  [Gr.  Ne/cwf,  Ne^aw,  or  Ne'^wf]  or  Pha'ra-oh 
Ne'-eho,  King  of  Egypt,  a  son  of  Psammeticus,  reigned 
from  617  to  601  B.C.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and 
defeated  Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  in  battle  at  Megiddo, 
but  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  606  B.C.  at 
Carchemish. 

See  Bi'xsEN,  "  Egyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte." 

Neck,  van,  vSn  nek,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Naarden  in  1635.  His  master-piece  is  "  Simeon  in  the 
Temple  holding  the  Infant  Jesus  in  his  Arms."  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1714. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Necker,  nek'ker  or  ni'kaiu',  (ALBEKTI.NE  ADRIENNE 
de  Saussure — deh  sS'siiu',)  a  Swiss  authoress,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1766,  was  a  daughter  of  the  naturalist,  H.  B. 
de  Saussure.  She  was  married  to  J.  Necker,  a  nephew 
of  the  great  financier,  and  a  cousin  of  Madame  de 
Stael,  of  whom  she  was  an  intimate  friend.  She  wrote  a 
"Notice  of  the  Character  of  Madame  de  Stael,"  (1820,) 
and  "Progressive  Education,"  (2  vols.,  1828-32.)  Died 
in  1841. 

See  SENEBIER,  "Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 
Necker,  nek'ker,  [Fr.  pron.  ni'kaiu',]  (JACQUES,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  financier,  and  prime  minister  of  France, 
born  at  Geneva  in  September,  1732.  On  leaving  col 
lege  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  banking-house  in  Paris,  and, 
having  acquired  a  large  fortune  as  partner  of  the  great 
banker  Thelusson,  he  retired  from  business  in  the  prime 
of  life,  and  aspired  to  public  honours  and  more  brilliant 
financial  achievements.  In  1773  he  gained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  French  Academy  for  a  eulogy  on  Col 


bert,  and  published  a  treatise  on  the  corn-laws,  "  Sur  la 
Legislation  des  Grains."  The  disorder  of  the  finances  was 
so  alarming  that,  without  regard  to  official  routine,  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  treasury  in  1776,  and 
director-general  of  the  finances  in  1777.  By  publicity, 
order,  and  economy,  he  restored  the  public  credit  and 
lightened  the  burdens  of  the  people.  His  famous 
comfte  rendii  of  1781  (which  was  the  first  public  exposi 
tion  of  the  revenue  and  expenses  of  the  State)  was  re 
ceived  with  great  favour  ;  but  his  reforms  made  for  him 
many  enemies  at  court  and  elsewhere.  To  defend  him 
self  against  their  intrigues,  he  asked  for  a  seat  in  the 
council,  which  was  refused  because  he  was  a  Protestant. 
He  immediately  resigned,  (1781,)  and  retired  to  Coppet, 
on  Lake  Leman. 

In  1784  he  published  his  excellent  work  "On  the  Ad 
ministration  of  the  Finances,"  of  which  eighty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  a  few  days.  The  convocation  of 
the  States-General  was  decreed  by  the  royal  council  in 
August,  1788.  The  court  was  convinced  that  the  skill 
of  Necker  was  indispensable  in  the  political  and  financial 
crisis  that  followed.  He  succeeded  Brienne  as  prime 
minister,  or  controleur-geneial  of  finances,  about  Sep 
tember  i,  1788,  and  the  next  day  the  funds  rose  30  per 
cent.  He  favoured  the  Revolution  by  granting  to  the 
Tiers-Etat  a  double  number  of  deputies.  He  is  censured 
for  this  concession,  and  for  temporizing  in  the  contest 
between  the  Ticrs-Etat  and  the  other  orders  after  the 
meeting  of  the  States-General  in  1789.  The  court  having 
adopted  more  violent  measures  than  he  approved,  he 
tendered  his  resignation,  (June  23,)  which  was  not  ac 
cepted.  On  the  nth  of  July  he  was  suddenly  dismissed 
by  a  note  from  the  king,  who  ordered  him  to  leave  the 
kingdom  privately  ;  and  the  same  night  he  departed  for 
Brussels.  Indignant  at  his  dismissal,  the  populace  of 
Paris  rose  in  arms,  stormed  the  Bastille,  and  obtained  a 
bloody  triumph  over  the  court.  Necker  was  recalled  on 
the  2ist  of  July,  and,  when  he  entered  Paris,  was  received 
with  enthusiastic  demonstrations  by  the  people.  His 
first  act  was  an  amnesty  for  political  offences.  But  he 
was  too  conservative  to  satisfy  the  popular  party,  and 
resigned  his  office  in  September,  1790.  He  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life  at  Coppet,  where  he  wrote  several  political 
and  religious  treatises.  Died  in  1804.  The  highly-gifted 
Madame  de  Stael  was  his  daughter. 

See  MADAME  UK  STAEL,  "  Vie  piivee  de  M.  Jacques  Necker,' 
1804;  DROZ,  "  Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  THIERS,  "  His 
toryoftlie  French  Revolution  ;"  LANJUINAIS,  "  fitudesbiographiques 
stir  Antoine  Arnauld,  P.  Nicole  etj.  Necker,"  1823  ;  SAINTE-|>EUVE, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi  ;"  A.  L.  DK  STAEI.-HOLSTEIN,  "Notice  sur 
Necker,"  1821;  "  Noiivelle  liiographie  Generale ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1803,  (by  SYDNEY  SMITH.) 

Necker,  (Louis  ALBERT,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1786,  was  a  son  of  Albertine  A.  de  Saussure- 
Necker.  He  published  "  Le  Regne  mineral  ramene  aux 
Methodes'de  1' Histoire  naturelle,"  (2  vols.,  1835.) 

Nec'ker,  (NoEL  JOSEPH,)  a  botanist,  born  in  Flanders 
in  1729,  gave  special  attention  to  mosses.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  Description  of  the  Wild  Plants 
of  France  and  Belgium,  ("Deliciae  Gallo-Belgicas  Syl- 
vestres,"  2  vols.,  1768,)  and  "  Methodus  Muscorum," 
(1771.)  Died  in  1793. 

See  P.  R.  WII.LEMET,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  N.  J.  Necker,"  1794. 

Necker,  (SUSANNE  Curchod — kuu'sho',)  an  accom 
plished  and  literary  Swiss  lady,  born  at  Grassier  in  1739. 
She  was  intimate  in  her  youth  with  Gibbon  the  historian, 
who  wished  to  marry  her;  but  his  father  opposed  the 
match.  She  was  married  to  M.  Necker  in  1764.  Her 
salon  in  Paris  was  the  resort  of  the  most  eminent  authors, 
including  Buffon,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert.  She  founded 
a  hospital  in  Paris  which  bears  her  name.  She  died  in 
1794,  leaving  manuscripts  which  her  husband  published 
under  the  title  of  "  Melanges,"  (5  vols.,  1798-1802.) 

See  GIBBON,  "  Memoirs  ;"  GRIMM,  "  Correspondance  ;"  MARMON- 
TEL,  "  Memoires." 

Neck'ham  or  Nec'kam,  written  also  Necham, 
(ALEXANDER,)  an  English  monk  and  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Saint  Alban's  or  Hartford  about  1150.  He  wrote,  in 
elegant  Latin,  several  works,  among  which  is  a  long 
scientific  and  descriptive  poem,  "  De  Naturis  Rerum." 
Died  in  1227. 

See  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria,"  etc. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NECTAN4BIS 


i662 


NEHER 


Nec-taii'a-bis  or  Nec-tan'e-bei,  [Gr.  Ne«ruva/3tc  o: 
Najnrave/fyf,]  King  of  Egypt,  began  to  reign  about  360 
li.c.  He  waged  war  against  Artaxerxes  III.  of  Persia 
who  invaded  and  conquered  Kgypt  about  350  H.C.  Nee 
tanabis  was  the  last  king  of  the  Sebennite  dynasty. 

Nec-ta'ri-us,  [Nf/crupraf,]  a  Greek  prelate,  became 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  381  A.n.  His  moderation 
is  said  to  have  been  exemplary.  He  died  in  397,  anc 
was  succeeded  by  Chrysostom. 

Nee,  ni,  (FRANCOIS  DKNIS,)  a  French  engraver,  born 

in  Paris  about  1732.     He  engraved  many  landscapes  anc' 

plates  for  illustrated  works,  among  which  is  "Tableaux 

pittoresques  cle  la  Suisse."     Died  in  1818. 

See  BASAN,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Neeb,  nap,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 

near  Hanau  in  1767.     He  published  several  works  on 

philosophy.     Died  in  1843. 

Needham,  need'am,  (foii.v  TURBERVILLE,)  F.R.S., 
an  English  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1713,  was  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest.  He  published  "New  Micro 
scopical  Discoveries,"  (1745,)  and  a  treatise  on  genera 
tion,  in  French,  "Idee  sommaire,  ou  Vue  generale  du 
Systeme  physique  et  metaphysique  sur  la  Generation,' 
(1780.)  He  became  director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Brussels,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  HUTTON,  "Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary." 
Needham,  (MARCHMONT,)  an  English  political  writer, 
born  at  Burford  in  1620.  He  supported  the  cause  of  the 
Parliament  in  his  "  Mercurius  Britannicus,"  a  weekly 
journal,  (1643-47,)  and  that  of  the  king  in  his  "Mercu 
rius  Pragmaticus."  In  1649  he  again  changed  sides, 
and  became  editor  of  the  "Mercurius  Politicus,"  an 
organ  of  the  Independents.  His  most  remarkable  work 
was  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Excellency  of  a  Free  State 
over  a  Kingly  Government."  Died  in  1678. 
See  WOOD,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 
Needham,  (WALTER,)  an  English  anatomist,  studied 
it  Oxford,  and  practised  medicine  in  London.  lie  be 
came  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  about  1667.  He 
wrote  an  able  treatise  "  De  Formato  Foetu."  Died  in 
11691. 

Neefs,  nafs,  or  Neef,  naf,  (PETER,)  THE  ELDER,  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1565.  He  excelled 
in  perspective,  and  in  representing  the  interiors  of  Gothic 
churches  and  convents,  illuminated.  The  figures  in  his 
pictures  are  generally  painted  by  Breughel,  Teniers,  and 
others.  His  "  Cathedral  of  Antwerp"  is  esteemed  a 
master-piece.  Died  in  1651.  His  son,  PETER  MARTIN, 
THE  YOUNGER,  imitated  his  father's  style,  but  did  not 
equal  him. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 
Neele,  neel,  (HENRY,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Lon 
don  in   1798,  was   an   attorney.      He   wrote  "Dramatic 
Scenes,"  "  The  Romance  of  History,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1828. 

Neer,  van  der,  vfn  der  nair,  (AART  or  ARNOLD,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  about 
1619.  His  moonlight  scenes,  winter  landscapes,  and 
pictures  into  which  water  is  introduced,  are  ranked 
among  the  finest  productions  of  the  kind.  Died  in 
1683. 

Neer,  van  der,  (EGLON  HENDRIK,)  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in    1643.      He  studied 
under  Vanloo,  and  attained   eminence  as  a  painter  of 
landscapes,  portraits,  and  historical  pieces.    Died  in  1703. 
See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 
Neercassel,  van,  vfn  naiu'kas'sel,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch 
bishop  and  writer,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1623.    lie  was  the 
only  Roman  Catholic  bishop  in   Holland.      He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Amor  Pcenitens,  sen  de  recto  Usu 
Clavium,"  (1683.)     Died  in  1686. 

Nees  von  Esenbeck,  nas  fon  a'zen-beV,  (CHRIS 
TIAN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  botanist,  born  in  1776. 
He  became  professor  of  natural  history  at  Bonn  about 
1819,  and  afterwards  lectured  at  Breslau.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Botany,"  (2  vols., 
1821,)  and  "  Bryologia  Germanica,"  (2  vols.,  1823-1:1.) 
Died  in  1858. 

See  F.  L.  BLEV,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  der  Gebruder  Nees  von 
Esenbeck,"  1844. 


Nees  von  Esenbeck,  (THEODOR  FRIEURICH  LUD- 
WIG,)  a  botanist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  borii 
near  Erbach  in  1787.  He  wrote  several  botanical  works. 
Died  in  1837. 

Neff,  net,  (FELIX,)  a  meritorious  Swiss  missionary, 
called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Alps,"  was  born  at  Geneva 
in  1798.  He  laboured  as  missionary  among  the  Swiss 
mountaineers.  Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Felix  Neff,  Pastor  of  the  High  Alps,"  etc., 
by  WILLIAM  S.  GILI.Y,  London,  1832  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1833,  (by  SOUTHEY.) 

Neffbzer,  neft'ser,  (AUGUSTS,)  a  French  journalist, 
born  at  Colinar  in  1820.  He  was  an  assistant  editor  of 
the  "  Presse,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris,  from  1844  to  1857. 

Nefi,  nef/ee,  a  distinguished  Turkish  satirist,  who 
flourished  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Negelein,  na'geh-lin',  QOACHIM,)  a  German  theolo 
gian  and  numismatist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1675  ;  died 
in  1749. 

Neg'ley,  (JAMES  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Alleghany  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1826.  In  1861  he 
raised  a  brigade,  which  he  commanded  in  Tennessee  in 
1862.  He  took  command  of  the  post  of  Nashville  in 
September  of  that  year,  and  led  a  division  at  Stone 
River,  December  31,  i862-January  2,  1863.  For  his 
conduct  in  this  battle  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  in  which  capacity  he  served  at  the  battle  of 
Chickarnauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863. 

Negrelli-Moldelbe,  von,  fon  na-guel'lee  mol-cleT- 
beh,  (ALOIS,)  an  engineer,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1799. 
He  constructed  the  first  railroad  in  Austria,  (finished  in 
1841,)  and  other  railroads.  Died  in  1858. 

Negri.     See  NEGRO. 

Negri,  na'gRee,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  learned  Italian  eccle 
siastic  of  Ravenna.  He  travelled  in  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  and  returned  home  in  1666.  The  results 
of  his  observations  appeared  in  a  work  entitled  "Travels 
in  the  North."  Died  in  1698. 

Negri,  (FRANCESCO  VINCENZO,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1769.  He  wrote  a  "  Life 
of  Apostolo  Zeno,"  (1816,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1827. 

See  TIPALDO,  "Notizie  della  Vita  di  F.  Negri,"  1835;  G.  J. 
FONTANA,  "Elogiodi  F.  Negri,"  1829. 

Negri,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  artist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1593.  He  founded  two 
Academies, — namely,  the  Iiidistinti,  devoted  to  the  arts 
of  design,  and  the  Indomiti,  (1640.)  Died  in  1659. 

Negri,  (GIROLAMO,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Venice  in  1494.  He  died  in  1577,  leaving  "  Orationes 
et  Epistolae,"  (1579.) 

Negri,  (Giui.io,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  biographer, 
born  at  Ferrara  in  1648.  He  rendered  an  important 
service  to  literary  history  by  his  "Storia  degli  Scrittori 
Fiorentini,"  ("History  of  the  Florentine  Authors,"  1722.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Negri  or  Neri,  na'ree,  (PiETRO  MARTINE,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Cremona, 
flourished  in  1600. 

Negrier,  na'gue-i',  (FKANC.OIS  MARIE  CASIMIR,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Mans  in  1788.  He  served  in 
Algeria,  and  was  killed  in  Paris  by  the  insurgents  in 
June,  1848. 

Negro,  na'gRo,  or  Negri,  na'gRee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  philologist  and  Reformer,  born  at  Bassano  in 
1500,  embraced  Protestantism,  and  removed  to  Ger 
many.  He  published  several  works.  Died  about  1560. 

See  G.  B.  ROBERTI,  "Notizie  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  F. 
Negri,"  1839. 

Negruzzi,  na-gRoot'see,  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  Moldavian 
)oet,  born  in  1809.  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
listorical  poem.  . 

Ne-he-mi'ah,  [  Heb.  iTOm ;  Fr.  NEHEMIE,  na'- 
a'me',]  a  Hebrew  governor  and  writer,  was  cup-bearer 
o  Artaxerxes,  King  of  Persia,  who  appointed  him 
jovernor  of  Judea  about  445  B.C.  He  probably  wrote 
he  book  of  the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name. 

Nehemie.     See  NEHEMIAH. 

Neher,  na'er,  (BERNARD,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
jorn  at  Biberach  in  1806.  He  painted  frescos  at  Munich 
and  in  the  palace  of  the  grand  duke  at  Weimar.  These 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  me"t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


NEIDHARDT 


1663 


NELSON 


represent  scenes  from  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  the 
works  of  Goethe. 

Neidhaidt.     See  GNEISENAU. 

Neidhart  von  Neuenthal,  nlt'haRt  fon  noi'en-tal', 
one  of  the  principal  German  lyric  poets  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Bavaria.  The  best  collection 
of  his  songs  is  that  published  by  Beneke  in  his  "Contri 
butions  to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Old  German  Language 
and  Literature." 

Neigebaur,  m'geh-bowR',  (JOHANN  DANIEL  FERDI 
NAND,)  a  German  traveller  and  writer,  born  in  Silesia 
in  1783.  He  published  books  of  travel  and  descriptions 
of  Italy,  France,  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  which 
are  said  to  be  well  written. 

Neikter,  nlk'ter,  (JOSEPH  FREDERIK,)  a  Swedish 
archaeologist  and  writer,  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence 
at  Upsal  in  1787.  Died  in  1803. 

Neill,  neel,  (JAMES  GEORGE  SMITH,)  a  British  general, 
born  about  1810.  He  rendered  important  services  in 
India  during  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Lucknow,  in  September,  1857. 

Neill,  neel,  (PATRICK,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  hor 
ticulturist,  born  in  1776.  He  followed  the  trade  of  a 
printer  in  Edinburgh,  and  published  a  "  Tour  through 
some  of  the  Islands  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,"  (1806,) 
and  "The  Fruit,  Flower,  and  Kitchen  Garden,"  (1839.) 
Died  in  1851. 

Neipperg,  von,  fon  nip'p^RO,  (Ai.uRECirr  ADAM,) 
COUNT,  an  Austrian  general,  born  about  1774.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  in  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  a 
high  rank  in  the  army.  He  was  appointed  cavalier 
i^honneur  to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa  about  1815. 
He  is  said  to  have  married  her  secretly.  Died  in  1829. 

Neipperg,  von,  (WiLHELM,)  an  Austrian  field-mar 
shal  in  the  service  of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa,  was 
born  in  1684,  and  was  the  grandfather  of  the  preceding. 
In  1739  he  concluded  the  disadvantageous  peace  of  Bel 
grade,  and  in  1741  was  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great 
at  Mollwitz.  He  retained  the  favour  of  his  sovereigns, 
however,  and  was  made  imperial  counsellor  of  war,  and 
commander  of  Vienna.  Died  in  1774- 

Nelaton,  na'li't6NT',  (AucusTE,)  an  eminent  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  graduated  in  1836,  and 
became  professor  of  surgery  to  the  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
Paris,  in  1851.  He  published,  besides  other  treatises, 
"Elements  of  Pathological  Surgery,"  (5  vols.,  1844-61,) 
which  is  called  a  capital  work.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1867.  He  was  employed 
professionally  by  Napoleon  III.  about  1869. 

Neledinsky'  Meletzky,  na-la-den'ske  ma-let'skee, 
(YoORli,)  an  eminent  Russian  lyric  poet,  born  in  Mos 
cow  in  1751.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Paul, 
who  conferred  upon  him  a  valuable  estate  and  several 
honorary  distinctions.  His  songs  are  among  the  most 
admired  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  Died 
in  1829. 

See  GRETCH,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Nelee.     See  NELEUS. 

Ne'leus,  [Gr.  N^eif  ;  Fr.  NELEE,  na'la',]  a  mythical 
personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune  (or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  of  Crethens)  and  Tyro.  Neleus  and 
his  brother  Pelias  disputed  for  the  throne  of  lolchos, 
which  the  latter  obtained.  Neleus  afterwards  became 
King  of  Pylos  and  the  father  of  Nestor  and  other  sons. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Neller,  nel'ler,  (GEORGCHRISTOPH,)  a  German  canon 
ist  and  antiquary,  born  in  1710;  died  in  1783. 

Nelli,  nel'lee,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  satirical  poet  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Sienna.  His  satires 
were  published  in  1546. 

Nelli,  de',  da  nel'lee,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
architect, born  at  Florence  in  1661.  He  wrote  a  "Treat 
ise  on  Architecture,"  (1753.)  Died  in  1725. 

Nelli,  de',  (GIAMBATTISTA  CLKMENTE,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1725,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Galileo,"  (I793-) 
Died  in  1793. 

Nel'son,  (DAVID,)  an  American  Presbyterian  divine 
and  eloquent  preacher,  born  near  Jonesborough,  Ten 
nessee,  in  1793.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Dan 
ville,  Kentucky,  in  1828,  and  subsequently  assisted  in 


founding  a  college  in  Marion  county,  Missouri,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  president.  His  work  entitled  "  The 
Cause  and  Cure  of  Infidelity"  enjoys  a  high  reputation, 
and  has  passed  through  numerous  editions.  Dr.  Nelson 
was  an  earnest  advocate  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
Died  in  1844. 

Nel'spn,  (HORATIO,)  LORD,  a  British  naval  hero  and 
admiral  of  the  first  order,  born  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  in 
Norfolk,  on  the  29th  of  September,  1758,  was  the  son 
of  Rev.  Edmund  Nelson  and  Catherine  Suckling.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  intrepidity  and  energy,  and  pos 
sessed  a  generous,  impetuous  temper.  He  went  to  sea 
about  the  age  of  thirteen,  served  a  number  of  years  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  took  part  in  several  actions  of  the 
American  war.  In  1779  he  became  a  post-captain,  and 
in  1787  married  the  widow  of  Dr.  Nisbet,  of  the  island 
of  Nevis.  He  obtained  command  of  a  ship  in  the  Medi 
terranean  fleet  in  1793,  contributed  to  the  victory  over 
the  Spaniards  at  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  the  same  year.  His  next 
enterprise  was  an  attack  on  Teneriffe,  where  he  was 
repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  his  right  arm. 

In  1798  he  attempted  to  intercept  the  passage  of  the 
French  armament  to  Egypt,  but  missed  it,  until  he  ovr- 
took  it  in  Aboukir  Bay,  where  in  August  he  gained  i 
decisive  battle  of  the  Nile.     For  this  service  he  was 
warded  with  the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nik. 
a  pension   of  ^3000.     While  he  was  employed  on   I 
coast  of  Naples,  (1799,)    he  became   fascinated   by  U,i_ 
pernicious   influence   of  Lady  Hamilton,  and    tarnished 
his  fame  by  executing  Prince  Carraccioli  and  other 
publicans,  who  were  sacrificed  to  the  vengeance  of  t 
court  of  Naples.     Soon  after  these  events  he  separat 
from  his  wife,  who  was  supplanted  in    his  affections 
Lady  Hamilton.    He  was  second  in  command  under  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  of  the  armament  sent  against  Copenhagen 
in  1801  ;   but  the  honour  of  the  victory  at  the  battle  of 
the  Baltic  is  ascribed   to  Nelson.     In  the  midst  of  the 
battle,  Parker  having  made  a  signal  to  retreat,  Nelson 
put  a  spy-glass  to  his  blind  eye  and  exclaimed,  "  I  rea 
don't  see   the  signal."     "  He  had  won  the   day,"   sa 
Southey,  "  by  disobeying  orders."     For  this  success 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount. 

War  against  France  having  been  renewed  in  1803, 
took  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  hoist 
his  flag  on  the  Victory,  and  watched  the  French  fleet  off 
Toulon  for  more  than  a  year.     In  May,  1805,  he  sail   d 
for  the  West  Indies  in   pursuit  of  Admiral  Villeneuv. 
but  was  disappointed,  and  the  hostile  fleet  returned  salt 
to  Europe,  followed  by  the  English   admiral.     He  th- 
went  home  and  proposed  to  suspend  his  active  servii 
but  was  re-appointed  in  September,  1805,  in  accordan 
with  the  general  wishes  of  the  nation,  by  whom  he  w,i:- 
more    idolized   than   almost  any    /tnei 
On  the  2ist  of  October,   (1805,)   with   tv<: 
of  the  line  and  four  frigates,  he  ittack. 
French  and   Spanish   fleets,  of  forty  shi. 
neuve,  near  Cape  Trafalgar.     Beiore  th 

gave  the  famous  signal,  "  Englanc.  ..., ever) 

do  his  duty."     The  English  gained  a  complete  victoiy, 
but  Nelson  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  musket-ball  fii 
from  the  Redoutable,  which  was  in  close  proximity 
the  flag-ship,  the  Victory.      He  is  eulogized  by  South  • 
as  "the  greatest  naval  hero  of  our  own  and  of  all  forn 
times." 

See  R.  SOUTHEY,  "Life  of  Nelson,"  1813;  J.  S.  CLARKE,  "1 
of  Admiral  Lord  Nelson,"  1809;  THOMAS  PETTIGREW,  "Men  . 
of  Lord  Nelson,"  1840;  J.  M.  TUCKER,   "Memoirs  of  the   I 
Lord  Nelson,"  1847;  JOSEPH   AI.I.EN,  "Life  of  Viscount  N. 
lS53  :  JOHN  CHAKNOCK,    "Memoirs  of  Lord  Nelson,"  180'. 
PHONSE  DE  LAMARTINE,  "Nelson,"  1853;  E.  FORGCKS,  "  I! 
de  Nelson,"  1860  ;   ALISON,  "  History  of  Europe  ;"  "  London  On  M-- 
terly  Review"  for  February,  1810,  (by  SOUTHEY;)   "  EdinburglSR* 
view"  for  September,  1814  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Deceml 
1844;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1848. 

Nelson,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  devotional  writer,  1  . 
in    London   in  1656.     Among   his  works  we  may  na 
"The  Whole  Duty  of  a   Christian,"  and  "Practice 
True   Devotion."     In  1680  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow     : 
the  Royal  Society.     He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Arch 
bishop 'Tillotson  and  of  Dr.  Halley.     Died  in  1715. 

Nelson,  (ROGER,)  an  American  general,  who  served 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  represented  a  district  ol 


e  as  k;  9  a?' „ ;  •  ~>  km  •  ,  K,  1C,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  §  as  t:  t-h  as  \~<  tkii 


See  Explan;, 


NELSON 


1664 


NEPOS 


Maryland  in  Congress  for  several  terms,  (1804-10.)  Died 
in  1815. 

Nel'son,  (SAMUEL,)  an  Irish  patriot, born  in  1759,  was 
editor  of'a  political  journal  called  the  "  Northern  Star." 
He  was  imprisoned  six  years,  and  released  after  the 
treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802. 

Nelson,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  judge,  born  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  lie  became  an  associate  justice  ot 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1845.  He 
concurred  in  the  decision  of  the  court  in  the  Dred  Scott 
case,  (1857.) 

Nelson,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  patriot,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  York,  in 
Virginia,  in  1738.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  Eng 
land,  and  after  his  return  was  elected  to  the  Congress 
of  1775.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  brigadier- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the 
commonwealth.  In  1781  he  succeeded  Jefferson  as 
Governor  of  Virginia.  Died  in  1789. 

See  GOOOKJOI,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  In 
dependence." 

Nelson,  (\Vn.i.i.\M,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Maysville,  Kentucky,  in  1825.  He  served  in  the  navy, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  master  in  1854.  In  September, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 
army.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
April,  1862.  I  le  was  killed  in  a  private  quarrel  at  Louis 
ville  in  September,  1862,  by  Jefferson  C.  Davis. 

Ne-me-si-a'nus,  [Fr.  NtMAsiEN,  na-'ma'ze^N',] 
(MARCUS  AURKI.IUS  OLYMIMUS,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Carthage.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  Cams 
in  283  A. n.  His  works  are  lost,  except  fragments  of  a 
poem  on  hunting,  entitled  "Cynegetica,"  the  style  of 
which  is  commended  for  purity. 

Nemesien.     See  NKMKSIANUS. 

Nem'e-sis,  [Gr.  Ne/ztotf,  from  VK/J.U,  to  "deal  out," 
to  "distribute;"  Fr.  N&M&SIS,  na'ma'sess',]  a  personage 
of  Greek  mythology,  represented  as  a  daughter  of  Night 
or  Erebus.  She  was  the  goddess  of  retribution,  and  the 
divinity  who  rectified  the  errors  of  partial  and  capricious 
Fortune.  At  Rhammus,  in  Attica,  there  was  a  celebrated 
temple  dedicated  to  Nemesis. 

Ne-me'si-us,  [NtjUeotof,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  who 
lived  probably  between  350  and  450  A.D.  He  is  styled 
Bishop  of  Emesa.  He  wrote  an  ingenious  treatise  on 
physiology  and  psychology,  entitled  "On  the  Nature  of 
Man,"  (  flepl  tivat-u?  uv6pij~ov.)  It  contains  a  passage 
which  suggests  an  idea  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

See  Hu.l.KR,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica." 

Nemours,  de,  (GASTON  DE  Foix,)  Due.     See  Foix. 

Nemours,  de,  deli  neh-moou',  (HKNRI  de  Savoie — 
deli  st'vwa',)  I) re,  a  French  general,  a  son  of  Jacques, 
noticed  below,  (1531-85.)  was  born  in  Paris  in  1572. 
He  joined  the  League  about  1588,  but  entered  the  ser 
vice  of  Henry  IV.  a  few  years  later.  Died  in  1632. 

Nemoursj  de,  (JACQUES  d'Armagnac — daVmfn'- 
ySk'.)  Due,  born  about  1437,  was  a  son  of  Bernard 
d'Armagnac.  In  1465  he  joined  the  league  of  the  Z>/<?« 
public  against  Louis  XI.  He  was  executed,  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  in  1477. 

St-e  SISMOSIM,  "  Histoire  des  Francais;"  BARANTE,  "  Histoire 
des  Dues  de  BourjEOgne." 

Nemours,  de,  (JACQUES  DE  SAVOY,)  Due,  a  distin 
guished  French  general,  born  in  Champagne  in  1531, 
was  the  son  of  Philip,  Due  de  Genevois  and  de  Ne 
mours,  whose  sister  Louise  was  the  mother  of  King 
Francis  I.  lie  fought  against  the  Protestants  in  the 
civil  war,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Saint-Denis,  in  1567.  He  opposed  the  ambitious  designs 
of  the  Guise  family,  and  took  no  part  in  the  civil  war  be 
tween  the  League  and  the  king.  Died  in  1585. 

Si-e  BRAN-TOME,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Nemours,  de,  (Louts  D'ARMAGNAC,)  Due,  a  French 
military  commander,  born  about  1472,  was  a  son  of 
Jacques,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  Italy  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  was  made  Viceroy  of  Naples  by  Louis 
XII.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Cerignola,  while 
opposing  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  (1503.)  He  was  the  last 
of  the  family  of  Armagnac,  and  the  duchy  of  Nemours 
was  given  to  Gaston  de  Foix  in  1505. 

See  SISMONDI.  "  Histoire  des  Francais;"  SAINT-GELAIS,  "  His 
toire  de  Louis  XII." 


Nemours,  de,  (Louis  CHARLES  PHILIPPE  RAPHAEL 
d'Orleans — dok'la'oN',)  Due,  a  French  prince,  a  son 
of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in  1814.  He  was 
chosen  King  of  Belgium  by  a  congress  of  that  nation  in 
1831,  but  was  compelled  by  his  father  to  decline  the 
offer.  He  served  in  the  army  in  Algeria,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1837.  After  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother  (1842)  he  was  recognized  as  future 
regent  in  case  the  king  should  die  during  the  minority 
of  his  heir,  the  Count  of  Paris.  On  the  abdication  of 
Louis  Philippe  (1848)  he  waived  his  claim  to  the  re 
gency  in  favour  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  whom  he 
attended  when  she  presented  herself,  with  her  son,  before 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

See  A.  PASCAL,  "  Le  L>uc  de  Nemours,  son  Passe  et  son  Avenir 
politique,"  1842. 

Nemours,  de,  (MARIE  D'ORLEANS,)  DUCHESSE, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Longueville,  was  born  in  1625, 
and  married  in  1657  to  Henry  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  Ne 
mours.  She  died  in  1707,  leaving  interesting  "  Memoirs" 
ot  her  life  and  times,  which  were  published  in  1709. 

See  Vn.i.EKoRK,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Longueville ;"  SAINT- 
SIMON,  "  Memoires." 

Neii'm-us,  one  of  the  early  British  chroniclers,  is 
stated  by  some  writers  to  have  lived  in  the  seventh,  and 
by  others  in  the  ninth,  century.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Britons,"  ('"  Historia  Britonum,"  or 
"  Elogium  Britannia?,")  first  published  in  Gale's  "Col 
lection  of  English  Historians,"  (1691.) 

See  WKIGIIT,  "  Hiojjraphia  Britannica  Literaria." 

Neobar,  na'o'bSu',  (CONRAD,)  a  learned  printer,  of 
German  extraction,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I.  in 
Paris.  Died  in  1540. 

Ne'o-phron,  [Neo^puv,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century  H.c.  Only  small  frag 
ments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  CLINTON,  "  Fasti  Hellenic!. " 

Neoptoleme.     See  NEOPTOLEMUS. 

Ne-op-tol'e-mus,  [Gr.  Nforn-oAwoc :  Fr.  NEOivro- 
LEME,  na'op'to'lam',1  also  called  Pyrrhus,  a  fabulous 
Greek  warrior,  was  a  son  of  Achilles.  He  was  one  of 
the  heroes  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse  at  the  siege 
of  Troy.  According  to  Virgil,  he  killed  Priam  at  the 
;  capture  of  Troy,  ("yEneid,"  book  ii.  546.)  In  the  dis 
tribution  of  captives,  he  obtained  Andromache,  widow 
of  Hector. 

Neoptolemus,  a  Macedonian  general  in  the  service 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
he  became  governor  of  Armenia,  and  united  with  An- 
tipater  in  a  hostile  movement  against  Perdiccas  and 
F.umenes.  lie  was  killed  in  battle  by  Eumenes,  whom 
he  encountered  in  single  combat,  about  320  n.C. 

Neoptolemus,  King  of  Epirus,  was  a  cousin-german 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  in  302  u.c. 
He  was  assassinated  by  order  of  the  celebrated  Pyrrhus, 
who  became  king. 

Nepair  or  Neper.    See  NAPIER,  (JOHN.) 

Nepomucene.    See  NEPOMUK. 

Nepomucenus.     See  NKPOMUK. 

Nepomuk,  na/po-mook',  or  Nepomucky,  na-po- 
moots'kee,  [Lat.  NEPOMUCI-/NUS  ;  Fr.  NEPOMUCENE. 
na'iip'mu'sau',)  (foiiN,)  the  patron  saint  of  Bohemia, 
born  at  Nepomuk  about  1330.  Having  given  offence  tr> 
King  Wenzel,  he  was  drowned,  by  his  orders,  in  the 
Molclau,  (1383.)  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Innocent 
XIII.  in  1721. 

See  BAI.BINUS,  "Vita  Nepomnceni."  1680;  JOHANNEAUD,  "Jean 
Nepomucene,"  1851;  PASSI,  "Vita  di  S.  Giovanni  Nepomuce'io," 
1729. 

Ne'pos,  (CORNELIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian 
of  the  time  of  Julius  Cassar.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Cicero  and  Atticus,  and  dedicated  to  the  latter  his 
"Vitffi  Excellentium  Imperatorum,"  ("  Lives  of  the  Illus 
trious  Generals.")  This  work,  which  is  his  only  one 
extant,  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  and  graceful  sim 
plicity  of  its  style,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  as  a 
class-book  in  schools  and  colleges. 

See  J.  C.  F.  P.AEHR,  "  Geschichte  der  Rbmischen  Literatur;" 
"Nouvt:l!e  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Nepos,  (FLAVIUS  JULIUS,)  was  created  Emperor  of  the 
West,  A.D.  473,  by  Leo  X.,  the  Emperor  of  the  East.  He 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure ;  &r,faVi,$t;  m§t;  ndt;  gdpd;  moon ; 


NEPTUNE 


1 66; 


NERONI 


concluded  a  peace  with  Euric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  to 
whom  he  ceded  a  portion  of  Gaul.  In  475  Orestes,  a 
native  of  Pannonia,  marched  against  Nepos,  defeated 
him,  and  proclaimed  his  own  son  Romulus  Emperor  of 
the  West.  In  480  Nepos  was  assassinated  at  Salona. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Nep'time,  [Lat.  NEPTU'NUS,]  the  god  of  the  sea,  a 
Roman  divinity,  identified  with  the  Posei'don  of  the 
Greek  mythology.  He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn 
and  Rhea,  the  brother  of  Jupiter,  and  the  father  of  Triton. 
His  wife  was  Amphitrite.  He  was  regarded  as  equal  in 
dignity  to  Jupiter,  but  inferior  in  power.  The  poets 
feigned  that  he  once  conspired  with  Apollo  and  Juno 
against  Jupiter,  that  he  built  the  walls  of  Troy  for  Lao- 
meclon,  and  that  he  resented  the  perfidy  of  that  king  by 
fighting  against  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Nep 
tune  and  Minerva  disputed  for  the  possession  of  Attic.i, 
or  for  the  honour  of  naming  its  capital,  and  the  gods 
decided  that  the  preference  should  be  given  to  the  one 
who  should  bestow  on  man  the  most  valuable  gift. 
Neptune,  with  a  stroke  of  his  trident,  produced  the  war- 
horse,  and  Minerva  created  the  olive,  which  was  judged 
to  be  the  more  useful  of  the  two.  He  is  also  fabled  to 
have  disputed  with  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva  for  the 
sovereignty  of  several  other  countries.  The  symbol  of 
his  power  was  the  trident,  with  which  he  shook  the  solid 
land  and  controlled  the  stormy  sea.  The  poets  describe 
him  as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  horses  on  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  the  waves  of  which  subside  at  his  approach, 
and  attended  by  a  retinue  of  marine  monsters  which 
play  around  him.  Besides  his  residence  on  Olympus, 
lie  had  a  fine  palace  in  the  depth  of  the  sea  near  /Egae. 

Neptunus.     See  NEPTUNK. 

Nera'tius  (ne-ra'she-ns)  Fris'cus,  a  Roman  jurist 
under  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Adrian,  whose  favour 
and  patronage  he  enjoyed.  He  was  the  author  of  nume 
rous  books  on  the  Roman  law,  which  have  been  often 
quoted  by  later  jurists. 

See  SICKF.I.,  "  De  Neratio  Frisco,"  1788. 

Nerciat,  de,  deh  neR'se'a',(  ANDRE  RORF.RT  ANDREA,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Dijon  in  1739.  -He  wrote 
several  licentious  novels.  About  1790  he  emigrated  to 
Naples,  and  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Caroline.  Died 
in  1 800. 

Neree.     See  NEREUS. 

Neree,  ni'ra',  (R.  J.,)  a  French  poet,  lived  in  the 
time  of  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a  drama  entitled  "The 
Triumph  of  the  League,"  (1607.) 

Ne're-ids,  [Gr.  N?;p??«5ff,  sing.  N7?p?iV  ,•  Lat.  NERE'- 
IDES  ;  Fr.  NEREIDES,  ni'r&'ed',]  the  daughters  of  Nereus, 
were  sea-nymphs  or  mermaids  of  Greek  mythology.  The 
number  of  the  Nereids  was  fifty.  Among  them  were 
Amphitrite  and  Thetis,  the  mother  of  Achilles.  The  Ne 
reids  were  represented  originally  as  beautiful  maidens, 
and  sometimes  as  half  woman  and  half  fish. 

Ne're-is  or  Ne-re'i-ne,  a  name  given  to  each  of  the 
NEREIDS,  which  see. 

Ne'reus,  [Gr.  N7?pri>c;  Fr.  NEREE,  na'ra',]  a  marine 
divinity  of  classic  mythology,  called  a  son  of  Pontns  and 
the  Earth,  and  the  father  of  the  Nereids.  He  was  repre 
sented  as  a  wise  and  prophetic  old  man  of  the  sea,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  he  lived.  The  poets  feigned  that  he 
could  assume  various  forms,  like  Proteus,  and  would  only 
reveal  the  future  when,  having  exhausted  his  powers  of 
transformation,  he  was  reduced  to  his  original  shape. 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  seized  him  and  extorted  from 
him  some  secret  respecting  the  golden  apples  of  the 
Hesperides. 

Neri.     See  NEGRI,  (PIETRO  MARTINE.) 

Neri,  na'ree,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at 
Florence,  lived  about  1570-90.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On 
the  Art  of  making  Glass,"  (1592,)  often  reprinted. 

Neri,  [Lat.  NE'RIUS,!  (FILIPPO,)  called  SAINT  PHILIP 
NERI,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Florence  in  1515. 
He  founded  about  1548  the  Congregation  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Oratory,  the  members  of  which,  without  taking 
a  monastic  vow,  were  required  to  live  in  the  exer 
cise  of  devotion  and  charity  and  apply  themselves  to 
theological  studies.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
musical  entertainments  called  nratorios,  from  their  being 
performed  in  a  chapel  or  oratorio.  He  died  in  I595> 


and  Baronius,  afterwards  cardinal,  succeeded  him  as 
general  of  the  order.  Neri  was  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV.  in  1622. 

See  F.  W.  FABER,  "Spirit  and  Genius  of  Saint  Philip  Neri," 
1850;  A.  GAI.I.ONIO,  "Vita  beati  Philippi  Nerii,"  Rome,  1600; 
"Vita  Ph.  Nerii,"  Munich,  1611  ;  L.  BERTRAND,  "Vida  y  Hechos 
de  S.  Fe.ipe  Neri,"  1613;  P.  G.  BACCI,  "Vita  di  S.  Filippo  Neri," 
1622;  A.  VASQUKZ,  "  S.  Felipe  Neri  Epitome  de  sua  Vida,"  1651 ; 
L).  M.  MANNI,  "  RagKionamenti  sulla  Vita  di  F.  Neri,"  1786;  "Vie 
de  Saint-Philippe  de  Neri,"  (anonymous.)  1847. 

Neri,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Bologna  about  1660;  died  in  1726. 

Neri,  (POMPEO,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  political  econo 
mist,  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1707. 
He  was  professor  of  public  law  at  Pisa,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Florence  in  1758.  He  founded  the  Tuscan 
Academy  of  Botany,  and  wrote  on  currency,  etc.  Died 
in  1776. 

See  A.  RIDOI.FI,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Neri,"  1817. 

Nericault-Destouches.     See  DESTOUCHES. 

Nerius.     See  NERI,  (Fn.ippo.) 

Nerii,  neR'lee,  (FILIPPO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
at  Florence  in  1485,  was  a  senator  and  an  adherent  of 
the  Medici.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence  from 
1215  to  1537,"  which  was  first  published  in  1728.  Died 
in  1556. 

See  a  "Life  of  Nerii"  prefixed  to  his  History. 

Ne'ro,  [Fr.  NERON,  ni'roN';  It.  NERONE,  na-ro'na,] 
(Lucius  DOMITIUS.)  the  sixth  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
born  in  37  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Domitius  Ahenobarbus 
and  Agrippina,  daughter  of  Germanicus.  His  mother, 
after  becoming  a  widow,  having  married  her  uncle  the 
emperor  Claudius,  the  latter  adopted  Nero  and  gave  to 
him  his  daughter  Octavia  in  marriage,  adding  to  his 
name  that  of  Claudius  Drusus.  On  the  death  of  Clau 
dius,  who  was  poisoned  by  Agrippina,  A.D.  54,  Nero  was 
proclaimed  emperor,  to  the  exclusion  of  Britannicus,  the 
son  of  Claudius.  The  counsels  of  Seneca  and  Burrus, 
who  were  placed  at  the  head  of  government,  had  for  a 
time  a  salutary  effect  upon  Nero,  and  the  first  years  of 
his  rule  were  marked  by  kindness  and  justice  ;  but  his 
evil  passions  eventually  prevailed,  and  the  remainder  of 
his  reign  was  signalized  by  a  series  of  atrocities.  Be 
coming  jealous  of  Britannicus,  he  caused  him  to  be 
poisoned,  and,  having  soon  after  formed  an  attachment 
to  Poppasa,  murdered  his  mother  at  her  instigation  and 
made  her  his  wife.  He  next  caused  Octavia,  whom  he 
had  divorced,  to  be  put  to  death.  In  A.D.  64  Rome  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  Nero  was  accused  of 
having  kindled.  It  was  said  that  he  amused  himself, 
while  viewing  the  conflagration,  with  reciting  vers  -; 
descriptive  of  the  fall  of  Troy.  In  order  to  remove  sus 
picion  from  himself,  he  charged  the  crime  upon  the 
Christians,  many  of  whom  were  in  consequence  subjects  •! 
to  the  most  cruel  tortures.  A  conspiracy  formed  agah  • 
the  tyrant,  A.D.  65,  was  discovered,  and  many  distin 
guished  citizens  were  executed,  among  whom  were 
Lucan  and  Seneca.  Soon  after  this,  Vindex  and  Galba 
revolted  against  the  emperor,  who,  on  hearing  of  their 
defection  and  that  of  the  praetorian  guards,  destroyed 
himself,  with  the  assistance  of  a  servant,  A.D.  68. 

See  TACITUS,  "Annales;"  SUETONIUS,  "Vita  Neronis  ;"  TII.I.F- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs :"  MERIVAI.E,  "History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
LENIS  DIDEROT,  "  Essai  sur  les  Regnes  de  Claude  et  de  Neron,' 
2  vols.,  1782. 

Nero,  a  Roman  prince,  born  about  7  A.D.,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina.  After  the 
death  of  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  Nero  was  the  next 
heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  put  to  death  in  29  A.D.,  at 
the  instigation  of  Sejanus,  who  contrived  to  excite  the 
suspicion  of  Tiberius  against  Nero. 

Nero,  del,  del  na'ro,  or  Negro,  na'gRo,  (ANDALONE,) 
an  Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1270.  He 
taught  astronomy  at  Rome  and  Naples.  He  is  highly 
praised  by  Boccaccio,  who  was  his  pupil.  Died  after 
1342. 

See  GlNGUEMi,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Neron.     See  NERO. 

Neroiii,  na-ro'nee,  or  Negroni,  na-gRo'nee,  (BARTO- 
LOMMEO,)  called  RICCIO,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna;  died  in  1573. 


e  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttura/;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

IDS 


(S^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEROULOS 


1666 


NETTELSLADT 


Neroulos,  ne-roo'los,  (YAKOVAKIS  Rizos,)  a  moden 
Greek  poet  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  in  Constan 
tinople  in  1778.  He  wrote  several  tragedies,  and  a 
"Modern  History  of  Greece,"  (1828.)  About  1834  he 
became  minister  of  public  instruction  in  Greece,  and  in 
1841  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  1850. 

Nerva,  (CoccEius.)     See  COCCKIUS. 

Ner'va,  (MARCUS  COCCEIUS,)  a  Roman  emperor,  bon 
in  Umbria  in  32  A.D.  He  was  consul  with  Vespasiar 
in  71,  and  with  Domitian  in  90  A.D.  On  the  death  of 
Domitian,  in  the  year  96,  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
the  army  and  the  people.  His  administration  was  mile" 
and  liberal.  He  recalled  exiles  who  had  been  banishec 
by  former  emperors,  and  enforced  penalties  against  in 
formers.  He  made  and  performed  a  vow  that  he  woulc 
not  put  any  senator  to  death.  His  mutinous  praetorian 
soldiers  compelled  him  to  permit  the  execution  of  the 
assassins  of  Domitian.  He  adopted  Trajan  as  his  sot 
and  successor,  and  died  in  98  A.D. 

See  Tii.LEMONT,  "  Histnire  des  Empereurs ;"  AURELIUS  VICTOR, 
"DeViribus  illnstribiis ;"  J.  J.  DE  BARRETT,  "  Histoire  des  deux 
Regnes  de  Nerva  et  de  Trajan,"  1790. 

Nerval,  de,  deli  neVvtl',  (GERARD,)  or  Gerard 
Labrunie,  (IS'bRii'ne',)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1808.  lie  made  a  good  translation  of  Goethe't 
"Faust,"  (1828,)  wrote  verses,  comedies,  etc.,  aidec 
Alexander  Dumas  in  several  works,  and  contributed  to 
the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He  fell  in  love  with 
Jenny  Colon,  an  actress,  and  became  subject  to  a  modi 
fied  form  ot  insanity,  which  did  not  much  impair  his 
genius.  Among  his  works  is  "  Les  Illumines,  ou  les 
Precurseurs  du  Socialisme,"  (1852.)  He  died  by  sui 
cide  in  1855.  "That  which  he  wrote,"  says  fidouarcl 
Thierry,  "  was  simple  and  excellent,  ingenious  and 
perfectly  natural." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Nervesa,  neR-va''sa,  (GASPARO,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  born  in  Friuli,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian. 
He  lived  about  1540. 

Nes,  van,  vtn  lie's,  (JAN,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Delft  in  1588;  died  in  1650. 

Nes'bit  or  Nis'bet,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  anti 
quary,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1672.  He  wrote  a  work 
"On  Heraldry,"  (2  vols.,  1722-42.)  Died  in  1725. 

Nesimee  or  Nesimi,  nes'e-mee,  a  celebrated  Turk 
ish  philosopher  and  free-thinker,  flourished  in  the  fif 
teenth  century. 

Nesle,  de.     See  DKNESLE. 

Nesmond,  de,  deh  n£s'm6N',  (HENRT,)  a  French 
prelate  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Bordeaux  about 
1645.  He  became  Bishop  of  Montauban  in  1687,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse  in  1719.  In  1710  he  succeeded 
Flechier  in  the  French  Academy.  He  wrote  agreeable 
verses.  Died  in  1727. 

See  D'ALEMBERT,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  1'Acadeime  Fran- 
caise." 

Nesse,  ness,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  English  noncon 
formist  minister,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1621.  Having 
been  ejected  in  1662,  he  removed  to  London  in  1675, 
and  preached  in  that  city  about  thirty  years.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  History  and  Mystery  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1696.)  Died 
in  1705. 

See  WILSON,  "History  of  Dissenting  Churches." 

Nessel,  nes'sel,  (EDMOND,)  a  distinguished  Flemish 
physician,  born  at  Liege  in  1658;  died  in  1731. 

Nessel,  nes'sel,  [Lat.  NESSE'LIUS,]  (MARTIN,)  a  Ger 
man  teacher  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Moravia  in  1607; 
died  about  1680. 

Nesselius.     See  NESSEL. 

Nesselrode,  von,  fon  nes'sel-ro'deh,  (CHARLES 
ROBERT,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  of  German 
extraction,  was  born  in  December,  1780,  at  Lisbon,  where 
his  father  was  Russian  minister.  He  acquired  in  the 
early  part  of  his  life  the  confidence  of  Alexander  I.,  and 
was  sent  to  Paris  as  councillor  of  the  embassy  in  1807. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  obtained  a  high  office  in  the  de 
partment  of  foreign  affairs.  He  took  an  important  part 
in  the  negotiations  which  united  Russia  and  other  powers 
in_a  coalition  against  Napoleon.  In  1816  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Having  held  that  post  forty 


years,  under  three  successive  emperors,  he  resigned  in 
1856.     Died  in  March,  1862. 

See  CAPEKIGI'E,  "  Diplomates  Europeans  ;*'  THIERS,  "  History 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire  ;"  BAU.EYDIER,  "  Histoire  de 
I'Emperetir  Nicolas;"  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "  M.  de  Nesselrode,  par  tin 
Homme  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Nessi,  nes'see,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Cpmo  in  1741.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
treatise  on  Obstetrics,  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  Died  in  1821. 

Nes'sus,  [Gr.  Necraoc,]  a  Centaur,  who,  according  to 
the  fable,  attempted  to  ravish  Dejanira,  the  wife  of  Her 
cules,  by  whom  he  was  killed  with  a  poisoned  arrow. 
The  tunic  of  Nessus  was  said  to  have  caused  the  death 
of  Hercules. 

Nes'tor,  [Gr.  Nt'arup ; '  It.  NESTORE,  nes-to'ra,]  a 
celebrated  Grecian  hero,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Neleus,  a  grandson  of  Neptune,  and  a  king  of  Pylos, 
was  sometimes  called  "  the  Pylian  Sage."  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Hercules,  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  the  Lapithce  against  the  Centaurs, 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  in  the  Argonautic  expe 
dition.  He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  Trojan  war, 
although  he  was  then  past  his  prime  ;  and  he  was  highly 
esteemed  as  a  counsellor  by  Agamemnon  and  the  other 
chiefs.  He  is  described  by  Homer  as  excelling  alike  in 
courage,  wisdom,  and  eloquence,  and  is  said  to  have 
ruled  over  three  generations  of  men.  He  had  several 
sons,  among  whom  was  Antilochus. 

Nestor,  neVtor,  a  Russian  chronicler,  called  "the 
father  of  Russian  history,"  was  born  at  Kief  about  1056. 
Several  editions  of  his  "  Chronicle"  have  been  pub 
lished,  the  best  of  which  is  that  of  Schlb/er,  entitled 
"  Russian  Annals,"  ("  Russischer  Annalen,"  1802.)  Died 
about  ii  16. 

See  POGODINE,  "  Recherches  historiques  stir  Nestor,"  1839; 
GRKTCH,  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Riisse." 

Nestore,  nSs-to'ra,  (DiONisio,)  an  Italian  scholar 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  a  native  of  Novara,  was  the 
author  of  a  vocabulary  of  the  Latin  tongue,  entitled 
"  Onomasticon." 

Nes-to'rI-us,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Nestorians, 
was  born  at  Germanicia,  in  Syria,  near  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  Having  become  a  popular  preacher,  he 
was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  428  A.D.  He 
occasioned  a  schism  by  objecting  to  call  the  Virgin 
Mary  the  mother  ofGnd.  The  dispute  was  fomented  by 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  who  became  a  violent  adversary 
ot  Nestorius.  A  council  was  called  at  Ephesus  by  the 
emperor  Theodosius  in  431  ;  and,  before  the  arrival  of 
John  of  Antioch  and  several  other  -bishops,  Nestorius 
was  deposed,  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy.  He  was  after 
wards  banished  to  an  oasis  in  Egypt.  The  Nestorians 
became  numerous  in  the  East,  and  still  exist  as  a  dis 
tinct  sect  in  Koordistan  and  Mesopotamia. 

See  PI.UQUET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Heresies  ;"  SARTORIUS,  "  De 
Nestorio  Hajresiarcha  ;"  L.  DOUCIN,  "  Histoire  du  Nestorianisme," 
1697.  2La^7«-  •  3  Sc.'Grnavy  ? ' :~JH  . 

Netscher,  net'sher,  (CONSTANTIN,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1670,  was  a  son  of  the  following. 
He  painted  portraits  with  success.  Died  in  1722. 

Netscher,  net'sher,  (KASPAR,)  an  eminent  German 
painter,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1639.  He  excelled  in 
portraits  and  conversation-pieces,  and  imitated  to  per 
fection  the  lustre  of  velvet  and  satin.  He  is  regarded 
as  equal  in  most  points  to  Terburg  and  Douw.  Died 
in  1684.  His  sons,  CONSTANTIN  and  THEODOKK,  were 
likewise  good  portrait-painters. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Alleinands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
HARLES  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  J.  C.  WKYERMAN,  "  De 
Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Netscher,  [Fr.  pron.  net'shaiR',]  (THEODORE,)  a  por 
trait-painter,  son  of  the' preceding,  was  born  at  Bor 
deaux  about  1664.  He  worked  in  Paris  and  London. 
Died  in  1732. 

See  DESCAIMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nettelbladt,  net'tel-blat',  (DANIEL,)  a  German  jurist, 
)orn  at  Rostock  in  1719.  became  director  of  the  Uni 
versity  of  Halle.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  Sys- 
em  of  Universal  Natural  Jurisprudence."  Died  in  1791. 

See  "  Biographie  des  Raths  Nettelbladt,"  Halle,  1791. 


e,  T,  6,  \i,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short :  a,  e,  i,  p,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KETTELBLADT 


1667 


NEPIL 


Nettelbladt,  von,  fon  net'tel-blat',  sometimes  writ 
ten  Jlettlebladt,  (CHRISTIAN,)  BARON,  a  Swedish  jurist, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1696;  died  in  1775. 

Nettement,  net/moN',  (ALFRED  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830," 
(2  vols.,  1833,)  and  a  "  History  of  French  Literature 
under  the  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Net'ter,  (THOMAS,)  surnamed  WALDENSIS,  an  Eng 
lish  monk,  noted  as  an  opponent  of  Wickliff.  He  was 
privy  councillor  and  confessor  to  Henry  V.  He  wrote 
several  theological  works.  Died  in  1430. 

Nettleton,  net'tel-ton,  (ASAHEL,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Killingworth,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  revivalist.  Died  in  1844. 

See  REV.  ROBERT  STEEL,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  Lon 
don,  i%4. 

Neubauer,  noi'bow'er,  (ERNST  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg 
in  1705  ;  died  about  1748. 

Neubauer,  (FRANZ  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1760;  died  in  1795. 

Neubeck,  noi'bek,  (VALERIUS  WILHELM,)  a  German 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Arnstadt  in  1765,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  The  Fountains  of  Health, 
or  Mineral  Springs,''  ("Die  Gesundbrunnen,"  1794,) 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  didactic  poems  in  the  German 
language.  He  practised  for  many  years  at  Steinau.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  SCHI.EGKL,  "Charaktere  und  Kritiken;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Neuenar,  von,  fon  noi'en-aR',  [Lat.  XUENA'RIUS  or 
XEVENA'RIUS,]  (HERMANN,)  Cor.vr,  a  learned  German 
prelate,  born  in  the  duchy  of  fullers  in  1491.  He  was 
a  patron  of  literature,  and  wrote  various  works.  Died 
in  1530. 

Neufchateau.     See  FRANCOIS  DE  XEUFCHATEAU. 

Neuhauss,  van,  vSn  noi'howss,  [Lat.  XEUHU'SIUS,] 
(EnoN,)  a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Steinfurt, 
in  Westphalia,  in  1581.  Among  his  works  are  "Manes 
Xassovii,"  a  poem,  (1620,)  and  "  Fatidica  Sacra,"  (1635- 
48.)  Died  in  1638. 

See  REINER  NEL-HL-SIUS,  "Vita  E.  Neuhusii,"  1677. 

Neuhauss,  van,  (REGNIER,)  a  poet  and  philologist, 
born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1618,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
Died  about  1680. 

Neuhof,  noi'hof,  (THEonoR,)  BARON  OF,  a  German 
adventurer,  born  in  Westphalia.  In  1735  he  was  in 
vited  by  the  Corsicans,  at  that  time  oppressed  by  the 
Genoese,  to  assume  the  chief  power  in  their  country, 
and  the  following  year  was  crowned  king.  Being  un 
able,  however,  to  maintain  himself  against  the  Genoese 
and  French,  he  took  refuge  in  England,  where  he  died 
in  1756. 

Neuhusius.     See  XF.UHAUSS. 

Neukirch,  noi'k£eRK,  (BENJAMIN,)  a  German  poet, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1665.  He  published  "Select  Poems," 
satires,  and  a  poetical  translation  of  Fenelon's  "  Tele- 
maque."  Died  in  1729. 

Neukomm,  von.  fon  noi'kotn,  (SiGiSMUNn,)  a  Ger 
man  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Saltzburg  in  1778, 
was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Haydn.  He  passed  several 
years  in  Paris  in  the  service  of  Talleyrand.  He  was  an 
excellent  organist.  He  composed  a  number  of  oratorios, 
operas,  and  other  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  oratorios  of  "David"'  and  "Mount  Sinai."  Died 
in  1858. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generate. " 

Neumann,  noi'man,  (BALTHASAR,)  a  German  archi 
tect,  born  at  Eger  in  1687.  He  designed  many  churches 
and  palaces.  Died  in  1753. 

Neumann,  (CASPAR,)  a  German  theologian  and  He 
brew  scholar,  born  at  Breslati  in  1648.  He  wrote  "  Gene 
sis  Linguae  Sanctae  Veteris  Testament]',"  (1696,)  "Pith 
or  Marrow  of  all  Prayers,"  ("  Kern.aller  Gebete,")  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1715. 

See  TACKEN,  "  Leben  Neumanns,"  1741. 

Neumann,  (FRANZ  ERNST,)  a  German  natural  philos 
opher,  born  in  Ukermark  in  1798.  He  became  professor 


of  physics  at  Konigsberg  in  1826,  and  gained  distinction 
by  his  researches  in  crystallography,  the  theory  of  light, 
etc. 

Neumann,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Berlin  in  1787.  He  was  asso 
ciated  with  his  friend  Varnhagen  von  Ense  in  the  com 
position  of  the  "  Almanac  of  the  Muses,"  and  other 
works.  He  translated  Macchiavelli's  "  History  of  Flor 
ence."  Died  in  1834. 

Neumann,  QOHANN  GEORG.)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  at  Hertz,  near  Merseburg,  in  1661.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.  Died  in  1709. 

See  SCHONBACH,  "Vita  Xeumanni,"  1716. 

Neumann,  (K.\RL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  Orientalist 
and  historian,  born  near  Bamberg  in  1798.  He  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  "  Asiatic  Studies," 
(1837,)  a  "  History  of  the  British  Empire  in  India," 
(2  vols.,  1857,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  States," 
(Berlin,  3  vols.,  1865.)  Died  in  March,  1870. 

Neumann,  (K.ARL  GEORG,)  a  German  medical  writer 
and  poet,  born  at  Gera  in  1774.  He  became  professor 
of  medicine  in  Berlin  in  1818.  Among  his  works  is 
"Specielle  Pathologic  und  Therapie,"  (4  vols.,  1837.) 
Died  in  1850. 

Neumann,  (KASPAR,)  a  German  chemist,  born  in 
1682  or  1683,  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Berlin.  He  wrote  a  number  of  scientific  treat 
ises,  which  were  translated  into  English.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1737. 

See  F.  HOEFER,  "  Histoire  de  !a  Chimie." 

Neumark,  noi'maRk,  (GEORG.)  a  German  poet  and 
musician,  born  at  Miihlhausen  (Thuringia)  in  1621.  He 
was  living  in  great  destitution  at  Hamburg,  when  his 
talents  attracted  the  notice  of  Rosenkrantz,  the  Swedish 
ambassador,  who  made  him  his  secretary.  He  after 
wards  became  librarian  and  secretary  of  the  archives  at 
Weimar,  where  he  died  in  1681.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  the  beautiful  hymn  "  W.er  nur  den  lieben  Gott  lasst 
walten,"  a  translation  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"  Lvra  Germanica." 

Neumayr  von  Flessen-Seilbitz,  noi'miR  fon  fleV- 
sen  sll'b!ts,  (ANTON,)  a  German  critic  and  able  writer  on 
art,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1772.  He  passed  many  years 
in  Italy,  and  wrote,  in  Italian,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Historical  and  Critical  Memoir  on  Painting,"  (1811.) 
"The  German  Artists,"  (6  vols.,  1819-23,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Albert  Diirer,"  (1823.)  Died  in  1840. 

Neureuther,  noi'roi'ter,  (Ei'GEN,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  designer,  born  at  Munich  in  1806.  Among  his  works 
are  illustrations  of  the  poems  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  and 
other  German  authors. 

Neuville.     See  HYDE  DE  XEUVILLE. 

Neuville,  de,  deh  nrh'vel',(CHARi.ES  FREY,)a  French 
Jesuit,  eminent  as  a  pulpit  orator,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Coutances  in  1693;  died  in  1774. 

Neuville,  de,  deh  nuh've'ya',  (DIDIER  PIERRE  CHI- 
CANAU,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Xancy  in  1720.  He 
published  "The  Philosophic  Dictionary,"  (1751,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1781. 

Nevenarius.     See  XEUENAR. 

Nevers,  de,  deh  neh-vaiR',  (Louis  de  Gonzague — 
deh  goN'zig',)  Due,  a  French  commander,  born  in 
1539.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil 
war,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  was  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  League.  In  1590  he  entered  the  service  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  gave  him  command  of  an  army.  Died 
in  1595. 

See  TURPIN,  "Histoire  de  Louis  de  Gonzague,"  1789;  BRAN- 
T$MK,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Nevers,  de,  (PHILIPPE  JULIEN  MANCINI  MAZARINI,) 
Due,  born  in  Rome  in  1641,  was  a  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  and  a  brother  of  Hortense  Mancini.  He  en 
joyed  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  appointed  him 
lieutenant-general  of  Xivernais.  He  wrote  agreeable 
verses,  and  was  noticed  by  Voltaire  in  his  Catalogue 
of  the  writers  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  Died  in  1707. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires." 

Neveu,  neh-vuh',(M.vrTHiAS,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1647,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Douw 
Died  after  1718. 

Nevil.     See  NEVILLE. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEVILE 


1668 


NEWM4N 


Nevile  or  Nevyle,  neVil,  (ALEXANDER,)  an  English 
classical  scholar,  horn  in  Kent  in  1544,  was  secretary  to 
Archbishop  Parker.  His  paraphrase  of  the  "CEdipus" 
of  Seneca  is  highly  eulogized  by  Warton.  Died  in  1614 

See  WARTON,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Nevile  or  Neville,  (HENRY,)  an  English  writer,  bon 
in  1620,  embraced  the  republican  cause,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state,  but  resigned  on  the 
usurpation  of  Cromwell.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Plato 
Redivivus,  or  a  Dialogue  concerning  Government.'' 
Died  ii\  1694. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athens  Oxonienses." 

Neville,  (RICHARD  CORNWALLIS.)  See  BRAYBROOKE, 
LORD. 

Neville,  neVil,  (RICHARD  GRIFFIN,)  Baron  Bray- 
brooke,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1783. 
He  edited  the  "Diary  of  Samuel  Pepys,"  (1825.)  This 
was  the  first  edition  of  that  work  ever  printed.  Died 
in  1858. 

Neville  or  Nevil,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Canterbury.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1570,  master  of  Trinity  College  in 
I593>  ar|d  l^ea"  °f  Canterbury  in  1597.  He  expended 
^3000  or  more  on  a  building  for  Trinity  College,  called 
Nevil's  Court.  Died  in  1615. 

Nev'in,  (JoitN  WILLIAMSON,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine  and  theological  writer,  born  in 
Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1803.  He  became 
president  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Mercersburg  in 
1841.  He  has  published  "The  Anxious  Bench,"  (1843,) 
"The  Mystical  Presence,"  (1846,)  and  "Anti-Christ,  or 
the  Spirit  of  Sect  and  Schism,"  (1848,)  and  translated 
several  theological  works  from  the  German.  He  was 
editor  for  a  time  of  the  "  Mercersburg  Review." 

Nevizan,  ni-ved-zan'  or  n^v-c-zan',  (GIOVANNI,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  at  Asti.  He  published  "  Sylvae  Nup- 
tialis  Libri  sex,"  (1521,)  a  curious  work,  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1540. 

Newborough  or  Newburgh,  nu'biir-eh,  [Lat.  NEU- 
RRIGENSIS,]  (WILLIAM  OF,)  an  English  chronicler,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1136,  wrote  a  "  History  of  England," 
(in  Latin,)  beginning  with  the  Norman  conquest  and 
brought  down  to  1197. 

Newcastle.     See  CAVENDISH,  (WILLIAM.) 

Newcastle,  nu-kas'el,  (HENRY  PELHAM  CLINTON,) 
DUKE  OF,  born  in  London  in  1811,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry,  Duke  of  Newcastle.  He  was  styled  Earl  of 
Lincoln  until  the  death  of  his  father,  (1851,)  and  entered 
Parliament  in  1832.  For  a  short  time  in  1846  he  was 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1852  he  became  secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  Lord  Aberdeen's  coalition  ministry. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  in  1854.  As  war 
minister  he  was  so  much  censured  for  the  discomforts 
and  disasters  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea  in  1854  that  he 
resigned,  or  was  removed,  in  1855.  In  June,  1859,  he 
accepted  office  as  colonial  secretary  in  the  Liberal  min 
istry  of  Palmerston.  He  was  the  attendant  and  chief 
counsellor  of  the  Prince  of  \Vales  in  his  visit  to  Canada 
and  the  United  States  in  1860.  Died  in  1864. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  December,  1864. 

Newcastle,  (HENRY  PELHAM  FIENNES  PELHAM 
CLINTON,)  fourth  DUKE  OF,  an  English  peer,  born  in 
1785.  He  inherited  the  title  of  duke  at  the  death  of  his 
father.  He  was  a  Tory,  and  an  opponent  of  the  Reform 
bill  of  1832.  He  died  in  1851,  leaving  a  son,  Henry, 
fifth  Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Newcastle,  (THOMAS  PELHAM,)  DUKE  OF,  an  Eng 
lish  Whig  minister  of  state,  born  in  1693,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Pelham,  of  Sussex.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  John  Hollis,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  who,  dying 
in  1711,  left  a  princely  fortune  to  the  subject  of  this  article. 
In  1715  he  was  created  Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  in  1724 
appointed  secretary  of  state.  In  1754)16  was  promoted 
to  the  office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  (or  premier,) 
which  was  then  vacated  by  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Henry  Pelham.  He  resigned  reluctantly  in  November, 
1756,  and,  after  a  ministerial  crisis,  formed  a  coalition 
with  Pitt,  and  was  again  prime  minister,  or  co-ordinate 
chief  minister,  from  1757  until  May,  1762,  when  Lord 
Bute  became  premier.  "  His  love  of  influence,"  says 


Macaulay,  (in  his  Review  of  Walpole's  "  Letters  to 
Horace  Mann,")  "was  so  intense  a  passion  that  it 'sup 
plied  the  place  of  talents,  that  it  inspired  even  fatuity 
with  cunning.  .  .  .  All  the  able  men  of  his  time  ridiculed 
him  as  a  dunce,  a  driveller,  a  child  who  never  knew  his 
own  mind  for  an  hour  together  ;  and  he  overreached  them 
all  round."  He  died,  without  issue,  in  1768,  when  the 
title  passed  to  Henry  Clinton,  Earl  of  Lincoln,  who  had 
married  a  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  Pelham. 

See  MACAUI.AY,  Review  of  Thackeray's  "  History  of  Lord  Chat 
ham,"  1834. 

Newcomb,  nu'kum,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1675,  became  rector  of  Stopham,  in  Sussex, 
about  1734.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "The 
Library,"  (1718,)  and  "The  Last  Judgment,"  (1723.) 
Died  about  1766. 

New'cpme,  (PETER,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1656,  was  vicar  of  Aldenham,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  pub 
lished  several  volumes  of  sermons,  etc.  Died  in  1738. 

Newcome,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  prelate  and  eminent 
biblical  scholar,  born  in  Bedfordshire  in  1729.  He  be 
came  successively  Bishop  of  Ossory  and  of  Waterford, 
in  Ireland,  and  in  1795  Archbishop  of  Armagh.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "Historical  View  of  the  English 
Biblical  Translations,"  and  "  Harmony  of  the  Gospels," 
(1778.)  Died  in  1800. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1779. 

New-com'en,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  nonconform 
ist,  was  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
divines.  He  was  one  of  the  five  persons  who  wrote 
"  Smectymnus,"  a  controversial  work  against  Bishop 
Hall.  Died  at  Leyden  in  1666. 

Newcommen  or  Newcomen,  nu-kom'en,  (THOM 
AS,)  an  English  locksmith,  born  in  Devonshire,  \v;is  one 
of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  In  1705  New 
commen  and  Cawley  (a  glazier  of  that  place)  obtained 
a  patent  for  an  engine  combining  for  the  first  time  the 
cylinder  and  piston,  with  a  separate  boiler.  The  steam 
admitted  below  the  piston  was  condensed  by  the  applica 
tion  of  cold  water,  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
forcing  down  the  piston,  moved  a  working-beam,  to  one 
end  of  which  a  pump-rod  was  attached.  This  engine  was 
much  used  in  mines. 

See  J.  ROHISON,  "System  of  Mechanical  Philosophy." 

New'di-gate,  (Sir  ROGER,)  an  English  gentleman  of 
fine  taste  and  classical  attainments,  born  in  Warwick 
shire  in  1719.  He  was  for  many  years  representative 
in  Parliament  for  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  that  institution,  to  which  he  gave  the 
Florentine  Museum,  Piranesi's  works,  and  the  cande 
labra  in  the  Radcliffe  Library.  Died  in  1780. 

New'ell,  (HARRIET,)  wife  of  Samuel  Newell,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1793. 
She  accompanied  her  husband  to  India  in  1812,  and  died 
soon  after  their  arrival.  Her  "Memoirs"  were  written 
by  Dr.  Woods,  of  Andover. 

New'ell,  (ROBERT  HASSELL,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1780.  He  edited  the  works  of  Oliver  Gold 
smith,  (1811,)  and  wrote  "The  Zoology  of  the  British 
Poets  corrected,"  etc.,  (1845.)  Died  in  1852. 

Newell,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Durham,  Maine,  in  1784.  Having  graduated  at  Har 
vard  College,  he  was  ordained  in  1812,  and  soon  after 
set  sail  for  Calcutta,  accompanied  by  the  Rev.  Adoniram 
Judson.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mr.  Hall,  "The 
Conversion  of  the  World,  or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hun 
dred  Millions,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1821. 

New'land,  (JOHN,)  an  English  monk  and  diplomatist, 
was  abbot  of  a  monastery  at  Bristol.  He  was  employed 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  diplomatic  missions.  Died  in  1515. 
New'land,  [Dutch,  NIEUWLAND,  nyo'lant,]  (PKTKU,) 
a  Dutch  mathematician  and  poet,  born  near  Amsterdam 
in  1764.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Navigation."  Died  in  1794. 

New'maii,  (FRANCIS  W.,)  an  English  author,  brother 
of  John  Henry,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in 
1805.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and,  after  he  left  col 
lege,  passed  three  years  in  the  Turkish  empire,  (1830- 
33.)  In  1840  he  became  professor  of  languages  at  Man- 
hester  New  College.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  in  University  College,  London,  in  1846.  Among 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y\  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


NEWMAN 


1669 


NEWTON 


his  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Hebrew  Mon 
archy,"  (1847,)  "The  Soul:  its  Sorrows  and  Aspira 
tions,"  (1849,)  and  "  Phases  of  Faith,  or  Passages  from 
the  History  of  my  Creed,"  (1850.)  His  religious  opinions 
differ  widely  from  those  of  his  brother  and  from  those 
of  the  orthodox  churches.  In  1856  he  produced  a 
metrical  translation  of  Homer's  "  Iliad." 

See  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1858. 

Newman,  (JoHN  HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  theo 
logian,  born  in  London  in  1801.  He  entered  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  in  1816,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Oriel  College  in  1822.  At  Oriel  College  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  John  Keble  the  poet,  and  with  Dr. 
Whately.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1824,  and  became 
vice-principal  of  Alban  Hall  in  1825,  and  a  tutor  of 
Oriel  College  in  1826.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  vicar 
of  Saint  Mary's,  Oxford,  and  of  Littlemore.  In  1833 
Newman,  Keble,  and  Pusey  initiated  the  "Oxford  move 
ment"  in  favour  of  High-Church  doctrines,  which  they 
advocated  in  a  series  of  "  Tracts  for  the  Times."  He 
manifested  a  growing  tendency  to  Roman  Catholicism 
in  his  "  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century  :  their  Doctrines, 
Temper,  and  Conduct,"  (1833,)  his  "Tract  No.  90," 
(1841,)  and  his  "Essay  on  the  Development  of  Chris 
tian  Doctrine."  He  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  1845,  and  was  the  principal  of  the 
Oratory  of  Saint  Philip  Neri  at  Birmingham  from  1848 
to  1852.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  fined  one  hundred 
pounds  for  a  libel  on  Dr.  Achilli.  He  defended  or  ex 
plained  his  religious  course  in  a  work  entitled  "Apology 
for  his  Life,"  ("Apologia  pro  Vita  sua,"  1864.) 

See,  also,  JUI.ES  CONDON,  "Notice  biographiqiie  sur  le  P.  New 
man,"  1853;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1846.  and 
October,  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1864;  ''North 
British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

New'port,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  Englishman,  com 
manded  the  vessels  which  in  1606  conveyed  the  party 
of  emigrants  that  first  settled  at  Jamestown,  Virginia. 

Newport,  (GEORGE,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  comparative 
anatomist  and  entomologist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1803. 
He  practised  medicine,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the 
study  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  insects,  on  which 
subjects  he  contributed  to  the  "Philosophical  Trans 
actions"  a  number  of  memoirs.  One  of  these  was  "  On 
the  Nervous  System  of  the  Sphinx."  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  Entomological  Society  in  1844.  Died 
in  1854. 

Newport,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  Irish  Whig  politician,  born 
at  Waterford  about  1760.  He  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1803,  and  controller  of  the  exchequer. 
Died  in  1843. 

New'ton,  (GILBERT  STUART,)a  distinguished  painter, 
of  English  extraction,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1794.  He  painted  numerous  small  pictures  of  great 
merit,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Shylock  and  Jes 
sica"  and  "Portia  and  Bassanio."  Died  in  1835. 

Newton,  (Sir  ISAAC,)  an  illustrious  English  philoso 
pher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Woolsthorpe,  in  Lin 
colnshire,  on  the  25th  of  December,  1642,  (Old  Style.) 
He  was  the  posthumous  and  only  chjld  of  Isaac  Newton, 
a  farmer,  who  died  in  1642.  His  mother,  whose  original 
name  was  Hannah  Ayscough,  was  married  again  to  the 
Rev.  Barnabas  Smith  in  1645.  He  attended  the  schools 
i>f  Skillington  and  Stoke  for  several  years,  and  about 
the  age  of  twelve  entered  the  grammar-school  of  Grant- 
ham.  There  he  manifested  much  mechanical  ingenuity 
by  the  construction  of  a  windmill,  a  water-clock,  a  sun 
dial,  and  other  pieces  of  mechanism.  He  also  wrote 
verses  in  his  boyhood.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  as  a  sub-sizar,  in  June,  1661,  before  which 
date  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  been  a  profound 
student  of  mathematics.  It  has  been  stated  that  he 
commenced  the  study  of  Euclid's  "  Elements,"  but  he 
found  the  first  propositions  so  self-evident  that  he  threw 
the  book  aside  as  too  trifling.  "  When  Newton  entered 
Trinity  College,"  says  Brewster,  "he  brought  with  him 
a  more  slender  portion  of  science  than  at  his  age  falls 
to  the  lot  of  ordinary  scholars."  Among  the  works 
which  he  first  studied  at  Cambridge  were  the  "Optics" 
of  Kepler  and  the  "  Geometry"  of  Descartes.  In  1664  he 
read  Wallis's  "  Arithmetica  Infinitorum,"  and  discovered 


the  method  of  infinite  series,  or  the  binomial  theorem, 
which  enabled  him  to  compute  the  area  of  curves  and 
to  solve  with  ease  problems  which  before  were  insoluble 
or  very  difficult.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1665, 
and  discovered  the  differential  calculus,  or  method  of 
fluxions,  probably  in  the  same  year.  This  important 
method  of  mathematical  investigation  was  discovered 
by  Leibnitz  about  the  same  time,  and  before  Newton 
had  published  anything  on  the  subject.  A  controversy 
arose  between  the  English  and  foreign  mathematicians 
about  the  priority  of  the  discovery.  Sir  David  Brewster 
gives  this  decision  of  the  question  :  i.  That  Newton 
was  the  first  inventor  of  the  method  of  fluxions ;  that 
the  method  was  incomplete  in  its  notation,  and  that  the 
fundamental  principle  of  it  was  not  published  to  the 
world  till  1687.  2.  That  Leibnitz  communicated  his 
differential  calculus  to  Newton  in  1677,  with  a  complete 
system  of  notation,  and  that  he  published  it  in  1684. 

As  a  precaution  against  the  plague,  he  retired  from 
Cambridge  to  his  native  place  in  the  summer  of  1665. 
He  then  and  there  began  to  speculate  on  the  subject  of 
gravity.  It  was  in  the  autumn  of  1665  that  the  apple 
which  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  gravitation  is  said  to 
have  fallen  from  the  tree  at  Woolslhorpe.  "  When  sitting 
alone  in  the  garden,"  says  Brewster,  "and  speculating 
on  the  power  of  gravity,  it  occurred  to  him  that  as  the 
same  power  by  which  the  apple  fell  to  the  ground  was 
not  sensibly  diminished  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  earth  to  which  we  can  reach,  ...  it  might 
extend  to  the  moon  and  retain  her  in  her  orbit  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  bends  into  a  curve  a  stone  or  cannon- 
ball  when  projected  in  a  straight  line  from  the  surface 
of  the  earth."  He  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
force  of  gravity  by  which  the  planets  were  retained  in 
their  orbits  varied  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from 
the  sun  ;  but,  not  being  prepared  to  verify  this  hypothe 
sis,  he  abandoned  or  deferred  the  subject  for  many  years. 

He  returned  to  Cambridge  in  1666,  and  applied  him 
self  to  the  grinding  of  optic  glasses,  and  began  to  study 
the  subject  of  colours  in  connection  with  the  prismatic 
spectrum.  He  was  elected  a  Minor  Fellow  in  October, 
1667,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  March,  1668,  as 
twenty-third  on  the  list  of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight 
graduates.  He  made  a  small  reflecting  telescope  in  1668, 
and  succeeded  Dr.  Barrow,  as  Lucasian  professor  of 
mathematics,  in  1669.  About  this  date  he  made  the  grand 
discovery  that  light  is  not  homogeneous,  but  consists  of  rays 
of  different  refrangibility.  He  also  perceived  that  this 
different  refrangibility  was  the  real  cause  of  the  imper 
fection  of  refracting  telescopes.  In  1671  he  constructed 
with  his  own  hands  a  second  reflecting  telescope,  which 
is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Society.  New 
ton  read  a  course  of  lectures  on  optics,  at  Cambridge,  in 
1669,  1670,  and  1671.  He  was  the  author  of  the  theory 
of  light  called  the  Emission  theory,  according  to  which 
light  is  composed  of,  or  produced  by,  material  particles 
of  inconceivable  minuteness,  emitted  by  luminous  bodies 
in  all  directions.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  Hooke  and  Huygens,  who  maintained 
the  undulatory  theory.  In  a  letter  to  Leibnitz,  dated 
December  9,  1675,  he  writes,  "  I  was  so  persecuted  with 
discussions  arising  out  of  my  theory  of  light,  that  I 
blamed  my  own  imprudence  for  parting  with  so  sub 
stantial  a  blessing  as  my  quiet  to  run  after  a  shadow." 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  January, 
1672.  In  December,  1675,  he  communicated  to  that 
body  a  discourse  entitled  a  "Theory  of  Light  and  Col 
ours."  "  The  theory  of  Newton,"  says  Sir  John  Herschel, 
"gives  a  complete  and  elegant  explanation  of  what  may 
be  considered  the  chief  of  all  optical  facts, — the  produc 
tion  of  colours  in  the  ordinary  refraction  of  light  by  a 
prism,  the  discovery  of  which  by  him  marks  one  of  the 
greatest  epochs  in  the  annals  of  experimental  science.'' 
("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Phi 
losophy.")  His  optical  discoveries  are  described  in  a 
work  entitled  "  Opticks,  or  a  Treatise  on  the  Reflexions, 
Refractions,  Inflexions,  and  Colours  of  Light,"  which 
was  published  in  1704,  but  written  many  years  earlier. 
"To  avoid  being  engaged  in  disputes  about  these  mat 
ters,"  says  the  author,  "I  have  hitherto  delayed  the 
printing."  The  only  other  optical  work  by  Newton  was 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


NEWTON 


1670 


NEWTON 


his  "Lectiones  Opticae,"  (1728,)  which  contains  the  lec 
tures  he  read  at  Cambridge  in  1669-71. 

Newton  had  abandoned  the  subject  of  gravity  in  1665, 
after  an  attempt  to  verify  his  theory  by  a  calculation 
which  failed  because  he  had  employed  an  erroneous 
measure  of  the  earth's  radius.  About  1684  he  resumed 
his  inquiries  and  calculations  in  relation  to  the  moon, 
and  employed  Picard's  more  accurate  measure  of  the 
earth's  diameter.  He  thus  demonstrated  the  great  truth 
that  the  orbit  of  the  moon  is  curved  by  the  same  force 
which  causes  bodies  to  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
According  to  a  do-ibtful  tradition,  he  became  so  much 
agitated  as  his  calculations  drew  to  a  close,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  ask  a  friend  to  finish  them.  "This  anec 
dote  is  not  supported  by  what  is  known  of  Newton's 
character."  (Brewster's  "  Life  of  Newton.")  He  an 
nounced  this  discovery  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1685  by 
his  treatise  "  De  Motu."  This  was  the  germ  of  his 
greatest  work,  the  "  Principia,"  (composed  in  1685-86,) 
which  Laplace  regarded  as  "  pre-eminent  above  all 
other  productions  of  the  human  intellect."  The  full 
title  of  this  work,  which  was  published  by  the  Royal 
Society  or  by  Halley  in  1687,  is  "The  Mathematical 
Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophise  Na- 
turalis  Principia  Mathematical')  It  consists  of  three 
Books,  of  which  the  first  and  second  are  entitled  "  On 
the  Motion  of  Bodies,"  and  the  third  "On  the  System 
of  the  World."  "The  great  discovery,"  says  Brewster, 
"which  characterizes  the  '  Principia'  is  that  of  the  prin 
ciple  of  universal  gravitation,  that  every  particle  of  matter 
hi  the  universe  is  attracted  by,  or  gravitates  to,  every  other 
particle  of  matter,  with  a  force  inversely  proportional  to  the 
squares  of  their  distances." 

"  The  glory  of  these  men,"  says  Macaulay,  referring  to 
Wallis  and  Halley,  "  is  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  tran 
scendent  lustre  of  one  immortal  name.  In  Isaac  New 
ton  two  kinds  of  intellectual  power,  which  have  little  in 
common,  and  which  are  not  often  found  together  in  a 
very  high  degree  of  vigour,  but  which  nevertheless  are 
equally  necessary  in  the  most  sublime  departments  of 
natural  philosophy,  were  united  as  they  have  never  been 
united  before  or  since.  ...  In  no  other  mind  have 
the  demonstrative  faculty  and  the  inductive  faculty  coex 
isted  in  such  supreme  excellence  and  perfect  harmony." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iii.) 

In  1687  James  II.  sent  an  illegal  mandamus  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  directing  that  a  certain  monk 
should  be  admitted  a  master  of  arts  without  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  Newton  took  an  active  and  influen 
tial  part  in  defending  the  privileges  of  the  university  on 
this  occasion.  He  represented  Cambridge  in  the  Con 
vention  Parliament,  January,  i689~February,  1690,  and 
maintained  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious  liberty 
in  that  critical  period  of  revolution.  In  1689  he  became 
acquainted  with  John  Locke,  with  whom  he  associated 
on  friendly  terms  and  corresponded  until  his  death. 
Newton,  though  satiated  with  fame,  had  gained  no  pecu 
niary  benefit  by  his  writings,  and  had  received  no  mark 
of  national  gratitude  for  his  discoveries.  Locke  and 
Charles  Montague  endeavoured  to  procure  for  him  some 
permanent  appointment,  but  without  success. 

In  1692  and  1693  he  wrote  to  Bentley  four  celebrated 
letters  on  thie  formation  of  the  sun  and  the  planets,  etc., 
in  which  he  affirms  that  the  motions  of  the  planets 
could  not  be  produced  by  any  natural  cause  alone, 
but  were  impressed  by  an  intelligent  agent  and  Divine 
power.  A  report  was  circulated,  chiefly  on  the  conti 
nent,  that  Newton  was  insane,  about  1692.  The  story 
that  his  precious  manuscripts  were  burned  through  the 
agency  of  his  little  dog  Diamond,  seems  to  be  equally 
unfounded.  "  He  never  had  any  communion  with  dogs 
or  cats."  (Brewster.) 

In  1694  Newton  was  occupied  by  researches  on  the 
lunar  theory,  and  obtained  from  Flamsteed  his  observa 
tions  on  the  moon.  Letters  were  exchanged  between 
them  in  relation  to  these  observations,  which  became  the 
occasion  of  an  intemperate  and  discreditable  controversy. 
Newton  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint  in  1695  or 
1696  by  his  friend  Montague,  Earl  of  Halifax,  who  had 
resolved  on  an  important  scheme  of  re-coinage  of  clipped 
and  debased  coin.  The  salary  of  this  office  was  about 


^600.  In  1699  he  was  promoted  to  be  master  of  the 
mint,  with  a  salary  of  from  j£  1200  to  ,£1500.  In  1703  he 
was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the  University  of  Cam 
bridge,  and  was  elected  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  continued  until  his  death  to  occupy  the  latter  po 
sition,  to  which  he  was  annually  re-elected.  He  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Anne  in  1705.  Among  his  important 
works  are  "The  Chronology  of  Ancient  Kingdoms 
Amended,"  (1728,)  and  "Observations  upon  the  Pro 
phecies  of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  John," 
(first  published  in  1733.)  "That  the  greatest  philoso 
pher  of  which  any  age  can  boast,"  says  Brewster,  "  was 
a  sincere  and  humble  believer  in  the  leading  doctrines 
of  our  religion  and  lived  conformably  to  its  precepts, 
has  been  justly  regarded  as  a  proud  triumph  of  the 
Christian  faith."  Newton's  religious  opinions,  however, 
were  not  strictly  orthodox :  like  Milton,  he  appears  to 
have  had  a  decided  leaning  towards  Arianism. 

Newton  was  never  married.  His  latter  years  were 
passed  in  London,  where  he  lived  in  a  handsome  style 
and  kept  six  servants.  He  was  extremely  generous  and 
liberal  in  the  use  of  money,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have 
had  a  great  contempt.  On  one  occasion  he  offered  Dr. 
Cheselden,  as  a  fee,  a  handful  of  guineas  out  of  his  coat- 
pocket.  He  was  often  so  absorbed  in  meditation  that 
he  forgot  to  eat,  and  it  was  necessary  for  his  servants 
to  remind  him  of  his  meals.  He  died  at  Kensington  on 
the  2Oth  of  March,  1727,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  His  collected  works  were  published  by  Bishop 
Horsley  in  5  vols.  4to,  (1779-85.) 

Near  the  end  of  his  life  he  said,  "  I  know  not  what  f 
may  appear  to  the  world,  but  to  myself  I  seem  to  have 
been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  sea-shore  and 
diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  smoother 
pebble  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst  the  great 
ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me." 

"Though  there  be  few,"  says  Dr.  Chalmers,  "who 
comprehend  or  follow  Newton  in  his  gigantic  walk,  yet 
all  may  participate  in  his  triumphant  feeling  when  he 
reached  that  lofty  summit  where  the  whole  mystery  and 
magnificence  of  nature  stood  submitted  to  his  gaze, — an 
eminence  won  by  him  through  the  power  and  patience 
of  intellect  alone,  but  from  which  he  descried  a  scene 
more  glorious  far  than  imagination  could  have  formed, 
or  than  ever  had  been  pictured  and  set  forth  in  the 
sublimest  visions  of  poetry."  ("Treatise  on  the  Adap 
tation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual 
Constitution  of  Man.") 

"Whichever  way  we  turn  our  view,"  says  Sir  John 
F.  W.  Herschel,  "we  find  ourselves  compelled  to  bow 
before  his  genius,  and  to  assign  to  the  name  of  Newton 
a  place  in  our  veneration  which  belongs  to  no  other  in 
the  annals  of  science.  His  era  marks  the  accomplished 
maturity  of  the  human  reason  as  applied  to  such  objects. 
.  .  .  His  wonderful  combination  of  mathematical  skill 
with  physical  research  enabled  him  to  invent  at  pleasure 
new  and  unheard-of  methods  of  investigating  the  effects 
of  those  causes  which  his  clear  and  penetrating  mind 
detected  in  operation.  Ascending  by  a  series  of  close- 
compacted  inductive  arguments  to  the  highest  axioms  of 
dynamical  science,  he  succeeded  in  applying  them  to  the 
complete  explanation  of  all  the  great  astronomical  phe 
nomena."  ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
Natural  Philosophy.") 

See  SIR  DAVID  BRF.WSTER,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,"  2 
vols.,  1855;  FONTENELI.E,  "  Eloge  de  Newton,"  i/2S;  PRMRERTON, 
"Account  of  Newton's  Philosophy;"  BIOT,  article  "Newton"  in 
the  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  ARAGO,  "Notices  biographiques," 
tome  iii.  ;  BIRCH,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society."  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  : 
MACI.AURIN,  "Exposition  of  the  Discoveries  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton," 
1748;  RIGAUD,  "Historical  Essay  on  the  Principia  of  Newton  ;" 
"Life  of  Newton"  in  the  "  Biographia  Britannica  :"  PAOI.O  FRISI, 
"Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  I.  Newton,"  1778:  WM.  WHEWEI.L, 
"Newton  and  Flamsteed,"  1836:  CARL  SNKI.L,  "Newton  und  die 
mechanische  Naturwissenschaft,"  1843;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Elements  de  la 
Philosophic  de  Newton  ;"  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;"  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1832  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Octo- 
b»>r,  1861  :  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1855;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1833  2^2^,  ^)f(^f^^"^y  7-'7Jt>  • 

Newton,  (JOHN,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1622,  was  the  author  of  "Geo 
metrical  Trigonometry,"  "  Astronomia  Britannica,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1678. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athena;  Oxonienses. " 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure: far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


NEWTON 


1671 


N  1C  ^E  NET  US 


Newton,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1725.  Having  for  many  years  led  a  profligate  life 
as  a  sailor,  and  engaging  in  the  African  slave-trade,  he 
was  converted,  and  distinguished  himself  thenceforth 
by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  religion.  In  1764  he  became 
curate  of  Olney,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
Cosvper,  and  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  him,  the  "Olney 
Hymns."  I  Fe  also  published  a  "  Review  of  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  (1770,)  "  Cardiphonia,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  a  "Narrative  of  his  Life,"  by  himself,  1764:  R.  CECIL, 
"  Lite  of  John  Newton  ;"  "  Autobiography  and  Narrative  of  John 
Newton,"  London,  1869;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Decem 
ber,  iS24. 

New'tou,  (Junx,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir 
ginia,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in  1861,  and  com 
manded  a  brigade  in  the  battles  before  Richmond,  June, 
1862,  and  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He 
served  under  General  Sherman  in  G'eorgia  in  1864,  with 
the  rank  of  major-general. 

Newton,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  divine,  born  about 
1675,  became  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "Pluralities  Indefensible," 
(1744.)  He  was  the  founder  of  Hertford  College,  Ox 
ford.  Died  in  1753. 

See  CHALMERS,  "  History  of  Oxford  " 

New'toii,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  Methodist  clergyman, 
born  in  1780.  He  preached  in  London  and  Liverpool, 
and  was  appointed  in  1839  a  delegate  to  the  General 
Conference  of  the  United  States.  He  was  a  popular 
preacher.  Died  in  1854. 

Newton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Lich- 
field  in  1704.  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Bristol,  (1761.)  He  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  with  notes,  (1749,) 
and  "Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1754-58,)  which  were  translated  into  German  and  Danish. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Lite  of  Thomas  Newton,"  prefixed  to  the  second  edition 
of  Ins  Works;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1783. 

Newton,  (Tuo.MAS,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
Essex,  became  master  of  Macclesfield  School.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Saracens,"  (1575,)  of  a 
number  of  Latin  poems,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1607. 

See  WARTON-,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Newton,  (Wu.i.i  AM,)  an  English  architect  and  writer, 
published  an  English  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (2  vols., 

I77L) 

Ney,  n i,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  Flemish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Antwerp,  became  general  of  the  order  of  Saint  Francis, 
in  Spain,  in  1607.  He  was  the  principal  agent  of  the 
Spanish  king  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
which  recognized  the  independence  of  the  revolted  Dutch  ! 
provinces  in  1609.  Watson  the  historian  speaks  highly 
of  his  talents  and  address. 

See  GROTIUS,  "  Histoire  des  Troubles  des  Pays-Bas." 

Ney,  ni,  (JOSEPH  NAPOLEON,)  Prince  of  the  Moskwa, 
(in  French,  "  de  la  Moskowa,")  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1803,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Marshal  Ney.  He 
served  in  Algeria  in  1837-38,  and  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Peers  in  1841.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which 
he  was  a  partisan  of  Louis  Napoleon.  Died  in  1857. 

Ney,  (MiCHKL,)  Duke  of  Elchingen,  Prince  of  the 
Moskwa,  a  famous  French  marshal,  born  at  Sarre-Louis 
in  January,  1769,  was  the  son  of  a  cooper.  He  entered 
the  army  as  a  private  in  1787,  became  adjutant-general 
in  1794,  and  a  general  of  brigade  in  1796.  As  general 
of  division,  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  under  Massena, 
in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  in  1799.  In  1800  he  passed 
into  the  army  of  Moreau,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Hohenlinden.  He  obtained  a  marshal's  baton  in  1804. 
For  an  important  victory  over  the  Austriansat  Elchingen, 
in  October,  1805,  he  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  El 
chingen.  His  impetuous  courage  rendered  essential  ser 
vices  at  the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806.  In  this  year  he  took 
Magdeburg,  the  garrison  of  which  amounted  to  about 
20,000  men.  He  commanded  an  army  in  Spain  in  1809, 
and  obtained  advantages  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Almeida 
in  1810.  In  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  received 


9  as  s;  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;%h  as  in  this. 


from  Bonaparte  the  appellation  of  the  "  Bravest  of  the 
Brave."  He  commanded  the  centre  at  the  great  battle 
of  Borodino,  or  the  Moskwa,  from  which  he  derived 
his  title  of  Prince.  In  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  Mar 
shal  Ney  commanded  the  rear-guard,  and  maintained  his 
reputation  by  heroic  conduct  amidst  the  greatest  dis 
asters.  "  It  was  when  danger  was  greatest  and  success 
most  doubtful,"  says  Alison,  "  that  his  courage  was  most 
conspicuous  and  his  coolness  most  valuable."  When 
summoned  to  capitulate,  in  November,  1812,  he  replied, 
"  A  marshal  of  France  never  surrenders  !" 

He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen, 
Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  in  1813,  and  wjs  defeated  at  Den- 
newitz  by  Bernadotte  in  September  of  that  year.  On  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  in  1814,  Ney  submitted  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  who  permitted  him  to  retain  his  titles  and  mili 
tary  rank.  In  March,  1815,  he  received  orders  to  lead 
an  army  against  Napoleon,  whom  he  promised  to  bring 
back  in  an  iron  cage.  His  moral  courage,  however,  was 
not  proof  against  the  seductive  offers  of  his  former  chief, 
to  whom  he  transferred  the  army,  as  well  as  his  own 
services.  He  fought  with  his  usual  resolution  at  Water 
loo,  where  he  led  several  charges  of  the  Old  Guard  and 
had  five  horses  shot  under  him.  He  was  tried  for  treason 
by  the  court  of  the  peers,  and  shot  on  the  7th  of  De 
cember,  1815. 

"  When  the  Parisians  awoke,"  says  Lamartine,  "and 
found  that  Ney  had  been  executed,  bitter  shame  seized 
on  every  soul.  .  .  .  We  must  say,  however,  in  the  de 
fence  of  the  king  and  the  ministers,  that  they  were  re 
pugnant,  from  moderation,  honour,  and  sensibility,  to 
this  useless,  cruel,  and  shameful  sacrifice.  In  their  eyes, 
and  in  those  of  the  impartial  portion  of  the  world,  Ney 
was  a  great  culprit,  but  his  was  a  glorious  life.  His 
fault  was  among  those  which  are  condemned  but  par 
doned.  He  had  redeemed  it  beforehand  by  exploits 
which  will  be  an  eternal  theme  in  the  camps  of  France." 
("  History  of  the  Restoration.") 

See  "  Memoires  dn  Mare'chal  Ney,"  published  by  his  family,  1833  ; 
Rot.'VAL,  "Vie  du  Marechal  Ney,"  1833:  DUMOULIN,  "Histoire 
du  Proces  du  Marechal  Ney,"  2  vols.,  1815;  J.  NOLI.ET-FABERT, 
"E"loge  historique  du  Marechal  Ney,"  1852;  CHARLEMONT,  "Vie 
du  Marecha!  Ney,"  1814;  VERGARA,  "  Vida  del  Mariscal  Ney," 
1819:  THIKRS,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  " 

Ney,  (MICHEL  Louis  F^LIX,)  Due  d'Elchingen,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1804.  He  served  several 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  became  a  general  of  brigade 
in  1851.  Died  in  1854. 

Ney,  (NAPOLEON  HT.NRI  EDGAR,)  Prince  of  the 
Moskwa,  a  son  of  Marshal  Ney,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1812.  He  entered  the  army  about  1830,  was  elected  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1850,  became  aide-de-camp 
to  the  emperor  in  1852,  and  general  of  brigade  in  1856. 

Neyen,  nl'en  or  ni'o.s',  (AucusTE,)  a  Belgian  his 
torian,  born  at  Luxemburg  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
is  "Biographic  Luxembourgeoise,"  (2  vols.,  tS6i.) 

Neyn,  nln,  (PiETEK,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  architect, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1597  ;  died  in  1639. 

Neyra.     See  MKNDANA. 

Nezahualcoyotl,  na-za-whal-ko-yotl',  surnamed  THE 
GREAT,  King  of  Tezcuco,  born  in  1403.  He  was  dis 
tinguished  as  a  legislator  and  a  patron  of  the  sciences. 
Died  in  1470. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Ni  or  Ne.     See  CONFUCIUS. 

Nibby,  neb'bee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  antiquary,  born  at 
Rome  in  1792.  He  became  professor  of  archaeology  in 
the  College  of  Rome  in  1820.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  the  author  of  several 
antiquarian  works.  He  also  published  a  translation  of 
Pausanias,  with  notes.  Died  in  1839. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Niboyet,  ne'bwa'yi',  (Euc.lLxiE,)  a  French  authoress, 
born  about  1804.  She  wrote  several  educational  works 
and  novels,  and  founded  in  1844  a  socialist  journal. 

Nicaenetus,  ni-seVe-tus,  [Gr.  Nwcafverof ;  Fr.  Nic£- 
NETE,  ne'si'nit',]  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet,  born  at 
Abdera  or  Samos,  probably  lived  in  the  third  century 
B.C.  Several  of  his  epigrams  are  inserted  in  Jacobs's 
"Anthology." 


lanations,  p.  23.) 


NICAISE 


1672 


NICER  ON 


Nicaise,  ne'kiz',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  antiquary,  bon 
at  Dijon  in  1623.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Music 
of  the  Ancients,"  "  On  the  Sirens,"  etc.,  and  other  works 
He  was  a  member  of  the  principal  Academies  of  Europe 
Died  in  1701. 

See  "  Menagiana." 

Nicaise,  ne'kaz',  [Lat.  NICA'SIUS,]  SAINT,  a  Christian 
prelate  and  martyr,  became  Bishop  of  Rheims.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  the  Vandals  when  they  sacked  that  city 
in  407  A. IX 

See  FISQUET,  "France  pontificale." 

Nl-caii'der,  [Gr.  Ninavdpof ;  Fr.  NICANDRE,  ne'- 
kftN'dR',]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician  and  poet,  born 
near  Colophon,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  175- 
135  B.C.  Of  his  numerous  works  only  two  have  come 
down  to  us  entire.  These  are  two  poems,  entitlec 
"Theriaca"  and  "  Alexipharmaca."  The  latter  treats  o: 
venomous  animals  and  the  remedies  for  their  wounds. 
As  a  poet,  he  is  eulogized  by  Cicero,  but  severely  criti 
cised  by  other  writers.  His  works  are  said  to  be  obscure 
and  pedantic.  Among  his  lost  works  was  a  poem  of 
Georgics,  which  Virgil  is  said  to  have  imitated. 

See  HALLER,  "  Bibliotlieca  Botanica  ;"  CLINTON,  "  Fasti  Hel- 
lenici." 

Nicander,  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the  family  of  Pro 
cliclae,  was  a  son  of  Charilaus.  He  reigned  about  780  B.C. 

Nicander,  ne-kan'der,  (  KARL  AUGUST,  )  a  distin 
guished  Swedish  poet,  born  at  Strengnris  in  1799.  In 
1826  he  obtained  the  first  prize  from  the  Swedish  Acad 
emy  for  his  "Death  of  Tasso."  He  visited  Italy  in 
1827,  and  published  on  his  return  "Recollections  of  the 
South."  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  "The 
Runic  Sword,  or  the  First  Knight,"  a  tragedy,  in  verse, 
(1821,)  "King  Enzio,"  (1825,)  and  "  Runor."  These  are 
said  to  be  excellent  models,  both  in  style  and  other 
respects.  Died  in  1839. 

See  CRUSENSTOI.PK,  "C.  A.  Nicander,"  1840;  G.  H.  MBLLIN, 
"  K.  A.  Nicander,"  1839. 

Nicandre.     See  NICANDKR. 

Ni-ca'nor,  [Gr.  Nmuvup,]  a  Macedonian  officer,  com 
manded  the  foot-guards  of  Alexander  the  Great  at  the 
battles  of  the  Grani'cus,  Issus,  and  Arbela.  He  died 
about  330.  He  was  a  son  of  the  famous  Pannenio. 

Nicanor,  a  Macedonian  general,  who  became  gov 
ernor  of  Cappadocia  in  321  B.C.  As  a  partisan  or  ally 
of  Antigonus,  he  fought  against  Eumenes.  He  was  ap 
pointed  governor  of  Media  about  316,  and  was  defeated 
in  battle  by  Seleucus  near  the  Tigris  in  312  u.C. 

Nicanor,  a  Greek  general,  commanded  an  army  which 
Demetrius  I.,  King  of  Syria,  sent  to  subjugate  Judea. 
He  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Judas  Maccabaeus. 

Nicanor,  called  Sivy^rm'af.  an  eminent  Greek  gram 
marian  of  Alexandria  or  Hierapolis,  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  (117-138  A.D.)  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Punc 
tuation,  and  annotations  on  Homer. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotlieca  Graeca." 

Nicasius.     See  NICAJSK. 

Niccoli,  nek'ko-lee,  or  Nicoli,  ne'ko-le,  [Lat.  Nico'- 
LUS,]  (NICCOL6,)  a  learned  Florentine,  born  in  1364, 
who  rendered  important  services  to  literature  by  the 
discovery  of  ancient  authors  and  by  transcribing  manu 
scripts.  At  hisdeath,  in  1437,  he  bequeathed  his  valuable 
library  to  the  public.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
man  in  modern  times  who  founded  a  public  library. 

See  VF.SPASIANO,  "  Vita  Nicoli ;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana." 

Niccolini,  nek-ko-lee'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  born  near  Pisa  in  1785.  He 
was  appointed  in  1807  professor  of  history  and  mythol 
ogy  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Florence.  He  was 
the  author  of  tragedies  entitled  "Antonio  Foscarini," 
(1827,)  "Polissena,"  "Giovanni  da  Procida,"  (1830,)  and 
"Filippo  Strozzi,"  (1847.)  Died  in  1861. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe:"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale  :"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836. 

Niccolo,  the  Italian  for  NICHOLAS,  which  see. 

Niccolo,  ne'ko'lo',  or  Nicolas,  ne'ko'la',  (IsouARD,) 
a  French  dramatic  composer,  born  at  Malta  in  1775.  He 
produced  numerous  operas,  among  which  are  "  Joconde" 
and  "  Jeannot  et  Colin/'  He  died  in  Paris  in  1818. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


Niccolo  d'Arezzo,  nek-ko-lo'  da-ret'so,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1350.  He  worked  at 
Florence  and  Rome.  Died  in  1417. 

Niccolo  da  Pisa,  nek-ko-lo'  da  pee'sa,  or  Niccolo 
Pisaiio,  nek-ko-lo'  pe-sa'no,  an  eminent  Italian  archi 
tect  and  sculptor,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  church  and 
monastery  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Florence,  and  the 
church  of  San  Antonio  at  Padua.  His  bas-reliefs  in  the 
cathedral  of  Sienna  were  esteemed  superior  to  any  sculp 
tures  of  the  kind  since  the  antique.  Died  about  1278. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  QUATREMEKE  DE 
QUINCY,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Architectes. " 

Niccolo  del  Abate.     See  ABB  ATE. 

Niccols.     See  NICHOLS,  (RICHARD.) 

Ni'ce  or  Ni'ke,  [Gr.  Nk//,]  the  goddess  of  victory 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  was,  according  to  Hesiod,  the 
daughter  of  Pallas  and'  Styx,  and  corresponded  to  the 
Victoria  of  the  Romans. 

Nicenete.     See  NIC/ENETUS. 

Nicephore.     See  NICEPHORUS. 

Ni-geph'o-rus  [Gr.  NiKi/<j>6pos ;  Fr.  NICEI-HORK,  ne'- 
sa'foK'l  I.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  became  leader 
in  802  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  empress  Irene,  who 
had  usurped  the  throne,  and,  having  banished  her,  was 
made  emperor.  In  811  he  was  slain,  while  fighting  the 
Bulgarians. 

See  GIBBO.V,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Nicephorus  II.,  surnamed  PHOCAS,  a  distinguished 
Byzantine  commander,  married  about  963  the  widow  of 
Romanus  II.,  and  assumed  the  title  of  emperor.  He 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Saracens  in  Syria  and 
Cilicia,  but  was  assassinated  by  John  Zimisces  in  969. 

Nicephorus  III.,  surnamed  BOTANI'ATKS,  a  Byzantine 
officer,  having  in  1078  revolted  against  Michael  Ducas, 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead. 
He  was,  however,  soon  compelled  to  give  up  the  throne 
to  Alexis  Comnenus,  who  banished  him.  Died  in  1081. 

See  I,E  BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Nicephorus,  [Fr.  NICEIMIOKK,  ne'sa'foR',]  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  a  Byzantine  historian,  born  about 
758  A.D.,  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  iconoclasts. 
lie  obtained  the  office  of  patriarch  in  806,  and  was  de 
posed  in  815  by  Leo  V.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Eastern  Empire  from 
602  to  770  A.D.,"  the  Latin  title  of  which  is  "  Breviarium 
Historicum."  He  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his 
time.  Died  in  828  A.D. 

See  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Blem'mi-das,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  lived  at  Nicasa.  lie  wrote 
several  works  "On  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit." 

See  CAVK,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

NI-9eph'o-rus  Cal-lis'tus,  a  learned  Byzantine 
monk  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  an 
'  Ecclesiastical  History  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  911." 

See  CAVK,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Greg'o-ras,  Patriarch  of  Constan 
tinople,  flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was 
he  author  of  a  "  Byzantine  History,"  in  twenty-eight 
3ooks,  twenty-four  of  which  are  extant. 

Ni-ggr'a-tus,  [N«%>aroc,]  a  Greek  physician  who 
lourishecl  about  40  B.C.  None  of  his  writings  are  extant ; 
Kit  he  is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  Dioscorides,  and  others. 

Niceron,  nes'r6.\',  ?*  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
nathematician  and  optician,  born  in  Paris  in  1613. 
:Ie  was  a  friend  of  Descartes.  He  published  "Thau- 
maturgus  Opticus  :  cle  iis  quae  spectant  ad  Visionem 
directam,"  (1646.)  Died  at  Aix  in  1646. 

Niceron,  ne'sa'riN'  ?*  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  noted  French 


*  Some  of  the  best  French  authorities  are  not  consistent  with 
hemselves  in  regard  to  the  spelling  of  this  name.  In  the  early  part 
)f  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale"  the  name,  whenever  re- 
erred  to,  appears  to  be  invaiiably  written  with  the  accent  on  the  second 
yllable, — NTCERON, — but  under  the  biographical  notice  it  is  spelled 
VICERON,  which  is  also  the  spelling  of  the  "  Biographic  Universelle." 
Jut  this  fact  will  not  by  any  means  be  deemed  decisive  by  those  who 
re  aware  of  the  exceeding  negligence  of  most  French  writers  in  re- 
ard  to  marking  the  accent.  It  has  become  very  common  in  France 
o  omit  the  accent  in  certain  names  (e.g.  PETION)  in  writing,  but  to 
jronounce  the  name  as  if  spelled  with  an  accent.  (See  note  under 
'  Petion"  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not ;  good ;  m  Jon ; 


NIC  ETAS 


1673 


NICHOLLS 


litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
Illustrious  Writers,"  (43  vols.,  1727-45,)  a  production 
of  great  value,  partly  original  and  partly  compiled.  He 
died  in  1738,  having  published  thirty-nine  volumes,  to 
which  four  were  afterwards  added.  He  was  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  in  several  colleges. 

See  GOUJET,  "  filoge  de  J.  P.  Niceron,"  in  vol.  xl.  of  his  "  Me- 
moires. " 

Ni-9e'tas,  [Gr.  Nod/rac,]  a  Byzantine  physician,  sup 
posed  to  have  flourished  in  the  eleventh  century.  lie 
left  a  collection  of  surgical  works  in  manuscript,  copies 
of  which  are  preserved  in  Paris  and  Florence. 

Ni-Qe'tas  A-com-i-na'tus,  ['A/cou«>u-oc,]  surnamed 
CHONI'ATES,  a  Byzantine  historian  of  the  twelfth  century, 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Greek  Emperors  from  1117 
to  1203,"  in  twenty-one  books  ;  also  a  "  Description  of 
the  Monuments  destroyed  by  the  Franks  at  the  Taking 
of  Constantinople."  Died  about  1216. 
See  FABRICIUS,  "  liibliotheca  Grasca." 

Ni-eh'ol,  (JoH.\  PKINGI.E,)  a  British  astronomer  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Brechin,  in  Scotland,  in  1804,  was 
educated  for  the  ministry.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
lecturer  on  science,  and  as  a  writer.  About  1836  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  He  published  popular  works  entitled  "The 
Architecture  of  the  Heavens,"  (1836,)  "The  Stellar 
Heavens,"  "The  Solar  System,"  and  a  "Dictionary 
of  the  Physical  Sciences."  His  style  is  vigorous  and 
attractive.  He  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  "  Im 
perial  Dictionary  of  Biography."  Died  in  1859. 

Ni-eh'o-las  |  Lat.  NICOLA'US  ;  Fr.  NICOLAS,  ne'ko'ld'; 
It.  Niccoi.o,  nek-ko-lo' ;  Ger.  NlKOLAUS,  nik'o-lowss'] 
I.,  Pui'K,  succeeded  Benedict  III.  in  858  A.D.  Not  long 
after,  he  was  engaged  in  a  broil  with  Photius,  who  had 
intruded  himself  into  the  patriarchal  see  of  Constanti 
nople,  and  the  result  was  a  schism  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches.  He  died  in  867,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Adrian  II. 

Nicholas  II.,  POPE,  (called  GERARD  OF  BURGUNDY,) 
succeeded  Stephen  IX.  in  1059.  Under  his  rule  a 
decree  was  passed  concerning  the  method  of  electing 
popes.  Nicholas  bestowed  upon  Robert  Guiscarcl  the 
duchy  of  Apulia  and  Calabria  as  a  fief  of  the  Roman  see. 
He  died  in  1061,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  II. 

Nicholas  III.  (GIOVANNI  Gaetani — ga-a-ta'nee) 
succeeded  John  XXI.  as  pope  in  1277.  He  obtained 
from  the  emperor  Rudolph  of  Germany  the  confirma 
tion  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  other  grants  of 
territory,  said  to  have  been  made  by  former  emperors. 
He  died  in  1280,  and  was  succeeded  by  Martin  IV. 

Nicholas  IV.,  POPE,  (called  JKROMK  OF  ASCOI.I,) 
succeeded  Honorius  IV.  in  1288.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  He  died  in  1292, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Celestine  V. 

See  J.  Rossi,  (RUBEUS,)  "Vita  Nicolai  Papa;  IV.,"  1761. 

Nicholas  V.  (called  THOMAS  OF  SARZANA)  succeeded 
Eugenius  IV.  in  1447.  Having  persuaded  Felix  V.,  who 
had  been  made  pope  by  the  Council  of  Bale  in  1439,  to 
resign  in  his  favour,  he  thus  restored  peace  to  the  West 
ern  Church.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of  learning, 
and  the  founder  of  the  Vatican  Library.  Died  in  1455, 
aged  about  fifty-seven. 

See  MANETTI,  "Vita  Nicolai  V.;"  GIORGI,  "Vita  Nicolai  V.," 
1742. 

Nicholas  [in  Russian,  NIKOLAI  PAVLOVITCH,  ne-ko- 
la'e  (or  ne-ko-ll')  pav'lo-vitch]  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
born  at  or  near  Saint  Petersburg  in  July,  1796,  was  the 
third  son  of  Paul  I.  His  mother  was  Alary  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  was  instructed  in  the  languages,  sciences,  etc. 
by  the  philologist  Adelung  and  the  counsellor  Storch. 
lie  learned  to  speak  French  and  German  fluently.  In 
1817  he  married  a  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia,  who,  on  joining  the  Greek  Church,  changed 
her  name  to  Alexandra.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  I., 
in  December,  1825,  Nicholas  succeeded  him  without  op 
position  from  his  elder  brother,  Constantine,  who  was 
notoriously  unfit  to  reign,  and  who  had  been  induced  by 
Alexander  to  renounce  his  claim  to  the  throne.  His 
accession,  however,  was  the  occasion  of  a  dangerous 


revolt  among  the  troops  of  the  capital,  instigated  by  an 
extensive  conspiracy,  or  secret  society,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  make  a  radical  change  in  the  government. 
This  revolt  was  not  suppressed  without  much  blood 
shed,  and  many  nobles  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
were  exiled  to  Siberia.  This  affair  tended  to  confirm 
his  despotic  propensities. 

Among  the  first  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  against 
Persia,  from  which  he  conquered  the  province  of  Erivan 
in  1827.  In  1828  w.ar  broke  out  between  Russia  and 
Turkey.  The  Russian  army,  after  several  successes, 
crossed  the  Balkan  and  took  Adrianople.  Peace  was 
restored  in  September,  1829,  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople, 
in  accordance  with  which  a  large  territory  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea  was  added  to  the  Russian  empire. 
In  November,  1830,  commenced  a  great  insurrection  of 
the  Poles,  who  were  subjugated  by  the  Russian  armies 
under  Diebitsch  and  Paskevitch  and  were  punished  with 
great  severity.  In  1832  order  again  reigned  in  Warsaw. 
The  ambition  of  Nicholas  also  involved  him  in  a  long 
war  for  the  conquest  of  Circassia,  which  he  did  not  live 
to  complete.  His  disregard  of  the  claims  of  liberty  and 
justice  was  palpably  exhibited  in  his  armed  intervention 
against  the  Hungarians,  who  were  subjugated  by  the 
Russian  and  Austrian  armies  in  1849. 

Nicholas  had  long  entertained  ambitious  designs 
respecting  Turkey,  which  at  length  involved  him  in  a 
disastrous  war.  In  the  spring  of  1853  he  demanded  of 
the  Sultan  the  protectorate  of  all  the  Turkish  subjects 
who  professed  the  Greek  religion.  The  Sultan  refused 
to  submit  to  this  demand,  and  France  and  England 
united  to  defend  him  against  the  aggressions  of  Russia. 
Hostilities  commenced  in  October,  1853.  Nicholas,  who 
probably  did  not  expect  that  France  and  England  would 
fight,  was  ill  prepared  for  a  war  of  such  magnitude. 
The  Russian  army  crossed  the  Danube  in  the  spring  of 

1854,  and  besieged  Silistria  without  success.     The  Eng 
lish  and  French  fleets  entered  the  Black  Sea,  and  landed 
the   allied   armies   in    the  Crimea,  in    September,  1854. 
The  allies  gained  decisive  victories  at  Alma  and  Inker- 
man,   and    commenced    the  long  and    famous  siege   of 
Sebastopol.     In  the    mean  time  another    English   fleet 
gained  victories  in  the  Baltic,  and  threatened  the  capital 
of  Russia.     Nicholas   was    overtasked    by  the    labours 
which  his  imperious  will  and  despotic  policy  imposed  on 
him  as  sole  director  and  dictator  of  so  vast  an  empire. 
Before  the  end  of  the  war  he  died,  on  the  2(1  of  March, 

1855,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II.     He 
left  four   sons,   Alexander,  Constantine,  Nicholas,  and 
Michael.     Nicholas    I.   was   a   man  of  tall   stature  and 
imposing  presence,  with  great  capacity  of  endurance. 

See  F.  NORK,  (anagram  of  KORN,)  "  Kaiser  Nicolaus  I.,"  etc., 
1848;  AURIRK  GII.SON,  "  Nicolas  I  et  Abdul- Medjid,"  1853  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale ;"  E.  MICHEI.SKN,  "Lite  of  Nicholas, 
Emperor  of  all  the  Russias."  1854;  HENRY  CHRISTMAS,  "  Nicholas 
I.,  Emperor,"  etc.,  1854;  "Biographical  Sketches, "  by  HARRIKT 
MAKTINEAU;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1855;  "Jahrbuch 
zum  Conversations-Lexikon"  for  1858. 

Ni-eh'o-las,  (HENRY,)  a  fanatic,  bom  at  Minister  or 
Leyden,  founded  about  1540  a  sect  called  "The  Family 
of  Love."  He  pretended  that  he  was  superior  to  Christ. 

Ni-eh'o-las,  (WILSON  GARY,)  an  American  officer  and 
statesman,  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was 
elected  a  Senator  from  Virginia  in  1799.  He  became 
Governor  of  that  State  in  1814.  Died  in  1820. 

Nicholas  Damascenus.     See  DAMASCENUS. 

Nicholas  de  Cusa.     See  CUSA. 

Nicholas  de  Lyra.     See  LYRA. 

Nicholas  Paulovitch,  ( or  Pavlovitch. )  See 
NICHOLAS  I.  OF  RUSSIA. 

Nicholle  de  la  Croix,  ne'shol'  cleh  It  kRwa,  (Louis 
ANTOINE,)  a  French  geographical  writer,  born  in  Paris 
ill  1704;  died  in  1760. 

Ni-eh'plls,  (FRANK,)  a  distinguished  anatomist  and 
physician,  born  in  London  in  1699.  He  married  in 
1743  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Mead,  and  on  the 
death  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane  became  physician  to  George 
II.  He  wrote  several  able  scientific  treatises,  and  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1779. 

Nicholls,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English  economist  and 
writer  on  poor-laws,  was  born  in  Cornwall  in  1781.  He 
became  secretary  of  the  poor-law  commission  about  1847. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  /$«.     (2^°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NICHOLLS 


1674 


NICOLAI 


He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Eng 
lish  Poor- Law,"  (1854.)     Died  in  1865. 

Nicholls,  (WiLHAM,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1664.     Among  his  writings  we 
may  mention  "  A  Defence  of  the  Qiurch  of  England," 
and  "  The  Religion  of  a  Prince."     Died  in  1712. 
See  WOOD,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Ni-eh'ols,  (!CHABOD,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Natural  Theology," 
and  "  Hours  with  the  Evangelists,"  the  latter  published 
after  his  death.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  mathe 
matical  attainments,  and  was  for  a  time  vice-president 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  Diet! 
in  1850. 

Ni-eh'ols,  (JOHN,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at 
Islington  in  1744,  was  a  partner  of  William  Bowyer, 
the  eminent  printer.  He  became  in  1778  one  of  the 
publishers  of  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  was 
subsequently  editor  of  that  journal  for  many  years.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  the  "History  and  An 
tiquities  of  Leicestershire,"  (6  vols.,  1795-1811,)  and 
"Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (8 
vols.,  1812-15.)  Died  in  1826. 

See  A.  CHALMERS,  "Memoir  of  J.  Nichols,"  1826;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1782,  and  November,  1X13. 

Nichols,  (JoHN  BOWYKR,)  an  archaeologist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1780.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  business,  and  edited  several  volumes  of  the 
"  Illustrations  of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  his  father  commenced.  Died  in  1863. 

Nichols,  (JoHN  GOUGH,)  an  English  antiquary,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  about  1807.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  many 
years,  ending  in  1856.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Herald  and  Genealogist." 

Nichols  or  Niccols,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1584.  He  wrote  "The  Cuckow," 
a  poem,  (1607,)  and  published  a  new  edition  of  "The 
Mirror  for  Magistrates,"  (1610,)  to  which  he  added  a 
"  Winter  Night's  Vision,"  and  a  piece  on  the  Life  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

Nich'ol-spn,  (ALFRED  OSBORN  POPE,)  an  American 
statesman  and  journalist,  born  in  Williamson  county, 
Tennessee,  in  1808.  He  has  been  successively  editor  of 
the  "Western  Mercury,"  the  "Nashville  Union,"  and 
the  "  Washington  Union,"  an  organ  of  President  Pierce. 
In  1857  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate. 

Nicholson,  (JAMES,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  in  1737;  died  about  1804. 
His  brother  SAMUEL  attained  the  rank  of  commodore, 
and  became  commander  of  the  frigate  Constitution. 
Died  in  181 1. 

Ni-eh'ol-spn,  (JOHN,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Ire 
land  in  1821  or  1822.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
war  against  the  Afghans  and  in  the  campaign  against 
the  Sikhs.  In  the  Sepoy  mutiny  he  commanded  a 
column  or  division,  and  performed  an  important  part  in 
the  capture  of  Delhi.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at 
Delhi  in  September,  1857. 

See  J.  W.  KAYE,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  vol.  ii.,  London,  1867. 

Nicholson,  (WILLIAM.)     See  NICOLSON. 

Nicholson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  chemist  and  sci 
entific  writer,  born  in  London  about  1755.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (2  vols., 
1795,)  and  a  "Journal  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry, 
and  the  Arts,"  (5  vols.,  1797-1800.)  Died  in  1815. 

Nicias,  nish'e-as,  or  Nik'i-as,  [Nwaof,]  a  celebrated 
Athenian  general,  was  the  son  of  Niceratus,  who  left 
him  a  large  fortune.  His  moderate  and  cautious  char 
acter  and  conservative  principles  identified  him  with  the 
aristocratic  party.  On  the  death  of  Pericles  he  became 
a  prominent  opponent  of  Cleon,  the  democratic  leader. 
By  prudence  rather  than  by  skill,  he  generally  obtained 
success  in  his  earlier  military  operations  against  the 
Spartans.  In  426  B.C.  he  commanded  a  successful  ex 
pedition  against  Melos,  and  in  425  invaded  Corinth, 
the  army  of  which  he  defeated.  Cleon,  his  principal 
rival,  having  died,  Nicias  exerted  his  influence  in  favour 
of  peace,  and  a  treaty  was  made  between  Athens  and 
Sparta  in  421  B.C.  This  was  called  the  peace  of  Nicias. 


A  long  contest  ensued  between  him  and  Alcibiades,  the 
leader  of  the  democracy,  who  wished  to  renew  the  war, 
and  who  prevailed  in  415,  when  an  expedition  was  sent 
against  Syracuse,  the  ally  of  Sparta.  Nicias,  Alcibiades, 
and  Lamachus  were  chosen  joint  commanders;  but  the 
second  was  recalled  before  the  fleet  arrived  at  Syracuse. 
In  the  spring  of  414  Nicias  blockaded  the  port  of  Syra 
cuse,  seized  the  heights  of  Epipolas,  and  had  nearly  en 
closed  the  city  on  the  land  side  by  a  wall,  when  Gylippus, 
the  Spartan  general,  arrived.  Nicias  was  disabled  by  ill 
health  and  wished  to  resign,  but  was  compelled  to  retain 
the  command.  The  Athenians  were  defeated  in  several 
actions  on  land  and  water,  and  the  timidity  or  incapacity 
of  Nicias  caused  the  total  loss  of  his  large  army.  lie 
was  made  prisoner,  and  put  to  death  in  414  or  413  u.c. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Nicias;"  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece," 
vol.  vii.  chaps.  Ivii.,  Iviii.,  lix.,lx. ;  THUCYDIDES,  "History;"  THIRL- 
WALL,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Nicias,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at  Athens, 
flourished  probably  between  350  and  300  u.c.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Antidotus,  and  is  also  called  the  most  eminent 
disciple  of  Euphranor.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was  em 
ployed  by  Praxiteles  to  colour  or  varnish  marble  statues, 
(in  statnis  ciraimlinendis.)  This  was  probably  in  his 
youth,  before  he  had  attained  celebrity.  He  painted  chiefly 
in  encaustic,  and  was  very  skilful  in  representing  female 
figures.  He  excelled  in  design  and  chiaroscuro.  His 
master-piece  was  a  picture  of  the  infernal  regions  as 
described  by  Homer,  "  Necromantia  Homeri,"  which, 
says  Plutarch,  he  refused  to  sell  to  Ptolemy  of  Egypt, 
although  he  was  offered  the  enormous  price  of  sixty 
talents.  Among  his  other  works  were  a  "  Calypso,"  a 
"  Diana,"  and  a  "  Hyacinthus." 

See  SILLIG,  "  Catalogus  Artificum ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Nicias,  physician  to  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  pro 
posed  to  Fabricius,  the  Roman  general,  to  poison  his 
master  for  a  sum  of  money.  His  treachery  being  dis 
closed  by  Fabricius,  he  was  put  to  death. 

Ni-co-eh'a-res,  [N«co.£up?/c,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
was  a  son  of  the  poet  Philonides,  and  a  contemporary 
of  Aristophanes.  He  flourished  about  375  u.c.  His 
works  are  lost. 

Nic'o-cles,  [  Gr.  Nwco/cA^f, ]  King  of  Salamis,  in 
Cyprus,  was  a  son  of  Evagoras  I.  He  began  to  reign 
about  375  K.c.  Isocrates  wrote  a  panegyric  on  him. 

Nicodeme.     See  NICODKMUS. 

Nicodemo.     See  NICODEMUS. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  [Gr.  Nt/c6(5////r/f ;  Fr.  NICODEME,  ne'- 
ko'clim' ;  It.  NICODKMU,  ne-ko-da'mo,]  a  Pharisee  and 
ruler  of  the  Jews. 

See  John  iii.  and  xix.  39. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  |  Fr.  NICODEMK,  ne'ko'dftm',]  (ADAM 
BUKCHARD  SKI.LY,)  a  Russian  monk  and  historian, 
of  Danish  origin.  His  chief  work  is  "  l)e  Rossorum 
Hierarchia,"  (5  vols.)  Died  in  1746. 

Nicolai,  nee'ko-11',  (CnuiSToi'H  FRIKDUICH,)  a  cele 
brated  German  litterateur,  born  at  Berlin  in  1733.  Having 
at  an  early  age  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lessing  and 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  he  published,  conjointly  with  the 
latter,  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  "  Library  of  Belles- 
Lettres,"  (1758.)  "The  Universal  German  Library," 
("  Allgemeine  Deutsche  Bibliothek,")  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  several  eminent  writers,  came  out  in  1792, 
in  106  vols.  A  continuation  of  this  standard  work  was 
published  in  1805,  making  in  all  162  vols.  Among  his 
other  writings  may  be  named  a  "  Description  of  Berlin 
and  Potsdam,"  "  Life  and  Opinions  of  Sebaldus  No- 
thanker,"  (3  vols.,  1773,)  a  "Tour  through  Germany  and 
Switzerland,"  (12  vols.,  1783,)  and  "  Anecdotes  of  Fred 
erick  II.,"  (1788.)  The  conservative  spirit  of  Nicolai's 
criticisms,  and  his  hostility  to  all  innovations  in  German 
literature,  exposed  him  to  the  severe  strictures  of  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  writers  of  the  time.  Died  in  1811. 

See  COCKING,  "Nicolai's  Leben  und  literarischen  Nachlass;" 
J.  G.  FICHTE,  "  F.  Nicolai's  Leben  und  sonderbare  Meinungen," 
1811:  MKUSEL,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate." 

Nicolai,  (ERNST  ANTON,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Sondershausen  in  1722.  He  became  professor 
at  Jena  in  1758,  and  wrote  numerous  works.  Died 
in  1802. 


a,  e, T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


NICOLAI 


1675 


N1COMACHUS 


Nicolai,  ne'ko'li'e',  QEAN,)  a  French  theologian,  born 
at  Monza  in  1594.  He  wrote  several  polemical  works 
against  the  Jansenists,  and  edited  Thomas  Aquinas, 
(1663.)  Died  in  1673. 

Nicolai,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Ilm 
in  1665.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  Jewish,  Greek, 
and  Roman  antiquities.  Died  in  1708. 

Nicolai,  (PHILIP?,)  a  German  Lutheran  theologian, 
born  at  Mengeringhausen  in  1556.  He  preached  at 
Hamburg,  and  published  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1608. 

Nicolai,  de,  deh  ne'ko'lt'e',  (ANTOINE  CHRETIEN,) 
CO.MTK,  a  French  general,  born  in  1712,  commanded  a 
corps  at  Rossbach,  Crefeld,  and  Minden,  (1758.)  He 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1775.  Died  in  1777. 

Nicolas,  the  French  for  NICHOLAS,  which  see. 

Nicolas,  ne'ko'la',  (AuousTE,)  a  French  writer  and 
judge,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1807.  His  chief  work  is 
"  Philosophical  Studies  on  Christianity,"  (4  vols.,  1842- 
45.)  which  obtained  great  success. 

Nicolas,  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  poet  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Besancon  in  1622  ;  died  in  1695. 

Nicolas,  (MICHEL,)  a  learned  French  writer  and 
philosopher,  burn  at  Ximes  in  1810,  is  a  Protestant 
minister.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Mon- 
tauban  about  1838.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
a  "Treatise  on  Eclecticism,"  (1840,)  and  a  "Literary 
History  of  Nimes,"  (3  vols.,  1854.)  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nic'o-las,  (Sir  NICHOLAS  HARRIS,)  a  distinguished 
English  antiquary  and  biographical  writer,  born  in  Corn 
wall  in  1799.  Among  his  most  important  works  are 
"Notitia  Historica,"  or  "The  Chronology  of  History," 
(1824,)  a  "Life  of  Chaucer,'1  and  the  "History  of  the 
Battle  of  Agincourt."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries.  He  left  unfinished  a  "History  of  the 
British  Navy,"  (2  vols.)  Died  in  1848. 

Nicolas,  (PiKKRE,)  a  French  mathematician  and  Jes 
uit,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1663.  He  wrote  able  works 
on  geometry.  Died  in  1708. 

Nicolas,  (PiKRRE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  chemist  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1743;  died  in 
1816. 

Nicolas  OK  AMIENS,  a  French  scholastic  philosopher 
and  writer,  lived  about  1180—1200. 

Nicolas  OF  MALE,  a  Swiss  reformer,  born  at  Bale. 
He  joined  a  society  called  "Friends  of  God,"  and  was 
an  eminent  witness  to  the  spirituality  of  true  religion. 
About  1340  he  was  instrumental  in  the  conversion  of 
John  Tauler.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1377,  and  openly  re 
buked  the  pope.  He  was  burned  at  the  stake  about  1395. 

See  HODGSON,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Nicolaus.     See  NICHOLAS  I.,  Pope. 

Nicolaus  Damascenus.     See  DAMASCENES. 

Nicolaus  Myrepsus.     See  MYRKPSUS. 

Nic-o-la'us  Fraepositus,  (pre-pos'e-tus,)  surnamed 
SALKRNI TA'NUS,  a  physician  of  the  twelfth  century,  was 
the  founder  of  a  celebrated  medical  school  at  Salerno. 
His  "  Antidotarium"  has  often  been  confounded  with 
the  work  of  Nicolaus  Myrepsus  on  the  same  subject. 

Nicolay,  nee'ko-li',  (LuDWiG  HEINRICH,)  BARON,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1737.  He  was  ap 
pointed,  in  1769,  preceptor  to  the  grand  duke  Paul,  after 
wards  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  subsequently  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  was  made  a  privy  councillor  in  1801.  His  works 
consist  of  elegies,  epistles,  narrative  poems,  and  fables. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  P.  vox  GERSCHAU,  "Aus  dem  Leben  des  H.  L.  Nicolay," 
1834. 

Nicole,  ne'kol',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Chartres  in  1611,  was  a  cousin-german  of  Pierre  Nicole, 
noticed  below.  He  produced  versions  of  the  Odes  of 
Horace,  the  Elegies  of  Ovid,  and  of  other  classic  poems. 
Died  in  1685. 

Nicole,  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1683.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differences,"  (1727.) 
Died  in  1758. 

Nicole,  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent  French  theologian  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Chartres  in  1625.  He  was  a  promi 


nent  member  of  the  institution  of  Port-Royal,  and  an 
intimate  friend  of  Arnauld.in  conjunction  with  whom  he 
wrote  the  treatise  entitled  "Perpetuity  of  the  Faith  of 
the  Catholic  Church  concerning  the  Eucharist,"  (1664.) 
His  most  important  work  is  a  collection  of  treatises  called 
"Moral  Essays  and  Theological  Instructions,"  (25  vols., 
1671  et  seij.)  One  of  these,  entitled  "On  the  Means 
of  Preserving  Peace,"  is  styled  by  Voltaire  "a  master 
piece  of  its  kind,  to  which  we  can  find  nothing  equal  in 
antiquity."  Among  his  other  productions  we  may  name 
his  "Treatise  on  Human  Faith,"  (1664,)  and  "  Les 
Imaginaires  et  les  Visionnaires,"  (2  vols.,  1667.)  Died 
in  1695. 

See  ABB£  GOUJF.T,  "Vie  de  Nicole;"  SAINTE-BEL'VE,  "  Port- 
Royal,"  vol.  iv.  ;  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
NICERON,  "Me'moires ;"  BESOIGNK,  "Vie  de  Nicole,"  in  his  •'  His- 
toire  de  Port-Royal,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nicoliiii,  ne-ko-lee'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Brescia  in  1788.  He  wrote  a  didactic 
poem  "On  the  Culture  of  Cedars,"  and  translated  the 
tragedy  of  "Macbeth"  into  Italian.  Died  in  1855. 

Nic'oll,  I  ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Perthshire 
in  1814.  He  published  in  1835  a  collection  of  poems, 
which  were  very  well  received.  In  1836  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Leeds  Times,"  which,  however,  he  did 
not  long  have  charge  of,  as  he  died  the  following  year, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 

See  "Brief  Biocraphies,"  by  SAMTEL  SMILES;  CHAMPERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Kminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement  :) 
"Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1842. 

Nicolle.  ne'kol',  (CHARLES  DOMINIQUE,)  a  French 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  the  department 
of  Seine-Inferieure  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  in  1821 
rector  of  the  Academy  of  Paris.  Died  in  1835. 

Nicolle,  (GABRIEL  HENRI,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1767,  and  became  successively  associate 
editor  of  the  "  Journal  Fran9ais,"  "  Courrier  Universe!," 
and  "  L'ficlair."  Died  in  1829. 

Nicollet,  ne'ko'li',  (JOSEPH  NICOLAS,)  a  French  as 
tronomer  and  explorer,  born  in  Savoy  in  1786,  or,  as  some 
say,  about  1795.  He  obtained  the  place  of  secretary  and 
librarian  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in  1817.  About 
1832  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He  made  a 
scientific  exploration  of  the  region  drained  by  the  Mis 
souri,  Arkansas,  and  Red  Rivers.  He  was  afterwards 
employed  by  the  government  of  the  United  States  to 
explore  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi,  of  which  he 
produced  a  good  map.  He  wrote,  besides  other  work*, 
a  treatise  on  the  geology  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Mis 
sissippi.  Died  at  Washington  in  1843. 

See  Qi'KRARD.  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  QUETELKT,  "Notice 
sur  J.  N.  Nicollet,"  1844. 

Nic'olls,  (JASPER,)  an  English  officer,  born  about 
1780,  served  with  distinction  in  India  in  the  campaigns 
of  1817  and  1825,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1841.  Died  in  1849. 

Nicolls,  (RICHARD,)  COLONEL,  an  English  officer, 
who  in  1664  compelled  the  Dutch  Governor  Stuyvesant 
to  surrender  New  Amsterdam,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed  first  English 
governor  of  that  city.  In  the  same  year  he  took  Fort 
Orange,  (or  \Villiamstadt,)  which  was  afterwards  called 
Albany,  in  honour  of  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany. 

Nicolopoulo,  ne'ko-lo-poo'lo,  (CoNSTANTINK,)  a 
philologist,  of  Greek  extraction,  born  at  Smyrna  in  1786. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  literature  at  the  Athe- 
nreum  in  Paris,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Revue 
encvclopedique."  Died  in  1841. 

Nicolosi,  ne-ko-lo'see,  (GlAMBATTISTA,)  a  Sicilian 
geographer,  born  at  Paterno  in  1610;  died  in  1670. 

Nic'ol-son,  (\YII.I.IAM,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1655,  rose  through  various  preferments 
to  be  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  in  Ireland.  He  was  the 
author  of  three  works,  entitled  "The  English  Historicnl 
Library,"  (1696.)  "The  Scottish  Historical  Library."' 
(1702,)  and  "The  Irish  Historical  Library,"  (1724.) 
Died  in  1727. 

Ni-com'a-ehus,  [Gr.  Nwcowa^oc;  Fr.  NICOMAQUF, 
ne'ko'mtk',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  in  the  Troade, 
wrote  about  450—420  H.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with 
Euripides.  His  works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments. 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NICOMACHUS 


1676 


NIEBUHR 


Nicomachus,  a  Greek  physician  of  Macedonia,  who 
flourished  about  400  K.C.,  was  the  father  ot  Aristotle, 
and  was  patronized  by  Amyntas  II.,  King  of  Macedonia. 

Nicomachus,  a  son  of  Aristotle,  lived  about  320 
B.C.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  His  mother  was  a 
slave,  named  Ilerpyllis.  Some  critics  have  ascribed  to 
him  certain  ethical  treatises  which  are  generally  included 
among  the  works  of  Aristotle. 

Nicomachus,  a  Greek  mathematician,  bom  at  Gerasa, 
in  Arabia,  lived  probably  between  50  and  150  A.D.  He 
was  a  Pythagorean.  He  wrote  several  works  on  arith 
metic,  one  of  which  is  extant,  and  a  Life  of  Pythagoras, 
which  is  lost. 

Nicomachus  [Xwo/ia^of]  OF  THEBES,  an  excellent 
Greek  painter,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  painter  Aris- 
todemus.  He  flourished  about  350-300  B.C.  His  skill 
is  praised  by  Cicero,  who  classes  him  with  Apelles. 
Among  his  works  noticed  by  Pliny  were  "  Apollo  and 
Diana,"  the  "Tyndaridae,"  and  the  "Rape  of  Proser 
pine."  He  was  renowned  for  rapidity  of  execution.  His 
brother  ARISTIDES  was  also  an  eminent  painter. 

See  CICERO,  "Brutus." 

Nicomaque.     See  NICOMACHUS. 

Nicomede.     See  NJCOMEDES. 

Nic-o-me'des  [Gr.  N//io/*//(5//f ;  Fr.  NICOMEDE,  ne'- 
ko'mAd']  I.,  King  of  Bithynia,  began  to  reign  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  278  B.C.  lie  was  opposed  by  his 
brother  Zipoetes,  and  took  into  his  service  an  army  of 
Gauls,  by  whose  aid  he  gained  the  victory.  lie  founded 
the  great  city  of  Nicomedia.  Died  about  250  B.C. 

See  DKOYSEN,  "  Hellenisnuis." 

Nic-o-me'des  II.  E-pipli'a-nes  [Fr.  NICOMEDE 
fiptPHANE,  ne'ko'mAd'  a'pe'iSi/]  was  a  son  of  Prusias 
II.,  who  sent  him  to  Rome  as  a  hostage.  He  gained 
the  favour  of  the  Roman  senate,  and  excited  the  jealousy 
of  his  father,  who  sent  an  agent  to  assassinate  him.  In 
formed  of  this  design,  Nicomedes  dethroned  and  killed 
Prusias  in  149  B.C.  He  was  afterwards  an  ally  of  the 
Romans.  Died  about  90  B.C. 

See  JUSTIN,  books  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  etc. 

Nicomedes  III.,  surnamed  PHILOP'ATOR,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  91  B.C.  In  the 
Mithridatic  war,  which  ensued  soon  after,  he  was  an  ally 
of  Rome,  but,  having  been  defeated,  he  was  driven  from 
his  kingdom.  Bithynia  was  subsequently  restored  to 
Nicomedes,  who,  dying  without  children,  (74  B.C.,)  left  it 
to  the  Romans. 

Nicomedes,  a  Greek  geometer,  the  inventor  of  the 
curve  called  the  "conchoid,"  flourished  about  100  B.C. 

Ni'coii  [Ni/cuv]  OF  PERGAMUS,  a  Greek  architect  and 
geometer,  was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Galen.  Died 
about  150  A.D. 

Ni'coii,  SAINT,  a  monk,  who  preached  in  Armenia 
about  960  A.D.,  and  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Impious  Re 
ligion  of  the  Armenians."  Died  about  998. 

Ni-coph'a-nes,  [Noco^ai^c,]  a  Greek  painter,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  works  are 
praised  by  Pliny  in  high  terms. 

Nic'o-phon  or  Nic'o-phron,  [N«o^wv  or  Noco</»pwv,] 
an  Athenian  comic  poet,  lived  about  400  B.C.  Only 
small  fragments  of  his  plays  are  extant. 

Nicostrate.     See  NICOSTRATUS. 

Ni-cos'tra-tus,  [Gr.  N«6arparoc;  Fr.  NICOSTRATE, 
ne'ko'strtt',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  was  a  son  of 
Aristophanes,  and  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.  His  works  are  lost. 

Nicostratus,  an.  Athenian  general,  commanded  in 
the  war  against  the  Spartans  about  425  B.C.  He  was  a 
colleague  of  Nicias  in  the  expedition  to  Chalcidice. 

Nicot,  ne'ko',  QEAN,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at 
Nimes  in  1530.  By  his  merit  and  talents  he  acquired 
the  confidence  of  Henry  II.  and  his  successor,  and  was 
employed  as  secretary  of  the  king.  On  his  return  from 
an  embassy  to  Lisbon,  about  1560,  he  brought  the  tobacco- 
plant,  which  was  then  unknown  in  France,  and  which 
was  named  in  his  honour  Nicotiana  by  the  botanists. 
The  honour  of  producing  the  first  model  of  a  French 
dictionary  is  ascribed  to  him.  It  was  entitled  "  Treasure 
of  the  French  Language,"  (1606.)  Died  in  1600. 

See  F.  HOEFER,  "  Dictionnaire  de  Botanique  pratique." 


Nicou-Choron,  ne'koo'sho'roN',  (STEPHANO  Louis,! 
a  French  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  His  works 
are  chiefly  masses,  oratorios,  and  other  kinds  of  sacred 
music. 

Nicquet,  ne'ki',  (HONORAT,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
religious  writer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1585;  died  in  1667. 

Nicuesa,  de,  da  ne-kwa'sd,  (DlEGO,)  a  Spanish  ad 
venturer,  born  in  1464,  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
Amerigo  Vespucci  to  the  Gulf  of  Urata  in  1501. 

See  IRVING,  "History  of  Christopher  Columbus;"  GOMERA, 
"Histona  general  de  las  Indias." 

Nidda,  von,  fon  nid'da,  (FiuEDRicii  ALKRECHT 
FRANZ  KRUG,)  a  German  poet,  born  near  Querfurt  in 
1776.  He  wrote  tales,  ballads,  etc.  Died  in  1841. 

Nider,  Nieder,  or  Nyder,  nee'der,  (JOHANNES,)  a 
German  theologian,  was  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
Bale  (1531)  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the  Hussites. 
Having  tried  argument  without  success,  he  resorted  to 
violent  persecution,  and  was  responsible  for  the  death 
of  thousands.  Died  about  1440. 

Nid'hogg  (NitShoggr)  or  Nidhoger,  [from  niJ, 
"malignity,"  and  /toggi'ii,  to  "hew"  or  "cut,"]  in  the 
Norse  mythology,  the  name  of  a  dragon  or  serpent  which 
dwells  in  the  fountain  of  Hvergelmir,*  (or  Vergelmir,) 
in  Niflheim,  and  continually  gnaws  at  the  root  of  the 
life-tree  Yggclrasil.  From  Hvergelmir  flow  the  rivers 
of  Hell.  (See  MELA.)  According  to  some  writers,  Nid- 
hogg  typifies  the  original  evil  principle  which  forms  an 
element  in  the  creed  of  so  many  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
nations. 

See  THORPE'S  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  KEYSER'S  "Re 
ligion  of  the  Northmen." 

Niebelungeii-Lied.     See  SIF.GFRIED. 

Niebuhr,  nee'booR,  (BARTHOI.D  GF.ORG,)  a  cele 
brated  German  historian  and  critic,  born  at  Copenhagen 
on  the  27th  of  August,  1776,  was  the  son  of  Carstens  Nie 
buhr,  noticed  below.  He  had  a  great  facility  for  learning 
languages,  and  he  read  the  works  of  Shakspeare  in  the 
original  about  the  age  of  seven.  In  1794  he  entered 
the  University  of  Kiel,  where  he  profoundly  studied 
Roman  law,  history,  philosophy,  and  ancient  languages. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  Count  Schimmelmann, 
minister  of  finance  at  Copenhagen,  in  1796,  made  a  tour 
in  Great  Britain  in  1798,  and  became  an  assessor  in  the 
council  of  commerce  at  Copenhagen  in  1800.  In  the 
last-named  year  he  married  Amalie  Behrens.  In  1806 
he  passed  into  the  service  of  Prussia,  as  joint  director  of 
commerce,  and  in  1809  he  became  privy  councillor  and 
member  of  the  commission  of  finances  at  Berlin.  Al 
though  he  performed  these  various  functions  with  much 
ability  and  success,  he  soon  retired  from  political  life, 
and  in  1810  was  chosen  professor  of  history  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Berlin.  His  lectures  on  Roman  history,  pub 
lished  in  1811-12,  announced  the  important  discoveries 
and  original  ideas  which  have  effected  a  great  revolution 
in  the  principles  of  Roman  history,  and  constitute  his 
chief  title  to  durable  celebrity. 

During  the  war  of  liberation  (1813)  he  attended  the 
head-quarters  of  the  allies,  and  was  employed  in  nego 
tiating  loans.  In  1816  he  went  as  Prussian  ambassador 
to  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1822  and  pursued 
with  ardour  his  researches  in  the  history  of  ancient 
Rome  and  the  study  of  philology.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Bonn  in  1823,  and  in  1825  opened  there  a  course  of 
lectures  on  history  and  Roman  antiquities.  In  1827  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  a  revised  edition  of  his 
"  History  of  Rome,"  ("  Romische  Geschichte,")  which 
is  considered  the  most  original  and  profound  work  on 
ancient  history  that  any  modern  has  produced.  The  third 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1832.  The  author  died  at 
Bonn  in  January,  1831,  leaving  a  son,  Marcus,  who  held 
a  high  position  in  the  Prussian  civil  service.  Niebuhr 
had  refused  several  titles  of  nobility.  His  character  was 
eminently  truthful,  upright,  and  generous.  He  had 


*  The  etymology  of  this  name  is  uncertain.  It  is  probably  derived 
from  a  root  cognate  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  hwerfan  or  hweorfan, 
to  "turn,"  to  "whirl,"  and /»/**,  (or  «/»w.)  a  "bunch"  or  "mass," 
thus  signifying  the  "whirling  mass,"  |  of  waters.  1  According  to  Key- 
ser,  hver  means  a  "hot  spring"  or  "cauldron;"  but  the  etymology 
is  not  improbably  the  same,  the  term  having  been  applied  to  a  boiling 
spring  on  account  of  the  constant  turning  or  whirling  of  its  waters. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NIEBVHR 


1677 


N  IE  METER 


noble  features,  and  a  graceful  facility  of  elocution.  His 
attainments  as  a  critic  and  philologist  were  of  the  highest 
order.*  He  spoke  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  was 
master  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Persian. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  edition  of  the 
Byzantine  Historians,  (1828,)  "Short  Historical  and 
Philological  Treatises,"  (1828,)  "Lectures  on  Ancient 
Ethnography  and  Geography,"  and  "Lectures  on  An 
cient  History."  In  1838  appeared  an  interesting  col 
lection  of  his  Letters,  with  memoirs  of  his  life,  edited 
by  Madame  Hensler,  ("  Lebensnachrichten  iiber  B.  G. 
Niebuhr,"  etc.,  3  vols.)  His  reputation  as  a  historian 
continued  to  increase  after  his  death,  though  several  of 
his  positions  are  controverted  by  eminent  critics.  He 
rejected  as  fabulous  many  stories  which  other  historians 
had  credited,  and  aimed  to  construct  a  fabric  of  rational 
probability  out  of  the  confused  mass  of  traditions,  con 
jectures,  and  mythical  legends.  "He  would  have  been 
the  first  writer  of  his  time,"  says  Macaulay,  "if  his  talent 
for  communicating  truths  had  borne  any  proportion  to 
his  talent  for  investigating  them."  (Preface  to  "Lays 
of  Ancient  Rome.") 

See  "The  Life  and  Letters  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  with  Essays  on  his 
Character  and  Influence,"  by  CHEVALIER  BUNSEN-,  London,  2  vols., 
1852;  t-RANCis  LIEBER,  "Reminiscences  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr,"  1835; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1833,  and  July,  1852;  "Quar 
terly  Review,"  article  on  "  Early  Roman  History,"  vol.  xxvii.  and  vol. 
xxxii  .  (by  ARNOLD  ;)  "Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843  ;  "  Lon 
don  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1840:  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1828,  and  July,  1831  ;  "  Kraser's  Maga/.ine"  for 
Ju  yand  December,  1852  :  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1823, 
(by  E[J\V-IKD  EVKRETT;)  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1852; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843,  (by  G.  H.  LEWES.) 

Niebuhr,  (CARSTENS  or  KAKSTENS,)  a  German  trav 
eller  of  distinguished  talent  and  energy,  was  born  at 
Liidingworth,  in  Hanover,  in  1733.  He  entered  the 
Danish  service  as  lieutenant-engineer  in  1760,  and  was 
appointed  by  Frederick  V.  in  1761  to  accompany  a  sci 
entific  expedition  to  Arabia.  Soon  after  their  arrival  at 
Mocha,  Von  Haven,  one  of  the  company,  died,  and  within 
a  year  Niebuhr  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  three  re 
maining  companions.  He  now  adopted  the  diet  of  the 
Arabians,  and  his  health,  which  had  previously  suffered, 
continued  good  during  the  rest  of  his  journey.  He  spent 
six  years  in  the  country,  taking  upon  himself  all  the 
labours  of  the  mission,  and  in  1767  returned  to  Den 
mark.  His  "Description  of  Arabia"  came  out  in  1772.  j 
The  accuracy,  research,  and  freedom  from  exaggeration 
which  characterize  this  production  have  caused  it  to  be  j 
regarded  as  a  standard  work.  In  1778  he  brought  out 
"  Travels  in  Arabia  and  the  Surrounding  Countries." 
In  addition  to  the  above,  he  edited  and  published 
the  "Flora  Egyptiaco-Arabica,"  and  "  Descriptions  of 
Animals"  by  Forskal,  the  naturalist  of  the  expedition. 
Niebuhr  was  a  councillor  of  state,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.  Died  in  1815. 

See  B.  G.  NIEBUHR,  "  Leben  Carstens  Niebuhr's,"  1817; 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  liii.,  1776,  (Appendix.) 

Niebuhr,  von,  fon  nee'booR,  (MARCUS,)  a  son  of 
Barthold  G.  Niebuhr,  was  born  at  Rome  about  1817. 
He  was  carefully  educated  by  his  father,  who  declared 
his  determination  that  he  should  believe  in  the  letter  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  said,  "  I  shall  nurture 
in  him  from  his  infancy  a  firm  faith  in  all  I  have  lost  or 
feel  uncertain  about."  He  obtained  several  high  offices 
in  the  Prussian  government.  He  was  opposed  to  the 
Liberal  party  in  politics.  Died  in  1860. 


*  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  he  who  was  perhaps  the  most 
thorough  and  searching  of  all  historical  critics,  and  whose  intellect, 
as  he  tells  us  himself,  "early  took  a  skeptical  direction,"  felt  himself 
nevertheless  obliged  to  accept  the  Gospel  narratives  as  true  history 
in  all  essential  points.  He  says,  "  He  whose  earthly  life  and  sorrows 
were  depicted  had  for  me  a  perfectly  real  existence,  and  His  whole 
history  had  the  same  reality  even  if  it  were  not  related  with  literal 
exactness  in  any  single  point.  Hence,  also,  the  fundamental  fact  of 
miracles,  which,  according  to  my  conviction,  must  be  conceded,  un 
less  we  adopt  the  not  merely  incomprehensible,  but  absurd,  hypothesis 
that  the  Holiest  was  a  deceiver  and  His  disciples  either  dupes  or  liars, 
and  that  deceivers  had  preached  a  holy  religion,  in  which  self-renun 
ciation  is  everything,  and  in  which  there  is  nothing  tending  towards 
the  erection  of  a  priestly  rule, — nothing  that  can  be  acceptable  to 
vicious  inclinations.  As  regards  a  miracle  in  the  strictest  sense,  it 
really  only  requires  an  unprejudiced  and  penetrating  study  of  nature 
to  see  that  those  related  are  as  far  as  possible  from  absurdity,  and  a 
comparison  with  legends,  or  the  pretended  miracles  of  other  religions, 
to  perceive  by  what  a  different  spirit  they  are  animated."  (Niebuhr's 
"  Letters,"  vol.  i.  p.  340,  Letter  148.) 


Niederer,  nee'deh-rer,  QEAN,)  a  Swiss  teacher,  born 
at  Appenzell  in  1778,  published  a  treatise  on  the  system 
of  Pestalozzi.  Died  in  1843. 

Niedermeyer,  nee'der-ml'er.  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  com 
poser  and  musician,  born  in  the  canton  cle  Vaud  in  1802. 
Among  his  works  are  the  opera  of  "  La  Fronde,"  and  a 
number  of  songs  and  religious  pieces.  Died  in  1861. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Niel,  ne-eT,  (ADOLIMIK,)  a  French  marshal,  born  at 
Mu ret  (Haute-Garonne)  in  1802.  He  served  in  the 
expedition  to  Rome  in  1848,  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1849,  and  general  of  division  in  1853.  As 
general  of  engineers,  he  directed  with  success  the  opera 
tions  at  the  siege  of  Bomarsund,  in  1854.  In  May,  1855, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  engineers 
and  artillery  at  Sebastopol.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  June,  1859.  For 
his  services  at  Solferino  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France.  He  became  minister  of  war  in  Feb 
ruary,  1867,  and  showed  himself  an  able  administrator. 
Died  in  August,  1869. 

See  BARON  DE  BAZANCOURT,  "  Campagnes  de  Crimee  et  d'ltalie  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nield,  neeld,  (JAMES,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1744.  He  devoted  much  time  to  the  cause 
of  prison-reform.  Died  in  1814. 

Nielly,  ne'i'le',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  BARON,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Brest  in  1751,  served  against  the 
English  in  several  campaigns,  and  became  vice-admiral 
in  1815.  Died  in  1833. 

Nielsen,  neel'sen,  (JOHAN  MOSES  GEORG,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  lawyer,  born  near  Nyborg  in  1804;  died  in  1855 

Nielsen,  (NIKOLAUS  PETER,)  a  popular  Danish  actor, 
born  in  Seeland  in  1795. 

Niem,  neem,  (THIERRY,)  a  German  historian,  borr 
near  Paderborn,  became  Bishop  of  Cambray  in  1396 
He  wrote  the  "  Lives  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,"  and  other 
historical  works,  in  Latin.  Died  about  1417. 

Niemann,  nee'man,  (AUGUST CHRISTIAN  HEINRICH,) 
a  Danish  publicist  and  writer  on  political  economy,  born 
at  Altona  in  1761  ;  died  in  1832. 

Niemami,  nee'man,  (JOHAXN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  Anhalt-Dessau  in  1764,  was  the  authoii 
of  several  medical  works.  Died  in  1846. 

Niemcewicz,  ne-e'm-tsa'vitch,  (JULIAN  URSIN,)  a 
celebrated  Polish  statesman,  historian,  and  poet,  born 
in  Lithuania  in  1757.  Being  appointed  a  deputy  to  the 
Constitutional  Diet,  he  had  the  principal  share  in  drawing 
up  the  "  Constitution  of  the  3d  of  May,"  1791,  and  about 
the  same  time  became  one  of  the  editors  of  a  popular 
journal  called  "  Gazeta  Narodowa."  After  the  battle  of 
Maciejowice,  he  was  made  piisoner  with  Kosciusko  and 
confined  in  the  fortress  of  Saint  Petersburg,  from  which 
they  were  released  on  the  accession  of  Paul,  in  1796. 
He  accompanied  Kosciusko  to  America  in  1797,  and  in 
1800  married  Mrs.  Livingston  Kean,  a  lady  of  New  York. 
He  returned  to  Europe  on  the  entrance  of  Napoleon 
into  Poland,  and  when  that  country  was  united  with 
Russia  he  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  Alexander 
president  of  the  committee  of  the  constitution,  and  per 
petual  secretary  of  the  senate.  A  short  time  previous 
to  the  fall  of  Warsaw  he  visited  England,  and  then  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1841.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Historical  Songs  of  Poland,"  "  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Sigismund  III.,"  "  Memoirs  towards  the  Ancient  His 
tory  of  Poland,"  and  "John  of  Tenczyn,"  a  romance. 
He  also  wrote  several  dramas,  which  were  successful, 
and  made  some  translations  from  the  English  poets. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Niemeyer,  nee'mi'er,  (AUGUST  HERMANN,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  at  Halle  in  1754.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1799  director  of  the  charitable  institutions 
founded  by  A.  H.  Francke,  and  became  in  1808  chan 
cellor  and  perpetual  rector  of  the  University  of  Halle. 
He  wrote  educational  and  religious  works  in  prose  and 
verse,  and  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  virtue  and  learn 
ing.  Died  in  1828. 

See  FRITSCH,  "  Ueber  des  verewigten  A.  H.  Niemeyer's  Leben." 
1828:  JACOBS  und  GRUBER.  "A.  H.  Niemeyer:  zur  Erinnerung  an 
dessen  Leben,"  1831  ;  A.  H.  REIN,  "  Erinnerungen  an  A.  H.  Nie 
meyer,"  1841. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23,) 


NIEMOJOWSKI 


NIGHTINGALE 


Niemojowski,  ne-e"in-o-yov'skee,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Polish 
patriot,  born  about  1760,  was  appointed  general  of  the 
palatinate  of  Posnania.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Polotzk,  in  1813. 

Niemojowski,  (VINCENT,)  born  near  Kalisch  in 
1784,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of 
Poland,  and  held  for  a  time  the  post  of  minister  of  the 
interior  at  Warsaw.  Died  in  1834. 

Niepce,  ne-eps',  (JOSEPH  NICEPHORE,)  a  French 
chemist  and  inventor  of  photography,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Saone  in  1765.  He  served  in  the  army  in  1792- 
95.  About  1814  he  began  his  researches  on  the  action 
of  light  on  prepared  surfaces.  In  1822  he  obtained 
copies  of  engravings  from  polished  metallic  plates  cov 
ered  with  a  bituminous  varnish.  He  gave  the  name  of 
Heliograpkie  to  this  art.  He  formed  a  partnership  with 
naguerre  in  1829.  It  is  stated  that  Niepce  was  the 
first  to  fix  permanently  images  formed  by  the  camera. 
Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biocjraphie  Generale." 

Niepce  de  Saint- Victor,  ne-eps'  deh  saN7  vek'toR', 
(Cl.\ri)K  FELIX  AiiEL,)  a  French  chemist  and  pho 
tographer,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1805.  He  entered  the  army,  in 
which  he  gained  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  applied 
himself  to  the  task  of  perfecting  the  invention  of  his 
uncle,  he  announced  in  1847  to  the  Academy  of  Sci 
ences  an  important  discovery  of  a  method  of  obtaining 
images  on  glass  prepared  with  starch  or  albumen.  He 
also  invented  a  process  of  heliographic  engraving  on 
metal  covered  with  a  varnish  which  consists  chiefly  of 
benzh.e.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  commandant  of  the 
Louvre.  He  explained  his  discoveries  in  numerous 
memoirs,  which  he  published  collectively  under  the 
title  of  "Photographic  Researches,"  (1855.)  Died  in 
April,  1870. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Niepce  de  Saint-Victor."  prefixed  to  the  work 
just  named,  by  M.  E.  LACAN;  "  Nouvelle  Kingrapllie  Generale;" 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1866. 

Nieremberg,  nee'rem-beKg',  [I. at.  NIEREMHKR'GTUS,] 
(JoilANN  Ei'SEinus,)  a  learned  Spanish  Jesuit,  of  Ger 
man  extraction,  born  at  Madrid  about  1590.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  miscellaneous 
works,  in  Latin  and  Spanish  ;  among  the  principal  of 
these  is  his  "  Historia  Naturae  maxima  peregrinas," 
(1635,)  being  an  account  of  the  natural  history  of  the 
Indies.  Died  in  1658. 

See  "Vie  du  P.  de  Nieremlierfj,"  prefixed  to  liis  "Opera  Par- 
then  ica ;"  A  DE  ANDKADA,  "  Vida  del  P.  J.  E.  Nieremberg,"  1658; 
MOR£RI,  "  Dictiormaire  Historique." 

Nierembergius.     See  NIEREMBF.RG. 

Nieritz,  nee'rits,  (KARi.  GUSTAV,)  a  German  littfra- 
teitr,  born  at  Dresden  in  1795,  has  published  several 
works  for  children  and  youth. 

Niethammer,  neethilm'mer,  (FRIEDRICH  TMMA- 
NUKI.,)  a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Beilstein,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1766.  He  was  associated  with  Fichte 
as  editor  of  the  "  Philosophisches  Journal"  at  Jena. 
Died  in  1846. 

Nieto,  ne-a'to,  (DAVID,)  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  born 
at  Venice  in  1654  ;  died  in  1728. 

Nieto,  ne-a'to,  (Don  VINCK.NTE,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  1769,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  royalists  in  the 
civil  war  of  1810  in  South  America.  Having  been  made 
prisoner  by  the  patriot  General  Balcarca  in  Upper  Peru, 
he  was  shot  by  his  order  in  1810. 

Nieuhoff,  noi'hof,  (Jon ANN,)  a  German  traveller,  born 
in  Westphalia  in  1630,  visited  China  and  Batavia,  and 
published  in  1666  an  account  of  his  journey,  (in  Dutch,) 
which  was  very  popular  at  the  time  and  wns  translated 
into  Latin  and  several  other  languages.  Having  gone 
ashore  at  Madagascar  in  1672,  he  was  lost,  killed,  or 
disappeared  mysteriously. 

See  MACARTNEY,  "Travels  in  India,  China,"  etc. 

Nieulant,  ne-uh'lant,  (Wn.i.KM,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1584,  studied  at  Rome. 
Among  his  works  are  engravings  of  Italian  landscapes. 
Died  in  1635. 

Nieupoort,ne-uh'poi<t,(WiLLEM  HENDRiK,)a  Dutch 
historian  and  jurist,  born  about  1670,  became  professor 
of  law  at  Utrecht.  Died  about  1730. 


Nieuport,  de,  deh  ne-uh'poR',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS 
FERDINAND  FLOKENT  ANTOINE,)  VICOMTE,  a  distin 
guished  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1746,  was  ap 
pointed  in  1816  director  of  the  Academy  of  Brussels. 
He  died  in  1827,  leaving  numerous  mathematical  works. 

Nieuwelandt,  ne-uw'eh-lant',  or  Nieulandt,  ne- 
uh'lant,  (ADRIAN,)  a  Flemish  painter,  was  a  native  of 
Antwerp.  His  works  are  chiefly  landscapes  and  sea- 
views.  Died  in  1601. 

Nieuwelandt,  (JAN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1579.  He  studied  painting  under  his 
father,  and  produced  a  number  of  landscapes  of  superior 
merit. 

See  DKSCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands.  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nieuwelandt,  van  den,  vtn  den  ne-uw'ch-lant, 
(Wn.LEM,)  a  Flemish  artist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1584,  was  a  son  of  Adrian,  noticed  above. 
He  painted  architectural  pieces  of  great  meiit.  and 
was  also  a  skilful  engraver.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
popular  tragedy,  entitled  "Nero,"  and  of  other  works. 
Died  in  1635. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nieuweiityt,  ne-uh'wen-tlt',  (BEKNARD,)  a  Dutch 
writer  and  mathematician,  born  in  North  Holland  in 
1654,  became  burgomaster  of  .  Purmerencl.  He  wrote 
treatises  against  the  differential  calculus,  and  a  popular 
work  entitled  "The  Right  Use  of  the  Contemplation  of 
the  World,"  ("  Met  regt  Gebruik  der  Wereltbeschou- 
ingen,"  1715,)  which  was  translated  into  several  lan 
guages.  Died  in  1718. 

See  NICKRON,  "  Memoires." 

Nieuwerkerke,  de,  .leh  ne-uh'wer-keR'keh,  (AL 
FRED  EMILIEN,)  COMTK,  a  French  sculptor,  of  Dutch 
extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He  has  executed 
numerous  busts  and  statues,  among  which  we  may  name 
those  of  Descartes  and  Isabella  the  Catholic. 

Nieuwland,  ne-uh/lant,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  poet  and 
savant,  born  near  Amsterdam  in  1764.  He  displayed  in 
youth  great  precocity  and  aptitude  for  learning  languages 
and  sciences.  He  wrote  several  able  scientific  treatises, 
and  poems  of  great  beauty,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
"Orion."  In  1793  he  became  professor  of  natural  phi 
losophy,  astronomy,  and  mathematics  at  Leyden.  Died 
in  November,  1794. 

See  P.  MICHKI.I,,  "Jets  ter  Nagedacbtenis  van  P.  Nieuwland," 
1794:  J.  H.  VAN  SWINDKN,  "  Lykrede  op  P.  Nieuwland,"  1795;  C. 
L.  BRICHTWKI.I.,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  London,  1863. 

Nifanius,  ne-fa'ne-us,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  theo 
logian  and  scholar,  born  at  Lelingen  in  1629;  died  in 
1689. 

Niflheim.     See  HELA. 

Nifo,  nee'fo,  |  Lat.  NI'PIUTS,]  (AoosriNO,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  philosopher,  born  in  Calabria  about  1473, 
published  several  Latin  treatises  and  commentaries  on 
Aristotle.  He  was  patronized  by  Leo  X.,  and  was  a 
professor  at  Rome  and  Naples.  Died  about  1538. 

See  GiNGUENii,  "Histoire  Litte'raire  d'ltalie." 

Nigel,  m'jel,  ?  an  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Normandy,  be 
came  treasurer  to  Henry  I.  of  England,  who  subsequently 
created  him  Bishop  of  Ely.  Died  in  1169. 

Ni'ger,  (CAius  PESCENNIUS.)  a  Roman  commander, 
and  governor  of  Syria.  On  the  death  of  Pertinax,  193 
A.D.,  he  became  a  competitor  for  the  empire,  with  Sep- 
timius  Severus  and  Clodius  Albinus  for  his  rivals.  After 
his  army  had  been  several  times  defeated  by  the  former 
in  Asia  Minor,  he  was  made  prisoner  and  put  to  death 
in  194  A.D. 

See  TII.I.HMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Emperenrs. " 

Nigetti,  ne-jet'tee,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1560;  died  in  1646. 

Night'in-gale,  (Miss  FLORENCE,)  a  lady  celebrated 
for  her  philanthropy,  the  daughter  of  William  E.  Night 
ingale,  of  Derbyshire,  England,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1820.  From  her  childhood  she  took  a  deep  interest 
in  schemes  of  benevolence,  and,  after  having  visited  the 
hospitals  and  other  similar  establishments  of  England, 
she  went  to  Germany,  with  the  view  of  inspecting  the 
institution  at  Kaiserswerth,  founded  in  1833  by  Fliedner. 
In  1849  she  entered  Kaiserswerth,  in  order  to  qualify 
herself  as  a  hospital  nurse  in  the  training-school  which 
forms  a  part  of  that  establishment.  The  Crimean  war 


,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nftt;  good;  moon ; 


NIGHTINGALE 


1679 


KIS4RD 


having  broken  out  soon  after  her  return  to  England, 
Miss  Nightingale,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  volun 
tary  nurses,  set  out  in  1854  for  the  East,  where,  in  the 
military  hospitals  at  Scutari,  they  devoted  themselves  to 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  In  1856  she 
returned  to  England,  where  the  queen  conferred  upon  her 
various  distinctions  in  acknowledgment  of  her  eminent 
services.  Miss  Nightingale  has  published  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "The  Institution  at  Kaiserswerth  on  the  Rhine, 
for  the  Practical  Training  of  Deaconesses,  under  the 
Direction  of  the  Rev.  Pastor  Fliedner,"  (1850,)  and 
"  Notes  on  Nursing,"  one  of  the  best  works  that  has 
appeared  on  the  subject. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  Sisters  of  Charity ;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1860. 

Nightingale,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  in  Lancashire  in  1775.  He  wr°te>  among  other 
works,  "A  Portraiture  of  Catholicism,"  and  "English 
Topography."  Died  in  1824. 

Nighr/iri-gall,(Sir  MILKS,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  officer, 
served  under  Sir  William  Meadows  in  India  in  1791-92, 
and  was  subsequently  engaged  in  the  continental  war. 
About  1820  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Suf 
folk.  Died  in  1829. 

Nigidius.     See  FIGULUS. 

Nigrisoli,  ne-gue-so'lee,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  Ital 
ian  physician,  born  at  Ferrarain  1648,  became  professor 
of  medicine  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1727. 

Nigioiii,  ne-gRo'nee,  (Giui.io,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born 
at  Genoa  in  1553  ;  died  in  1625. 

Nihus,  nee'us,  (BAKTHOLD,)  a  German  Catholic  theo 
logian,  born  in  the  duchy  of  runswick  in  1589,  wrote  a 
number  of  controversial  treatises.  Died  in  1657. 

Nikitin,  ne-ke-tin'  or  ne-ke-teen',  (ATIIANASIUS,)  a 
Russian  traveller,  who  visited  Persia  and  Hindostan, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  those  countries,  which  was  dis 
covered  and  published  by  Karamzin.  Died  in  14/2. 

See  GKETCH,  "  K-;s;>i  liistorique  sur  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Nike.     See  NICK. 

Nikolai,  nee'ko-li,  (TzAAK,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyclen  in  1536.  He  died  in  1619,  leaving  three  sons, 
all  of  whom  were  artists. 

See  DK-.CAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollapdais,"  etc. 

Nikolaus,  the  German  for  NICHOLAS,  which  see. 

Nikon  or  Nicon,  nee'kon,  a  Russian  .scholar  and 
theologian,  born  near  Novogorod  in  1605.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Patriarch  of  Russia  in  1652  ;  but  he  afterwards 
lost  favour  at  court,  and  was  deposed.  He  rendered 
great  services  to  Russian  literature  by  correcting  the 
Slavonian  ecclesiastical  works  from  the  Greek  originals  ; 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  compiled  the  "Russian 
Chronicles/'  published  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  (1792.)  Died  in  1681. 

See  IVAN  OmrcHKRix.  "Vie  du  Patriarclie  Nikon,"  1817; 
APOI.I.OS,  ''Vie  du  Patriarclie  Nikon,"  1839. 

Nil,  SAINT,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  fifth  century,  be 
longed  to  a  noble  family  of  Constantinople.  He  was 
author  of  numerous  theological  works,  only  a  part  of 
which  are  extant. 

Nilakantha,  a  surname  of  SIVA,  (which  see.) 

Niles,  nilz,  (HEZEKIAH,)  an  American  journalist,  and 
founder  of  the  "  Register"  called  by  his  name,  which 
he  edited  for  twenty-five  years  at  Baltimore,  was  born 
about  1777;  died  in  1839. 

Niles,  (JoHN  MILTON,)  an  American  journalist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  He 
became  editor  in  1817  of  the  "Hartford  Times,"  a 
Democratic  journal,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  post 
master-general  by  President  Van  Buren.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1842.  He  wrote  the 
"Lives  of  Perry,  Lawrence,  Pike,  and  Harrison,"  "His 
tory  of  South  America  and  Mexico,"  etc.,  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1856. 

Niles,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  American  divine  and  inventor, 
born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1741,  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Vermont  in  1791.  He  was 
the  author  of  religious  and  miscellaneous  works,  and 
wrote  a  popular  war-song,  called  "The  American  Hero." 
Died  in  1828. 

Niles,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  Brain- 
tree,  Massachusetts,  in  1744.  He  graduated  at  Prince 


ton  College,  and  subsequently  became  minister  of  Abing- 
ton,  Massachusetts.  Died  in  1814. 

Ni'leus  or  Neleus,  [NftAcuc,]  a  Greek  physician  of 
uncertain  epoch,  probably  lived  before  200  i;.c.  He 
invented  a  machine  for  the  reduction  of  dislocations. 

Nilson,  ml'son,  (JoHANN  ESAIAS,)  a  German  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1721  ;  died  in  1788. 

Nilson,  nil'son,  or  Nilsson,  (SvEN,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  naturalist  and  physician,  born  near  Landskrona 
in  1787.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Swedish 
Ornithology,"  (" Ornithologia  Suecica,")  "Scandinavian 
Fauna,"  ("  Skandinavisk  Fauna,"  1820,)  and  an  antiqua 
rian  treatise  "On  the  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  Northern 
Scandinavia,"  (1838.) 

Nilsson,  nll'son,  (CHRISTINE,)  a  celebrated  singer, 
born  in  Smaland,  Sweden,  in  1843.  She  made  her  debut 
in  Paris  in  October,  1864,  appeared  in  London  in  1867, 
visited  the  United  States  in  1870,  and  was  everywhere 
received  with  unbounded  applause. 

Nimeegen,  van,  vln  ne-ma'nen,  (ELIAS,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  landscapes,  history,  and  still  life,  born  at 
Nymwegen  in  1667;  died  about  1737. 

Nina,  nee'na,  a  Sicilian  poetess  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century. 

Ninnin,  ne'na.N1',  (HENRI,)  born  at  Poix,  in  Cham 
pagne,  in  1722,  was  one  of  the  physicians  of  Louis  XV. 
He  published  a  translation  of  the  medical  works  of 
Celsus,  (2  vols.,  1753.)  Died  in  1800. 

Nino,  nen'yo,  (ANDRES,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  born 
about  1475,  made  a  voyage  to  the  Molucca?,  in  1522. 

Nino,  (PEDRO  ALONZO,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  sur- 
named  EL  NEGRO,  ("the  Black,")  born  in  Andalusia  in 
1468,  was  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus  in  his 
third  voyage.  He  afterwards  sailed  as  commander  of  a 
caravel,  and  made  several  discoveries  on  and  near  the 
South  American  coast.  Died  about  1505. 

See  IRVING,  "  Life  of  Columbus." 

Nino  de  Guevara.     See  GCEVARA,  DE. 

Ninon.     See  I/ENCLOS,  DE. 

Ni'nus,  [Gr.  Ntrof,]  a  celebrated  ruler  of  antiquity, 
said  to  have  been'the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy, 
flourished  about  2*48  B.C.  After  having  conquered  the 
greater  part  of  Asia,  he  built  the  city  of  Nineveh,  and  at 
his  death  left  his  kingdom  to  his  warlike  queen  SEMI- 
KAMLS,  (which  see.) 

Nl'o-be,  [Gr.  Nw3r;;  Fr.  NIOBE,  ne'o'ba',]  a  person 
age  of  classic  mythology,  said  to  have  been  a  daughter 
of  Tantalus,  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of  Pe- 
lops,)  and  the  wife  of  Amphi'on.  She  was  celebrated 
for  her  numerous  and  beautiful  offspring,  and  had  seven 
sons  and  seven  daughters,  or,  according  to  some  ac 
counts,  six  of  each.  -The  poets  relate  that  she  was  so 
proud  of  her  children  that  she  claimed  superiority  over 
Latona,  (Leto,)  who  had  borne  only  two.  Apollo  and 
Diana,  (Artemis,)  exasperated  by  her  arrogance,  slew- 
all  her  children.  The  sons  are  said  to  have  fallen  by 
the  arrows  of  Apollo,  the  daughters  by  those  of  Diana. 
Niobe  was  changed  into  a  stone  by  her  excessive  grief. 
Her  story  was  a  favourite  subject  of  the  ancient  poets, 
and  has  been  commemorated  by  an  admirable  group 
of  statuary,  which  is  now  at  Florence,  and  which  is 
variously  ascribed  to  Praxiteles  and  Scopas.  (See  the 
"  Iliad,"  book  xxiv.) 

Niou,  ne'oo',  (  JOSEPH,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born 
at  Kochefort  in  1751,  was  elected  to  the  National  Con 
vention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king. 
Died  in  1828. 

Niphus.     See  NIFO. 

Nisami.     See  NIZAMEE. 

Nisard,  ne'zjR',  (JEAN  MARIE  NAPOLEON-  DESIRE,) 
a  French  critic  and  litterateur,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Seine  in  1806.  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  and  of  "  Le  National,"  (1831,) 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  master  of  requests  in 
the  council  of  state,  and  professor  of  Latin  eloquence  in 
the  College  of  France,  (1844.)  He  was  elected  in  1850 
to  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1852  succeeded  M.  Vil- 
lemain  in  the  chair  of  French  eloquence  in  the  Faculty 
of  Letters.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  his  "  Studies 
of  Morals  and  Criticism  on  the  Latin  Poets  during  the 
Decline  of  Learning,"  (2  vols.,  1834,)  which  is  highly 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NISARD 


1680 


NOAH 


commended  by  Villemain  and  other  critics,  "  History 
of  French  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1844-61,)  esteemed  his 
best  production,  and  "  Studies  on  the  Revival  of  Let 
ters,"  (1855.) 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  contemporains ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate." 

Nisard,  (T.  KAN  MARIE  NICOLAS  AUGUSTS,)  a  French 
scholar,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Seine  in  1805.  He  published  a  translation  of  Horace's 
"  Art  of  Poetry"  and  of  Virgil's  works. 

Nisard,  (MARIE  LEONARD  CHARLES,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chatillon-snr-Seine  in  1808.  He 
published  several  original  works,  and  made  translations 
from  Ovid,  Martial,  and  other  Latin  classics.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  (1853,)  a 
"  History  of  Popular  Books  since  the  Fifteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1854,)  and  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique 
des  Lettres  an  quinzieme,  seizieme  et  dix-septieme  Sie- 
cles,"  (1860  ) 

Nisbet.     See  NKSBIT,  (ALEXANDKR.) 

Nissel,  nis'sel,  [Lat.  NISSK'I.IUS,]  ([OHANN  GEORG,) 
a  German  editor,  born  in  the  Palatinate,  lived  mostly  at 
Leyden.  He  published,  at  his  own  expense,  a  Hebrew 
Bible,  (about  1659,)  which  is  said  to  be  accurate.  Died 
in  1662. 

Nisselius.     See  NISSEL. 

Nissole,  ne'sol',  (GuiLLAUMK,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1647.  The  genus  Nissolia  was 
named  in  his  honour  by  Tournefort  Died  in  1734. 

Ni'sus,  [Gr.  Ntoof,]  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of 
Pandi'on,  and  a  king  of  Megara.  The  poets  relate  that 
Megara  was  taken  by  Minos  through  the  treachery 
of  Scvlla,  a  daughter  of  Nisus,  who  died  because  she 
cut  off  the  purple  or  golden  hair  on  which  his  life  de 
pended. 

Nisus,  a  Trojan  warrior  and  friend  of  Euryalus,  came 
to  Italy  with  .-Eneas,  and  was  killed  in  the  war  against 
Turnus.  The  story  of  Nisus  and  Euryalus  forms  the 
subject  of  a  beautiful  episode  of  Virgil's  "  /Eneid,"book 
ix.,  175-448. 

Nithard,  ne'laV,  a  French  historian,  born  in  790  A.n., 
was  the  son  of  Angilbert  and  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charle 
magne.  His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Dis 
sensions  between  the  Sons  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,"  (in 
Latin.)  Died  in  853. 

See  "  Histoire  litte>aire  de  la  France,"  vol.  v. 

Ni-to'cris,  [Gr.  Nrrw/cpjc,]  a  queen  of  ancient  Egypt, 
lived  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  says  she  was 
the  only  female  in  a  list  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  nion- 
archs  which  the  Egyptian  priests  showed  to  him.  She 
was  celebrated  as  a  heroine  in  the  legends  of  ancient 

Egypt- 
See  BCNSEN,  "/Egyptens  Stella  in  der  Wehgeschichte." 

Nitsch,  nitsh,  (PAUL  FRIK.DRICH,)  a  German  archae 
ologist,  born  at  Glauchau  in  1754,  published  a  "New 
Mythological  Dictionary,"  (1793,)  and  other  learned 
works.  Died  in  1794. 

Nitzsch  or  Nitzch,  nitsh,  (GREGOR  WII.HKI.M,)  a 
German  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1790,  was  a  son  of  Karl  Ludvvig,  noticed  below.  He 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Kiel  in  1827, 
and  professor  of  archaeology  at  Leipsic  in  1852.  He 
gained  distinction  by  his  speculations  on  the  Homeric 
poems.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Epic  Poetry  of  the 
Greeks,"  (2  vols.,  1852.)  Died  in  1861. 

Nitzsch,  (KARL  IMMANUEL,)  a  German  theologian,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Borna,  in  Saxony, 
in  1787.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in 
1822,  and  obtained  the  high  office  of  Oberconsistorial- 
rath  in  1843.  Tn  1847  ne  was  appointed  preacher  to 
the  University  of  Berlin.  His  opinions  are  said  to  be 
liberal. 

Nitzsch,  (KARL  LunwiG,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Wittenberg  in  1751,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Univer 
sity  of  Wittenberg  about  1790.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  On  the  Salvation  of  the  World,"  ("  Ueber  das 
Heil  der  Welt,"  1817.)  He  favoured  a  compromise  or 
reconcilement  between  orthodoxy  and  rationalism.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  HOPPE,  "  Denkmal  des  verewigten  K.  L.  Nitzsch,"  1837. 


Nivelle,  ne'vel',  (GABRIEL  NICOLAS,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  1687,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Cry  of  the 
Faith,"  and  "The  Constitution  Unigenitus  submitted  to 
the  Universal  Church."  Died  in  1761. 

Nivelle  de  la  Chaussee.     See  CHAUSSEE,  DE  LA. 

Nivernais,  de,  deh  ne'veVn.V,  (Louis  JULES  Bar- 
bon  Mancini  Mazarini — baVbo.N1'  mox'se'iie'  ma"'- 
zS're'ne',)  Due,  a  distinguished  French  litterateur  and 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1716.  He  was  employed 
in  several  important  missions,  and  in  1763  negotiated 
the  treaty  between  England  and  France.  lie  made 
translations  from  the  Latin,  English,  and  Italian,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  fables,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in 
1798. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,"  Causeries  dn  Lunrii  ;"  F.  DE  NEUFCHATRAU, 
"  filogedu  Due  de  Nivermis,"  prefixed  to  his  "CEuvres  posthumes," 
1807  ;  ANDR^  DUPIN,  "  filo.^e  du  Dnc  de  Nivernois,"  1^40. 

Nivers,  ne'vaiit',  (GUILLAUMK  GAHKIKI.,)  a  French 
musician  and  writer  on  music,  born  near  Melun  in  1617. 

Nix'oii,  (JOHN,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo 
lution,  bom  at  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1725. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Ticonderoga, 
Lexington,  and  Bunker  Hill,  and  rose  to  be  brigadier- 
general  in  1776.  Died  in  1815. 

Niza,  di,  de  ned'za,  (MARCO,)  an  Italian  missionary, 
is  said  to  have  first  discovered  the  province  of  Sonora, 
in  New  Mexico,  (1540.) 

Nizam-el-Molouk.     See  NIZAM-KL-MOOLK. 

Nizam-el-Moolk,  ne-/am'  el  moolk,  written  also 
Nizam-el-Mulk  and  Nizam-al-Moulk  or  -Molook, 
a  Persian  statesman,  was  grand  vizier  to  the  Sultan  Alp- 
Arslan.  lie  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning,  and 
founded  the  College  of  Bagdad.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
work  containing  precepts  for  government.  Died  about 
1092. 

Nizam -ool- Moolk  or  Nizam -ul-Mulk,  (or 
-Moulk.)  ne-ztm/  ool  moolk,  a  general  and  politician, 
born  at  Delhi,  in  Ilindostan,  about  1650.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  daring,  successful,  and  treacherous.  lie 
made  himself  master  of  the  Deccan.  Died  in  1748. 

Nizam-ul-Mulk.      See  NizAM-EL-MoOLK  and   Ni- 

ZAM-OOI.-MOOI.K. 

Nizimee,  Nizami,  or  Nisami,  ne-za'mee,  written 
also  Nidhami,  (Aboo-  Mohammed  -Ibii-Yoosuf, 

a'boo  mo-ham'med  ib'n  yoo'soof  or  yoo'suf.)  a  cele 
brated  Persian  poet  of  the  twelfth  century.  One  of  his 
principal  poems  furnished  the  subject  of  Gozzi's  drama 
of  "  Turandot,"  which  was  subsequently  imitated  by 
Schiller.  Died  in  1180. 

Nizami.     See  NizAMF.E. 

Nizoliua.     See  NIZZOLI. 

Nizzoli,  net'so-lee.  [Lat.  NIZO'I.TUS,]  (MARIO.)  an 
Italian  scholar,  and  one  of  the  best  Latin  writers  of  his 
time,  was  born  near  Modena  in  1498.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  Ciceronian  Treasure,"  ("Thesaurus 
Ciceronianns,")  and  an  essay  "On  the  True  Principles 
of  Philosophising." 

Njord  or  Niord,  nyord,  (Njor'Sr,)  [etymology  very 
uncertain  ;  some  derive  it  from  nordr,  "north,"]  the  god 
of  winds,  and  the  third  in  order  (after  Odin)  among 
the  gods  of  the  Norse  mythology.  He  appears  to  be  a 
personification  of  trade  or  commerce,  and  dwells  in 
Noatun,  (no'a-toon',)  or  "  Ship-town."  His  wife  is  named 
SKADI,  (which  see.)  He  is  particularly  worshipped  by 
sailors  and  fishermen.  He  is  very  rich,  and  can  give 
wealth  in  abundance  to  those  who  invoke  him.  He 
rules  the  course  of  the  wind,  stills  the  ocean,  and 
quenches  fire.  He  was  originally  an  inhabitant  of  Vana- 
heim,  but  was  sent  by  the  Vanir  as  a  hostage  to  the 
/Esir,  among  whom  he  is  now  numbered. 

See  THORPE'S  "Northern  Mvtho'opy."  vol.  i.  ;  KEYSER'S  "Re 
ligion  of  the  Northmen  ;"  PETERSEN'S  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

No'ah,  [Heb.  PJ;  Gr.  Nwe;  Fr.  NOE,  no'a',]  the  son 
of  Lamech,  a  patriarch  of  the  tenth  generation  from 
Adam,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  2950  B.C. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  integrity  and  piety  in  an 
age  of  almost  universal  corruption.  (Genesis  vi.  9  ;  II. 
Peter  ii.  5.)  He  was  six  hundred  years  old  when  the 
great  Deluge  destroyed  all  the  human  race  except  Noah 
and  his  family,  who  were  saved  in  the  Ark  (Genesis  vii., 


a,  e,  T,  o,  fi,  y,  long:  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  not;  good;  moon; 


N04H 


i68i 


NODAL 


viii.,  and  ix.)  and  entered  into  a  new  and  everlasting 
covenant.  He  died  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred  and  fifty. 

No'ab,  (MoRDECAl  MANUEL,)  an  American  journalist 
and  politician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1785.  He  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  was 
successively  editor  of  "The  National  Advocate,"  "The 
Enquirer,"  "Evening  Star,"  and  "Sunday  Times."  He 
was  appointed  consul  to  Morocco  in  1813.  He  pub 
lished  "  Travels  in  England,  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Barbary  States."  Died  in  1851. 

Noaille,  no'!!'  or  no't'ye,  (JACQUES  BARTHELEMY,) 
a  French  magistrate  and  revolutionist,  of  the  royalist 
party,  born  at  Beaucaire  in  April,  1758;  died  in  1828. 

Noailles,  de,  deh  no'tF  or  no't'ye,  (  ADRIEN 
MAURICE,)  Due,  an  eminent  French  general  and  states 
man,  born  in  Paris  in  1678,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Anne 
Jules,  noticed  below.  He  married  Fran9oise  d'Aubigne, 
a  niece  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  During  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession  he  served  with  distinction  as 
general  and  diplomatist  in  Spain  from  1705  to  1712. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  from  1715  to  1718.  In  1734 
he  became  a  marshal  of  France  and  commander-in-chief 
in  a  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  wrote 
"Political  and  Military  Memoirs,"  (6  vols.,  1777.)  He 
is  represented  as  a  man  of  great  talents  and  many  virtues. 
Died  in  1766. 

See  MIU.OT,  "Memoires  du  Due  de  Noailles,"  1777;  SAINT- 
SIMON,  "Memoires;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Mo- 
REKI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
CESENA,  "  La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (ANNE  JULES,)  Due,  an  able  French 
general,  born  in  1650,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  first 
Duke  of  Noailles,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
commanded  in  Catalonia  between  1689  and  1695,  and 
gained  several  advantages  over  the  Spaniards.  He  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1693,  and  became 
Viceroy  of  Catalonia.  Died  in  1708. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  DE  COURCELLES,  "Dictionnaire 
des  Generaux  Francais ;"  CESENA,  "La  Maison  de  Xoailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (AxroiNE,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in 
1504  ;  died  in  1562. 

Noailles,  de,  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  department  of 
Limousin  in  1519.  He  was  employed  by  Henry  II.  in 
missions  to  London,  Venice,  and  Constantinople.  Died 
in  1:585. 

Noailles,  de,  (JEAN  PAUL  FRANC.OIS,)  Due,  son  of 
Louis,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He 
served  in  the  last  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
was  made  a  knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  (1777.)  He  was  the  father-in-law  of  General 
La  Fayette.  13ied  in  1824. 

See  DE  COURCELI.ES,  "  Histoire  des  Pairs  de  France  ;"  A.  DE 
CE>KNA.  "La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis,)  Due,  born  in  1713,  was  a  son 
of  Adrien  Maurice.  He  was  styled  Due  d'Ayen  before 
his  father's  death.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
campaigns  of  Flanders  and  Germany,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  marshal  in  1775.  Died  in  1793.  When  Louis 
XV.  said  that  the  fermiers-genermtx  support  the  state, 
the  Due  de  Noailles  replied,  "  Yes,  as  the  rope  supports 
a  man  who  is  hung." 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "Precis  du  Regne  de  Louis  XV,"  chap.  Ixvii. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  ANTOINE,)  a  French  cardinal, 
born  in  1651,  was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Noailles, 
and  a  brother  of  Anne  Jules,  noticed  above.  He  suc 
ceeded  Harlay  as  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1695.  In  the 
controversy  which  broke  out  soon  after  between  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Tansenists,  he  endeavoured  to  act  as 
mediator  ;  but  he  lost  the  confidence  and  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  both  parties.  Having  refused  for  a  long 
time  to  accept  the  papal  bull  Unigenitus,  he  gave  in  his 
submission  to  the  pope  in  1728.  Died  in  1729. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  "Hisu.ire  de  Port-Royal:" 
"Gallia  Christiana,"  tomes  i.,  viii.,  and  ix.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  JOSEPH  ALEXIS.)  son  of  Louis 
Marie,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  He 
was  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  Bourbons,  and  fought 
against  Napoleon  in  the  army  of  the  allies  in  1813.  At 


the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  was  one  of  the  ministers- 
plenipotentiary  of  France,  and  in  1815  was  appointed 
minister  of  state  and  a  member  of  the  privy  council. 
Died  in  1835. 

See  DE  COURCELI.ES,  "  Histoire  des  Pairs  de  France  ;"  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  MARIE,)  VICOMTE,  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  1756,  was  a  son  of  Marshal  de  Mou- 
chy.  As  a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  he  pro 
posed,  on  the  4th  of  August,  the  suppression  of  feudal 
rights  and  other  privileges  of  the  aristocracy.  He  mar 
ried  the  sister  of  Madame  La  Fayette.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  terror  he  emigrated  to 
the  United  States.  Having  been  sent  by  Napoleon  to 
Saint  Domingo  as  general  of  brigade  in  1803,  he  was 
killed  in  a  naval  engagement  with  the  English,  in  1804. 

See  BAILI.V,  "Memoires;"  TRIERS,  "History  of  the  French 
Revolution;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

Noailles,  de,  (PAUL,)  Due,  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1802.  He  has  published  a  "History  of 
Madame  de  Maintenon  and  the  Principal  Events  of  the 
Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1848.)  and  several  other  works. 
In  1849  he  succeeded  Chateaubriand  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy. 

See  A.  UK  CESENA,  "  Le  Due  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (PHILIPPE.)     See  MOUCHY. 

Noback,  no'bak,  (FKIEDRICH  EDUARD,)  born  at 
Crefeld,  in  Germany,  in  1815,  published  a  "  Systematic 
Manual  of  the  Science  of  Commerce,"  (1848.) 

Noback,  (KARL  AUGUST,)  a  German  writer  on  com 
merce,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kolleda  in 
1810.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  Commercial  Asso 
ciations,"  (1842,)  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Nobel,  m/bel,  written  also  Noble,  (CONSTANTIN,) 
a  Dutch  navigator,  born  about  1616,  obtained  a  high 
rank  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
Died  after  1674,  Van  Hoorn  and  Nobel  went  on  a  mis 
sion  to  Peking  in  1665. 

Nobili,  no'be-lee,  (LEOPOLDO,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  in  1784  ;  died  in  1834. 

See  V.  ANTINORI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Professore  L.  Nobili," 
1836. 

Nobili,   de',   da  no'be-lee,    [Lat.    DE  NOBII/IBUS,] 

:  (RoKERTO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  Jesuit  and  missionary, 

i  born  at  Monte-Pulciano  in  1577,  was  a  nephew  of  Car- 

'  dinal  Bellarmino.     He  resided  many  years  in  Southern 

India,  where  he  converted  great  numbers  to  Christianity. 

He  wrote  several  religious  treatises  in  different  Indian 

dialects.     Died  in  1656. 

See  JOIJVENCV,  "  Histoire  des  Jesuites;"  PARIGI,  "  Notizie  de' 
Cardinale  R.  de'  Nobili,"  etc.,  1836. 

Nobilibus,  de.     See  NOBILI,  DE'. 

Noble,  no'b'l,  (MARK,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
became  rector  of  Barming,  in  Kent.  He  published 
"Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Medici,"  (1797,)  "  Lives  of 
the  English  Regicides,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  a  con 
tributor  to  the  "  Archaeologia."  Died  in  1827. 

Noble,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  about 
1820.  Among  his  works  are  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  at  Manchester,  and  a  statue  of 
Lord  Canning. 

Noble,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  theologian  and  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1779.  He  practised  engraving  in  his 
early  life,  and  became  a  Swedenborgian  minister  about 
1826.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Plenary 
Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,"  and  a  volume  of  Ser- 
|  mons,  (1848.)  Died  in  1853. 

Noble,  Le.     See  LE  NOBLE. 

Nobleville.     See  ARNAULT  DE  NOBLEVILLE. 

Noblot,  no'blo',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1668  ;  died  in  1742. 

Nobrega,  da,'d3.  no-bRa'ga,  (MANGEL,)  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  was  one  of  the  first  band  of  missionaries  that 
laboured  in  Brazil,  where  they  arrived  about  1550.  Died 
in  1570. 

Nocret,  no'kRi',  (JEAN,)  a  French  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Nancy  in  1612;  died  in  1672. 

See  DUMESNIL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Francois." 

Nodal,  de,  da  no-dal',  (Goxz.\i.o  and  BARTOLOME 
GARCIA,)  Spanish  navigators,  born  in  Galicia,  were 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (23T"3ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

106 


NODIER 


1682 


NO  INTEL 


brothers.  They  commanded  two  ships  sent  by  the  King 
of  Spain  in  1618  to  explore  and  fortify  Le  Maire  Strait, 
near  Cape  Horn.  They  discovered  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  latitude  56°  40',  which  they  called  "Diego 
Ramirez,"  and  which  was  the  most  southern  land  marked 
on  maps  for  a  century  or  more. 

See  DE  BROSSES,  "Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  aus- 
trales." 

Nodier,  no'de-i',  (CHARLES,)  a  celebrated  French 
litterateur,  was  boTTf  at  Besai^on  in  1783.  He  studied  in 
the  Central  School  of  his  native  city,  and  soon  after 
repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  published  his  "  Painter  of 
Saltzburg,"  (1803,)  and  "The  Exiles,"  romances  in  the 
style  of  Werther.  About  this  time  he  also  wrote  a 
satirical  poem  entitled  "  La  Napoleone,"  for  which  he 
was  subjected  to  a  short  banishment.  Having  spent 
several  years  in  Switzerland  and  Illyria,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal 
des  Debats,"  and  subsequently  took  charge  of  "  La  Quo- 
tidienne."  On  'the  accession  of  Louis  XVIII.  Nodier 
obtained  a  title  of  nobility  and  the  cross  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  He  was  appointed  in  1824  librarian  of 
the  Arsenal,  in  Paris.  His  works  are  numerous  and 
on  various  subjects,  including  many  compositions  of  a 
brilliant  and  original  character.  Among  these  may  be 
named  his  "Entomological  Bibliography,"  (1801,)  "  Dic 
tionary  of  French  Onomatopoeia,"  etc.,  ("  Dictionnaire 
raisonne  des  Onomatopees  Francaises,"  1808,)  an  etymo 
logical  treatise  of  great  merit,  and  the  romances  of 
"Jean  Sbogar,"  (1818,)  "  Therese  Aubert,"  (1819,)  and 
"  Picturesque  and  Romantic  Travels  in  Ancient  France," 
(1820.)  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Biographic 
Universelle."  Nodier  had  been  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  about  1833.  He  died  in  1844,  leaving  a  volume 
of  "  Souvenirs,"  in  which  he  professes  to  narrate  the 
events  of  his  early  life  ;  but  they  are  said  to  be  mixed 
with  fiction. 

See  MEKIMEE,  "  FJoge  de  Nodier;"  SAINTE-BKUVK,  "Portraits 
Litteraires  ;"  L.UE  LOMENIK,  "  M.  Nodier,  par un  Hommede  Rien," 
1842;  QUERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio^raphie 
Generale;"  NOUIEK,  "  Souvenirs,"  etc.,  1832. 

Nodot,  no'do',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  litterateur,  who 
lived  about  1680-1700. 

Noe,  the  French  for  NOAH,  which  see. 

Noe,  de,  deh  no'a',  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French  prel 
ate,  born  in  1724,  was  appointed  in  1802  Bishop  of 
Troves.  He  died  the  same  year. 

Noel,  no'el',  (Ai.KXis  NICOLAS,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter  and  designer,  born  near  Paris  in  1792,  was  a 
pupil  of  David.  He  published  in  1818  a  "  Picturesque 
Tour  in  France  and  Germany." 

No'el,  (Rev.  BAPTIST  WRIOTHESLEY,)  an  eminent 
English  dissenting  minister,  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Gainsborough,  was  born  in  1799.  He  was  in  his  youth 
a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church,  which  he  left  and 
joined  the  Baptists  about  1849.  He  became  popular  as 
a  preacher  and  as  a  writer  and  a  prominent  promoter  of 
benevolent  enterprises  and  liberal  movements.  Among 
his  works  are  "Christian  Missions  to  Heathen  Nations," 
an  "Essay  on  Christian  Baptism,"  (1849,)  ancl  "Letters 
on  the  Church  of  Rome." 

See  the  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1849. 

Noel,  no'el',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Hainault  in  1651,  spent  many  years  as  a  missionary  in 
China.  He  wrote  several  theological  and  scientific 
works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1729. 

Noel,  (FRANC.OIS  JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1783  ;  died  in  1856. 

Noel,  (FuANgois  JOSEPH  MICHEL,)  a  French  litte 
rateur  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Saint-Germain -en- Laye 
about  1755.  He  published  a  "  Mythological  Dictionary," 
(2  vols.,  1801-23,)  "Lessons  in  Literature  and  Morals," 
(2  vols.,  1804,)  several  valuable  dictionaries,  and  nume 
rous  other  compilations.  His  "  French  Grammar"  (1823) 
passed  through  forty-six  editions.  He  became  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  Venice  in  1793,  minister  to  the  Hague 
i'1  r795>  inspector-general  of  public  instruction  in  1802, 
and  inspector-general  of  the  University  in  1808.  He 
retained  the  last  office  under  several  reigns.  Died  in  1841. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 


Noel,  (JEAN  BAP'I  ISTE,)  a  member  of  the  French 
National  Convention,  was  born  at  Remiremont  in  1727. 
He  voted  against  the  death  of  the  king,  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Noel,  (J  ULES,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Quimper 
about  1818. 

Noel  de  la  Moriniere,  no'el'  deh  It  mo're'ne-aiR', 
(SIMON  BARTHELEMY  JOSEPH,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Dieppe  in  1765,  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"General  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Fisheries," 
(1815,)  which  was  translated  into  Russian  and  German. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg.  Died  at  Drontheim,  Norway,  in  1822. 

Noel  des  Vergers,  m/eK  di  vek'zhi/,  ([OSEPH 
MARIN  ADOLPHE,)  a  French  Orientalist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  made  a  translation  of  Abool- 
feda's  "Life  of  Mohammed,"  (1837,)  and  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  "  Nouvelle  Revue  Encyclope- 
dique,"  "Athenaeum  Francais,"  and  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Noelting.     See  NOLTING. 

Noet.     See  NOETUS. 

No-e'tus,  [Fr.  NOET,  no'i',]  a  schismatic  among  the 
early  Christians,  flourished  about  240  A.D.,  and  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Ephesus.  He  opposed 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  his  views  were  afterwards 
promulgated  by  Sabellius,  one  of  his  disciples. 

See  FLEUKY,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 

Nogaret,  no'gi'ii',  (FRANCOIS  FELIX,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1740.  He  was  the 
author  of  poems,  tales,  dramas,  and  prose  essays.  Among 
his  works  are  an  essay  on  natural  history,  entitled 
"  L'Apologie  de  mon  Gout,"  (1771,)  which  was  com 
mended  by  Voltaire,  a  translation  or  imitation  of  Aris- 
tpenetus,  ("  L'Aristenete  Frai^ais,"  1780,)  and  "Tales 
in  Verse,"  (5th  edition,  1810.)  Died  in  1831. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nogaret,  (HENRI.)     See  CANDALE,  (HENRI.) 

Nogaret,  de,  deh  no'gt'i-y,  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  about  1260,  became  chancellor  under 
Philippe  le  Bel.  Died  in  1313. 

Nogaret,  de,  (JACQUES  RAMEI,,)  a  French  statesman, 
born  at  Carcassonne  in  1760.  As  a  member  of  the  Na 
tional  Convention,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king. 
He  afterwards  entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
and  was  minister  of  finance  under  the  Directory  from 
February,  1796,  to  July,  1799.  Died  in  1819. 

Nogaret,  de,  (JEAN  Louis.)     See  EPERNON,  DE. 

Nogari,  no-gS/ree,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1699  ;  died  in  1763. 

Nogari,  (PARIDE,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Rome  about  1535  ;  died  about  1600. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nogarola,  no-ga-ro'la,  (!SOTTA,)  an  Italian  lady,  cele 
brated  for  her  talents  and  learning,  born  at  Verona  about 
1420  ;  died  in  1466. 

See  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Nogarola,  (Luioi,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  theologian, 
born  at  Verona  about  1509.  He  translated  several 
Greek  works  into  Latin.  He  took  a  prominent  part  at 
the  Council  of  Trent.  Died  in  1559. 

Noghera,  no-ga/ra,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian  lit'c- 
rateur  and  Jesuit,  born  in  the  Valtellina  in  1719.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  translations  of  the  ora 
tions  of  Demosthenes,  (1753.)  Died  in  1784. 

Noguez,  no'g;y,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Sauveterre  about  1685. 

Nohden  or  Noehden,  no'den,  (Giam;  HEINRICH,) 
a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in  17/0, 
published  a  "  Gerrnan-and-English-Grammar,"  (1800,) 
and  a  "  German-and-English-Dictionary,"  (1814,)  also 
several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1826. 

Nointel,  de,  deh  nwaN'tel',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS 
Olier — o'le-a',)  MAKQUIS,  a  French  diplomatist  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey 
in  1670.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  favourable  to  French 
commerce  in  1673.  He  owes  his  celebrity  chiefly  to  the 
medals,  inscriptions,  and  specimens  of  ancient  art  which 
he  collected  in  the  Levant.  Died  in  1685. 

See  D'ARVIEUX,  "Memoires." 


5,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o, obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NO  INFILL  E 


1683 


NONNUS 


Noinville,  de,  cleh  nwaN'vel',  (JACQUES  BERNARD 
DCREY,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Dijon  in  1682.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Opera  in 
France,"  (1753.)  I->ied  in  1768. 

Noir,  le,  leh  nwaR,  QEAN,)  a  French  Jansenist  priest 
and  writer,  born  at  Aleiifon  in  1622  ;  died  in  1692. 

Noirlieu,  de,  cleh  nwaR'le-uh',  (Louis  FRANCOIS 
MARTIN,)  a  French  theologian  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Sainte-Menehould  in  1792.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  Philosophic  Catechism  for  the  Use  of 
Men  of  the  World,'1  (1860.) 

Noirot,  nwa'ro',  (JOSEPH  MATHIAS,)  ABKE,  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Latrecey  (Haute-Marne)  in  1793. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Lyons  about  twenty- 
five  years.  His  "Lectures"  were  published  in  1852. 

Noisette,  nwa'zet',  (Louis  CLAUDE,)  a  French  horti 
culturist,  born  near  Paris  in  1772,  published  several 
valuable  works  on  pomology,  floriculture,  and  similar 
subjects.  Died  in  1849. 

Nola,  da,  dam/la,  (GIOVANNI  MARLIANO,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  near  Naples,  lived  about 
1500-50. 

See  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia  deila  Scultura." 

No'lan,  (Captain  LEWIS  EDWARD,)  a  brave  English 
officer,  served  under  Sir  Henry  Pottmger  in  India  in 
1839.  He  afterwards  had  a  part  in  the  Russian  cam 
paign  of  1854,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Balaklava. 

No'lan,  (MICHAEL,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  was  the  author 
of  "  Reports  of  Cases  relating  to  the  Duty  and  Office 
of  a  Justice  of  the  Peace,"  and  other  practical  law 
treatises.  Died  in  1827. 

Nolasque.    See  PETER  NOLASQUE. 

Nolde,  nol'deh,  (Anoi-i-H  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Neustrelitz  in  1764,  became  professor 
of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1810.  He  published  several 
medical  works.  Died  in  1813. 

Noldius,  nol'de-us,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish  divine 
and  biblical  writer,  born  in  Scania  in  1626;  died  in  1683. 

Noli,  da,  da  no'lee,  (ANTONIO,)  sometimes  called 
Uso  DI  MARE,  (oo'so  de  ma'ra,)  a  Genoese  navigator  in 
the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  made  a  voyage 
to  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  where  he  discovered  the 
Cape  Vercl  Islands.  Having  joined  the  fleet  of  Cada- 
mosto,  they  pursued  their  discoveries  together.  Noli 
also  accompanied  Cadamosto  in  his  second  voyage,  in 
1456. 

See  KAROX  HUMBOLDT,  "Histoire  de  la  Geographic  du  nouveau 
Continent ;"  WAI.CKEXAKR,  "  Histoire  generate  des  Voyages." 

Noliii,  m/laN',  (DENis,)  a  French  biblical  critic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1648;  died  in  1710. 

Noliii,  ([KAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1657  ;  died  in  1725. 

Nol'le-kens,  (JOSEPH,)  a  celebrated  English  sculptor, 
born  in  London  in  1737,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Francis, 
noticed  below.  In  1760  he  visited  Rome,  where  he  re 
sided  many  years  and  executed  several  woiks  of  great 
merit.  Among  these  were  busts  of  Garrick  and  Sterne, 
and  a  group  representing  "Timocleus  and  Alexander." 
After  his  return  he  was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician,  in 
1772.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  making  portrait- 
busts,  and  was  extensively  patronized  by  the  nobility  and 
the  fashionable  world.  His  monument  to  Mrs.  Howard, 
at  Corby  Castle,  and  his  statue  of  Venus,  are  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Nollekens  was  noted  for  his 
parsimony,  and  amassed  a  laige  fortune.  Died  in  1823. 

See  J.  T.  SMITH,  "Nollekens  and  his  Times,"  1829;  CUNNING 
HAM,  "  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Nollekens,  nol'ieh-kens,  (JOSEPH  FRANCIS,)  a  Flem 
ish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1690,  set 
tled  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1748. 

Nollet,  no'la',  (DoMiNiCK,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Bruges  in  1640  ;  died  in  1736. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands." 

Nollet,  m/la',  (JEAN  ANTOINE,)  ABBE,  an  eminent 
French  philosopher,  born  at  Pimpre,  in  the  diocese  of 
Noyon,  in  1700.  On  leaving  college  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  natural  philosophy  and  co-operated 
with  M.  Dufay  in  electrical  experiments.  In  1739  he 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  repeated 
his  experiments  before  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  Turin. 
He  published  in  1743  the  first  part  of  his  "  Lectures  on 


Experimental  Physics,"  ("  Le9ons  de  Physique  experi- 
mentale,")  the  clearest  and  most  methodical  work  that 
had  appeared  on  that  subject.  In  this  he  gave  the  first 
popular  explanation  of  Newton's  discoveries  in  light. 
He  obtained  by  the  favour  of  the  king  the  chair  of  ex 
perimental  philosophy  in  the  College  of  Navarre  in  1756, 
and  a  brevet  of  master  of  philosophy  and  natural  history 
to  the  princes-royal.  He  published  "Researches  on  the 
Causes  of  Electric  Phenomena,"  (1749,)  and  an  "Essay 
on  the  Electricity  of  Bodies,"  (1750.)  Died  in  1770. 

See  "  Necrologe  des  Homines  celebres  de  France;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Nolpe,  nol'peh,  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1601.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  the 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  after  Rubens. 

See  HASAN,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Nolteu,  nol'ten,  [Lat.  NOLTE'NIUS,]  (JOHANN  AR 
NOLD,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1683  ; 
died  in  1740. 

Nolteri  or  Nolte,  nol'teh,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  )  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Eimbeck  in  1694.  He  pub 
lished  "Lexicon  Latinae  Lingua;  Antibarbarum,"  (1740.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Nolten,  (RUDOLPH  AUGUST,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  1703,  published  "On  the  Genuine  Sources 
of  Russian  History,"  ("  De  genuinis  Historian  Russicas 
Fontibus,"  1739,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1752. 

See  BALLENSTADT,  "Vita  Noltenii,"  1755. 

Noltenius.     See  NOLTEN. 

Nolting  or  Noeltiiig,  nol'ting,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH 
VINCENZ,)  a  distinguished  scholar  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Schwarzenbek,  in  Denmark,  in  1735.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Hamburg. 
Died  in  1806. 

Nominee,  no-min'o-a',  written  also  Nomenoi,  an 
Armorican  chief,  who  became  King  of  Bretagne,  was 
born  about  790  or  800  A.D.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
the  Bretons  by  the  emperor  Louis  le  Debonnaire  in  826 
A.D.  After  the  death  of  Louis,  (840,)  he  raised  the 
standard  of  independence,  and  defeated  Charles  the 
Bald,  who  led  an  army  to  reduce  him  to  subjection. 
Died  in  851. 

See  A.  DE  COURSON,  "Histoire  des  Peuples  Bretons,"  1846; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nomsz,  nomz,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1738.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
epic  poem  on  \Villiam  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  (1779,)  and 
tragedies  entitled  "  Maria  van  Lalain,"  "Zoroaster,"  and 
"Duchess  de  Coralli."  The  first  of  these  dramas  was 
very  popular.  Died  in  1803. 

See  DE  VKIES,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollandaise." 

Nonius,  (Louis.)     See  NUNEZ. 

No'ni-us,  (MARCELLUS,)  a  Roman  grammarian  of  the 
fourth  century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  Proprietate 
Sermonis,"  which  is  valued  for  the  passages  it  contains 
from  Latin  writers  not  extant. 

Nonnos.     See  NONNUS. 

Nomiotte,  no'not',  (CLAUDE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Besai^on  in  1711,  published,  besides 
other  books  of  little  merit,  a  work  entitled*' Errors  of 
Voltaire,"  (2  vols.,  1762,)  which  elicited  several  bitter 
rejoinders  from  that  writer.  Died  in  1793. 

Nomiotte,  (DoN.vr,)  a  French  painter,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Besancon  in  1707  ;  died  in  1785. 

Nou'lius  or  Nounos,  [Notrof,]  a  Greek  poet,  who 
lived  about  410  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Panopolis,  in  Egypt, 
and  probably  a  Christian.  His  only  extant  works  are 
a  "  Paraphrase  of  Saint  John,"  and  a  long  poem  en 
titled  "  Dionysiaca,"  or  the  History  of  Bacchus.  It  is 
bombastic  in  style,  and  is  chiefly  valued  for  the  infor 
mation  it  contains  on  mythological  subjects  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere. 

See  WEICHEKT,  "  Dissertatio  de  Nonno,"  1810;  S.  UWARROW, 
"  Nonnos  von  Panopolis,''  1817;  A.  F.  NAEKE,  "De  Nonno  Imi- 
tatore  Homeri,"  1835. 

Nonnus  or  No'iius,  (THEOPHANES,)  a  Greek  phy 
sician  of  the  tenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  com 
pendium  of  Medicine,  ("Compendium  totius  Artis 
Medicae,")  which  he  dedicated  to  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  Porphyrogenitus. 

See  FREIND,  "  History  of  Physic ;"  HALLER,  "  Bibliotheca 
Medica,"  etc. 


,  the  first  part  of  his  "  Lectures  on    Medica,"  etc. 

gas/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasa;  th  as  \nt/iis.     (C^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard; 


NOODT 


1684 


NORGATE 


Noodt,  not,  (GERAERT,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
jurists  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1647.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Franeker,  (1679,) 
Utrecht,  (1684,)  and  Leyden,  (1686.)  He  was  also  rector 
of  the  University  of  Leyden.  Among  his  principal 
works,  which  are  written  in  elegant  Latin,  we  may  name 
his  "Probabilia  Juris  Civilis,"  (1674-79,)  and  "On  the 
Rights  of  Sovereign  Power,"  ("De  Jure  Summi  Im- 
perii,"  etc.,  1707.)  Died  in  1725. 

See  BARBEYKAC,  "  Historica  Vitas  Auctoris  Narratio,"  prefixed  to 
the  collected  works  of  Noodt,  1735. 

Nooms,  noms,  (RKMI,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter  and 
engraver,  surnamecl  ZKKMAN,  ("  Seaman,")  born  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1612  ;  died  about  1672. 

Noor-ed-Deen,  Nour-Eddyn,  Noureddin,  or 
Nureddiii,  noor-ed-deen',  ("  Light  of  the  Faith,") 
(Mahmood-  (Mahmoud-  or  Malimud-)  Malek-al- 
Actel,  maii'mood'  mal'ek-al-a'del,*)  a  celebrated  Sultan 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  was  born  at  Damascus  in  1116.  In 
1146  he  successfully  opposed  the  attempts  of  Louis  VII. 
of  France  and  other  crusading  princes  to  recapture 
Edessa  and  possess  themselves  of  Damascus,  which, 
after  he  had  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Syria,  he 
made  the  capital  of  his  dominions.  He  took  advantage 
of  the  dissensions  which  agitated  Egypt  in  1163  to  es 
tablish  his  power  in  that  country,  where  he  appointed 
his  general  Shirakoh  governor  in  1168.  The  most  im 
portant  event  in  the  subsequent  part  of  Noor-ed-Deen's 
reign  was  the  extirpation  of  the  Sheeah  heresy  in  Egypt. 
Noor-ed-Deen  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  virtuous 
of  Oriental  rulers,  and  his  piety  and  integrity  made  him 
the  idol  of  his  subjects,  who  gave  him  the  surname  of 
"  Light  of  the  Faith."  Died  in  1173. 

See  MICHAUD,  "Histoire  des  Croisades;"  GUILLAUME  DE  TYR, 
"  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Noor-ed-Deen,  Noureddin,  or  Nureddiii,  (Ma- 
lek-al-Mansoor,  mal'ek-al-man'sdou',)  second  Sultan 
of  the  dynasty  of  Tartar  Mamelukes  in  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father  Ibek  in  1257.  He  was  deposed  at  the  end  of 
two  years,  on  account  of  his  youth  and  inexperience,  and 
the  Emir  Kotuz  ruled  in  his  stead. 

Noor-eddin,  Nour-eddiii,  or  Nureddiii,  (Arslaii 
Shah,  ars-1  at/  shah,)  Prince  of  Mesopotamia,  was  grand- 
nephew  of  the  celebrated  Noor-ed-Deen,  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  1193.  He  governed  with  wisdom  and 
ability,  and  recovered  much  of  the  power  of  which  his 
family  had  been  deprived.  Died  in  1210. 

Noort,  van,  van  nont,  sometimes  written  Oort, 
(ADAM,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1557,  was  a  son  of  Lambert,  noticed  below.  He  was  a 
good  colorist.  His  habits  were  intemperate.  He  was 
the  master  of  Rubens,  who  expressed  a  high  opinion  of 
his  talents.  Died  in  1641. 

See  WEYERMAN,  "De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Noort,  van,  (LAMBERT,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
architect,  born  at  Amersfoort  in  1520.  He  settled  at 
Antwerp,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Ant 
werp  in  1547. 

Noort,  van,  (OLIVER,)  the  first  Dutch  navigator  who 
sailed  around  the  world,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1568. 
An  account  of  his  voyage,  published  in  1602,  was  trans 
lated  into  several  languages.  Died  after  1611. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Noot,  van,  vtn  not,  (HENDRIK  NIKOLAAS,)  leader 
of  the  Belgian  revolution  of  1788,  was  born  at  Brussels 
in  1750.  The  revolt  against  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
being  suppressed  in  1790,  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  country.  Died  in  1827. 

See  DF.WEZ,  "Histoire  de  la  Belgique." 

Noowairee  or  Nouwairi,  noo-wT'ree,  written  also 
Nowairi  and  Nuwayri,  an  eminent  Arabian  historian 
and  scholar,  born  in  Egypt  about  1283.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  valuable  work  on  history,  chronology,  moral 
philosophy,  and  natural  science. 

See  HAJI-KHALFA,  "  Bibliographic  Lexicon." 

Nop,  nop,  (GERRIT,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1570. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flainands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nor.     See  NORVI. 


Malek-el-Adel  signifies  "the  Noble  King." 


Nor-ba'iius,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  general,  was  tribune 
of  the  people  in  95  H.C.,  and  prietor  in  Sicily  about 
the  year  90.  In  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  Marius 
he  was  a  partisan  of  the  latter.  He  became  consul  in 
83  K.C.,  and  commanded  an  army  which  was  defeated 
by  Sulla  in  Campania.  He  killed  himself  about  81  li.C. 

See  CICERO,  "  De  Oratore." 

Norberg.     See  NORDBERG. 

Norberg,  noR'beRG,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  Swedish  Orien 
talist,  born  in  1747,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental 
languages  at  Lund.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Re 
ligion  and  Language  of  the  Sabaeans,"  (1780,)  in  Latin, 
and  other  learned  works.  Died  in  1826. 

See  LINDFORS,  "  Menioria  M.  Norberg,"  1832;  LINUGKEN,  "Me- 
moria  M.  Norberg,"  1832. 

Norbert,  PERK.     See  PARISOT,  (PIERRE.) 
Nor'bert,  [Fr.   pron.   noR'baiR',]   SAINT,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Santen,  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Magdeburg  in  1 126.    He  had  founded  in  1120  a  religious 
association  at  Premontre,  in   the  diocese  of  Laon,  since 
celebrated  as  the  order  of  the  Premonstrants.      He  died 
in  1134,  and  was  canonized  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582. 
See  HUGO,  "Vie  de  Saint-Norbert,"  1704;  "Gallia  Christiana." 

Norblin,  noR'blaN',  (SEBASTIAN  Louis  WILLIAM,) 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1796,  and 
studied  painting  under  Regnault.  He  produced  a  num 
ber  of  historical  pictures.  He  gained  the  first  prize  in 
Paris  in  1825. 

Norblin  de  la  G-ourdaine,  noR'blaN'  deh  If  gooR'- 
din',  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  skilful  French  painter  and  en 
graver,  bom  near  Monterean  in  1745,  worked  in  Warsaw 
from  1774  to  1804.  Died  in  1830. 

Nordberg,  mmd'beRg,  or  Norberg,  noR'beRg, 
(GKURG,)  a  Swedish  historian,  and  chaplain  to  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1677.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Charles  XII.,  '  (2  vols., 
1740,)  which,  though  unattractive  in  style,  is  valued  for 
its  accuracy.  Died  in  1744. 

Norden,  noR'den,  (FREDERICK  Louis,)  a  Danish  artist 
and  writer,  born  at  Gliickstadt  in  1708.  Having  studied 
in  Italy,  he  was  sent  by  the  government  in  1737  to  de 
scribe  and  copy  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  After  his 
return  he  entered  the  English  service,  and  fought  against 
Spain  in  the  campaign  of  1740.  He  died  in  1742,  leav 
ing  "  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,"  which  were  published 
in  French,  (2  vols.,  1755.)  This  work,  containing  one 
hundred  and  fifty-nine  plates,  was  translated  into  Eng 
lish  and  German. 

See  MEUSEI,  "  Bibliotheca  Historical"  KRAFT  og  NYERUP, 
"Litteraturlexicon  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1756. 

Nor'deii,  (JOHN,)  an  English  engraver  and  writer, 
born  in  Wiltshire  about  1548.  He  published  the  "  Spe 
culum  Britannise,"  etc.,  and  "  The  Surveyor's  Dialogue," 
(1607.)  Died  about  1626. 

See  GOUGH,  "Anecdotes  of  British  Topography." 

Nordenflycht,  noR'clen  -  flukt',  (HEDWIGE  CHAR 
LOTTE,)  a  Swedish  authoress,  born  in  1718,  published 
poems  entitled  "  The  Passage  of  the  Belts,"  "  Victory 
of  the  Duna,"  "  Sweden  Emancipated,"  ("  Den  fralsa 
Swea,")  and  "An  Apology  for  Women,  against  J.  J. 
Rousseau."  Died  in  1763. 

See  HOWITT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe;" 
Runs,  "  Schicksale  der  schonen  Redekiinste  in  Schweden." 

Nordin,  noR-deen',  (KARL  GUSTAF,)  a  Swedish  prel 
ate,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1749,  became  Bishop  of  Iler- 
nosand.  Died  in  1812. 

Nores,  di,  de  no'res,  (GIASONE,)  born  at  Nicosia,  in 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  became  professor  of  moral  phi 
losophy  at  Padua.  He  was  the  author  of  several  critical 
and  philosophical  works.  Died  in  1590. 

Norfolk,  DUKE  OF.  See  HOWARD,  (THOMAS,)  and 
HOWARD,  (CHARLES.) 

Norfolk,  nor'fok,  (HENRY  GRANVII.LE  Frrz  ALAN 
HOWARD,)  DUKE  OF,  was  born  in  London  in  1815.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  before  the 
death  of  his  father,  (1856.)  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  advocated  the  cause  of  his  fellow-believers  in  Parlia 
ment.  Died  in  1860. 

Nor'gate,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  artist,  celebrated 
for  his  skill  in  illuminating  or  colouring  engravings.  His 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NOR  IS 


1685 


NORTH 


performances  are  highly  commended  by  Fuller.     Died 
in  1650. 

See  FULLER,  "Worthies;"  WALPOLE,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 
Noris,  no'ress,  (HENRY,)  a  learned  Italian  theologian, 
of  English  extraction,  was  born  at  Verona  in  1631.  He 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  XII.  chief  librarian 
of  the  Vatican,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1695.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Pelagianism,"  and  several  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1704. 

See  FABROM,  "  Vita:  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 
Noris,    (MATTKO,)    a  prolific  Italian  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  Venice  about  1640;  died  about  1710. 

Nor'man-by,  (CONSTANT-INK  HENRY  PHIPPS,)  MAR 
QUIS  OF,  an  English  statesman,  son  of  Henry,  first  Earl 
of  Mulgrave,  was  born  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  iSiS  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  for  Scarborough.  He  there  distinguished 
himself  as  the  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation  and 
parliamentary  reform.  In  1831  he  succeeded  to  the  title 
of  Earl  Mulgrave,  and  in  1832  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Jamaica.  He  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1834,  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1835,  and  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  home  department  from  1839  to  1841.  He 
received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Normanby  in  1838. 
He  was  subsequently  employed  on  embassies  to  France 
and  Italy.  He  published  in  1857  "A  Year  of  Revolu 
tion,  from  a  Journal  kept  in  Paris  in  1848."  Lord  Nor 
manby  was  also  the  author  of  novels  entitled  "  Matilda," 
(1825,)  and  "The  Contrast."  Died  in  1863. 
See  CAPEFIGUE,  "  Diplomates  Europeens." 

Normanby,  EARL  OF.  See  MULGRAVE,  (HENRY 
PHILIP  PHIPPS.) 

Normand.     See  LE  NORMAXD. 

Normand,  IIOR'HION',  (ALFRED  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Normand,  (CHARLES  PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
architect  and  engraver,  born  in  the  department  of 
Somme  in  1765.  He  published  several  professional 
works.  Died  in  1840. 

Normand,  (CLAUDE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1704;  died  in  1761. 

Normand,  (Louis  MARIE,)  a  French  engraver,  a  son 
of  Charles  Pierre  Joseph,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1789.  He  engraved  the  "Marriage  at  Cana," 
after  Paul  Veronese,  and  published  several  illustrated 
works,  among  which  is  "  Monuments  Francais,"  etc.,  (2 
parts,  1830-47.) 

Nor'man-dy,  (Al.PHONSE,)  an  English  chemist  and 
writer,  born  about  1810,  was  a  coadjutor  of  Dr.  Ure. 
He  published  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Chemistry,"  and  "The 
Chemical  Atlas,"  and  invented  a  valuable  apparatus  for 
the  distillation  of  aerated  fresh  water  from  sea-water. 
Died  in  1864. 

Normami,  noR'man,  (LARS,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
at  Strengnas  in  1651.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Upsal  in  1681,  and  in  1703  Bishop  of 
Gothenburg.  He  died  the  same  year. 

See  A.  NORRELICS,  "Vita  L.  Normanni,"  1738. 

Normann-Ehreiifels,  noR'man  a'ren-fe'ls',  (KARL 
FKIEDKICH  LKBRKCHT,)  son  of  the  following,  was  born 
in  1784.  He  entered  the  French  service,  and  held  a 
command  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812.  He  after 
wards  fought  for  the  Greeks  in  1822,  and  had  a  share 
in  the  victory  of  Kombotti.  Died  in  November,  1822. 

Normaiin-Ehrenfels,  (PuiLiPpCHRisTiAN,)  COUNT, 
a  distinguished  statesman,  born  in  Swedish  Pomerania 
in  1756,  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Charles  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  rose  to  be  minister  of  state  in  1802,  and  was 
created  a  count  in  1806.  Died  in  1807. 

Normant,  noR'mSN',  (ALEXIS,)  an  eloquent  French 
advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1697;  died  in  1745. 

Normant,  (ANTOINE,)  a  benevolent  French  manu 
facturer,  born  at  Romorantin  in  1783.  He  was  propri 
etor  of  a  large  manufactory  of  cloth  at  Romorantin. 

Norn  or  Norna.     See  NORNAS. 

Nor'nas  or  Norns,  sometimes  called  in  the  English 
plural  Nor'nies,  [Norse  plural,  Noriiir,*]  three  virgins, 

*  The  etymology  is  unknown.  "The  word  Norn,"  says  Thorpe, 
"does  not  occur  in  any  kindred  dialect." 


called  Urd,  (Urdr,  or  Urda,)  Verdandi,  and  Skuld,  (or 
Skulld,) — the  Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future, — who 
preside  over  the  destiny  of  men  and  gods.  They  corre 
spond  to  the  Parcae  (Motpcw)  of  classic  mythology. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  KEVSER,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen." 

Nornies,  an  English  plural  form  of  NORNA  or  NORN. 
See  NORNAS. 

Norns.     See  NORNAS. 

Norona,  no-rdn'ya,  (GASPAR  MARIA  DE  NAVA  AL 
VAREZ,)  a  Spanish  soldier  and  poet,  born  at  Caslcllon 
de  la  Plana  in  1760,  served  against  the  French  republic, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  pub 
lished  an  epic  poem  entitled  "La  Ommiada,"  an  ode  on 
the  death  of  the  poet  Cadalso,  who  fell,  while  fighting 
by  his  side,  at  Gibraltar,  and  a  number  of  lyrics.  Died 
in  1816. 

Noronha,  no-R6n'ya,  (AFFONSO,)  a  Portuguese  cap 
tain,  born  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  nephew  of 
Albuquerque.  He  captured  Socotora  in  1508.  Died  in 
India  in  1540. 

See  FARIA  v  SOUZA,  "  Asia  Portugueza." 

Nor'ris,  ( EDWIN,)  an  English  ethnologist  and  linguist, 
born  at  Taunton  in  1795.  He  was  appointed  in  1847 
translator  to  the  foreign  office,  and  in  1856  principal  sec 
retary  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  He  has  contributed 
a  number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the  "Transactions"  of 
that  society  and  to  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia."  He  is 
also  editor  of  the  "  Ethnographical  Library." 

Norris,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  general,  was  a  son  of 
Lord  Norris  of  Rycot.  He  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  sent  him  in  1585  to 
assist  the  Dutch  in  their  war  against  the  Spaniards. 
His  skill  and  bravery  were  conspicuous  in  the  principal 
campaigns,  and  he  won  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
best  English  soldiers  of  the  time. 

See  MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap,  vi.,  and  vol.  ii. 
chap.  xiii. 

Norris,  (JOHN,)  an  English  philosopher  and  mystical 
divine,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1657.  He  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  an  admirer  of  Plato, 
who  was  his  favourite  author.  About  1690  he  was  ap 
pointed  rector  of  Bemerton,  near  Salisbury.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Malebranche.  He  published  "An  Idea  of 
Happiness,"  (1683,)  "The  Theory  and  Regulation  of 
Love,"  (1688,)  and  other  works  on  religion  and  philoso 
phy.  His  principal  philosophical  work  is  "An  Essay 
towards  the  Theory  of  the  Ideal  or  Intelligible  World," 
(2  vols.,  1701-04,)  in  which  he  develops  the  system  of 
Malebranche  and  controverts  the  opinions  of  Locke. 
Died  in  171 1. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Norris,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  naval  officer  of  high 
rank,  entered  the  navy  in  1689.  He  was  called  FOUL- 
WEATHER  JACK.  Died  in  1749. 

Norris,  (JOHN,)  born  in  Norfolk  in  1734,  bequeathed 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge  one  hundred  and  ninety 
pounds  per  annum  for  the  endowment  of  a  divinity 
professorship  and  prize  essay  which  bear  his  name. 
Died  in  1777. 

Norris,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  traveller,  visited  Daho 
mey,  and  other  parts  of  Western  Africa,  of  which  he 
published  an  account  in  1789.  Died  in  1792. 

See  WALCKEXAF.R,  "  Histoire  generale  des  Voyages." 

Norry,  no're',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  architect,  born 
near  Paris  in  1756,  accompanied  the  scientific  expedition 
to  Egypt,  and  published  in  1799  a  description  of  some 
of  the  monuments  of  that  country.  Died  in  1832. 

North,  (CHRISTOPHER.)     See  WILSON,  (JOHN.) 

North,  (DUDLEY,)  LORD,  an  English  writer  and  poli 
tician,  born  in  1581,  was  an  adherent  of  the  Parliament 
during  the  civil  war.  He  died  in  1666,  leaving  a  collec 
tion  of  poems  and  prose  works. 

North,  (DUDLEY,)  LORD,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1604,  wrote  the  "Life  of  Edward,  Lord  North,"  and 
several  other  works.  Died  in  1677. 

See  R.  NORTH,  "Lives  of  the  Norths." 

North,  (Sir  DUDLEY,)  an  English  merchant  and  able 
financier,  born  in  1641,  was  a  brother  of  Lord-Keeper 
Guildford.  In  his  youth  he  passed  many  years  in  mer- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NORTH 


1686 


NOR  THUMB ER  LAND 


cantile  pursuits  at  Smyrna  and  Constantinople.  Having 
acquired  wealth,  he  returned  home,  (1680,)  and  became 
a  London  merchant.  "He  had  meditated  deeply  on  the 
philosophy  of  trade,"  says  Macaulay,  "and  thought  out, 
by  degrees,  a  complete  and  admirable  theory,"  substan 
tially  the  same  as  that  of  Adam  Smith.  He  was  chosen 
a  commissioner  of  customs  and  of  the  treasury,  and 
elected  to  Parliament.  About  1685  he  was  the  person 
on  whom  thelord  treasurer  chiefly  relied  for  the  conduct 
of  financial  business  in  the  lower  House.  He  wrote  a 
"  Voyage  from  Smyrna,  with  an  Account  of  Turkey." 
Died  in  1691. 

See  ROGER  NORTH,  "Life  of  Sir  Dudley  North,"  1740-42. 

North,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  a  distinguished  English  lawyer 
under  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Queen  Ma^y.  Died 
in  1564. 

North,  (FRANCIS,)  Baron  Gnildford  or  Guilford,  com 
monly  styled  LORD-KEEPER  GUILFORD,  was  the  son  of 
Lord  Dudley  North,  and  was  born  in  1637.  About  1655 
he  entered  as  a  student  the  Middle  Temple.  Soon  after 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  he  went  on  the  Norfolk  circuit, 
where  his  family  interest  lay,  and  relied  for  success  on 
sycophantic  arts.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general 
in  1671,  attorney-general  in  1673,  and  chief  justice  of  the 
common  pleas  in  1675.  He  was  the  obsequious  servant 
of  the  court,  and  an  ultra-royalist,  or  Tory,  in  politics. 
"He  was  a  party,"  says  Macaulay,  "to  some  of  the 
foulest  judicial  murders  recorded  in  our  history."  In 
1682  he  obtained  the  great  seal,  with  the  title  of  lord 
keeper.  On  the  accession  of  James  II.  (February,  1685) 
the  great  seal  was  left  in  his  custody,  but  lie  was  super 
seded  in  his  political  functions  by  his  rival,  Lord  Jeffreys. 
Lord  Guilford  died  in  September,  1685,  leaving  his  title 
to  his  son  Francis. 

See  ROGER  NORTH,  "  Life  of  Francis  North;"  LORD  CAMPBELL, 
"Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii., 
(1820;)  MACAUI.AV,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii. 

North,  (FREDERICK,)  second  Earl  of  Guildford,  an 
English  Tory  statesman,  better  known  as  LORD  NORTH, 
was  born  in  1733.  lie  was  a  son  of  Francis,  Earl  of 
Guildford,  who  died  in  1790,  and  was  a  great-grandson 
of  the  lord  keeper  of  that  name.  In  1763  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury.  He  Ijecame  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1769.  He  was  a  successful  debater,  and,  on  account 
of  his  wit  and  suavity  of  temper,  a  great  favourite  with 
the  House.  He  also  gained  the  extraordinary  favour  of 
the  king  by  his  readiness  to  accept  the  responsibility 
of  prime  minister  in  the  emergency  which  arose  on  the 
resignation  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton  in  1770.  The  prin 
cipal  event  of  his  administration  was  the  American  war, 
which  he  prosecuted  with  great  pertinacity.  Though 
fiercely  assailed  by  Burke,  Fox,  and  Lord  Chatham,  he 
maintained  his  power  with  eminent  tact  and  ability,  and 
was  supported  by  large  majorities  in  the  House,  until 
March,  1782,  when  he  resigned,  after  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis  had  terminated  the  American  war.  He  re 
tained,  however,  the  royal  favour  until  he  entered  into 
the  ill-omened  coalition  with  Fox  against  the  Shelburne 
ministry.  In  March,  1783,  Lord  North  became  secretary 
of  state  in  the  coalition  ministry  of  which  the  Duke  of 
Portland  was  the  nominal  head.  He  was  dismissed  in 
December,  1783,  when  Pitt  became  premier.  In  1790 
he  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Guildford.  Died  in  1792. 
"  As  a  statesman,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "  his  merits 
are  confessedly  far  inferior  to  those  which  clothed  him 
as  a  debater  and  a  man.  The  American  war  is  the  great 
blot  on  his  fame." 

See  LORD  BROUGHAM,  "Statesmen  of  theTime  of  George  III.  ;" 
MACAUI.AY,  "Essays,"  article  "Chatham;"  LODGE,  "Portraits  of 
Illustrious  Personages." 

North,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1710,  published  several  treatises  on  numis 
matics.  Died  in  1772. 

North,  (JOHN,)  D.D.,  a  son  of  Lord  Dudley  North, 
was  born  in  1645.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Cambridge,  and  published  editions  of  several  works  of 
Plato.  Died  in  1683. 

See  ROGER  NORTH,  "  Life  of  John  North." 

North,  (ROGER,)  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Dudley 
North,  and  a  brother  of  Sir  Dudley  North,  was  born 


about  1650.  He  studied  law,  and  became  steward  of  the 
courts  to  Archbishop  Sheldon.  He  was  author  of  several 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "  The  Lives  of 
Francis  North,  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  Sir 
Dudley  North,  and  Rev.  John  North,"  (1740-42.)  This 
is  written  in  an  affected,  pedantic  style,  but  contains 
valuable  matter.  Died  in  1733. 

See  ROGER  NORTH,  "Lives  of  the  Norths." 

North,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  writer,  translated 
"  The  Dial  of  Princes"  from  the  French,  and  the  "  Moral 
Philosophy"  of  Don!  from  the  Italian.  He  also  made 
the  first  translation  of  Plutarch's  "Lives"  into  English, 
(1579.)  lie  died  after  1579. 

Northampton,  EARL  OF.     See  HOWARD,  (HKNRY.) 

Nor-thamp'ton,  (SPENCER  JOSHUA  ALWYNE  COMP- 
TON,)  MARQUIS  OF,  an  English  patron  of  science  and 
literature,  was  born  in  1790.  He  became  president  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1851. 

North'cote,  (/AMES,)  an  English  artist,  celebrated  as 
a  portrait  and  historical  painter,  born  at  Plymouth  in 
1746.  Having  studied  under  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  he 
visited  Italy  in  1777,  and,  after  his  return,  was  made  a 
Royal  Academician.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
"Hubert  and  Arthur"  and  "The  Murder  of  the  Princes 
in  the  Tower."  He  also  published  "The  Life  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,"  (1813,)  and  several  able  treatises  on 
Art.  Died  in  1831. 

See  CUNNINGHAM,  "Lives  of  British  Painters,"  etc. 

Northcote,  (Sir  STAFFORD,)  an  English  conservative 
politician,  born  in  London  about  1818.  He  became 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  in  June,  1866,  and  sec 
retary  for  India  in  March,  1867.  He  resigned  with  his 
colleagues  in  December,  1868. 

Northiiigtoii,  LORD.     See  HENLEY,  (ROBERT.) 

Nor-thum'ber-laiid,  (ALGERNON  PERCY,)  tenth 
EARL  OF,  born  in  1602,  was  a  son  of  Henry,  ninth  earl. 
lie  was  lord  high  admiral  under  Charles  I.  Died  in  1668. 

Northumberland,  (ALGERNON  PERCY,)  DUKE  OF, 
a  British  peer,  born  in  1792.  lie  entered  the  navy  in 
his  youth,  and  served  against  the  French.  In  1847  he 
inherited  the  dukedom  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Henry. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  about  1850.  Died 
in  1865. 

Northumberland,  DUKE  OF.  See  DUDLEY,  (JOHN.) 

Northumberland,  (HENRY  PERCY,)  first  EARL  OF, 
an  English  commander,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Percy.  His 
mother  was  Mary,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lancaster, 
and  a  great-granddaughter  of  King  Henry  III.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Wycliffe,  the  Reformer.  In  1377  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Northumberland  by  Richard  II.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  of  the  revolution  which 
raised  Henry  IV.  to  the  throne  in  1399.  In  1402  Percy 
defeated  the  Scotch  under  Douglas  at  Homildon  Hill. 
He  united  with  his  son  Hotspur  in  rebellion  against  the 
king  in  1403,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in  1408. 

Northumberland,  (HENRY  PERCY,)  second  EARL 
OF,  was  a  son  of  Hotspur.  He  succeeded  his  grand 
father,  the  first  earl,  in  1408,  and  was  restored  to  the 
earldom  by  Henry  V.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  Roses  he 
fought  for  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Saint  Alban's,  in  1455.  H's  son>  tne  third  earl, 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Towton,  in  1460. 

Northumberland,  (HENRY  PERCY,)  ninth  EARL  OF, 
surnamed  THE  WIZARD,  born  in  1563,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  the  eighth  earl,  who  died  in  the  Tower  in  1585. 
He  commanded  a  ship  in  the  battle  against  the  Invin 
cible  Armada  in  1588.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Thomas 
Percy,  an  accomplice  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  (1605,) 
and,  although  the  earl  himself  was  a  Protestant,  he  was 
confined  many  years  in  the  Tower  on  suspicion.  He 
acquired  the  appellation  of  "  Wizard"  by  his  study  of 
occult  sciences  in  prison.  Died  in  1632. 

See  LODGE,  "Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages;"  CLARENDON, 
"History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Northumberland,  (HUGH  PERCY,)  DUKE  OF,  born 
in  1742,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  who  was  au 
thorized  to  take  the  name  of  Percy.  He  entered  the 
army,  served  at  Bunker  Hill,  (1775,)  and  gained  the  rank 
of  general.  In  1786  he  inherited  the  title  of  duke.  Died 
in  1817. 

See  BURKE,  "Peerage;"  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1817. 


a,  e,  1, 5, u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


NORTHUMBERLAND 


1687 


NOT 'A 


Northumberland,  (HUGH  PERCY,)  DUKE  OF,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1785,  and  inherited  his 
father's  title  in  1817.  He  favoured  the  Tory  party.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  science,  and  was  much  interested 
in  botany  and  horticulture.  Died  in  1847. 

Nor'ton,  (ANDREWS,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts, 
in  1786.  He  graduated  in  1804  at  Harvard  College,  and 
in  1813  succeeded  Dr.  Channing  as  biblical  lecturer  in 
that  institution.  He  filled  the  chair  of  Dexter  professor 
of  sacred  literature  at  Harvard  from  1819  till  1830.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Evidences  of  the  Gen 
uineness  of  the  Gospels,"  (3  vols.,  1837-44.)  He  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  General  Repository  and  Re 
view,"  published  at  Cambridge,  and  contributed  many 
able  articles  to  the  religious  and  literary  periodicals  of 
the  time.  Among  these  may  be  named  articles  on 
"Franklin"  and  "Byron,"  in  the  "North  American  Re 
view."  In  his  theological  views  Dr.  Norton  was  a 
Unitarian  of  the  conservative  school.  He  married  a 
daughtet  of  Samuel  Eliot,  of  Boston.  Died  at  Newport 
in  1853.  He  left  a  "Translation  of  the  Gospels,"  pub 
lished  in  1856.  "  He  displayed,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold, 
"exact  and  comprehensive  learning  and  a  style  singu 
larly  clear,  compact,  and  beautiful."  ("  Prose  Writers 
of  America.")  He  also  wrote  poems  which  were  much 
admired. 

Norton,  (ASAHEI.  STRONG,)  an  American  minister, 
born  at  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in  1766.  He  preached 
at  Clinton,  New  York,  for  many  years.  Died  in  1853. 

Nor'ton,  (CAROLINE  ELIZABETH  SARAH,)  an  emi 
nent  English  writer,  bom  in  1808,  is  a  granddaughter 
of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan.  She  received  a  superior 
education,  and  in  her  seventeenth  year  wrote  a  volume 
of  poetry  entitled  "The  Sorrows  of  Rosalie,"  which  was 
published  anonymously,  (1829.)  In  1827  she  was  mar 
ried  to  the  Hon.  George  Chappie  Norton ;  but  this 
union  proved  most  unfortunate,  and  a  divorce  took 
place  between  the  parties  in  1836.  She  had  published 
in  1830  her  poem  of  "The  Undying  One,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour.  It  was  succeeded  by  "A 
Voice  from  the  Factories,"  (1836,)  "The  Dream,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1840,)  "The  Child  of  the  Islands,"  (1845,) 
and  "Aunt  Carry's  Ballads,"  (1847.)  She  has  also  written 
a  romance,  entitled  "Stuart  of  Dunleith,"  (1847,)  and 
"Tales  and  Sketches  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1850,)  many 
of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  fidelity  to  nature, 
pathos,  and  intensity  of  feeling.  Among  her  more  recent 
works  are  a  "Letter  to  the  Queen  on  Lord  Cranworth's 
Marriage  and  Divorce  Bill,"  (1855,)  "Lives  of  the  Sheri- 
dans,"  "Lady  of  La  Garaye,"  (1861,)  and  "Lost  and 
Saved,"  (1863.)  Mrs.  Norton  is  described  by  Mrs.  Sedg- 
wick,  in  her  "  Letters  from  Abroad,"  as  the  perfection 
of  intellectual  and  physical  beauty,  uniting  masculine 
force  with  feminine  delicacy. 

See  MOIR,  "Sketches  of  the  Poeticnl  Literature  of  the  Past  Half- 
Century,"  1851  ;  RowToN.  "  Female  Poets  of  Great  Britain,"  (with 
a  portrait :)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1831  ;  "  London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  September,  1840.  and  June.  1845:  "  F'raser's 
Magazine"  for  September,  1830,  (with  a  portrait;)  "Westminster 
Review"  for  June,  1845. 

Norton,  (Lady  FRANCES,)  an  English  moralist  and 
writer,  born  about  1650,  was  the  wife  of  Sir  George 
Norton.  She  wrote  "  Memento  Mori,"  and  "  The  Ap 
plause  of  Virtue,"  (1705.)  Died  in  1720. 

See  PRUDHOM.ME,  "  Biographic  des  Femmes  celebres." 

Norton,  (JoHN,)  an  English  writer  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Scholar's  Vacle- 
Mecum." 

Norton,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  Puritan  divine  and  theo 
logical  wiiter,  born  in  Hertfordshire,  England,  in  1606, 
emigrated  in  1635  to  America,  and  became  a  minister  at 
Boston.  Died  in  1663. 

Norton,  (JoHN  P.,)  an  American  chemist,  was  pro 
fessor  of  agricultural  chemistry  at  Vale  College.  Died 
in  1851. 

Norton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Calvinistic  writer, 
born  in  Bedfordshire  in  the  sixteenth  century,  published 
some  tracts  against  popery.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
assisted  Sackville  in  his  tragedy  of  "  Ferrex  and  Porrex." 

See  W.ARTON.  "  History  of  English  Poetry;"  ELLIS,  "Specimens 
of  the  Eariy  English  Poets." 


Norvi  (nor've)  or  Nor,  written  also  Narfi,  [etymology 
doubtful,]  a  giant  mentioned  in  the  "  Edda"  as 'the  first 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of Jotunheim.  He  had  a  daughter 
named  Night,  who  was  married  to  Anar  or  Onar.*  The 
offspring  of  this  union  was  the  Earth.  She  afterwards 
became  the  wife  of  Delling  or  Dellinger,  (i.e.  the  "  Dawn,") 
and  bore  to  him  a  bright  and  beautiful  son  called  Day. 
Then  Odin  took  Night  and  Day  and  placed  them  in 
heaven,  and  gave  them  two  horses  and  two  cars,  that 
they  might  journey  in  succession  round  the  world.  Night 
rides  first  with  her  horse,  called  Rimfaxi  or  Hrimfaxi, 
(hrim-  (or  hreem-)  fak'se, — that  is,  "  Frosty-mane,")  who 
every  morning  bedews  the  earth  with  foam  from  his 
bit.  The  horse  of  Day  is  named  Skinfaxi,  (or  "  Shining- 
mane, "J,  because  his  radiant  mane  sends  forth  the  light 
which  muminates  heaven  and  earth. 

See  MALLET,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  fable  vi. ;  THORPE, 
"Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Norvins,  de,  deh  nou'vaN',  (JACQUES  Marquet — 
mjti<'ki',)  Baron  de  Montbreton,  (moN'bKeh-tON',)  a 
French  litterateur  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1769. 
lie  wrote  a  "Picture  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1819,) 
a  "  History  of  Napoleon,"  (gth  edition,  4  vols.,  1839,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1854. 

Nor'wood,  ( RICHARD,)  an  English  geometer,  who 
lived  about  1630-50,  was  the  author  of  several  treatises 
on  trigonometry,  navigation,  etc.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  having  been  one  of  the  first  who  measured  a  degree 
of  the  meridian. 

See  HUTTON,  "Mathematical  Dictionary." 

Nosselt  or  Noesselt,  nos'selt,  (JOHANN  AUGUST,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  Halle  in  1734  ;  died  in  1807. 

Nos'sis,  a  Greek  poetess,  born  at  Locris  or  Locri, 
in  Southern  Italy,  flourished  about  310  B.C.  She  wrote 
graceful  epigrams,  twelve  of  which  are  in  the  Greek 
Anthology. 

See  BENTLEY,  "Dissertation  upon  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris." 

Nostitz  uiid  Janckendorf,  von,  fon  nos'tits  oont 
vSi/ken-doRf",  (GoTTi.oi?  ADOLF  ERNST,)  a  German 
poet,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  ARTHUR  VON 
NORDSTERN,  was  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1765.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Songs  for  Free-Masons,"  "  Christian 
Emblems,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1836. 

His  son,  EDUARD  GOTTI.OB,  rose  through  various 
offices  to  be  minister  of  the  interior  for  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony. 

Nos-tra-da'mus  or  Notre-Dame,  not'R-dtm',  (Mi- 
CHEI,,)  a  famous  French  astrologer  and  physician,  of  Jew 
ish  extraction,  born  at  Saint-Remi,  in  Provence,  in  1503. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  plague  at  Aix  and  Lyons 
(1546-47)  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  from  the  cures 
he  effected  with  a  medicine  of  his  own  invention.  In 
1555  he  published  a  collection  of  prophecies,  (in  verse,) 
entitled  "Centuries,"  which  caused  a  great  sensation 
and  obtained  for  him  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Cathe 
rine  de  Medicis.  He  was  invited  by  her  to  Paris,  loaded 
with  favours,  and  charged  to  draw  the  horoscope  of  the 
princes,  her  sons.  He  afterwards  became  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Charles  IX.  He  died  in  1556.  Several  of 
his  predictions  are  said  to  have  been  fulfilled.  Owing  to 
his  having  foretold  the  downfall  of  Romanism,  his  works 
were  interdicted  by  the  pope,  (1781.) 

See  E.  J.AUHFKT,  "Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  1656:  P.  J.  DE 
HAITZE.  "Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  1712;  "La  Vie  de  Nostra 
damus,"  (anonymous.)  Paris.  1789:  E.  BARESTE,  "Nostradamus," 
Paris,  1842;  Tn.  BOUYS,  "Considerations  sur  les  Sibyles  et  sur 
Nostradamus,"  1806. 

Nota,  no'ta,  ( ALBERTO,)  an  Italian  dramatist, born  at 
Turin  in  1775,  %vas  tne  author  of  several  popular  plays 
of  the  class  called  sentimental  comedy.  Among  these 
may  be  named  "The  Duchess  of  La  Valliere,"  "The 
Widow  in  Solitude,"  and  "  Domestic  Peace."  They 
have  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  have  been 
translated  into  French,  German,  Spanish,  Swedish,  and 
Russian.  Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Vie  d'Aiberto  Nota,"  prefixed  to  the  tenth  edition  of  his 
works;  SCHEDONI.  "Trattenimento  sopra  le  Commedie  di  A.  Nota," 
1826;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828. 


*  Probably  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  an  and  the  Norse  einr,  signi 
fying  "origin,"  and  hence,  as  an  adjective,  "original,"  "primeval." 
See  Bosworth's  "Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary." 


.  . 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     (g^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NOTHNAGEL 


1688 


NO  PA 


Nothnagel,  not/na-gel,  QOHANN  ANDREAS  BENJA 
MIN,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Saxe- 
Coburg  in  1729;  died  about  1800. 

Nothomb,  HO'ION',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Belgian  states 
man,  born  at  Messancy  in  1805.  He  was  appointed  min 
ister  of  public  works  in  1837,  and  in  1841  minister  of  the 
interior.  His  "  Historical  and  Political  Essay  on  the 
Belgian  Revolution"  (1833)  was  translated  into  German 
and  Italian.  He  was  president  of  the  Council  from  1843 
to  June,  1845. 

See  L.  DK  LOMENIE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

Notker,  not'ker,  surnamed  PHYS'ICUS,  a  learned  Ger 
man  monk  and  physician  of  the  tenth  century,  was  like 
wise  celebrated  as  an  artist  and  poet.  Died  in  975. 

Notker,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
emperor  Otho  I.  He  became  dean  of  the  convent  of 
Saint  Gall,  and  Bishop  of  Liege,  (972.)  Died  in  1007. 

Notker,  surnamed  LA'HEO,  and  called  also  TEU- 
TON'ICUS,  born  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century, 
entered  the  monastery  of  Saint  Gall,  where  he  was 
appointed  principal  teacher.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  learning,  and  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  His  version  of  the 
Psalms  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  important  monu 
ments  of  early  German  literature.  Died  in  1022. 

Not'maii,  (JoHN,)  a  distinguished  architect,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  July  22,  1810.  In  1831  he  emi 
grated  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Philadel 
phia,  where  he  continued  to  reside  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  laid  out  the  grounds  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery, 
designed  all  the  architectural  embellishments,  and  su 
perintended  their  execution.  He  devoted  himself  par 
ticularly  to  church  architecture,  in  which  department  he 
had  few  if  any  superiors  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  thorough  acquaintance  with  me- 
diasval  architecture.  He  possessed  great  enthusiasm  for 
his  art,  as  well  as  poetic  sensibility,  and  in  his  works  he 
seemed  to  address  himself  not  so  much  to  the  senses  as 
to  the  soul.  He  died  March  3,  1865.  Among  his  chief 
works  may  be  mentioned  Saint  Mark's  Church,  in  Lo 
cust  Street,  regarded  as  among  the  very  best  specimens 
of  the  Gothic  style  in  America,  the  fa£ade  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  on  Logan  Square,  and  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity,  near  Walnut  and  Nineteenth  Streets, 
of  which  the  noble  doorway  is  especially  admired. 

Notre,  lie.     See  LENOTRE. 

Notre-Darne,  (MICHEL.)     See  NOSTRADAMUS. 

Notre-Dame,  de,  deh  notVdSm',  (CESAR,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Salon  in  1555,  was  a  son  of  Michel  Nos 
tradamus.  He  obtained  the  title  of  gentleman  of  the 
chamber  to  Louis  XIII.  He  wrote  several  poems,  and 
a  "  History  of  Provence,"  (1614.)  Died  in  1629. 

Nott,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  American  jurist  and  politician, 
born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  in  1767,  settled  in  South 
Carolina,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1800.  Died 
in  1830. 

Nott,  (ELIPHALET,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1773.  He 
was  for  many  years  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  Albany,  and  in  1804  became  president  of  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  New  York.  He  filled  this  post 
for  nearly  sixty  years,  and  was  greatly  instrumental  in 
promoting  the  prosperity  and  reputation  of  the  college. 
He  published  "Counsels  to  Young  Men,"  "Lectures 
on  Temperance,"  etc.  Died  in  1866. 

Nott,  (HENRY  JUNIUS,)  son  of  Abraham  Nott,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1797.  He  graduated  at  South  Caro 
lina  College,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  logic 
and  the  philosophy  of  language  in  that  institution.  He 
published  "Novelettes  of  a  Traveller,"  etc.,  and  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "Southern  Review."  He  was 
wrecked  in  the  steamer  Home  in  1837. 

Nott,  (JoHN,)  an  English  poet,  scholar,  and  physi 
cian,  born  at  Worcester  in  1751.  He  made  translations 
from  the  Latin  and  Italian,  and  from  the  Persian  of 
Hafiz ;  he  also  published  an  original  poem,  entitled 
"Alonzo."  Died  in  1826. 

Nott,  (JosiAH  CLARK,)  brother  of  Henry  Junius, 
noticed  above,  was  bofn  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina, 
in  1804,  and  graduated  as  a  physician  in  Philadelphia. 


He  has  published  "The  Physical  History  of  the  Jewish 
Race,"  "Types  of  Mankind,"  (1854,)  and  "Indigenous 
Races  of  the  Earth,"  (1857,)  the  last  two  conjointly  with 
G.  R.  Gliddon. 

Nott,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  officer,  born  in 
Carmarthen,  in  Wales,  in  1782,  served  in  the  Afghan 
war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Died  in 
1845. 

Nottingham,  EARI.  OF.     See  FINCH,  (DANIEL.) 

Nottingham,  not'ting-am,  (HENEAGE  FINCH,)  first 
EARL  OF,  an  English  lawyer  and  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  in  1621.  He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  about 
1635,  studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple,  and  became  an 
eloquent  lawyer.  On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
(1660)  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and  took  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  regicides.  He  was  chosen  in 
1661  to  represent  the  University  of  Oxford  in  Parlia 
ment,  became  attorney-general  in  1670,  and  lord  chan 
cellor  of  England  in  December,  1675.  In  1681  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Nottingham.  Died  in  1682. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England;"  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Nouailher,  noo'i'li',  (JEAN  BAPTISTF.,)  a  French 
painter  and  enameller,  born  in  1742  ;  died  in  1804. 

Noue,  dela,  deli  It"  noo,  (FRANC.OIS,)  called  BRAS  DE 
FER,  (bRil  deh  feu,)  i.e.  "  Iron-arm,"  a  celebrated  French 
commander  and  Huguenot,  was  born  near  Nantes  in  1531. 
He  commanded  the  rear-guard  at  the  battle  of  Jarnac, 
in  1569,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Moncontour.  Having 
lost  his  left  arm  at  the  siege  of  Fontenay,  he  supplied  its 
place  by  an  iron  arm.  In  1573  he  took  command  of  the 
insurgents  at  La  Rochelle,  which  he  defended  for  four 
years.  After  peace  had  been  concluded  between  Henry 
of  Navarre  and  the  Catholics,  La  Noue  went  in  1578  to 
Flanders,  where  he  fought  against  the  Spaniards  and 
soon  became  general -in-chief.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
in  1580,  and  detained  as  such  for  five  years.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  Henry  IV.,  he  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Ivry,  (1590,)  and  was  killed  at  Lamballe  in  1591.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  virtue  and  talents.  His  "Po 
litical  and  Military  Discourses"  (1587)  entitle  him  to  a 
place  among  the  best  prose  writers  of  his  time. 

See  BRANTOMF..  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines;"  DAVILA,  "  His 
tory  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France:"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
cais ;"  DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Ge"nerale ;"  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante ;"  MOTLEY,  "United 
Netherlands,"  vols  ii.  and  iii. 

Noue,  de  la,  (ODET,)  Seigneur  de  Teligny,  a  French 
officer  and  poet,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  fought 
for  Henry  IV.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-cle- 
camp,  with  the  title  of  counsellor  to  the  king.  He  wrote 
an  essay  called  a  "  Paradox  that  Adversity  is  more 
necessary  than  Prosperity,"  (1588,)  and  "Christian 
Poems,"  ("  Poesies  chretiennes,"  1594.)  Died  in  1618. 

Noue,  La.     See  LANOUE. 

Nonet,  noo'i',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Mans  in  1605,  wrote  a  number  of  moral  and  religious 
works.  Died  in  1680. 

Nouet,  (NICOLAS  ANTOINE,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1740;  died  in  1811. 

Nougarede  de  Fayet,  noo'gf'rkl'  deh  f&'yi',  (AN- 
DR6  JEAN  SIMON,)  BARON,  a  French  jurist  and  magis 
trate,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1765,  published  several 
legal  and  historical  works.  Died  in  1845. 

Nougarede  de  Fayet,  (.-\UGUSTE,)  a  French  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  legal  and  miscellaneous  treatises. 
Died  in  1853. 

Nougaret,  noo'gS'r<Y,  (PIERRE  JEAN  BAPTISTK,)  a 
voluminous  and  mediocre  French  writer,  born  at  La 
Rochelle  in  1742,  was  the  author  of  poems,  tales,  dramas, 
and  historical  works.  Died  in  1823. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Noulleau,  noo'lo',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  eccle 
siastic  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Saint-Brieuc  in 
1604  ;  died  in  1672. 

Noureddin  or  Nour-Edclyn.    See  NOOR-F.D-DEEN. 

Nourrit,  noor'e',  (  ADOLPHK,)  a  popular  French  singer 
and  actor,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1802;  died  in  1839. 

Nova,  de,  da  no'va,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  navigator, 
born  in  Galicia,  entered  the  service  of  Emanuel,  King 
of  Portugal.  He  sailed  for  the  Indies  in  1501,  and  dis- 


5,e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m£t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


NO  PALIS 


i68g 


NOT 


covered  on  his  route  the  Isle  of  Conception,  and  another 
at  no  great  distance,  to  which  he  gave  his  name.  On  his 
return,  in  1502,  he  discovered  Saint  Helena. 

Novalis,  no-va'lis,  the  assumed  name  of  (FRIKDRICH) 
Von  Hardenberg,  (fon  hau'clen-beRC/,)  a  celebrated 
German  philosopher  and  mystical  writer,  born  at  Wider- 
stadt,  Saxony,  May  2,  1772.  He  was  a  son  of  Baron 
von  Hardenberg,  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Herrnhuters 
or  Moravians.  He  studied  successively  at  the  Univer 
sities  of  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg.  Among  the 
intimate  friends  of  his  early  youth  were  Frederick  Schle- 
gel,  Fichte,  and  Schelling.  About  1797  he  produced  his 
"  Hymns  to  the  Night."  He  was  affianced  to  Julia  von 
Charpentier  in  1798,  but  their  marriage  was  prevented 
by  his  death.  About  this  date  he  wrote  the  "  Disciples 
at  Sais."  His  constitution  had  always  been  delicate.  He 
died  of  consumption,  at  Weissenfels,  in  March,  1801. 
His  most  extensive  work  is  a  mystical  romance  entitled 
"  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,"  which,  however,  he  left 
unfinished.  Tt  is  enveloped  in  a  rather  obscure  sym 
bolism,  and  displays  a  wild  and  eccentric  imagination. 
He  also  wrote  a  remarkable  work  called  "Christianity 
in  Europe." 

See  a  "  Biography  of  Novalis,"  by  TIECK,  prefixed  to  his  collected 
works,  ("Novalis  Scliriften,")  2  vols.,  1X02;  CARLYLK,  "Miscel 
lanies,"  article  "  Novalis  ;"  MADAME  DE  STAEL,  "  De  1'Allemagne  ;" 
GKRVINUS,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung ;"  "  Noiivelle 
Biographic  Generate." 

Novara,  no-va'ra,  (DoMENico  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1464,  taught  astronomy 
at  Bologna,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils  the  cele 
brated  Copernicus.  Died  in  1514. 

Novarini,  no-va-ree'nee,  (Luioi.)  an  Italian  theo 
logian,  born  at  Verona  in  1594,  wrote  "Commentaries 
on  the  Gospels,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1650. 

Novat.     See  XOVATUS. 

Novatian,  np-va'she-an,  [Lat.  NOVATIA'NUS  ;  Fr. 
NOVATIEN,  no'vS'se^N', |  the  founder  of  a  sect  called 
Novatians.  He  became  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  at 
Rome,  and  insisted  on  a  rigorous  enforcement  of  the 
discipline  against  the  Lapsi, — i.e.  those  members  of 
the  Church  who  under  the  pressure  of  persecution  had 
relapsed  into  idolatry  or  had  been  guilty  of  apostasy. 
On  this  question  the  Church  was  divided  into  two  par 
ties,  which  in  251  A.D.  elected  two  rival  bishops  of  Rome, 
Novatian  and  Cornelius,  the  latter  of  whom  advocated 
greater  laxity  or  charity  in  the  treatment  of  the  weak 
brethren.  Novatian  was  condemned  by  a  general 
Council  held  at  Rome,  and  his  rival  obtained  the  office. 
The  Novatians  became  numerous,  and  existed  for  more 
than  a  century  as  a  separate  sect.  Some  writers  con 
found  him  with  Novatus,  mentioned  below. 

See  Fi.EfRY.  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique;"  PLUQUET,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Heresies." 

Novatianus.     See  NOVATIAN. 

Novatien.     See  NOVATIAN. 

No-va'tus,  [Fr.  NOVAT,  no'vt',]  a  presbyter  of  Car 
thage,  called  a  heresiarch  by  Catholic  writers,  was  an 
adversary  of  Cyprian.  He  was  excommunicated  in  251 
A.D., — probably  because  he  resisted  the  assumption  of 
the  bishops  who  wished  to  domineer  over  the  Church; 
for  he  is  not  charged  with  dogmatical  heresy. 

See  FI.HUKY,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 

Novella,  no-vel'la,  a  learned  and  beautiful  Italian  lady, 
born  at  Padua  in  1312,  was  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
jurist  Giovanni  d'. Andrea.  She  was  profoundly  versed 
in  philosophy  and  jurisprudence,  and  was  accustomed, 
in  her  father's  absence,  to  lecture  in  his  place.  She  is 
said  to  have  lectured  with  a  curtain  drawn  before  her, 

"  Lest  the  students 

Should  let  their  voting  eyes  wander  o'er  her, 
And  quite  forget  their  jurisprudence." 
Died  in  1366. 

See  GINT.UENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Novell!,  no-vel'lee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1600,  worked  at  Florence.  A 
statue  of  Mary  Magdalene  is  called  his  master-piece. 
He  also  made  telescopes  so  superior  that  Torricelli  said 
of  him,  "Behold,  another  Galileo  flourishes!"  ("En 
virescit  Galilaeus  alter  !")  Died  in  1662. 
See  BALDINUCCI,  "Notizie.' 


Novell!,  (PiKTRO,)  called  IL  MORREALESE,  (el  mor- 
ra-a-la'sa,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Mor- 
reale  in  1608.  He  adorned  the  churches  of  Palermo 
with  many  oil-paintings.  He  also  painted  some  frescos. 
According  to  E.  Breton,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  he  was  the  greatest  painter  that  Sicily  ever 
produced.  Died  in  1647. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Fainting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizio- 
nario." 

Novell!,  (PiETRO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1729;  died  in  1804.  His  son 
FRANCESCO,  born  in  1764,  was  an  engraver. 

Novello,  no-vel'lo,  (CLARA,)  Countess  Gigliucci,  (jel- 
yoot'chee, )  a  famous  singer,  a  daughter  of  Vincent 
Novello,  was  born  in  London  in  1818.  She  performed 
in  Paris  and  London.  She  was  married  to  Count  Gi 
gliucci  about  1845. 

Novello,  (VINCENT,)  an  eminent  musician,  born  in 
London  in  1781,  was  the  son  of  an  Italian.  He  com 
posed  music  for  the  Church,  and  published  several  col 
lections  of  the  works  of  other  composers.  He  was  the 
father  of  Mary  Cowclen  Clarke,  and  Clara,  Countess 
Gigliucci.  Died  in  1861. 

See  "Life  of  V.  Novello,"  by  his  daughter,  MRS.  CLARKE. 

Noverre,  no'vaiR',  (JEAN  GEORGES,)  born  in  Paris  in 
1727,  is  celebrated  for  the  improvements  he  introduced 
into  the  ballet  and  the  art  of  dancing.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Letters  on  the  Imitative  Arts,"  etc.,  (1807,) 
and  several  dramatic  works,  and  was  appointed  chief 
ballet-master  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  Paris. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  April,  1786. 

Noves,  de,  deli  nov,  (or  no'v£s,)  (LAURA,)  a  French 
lady,  celebrated  as  the  subject  of  Petrarch's  sonnets, 
was  born  near  Avignon  in  1307  ;  died  in  1348. 

See  DE  SADE,  "  Memoires  sur  Petrarque,"  1744. 

Novikof,  Novikov,  or  Novikow,  nov'e-kof,  (Nl- 
KOLAI  IVANOVITCM.)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  near 
Moscow  in  1744.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon  of  Russian 
Authors,"  and  a  work  entitled  "The  Painter,"  which 
was  very  successful.  He  established  in  Moscow  a  Ty 
pographical  Society  for  the  cheap  printing  of  valuable 
books,  and  contributed  in  many  ways  to  promote  the 
cause  of  education.  Died  in  1818. 

See  GRETCU,  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

No'vi-us,  (Q.,)  a  Latin  comic  poet,  lived  about  So 
B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with  Sulla  the  dictator.  He 
wrote  plays  called  Atellane. 

Nowell,  no'el,  (ALEXANDER,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  Lancashire  about  1508,  was  a  zealous  pro 
moter  of  the  Reformation.  On  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary  he  went  into  exile.  He  became  Dean  of  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  in  1560,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Convocation  of  1563,  at  which  the  articles  of  re 
ligion  were  revised.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
"Catechism,"  which  was  published  in  Latin  in  1570 
and  in  English  about  1571.  This  is  the  "Larger  Cate 
chism"  adopted  by  the  Anglican  Church.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  learning  and  candour.  Died  in  1602. 

See  CHURTON,  "  Lite  of  Alexander  Nowell,"  1809. 

Nowell,  (LAWRENCE,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1544.  He  became  Dean 
of  Lichfield  in  1559.  He  compiled  a  Saxon  Vocabulary, 
which  he  gave  to  William  Lambarde  in  manuscript.  Died 
in  1576. 

Nox  or  Nyx,  [Gr.  Ni'f ;  Fr.  NUIT,  nii'e'  ;  It.  NOTTE, 
not'ta,]  one  of  the  most  ancient  deities  in  classic  my 
thology,  is  a  personification  of  Night.  She  was  supposed 
to  be  the  daughter  of  Chaos,  the  brother  of  Erebus,  and 
the  mother  of  Day,  (Hcmera.)  Among  her  offspring 
were  Death,  Sleep,  Monius,  Nemesis,  and  the  Parcae. 

Noy,  (WILLIAM.)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer,  born 
about  1577.  He  was  appointed  attorney-general  in  1631, 
and  thenceforth  became  the  advocate  of  the  royal  pre 
rogative,  though  he  had  previously  been  one  of  its 
strongest  opponents.  It  was  at  his  suggestion  that  King 
Charles  I.  levied  the  tax  of  ship-money,  which  was 
one  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  civil  war.  He  wrote, 
among  other  legal  works,  "  The  Complete  Lawyer,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Rights  of  the  Crown."  Died  in  1634. 

See  CLARENDON,  "Memoirs;"  FULLER,  "Worthies." 


See  BALDINUCCI,  "Notizie."  See  CLARENDON,  "Memoirs;"  FULLER,  "Worthies." 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (fc^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


N  OT DENS 


1690 


NUNEZ 


Noydens,  no-e-de'ns',  ?  (BENITO  RKMIGIO,)  a  Spanish 
philologist,  born  in  Aragon  about  1630,  published  a 
Spanish  Dictionary,  (1674.)  Died  in  1685. 

Noyer,  du.     See  DUNOYER. 

Noyes,  noiz,  (GEORGE  RAPALL,)  D.D.,  an  American 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts, 
in  1798.  He  was  elected  in  1840  Hancock  professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Oriental  languages,  and  Dexter  lecturer  on 
Biblical  literature,  at  Harvard  College.  He  published 
translations  of  the  Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Bible,  and  contributed  to  the  "  Christian 
Examiner."  Died  in  1868. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1832. 

Noyes,  (WiLUAM  CURTIS,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Rensselaer  county,  New  York,  in  1805.  He  practised 
law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  December, 
1864. 

Nucci,  noot'chee,  (BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
of 'the  Roman  school,  was  born  at  Gubbio  about  1520; 
died  in  1587. 

Nuck,  nook,  (ANTON,)  a  skilful  German  anatomist 
and  physician,  born  about  1660.  He  was  professor  of 
surgery  and  anatomy  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  presi 
dent  of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  He  made  several  valu 
able  discoveries  relative  to  the  lymphatic  vessels  and 
glands,  and  published  a  treatise  "On  the  New  Salival 
Duct,"  and  one  "On  the  Motion  of  the  Circular  Bile." 
Died  in  1692. 

Nuenarius.     See  NEUENAR. 

Nu'gent,  the  name  of  a  noble  family,  originally  from 
Normandy,  who  settled  in  Ireland  in  the  twelfth  century. 
RICHARD  NUGENT  was  created  by  King  James  I.  Earl  of 
Westmeath  in  1621.  GEORGE  THOMAS  JOHN  NUGENT, 
born  in  1785,  became  Marquis  of  Westmeath  in  1822. 
He  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Orange  party.  Sir 
GEORGE  NUGENT,  grandson  of  Viscount  Clare,  born  in 
1757,  served  in  America  and  the  Netherlands.  He  was 
successively  appointed  Governor  of  Jamaica  and  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in 
1846  field-marshal.  Died  in  1849.  His  brother,  Sir 
CHARLES  EDMUND  NUGENT,  served  with  distinction 
under  Rodney,  and  was  created  admiral  of  the  blue  in 
1808.  In  1833  he  received  the  title  of  admiral  of  the 
fleet.  Died  in  1844. 

Nugent,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  Irish  physician  of  con 
siderable  reputation,  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Edmund  Burke.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  principal  work  is  an  "Essay  on  Hydrophobia," 
(1753.)  Died  in  1775. 

Nugent,  (GEORGE  NUGENT  GRENVILLE,)  LORD,  an 
English  writer  and  liberal  statesman,  a  son  of  the  Mar 
quis  of  Buckingham,  was  born  in  1788.  On  entering 
Parliament,  in  1812,  he  became  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  cause  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  also  conspicuous  in 
the  defence  of  Queen  Caroline.  In  1830  he  was  made 
lord  of  the  treasury,  and  soon  after  lord  high  commissary 
of  the  Ionian  Islands.  He  returned  to  England  in  1835, 
and  died  in  1850  or  1851.  He  published  very  interesting 
"  Memorials  of  John  Hampden,"  and  wrote,  in  conjunction 
with  his  wife,  "Legends  of  Lilies,  by  the  Lord  and  Lady 
thereof." 

See  tlie  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1846. 

Nugent,  (Comte  LAVAL  DE  WESTMEATH,)  a  general, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1777.  He  entered  the  Austrian  army 
at  an  early  age.  He  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
troops  of  Mm  at  in  1815.  About  1849  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  feld-marechal. 

Nugent,  (ROBERT  CRAGGS,)  EARL,  a  poet  and  poli 
tician,  born  in  Ireland.  He  married  in  1736  Anne 
Craggs,  a  daughter  of  Secretary  Craggs,  who  was  a 
friend  of  Addison.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1741,  and  became  a  lord  of  the  treasury.  About  1776 
he  obtained  the  title  of  Earl  Nugent.  Died  in  1788. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1739. 

Nugent,  (THOMAS,)  LL.D.,  a  learned  writer  and  com 
piler,  was  a  native  of  Ireland.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Travels  through  Germany,"  (1768,)  and 
a  "French-and-English  Dictionary,"  (1774,)  often  re 
printed.  Died  in  1772. 

Nu'ma  Fom-pil'i-us,  the  second  king  of  Rome, 
celebrated  in  Roman  legends  or  fables  as  the  author  of 


the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Romans.  According  to 
these  legends,  Numa  was  a  Sabine,  and  was  elected 
king  as  successor  to  Romulus.  Instructed  by  the  Ca- 
mena  Egeria,  he  prescribed  the  rites  of  public  worship, 
and  appointed  pontiffs,  augurs,  flamens,  and  vestals. 
His  reign  was  pacific  and  prosperous.  There  was  a 
prevalent  tradition  among  the  ancients  that  Numa  de 
rived  his  wisdom  from  Pythagoras. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Lives;"  NIF.BUHR,  "  Romische  Geschichte  ;" 
J.  MEYER,  "  Deiineatio  Vita;  Niun^e  Pompilii,"  1765. 

Nu-me'ni-us,  [Noiyt^vtof,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Apamea,  in  Syria,  is  called  a  Pythagorean,  or  rather  a 
professor  of  a  Platonico-Pythagorean  philosophy.  He 
lived  in  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and  was  favour 
ably  mentioned  by  Origen.  He  attempted  to  reconcile 
the  great  Greek  schools  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Brah- 
nians,  Magi,  and  Jews,  and  to  restore  the  philosophy  of 
Plato  to  its  original  purity.  His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  J.  SIMON'.  "  Histoire  de  Pficole  d'Alexandrie ;"  RITTER, 
"  History  of  Philosophy." 

Nu-me'ri-an,  [Lat.  NUMERIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  NUMERIEN, 
nu'ma'rex^N',]'  (MARCUS  AURELIUS,)  son  of  Cams,  suc 
ceeded  him  as  Emperor  of  Rome  in  284  A.D.,  in  conjunc 
tion  with  his  brother  Carinus.  He  was  afterwards  put 
to  death  in  the  same  year,  as  is  supposed,  by  his  father- 
in-law,  An  ins,  and  Diocletian  was  chosen  emperor. 
Numerianus  was  famed  as  an  orator  and  a  poet.  His 
character  is  said  to  have  been  excellent. 

See  VOPISCUS,  "Numerianus." 

Numerieii.     See  NUMERIAN. 

Nu-me-si-a'nus  or  No-mis-i-a'nus,  a  physician  of 
Corinth,  flourished  in  the  second  century  of  the  Chris 
tian  era.  He  numbered  the  celebrated  Galen  among 
his  pupils. 

Numitor.     See  ROMULUS. 

Nunes-Barreto,  noo'nes  bar-ra'to,  (BELCHIOR,)  a 
Portuguese  missionary,  born  at  Oporto  in  1520.  He  was 
employed  many  years  in  India,  and  wrote  interesting 
letters  on  Oriental  affairs.  Died  in  1571. 

Nunez,  noon'yeth,  ( ALVAREZ,)  surnamed  CAHF.QA  DE 
VACA,  (ka-ba'tha  da  va'ka,)  a  Spanish  explorer,  was  the 
second  in  command  of  a  party  which  discovered  or  ex 
plored  Florida  in  1528.  He  was  appointed  adelantado 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata  about  1540.  Died  in  1564. 

See  OOMARA,  "  Historia  general  de  las  Indias;"  "  Nouveile 
Biographic  Generate." 

Nuiiez,  [Lat.  NO'NIUS,]  (FERNANDO  DE  GUZMAN,)  a 
distinguished  Spanish  scholar  and  promoter  of  classical 
learning,  was  born  at  Valladolid  about  1470.  He  was 
descended  from  the  noble  family  of  Guzman,  and  was 
surnamed  PINCIANUS,  from  Pincium,  the  Latin  name  of 
Valladolid.  After  having  studied  Greek  in  Italy,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  professors  of  that  language  in  the 
University  of  Alcala.  He  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of 
ancient  languages  and  rhetoric  at  Salamanca.  Nunez 
had  a  share  in  the  celebrated  "  Complutensian  Poly 
glot"  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  in  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Septuagint.  He  also  published,  among  other  works, 
an  excellent  edition  of  Seneca.  Died  in  1553- 

Nuiiez,  [Lat.  NO'NIUS  or  NON'NIUS,|  (Luis,)  a  Flem 
ish  or  Spanish  medical  writer,  born  about  1555,  lived 
at  Antwerp.  He  was  eminent  for  learning,  and  wrote 
several  works,  among  which  is  a  treatise  on  diet,  "  Diae- 
teticon,  sive  de  Re  Cibaria,"  (1627.)  Died  after  1645. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana." 

Nunez,  noo'nez,  or  No'm-us,  (PEDRO,)  an  eminent 
Portuguese  mathematician,  born  in  1492.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  very  able  treatises  on  navigation,  geometry, 
and  the  projection  of  maps  ;  and  the  improved  scale 
which  he  invented  for  reading  an  observed  angle  is 
still  called  by  his  name.  He  is  also  said  to  be  the  in 
ventor  of  the  loxodromic  curve.  Nunez  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Coimbra,  and  royal  cosmographer. 
Died  in  1577. 

See  MONTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiqnes ;"  BARBOSA  MA- 
CHADO,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitaoa." 

Nuiiez  de  Balboa.     See  BALTSOA,  T>R. 

Nuiiez  de  Villavicencio,  noon'yeth  da  vel'ya-ve- 
then'the-o,  written  also  Nunnez  de  Villavicencio,  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1635,  was  a  pupil 
of  Murillo.  Died  in  1700. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


NUNNING 


1691 


O'BEIRNE 


Nunning,  noon'ning,  (JODOCUS  HERMANN,)  a  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Schuttorp  in  1675  ;  died  in  1753. 

Nunziante,  noon-ze-an'ti,  (Vrro,)  MARQUIS,  an  Ital 
ian  general,  born  at  Campagna  in  1775.  ^e  commanded 
the  army  which  the  King  of  Naples  sent  in  1820  against 
his  insurgent  subjects,  but  was  abandoned  by  that  army. 
He  became  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Neapolitan 
armies  in  1831.  Died  in  1836. 

See  F.  PALERMO,  "  Vita  e  Fatti  di  V.  Nimziante,"  1839. 

Nureddin.     See  NOOR-ED-DKEN. 

Nus,  niis,  (EunENK,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1816. 

Nushirwan  or  Nuschir-waii.     See  KHOSROO. 

Nut'tall,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  botanist  of  high  repu 
tation,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1786.  He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  about  1808,  after  which  he  explored  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  published 
his  valuable  "  Genera  of  North  American  Plants,"  (1818.) 
He  was  professor  of  natural  history  at  Harvard  from 
1822  to  1834.  He  performed  an  excursion  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Columbia  River  about  1834.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Manual  of  the  Ornithology  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,"  (2  vols.,  1834.)  Died  in  1859. 

Nuvolone,  noo-vo-lo'ni,  (CARLO  FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1608.  He  imitated  the 
style  of  Guido  so  successfully  that  he  was  surnamed  THE 
GUI  no  OF  LOMBARDY.  Among  his  master-pieces  is 
"The  Miracle  of  Saint  Peter  at  the  Beautiful  Gate." 
Died  in  1661. 

See  LAXZI.  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nuvolone,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Milan  in  1619,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
sometimes  called  PANFILO.  Died  in  1703. 

Nuvolone,  (PANFILO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Cremona,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  worked 
at  Milan.  Died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  1651. 

Nuwayri.     See  NOOWAIREE. 

Nuzzi,  noot'see,  (MARIO,)  called  MARIO  DE'  FIORI, 
(ma're-o  da  fe-o'ree,)  a  celebrated  Italian  flower-painter, 
born  near  Naples  in  1603.     His  pictures  enjoyed  a  great  I 
reputation   in   his    time,   and   commanded    high    prices. 
Died  in  1673. 

Nyberg,  nii'beRg,  (JULIA  CHRISTINA,)  a  Swedish 
poetess,  whose  assumed  name  is  EUPHROSYNE,  was 
born  in  1785. 

Nyctee.     See  NYCTEUS. 

Nyc'teus,  [Gr.  Nwrei'r .-  Fr.  NYCTEE,  nek'ti',]  a 
fabulous  king  of  Thebes,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Neptune  and  the  father  of  Antiope. 

Nyder.     See  NIDER. 

Nye,  nl,  (Pun, IP,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  about  1596,  was  distinguished  for  his  hostility  to 
the  cause  of  Charles  I.  In  1647  he  attended  as  chap 
lain  the  commissioners  sent  to  treat  with  that  monarch 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  in  1672,  leaving  numerous 
controversial  treatises. 


Nyerup,  nii'er-up,  (RASMUS,)  an  eminent  Danish 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Funen  in  1759.  He  was 
appointed  in  1796  professor  of  the  history  of  literature 
and  librarian  of  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  his 
"Symbols  to  Illustrate  Teutonic  Literature,"  (1787,)  and 
"Historical  and  Statistical  Account  of  the  Condition  of 
Denmark  and  Norway  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Times," 
(4  vols.,  1802-06.)  In  conjunction  with  Rahbek  and 
Abrahamson,  he  published  in  1812  an  edition  of  old 
Danish  heroic  songs,  with  historical  explanations.  He 
published,  conjointly  with  Kraft,  a  work  on  Danish,  Nor 
wegian,  and  Icelandic  biography,  entitled  "  Almindeligt 
Litteraturlexicon  for  Danmark,  Norge  og  Island,"  (2 
vols.,  1819.)  Died  in  1829. 

See  C.  MOI.BF.CH,  "Mindeord  over  R.  Nyerup,"  1830;  "R.  Ny- 
enip's  Levnetsibb  beskrevet  afhani  selv,"  1820:  KRAFT  og  NYERUP, 
"Litteraturlexicon;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nymann.nee'man,  (GKKGOR,)  a  German  physiologist, 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1594.  He  published  "  De  Vita 
Foetus  in  Utero,"  (1628,)  which  is  commended.  Died 
in  1638. 

Nymphae,  nim'fe,  [Gr.  ~Svii$cu;  Fr.  NYMPHES,  naMf, ) 
the  name  of  a  numerous  class  of  female  divinities  with 
which  the  imagination  of  the  ancient  Greeks  peopled 
the  groves,  the  mountains,  the  lakes,  the  rivers,  the 
fountains,  and  the  valleys.  They  may  be  described  as 
personifications  of  the  genial  and  beneficent  powers  of 
nature.  Among  their  common  attributes  were  youth 
and  beauty.  They  were  divided  into  several  classes  or 
species,  namely,  Oceanides  and  Nereides,  sea-nymphs ; 
Oreades,  mountain-nymphs;  Naiades,  fresh-water 
nymphs ;  Dryades,  wood-nymphs,  or  nymphs  of  trees  ; 
Limniades,  nymphs  of  lakes ;  and  Napoeae,  nymphs 
of  forests  and  groves.  The  poets  feigned  that  the 
Nymphs  were  the  nurses  of  Bacchus,  Jupiter,  and  Pan. 
(See  OCEANIDES,  NEREIDES,  OKEADES,  etc.) 

Nymphes.     See  NYMPH.-E. 

Nym'phis,  [Nty/cito,]  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of 
the  Pontic  Heraclea,  lived  about  250  B.C.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  Successors," 
and  two  other  works.  None  of  these  are  extant. 

Nymphodore.     See  NYMPHODORUS. 

Nym-pho-do'rus,  [Gr.  Nty/<j>o(5wpoc;  Fr.  NYMPHO 
DORE,  naM'fo'doR',]  a  Greek  surgeon,  mentioned  by 
Celsus  and  Galen,  lived  probably  in  the  third  century 
B.C.  He  invented  a  machine  for  the  reduction  of  dislo 
cations. 

Nymphodorus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Amphipolis, 
whose  epoch  is  unknown.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  laws 
and  customs  of  Asia,  called  N6«t//a  'Am'ac. 

Nysten,  nls'ten,  (PETER  HUBERT,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Liege  in  1771.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Dic 
tionary  of  Medicine  and  its  Accessory  Sciences,"  (1810,) 
and  "Researches  in  Physiology  and  Pathological  Chem 
istry,"  (1811.)  Diedin'iSiS. 


O. 


O,  d',  do,  (FRANC.OIS,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  financier,  i 
born  in  Paris  in  1535.  He  became  superintendent  of  i 
the  finances  in  1578.  Died  in  1504. 

Oakes,  oks,  (URIAN,)  a  learned  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  England  in  1631,  emigrated  to  America,  and 
settled  as  minister  at  Cambridge.  Massachusetts,  in  1671. 
He  became  president  of  Harvard  College  in  1680.  Died 
in  1681. 

Oates,  ots,  (Trrrs.)  a  notorious  impostor,  the  in 
ventor  of  the  famous  Popish  Plot,  was  born  in  or  near 
London  about  1620.  He  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  deprived  of  his  living  for  vicious 
conduct,  and  turned  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  passed 
some  time  in  a  lesnit  college  at  Saint-Omer,  from  which 
he  was  expelled  in  1677.  In  1678  he  appeared  as  an 
informer,  and  swore  that  the  pope  and  Jesuits  had  con 
spired  to  massacre  the  prominent  Protestants,  make 
themselves  masters  of  the  kingdom,  and  establish  popery. 
His  story  was  generally  credited,  and  produced  a  furious 


excitement.  Many  Catholics  were  put  to  death  for 
alleged  complicity  in  the  plot.  Oates  received  a  pension 
of  ;£i2oo.  After  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  was 
convicted  of  perjurv,  severely  whipped,  and  imprisoned 
from  1685  to  1689.  He  died  in  1705. 

See  MACAULAY,  "  History  of  England  ;"  BURNET,  "  History  of  his 
Own  Times;"  HUME,  "  History  of  England;"  EVELYN,  "Diary." 

Ob-a-di'ah,  [Heb.  mu;*,]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew 
prophets,  lived  probably  about  590  B.C.  Nothing  is 
known  respecting  the  events  of  his  life.  His  prophecy 
is  comprised  in  a  single  chapter. 

Obeidah.     See  ABOO-OBEIDAH. 

O'Beime,  o-beern',  ?  (THOMAS  LEWis.Van  Irish  prel 
ate  and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Longford  in  1748. 
He  accompanied  Lord  Howe  to  America,  as  his  chaplain, 
in  1775,  and  was  created,  after  his  return,  Bishop  of 
Meath.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Crucifixion,"  (1776,)  and  of  several  prose  works.  Died 
in  1823. 


<;  asxr;  c  as  j;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2J3^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OBELERIO 


1692 


OCAR1TZ 


Obelerio,  o-ba-la're-o,  a  Venetian  doge,  born  about 
760,  began  to  rule  in  804  A.D.,  soon  after  which  Venice 
was  invaded  by  Pepin,  King  of  the  Lombards.  He  was 
exiled  in  809,  and  died  in  831  A.D. 

Obentraut,  von,  fon  o'ben-tRowt',  QOHANN  MI 
CHAEL,)  a  German  general,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in 
1574.  Me  fought  for  Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  and 
was  second  in  command  of  the  army  which,  under  Ernst 
of  Mansfeld,  gained  advantages  over  Spinola  and  Tilly 
in  Flanders.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at  Kalemberg  in 
1625. 

See  SCHILLER,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  C.  G.  DE 
KOCH,  "Tableau  des  Revolutions  de  1' Europe." 

Obereit,  o'beh-rit',  (|AKOH  HKRMANN,)  a  German 
or  Swiss  alchemist  and  mystic,  born  in  Aargau  in  1725, 
practised  medicine  in  his  early  life.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Defence  of  Mysticism,"  (1775,)  and 
"Promenades  de  Gamaliel,  Juif  Philosophe,"  (1780.) 
Died  at  Jena  in  1798. 

Oberhauser,  o'ber-hoi'zer,  (BENEDICT,)  a  German 
canonist,  bom  in  Upper  Austria  in  1719  ;  died  in  1786. 

See  "  Memoria  B.  Oberhauseri,"  Saltzburg,  1786. 

Oberhauser,  (GEORG,)  a  manufacturer  of  micro 
scopes,  was  born  at  Anspach,  in  Bavaria,  in  1798.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  about  1815,  and  made  some 
improvement  in  the  form  of  microscopes.  Between  1831 
and  1856  he  constructed  a  great  number  of  these  instru 
ments,  which  were  exported  to  all  civilized  nations. 

Oberkampf,  o'ber-kampf,  (CHRISTOPH  PHII.IPP,)  a 
distinguished  German  artisan,  born  at  Weissenbach  in 
1738.  Having  removed  to  France,  he  established  at 
Jouy  the  first  manufactory  of  printed  cottons,  (1759.) 
He  brought  this  art  to  a  degree  of  excellence  hitherto 
unknown,  and  conferred  an  immense  benefit  upon  his 
adopted  country.  He  received  from  Napoleon  the  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honour.  Died  in  1815. 

Oberlin,  o'ber-lin,  [Ger.  pron.  o'beK-leen' ;  Fr.  pron. 
o'bek'laN',]  (JKAN  FREDERIC,)  an  eminent  philanthropist 
and  reformer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1740.  In  compliance 
with  his  father's  wishes,  he  studied  theology,  instead  of 
embracing  the  military  profession,  for  which  he  had  a 
strong  inclination.  He  became  in  1766  Protestant  pastor 
of  the  Steinthal,  or  Ban  de  la  Roche,  a  barren  and  rocky 
valley  in  Alsace,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  owing  to  their 
country  having  been  repeatedly  laid  waste  during  the 
French  and  German  wars,  were  in  a  state  of  wretched 
poverty  and  ignorance.  Oberlin  now  devoted  himself 
to  the  reform  which  had  been  begun  by  his  predecessor, 
Stouber,  and,  by  his  energy  and  mildness,  succeeded  in 
overcoming  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  who  at  first 
opposed  all  innovations.  Besides  great  improvements 
in  agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts,  he  introduced 
many  new  employments,  such  as  cotton-spinning,  weav 
ing,  and  straw-plaiting.  He  founded  schools,  to  which 
he  gave  competent  teachers,  originated  infant-schools, 
and  took  upon  himself  the  principal  religious  instruction 
of  his  parishioners.  So  highly  was  Oberlin  esteemed 
for  the  excellence  of  his  character,  and  so  deep  was  the 
sense  of  the  benefits  he  had  conferred,  that  during  the 
troubles  of  the  French  Revolution  the  Ban  de  la  Roche 
remained  undisturbed ;  and  he  received  from  Louis 
XVIII.  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour,  (1819.)  After 
the  death  of  his  wife,  (1784,)  Oberlin  was  assisted  in  his 
benevolent  labours  by  his  housekeeper,  Louisa  Schepler, 
formerly  a  servant  in  his  family.  She  obtained  from  the 
French  Academy,  in  1829,  one  of  the  Montyon  Prizes 
of  Virtue,  (five  thousand  francs.)  Oberlin  died  in  1826, 
after  a  short  illness,  at  the  age  of  eighty -six. 

See  AIT.UST  NEANDKR,  "  Ziiue  aus  dem  Leben  und  Wirken  des 
Pastors  Oberlin,"  1835;  PAUL  MKRI.IN,  "  Le  Pasteur  Oberlin,"  1833; 
ROTHKKT,  "  Leben  j.  F.  Oberlins,"  1847:  "The  Ban  de  la  Roche 
and  its  Benet'actor."  London,  1820;  "  Le  Pasteur  Oberlin,  Souvenir 
d'Alsace,"  1824  ;  H  LUTTKROTH,  "  Notice  sur  J.  F.  Oberlin,"  1826  ; 
D.  E.  STOF.BER,  "Vie  de  J.  F.  Oberlin,''  1834;  G  H.  VON  Scuu- 
BRRT,  "  Ziipie  aus  dem  Leben  Oberlins,"  1834  ;  "  Memoirs  of  J.  F. 
Oberlin,"  London,  8th  edition,  1838. 

Oberlin,  (JEREMIE  JACQUES,)  a  scholar  and  antiquary 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1735,  was  a 
brother  of  Jean  Frederic,  noticed  above.  He  became 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  (1782.)  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Tables  of  Roman  Rites,"  ("  Rituum  Romanorum 


Tabula;,"  etc.,  1774,)  and  "On  the  Amatory  Poets  of 
Alsatia  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  De  Poetis  Alsatiae  Ero- 
ticis  Medii  ^Evi,"  1786.)  lie  also  published  excellent 
editions  of  Horace,  Tacitus,  and  other  Latin  classics. 
Died  in  1806. 


Oberweg.     See  OvERWEG. 

Obrecht,  o'bRCKt,  (El.lAS,)  an  antiquary,  brother  of 
Uliich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1654. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  Roman  antiquities.  Died 
in  1698. 

Obrecht,  (GEORG,)  a  German  jurist,  bom  at  Stras 
burg  in  1547;  died  in  1612. 

Obrecht,  (Ui.Ricii,)  a  learned  jurist,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1646.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works,  and  editions  of  Latin  classics. 
Died  in  1701. 

Obregon,  o-l)Ra-g6n',  (BERNARDINO,)  a  Spaniard, 
born  near  Burgos  in  1540,  founded  an  order  of  monks 
devoted  to  the  service  of  the  sick  in  hospitals.  Died 
in  1599. 

See  H.  MALIJONAOO,  "  Vida  de  Bernardino  de  Obregon." 

Obrenovitch  or  Obrenowitsch,  o-bri-no'vitch, 
(Mii.oscil,)  styled  Prince  of  Servia,  born  in  1780,  was 
originally  a  Servian  peasant,  lie  became  about  1815  a 
leader  of  the  Servian  insurgents,  and  gained  several  vic 
tories  over  the  Turks.  In  i8i6or  1817  he  was  elected 
prince.  He  afterwards  made  a  compromise  with  the 
Sultan,  who  permitted  him  to  govern  Servia  as  tributary 
to  the  Turkish  empire.  His  tyranny  having  provoked 
his  subjects  to  revolt,  he  abdicated  in  1839.  lie  was 
restored  in  January,  1859,  and  died  in  1860. 

See  FOSSART,  "Das  Leben  des  Fiirsten  Milosch  und  seine 
Kriege,"  1836. 

O'Bii'en,  an  Irish  family  of  rank,  descended  from  the 
famous  chieftain  Brian  Boroimhe,  who  was  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Clontarf,  in  1014.  MURROUGH  O'BRIEN  was 
created  in  1800  Marquis  ofThomond.  Died  in  1808.  His 
nephew,  JAMES  O'BRIEN,  Marquis  ofThomond,  served  as 
a  naval  officer  against  the  French,  and  in  1847  was  made 
an  admiral.  Sir  Li;cius  O'BRIEN,  born  in  1800,  became 
lord  lieutenant  of  Clare  in  1843.  He  was  twice  chosen  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Clare,  and  was  a  zealous  ad 
vocate  of  conservative  principles.  His  brother,  Wn.i.i  AM 
SMITH  O'BRIEN,  born  in  1803,  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Limerick  in  1832.  Here  he  became 
an  earnest  coadjutor  of  O'Connell  in  the  Repeal  move 
ment.  He  was  afterwards  the  leader  of  a  party  called 
"  Young  Ireland,"  which,  not  satisfied  with  the  legal 
agitation  of  O'Connell,  advocated  a  forcible  separation 
from  England.  Soon  after  the  French  revolution  of 
1848  he  visited  Paris,  but,  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of 
assistance  from  France,  he  returned  to  Dublin,  where  he 
summoned  a  national  convention  of  three  hundred  mem 
bers.  This  assembly  was  prohibited  by  the  government, 
and  O'Brien,  with  other  leaders,  was  arrested.  He  was 
condemned  to  death  ;  but  this  sentence  was  afterwards 
commuted  to  banishment,  and  in  1849  he  was  sent  to 
Australia.  He  was  subsequently  pardoned.  Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1861. 

Obry,  o'bRe',  (JKAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Albert  (Somme)  in  1793.  He  resided  for  many 
years  at  Amiens. 

Ob'se-queiis,  (Juuu.s,)  a  Roman  writet,  of  whose 
personal  history  nothing  is  known.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  De  Prodigiis,"  in  which  he  recoids 
the  wonderful  occurrences  from  the  foundation  of  Rome 
to  the  time  of  Augustus.  Some  parts  of  it  which  were 
lost  have  been  supplied  by  Lycosthenes,  (Woolfhart.) 

Obsopceus.     See  OPSOPIKITS. 

Ocaiia,  de,  da  o-kan'ya,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  religious  poems. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ocaritz,  d',  do-kil-rets',  ?  (  JOSE,  )  CHEVAIJER,  a 
Spanish  diplomatist,  born  in  the  province  of  Rioxa  in 
1750.  He  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Paris  in  1792,  and 
made  great  efforts  to  save  the  life  of  Louis  XVI.  In 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me't;  n8t;  good;  moon; 


O'CAROLAN 


1693 


O'CONNOR 


1805  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey.  Died  at 
Varna  in  1805. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

O'Car'o-laii,  (TURLOUGH,)  a  famous  Irish  bard  and 
musical  composer,  born  in  1670,  was  a  skilful  performer 
on  the  harp.  Died  in  1738. 

Oc'cam  or  Ockham,  ok'kam,  (\VILLIAM,)  an  Eng 
lish  philosopher  and  eminent  logician,  surnamed  THE 
INVIXCIHLK  DOCTOR,  born  in  Surrey  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  the  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  his  name. 
He  studied  theology  under  Duns  Scotus,  whose  tenets 
of  Realism  he  opposed,  and  aimed  to  restore  those  of 
Nominalism.  He  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  John 
XXII.  for  his  bold  defence  of  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria  against  the  encroachments  of  the  papal  power. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Power 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff."  Died  at  Munich  in  1347. 

See  B.  HAUREAU,  "De  la  Philosophic  scolastique." 

Occleve.     See  HOCCLEVE. 

Occo,  ok'ko,  (ADOLF,)  a  German  physician  and  nu 
mismatist,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1524.  He  published 
"The  Coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors,"  ("  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  Numismata,"  1579,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1604. 

See  BKUCKER,  "Vita  A.  Occoni." 

Oc'cpm,  (SAMSON,)  a  converted  Indian,  born  in  New 
London  countv,  Connecticut,  about  1723,  became  cele 
brated  as  a  preacher  among  his  people,  and  in  1766 
visited  England.  Died  in  1792. 

Ocean.     See  OCEAN  us. 

O-ce-an'i-des,  [Gr.  'i2«eajv'<5ef ;  Fr.  OCEANIDES,  o'si'- 
f'ned',]  sea-nymphs  or  ocean-nymphs,  daughters  of 
Oceanus  and  Tethys.  They  were  supposed  to  have 
been  several  thousand  in  number.  (See  NYMPH/E.) 

O-ce'a-nus,  [Gr.  'fl/craror ;  Fr.  OCEAN,  o'sa'ix',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  the  god  of  the  river  Oceanus,  by 
which  the  ancient  Greeks  supposed  the  earth  to  be  sur 
rounded.  According  to  Hesiod,  he  was  the  first-born 
of  the  Titans,  the  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  (or  Ccelus  and 
Terra,)  the  husband  of  Tethys,  and  a  parent  of  the 
Oceanides  and  of  several  thousand  rivers. 

O-cel'lus  Lu-ca'iius,  so  named  from  his  birthplace, 
Lucania,  in  Italy,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  disciple  of 
Pythagoras,  and  to  have  flourished  about  500  B.C.  His 
treatise  "On  the  Nature  of  the  Universe"  is  the  only 
one  of  his  works  extant.  It  maintains  the  doctrine  of 
the  eternity  of  the  world. 

See  ''  Nouve'le  Biographic  Generale." 

Oceola.     See  OSCEOLA. 

Ocheda,  o-ka'da,  (ToMMASO,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Tortona  in  1757,  became  librarian  to  Lord  Spen 
cer  in  1790.  He  wrote  essays  on  philosophy.  Died  in  1831. 

Ochin.     See  OCHINO. 

Ochino,  o-kee'no,  [Lat.  OCHI'NUS;  Fr.  OCHIN, 
o'shax',]  (BERNARDINO,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Italian  Protestants,  was  born  at  Sienna  in  1487.  He 
became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  chosen  general  of 
the  order  of  Capuchins  in  1538.  It  is  also  stated  that 
he  was  confessor  to  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  was  venerated 
as  a  saint.  Having  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Juan 
Valdez,  a  Reformer,  he  avowed  his  conversion  to  the 
Protestant  faith,  and  escaped  to  Geneva  in  1542.  In 
vited  by  Cranmer,  he  went  to  England  in  1547,  and 
preached  in  London  until  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
in  1553,  after  which  he  lived  at  Zurich.  He  became  a 
Unitarian,  and  was  banished  from  Zurich  about  1562. 
Died  in  Moravia  in  1564.  He  had  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  other  works  on  theology. 

See  MARCHAND,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  :"  BAVLE,  "  Historical 
and  Crhical  Dictionary  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  DANIEL 
MEYKK,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  13.  Ochin,"  1851. 

Ochinus.     See  OCHINO. 

Ochoa,  de,  da  o-cho'a,  (Don  EUGKNIO,)  a  Spanish 
writer  and  translator,  born  in  Madrid  about  1812.  He 
wrote  various  works  in  prose  and  verse,  and  translated 
many  from  the  French  and  English. 

Ochosias  or  Ochozias,*  the  French  form  of  the 
name  AHAZIAH,  which  see. 

Ochoziah  or  Ochozias.     See  OCHOSIAS. 


*  Cowley — followine,  it  would  seem,  the  French  spelling — writes 
the  name,  in  English,  Ochoziah.  (See  "  Davideis,"  book  ii.,  line  595.) 


Ochs,  oks,  (PETER,)  a  Swiss  statesman  and  jurist, 
born  at  Bale  in  1749,  was  chancellor  and  grand  tribune 
of  Bale.  He  was  created  by  Napoleon  a  councillor  of 
state,  and  director  of  the  Helvetic  republic.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Bale,"  ("  Geschichte  von  Basel,"  6  vols., 
1785-1822,)  and  also  published  several  dramas.  Died 
in  1821. 

Ochsenbein,  ok'sen-bin',  (Ui.RiCH,)  a  Swiss  poli 
tician  and  general,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  iSil. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  radical  party,  and  became  presi 
dent  of  the  Federal  Diet  in  1847.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  war  against  the  seven  Catholic  cantons, 
which  formed  a  separate  confederacy,  called  the  "  Sun- 
derbund,"  in  1847. 

Ochterlony,  oK'ter-lo'ne,  (Sir  DAVID,)  a  British  gene 
ral,  born  in  1758.  He  served  in  India,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  of  Nepaul  in  1815-16.  Died 
in  1825. 

Ockenfuss.     See  OKEN. 

Ockenheim.     See  OKK.GHEM. 

Ock'ley,  (SIMON,)  an  English  divine  and  Oriental 
scholar,  born  at  Exeter  in  1678,  became  professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1711.  He 
published  in  1718  his  "  ?Iistory  of  the  Saracens,"  a  valu 
able  work,  which  is  commended  by  Gibbon.  He  also 
translated  the  second  Apocryphal  Book  of  Esdras  from 
the  Arabic  version,  and  wrote  an  "Introduction  to  the 
Oriental  Tongues,"  (1706.)  Died  in  1720. 

See  CHALMERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary." 

O'Con'nell,  (DANIEL,)  a  famous  Irish  orator  and 
political  agitator,  born  near  Cahirciveen,  Kerry,  in  Au 
gust,  1775,  was  educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic  at  Saint- 
Omer,  in  France.  He  entered  Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student 
of  law  in  1794,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1798.  He 
quickly  attained  the  foremost  rank  in  his  profession,  and 
became  pre-eminent  as  the  advocate  of  Catholic  eman 
cipation, — i.e.  the  relief  of  Catholics  from  political  dis 
abilities.  In  the  promotion  of  this  cause  he  entirely 
discouraged  a  resort  to  physical  force.  He  married  his 
cousin,  Mary  O'Connell,  about  1802.  In  1823  he  founded 
the  Catholic  Association.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Parliament  for  Clare  in  1828,  and  refused  to  take  the 
oath  which  was  designed  expressly  to  exclude  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  House.  This  affair  caused  a  violent 
excitement  and  agitation,  which  resulted  in  the  passage 
of  the  bill  for  Catholic  emancipation  in  1829,  and  O'Con 
nell  then  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
represented  Dublin  in  Parliament  from  1832  to  1835, 
and  from  1837  to  1841.  Having  given  up  his  lucrative 
practice  to  devote  himself  to  legislative  duties,  he  was 
indemnified  by  an  annual  subscription  raised  by  his  polit 
ical  friends  under  the  name  of  "rent."  About  1840  he 
commenced  an  agitation  for  the  repeal  of  the  union,  on 
which  subject  he  made  speeches  at  monster  meetings  in 
Ireland  in  1842  and  1843.  ^e  vvas  arrested,  tried,  and 
found  guilty  of  sedition  or  conspiracy,  for  which  he  was 
sentenced  in  1844  to  imprisonment  for  one  year,  and 
fined  two  thousand  pounds.  This  judgment  was  reversed 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  He  supported  the  Whig  min 
istry  which  came  into  power  in  1846,  after  which  he 
witnessed  a  decline  of  his  influence  in  Ireland  and  the 
rise  of  dissensions  among  his  followers.  He  died  at 
Genoa  in  May,  1847,  in  the  course  of  a  journey  to  Rome. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Daniel  O'Connell,"  hy  his  son  JOHN,  2 
vols.,  1846;  FACAN,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Daniel  O'Connell,"  2  vols., 
1848;  SCHIPPER,  "O'Connell'sLebon,"  1844;  CONDON,  "Biographic 
de  D.  O'Connell,"  1847:  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale:"  L.  DE 
!. OMEN  IE.  •'  M.  O'Connell,  par  un  Hommede  Rien,"  1842  ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  May,  1841. 

O'Con'nor,  (ARTHUR,)  an  Irish  general,  born  at  Ban- 
don,  near  Cork,  in  1767,  was  a  Protestant.  He  joined 
the  society  of  United  Irishmen,  who  sent  him  on  a  secret 
mission  to  Prance,  where  he  negotiated  with  General 
Hoche  about  the  liberation  of  Ireland.  In  1797  or  1798 
he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  acquitted.  He 
entered  the  French  service,  and  became  a  general  of 
division  in  1804.  About  1807  he  married  Elisa,  a 
daughter  of  the  famous  Condorcet.  Died  in  1852. 

See  THOMAS  MOORE,  "Life  and  Death  of  Lord  Edward  Fitz 
gerald."  1831;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

O'Connor,  (FEARGUS,)  the  celebrated  leader  of  the 
English  Chartists,  was  born  near  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OCTAVIA 


1694 


ODIER 


1796.  In  1832  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament  fo 
the  county  of  Cork,  and  acquired  great  popularity  wit! 
the  radicals.  Dissatisfied  with  the  moderate  policy  o 
O'Connell,  he  advocated  the  rights  of  the  working-class 
whom  he  succeeded  in  uniting  into  a  numerous  part} 
called  Chartists.  In  1838  they  summoned  a  nationa 
convention  in  London,  in  order  to  prepare  for  a  genera 
insurrection.  In  November,  1839,  after  a  sanguinar; 
conflict  at  Newport,  the  Chartists  were  dispersed  by  th 
government  troops,  and  many  of  their  leaders  takei 
and  transported.  O'Connor,  however,  who  had  carefnll 
avoided  any  infringement  of  the  law,  escaped,  and  sooi 
after  founded  a  journal  called  "  The  Northern  Star,' 
which  obtained  an  immense  circulation.  In  1843 
returned  to  Ireland,  where  he  engaged  with  ardour  in  the 
repeal  agitation,  and  in  1847  was  elected  to  Parliamen 
for  Nottingham.  After  the  French  revolution  of  1848 
he  called  another  convention,  and  presented  to  the 
House  of  Commons  a  monster  petition  for  the  introdtic 
tion  of  the  national  charter,  which  produced  no  effect 
Disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  reform  both  in  Englanc 
and  Ireland,  O'Connor  fell  into  a  state  of  hopeless 
lunacy,  and  in  1852  he  was  taken  to  an  insane-asylum 
Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1848. 

Oc-ta'vl-a,  [Fr.  OCTAVIK,  ok'tt've',]  a  Roman  lady 
born  about  70  li.c.,  was  a  daughter  of  C.  Octavius,  an'i 
a  sister  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  She  was  marriec 
first  to  Marcellus,  who  died  in  41.  Soon  after  his  death 
she  became  the  wjfe  of  Mark  Antony.  This  marriage 
was  intended  to  confirm  amicable  relations  betweer 
Antony  and  Augustus.  By  her  beauty  and  virtue  she 
obtained  a  favourable  influence  over  Antony  for  a  short 
time.  She  accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  against 
the  Parthians  as  far  as  Corcyra;  but,  supplanted  in  the 
affections  of  Antony  by  Cleopatra,  she  was  sent  back  t 
Italy.  In  32  li.c.  he  sent  her  a  bill  of  divorce.  She 
died  in  u  n.c.,  leaving  several  daughters.  Her  son,  M. 
Mnrcellus,  died  before  her.  (See  MARCELLUS.) 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Lives,"  article  "Antony:"  DION  CASSIUS, 
"  History  of  Romp,"  books  xlvii.-li.  ;  SAINT-REAL,  "Vie  d'Oct.ivie. 
Sceur  d'Auguste,"  1761. 

Octavia,  a  Roman  empress,  born  in  42  A.n.,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Claudius  and  Messalina.  She 
was  married  in  53  to  Nero,  who  became  emperor.  He 
divorced  her  in  62  A.ix,  and  a  few  months  later  put  her 
to  death. 

Octaviaii  or  Octavianus.  See  AUGUSTUS,  (Em 
peror  of  Rome.) 

Octavie.     See  OCTAVIA. 

Octavius.     See  AUGUSTUS. 

Oc-ta'vi-us,  (CAius,)  the  father  of  the  emperor  Au 
gustus.  Me  married  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  who  was 
a  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  Me  became  pritor  in  6t  i;.c., 
and  was  proconsul  in  Macedonia  in  60.  Died  in  58  li.C. 
His  official  conduct  was  highly  commended  by  Cicero. 
Velleius  Paterculus  characterizes  him  as  "gravis,  sanc- 
tus,  innocens,  dives."  He  had  a  daughter,  Octavia, 
noticed  above. 

See  SUETONIUS,  "Augustus." 

Octavius,  (CNEius,)  a  Roman  officer,  was  elected 
praetor  in  168  B.C.,  and  commanded  a  fleet  sent  against 
Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  whom  he  took  prisoner.  He 
was  consul  in  165  with  Manlius  Torquatus,  and  was 
assassinated  at  Laodicea  in  162  li.c. 

Octavius,  (C.NF.ius,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  partisan  of  Sulla.  He  became  consul  in  87  li.c. 
as  the  colleague  of  L.  Cornelius  China,  who  was  a 
partisan  of  Marius.  The  soldiers  of  Cinna  entered 
Rome  and  killed  Octavius  in  87  B.C. 

See  APPIAN,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Octavius,  (MARCUS,)  a  Roman  officer,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  senate  in  the  civil  war  against  Caesar.  At  the 
battle  of  Actium  (31  li.c.)  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  fleet  of  Antony. 

Odazzi,  o-dat'see,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Rome  about  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Giro  Ferri. 
Died  in  1731. 

Oddi,  od'dee,  (Muzio,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at 
Urbmo  in  1569.  He  wrote  "  On  Sun-Dials  or  Clocks," 


("Degli  Orologi  solari  nelle  Superficie  piane,"  1614.) 
Died  in  1639. 

Oddi,  degli,  dal'yee  od'dee,  (  MARCO,  )  an  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  at  Padua  in  1526;  died  in  1591. 

Oddi,  degli,  (Ono,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Padua,  was  the  father  .of  the  preceding.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  and  wrote  several  medical 
works.  Died  in  1559. 

Oddi,  degli,  (SFOKZA,)  an  Italian  poet  and  jurist, 
born  at  Perugia  in  1540;  died  in  1611. 

O-deir,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Buckinghamshire,  was  the  author  of  comedies  entitled 
"The  Chimera"  and  "The  Prodigal."  Died  in  1749. 

See  BAKER,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Odenath.     See  ODKNATUS. 

Odenathus.     See  ODKNATUS. 

Od-e-na'tus  or  Od-e-na'thus,  f  Fr.  Or>KN.\ni, 
o'deh-nSt',]  Prince  of  Palmyra,  the  husband  of  Zenobia, 
was  an  able  general.  After  the  emperor  Valerian  had 
been  defeated  and  captured  by  the  Persians,  (260  A.n.,) 
Odenatus  raised  an  army,  drove  Sapor,  the  Persian  king, 
from  Syria,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Palmyra. 
He  also  invaded  Persia,  and  pursued  the  King  of  Persia 
to  Ctesiphon.  For  these  services  he  received  the  title 
of  Augustus  from  Gallienus,  who  recognized  him  as  his 
colleague  in  264.  lie  was  assassinated  in  26601-  267  A.n. 
(See  ZKNOHIA.) 

See  TRKMEI.I.IUS  Pot.i.io,  "Trieinta  Tyranni ;"  G.  HOYNS,  "  Dis- 
sertatio  tie  Zenobi;e  atque  Odenathi  Rebus,"  1^47. 

Oderborn,  o'der-boRn',  (PAUL,)  a  Lutheran  minister, 
born  in  Pomerania,  lived  about  1585.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  the  Russian  religion  and  customs,  "De  Russorum 
Rcligione,  Ritibus,"  etc.,  (1581.) 

Oderic.     See  O  OK  RICO. 

Oderico  (o-da-rcc'ko)  [Fr.  ODF.RIC,  o'deh-rek'j  OF 
PORDKNONK  or  PoRTF.NAU,  an  Italian  monk,  born  at 
Pordenone,  in  the  Friuli,  in  1286,  travelled  over  a  con 
siderable  part  of  Asia  as  a  missionary.  His  "  Life  and 
Travels"  were  published  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1331. 

See  VENNI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  15.  Oderico,"  Venice,  1761. 

Oderico,  (GASPARO  Lunovico,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
and  librarian  of  the  University  of  Genoa,  born  in  1725. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  learned  treatises  on  nu 
mismatics  and  inscriptions,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute.  Died  in  1803. 

S?e  C.AKRKC,  \,  "  F.Iogin  storico  di  G.  L.  Oderico,"  Genoa,  1804. 

Oderigo  daGubbio.     See  Guiiiiio. 

Odescalchi,  (BKNF.DKTTO.)     See  INNOCT.NT  XI. 

Odescalchi,  o-des-kal'kee,  (MARCANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  nobleman,  eminent  for  his  philanthropy,  was  a  cousin 
>f  Pope  Innocent  XI.  He  founded  several  institutions 
for  the  sick  and  the  friendless,  and  at  his  death,  in  1670, 
left  all  his  property  for  their  benefit. 

Odescalchi,  (TOMMASO,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  almoner  to  Pope  Innocent  XI.    In  1686  he  founded 
an  asylum  for  the   education  and  employment   of  poor 
hildren.     Died  in  1692. 

Odevaere,  o-deh-va'reh,  (JosF.rnus  DIONYSIUS,)  a 
celebrated  Belgian  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1778.  Hav- 
ng  studied  under  David  in  Paris,  he  visited  Rome,  where 
ne  executed  two  large  frescos  in  the  Quirinal  palace, 
and  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Lawrence,"  now  in  a 
hurch  of  Bruges.  lie  was  appointed  court  painter  to 
William  L,  King  of  the  Netherlands,  in  1815.  Amr.ng 
lis  best  works  may  be  named  the  "  Peace  (if  Utrecht" 
and  the  "  Battle  of  Nieuport."  Died  in  1830. 

Odier,  o'cle-i',  (Louis,)  a  distinguished  physician, 
)orn  at  Geneva  in  1748.  He  finished  his  studies  at 
Edinburgh  under  Dr.  Cullen,  and,  on  his  return,  intro- 
luced  vaccination  into  France  and  Switzerland.  lie 
was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France, 
ind  filled  several  important  offices  in  his  native  city. 
le  was  the  author  of  a  "Manual  of  Practical  Medicine/' 
ind  published,  about  1798,  in  the  "  Bibliotheque  Bri- 
annique,"  a  translation  of  one  of  Jenner's  treatises 
on  vaccination.  Died  in  1817. 

See  Nf  AUNOIR,  "  Notice  de  la  Vie  et  des  E"crits  de  L.   Odier," 
SiS;  PIHKRE  PREVOST,  "Notice  de  la  Vie  de  L.  Odier,"  iSiS. 

Odier,  (PIF.RRF.,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
803  ;  died  in  1859. 


,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ODILLON 


1695 


ODOACER 


Odillon  Barrot.     See  BARROT. 

Odilo  (o'de'lo'J  or  Odiloii  de  Mercceur,  o'de'lox' 
deh  niCK'kuR',  SAINT,  a  French  monk,  born  in  962,  was 
eminent  for  learning.  He  was  elected  Abbot  of  Cluny, 
which,  under  his  direction,  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  monasteries  of  Europe.  Died  in  1048  or 
1049. 

See  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France  ;"   "  Gnllia  Christiana." 

Odilon.     See  ODILO. 

O'din  or  O'Sinn,  (o'thin,)  written  also  Othin,  [called 
by  the  Germans  WO'DAN  or  WO'DKN  ;  Old  German, 
WllOTAN,  derived  from  vafta,  to  "  wade,"  to  "go,"  to 
"pervade,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  greatest  of  all 
the  gods,  corresponding  in  the  main  to  the  Zeus  or 
Jupiter  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  His  name  is  sup 
posed  to  signify  "mind"  or  "spirit."  As  the  father  of 
the  /Esir,  (the  ruling  gods  of  heaven  and  earth,)  he  is 
styled  All-father,  (Al-fdtSr  or  Al  fafiir,)  although  he  him 
self  was  the  son  of  Bor,*  and  the  grandson  of  Buri.t 
He  is  also  called  Val-father,  (Val-fotJr,  i.e.  "father  of  the 
fallen,")  because  all  who  fell  in  battle  were  supposed  to 
belong  in  an  especial  manner  to  him.  Hence  his  hall  is 
called  Valhalla,  for  Valholl,)  the  "hall  of  the  fallen"  or 
"slain."  Valhalla  is  situated  in  Odin's  mansion,  called 
Gladheim  or  Gladsheim,  (the  "home  or  habitation  of 
gladness.")  The  roof  of  the  hall  is  formed  of  spears  and 
shields.  The  hall  itself  is  surrounded  by  a  roaring  river 
called  Thund,  and  has  five  hundred  and  forty  gates, 
through  each  of  which  eight  hundred  men  can  go  abreast. 
Here  are  assembled  all  the  chosen  warriors  ( Einhcriai ) 
who  have  fallen  in  battle  ;  it  is  their  pastime  to  fight  and 
slay  each  other  every  day,  but  the  wounded  are  quickly 
healed,  and  the  dead  are  restored  to  life.  They  then 
ride  back  to  Valhalla,  where  they  refresh  themselves  by 
drinking  mead  (or  beer)  with  the  gods  and  feasting  on 
the  flesh  of  the  boar  Ssehrimnir.  The  Valkyries  (Val- 
kyrjur  or  Valkyriur)  wait  upon  the  warriors,  furnish 
ing  them  with  drink  and  food,  (see  VAI.KYKIA;)  but 
Odin  himself  lives  on  wine  alone.  Near  Valhalla  is 
Vingolf,  the  hall  where  the  goddesses  assemble.  Odin's 
throne  was  called  Hlidskjalf  (hlid'ske-alf)  or  Lidskialf, 
whence  his  eye  is  said  to  survey  the  whole  world. 

Regarding  Odin  as  the  living  spirit  which  pervades 
the  universe,  the  Norse  poets  have  represented  living 
nature  under  the  symbol  of  the  ash-tree,  (Ygg'drasil  or 
Ig'drasil,)  that  is,  the  seat  or  abode  of  Oclin.j:  "All 
life,"  says  Carlyle,  "is  figured  by  them  [the  Northmen] 
as  a  tree.  Igdrasil,  the  Ash-tree  of  Existence,  has  its 
roots  deep  down  in  the  kingdom  of  Hela,  (or  Death,)  its 
trunk  reaches  up  heaven-high,  spreads  its  boughs  over 
the  whole  universe.  ...  At  the  foot  of  it,  in  the  Death- 
kingdom,  sit  Three  Nornas,  Fates, — the  Past,  Present, 
Future, — watering  its  roots  from  the  sacred  Well.  .  .  . 
Its  boughs  are  histories  of  nations.  The  rustle  of  it  is 
the  noise  of  human  existence.  ...  I  find  no  similitude 
so  true  as  this  of  a  tree.  Beautiful  ;  altogether  beautiful 
and  great.  The  'machine  of  the  universe,' — alas,  do 
but  think  of  that  in  contrast !" 

Although  Odin  (Spirit  or  Thought)  was  the  principal 
creator  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  he  was  assisted  by 
his  brothers  Vili  (Will)  and  Ve,  (Holiness.)  "  The  gods, 
having  got  the  giant  Ymir  slain,"  says  Carlyle,  "deter 
mined  on  constructing  a  world  with  him.  His  blood 
made  the  sea,  his  flesh  was  the  land,  and  the  rocks  his 
bones ;  of  his  eyebrows  they  formed  Asgard,  .  .  .  his 
skull  was  the  great  blue  vault  of  immensity,  and  the 
brains  of  it  became  the  clouds.  What  a  Hyper-Brob- 
dignagian  business  !"  It  is,  however,  only  in  the  creation 
of  the  world  that  Vili  and  Ve  are  mentioned;  they  ap- 


*  In  like  manner  Jupiter  was  called  "  Father  of  the  gods  and  king 
of  men,"  ("Divum  pater  atqtie  homimim  rex,")  although  the  son  of 
Saturn,  (or  Cronos,)  \vho  again  was  the  son  of  Coelus  (Uranus)  and 
Terra,  (Ge.) 

t  BURI.  (boo're.)  written  also  PURE,  [i.e.  "  producing,"  because,  be 
ing  the  first  of  the  gods,  lie  was  the  progenitor  of  all  the  others.]  is 
described  as  a  mighty  and  beautiful  being  in  human  form,  who  came 
into  existence  soon  after  the  mythic  cow  Audhumla  began  to  lick  the 
frost-covered  rocks  of  the  primeval  chaos.  He  had  a  son  named  Bor 
(DDK)  or  Bore,  [i.e.  "born"  or  "  produced,"  and  hence  "  son,"]  who 
is  said  to  have  married  the  daughter  of  the  giant  BoUhorn,  and  to 
have  had  by  her  three  sons, — Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve, 

t  Ycc  or  YGGR  (i.e.  the  "  terrible")  is  one  of  the  many  names  of 
Odin.  Drasill  or  drosiill  is  said  to  signify  ''  chariot"  or  "seat." 


pear  afterwards  to  have  become  blended  or  absorbed 
in  Odin,  the  all-embracing  World-Spirit.  Among  Odin's 
possessions  may  be  mentioned  a  horse  of  wondrous 
powers,  with  eight  legs,  called  Sleipnir,  on  which  he 
rides  over  land  and  sea ;  and  Gungnir,  (gung'njr,)  a 
spear,  which  never  failed  to  strike  whatever  it  was  aimed 
at.  He  has  also  two  ravens,  named  Hugin  and  Munin, 
which  he  sends  forth  over  the  whole  world  to  get  intel 
ligence.  In  addition  to  his  other  attributes,  Odin  was 
supposed  to  possess  marvellous  powers  as  a  magician. 

Odin  is  to  be  considered  to  represent  energy  and 
courage  rather  than  knowledge.  Hence  it  is  said  that 
he  once  went  to  Mimir's§  well,  at  the  root  of  Yggdrasil, 
for  a  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge,  but,  in  order 
to  obtain  it,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  deposit  one  of 
his  eyes  as  a  pledge,  whence  he  is  usually  represented 
as  one-eyed. 

War  being  almost  the  sole  occupation  of  the  ancient 
Northmen,  Odin,  their  principal  deity,  became  of  neces 
sity  the  god  of  war,  his  character  in  this  respect  nearly 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  Mars  (Ares)  of  classic  my- 
thology.ll  He  is  represented  as  having  first  introduced 
war  and  slaughter  among  mankind.  Again,  he  differed 
from  Jupiter  in  not  wielding  the  thunderbolt,  this  weapon 
belonging  to  Thor  ;  but,  in  a  region  where  thunder 
storms  are  comparatively  (infrequent,  the  possession  of 
the  thunderbolt  was  less  essential  to  the  dignity  of  the 
chief  of  the  gods  than  in  the  countries  where  Olympian 
Zeus  was  worshipped.  (See  THOR.) 

Odin  is  not  immortal  in  the  fullest  sense;  at  Ragna- 
rock  (the  final  destruction  of  the  yEsir  and  the  world) 
he  is  fated  to  be  destroyed  by  the  wolf  Fenrir,  the  off 
spring  of  Loki.  (See  LOKI.) 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  :  "Religion  of  the 
Northmen,"  by  RUDOLPH  KEYSER,  translated  by  BAKCLAY  PEN- 
NOCK,  New  York,  1854  :  MAI.I.ET,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  section  "Icelandic 
Language  and  Poetry;"  PETERSEN,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi,"  p.  30 
et  seq. 

O'ding-toii,  (WAI/PER,)  a  learned  English  monk  under 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  called  WALTER  OF  EVES- 
HAM,  from  the  monastery  of  that  name  in  Worcester 
shire.  He  was  the  author  of  valuable  works  on  music, 
astronomy,  and  mathematics. 

Odiot,'  o'de'o',  ([EAN  BAPTISTE  CLAUDE,)  a  French 
goldsmith,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  His  works  had  a 
European  reputation.  Died  in  1850. 

Odo,  o'do',  or  Odon,  o'cl6.\',  ~[Lat.  ODOAR'DUS,]  a 
French  prelate  of  great  learning  and  influence,  was  born 
at  Orleans.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  Cambray  in  1 105. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology,  which  have  been 
printed.  Died  in  1113. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

O'do,  [Fr.  OnoN,  o'ddx',]  SAINT,  an  English  ecclesi 
astic,  was  patronized  by  King  Alfred  and  his  immediate 
successors,  and  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by 
King  Edmund  in  944.  Died  in  958. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  ch.  vii. 

Odo  or  Odon,  SAINT,  Abbot  of  Cluny  or  Clugny, 
was  born  in  France  about  879  A.D.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  reformer  of  monastic  discipline.  Died  in  943. 

See  B.  HAUREAU,  "  Histoire  litteraire  du  Maine." 

Odo  or  Odon  de  Conteville,  o'doN'  deh  k6xt'- 
vel',  born  in  Normandy  in  1032,  was  a  half-brother  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bayeux 
in  1049.  After  the  conquest  of  England  he  obtained 
the  title  of  Earl  of  Kent  and  Hereford,  and  was  grand 
justiciary.  He  is  said  to  have  been  cruel  and  arrogant. 
Died  in  1097. 

See  PRBVOST,  "  Histoire  de  Guillaume  le  Conquerant ;"  "Gallia 
Christiana;"  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Odo  of  Kent,  Abbot  of  Battle,  an  English  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Kent,  was  a  friend  of  Thomas  a  Becket. 
He  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1200. 

Od-o-a'cer,  [Gr.  'O66aK,wf ;  Fr.  ODOACRE,  o'do'iklt',] 
a  Gothic  military  commander  in  the  service  of  the  West 
ern  Roman  empire.  Soon  after  the  deposition  of  the 


§  Mimir  signifies  the  "knowing  one." 

||  Saxo  Grammaticus,  writing  in  Latin,  calls  Odin  Jlfurs. 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ODQACRE 


1696 


(EGIR 


« 

* 


emperor  Julius  Nepos  by  Orestes,  who  had  usurped  the 
throne  in  the  name  of  his  sou  Romulus,  Odoacer  ad 
vanced  to  Pavia,  took  Orestes  prisoner,  and  caused  him 
to  be  executed,  in  475  A.D.  Having  banished  Romulus, 
he  was  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  by  his  army;  but  he 
refused  the  imperial  titles,  and  the  Western  Empire  was 
thenceforth  considered  at  an  end.  In  488,  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  invaded  Italy,  and  besieged 
Odoacer  in  Ravenna.  After  a  brave  and  protracted  re 
sistance,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  was  exe 
cuted  in  493,  by  order  of  Theodoric,  who  proclaimed 
himself  king. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  LE 
BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire  ;"  JORNANDKS,  "  De  Rebus  Goth- 
icis;"  PROCUPIUS,  "  Bellum  Gothicum;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Odoacre.     See  ODOACER. 

Odoardus.     See  Ono. 

O-do-fre'dus,  an  Italian  jurist  of  high  reputation, 
born  at  Bologna;  died  in  1265. 

Odolant-Desnos,  o'do'ldN'  di'no',  (Josr.PH, )  a 
French  savant,  born  at  Aleii9on  in  1797,  wrote  several 
scientific  and  descriptive  works. 

Odolant-Desnos,  (PIKKRK  JOSEPH,)  a  French  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Alen(Ot)  in  1722,  was  grand 
father  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1801. 

Odon.     See  Ono. 

O'Dou'nell,  (LEOPOLD,)  Count  of  Lucena  and  Duke 
of  Tetuan,  a  Spanish  general,  of  Irish  extraction,  was 
born  in  1808  or  1809.  He  fought  for  the  queen  against 
the  Carlists  in  the  civil  war  which  began  about  1833,  and 
defeated  Cabrera  at  Lucena  in  1839.  He  became  the 
enemy  of  Espartero,  whom  he  drove  from  power  in  1843. 
In  1854  he  instigated  a  revolt  which  resulted  in  a  change 
of  the  ministry,  and  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war. 
He  was  prime  minister  from  July  to  October,  1856,  and 
was  restored  to  the  same  office  in  June,  1858.  He  com 
manded  with  success  in  a  war  against  Morocco  in  1859- 
60.  He  died  in  exile  at  Biarritz  in  1867. 

O'Doii'nell  or  O'Don'el,  (RODERICK,)  was  created 
Earl  of  Tyrconnel  by  James  I.  in  1603.  Several  of  his 
descendants  espoused  the  cause  of  James  II.,  and,  after 
his  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  settled  in  Austria, 
where  they  rose  to  distinction  in  the  State  and  the  army. 
CHARLES  O'DONNKLL  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  became  field-marshal  lieutenant,  and  in  1768  was 
made  Governor-General  of  Transylvania.  Died  in  1770. 
MAURICE  O'!)ONNELL  married  Christine,  daughter  of 
the  Prince  of  Ligne,  and  rose  to  be  chamberlain  and 
field-marshal  lieutenant.  Died  in  1843.  JOSEPH  HENRY 
O'Do.N'N'ELL  entered  the  Spanish  service  about  1795, 
and  gained  several  advantages  over  the  French.  For 
his  victory  at  L'Abispal  he  received  the  title  of  Count 
of  Abispal.  Having  subsequently  incurred  the  sus 
picions  of  the  constitutional  party,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  command,  and  took  refugt  in  France,  where  he 
died  in  1834. 

O'Don'o-van,  (Jonx,)  an  Irish  archaeologist  and 
eminent  Celtic  scholar,  born  in  Kilkenny  county  about 
1808.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  "The  Annals 
of  Ireland,  by  the  Four  Masters,  from  the  Earliest  His 
toric  Period  to  A.D.  1616,"  etc.,  (3  vols.  410,  1848-51.) 
Died  in  1861. 

See  ALUBOXE.  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Odoraii,  o'do'rSN',  or  Odoranne,  o'do'rf  n',  a  French 
monk  of  Sens,  born  in  985.  He  wrote  a  general  chron 
icle  from  675  to  1032.  Died  after  1045. 

Odorico  da  Pordenone.     See  ODERICO. 

O-dys'seus,  [Gr.  'Odvaaevf;  Fr.  ODYSSEE,  o'de'sa',] 
the  Greek  name  of  the  hero  of  Homer's  "Odyssey." 
(See  ULYSSES.) 

CEagre.     See  (EAGRUS. 

CEagrus,  ee'a-grus,  [  Gr.  Ola~/pog ;  Fr.  CEAGRE, 
a'SgR', |  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  Thrace,  was  the  father 
of  Orpheus  and  Linus. 

CEcolampade.     See  OZCOLAMPADIUS. 

CBcolampadius,  ek-o-lam-pa'de-us,  [Ger.  pron. 
a-ko-lam-p.i'de-us  ;  Fr.  CECOLAMPADE,  a  ko'lSn  ptd'; 
Ger.  OEKOLAMPAD,  o-ko-lam-pat',]  an  eminent  German 
Reformer,  whose  original  name  was  HAUSSCHEIN  or 
HUSGEN,  was  born  in  Franconia  in  1482.  He  studied 
theology  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  in  1515  pastor  of 


a  church  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  strongly  de 
nounced  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church.  About  1522 
he  openly  declared  in  favour  of  the  Reformed  faith,  and 
in  1524  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Bale.  In 
the  controversy  between  Luther  and  Zuinglius  concern 
ing  the  real  presence,  he  adopted  the  views  of  the  latter. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theological  works,  among 
which  may  be  named  his  Commentaries  on  Isaiah,  Job, 
Daniel,  and  Jeremiah,  a  treatise  "On  the  Passover," 
("  De  Ritu  Paschali,")  and  "Annotations  on  Genesis." 
He  was  one  of  the  most  profound  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  remarkable  for  the  moderation  and  general 
excellence  of  his  character.  Died  in  1531. 

See  W.  CAPITO,  "Vita  J.  Oecolampadii,"  1793;  GRYN^EUS,  "Vita 
J.  Oecolampadii,"  1536;  S.  HHSS,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Dr.  J. 
Oecolampadius,"  1793;  WAGNKK,  "  Lebensbeschreibunj;  des  Oeco- 
lampadius,"  1804;  J.  J.  HKKZOC,  "Das  Leben  J.  Oekolampads,"  2 
vols.,  1843;  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

CEcumenius,  ek-u-mee'ne-us,  Bishop  of  Tricca,  in 
Thessaly,  is  supposed  to  have  nourished  in  the  ninth  or 
tenth  century.  He  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Acts, 
on  Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  and  on  the  Apocalypse. 

See  CAVH,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Oeder,  6'der,  (GEORG  LUDWIG,)  a  German  exegetical 
writer,  the  father  of  the  following,  was  born  near  Anspach 
in  1694.  He  published  several  commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures.  Died  in  1760. 

Oeder,  (GEORG  LUDWIG,)  a  distinguished  German 
botanist,  born  at  Anspach  in  1728.  lie  studied  at  Got- 
tingen  under  Haller,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  at  Copenhagen  in  1752. 
His  most  important  work  is  his  splendid  "  Flora  Danica," 
(3  vols.,  1762-72,)  illustrated  with  upwards  of  sixteen 
hundred  figures  of  plants.  It  was  afterwards  continued 
by  Miiller.  The  gth  and  last  volume  was  issued  in  1814, 
Oeder  also  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  political  econ 
omy  and  finance.  Died  in  1791. 

See  HAI.EM,  "  Andenken  an  Oeder,"  1793;  KRAFT  og  NVERUP, 
"  Litteraturlexicon  ;"  HIKSCHING,  "  Hislorisch-literarisches  Hand- 
bucli." 

CBdipe.     See  CEDIPUS. 

CEdipus,  ed'e-pus,  [Gr.  OMhnwf ;  Fr.  CEDIPE,  a'dep',] 
a  son  of  Laius,  King  of  Thebes,  and  Jocasta,  was  cele 
brated  in  Greek  mythology  and  tragic  poetry  as  a  type 
or  instance  of  the  fatality  which  man  cannot  escape. 
According  to  the  legend,  an  oracle  warned  Laius  that  if 
he  ever  had  a  son,  that  son  should  kill  his  father  and 
marry  his  mother.  Laius  therefore  exposed  his  first 
born  son  soon  after  his  birth,  in  order  that  he  might 
perish  ;  but  he  was  found  by  a  shepherd  of  Polybus,  King 
of  Corinth,  was  named  CEdipus,  and  brought  up  as  the 
son  of  Polybus.  Having  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi, 
he  was  informed  that  he  should  commit  parricide.  In 
the  course  of  a  journey  he  met  Laius  in  the  road,  with 
attendants,  who  provoked  a  quarrel,  in  which  (Edipus 
killed  the  King  of  Thebes.  Soon  after  this  event  the 
throne  of  Thebes  and  the  hand  of  Jocasta,  the  queen, 
were  offered  to  him  who  should  solve  the  riddle  of  the 
Sphinx.  (See  SPHINX.)  CEdipus  solved  the  riddle,  ob 
tained  the  throne,  and  became  father  of  several  children 
by  Jocasta.  He  afterwards  discovered  his  guilt,  and 
suffered  penalties  and  misfortunes  of  which  contradictory 
accounts  are  given  by  different  writers. 

See  SOPHOCLES,  "CEdipus  Tyrannus-,"  "The  Odyssey,"  book 
xi.  ;  EURIPIDES,  "  Plireni^sss  ;"  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

CGdman,  od'man,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Swedish  savant  and 
theologian,  born  in  Smaland  in  1750.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1806,  and  wrote  com 
mentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  Died  in  1829. 

Oedumla.     See  AUDIIUMLA. 

Oefele,  o'feh-leh,  (FRANZ  IGNAZ,)  a  skilful  German 
painter,  born  at  Posen  in  1721  ;  died  in  1797. 

CCgir.     See  /EGIR. 

CGgir,  [from  oga,  to  "shudder  at,"  to  "dread,"]  or 
HIer,  hlair,  i.e.  the  "  Shelterer,"  [from  hie,  "lee,"]  the 
god  of  the  sea  or  ocean.  His  wife  Ran  has  a  net,  with 
which,  it  is  said,  she  catches  seafarers.  Their  nu 
merous  daughters  are  the  waves  of  the  ocean.  CEgir 
and  I  Her  appear  to  have  been  originally  regarded  as 
two  distinct  personages, — the  former  ruling  over  the 
stormy,  the  latter  over  the  tranquil,  sea.  Ran  (signifying 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


OEHLENSCHL4EGER 


1697 


OERSTED 


•'robber}',"  or  "one  who  robs  or  bereaves")  represents 
the  tendency  of  the  sea  to  rob  men  of  life  and  of  their 
most  precious  treasures.  It  is  related  in  one  of  the  Norse 
legends  that,  the  ^Esir  having  once  paid  a  visit  to  CEgir, 
he  was  in  want  of  a  kettle  large  enough  to  brew  beer 
for  them.  Thereupon  Thor  and  Tyr  went  to  the  dwell 
ing  of  the  giant  Hymir,  who  had  a  very  spacious  kettle, 
a  mile  deep.  Thor  grasped  the  kettle  by  the  rim  and 
threw  it  over  his  head,  so  that  the  rings  came  down  to  his 
feet,  almost  hiding  him  from  view.  After  that,  CEgir  and 
the  ALs\r  had  an  ample  supply  of  beer  for  their  banquets. 
See  THORPR,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  67-69;  KEYSKR, 
"Religion  of  the  Northmen;"  PETERSEN,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Oehlenschlager  or  Ohlenschlager,  6'leii-shla'ger, 
(An\M  GOTTI.OH,)  an  eminent  Danish  poet,  born  in  a 
suburb  of  Copenhagen  on  the  i/jth  of  November,  1779, 
was  the  son  of  a  German  who  had  settled  in  Denmark. 
He  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  plays,  which  he  would 
act  in  company  with  his  sister  and  young  associates.  His 
enthusiasm  for  the  drama  introduced  him  to  the  notice 
and  friendship  of  Rahbek  and  Rosing.  He  was  after 
wards  attracted  to  the  study  of  Scandinavian  antiquities 
and  historical  legends,  which  furnished  material  for 
some  of  his  most  popular  dramas.  He  published  in 
1805  a  collection  of  poems,  including  the  dramatic  tale 
of  "Aladdin,"  which  displays  the  splendid  colouring  of 
Oriental  fiction.  The  same  year  he  visited  Germany, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  Tieck,  and 
other  celebrated  writers  of  the  time.  While  there  he 
composed  several  dramas  in  Danish,  which  he  translated 
into  German  and  submitted  to  the  criticism  of  his 
friends.  From  Germany  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  and 
thence  to  Rome,  returning  to  Copenhagen  in  1810.  He 
had  written  during  his  absence  his  tragedies  of  "  Pal- 
natoke,"  (1809,)  "Axel  and  Valborg,"  (1810,)  and  "Cor- 
reggio,"  which  are  ranked  among  his  best  productions. 
He  was  appointed  soon  after  his  return  professor  of 
aesthetics  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  the  same 
year  married  Christiana  Heger,  a  sister  of  Rahbek's 
wife.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  works  are 
the  dramas  of  "  Hakon  Jarl,"  "  Staerkodder,"  "  Hagbarth 
and  Signa,"  (1814,)  "The  Normans  at  Byzantium," 
"Charlemagne,"  "  Tordenskiold,"  and  "  Amleth,"  also 
the  poems  entitled  "  Helge,"  (1814,)  "  Hroar's  Saga," 
(1817,)  and  his  splendid  epic,  "The  Gods  of  the  North," 
("Nordens  Guder,"  1819.)  He  died  in  January,  1850,  and 
his  funeral  was  solemnized  with  great  magnificence  by 
his  countrymen,  by  whom  he  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  great  national  poet  of  Denmark.  "  Few  men,"  says 
M.  Marmier,  "have  been  endowed  with  a  genius  as  fer 
tile  and  as  facile  as  that  of  Oehlenschlager.  The  verses 
fall  from  his  pen  like  water  from  a  fountain.  Hence 
his  style  is  charming  in  its  grace,  flexibility,  and  abandon, 
but  it  is  frequently  very  negligent." 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  A.  Ohlenschlaeer's  Levnet."  2  vols., 
1^31  :  MARMIER."  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Danoise :"  LE  FEVRE- 
DKI'MIER.  "  Oehlenschlsger  ]e  Poete  national  du  panemarck,"  1854  ; 
C  MOI.UKCH,  "  Stndier  over  Ohlenschlagers  Poesie."  1^50;  ERSLEW, 
"  Foi  fatter- Lexicon  ;"  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generate  :"  LONG 
FELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  H;  WITT.  "Literature 
and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe;''  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
December  and  April,  1820,  and  March.  jS2i  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1^30,  article  "  Danish  and  Norwegian  Literature  ;" 
also  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly"  for  July,  iS^i. 

Oekolampad.     See  CEcoi. \MPADIUS. 

Oelrichs,  ol'rlks,  (JoHANN.)  a  German  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  at  Bremen  in  1724.  Among  his  works 
are  contributions  to  the  literary  history  of  Germany, 
Belgium,  etc.  Died  in  iSoi. 

Oelrichs,  [Lat.  CEi.Ricu'sii's,]  (JOHANN  KAKI.  CON 
RAD,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1722,  was 
appointed  in  1784  counsellor  of  legation  at  the  court  of 
Prussia.  lie  was  the  author  of"  Historical  and  Literary 
Miscellanies,"  (1760,)  and  other  works  on  history  and 
bibliography.  Died  in  1798. 

See  MIIKROTTO,  "Vita  CElrichsii,"  1799. 

CElrichsius.     See  OKI.RICHS. 

CEnee.     See  OZ.NEUS. 

Qjueus,  ee'nus,  [Gr.  O/m'c;  Fr.  CENEE,  a'na',]  a 
king  of  Calydon,  married  Althaea,  and  was  the  father 
of  Meleager,  Tydeus,  and  other  children.  According  to 
the  fable,  he  offended  Diana,  who  sent  a  wild  boar  to 
ravage  his  dominions.  This  boar  was  the  object  of  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

107 


famous  Calydonian  hunt.  CEneus  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  whom  Bacchus  taught  to  cultivate  the  vine. 

CEnomas.     See  GE.NOMAUS. 

CEnomaus,  e-no'ma-us,  [Gr.  Oivoftaoe;  Fr.  CENOMAS, 
a'no'mas',]  a  king  of  Pisa,  in  Elis,  was  called  a  son 
of  Mars.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  promised  to  give 
his  daughter  Hippodami'a  to  the  man  who  should  con 
quer  him  in  a  chariot-race,  with  the  annexed  condition 
that  every  one  who  tried  and  failed  must  suffer  death. 
After  many  suitors  had  failed  and  perished,  Pelops 
gained  the  victory,  and  CEnomaus  killed  himself. 

QBiiomaus,  [Otw/iooc,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Cynic  school,  born  at  Gaclara,  lived  about  120-40  A.D. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  in  which  he 
exposed  the  impostures  of  Oracles.  His  works  are  not 
extant. 

CEnone,  e-m/ne,  [Gr.  Olvuvr/;  Fr.  OENONE,  a'non',] 
a  nymph  of  Mount  Ida,  who  was  said  to  have  received 
from  Apollo  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to  have  been 
married  to  Paris  before  he  was  known  to  be  a  son  of 
Priam. 

GBnopides,  e-nop'e-dez,  [O/ro-^c,]  a  Greek  astrono 
mer,  born  at  Chios,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He  is 
said  to  have  derived  his  knowledge  from  the  Egyptian 
priests.  ^Elian  attributes  to  him  the  invention  of  the 
cycle  of  fifty-nine  years  to  make  the  lunar  year  coincide 
or  accord  with  the  solar  year.  He  was  acquainted  with 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 

CEiiopion,  e-no'pe-on,  [Gr.  Olvrmiuv ;  Fr.  OENOPE, 
a'nop',  or  OENUPION,  a'no'pe'o.s',]  in  classic  mythology, 
a  son  of  Bacchus,  and  King  of  Chios,  (Scio.)  His  daugh 
ter  Merope,  it  is  said,  was  ravished  by  Orion.  (See 
ORION.) 

Oernhielm  or  Ornhielm,  oRi/he-Slm',  (CLAUDIUS 
ARRHENIUS,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  at  Linkoping  in 
1627.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Mon 
archies  of  the  World,"  ("De  Monarches  Orbis,"  1683.) 
Died  in  1695. 

Oersted  or  Orsted,  or/ste'd,  (ANDERS  SANDOE,)  an 
eminent  Danish  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Rudkjo- 
bing  in  1778.  He  married  Sophia,  a  sister  of  the  famous 
poet  Oehlenschlager,  in  1802.  He  published  numerous 
legal  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Eunomia,"  (4  vols.. 
1815-22.)  In  1841  or  1842  he  became  a  minister  of 
state,  and  opposed  the  liberal  or  popular  measures.  He- 
resigned  in  1848,  and  was  appointed  prime  minister  in 
1853.  His  policy  having  been  condemned  by  the  Diet, 
he  was  removed  about  the  end  of  1854.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  my  Life  and  Times,"  (4  vols.,  1851-56.) 
Died  in  1860. 

See  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Oersted,  (ANDERS  SANDOE,)  a  naturalist,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rudkjobing  in  1816.  He 
travelled  in  the  West  Indies,  and  published  several 
works  on  natural  history. 

Oersted,  (HANS  CHRISTIAN,)  a  celebrated  Danish 
natural  philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  science  of  electro- 
magnetism,  was  born  at  Rudkjobing,  in  the  island  of 
Langeland,  on  the  I4th  of  August,  1777.  He  was  edu 
cated  with  his  brother,  Anders  Sandoe,  the  jurist,  at  the 
University  of  Copenhagen.  In  1806  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  physics  in  that  institution.  He  produced  in 
1812  an  "Essay  on  the  Identity  of  Chemical  and  Elec 
trical  Forces."  In  1820  he  announced  his  great  dis 
covery  of  the  relation  between  magnetism  and  electricity, 
in  a  short  work  entitled  "Experimenta  circum  Effectum 
Conflictus  electrici  in  A  cum  magneticum."  The  electric 
telegraph  is  one  of  the  most  direct  practical  results  of 
this  discovery.  He  demonstrated  that  the  electric  cur 
rent,  according  to  a  uniform  law,  "  exercises  determined 
and  similar  impressions  on  the  direction  of  a  magnetic 
needle"  near  which  it  passes.  This  discovery  was  re 
ceived  with  great  enthusiasm,  as  the  revelation  of  an 
important  fact  which  had  long  escaped  the  researches 
of  so  many  sagacious  minds.  "Of  all  the  philosophers 
who  had  speculated  (Mi  this  subject,"  says  Sir  John  Her- 
schel,  "none  had  so  pertinaciously  adhered  to  the  idea 
of  a  necessary  connection  between  the  phenomena  as 
Oersted.  Baffled  often,  he  returned  to  the  attack,  and 
his  perseverance  was  at  length  rewarded  by  the  complete 
disclosure  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  electro-mag- 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OERTEL 


1698 


OGGIONE 


netism."  ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natu 
ral  Philosophy.") 

"  The  desideratum  of  a  clear  expression  of  the  manifest 
alliance  between  electricity  and  magnetism,"  says  James 
David  Forbes,  "had  been  so  long  and' so  universally 
felt  that  the  discovery  placed  its  author  in  the  first  rank 
of  scientific  men.  There  was  not  even,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  a  suspicion  that  he  had  been,  however  remotely 
or  dimly,  anticipated.  The  prize  of  the  French  Institute, 
which  had  been  awarded  to  Davy  for  his  galvanic  dis 
coveries,  was  bestowed  upon  Oersted."  (Sixth  Disser 
tation  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  vol.  i.)  "I 
scarcely  know,"  says  Niebuhr,  "another  natural  philoso 
pher  with  so  much  intellect  and  freedom  from  prejudice 
and  esprit  de  corps."  Oersted  received  for  this  discovery 
the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and 
was  created  a  knight  of  the  order  of  Danebrog.  He 
also  made  discoveries  in  chemistry,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  that  science.  Among  these  are  "  Materialien 
zu  einer  Chemie  des  igten  Jahrhunderts,"  (1803,)  and 
"  Tentamen  Nomenclature  chemicae,"  (1814.)  He  wrote 
a  poem  called  "The  Balloon,"  ("  Lufskibet,"  1836.) 
His  writings  have  contributed  greatly  to  popularize 
science.  A  selection  of  his  works  was  published  in  1850, 
under  the  title  of  "The  Spirit  in  Nature,"  ("  Der  Geist 
in  der  Natur,")  preceded  by  a  biographical  notice  of 
Oersted  by  P.  L.  Moller.  Died  in  March,  1851. 

See  "  H.  C.  Oersteds  Leben,"  by  HAUCII  and  FOKCHHAMMER, 
(from  tbe  Danish,)  1853;  BECQUEKEI.,  "Resume  de  1'Histoire 
d'FJectricUe,"  etc.,  1858;  CAI.I.ISKN,  "  Medicinisch.es  Schriftsteller- 
Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  "  Memoir  of  Oersted," 
by  ELIE  DE  BEAUMONT,  in  the  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  1868. 

Oertel,  van.     See  ORTELIUS. 

Oeser  or  Oser,  6'zer,  (ADAM  FRIEDRICH,)  a  distin 
guished  painter  and  sculptor,  of  German  extraction, 
born  at  Presburg,  in  Hungary,  in  1717.  He  studied  in 
1739  at  Dresden,  where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Winckelmann.  He  was  subsequently  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Architecture,  Painting,  and  Design  at  Leip- 
sic.  Among  his  pupils  here  was  the  celebrated  Goethe, 
who  entertained  a  great  regard  for  him.  His  best  paint 
ings  are  in  fresco;  and  a  number  of  them  adorn  the 
church  of  Saint  Nicholas  at  Leipsic.  His  monument 
to  Queen  Matilda  of  Denmark  is  one  of  his  most  ad 
mired  pieces  of  sculpture.  Died  in  1799. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  NAGI.ER, 
"Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Oeser  or  Oser,  (JOHANN  LUDWIG,)  a  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1751,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1792. 

Oesterley  or  Osterley,  os'ter-ll',  (KARL,)  a  German 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1805.  He  became  court  painter  at  Hanover. 

Oetinger,  6'ting'er,  sometimes  written  Ottiiiger, 
(FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH,)  a  learned  German  theologian, 
and  prominent  leader  of  the  Pietists,  was  born  in  Wiir- 
temberg  in  1702.  He  wrote  a  number  of  commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures,  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Age  of 
Gold,"  and  "  Ancient  Philosophy."  He  also  translated 
several  of  the  works  of  Swedenborg,  of  whom  he  was 
a  warm  admirer,  and  whom  he  much  resembled  in  purity 
of  character  and  religious  fervour.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Count  Zinzendorf,  whom  he  assisted  in  a  new  translation 
of  the  Scriptures.  Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Neues  Gelehrtes-Europa  ;"  AUBERI.EN,  "Die  Theosophie 
F.  C.  Oetinger's  nach  ihren  Grundzugen,"  1847  ;  HIRSCIIING,  "  His- 
torisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Oetter  or  Otter,  ot/ter,  (SAMUEL  WILHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  antiquary,  born  at  Goldcronach  in  1720.  He  wrote 
on  history  and  antiquities.  Died  in  1792. 

See  F.  G.  OETTER,  "Leben  Getters,"  1792. 

Oettinger  or  Ottinger,  ot'ting'er,  (EDUARD  MARIE,) 
a  German  journalist  and  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1808.  He  edited  several  satirical  journals,  and  published 
'A  number  of  novels,  among  which  is"Onkel  Zebra,"  (7 
vols.,  1843.)  He  also  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Rossini," 
(1847,)  which  is  said  to  be  a  romance  rather  than  a 
biography,  and  "Bibliographic  biographique  univer- 
selle,"  (2  vols.,  1850-54,)  the  most  complete  work  on 
that  subject. 

See  A.  DE  REUME,  "  Notice  bio-bibliographique  sur  M.  E.  M. 
Oettinger,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 


Ofalia,  o-fa'le-a,  (Don  NARCISO  DE  HEREDIA,) 
COUNT,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  in  1771,  became  min 
ister  of  the  interior  under  Zea  Bermudez  in  1832.  lie 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  VII.  executor  of  his  will 
and  a  member  ot  the  council  of  regency.  He  was  presi 
dent  of  the  council  of  ministers  in  1837.  Died  in  1843. 

O'Far'rill,  (Don  GONZALO,)  a  Spanish  general,  born 
at  Havana  in  1754,  became  minister  of  war  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  Died  in  Paris  in  1831. 

Of  fa,  a  Saxon,  who  succeeded  Kthelbald  as  King  of 
Mercia  in  755  A.D.  Having  murdered  Ethelbert,  King 
of  East  Anglia,  he  took  possession  of  his  kingdom. 

See  TURNER,  "History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons:"  HENRY  MAC 
KENZIE,  '.'Essay  on  the  Lite  and  Institutions  of  Offa,"  1840. 

Offenbach,  of'fen-baK',  (ISAAC,)  a  popular  composer 
of  comic  operas,  born  at  Cologne  in  1822,  studied  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  the  "  Grand  Duchess  of  Gerolstein," 
"  Orpheus  in  the  Lower  Regions, "("  Orphee  aux  Enfers,") 
"  La  Belle  Helene,"  "  Blue-Beard,"  ("  Barbe  Bleue,")  "  La 
Vie  Parisienne,"  and  "La  Bavarcle  de  Saragosse." 

Of  fpr,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  writer,  and  a  bookseller 
in  London,  was  born  about  1786.  He  published  a  "Life 
of  John  Bunyan,"  (1853.)  Died  in  1864. 

O'Fihely,  o-tee'le,  ?  (MAURICE,)  an  Irish  prelate  and 
scholar,  who  was  made  Archbishop  of  Tuam  by  Pope 
Julius  II.  in  1506.  He  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  and 
was  surnamed  FLOS  MUNDI,  ("  Flower  of  the  World.") 
Died  in  1513. 

O-fil'I-us,  (Aui.us,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  high  reputa 
tion,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  and  a  pupil  of  Sulpicius. 
His  writings  are  cited  in  the  Digest.  Among  his 
pupils  were  Capito  and  Labeo. 

O'Flaherty,  o-fla'her-te,  (Roi)EKiC,)  born  atMoycul- 
lin,  Ireland,  in  1630,  published  in  1685  a  Latin  "  History 
of  Ireland  from  the  Deluge  to  the  Year  1684."  Died 
in  1718. 

Ofterdingeii,  von,  fon  of'ter-ding'en,  (HEINRICH,)  a 
famous  German  minstrel  or  minnesinger  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  favourite  of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  author 
of  the  "  Nibelungenlied  ;"  but  of  this  there  appears  to 
be  little  evidence. 

See  HAGEN,  "Museum  fur  Alt-Deutsche  Literatur  mid  Kunst,'' 
1810. 

Og'den,  (AARON,)  born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jer 
sey,  in  1756,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1812.  Died  in 
1839. 

Seethe  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Ogdeii,  (DAVID  B.,)  a  distinguished  American  lawyer 
and  resident  of  New  York  City,  was  born  in  1769.  He 
removed  from  New  Jersey  to  New  York  in  1802.  Died 
in  1849. 

Ogden,  (JACOB,)  an  American  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1721  ;  died  in 
1779. 

Ogderi,  (MATTHIAS,)  an  American  brigadier-general 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  died  at  Elizabethtown, 
New  Jersey,  in  1791. 

Og'den,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Manchester  in  1716.  lie  became  Woodwardian  pro 
fessor  at  Cambridge  in  1764,  and  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons.  Died  in  1778. 

Oge,  o'zha',  (VINCENT,)  a  creole  of  Saint  Domingo, 
who,  having  in  vain  solicited  the  French  National  As 
sembly  to  grant  equal  rights  to  the  coloured  people, 
became  in  1790  the  leader  of  an  insurrection,  with  a 
view  of  gaining  his  object  by  force  of  arms.  His  party 
were  soon  overpowered  by  the  French  troops,  and 
Oge,  together  with  his  lieutenant,  Chavannes,  who  had 
been  guilty  of  the  principal  outrages,  was  executed  in 
1791. 

See  DALMAS,  "Revolution  de  Saint-Domingue;"  MAI. ENFANT, 
"  Histoire  des  Colonies." 

Oggione,  d',  dod-jo'na,  (MARCO,)  written  also  Ug- 
gione,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  in  the  Milanese 
about  1470,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whose 
style  he  imitated  successfully.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  his  "Three  Archangels,"  and  an  altar-piece  at  Milan. 
His  most  important  works  are  two  copies  of  "The  Last 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged        »,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


OGIER 


1699 


OJEDA 


Supper"  of  Da  Vinci,  one  of  which  is  in  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  London.  The  excellence  of  these  pictures, 
and  the  destruction  by  time  of  the  original,  have  caused 
them  to  be  greatly  prized.  Died  in  1530. 

See  VASAKI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Ogier,  o'zhe-a',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
in  Paris  in  1595.  He  published  notes  of  his  travels  in 
Denmark,  Sweden,  etc.,  "  Ephemerides,  sive  Iter  Dani- 
cuui,  Suecicum  et  Pulonicum,"  (1656.)  Died  in  1654. 

Ogier,  (  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  an 
"  Apology  for  M.  de  Balzac,"  (1627,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1670. 

O'gil-by  or  Ogleby,  o'gel-be,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  lit 
terateur  and  printer,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1600,  was 
noted  for  the  variety  and  versatility  of  his  talent.--.  In 
1633  he  accompanied  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford,  to 
Ireland,  in  the  capacity  of  dancing-master  and  copyist. 
After  his  return  to  England  he  published,  in  1650,  a 
poetical  translation  of  Virgil,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
fames  Shirley,  afterwards  translated  the  "Iliad"  and 
"Odyssey"  into  English  verse,  having  learned  Greek  for 
that  purpose  when  upwards  of  fifty  years  of  age.  These 
versions  were  very  popular  at  that  time,  and  possessed 
great  typographical  beauty.  Ogilby  was  also  appointed 
royal  cosmographer,  and  published  a  number  of  geo 
graphical  works.  Died  in  1676. 

See  CIBISEK,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Ogilvie,  o'gil-ve,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  orator  and 
teacher  of  elocution,  born  about  1760,  or,  as  others  say, 
1775.  He  delivered  lectures  as  models  of  oratory  in 
the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  received  much 
applause.  He  died  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1820. 

Ogilvie,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  writer,  born 
in  1733.  Among  his  works  are  "Britannia,"  an  epic 
poem,  (1801,)  and  an  "Examination  of  the  Evidence 
of  Prophecy  in  Favour  of  Christianity,"  (1803.)  Died 
in  1814. 

Oginski,  o-gen'skee,  (MICHAEL  CASIMIR,)  a  Polish 
nobleman,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1731.  He  constructed  a 
canal  in  Poland.  Died  in  1803. 

Ogiiiski,  (MiCHAKi.  CLEOPHAS,)  a  Polish  composer, 
born  at  Warsaw  in  1765,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding. 
He  settled  in  Italy  about  1815,  and  gained  distinction 
as  a  musical  composer.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Poland 
from  1788  to  1815,"  (2  vols.,  1826.)  Died  in  1831. 

See  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Ogive.     See  EDGIVA. 

Ogleby.     See  OGILUY. 

Oglesby,  o'gels-be,  (RICHARD  J.,)  an  American  gene 
ral,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1824.  He  removed  to  Illinois, 
and  practised  law  in  that  State.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1861,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  October  4, 
1862.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois  for  four 
years,  (1865-68.) 

Oglethorpe,  o'gel-thorp,  QAMES  EDWARD,)  an  Eng 
lish  general,  born  in  London  in  1698.  Having  served 
for  a  time  under  Maryborough  and  Prince  Eugene  in 
Germany,  he  obtained  in  1733  the  royal  charter  for 
founding  a  colony  in  North  America,  which  he  called 
Georgia  in  honour  of  the  reigning  king.  Having  passed 
several  years  in  Georgia,  he  returned  to  England  in 
1743,  and  commanded  an  army  against  the  Pretender  in 
1745.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1785.  The  virtues  and  talents  of  General  Ogle 
thorpe  have  been  celebrated  by  Pope,  Thomson,  and 
Dr.  Johnson. 

See  "Memoirs  of  James  Oglethorpe,"  by  ROBERT  WRIGHT, 
London,  1867;  HILORETH,  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  ii. 
chap.  xxiv.  ;  BANCROFT,  "  History  of'the  United  States,"  chap.  xxiv. 

Ogiiibuono  di  Lonigo.     See  LONICENUS,  (OMNI- 

BONUS.) 

Og'y-ges  or  Og'y-gus  [Gr.  'Qyijrig,  'Q^yoc,  or 
tyv-jT/f ;  Fr.  OGYGES,  o'zhe'zheV]  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  king  or  ruler  of  Thebes,  which  was  sometimes 
called  Ogygia.  According  to  some  writers,  he  was  also 
King  of  Attica,  and  the  father  of  Eleusis.  In  his  reign 
occurred  a  great  inundation  of  Greece  or  Boeotia,  which 
is  called  the  Ogygian  deluge  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  anterior  to  that  of  Deucalion. 


Ogygus.     See  OGYGES. 

O'Hal'lo-ran,  (SYLVESTER,)  an  Irish  antiquary  and 
surgeon,  born  in  1728.  He  became  surgeon  of  the  Lim 
erick  Hospital.  He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (1772,) 
and  a  "General  History  of  Ireland,"  (2  vols.,  1772.) 
Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January  and  February,  1779. 

O'Hara,  o-ha'ra,  QAMES,)  a  native  of  Ireland,  emi 
grated  in  1772  to  America,  where  he  became  quarter 
master-general  under  General  Wayne.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  Pittsburg.  Died  in  1819. 

O'Hara,  (KANE,)  a  popular  Irish  dramatist,  wrote, 
among  other  plays,  "The  Golden  Pippin,'1  "The  Two 
Misers,"  and  "Midas."  Died  in  1782. 

Ohlenschlager.     See  OEHI.ENSCHLAGER. 

bhlmiiller,  oi'mul'ler,  (JOSEPH  DANIEL,)  an  eminent 
German  architect,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1791.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  national  monument  at  Upper  Wittels- 
bacli,  the  chapel  at  Kiefersfelden,  and  the  Gothic  church 
near  Munich.  The  last-named  structure  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  its  style  erected 
in  modern  times.  Died  in  1839. 

Ohm,  6m,  (GEOKG  SIMON,)  a  German  natural  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Erlangen  in  1 787.  He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Jesuits'  College  of  Cologne  in 
1817.  He  gained  distinction  by  the  discovery  of  the 
laws  of  electric  currents,  on  which  he  published  in  1827 
a  work  called  "  Die  galvanische  Kette  mathematische 
bearbeitet."  He  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  in  1841.  Died  at  Munich 
in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ohm,  (MARTIN,)  a  German  mathematician,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Erlangen  in  1792,  and 
became  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at  Berlin 
in  1839.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  a  Perfect 
System  of  Mathematics,"  and  other  works. 

Ohmacht,  o'maKt,  (LANDOLIN,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  near  Rotvveil  in  1760,  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Klop- 
stock,  and  of  Lavater.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
"Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  "Neptune,"  a  "Flora,"  a 
monument  to  General  Kleber,  and  a  bust  of  Klopstock. 
Died  in  1834. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux-Arts,1'  1831. 

Ohssoii,  6'son,  (CoNSTANTiNK,)  BARON  OP',  born  at 
Constantinople  about  1780,  was  the  son  of  Mouradja 
d'Ohsson,  an  Armenian,  (see  MOURADJA  D'OIISSON.) 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Mongols,"  (1835,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Caucasians  in  the  Tenth  Century." 
He  also  finished  his  father's  "  Picture  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire." 

Oicoiiomos  or  CEconomos,  e-kon'o-mos,  (CoN- 
STANTIN,)  a  learned  Greek  priest  and  writer,  born  in 
Thessaly  in  1780.  He  taught  Greek  at  Smyrna  for  ten 
years,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Saint  Petersburg  and 
at  Athens.  He  wrote  several  works  on  language,  and 
"De  la  Version  des  Septante,"  (4  vols.,  1843-50.)  Died 
in  1857. 

See  SIVINI,  "Memoire  compose  a  la  Hate  sur  Oiconomos,"  1857. 

Oilee.     See  OILEUS. 

Oileus,  o-I'lus,  [Gr.  'OiM-c;  Fr.  OILEE,  wa'la',]  a 
king  of  the  Locrians,  and  the  father  of  Ajax  the  Less. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  Argonautae. 

Oisel,  oi'zel,  [Lat.  OISE'LIUS,]  (jAKoH,)  written  also 
Ouzel,  ow'zel,  a  Dutch  critic  and  jurist,  born  at  Dant- 
zic  in  1631.  He  became  professor  of  public  law  at 
Groningen  in  1667.  He  edited  Aulus  Gellius,  and 
published  a  work  on  numismatics,  called  "Thesaurus 
selectorum  Numismatimi  antiquorum,"  (2  vols.,  1677.) 
Died  in  1686. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  MORHOF,  "  Polyhistor." 

Oisel,  (PHILIP,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1671.  He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew 
scholar,  and  a  Protestant  minister.  He  published  sev 
eral  theological  works.  Died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
in  1724. 

Oiselius.     See  OISEL. 

Ojeda,  de,  da  o-Ha'oa,  (ALONZO,)  a  Spanish  explorer 
and  lieutenant  of  Columbus,  was  born  at  Cuenca  about 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:''       -.;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


O'KEEFE 


1700 


OLDENBURG 


1465  or  1470.  He  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second 
voyage  to  America  in  1493,  anc^  commanded  an  ex 
pedition  which  Columbus  sent  to  explore  the  interior 
of  Hispaniola,  where  he  captured  the  chief  Caonabo. 
Having  returned  to  Spain,  he  obtained  command  of  an  ex 
ploring  expedition  sent  out  in  1499.  Among  his  officers 
or  passengers  was  Amerigo  Vespucci.  He  discovered  a 
part  of  the  new  continent,  which  he  named  Venezuela, 
and  returned  to  Spain  in  1500.  In  1508  he  attempted 
to  colonize  New  Andalusia,  and  to  conquer  the  natives, 
but  was  not  successful. 

See  OVIEDO,  "  Cronica  de  las  Indias;"  IRVING,  "History  of 
Columbus;"  CHARLBVOIX,  "  Histoire  de  Saint- Domingue  ;"  HBR- 
RERA,  "  Historia  general  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

O'Keefe,  o-keef',  (JOHN,)  an  Irish  dramatist,  born  at 
Dublin  in  1747.  The  number  of  his  plays  amounted  to 
upwards  of  sixty,  and,  though  their  merits  are  not  of  a 
high  order,  they  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Among  the 
most  admired  we  may  name  "The  Agreeable  Surprise" 
and  "Wild  Oats."  Died  in  1833. 

See  "Recollections  of  the  Life  of  John  O'Keefe,"  by  himself, 
1826. 

Okeghem,  o'Keh-hem,  written  also  Ockenhein, 
(/AN,)  an  eminent  Flemish  musician  and  composer,  born 
in  Hainault  about  1430;  died  after  1500. 

Oken,  o'ken,  or  Ockenfuss,  ok'k$n-fooss',(LoRKN7,,) 
an  eminent  German  naturalist  of  the  transcendental 
school,  was  born  at  Bohlsbach,  in  Wtirtemberg,  in  Au 
gust,  1779.  He  abridged  the  original  name  of  his  family. 
OCKKNFUSS,  into  OKKN.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and 
became  a  privat-docent  in  that  university.  In  a  remark 
able  work,  entitled  "  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
the  Theory  of  the  Senses,  and  the  Classification  of  Ani 
mals,"  ("Grtindriss  der  Nattirphilosophie,"  etc.,  1802,) 
he  gave  the  outlines  of  a  scheme  that  he  afterwards  de 
voted  himself  to  perfect,  and  advanced  the  idea  that  "  the 
animal  classes  are  virtually  nothing  else  than  a  represen 
tation  of  the  organs  of  sense."  He  accordingly  divided 
the  animal  kingdom  into  five  classes.  He  was  an  ad 
vocate  of  the  theory  of  development  in  its  largest  sense. 
Among  his  doctrines,  as  quoted  by  Professor  Hitchcock, 
are  the  following  :  "  Plants  and  animals  can  only  be 
metamorphoses  of  infusoria.  No  organism  has  been 
created  of  larger  size  than  an  infusorial  point  :  whatever 
is  larger  has  not  been  created,  but  developed.  .  .  .  The 
mind,  just  as  the  body,  must  be  developed  out  of  these 
animals,  [infusoria.]  .  .  .  Everything  that  is,  is  material." 
("The  Religion  of  Geology,"  p.  299.)  He  produced  in 
1805  a  treatise  on  Generation,  in  which  he  maintained 
that  "  all  organic  beings  originate  from  and  consist  of 
cells  or  vesicles."  In  1807  he  was  appointed  extraor 
dinary  professor  of  medical  sciences  in  the  University 
of  Jena,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  lec 
tures  on  zoology,  physiology,  etc.  He  developed  his 
peculiar  system  of  natural  science  in  his  "Manual  of 
Natural  Philosophy,"  (1809.)  From  i8i6to  1848  he  was 
editor  of  the  "  Isis,"  a  journal  of  natural  history.  In  1832 
he  obtained  a  professorship  at  Zurich,  where  he  died  in 
1851.  Among  his  works  is  a  "General  Natural  History," 
(13  vols.,  1833-41.) 

See  CALLISEN,  "  Medicinisches  SchriftsteKer- Lexicon  ;"'  "Ency 
clopedia  Britannica  ;"  BROCKIIAUS,  " Conversations- Lexikon." 

Okolampadius.     See  CEcoLAMPADius. 

Okolski,  o-kol'skee,  (SiMON,)  a  Polish  historian  and 
ecclesiastic  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Orbis  Polonus,"  (3  vols.,  1641-45.) 
which  treats  of  the  origin  of  the  Sarmatians,  etc. 

Okoonef,  Okounev,  Okounef,  Okunev,  Okou- 
new,  or  Okuiiew,  o-koo-nef,  (NIKOLAI  AI.EXANDRO- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  writer  on  military  science, 
born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1792,  served  in  the  campaign 
of  1829  against  the  Turks.  He  became  in  1840  lieu 
tenant-general.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Reflections  on  the  System  of  Modern  War,"  (1823,) 
and  a  "History  of  the  Second  Epoch  of  the  Polish 
Campaign  of  1831."  Died  in  1851. 

Okounev.     See  OKOONEK. 

Okunew.     See  OKOONEF. 

Olaf,  o'laf,  or  O-la'us,  I.,  or  Olof,  o'lof,  King  of 
Norway,  born  in  956,  was  surnamed  TRYGVASON.  He 
was  a  corsair  or  sea-rover  in  his  youth,  and  became  king 


about  996.  He  is  said  to  have  established  Christianity 
in  his  kingdom.  Died  in  1000. 

See  TOLLSTORP,  "  Norske  Konungen  Olof,"  etc.,  1847. 

Olaf  or  Olaus  II.,  called  THE  SAINT,  obtained  the 
throne  of  Norway  about  1018.  He  waged  war  against 
Canute,  King  of  Denmark.  Died  in  1030. 

See  HAGEKUP,  "Oni  Oluf  den  Hcllige,"  1805. 

Olaf  or  Olaus  III.  became  King  of  Norway  about 
1068.  He  ordered  that  one  slave  should  be  liberated  in 
each  district  every  year,  and  made  other  reforms.  Died 
in  1093. 

Olaf  IV.,  born  in  1098,  was  a  son  of  Magnus  III. 
of  Norway.  Died  in  1116. 

Olaf  V.,  a  son  of  Haquin  VII.,  King  of  Norway,  was 
born  in  1371,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1380.  '  Died 
in  1387. 

Olafsen,  o'laf-sen,  (EGGEKT,)  a  naturalist  of  Iceland, 
born  in  1721.  He  published,  among  other  treatises, 
"A  Historical  Account  of  the  Nature  and  Constitution 
of  Iceland,"  and  poems  in  Latin  and  Danish.  Died 
about  1770. 

Olahus  or  Olaus,  o-la'us,  (Nicoi.AS,)  a  learned  Hun 
garian  prelate,  born  at  I  lei  mannstadt  in  1493,  r()se  to 
be  chancellor,  and  Archbishop  of  Strigonia,  (1552.)  lie 
wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Hungarians," 
and  a  "  History  of  Attila."  Died  in  1568. 

Olaus.     See  OI.AF. 

Olaus  Magnus.     See  MAGNUS,  (()I.AUS.) 

Olavides,  o  la-vee'ogs,  or  Olavide,  o-Ia-vee'na,  |  Kr. 
OI.AVIDE,  o'lt've'da',]  (PAULO  ANTONIO  JOSE,)  Count 
of  Pilos,  was  born  at  Lima,  in  South  America,  about  1725. 
He  was  appointed  intendant-general  of  Andalusia,  and 
colonized  a  part  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  by  introducing  into 
it  an  agricultural  and  manufacturing  population.  He  was 
subsequently  imprisoned  for  a  time  in  the  Inquisition  on 
a  charge  of  heresy,  but,  having  made  his  escape,  he  took 
refuge  in  France.  He  died  in  Spain  in  1803,  leaving  a 
religious  work,  entitled  "Triumph  of  the  Gospel,"  ("  El 
Evangelio  en  Triunfo.") 

See  L.  BKIGHTVVF.M  .  "By-Paths  of  Biography ;"  J.  F.  BOI-R- 
COING,  "Tableau  de  1'Espagne  moderne,"  1^07;  A.  HKNNIM;S, 
"Olavides,"  1779;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Olbers,  ol'bers,  (HKiNRini  WII.HKI.M  MATIIIAS,)  an 
eminent  German  astronomer  and  physician,  born  at 
Arbergen,  near  Bremen,  in  October,  1758.  He  studied 
medicine  nt  Gottingen,  and  practised  at  Hremen,  where 
he  constructed  a  private  observatory.  He  gained  dis 
tinction  by  his  observations  on  the  comet  of  1779,  and 
discovered  an  improved  method  of  calculating  the  orbits 
of  comets.  He  published  about  1797  a  treatise  on  this 
method,  which  is  considered  a  very  important  contribu 
tion  to  astronomy.  In  March,  1802,  Olbers  discovered 
a  new  asteroid,  which  he  named  Pallas,  the  orbit  of  which 
is  nearly  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  that  of  Ceres.  I  fe 
adopted  the  hypothesis  that  Ceres  and  Pallas  were  frag 
ments  of  a  large  planet  which  had  been  broken  by  an 
internal  convulsion,  and  predicted  that  other  asteroids 
would  be  found.  In  1804  Harding  discovered  Juno,  and 
in  March,  1807,  Olbers  discovered  the  fourth  asteroid, 
which  he  named  Vesta.  The  mean  distance  of  their 
orbits  from  the  sun  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
orbits  of  Ceres  and  Pallas.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1804.  In  1815  he 
discovered  a  comet  whicli  is  called  by  his  name,  and 
which  performs  a  revolution  in  about  seventy-four  years. 
Among  the  pupils  of  Olbers  are  Bessel  and  Gauss.  lie 
died  at  Bremen  in  1840. 

See  DE  ZACH,  "  A!l<remeine  geographischen  Epliemerideti  :" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Oldcastle.     See  COBHAM,  LORD. 

Oldenburg,  ol'den-b<56uG',  HOUSE  OF,  an  ancient 
and  noble  family,  from  which  the  Emperors  of  Russia, 
the  Kings  of  Denmark,  and  one  of  the  dynasties  of 
Sweden  are  descended.  THEODORIC  (DIETRICH)  of 
Oldenburg  obtained  by  marriage  Sleswick  and  Ilolstein. 
Died  about  1440.  His  son  CHRISTIAN  became  King  of 
Denmark  in  1448,  and  King  of  Sweden  in  1458.  ADOLF, 
a  grandson  of  Christian,  was  the  founder  of  the  house 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  ami  an  ancestor  of  the  present 
imperial  family  of  Russia. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


OLDENBURG 


1701 


OLIER 


Old'en-burg,  (HKNKY,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  at  Bremen  about  1626.  Having  settled  in  England, 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Milton  and  Robert  Boyle, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  corresponded.  On  the  forma 
tion  of  the  Royal  Society,  in  1662,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  its  secretaries.  He  published  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  Society  from  1664  to  1677,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  political  and  theological  works.  He  sometimes 
signed  his  name  GUUEENDOL.  Died  about  1678. 

See  MARTIN,  "  Biographia  Phi'osophica." 

Oldeiiburger,  ol'den-bdoK'ger,  (PHILIPP  ANDREAS,) 
a  German  jurist  ana!  publicist,  born  in  Brunswick  or  in 
the  duchy  of  Celle.  He  was  professor  of  public  law 
at  Geneva,  and  published  several  works,  among  which 
is  "  Pandectae  Juris  public!  Germanic!,"  (1670.)  Died 
in  1678. 

Oldendorp,  oKden-doRp',  (JOHANN,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Hamburg  about  1480.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Law  of  Nature 
and  of  Nations,"  ("  Isagoge  sen  Introductio  Juris  Naturae 
Gentium  et  Civilis,"  1549.)  Died  in  1567. 

Oldermann,  ol'der-man,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Saxony  about  1686.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  Greek  at  Helmstedt.  Died  in  1723. 

Old'field,  (ANNK,)  a  celebrated  English  actress,  born 
in  London  in  1683.  She  excelled  both  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  and  her  talents  are  eulogized  in  the  "Tatler." 
Died  in  1730. 

See  "  Life  of  Anne  Oldfield,"  London,  1731  ;  BAKER,  "  Biograpliia 
Dramatica." 

Oldham,  old'am,  (HUGH,)  an  English  bishop,  born 
probably  near  Manchester,  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1504.  He  founded  a 
free  school  at  Manchester,  and  added  to  the  endowment 
of  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Oxford.  Died  in  1519. 

Oldham,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  satirical  poet,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1653.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dryden, 
who  has  eulogized  him  in  some  of  his  verses.  He  wrote 
"  Pindaric  Odes,"  and  "  Four  Satires  against  the  Jesuits," 
and  made  translations  from  Juvenal.  "  His  poems,"  says 
Hallam,  "  are  spirited  and  pointed,  and  he  ranks  perhaps 
next  to  Dryden."  Died  in  1683. 

See  E.  THOMPSON,  "  Life  of  John  Oldham,"  and  a  Memoir,  by 
ROBERT  BELL,  prefixed  to  Oldham's  Poems,  1854. 

Old'is-worth,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet  and  trans 
lator,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  one  of  the 
first  writers  for  the  "  Examiner."  He  translated  the 
Odes  of  Horace  into  verse,  and  wrote  a  few  poems,  and 
other  works,  among  which  is  "  Timothy  and  Philotheus," 
(3  vols.,  1709-10.)  Died  in  1734. 

Old-mix'on,  (Jon\,)  an  English  historical  and  po 
litical  writer,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1673.  He  wrote 
a  "Critical  History  of  England,"  (3  vols.,  1730-39,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Stuarts,"  and  other  works  of  little  merit, 
in  which  he  manifests  a  decided  partiality  to  the  Whigs. 
In  his  "  Prose  Essay  on  Criticism"  he  attacked  Pope, 
who  took  revenge  in  the  "  Dunciad."  Died  in  1742. 

See  GIBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  BAKER,  "Biograpliia  Dra 
matica." 

Oldoiiii,  ol-do-ee'nee,  (AGOSTINO,)  an  Italian  biogra 
pher,  born  at  La  Spezia  in  1612.  He  wrote  memoirs 
of  several  popes,  cardinals,  etc.  Died  after  1680. 

Oldys,  ol'dis  or  oldz,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  biogra 
pher  and  bibliographer,  born  about  1690.  He  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  prefixed  to  Raleigh's  "  His 
tory  of  the  World,"  (1738,)  and  a  number  of  biographies 
in  the  "  Biograpliia  Britannica,"  under  the  signature  "  G." 
He  also  published  "The  British  Librarian,  exhibiting 
a  Compendious  View  of  all  Unpublished  and  Valuable 
Books,"  (1737,)  which  is  esteemed  for  its  accuracy.  Died 
in  1761. 

See  CHALMERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Olearius,  o-la-a're-us,  or  Olschlager,  61'shla'ger, 
(ADAM,)  a  distinguished  German  writer  and  traveller, 
born  at  Aschersleben  about  1600,  was  court  mathema 
tician  and  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  In  1633 
he  accompanied  an  embassy  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Hol 
stein  to  Russia,  and  some  years  after  visited  Persia  in 
the  same  capacity.  After  his  return  he  published,  in 
1639,  a  very  interesting  account  of  his  travels  in  the  East. 


He  also  translated  from  the  Persian  the  "  Rose-Garden" 
of  Saadee,  (Sadi.)     Died  in  1671. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  MOLLER,  "  Cimbria  Literata ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Olearius,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Halle  in  1604.  He  preached  in  his  native  city, 
and  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1685. 
Olearius,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1672,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Logical  Analysis  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He 
brews,"  (1706.)  Died  in  1715. 

Olearius,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  divine,  born  in  1639, 

|  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.     He  wrote  a  num- 

I  ber  of  theological  treatises,  and  was  for  a  time  editor  of 

I  the  "  Acta  Eruditorum."     Died  in  1713.     He  was  a  son 

of  Gottfried,  noticed  above,  (1604-85.) 

Olearius,  (]Y>H ANN  CHULSTOPH,)  a  German  historian 

and  numismatist,  born  at  Halle  in  1668,  was  a  son   of 

'••  Johann  Gottfried.   He  became  Protestant  Bishop  at  Arm- 

stadt  in  1736.   He  wrote  numerous  works.   Died  in  1747. 

See  J.  C.  OTTO,  "  In  Exsequias  Olearii,"  1747  '•  ERSCH  und  GKU- 

BER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Olearius,  (TOHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  born  at  Halle  in 
1635,  was  a  brother  of  Johann,  noticed  above.  He  was 
pastor  at  Halle,  and  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Abacus 
Patrologicus,"  (1673.)  Died  in  1711. 

O'Leary,  o-lee're,  (ARTHUR,)  an  Irish  Catholic  clergy 
man,  born  at  Cork  in  1729,  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works.  Died  in  1802. 

Oleaster,  o-la-as'ter,  (JEROME,)  a  Portuguese  monk 
and  linguist,  born  at  Lisbon.  He  was  versed  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  and  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  Isaiah," 
(1623.)  Died  in  1563. 

O'leg,  |Russ.  pron.  o-le"g'  or  o-leK',]  Prince  of  Russia, 
was  a  native  of  Scandinavia,  from  which  he  emigrated 
about  862  A.D.  He  was  a  relative  of  Rurik,  who,  dying 
in  879,  appointed  Oleg  guardian  of  his  minor  son,  Igor. 
Oleg  usurped  the  sovereignty,  and  extended  his  do 
minions  by  conquest.  Died  in  912. 

See  KARAMZIN,  "  History  of  the  Russian  Empire." 

O'len,  [Gr.  'Q.^r)v,\  a  mythical  Grecian  bard,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  lyric  poet  of  that 
nation,  and  was  called  a  prophet  of  Apollo,  whose  wor 
ship  he  introduced  into  Delos.  He  was  supposed  to 
have  been  born  in  Lycia,  and  to  have  lived  before  the 
time  of  Orpheus. 

Olenschlager,  von,  fon  o'len-shla'ger,  (JOHANN 
DANIEL,)  a  German  publicist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1711. 
He  wrote  on  the  public  law  of  the  German  empire.  Died 
in  1778. 

Oleszczynski,  o-lgsh-chins'kee,  (ANTONY,)  a  Polish 
engraver,  born  in  Lublin  in  1796.  He  studied  and  worked 
in  Paris.  Among  his  subjects  are  portraits  of  eminent 
Poles. 

Olevianus,  o-la-ve-i'nus,  (KASPAR,)  one  of  the  early 
Reformers,  was  born  in  Treves,  August  10,  1536.  He 
studied  law  at  Paris  and  theology  at  Geneva,  and  adopted 
the  views  of  Calvin.  He  afterwards  resided  successively 
at  Treves,  Heidelberg,  and  Herborn.  He  published  sev 
eral  theological  works,  including  sermons  explanatory  of 
Paul's  Epistles.  Died  in  March,  1587. 

See  PIERER,  "  Universal- Lexikon." 

Ol'ga,  SAINT,  a  Russian  lady,  was  married  about  903 
A.D.  to  tgor,  a  son  of  Rurik,  Prince  of  Russia.  On  the 
death  of  Igor  (945)  she  became  regent.  She  afterwards 
adopted  the  Christian  religion.  Died  in  969. 

OH.     See  OLID. 

Olid,  de,  da  o-ler/,  or  Oli,  o-lee',  (CKISTOVAL,)  a 
Spanish  officer,  born  about  1492.  He  served  under 
Cortez  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  (1519-21,)  and  after 
wards  attempted  to  make  himself  independent.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Cortez,  and  executed 
in  Honduras  in  1524. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "Conquest  of  Mexico;''  OVIEDO,  "  Historia  de 
las  Indias." 

Olier,  o'le-a',  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  reformer,  born  in  Paris  in  1608.  He  founded  the 
congregation  of  Saint-Sulpice,  and  several  charitable 
institutions.  He  also  formed  a  society  for  the  preven- 


1039,  a  verv  interesting  account  01  nis  iraveis  in  me  n,asi.     niaiii.ui.iui  — j  •- 

«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OLIN 


1702 


OLIVIER 


tion  of  duels,  and  wrote  a  number  of  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1657. 

See  GIRY,  "Vie  de  M.  Olier,"  j687;  NAGOT,  "Vie  de  M.  Olier," 
1818;  DE  BRETONVILI.IERS,  "  Memoires  sur  M.  Olier,"  2  vols., 
1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

O'lin,  (STEPHEN,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,an  American  Method 
ist  divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Leicester,  Vermont, 
in  1797,  became  president  of  the  Wesleyan  University, 
Middletown,  Connecticut.  He  died  in  1851,  leaving  a 
collection  of  sermons,  "Travels  in  the  East,"  "Greece 
and  the  Golden  Horn,"  etc.  His  "Life  and  Letters" 
were  published  in  1853. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1843,  (by  EDWARD 
ROBINSON.) 

Ol'i-phant,  (LAWRENCE,)  an  English  traveller  and 
writer  of  books  of  travel,  was  born  in  1832.  He  pub 
lished  in  1853  "The  Russian  Shores  of  the  Black  Sea," 
which  was  received  with  favour.  lie  afterwards  travelled 
in  North  America  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published 
several  books,  one  of  which  is  called  "Minnesota." 
About  1857  he  went  to  China  as  secretary  of  Lord  Elgin. 
He  wrote  a  "Narrative  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission 
to  China  and  Japan,"  (1859.) 

Ol'i-phant,  (MAKGARKT,)  a  Scottish  authoress,  born 
about  1820.  She  published  several  popular  novels, 
among  which  are  "Harry  Muir"  and  "Zaidee,"  also  a 
"Life  of  Edward  Irving." 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1869. 

Oliva,  o-lee'va,  (  AI.KSSANDRO,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  1408,  preached  at  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Venice.  Died  in  1463. 

Oliva.  (GioVANM,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Rovigo  in  1689,  was  librarian  to  Cardinal  de  Rohan. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  medals  and  on  Roman 
antiquities.  Died  in  1757. 

Oliva,  de,  da  o-lee'va,  (FRRNAN  PEREZ,)  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Cordova  in  1497,  was  one  °f 
the  founders  of  the  University  of  Salamanca,  (1528,)  of 
which  he  subsequently  became  rector.  He  died  about 
1530,  having  previously  been  appointed  by  Charles  V. 
preceptor  to  his  son  Philip.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Dialogue  on  the  Dignity  of  Man,"  and  other  prose 
essays,  which  are  esteemed  the  first  models  of  a  pure 
and  classical  style  in  the  Spanish  language.  He  was 
not,  however,  according  to  Ticknor,  a  man  of  genius  in 
the  true  sense  of  this  word.  His  works,  including  a 
number  of  poems  and  dramas,  were  published  by  his 
nephew,  Ambrosio  de  Morales,  (1586.) 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova ;"  TICKNOR,  "  His 
tory  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Olivares,  de,  da  o-le-va're">,  (ENRIQUE  de  Guzman 
— da  gooth-man',)  second  COUNT,  a  Spanish  general,  born 
in  1530.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin, 
in  1558,  and  became  major-domo  of  Philip  II.  in  1562. 
He  was  afterwards  Viceroy  of  Naples.  Died  in  1599. 

See  HERRERA,  "Historia  general." 

Olivares,  de,  or  Olivarez,  o-le-va'rSth,  (GASPAR  DK 
GUZMAN,)  Duke  of  San  Lucar  de  Harrameda,  a  cele 
brated  Spanish  statesman,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1587. 
The  heir  of  a  wealthy  family,  he  early  obtained  distinc 
tion  at  the  court  of  Philip  III.,  and  so  thoroughly  in 
sinuated  himself  into  the  favour  of  his  son  that,  on  the 
accession  of  the  latter  as  Philip  IV.,  in  1621,  Olivares 
soon  found  himself  in  possession  of  the  most  important 
offices  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  appointed  successively 
first  minister  of  state,  grand  chancellor  of  the  Indies, 
treasurer-general  of  Aragon,  captain-general  of  the 
cavalry,  and  Governor  of  Guipuscoa.  During  his  ad 
ministration  Spain  carried  on  war  against  France  and 
the  Netherlands,  and  Olivares  found  in  Richelieu  an 
adversary  who  was  more  than  his  equal.  The  Spanish 
armies  suffered  reverses,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  king 
dom  declined.  He  was  dismissed  from  power  in  1643, 
and  died  in  1645. 

SeeCoMTE  DE  LA  ROCCA.  "  Histoire  du  Ministere  du  Comte-Duc 
d'Olivares,"  1673;  MAI.VEZZI,  ''  Ritratto  de'  Conte-Duca  di  San 
Lucar,"  1636:  "  Cadnta  del  Conte  d'Olivares,"  Lyons,  1644;  "Life 
of  Count  Olivares,"  London,  1836. 

Olivarez.     See  OLIVARES. 

Olive,  o'lev',  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  monk  and 
writer,  born  at  Serignan  in  1247.  He  was  zealous  for 


the  enforcement  of  strict  monastic  discipline.  After  his 
death  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  by  a  council  held 
in  1312,  and  by  Pope  John  XXII.  Died  in  1298. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'rale." 

Olivecrantz,  o-lee'veh-kRants',  ?  (JoHAN  PAUI.IN,)  a 
Swedish  statesman  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Strengnas  in 
1633.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Revel  in  1680, 
and  supreme  judge  of  Gothland.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  Queen  Christina,  who  corresponded  with  him  after 
her  abdication.  Died  in  1707. 

Ol'i-ver,  (ANDREW,)  an  American  magistrate,  born 
in  1707,  was  appointed  in  1770  lieutenant-governor  of 
Massachusetts.  Having  become  obnoxious  to  the  colo 
nists  by  favouring  the  designs  of  the  British  government, 
they  petitioned  for  his  removal,  as  well  as  for  that  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Governor  Hutchinson.  Died  in  1774. 

Oliver,  (!)ANIEI.,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  phy 
sician  and  scholar,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1787, 
published  "First  Lines  of  Physiology."  Died  in  1842. 

Ol'i-ver,  (GEORGE,)  D.D.,  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer,  born  about  1782.  He  published  several  works 
on  Freemasonry.  Died  in  1867. 

Oliver,  (!SAAC,)  an  eminent  English  artist,  born  in 
1556,  excelled  in  miniature-painting.  Among  his  mas 
ter-pieces  are  portraits  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  Died  in  1617.  His 
son  PETER,  born  about  1600,  became  equally  celebrated 
for  his  portraits,  and  also  produced  a  number  of  historical 
pictures.  Died  about  1654  or  1664. 

See  WAI.POI.E,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting. " 

Oliver,  (PETER,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  brother 
of  Andrew,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1713,  and  gradu 
ated  at  Harvard  College.  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Massachusetts.  Died  in  1791. 

Oliver,  (Wiu.iAM,)  of  Bath,  an  English  physician, 
wrote  on  the  Bath  mineral  waters.  Died  in  1764. 

Oliver  ov  MAI.MESHURY,  an  English  monk  and  able 
mathematician  of  the  eleventh  century.  His  works,  if 
he  wrote  any,  are  lost. 

Olivet,  d',  do'Ie'vi',  (JOSEPH  THOUIJER,)  ABBE,  a 
celebrated  French  critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Salins  in 
April,  1682.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  an  early 
age,  but  he  renounced  it  about  1714.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1723,  and  subsequently  visited 
England,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Pope.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  French  Prosody," 
"  which,"  says  Voltaire,  "  will  subsist  as  long  as  the  lan 
guage,"  and  "  Essays  on  Grammar,"  ( 1 732.)  He  also  wrote 
a  continuation  of  the  "  History  of  the  French  Academy," 
begun  by  Pellisson,  and  made  excellent  translations  of 
Cicero's  "  De  Natura  Deoruni"  and  his  "Orations  against 
Catiline,"  and  of  the  "  Philippics"  of  Demosthenes.  I  Us 
edition  of  Ciceio's  works  (9  vols.  410,  1742)  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared.  The  Abbe  d'Olivet 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Boileau  and  Voltaire,  the  latter 
of  whom  he  assisted  and  directed  in  his  studies.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  MAIRET,  "  Lloje  histnrique  de  1'Abbe  d'Olivet,"  1839; 
D'Ai.EMRERT,  "  Histoire  des  Menibres  de  1'Academie  Frangaise  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Olivetan,  o'lev'tdx',  (PIERRE  ROBERT,)  a  French 
Protestant,  born  at  Noyon  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
translated  the  Bible  from  the  original  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
It  is  asserted,  however,  by  some  writers  that  he  only 
retouched  the  version  of  Lefevre  d'Etaples.  This  work 
was  first  published  in  1535,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
revised  by  Calvin,  who  was  a  relative  of  Olivetan.  Died 
in  1538. 

See  S^NEIMER,  "Histoire  Htteraire  de  Geneve." 

Oliveyra,  o-le-va'e-ra,  (FRANCISCO  XAVIKR,)  a  Por 
tuguese  gentleman, ^was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1702.  Being 
sent  as  secretary  of  the  embassy  to  Vienna  in  1732,  he 
was  converted  to  Protestantism.  He  published  a  "  Dis 
course  to  his  Countrymen  on  the  Earthquake  at  Lisbon," 
(1756,)  and  "Familiar  Letters."  Died  in  1783. 

Olivier,  o'le've-i',  (Ci.AUDE  MATIIIEU,)  a  French 
litterateur,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1701.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  Marseilles.  As 
counsellor  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  he  gained  a  great 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


OLIVIER 


'7°3 


OLTMPUS 


reputation  as  a  pleader.  He  published  a  "Dissertation 
on  1. .<_•  Critias  of  Plato,"  and  a  "  History  of  Philip,  King 
of  Macedon,"  (2  vols.,  1740.)  Died  in  1736. 

Olivier,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  judge  and  statesman, 
born  in  Paris  in  1497.  He  became  chancellor  of  France 
in  1545.  Died  in  1560. 

Olivier,  (GUILLAUME  ANTOINE,)  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  near  Toulon  in  1756.  In  1792  he  accom 
panied  Bruguiere  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  Persia  and 
Turkey,  where  they  made  a  valuable  collection  of  objects 
in  natural  history.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1800.  He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Natural  History  of  Insects,  Butterflies,  Crustaceans," 
etc.,  (7  vols.,  1789-1825,)  "Travels  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  Egypt,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1801,)  and  several  other 
works.  Died  in  1814. 

See  CUVIEK,  "  iSloges  historiques  ;"  SILVESTRE,  "Notice  sur  G. 
A.  Olivier,"  1815. 

Olivier,  o'le've-a',  (JusTK  DANIEL,)  a  Swiss  poet, 
born  in  the  cantoiiTof  Vaucl  in  1807.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  in  1842,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
poems,  "Chansons  lointaines,"  (1847.) 

Olivier,  (NICOLAS  THEODORE,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Evreux  in  1841.  Died  in  1854. 

See  A.  DE  BOUCLON',  "  Histoire  de  Monseigneur  Olivier,"  1855. 

Olivier,  (SERAPHIN,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1538,  was  auditor  de  rota  at  Rome  for  many 
years.  Died  in  1609. 

Olivier,  d',  do'le've-i',  (GABRIEL  RAIMOND  JEAN  DE 
DIEU  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Carpentras  in 
1753.  He  published  many  legal  works.  Died  in  1823. 

Olivieri,  o-le-ve-a'ree,  (PiETRo  PAULO,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Rome  in  1551  ;  died  in 

I599- 

Olivieri  degli  Abbati,  o-le-ve-a'ree  dal'yee  ab-ba'- 
tee,  (A NX ir, ALE,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Pesaro 
in  1708.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Marmora 
Pisaurensia  Notis  illustrata,"  (1737.)  Died  in  1789. 

See  MARIGXONI,  "  Klogio  i'i  A.  Oiivieri,"  1789. 

Ollivier,  o'le've-a',  (CHARLES  PROSPER,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Angers  in  1796;  died  in  Paris 
in  1845. 

Ollivier,  ( D^MOSTHfcNK,)  a  French  democrat,  born 
at  Toulon  in  1799,  was  the  father  of  fimile,  noticed  be 
low.  He  founded  at  Marseilles  in  1831  a  journal  called 
"  Le  Peuple  Souverain,"  and  was  elected  to  the  Con 
stituent  Assembly  in  1848.  He  was  banished  about  De 
cember,  1851.  Died  in  1869. 

Ollivier,  (Ewil.E,)  a  French  advocate  and  orator,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1825.  He  practised  law  with  success  in 
Paris,  and  was  elected  to  the  legislative  body  by  the 
voters  of  that  city  in  1857.  He  was  re-elected  in  1863. 
He  acted  with  the  Liberal  party  for  many  years,  but 
became  in  1869  an  adherent  of  Napoleon,  who  in  De 
cember  of  that  year  appointed  him  prime  minister,  and 
requested  him  "to  name  persons  who  will,  associated 
with  yourself,  form  a  homogeneous  cabinet,  faithfully 
representing  the  legislative  majority."  He  took  the 
position  of  minister  of  justice  in  the  new  cabinet  formed 
(January  2,  1870)  partly  of  the  leaders  of  the  Left  Centre 
and  partly  of  those  of  the  Right  Centre.  The  formation 
of  this  coalition  ministry  was  regarded  as  an  important 
event,  and  as  the  beginning  of  a  constitutional  regime. 
The  Corps  Legislatif,  after  an  excited  debate,  adopted  a 
resolution  of  confidence  in  the  minister,  April  5,  1870, 
by  a  vote  of  227  to  43.  The  most  liberal  members  of 
the  cabinet  resigned  about  the  1st  of  May,  1870;  but 
the  policy  of  Napoleon  and  Ollivier  was  approved  by 
a  majority  of  the  popular  votes,  May  8.  Olitvier  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  April,  1870.  He 
resigned  the  office  of  prime  minister,  August  9,  1870. 

Ollivier,  (FRAXC.OIS  ANTOIXE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
judge,  born  at  Loriol  in  1762  ;  died  in  1839. 

Ollivier,  (JuLES.)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Valence  in 
1804,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  the 
antiquities  of  Dauphine.  Died  in  1841. 

Olmo,  del,  del  ol'mo,  (JosE  VINCENT,)  a  Spanish 
antiquary,  born  at  Valencia  in  1611.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  curious  account  of  a  grand  auto  de  fe  of 
1680.  Died  in  1696. 


Olivmtz,  von,  fun  ol'moots,  (\VENZEL,)  a  German 
engraver  and  designer,  flourished  about  1500. 

Olmsted,  om'sted  or  un/sted,  (DENISON,)  LL.D.,  an 
American  chemist  and  geologist,  born  at  East  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  1791.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
and  became  in  1817  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
and  geology  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina.  He 
made  the  first  geological  survey  of  that  State.  In  1825 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi 
losophy  at  Yale  College.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"School  Philosophy,"  "Rudiments  of  Natural  Philoso 
phy  and  Astronomy,"  (1842,)  "Letters  on  Astronomy," 
and  other  valuable  text-books.  Died  in  1859. 

Olmsted,  (FREDERICK  LAW,)  an  American  agricul 
tural  writer  and  architect,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
in  1822.  He  visited  England  in  1850,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  "Walks  and  Talks  of  an  American 
Farmer  in  England,"  (1852.)  He  has  also  written  "A 
Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  with  Remarks 
on  their  Economy,"  (1856,)  and  "A  Journey  thruugh 
Texas,"  etc.,  (1857.)  In  1857  Mr.  Olmsted  was  ap 
pointed  chief  engineer  and  architect  of  the  New  York 
Central  Park. 

Olof.     See  OLAF. 

Olozaga,  ol-o-tha'ga,  (Don  SALUSTIAXO,)  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  at  Logrono  about  1803.  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  monarchical  opposition  after  the  fall  of 
Mendizabal  in  1836,  and  chairman  or  reporter  of  the 
committee  on  the  constitution  in  1837.  After  the  re 
moval  of  Lopez,  in  1843,  he  was  commissioned  to  form 
a  new  cabinet;  but  he  was  soon  driven  from  power  by 
Narvaez.  He  was  elected  in  1855  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  Progresistas.  He 
was  appointed  president  of  the  council  of  state  in 
April,  1870. 

Glschlager.     See  OLEARIUS. 

Olshausen,  ols'how'zen,  (HERMANN,)  a  German  Prol- 

',  estant  theologian,  born  at  Oldeslohe  in  1796.     In  1827 

he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Konigsberg. 

He  published  a  "  Biblical  Commentary  on  all  the  New 

|  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1830-40,)  which  'has  been    highly 

commended,    and    other    religious    treatises.       Died    at 

Erlangen  in  1839. 

Olshausen,  (JUSTUS,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
;  Holstein  in  i8co.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
j  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen  in  1845,  and  be- 
|  came  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Konigsberg 
i  in  1853.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Pehlevi 
Legends  on  the  Coins  of  the  Last  Sassanides,"  (1843.) 

Olshausen,  (TiiEODOR,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Gliickstadt  in  1802.  In  1830  he  founded  at 
Kiel  a  patriotic  journal,  entitled  the  "  Correspondenz- 
blatt,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  independence  of  Hol 
stein.  In  1848  he  was  a  deputy  to  the  Assembly,  and 
in  1849  established  the  "North  German  Free  Press"  at 
Hamburg.  He  was  exiled  in  1851  by  the  Danish  gov 
ernment  to  America. 

Oltmanns,  olt'mans,  (JAKBO,)  a  German  geometer, 
born  at  Wittmund  in  1783.  He  wrote  the  astronomical 
part  of  Humboldt's  "Travels  in  America,"  (1808-10.) 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1833. 

Olug-  (or  Oloog-)  Beg,  o'loog  beg,  written  also 
Ooloogh-,  Oulough-,  and  Ulugh-Beg,  ^Meer'za  Mo- 
ham'med,)  an  eminent  Mongol  astronomer,  a  grandson 
of  Tamerlane,  and  King  of  Transoxana,  was  born  in 
1394.  He  began  to  reign  in  1446,  and  was  killed  by  his 
son  in  1459. 

O-lyb'ri-us,  (Axicius,)  a  Roman  emperor.  He  be 
came  consul  in  464  A.D.,  and  married  Placidia,  the  widow 
of  Valentinian  III.  Through  the  influence  of  Genseric 
or  Ricimer,  he  succeeded  Anthemius,  who  was  killed  in 
472.  He  died  in  the  same  year. 

See  GIBBON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Olympe.     See  OLYMPUS. 

O-lym'pi-as,  [Gr.  'O/a^TUuc,]  Queen  of  Macedon, 
was  a  daughter  of  Neoptolemus,  King  of  Epirus.  She 
was  married  about  357  B.C.  to  Philip  II.  of  Macedon, 
and  became  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She 
is  said  to  have  been  a  woman  of  violent  temper.  Philip 
soon  became  alienated  from  her,  and  divorced  her.  After 
the  accession  of  her  son  Alexander,  she  put  to  death 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  //to. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OLTMPIODORE 


1704 


OMETTADES 


Cleopatra,  the  second  wife  of  Philip.     She  was  put  to 
death  by  Cassander  in  316  H.C. 
See  PLUTAKCH,  "Vita  Alexandii." 

Olympiodore.     See  OI.YMPIODORUS. 

O-lym-pI-o-do'rus,  f Gr.  'Ofo^rrwdupof ;  Fr.  OI.YM- 
ptODORE,  o'laN'pe'o'doR',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at 
Thebes,  in  Egypt,  wrote  a  "  Chronicle"  of  his  time,  from 
407  to  425  A.D.,  being  a  continuation  of  that  of  Eunapius. 
There  are  fragments  of  this  work  extant  in  the  "  Myrio- 
biblon"  of  Photius. 

See  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graven." 

Olympiodorus  II.,  called  THK  YOUNGER,  a  Peripa 
tetic  philosopher,  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the 
sixth  century,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria.  His  chief  work 
is  a  Commentary  on  the  "  Meteorologica"  of  Aristotle. 

Olympiodorus  III.,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  born  in 
Alexandria,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  sixth  century. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  "  Phasdon,"  the  "  Phile- 
bus,"  the  "Gorgias,"  and  the  "First  Alcibiades"  of 
Plato;  also  a  "Life  of  Plato."  As  an  interpreter  of 
Plato  he  is  much  esteemed. 

Olympiodorus,  a  Greek  commentator  on  the  Scrip 
tures,  was  a  deacon  of  Alexandria,  and  lived  probably  in 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century. 

Olympus,  (the  habitation  of  the  Grecian  gods.)  See 
ZEUS. 

O-lym'pus,  [Gr.  "O^vfi-of ;  Fr.  OI.YMPK,  o'laMp',]  a 
celebrated  Greek  or  Phrygian  musician,  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  650  n.C.  He  naturalized  in  Greece  the 
music  of  the  flute,  and  invented  the  system  or  genus  of 
music  called  enharmonic. 

See  MULI.KR,  "  History  of  Greek  Literature  ;"  PLUTARCH,  "  De 
Jilusica." 

Olzofski  or  Olzowski,  ol-zof'skee,  (ANDREW,)  a 
Polish  prelate,  born  about  1618.  lie  wrote  several 
political  treatises.  After  the  election  of  Sobieski  (1674) 
lie  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate 
of  Poland.  Died  in  1678. 

Omaiadae.     See  OMKYYADKS. 

Omaides.     See  OMEYYADF.S. 

Omajjaden.    See  OMKYYADKS. 

Oma-jjah  or  Omajja.     See  OMEYYAH. 

Omalius  d'Halloy,  d',  do'int'le'iis'  dS'lwa',  (JEAN 
HAPTISTE  JUI.IKX.)  a  Belgian  geologist,  born  at  Liege  in 
178}.  He  published  several  works  on  geology. 

O'mar  (or  O'mer)  I.,  written  also  Oomur  or  Umar, 
oo'mar,  ( Aboo-Hafsah-Ibn-ool-Khatab  or  Abu- 
Hafsah-Ibnul-Khattab,  a'boo  hafsah  ll/nool  Kit-  j 
til/,)  the  second  caliph  or  successor  of  Mohammed  the  ! 
Prophet,  was  a  cousin  in  the  third  degree  to  Abdallah, 
the  father  of  that  legislator.  After  he  had  attempted  to 
kill  Mohammed,  Omar  was  converted  to  Islamism,  about 
615  A.n.  He  succeeded  Aboo-Bekr  in  the  vear6}4.  His 
army  took  Damascus  in  635.  defeated  the  Greeks  at  Yar- 
mook  or  Yermuk,  and  besieged  Jerusalem.  This  city  in 
637  or  638  was  surrendered  to  Omar,  who  treated  the 
Christians  with  great  lenitv.  On  the  site  of  Solomon's 
temple  he  built  the  magnificent  mosque  which  bears  his 
name.  About  638)16  completed  the  conquest  of  Syria 
and  of  Persia,  (see  YF.ZDFJERD,)  and  founded  the  city  of 
Koofah.  Amroo,  one  of  Omar's  generals,  subdued  Egypt 
in  640  or  641,  and  consumed  bv  fire  the  great  library  at 
Alexandria,  after  the  caliph  had  decided,  as  we  are  told,  | 
that  "  if  the  books  accord  with  the  Koran,  they  are  un 
necessary ;  and  if  they  are  contrary  to  the  Koran,  they 
are  pernicious,  and  should  be  destroyed."  He  was  assas 
sinated  by  a  Persian  slave.  Firooz,  in  his  capital,  Medina, 
in  644  A.n.,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  and  was  sncceeeded 
by  Othman.  Omar  is  praised  for  wisdom,  justice,  and 
moderation,  and  is  said  to  have  contributed  more  to  the 
progress  of  his  religion  than  Mohammed  himself.  His 
name  is  greatly  venerated  by  the  orthodox  sect  of  Mos 
lems,  called  Sunnites. 

See  SIMON  OCKI.RV,  "  History  of  the  Saracen*."  i7oS-iS;  GIB 
BON,  "  History  of  th"  Dec'ine  ami  Fall  of  the  Rnman  Empire." 
vol.  ix.  ;  IRVIVG,  "Mihomet  anH  his  Successors;"  WHII..  "  Ge- 
schichte  rler  Khalifen."  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  :  Anoni.FKii  \,  "Annales 
Moslemici  ;"  O  VON  PLATKN.  "  Geschichte  cler  Tbdtung  des  Cha- 
HfenOmar;"  "  Nouvelle  liio™rapliie  Generate. " 

Omar  (or  Omer)  II.,  the  eighth  caliph  of  the  Omevyade 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Abd-el-Azeez,  (Abdelaziz,)  and 


the  nephew  of  Abd-el-Malek.  He  was  also  a  great-grand 
son  of  Omar  I.,  whom  he  resembled  in  his  virtues.  He 
succeeded  his  cousin  Solyman  in  717  A.D.  He  suppressed 
the  maledictions  which  in  former  reigns  were  pronounced 
in  the  mosques  against  the  descendants  of  Alee.  The 
princes  of  his  own  race,  fearing  that  he  should  bequeath 
the  empire  to  one  of  the  race  of  Alee,  poisoned  him  in 
720  A.D. 

Omar,  a  Moorish  physician,  born  at  Cordova  in  990 
A.n.,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  surgery,  and  was  also 
a  profound  mathematician.  Died  in  1080. 

Omar,  an  eminent  physician,  astronomer,  and  mathe 
matician,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Hadramaut, 
in  Arabia.  He  settled  in  Spain,  where  he  died  in  1071. 

Omar,  ( Al-Mutawakkel-Billah,  al  moo-ta-wak'kel 
b?l'lah,)  the  last  king  of  Badajoz  of  the  Beni-al-Aftas, 
began  his  reign  in  1082  A.D.  In  conjunction  with  his 
ally,  Yoosuf,  King  of  Morocco,  he  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  Christian  army  at  Zalaca  in  1086  A.D.  Yoosuf 
soon  after  made  war  upon  Omar,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
had  him  put  to  death  about  1090,  after  having  promised 
to  spare  his  life. 

Omar-Ibn-Hafsoon,  (or-Hafsstm,)  o'mar  ib'n  haf- 
sdon',  a  famous  Moorish  chieftain,  was  a  native  of  Ronda, 
in  Spain.  In  859  A.D.  he  headed  a  rebel  army,  with 
which  he  laid  waste  the  kingdom  of  Cordova  and  other 
parts  of  the  empire.  After  having  for  a  long  time  main 
tained  himself  against  Mohammed,  King  of  Cordova,  he 
was  totally  defeated  by  him  at  Aybar  in  882,  and  died 
in  883  A.D. 

O'mar  (or  O'mer)  Pasha,  (pa'sha',)  Dey  of  Algiers, 
began  to  reign  in  April,  1815.  after  a  revolution  in  which 
his  predecessor  had  been  killed.  In  1816  the  English 
admiral  Exmouth,  after  failing  in  his  efforts  to  procure  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  Algiers  by  negotiation,  bombarded 
that  city  with  success.  Omar  was  forced  to  submit  to 
the  treaty  dictated  by  the  victor.  In  September,  1817, 
he  was  killed  by  his  own  mutinous  troops. 

Omar  (or  Omer)  Pasha,  o'mer  pa'sha',  (MiciiAKL 
Lat'tas,)  a  Turkish  commander,  born  in  Croatia  about 
1805.  About  1828  he  removed  to  Turkey,  changed  his 
name  to  Omer,  and  adopted  the  Moslem  religion.  lie 
became  a  colonel  in  the  army  in  1839,  and  a  pasha  about 
1845.  He  suppressed  a  revolt  in  Bosnia  in  1850-51. 
When  the  Crimean  war  broke  out,  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Turkish  army.  lie  defeated 
the  Russians  at  Oltenitza,  November,  1853,  and  at  Kalafat 
in  1854.  In  the  early  part  of  1855  he  led  an  army  to  the 
Crimea  and  formed  a  junction  with  the  Anglo-French 
army  at  Sebastopol.  In  1868  he  suppressed  a  formidable 
insurrection  in  Crete. 

O'Meara,  o-ma'ra,  (BARRY  EDWARD,)  the  favourite 
physician  of  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,  was  born  in  Ire 
land  about  1780.  Being  on  board  the  Bellerophon  when 
the  emperor  was  made  prisoner,  the  latter  requested  that 
O'Meara  might  accompany  him  as  his  surgeon.  lie  re 
mained  in  Saint  Helena  till  1818,  when  he  was  recalled. 
In  1822  he  published  his  "Napoleon  in  Exile;  or,  A 
Voice  from  Saint  Helena,"  which  had  great  popularity, 
and,  though  not  entirely  impartial,  it  is  esteemed  a  valu 
able  contribution  to  Napoleon's  history.  Died  in  1836. 

See  LAS  CASAS,  "Memorial  de  Sainte-Helene ;"  "Monthly  Re 
view"  for  July,  1822. 

Omeiadae.     See  OMKYYADES. 

Omer.     See  OMAR. 

Omero,  the  Italian  for  HOMER,  which  see. 

Omeyyades  or  Omeyyads,  o-ma'yadz,  [Fr.  pron. 
o'mi'yt'l',]  sing.  Omeyyade  or  Omeiade,  o-ma'yad  ; 
written  less  correctly  Ommaiades  and  Ommyiades, 
[Ger.  O. \IF.JT\DF.N,  o-mi-ya'den,  or  OMAJJADEN,  o-ma- 
ya'den ;  Lat.  OMF.I'AD/E  or  OMAI'FAD.'E,]  the  name 
of  a  famous  dynasty  of  caliphs,  founded  (660  A.D.)  by 
Moaweeyeh,  the  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah,  (or  Umey- 
yah,)  who  was  cousin-gentian  to  Abd-el-Moot'alib,  the 
grandfather  of  Mohammed  ;  whence  the  Omeyyade 
princes  are  commonly  styled  "  Benee-  (I!eni-)  Omeyyah," 
(i.e.  "Sons,  or  descendants,  of  Omeyyah.")  The  imme 
diate  successors  of  Moaweeyeh  continued  to  reign  at 
Damascus  until  749  A.D.,  when  their  power  was  over 
thrown,  and  all  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Omeyyah,  (it 
is  said,)  except  two,  were  put  to  death  by  order  of 


i, e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a, e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a, e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moou: 


OMETTAH 


1705 


OORT 


Abool-Abbas-Abdallah,  (surnamecl  As-Seffah,  or  "  the 
shedder  of  blood,")  the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty  of 
Abbassides.  Of  the  two  Omeyyade  princes  who  escaped 
the  vengeance  of  As-Seffah,  one  fled  to  a  remote  part 
of  Arabia;  .the  other,  named  Abd-er-Rahman-Ibn-Moa- 
weeyeh,  went  first  to  Egypt,  thence  to  Spain,  and  estab 
lished  at  Cordova  (756  A.rx)  a  dynasty  which  was  destined 
to  rival  in  splendour  and  magnificence  that  of  the  Ab- 
basside  caliphs  in  the  East.  The  power  and  glory  of 
the  Benee-Omeyyah  in  Spain  culminated  in  the  reign  of 
Abd-er-Rahman  I.,  who  was  the  first  of  his  line  who 
assumed  the  title  of  caliph  ;  but  they  began  soon  after  to 
decline,  and  they  may  be  said  to  have  terminated  with 
the  reign  of  Hisham  II.,  in  1013. 

See  AL-MAKKARI,  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 


translated   by   GAYANGO 


410,    London,    1840-43; 


HAMMER  PURGSTALL,  "  Literatnrgescliichte  der  Anther." 

Omeyyah,  o-ma'yah,  written  also  Omeyyeh,  Om- 
niaya,  TJmeyyah,  and  in  various  other  modes,  was  a 
ouiMii  of  Mohammed's  grandfather,  Abd-el-Moot'alib. 
His  great-grandson,  Moaweeyeh,  was  the  first  caliph  of 
the  illustrious  dynasty  of  the  Benee-Omeyyah.  (See 
OMEYYADES.) 

Ommaides.     See  OMEYYADF.S. 

Ommajjaden,  (more  correctly,  Omajjaden.) 
OMEYYADES. 

Ommaya.     See  OMKYYAH. 

Ommeganck,  om'meh-gank',  (BAI.THASAR  PAUL,)  a 
distinguished  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp 


See 


H.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic.  He  fol 
lowed  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  expedition  to  Asia, 
and  was  chief  pilot  of  the  fleet  which  descended  the 
Indus.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Alexander,"  which  is 
lost.  He  was  censured  by  \Aulus  Gellius  and  other 
ancient  critics  for  mixing  fables  with  his  narrative. 

See  VIKSIUS,  "De  Historicis  Graecis ;"  ERSCH  und  GUUBER, 
"Allgemeiue  Encyklopaedie  ;"  SIUDAS,  "  Onesicriins. " 

Ongaro,  on-ga'ro,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Padua  or  Adria  about  1569.  He  wrote  "  Alceo,"  a 
pastoral  or  piscatorial  poem,  in  which  he  substituted 
fishermen  for  shepherds.  Died  in  1599. 

Oiik/e-los,  a  learned  Chaldee  writer,  of  uncertain 
era,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Babylon  and 
contemporary  with  Gamaliel.  lie  was  the  author  of  a 
Targum,  or  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the  Pentateuch, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy. 

Onomacrite.     See  ONOMACRITOS. 

On-o-mac'ri-tos,  [Gr.  'Ovo/MtKfUTOf;  Fr.  ONOMA- 
CRiTE,  o'no'mS'kKet',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  sooth 
sayer,  lived  in  the  sixth  century  li.c.  He  was  banished 
by  Hipparchus  from  Athens  for  having  falsified  or  inter 
polated  the  oracles  of  Musaeus  for  political  purposes. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  author 


of  much   that  is  attributed  to  Orpheus. 

See    EICHHOFF,    " Commentatio  de   Onomacrito,''   1840;    K.  O. 
MiJLI.RR,  "  History  of  Greek  Literature." 

On-o-mar'-ehus,  [Gr.  'OmiMpxof ;  Fr.  ONOMARQUE, 
o'lio'intuk',]  a  general  of  the    Phocians   in    the    Sacred 

1755.      He  also  excelled  in  painting  animals,  particularly  |  w:ir.     He  obtained   the  chief  command  in  353  li.c.,  and 
sheep.     lie  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Academy  ;  seixed   the   sacreci    treasures   of   Delphi,      lie    defeated 

Philip  of  Macedon  in  two  battles,  but  was  defeated  and 
killed  by  that  king  in  352  B.C. 

Onomarque.     See  OXOMARCHUS. 
On-o-san'der,   [Gr.   'Ovoaavdpof ;    Fr.    OXOSANDRK, 
o'no'zSNdR',]   one  of  the  principal  military  writers  of 
antiquity,  lived  at    Rome  under  the  reigns  of  Claudius 

Om'pha-le,  [Gr.  'O//^d/.?/. ]  a  queen  of  Lydia,  cele-  j  and  Nero.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  tactics, 
brated  for' her  connection  with  the  story  of  Hercules,  entitled  "Strategeticos,"  (written  in  Greek,)  which  has 
She  is  said  to  have  been  mistress  of  the  kingdom  after  ,  been  translated  into  Latin,  French,  and  Italian.  He 
the  death  of  Tmolus,  her  husband.  According  to  the  j  was  a  Platonic  philosopher,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on 
fable,  Hercules  sold  himself  as  a  slave  to  Omphale,  the  "  Republic"  of  Plato,  which  is  not  extant. 


of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris,  and  chevalier  of  the  order  of  the 
Belgic  Lion.     Died  in  1826. 

See  A.  VOISIN,  "  Eloge  du  Peintre  B.  P.  Ommeganck,"  1826. 

Ommiades  or  Ommiadee.     See  OMF.YYADKS. 
Ommiyades  or  Omniyiades.     See  OMKYYADES. 
Ommiyah.     See  OMKYYAH. 


assumed  the  female  attire,  and  assisted  her  servants  in 
spinning. 

Om/ri,  [Ileb.  '~O>',1   King  of  Israel,  began  to  reign 
about  930  1J.C.      He  reigned  eleven   years,  and   founded 


See  SCHOEI.L,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litteralnre  Grecqui 
Onosaridre.     See  ONOSANDKR. 
Ons-en-Bray,  (Louis  LEON  PAJOT.)     See  PA  JOT. 
Onsenoort,  van,  vSn    on'seh-noiu',  (Ai NTOON   GK- 


the  capital  city  of  Samaria.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  :  RAAKD,)  a   Dutch   surgeon    and  oculist,  born  at  Utrecht 

He   wrote  several   professional   works.     Died 


son  Ahab. 

See  I.  Kin.js  xvi. 
Onar.     See  NORVI. 

O-na'tas,   [Gr.  "Ow-rac,]    an  eminent  Greek  sculptor 
' 


in  1782. 
in  1841. 

See  F.  CU.NMER.  "Notice  sur  A.  G.  van  Onsenoort."  1843. 

Ons'Iow,    (ARTHUR.)    an    English    statesman,    born 


and  painter,  born  at  /Egina,  was  the  son  of  Micon,  and    al)0ut  1690.     He  was  chosen   Speaker  of  the  House  of 
flourished  about  460  R.C.      Amono-  his  best  works  were  •  Commons  in    1727.      "During  thirty-three  years,"  says 


statues  of  Apollo,  Hercules,  and  Mercury,  and  a  picture  I  Lord  Mahon,  "'he  filled  that  chair"  with  higher  merit, 
of  the  expedition  of  the  Argives  against  Thebes.  His  probably,  than  any  one  either  before  or  after  him, — with 
skill  as  a  sculptor  is  highly  extolled  by  Pausanias. 

See  K.  O.  MULI.ER,  "  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie  der  Kunst." 


Oiidegardo,  de,  da  on-da  gau'do.  (Poi.o,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  historian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  historical  memoirs  of  Peru,  entitled  "  Rela- 
ciones,"  which  are  still  in  manuscript. 

See  PRKSCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Pern,"  vol.  i.  hook  i. 

Oii'der-doiik,  (1>KNJ\M1NTT.,)  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1791,  became  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Eastern  New 
York  about  1830,  and  \\as  suspended  for  disgraceful 
conduct  in  1845.  Died  in  1861. 

O'Neall,  o-neel',  (JoiiN  BKI.TON,)  LL.D.,  an  Ameri 
can  jurist,  born  near  Bush  River,  South  Carolina,  in 
1793,  rose  through  various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of 


his  native  State.  He  became  in  1841  president  of  the 
State  Temperance  Society.  He  has  written  "  Biographi 
cal  Sketches  of  the  Bench  and  liar  of  South  Carolina," 
and  other  works. 


unequalled  impartiality,  dignity,  and  courtesy."     He  re 
tired  from  the  chair  and  from  public  life  in  1761.     Died 


in  1768.     His  son  was  created  Earl  Onslow  about  1800. 

Onslow,  (GKORGK,)  an  eminent  musician  and  com 
poser,  born  at  Clermont,  in  France,  in  1/84,  was  de 
scended  from  an  English  family  of  rank.  His  works 
include  symphonies,  duets,  quintets,  sonatas,  and  operas. 
His  opera  "  Le  Colporteur"  was  performed  with  great 
success.  Died  in  1853. 

See  FRTI^.  "  Hio^rnphie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Onslow,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  English  admiral,  born  i:; 
1741.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the  Dutch,  as 
vice-admiral,  in  1797.  Died  in  1817. 


Onuphrius.     See  PANVINTUS. 

Ooloogh-Beg.     See  OI.UG-]!KG. 

Oomur.     See  OMAR. 

Oorkhan  orUrkhan,  oor'kln',  written  also  Orkhan, 

O'Neil,  o  neel',  (HF.NRY.)  .an  English  historical  and  !  (sometimes  surnamed  GHAX.KK  or  GHAZY,  ga'zee,)  a 
genre  painter,  born  about  1818.  Among  his  works  are  j  Turkish  Sultan,  was  the  son  of  Osman  (Othman)  I.,  the 
"Bvthe  Rivers  of  Babylon,"  "  A  Scene  from  Hamlet,"  founder  of  the  present  Turkish  dynasty.  He  began  to 


Eastward  IIo  !  August,  1857,"  "  Home  Again  !   1858," 


and  "Mary  Stuart's  Farewell  to  France." 
Onesicirite.     See  ONKSICUITUS. 


On-e-sic'rl-tus,  [Gr. 


Fr.  ONESICRITE, 


o'na'ze'kRet',]   a  Greek   historian,  lived  about  350-330 


reign  at  Prusa  in    1326,  and  made  extensive  conquests 
from  the  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor.     He  is  said  to  have  had 
superior  military  and  political  talents.     He  died  in  1360, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Amurath  (or  Moor  ad,)  I. 
Oort,  van,  (ADAM.)     See  NOORT,  VAN. 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OOST 


1706 


OPPUN 


Oost,  van,  vin  ost,  (jACOii,)  THE  ELDER,  one  of  the 
most  admired  painters  of  the  Flemish  school,  was  born 
at  Bruges  in  1600.  lie  studied  at  Rome,  and  formed 
his  style  on  the  model  of  Annibal  Caracci.  His  works 
are  numerous,  and  are  principally  on  sacred  subjects. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  a  "Nativity,"  "Virgin  and  Child,  with  Saints," 
and  "The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  Virgin 
and  Apostles."  His  copies  of  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck 
are  so  perfect  as  to  deceive  the  most  skilful  connoisseurs. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Oost,  van,  (J.\co>s,)  THK  YOUNGER,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  about  1637.  He  studied  under  his 
father,  and  afterwards  visited  Italy  and  France,  where 
he  resided  many  years.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  portrait-painters  of  his  time,  and  also  executed  his 
torical  works  of  great  merit,  one  of  which,  the  "Martyr 
dom  of  Saint  Barbara,"  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  1713. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Oosterwyck,  van,  vin  os'ter-wlk',  (MARIA,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  near  Delft  in 
1630.  She  is  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  painters  of  the 
subjects  above  named.  Died  in  1693. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Oovarof,  Ouvarof,  or  Uwarow,  oo-va'rof,  written 
also  Ouvarov,  (TllEonoRK,)  a  Russian  general,  born 
about  1770.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Borodino.  Died  in  1824. 

Operman,  o'per-maii',  COUNT,  a  German  general  and 
engineer,  entered  the  Russian  service  about  1783.  Died 
in  1832. 

O-phe'ii-pii,  ['i20eA/wi',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  sup 
posed  to  have  flourished  in  the  fourth  century  H.c.  His 
works  are  not  extant. 

Ophelte.     See  OIMIEI.TES. 

O-phel'tes,  [Gr.  'Ope/.-7/r;  Fr.  OPHEI.TE,  o'felt',]  a 
son  of  Lycurgus,  King  of  Nemea,  was  killed  in  infancy 
by  a  serpent,  having  been  left  alone  on  the  grass  by 
his  nurse,  Hypsipyle,  while  she  went  to  guide  Adrastus 
to  a  spring. 

Opie,  o'pe,  (AMELIA,)  a  popular  English  writer,  wife 
of  John  Opie,  noticed  below,  and  daughter  of  Dr.  James 
Alderson,  was  born  at  Norwich  in  1769.  Her  first  pub 
lications  were  a  volume  of  poems,  and  a  tale  entitled 
"  Father  and  Daughter,"  which  were  very  well  received, 
and  were  succeeded  by  the  novel  of  "  Adeline  Mow- 
bray,"  (1804,)  "  Simple  Tales,"  (1805,)  "The  Orphan," 
"  Valentine's  Eve,"  "  Madeline,"  and  other  works  of 
fiction,  distinguished  for  their  pathos  and  for  their  ele 
vated  moral  and  religious  tone.  In  1825  Mrs.  Opie 
became  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  pub 
lished  the  same  year  her  "  Illustrations  of  Lying." 
Having  visited  Paris  in  1830,  she  wrote  an  interesting 
account  of  the  revolution  of  July.  Among  the  most 
important  of  her  other  works  may  be  named  "  Detrac 
tion  Displayed,"  (1828,)  and  "  Lays  for  the  Dead,"  (1833.) 
She  had  also  published  her  husband's  "  Lectures  on 
Painting,"  with  a  memoir,  (1809.)  Died  in  1853. 

See  Miss  C.  BRIC;HTWEI.I..  "  Memorials  of  the  Life  of  Amelia 
Opie,"  1854:  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1806;  "Monthly  Re 
view"  for  August,  1820;  H.  MAKTINBAU,  "Biographical  Sketches," 
1869. 

Opie,  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  English  painter,  born 
near  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1761.  Some  of  his  portraits 
and  sketches  attracted  the  notice  of  Dr.  Wolcott,  the 
satirist,  who  took  the  young  artist  under  his  protection 
and  introduced  him  into  London  society,  where  he  en 
joyed  for  a  time  the  patronage  of  the  fashionable  world. 
He  married  as  his  second  wife,  in  1798,  Miss  Amelia 
Alderson,  who  afterwards  obtained  great  popularity  as 
a  writer.  Opie  gave  particular  attention  to  historical 
subjects,  and  painted  "The  Death  of  Rizzio,"  " Jeph- 
thah's  Vow,"  and  "  Belisarius."  He  succeeded  Fuseli 
as  professor  of  painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1806. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February,  1810. 

O-pil'I-us,  (AuRKLlUS,)  a  Latin  grammarian,  who 
taught  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Rome.  He  went  into 


voluntary  exile  in  92  i!.C.  as  a  companion  of  his  intimate 
friend  Rutilius  Rutus,  who  had  been  banished. 

Opilius  Macrinus.     See  MACKINUS. 

O-pim'i-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  politician,  was  a 
leader  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and  adversary  of  Caius 
Gracchus.  He  became  consul  in  121  B.C.,  and  a  violent 
contest  then  ensued  between  the  senate  and  the  party 
of  Gracchus.  Having  been  authorized  by  the  senate 
to  decide  the  question  by  force,  Opimius  killed  Grac 
chus  and  about  three  thousand  of  his  partisans.  Ac 
cording  to  Cicero,  ("  In  Catilinam,  Oratio  I.,")  Gracchus 
was  killed  on  suspicion  of  sedition.  Opimius  was  cor 
rupted  by  Jugurtha  in  112,  fell  into  disgrace,  and  passed 
his  latter  years  in  exile.  Died  about  100  li.c. 

See  PI.UTAKCII,  "  C.  Gracchus ;"  SALMJST,  "Jugurtha." 

Opis.     See  Ors. 

Opitius.     See  OIMTZ. 

Opitz,  o'pits,  [Lat.  OPI'TIUS,]  (HEINRICII,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1642,  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  of  divinity  at  Kiel.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Bible  in  Hebrew,"  ("  Biblia  Ilebraica," 
1709.)  Died  in  1712. 

See  HiiTZKi.,  "Geschichte  der  Hebraischen  Spraclie." 

Opitz,  [Lat.  On'rius,]  (MARTIN,)  a  celebrated  Ger 
man  critic  and  writer,  born  at  Bunzlau,  in  Silesia,  in 
1597,  is  called  the  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  Ger 
man  poetry..  He  was  crowned  as  poet-laureate  by  the 
emperor  in  1628,  and  was  appointed  in  1638  historiogra 
pher  to  Ladislaus  IV.,  King  of  Poland.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  a  "Poem  of  Consolation  amid  the  Dis 
asters  of  War,"  (1621.)  lie  also  translated  the  Psalms, 
the  "  Antigone"  of  Sophocles,  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1639.  His  essay  on  German  versification  ("  Btichlein 
von  der  Deutschcn  Poeterei,"  loth  edition,  1668)  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  purity 
of  the  German  language,  into  which  he  introduced  a 
new  prosody.  "He  is  reckoned,"  says  Hallain,  "the 
inventor  of  a  rich  and  harmonious  rhythm.  .  .  .  No 
great  elevation,  no  energy  of  genius,  will  be  found  in 
this  German  Heinsius  and  Malherbe.  Opitz  displayed, 
however,  another  kind  of  excellence.  He  wrote  the 
language  with  a  purity  of  idiom  in  which  Luther  alone, 
whom  he  chose  as  his  model,  was  superior."  ("  Intro 
duction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  GOTTSCHED,  "  I.ob-  und  GecUichtnissredf  auf  M.  Opit/.," 
1731':  LINDNER,  "  Nachricht  von  des  weltbertih mien  SchlesL-rs  .M. 
Opitzen,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1740;  EKSCH  und  GRUBEK,  "  Allgemeiiie 
Encyklopaedie." 

Opoix,  o'pwa',  (CiiKisToPHE,)  a  French  savant,  born 
at  Provins  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
of  1792-95.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works.  Died 
in  1840. 

See  RAMON,  "Notice  sur  C.  Opoix,"  1841. 

Oporin,  o-po-reen'  or  o'po'raN',  [Lat.  OPORI'NUS,] 
(JoliANN,)  a  learned  Swiss  printer,  whose  original  name 
was  KERBS'!',  born  at  Bale  in  1507.  He  became  professor 
ot  Greek  in  his  native  citv,  where  lie  afterwards  estab 
lished  a  printing-house,  lie  published  many  excellent 
editions  of  the  classics,  corrected  by  himself,  and  wrote 
annotations  on  Cicero  and  Demosthenes.  Died  in  1568. 

See  HEINZKL,  "  De  Ortu,  Vita  et  Obitu  Oporini." 

Oporinus.     See  OI*OKIN. 

Oppede,  d',  do'pAd',  (JKAN  de  Maynier — deh  ma'- 
ne-i',)  BARON,  a  French  judge,  born  at  Aix  in  1495, 
was  notorious  for  his  cruel  persecution  of  the  Vaudois, 
who  were  massacred,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
about  1546.  Died  in  1558. 

See  GAUFFRIDI,  '•  Histoire  de  la  Provence." 

Oppeiiord,  op'noK',  (GiLi.ES  MARIE,)  a  French  archi 
tect,  born  in  Paris  in  1672;  died  in  1742. 

Oppert,  op'peKt,  (JULIUS,)  a  German  Orientalist,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1825.  He 
studied  Arabic,  Sanscrit,  etc.,  and  was  naturalized  as  a 
citizen  of  France.  He  was  sent  by  the  French  govern 
ment,  with  F.  Fresnel  and  F.  Thomas,  on  a  scientific 
mission  to  Mesopotamia  in  1851,  and  began  in  1857  to 
publish  an  account  of  the  same,  entitled  "Expedition 
scientifique  en  Mesopotamia."  He  is  distinguished  as  a 
decipherer  of  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

Op'pi-an  or  Op-pl-a'nus,  [Gr.  'O-mavoc;  Fr.  OP- 
PIEN,  o'peJ^N',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  born  at  Ana- 


a, e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


OPPI4NUS 


1707 


ORANGE 


zarba,  in  Cilicia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  Two  poems,  entitled  "On 
the  Chase,"  ("  Cynegetica,")  and  "On  Fishing,"  ("  Ha- 
lieutica,")  are  ascribed  to  him.  The  great  superiority 
of  the  latter  production  to  the  former  has  led  to  the 
supposition  that  they  were  written  by  different  persons. 
The  author  of  the  "  Halieutica"  is  compared  by  Scaliger 
to  Virgil  for  the  harmony  and  graces  of  his  style.  It  is 
said  that  Oppian  was  presented  by  the  emperor  Caracalla 
with  a  gold  piece  for  every  verse  in  his  "Halieutica." 
Both  poems  display  considerable  knowledge  of  natural 
history,  mingled  with  many  errors  and  absurdities. 

See  the  article  "Oppiaiuis"  in  KRSCH  and  GRUBKR'S  "  En- 
cyklopacdle,"  by  V.  KITTKK;  FABRICICS,  "  Bibliotlieca  Graeca ;" 
FOKRTSCH.  "  De  Opplano  Poeta  Cilice,"  1740;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  ( leneraie. " 

Oppiamis.      See  OPPIAN. 

Oppien.     See  OPPIAN. 

Op'pi-us,  (C-Mus,)  a  Roman  writer,  who  was  an  inti 
mate  friend  of  Julius  Caesar.  It  is  stated  that  he  was 
cogni/ant  of  all  the  projects  and  plans  of  that  dictator, 
whose  private  affairs  he  managed.  He  wrote  biographies 
(which  are  not  extant)  of  several  eminent  Romans.  The 
book  of  Crcsar's  "Commentaries"  which  treats  on  the 
war  in  Africa  is  attributed  to  Oppius  by  some  critics. 

See  I)RL-MANN,  "Geschichte  Roms ;"  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis 
Latinis  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ops  or  O'pis,  a  Roman  goddess  of  plenty  and  fertility, 
was  identified  with  the  Rhea  of  the  Greek  mythology, 
and  was  also  called  TKLI.US.  She  was  supposed  to  be 
the  wife  of  Saturn,  and  was  worshipped  as  the  protec 
tress  of  agriculture.  Ofes,  the  plural  of  Ops,  signifies 
"  riches,  power,  help." 

Opsopoeus  or  Obsopous,  op-so-po'us,  QOIIANN,)  a 
German  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Bretten  in  1556, 
became  professor  of  physiology  and  botany  at  Heidel 
berg.  He  published  an  edition  ot  the  "Sibylline  Ora 
cles,"  and  of  several  works  of  Hippocrates.  Died  in 
1596. 

Opsopoeus  or  Obsopous,  (VlNCENZ,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Franconia  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  "On  the  Art  of 
Drinking,"  ("  De  Arte  Bibendi,")  and  made  translations 
from  Dioclorus  and  other  Greek  writers.  Died  in  1539. 

Opstal,  van,  van  op'stal,  (GASPAKD  JACQUES,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660.  He  painted 
religious  and  mythological  subjects.  Died  about  1724. 

Opstraet,  op'stRSt,  (JAN,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Beringhen  in  1651,  was  the  author  of  several 
religious  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "The  Chris 
tian  Theologian."  Died  in  1720. 

Optat.     See  O  IT  AT  us. 

Optatianus,  op-ta-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  OITATIEN,  op'tf- 
sej5>N',]  (Puiii.ius  PoRi'HYKius,)  a  degenerate  Latin 
poet,  flourished  about  325  A.D.  He  wrote  a  Panegyric 
on  Constantino  the  Great,  the  style  of  which  is  very  bad. 

See  TILI.KMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Emperetirs." 

Optatien.     See  OPTATIANUS. 

Op-ta'tus,  [Fr.  OITAT,  op'tS',]  a  saint  of  the  Romish 
calendar,  born  in  Africa  about  315.  He  was  Bishop 
of  Milevia  or  Melevia,  and  is  favourably  mentioned  by 
Saint  Augustine.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  Dona- 
tists,  which  is  extant.  Died  after  386  A.D. 

See  E.  DUPIN,  "Vie  de  Saint-Optat,"  prefixed  to  his  works, 
Paris.  1 700. 

Opzoomer,  op'/o'mer,  (CARL  WII.LEM,)  a  distin 
guished  Dutch  jurist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Rotter 
dam  in  1821,  was  the  author  of  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Books  of  Civil  Law  in  Holland,"  and  a  treatise  "On 
Conservatism  and  Reform,"  (1852.)  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Utrecht  in  1846. 

Or'ange,  (FREDERIK  HKNDKIK  van  Nassau — vfn 
nas'sow,)  PRINCK  OF,  born  at  Delft  in  1584,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  William  I.  of  Orange,  sui  named  "the 
Silent."  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Co- 
ligni.  He  served  in  the  army  under  his  half-brother, 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  and  succeeded  him  as  Stadtholder 
of  the  United  Provinces  in  1625.  He  prosecuted  with 
ability  the  war  against  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  he 
took  Maestricht  in  1632  and  Breda  in  1637.  As  a  gen 
eral,  he  was  prudent  and  mostly  successful.  He  died  in 


1647,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William  II.,  who 
died  in  1650,  aged  twenty-four.  The  latter  had  married 
Mary,  a  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  left  a 
son,  who  became  William  III.  of  England. 

See  ARNOLD  MONTANUS,  "  Leven  en  Hedrijf  van  Frederik  Hen- 
drik,':  1652:  COMMELIN,  "Leven  van  Kred.  Hendrik  van  Nassauw," 
1651-59;  ZEKMAN,  ''Leven  van  Fr.  Hendrik  Prins  van  Oranje," 
1832;  D'AuBEKV,  "Memoires." 

Orange,  (MAURICE,)  PRINCF.  OF.     See  NASSAU. 

Or'aiige,  [Fr.  pron.  o'i6.Nzh',J  (PHILIHERT  DE  Cha 
lons — sha'16-s',)  PRINCE  OK,  a  distinguished  commander, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1502,  was  the  son  of  the  Baron  of 
Arlay.  He  entered  the  service  of  Charles  V.  about  1521, 
and  fought  against  the  French.  When  Constable  Bourbon 
was  killed  in  the  assault  on  Rome,  in  1527,  he  succeeded 
to  the  command  of  the  army,  and  compelled  the  pope  to 
subscribe  the  conditions  which  he  dictated.  He  became 
Viceroy  of  Naples  in  1528,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Florence,  in  1530.  His  nephew,  Rene  of  Nassau,  be 
came  his  heir. 

See  LA  PI*,K.  "  Histoire  d.:  la  Maison  d'Oranse." 

Orange,  (WILLIAM  [PRINCF.]  OF,)  [Lat.  GUILHEI/- 
MUS  (or  GUIUEI/MUS)  AURI'ACUS;  Fr.  GUILLAUME 
D'ORANGK,  gc'yom'  do'rd.Nzh' ;  Ger.  WILHEI.M  VON 
ORANIKN,  wil'helm  fon  o-ra'ne-en  ;  Dutch,  WILLEM 
VAN  ORANJK,  wii'lem  vtn  o-ran'yeh,]  called  also  Wil 
liam  the  Silent,  [  Fr.  GUILLAUME  I.E  TACITURN  K, 
ge'yom'  leh  ijt'se'tun/,]  the  illustrious  founder  of  the 
Dutch  republic,  was  born  at  Dillenburg,  in  Nassau,  in 
April,  1533.  lie  was  the  eldest  son  of  William,  Count 
of  Nassau,  and  was  descended  from  an  ancient  sovereign 
family,  one  of  whose  members,  Adolph  of  Nassau,  had 
occupied  the  imperial  throne.  From  his  cousin-german 
Rene,  who  died  in  1544,  he  inherited  princely  estates  in 
Brabant,  Flanders,  and  Holland,  besides  the  small  prin 
cipality  of  Orange,  in  the  southeast  of  France.  He  was 
educated  as  a  Protestant  by  his  parents;  but  about  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  page  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.,  who  quickly  discerned  his  excellent  qualities  and 
admitted  him  into  his  secret  councils.  Charles  testified 
his  confidence  in  the  young  prince  by  appointing  him 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  1554,  in  the  absence  ot 
the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  leaned  on  his  shoulder  at  the 
ceremony  of  his  own  abdication,  in  1555.  William,  who 
was  regarded  as  the  greatest  Flemish  subject  of  Spain, 
was  one  of  the  hostages  given  by  Philip  If.  of  Spain  to 
Henry  II.  of  France  in  1559  for  the  execution  of  the 
treaty  of  Cateau  Cambresis.  Henry  II.,  in  conversation 
with  his  hostage,  (whom  he  supposed  to  be  a  Catholic 
and  to  be  privy  to  the  secrets  of  the  Spanish  court,)  im 
prudently  revealed  to  him  a  plot  which  those  two  kings 
had  formed  to  massacre  all  their  Protestant  subjects. 
"  William  earned,"  says  Motley.  "  the  surname  of  'The 
Silent,'  from  the  manner  in  which  he  received  these 
communications  from  Henry  without  revealing  to  the 
monarch,  by  word  or  look,  the  enormous  blunder  which 
he  had  committed.  His  purpose  was  fixed  from  that 
hour."  lie  was  a  Catholic  nominally  and  in  outward 
observance,  but  had  then  no  dogmatic  zeal, — perhaps 
I  no  interest  in  questions  of  theology.  Humanity  and 
j  patriotism,  however,  determined  him  to  counteract  the 
cruel  and  tyrannical  designs  of  the  court.  He  acted  with 
characteristic  caution  and  secrecy  in  his  opposition  for 
several  years,  and  continued  to  serve  as  Stadtholder 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht,  and  councillor  of 
state.  A  mutual  but  dissembled  enmity  existed  between 
him  and  Philip  II.  In  1566  a  great  insurrection  was 
provoked  by  the  attempt  of  Philip  to  establish  the  In 
quisition  in  all  its  rigour  in  the  Netherlands.  William 
refused  to  take  a  new  oath  of  unlimited  obedience,  and 
offered  to  resign  all  his  offices,  in  1567.  In  the  same 
year  the  famous  Duke  of  Alva  was  sent  with  an  army, 
and  with  supreme  civil  power  as  governor,  to  complete 
the  subjection  of  the  revolted  provinces.  In  this  crisis, 
Egmont,  who  had  been  the  friend  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
refused  to  co-operate  with  him  in  resistance  to  the  im 
pending  invasion.  By  hastily  retiring  to  Nassau,  Orange 
escaped  the  doom  which  had  been  pronounced  on  him 
at  Madrid.  In  February,  1568,  a  sentence  of  the  Inqui 
sition  condemned  to  death  as  heretics  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Netherlands,  with  a  few  exceptions.  (Motley.) 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORBIGNT 


1708 


OR  ELL AN  A 


Having  raised  a  large  army,  William  entered  Brabant  in 
1568,  and  offered  battle  to  Alva,  who  declined  to  fight. 
At  the  end  of  the  campaign,  Orange  was  forced  to  dis 
band  his  army  for  want  of  money  to  pay  them.  In  1572 
many  cities  of  Holland  raised  the  standard  of  Orange, 
and  the  contest  was  maintained  with  desperate  resolution 
through  long  years  of  adversity.  He  founded  a  famous 
republic  by  the  union  of  the  seven  Protestant  provinces 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen, 
Overyssel,  and  Guelderland,  in  1579,  and  was  chosen 
Stadtholder.  In  1584  he  was  assassinated  by  Balthazar 
Gerard,  a  fanatical  Catholic.  He  left  three  sons,  Philip, 
Maurice,  (see  NASSAU,)  and  Frederick  Henry,  the  first 
of  whom  was  seized  by  Alva  in  1568,  sent  to  Spain  as  a 
hostage,  and  detained  many  years  in  captivity. 

"His  enemies,"  says  Motley,  "never  contested  the 
subtlety  and  breadth  of  his  intellect,  his  adroitness  and 
capacity  in  conducting  state  affairs,  and  the  profoundness 
of  his  views.  In  many  respects  his  surname  of  '  the 
Silent'  was  a  misnomer.  William  of  Orange  was  neither 
'  silent'  nor  '  taciturn  ;' — yet  these  are  the  epithets  which 
will  be  forever  associated  with  the  name  of  a  man  who 
in  private  was  the  most  affable,  cheerful,  and  delightful 
of  companions,  and  who  on  a  thousand  public  occasions 
was  to  prove  himself,  both  by  pen  and  speech,  the  most 
eloquent  man  of  his  age."  To  William  the  Silent  is 
due  the  honour  of  being  the  first  among  European  states 
men  to  make  a  practical  application  in  government  of 
the  principle  of  religious  toleration. 

See  MOTLEY,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  passim,  (especially 
the  remarks  at  the  close  of  the  third  volume  :)  GKOTIUS,  "  Annales  ;" 
STRADA,  "De  Hello  Helgico ;"  HOOFT,  "  NederlaiuKche  Historic :" 
DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  BKAUFORT,  "  Leven  van  Wil- 
lem  I.,  Plins  van  Oranje,"  3  vols  ,  1732;  Kri.fcxK  MAIION,  "Guil- 
lavime  le  Taciturne,"  1852;  J.  I?.  CIIAMPA<;NAC,  "  Guillaimie  le 
Taciturne  et  sa  Dynastic,"  1851  ;  SPANOAW,  "  I.ofrede  op  Wiileni 
den  Ersten,"  etc.,  1821  ;  AMELOT  UE  I.A  HOUSSAVE,  "  Histoire  de 
Philippe  Guillaume  de  Nassau,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1754;  MKURSIUS, 
"  Gtiillelmus  Anriacus,"  1621:  "  Nouvelle  Kiosr.iphie  Generale;" 
R.  BURTON,  "  History  of  the  House  of  Orange,''  1693. 

Orbigny,  d',  doR'ben'ye',  (AI.CIDK  DF.SSAI.INES,)  an 
eminent  French  naturalist,  bom  at  Coueron  (Loire-In- 
ferieure)  in  1802.  He  was  sent  on  a  scientific  mission 
to  South  America  in  1826  by  the  managers  of  the  Mu 
seum  of  Natural  History.  He  spent  eight  years  in  the 
exploration  of  Brazil,  Chili,  Peru,  Bolivia,  etc.,  and  pub 
lished  the  results  in  an  important  work  entitled  "Travels 
in  South  America,"  (9  vols.  410,  1834-47.)  In  1853  he 
obtained  a  new  chair  founded  in  the  Jardin  des  I'lantes 
for  the  study  of  organic  remains.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  "The  Palaeontology  of  France,"  ("  Paleonto- 
logie  Frai^aise,"  14  vols.,  1840-54,  with  1430  plates,) 
and  "  Cours  elementaire  de  Paleontologie  et  de  Geologic 
stratigraphiques,"  (3  vols.,  1849-52.)  Died  in  1857. 

See  DAMOI'R,  "  Discours  aux  Funerailles  d'A.  d'Orbig'ny:" 
"Notice  an.Vyiique  snr  les  Travaux  d'AIcide  d'Orbigny,"  1856; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Orbigny,  d',  (CHARLES  DESSALINES,)  a  French  geolo 
gist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Coueron  in 
1806.  He  published  a  "Universal  Dictionary  of  Natu 
ral  History,"  (24  vols.,  1839-49,)  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  A i  ngo,  Jussieu,  and  other  savants  ;  also,  several  works 
on  geology. 

Or-bil'i-us  Pu-pil'lus,  a  Roman  grammarian  and 
teacher,  famed  for  his  severe  discipline.  He  taught 
languages  at  Rome,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils 
the  poet  Iiorace,  who  has  immortalized  him  under  the 
name  of  "  the  flogging  (plagosum)  Oibilius." 

See  HORACE,  "  Epistolse ;"  SUETONIUS,  "  De  illustribus  Gram- 
maticis." 

Orcagna,  oR-kan'ya,  (ANDREA  DI  CIONF.,)  an  emi 
nent  Florentine  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor,  some 
times  called  ORGAGNA,  born  about  1325.  He  built  the 
Loggia  di  Lanzi  at  Florence,  which  was  commended  by 
Michael  Angelo  as  a  model  of  elegance.  Among  his 
master-pieces  in  painting  are  the  frescos  of  the  "Last 
Judgment,"  and  the  "Triumph  of  Death,"  in  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa.  Died  about  1385. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Architects,"  etc.  ;  QUATRE- 
wfcKH  OK  QUINCY,  "  Vies  des  plus  illustres  Aichitectes  ;"  BAI.UINUCCI, 
"  Notizie  ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Or'cus,  the  Roman  god  of  the  lower  regions,  identi 
fied  with  the  Pluto  or  Hades  of  the  Greek  mythology. 
(See  PLUTO.) 


Ord,  (CRAVEN,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1756. 
He  furnished  materials  to  Gough  and  John  Nichols  for 
their  works.  Died  in  1832. 

Ord,  (EDWARD  O.  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Maryland  in  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1851,  and  served  several  years 
in  California  and  Oregon.  He  was  appointed  a  briga 
dier-general  of  volunteers  about  September,  1861,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Dranesville,  Virginia,  December  20 
of  that  year.  In  May,  1862,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  major-general.  He  served  under  General  Grant  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg,  July,  1863,  soon 
after  which  he  was  sent  to  Louisiana.  He  obtained 
command  of  the  eighteenth  corps  in  July,  1864,  and  led 
the  same  in  a  successful  operation  against  Fort  Harrison, 
near  Richmond,  in  September  of  that  year.  He  suc 
ceeded  General  Butler  as  commander  of  the  department 
of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  in  January,  1865.  lie 
commanded  a  corps  in  the  final  assault  on  Petersburg, 
April  2,  1865,  and  his  command  contributed  greatly  to 
the  success  gained  on  the  6th  of  that  month  near  the 
Appomattox.  He  was  commander  of  the  fourth  military 
district,  comprising  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  from  April, 
1867,  to  December  of  that  year. 

Ord,  (JoiiN  W.,)  an  English  poet  and  medical  writer, 
born  in  1811.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
"England  :  an  Historical  Poem."  Died  in  1853. 

Ordaz,  ou-ddth',  (Don  DIEGO,)  a  Spanish  captain 
and  explorer,  served  under  Cortez  in  the  conquest  of 
Mexico.  He  was  the  first  white  man  that  ascended 
Popocatepetl.  Having  been  authorized  by  Charles  V. 
to  conquer  the  country  between  Cape  Vela  and  the  Bay 
of  Venezuela,  he  ascended  the  river  Orinoco  one  hun 
dred  and  sixty  leagues  about  1531.  Died  in  1533. 

See  PKESCOTT,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico;"  LAS  CASAS,  "Historia 
de  las  Indias." 

Ordener,  oRd'na',  (MiciiEL,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Saint-Avoid  (Moselle)  in  1755.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division  for  his  services  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.) 
Died  in  181 1. 

Orderic  Vital.     See  ORDERICUS  VITAI.IS. 

Or-de-ri'cus  Vi-ta'lis,  [  Fr.  OKDKKIC  VITAL,  or'deh- 
rek'  ve'ttl',]  one  of  the  most  distinguished  early  English 
historians,  born  near  Shrewsbury  in  1075,  was  descended 
from  a  French  family.  In  1107  he  was  ordained  a  priest. 
He  was  the  author  of  "The  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
England  and  Normandy"  from  the  birth  of  Christ  t  i 
1141,  which,  according  to  Guizot,  contains  more  valuabV 
information  on  the  history  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  than  any  other  single  work.  Died  about  1141. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ordinaire,  or'de'naR',  (CLAUDE  NICOLAS,)  a  Freiu  h 
naturalist,  born  at  Salins  in  1736,  published  a  "  Natural 
History  of  Volcanoes,"  (1802,)  which  is  commended. 
Died  in  1808. 

Oreades.     See  OREADS. 

O're-ads,  [Gr. 'Opstufcf;  Lat.  ORF/ADKS  ;  Fr.  ORE 
ADES,  o'ra'a'd',]  mountain-nymphs  of  classic  mythology, 
derived  their  name  from  the  Greek  o/jof,  a  "mountain." 
They  attended  Diana  in  hunting-excursions. 

Oregio,  o-ra'jo,  [Lat.  ORE'GIUS,]  (AGOSTINO,)  a 
learned  Italian  cardinal  and  theologian,  born  at  Santa 
Sofia,  in  Tuscany,  in  1577.  He  was  the  author  of 
treatises  "On  the  Trinity"  and  "On  the  Work  of  Six 
Days."  Died  in  1635. 

See  OI.DOINI,  "  Vita;  Pontificum  et  Cardinal! urn." 

Oregius.     See  OK  KG  to. 

O'Reilly,  o-ii'le,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Spanish  general,  of 
Irish  descent,  born  near  Chinchilla  in  1725.  He  fought 
for  the  French  at  Minden  (1750)  and  Corbach,  (1760.) 
soon  after  which  he  returned  to  the  Spanish  service.  1  le 
took  possession  of  Louisiana  in  1768,  and  afterwards 
commanded  an  expedition  against  Algiers.  Died  in  1794. 

See  RoUKGOis'G,  "Tableau  de  1'Espagne  morlerne." 

O'Reilly,  o-rl'le,  (.\NDRE\V,)  a  general,  born  in  Ire 
land  in  1740.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and 
fought  against  the  French  in  many  campaigns.  lie 
commanded  a  corps  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.)  Died  in  1832. 

Orellana,  o-rel-ya'nS.  (FRANCISCO.)  a  celebrated  navi 
gator,  born  at  Truxillo.  in  Spain,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


a, e,T,  6,  \\,y,long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e, I, o, u, y,  short;  a, e,  j, o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good:  moon; 


ORELLI 


1709 


ORIENTIUS 


In  1531  he  set  sail  with  the  brothers  Pizarro  for  Peru. 
Having  heard  from  the  natives  of  a  country  in  the  east 
producing  gold,  silver,  and  spices,  he  set  out  in  1540,  in 
company  with  Gonsalez  Pizarro,  on  an  exploring  expe 
dition.  'After  following  the  course  of  the  Napo,  a  branch 
of  the  Maranon,  for  about  two  hundred  leagues,  their 
provisions  failed,  and  Orellana  was  directed  to  proceed 
down  the  river,  obtain  supplies,  and  return  immediately. 
Instead  of  this,  he  continued  his  course  along  the  main 
stream,  though  suffering  severely  from  famine  and  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Indians.  In  August,  1541,  he  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Maranon,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Amazon,  from  the  warlike  women  whom  he  states  he 
encountered  on  its  shores.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he 
obtained  from  Charles  V.  letters  patent  for  colonizing 
the  country  he  had  discovered  ;  but  soon  after  reaching 
the  Amazon,  in  1549,  he  was  attacked  with  fever,  and 
died  in  1550. 

See  A.  vox  HUMBOLDT,  "Voyages  aux  Regions  equitinxia'es  du 
uouveau  Continent." 

Orelli,  o-rel'lee,    (JOHANN   CASPAR,)  a  distinguished 
Swiss    critic  and   scholar,   born   at   Zurich   in  1767.      In 
1819  he  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  hermeneutics 
in   his  native   city.      He  published  excellent  editions  of 
Cicero,     (8    vols.,    1826-37,)     Horace,    (2    vols.,    1844,) 
Tacitus,   (2  vols.,   1846-48,)  and  other  Roman  classics. 
In   conjunction  with  Baiter,  he  published  an  edition  of  . 
Plato,    (4    vols.,    1839-41.)      His    "  Onomasticon    Tulli- 
anum,"   (3   vols.,    1837,)   containing   a   life   of  Cicero,  a  ! 
lexicon  of  proper  names,  several  indexes,  etc.,  is  a  work  j 
of  great  value  for  the  history  of  the  period  in  which  | 
Cicero  lived.     Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Lebensabviss  von  J.  C.  von  Orelli,"  Zurich,  1851;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Oresme,  o'rim',  (XicoLAS,)  a  learned  French  prelate, 
was  a  native  of  Normandy.  He  was  appointed  suc 
cessively  grand  master  of  the  College  of  Navarre,  and  j 
Bishop  of  Lisieux,  (1377.)  He  translated  the  "  Kthics" 
and  "  Politics"  of  Aristotle  into  French,  and  published 
several  scientific  treatises.  Died  in  1382. 

Oreste.     See  ORF.STKS. 

O-res'tes,  [Gr.  'Opearrif ;  Fr.  ORESTK,  o're'st',]  a  son 
of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra,  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Pylades.  The  poets  relate  that  he  avenged  the  death 
of  his  father  by  killing  his  own  mother  and  /Egisthus  ; 
that  after  this  act  he  became  insane,  and  was  tormented 
by  the  Furies;  that  he  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi, 
and  was  told  that  he  might  be  relieved  if  he  would 
go  to  Tauris  and  bring  away  the  image  of  Diana  ;  that 
he  and  Pylades  went  to  Tauris,  where  they  were  taken 
captives,  and  would  have  been  sacrificed,  but  they  were 
saved  by  Iphigenia,  who  was  a  sister  of  Orestes  and 
was  the  priestess  of  Diana  at  Tauris.  With  her  aid, 
he  succeeded  in  his  enterprise,  and  afterwards  became 
King  of  Mycenae. 

See  EfRiPiDKS,  "Orestes;"  SOPHOCLES,  "  Electra  ;"  j*Escim.us, 
"  Eimienicles." 

Orestes,  [Fr.  ORF.STE,  o'rest',]  a  Roman  commander, 
who  became  secretary  to  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  about 
446.  Having  deposed  the  emperor  Julius  Nepos,  (475 
A.I).,)  he  assumed  the  chief  power,  as  Regent  of  Italy,  in 
the  name  of  his  infant  son,  Romulus  Augustulus.  Being 
besieged  soon  after  in  Pavia  by  Odoacer,  he  was  made 
prisoner  and  put  to  death  in  August,  476  A.D. 

See  GIBBON',  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Emrire." 

Orfanel,  oR-fS-ncl',  (J.\ci.\TO,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  at  Jana  in  1578.  He  laboured  in  Japan  about 
fifteen  years,  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  progress  of 
Christianity  in  that  country,  (1633.)  He  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Japanese  in  1622. 

Orfeo.     See  ORPHEUS. 

Orffyre,  oit'fe'ra',  or  Orffyreus,  ORf-fe-ra'us,  (Jo- 
HANN  ERNST  ELI  AS,)  a  German  mechanician,  born  at 
Zittau  in  1680.  His  proper  name  was  BESSLER.  Died 
in  I74v 

Orfila,  or'fe-la,  [Fr.  pron.  ou'te'la',]  (MATH  I  KIT  Jo- 
SLTH  BONAVENTURE,)  an  eminent  physician  and  chem 
ist,  born  at  Mahon,  in  the  island  of  Minorca,  in  1787. 
Having  been  made  a  French  citizen  in  1818,  he  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  and  toxicology 
in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  Paris  in  1819.  In  1823  he 


obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  same  institution, 
which  he  continued  to  occupy  for  thirty  years.  He  was 
created  successively  by  Louis  Philippe  grand  officer  «.l 
the  legion  of  honour,  dean  of  the  Medical  Faculty,  and 
member  of  the  Council  of  Hospitals.  Among  his  mo>t 
important  works  are  his  "Treatise  on  Poisons,  or 
General  Toxicology,''  (1813;  4th  edition,  2  vols.,  1843,) 
"  Elements  of  Chemistry  applied  to  Medicine  and  the 
Arts,"  (2  vols.,  1817-43,)  "Treatise  on  Juridical  Exhu 
mations,"  (2  vols.,  1830,)  and  "Treatise  on  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  (4  vols.,  1847.)  Orfila  was  an  accom 
plished  and  popular  lecturer,  and  enjoyed  the  highest 
reputation  as  a  writer  on  toxicology  and'  legal  medicine. 
He  died  in  1853,  leaving  large  sums  to  the  Academy  of 
Medicine  and  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  for  the  promo 
tion  of  science.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the 
anatomical  museum  in  Paris  called  the  Musee  Orfila. 

See  MEMERE,  "  Necrologie :  M.  Orfila,"  1853;  SAOIAH.E,  "  Les 
Medecins  de  Paris  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biopraphie  Geueiale  ;"  "Monthly 
Review,"  vol.  Lxxxv.,  i8iS,  (Appendix.) 

Orford,  EARL  OF.     See  RITSSELT.,  (EDWARD. 

Orford,  EARL  OF.  See  WALPOLE,  (ROBERT,)  and 
WAI. POLE,  (HORACE.) 

Or-get'o-rix,  a  rich  and  powerful  chief  of  the  Hel  vetii, 
whose  intrigues  are  recorded  in  Caesar's  "  Commenta 
ries,"  book  i.  He  aspired  to  the  sovereign  power,  and 
persuaded  the  Helvetii  to  emigrate  to  Gaul.  A  judicial 
process  was  instituted  against  him  for  his  ambitious 
projects;  but  before  the  decision  he  died, — as  was  sup 
posed,  by  his  own  hand, — about  62  H.C. 

Oriani,  o-re-a'nee,  (BARNABA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
astronomer,  born  near  Milan  in  1752.  Having  visited 
London  in  1786,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Herschel, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  maintained  a  regular  corre 
spondence.  On  his  return,  he  assisted  Reggio  and  De 
Cesaris  in  meastirint;  an  arc  of  the  meridian  and  exe 
cuting  the  triangulation  for  a  new  map  of  Italy.  When 
the  astronomer  Piazzi,  in  1801,  discovered  Ceres,  which 
he  mistook  for  a  comet,  Oriani,  by  calculating  its  orbit, 
recognized  it  as  a  planet ;  and  lie  was  the  first  to  deter 
mine  the  orbit  of  Uranus.  After  Napoleon  was  crowned 
at  Milan,  he  created  Oriani  a  count,  and  senator  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Italian  Institute.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Tables 
of  Uranus,"  (1785,)  "Theory  of  the  Planet  Mercury,'' 
(1798,)  and  "  Spherical  Trigonometry,"  (1806.)  The  last- 
named  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  treatises 
of  the  kind.  Oriani  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France  and  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  GABBA,  "  E'.op'o  di  Oriani,"  1834;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Oribase.     See  OKIBASIU-S. 

Oribasius,  or-e-ba'she^-us,  [Fr.  ORTTIASR,  o're'bfz',]  a 
celebrated  physician,  was  a  native  of  Sardis,  in  Lydia, 
or  of  Pergamus.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  em 
peror  Julian,  who  made  him  his  physician  and  in  36r 
A.D.  appointed  him  quaestor  of  Constantinople.  On  the 
death  of  Julian,  (363.)  Oribasius  was  banished  by  Valen- 
tinian  and  Valens,  but  was  recalled  about  370  on  account 
of  his  medical  skill.  Of  his  principal  work,  entitled 
"Medicinalia  Collecta,"  (in  seventy  books,)  less  than  half 
is  extant.  It  was  written  at  the  request  of  the  emperor, 
and,  though  principally  a  compilation  from  Galen  and 
other  physicians,  contains  some  important  original  mat 
ter.  It  is  also  highly  valued  for  its  explanations  of  many 
passages  in  Galen's  writings,  and  for  the  extracts  it  con 
tains  ifrom  works  not  extant.  Oribasius  was  the  first  who 
described  the  salivary  glands  ;  he  also  advanced  new  ideas 
on  dietetics  and  gymnastics.  Died  about  400  A.D. 

See  KKEIND,  "History  of  Physics;"  HALI.EK,  "  Bibliotheca 
Medica  ;"  FABKICIUS,  "  Kibliotheca  Grseca;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene'raie." 

Oricellarius.     See  RUCELLAI. 

Orichovius.     See  ORZECHOWSKI. 

O'ri-ent.  [Lat.  ORIEN'TIUS,]  SAINT,  a  Latin  poet,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Auch  (Augusta)  about  410  A.D.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  poem,  entitled  "  Commonitorium,"  which 
has  been  printed.  Died  in  439  A.D. 

Oriente,  do,  do  o-re-en'ta,  (FERNAO  ALVAREZ,)  a 
Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Goa  about  155°- 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Orientius.     See  ORIENT. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  n,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJjJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORIGEN 


1710 


ORLEANS 


Or'i-gen,  [Gr.  'QptyeviK ,'  I-at.  ORIG'ENES;  Fr.  ORI 
GENE,  o're'zhin',]  one  of  the  most  remarkable,  eloquent, 
and  influential  of  the  early  Christian  writers  styled  the 
Fathers,  was  born  in  Egypt  about  186  A.D.  He  was  the 
son  of  Leonides,  a  Christian  martyr  of  Alexandria,  and 
bore  the  additional  name  of  ADAMANTIUS.  lie  was  a 
pupil  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  became  versed  in 
grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  geometry,  music,  and  philoso 
phy.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  appointed  by  Bishop 
Demetrius  to  the  office  of  catechist,  the  duties  of  which 
he  performed  with  zeal  and  self-denial.  He  became 
very  ascetic  in  his  course  of  life,  and  mortified  himself 
by  a  form  of  self-mutilation  which  he  supposed  to  be 
recommended  in  Matthew  xix.  12.  Having  learned  the 
1  fcbrew  language,  he  devoted  himself  to  biblical  studies. 
While  passing  through  Palestine  on  a  journey,  about 
228  or  230,  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter  at  Caesarea. 
This  is  said  to  have  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Deme 
trius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  excommunicated  him 
and  induced  the  Bishop  of  Rome  and  of  other  churches 
to  concur  in  this  sentence.  In  231  Origen  removed  to 
Caesarea,  where  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
preacher  and  commentator  on  Scripture. 

That  he  might  be  better  qualified  to  make  proselytes, 
he  studied  the  Greek  philosophy,  of  which  he  adopted 
the  more  noble  and  beautiful  dogmas,  and  attempted  to 
harmonize  Platonism  with  Christianity.  He  made  an 
innovation  (which  many  think  dangerous)  in  the  mode 
of  interpreting  Scripture.  His  desire  to  find  a  mystical 
sense  led  him  frequently  into  a  neglect  of  the  historical 
sense.  In  235  he  sought  refuge  from  persecution  in 
Cappadocia.  He  compiled  about  this  time  a  valuable 
edition  of  the  Old  Testament,  entitled  "  Hexapla,"  which 
exhibits  in  six  columns  the  Hebrew  text  and  various 
Greek  versions.  Fragments  of  the  "  Hexapla"  have  been 
preserved  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers.  He  afterwards 
wrote  an  able  defence  of  Christianity  against  Celsus, 
an  Epicurean  philosopher,  which  is  still  extant.  Decius 
having  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  250 
A.D.,  Origen  was  imprisoned  and  subjected  to  torture, 
but  survived,  and  was  released  a  short  time  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Tyre  in  253.  The  greater  part 
of  his  numerous  works  are  lost.  His  opinions  gave 
rise  to  a  great  controversy  long  after  his  death.  He  held 
the  doctrine  of  the  universal  restoration  of  sinners,  and 
was  charged  with  teaching  the  heretical  notions  which, 
after  his  time,  prevailed  under  the  name  of  Arianism. 
His  defenders  affirmed  that  the  passages  on  which  this 
charge  was  founded  had  been  interpolated  in  his  works. 
About  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  Origenism  prevailed 
in  Egypt  and  Syria  ;  but  it  was  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Constantinople,  in  553  A.D. 


iSai-46;  RINGBERG,  "  Vita  Origenis  Adamantii,"  1792  ;  KARSTEN, 
"Dissertatio  de  Origene,"  1824;  G.  THOMASIUS,  "  Origenes  Beitrag 
iturDogmengeschichte,"  etc.,  1837  ;  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;" 

DR.  HOEFKR,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  "  Lon 
don  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1851.  ja*y?*,.J3>'ct'-r>t  •  «.sv  nitU* 

Origen,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  was  a  disciple  and 
friend  of  Porphyry,  and  predecessor  of  Plotinus  in  the 
chair  of  philosophy.  He  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
third  century. 

Origene.     See  ORIGEN. 

Oiigsnes.     See  ORIGEN. 

Origny,  d',  clo'ren'ye',  (ABRAHAM  JEAN  BAPTISTE 
ANTOINE,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Rheims  in  1734. 
He  published  "  Dictionnaire  des  Origines,"  (6  vols., 
1776-78.)  Died  in  1798. 

Origny,  d',  (PIERRE  ADAM,)  a  French  historian  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1697.  His  principal  works 
are  entitled  "Ancient  Egypt"  and  "Chronology  of  the 
Kings  of  the  Egyptian  Empire."  Died  in  1774. 

O-ii'on,  [Gr.  'Qpiuv ;  It.  ORIONE,  o-re-o'na,]  a  cele 
brated  giant  and  hunter  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  son 
of  Hyrieus.  He  loved  Merope,  a  daughter  of  CEnopion, 
and  once,  when  intoxicated,  offered  violence  to  her.  Her 
father  resented  this  act  by  depriving  him  of  his  eyes. 
He  was  befriended  by  Vulcan,  was  guided  by  Cedalion 
to  the  Sun-God,  and  recovered  his  sight.  He  was  killed 
by  Diana,  whose  motive  is  variously  represented,  and 


was  placed  among  the  stars.  According  to  one  legend, 
Diana  loved  him,  and  wished  to  marry  him,  against  the 
will  of  Apollo,  who  one  day  questioned  her  ability  to 
hit  a  distant  object  on  the  sea.  She  discharged  a  shaft 
and  pierced  the  mark,  which  proved  to  be  the  head  of 
Orion,  who  was  swimming  or  wading  in  the  sea. 

Orion,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  Thebes,  in  Egypt, 
lived  about  450  A.D.  He  composed  a  "  Lexicon  Etyino- 
logicum,"  which  was  published  by  Sturz  in  1820. 

Orlaiidi,  or-lan'dee,  (PELLEGRINO  ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1660.  He  published 
a  "Dictionary  of  Artists,"  (1704,)  and  a  "History  of 
Bolognese  Writers,"  (1714.)  I)icd  in  1727. 

Orlandin.     See  ORLANDINI. 

Orlaiidini,  oa-lan-dee'nee,  or  Orlandin,  oR-lan- 
deen',  (Niccoi.6,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1554.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Loyola,  entitled 
"  Historia  Societatis  Jesu  Pars  I.,  sive  Ignatius,"  (1615.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1606. 

Orlando  di  Lasso.     See  LASSO,  in. 

Orlaiidus  Lassus.     See  LASSO,  in. 

Orlay,  van,  (BERNARD.)     See  OK  LEY. 

Orleans,  (CHARLES,)  DUKE  OF.  See  CHARLES  D'OR 
LEANS. 

Or'le-aiis,  DUKE  OF,  [Fr.  Due  D'ORLEANS,  diik 
doR'li'dN',]  (FERDINAND  PHILIPPE  Louis  CHARLES 
HENRI,)  a  French  prince-royal,  born  at  Palermo  in 
1810,  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV.,  and  in  1832 
received  a  medal  for  his  services  to  patients  who  had 
the  cholera  in  the  hospital.  In  1837  he  married  Helena 
of  Mecklenburg.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  general  in 
Algeria  in  several  campaigns  between  1835  and  1840.  lie 
was  thrown  from  his  carriage  and  killed,  near  Neuilly,  in 
July,  1842.  He  left  two  sons,  the  Count  of  Paris  and  the 
Due  de  Chartres. 


See  ADRIEN  PASCAL,  "Vie  militaire,  pohtique  et  privee  du  Due 


d'Orleans,"  1842  ;  JULES  JANIN,  "  Le  Prince  royal,"  1842  ;  LINDAI.L, 


"  Biographic  du  Due  d'Orleans,"  1^42;  J.  MKNDELSSOHN,  "  Ferdi 


nand  Philipp  Her? 


von  Orleans,     1842;  "Nouvelle    Biographic 


Orleans,  MAID  OF.     See  JOAN  OF  ARC. 

Orleans,  d',  (GASTON  JEAN  BAPTISTE  DE  FRANCE,) 
Due,  a  younger  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  Marie  de  Medicis, 
was  born  at  Fontaineblean  in  1608.  lie  was  created 
Due  d'Orleans  in  1626,  and  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Montpensier.  In  1630  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom.  lie  quarrelled  with  Richelieu, 
by  whom,  according  to  Voltaire,  he  was  persecuted.  In 
1632  he  raised  an  army  against  the  king,  Louis  XIII., 
and  was  supported  by  the  Duke  of  Montmorency.  The 
latter  having  been  defeated  in  battle,  Gaston  made  peace 
with  the  court,  and  was  pardoned  ;  but,  when  he  learned 
that  Montmorency  was  punished  with  death,  he  left 
France  in  anger.  In  1642  he  engaged  in  a  conspiracy 
with  Cinq-Mars  and  others  against  Richelieu,  who 
detected  the  plot  and  induced  Gaston  to  betray  his 
accomplices  or  give  evidence  against  them.  At  the 
death  of  Louis  XIII.,  (1643,)  Gaston  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general,  and  he  commanded  in  several  cam 
paigns  against  the  Spaniards.  He  took  Gravelines  in 
1644,  and  Courtrai  in  1646.  In  the  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde  (1648-52)  he  displayed  his  usual  inconstancy, 
and  supported  both  sides  by  turns.  He  died,  without 
male  issue,  in  1660. 

See  RETZ,  "Memoires;"  RICHELIEU,  "Memoires." 

Orleans,  d',(  1 1  EI.ENE  LOUISE  ELISABETH,)  DUCHESSE, 
born  at  Ludwigslust  in  1814,  was  a  daughter  of  Frederick 
Lewis,  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  She 
married  the  prince-royal  of  France  in  1837.  After  the 
abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  February,  1848,  she  pre 
sented  herself,  with  her  minor  son,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  made  an  unsuccess 
ful  effort  to  obtain  the  regency.  She  died  at  Richmond, 
in  England,  in  1858. 

See  "La  Vie  de  la  Duchesse  d'Orleans,"  (anonymous,)  Paris 
1858. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis.)     See  D'ORLEANS. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis,)  Due,  the  second  son  of  Charles 
V.  of  France,  and  the  head  of  the  first  house  of  Orleans, 
was  born  in  1371.  He  married  Valentina  Visconti,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Milan.  After  his  brother, 


5,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fall,  f&t;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


ORLEANS 


1711 


ORLOF 


Charles  VI.,  was  rendered  by  insanity  incapable  of  reign 
ing,  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  two  factions,  of  which 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  were 
the  rival  chiefs.  In  1407  the  former  was  assassinated  in 
Paris  by  Jean  Sans  Peur,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  A  civil 
war  followed  between  the  Burgundians  and  Armagnacs, 
the  latter  of  whom  were  partisans  of  the  house  of  Orleans. 
Louis  of  Orleans  left  two  sons,  Charles  and  Jean.  (See 
CHARLES  D'ORLEANS,  and  DUNOIS.)  Louis,  third  Duke 
of  Orleans,  the  son  of  Charles  just  named,  became  king, 
as  Louis  XII. 

See  ANSELME,  "  Histoire  genealogique  de  la  Maison  de  France 
mix  Dues  d'Orleans." 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis,)  Due,  a  son  of  Philippe,  (1674- 
172^.)  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1703,  and  was  noted 
fur  his  Christian  virtues.  He  retired  to  a  monastery  in 
1742,  devoted  much  time  to  literature,  and  died  in  1752, 
leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  noticed  in  the  next  article. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis  PHILIPPE,)  Due,  a  grandson  of 
the  regent  d'Orleans,  and  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1725.  He  was  the  grandfather  of  Louis 
Philippe,  King  of  the  French.  He  served  with  distinc 
tion  at  Dcttingen  in  1743,  was  made  lieutenant-general 
in  1744,  and  fought  at  Fontenoy  and  at  Hastenbcck  in 
I7S7-  He  died  in  1785,  leaving  a  son,  Louis  Philippe 
Joseph,  surnamed  Egalite. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis  PHILIPPE  JOSEPH,)  Due,  sur- 
named  COALITE,  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1747,  was  the 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  was  the  first  prince  of  the 
blood.  He  was  styled  the  Due  de  Charlies  during  the 
life  of  his  father,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  Due 
de  Penthievre.  His  fortune  was  immense.  He  courted 
popularity  with  success,  and  became  alienated  from  the 
royal  family,  who  appear  to  have  treated  him  ill.  He 
signali/ed  his  courage  in  a  sea-fight  against  the  English 
near  Ushant  in  1778.  His  Palais  Royal  in  Paris  became 
the  focus  of  the  ideas  which  caused  the  Revolution,  and 
he  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  popular  party. 
In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  States-General,  and,  with 
the  minority  of  the  noblesse,  joined  the  Tiers  Etat.  The 
insurgents  of  July  assumed  the  colours  of  his  livery, — 
red,  white,  and  blue.  Some  historians  affirm  that  he 
instigated  the  attacks  on  the  royal  palace,  and  aspired 
to  the  throne.  Lamartine  defends  him  from  this  charge, 
but  admits  that  he  remains  an  enigma  to  posterity. 
"Through  lack  of  audacity  or  of  ambition,"  says  he, 
'•  the  Duke  of  Orleans  never  took  the  attitude  of  the  role 
that  opinion  assigned  to  him.  He  respected  or  he  de 
spised  the  throne.  Either  of  these  sentiments  exalts  him 
in  the  eyes  of  history."  His  popularity  declined.  Wish 
ing  to  be  reconciled  to  the  king,  he  went  to  court  in  1791, 
but  was  insulted  by  the  courtiers.  He  then  allied  him 
self  with  Danton  for  the  subversion  of  the  monarchy, 
renounced  his  title,  assumed  the  name  of  EGALITE,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  By  order  of  the  Con 
vention,  he  was  imprisoned  at  Marseilles  in  April,  1793, 
and  in  November  of  that  year  he  was  executed  at  Paris 
by  the  Jacobins,  apparently  without  any  just  grounds. 
His  son,  Louis  Philippe,  became  King  of  the  French. 

See  A.  DrcoiN,  "Etudes  revolutionnaires :  Philippe  d'Orleans 
tfealite,"  1845;  F.  BACKHAUS,  "  Lndwig  Philipp  Joseph  Orleans," 
etc.,  1^43  ;  W.  COOKE  TAYLOR,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Orleans," 
iS49  ;  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Orleans,  d',  (MARIE.)     See  MARIE  D'ORLEANS. 

Orleans,  d',  (  PHILIPPE,)  Due,  the  founder  of  the 
present  house  of  Orleans,  was  born  in  1640.  He  was 
the  only  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  nephew  of  Gas- 
ton,  Duke  of  Orleans,  whose  title  he  received  in  1660. 
He  married  Henrietta,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng 
land,  in  1661.  In  1672  he  joined  the  army,  and  distin 
guished  himself  in  several  campaigns  against  the  Dutch. 
He  defeated  the  Prince  of  Orange  (afterwards  William 
III.)  at  the  battle  of  Cassel,  in  1677.  His  daughter 
Marie  Louise  became  the  queen  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain. 
He  died  in  1701,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  Philippe, 
Regent  of  France. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV  ;"  \V.  COOKE  TAYLOR,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Orleans," 
3  vols.,  1849. 

Orleans,  d',  (PHILIPPE,)  Due,  Regent  of  France,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1674. 
He  received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Due  de  Chartres. 


He  was  endowed  with  superior  talents,  and  made  much 
progress  in  learning;  but  his  heart  was  corrupted  by  his 
tutor,  the  Abbe  Dubois.  He  entered  the  army  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  and  displayed  courage  and  skill  at 
Steenkerke  and  Neerwinden.  In  1706  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  army  of  Italy,  and  was  defeated  at 
Turin  by  Prince  Eugene.  He  had  better  success  in 
Spain  in  1707  and  1708.  At  the  death  of  Louis  XIV., 
in  1715,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  became  regent,  with  nearly 
absolute  power,  and  in  many  respects  reversed  the  policy 
of  the  government.  His  regency,  though  less  despotic 
than  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  a  period  of  great 
profligacy  in  politics  and  morals.  (See  Louis  XV.) 
The  regent  himself  set  the  example  of  ineligion  and 
licentiousness.  He  died  in  December  1723. 

See  L.  B.  NEEI.,  "Histoire  de  Louis,  Due  d'Orleans,"  1753; 
SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires  ;"  LA  MOTTE,  "  Vie  du  Due  d'Orleans," 
1737:  MAKMONTKL,  "  Histoire  de  la  Regence,"  1805;  CAPEFIGUE, 
"Histoire  de  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Regent  de  France,"  2  vols.,  1838; 
LEMONTEY,  "Histoire  de  la  Regence,"  2  vols.,  1832;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Orleans,  d',  (PIERRE  JOSEPH.)     See  DORLEANS. 

Orley  or  Crlay,  van,  vSn  oii'll,  (BERNARD,)  also 
called  BARENT  OF  BRUSSELS,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
born  in  1490.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  in 
several  of  whose  works  he  had  a  part.  On  his  return  to 
Brussels  he  was  employed  by  Charles  V.  to  execute  a 
number  of  models  for  tapestry,  which  were  chiefly 
hunting-scenes  and  landscapes  of  remarkable  beauty. 
Among  his  best  historical  pieces  are  a  "Holy  Family," 
a  "Last  Judgment,"  and  "The  Saviour  Lamented  by 
his  Friends."  Died  about  1560. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  MICHIELS, 
"Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Flamande,"  1845;  WHYEKMAN,  "De 
Schi'.derkonst  der  Nederlanders. " 

Orley  or  Orlay,  van,  (RICHARD,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1652,  was  also  an  engraver.  His 
design  is  said  to  be  correct.  Died  at  Brussels  in  1732. 
His  brother  JAN,  born  about  1656,  was  a  historical 
painter  and  engraver. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  oR-lof/,  (A LEXIS,)  COUNT,  a 
Russian  admiral,  born  about  1736.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  large  stature,  personal  strength,  and  audacity. 
In  1762  he  was  an  accomplice  in  the  conspiracy  which 
made  Catherine  autocrat  of  Russia  in  place  of  her  hus 
band,  Peter  III.,  whom  he  strangled  with  his  own  hands. 
He  became  an  admiral,  though  he  had  not  served  in  the 
marine,  and  commanded  a  naval  expedition  sent  against 
the  Turks,  who  were  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Chesme 
in  1770.  It  is  said  that  he  ordered  a  Russian  frigate  to 
be  blown  up  in  1772,  merely  to  furnish  a  model  to  the 
painter,  Hackert,  whom  he  employed  to  paint  the  battle 
of  Chesme.  He  died  in  1808. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (ALEXIS,)  COUNT,  a  famous 
Russian  diplomatist  and  general,  born  in  1787,  was  a 
son  of  Feodor,  noticed  below.  He  entered  the  army 
in  his  youth,  and  served  as  adjutant  to  the  grand  duke 
Constantine  in  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  In  1825  he 
commanded  a  regiment  of  guards  in  the  capital,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  by  his  zeal  and 
efficiency  in  suppressing  a  great  revolt  of  the  troops. 
He  was  created  a  count,  and  received  a  high  command 
in  the  army.  In  1829  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Adri- 
anople,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  sent 
in  1833  to  aid  the  Sultan  against  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt, 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Unkiar-Skelesi.  He  was 
the  intimate  companion  of  Nicholas  in  his  journey  to 
England,  Italy,  and  other  countries.  In  1856  he  was 
the  representative  of  Russia  at  the  Congress  of  Paris, 
and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  with  France  and  England. 
He  became  in  1856  president  of  the  Grand  Council  of 
the  empire  and  ministry, — the  highest  functionary  of 
Russia.  Died  in  May,  1861.  He  left  one  son. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (FF.ODOR,)  a  Russian  officer, 
born  in  1741,  was  a  brother  of  Alexis  first  above  no 
ticed,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  from  whom  he 
took  Navarino  in  1770,  and  afterwards  rose  to  the  rank 
of  general -in -chief.  Died  in  1796. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (GREGORY,)  a  Russian  cour 
tier  and  general,  born  about  1734,  was  a  brother  of 


•C  %S  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORLOF 


ORMUZD 


Alexis  first  above  noticed.  He  served  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
actors  in  the  revolution  which  raised  Catherine  II.  to 
the  throne  in  July,  1762.  About  that  time  he  became 
the  favourite  paramour  of  Catherine,  and  was  appointed 
grand  master  of  the  artillery.  It  is  stated  that  she  pro 
posed  a  secret  marriage  with  him,  but  his  ambition  to 
reign  with  her  as  her  acknowledged  consort  induced  him 
to  decline  the  offer.  She  was  offended  by  this  refusal, 
and  supplied  his  place  by  a  new  favourite  about  1772. 
Died  in  1783. 

See  FRKUDENREICH,  "Die  Familie  Orloff  als  Mbrder  der  Rus- 
gischen  Kaiser,"  18.52. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (GREGORY,)  COUNT,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  nephew  of  Alexis  first  above  noticed.  He 
lived  many  years  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  published,  in 
French,  "Travels  in  Part  of  France,"  (1824,)  and  "Me 
moirs,  Historical,  Political,  and  Literary,  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples."  Died  in  1826. 

Orlof,  (MiciiAF.r.,)  born  in  1785,  was  a  son  of  Feodor, 
noticed  above.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  against 
Bonaparte,  and  in  1814  was  one  of  the  allied  generals 
who  received  the  capitulation  of  Paris.  Having  taken 
part  in  the  secret  associations  formed  in  the  Russian 
army  in  the  latter  part  of  Alexander's  reign,  he  was  dis 
graced  in  1825,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  private 
station.  Died  in  1841. 

Orlofski,  Orlovski,  or  Orlowski,  oR-lof'skee, 
(BORIS  IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  born  in  1793, 
was  sent  by  the  government  in  1822  to  Italy,  where  he 
studied  under  Thorwaldsen.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  statue  of  "  Paris  with  the  Apple,"  (of  Discord,) 
and  a  colossal  bust  of  the  emperor  Alexander  I.  Died 
in  1837. 

Orlov.     See  ORLOF. 

Orlow.     See  ORI.OF. 

Orrne,  onn,  (ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  historian,  of 
English  extraction,  born  in  1728  at  Anjengo,  in  Hin- 
dostan.  He  was  appointed  in  1754  a  member  of  the 
Council  at  Fort  Saint  George,  and  was  afterwards  made 
a  commissary  and  accountant-general.  In  this  capacity 
he  contributed  greatly  to  establish  British  power  in 
India,  and  on  his  recommendation  the  celebrated  Clive 
obtained  the  military  command  in  that  country.  He 
became  historiographer  to  the  East  India  Company,  and 
in  1778  published  his  "  History  of  the  Military  Trans 
actions  of  the  British  in  Hindostan."  He  also  wrote 
"  Historical  Fragments  of  the  Mogul  Empire  of  the 
Mahrattas,"  (1782.)  Died  in  1801. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1807. 

Orrne,  orm,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  biog 
rapher,  born  at  Falkirk  about  1787.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  John  Owen,  D.D.,"  (1820,)  "  Bibliotheca  Bib- 
lica,"  a  select  list  of  books  on  sacred  literature,  etc., 
(1824,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  a  "Life  of  Richard 
Baxter,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1830. 

Ormea,  d',  doR-ma'a,  (CARLO  FRANCESCO  VINCENZO 
Ferrero — fer-ra/ro,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian  statesman, 
born  at  Mondovi.  He  was  the  chief  minister  of  Charles 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  from  1730  until  his  death. 
Died  in  1745. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV." 

Ormesson,  d',  don'mi'soN',  (HENRI  FRANC.OIS  DE 
PAULE  LE  FEVRE,)  a  French  financier,  bom  in  1751. 
He  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the  finances  in 
1783,  and  removed  a  few  months  later.  He  was  very 
incompetent  for  that  office.  Died  in  1807. 

Ormesson,  d',  (Louis  FRANC.OIS  DE  PAULE  LE 
FEVRE,)  a  French  judge,  born  in  1718,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau. 
He  became  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
in  1788.  Died  in  1789. 

Or'moud,  (JAMES  BUTLER,)  first  DUKF.  OF,  an 
eminent  statesman,  bom  of  an  ancient  Irish  family  in 
London  in  1610,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas  Butler, 
Viscount  Thurles.  On  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
in  1632,  he  succeeded  him  as  Earl  of  Ormond.  The 
next  year  he  went  to  Ireland,  and  became  the  friend  and 
confidential  adviser  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford.  In  1641  he 
was  appointed  commander-iii-chief  of  the  army  designed 
to  suppress  the  Irish  rebellion.  He  showed  himself  an 


able  general,  and  defeated  the  rebels  at  Kilrush  and 
Ross.  He  adhered  constantly  to  the  king  during  the 
civil  war,  and  in  1644  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  then  a  prey  to  fierce  factions.  He  was  com 
pelled  to  surrender  Dublin  to  the  English  Parliament  in 
1647,  and  retired  to  France. 

Ormond  was  a  favoured  companion  and  adviser  of 
Charles  II.  in  his  exile,  and  soon  after  his  restoration 
he  w;is  created  Duke  of  Ormond.  In  1662  he  was  again 
chosen  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  he  governed 
with  wisdom  until  1668.  In  1670  he  was  seized  in  Lon 
don  by  a  ruffian  named  Blood,  who  bound  him  and 
designed  to  hang  him  at  Tyburn  ;  but  the  duke  was 
rescued  by  his  servants.  He  died  in  1688.  He  had  a 
son  who  was  Earl  of  Ossory,  and  a  daughter  who  was 
married  to  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield.  "His  claims  on 
the  royal  gratitude,"  says  Macaulay,  "  were  superior 
to  those  of  any  other  subject." 

See  THOMAS  CARTE,  "  History  of  the  Life  of  James,  Duke  of 
Ormond,"  3  vols.,  17  36:  HUME,  " History  of  England ;"  CLAREN 
DON,  "  History  of  llie  Rebellion." 

Ormond,  (JAMES  BUTLER,)  second  DUKE  OF,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1665,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Ossory.  He  succeeded  to  the  duke 
dom  in  1688,  and  in  the  same  year  joined  the  standard 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  afterwards  treated  him 
with  favour  and  confidence.  He  commanded  the  Life 
Guards  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690,)  and  fought 
several  ensuing  campaigns  in  Flanders.  From  1703 
to  1706  he  was  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  in  1712  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army  in 
place  of  Marlborough.  In  compliance  with  secret  orders 
from  the  ministry,  he  declined  to  co-operate  with  the 
allies  against  the  French  iu  Flanders.  For  this  offence 
he  was  impeached  by  the  Whigs  in  1715,  and,  having 
escaped  to  France,  was  attainted.  He  then  became  a 
partisan  of  the  Pretender,  and  obtained  command  of  an 
armament  which  Spain  sent  against  England,  and  which 
was  dispersed  by  a  storm.  He  died  in  exile  in  1745. 

Ormuzd,  or'miizdor  or'moozd,  [Gr.  'QfMfuiadr]^ ;  Lat. 
OROMAS'DKS,  the  AHURA-MAX.DA  of  the  Zend-Avesta,] 
written  also  Ormusd  and  Hormuzd,  in  the  religion 
of  the  ancient  Persians,  the  principle  of  light,  purity, 
truth,  and  goodness,  as  opposed  to  Ahriman,  (ah're- 
man',)  [in  Latin,  Arima'nes  or  Arima'nius,]  the  prin 
ciple  of  evil  and  darkness.  Ormuzd  was  considered  to 
be  the  creator  of  whatever  was  good  or  beautiful  in 
the  universe.  He  not  only  created  the  world  of  light, 
including  the  firmament  and  all  the  heavenly  luminaries, 
but  also  various  orders  of  celestial  or  angelic  beings, 
among  which  were  the  Amshaspands,  presiding  over 
the  various  kingdoms  of  the  universe :  one,  for  ex 
ample,  is  the  king  of  light,  another  the  spirit  of  fire  and 
of  life  ;  after  these  are  the  king  of  metals,  the  king  of 
the  seasons,  and,  lastly,  the  creator  and  protector  of 
trees,  flocks,  and  herds.  Among  the  Amshaspands  is 
reckoned  also  Sapandomad,  the  daughter  of  Ormuzd, 
and  the  mother  of  the  human  race.  The  next  order 
of  beings  are  the  Izeds,  who  have  charge  of  particular 
portions  of  nature.  Some  of  these  are  male  and  some 
female.  Of  the  Izeds,  the  most  worthy  of  mention  is 
Mithra  or  Mithras,  the  god  of  day,  who  presides  over 
the  light  which  mortals  enjoy  on  earth.  He  is  often 
identified  with  the  sun  ;  but  he  is  more  properly  regarded 
as  a  being  distinct  and  separate  from  the  latter.  Below 
the  Izeds  are  the  Fervers,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
original  patterns  or  prototypes  of  all  inferior  beings. 
They  are  emanations  from  the  essence  of  Ormuzd.  Ac 
cording  to  Zoroaster,  an  incomprehensible  being  named 
Zeruane-  (or  Zervane-)  Akerene  (or  "time  without 
bounds")  created  both  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  The  latter 
was  originally  pure,  but,  becoming  envious  of  Ormuzd, 
he  created  orders  of  evil  beings  (Devs,  or  demons)  cor 
responding  to  the  celestial  orders  of  Ormuzd.  And  in 
every  part  of  the  universe,  even  to  the  minutest  particle 
of  matter,  the  principle  of  Evil  opposes  the  principle  of 
Good.  But  after  a  certain  period  the  power  of  Ahriman 
will  be  utterly  overthrown,  and  all  evil  will  come  to  an 
end.  Some  say  Ahriman  will  be  destroyed;  others,  that 
he  will  continue  to  exist,  without  the  power  to  do  evil. 

See  GUIGNIAUT,  "  Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 


la,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ORNANO 


'713 


ORSINI 


Ornano,  d',  doR-na'no,  called  SAMPIERRO,  (sam-pe- 
£r'ro,)  a  general,  born  in  Italy  in  1497,  entered  the 
French  army  in  1533.  In  1^53  he  defeated  the  Genoese 
in  Corsica,  which  was  annexed  to  France  in  1557.  Henry 
II.  having  restored  it  to  the  Genoese  about  1560,  D'Or- 
nano  invaded  that  island  in  1564  and  conquered  part  of 
it.  He  was  assassinated  in  1567. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ornano,  d',  (ALPHONSF.,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1548.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the 
civil  wars  of  France,  and  afterwards  rendered  military 
services  to  Henry  IV.,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France.  Died  in  r6io.  His  son,  JEAN  BAP- 
TISTK.  born  in  1583,  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He 
was  imprisoned  by  Richelieu,  and  died  in  prison  in  1626. 

See  DE  THOU,  "Memoire?." 

Ornano,  d',  (PHILIPPE  ANTOINF.,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1784.  His  mother  was  Isa- 
belle  Bonaparte.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  for 
his  conduct  at  Jena,  (1806,)  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1811.  As  a  general  of  division,  he  distin 
guished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Borodino,  (1812,)  and 
commanded  the  cavalry  of  the  guard  at  Dresden,  Baut 
zen,  and  Leipsic,  in  1813.  He  obtained  the  dignity  of 
senator  in  1852,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1861.  | 
Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Orobio,  o-n/be-o,  (BAI.TASAK,)  a  learned  Spanish 
few,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Salamanca.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Certamen  Philo- 
sophicum,"  being  a  refutation  of  the  doctrines  of  Spi 
noza.  Died  in  1687. 

O-ro'des  I.,  King  of  Parthia,  a  son  of  Phraates  III., 
began  to  reign  about  56  B.C.  He  is  also  styled  ARSACES 
XIV.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Roman  gen 
eral  Crassus,  who  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the 
Parthians,  near  Carrhae,  in  53  B.C.  About  40  B.C.  he  sent 
an  army  under  his  son  Pacorus  to  fight  against  Mark 
Antony.  (See  PACORUS.) 

See  DION  CASSIUS,  "History  of  Rome  ;"  PLUTARCH,  "Antony;" 
SAINT-MARTIN,  "  Memoires  historiques,  etc.  sur  1'Armenie." 

Oromasdes.     See  ORMUZD. 

Ororice.     See  FINE. 

Orontius.     See  FINE. 

Orose,  (PAUL.)     See  OROSIUS  PAULUS. 

O-ro'si-us  Pau'lus,  |Fr.  PAUL  OROSE,  p51  o'roz',]  a 
Latin  historian  and  Christian  presbyter,  who  lived  about 
410-30  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Tarragona,  in  Spain.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Saint  Augustine  and  Saint  Jerome,  and 
in  several  theological  treatises  opposed  the  doctrines 
of  Origen  and  Pelagius.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Historiarum  Libri  VII.  adversos  Paganos,"  being  a 
defence  of  Christianity  against  pagan  writers,  who  as 
serted  that  since  the* overthrow  of  the  old  religion  the 
world  had  suffered  greater  calamities.  This  history, 
though  deficient  in  accuracy,  contains  much  important 
information,  and  quotes  from  various  authors  whose 
writings  are  not  extant.  Among  the  translations  of  this 
work  is  one  made  by  Alfred,  King  of  England. 

See  CEII.UER,  "  Histr ire  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques  ;"  BAHR, 
"  Geschichte  der  Romischen  Literatur ;"  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis 
Latinis  ;"  MORNER,  "De  Orosii  Vita,"  1844. 

Orphee.     See  ORPHEUS. 

Orpheus,  or'fus  or  or'fe-us,  [Gr.  'Opori'f ;  Fr.  ORPHEE, 
ok'fa';  It.  ORFEO,  oR-fa'o.]  a  mythical  or  semi-fabulous 
personage,  who  was  celebrated  in  the  legends  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  as  a  poet,  musician,  and  inventor.  His 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  poems  of  Homer  or  Hesiod, 
but  is  mentioned  by  Ibycus,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 
Plato  refers  to  Orpheus  and  his  works,  calls  him  the  son 
of  CEagrus,  and  ascribes  to  him  the  origin  of  religious 
mysteries.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Thrace  not 
long  before  the  Trojan  war,  or  about  1200  B.C.  Ac 
cording  to  tradition,  Apollo  presented  him  with  a  lyre, 
with  which  he  enchanted  wild  beasts,  trees,  etc.,  lulled 
asleep  the  dragon  that  guarded  the  golden  fleece,  and 
rendered  other  important  services  in  the  Argonautic 
expedition.  Virgil  has  commemorated  in  an  admirable 
episode  of  his  "Georgics"  (book  iv.)  the  descent  of  Or 
pheus  to  the  infernal  regions  after  his  lost  Eurydice. 
(See  EURYDICE.)  The  poets  relate  that  he  was  torn  in 
pieces  by  Thracian  women  in  their  Bacchanalian  orgies, 


because  he  neglected  their  sex  or  treated  their  charms 
with  contempt. 

See  TIEDEMANN,  "  Griechenlands  erste  Philosophen  ;  oder  Le-* 
ben  und  Systeme  des  Orpheus,"  etc.,  1780;  GROTE,  "History  of 
Greece;"  ULRICI,  "Geschichte  der  Hellenischen  Dichtkunst." 

Orr,  (JAMES  L.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
born  at  Craytonville,  .South  Carolina,  in  1822.  He 
represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1848  to  1860.  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  by  the  Democrats  in  December,  1857. 
In  the  Convention  of  South  Carolina  held  December, 
1860,  he  voted  for  secession.  He  was  one  of  three  com 
missioners  sent  by  South  Carolina  to  Washington  to 
negotiate  in  the  winter  of  1860-61.  In  February,  1862,  he 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  Confederate  States.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  October,  1865. 

Orrente,  or-re"n'ta,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Murcia  about  1550.  Among  his  finest  productions 
are  a  "  Saint  Sebastian"  and  a  "  Nativity."  Died  in  1644. 

See  QUM.LIET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Orrery,  EARL  OF.  See  BOYLE,  (ROBERT,)  and  BOYLE, 
(CHARLKS.) 

Orrizonte.     See  BLOEMEN,  (JOHN  FRANCIS.) 

Orry,  o're',  (PHILIBERT,)  Count  de  Vignori,  a  French 
financier,  born  at  Troves  in  1689.  He  was  controller- 
general  of  the  finances  from  173010  1745.  Died  in  1747. 

Orsato,  oR-sa'to,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian  anti 
quary  and  physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1673  ;  died  in  1720. 

Orsato,  [Lat.  URSA'TUS.]  (SERTORIO.)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Padua  in  1617.  He  published,  among 
other  treatises,  "  De  Notis  Romanorum  Commenta- 
rius,"  (1672,)  or  an  explanation  of  the  abbreviations  used 
by  the  Romans,  and  a  "History  of  Padua,"  (1678.) 
The  former  work  is  highly  esteemed  by  antiquaries. 
Died  in  1678. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Orsay,  d',  doi'sa',  [Fr.  pron.  dok'si',]  (ALFRED  GUIL- 
LAU.ME  GABRIEL,)  COUNT,  an  artist  and  leader  of  fashion, 
distinguished  for  his  rare  accomplishments  and  his  fasci 
nating  manners,  was  born  in  France  in  1801.  He  married 
in  1827  Lord  Blessington's  daughter,  from  whom  he 
separated  a  few  years  later.  He  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Lady  Blessington,  in  whose  house  he  lived 
many  years,  (in  London.)  His  wit,  his  amiable  temper, 
and  his  brilliant  personal  qualities  rendered  him  a  general 
favourite.  Among  his  friends  were  Lord  Byron,  (of 
whom  he  produced  a  good  portrait,)  Sir  Edward  Bulwer, 
and  Xapoleon  III.  Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  September,  1852 :  DR.  R.  R. 
MADDEN,  "Literary  Life  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington."  3  vols.,  London,  1855. 

Orseolo,  oR-sa-o'lo,  or  Urseolo,  ooR-sa-o'lo,  (OTTO,) 
Doge  of  Venice,  was  a  son  of  Piero  II.,  noticed  below. 
He  was  elected  doge  in  1009,  and  was  banished  in  1026. 
Died  in  1032. 

Orseolo  or  Urseolo,  (PiERO  I.,)  was  elected  Doge 
of  Venice  in  976.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Sara 
cens  in  Apulia,  and  established  a  regular  financial  sys 
tem.  Died  in  987. 

Orseolo  or  Urseolo,  (PiERO  II.,)  an  able  Venetian 
commander,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became  Doge  of 
Venice  in  991.  He  conquered  Dalmatia,  and  annexed 
it  to  the  republic.  Died  in  1009. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Orsi,  oR'see,  (GIOVANNI  GIUSEPPE,)  MARQUIS,  an 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bologna  in  1652,  wrote  verses 
and  several  prose  works,  among  which  is  "  De  Moralibus 
Criticae  Regulis  Monita,"  (1706.)  Died  in  1733. 

Orsi,  (GIUSEPPE  AGOSTINO,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born 
at  Florence  in  1692.  His  principal  work  is  an  "Eccle 
siastical  History  of  the  First  Six  Centuries  of  the  Church," 
(20  vols.,  1746  et  seq.)  Died  in  1761. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Orsi,  (LELio,  or  LELIO  da  Novellara — da  no-vel- 
la'ra,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  Lombardy  in  1511. 
His  copy  of  Correggio's  "Night"  is  greatly  admired. 
Died  in  1587. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Orsiui,  oR-see'nee,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  and 
powerful  Italian  family,  which  for  many  years  was  hos 
tile  to  the  house  of  Colonna.  GIOVANNI  GAETANI  OR- 


€  as£;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this. 

108 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORSINI 


1714 


OSCEOLA 


srai  was  made  pope  in  1277,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas 
III.  In  1503  FRANCESCO  and  PAOLO  ORSINI  were  assas 
sinated  by  order  of  Caesar  Borgia,  and  about  the  same 
time  Cardinal  Orsini  was  poisoned  at  Rome  by  Pope 
Alexander  VI. 

Orsini,  (FELICE,)  an  Italian  revolutionist,  born  at 
Meldola  in  1819.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolu 
tionary  movements  of  1848,  after  which  he  continued  to 
conspire  against  the  government.  lie  was  confined  in 
prison  at  Mantua  about  1854,  but  escaped  in  1856  and 
went  to  England.  He  was  the  chief  of  a  band  of  con 
spirators  who  attempted  to  assassinate  Napoleon  III.  in 
January,  1858,  by  bombs  or  explosive  apparatus.  He 
was  executed  in  March,  1858. 

Orsini,  (FULVIO.)     See  URSINUS  FULVIUS. 

Orsini,  POPE.     See  BENEDICT  XIII. 

Orsted.     See  OERSTED. 

Orta,  (GARCIA  DA.)     See  HORTO. 

Ortega,  oR-ta'ga,  (CASIMIR  GOMEZ,)  a  Spanish  bot 
anist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1730.  He  published  an  "Ele 
mental  Course  of  Botany,"  and  other  treatises  of  the 
kind.  The  name  of  Ortegia  has  been  given  to  a  genus 
of  plants.  Died  in  1810. 

Ortelius,  van,  vfn  or-ta'le-iis,  Ortel,  or  Oertel, 
dR'tel,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  eminent  geographer  and  mathe 
matician,  apparently  of  German  extraction,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1527.  After  travelling  in  England  and  on 
the  continent,  he  published  in  1570  his  "Universal 
Geography,"  ("Theatrum  Orbis  Terrarum,")  and  in 
1575  was  appointed  geographer  to  Philip  II.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Mercator,  Justus  Lipsius,  and  other 
eminent  men  of  the  time.  Besides  the  above-mentioned 
work,  which  is  still  highly  valued,  and  which  obtained 
for  its  author  the  name  of  the  "Ptolemy  of  his  age," 
Oertel  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1598. 

See  F.  SWEERT,  "  Insignium  ejus  /Evi  Poetarum  Lacrymas  in 
Obitum  A.  Ortelii,"  1601. 

Ortigue,  d',  doR'teg',  (JOSEPH  Louis,)  a  French  jour 
nalist  and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1802. 
He  became  professor  de  chant  at  the  College  Henri  IV., 
Paris,  in  1839. 

Ortigue,  d',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  novelist,  born  at  Apt 
in  1610.  He  wrote  several  novels,  and  "The  Art  of 
Pleasing  in  Conversation,"  (1688.)  Died  in  1693. 

Ortiz,  oR-teth',  (ALONZO,)  a  Spanish  historian  and 
theologian,  born  at  Toledo,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Ortolan,  OR'IO'I&N',  (JOSEPH  Louis  ELZEAR,  )  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Toulon  (Var)  in  1802.  He  pub 
lished  in  1827  his  principal  work,  a  "Historical  Expli 
cation  of  the  Institutes  of  Justinian,"  (3  vols.,)  which  is 
considered  classic  in  several  universities  of  Europe. 

Or'ton,  (Jon,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Shrewsbury  in  1717.  He  preached  at  Shrews 
bury  about  twenty-four  years,  and  removed  to  Kid 
derminster  about  1766.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Dr. 
Doddriclge,"  "  Sacramental  Meditations,"  and  other  re 
ligious  works.  Died  in  1783. 

Orton,  (REGINALD,)  an  English  surgeon  and  medical 
•writer,  born  in  1810.  He  practised  at  Sunderland, 
where  he  died  in  September,  1862. 

Orts,  oRts,  (CHARLES,)  a  Belgian  politician,  born  at 
Brussels  about  1815.  He  is  an  orator  of  the  Liberal  party. 

Orus.     See  HORUS. 

Orville,  d',  doR'vel',  (JACQUES  PHILIPPE,)  a  distin 
guished  critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1696, 
was  descended  from  a  French  family.  After  having 
visited  England,  Italy,  and  Paris,  where  he  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Bentley,  Muratori,  Montfaucon,  and- other 
eminent  men,  he  became  professor  of  humanities  at 
Amsterdam  about  1730.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  criticisms  on  the  classics,  and  a  "  Dissertation 
on  the  Inscriptions  of  Delos,"  which  is  particularly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1751. 

Orvilliers,  d',  doR've'ye-i',  (Louis  GUILLOUET, ) 
COUNT,  a  French  admiral,  was  born  at  Moulins  in  1708. 
He  commanded  a  large  fleet  which  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  English  under  Keppel,  near  Ushant, 
in  1778.  Died  after  1791. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 


Orzechowski,  oR-za-Kov'skee,  [Lat.  ORICHO'VIUS,] 
(STANISLAUS,)  a  Polish  orator  and  historian,  born  in 
1513,  studied  theology  under  Luther  at  Wittenberg. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Annals  of  Poland 
from  the  Death  of  Sigismund,"  ("Annales  Poloniae," 
etc.,  1611.)  Died  in  1567. 

Os,  van,  vSn  oss,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  artist,  born  at  Mid- 
delharnis  in  1744,  excelled  as  a  fruit-  and  flower-painter. 
He  was  regarded  as  the  most  successful  imitator  of  Van 
Huysum.  Died  in  1808.  His  son  PIETER  GERARDUS, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1776,  painted  landscapes  with 
animals  of  various  kinds,  which  are  esteemed  master 
pieces.  Died  in  1839.  GEORG  JACOB  JAN,  younger 
brother  of  Pieter,  was  born  in  1782,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  flower-painter.  He  visited  France  in 
1812,  where  he  painted  for  the  porcelain-manufactory  at 
Sevres.  In  1850  one  of  his  flower-pieces  sold  at  Am 
sterdam  for  four  thousand  five  hundred  florins. 

Osaibia,  o-si'be-a,  or,  more  fully,  Ibn-Abi-Osaibia, 
ib'n  a'bee  o-si'be-a,  written  also  Osaiba,  an  Arabian 
physician,  born  in  1203.  He  practised  at  Sarchad,  in 
Syria,  and  wrote  "  Fontes  Relationum  de  Classibus 
Medicorum,"  which  contains  biographical  notices  of 
many  ancient  physicians,  and  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1269. 

Osann,  o-zan',  (EMIL,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Weimar  in  1787,  was  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Hufe- 
land.  After  filling  various  professorships,  he  became  in 
1838  privy  councillor  of  medicine  at  Berlin.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  mineral  waters.  Died  in  1842. 

Osann,  (FRIEDRICH  GOTTHILF,)  a  German  antiquary 
and  philologist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1794.  In  1825  he 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Giessen. 
Among  his  most  important  works  we  may  name  his 
"Contributions  to  the  History  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1835-39.)  Died  in  1858. 

Osbeck,  os'be'k,  (PETER,)  a  Swedish  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  near  Gottemburg  in  1723.  He  published 
a  "Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  the  East  Indies,"  (1757,) 
which  is  a  work  of  merit.  Died  in  1805. 

Os'born,  (JoHN,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
1766.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  Died  in  1819. 

Osborn,  (SELI.ECK,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1783  ;  died  in  1826. 

Os'born,  (SHERARD,)  CAPTAIN, a  British  naval  officer 
and  writer,  born  about  1820.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Career,  Last  Voyage,  and  Fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin." 

Osborne,  oz'burn,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Bedfordshire  about  1589,  was  an  adherent  of  Crom 
well  in  the  civil  war.  His  "Advice  to  a  Son,"  published 
in  16^9,  was  very  popular  at  the  time.  He  also  wrote 
several  historical  and  biographical  works.  Died  in  1659. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Osborne,  oz'burn,  (GEORGE,)  a  composer  and  pianist, 
born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1806. 

Osborne,  (RALPH  BERNAL,)  an  English  Liberafmem- 
ber  of  Parliament,  noted  for  his  wit  and  facetious 
speeches.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1841, 
was  returned  for  Middlesex  in  1847,  f°r  Dover  in  1857, 
for  Liskeard  in  1859,  and  for  Waterford  in  1870. 

Osborne,  (Sir  THOMAS.)     See  DANBY,  EARL  OF. 

Os'caror  Os'kar  I.,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in  Paris  in 
1799,  was  the  son  of  General  Bernadotte,  (Carl  XIV.  of 
Sweden.)  He  married  Josephine,  a  daughter  of  Eugene 
de  Beauharnais,  in  1823,  and  acted  as  regent  during 
the  illness  of  his  father  in  1828.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  March,  1844.  His  reign  was  pacific.  Died  in  1859. 

See  G.  H.  MELLIN,  "Oscar  I.  Historia,"  1844;  "  Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  February,  1848. 

Os-ge-o'la  or  As-se-h5'lar  Nik-kan-o'chee,  some 
times  written  Oceola,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Semi- 
noles,  born  in  Florida  in  1803.  His  wife  having  been 
claimed  as  a  slave,  and  carried  off  by  order  of  a  slave 
holder,  in  1835,  Osceola  declared  war  against  the  whites, 
and,  after  fighting  two  years  with  varying  success,  was 
taken  prisoner  and  confined  in  Fort  Moultrie,  where 
he  died  in  1837. 

See  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Early  Days,  etc.  of  Osceola  Nikkanochee," 
by  his  guardian. 


a,  e,  T,  Q,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OS  CU  LAT  I 


1715 


OSSAT 


Osculati,  os-koo-la'tee,  (GAETANO,)  an  Italian  natu 
ralist  and  traveller,  born  at  Veclano,  in  Lombardy,  in 
1808.  He  visited  many  countries  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
South  America,  between  1830  and  1848.  He  published 
a  work  called  "  Exploration  of  the  Equatorial  Region 
near  the  Xapo,"  (1854.) 

Osee,  the  French  for  HOSEA,  which  see. 

Oserof,  Oserov,  or  Oserow,  o'seV-of,  (VLADTSI.AF 
ALEXANDROVITCH,)  a  Russian  dramatist,  born  in  1770. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Polixena," 
"  Fingal,"  and  "The  Death  of  Olga."  He  also  pub 
lished  a  collection  of  lyric  poems.  Died  in  1816. 

See  GRETCH,  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Os'good,  (DAVID,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congrega 
tional  divine,  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1747, 
settled  as  pastor  at  Medford,  where  he  preached  many 
years.  Died  in  1822. 

Osgood,  (FRANCES  SARGENT,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Boston  about  1812.  At  an  early  age  she  con 
tributed  a  number  of  poems  to  the  "  Juvenile  Miscellany," 
edited  by  Mrs.  L.  M.  Child,  and  subsequently  wrote  for 
'the  "Ladies'  Magazine."  She  was  married  in  1835  to 
Mr.  S.  S.  Osgood,  a  distinguished  artist.  While  re 
siding  with  her  husband  in  London,  she  published  a  col 
lection  of  poems  entitled  "A  Wreath  of  Wild  Flowers 
from  New  England,"  which  were  favourably  received. 
After  her  return  she  edited  the  souvenirs  entitled  "  The 
Floral  Offering"  and  "  The  Poetry  of  Flowers."  Died 
in  1850. 

See  GRISVVOLD,  "  Female  Poets  of  America ;"  CLEVELAND, 
"Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Osgood,  (SAMUEL,)  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts, 
in  1748,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1781.  He  was  ap 
pointed  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  (1785,)  post 
master-general,  (1789,)  and  naval  officer  for  the  port  of 
New  York,  (1803.)  Died  in  1813. 

Osgood,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1812, 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah,  Xew 
York,  in  1849.  He  has  published  "Studies  in  Chris 
tian  Biography,"  (1851,)  "God  with  Men,"  (1854,)  and 
"  Milestones  in  our  Life-Journey,"  (1855.)  He  has  also 
made  translations  from  the  German,  and  contributed  to 
the  "  North  American  Review,"  "Christian  Examiner," 
and  "Bibliotheca  Sacra." 

Osiander,  o-ze-an'der,  (ANDREAS,)  originally  Hose- 
marin,  a  German  theologian,  and  one  of  the  first  schol 
ars  of  his  time,  was  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1498.  He 
was  a  devoted  adherent  of  Luther,  and  was  present  at  the 
Conference  of  Marburg  in  1529,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Augs 
burg  in  1530.  He  became  subsequently  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  About  1549 
he  engaged  in  a  controversy  on  the  nature  of  repentance 
and  other  points  of  doctrine  with  Martin  Chemnitz  and 
Melanchthon.  He  died  in  1552,  leaving  a  number  of 
theological  and  controversial  treatises. 

See  Wit.KEN',  "Andreas  Osianders  Leben,"  1844;  M.  ADAM, 
"Viue  Theologorum  Germanorum." 

Osiander,  (ANDREAS,)  a  son  of  Lucas,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  1562.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1617. 

Osiander,  (JOHANN  ADAM,)  born  at  Tubingen  in 
1626,  was  professor  of  theology  in  that  city.  He  wrote 
a  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  (1676—78,)  and  on 
other  books  of  Scripture.  Died  in  1697. 

Osiander,  (JOHANN  ADAM,)  a  philologist,  born  at 
Tubingen  in  1701,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1756. 

Osiander,  (LUCAS,)  THE  ELDER,  a  son  of  Andreas, 
(1498-1552,)  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1534.  He  was 
appointed  in  1567  court  preacher  to  Duke  Frederick  of 
Wiirtemberg,  and  published  several  polemical  treatises. 
Died  in  1604. 

Osiander,  (LUCAS,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  about  1570.  He  became 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tiibingen.  His  writings 
are  chiefly  controversial.  Died  in  1638. 

Osinski,  o-sens'kee,  (LEWIS,)  a  distinguished  Polish 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  1775.  He  published  in  1804 
an  excellent  translation  of  Corneille's  tragedies  into 


Polish.  Among  his  poems,  which  are  highly  esteemed, 
we  may  name  the  "Ode  to  Copernicus."  Died  in  1838. 

Osio,  o'se-o,  [Lat.  O'sius,]  (FELICE,)  an  Italian  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Milan  in  1587,  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  University  of  Padua  in  1621.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Eulogy  of  Illustrious  Writers," 
and  a  number  of  "Orations."  Died  in  1631. 

O-si'ris,  [Gr.  *Oai/uc,]  the  god  of  the  Nile,  and  one 
of  the  principal  divinities  of  Egypt,  was  said  to  be  the 
husband  of  Isis  and  father  of  Horus.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  author  of  Egyptian  civilization,  and  the  first  who 
taught  the  arts  and  sciences  to  that  nation.  Tradition 
adds  that  he  visited  and  civilized  India,  Arabia,  and 
other  countries,  and  after  his  return  was  murdered  by 
Typhon.  He  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  the 
bull  Apis,  into  which  it  was  supposed  his  soul  migrated 
when  he  was  slain  by  Typhon.  Osiris  and  Isis  are  to 
be  regarded  as  different  manifestations  of  one  divine 
principle,  the  former  representing  the  beneficent  power 
of  nature  in  activity,  the  latter  in  passivity,  so  that 
neither  is  complete  without  the  other ;  and  hence  Osiris, 
according  to  some,  represented  the  life-giving  power  of 
the  sun,  and  Isis  the  fertility  of  the  earth. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Treatise  on  Isis  and  Osiris;"  GUIGNIAUT, 
"Religions  de  1'Antiqtiite,"  Paris.  1825,  book  iii.  chap.  ii. ;  "Bio 
graphic  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Osius.     See  Osio. 

O'sl-us,  Bishop  of  Cordova,  born  in  Spain  in  256 
A.n.,  enjoyed  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Constantine 
the  Great,  who,  on  his  recommendation,  convoked  the 
Council  of  Nice.  He  was  afterwards  induced  by  the 
threats  of  the  emperor  Constantius  to  subscribe  to  the 
Arian  confession  of  faith,  for  which  he  subsequently 
testified  sincere  repentance.  Died  about  358  A.D. 

Oskar.     See  OSCAR. 

Osman.     See  OTHMAN. 

Osman,  os-min',  I.,  written  also  Othman,  Otrnan, 
and  Ottoman,  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  was 
the  son  of  Ortogrul  or  Ertogrul,  a  Toorkoman  chief,  who 
founded  a  colony  near  the  river  Sangar,  in  Asia  Minor. 
Having,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  (1280,)  become  chief 
of  the  tribe,  he  first  invaded  Greece  in  1299,  and  within 
a  few  years  possessed  himself  of  a  large  portion  of  that 
country  and  the  whole  of  the  province  of  Bithynia. 
Osman  never  assumed  the  title  of  Sultan,  though  he  had 
money  coined  and  public  prayers  given  in  his  name. 
As  a  ruler,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  hu 
manity,  and  military  talents.  He  died  in  1326,  leaving  a 
valuable  work  containing  maxims  for  government.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Oorkhan,  (Orkhan.) 

See  Vox  HAMMER.  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Osman  or  Othman  II.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in 
1604,  was  tjie  eldest  son  of  Ahmed  I.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1618,  and  was  assassinated  in  1622. 

Osman  or  Othman  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in 
1696,  was  a  younger  son  of  Mustafa  II.  He  succeeded 
his  brother,  Mahmood  I.,  in  1754.  Died  in  1757. 

Osmond,  d',  dos'miN',  (RENE  EUSTACHE,)  MARQUIS, 
a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Hayti  in  1751.  He  was 
sent  by  Louis  XVIII.  as  ambassador  to  England  in 
1815.  'Died  in  1838. 

Os'muiid  or  Os'mond,  SAINT,  a  celebrated  ecclesi 
astic,  born  in  Normandy,  accompanied  William  the  Con 
queror  to  England  in  1066,  and  was  created  successively 
chancellor,  and  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  In  1099  he  rebuilt 
the  cathedral  of  Salisbury,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire.  He  was  the  compiler  of  the  liturgy  called  the 
"  Usages  of  Sarum."  Died  in  1099. 

See  BUTI.ER,  "Lives  of  the  Saints." 

Osorio,  o-so're-o,  [Lat.  OSO'RIUS,]  (JERONYMO,)  a 
learned  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1506, 
was  Bishop  of  Silves.  Among  his  works  (written  in 
Latin)  are  a  "  History  of  the  Achievements  of  King 
Emanuel,"  and  a  "  Letter  to  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Eng 
land,"  (1555,)  on  the  Catholic  religion.  Died  in  1580. 

See  the  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (1820.) 

Osorius.     See  OSORIO. 

Ossa,  de,  (JACQUES.)     See  JOHN  XXII. 

Ossat,  d',  do'sf,  [Lat.  OSSA'TUS,]  (ARNAUD,)  an  able 
French  diplomatist  and  cardinal,  born  near  Auch  in 
1536.  Having  accompanied  the  ambassador  Paul  de 


as  -6:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as  /:  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p. 


OSSATUS 


1716 


OSTEN-SACKEN 


Foix  to  Rome  as  his  secretary,  (1574,)  he  assisted  in 
promoting  a  reconciliation  between  Henry  IV.  and  the 
pope.  He  published  a  collection  of  "Letters,"  which 
are  esteemed  models  of  diplomatic  sagacity,  and  are 
highly  commended  by  Lord  Chesterfield.  De  Thou 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  d'Ossat  his  poem  on  the  death 
of  Henry  III.  Died  in  1604. 

See  D'ARCONVILLE,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  d'Ossat,"  1771  ;  "  Gailia 
Chrisl>ana  ;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"•  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Ossatus.     See  OSSAT,  D'. 

Osselin,  os'la.N',  (CHARLES  NICOLAS,)  a  French  Ja 
cobin  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  became  in 
1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  enacting  laws  against  the  emigrants. 
He  was  guillotined  in  June,  1794. 

Ossenbeeck,  os'sen-bak',  a  skilful  Dutch  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1627.  He 
worked  many  years  in  Italy,  and  adopted  the  Italian 
style.  Died  in  1678. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais  "  etc. 

Ossian,  osh'e-an,  a  semi-fabulous  Scottish  bard  and 
hero  of  the  third  century,  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Fin- 
gal,  King  of  Morven.  A  pretended  translation  of  his 
poems,  which  was  published  by  James  Macpherson  in 
1765,  gave  rise  to  a  spirited  controversy  among  the 
English  literati  concerning  the  genuineness  of  these 
productions.  (See  MACPHERSON.) 

Ossoli,  os'so-lee,  (originally  SARAH  MARGARET  FUL 
LER,)  MARCHIONESS,  an  American  lady,  whose  talents, 
rare  individuality  of  character,  and  untimely  death  have 
given  to  her  history  a  peculiar  and  tragic  interest,  was 
born  at  Cambridgeport,  in  Massachusetts,  May  23,  1810. 
Under  the  care  of  her  father,  a  lawyer  and  member  of 
Congress,  she  was  early  and  thoroughly  instructed  in 
the  classics.  It  is  related  that  he  used  to  say  of  her, 
while  still  a  child,  that  she  "  knew  more  Latin  and  Greek 
than  half  the  professors."  At  a  very  early  age  she 
had  also  made  great  proficiency  in  French  and  Italian. 
After  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1835.  she  became  teacher 
of  languages  in  Boston,  and  subsequently  principal  of 
a  school  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  In  1839  she 
published  a  translation  of  Eckermann's  "Conversations 
with  Goethe."  She  became  in  1840  editor  of  "The 
Dial,"  a  periodical  instituted  for  the  advocacy  and  dif 
fusion  of  Transcendentalism  in  America,  and  for  which 
she  wrote  a  number  of  admirable  articles  on  literature 
and  art.  Her  critique  on  Goethe  especially,  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  "Dial,"  has  been  greatly  and 
deservedly  praised.  "  Nowhere,"  says  Mr.  Emerson, 
"did  Goethe  find  a  braver,  more  intelligent,  or  more 
sympathetic  reader."  Her  "  Summer  on  the  Lakes,"  a 
vivid  and  truthful  picture  of  prairie-life,  was  published 
in  1843.  Soon  after,  she  took  charge  of  the  literary 
department  of  the  New  York  "Tribune."  In  1846  she 
visited  England,  where  she  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Carlyle  and  other  eminent  men.  From  London  she 
journeyed  through  France  to  Italy.  At  Rome  she  acci 
dentally  became  acquainted  with  the  Marquis  Ossoli,  to 
whom,  though  many  years  younger  than  herself,  she 
was  married  in  December,  1847.  She  to°k  the  deepest 
interest  in  the  cause  of  Italian  liberty,  and  during  the 
siege  of  Rome,  in  1849,  devoted  herself  with  untiring 
assiduity  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  In  May, 
1850,  she  and  her  husband  set  sail  for  America;  but,  a 
violent  storm  having  arisen  when  they  were  near  the 
coast  of  the  United  States,  the  vessel  struck  on  Fire 
Island  beach,  Long  Island,  in  the  morning  of  the  i6th 
of  July,  and  a  few  hours  after  went  to  pieces.  Among 
those  who  perished  were  the  Marquis  and  Marchioness 
Ossoli  and  their  child. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli,"  by  R.  W.  EMERSON, 
WILLIAM  H.  CHANNING,  and  JAMES  F.  CLARKE,  Boston.  1851  :  AL- 
LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  GRISVVOI.D,  "  Prose  Writers  of 
America;"  DCYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature." 

Ossolinski,  os-so-len'skee,  (GEORGE,)  a  Polish  states 
man,  born  in  1595.  He  rose  to  be  grand  chancellor  of 
the  kingdom  of  Poland,  in  which  capacity  he  presided 
over  the  religious  conference  at  Thorn,  where  Vladislaus 
IV.  sought  to  unite  the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  He 
was  also  created  by  Ferdinand  II.  a  prince  of  the  Aus 
trian  empire.  Died  in  1650. 


Ossolinski,  QOZKF  MAXIMILIAN,)  Count  of  Ten- 
czyn,  a  Polish  litterateur,  born  in  1748.  He  removed  to 
Vienna  in  1789,  and  was  appointed  by  Francis  I.  super 
intendent  of  the  Royal  Library.  He  was  the  author  of 
historical  and  critical  treatises,  and  of  a  number  of  tales, 
and  founded  at  Lemberg  the  Institute  called  by  his 
name.  Died  in  1826. 

Ossonne.     See  OSSUNA. 

Os'so-ry,  (THOMAS  BUTLER,)  EARL  OF,  a  gallant 
commander,  born  probably  in  Ireland  in  1634,  was  a  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Ormond.  His  biographer  Locho 
calls  him  a  "model  of  almost  universal  perfection." 
Soon  after  the  restoration  of  1660  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1666  he  was  created  ;i;i 
English  peer,  as  Lord  Butler.  Having  served  wit'i 
distinction  in  several  sea-fights  against  the  Dutch,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral  about  1674.  In 
1677  he  commanded  the  English  troops  that  fought  for 
the  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  battle  of  Mons.  Died  in 
1680.  His  son  became  Duke  of  Ormond. 

See  LODGE,  "  Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages." 

Ossuna  or  Osuna,  os-soon'ya,  |Fr.  OSSOXNE  or 
OSSONE,  o'sor/,]  (Don  PEDRO  Tellez  y  Giron —  tel- 
ye'th'  e  He-r6n',)  DUKE  OF,  a  celebrated  Spanish  states 
man,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1579.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  Salamanca,  he  repaired  to  the  court  of  Philip 
II.,  from  which,  in  consequence  of  indulging  his  caustic 
wit,  he  was  banished.  Having  spent  some  time  in  France 
and  Portugal,  he  returned  to  Spain  on  the  death  of  Philip 
II.,  but  he  again  had  the  misfortune  to  be  exiled  from 
the  court.  He  was  recalled  to  Spain  in  1607,  and  was 
created  a  member  of  the  council  and  knight  of  the 
golden  fleece.  Through  his  influence  the  independence 
of  Holland  was  acknowledged  in  the  treaty  of  1609,  and 
he  opposed  warmly,  though  unsuccessfully,  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors,  which  took  place  about  this  time.  In 
1611  he  was  sent  as  viceroy  to  Sicily,  and  in  1616  filled 
the  same  office  at  Naples,  where  he  defended  the  people 
against  the  oppressions  of  the  nobles  and  the  clergy. 
He  gained  a  signal  victory  in  1617  over  the  Venetians, 
who  had  claimed  exclusive  rule  over  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
Having  refused  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into  Naples 
when  required  to  do  so  by  Philip  III.,  and  being  sus 
pected  of  aspiring  to  supreme  power,  Ossuna  was  super 
seded  by  Cardinal  Borgia  in  1620.  He  died  in  prison 
in  1624,  after  three  years'  imprisonment  in  Spain. 

See  GRKC.ORIO-LKTF,  "  Vitadi  P.  Giron,  Ducad'Ossunna,"  3  vols., 
i6gS;  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Ostade,  van,  vtn  os'ta'deh,  (ADRIAN,)  a  celebrated 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1610,  was  a 
pupil  of  Rembrandt  and  of  Francis  Hals.  His  subjects 
were  generally  taken  from  low  life,  such  as  tavern  scenes, 
peasants  drinking  and  smoking,  and  the  interiors  of  cot 
tages.  His  pictures  are  exceedingly  spirited  and  true  to 
nature,  and  are  distinguished  for  splendour  and  trans 
parency  of  colouring.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  "The 
Fish-Market,"  "A  Smoker  Lighting  his  Pipe,"  and 
"  The  Family  of  Adrian  van  Ostade."  He  worked  many 
years  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1685. 

gee  WRYF.RM AN,"  De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders  :"  CHARLES 
P.LANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres;"  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres 
Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ostade,  van,  (ISAAC,)  a  painter,  a  younger  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lubeck  about  1615.  His 
style  resembled  that  of  Adrian.  He  worked  at  Amster 
dam,  and  painted  landscapes  which  are  greatly  admired. 
He  excelled  in  representing  animals  and  in  village 
scenes.  His  death  is  variously  dated  from  about  1654 
to  1671. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Osteii-Sacken,  os'ten-sak'ken,  (DMITRI,)  a  Russian 
general,  born  in  1790,  served  under  Paskievitch  in  the 
war  against  the  Persians,  (1826-29,)  anc^  afterwards  fought 
with  distinction  against  the  Poles  in  1831.  He  defended 
Odessa  with  success  against  the  allies  in  May,  1854. 

Osten-Sacken,  von  der,  fon  der  os'ten-sak'ken, 
(FABIAN  WILHELM,)  PRINCE,  a  Russian  field-marshal, 
born  in  Livonia  in  1752.  He  served  under  Suwarow 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812-15.  In  1818  he  succeeded  Bar- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short :  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


OSTERHAUS 


1717 


OTHO 


clay  de  Tolly  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  first  army, 
and  in  1826  was  made  a  field-marshal.  Died  in  1837. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Osterhaus,  os'ter-howss',  (PETER  J.,)  a  general,  born 
in  Prussia,  entered  the  service  of  the  United  States  in 
1861,  commanded  a  division  or  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  June  of  that  year.  He  took  part  in  the  assault 
on  Vicksburg,  May  22,  1863,  and  commanded  a  corps  of 
Sherman's  army  in  the  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah, 
November-December,  1864. 

Osterley.     See  OESTERI.EY. 

Ostermann,  os'ter-man',  (HEINRICH  JOHANN  FRIF.D- 
Ricif,)  a  celebrated  diplomatist,  born  in  Westphalia  in 
1686,  assumed  the  name  of  ANDREI  IVANOVITCH.  In 
1704  he  entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia, 
for  whom  he  negotiated  the  peace  of  Xystadt  in  1721. 
After  filling  various  high  offices  under  Peter,  he  was,  on 
the  death  of  that  monarch,  patronized  by  the  empress 
Catherine  I.,  who  made  him  vice-chancellor,  and  by  her 
will  appointed  him  governor  to  her  son  Peter  II.  and  a 
member  of  the  council  of  regency.  In  1730  he  was 
created  a  count  by  Peter  II.  After  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  (1741)  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died 
in  1747. 

See  HEMPEL,  "  Leben  und  Fall  des  Grafen  von  Ostermann,"  1742. 

Ostermaim-Tolstoi,  os'ter-man'  tol'stoi,  (ALEX 
ANDER  IVANOVITCH,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general,  born 
at  Saint  Petersburg  about  1770.  He  served  in  the  cam 
paigns  of  1806  and  1812,  and  distinguished  himself 
particularly  at  the  battle  of  Kulm,  (1813.)  He  was 
afterwards  made  general-in-chief  of  engineers  by  the 
emperor  Alexander.  Died  in  1837. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire." 

Ostervald,  os'ter-valt',  (JEAN  FREDERIC,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  eminent  for  learning  and  piety,  bom 
at  Xeufchatel  in  1663.  He  published  an  "Abridgment 
of  the  History  of  the  Bible,"  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in 
French,  which  is  called  by  his  name,  "  Christian  Ethics," 
and  a  "Catechism."  He  preached  many  years  at  Xeuf 
chatel.  Died  in  1747. 

Ostrog,  os'tRog,  (CONSTANTINE,)  DUKE  OF,  a  Polish 
nobleman,  distinguished  himself  by  his  hostility  to  the 
Jesuits  and  to  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches.  He  endeavoured  at  the  Synod  of  Thorn  to 
effect  a  union  with  the  Protestants  of  Poland.  He  pub 
lished  in  1581  the  old  Slavonian  translation  of  the  Bible 
called  by  his  name.  Died  in  1608. 

Ostrog,  (  CONSTANTINE  VASILII,  )  was  created  by 
Sigismuncl,  King  of  Poland,  grand  commander  of  Lithu 
ania,  and  in  1514  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Russians  at  Orsza. 

Ostrovsky  or  Ostrowski,  os-trof'skee,  (A.  X.,)  a 
popular  Russian  dramatist  of  the  present  age.  He 
began  his  literary  career  about  1850.  His  works  were 
published  in  4  vols.,  1859-67. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1868. 

Osuna.     See  OSSUXA. 

Oswald,  os'walt,  (ERASMUS,)  a  German  mathema 
tician  and  biblical  writer,  born  in  Austria  in  1511.  He 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Tubingen  and  at  Freiburg. 
He  translated  the  Xew  Testament  into  Hebrew.  Died 
in  1579. 

Os'wald,  SAINT,  King  of  Xorthumbria,  born  in  604 
or  605  A.n.  He  defeated  Cadwalla,  King  of  Wales,  and 
was  killed  in  a  battle  against  Penda,  King  of  Mercia,  in 
642  A.D. 

Os-y-man'dy-as,  an  ancient  Egyptian  king,  to  whom 
the  Memnonium  and  other  magnificent  structures  of 
Thebes  are  attributed,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished 
about  2000  B.C.  His  name,  according  to  Strabo,  is  only 
a  variation  of  Ismandes.  He  is  also  famed  for  his  con 
quests  over  the  Bactrians,  and  his  exploits  were  repre 
sented  on  the  walls  of  an  immense  temple  which  he  built 
at  Thebes.  This  edifice,  which  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  antiquity,  contained  the  first  library  of 
which  we  have  any  account. 

Ot-a-cil'i-a  Se-ve'ra,  (MARCIA,)  wife  of  the  Roman 
emperor  M.  Julius  Philippus,  lived  about  250  A.D. 

Otfried,  oVfRet,  [Lat.  OTFRI'DUS,]  a  learned  German 
monk  of  the  ninth  century,  supposed  to  have  been  a 


native  of  Franconia.  His  poetical  version  of  the  Gospels, 
published  about  868,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
valuable  monuments  of  the  old  German  language. 

Otfridus.     See  OTFRIED. 

Other.     See  OTTAR. 

Othman,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  OSMAN. 

Othmau-Ibii-Affan,  oth'm'tn'  ib'n  af  tin',  the  third 
of  the  caliphs  who  succeeded  Mohammed,  was  a  distant 
relative  and  a  devoted  follower  of  the  prophet.  He 
was  invested  with  the  caliphate  in  644  A.D.  He  made 
extensive  conquests  in  Persia,  Africa,  and  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  but  he  rendered  himself  unpopular  by  the  favours 
he  lavished  upon  his  relatives  and  friends.  Through 
the  intrigues  of  Ayeshah,  widow  of  the  prophet,  and  a 
number  of  disaffected  nobles,  a  conspiracy  svas  formed 
against  his  life,  and  he  perished  by  the  hand  of  Mo 
hammed,  son  of  the  caliph  Aboo-Bekr,  in  656  A.D.  Oth 
man  was  married  successively  to  two  daughters  of  the 
prophet  Mohammed. 

SeeOcKLEY,  "  History  of  the  Saracens  :"  IRVING,  "  Mahomet  and 
his  Successors;"  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Othrnan-Ibn-Yahya-Alkaisee,  (-Alcaisi,)  oth'- 
mtn'  ib'n  ya'he-3.  al-ki'see,  a  Spanish  Arab  of  distin 
guished  talents  and  learning,  was  born  at  Malaga  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  rose  to  be  governor  of  that  city. 
He  wrote  treatises  "  De  Haereditate"  and  "  De  Mensuris 
Hispanis,"  and  a  work  entitled  "  Grammatical  Ques 
tions,"  ("Quaesita  Grammatica.")  Died  in  1334. 

O'tho,  [Fr.  OTHON,  o't6.\',]  (MARCUS  SALVIUS,)  Em 
peror  of  Rome,  born  about  32  A.D.,  was  descended  from 
a  patrician  family.  He  was  for  a  time  an  intimate  asso 
ciate  of  Xero,  until  the  attachment  of  the  latter  for  Pop- 
paea,  Otho's  wife,  caused  a  rupture  between  them.  He 
supported  Galba  in  his  revolt  against  Xero,  in  68  A.D., 
but,  disappointed  that  the  former  did  not  appoint  him 
his  successor,  he  conspired  with  the  guards,  took  the 
life  of  Galba,  and  assumed  the  supreme  power.  He  soon 
after  marched  against  Caecina,  a  general  of  Vitellius, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  in 
Germany.  His  army  having  been  totally  defeated  near 
Bebriacum,  Otho  destroyed  himself  in  April,  69  A.D., 
and  was  succeeded  by  Vitellius.  Otho  was  a  man  of 
profligate  character. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Otho;"  MEI^VAI.E,  "The  Romans 
under  the  Empire  :"  SUETONIUS,  "Otho;"  W.  E.  WEBER,  "Kaiser 
M.  Salvius  Otho,"  1815;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

O'tho  [Fr.  OTHON,  O'ION'  ;  Ger.  OT'TO]  1,  THE 
GREAT,  son  of  Henry  I.,  was  born  in  912  A.D.,  and  suc 
ceeded  his  father  as  Emperor  of  Germany  in  936.  Soon 
after  his  accession  he  was  involved  in  a  protracted  war 
with  Boleslaw,  Duke  of  Bohemia,  whom  he  compelled  to 
acknowledge  his  supremacy,  (950.)  He  repressed  the 
arrogance  of  the  feudal  barons,  founded  numerous  bish 
oprics,  and  was  zealous  in  his  efforts  to  propagate  Chris 
tianity.  He  defeated  Harold,  King  of  the  Danes,  whom 
he  obliged  to  be  baptized  and  to  become  tributary  to 
Germany.  In  951  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Ital 
ians  against  the  usurper  Berengarius,  who  had  murdered 
King  Lotharius  and  imprisoned  Adelaide,  his  queen, 
whom  Otho  married  the  same  year.  He  was  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  by  Pope  John  XII.  in  962,  and  as 
sumed  the  title  of  Caesar.  The  pope,  having  soon  after 
conspired  with  the  enemies  of  Otho,  was  deposed  by  him, 
and  Leo  VIII.  elected  in  his  place.  In  972  his  son, 
Otho  II.,  whom  he  had  previously  caused  to  be  crowned 
at  Rome,  married  the  princess  Theophania,  daughter  of 
Xicephorus  Phocas,  Emperor  of  the  East.  Otho  died 
'n  973-  "He  deserves,"  says  Sismondi,  "more  than 
Charlemagne  the  name  of  Great,  because  his  reign  had 
a  much  more  salutary  influence  on  the  nations  whom  he 
subjected."  Other  historians,  however,  have  expressed 
a  different  opinion. 

See  VEHSE,  "Leben  Otto  des  Grossen,"  1829;  BOEHVIER,  "Re 
gesta  Ottonum;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Otho  (Otto)  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  955, 
succeeded  his  father,  Otho  I.,  in  973.  King  Lothaire 
of  France,  having  renewed  his  pretensions  to  Lorraine, 
was  opposed  and  signally  defeated  by  Otho.  In  980  he 
concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  investiture  of  Lower 
Lorraine  was  given  to  Charles,  the  brother  of  Lothaire, 
on  condition  of  his  doing  homage  to  the  German  em- 


€  as  -6;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OTHO 


1718 


OTTERBEIN 


peror.  He  afterwards  attempted  the  conquest  of  Cala 
bria  and  Apulia,  but  was  defeated  in  982  by  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Greeks  and  Saracens.  He  died  in  983, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Otho  III. 

See  DIETMAR,  "  Chronicon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

Otho  (Otto)  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  three  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death. 
He  was  crowned  at  Rome  by  Pope  Gregory  V.  in  996. 
While  he  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Slavi,  Crescen- 
tius,  a  Roman  patrician,  deposed  Gregory  V.  and  elected 
in  his  stead  a  Greek  under  the  name  of  John  XVI.  Otho 
advanced  into  Italy,  (998,)  defeated  Crescentius  and  put 
him  to  death,  and  restored  the  former  pope.  lie  died, 
without  issue,  in  1002,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry  II. 
of  Bavaria. 

See  RICHER,  "Chronicon;"   F.  D.  RING,  "  Kaiser  Otto  III.;" 

BOEHMER,  "Re  gesta  Ottonum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Otho  (Otto)  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  about 
1174,  was  the  son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
and  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England.  He  was 
educated  at  the  court  of  his  uncle,  Richard  Cceur-de- 
Lion,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  wars  against  Philip 
Augustus  of  France.  In  1197  he  was  chosen  emperor 
by  a  portion  of  the  electors,  while  others  declared  for 
Philip,  Duke  of  Suabia,  which  gave  rise  to  a  ten  years' 
war.  Pope  Innocent  III.  having  favoured  the  preten 
sions  of  Otho,  he  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1209,  and  in 
return  for  this  favour  conceded  to  the  papal  see  the  right 
of  investiture.  Otho  soon  quarrelled  with  the  pope,  at 
whose  instigation  many  German  princes  and  prelates 
revolted  in  1212  and  elected  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen 
as  emperor.  Otho  was  defeated  at  the  great  battle  of 
Bouvines,  in  1214,  by  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  He 
died  in  1218. 

See  ABEL,  "  Konig  Philipp,"  1852,  and  "  Kaiser  Otto,"  1856  ;  Wi- 
CHERT,  "  DeOttonis  IV.  et  Philippi  Suevi  Certaminibus,"  etc.,  1834; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

O'tho  or  Ot'to,  King  of  Greece,  born  in  1815,  was 
a  son  of  Lewis  I.,  King  of  Bavaria.  He  was  elected 
king  by  the  Greeks  in  1832,  and  their  choice  was  con 
firmed  by  a  treaty  between  France,  England,  and  Russia. 
He  married  Amalia,  a  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Oldenburg,  in  1836^  His  reign  was  unpopular,  and  was 
disturbed  by  insurrections.  He  abdicated  in  October, 
1862.  Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1854,  and  November, 
1863. 

O'tho,  (Lucius  SALVIUS,)  a  Roman  commander,  the 
father  of  the  emperor  Otho,  was  a  favourite  of  Tiberius. 
He  was  consul  in  33  A.D.,  and  afterwards  proconsul  in 
Africa.  He  detected  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
Claudius. 

Otho,  o'to,  (VENius,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ley- 
den  in  1556,  was  one  of  the  instructors  of  Rubens.  He 
worked  some  years  at  Rome.  Died  in  1634. 

Otho  OF  BRANDENBURG,  a  German  poet,  and  Mar 
grave  of  Brandenburg,  was  called  OTHO  WITH  THE 
ARROW.  Died  in  1304. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Otho  (or  Otto)  von  Preisingen,  o'to  fon  fRi'zing'en, 
one  of  the  early  German  chroniclers,  was  the  son  of 
Leopold  IV.,  Margrave  of  Austria,  and  Agnes,  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  In  1137  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Freisingen  by  his  half-brother,  the  emperor 
Conrad  III.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Chronicle  of  the 
World  from  the  Creation  to  his  Own  Time,"  in  seven 
books.  The  first  part  is  chiefly  a  compilation  from  other 
historians,  but  the  last  contains  information  of  great 
value  relative  to  German  history,  being  drawn  from  the 
most  authentic  sources.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa."  Died  in  1158. 

Othon.     See  OTHO. 

O'tis,  (HARRISON  GRAY,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  born  in  Boston  in  October,  1765,  was  a  nephew 
of  James,  noticed  below,  and  a  son  of  Samuel  Allyne 
Otis.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1783,  prac 
tised  law  in  Boston,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Con 
gress  in  1796.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  Federal  party, 
and  was  highly  distinguished  for  his  graceful  eloquence. 
He  was  president  of  the  senate  of  Massachusetts  for 


several  years  between  1805  and  1812,  was  a  member  of 
the  Hartford  Convention  in  1814,  and  was  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  from  1817  to  1822.  In  1820  he  made 
a  speech  in  the  Senate  against  the  extension  of  slavery. 
He  retired  from  public  life  in  1832.  Died  in  Boston  in 
October,  1848. 

Otis,  (  JAMES,)  a  celebrated  American  orator  and 
patriot,  born  at  West  Barnstable,  in  Massachusetts, 
on  the  5th  of  February,  1725,  was  a  son  of  James  Otis, 
a  judge  and  lawyer.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1743,  studied  law,  and  became  a  resident  of  Boston 
about  1750.  'He  was  profoundly  versed  in  classical  litera 
ture,  and  in  1760  published  an  able  work  entitled  "  Rudi 
ments  of  Latin  Prosody,  with  a  Dissertation  on  Letters," 
etc.  He  acquired  distinction  in  1761  by  an  argument 
against  the  writs  of  assistance  for  which  the  officers  of 
the  customs  had  applied.  Referring  to  this  speech,  John 
Adams  said,  "  Otis  was  a  flame  of  fire :  with  a  prompti 
tude  of  classical  allusions,  a  depth  of  research,  a  rapid 
summary  of  historical  events  and  dates,  a  profusion  ot 
legal  authorities,  a  prophetic  glance  of  his  eyes  into 
futurity,  and  a  rapid  torrent  of  impetuous  eloquence, 
he  hurried  away  all  before  him.  American  independence 
was  then  and  there  born.  Every  man  of  an  immense, 
crowded  audience  appeared  to  me  to  go  away,  as  I  did, 
ready  to  take  up  arms  against  writs  of  assistance."  The 
judges  suspended  or  evaded  the  decision  of  the  question, 
lie  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  in  1762,  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  popular  party.  He  was  a  dele 
gate  to  the  Congress  which  met  at  New  York  in  1765, 
and  which  was  called  "  the  Stamp-Act  Congress."  He 
wrote  several  pamphlets  in  defence  of  the  colonies  against 
the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  In  Sep 
tember,  1769,  he  was  assaulted  by  several  ruffians  of  the 
opposite  party,  and  received  a  severe  wound  in  the  head, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  became  partially  deranged, 
or  permanently  disqualified  for  usefulness.  A  man  named 
Robinson  was  sentenced  to  pay  £2000  for  this  assault, 
but  the  fine  was  remitted  by  Otis.  He  had  married  Ruth 
Cunningham,  of  Boston.  He  was  killed  by  lightning  at 
Andover  in  May,  1783. 

See  WILLIAM  TUDOR,  "Life  of  James  Otis,"  1823;  FRANCIS 
BOWEN,  "  Lite  of  James  Otis,"  in  SPARKS'S  "American  Biography," 
vol.  ii.,  2d  series;  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1823. 

Otis,  (JOSEPH,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  born  in  1728,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  1810. 

Otis,  (SAMUEL  ALLYNE,)  a  younger  brother  of  James 
Otis,  and  father  of  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  noticed  above, 
became  a  member  of  Congress  in  1788,  and  was  secre 
tary  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  twenty-five 
years,  from  1789  to  1814.  Died  at  Washington  in  1814, 
aged  seventy-three. 

Otranto,  DUKE  OF.     See  FOUCHE. 

Ott,  ot,  (JOHANN  BAPTIST,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1661.  He  became  professor  of  He 
brew  at  Zurich  about  1702,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian 
treatises. 

Ott,  ( JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  Swiss  divine  and  Orien 
talist,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich  in  1617.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence 
and  Hebrew  at  Zurich  about  1654.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  theology,  etc.  Died  in  1682. 

Ottar,  ot'tar,  written  also  Other  and  Ohther,  a  Nor 
wegian  traveller,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth  century, 
visited  the  court  of  Alfred,  King  of  England.  Having 
given  to  that  monarch  an  account  of  his  voyages  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  it  was  inserted  bv  him  in  his  Anglo- 
Saxon  version  of  Orosius.  This  narrative  possesses 
great  interest,  as  giving  the  earliest  information  respect 
ing  those  countries. 

Otter,  ot'ter,  (JOHAN,)  a  Swedish  philologist,  born  at 
Christianstadt  in  1707.  After  a  residence  of  ten  years 
in  Asia  and  Turkey,  he  was  appointed  interpreter  for  the 
Oriental  tongues  at  the  Royal  Library  in  Paris,  and  in 
1746  was  made  professor  of  Arabic.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Turkey  and  Persia."  Died  in  1748. 

Otterbein,  ot'ter-bln',  (PHILIP  WILLIAM,)  born  at 
Dillenburg,  Germany,  in  1726,  emigrated  in  1752  to 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  founded  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ.  Died  in  1813. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OTTIN 


1719 


OUDINOT 


Ottin,  o'taN',  (AucusTE  Louis  MARIE,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize  in  1836,  and  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1846. 

Ottinger.     See  OKTTINGER. 

Ott'ley,  (WILLIAM  YOUNG,)  an  English  artist,  con 
noisseur,  and  able  writer  on  art,  born  in  1771.  He  re 
sided  for  many  years  in  Italy,  where  he  made  a  large  and 
choice  collection  of  paintings  and  engravings.  After  his 
return  he  published  a  superb  work  entitled  "The  Italian 
School  of  Design  ;  being  Fac-Similes  of  Original  Draw 
ings  by  Eminent  Italian  Painters  and  Sculptors,"  (3  vols., 
1808-23.)  In  1833  he  became  keeper  of  the  prints  in 
the  British  Museum.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Among  his 
chief  works  is  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Early 
History  of  Engraving  on  Copper  and  on  Wood,"  (2 
vols.,  1816.)  Died  in  1836. 

Ottmer,  ot'mer,  (KARL  THF.ODOR,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  architect,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1800.  In  1824  he 
completed  the  new  theatre  at  Berlin,  and  a  few  years 
later  the  Academy  of  Singing  in  the  same  place.  His 
greatest  work  is  the  palace  of  William,  Duke  of  Bruns 
wick,  finished  in  1837,  an  edifice  of  great  size  and  re 
markable  elegance,  at  Brunswick.  Died  in  1843. 

Otto,  the  German  for  OTHO,  which  see. 

Ot'to,  (CARL,)  a  Danish  medical  writer,  born  in  Saint 
Thomas,  West  Indies,  in  1795.  He  became  professor 
of  pharmacy  at  Copenhagen  in  1840. 

Ot'to,  (EvERARD,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Hamm 
in  1685.  He  published  "Treasury  of  Roman  Law," 
("Thesaurus  Juris  Romani,"  4  vols.,  1725-29.)  Died 
at  Bremen  in  1756. 

Otto,  (FRIEDRICH  JULIAN,)  a  German  savant,  born  in 
Saxony  in  1809.  He  was  appointed  successively  pro 
fessor  of  chemistry  (1835)  and  member  of  the  College 
of  Health  at  Brunswick,  (1836.)  He  published  a  "  Manual 
for  the  Rational  Practice  of  Agriculture,"  (1849-50,)  and 
several  chemical  works. 

Otto,  o'to',  (Louis  GUILLAUME,)  Comte  de  Mosloy, 
(mo'lwa',)  a  distinguished  diplomatist,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1754.  Having  studied  at  Strasburg, 
he  accompanied  the  French  minister  Luzerne  to  the 
United  States  in  1779.  After  his  return  he  was  sent,  in 
1800,  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  London,  and  in  1809 
was  appointed  by  Napoleon  to  negotiate  his  marriage 
with  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  having  previously 
been  made  Count  of  Mosloy  and  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour.  In  1813  he  became  minister  of  state. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  THIKRS,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;" 
BIGNON,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  Napoleon." 

Ottocar,  ot/to-kaR',  (Ottokar,)  II.,  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  a  son  of  Wenceslas  I.,  and  began  to  reign  in  1253. 
He  obtained  Austria  and  Styria  by  marriage,  and  extended 
his  dominions  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Adriatic.  His 
ambition  to  be  emperor  involved  him  in  a  war  with 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1278. 

Ottokar  or  Ottocar,  ot'to-kak',  [Lat.  OTTOCA'RUS,] 
a  German  poet  and  chronicler,  born  in  Styria  about 
1250.  He  wrote,  between  1300  and  1316,  a  rhymed 
chronicle  of  Austria  and  Styria. 

See  T.  JACOBI,  "De  Ottocaro  Chronico  Austriaco." 

Ottokar,  (AMADEUS,)  the  assumed  name  of  GEORG 
FRIEDRICH  DAUMER.  See  DAUMER. 

Ottokar  von  Horneck.     See  HORNECK,  VON. 

Ot'way,  (Sir  ROHERT,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1772;  died  in  1846. 

Otway,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  English  dramatist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1651.  Having  been  unsuccessful  as 
an  actor,  he  applied  himself  to  dramatic  writing,  and  in 
1675  published  his  tragedy  of  "Alcibiades."  This  was 
soon  followed  by  "  Don  Carlos,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour.  In  1677  he  obtained  from  the  Earl 
of  Plymouth  a  situation  as  cornet  of  dragoons  in  the 
army  of  Flanders  ;  but,  soon  becoming  dissatisfied  with 
military  life,  he  again  gave  his  attention  to  the  drama. 
In  1680  the  tragedy  of  "The  Orphan"  appeared,  and  in 
1682  his  "Venice  Preserved."  These  two  are  charac 
terized  by  Hallam  as  "  having  a  deep  pathos,  a  dramatic 
eloquence  rapid  and  flowing,  and  sometimes  very  grace 
ful  poetry ;"  and  he  adds,  "  The  '  Venice  Preserved'  is 


more  frequently  represented  than  any  tragedy  after  those 
of  Shakspeare."  Among  Otway's  other  plays  we  may 
cite  "Caius  Marius,"and  a  comedy  called  "The  Soldier's 
Fortune."  He  also  translated  and  remodelled  the  "  Titus 
and  Berenice"  of  Racine,  and  Moliere's  "  Fourberies  de 
Scapin."  He  died  in  1685,  in  a  state  of  extreme  desti 
tution  ;  and  some  accounts  state  that  his  death  was 
caused  by  hunger. 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  "  Life  of  Otway,"  pre 
fixed  to  the  edition  of  his  works,  1813;  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets." 

Oudenaerde.  See  AUDENAERDE. 

Oudeiidorp,  van,  vSn  ow'den-doRp',  (FRANS,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1696,  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric  in  his 
native  city.  He  published  excellent  editions  of  Julius 
Obsequens,  Lucan,  Suetonius,  and  other  classics,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Use  of  Ancient 
Inscriptions."  Died  in  1761. 

Oudet,  oo'di',  (JACQUES  JOSEPH,)  a  French  officer, 
born  at  Meynal  in  1773,  was  a  zealous  republican.  He 
was  an  active  member  of  the  secret  society  called  Phila- 
delphes.  He  was  killed  at  Wagram  in  1809. 

See  NODIER,  "  Histoire  des  Socie"tes  secretes,"  1814. 

Oudin,  oo'daN',  (CASIMIR,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Mezieres  in  1638.  He  published  a  "Commen 
tary  on  Ancient  Ecclesiastical  Writers,"  and  several 
other  works.  Died  in  1717. 

Oudin,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Champagne  in  1673.  He  wrote  a  number  of  elegant 
Latin  poems,  and  theological  and  biographical  treatises. 
Died  in  1752. 

Oudine,  oo'de'na',  (EUGENE  ANDRE,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor  and  engraver  of  medals,  born  in  Paris 
in  1810.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1831,  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1839  for  engraving,  and  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  for  sculpture  in  1843.  Among 
his  engraved  works  is  a  medal  entitled  the  "  Apotheosis 
of  Napoleon  I." 

Oudinet,  oo'de'nk',  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French  an 
tiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1643,  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  medals  in  the  Royal  Cabinet  in  Paris.  In  1701 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
He  published  several  valuable  treatises  on  medals.  Died 
in  1712. 

Oudinot,  oo'de'no',  (CHARLES  NICOLAS  VICTOR,) 
Due  de  Reggio,  a  general,  a  son  of  the  following,  was 
born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1791.  He  served  as  captain  in 
the  Russian  campaign,  (1812,)  and  became  a  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1822.  He  commanded  the  French  army  sent 
in  1849  to  Rome  to  protect  the  pope  against  his  subjects. 
Having  occupied  the  city  after  a  short  siege,  July,  1849, 
he  returned  to  France.  He  opposed  Louis  Napoleon  in 
the  coup  (ftiatoi  December  2,  1851,  after  which  he  was 
not  employed  in  public  service.  Died  in  1863. 

Oudinot,  (NICOLAS  CHARLES,)  Due  de  Reggio,  (r4'- 
zho',)  a  distinguished  French  general,  was  born  at  Bar- 
sur-Ornain  in  1767.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel 
in  1793,  and  resisted  about  10,000  Austrians  with  one 
regiment  for  eight  hours  in  1794.  For  this  service  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  general  of  brigade.  He 
took  Treves  in  1794,  and  received  five  wounds  in  an 
action  near  Mannheim  in  October,  1795.  In  1799  ne 
became  a  general  of  division,  and  chief  of  the  staff  in 
the  army  of  Massena,  under  whom  he  served  at  the 
siege  of  Genoa,  in  1800.  Having  received  command  of 
ten  battalions  of  grenadiers  in  1805.  he  performed  a 
prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Vienna,  and  took  a 
bridge  over  the  Danube  which  was  defended  by  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  pieces  of  cannon.  He  rendered 
important  services  at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  gained  a 
victory  at  Ostrolenka  in  1807.  At  the  battle  of  Fried- 
land,  June,  1807,  he  resisted  for  a  number  of  hours  an 
army  of  about  75,000  Russians,  and  gave  time  to  the 
rest  of  the  French  army  to  gain  the  victory.  He  main 
tained  his  reputation  in  1809  at  Landshut,  Lobau,  Vienna, 
and  Wagram.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France  in  July,  1809,  and  received  the  title  of  Due 
de  Reggio  in  the  same  year.  In  1813  he  served  at  Lut- 
zen  and  Bautzen,  and  was  defeated  by  Bernadotte  at 
Gross-Beeren.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he  adhered 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


OUDOT 


1720 


OVERBECK 


to  Louis  XVIII.,  who  gave  him  a  high  command  in 
1815.  He  commanded  a  corps  of  the  army  which  in 
vaded  Spain  and  took  Madrid  in  1823.  Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  cles  Francais ;"  L.  DE  LomitNiE, 
"M.  le  Marechal  Oudinot,  par  un  Homme  cle  Rien,"  1844-;  J.  Noi.- 
LET-FABERT,  "  Histoire  de  N.  C.  Oudinot,"  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Ge'neVale." 

Oudot,  oo'do',  (FRANC.OIS  JULIEN,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Ornans  (Doubs)  in  1804.  He  obtained  a  chair 
of  civil  law  in  Paris  about  1837. 

Oudry,  oo'dRe',  (JEAN  BAITISTE,)  a  French  artist, 
particularly  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  animals,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1686.  He  studied  under  Largilliere, 
and  attained  considerable  skill  in  portrait  and  historical 
painting,  but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  exclu 
sively  to  hunting-scenes  and  animal  pieces.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  King  of  Denmark  and  Louis  XV.  of 
France  ;  and  one  of  his  best  pictures  represents  the  latter 
on  horseback  with  a  dozen  nobles  of  his  court.  Oudry 
was  also  a  skilful  engraver,  and  furnished  one  hundred 
and  fifty  designs  for  the  splendid  edition  of  La  Fontaine's 
Fables  published  in  1755.  Died  in  1755. 

See  DUMESNIL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Ouel  le  Bon,  the  French  for  HOWEL  THE  GOOD, 
which  see. 

^  to-  Oughtred,  ot'red,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine  and 
•?  {  eminent  mathematician,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in 
\  »•>  1573.  He  wrote  "The  Description  and  Use  of  the 
J  $  Double  Horizontal  Dyall,"  "  Clavis  Mathematica,"  and 
>y*  a  "Treatise  on  Trigonometry."  He  is  styled  by  Fuller 
r\  "the  prince  of  mathematicians."  Died  in  1660. 

Oultreman,  d',  dootR'mflN',  [Lat.  OULTREMAN'NUS,] 
(HENRI,)  a  Flemish  writer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1546, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Town  and  County 
of  Valenciennes  from  its  Origin  to  the  End  of  the  Six 
teenth  Century."  Died  in  1605. 

Oultreman,  d',  (PIERRE,)  a  historian,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1591-  He  wrote 
a  "Life  of  Peter  the  Hermit,"  (1632,)  and  a  History 
of  Baldwin  and  Henry,  Emperors  of  Constantinople, 
("  Constantinopolis  Belgica,"  etc.,  1643.)  Died  in  1656. 

Oultremannus.     See  OULTREMAN. 

Ousel,  (PiiiLiPP.)     See  OISEL. 

Ouseley,  ooz'lee,  (Sir  FREDERICK  ARTHUR  GORE,) 
an  English  musician,  a  son  of  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  London  about  1825.  He  was  noted 
for  the  precocity  of  his  musical  genius,  and  composed 
several  anthems.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  music  at  Oxford. 

Ouseley,  ooz'lee,  (GiDEON,)  an  Irish  Methodist  min 
ister,  born  at  Dunmore  in  1762.  He  laboured  as  a  mis 
sionary  among  the  Irish,  and  wrote  against  popery. 
Died  in  1839. 

Ouseley  or  Ousely,  (Sir  GORE,)  a  diplomatist,  born 
in  Ireland  in  1769.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Persia  about  1810,  and  published  "  Biographical  Notices 
of  Persian  Poets,"  (1846.)  Died  in  1844. 

Ouseley  or  Ousely,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  Viscount  Clara- 
mont,  an  Orientalist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1771.  He  published  "Travels  in  Various  Coun 
tries  of  the  East,  more  particularly  Persia,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Outhier,  oo'te-i',  (REGINALD  or  RENAULD,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  in  Poligni  in  1694.  In  1736  he  accom 
panied  Maupertuis  and  other  savants  on  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Lapland,  of  which  he  afterwards  published 
an  interesting  account.  He  was  a  corresponding  mem 
ber  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Berlin.  Died  in  1774. 

Outram,  oo'tram,  (Sir  TAMES,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Derbyshire  in  1803,  was  a  son  of  Benjamin 
Outram,  an  eminent  civil  engineer,  who  died  in  1805. 
He  went  to  India  about  1820,  served  in  the  war  against 
Dost  Mohammed,  and  became  British  resident  at  Hy 
derabad  and  Lucknow.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  a  successful  expedition  against  Persia. 
During  the  Sepoy  mutiny  of  1857  he  returned  to  India, 
and  superseded  Havelock  as  commander  of  the  army 
at  Lucknow.  (See  HAVELOCK.)  Died  in  1863. 

Outram,  written  also  Owtram,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned 
English  theologian,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1625.  He 


became  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1670.  He  was 
versed  in  rabbinical  learning  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers.  His  chief  work  is  a  treatise  on  sacrifices,  "De 
Sacrificiis  Libri  duo,"  (1677.)  Died  in  1679. 

Ouvarof.     See  OOVAROF. 

Ouvrard,  oo'vuSu',  (GAHKIKL  JULIEN,)  a  French 
financier,  born  near  Clisson  in  1770.  He  was  a  bold 
and  successful  speculator,  and  enriched  himself  by  his 
operations  as  contractor  during  the  war  of  the  Revo 
lution.  He  was  prosecuted  by  Napoleon  L,  and  im 
prisoned  some  years.  Died  in  1846. 

See  his  autobiographic  "  Memoires  sur  ma  Vie,"  3  vols.,  1826; 
"  Biographic  Uni verseile. " 

Ouvrard,  (RENE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Chinon  about  1620,  published  treatises  on  music,  the 
ology,  and  mathematics.  He  was  intimate  with  Arnauld 
and  other  writers  of  Port-Royal.  Died  in  1694. 

Ouvrie,  oo'viie-i',  (PIERRE  JUSTIN,)  a  French  land 
scape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1806. 

Ouwater,  van,  v&n  ow'wa'ter,  (ALBERT,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1444,  was  one  of  the  first 
artists  in  Holland  who  painted  in  oil.  Among  his  mas 
ter-pieces  are  "The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus"  and  "The 
Descent  from  the  Cross."  The  latter  was  warmly 
eulogized  by  Albert  Diirer.  Died  in  1515. 

See  PILKINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  DESCAMTS,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ovalle,  de,  da  o-val'ya,  (ALFONSO,)  sometimes  writ 
ten  Ovaglie,  a  Jesuit,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  in 
Chili  in  1601.  He  published  in  1646  a  "Historical  Ac 
count  of  the  Kingdom  of  Chili  and  the  Jesuit  Missions 
in  that  Country."  Died  in  1651. 

Ovando,  o-van'do,  (NICOLAS,)  a  Spanish  officer,  and 
commander  of  the  order  of  Alcantara,  succeeded  Boba- 
dilla  as  governor  of  Hispaniola  in  1501.  While  his  rule 
over  the  Spanish  colonists  was  marked  by  justice  and 
kindness,  he  has  incurred  lasting  reproach  by  the  cruel 
ties  he  perpetrated  on  the  Indians,  a  great  number  of 
whom  were  massacred  at  Xaragua  by  his  orders.  lie 
also  treated  Columbus  with  great  injustice,  and  availed 
himself  of  every  opportunity  of  thwarting  his  designs. 
He  was  recalled  to  Spain  in  1508,  and  succeeded  by 
Diego  Columbus,  son  of  the  celebrated  admiral.  Died 
in  1518,  aged  about  fifty-eight. 

See  CHARLEVOIX,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  OVIEDO, 
"  Cronica  de  las  Indias." 

O'ver-all,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  bom  in 
1559.  He  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop 
of  Norwich  in  1619.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"The  Convocation-Book,"  in  which  he  maintains  the 
divine  origin  of  government.  Bishop  Overall  was  es 
teemed  the  best  scholastic  divine  of  his  time  in  England. 
He  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Grotius  and 
Gerard  Vossius.  Died  in  1619. 

Overbeck,  o'ver-belv',  (FRIEDRICH,)  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  German  painters  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
was  born  at  Lubeck  in  1789.  After  having  studied  for 
a  time  at  Vienna,  in  1810  he  visited  Rome,  where,  with 
Cornelius,  Schnorr,  and  other  German  artists,  he  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  what  has  been  styled  the  roman 
tic  or  symbolic  school  of  painting  in  Germany.  Among 
his  earliest  productions  were  the  frescos  at  the  villa  of 
the  consul-general  Bartholdy,  representing  "Joseph  sold 
into  Captivity,"  and  "The  Seven  Years  of  Famine."  In 
1817  he  adorned  the  villa  of  Marquis  Massimi  with  five 
large  frescos  taken  from  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered." 
His  magnificent  fresco  at  Assisi,  representing  "The 
Miracle  of  Roses  of  Saint  Francis,"  is  esteemed  his 
master-piece  in  that  department.  Among  his  best  oil- 
paintings  are  "The  Entrance  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem," 
in  the  Marienkirche  at  Lubeck,  "Christ  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives,"  "The  Death  of  Saint  Joseph,"  and  the  large 
picture  in  the  Stadelschen  Institut  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  entitled  "The  Influence  of  Christianity  in  the 
Arts."  He  has  also  produced  a  number  of  elegant  de 
signs,  among  which  are  "Forty  Illustrations  from  the 
Gospels,"  since  engraved  by  Keller,  Bartoccini,  and 
others.  Regarding  art  as  the  handmaid  of  religion, 
Overbeck  has  almost  exclusively  chosen  scriptural  sub 
jects,  and  his  works  are  characterized  by  deep  devotional 
feeling,  simplicity,  and  touching  sweetness  of  expression. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


OPERBEEK 


1721 


OWEN 


According  to  some  writers,  Overbeck's  influence  and 
reputation  in  Germany  have  considerably  declined  of 
latter  time.  Died  in  1869. 

SeeRACZYNSKi,  "  Histoire  del' Art  Allemand  moderne  ;"  NACI.ER, 
"Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversations- 
Lexikou." 

Overbeek,  van,  vtn  o'ver-bak',  (BONAVENTUKF.,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1660.  He  went 
to  Rome,  and  made  numerous  designs  of  the  antiquities 
of  that  city.  Having  returned  to  Holland,  he  died  in 
1706,  leaving  a  work  entitled  "  Reliquiae  antiquae  Urbis 
Romas,"  (1707-09.) 

See  DKSCAMI'S,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Overbury,  o'ver-ber-e,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English 
author  and  courtier,  born  at  Compton-Scorfen,  Warwick 
shire,  in  1581.  By  his  talents  and  learning  he  acquired 
influence  with  Carr,  who  became  the  favourite  of  James 
I.  and  was  created  Earl  of  Somerset.  For  advising 
against  the  marriage  of  Carr  with  the  infamous  Countess 
of  Essex,  Overbury  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  (1613.) 
After  a  confinement  of  several  months,  he  was  poisoned 
by  order  of  Somerset  and  his  wife,  who  were  convicted 
of  the  crime  but  pardoned.  He  left  a  popular  poem 
called  "The  Wife,"  (1614,)  and  a  prose  work  entitled 
"  Characters,"  which  is  praised  for  wit  and  ingenuity. 
''The  Fair  and  Happy  Milkmaid,'  often  quoted,"  says 
Hallam,  "is  the  best  of  his  characters." 

See  E.  F.  RIMBAUI.T,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,"  1856; 
GARDINER,  "History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  ch.  xi.  ;  "  Re 
trospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820.)  ^)f,y><,J}'fZ'"^'a"y •"•* 

Overskov,  o'ver-skov',  (THOMAS,)  a  Danish  drama 
tist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  produced  nume 
rous  comedies  and  operas  ;  also  a  "  History  of  the  Danish 
Theatre,"  (1854-56.) 

O'ver-stone,  (SAMUEL  JONES  LOYD,)  first  BARON,  an 
English  banker,  born  in  London  in  1796.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1850.  He  had  previousTy  gained  some 
distinction  as  a  financier. 

Overweg,  o'ver-wer/,  (AnoLF,)  a  German  traveller, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1822.  He  was  associated  with  Mr. 
Richardson  and  Dr.  Barth  in  a  journey  of  exploration 
to  Lake  Tchad,  in  Africa.  They  left  Tripoli  in  March, 
1850,  and  Overweg,  with  Dr.  Barth,  reached  Lake  Tchad 
in  1851.  He  launched  a  boat  on  the  lake  and  visited 
the  islands  in  it.  He  died  of  fever  at  Kuka,  in  Central 
Africa,  in  September,  1852. 

Ov'id,  |Lat.  Ovn/ius  ;  It.  Ovinio,  o-vee'de-o  ;  Fr. 
OVIDE,  o'ved',1  or,  more  fully,  Pub'lius  Ovid'ius 
Na'so,  a  popular  Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Sulmo, 
(Sulmona,)  about  ninety  miles  east  of  Rome,  in  43  B.C. 
lie  studied  rhetoric  in  Rome  under  Arellius  Fuscus  and 
Porcius  Latro,  and  made  himself  master  of  Greek  at 
Athens.  His  poetical  genius  was  manifested  in  early 
youth,  and  afterwards  diverted  him  from  the  practice  of 
law,  which,  in  compliance  with  his  father's  will,  he  began 
to  study.  He  held,  however,  several  civil  or  judicial 
offices  at  Rome,  and  became  one  of  the  Decemviri.  He 
sought  and  obtained  the  acquaintance  of  Propertius, 
Horace,  Macer,  and  other  poets.  He  also  enjoyed  for  a 
time  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  Among  his 
earliest  productions  were  three  books  of  "Amores." 
Before  the  age  of  fifty  he  had  published  "The  Art  of 
Love,"  ("  Ars  Amatoria,")  "  Medea,"  a  tragedy,  and 
"  Heroic  Epistles,"  ("  He'roides.")  He  had  also  nearly 
finished  his  celebrated  "  Metamorphoses,"  ("  Metamor- 
phoseon  Libri  XV.,")  which  display  great  poetical 
genius.  In  the  year  8  A.D.  he  was  suddenly  banished 
by  Augustus  to  Tomi,  on  the  Euxine,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  penal 
measure  was  the  publication  of  his  immodest  poem 
"  The  Art  of  Love  ;"  but  this  is  believed  to  have  been 
a  mere  pretext,  as  that  poem  was  published  about  ten 
years  earlier.  Ovid  in  his  later  writings  alludes  to  some 
offence  which  he  mysteriously  conceals,  and  for  which 
he  admitted  that  he  deserved  to  suffer.  This  question 
appears  to  have  baffled  the  ingenuity  and  curiosity  of 
scholars.  He  has  been  censured  for  the  abject  terms 
in  which  he  petitioned  Augustus  for  a  pardon,  which 
was  inexorably  refused.  He  died  at  Tomi  in  18  A.D., 
which  was  also  the  year  of  Livy's  death.  His  "  Me 
dea,"  which  some  ancient  critics  esteemed  his  most 
perfect  work,  is  lost.  During  his  exile  he  wrote,  besides 


other  minor  poems,  "Twelve  Books  of  Fasti,"  ("Fasto- 
rum  Libri  XII.,")  six  of  which  have  come  clown  to  us. 
This  is  a  poetical  Roman  calendar,  and  has  historical 
value  as  well  as  literary  merit.  Ovid  was  thrice  married, 
and  divorced  his  first  wife  and  his  second.  He  also  loved 
and  courted  a  woman  of  high  rank,  whom  he  celebrated 
under  the  fictitious  name  of  Corinna.  Some  writers 
suppose  she  was  Julia  the  daughter,  or  Julia  the  grand 
daughter,  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  The  best  English 
translation  of  Ovid  is  "  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  in  Fifteen 
Books,  translated  by  the  Most  Eminent  Hands,"  London, 
1717.  Among  these  translators  were  Dryden,  Addison, 
Congreve,  and  Garth. 

See  MASSON,  "Vita  P.  Ovidii  Nasonis,"  1708;  C.  ROSMINI, 
"Vitadi  Public  Ovidio  Naso,"  1789;  VII.LENAVE,  "Vie  d'Ovide," 
Paris,  1809;  BAYLE,  '•  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ovide.     See  OVID. 

Ovidio.     See  OVID. 

Ovidius.    See  OVID. 

Ovieclo,  de,  da  o-ve-a'DO,  (ANDRES,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Ilhescas.  He  was  sent 
to  Abyssinia  about  1556.  Died  in  1577. 

Oviedo  y  Valdes,  de,  da  o-ve-a'DO  e  val-deV,  (GoN- 
SALO  FERNANDEZ,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  historian,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1478,  became  at  an  early  age  one  of  the 
pages  at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  In  1513 
he  visited  the  West  Indies,  where  he  resided  many 
years,  and  obtained,  among  other  important  offices,  that 
of  historiographer  of  the  Indies.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  General  History  of  the  West  Indies,"  (ist  vol., 
1535,)  which,  though  containing  many  errors,  displays 
extensive  learning  and  has  been  of  great  value  to  sub 
sequent  historians.  The  last  volume  of  it  remains  in 
manuscript.  He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Natural  History  of  the  Indies,"  and  wrote  a  valuable 
work,  which  is  still  in  manuscript,  entitled  "  Quinqua- 
genas,"  or  Fifty  Dialogues.  Died  in  1557. 

See  TICKNOR.  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  PRES- 
COTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii.  book  iv.,  and 
his  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Oviiigtoii,  uv'ing-ton,  ?  (JOHN,)  an  English  ecclesi 
astic  and  traveller,  was  chaplain  to  King  James  II.  In 
|  1689)16  sailed  to  the  East  Indies,  and  spent  several  years 
in  Surat.  He  published  in  1698  his  "  Voyage  to  Surat 
in  the  Years  1689-93,"  etc->  which  was  translated  into 
French. 

Owen.     See  GORONWY-OWEN. 

0'wen,  ( DAVID  DALE,)  brother  of  Robert  Dale,  no 
ticed  below,  was  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1807. 
In  1848  he  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  geological 
survey  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  The  result 
of  his  observations  was  published  in  a  quarto  volume, 
with  maps  and  illustrations,  (1852.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1857  State  geologist  of  Arkansas.  Died  in  1860. 

O'wen,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Wor 
cestershire,  took  his  degree  in  1527.  He  became  phy 
sician  to  Henry  VIII.  Died  in  1558. 

O'weii,  (HENRY,)  a  learned  Welsh  divine  and  theo 
logical  writer,  born  in  Merionethshire  about  1716.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "  Remarks  on  the  Four 
Gospels,"  and  "An  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Criticism." 
Died  in  1795. 

Owen,  |Lat.  AUDOF/NUS,]  (JOHN,)  one  of  the  best 
Latin  poets  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Caernar 
vonshire,  in  Wales,  about  1560.  His  "  Epigrammata," 
published  in  1612,  are  remarkable  for  elegance  and 
correctness  of  language  and  caustic  wit.  They  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages.  Died  in  1622. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Owen,  (JOHN,)  an  excellent  English  nonconformist 
divine  and  Puritan,  bom  at  Stadham,  in  Oxfordshire,  in 
1616,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Owen,  a  minister.  He  was 
educated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted 
about  1637.  After  that  date  he  was  chaplain  to  Sir 
Philip  Dormer  and  to  Lord  Lovelace.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  in  1641  or  1642,  and  published  his 
"Display  of  Arminianism,"  (1642.)  In  the  civil  war  he 
was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  popular  cause.  He  mar 
ried  early,  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Coggeshall 
about  1644,  and  united  himself  in  fellowship  with  the 
Independents.  He  published  "  Salus  Electorum,  San- 
guis  Jesu  ;  or  the  Death  of  Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OWEN 


1722 


OXENSTIERN 


In  January,  1649,  he  preached  a  sermon  before  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  day  after  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 
This  sermon  was  characterized  by  a  more  liberal  and 
tolerant  spirit  than  that  which  prevailed  in  his  time.  He 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in  1649,  and  Dean 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1651.  He  was  vice-chan 
cellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford  about  five  years,  1652- 
56.  In  1655  he  wrote  a  work  against  Socinianism,  called 
"Vindiciae  Evangelicae."  After  the  restoration  of  1660, 
Owen  preached  in  London  for  a  number  of  years,  and 
wrote  many  works,  among  which  are  an  "  Exposition  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,"  (1668,)  a  "Discourse  on 
the  Holy  Spirit,"  (1674,)  and  "The  Doctrine  of  Justifi 
cation,"  (1677.)  Died  in  1683. 

"  As  a  theological  thinker  and  writer,"  says  the  Rev. 
Andrew  Thomson,  "he  holds  his  own  distinctly-defined 
place  among  those  Titanic  intellects  with  which  his  age 
abounded.  Surpassed  by  Baxter  in  point  and  pathos, 
by  Howe  in  imagination  and  in  the  higher  philosophy, 
...  he  is  unrivalled  in  his  power  of  unfolding  the  rich 
meanings  of  Scripture.  In  his  writings  he  was  pre 
eminently  the  great  theologian,  and  in  his  practical 
counsels  the  Nestor,  of  the  Puritans."  ("  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.") 

See  W.  ORME,  "Life  of  John  Owen,"  1820;  REV.  A.  THOMSON, 
"  Life  of  John  Owen,"  new  edition,  1856;  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;" 
WOOD,  "Athenje  Oxonienses;"  WILSON,  "Dissenting  Churches;" 
BURNET,  "  H'Storyof  his  Own  Times  ;"  AI.LIHONE,  "  Dictionary  of 
Authors;"  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1851. 

Owen,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine,  bom  in  London 
about  1765.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  members,  and 
the  principal  secretary  during  his  lifetime,  of  the  IJible 
Society.  He  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  "  The  Chris 
tian  Monitor  for  the  Last  Days,"  and  a  "  Vindication 
of  the  Bible  Society."  Died  in  1822. 

Owen,  (LEWIS,)  a  Welsh  theologian,  born  in  Merion 
ethshire  in  1572.  He  wrote  a  book  against  the  Jesuits, 
"Speculum  jesuiticum,"  (1629.) 

Owen,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  zoologist,  anatomist, 
and  palaeontologist  of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Lan 
caster  in  1804.  He  studied  medicine,  and  entered  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1824.  In  1825  he  became 
a  pupil  of  John  Abernethy,  at  Saint  Bartholomew's 
Hospital,  London.  Through  the  influence  of  Abernethy 
he  was  appointed  assistant  curator  of  the  Hunterian 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  He  expended 
immense  labour  in  the  production  of  a  catalogue  of  this 
collection,  and  succeeded  Clift  as  curator  of  the  museum. 
He  published  an  excellent  "  Memoir  on  the  Pearly  Nau 
tilus,  (Nautilus  Pompilius,")  (1832,)  and  a  "Descriptive 
and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Physiological  Series 
of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Hunterian  Museum, "(5 
vols.,  1833-40.)  He  married  in  1835  a  daughter  of  Mr. 
Clift,  above  mentioned.  About  1836  he  succeeded  Sir 
Charles  Bell  as  Hunterian  professor  at  the  Royal  Col 
lege  of  Surgeons,  and  gave  a  series  of  lectures  on  com 
parative  anatomy,  which  were  published  in  1843.  He 
contributed  numerous  treatises  or  monographs  on  phys 
iology  and  anatomy  to  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Zoo 
logical  Society"  and  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology."  Professor  Owen  has  rendered  important 
services  to  palaeontology,  and  has  exhibited  remarkable 
skill  in  the  anatomy  and  reconstruction  of  extinct  ani 
mals,  such  as  the  Cheirotherium,  the  Glyptodon,  Mylo- 
don,  and  Plesiosaurus.  He  discovered  a  gigantic  fossil 
bird,  the  Dinornis.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Odon- 
tography,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  a  "  History  of  British  Fossil 
Mammals  and  Birds,"  (1846,)  and  "On  the  Archetype 
and  Homologies  of  the  Vertebrate  Skeleton,"  (1848.) 
He  received  the  royal  medal  in  1848,  and  the  Copley 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1851.  In  1856  he  ceased 
to  be  Hunterian  professor,  and  became  director  of  the 
natural  history  departments  of  the  British  Museum. 
He  is  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  French 
Institute.  In  addition  to  the  works  above  named,  he 
has  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Nature  of  Limbs," 
(1849,)  "On  Parthenogenesis,"  (1849,)  and  "On  the 
Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  (3  vols.,  1866-68.)  He  was 
one  of  the  first  who  used  the  microscope  in  the  investi 
gation  of  the  structure  of  animals,  and  was  the  first  who 
employed  the  word  "homology"  or"homologue"  in  com 
parative  anatomy.  He  admits  the  mutability  of  species, 


but  opposes  the  Darwinian  theory  of  Natural  Selection, 
for  which  he  substitutes  his  "  hypothesis  of  Derivation." 
He  says,  "  Every  species  changes,  in  time,  by  virtue  of 
inherent  tendencies  thereto.  '  Natural  Selection'  holds 
that  no  such  change  can  take  place  without  the  influence 
of  altered  external  circumstances  educing  or  selecting 
such  change."  ("On  the  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  3d 
vol.  chap,  xl.)  Humboldt  is  said  to  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  Owen  was  the  greatest  anatomist  of  his 
age.  He  has  been  styled  "the  Cuvier  of  England"  and 
"the  Newton  of  natural  history." 

See  a  review  of  his  writings  in  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1852,  and  July.  1853;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1860  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1856  ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1858. 

Owen,  (RonF.KT,)  a  socialist  and  philanthropist,  born 
at  Newton,  in  Wales,  in  1771,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents. 
He  married  about  1800  a  daughter  of  David  Dale,  who 
owned  cotton-mills  at  New  Lanark,  on  the  Clyde.  Owen 
managed  these  mills  for  a  time  with  success,  and  gave 
much  attention  to  the  comfort  of  the  operatives  and  the 
education  of  their  children.  He  published  in  1812  a 
"New  View  of  Society,"  and  afterwards  "The  Book  of 
the  New  Moral  World,"  in  which  he  advocated  a  modi 
fied  system  of  community  of  property.  About  1824  he 
purchased  a  large  tract  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  and 
there  tested  by  experiment  his  socialist  theory,  which 
was  entirely  unsuccessful.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1827,  and  continued  to  propagate  his  projects  of  reform 
by  lectures  and  writings.  His  doctrines  were  adopted 
by  a  large  number  of  people,  who  were  called  Owenites. 
Died  in'iSsS. 

See  "Robert  Owen  and  his  Social  Philosophy,"  by  W.  L.  SAR- 
r;ANT.  London,  1860;  "Life  of  Robert  Owen,"  (by  F.  A.  PACKARD,) 
Philadelphia,  1866;  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  MARTINEAU; 
RRYBAUD,  "  fitudes  snr  les  Reformateurs  contemporains  ;"  "  Robert 
Owen  the  Found*  of  Socialism  in  England,"  1869,  bv  ARTHUK  JOHN 
BOOTH  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  iSig:  "Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  December,  1830;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1860. 

Owen,  (ROBERT  DALE,)  a  distinguished  political  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
New  Lanark,  Scotland,  in  1804.  He  came  at  an  early 
age  to  America,  settled  in  Indiana,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1843.  He  was 
charge-d'affaires  to  Naples  in  1853.  He  has  published 
|  "  New  Views  of  Society,"  (1825,)  "Hints  on  Public 
Architecture,"  (1849,)  "  Footfalls  on  the  Boundaries  of 
another  World,"  (1859,)  "The  Wrong  of  Slavery,  the 
Right  of  Emancipation,"  etc.,  (1864,)  and  "Beyond  the 
Breakers,"  a  novel,  (1870.) 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1861. 

Owen,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Shrop 
shire,  gained  a  high  reputation  as  judge  of  the  common 
pleas.  Died  in  1598.  His  Reports  were  published  in 
1656. 

Owen,  (WILLIAM,)  an  able  English  painter  of  por 
traits  and  history,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1769.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  prince-regent,  afterwards  George  IV. 
Died  in  1824. 

Owen  Glendower.     See  GLENDOWER. 

Owen  Meredith.     See  BULWER. 

Owenson.     See  MORGAN,  LADY. 

Owtram,  (WILLIAM.)     See  OUTRAM. 

Ox'en-ford,  (JOHN,)  an  English  dramatist  and  trans 
lator,  born  'near  London  in  1812.  Among  his  original 
dramas  are  "My  Fellow-Clerk,"  (1835,)  and  "A  Dav 
Well  Spent,"  (1836.)  He  translated  Moliere's  "Tartuffe," 
and  the  "  Conversations  of  Goethe,"  by  Eckermann,  and 
other  works,  from  the  German. 

Oxenham,  ox'en-am,  (!OHN,)  an  English  seaman, 
served  under  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1572.  He  soon  after 
sailed  with  one  ship  for  the  eastern  shore  of  Darien, 
and  crossed  over  to  Panama  and  the  Pearl  Islands,  where 
he  was  taken  and  put  to  death  by  the  Spaniards. 

See  J.  BARROW,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Oxenstiern,  oks'en-stern',  or  Oxenstierna,  oks'en- 
shSR'na,  (AxEL,)  COUNT,  chancellor  of  Sweden,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  the  seventeenth  century  or 
of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Fano,  in  Upland,  June 
16,  1583.  He  was  educated  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  chosen  a  senator,  after 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


OXENSTIERN 


1723 


PACCA 


having  been  employed  in  important  negotiations.  In 
1611  Gustavus  Adolphus  appointed  him  chancellor  of 
Sweden,  or  prime  minister.  The  prudence,  zeal,  and 
profound  combinations  of  Oxenstiern  contributed  greatly 
to  the  success  of  the  Swedish  hero.  After  Gustavus 
was  killed,  in  1632,  the  chancellor  was  invested  with  full 
power  by  the  senate,  and  prosecuted  the  war  against 
the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  was  recognized  as  the 
head  of  the  Protestant  league,  which  gained  several  vic 
tories  under  his  direction.  During  the  minority  of  Queen 
Christina  he  governed  Sweden  with  ability,  restored  the 
finances  to  good  order,  and  patronized  learning.  He 
was  prime  minister  after  Christina  began  to  reign,  (1645,) 
and  strenuously  opposed  her  abdication.  He  died  in 
August,  1654.  Oxenstiern  was  the  author  of  the  often- 
quoted  observation,  addressed  to  his  son,  "You  do  not 
know,  my  son,  with  how  little  wisdom  the  world  is 
governed,"  ("  Nescis,  mi  fili,  quantilla  prudentia  homi 
nes  regantur.")  He  was  the  reputed  author  of  the 
second  volume  of  "  Historia  Belli  Sueco-Germanici," 
("  History  of  the  Swedish-German  War,")  of  which 
Chemnitz  wrote  the  first  volume.  He  was  considered 
an  equal  match  for  Richelieu  in  diplomacy.  He  had 
two  sons,  John  and  Erik,  who  obtained  high  offices  in 
the  public  service. 

See  J.  F.  LUNDBI.AD,  "  Svensk  Plutarch,"  2d  vol.,  1826-31; 
JOHA.M  GKZKI.IUS,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  Sfver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1774; 
C.  P.  HAGMKRG,  "  Areminne  bfver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1808  ;  PUKFE.M- 
DORF,  "  De  Rebus  Suecicis ;"  GKIJKR,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede:" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  RICHELIEU,  "  Memoires ;"  E. 
GYLLENSTOLPE,  "Areminne  ofver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1777. 

Oxenstiern,  (BENEDICT,)  an  able  Swedish  statesman, 
of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1623. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Warsaw  by  Charles  X., 
after  whose  death  (1660)  he  returned  to  Sweden  and 
had  great  influence  in  the  government.  About  1672  he 
obtained  the  confidence  of  Charles  XL,  who  appointed 
him  chancellor  and  chief  minister.  The  pacific  system 
of  Oxenstiern  was  disturbed  by  the  death  of  Charles  XL, 
in  1697.  After  Charles  XII.  had  defeated  the  Danes 
and  conquered  Poland,  Oxenstiern  advised  him  to  make 
peace,  in  a  memoir  which  is  called  a  master-piece  of 
wisdom.  Died  in  1702. 

See  SCHI.OZER,  "  Schwedische  Biographic." 

Oxenstiern,  (ERIK,)  a  son  of  the  celebrated  states 
man,  was  born  in  1624.  He  became  a  senator  in  1652, 
and  vice-chancellor  in  1654,  soon  after  which  he  con 
ducted  negotiations  with  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Died  in  1656. 

Oxenstiern,  (|OHAN,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1611.  He  entered  the  army, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  About  1639  he  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator.  He  was  employed  for 
several  years  as  minister-plenipotentiary  in  Germany, 
and  represented  Sweden  in  the  negotiations  which  re 
sulted  in  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648.)  Died  at 
Weimar  in  1657. 


Oxenstierna.    See  OXENSTIERN. 

Oxenstierna,  oks'en-sheVna,  (GABRIEL  THURESON,) 
a  Swedish  diplomatist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1641.  He 
wrote,  in  French,  a  "  Collection  of  Thoughts,"  ("  Recueil 
de  Pensees,"  1725.)  Died  in  1707. 

Oxford,  EAKL  OK.  See  DE  VERE,  (EDWARD,)  and 
HARLEY,  (ROHERT.) 

Ox-y-ar'tes  or  Ox-ar'tes,  [Gr.  'O^vupTTjf,]  a  Bactrian 
chief,  whose  daughter  Roxana  was  married  to  Alexander 
the  Great.  This  king  appointed  him  satrap  of  Paropa- 
misus.  Died  after  316  H.C. 

Ozanam,  o'zS'nS.N',  (ANTOINE  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
scholar  and  elegant  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1813.  He 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  studied  law.  In 
1844  he  succeeded  Fauriel  as  professor  of  foreign  litera- 
|  ture  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.  He  attained  eminence  as 
a  lecturer,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Dante 
and  the  Catholic  Philosophy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century," 
(1839,)  and  "  fitudes  Germaniques  pour  servir  a  1'His- 
toire  des  Francs,"  (2  vols.,  1847-49.)  Died  in  Septem 
ber,  1853. 

See  LACORDAIRB,  "Notice  sur  A.  F.  Ozanam,"  prefixed  to  his 
collected  works,  8  vols.,  1855;  LEGEAY,  "  E*tude  biographique  sur 
Ozanam,"  1854;  J.  J.  AMPERE,  "Notice  biographique  sur  A.  F. 
Ozanam,"  1853;  COLLOMBET,  "  Biographic  de  F.  Ozanam,"  1853. 

Ozanam,  (J.  A.  F.,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Bresse  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Epidemic  Diseases,"  (5  vols., 
1817-23.)  Died  at  Lyons  in  1836. 

Ozanam,  (JACQUES,)  a  distinguished  French  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Bouligneux  in  1640.  Among  his  nu 
merous  and  useful  treatises  are  "  Mathematical  Diction 
ary,"  (1691,)  "Mathematical  and  Physical  Recreations," 
(1694,)  and  "Theoretical  and  Practical  Perspective," 
(1711.)  He  taught  mathematics  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1717. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  filoge  d'Ozanam." 

Ozaneaux,  o'zt'no',  (JEAN  GEORGE,)  a  French  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  France,"  (2  vols.,  1846.)  which  gained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy,  and  "Erreurs  poetiques," 
(3  vols.,  1849.)  Died  in  1852. 

Ozanne,  o'ztn',  (NICOLAS  MARIE,)  a  French  designer 
and  engraver,  born  at  Brest  in  1728;  died  in  Paris  in 
1811. 

O-zell',  (JoHN,)  an  English  litterateztr,  of  French  ex 
traction,  was  contemporary  with  Pope,  who  has  given 
him  a  place  in  the  "  Dunciad."  He  made  translations 
from  Racine,  Moliere,  and  Boileau,  and  from  several 
Italian  and  Spanish  writers.  Died  in  1743. 

See  CIBBER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Ozeretskofsko  or  Ozeretzkovsko,  o-zeh-re't-skof'- 
sko,  sometimes  written  Ozeretzkoffsky,  (NICHOLAS,) 
a  Russian  scientific  writer,  born  about  1750.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  etc. 
Died  about  1827. 


P. 


Paalzow,  von,  fon  palt'so,  (AucusTE,)  a  German 
lady,  born  at  Berlin  in  1788,  was  a  sister  of  the  painter 
Wach.  She  was  the  author  of  a  popular  romance, 
entitled  "Godwie  Castle,"  (1836,)  and  other  fictitious 
works.  Died  in  1847. 

Paas.     See  PASS. 

Paaw,  (CORNELLS.)     See  PAUW. 

Paaw,  pa'oo  or  pow,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1564,  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Leyden,  where  he  also  founded  the  botanic 
garden.  He  published  several  valuable  treatises  on 
botany  and  anatomy.  Died  in  1617. 

Pabodie,  pab'o-de,  (WILLIAM  JEWETT,)  an  American 
poet,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  about  1812. 
He  has  published  "  Calidore,  a  Legendary  Poem,"  and 
a  number  of  smaller  pieces. 

Pabst,  ptpst,  (HEINRICH  WILHELM,)  a  German 
agriculturist,  born  near  Lauterbach,  in  Hesse,  in  1798. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Rural 
Economy,"  (5th  edition,  1860.) 


Pabst,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Lindau,  in  Thuringia,  in  1785.  Among  his 
works  is  "Man  and  his  History,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1837. 

Pa'ca,  (WILLIAM,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Ameri 
can  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Harford 
county,  Maryland,  in  1740.  He  was  elected  to  the  Con 
gress  of  1774,  and  continued  in  this  office  till  1778.  He 
became  Governor  of  Maryland  in  1782,  and  in  1789  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the  United  States 
for  Maryland.  Died  in  1799. 

See  GOODRICH,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence." 

Pacatianus,  pa-ka-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  PACATIEN,  pS'- 
kS'se4,N',]  (Trrus  CLAUDIUS  MARCELLUS,)  a  Roman 
emperor,  whose  existence  is  indicated  only  by  medals. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  assumed  the  title  in  249  A.D. 

Pacatien.     See  PACATIANUS. 

Pacatus.     See  DREPANIUS. 

Pacca,  pak'kd,  (BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Benevento  in  1756.  He  became  papal  secretary 


€as-£/9as  s;%hard;  gzsj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in  this, 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PACCARD 


1724 


PACTHOD 


of  state  (i.e.  prime  minister)  in  1808,  and  was  imprisoned 
about  three  years  by  Napoleon,  (1809-12.)  Died  in  1844. 
He  wrote  "  Historical  Memoirs,"  which  have  been  pub 
lished,  (London,  1850.) 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Notice  sur  le  Cardinal  B.  Pacca," 
1846. 

Paccard,  pS'ktk',  (ALEXIS,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1841. 

Pacchiarottcvpak-ke-a-rot'to,  (JACOPO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  fresco  with  equal  success.  His 
style  resembles  that  of  Perugino.  Among  his  best  works 
in  oil  are  an  "Ascension,"  a  "Nativity  of  the  Virgin," 
and  a  Madonna,  (at  Munich.)  His  frescos  may  be  seen 
at  Sienna.  His  heads  are  greatly  admired.  To- escape 
the  penalty  of  a  political  conspiracy,  he  left  Sienna  in 
1535,  and  fled  to  France. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy." 

Pacchioni,  pak-ke-o'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  able  Italian 
anatomist,  born  at  Reggio  in  1665.  lie  removed  to 
Rome  about  1700,  and  was  associated  in  the  scientific 
labours  of  Lancisi.  Died  at  Rome  in  1726.  His  writings 
were  published  under  the  title  of  "  Opera  Omnia,"  (1741.) 

Paccioli,  pat-cho'lee,  or  Pacioli,  pa-cho'lee,  (LucA,) 
an  Italian  mathematician  and  monk,  born  at  Borgo  San 
Sepolcro  about  1450,  was  often  called  LUCA  m  BORGO 
or  DE  BURGO.  He  taught  at  Perugia,  Rome,  Naples, 
Pisa,  and  Venice.  His  chief  work  is  "  Summa  de  Arith- 
metica,  Geometria,  Proportion!, "  etc.,  (1494,) — the  first 
printed  book  in  which  the  method  of  keeping  accounts 
by  double  entry  was  explained.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
"  On  Divine  Proportion,"  ("  De  Divina  Proportione," 
1509,)  the  plates  of  which  were  engraved  by  his  friend 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  was  living  in  1509. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pace,  [Lat.  PA'CEUS,]  (RICHARD,)  an  English  nego 
tiator  and  priest,  born  in  or  near  Winchester  about  1482. 
He  was  employed  in  important  missions  by  Henry  VIII., 
and  sent  to  Rome  about  1521  by  Wolsey  to  urge  his 
claims  to  the  papacy.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  who 
addressed  several  letters  to  him.  Pace  obtained  the 
deanery  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  about  1520,  and  other 
benefices.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  Wolsey,  by  whom 
he  was  confined  in  the  Tower  for  two  years,  and  became 
insane.  Died  in  1532. 

Pacetti,  pa-chet'tee,  (CAMILLO,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  in  Rome  about  1760,  became  professor  of  sculpture 
in  Milan.  Died  in  1827. 

Paceus.     See  PACE,  (RICHARD.) 

Pache,  pSsh,  (JEAN  NICOLAS,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1746.  He  was  controller  of  the  king's 
household  under  the  ministry  of  Necker.  In  October, 
1792,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  the  influence 
of  the  Girondists,  who  removed  him  in  February,  1793, 
because  he  had  joined  the  Jacobin  party.  He  was 
elected  mayor  of  Paris  in  the  spring  of  1793,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  ruin  of  the  Girondists.  Died 
in  1823. 

Pacheco,  pa-cha'ko,  (FRANCISCO,)  an  eminent  Span 
ish  painter  and  writer,  born  at  Seville  in  1571,  was  a 
pupil  of  Luis  Fernandez.  He  opened  an  academy  in 
Seville  in  1611,  and  was  appointed  painter  to  King 
Philip  IV.  after  1625.  He  designed  well,  and  is  com 
mended  for  simplicity,  but  he  was  not  a  good  colorist. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "The  Last  Judgment," 
"Daedalus  and  Icarus,"  and  "The  Archangel  Michael 
expelling  Satan  from  Paradise."  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  art  of  painting,  entitled  "  Artede  la  Pintura,"  (1649,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  pupils  were 
Alonzo  Cano  and  Velasquez.  Died  in  1654. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  CEAN-BER- 
MUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Pacheco,  (MARIA.)     See  PADILLA. 

Pa'-ehes,  [Gr.  Ilaj^f,]  an  Athenian  general,  com 
manded  the  army  which  took  Mitylene  in  427  H.c. 

Fa~eho'mi-us,  [Gr.  Ylaxufiiof ;  Fr.  PACOME,  pi'kSm',] 
an  Egyptian  ascetic  of  the  fourth  century,  was  born  in 
the  Thebaid.  He  is  reputed  the  founder  of  regular 
monastic  communities,  or  the  first  who  prescribed  fixed 
rules  of  life  to  the  monks  and  nuns.  He  founded  a 


monastery  at  Tabenna,  on  the  Nile,  and  became  so  noted 
for  his  piety  that  many  others  were  built  in  the  vicinity 
by  his  disciples.  Died  about  348  A.D. 

Fachymere.     See  PACHYMERES. 

Fa-ehym'e-res,  [Gr.  FewpyMf  6  ITa^i^f p?V ;  Fr. 
PACHYMERE,  pS'she'maiR',]  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  later  Byzantine  historians,  was  born  at  Nicaea 
about  1242.  He  lived  in  Constantinople,  and  was  chief 
justice  of  the  imperial  court.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
important  works,  a  "  Historia  Byzantina,"  which  com 
prises  the  reigns  of  Michael  Palaeologus  and  his  son 
Andronicus.  It  is  written  with  dignity,  and  is  highly 
prized  for  its  fidelity.  He  died  probably  after  1310. 

See  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Gra?ca." 

Paciau,  pa'she-an,  [Sp.  pron.  p;W//e-an';  Lat.  PA- 
CIANUS,  pa-she-a'nus  ;  Fr.  PACIEN,  pt'se^N',]  a  Spanish 
saint  and  writer,  who  flourished  about  375  A.D.,  and  was 
Bishop  of  Barcelona. 

Pacianus.     See  PACIAN. 

Paciaudi,  pa-chow'dee,  (PAOLO  MARIA,)  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  1710,  entered  the 
order  of  Theatines.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Grand  Masters  of  the  Order  of  Malta," 
(3  vols.,  1760,  unfinished,)  and  "  Peloponnesian  Monu 
ments,"  ("Monumenta  Peloponnesiaca,"  1761.)  He 
became  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Parma  about  1762. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  FABKONI,  "Vitae  Italorurn  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generate;"  DACIER,  "filoge  de  Paciaudi." 

Pacichelli,  pa-che-kel'lee,  (GIAMHATTISTA,)  an  Ital 
ian  writer,  born  at  Pistoia  about  1640.  He  wrote  "The 
Kingdom  of  Naples,"  ("  II  Regno  di  Napoli,"  3  vols., 
1703.)  Died  in  1702. 

Pacieii.     See  PACIAN. 

Pacifico.     See  PACIFICUS. 

Pa-gif  i-cus  Max'i-mus,  [  It.  PACIFICO  MASSIMO, 
pa-chee'fe-ko  mas'se-mo,]  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ascoli 
in  1400.  He  wrote  many  poems,  which  were  published 
in  1489,  under  the  title  of  "Jocose  and  Festive  Elegies," 
("Elegiae  Jocosae  et  Festivas.")  Died  about  1500. 

Pacini,  pa-chee'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  a  popular  com 
poser,  born  at  Syracuse,  Sicily,  in  1796  or  1790.  He 
composed  with  a  marvellous  facility  many  operas,  among 
which  is  "Adelaide  e  Comingio,"  (1818,)  and  "  Niobe," 
(1826.) 

Pacio,  pS'cho,  sometimes  written  Pace,  [Lat.  PA'- 
cius  A  BER'IGA,]  (GiULio,)  an  eminent  Italian  jurist 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1550.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  Protestant  religion,  he  went  into 
exile,  and  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Heidelberg 
and  Sedan.  About  1616  he  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
at  Valence,  in  France.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Method  of 
Law,"  ("De  Juris  Methodo,"  1597,)  "On  Contracts," 
("  De  Contractibus,")  and  other  works.  Died  at  Va 
lence  in  1635. 

See  BERRIAT  SAINT-PRIX,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Pacius," 
1840;  EKSCH  und  GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  NICJ£- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Pacioli.     See  PACCIOLI. 

Pacius  a  Beriga.     See  PACIO. 

Pack,  (RICHARDSON,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Suf 
folk  about  1680.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
army.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems,  (1718,)  a  "Life 
of  Pomponius  Atticus,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1728. 

Pac6me.     See  PACHOMIUS. 

Fac'o-rus,  [Gr.  HuKopof,]  the  eldest  son  of  Orodes, 
King  of  Parthia,  was  born  about  66  K.c.  At  an  early 
age  he  was  associated  with  his  father  on  the  throne.  In 
51  B.C.  he  led  an  army  into  Syria,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Caius  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  the  Par 
thian  king  sent  to  Syria  another  expedition,  commanded 
by  Pacorus  and  Titus  Labienus,  a  Roman,  who  gained  a 
victory  over  an  officer  of  Antony.  After  Pacorus  had 
subjected  Syria,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  army 
of  Ventidius,  in  38  B.C. 

See  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Pacorus,  a  king  of  Parthia,  who  reigned  in  the  time 
of  Domitian  and  Trajan.  Little  is  known  respecting 
him. 

Pacthod,  ptk'to',  (MICHEL  MARIE,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Savoy  in  1764.  He  gained  the  rank  of 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon- 


PA  curio 


1725 


PAGANI 


general  of  division  on  the  field  of  Espinosa,  (1808,)  and 
commanded  in  Naples  and  Illyria  from  1810  to  1812. 
Died  in  1830. 

Pacuvio.     See  PACUVIUS. 

Pa-cu'vi-us,  [It.  PACUVIO,  pa-koo've-o,]  (MARCUS,) 
an  eminent  Roman  tragic  poet  and  painter,  born  at 
Brundusium  about  220  B.C.,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet 
Ennuis.  According  to  the  judgment  of  Quintilian  and 
other  ancient  critics,  his  dramas  had  some  merit.  His 
works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety.  His  epitaph,  composed  by  himself,  has 
been  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Poetis  Latinis;"  ANNIBAI.E  DE  LEO,  "  Dis- 
sertazinne  imorno  la  Vila  di  M.  Pacuvio,"  1763;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Paderna,  pa-deViia,  (PAOLO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  was  born  in  1649. 
His  landscapes  are  highly  praised.  Died  in  1708. 

Padilla,  de,  da  pf-nel'ya,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Antequera  in  1527,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  following.  He  wrote  an  "  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Spain."  Died  in  1607. 

Padilla,  de,  (Don  JUAN  LOPEZ,)  a  Spanish  patriot 
and  general,  born  in  Castile,  was  a  son  of  a  nobleman. 
He  became  in  1520  the  leader  of  the  malcontents  whom 
the  extortions  and  misrule  of  the  Flemish  ministers  of 
Charles  V.  provoked  to  revolt.  The  insurgents  elected 
a  council  called  Junta  de  las  Comunidades.  Padilla  de 
feated  the  royal  troops  at  Segovia,  took  Vallaclolid,  the 
capital  of  Spain,  and  deposed  the  regent,  Adrian  of 
Utrecht.  Dissensions  arose  among  the  popular  party, 
Padilla  was  deprived  of  the  command,  and  his  successor 
was  defeated.  About  the  end  of  1520  he  was  restored 
to  the  command.  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Villalar  in  April,  1521,  and  executed  the  next  day. 

See  ROBERTSON,  "Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  book  iii. 

Padilla,  de,  (LORENZO,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at 
Antequera  about  1485.  lie  was  eminent  for  learning, 
and  leceived  the  title  of  historiographer  to  Charles  V. 
He  left  in  manuscript  a  "General  History  of  Spain," 
and  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Spain,  which  was  pub 
lished  in  1669.  Died  in  1540. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliolheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Padilla,  de,  (Dona  MARIA  PACHECO,)  the  wife  of 
Juan  Lopez,  noticed  above,  was  a  woman  of  great  energy 
and  talents,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  popular  cause. 
After  her  husband's  death  she  took  his  place  as  leader, 
and  made  heroic  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  defend 
Toledo  against  the  royalists.  She  escaped  to  Portugal, 
where  she  remained  until  her  death. 

See  MARIANA,  "  Hisloria  de  Espana." 

Padilla,  de,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Linares, 
was  a  friend  of  Cervantes.  He  published  "Pastoral 
Eclogues,"  (1582,)  and  other  poems.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  pastoral  poets  of  his  time.  Died  about  1600. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poels  and  Poelry  of  Europe." 

Fad'ma',  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  pud'ma',]  written 
also  Fedma,  [from  padmd,  a  "lotus,"]  one  of  the  names 
of  LAKSHMI,  (which  see.) 

Padouan  or  Padovano.     See  CAVINO. 

Padouanino.     See  LEONI,  (OTTAVIO.) 

Padouanino,  pa-doo-a-nee'no,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  ex 
cellent  Italian  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born 
at  Padua  in  1552.  He  was  correct  in  design  and  fertile 
in  invention.  Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  de 
liverance  of  two  persons  who  were  condemned  to  death. 
Died  in  1617. 

His  son  OTTAVIO  was  a  skilful  portrait-painter.  He 
died  about  1634,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two. 

Padovano.     See  LEONI,  (Luioi  and  OTTAVIO.) 

Paean,  pee'an,  [Gr.  Tlaiuv,  HOITJGJV,  or  Tiaiuv :  Fr. 
PEAN,  pa'SN'',]  a  name  applied  to  Apollo,  and  also  a 
surname  of  /Esculapius,  the  god  who  had  the  power  of 
healing.  It  was  afterwards  applied  to  hymns  sung  in 
honour  of  Apollo,  and  to  martial  songs  by  which  a 
victory  was  celebrated. 

Paelinck,  pa'link,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
near  Ghent  in  1781.  He  worked  at  Rome  five  years. 
Among  his  works  is  "  The  Discovery  of  the  Cross." 
Died  at  Brussels  in  1839. 


Paeonius,  pe-o'ne-us,  [LTajoivioc,]  OFEPHESUS,  a  Greek 
architect,  probably  lived  about  400  li.c.  He  completed 
(with  Demetrius)  the  great  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Paeonius  OF  MENUE,  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor,  of 
whom  little  is  known,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
430  B.C.  He  adorned  with  statues  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
at  Olympia. 

Faer,  pa-aiR',  (FERDINANDO,)  an  eminent  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Parma  in  1771.  Having  produced 
some  successful  operas,  he  was  appointed  chapel-master 
at  Dresden  in  1801.  He  entered  the  service  of  Napoleon 
in  1807  as  imperial  composer,  and  was  employed  to  direct 
the  music  of  the  court  theatre.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Institute  in  1831.  Among  his  most  admired  operas  are 
"Griselda,"  (1796,)  "Achille,"  (1806,)  and  "Agnese," 
(1811.)  Died  at  Paris  in  1839. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Paesiello.     See  PAISIELLO. 

Paez,  pa-es',  (FRANCESCO  ALVAREZ,)  a  Portuguese 
monk,  asserted  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  in  a 
treatise  "  De  Planctu  Ecclesiae."  Died  in  1532. 

Paez,  pa-eth',  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born 
at  Olmedo,  in  Spain,  in  1564.  He  entered  Abyssinia  in 
1603,  learned  a  native  dialect,  and  converted  the  king, 
Za-Denghel.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  one  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile  in  1618.  He  died  in  Abyssinia  in 
1622,  (as  is  supposed,)  leaving  a  History  of  Abyssinia 
in  manuscript,  and  some  letters. 

Paez,  pa-eth',  (JosE  ANTONIO,)  a  South  American 
general,  born  at  Varinas  about  1785.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  army  of  Bolivar  against  the  Spaniards. 
The  victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Carabobo,  or  Carabolo, 
in  1821,  is  ascribed  to  him.  In  1830  he  was  elected 
President  of  Venezuela  for  four  years.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1838  or  1839,  and  was  appointed  dictator  in  1846. 
Having  failed  in  an  armed  contest  with  Monagas  in 
1848,  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  exiled  in  1850.  He  is 
represented  as  an  able  and  respectable  statesman. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Antobioprafia  del  Jose"  Antonio  Paez,' 
1867;  "North  American  Review''  for  July,  1827. 

Pagan,  de,  deli  pS'gSN',  (BLAISE  FRANCOIS,)  COUNT, 
an  eminent  French  engineer  and  geometer,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1604.  He  distinguished  himself  by  skill  and 
courage  in  the  war  against  the  French  Protestants,  and 
directed  the  siege  of  Nancy,  in  1633.  He  had  just  been 
made  a  marechal-de-camp.  in  1642,  when  he  was  deprived 
of  sight  by  disease.  Continuing  to  apply  himself  with 
success' to  mathematics,  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  writings.  In  1645  he  published  in  his  "Treatise  on 
Fortifications"  ("Traite  des  Fortifications")  a  new  sys 
tem  of  fortification,  which  quickly  superseded  all  others. 
He  is  reputed  one  of  the  greatest  masters  and  improvers 
of  the  art  on  which  that  work  treats.  Died  in  1665. 

See  PERRAULT,  "  Homines  illuslres." 

Paganel,  pt'gi'nel',  (CAMILLE  PIERRE  ALEXIS,)  a 
tittjratfur,born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  six  times  between  1834  and  1846, 
and  voted  with  the  Centre.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  His 
tory  of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1859. 

Paganel,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  politician,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1745. 
He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792- 
95.  He  voted,  however,  for  the  death  and  reprieve  of 
the  king.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  French  Revolu 
tion,"  (3  vols.,  1810.)  Died  in  1826. 

Pagani,  pa-ga'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  in  1531.  He  painted  frescos  in  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1561. 

Pagani,  (GREGORIO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1558.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cigoli, 
whose  style  he  imitated,  was  an  excellent  colorist,  and 
was  one  of  the  best  masters  that  Florence  possessed 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  master-piece, 
"  The  Discovery  of  the  Cross,"  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
His  extant  works  are  not  numerous.  Died  in  1605. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painling  in  Italy." 

Pagani,  (PAOLO,)  a  painter,  born  in  the  duchy  of 
Milan  in  1661.  He  worked  in  Venice  with  success. 
The  gallery  of  Dresden  contains  his  picture  of  a  Mag 
dalene  in  meditation.  Died  in  1716. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  //6«.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAGANI-CESA 


1726 


PAGNERRE 


Fagani-Cesa,  pa-ga'nee  cha'sa,  (GIUSEPPE  URBANO,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Belluno  in  1757.  He  wrote  "  La 
ViHegiatura  di  Clizia,"  (1802,)  and  other  poems  of  some 
merit.  He  also  produced  a  mediocre  version  of  Virgil's 
"/Eneid,"  (1822.)  Died  in  1835. 

Paganini,  pa-ga-nee'nee,  (Niccoi.6,)  acelebrated  Ital 
ian  performer  on  the  violin,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1784. 
He  received  lessons  from  Rolfa,  Ghiretti,  and  Paer, 
and  is  said  to  have  composed  a  sonata  of  merit  at  the 
age  of  nine,  about  which  time  he  began  to  perform  in 
public  concerts,  and  by  his  wonderful  powers  produced 
the  most  extraordinary  excitement  among  the  audience. 
When  not  yet  fifteen,  he  escaped  from  the  control  of  his 
father,  and  commenced  business  on  his  own  account. 
But,  unhappily,  the  admiration  and  flatteries  which  he 
received,  and  the  control  of  large  sums  of  money,  which 
he  procured  almost  without  effort,  exerted  a  most  in 
jurious  effect  on  his  moral  character,  and  he  fell  into 
habits  of  gambling  and  into  the  practice  of  other  vices. 
About  1802  he  retired  for  a  time  from  public  view  ;  but 
his  former  habits  of  life,  and  the  necessity  of  excitement, 
soon  induced  or  compelled  him  to  return.  After  he  had 
given  concerts  in  the  great  cities  of  Italy,  he  visited  Vienna 
in  1828,  and  was  received  with  the  wildest  enthusiasm. 
His  performances  created  a  furor  wholly  unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  music.  He  gained  enormous  sums  of 
money  in  Paris  and  London.  His  marvellous  perform 
ance  on  a  single  string  excited  especial  astonishment. 
He  composed  sonatas,  etc.  for  the  violin,  which  display 
an  inventive  genius.  Died  at  Nice  in  1840.  With  all 
his  rare  gifts,  he  is  said  to  have  been  sensual,  extremely 
avaricious,  and  excessively  vain. 

See  SCHOTTKV,  "  Paganini's  Leben  nnd  Treiben,"  Prague,  1830; 
CONESTABH.K,  "  Vita  del  celebre  N.  Paganini;"  J.  IMKKKT  DK  LA 
PH.M.feQUR,  "  Notice  sur  N.  Paganini,"  Paris,  1830;  G.  E.  AN'DEKS, 
"  Paganini.  sa  Vie.  sa  Personne,"  etc.,  1831  ;  FR.  FAYOI.LK,  "  Paga 
nini  et  Beriot."  1831  ;  F^TIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musi- 
ciens;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1831. 

Pagano,  pa-ga'no,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  a  political 
writer,  born  at  Brienza,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in 
1748.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  law  at  Naples  in  1787. 
His  principal  work  is  "Political  Essays,"  ("  Saggi  po- 
litici,"  1792.)  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Neapolitan  re 
public  formed  in  1798.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  by 
the  royalists,  he  was  executed  in  1800. 

Paganucci,  pa-ga-noot'chee,  (JEAN,)  a  French  mer 
chant,  born  at  Lyons  in  1729,  wrote  an  excellent  "Mer 
chants'  Manual,"  ("  Manuel  des  Negociants,"  3  vols., 
1762.)  Died  in  1797. 

Page,  (Jons,)  an  American  patriot  and  Governor, 
born  in  Gloucester  county,  Virginia,  in  1743.  He  ren 
dered  important  services  during  the  Revolution,  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  Virginia  for  eight  years, 
(1789-97.)  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1802.  lie  was  a  personal  friend  of  Thomas  Jefferson. 
Died  at  Richmond  in  1808. 

Page,  (THOMAS  JEFFERSON,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Virginia  about  1815.  He  was  appointed 
a  commander  in  the  United  States  navy  in  1855. 

Page,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Harrow 
in  1590,  was  master  of  a  free  school  at  Reading.  He 
wrote  "The  Peace-Maker,  or  a  Brief  Motive  to  Unity." 
Died  in  1663. 

Page,  (Wn.LiAM,)  an  American  painter,  born  at  Al 
bany  in  1811.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  S.  F.  B. 
Morse,  in  New  York,  and  subsequently  produced  several 
portraits  and  historical  pieces  which  established  his 
reputation.  He  visited  Rome  about  1850,  and  returned 
in  1860  to  New  York.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
the  "  Flight  into  Egypt,"  "  Moses  and  Aaron  on  Mount 
Horeb,"  and  "  The  Infant  Bacchus." 

See  TUCKER.MAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Pagenstecher,  pa'gen-steK'er,  (ALEXANDER  AR 
NOLD,)  a  German  jurisconsult,  born  at  Bentheim  in 
1659.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Groningen,  and 
wrote  many  works.  Died  in  1716. 

Pages.  '  See  GARNIER-PAGES. 

Pages,  pi'zhes',  (FRANC.OIS  XAVIER,)  a  French  litti- 
rateur,  born  at  Aurillac  in  1745.  He  published,  besides 
many  novels,  "Historical  Tableaux  of  the  French  Revo 
lution,"  (3  vols.,  1791-1804.)  Died  in  1802. 


Pages,  (PIERRE  MARIE  FRANgois,)a  French  voyager, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1748,  was  a  captain  in  the  navy. 
He  published  in  1782  "Voyages  around  the  World  and 
towards  the  Poles  in  1767-1776."  He  was  massacred 
be  the  negroes  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1793. 

Pages  de  1'Ariege,  pi'zhes'  deh  li're'.\zh',  (JEAN 
PIKRRE,)  a  French  political  writer,  born  in  Ariege  in 
1784.  He  was  an  editor  of  several  Liberal  journals  of 
Paris  after  the  restoration.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to 
the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  published  several  works. 

Pag'et,  (Lord  CLARENCE  EDWARD,)  a  British  ad 
miral,  a  brother  of  the  Marquis  of  Anglesey,  was  born 
in  1811.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  navy,  and  com 
manded  the  Princess  Royal  in  the  Baltic  in  1854.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Liberals  in  1847,  ancl 
again  in  1857.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  Admiralty.  He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1865. 

Paget  or  Pag'it,  (EusEHiUS,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister  and  writer,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about 
1542.  He  became  rector  of  Saint  Anne  and  Saint 
Agnes,  London,  in  1604.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History 
of  the  Bible."  Died  in  1617. 

His  son  EPHRAIM  (1575-1647)  was  noted  as  a  linguist. 
He  wrote  a  "  Christianographia,"  (1635.) 

Paget,  (GEORGE  FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS,)  LORD,  a 
brother  of  Clarence  Edward,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1818.  He  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  dragoons  about 
1846,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Balaklava,  (1854.) 

Paget,  (HENRY  WILLIAM,)  LORD.     See  ANGLESEY. 

Paget,  (JAMES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physiologist  and 
surgeon  of  high  reputation,  was  born  in  Great  Yarmouth 
in  1814.  He  was  admitted  into  the  College  of  Surgeons 
in  1836,  and  afterwards  became  Hunterian  professor  of 
surgery.  He  wrote  articles  for  several  medical  journals. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology," 


Paget,  (WILLIAM,)  BARON,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1506.  He  became  one  of  the  secre 
taries  of  state  in  1543.  Designated  by  Henry  VIII.  as 
one  of  the  executors  of  his  will,  Paget  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  events  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  was 
keeper  of  the  seals  in  the  following  reign.  In  1561  he 
advised  Elizabeth  to  make  an  alliance  with  the  King  of 
Navarre  and  the  Huguenots  rather  than  the  King  of 
Spain.  Died  in  1563. 

Paggi,  pad'jee,  or  Pagi,  pa'jee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,) 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1554,  was 
a  pupil  of  Luca  Cambiaso.  He  worked  about  twenty 
years  at  Florence,  and  returned  to  Genoa  in  1600,  after 
which  he  adorned  the  churches  of  that  city  with  many 
paintings.  He  was  the  master  of  a  school  in  which  sev 
eral  able  artists  were  formed,  and  excelled  as  a  colorist. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Transfiguration"  and 
"The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents."  Died  in  1627. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  SOPRANI,  "  Vite  de' 
Pittori  Genovesi." 

Pagi,  pf'zhe',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  chronologist,  born 
in  Provence  in  1624.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
"  Historical  and  Chronological  Criticism  on  the  Ec 
clesiastical  Annals  of  Baronius,"  ("Critica  historico- 
chronologica  in  Annales  Ecclesiasticos  Baronii,"  4  vols., 
1705.)  Died  in  1699. 

Pagi,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lam- 
besc  in  1654,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  1721. 

Pagi,  L'AmsE,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Martigue 
about  1690.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Revolu 
tions  of  the  Low  Countries,"  (1727.) 

Pagit.     See  PAGET,  (EUSEHIUS.) 

Paglia,  pal'ya,  (ANTONIO,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1680.  He  was  a  skilful  imitator  of  the 
old  masters.  He  worked  in  Brescia,  the  churches  of 
which  contain  many  of  his  pictures.  Died  in  1747. 

Paglia,  (FRANCESCO,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1636,  was  a  pupil  of  Guercino.  He 
excelled  in  portraits  and  in  the  science  of  clair-obscur. 
He  died  soon  after  1700. 

Pagnerre,  paVyaiR',  (LAURENT  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
republican,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1805.  He  was  ap 
pointed  assistant  to  the  mayor  of  Paris,  Garnier-Pages, 
in  February,  1848,  secretary-general  of  the  provisional 


I, e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /nig:  4.  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,y,  short:  a.  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  far.  fall,  fit;  met;  not:  good;  moon  ; 


P4GNEST 


1727 


PAINE 


government  on  the  1st  of  March,  and  director  of  the 
Comptoir  national  d'Escompte  on  the  gth  of  March.  He 
was  the  first  proposer  of  this  institution,  which  rendered 
great  services  to  the  public  in  that  crisis.  Died  in  1854. 

Pagnest,  pSg'ni',  (  AMABLE  Louis  CLAUDE,)  a  French 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1790;  died  in  1819. 

Pagnini,  pan-yee'nee,  [Lat.  PAGNI'NUS,]  (LucA  AN 
TONIO,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar  and  monk,  born  at 
Pistoia  in  1737.  He  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  epigrams, 
"  Epigrammi  morali  cento,"  (1799,)  which  were  admired, 
and  produced  good  translations  of  Anacreon,  (1766,) 
Theocritus,  (1780,)  Hesiod,  (1797,)  and  Horace's  "  Sa 
tires  and  Epistles,"  (1814.)  He  corresponded  with  Alfieri, 
Frugoni,  and  Cesarotti.  In  1806  he  became  professor  of 
Latin  at  Pisa.  Died  in  1814. 

See  CiAMPij  "Elogiurn   L.  A.  Pagnini,"  1814:  TIPAI.DO,  "  Bio- 

grafia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Pagnino,  pan-yee'no,  [Lat.  PAGNI'NUS,]  (SANTE,)  an 
Italian  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Lucca  about  1470.  He 
entered  the  order  of  Dominicans,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Lyons  in  1525.  He  produced  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek,  (1528,)  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Buxtorf,  Huet,  and  other 
critics.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Hebrew-Latin  Dic 
tionary,"  (1529.)  Died  about  1538. 

See  A.  PERICAUD,  "  Notice  sur  S.  Pagnino,"  1850;  TIRABOSCHI, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pagninus.     See  PAGNINO. 

Pahlen,  von  der,  fon  der  pa'len,  (PETER,)  BARON  or 
COUNT,  a  Russian  general,  born  about  1744.  He  gained 
the  favour  of  the  Czar  Paul,  who  appointed  him  Gov 
ernor-General  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  assassination  of  Paul,  in  1801,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  chief  of  that  conspiracy.  He  retired  to 
his  estate  in  Livonia,  where  he  died  in  1826. 

Pahlen,  von  der,  (PKTER,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  gen 
eral,  and  son  of  the  preceding,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812  and  1813.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Paris  from  1835  to  1842. 

Paice.     See  PACE,  (RICHARD.) 

Paillet,  pS'yi',  (  AI.PHONSE  GABRIEL  VICTOR,)  an 
eminent  French  advocate,  born  at  Soissons  in  1795, 
settled  in  Paris  about  1826,  and  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation  for  eloquence  and  probity.  He  displayed 
consummate  art  in  the  statement  and  exposition  of  facts. 
In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
Died  in  1855.  "Nature  had  given  him,"  says  the  "  Bio- 
graphie  Univer.selle,"  "in  a  just  measure  and  in  perfect 
equilibrium,  all  the  qualities  which  are  requisite  to  form 
a  great  advocate." 

See,  also,  J.  LARNAC,  "  Fjoge  de  M.  Paillet,"  1857. 

Pailliet,  pf'ye-a',  or  Paillet,  pi'yi',  OEAN  BAP- 
TISTE  JOSEPH,)  a^French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1789. 
lie  published  a  "Manual  of  French  Law,"  (gth  edition, 
1836,)  which  was  perhaps  more  popular  than  any  other 
similar  book.  He  also  wrote  other  works.  Died  about 
1860. 

Paillot  de  Montabert,  pt'yo'  deh  mdN'tf'baiR', 
(JEAN  NICOLAS,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Troves  in 
1771.  He  wrote  a  "  Complete  Treatise  on  Painting," 
(9  vols.,  1829.)  Died  in  1849. 

Paine,  pan,  (ELEAZAR  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ohio  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  about  September,  1861, 
and  served  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  in  1862-63. 

Paine,  (ELIJAH,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Brooklyn,  Connecticut,  in  1757.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1794,  and  in  1801  became  judge 
of  the  United  States  court  for  Vermont.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
and  of  other  learned  institutions.  Died  in  1842. 

Paine,  (ELIJAH,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Williamstown,  Vermont,  in  1796,  and  rose  to  eminence  as 
a  jurist.  He  published,  in  conjunction  with  John  Duer, 
"  Practice  in  Civil  Actions  and  Proceedings  in  the  State 
of  New  York,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1853. 

Paine,  (MARTYN,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Williamstown,  Vermont,  in  1794,  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1813.  He  afterwards 
settled  in  New  York,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation 
and  extensive  practice.  In  1841  he  was  one  of  the  founders 


of  the  University  Medical  College,  in  which  he  filled  the 
chair  of  therapeutics  and  materia  medica.  He  has  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  "The  Cholera  Asphyxia  of 
New  York,"  "  Medical  and  Physiological  Commentaries," 
(1840,)  and  "Institutes  of  Medicine,"  (1847.)  The  two 
last-named  have  a  very  high  reputation.  He  has  also 
written  a  treatise  on  "  Theoretical  Geology." 

Paine,  (RoitERT  TREAT,)  an  American  jurist  and  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Boston  in  1731.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  for  about 
four  years,  (1774-78.)  In  1780  he  was  one  of  the  com 
mittee  which  formed  the  State  Constitution  of  Massa 
chusetts,  and  in  1790  became  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State.  Died  in  1814. 

See  GOODRICH,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence." 

Paine,  (ROHERT  TREAT,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Taunton,  Massachusetts,  in  1773.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1792,  and,  having  subsequently 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  very  popular  political  song,  entitled 
"  Adams  and  Liberty,"  and  of  other  works,  in  prose  and 
verse.  Died  in  1811. 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOLD,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  75. 

Paine,  (THOMAS,)  a  political  and  deistical  writer, 
born  at  Thetford,  in  Norfolk,  England,  in  January,  1737. 
His  father  was  a  Quaker,  and  brought  up  his  son  to  his 
own  trade,  that  of  stay-maker.  Paine  married  young, 
and  settled  in  1759  at  Sandwich.  Having  lost  his  wife 
about  1761,  he  removed  to  London,  where  for  a  short 
time  he  was  employed  as  a  school-teacher.  After  seve 
ral  changes  of  business  and  residence,  he  emigrated  to 
America  in  1774,  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  from 
Dr.  Franklin,  whom  he  met  in  London.  He  became 
editor  of  the  "  Pennsylvania  Magazine,"  and  gave  an 
impulse  to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous  pamphlet  called 
"Common  Sense,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  policy  of 
separation  and  independence.  It  was  issued  in  January, 

1776,  and  appears  to  have  contributed  in  an  extraordi 
nary  degree   to  the  advancement   of  republican    ideas. 
He  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army  in  the  autumn 
of  1776.     To  counteract  the  depression  of  spirits  which 
prevailed  in  the  winter  of  1776-77,  he  published  "The 
Crisis,"   a  periodical,  which  appeared   at   irregular   in 
tervals  for  some  years  and  was  very  successful.     The 
phrase  "These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls"  was 
first   used   in   the  "  Crisis."     He  was   secretary  to   the 
committee  on   foreign   affairs  in   Congress   from   April, 

1777,  to  January,  1779,  and  went  to  France  in  1781,  with 
Colonel    Laurens,  to   negotiate   a   loan   for   the  United 
States.     His  services  in  the  Revolution  were  rewarded 
by  Congress  in  1785  with  a  present  of  three  thousand 
dollars,   and   the    State   of  New  York  gave   him   three 
hundred  acres  of  land. 

In  1787  he  visited  France,  from  which  he  passed  to 
England.  He  invented  an  iron  bridge,  and  procured  the 
construction  of  such  a  bridge  at  Rotherham,  in  York 
shire.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1789,  and,  in  answer  to 
Burke's  "Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,"  wrote 
his  "  Rights  of  Man,"  (1791,)  which  obtained  great  popu 
larity.  In  September,  1792,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  National  Convention  by  the  citizens  of 
the  Pas-de-Calais.  He  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and, 
in  the  trial  of  the  king,  voted  for  his  banishment.  About 
the  end  of  1793  he  was  expelled  from  the  Convention,  as 
a  foreigner,  by  the  Jacobins,  who  also  issued  a  decree 
that  all  natives  of  England  found  in  France  should  be 
imprisoned.  He  was  accordingly  cast  into  prison,  and 
narrowly  escaped  death  in  the  reign  of  terror.  In 
November,  1794,  he  was  released,  through  the  influence 
of  James  Monroe,  (afterwards  President  of  the  United 
States,)  and  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Convention.  He 
produced  in  1795  a  deistical  work  entitled  "The  Age  of 
Reason,"  which  gave  great  offence  to  many  of  his  polit 
ical  friends.*  This  work,  although  characterized  by  a 
certain  vigour  as  well  as  flippancy  of  style,  and  though 
from  its  very  indecency  calculated  to  obtain  currency 
among  the  less  refined  portion  of  society,  yet,  being 


*  See  an  interesting  letter  from  Franklin  to  Paine  on  this  subject, 
in  Sparks's  edition  of  Franklin's  works,  vol.  x.  p.  281. 


f.  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:gz&j;  G,  H,  K,t^tMura!;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POINTER 


1728 


PALAFOX 


conspicuously  wanting  in  a  spirit  of  candour,  and  betray 
ing  an  utter  deficiency  in  true  scholarship,  is  likely  to  exert 
but  little  influence  upon  intelligent  and  reflecting  minds, 
and  least  of  all  on  those  whose  learning  qualifies  them 
to  judge  of  the  ignorance  of  the  writer  and  the  essential 
shallovvness  of  most  of  his  arguments.  He  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1802,  and  passed  his  latter  years 
in  private  life  and  comparative  obscurity.  He  became 
intemperate  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Died  in  New 
York  in  June,  1809. 

See  CHEETHAM,  "  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Paine,"  iSog  ;  CARI.ILE, 
"Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1814;  G.  CHALMERS,  "Lite  of  Thomas 
Paine,"  1791;  G.  VALE,  "Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1841;  W.  T. 
SHERWIN,  "Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  i8ig;  WILLIAM  COBBETT, 
"Life  of  Thomas  Paine;"  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1843  ;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  July  and 
December,  1859;  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1791,  and  March, 
1792;  "New  American  Cyclopaedia." 

Faint'er,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer  or  translator, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  lie  published  "The 
Palace  of  Pleasure,  beautified,  adorned,  and  well  fur 
nished  with  Pleasant  Histories  and  Excellent  Novels," 
etc.,  (2  vols.,  1566-69.)  Died  after  1590. 

Paisiello,  pi-se-el'lo,  or  Paesiello,  pa-a-se-el'lo, 
(GIOVANNI,)  a  celebrated  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Tarento  in  1741,  studied  five  years  under  Durante  at 
Naples.  About  1764  he  produced  operas  entitled  "La 
Pupilla"  and  "  II  Mondo  alia  Rovescio,"  which  extended 
his  reputation  throughout  Italy.  He  was  chapel-master 
to  the  King  of  Naples  from  1786  to  1798.  Having  been 
invited  by  Bonaparte,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1802,  and 
officiated  as  chapel-master  for  two  years.  He  returned 
to  Naples  in  1804.  Among  his  popular  operas  are  "  King 
Theodore,"  ("  II  Re  Teodoro,")  "  The  Barber  of  Seville," 
"  Frascatina,"  "La  Locanda,"  "  Pirro,"  and  "  lo  son 
Lincloro,"  (or  "  Hope  told  a  Flattering  Tale.")  "  He  is 
superior  to  his  rivals,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "  in  the 
suavity  of  his  melody  and  the  charm  of  his  expression." 
His  works  display  verve,  originality,  an  extreme  fertility 
of  invention,  and  a  grace  and  elegance  which  are  almost 
unequalled.  Died  in  1816. 

See  QUATRF.MERE  DE  QuiNcv,  "Notice  sur  Paisiello;"  Fitris, 
"Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  LESUEUR,  "Notice  sur 
G.  Paisiello,"  1816;  Scmzzi,  "  Raggionamento  della  Vita  di  G.  Pai 
siello,"  1837  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Paitoni,  pl-to'nee,  (GiACOMO  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
monk  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  about  1710. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  accurate  work  entitled 
"Library  of  Ancient  Latin  and  Greek  Authors,"  etc., 
("Biblioteca  degli  Autori  antichi  Greci  e  Latini  vol- 
garizzati,"  5  vols.,  1767.)  Died  in  1774. 

FaLxhaiis,  paks'anz  or  p&k'sd.N',  (HENRI  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Metz  in  1783.  He  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Moskwa,  (1812.)  He  represented  Metz  in  the  Cham 
ber  of  Deputies  many  years,  ending  in  1848,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He  made  improvements 
in  artillery  and  projectiles,  which  bear  his  name,  and 
published  several  works  on  artillery  and  the  art  of  war. 
The  Paixhan  guns  were  first  used  in  France  about  1824. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  June,  1828. 

Pajol,  pt'zhoj',  (CLAUDE  PIERRE,)  COMTE,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1772.  He  signalized  him 
self  at  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  was  made  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1807,  and  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1812.  His  defence  of  Montereau  was  praised  by  Na 
poleon,  who  appointed  him  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour  in  1814.  He  fought  against  Charles  X.,  and  was 
second  in  command  of  the  Parisian  troops  in  July,  1830. 
Died  in  1844. 

Pajon,  pi'zhdN',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Romorantin  in  1626.  He  preached  at 
Orleans,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  is  a  defence  of  the  Protestant  faith  against 
Nicole,  entitled  "Examen  des  Prejuges  legitimes,"  (de 
Nicole,)  (1675.)  Died  in  1685. 

Pajot,  pt'zho',  (Louis  LEON,)  Comte  d'Ons-en-Bray, 
(doN  SON  bni,)  a  French  mechanician  and  collector,  born 
in  Paris  in  1678.  He  collected  a  rich  cabinet  of  machines 
and  rare  works  of  art,  etc.  He  invented  an  anemometer, 


and  wrote  several  scientific  treatises.    In  1708  he  became 
director-general  of  the  post-office.     Died  in  1754. 

Pajou,  pa*'zhoo',  (AuousTiN,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1730,  was  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1748,  and  went  as  royal  pensioner  to 
Rome,  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  He  enjoyed 
great  celebrity  in  P'rance  in  his  time.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Pascal,  Descartes,  Fenelon,  Turenne,  and 
Bossuet.  Died  at  Paris  in  1809. 

See  LEBRETON,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Pajou,"  1810; 
"  Biographie  Universelle." 

Pajou,  (JACQUES  AUGUSTIN,)  a  historical  painter,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1766  ;  died  in  1828. 

Pakenham,  pa'ken-am,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  a  British 
general,  who  commanded  the  army  which  attacked  New 
Orleans  and  was  defeated  by  General  Jackson,  January 
8,  1815.  He  was  killed  in  this  action.  He  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Pakeiiham,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  a  British  admiral,  born  in 
1758.  As  captain  of  a  ship  of  seventy-four  guns,  he  took 
part  in  Lord  Howe's  victory  over  the  French  in  June, 
1794-  He  became  admiral  about  1810.  Died  in  1836. 

Pa'king-tpn,  (DOROTHY,)  a  learned  English  lady, 
was  a  daughter  of  Lord  Coventry,  and  wife  of  Sir  John 
Pakington.  Died  in  1679.  She  was  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  "The  Whole  Duty  of  Man." 

Pakington,  (Sir  JOHN  SOMERSET,)  an  English  con 
servative  politician,  a  son  of  William  Russell,  of  Povvick 
Court,  Worcestershire,  was  born  in  1799.  He  assumed 
the  name  of  his  uncle  about  1830.  He  entered  Parlia 
ment  in  1837,  and  was  colonial  secretary  for  a  short  time 
in  1852.  From  February,  1858,  to  July,  1859,  he  was 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He  became  secretary  of 
war  in  March,  1867,  and  resigned  in  December,  1868. 

Palacky,  pa-lats'kee,  sometimes  Anglicized  in  pro 
nunciation  as  pa-lak'kee,  (FRANCIS,)  an  eminent  Bohe 
mian  historian  and  critic,  born  at  Ilodslawitz  in  June, 
1798,  is  a  Protestant.  He  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  Bohemia  about  1830,  and  edited  the  "Journal  of  the 
Bohemian  Museum"  from  1827  to  1837.  He  was  an 
active  supporter  of  liberal  principles  in  1848,  and  pre 
sided  over  a  Congress  of  Slavonians -at  Prague  in  that 
year.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  "  History  of 
Bohemia,"  in  German,  (8  vols.,  1836-60.) 

Paladines.     See  PALLADINES. 

Paladini,  pa-la-dee'nee,  (ARCANGEI.A,)  a  painter  and 
poetess,  born  nt  Pisa  in  1599  ;  died  in  1622. 

Paladini,  (FiLiPPO,)  an  able  Florentine  painter,  born 
about  1544,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His  picture 
of  the  "Death  of  John  the  Baptist"  is  admired.  Died 
in  1614. 

Paleemon,  pa-lee'mon,  [Gr.  Ua^ai/nuv  ;  Fr.  PALEMON, 
pi'li'mAx',]  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  Athamas 
and  Ino,  was  first  called  MELICF.RTA.  He  was  regarded 
as  a  marine  divinity,  and  the  Isthmian  games  were  insti 
tuted  in  his  honour.  He  was  identified  with  the  Roman 
Portumnus.  (See  MELICERTA.) 

Palaemon,  pa-lee'mon,  (QuiNTUS  REMMIUS,)  a  Ro 
man  grammarian,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Tiberius, 
about  45  A.D. 

Palaeologus,  pa-le-ol'o-gus,  [Gr.  LTa/WoAoyof ;  Fr. 
PALEOLOGUE,  pt'la'o'log',]  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Byzantine -family  which  acquired  distinction  in  the  elev 
enth  century.  They  reigned  in  Constantinople  from 
1260  until  1453,  when  that  capital  was  taken  by  the 
Turks.  (See  ANDRONICUS  II.,  CONSTANTINUS  XIII., 
MANUEL  II.,  JOHN  VI.,  and  JOHN  VII.) 

Faleephatus,  pa-lSf'a-tus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Aby- 
dos,  was  a  friend  of  Aristotle,  and  lived  about  350  B.C. 
According  to  Suidas,  he  wrote  on  Attica,  Arabia,  and 
Cyprus. 

Paleephatus,  a  Greek  writer  of  an  uncertain  period, 
to  whom  Suidas  attributes  an  "  Explanation  of  Things 
related  in  Mythology."  By  some  critics  this  is  identified 
with  an  extant  work  "On  Things  Incredible,"  (7rep«  ~uv 
umaruv.)  Suidas  also  mentions  an  Athenian  epic  poet 
of  this  name,  who  lived  before  Homer. 

Palafox,  de,  da  pa-la-foH',  (JUAN,)  a  Spanish  bishop 
and  writer,  born  in  Aragon  in  1600.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Osma  in  1653.  He  wrote,  besides  works  of  devotion, 
"  The  Shepherd  of  Christmas  Eve,"  ("  Pastor  de  Noche 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PALAFOX 


1729 


PALET 


Buena,"  1655,)  and  "  The  Conquest  of  China  by  the  Tar 
tars,"  (1678.)     Died  in  1659. 

See  DINOUART,  "Vie  de  J.  de  Palafox,"  1767;  CHAMPION, 
"  Histoire  de  J.  de  Palafox,"  1688. 

Palafox  y  Melzi,  pa-la-fou'  e  mel'/Vfcee,  (JosE,)  com 
monly  called  simply  PALAFOX,  (which  in  pronunciation 
is  usually  Anglicized  as  pal'a-foks',)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1780.  He  became  in  his  youth  a 
member  of  the  military  household  of  the  king.  When 
an  attack  on  Saragossa  by  the  French  was  expected,  in 
1808,  he  was  nominated  captain-general  by  popular  ac 
clamation,  lie  defended  that -city  obstinately  for  sixty 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  term  the  French  retired,  August, 
1808.  Another  force,  under  Lannes,  renewed  the  siege 
in  November,  and  Palafox  was  forced  to  capitulate  in 
February,  1809.  He  supported  the  popular  cause  against 
Ferdinand  VII.  in  1820.  About  1836  he  was  made  Duke 
of  Saragossa.  Died  in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Para-mas,  [UaXa/Mf,]  (GkEGOiuus,)  a  Greek  monk 
and  mystical  writer,  lived  about  1350.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  sect  or  party  called  Palamites,  whose  claims 
to  mystical  light  caused  a  great  controversy. 

Palamede.     See  PALAMEDES. 

Fal-a-me'de§,  [Gr.  Ila/.a«r/<% ;  Fr.  PALAMEDE,  pt'- 
It'm&d',]  a  personage  of  classic  mythology,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  inventor  of  scales,  measures,  chess,  dice, 
and  several  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  Having  joined 
the  expedition  against  Troy,  he  exposed  by  an  ingenious 
stratagem  the  feigned  insanity  of  Ulysses,  and  thereby 
incurred  his  enmity.  The  poets  relate  that  Ulysses 
concealed  in  the  tent  of  Palamedes  a  sum  of  money 
and  a  forged  letter  from  Priam,  on  the  evidence  of  which 
Palamedes  was  convicted  of  treason  and  put  to  death. 

See  VIRGIL,  "^Eneid,"  book  ii.  82. 

Palaprat,  pi'lt'pKJt',  (JKAN  DE  BIGOT,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1650.  He  was  sec 
retary  to  the  grand  prior  of  Vendome,  and  was  noted 
for  wit.  He  wrote  dramas  entitled  "The  Secret  Re 
vealed"  and  "  The  Prude  of  the  Time,"  ("  La  Prude  du 
Temps,")  and  assisted  Brueys  in  the  composition  of 
several  plays.  Died  in  1721. 

Pal-a-ti'nus,  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to 
Apollo,  to  whom  a  temple  was  erected  on  Mount  Pala 
tine. 

Palazzi,  pa-lat'see,  (GiOVANM,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Venice  about  1640.  He  wrote  many  mediocre 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  German  Em 
pire,"  (9  vols.,  1671-79.)  Died  about  1702. 

Paleario.     See  PALEAKIUS. 

Fal-e-a'ri-us  or  Paleario,  pa-la-a're-o,  (AoNius  or 
AONIO,)  a  good  Italian  writer  and  scholar,  was  born  in 
the  Campagna  of  Rome  about  1500.  His  proper  name 
was  DEI. LA  PAGI.IA,  (pai'va.)  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  Latin  poet,  and  became  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Milan  in  1555.  His  Latin  poem  on  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  (1536)  was  commended  by  Sadolet.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  or 
advocated  religious  liberty,  he  was  tried  for  heresy  and 
hung  at  Rome  in  1570. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Aonio  Paleario,"  by  M.  YOUNG,  2  vnls., 
1860;  GURLITT,  "  Leben  des  A.  Palearius,"  1805;  BAYLE,  "  His 
torical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Palemoii.     See  PAL^MON. 

Palencia,  de,  (ALFONSO.)     See   ALFONSO   DE   PA- 

I.ENCIA. 

Palencia,  de,  da  pa-len'the-a,  (FERNANDO,)  a  Spanish 
soldier  and  writer,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
served  in  the  army  in  Peru,  and  published  in  1571  a 
"  History  of  Peru." 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 
book  v. 

Paleologue.     See  PAL.<EOLOGUS. 

Paleotti,  pa-la-ot'tee,  (GAKKIKL,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1524.  He  was  sent  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  by  Pius  IV.,  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1565. 
Among  his  works  is  "  De  Bono  Senectutis,"  (1598.) 
Died  in  1597. 

Fa'les,  [Fr.  PALES,  pt'les',]  a  divinity  who  presided 
over  cattle,  shepherds,  and  pastures  among  the  ancient 
Romans.  Pales  was  represented  by  some  as  a  male  and 


by  others  as  a  female  deity,  and  was  the  personification 
of  the  same  idea  as  Pan  among  the  Greeks. 

Palestrina,  da,  da  pa-les-tRee'na,  (GIOVANNI  PIER- 
LUIGI,)  an  Italian  composer  of  great  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Palestrina,  (the  ancient  Prasneste,)  near  Rome,  about 
1524.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Claude  Goudimel,  a 
Frenchman.  In  1551  he  was  appointed  chapel-master 
to  Pope  Julius  III.  He  produced  in  1554  his  first  work, 
four  masses  for  four  voices,  and  obtained  a  place  among 
the  singers  of  the  pontifical  chapel,  from  which  Paul 
IV.  removed  him  because  he  was  married.  From  1561 
to  1571  he  was  chapel-master  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore.  During  this  period  the  pope  resolved  to  reform 
the  music  of  the  Church  or  to  banish  it.  Palestrina 
was  directed  to  compose  a  mass  which  should  be  con 
formed  to  a  pure  orthodox  standard.  The  result  was 
the  famous  mass  for  six  voices,  called  the  "Mass  of 
Pope  Marcellus,"  (1565,)  which  was  received  with  great 
admiration  and  determined  his  superiors  to  retain  music 
in  the  Roman  Church.  "The  unrivalled  genius  of  Pa 
lestrina,"  says  Denne-Baron,  referring  to  this  mass, 
"  created  the  only  kind  of  music  which  comports  with 
the  majesty  of  the  Church  ;  and  among  the  productions 
of  succeeding  composers  nothing  has  equalled  the  power, 
the  profound  and  simple  accent,  the  mystic  tenderness, 
the  ravishing  sweetness,  of  his  chants."  ("  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale.")  In  1571  he  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  in  Saint  Peter's.  Died  in  1594. 

See  WINTKRFEI.D,  "J.  Pierlnigi  von  Palestrina."  etc.,  1832; 
BAINI,  "  Memorie  storico -critiche  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  Pales- 
trina,"  1828;  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Paletta,  pa-leVta,  or  Palletta,  pal-leYta,  (GIOVANNI 
BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  anatomist  and  writer,  born  in  the 
valley  of  Ossola,  in  Piedmont,  in  1747.  He  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  grand  hospital  of  Milan  in  1787. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Pathological  Exercises,"  (  "  Exer- 
citationes  Pathologies,"  2  vols.,  1820.)  Died  in  1832. 

See  G.  FERRARIO,  "Vita  del  Professore  G.  B.  Paletta,"  1833. 

Pa'ley,  (FREDERICK  APTHORP,)  an  English  scholar, 
a  grandson  of  the  famous  author,  William  Paley,  was 
born  near  York  in  1816.  He  edited  the  works  of  /Es- 
chylus  and  Euripides,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
works  on  church  architecture. 

Paley,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  writer,  born 
at  Peterborough  in  1743.  He  graduated  in  1763  at 
Christ's  College.  Cambridge, — where  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  his  application,* — took 
holy  orders,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  his  college  in 
1766.  He  was  subsequently  employed  as  a  tutor  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  rector  of  Mnsgrove,  in  West 
moreland,  in  1775,  soon  after  which  date  he  married. 
In  1782  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Carlisle.  He 
published  in  1785  "The  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,"  regarded  by  some  as  the  most  important 
of  all  his  works.  As  a  writer  he  excels  in  logical  power 
and  in  clearness  of  style.  He  denies  the  existence  of  a 
moral  sense,  and  adopts  the  maxim  that  "  whatever  is 
expedient  is  right."  He  was  liberal  in  theology,  was 
a  friend  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  earnestly 
advocated  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  IP  1790  he 
produced  an  admirable  work  entitled  "  Horu;  Paulinje. 
or  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  History  ct  Saint  Paul 
evinced."  He  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  Saint 
Paul's  in  1/94,  and  was  presented  to  the  sub-deanery  of 
Lincoln  Cathedral.  About  1795  iie  obtained  the  rec 
tory  of  Bishop- Wearmouth.  His  other  principal  works 
are  '•  A  View  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (3  vols.. 
1704,)  one  of  the  best  works  ever  written  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats,  and  "  Natural  Theology,  or  Evidences 
of  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of  the  Deity,"  (1802,1 
which  has  a  very  high  reputation  and  has  often  been 
reprinted.  Died  in  1805. 

"  This  excellent  writer,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  who,  after 
Clarke  and  Butler,  ought  to  be  ranked  among  the 


Koiuans.     i  aies  svas  represented  uy  some  as  a  maie  ana    entirely  changed  his  coi 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in 

I  eg 


*  It  is  said  that  during  the  early  part  of  his  term  at  Cambridge 
he  spent  his  time  in  agreeable  idleness.  One  of  his  companiors 
called  on  him  early  one  morning,  and  told  him  he  had  been  unable  to 
sleep,  from  the  conviclion  that  he  (Paley)  was  squandering  talents 
which,  if  properly  directed,  might  be  most  useful  to  himself  and  to 
the  world,  concluding  with  these  words:  "  If  you  persist  in  ymir 
indolence.  I  must  renounce  your  society."  The  result  was  that  Paley 
entirely  changed  his  course  of  life. 


this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PALFY 


•73° 


PALIS  QT 


brightest  ornaments  of  the  English  Church  in  the  eigh 
teenth  century,  is  in  the  history  of  philosophy  naturally 
placed  after  Tucker,  to  whom,  with  praiseworthy  libe 
rality,  he  owns  his  extensive  obligations.  .  .  .  His  style 
is  as  near  perfection  in  its  kind  as  any  in  our  language. 
.  .  .  The  most  original  and  ingenious  of  his  writings  is 
the  'Horae  Paulinae.'  'The  Evidences  of  Christianity' 
are  formed  out  of  an  admirable  translation  of  Butler's 
•  Analogy'  and  a  most  skilful  abridgment  of  Lardner's 
'Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History.'  .  .  .  His 'Natural 
Theology'  is  the  wonderful  work  of  a  man  who  after 
sixty  had  studied  anatomy  in  order  to  write  it  ;*  and  it 
could  only  have  been  surpassed  by  a  man  who  to  great 
originality  of  conception  and  clearness  of  exposition 
added  the  advantage  of  a  high  place  in  the  first  class 
of  physiologists.  ...  It  cannot  be  denied  that  Paley 
was  sometimes  rather  a  lax  moralist, — especially  on 
public  duties."  (See  Mackintosh's  "  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy.") 

"On  one  great  topic — that  of  Christian  evidence — 
he  has  shed  new  light.  By  felicity  of  arrangement  and 
illustration,  he  has  given  an  air  of  novelty  to  old  argu 
ments,  whilst  he  has  strengthened  his  cause  by  important 
original  proofs.  His  '  Horae  Paulinae'  is  one  of  the 
few  books  destined  to  live.  Paley  saw  what  he  did 
see  through  an  atmosphere  of  light.  He  seized  on  the 
strong  points  of  his  subject  with  an  intuitive  sagacity, 
and  has  given  his  clear  bright  thoughts  in  a  style  which 
has  made  them  the  property  of  his  readers  almost  as 
perfectly  as  they  were  his  own.  .  .  .  He  was  character 
ized  by  the  distinctness  of  his  vision.  He  was  not,  we 
think,  equally  remarkable  for  its  extent.  He  was  popular 
rather  than  philosophical.  He  was  deficient  in  that 
intellectual  thirst  which  is  a  chief  element  of  the  philo 
sophical  spirit.  He  had  no  irrepressible  desire  to  sound 
the  depths  of  his  own  nature,  or  to  ascend  to  wide  and 
all-reconciling  views  of  the  works  and  ways  of  God. 
Moral  philosophy  he  carried  backward ;  nor  had  he 
higher  claims  in  religious  than  in  ethical  science.  His 
sermons  are  worthy  of  all  praise,  not,  indeed,  for  their 
power  over  the  heart,  but  for  their  plain  and  strong 
expositions  of  duty  and  their  awakening  appeals  to  the 
conscience."  (See  "  Remarks  on  the  Character  and 
Writings  of  Fenelon,"  in  Channing's  "Discourses.") 

See  G.  W.  MEADI.EY,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Paley,"  1809: 
AI.I.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1813 ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  August  and  December,  1785. 

Palfy,  pal'fe,  (ALKERT,)  a  Hungarian  litterateur  and 
publicist,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1813.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  the  republican  movement  in  1848,  he 
founded  a  daily  paper  called  "The  151)1  of  March," 
which  obtained  great  popularity  and  had  a  marked  in 
fluence  on  the  Hungarian  revolution.  In  1849  the  journal 
was  confiscated,  and  its  editor  for  a  time  imprisoned. 
Palfy  is  the  author  of  several  novels,  which  rank  among 
the  best  in  Hungarian  literature. 

Palfy,  (JANOS,)  COUNT  OF,  a  Hungarian  field-marshal, 
born  in  1659,  served  under  Prince  Eugene  in  the  Italian 
campaigns  of  1701-2,  and  subsequently  against  the  Turks. 
He  was  appointed  in  1741  commander-general  in  Hun 
gary,  where  he  was  a  zealous  adherent  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Died  in  1751. 


*  We  do  not  attach  any  very  great  importance  to  the  charge  of 
"stupendous  plagiarism"  brought  against  Paley  for  what  he  has 
borrowed  from  Dr.  Nieuwentyt.  (See  the  article  on  this  subject  in 
the  "London  Athenjeum,"  published  in  August,  1848.)  Macaulay 
well  remarks  that  "the  reasoning  by  which  Socrates,  in  Xenophon's 
hearing,  confuted  the  little  atheist  Aristodemus  is  exactly  the  reason 
ing  of  Paley's  '  Natural  Theology.'  "  (See  article  on  "  Ranke's  His 
tory  of  the  Popes,"  in  Macaulay's  "  Essays.")  If,  then,  Paley's  line 
of  argument  is  exactly  like  that  of  Socrates,  and  also  the  same  as 
that  employed  by  Dr.  Nieuwentyt,  it  is  at  least  possible  that  Dr.  Nieu 
wentyt  may  have  derived  some  of  his  ideas  and  arguments — if  not  his 
particular  illustrations — from  Socrates.  We  should  be  very  sorry  to 
say  anything  to  encourage  plagiarism ;  but  those  who  are  best  ac 
quainted  with  what  has  been  done  in  this  department  of  philosophy 
will  probably  be  most  ready  to  admit  the  impossibility  of  any  one 
claiming  justly  absolute  originality,  or  anything  near  it,  in  this  great 
field  of  thought.  The  chief  merit  of  Paley,  who  does  not  appear  to 
have  made  any  especial  pretension  to  originality  as  respects  the  in 
dividual  ideas  or  illustrations  of  his  subject,  consists  in  the  admirable 
skill  and  ability  with  which  he  combines  and  presents  the  whole 
argument.  Without  being  the  creator,  or  even  the  first  discoverer, 
of  many  of  the  different  points  of  evidence  adduced  by  him,  he  may 
be  said  to  marshal  them  as  a  consummate  general  marshals  his  forces, 
so  as  to  render  them  in  combination  irresistible. 


Palfyn,  pill-fin',  sometimes  written  Palfin,  (JEAN,)  a 
skilful  Flemish  anatomist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1650.  He 
lectured  on  surgery  at  Ghent,  made  some  improvements 
in  that  art,  and  published  a  valuable  work  on  "  Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (1710.)  Died  in  1730. 

See  DK  MERSSEMAN,  "  Notice  sur  J.  Palfyn,"  1844. 

Pal'frey,  (JoHN  GORHAM,)  LL.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  historian,  born  at  Boston  in  1796.  Having  gradu 
ated  in  1815  at  Harvard  College,  he  studied  theology, 
and  was  appointed  in  1831  Dexter  professor  of  sacted 
literature  at  Harvard.  He  became  in  1836  editor  of  the 
"  North  American  Review."  He  published  "Lectures 
on  the  Jewish  Scriptures  and  Antiquities,"  (4  vols., 
1838-52,)  "Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (1843,)  "Review 
of  Lord  Mahon's  History  of  England,"  (1852,)  and  "The 
Relation  between  Judaism  and  Christianity,"  (1854.)  He 
was  elected  in  1847  to  Congress,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  advocate  of  emancipation,  having  pre 
viously  liberated  a  number  of  slaves  bequeathed  to  him 
by  a  relative  in  New  Orleans.  In  1851  he  became  asso 
ciate  editor  of  "The  Commonwealth,"  a  leading  journal 
of  the  Eree-Soil  party.  The  second  volume  of  his  "  His 
tory  of  New  England"  came  out  in  1860. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1859,  and  October, 
1860  ;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Palfrey,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  patriot,  born  at 
Boston  in  1741.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  move 
ments  which  preceded  the  Revolution,  and  visited  Eng 
land  in  1771.  In  March,  1776,  he  became  an  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Washington.  He  was  appointed  paymaster- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  in  April, 
1776.  Having  been  appointed  consul-general  in  France 
by  a  unanimous  vote  of  Congress  in  November,  1780, 
he  embarked  in  a  ship  which  was  never  heard  of  after 
she  left  the  Capes. 

See  "  Life  of  William  Palfrey,"  by  his  grandson,  JOHN  G.  PAL 
FREY,  in  SPARKS'S  "  American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.,  zd  series. 

Pal'grave,  (Sir  FRANCIS,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  historian, 
born  in  London  in  1788.  His  family  name  was  COHEN, 
which  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Palgrave.  In  1827  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  published  in  the  "  Family 
Library,"  in  1831,  "The  History  of  England  :  Anglo- 
Saxon  Period,"  and  in  1832  "  The  Rise  and  Progress  of 
the  English  Commonwealth  :  Anglo-Saxon  Period,"  (2 
vols.,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  A  few  years 
later  he  was  appointed  deputy  keeper  of  her  Majesty's 
public  records.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  His 
tory  of  Normandy  and  England,"  (ist  vol.,  1851 ;  2d  vol., 
1857.)  Died  in  July,  1861. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1832,  and  October,  1837; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1851,  and  July,  1857. 

Palice.     See  CHABANNES,  DE,  (JACQUES.) 

Palice,  de  la,  deh  It  pS'less',  (JACQUES  de  Cha- 
bannes — deh  shS'btn',)  SEIGNEUR,  an  able  French 
general,  whom  Charles  VIII.  appointed  lieutenant  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  about  1498.  He  was  wounded 
at  Agnadel  in  1509.  When  Nemours  fell  at  Ravenna,  in 
1512,  the  army  demanded  La  Palice  for  their  general. 
He  was  defeated  at  Guinegate  in  1513,  obtained  a  mar 
shal's  baton  in  1515,  and  served  under  Lautrec  in  the 
Milanese  in  1521.  In  1523  he  opposed  Constable  Bour 
bon  with  success  in  Provence.  He  was  killed  at  Pavia 
in  1525. 

Palingenio.     See  MANZOLLI. 

Palingeiiius  Stellatus.     See  MANZOLLI. 

Palinure.    See  PALINURUS. 

Pal-i-nu'rus,  [Gr.  Uahtvovpoc;  Fr.  PALINURE,  pS'le'- 
niiR',]  the  pilot  or  helmsman  of  the  ship  which  carried 
tineas  in  his  sea-voyage. 

Palisot  de  Beauvois,  pi'le'zo'  deh  b5'vwa',  (AM- 
BROISE  MARIE  FRANQOIS  JOSEPH,)  a  French  botanist 
and  zoologist,  born  at  Arras  in  1752.  He  explored  Benin 
and  a  part  of  Guinea  in  1786-87,  after  which  he  visited 
Saint  Domingo.  Escaping  from  the  revolted  slaves,  who 
were  about  to  kill  him,  he  took  refuge  in  Philadelphia  in 
1793,  after  which  he  made  a  scientific  excursion  in  the 
interior.  He  returned  to  France  in  1798,  and  succeeded 
Adanson  in  the  Institute  in  1806.  He  published  a  "  Flora 
of  Owara  and  Benin,"  (2  vols.,  1804-21,)  "Insects  col 
lected  in  Africa  and  America,"  (1805-21,)  and  other 
works.  His  "  Flora  of  Owara,"  etc.  is  described  by 


1,6, T,  o,  u, y,  fon?:h,  e,  o,  same.  Hss  prolonged:  a,  e, T, o, ii,  y,  short:  a,  e.  i,  o,  obscure:  far.  fall,  fat:  met:  n6t;good:  moon; 


PAL1SSOT 


'73' 


PALLAS 


Depping    as    "  a  beautiful    work,  rich    in    discoveries." 
Died  in  1820. 

See  CUVIER,  "  filoge  de  Palisot  de  Beauvois,"  1820:  THIEBAUT 
DE  KERNEAUD,  "  filoge  histoiique  de  Palisot  de  Beauvois,"  1821. 

Palissot,  pt'le'so',  (CHARLES  DE  Monteiioy — ITION'- 
teh-nwa',)  a  French  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Nancy 
in  1730.  A  caustic  and  satirical  temper  involved  him 
deeply  in  literary  quarrels,  especially  against  the  En 
cyclopedists.  He  ridiculed  Rousseau  in  his  comedy 
entitled  "The  Circle,"  ("Le  Cercle,"  1755,)  and  Diderot 
in  "  Little  Letters  on  Great  Philosophers,"  ("  Petites 
Lettres  sur  de  grands  Philosophes,"  1757.)  His  comedy 
of  "The  Philosophers"  ("  Les  Philosophes,"  1760)  was 
very  successful ;  but  his  satirical  poem  the  "Dunciade" 
(1764)  was  a  failure.  Died  in  1814. 

See  "  NouveHe  Biographic  Generale." 

Pal'Is-sy,  [Fr.  pron.  pi'le'se',]  (BERNARD,)  a  cele 
brated  French  potter  and  enameller,  born  near  Agen 
(Lot-et-Garonne)  about  1506.  He  studied  natural  his 
tory,  chemistry,  and  other  sciences.  He  expended  many 
years  in  experiments  on  the  art  of  enamelling  stone 
ware  or  pottery,  and,  after  great  trials  and  sufferings,  at 
last  succeeded,  in  1555.  During  this  period  he  was 
converted  to  the  Reformed  religion,  for  which  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned.  About  1565  he  was  invited  to 
Paris,  employed  by  the  king,  and  lodged  at  the  Tuileries. 
By  the  favour  of  his  noble  or  royal  patrons,  he  escaped 
the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572.  In  1575  he 
opened  a  course  of  lectures  on  physics  and  natural  his 
tory  at  Paris.  He  was  the  first  in  France  who  applied 
sound  methods  and  demonstrations  in  explaining  the 
phenomena  of  nature.  He  ornamented  his  ware,  called 
rustiques figiilines,  with  accurate  coloured  figures  of  ani 
mals.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Origin 
of  Fountains,  and  on  the  Nature  of  Metals,  Salts,  Stones," 
etc.,  (1580.)  He  died  in  1589,  in  the  Bastille,  where  he 
was  confined  for  his  religious  principles.  He  was  dis 
tinguished  no  less  for  his  virtue  than  for  his  talents. 

See  ALFRED  DUMESNIL,  "  Bernard  Palissy,"  Paris,  1851  ;  HENRY 
MORLEY,  "The  Life  of  B.  Palissy,  his  Labours  and  Discoveries," 
London,  2  vols.,  1852;  CAMILI.E  DUPLESSIS,  "  fitude  sur  Palissy," 
1855;  "Biographie  Universelle  ;"  "NouveHe  Biographic  Generale." 

Palitzsch,  pa'litsh,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  near  Dresden  in  1723,  was  a  cultivator 
of  the  soil.  He  discovered  with  the  naked  eye  Halley's 
comet  in  December,  1758,  before  it  had  been  seen  by 
any  telescopic  observer.  Died  in  1788. 

Pal'la-das,  [ria/./.d(5af,]  a  Greek  poet,  lived  about  400 
A.D.  He  wrote  many  epigrams,  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology.  He  ridicules  some  Christians  who  con 
verted  statues  of  the  gods  into  images  of  the  saints. 

Pallade.     See  PALLADIUS. 

Palladines  or  Paladines,  de,  deh  pt'lt'den',  (D'Au- 
RELLES,)  a  French  general,  born  about  1820.  He  served 
in  the  Crimean  war,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1867.  He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Loire,  which  de 
feated  the  Germans  near  Orleans,  November  10,  1870. 

Palladino  da  Teranio.     See  TERAMO,  DA. 

Palladio,  pal-la'de-o,  [Lat.  PALLA'DIUS,]  (ANDREA,) 
an  illustrious  architect,  born  at  Vicenza,  in  Italy,  in  1518. 
It  is  not  known  who  was  his  master;  but  he  states  in 
one  of  his  works  that  he  chose  Vitruvius  as  his  guide  in 
architecture.  He  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Trissino  the 
poet,  and  visited  Rome  several  times  to  study  the  monu 
ments  of  antiquity.  Having  settled  in  Vicenza,  he  ex 
hibited  his  superior  talents  in  the  design  of  the  Palazzo 
della  Ragione.  He  adorned  his  native  city  with  many 
private  residences  or  villas,  and  built  on  the  Brenta 
the  Foscari  palace,  which  was  much  admired.  The 
Villa  Capra,  or  Rotonda,  near  Vicenza,  and  the  Teatro 
Olimpico,  in  that  city,  are  considered  among  his  master 
pieces.  He  built  several  fine  edifices  in  Venice,  among 
which  is  the  church  of  II  Redentore,  begun  about  1577. 
In  1570  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Architecture," 
which  was  often  reprinted.  He  died  in  1580.  "He 
combines,"  says  Castellan,  "in  the  style  of  his  edifices, 
simplicity  and  grandeur.  .  .  .  He  seems  to  have  derived 
from  the  ancients  the  quintessence  of  their  taste." 
("Biographie  Universelle.")  It  is,  however,  proper 
to  observe  that  while  perhaps  no  other  architect  has 
enjoyed  a  higher  or  more  universal  reputation  for  genius 


and  taste,  so  that  the  term  "  Palladian"  has  been  exten 
sively  used  throughout  Europe  as  equivalent  to  beautiful 
and  excellent  in  architecture,  his  designs,  in  the  opinion 
of  many  critics,  are  very  far  from  being  faultless.  For 
some  severe  strictures  on  the  style  of  Palladio,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  "  Architecture,"  by 
Professor  Hosking,  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

See  P.  GUALDO,  "Vita  di  A.  Palladio,"  1749;  T.  TEMANZA, 
"Vita  di  A.  Palladio,"  1763;  A.  RIGATO,  "  Osservazioni  sopra  A. 
Paliadio,"  1811 ;  A.  MAGMINI,  "Memorie  intorno  la  Vita  e  le  Opere 
di  A.  Palladio,"  1845  ;  MILIZIA,  "  Memorie  degli  Architetti  anlichi  e 
nioderni:"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario." 

Palladio,  (BIAGIO  PAI.LAI,)  called  BLOSIO,  (blo'se-o,) 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Castelvetro,  in  Italy.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Foligno  in  1540.  Died  in  1550. 

Palladium.     See  MINERVA. 

Palladius.     See  PALLADIO. 

Pal-la'dl-us,  [IIa/.Au<5wc,]  surnamed  IATROSOPHIS'TA, 
a  Greek  medical  writer  of  an  uncertain  epoch.  As  he 
quotes  Galen,  he  must  have  lived  after  200  A.D.  He  left 
I  a  short  treatise  on  Fevers,  (Trepi  —vperuv  ai'vropof  ai'vaipif,) 
and  scholia  on  Hippocrates'  book  on  Fractures.  Both 
of  these  are  extant. 

Palladius,  Bishop  of  Helenopolis,  in  Bithynia,  is 
supposed  to  have  flourished  about  400  A.D.  He  wrote 
a  work,  in  Greek,  called  the  "  Lausiac  History,"  which 
contains  biographies  of  some  ascetics  or  saints  of  Pales 
tine  and  Egypt. 

Palladius,  [Fr.  PALLADE,  pt'lSd',]  a  bishop,  who 
was  sent  by  Pope  Celestine  to  convert  the  Irish  or 
Scotch  (Scotos)  about  431  A.D.  He  is  honoured  as  a 
saint  both  by  the  Irish  and  the  Scottish  Romanists. 

Palladius  OF  METHONE,  a  Greek  Sophist,  lived  about 
325  A.D.  He  wrote  on  the  Festivals  of  the  Romans. 

Palladius,(RuTiLius TAURUS ^MILIANUS,)  a  Roman 
writer  on  agriculture,  lived  probably  between  300  and 
400  A.D.  His  work  "On  Agriculture''  ("  De  Re  Rustica") 
was  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  and  is  still  extant. 

Pallajuolo.     See  POLLAJUOLO. 

Pal'las,  [Gr.  Ila/v.uc,]  an  appellation  of  the  goddess 
Minerva  or  Athena.  (See  MINEKVA.)  In  Homer  this 
name  always  appears  united  with  Athena,  as  Pallas 
Athena. 

Pal'las,  a  favourite  of  the  Roman  emperor  Claudius, 
was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He  was  an  accomplice  of 
Agrippina  in  the  crime  of  poisoning  Claudius.  Died 
in  63  A.D. 

Pallas,  a  son  of  Evander,  King  of  Arcadia,  was  an 
ally  of  tineas  in  the  war  against  Turnus.  He  was  re 
nowned  for  his  courage,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
.#Lneas.  He  was  killed  by  Turnus. 

See  VIRGIL'S  "^Eneid,"  book  viii.  104,  x.  365-489. 

Pallas,  a  son  of  Pandi'on,  King  of  Athens,  and  a 
brother  of  /Egeus.  He  was  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
Theseus. 

Pallas,  pal'las,  (PETER  SIMON,)  a  distinguished  Prus 
sian  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  in  Berlin  in  1741.  He 
was  educated  for  the  medical  profession  at  Gottingen 
and  Leyden,  and  made  himself  master  of  Latin,  French, 
and  English.  He  acquired  reputation  by  his  "  Miscel 
lanea  Zoologica,"  (1766,)  and  at  the  invitation  of  Cathe 
rine  II.  he  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1767.  He  wrote  for 
the  Academy  a  "Memoir  on  the  Fossil  Bones  of  the 
Huge  Quadrupeds  found  in  Siberia."  Pallas  was  one  of 
the  many  scientific  men  whom  the  empress  sent  in  1768 
to  explore  Siberia.  He  devoted  his  attention  in  this 
great  enterprise  to  zoology,  botany,  and  geology,  and, 
after  extending  his  researches  to  the  frontier  of  China, 
returned  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1774.  His  "Travels 
through  Different  Provinces  of  the  Russian  Empire" 
(in  German,  1771-76)  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  exact 
descriptions  and  just  observations.  He  discovered  in 
the  mountain-ranges  of  Siberia  the  general  law  of  the 
succession  of  the  three  primitive  orders  of  rocks, — the 
granitic,  the  schistose,  and  the  calcareous.  "This  great 
fact,"  says  Cuvier,  "expressed  in  his  Memoir  read  to 
the  Academy  in  1777,  has  given  birth  to  all  modern 
geology."  He  displayed  his  superior  genius  in  many 
other  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Mon 
golian  Nations,"  "  Essays  on  the  North  in  Relation  to 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PALLAVICINI 


1732 


PALMER 


Physical  Geography,  Ethnography,"  etc.,  (1781-96,)  and 
"  Flora  Rossica,"  (a  "  Flora  of  Russia,"  1785.)  In  1795 
he  removed  for  his  health  to  the  Crimea,  the  climate  ol 
which  had  appeared  pleasant  to  him  as  he  formerly 
passed  through  it.  Although  he  was  disappointed  by 
finding  the  climate  extremely  variable,  he  remained  there 
about  fifteen  years,  after  which  he  removed  to  Berlin, 
where  he  died  in  1811.  He  left  unfinished  a  great  work 
on  the  Zoology  of  the  Russian  Empire,  of  which  3  vols. 
were  published,  entitled  "  Fauna  Asiatico-Rossica."  He 
was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Institute. 

See  RUDOI.PHI,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Pallas,"  1812;  CI'VIER, 
"  Eloges  historiques;"  MKI'SKI.,  "Gelelirtes  Deutschland :"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1805. 

Pallaviciiii,  pal-la-ve-chee'nee,  or  Pelavicino,  pa- 
la-  ve-chee'no,  (OBKRTO,)  MARQUIS,  an  able  general,  born 
at  Piacenza.  He  became  the  ally  of  the  emperor  Fred 
erick  against  Gregory  IX.  in  1234,  after  which  he  gained 
victories  over  the  Guelphs  and  made  himself  master  of 
a  large  part  of  Northern  Italy.  His  power  was  subverted 
by  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1266.  Died  in  1269. 

Pallavicini  or  Pallavicino,  pal-la-ve-chee'no,  (PiE- 
TRO  SFORZA,)  an  Italian  historian  and  cardinal,  was  born 
at  Rome  in  1607.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  style,  "Dello 
Stilo,"  (1662,)  and  other  works,  the  best-known  of  which 
is  a  "History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  (2  vols.,  1656, 
and  3  vols.,  1664.)  It  is  said  to  be  well  written.  Died 
in  1667. 

See  IRENEO  AFFO,  "Memorie  della  Vita  del  Cardinale  S.  Palla 
vicino,"  1794;  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pallavicini,  (STKFANO  BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua  in  1672.  He  became  a  resident  of  Dres 
den  in  his  youth.  He  produced  several  original  poems, 
and  a  version  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  (1736,)  which  is 
elegant,  but  rather  free.  Died  at  Dresden  in  1742. 

P  illavicini  della  Priola,  pal-la-ve-chee'nee  del'la 
pRee'o-Ia,  (E.MiLlo,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Ceva  in  1823.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
against  Austria  in  1859.  He  commanded  the  force  which 
captured  Garibaldi  at  Aspromonte  in  August,  1862. 

Pallavicino.     See  PALLAVICINI.  zv" 

Pallavicino,  pal-la-ve-chee'no,  (FERRANTE,)  an  Ital 
ian  monk  and  satirical  writer,  born  at  Piacenza  about 
1618.  He  wrote  licentious  works,  and  satires  against 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  and  the  Barberini.  Having  impru 
dently  entered  the  papal  territory,  he  was  seized  and 
beheaded  at  Avignon  in  1644. 

Falliere,  pt'lexjju',  (ViNCKNT  LEON,)  a  French  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1787.  He  gained 
the  first  prize  at  Paris  in  1812,  and  went  to  Rome,  with  a 
pension.  Among  his  works  is  "  Homer  dictating  his 
Poems."  He  died  prematurely  in  1820. 

Palliot,  pt'le'o',  (PiERRE,)  a  French  genealogist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1608  ;  died  at  Dijon  in  1698. 

Pal'lis-er,  (Sir  HUGH,)  a  British  admiral,  born  about 
1720.  He  was  second  in  command  under  Keppel  at 
the  battle  off  Ushant,  in  1778,  and  was  then  involved 
in  a  dispute  with  Keppel,  which  was  referred  to  a  court 
of  inquiry.  Palliser  was  censured  by  this  court.  Died 
in  1796. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,"  by  R.  M.  HUNT,  London,  1844. 

Palloni,  pal-lo'nee,  (GAETANO,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  1770,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Flor 
ence.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany. 
Died  in  1830. 

Palluel.     See  CRETTE  DE  PALLUEL. 

Palm,  palm,  (JoiiANN  GEOKG,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Hanover  in  1697,  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1743. 

Palm,  (foil  ANN  PHILIPP,)  a  German  publisher,  born  at 
Schorndorf  in  1766,  lived  in  Nuremberg.  For  the  publi 
cation  of  a  pamphlet  against  Bonaparte,  he  was  tried  by 
a  French  military  commission,  and  shot,  in  August,  1806. 

Palma,  pal'ma,  (JACOPO,)  styled  IL  VECCHIO,  (el  vek'- 
ke-o,)  or  THE  ELDER,  an  eminent  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  near  Bergamo.  His  birth  is  variously  dated 
from  about  1480  to  1520.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Titian.  He  excelled  in  vivacity  and  softness  of 
colouring.  The  galleries  of  Europe  contain  a  great  many 
works  attributed  to  him.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  "Last  Supper"  and  a  Madonna  at  Vicenza.  His  works 


exhibit  good  taste  in  composition,  and  such  a  union  of 
tints  that  no  trace  of  the  brush  is  perceptible.  Died  at 
the  age  of  forty-eight. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Ronoi.Fi,  "Vite  degli  il- 
lustri  Pittori  Veneti  ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Pain  ting  in  Italy." 

Palma,  (JACOPO,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1544.  He  imitated 
Titian  and  Tintoretto,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
In  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  he  combined  the  best 
principles  of  the  Roman  and  Venetian  schools.  "The 
distinctive  mark  of  his  talent,"  says  the  "Biographic 
Universe! le,"  "is  facility.  His  tints  are  fresh  and  trans 
parent,  and  more  agreeable  than  those  of  Tintoretto." 
He  is  charged,  however,  with  depraving  the  style  of  the 
Venetian  school.  Among  his  works  are  an  "  Annuncia 
tion"  and  "The  Plague  of  the  Serpents."  Died  in  1628. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Palmaroli,  pal-ma-ro'lee,(PlETRO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
distinguished  for  his  skill  in  transferring  frescos  to  can 
vas.  He  practised  this  art  first  with  success  in  1811. 
He  transferred  and  restored  many  pictures  of  the  old 
masters  in  Rome.  Died  in  1828. 

Palmblad,  palm'blad,  (\VILHEI.M  FREDRIK,)  a  Swe 
dish  editor  and  writer,  born  near  Soderkoping  in  1788. 
He  edited  several  literary  periodicals,  one  of  which  was 
the  "  Phosphorus,"  and  became  a  member  of  a  new 
school,  called  Phosphorists,  who  preferred  German  lit 
erature  and  influence  to  the  French.  He  was  professor 
of  history  and  of  the  Greek  language  at  Upsal.  His 
chief  production  is  a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi 
nent  Swedes,"  (23  vols.,)  a  work  of  much  merit,  com 
menced  about  1835  and  finished  in  1857.  He  wrote  a 
successful  novel,  called  "Aurora  Konigsmark,"  (6  vols., 
1846-51.)  Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Biogtaphiskt-Lex'.con  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Falmegiani,  pSl-ma-ja'nee,  or  Palmezzano,  pal- 
me't-sa'no,  (MARCO,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Forli  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His  works  are  dated 
from  1513  to  1537. 

Palmella,  pal-mel'la,  (PEDRO  DE  Souza-Holstein 
— so'za  ol-stan',  ?)  DUKE  OK,  a  liberal  Portuguese  states 
man,  born  at  Turin  in  1786.  lie  was  appointed  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of  the  council  by 
fohn  VI.  of  Portugal  in  1823.  lie  was  an  adherent  of 
Don  Pedro  in  his  contest  against  Don  Miguel,  (1830-33.) 
After  the  accession  of  Queen  Maria  (1834)  he  became 
prime  minister.  Died  in  1850. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Palmer,  pa'mer,  (  ERASTUS  Dow,)  a  distinguished 
American  sculptor,  born  in  Onondaga  county,  New 
York,  in  1817.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an 
"Indian  Girl  Contemplating  a  Crucifix,"  "  The  White 
Captive,"  the  "Sleeping  Peri,"  and  the  "Landing  of 
the  Pilgrims."  He  has  also  executed  a  number  of  por 
traits,  busts,  and  bas-reliefs. 

See  TUCKRRMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Palmer,  pa'mer,  (HERBERT,)  an  English  Puritan  min 
ister,  born  in  Kent  in  1601.  He  preached  at  Canter 
bury,  Cambridge,  and  London,  and  published  a  popular 
work  entitled  "Memorials  of  Godliness,"  (1644.)  Died 
in  1647. 

Palmer,  (!NNIS  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He  fought 
as  brigadier-general  in  the  Union  army  at  Fair  Oaks, 
and  at  Malvern  Hill.  July  I,  1862.  He  commanded  in 
the  district  of  North  Carolina  from  April,  1864,  to 
March,  1865. 

Palmer,  QAMES  S.,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  born 
in  New  fersey,  entered  the  navy  in  1825.  He  com 
manded  the  Iroquois  in  the  passage  of  the  batteries  of 
Vicksburg,  June,  1862,  and  was  captain  of  Farragut's  flag 
ship  when  she  ran  past  the  batteries  of  Port  Hudson,  in 
March,  1863.  Having  gained  the  rank  of  commodore, 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  Western  Gulf 
Blockadirg  Squadron  about  the  end  of  1864.  Died  in 
December,  1867. 

See  J.  T.  HFADI.EV,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders." 

Palmer,  (JoHN,)  an  English  Unitarian  minister,  born 
in  1729,  preached  in  London  many  years.  Died  in  179°- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


PALMER 


'733 


PALSGRAVE 


Palmer,  (JOHN,)  the  projector  of  mail-coaches  in  Eng 
land,  was  born  at  Bath  in  1742.  He  obtained  the  office 
of  controller-general  of  the  post-office,  but  was  removed 
in  1792.  Died  in  1818. 

Palmer,  (Jonx,)  an  English  actor,  born  in  London 
about  1740;  died  in  1798. 

Palmer,  (JoHN  McAui.EY,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Scott  county,  Kentucky,  in  1817,  was  a  lawyer 
before  the  civil  war,  and  practised  in  Illinois.  He  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  December, 
1861,  and  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  i862-January  2,  1863.  For  his 
services  in  this  action  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
maugn,  September  19  and  20,  1863,  and  commanded  a 
corps  under  Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta, 
May-September,  1864.  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
Illinois  by  the  Republicans  in  November,  1868. 

Palmer,  (Sir  ROUNDKT.L,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  legislator,  born  at  Mixbury,  Oxfordshire,  in  1812. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1847,  and  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1861.  He 
was  attorney-general  from  1863  to  June,  1866.  He  is 
one  of  the  ablest  debaters  of  the  Liberal  party  in  Par 
liament.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Richmond 
in  1861,  in  1865,  and  in  1868.  In  1869  he  voted  against 
the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church. 

Palmer,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  printer,  published  a 
"General  History  of  Printing,"  (1733.)  Died  in  1732. 

Palmer,  (WILLIAM  PITT,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Stockbridge,  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1805. 
He  passed  a  large  part  of  his  mature  life  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  was  successively  a  medical  student,  a 
teacher,  a  writer  for  public  journals,  and  a  clerk  in  a 
public  office.  He  wrote  a  hymn  or  ode  entitled  "  Light," 
and  other  short  poems. 

Palmerston,  pa'mer-ston,  (HENRY  JOHN  TEMPLK,) 
VISCOUNT,  an  eminent  English  prime  minister,  born 
at  Broadlands,  near  Romsey,  in  Hampshire,  on  the  2Oth 
of  October,  1784.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  Tem 
ple,  second  Viscount  Palmerston,  and  was  descended 
from  an  ancient  family,  of  which  the  famous  Sir  William 
Temple  was  a  member.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Edinburgh,  and  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1802,  he  succeeded  to  the 
estate  and  title  of  viscount,  (in  the  Irish  peerage.)  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  by  the  Tories  in 
1807,  and  was  appointed  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the 
same  year.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents 
for  business  and  his  political  tact.  In  1809  he  became 
secretary  at  war  in  the  ministry  of  Percival,  and  in  1811 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  which  he  continued  to  represent  for  about 
twenty  years. 

He  retained  the  office  of  secretary  at  war  during  the 
long  administration  of  Liverpool  (1812-27)  and  under 
the  ministries  of  Canning  and  Goderich.  As  an  advocate 
of  Catholic  emancipation,  he  declined  to  serve  under  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  and  resigned  office  in  1828.  Before 
this  date  he  had  become  an  eminent  debater,  especially 
on  foreign  affairs,  in  respect  to  which  he  favoured  the 
policy  of  Canning.  Although  he  had  hitherto  been  a 
Tory,  he  accepted  office  as  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in 
the  Whig  ministry  formed  in  November,  1830.  Having 
resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  November,  1834,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  same  office  in  the  Melbourne  ministry 
in  April,  1835,  and  held  it  until  the  accession  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  in  September,  1841.  During  this  term  of 
official  service  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  settlement 
of  the  Eastern  question.  He  induced  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia  to  unite  with  England  in  a  treaty  signed  in 
London  in  July,  1840,  and  to  resist  the  progress  of  Me- 
hemet  AH  in  Syria.  France,  which  favcured  Mehemet 
Ali,  was  thus  ignored  in  the  settlement  of  the  question. 
He  married  about  1839  the  first  Lord  Melbourne's 
daughter,  who  was  the  widow  of  Earl  Cowper.  On 
the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Lord  John  Russell, 
in  1846,  Palmerston  again  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  pursued  the  policy  of  neutrality  towards  the 
revolutionary  movements  by  which  Europe  was  con 
vulsed  in  1848  and  1849,  but  he  promptly  recognized  the 


French  republic,  and  favoured  Napoleon's  coup  d'etat 
in  1851.  In  consequence  of  a  disagreement  with  Lord 
John  Russell,  he  was  removed  in  December  of  that  year. 
In  December,  1852,  Lord  Aberdeen  formed  a  coalition 
ministry,  in  which  Palmerston  was  secretary  for  the  home 
department,  while  the  ministry  "drifted"  into  war  against 
Russia.  He  succeeded  Lord  Aberdeen  as  prime  min 
ister  in  February,  1855,  and  formed  a  cabinet  chiefly 
of  Whigs  or  Liberals.  Peace  was  restored  with  Russia 
in  March,  1856.  Having  been  defeated  in  Parliament 
on  the  subject  of  the  Chinese  war  in  March,  1857,  he 
appealed  to  the  country,  which  sustained  his  policy  by 
a  large  majority.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  pass  the 
Conspiracy  bill  occasioned  by  Orsini's  conspiracy  against 
Napoleon  III.,  and  was  compelled  to  resign  in  February, 
1858.  In  June,  1859,  he  succeeded  Lord  Derby  as  the 
head  of  a  ministry  in  which  Russell  was  foreign  secretary 
and  Gladstone  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  con 
tinued  to  be  prime  minister  until  his  death,  October  j8, 
1865.  He  had  no  children.  Palmerston  retained  in 
his  old  age  much  of  the  vigour  and  vivacity  of  youth. 
He  was  an  excellent  master  of  parliamentary  science 
and  political  tactics,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of 
popularity.  He  represented  Tiverton  in  the  House 
of  Commons  from  1835  to  his  death. 

See  G.  H.  FRANCIS,  "Opinions  and  Policy  of  Viscount  Palmer 
ston  as  Minister,  Diplomatist,  and  Statesman,"  1852;  "Thirty  Years 
of  Foreign  Policy:  a  History  of  the  Secretaryships  of  Earl  Aberdeen 
and  Lord  Palmerston,"  1855;  COMTK  DK  FICQTELMONT,  "Lord 
Palmerston,  1'Angleterre  et  le  Continent,"  1852;  L  UK  LOMENIE, 
"  Lord  Palmerston,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  HARRIET  MAR- 
TINEAS,  "Biographical  Sketches,"  1870;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  lor 
November,  1865  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1866. 

Palmezzano.     See  PALMEGIANI. 

Palmieri,  pil-me-a/ree,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and  animals,  born  at  Genoa  in  1674;  died 
in  1740. 

Palmieri,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  economist,  born  in 
the  province  of  Otranto  in  1721.  He  was  director- 
general  of  the  finances  at  Naples.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  War,"  (1761,)  and  "Thoughts  on  Economy," 
("  Pensieri  economic), "  1789.)  Died  in  1793. 

Palmieri,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Florence  in  1405.  His  chief  work  is  a  "General  Chroni 
cle  from  the  Creation  to  his  Own  Time."  Died  in  1475. 

Palmieri,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at 
Pisa  in  1423.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  chronicle 
of  Matteo  Palmieri  from  1449  to  1481,  (1483.)  Died  in 
1483. 

Palmquist,  pal  m'k  wist,  (FREPERIK,)  a  Swedish  ma 
thematician,  born  in  1720,  died  in  1771. 

Palmquist,  (MAGNUS,)  BARON,  a  Swedish  military 
officer,  born  in  1660.  He  was  very  skilful  in  fortifica 
tions,  and  was  president  of  the  Council  of  Mines.  Died 
in  1729. 

Palombi,  pa-lom'bee,  (GAETANO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Spoleto  in  1753,  wrote  "II  Medoro  coronato," 
(1828.)  Died  in  1826. 

See  MONTANA,  "  Elogio  di  G.  Palombi,"  1837. 

Palomino  de  Castro  y  Velasco,  pa-lo-mee'no  da 
kas'tro  e  va-las'ko,  (Don  ACISLO  ANTONIO,)  a  celebrated 
Spanish  painter,  born  near  Cordova  in  1653.  His  name 
is  sometimes  written  PALOMINO  DE  VELASCO.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Juan  de  Valdes  Leal.  Having  painted  the 
story  of  Psyche  for  Charles  II.,  he  obtained,  at  an  early 
age,  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.  His  chief  merits 
are  correct  design,  beautiful  colour,  and  excellence  in 
perspective.  "The  Confession  of  Saint  Peter"  is  called 
one  of  his  best  works.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded 
on  his  treatise  on  painting,  entitled  "El  Museo  pictorico 
y  Escala  optica,"  (2  vols.,  1715,)  and  his  "Lives  of 
Spanish  Painters"  contained  in  his  "  Parnaso  Espanol 
pictorico,"  (i  vol.,  1724.)  Died  at  Madrid  in  1726. 

See  QUILLIET,  "Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols;"  CEAN- 
BERMUDHZ,  "  Diccionario. " 

Fals'grave,  (JoHN,)  an  English  grammarian,  born  in 
London.  He  gave  lessons  in  French  to  Mary,  a  sister 
of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1514,  and  published  a  French  gram 
mar,  (1530.)  This  is  the  most  ancient  printed  work  on 
that  subject  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  according 
to  Barbier,  who  praises  his  sagacity  and  taste.  Died 
in  1554. 


;  9 as  s;^hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin^zj.     (J[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PALU 


1734 


PANCKO UCKE 


Palu,  de  la,  deh  It  pi'lii',  [  Lat.  PALUDA'NUS,  ] 
(PiKRRE,)  a  French  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Varam- 
bon  about  1280.  He  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Jeru 
salem  about  1330,  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1342. 

Paludan-Muller,  pal'66-dtn'  mul'ler,  (CARAPS 
PETER,)  a  Danish  historian,  a  brother  of  Frederic,  was 
born  in  1805.  He  published  several  works  on  Danish 
history,  and  "Researches  on  Machiavel,"  (1839.) 

Paludan-Muller,  (  FREDERIC,  )  a  popular  Danish 
poet,  born  in  Fiinen  in  1809.  He  produced  in  1832 
"Cupid  at  Court,"  a  comedy,  and  in  1833  a  poem  called 
"The  Danseuse,"  ("  Danclserinden,")  which  is  much  ad 
mired.  His  most  remarkable  work,  perhaps,  is  "Adam 
Homo,"  (1841-49,)  a  humorous  poem.  He  is  commended 
for  happy  images,  noble  ideas,  and  force  of  sentiment, 
but  is  deficient  in  invention  as  a  dramatist. 

Paludanus.     See  PAI.U. 

Paludanus,  pa-lii-da'nus,  (BERNARD  Ten  Broek — 
ten  bKook,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  traveller,  born  at 
Steenwyk  in  1550;  died  in  1633. 

Paludanus,  (JEAN  VAN  DKN  BROEK,)  a  Flemish 
theologian,  born  at  Malines  in  1565.  He  was  professor 
at  Louvain,  and  author  of  several  works.  Died  in  1630. 

Pamard,  pjt'mtit',  ([KAN  BAPTISTS  ANTOINE,)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Avignon  in  1763  ;  died  in  1827. 

Pamele.de,  deh  pf  mil',  [  Lat.  PAME'LIUS,]  (JACQUES,) 
a  Flemish  priest,  born  at  Bruges  in  1536.  lie  edited 
the  works  of  Cyprian  (1568)  and  Tertullian,  (1579,)  and 
wrote  "  Liturgica  Latinorum,"  (1571.)  Died  in  1587. 

Pamelius.     See  PAMELE. 

Pam'me-nes,  \Ylauttsv>if,]  a  Theban  general,  was  a 
friend  of  Fnaminondas.  Philip  of  Macedon  was  in  the 
custody  of  Pammenes  while  he  was  a  hostage  at  Thebes. 
Pammenes  commanded  an  army  sent  to  Megalopolis 
in  352  B.C. 

Pammenss,  an  Athenian  orator  and  teacher  of 
rhetoric,  lived  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  who  extols  his 
eloquence  in  high  terms. 

Pam'phi-la,  [Gr.  Hi/^wA??,]  a  Roman  or  Greek  histo 
rian,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  She  wrote  a  historical 
work  entitled  v^o^tviiuara  ivropiKu,  which  was  highly  es 
teemed  by  some  ancient  critics.  It  is  not  extant. 

Paniphile.     See  PAMPHH.US. 

Pam'phl-lus,  |riau0/?,oc,]  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Greek  painters,  was  a  native  of  Amphipolis,  and  flour 
ished  between  390  and  350  n.c.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Eupompus,  whom  he  succeeded  as  the  master  of  the 
Sicyonian  school  of  painting.  As  a  teacher  of  art,  he  was 
probably  surpassed  by  none  of  the  ancients.  His  school 
was  remarkable  for  the  importance  which  the  master 
attached  to  general  learning  and  the  great  attention  he 
paid  to  accuracy  in  drawing.  Pliny  says  that  he  was 
the  first  artist  who  was  well  versed  in  all  sciences,  and 
that  he  thought  geometry  necessary  to  the  perfection  of 
his  art.  He  excelled  in  composition,  and  in  what  Quin- 
tilian  calls  ratio,  or  proportion.  Pliny  mentions  four  of 
his  works,  among  which  was  "Ulysses  on  his  Raft." 
Apelles  and  Melanthius  were  his  pupils. 

Famphilus,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Greek  Lexicon." 

Pamphilus,  [Fr.  PAMPHII.E,  poN'fel',]  SATNT,  an  emi 
nent  martyr,  born  at  Berytus,  (Beyroot,)  in  Syria,  about 
245  A. n.  He  became  presbyter  of  Caesarea,  in  Pales 
tine,  where  lie  founded  a  large  and  renowned  public 
library.  He  was  eminent  for  learning  and  piety.  Hav 
ing  a  high  esteem  for  the  works  of  Origen,  he  tran 
scribed  nearly  all  of  them  with  his  own  hand.  Pamphilus 
and  Kusebius  composed  jointly  an  "  Apology  for  Origen." 
He  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Maxiniin,  at 
Caesarea,  in  309  A.D.  Eusebius  testified  his  friendship 
and  honour  for  him  by  adopting  the  name  of  PAMPHII.I. 

See  SAINT  JEROME,  "  De  Scriptoribus  Ecc'esiasticis  ;"  BARONIUS, 
"  Annales." 

Pan,  [Gr.  Hav,]  the  god  of  flocks,  shepherds,  and 
pastures,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Mercury,  and  was  sometimes  identified  with  the  Roman 
Lupercus.  He  combined  the  form  of  a  man  with  that  of 
a  goat,  having  horns  and  feet  like  the  latter  animal.  He 
was  fond  of  music  and  riotous  noise,  and  was  the  inventor 


of  the  syrinx,  the  pastoral  pipe  or  flute.  The  principal 
seat  of  his  worship  was  Arcadia.  He  was  regarded  by 
some  philosophers  as  the  symbol  of  the  universe  ;  for 
Pan  signifies  "all."  Panic  terrors  were  ascribed  to 
Pan,  who  sometimes  appeared  to  travellers  and  sur 
prised  them  with  a  sudden  alarm.  The  Romans  ob 
served  an  annual  festival,  called  Liipcrcalia,  in  honour 
of  Pan,  whose  priests  were  styled  Luperci. 

See  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology;"  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (Partie  mytholopique.) 

Pan-a-9e'a,  |Gr.  Ylai'UKeia ;  Fr.  PANACEE,  pS'nJi'sa',  | 
(i.e.  the  "all-healing,")  a  daughter  of  /Esculapius,  is 
simply  a  personification  of  the  healing  power. 

Fanacee.     See  PANACEA. 

Panaeiius,  pa-nee'nus,  [Duvatt'Of,]  an  eminent  Athe 
nian  painter,  who  lived  about  450  H.C.,  was  a  brother  of 
Phidias,  according  to  Pausanias,  or  his  nephew,  accord 
ing  to  Strabo.  He  aided  Phidias  in  the  decoration  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  in  which  he  painted, 
among  other  subjects,  "Atlas  Upholding  Heaven,"  and 
the  "Combat  of  Hercules  with  the  Nemean  Lion."  His 
master-piece  was  a  series  of  pictures  of  the  battle  of 
Marathon  in  the  Poecile  at  Athens. 

Panaetius,  pa-nee'she-ns,  [naramoc,]  a  Greek  Stoic 
or  Eclectic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rhodes,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and  perhaps  of  Carneades. 
About  140  or  150  K.c.  he  visited  Rome,  taught  philos 
ophy  to  Scipio  Africanus  and  Laelius,  and  enjoyed  the 
intimate  friendship  of  the  former,  lie  was  afterwards 
the  head  of  the  Stoic  school  at  Athens,  and  died,  at  an 
advanced  age,  before  ill  u.c.  lie  is  the  representative 
of  a  moderate  stoicism,  and  appears  to  have  rejected 
the  principle  of  apathy.  None  of  his  works  are  extant. 
Among  them  was  a  treatise  "On  Duties,"  to  which 
Cicero  was  indebted  for  many  principles  of  his  book 
"  De  Officiis."  Cicero  avowed  this  fact,  and  expressed 
a  very  high  esteem  for  Panaetius. 

See  Sum.As,  "Pnnsetius:"  VAN  LIJNDKN,  "  Dispiitalio  historico- 
criticn  de  Panaetio,"  1802;  RITTKR,  "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Panard,  pjt'ntk',  (CHARLES  FKANC.OIS,)  a  French 
chansonnier  and  dramatist,  born  near  Charlies  about 
1694.  He  wrote  successful  songs,  vaudevilles,  comedies, 
and  pleasant  satires.  Died  in  1765  or  1769. 

Panartz.     Sec  P  ANN  ART/.. 

Panchamuki,  one  of  the  names  of  SIVA,  which  see. 

Paiiciroli,  pan-che-ro'lee,  (Guioo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Reggio  in  1523.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  Roman  law  at  Turin  (1571-82)  and  at  Padua. 
Among  his  important  works  is  one  on  illustrious  jurists, 
"  De  Claris  Legnm  Interpretibus,"  (1637  ;)  also  one  en 
titled  "Reruni  Memorabilium  Libri  duo,"  (1599,)  which 
treats  of  ancient  arts  and  inventions  of  which  the  secret 
is  lost.  Died  in  1599. 

See  ERSCII  mul  GKUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  NICE- 
RON,  "  Me:noires." 

Panckoucke,  pflN'kook',  (ANDRE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
bookseller  and  compiler,  born  at  Lille  in  1700.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Philosophic  Manual,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  a  "Dic 
tionary  of  French  Proverbs,"  (1749,)  and  other  works. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Battle  of  Fontenoy,"  in  burlesque 
verse,  a  parody  on  Voltaire's  poem  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  175  v 

Panckoucke,  (CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Lille  in  1736,  was  an  eminent  publisher 
in  Paris,  and  a  writer  of  some  merit.  He  was  the  pro 
prietor  or  editor  of  the  "Mercure  de  France,"  for  which 
lie  procured  15,000  subscribers.  About  1781  he  formed 
the  plan  of  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique,"  a  very  large 
and  important  work.  He  founded  the  "Moniteur,"  a 
daily  journal,  in  1789.  He  translated  Lucretius,  (1768.) 
and  "Orlando  Furioso,"  (1798.)-  He  corresponded  with 
Buffon,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau.  Died  in  1798. 

See  Qt'EHARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Panckoucke,  (CHARLES  Louis  Fleury — fluh're',) 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in. Paris  in  1780.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  publisher  and  translator.  He 
was  the  publisher  of  a  "  Dictionary  of  Medical  Sciences," 
(60  vols.,)  and  of  a  collection  of  Latin  classics,  with 
translations,  entitled  "  Latin-French  Library,"  ("  Biblio- 
theque  Latine-Frai^aise,"  174  vols.,  1828  et  seq.}  He 
translated  Tacitus,  (7  vols.,  1830-38.)  Died  in  1844. 


5j  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PJNCRJT1US 


1735 


P4NSERON 


Pancratius,  pan-kra'she-us,  one  of  the  early  Chris 
tians,  suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian. 

Fandare.     See  PANDARUS. 

Pan'da-rus,  [Gr.  Huv6apo<;;  Fr.  PANDARE,  poN'dSR',] 
a  semi-fabulous  warrior,  who  fought  against  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  an  excellent  archer.  He  was 
killed  by  Diomede. 

Fan-di'on,  [Gr.  Havdiuv,}  a  son  of  Cecrops,  became 
King  of  Athens,  but  was  expelled  from  that  country  and 
afterwards  ruled  over  Megara.  He  was  the  father  of 
TEgeus,  Pallas,  and  other  sons. 

Pantiioii,  a  mythical  king  of  Athens,  was  a  son  of 
Erichthonius,  and  the  father  of  Erechtheus,  Philomela, 
and  Procne.  It  was  fabled  that  Ceres  and  Bacchus  came 
to  Attica  in  the  reign  of  Pandion. 

Paiidolfe.     See  PANDOI.FO. 

Fandolfi,  pan-dol'fee,  (GIANGIACOMO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pesaro,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Zuccaro.  He 
flourished  about  1630. 

Pandolfini,  pan-dol-fee'nee,  (ANGELO,)  an  Italian 
statesman,  economist,  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in 
1360 ;  died  in  1446. 

Fandolfo,  pan-dol'fo,  [Fr.  PANDOI.FE,  p&N'dolf; 
Lat.  PANDUI/PHUS,]  Prince  of  Benevento  and  Capua, 
began  to  reign  in  961.  He  was  one  of  the  most  power 
ful  princes  of  Italy.  Died  in  981  A.D. 

Pan-do'i'R,  [G'r.  HawJwpa,  from  nuv,  "every,"  and 
dupov,  "gift;"  Fr.  PANDORF.,  pS.N'doR',]  the  name  given 
in  the  Greek  mythology  to  the  first  woman,  who  was 
endowed  by  Minerva  and  Venus  with  every  attractive 
quality, — whence  her  name,  which  signifies  possessing 
"every  gift."  Jupiter  gave  her  a  beautiful  box,  which 
she  was"  to  present  to  the  man  who  should  marry  her. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Epimetheus,  who  opened  the 
box,  whereupon  there  issued  from  it  the  numerous  evils 
that  have  since  infested  human  life.  Pandora  closed  the 
box  in  time  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Hope.  According 
to  one  account,  Pandora  herself,  prompted  by  curiosity, 
opened  the  box,  though  she  had  been  forbidden  to  do 
so.  Another  legend  tells  us  that  Pandora's  box  con 
tained  various  blessings,  which  escaped  when  she  opened 
it.  and  could  never  be  recovered. 

See  SCHOHMANN,  "  De  Pandora  Commentatio,"  1853;  "Biogra 
phic  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Pandore.     See  PANDORA. 

Pandulphus.     See  PANDOLFO. 

Panel,  pt'ncl',  (A  LEX  ANDRE  XAVIF.R,)  a  French  nu 
mismatist,  born  at  Nozeroy  in  1699.  He  became  a  pro 
fessor  in  the  Royal  College  at  Madrid,  and  wrote  many 
works  on  ancient  coins  and  other  antiquities.  Died 
in  1777. 

Paiietti,  pa-net'tee,  (DOMKNICO,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1460;  died  in  1530. 

Panfili.     See  INNOCENT  X. 

Fan-hel-le'nI-us,  [Gr.  TlaveT^^viaf,]  (i.e.  "  the  god 
worshipped  by  all  the  Hellenes  or  Greeks,")  a  surname 
of  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Panicale,  da,  da  pa-ne-ka'la,  (MASOLINO,)  a  painter 
of  the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1378.  Some  of  his 
frescos  still  exist  at  Florence.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
artists  that  attained  skill  in  chiarosctt.ro.  According  to 
Vasari,  he  died  in  1440. 

See  VASAKI,  "  Lives  of  tbe  Painters." 

Panigarola,  pa-ne-ga-ro'la,  (FRANCESCO,)  the  most 
eloquent  Italian  pulpit  orator  of  his  time,  was  born  at 
Milan  in  1548.  He  entered  the  order  of  Cordeliers,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Asti  in  1587.  In  1589  he  perverted 
his  talents  by  advocating  in  Paris  the  cause  of  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.  lie  left  many  volumes  of  Italian  and 
Latin  sermons,  which  have  nearly  passed  into  oblivion, 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1594. 

See  ]!O\T,R\TIA  DE  VARENNA,  "Vita  di  Panigarola,"  1617; 
UGHEI.I.I,  "  Italia  sacra." 

Panin  or  Panine,  pa-neen',  ?  (NIKITA  IVANOVITCH, 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  in  1718.  He  became  governor 
of  the  grand  duke  Paul  in  1760,  and  was  appointed  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs  by  Catherine  on  the  abdication  of 
Peter  III.,  (1762.)  Died  in  1783. 

See  "Vie  du  Comte  de  Panine,"  London,  1784. 

Panini,  pa'm-m,  the  most  celebrated  of  Sanscrit 
philologists,  lived  at  a  very  remote  and  uncertain  period. 


He  is  said  to  have  been  a  grandson  of  the  legislator 
Devala.     He  is  considered  by  some  as  the  creator  of 

ammatical    science    and  the  inventor  of  the  analytic 
processes  to  which  linguistics  owes  its  discoveries.     The 
lies  of  his  grammar  amount  to   three   thousand  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-six. 

Panini,  pa-nee'nee,  or  Pannini,  pan-nee'nee,  (Gio- 
VANNI  PAOLO,)  an  able  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
born  at  Piacenza  about  1694.  He  was  very  skilful  in 
perspective,  and  was  an  excellent  painter  of  architecture 
and  landscapes,  which  he  adorned  with  graceful  figures. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Vesta 
at  Tivoli,"  "  The  Traders  driven  from  the  Temple."  and 
views  of  ruins  at  Rome.  Died  at  Rome  in  1764. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fanis,  pt'ness',  (£TIENNK  JEAN,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1757.  He  was  accessory  to  the 
outrages  of  his  party  in  Paris,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  joined  the  enemies  of  Robes 
pierre  on  the  gth  Thermidor.  Died  in  1833. 

Panizzi,  pa-nlt'see  or  pa-net'see,  (ANTONIO,)  an 
Italian  bibliographer  and  litterateur,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Modena  in  1797.  He  became  assistant  librarian  of 
the  British  Museum  in  1831,  and  principal  librarian  of 
that  institution  in  1856.  He  resigned  this  position  in 
July,  1865.  He  has  published  editions  of  "Orlando 
Furioso,"  (1830-34,)  and  other  poems. 

Panmure,  pan'mur  or  pan-mur',(Fox  MAULE,)  LORD, 
and  Earl  Dalhousie,  a  British  politician,  a  son  of  the 
first  Baron  Panmure,  was  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1801. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Whigs  about  1835, 
and  was  secretary  of  war  from  July,  1846,  to  February, 
1852.  He  held  the  same  office  under  Palmerston  from 
18^5  tf>  February,  1858.  He  is  a  cousin  of  the  late  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  whose  title  he  inherited  in  December,  1860. 

Pannard.     See  PANARD. 

Pannartz,  pan'naiUs,  (ARNOLD,)  a  German  printer, 
who  was  employed  at  Mentz  by  Gutenberg.  He  re 
moved  to  Italy  in  1462,  and  established  a  press  at  Su- 
biaco.  Died  in  1476. 

Pannini.     See  PANINI. 

Pamionius.     See  CISLNGE,  DE. 

Faii-no'm-us,  (JANUS,)  a  Hungarian  bishop  and 
Latin  poet,  born  in  1434  ;  died  in  1472. 

Panofka,  pa-nof'ka,  (IlEiNRicn,)a  German  composer 
and  violinist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1808,  has  performed  in 
Paris  with  success. 

Panofka,  (THEODOR,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1801.  He  published  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  "  De  Rebus  Samiorum,"  (1822,)  and 
"Pictures  of  the  Life  of  the  Ancients,"  ("  Bilder  Antiken 
Lebens,"  1843  )  ^e  became  professor  in  the  University 
of  Berlin  in  1844.  Died  in  1858. 

Fan'o-pe,  [Gr.  llavo/n;,]  in  classic  mythology,  was 
one  of  the  Nereids,  and  was  invoked  by  mariners. 

Fanormita,  pa-noR-mee'ta,  (ANTONIO  Beccadelli 
— bek-ka-clel'lee,)  a  distinguished  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Palermo  (the  Panormus  of  the  ancients)  in  1394.  He 
was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  by  Alphonso, 
King  of  Naples,  whom  he  served  as  an  ambassador.  He 
wrote  obscene  epigrams,  which  were  admired  for  wit 
and  elegance  of  style,  and  other  works,  among  which 
is  "Familiar  Letters,"  etc.,  ("Epistolae  familiares  ac 
Campanae,"  1553.)  Died  in  1471. 

See  F.  COI.ANGELO,  "Vita  di  A.  Beccadelli,"  1821;  NJCERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Pan'sa,  (C.  VIBIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was  a 
partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  war  against  Pompey.  As  a 
colleague  of  Hirtius,  he  obtained  the  consulship  in  43 
B.C.  Hirtius  and  Pansa  joined  the  party  of  the  senate 
and  marched  against  Antony,  and  were  both  killed  in 
battle  near  Modena  in  43  B.C. 

Pansa,  pan'sa,  (Muzio,)  an  Italian  philosopher  and 
writer,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  about  1560.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  "The  Library  of  the  Vatican,"  ("Delia  Libre- 
ria  Vaticana,"  1590.) 

Panseron,  p5xss'r6N',  (  AUGUSTF.,)  a  French  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1813,  and  became  professor  de  chant 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1824.  He  composed 
operas,  masses,  and  requiems.  His  reputation  is  founded 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PANSERON 


1736 


PAPETY 


chiefly  on  a  great  number  of  popular  ballads,  (romances,) 
among  which  are  "  Au  Revoir,"  "Vogue  ma  Nacelle," 
and  "  The  Dream  of  Tartini." 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Panseron,  (PIERRK,)  a  French  architect,  born  near 
Provins  about  1730.  He  published  several  good  works, 
one  of  which  is  entitled  "  New  Elements  of  Architec 
ture,"  (3  vols.,  1775-80.) 

Pantaenua,  pan-tee'nus,  [Gr.  Ufanaivoq ;  Fr.  PAN- 
TENE,  p&N'tin',]  a  Christian  philosopher,  born  about 
155  A.D.,  was  a  Stoic  before  his  conversion.  He  became, 
about  180,  the  head  of  the  celebrated  school  at  Alexan 
dria,  where  Saint  Clement  was  one  of  his  pupils.  Ac 
cording  to  an  ancient  tradition,  he  preached  in  India. 
His  works,  if  he  wrote  any,  are  not  extant.  Died  about 
216  A.D. 

Pan-tag'a-thus,  (OCTAVIUS,)  [It.  PANTAGATO,  (Or- 
TAVIO,)]  an  Italian  monk  of  great  erudition,  born  at 
Brescia  in  1494.  He  left  some  works  in  manuscript. 
Died  in  1567. 

Pantaleon,  pdN'tS'la'iN',  written  also  Fantaleo, 
(HENRI,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  at  Bale  in  1522,  became 
professor  of  dialectics  and  physics  in  his  native  city.  He 
obtained  a  wide  reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which 
is  a  work  on  the  illustrious  men  of  Germany,  ("  Proso- 
pographia  Virorum  illustrium  Germanise,"  3  vols.,  1566.) 
Died  in  1595. 

Pantene.    See  PANTVENUS. 

Paiitiii,  pdN'taN',  (Pi-M'ER,)  a  Flemish  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Thiel  about  1555  ;  died  in  1611. 

Pantoja,  pan-to'na,  (JUAN  DE  LACRUZ.)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valencia  about  1550,  was  a  pupil  of 
Coello.  He  worked  at  the  Escurial  for  Philip  II.  lie 
excelled  in  design  and  in  the  expression  of  his  figures. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds." 
Died  in  1610. 

Panviiiio,  pan-vee'ne-o,  (ONUFRIO,)  [Lat.  PANVIN'- 
lus  O.N'u'i'HRius,]  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Verona  in  1529.  He  collected  many  inscriptions  and 
medals,  and  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Farnese.  Among 
his  numerous  treatises  are  "  Festivals  and  Triumphs  of 
the  Romans,"  ("  Fasti  et  Triumph!  Romanorum,"  1557,) 
"On  the  Roman  Republic,"  ("  De  Republica  Romana," 
1581,)  and  "On  the  Circus  Games,"  ("  De  Luclis  Cir- 
censibus,"  1600.)  He  was  one  of  the  first  who  applied 
criticism  to  history,  and  confirmed  his  statements  by 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.  Died  at  Palermo  in  1568. 

See  D.  W.  MOI.I.ER,  "  Disputatio  circularis  de  Onuphrio  Pan- 
vinio,"  1697  ;  MAKFEI,  "  Verona  illustra  ;"  NICERON,  "  Membires." 

Panvinius.     See  PANVINIO. 

Pa-ny'a-sis,  [Gr.  Uavvaau;,]  a  Greek  poet  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  was,  according  to  Suidas,  an  uncle  of  He 
rodotus.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem  entitled  "  Heraclea," 
which  is  not  extant.  In  the  Alexandrian  canon  he  was 
ranked  among  the  great  epic  poets.  Died  about  460  B.C. 

See  EKSCII  und  CRUDER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  :"  MUM.KR, 
"Histoire  de  la  Literature  Grecque;"  FUNCKE,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Panyasidis  Vita  ac  Poesi,"  1837. 

Paiizacchia,  pan-zak'ke-a,  (M ARIA  EI.F.NA,)  an  Ital 
ian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1668;  died  in  1709. 

Panzer,  pant'ser,  (FuiKDRiCH,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  in  Bavaria  in  1794.  He  wrote  "The  Traditions 
and  Customs  of  Bavaria,"  (2  vols.,  1848-55.)  Died  in 

«854- 

Panzer,  (GEORG  WOLFGANG,)  an  eminent  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Sulzbach  in  1727.  He  preached 
at  Nuremberg,  to  which  he  removed  in  1760.  His  most 
important  work  is  one  in  Latin,  entitled  "Annals  of 
Typography  from  the  Origin  of  Printing  to  1536,"  (11 
vols.,  1793-1803,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete 
treatise  on  that  subject.  Died  in  1804. 

See  EKSCII  und  ORUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  MEUSEI., 
"Gelelirtes  Deutscli'.and." 

Paoli,  pa'o-lee,  almost  pow'lee,  (GIACINTO,)  a  Cor- 
sican  general,  born  at  Basti'a  in  1702.  He  commanded 
with  success  against  the  Genoese  about  1734,  and  after 
wards  opposed  the  French  until  1739,  when  he  was  com 
pelled  to  submit.  He  retired  to  Naples,  where  he  died 
in  1768. 

Paoli.  (PAOLO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Lucca  about  1720,  was  a  nephew  of  Sebastiano. 


Among  his  works  is  an  account  of  the  ruins  of  Paestum, 
(1784.)  Died  about  1790. 

Paoli,  (SEBASTIANO,)  a  learned  Italian  antiquary  and 
monk,  born  near  Lucca  in  1684.  He  wrote,  besides 
many  other  treatises,  "On  the  Poetry  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers  in  the  First  Century,"  (1714,)  and  "On 
the  Diplomatic  Code  of  the  Order  of  Malta,"  ("  Codice 
diplomatico  dell'Ordine  di  Malta,"  2  vols.,  1733-37.) 
Died  in  1751. 

Paoli,  di,  de  pa'o-lee,  (PASQUALE,)  a  celebrated  Cor- 
sican  general,  born  at  Rostino  in  1726,  was  a  son  of 
Giacinto,  (noticed  above,)  who  took  him  to  Naples  in 
1740.  In  1755  he  vvas  chosen  general -in  chief  of  the  Cor- 
sicans,  who  had  revolted  against  the  Genoese.  He  gained 
many  victories,  rendered  himself  master  of  nearly  all  the 
island,  and  organized  a  government  with  a  representative 
system.  In  1768  the  Genoese,  baffled  in  their  efforts  to 
reduce  Corsica,  ceded  it  to  the  French,  whose  army 
Paoli  defeated  twice  in  that  year.  He  was  defeated  in 
a  decisive  battle  at  Ponte  Nuovo  in  1769,  and  retired  to 
England.  In  1789  he  was  recalled  from  exile  by  the 
National  Assembly,  and  received  from  Louis  XVI.  the 
title  of  lieutenant-general,  with  the  command  of  Corsica. 
He  assumed  an  attitude  of  hostility  to  the  dominant 
party  in  France  in  1793,  and  became  an  ally  or  partisan 
of  the  English,  to  whom  he  transferred  the  sovereignty 
of  the  island  in  1794.  Having  been  deprived  of  his 
command  by  the  British,  he  left  Corsica  in  1795  or  1796. 
He  died  near  London  in  1807. 

See  BOTTA,  "  Storia  d'ltalia  ;"  BOSWEU.,  "  Journal  of  a  Tour  to 
Corsica;"  ARRIOIU,  "Vie  de  Pascal  Paoli;"  POMPEI,  "  E°tat  de  la 
Corse,"  1821  :  KARL  L.  KI.OSE,  "  Leben  P.  Paoli's,"  1853;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  GeneVale." 

Paolini,  pow-lee'nee,  (PiETRO  or  LUCA  PIETRO,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1603.  He  painted 
religious  subjects.  Died  in  1681. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting,"  etc. 

Paolo,  the  Italian  for  PAUL,  which  see. 

Paolo  Sarpi.     See  SARPI. 

Paolo  Veronese.     See  CAGLIARI. 

Paolucci,  pow-loot'chee,  (SIGISMONDO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Umbiia  about  1510.  He  wrote  canzoni, 
which  were  admired,  and  celebrated  the  African  expe 
dition  of  Charles  V.  in  "  The  African  Nights,"  ("  Le  Notti 
d' Africa,"  1535.)  Died  in  1590. 

Paon,  du,  dii  pf'oN1',  sometimes  called  Le  Paon,  a 
French  painter  of  battles,  born  near  Paris  about  1740. 
He  was  a  pupil  and  rival  of  Casanova,  whom  he  ex 
celled  in  design  and  in  fidelity  as  an  imitator  of  nature. 
Died  in  1785. 

Papa,  del,  del  pa'pa,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Empoli  in  1649.  He  was  physician  to 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  Died  in  1735. 

Papacino.     See  ANTONI,  D'. 

Papadopoli,  pa-pa  dop'o-Iee,  (Niccoi,6  COMNENO,) 
a  learned  priest,  born  in  Candia  in  1655.  lie  became 
in  1688  professor  of  canon  law  at  Padua,  and  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  University  of  Padua,"  (2  vols.,  1726.) 
Died  in  1740. 

Pape,  de  la,  deh  IS  ptp,  (Gui,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Lyons  about  1400;  died  about  1475. 

Papebroch,  pa'peh-bRoK',  or  Papebroeck,  pa'peh- 
bRook',  (DANIEL,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1628.  He  compiled  a  number  of  volumes 
of  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum"  commenced  by  Bollandis. 
Died  in  1714. 

Papebroeck.     See  PAPEBROCH. 

Papencordt,  pa'|  en-koiu',  ( FELIX,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  at  Paderborn  in  1811.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Domination  of  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,"  (1837,)  and  a  "Life  of  Cola  di  Rienzo,"  (1841.) 
Died  in  1841. 

Papendrecht,  van,  vin  pa'pen-dRe'Kt',  (CORNELIS 
PAUL  HOYNCK,)  a  Dutch  historian  and  priest,  born  at 
Dort  in  1686.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of 
Utrecht,"  (1725,)  and  "  Analecta  Belgica,"  (3  vols.,  1743.) 
Died  in  1753. 

Papety,  pfp'te',  (DOMINIQUE  Louis  FEREOL,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1815.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1836.  Among  his  works  is  "Dream 
of  Happiness,"  ("  Reve  de  Bouheur.")  Died  in  1849. 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  nd_;  good;  moon; 


PAP1 


1737 


\     PARACELSUS 


Papi,  pa'pee,  (LAZZARO,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
translator,  born  near  Lucca  in  1763.  He  translated 
"Paradise  Lost"  into  Italian.  Died  in  1834. 

Fa'pi-as,  [Gr.  Ilamac,]  SAINT,  was  Bishop  of  Hie- 
rapolis,  in  Phrygia,  in  the  second  century.  He  wrote  an 
"  Exposition  o'f  the  Words  of  the  Lord,"  which  is  not 
extant.  According  to  Irenaeus,  he  had  seen  and  heard 
the  apostle  John.  Several  writers  state  that  he  suffered 
martyrdom  in  163  A.D. 

See  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Papillon,  pi'pe'voN',  (JEAN,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1639;  died  in  1710.  His  son  JEAN, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1661,  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  designer.  He  especially  excelled  in  designing  horses. 
Died  in  1723. 

Papillon,  (TEAN  MICHEL,)  an  eminent  engraver  on 
wood,  born  in'Paris  in  1698,  was  a  nephew  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Wood-Engraving," 
(1766.)  Died  in  1776. 

Papillon,  (PHILIHERT,)  a  French  biographer  and 
priest,  born  at  Dijon  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  good  work 
on  Burgundian  authors,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  de 
Bourgogne,"  (2  vols.,  1742.)  Died  in  1738. 

Papillon,  (THOMAS,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  1514, 
gained  distinction  as  a  writer  on  law.  Died  in  1596. 

Fapin,  pap'in,  [Fr.  pron.  pt'paN',]  (DENIS,)  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Blois  in  1647.  He  was  the 
associate  of  Robert  Boyle  in  scientific  experiments  in 
England,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1681.  He  invented  an  apparatus  for  softening  bones, 
called  "  Papin's  Digester,"  and  is  ranked  among  the 
inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  "Papin,"  says  F.  Arago, 
"  first  conceived  the  idea  of  a  steam-engine  with  a  piston." 
To  escape  persecution  as  a  Protestant,  he  went  into  exile 
in  1685,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics  at  Marburg. 
Died  about  1712. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Papin,  (ISAAC,)  a'French  theologian,  born  at  Blois  in 
1657,  was  a  nephew  of  Claude  Pajon,  and  was  educated 
as  a  Protestant.  He  wrote  "  Essays  on  Theology," 
(1687,)  which  subjected  him  to  the  enmity  of  Jurieu. 
In  1690  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Died 
in  1709. 

Papineau,  pt'pe-no',  (Louis  JOSEPH,)  a  Canadian 
revolutionist,  born  near  Montreal  in  1787.  In  1814  he 
represented  Montreal  in  the  Canadian  Parliament,  and 
in  1815  became  Speaker  of  the  House.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  liberal  or  radical  party,  which  revolted  in  1837. 
After  the  defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  insurgents,  he 
took  refuge  in  the  United  States. 

Fa-pin'i-an,  [Lat.  /EMIJ/IUS  PAPINIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  PA- 
PINIEN,  pt'p'e'ne-aN',]  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  He  was  advo- 
catus  fisci  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  after  the 
accession  of  Severus  was  libellornm  magister  ar.d  preto- 
rian  prefect,  (203  A.D.)  He  was  put  to  death,  by  order 
of  Caracalla,  in  212,  probably  because  he  had  condemned 
the  execution  of  Geta.  The  Digest  contains  extract? 
from  his  "  Quaestiones,"  "  Responsa,"  and  "Defini- 
tiones."  He  was  considered  by  some  persons  as  the 
greatest  jurist  of  antiquity.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  integrity. 

See  KVKRHARD  OTTO,  "Papinianus,"  etc.,  1718;  ERSCH  und 
GRUBKR,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  G.  L.  MENCKE,  "Papini 
anus,"  1715. 

Papinianus.     See  PAPIN  IAN. 

Papinien.     See  PAPINIAN. 

Papire-Masson.     See  MASSON,  (JF.AN  PAPIRE.) 

Pa-pir'I-us,  (JUSTUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  lived  in  the 
reigii  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  Digest  contains  extracts 
from  his  "Constitutions." 

Papirius,  (SEXTUS,)  the  author  of  a  supposed  collec 
tion  of  the  "  Leges  Regiae,"  (laws  enacted  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Roman  kings,)  which  was  called  "Jus  Pa 
pirianum."  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of 
Tarquinius  Superbus.  Nothing  certain  is  known  abou 
his  compilation. 

See  PVPERS,  "Dissertatio  de  Papirio,"  1825. 

Fa-pir'I-us  Cras'sus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  commander 
was 'appointed  dictator  in  339  B.C.,  to  conduct  the  war 


igainst  the  LatiiV,  and  was  twice  elected  consi/ii  336 
and  330  11. c.  \%  .X^ 

Pa-plr'i-us  Cur<sor,  (Lucius,)  a  famous  Roman 
;eneral,  whom  Livy  represents  as  one  of;^ln~e  ablest  men 
of  his  time.  He  was  appointed  dict^'f  to  conduct  the 
var  against  the  Samnites,  in  332  H.dr  Fabius  Maximus, 
,vho  was  master  of  the  horse,  in  U**  absence  of  his  chief 
ind  in  disobedience  to  his  orders,  attacked  and  defeated 
he  enemy.  For  this  offenra/Papirius  ordered  him  to  be 
finished  with  death;  but  Fabius  appealed  to  the  people, 
and  was  pardoned  or  acquitted.  Papirius  prosecuted 
the  war  with  success  until  the  Samnites  sued  for  peace. 
He  was  elected  consul  about  320,  and  soon  after  defeated 
the  Samnites  at  Luceria.  In  313  he  was  chosen  consul 
for  the  fifth  time,  and  in  308  B.C.  was  made  dictator  for 
another  war  against  the  Samnites,  over  whom  he  gained 
signal  victory.  History  is  silent  respecting  the  sub 
sequent  events  of  his  life.  His  son,  of  the  same  name, 
was  elected  consul  in  293,  and  again  in  272  B.C.  He 
defeated  the  Samnites. 

Papirius  Massonus.  See  MASSON,  (PAPIRE.) 
Papon,  pt'pdN',  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest,  born  near  Nice  in  1734.  He  wrote  a  "His 
tory  of  Provence,"  (4  vols.,  1777-86,)  which  is  com 
mended,  and  a  "History  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1789  to  the  1 8th  Brumaire,  1799,"  (6  vols.,  1815.)  Died 
in  1803. 

Pappenheim,  von,  fon  pap'pen-hlm',  (GOTTFRIED 
HEINKICH,)  COUNT,  a  celebrated  German  general,  born 
at  Pappenheim  in  1594,  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic. 
After  he  had  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
Bavaria,  and  received  several  wounds  at  Prague,  (1620,) 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor,  about  1630,  as 
field-marshal.  The  victory  of  the  Imperialists  at  Magde- 
.Mirg  (1631)  is  ascribed  to 'him.  He  commanded  a  corps 
under  Wallenstein  in  1632,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Lutzen,  in  November  of  that  year. 

See  FOKSTER,  "Wallensteins  Briefe;"  SCHILLER,  "History  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Pap'pus,  [Gr.  n«7T7n>c,]  an  eminent  Greek  geometer 
of  Alexandria,  flourished  about  380  or  400  A.I).  He  left 
a  work  entitled  "  Mathematical  Collections,"  (MafcftUE- 
TCKal  Zvvayu-yal,)  which  is  extant,  and  of  which  Com- 
mandino  published  a  Latin  version  in  1588.  Pappus 
first  gave  the  example  of  the  quadrature  of  a  curved 
surface.  He  also  furnishes  important  information  of 
the  analytic  methods  of  the  ancients.  He  wrote  other 
works,  which  are  lost. 

See  MONTUCI.A,  "Histoire  des  Mathdmatiques  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Pappus,  pap'pus,  (JoiiANN,)  a  Lutheran  minister  and 
writer,  born  at  Lindau,  on  Lake  Constance,  in  1549.  He 
preached  at  Strasburg.  Died  in  1610. 

Paquot,  pt'ko',  (JEAN  NOEI.,)  a  Flemish  biographer, 
born  at  Florennes  in  1722,  was  a  priest  and  a  professor 
of  Hebrew.  His  chief  work  is  "  Memoirs  towards  the 
Literary  History  of  the  Low  Countries,"  ("Memoires 
pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  litteraire  des  Pays-Bas,"  18 
vols.,  1763-70,)  which  contains  biographies  of  Dutch  and 
Flemish  authors.  Died  in  1803. 

Pa'ra,  called  also  BAB,  King  of  Armenia,  was  the  son 
and  heir  of  Arsaces  III.,  who  was  deposed  by  Sapor, 
King  of  Persia.  By  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  Para  ob- 
tamed  the  throne  about  365  A.D.  He  was  killed  by  the 
order  of  the  Roman  emperor  Valens  about  375  A.I). 

Para  du  Phanjas,  pS'rt'  dii  fdN'zhas',  (FRANCOIS,)  a 
French  Jesuit  and  philosopher,  born  in  Dauphine  in 
1724.  He  published  "  Elements  of  Metaphysics,  Sacred 
and  Profane,"  (1767,)  and  "  Principes  du  Calcul  et  de  la 
Geometric,"  (1773.)  Died  in  1797. 

Parabosco,  pa-Ra-bos'ko,  (GIROLAMO,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  musician,  born  at  Piacenza.  He  was  author  of 
"  Progne,"  a  tragedy,  (1548,)  several  comedies,  and  tales 
entitled  "Diversion's,"  ("  I  Diporti,"  1552.)  His  works 
were  received  with  favour.  Died  at  Venice  in  1557. 

Paracelse.     See  PARACELSUS. 

Far-a-cel'sus,  [Fr.  PARACEI.SE,  pf'rt'selss',1  (Pin- 
I.TPPUS  'AUREOI.US  THEOPHRASTUS  BOMBASTUS  von 
Hohenheim — fon  ho'en-him',)  a  famous  alchemist  and 
charlatan,  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Einsiedeln,  in 
Switzerland,  in  1493.  In  his  youth  he  acquired  a  pro- 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARADIN 


1738 


PARENT 


ficiemcy  in    tne  jargon   of  alchemis/s,   magicians, 
quackb,^  whom   he   consulted   in  nearly  every   pa 


and 

part  of 

Europe.  ..Having  performed  some 'famous  cures,  he  was 
appointed  ^rpfessor  of  medicine  at  Bale  in  1526.  He 
there  burned  tltf-  works  of  Galen,  styled  himself  the  mon 
arch  of  medicine,  ^nd  pretended  to  have  discovered  a 
medicine  capable  oVvprolonging  life  indefinitely,  (called 
the  Elixir  of  Life.)  He  became  intemperate,  and  in  1527 
or  1528  resumed  a  vagabond  life.  In  his  medical  prac 
tice  he  introduced  mercury  Kind  opium  into  general  use. 
He  died  poor,  at  Saltzburg,  in  1541.  He  had  published 
but  little  in  his  lifetime.  After  his  death  many  volumes 
ascribed  to  him  appeared  at  various  times  between  1575 
and  1658.  His  medical  reputation  is  founded  on  the 
importance  which  he  gave  to  pharmaceutical  chemistry. 
His  dogmatic  and  fantastic  pseudo-philosophy  found 
many  admirers,  especially  in  Germany. 

See  M.  B.  LESSING,  "Paracelsus:  sein  Lebenund  Denken,"  Ber 
lin,  1839  :  FKANCK,  "  Sur  la  Vie  et  les  £crits  de  Paracelse ;"  MARX, 
"Zur  Wiirdigung  des  Theo.  von  Hohenheim,"  1842;  HOEFKR, 
"  Histoire  de  ia  Chiinie  ;"  HRKMKR,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  Paracelsi," 
1836;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Paradin,  pi'rS'da.v',  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  priest 
and  historian,  born  near  Chalons  about  1510.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  his  own  Time,"  (1550,)  and 
"Annals  of  Burgundy,"  (1566.)  Died  in  1590. 

Paradis  de  Moiicrif.     See  MONCRIF. 

Paradis  de  Raymoiidis,  pS'ra"de'  deh  ri'moN'dess', 
(JEAN  ZACHARIE,)  a  French  moralist,  born  at  Bourg-en- 
Bresse  in  1746.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Morality  and 
Happiness,"  (2  vols.,  1784.)  Died  in  1800. 

Paradisi,  pa-ra-dee'see,  (AcosriNO,)  COUNT,  an  Ital 
ian  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Vignola  in  1736. 
He  was  professor  of  civil  economy  and  of  history  at 
MrHena.  He  wrote  vessi  sciolti,  ("blank  verse,")  which 
were  received  with  favour,  and  an  excellent  "Eulogy  on 
Montecuccoli,"  (1776,)  in  prose.  He  translated  some 
tragedies  of  Voltaire  into  Italian.  Died  in  1783. 

See  SCHEUONI,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  A.  Paradisi,"  1789. 

Paradisi,  (GIOVANNI,)  COUNT,  ason  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Reggio  in  1760.  Bonaparte  appointed  him 
a  director  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1797,  and  council 
lor  of  state  in  1804.  He  presided  over  the  Italian  senate 
from  1809  to  1814.  Died  in  1826. 

Paradol.     See  PREVOST-PARADOL. 

Pareeus.     See  PARE. 

Paramo,  de,  da  pa'ra-mo,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  theo 
logian,  born  near  Toledo  about  1545.  He  wrote  "On 
the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Inquisition,"  (1598,)  said 
to  be  one  of  the  most  curious  works  on  that  subject. 

Parana,  de,  da  pa-ra-na',  (HONORIO  HERMETO  CAR- 
NEIRO  LF.AO,)  MARQUIS,  a  Brazilian  minister  of  state, 
born  in  Minas-Geraes  about  1802.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  conservative  party,  and  became  president  of  the 
council  in  1853.  Died  in  1856. 

Par-a-su-ra'ma,  [Hindoo  pron.  piir'a-soo-ra'ma  and 
pur'a-sdo  rim',  from  the  Sanscrit  parasu  m  par  ash  u,  an 
"axe,"  and  rdma,  one  "  who  delights  in,")  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  the  sixth  avatar  of  Vishnu.  He 
was  born  as  the  son  of  Jamadagni.  His  mission  appears 
to  have  been  to  subdue  or  destroy  the  Kshatriya  (or 
warrior)  race,  who  had  become  arrogant  through  their 
unlimited  power.  He  seems  to  have  used  his  terrible 
battle-axe  with  considerable  effect,  as  some  of  the  ac 
counts  represent  the  whole  earth  as  filled  with  the  blood 
of  his  enemies. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon;"  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary. " 

Paravey,  de,  deh  pi'rt'vi',  (CHARLES  HIPPOLYTE,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Ardennes  in  1787.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  Oriental  antiquities. 

Paravia,  pa-ra-vee'a,  (PiETRO  AI.ESSANDRO,)  an  Ital 
ian  litterateur,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1797.  He  became 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Turin  in  1832.  He  gained 
distinction  by  articles  on  national  literature  in  the  jour 
nals,  by  a  version  of  the  "  Letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger," 
(1830,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1857. 

Parcee,  par'se,  or  Moirae,  moi're,  [  Fr.  LES  PAROUES, 
li  pSkk,]  the  Fates  of  classic  mythology,  were  said  to 
be  daughters  of  Night,  (Nox.)  According  to  Hesiod, 
they  were  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Themis,  and  were 
named  CLOTHO,  LACHESIS,  and  ATROPOS.  Homer  rec- 


ognizes  one  Fate,  ( Moira,)  who  spins  out  the  thread  of 
human  life  and  destiny.  Other  mylhographers  feigned 
that  Clotho  held  the  distaff,  Lachesis  spun  the  thread 
of  each  person's  life,  and  Atropos  cut  it  off,  as  expressed 
in  the  following  hexameter  line  : 

"  Clotho  coin  in  retinet,  Lachesis  net  et  Atropos  occat." 

Parcelles,  ptn'sel',  (JAN,)  an  able  Dutch  painter  of 
marine  views,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1597.  He  painted 
storms  at  sea  and  shipwrecks  with  great  success  and 
rapidity.  lie  died  at  Leyerdorp  in  1641.  His  son 
JULIUS,  born  about  1628,  was  a  skilful  marine  painter, 
and  nearly  equalled  his  father. 

Parcieux,  de.     See  DEPARCIEUX. 

Pardessus,  paVda'sii',  (JKAN  MARIE,)  a  French 
t  Blois  in  1772.  He  sat  in  the  Corps 
Legislatif  from  1807  to  1811.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  Servitudes,"  (1806,)  which  has  passed  through  eight 
or  more  editions,  a  capital  work  entitled  "  Lectures  on 
Commercial  Law,"  (4  vols.,  1813-37,)  and  an  important 
"Collection  of  Maritime  Laws  anterior  to  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  (6  vols.,  1828-45.)  Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pardies,  ptu'de',  (!GNACE  GASTON,)  an  able  French 
geometer,  born  at  Pan  in  1636.  He  lectured  at  the 
College  of  Louis  le  Grand,  in  Paris,  and  corresponded 
with  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Among  his  works  are  "  Elements 
of  Geometry,"  (1671,)  and  "Statics,  or  the  Science  of 
Moving  Forces,"  (1673.)  Died  in  1673. 

See  BAYI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Par'doe,  (Jui.lA,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  about  1808.  After  a  visit  to  Por 
tugal,  she  produced  a  successful  work  entitled  "Traits 
and  Traditions  of  Portugal."  Among  her  other  popular 
works  are  "The  City  of  the  Sultan,"  (1836,)  "The  Ro 
mance  of  the  Harem,"  (1839,)  "The  City  of  the  Maygar," 
(1840,)  and  novels,  entitled  "  Reginald  Lyle,"  and  "  The 
Jealous  Wife,"  (1855.)  Died  in  1862. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  18.52. 

Pare,  par're,  |Fr.  pron.  pi'ra';  Lat.  PAR^/US,]  (  AM 
BROSE,)  an  excellent  French  surgeon,  born  at  Laval 
(Mayenne)  in  1509,  (or  in  1517,  according  to  some 
authorities,)  is  styled  "the  Father  of  French  surgery." 
His  parents  were  poor,  and  his  education  was  defective. 
Having  studied  in  Paris,  he  became  a  surgeon  in  the 
army  in  1536,  and  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  Henry  II.  in 
1552.  He  reformed  the  treatment  of  gun-shot  wounds, 
which  previously  were  cauterized  with  boiling  oil,  and 
substituted  the  ligature  of  arteries  for  cauterization. 
He  served  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.,  as 
chief  surgeon.  Brantome  says  that  during  the  Massacre 
of  Saint  Bartholomew  the  king  sent  for  Pare  (who  was 
a  Protestant)  and  kept  him  in  his  own  room  for  safety. 
He  wrote  many  professional  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Malgaigne,  (3 
vols.,  1840.)  Died  in  1590. 

See  VIMONT,  "  Elo.se  de  Pare1,"  1814:  WIM.AUME,  "  Recherches 
bionjaphiques  siir  A.  Pare."  iSjS;  "Retrospective  Review,"  1827; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Paredes.     See  GARCIA  DE  PAREDES. 

Paredes,  pa-ra'des,  (MARIANO,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  1790.  He  fought  against  Santa  Anna  in  1844, 
and  was  elected  President  of  Mexico  in  Time,  1845.  In 
August,  1846,  he  was  driven  from  power  by  Santa  Anna 
and  Bravo.  Died  in  1849. 

Pareja,  de,  da  pa-ra'na,  (JuAN,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Velas 
quez,  whom  he  served  as  a  slave  in  his  youth.  According 
tosome  writers,  he  was  born  in  the  West  Indies.  Having 
acquired  skill  by  secret  study  and  practice,  he  was  libe 
rated  by  Velasquez.  lie  painted  portraits  with  success. 
His  master-piece  is  "The  Calling  of  Saint  Matthew." 
Died  in  1670. 

See  CE.AN-BERMUDEZ,  "Diccionaiio  Historico." 

Parent,  pt'rSN',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1666.  He  wrote  "  Researches  into  Phys 
ics  and  Mathematics,"  (2  vols.,  1705,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1716. 

Parent  du  Chatelet,  pt'roN'  dii  shat'li',  (AT.F.XAN- 
DRE  JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  physician  and  writer  on 
hygiene,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  wrote  valuable 
works  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Common  Sewers  of  Paris," 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


PAREPA-ROSA 


'739 


PARISET 


("Essai  sur  les  Cloaques  ou  Egouts  de  Paris,''  1824,) 
"Hygiene  publique,"  (2  vols.,  1836,)  and  "On  Prostitu 
tion  in  the  City  of  Paris,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)  Died  in  1836. 

Parepa-Rosa,  pa-ra'pi  ro'si,  MADAME,  a  distin 
guished  vocalist  and  actress,  born  in  Edinburgh  about 
1830,  has  performed  with  brilliant  success  in  Boston, 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia.  Her  voice  has  extraor 
dinary  compass  and  power. 

Paret  de  Alcazar,  pa-ret'  da  al-ka'thaR,  (Luis,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1747.  He  was  com 
missioned  by  the  king  to  paint  the  sea-ports  of  Spain 
in  1780.  Died  in  1799. 

Pareus,  pa-ra'us,  (DANIEL,)  a  philologist,  born  at 
Neuhausen  in  1605,  was  a  son  of  Philipp,  noticed  below. 
He  published  "  Historia  Palatina,"  (1633,)  and  editions  of 
Lucretius,  Quintilian,  and  other  classics.  Died  in  1635. 

Pareus,  (DAVID,)  an  eminent  German  divine  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  born  in  Silesia  in  1548.  His  German 
name  was  WA.NGLER.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Heidelberg  in  1584.  His  principles  were  Calvinistic. 
He  published  the  "  Neustadt  Bible,"  (1587,)  Commen 
taries  on  Scripture,  and  other  works.  Died  at  Heidelberg 
in  1622. 

See  J  P.  PAREUS,  "  Narratio  de  Vita  D.  Parei,"  1633;  ERSCH 
und  GKUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Pareus,  (PHILIPP  or  JOHAN.N  PHILIPP,)  a  philologist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Worms  in  1576. 
He  was  rector  of  the  colleges  of  Neustadt  and  Hanau. 
He  published  "Selections  from  Plautus,"  ("  Electa  Plau- 
tina,"  1597,)  an  edition  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus,  with 
notes,  (1610,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1648. 

Parfaict,  pfk'fa',  ( FRANCOIS,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1698.  He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
French  Theatre,"  (15  vols.,  1734-49,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1753. 

Paride.     See  PARIS. 

Parieu,  de,  deh  pi're-uV,  (MARIE  Louis  PIERRE 
FELIX  ESQUIROU,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Aurillac 
in  1815.  He  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from 
October,  1849,  to  February,  1851.  In  1851  he  became 
president  of  the  section  of  finances  an  conseil  d'etat. 

Parigi,  pa-ree'jee,  (Giui.io,)  a  Florentine  architect 
and  etcher,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  designed 
some  public  edifices  of  Florence,  and  opened  an  academy 
of  art  in  that  city.  Among  his  pupils  was  Callot,  the 
engraver.  Died  in  1635.  His  son  ALFONSO  was  an 
architect.  He  built  the  Scarlati  _palace  in  Florence. 
Died  in  1656. 

Parijata, pa'rT-ja'ta,  [from  the  Sanscrit pdri,  "above," 
and  jdtd,  "  produced,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  one 
of  the  trees  of  the  paradise  of  Indra,  said  to  produce  as 
fruit  whatever  was  desired.  (See  KURMA.) 

Parini,  pa-ree'nee,  (GiUSEPPK,)  a  popular  Italian 
poet,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1729.  He  became  a  good 
Greek  scholar,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  critic  by 
his  Examination  of  Bandiera's  work,  "  Pregiudizi  clelle 
umane  Lettere,"  (1756.)  His  principal  work  is  "The 
Day,"  ("  II  Giorno,")  an  ironical  didactic  poem,  of  which 
the  first  part,  "The  Morning,"  ("  II  Mattino,")  was  pub 
lished  in  1763.  It  is  a  satire  on  the  manners  and  morals 
of  the  Italian  nobility.  He  also  wrote  lyrical  poems, 
which  are  much  admired.  He  became  professor  of  elo 
quence  at  the  College  of  Brera,  Milan,  in  1769.  Parini 
is  reputed  one  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  poets  of  his 
time.  Died  at  Milan  in  1799. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  "Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  REV.  HENKV  STKBBING  :  REINA,  "Vie  de 
Parini,"  iSoi  ;  CRSARK  C\NT{J,  •'  Parini  et  la  Societe  Lombarde  ;" 
POZZKTTI,  "Vita  di  G.  Parini,"  1801 ;  TIPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri." 

Par'is,  [Gr.  Dupic;  It.  PARIDE,  pa're-da,]  a  son  of 
Priam,  a  Trojan  prince,  was  celebrated  for  his  beauty, 
gallantry,  accomplishments,  and  adventures.  He  was 
sometimes  called  ALEXANDER.  According  to  poetical 
tradition,  he  seduced  Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  and 
thus  provoked  the  Greeks  to  wage  the  war  which  ended 
in  the  destruction  of  Troy.  The  death  of  Achilles  is 
ascribed  by  some  poets  to  a  shaft  from  the  bow  of  Paris. 
The  decision  by  which  he  awarded  the  prize  of  beauty 
to  Venus,  when  Juno  and  Minerva  were  competitors, 
was  a  favourite  theme  of  ancient  writers,  who  relate  the 
following  story  :  All  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  in 


vited  to  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  except  Dis 
cord,  who  threw  among  the  guests  a  golden  apple,  on 
which  was  inscribed  "  For  the  most  beautiful."  Juno, 
Minerva,  and  Venus  disputed  for  this  apple,  and  referred 
the  decision  of  their  claims  to  Paris,  who  was  then  a 
shepherd  on  Mount  Ida.  To  influence  his  judgment, 
Juno  promised  to  give  him  power,  Minerva  martial 
glory,  and  Venus  the  most  beautiful  of  women.  He 
decided  in  favour  of  Venus,  and  received  from  her 
Helen  as  his  reward. 

See  HOMEK'S  "  Iliad  ;"  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  and  Mythology;"  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (Partie 
myihologique.) 

Paris,  pt're',  (ALEXIS  PAULIN,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  translator,  born  at  Avenay  (Marne)  in  1800.  He 
wrote  an  "Apology  for  the  Romantic  School,"  (1824,)  and 
several  essays  on  mediaeval  literature.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Byron's  Complete  Works,  (1830-32.)  In  1837 
he  was  elected  to  the  Institute. 

Paris,  BROTHERS,  French  financiers,  born  in  Dau- 
phine :  they  were  named  ANTOINE,  CLAUDE,  JEAN, 
and  JOSEPH,  who  was  called  DUVERNEY.  Joseph  was 
born  in  1684.  On  the  collapse  of  Law's  system  they 
were  employed  to  restore  order  in  the  public  finances. 
Voltaire  extols  the  admirable  talent  which  they  exhibited 
in  this  operation.  Duverney  died  in  1770. 

See  MARQUIS  DH  LUCHET,  "  Histoire  de  MM.  Paris,"  1776. 

Paris,  (CLAUDE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  composer,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1804.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  Paris 
in  1826.  He  has  composed  operas  and  sacred  music. 

Paris,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  priest  and  devotional 
writer,  born  at  Chatillon,  near  Paris.  He  wrote  edify 
ing  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Martyrology,"  (1694,) 
and  "  The  Gospel  Explained,"  (4  vols.,  1693-98.)  Died 
in  1718. 

Paris,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  ascetic  priest,  bom  in 
Paris  in  1690;  died  in  1727.  Crowds  resorted  to  his 
tomb,  attracted  by  a  report  that  miracles  were  per 
formed  there. 

Paris,  ( FRANCOIS  EDMOND,)  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  at  Brest  in  1806.  He  wrote  several  works  on  navi 
gation,  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Steam  Navy,"  ("  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Marine  a  Vapeur,"  1848.)  He  became  a 
rear-admiral  in  1858. 

Par'is,  (JoHN  AYRTON,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1785.  He  practised 
some  years  at  Penzance,  from  which  he  removed  to 
London  about  1817.  In  1819  he  published  a  good 
"  Pharmacologia,"  (8th  edition,  1833.)  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1844.  Among 
his  works  are  a  well-written  "Memoir  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,"  (iSio,)  a  "Treatise  on  Diet,"  (1821,)  and  "Med 
ical  Chemistry,"  (1824.)  Died  in  December,  1856. 

Paris,  (MATTHEW.)     See  MATTHEW  PARIS. 

Paris,  (PHILIPPE  NICOLAS  MARIE,)  one  of  the  guards 
of  Louis  XVI.,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He  killed  Lepel- 
letier  de  Saint-Fargeau  in  1793,  because  he  had  voted  for 
the  death  of  the  king.  When  the  officers  of  justice  were 
about  to  arrest  him,  he  shot  himself,  (January,  1793.) 

Paris,  (PIKRRE  ADRIEN,)  a  French  architect,  born  at 
Besai^on  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  designer  to  the 
cabinet  of  the  king  in  1778.  Among  his  works  is  the 
portal  of  the  cathedral  of  Orleans.  He  left  in  manu 
script  a  valuable  "Collection  of  Designs,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1819. 

Paris,  de,  deh  pi're',  (Louis  PHILIPPE,)  COMTE,  a 
French  prince,  born  in  1838.  His  father,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  who 
abdicated  in  favour  of  the  Count  of  Paris  in  February, 
1848.  His  title,  however,  was  not  recognized  by  the 
revolutionists  who  dethroned  Louis  Philippe.  Since 
that  event  he  has  lived  in  exile.  He  served  a  campaign 
in  Virginia  as  an  officer  of  the  Federal  army  of  the  Po 
tomac  in  the  spring  of  1862,  and  returned  to  Europe 
about  July  i  of  that  year.  He  is  recogr.ved  as  the  head 
of  the  Orleans  family. 

Pariseau,  pi're'z'o',  (PIERRE  GERMAIN,)  a  French 
dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1753.  He  wrote 
comedies  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was 
guillotined  in  1794. 

Pariset,  pi're'zi',  (  ETIENNE,  )  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Grand,  a  village  among  the  Vosges,  in 


«  as  k;  5  as  i;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARISETTI 


1740 


PARKER 


1770.  lie   was    chosen    physician   of    the    Hopital    de 
Bicetre  in  1814.     In  1842  he  became  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Academy  of  Medicine.     He  wrote  eloquent  eulo 
gies  on  members  of   this  academy,  (printed  in  2  vols., 
1845,)  treatises  on  contagious  diseases,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1847. 

See  SACHAILE,  "  Les  Me'decins  de  Paris;"  SAINTE-BEUVE, 
"Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Parisetti,  pa-re-set'tee,  (Luicr,)  an  Italian  writer  of 
Latin  poetry,  was  born  at  Reggio  in  1503.  He  wrote 
"  Theopeia,"  (1550,)  and  other  poems,  which  were  praised 
by  Sadolet  and  Bembo.  Died  in  1570. 

Par'ish,  (ELIJAH,)  an  American  Congregational  di 
vine,  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1762.  lie 
published  a  "History  of  New  England,"  "System  of 
Modern  Geography,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1825. 

Parisio.     See  PARRHASIUS,  (Aui.us  JANUS.) 

Parisis,  pt're'zess',  (PIEKUE  Louis,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1795.  He  became  Bishop  of  Arras 
in  1851.  He  has  published  numerous  theological  works. 

Parisot,  pS're'zo',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  monk,  born  at 
Bar-le-Duc  in  1697,  took  the  name  of  PERK  NORBKRT. 
He  opposed  the  Jesuits,  and  wrote  against  them  "  Me 
moirs  of  the  East  Indian  Missions,"  (1744.)  Died  in  1769. 

Parisot,  (VALENTIN,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Ven- 
doine  in  1800.  He  became  professor  of  foreign  litera 
ture  at  Grenoble  and  at  Douai,  (1854.)  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  a  "Life  of 
Fourier,"  (1857,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1861. 

Parisot- Valette.     See  V ALETTE. 

Park,  (EDWARDS  A.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre 
gational  divine,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1808,  was  appointed  in  1836  Bartlett  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1847 
Abbott  professor  of  Christian  theology  in  that  institution. 
He  has  made  several  translations  from  the  German,  and 
published  a  number  of  sermons  and  theological  works. 

Park,  (Sir  JAMES  ALLAN,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer  on  marine  insurance,  was  born  in  Surrey;  died 
in  1839. 

Park,  (MuNGO,)  an  eminent  and  enterprising  explorer 
of  Africa,  was  born  near  Selkirk,  Scotland,  in  September, 

1771.  He  chose  the  profession  of  surgeon,  and  studied 
botany  in  his  youth.     As  agent  of  the  African  Associa 
tion,  he  undertook  in  May,  1795,  to  explore  the  course 
of  the  Niger.     Departing  from  a  point  on  the  Gambia, 
he  reached  the  Niger  at  Segoin  TU'V,  1796,  and  ascended 
the  river  to  Bammakoo.    He  returned  to  England  in  the 
autumn  of  1797,  and  published,  in  1799,  "Travels  in  the 
Interior  of  Africa,"  which  excited  great  interest.     Park 
was  chosen  to  command  an  expedition  sent  to  renew  the 
enterprise,  and  left  Pisania,  on  the  Gambia,  about  the  4th 
of  May,  1805,  with  forty-five  men,  intending  to  descend 
the  Niger  in  boats  to  its  mouth.    He  perished  (probably 
by  drowning)   a  short  distance  below  Yaouri,  near  the 
end  of  1805.     The  journal  of  his  last  expedition  was 
published  in  1815. 

See  RKNNKLL,  "  Life  of  Mmicro  Park,"  1815:  CHAMBERS,  "  Bio- 
graphic.il  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1815;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1815; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1799. 

Park,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poet,  born 
about  1760;  died  in  1834. 

Parke,  park,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  English  musician, 
born  in  1745,  performed  on  the  hautboy  ;  died  in  1829. 

Parke,  park,  (JOHN  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  about  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1849.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Roanoke  Island  and 
Newbern  in  February-March,  1862,  and  served  as  major- 
general  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  May-July,  1863.  He 
Commanded  a  corps  which  assaulted  the  defences  of 
"etersburg  on  the  2d  of  April,  1865,  and  carried  the 
main  line  of  the  enemy. 

Par'ker,  (HENRY,)  Lord  Morley,  was  born  in  North 
amptonshire  in  1476.  He  wrote  verses  and  dramas  in 
his  youth.  He  was  one  of  the  barons  who  by  letter 
warned  Pope  Clement  that  he  would  lose  his  supremacy 
in  England  if  he  opposed  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII. 
Died  in  1556. 

Par'ker,  (HENRY  W.,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Danby,  Tompkins  county,  New  York,  in  1825.  He  pub 
lished  a  volume  of  "Poems,"  Auburn,  1850,  and  con 


tributed  frequently  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 
He  is,  or  was,  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Brook 
lyn,  New  York. 

Parker,  (Sir  HYDE,)  an  English  vice-admiral,  served 
with  distinction  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
in  1781  defeated  the  Dutch  admiral  Zoutman  at  Dog- 
gerbank.  Being  appointed  in  1783  commander  of  the 
British  fleet  in  the  East  Indies,  he  perished  by  ship 
wreck  on  the  passage. 

Parker,  (ISAAC,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Boston 
in  1768,  became  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  ol 
Massachusetts  in  1814.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
scholar.  Died  in  1830. 

Parker,  (MATTHEW,)  a  learned  and  meritorious  Eng 
lish  prelate,  born  at  Norwich  in  1504,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  became  dean  of  the  College  of  Stoke 
Clare  in  1535,  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1537,  master 
of  Bene't  College  in  1544,  and  Dean  of  Lincoln  in  1552. 
On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  (1553)  he  was  deprived 
of  his  benefices,  because  he  was  a  Protestant,  or  because 
he  was  married.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Can 
terbury  by  Elizabeth  in  1559.  A  revised  version  of  the 
Bible  (called  the  Bishops'  Bible)  was  published  under 
his  direction  in  1568.  He  presented  many  valuable 
manuscripts  to  his  college  at  Cambridge.  Died  in  1575. 

See  J.  STRYPE,  "Life  of  Archbishop  Parker,"  1711;  BI'RNUT, 
"  History  of  the  Reformation  ;"  W.  F.  HOOK,  "  Lives  of  the  Arch 
bishops  of  Canterbury." 

Parker,  (NATHAN,)  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Reading,  Massachusetts,  in  1782.  He  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1808. 
Died  in  1833. 

Parker,  (Sir  PETER,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1716,  served  in  the  American  war,  and  in  1782  took 
prisoner  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse.  He  was  created 
admiral  of  the  fleet.  Died  in  1811. 

Parker,  (RICHARD,) an  English  sailor,  born  at  Exeter, 
was  the  ringleader  of  a  mutiny  at  the  Nore  in  May, 
1797.  He  blockaded  the  port  of  London,  and  received 
the  title  of  admiral  from  the  mutineers.  He  was  hung 
in  June,  1797. 

Parker,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
became  Fellow  of  a  college  at  Cambridge  in  1584.  He 
preached  at  Amsterdam  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
wrote  several  works. 

Parker,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  North 
ampton  in  1640.  He  was  appointed  prebendary  of 
Canterbury  in  1672,  and  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1686.  It 
appears  that  he  received  this  preferment  from  fames  II. 
because  he  favoured  the  cause  of  popery  and  absolutism. 
He  died  in  1687,  leaving  several  theological  works,  and 
memoirs  of  his  own  times,  entitled  "  De  Rebus  sui  Tern- 
poris  Commentarius,"  (1726.) 

See  WOOD,  "  Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Parker,  (THEODORE,)  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  at  Lex 
ington,  Massachusetts,  on  the  24th  of  August,  1810. 
His  education  was  begun  on  his  father's  farm,  and  there 
he  continued  to  carry  on  his  studies  even  after  he  had 
entered  his  name  at  Harvard  in  1830.  He  appears  to 
have  visited  Cambridge  only  for  the  purpose  of  partici 
pating  in  the  examinations.  Being  a  non-resident,  he 
was  not  entitled  to  a  degree  ;  but  subsequently  (in  1840) 
the  honorary  title  of  A.M.  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  university.  In  1834  he  entered  the  theological 
school,  in  which  he  remained  about  two  years.  He  first 
began  to  preach  at  Barnstable  in  1836.  In  April  of  the 
following  year  he  married  Miss  Lydia  D.  Cabot,  and 
soon  after  was  settled  as  Unitarian  minister  at  West 
Roxbury.  His  views  had  previously  been  but  little  in 
advance  of  the  average  Unitarianism  of  the  time  ;  but 
his  growing  acquaintance  with  the  German  rationalists 
De  Wette,  Eichhorn,  Paulus,  Bauer,  and  others  was  not 
long  in  producing  an  important  change  in  his  theological 
opinions, — a  change,  we  need  scarcely  say,  which  he  was 
at  no  pains  to  conceal.  His  new  doctrines  gave  great 
offence  to  some  of  the  more  conservative  of  the  New 
England  Unitarians  ;  and  after  his  discourse  (preached 
at  South  Boston  in  1841)  on  the  "Transient  and  Perma 
nent  in  Christianity,"  in  which  he  assumed  the  absolute 
humanity  of  Christ,  His  inspiration  differing  in  no  essen- 


e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PARKER 


1741 


PARMENTIER 


tial  respect  from  that  of  other  men,  the  opposition  to 
him  became  much  more  decided.  This  opposition  was 
conspicuously  manifested  on  the  occasion  of  his  ex 
changing  pulpits  with  other  Unitarian  ministers,  some 
of  whom  were  severely  censured  by  many  of  their  breth 
ren,  who  held  that  by  such  an  interchange  of  courtesies 
they  gave  a  direct  sanction  to  the  new  heresies.  Parker's 
translation  of  De  Wette's  "  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"  appeared  in  the  early  part  of  1843  ;  later 
in  the  same  year  he  visited  Europe,  returning  in  the 
summer  of  1844.  Soon  after  his  return  he  began  to 
preach  in  Boston,  at  the  Melodeon,  where  he  was  regu 
larly  installed  in  1846.  He  was  the  principal  editor  of 
the  "  Massachusetts  Quarterly,"  which  was  commenced 
in  1847  an(l  continued  three  years.  In  addition  to  his 
duties  as  minister,  and  his  laborious  intellectual  pursuits, 
which  extended  to  almost  every  department  of  human 
knowledge,  he  gave  numerous  lectures  on  various  sub 
jects.  But  the  question  which  seems  to  have  enlisted 
most  fully  all  the  faculties  of  his  ardent  and  powerful 
mind  was  Southern  slavery,  with  its  attendant  iniquities 
and  abominations.  His  health  having  become  greatly 
impaired  by  his  unceasing  and  intense  activity,  in  Feb 
ruary,  1850,  he  visited  the  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  the  following  summer  went  to 
Europe,  spending  the  winter  of  1859-60  at  Rome.  He 
left  Rome  in  April,  1860,  and  with  difficulty  reached 
Florence,  where  he  died  on  the  loth  of  May.  Of  his 
extensive  collection  of  books,  he  left  the  principal  part, 
amounting  to  11,190  volumes  and  2500  pamphlets,  to 
the  Boston  Public  Library.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  edited  by  Frances  Power  Cobbe,  was  published 
in  London  in  1863-65,  in  12  vols. 

See  "  Life  of  Theodore  Parker,"  by  JOHN  WEISS.  2  vols.,  1864: 
"  T.ife  of  Theodore  Parker."  by  ALBERT  REVILLE,  186=; ;  ALLIBON-R, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia:"  "West 
minster  Review"  for  April.  1847,  article  "Dr.  Strauss  and  Theodore 
Parker."  (by  the  REV.  JAMES  MARTINEAU  :)  "  North  American 
Review"  for  April,  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  foi  February,  1864. 

Parker,  (THOMAS,)  Earl  of  Macclesfield,  an  English 
judge,  born  at  Leek  in  1666.  He  became  lord  chancellor 
in  1718.  He  was  accused  of  selling  some  offices  in 
the  court  of  chancery,  and  of  other  corrupt  practices,  of 
which  he  was  convicted  in  1725,  and  was  fined  heavily. 
Died  in  1732. 

Parker,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1781,  was  a  relative  of  Lord  Macclesfield. 
He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1830,  and  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty  in  1834.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  operations  against  China.  He 
took  Chusan  and  Ning-po,  entered  the  Yellow  River  or 
Blue  River,  and  compelled  the  Chinese  to  sign  the  treaty 
of  Nanking.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1851.  Died  in  1866. 

Farkes,  parks,  (JosErn,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  at 
Warwick  in  1796.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,"  (1828,)  and  "The 
Equity  and  Real  Property  Laws  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America,"  (1830.)  He  distinguished  himself 
as  an  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform  previous  to  1832. 
Died  in  1865. 

Parkes,  (JosiAH,)  a  civil  engineer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Warwick  in  1793.  He  became 
draining-engineer  under  the  board  of  works,  in  which 
capacity  he  rendered  important  service  to  the  public. 
He  published  "  Essays  on  the  Philosophy  and  Art  of 
Land  Drainage,"  (1848,)  a  "Treatise  on  Climate,  Soils," 
etc.,  and  other  works. 

Parkes,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  WTor- 
cestershire  in  1759.  He  manufactured  chemical  products 
in  London.  He  published  a  "Chemical  Catechism," 
(1806,)  and  "Chemical  Essays,  principally  relating  to 
the  Arts  and  Manufactures,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1815.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Park'hurst,  (JOHN,)  an  English  bishop,  bom  in 
Surrey  in  1511.  He  adhered  to  the  Reformed  religion, 
and  went  into  exile  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  In  1560  he 
became  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He  wrote  some  Latin  epi 
grams,  (1560  and  1573.)  Died  in  1574. 

Parkhurst,  (Jonx, )  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1728.  He  officiated  without  salary 
as  curate  at  Catesby  for  many  years.  In  1762  he  pub 


lished  a  "  Hebrew-and-English  Lexicon  without  Points," 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  His  "  Greek-and-English 
Lexicon"  (1769)  was  reprinted  and  extensively  used. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Divinity  and  Pre-Existence  of  Jesus 
Christ  demonstrated  from  Scripture,"  (1787.)  Died  in 
1797. 

Park'in-son,  (Jonx,)  a  botanist  and  apothecary,  born 
in  London  in  1567.  He  received  from  Charles  I.  the 
title  of  "  Botanicus  Regius  Primarius."  He  published 
"  Paradisus  Terrestris,  or  a  Garden  of  all  Sorts  of  Pleas 
ant  Flowers,"  (1629,)  with  109  figures,  and  "  Theatrum 
Botanicum,"  (1640.)  Died  about  1650. 

Parkinson,  (TuoMAS,)  an  English  mathematician 
and  parson,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1745.  He  published 
a  "  System  of  Mechanics."  Died  in  1830. 

Park'man,  (FRANCIS,)  an  American  writer,  born  at 
Boston  in  1823,  published  "The  California  and  Oregon 
Trail,"  (1849,)  "  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac," 
etc.,  (1851,)  "The  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World," 
(1865,)  "The  Jesuits  in  North  America,"  (1866,)  and 
"  The  Discovery  of  the  Great  West,"  (1869,)  which  have 
enjoyed  a  great  and  deserved  popularity. 

Par'kyns,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1636,  was  the  author  of  "  Progymnasmata,  or  a  Treatise 
on  Wrestling,"  (1714.) 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  (1825.) 

Parlatore,  paR-la-to'ra,  (Fn.ippo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1816.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  botany 
at  Florence  in  1842.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Me 
moir  on  Organography,  Vegetable  Morphology,"  etc., 
(1841,)  "Comparative  Botany,"  (1843,)  and  "Travels  in 
Northern  Europe,"  (1854.)  It  is  stated  that  he  is  en 
gaged  on  a  large  work  on  botanical  geography. 

Parma,  DUKE  OK.     See  FARNESE. 

Parma,  DUKE  OF.  See  CAMBACERES,  (JEAN  JACQUES 
REGIS.) 

Parmenide.     See  PARMENIDES. 

Par-men'I-des,  [Gr.  na[>/m>iAr)f  ;  Fr.  PARMENIDE, 
ptk'ma'ned',]  a  distinguished  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Eleatic  school,  was  born  at  Elea,  in  Italy.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Xenophanes.  Plato  informs 
us  that  Parmenides,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  visited 
Athens^  in  company  with  Zeno,  who  was  twenty-five 
years  younger,  and  became  acquainted  with  Socrates. 
The  date  of  this  event  is  supposed  to  have  been  about 
450  B.C.  He  developed  his  philosophy  in  a  didactic 
poem  "  On  Nature,"  of  which  some  fragments  have 
come  down  to  us.  Plato  speaks  of  him  with  veneration, 
and  Aristotle  preferred  him  to  the  other  masters  of  the 
Eleatic  school.  Zeno  of  Elea  was  one  of  his  disciples, 
among  whom  some  writers  also  reckon  Empedocles. 

See  F.  RIAUX,  "  Essai  snr  Parmenide  d'FJee,"  1840;  RITTER, 
"History  of  Philosophy:"  G.  H.  LEWES,  "Biographical  Hislory  of 
Philosophy:"  PLATO,  "Parmenides;"  C.  A.  BRANDIS,  "Commen- 
tatiomun  Eleaticarum  Xenophams,  Parmenidis,  Pars  I.,"  1815; 
FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr.-eca." 

Far-me'nl-o,  [Gr.  Hapueviuv:  Fr.  PARMENION,  pf  K'- 
ma'ne'oN',]  an  eminent  Macedonian  general,  the  son 
of  Philotas,  was  born  about  400  B.C.  He  enjoyed  the 
highest  place  in  the  confidence  of  Philip  as  a  councillor 
and  general.  Parmenio  and  Attains  commanded  an  army 
which  Philip  sent  to  invade  Persia  in  336.  He  rendered 
important  services  in  Alexander's  expedition  against 
Persia,  and  appears  to  have  been  regarded  as  second 
in  command  to  the  king.  He  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  the  battles  of  the  Grani'cus  and  Issus,  (333,)  and  of 
Arbela,  (331.)  His  son,  Philotas,  was  accused  of  com 
plicity  in  a  plot  against  the  life  of  Alexander,  and,  though 
he  was  probably  innocent,  he  was  induced  by  torture  to 
make  a  confession  of  guilt  which  implicated  Parmenio, 
who  was  put  to  death  in  330  B.C.  His  death  is  considered 
to  have  left  one  of  the  darkest  stains  on  the  character 
of  Alexander. 

See  ARRIAX,  "Anabasis ;"  GROTE,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  THIRL- 
WAI.L,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Parmenio  or  Parmenion,  a  Greek  architect,  em 
ployed  by  Alexander  the  Great  at  Alexandria. 

Parmenion.     See  PARMENIO. 

Parmentier,  piR'mS.N'te-i',  (ANTOINE  AUGUSTIN,) 
an  eminent  French  philanthropist  and  writer  on  rural 
economy,  born  at  Montdidier  in  1737.  He  became  an 


€  as  /•;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  ih  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAR  MENTIER 


1742 


PARRHASIUS 


apothecary  of  Paris,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
efforts  to  promote  the  cultivation  and  use  of  the  potato, 
against  which  the  people  were  prejudiced.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  the  potato,  chestnut,  and  maize.  In  1790 
he  published  "  Rural  and  Domestic  Economy,"  (8  vols.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  About  1803  he 
became  inspector-general  of  health,  (inspecteur-glniraldu 
service  de  saute.)  He  rendered  many  important  services 
to  the  public.  Died  in  1813. 

See  CUVIER,  "filoge  de  Parmentier,"  1815  :  A.  F.  DE  SILVESTRE, 
"Notice  sur  Parmentier,"  1815 ;  MUTEL,  "Vie  de  Parmentier." 
i8ig;  VIRKV,  "  De  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Parmentier,"  1814;  L. 
BRK;HTWKLL,  "  By-Paths  of  Biography." 

Parmentier,  (JACQUKS,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1658.  He  resided  mostly  in  England,  and  was 
employed  by  William  III.  to  adorn  his  palace  at  Loo. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Diana  and  Endymion."  Died 
in  London  in  1730. 

Parmentier,  QEHAN,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1494.  He  is  reputed  the  first  European  who 
navigated  to  Brazil,  and  the  first  who  explored  the  In 
dian  Sea  as  far  as  Sumatra.  He  died  at  Sumatra  in  1530. 

Parmesan,  Le.     See  MAZZOLA. 

Parmigiano,  II.     See  MAZZOLA. 

Parnell,  (HENRY  BROOKE.)    See  CONGLETON,  LORD. 

Par'nell,  (THOMAS,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  Dublin 
in  1679.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1700.  In  1705  he  became 
Archdeacon  of  Clogher.  lie  was  intimate  with  'Addison, 
Congreve,  Swift,  and  Pope.  About  1712  he  transferred 
his  support  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory  party.  He  ob 
tained  the  living  of  Finglass,  near  Dublin,  in  1716,  and 
died  in  July,  1717.  It  appears  that  after  the  loss  of  his 
wife,  in  1712,  he  became  intemperate.  Among  his  best 
poems  are  a  "  Hymn  to  Contentment,"  "The  Hermit," 
a  night-piece  on  "Death,"  and  an  "  Allegory  on  Man." 
He  wrote  several  essays  in  the  "  Spectator,"  and  other 
works  in  prose. 

See  GOLDSMITH,  "Life  of  Parnell,"  prefixed  to  Parnell's  Poems; 
CAMPBKLL,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets:"  R.  BELL,  "Lives 
of  the  British  Poets." 

Parny,  de,  deh  paVne',  (£VARISTE  DESIRE  Des- 
forges — di'foRzh',)  CHEVALIER  and  VICOMTE,  a  popular 
French  poet,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1753,  was 
styled  "  the  French  Tibullus."  He  was  educated  in 
France,  chose  the  military  profession,  and  returned  to 
his  native  island  in  1773.  A  disappointed  passion  for  a 
Creole  named  FJeonore  inspired  his  first  and  most  grace 
ful  and  natural  poetical  compositions,  "  Amatory  Poems," 
("Poesies  erotiques,"  1775,)  which  were  received  with 
great  favour.  He  went  to  India  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
governor-general  in  1785,  but  returned  to  France  in  1786 
and  resigned  his  commission.  After  the  Revolution  he 
served  the  public  as  clerk  in  one  of  the  bureaux  of 
the  government.  His  later  poems,  "  The  War  of  the 
Gods,"  ("  La  Guerre  des  Dieux,"  1799,)  "  Paradise  Lost," 
and  "  Les  Galanteries  de  la  Bible,"  were  generally  cen 
sured  for  their  impiety,  and  have  little  literary  merit. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1803. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  P.  F.  TISSOT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  de 
Parny,"  1826;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  litteraires  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

Parodi,  pa-ro'dee,  (DOMENICO,)  an  eminent  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Genoa  in  1668,  was  also  a  sculptor. 
He  imitated  the  styles  of  Tintoretto  and  Paul  Veronese. 
His  chief  work  is  in  the  Negroni  palace,  Genoa.  It 
represents  "  Hercules  killing  the  Nemean  Lion,"  and 
other  fabulous  subjects.  A  statue  of  Adonis,  which  he 
made  for  Prince  Eugene,  is  admired.  Died  in  174°- 

Parodi,  (FiLiPPo,)  an  able  sculptor,  born  at  Genoa 
about  1640,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His  works 
may  be  seen  at  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Lisbon.  Died  about 
1708.  His  son  BATTISTA,  born  in  1674,  was  a  distin 
guished  pai.iter  and  a  brilliant  colorist.  Died  in  1730. 

Parodi,  MADAME,  a  celebrated  Italian  singer,  born 
about  i?4<j.  She  has  performed  with  great  applause  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Pavoletti,  de,  da  pa-ro-let'tee,  (VICTOR  MODESTE,) 
CHFVALIER,  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  1765. 
He  sat  in  the  French  legislative  body  from  1807  to  l8ll. 
Air.ong  his  works  is  "Turin  and  its  Curiosities,"  (1819,) 


and  "Lives  of  Sixty  Illustrious  Piedmontese,"  (1826.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Parolini,  pa-ro-lee'nee,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Cignani.  Died  about  1735. 

Faroy,  de,  deh  pt'Rwa',  (JEAN  PHILIPPE  GUY  le 
Gentil — leh  zhdN'tel',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1750.  His  engraving  of 
"La  nioderne  Antigone"  (1800)  was  very  successful. 
Died  in  1822. 

Parque-Castrillo,  del,  del  paR'ka  kas-trel'yo,  DUKE, 
a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1755.  ^e  com 
manded  an  army  which  opposed  the  French  invaders 
in  1809-13.  Died  in  1832. 

Parques,  Les.     See  PARC/E. 

Parr,  (CATHERINE.)     See  CATHERINE  PARR. 

Parr,  (RICHARD,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
born  in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1617,  was  chap 
lain  to  Archbishop  Usher,  of  whom  he  wrote  a  Life, 
(1686.)  Died  in  1691. 

Parr,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic,  re 
nowned  for  his  learning  and  colloquial  powers,  was  born 
at  Harrow-on-the-Hill,  Middlesex,  in  1747.  He  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1765,  but  left  it  with 
out  a  degree,  and  was  an  usher  in  Harrow  School  from 
1767  to  1772.  He  was  afterwards  master  of  schools  at 
Colchester  and  Norwich,  and  obtained  about  1785  the 
living  of  Hatton,  in  Warwickshire.  His  promotion  was 
hindered  by  his  rather  violent  partiality  to  the  Whig 
principles,  and  the  richest  benefice  he  enjoyed  was  a 
prebend  in  Saint  Paul's,  London.  He  published  several 
sermons,  "Characters  of  the  Late  Charles  J.  Fox,  se 
lected  and  in  part  written  by  Philopatris  Varvicensis," 
(2  vols.,  1825,)  and  other  works,  none  of  which  is  of 
great  extent  or  importance.  Died  in  1825.  Macaulay 
calls  Parr  the  greatest  scholar  of  that  age,  and  speaks 
of  "his  labours  in  that  dark  and  profound  mine  from 
which  he  had  extracted  a  vast  treasure  of  erudition, — a 
treasure  too  often  buried  in  the  earth,  too  often  paraded 
with  injudicious  and  inelegant  ostentation,  but  still 
precious,  massive,  and  splendid."  ("  Essay  on  Warren 
Hastings.") 

See  "Life  of  S.  Parr,"  by  JOHN  JOHNSTONE;  WILLIAM  FIELD, 
"  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Parr,"  2  vols.,  1828  ;  "  Dr.  Parr  and  his 
Contemporaries,"  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  May, 
and  June,  1831;  "  Parriana,  or  Notices  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Parr," 
London,  1828. 

Parr,  (THOMAS,)  an  Englishman  of  great  longevity, 
was  born  in  Shropshire  in  1483.  He  was  a  cultivator  of 
the  soil,  and  was  married  about  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty.  It  is  said  that  he  was  able  to  work  after 
he  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  old.  Died  in  1635. 

Parradin.     See  PARADIN. 

Parrenin,  pSit'iiaN',  or  Parennin,  pt'ri'naN',  (DOMI 
NIQUE,)  a  French  missionary,  born  near  Pontarlier  in 
1665.  In  1698  he  went  to  China,  where  he  obtained 
the  favour  of  the  emperor.  He  translated  some  French 
works  into  Chinese.  His  letters  to  Fontenelle  and 
others  were  published.  Died  at  Peking  in  1741.  £'<*£'-*' 

Parrhasius,  par-ra'she-us,  \  Tlafi/Maior;,  ]  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Greek  painters,  was  born  at  Ephesus, 
and  was  the  pupil  of  his  father,  Evenor.  Though  he 
belonged  to  the  Ionic  school,  he  practised  his  art  chiefly 
at  Athens.  He  flourished  about  400  B.C.  His  peculiar 
merits  consisted  in  accuracy  of  design,  truth  of  propor 
tion,  and  power  of  expression.  In  pictures  of  gods  and 
heroes  he  established  a  canon  of  proportion  which  was 
recognized  by  succeeding  artists.  Quintilian  styled  him 
the  legislator  of  his  art.  In  a  trial  of  skill  between  him 
and  his  rival  Zeuxis,  the  latter  painted  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
which  the  birds  took  for  reality.  Flushed  with  this  evi 
dence  of  his  success,  Zeuxis  called  on  his  rival  to  draw 
aside  the  curtain  and  show  his  picture.  The  picture  of 
Parrhasius  was  the  curtain  itself,  which  Zeuxis  had  mis 
taken  for  real  drapery.  Among  his  master-pieces  were 
"  Ulysses  Feigning  Insanity,"  and  an  allegorical  picture 
of  the  Athenian  people,  or  the  Demos  personified. 

See  CARLO  DATI,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  antichi,"  1667;  K.  O.  Mui.- 
LER,  "  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie  der  Kunst ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  GeneVale." 

Parrhasius  or  Parisio,  pa-ree'se-o,  (AuLus  JANUS,) 
an  Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1470.  He 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PARR  IS 


1743 


PARSONS 


taught  eloquence  at  Milan  and  Rome,  and  wrote  notes 
on  Horace,  Cicero,  and  Ovid.  His  chief  work  is  named 
"De  Rebus  per  Epistolam  qusesitis,"  (Paris,  1567,)  in 
which  he  explains  passages  of  ancient  authors.  Died 

in  1534- 

Par'ris,  (  ALBION  K.,)  an  American  Governor  and 
judge,  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1788.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  Maine  five  times,  (1822-27,)  became 
United  States  Senator  in  1827,  and  was  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Maine  from  1828101836.  Died  in  1857. 

Far'rish,  (JOSEPH,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician 
of  Philadelphia,  was  born  in  that  city,  September  2,  1779. 
His  parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
and  he  was  educated  in  strict  conformity  with  the  princi 
ples  and  habits  of  that  sect.  In  early  life  he  received 
strong  religious  impressions,  by  which  he  was  preserved 
from  the  temptations  incident  to  a  lively  and  ardent 
temperament.  He  had  a  good  English  education,  and 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  French.  Later 
in  life,  like  George  Fox,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Hebrew,  that  he  might  the  better  understand  the  Scrip 
tures.  But  his  tastes  were  rather  scientific  than  literary, 
and  inclined  him  to  the  medical  profession,  the  study  of 
which  he  commenced,  after  he  had  completed  his  twenty- 
first  year,  in  the  office  of  Dr.  Caspar  Wistar,  of  the  Uni 
versity  of  Pennsylvania.  He  took  his  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Medicine  in  1805,  and  soon  after  entered  with  zeal 
upon  the  duties  of  his  profession.  In  the  winter  of 
1807-8  he  became  favourably  known  to  the  public  by  a 
popular  course  of  lectures  on  chemistry,  then  a  novelty 
in  Philadelphia.  In  1808  he  married  Susanna  Cox, 
whose  father,  John  Cox,  of  Burlington,  was  a  well-known 
and  estimable  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  There 
has,  perhaps,  been  no  example  in  Philadelphia  of  a  more 
rapid  professional  success  than  that  which  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Dr.  Parrish.  To  this  result  his  devotion  to  his  medical 
duties,  and  the  remarkable  kindliness  of  his  disposition, 
which  showed  itself  not  merely  in  his  manners  but  in  in 
numerable  acts  of  benevolence,  powerfully  contributed. 
Later  in  life  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  as  a  surgeon, 
and  was  deemed  worthy  to  succeed  Dr.  Physick  as  sur 
geon  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  to  which  position  he 
was  elected  in  1816,  and  which  he  continued  to  hold,  with 
the  highest  credit  to  himself,  for  thirteen  years.  Apart 
from  his  profession,  Dr.  Parrish  took  a  deep  interest  in 
all  benevolent  enterprises,  and  in  every  movement  cal 
culated  to  relieve  the  distresses  or  promote  the  happiness 
of  mankind.  He  was  long  a  member,  and  ultimately 
president,  of  the  old  Pennsylvania  Abolition  Society,  in 
which  office  he  had  been  preceded  by  Drs.  Wistar,  Rush, 
and  Franklin.  He  died  March  18,  1840.  Among  Dr. 
Parrish's  numerous  pupils  not  a  few  have  become  distin 
guished  in  medicine  or  surgery,  or  in  general  science.  It 
may  suffice  to  cite  the  names  of  Dr.  S.  G.  Morton,  Dr. 
G.  B.  Wood,  Dr.  Carson,  and  Dr.  G.  W.  Norris. 

Of  Dr.  Parrish's  sons,  the  second,  ISAAC,  attained  a 
high  reputation  as  a  physician,  and  especially  as  a  surgeon. 
He  died  in  1852. 

See  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Joseph  Parrish,"  read  before  the  Medical 
Society  of  Philadelphia,  by  GEORGE  B.  WOOD,  M.D.,  October,  1840; 
JANNEY,  "History  of  Friends,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  126-129;  and  "Memoir 
of  Dr.  Isaac  Parrish,"  read  before  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila 
delphia,  February,  1853,  by  SAMUEL  JACKSON,  M.D. 

Parrocel,  pf  'ro'seT,  (BARTH^LEMI,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Montbriscn.  He  worked  in  Spain  and  Rome 
with  success.  Died  in  France  in  1660. 

Parrocel,  (CHARLES,)  a  skilful  painter  of  battles,  born 
in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  patronized  by  Louis  XV.,  whom  he  attended  in  the 
campaigns  of  1744  and  1745.  Died  in  1752. 

Parrocel,  (JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  painter  of  battles, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Provence  in  1648. 
He  worked  at  Paris,  where  he  settled  in  1675,  and  was 
employed  by  Louvois  and  Louis  XIV.  to  adorn  the  royal 
palaces.  He  also  left  many  etchings.  Died  in  1704. 

Parrocel,  (PIERRE,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Avignon  in  1664.  He  was  an  able  painter  of 
history,  and  worked  in  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  "The 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin."  Died  in  1739.  His  son, 
JOSEPH  IGNACE,  born  in  1705,  painted  religious  and 
pastoral  subjects,  and  received  the  title  of  painter  to  the 
king.  Died  in  1781. 


Parrot,  pft'ro',  (CiiRiSTOPHE  FREDERIC,)  a  writer  on 
physical  science,  born  at  Montbeliard,  in  France,  in  1751  ; 
died  about  1810. 

Parrot,  (GEORGE  FREDERIC,)  a  distinguished  writer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Montbeliard  in 
1767.  He  became  professor  of  physics  at  Dorpat  in 
1800,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1826.  Among  his  works  is  "Outlines 
(Grutidriss)  of  Theoretical  Physics,''  (2  vols.,  1809-11.) 
Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1852. 

Parrot,  QOHANN  JAKOB  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a 
traveller,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Carlsruhe 
in  1792.  He  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea  and 
Caucasus,"  (2  vols.,  1815-18,)  a  "Journey  to  Ararat," 
(1834,)  and  other  works.  He  ascended  Mount  Ararat 
about  1830.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Dorpat. 
Died  in  1841. 

Far'ry,  (CALEB  HILLIER,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Bath  in  1756.  He  practised  many  years  at  Bath,  and 
published  several  works,  among  which  is  "  Elements  of 
Pathology,"  (1816.)  Sir  William  Edward  Parry  was  his 
son.  Died  in  1822. 

Parry,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1722,  was  rector  of  Wichampton.  He  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels." 
Died  in  1780. 

Parry,  (Sir  WILLIAM  EDWARD,)  an  English  navigator, 
(usually  called  Sir  EDWARD  PARRY,)  born  at  Bath  in 
1790,  was  a  son  of  Caleb  H.  Parry,  noticed  above. 
He  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  war  against  the  United 
States  in  1814,  and  accompanied  Captain  Ross  in  an 
exploring  voyage  in  1818.  He  obtained  command  of  an 
expedition  for  the  discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage,  and 
sailed  with  the  Hecla  and  Griper  in  May,  1819.  Having 
passed  through  Lancaster  Sound,  he  explored  a  con 
tiguous  strait,  which  he  named  Barrow's  Strait,  and 
gained  a  reward  of  ^5000  offered  to  the  navigator  who 
should  penetrate  beyond  the  meridian  of  110°  W., 
(within  the  Arctic  circle.)  He  passed  the  winter  at 
Melville  Island,  returned  home  in  November,  1820,  and 
wrote  a  journal  of  his  voyage,  published  in  1821. 

Captain  Parry  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1821,  without 
success.  He  performed  a  third  voyage  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  1824,  with  the  Hecla  and  Fury,  the  latter  of 
which  was  wrecked,  but  failed  to  find  the  Northwest  Pas 
sage.  In  1827  he  attempted  to  reach  the  North  pole 
from  Spitzbergen  by  boats  and  sledges  drawn  over  the 
ice.  Having  advanced  to  a  point  82°  45'  N.,  he  was 
forced  by  an  adverse  current  to  return.  A  journal  of  his 
second  voyage  was  published  in  1824,  a  journal  of  the 
third  voyage  in  1826,  and  a  "Narrative  of  an  Attempt 
to  reach  the  North  Pole"  in  1828.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1852.  Died  at  Ems,  in  Ger» 
many,  in  1855. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  W.  E.  Parry,"  by  his  son,  EDWARD  PARRY 
1857  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821,  and  October 
1823;  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1821. 

Parseval-Deschdnes,  pSRs'vfK  di'shin',  (ALEX- 
ANDRE  FERDINAND,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Paris 
in  1790.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1840,  and  vice- 
admiral  in  1846.  In  1854  he  commanded  the  fleet 
which  co-operated  with  the  British  against  the  Russians 
in  the  Baltic.  He  was  made  an  admiral  in  1854.  Died 
in  1806. 

Farseval-Grandmaison,  ptus'val'  gRSN'mi'zdV, 
(FRANCOIS  AUGUSTS,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in 
1759.  He  went  to  Egypt  with  the  army  in  1798  as  poet, 
of  the  expedition,  and  was  one  of  the  friends  whom 
Bonaparte  received  on  board  of  the  ship  which  conveyed 
him  to  France.  He  wrote  a  "  Dithyramb  on  the  Mar 
riage  of  Napoleon,"  (1810,)  "  Philippe  Auguste,"  a  heroic 
poem,  (1825,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Par'sons,  (JAMES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Barnstaple  in  1705.  He  practised  in 
London,  contributed  several  treatises  on  physiology,  etc. 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  wrote  an  anti 
quarian  work  called  "The  Remains  of  Japhet,"  (1767.) 
Died  in  1770. 

Parsons,  (JOHN,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  medicine 
or  anatomy  at  Oxford  about  1780.  Died  in  1785. 


<  as  k:  c  as  <•;  g  hard:  g  ac  j:  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N.  nasal:  R.  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PERSONS 


1744 


PAR^ATI 


Par'spns,  (JONATHAN,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
clergyman  and  scholar,  born  at  West  Springfield,  Massa 
chusetts,  in  1705.  He  preached  for  many  years  at  New- 
buryport,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1776. 

Parsons,  (MosKS,)  an  eminent  American  preacher, 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1716,  graduated  at  Harvard. 
He  was  minister  at  Byfield,  Massachusetts.  Died  in 
1783. 

Parsons,  (PHILIP,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Dedham  in  1729,  was  vicar  of  Wye.  He  wrote  "New 
market,  an  Essay  on  the  Turf,"  (1774,)  "Simplicity,"  a 
poem,  (1784,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1812. 

Parsons,  [Lat.  PERSO'NIUS,]  (RoUEirr,)  an  English 
Jesuit,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1546,  was  remarkable 
for  his  subtlety  as  a  disputant  and  his  talent  for  intrigue. 
As  an  emissary  of  the  court  of  Rome,  he  went  to  Eng 
land  with  Campian  about  1580,  and  attempted  to  foment 
a  rebellion.  He  published  several  seditious  writings. 
He  was  turbulent,  audacious,  and  unscrupulous.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1610. 

Parsons,  (SAMUEL  HOLDKN,)  an  American  general 
and  lawyer,  born  at  Lyine,  Connecticut,  in  1737,  was  a 
son  of  Jonathan,  noticed  above.  He  is  said  to  have  first 
suggested  a  general  Congress.  Died  in  Ohio  in  1789. 

Parsons,  (THEOPHILUS,)  an  eminent  American  jurist, 
born  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  the  241)1  of  Feb 
ruary,  1750.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1769, 
and  studied  law  at  Falmouth,  (now  Portland,)  in  Maine, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1774  ;  but  he  after 
wards  removed  to  Newburyport.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  which,  in  1779,  framed  the  State  Consti 
tution  of  Massachusetts,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the 
convention  called  to  ratify  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  1789.  In  1800  he  removed  to  Boston.  He  was 
appointed  in  1806  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts,  in 
which  office  he  displayed  signal  ability.  As  a  lawyer, 
"he  had,"  according  to  Justice  Story,  "no  equal  in 
Massachusetts;"  and  he  probably  had  few,  if  any,  supe 
riors  in  the  United  States.  A  collection  of  his  judicial 
opinions  was  published,  under  the  title  of  "Commen 
taries  on  the  Law  of  the  United  States."  Died  in  1813. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Chief  Justice  Parsons,"  by  his  son,  THEOPHILUS 
PARSONS,  1859. 

Parsons,  (THEOPHILUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Boston  in  1797,  and  rose  to  distinction  as  a 
lawyer  and  writer.  He  graduated  in  1815  at  Harvard 
College,  where  he  became  in  1847  Dane  professor  of 
law.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to  the  "  North  American 
Review,''  and  other  periodicals,  and  published  a  number 
of  essays  in  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  Swedenborg.  He 
has  also  written  several  legal  works. 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Parsons,  (THOMAS  WILLIAM,)  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Boston  in  1819.  He  produced  in  1843  aversion 
of  "The  First  Ten  Cantos  of  Dante's  Inferno,"  which, 
according  to  R.  W.  Griswold,  "is  executed  in  a  very 
masterly  manner.  The  best  critics  have  pronounced  it 
the  most  successful  reproduction  of  the  spirit  and  power 
of  the  Dinna  Commedia  in  the  English  language.  His 
original  poems  are  variously  admirable.  .  .  .  His 'Hud 
son  River'  is  the  noblest  tribute  any  stream  on  this 
continent  has  received  from  a  poet,  and  his  lines 'On 
the  Death  of  Daniel  Webster'  are  far  better  than  any 
thing  else  ever  written  in  verse  on  the  death  of  an 
American  statesman."  ("Poets  and  Poetry  of  America," 
p.  559.)  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1854. 
See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Parsons,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born 
in  1736,  was  also  a  painter.  Died  in  1795. 

Parthenay,  de.     See  DF.SROCHES  DE  PARTHENAY. 

Parthenay,  de,  deh  ptut'iuV,  (  CATHERINE,  )  Vi- 
comtesse  de  Rohan,  a  spirited  and  gifted  French  lady, 
born  in  Bas-Poitou  in  1554,  was  a  Huguenot.  She  dis 
tinguished  herself  at  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle,  in  1627. 
She  published  some  poems.  The  famous  Duke  of 
Rohan  was  her  son.  Died  in  1631. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  DE  THOU,  "  Historia 
sui  Temporis." 

Par-the'm-us  [Uapdevutf]  of  Nicaea,  a  Greek  poet, 
who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  B.C.  Suidas  states 


that  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans  in  the  war 
against  Mithridates.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cornelius 
Gallus,  and  a  preceptor  of  Virgil.  lie  wrote  "  Meta 
morphoses,"  elegies,  and  other  poems,  which  are  all  lost 
except  one  named  Kept  E{HJTLK.UV  iraOiJudTuv,  ("On  Ama 
tory  Affections.") 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  ERSCII  und  GRUBKR, 
"  Aligemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Parthenopaeus,  par-then-o-pee'us,  [  Gr.  H'tpdevo- 
atof ;  Fr.  PARTHENorEE,  pin  ta'no'pa  ,]  a  mythical 
personage,  called  a  son  of  Milanion  and  Atalanta.  lie 
was  one  of  the  seven  heroes  under  the  command  of 
Adrastns  engaged  in  the  expedition  against  Thebes, 
where  he  was  killed. 

Far-then'o-pe,  [Gr.  Uapdn-oTTTj ;  Fr.  PARTHENOPE, 
pf u'ta'nop',]  a  famous  Siren,  from  whom  the  city  of 
Naples  derived  its  ancient  name. 

Parthenopee.    See  I'ARTHKNOIVEUS. 

Par'the-nos,  [Gr.  Ilrt/jflei'of;  Fr.  PARTHENOS,  paV- 
ta'nos',]  (i.e.  "  the  Virgin,")  a  surname  given  by  the 
Athenians  to  Minerva,  in  whose  honour  they  built  the 
Parthenon.  (See  MINERVA.) 

Particelli.    See  EMERY. 

Par'tpu,  (JAMES,)  an  able  and  popular  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Canterbury,  England,  in  1822,  became 
a  resident  of  New  York,  where  he  was  for  a  time  asso 
ciate  editor  of  the  "Home  Journal."  He  published 
a  "Life  of  Horace  Greeley,"  (1855,)  "Life  of  Aaron 
Burr,"  (1857,)  "Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,"  (1860,)  and 
a  "Life  of  General  Butler,"  (1863,)  all  of  which  have 
been  eminently  successful ;  also,  "  P'amous  Americans 
of  Recent  Times,"  (1867.)  He  has  contributed  to  the 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  and  the  "North  American  Review." 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1867. 

Parton,  (SARAH  PAYSON  WILLIS,)  the  wife  of  the 
preceding,  and  sister  of  the  poet  N.  P.  Willis,  was 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1811.  She  has  published, 
under  the  pseudonym  of  FANNY  FERN,  "Fern  Leaves," 
(1853,)  "Little  Ferns,"  (1853,)  "Ruth  Hall,"  (1854.) 
"  The  Play-Day  Book,"  (1856,)  "Fresh  Leaves,"  (1857,) 
and  "Rose  Clark,"  (1857,)  which  obtained  great  popu 
larity  in  the  United  States,  and  were  republished  in 
England. 

Partouneaux, paVtoo'no',  (Louis,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Romilly,  on  the  Seine,  in  1770;  died 
in  1835. 

Part'ridge,  (ALDEN,)  an  American  teacher  of  mili 
tary  schools,  born  at  Norwich,  Vermont,  about  1785. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1806.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  party  which  surveyed  and  determined  the 
northwest  boundary  of  the  United  States,  in  1819.  lie 
opened  a  military  academy  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  and 
afterwards  established  one  at  Portsmouth,  in  Virginia. 
Died  in  1854. 

Paruta,  pa-roo'ta,  (Fn.iri'o,)  an  antiquary,  born  at 
Palermo.  He  wrote  "  Sicily  Described  by  Medals," 
("La  Sicilia  descritta  con  Medaglie,"  1612,)  reprinted 
in  1649  and  1697.  Died  in  1629. 

Paruta,  (PAOLO,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Venice  in  1540.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  the  pope  in  1592,  before  which  he  had 
held  several  high  offices.  In  1596  he  became  procurator 
of  Saint  Mark,  the  highest  functionary  in  the  state  ex 
cept  one.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Perfection  of  Political 
Life,"  ("Delia  Perfezione  della  Vita  politica,"  1579,) 
which  was  translated  into  English  and  French,  and  a 
"History  of  Venice  from  1513  to  1551,"  ("  Storia  Vene- 
/iana,"  1605,)  which  is  highly  commended.  "  He  was 
the  first,"  says  Daru,  "who  introduced  the  details  of 
civil  history  into  his  narrative."  His  "  Political  Dis 
courses"  ("  Discorsi  politici,"  1599)  are  judicious,  and 
sometimes  profound.  Died  in  1598. 

See  A.  ZE,NO,  "Vita  rli  P.  Paruta,"  17^8;  A.  M.  MKNF.OHRLU, 
"Elogiodi  P.  Paruta,"  1812  ;  NICERON.  "Memoires  ;"  A.  MEZIERES, 
"  fitudes  sur  les  CEuvres  politiques  de  Paruta,"  1853. 

Farvati,  paR'va-tee',  (i.e.  the  "mountain  [goddess,"]) 
[from  the  Sanscrit parvata,  a.  "mountain,"]  in  the  Hin 
doo  mythology,  the  name  of  the  consort  or  Sakti  of  Siva, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  Himala,  the  sove 
reign  of  the  snowy  mountains  in  the  north  of  India. 
She  is  known  by  a  multitude  of  names,  according  to  her 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PAR  TSATIS 


1745 


PASCAL 


various  characters,  such  as  BHAVAN!,  corresponding  to 
the  "  Venus  genetrix"  of  the  Romans  ;  DURGA,  so  called 
in  her  character  of  active  or  militant  virtue  ;  KALI,  (i.e. 
"  black"  or  "  terrible,")  applied  to  her  in  her  most  terrible 
form,  when  she  appears  as  the  destroyer  of  the  enemies 
of  the  gods  ;  and  PARVAT?,  as  the  devoted  wife  and 
inseparable  companion  of  Siva.  She  (like  Juno)  may  be 
reg.irded  as  a  personification  of  femineity.  (See  SIVA.) 

See  M'n  'R,  "  Hindu  Pantlieon  ;"  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Pa-rys'a-tis,  [Gr.  Hapvaartf,]  a  Persian  queen,  was  a 
daughter  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  and  the  wife  of  her  brother, 
Darius  Ochus,  over  whom  she  had  great  influence.  She 
abused  her  power  by  the  execution  of  a  number  of  per 
sons,  among  whom  were  two  brothers  of  Darius.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  and  of  Cyrus 
the  younger. 

Pas.     See  PASS. 

Pas,  de,  (ANTOINE.)     See  FEUQUIEKKS,  DE. 

Pascal.     See  PASCHAL  I. 

Pascal,  paVkfl',  (ADRIEX,)  a  French  military  writer, 
born  about  1815.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Military  Life  of  Louis  Philippe,"  (1841,)  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Army,  and  of  all  the  Regiments,  from  the 
Thirteenth  Century  to  our  Times,"  (4  vols.,  1845-49,) 
and  a  "History  of  Napoleon  III.,"  (1853.) 

Pascal,  pas'kal,  [Fnpron.  pis'kfl'  ;  Lat.  PASCHA'LIS,] 
(BLAJSE,)  a  celebrated  French  philosopher  and  mathe 
matician,  was  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand,  in  Auvergne, 
on  the  igth  of  June,  1623.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
fitienne  Pascal,  president  of  the  court  of  aids,  and  An 
toinette  Begon.  He  was  very  inquisitive  in  his  early 
childhood,  and  showed  an  extraordinary  aptitude  for 
geometry  ;  but  his  father,  who  directed  his  education,  j 
wished  him  to  study  the  ancient  languages,  to  the  ex-  ! 
elusion  of  geometry,  and  carefully  concealed  from  him  ! 
all  works  on  that  science.  In  his  twelfth  year,  however,  I 
he  was  surprised  in  the  act  of  demonstrating  proposi 
tions,  having  privately  discovered  or  learned  the  elements 
of  geometry  without  the  aid  of  books.  His  father  then 
ceased  to  restrain  him  from  the  study  of  the  science  to 
which  he  was  so  powerfully  attracted.  It  is  stated  that 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sec 
tions  which  astonished  Descartes.  He  made  rapid  pro 
gress  in  mathematics,  and  soon  began  to  associate  with 
Mersenne  and  Roberval.  About  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
invented  an  ingenious  calculating-machine.  His  consti 
tution  wns  always  delicate,  and  his  health  was  probably 
impaired  by  excessive  application  to  study.  After  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  was  a  continual  sufferer.  In  1648  he 
made  with  the  barometer,  on  the  mountain  called  Puy  de 
Dome,  a  celebrated  experiment,  which  established  the 
theory  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  exploded  the  ancient 
error  that  nature  abhors  a  vacuum.  He  wrote  two  treat 
ises  entitled  "On  the  Equilibrium  of  Fluids,"  and  "On 
the  Weight  of  the  Atmosphere."  In  the  experiment 
just  mentioned  he  was  assisted  by  M.  Perier,  his  brother- 
in-law.  Impressed  by  powerful  religious  convictions,  he 
renounced  in  1649  the  brilliant  prospect  of  temporal  re 
nown  towards  which  his  genius  was  conducting  him,  and 
turned  his  attention  from  scientific  pursuits.  In  1654  he 
narrowly  escaped  from  a  dangerous  accident  to  which  he 
was  exposed  by  his  unruly  horses  as  he  was  riding  in  a 
carriage  on  the  Pont  de  Neuilly.  This  event  confirmed 
his  resolution  to  devote  himself  to  religions  duties  and 
a  life  of  retirement.  He  became  very  abstemious  in  his 
diet,  denied  himself  many  innocent  enjoyments,  and 
subjected  himself  to  a  severely  ascetic  discipline.  It  is 
stated  that  he  beggared  himself  by  his  prodigal  bene 
factions  to  the  poor,  and  that  he  wore  beneath  his  clothes 
a  girdle  of  iron  armed  with  sharp  points  as  an  instru 
ment  of  self-imposed  penance.  lie  entered  the  cloister 
of  Port-Royal,  to  which  his  sister  Jacqueline  had  retired 
several  years  before,  and  there  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Arnauld,  Le  Saci,  Nicole,  Saint-Cyran,  (Duvergier,)  and 
other  Jansenist  writers. 

In  1656  he  produced  his  celebrated  "  Provincial  Let 
ters,"  the  full  title  of  which  is  "  Lettres  ecrites  par  Louis 
de  Montalte  a  un  Provincial  de  ses  Amis  et  aux  Jesuites 
sur  la  Morale  et  la  Politique  de  ces  Peres,"  ("  Letters 
written  by  Louis  de  Montalte  to  the  Jesuits,"  etc.) 
"Pascal,"  says  Hallam,  "by  his  'Provincial  Letters," 


did  more  to  ruin  the  name  of  Jesuit  than  all  the  con 
troversies  of  Protestantism  or  all  the  fulminations  of 
the  Parliament  of  Paris.  .  .  .  He  has  accumulated  so 
long  a  list  of  scandalous  decisions,  and  dwelt  upon 
them  with  so  much  wit  and  spirit,  and  yet  with  so 
serious  a  severity,  that  the  order  of  Loyola  became  a 
byword  with  mankind."  ("  Intiodnction  to  the  Litera 
ture  of  Europe.")  Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that 
"Moliere's  best  comedies  do  not  excel  these  Letters  in 
wit,  nor  the  compositions  of  Bossuet  excel  them  in  sub 
limity."  The  most  competent  French  critics,  including 
Voltaire  and  D'Alembert,  concur  in  the  judgment 
that  the  "Provincial  Letters"  contributes  more, thaw 
any  other  composition  to  form  and  polish  the  French 
language.  There  is  not  a  single  word  in  these  Letters 
that  has  become  obsolete.  "  The  severely  pure  and 
simple  taste,"  says  Henry  Rogers,  "which  reigns  in 
Pascal's  style  seems,  when  we  reflect  on  those  vices 
which  more  or  less  infected  universal  letters,  little  less 
than  a  miraculous  felicity.  .  .  .  Upon  all  the  great  fea 
tures  of  his  moral  character  one  dwells  with  the  serenest 
delight.  Greatly  as  he  is  to  be  admired,  he  is  yet  more 
to  be  loved.  His  humility  and  simplicity,  conspicuous 
as  his  genius  and  acquisitions,  were  those  of  a  very 
child."  (".Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1847.)  In 
one  instance  he  relapsed  into  the  study  of  the  abstract 
sciences  which  he  had  renounced.  About  1658  he  di 
verted  his  attention  from  the  pain  which  deprived  him 
of  sleep  by  entertaining  a  luminous  idea  which  presented 
itself  to  liim  and  led  him  to  some  important  discoveries 
in  relation  to  the  problem  of  the  cycloid.  Before  he 
made  these  public,  he  challenged  the  mathematicians  of 
Europe  to  solve  the  problem,  and  offered  a  prize  to  him 
who  should  succeed.  Several  persons  competed  for  the 
prize,  but  the  judges  decided  that  none  of  their  solutions 
fulfilled  the  conditions  of  the  challenge.  He  published 
in  1659  a  Treatise  on  the  Cycloid,  ("Traite  general  de 
la  Roulette.")  He  meditated  and  began  to  compose  an 
extensive  and  systematic  work  on  the  fundamental  truths 
of  religion  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  which  he 
did  not  live  to  finish;  but  he  left  in  manuscript  nume 
rous  detached  sentences  which  are  supposed  to  be  frag 
ments  of  that  work.  They  were  published  in  1670,  under 
the  title  of  "  Thoughts  of  Pascal,"  ("  Pensees  de  Pascal,") 
not  without  suppressions  and  alterations.  A  more  cor 
rect  edition  was  published  by  M.  Prosper  Faugere  in 
1844.  "The  Thoughts  of  Pascal,"  says  Hallam,  "are 
to  be  ranked,  as  a  monument  of  his  genius,  above  the 
'  Provincial  Letters,'  though  some  have  asserted  the 
contrary.  They  burn  with  an  intense  light ;  condensed 
in  expression,  sublime,  energetic,  rapid,  they  hurry  away 
the  reader,  till  he  is  scarcely  able  or  willing  to  distin 
guish  the  sophisms  from  the  truth  they  contain.  For 
that  many  of  them  are  incapable  of  bearing  a  calm 
scrutiny  is  very  manifest  to  those  who  apply  such  a 
test.  The  notes  of  Voltaire,  though  always  intended  to 
detract,  are  sometimes  unanswerable  ;  but  the  splendour 
of  Pascal's  eloquence  absolutely  annihilates,  in  effect 
on  the  general  reader,  even  this  antagonist."  ("Intro 
duction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Among  his  works  are  "  New  Experiments  on  the  Va 
cuum,"  ("Nouvelles  Experiences  touchant  le  Vide,") 
"  History  of  the  Cycloid,"  ("  Histoire  de  la  Roulette,") 
and  "  De  1'Esprit  geometrique."  He  endured  with  for 
titude  the  maladies  which  in  his  latter  years  were 
aggravated  by  his  ascetic  habits,  and  died  in  Paris  on 
the  igth  of  August,  1662.  His  complete  works  were 
published  by  Bossut,  (in  5  vols.  8vo,  1779.)  Prosper 
Faugere  published  in  1844  two  volumes  of  "Thoughts, 
Fragments,  and  Letters  of  Blaise  Pascal,"  many  of 
which  had  never  before  been  printed.  "  His  intellectual 
powers,"  says  Macaulay,  "  were  such  as  have  rarely  Ix-en 
bestowed  on  any  of  the  children  of  men  ;  and  the  vehe 
mence  of  the  zeal  which  animated  him  was  but  too  well 
proved  by  the  cruel  penances  and  vigils  under  which 
his  macerated  frame  sank  into  an  early  grave.  His 
spirit  was  the  spirit  of  Saint  Bernard  ;  but  the  delicacy 
of  his  wit,  the  purity,  the  energy,  the  simplicity  of  his 
rhetoric,  had  never  been  equalled,  except  by  the  great 
masters  of  Attic  eloquence.  All  Europe  read  and 
admired,  laughed  and  wept.  The  Jesuits  attempted  to 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  y,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  ////j. 

1  1C 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


PASCAL 


1746 


PAS  OR 


reply,  but  their  feeble  answers  were  received  with  shouts 
of  mockery."  ("History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  p.  18.) 

See  BOSSUT,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  Pascal,"  1781  ;  ANDRIKUX, 
"filojte  de  Pascal,"  1813:  RAYMOND,  "  filoge  de  Pascal,"  iSib; 
FAUGERE,  "  FJoge  de  Pascal;"  SAINTK-BBUVB,  "  Port-Royal ;" 
BORDAS-DEMOUI.IN,  "Ge'nie  et  Ecrits  de  Pascal,"  1847;  COUSIN, 
"  Des  Pense'es  de  Pascal,"  1844  :  VINET,  "  Etudes  sur  Pascal,"  1848; 
ARRE  MAVNARD,  "Pascal,  sa  Vie  et  son  Caractere,"  2  vols.,  1850; 
"Vie  de  Pascal,"  by  MADAME  PERIER,  his  sister;  "Lives  of  the 
Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  MRS.  SHELLEY;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1840;  "  North  British  Review"  for 
November,  1861. 

Pascal,  (FRANgois  MICHKL,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  about  1815.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  second 
class  in  1848. 

Pascal,  (JACQUELINE,)  a  sister  of  Blaise  Pascal,  was 
born  at  Clermont  in  1625.  She  was  beautiful  and  highly 
gifted.  About  the  age  of  ten  she  began  to  write  verses, 
some  of  which  were  printed  in  1638.  The  poet  Corneille, 
who  often  visited  the  family  of  Pascal,  aided  in  the  de 
velopment  of  her  poetic  talent.  She  became  religious  in 
1646,  and  entered  the  convent  of  Port-Royal  in  1652. 
She  wrote  a  powerful  letter  on  the  formulary  which  the 
nuns  were  required  to  sign,  and  which  condemned  Jan 
senism.  She  died  in  1661.  "To  annihilate  self,"  says 
M.  Vinet,  "and  then  to  efface  the  most  minute  traces  of 
that  very  annihilation,  had  been  the  task  of  this  heroic 
girl  for  years.  She  had  deemed  it  her  especial  duty  to 
mortify  her  noble  intellect ;  but  she  was  unable  to  destroy 
it:  it  still  clung  to  her.  And,  though  every  thing  which 
she  achieved  or  wrote  bears  the  stamp  of  mental  supe 
riority,  there  is  nothing  comparable  in  this  respect  to 
the  '  Letter  on  the  Formulary.'  " 

See  "Jacqueline  Pascal,  or  a  Glimpse  of  Convent-Life  at  Port- 
Royal,"  from  the  French  of  VICTOR  COUSIN,  M.  P.  FAU<;BKE,  and 
M.  VINET. 

Pascal,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  ETIENNE,)  a  French  anti 
quary  and  priest,  born  at  Marvejols  in  1789.  lie  wrote 
"  Gabalum  Christianum,"  (1853,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1859. 

Pascal- Vallongue,  pis'ktl'  vS'loxg',  (JosKi'H  SE 
CRET,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Sauve  (Card)  in  1763. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  Germany  and  Italy  during 
the  empire,  and  was  killed  at  Gaeta  in  1806. 

Pasch,  pash,  [Lat.  PAS'CHIUS,]  (GF.ORG,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1661.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Kiel  about  1702.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Tractatus  de  novis  Inventis  quorum  cultui  facern 
protulit  antiquitas,"  (1695.)  Died  in  1707. 

Pasch,  pash,  QOHAN,)  a  Swedish  landscape  and  ma 
rine  painter,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1706  ;  died  in  1769. 

Paschal.     See  PASQUAT.T. 

Pas'-ehal  [It.  PASQUALE,  pas-kwa'la ;  Fr.  PASCAL, 
pfs'ktl'  ;  Lat.  PASCHA'LIS]  I.,  POPE,  a  native  of  Rome, 
was  elected  as  successor  to  Stephen  V.  in  817  A.D.  He 
crowned  the  emperor  Lothaire  in  823.  Died  in  824. 

Paschal  II.,  POPE,  (RAINIERI,)  born  near  Viterbo, 
succeeded  Urban  II.  in  1099.  He  maintained  a  contest 
on  the  subject  of  investitures  with  the  emperor  Henry 
V.,  who  marched  with  an  army  to  Rome  in  mo,  arrested 
the  pope  after  a  violent  resistence,  and  extorted  from 
him  a  concession  of  the  right  of  investiture.  This  con 
cession  of  Paschal  was  condemned  by  a  council  which 
he  convoked.  He  was  too  feeble  and  irresolute  to  main 
tain  the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  He  died  in  1 1 18, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Gelasius  II. 

Paschal  III.,  ANTI-POPE,  (Gumo  m  CREMA,  gwee'- 
do  de  kRa'ma,)  was  elected  in  1164  or  1165  in  opposition 
to  Alexander  III.,  and  was  recognized  by  the  emperor 
Frederick  I.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1168. 

Paschalis.     See  PASCAL,  (BLAISE.) 

Paschalia,  (Popes.)     See  PASCHAL. 

Paschius.     See  PASCH. 

Pascoli,  pas'ko-lee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  phy 
sician,  born  at  Perugia  in  1669.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  in  Rome,  and  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1757. 

Pascoli,  (LEONE,)  an  Italian  biographer,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Perugia  in  1674.  He  wrote 
"  Lives  of  Peruvian  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects," 
(1732,)  and  "The  Lives  of  Modern  Painters,  Sculptors, 
and  Architects,"  (2  vols.,  1736,)  both  in  Italian.  Died 
in  1744. 


Pas'I-cles,  a  Greek  philosopher,  lived  probably  be 
tween  400  and  350  B.C.  He  was  at  one  time  the  head 
of  the  school  of  Megara. 

Pasinelli,  pa-se-nel'lee,  or  Passinelli,  pas-se-nel'lee, 
(LORENZO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1629, 
was  a  pupil  of  Cantarini.  He  imitated  the  noble  man 
ner  of  Paul  Veronese,  whom,  it  is  said,  he  equalled  in 
design.  "  His  colour  is  so  fresh  and  brilliant,"  says  the 
"  Biographic  Universelle,"  "that  one  might  take  his 
works  for  the  productions  of  the  best  time  of  the  Venetian 
school."  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Entrance 
of  Christ  into  Jerusalem,"  and  a  "  Holy  Family."  Died 
in  1700. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pasini,  pa-see'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  linguist, 
born  about  1690.  He  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
(1721,)  and  a  "Latin-Italian  Dictionary,"  ("  Vocabolario 
Italiano  e  Latino,"  1731,)  often  reprinted.  Died  about 
1770. 

Fa-siph'a-e,  [Gr.  Tlaaupdri;  Fr.  PASIPHAE,  pt'ze'ft'a',] 
a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Helios, 
a  sister  of  Circe,  and  the  wife  of  Minos.  Among  her 
children  were  Androgeos,  Ariadne,  Phaedra,  and  the 
Minotaur,  the  last  of  whom  was  fabled  to  be  the  offspring 
of  a  bull. 

Pa-sit'e-les,  \Haam ;/j/f,]  an- excellent  statuary  and 
silver-chaser,  of  Greek  origin,  who  lived  at  Rome.  He 
was  a  minor  when  he  obtained  the  right  of  Roman  citi 
zenship,  about  90  K.C.  He  improved  the  art  of  modelling. 
Pliny  represents  him  as  a  great  artist,  and  mentions  one 
of  his  works, — an  ivory  statue  of  Jupiter.  He  was  also 
an  eminent  writer  on  art.  He  appears  to  have  been 
living  in  30  H.c. 

Paskevitch  or  Faskewitsch,  pas-ka'vitch,  written 
also  Paskievitch,  (!VAN  FEODOROVITCH,)  Prince  of 
Warsaw,  (in  French,  "  Prince  de  Varsovie,")  a  cele 
brated  Russian  general,  born  at  Poltava  in  1782.  lie 
served  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  received  several  wounds 
at  Brailof,  (1809,)  and  obtained  command  of  a  brigade 
in  1811.  In  1812  he  distinguished  himself  at  Borodino, 
and  gained  advantages  over  the  French  in  several  actions. 
Having  been  selected  to  conduct  an  armv  against  the 
Persians  in  1825,  he  gained  a  victory  at  Elizabethpol, 
and  took  Erivan  in  1827.  For  his  successes  in  a  war 
against  the  Turks  (1828-29)  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
field-marshal.  In  1831  he  took  the  command  against 
the  revolted  Poles,  and  ended  the  war  by  the  capture 
of  Warsaw.  For  these  services  he  was  created  Prince 
of  Warsaw  and  made  Governor-General  of  Poland.  He 
was  successful  in  his  operations  against  the  Hungarians 
in  1849,  but  failed  at  the  siege  of  Silistria,  in  1854.  Died 
in  1856. 

See  TOI.STOI,  "  Essai  biographique  sur  le  Prince  de  Varsovie," 
1835:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Fas'ley,  (Sir  CHARLES  WILLIAM,)  an  English  en 
gineer,  general,  and  writer,  born  about  1780.  He  served 
at  the  battles  of  Corunna  and  Flushing,  (1809,)  and  be 
came  a  lieutenant-colonel  about  1814.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "A  Course  of  Military  Instruction 
for  the  Royal  Engineer  Department,"  (1817,)  "Obser 
vations  on  Limes,  Calcareous  Cements,  Mortars,"  etc., 
(1838,)  and  "Rules  for  conducting  the  Practical  Opera 
tions  of  a  Siege,"  (1843.)  ^e  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1851.  Died  in  1861. 

Pasolini,  pa-so-lee'nee,  COUNT,  a  liberal  Italian 
statesman  of  high  reputation.  He  was  minister  of  for 
eign  affairs  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  the  cabinet  of 
Farini  from  December  i,  1862,  until  March  24,  1863. 

Pasolini,  (SERAFINO,)  an  Italian  friar,  born  at  Ra 
venna  in  1649.  lie  wrote  on  the  history  of  Ravenna, 
"  Lustri  Ravennati,"  (7  parts,  1678-1713.)  Died  in  1715. 

Pasor,  pa'zor,  (GF.ORG,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Herborn  in  1570.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Franeker  in  1616,  and  published  a  good  "Greek-Latin 
Lexicon,"  (1622,  often  reprinted.)  He  wrote  other  works 
for  students.  Died  in  1637. 

Pasor,  (MATTHAUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Herborn  in  1599.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  lan 
guages  at  Oxford,  England,  from  which  he  removed  to 
Groningen  in  1629.  He  left  a  Journal,  which  was  pub 
lished  in  1658.  Died  in  1658. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;^.,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


P4SQUJLI 


'747 


P4SSIONEI 


Pasquali,  pis-kwa'lee,  written  alsoFaschal,(CARi,o,) 
a  negotiator  and  antiquary,  born  at  Coni,  Piedmont,  in 
1547.  He  served  Henry  IV.  of  France  as  ambassador 
to  England  in  1589.  He  wrote  many  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Ambassador,"  ("  Legatus,"  1598,)  and 
"Coronae,"  a  treatise  on  crowns,  (1610.)  Died  in  1625. 

See  MANSURTI,  "  C.  Paschal,  illustre  Piemontese,"  1844;  NICE- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Pasqualini,  pas-kwl-lee'nee,  or  Pascalini,  pas-ka- 
lee'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  near  Bologna  about  1600. 

Pasqualino,  pas-kwa-lee'no,  or  Pasquelino,  pas- 
kwa-lee'no,  (PASQUALE  Rossi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Vicenza  in  1641.  His  design  is  correct  and  his  colour 
ing  true.  Died  in  1700. 

Pasquier,  pfs'ke^/,  (EriENNE,)  a  French  historian 
and  lawyer,  born  in  1529,  in  Paris.  He  gained  distinction 
by  a  great  speech  for  the  University  of  Paris  in  a  suit  or 
contest  against  the  Jesuits  in  1564.  He  opposed  the  fac 
tion  of  the  League,  and  served  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV. 
with  honour  as  advocate-general.  His  chief  works  are 
"  Researches  on  France,"  ("  Recherches  de  la  France,") 
— in  which  the  origin  and  history  of  civil  and  religious  in 
stitutions,  customs,  etc.  are  traced  with  ability, — and  his 
interesting  Letters.  The  first  part  of  his  "  Recherches" 
appeared  in  1560.  Died  in  1615. 

See  DUPIN,  "  Eloge  de  Pasquier,"  1843  ;  L.  FEUGBRE,  "  Essai 
sur  laVieetles  Ouvrages  d'fitienne  Pasquier,"  prefixed  loan  edition 
of  Pasquier's  select  works,  2  vols.,  1849;  C.  GIRAUD,  "Notice  sur 
E".  Pasquier,"  1848. 

Pasquier,  de,  deh  pts'ke-ji',  (£TIENNE  DENIS,)  Due, 
a  French  statesman,  born  in  1767,  in  Paris.  He  became 
master  of  requests  in  1806,  and  prefect  of  police  in  1810. 
At  the  restoration  of  1815  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
state  and  privy  councillor,  and  united  with  the  moderate 
royalists.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals  under  Richelieu 
from  January,  1817,  to  December,  1818,  and  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  from  November,  1819,10  December,  1821. 
During  this  period  he  made  many  eloquent  speeches  in 
the  Chamber,  and  defended  his  policy  with  admirable 
adroitness  and  sang-froid.  He  was  the  virtual  chief  of 
the  cabinet  after  the  retirement  of  Decazes,  in  February, 
1820.  Pasquier  was  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers 
from  1830  to  1848.  In  1837  he  obtained  the  title  of 
Chancellor  of  France.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Aca- 
demie  Fran£aise  in  1842,  and  received  the  title  of  duke 
in  1844.  Died,  without  issue,  in  1862. 

See  I.OMENIE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains,"  tome  vi.  ;  "  Nou- 
ve!le  Hiograpliie  Generale." 

Pass,  van,  vtn  piss,  or  Paas,  van,  vin  piss,  written 
also  Passe,  (CRISPIN,)  an  eminent  Dutch  designer  and 
engraver,  born  in  Zealand  about  1536,  or,  as  some  say. 
1560.  He  worked  at  Paris  and  other  foreign  cities.  His 
works  are  highly  finished.  Among  them  are  numerous 
portraits,  and  the  plates  of  the  "Manege  royal,"  (1618.) 
He  was  alive  in  1628. 

Pass,  van,  (CRISPIN,)  THE  YOUNGER,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1570,  was  an  able  engraver,  and  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  Died  after  1655. 

Pass,  van,  (MADELEINE,)  askilful  engraver,  daughter 
of  Crispin  the  Elder,  was  born  in  1576.  "Her  land 
scapes,"  says  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "entitle  her 
to  a  rank  among  the  ablest  engravers."  A  print  of  the 
"  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins"  is  called  her  master-piece. 

Pass,  van,  (SIMON,)  an  engraver,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1580.  He  worked  in  London 
with  a  high  reputation.  "  The  Pilgrims  of  Emmaus"  is 
called  one  of  his  best  works. 

Pass,  van,  (WILLEM,)  born  at  Utrecht  about  1585, 
was  a  son  of  Crispin  the  Elder,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
removed  to  England,  and  engraved  portraits  after  Van 
Dyck  with  great  success. 

Passaglia,  pas-sal'ya,  (CARLO,)  ABBE,  an  Italian 
theological  writer  of  the  present  age.  He  wrote  about 
1861  a  pamphlet  in  which  he  advised  the  pope  to  resign 
his  temporal  posver.  In  1863  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Italian  Parliament. 

Passarotti,  pas-sa-rot'tee,  written  also  Passerotti, 
(HARTOLOHMEO,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Bologna  about  1535,  was  a  pupil  of 
Vignola.  He  was  master  of  a  school  in  Bologna,  which 
produced  some  able  artists.  He  excelled  in  portraits. 


Among  his  works  is  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Paul." 
Died  about  1594. 

His  sons,  TIBURZIO,  VENTURA,  and  AUREI.IO,  were 
also  painters.  Tiburzio  was  born  in  1575,  and  died  in 
1612. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LOMAZZO,  "  Idea  del  Tem- 
pio  della  Pittura." 

Passavant,  pi'si'vfiN',  ?  (JoHANN  DAVID,)  a  German 
painter  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1787.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  valua 
ble  memoir  entitled  "On  Raphael  of  Urbino  and  his 
Father,"  (1839,)  "On  Christian  Art  in  Spain,"  (1853,) 
and  a  good  history  of  engraving,  entitled  "  Le  Peintre- 
Graveur,"  (2  vols.,  1860.)  A  French  version  of  his 
"  Life  of  Raphael"  was  published  in  1860.  Died  in  1861. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Passavanti,  pas-si-van'tee,  (JACOPO,  )  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence,  gained  celebrity  by  his  "  Mirror 
of  True  Penitence,"  ("  Specchio  della  vera  Penitenza.") 
Died  in  1357. 

Passe.     See  PASS. 

Passemant,  pJts'mflN',  (CLAUDE  SIMEON,)  a  skilful 
optician  and  mechanician,  born  in  Paris  in  1702.  He 
made  telescopes,  time-pieces,  and  other  astronomical 
instruments,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  fabrication  of 
telescopes,  (1738.)  Died  in  1769. 

Passerat,  paVrt',  QEAN,)  a  French  poet  and  excellent 
Latinist,  born  at  Troyes  in  1534.  He  succeded  Ramus 
as  professor  of  Latin  at  Paris,  (1572.)  He  co-operated 
with  Rapin,  Leroy,  Durant,  and  other  friends  in  the 
"  Satyre  Menippee,"  a  famous  satire  against  the  League. 
He  composed  graceful  verses  in  French  and  Latin. 
Died  in  1602. 

See  NICEKON,  "  Memoires." 

Passeri,  pas-sa'ree,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA.)  an  Italian 
painter  and  biographer,  born  at  Rome  about  1610,  was 
a  friend  of  Domenichino.  He  became  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  but  was  an  artist  of  only 
moderate  ability.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
"  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects  who  died 
at  Rome  from  1641  to  1673,"  (1772,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed  for  accuracy.  Died  in  1679. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italians." 

Passeri,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  learned  Italian 
antiquary,  born  near  Rome  in  1694,  chose  the  profes 
sion  of  law.  In  1741  he  exchanged  that  for  the  church. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Earthen  Lamps," 
("  Lncernas  Fictiles,"  3  vols.,  1739-51,)  and  "Pictures 
on  the  Vases  of  the  Etruscans,"  ("Picturas  Etruscorum 
in  Vasculis,"  3  vols.,  1767-75.)  Died  in  1780. 

See  A.  OI.IVIERI,  "  Memorie  di  G.  B.  Passeri,"  1780. 

Passeri,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  able  painter,  born  in  Rome 
in  1654,  was  a  nephew  of  Giovanni  Battista,  (1610-79,) 
and  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.  He  adorned  many 
churches  of  Rome  with  his  works.  "The  Last  Judg 
ment"  is  called  one  of  his  master-pieces.  Died  in  1715. 

Passeroni,  pas-sa-ro'nee,  (GiAN  CARLO.)  a  popular 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Condamine,  near  Nice,  in  1713. 
He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1738,  and  lived  mostly  at 
Milan.  Having  learned  to  be  content  with  little,  he 
declined  the  bounty  of  the  rich.  He  wrote  burlesque 
satirical  and  humorous  poems,  which  are  admired  for 
their  graceful  simplicity  and  originality.  They  are  en 
titled  "II  Cicerone,"  (1750,)  and  "  /Ksopian  Fables," 
("Favole  Esopiane,"  6  vols.,  1786.)  Died  at  Milan  in 
1803. 

See  C.  G.  SCOTTI,  "  Elogio  di  Passeroni,"  1814;  UGONI,  "  Lette 
ratura  Italiana;"  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Passerotti.     See  PASSAROTTI. 

Passignano,  da,  da  pas-sen-ya'no,  (DoMENico,)  or 
DOMENICO  Cresti,  (kRes'tee,)  CAVALIERE,  a  painter  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  in  Tuscany  about  1555.  He 
worked  at  Venice,  Rome,  and  Florence.  At  Rome  he 
painted  "  The  Crucifixion  of  Saint  Peter,"  and  other 
works  for  several  popes.  He  contributed  to  reform  the 
Florentine  school  in  respect  to  colouring.  It  is  said  that 
Luigi  Caracci  was  one  of  his  pupils.  Died  in  1638. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Passionei,  pas-se-o-na'ee,  (DOMENICO,)  a  learned 
Italian  cardinal  and  patron  of  learning,  born  at  Fossom- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJSSOS 


1748 


PETERSON 


l)rone  in  1682.  He  was  versed  in  classical  literature 
and  in  the  study  of  antiquities,  and  corresponded  with 
many  foreign  scholars,  among  whom  were  Montfaucon 
and  Gronovius.  He  was  appointed  nuncio  to  Vienna  in 
1730,  secretary  for  briefs  in  1738,  and  librarian  of 'the 
Vatican  in  1755.  His  hostility  to  the  Jesuits  was  well 
known.  He  wrote  a  funeral  oration  on  Prince  Eugene, 
(1737.)  Died  in  1761. 

See  GOUJET,  "  filoge  du  Cardinal  Passionei,"  1763;  L.  GAI.ETTI, 
"  M-jiurrie  per  la  Vita  del  Cardinale  Passionei,"  Rome,  1762. 

Passes,  pas'sis,  (MANOKL  DA  SILVA,)  a  Portuguese 
politician,  born  near  Oporto  in  1802.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  radical  or  liberal  party,  which  made  a  successful 
insurrection  in  September,  1836,  and  then  became  min 
ister  of  the  interior. 

Passot,  pits'so',  (G.-uiRiEL  ARISTIDE,)  a  French  min 
iature-painter,  bom  at  Nevers  about  1798.  He  gained 
a  first  medal  in  1841,  and  the  second  medals  in  1837 
and  1848. 

Passovius.     See  PASSOW. 

Passow,  pas'so,  [Lat.  PASSO'VIUS,]  (FRAN/.  LUDWIG 
KARL  FKIEDRICH,)  a  distinguished  German  scholar, 
born  at  Ludvvigslust,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  in  1786. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic  under  Hermann,  and  in  1815 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Breslau.  He 
published  "Elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  Literature 
and  Art-History,"  an  excellent  "  Lexicon  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (1819-24,)  and  editions  of  Persius,  Musreus, 
and  other  classics.  Died  in  1833. 

SeeWAOU.ER,  "Passows  Leben  und  Briefe,"  1839;  I,INC;E,  "  De 
Passovii  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1839;  ERSCII  mid  GRUBKR,  "  Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie." 

Passy,  pt'se',  (HIPPOLYTE  PHII.IBERT,)  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1793.  He 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1830,  and  became 
a  leader  of  the  Left  Centre.  Commissioned  by  the 
king  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  May,  1839,  he  reserved  for 
himself  the  portfolio  of  finance  under  the  presidency 
of  Soult.  He  retired  from  office  in  March,  1840,  and 
was  again  minister  of  finance  from  December,  1848,  to 
October,  1849.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Pasta,  pas'ta,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Bergamo  in  1706.  He  published  several  professional 
works^  and  "  The  Celebrated  Pictures  of  Bergamo," 
("  Le  Pitture  notabili  di  Bergamo.")  Died  in  1782. 

See  A.  VKNANZIO,  "  E!ogio  di  A.  Pasta,"  1843. 

Pasta,  (GiunKTTA,)  a  popular  Italian  vocalist,  of  Jew 
ish  extraction,  born  near  Milan  in  1798.  She  performed 
operas  at  Paris,  London,  Vienna,  etc.  with  great  success 
between  1824  and  1832,  and  displayed  a  superior  dramatic 
talent.  Died  in  1865. 

Pasta,  (GiuSEPPK,)  a  medical  writer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1742,  was  a  cousin  of  Andrea,  noticed  above.  His 
"Galateo  dei  Medici"  (1791)  was  often  reprinted.  Died 
in  1823. 

Pasteur,  pts'tUR',  QAN  DAVID,)  a  Dutch  naturalist, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1753.  He  wrote  a  "Natural  History 
of  Mammifera."  Died  in  1804. 

Pasteur,  pts'tUR',  (Louis,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Dole  (Jura)  in  1822.  He  received  the  Rumford  medal 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1856  for  his  dis 
coveries  in  rotary  polarization  and  molecular  chemistry. 
He  became  director  of  the  Ecole  Normale  of  Paris  in 
1857.  He  is  a  prominent  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of 
spontaneous  generation.  The  arguments  and  experi 
ments  of  Pasteur  and  his  opponent  Pouchet  on  this 
subject  attracted  much  attention  about  1862-65.  M. 
Pasteur  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  pro 
fessor  of  geology,  physics,  and  chemistry  at  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux- Arts,  in  1863. 

Pastoret,  pts'to'ri',  (AM&D&R  DAVID,)  a  French 
legitimist  politician,  poet,  and  historian,  born  in  Paris 
in  1791.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state  in  1824,  and 
senator  in  1852.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Fall  ot  the  Greek  Empire,"  (1829.)  Died  in  1857. 

Pastoret,  de,  deh  pis'to'ri',  (CLAUDE  EMMANUEL 
JOSEPH  PIERRE,)  MARQUIS,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1756.  He  was  a  royalist 
member  of  the  Assembly  in  1791,  emigrated  in  1792, 
and  was  created  a  peer  of  France  in  1814.  In  1820  he 
succeeded  Volney  as  member  of  the  French  Academy. 


He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Legislation,"  (u  vols.,  1817-37,) 
and  other  works.  His  treatise  "On  Penal  Laws"  (1790) 
gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1840. 

See  MICHEL  BERK,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  Conite  Pastoret," 
1841;  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pastorius  von  Hirtemberg,  pas-to're-us  fon  hgeV- 
tem-be'Rc;',  (JOACHIM,)  a  historian,  born  in  Silesia  in 
1610.  He  received  from  Casimir  V.  the  title  of  histo 
riographer  of  Poland.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
an  "Epitome  of  Polish  History,"  in  Latin,  (1641,)  and 
"  Scythian  and  Cossack  War,"  ("  Helium  Scythico-Cosac- 
cicum,"  1652.)  Died  in  1681. 

Pastrengo,  da,  da  pas-tuen'go,  (GuouK.i.Mo,)  a 
learned  Italian  writer  and  jurist,  born  near  Verona,  was 
a  friend  of  Petrarch.  He  wrote  a  biographical  dictionary 
called  "  De  Viris  illustribus,"  which  was  printed  in  1547. 
Died  about  136^. 

Pasumot,  pa'zu'mo',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  geogra 
pher  and  antiquary,  born  at  Beatine  in  1733.  He  wrote 
"Geographical  Memoirs  on  some  Antiquities  of  Gaul," 
(1765,)  and  "  Scientific  Travels  among  the  Pyrenees," 
(1797,)  which  are  works  of  much  merit.  Died  in  1804. 

Patala,  pt-la'la,  [etymology  obscure,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  the  lower  regions,  or  Hell,  re 
garcled  as  the  abode  of  the  dead  and  the  habitation  of 
the  nagas,  or  serpents.  (See  YAMA.) 

Patarolo,  pa-ta-n/lo, ?  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  littera 
teur,  born  at  Verona  in  1674.  He  founded  the  first 
botanic  garden  of  Venice.  Died  in  1757. 

Pataud,  pjt'to',  (JEAN  JACQUES  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French 
writer  of  history  and  biography,  was  born  at  Orleans  in 
1752  ;  died  in  1817. 

Patel,  pit'tcl',  ( PIERRE,)  an  excellent  French  land 
scape-painter,  born  about  1650.  He  imitated  Claude 
Lorrain  with  some  success.  The  forms  of  his  trees  are 
elegant,  the  buildings  are  designed  with  taste,  and*  the 
distances  are  admirably  rendered.  His  touch  is  firm 
and  light,  his  colour  generally  clear  and  true.  Accord 
ing  to  some  writers,  he  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1703. 
Others  date  his  death  about  1676.  His  son  PIERRE  was 
a  landscape-painter  of  inferior  ability. 

See  ROBKRT  DUMESNIL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Francais." 

Patenier,  de,  deh  pS'teh-ne-i',  or  Patiner,  pst'te'na', 
(JoACHlM,)  a  Flemish  landscaptT-painter,  born  at  Dinant 
about  1490.  He  worked  at  Antwerp,  and  had  a  high 
reputation.  Albert  Diirer  painted  his  portrait  in  1520, 
and  is  said  to  have  admired  his  works.  "  His  perspec 
tives,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "are  charm 
ing,  and  his  figures  touched  in  an  exquisite  manner." 
Died  about  1545. 

Pater,  pS'ti',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  painter, 
born  .-at  Valenciennes  in  1695,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator 
of  Watteau.  Died  in  Paris  in  1736. 

Pater,  pa'ter,  (PAUL,)  a  mathematician,  born  in  1656, 
was  professor  aUDantzic.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  art 
of  printing,  (1710,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Caspian  Sea," 
("De  Mari  Caspio,"  1723.)  Died  in  1724. 

Pa-ter'cu-lus,  (C.  VELLEIUS,)  a  Roman  historian, 
born' about  20  H.C.  He  entered  the  army  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  became  a  military  tribune.  He  served 
under" Tiberius,  in  Germany,  as  prefect  or  legatus,  be 
tween  4  and  12  A.D.,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  future 
emperor.  On  the  accession  of  Tiberius,  in  the  year  14, 
he  was  chosen  prrctor.  He  wrote  a  valuable  historical 
compendium,  ("  Historine  Romance,")  the  object  of  which 
is  to  give  a  brief  view  of  universal  history,  in  connection 
with  that  of  Rome.  He  is  considered  impartial,  except 
where  he  speaks  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  whom  he 
flatters  extravagantly.  His  style  is  admired  for  clear 
ness,  conciseness,  and  energy.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  soon  after  30  A.D. 

See  MOI.I.KR,  "  Disputatio  de  Vellejo  Paterciilo,"  1685;  SPECK- 
ERT,  "Dissertation  de  la  Since'rite  de  Vellejus  Paterciilus,"  1848. 

Pat'er-son,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  bibliographer,  born 
in  London  in  1728,  was  librarian  to  Lord  Shelburne. 
He  published  a  "Universal  Library,"  ("Bibliotheca 
Universalis,"  1786.)  Died  in  1802. 

Pat'er-son,  (WILLIAM,)  a  banker  and  projector,  born 
in  Scotland  about  1658.  He  is  the  reputed  founder  of 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  \,  short :  a.  e.  i,  o.  ob^cn^e:  fir.  fall,  fiat:  m5t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PAT1CCHI 


'749 


PATRQCLES 


the  Bank  of  England,  established  in  1694.  He  projected 
the  Darien  expedition,  and  was  one  of  the  directors  of 
a  company  which  planted  a  colony  at  Darien  in  1698. 
This  enterprise  was  a  failure.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
free  trade. 

See  his  "  Life,"  by  BANNISTER. 

Paticchi,  pa-t6k'kee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Rome  in  1762.  He  had  a  rare  facility  of  in 
vention,  and  a  superior  talent  for  the  imitation  of  the 
great  masters.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Translation 
ofKlijah."  Died  in  1788. 

Patin,  pa'ta.N',  [Lat.  PATI'NUS,]  (CHARLES,)  a  phy 
sician  and  numismatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1633,  was  a  son 
of  Gui  Patin,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  at  Padua  in  1677.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Medals,"  (1665,)  often  reprinted, 
and  "Brass  Coins  of  the  Roman  Kmperors  Described," 
("  Imperatorum  Romanorum  Numismata  ex  ^Ere  cle- 
scripta,"  1671.)  Died  at  Padua  in  1693. 

Patin,  (GUI,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  distin 
guished  for  his  learning  and  wit,  was  born  near  Beauvais 
in  1601  or  1602.  He  became  professor  at  the  College  de 
France,  Paris,  in  1654,  and  wrote  several  medical  works. 
His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  Letters,  (7  vols., 
1692,)  which  contain  curious  details,  bon-mots,  and  anec 
dotes. 


See  "  Patiniana,"  1703;  REVEILLE  PARISE,  "  Biosjraphie  de  G 


Patin  ;"  SAINTE-BHUVE,  "  Causeriesdu  Linidi  ;"  BAVI.K,  "  Historical 


Patin,  (IlKNRi  JOSEPH  GUILLAUMH,)  a  French  writer 
and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  was  chosen  to 
supply  the  place  of  Villemain  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1830, 
and  succeeded  Lemaire  as  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in 
1833.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad 
emy.  His  most  important  work  is  "Studies  on  the 
Greek  Tragic  Poets,"  (3  vols.,  1841-43.) 

Patino  or  Fatinho,  pa-ten'yo,  (BAI.THASAR,)  Mar 
quis  de  Castellar,  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Milan. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1730,  and  died 
there  in  1733. 

Patino  or  Patiiiho,  (JosE,  or  GIUSEPPE,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1667.  He  became 
minister  of  the  marine  and  of  the  Indies  in  1726,  and 
was  the  most  powerful  minister  of  Spain  after  the  death 
of  La  Paz,  in  1734.  Died  in  1736. 

Patinus.     See  PATIN. 

Patkul,  pat'kul,  (JoiiANX  RKINIIOLD,)  a  Livonian 
patriot,  born  about  1660.  He  was  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Swedish  court  for  sedition  or  treason  in  1694,  but 
escaped,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  Russian  Czar,  who 
sent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  King  of  Poland.  He  ob 
tained  in  1702  command  of  a  corps  which  fought  against 
the  Swedes.  In  accordance  with  a  treaty  dictated  by 
Charles  XII.  to  the  King  of  Poland,  Patkul  was  de 
livered  to  the  former,  and  executed  in  1707. 

See  "  Letzte  Stunden  Patkuls,"  Cologne,  1714;  "Anecdotes  con 
cerning  T.  R.  Patkul,"  London,  1761;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Histoire  de 


Charles  XII. 

Fat'more,  (COVENTRY,) 


an    English   poet,  born   at 


Woodford,  Essex,  in  1823.  He  published  in  1853  "  Ta- 
merton  Church  Tower,  and  other  Poems."  His  "Angel 
in  the  House"  (2  Parts,  1854-56)  was  very  favourably 
received.  Among  his  later  works  is  "Faithful  Forever," 


(1860.) 


His    'Angel    in    the    House,'"  says    Ruskin, 


is  a  most  finished  piece  of  writing,  and  the  sweetest 
analysis  we  possess  of  quiet,  modern  domestic  feeling." 
He  became  assistant  librarian  of  the  British  Museum 
about  1846. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1844,  and  July,  1863; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858. 

Pat'on,  (ANDREW   A.,)  An   English  traveller,  born 
' 


He  published,  besides 
the    Danube    and    the 


early  in  the  ninet*:  nth  century. 
other  works,  "Researches  on 
Adriatic." 

Pat'on,  (Sir  JOSEPH  NOEL,)  a  Scottish  painter.of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Dunfermline  in  1823.  He  obtained 
a  premium  of  .£200  for  a  cartoon  of  "The  Spirit  of  Re 
ligion,"  (1845.)  At  tne  Westminster  Hall  competition, 
in  1847,  he  received  a  second-class  prize  (.£300)  for  his 
"Christ  bearing  the  Cross"  and  "The  Reconciliation 
of  Oberon  and  Titania."  Among  his  works,  which  are 


finely  finished,  are  "Luther  at  Erfurt,"  and  "Pursuit  of 
Pleasure,"  (1855,)  which  was  sold  for  two  thousand 
guineas.  He  was  knighted  in  1867. 

Paton,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  painter  and  etcher, 
born  about  1720.  He  excelled  in  naval  battles  and  other 
marine  pieces.  Among  his  works  is  the  "  Defeat  of  De 
Grasse  in  1784." 

Patouillet,  pS'too'yi',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1699,  wrote  several  controversial  treatises 
against  the  Jansenists  and  the  philosophers.  He  was 
one  of  the  Jesuits  against  whom  Voltaire  directed  his 
sarcasm  and  ridicule.  Died  in  1779. 

Patrat,  pjt'tkt',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Aries  in  1732.  He  wrote  comedies  which  were  re 
ceived  with  favour.  Died  in  i8ot. 

Patrice.     See  PATRICK,  SAINT. 

Patricius.     See  PATRICK,  SAINT,  and  PATRIZZI. 

Pat'rick,  [Lat.  PATKIC/IUS;  Fr.  PATRICE,  pt'tRess',] 
SAINT,  the  apostle  and  patron  saint  of  the  Irish,  was 
born  at  Bannevan,  a  small  village  of  Tabernia,  in  Scot 
land,  about  372  A.D.  lie  is  supposed  to  have  been  one 
of  the  first  that  preached  Christianity  in  Ireland.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  454  to  493.  A  "  Confes 
sion"  or  autobiography,  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  him,  is  extant.  The  Irish  observe  the  171)1  of  March 
in  his  honour. 

See  BUTLER,  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  1779:  J.  H.  TODD,  "Life 
of  Saint  Patrick,"  1863  ;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1867. 

Pat'rick,  (MARSENA  R.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Jefferson  county,  New  York,  in  1811.  He  served  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1862  became  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  the  Union  army. 

Pat'rick,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  philologist,  was  one 
of  the  masters  of  the  Charter-House.  He  published 
editions  of  Hederich's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1727,)  and 
Ainsworth's  "Latin  Lexicon."  Died  in  1748. 

Patrick,  (SiMON,)  an  eminent  English  divine,  born 
at  Gainsborough  in  1626.  He  became  rector  of  Saint 
Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  in  1662,  Dean  of  Peterborough 
in  1679,  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1689,  and  Bishop  of  Ely 
in  1691.  He  wrote  a  Paraphrase  and  Commentaries  on 

teemed,  and 
The  Heart's 

Ease,"  (1659,)  "Parable  of  the  Pilgrim,"  (1668,)  and 
"Christian  Sacrifice,"  (1671.)  Died  in  1707. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1839;  BURNETT,  "History  of  his  Own 
Times;"  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Patrin,  pi'tnaN',  (EUGENE  Louis  MELCHIOR,)  a 
French  mineralogist,  born  near  Lyons  in  1742.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1790,  and  voted  for  the 
exile  of  the  king.  His  chief  works  are  a  "Journey  to 
the  Altai  Mountains,"  (1783,)  and  a  "Natural  History 
of  Minerals,"  (5  vols.,  1801.)  Died  in  1815. 

Patrix,  pt'tKeks',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Caen  in  1583;  died  in  1671. 

Patrizzi,  pa-tret'see,  written  also  Patrizi,  [[.at. 
PATRIC/IUS,]  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Sienna,  be 
came  in  1460  secretary  to  Pope  Pius  II.  Among  his 
works  is  an  "Account  of  the  Councils  of  Bale  and 
Florence,"  ("  Summa  Conciliorum  Basiliensis  et  Floren- 
tini.")  Died  in  1496. 

Patrizzi,  |Lat.  PATRIQ'IUS,]  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1529.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  philosophy  at  Rome  about  1592,  and  taught  the 
philosophy  of  Plato  under  the  patronage  of  Pope  Clem 
ent  VIII.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  doctrines 
of  Aristotle.  Among  his  works  are  "  Peripatetic  Dis 
cussions,"  ("Discussiones  peripateticae,"  1571,)  and 
"Military  Parallels,"  ("  Parallel!  militari,"  1594.)  Died 
in  1597. 

See  GiNGtiRNit,  "Histoire  Litte'raire  d'ltalie  ;"  TIRABOSCIII, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Patrocle.     See  PATROCI.US. 

Pa-tro'cles,  \HarpoifArif,]  a  Greek  statuary,  mentioned 
by  Pliny  and  Pausanias,  lived  probably  about  400  n.c. 

Patrocles,  a  Macedonian  general,  was  appointed 
commander  at  Babylon  by  Selencus  I.  about  312  B.C. 
He  was  commander-in  chief  of  the  army  of  Antiochus  I. 
about  280  K.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  geography  of 
India,  etc.,  which  is  not  extant. 


the   Old  Testament,    which   are    highly   e 
other  devotional  works,  among  which  are 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PATROCLUS 


1750 


PAUL 


Pa-tro'clus,  [Gr.  ll«rpo/oloc;  Fr.  PATROCLE,  pS'- 
tRokl',]  a  Greek  hero,  a  son  of  Mencetius,  and  the  dearest 
friend  of  Achilles,  with  whom  he  fought  at  the  siege  of 
Troy.  Having  borrowed  the  armour  of  Achilles,  he  slew 
a  multitude  of  Trojans,  but  was  killed  by  Hector,  aided 
by  Apollo. 

See  the  "  Iliad." 

Pa'tron,  [Gr.  Tlurpuv,]  an  Epicurean  philosopher, 
lived  at  Rome,  associated  with  Cicero,  and  was  a  friend 
of  Atticus.  He  afterwards  went  to  Athens,  and  became 
the  head  of  the  Epicurean  school  in  52  B.C. 

Patru,  pt'tRii',  (OLIVIER,)  an  eminent  French  advo 
cate,  born  in  Paris  in  1604.  lie  made  some  reforms  in 
forensic  eloquence,  and  polished  his  style  with  minute 
attention.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  critic,  and  has 
been  compared  to  Qtiintilian.  In  1640  he  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy.  The  speech  which  he  made 
at  his  reception  became  a  precedent  for  all  such  occasions. 
His  works  were  published  in  1681.  Died  in  1681. 

See  PERONNE,  "Barreau  de  Paris;  Eloge  d'O.  Patrn,"  1851; 
NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Patte,  pit,  ( PIERRE,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1723.  He  wrote  several  works  on  architecture.  Died 
in  1814. 

Pat'ten,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  divine  under  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  born  in  Northumberland,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  of  1715,"  (London,  1745.) 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  (1825.) 

Patten,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  graduated 
at  Oxford  in  1754.  Died  in  1790. 

Pat'ter-son,  (DANIEL  T.,)  a  distinguished  naval  offi 
cer,  born  in  the  State  of  New  York,  served  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  in  1814  commanded  the  naval  forces  at  New 
Orleans.  He  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  the 
part  he  took  in  the  defence  of  that  city.  Died  in  1839. 

Patterson,  (FRANCIS  ENGLF.,)  an  American  general, 
son  of  General  Robert  Patterson,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1821.  He  served  in  the  Mexi 
can  war,  and,  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  fought 
under  General  McClellan  in  1862  in  his  campaign  against 
Richmond.  He  was  killed  by  the  accidental  discharge 
of  his  pistol  in  November  of  that  year. 

Patterson,  (ROBERT,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Ireland  in  1743, 
emigrated  to  America,  and  was  appointed  in  1779  pro 
fessor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  became  director  of  the  United  States  Mint  in  1805, 
and  was  also  president  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society.  Died  in  1824. 

Patterson,  (KOKKRT,)  a  general,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1792;  emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in 
his  youth,  and  became  a  merchant.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Cerro  Gordo  in  1847.  In  June,  1861,  he  ob 
tained  command  of  an  army  of  about  20,000  men,  which 
he  moved  across  the  Potomac  on  the  ad  of  July.  He 
was  instructed  to  defeat  or  hold  in  check  the  army  of 
General  J.  E.Johnston  near  Winchester,  but  he  failed  to 
effect  this  object,  while  Johnston  marched  to  Bull  Run 
and  decided  the  victory  of  ]uly  21.  General  Patterson 
was,  in  consequence,  severely  censured  bv  many.  On 
the  i8th  of  July,  General  Scott  had  written  to  him,  "  I 
have  certainly  been  expecting  you  to  beat  the  enemy.  .  .  . 
You  have  been  at  least  his  equal,  and,  I  suppose,  supe 
rior,  in  numbers."  General  Scott,  however,  appears 
not  to  have  been  aware  of  the  actual  strength  of  John 
ston's  army,  which  is  now  admitted  to  have  been  superior 
to  that  of  his  opponent  in  the  field.  General  Patterson 
was  honourably  discharged  from  service  when  the  term 
for  which  his  troops  had  been  enlisted  had  expired. 

Patterson  or  Paterson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  New  Jersey,  or  at  sea, 
about  1744.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  representing 
New  Jersey  in  the  Convention  which  formed  the  federal 
Constitution  in  1787.  He  was  a  United  States  Senator 
in  1789-90,  and  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1791 
to  1794.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  upright  judge.  Died  in  1806. 

Patti,  pat'tee,  (ADKLINA  MARIA  CLORINDA,)  a  popu 
lar  operatic  singer,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1843.  ^ne  performed  at  New  York  in  1859, 
and  in  1861  made  her  first  appearance  in  London,  and 


became  at  once  a  distinguished  favourite  with  the  public. 
She  was  received  with  equal  applause  in  the  chief  cities 
of  the  continent.  Her  voice  is  a  high  soprano.  She  is 
distinguished  for  versatility  and  comic  power.  In  1868 
she  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux. 

Patti,  (CARLOTTA,)  an  excellent  singer,  a  sister  of  the 
preceding,  has  performed  with  success  at  concerts  in 
the  United  States.  Her  voice  is  said  to  be  the  highest 
soprano  ever  known. 

See  "  Men  of  the  Times,"  London,  1868. 

Pat'ti-son,  (ROBERT  EVERETT,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  at  Benson,  Vermont,  in  1800,  became 
in  1846  president  and  professor  of  Christian  theology  at 
the  Baptist  Theological  Institute,  Covington,  Kentucky. 

Pat'ti-son,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Sus 
sex  in  1706;  died  in  1727.  His  poems  (published  in  2 
vols.,  1728)  are  commended. 

Patu,  pjt'tii',  (CLAUDE  PIERRE,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1729;  died  in  1757. 

Patuzzi,  pa-toot'see,  (GIOVANNI  VINCENZO,)  an  Ital 
ian  theologian,  born  at  Conegliano  in  1700,  was  a  Do 
minican  friar.  Among  his  works  is  "Moral  Theology," 
(7  vols.,  1790)  Died  in  1769. 

Patzke,  pats'keh,  (Jon ANN  SAMUEL,)  a  German  min 
ister  and  poet,  born  near  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1727. 
He  became  a  popular  preacher  at  Magdeburg.  He 
published  sermons,  hymns,  dramas,  and  a  translation 
of  Tacitus,  (6  vols.,  1765-77.)  Died  in  1787. 

Paucton,  pok'toN1',  (Ai.EXis  JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Maine  in  1732  or  1736.  He 
wrote  an  excellent  work  named  "  Metrologie,  or  a  Treat 
ise  on  the  Measures,  Weights,  and  Coins  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Nations,"  (1780.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Pauditz,  pow'dits,  (CuRiSTOPH,)  a  painter,  born  in 
Lower  Saxony  about  1618,  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt. 
He  was  patronized  by  Albert  Sigismund,  Duke  of  Ba 
varia.  He  painted  history  and  genre.  Died  in  1646. 

Paul,  [Gr.  riai'Aoc,-  Lat.  PAU'LUS  ;  Fr.  PAUL,  pol ; 
It.  PAOLO,  pow'lo;  Ger.  PAULUS,  pow'lus ;  Sp.  PAULO, 
pS'ulo,]  SAINT,  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  origin 
ally  called  SAUL,  was  a  native  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Ci- 
licia.  He  was  a  Jew  and  a  Roman  citizen  by  birthright, 
and  a  rigid  Pharisee  by  education.  He  probably  studied 
Greek  literature  at  Tarsus,  which  was  then  a  celebrated 
seat  of  learning,  and  he  learned  the  trade  of  a  tent- 
maker.  He  afterwards  received  instruction  in  the  law 
from  Gamaliel,  an  eminent  rabbi  and  jurist  at  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  xxii.  3.)  He  became  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
Jewish  religion  and  a  violent  persecutor  of  the  Christians. 
The  first  passage  of  Scripture  in  which  he  is  mentioned 
is  Acts  vii.  58,  narrating  the  death  of  the  martyr  Stephen, 
to  which  Saul  was  accessory.  During  a  journey  from 
Jerusalem  to  Damascus,  about  36  A.D.,  he  was  miracu 
lously  converted  and  ordained  an  apostle  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  (Acts  ix.)  He  went  from  Damas 
cus  into  Arabia,  and  had  an  interview  with  Saint  Peter 
at  Jerusalem  about  the  year  39,  after  which  he  preached 
for  several  years  in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  He  passed  a 
whole  year  at  Antioch,  where  he  "taught  much  people." 
About  45  A.D.  Saul  and  Barnabas  departed  from  Antioch 
on  an  extensive  mission  to  the  Gentiles.  They  traversed 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  from  which  they  passed  into  Asia 
Minor,  and  Paul  preached  a  memorable  sermon  at 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  Though  violently  persecuted,  they 
converted  many  at  Antioch,  Iconium,  and  Lystra,  and 
returned  in  47  A.D.  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  where  they 
abode  a  long  time.  In  the  course  of  a  second  apostolic 
journey  he  founded  churches  at  Philippi  and  Thessa- 
lonica,  and  uttered  a  remarkable  discourse  at  Athens. 
He  also  made  many  converts  at  Corinth,  where  he  re 
mained  a  year  and  a  half,  and  where  he  wrote  the  Epis 
tles  to  the  Thessalonians.  Much  diversity  of  opinion 
prevails  among  the  learned  about  the  date  of  the  prin 
cipal  events  of  his  life.  The  divine  origin  of  his  doctrine 
was  attested  by  many  miracles,  by  "signs,  and  wonders, 
and  mighty  deeds."  (II.  Cor.  xii.  12.) 

After  he  had  visited  Jerusalem  the  fourth  time  since 
his  conversion,  he  commenced  a  third  apostolic  tour. 
He  laboured  for  about  two  years  at  Ephesus,  and  after 
wards  revisited  the  churches  of  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
About  the  year  59  he  was  again  at  Jerusalem,  the  popu- 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


PAUL 


P4ULDING 


lace  nf  which  assailed  him,  and  would  have  killed  him, 
but  .in  officer  took  him  into  custody  and  sent  him  to  the 
Roman  governor  Felix,  at  Caesarea.  He  was  confined 
in  prison  there  for  a  long  time,  defended  himself  by  a 
noble  and  eloquent  speech  before  King  Agrippa,  and 
appealed  to  Caesar.  He  was  taken  by  sea  to  Rome, 
where  he  "dwelt  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired 
house,"  and  preached  the  gospel  without  hindrance.  We 
have  no  authentic  record  of  his  death  ;  but,  according  to 
tradition,  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  about  66  A.D. 

"In  perusing  the  history  and  writings  of  Saint  Paul," 
says  W.  L.  Alexander,  "  it  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck 
with  the  amazing  energy  of  thought  and  action  by  which 
he  was  characterized.  .  .  .  Removed  alike  from  the 
extremes  of  fanaticism  on  the  one  hand  and  apathy  on 
the  other,  his  whole  life  was  a  noble  instance  of  the 
consecration,  on  sound  and  elevated  principles,  of  the 
highest  powers  and  the  most  indefatigable  energies  to 
a  work  in  which  he  had  no  personal  interest  apart  from 
that  of  his  fellow-Christians.  ...  In  his  peculiar  ca 
pacity  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Christian  Church 
and  an  inspired  expositor  of  divine  truth,  he  stands 
without  a  rival  in  his  claims  upon  our  gratitude  and  rev 
erence."  ("Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  article  "Paul.") 

See  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  chaps,  xi.,  xiii.-xxviii.  ;  Epistles 
of  Saint  Paul;  NEANDER,  "History  of  the  Church;"  LEWINS, 
"Life  and  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  2  vols.,  London,  1851  ;  CONY- 
BEAKEand  HOWSON,  "  Life  of  Saint  Pau!,"  2  vols.,  1850:  SCHRADER, 
"  Der  Apostel  Paulus,"  5  vols.,  1829-36;  HEMSEN,  "  Der  Apostel 
Paulus,"  1850;  BAUR,  '•  Paulus,"  1845;  LUTZEI.BKRGER,  "Paulus 
und  Johannes, "  1839;  ERNEST  RENAN,  "Saint-Paul,"  1869. 

Paul  [Lat.  PAU'LUS;  It.  PAOLO,  pow'lo]  I.,  a  native 
of  Rome,  was  elected  pope,  as  successor  to  Stephen  III., 
in  757  A.D.  Died  in  767  or  768.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Stephen  IV. 

Paul  II.,  POPE,  (PiETRO  Barbo — bau'bo,)  a  native  of 
Venice,  and  a  nephew  of  Eugene  IV.,  was  born  in  1418. 
He  succeeded  Pius  II.  in  1464.  He  was  unfavourable  to 
human  learning,  and  suppressed  an  academy  of  literati 
which  was  formed  in  Rome.  He  was  the  first  who  gave 
the  cardinals  the  privilege  to  wear  purple.  He  died  in 
1471,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sixttis  IV. 

See  MICHEL  CANESE,  "Vie  de  Paul  II."  1740. 

Paul  III.,  POPE,  (ALESSANDRO  Farnese — far-na'sa,) 
was  born  at  Canino  about  1466.  He  succeeded  Clement 
VII.  in  1534.  He  approved  the  newly-formed  order  of 
the  Jesuits  about  1540.  To  oppose  the  progress  of 
Luther,  he  convoked  a  council,  which,  after  a  delay  of 
several  years,  met  at  Trent  in  1545.  Before  the  last 
date  he  excommunicated  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  lie 
sent  about  12,000  troops  to  fight  for  Charles  V.  against 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  and  obtained  for 
his  grandson,  Ottavio  Farnese,  the  hand  of  Margaret, 
a  daughter  of  the  emperor.  Paul  protested  against  the 
interim  treaty  of  peace  which  Charles  V.  granted  to  the 
Protestants  in  1547.  lie  died  in  November,  1549,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Julius  III. 

See  QUIRINI.  "  Imago  Pontificis  Pauli  III. ;"  ONUFRIO  PANVINIO, 
"  Vita  Pauli  III. ;"  RANKE,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  ROBERTSON, 
"  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Paul  IV.,  POPE,  (GiAN  PIETRO  Caraffa— ka-raf'fa,) 
born  at  Capriglio  about  1476,  was  elected  pope  in  1555. 
He  was  intolerant  and  tyrannical.  He  quarrelled  with 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  whose  army  under  the  Duke  of  Alva 
blockaded  Rome  in  1557  and  compelled  the  pope  to 
sue  for  peace.  He  refused  to  recognize  Elizabeth  as 
Queen  of  England,  and  by  his  arrogant  course  promoted 
the  triumph  of  Protestantism  in  England.  He  died  in 
1559,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  IV.,  who  put  to  death 
two  nephews  of  Paul  IV.  for  their  crimes. 

See  HROMATO,  "Vita  di  Paolo  IV.,"  1748  ;  RANKE,  "  History  of 
the  Popes  ;"  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  iii.  books 
xi.  and  xii. 

Paul  V.,  POPE,  (CAMILLO  Borghese — boR-ga'si,) 
born  at  Rome  in  1552,  succeeded  Leo  XI.  in  1605.  He 
was  involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Venetians  respecting 
the  trial  of  ecclesiastics  by  lay  tribunals,  the  foundation 
of  religious  houses,  etc.,  and  placed  Venice  under  in 
terdict  in  1606.  The  senate  of  Venice  retaliated  by 
banishing  the  Jesuits.  Through  the  mediation  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  a  compromise  was  effected  in  1607.  He 
died  in  1621,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XV. 


Paul  [Russ.  PAVLOF,  pav'lof]  I.,  (Petrovitch,  pi- 
tRo'vitch,)  Emperor  of  Russia,  born  in  1754,  was  the  son 
of  Peter  III.  and  Catherine  II.  After  the  assassination 
of  his  father  by  order  of  Catherine,  Paul  was  treated  by 
her  with  great  severity,  and  deprived  of  all  participation 
in  public  affairs.  He  married  Mary  of  Wiirtemberg  in 
1776.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1796,  he  dis 
tinguished  himself  for  a  time  by  his  liberal  policy  towards 
Poland,  and  in  1798  joined  the  coalition  against  France. 
He  sent  an  army  under  Suwarow  (Soovorof)  to  Italy 
to  fight  against  the  French.  (See  SUWAROW.)  In  a  fit 
of  caprice,  he  left  his  former  allies,  and  attempted  to  form 
a  coalition  against  England,  in  1800.  His  numerous  acts 
of  folly  and  tyranny  at  length  caused  a  conspiracy  to 
take  his  life,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Count  Pahlen. 
Under  pretence  of  compelling  him  to  sign  an  abdication 
of  the  throne,  the  conspirators  forced  their  way  into  his 
chamber  and  put  him  to  death,  (March,  1801.)  His  death 
was  not  regretted  by  his  subjects.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Alexander  I.  He  left  three  other  sons,  Con- 
stantine,  Nicholas,  and  Michael,  and  several  daughters. 

See  VON  TANNENBERG,  "  Leben  Pauls  I.,"  1804;  P.  R.  AUGUIS, 
"  Histoire  de  Catherine  II  et  de  Paul  I,"  1813;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale. " 

Paul,  powl,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHEI.M,)  Duke  of  Wiir 
temberg,  a  German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at 
Carlsruhe  in  1797.  He  visited  North  America,  the 
southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  Egypt,  and  made  valuable 
collections  of  objects  in  natural  history.  Died  in  1860. 

Paul,  (GABRIEL  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Missouri  about  1814,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in 

1862.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  Gettysburg,  July, 

1863,  losing  both  his  eyes. 

Paul,  (SAINT  VINCENT  DE.)     See  VINCENT. 

Paul  [Sp.  PAKLO,  pa'nlo]  de  Burgos,  (da  booR'gis,) 
or  Paul  de  Santa  Maria,  (da  san'ta  ma-ree'i,)  a  Span 
ish  bishop,  born  at  Burgos  about  1350,  was  converter' 
from  Judaism  to  Christianity.  Died  in  1435. 

Paul  (or  Paulus)  [Gr.  LTafv.of]  of  Samosata,  [Fi 
PAUL  DE  SAMOSATE,  p51  deh  st'mo'zit',]  a  noted  here 
siarch  of  the  third  century.  He  was  chosen  Bishop  of 
Antioch  about  260  A.D.,  and  soon  provoked  general 
censure  by  his  rapacity,  arrogance,  and  affectation  of 
worldly  pomp.  lie  was  also  charged  with  heretical 
opinions  respecting  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  was  de 
posed  by  a  council  in  269.  According  to  Epiphanius,  he 
denied  the  distinct  personality  of  Christ.  By  the  favour 
of  Queen  Zenobia,  Paul  kept  possession  of  the  church 
at  Antioch  until  about  272  A.D.  His  opinions  were 
afterwards  maintained  by  a  small  sect  called  Pauliani. 

Paul  the  Silentiary,  a  Greek  poet,  who  was  chief 
of  the  Silentiarii  in  the  palace  of  Justinian.  He  wrote, 
about  562  A.D.,  a  description  of  the  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  in  verse. 

Paul  Veronese.    See  CAGLIARI,  (PAOLO.) 

Pau'la,  SAINT,  a  Roman  lady,  noted  for  ascetic  piety, 
born  in  347  A.D.,  was  descended  from  the  Scipios.  She 
was  a  disciple  of  Saint  Jerome.  Died  in  Palestine  in  404. 

Paul'ding,  (HiRAM,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  a  son 
of  John  Paulding,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Westches- 
ter  county,  New  York,  about  1800.  He  became  a  captain 
in  1844,  and  arrested  Walker  the  filibuster  at  Punta 
Arenas  in  1857.  For  this  act  he  was  censured  by  Presi 
dent  Buchanan,  who  released  Walker.  In  April,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  navy-yard  of  Norfolk, 
and  burned  the  shipping  and  other  public  property 
which  it  seemed  impossible  to  defend.  The  ships-of-war 
had  been  scuttled  before  he  took  command  there.  He 
commanded  the  Brooklyn  Navy-Yard  from  1862  to  1865. 

See  HEADLEY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867; 
GREELEY,  "American  Conflict,"  1866. 

Paulding,  (JAMES  KIRKE,)  a  popular  American  novel 
ist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Pawling,  Dutchess 
county,  New  York,  in  August,  1779.  He  published  in 
1807, 'conjointly  with  Washington  Irving,  a  series  of 
witty  and  satirical  papers,  entitled  "  Salmagundi,"  which 
were  greatly  admired  at  the  time.  His  satire  entitled 
"The  Diverting  History  of  John  Bull  and  Brother 
Jonathan"  appeared  in  1816,  and  was  followed  by  "The 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gutturat;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAULDING 


1752 


PAULUS 


Hack  woodsman,"  a  poem,  (1818,)  "  Jolin  Bull  in  America, 
or  the  New  Munc'hausen,"  (1824,)  "Merry  Tales  of  the 
Three  Wise  Men  of  Gotham,"  (1826,)  and  "The  Dutch 
man's  Fireside,"  the  most  admired  of  his  novels,  (1831.) 
His  more  recent  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Washington," 
and  the  novel  entitled  "  The  Old  Continental,"  (1846.) 
Mr.  Paulding  was  appointed  in  1837  secretary  of  the 
navy  by  President  Van  Buren.  Died  in  1860. 

See  ORISWOI.D.  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  DUYCKINCK,  "Cy 
clopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  AI.LIBONK,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Paulding,  (JoHN,)  one  of  the  American  soldiers  who 
in  1780  captured  Major  Andre.  A  monument  was  erected 
to  him  near  Peekskill.  Died  in  1818. 

Paulet,  po'li',  (JKAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Anduze  in  1740.  He  wrote  a  good  "Treatise 
on  Mushrooms,"  (2  vols.,  1793,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1826. 

Pau'let  or  Paw'lett,  (Wn.UAM,)  Marquis  of  Win 
chester,  an  English  courtier,  born  about  1476.  He  held 
a  place  at  court  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
successors.  Died  in  1572. 

See  his  "Life,"  by  ROWLAND  BROUGHTON. 

Pau'lett,  (WILLIAM,)  LORD,  an  English  politician, 
born  in  1666,  represented  Lymington  in  Parliament. 
Died  in  1729. 

Pauli,  pow'lee,  (K.ARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Prussia,  in  1723,  became 
professor  of  history  at  Halle.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Preussische  Staatsgeschichte,"  (8  vols.,  1760-69.)  Died 
in  1778. 

Pauli  or  Paulli,  powl'lee,  (SiMON,)  a  German  phy 
sician  and  botanist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1603,  became 
first  physician  to  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark.  He  wrote 
"Flora'Danicn,"  (1648.)  Died  in  1680. 

Faulian,  po'le-S.x',  (AiM&  HKNKI,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Nimes  in  1722.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
natural  science.  His  "Dictionary  of  Physics"  ("Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Physique,"  3  vols.,  1761)  was  often  re 
printed.  Died  in  1801. 

Paulin.     See  PA  u  LIN  us. 

Paulin  de  Saint  -  Barthelemi.  See  PAULINUS, 
(JOIIANN  PHILIPP  WERKDIN.) 

Pau-li'iius,  [Gr.  T\.avMvof,\  Bishop  of  Tyre,  was  a 
friend  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Tyre  before  313  A.D.,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Antioch  about  325.  He  was  charged  with  being  an  Arian. 

Paulinus  OK  ANTIOCH  was  a  leader  of  the  Eusta- 
thian  party.  He  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Antioch  about 
362  A.I).  Meletius  was  at  the  same  time  the  bishop  of 
the  opposite  party.  Died  about  388. 

Pau-li'iius,  an  Italian  missionary,  sent  by  Pope  Greg 
ory  to  England,  is  said  to  have  converted  King  Edwin 
of  Northumbria.  He  became  Archbishop  of  York  about 
627.  Died  in  644. 

Fau-li'nus,  [Fr.  PAULIN,  po'laN',]  (PONTIUS  MERO- 
PIUS,)  SAINT,  Bishop  of  Nola,  was  born  at  Burdigala 
(Bordeaux)  about  353  A.D.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  poet 
Ausonius,  and  became  consul  at  Rome  in  378.  Having 
been  converted  to  Christianity,  he  renounced  the  world, 
and  was  elected  Bishop  of  Nola  in  409  A  D.  He  wrote 
letters  and  poems,  which  are  extant.  Died  in  431. 

See  F.  A.  GF.RVAISE,  "Vie  de  S.  Paulin,"  1743:  RABANIS,  "  S. 
Paulin  de  Nole,"  1841  ;  TILLKMONT,  "  Me'moires  eccleV  ;ques." 

Paulinus,  SAINT,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  fov.  n  in 
Friuli  or  Austrasia  about  728  A.D.,  was  noted  as  a  zeal 
ous  defender  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Died  in  804. 

Paulinus,  pow-lee'nu>,  (JoHANN  PHILIPP  WEKKDIN,) 
or  Paulin  de  Saint-Barthelemi,  a  German  Orien 
talist,  was  born  at  Hof,  near  Mannersdorf,  in  Austria, 
in  1748.  He  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Malabar  in 
1774,  and  learned  the  Sanscrit  langmge.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Sanscrit  Grammar,"  (1790,) 
and  the  "  Liturgical,  Mythological,  and  Civil  System  of  < 
the  Brahmans,"  ("Systema  Brahmanicum  liturgicum, 
mythologicum  et  civile,"  1791.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1806. 

Paulli.     See  PAULI. 

Paullini,  powl-lee'nee,  (CHRISTIAN  FRANZ,)  a  Ger 
man  physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Eise 
nach  in  1643  !  died  in  1712. 


Paulmier  de  Greiitemesnil,  pS'me-a'  deli  gu6\t'. 
mi'nel',  (JULIEN  LE,)  a  Protestant  French  physician, 
born  in  the  Cotentin  in  1520.  He  practised  in  Paris, 
and  is  said  to  have  cured  Charles  IX.  of  inability  to 
sleep,  (insomnia.)  Died  in  1598. 

Paulmier,  le,  leh  po'me-a',  [  Lat.  PALMF/RIUS,  ] 
(JACQUES.)  a  French  philologist,  born  in  Auge  in  1587, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  served  against  the 
Spaniards  under  Maurice  about  eight  years,  (1620-28.) 
He  wrote  "Exercises  on  the  Best  Greek  Authors," 
("  Exercitationes  in  optimos  Autores  Graecos,"  1668,)  a 
work  of  some  merit,  and  a  "Description  of  Ancient 
Greece,"  (in  Latin,  1678.)  Died  in  1670. 

Paulmy.     See  ARI^ENSON,  (MARC  ANTOINE  KKN&) 

Paulo,  (MARCO.)     See  POLO. 

Paulus.     See  PAUL. 

Pau'lus  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by 
the  orthodox  or  Homoousians,  in  336  A.I).  The  Arians 
at  the  same  time  elected  Macedonius.  Paulus  was  ban 
ished  by  the  emperor,  but  was  restored  in  342,  and  was 
supported  by  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  in  exile 
about  350. 

Paulus,  pow'lus,  (HEINRICH  EDERHARD  GOTTLOIJ,) 
a  German  theologian,  distinguished  as  the  leader  of  the 
old  rationalistic  school  in  Germany,  was  born  near  Stutt 
gart  in  1761.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Jena  in  1789,  and  subsequently  of  exegesis  and  eccle 
siastical  history  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  Philological,  Critical,  and  Historical  Commentary  on 
the  New  Testament."  (4  vols.,  1800-04,)  "  Exegetic 
Manual  on  the  First  Three  Gospels,"  (1850,)  and  other 
similar  works.  He  died  in  1851.  His  wife,  CAROLINE, 
and  his  daughter,  EMILIE,  were  also  distinguished  as 
writers.  The  latter  was  married  to  A.  W.  Schlegel. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Pau'lus,  (JuLius,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Roman  jurists.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  not  known. 
Having  been  exiled  by  Elagabalus,  he  was  recalled  by 
Alexander  Severus  about  222  A.n.  and  appointed  pre- 
torian  prefect.  He  was  remarkable  for  fertility  as  a 
writer  and  for  the  extent  of  his  legal  learning.  The 
excerpts  from  Paulus  in  the  Digest  are  more  numerous 
than  those  from  any  other  jurist  except  Ulpian.  His 
great  work  is  "Ad  Edictam,"  in  eighty  books.  lie  also 
wrote  twenty-six  books  of  "Qtiaestiones,"  and  twenty- 
three  books  of  "Responsa."  Died  about  235  A.D. 

See  RITTERHUSIUS,  "Vita  J.  Pauli  ;"  Kuscn  und  GRUHKK,  "A1I- 
gemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Paulus,  (L.  /E.Mii.ius,)  [Fr.  PAUL-E'MILE,  pol  a'mel'; 
It.  PAOLO  EMILIO,  pow'lo  a-mee'le-o,]  a  Roman  general 
of  a  patrician  family,  was  consul  for  the  first  time  in 
219  B.C.  He  was  again  elected  consul  for  the  year  216, 
by  the  aristocratic  party.  Against  his  advice,  his  rash 
colleague,  Terentius  Varro,  offered  battle  to  Hannibal 
at  Cannae,  where  ^imilius  Paulus  was  killed,  in  216  H.C. 
His  brave  conduct  on  this  occasion  is  applauded  by 
Horace.  ("Carmina,"  Lib.  I.,  Ode  12.)  His  daughter 
./EMILIA  was  the  wife  of  Scipio  the  Great,  surnamed 
Africanus. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.  and  xxiii. 

Paulus,  (Lucius  ^EMILIUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  230  H.C.,  and  was  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  his  family.  He  was  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
old  Roman  aristocracy,  and  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  Elected 
praetor  for  the  year  191  B.C.',  he  obtained  as  his  province 
Farther  Spain,  where  he  defeated  the  Lusitani  in  a  great 
battle.  In  the  year  189  he  returned  to  Ronie,_and  in  182 
was  elected  consul,  after  having  been  defeaTecTat  several 
elections.  With  a  view  to  finish  the  Macedonian  war, 
the  people  elected  him  consul  in  168  K.c.  He  gained  in 
the  same  year  a  decisive  victory  over  Perseus  at  Pvdna, 
and  afterwards  took  that  king  prisoner.  He  returned  to 
Rome  in  167,  and  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  with 
the  surname  of  MACEDONICUS.  He  died  in  160  H.C., 
'•  'aving  a  high  reputation  for  honour  and  integrity. 
Plutarch  has  written  his  life  and  drawn  a  comparison 
between  him  and  Timoleon.  One  of  his  sons  was  adopted 
by  the  son  of  the  great  Scipio  above  named,  and  became 
afterwards  celebrated  as  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger. 

See  LIVY,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxiv.-xl.  ;  PLUTARCH, 
"  Paulus  yE'.nilius  ;"  AURKMUS  VICTOR,  "  De  Viris  illustribus." 


a,  e,  I,  o, u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


P4ULUS 


1753 


TT 


Paulus,  pow'lus,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Axel  in  1754.  He  was  president  of  the  Assembly 
which  abolished  the  office  of  Stadtholder  in  1795.  ^e 
wrote  a  "  Memoir  on  Equality  among  Men,"  (1792.) 
Died  in  1796. 

Pau'lus  ^Egine'ta,  (ej-e-ne'ta,)  [Fr.  PAUL  D'£GINE, 
pol  da'zhen',]  a  celebrated  Greek  medical  writer,  of 
whose  personal  history  little  is  known,  except  that  he 
was  born  in  the  island  of  yligina.  lie  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  He  trav 
elled  extensively,  and  wrote  several  medical  works,  one 
of  which,  called  "  De  Re  Medica  Libri  septem,"  is  still 
extant.  It  is  mostly  compiled  from  Galen  and  other 
writers.  The  sixth  book  ("On  Surgery")  is  the  most 
valuable  and  original  part  of  the  work. 

See  SPKENGEL,  "Histoirede  la  Medecine ;"  HALLER,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Medica." 

Paulus  .ffimilius.     See  EMII.IO,  (PAOLO.) 

Pau'lus  Di-ac'o-nus,  [Fr.  PAUL  DIACRE,  pol  de'- 
£ki<',]  (''  Paul  the  Deacon,")  a  mediaeval  historian,  some 
times  called  WARNEFRIDOS,  was  born  at  Friuli  (Forum 
Julii)  about  735  A.D.  He  passed  some  years  at  the  court 
of  Charlemagne.  He  wrote  Latin  verses,  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  the  Lombards,"  in  a  clear  and  elegant  style. 
Died  about  798  A.  I). 

Paumgarten,  von,  fon  powm'gaR'ten,  (MAXIMILIAN 
SIGISMUND  JOSEPH,)  BARON,  an  Austrian  general,  born 
in  Styria  in  1767.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Aspern 
and  Wagram,  (1809.)  Died  in  1827. 

Paur,  powR,  (  THEODOR,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Neisse,  in  Silesia,  in  1805.  He  became  professor  in  the 
College  of  Neisse  in  1842. 

Pau-sa'ul-as,  [LTawjawac,]  a  Spartan  general,  was  the 
son  of  Cleombrotus,  and  a  nephew  of  Leoniclas,  who  fell 
at  Thermopylae.     In  479  i;.C.  he  became  guardian  of  his 
cousin  Pleistarchus,  for  whom  he  exercised  the  functions 
of  royalty  for  several  years.     He  commanded  the  Greek 
army  which  defeated  the   Persians  under  Mardonius  at  : 
Plateca  in  479.     In  477  the  confederate  Greeks  sent  out 
a   fleet    under     Pausanias,    who    captured     Byzantium.  - 
Having  formed  ambitious   and  treasonable  designs,  he  | 
made  secret  overtures  to  the   King  of  Persia.     He  also 
offended  the  allies  by  his  arrogant  and  domineering  con 
duct,  and  was   recalled  to   Sparta.     His   intrigues  with 
the  Persian  court  were  detected  a  few  years  later  by  the 
Ephori,  who  ordered  his  arrest.     He  then  took  refuge 
in  a  temple,  where  he  died  of  starvation,  about  468  li.C. 

See  HKKODOTUS,  "  Histmy ;"  CORNELIUS  Ntpos,  "  Pausanias  ;" 
TH  in  I.WAI.  I.,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Pausanias,  King  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  Pleistonax, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  444  R.C.,  being  then  an  infant. 
During  the  contest  between  Thrasybu'lus  and  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  (403  K.c.)  he  intervened  in  favour  of  the  former. 
Died  about  380  B.C. 

Pausanias,  a  Greek  traveller  and  author,  who  flour-  j 
ished between  150  and  200  A.D.    He  is  supposed  to  have  ; 
been  born  in  Lydia  ;  but  nothing  is  known  respecting  him  | 
except  what  we  learn  from  his  writings.     He  was  the  au-  | 
thor  of  a  valuable  "Itinerary  or  Description  of  Greece," 
('E/./.d<5of  n>p£^}7/aic. )   His  description  of  places  is  minute  \ 
and  accurate,  but  mainly  relates  to  objects  of  antiquity  . 
and  works  of  art.    If  he  mentions  mountains  and  rivers,  | 
it  is  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  legends  or  myths  connected  i 
with  them.     He   describes  pictures,   statues,   etc.   with 
simplicity,    and    makes    no    pretensions  to   be   a  critic. 
His  work   is    the   more   highly  prized   for  this   reason. 
"  With  the  exception  of  Herodotus, "says  George  Long,  i 
"there  is  no  writer  of  antiquity  who  has  comprehended  | 
so  many  valuable  facts  in  a  small  volume.     The  work  of 
Pausanias   is  full    of   matter, — mythological,  historical, 
and  artistic;  nor  does  he  omit  matters  physical  and  eco 
nomical."     His  work  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Thomas  Taylor. 

See  KOENIG,  "  De  Pausanis  Fide  et  Auctoritatein  Historia,"  etc., 
1832  ;  SIEBF.I.IS,  "  Qtiaestio  in  Patisaniae  Periegetae  Patria,"  etc.,  1819. 

Pausias,  pau'she-as,  \Havaiar,  ]  an  excellent  Greek  i 
painter  of  Sicyon,  flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Pamphilus,  and  a  contemporary  of  Apelles. 
He  excelled  in  painting  in  encaustic  with  the  cestrum, 
(graving- tool.)  Pliny  calls  him  "prinuim  in  hoc  genere 
iiobilem."  The  favourite  subjects  of  Pausias  were  small 


panel-pictures,  chiefly  of  boys.  He  was  the  first  who 
decorated  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  houses  with  encaustic 
paintings.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  "  The  Sacri 
fice  of  an  Ox,"  in  which  the  effects  of  foreshortening 
and  chiaroscuro  were  displayed  with  great  success. 

Pau'son,  [nai'ffuv,]  a  Greek  painter  of  uncertain 
epoch,  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  who  says  that  Polygno- 
tus  painted  figures  more  beautiful  than  nature,  Dionysius 
represented  them  as  they  are,  and  Pauson  made  them 
appear  inferior  to  the  reality. 

Pautet,  po'ti',  ( JULES,)  a  French  writer  of  prose  and 
verse,  born  at  Beaune  in  1799. 

Pauthier,  pf/te-i',  (JEAN  PIERRE  GUII.LAUME,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Mamirolle  in  1801.  He 
published  a  French  version  of  "Childe  Harold,"  (1828- 
30,)  "The  Four  Books  of  the  Moral  and  Political  Philos 
ophy  of  the  Chinese,"  (4th  edition,  1852,)  "La  Chine," 
(2  vols.,  1837,)  a  "History  of  the  Political  Relations  of 
China  with  the  Western  Powers,"  (1859,)  and  other  works. 

Pautre,  Le.     See  LEPAUTRE. 

Pauw  or  Paaw,  (PIETER.)     See  PAAW. 

Pauw,  van,  vtn  pow,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch  writer, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1739,  was  a  great-nephew  of  the 
famous  De  Witt.  He  became  canon  of  Xanten.  He 
displayed  ingenuity  and  penetration  in  his  works,  among 
which  are  "  Philosophical  Researches  on  the  Egyptians 
and  Chinese,"  (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  "Philosophical  Re 
searches  on  the  Greeks,"  (2  vols.,  1788.)  Died  in  1799. 
Many  of  his  ideas  are  considered  paradoxical. 

Pauw,  van,  (JAN  CORNELIS,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht.  He  published  editions  of  Anacreon, 
/Eschylus,  and  Theophrastus ;  also  notes  on  Pindar. 
Died  in  1749. 

Pavaka,  pa'va-ka,  [i.e.  "  purifying,"  or  the  "  purifier,"] 
one  of  the  names  of  Ar.Ni,  which  see. 

Pav'a-na  or  Fav'an,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  piiv'a- 
na  or  piiv'an,]  written  also  Pawana  and  Fuwuii,  a 
Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "air"  or  "wind,"  and  forming 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology  the  name  of  the  god  or  regent 
of  the  winds,  answering  in  several  respects  to  the  /Solus 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  He  was  also  regarded  as 
the  regent  of  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  heavens. 
According  to  some,  Pavana  was  the  father  of  the  cele 
brated  monkey  king,  HANUMAN,  which  see. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Pavesi,  pa-va'see,  (Sr'FANO.)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Crema  in  1778.  He  composed  many  operas, 
among  which  are  "  Tancredi,"  (1812,)  and  "The  Her 
mit,"  ("II  Solitario,"  1826.)  Died  about  1846. 

Pavie,  pt've',  (THEODORE,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Angers  in  1811.  He  became  professor  of  Sanscrit  at 
the  College  de  France  in  1852,  published  a  "Voyage  to 
the  United  States,"  (1827,)  and  translated  some  works 
from  Sanscrit,  Chinese,  etc. 

Pavilion,  pi've'yiN',  (firiENNE,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1632,  was  a  nephew  of  Nicolas.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1691,  although 
his  verses  scarcely  reach  mediocrity.  Died  in  1705. 

Pavilion,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  prelate  and  Jansenist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1597,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Aleth  in 
1637.  He  produced  a  Ritual  which  was  condemned  at 
Rome  but  was  widely  used  in  France.  Died  in  1677. 

Pavilion,  du,  dii  pi've'y6N',  (JEAN  FRANQOIS  du 
Cheyroii — dii  shi'rox',)  CHEVALIER,  a  French  naval 
officer,  K  at  Perigueux  in  1730.  He  made  important 
improv  nents  in  signals,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Naval  Tactics,"  (1778,)  which  is  commended.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  with  the  British  near  Dominique  in  1782. 

Pavius.     See  PAAW,  (PIETER.) 

Pavlof,  Pavlov,  or  Pawlow,  pav'lof,  (NICHOLAS 
PHII.IPPOVITCH,)  a  Russian  poet  and  novelist,  born  in 
Moscow  in  1802.  He  wrote  lyric  poems  and  dramas. 
Died  in  1854. 

Pavoii,  pa-v6n',  (Don  JOSE,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born 
'  the  last  century.  He  went  about  1778  to  Pern,  in  the 
exploration  of  which  he  spent  many  years,  and  aided 
Ruiz  in  the  composition  of  a  "  Flora  Peruviana  et  Chi- 
lensis."  Died  in  1844. 

Pawaka.     See  PAVAKA. 

Fawaiia.     See  PAVANA. 

Pawlett.     See  PAULETT,  (WILLIAM.) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


lanations,  p.  23.) 


PAX 


1754 


PEALE 


Pax,  the  Latin  of  EIKKNE,  which  see. 

Fax'tpn,  (EDWARD  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Rockb'ridge  county,  Virginia.  He  served  as  brig 
adier-general  of  the  Confederate  army  at  Antietam, 
September,  1862,  and  was  killed  at  Chancellorsville, 
May  2,  1863. 

Fax'tpii,  (Sir  JOSEPH,)  an  English  architect  and 
gardener,  born  near  Woburn,  Bedfordshire,  in  1803. 
Having  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire 
as  a  gardener,  he  remodelled  after  his  own  designs  the 
magnificent  gardens  and  parks  at  Chatsworth,  and 
gained  distinction  as  an  architect  by  the  erection  of  a 
vast  conservatory  at  that  place.  The  Crystal  Palace 
built  for  the  World's  Fair  of  1851  was  designed  and 
superintended  by  Mr.  Paxton,  who  was  knighted  for 
this  service.  He  was  also  the  architect  of  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  which  is  much  admired.  He 
published  "  The  Cottage  Calendar,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1865. 

Payen,  pi'yS.N',  (ANSELME,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1795.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  in 
Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  Course  of  Elementary  and  Industrial  Chemistry," 
(2  vols.,  1831.) 

Payen,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800,  has  given  special  attention  to 
mineral  waters. 

Payer,  pS'yi',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Asfeld  (Ardennes)  in  1818.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  botany  at  the  Normal  School  in  Paris  in  1841, 
and  supplied  the  place  of  Mirbel  at  the  Sorbonne,  (1841- 
48.)  He  was  secretary  to  Lamartine  while  the  latter 
was  in  power  in  1848,  and  succeeded  Aclrien  de  Jussieu 
as  professor  of  botany,  etc.  in  1852.  His  chief  work  is 
a  "Treatise  on  Comparative  Vegetable  Organogeny." 

Paykull,  de,  deh  pl'kul,  ?  (GusTAF,)  BARON,  a  Swed 
ish  naturalist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1757.  He  became 
first  secretary  to  the  king  in  1794,  and  marshal  of  the 
court  in  1815.  He  wrote  monographs  on  Swedish  cole- 
optera,  and  several  dramas.  Died  in  1826. 

Payne,  pan,  (JOHN,)  an  English  engraver  and  de 
signer,  born  in  London  in  1608.  He  engraved  portraits 
with  success.  Died  in  1648. 

Payne,  pan,  (JoiiN  HOWARD,)  an  American  actor 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  in  New  York  in  1792.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Park 
Theatre,  in  the  character  of  "  Young  Norval,"  with  bril 
liant  success.  He  visited  London  in  1813,  and  founded 
there  a  theatrical  journal  called  "The  Opera-Glass." 
He  was  the  author  of  several  dramas,  but  he  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  beautiful  and  popular  song  of  "  Home, 
Sweet  Home."  Mr.  Payne  was  appointed  in  1851  consul 
to  Tunis.  Died  in  1852. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1819. 

Pays,  (RENE  LE.)     See  LE  PAYS. 

Pay'son,  (EDWARD,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1783.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Discourse  before  the  Bible  Society  of 
Maine,"  and  a  number  of  sermons.  Died  in  1827. 

Paz,  de,  da  pith,  (JAGO  ALVAREZ,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit 
and  religious  writer,  born  at  Toledo  in  1560;  died  in 
1620. 

Pazmaiiy  or  Pazniani,  poz'mtn,  (PETER,)  a  Hun 
garian  cardinal  and  writer  on  theology,  born  near  Pres- 
burg  in  1570;  died  in  1637. 

Pazzi,  pat'see,  (CosiMO,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  in 
1467,  was  a  nephew  of  Leo  X.,  and  a  relative  of  Jacopo 
Pazzi.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  1508. 
He  translated  Maximus  Tyrius  into  Latin,  (1517.)  Died 
in  1515. 

Pazzi,  (JACOPO,)  was  the  head  of  a  rich  Florentine 
family  which  was  hostile  to  the  Medici.  He  was  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  a  conspiracy  formed  (in  the  name  of 
liberty)  against  them  in  1478.  The  attempt  to  kill  Lo 
renzo  de'  Medici  having  failed,  Pazzi  and  his  accom 
plices  were  taken  and  hung. 

Peabody,  pee'bo-de,  (Rev.  ANDREW  P.,)  D.D.,  an 
American  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Beverly,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1811.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826, 
and  subsequently  studied  theology  at  Cambridge.  He 


became  in  1833  pastor  of  the  South  Congregational 
Church  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1854 
assumed  the  editorship  of  the  "North  American  Review." 
He  is  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  Christian  Doctrine," 
(1844,)  of  which  numerous  editions  have  been  published, 
and  "  Sermons  of  Consolation,"  (1846  ;  30!  edition,  1857.) 
He  has  also  contributed  to  the  "New  England  Maga 
zine,"  "American  Monthly,"  and  "Christian  Examiner." 
In  1860  he  became  preacher  and  Plummer  professor 
of  Christian  morals  at  Harvard, — a  position  which  he 
has  filled  with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  the 
institution. 

See  ALUBONE'S  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Peabody,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Danvers,  Massachusetts,  in  February,  1795,  was 
the  son  of  poor  parents.  He  engaged  in  trade  in  Balti 
more,  and,  after  many  years  of  prosperity,  removed  to 
England  in  1837.  He  became  a  banker  and  broker  in 
London,  and  amassed  an  ample  fortune.  His  banking- 
house  was  for  many  years  the  head-quarters  of  Ameri 
cans  in  London.  About  1856  he  gave  $300,000  or  more 
to  found  a  literary  and  scientific  institute  in  Baltimore. 
In  1862  he  presented  to  the  city  of  London  £  150,000,  to 
be  expended  in  the  erection  of  lodging-houses  for  the 
working-classes,  for  which  purpose  he  added  ^150,000 
more  in  1866.  He  also  gave  to  Harvard  University 
$150,000  for  a  museum,  etc.,  and  in  1867  gave  two  mil 
lion  dollars  to  found  common  schools  in  the  Southern 
United  States.  Died  in  London  in  1869.  His  remains 
were  conveyed  with  great  pomp  to  the  United  States 
in  the  British  ship-of-war  Monarch. 

Peabody,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  American  patriot  and 
physician,  born  at  Topsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1741. 
He  served  as  colonel  of  the  army  in  1778,  and  was  sent 
as  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  1779.  He  filled  several 
other  high  offices.  Died  in  1823. 

Peabody,  (OLIVER  W.  B.,)  twin-brother  of  W.  B. 
O.  Peabody,  noticed  below,  was  associate  editor  of  the 
"North  American  Review,"  and  in  1842  became  pro 
fessor  of  English  literature  in  Jefferson  College,  Loui 
siana.  Died  in  1847,  aged  fifty-seven. 

Peabody,  (Rev.  WILLIAM  B.  O.,)  an  American  poet 
and  Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1799.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1816, 
and  in  1820  became  pastor  at  Springfield,  Massachu 
setts.  Besides  a  number  of  small  poems,  he  contributed 
many  able  articles  to  the  "  North  American  Review" 
and  the  "  Christian  Examiner,"  and  wrote  the  "  Life  of 
Alexander  Wilson"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography." 
Died  in  1847. 

Peach'am,  (HENRY,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Hertfordshire  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote,  be 
sides  other  works,  "Minerva  Britannita,  or  a  Garden 
of  Heroical  Devises,"  (1612,)  and  "The  Complete  Gen 
tleman,"  (1622,)  which  was  once  popular. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (1853.) 

Pea'cock,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Denton  about  1790.  He  became  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Ely.  He  wrote  seve 
ral  works.  Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1858. 

Peacock  or  Pe'cock,  (REYNOLD  or  REGINALD,)  a 
liberal  English  prelate,  born  about  1390.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1449.  Having  questioned  or 
denied  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  or  Church  of  Rome, 
he  was  deposed  in  1457.  He  was  opposed  to  persecu 
tion  for  opinion.  Died  about  1460. 

See  REV.  JOHN  LEWIS,  "  Life  of  R.  Peacock,"  1744. 

Peacock,  (THOMAS  LOVE,)  an  English  humourist  and 
poet,  born  at  \Veymouth  in  1785.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Palmyra,"  a  poem,  (1806,)  "The  Genius 
of  the  Thames,"  (1812,)  "Headlong  Hall,"  a  humorous 
and  satirical  novel,  (1816,)  and  "Crotchet  Castle," 
(1822,)  which  are  highly  commended.  In  1819  he  was 
appointed  to  a  situation  in  the  Examiners'  Office  at  the 
India  House.  Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Recent  Humourists,"  in  the  "  North  British  Review"  for 
September,  1866. 

Peale,  peel,  (CHARLES  WILSON,)  an  American  painter 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Maryland,  in  1741. 


,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


PEALE 


1755 


PECQUET 


He  studied  for  a  time  in  England  under  West,  and, 
after  his  return,  settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  soon 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter.  He 
afterwards  formed  in  that  city  a  museum  of  natural 
curiosities  called  by  his  name  and  containing  the  skele 
ton  of  a  mammoth.  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  to  which  he  contributed 
numerous  pictures.  Died  in  1827. 

SeeTucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Peale,  (R  KM  BRA  .NOT,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1778,  studied 
painting  under  West,  and  subsequently  devoted  him 
self  to  portrait-painting  in  Paris.  After  his  return  to 
Philadelphia,  he  produced,  among  other  works,  the 
"Court  of  Death,"  and  "The  Roman  Daughter."  Died 
in  1860. 

See  DUXLAP,  "History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap.  iv.  ;  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 


Peaii.     See 

Pearce,  peerss,  (JAMES  A.,)  an  American  Senator 
and  lawyer,  born  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  in  1805.  He 
represented  a  district  of  Maryland  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1839,  and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
from  1843  to  1862.  Died  in  December,  1862. 

Pearce,  peerss,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  traveller  or 
adventurer,  born  at  Acton  in  1780.  He  spent  several 
years  in  Abyssinia,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account.  Died 
in  1820. 

Pearce,  (ZACHARY,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
critic,  born  in  or  near  London  in  1690.  While  he  was 
a  student  at  Cambridge  he  wrote  two  papers  for  the 
"  Spectator,"  (Nos.  572  and  633,)  and  edited  Cicero  "  De 
Oratore,"  (1716.)  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Martin's- 
in-the-Fields,  London,  in  1723,  Dean  of  Winchester  in 
1739,  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1748,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester 
in  1756.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Commentary,  with 
Notes,  on  the  Four  Evangelists  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,"  (2  vols.,  1777,)  which  was  received  with  favour. 
He  edited  Longinus  "On  the  Sublime,"  (1724.)  Died 
in  1774. 

Pear'sall,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Kidderminster  in  1698.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Taunton,  and  wrote  "  Contemplations  on  the 
Ocean."  Died  in  1762. 

Fear'son,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  Arminian  theolo 
gian,  born  at  Ipswich  about  1758.  He  became  rector  of 
Rempston,  in  Nottinghamshire,  about  1798,  and  master 
of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  in  1808.  He 
wrote  treatises  against  Paley's  theory  of  Moral  Obliga 
tion,  and  others  against  Calvinism.  Some  of  his  sermons 
were  published.  Died  in  1811. 

See  W.  P.  HUNT,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  E.  Pearson,"  1845. 

Pear'son,  (EUPHALET,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar, 
born  in  New  England  in  1752,  became  professor  of  He 
brew  and  Oriental  languages  at  Harvard  College,  and 
subsequently  of  sacred  literature  at  Andover.  Died 
in  1826. 

Pearson,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  physician  and  chem 
ist,  born  in  1751.  He  practised  and  lectured  at  Saint 
George's  Hospital,  London,  and  wrote  on  the  cow-pox, 
etc.  Died  in  1828. 

Pearson,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  bishop  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  was  born  at  Snoring,  Norfolk,  in  1613.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  obtained  in  1650  the 
living  of  Saint  Clement,  London.  The  sermons  which 
he  preached  there  were  published  in  his  "  Exposition 
of  the  Creed,"  (1658,)  a  work  of  high  reputation,  which 
has  been  reprinted  and  used  as  a  text-book  for  students. 
He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1661, 
and  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1672.  Died  in  1686.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  most  learned  Englishmen  of  his 
time  in  ancient  languages,  history,  etc. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Pearson,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  surgeon  and  writer, 
born  in  1758,  practised  in  London.  He  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  "Principles  of  Surgery,"  (1788,)  and 
a  "  Life  of  William  Hey."  Died  in  1826. 

Pearson,  (MARGARET  EGLINTON,)  an  English  painter 
on  glass,  was  a  daughter  of  Samuel  Paterson,  noticed 
in  this  work.  Died  in  1823. 


Pearson,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  medical  writer,  born 
in  Birmingham  in  1765.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
saurus  Medicaminum,"  (1810.)  Died  in  1836. 

Pecchia,  pek'ke-a,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Naples  in  1715.  He  wrote  a  "Civil  and  Political 
History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (3  vols.,  1778.) 
Died  in  1784. 

Pecchio,  pek'ke-o,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
political  economist,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1785.  He 
was  councillor  of  state  for  the  section  of  finances  (at 
Milan)  from  1810  to  1814.  He  became  a  political  exile 
in  1821,  after  which  he  lived  mostly  in  England.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Public  Economy  in  Italy," 
("Storia  deU'Economia  pubblica  in  Italia,"  1829,)  which 
presents  an  able  critical  analysis  of  Italian  works  on 
political  economy,  and  "Observations  of  an  Exile  on 
England,"  (1831.)  He  was  an  elegant  writer,  and  had 
a  good  talent  for  observation.  Died  at  Brighton  in  1835. 

See  UGONI,  "Vila  di  G.  Pecchio,"  1836. 

Pechantre,  pa'sh5N'tRa',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  dra 
matic  poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1638.  He  wrote  trage 
dies  named  "  Geta"  (1687)  and  "Jugurtha,"  (1692.) 
Died  in  1708. 

Peclilin,  pe"K/lin,  (JAN  NIKLAAS,)  an  able  Dutch  phy 
sician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1646.  He  wrote  Latin  poems, 
a  treatise  on  Tea,  entitled  "  Theophilus  Bibaculus," 
(1684,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Stockholm  in  1706. 

Fechmeja,  pesh'med'zha',  (JEAN,)  a  French  writer 
of  fiction,  born  at  Villefranche  in  1741.  He  wrote  a 
romance  named  "Telephe,"  (1784,)  which  had  a  tran 
sient  vogue.  Died  in  1785. 

Peck,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at  Stam 
ford,  Lincolnshire,  in  1692.  He  obtained  in  1736  a 
prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Lincoln.  Among  his  works 
are  "Desiderata  Curiosa,"  (2  vols.,  1732-35,)  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  and  Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton,"  (1740,) 
and  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1740.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Peck,  (GEORGE,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist  divine 
and  theological  writer,  born  in  1797,  has  published 
"Lives  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists,"  "Christian 
Perfection,"  and  other  works. 

Peck,  (JOHN  T-,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Onon- 
daga  county,  New  York,  in  1821,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843.  ^e  commanded  a  brigade  at  Williams- 
burg  and  Fair  Oaks  in  May,  1862,  soon  after  which  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  repulsed  General  Longstreet,  who  attacked  him  at 
Suffolk,  in  April,  1863. 

Peck,  (JoHN  MASON,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine  and  missionary,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut, 
in  1789.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  in  1831,  having  previously 
edited  "The  Pioneer,"  the  first  Baptist  journal  of  the 
West,  (1829.)  In  1835  he  founded  Shurtleff  College,  at 
Upper  Alton,  Illinois.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Phila 
delphia  as  corresponding  secretary  and  general  agent  of 
the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society.  He  wrote 
the  "  Life  of  Daniel  Boone"  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biog 
raphy,"  and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1858. 

Peck,  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Zealand  ;  died 
at  Malines  in  1589. 

Peck,  (WILLIAM  DANDRIDGE,)  an  American  natural 
ist,  born  at  Boston  in  1763.  He  became,  in  1805,  pro 
fessor  of  natural  history  at  Harvard  College.  Died  in 
1822. 

Peckham,  pek'am,  (JoHN,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
about  1240.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canter 
bury  in  1278.  His  "  Perspectiva  Communis"  (1504)  has 
been  often  printed.  Died  in  1292. 

Peclet,  peh-kli',  (JEAN  CLAUDE  EUGENE,)  a  French 
writer  on  physical  science,  born  at  Besancon  in  1793.  He 
was  professor  of  physics  at  the  Central  School  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures.  He  wrote  a  "  Course  of  Physics," 
(1826,)  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Heat  and  its  Applications 
to  the  Arts,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  Died  in  1857. 

See  Qi'ERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Pecock,  (REYNOLD.)     See  PEACOCK. 

Fecquet.  pk'ki',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1704.  Among  his  works  is  a  satire  called 
"  Secret  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  Persia,"  ("Me- 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


PECQUET 


1756 


PEEL 


moires  secrets  pour  servir  a  1'IIistoire  de  la  Perse," 
etc.,  1745.)  Died  in  1762. 

Pecquet,  (JKAN,)  a  French  anatomist,  born  at  Dieppe 
in  1622.  He  gained  a  European  reputation  by  the  dis 
covery  of  the  thoracic  duct  and  the  reservoir  of  chyle. 
He  wrote  "On  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  and  Motion 
of  the  Chyle,"  ("  De  Circulatione  Sanguinis."  etc.,  1651,) 
and  "  De  Thoracis  Lacteis,"  (1651.)  Died  in  1674. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Pecqueur,  pi'kun',  (CONSTANTIN,)  a  French  writer 
on  social  and  political  economy,  was  born  at  Arleux 
(Nord)  in  1801.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Saint-Simon  and 
Fourier.  Among  his  works  is  a  prize  essay  entitled 
"  Social  Economy  of  the  Interests  of  Commerce,  In 
dustry,"  etc.,  ("Economic  sociale  des  Interets  du  Com 
merce,  de  1' Industrie,"  etc.,  1838.)  Died  in  1859. 

Pecqueur,  (ONESII'IIORK,)  a  French  mechanician, 
born  in  1792,  invented  an  arithmetical  machine,  a  dyna 
mometer,  and  other  machines.  Died  in  1852. 

Pedianus.     See  ASCOMUS. 

Peclma.     See  PA  DM  A. 

Pedo.     See  ALBINOVANUS. 

Pedro,  DOM,  (of  Hra/.il.)     See  PETER. 

Pedro  of  Aragon.    See  PETER. 

Pedrusi,  pa-di<oo'see,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  numis 
matist,  born  at  Mantua  in  1644;  died  in  1720. 

Peel,  (FREDERICK,)  a  son  of  the  statesman  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  was  born  in  London  in  1823.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Leominster  in  1849,  and  re-elected  for 
Bury  in  1852  and  1859.  In  politics  he  is  called  Liberal 
Conservative.  He  was  under-secretary  for  the  colonies 
from  1852  to  February,  1855,  under-secretary  of  war  from 
the  latter  date  to  1857,  and  secretary  to  the  treasury 
from  1860  to  1865. 

Peel,  (JONATHAN,)  a  British  general,  a  younger  son 
of  the  first  Sir  Robert,  was  born  in  1799.  He  entered 
the  army  young,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  In  1826  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Nor 
wich.  He  was  surveyor-general  of  the  ordnance  from 
1841  to  1846,  and  secretary  at  war  in  the  Derby  ministry 
from  February,  1858,  to  June,  1859,  and  again  from  July, 
1866,  to  March,  1867. 

Peel,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  English  manufacturer  and 
millionaire,  born  near  Lancaster  in  1750,  was  the  father 
of  Robert  Peel,  prime  minister.  He  became  in  1773  a 
partner  in  a  large  manufactory  of  cotton  at  Bury.  By 
his  sagacity,  enterprise,  and  remarkable  aptitude  for 
business,  he  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  He  repre 
sented  Tamworth  in  Parliament  from  1790  to  1820,  and 
was  a  supporter  of  the  ministry  and  Tory  party.  He 
had  six  sons  and  five  daughters.  Died  in  1830. 

Peel,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  a  celebrated  English  statesman, 
born  near  Bury,  in  Lancashire,  on  the  5th  of  February, 
1788,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  (where  Lord  Byron  was  his  class- 
fellow)  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  honour  of  "  double  first-class," — i.e.  pre-eminence 
both  in  classics  and  mathematics.  He  left  college  in 
1808,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a  member  for  Cashel, 
and  a  supporter  of  the  Tory  ministry,  in  1809.  In  Janu 
ary,  1810,  he  seconded  the  address  to  the  throne,  and 
made  his  first  speech.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  1811,  and  chief  secretary  for  Ireland 
in  1812.  In  1815  he  challenged  O'Connell  for  offensive 
remarks  in  a  public  speech  ;  but  the  intended  duel  was 
prevented  by  the  police.  His  opponents  nicknamed 
him  ORANGE  PEEL,  in  allusion  to  his  hostility  to  the 
Catholics.  He  made  a  speech  against  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  claims  in  1817.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  the  University  of  Oxford,  in  preference  to  Canning, 
and  resigned  his  office  of  secretary.  lie  succeeded  Mr. 
Homer  as  chairman  of  the  Bullion  committee  in  1819, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  financier  by  pro 
curing  the  passage  of  an  act  for  the  resumption  of  cash 
payments.  He  married  in  1820  Julia,  a  daughter  of 
General  Sir  John  Floyd. 

In  January,  1822,  he  became  secretary  for  the  home 
department  in  the  ministry  of  Lord  Liverpool.  For 
several  years  ensuing,  Canning  and  Peel  were  the  most 
able  and  prominent  members  of  the  ministry.  Although 
Peel  was  less  brilliant  as  an  orator  than  his  colleague,  he 


was  more  solid  and  practical,  and  had  equal  or  greater 
influence  with  his  party.  When  Canning  became  prime 
minister,  in  April,  1827,  Mr.  Peel  retired  from  office.  He 
accepted  the  place  of  home  secretary  in  the  new  minis 
try  formed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  January,  1828, 
and  made  a  powerful  speech  in  favour  of  Catholic  eman 
cipation  (which  he  had  long  opposed)  in  March,  1829. 
By  his  change  on  this  question  he  lost  his  seat  as  repre 
sentative  of  Oxford,  in  1829.  The  obstinate  resistance 
of  the  Tory  ministry  to  parliamentary  reform  caused 
them  to  be  defeated  and  driven  from  power  in  Novem 
ber,  1830.  Earl  Grey  then  formed  a  Whig  ministry,  and 
Sir  Robert  became  the  leader  of  the  opposition.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1830,  he  inherited  an  immense 
fortune  and  the  title  of  baronet.  He  opposed  the  Re*  )i,u 
bill,  (1831-32,)  but  declined  to  co-operate  with  Welling 
ton  in  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  when  Lord  Grey 
resigned,  in  1832.  In  1833  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Tamworth,  which  he  continued  to  represent  until  1850. 

Sir  Robert  at  this  period  was  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  Conservative  party,  which  he  had  organized,  and  the 
principles  of  which  were  modified  Toryism.  The  Whig 
ministry  having  been  dismissed,  Peel  and  Wellington 
united  to  form  a  cabinet,  in  which  the  former  became  first 
lord  of  the  treasury,  (i.e.  prime  minister,)  in  December, 
1834.  Failing  to  obtain  the  support  of  a  majority  of  the 
new  Parliament  elected  at  this  period,  Sir  Robert  was 
compelled  to  resign,  in  April,  1835,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Melbourne.  On  the  resignation  of  Melbourne, 
in  May,  1839,  Sir  Robert  was  sent  for  by  the  queen,  but 
he  failed  to  become  prime  minister,  because  he  insisted 
on  the  removal  of  certain  ladies  of  the  bed-chamber. 
The  general  election  of  1841  gave  the  Conservatives  a 
large  majority  in  Parliament.  Lord  Melbourne  resigned 
in  August  of  that  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  In  the  new  cabinet  Lord  Lyndhurst  was  lord 
chancellor,  Lord  Aberdeen  foreign  secretary,  Lord  Stan 
ley  colonial  secretary,  Sir  James  Graham  home  secre 
tary,  and  Lord  Kllenborough  secretary  at  war.  Peel 
himself  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  The  important 
events  of  his  administration  were  the  settlement  of  the 
questions  of  the  corn-laws,  tariff,  and  income-tax.  In 
1842  he  proposed  a  sliding-scale,  according  to  which  the 
duty  on  grain  should  be  reduced  in  proportion  as  the 
price  increased.  This  bill  became  a  law.  He  imposed 
an  income-tax  of  "]d.  in  the  pound  to  supply  the  deficit 
in  the  revenue,  and  passed  a  new  tariff  bill,  by  which 
many  articles  were  admitted  free  and  the  duties  on  others 
were  reduced,  (1842.)  A  powerful  pressure  against  the 
duty  on  breadstuff's  was  produced  by  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  whose  interests  were  advocated  by  Cobden  and 
Bright  in  public  speeches.  The  case  was  rendered  more 
urgent  by  the  potato-rot  in  Ireland  in  1845.  In  Novem 
ber,  1845,  Sir  Robert  announced  himself  in  favour  of 
the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws;  but  some  of  his  colleagues 
opposed  the  measure.  Peel  then  resigned,  and  Lord 
John  Russell  was  called  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  but  did 
not  succeed.  About  the  2oth  of  December,  Sir  Robert 
resumed  office  with  his  former  colleagues,  except  Lord 
Stanley,  who  retired.  The  Tory  party  was  divided  on 
this  question  into  Peelites  and  Protectionists.  By  the 
united  votes  of  the  Peelites  and  Liberals,  the  corn-laws 
were  repealed,  after  an  eloquent  speech  by  Sir  Robert 
in  favour  of  the  repeal,  in  January,  1846.  Having  been 
defeated  on  the  Irish  Coercion  bill,  he  resigned,  June  29, 
1846,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  John  Russell.  He  had 
acquired  great  popularity,  which  continued  unabated,  and 
he  would  probably  have  been  called  again  to  the  direction 
of  affairs  if  he  had  lived  a  few  years  longer.  On  the 
2Qth  of  June,  1850,  he  was  thrown  from  his  horse  and  re 
ceived  injuries  of  which  he  died  on  July  2  of  that  year. 

See  TAYLOR  and  MACK  AY,  "  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Life  and  Times." 
4  vols.,  1846-51;  THOMAS  DOURI.EDAY,  "The  Political  Life  of  S  r 
Robert  Peel,"  2  vols..  1856:  KUKNZKL,  "Das  Leben  und  die  Rede'i 
Sir  R.  Peels,"  2  vols.,  1850;  GUIZOT,  "Siu  Robert  Peel,"  1859; 
LAWKKNCB  PKKI.,  "  Lite  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,"  1860:  see,  also,  his 
posthumous  Memoirs,  edited  by  LORD  M  AHON  and  MR  CARDWKI.I.  ; 
GKOKGK  H.  FRANCIS,  "The  Late  Sir  Robert  Peel  ;  a  Critical  liiog- 
raphy,"  1852;  L.  DE  LOMKNTR,  "Sir  Robert  Peel,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1842:  "  Londo i  Quirterly  Review"  for  September,  1842, 
and  October,  1846:  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1850, 
and  September,  1860;  "Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843, 
and  July,  1852;  "  Macmillan's  Magazine"  for  1869,  (by  GOLUWIN 
SMITH.) 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PEEL 


'757 


PELAriCINO 


Peel,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1822.  He  was  returned  to  Par 
liament  for  Tamworth  in  1850,  and  voted  with  the  Liberal 
party.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty  by  Lord  Palmerston.  Having  resigned  this 
place  in  1857,  he  became  secretary  for  Ireland,  without 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  in  1861.  He  retired  from  that 
office  a!»ut  1864,  and  voted  with  the  Tories  against  the 
Reform  bill  in  April,  1866. 

Peel,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  naval  officer,  born  in  1824, 
was  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  prime  minister. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol, 
in  1855.  As  captain  of  the  naval  brigade,  he  fought 
against  the  Sepoy  mutineers  in  India  in  1857.  Died  at 
Cawnpore  in  1858. 

Peel,  (WILLIAM  YATES,)  born  at  Bury  in  1789,  was  a 
son  of  the  first  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  brother  of  the  cele 
brated  statesman.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of 
Parliament,  which  he  entered  in  1817.  He  became  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1830,  and  again  in  1834.  Died  in  1858. 

Peele,  peel,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Devonshire,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1579.  He  be 
came  a  resident  of  London,  and  had  the  title  of  city 
poet.  His  talent  was  much  inferior  to  that  of  Marlowe. 
Among  his  plays  are  "The  Old  Wives  Tale"  and  "The 
Battle  of  Alcazar."  Died  about  1598.  His  works  were 
published  by  Dyce  in  1828,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life. 

Peerlkamp,  paul'kamp,  (HoFMAN  PIETER,)  a  Dutch 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Groningen  in  1786.  He 
published  several  biographical  works  in  Latin,  and  valu 
able  editions  of  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  Horace's  "  Odes," 
and  "  Letters  to  Piso." 

Peet,  (HARVEY  PRINDLE,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Litchfield 
county,  Connecticut,  in  1794,  became  president  of  the 
Institution  for  the  Deaf  and-  Dumb  in  New  York,  (1845.) 
He  has  published  a  "  Course  of  Instruction,"  "  Scripture 
Lessons,"  and  other  works  for  deaf-mutes. 

Pegase.     See  PEGASUS. 

Feg'a-sus,  |Gr.  nf/^aaor.-  FT.  PEGASE,  pa'gf//,]  a 
winged  horse  of  classic  mythology,  was  supposed  to  be 
the  offspring  of  Neptune  and  Medusa.  The  poets  relate 
that  he  carried  liellerophon  in  his  fight  with  Chimaem, 
that  with  a  stroke  of  his  hoof  he  produced  the  foun- 
.  tain  Hippocrene  on  Mount  Helicon,  that  he  was  the 
favourite  of  the  Muses,  and  that  he  finally  became  a 
constellation  in  the  heavens. 

Pegge,  peg.  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1704.  He  obtained  the  living  of  God- 
mersham  in  1731,  and  that  of  Whittington  in  1751.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Robert  Grosseteste,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,"  (1793.)  Died  in  1796. 

Pegge,  (SAMUEL,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1731.  He  wrote  "Cuiialia,"  and  "  Anecdotes  of  the 
English  Language."  Died  in  1800. 

Fe'gram,  (Jonx,)  an  American  general,  born  in  South 
Carolina.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855.  ^e 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  in  several  battles  in  Vir 
ginia,  and  was  killed  at  Hatcher's  Run,  near  Petersburg, 
February  6,  1865. 

Peignot,  pan'yo',  (  ETIENNK  GABRIEL,)  a  learned 
French  bibliographer,  born  at  Arc-en-Barrois  in  1767. 
He  was  principal  of  colleges  at  Vesoul  and  Dijon.  He 
wrote  many  antiquarian  treatises,  biographies,  and  works 
on  bibliography.  His  "  Dictionary  of  Bibliology"  ("  Dic- 
tionnaire  raisonne  de  Bibliologie,"  2  vols.,  1802)  is  said 
to  be  important.  Died  in  1849. 

See  QUEK ARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Peile,  peel,  (Rev.  THOMAS  W.,)  an  English  classical 
scholar,  born  about  1806,  graduated  at  Cambridge.  He 
published  "  Annotations  on  the  Apostolical  Epistles," 
(6  vols.,  1848-52.)  He  subsequently  obtained  the  living 
of  Saint  Paul's,  Hampsteacl. 

Peirce,  peerss,  (BENJAMIN,)  LL.D.,  an  able  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1809,  has  written 
various  works  on  mechanics  and  kindred  subjects. 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Peirce,  (BRADFORD  K.,)  an  American  Methodist 
divine  and  reformer,  was  born  at  Royalton,  Vermont,  in 
1819.  He  founded  in  1856,  at  Lancaster,  Massachusetts, 
a  State  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  which  has  succeeded 
in  reforming  great  numbers  of  those  \\lio  had  been  guilty 


of  petty  offences.  He  has  published  a  work  entitled  "  The 
Eminent  Dead,"  and  several  religious  books. 

Peirce,  (CYRUS,)  an  American  teacher,  born  at  Wali- 
ham,  Massachusetts,  in  1790,  became  principal  of  the 
first  American  normal  school,  founded  at  Lexington, 
Massachusetts,  in  1839.  He  published  an  essay  entitled 
"  Crime  :  its  Cause  and  Cure,"  and  a  "  Letter  on  Normal 
Schools."  Died  in  1859. 

Peirce,  peerss,  (JAMES,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  London  in  1673.  He  published  ser 
mons  and  controversial  works.  Died  in  1726. 

Peiresc,  de,  deli  pi'r&sk',  (NICOLAS  CLAUDE  Fabri 
— fS'bue',)  an  eminent  French  antiquary,  scholar,  and 
patron  of  learning,  was  born  at  Beaugensier,  in  Provence, 
in  1580.  He  studied  law  at  Padna,  and  became  a  coun 
sellor  of  the  parliament  of  Aix,  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Gassendi.  In  visits  to  Italy,  England,  etc.,  he 
collected  many  books,  medals,  and  specimens  of  nature 
and  art,  which  he  freely  distributed  to  his  friends.  He 
maintained  an  active  correspondence  with  many  French 
I  and  foreign  savants.  He  wrote  to  his  friends  at  Rome 
in  favour  of  Galileo  when  the  latter  was  in  prison. 
Many  of  his  letters  have  been  published.  It  was  at 
Peiresc's  suggestion  that  Grotius  wrote  his  work  "  De 
Jure  Belli  et  Pads."  Died  at  Aix  in  1637. 

See  GASSKNDI,  "Vita  N.  C.  F.  de  Peiresc,"  1641;  REQUIER, 
"Vie  de  Peiresc,"  1770;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Peirithous.     See  PIRITHOUS. 

Peirouse.     See  LA  PEYKOUSE. 

Peisander.     See  PISANDER. 

Peisistratus.     See  PISISTRATUS. 

Pe'kah,  [Heb.  HpS,]  King  of  Israel,  usurped  the 
throne  in  758  B.C.  In  alliance  with  the  King  of  Syria, 
he  waged  war  against  Jotham  and  Ahaz,  Kings  of  Judah. 
lie  was  killed  by  Hosea  in  738  or  739. 

Pek-a-hi'ah,  [Heb.  nTOi\]  King  of  Israel,  began  to 
rei<rn  about  760  P..C.  He 'was  killed  by  Pekah,  760  B.C. 

Pelage.     See  PELAGIUS. 

Pe-la'gl-us,  [Gr.  Ue'/jayios ;  Fr.  PELAGE,  pi'ltzh',]  the 
|  founder  of  the  sect  of  Pelagians,  or  rather  the  chief 
advocate  of  a  system  of  doctrines  called  Pelagianism, 
was  born  probably  in  Britain.  He  began  to  propagate 
his  doctrines  at  Rome  about  400  A.D.,  and  formed  a 
friendship  with  Celestius,  who  became  his  ardent  disciple. 
He  was  an  admirer  of  Origen,  and  an  adversary  of  Saint 
Augustine  in  relation  to  grace  and  election.  Pelagius 
rejected  the  dogmas  of  original  sin  and  absolute  predes- 
'  tination.  He  maintained  that  the  effects  of  Adam's  first 
'  sin  were  confined  to  himself,  and  that  man's  salvation 
!  depends  on  his  own  exertions.  He  was  condemned  by- 
several  councils,  and  was  banished  from  Italy  in  418. 
I  The  eminent  purity  of  his  life  was  freely  admitted  by 
his  opponents.  A  system  called  Semi-Pelagianism  pre 
vailed  widely  in  the  middle  ages,  and  has  many  adherents 
at  the  present  day.  As  the  numerous  works  of  Pelagius 
are  nearly  all  lost,  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  exactly  what 
doctrines  he  taught.  His  adversaries  complained  of 
the  haze  of  subtle  dialectics  with  which  he  involved 
every  subject  of  dispute.  Among  his  extant  works  is  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul." 

See  NORKIS,  "  Historis  Pelaa;iana ;"  T,.  PATOUIU.ET,  "Vie  de 
Pelage,"  1751  :  RAVI.K,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  SAINT 
AUGUSTINE,  "De  Gratia  Christ!"  and  "  De  Peccato  Original! ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pe-la'gl-us  [Fr.  PELAGE,  pi'ltzh']  I.,  a  native  of 
Rome,  became  pope  in  555  A.D.,  after  the  death  of 
Vigilius.  He  died  in  559  or  560,  and  was  succeeded  by 
John  III. 

Fela^ius  II.,  POPE,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  born  about 
520.  He  succeeded  Benedict  I.  in  578  A.D.  He  died 
in  590,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  the  Great. 

Pe-la'gi-us  or  Pelayo,  pi-la'yo,  [Fr.  PELAGE,  pa'- 
Itzh',]  King  of  Asturias,  was  a  descendant  of  the  Gothic 
kings  of  Spain.  He  fought  with  success  about  718  A.D. 
against  the  Moors,  who  had  conquered  the  greater  part 
of  Spain,  and  founded  a  small  kingdom,  which  he  left 
to  his  son-in-law,  Alfonso.  Died  about  738  A.D." 

Pelasgue.     See  PELASGUS. 

Pe-las'gus,  [Gr.  ILr/vztTyoc:  Fr.  PELASGUE,  pa'lfsg',] 
j  a  mythical  personage,  supposed  to  have  been  the  ances 
tor  of  the  Pelasgi,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece. 

Pelavicino.     See  PALLAVICINI. 


€  as£;  535  s;  ghard:  gas/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  sas  ;:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PELATO 


1758 


PELLEGRINI 


Pelayo.     See  PELAGIUS,  (of  Asturias.) 

Felee.     See  PELEUS. 

Pelet,  peh-lk',  (JEAN  JACQUKS  GKRMAIN,)  BARON,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1778.  He 
served  with  distinction  as  aide-de-camp  of  Massena  in 
Italy,  Austria,  and  Portugal,  (1805-12,)  and  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Waterloo.  In  1830  he  became  a  lieutenant- 
general,  lie  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1852.  lie 
published  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  of  1809,"  (4  vols.,  1824,) 
and  other  able  military  works.  Died  in  1858. 

Pelet  de  la  Lozere,  peh-LY  deh  la"  lo'zain',  (JEAN,) 
COMTE,  a  French  legislator,  born  at  Saint-Jean-du-Gard 
in  1759,  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom  and  modera 
tion.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  (by  seventy-one  de 
partments)  in  1795.  During  the  empire  he  was  coun 
cillor  of  state.  Died  in  1842. 

His  son,  PRIVAT  JOSEPH  CLARAMOND,  born  in  1785, 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1827.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  an  orator  of  the  Left  Centre. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  under  Thiers  in  1840. 

Peletier,  pel-te-a',  sometimes  written  Pelletier, 
(JACQUES,)  a  poet  ^nd  mathematician,  born  at  Mans,  in 
France,  in  1517.  He  lived  at  many  places,  and  followed 
various  pursuits.  In  1572  he  became  principal  of  the 
College  of  Mans.  He  translated  Horace's  "  De  Arte 
Poetica"  into  verse,  (1544,)  and  wrote  original  poems 
of  some  merit.  Died  in  1582. 

Peletier,  Le,  leh  pel-te-V,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  magis 
trate,  born  in  Paris  in  1630  or  1631.  He  was  provost  of 
the  merchants  in  1668,  and  constructed  the  qua!  in  Paris 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1683  he  succeeded  Colbert 
as  controller-general  of  finance.  He  found  himself 
unequal  to  the  task  of  raising  funds  for  a  long  war,  and 
resigned  in  1689.  Voltaire  calls  him  a  good  and  just 
man.  Died  in  1711. 

Peletier  de  Sousi,  Le,  leh  pel-te-S/  deh  soo'ze', 
(MiCHEL,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1640.  He  spoke  many  languages,  ancient  and  modern, 
and  wrote  memoirs  on  medals  and  inscriptions.  He 
served  as  intendant  of  finance  from  1683  to  1701,  and 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency  at  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV.  Died  in  1725. 

Peleus,  pee'lus  or  pee'lf^us,  [Gr.  IIr/?.ei>f ;  Fr.  PEL£E, 
pa'la',]  King  of  Thessaly,  was  a  son  of  /Eacus,  and 
married  the  sea-nymph  Thetis,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Achilles.  The  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis 
is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  all  the  gods  and  god 
desses  except  Discord.  According  to  tradition,  he  took 
part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  but  was  prevented 
by  his  great  age  from  joining  in  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Pe'leus,  [Fr.  PILIEU,  pe'le-uh',]  (Jui.iEN,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Angers.  He  was  appointed  councillor 
of  state  and  historiographer  by  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Henry  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1616.)  Died 
about  1625. 

Pelham.     See  NEWCASTLE,  DUKE  OF. 

Pelhani,  peYam,  (HENRY,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1694,  was  a  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle. 
He  became  paymaster  of  the  army  in  1730,  and  an  op 
ponent  of  Walpole.  On  the  defeat  of  Walpole,  in  1742, 
he  obtained  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  A 
rivalry  between  him  and  Lord  Carteret  resulted  in  the 
removal  of  the  latter  in  1743  or  1744,  after  which  Pelham 
and  his  brother  were  the  chief  ministers  until  1754. 
"  Henry  Pelham,"  says  Macaulay,  "  was  by  no  means  a 
contemptible  person.  His  understanding  was  that  of 
Walpole  on  a  somewhat  smaller  scale.  Though  not  a 
brilliant  orator,  he  was,  like  his  master,  a  good  debater, 
a  good  parliamentary  tactician,  a  good  man  of  business. 
.  .  .  For  the  first  time  since  the  accession  of  the  Stuarts, 
there  was  no  opposition."  Died  in  1754. 

See  MACAULAY'S  Review  of  "Walpole's  Letters  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann,"  1833;  WILLIAM  Coxn,  "Memoirs  of  the  Administration  of 
the  Rt.  Hon.  Henry  Pelham,"  2  vols.,  1829. 

Pelham,  (THOMAS,)  Earl  of  Chichester,  was  born  in 
or  near  London  in  1756.  He  was  elected  about  1780  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  voted  with  the 
Tories.  He  was  home  secretary  from  April,  1801,  to 
1803,  and  inherited  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chichester  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1805.  Died  in  1826. 


Pelhestre,  peh-le"stR',  (PIERRE,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1635 ;  died  in 
1710. 

Pe-ll'a-de§,  (singular,  Pe'li-as,)  a  name  applied  to 
the  daughters  of  PELIAS,  which  see. 

Pe'll-as,  [Gr.  Ilt/Uaf;  Fr.  PELIAS,  pi'le'ts',]  a  son 
of  Neptune  and  Tyro  or  of  Cretheus  and  Tyro,  was  a 
I  brother  of  Neleus.  He  usurped  the  throne  of  lolcos 
from  yEson,  a  son  of  Cretheus,  and  sent  Jason  to  Col 
chis  to  bring  the  golden  fleece.  He  was  the  father  of 
Acastus,  Alcestis,  and  several  other  daughters.  The 
poets  relate  that  Pelias  was  cut  to  pieces  by  his  daugh 
ters,  called  PELIADES,  at  the  instigation  of  Medea,  who 
promised  to  restore  him  to  youth. 

Pelides.     See  ACHILLES. 

Peligot,  pi'le'go',  (EUGENE  MELCHIOR,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers 
in  1841. 

Pelissier,  pa'le'se-i',  (AMAKLE  JEAN  JACQUES,)  Due 
de  Malakoff,  (deh  mt'lt'kof,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Maromme  (Seine-Inferieure)  in  1794.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1815,  and  served  as  aide-de-camp  of  General 
j  Durrieu  in  the  Morea  in  1828-29.  About  the  end  of 
I  1839  he  was  sent,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  to 
Algeria,  where  he  took  part  in  many  actions.  He  com- 
'  manded  the  left  wing  at  Isly,  in  1844,  and  in  1845  fixed 
an  indelible  stain  upon  his  memory  by  suffocating  a  party 
of  Arabs  in  a  cavern,  at  the  mouth  of  which  he  ordered 
a  large  fire  to  be  built.  In  1850  he  became  a  general  of 
division.  He  was  Governor-General  of  Algeria  ad  interim 
in  1851.  In  January,  1855,  he  was  ordered  to  the  Crimea, 
to  command  the  first  corps  of  the  army  which  co-operated 
with  the  British  in  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  lie  suc 
ceeded  Canrobert  as  general-in-chief  on  the  i6th  of  May, 
1855.  A  victory  was  gained  by  the  allies  on  the  Tcher- 
naia  in  August,  and  the  French  carried  by  storm  the 
fort  of  Malakoff  on  the  8th  of  September.  For  this 
success  Pelissier  received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1855,  and 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Malakoff  in  1856.  He  was  ambas 
sador  to  England  in  1858,  and  during  the  war  in  Italy 
in  1859  he  commanded  the  army  of  observation  which 
defended  the  eastern  frontier.  In  November,  1860,  he 
became  Governor-General  of  Algeria.  Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pelisson.     See  PELLISSON. 

Pell,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Sussex  in  1610,  studied  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford. 
He  became  professor  at  Amsterdam  in  1643,  and  was 
sent  by  Cromwell  as  agent  to  the  Protestant  Swiss 
cantons  in  1654.  He  returned  home  in  1658,  became 
rector  of  Fobbing,  Essex,  in  1661,  and  rector  of  Laing- 
don  in  1673.  He  published  a  refutation  of  Longomon- 
tanus's  discourse  "On  the  True  Measure  of  the  Circle," 
("  De  vera  Circuli  Mensura,"  1644,)  an  "Idea  of  the 
Mathematics,"  and  other  works.  It  was  to  Pell  that 
Newton  first  explained  his  invention  of  fluxions.  Died 
in  1685. 

See  MONTUCI.A,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Pellat,  pi'lf,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTS,)  an  able  French 
jurist,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1793.  He  obtained  the  chair 
of  Pandects  in  Paris  in  1829,  and  published  several  suc 
cessful  works  on  Roman  law. 

FeUegrin,  peTgRaN',(SiMON  JOSEPH,)  AKHE,  a  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1663.  He 
gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  poetry  in 
1 704.  His  best  works  are  "  The  New  World,"  a  comedy, 
(1723,)  and  "  Pelopee,"  a  tragedy,  (1733,)  which  were  suc 
cessful.  Died  at  Paris  in  1745. 

Pellegrini,  pel-la-gree'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Venice  in  1675.  He  worked 
in  England  and  Paris,  and  settled  at  Venice.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "The  Brazen  Serpent."  "  He  was 
ingenious,"  says  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "and 
painted  with  great  facility."  Died  in  1741. 

Pellegrini,  (CAMILLO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Capua  in  1598.  He  spent  much  time  in  collecting  an 
cient  documents  for  the  history  of  Italy,  and  published 
a  valuable  "History  of  the  Princes  of  Lombardy," 
("  Historia  Principum  Longobardorum,"  1643.)  Died 
in  1663, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


PELLEGRINI 


1759 


PELLISSOX 


Pellegrini,  (DOMKNICO,)  an  architect  and  engraver, 
born  in  1541,  was  a  brother  ot"  Pellegrino,  noticed  below. 
He  designed  the  palace  de  Magnani  at  Bologna,  and 
other  fine  edifices  of  that  city.  His  etchings  are  prized 
by  amateuis.  Died  in  1582. 

Pellegrini,  (GIUSEPPE  LUIGI,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  lie TII  at  Verona  in  1718,  was  distinguished  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  He  published  "  Latin  and  Italian  Poems," 
("  Poesie  Latine  ed  Italiane,"  1791.)  Died  in  1799. 

Pellegrini,  (PKLLEGRINO,)  called  also  TIBALDI,  te- 
bal'dee,  an  eminent  painter  and  architect,  born  in  the 
Milanese  in  1527.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  appears  to 
have  taken  Michael  Angelo  as  his  model.  He  acquired 
a  grandeur  ot  style  which  was  less  extravagant  than  that 
of  Michael  Angelo.  Among  his  best  paintings  are  the 
frescos  in  the  Poggi  Chapel,  representing  John  the  Bap 
tist  baptizing,  and  other  subjects.  He  was  appointed  in 
1570  chief  architect  of  the  Duomo  (cathedral)  of  Milan, 
and  designed  the  facade  of  that  great  Gothic  structure, 
which  was  commenced  about  1387.  His  design  was 
censured  by  many  artists,  but  was  partially  executed. 
He  worked  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  the  Escurial,  both 
as  painter  and  architect.  He  died  at  Milan  about  1595 
or  1600. 

See  Z  ANOTTI,"  Vita  di  Tibaldi ;"  VASARI,"  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;" 
QUATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  " Dictioiinaire  d'Architecture." 

Pelleport,  peTpoR',  (PIERRE,)  VICOMTE,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Haute-Garonne  in  1773.  He  fought  at 
Jena,  (1806.)  at  Eylau,  (1807,)  obtained  the  rank  of 
colonel  at  Essling,  and  the  title  of  baron  at  Wagram, 
(1809.)  Died  in  1855. 

Pellerin,  peTra.\',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  numismatist 
and  linguist,  born  near  Versailles  in  1684.  He  became 
commissioner  of  the  navy  in  1718,  and  chief  clerk  some 
years  later.  He  formed  a  cabinet  of  32,500  medals, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  richest  that  ever  belonged 
to  a  private  person,  and  published  a  description  of  them, 
entitled  "  Collection  of  Medals  of  Kings,  Nations,  and 
Cities,"  ("  Recueil  de  Medailles  de  Rois,  Peuples  et 
Villes,"  10  vols.,  1762-78.)  He  adopted  an  improved 
system  of  classification.  Died  in  1782. 

See  CHAUDON  et  DELANDIXE,  "  Dictionnaire  Universel." 

Pellet,  pi'li',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  poet  and 
advocate,  born  at  Spinal  in  1782  ;  died  in  1830. 

Pelletan,  peTtox',  (EroENE,)  an  able  French  littera 
teur,  born  in  Charente-Inferieure  in  1813.  His  father 
was  a  Protestant  minister.  He  wrote  literary  critiques 
for  the  "  Presse"  for  about  ten  years,  (1839-50,)  and  con 
tributed  to  other  journals.  In  1848  he  was  a  republican, 
and  intimate  with  Lamartine.  Among  his  popular  works 
are  "  The  Profession  of  Faith  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1853,)  and  '•  The  Pastor  of  the  Desert,"  (1855.)  He  was 
elected  to  the  corps  legislatif  in  1869,  and  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  provisional  government  in  September,  1870. 

Pelletan,  (PHILIPPE  JEAN,)  a  French  surgeon  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  suc 
ceeded  Desault  as  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  Hotel-Dieu 
in  Paris,  and  was  consulting  surgeon  to  Napoleon  I. 
He  lectured  in  Paris  about  thirty  years,  with  such  elo 
quence  that  he  was  called  the  "  Chrysostom  of  surgeons." 
Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Bioeraphie  Medicale  ;"  QUERAKD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;" 
"  Nfouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pelletan,  (PIERRE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
in  Paris  in  1782,  and  was  a  distinguished  physician.  He 
became  professor  of  physique  medicate  at  Paris  in  1823. 
In  1843  he  resigned  this  chair.  He  published  a  "Dic 
tionary  of  Medical  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1823.)  Died 
in  1846. 

Pelletier.  See  PELETIER,  LK,  (CLAUDE.) 
Pelletier,  peTte-i',  (BERTRAND,)  an  eminent  French 
chemist,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1761.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  in  1795, 
and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  for  the  "  An- 
nales  de  Chimie,"  and  made  some  important  discoveries. 
"  He  showed  himself  a  man  of  genius,"  says  Fournier- 
Pescay,  "  in  his  researches  on  phosphorus  and  on  its 
combinations  with  metals."  Died  in  1797.  His  col 
lected  works  were  published,  under  the  title  of  "Me 
moirs  and  Observations,"  (2  vols.,)  in  1798. 


Pelletier,  pSl'te-i,  (CASPAR,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
botanist,  was  born  at  Middelburg  ;  died  in  1659. 

Pelletier,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  ficlaron  (Haute-Marne)  in  1777.  He  became  general 
of  brigade  in  1809,  obtained  command  of  the  artillery, 
and  served  with  credit  at  Moskwa,  (1812.)  Died  in 
1862. 

Pelletier,  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  chemist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1788,  was  a  son  of  Bertrand,  noticed  above.  He  dis 
played  a  rare  talent  for  observation  and  analysis,  and 
discovered  several  vegetable  salifiable  bases.  The  im 
portant  discovery  of  quinine  (1820)  was  made  by  Pelle 
tier  and  Caventou,  who  was  his  associate.  For  this 
service  the  Academy  of  Sciences  gave  him  a  prize  of 
ten  thousand  francs  in  1827.  He  published  a  "Memoir 
on  Quinine,"  (1821,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1842. 

Pelletier,  Le,  (JEAN.)     See  LEPELLETIER. 

Pellew,  (EDWARD.)     See  EXMOUTH,  LORD. 

Pel'lew,  (GEORGE,)  D.D.,  a  younger  son  of  Lord 
Exmouth,  was  born  in  1793.  He  became  Dean  of  Nor 
wich  in  1828.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Seven  Ages 
of  a  Christian  Life,"  (1855.) 

Pellican,  pel'le-kan',  [  Lat.  PELLICA'NUS;  Ger. 
KURSCHNER,  kuRsh'ner,]  (CoNRAD,)  a  learned  Reformer 
and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  in  1478. 
He  took  the  monastic  vows,  learned  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  became  superior  of  the  convent  at  Ruffach 
about  1517.  Having  been  converted  to  the  doctrines 
of  Luther,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Zurich  in  1526.  He  was  intimate  with  Erasmus.  Among 
his  works  are  Latin  Commentaries  on  the  Bible,  (5  vols. 
fol.,  1534-38,)  which  are  highly  esteemed.  "Pellican," 
says  Richard  Simon,  "is  more  exact  than  the  other 
Protestants.  .  .  .  He  aimed  to  be  useful  to  his  readers 
rather  than  to  display  his  rabbinage."1  Died  in  1556. 

See  "  Chronicon  Vit«e  ipsius  ab  ipso  conscriptum,"  inserted  in 
MEI.CHIOR  ADAM'S ''Vita?  Tlieo'osorum  Germanorum  ;"  JOHANN 
FABRICIUS,  "  Oratio  historica  de  Vita  C.  Pellicani,"  1608;  SALOMON 
HESS,  "C.  Peliicans  Jugendgeschichte,"  1705. 

Pellicanus.     See  PELLICAN. 

Pellicer,  pgl-ye-thaik',  (JosE  de  Ossau — da  os- 
sow',]  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1602; 
died  in  1679. 

Pellicer,  (JuAN  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  antiquary,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1738.  He  wrote  "  Ensayo  de  una  Bibli- 
oteca  de  Traductores  Espafioles,"  ("Library  of  Spanish 
Translations,"  1778,)  and  published  a  good  edition  of 
"Don  Quixote,"  (1797.)  Died  in  1806. 

Pellicier  or  Pellissier,  p.Yle'se-i',  (GUILLAUME,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Languedoc  about  1490. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Montpellier,  and  was  employed 
in  important  missions  by  Francis  I.  His  vast  erudition 
is  extolled  by  De  Thou  and  Turnebus.  Died  in  1568. 

Pellico,  pel'le-ko,  (SiLVio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Saluzzo,  Piedmont,  in  1789.  He  became  in  1810  teacher 
of  French  in  a  college  of  Milan,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Ugo  Foscolo  and  Monti.  He  pro 
duced  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  a  tragedy,  which  was 
performed  with  great  applause.  In  Milan  he  became 
acquainted  with  Lord  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael,  and 
Lord  Brougham.  He  was  the.  principal  founder  of  "  II 
Conciliatore,"  a  literary  periodical,  first  issued  in  1818, 
which  was  quickly  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  govern 
ment.  In  October,  1820,  he  was  arrested  as  a  member 
of  a  secret  society,  and  in  1822  was  condemned  to  im 
prisonment  for  fifteen  years  carcere  dura.  He  was  con 
fined  at  Spielberg,  in  Moravia,  until  August,  1830,  and 
then  released,  having  suffered  with  great  resignation. 
He  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  sufferings,  entitled  "My 
Prisons,"  ("  Le  mie  Prigioni,"  1831,)  which  excited  great 
sympathy  and  was  translated  into  all  the  languages  of 
Europe.  His  prose  treatise  "  On  the  Duties  of  Man"  is 
praised  for  its  good  morality.  Died  at  Turin  in  1854. 

See  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "M.  S.  Pellico,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1^42;  V.  CHIAI.A,  "Vita  di  S.  Peliico."  1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and  October,  183.-?. 

Pellisson,  pi'le'soN',  or  Pellisson-Fontanier,  pi'- 
le'sds'  foN'ti'ne-i',  (PAUL.)  a  French  author,  born, 
of  Protestant  parents,  at  Beziers  in  1624.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  French  Academy,"  (1653,)  which  ob 
tained  such  success  that  this  society  nominated  him  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.      (J^T^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PELLOUTIER 


1760 


PEN4TES 


titular  member  and  voted  that  lie  should  be  admitted 
to  the  first  vacant  seat.  In  1657  lie  became  chief  clerk 
of  Fouquet,  minister  of  finance.  He  was  confined  for 
four  years  (1661-65)  in  the  Bastille  on  account  of  his 
connection  with  Fouquet.  Having  been  selected  by 
Louis  XIV.  to  write  the  history  of  his  reign,  he  abjured 
Protestantism  in  1670,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and 
obtained  several  benefices.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1749,)  and  other  works.  His 
writings  were  more  admired  in  his  own  time  than  at 
present.  Died  in  1693. 

See  FKNKLON,  "  fiioge  de  Pellisson ;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV." 

Pelloutier,  p^'loo'te-i',  (SiMON,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1694.  He  became  minister  of  a  Prot 
estant  church  at  Berlin  in  1725,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  that  city  in  1743.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Celts,  Gauls,  and  Germans 
from  Fabulous  Times  to  the  Capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1740-50,)  which,  says  the 
"Journal  des  Savants,"  "  is  extremely  curious  and  agree 
able."  Died  at  Berlin  in  1757. 

See  HAAG,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Pe-lop'I-das,  [  Gr.  He/ioTmiaf,  j   an  eminent   Theban 
statesman   and  general,  was   a  son  of  Hippoclus.     He  | 
inherited   a  large   fortune,  of  which   he  made  a  liberal 
use,   and  became   an  intimate    and   constant    friend   ot 
Epaminondas,  who  saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea,  (385  B.C.)     As  a  leader  of  the  popular   party,  he 
went  into  exile  when    the    Spartans    made   themselves 
masters  of  Thebes,  in  382.      He  was  the  master-spirit  of 
the  small  band  of  patriots  who  surprised  by  night  and 
expelled  the   Spartans  and  aristocrats  from  Thebes  in 
379  B.C.     "  It  is  not  easy,"  says   Plutarch,  "to  find  an  j 
instance  so  remarkable  of  the  few  overcoming  the  many,  j 
merely  by  courage  and   conduct.  .  .  .  The   war   which 
humbled  the  pride  of  the  Spartans  and  deprived  them  j 
of  empire  took  its  rise  from  that  night."     Pelopidas  was  \ 
chosen  ger.eral-in-chief,  and  in  375  gained  at  Tegyrne  a  [ 
decisive  victory  over  the  Spartans,  who  then  lost  their  \ 
prestige  of  invincibility.      He  was  captain  of  the  Sacred 
band  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  where  he  gained  as  much  ; 
honour,  says  Plutarch,  as  Epaminondas,  the  commander-  j 
in-chief.      In  369   B.C.    Pelopidas   and   his   friend   com-  > 
manded  jointly  an   army  which   entered  Peloponnesus, 
forced   Argos  and   Arcadia  to  renounce  the  alliance  of  j 
the  Spartans,  and  ravaged  a  large  parfof  Laconia  in  a 
winter  campaign.     (See   EPAMINONDAS)      He  acted  as 
mediator  between  two  sons  of  Amyntas,  King  of  Mace- 
don,  and  carried  as  a  hostage  to  Tnebes  another  prince, 
who  was  afterwards  famous  as  Philip  of  Macedon.  Having 
been   sent   as   ambassador  to  Persia  in  367,  he  was  re 
ceived  with  great  honour  by  the  king  and  courtiers,  who 
said,  "This  is  the  man  who  deprived  the  Spartans  of 
the  empire  of  the  sea  and    land  ;"  and  he  induced  Ar- 
taxerxes  to  recognize  the  liberty  of  all  the  Greek  states. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  against  Alexander,  tyrant 
of  Pherae,  in  a  battle  with  whom  he  was  killed  in  364  U.C., 
as  he  too  rashly  urged  the  retreating  enemy. 

See  "  Life  of  Pelopidas,"  by  PLUTARCH,  who  compares  him  to 
Marcellus,  and  says  that  Pelopidas  was  "  inclined  to  every  virtue  ;" 
CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  "  Pelopidas;"  THIRLWALL,  "  History  o!  Greece." 

Pe'lops,  [Gr.  lle/.oip;  Fr.  PELOPS,  pa'lops',]  a  demi-god 
of  Greek  mythology,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Tanta 
lus,  a  grandson  of  Jupiter,  and  a  king  of  Pisa.  Among 
his  children  were  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  whose  mother 
was  Hippodami'a,  a  daughter  of  CEnomaus.  (See  CENO- 
MAUS.)  The  poets  relate  that  Tantalus  once  entertained 
the  gods  at  his  house,  and  offered  them  the  flesh  of 
Pelops,  whom  he  killed  and  boiled,  that  all  the  guests 
refused  to  partake  of  that  dish,  except  Ceres,  who  ate 
one  shoulder,  and  that  Pelops  was  restored  to  life  by 
Mercury,  with  an  ivory  shoulder  in  place  of  that  which 
was  devoured.  Tradition  adds  that  during  the  siege  of 
Troy  an  oracle  declared  that  this  city  could  not  be  taken 
unless  one  of  the  bones  of  Pelops  was  brought  to  the 
camp  of  the  Greeks.  According  to  another  legend,  the 
Palladium  at  Troy  was  made  of  the  bones  of  Pelops. 
The  southern  peninsula  of  Greece  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  from  him  the  name  Peloponnesus,  (or  "  island 
of  Pelops.") 


Pelouze,  peh-looz',  (THEoriiiLE  JUI.KS,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Valognes  (.vLn  he)  in  1807,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gay-Lnssac.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  chemistry  at 
Lille  in  1830,  soon  after  which  he  became  the  assistant 
(suppleant)  of  Gay-Lussac  in  the  Polytechnic  School. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1837,  and  was  ap 
pointed  president  of  the  Commission  des  Monnaies  (or 
director  of  the  Mint)  in  1848.  His  labours  and  memoirs 
place  him  in  the  first  rank  of  contemporary  chemists. 
Pelouze  and  Freiny  published  a  "Treatise  on  Chem 
istry,"  (6  vols.,  1853-56.)  Died  in  1867. 

Pels,  pels,  (ANDREAS,)  a  Dutch  poet,  who  founded  a 
school  or  literary  society  which  favoured  the  imitation 
of  French  models.  He  wrote  "The  Death  of  Dido,"  a 
tragedy,  (1668,)  and  translated  into  Dutch  verse  Horace's 
"Art  of  Poetry,"  (1667.)  Died  in  1681. 

Peltan,  de,  deli  pel'tan,  or  Pelte,  pel'teh,  [Lat.  PEL- 
TA'NUS.J  (THEODORE  ANTOINE,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Pelte.  He  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Book  of 
Proverbs,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1584. 

Peltaiius.     See  PKI.TAN. 

Peltier,  pei'tt>a/,  o'-  Pelletier,  (JEAN  GABRIEL,)  a 
French  journalist,  born  at  Nantes,  lie  began  to  issue 
in  London,  in  1800,  "  L'Ambigu,"  in  which  he  attacked 
Bonaparte  with  virulence,  lie  was  tried  for  libel  in 
1803,  was  defended  in  a  famous  speech  by  Sir  James 
Mackintosh,  and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  small  fine. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Peluse,  de,  COMTE.     See  MONGE. 

Felzel,  pelt'sel,  (FKANS  MARTIN,)  a  Bohemian  his 
torian,  born  at  Reichenau  in  1735,  wrote  a  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1774,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1801. 

Pem'ber-toii,  (EBENEZER,)  an  able  American  divine, 
born  about  1672,  preached  in  Boston.  Died  in  1717. 

Pembertoii,  (  EBENEXER,  )  LL.D.,  an  American 
teacher,  born  in  1746.  He  was  tutor  at  Princeton  Col 
lege,  and  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Massachusetts. 
Died  in  Boston  in  1835. 

Fem'ber-ton,  (HENRY,)  an  English  chemist,  anat 
omist,  and  geometer,  born  in  London  in  1694,  was  a 
pupil  and  friend  of  Boerhaave.  He  became  a  professor 
of  physic  in  Gresham  College,  (Oxford,)  where  he  gave 
lectures  on  chemistry,  (published  in  1771.)  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  View  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Philosophy," 
(1728,)  and  "  Lectures  on  Physiology,"  (1733.)  lie 
edited  Newton's  "  Principia,"  (1726.)  Died  in  1771. 

Pembertoii,  (JoiiN  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1837.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  be 
came  a  captain,  and  resigned  his  commission  in  April, 
1861.  Having  taken  arms  against  the  Union,  he  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  commanded 
at  Vicksburg  during  the  long  siege  of  that  place.  He 
was  defeated  by  General  Grant  at  Champion  Hill,  May 
16,  and  retired  to  Vicksburg,  which  he  surrendered,  with 
more  than  25,000  prisoners,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1863. 

Pemble,  pem'bel,  (Wll.LiAM,)  a  learned  English  Cal- 
vinistic  minister,  born  in  Kent  about  1590.  He  was  an 
able  preacher  and  linguist.  His  works  were  published 
in  1635.  Died  in  1623. 

Pembroke,  (ANNE,)  COUNTESS  OF.     See  CLIFFORD. 

Pembroke,  EARL  OF.     See  HERBERT. 

Pembroke,  (MARY,)  COUNTESS  OF.  See  SIDNEY, 
(MARY.) 

Pembroke,  pern 'brook,  (  THOMAS,)  an  English 
painter,  born  in  1702;  died  in  1730. 

Pena,  peh-na',  ( PIERRE,)  a  French  botanist  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Narbonne,  or  in  the 
diocese  of  Aix.  He  was  intimate  with  Lobel,  to  whom 
he  furnished  materials  for  his  work. 

Feiialosa,  de,  da  pan-ya-lo'sa,  ( Don  JUAN,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Baeza  in  1581  ;  died  in  1636. 

Pe-iia'tes,  [Fr.  PENATES,  pa'nit',]  the  household 
gods  of  the  Romans,  so  called,  probably,  because  their 
images  were  kept  in  the  penetralia,  the  innermost  part 
or  centre  of  the  house.  The  number  of  these  gods  or 
genii  was  indefinite.  The  Lares  were  included  among 
the  Penates,  and  were  sometimes  represented  as  iden 
tical  with  them.  Vesta  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
Penates,  which,  according  to  some  authors,  were  per 
sonifications  of  the  powers  of  nature. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  <>bseure;  far,  fall,  fat:  met:  nit;  good:  moor.; 


PEN4UD 


PENN 


Penaud,  peh-no',  (CHARI.KS,)  a  French  rear-admiral, 
born  in  1800,  commanded  the  squadron  which  operated 
against  Russia  in  the  Baltic  in  1855.  Died  in  1864. 

Peiicz  or  Pentz,  pe"nts,  written  also  Pens  and  Feins, 
(GuKGOR,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  was  born 
at  Nuremberg  about  1500.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  "Crucifixion,"  in  the  gallery  at  Augsburg,  and  a 
"Judith,"  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  His  engravings 
are  numerous  and  of  great  merit.  Died  about  1554. 

Pen'der,  (Wn.i.iAM  D.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  North  Carolina,  graduated  at  West  Point  about  1854. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Lee's  army  at  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  where  he  was  killed,  July  3,  1863. 

Pendleton,  pen'del-tpn,  (EDMUND,)  an  eminent 
American  statesman  and  judge,  born  in  Virginia  in  1721. 
He  was  elected  to  the  General  Congress  in  1774  and  in 
1775.  In  1776  he  was  president  of  the  Virginia  Con 
vention,  and  was  the  author  of  the  resolutions  by  which 
that  body  instructed  their  delegates  in  Congress  to  vote 
for  a  declaration  of  independence.  lie  was  appointed 
presiding  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  about  1779.  He 
was  president  of  the  convention  which  met  in  Virginia 
in  1788  to  consider  the  new  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  he  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  same.  His 
ability  as  a  debater  was  highly  extolled  by  Thomas 
Jefferson.  Died  at  Richmond  in  1803. 

Pendleton,  (GnoRGE  H.,)  an  American  politician,  a 
son  of  Nathaniel  Greene  Pendleton,  formerly  a  member 
of  Congress,  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  July,  1825. 
He  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Senate  of  Ohio  in  1854.  He  represented  the  first  dis 
trict  of  Ohio  in  the  National  House  of  Representatives 
from  December,  1857,  till  March,  1865.  He  acted  in 
Congress  with  the  Democrats  who  opposed  the  coercion 
of  the  secessionists,  and  was  nominated  as  candidate  for 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Democratic 
Convention  in  August,  1864.  He  received  twenty-one 
electoral  votes  out  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-three, 
which  was  the  whole  number.  About  1867  he  began  to 
advocate  the  payment  of  the  public  debt  in  paper  money, 
— "greenbacks."  As  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  he 
received,  at  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  July 
8,  1868,  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  and  one-half  votes  out 
of  three  hundred  and  seventeen,  on  the  eighth  ballot. 
He  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1869,  but  was  not  elected. 

Pendleton,  (HENRY,)  an  American  jurist,  and  resi 
dent  of  South  Carolina,  was  one  of  the  judges  appointed 
to  make  a  digest  of  the  laws  of  that  State.  Died  in  1788. 

Pene,  de.deh  pin,  (HENRI,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1830.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Figaro,"  and 
offended  the  military  by  some  remarks,  for  which  he  was 
challenged  by  several  subaltern  officers  in  succession, 
(1858.)  In  the  second  duel  he  was  desperately  wounded, 
so  that  for  a  time  he  was  not  expected  to  live. 

Pe-nel'o-pe,  [Gr.  Yli/re/M-rj  or  Hn'f/M~r/ ;  Fr.  PENE- 
I.OPK,  pi'na'lop',]  the  wife  of  Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  and 
a  cousin  of  Helen,  was  renowned  for  conjugal  fidelity. 
During  the  long  absence  of  her  husband  she  evaded 
the  importunity  of  her  suitors  by  a  promise  to  decide 
which  she  would  accept  when  she  had  finished  a  shroud 
for  the  aged  Laertes.  She  ravelled  at  night  what  she 
had  woven  by  day,  and  thus  postponed  the  decision 
until  the  return  of  Ulysses.  She  was  the  mother  of 
Telemachus. 

Penguilly  1'Haridon,  de,  deh  pSx'ge'ye'  It're'doN', 
(OCTAVE,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 

Penhouet,  peh-noc/a',  (ARMAND  Louis  BON  M.\u- 
DKT,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1764. 
He  wrote  "  Researches  on  Bretagne,"  (1814,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1839. 

Penicaud,  pa'ne'kS',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  enameller 
and  painter  on  glass,  born  in  1515,  worked  at  Limoges. 
He  was  an  able  artist. 

Peii'ing-ton,  (ISAAC,)  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  born  about  1618.  His  father 
was  lord  mayor  of  London  and  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament.  He  married  Mary,  the  widow  of  Sir  Wil 
liam  Springett,  (whose  daughter  became  the  wife  of 
William  Perm,)  and  resided  at  dial  font,  Bucks.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  imprisoned  six  times 


for  his  religious  principles.  "  He  grew  rich  and  fruitful 
in  all  heavenly  treasure,"  says  William  Penn, — "full  of 
love,  faith,  mercy,  patience,  and  long-suffering.  Insomuch 
that  I  may  say  he  was  one  of  a  thousand;  zealous,  yet 
tender,  wise,  yet  humble.  .  .  .  One  that  ever  loved  power 
and  life  more  than  words."  Died  in  1679.  He  left  "Let 
ters"  and  other  writings,  which  are  highly  prized. 

See  "The  Penns  and  Peningtoni  of  the  Seventeenth  Century," 
by  MARIA  WEBB,  London,  1867. 

Penn,  (GRANVILI.E,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Phila 
delphia  in  1761,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Penn,  and  a 
grandson  of  William  Penn.  He  was  a  clerk  in  the 
British  war  office.  Among  his  works  are  "Remarks 
on  the  Eastern  Origin  of  Mankind  and  of  the  Arts  of 
Cultivated  Life,"  and  a  "Life  of  Admiral  Penn," 
(1833.)  Died  in  1844. 

Penn,  (foiiN,)  an  American  patriot,  and  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Caroline 
county,  Virginia,  in  1741.  Having  removed  in  1774  to 
North  Carolina,  he  was  elected  in  1775  to  the  Conti 
nental  Congress.  Died  in  1788. 

Penn,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  able  English  admiral,  father 
of  William  Penn,  was  born  at  Bristol  in  1621.  He 
became  a  rear-admiral  about  1644,  obtained  the  rank 
of  admiral  in  1653,  and  commanded  the  fleet  which 
co-operated  with  Venables  in  the  capture  of  Jamaica 
from  the  Spaniards  in  1655.  He  promoted  the  restora 
tion  of  Charles  II.  In  1660  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Kinsale.  He  was  commander-in-chief,  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  of  the  fleet  which  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Dutch  in  1665.  He  retired  from  the  service  in  1669, 
and  died  at  Wanstead,  Essex,  in  1670. 

See  GRANVII.I.E  PENN,  "  Memorials  of  the  Life  of  Admiral  Sir 
William  Penn,"  1833. 

Penn,  (WILLIAM,)  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  Christian  philanthropists, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  141)1  of  October,  1644.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  (afterwards  Admiral)  Penn 
and  Margaret,  the  daughter  of  John  Jasper,  a  merchant 
of  Rotterdam.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  the  Chig- 
well  School,  in  Essex.  While  here,  before  he  was  eleven 
years  old,  his  mind  was  deeply  impressed  with  the  im 
portance  of  religion,  and  he  believed  that  he  was  even 
then  divinely  called  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  service 
of  God.  When  about  fifteen,  he  was  sent  to  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  John 
Locke,  afterwards  so  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the 
"  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding."  While  at  the 
university,  Penn  appears  to  have  applied  himself  dili 
gently  to  his  studies,  and  to  have  made  rapid  progress 
not  only  in  the  classics  but  likewise  in  several  of  the 
modern  languages.  He  is  said  also  to  have  devoted 
much  of  his  attention  to  theology  and  history.  Nor  did 
he  neglect  the  cultivation  of  his  physical  powers.  With 
a  handsome  person,  in  which  were  united  strength  and 
grace,  he  appears  to  have  been  well  fitted  to  excel  in 
those  out-door  exercises  which  were  then  and  are  still 
in  vogue  among  the  students  of  Oxford.  He  was,  we 
are  told,  a  skilful  boatman  as  well  as  an  adventurous 
sportsman.  But,  while  he  was  thus  applying  himself 
with  youthful  zeal  to  the  pursuits  deemed  appropriate  to 
young  gentlemen  of  his  condition,  a  new  influence  arose, 
which  was  destined  to  change  entirely  the  current  of  his 
future  life.  Thomas  Loe,  who  had  formerly  belonged 
to  the  university,  but  now  one  of  the  new  sect  of  Friends 
or  Quakers,  preached  at  Oxford.  The  views  which  he 
promulgated  made  a  powerful  impression  on  the  mind 
of  Penn.  He,  with  several  other  students  who  had 
beheld  with  displeasure  the  recent  attempt  to  intro 
duce  into  the  university  certain  forms  and  observances 
which  they  considered  to  be  little  better  than  papistical 
mummeries,  absented  themselves  from  the  established 
worship,  and  began  to  hold  meetings  among  themselves, 
conducting  their  devotional  exercises  in  their  own  way. 
Thereupon  they  were  fined  by  the  heads  of  the  college 
for  nonconformity  ;  but  this, 'instead  of  deterring  them 
from  the  course  they  had  taken,  only  added  fuel  to  their 
zeal.  It  happened  soon  after  that  an  order  came  down 
from  the  king  that  the  surplice  should  be  worn  by  the 
students,  according  to  the  custom  of  former  times.  This 
so  exasperated  some  of  them,  among  whom  Penn  appears 


is  A-:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

I  I  I 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PENN 


1762 


PENN 


to  have  taken  a  leading  part,  that  they  not  only  refused 
to  wear  the  surplice  themselves,  but,  falling  upon  those 
who  appeared  in  surplices,  they  forcibly  tore  off  from 
them  the  offensive  badge.  For  this  flagrant  and  open 
violation  of  the  laws  of  the  university,  Penn  and  sev 
eral  of  his  associates  were  expelled. 

This  disgrace  was  a  bitter  mortification  to  the  admiral, 
a  worldly  and  ambitious  man,  who  had  built  the  greatest 
hopes  on  his  eldest  and  favourite  son.  When  William 
returned  home,  his  father  received  him  with  cold  and 
stern  disapprobation.  His  son,  although  for  the  time 
carried  away  with  a  fanatical  zeal,  was  perfectly  sincere, 
and,  finding  his  conduct  not  disapproved  by  some  men 
of  note  who  were  jealous  of  what  they  considered  the 
encroachments  of  popery,  would  not  admit  that  he  had 
done  wrong  in  resisting  the  authority  of  the  king  with 
respect  to  the  surplice.  His  father,  having  tried  in  vain 
to  reclaim  him  by  argument,  proceeded  next,  like  one 
accustomed  to  arbitrary  power,  to  blows,  and  at  last,  it 
is  said,  turned  him  out-of-doors.  It  was  not  long,  how 
ever,  before  the  admiral,  who  really  loved  his  son  and 
was  proud  of  his  abilities,  began  to  relent ;  and  at  the 
intercession  of  his  mother,  au  amiable  and  excellent 
woman,  William  was  forgiven  and  recalled. 

With  a  view  to  dissipate  his  son's  religious  impres 
sions,  the  admiral  at  length  resolved  to  send  him  to 
France,  in  company  with  some  other  young  gentlemen  of 
rank  who  were  about  to  set  out  on  a  tour  across  the  con 
tinent.  At  Paris  he  was  introduced  to  a  brilliant  circle, 
including  some  of  the  most  distinguished  young  noble 
men  of  England,  and  was  presented  to  the  king,  Louis 
XIV.,  at  whose  court  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  frequent 
and  welcome  guest.  During  his  stay  in  the  French 
capital,  as  he  was  returning  one  night  from  a  party,  a 
man,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  total  stranger,  under 
some  imaginary  affront,  drew  his  rapier  upon  him,  and, 
in  an  angry  tone,  bade  him  defend  himself.  Penn  expos 
tulated  with  him,  but  in  vain  ;  so  that  at  last,  to  protect 
himself,  he  was  fain  to  use  his  sword.  His  hot-headed 
antagonist  was  quickly  disarmed  ;  but,  instead  of  taking 
any  advantage  of  his  vanquished  foeman,  he  courteously 
returned  him  his  rapier,  much  to  the  surprise,  it  appears, 
of  the  bystanders,  who  naturally  enough  supposed  that 
he  would  have  used  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  to 
take  ample  revenge  upon  one  who  had  so  causelessly 
attacked  him. 

After  leaving  Paris  he  spent  several  months  at  Saumur, 
reading  the  works  of  the  Fathers  and  studying  theology 
under  the  instruction  of  Moses  Amyrault,  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  learned  of  the  French  Protestant  di 
vines.  He  afterwards  commenced  a  tour  through  Italy, 
but  on  reaching  Turin  he  received  a  letter  from  his 
father,  recalling  him  to  England,  that  he  might  take 
charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  family  while  the  admiral  was 
engaged  abroad  in  the  war  against  Holland.  The  ap 
pearance  of  young  Penn  on  his  return  from  his  conti 
nental  tour  was  well  calculated  to  fill  a  father's  heart 
with  joy  and  pride.  He  had  grown  into  a  tall,  graceful, 
and  handsome  man,  with  a  countenance  of  singular  gen 
tleness  and  sweetness,  yet  expressing  both  intelligence 
and  resolution.  His  sojourn  in  the  gayest  and  most 
brilliant  capital  of  Europe  appears  to  have  completely 
effaced  those  serious  impressions  which,  in  his  father's 
judgment,  were  so  unsuited  to  a  youth  of  his  rank  and 
accomplishments.  All  the  hopes  which  the  admiral 
had  formerly  cherished  of  the  future  distinction  of  his 
son  were  now  revived.  That  his  son  might  not  relapse 
into  his  former  seriousness,  he  resolved  to  keep  him 
constantly  employed.  With  this  view,  he  had  him  entered 
.at  Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student  of  law. 

In  the  early  part  of  1665,  Admiral  Penn,  accompanied 
by  the  Duke  of  York,  then  lord  high  admiral  of  Eng 
land,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Dutch,  com 
manded  by  Admiral  Opdam.  The  duke  had  the  good 
sense  to  intrust  all  the  important  movements  of  the 
•fleet  to  the  direction  of  Admiral  Penn,  who  had  the  title 
of  Great  Captain  Commander.  The  plague  having  broken 
out  in  London,  it  appears  to  have  affected  William  Penn, 
as  it  did  thousands  of  others,  and  to  have  awakened  in 
his  mind  the  most  serious  thoughts.  His  father,  fearing 
lest  he  should  lose  the  fruit  of  all  his  former  care, 


resolved  to  send  his  son  with  letters  to  the  gay  and 
brilliant  court  of  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  Viceroy  of  Ire 
land,  with  whom  Admiral  Penn  was  on  terms  of  intimate 
friendship.  Soon  after  his  son's  arrival,  a  mutiny  occurred 
among  the  troops  at  Carrickfergus.  Penn  volunteered  his 
services  in  reducing  them  to  obedience,  and,  in  the  siege 
that  followed,  won  by  his  courage  and  coolness  general 
applause;  and  the  viceroy  himself  wrote  to  the  admiral, 
expressing  his  great  satisfaction  with  young  Perm's  con 
duct,  at  the  same  time  proposing  that  he  should  join  the 
army.  He  himself  was  at  first  so  much  elated  by  the 
distinction  he  had  acquired,  that  he  resolved  to  become 
a  soldier,  and,  under  the  influence  of  this  new  ambition, 
caused  himself  to  be  painted  in  military  costume.  "It 
is,"  says  Dixon,  "a  curious  fact  that  the  only  genuine 
portrait  of  the  great  apostle  of  peace  existing  represents 
him  armed  and  accoutred  as  a  soldier."  The  admiral, 
however,  disapproving  his  son's  project,  sent  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  large  estates  which  he  possessed  in 
the  south  of  Ireland.  While  on  business  at  Cork,  Wil 
liam  Penn  had  an  opportunity  of  again  hearing  Thomas 
Loe,  by  whose  preaching  he  had  been  so  strongly  im 
pressed  some  years  before.  His  early  convictions  were 
revived;  and  from  that  time  he  felt  it  to  be  his  impera 
tive  duty,  in  defiance  of  ridicule  and  persecution,  to 
join  his  lot  with  the  despised  Quakers.  Being  at  a 
meeting  at  Cork  in  1667,  he  was  arrested,  with  several 
other  Quakers,  and  taken  to  prison.  While  here,  he 
wrote  to  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  setting  forth  the  injustice 
of  his  imprisonment  and  advocating  universal  toleration 
in  faith  and  worship.  On  receiving  his  letter,  Lord  Or 
rery  gave  an  order  for  his  immediate  release.  A  rumour 
that  Penn  had  become  a  Quaker  reached  his  father.  He 
immediately  ordered  him  home.  When  the  admiral,  on 
seeing  his  son,  observed  that  he  was  still  dressed  like  a 
gentleman,  that  he  wore  lace,  plume,  and  rapier,  he  felt 
reassured,  and  began  to  hope  that  he  had  been  misin 
formed.  But  these  hopes  were  soon  dispelled.  His  son 
candidly  acknowledged  to  him  that  his  religious  convic 
tions  had  undergone  a  radical  change,  and  that  he  was 
now  a  Quaker.  The  disappointment  and  vexation  of  the 
admiral  were  extreme.  Yet,  in  the  hope  of  winning 
back  his  son,  he  made  use  of  every  argument,  and  even 
condescended  to  entreat  and  implore  ;  but  all  in  vain. 
The  refusal  of  his  son  to  uncover  in  the  presence  of  his 
superiors  in  rank  was  especially  mortifying  to  him.*  Al 
though  his  arguments  and  entreaties  had  proved  alike 
unavailing,  he  was  unwilling  to  abandon  all  hope.  As  a 
last  resort,  he  proposed  a  compromise  :  he  would  yield 
to  the  scruples  and  wishes  of  his  son  in  every  other  re 
spect,  if  the  latter  would  only  consent  to  take  off  his  hat 
in  his  father's  presence  and  in  that  of  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  York.  William  asked  time  to  consider  this 
proposition.  After  some  time  spent  in  reflection  and 
earnest  prayer,  he  announced  to  his  father  that  he  was 
unable  to  comply  with  his  wishes.  Thereupon  the  in 
dignant  admiral  again  expelled  him  from  the  house.  For 
some  months  he  was  dependent  upon  the  hospitality  of 
his  friends,  and  upon  such  pecuniary  aid  as  his  mother 
could  from  time  to  time  find  an  opportunity  of  sending 
him.  At  length  his  father  relented  so  far  as  to  allow 
him  to  return  home  ;  but  he  still  refused  to  see  or  hold 
any  intercourse  with  him.  About  this  time  (1668)  Wil 
liam  Penn  first  began  to  preach  and  to  write  in  defence 
of  the  new  doctrines  which  he  had  embraced.  His  first 
work,  entitled  "Truth  Exalted,"  was  addressed  to  kings, 
priests,  and  people,  whom  he  earnestly  exhorted  to  ic- 
examine  the  foundation  of  their  faith  and  worship,  and 
to  inquire  how  far  they  were  built  upon  the  authority  of 
God,  or  whether  they  did  not  rest  in  a  great  measure  on 
the  mere  notions  of  men.  A  number  of  publications, 
mostly  controversial,  followed.  One  of  these,  entitled 
"The  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,"  attracted  much  at 
tention.  Pepys  considered  it  too  good  to  be  the  pro 
duction  of  so  young  a  man.  In  this  work  Penn  had 
attempted,  among  other  things,  to  refute  "the  Notion 
of  one  God  subsisting  in  three  distinct  and  separate 
Persons."  For  this  "heresy"  he  was  apprehended  and 

*  For  a  brief  explanation  of  the  views  of  the  Quakers  with  respect 
to  taking  off  the  liat,  and  some  other  of  their  prominent  peculiarities, 
see  the  article  on  GEORGE  Fox. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PENN 


1763 


PENN 


sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  kept  in  solitary  con 
finement  for  more  than  eight  months.  While  in  the 
Tower,  a  report  reached  him  that  the  Bishop  of  London 
had  resolved  that  he  should  recant,  or  die  in  prison. 
Penn  replied,  with  the  spirit  of  a  martyr  and  a  hero, 
"  that  his  prison  should  be  his  grave  before  he  would  re 
nounce  his  just  opinions  ;  for  that  he  owed  his  conscience 
to  no  man."  During  his  confinement  in  the  Tower  he 
composed  "  No  Cross,  No  Crown,"  perhaps  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  larger  works.  He  also  wrote  to  Lord 
Arlington,  then  principal  secretary  of  state,  on  the  in 
justice  and  absurdity  of  attempting  to  coerce  men's 
religious  opinions.  Learning  that  the  views  advanced 
in  his  "Sandy  Foundation  Shaken"  had  been  misrepre 
sented,  he  wrote  "  Innocency  with  her  Open  Face,"  in 
which  he  showed  that  to  deny  the  existence  in  the  God 
head  of  "  three  DISTINCT  and  SKPARATK  persons"  did 
net  necessarily  involve  a  denial  of  Christ's  eternal 
divinity,  which  he  acknowledged  to  the  fullest  extent. 
In  this  Penn  took  substantially  the  same  ground  as  was 
afterwards  taken  by  Barclay  and  many  other  of  the  lead 
ing  Quakers.  They  felt  that  in  speaking  of  the  great 
and  awful  mysteries  of  the  Divine  nature  there  was  a 
sort  of  presumption  in  going  beyond  the  words  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  They  accordingly  rejected  the  term 
"Trinity,"  as  not  found  in  the  Scriptures,  and,  on  still 
stronger  grounds,  as  they  conceived,  they  refused  to 
accept  the  doctrine  of  "three  distinct  and  separate 
persons"  in  the  Godhead,  as  being  neither  expressed 
nor  necessarily  implied  in  the  language  of  inspiration. 
The  manly  behaviour  of  his  son  while  in  prison  ap 
pears  to  have  strongly  excited  the  respect  and  sympathy 
of  the  admiral.  He  used  his  influence  at  court,  and, 
after  a  time,  William  Penn  was  set  at  liberty. 

In  1669,  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  who  intimated  his 
wishes  to   his  son   through   Lady   Penn,   William  went 
again  to  Ireland,  to  take  charge  of  the  estates  belonging 
to  the  admiral  in  that  island.      He  remained  there  about 
eight  months,  when  he  was   recalled  on  account  of  his  • 
father's   failing   health.      His  sister  Margaret  had  been 
married,   and   his  younger    brother   Richard    was    then 
travelling  in  Italy.     Feeling  that  his  days  were  drawing 
to  a  close,  the  admiral  was  anxious  to  be  reconciled  to 
his  eldest  son,  who  appears,  before  the  recent  disagree-  j 
ment,  to  have  always  been   his  favourite.     As  soon  as  I 
William  returned    to   England,  the    reconciliation   took  | 
place,  to  the  joy  of  all  parties,  especially  of  his  mother,  j 
In  August  of  the  same  year,  William  Penn  preached  at 
a  meeting  in  Grace  Church  Street,  where  he  and  William 
Mead  were  arrested  by  warrants  from  the  mayor  of  Lon 
don.     "The    trial    which    followed    was,"    says    Dixon,! 
"  perhaps  the  most  important  trial  that  ever  took  place  : 
in  England.     Penn  stood  before  his  judges,  in  this  cele-  ; 
brated  scene,  not  so  much  as  a  Quaker  pleading  for  the 
rights  of  conscience,  as   an   Englishman  contending  for  j 
the  ancient  and  imprescriptible  liberties  of  his  race."  j 
The  jury  having  brought  in  a  verdict  favourable  to  the  ! 
prisoners,  the  recorder  said  they  should  be  locked  up,  j 
without   meat,  drink,  fire,  and  tobacco,  "till  we  have  a  j 
verdict  the  court  will  accept, — or  you  shall  starve  for  it."  : 
Though  repeatedly  menaced  with  starvation  and  other  \ 
cruelties,  such  as  slitting  their  noses,  (a  barbarous   but  | 
not  uncommon  punishment  for  offenders  in  those  days,) 
the  jury  still  persisted  in  their  verdict.     They  were  kept 
for  two  days  and  nights  without  food,  drink,  or  fire  ;  but 
this,  as  well   as  the   threats  of  the   court,  proving    in 
effectual,  they  were  at  last  fined  for  their  obstinacy,  and, 
on  refusing  to  pay  their  fines,  were  sent  to  prison.    "  For 
centuries,"  says  Dixon,  "it   had  remained  an   unsettled 
question  of  law,  whether  the  jury  had  or  had  not  a  right 
so  far  to  exercise  its  own  discretion  as  to  bring  in  a  ver 
dict  contrary  to  the  sense  of  the  court."    This  important 
question  was  now  to  be  decided.     Bushel  and  his  fellow- 
jurors,  at  Penn's  suggestion,  brought  an  action  against 
the  mayor  and  recorder  for  unjust  imprisonment.     The 
case  was  brought  before  the  court  of  common  pleas,  con 
sisting  of  twelve  judges,  and  decided  ail-but  unanimously 
in  favour  of  the  jurymen,  who  were  accordingly  set  at  j 
liberty  and  left  their  prison  in  triumph.     Although  Penn  j 
and  Mead   had  been  declared  not  guilty  by  the  verdict  j 
of  the  jury,  yet   they  were   still  detained  in   prison,  be-  [ 


cause  they  refused  to  pay  the  fines  which  the  mayor  and 
recorder  had  arbitrarily  and  most  unjustly  imposed  on 
them  for  contempt  of  court.  At  length,  as  the  admiral, 
from  his  increasing  illness,  became  more  and  more  anx 
ious  to  have  his  son  with  him,  he  sent  privately  and  paid 
the  fines  both  for  him  and  his  friend.  He  also  sent  a 
dying  request  to  the  Duke  of  York  that  he  would  be  a 
friend  to  his  son  in  the  trials  and  sufferings  to  which, 
while  the  persecuting  laws  of  England  continued  in 
force,  he  foresaw  he  would  necessarily  be  exposed.  On 
his  death-bed  the  admiral  expressed  entire  satisfaction 
with  the  course  his  son  had  pursued.  He  said  to  him, 
among  other  things,  "  Let  nothing  in  this  world  tempt 
you  to  wrong  your  conscience.  Have  a  care  of  sin  :  it 
is  that  which  is  the  sting  both  of  life  and  death."  On 
his  father's  decease,  William  Penn  came  into  the  pos 
session  of  an  estate  yielding  an  annual  income  of  about 
fifteen  hundred  pounds,  a  sum  which  was  probably  equal 
to  twice  or  three  times  the  same  numerical  amount  at  the 
present  day.  Rarely,  if  ever,  has  wealth  fallen  into  better 
hands.  "There  is  abundant  evidence,"  says  Janney, 
"that  throughout  life  he  made  use  of  his  wealth  for  the 
benefit  of  others,  rather  than  to  promote  his  own  ease 
and  indulgence." 

The  persecution  against  the  Quakers  continuing,  Penn 
published  a  number  of  books  and  tracts  in  vindication 
of  the  peculiar  views  of  the  society,  and  in  defence  of 
the  great  principle  that  in  matters  of  faith  men  are  ac 
countable  to  Heaven  only,  and,  provided  their  moral 
conduct  is  blameless,  no  human  government  has  a  right 
to  inquire  into  or  exercise  any  control  over  the  religious 
opinions  of  its  subjects.  The  following  are  the  titles  of 
some  of  the  most  important  of  these  publications  :  "  A 
Seasonable  Caveat  against  Popery,"  (1670,)  "The  Great 
Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience  Debated  and  Defended," 
(1671,)  "Truth  Rescued  from  Imposture,"  (1671,)  "The 
Spirit  of  Truth  Vindicated,"  (1672,)  "Quakerism  a  New 
Nickname  for  Old  Christianity,"  etc.,  "  England's  Pres 
ent  Interest  Considered,"  (1674,) — a  most  able  work  in 
defence  of  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  rights  of  Eng 
lishmen.  Several  of  his  smaller  works,  as  well  as  "The 
Great  Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience,"  were  written 
while  he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate  in  1671.  In  1672, 
when  Penn  was  in  his  twenty-eighth  year,  he  married 
Gulielma  Maria  Springett,  daughter  of  Sir  William 
Springett,  who  as  a  colonel  had  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  service  of  the  Parliament,  and  who  died 
during  the  civil  wars,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-three. 
His  widow  was  afterwards  married  to  Isaac  Penington, 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  early  Quakers.  In 
1677,  William  Penn,  accompanied  by  Robert  Barclay  and 
others,  made  a  journey  into  Holland  and  Germany,  and 
visited  the  princess  Elizabeth  of  the  Rhine,  the  grand 
daughter  of  James  I.  and  sister  of  the  famous  Prince 
Rupert.  She  received  them  with  great  kindness.  Hav 
ing  previously  met  with  Penn,  she  was  not  unacquainted 
with  the  religious  views  of  the  Quakers,  which  she 
appears  to  have  regarded  with  much  favour. 

Penn  did  not  think  that  it  was  the  duty  of  a  Christian 
to  withdraw  himself  wholly  from  public  affairs,  but  rather 
to  strive  in  every  way  to  promote  the  freedom,  enlight 
enment,  and  happiness  of  mankind.  The  true  friends 
of  liberty  everywhere  found  in  him  a  sympathizer  and  a 
friend.  A  little  previous  to  the  election  of  1679,  when 
the  celebrated  Algernon  Sidney  offered  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  Parliament,  Penn  issued  a  pamphlet  show 
ing  the  importance  of  electing  to  the  great  legislative 
body  of  the  kingdom  wise  men  and  such  as  feared  God 
and  hated  covetousness.  He  not  only  felt  the  deepest 
interest,  but  he  himself  bore  a  very  active  part,  in  the 
canvass  for  Sidney,  the  representative  and  devoted 
champion  of  political  freedom.  Sidney  was  triumph 
antly  elected,  in  spite  of  much  unfair  opposition.  But 
soon  after  the  assembling  of  the  new  Parliament  it  was 
dissolved  by  the  king,  and  another  election  became 
necessary.  Sidney  was  again  duly  returned,  but  he  was 
prevented  from  taking  his  place  in  Parliament  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  royalist  party.  It  was  a  bitter  disap 
pointment  to  Penn  ;  but.  in  proportion  as  he  lost  hope  of 
freedom  in  England,  he  bent  his  thoughts  more  earnestly 
towards  realizing  the  dream  of  his  youth, — the  founding 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g-hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (2^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PENN 


1764 


PENN 


of  a  new  and  more  perfect  commonwealth  amid  the 
forests  of  North  America.  In  1675  'ie  'la<^  ''een  chosen 
umpire  to  settle  a  dispute  between  Edward  Byllinge  and 
John  Fenwick  (both  Quakers)  respecting  their  claim 
to  a  tract  of  land  known  as  West  Jersey.  He  decided 
in  favour  of  Byllinge  ;  but  the  latter,  having  become 
much  embarrassed  in  his  affairs,  in  order  to  satisfy  h 
creditors  gave  up  to  them  his  interest  in  the  territory. 
At  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Byllinge,  Penn  was  asso 
ciated  with  the  creditors  as  a  joint  trustee.  Within  the 
next  two  or  three  years  several  vessels  came  to  West 
Jersey,  with  about  eight  hundred  emigrants,  of  whom  the 
greater  number  were  Quakers.  Through  the  influence 
of  Penn  there  was  adopted  a  very  liberal  constitution, 
among  the  provisions  of  which  were  the  right  of  free 
worship  and  the  right  of  the  people  (with  only  very  slight 
restrictions)  to  legislate  for  themselves.  There  was  to 
be  no  imprisonment  for  debt :  the  property  of  the  debtor 
being  given  up  to  his  creditors,  he  himself  was  to  go 
free.  Penn  had  inherited  from  his  father  a  claim  against 
the  government  of  ^16,000.  In  1680  he  obtained  from 
the  king,  in  payment  of  that  claim,  an  extensive  tract  of 
land  immediately  west  of  the  river  Delaware  and  north 
of  Maryland.  In  the  patent  given  by  the  king  the  name 
"Pennsylvania,"  contrary  to  Penn's  wishes,  was  applied 
to  the  territory.  He  had  previously  suggested  Sylvattia, 
on  account  of  its  being  then  a  land  of  forests.  Penn 
offered  twenty  guineas  to  one  of  the  secretaries  to  have 
the  name  changed,  but  he  was  refused.  He  even  applied 
to  the  king;  "for,"  says  he,  "  I  feared  lest  it  should  be 
looked  on  as  a  vanity  in  me."  But  the  king  said  it 
should  remain  as  it  was,  the  Penn  having  been  added 
in  honour  of  the  admiral.  The  patent  conferred  upon 
the  people  and  governor  a  legislative  power,  so  that 
no  law  could  be  made  nor  money  raised  without  the 
people's  consent,  and  they  could  pass  what  laws  they 
pleased,  provided  they  did  not  interfere  with  the 
allegiance  which  all  the  colonies  owed  to  the  crown. 
Aided  by  the  counsels  of  Algernon  Sidney  and  others, 
he  drew  up  a  masterly  scheme  cf  government,  the  wis 
dom  of  which  has  been  amply  vindicated  by  the  expe 
rience  of  two  hundred  years.  The  constitution  which 
Penn  gave  to  his  colony  will  compare  advantageously 
not  merely  with  the  plan  of  government  formed  by  Locke 
for  Carolina,  but  with  any  of  the  systems  of  the  wisest 
lawgivers  that  have  ever  lived.  "To  understand,"  says 
Di.xon,  "  how  much  Penn  was  wiser  than  his  age,  .  .  . 
he  must  be  measured  not  only  against  unlettered  men 
like  Fox,  but  against  the  highest  types  of  learning  and 
liberality  which  it  afforded.  Between  John  Locke  and 
William  Penn  there  is  a  gulf  like  that  which  separates 
the  seventeenth  and  the  nineteenth  century.  Locke 
never  escaped  from  the  thraldom  of  local  ideas." 

About  the  beginning  of  September,  1682,  Penn  set  sail 
in  the  ship  Welcome,  and  on  the  271)1  of  October  cast 
anchor  in  Delaware  Bay,  off  New  Castle.  He  was  re 
ceived  by  the  inhabitants  of  that  town  with  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  Soon  after  he  proceeded  to  the  site  of 
Philadelphia,  then  covered  for  the  most  part  with  lofty 
trees.  About  the  end  of  November,  1682,  was  held  the 
famous  treaty  with  the  Indians,  under  a  magnificent 
elm-tree,  in  what  is  now  Kensington.  Of  this  treaty, 
Voltaire  says  it  was  "the  only  league  between  the  abo 
rigines  and  the  Christians  which  was  never  sworn  to 
and  never  broken." 

Referring  the  reader  to  other  works  for  a  more  particu 
lar  account  of  the  early  colony,  we  shall  for  the  future 
confine  ourselves  chiefly  to  the  personal  history  of  Penn. 
In  1684,  having  committed  the  government  to  the  provin 
cial  council,  he  embarked  for  England,  leaving  behind 
him  in  the  colony  a  white  population  of  about  7000  per 
sons.  He  set  sail  on  the  I2th  of  August,  and  on  the  6th 
of  October  landed  in  Sussex,  within  seven  miles  of  his  own 
house,  after  an  absence  from  his  family  of  rather  more 
than  two  years.  He  soon  after  visited  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  York,  by  both  of  whom,  he  says,  he  was  received 
very  graciously.  The  first  use  he  made  of  his  influence 
at  court  was  to  intercede  for  the  persecuted  Quakers, 
against  whom  the  recent  oppressive  enactments  were  at 
that  time  enforced  with  a  merciless  rigour.  Their  con 
scientious  scruples  against  swearing  exposed  them  to 


peculiar  hardships.  When  evil-disposed  persons  charged 
them  with  being  disaffected  to  the  government,  they 
might  in  many  instances  have  delivered  themselves  from 
the  hands  of  their  persecutors  by  simply  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance  and  supremacy  ;  but  this  their  religious 
convictions  would  not  permit  them  to  do. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  here  to  do  more  than  allude  to 
the  charges  made  by  Macaulay  against  the  character  of 
Penn,  as  those  charges  have  already  been  completely 
and  unanswerably  refuted,*  and  are  now  rejected  by  all 
candid  and  intelligent  persons  who  have  taken  the  trou 
ble  to  give  them  a  careful  examination.  But  another 
accusation,  scarcely  less  formidable,  though  somewh.it 
vague,  has  found  supporters  among  men  of  great  intel 
ligence  and  respectability, — namely,  that  the  fact  that 
Penn  enjoyed  such  favour  with  fames  II.,  and  that  he 
continued  at  court  after  he  had  every  opportunity  of 
knowing  the  character  of  that  monarch,  proves  him  to 
have  been  either  lax  in  principle  or  deficient  in  the  firm 
ness  of  true  virtue.  If  this  reasoning  be  correct,  then 
we  ought  to  applaud  the  conduct  of  the  early  Christian 
ascetics,  who  held  that  the  Ijest  mode  of  preserving 
one's  soul  unspotted  and  preparing  it  for  heaven,  was  to 
abandon  all  intercourse  with  a  corrupt  world.  But  the 
most  virtuous  and  enlightened  men  of  modern  times 
have  usually  taught  a  very  different  doctrine, — that  they 
who,  without  partaking  of  its  sins,  mingle  with  the  world 
for  the  purpose  of  reforming  it,  are  far  more  praise 
worthy  than  those  who,  leaving  it  to  its  fate,  seek  shelter 
for  their  feeble  virtue  in  inactivity  and  selfish  seclusion. 
If  it  shall  be  clearly  shown  that  while  at  court  Penn  was 
guilty  of  a  single  act  inconsistent  with  the  character  of 
an  honest  man  and  a  true  lover  of  his  country,  we  shall 
then  be  prepared  to  abandon  his  defence  ;  but  if  the 
whole  charge  against  him  limits  itself  simply  to  this, 
that  he  had  favour  and  influence  with  a  corrupt  and 
tyrannical  monarch,  when  it  is  well  known  that  he  often 
exerted  that  influence  successfully  to  restrain  the  injus 
tice,  or  to  soften  the  severity,  of  fames,  and  when  there 
is  not  a  shadow  of  evidence  that  he  ever,  even  in  a  soli 
tary  instance,  exerted  it  for  any  unworthy  purpose, — if 
this,  we  repeat,  be  the  whole  extent  of  the  charge  against 
him,  we  cannot  but  regard  such  an  accusation  as  con 
ferring  on  the  accused  the  highest  honour. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Admiral  Penn  had 
made  a  dying  request  to  the  Duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  II.)  that  he  would  be  a  friend  and  protector  to 
his  son.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that  fames,  who  seems  to 
have  cherished  the  warmest  regard  for  the  admiral,  not 
only  never  forgot  his  friend's  request,  but  appears  to 
have  observed  it  with  the  most  scrupulous  fidelity.  It 
was  but  natural  that  William  Penn  should  be  sincerely 
attached  to  a  prince  who  had  been  his  father's  friend 
nnd  was  to  him  a  generous  and  faithful  guardian.  He 
doubtless  gave  James  far  more  credit  for  liberality  and 
sincerity  than  he  deserved.  But  his  gratitude  and  affec 
tion  towards  a  bigoted  and,  in  some  respects,  an  un 
scrupulous  prince,  appears  never  for  a  single  moment 
to  have  warped  him  from  the  path  of  rectitude. 

It  would  have  been  indeed  wonderful  if,  in  the  vio 
lent  party  excitements  of  those  times,  his  character  had 
wholly  escaped  suspicion  and  calumny.  But  the  various 
charges  made  against  him  are  found,  on  examination,  to 
be  unsupported  by  a  particle  of  real  evidence.  To  have 
absented  himself  from  court  at  that  time,  when  it  was 
in  his  power  to  do  so  much,  not  only  for  his  persecuted 
brethren,  but  for  all,  of  whatever  name,  who  suffered 
from  unjust  laws  or  from  the  unjust  suspicions  of  the 
government,  would  have  been  a  most  culpable  abandon 
ment  of  duty.  Yet  the  fact  that  he  did  not  thus  absent 
himself  has  been  the  principal,  if  not  the  only,  ground 
:>f  all  the  charges  which  the  envious  or  the  misinformed 
have  circulated  against  him.  During  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  Penn  obtained  for  himself  and  his  friends  many 
ravours  from  his  sovereign  through  the  mediation  of  the 


*  For  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  we  confidently  appeal  to  all 
who  have  dispassionately  and  attentively  read  the  evidence  in  the 
case.  See.  on  this  subject,  DIXON'S  "Life  of  Penn;"  W.  E.  FOR- 
STER'S  "  William  Penn  and  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay,"  1850;  J. 
PAGKT'S  "  New  Examen,"  London,  1861  ;  and  the  "  Quarterly  Re- 
'ew"  for  April,  1868. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  'wig:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a.  e,  T,  o.xi,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  not;  good;  moon; 


PENN 


PENT  HE  US 


Duke  of  York  ;  but  after  the  accession  of  James  IF.  his 
influence  at  court  became  very  great.  He  removed  his 
residence  to  Holland  House,  at  Kensington.  "His  in 
fluence  with  the  king,"  says  Dixon,  "was  well  known, 
and  every  man  with  a  real  grievance  found  in  him  a  coun 
sellor  and  a  friend.'1''  "  If  any  fault,"  says  the  same  writer, 
in  another  place,  "can  be  found  with  his  conduct,  it  is 
that  his  charity  was  a  little  too  universal,  a  little  too 
indiscriminate."  As  his  sympathies  were  chiefly  with 
the  liberal  party,  he  had  often  occasion  to  intercede  for 
mercy  or  indulgence  to  those  who  were  regarded  by  the 
king  as  his  most  determined  enemies.  And,  though  he 
often  failed  in  obtaining  his  request,  he  appears  never  to 
have  omitted  an  opportunity  of  interceding  when  there 
was  the  slightest  chance  of  success.  He  sometimes 
excited  the  violent  anger  of  James  by  his  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  friends  of  liberty.*  But  nothing  could  deter  him 
from  exercising  that  influence  with  his  sovereign  which 
he  believed  Providence  had  given  him  for  the  most  im 
portant  ends, — the  promotion  of  justice  and  mercy. 

In  1686,  chiefly  through  Penn's  influence,  a  proclama 
tion  was  issued  by  which  more  than  twelve  hundred  im 
prisoned  Quakers  were  set  at  liberty.  Another  proclama 
tion  in  1687  gave  liberty  of  conscience  to  all,  unrestricted 
by  any  tests  or  penalties.  After  the  accession  of  William 
HI.,  in  1688,  Penn,  having  incurred  suspicion  on  account 
of  his  intimacy  with  James,  was  tried  before  the  royal 
council  for  treason  ;  but,  no  evidence  being  found  against 
him,  he  was  discharged.  He  was  subsequently  tried  for 
conspiracy,  and  was  again  honourably  acquitted.  In  the 
early  part  of  1694  he  lost  his  wife  Gulielma  ;  about  two 
years  after  he  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Hannah  Cal- 
lowhill.  In  1696  his  eldest  son,  Springett  Penn,  died 
of  consumption.  He  made  in  1699  a  second  visit  to 
America.  But,  learning  not  long  after  his  arrival  in  the 
colony  that  there  was  a  measure  before  the  House  of 
Lords  for  bringing  all  the  proprietary  governments  under 
the  crown,  he  returned  to  England  in  1701.  Happily, 
the  obnoxious  measure  was  soon  after  abandoned. 

In  consequence  of  the  bad  management  and  dishonesty 
of  some  of  the  agents  to  whom  he  had  intrusted  the 
care  of  his  property,  he  sustained  great  losses,  and  be 
came  so  involved  as  to  be  unable  to  pay  the  claims  of 
his  creditors.  He  preferred  to  go  to  prison  rather  than 
attempt  to  satisfy  certain  unjust  and  extortionate  claims 
which  the  very  agent  who  had  mismanaged  his  affairs 
brought  against  him.  By  the  intervention  of  some  of 
his  friends,  a  compromise  was  effected,  and  he  was  at 
length  released.  It  was  a  great  sorrow  to  him  in  his 
latter  years  that,  although  he  had  never  spared  himself 
or  his  means  to  promote  the  interests  of  his  colony, 
when  he  desired  of  the  colonial  legislature  a  moderate 
loan  to  relieve  him  from  his  difficulties  it  was  refused. 
Worn  out  at  length  with  the  incessant  labours  and  cares 
of  a  life  spent  almost  wholly  in  the  service  of  others,  he 
died,  from  the  effects  of  paralysis,  in  1718. 

For  a  full  account  of  William  Penn's  writings,  and  of 
those  which  relate  to  him,  see  Joseph  Smith's  "  Cata 
logue  of  Friends'  Books,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  282-326. 

See  W.  HEPJVORTU  DIXON,  "  Biographical  History  of  William 
Penn,"  1X51  ;  S.  TANNF.Y.  "  Life  of  William  Penn,"  i  vol.  8vo,  1^52; 
T.  CI.ARKSON,  "Life  of  William  Penn,"  2  vols.  8vo,  1813;  J.  MAR 
SH. I. AC.  "Vie  de  G.  Penn,"  2  vols.,  1791:  H.  VAN  Lit,  "  Leven, 
C.evoelens  en  Lotgevallen  van  W.  Penn,"  2  vols..  1826 ;  JACOB  POST, 
••  Popular  Memoir  of  W.  Penn."  iS5oLM.  L.  WEKMS,  "Life  of  W. 
Penn."  1829;  W.  A  TELLER.  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  beriihmten 
W.  Penn,"  1779;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1850,  (article 
"  William  Penn  and  Lord  Macaulav  ;")  "  The  Penn  and  Locan  Cor 
respondence,"  published  by  the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society, 
1870. 

Pen'iiaut,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  naturalist  and  an 
tiquary,  born  at  Downing,  in  Flintshire,  in  1726.  He 
published  in  1761  the  first  volume  of  a  large  work  on 
British  Zoology,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  and 
German  and  oficn  reprinted.  A  tour  on  the  continent 
in  1765  procured  for  him  the  acquaintance  of  Buffon, 
Haller,  and  Pallas.  In  1771  he  published  a  "Synopsis 
of  Quadrupeds,"  an  enlarged  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1781  as  a  "  History  of  Quadrupeds."  This  work  was 
described  byCuvier,  about  1823,  as  "still  indispensable." 
Among  his  other  works  are  the  "  Genera  of  Birds," 


*  For  a  curious  instance  of  this  kind,  see  Dixox's"  Life  of  Penn," 
PP.  230-40. 


(1773,  unfinished,)  a  "Second  Tour  in  Scotland  and  a 
Voyage  to  the  Hebrides,"  (2  vols.,  1774-76,)  and  "Arctic 
Zoology,"  (3  vols.,  1784-87,)  which  Cuvier  commends 
as  precieux  to  naturalists.  Died  in  1798. 

See  "The  Literary  Life  of  T.  Pennant."  by  himself,  1793;  CI'VIER, 
"  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  ;"  ''  Monthly  Review"  for  January 
and  February,  1772,  and  September  and  October,  1801. 

Fennecuik  or  Pennicuick,  pen'ne-kuk',  ?  (ALEX 
ANDER,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  writer  on  various 
subjects,  born  in  1652  ;  died  in  1722. 

Pennefather,  pen'fa-ther,  ?  (Sir  JOHN  LYSAGHT,)  a 
British  general,  born  in  1800.  He  served  with  distinc 
tion  as  brigadier  in  India  in  1843.  I"  tne  Crimean  war 
he  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  Alma,  and  a  division  at 
Inkerman,  November,  1854. 

Pennethorne,  p§n'thorn,  ?  (JAMES,)  an  English  archi 
tect,  born  at  Worcester  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Nash 
and  Pugin.  He  designed  many  public  buildings  of 
London,  among  which  are  the  Museum  of  Practical 
Geology,  the  General  Record  Repository,  and  an  ad 
dition  to  Somerset  House.  He  was  appointed,  several 
years  since,  architect  and  surveyor  of  her  Majesty's 
parks,  palaces,  etc. 

Pennethorne,  (JOHN,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  studied  the  principles  of  Grecian  architecture 
at  Athens,  and  wrote  a  small  work  on  "The  Elements 
and  Mathematical  Principles  of  the  Greek  Architects," 
(1844.) 

Penni,  pen'nee,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  II.  FA'ITORE,  ("the  Steward,'") 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1488.  He  was  in  his  youth  the 
steward  of  Raphael,  who  was  his  friend.  He  aided  Ra 
phael  in  painting  the  cartoons  of  the  Vatican,  and,  after 
the  death  of  his  master,  he  and  Giulio  Romano  finished 
a  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  designed  by  Raphael.  He 
excelled  in  landscapes.  Died  at  Naples  in  1528. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Penni,  (LuCA,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1500.  He 
worked  for  Henry  VIII.  in  England,  and  with  II  Rosso 
in  Paris. 

Pennington.     See  PENINGTON. 

Pen'ning-ton,  (Wn.LiAM,)  an  American  Governor, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1797.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1837,  and  re-elected  four  or 
five  times  between  that  year  and  1843.  He  became  a 
member  of  Congress  in  December,  1859,  and,  after  a 
long  contest,  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  by  the 
Republicans  in  February,  1860.  Died  in  February,  1862. 

Fen'iiy,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1714.  He  was  a  professor  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  Died  in  1791. 

Pen'rose,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Berk 
shire  in  1743.  He  was  successively  curate  of  Newbury 
and  rector  of  Beckington.  Died  in  1779.  His  poems 
were  published  in  1781. 

Pen-rud'dock,  (JoiiN,)  COLONEL,  an  English  royal 
ist,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  an  insurrection  against 
Cromwell  in  1655.  He  was  beheaded  in  the  same  year. 

Pen'ry,  Feii'ri,  or  Ap  Heii'ry,  (JuH.x,)  a  Welsh 
religionist,  called  MARTIN  MAR-PRKI.ATK,  was  born 
in  1559.  According  to  Anthony  Wood,  he  became  a 
Brownist  or  Anabaptist,  and  wrote  against  the  Anglican 
Church  a  tract  entitled  "Martin  Mar-l'relate."  He  was 
unjustly  condemned  for  sedition  or  felony,  and  executed, 
in  1593. 

See  "  John  Penry,  the  Pilgrim  Martyr,"  by  J.  WADDINGTON,  1854. 

Penthee.     See  PEN THEUS. 

Penthesilee._    See  PKNTHESII.EIA. 

Pen-the-si-le'ia  or  Pen-the-si-ie'a,  [Gr.  \1evfcoi- 
teLa;  Fr.  PENTHE\SII.EK,  p6.N'ta'/.e'la',|  the  queen  of  the 
Amazons.  According  to  some  traditions,  she  fought 
against  the  Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  was  killed 
by  Achilles,  who  admired  too  late  her  beauty  and  valour 
and  lamented  her  fate. 

Peii'theus,  [Gr.  flevflet'c;  Fr.  PEN THEK,  pftN'ti',]  a 
mythical  person,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Echion,  and  King  of 
Thebes.  He  was  killed  by  his  mother  and  other  women 
because  he  opposed  the  worship  of  Bacchus  and  ascended 
a  tree  to  witness  furtively  their  revels  and  orgies. 


e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PENTHIEPRE 


1766 


PER  CEYAL 


Penthievre,  de,  cleh  poN'te'£vR'.(Louis  JEAN  MARIE 
BE  BOURBON,)  Due,  a  French  nobleman,  born  in  1725, 
was  a  son  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse.  He  served  as 
general  at  Fontenoy,  (I745-)  He  "'as  noted  for  his  libe 
rality  or  benevolence.  His  daughter  was  the  mother  of 
King  Louis  Philippe.  Died  in  1793. 

Fenzel,  pgnt'sel,  (ABRAHAM  JACOB,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  near  Dessau  in  1749,  was  professor  of 
poetry  at  Laybach.  He  translated  Strabo's  "Geog 
raphy"  into  German,  (1777,)  and  wrote  several  treatises. 
Died  in  1819. 

Fepagomenus.     See  DEMKTKIUS  PEPAGOMENUS. 

Pepe,  pa'pa,  (Fi.ORESTAN,)  a  Neapolitan  general,  born 
at  Squillace  in  1780,  entered  the  French  service  about 
1806,  served  in  Spain  and  Russia,  and  received  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  from  Murat  in  1815.  Died 
at  Naples  in  1851. 

Pepe,  (GAURIELLO,)  an  Italian  officer,  cousin  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1781.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  during  the  empire.  About  1822  he  fought  a  duel 
at  Florence  with  Lamartine,  who  had  offended  him  by 
some  verses  which  Pepe  regarded  as  injurious  to  the 
Italian  people.  Died  in  1849. 

Pepe,  (GUGLIELMO,)  a  general,  born  in  1783,  was  a 
brother  of  Florestan,  noticed  above.  He  joined  the 
French  party  in  1799,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1813.  In  1820  he  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  by  the  insurgents  who  rose  against  the  King  of 
Naples.  His  army  was  defeated  or  dispersed  by  the 
Austrians  in  1821',  and  he  escaped  to  England.  In 
1848  King  Ferdinand,  constrained  by  public  opinion, 
gave  him  command  of  an  army  sent  to  aid  the  people 
of  Lombardy.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Revo 
lutions  and  Wars  of  Italy  in  1847-49,"  (1850.)  Died 
in  1855. 

Pepin.     See  PEPYN,  (MARTIN.) 

Pepin,  pep'in  or  pip'in,  [  Fr.  pron.  peli-pax',]  a  son 
of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  was  born  about  802  A.D.,  and 
was  made  King  of  Aquitania  about  817.  He  joined  his 
brothers  Lothaire  and  Louis  in  a  revolt  against  his  father 
in  830.  He  died  in  838  A.n.,  leaving  a  son  Pepin,  who 
contested  the  succession  with  Charles  the  Bald  and  was 
defeated. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  GaneVale." 

Pepin,  King  of  Italy,  a  son  of  Charlemagne,  was  born 
in  776  A. I).,  and  crowned  by  the  pope  in  781.  He  died 
in  810,  leaving  a  son  Bernard. 

Pepin,  peh-paN'',  (Ai.PHONSE,)  a  French  historical 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
is  "Two  Years  of  Rule,"  ("  Deux  Ans  de  Regne,"  1830- 
32.)  Died  in  1842. 

Pepin  le  Bref,  pen-pax'  leh  biief,  King  of  the  Franks, 
was  a  son  of  Charles  Martel,  at  whose  death  he  obtained 
Neustria  and  Burgundy.  Having  propitiated  the  favour 
of  the  pope,  he  confined  the  nominal  king,  Childeric  HI., 
in  a  monastery  in  751  A.n.,  and  usurped  the  throne.  He 
assisted  the  pope  in  a  war  against  the  Lombards,  and 
waged  war  with  success  against  the  Saxons.  He  died  in 
768  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charlemagne. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  FraiiQais  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene>a1e." 

Pepin  le  Gros,  peh-pa\'  leh  gRo,  or  Pepin  d'He- 
ristal,  (di'res'tal',)  an  ambitious  French  nobleman,  be 
came  Duke  of  Austrasia  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert  II. 
About  680  A.D.  he  assumed  royal  power  as  mayor  of 
the  palace,  and  defeated  Thierri  III.,  King  of  Neustria. 
He  permitted  Thierri  to  retain  the  title  of  king,  and 
the  latter  was  the  first  of  a  succession  of  rois  faineants, 
("do-nothing  kings.")  Pepin  died  in  714  A.D.,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Martel. 

Pepoli,  pa'po-lee  or  pgp'o-lee,  (ALESSANDROERCOLE,) 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Venice  in  1757.  He  pub 
lished  a  number  of  dramas,  or  dramatic  essays,  entitled 
"  Efforts  of  Italy,"  ("Tentativi  dell'Italia,"  6  vols.,  1788.) 
Died  in  1796. 

Pepoli,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1801.  He  was  exiled  for  political  reasons,  and  was 
professor  of  Italian  literature  in  the  London  University 
from  18^9  to  1848.  He  composed  for  Bellini  the  words 
of  "  I  Puritani,"  an  opera,  and  wrote  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse. 


Fep'per-ell,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Maine  in  1696,  commanded  at  the  siege  of 
Louisburg,  in  1745.  He  was  made  a  baronet  for  his 
services,  and  in  1759  was  appointed  lieutenant-general. 
Died  in  1759. 

See  PAKSONS,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Pepperell,"  1856. 

Pepusch,  pa'poosh,  QOHANN  CHKISTOPH,)  a  German 
musical  composer  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1667. 
He  settled  in  England  about  1700,  and  received  from 
the  University  of  Oxford  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music. 
He  was  also  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His 
"Treatise  on  Harmony"  (1731)  still  enjoys  a  high  repu 
tation.  Died  in  1752. 

Pepyn,  pa-pin',  sometimes  written  Pepin,  (MARTIN,) 
a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1570.  He 
worked  at  Rome  for  some  years,  and  painted  religious 
subjects.  His  works  are  highly  praised.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1641. 

Pepys,  (CHARLES  C.)     See  COTTENHAM. 

Pepys,  peps,  (Lady  CHARLOTTE  MARIA,)  a  daughter 
of  Lord-Chancellor  Cottenham,  is  the  author  of  "  Quiet 
Moments,"  "Female  Influence,"  and  other  works. 

Pepys,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  gentleman,  gossip,  and 
connoisseur,  celebrated  as  the  writer  of  a  diary,  was 
born  in  1632,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was 
appointed  clerk  of  the  acts  of  the  navy  in  1660,  and 
retained  this  important  position  until  1673.  His  official 
duties  brought  him  into  the  favourable  notice  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  who  was  lord  high  admiral.  He  was 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  for  about  four  years,  ending 
at  the  revolution,  (1688.)  In  1684  he  was  elected  presi 
dent  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  svas  well  versed  in  naval 
affairs,  and  was  a  connoisseur  in  the  fine  arts.  His 
reputation  is  founded  on  his  "  Memoirs,  comprising  a 
Diary  from  1659  to  1669,"  which  was  published  in  1825. 
Died  in  1703. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1825,  and  October, 
1849;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1849. 

Pepys,  (WILLIAM  HASELDINE,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
chemist  and  philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1775.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Askesian  Society,  and 
an  active  member  of  the  London  Institution  and  of 
the  Geological  Society.  His  skill  in  the  construction 
of  chemical  apparatus  contributed  to  the  progress  of 
science.  He  was  associated  with  William  Allen  in 
successful  researches  on  respiration,  and  was  a  friend 
of  Sir  Humphry  Davy.  Died  in  1856. 

Peranda,  pa-ran'da,  (SANTO,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1566,  was  a  pupil  of  Jacopo  Palma. 
He  learned  to  design  correctly  at  Rome,  and  painted 
many  good  portraits.  Among  his  best  works  are  "The 
Children  of  Niobe,"  and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross." 
Died  in  1638. 

Ferard-Castel,  peh'rSR'  kSs'teT,  (FRANCOIS,)  a 
French  canonist,  born  at  Vire  in  1647  ;  died  in  1687. 

Perau,  peh-ro',  (GABRIEL  Louis  CALABRE,)  a  French 
biographer  and  editor,  born  in  Paris  in  1700.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Bossuet,  (20  vols.,  1743-53,)  and  continued 
the  "Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  of  France,"  begun  by 
D'Auvigny,  to  which  Perau  added  thirteen  volumes, 
(17154-60.)  Died  in  1767. 

Perceval.     See  CAUSSIN  DE  PERCEVAL. 

Per'ce-val,  (JOHN,)  Earl  of  Egmont,  was  born  at 
Barton,  Yorkshire,  in  1683.  He  was  one  of  the  princi 
pal  founders  of  a  colony  planted  in  Georgia  about  1732. 
He  wrote  several  small  works.  Died  in  1748. 

Perceval,  (JoHN,)  second  Earl  of  Egmont,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1711.  He  entered  the  House 
of  Lords,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Lovel  and  Holland,  in 
1762,  and  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from  1763  to 
1766.  He  wrote  a  successful  pamphlet  named  "  Faction 
detected  by  the  Evidence  of  Facts."  Died  in  1770. 

Perceval,  (SPENCER,)  a  minister  of  state,  born  in 
London  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  with  success  on  the  Midland  circuit. 
Having  been  returned  to  Parliament  in  1796,  he  became 
a  supporter  of  Mr.  Pitt,  and  an  able  speaker.  He  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1801,  and  attorney-general 
in  1802.  At  the  death  of  Pitt  (1806)  he  went  out  of 
office.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1807, 
and  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  minister)  at  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


PER  CHE  RON 


1767 


PEREFIXE 


denf'i  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  (1809.)  He  opposed 
reform  and  liberal  measures,  and  pursued  the  foreign 
policy  of  Pitt.  On  the  nth  of  May,  1812,  he  was  as 
sassinated  with  a  pistol  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of 
Commons  by  John  Bellingham,  a  merchant,  who  had 
resolved  to  kill  some  member  of  the  ministry  because 
they  had  rejected  or  neglected  a  private  claim  which  he 
had  preferred. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  i.  chap,  xviii.  ; 
CHARLES  V.  WILLIAMS,  "Life  of  the  Right  Hon.  S.  Perceval," 
1812;  HENRI  DE  LASALLH,  "  Essai  biographique  sur  M.  Perceval," 
1812. 

Percheron,  peRsh'riN',  (ACHILLE  REMY,)  a  French 


naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
works  on  entomology. 


He  published  several 


Percier,  peR'se-a',  (CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  French 
architect,  born  111^7764,  in  Paris,  was  a  pupil  of  Gisors. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  gained  a  prize,  which  enabled 
him  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Rome.  He  formed  a  friend 
ship  with  the  architect  Fontaine,  with  whom  he  was 


Percy,  peVse',  (PIERRE  FRANCOIS,)  BARON,  an  emi 
nent  French  surgeon,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1754. 
He  became  about  1792  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  armies 
of  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle,  and  organized  in  concert 
with  Larrey  a  corps  mobile  of  surgeons  with  ambulances. 
Attached  to  the  grand  army,  he  served  in  all  the  cam 
paigns  of  the  empire,  except  those  of  Russia  and  Saxony. 
He  was  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris,  and 
wrote  several  able  treatises  on  surgery.  Died  in  1825. 

See  A.  F.  SILVESTRE,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Percy,"  1825; 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Percy,"  by  his  nephew  LAURENT,  1827: 
"  Biographic  Medicale." 

Percy,  (THOMAS,)  an  Englishman  of  noble  family, 
was  one  of  the  leading  conspirators  in  the  famous  Gun 
powder  Plot,  (1604-05.)  He  was  executed  in  the  early 
part  of  1606. 

Percy,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in  1728.  He  became 
vicar  of  Easton  Maudit  in  1756,  chaplain  to  the  king  in 
1769,  Dean  of  Carlisle  in  1778,  and  Bishop  of  Dromore, 

constantly  associated  in  his  professional  labours  until  j  Ireland,  in  1782.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  in- 
his  death.  They  were  employed  by  Bonaparte  to  restore  |  teresting  work,  entitled  "  Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
and  complete  the  palaces  of  the  Tuileries  and  the  Louvre. 
Among  their  works  are  the  triumphal  arch  of  the  Car 
rousel,  and  the  northern  wing  of  the  court  of  the  Tuile-  Antiquities,"  (1770.)  Among  his  work-;  are  a  "  Key 
ries.  By  their  skill  and  taste  in  design  they  produced  |  to  the  New  Testament,"  (1765,)  and  "Tne  Hermit  of 
in  their'art  a  reformation  similar  to  that  which  David  i  \Varkworth,"  a  poem,  (1770.)  Died  in  1811.  He  was 
effected  in  painting.  They  published  some  excellent  j  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson. 

See  NICHOLS,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Perczel,  peRt'sel,  (MoRicz,)  a  distinguished  Hunga 
rian  general,  born  at  Tolna  in  1814.  He  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Austrians  in  1848,  but  after  the  defeat 


Poetry,"  (1765,)  which  has  enjoyed  a  great  popularity. 
He    translated    from    the  French    Mallet's    "Northern 


works,  among  which  is  "  The  Palaces,  Mansions,  and 
other  Modern  Edifices  designed  at  Rome,"  (1798.)  (See 
FONTAINE,  PIERRE  FRANCOIS.)  Percier  died  in  1838. 

Per'ci-val,  (JAMKS  GATES,)  an  eminent  American 
poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Berlin,  Connecticut,  in  1795. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1815,  and,  having  sub 
sequently  studied  medicine,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in 
1823.  He  published  in  1822  his  "  Prometheus,"  a  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  also  two  volumes  of  miscella 
neous  poetry  and  prose.  He  was  appointed  in  1824 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Military  Academy  at  West 


of  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in  Turkey,  and  afterwards 
settled  in  the  island  of  Jersey. 

Fer-dic'cas  [Gr.  llepdiKKaf  ]  I.,  King  of  Macedon,  was, 
according  to  Herodotus,  the  founder  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  750  B.C. 

Ferdiccas  II.,  King  of  Macedon,  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Alexander  I.  He  waged  war  against  the 


Point.     In  1827  he  was  employed   by  Dr.  Webster  to  ;  .Vthenia),s>     Djeci  about  413  B.C. 

revise   the   manuscript  of  his  Jarge^  Dictionary,  and^in        Perdiccas  III.,  a  son  of  Amyntas  II.  of  Macedon, 

began  to  reign  about  364  B.C.     He  was  killed  in  battle 

against  the  Illyrians  in  359,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 

brother,  Philip  II. 

Perdiccas,  [Gr.  LTepifecac,]  a  prominent  Macedonian 

general,  who    commanded   a  division  of  the    army   of 


1835  was  appointed  conjointly  with  Professor  C.  U. 
Shepard  to  make  a  geological  survey  of  Connecticut,  a 
report  of  which  he  published  in  1842.  He  brought  out 
in  1843  "The  Dream  of  a  Day,  and  other  Poems."  He 
was  appointed  in  18^4  State'  Geologist  of  Wisconsin  ; 


but  while  preparing  his  second  report  his  health  declined, 


Alexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion  of  Asia,  was  a  son 


Per'ci-val,  (THOMAS,)  a  popular  English  medical  and 
moral  writer,  born  at  Warrington  in  1740.  He  settled 
in  1767  at  Manchester,  svhere  he  practised  with  success, 
and  founded  the  "  Manchester  Philosophical  Society" 
about  1780.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Essays, 
Medical  and  Experimental."  (3  vols.,  1767-78,)  "A 
Father's  Instructions,  consisting  of  Moral  Tales,"  etc., 
(1788,)  and  "Medical  Ethics,"  (1803.)  He  was  a  dis.- 
senter  from  the  Anglican  Church.  Died  in  1804. 

See  "  Life  of  T.  Percival,"  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  his  works,  1807. 

Percy.     See  NORTHUMBERLAND. 

Fer'cy,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  English 
family,  descended  from  William  de  Percy,  who,  in  the 
reign'  of  William  the  Conqueror,  possessed  several 
manors  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and  York.  He  was 
probably  a  Norman.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  a  HENRY 
DE  PERCY  acquired  Almvick  and  other  estates  in  North 
umberland.  Another  HENRY  DE  PERCY,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  married  Mary  Plantagenet,  a  great-grand 
daughter  of  King  Henry  III.,  and  had  two  sons,  Henry, 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  Thomas,  Earl  of  Worces 
ter.  HENRY  PERCY,  surnamed  HOTSPUR,  a  son  of  Henry 
last  named,  rebelled  against  Henry  IV.,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  (1403.)  A  son  of  Hotspur 
was  restored  to  the  earldom,  fought  for  the  house  of 
Lancaster,  and  fell  at  Saint  Alban's,  in  1455,  leaving 
several  sons,  who  were  killed  in  the  war  of  the  Roses. 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  a  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumber 
land,  was  executed  for  rebellion,  (1572.) 


power  of  reger 
to  secure  the  succession  of  Roxana's  son,  put  her  rival 
Statira  to  death.  He  also  put  to  death  his  rival  Me- 
leager.  He  failed  in  a  matrimonial  intrigue  in  relation 
to  Cleopatra,  a  sister  of  Alexander,  and  became  the 
enemy  of  Antigonus  and  Antipater,  who  formed  with 
Ptolemy  a  coalition  against  him.  Perdiccas  found  an 
able  adherent  or  ally  in  Eumenes,  (who  opposed  Antip 
ater  and  Antigonus  in  Asia  Minor,)  and  marched  against 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt.  He  met  with  a  reverse  near  the 
Nile,  and  was  'killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,  in  321 
B.C.,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  crafty,  cruel,  and  am 
bitious  man. 

See  AKKIAN-,  "  Anabasis;"  JUSTIN,  books  xii.  and  xiii.  ;  DROY- 
SEN,  "  Geschichte  Alexanders." 

Per'dix,  [Gr. 


a  nephew,  or,  as  some  say,  a 

sister,  of  Daedalus,  was  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the 
saw,  the  compasses,  and  other  implements.  According 
to  the  fable,  Perdix  was  changed  into  a  partridge. 

Pereda,  de,  da  pa-ra'Da,  ( ANTONIO,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1599.  He  painted 
history  and  genre  with  success,  and  was  patronized 
by  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.  He  excelled  in  colouring. 
Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  "Human  Vanity." 
Died  in  1669. 

Perefixe,  de,  deb  pa'ra'feks',  (HARDOUIN  DE  BEAU 
MONT,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Beaumont  in  1605. 
He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1642, 
succeeded  Balzac  in  the  French  Academy  in  1654,  and 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Henry  IV.,"  (1661,)  which,  says 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (33f=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PEREGR1NO 


1768 


PERUNDER 


M.  Weiss,  will  assure  him  a  durable  reputation.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1662,  and  required  the 
Port-Royalists  to  subscribe  the  formulary  of  Pope  Alex 
ander  VII.  Died  in  December,  1670,  or  January,  1671. 
See  "  Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  vii. 

Peregrino  (or  Peregrini)  da  Cesena,  pa ra-gi<ee'- 
no  (or  pa-ra-gRee'nee)  eld  cha-sa'na,  a  celebrated  Italian 
engraver  and  worker  in  niello,  flourished  about  1500  or 
1520.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  Nagler  gives  a  list 
of  many  prints  ascribed  to  him. 

Per-e-gii'rms  Pro'te-us,  a  Greek  Cynic  philosopher, 
notorious  for  his  vices  and  licentious  life,  was  born  at 
Parium,  on  the  Hellespont,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of 
the  Antonines.  He  committed  suicide  by  fire  at  the 
Olympic  games,  in  165  A.D. 

See  "De  Morte  Peregrini,"  by  LUCIAN,  (who  witnessed  his  death.) 

Pereira,  pa-ra^e-ra,  (BARTHOLOMEU,)  a  Portu  luese 
epic  poet,  flourished  about  1640,  and  wrote  "Paciecis." 

Pereira,  pa-ra^e-ra,  (  GOMEZ,  )  a  Spanish  physician 
and  writer,  who  lived  about  1570. 

Pereira,  [Fr.  PERKIKE,  peh-rSR',}  (JACOB  RODRI 
GUEZ.)  a  Spaniard,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1715,  is 
called  the  first  instructor  of  deaf-mutes.  He  removed 
to  Bordeaux  about  1742,  and  exhibited  a  pupil  before 
the  king,  who  granted  him  a  pension  in  1751.  Died 
in  1780. 

Pereira,  pe-ree'ra  or  pa-ra'ra,  (JONATHAN,)  an  Eng 
lish  physician  and  pharmacologist,  born  in  London  in 
1804.  He  published  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Ele- 
mVnts  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,"  (2  vols., 
1839,)  regarded  as  the  most  comprehensive  and  com 
plete  treatise  on  materia  medicain  the  English  language, 
and  a  treatise  "On  Food  and  Diet,"  (1842,)  which  is 
highly  commended.  In  1846,116  was  appointed  assistant 
physician  to  the  London  Hospital.  He  became  full  phy 
sician  to  the  same  hospital  in  1851.  Died  in  1853. 

Pereira,  (MANUEL,)  a  Portuguese  sculptor  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  in  1614.  He  worked  in  Spain, 
and  died  at  Madrid  in  1667. 

Pereira  or  Pereyra,  (Nu5io  ALVAREZ  or  NUNEZ  AL 
VAREZ,)  a  general  and  statesman,  called  "  the  Portuguese 
Cid,"  was  born  in  1360.  He  gained  victories  over  the 
Spaniards.  Died  in  1431. 

See  A.  DE  ESCOBAR,  "  Heroe  Portugiiez.  Vida  del  Seiior  N.  A. 
Pereyra,"  1670;  DA  COSTA,  "  De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  N.  A.  Pe- 
reira,"  1723. 

Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  pa-ra^e-ia  da  fe-gi-e-ra'do, 
(ANTONIO,)  a  learned  Portuguese  writer,  born  at  Macao 
in  1725.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  and  he 
wrote  an  able  work  against  the  temporal  power  of  the 
pope,  entitled  "Theological  Essays,"  ("Tentativa  Theo- 
logica,"  1766.)  He  published  a  Latin  Grammar,  (1752,) 
a  Portuguese  version  of  the  Bible,  (23  vols.,  1778-90,) 
and  other  works.  Died  at  Lisbon  in  1797. 

Pereire.     See  PEREIRA,  (JACOB  RODRIGUEZ.) 

Pereire,  peh-r5.R',  (EMILK  and  ISAAC,)  French  finan 
ciers,  grandsons  of  Jacob  Rodriguez,  noticed  above,  were 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1800  and  1806  respectively.  They 
gained  distinction  as  originators  of  the  railway  from 
Paris  to  Saint-Germain  in  1835,  and  other  railroads. 
They  were  the  chief  founders  of  the  Credit  Mobilier,  a 
joint-stock  company,  with  a  capital  of  sixty  million 
francs,  which  was  established  in  1852. 

Perelle,  peh-rel',  (GABRIEL,)  a  French  designer  and 
etcher,  born  at  Vernon-sur-Seine,:  died  in  1675.  His 
sons,  NICOLAS  and  ADAM,  were  e*v  ,avers.  Adam  was 
born  in  1638,  and  died  in  1695. 

Perenna.     See  ANNA  PERENNA. 

Peres,  pa'reV,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
who  wrote  a  curious  work,  entitled  "  How  Napoleon 
never  Existed,"  etc.,  ("Comme  quoi  Napoleon  n'a  ja- 
mais  existe,  ou  grand  Erratum,"  etc.,  1817,  often  re 
printed.)  Died  in  1840. 

Pereyra,  pa-raVra,  (Diooo,)  a  skilful  Portuguese 
Iandscape-painter7~was  born  about  1570.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  the  "Burning  of  Troy,"  and  the  "Com 
bustion  of  Sodom."  Died  in  1640. 

Pereyra,  (MANOEL,  and  NUNO  ALVAREZ.)  See  PE 
REIRA. 

Perez,  pa'reth  or  pee'rez,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish 
courtier,  born  about  1540,  was  a  son  of  Gonzalo  Perez, 


who  was  secretary  of  state  under  Charles  V.  and  Phi'ip 
II.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1567,  and  obtained 
the  confidence  and  favour  of  the  king,  who  used  him 
as  his  instrument  in  the  assassination  of  Escovedo,  the 
intriguing  secretary  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  (1578.) 
Soon  after  this  event,  Perez  and  the  princess  Eboli  were 
arrested  by  order  of  Philip,  who,  it  appears,  induced 
Perez  to  give  up  all  the  papers  which  would  implicate 
him  in  the  death  of  Escovedo.  Subjected  to  the  rack, 
Perez  confessed  his  own  share  in  that  crime,  and  ac 
cused  the  king  of  complicity  in  it.  About  1590  he 
escaped  from  prison,  and  sought  refuge  at  Saragossa, 
the  citizens  of  which  rose  in  arms  to  protect  him  ami 
assert  their  own  civil  rights.  He  escaped  to  France, 
published  an  account  of  his  sufferings,  (1594,)  and 
received  a  pension  from  Henry  IV.  Died  at  Paris  in 
1611,  or,  as  others  say,  1616. 

See  PKESCOTT,  "  History  of  Philip  II.;"  ANTONIO  PKUEZ, 
"  Memorial  y  Relaciones,"  1508;  S.  BKRMUDKZ  \>K  CASTKM.  "An 
tonio  Pere/.."  Madrid,  1841  ;  MIGNKT,  "Antonio  Perez  et  Philippe 
1 1,"  1845  :  MOTI.HV,  "  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  ;"  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  tor  December,  1867. 

Perez,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  who  lived  about 
1550,  was  one  of  the  three  founders  of  the  Academy  of 
Seville. 

Perez,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Alfaro,  on 
the  Ebro,  in  1583.  He  became  professor  of  civil  law  at 
Lou  vain  in  1628,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  at 
Louvain  in  1672. 

Perez,  pa'redz,  (DAVIDE,)  a  composer,  of  Spanish 
origin,  born  at  Naples  in  1711.  He  composed  several 
popular  operas,  among  which  is  "  Semiramide."  Died 
in  1778. 

Perez,  pa'rSs,  (Don  JOSE  JOAQUIN,)  an  able  Chilian 
statesman,  born  at  Santiago  de  Chili  in  1801.  He  was 
chosen  a  deputy  to  Congress  in  1833,  and  was  appointed 
minister  of  finance  in  1844.  In  1849  he  became  foreign 
minister.  He  was  afterwards  a  senator,  and  held  other 
high  offices.  In  the  summer  of  1861  he  was  elected 
president  for  five  years. 

Perez,  [Lat.  PETKE'IUS,]  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1512,  wrote  an  admired  Latin  poem 
named  "  Magdalena,"  (1552,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1545. 

Perez  de  Pineda,  pa'reth  da  pe-na'na,  (FKANCISCO,) 
a  painter,  born  at  Seville,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of 
Muiillo.  Died  about  1682. 

Perfetti,  peu-fet'tee,  ( BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian  im 
provisator,  born  at  Sienna  in  1681.  lie  exercised  in 
public  his  talent  of  extempore  versification  on  all  sub 
jects.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  best  improvisator  of 
Italy  in  his  time.  Died  in  1747. 

Fergamini,  pSR-gil-mee'iiee,  (JACOPO,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Fossombrone,  lived  about  1600.  He 
published  a  good  "  Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1602.) 

Pergola,  della,  del'la  p£i<'go-la,  (ANGELO,)  an  able 
Italian  general,  born  near  the  line  between  Tuscany  and 
the  Romagna.  He  served  the  Duke  of  Milan  against 
the  Florentines.  Died  in  1427. 

Pergolese.     See  PEKGOLEST. 

Fergolesi,  pCK-go-la'see,  or  Pergolese,  peR-go-la'sa, 
[Fr.  PERGOLESE,  peVgo'liz',]  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  composer,  born  at  Jesi  about  1708, 
(some  say  in  1704.)  He  studied  at  Naples  under  Gae- 
tano  Greco  and  Durante.  In  1731  he  produced  a  dra 
matic  work  called  "The  Servant  Mistress,"  ("  La  Serva 
Padrona,")  which  was  warmly  applauded.  He  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  sacred  music.  Among  his  works  is  a 
celebrated  and  pathetic  "  Stabat  Mater,"  for  two  voices, 
"  Dixit  Dominus,"  a  motet,  and  "  Salve  Regina,"  a  motet. 
His  death  is  variously  dated  1736,  1737,  and  1739. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians:"  C.  BI.ASIS, 
"  Biografia  di  Percrolese;"  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biosrana  de^li  Italian!  illus- 
tri :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Peri,  pa/ree,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Florence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  composed  the  music  of  "  Dafne,"  (1594,)  and  "The 
Death  of  Eurydice,"  lyrical  dramas.  He  entered  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  in  1601. 

Pgr-i-aii'der,  [Gr.  TLepiuvfyioc ;  Fr.  PERI  ANDRE,  pa'- 
re'6NdR',|  tyrant  of  Corinth,  began  to  reign  about  625 
B.C.  He  is  usually  reckoned  among  the  Seven  Sages  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PERIANDER 


1769 


PERIGNON 


'Political"    SCHU- 


Greece, — probably  on  account  of  his  skill  and  success  in 
kingcraft.  His  rule  was  at  first  mild,  but  became  severe 
and  arbitrary.  It  is  reported  that  he  consulted  the  tyrant 
of  Miletus  in  relation  to  the  best  mode  of  maintaining 
his  power,  and  that  that  tyrant  answered  by  cutting  off 
the  tallest  ears  in  a  field  of  corn.  Periander  followed 
this  advice  by  depressing  the  noble  and  rich.  Died  about 
585  B.C. 

See    HERODOTUS,   "  History  :"    ARISTOTLE, 
BERT,  "  Periander  von  Korinth,"  1765. 

Periander,  pi-re-an'der,  (Gn.LES,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Brussels  about  1545,  wrote  the  "Mirror  of  the  Owl," 
("Noctuas  Speculum,"  1567.) 

Periaiidre.     See  PEKIANDF.R. 

Pericaud,  pa're'kS',  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  biographer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1782.  He 
published  works  on  the  antiquities  of  Lyons,  and  wrote 
articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle."  In'i827  he 
was  made  keeper  of  the  public  library  of  Lyons. 

FeVi-cles,  [Gr.  Hepi/Aw ;  Ger.  PERIKLES,  pa're-kles,] 
an  illustrious  Athenian  statesman,  and  one  of  the  great 
est  orators  that  ever  lived,  was  a  son  of  Xanthippus,  who 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Mycale.  His  mother,  Agariste, 
was  a  niece  of  Clisthenes.  He  studied  various  arts  and 
sciences  under  Damon  the  musician,  Zeno  of  Elea,  and 
Anaxagoras.  "The  philosopher,"  says  Plutarch,  "who 
gave  him  that  force  and  sublimity  of  sentiment  superior 
to  all  the  demagogues,  who  formed  him  to  that  admi 
rable  dignity  of  manners,  was  Anaxagoras."  He  kept 
himself  aloof  from  public  affairs  for  some  years  after  he 
had  arrived  at  manhood.  About  470  B.C.  he  began  his 
public  career  as  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party,  and, 
lest  he  should  make  himself  too  cheap  among  the  people, 
reserved  himself  for  great  occasions.  He  had  a  grace 
ful  figure,  a  sweet  voice,  and  complete  self-command. 
"  Adorning  his  orations  with  the  rich  colours  of  philos 
ophy,"  says  Plutarch,  "adding  the  loftiness  of  imagina 
tion  and  all-commanding  energy  with  which  philosophy 
supplied  him,  to  his  native  powers  of  genius,  and  using 
whatever  he  found  to  his  purpose  in  the  study  of  nature, 
he  far  excelled  all  other  orators." 

He  gained  popularity  by  a  law  that  the  people  should 
enjoy  theatrical  amusements  at  the  public  expense,  and 
deprived  the  Areopagus  of  the  judicial  power  which  ren 
dered  it  a  dangerous  engine  of  the  aristocracy,  (461  B.C.) 
About  this  date  he  used  his  influence  to  procure  the 
ostracism  of  Cimon,  the  leader  of  the  conservative  or 
aristocratic  party.  Pericles  displayed  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Tanagra,  in  457,  and  proposed  the  decree  that 
Cimon  should  be  recalled  from  exile.  After  the  death 
of  Cimon  and  the  ostracism  of  Thucydides,  (444  B.C.,) 
Pericles  directed  the  government  with  undisputed  su 
premacy.  "  He  became  sole  master  of  Athens,"  says 
Plutarch  ;  "he  kept  the  public  good  in  his  eye,  and  pur 
sued  the  strait  path  of  honour."  He  commanded  in  the 
Samian  war,  which  ended  in  the  conquest  of  Samos  in 
440  B.C.,  and  extended  the  influence  of  Athens  by  plant 
ing  colonies  at  Chalcis,  Sinope,  Thurii,  and  other  places. 
He  expended  the  public  money  profusely  in  the  erection 
of  magnificent  temples  and  monuments,  which  have 
never  been  equalled  as  models  of  art  and  taste.  Under 
his  auspices  the  Parthenon  was  built  and  was  adorned 
with  the  sculptures  of  Phidias.  The  age  of  Pericles  was 
the  most  brilliant  period  of  Grecian  art  and  dramatic 
literature.  He  silenced  those  who  murmured  at  his  ex 
travagance  in  building,  by  an  offer  to  pay  the  expense 
out  of  his  own  purse  on  condition  that  his  name  alone 
should  be  inscribed  on  the  new  edifices. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Pericles  was  not  less  far-sighted 
than  his  internal  policy.  He  constantly  opposed  the 
ambitious  schemes  of  foreign  conquest  which  the  Athe 
nians  were  prone  to  entertain,  and  took  effectual  measures 
to  render  the  maritime  power  of  Athens  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  state.  The  long  walls  which  connected 
Athens  with  the  sea,  and  protected  it  from  the  attack  of 
an  army  by  land,  formed  an  important  part  of  his  foreign 
policy,  continuing  on  a  gigantic  scale  the  plans  of  Themis- 
tocles.  This  measure  excited  great  alarm  among  the  Spar 
tans  and  their  allies.  Under  his  administration  Athens 
became  an  imperial  state,  with  an  extensive  list  of  allies, 
partly  free  and  partly  tributary,  and  attained  the  maxi- 


mum  of  her  power.  To  subvert  this  power,  the  Spartans 
organized  a  league  and  involved  all  Greece  in  the  great 
Peloponnesian  war,  which  began  in  431  B.C.  The  mova 
ble  property  of  the  Athenians  was  conveyed  within  the 
walls  of  the  capital,  and,  while  the  enemy  ravaged  Attica, 
the  fleet  of  Pericles  made  reprisals  on  the  coast  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  campaign,  Pericles  pronounced 
a  long  and  inimitable  funeral  oration  on  those  who  had 
fallen  in  battle.  "The  eleven  chapters  of  Thucydides 
which  comprise  this  funeral  speech,"  says  Grote,  "are 
among  the  most  memorable  relics  of  antiquity,  consider 
ing  that  under  the  language  and  arrangement  of  the 
historian  .  .  .  we  possess  the  substance  and  thoughts 
of  the  illustrious  statesman.  .  .  .  After  a  few  words  on 
the  magrnitude  of  the  empire,  and  on  the  glorious  efforts 
as  weli  48  endurance  whereby  their  forefathers  and  they 
had  acquired  it,  Pericles  proceeds  to  sketch  the  plan  of 
life,  the  constitution,  and  the  manners  under  which  such 
achievements  were  brought  about."  (Chap,  xlviii.) 

In  the  second  year  of  the  war  a  great  plague  raged  at 
Athens.  The  people  became  so  demoralized  that  they 
deprived  Pericles  of  command  and  punished  him  with 
a  fine.  He  had  recovered  his  influence  a  short  time 
when  he  died,  in  the  autumn  of  429  H.c.  "  As  a  military 
commander,"  says  Grote,  "though  noway  deficient  in 
personal  courage,  he  rarely  courted  distinction,  and  was 
principally  famous  for  his  care  of  the  lives  of  the  citizens. 
His  private  habits  were  sober  and  recluse,  .  .  .  while 
the  tenderest  domestic  attachment  bound  him  to  the 
engaging  and  cultivated  Aspasia."  (See  ASPASIA.)  To 
use  the  language  of  a  writer  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  "he  wielded  the  powers  of  his  majestic 
intelligence  and  the  stores  of  his  spacious  imagination 
with  consummate  ease  and  mastery." 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Lives;"  THUCYDIUES,  "History;"  GROTE, 
"  History  of  Greece,"  chaps,  xlv.,  xlvi.,  xlvii.,  xlviii.,  and  xlix.  ; 
KUFFNER,  "  Perikles  cler  Olympier;  biographische  JJarstellung,"  2 
vols.,  1809;  CLARISSK,  "Vita  Periclis,"  Utrecht,  1833;  THIRLWALL, 
"History  of  Greece:"  F.  VON  RAUMER,  "Perikles  und  Aspasia," 
iSio;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pe-ric'ly-tus,  a  Greek  sculptor,  of  whom  little  is 
known,  lived  probably  about  420  B.C.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  as  a  pupil  of  Polycletus. 

Perier.     See  PEKRIER. 

Perier,  pa're-i',  (AUGUSTE  C'ASIMIR  VICTOR  LAU 
RENT,)  a  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1811,  was  a  son  of 
Casimir,  noticed  below.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  in 
1846,  and  sat  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1849.  He 
voted  with  the  majority,  and  protested  against  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  on  finance  and  other  subjects. 

Perier,  (CASIMIR,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  was 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1777.  He  became  about  1800  a 
partner  of  his  brother  Scipion  in  a  banking-house,  (in 
Paris,)  which  engaged  in  large  industrial  enterprises  and 
was  prosperous.  In  1817  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  opposition.  He 
gave  an  active  support  to  the  popular  cause  in  the  revo 
lution  of  1830,  and  succeeded  Lafitte  as  prime  minister 
(president  of  the  council)  on  the  I3th  of  March,  1831. 
He  intervened  with  an  army  to  aid  the  revolted  Belgians, 
but  resisted  the  popular  pressure  which  would  have  in 
volved  France  in  a  war  against  the  allied  powers  for  the 
liberty  of  the  Poles.  Died,  of  cholera,  in  May,  1832. 

See  LOMENIE,  "Galerir  '^s  Contemporains ;"  GUIZOT,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biog  .  .lie  Ge'iierale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  July  and  August,  1838. 

Perier,  (JACQUES  CONTSTANTIN,)  a  French  mechanician 
and  constructor  of  steam-engines,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1742  ;  died  in  1818. 

Periers,  des.     See  DESPERIERS. 

Peries,  pa're'es',  ([KAN  VINCENT,)  a  French  littera- 
teur,  born  in  1785.  lie  produced  a  translation  of  the 
complete  works  of  Machiavel,  (12  vols.,  1823-26,)  which 
is  commended.  He  wrote  many  notices  of  artists  for 
the  "Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in  Paris  in  1829. 

Perignon,  pa'ren'yC'N',  (ALEXIS,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1844. 

Perignon,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  monk,  born  at  Saint- 
Menehould  about  1640.  He  was  procureur  of  the  abbey 


;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PERIGNON 


1770 


PER  ON 


of  Hautvilliers,  and  is  said  to  have  rendered  a  great 
service  to  Champagne  by  perfecting  the  quality  of  its 
wine.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  culture  of  the  grape 
and  the  fabrication  of  wine.  Died  in  1715. 

Ferignoii,  de,  deli  pa'ren'y6N',  (DOMINIQUE  CATHE- 
RINK,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born  near  Toulouse 
in  1754.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1793,  suc 
ceeded  Dugommier  as  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Spain,  and  gained  a  victory  at  Escola  in  November,  1794. 
He  negotiated  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Spain  at  Madrid 
in  1796.  In  1804  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  Died 
in  1818. 

Perigord.     See  TALLEYRAND. 

Perikles.     See  PERICLES. 

Perm,  pa'ra.v',  (HENRI  CHARLES  XAVIER,)  a  Belgian 
economist,  born  at  MODS  in  1815,  wrote  a  treatise  "On 
Riches  in  Christian  Societies,"  ("  De  la  Richesse  clans 
les  Societes  chretiennes,"  2  vols.,  1861.) 

Perin,  pa'raN',  (LiE  Louis,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1753,  excelled  in  miniatures.  Died 
in  1817. 

Perin,  (RENE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in 
1774.  He  wrote  dramas,  biographies,  and  other  works. 
He  published  "  The  Thoughts  and  Maxims  of  Rousseau," 
(1820,)  and  "The  Thoughts  and  Maxims  of  Voltaire," 
(2  vols.,  1821.)  Died  in  1858. 

Peringskiold,  pii'rings-chdld',  QOHAN,)  a  Swedish 
antiquary,  born  at  Strengnas  in  1654.  His  original  name 
was  PERINGER.  He  published  "  Monuments  of  Upland," 
("Monumenta  Uplandica,"  2  vols.,  1710-19,)  and  other 
works,  of  some  value.  Died  in  1720. 

Perino  del  Vaga,  pa-ree'no  del  va'ga,  written  also 
Pierino  (pe-a-ree'no)  del  Vaga,  an  Italian  painter, 
whose  proper  name  was  PIETRO  BUONACCORSI,  (boo-6n- 
ak-kor'see,)  was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1500  or  1501.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  decora 
tion  of  ihe  Vatican.  According  to  Vasari,  he  was  the 
greatest  designer  of  the  Florentine  school  after  Michael 
Angelo.  About  1528)16  removed  from  Rome  to  Genoa, 
where  he  painted  admirable  frescos  in  the  palace  of  Ad 
miral  Doria.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Creation  of 
Eve,"  a  fresco,  a  "Holy  Family,"  (in  oil,)  and  "The 
Combat  of  Horatius  Codes."  Died  at  Rome  in  1547. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Perion,  pa're'ox',  ( JOACHIM,)  a  French  monk  and 
linguist,  born  in  Touraine  about  1500.  lie  wrote  "The 
Lives  of  the  Apostles,"  (1551,)  and  translated  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  (7  vols.,  1540-59.)  Died  in  1559. 

Per'it,  (PELATIAH,)  an  American  merchant,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1785.  He  settled  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1809,  acquired  a  fortune  by  trade,  and 
became  president  of  the  chamber  of  commerce  in  1853. 
He  was  distinguished  for  active  benevolence.  Died  in 
March,  1864. 

See  HUNT'S  "Merchants'  Maga/.ine"  for  April,  1864. 

Perizonius,  pa-re-zo'ne-us,  (JAMES  Voorbroek — 
voR'bRook,)  an  eminent  Dutch  philologist  and  critic, 
born  at  Dam,  in  the  province  of  Groningen,  in  October, 
1651.  He  studied  under  Graevius  at  Leyden,  became 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Delft  in  1674,  and  professor 
of  history,  etc.  at  Franeker  in  1681.  In  1685  he  pub 
lished  an  excellent  critical  work  on  the  ancient  writers 
of  Roman  history,  entitled  "  Animadversiones  Histori- 
cae,"  etc.  He  was  professor  of  history  and  the  Greek 
language  at  Leyden  from  1693  to  1715,  and  wrote  many 
dissertations  on  classical  subjects.  Died  in  1715. 

See  "Life  of  Perizonius,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Opuscnla  minors,"  2 
vols.,  1740;  WII.HEI.M  KRAMER,  "  Elogium  J.  Perizonii,"  1828. 

Per'kins,  (Ei.iSHA,)  an  American  physician,  known 
as  the  inventor  of  the  "Metallic  Tractors,"  was  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1740.  He  practised  at  Plainfiekl,  Con 
necticut.  His  metallic  tractors,  and  his  system,  called 
Perkinism,  were  in  high  repute  for  a  time,  but  soon 
sunk  into  neglect.  He  died  in  1799. 

Perkins,  (GEORGE  ROBERTS,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Otsego  county, 
New  York,  in  1812,  was  appointed  in  1858  deputy  State 
engineer  and  surveyor  of  the  State  of  New  York.  He 
has  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Al 
gebra,"  (1841,)  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1847,)  "Trigo 


nometry  and  Surveying,"  (1851,)  and  "Plane  and  Solid 
Geometry." 

Perkins,  (JACOB, )  an  American  mechanician  and  in 
ventor,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1766. 
Among  his  principal  inventions  are  a  machine  for  cut 
ting  and  heading  nails  at  once,  a  gun  in  which  steam 
was  successfully  used  for  propelling  instead  of  powder, 
the  bathometer,  for  measuring  the  depth  of  water,  and 
the  pleometer,  to  mark  the  speed  with  which  a  vessel 
moves.  He  also  substituted  steel  for  copper  plates  in 
engraving  bank-notes.  Died  in  1841. 

See  HENRY  HOWE,  "Lives  of  Eminent  American  Mechanics," 
1847.  • 

Perkins,  (JAMES  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born  about 
1810,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  G.  Perkins,  of  Boston.  He 
contributed  to  the  "North  American  Review."  Died  at 
Cincinnati  in  1849. 

Perkins,  (NATHAN,)  an  American  theologian,  born 
at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1749.  He  served  as  min 
ister  at  West  Hartford  about  sixty-five  years.  He  pub 
lished  a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1795,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1838,  aged  eighty-eight. 

Perkins,  (SlMON,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  about  1770.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  1812-14.  Died  in  Warren,  Ohio,  in  1844. 

Perkins,  (THOMAS  HANDASYD,)  a  wealthy  American 
merchant,  born  at  Boston  in  1764.  He  gave  his  house 
and  grounds  on  Pearl  Street,  Boston,  valued  at  fifty 
thousand  dollars,  for  the  Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the 
Blind,  called  also  the  Perkins  Institution,  lie  likewise 
gave  large  sums  to  the  Boston  Athenaeum  and  General 
Hospital.  Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Memoir  of  T.  H.  Perkins,"  by  T.  G.  CAREY. 

Per'kins,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  Calvinistic 
divine,  born  at  Marston,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1558.  He 
preached  in  Saint  Andrew's,  a  parish  of  Cambridge. 
Among  his  works,  which  were  highly  praised  by  Bishop 
Hall,  are  "Foundation  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
commentaries  on  several  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Died  in  1602.  His  works  were  translated  into  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish. 

Perkins,  (WILLIAM,)  an  Englishman,  celebrated  for 
longevity,  died  in  New  Hampshire  in  1732,  at  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  sixteen  years. 

Permoser,  pek'mo-zer,  (  BALTHASAR,  )  a  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Kammer,  in  Bavaria,  in  1651.  He 
worked  for  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Berlin,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Dresden  in  1710.  Among  his  works  are  an 
"  Ecce  Homo,"  and  a  statue  of  Prince  Eugene.  Died 
in  1732. 

See  ERSCH  timl  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Perne,  peRii,  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  musician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772.  He  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  Conservatory  in  1816.  He  wrote  on  the 
musical  notation  of  the  Greeks.  Died  in  1832. 

Pernetti,  peVni'te',  or  Pernety,  pcrn'te',  (JACQUES,) 
a  French  priest  and  mediocre  writer,  born  in  Forez  in 
1696  ;  died  in  1777. 

Pernety,  pcun'te',  (ANTOINE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Roanne  in  1716.  He  became  libra 
rian  of  Frederick  the  Great  some  time  after  1766,  and 
returned  to  France  in  1783.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and 
Engraving,"  (1757,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  the  Falkland 
Islands,"  (2  vols.,  1769.)  Died  in  1801. 

Pernety,  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  VICOMTE,  a  French  gene 
ral,  born  at  Lyons  in  1766.  lie  served  as  colonel  at 
Austerlitz  and  Jena.  As  general  of  division,  he  con 
tributed  to  the  victories  of  Wagram,  Borodino,  (1812,) 
and  Dresden,  (1813.)  Died  in  1856. 

Pernot,  peR'no',  (ALEXANDRE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Vassy  (Haute-Marne)  in  1793. 
He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1839. 

Perofski  or  Perowski,  pi-rov'skee,  (LEON  ALEXIE- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  politician,  born  in  1791. 
He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1841,  and  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Council  of  the  Empire  about 
1852.  Died  in  1856. 

Peron,  pa'ro.N',  (FRANQOIS,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Cerilly  (Allier)  in  1775.  He  accompanied  Baudin  in 
his  expedition  to  the  South  Sea  in  1800,  as  physician 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PER  ONI 


1771 


PER  RON ET 


and  zoologist,  collected  more  than  100,000  specimens  of 
animals,  and  wrote  a  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  Southern 
Lands,"  ("  Voyage  de  Decouvertes  aux  Terres  aus- 
trales,"  4  vols.,  1811-16,)  a  work  of  much  merit.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1810. 

Peroni,  pa-ro'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Parma  about  1700;  died  in  1776. 

Perotti,  pa-rot'tee,  (Niccol.6,)  an  eminent  Italian 
grammarian, born  in  Umbria  in  1430.  He  became  Arch 
bishop  of  Siponto,  or  Manfredonia,  in  1458.  He  wrote 
a  Latin  grammar,  (1473,)  "  Cornucopia,  or  Commentaries 
of  the  Latin  Language,"  ("Cornucopia,  sive  Commen- 
taria  Lingua;  Latinae,"  1489,)  and  other  works.  He 
translated  into  Latin  the  first  five  books  of  Polybius. 
Died  in  1480. 

Ferouse,  pa'rooz',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS  Galaup  de  la — 
gS'lo'  deh  IS,)  an  eminent  French  navigator,  born  at  or 
near  Albi  (Tarn)  in  1741.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  in 
1756,  became  lieutenant  in  1775,  and  fought  against  the 
English  in  the  American  war,  (1778-83.)  In  1782  he 
took  the  British  fort  York,  on  the  west  coast  of  Hudson 
Bay.  He  svas  selected  by  the  government  to  command 
an  exploring  expedition,  and  sailed  with  the  Boussole 
and  Astrolabe  in  August,  1785.  Having  doubled  Cape 
Horn,  he  sailed  northward  to  the  sixtieth  degree,  and 
explored  the  coast  between  that  point  and  California. 
In  the  autumn  of  1786  he  crossed  the  ocean  to  Macao. 
He  explored  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  from  China  to 
Avatsha  in  Kamtchatka,  from  which  point  he  sailed  to 
Botany  Bay.  The  last  letter  received  from  him  by  his 
friends  was  dated  at  Botany  Bay,  February  7,  1788. 
About  1826  it  was  ascertained  that  he  and  his  party 
perished  by  shipwreck  at  Vanicoro,  (or  Wanicoro). 

See  PIERRK  DILLON,  "Relation  cle  la  Decouverte  du  Sort  de  La 
Perouse."  Paris,  2  vo!s.,  1836:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GJnerale ;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  November  and  December,  1791 

Perowski.     See  PEROFSKI. 

Per-pen'na  or  Per-per'na,  (M.  VEXTO,)  a  Roman 
officer,  was  a  partisan  of  Manns  in  the  civil  war.  lie 
served  under  Sertorius  in  Spain  about  five  years. 
He  was  one  of  the  assassins  of  Sertorius,  who  was 
killed  in  72  i:.c.  After  the  death  of  Sertorius  he  was 
defeated  by  Pompey  in  Spain,  taken  prisoner,  and  put 
to  death,  (72  n.c.) 

Perpenia.     See  PERPENXA. 

Perpinian,  peK-pe-ne-in',  [Lat.  PERPINIA'NUS,]  (PE 
DRO  JUAN,)  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  in  the  province  of 
Valencia  in  1530.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Rome.  His  "  Eighteen  Orations,"  ("  Orationes  duo- 
deviginti,"  1587,)  arguments  for  the  old  religion,  were 
very  popular.  Died  at  Paris  in  1566. 

See  LAZEKI,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  P.  J.  Perpiniani,"  1749. 

Perpiniaiius.     See  PERPINIAN. 

Perquit,  peR'ke',  (SEHASTIEN  BIRGY,)  a  French  gene 
ral,  born  in  the  department  of  Bas-Rhin  in  1768.  He 
served  with  distinction  during  the  first  empire.  Died 
in  1856. 

Ferrache,  pi'rtsh',  (MICHEL,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1686;  died  in  1750. 

Perraud,  pi'rS',  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Monay  (fura)  in  1821.  He  obtained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1855. 

Perrault,  p&'ro',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris  in  1628.  Having  obtained  the  favour  of  Col 
bert,  he  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the  king's 
buildings,  (bailments.)  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1671.  He  scandalized  the  admirers  of 
ancient  classic  authors  by  his  "  Parallel  between  the 
Ancients  and  Moderns,"  (4  vols.,  1688-98,)  which  was  the 
signal  of  a  long  literary  contest.  This  work  was  refuted 
by  Boileau  in  his  "Reflections  on  Longinus."  Among 
his  other  works  is  one  entitled  "The  Illustrious  Men  of 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1696-1701.)  "  Perrault  would 
probably  have  been  surprised,"  says  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale,"  "if  any  one  had  predicted  to 
him  that  he  should  owe  his  immortality  exclusively  to 
his  'Fairy-Tales,'  ('Contes  des  Fees,'  1697,)"  which 
obtained  great  success  in  the  nurseiy.  Died  in  1703. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Perra'ilt."  first  published  in  1759;  SAINTE- 
REUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 


Perrault,  (CLAUDE,)  a  celebrated  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1613,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  the  design  of  the  fa5ade  of 
the  Louvre.  Colbert  having  invited  the  artists  of  France 
to  compete  for  this  work,  the  design  of  Perrault  was 
preferred.  The  colonnade  of  the  Louvre,  commenced  in 
1666  and  finished  in  1670,  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  structures  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was 
also  the  architect  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris.  He  pub 
lished  a  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (1673,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1688. 

See  FONTENAY,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia 
della  Scultura  ;"  QUATKEMERE  DE  QUINCY,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres 
Architectes." 

Perray.     See  DUPERRAY. 

Perreau,  p.Vro',  QEAN  ANDRE,)  a  French  writer  and 
jurist,  born  at  Nemours  in  1749.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Tribunal,  (1800-04,)  an<^  one  °f  tne  rapporteurs  of 
the  Code  Civil.  Among  his  works  are  "Elements  of 
Natural  Legislation,"  (1801,)  and  "Elements  of  Roman 
Civil  Law,"  ("Juris  civilis  Roman!  Elementa,"  1809.) 
Died  in  1813. 

Perreciot,  peVse-o',  (CLAUDE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Roulans  in  1728.  He  wrote  "On  the 
Civil  State  of  Persons,  etc.  among  the  Gauls,  from  the 
Celtic  Times  to  the  Adoption  of  the  Common  Laws," 
(Continues,)  (1784-86.)  Died  in  1798. 

Perree,  pi'ra',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  EMMANUEL,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Picardy  in  1761.  He  was  killed  in  a 
battle  against  Nelson  in  1800. 

Perrein,  pi'rax',  (JEAN,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
in  1750.  He  travelled  in  Africa  and  North  America. 
Died  at  New  York  in  1805. 

Perrenot.    See  GRANVELLE. 

Ferret,  pi'ri',  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  cutler  and 
writer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1730.  He  invented  surgical 
instruments,  and  wrote  "  On  the  Art  of  Shaving  One 
self,"  (1769.)  Died  in  1784. 

Perrier.     See  PERIMR. 

Perrier  or  Perier,  pa're-i',  (FRANC.OJS,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  was  born  in  Burgundy  about  1590.  He  worked 
at  Rome  and  Paris,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  the  latter  city.  He  painted  the  Hotel  de  la 
Vrilliere,  at  Paris.  His  engravings  of  antique  statues, 
etc.  are  commended.  Died  at  Paris  about  1654. 

Perriniezzi,  per-re-met'see,  (GIUSEPPE  MARIA,)  an 
Italian  prelate  and  writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1670  ; 
died  in  1740. 

Perrin,  pi'rax',  (ALPHOXSE,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  born  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Perrin,  (CLAUDE.)     See  VICTOR,  Duke  of  Belluno. 

Perrin,  (JEAN  PAUL,)  a  French  historian  and  Prot 
estant  minister,  born  at  Lyons  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Vaudois,"  (1619.) 

Perrin,  (MAXIMILIEN,)  a  French  novelist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1796. 

Perrin,  (NARCISSE,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Persia,  entitled 
"La  Perse,"  (7  vols.,  1823.) 

Perrin,  (OLIVIER  STANISLAS,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Rostrenen  in  1761  ;  died  in  1832. 

Perrin,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  writer  of  French  operas.  He 
produced  a  musical  drama,  entitled  "  Pastorale,"  in  1659, 
and  obtained  letters-patent  to  open  an  academy  of  music 
in  Paris  in  1669.  Died  in  1680. 

Perrin  des  Vosges,  pi'rax'  di  vozh,  (JEAN  BAP- 
TISTE,)  a  Frenchman,  born  at  fipinal.  He  was  elected 
in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  opposed  the 
excesses  of  the  royalists  and  terrorists.  He  sat  in  the 
Council  of  Elders  in  1798,  and  was  the  first  president 
of  the  corps  legislatif,  about  1800.  Died  in  1815. 

Perron,  Du.     See  DUPERRON. 

Perrone,  per-ro'na,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent  Italian 
theologian,  born  at  Chieri  (Piedmont)  in  1794.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Theological  Lessons," 
("  Praslectiones  Theologicae,"  9  vols.,  1835  et  seq.,)  which 
ran  through  twenty-five  editions.  He  became  rector  of 
the  Roman  College  in  1853. 

Perronet,  pi'ro'ni',  (  JEAN  RODOLPHE,  )  an  able 
French  engineer  and  architect,  born  at  Suresne,  near 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PERROT 


1772 


PERSIUS 


Paris,  in  1708.  He  became  first  engineer  of  the  roads 
and  bridges  of  France  about  1750,  and  organized  the 
ficole  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  which  was  frequented  by 
students  from  foreign  countries.  lie  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  bridges  of  Neuilly,  Nemours,  and  Pont  Louis 
XVI,  Paris.  He  invented  a  number  of  machines.  Died 
in  1794.  "  Perronet,"  says  A.  Jadin,  "was  for  bridges 
one  of  those  creative  geniuses  whose  appearance  makes 
an  epoch."  ("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  HERTRXND,  "Notice  sur  Perronet ;"  PRONY,  "Notice  histo- 
rique  sur  Perronet,"  1829. 

Ferret.     See  AHI.ANCOUKT,  i>'. 

Perrot,  p.Vro',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  Protestant  min 
ister,  born  in  1541,  preached  at  Geneva,  and  advocated 
toleration.  Died  in  1608. 

Perrot,  (FERDINAND  VICTOR,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Paimboeuf  in  1808.  He  removed  in  1840  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  imperial 
family.  Died  in  1841. 

FeVrot,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  courtier  or  states 
man,  born  about  1527,  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  1583.  Died  in  1592. 

Perrottet,  pi'ro'ti',  (G.  SAMUEL,)  a  French  bot 
anist,  born  in  1793.  He  wrote  narratives  of  voyages 
to  Senegal  and  other  places,  and  a  "  Flora  of  Sene- 
gambia,"  (1831.) 

Fer'rjf,  (JAMES,)  an  able  British  journalist,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1756.  He  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1776,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  reporter  for 
the  "General  Advertiser."  He  was  afterwards  editor 
of  the  "Gazetteer"  and  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  a 
Whig  organ,  which  he  edited  more  than  twenty  years. 
He  improved  the  method  of  reporting  speeches,  by 
employing  a  succession  or  relay  of  reporters  on  the 
same  speech.  Died  in  1821. 

See  WILLIAM  JERUAN,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866. 

Perry,  (JoHN,)  an  English  engineer,  born  about  1670. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  as  engineer, 
in  1698,  and  published  a  work  called  "The  State  of 
Russia  under  the  Present  Czar,"  (1716.)  Died  in  Eng 
land  in  1733. 

Fer'ry,  (.MATTHEW  GALKRAITH,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1795, 
was  a  brother  of  Commodore  Perry.  lie  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  of  1847,  alul  '"  1852  commanded  the  expe 
dition  to  Japan,  which  opened  the  way  to  intercourse 
between  that  country  and  the  United  States.  An  account 
of  this  voyage  was  published,  in  3  vols.,  in  1856.  Died 
in  1858. 

Perry,  (OLIVER  HAZARD,)  a  distinguished  American 
commodore,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1785. 
On  the  I3th  of  September,  1813,  as  commander  of  a 
squadron  on  Lake  Erie,  he  defeated  the  British  under 
Commodore  Barclay,  after  an  engagement  of  three  hours. 
For  this  brilliant  victory  he  was  made  a  captain  and 
received  from  Congress 'a  gold  medal.  Having  been 
appointed  commander  of  a  squadron  bound  for  the  coast 
of  Columbia,  he  died  of  yellow  fever,  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  in  August,  1819. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"vol.  ii. 

Persceus,  per-see'us,  [Tlfpaaiof,]  a  Greek  philosopher, 
suniamed  CITTIE'US  because  he  was  born  at  Cittimn,  in 
Crete.  He  was  a  favourite  disciple  of  Zeno  the  Stoic, 
and  flourished  about  260  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by 
Antigonus  Gonatas,  who  appointed  him  governor  or 
commander  at  Corinth.  According  to  Pausanias,  he 
was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Corinth,  in  243  li.c.  He 
wrote  several  works,  which  are  lost. 

Perse.     See  PERSIUS. 

Persee.     See  PERSEUS. 

Per-seph'o-ne,  [Gr.  Hepae^vn ;  Fr.  PERSEPHONE, 
pe'R'sa'fon',]  the  Greek  name  of  PROSERPINE,  which  see. 

Perses^    See  PERSEUS,  Kinc;  Of  Macedonia. 

Per'seus,  [  Gr.  nf,w«'c;  Fr.  PERSEE,  peVsa',]  a 
famous  hero  and  demi-god  of  classic  mythology,  was 
called  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae.  (See  DANAE.)  Ac 
cording  to  the  fable,  King  Polydectes  extorted  from 
him  a  rash  promise  to  bring  to  him  the  head  of  Medusa. 
To  equip  him  for  this  enterprise,  Minerva,  Mercury, 
and  the  Nymphs  gave  him  winged  sandals,  a  helmet 


which  rendered  him  invisible,  and  a  mirror  by  means 
of  which  he  could  see  the  image  of  the  Gorgon  and 
avoid  the  petrifying  effect  of  looking  at  the  reality. 
After  he  had  cut  off  her  head,  he  flew  through  the  air 
to  Ethiopia,  where  he  rescued  Andromeda  from  a  sea- 
monster  and  married  her. 

Per'seus  or  Per'ses,  [Gr.  Uepaei^  ;  Fr.  PERSEK, 
pen'si',]  the  last  king  of  Macedonia,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Philip  V.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  179  li.c.  Before 
this  date,  by  perfidy  and  intrigues,  he  had  procured  the 
death  of  his  brother  Demetrius.  He  began  early  to  pre 
pare  for  a  renewal  of  hostilities  against  the  Romans,  who 
declared  war  against  him  in  171  li.c.  Several  campaigns 
were  fought,  without  decisive  results,  until  L.  /Emilius 
Paulus  took  command,  in  168  li.c.  He  defeated  Per 
seus  with  great  loss  at  Pydna,  in  June,  168,  after  which 
the  whole  kingdom  submitted  to  the  victors.  Perseus 
escaped  from  this  battle,  but  was  soon  taken  prisoner, 
and  was  kept  in  captivity  at  Alba  until  his  death,  about 
164  li.c. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxviii.-xlv. 

Perseus,  a  Greek  painter  and  disciple  of  Apelles, 
flourished  about  300  li.c.  He  is  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

Persian!,  peu-se-a'nee,  (FANNY  Tacchinardi — tak- 
ke-nau'dee,)  an  Italian  operatic  singer,  born  in  Rome  in 
1818.  She  married  a  composer  named  Persian!  about 

1835.  Died  in  1867. 

Persigny,  (per-seen'ye,)  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  peVsen'- 
ye',]  (JEAN  GILIIKRT  VICTOR  de  Fialin — deh  fe'i'la.N',) 
CoMTE,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Loire  in  1808.  He  became  about  1833  a  zealous 
partisan  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
instigator  of  the  attempt  made  by  him  at  Strasbourg  in 

1836.  In  1840  he  was  arrested  with  Louis  Napoleon  at 
Boulogne,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  twenty 
years.    lie  was,  however,  released  before  the  revolution 
ot   1848,  and  renewed  his  intrigues.     In  January,  1852, 
he  obtained  the  office  of  minister  of  the  interior,  which 
he  resigned  in  June,  1854.      He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  London   in  1855,  was  reappointed  minister  of  the  in 
terior  in  November,  1860,  and  removed  in  June,  1863. 
M.  Delaroa  has  published  a  work  entitled  "Le  Due  de 
Persigny  et  1'Enipire,"  (1866.) 

See  H.  CASTILLE,  "  Le  Cointe  de  Persigny;"  E.  UK  MIRECOURT, 
"  M.  de  Persigny." 

Persil,  peVsel',  JEAN  CHARLES,)  a  French  politician 
and  advocate,  born  at  Condom  in  1785.  He  was  minister 
of  justice  in  1834  and  1835.  He  published  a  good  work, 
entitled  "Regime  hypothecate,"  (1809.) 

Persio,  peVse-o,  (ASCAMO,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Matera  about  1550.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Conformity  of  the  Italian  Language  with  the  Greek," 
etc.,  (1592.)  His  brother  ANTONIO  wrote  several  works 
on  philosophy.  Died  after  1608. 

Persius,  per'she-us,  |Fr.  PERSE,  pilRss,]  or,  more  fully, 
Au'lus  Fer'sius  Flac'cus,  [It.  Aui.o  PERSIO  FI.ACCO, 
ow'lo  p^R'se-o  flak'ko,]  a  celebrated  Roman  satirical 
poet,  was  born  of  an  equestrian  family  at  Volaterrre, 
in  Etruria,  in  34  A.D.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cornutus 
the  Stoic,  to  whom  he  became  attached  by  an  intimate 
friendship,  which  lasted  until  the  death  of  Persius.  He 
associated  with  Lucan  and  Seneca.  His  moral  character 
appears  to  have  been  excellent.  lie  died  prematurely 
in  November,  62  A.D.,  leaving  six  satires,  extending 
altogether  to  only  six  hundred  and  fifty  hexameter  lines. 
Though  his  language  is  obscure,  his  style  unpolished, 
and  his  delineations  of  men  and  manners  greatly  inferior 
to  those  of  Horace  and  Juvenal,  his  sententious  satires 
have  been  very  popular  in  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  mod 
ern  times.  His  object  is  to  inculcate  the  morality  of 
the  Stoics.  Among  the  chief  merits  of  his  satires  is 
the  moral  beauty  of  his  doctrines.  His  dialogues  are 
remarkably  spirited,  and  display  much  dramatic  power. 
The  best  English  versions  of  Persius  are  those  by  Dryden, 
Gifford,  Brewster,  and  Howes.  Among  the  best  editions 
of  the  text  are  those  of  Isaac  Casaubon,  (Paris,  1605,) 
Kb'nig,  (GSttingen,  1803,)  and  O.  Jahn,  (Leipsic,  1843.) 

See  "  A.  Persii  Flacci  Vita,"  attributed  by  some  scholars  to  SUE 
TONIUS;  G.  MASSA,  "Osserva/ioni  e  Racconto  della  Vita  di  A.  Per 
sio  Klacco,"  1666;  BAYI.R,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  N.  J.  SBLIS,  "Dissertation  sur 
Perse,"  1783. 


a",  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PERSON 


'773 


PESNE 


Person,  pek'soN',  (FELIX,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Caen  in  1795.  He  published  several  books  on  the  breed 
ing  of  horses. 

Persona,  peit-so'na,  (CRISTOFORO,)  an  Italian  Hel 
lenist,  born  at  Rome  in  1416.  He  translated  into  Latin 
some  works  of  Athanasius,  Origen,  and  Chrysostom. 
Died  in  1485. 

Persona,  peR-so'na,  (GonEi.lN,)  a  German  chronicler, 
born  in  Westphalia  in  1358;  died  after  1418. 

Persoon,  peR-son',  (CHRISTIAN  HKNDRIK,)  a  Dutch 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  about  1770.  He  settled  at  Paris  about  1802, 
and  published,  besides  several  interesting  works  on 
cryptogamous  plants,  "  Synopsis  of  Plants,"  ("  Synopsis 
Plantarum,"  2  vols.,  1805-07.)  Died  in  1836. 

Persoz,  pSk'so',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  chemist,  born  in 
Switzerland  in  1805.  He  obtained  a  chair  in  the  Con 
servatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris,  in  1852.  He  has 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Printing  of  Tissues,"  (4 
vols.,  1846,)  and  other  works. 

Persuis,  de,  deh  peVsii-e',  (Louis  Luc  LOISF.AU,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Metz  in  1769.  He  composed 
operas  and  ballet-music.  Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Perthes.     See  BOUCHER  DK  PERTHES. 

Perthes,  pe"u'tes,  (FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH,)  a  learned 
German  bookseller  and  publisher,  born  at  Rudolstadt 
in  1772.  He  opened  a  bookstore  in  Hamburg  in  1796, 
married  a  daughter  of  the  editor  Claudius,  and  made 
acquaintance  with  many  literary  men,  among  whom  were 
Voss,  Stolberg,  Niebuhr,  and  the  Schlegels.  In  1822 
he  removed  to  Gotha,  where  he  published  the  "  Alma- 
nach  de  Gotha."  He  died  in  1843,  and  was  succeeded 
in  his  business  by  his  son  JUSTUS. 

See  "  F.  Perthes  Leben,"by  his  son  CLEMENS  THEODOR,  2  vols., 
i84S;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1856. 

Perti,  pSR'tee,.  (GiACOMO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  com 
poser,  born  at  Bologna  in  i66t.  He  composed  success 
ful  operas.  Died  in  1756. 

Peiticari,  pei<-te-ka'ree,  (GiULio,)  COUNT,  an  Ital 
ian  writer,  born  in  the  Romania  in  1779.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  poet  Monti  in  1812.  His  works,  which 
form  two  volumes  of  the  "  Biblioteca  Scelta,"  (Milan, 
1831,)  are  commended.  Died  in  1822. 

See  M  >NTANARI,  "  Biografia  di  G.  Perticari,"  1^36. 

Fer'ti-nax,  (Hr.LVius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  at 
Alba  Pompeia,  on  the  Tanaro,  in  126  A.D.,  was  a  son 
of  a  dealer  in  charcoal.  He  was  a  teacher  of  grammar 
before  he  entered  the  army.  As  prefect  of  a  cohort,  he 
served  with  distinction  against  the  Parthians.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  senate,  and  obtained  command  of  a 
legion  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelitis.  In  179  A.D.  he 
was  consul.  He  suppressed  a  mutiny  in  Britain  in  the 
reign  of  Commodus,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
senate  at  the  death  of  Commodu>,  in  January,  193  A.n. 
By  the  announcement  of  important  reforms,  and  his 
efforts  to  restore  discipline,  he  made  enemies  among  the 
courtiers  and  praetorians,  who  murdered  him  in  his 
palace  in  March,  193  A.I). 

See  CAPITOI.INUS.  "  Pertinax  ;"  Diov  CASSIUS,  "History  of 
Rome;"  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Komin  Empire." 

Pertusier,  de,  deh  peVtu'zeJi',  (CHARLES,)  a  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Baume-les-Dames,  in  France,  in  1779; 
died  in  1836. 

Pertz,  p^Rts,  (GF.ORG  HEINRICH,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Hanover  in  1795.  He  became  royal  librarian 
and  councillor  of  the  archives  in  his  native  city,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Historical  Monuments 
of  Germany,"  ("  Monuments  Germanize  historica,"  13 
vols.,  1854.) 

Perugin,  Le.     See  PKRUGINO. 

Perugino,  pi-roo-jee'no,  [called  in  French  LE  PE 
RUGIN,  leh  pa'rii'zha.N',]  originally  Pietro  Vanucci, 
(va-noot'chee,)  written,  also,  Vannucci  and  Vanuzzi, 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Castello  della  Pieve 
in  1446.  He  painted  some  frescos  for  Sixtus  V.  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  about  1480,  after  which  he  worked 
at  Florence  and  Perugia,  from  which  circumstance  he 
received  his  surname  IL  PERUGINO,  or  "the  Perugian." 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  surpassed  most  of  his 
contemporaries  in  the  gracefulness  of  his  heads  and 


figures.  His  style,  however,  is  considered  rather  dry. 
Among  his  best  works  are  an  "  Infant  Christ  with  the 
Virgin,"  in  the  Albani  palace,  Rome,  the  frescos  of 
Scriptural  subjects  in  the  Sala  del  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
and  an  oil-picture  of  "The  Holy  Family,"  and  a  "  Dead 
Christ,"  in  the  Pitti  palace,  Florence.  He  was  the 
master  of  Raphael.  Died  in  1524. 

SeeVASARl,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  I?.  ORSIM,  "  Vita  Hi  Pietro 
Perugino,"  1804;  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Itay:"  MRS. 
JAMESON,  "  Memoirs  of  Earlv  Italian  Painters;"  A.  MKZZANOTTK, 
"'  Commentaiio  storico  della  Vita  di  P.  Vanmicci,"  1836. 

Peruzzi,  pa-root'see,  (BALDASSARK,)  an  able  Italian 
architect  ami  painter,  born  near  Sienna  in  1481.  He 
painted  some  frescos  at  Rome,  and  attained  great  skill 
in  perspective  and  scene-painting.  His  fresco  of  the 
"Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  the  Villa  Belcaro,  is  called 
his  master-piece.  He  designed  the  beautiful  Palazzo 
Massimi,  Rome,  and  the  celebrated  Palazzo  Farnesina, 
in  which  he  painted  "Perseus  and  Medusa."  Having 
been  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  about  1520,  he 
made  a  design  for  that  church  ;  but  it  was  not  executed. 
His  works  are  characterized  by  grandeur,  purity  of  de 
sign,  and  nobleness  of  expression.  Died  in  1536. 

See  YASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy  ;"  QUATRKM&RE  UE  QuiNCV,  "  Vies  des  plus  illus- 
tres  Aichitectes." 

Peruzzini,  pi-root-see'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
historical  painter,  born  in  1629;  died  at  Milan  in  1694. 

Pesarese,  IL     See  CANTARINI,  (SIMONE.) 

Pesaro,  pa'sa-ro  or  peVa-ro,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  able 
Venetian  diplomatist,  born  in  1589.  He  was  elected 
doge  in  1658.  Died  in  1659. 

Pescaire,  de,  MARQUIS.     See  AVALOS,  D'. 

Pescara,  de,  MARQUIS.     See  AVALOS,  n'. 

Pescatore,  p£s-ka-to'ra,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Ravenna.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso,"  (1548,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1558. 

Pesce,  pa'sha,  (XiCoi.A  or  COLA,)  a  Sicilian,  who 
was  noted  as  a  swimmer  and  diver,  lived  about  1360- 
80.  It  is  said  that  he  dived  into  the  whirlpool  of 
Charybdis  and  brought  up  a  gold  cup  which  Frederick 
II.  had  thrown  there  to  test  his  skill. 

Pescermius  Niger.     See  NIGER. 

Peselli,  pa-seKlee,  or  Pesellino,  pa-se"l-lee'no.(FRAN- 
CKSCO,)  a  painter,  born  in  1426,  was  a  son  of  Pesello, 
noticed  below.  Died  in  1457. 

Peselli,  (FRANCESCO  PESELLO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1380.  He  painted  animals  with 
success.  Died  in  1457. 

Peselli,  (PESELLO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history  and 
animals,  born  at  Florence  in  1404;  died  in  1481. 

Pesh-da'di-an  or  Pish-da'dl-au,  [from  the  Persian 
phliddd  or  pishdad,  i.e.  "lawgiver,"]  the  name  of  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  ancient  Persian  dynasties,  so  called, 
according  to  Sir  William  Jones,  from  Hoosheng,  (Hu- 
sheng,)  who  was  distinguished  for  his  justice  and  was 
surnamed  PESHDAD,  or  the  "lawgiver."  Kaioomers, 
the  grandfather  of  Hoosheng,  is  commonly  called  the 
founder  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  established  a  code  of  laws  and  a  regu 
lar  government  in  Persia.  To  this  line  of  Persian  kings 
belonged  the  famous  Jemsheecl,  (or  Jamschid,)  who 
occupies  so  prominent  a  place  in  the  ancient  legends  of 
the  East. 

See  ATKINSON,  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shall  Nameh  of  Firdausi," 
London,  1832;  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  the  works 
of  SIR  WILLIAM  JOMKS. 

Pesmes,  de,  deh  pirn,  (FRANCOIS  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
general,  called  SAINT-SAPHORIN,  (saN  sS'fo'iaN',)  was 
born  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  in  1668.  He  was  sent  by 
the  Swiss  government  to  the  Congress  of  Utrecht,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  alliance  in  1714.  He  entered  the 
service  of  George  I.  of  England  in  1716  as  a  general, 
and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Vienna.  Died  in  1737. 

Pesne,   pin,  (ANTOINE,)   a   French   painter,  born   in 

I  Paris  in  1683.     He  worked  at  Berlin,  to  which  he  was 

invited   by  the   king.     He    painted   many  portraits  and 

historical   pieces,  and  received   the   title  of  first  painter 

to  the  king.     Died  in  Berlin  in  1757. 

Pesne,  (JEAN,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen  about  1624.  He  en- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  o,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  §  asz:  th  as  in  thif. 


Explanations, 


PESSELIER 


1774 


PETER 


graved  many  admirable  prints  after  Nicolas  Poussin, 
whose  style  and  spirit  he  reproduced  with  great  success. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1700. 

Pesselier,  pes'lc^i',  (CHARI.KS  ETIENNE,)  a  French 
litterateur,  was  borrT'in  Paris  in  1712.  He  wrote  com 
eclies,  fables,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1763. 

Fessuti,  pes-soo'tee,  (  GIOVACCHINO,  )  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1743.  He  obtained 
in  1787  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  the  Roman  Col 
lege  of  Sapienza.  He  wrote  treatises  on  hydraulics  and 
on  the  occultation  of  fixed  stars  by  the  moon,  (1802.) 
Died  in  1814. 

Pestalozzi,  pes-ta-lot'see,  (JoHANN  HEINRICH,)  a 
Swiss  teacher  and  educational  reformer  of  great  merit 
and  influence,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1746.  He  received 
a  liberal  education,  and  became  a  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
but  in  this  occupation  he  was  not  successful.  He  wrote 
a  popular  novel,  "  Leinhardt  und  Gertrud,"  (4  vols., 
1781,)  designed  to  promote  the  better  education  of  the 
poor,  and  "  Inquiries  into  the  Process  of  Nature  for  the 
Development  of  the  Human  Race,"  (1797.)  In  1798  he 
opened  a  school  for  orphans  at  Stanz,  where  he  adopted 
a  system  of  mutual  instruction.  Having  been  driven 
from  Stanz  by  the  Austrians  in  1799,  he  removed  to 
Burgclorf,  where  his  school  prospered  and  acquired  a 
wide  reputation.  In  1804  he  removed  to  Yverdun. 
He  was  distinguished  for  energy,  philanthropy,  and 
originality,  but  was  deficient  in  practical  ability  to 
manage  a  large  institution.  Died  in  1827. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "The  Fortunes  of  my  Life,"  1826  ; 
OPPEU  "  J.  H.  Pestalozzi's  Leben,"  1*46;  Life,  by  VON  RAUMKR. 
1855;  BANDLIN,  "  Pestalozzi,  seine  Zeit,  stine  Wirkungen,"  1X43; 
BI.OCHMANN,  "  H.  Pestalozzi."  Dresden,  1X46;  AHRENUS,  "Pesta 
lozzi,  sein  Leben  und  sein  Wirken,"  1846;  E.  BIBKR,  "  Beitrag  znr 
Biographic  J.  H.  Pestalozzi."  1827;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1828;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1849. 

Pestel,  pes'tel,  (FRIEIIKICH  WIUIELM,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Rinteln  in  1724  ;  died  at  Leyden  in  1805. 

Pestel,  pes'tel,  (PAUL,)  a  Russian  revolutionist,  born 
in  1794,  was  a  leader  of  a  secret  society  or  conspiracy 
which  designed  to  substitute  liberal  institutions  for 
absolutism  in  Russia.  He  was  hung  in  1826. 

Petagna,  pa-tan'ya,  (VINCKNZO,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Naples  in  1734.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
in  the  University  of  Naples,  and  published  "Botanic 
Institutes,"  ("  Institutions  Botanicae,"  5  vols.,  1785.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Petau,  peh-tf/,  or  Petavu,  peh-tt'vif,  [Lat.  PETA'- 
vius,]  (  DEN  is,)  a  French  scholar  and  Jesuit  of  great 
learning,  born  at  Orleans  in  1583.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Paris  from  1621  to  1644.  He  published  a 
great  work  on  chronology,  "  De  Doctrina  Temporum," 
(2  vols.,  1627,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "Theologica  Dogmata,"  (=;  vols.,  1644-50.) 
He  wrote  against  Salmasius.  Died  in  Paris  in  1652. 

See  BAVI.H,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dicti  >nary ;"  HENKI  DE 
VAI.OIS,  "Oratio  in  Obitum  D.  Petavii,"  1653;  LEON  ALLATIIIS, 
"  Me'issolyra  de  Laudibus  D.  Petavii,"  1653;  NICKRON,  "M£- 
moires." 

Petau,  (PAUL,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Orleans  in  1568. 
He  wrote  on  medals,  etc.  Died  in  1614. 

Petavius.     See  PETAU,  (DENIS.) 

Petavu.     See  PETAU. 

Fe'ter,  [Gr.  Ilerpoc;  Lat.  PE'TRUS  ;  Fr.  PIERRE,  pe-aiu'; 
Ger.  PETER,  pa'ter ;  Ital.  PIKTRO,  pe-a'tko ;  Span. 
PEDRO,  pa'i)Ro,j  SAINT,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was 
born  at  P>ethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  was  a 
brother  of  Andrew.  His  original  name  was  SIMON  ; 
but  when  he  became  a  disciple  of  Christ  he  received 
the  name  of  PETER,  which  in  Greek  signifies  a  "rock." 
He  was  sometimes  called  CEPHAS.  His  occupation  was 
that  of  a  fisherman.  He  was  a  man  of  ardent  tempera 
ment,  affectionate  and  generous.  He  was  favoured  with 
special  manifestations  of  his  Master's  confidence,  and 
performed  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  sacred  history 
than  any  other  of  the  twelve  disciples.  Peter  and  An 
drew  were  the  first  of  the  apostles  in  the  order  of  time. 
On  several  occasions  Peter  acted  as  spokesman  for  his 
fellow-apostles  ;  and  it  is  supposed  by  many  that  he 
possessed  some  pre-eminent  authority.  When  the  Lord 
Jesus  was  arrested,  Peter  drew  a  sword  and  cut  off  the 
ear  of  the  high-priest's  servant;  but,  in  the  severe  crisis 


that  followed,  his  faith  and  courage  failed,  so  that  he 
denied  his  Master.  Having  recovered  from  this  lapse 
by  hearty  repentance,  he  became  a  zealous  and  powerful 
minister,  and  spoke  with  great  effect  at  Jerusalem  on  the 
clay  of  Pentecost.  He  raised  Tabitha,  or  Dorcas,  from 
the  dead,  and  performed  other  miracles.  He  received  a 
divine  mission  to  preach  the  gospel  to  Cornelius,  a  gen 
tile.  About  44  A.I),  he  was  cast  into  prison  by  Herod 
the  king,  but  he  was  delivered  by  an  angel.  The  last 
passage  of  sacred  history  which  mentions  Saint  Peter 
is  the  account  of  a  council  held  at  Jerusalem  about  50 
A.n.  (Acts  xv.)  Tradition  adds  that  he  preached  in 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Bithynia,  and  Pontus,  and  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome  about  65  A.I).  He  wrote 
two  epistles,  which  are  included  in  the  canon  of  Scrip 
ture,  and  are  highly  prized. 

See  Matthew  x.  2,  xvi.  16-19,  xvii.,  xxvi.  33-75;  Mark  i.  16,  29, 
ix.  2,  5,  x.  28,  xiv.  29,  33,  54,  66-72;  Luke  v.,  vi.  14,  xviii.  2S, 
xxii.  31-34,  54-62,  xxiv.  12;  John  i.  40-44,  vi.  6S,  xiii.  6-9,  24,  37, 
xvi.i.  10,  15-18,  25-27,  xx.  2-6,  xxi.  2-21  ;  Acts  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  viii. 
14,  20,  ix.  32-43.  x.  5-48,  xi.  passim,  xii.  3-17,  and  xv.  7.  Also, 
L.  CUCCAGNI,  "Vita  di  San  Pietio,"  1777. 

Pe'ter,  (or  Pedro,  pa'dRo,)  often  called  Dom  Pedro, 
(ANTONIO  J<>/,£  de  Alcantara — da  al-kan'ta-ra,)  Em- 
peror  of  Brazil  and  King  of  Portugal,  a  son  of  John  VI. 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Queluz  in  1798.  On  the  con 
quest  of  Portugal  by  the  French,  in  1807,  he  was  taken 
by  his  father  to  Brazil.  He  married  Maria  Leopoldina 
of  Austria  about  1816,  and  became  Regent  of  Brazil 
in  1821.  A  revolution  having  rendered  Brazil  indepen 
dent  of  Portugal,  Dom  Pedro  was  proclaimed  emperor 
on  the  I2th  of  October,  1822.  He  was  recognized  as 
such  by  the  Portuguese  government  in  1825.  At  the 
death  of  his  father  (1826)  he  inherited  the  throne  of 
Portugal,  which  he  soon  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
daughter,  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria.  The  disaffection  of 
his  subjects  became  so  violent  that  he  abdicated  the 
crown  of  Brazil  in  favour  of  his  son  in  1831,  and  re 
turned  to  Portugal,  from  which  he  expelled  his  brother, 
Dom  Miguel,  who  had  usurped  the  royal  power.  Died 
in  1834. 

See  KIHJARD  GROSSK,  "Dom  Pedro  I.,  oder  Geschichte  der 
neuesten  Revolution  von  Brasilien  und  Portugal,"  1836;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Peter  or  Pedro  II.  de  Alcantara,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  December,  1825,  is  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  who  abdicated  in  his  favour  in  1831. 
He  began  to  act  as  emperor  on  the  23d  of  July,  1840, 
when  he  was  declared  of  age.  In  1843  'le  married 
Theresa  Christina  Maria,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies.  He  cultivates  literature,  and  has  the 
reputation  of  a  liberal  and  popular  ruler. 

Peter,  Emperor  of  Constantinople.   See  COURTENAY, 

DE,   (PIERRE.) 

Peter  j  Russ.  PETR,  pe-dtr']  I.,  or  Peter  the  Great, 
[Fr.  PIERRE  I.K  GRAND,  pe-aik'  leh  gRON  ;  Ger.  PETER 
DER  GROSSE,  pa'ter  dergRos'seh  ;  It.  PlKTROlL  GRANDE, 
pe-a'tRo  el  gRan'da ;  Lat.  PE'TRUS  MAG'NUS,]  Czar  of 
Russia,  born  at  Moscow,  June  10,  1672,  was  the  third  son 
of  Alexis  Mikhailovitch.  His  mother  was  Natalia,  the 
second  wife  of  Alexis.  Feodor,  the  eldest  son  of  Alexis, 
having  died  without  issue,  in  1682,  Peter  was  recognized 
as  his  successor,  in  preference  to  Ivan,  who  was  a  feeble 
minded  youth.  Their  ambitious  sister  Sophia,  however, 
fomented  a  bloody  mutiny  among  the  strelitzes,  and 
procured  the  proclamation  of  Ivan  and  Peter  as  joint 
sovereigns.  Sophia  acted  as  regent  until  1689,  when 
she  was  confined  in  a  convent  and  Peter  began  to  reign 
as  sole  autocrat.  He  married  Eudoxia  Feodorovna  in 
1689.  Some  years  before  this  date  he  had  received 
scientific  instruction  from  Le  Fort,  a  native  of  Geneva, 
who  became  one  of  his  advisers  or  ministers  after  his 
accession. 

Peter  had  received  from  nature  violent  passions  and 
an  indomitable  energy.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
he  determined  to  reform  the  institutions,  governmental 
system,  and  customs  of  Russia,  which  was  far  behind 
other  countries  of  Europe  in  civilization.  His  first  care 
was  to  organize  an  army  with  the  European  discipline; 
and  he  set  the  example  by  entering  the  army  himself  as 
a  private  soldier.  He  also  gave  much  attention  to  the 
construction  of  a  navy,  and  learned  practical  seamanship 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nftf;  good;  moon; 


PETER 


1775 


PETER 


by  cruising  on  the  White  Sea.  He  procured  the  ser 
vices  of  many  foreign  engineers,  shipsvrights,  artisans, 
etc.  In  1696  he  captured  Azof  from  the  Turks  by  the 
aid  of  his  new  navy. 

Prompted  by  an  irrepressible  activity  and  desire  of 
knowledge,  in  1697  he  visited  Western  Europe  incognito, 
accompanied  by  several  of  his  favourite  officers  or  min 
isters,  who  were  accredited  as  ambassadors  to  Holland. 
Tie  took  a  lodging  in  a  small  house  at  Saardam,  where 
he  worked  for  wages  as  a  ship-carpenter,  under  the  name 
of  Pieter  Timmerman. 

In  January,  1698,  he  went  to  England,  where  he  passed 
about  three  months.  Here,  says  Macaulay,  "his  stately 
form,  his  intellectual  forehead,  his  piercing  black  eyes, 
his  Tartar  nose  and  mouth,  his  gracious  smile,  his  frown, 
black  with  all  the  stormy  rage  and  hate  of  a  barbarian 
tyrant,  .  .  .  were  during  some  weeks  popular  topics  of 
conversation."  He  returned  to  his  capital,  Moscow, 
after  an  absence  of  seventeen  months,  and  punished 
with  great  severity  the  strelitzes,  who  had  rebelled  while 
he  was  absent.  He  established  naval  and  other  schools, 
caused  useful  works  to  be  translated  into  Russian,  re 
quired  his  subjects  to  trade  with  foreigners,  and  made 
various  other  innovations,  against  which  a  great  number 
of  his  subjects  were  deeply  prejudiced.  He  also  dis 
banded  the  strelitzes,  who  had  served  as  a  body-guard 
of  the  C/.ars.  In  1700  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Kings  of  Poland  and  Denmark  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  who  defeated  the  Russians  at  Narva  in  the 
same  year.  Peter  founded  Saint  Petersburg  in  1703, 
and  prosecuted  vigorously  the  war  against  Charles,  who 
was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Pultowa,  in  1709. 
(See  CHARLES  XII.)  In  1711  he  married  Catherine, 
a  girl  of  obscure  origin,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  at 
Marienburg.  (See  CATHHRINE  I.) 

The  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  having  been  re 
newed,  Peter  conducted  an  army  in  person  across  the 
Pruth  into  the  dominions  of  the  Sultan.  Hemmed  in 
by  the  Turkish  army,  and  unable  to  obtain  a  regular 
supply  of  provisions,  he  was  reduced  to  a  dangerous 
situation,  from  which,  it  is  said,  the  empress  Catherine 
rescued  him  by  overtures  of  peace  and  rich  presents  to 
the  grand  vizier.  Peter  obtained  peace  by  restoring  Azof 
and  Taganrog  in  July,  1711,  after  which  he  prosecuted 
with  success  the  war  against  the  Swedes  in  Pomerania 
and  conquered  Finland.  He  transferred  the  senate  to 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1713,  soon  after  which  the  imperial 
palaces  of  that  city  were  finished.  In  1716  he  visited 
Germany,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  France.  During  his 
visit  to  Copenhagen  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  combined  fleets  of  Russia,  Holland,  England, 
and  Denmark. 

Alexis,  the  eldest  son  of  Peter,  had  constantly  opposed 
his  projects  of  reform,  and  had  selected  his  favourites 
and  advisers  among  the  enemies  of  his  father's  policy. 
Having  remonstrated  without  effect  against  this  conduct, 
Peter  compelled  him,  in  February,  1718,  to  renounce  the 
succession.  Alexis  was  then  tried  for  conspiracy  by  a 
council  of  judges  and  bishops,  who  condemned  him  to 
death.  The  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Alexis, 
attested  as  they  appear  to  be  by  unimpeachable  wit 
nesses,  seem  to  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  he  was 
poisoned  by  order  of  his  father.  (See  ALEXIS.) 

In  1719  Peter  was  afflicted  by  the  death  of  his  second 
son,  Peter,  the  heir-apparent  and  the  issue  of  Catherine. 
He  made,  in  September,  1721,  at  Nystad,  (or  Neustadt,\ 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of  Sweden,  who  ceded 
to  him  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  Carlia,  and  Viborg. 
Finland  was  restored  to  Ssveden  by  this  treaty.  Having 
thus  fortunately  ended  a  war  of  twenty  years,  he  assumed, 
at  the  request  of  the  senate,  the  titles  of"  Peter  the  Great, 
Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  and  Father  of  his  Country." 
He  afterwards  directed  his  attention  to  internal  improve 
ments,  and  founded  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about  1724. 
The  public  offices  and  tribunals  had  been  removed  in 
1721  to  Saint  Petersburg,  the  population  of  which  he 
had  rapidly  increased  by  arbitrary  measures.  Among 
his  favourite  ministers  and  courtiers  were  Mentchikof 
and  Galitzin.  He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg  on  the  28th 
of  January  or  the  8th  of  February,  1725,  leaving  two 
daughters,  Elizabeth,  who  became  empress,  and  Anna. 


Catherine  reigned  until  her  death,  in  1727,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Peter  II.,  a  son  of  Alexis. 

See  JOHN  MOTTI.EY,  "Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  3  vols.,  1739; 
MAUVILI.OX,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  ler,"  1742  :  ALEX.  GORDON,  "  His 
tory  of  Peter  the  Great,"  1755;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Histoire  cle  Russiesous 
Pierre  le  Grand,"  1759-63  :  CLAUDIUS,  "  Peter  der  Grosse,"  3  vols., 
1798-1818;  GOLIKOW,  "Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (in  Russian.)  12 
vols.,  1788-98;  RABENER,  "  Leben  Petri  I.,"  1725;  VON  HAI.EM, 
"  Leben  Peters  des  Grossen,"  3  vols.,  1803-05  ;  GROSSE,  "  Peter 
der  Grosse,"  1836 :  PH.  DE  SEGUK,  "  Histoire  de  Russie  et  de  Pierre 
le  Grand,"  1829  :  REICHE,  "  Peter  der  Grosse  und  seine  Zeit,"  1841  ; 
BENJAMIN  BERGMANN,  "  Peter  der  Grosse  a's  Menschund  Regent," 
3  vols.,  1823-26;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845,  (by 
J.  LOTHROP  MOTLEY.)  ?^7«.  .  H-'e77"'"*^-Yr  s  • 

Peter  II,  (Alexievitch,)  a  grandson  of  Peter  the 
Great,  was  born  in  1714  or  1715.  He  began  to  reign  in 
May,  1727.  His  accession  was  promoted  by  Mentchikof, 
who  expected  to  have  great  power  or  influence  during 
his  minority.  Ivan  Dolgoruki,  however,  became  the 
favourite  of  Peter,  who  banished  Mentchikof  to  Siberia. 
Peter  died  in  January,  1730,  and  was  succeeded  by  Anna 
Ivanowna. 

Peter  III,  (Feodorovitch,)  Emperor  of  Russia, 
born  in  1728,  was  a  grandson  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  a 
son  of  Anna,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp.  He  was  recognized  as  heir  to  the  throne  by 
Elizabeth  in  1742,  and  married,  in  1745,  Sophia  Augusta 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Catherine. 
He  succeeded  his  aunt  Elizabeth  in  January,  1762. 
Among  his  first  acts  was  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Frederick 
the  Great.  Having  provoked  the  enmity  of  the  nobles 
and  clergy  by  some  innovations,  he  was  dethroned  and 
strangled  in  July,  1762,  by  conspirators,  of  whom  his 
wife  was  an  accomplice.  (See  CATHERINE  II.) 

See  RANFT,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Kaisers  Peter  III.,"  1773  ; 
THIEBAL'LT  DE  LAVEAUX,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  III,"  3  vols.,  1798; 
GOLDERN-.  "Biographic  Peters  III.,"  1792  ;  HELBIG,  "Biographic 
Peters  III.,"  2  vols.,  1808-03. 

Peter  (or  Pedro,  pa'nRo)  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  was  a 
son  of  Sancho  Ramirez.  Died  in  1104. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  born  in  1174, 
was  a  son  of  Alfonso  II.  Died  in  1213. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  III.,  surnamed  THE  GREAT,  King 
of  Aragon,  was  born  in  1236,  and  succeeded  nis  father, 
James  I.,  in  1276.  He  had  married  about  1262  Con 
stance,  a  daughter  of  Manfred,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
After  the  death  of  Manfred,  Peter  asserted  his  claim  to 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  who 
had  possession  of  it  and  who  was  supported  by  the 
pope.  The  interest  of  Peter  was  promoted  by  the  mas 
sacre  of  the  French  at  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  March  30, 
1282,  and  by  several  naval  victories  gained  by  his  ad 
miral,  Roger  di  Loria,  over  the  fleet  of  Charles.  He 
died  in  1285,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonso  III. 

See  ZURITA,  "  Anales  de  Aragon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  IV.,  surnamed  THE  CEREMONIOUS, 
King  of  Aragon,  born  in  1317,  was  the  son  of  Alfonso 
IV.  He  began  to  reign  in  1336.  Died  in  1387. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  I.,  surnamed  THE  CRUEL,  King  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  born  about  1334,  succeeded  his  father, 
Alfonso  XL,  in  1350.  He  married  Blanche  de  Bourbon, 
a  French  princess,  in  1353,  but  he  soon  imprisoned  her 
and  married  Juana  de  Castro,  whom  he  also  maltreated. 
The  friends  of  these  ladies  revolted  without  success,  and 
Blanche  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Peter.  About 
1366  he  was  driven  out  of  Castile  by  Du  Guesclin  and 
others,  who  supported  Pedro's  brother,  Henry  de  Trans- 
tamare,  as  king.  Peter  was  restored  by  the  English 
Black  Prince  in  1367,  and  was  assassinated  by  Henry  de 
Transtamare  in  1369. 

See  LOPEZ  DE  AYAI.A,  "  Cronica  de  los  Reyes  Pedro  I.,"  etc., 


2  vols.,  1848;  FROISSART,  "Chronicles;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Peter  (Pedro)  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1320, 
was  a  son  of  Alfonzo  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1357. 
Died  in  1367. 

Peter  (Pedro)  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  a  younger  son 
of  John  IV.,  was  born  in  1648.  Having  deposed  his 
brother,  Alfonzo  VI.,  in  1667,  he  became  regent.  lie 
reigned  as  king  from  1683  until  his  death,  in  1706. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  '  ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PETER 


1776 


PETERS 


Peter  or  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal.  See  PETER  I., 
Emperor  of  Brax.il. 

Peter  or  Pedro  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  September,  1837,  was  a  son  of  Queen  Donna  Maria  da 
Gloria,  and  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  lie  succeeded 
his  mother  in  November,  1853,  under  the  regency  of  his 
father,  and  assumed  the  functions  of  royalty  in  Septem 
ber  or  November,  1855.  Fie  was  a  popular  prince.  He 
died  in  November,  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Louis  I. 

Peter  (or  Pierre,  pe-aiiO  I.,  surnamed  MAUCLERC, 
Duke  of  Brittany,  and  Count  de  Dreux,  was  a  grandson 
of  Louis  VI.  of  France.  lie  married,  about  1212,  Alix 
de  Thouars,  the  heiress  of  Brittany.  He  served  under 
Louis  IX.  in  the  crusade  of  1249,  and  died  in  1250. 

Peter  (Pierre)  II.,  Duke  of  Ikittany,  succeeded  his 
brother,  Francis  I.,  in  1450.  Died  in  1457. 

Peter,  [Gr.  Her/jof,]  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  succeeded 
Theonas  in  300  A.I).  He  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of 
Maximinus  II.,  in  311.  lie  is  eulogized  by  Eusebius. 

Peter  or  Fe'trus  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  the  companion 
and  successor  of  Athanasius.  Having  been  designated 
by  the  latter,  he  was  elected  bishop  by  the  orthodox 
party  in  373  A.D.,  but  was  quickly  deposed  by  the  Arians. 
He  was  restored  in  378,  and  died  in  381  A.I). 

Peter  OK  BUMS,  [Lat.  PE'TRUS  BLESEN'SIS,]  an  emi 
nent  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Blois.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Archdeacon  of  Bath  by  Henry  II.  of  England. 
He  died  in  1200,  leaving  many  letters  and  other  works, 
which  have  been  printed,  (1519  and  1667.) 

Peter  or  Pe'trus  of  SEHAS'TE.  a  bishop,  born  in 
Cappadocia  about  350  A.I).,  was  a  brother  of  Basil  the 
Great,  by  whom  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  about  380. 
Died  after  390  A.n. 

Peter,  |  Lat.  PE'TRUS,]  surnamed  CHRYSOI/OGUS,  a 
Bishop  of  Ravenna,  who  died  in  450  A.n. 

Peter  de  Bruys,  (deh  biui-e',)  a  French  preacher, 
who  began  about  mo  to  speak  against  the  corruptions 
of  the  Church.  He  is  said  to  have  rejected  masses,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  other  ordinances.  He  was  burned 
at  the  stake  in  1130. 

See  HfiixisoN,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Peter  Coniestor.     See  COMESTOR. 

Peter  the  Deacon,  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  at 
Rome  in  1107  ;  died  after  1159. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  [Fr.  PIERRE  I.'ERMITE,  pe-ain' 
leR'met';  It.  P  o  L'ERKMITA,  pe-a'tRo  li-ra-mee'ta,] 
a  famous  enthu.  ,  agitator,  and  crusader,  was  born  in 
the  diocese  of  -A  is  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century.  He  pcr.jrmed  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  about 
1094,  and  Wc.~->  filled  with  indignation  by  the  oppressions 
to  which  the  pilgrims  were  subjected.  On  his  return 
he  received  a  commission  from  Pope  Urban  II.  to  preach 
a  crusade  against  the  infidels.  He  traversed  France 
and  other  countries  barefoot,  and  by  his  fervent  appeals 
enlisted  a  host  of  crusaders  and  outlaws  estimated  at 
nearly  100,000.  He  led  them  as  far  as  Constantinople, 
and,  after  the  defeat  of  this  rabble  near  Nice,  he  accom 
panied  Godfrey  to  Jerusalem.  Nearly  all  of  the  rabble 
perished  miserably.  He  died  in  Flanders  in  1115. 

See  MICHAUD,  "Histoire  des  Croisades ;"  H.  PRAT,  "Pierre 
1'Ermite  et  la  premiere  Croisade,"  1840. 

Pe'ter  Lom'bard,  a  distinguished  Italian  theologian, 
born  in  the  district  of  Novara.  He  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Paris  in  1 159.  He  produced  a  celebrated  compilation 
of  sentences  from  the  Fathers,  ("  Sententiarum  Libri 
IV.,")  which  was  much  used  as  a  text-book,  and  often 
reprinted  and  commented  on.  Died  about  1160. 

Peter  Martyr.     See  ANGIIIEUA,  DE. 

Pe'ter  Mar'tyr,  [Ital.  PIETRO  MARTI  RE,  pe-a'tRo 
maR'te-ra,]  or  PIETRO  Vermigli,  (veR-mel'yee,)  an  emi 
nent  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1500, 
and  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith.  Having  been  con 
verted  to  the  Reformed  religion,  he  repaired  in  1542  to 
Zurich,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Bullinger. 
He  afterwards  became  professor  of  theology  at  Stras- 
burg,  having  the  celebrated  Bucer  for  his  colleague.  At 
the  invitation  of  Edward  VI.,  he  visited  England,  and 
was  appointed  in  1549  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  left  England,  and 


was  invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  theology  at  Zurich.  As  a 
Protestant  writer  he  is  esteemed  second  only  to  Calvin, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  surpassed  in  learning,  and  his 
virtues  and  eloquence  were  eulogized  by  Catholics  as 
well  as  Protestants.  He  was  the  author  of  several  com 
mentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  at  Zurich  in  1562. 

See  M'C'RIE,  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy;"  SCIU.OSSER, 
"Leben  Peter  Martyrs,"  iSoq;  WOOD.  "Athens  Oxom'enses ;" 
SCHMIDT,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Martyr  Vermigli,"  Strasbourg,  1835. 

Pe'ter  Mon'gus,  [Gr.  Tlsrpof  6  Moyydf,]  became  Mo- 
nophysite  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  477  A.I).  Having 
been  deposed  by  the  emperor  Zeno,  he  was  restored  in 
482.  By  a  compromise  or  temporizing  policy  he  retained 
his  office  until  he  died,  in  490. 

See  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Peter  Nolasque  (no'ltsk')  or  Nolasco,  (no-las'ko,) 
the  founder  of  the  Order  of  Mercy,  (for  the  redemption 
of  captives  taken  by  the  Moors,)  was  born  in  Languedoc 
about  1189;  died  in  1256. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  a  French  monk,  born  about 
1092,  became  Abbot  of  Clugny.  Died  in  1156. 

Peter,  pa'ter,  (WENCESLAUS,)  a  Bohemian  painter, 
born  at  Carlsbad  in  1742.  He  worked  at  Rome,  and 
was  a  skilful  painter  of  animals.  Died  at  Rome  in  1829. 

Peterborough.     See  MORDAUNT. 

Feterman^pa'ter-man',  (AUGUST  HEINRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  geographer,  born  near  Nordhausen  in  1822.  He 
aided  Johnston,  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  "  Physical  Atlas," 
and  T.  Milner  in  the  "  Atlas  of  Physical  Geography." 
He  became  about  1854  editor  of  a  monthly  journal 
devoted  to  geographical  discovery,  published  at  Gotha. 
He  wrote  or  edited  "  An  Account  of  the  Expeditions  to 
Central  Africa."  -/?— <*v  '*/* 

Feterneefs.     See  NEEFS,  (PETER.) 

Peters,  pa'ters,  (BONAVENTURK,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1614,  was  the  best  marine  painter 
of  his  time.  His  favourite  subjects  were  storms  and 
shipwrecks.  He  also  painted  views  of  the  sea  in  a 
calm.  Died  at  Antwerp  in  1652. 

Pe'ters,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Corn 
wall.  He  became  rector  of  Saint  Mabyn  in  1727,  and 
wrote  a  "Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Job." 
Died  in  1777.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was  published 
after  his  death. 

Peters,  (FRANCIS  LUCAS,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Mechlin  (Malines)  in  1606 ;  died  at 
Brussels  in  1654. 

Peters,  (GERARD.)     See  PIETERS. 

Peters  or  Peter,  (Huon,)  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1599.  tie  preached  in 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  several  years,  between  1635  and 
1641.  On  his  return  to  England  he  became  a  par 
tisan  of  the  Parliament,  acquired  much  influence,  and 
was  a  preacher  to  the  army  which  fought  against  the 
king.  He  was  tried  for  treason  and  hung  by  the  royalists 
in  1660.  His  reputation  is  defended  by  some  respectable 
writers. 

See  S.  PKTERS,  "  History  of  Hug!;  Peters,"  1807  ;  BKOOK,  "  Lives 
of  the  Puritans." 

Peters,  (JAN,)  an  excellent  Flemish  marine  painter, 
a  brother  of  Bonaventure,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1625.  His  figures  are  well  designed  and 
his  landscapes  finely  touched.  Among  his  master-pieces 
is  the  "  Port  of  Oran."  Died  in  1677. 

Pe'ters,  (JoiiN  CHARLES,)  M.D.,an  American  homoe 
opathic  physician,  born  in  New  York  in  1819,  has  pub 
lished  a"  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Head,"  a  "  Treatise 
on  Diseases  of  the  Eyes,"  and  other  medical  works,  and 
was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  North  American  Journal 
of  Homoeopathy." 

Peters,  (PHILLIS  WHEATLEY.)     See  WHEATLEY. 

Peters,  (RICHARD,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Phila 
delphia  in  1744.  He  was  appointed  in  1776  secretary 
of  the  board  of  war,  and  was  afterwards  judge  of  the 
United  States  district  court  for  Pennsylvania.  Died 
in  1828.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  dry  humour,  ready 
wit,  etc. 

Peters,  (SAMUEL,)  an  Episcopal  divine,  born  at 
Hebron,  Connecticut,  in  1735.  During  the  Revolution 
he  sided  with  the  Tories,  and  took  refuge  in  England, 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v,  short :  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not:  good:  moon; 


PETERS 


1777 


PETIT 


where  he  published  a  "General  History  of  Connecticut." 
He  is  satirized  in  Trumbull's  "  McFingal"  under  the 
name  of  "  Parson  Peter."  Died  in  1826. 

Peters,  (SAMUEL  JARVIS,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  in  Canada  in  1801,  settled  in  New  Orleans,  and 
became  president  of  the  State  Bank  of  Louisiana.  Died 
in  1855. 

Fetersen,  pa'ter-seii,  (  FREDERIK  CHRISTIAN,  )  a 
Danish  scholar,  and  professor  of  philology  at  ^Copen 
hagen,  was  born  in  Seeland  in  1786.  Among  his  prin 
cipal  works  are  a  "Manual  of  Greek  Literary  History," 
and  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Archaeology," 
(1825.) 

Petersen,  (NIELS  MATTHIAS,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Sanderum,  in  the  isle 
of  Funen,  in  1791.  He  was  a  fellow-student  of  Rask, 
who  became  his  friend.  He  published  in  1829  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Swedish  Lan 
guages,"  (2  vols.,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  In  1845 
he  became  professor  of  Northern  literature  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Copenhagen.  Among  his  important  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Denmark  in  Heathen  Times,"  (3 
vols.,  1834-38,)  and  "Contributions  to  the  History  of 
Danish  Literature,"  (ist  vol.,  1853.)  He  died  in  Copen 
hagen  in  May,  1862. 

See  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Pe'ther,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Chichester  in  1756,  was  a  son  of  William  Pether, 
noticed  below.  He  painted  moonlight  scenes  with  suc 
cess.  Died  in  1812. 

His  son  SEBASTIAN,  born  about  1790,  was  also  a 
landscape-painter.  Died  in  1844. 

Pether,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  engraver  in  mezzotint, 
and  painter,  born  about  1730,  flourished  about  1770. 
He  engraved  some  works  of  Rembrandt,  and  some  of 
his  own  designs. 

Pethion.     See  PETION,  (JER6ME.) 

Petiet,  pa'te-i',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  administrator, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1749.  He  was  minister 
of  war  from  February,  1796,  to  July,  1797,  and  governor 
of  Lombardy,  (1800-02.)  Died  in  1806. 

Petigny,  de,  deh  pa'ten'ye',  (FRANgois  JULES,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  received 
a  prize  of  nine  thousand  francs  for  his  "Studies  on  the 
History,  Laws,  and  Institutions  of  the  Merovingian 
Period,"  (2  vols.,  1842-44.)  Died  in  1858. 

Pet'I-gru,  (JAMES  Louis,)  an  eminent  American 
lawyer  and  statesman,  born  in  Abbeville  district,  South 
Carolina,  about  1789.  He  practised  law  at  Charleston, 
and  was  attorney-general  of  South  Carolina  from  1822 
to  18^0.  He  differed  from  the  large  majority  of  the 
people  of  his  State  on  the  subject  of  nullification  about 
1831.  He  also  opposed  the  secession  movement  of 
1860-61.  Died  in  1863. 

See  WM.  J.  GRAYSON,  "James  L.  Petigrii ;  a  Biographical 
Sketch,"  1866. 

Petion,  pa/te-6N',  (ALEXANDRE,)  the  first  President 
of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  was  born  at  Port-au-Prince  in 
1770.  His  father  was  a  wealthy  colonist,  his  mother  a 
mulatto.  He  was  sent  to  France  to  be  educated,  and 
served  at  an  early  age  in  the  French  army.  Afterwards, 
when  the  Revolution  broke  out,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  rising  of  the  coloured  people,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  an  officer  of  artillery.  His  humane  disposi 
tion  and  pleasing  manners  gained  for  him  the  favour  of 
all  classes  ;  and  during  the  period  of  terror  he  succeeded 
in  protecting  many  of  the  colonists.  When  the  blacks, 
under  Toussaint,  began  to  proscribe  the  whites  and 
mulattos,  Petion  resisted  them  by  arms,  but  he  was  soon 
forced  to  fly  from  the  island.  Returning  with  General 
Le  Clerc,  he  fought  for  some  time  under  the  French 
standard  ;  but,  disgusted  at  length  by  the  cruelties  of  the 
French,  and  especially  by  their  treachery  towards  Tous 
saint  and  their  attempt  to  re-establish  slavery,  he  again 
joined  Dessalines,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  was 
elected  President  of  the  southern  and  western  portion 
of  the  island,  while  Christophe,  who  had  been  general- 
in-chief  under  Dessalines,  became  ruler  of  the  northern 
part.  Petion  was  a  man  of  sincere  and  deep  religious 
convictions.  As  a  ruler  he  was  distinguished  for  the 
republican  simplicity  of  his  manners  and  mode  of  life, 


as  well  as  for  his  humanity  and  impartial  justice.  But 
the  anxieties  caused  by  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  in 
the  midst  of  a  population  hitherto  wholly  unaccustomed 
to  self-control,— anxieties  which  were  still  further  in 
creased,  on  his  part,  by  an  extreme  and  almost  morbid 
conscientiousness, — proved  too  much  for  his  health.  He 
died,  universally  lamented,  on  the  2gth  of  March,  1818. 
As  a  military  officer,  he  was  remarkable  for  skill  and 
serene  courage.  For  some  very  interesting  particulars 
respecting  President  Petion,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
numbers  48  and  49  of  volume  xxxix.  of  "  The  Friend," 
(1866,)  published  in  Philadelphia.  The  article  in  ques 
tion  is  from  the  pen  of  Stephen  Grellet. 

See  SAINT-REMI,  "  Petion  et  Haiti,"  Paris,  5  vols.,  1854-58. 

Petion  (or  Pethion)  de  Villeneuve,  pa'te-6N'* 
deh  vel'nuv',  (JEROME,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at 
Chartres  in  1753.  He  was  a  radical  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790.  His  abilities  were  mediocre. 
He  was  one  of  the  three  deputies  sent  to  conduct  the 
king  from  Varennes  to  Paris  in  1791,  and  was  censured 
for  his  harshness  or  rudeness  to  the  royal  captives.  In 
November,  1791,  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Paris,  in 
preference  to  La  Fayette,  who  was  supported  by  the 
moderate  reformers.  He  appears  to  have  been  remiss 
in  his  duties  during  the  massacres  of  August  and  Sep 
tember,  1792.  Having  been  elected  to  the  Convention, 
he  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and  was  proscribed  about 
the  ist  of  June,  1793.  He  escaped  to  the  department 
of  the  Gironde,  where  he  was  found  dead  in  a  field  in 
June,  1794.  The  manner  of  his  death  was  not  ascer 
tained. 

See  RKC;NAUI.T-\VARIN,  "Vie  de  J.  Petion,  Maire  de  Paris," 
1796;  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  peh-te'  deh  It  kiuva,  (ALEXANDRE 
Louis  MARIE,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1698,  was  a  son  of  Frai^ois,  (1653-1713.)  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  Arabic  in  the  Royal  College.  Died  in  1751. 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Oriental 
ist,  born  in  1622.  He  was  interpreter  to  the  king,  and 
published  a  "  History  of  Genghiz-Can,"  (Jengis  Khan,) 
(1710.)  Died  in  1695. 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  (FRANCOIS,)  an  Orientalist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1653,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  at  Aleppo,  Ispahan,  and 
Constantinople.  As  interpreter,  he  rendered  important 
services  in  the  negotiations  between  the  French  court 
and  the  Sultan  and  the  Dey  of  Algiers.  In  1695  he 
became  interpreter  to  the  king.  He  translated  from 
the  Persian  "The  Thousand  and  One  Days,"  (5  vols., 
1710-12,)  and  a  "History  of  Taimoor,"  (Tamerlane,) 
(4  vols.,  1722.)  Died  in  1713. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Petit,  peh-te'  or  p'te,  (ALEXIS  THERESE,)  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Vesoul  in  1791,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Arago.  He  became  a  teacher  of  phys 
ics  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1810,  and  titular  pro 
fessor  in  the  same  in  1815.  He  wrote  an  able  "  Memoir 
on  the  Use  of  the  Principle  of  Living  Forces  in  the 
Calculation  of  Machines,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1820. 

See  J.  B.  BIOT,  "  Notice  sur  Petit,"  1821. 

Petit,  (ANTOINE,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1718.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  the  Jarclin  du  Roi,  Paris,  in  1768,  and.  attracted  a 
large  concourse  of  auditors.  He  published  "  Palfyn's 
Surgical  Anatomy,  with  Notes,"  ("  Anatomic  chirurgi- 
cale  de  Palfyn,  avec  des  Notes,"  1753.)  Died  in  1794. 

Petit,  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  celebrated  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1674.  lie  served  as  army  surgeon  from  1692 
to  1700,  and  then  returned  to  Paris.  His  success  was 
great  as  a  lecturer  and  a  practitioner.  He  was  for  some 
years  the  most  celebrated  surgeon  in  Europe.  "The 
services  which  he  rendered  to  surgery."  says  a  French 
writer,  "are  immense."  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Academy  of  Surgery,  (1731.)  His  chief  work  is  an 
excellent  "  Treatise  on  Surgery,"  ("  Traite  des  Maladies 
chirurgicales,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1774.)  Died  in  1750. 

See  A.  Louis,  "  filoge  de  J.  L.  Petit,"  1750;  "Biographic  M^- 
dicale." 


*  We  are  informed  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  that, 
although  Petion  generally  wrote  his  name  without  the  accent,  it  was 
always  pronounced  Petion. 


repuoncan  simplicity  ot  nis  manners  ana  mode  ot  lite,    always  pronounced  Petion. 

€  as  k;  <j  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (B^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

112 


PETIT 


1778 


PETRARCH 


Petit,  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  French  historical  and  marine 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  gained  a  first  medal 
in  1841. 

Petit,  (JEAN  MARTIN,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1772.  He  served  as  lieutenant-general  at 
Waterloo.  Died  in  1856. 

Pet'it,  (LEWIS  HAYES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  gentle 
man  and  patron  of  literature,  was  born  in  1774;  died 
in  1849. 

Petit,  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French  physician  and 
skilful  surgeon,  born  at  Lyons  in  1766.  He  wrote 
"  Essai  sur  la  Medecine  du  Coeur,"  (1806,)  and  several 
poems.  Died  in  1811. 

See  BAUMES,  "filoge  de  M.  A.  Petit,"  1812. 
Petit,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Montlufon  (Allier)  about  1596.  He  obtained  the  offices 
of  engineer,  counsellor  to  the  king,  and  intendant-gene 
ral  of  fortifications.  He  formed  a  friendship  with  Pas 
cal,  whom  he  aided  in  experiments  on  the  vacuum  and 
barometer,  (1646-47.)  Among  his  works  are  a  treatise 
"On  the  Use  of  the  Compass  of  Proportion,"  (1634, 
and  "Observations  on  the  Vacuum,"  (1647.)  He  was  a 
Cartesian.  Died  in  1677. 

SeeNlCERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  MOR^RI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 
Petit,  (PIERRE,)  a  learned  P'rench  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1617.  Among  his  poems  (in  Latin)  are  "On 
Tears,"  ("  De  Lacrymis  Libri  tres,"  1661,)  "Chinese 
Tea,"  ("Thea  Sinensis,"  1685,)  "On  the  Amazons," 
.("De  Amazonibus,"  1685,)  and  "On  the  Sibyl,"  ("De 
•Sibylla,"  1686.)  He  was  one  of  the  Latin  poets  who 
formed  the  "  Pleiade"  of  Paris.  Died  in  1687. 

Petit,  (SAMUEL,)  a  learned  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1594,  was  a  Protestant  minister.  It  is  said 
that  he  could  speak  Hebrew  with  ease.  He  wrote  on 
Jewish  and  Greek  antiquities,  chronology,  etc.  His 
friendship  was  sought  by  Peiresc,  Selden,  Gassendi, 
Vossius,  and  Gronovius.  Died  in  1643. 

Petit,  du,  diip'te',  (FRANgois  POURFOUR,)  a  learned 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1664.  He  was  suc 
cessful  in  the  treatment  of  cataract,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  eyes.  Died  in  1741. 

Petit-Didier,  peh-te'  cle'de-i',  (MATHIEU,)  a  learned 
French  monk,  was  born  in  Lorraine  in  1659.  He  wrote 
"  Remarks  on  the  First  Volumes  of  Dupin's  Biblio- 
theque  Ecclesiastique,"  (3  vols.,  1691-96,)  and  other 
works.  Died' in  1728. 

Petit-Pied,  peh-te'  pe-i',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  1665.  He~was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
and  wrote  many  works  in  favour  of  Jansenism.  Died 
in  1747. 

Petit-Radel,  peh-te'  rt'del',  (Louis  CHARLES  FRAN 
COIS,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1756.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  keeper  of  the  Mazarin 
Library.  He  published  "  Explanations  of  the  Antique 
Monuments  of  the  Museum,"  (4  vols.,  1804-06,)  and 
"Researches  on  Cyclopean  Monuments,"  (1841.)  Died 
in  1836. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litte'raire." 

Petit-Radel,  (Louis  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding 
Died  in  1818. 

Petit-Radel,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1749,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  obtained  in  1798  the  chair  of  surgical  clinic. 
He  published  "  Medical  Institutes,"  ("  Institutions  de 
Medecine,"  2  vols.,  1801,)  and  compiled  the  "  Dictionary 
of  Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1790,)  which  forms  part  of  the 
"Encyclopedic  Methodique."  Died  in  1815. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Fetit-Thouars.     See  Du  PETIT-THOUARS. 

Petitain,  peh-te'taN',  (Louis  GERMAIN,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  wrote  some  works 
of  fiction.  Died  in  1820. 

Petitot,  peh-te'to',  (CLAUDE  BERNARD,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Dijon  in  1772.  He  translated  the 
dramatic  works  of  Alfieri,  (4  vols.,  1802,)  and  edited 
the  works  of  Racine,  (5  vols.,  1805,)  and  the  works  of 
Moliere,  (6  vols.,  1813.)  Died  in  1825. 

Petitot,  (JEAN,)  an  eminent  painter  on  enamel,  born, 
of  French  parents,  at  Geneva  in  1607.  He  visited  Eng 


land,  where  he  obtained  from  the  chemist  Mayern  some 
important  secrets  respecting  colours,  and  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I.  He  painted  portraits  of  the  royal  family, 
and  copied  some  works  of  Van  Dyck.  About  1650  he 
returned  to  France.  He  received  a  pension  from  Louis 
XIV.,  whose  portrait  he  painted  many  times.  By  order 
of  the  king,  Bossuet  attempted  to  convert  Petitot  to 
the  Romish  Church,  but  failed.  His  master-piece  is  a 
whole-length  portrait,  in  enamel,  of  the  Countess  of 
Southampton,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  about  nine 
inches  by  five.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  delicacy 
of  design  and  harmonious  richness  of  colour.  Died  at 
Vevay  in  1691. 

See  L.  BRIGHT-WELL,  "  By-Pathsof  Biography  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  GihieVale." 

Petitot,  (Louis  MESSIDOR  LEBON,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1814,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  Among  his 
works  are  many  marble  busts  of  Frenchmen.  His  capital 
work  is  a  colossal  monument  to  Louis  Bonaparte  at 
Saint-Leu.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died 
in  June,  1862. 

Petitot,  (PIERRE,)  a  sculptor,  born  at  Langres  in 
1751,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1840. 

Pet'I-ver,  (JAMES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  botanist,  was 
an  apothecary  of  London.  He  furnished  materials  for 
Ray's  "  History  of  Plants,"  published  "  Pterigraphia 
Americana,"  (1712,)  and  other  works,  and  forme'd  a 
rich  collection  of  plants,  minerals,  and  animals.  Died 
in  1718. 

Fe'to,  (Sir  SAMUEL  MORTON,)  an  English  engineer 
and  contractor,  born  in  Surrey  in  1809.  He  constructed 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  in  Canada,  with  the  tubular 
bridge  near  Montreal,  and  several  railways  on  the  con 
tinent  of  Europe.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Finsbury  in  1859.  Sir  S.  Morton  Peto  visited  the  United 
States  in  1865,  and  published  "The  Resources  and  Pros 
pects  of  America,"  (1866.) 

Petofi  or  Petoefi,  pet'6-fee,  (SANDOR,  or  ALEXAN 
DER,)  a  Hungarian  poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  Little 
Cumania  in  1822.  He  published  in  1847  a  number  of 
patriotic  songs,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  and  had 
a  powerful  influence  in  exciting  the  revolutionary  feeling 
of  his  countrymen.  He  also  wrote  several  dramas  and 
prose  works.  His  lyrics  and  odes  display  uncommon 
genius,  and  have  procured  for  him  the  name  of  "the 
Hungarian  Burns."  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Schassburg,  (1849.) 

See  KERTBRNV,  "  Petoefy  der  Ungarische  Nationaldichter;" 
CHASSIN,  "  Petoefy  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1861. 

Petrarca.     See  PETRARCH. 

Fe'trareh,  [It.  PETRARCA,  pa-tRaR'ka;  Fr.  P£- 
TRARQUE,  pa'tKSRk';  Lat.  PETRAR'CHA,]  (FRANCESCO,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany, 
on  the  2Oth  of  July,  1304.  His  father,  a  friend  of  Dante, 
was  banished  from  Florence  in  1302  for  his  political 
principles,  and  removed  in  1313  to  Avignon,  which  was 
:hen  the  residence  of  the  pope.  He  was  sent  to  study 
law  at  Montpellier,  where  he  remained  about  four  years, 
(1318-22;)  but  he  preferred  the  study  of  the  classic  au 
thors,  especially  Cicero  and  Virgil.  He  made,  however, 
some  progress  in  law  under  Cino  da  Pistoia  at  Bologna. 
His  fine  personal  and  mental  endowments  procured  for 
him  admission  into  the  brilliant  society  of  Avignon.  He 
was  so  handsome  as  to  attract  observation  as  he  walked 
in  the  streets.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Colonna, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Giacomo  Colonna,  a 
brother  of  the  cardinal. 

In  1327  his  heart  for  the  first  time  was  touched  by  a 
violent  and  profound  passion.  He  has  recorded  the 
place,  the  day,  and  the  hour  in  which  he  first  saw  Laura 
de  Sade,  a  daughter  of  Audibert  de  Noves,  and  the  wife 
of  Hugh  de  Sade, — a  lady  distinguished  by  her  rank, 
but  more  by  her  beauty  and  modesty.  With  consum 
mate  tact,  she  contrived,  by  a  mixture  of  reserve,  discre 
tion,  and  sympathy,  to  preserve  him  and  herself  from  the 
fatal  consequences  of  his  wayward  passion.  "She  took 
my  heart  into  her  hand,"  he  writes,  "saying,  'Speak  no 
word  of  this.'"  By  her  pure  and  excellent  example  his 
passion  appears  to  have  been  purified  and  exalted ;  but 


i,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PETRARCH 


1779 


PETRIE 


his  admiration  of  her  never  abated,  and  the  whole  tenor 
of  his  life  was  changed  by  her  influence.  He  sought  re 
lief  by  the  composition  of  the  sonnets  andcanzoni  which 
have  rendered  the  name  of  Laura  immortal.  She  ac 
cepted  this  homage,  which  the  usage  of  that  age  sanc 
tioned,  and  was,  perhaps,  proud  of  his  admiration.  He 
passed  much  time  in  collecting,  collating,  and  copying 
ancient  manuscripts.  We  owe  to  him  the  preservation 
of  many  Latin  authors  which  were  buried  in  the  dust  of 
monastic  libraries.  About  1335  he  visited  Rome,  the 
ruins  of  which  made  a  deep  impression  on  him.  He 
also  travelled  in  France,  Germany,  and  Spain.  He  dis 
covered  two  orations  of  Cicero  at  Liege,  the  "  Institu 
tions"  of  Quintilian  at  Arezzo,  and  Cicero's  "  Familiar 
Letters"  at  Verona.  Petrarch  corresponded  with  the 
most  eminent  scholars  of  his  time,  founded  the  library 
of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
revivers  of  classical  literature  in  Italy. 

About  1336  he  retired  to  Vaucluse,  a  romantic  valley 
near  Avignon,  where  he  passed  several  years  in  solitude 
and  in  vain  efforts  to  forget  his  unhappy  passion.  Here 
he  meditated  a  great  work  which  should  be  worthy  of 
his  genius,  and  commenced  a  Latin  epic  poem,  of  which 
Scipio  Africanus  was  the  hero.  This  poem,  entitled 
"Africa,"  is  inferior  to  his  Italian  sonnets.  In  1340  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  the  Roman  senate  to  come 
to  Rome  and  receive  the  laurel  crown  of  poetry.  He 
was  crowned  at  the  Capitol  in  1341.  Petrarch  appears 
to  have  had  much  influence  with  several  potentates  of 
his  time.  He  exerted  his  eloquence  to  induce  successive 
popes  to  transfer  the  papal  court  from  Avignon  to  Rome. 
He  was  the  colleague  of  the  famous  Rienzi  in  an  embassy 
sent  by  the  Romans  to  Clement  VI.  for  that  purpose. 
He  became  Archdeacon  of  Parma,  and  canon  of  several 
cathedrals.  His  love  of  independence  caused  him  to  de 
cline  the  office  of  apostolic  secretary  and  the  dignity  of 
bishop.  In  1342  he  met  Laura,  whose  beauty  had  faded, 
and  who  was  not  happy  in  her  domestic  relations.  Her 
husband  was  jealous  and  ill-tempered.  Laura  sang  to 
Petrarch,  and  parted  from  him  with  emotion  and  regret. 

The  death  of  Laura,  which  occurred  in  1348,  inspired 
a  new  series  of  beautiful  and  exquisite  sonnets,  the 
melody  and  pathos  of  which  have  probably  never  been 
surpassed.  It  is  reported  that  she  died  on  the  anni 
versary  of  the  day  and  hour  that  he  first  saw  her. 
Between  1350  and  1360  he  resided  at  the  court  of  Vis- 
conti,  Lord  of  Milan,  who  employed  him  in  diplomatic 
missions  to  Venice,  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and 
to  the  King  of  France.  Among  his  intimate  friends 
at  this  period  was  Boccaccio.  In  1370,  for  the  sake 
of  retirement  and  the  restoration  of  his  health,  he  fixed 
his  residence  at  Arqua,  among  the  Euganean  Hills, 
north  of  Padua.  Fie  was  found  dead  in  his  library  at 
Arqua  on  the  igth  of  July,  1374.*  He  left,  besides  other 
prose  works  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On  Contempt  of  the 
World,"  ("De  Contemptu  Mundi,")  and  many  epistles, 
which  are  highly  prized  as  memorials  of  important  events 
which  he  witnessed.  He  had  composed  in  praise  of 
Laura  above  three  hundred  sonnets  and  fifty  canzoni. 
Among  his  most  perfect  productions  is  "  The  Triumph 
of  Death,"  ("Trionfo  delta  Morte,")  a  poem,  in  which 
he  describes  the  death  of  Laura.  The  most  complete 
edition  of  Petrarch's  works  is  that  published  at  Bale,  (2 
vols.  fol.,  1581.)  It  contains,  besides  his  Italian  and 
Latin  poems,  and  the  works  already  named  in  this  notice, 
"De  Vera  Sapientia,"  "  De  Officio  et  Virtutibus  Impe- 
ratoris,"  and  "  Vitarum  Virorum  Illustrium  Epitome." 

"The  peculiar  charm  of  Petrarch's  character,"  says 
one  of  his  biographers,  "  is  warmth  of  heart  and  a  native 
ingenuousness  of  disposition,  which  readily  laid  bare 
his  soul  to  those  around."  He  was  a  believer  in  re- 


*  His  epitaph,  as  given  by  some  writers,  is  a  curious  specimen  of 
Latin  versification, — rhyming  hexameters: 

"  Frigida  Francisci  lapis  hie  tegit  ossa  Petrarchas. 
Suscipe  Virgo  Parens  animam  :  Sate  Virgine  parce; 
Fessaque  jam  terris  cceli  requiescat  in  arce." 

(See  "  Bibliotheca  Vetus  et  Nova,"  by  G.  M.  K.ONIG,  Altdorf, 
1678.) 

The  following  is  a  nearly  literal  translation:  "This  stone  covers 
ihe  cold  bones  of  Francis  Petrarch.  Virgin  Mother,  receive  his 
soul ;  O  thou  Son  of  the  Virgin,  have  mercy  ;  and  may  [his  soul,] 
weary  with  earth,  now  find  repose  in  the  citadel  of  heaven." 


vealed  religion  ;  but  he  often  protested  openly  agains 
the  corruptions  of  the  papal  court. 

See  I,.  BECCADELLI,  "  Vita  di  Petrarca."  (translated  into  English 
by  W.  PVK,  1766;)  L.  ARETINO,  "Vita  di  Petrarca,"  1672;  FKRNOW, 
"  F.  Petrarca,  nebst  dem  Leben  des  Dichters,"  1818;  TOMASINI, 
"  Petrarcha  Redivivus,"  1635  and  1650;  ABBE  DESADE,  "Memoires 
pour  la  Vie  de  Petrarque."  3  vols.,  1764-67  ;  FABRONI,  "  Petrarchae 
Vita,"  1799;  LEVATI,  "  Viaggi  di  F.  Petrarca,"  5  vols.,  1820:  UGO 
FOSCOLO,  "  Essay  on  Petrarch  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  1825;  THOMAS  CAMPBELL,  "Life  of  Petrarch,"  1841; 
"  Lives  of  Eminent  Men  of  Italy,"  in  LARDNER'S  "  Cabinet  of  Biog 
raphy  ;"  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall,"  chap.  Ixx.  ;  S.  DOBSON, 
"Life  of  Petrarch,"  2  vols.,  1775;  MEINART,  "Franc.  Petrarca's 
Biografie,"  1794;  LORD  WOODHOUSELEE,  "Essay,  Historical  and 
Critical,  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Petrarch,"  1810;  ERSCH  nnd 
GKUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  PRESCOTT,  "Miscellanies," 
p.  616;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1843. 

Petrarcha.     See  PETRARCH. 

Petrarque.     See  PKTRARCH. 

Petrazzi,  pa-tkat'see,  (ASTOLFO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Siennese  school,  was  born  in  1579  ;  died  in  1653. 

Petre,  pet'tr  or  pe'ter,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  Jesuit, 
born  about  1631.  He  was  confessor  or  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  James  II.,  over  whom  he  is  said  to  have  exerted  an 
evil  influence  in  political  affairs.  Died  in  1699. 

Petre,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Devonshire.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls' College, 
Oxford,  in  1523,  and  afterwards  master  of  requests. 
About  1543  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  He 
held  a  high  office  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  was 
secretary  of  state  during  the  reign  of  Mary.  Died  in  1572. 

Fe-tre'i-us,  (MAKCUS,)  a  Roman  general,  to  whom 
the  victory  over  Catiline  (62  li.C.)  is  ascribed.  He  was 
a  partisan  of  the  senate  in  the  civil  war,  fought  against 
Caesar  at  Pharsalia,  and  commanded  (with  Afranius) 
in  Spain,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Caesar  in  49  B.C. 
He  killed  himself  in  Africa  in  46  H.C.,  or  was  killed  by 
Juba  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  that  they  should 
kill  each  other. 

See  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xli.-xliii. 

Petrettini,  pa-tret-tee'nee,  (SPIRIDION,)  an  Italian 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Corfu  in  1777,  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Venice.  He  translated  Velleius  Paterculus  into 
Italian.  Died  in  1833. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  fin  Flemish,  PEETERS,  pa'ters,]  (BAR 
THOLOMEW,)  a  Flemish  theologian,  born  in  Brabant 
about  1545.  He  was  professor  at  Louvain  and  Douai. 
Died  in  1630. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (BERNHARD,)  a  German  rural  econo 
mist,  born  at  Deux-Ponts  in  1767.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  raising  of  sheep,  and  made  improvements 
in  the  rural  economy  of  Germany.  Died  in  1842. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (CHRISTIERN,)  a  Danish  divine,  who 
published  in  1529  a  Danish  version  of  the  New  Testa 
ment. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  or  Peterson,  pa'ter-son,  (LARS,)  the 
first  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  was  born  at 
Oerebro  in  1499.  He  studied  under  Luther  at  Witten 
berg,  and  became  archbishop  in  1531.  With  the  aid  of 
his  brother  Olaus  and  L.  Andreae,  he  produced  a  Swedish 
translation  of  the  Bible,  (1541.)  He  published  several 
works  of  theology.  Died  in  1573. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  ofver  narnnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Petri,  (OLAUS,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1497,  and  was  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Reformed 
religion.  He  became  first  minister  of  Stockholm  in 
1539.  He  published  some  religious  works.  Died  in  1552. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (SUFFKID  or  SUFFRIDUS,)  a  Dutch 
philologist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1527.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  law  at  Cologne  in  1577.  He  was  very  learned, 
but  was  deficient  in  taste  and  critical  ability.  Among 
his  works  are  "Orations  on  the  Utility  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (1566,)  and  "On  the  Writers  of  Friesland," 
("De  Scriptoribus  Frisiae  Decades,"  1593.)  Died  at 
Cologne  in  1597. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Petrie,  pee'tre,  ?  (Dr.  GEORGE,)  an  Irish  antiquary, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1791,  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on 
the  Round  Towers  of  Ireland,"  which  obtained  for  him 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  He  also 
published  an  "Essay  on  the  Military  Antiquities  of  Ire 
land."  Died  in  1866. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1845;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1858. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (B^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PETRIE 


1780 


PETRARD 


Petrie,  pee'tre,  ?  (HENRY,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1768,  became  keeper  of  the  chancery  records  in  the 
Tower.  He  collected  materials  for  the  history  of  Great 
Britain,  of  which  two  volumes  were  published,  (1830-48.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Petrini,  pa-tuee'nee,  (PiETRO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
translator,  born  at  Palestrina  in  1722.  Among  his  works 
is  a  good  version  of  Horace's  "  De  Arte  Poetica,"  (1777.) 
Died  in  1803. 

Petrof,  Petrov,  or  Petrow,  pa'tnof,  (VASSILI  PE- 
TROVITCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  at  Moscow  in  1736.  He 
wrote  odes  and  other  poems,  which  have  some  merit, 
and  translated  Virgil's  "  /Eneid"  into  Russian,  (1781-86.) 
He  became  imperial  librarian  about  1775.  Died  in  1799. 

Petrone.     See  PETRONIUS  ARBITER. 

Petroni  or  Petronj,  pa-tRo'nee,  (STEFANO  EGIDIO,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Perugia  in  1770.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Napoleonid :  a  Lyrical-Numismatical 
Poem,"  ("La  Napoleonide ;  Poeme  lyrique-numisma- 
tique,"  1810.)  Died  about  1845. 

Pe-tro'nI-us,  [Fr.  PETRONE,  pa'tRon',]  or,  more  fully, 
Fetro'nius  Ar'biter,  a  licentious  Latin  writer,  sup 
posed  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  He  described 
the  vices  of  his  time  in  a  satire  or  novel,  in  mingled 
prose  and  verse,  entitled  "  Satyricon,"  fragments  of 
which  are  extant.  His  style  is  classical,  and  the  work 
displays  much  talent,  but  is  extremely  licentious.  The 
author  of  this  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Petronius, 
a  refined  voluptuary  who  figured  at  the  court  of  Nero  as 
arbiter  elegantice,  (umpire  of  fashion  and  taste,)  and  who 
killed  himself  in  66  A.D. 

See  TACITUS,  "  Annales,"  book  xvi.  ;  J.  C.  VON  ORELI.I,  "Lec- 
tiones  Petronianse,"  1836;  DUNLOP,  "  History  of  Fiction;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generate." 

Petrunti,  pa-tRoon'tee,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  skilful  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Campobasso  in  1785.  He  practised  at 
Naples,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Surgery,"  (2  vols., 
1822.)  Died  in  1839. 

Petrus,  the  Latin  for  PETER,  which  see. 

Petrus  Aponis.    See  ABANO,  ( PIETRO  m.) 

Petrus  Blesensis.     See  PETER  OF  BLOIS. 

Pe'trus  Patricius  (pa-trish'e-us)  et  Magls-ter,  a 
Byzantine  historian  of  the  sixth  century,  was  born  at 
Thessalonica.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  the 
empire  under  Tiberius  and  several  of  his  successors, 
some  portions  of  which  have  been  preserved. 

Petter,  pet'ter,  (ANTON,)  a  German  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1783.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  for 
his  "  Death  of  Aristides,"  and  became  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Vienna  in  1830.  He  painted  many  clas 
sical  subjects.  He  excels  in  harmony  and  brilliancy 
of  colouring. 

Pettigrew,  pet'te-gru,  (THOMAS  JOSEPH,)  an  English 
surgeon,  antiquary,  and  biographer,  born  in  London  in 
1790.  He  was  admitted  to  the  College  of  Surgeons  in 
1812.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "History 
of  Egyptian  Mummies,"  (1834,)  a  "Medical  Portrait- 
Gallery,  or  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Physicians  and  Sur 
geons,"  a  "Life  of  Lord  Nelson,"  and  a  work  "On 
Superstitions  connected  with  the  Practice  of  Medicine," 
(1844.)  Died  in  1865. 

Pettiti,  pSt-tee'tee,  COUNT,  an  Italian  general,  was 
second  chief  of  the  staff  in  the  army  led  by  the  king 
against  the  Austrians  in  June,  1866. 

Pettrich,  peYtRiK,  (FRANZ,)  a  Bohemian  sculptor, 
born  in  1770,  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Dresden.  Died  in  1844.  His  son  FERDINAND,  born 
at  Dresden  in  1798,  studied  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome. 
He  has  produced  several  works  of  superior  merit. 

Pet'tus,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Suf 
folk.  He  became  deputy  governor  of  the  royal  mines, 
and  published  "The  History,  Laws,  and  Places  of  the 
Chief  Mines  in  England  and  Wales,"  (1670.)  Died 
about  1690. 

Petty,  (HENRY.)     See  LANSDOWNE. 

Petty,  (WILLIAM.)     See  SHELBURNE. 

Pet'ty,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Romsey,  in  Hampshire,  in 
1623.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Oxford  in 
1650,  and  physician  of  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1652.  He 
served  Henry  Cromwell  as  secretary  while  he  was  lord 


lieutenant  of  Ireland,  about  1655.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  his  writings  on  commerce  and  political 
economy,  on  which  subjects  he  was  in  advance  of  his 
age.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Taxes  and 
Contributions,"  (1662,)  "Political  Arithmetic,"  (1682,) 
and  "The  Political  Anatomy  of  Ireland,"  (1692.)  One 
of  his  sons  became  Baron  Shelburne.  Died  in  1687. 

See  a  "  Notice  of  Sir  William  Petty,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Political 
Arithmetic,"  by  his  son  ;  WOOD,  "  Athena:  Oxonienses." 

Pet'tyt  or  Pet'yt,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer  on 
law,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1636.  He  was  keeper  of  the 
records  of  the  Tower.  Among  his  works  is  "  Parliament 
ary  Law,"  ("Jus  Parliamentarium,"  1739.)  Died  in  1707. 

Peucer,  poits'er,  [Lat.  PEUCE'IUIS,]  (KASPAR,)  a 
German  scholar  and  physician  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  Bautzen  in  1625,  married  a  daughter  of  Melanchthon. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Wittenberg  about 
1559.  Having  offended  the  Lutherans  by  advocating 
some  doctrines  of  Melanchthon,  he  was  confined  in  prison 
about  eleven  years,  (1574-85,)  and  treated  with  rigour. 
He  wrote  numerous  works  on  geometry,  theology,  and 
medicine;  also  an  account  of  his  imprisonment,  "His- 
toria  Carcerum  Peuceri,"  (1604.)  Died  in  1602. 

See  LEUPOI.D,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Peucers,"  1745  ;  HEIMBURG, 
"  De  Gasp.  Peucero,"  1842;  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  ERSCH  und 
GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Peucerus.    See  PEUCER. 

Peu-ges'tas  or  Peu-kes'tas,  [Gr.  UevKearaf,]  an  offi 
cer  of  Alexander  the  Great.  lie  attended  that  prince's 
person  in  the  expedition  against  Persia,  and  gained  his 
favour  in  a  high  degree.  He  was  appointed  satrap  of 
Persia  in  331  or  330  B.C.,  and  joined  Alexander's  army 
at  Babylon  with  about  20,000  Persians  in  323.  Having 
co-operated  with  Eumenes  against  Antigonus,  he  was 
deprived  of  his  satrapy  by  the  latter  in  316  B.C. 

Peuchet,  puh'shcY,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  litth-atetir, 
born  in  Paris  in  1758.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Statistics  of  France  and  its  Colonies,"  (7  vols., 
1803,)  "Commercial  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheque  commer- 
ciale,"  12  vols.,  1802-06,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  Political 
Economy,"  (4  vols.,  1810.)  Died  in  1830. 

Peukestas.     See  PEUCESTAS. 

Peurbach.     See  PURBACH. 

Peut,  puh,  (FRANC.OIS  MARIE  HIPPOLYTE,)  a  French 
publicist  and  economist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  He 
published  several  journals  and  pamphlets, 

Peuteman,  puh'teh-man',  (NIKLAAS  or  PIETER,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1654.  He 
painted,  with  success,  still  life,  cemeteries,  and  allegori 
cal  subjects.  His  death  was  hastened  by  fright.  As  he 
was  working  in  an  anatomical  cabinet,  he  fell  asleep 
among  some  skeletons.  On  awaking,  he  was  horrified 
by  seeing  them  move  rapidly  and  jostle  against  each 
other.  This  was  the  effect  of  the  earthquake  of  Sep 
tember  18,  1692.  He  died  the  same  month. 

Peutinger,  pu'tin-ger,  [Ger.  pron.  poi'ting'er;  Lat. 
PEUTINGE'RUS,]  (CONRAD,)  an  eminent  German  scholar 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1465.  He  was  secre 
tary  of  the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  councillor  to  the  empe 
ror  Maximilian.  He  was  a  diligent  collector  of  statues, 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.,  and  is  called  the  founder  in 
Germany  of  the  science  of  Roman  and  German  antiqui 
ties.  He  published  "Convivial  Discourses,"  ("Sermones 
conviviales,"  1506,)  "Old  Roman  Inscriptions,"  ("In- 
scriptiones  vetustae  Romanae,"  1520,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1547. 

See  J.  C.  WENDLER,  "  De  Vita  et  Meritis  Peutingeri ;"  LOTTER, 
"Vita  Peutingeri,"  1729;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Peutingerus.     See  PEUTINGER. 

Peyer,  pT'er,  (JOHANN  CONRAD,)  a  Swiss  anatomist, 
born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1653.  He  was  professor  of 
logic  and  physical  sciences  at  his  native  place,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  anatomy.  He  was  the  first  who 
described  accurately  the  small  bodies  called  Peyer's 
glands.  Died  in  1712. 

Peyrard,  pA'rtR',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Vial  (Haute-Loire)  in  1760.  He  pub 
lished  a  treatise  "  On  Nature  and  its  Laws,"  (4th  edition, 
1794,)  and  other  works.  His  translations  of  the  works 
of  Archimedes  (1807)  and  of  Euclid  (3  vols.,  1814-18) 
are  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  French  language.  Died 
in  1822. 


8,  e.  T  o  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PETRAT 


1781 


PFE1FFER 


Peyrat,  pi'rSt',  (Ai.PHONSE,)  a  French  journalist  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1812.  He  became 
an  assistant  editor  of  Girardin's  "  Presse"  about  1844. 

Peyre,  pSR,  (AN TOINE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1763,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  pub 
lished  some  works  on  architecture.  Died  in  1823. 

See  QUATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "Notice  sur  A.  F.  Peyre,"  1824. 

Peyre,  (ANTOINE  MARIE,)  an  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1770,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  was  ap 
pointed  architect  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  1809.  Among 
his  works  are  the  Salle  de  Spectacle  of  Soissons,  and  the 
restorations  or  additions  to  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1843. 

Peyre,  (MARIE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  architect,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1730.  He  pub 
lished  "Architectural  Works,"  ("CEuvres  d'Architec- 
ture,:'  1765.)  Peyre  and  Wailly  were  architects  of  the 
theatre  of  Paris  called  the  Odeon.  Died  in  1785. 

Peyrere,  de  la,  deh  It  pi'rain',  (ISAAC,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1594.  He  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  one  entitled  "  Pre- Adamites, "("  Prae- 
adamitae,"  1655,)  in  which  he  maintained  that  some  men 
were  created  before  Adam.  Died  in  1676. 

Peyrilhe,  pi'Rel'  or  pi-re'ye,  (BERNARD,)  a  French 
physician,  was  born  at  Pompigiian  in  1737;  died  in  1804. 

Peyron,  pi'r6N/,  (JEAN  FRANC.OIS  PIERRE,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  bom  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1744. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1773,  studied  the  antique 
in  Rome,  and  promoted  the  reformation  of  the  French 
school.  Died  in  1814. 

Peyron,  pi'roN',  (VICTOR  AMEDEE,)  ABBE,  an  Ori 
entalist,  born  at  Turin  in  1785.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon 
of  the  Coptic  Language,"  (1835,)  and  other  works. 

Peyronie.     See  LA  PEYRON  IE. 

Peyronnet,  de,  deh  pi'ro'ni',  (CHARLES  IGNACE,) 
COUNT,  a  French  politician  and  lawyer,  born  at  Bor 
deaux  in  1778.  He  was  minister  of  justice  from  1821  to 
January,  1828,  and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in 
May,  1830.  He  procured  in  1825  the  passage  of  a  very 
unpopular  and  odious  law  against  sacrilege.  Having 
been  convicted  of  treason  in  1830,  he  was  imprisoned 
six  years  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.  Died  in  1854. 

Peyssonel,  pi'so'neT,  (CHARLES,)  an  antiquary, 
father  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1700. 
He  explored  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  col 
lected  marbles.  He  wrote  a  "Memoir  on  the  Kings 
of  Bosphorus,"  and  "  Travels  in  the  Levant."  Died 
in  1757. 

Peyssonel,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1727.  He  was  consul  at  Smyrna 
and  in  the  Crimea.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Numbers,"  ("Les  Numeros,"  4  vols.,  1784,)  and 
"The  Political  Situation  of  France,  and  its  Relations 
with  all  the  Powers  of  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1790.)  Died 
in  1790. 

Peyton,  pa'ton,  (BAILLIE,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
orator,  born  in  Sumiier  county,  Tennessee.  He  repre 
sented  a  district  of  Tennessee  in  Congress  from  1833  to 
1837,  voted  with  the  Whigs,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Chili  about  1850. 

Pezarese,  II,  a  name  of  the  painter  Cantarini.  (See 
CANTARINI.) 

Pezay,  de,  deh  peh-zk',  (ALEXANDRE  FREDERIC 
JACQUES  Masson — ma"s6N',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  born  at  Versailles  in  1741.  He  gave 
lessons  in  tactics  to  Louis  XVI.  Among  his  works  are 
"Series  of  Trifles,"  ("Suite  des  Bagatelles,"  1767,)  and 
"Helvetian  Evenings,"  ("Les  Soirees  Helvetiennes," 
1771.)  Voltaire  addressed  to  him  some  verses.  Died 
in  1777. 

Pezenas,  peVna.'  or  peh-zeh-na',  (ESPRIT,)  a  French 
Jesuit  and  mathematician,  born  at  Avignon  in  1692. 
He  published  "  Memoirs  on  Mathematics  and  Physics," 
(5  vols.,  1756,)  an  "Astronomy  for  Mariners,"  (1766,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1776. 

Pezet,  pa-theV,  (General  JUAN  ANTONIO,)  a  Peruvian 
statesman,  who  became  vice-president  of  Peru  in  Octo 
ber,  1862,  and  at  the  death  of  San  Ramon  succeeded  to 
the  presidency,  in  April,  1863.  He  was  removed,  or 
ceased  to  be  president,  about  the  end  of  1865. 


Pezron,  peVriN',  (PAUL,)  an  able  French  chronolo- 
gist  and  philologist,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1639.  He  wrote 
"  The  Antiquity  of  the  World  (des  Temps)  Restored 
and  Defended,"  (1687,)  in  which  he  argued  that  the 
world  was  created  5872  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Died  in  1706. 

Pfaff,  pfaf,  (CHRISTOPH  MATTHAUS,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1686, 
was  a  man  of  great  erudition.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen  in  1717,  and  received  the  title  of 
count  palatine  in  1724.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  "  Institutions  of  Dogmatic  and 
Moral  Theology,"  (1719,)  remarkable  for  mental  inde 
pendence,  and  "Introduction  to  the  Literary  History  of 
Theology,"  (1720.)  He  became  dean  of  the  faculty  at 
Giessen  in  1756.  Died  in  1760. 

See  LEPORIN,  "Nachricht  von  C.  M.  Pfaffens  Leben,"  etc.,  1726; 
HIRSCHING.  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Ffaff,  (JOHANN  CHRISTOPH,)  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1631.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1720. 

Ffaff,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  mathematician,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1765.  He  became  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  Halle  in  1810.  Among  his  works  are  "Ana 
lytic  Essays  mostly  relating  to  the  Integral  Calculus," 
etc.,  (1797.)  Died  at  Halle  in  1825. 

Pfaff,  (KARL,)  a  German  historian,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  published  a  "  History  of  Wiirtemberg,"  (2  vols., 
1818-21,)  and  other  histories. 

Pfanner,  pfan'ner,  (TOBIAS,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Augsburg  in  1641.  He  was  keeper  of  the  archives  at 
Gotha.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,"  (1679.)  Died  in  1716. 

Pfeffel,  pfeffel,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH  von  Krie- 
gelstein — fon  kRee'gel-stin',)  a  historian,  born  at  Col- 
mar,  Upper  Rhine,  in  1726.  His  chief  work  is  a 
"Chronological  Epitome  of  the  History  of  the  Public 
Law  of  Germany,"  in  French,  (1754;  5th  edition,  1766.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Pfeffel,  (GOTTLIEB  KONRAD,)  a  distinguished  Ger 
man  fabulist  and  poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Colmar  in  1736,  became  blind  while  pursuing  his 
studies  at  Halle.  He  was  appointed  in  1803  president 
of  the  Evangelical  Consistory  at  Colmar.  Died  in  1809. 

See  RIEDER,  "  G.  C.  Pfeffel ;  bio;;raphischer  Versuch,"  1820; 
LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Pfefferkorn,  pfef'fer-koRn',  (JOHANN,)  a  German  Jew, 
who  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and,  in  excess  of  zeal, 
advised  the  emperor  to  burn  all  Jewish  books  except  the 
Bible.  He  lived  about  1500. 

Pfeiffer,  pfif'fer,  (AUGUSTUS,)  a  German  scholar,  and 
professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Leipsic,  was  born  in 
Lower  Saxony  in  1640.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  relation  to  Jewish  antiquities  and  Biblical  criticism. 
Died  in  1698. 

See  J.  E.  PFEIFFER,  "  Memoria  A.  Pfeifferi,"  1700. 

Pfeiffer,  (BURCHARD  WILHELM,)  a  German  jurist  and 
publicist,  born  at  Cassel  in  1777.  He  published  "Prac 
tical  Deductions  concerning  all  Parts  of  Jurisprudence," 
(8  vols.,  1825-46,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1852. 

Pfeiffer,  fi'fer,  (CARL,)  a  skilful  architect,  born  in 
Brunswick,  Germany,  in  1834.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  and  passed  several  years  as 
assistant  architect  in  Ohio  and  other  parts  of  the  West. 
He  afterwards  spent  four  years  in  the  same  capacity  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  In  1864  he  commenced  business 
on  his  own  account,  and  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  an  excellent  architect.  Among  the  buildings  designed 
and  erected  by  him  are  the  church  of  the  Messiah,  the 
Roosevelt  Hospital,  and  the  mansion  of  Mr.  Barroda, 
one  of  the  largest  houses  in  New  York,  and,  for  its 
admirable  arrangement,  probably  unsurpassed,  if  not 
unequalled,  by  any  other  private  dwelling  in  the  United 
States.  His  plans  have  recently  been  accepted  for  the 
New  City  Hospital,  and  other  public  buildings  belonging 
to  New  York  City. 

Pfeiffer,  pfif'fer,  (FRANC.OIS  Louis,)  a  Swiss  general, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  1716.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  French  army,  (1734-75.)  Died  in  1802. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  x;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PFEIFFER 


1782 


PHARNABAZVS 


Pfeiffer,  (IDA,)  MADAME,  a  celebrated  German  trav 
eller,  born  in  Vienna  about  1795.  She  set  out  in  March 
1842,  for  Asia  Minor,  where  she  spent  nearly  a  year,  an 
in  1845  made  the  tour  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Iceland 
In  1846  she  undertook  a  journey  round  the  world,  whicl 
she  accomplished  in  a  little  more  than  two  years,  aftei 
encountering  great  hardships  and  dangers.  She  pub 
lished  in  1850  "A  Woman's  Journey  round  the  World 
from  Vienna  to  Brazil,  Chili,  Tahiti,  China,  Hindostan,' 
etc.  In  1851  she  entered  upon  a  second  journey,  having 
received  for  this  purpose  a  sum  of  money  from  the  Aus 
trian  government.  Her  account  of  this  expedition  ap 
peared  in  1855,  under  the  title  of  "  A  Second  Voyage 
round  the  World,  from  London  to  the  Cape  of  Gooc 
Hope,  Borneo,  the  Moluccas,  California,  Peru,  and  the 
United  States."  Died  in  1858. 

Pfeiffer,  QOHANN  FRIEDIUCH,)  a  German  economist 
born  at  Berlin  in  1718.  He  wrote  many  works  on  rura 
and  political  economy,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on 
all  the  Economical  Sciences,"  (4  vols.,  1770-78.)  Dice 
in  1787. 

Pfeiffer,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  general,  born  at  Lucerne  in 
1530.  He  fought  for  Charles  IX.  of  France  against  the 
Huguenots.  Died  in  1594. 

Pfeiffer,  (Louis  GEORG  KARI.,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  a  son  of  Burchard  Wilhelm,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Cassel  in  1805.  He  published  a  number 
of  treatises  on  botany  and  conchyliology,  among  which 
maybe  named  "Monograph  of  Living  Snails,"  ("Mono- 
graphia  Heliceorum  Viventium,"  3  vols.,  1847-53,) 
a  "  Flora  of  Hesse,"  (2  vols.,  1847-55.) 

Pfenninger,  pfen'ning-er,  (HKNRI,)  a  Swiss  engraver, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1749.  He  engraved  portraits  for 
Lavater's  "  Physiognomy,"  which  are  admired.  Died 
in  1815. 

Pfenninger,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  Swiss  designer  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1739.  He  engraved  Swiss 
landscapes  with  skill.  Died  about  1810. 

Pfmzing  or  Pfintzing,  pflnt/sing,  (MEI.CHIOR,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1481.  He  com 
posed  a  dull  poem  called  "  The  Adventures  of  Theuer- 
dank,"  (1517.)  This  edition  was  adorned  with  more 
than  one  hundred  fine  engravings,  and  was  a  master 
piece  of  typography.  Died  in  1535. 

Pfister,  pf?s'ter,  (ALBRECHT,)  a  German  printer,  born 
about  1420.  He  made  use  of  movable  types;  but  it  is 
not  known  whether  he  was  an  assistant  of  Gutenberg  or 
invented  them  himself.  His  principal  work  is  a  Latin 
36-line  Bible,  in  3  vols.  fol.  Died  about  1470. 

Pfister,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  historian, 
born  near  Marbach  in  1772.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Suabia,"  (5  vols.,  1803-27,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Ger 
mans,"  (5  vols.,  1830-35.)  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  died  in  1835. 

See  ERSCH  und  CRUDER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 
Pfizer,  pfit'ser,  (GuSTAV,)  a  German  critic  and  littera 
teur,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1807.     Among  his  principal 
works  are  a   "Life  of  Martin   Luther,"  an  "Essay  on 
Uhland  and  Riickert,"  (1837,)  and  a  "  History  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great,  for  the  Young,"  (1846.) 
See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
Pfizer,  (  PAUL  ACHATIUS,  )  a   German   publicist,  a 
brother   of  the   preceding,   was   born    at    Stuttgart   in 
1801. 

Pforr,  pfoR,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  a  distinguished  Ger 
man  painter  of  animals,  was  born  at  Upfen,  in  Saxony, 
in  1745.    He  painted  horses,  hunting-scenes,  battles,  etc. 
with  much  skill.     Died  in  1798. 
Phadl.     See  FADL. 

Phaeax,  fee'aks,  [4>a«i£,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sicily  in  422  B.C.  He  is  men 
tioned  by  Plutarch  as  one  of  the  two  persons  capable 
of  competing  in  some  degree  with  Alcibiades, — i.e.  when 
the  latter  first  entered  the  public  service. 

Fhsedon,  fee'don,  or  Phaedo,  fee'do,  [4>a«5wv,]  a 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Elis.  He  came  to  Athens 
about  400  B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  after  whose 
death  he  founded  a  school  of  philosophy  at  Elis.  His 
writings  have  not  come  down  to  us.  The  name  of  Phae- 
don  is  the  title  of  a  celebrated  dialogue  of  Plato. 
See  DIOGENES  LAERTIUS  ;  SUIDAS,  "  Phsedon." 


Phaedra,  fee'dra,  [Gr.  Qaifya ;  Fr.  PHEDRE,  ftdr:,]  a 
daughter  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae,  was  the  wife  of  The 
seus,  King  of  Athens.  She  is  said  to  have  indulged  a 
guilty  passion  for  her  step-son  Hippolytus,  and  to  have 
caused  his  death  by  a  false  accusation. 

Phaedrus,  fee'drus,  [Gr.  Qalfyms ;  Fr.  PHEDRE,  ftclR,] 
a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero. 
He  was  the  head  of  the  Epicurean  school  at  Athens  from 
80  to  70  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  work  which  Cicero  used  freely 
in  composing  the  first  book  of  his  "Natura  Deorum." 

Fhaedrus,  a  Latin  fabulist,  who  wrote  about  20  or  30 
A.D.,  was  originally  a  slave.  He  was  probably  born  in 
Thrace  or  Macedonia.  It  is  supposed  that  he  belonged 
to  Augustus,  and  was  liberated  by  him.  He  left  ninety- 
seven  fables  in  iambic  verse,  the  subjects  and  ideas  of 
which  are  partly  borrowed  from  /Esop.  They  are  ad 
mired  for  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  style. 

See  LINDNER,  "  Bemerkungen  liber  den  Phaedrus,"  1782; 
SCHWABE,  "Vita  Phajdri,"  1806. 

Fha'er,  (THOMAS,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  physician,  born 
in  Pembrokeshire.  He  translated  the  first  nine  books 
of  Virgil's  'Mineid"  into  English  verse.  Died  in  1560. 

Pha'e-thon  or  Fha'e-ton,  [Gr.  Qaeduv;  Fr.  PHAE- 
THON,  fii'a'toN',]  a  mythical  personage,  called  a  son  of 
Helios  (the  Sun)  or  Phoebus.  His  name  signifies  "the 
Shining."  The  poets  feigned  that,  in  his  youthful  pre 
sumption,  he  persuaded  his  father  to  permit  him  to  guide 
for  one  clay  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  that  he  was  unable 
to  control  the  fiery  coursers,  which  ran  out  of  the  right 
course  and  came  too  near  the  earth,  that  Jupiter  killed 
Phaethon  with  a  thunderbolt,  and  he  fell  into  the  river  Po. 

Fhalanthe.     See  PHALANTHUS. 

Pha-lan'thus,  [Gr.  Qi'iAavOof ;  Fr.  PHALANTHE,  fi'- 
loNt',  ]  a  Spartan  chief,  who  founded  a  Greek  colony  at 
Tarentum  about  708  B.C.,  and  subdued  the  natives  of  the 
adjacent  country. 

Phal'a-ris,  [Gr.  Quhapit;,]  a  ruler  of  Agrigentum,  in 
Sicily,  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He  began  to  reign 
about  570  B.C.,  according  to  Eusebius  and  Suidas.  He 
rendered  his  name  infamous  by  burning  his  victims  in 
a  brazen  bull.  Tradition  adds  that  he  was  deposed  by 
Telemachus,  the  ancestor  of  Theron,  and  suffered  the 
same  cruel  death  which  he  had  inflicted  on  others.  Cer 
tain  epistles  ascribed  to  Phalaris  were  the  subjects  of 
a  celebrated  controversy  between  Boyle  and  Bentley, 
who  demonstrated  them  to  be  spurious. 

See  SUIDAS,  "  Phalaris  ;"  CICERO,  "  De  Officiis,"  ii.  and  iii. 

Phalereus.     See  DEMKTKIUS  PHALEREUS. 

Fha'ni-as  [bavins]  or  Phaeiiias,  fee'ne-as,  [$aivia<;,] 
a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Lesbos,  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  disciples  of  Aristotle,  and  was  a  friend  of 
Theophrastus.  He  wrote  many  works  on  logic,  history, 
etc. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Gratis;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 

Phan'o-cles,  [<J>«VOK/%,]  a  Greek  elegiac  poet,  who 
ived  probably  between  350  and  300  B.C.  He  wrote  a 
poem  called  "Epwref  ?/  KaAw,  of  which  a  fragment  is 
extant.  This  is  much  admired  by  some  critics. 

See  SMITH,  "Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Phan-o-de'mus,  [4>aaw5??wof,]  an  Athenian  historian 
of  uncertain  period.  He  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 
Ele  wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Attica,  entitled 
Ar0«'c,  of  which  fragments  are  extant. 

Pha'on,  [Gr.  3>uuv,]  a  mariner  or  boatman  of  Lesbos, 
celebrated  as  a  favourite  of  Sappho.  According  to  the 
able,  Venus  endowed  him  with  youth  and  beauty  because 
ic  once  carried  her  across  the  water  without  charge. 

Phar'a-mond,  a  king  of  the  Franks,  who  is   sup 
posed  to  have  reigned  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
ury.     His  history  is  involved  in  obscurity,  and  is  the 
subject   of  some  romances.      The   first  historian  who 
mentions  him  is  Prosper  Tyro. 

Pharnabaze.     See  PHARNABAZUS. 

Phar-na-ba'zus,  [Gr.  QapvaSafa  ;  Fr.  PHARNABAZE, 
tR'nfbfz',]  a  Persian  satrap,  governed  the  provinces 
icar  the  Hellespont,  under  Darius  II.  He  was  an  ally 
if  the  Spartans  in  the  war  against  the  Athenians,  and 
,vas  defeated  by  Alcibiades,  near  Abydos,  in  409  B.C.  He 
vas  defeated  in  395  by  the  Spartans,  under  Agesilaus, 
who  had  invaded  his  province.  Pharnabazus  and  Iphic- 


I,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PHARNACE 


1783 


PHILA 


rates  commanded  an  expedition  to  Egypt  in  374,  which 
was  a  failure. 

See  XENOPHON,  "  Hellenica,"  books  i.,  iii.,  and  iv. 

Pharnace.     See  PHARNACES. 

Phar'na-ces  [Gr.  QapvuKijz ;  Fr.  PHARNACE,  fa'R'- 
nfs']  L,  King  of  Pontus,  was  a  son  of  Mithridates  IV., 
whom  he  succeeded  about  190  B.C.  He  invaded  Galatia 
in  181,  and  was  opposed  with  success  by  Eumenes.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Mithridates  V. 

Pharnaces  II.,  King  of  Pontus,  was  a  son  of  Mithri 
dates  the  Great.  He  conspired  against  his  father  after  his 
defeat  by  the  Romans,  (about  63  is.C.,)  and  was  supported 
by  the  army.  He  made  peace  with  Pompey,  who  recog 
nized  him  as  King  of  the  Bosphorus.  During  the  civil 
war  of  Rome  he  seized  Pontus,  and  provoked  the  hos 
tility  of  Caesar.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  and 
killed  in  battle  in  47  B.C. 

Phavoriaus  Varinus.     See  GUARINO. 

Fhedre.     See  PH/EDRA  and  PH^DRUS. 

Pheidias.     See  PHIDIAS. 

Pheidon.     See  PHIDON. 

Fhelippeaux,  de,  cleh  feh-le'po',  or  Philippeaux, 
fe'le'po,  (ANTOINE  le  Picard — leh  pe'kiR',)  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Poitou  in  1768.  He  emigrated  in  1791, 
fought  against  the  republic,  and  procured  the  escape  of 
Sir  Sidney  Smith  from  prison,  (1797.)  Having  entered 
the  British  service,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the 
defence  of  Acre,  where  he  directed  the  artillery,  in  1799. 
Died  at  Acre  the  same  year. 

Phelps,  (  ALMIRA  HART  LINCOLN,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Berlin,  Connec 
ticut,  in  1793.  She  was  for  many  years  associated  with 
her  sister,  Mrs.  Emma  Willard,  as  teacher  of  the  Female 
Seminary,  Troy,  New  York,  and  in  1841  took  charge  of 
the  Patapsco  Institute,  Maryland.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "Familiar  Lectures  on  Botany,"  "  Geology 
for  Beginners,"  (1832,)  "Lectures  on  Natural  Philoso 
phy,"  (1835,)  and  "Hours  with  my  Pupils,"  (1859.) 

Phelps,  (ANSON  GREENE,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  at  Simsbury,  Connecticut,  in  1781,  became  president 
of  the  New  York  Blind  Asylum,  and  of  the  American 
board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions.  He  died 
in  1853,  bequeathing  to  various  charitable  institutions 
the  sum  of  $371,000. 

Phelps,  (ELIZABETH  STUART,)  an  American  writer, 
a  daughter  of  Professor  Moses  Stuart,  D.D.,  was  born 
at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1815.  She  published  a 
number  of  moral  and  religious  tales,  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  Among  these  we  may  name  "The 
Kitty  Brown  Series,"  (1850,)  "The  Sunny  Side,"  (1851,) 
"Peep  at  Number  Five,"  (1851,)  and  "The  Angel  over 
the  Right  Shoulder,"  (1851.)  Died  in  1852. 

Her  daughter,  of  the  same  name,  has  written,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Gates  Ajar,"  (1868,)  which  has  had 
an  almost  unexampled  popularity,  having  in  less  than 
one  year  passed  through  more  than  twenty  editions. 

Phelps,  (JOHN  S.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1814.  He  emigrated 
to  Springfield,  Missouri,  in  1837,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1844.  He  also  represented  the  sixth  dis 
trict  of  Missouri  in  Congress  for  several  terms,  ending 
about  1862.  He  was  appointed  military  Governor  of 
Arkansas  by  President  Lincoln  in  1862. 

Phelps,  (JOHN  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Guilford,  Vermont,  in  1813,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1836.  He  became  a  captain  in  1850,  and  resigned  his 
commission  in  1859.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1861,  and  served  under  General  Butler  in  the 
expedition  against  New  Orleans.  In  December,  1861, 
he  issued  a  proclamation  against  slavery,  which  was 
disapproved  by  General  Butler.  He  resigned  in  July 
or  August,  1862.  t 

Phelypeaux.  See  MAUREPAS  and  PONTCHARTRAIN. 

Pherecrate.     See  PHERECRATES. 

Phe-rec'ra-tes,  [Gr.  QepeKparw ;  Fr.  PH£R£CRATE, 
fi'ra'kRit',]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  wrote 
about  430  B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Plato  and 
Aristophanes.  Small  fragments  of  his  plays  are  extant. 
He  invented  a  new  metre,  called  Pherecratic.  His  dic 
tion  is  elegant,  and  his  plots  are  ingenious. 

See  MEINEKE,  "  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Grzcorum." 


Pherecyde.     See  PHERECYDES. 

Pher-e-9y'des,  [Gr.  QepeKvdrie ;  Fr.  PHERECYDE,  fa'- 
ra'sed',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Syros  about  600 
or  570  B.C.,  was  the  teacher  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said 
to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of  Metempsychosis,  or  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul. 

Pherecydes,  an  Athenian  historian,  a  contemporary 
of  Herodotus,  lived  between  490  and  450  B.C.  His  chief 
work  was  a  mythological  history,  in  ten  books,  sometimes 
entitled  AtTo^flovec. 

Phid'I-as,  written  also  Pheidias,  [4>e«5wzc,]  regarded 
by  many  as  the  greatest  sculptor  and  statuary  that  ever 
lived,  was  a  son  of  Charmidas  or  Charmides.  He  was 
probably  born  at  Athens  between  500  and  485  B.C.  The 
details  of  his  personal  history  are  very  deficient,  consid 
ering  his  renown.  His  principal  master  was  Ageladas, 
a  sculptor  of  Argos.  Among  his  earlier  vrorks  were  a 
colossal  bronze  statue  of  Athena  Promachos,  dated  about 
460  B.C.,  which  stood  on  the  Acropolis  for  many  centuries, 
and  an  ivory  or  chryselephantine  statue  of  Athena  at 
Pellene.  Having  formed  a  new  style,  characterized  by 
sublimity  and  ideal  beauty,  he  obtained  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Pericles,  who  about  /)4^  li.c.  began  to 
adorn  the  Acropolis  with  works  of  art.  "  Phidias  was 
appointed  by  Pericles  superintendent  of  all  the  public 
edifices,"  says  Plutarch,  "although  the  Athenians  had 
other  eminent  architects." 

The  sculptured  ornaments  of  the  Parthenon,  executed 
by  Phidias  and  his  disciples,  exhibited  a  perfection 
which  has  never  been  surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  other 
artists.  He  formed  with  his  own  hand  the  colossal 
statue  of  Minerva  which  was  enclosed  within  the  Par 
thenon  and  was  dedicated  in  438  B.C.  It  was  chrysele 
phantine, — that  is,  the  naked  parts  were  made  of  ivory 
and  the  drapery  of  gold.  The  height  of  this  statue  was 
nearly  forty  feet.  It  was  his  most  celebrated  work  at 
Athens.  His  other  master-piece  was  a  colossal  ivory 
and  gold  statue  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  (Elis,)  which  was 
enclosed  in  the  temple  dedicated  to  that  god.  He  was 
represented  seated  on  a  throne,  holding  in  his  right 
hand  a  statue  of  Victory.  This  figure,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  Greeks,  expressed  and  realized  their  highest  ideal 
of  supreme  majesty  and  divine  complacency.  It  was 
destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople  about  475  A.D. 
Some  of  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the  British  Museum  are 
considered  to  be  works  of  Phidias. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  Phidias  was  accused  of 
defrauding  the  state  of  part  of  the  gold  appropriated  to 
the  statue  of  Minerva  ;  but,  as  Pericles  ordered  the  gold 
to  be  taken  off  and  weighed,  this  charge  was  abandoned  ; 
for  Phidias,  by  the  advice  of  Pericles,  had  artfully  con 
trived  that  the  gold  could  be  easily  taken  off.  According 
to  Plutarch,  he  died  in  prison,  into  which  he  was  thrown 
on  a  charge  of  impiety,  because  he  had  sculptured  on 
the  shield  of  Minerva  images  of  himself  and  Pericles. 
Some  writers  ascribe  his  death  to  poison,  and  others 
doubt  the  truth  of  the  statement  that  he  was  imprisoned. 
His  death,  however,  occurred  about  432  B.C. 

"The  three  greatest  architects  hitherto  known  in  the 
world,"  says  Ruskin,  "  were  Phidias,  Giotto,  and  Michael 
Angelo, — with  all  of  whom  architecture  was  only  their 
play,  sculpture  and  painting  their  work."  In  the  course 
of  his  remarks  on  Repose  as  a  test  of  greatness  in  works 
of  art,  Ruskin  says,  "We  shall  see  by  this  light  three 
colossal  images  standing  up  side  by  side,  looming  in 
their  great  rest  of  spirituality  above  the  whole  world- 
horizon, — Phidias,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Dante." 

See  K.  O.  MUI.LER,  "  De  Phidias  Vita  et  Operibus  Commenta- 
tiones  tres."  1827;  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklo- 
paedie:"  "  Nouvelle  Viiocraphie  Generale." 

Fhi'don  or  Phei'don,  [Gr.  4>e/(5wv,]  a  king  of  Argos 
and  descendant  of  Hercules,  is  said  to  have  changed  the 
government  of  that  state  to  a  despotism  about  750  B.C. 
He  was  the  reputed  inventor  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  prince  who  coined 
silver  money.  He  was  deprived  of  power  or  defeated 
by  the  Spartans  and  Eleians. 

Phila,  [Gr.  4>//,a,]  a  daughter  of  Antipater,  the  Re 
gent  of  Macedonia,  was  distinguished  for  her  virtue 
and  wisdom.  She  was  married  to  Craterus,  and  after 
his  death  to  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus.  Died 
in  287  B.C. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  A4»j. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHIL^ENI 


1784 


PHILIP 


Philseni,  fe-lee'nl,  [Gr.  4>//laaw,]  two  Carthaginians 
and  brothers,  whose  name  was  rendered  memorable  by 
an  act  of  patriotic  devotion.  When  the  boundary  be 
tween  Carthage  and  Gyrene  was  disputed,  the  parties 
agreed  that  two  men  of  each  state  should  start  at  the 
same  time  and  walk  or  run  towards  the  other,  and  that 
the  place  where  they  met  should  be  the  boundary.  The 
Philaeni  traversed  a  greater  space  than  the  Cyrenians, 
who  accused  the  former  of  unfairness.  The  Philasni 
then  offered  to  prove  their  honesty  by  a  sacrifice  of  their 
lives,  and  were  buried  alive  in  the  sand. 

Fhl-la'grl-us,  [^tAdypwf,]  a  Greek  medical  writer  of 
Thessalonica,  lived  probably  in  the  third  century  of  our 
era.  His  works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments. 

Fhl-lam'mon,  [4>t/la^//(jv,]  a  mythical  Greek  poet 
and  musician,  was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo, 
the  inventor  of  choral  music,  and  the  institutor  of  the 
Delphian  worship  of  Apollo. 

Philander.     See  PHILANDRIKR. 

Philandrier,  fe'ldN'dRe-a',  [Lat.  PHILAN'DER,  ] 
(Gun.l.AUMK,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Seine  in  1505.  He  published  "Notes  on  Quintilian," 
(1535,)  and  "Annotations  on  Vitruvius,"  (1544.)  Died 
in  1565. 

Philarete.    See  PHILARETUS. 

Philarete,  fe'it'rit',  or  PhMar'e-tus,  (VASIL  DRO- 
SOK,)  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  was  born  near  Moscow 
in  1782.  He  became  Bishop  of  Revel  in  1817,  and 
Archbishop  of  Moscow  in  1820.  He  published  "Com 
mentaries  on  Genesis,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1867. 

FhMar'e-tus,  [ Fr.  PHILARETE,  fe'lt'rit',]  the  reputed 
author  of  a  small  Greek  treatise  "On  the  Pulse,"  which 
is  sometimes  attributed  to  Philotheus. 

Phi'le  or  Phi'les,  (MANUEL,)  a  Byzantine  poet,  born 
at  Ephesus  about  1275.  He  wrote,  in  barbarous  Greek 
verse,  a  curious  work,  llepi  tjJuv  /AorriToc,  ("On  the 
Nature  of  Animals,")  which  is  extracted  mostly  from 
./Elian's  "Natural  History."  Died  about  1340. 

Phil'e-as,  [4>iA«zf,]  a  Greek  geographer,  born  at 
Athens,  lived  probably  several  centuries  before  Christ. 
He  is  quoted  by  Dicaearchus.  He  wrote  a  "  Periplus." 

Philelphe  and  Philelphus.     See  FII.KI.FO. 

Phl-le'mon,  [&CAJ/IMJV,]  an  eminent  Athenian  comic 
poet,  was  born  at  Soli  in  Cilicia,  or  at  Syracuse,  about 
360  B.C.  He  was  a  rival  of  Menander,  and  was  the  first 
poet  of  the  new  comedy  in  order  of  time.  He  began 
to  exhibit  comedies  about  330  B.C.,  and  obtained  great 
favour  with  the  Athenians.  He  gained  several  victories 
over  Menander  in  dramatic  contests.  Fragments  of  his 
works  are  extant.  He  was  a  witty  and  elegant  writer. 
Died  about  262  B.C.  His  son,  Philemon,  was  also  a 
comic  poet,  but  less  famous. 

See  SUIDAS,  "Philemon  ;"  MEINEKE,  "  Menandri  et  Philemonis 
Reliquiae,"  and  "  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Grascorum ;"  HAUPT- 
MANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Philemone,"  1745. 

Philemon,  a  Greek  grammarian,  who  lived  probably 
between  600  and  700  A.  D.,  was  the  author  of  a  "Lexicon 
Technologicon,"  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Philemon,  one  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  a 
friend  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  addressed  to  him  an 
epistle,  which  is  included  in  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

Philepicus.     See  PHILIPPICUS. 

Philetaerus,  fil-e-tee'rus,  [4>ite'ra(poc,]  an  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy.  Little  is  known  of 
his  life  or  works. 

Philetaerus,  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  ofPergamus. 
He  became  king  about  280  B.C.,  and  died  about  262  B.C., 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  nephew  Eumenes. 

Phi-le'tas  [4>jX7?raf]  OF  Cos,  an  eminent  Greek  poet 
and  critic,  who  flourished  between  350  and  290  B.C.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphia.  He  wrote 
elegies  and  epigrams,  and  prose  works  on  grammar. 
Fragments  of  his  poems  have  come  down  to  us.  He  was 
a  favourite  model  of  the  poet  Theocritus. 

See  ERSCH  und  GRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  N.  BACH, 
"  Programma  de  Phileta  Coo,"  1828. 

Phil'e-us,  sometimes  written  Phiteus,  Pytheus,  or 
Phileos,  an  eminent  Greek  architect,  who  lived  about 
25  B.C.  He  designed  two  magnificent  edifices  in  Asia 
Minor, — viz.,  the  Mausoleum  and  the  temple  of  Athena 
Polias  at  Priene. 


Fhil'i-bert  |Fr.  pron.  fe'le'baiV;  It.  FILIBERTO,  fe-le- 
hSu'to;  Lat.  PHILIBER'TUS]  I.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  a  son 
of  AiTKideus  IX.,  was  born  in  1464;  died  in  1482. 

Philibert  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  a  son  of  Philip  II., 
was  born  in  1480.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1497, 
and  died  in  1504,  leaving  the  dukedom  to  his  brother, 
Carlo  III. 

Philidor.     See  DANICAN. 

Philieul,  fe'le-ul',  (VASQUIN,)  a  French  litterateur, 
was  born  at  Carpentras  in  1522.  He  published  "  Laure 
d'Avignon,"  (1548,)  and  "  Toutes  les  CEuvres  vulgaires 
de  F.  Petrarque,"  (1555.)  Died  about  1582. 

Phl-11'iius,  [tfu/ux'Of,!  a  Greek  physician,  born  in 
Cos,  was  a  pupil  of  Herophilus.  He  lived  about  250 
B.C.,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  botany,  which  is  not  extant. 
He  was  the  reputed  founder  of  the  sect  of  Empirici. 

Philimis,  an  Athenian  orator,  a  contemporary  of 
Demosthenes. 

Philinus,  a  Greek  historian,  who  accompanied  Han 
nibal  in  his  campaign  in  Italy,  and  wrote  a  History  of 
the  First  and  Second  Punic  Wars,  which  is  not  extant. 
He  was  a  native  of  Sicily. 

Phil'ip  [Gr.  ^'ACTTTOC]  I.,  King  of  Macedonia,  a  son 
of  Argreus,  reigned  in  the  ninth  century  B.C.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Aeropus. 

Philip  [Gr.  4>//lOT7rof ;  Lat.  PHILIP'PUS;  Fr.  PHILIPPE, 
fe'lep';  It.  FILIPPO,  fe-lep'po;  Sp.  FELIPE,  fa-lee'pi; 
Ger.  PHILIPP,  fil'ipj  II.,  a  famous  king  of  Macedonia, 
a  younger  son  of  Amyntas,  was  born  in  382  B.C.  In  his 
youth  he  passed  several  years  at  Thebes  as  a  hostage, 
and  enjoyed  the  society  of  Epaminondas.  He  succeeded 
his  brother  Perdiccas  in  359,  and  married  Olympias, 
a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Epirus.  During  the  Social 
war,  which  began  in  358  B.C.,  he  extended  his  do 
minions  by  the  capture  of  Amphipolis,  Potidaea,  and 
Pyclna  from  the  Athenians.  He  availed  himself  of 
another  civil  war,  called  the  Sacred  war,  to  pursue  his 
ambitious  projects  against  the  independence  of  the 
Grecian  states,  and  became  the  ally  of  the  Thebans 
against  the  Phocians  and  Athenians.  In  347  B.C.  he 
besieged  Olynthus  with  success,  and  made  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Athens.  By  the  conquest  of  Phocis,  in  346, 
he  acquired  a  vote  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  The 
continued  aggressions  of  Philip  again  involved  him  in 
a  war  with  the  Athenians,  who  were  stimulated  by  the 
powerful  appeals  of  Demosthenes,  and  who  in  339  B.C. 
compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Perinthus  and 
Byzantium.  A  league  was  then  formed  against  him  by 
the  Athenians,  Thebans,  and  others.  The  decisive  battle 
of  Chaeronea,  where  Philip,  commanding  in  person, 
defeated  the  allies  in  338  B.C.,  rendered  him  master  of 
Greece.  He  treated  the  Athenians  with  clemency.  He 
called  a  general  congress  of  deputies  from  the  Greek 
states,  who  resolved  to  unite  in  an  aggressive  war 
against  Persia,  and  appointed  Philip  commander-in-chief. 
During  the  preparations  for  this  enterprise  he  was  as 
sassinated,  in  336  B.C.,  at  the  celebration  of  a  marriage 
between  his  daughter  Cleopatra  and  the  King  of  Epirus. 
The  assassin  was  Pausanias,  A  soldier  of  his  own  body 
guard,  who  had  been  insulted  by  Attalus,  an  uncle  of 
Philip's  queen,  and  whose  claim  for  redress  had  been 
neglected  by  the  king.  Philip  possessed  great  military 
and  political  talents,  with  some  virtues,  among  which 
we  may  name  generosity.  He  was,  on  the  other  hand, 
sensual,  unscrupulous,  and  perfidious. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Demosthenes;"  LELAND,  "  History  of 
the  Life  and  Reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon,"  1758  :  GROTE,  "  History 
of  Greece,"  vol.  xi. ;  BURY,  "  Histoire  de  Philippe  et  d'Alexandre  le 
Grand,"  1760;  BRUCKNER,  "  Kbnig  Philipp  Sohn  des  Amyntas," 
1837;  THIRI.WALL,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  DRUM  ANN,  "Geschichte 
des  Verfalls  der  Griechischen  Staaten." 

Philip  III.  OF  MACEDON.  This  title  was  given  to 
Arrhidaeus,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Philip  II.  (See  AR- 
RHID.^US.) 

Philip  IV.  OF  MACEDON,  a  son  of  Cassander,  reigned 
only  a  few  months,  and  died  in  296  B.C. 

Philip  V.  OF  MACEDON,  born  about  235  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Demetrius  II.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Anti- 
gonns  Doson,  in  220  B.C.  Having  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Achaean  Ieague;  he  displayed  superior 
military  talents,  and  defeated  the  /Etolians  and  Spartans, 
(218-217.)  The  success  of  Hannibal  at  Cannae  tempted 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PHILIP 


1785 


PHILIP 


Philip  to  form  an  alliance  with  him  against  the  Romans 
in  215  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  poisoned  Aratus,  who 
had  been  his  friend.  The  Romans,  having  recovered 
their  ascendency,  sent  an  army  against  Philip,  who  was 
defeated  completely  by  T.  Q.  Flamininus  at  Cynos- 
cephalas  in  197  B.C.  He  died  in  179  B.C.,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Perseus.  Philip  was  an  able  monarch, 
but  was  cruel  and  tyrannical. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.-xl. 

Philip  or  Fhilip'pus,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
Cleopatra,  became  tetrarch  of  Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis, 
and  Batanaea.  Died  about  34  A.D. 

Philip  [Lat.  PHILIP'PUS]  OF  ACARNANIA,  a  physician, 
was  a  friend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  cured  of  a 
fever  caused  by  bathing  in  the  river  Cyclnus,  333  B.C.  On 
this  occasion  Parmenio  warned  the  king  by  letter  that 
Philip  was  bribed  (by  Darius)  to  poison  him.  The  king, 
however,  confiding  in  his  fidelity,  drank  the  medicine 
as  he  showed  the  letter  to  Philip.  (See  ALEXANDER.) 

Philip,  Emperor  of  Rome.     See  PHII.IPPUS. 


Phil'ip,  [Gr. 


Lat.  PHILIP'PUS;   Fr.   PHI 


LIPPE,  fe'lep',]  SAINT,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  He  witnessed 
the  miracle  of  the  loaves  and  fishes,  (John  vi.  5-7.)  The 
evangelist  John  records  an  interview  between  him  and 
certain  Greeks,  in  chapter  xii.  21.  According  to  tra 
dition,  he  preached  in  Phrygia,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Hierapolis. 

Philip,  [Ger.  PHILIPP,  fil'ip,]  Duke  of  Suabia,  Em 
peror  of  Germany,  a  son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  was 
born  about  1170.  He  was  elected  emperor  in  1198,  but 
his  title  was  contested  by  Otho  IV.,  and  a  civil  war  en 
sued.  The  pope  favoured  Otho,  and  excommunicated 
Philip,  but  was  afterwards  reconciled  to  him.  Philip 
was  assassinated  in  1208. 

Philip  [Sp.  FELIPE,  fa-lee'pa]  I.,  surnamed  THE 
HANDSOME,  King  of  Castile,  a  son  of  Maximilian  I., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Bruges  in  1478.  His 
mother  was  Mary  of  Burgundy,  from  whom  he  inherited 
the  seventeen  provinces  of  the  Low  Countries.  He  was 
styled  Archduke  of  Austria  in  his  youth.  In  1496  he 
married  Joanna,  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
(of  Castile  and  Aragon.)  On  the  death  of  Isabella 
(1504)  the  crown  of  Castile  was  inherited  by  Joanna, 
but,  in  consequence  of  her  mental  imbecility,  or  insanity, 
Philip  exercised  the  royal  power.  He  died  at  Burgos 
in  September,  1506,  leaving  two  sons,  who  became 
emperors  as  Charles  V.  and  Ferdinand  I. 

See  MARIANA,  "  De  Rebus  Hispanicis;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate.  " 

Philip  [Fr.  PHILIPPE,  fe'lep']  I.,  King  of  France,  a 
son  of  Henry  I.  and  Anne  of  Russia,  was  born  in  1052. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1060,  when  Baldwin,  Count 
of  Flanders,  became  regent.  He  abandoned  himself  to 
disgraceful  sensuality.  In  1092  he  married  Bertrade, 
the  wife  of  Foulques,  Count  of  Anjou,  who  was  still 
living.  Philip  was  excommunicated  for  this  offence.  He 
was  involved  in  a  war  with  William  Rufus  of  England 
during  the  first  crusade.  He  died  in  1108,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VI. 

See  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Francais;"  MICHELET,  "  Histoire 
de  France  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Philip  II.  OF  FRANCE.     See  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS. 

Philip  (Philippe)  III.,  surnamed  THE  BOLD,  (LE 
HARDI,  leh  /;aVde'  ;  Lat.  PHII.IP'PUS  AU'DAX,]  born  in 
1245,  was  the  second  son  of  Louis  IX.,  whose  eldest  son 
died  in  infancy.  He  married  Isabella  of  Aragon  in  1262, 
and  accompanied  his  father  in  the  crusade  to  Tunis  in 
1269. 
king. 

Tunis,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1271.  Although  he  was  a 
prince  of  little  talent  and  of  a  weak  character,  the  royal 
domain  and  power  were  increased  during  his  reign. 
Among  the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  against 
Peter  of  Aragon.  With  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  who 
had  offered  the  crown  of  Aragon  to  Charles,  a  son  of 
Philip,  the  latter  invaded  Catalonia  in  1285,  but  was 
soon  forced  to  retreat.  He  died  at  Perpignan  in  October, 
1285. 

See  GUII.LAUME  DE  NANGIS,  "Gesta  Philippi  Audacis  ;"  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 


At  the  death  of  Louis,  in   1270,  Philip  became 
Having  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of 


Philip  IV.,  often  called  Philip  the  Fair,  [Fr. 
PHILIPPE  LE  BEL,  fe'lep'  leh  be"! ;  Ger.  PHILIPP  DER 
SCHONE,  fil'ip  dSr  sho'neh,]  a  son  of  Philip  III.  and 
Isabella  of  Aragon,  was  born  in  1268.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  1285,  before  which  he  had  married  Jeanne 
of  Navarre  and  acquired  Navarre  as  her  dowry.  He 
was  ambitious  to  increase  the  royal  power,  and -un 
scrupulous  in  the  choice  of  means.  "His  favourite  ad 
visers  were  lawyers,  who  taught  him  how  to  substitute 
despotism  for  the  feudal  system.  In  1292  or  1293  he 
summoned  Edward  I.  of  England  to  appear  at  Paris 
and  answer  for  the  hostile  acts  of  some  of  his  sub 
jects.  Edward  sent  his  brother  Edmund,  who  offered 
reparation,  and  delivered  to  Philip  six  fortresses  in 
Guienne,  (1294.)  Having  occupied  all  Guienne  by  his 
troops,  Philip  condemned  Edward  as  contumacious,  and 
declared  his  domains  in  France  confiscated.  In  the 
war  that  ensued,  Edward  recovered  part  of  Guienne. 
To  raise  funds  for  his  wars,  Philip  debased  the  coin,  and 
extorted  money,  by  persecution,  from  the  Jews.  He  in 
vaded  Flanders  about  1300,  but  was  successfully  opposed 
by  the  Flemings.  By  a  treaty  of  1303  he  restored  all 
Guienne  to  Edward  I.  Some  years  before  this  date  a 
quarrel  arose  between  Philip  and  the  pope,  Boniface, 
whose  person  was  outraged  by  the  agents  of  Philip  at 
Agnani  in  1303.  In  consequence  of  Philip's  audacious 
and  successful  efforts  to  humble  the  papacy,  the  court 
of  the  pope  was  transferred  to  Avignon  in  1308.  Among 
the  last  acts  of  his  reign  was  his  cruel  persecution  and 
suppression  of  the  order  of  Templars.  He  died  in  1314, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  X. 

See  LESSMANN,  "  Konig  Philipp  der  Schone,"  1829  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Philip  (Philippe)  V.,  surnamed  LE  LONG,  (leh  16N,) 
the  second  son  of  Philip  IV.,  was  born  about  1293.  He 
became  king  at  the  death  of  Louis  X.,  in  1316.  Louis 
X.  had  left  a  daughter,  who  was  excluded  from  the 
throne.  The  important  question  of  succession  was 
decided  on  this  occasion,  and  the  Salic  law  became 
thenceforth  one  of  the  bases  of  the  French  consti 
tution.  The  events  of  his  reign  were  not  remarkable. 
He  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Jews,  many  of 
whom  were  massacred.  He  died  in  1322,  leaving  four 
daughters,  but  no  son,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Charles  IV. 

Philip  (Philippe)  VI,  or  Philippe  de  Valois,  fe' 
lep'  deh  vt'lwa',  born  in  1293,  was  a  son  of  Charles  de 
Valois,  who  was  a  brother  of  Philip  IV.  He  succeeded 
his  cousin,  Charles  IV.  le  Bel,  in  1328,  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  royal  house  of  Valois.  He  was  an  in 
capable  and  prodigal  prince.  His  reign  commenced  a 
period  of  disasters  and  confusion.  He  became  involved 
in  war  with  Edward  III.  of  England,  who  possessed 
Guienne  and  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  heir  of  the 
French  throne,  through  his  mother  Isabelle.  Philip  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  at  Crecy  in  1346,  and  lost  Calais, 
an  important  strategic  point,  in  1347,  soon  after  which  a 
truce  was  concluded.  He  died  in  1350,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  John. 

See  FROISSART,  "Chronicles;"  DE  CHOISY,  "Histoire  de  Phi 
lippe  de  Valois,"  1688;  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Philip,  [Fr.  PHILIPPE,]  King  of  Navarre,  was  a  grand 
son  of  Philip  III;  of  France.  He  married  in  1318 
Jeanne,  a  daughter  of  Louis  X.,  who  was  heiress  of  the 
throne  of  Navarre.  He  died  in  1343,  leaving  a  son, 
Charles  the  Bad. 

Philip  I.  OF  SPAIN.     See  PHILIP  I.  OF  CASTILE. 

Philip  [Sp.  FELIPE,  fa-lee'pa;  It.  FILIPPO,  fe-lep'po] 
II.,  King  of  Spain,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  and  Isabella  of  Portugal.  He  was  born  at  Valladolid 
on  the  2ist  of  May,  1527.  By  education  and  character,  as 
well  as  birth,  he  was  a  Spaniard,  and  a  thorough-paced 
bigot.  He  married  in  1543  Maria  of  Portugal,  who  died 
about  three  years  later.  In  1548  he  visited  Brussels, 
where  Charles  V.  held  his  court.  In  1554  he  went  to 
London  to  celebrate  his  marriage  with  Mary  Tudor, 
Queen-Regnant  of  England,  who  was  about  eleven  years 
older  than  he.  Having  parted  from  her  in  September, 
I5SS«  he  went  to  Brussels  to  meet  his  father,  who,  on  the 
25th  of  October,  1555,  abdicated  in  his  favour  the  sove 
reignty  of  the  Netherlands.  Before  the  end  of  the  year, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHILIP 


1786 


PHILIP 


Philip  became  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies  by  the 
abdication  of  his  father,  and  master  of  an  empire  "on 
which  the  sun  never  set."  His  favourite  minister,  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign,  was  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  Count 
of  Melito  and  Prince  of  Eboli.  Philip  found  himself, 
against  his  will,  in  a  position  of  hostility  to  the  pope, 
Pa»l  IV.,  who  in  December,  1555,  made  a  treaty  with 
the  King  of  France,  in  order  to  drive  the  Spaniards  out 
of  Italy.  In  1557  his  army  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  French  at  Saint-Quentin.  This  war  was  ter 
minated  by  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  in  1559,  and 
Philip,  having  appointed  Margaret  of  Parma  Regent  of 
the  Netherlands,  returned  to  Spain,  which  he  never 
quitted  again. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Mary  Tudor  (1558)  he  mar 
ried  Elizabeth  or  Isabelle  of  France,  a  daughter  of 
Henry  II.,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  his  son,  Don 
Carlos.  He  transferred  his  court  from  Toledo  to  Madrid, 
which  became  about  1560  the  permanent  capital  of 
Spain.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  his  reign  was  to 
re-enact  the  atrocious  edict  of  1550,  condemning  to 
death  every  one  who  should  print,  write,  copy,  keep, 
buy,  sell,  or  give  any  book  made  by  Luther  or  Calvin, 
and  all  lay  persons  who  should  read  or  teach  the  Scrip 
tures.  His  systematic  efforts  to  suppress  religious  liberty 
by  the  torments  of  the  Inquisition,  in  all  his  dominions, 
provoked  a  general  revolt  of  the  Flemings  and  Dutch 
in  1566.  (See  ORANGE,  WILLIAM  OF.)  In  August,  1567, 
the  Duke  of  Alva  arrived  in  Flanders  with  an  army,  and 
with  unlimited  power  to  subdue  and  punish  the  insur 
gents.  Among  the  victims  of  his  bloody  regime  were 
the  Counts  of  Egmont  and  Horn,  executed  in  June,  1568. 
"The  execution  of  Egmont,"  says  Motley,  "remains  an 
enduring  monument  not  only  of  Philip's  cruelty  and  per 
fidy,  but  of  his  dulness.  The  king  had  everything  to 
hope  from  him,  and  nothing  to  fear."  Alva  defeated  the 
insurgents  in  several  battles,  and  massacred  thousands 
of  non-combatants  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  but  was 
baffled  by  the  indomitable  spirit  of  the  people,  and  was 
recalled  in  1573.  "  It  was  beyond  the  power  of  man's 
ingenuity  to  add  any  fresh  features  of  horror  to  the 
religious  persecution  under  which  the  provinces  were 
groaning."  (Motley.)  In  1568  the  king's  eldest  son, 
Don  Carlos,  died  mysteriously  in  prison,  where  he  had 
been  confined  for  some  months.  According  to  De  Thou 
and  other  writers,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  order 
of  Philip. 

The  effort  to  subdue  the  Netherlands  was  continued 
by  Don  John  of  Austria  and  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma, 
without  success.  This  long  war  exhausted  the  finances 
of  Philip  and  hindered  his  projects  for  the  conquest  of 
France  and  England.  In  1580  he  obtained  the  crown 
of  Portugal  as  successor  of  his  uncle  Henrique,  who  died 
without  issue.  He  instigated  the  French  to  rebel  against 
Henry  IV.,  and  furnished  subsidies  to  the  factious  League. 
For  the  invasion  of  England  he  equipped  a  fleet  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty  or,  according  to  some  writers,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  vessels,  which  sailed  in  May,  1588, 
and  was  called  "the  Invincible  Armada."  After  this 
fleet  had  passed  through  the  Strait  of  Dover,  it  was 
damaged  by  English  fire-ships,  and  attacked  on  the  8th 
of  August  by  Admiral  Howard,  who  sunk  and  captured 
many  ships.  The  Spanish  admiral  retreated  northward, 
and  near  the  Orkneys  encountered  a  violent  storm,  which 
dispersed  his  fleet.  About  fifty  of  his  vessels  were 
wrecked.  (See  ELIZABETH.)  The  war  between  Spain 
and  England  continued  many  years.  Philip  died  on  the 
I3th  of  September,  1598,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Philip  III. 

In  person,  Philip  was  meagre  and  below  the  middle 
height.  He  had  a  fair  complexion,  blue  eyes,  aquiline 
nose,  and  a  very  prominent  lower  jaw.  His  temper  was 
morose,  his  manners  reserved  and  repulsive,  but  he  had 
great  ambition  and  indefatigable  industry. 

See  WATSON,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  1777  :  MOTLEY,  "  History 
of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  1846;  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of 
Philip  II.,"  3  vols.,  1855-53;  CAMPANA,  "Vita  del  Don  Filippo," 
1605;  CABRERA,  "Felipe  II.  Rey  de  Espana,"  1619:  C6RDOVA, 
"  Vida  de  Felipe  II.,"  1662;  A.  DUMESNIL,  "  Histoire  de  Philippe 
II,"  1822;  G.  LETI,  "Vita  del  Re  Filippo  II.,"  1679;  SAN  MICUEL, 
"  Historia  del  Rey  Felipe  II.,"  4  vols.,  1844-45  ;  ANTONIO  UK  HER- 
RBRA,  "Historia  del  Mundo  en  el  Reynado  del  Rey  Don  Phelipe 
II.,"  3  vols.,  1606;  CARDINAL  GRANVELLE'S  "  State  Papers." 


Philip  (Felipe)  III.  OF  SPAIN,  a  son  of  Philip  II., 
was  born  at  Madrid  in  April,  1578.  His  mother  was 
Anne  of  Austria.  He  began  to  reign  in  September, 
1598.  He  was  timid,  indolent,  and  incapable,  but  de 
voted  to  the  intolerant  policy  of  his  father.  Passing  his 
time  chiefly  in  hunting,  in  acts  of  devotion,  or  formalities 
of  etiquette,  he  abandoned  the  direction  of  affairs  to  his 
favourite,  the  Duke  of  Lerma.  This  minister  prosecuted 
the  war  against  the  revolted  provinces  of  the  Nether 
lands  until  the  exhaustion  of  his  finances  forced  him, 
in  1609,  to  grant  a  truce  of  twelve  years  (see  MAURICE 
OF  NASSAU)  and  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the 
Seven  United  Provinces.  The  issue  of  this  long  con 
test  demonstrated  that  Spain  was  no  longer  the  most 
powerful  kingdom  of  Europe.  The  prosperity  of  Spain 
was  greatly  impaired  by  the  cruel  expulsion  of  the  Moors, 
in  1610.  The  number  of  these  exiles  is  estimated  at 
about  one  million.  Philip  had  married  Margaret  of 
Austria.  He  died  in  March,  1621,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  son,  Philip  IV. 

See  WATSON,  "History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  III.,"  1783; 
CESPEDES,  "Historia  de  Don  Felipe  III.,"  1631;  AVII.A,  "His 
toria  de  la  Vida  de  Don  Felipe  III.,"  1660;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
GeneVale." 

Philip  (Felipe)  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  April,  1605,  and  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age 
of  sixteen.  He  submitted  himself  to  the  control  and 
ascendency  of  his  favourite  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.  He 
renewed  the  war  against  the  Dutch  United  Provinces 
at  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  (1621,)  and  formed  with 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  a  league  against  the  Protest 
ants.  His  intrigues  involved  Europe  in  a  long  war,  in 
which  the  Spaniards  fought  against  the  Dutch,  Swedes, 
French,  and  English.  In  maritime  war  the  Dutch  ob 
tained  a  decided  superiority.  On  land  the  Spaniards 
were  defeated  by  the  French  at  Rocroy  (1643)  and  other 
places.  Portugal  revolted  in  1640,  and  was  finally  sepa 
rated  from  the  Spanish  monarchy.  By  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia  (1648)  Spain  made  peace  with  her  enemies, 
except  the  French,  who  continued  the  war  until  1659. 
The  results  of  these  wars  were  disastrous  to  Spain, 
which  lost  several  colonies,  islands,  and  cities.  Philip 
was  twice  married;  in  1615  he  espoused  Elizabeth  of 
France,  and  in  1649  Marie  Anne  of  Austria.  He  died 
in  September,  1665,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Charles  II. 

See  CESPEDES  Y  MENEZES,  "  Historia  de  Don  Felipe  IV.,"  1631  ; 
MALVEZZI,  "  Successos  de  la  Moimrquia  de  Espana  en  el  Tiempo  de 
Felipe  IV.,"  1640;  DUNI.OP,  "Memoirs  of  Spain  during  the  Reign 
of  Philip  IV.,"  2  vols.,  1834. 

Philip  [Fr.  PHILIPPE;  Sp.  FELIPE]  V.,  King  of 
Spain,  born  at  Versailles  in  December,  1683,  was  a 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  second  son  of  Louis, 
Dauphin  of  France.  In  his  youth  he  was  styled  the 
Duke  of  Anjou.  He  was  appointed  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  and  the  Indies  by  the  will  of  Charles  II.,  who 
died,  without  a  direct  heir,  in  November,  1700.  His 
title  was  contested  by  the  archduke  Charles  of  Austria, 
whose  claim  was  enforced  by  the  armies  of  England, 
Holland,  and  Austria  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes 
sion,  which  began  in  1702.  Philip  was  supported  by  the 
French  and  the  majority  of  the  Spaniards,  who  gained  a 
decisive  victory  at  Almanza  in  1707.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  he  was  recognized  as  King  of  Spain; 
but  he  gave  up  Flanders  and  Naples  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  married  Elizabeth  Farnese  of  Parma  in 
1714,  and  chose  Cardinal  Alberoni  as  prime  minister. 
Under  the  influence  of  a  religious  melancholy,  he  abdi 
cated  in  favour  of  his  son  Louis  in  1724;  but  the  death 
of  Louis  a  few  months  later  induced  him  to  resume  the 
royal  power.  He  died  in  July,  1746,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Ferdinand  VI. 

See  W.  COXE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon,"  3  vols.,  1813;  CARVAJAL,  "La  Espana  de  los  Borbones," 
4  vols.,  1844;  F.  X.  CONDE,  "  Elogio  de  Felipe  V.,"  1779:  A.  VIOL- 
LET,  "Histoire  des  Bourbons  en  Espagne,"  1843;  SAINT-SIMON, 
€i  Memoires ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Philip,  [Ger.  PHILIPP,  fil'ip,]  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
surnamed  DER  GROSSMUTHIGE,  (de"r  gRos-miit'iG-eh,) 
("the  Magnanimous,")  born  at  Marburg  in  1504,  was 
an  able  prince,  and  a  constant  friend  of  the  Protestant 
cause.  He  began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and 
introduced  the  Lutheran  religion  into  Hesse  in  1526.  In 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


PHILIP 


1787 


PHILIP  PUS 


1531  he  formed  with  the  Protestant  princes  the  league 
Of  Schmalkalden,  which  waged  war  against  Charles  V.  ; 
but  he  was  forced  to  submit  in  1547  to  Charles,  who 
kept  him  a  prisoner  for  five  years.  Philip  was  inclined 
to  toleration  in  religion.  Died  in  1567. 

See  HOFFMEISTER,  "  Leben  Philipp  des  Grossmiithigen,"  1846; 
ROMMEL,  "Philipp  der  Grossmiithige,"  4  vols.,  1828-35;  RINCK, 
"  Erinnerungen  an  Philipp  den  Grossmiithigen,"  1852. 

Philip,  [It.  FILIPPO,  fe-lep'po,]  Duke  of  Parma,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1720,  was  the  second  son  of  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.  He  invaded  Italy  with  a  Spanish  army  in  1742, 
and  attempted  to  obtain  a  throne  by  conquest,  but  failed. 
The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  gave  him  the 
duchy  of  Parma.  Died  in  1765. 

Philip,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief,  commonly  called 
KING  PHILIP.  He  began  a  war  with  the  English  in 
1675,  but  was  killed  the  following  year. 

Philip  the  Bold,  [Fr.  PHILIPPE  LE  HARDI,  fe'lep' 
leh  /rSK'de',]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  in  1342,  was  a 
younger  son  of  John.  King  of  France.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  French  princes  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  VI.,  and  was  a  rival  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
He  acted  as  regent  while  Charles  VI.  was  disabled  by 
insanity.  He  died  in  1404,  and  left  the  dukedom  to  his 
son,  Jean  Sans  Peur. 

Philip  the  Deacon,  one  of  the  primitive  Christian 
ministers,  was  one  of  seven  men  appointed  to  a  special 
service,  (Acts  vi.  5.)  He  preached  in  Samaria,  and  in 
structed  the  treasurer  of  Queen  Candace  of  Ethiopia. 
(See  Acts  viii.  5-40,  and  xxi.  8.) 

See  John  i.  43-44,  xiv.  8,  9;  Matthew  x.  3  ;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke 
vi.  14 ;  Acts  i.  13. 

Philip  the  Fair.     See  PHILIP  IV.  OF  FRANCE. 

Philip  the  Good,  [Fr.  PHILIPPE  LE  BON,  fe'lep' leh 
boN,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  son  of  Jean  Sans  Peur,  was 
born  at  Dijon  in  1396.  As  a  partisan  or  ally  of  Henry 
V.  of  England,  he  fought  against  Charles  VII.  of  France 
from  1422  to  1435.  At  the  latter  date  he  entered  into 
alliance  with  Charles.  Some  years  before  this  event  he 
had  invaded  the  territory  of  Jacqueline,  Countess  of 
Hainault,  and  compelled  her  to  recognize  him  as  her  heir 
in  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Hainault.  He  had  inherited 
Flanders  and  Artois  in  addition  to  Burgundy.  He  in 
stituted  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  His  wife  was 
Isabella,  a  daughter  of  John  I.  of  Portugal.  He  died  in 
1467  or  1457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  the 
Bold.  Philip  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns 
of  his  time,  but  had  little  claim  to  the  epithet  of  "  Good." 
"  He  was  certainly  neither  a  good  nor  a  great  prince," 
says  Motley  :  "  he  was  an  adroit  dissembler,  a  practical 
politician." 

See  PERNEEI.,  "  fipisodes  du  Regne  de  Philippe  le  Bon,"  1847  ; 
COMIXES,  "  Memoires ;"  FROISSART,  "Chronicles;"  BARANTE, 
"  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Philip  of  Orleans.     See  ORLEANS. 

Phil'ip  Au-gus'tus,  [Fr.  PHILIPPE  AUGIISTE,  fe'lep' 
6'gu'st' ;  Lat.  PHILIP'PUS  AUGUS'TUS,]  called  Philip  II., 
King  of  France,  born  in  1 165,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VII., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1180.  He  married  Isabella  of 
Hainault,  a  niece  of  the  Count  of  Flanders.  In  the  first 
part  of  his  reign  he  banished  the  Jews  and  confiscated 
their  property.  He  aided  and  abetted  the  sons  of  Henry 
II.  of  England  in  rebellion  against  their  father.  Having 
taken  the  cross  in  1188,  he  raised  an  army  and  united 
with  Richard  I.  of  England  in  a  crusade.  They  embarked 
at  Genoa  and  Marseilles  in  1190,  passed  the  winter  in 
Sicily,  and  arrived  at  Acre  in  the  spring  of  1191.  Dis 
sensions  or  jealousies  having  arisen  between  Philip  and 
Richard,  the  former,  on  the  pretext  of  ill  health,  aban 
doned  the  enterprise,  and  arrived  at  Paris  in  December, 
1191.  (See  RICHARD  I.)  A  war  ensued  between  Philip 
and  the  English  king  for  the  possession  of  Normandy, 
and  lasted  until  the  death  of  Richard,  in  1199.  The 
crimes  and  incapacity  of  John  of  England  afforded  a 
favourable  opportunity  to  the  ambition  of  Philip,  who 
extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Normandy, 
Anjou,  and  Touraine,  (1204-06.) 

In  1213,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who 
had  deposed  John,  Philip  prepared  to  invade  England. 
He  was  forced  to  renounce  this  enterprise  by  the  abject 
submission  of  John  to  the  pope,  and  by  the  loss  of  his 


fleet,  which  was  defeated  by  the  English.  He  invaded 
Flanders,  the  chief  towns  of  which  surrendered  to  his 
army,  and  gained  in  1214  a  decisive  victory  over  the  em 
peror  Otho  IV.  and  the  Flemings  at  Bouvines,  where 
he  commanded  in  person.  He  died  in  1223,  leaving  his 
throne  to  his  son,  Louis  VIII. 

SeeRiooRD,  "DeGestis  Philippi  Augusti ;"  BAUDOT  DE  JUILLY, 
"Histoire  de  Philippe  Auguste,"  1702;  CAPEFIGUE,  "  Histoire  de 
Philippe  Auguste,"  4  vols.,  1829;  SISMONDI.  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
?ais;"  RYMER,  "  Fcedera  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Philipon  de  la  Madelaine,  fe'le'pdN'  deh  If  mtcl'- 
l&n',  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1734.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Homonyms," 
("  Dictionnaire  des  Homonymes,"  1799,)  a  "  Dictionary 
of  the  French  Language,"  (1809,)  and  other  works, 
which  were  received  with  favour.  Died  in  1818. 

Phil'i-pot,  (JOHN,)  an  English  antiquary  and  herald, 
born  in  Kent.  Among  the  works  attributed  to  him 
is  "  Villare  Cantianum,  or  Kent  Surveyed."  Died  in 
1645. 

Phl-lip'pa  OF  HAINAULT,  a  daughter  of  William, 
Earl  of  Hainault,  was  married  to  Edward  III.  of  Eng 
land  about  1326.  She  saved  the  lives  of  six  citizens  of 
Calais,  whom  Edward  intended  to  put  to  death.  Died 
in  1369. 

Philippar,  fe'le'piV,  (FRANCOIS  AKEN,)  a  French 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Peuving,  Austria,  in  1801. 
He  became  director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Versailles 
in  1841. 

Philippe,  the  French  of  PHILIPPUS,  which  see. 

Philippe,  (Kings  of  France.)     See  PHILIP. 

Philippe  de  Mons,  fe'lep'  deh  m6.N,  a  Belgian  com 
poser,  born  at  Mons  about  1522.  He  composed  masses, 
motets,  etc.,  and  was  the  most  famous  Belgian  composer 
of  his  time,  except  Orlando  de  Lasso. 

Philippe  de  Neri.     See  NERI. 

Philippe  de  la  Sainte-Trinite,  fe'lep'  deh  It  saNt 
tRe'ne'tk',  (ESPRIT  JULIEN,)  a  French  missionary,  born 
in  the  Comtat  in  1603.  He  preached  in  Syria,  Persia, 
etc.,  and  published  "  Itinerarium  Orientale,"  (1649.) 
Died  in  1671. 

Philippe  le  Bon.     See  PHILIP  THE  GOOD. 

Philippe  le  Hardi.     See  PHILIP  THE  BOLD. 

Philippeaux.     See  PHELIPPEAUX. 

Philippeaux,  fe'le'po',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  revolu 
tionist,  born  in  the  department  of  Orne  in  1759.  He 
was  elected  in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  and  an  appeal  to  the 
people.  He  was  proscribed  by  Saint-Just,  arrested  as 
an  accomplice  of  Danton  in  March,  1794,  and  guillotined 
in  the  ensuing  month. 

Philippi,  fe'le'pe',  (HENRI,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Saint-Hubert,  in  the  Ardennes,  about  1575.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  Chronology.  Died  in  1636. 

Fhl-lip'pi-cus  or  Phl-lep'I-cus,  also  called  BAR- 
DANES,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  a  son  of  Ni- 
cephorus  Patricius.  He  began  to  reign  in  711  A.D., 
and  was  deposed  in  713.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Mono- 
thelism. 

Philippide.     See  PHILIPPIDES. 

Phl-lip'pi-des,  [Gr.  QCfj.--'^ ;  Fr.  PHILIPPIDE,  fe'- 
le'ped',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  flourished  about  300  or 
330  B.C.  His  works  are  not  extant.  He  was  considered 
one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  new  comedy.  He  is  said  to 
have  died  of  joy  because  one  of  his  plays  had  gained  the 
prize.  His  character  is  eulogized  by  Plutarch  in  the  life 
of  Demetrius. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Philippon.     See  PHILIPON. 

Philippon,  fe'le'p6.N',  (ARMAND,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1761.  He  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  Badajos,  in  1811  and  1812.  Died  in  1836. 

Philippoteaux,  fe'le'po'to',  (FELIX  HENRI  EM 
MANUEL,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Sedan 
in  1815.  He  obtained  a  first  medal  in  1840.  Among 
his  works  is  the  "Last  Banquet  of  the  Girondists," 
(1850.) 

PhilippUB  OF  ACARNANIA.  See  PHILIP  OF  ACAR- 
NANIA. 

Phl-lip'pus,  an  impostor,  whose  proper  name  was 
ANDRISCUS,  pretended  to  be  a  son  of  Perseus,  King  of 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  gitttiiral  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


PHILIP  PUS 


1788 


PHILLIPS 


Macedon.  He  obtained  some  success,  but  was  expelled 
by  the  Roman  general  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus. 

Philippus,  a  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.,  became  King 
of  Syria  about  88  B.C.,  after  fighting  against  Antio 
chus  X. 

Philippus  OF  THESSALONI'CA,  an  epigrammatic  poet, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  100  A.D.  He  com 
posed  many  epigrams,  which  are  in  the  Greek  Anthol 
ogy,  and  compiled  a  "Greek  Anthology." 

Philippus,  a  physician,  who  lived  about  150  A.D.  and 
belonged  to  the  sect  of  Empirici.  He  is  mentioned  by 
Galen,  his  contemporary. 

Philippus,  [Fr.  PHILIPPE,  fe'lep',]  (L.  MARCIUS,)  a 
Roman  general,  who  became  consul  in  186  B.C.  and 
again  in  169.  At  the  latter  date  he  obtained  the  conduct 
of  the  Macedonian  war.  He  invaded  the  territory  of 
Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia,  without  important  results. 
He  was  censor  in  164  H.C. 

Philippus,  (L.  MARCIUS,)  a  Roman  orator,  who  be 
longed  to  the  popular  party.  He  was  consul  in  91  B.C. 
with  Sextus  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  an  enemy  of  M.  Livius 
Drusus,  the  tribune  of  the  people,  by  whose  order  Philip- 
pus  was  dragged  to  prison  in  the  year  just  named.  In 
86  n.c.  he  was  censor.  He  remained  neutral  in  the  war 
between  Marius  and  Sulla,  and  was  afterwards  a  friend 
of  Pompey.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  orators 
of  his  time,  and  was  noted  for  his  sarcastic  wit.  Horace 
refers  to  him  in  his  Epistle  i. :  "  Stremms  et  fortis  causis- 
que  Philippus  agendis  clarus."  He  died  after  76  H.C. 

Philippus,  (L.  MARCIUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  consul  in  56  B.C.  He  married  Atia,  a  niece  of  Julius 
Cassar,  and  thus  became  the  stepfather  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  He  was  neutral  in  the  civil  war  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey. 

Philippus,  (M.  JULIUS,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  a 
native  of  Trachonitis.  He  obtained  the  imperial  power 
by  the  murder  of  Gordian,  in  244  A.D.  The  senate 
confirmed  the  choice  of  the  army.  He  made  peace  with 
Persia  in  244.  In  248  or  247  A.D.  he  celebrated  the 
thousandth  anniversary  of  the  origin  of  Rome.  He  was 
killed  at  Verona  in  249  A.D.,  in  a  battle  against  Decius, 
who  had  usurped  the  title  of  emperor.  According  to 
Eusebius  and  other  writers,  Philippus  was  a  Christian. 

His  son,  M.  JULIUS  PHILIPPUS,  who  had  been  asso 
ciated  with  him  in  the  empire,  (247  A.D.,)  was  killed  by 
the  partisans  of  Decius,  in  249  A.D. 

Philippus  Augustus.     See  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS. 

Phil'ips,  (AMBROSE,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  probably  in  Leicestershire  about  1670.  Among 
his  early  productions  were  six  Pastorals,  (about  1708,) 
and  a  "  Letter  from  Copenhagen,"  in  verse,  (1709,)  which 
was  praised  by  Steele  and  others.  His  tragedy  "  The 
Distressed  Mother"  was  performed  with  applause  in 
1712.  It  was  highly  commended  in  the  "Spectator" 
by  Addison  and  Steele,  who  were  friends  of  the  author. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Whig  party,  and  an  object 
of  Pope's  ill-natured  satire.  He  made  a  translation  of 
Sappho's  "  Hymn  to  Venus,"  which  Addison  printed  in 
the  "  Spectator,"  No.  223.  His  version  of  Sappho's 
"Ode  to  Lesbia"  is  praised  by  Addison,  as  "written  in 
the  very  spirit  of  Sappho."  (See  "  Spectator,"  No.  229.) 
He  became  secretary  to  Dr.  Boulter,  Primate  of  Ireland, 
in  1723,  and  for  some  time  represented  the  county  of 
Armagh  in  the  Irish  parliament.  In  1733  he  became  a 
judge  of  the  prerogative  court  in  Ireland.  Died  in  1749. 
The  term  "  namby-pamby"  is  said  to  have  been  first 
applied  to  his  style. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Philips,  (CATHERINE,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in 
London  in  1631.  Her  maiden  name  was  FOWLER.  She 
translated  Corneille's  tragedy  of  "  Pompey,"  and  wrote 
poems,  which  were  published  in  1667.  She  was  called 
by  her  admirers  "  the  Matchless  Orinda."  Died  in  1664. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  COSTEI.LO. 

Philips  or  Philipps,  (FAHIAN,)  an  English  political 
writer,  born  at  Prestbury  in  1601,  was  a  lawyer  and  a 
partisan  of  Charles  I.  Died  in  1690. 

Philips,  ^JoHN,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Bampton, 
Oxfordshire,  in  1676.  His  first  successful  work  was 
"The  Splendid  Shilling,"  a  mock-heroic  poem,  (1703.) 
He  produced  in  1705  "Blenheim,"  a  poem  in  imitation 


of  the  style  of  Milton.  His  principal  work  is  a  poem 
"On  Cider,"  (1706,)  in  which  he  imitated  Virgil's 
"Georgics"  with  some  success.  Died  in  1708. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

PW-lis'cus,  [4>iAi'<7Koc,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  wrote  probably  about  400  B.C.  The 
titles  of  some  of  his  plays  are  given  by  Suidas. 

Philiscus  OF  y£ciNA,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  who, 
according  to  Suidas,  was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes  the 
Cynic,  and  taught  grammar  to  Alexander  the  Great. 

Philiscus  OF  CORCYRA,  lived  about  290  B.C.,  and  was 
one  of  the  seven  poets  that  formed  the  "Tragic  Pleiad." 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Philiscus  OF  RHODES,  a  sculptor,  who  is  believed  to 
have  flourished  about  146  B.C.  ;  though  some  suppose 
him  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  His  works 
were  placed  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Rome,  for  which 
they  were  probably  originally  designed.  Meyer  identifies 
the  statue  at  Florence  called  Apollino  with  the  Apollo 
of  Philiscus. 

Phi-lis'tl-on,  [QdiaTiuv,]  a  Greek  physician,  born 
in  Sicily  or  Italy,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
He  was  the  teacher  of  Eudoxus  the  physician  and 
astronomer. 

Fhi-lis'tus,  [Gr.  <J>/Awrof,]  an  eminent  Syracusan  his 
torian  and  politician,  born  about  435  B.C.  He  aided 
Dionysius  to  obtain  power  in  Syracuse  about  405  B.C., 
soon  after  which  he  was  keeper  of  the  citadel.  About 
396  he  was  banished,  because  he  married  a  niece  of 
Dionysius  without  his  consent.  He  was  recalled  from 
exile  by  Dionysius  the  Younger,  over  whom  he  acquired 
much  influence.  He  used  this  influence  against  Plato 
and  Dion,  and  "employed  his  talents,"  says  Plutarch, 
"  in  defence  of  the  despotic  policy."  Having  been  de 
feated  in  a  naval  battle  by  the  party  of  Dion,  in  356  B.C., 
he  was  killed,  or  killed  himself  to  avoid  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  victors.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Sicily," 
which  is  lost.  His  style  resembled  that  of  Thucytlides. 
Cicero  characterizes  him  as  "creber,  acutus,  brevis,  paene 
pusillus  Thucydides." 

See  BAVI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  GOEI.LER, 
"  Vita  Philisti,"  in  his  "  De  Situ  et  Origine  Syracusarmn." 

Phil'H-more,  (Jonx  GEORGE,)  M.P.,  an  English 
writer  on  law,  born  in  1809.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Law  of  Evidence,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1865. 

Phil'lip,  (ARTHUR,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in 
London  in  1738,  was  the  first  governor  of  Botany  Bay. 
Died  in  1814. 

Phil'lip,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at  Aberdeen 
about  1815,  became  a  resident  of  London.  Having 
visited  Spain  about  1852,  he  painted  numerous  success 
ful  pictures  of  Spanish  life.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Scotch  Fair,"  "The  Letter-Writer  of  Seville,"  "El 
Pasco,"  "The  Spanish  Contrabandistas,"  and  "The 
House  of  Commons."  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade 
mician  in  1859  or  1860.  Died  in  1867. 

Phil'lips,  (CHARLES,)  an  Irish  barrister,  born  at 
Sligo  about  1788.  He  practised  with  success  in  criminal 
cases  in  London,  and  gained  a  wide  reputation  by  his 
speeches,  the  style  of  which  is  rather  florid.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  commissioner  of  the  insolvent  debtors' 
court  in  London.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Recollections  of  Curran  and  some  of  his  Contempo 
raries,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1859. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1817;  "  Monthly  Re 
view"  for  December,  1819. 

Phil'lips  or  Philipps,  (EDWARD,)  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  poet  Milton,  was  born  in  London  in  1630. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Milton,"  (1694,)  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Theatrum  Poetarum,"  or  a  com 
plete  collection  of  the  most  eminent  poets  of  all  ages, 
with  observations,  etc.,  (1675.)  It  is  supposed  that  he 
was  assisted  by  Milton  in  this  work,  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  Died  about  1680. 

See  WIU.IAM  GODWIN,  "Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips," 
1815;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1815. 

Phillips,  fil'lips,  (GEORG,)  a  Prussian  historian,  born 
at  Kb'nigsberg  in  1804.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic  of 
the  ultramontane  party.  In  1851  he  became  professor 
of  the  history  of  law  at  Vienna.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "History  of  Germany,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PHILLIPS 


1789 


PHILO 


Canon  Law,"  (Kirchenrccht,)  (5  vols.,  1845-51.)     Die 
in  1860. 

Phillips,  (JOHN,)  a  brother  of  Edward,  noticed  above 
was  a  pupil  of  Milton.  He  wrote  "  Maronides,"  a  parodj 
of  part  of  Virgil's  " /Eneid,"  (1672,)  a  "  Defence  of  Mil 
ton,"  ("  Miltoni  Defensio,")  and  a  few  other  works. 

See  "  Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips,  Nephews  and  Pupil 
of  John  Milton,"  by  WILLIAM  GODWIN,  London,  1815. 

Phillips,  (JOHN,)  a  nephew  of  William  Smith  th< 
geologist,  was  born  December  25,  1800.  He  assisted  this 
uncle  in  the  explorations  and  surveys  which  he  made 
in  order  to  prepare  geological  maps  of  England.  H 
lectured  on  his  favourite  science  with  success  at  various 
places.  In  1844  he  obtained  the  chair  of  geology  a 
Dublin.  He  wrote  articles  on  geology,  etc.  for  the 
"Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britan 
nica."  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Geology,' 
(2  vois.,  1837,)  and  "Palaeozoic  Fossils  of  Cornwall 
Devon,  and  West  Somerset,"  (1841.)  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  geology  at  Oxford  in  1853,  and  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  in  1858. 

Fhil'lips,  (JOHN,)  LL.D.,  an  American  merchant,  borr 
at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1719,  founded  an  academy 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  called  by  his  name,  and  gave 
a  large  sum  to  Phillips  Academy,  at  Andover.  Died 
in  1795. 

Phillips,  (MORGAN,)  or  Philip  Morgan,  a  Welsh 
Catholic  writer,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1537.  He  was 
so  skilful  in  disputation  that  he  was  called  "  Morgan  the 
Sophister."  He  wrote  in  1571  an  answer  to  Knox's 
"  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Regiment  of  Women." 

Phillips,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  Engfish  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1767  or  1768.  He  published  the  "Monthly 
Magazine,"  which  advocated  liberal  politics,  and  other 
works.  Died  about  1840. 

See    "  Memoirs   of  the   Public  and  Private  Life  of  Sir  Richard 

Phillips." 

Phillips,  (RICHARD,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist  and 
pharmacist,  born  in  1778.  He  learned  his  profession 
with  William  Allen,  of  Plough  Court,  London,  and  ac 
quired  great  skill  as  an  analytic  chemist.  He  wrote 
articles  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy  for  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia."  He  lectured  on  chemistry  at  the  London 
Hospital,  and  became  president  of  the  Chemical  Society 
about  1850.  Died  in  1851. 

Phillips,  (SAMUEL,)  nephew  of  John  Phillips,  noticed 
above,  (1719-95,)  was  born  at  North  Andover  in  1751, 
and  rose  through  numerous  offices  to  be  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  the  founder  of 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover.  Died  in  1802. 

Phillips,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1815.  He  published  "Caleb  Stukely,"  a  novel, 
and  wrote  tales  for  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  and  other 
periodicals.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  London 
"Times,"  for  which  he  wrote  able  literary  criticisms  and 
reviews.  In  1852  and  1854  he  published  two  volumes 
of  "  Essays  from  the  Times."  Died  in  1854. 

Phillips,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1708.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Reginald  Pole,"  (1764.)  Died  at  Liege  in  1774. 

Phillips,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Dudley,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1770.  He  was  professor 
of  painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  from  1824  to  1832. 
Among  his  works  are  portraits  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
Lord  Byron,  the  poets  Scott,  Coleridge,  and  Southey, 
Lord  Brougham,  Sir  Francis  Chantrey,  and  Major  Den- 
ham.  Died  in  1845. 

Phillips,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Worcestershire  in  1792.  He  formed  a  great  collection 
of  manuscripts,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises. 

Phillips,  (WENDELL,)  an  American  reformer,  dis 
tinguished  for  his  uncompromising  hostility  to  the  in 
stitution  of  slavery  and  to  oppression  in  every  form,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  November  29,  1811.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831,  studied  law,  and  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1834.  His  sympathies  were  strongly 
aroused  by  the  persecution  of  the  early  abolitionists, 
more  particularly  during  the  Boston  mob,  headed  by 
"gentlemen  of  property  and  standing,"  in  October,  1835, 
when  Garrison  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  In  1836 
he  joined  the  abolitionists,  relinquishing  the  practice  of 


law  because  he  was  unwilling  to  act  under  an  oath  to 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1837  a  meeting 
of  the  citizens  of  Massachusetts  was  called  in  Faneuil 
Hall  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  public  condemnation 
of  the  murder  of  Lovejoy,  who  fell  (November  7)  at 
Alton,  Illinois,  in  defence  of  the  freedom  of  the  press. 
The  pro-slavery  feeling  in  Boston  was  at  that  time  very 
strong,  and  the  object  of  the  meeting  was  in  imminent 
danger  of  being  defeated  through  the  influence  of  Attor 
ney-General  Austin,  who  asked  how  Mr.  Lovejoy  had 
merited  the  distinction  of  being  thus  commemorated,  and 
whether  he  had  not  died  "as  the  fool  dieth."  At  the 
conclusion  of  his  speech,  Wendell  Phillips  arose,  and,  in 
a  burst  of  indignant  and  powerful  eloquence,  rebuked 
the  craven  and  sordid  spirit  of  those  who  sought  to 
defend  or  excuse  that  great  crime  against  the  liberty  of 
the  press  and  the  rights  of  humanity.  Dr.  Channing, 
who  had  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  calling  the  meeting 
on  that  occasion,  often  referred  to  the  speech  of  young 
Phillips  before  that  vast  assembly,  many  of  whom  were 
bitterly  hostile  to  freedom,  as  "morally  sublime."  Be 
lieving  that  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was 
an  unrighteous  compact  between  freedom  and  slavery, 
Mr.  Phillips  refused  to  recognize  its  authority  by  voting 
or  in  any  other  manner,  and  maintained  that  a  'dissolu 
tion  of  the  Union  would  be  the  most  effectual  mode  of 
giving  freedom  to  the  slaves.  In  1865  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Garrison  as  president  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  which  position  he  held  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  society,  April  9,  1870.  Mr.  Phillips  is  an  accom 
plished  scholar,  and  one  of  the  most  eloquent  orators 
in  the  United  States.  In  addition  to  his  labours  in  the 
anti-slavery  cause,  he  has  devoted  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  his  time  and  attention  to  the  temperance 
movement  and  other  reforms.  His  principal  speeches 
and  lectures  have  been  published  in  an  octavo  volume, 
^Boston,  1863.) 

See  MRS.  STOWE,  "Men  of  ourTimes,"  Hartford,  1868;  "Golden 
Age  of  American  Oratory,"  by  EDWARD  G.  PARKER,  Boston,  1857. 

Phillips,  (WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  born  in  London  in  1773,  was  a  brother  of 

Richard,  noticed  above,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  accurate 
measurement  of  crystals  by  means  of  the  reflective 

oniometer.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Mineralogy 
and  Geology,"  (4th  edition,  1826,)  and  an  "Introduction 

0  the   Knowledge  of  Mineralogy,"  (1816.)      He  aided 
onybeare  in  an  important  work,  —  "The   Geology  of 

England  and  Wales,"  (1822.)     Died  in  1828. 
Phill'potts   or   Phil'pptts,   (HENRY,)   an   English 
ishop,  was  born  at  Bridge  water  in   1777  or  1778,  and 
ducated  at  Oxford.   He  obtained  the  living  of  Stanhope, 
iccame  Dean  of  Chester  in  1828,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter 

1  1830.     He  acted  with  the  Tory  party  in  the  House 
f  Lords,  in  opposing  many  measures  of  reform.     He 

vrote  many  controversial  works,  among  which  is  a 
"Letter  on  Catholic  Emancipation,"  (1827.)  He  was 
regarded  as  the  head  of  the  extreme  High-Church  party 
in  the  House  of  Lords.  Died  in  September,  1869. 

See  "Edinburgh    Review"    for    January,   1852;    "Blackwood's 


Magazine"  for  June,  1827. 
Phi'lo  or  Phi'lon,  [ 


a  son  of  Antipater,  a  Greek 


statuary,  who  lived  about  330  B.C.  He  made  a  statue 
of  Zeus  Ourios,  which  stood  on  the  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea,  near  Chalcedon. 

Philo  or  Philon,  an  excellent  Greek  architect,  worked 
at  Athens  about  320  B.C.  He  built  the  portico  of  twelve 
Doric  columns  of  the  great  temple  at  Eleusis. 

Philo,  a  physician  of  the  sect  of  Methodic!,  is  men 
tioned  by  Galen.  The  time  in  which  he  lived  is  unknown. 

Philo  or  Philon  THE  ACADEMIC,  a  philosopher,  born 
at  Larissa,  was  a  disciple  of  Clitomachus.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
who  was  one  of  his  auditors  or  pupils. 

Philo,  (Philon,)  [<fo'/A)v,]  an  ancient  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  lived  probably  about  the  time 
of  Augustus.  He  wrote,  in  Greek  verse,  directions  for 
compounding  an  antidote  called  Philonium,  which  are 
preserved  by  Galen. 

Philo,  (Q.  PUBLILIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was 
consul  in  339  B.C.  He  procured  the  passage  in  that 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Igf  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHILO 


1790 


PHILOSTR4TUS 


year  of  the  important  Publilian  laws,  which  increased 
the  power  of  the  plebeians.  He  was  re-elected  consul 
in  327  and  in  320  B.C.  In  the  latter  year  he  defeated  the 
Samnites. 

Philo,  (Philon,)  [Gr.  WMV,]  called  also  Philo  By- 
zautius,  (be-zan'she-us,)  a  Greek  mechanician,  who  lived 
in  the  second  century  B.C.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Military  Machines  and  Missiles,"  part  of  which  is  ex 
tant, — i.e.  the  fourth  and  fifth  books, — and  a  treatise  on 
mechanics. 

Philo  [Fr.  PHILON,  fe'loN']  OF  BYBLOS,  (HEREN- 
NIUS,)  a  Greek  historian  and  grammarian,  who  lived 
between  50  and  125  A.D.  Among  his  numerous  works 
was  an  account  of  the  reign,  or  part  of  the  reign,  of 
Hadrian.  Suidas  says  he  wrote  pcrites  basileias  Adrianou. 
Philo  made  a  translation  of  the  History  of  Sanchoniathon, 
a  Phoenician. 

Fhi'lo(orPhi'lon)  Judse'us,  (ju-dee'us.)fFr.  PHILON 
LE  JuiF,  fe'l6.\'  leh  zhii-ef',]  ("  Philo  the  Jew,")  a  Greek 
philosopher,  born  at  Alexandria,  lived  between  20  B.C. 
and  50  A.I).  He  was  a  member  of  the  sacerdotal  family, 
and  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  eloquence.  He 
was  a  man  of  mature  age  when  he  was  sent  by  the  Jews 
of  Alexandria  on  an  embassy  to  Caligula,  (40  A.D.)  It 
appears  that  he  was  a  believer  in  the  Platonic  philoso 
phy.  He  wrote  many  works  on  the  Jewish  religion,  on 
the  interpretation  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  other  subjects. 
He  is  partial  to  figurative  or  allegorical  interpretations. 

See  J.  BRYANT,  "The  Sentiments  of  Philo  Judaeus,"  1798;  Jo- 
SEPHUS,  "Jewish  Antiquities;"  FAH'KICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca  ;" 
RITTKR,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Fhi'lo  or  Fhi'lon  Thy-a-n8ii'sis,  an  able  geome 
trician,  whose  period  is  unknown.  He  wrote  on  curved 
lines,  and  lived  before  100  A.D. 

Fhl-lo-eh'a-res,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  brother  of  ALs- 
chines,  who  lived  about  340  u.C. 

Fhi-loeb/o-rus,  [4>(/^-opoc,]  a  distinguished  Athenian 
writer,  who  states  that  he  held  an  office  at  Athens  in  306 
B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquities,  legends,  and 
history  of  Athens,  entitled  "  Atthis,"  of  which  many  frag 
ments  are  extant.  Suidas  says  he  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Antigonus.  According  to  some  writers,  he 
flourished  between  306  and  260  B.C. 

Phil'o-cles,  [4>iAoK/.7/c,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  born 
about  468  B.C.,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  /Eschylus,  whom 
he  imitated.  In  429  he  gained  a  victory  over  Sophocles, 
who  on  that  occasion  exhibited  his  much-admired  "CEcli- 
pus  Tyrannus."  None  of  the  works  of  Philocles  have 
come  down  to  us. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Philocles,  an  Athenian  architect,  (of  Acharnse,)  de 
signed  the  admirable  Ionic  temple  of  Athena  Polias, 
built  about  333  B.C. 

Philocrate.     See  PHILOCRATES. 

Phl-loc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  $iAOKpurt]f ;  Fr.  PHILOCRATE, 
fe'lo'kRaV,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  was  one  of  the 
chief  negotiators  of  the  peace  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
in  346  B.C.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Demosthenes,  and 
favoured  the  Macedonian  party.  Having  been  accused 
of  treason,  he  went  into  exile  about  342  B.C. 

Philoctete.     See  PHILOCTETES. 

Fhll-oc-te'tes,  [Gr.  4>i/.oK77/-7/c  ,•  Fr.  PHILOCTETK, 
fe'lok'tit',]  a  celebrated  Greek  archer,  who,  during  the 
Trojan  war,  was  left  on  the  island  of  Lemnos,  because 
he  was  wounded  in  the  foot  by  a  serpent  or  a  poisoned 
arrow.  He  is  the  subject  of  many  legends,  one  of  which 
ascribes  the  death  of  Paris  to  a  shaft  from  his  bow.  He 
was  said  to  have  been  a  friend  of  Hercules,  who  be 
queathed  to  him  his  bow  and  his  poisoned  arrows. 

See  SOPHOCLES,  "  Philoctetes,"  a  tragedy. 

Philodeme.     See  PHILODEMUS. 

Phil-o-de'mus,  [Gr.  <I>i/Uxfy/zof ;  Fr.  PHILODEME,  fe'- 
lo'dim',]  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher  and  poet,  born 
in  Palestine.  He  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
who  mentions  him  in  a  speech  against  Piso.  Cicero 
condemns  his  conduct,  but  recognizes  his  literary  merit. 
He  wrote  epigrams,  fragments  of  which  are  extant  in 
the  Greek  Anthology. 

Phil-o-la'us,  [Gr.  4>*/l6Aaoc,]  a  Pythagorean  philoso 
pher,  born  at  Crotona  or  Tarentum,  was  a  disciple  of 


Archytas.  He  flourished  about  375  or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  450  B.C.,  and  wrote  on  physics.  Plato, 
it  is  said,  purchased  some  of  his  writings  at  a  high  price, 
and  derived  from  them  materials  for  his  "Timaeus." 

See  AUGUST  BOCKH,  "  Philolaos  des  Pythagoraers  Leben,"  1819; 
ERSOI  und  GRUDKK,  "Allgemeine  Kncyklopaedie." 

Fhll'o-me'la,  [Gr.  QAo/ir/ha  ;  Fr.  PHILOMELE,  fe'lo'- 
m;\l',]  a  daughter  of  Pandi'on,  and  a  sister  of  Procne. 
The  poets  related  that  she  was  ravished  by  Tereus, 
and  afterwards  metamorphosed  into  a  nightingale. 

See  OVID,  "Metamorphoses." 

Philomele.     See  PHILOMELA. 

Philon.     See  PHILO. 

Flri-loii'I-des,  [4>iAww'(5?7c,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  the  old  comedy,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He 
is  chiefly  distinguished  as  one  of  the  persons  in  whose 
name  the  early  plays  of  Aristophanes  were  produced. 
In  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  he  was  one  of  the  actors 
to  whom  Aristophanes  committed  his  chief  characters. 

Fhilopemen.     See  PHILOI-CEMEN. 

Philopcemen,  fil-o-pee'men,  [Gr.  Qdmroinriv ;  Fr. 
PHILOPEMKN,  fe'lo'pa'mftN',]  an  eminent  Greek  general 
and  statesman,  born  at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about 
252  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Craugis.  He  was  instructed  by 
Demophanes  and  Ecdemus,  and  chose  Epaminonclas 
for  his  model.  His  favourite  study  was  the  art  of  war. 
His  name  occurs  in  222  B.C.  as  one  of  the  few  who  re 
sisted  Cleomenes,  the  Spartan,  when  he  attacked  Mega 
lopolis  by  night.  The  defeat  of  Cleomenes  at  Sellasia 
(221  B.C.)  was  ascribed  to  Philopcemen.  He  was  ap 
pointed  general  of  the  cavalry  about  210  B.C.,  and  made 
reforms  in  discipline  and  tactics.  In  208  he  was  elected 
stmtcffiis  or  general-in-chief  of  the  Achaean  League.  His 
reputation  was  greatly  exalted  by  a  victory  over  the 
Spartan  Machanidas  at  Mantinea.  He  defeated  Nabis, 
tyrant  of  Sparta,  in  201  B.C.,  and  again  about  192.  In 
188  B.C.  he  was  appointed  commander  in  a  war  against 
Sparta,  which  had  seceded  from  the  Achaean  League. 
He  made  himself  master  of  the  Spartan  capital,  razed 
the  walls,  put  to  death  the  prominent  men,  and  abolished 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  For  these  acts  of  severity  he  was 
censured  by  the  Roman  senate.  In  an  attempt  to  reduce 
Messene  to  allegiance  by  arms,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Messenians,  and  compelled  to  drink  poison,  in 
182  B.C.  He  has  been  styled  the  last  of  the  Greeks. 
His  memory  was  cherished  with  great  veneration.  Ac 
cording  to  Pausanias,  "  Miltiades  was  the  first,  and  Phi- 
loposmen  the  last,  benefactor  to  the  whole  of  Greece." 

See  Pr.uTARCH,  "Lives:"  POLYBIUS,  "History." 

Phi-lop'o-iius,  ( JOAN N us,)  [Gr.  'luawrjs  6  4>i/l6-ovof,] 
surnamed  GKAMMAT'ICUS,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
whose  reputation  was  greater  than  his  merit.  His  name 
is  chiefly  memorable  for  his  connection  with  the  capture 
of  Alexandria  by  Amroo,  639  A.D.  It  is  reported  that 
he  requested  the  victor  to  grant  him  the  great  library 
of  that  city,  and  that  his  request  was  refused. 

Philostorge.     See  PHILOSTORGIUS. 

Plul-o-stor'gl-us,  [Gr.  <bihoaT6pyu)£ ;  Fr.  PHILO 
STORGE,  fe'io'stoRzh',]  an  Arian  writer,  born  in  Cappa- 
clocia  about  360  A.D.  He  wrote  an  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  period  from  300  to  425  A. I).,  which  is  lost.  An 
extract  from  it  is  preserved  in  a  work  of  Photius. 

Philostrat  and  Philostra.     See  PHILOSTRATUS. 

Phl-los'tra-tus,  [Gr.  4^/WCTrparof ;  Fr.  PHILOSTRATE, 
fe'lo'stutt';  Ger.  PHILOSTRAT,  fee'los-tRat,]  (FLAVIUS,) 
a  Greek  biographer,  born  in  Lemnos  about  175  or  180 
A.D.  lie  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  taught 
rhetoric  in  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus.  At  the  re 
quest  of  the  empress,  Julia  Domna,  he  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana."  This  work,  which  has  exercised 
the  ingenuity  of  many  commentators,  was  printed  in 
1502.  Among  his  extant  works  are  "The  Lives  of  the 
Sophists,"  and  a  description  of  a  collection  of  paintings, 
which  displays  richness  of  fancy  and  beauty  of  style.  He 
was  alive  in  the  reign  of  Philip,  (244-249  A.D.) 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  FAHRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca 
Gra;ca ;"  REHKUES,  "  Ueber  den  Jiingern  Philostrat,"  etc.,  1800; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Philostratus  THE  LK.MNIAN,  a  Sophist,  born  about 
190  A.D.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  the  Philos 
tratus  noticed  above,  who  was  his  friend  and  praises 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y>  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  mo5n; 


PHILOT4S 


1 79 1 


PHORMION 


his  rhetorical  skill.  Suidas  ascribes  to  him  a  work  called 
EiKovaz. 

Phi-lo'tas,  [Gr.  4>t?,&;raf,]  a  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  a  son  of  Parmenio.  He  commanded  the 
Macedonian  cavalry,  or  royal  guards,  in  the  expedition 
against  Persia,  and  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  the  king. 
Plutarch  extols  his  valour  and  generosity,  but  adds  that 
"the  loftiness  of  his  port  was  altogether  extravagant." 
He  received  information  of  a  plot  against  Alexander,  but 
neglected  to  mention  it.  His  enemy  Craterus  used  this 
circumstance  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  king.  Phi- 
lotas  was  tortured  until  he  confessed  his  complicity,  and 
was  put  to  death  in  330  B.C.  His  guilt  may  reasonably 
be  doubted. 

See  ARRIAN,  "Anabasis." 

Philotas,  a  physician  of  Amphissa,  in  Locris,  born 
about  50  or  60  n.c.  He  once  supped  with  Antyllus,  (a 
son  of  Antony,)  who  was  so  pleased  with  a  syllogism  of 
Philotas  that  he  gave  him  a  rich  present,  (30  B.C.) 

Fhl-lo'the-us,  [4>i/io#e6c,]  (CocciNUS,)  a  Greek  writer, 
was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1355.  He  had 
a  high  reputation,  and  wrote  a  number  of  works,  some 
of  which  have  been  printed.  Died  about  1373. 

Phll-o-ti'nius,  [$i/.oTi/Mf,]  an  eminent  Greek  phy 
sician,  who  lived  probably  about  300  B.C.,  was  a  con 
temporary  of  Herophilus.  His  works  are  mentioned 
by  Galen. 

Philoxene.     See  PHILOXENUS. 

Fhi-lox'e-nus,  [Gr.  <bi/M%Evof  ;  Fr.  PHILOXENE,  fe'- 
loks'in',]  an  eminent  Greek  dithyrambic  poet,  born  at 
Cythera  about  435  B.C.  He  passed  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  who  treated  him  with 
favour  and  afterwards  sent  him  to  prison.  His  chief 
poems  were  "Cyclops  or  Galatea,"  and  "The  Feast'' 
or  "  Dinner,"  (A«-iw,)  which  were  much  admired. 
Fragments  of  them  are  extant.  He  died  in  380  B.C. 

See  BERGI.EIN-,  "  De  Philoxeno  Cytherio  Poeta,"  1843;  KLING- 
ENDER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Philoxeno  Cytherio,"  1845. 

Fhiloxenus,  an  able  Greek  painter  of  Eretria,  was 
a  pupil  of  Nicomachus  of  Thebes.  He  was  noted  for 
rapidity  of  execution.  His  picture  of  a  battle  of  Alex 
ander  with  Darius  is  highly  praised  by  Pliny.  He  lived 
about  325  B.C. 

Philoxenus,  an  Egyptian  surgeon,  mentioned  by 
Celsus  as  the  author  of  several  valuable  works  on 
surgery.  He  probably  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 

Fhii'pot,  (JoHN,)  an  English  Protestant  minister, 
born  at  Compton,  was  tried  for  heresy,  and  burned  at 
Smithfield  in  1555.  He  left  several  works  on  theology. 

Philpotts,  (HENRY.)     See  PHILLPOTTS. 

Phinee.     See  PHINEUS. 


Phi'neus  or  Phin'e-us,  [Gr. 


Fr.  PHINEE, 


fe'na',]  a  blind  soothsayer  of  classic  mythology,  supposed 
to  be  a  son  of  Agenor,  (or  of  Neptune.)  According  to  the 
ancient  fabulists,  he  treated  his  children  with  extreme 
severity,  and  the  gods,  to  punish  him,  sent  the  Harpies, 
who  annoyed  him  exceedingly,  by  snatching  and  soiling 
his  food,  until  he  was  relieved  by  the  Argonauts.  In 
return  for  this  service,  he  gave  them  prophetic  counsel  to 
direct  them  in  their  enterprise.  The  story  of  Phineus 
is  related  with  much  variation  by  different  authors,  some 
of  whom  call  him  King  of  Salmydessus  in  Thrace. 
Pliiiitias.  See  DAMON. 

PhippS,  (CONSTANTINE.)      See  MULGRAVE. 
Phipps,  (CONSTANTINE  HENRY.)       See  NORMANBY. 

Phipps  or  Phips,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  American  ma 
gistrate,  born  in  Maine  in  1651,  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1692.  His  "  Life,"  by  Francis  Bowen, 
is  included  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  vol.  vii. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  against  Port  Royal,  which 
he  captured  in  1690.  Died  in  1695. 

See  COTTON  MATHER,  "Life  of  Sir  William  Phipps." 
Fhle'gcm,  [4>/£}"wv,]  a  chronologer,  born  at  Tralles,  in 
Lydia,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century.  He 
was  a  freedman  of  the  emperor  Hadrian.  His  most  im 
portant  work  is  called  'OAiyz-iovwcwv  KCU  xpovmtiv  owa- 
yuy??.  It  is  not  extant.  Saint  Jerome  cites  him  as  a  wit 
ness  to  confirm  the  gospel  narrative  in  relation  to  the 
miraculous  darkness  which  occurred  at  the  death  of 
Christ.  Phlegon  states  that  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 


2O2cl  Olympiad  there  was  a  great  eclipse  of  the  sun  at 
the  sixth  hour,  and  an  earthquake  in  Bithynia. 

Phlegyas,  flee'jejis,  [Gr.  Qteyuaf ;  Fr.  PHLEGYAS, 
fla'zhe'a',]  a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Mars,  a  king  of  the  Lapithas,  and  the  father  of  Coronis. 
Having  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Apollo,  he  was  killed 
and  doomed  to  a  severe  punishment  in  Tartarus. 

See  VIRGIL,  "^Eneid,"  book  vi.  618. 

Pho'cas,  [Gr.  <buK<ir,]  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  usurped 
the  empire  of  Constantinople  in  602  A.D.  He  waged 
war  against  Persia,  in  which  he  suffered  great  losses.  He 
rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelty,  and  was  deposed 
and  put  to  death  by  Heracli'us  in  610  A.D. 

Fhocion,  fo'she-on,  or  Phokion,  fo'ke-on,  [Gr. 
4>««o>v,]  an  Athenian  statesman  and  general,  born  about 
402  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of  Plato  and  Xenocrates.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  victory  of  Naxos,  in  376.  In  340  he  com 
manded  an  army  which  operated  with  success  against 
Philip  at  Byzantium.  He  opposed  Demosthenes  on  the 
question  of  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  was  the 
leader  of  the  conservative  or  aristocratic  party.  Accord 
ing  to  Plutarch,  he  was  elected  general  forty-five  times. 
In  his  speeches  he  was  remarkable  for  conciseness  and 
sententious  brevity.  Demosthenes  used  to  say,  when 
Phocion  arose  to  speak,  "  Here  comes  the  primer  of  my 


periods." 
Plutarch. 


Many  of  his  witty  sayings  are  recorded  by 
He  compared  the  speeches  of  a  certain  orator 


"to  cypress-trees,  which  are  high  and  stately,  but  bear 
no  fruit."  He  opposed  the  war  against  Antipater  in 
323  B.C.  Having  been  unjustly  condemned  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  popular  party  in 
317  B.C. 

"  The  influence  of  Phokion  as  a  public  adviser,"  says 
Grote,  "  during  the  period  embraced  in  this  volume  down 
to  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  was  eminently  mischievous 
to  Athens,  —  all  the  more  mischievous,  partly  (like  that 
of  Nikias)  from  the  respectability  of  his  personal  quali 
ties,  partly  because  he  espoused  and  sanctioned  the 
most  dangerous  infirmity  of  the  Athenian  mind."  ("  His 
tory  of  Greece,"  chap.  Ixxxvii.) 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  Life  of  Phocion  :"  CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  "Pho 
cion  ;"  DIODORUS  SICULUS.  books  xvi.-xviii.  ;  THIRLWALL,  "  History 
of  Greece  ;"  G.  LESS,  "  Res  a  Phocione  in  Republica  Atheniensi 
gestas,"  1787;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pho-gyl'i-des  [QuKv?d6w]  OF  MILETUS,  a  Greek 
poet,  who  flourished  about  540  B.C.  He  wrote  didactic 
and  elegiac  poems,  of  which  small  fragments  are  extant. 

Phcebe,  fee'be,  [Gr.  Qoify;  Fr.  PHEK.E,  fa'ba',]  a  sur 
name  of  ARTEMIS  or  DIANA,  goddess  of  the  moon.  (See 
DIANA.) 

Fkoebidas,  feb'e-das,  [Gr.  4>oii5«5ac,]  a  Spartan  gene 
ral,  who  commanded  in  the  Olynthian  war,  (382  B.C.) 
He  seized  by  treachery  the  Cadmeia  of  Thebes.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Thebans  about  378  B.C. 

Phoebus,  fee'bus,  [Gr.  4>oZSof  ;  Fr.  PHEBUS,  fa'biis',] 
a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  Apollo  as  god  of  the 
sun.  (See  APOLLO.) 

Fhcenix,  fee'niks,  [Gr.  <^O'LVL~;  Fr.  PHENIX,  fa'neks',] 
a  mythological  personage,  whom  tradition  represents  as 
King  of  the  Dolopes,  and  preceptor  of  Achilles,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  the  siege  of  Troy.  The  invention 
of  the  alphabet  was  ascribed  to  him. 

Phcenix,  [Gr.  4>om£,]  a  son  of  Agenor,  and  brother 
of  Cadmus.  It  was  fabled  that  he  went  to  Africa  to 
search  for  his  sister  Europa,  and  settled  in  a  country 
which  was  from  him  called  Phoenicia. 

Phceiiix  is  also  the  name  of  a  fabulous  bird,  cele 
brated  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Orientals.  Accord 
ing  to  one  tradition,  it  attained  the  age  of  five  hundred 
years  or  more,  and  burned  itself  on  a  funeral  pile,  from 
the  ashes  of  which  another  Phoenix  arose. 

Phokion.     See  PHOCION. 

Phor'sys  or  Phor'cus,  [Gr.  4>6p/o>f  or  4>6pKoc,]  the 
old  man  of  the  sea,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to 
be  the  father  of  the  Gorgons,  the  Grzeae,  and  the  Hes- 
perides.  The  first  and  second  of  these  were  called 
PHOR'CYDES  or  PHOR'CIDES,  [Gr.  4«op/«<5ec.] 


Phor'mi-on,  [Gr. 


an  able  Athenian  general, 


who  blockaded  Potidaea  in  432  B.C.  He  gained  a  deci 
sive  victory  over  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  near  Xaupactus, 
in  429.  Died  in  428  B.C. 


«  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHORMION 


1792 


PHTSICK 


Phormion  OF  EPHESUS,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
who  is  said  to  have  excited  the  disgust  of  Hannibal  by 
discoursing  in  his  presence  for  several  hours  on  the 
military  art. 

Phoronee.    See  PHORONEUS. 

Pho-ro'neus,  [Gr.  <bopuvevs ;  Fr.  PHORONEE,  fo'ro'- 
na',]  a  son  of  Inachus,  and  a  king  of  Argolis,  was  the 
father  of  Agenor,  Pelasgiis,  and  Niobe.  According  to 
tradition,  he  discovered  the  use  of  fire. 

Photius,  fo'she-us,  [Gr.  •twrtof,]  an  ambitious  and 
highly-gifted  Byzantine  prelate  and  writer,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family  probably  at  Constantinople.  He  was  a 
man  of  sound  judgment  and  of  profound  and  various 
erudition.  After  he  had  held  several  high  civil  offices, 
he  was  proto-secretarius  under  Michael  III.  He  be 
came  in  857  or  858  A.D.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
place  of  Ignatius,  who  was  deposed  by  Bardas.  The 
cause  of  Ignatius  was  supported  by  Pope  Nicholas,  who 
anathematized  Photius  in  862  or  863.  A  council  as 
sembled  by  Photius  excommunicated  the  pope,  and  thus 
originated  the  great  schism  between  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Churches.  In  867  the  emperor  Basil  I.  ban 
ished  Photius  and  restored  Ignatius,  whose  rights  were 
confirmed  by  an  oecumenical  council  in  869.  Photius 
gained  the  favour  of  Basil,  and  on  the  death  of  Igna 
tius,  in  877,  was  restored  to  his  see,  and  was  recognized 
by  the  pope,  John  VIII.  A  dispute  about  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  Bulgaria,  however,  revived  the  schism  between 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  Photius  was  banished 
by  the  emperor  Leo  VI.  in  886  A.D.,  and  died  in  exile  a 
few  years  later.  He  is  treated  with  more  favour  by  Prot 
estant  writers  than  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author.  His  most  important  work,  "  Myrio- 
biblion,  sen  Bibliotheca,"  is  a  review  or  critical  analysis 
of  ancient  Greek  authors,  and  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  precious  monuments  of  ancient  literature.  He  also 
left  a  Greek  Lexicon,  which  was  published  in  1808. 

See  KLOSE,  "  Geschichte  und  Lelire  des  Marcellus  mid  Photius," 
1837;  LE  BEAU,  "Histoire  du  Bas- Empire ;"  J.  G.  PHII.IPPI, 
"  Commentatio  de  Photio,"  1699;  CH.  FAUCHER,  '•  Histoire  de  Pho 
tius,"  7762;  MAULTROT,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Ignace  et  de  Photius," 
1791;  FONTANI,  "De  Photio  Novae  Romas  Episcopo ;"  JAEGER, 
"  Histoire  de  Photius,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Phraates.     See  ARSACES. 

Phra-a'tes,  King  of  Parthia,  a  son  of  Orodes,  began 
to  reign  in  37  Ji.c.  He  restored  to  Augustus  in  20  B.C. 
the  prisoners  and  ensigns  taken  from  Crassus  in  53  li.c. 

Phrad'mon  [^pw^uv]  OF  ARGOS,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  lived  about  425  B.C.  He  produced  an  Amazon  for 
the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  in  competition  with 
other  eminent  artists,  several  of  whom  were  more  suc 
cessful  than  he  in  this  trial  of  skill. 

Phran'za  or  Phran'zei,  [Gr.  4>pavr^7)  or  Qpavr&K,] 
the  last  Byzantine  historian,  was  born  in  1401.  He 
served  the  emperor  Constantino  XIII.  as  a  diplomatist 
and  soldier,  and  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 
He  wrote  a  "  Chronicon,"  or  History,  of  the  period  from 
1260  to  1477,  which  is  highly  prized. 

Phra-or'tes,  [Gr.  4>pa6pr7?f,]  King  of  Media,  reigned 
from  656  to  634  B.C.  He  conquered  Persia  and  other 
parts  of  Asia.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Nineveh, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cyaxares. 

Phreas  or  Freas,  frees,  ?  (JOHN,)  a  learned  English 
man,  born  in  London,  studied  medicine  under  Guarini 
at  Ferrara.  He  produced  some  translations  and  poems. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1465. 

Phry-gil'lus,  a  very  ancient  and  celebrated  engraver 
of  precious  stones,  was  probably  a  native  or  citizen  of 
Syracuse. 

Phry'iie,  [<I>pt>W7,]  an  Athenian  courtesan,  born  at 
Thespiae,  in  Boeotia,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
She  was  the  model  of  the  statues  of  Venus  produced 
by  Praxiteles. 

Phryn'i-ehus,  [4>piw^oc,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
was  a  disciple  of  Thespis.  He  exhibited  a  play  in  511 
B.C.,  and  made  important  improvements  in  the  drama. 
He  introduced  masks  representing  females,  but  admitted 
only  one  actor.  The  chorus  retained  the  principal  place 
in  his  dramas.  He  gained  a  prize  in  476  B.C.  for  his 
"  Phoenician  Women."  His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  K.  O.  MULI.ER,  "History 
of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  J.  G.  DROYSEN,  "Phrynichos, 
^Eschylos  und  die  Trilogie,"  1841. 


Phrymchus,  a  distinguished  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  old  comedy,  flourished  about  430  B.C.  His  vigour 
and  elegance  are  attested  by  the  small  fragments  of  his 
works  which  are  extant. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  MEINEKE,  "  Fragmenta 
Comicorum  Grascorum." 

Phrymchus,  an  Athenian  general,  had  a  high  com 
mand  in  412  B.C.  He  co-operated  with  Theramenes 
and  Antiphon  in  the  revolution  by  which  the  Four 
Hundred  came  into  power,  in  411  B.C. 

Phrynichus,  a  Greek  grammarian,  (called  ARRHA- 
BIUS  by  Photius,)  lived  about  180  A.D.  He  wrote 
"  Eclogues  of  Attic  Names  and  Verbs,"  ("  Eclogaj 
Nominum  et  Verborum  Atticorum,")  in  which  he  taught 
the  use  of  words  as  sanctioned  by  writers  of  the  pure 
Attic  diction.  This  work  has  been  printed. 

Phryn'nis  [Gr.  4>pwwf|  or  Phry'nis,  an  eminent 
dithyrambic  poet,  born  at  Mitylene,  lived  about  425  B.C. 

Phul  or  Pul,  King  of  Assyria,  reigned  from  759  to 
742  B.C.  Menahem,  King  of  Israel,  was  tributary  to  him. 

See  II.  Kings  xv.  19. 

Phull,  fool,  (KARL  Lumvic,)  BARON,  born  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  Russian 
service,  and  was  the  author  of  several  military  works. 
Died  in  1826. 

Phy-lar'ehus,  [Gr.  <bitiapx<>£ ;  Fr.  PHYLARQUE,  fe'- 
Ituk',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Athens  or  Naucratis, 
in  Egypt,  lived  about  215  B.C.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Greece  from  272  to  220  B.C.,  of  which  only  fragments  are 
extant.  His  style  was  graphic  and  animated.  Plutarch's 
lives  of  Cleomenes  and  Agis  are  said  to  be  copied,  or 
taken  without  much  change,  from  Phylarchus. 

See  J.  F.  TIIOMS,  "  Dissertatio  de  Phylarchi  Vita  et  Scriptis," 
'835  ;  Voss,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Phylarque.     See  PHYLARCHUS. 

Phyl'lis,  [Gr.  4>ivl/l/f,|  in  classic  mythology,  a  daugh 
ter  of  Sithon,  King  of  Thrace,  was  betrothed  to  Demo- 
phoon,  a  son  of  Theseus.  The  poets  feigned  that  she 
killed  herself  because  he  failed  to  come  at  the  appointed 
time,  and  she  was  changed  into  an  almond-tree. 

Phy-rom'a-ehus,  [fctyjo^a^oc,  ]  an  able  Athenian 
sculptor,  lived  about  410  B.C.  He  made  the  bas-reliefs 
on  the  frieze  of  the  temple  Athena  Polias.  He  is  prob 
ably  the  same  as  the  Pyromachus  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

Phys'ick,  (PHILIP  SING,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  American  surgeons,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1768. 
His  father,  Edmund  Physick,  was  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  under  the  colonial  government  of  Pennsylvania,  and, 
after  the  Revolution,  had  charge  of  the  estates  of  the 
Penn  family.  In  1785  he  took  the  degree  of  A. B.  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Soon  after,  he  commenced 
the  study  of  medicine  under  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn.  It  is 
said  that  the  first  time  he  witnessed  the  amputation  of  a 
limb  he  fainted,  and  was  obliged  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
room  ;  but  he  afterwards  succeeded  so  completely  in 
conquering  this  weakness  of  the  nerves  as  to  equal,  if 
not  surpass,  any  other  surgeon  of  his  time  in  steadiness 
of  hand  and  perfect  self-possession  while  performing 
an  important  operation.  During  his  attendance  at  the 
Philadelphia  College  of  Medicine,  he  had  for  his  in 
structors  Dr.  Shippen  and  Dr.  Rush,  who,  with  Dr. 
Kuhn,  were  lecturers  in  that  institution.  Early  in  the 
year  1789  Mr.  Edmund  Physick,  accompanied  by  his 
son,  visited  London,  where  the  young  student  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  celebrated  John  Hunter,  by  whose 
recommendation  he  was  subsequently  appointed  to  the 
post  of  house-surgeon  at  Saint  George's  Hospital.  In 
one  of  Hunter's  papers  he  compliments  Dr.  Physick  on 
the  accuracy  of  some  physiological  experiments  which 
he  had  performed  while  house-surgeon  at  the  hospital ; 
and  such  were  the  esteem  and  confidence  which  the  great 
anatomist  entertained  for  him  that  he  actually  invited 
him,  we  are  told,  to  remain  in  London  and  take  a  share 
in  his  own  extensive  professional  business.  But  this 
offer  Dr.  Physick  thought  proper  to  decline.  Having 
in  1791  received  his  license  from  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  in  London,  he  repaired  to  Edinburgh,  where 
he  attended  the  medical  lectures  of  the  University,  and 
in  May,  1792,  took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine. 
He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  September  of  the  same 
year.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  faithful  atten- 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


PIA 


1793 


PIC  ART 


tion  to  his  professional  duties  during  the  frightful  mor 
tality  caused  by  the  yellow  fever  in  1793.  The  alarm 
was  so  great  on  that  occasion  that  not  only  nearly  all 
the  citizens,  who  had  it  in  their  power  to  go  away,  fled 
from  the  city,  but  many  of  the  physicians  left  also.  Dr. 
Physick  himself  had  an  attack  of  fever ;  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  comparatively  light.  In  1798  he  received 
a  flattering  testimonial  to  his  courage  and  faithfulness 
during  the  epidemic*  of  that  and  preceding  years,  from 
the  managers  of  the  Marine  and  City  Hospitals,  ac 
companied  by  a  present  of  plate  valued  at  more  than 
a  thousand  dollars.  In  1800  he  commenced,  in  Phila 
delphia,  a  course  of  lectures  on  surgery,  which  were 
continued  for  several  years.  His  success  induced  the 
trustees  of  the  University  to  establish  a  professorship 
of  surgery  in  the  medical  department  of  that  institution, 
and  to  appoint  Dr.  Physick  to  the  new  chair.  In  1819 
he  was  transferred  from  the  chair  of  surgery  to  that  of 
anatomy,  made  vacant  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Dorsey.  lie 
resigned  this  position  in  1831  ;  and  the  trustees  of  the 
University,  on  accepting  his  resignation,  unanimously 
elected  him  "  Emeritus  professor  of  surgery  and  anat 
omy."  In  1825  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Royal  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the 
first  American  who  received  this  honour.  He  closed 
his  long  and  useful  life  on  the  I5th  of  December,  1837. 
He  had  married  in  1800  Miss  Emlen,  of  Burlington,  by 
whom  he  had  four  children. 

See  GROSS,  "Medical  Biography,"  pp.  351-459:  "  Memoir  of  Dr. 
Physick,"  by  his  son-in-law,  DR.  JACOB  RANDOLPH  ;  "  Necrological 
Notice  of  Dr.  Physick,"  by  DR.  WM.  E.  HOKNER;  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. 

Fia,  pe't',  (PHILIPPE  NICOLAS,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1721.  He  introduced  reforms  in  public 
hygiene,  and  invented  methods  or  apparatus  for  restoring 
the  drowned.  Died  in  1799. 

Piacentini,  pe-a-chen-tee'nee,  (DiONisio  GREGORIO,) 
an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Viterbo  in  1684.  He  pub 
lished  an  "Epitome  of  Greek  Palaeography,"  (1735.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Piacentino.     See  PLACENTINUS. 

Piacenza,  DUKE  OF.    See  LEHRUN,  (CHARLES  FR.) 

Piali  Pasha,  pe-a'lee  pa'sha',  an  admiral,  born  in 
Hungary  about  1520.  He  became  capudan  pasha  in 
the  service  of  the  Sultan,  who  sent  him  in  1555  to  aid 
Francis  I.  of  France.  He  gained  in  1560  a  decisive  vic 
tory  over  the  fleet  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  his  allies. 
In  1570  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  Selim  II.  sent 
against  Cyprus.  Died  in  1571. 

Piarron.     See  CHAMOUSSET,  DE. 

Piazza,  pe-dt'sa,  (ANDREA,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Castelfranco ;  died,  at  an  advanced  age, 
in  1670. 

Piazza,  (CALISTO,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
called  CALISTO  DA  LODI,  was  born  at  Lodi.  He  was 
a  pupil  and  successful  imitator  of  Titian,  and  was  a 
good  colorist.  His  works  are  dated  1524-56.  He  ex 
celled  in  fresco.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Mar 
riage  at  Cana,"  a  fresco  at  Milan. 

See  LAXZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  RIDOLFI,  "  Vite  degli 
Pitton  Veneti." 

Piazza,  (GIROLAMO  BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  Prot 
estant,  who  taught  French  and  Italian  at  Cambridge, 
England,  and  published  "  An  Account  of  the  Inqui 
sition,"  (1722.)  Died  about  1745. 

Piazza,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Castel 
franco  in  1557.  He  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Ru 
dolph  II.  and  by  Pope  Paul  V.  Having  become  a 
monk,  he  took  the  name  of  COSIMO.  Died  in  1621. 

Piazza,  (VINCENZO,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1670.  Among  his  works  is  the 
"Capture  of  Bona,"  ("Bona  espugnata,"  1694.)  Died 
at  Parma  in  1745. 

Fiazzetta^pe-at-set'ta,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  dis 
tinguished  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1682.  He  was 
skilful  in  chiaro-oscuro.  His  master-piece  is  "  The  Be 
heading  of  John  the  Baptist."  The  shades  of  his  pictures 
have  become  too  dark,  from  the  effect  of  time.  Died 
in  1754. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


*  Yellow  fever. 


Fiazzi,  pe-at'see,  (JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  astronomer, 
born  at  Ponte,  in  the  Valtelline,  Switzerland,  in  July, 
1746.  He  entered  the  monastic  order  of  Theatms,  and 
studied  under  Tiraboschi  and  Lesueur.  In  1780  he 
became  professor  of  the  higher  mathematics  at  Palermo, 
where  he  founded  an  observatory.  He  visited  Paris 
and  London  in  1787  and  1788.  In  1803  he  published  a 
"Catalogue  of  Fixed  Stars,"  which  obtained  for  him  a 
high  reputation  as  an  accurate  observer.  He  discovered, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1801,  the  first  of  the  asteroids,  or 
small  planets,  whose  orbit  is  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  He  gave  it  the  name  of  Ceres.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Discourse  on  Astronomy,"  (1790.)  He 
became  director  of  an  observatory  at  Naples  in  1817. 
Died  at  Naples  in  1826. 

See  SCROFANI,  "Elogio  del  Piazzi,"  1826;  TIPALDO,  "Biografia 
degli  Italian!  illustri,"  vol.  i. 

Pibrac,  de,  deh  pe'buik',  [Lat.  PIBRA'CHIUS,]  (Gui 
du  Faur — dii  foR,)  SEIGNEUR,  a  French  poet,  orator, 
and  lawyer,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1529.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1562,  and  obtained  the  office  of  president  a  mor- 
tier  in  1577.  He  wrote  a  popular  poem  called  "Fifty 
Quatrains,  containing  Useful  Precepts,"  etc.,  (1574,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1584. 

See  PASCHAL,  "Vidi  Fabricii  Pibrachii  Vita,"  1584;  LEPINE  na 
GRAINVILLE  and  L'AflBE  SEPHER,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Pi 
brac,"  1761  ;  MAYER,  "Discours  historique  et  critique  sur  Pibrac," 
1778:  DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pibrachius.     See  PIBRAC. 

Pic  de  la  Mirandole.     See  Pico. 

Picard,  pe'kf  R',  (ERNEST,)  a  French  advocate  and 
radical  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislative  body  by  the  voters  of  Paris  in  1858,  in 
1863,  and  in  1869.  He  became  minister  of  finance  Sep 
tember  4,  1870. 

Ficard,  (JEAN,)  an  eminent  French  astronomer,  born 
at  La  Fleche,  July  21,  1620.  He  was  a  priest  and  prior 
of  Ville,  in  Anjou,  when  he  observed  with  Gassendi 
the  solar  eclipse  of  August  25,  1645.  He  succeeded 
Gassendi  as  professor  in  the  College  de  France  in  1655. 
He  was  the  first  who  applied  the  telescope  to  the  meas 
urement  of  angles,  and  was  the  inventor  of  the  lunette 
d'eprenve.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  the  transit  in 
strument.  His  most  important  work  was  the  measure 
ment  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  of  Paris  between  Amiens 
and  Malvoisine  in  1669-70,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account, 
entitled  "La  Mesure  de  la  Terre,"  (1671.)  "When  he 
had,"  says  Delambre,  "so  good  reason  to  regard  himself 
as  the  first  astronomer  of  France,  and  even  of  Europe, 
he  used  his  influence  with  Colbert  to  attract  to  France 
Cassini,  whose  reputation  was  already  established." 
Died  in  1682. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  filoge  de  Picard;"  ARAGO,  "Notices  bio- 
graphiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  DELAMBRE,  "  Histoire  de  1'Astronomie 
moderne." 

Picard,  (Louis  BENOfr,)  a  popular  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  produced  in  1792  a  comic 
opera  called  "  Visitandines,"  which  had  great  success. 
Among  his  popular  comedies,  in  verse,  are  "The  Col 
lege  Friends,"  ("Les  Amis  de  College,"  1795,)  "Ordi 
nary  and  Mean,"  ("Mediocre  et  Rampant,"  1797,)  and 
"  The  Ambitious  Husband."  He  wrote  dramas,  in  prose, 
entitled  "The  Small  Town,"  ("La  petite  Ville,"  1801.) 
and  "The  Puppets,"  ("Les  Marionnettes,"  1805.)  In 
1807  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  He 
delineates  the  manners  of  his  time  with  much  success, 
and  displays  a  rich  fund  of  witty  sallies.  Died  in  1828. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ficart,  pe'ktR',  (BENOIT,)  a  French  historical  writer 
and  monk,  born  at  Toul  in  1663.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  City  and  Diocese  of  Toul,"  (1707,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1720. 

Picart,  (BERNARD,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1673.  He  had  a  talent  for  the  imi 
tation  of  various  masters,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation. 
Having  removed  to  Amsterdam  in  1710,  he  worked  for 
the  booksellers,  and  lapsed  into  a  degenerate  manner. 
He  engraved  after  his  own  designs,  and  after  Poussin, 
Le  Brun,  and  others.  Died  in  1733. 


«  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


•  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PIC  ART 


1794 


P'ICHON 


Picart,  (firiENNE,)  an  eminent  engraver,  called  LE 
ROMAIN,  born  in  Paris  in  1631,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  worked  some  years  at  Rome,  and  settled 
at  Amsterdam  in  1710.  His  works,  which  consist  of 
portraits  and  history,  display  more  firmness  than  har 
mony.  Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1721. 

Piccart,  pik'kaRt,  (MICHAEL,)  a  learned  German 
philologist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1574. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Altdorf.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Political  Works  of  Aristotle,"  (1615,)  which  is  com 
mended.  Died  in  1620. 

Picchena,  pek-ka'na,  (CURZio,)  an  Italian  philolo 
gist,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1550.  He  published  a 
good  edition  of  Tacitus,  (1607.)  Died  in  1629. 

Piccini,  pet-chee'nee,  (Luici,)  a  musician  and  com 
poser,  born  at  Naples  in  1766,  was  a  son  of  Niccolo.  He 
composed  operas  which  obtained  little  success.  He  was 
chapel-master  to  the  King  of  Sweden  from  1796  to  1801. 
Died  in  1827. 

Piccini,  pet-chee'nee,  or  Picciniai,  pet-cheen'nee, 
(NiccoiA)  a  popular  Italian  composer,  born  at  Bari,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1728.  He  studied  under  Leo  and 
Durante  at  Naples.  His  serious  opera  "Zenobia"  (1756) 
obtained  a  complete  success.  His  reputation  was  widely 
extended  by  the  comic  opera  "  Good  Little  Daughter," 
("La  buona  Figliuola,"  1760,)  which  some  consider  his 
master-piece.  In  1776  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he 
produced  the  operas  of  "  Roland,"  (1778,)  "  Atys,"  etc. 
A  great  commotion  and  wordy  warfare  was  raised  by 
the  rivalry  between  Piccini  and  Gluck.  The  French 
literati  and  the  general  public  were  divided  into  two  par 
ties,  the  Piccinists  and  the  Gluckists.  Piccini  became 
singing-master  to  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  about 
1780.  He  returned  to  Naples  in  1791.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  are  "  Olimpiade,"  and  the  French 
opera  of  "Didon,"  (1783.)  Died  at  Passy,  near  Paris, 
in  1800. 

See  GINGUENE\  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Piccinni," 
iSoo;  FETIS.  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Piccinino,  pet-che-nee'no,  (Niccoi,6,)  an  able  Ital 
ian  general,  born  at  Perugia  in  1375.  He  served  some 
years  under  Braccio  da  Montone.  In  1425  he  entered 
the  service  of  Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  of  Milan,  to  whom 
he  remained  loyal  to  his  death.  He  defeated  Carmagnola 
and  the  Venetians  in  1431,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Florentines  and  Venetians  near  Imola  in  1434. 
Died  in  1444. 

See  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Piccinni.     See  PICCINI. 

Piccinni,  pet-cheen'nee,?  (ALEXANDRE,)  a  French 
composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1779,  was  a  grandson  of 
Niccolo  Piccini,  noticed  above. 

Piccolo-mini.     See  Pius  II. 

Piccolomini,  pek-ko-lom'e-nee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  prelate,  eminent  for  learning,  was 
born  at  Sienna  in  1508.  He  was  the  first  who  wrote  on 
philosophy  in  the  Italian  language.  In  1574  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Patras.  Among  his  works  are 
a  treatise  "On  the  Sphere  of  the  World,"  (1540,)  and 
"Commentaries  on  Aristotle,"  (1575.)  Died  in  1578. 

See  FABIANI,  "Vita  di  Piccolomini,"  1749. 

Piccolomini,  (ALFONSO,)  Duke  of  Monte  Marciano, 
an  Italian  condottiere,  born  about  1550.  He  was  the 
leader  of  an  army  of  brigands.  In  1581  he  defeated 
the  army  of  the  pope.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  hung,  in  1591. 

Piccolomini,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born 
at  Sienna  in  1520,  was  a  professor  of  philosophy.  He 
wrote  "  Universal  Philosophy  of  Morals,"  etc.,  ("  Uni- 
versa  Philosophia  de  Moribus,"  etc.,  1583,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1604. 

Piccolomini,  (GiACOMO,)  a  cardinal,  whose  proper 
name  was  AMMANATI,  was  born  near  Lucca  in  1422. 
He  left  "Commentaries  and  Epistles,"  ("  Commentarii 
«t  Epistolse,"  1506.)  Died  in  1479. 

Piccolomini,  (MARIA,)  an  Italian  operatic  singer, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1835.  She  performed  in  London 
about  1856,  and  in  Paris.  In  1861  she  married  and  re 
tired  from  the  stage. 


Piccolomini,  (OTTAVIO,)  an  Austrian  general,  of 
Italian  origin,  was  born  in  1599.  He  led  a  regiment  at 
the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in  1632,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
agents  in  the  conspiracy  which  procured  the  ruin  of 
Wallenstein.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Nord- 
lingen,  (1634,)  and  was  defeated  by  Torstenson  in  Silesia 
in  1641  or  1642.  In  1643  he  entered  the  service  of 
Spain,  and  obtained  the  chief  command  in  Flanders. 
He  became  a  field-marshal  of  the  Austrian  army  in  1648. 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1656. 

See  CRASSO,  "  Elogii  di  Capitani  ilhistri ;"  SCHILLER,  "  History 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  and  his  tragedy  of  "  Wallenstein." 

Pichat,  pe'shS',  (LEON  LAURENT,)  a  French  poet, 
critic,  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  became 
in  1854  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "  Revue  de  Paris," 
which  was  suppressed  by  government  in  1858.  Among 
his  works  are  political  verses  entitled  "  Free  Words," 
("Libres  Paroles,"  1847,)  and  "La  Paienne,"  a  novel, 
(1857.) 

Pichat,  (MICHEL,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Vienne  in  1786.  Among  his  works  is  "Leonidas,"  a 
drama,  (1825.)  Died  in  1828. 

Pichegru,  pesh'gRoo  or  pesh'gRii',  (CHARLES,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Arbois  (Jura)  in  1761.  He  en 
tered  the  army  in  1783,  and  became  a  zealous  partisan  of 
the  Revolution  in  1789.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1793,  and  obtained  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine  in  October  of  that  year.  About  the  end 
of  the  same  year  he  became  general-in-chief  of  the  united 
armies  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle.  He  was  a  favour 
ite  of  the  Jacobins  at  this  period.  In  February,  1794, 
he  succeeded  Jourdan  as  commander  of  the  army  of 
the  North,  with  which,  by  rapid  and  skilful  movements, 
he  gained  advantages  at  Cassel,  Courtrai,  and  Menin. 
In  the  winter  of  1794-95  ne  crossed  the  Waal  on  the 
ice  and  reduced  Holland  to  submission.  Having  taken 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  1795,  he  incurred 
suspicion  of  treason,  and  was  superseded  by  Moreau  in 
1796.  He  continued  to  intrigue  against  the  Directory, 
by  which  he  was  transported  to  Cayenne  in  September, 
1797;  but  he  escaped  from  that  place  in  1798.  lie  con 
spired  with  Cadoudal  and  others  against  Bonaparte,  and 
was  arrested  by  the  police  in  Paris  in  February,  1804. 
Before  his  trial  was  finished,  he  was  found  dead  in  prison, 
in  April,  1804. 

See  COUSIN  D'AVALLON,  "  Histoire  du  General  Pichegru,"  1801  ; 
FAUCHE-BOREI.,  "Notices  sur  Pichegru  et  Moreau,"  1807;  GAS 
SIER,  "Viedu  General  Pichegru,"  1814;  SAVARY,  Due  DE  ROVIGO, 
"Memoires  sur  la  Mort  de  Pichegru,"  1825;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pichler,  plK'ler,  (CAROLINE,)  originally  named  VON 
GREINER,  (fongRi'ner,)  a  popular  German  novelist,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1769.  She  was  married  in  1796  to  Andreas 
Pichler,  and  in  1802  produced  "  Idyllen."  She  illustrated 
the  salutary  influence  of  Christianity  in  "  Agathocles," 
a  novel,  (1808,)  which  was  much  admired.  In  1814 
she  published  "The  Count  von  Hohenburg,"  the  first 
of  numerous  historical  novels,  the  subjects  of  which 
are  taken  from  the  national  history.  Among  her  later 
works  are  "Pictures  of  the  Times,"  ("  Zeitbilder,"  2 
vols.,  1840,)  and  "Memoirs  of  my  Life,"  (4  vols.,  1844.) 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843. 

Pichler  or  Pikler,  (JOHANN,)  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1734,  and  was  probably  the  most 
skilful  engraver  of  gems  of  his  time.  He  lived  at  Rome, 
and  engraved  several  pictures  after  Raphael.  Among 
his  works  are  many  portraits  of  modern  persons,  of  which 
the  resemblance  was  the  least  merit.  He  was  also  a 
painter.  Died  at  Rome  in  1791. 

See  JEAN  GERARD  DE  Rossi,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  J.  Pikler," 
Rome,  1792. 

Pichler,  (JOHANN  ANTON,)  a  celebrated  engraver  of 
gems,  born  at  Brixen,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1697.  He  worked 
at  Naples  and  Rome.  Died  in  1779. 

Pichon,  pe'shiN',  (  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  )  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Sorreze 
(Tarn)  in  1805.  He  received  a  first  medal  (for  history) 
in  1846. 

Pichon,  (THOMAS,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Vire 
in  1700.  He  was  the  second  husband  of  Madame  Le 
Prince  de  Beaumont.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PICHON 


«795 


PICTET 


Natural  and  Civil  History  of  Cape  Breton,"  (  1760.) 
Died  in  1781. 

Pichon,  (THOMAS  JEAN,)  a  French  writer  and  priest, 
born  at  Mans  in  1731  ;  died  in  1812. 

Pichot,  pe'sho',  (AMEDEE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Aries  in  1796.  He  became  in  1843  chief  editor  of  the 
"Revue  Britannique."  Among  his  works  are  "Travels 
in  England,"  (1825,)  and  a  "Chronicle  of  Charles  V.," 

(1853-) 

Pick'en,  (ANDREW,)  a  Scottish  writer  of  fiction,  born 
at  Paisley  in  1788.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Domi 
nie's  Legacy."  Died  in  1833. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Pick 'ens,  (ANDREW,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  at  Paxton,  Pennsylvania,  in  1739.  He 
co-operated  with  General  Marion  in  his  partisan  warfare 
against  the  British,  and  commanded  the  militia  at  the 
battle  of  Cowpens.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1794.  Died  in  1817. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 


Pickens,  (FRANCIS  W.,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Saint  Paul's  parish,  South  Carolina,  in 
1807.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1834  to 
1844.  He  was  appointed  in  1857  minister  to  Russia, 
and  in  December,  1860,  was  elected  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  for  two  years. 

Pick'er-ing,  (CHARLES,)  M.D.,  an  American  natu 
ralist,  a  grandson  of  Timothy  Pickering,  was  born  in 
Susquehanna  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1805.  Having 
travelled  in  India  and  Eastern  Africa,  he  published,  after 
his  return,  the  "  Races  of  Man  and  their  Geographical 
Distribution,"  (1848,)  and  "Geographical  Distribution 
of  Animals  and  Man,"  (1854.) 

Pickering,  (JoHN,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1777,  was  a 
son  of  Timothy  Pickering.  He  was  the  founder  and 
first  president  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and 
president  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci 
ences.  He  published  a  "  Greek-and-English  Lexicon," 
(1826,)  "Remarks  on  the  Indian  Languages  of  North 
America,"  (1836,)  and  "Vocabulary  of  Americanisms." 
Died  in  1846. 

Pickering,  (TIMOTHY,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  171)1  of  July,  1745.  lie 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1763,  studied  law,  and 
became  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  1775.  In  the 
autumn  of  1776  he  joined  the  army  of  Washington  as 
colonel.  He  was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  1777, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  Ger- 
mantown,  October,  1777.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  board  of  war  by  Congress  in  November,  1777,  and 
quartermaster-general  in  August,  1/80,  as  successor  to 
General  Greene.  He  performed  the  arduous  duties  of 
this  office  until  1785.  During  the  Revolution  he  kept 
a  journal  of  public  events.  He  was  identified  with  the 
Federal  party,  and  was  appointed  postmaster-general 
by  Washington  in  August,  1791,  and  secretary  of  war  in 
January,  1794.  In  December,  1795,  he  became  secre 
tary  or  state.  He  was  continued  in  the  department 
of  state  by  President  Adams,  but  did  not  obtain  his 
confidence  or  approve  his  measures.  He  was  removed 
from  that  office  in  May,  1800,  and  settled  on  a  farm 
which  was  situated  near  Salem,  and  which  he  cultivated 
with  his  own  hands.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in 
1803,  and  continued  to  serve  in  the  Senate  until  iSil. 
From  1814  to  1817  he  was  a  member  of  the  national 
House  of  Representatives.  He  had  a  fair  reputation 
for  ability  and  moral  character.  He  died  at  Salem  in 
January,  1829,  leaving  several  sons. 

See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Timothy  Pickering,"  by  his  son 
OCTAVIUS,  2  vols.,  1867  ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin 
guished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Pick'ers-gilL,  (FREDERICK  RICHARD,)  an  eminent 
painter  of  history,  born  in  London  in  1820.  He  gained 
a  prize  of  one  hundred  pounds  for  his  ''Death  of  King 
Lear."  (1843,)  and  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds  for 
his  "  Burial  of  Harold,"  (1847,)  which  was  purchased  for 
the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade 


mician  in  1857.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  Samson 
Betrayed,"  (1850.) 

Fickersgill,  (!!ENRY  WILLIAM,)  an  English  por 
trait-painter,  born  about  1782.  He  painted  many  emi 
nent  authors,  statesmen,  etc.,  and  won  a  high  reputation. 
He  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1825.  Died  in  1861. 

Pick'ett,  (ALHERT  JAMES,)  an  American  writer,  born 
in  Anson  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1810,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  Alabama,"  (1851.)  Died  in  1858. 

Pico  della  Mirandola,  pee'ko  del'la  me-ran'do-li, 
[Fr.  Pic  DE  LA  MIRANDOLE,  pek  deli  It  me'iS-Vdol',] 
(GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  philosopher,  born 
in  1463.  He  had  a  prodigious  memory  and  great  learn 
ing,  but  was  rather  superficial  as  a  thinker.  He  offered 
to  dispute  at  Rome  with  all  comers  on  a  great  number 
of  theses,  "  On  all  Things  that  may  be  known,"  ("  De 
Omni  Re  Scibili,")  to  which  Voltaire  added  "and  Some 
Things  besides,"  ("  et  de  Quibusdam  aliis.")  Died  in 
1494.  He  left  several  works  on  theology,  etc. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Pico  della  Mirandola,"  by  his  nephew,  GIOVANNI 
FRANCESCO  DELLA  MIRANDOLA;  NICEROX,  "Memoires;"  GIN- 
GUENE,  "Histoiie  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biocraphie 
Generale." 

Pico  (orPicus)  della  Mirandola,  (GIOVANNI  FRAN 
CESCO,)  PRINCE,  an  Italian  writer,  nephew  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  about  1469.  He  wrote  several  work:; 
on  theology,  and  a  "Life  of  Savonarola,"  (1530.)  Died 
in  1533. 

Picot,  pe'ko',  (FRANCOIS  SDOUARD,)  a  French  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  gained  a  first 
medal  in  1819.  The  palaces  of  the  Louvre  and  of  Ver 
sailles  contain  some  of  his  works. 

Picot,  pe'ko',  (JEAN,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  in  1777. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  history  at  Geneva. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Gauls,"  (3  vols.,  1804,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Geneva,"  (3  vols.,  1811.) 

Picot,  ( MICHEL  JOSEPH  PIERRE,)  a  French  writer, 
born  near  Orleans  in  1770.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Memoir  contributory  to  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1806.) 
Died  in  1841.  He  wrote  many  articles  for  the  "Bio 
graphic  Universelle." 

Picot,  (PIERRE,)  a  Swiss  writer,  and  professor  of  the 
ology,  born  at  Geneva  in  1746,  was  the  father  of  Jean, 
noticed  above.  He  published  "  On  the  Manifold  Utility 
of  Mountains,"  ("  De  multiplici  Montium  Utilitate,"  1790,) 
and  Sermons,  (1823.)  Died  in  1822. 

Pictet,  pek'ti',  (BENEDICT,)  an  eloquent  Swiss  Prot 
estant  minister,  born  at  Geneva  in  1655.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Geneva  in  1702,  and  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1714.  His  principal  works 
are  "Christian  Morality," (8  vols.,  1695-98,)  "  Theologia 
Christiana,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Church 
and  the  World  in  the  Eleventh  Century,"  (1712.)  Died 
at  Geneva  in  1724. 

See  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Pictet,  (FRANC.OIS  JULES,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Geneva  about  1790.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
and  zoology  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Itinerary  to  the  Valleys  around  Mont  Blanc,"  (1818; 
3d  edition,  1840,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Palaeontology,"  (4 
vols.,  1845.) 

Pictet,  (JEAN  Louis,)  an  astronomer,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1739-  He  was  employed  by  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  Siberia, 
and  wrote  "  Observations  on  the  Transit  of  Venus  in 
1769."  Died  at  Geneva  in  1781. 

Pictet,  (MARC  AUGUSTE,)  a  Swiss  natural  philoso 
pher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1752,  was  a  brother  of  Charles, 
(de  Rochemont,)  noticed  below.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Saussure,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  philosophy 
in  1786.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "Essay 
on  Fire,  (or  Heat,")  (1791,)  and  "Travels  in  England 
and  Scotland,"  (1803.)  He  founded  in  1796  a  periodical 
entitled  "  Bibliotheque  Britannique,"  and  changed  the 
name  in  1816  to  "  Bibliotheque  Universelle,"  which  still 
exists.  He  gave  special  attention  to  meteorology.  Died 
in  1825. 

See  VAUCHER,  "  Necrologie  de  M.  A.  Pictet,"  1825. 

Pictet  de  Rochemont,  pek'ti'  deh  rosh'moN', 
(CHARLES,)  a  Swiss  rural  economist,  born  at  Geneva  in 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Mi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PICTON 


1796 


PJERQUIN 


1755.  As  envoy-extraordinary,  he  attended  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  in  1814,  and  that  of  Paris  in  1815.  lie  wrote 
a  "  Picture  of  the  Present  Condition  of  the  United  States 
of  America,"  (1796,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Agriculture." 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  Univer- 
selle."  Died  in  1824. 

Pic'tpn,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Pembrokeshire  about  1758.  lie  served  with  distinction 
in  Spain,  at  Badajos,  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  Vitoria. 
Having  obtained  command  of  a  division,  he  was  killed 
at  Waterloo  in  1815. 

See  H.  B.  ROBINSON,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Thomas  Picton,"  1835. 

Pictor.     See  FABIUS  PICTOR. 

Ficumne.     See  PICUMNUS. 

Pl-cum'nus  and  Pi-luni'nus,  [Fr.  PICUMNE,  pe'- 
kiimn',  and  PILUMNE,  pe'Iiimn',]  two  Roman  or  Latin 
gods  of  matrimony,  were  regarded  as  brothers.  To  Pi- 
cumnus  was  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  ma 
nuring  land. 

Fi'cus,  [Gr.  TliKOf,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Latium  and 
prophetic  divinity,  was  represented  as  a  son  of  Saturn, 
the  husband  of  Caucus,  and  the  father  of  Faunus.  Ac 
cording  to  the  fable,  Circe  was  enamoured  of  him,  and 
changed  him  into  a  woodpecker  (picits)  because  her 
passion  was  not  requited. 

Picus  della  Mirandola.     See  Pico. 

Pidou  de  Samt-Olon,  pe'doo'  cleh  saNt'o'liN'', 
(FRANCOIS,)  a  French  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in 
Touraine  in  1646.  He  wrote  "An  Account  of  the  Em 
pire  of  Morocco,"  (1694.)  Died  in  1720. 

Piel,  pe'el',  (Louis  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Lisieux  in  1808.  He  restored  the  church  of 
Saint-Nicolas  at  Nantes,  and  other  churches,  and  wrote 
several  professional  works.  Died  in  1841. 

Fiemont,  pe'a'moN',  (NIKLAAS  OPGANG,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1659.  He 
worked  some  years  in  Rome.  Died  in  1709. 

Pierce,  perss  or  peerss,  (BENJAMIN,)  born  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1757,  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
in  1827  and  1829.  He  was  the  father  of  President 
Franklin  Pierce.  Died  in  1839. 

Pierce,  peerss,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  painter  of  his 
tory  and  portraits,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  I. 
and  Charles  II.  Died  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Pierce,  (FRANKLIN,)  the  fourteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Hillsborough,  New  Hamp 
shire,  on  the  23d  of  November,  1804.  He  was  a  son 
of  General  Benjamin  Pierce,  who  was  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine, 
in  1824,  studied  law  under  Levi  Woodbury,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827.  He  practised  first  at  Hills- 
borough.  In  1833  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
by  the  Democrats.  Having  been  re-elected,  he  served 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  until  1837,  and  in  that 
yer.r  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  New  Hampshire.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Concord  about  1838,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the 
Senate  in  1842,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
practice  of  law.  He  had  married  about  1834.  He 
favoured  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States, 
(1844-45,)  ancl  served  in  the  Mexican  war  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  (1846-47.) 

At  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  June,  1852, 
the  prominent  candidates  for  the  Presidency  were  Cass, 
Buchanan,  and  Douglas.  After  thirty-five  ballots  with 
out  decisive  result,  the  name  of  General  Pierce  was  pro 
posed,  and  he  was  nominated  on  the  forty-ninth  ballot. 
His  Whig  competitor  was  General  Winfield  Scott. 
General  Pierce  was  elected  President,  receiving  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  electoral  votes  out  of  two  hundred 
and  ninety-six,  which  was  the  whole  number.  He  ap 
pointed  W.  L.  Marcy  secretary  of  state,  James  Guthrie 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  Jefferson  Davis  secretary  of 
war,  Robert  McClelland  secretary  of  the  interior,  J. 
Dobbin  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  Caleb  Gushing  attor 
ney-general.  In  his  inaugural  address  he  denounced  the 
agitation  of  slavery.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
administration  were  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compro 
mise  and  the  passage  of  the  Nebraska-Kansas  bill,  which 
he  approved  and  signed  in  1854,  and  which  produced 


great  excitement  in  the  Free  States,  and  the  bombard 
ment  and  destruction  of  Greytown,  in  Central  America, 
(July,  1854,)  by  Captain  Hollins,  acting  under  the  in 
structions  of  the  United  States  Government.  In  August, 
1854,  Mr.  Pierce  directed  the  American  ambassadors,  J. 
Buchanan,  J.  Y.  Mason,  and  P.  Soule,  to  meet  in  some 
European  city  and  confer  on  the  best  means  of  acquiring 
Cuba.  They  met  at  Ostend  and  issued  a  document  called 
the  "  Ostend  Manifesto,"  the  purport  of  which  was  that  if 
Spain  would  not  sell  Cuba  the  Americans  would  take  it  by 
force.  He  used  his  official  influence  to  promote  the  de 
signs  of  the  pro-slavery  party  in  Kansas.  In  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  of  1856,  J.  Buchanan  and  Presi 
dent  Pierce  were  the  chief  competitors.  Pierce  received 
one  hundred  and  twenty-two  votes  on  the  first  ballot,  but 
failed  to  obtain  the  nomination.  He  retired  to  private 
life  in  March,  1857.  In  a  letter  to  his  friend  Jefferson 
Davis,  dated  January  6,  1860,  he  says,  "I  have  never 
believed  that  actual  disruption  of  the  Union  can  occur 
without  blood  ;  and  if,  through  the  madness  of  Northern 
abolitionists,  that  dire  calamity  must  come,  the  fighting 
will  not  be  along  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  merely.  It 
will  be  within  our  own  borders,  in  our  own  streets, 
between  the  two  classes  of  citizens  to  whom  I  have 
referred.  Those  who  defy  law  and  scout  constitutional 
obligations  will,  if  we  ever  reach  the  arbitrament  of 
arms,  find  occupation  enough  at  home."  He  delivered 
an  oration  at  Concord  in  the  summer  of  1863,  in  which 
he  opposed  the  coercion  of  the  seceded  States,  and 
called  Vallandigham  "that  noble  martyr  of  free  speech." 
Died  in  1869. 

See  N.  HAWTHORNE,  "Life  of  Franklin  Pierce,"  1852. 

Pierce,  (GEORGE  FOSTER,)  D.D.,  an  American  Meth 
odist  divine,  born  in  Greene  county,  Georgia,  in  1811. 
He  was  elected  president  of  Emory  College,  Georgia,  in 
1848,  and  in  1854  was  made  a  bishop. 

Pierer,  pee'rer,  (HEINRICH  AUGUST,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1794.  His  principal 
publication  was  the  "  Encyclopaedic  Dictionary,"  ("  En- 
cyklopadischen  Worterbuch,"  26  vols.,  1824,)  begun  by 
his  father.  A  fourth  edition  appeared  in  1857-65,  in 
nineteen  vols.,  under  the  title  of  "  Universal-Lexikon." 
Died  in  1850. 

Pierer,  (JoiiANN  FRIEDRICII,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Altenburg  in  1767.  He  founded  the  "General 
Annals  of  Medicine."  Died  in  1832. 

Pi-er'I-des,  [Gr.  Uispldec  ;  Fr.  PIERIDES,  pe'a'red',] 
a  surname  of  the  Muses,  which  they  received  because 
they  were  born  in  Plena. 

Pierino  del  Vaga.     See  PERINO. 

Piermarini,  pe-eR-ma-ree'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  emi 
nent  Italian  architect,  born  at  Foligno  in  1734.  He  be 
came  architect  to  the  Archduke  of  Milan  in  1769.  He 
designed  at  Milan  many  grant!  public  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  magnificent  theatre  Della  Scala,  the  Monte 
di  Pieta,  the  Porta  Orientale,  and  the  imposing  fa9ade 
of  the  Palazzo  Belgiojoso.  Died  in  1808. 

See  TIPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Pieron,  pe'a'riN',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE  RENE,)  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Arras  in  1793,  was  a  liberal 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1834  to  1848. 

Pierpoiit,  peer'pftnt,  (JOHN,)  an  American  poet  and 
Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in 
April,  1785.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1804, 
and  afterwards  studied  law,  which,  however,  he  soon 
abandoned.  He  published  in  1816  his  "Airs  of  Pales 
tine,"  which  immediately  established  his  reputation.  In 
the  same  year  he  studied  theology  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1819  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Hollis  Street  Church, 
Boston.  In  1835  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  also 
visiting  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Mr.  Pierpont  was 
a  prominent  advocate  of  temperance,  anti-slavery,  and 
other  reforms.  In  1845  ne  became  minister  of  the 
Unitarian  church  of  Medford.  "Many  of  his  hymns, 
odes,  and  other  brief  poems,"  says  Griswold,  "are 
remarkably  spirited  and  melodious."  Died  in  1866. 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOI.D,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1840;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for 
December,  1866. 

Pierquin,  pe^aiR'kaN1',  QEAN,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Charleville  in  1672  ;  died  in  1742. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PIEROUIN 


1797 


PIGOROF 


Pierquin  de  Gembloux,  pe-aiR'kaN'  deli  zhoN'- 
bloo',  (CLAUDE  CHARLES,)  a  French  antiquary  and  mis 
cellaneous  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1798.  He  has 
written  many  works  on  French  antiquities,  medicine, 
philology,  and  other  subjects. 

Pierre,  pe-aiR',  QEAN  BAPTISTE  MARIE,)  a  French 
painter,  who  was  born  in  Paris  in  1713.  He  became 
first  painter  to  the  king  in  1770.  He  was  remarkable 
for  facility.  Died  in  1789. 

Pierre,  the  French  for  PETER,  which  see. 

Pierre,  SAINT.     See  SAINT-PIERRE. 

Pierre  d'Auvergne,     See  AUVERGNE,  n'. 

Pierre  de  Montereau,  pe-a.iR  deh  moNt'ro',  a  French 
architect,  was  patronized  by  Louis  IX.,  for  whom  he 
built  La  Sainte-Chapelle,  (1248.)  His  works  are  mostly 
in  the  flamboyant  ogival  style.  Died  in  1266. 

Pierre  des  Vignes.     See  PIETRO  DELI.E  VIGNE. 

Pierron,  pe-i'ro.N-',  (EUGENE  ATHANASK,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  near  Meulan  in  1819. 

Pierron,  (PIERRE  ALEXIS,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born 
in  Ilaute-Saone  in  1814.  He  produced  a  version  of 
^ischylus,  (1841,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  French 
Academy,  and  a  version  of  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1843.) 

Pierrot,  pe-i'ro',  (Jui.ES  AMAKLE,)  a  French  classi 
cal  scholar,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  published 
a  "Course  of  French  Eloquence,"  (2  vols.,  1822.)  Died 
in  1845. 

Pierson,  peer'son,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  American  divine, 
and  first  president  of  Yale  College,  born  about  1648. 
He  preached  at  Killingworth  and  Saybrook.  Died  in 
1707. 

Pierson,  peea'son,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1631.  He  settkd  at  Gouda  in 
1679.  His  design  and  colour  are  commended.  He 
painted  history,  still  life,  dead  game,  etc.  with  success. 
Died  in  1714. 

Pierson,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  in  Friesland 
in  1631.  He  proposed  corrections  of  the  texts  of  Greek 
and  Latin  authors  in  "  Verisimilium  Libri  duo,"  (1752.) 
Died  in  1759. 

Pieters,  (BONAVENTURE.)     See  PETERS. 

Pieters,  pee'ters,  or  Peters,  pa'ters,  (GERAARD,)  an 
able  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1580.  He 
worked  at  Rome,  and  returned  to  his  native  city.  He 
painted  portraits,  conversation-pieces,  and  interiors. 

Pieters,  pee'ters,  (JACOB,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1648.  He  removed  to  England,  and  was 
employed  by  Kneller  to  paint  draperies  and  accessories 
of  portraits.  It  is  said  that  he  counterfeited  some  works 
of  Rubens  with  skill. 

Pietri,  pe-a'tRee,  (  PIETRO,  )  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  about  1665,  worked  in  Rome,  where  he 
died  in  1716. 

Pietro  da  Cortona.     See  CORTONA. 

Pietro  della  Francesca.     See  FRANCESCA. 

Pietro  delle  Vigne,  pe-a'tRo  del'la  ven'ya,  [Lat. 
PF/TRTS  DE  VIN'EIS;  Fr.  PIERRE  DES  VIGNES,  pe-aiR' 
di  ven,|  a  distinguished  Italian  minister  of  state,  was 
chancellor  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  Died  in  1249. 
His  "Letters,"  printed  in  1566,  have  some  historical 
value. 

Pieyre,  pe-aiu',  (PIERRE  ALEXANDRE, )  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1752.  He  composed  the 
"  School  for  Fathers,"  ("  Ecole  des  Peres,")  a  comedy, 
(1782.)  He  was  preceptor  of  the  Due  de  Chartres, 
(Louis  Philippe.)  Died  in  1830. 

Pigafetta,  pe-ga-fet'ta,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  voy 
ager  and  geographer,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1492.  He 
sailed  as  a  volunteer  with  the  expedition  of  Magellan, 
who  departed  from  Seville  in  August,  1519.  He  wit 
nessed  the  affray  in  which  Magellan  lost  his  life,  and 
wrote  a  daily  journal  of  this  voyage.  In  company  with 
Cano,  he  returned  to  Spain  in  1522,  having  performed  the 
first  voyage  around  the  world.  A  complete  copy  of  his 
narrative,  "  First  Voyage  around  the  World,"  ("  Primo 
Viaggio  intorno  al  Globo,")  was  found  by  Amoretti  at 
Milan,  and  was  published  in  1800.  An  abridgment,  in 
French,  had  been  published  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Pigafetta,  (FiLiPPO,)  an  Italian  traveller  and  military 
engineer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1533.  He  was  sent  by 
Sixtus  V.  to  Persia  to  negotiate  an  alliance  against  the 


Turks.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  History  and  Use 
of  the  Compass,"  (1586,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1603. 

Pigalle,  pe'gtl',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1714,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  B. 
Lcmoyne.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  to 
Paris  produced  a  statue  of  Mercury,  which  opened  to 
him  the  doors  of  the  Academy  in  1744.  He  was  pa 
tronized  by  Louis  XV.,  and  received  the  title  of  sculptor 
to  the  king.  His  master-piece  is  a  monumental  group 
in  honour  of  Marshal  Saxe  at  Strasbourg.  He  imitated 
nature  with  fidelity,  or,  as  some  say,  with  servility,  and 
had  the  sentiment  of  the  true  rather  than  of  the  beautiful. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  P.  TARBE,  "  La  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  J.  B.  Pigalle;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Pigaiiiol  de  la  Force,  pe'gt'ne-ol'  deh  IS  foRss, 
(JEAN  AIMAR,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Auvergne 
in  1673.  He  published  a  "  Historical  and  Geographical 
Description  of  France,"  (5  vols.,  1715,)  which  was  the 
best  work  on  that  subject,  and  other  works.  Died  in 

1753- 

Pigault-Lebrun,  pe'go'leh-bRuN',  originally  Pigault 
de  L'lSpmoy,  (deh  la'pe'nwa',)  (CHARLES  ANTOINE 
GUILLAUME,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born  at  Calais 
in  1753.  He  wrote  many  successful  novels,  among  which 
is  "The  Child  of  the  Carnival,"  ("  L'Enfant  du  Carna- 
val,"  1792.)  He  held  an  office  in  the  Custom- House, 
Paris,  from  1806  to  1824.  Parisot  calls  him  "the  most 
famous  romancer  of  the  imperial  epoch."  His  works 
display  much  fertility  of  imagination  and  an  abundant 
stock  of  gaiety.  Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pigeau,  pe'zho',  (EUSTACHE  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  near  Senlis  in  1750.  He  published  "  Intro 
duction  a  la  Procedure  civile,"  (1784;  5th  edition,  1833,) 
which  is  regarded  as  a  classic  work.  Died  in  1818. 

Pighius,  pee'ge-us,  (ALBERT,)  a  Dutch  Catholic  theo 
logian,  born  at  Kempen  about  1490,  was  the  author  of 
several  controversial  works  against  the  Protestants.  He 
also  wrote  on  mathematics.  Died  in  1542. 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Pighius,  (STEPHANUS  VINAND,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Kempen  in  1520,  was  a  nephew 
of  Albert.  He  was  librarian  to  Cardinal  Granvelle.  He 
published  a  work  of  great  research,  entitled  "  Roman 
Annals,"  ("Annales  Romanorum,"  1599-1615,)  in  3 
vols.,  only  one  of  which  was  published  during  his 
lifetime.  Died  in  1604. 

Pigna,  pen'ya,  (GiAMBATTlSTA,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1530.  He  wrote  "The 
Prince,"  ("II  Principe,"  1560,)  to  refute  the  famous 
work  of  Machiavel,  a  "  History  of  the  Princes  of  Este," 
(1570,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1575. 

Pignatelli.     See  INNOCENT  XII. 

Pignoiie,  pen-yd'na,  (Sl.MONE,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  about  1614.  He  was  a  good  colorist.  Among 
his  works  is  a  picture  of  "  Saint  Louis  of  France." 
Died  in  1698. 

Fignoria,  pen-yo're-a, (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  priest,  born  at  Padua  in  1571.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Egyptian  Characters,"  ( "Characteres 
^igyptii,"  1608,)  and  "The  Origin  of  Padua,"  (1655.) 
Died  in  1631. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Pignotti,  pen-yot'tee,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  historian, 
poet,  and  physician,  born  at  Figlini,  in  Tuscany,  in  1739. 
He  became  in  1774  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Pisa,  where  he  remained  many  years.  He  wrote  Fables 
in  verse,  (1779,)  which  were  received  with  much  favour. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Tuscany,  with  Essays 
on  Sciences,  Letters,  and  Arts,"  (9  vols.,  1813,)  which 
las  some  merit.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  the  Univer 
sity  of  Pisa  in  1809.  Died  in  1812. 

See  ALUOBRANDO  PAOUNI,  "  Elogio  storico-filosofico  di  Pignotti," 
1817  ;  TIPALDO,  "  Biogi-afia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Pigorof,  Pigorov,  or  Pigorow,  pee'go-rof,  (NICHO 
LAS,)  a  Russian  surgeon  and  medical  writer,  born  about 
1810.  He  became  chief  surgeon  to  a  military  hospital 
in  Saint  Petersburg. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


PIGOTT 


1798 


PIN^EUS 


Pig'ptt,  (Sir  ARTHUR,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1750.  Me  became  attorney-general  in  1805.  lie  was  a 
friend  of  Edmund  Burke.  Died  in  1819. 

Pigray,  pe'gui',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  surgeon,  who 
received  the  title  of  first  surgeon  to  Henry  IV.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  professional  works.  Died  in 
1613. 

Pus,  de,  deli  pe'ess',  (ANTOINE  PIERRE  AUGUSTIN,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  song-writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1755.  He  wrote  some  popular  vaudevilles,  etc.  Died 
in  1832. 

Pike,  (ALBERT,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  at  Boston  in  1809.  At  an  early  age  he  removed  to 
the  Southwest,  and  in  1834  became  editor  of  the  "Ar 
kansas  Advocate"  at  Little  Rock,  Arkansas.  He  has 
published  "  Prose  Sketches  and  Poems,"  "  Hymns  to  the 
Gods,"  etc.  He  commanded  a  body  of  Indians  fighting 
against  the  Union  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862. 

See  GRISWOI.D'S  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1839. 

Pike,  (ZEHULON  MONTGOMERY,)  an  American  officer 
and  traveller,  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1779.  He  set  out 
in  1805  to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
subsequently  visited  the  interior  of  Louisiana.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  war  of  1812,  and 
was  killed  during  the  attack  upon  York,  (now  Toronto,) 
in  1813. 

See  HKNRY  WHITING,  "Life  of  Zebulon  M.  Pike,"  in  SPARKS'S 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  v.,  second  series. 

Pikler.     See  PICHLER. 

Pilate,  (LEONCE.)     See  LEO  PILATUS. 

Pi'late,  (PONTIUS,  poi/she-us,)  (Lat.  PON'TIUS  PILA'- 
TUS  ;  Fr.  PONCE  PILATE,  p6\ss  pe'ltt',  a  Roman  governor 
of  Judea,  before  whom  Christ  was  arraigned  by  the  Jews, 
and  who,  against  his  own  convictions,  consented  to  their 
iniquitous  design.  (See  Matthew  xxvii.,  Mark  xv.,  Luke 
xxiii.,  John  xviii.  and  xix.)  According  to  Eusebius  and 
others,  Pilate  was  banished,  and  killed  himself,  about 
38  A.D. 

Pilati,  pe-la'tee,  (CARLO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  pub 
licist,  born  at  Tassulo,  near  Trent,  in  1733.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  natural  and  civil  law,  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  German  Empire  and  Italy  from  the  Time  of 
Carolingi  to  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (2  vols.,  1769-72.) 
Died  in  1802. 

Pilatre  de  Rozier,  pe'latu'  deh  ro'ze-i',  (JEAN 
FRANCOIS,)  a  French  aeronaut,  born  at  Metz  in  1756. 
He  ascended  in  a  balloon  filled  with  heated  air  in  No 
vember,  1783,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  Channel  in  a 
balloon  of  hydrogen  gas  surmounting  a  cylinder  filled 
with  heated  air.  This  apparatus  fell  to  the  ground  near 
Boulogne,  and  Pilatre  and  his  companion  were  killed,  in 
June,  1785. 

See  TOURNON  DE  LA  CHAPELLE,  "Vie  et  Memoires  de  Pilatre 
de  Rozier,"  1786. 

Pilatus.     See  PILATE,  (PONTIUS.) 

Piles,  de,  deh  pel,  (ROGER,)  a  French  painter,  diplo 
matist,  and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Clameci  (Nievre)  in 
1635.  He  went  with  Amelotcle  la  Houssaye  to  Venice, 
as  secretary  of  legation,  in  1682,  and  was  sent  to  the 
Hague  by  Louvois  about  1692,  to  negotiate  in  secret 
while  he  seemed  to  be  employed  in  painting.  He  wrote 
"The  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  (1699,)  and  several  treat 
ises  on  painting,  which  display  good  taste.  He  painted 
good  portraits  of  Boileau  and  Madame  Dacier.  Died 
ir.  1709. 

Pilk'iiig-ton,  (JAMES,)  born  in  Lancashire,  England, 
in  1520,  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1561,  and  pub 
lished  commentaries  on  Scripture.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  promoter  of  the  study  of  the  Greek  language.  Died 

i'1  1575- 

Filkmgton,  (LETITIA  VAN  LEW'IN,)  an  authoress, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1712,  was  the  wife  of  the  Rev.  Mat 
thew  Pilkington,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  poetry,  and 
"  Memoirs  of  her  own  Life,"  (1749.)  Died  in  1750. 

Pilkington,  (MARY,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Cambridge  in  1766  ;  died  about  1840. 

Pilkington,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  biblical  scholar, 
was  prebendary  of  Lichfield.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Rational  Concordance ;  or,  An  Index 
to  the  Bible,"  (1749.)  Died  in  1765. 


Pil'lans,  (JAMES,)  a  British  scholar,  born  at  Edin 
burgh  in  1777.  He  became  professor  of  humanity  in, 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1820,  and  filled  that 
chair  about  forty-three  years.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Proper  Objects  and 
Methods  of  Education,"  (1836,)  and  "Rationale  of  Dis 
cipline,"  (1852.)  Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1864. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1864. 

Pille,  pel,  (Louis  ANTOINE,)  COMTE,  a  French  gene 
ral,  born  at  Soissons  in  1749;  died  in  1828. 

Pillemeiit,  pe'ye-moN',  (|EAN,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1728;  died  in  1808.  His  son 
VICTOR,  born  at  Vienna  in  1767,  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  etcher.  Died  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Fillet,  pe'y.V,  (CLAUDE  MARIE,)  a  learned  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Chambery  in  1771.  lie  wrote  articles 
for  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  and  acted  as  chief 
editor  of  that  work  from  the  sixth  to  the  forty-fourth 
volume  inclusive.  He  devoted  fourteen  years  to  this 
task.  Died  in  1826. 

Fillet,  (FAKIEN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1772.  He  wrote  dramatical  critiques  for  the  "Journal 
de  Paris"  for  many  years,  articles  for  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1855. 

Pilliard,  pe'ye-aV,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Vienne  about  1815.  He  has  worked  in  Rome  for 
many  years. 

Pilloii,  pe'y6N',  (ANNE  ADRIEN  FIRMIN,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  wrote  comedies  and 
poems.  Died  in  1844. 

His  son,  ALEXANDRE  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  was  born  at 
Amiens  in  1792.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Louvre 
in  1858.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Greek-and-French 
Dictionary,"  (1837,)  and  "Greek  Synonyms,"  (1847,) 
which  obtained  the  Volney  prize. 

Pil'low,  (GIDEON  JOHNSON,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Williamson  county,  Tennessee,  in  1806.  As  brig 
adier-general,  he  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1847,)  alK'  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general. 
He  was  second  in  command  at  Fort  Donelson  when  it 
was  taken  by  General  Grant,  in  February,  1862. 

See  LIVINGSTON,  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Pilon,  pil'lon,  ?  (FREDERICK,)  a  mediocre  dramatist, 
born  in  Cork,  Ireland,  about  1750;  died  in  1788. 

Pilon,  pe'loN',  (GERMAIN,)  an  excellent  French  sculp 
tor,  born  about  1515,  was  patronized  by  Henry  II.  and 
Catherine  de  Meclicis.  His  master-piece  is  a  marble 
group  (now  in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre)  of  three  Graces 
clothed,  and  supporting  on  their  heads  a  gilded  bronze 
urn,  which  contained  the  heart  of  Henry  II.  He  excelled 
in  the  execution  of  drapery.  Died  about  1590. 

Pilot,  pe'lo',  (JEAN  JOSEPH  ANTOINE,)  a  French  anti 
quary,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1806. 

Filpay,  pil'pi  or  pil'pa'e,  Filpai,  or  Bidpai,  bid'pi,  a 
famous  Oriental  fabulist,  of  whom  little  is  known.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Brahman  gymnosophist,  and  to 
have  lived  several  centuries  before  our  era.  Bidpai's 
fables,  originally  written  in  Sanscrit,  were  translated 
into  Arabic  and  afterwards  into  almost  every  other  lan 
guage.  The  Sanscrit  collection  entitled  "  Hitopadesa" 
(i.e.  "  Friendly  Counsel")  was  translated  into  English  by 
Wilkins,  (1787.)  Several  European  fabulists,  including 
La  Fontaine,  have  drawn  largely  from  the  fables  of  Pilpay. 

Pils,  pel,  (ADRIEN  AUGUSTS  ISIDORE,)  a  French  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1813.  lie  gained  the 
grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1838.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
Battle  of  Alma." 

Pilumnus.     See  PICUMNUS. 

Pimeiitel,  pe-m£u-te'l/,  (MANOEL,)  a  Portuguese  geog 
rapher,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1650.  He  wrote  on  geography 
and  navigation.  Died  in  1719. 

Pin,  paN,  (ELZEAR,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Apt  (Vau- 
cluse)  in  1813.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1839. 

Pina,  de,  da  pee'ni,  (Ruv,)  an  eminent  Portuguese 
historian,  who  held  the  office  of  historiographer  in  the 
reigns  of  Emmanuel  and  John  III.  He  wrote  "Chroni 
cles  of  the  Reigns  of  Six  Kings,  from  Sancho  I.  to  Al- 
fonzo  IV.,  inclusive,"  which  were  published  after  his 
death.  Died  about  1520. 

Pinaeus.     See  PINEAU,  (SEVERIN.) 


a, e,  1, 5,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PINAIGRIER 


1799 


PINEDA 


Pinaigrier,  pe'nJ'gRg-i',  (ROBERT,)  a  French  painter 
on  glass,  was  born  in  Touraine  about  1490.  He  worked 
in  several  churches  of  Paris.  Died  about  1550. 

Pinas,  pee'nas,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes 
and  history,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1596.  He  painted 
landscapes  and  figures  with  equal  success.  His  colouring 
is  remarkably  vigorous.  Among  his  works  is  "Joseph 
Sold  by  his  Brethren."  Died  about  1660.  His  brother 
JAMES,  or  JACOB,  was  a  skilful  painter.  Died  in  1659. 

Pinciano,  pen-the-a'no,  (ALONZO  LOPEZ,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  who  lived  about  1480-1530,  was  physician  to  Charles 
V.  He  wrote  "  El  Pelayo,"  an  epic  poem,  and  "  Ancient 
Poetical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  antigua  poetica.") 

Finck'ney,  (CHARLES,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1758.  His  father  was 
a  first-cousin  of  Charles  C.  Pinckney.  The  subject  of 
this  article  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  1787. 
He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1789  to  1792, 
and  again  from  1796  to  1798.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature 
of  South  Carolina.  He  acted  with  the  Republican  party, 
and  was  an  eloquent  speaker.  He  was  minister  to  Spain 
from  1802  to  1805.  Died  in  1824. 

Pinckney,  (CHARLES  COTESWORTH,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  Feb 
ruary,  1746,  was  a  son  of  Chief  Justice  Pinckney.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford,  England,  and  studied  law.  He 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  at  the  battles  of 
Brandy  wine  and  Germantown,  September-October,  1777, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  October,  1779,  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Savannah.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Charleston  in  May,  1780,  and  detained  until 
the  end  of  the  war.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Conven 
tion  which  formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
(1787,)  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  same  in  the  Con 
vention  of  South  Carolina,  and  became  a  leader  of  the 
Federal  party.  General  Washington  offered  him  a  place 
in  his  cabinet,  in  1795,  as  secretary  of  war,  and  afterwards 
as  secretary  of  state,  both  of  which  positions  he  declined. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1796,  but  the 
French  Directory  refused  to  receive  him,  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  the  country  in  February,  1797.  He  after 
wards  returned  to  Paris  with  John  Marshall  and  E. 
Gerry,  who  had  been  appointed  his  colleagues  in  an 
embassy.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  about  1798. 
At  the  presidential  election  of  1800,  General  Pinckney 
and  John  Adams  were  the  Federal  candidates  ;  but  the 
Republicans  were  victorious.  He  died  at  Charleston 
in  1825. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Pinckney,  (HENRY  LAURENS,)  son  of  Charles  Pinck 
ney,  born  at  Charleston  in  1794,  distinguished  himself 
as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  He  became  in  1819  editor 
of  the  "Charleston  Mercury,"  an  organ  of  the  "State- 
rights"  party.  He  published  the  "  Life  and  Services  of 
Andrew  [ackson,"  and  several  political  works.  Died 
in  February,  1863. 

Pinckney,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  officer  and  states 
man,  brother  of  Charles  Cotesworth,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1750.  As  aide  of 
General  Lincoln,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  assault 
on  Savannah,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Camden, 
August,  1780.  He  became  Governor  of  South  Carolina 
in  1787,  and  was  appointed  by  Washington  minister  to 
London  in  1792.  Having  been  afterwards  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Spain,  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ildefonso, 
and  returned  in  1796.  Died  in  1828. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 


,  paN'soN'',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Montauban  in  1802.  He  published  a  "Manual 
of  Universal  Bibliography,"  (3  vols.,  1857.) 

Piii'dar,  [Gr.  IL'vcSapof  ;  Lat.  PIN'DARUS  ;  Fr.  PIN- 
DARE,  pax'diR'  ;  Ger.  PINDAR,  pin'dar,  and  PINDAROS, 
pin'da-ros  ;  It.  PINDARO,  pen'da-ro,|  the  greatest  lyric 
poet  of  Greece,  was  born  near  Thebes  about  520  B.C. 
He  was  a  son  of  Daiphantus,  or,  according  to  some 
writers,  of  Pagondas.  It  is  stated  that  he  studied  poetry 
and  music  at  Athens  under  Lasus,  and  that  he  was  a 


pupil  of  the  celebrated  Corinna,  who  advised  him  to 
choose  themes  for  his  muse  from  mythology.  He  after 
wards  composed  an  ode  in  which  all  the  mythical  legends 
of  Thebes  were  inwoven,  and  showed  it  to  Corinna,  who 
reminded  him  that  he  "  ought  to  sow  with  the  hand,  and 
not  with  the  whole  sack."  He  became  a  professional 
composer  of  choral  odes,  and  was  employed  by  various 
states  and  princes  of  Greece  to  write  odes  for  special 
occasions.  Among  his  patrons  were  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
Theron  of  Agrigentum,  and  Alexander  of  Macedon. 
About  473  B.C.  he  visited  the  court  of  Hiero,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  His  rival  Simonides  was  at  Syra 
cuse  at  the  same  time.  Pindar  was  a  favourite  of  the 
Athenians,  whose  city  he  praised  in  an  ode,  and  who 
presented  to  him  ten  thousand  drachma.  He  appears  to 
have  taken  no  part  in  the  Persian  war  and  other  great 
events  of  his  time.  The  only  poems  of  Pindar  which 
have  come  down  to  us  entire  are  the  "Epinicia,"  or 
triumphal  odes  composed  in  honour  of  victors  at  the 
public  games.  Fragments  of  his  dithyrambs,  pseans, 
encomia,  and  dirges  are  extant.  Horace  attributes  to 
Pindar  unrivalled  skill  in  several  forms  of  verse.  The 
best  translations  of  Pindar  into  English  verse  are  those 
of  H.  F.  Gary  and  Abraham  Moore.  Pindar  excelled  in 
energy,  picturesque  effect,  and  sublimity.  He  had  a  son 
Daiphantus,  and  two  daughters.  His  death  is  variously 
dated  at  439  or  442  B.C. 

See  J.  G.  SCHNEIDER,  "  Versuch  u'ber  Pindar's  Leben,"  1774: 
MOMMSEM,  "Pindaros,  zur  Geschichte  des  Dichters,"  etc.,  1845; 
VII.I.EMAIN,  "  Essai  sur  le  Genie  de  Pindare,"  1857  ;  K  O.  MULLHR, 
"History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  W.  CAMENZ, 
"  Pindari  Ingenium."  1804  ;  CLAUSEN,  "  Pindaros  der  Lyriker," 
1834;  BIPPARD,  "Pindar's  Leben,"  1848;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pindar,  (PETER.)     See  WOLCOTT,  (JOHN.) 

Pindare.     See  PINDAR. 

Pindar o.     See  PINDAR. 

Pindarus  or  Pindaros.     See  PINDAR. 

Piiidemonte,  pen-da-mon'ta,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Verona  in  1751,  produced  several 
tragedies.  Died  in  1812. 

Piiidemonte,  (IPPOLITO,)  an  Italian  poet  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Verona  in  November,  1753,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  entered  the  order  of  Malta 
in  his  youth,  but  resigned  his  membership  about  the  age 
of  thirty.  He  described  the  delights  of  the  country  in 
poems  entitled  "Rural  Poems,"  ("  Poesie  campestri," 
1785,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  exhibited 
a  contemplative  and  ingenious  philosophy  in  his  "Rural 
Prose,"  ("Prose  campestri,"  1795.)  About  1805  he 
published  a  volume  of  Horatian  satires,  entitled  "  Ser- 
nioni."  His  translation  of  the  "Odyssey,"  in  blank 
verse,  (1809-22,)  is  commended.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Foscolo  and  Monti.  Among  his  works  is  "Eulogies 
of  Literary  Men,"  ("  Elogj  di  Letterati,"  2  vols.,  1826,) 
which  contains  biographies  of  Italian  authors.  Died  at 
Verona  in  1828. 

See  MARIO  FIERI,  "  Intorno  alia  Vita  ed  agli  Scritti  di  Pinde- 
monte,"  in  his  "Elogj  di  Letterati."  1826;  B.  MONTANAKI,  "Delia 
Vita  e  delle  Opere  d'Ippolito  Pindemonte,"  1834:  DEI.  BKNE, 
"  Elogio  d'l.  Pindemonte,"  1829  ;  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1825. 

Pindemonte,  (MARCO  ANTONIO,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1694,  was  grandfather  of  the 
preceding.  Died  in  1744. 

Pine,  (JoiiN,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born  in  1690. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Herace.  illustrated,  (1737.) 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Destruction  of  the  Invincible 
Armada."  Died  in  1756. 

Pine,  (ROBERT  EDGE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  about  1742,  and  was  a  painter  of  history 
and  portraits.  A  picture  of  "Canute  on  the  Sea-Shore" 
is  one  of  his  best  works.  Died  at  Philadelphia  in  1790. 

Pineau,  pe'nS',  [Lat.  PIN^E'US,]  (SEVERIN,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Chartres.  He  wrote  some  works  on 
anatomy,  which  had  a  high  reputation.  Died  in  1619. 

Pineau,  du,  clii  pe'no',  [Lat.  PINEL'LUS,]  (GABRIEL,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1573.  He  was  noted 
for  integrity,  and  was  called  "  the  Cato  of  Anjou."  Died 
in  1644. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Pineda,  de,  da  pe-na'Da,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  theolo 
gian,  born  at  Seville  in  1557,  was  a  monk  or  Jesuit.  He 


«  ask;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


PINEL 


1800 


PINTO 


was  a  counsellor  to  the  court  of  the  Inquisition,  and  was 
charged  to  search  out  dangerous  or  unsound  books  in 
the  libraries  of  Spain.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Scripture,  and  a  "Universal  History,"  (5  vols.,  1620.) 
Died  in  1637. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 
Pinel,  pe'nel',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  distinguished  French 
physician,  born  in  the  department  of  Tarn  in  1745.  He 
published  in  1791  a  "  Treatise  on  Mental  Alienation," 
which  promoted  a  reform  in  the  treatment  of  the  Insane. 
He  became  in  1 793  chief  physician  of  the  Bicetre  of  Paris, 
and  was  successful  in  the  treatment  of  insanity  by  sub 
stituting  kindness  for  harshness.  His  most  remarkable 
work  is  "  Philosophical  Nosography,"  ("  La  Nosogra- 
phie  philosophique,"  2  vols.,  1798;  6th  edition,  1818.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1803.  Died  in 
1826. 

See  CUVIER,  "filoge  de  Pinel:"  G.  DUPUYTREN,  "Notice  stir 
Pinel,"  1826;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Pinelli,  pe-nel'lee,  (  BARTOLOMMEO,  )  an  eminent 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rome  about  1780.  He 
etched  many  plates  representing  scenery  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rome,  events  in  the  history  of  ancient  Rome,  and 
Roman  costumes.  He  left  designs  which  were  highly 
prized.  Among  his  publications  is  "  Istoria  degli  Im- 
peratori,"  (1829.)  Died  in  1835. 

See  F'.  GERARDI,  "Biografia  di  B.  Pinelli,"  1835;  C.  FALCONIERI, 
"  Memoria  intorno  aila  Vita  di  B.  Pinelli,"  1835. 

Pinelli,  (GiAN  VINCENZO,)  an  Italian  patron  of  learn 
ing  and  bibliophile,  born  at  Naples  in  1535.  His  house 
at  Padua  was  a  rendezvous  of  the  learned  men  of  all 
countries.  He  was  a  diligent  collector  of  books  and 
manuscripts.  Died  in  1601. 

See  PAOLO  GUAI.DO,  "Vita  J.  V.  Pinelli,"  Augsburg,  1607. 

Pinelli,  (LucA,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Melfi. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works,  which  were  popular. 
Died  in  1607. 

Pinelli,  (MAFFEO,)  an  Italian  bibliophile,  born  at 
Venice  in  1736.  He  collected  medals  and  pictures,  and 
formed  a  rich  library,  of  which  Abbe  Morelli  made  a 
catalogue,  (in  6  vols.,  1787.)  His  library  was  sold  at 
auction  in  London  in  1790.  Died  in  1785. 

Pinellus.     See  PINEAU,  (GABRIEL.) 

Pinelo,  y,  e  pe-na'lo,  (ANTONIO  DE  LEON,)  a  Span 
ish  writer,  born  in  Peru.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Epitome  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Nautical 
and  Geographical  Library,"  ("Epitome  de  la  Bibliotheca 
oriental  y  occidental  nautica  y  geografica,"  1629.)  Died 
about  1675. 

Pinet,  Du.    See  DUPINET. 

Pineton  de  Chambrun,  pen't6.\''  deh  shSN'bRuN', 
(JACQUES,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Orange, 
was  exiled  about  1685.  He  died  in  London  in  1689. 

Pingel,  ping'el,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish  naturalist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1793.  He  contributed  many 
memoirs  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

Pingeron,  paNzh'roN7',  (JEAN  CLAUDE,)  a  French 
translator,  born  at  Lyons  about  1730.  He  translated, 
from  the  Italian,  Milizia's  "  Lives  of  the  Architects," 
(1771,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1795. 

Pingre,  paN'gRa',  (ALEXANDRE  GUI,)  a  distinguished 
French  astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  1711.  He  began 
to  study  astronomy  about  the  age  of  thirty-eight.  His 
observation  of  the  transit  of  Mercury  in  1753  procured 
his  nomination  as  correspondent  of  the  Academy.  In 
1760  he  was  sent  to  the  island  of  Rodrigo  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Venus,  (1761.)  His  most  important  work 
is  "  Cometography,  or  a  Historical  and  Theoretical 
Treatise  on  Comets,"  (1783.)  Died  in  1796. 

See  VENTENAT,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  d'A.  G.  Pingre","  1796. 

Pinheiro-Ferreira,  pen-ya'e-ro  fe>-ra^-ra,  (SiLVF.s- 
TRE,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  borrT'in  Lisbon  in  1769.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works  in  French,  "  Principles  of 
Public  Law,"  (3  vols.,  1834.)  Died  in  1847. 

Pini,  pee'nee,  (ERMENEGILDO,)  an  Italian  naturalist, 
born  at  Milan  about  1740.  He  was  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Milan,  (1772-1812.)  He  wrote  treatises  on 
mineralogy,  geology,  and  natural  history.  Died  in  1825. 

Pink'er-toii,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  historian,  poet,  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1758.  He  became  a 


resident  of  London  about  1780,  and  published  a  volume 
of  verses,  entitled  "Rimes,"  in  1781.  In  1784  he  pro 
duced  an  "Essay  on  Medals,"  which  was  well  received. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  the  publication  of  "An 
cient  Scottish  Poems  never  before  in  Print,"  etc.,  (2 
vols.,  1786.)  He  published  an  ingenious  "Dissertation 
on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Scythians  or  Goths" 
in  1787.  Among  his  other  works  are  a  "History  of 
Scotland  from  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  .Stuart  to 
that  of  Mary,"  (2  vols.,  1797,)  and  "Modern  Geography 
Digested  after  a  New  Plan,"  (2  vols.,  1802,)  both  of 
which  have  some  merit.  He  is  censured  for  his  arro 
gance  and  his  enmity  to  religion.  Died  at  Paris  in  1826. 
See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1797. 

Pink'ney,  (EDWARD  COATE,)  son  of  William  Pink- 
ney,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in  1802.  He 
published  in  1825  "  Rodolph,  and  other  Poems."  Died 
in  1828. 

See  GRISWOI.D,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 
Piiikney,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer 
and  orator,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in  March, 
1764.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786,  and  repre 
sented  a  district  of  Maryland  in  Congress  from  1789  to 
1792.  In  1796  he  was  sent  to  London  as  a  commissioner 
under  Jay's  treaty.  He  remained  in  London  about  eight 
years,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  England  in  1806. 
Having  returned  home  in  1811,  he  settled  in  Balti 
more.  He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States 
from  December,  1811,  to  February,  1814,  was  appointed 
minister  to  Russia  in  1816,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1819.  He  advo 
cated  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  the  Senate  in  1820. 
He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents,  and  was  generally 
considered  the  foremost  American  lawyer  of  his  time. 
His  wife  was  a  sister  of  Commodore  Rodgers.  He 
died  in  February,  1822. 


Pino,  pee'no,  (DOMENICO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  gen 
eral,  born  at  Milan  in  1760.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  as  general  of  division  in  Germany,  Spain,  and 
Russia,  (1805-13.)  Died  in  1826. 

Pino,  da,  da  pee'no,  (MARCO,)  an  able  Italian  painter, 
sometimes  called  MARCO  DA  SIENNA.  He  worked  many 
years  at  Naples,  where  he  settled  about  1560.  Among 
his  chief  works  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 

Pinon,  pe'no.N',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
writer  of  Latin  poetry,  wrote  "  On  the  Roman  Year," 
("  De  Anno  Romano,")  and  other  poems.  Died,  at  an 
advanced  age,  in  1641. 

Pins,  de,  deh  paN,  [Lat.  PI'NUS,]  QEAN,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1470,  became  Bishop 
of  Rieux  in  1523.  He  wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  a  number 
of  epigrams,  and  "On  Court  Life,"  ("  De  Vita  anlica.") 
His  style  was  praised  by  Erasmus,  who  said,  "  Potest 
inter  Tullianae  dictionis  competitores  numerari  Johannes 
Pinus."  As  ambassador  to  Venice  and  Rome,  about 
1520,  he  displayed  superior  diplomatic  talents.  Died 


See  CHARDON,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  Pfiloge  de  J.  de  Pins," 
1748- 

Pinson,  paNxs6N',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Valence  about  1640,  worked  many 
years  in  Italy. 

Piiisson,  paN'sdiV,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Bourges  about  1612;  died  in  1691. 

Pintelli,  pen-tel'Iee,  (BACCio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  probably  at  Florence.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.,  who  reigned  from  1471  till  1484.  Among  his 
great  works  in  Rome  are  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Popolo,  the  Sistine  Chapel,  (in  which  Michael  Angelo 
painted  the  fresco  of  the  "Last  Judgment,")  the  church 
of  Saint  Augustine,  and  a  bridge  called  the  Ponte  Sisto. 
Died  about  1492. 

See  VASARI,"  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario." 

Pinto,  pen'to,  (  FERNAO  MENDEZ,  )  a  Portuguese 
traveller,  born  near  Coimbra  about  1510.  He  wrote  a 
marvellous  book  of  travels  in  India,  etc.,  (1614,)  which 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PINTO 


1801 


PIRKHEIMER 


was  translated  into  many  languages.  His  veracity  has 
often  l)een  questioned.  Died  in  1583. 

Pinto,  (HECTOR,)  a  Portuguese  monk  or  priest,  be 
came  professor  at  Coimbra  about  1570.  He  wrote  "  Pic 
ture  of  Christian  Life,"  ("  Imagem  da  Vida  Christam," 
1565.)  Died  in  1584. 

Pinto,  (ISAAC,)  a  Portuguese  Jew,  born  about  1715. 
He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Luxury,"  (1762,)  and  an  "  Apol 
ogy  for  the  Jews,"  (1762.)  He  died  at  the  Hague  in 
1787. 

Piutor,  pen-ton',  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1423  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1503. 

Pinturicchio,  pen-too-rek'ke-o,  (BERNARDINO  BET- 
TI,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Perugia  in  1454,  was 
a  pupil  or  assistant  of  Perugino.  He  worked  in  the 
Vatican  for  Alexander  VI.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"Jesus  before  the  Doctors,"  a  portrait  of  Isabella  of 
Castile,  and  "The  History  of  Pius  II.,"  in  the  cathedral 
of  Sienna.  It  is  said  that  Raphael  assisted  him  in  the 
latter  work.  He  painted  portraits  and  landscapes  with 
success.  Died  in  1513. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy." 

Pinus.     See  PINS. 

Piiizoii,  pen-thdn',  (MARTIN  ALONZO,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  who  commanded  the  Pinta  in  the  first  voyage 
of  Columbus  to  America.  He  is  said  to  have  been  en 
vious  towards  his  chief.  Died  in  1493. 

Finzon,  (ViNCENCio  YANEZ,)  a  younger  brother  of 
the  preceding,  commanded  the  Nina  in  the  voyage  of 
Columbus,  (1492.)  He  conducted  an  expedition  in  1499, 
and  explored  part  of  the  coast  of  Brazil.  He  was  living 
in  1523. 

Pio.     See  Pius,  POPE. 

Pio,  pee'o,  (ALBERTO,)  Prince  of  Carpi,  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  about  1475,  was  a  nephew  of  Pico  della 
Mirandola.  He  was  a  patron  of  literary  men,  and  author 
of  a  treatise  against  Luther.  Died  in  Paris  in  1531. 

Pio,  (BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at  Bo 
logna.  He  wrote  notes  on  Horace,  Lucretius,  Ovid, 
and  other  classic  authors.  Died  at  Rome  about  1540. 

Piobert,  pe'o'baiR',  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  general 
and  mathematician,  born  in  1793.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1840,  in  place  of  De  Prony. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Artil 
lery,"  (2  vols.) 

Piola,  pe-o'la,  (DoMENico.)  a  Genoese  painter,  born 
in  1628.  He  painted  infants  with  especial  skill.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Repose  of  the  Holy  Family."  Died 
in  1703. 

Piola,  (P.,)  a  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1617,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  an  artist  of  high 
promise,  but  died  young,  in  1640. 

Piombino.     See  BONAPARTE,  (MARIE  ANNE  ELISA.) 

Piombo,  del,  del  pe-om'bo,  (SEBASTIANO,)  an  emi 
nent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1485,  was  also 
called  LUCIANO  or  VENEZIANO.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Giorgione.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  painted  in  the  Farnese  palace  a  fresco  in 
competition  with  Raphael,  and  received  instruction  from 
Michael  Angelo.  He  painted  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio 
a  fresco  of  the  "Transfiguration,"  which  is  remarkable 
for  beauty  of  colour.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
"  Raising  of  Lazarus,"  which  now  adorns  the  British 
National  Gallery.  He  excelled  in  portraits.  About 
1531  he  obtained  from  Clement  VII.  the  office  of  keeper 
ot  the  seal,  (iiffizio  del  piomko,)  and  assumed  the  name 
of  Fra  Sebastiano  del  Piombo.  Died  in  1547. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  BIACI,  "  Memorie  storiche 
di  F.  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,"  1826;  RIDOLFI,  "Vite  degli  Pittori 
Veneti  ;"  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Piorry,  pe'o're',  (PIERRE  ADOLPIIE,)  a  French  medi 
cal  writer,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1794.  He  gained  dis 
tinction  by  a  treatise  "On  Mediate  Percussion,"  ("De 
la  Percussion  mediate,"  1828.)  He  obtained  in  1840 
a  chair  of  internal  pathology  at  Paris.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  Diagnostics  and  Semeiology," 
(3  vols.,  1836.) 

Piozzi,  pe-oz'ze,  [It.  pron.  pe-ot'see,]  MRS.,  an  Eng 
lish  authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was  ESTHER  LYNCH 
SALUSBURY,  was  born  in  Carnarvonshire  in  1739.  She 


became  the  wife  of  Mr.  Thrale,  a  brewer  of  London,  in 
1763,  and  was  intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson.  Having  lost 
her  husband,  she  was  married  in  1784  to  an  Italian 
teacher  of  music,  named  Piozzi.  She  published  in  1786 
"Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  during  the  Last 
Twenty  Years  of  his  Life,"  and  in  1788  "Letters  to  and 
from  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,"  (2  vols.)  Among  her  other 
works  is  a  short  poem,  called  "The  Three  Warnings." 
Died  at  Clifton  in  1821. 

See  "Piozziana;  or,  Recollections  of  the  Late  Mrs.  Piozzi;" 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1861  ;  MRS.  EI.WOOD,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last 
Century,"  vol.  ii.,  (1843;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1861  ; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1861 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1862. 

Fl'per,  [Sw.  pron.  pee'per,]  (CARL,)  COUNT,  a  Swed 
ish  minister  of  state,  was  a  man  of  superior  talents. 
He  was  councillor  of  state  in  the  reign  of  Charles  XL, 
and  became  the  principal  minister  of  Charles  XII., 
whom  he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Pultowa  (Poltava)  in  1709,  and  kept 
in  prison  until  his  death,  in  1716. 

See  GEZELIUS,  "Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Pi'per,  lie,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  comic  painter, 
noted  for  his  skill  in  portraits  of  ugly  and  deformed 
persons.  Died  about  1740. 

Pippi.     See  GIULIO  ROMANO. 

Pipping,  pip'ping,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  theologian 
and  biographer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1670;  died  in  1722. 

Piquer,  pe-kaiR',  (ANDRES,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1711.  He  received  the  title  of  first 
physician  of  the  kingdom  in  1752.  Among  his  works  is 
"Medicine  Old  and  New,"  ("Meclicina  vetus  et  nova," 
1735.)  Died  in  1772. 

Firauesi,  pe-ra-na'see,  (  FRANCESCO,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Rome  in  1748,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Battista, 
noticed  below.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  a  dealer  in 
prints.  About  1800  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  pub 
lished  a  large  number  of  plates  of  Roman  antiquities, 
partly  executed  by  his  father.  Died  in  1810. 

Firanesi,  (GIO'VANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  excellent  Italian 
engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Venice  in  1720.  He 
studied  architecture  in  his  youth  at  Rome,  where  he 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  was  unrivalled 
as  an  architectural  draftsman  and  an  engraver  of  archi 
tecture  and  ruins,  and  had  great  facility  of  execution. 
He  etched  nearly  two  thousand  plates,  which  represent 
the  edifices  of  ancient  and  modern  Rome,  antique  bas- 
reliefs,  vases,  monuments,  etc.  Among  the  titles  of  his 
works  are  "  Architectura  Romana,"  (208  plates,)  and 
"Magnificence  of  the  Romans,"  ("Magnificenza  dei 
Romani,"  44  plates.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1778.  His 
daughter  LAURA  was  an  engraver.  She  died  in  1785. 

See  BIANCONI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Cavaiiere  G.  B.  Piranesi," 
1779;  P.  BIAGI,  "  SulFIncisione  e  sul  Piranesi,"  1820. 

Pirckheimer.     See  PIRKHEIMER. 

Fire,  de,  deh  pe'ra',  (HIPPOLYTE  MARC  GUIL 
LAUME  de  Rosnyvinen — deh  ros'ne've'ndx',)  COMTE, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Rennes  in  1778.  He  com 
manded  the  light  cavalry  of  the  left  wing  at  Waterloo. 
Died  in  1850. 

Piringer,  pee'ring-er,  (BENEDICT,)  a  German  en 
graver,  born  at  Vienna  in  1780.  He  went  with  Count 
A.  de  Laborde  to  Paris  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
are  landscapes  after  Claude  Lorrain  and  Poussin.  Died 
at  Paris  in  1826. 

Fi-rith'o-us  or  Pei-rith'o-us,  [Gr.  Tlctpidoof,]  a  son 
of  Ixi'on,  and  a  chief  of  the  Lapithae.  The  celebrated 
fight  of  the  Lapithae  and  the  Centaurs  originated  at 
the  marriage  of  Pirithous  and  Hippodami'a.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Theseus,  whom  he  aided  in  the  abduction  of 
Helen  from  Sparta.  Theseus,  in  return,  abetted  him  in 
?.!!  attempt  to  carry  off  Proserpine  from  the  palace  of 
Pluto;  but  in  this  they  failed,  and  Pirithous  was  killed 
by  Cerberus. 

See  VIRGIL,  "  jEneid,"  book  vi.  393-397. 

Firkheimer  or  Pirckheimer,  pefRk'hi'mer,  (WILT- 
BALD,)  a  German  historian  and  philologist,  born  at  Nu 
remberg  in  1470.  He  learned  the  Greek  language,  and 
translated  into  Latin  some  writings  of  Plato,  Xenophon, 
and  others.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  was  dis- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


e  Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


PIROLI 


1802 


PISO 


tinguished  for  his  efforts  to  diffuse  learning  in  Germany. 
Among  his  works  is  "Germanise  perbrevis  Explicatio," 
(1530.)  Died  in  1530  or  1531. 

See  PANZER,  "W.  Pirckheimer  und  Charitas  Pirckheimer,"  etc., 
1802;  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  F.  CAMPE,  "Zum  Andenken  W. 
Pirckheimer's,"  1828  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Piroli,  pee'ro-lee  or  pe-ro'lee,  (PROSPERO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1761.  He  worked  in  Russia  from  1803 
to  1817,  and  was  patronized  by  the  Czar.  Died  at  Milan 
in  1831. 

Piroli,  (TOMMASO,)  a  skilful  Italian  designer  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Rome  in  1750,  was  a  pupil  of  Piranesi. 
He  engraved  the  Prophets  and  Sibyls  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  after  Michael  Angelo,  "Cupid  and  Psyche," 
after  Raphael,  etc.  Died  in  1824. 

Piromalli,  pe-ro-mal'lee,  (PAOLO,)  a  learned  Italian 
missionary,  born  at  Siderno  in  1591  or  1592,  laboured  in 
Armenia,  Persia,  and  India.  He  compiled  a  "  Latin- 
Persian  Lexicon."  Died  in  1667. 

See  MACRI,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  di  Piro 
malli,"  1824. 

Piron,  pe'riN',  (AiME,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon 
in  1640;  died  in  1727. 

See  AUGUSTE  DE  MASTAING,  "  Les  Piron,"  1844. 

Piron,  (ALEXIS,)  a  French  dramatist  and  poet,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1689,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  had 
a  talent  for  bon-mots  and  epigrams.  In  his  youth  he 
wrote  comedies  and  licentious  odes.  Among  his  works 
are  several  unsuccessful  tragedies.  He  produced  in 
1738  a  drama  entitled  "The  Mania  for  Writing  Verse," 
("  La  Metromanie,")  which  is  considered  a  master-piece 
of  intrigue,  of  style,  and  of  comic  genius.  He  married 
Marie  Therese  Quenaudon  when  she  had  passed  the 
age  of  fifty.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1753,  but  was  rejected  by  the  king.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  RIGOI.EY  DH  JUVIGNV,  "Vie  de  Piron,"  1776;  AUGUSTE  DK 
MASTAING,  "Les  Piron,"  1844;  COUSIN  D'AVALI.ON,  "Pironiana, 
ou  Recueil  des  Aventures  plaisantes,  Bon-mots,  etc.  d'A.  Piron," 
1800;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Piron,  (BERNARD,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1718,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1812. 

Piron,  (MARIE  THERESE  Quenaudon — keh-no'- 
d6N',)  called  MADEMOISELLE  DE  BAR,  born  in  1688,  was 
a  literary  and  witty  lady.  She  was  married  in  1741  to 
Alexis  Piron.  Died  in  1751. 

Pirro,  per'ro,  (Rocco,)  a  historian,  born  in  Sicily  in 
1577,  was  chaplain  to  the  king.  He  published  a  his 
tory  of  the  churches  of  Sicily,  entitled  "Sicilia  Sacra," 
(3  vols.,  1644-47,)  which  is  esteemed  valuable.  Died 
in  1651. 

Pisa,  (LEONARD  OF.)     See  LEONARDO  DA  PISA. 

Pisan,  (CHRISTINA.)     See  CHRISTINE  DE  PISAN. 

Pl-san'der  or  Pei-san'der,  [n«<jav<5poc,]  a  Greek 
poet  of  Rhodes,  flourished  about  650  B.C.  He  wrote  an 
epic  poem  on  the  exploits  of  Hercules,  which  is  lost. 
He  was  received  into  the  epic  canon  with  Homer  by 
the  critics  of  Alexandria. 

Pisander  or  Peisander,  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
•who  was  archon  eponymus  in  414  B.C.  He  was  a  promi 
nent  agent  in  the  revolution  which  subverted  the  de 
mocracy  and  raised  the  Four  Hundred  to  power  in 
412  B.C. 

Pisander,  a  Spartan,  who  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Agesilaus  II.  He  became  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  395, 
and  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Athenians  under 
Conon  in  394  B.C. 

Pisanello,  pe-sa-nel'lo,  or  Pisano,  pe-sa'no,  (ViT- 

TORE,)    a    celebrated    painter   of   the  Venetian    school, 

flourished  about  1450.     He  surpassed  the  artists  of  his 

•  time  in  painting  horses  and  other  animals,  and  was  an 

f  excellent  engraver  of  medals. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Pisani,  pe-sa'nee,  (NiccoL6,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  who 
acquired  celebrity  in  the  war  against  the  Genoese  which 
began  about  1350.  He  commanded  in  an  indecisive 
battle  against  Paganino  Doria  at  the  outlet  of  the  Bos- 
phorus  in  1352. 

Pisani,  (VETTORE  or  VETTOR,)  a  famous  admiral,  a 
son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding,  obtained  command  of 
the  fleet  in  1378.  He  displayed  skill  in  the  defence  of 


Venice  against  the  Genoese,  whose  fleet  he  captured  at 
Chiozza  in  1380.     He  died  in  the  same  year. 

See  GIOVANNI  MOI.IN,  "Memorie  per  servire  alia  Storia  di  Vet- 
tor  Pisani ;"  GRASSI,  "Vita  di  Vettor  Pisani,"  1837. 

Pisano,  (ANDREA.)     See  ANDREA  PISANO. 

Pisano,  pe-sa'no,  (GIOVANNI,)  called  also  GIOVANNI 
DA  PISA,  an  eminent  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Pisa 
about  1238,  was  a  son  of  the  sculptor  Niccolo.  He  was 
architect  of  the  famous  Campo  Santo  (cemetery)  of  Pisa, 
completed  in  1283.  It  is  a  cloister  of  sixty-two  arcades 
or  arches.  He  built  the  Castel  Nuovo  at  Naples.  Among 
his  master-pieces  of  sculpture  are  the  high  altar  in  the 
cathedral  of  Arezzo,  and  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  which 
adorns  the  exterior  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  Died 
in  1320. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cico- 
GNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura ;"  TICOZZI,  "Dizionario." 

Pisano,  (GIUNTA,)  an  old  Tuscan  painter,  was  born 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful 
artists  of  his  time.  About  1235  he  painted  some  works 
in  a  church  of  Assisi.  His  works  present  the  meagre 
forms  of  the  Byzantine  style.  A  figure  of  Christ  painted 
on  wood  by  Giunta  still  exists. 

Pisano,  (NiccoL6.)     See  NiccoL6  DA  PISA. 

Pisano,  (VITTORE.)     See  PISANELLO. 

Pisari,  pe-sa'ree,  (PASQUALE,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Rome  about  1725  ;  died  in  1778. 

Piscator.     See  FISCHER. 

Piscinus.     See  MARSO. 

Pise,  (CHARLES  CONSTANTINE,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Catholic  clergyman,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in 
1802.  He  was  for  some  time  chaplain  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  in  1849  became  pastor  of  the  church 
of  Saint  Charles  Borromeo,  Brooklyn,  New  York.  He 
has  published  a  "  History  of  the  Church  from  its  Es 
tablishment  to  the  Reformation,"  (1830,)  "  Aletheia,  or 
Letters  on  the  Truth  of  the  Catholic  Doctrines,"  "Lives 
of  Saint  Ignatius  and  his  First  Companions,"  and  nume 
rous  hymns  and  other  poems. 

Pishdadian.     See  PESHDADIAN. 

Pisistrate.     See  PISISTRATLIS. 

Pisistratidae,  pis-is-trat'e-de,  an  appellation  given  to 
the  sons  of  Pisistratus.  (See  HIPPIAS  and  HIPPARCHUS.) 

Pi-sis'tra-tus  or  Pei-sis'tra-tus,  [Gr.  Ueujiarparof ; 
Fr.  PISISTRATE,  pe'ze'stRJtt',]  a  tyrant  or  ruler  of  Athens, 
born  about  612  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Hippocrates,  and  a 
relative  of  Solon.  He  courted  popularity  by  various 
means,  and  obtained  power  by  the  following  artifice. 
Having  inflicted  wounds  on  himself,  he  presented  him 
self  to  the  people,  pretended  that  he  had  been  attacked 
by  his  political  enemies,  and  persuaded  them  to  grant 
him  a  guard  of  fifty  men,  by  whose  aid  he  seized  the 
citadel,  560  B.C.  He  was  the  head  of  the  party  of  the 
highlands,  which  was  the  more  popular  or  democratic 
party.  lie  was  twice  expelled  by  a  coalition  of  the  party 
of  the  coast  with  that  of  the  plain,  but  was  restored  as 
often.  He  made  little  or  no  change  in  the  constitution, 
and  left  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  rather  liberal  ruler. 
He  patronized  literature,  formed  a  library,  and  erected 
fine  public  buildings.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  we 
owe  to  him  the  first  written  text  of  the  whole  of  the 
poems  of  Homer.  Died  in  527  B.C. 

See  HERODOTUS,  "History;"  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece;" 
JAN  MEURSIUS,  "Pisistratus,  sen  de  ejus  Vita  Liber  singularis," 
1632  ;  THIRI.WAI.L,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Pi'so,  [Fr.  PISON,  pe'zoN',]  (CAius  CALPURNIUS,)  a 
Roman  orator,  who  became  consul  in  67  B.C.,  and  com 
manded  in  Gallia  Narbonensis  in  66.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero,  in  63  B.C.,  against  a  charge  of  extortion  pre 
ferred  by  Caesar,  and  urged  the  former  to  accuse  Caesar 
as  one  of  the  conspirators  with  Catiline.  He  probably 
died  before  the  civil  war  began,  (49  B.C.) 

See  DRUMANN,  "Geschichte  Roms. " 

Piso,  (CAius  CALPURNIUS,)  the  leader  of  a  con 
spiracy  against  Nero  in  65  A.D.  He  was  a  patrician, 
and  very  popular.  Having  been  betrayed  by  one  of  his 
accomplices,  he  killed  himself. 

Piso,  (CNEIUS  CALPURNIUS,)  was  consul  in  7  B.C., 
with  Tiberius,  who,  after  his  accession,  used  him  as  an 
instrument  to  impair  the  influence  of  Germanicus.  He 
obtained  command  of  Syria  in  18  A.D.,  and  was  sus- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m5t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PISO 


1803 


PITT 


pected  of  having  poisoned  Germanicus.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  room  in  20  A.D. 

Fiso,  (Lucius  CALPURNIUS,)  was  the  father  of  Cal- 
purnia,  the  wife  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  consul  in  58 
B.C.,  and  promoted  the  banishment  of  Cicero.  He  mis 
governed  Macedonia  from  57  to  55  n.C.  His  public  con 
duct  and  private  character  were  denounced  by  Cicero  in 
a  very  vituperative  speech,  "  Oratio  in  Pisonem,"  in  55 
or  54  u.c.  After  the  death  of  Caesar  (44  K.C.)  Piso  made 
a  speech  which  was  applauded  by  Cicero,  (Philippic  I.) 

SeeAppiAN,  "  Bellum  Civile  ;"  DRUMANN,  "Geschichte  Roms." 

Piso,  (L.  CALPUKNIUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
consul  in  15  15. C.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Rome  by 
Tiberius.  lie  was  one  of  the  persons  to  whom  Horace 
addressed  his  Epistle  "De  Arte  Poetica,"  according  to 
Porphyrion.  Died  in  32  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  His 
virtue  and  integrity  are  attested  bv  several  writers. 

Piso,  (Lucius  CALPURNIUS  FRUGT,)  a  Roman  his 
torian  and  consul,  belonged  to  the  aristocratic  party. 
He  became  consul  in  133  B.C.,  and  opposed  the  measures 
of  Caius  Gracchus.  He  wrote  "  Annals  of  Rome," 
which  are  not  extant. 

Piso,  (Lucius  CALPURNIUS  LICINIANUS,)  a  Roman 
whom  Galba  adopted  as  heir  to  the  throne  in  69  A.D. 
He  was  killed  by  the  partisans,  of  Otho  in  the  same  year. 

Pison.     See  Piso. 

Pi'son,  (JAKOB,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  in  Transylvania ; 
died  in  1527. 

Pison,  pee'son,  (WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  naturalist  and 
physician,  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Nassau  in  a  voyage 
to  Brazil  in  1637.  The  researches  of  Pison  and  his 
companion  Marcgraf  were  published,  under  the  title  of 
"Natural  History  of  Brazil,"  ("Ilistoria  Naturalis  Bra 
silia?,"  1648,)  a  work  of  some  merit. 

Pistoia,  da,  (CiNO.)     See  Cixo. 

Pistoia,  da,  da  pes-to'ya,  (LEONARDO  Grazia — gRat'- 
se-a,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pistoia,  lived  about  1550. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Penni,  with  whom  he  worked  at 
the  Vatican  and  at  Naples.  He  was  skilful  in  portraits. 

Pistorius,  pis-to're-us,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  histo 
rian,  born  at  Nidda  (Hesse)  about  1544.  He  was  con 
verted  from  the  Protestant  faith  to  that  of  the  Roman 
Church,  and  was  confessor  to  the  emperor  Rudolph  II. 
He  wrote  "  German  Historical  Writers,"  ("  Rerum  Ger- 
manicarum  Scriptores,"3  vols.,  1582-1607.)  Died  in  1608. 

Pitagora.     See  PYTHAGORAS. 

Pitaro,  pe-ta'ro,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  natural  phi 
losopher  and  writer,  born  at  Borgia  in  1774;  died  in 
Paris  after  1830. 

Pitau,  pe'to',  (NICOLAS,)  a  skilful  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1633.  He  worked  at  Paris,  and 
engraved  after  Raphael,  Gtiercino,  and  L.  Caracci.  His 
master-piece  is  a  "  Holy  Family,"  after  Raphael.  Died 
in  1676.  His  son  NICOLAS  was  also  an  engraver.  Died 
at  Paris  in  1724. 

Pitaval,  de.     See  GAYOT. 

Pitcairne,  pit'ka'rn,  (ARCHIBALD,)  a  Scottish  phy 
sician,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1652.  Having  finished  his 
education  in  Paris,  he  practised  with  great  distinction 
in  his  native  city.  His  medical  system  was  based  partly 
on  mathematics.  He  was  a  zealous  Jacobite.  He  was 
professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about  one  year,  (1692,) 
and  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  Boerhaave.  His  principal 
work  is  "  Elementa  Medicinze  physico-mathematica." 
He  also  wrote  Latin  verses.  Died  in  1713. 

See  CHARLES  WEBSTER,  "  Life  of  A.  Pitcairne,"  1781  ;  CHAM 
BERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Pitho.     See  PITHON. 

Fi'thon  or  Pi'tho,  [IL'Owv,]  a  Macedonian  officer, 
who  had  a  high  command  under  Alexander  in  India. 
He  was  appointed  satrap  of  Babylon  by  Antigonus  in 
316  B.C.,  and  was  killed  righting  for  Demetrius  at  Gaza, 
in  312  B.C. 

Pithon,  [IIt'0«v,]  an  officer  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
whose  person  he  attended  as  a  guard.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  mutineers  who  killed  Perdiccas  in  321 
B.C.,  after  which  he  was  joint  regent  with  Arrhidaeus  for 
a  short  time.  He  was  second  in  command  in  the  army 
of  Antigonus,  to  whom  he  rendered  important  services 
in  the  war  against  Eumenes.  He  was  put  to  death,  by 
order  of  Antigonus,  in  316  B.C. 


Pitbou,  pe'too',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  learned  French  jurist, 
born  at  Troyes  in  1543,  was  a  brother  of  Pierre,  noticed 
below.  He  wrote  "Traite  de  la  Grandeur,  des  Droits, 
Pre-eminences  des  Rois  et  du  Royaume  de  France," 
(1587.)  Died  in  1621. 

Pithon,  (PiERRK,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Troyes  in  1539.  He  was  educated 
as  a  Protestant,  but  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1573, 
after  a  narrow  escape  from  the  massacre  of  1572.  He 
supported  the  cause  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "Satire  Menippee,"  which  had  an  im 
portant  influence  in  the  political  affairs  of  the  time. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Liberties  of  the  Gallican 
Church,"  (1594,)  and  "Body  of  Canon  Law,"  ("Corpus 
Juris  canonici,"  1687.)  Died  in  1596. 

See  GROSI.EY,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Pithon,"  1756;  LOISEI.,  "Vie  de 
Pierre  Pithou;"  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate. " 

Pitiscus,  pe-tis'kus,  (BARTHOLOMAUS,)  a  German 
geometer,  born  near  Griinberg  in  1561  ;  died  at  Heidel 
berg  in  1613. 

Pitiscus,  pe-tis'kus,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Zutphen  in  1637.  He  published  a  "Lexicon 
Latino-Belgicum,"  (1704,)  a  "Lexicon  of  Roman  An 
tiquities,"  (1713,)  and  good  editions  of  Quintus  Curtius, 
Suetonius,  and  Aurelius  Victor.  Died  in  1727. 

Pit/kin,  (TIMOTHY,)  an  American  lawyer  and  his 
torical  writer,  born  at  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in  1765, 
published  a  "  Political  and  Civil  History  of  the  United 
States,  from  1763  to  the  Close  of  Washington's  Ad 
ministration,"  (1828.)  Died  in  1847. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1830. 

Pitoni,  pe-to'nee,  (GIUSEPPE  OTTAVIO,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  sacred  music,  born  at  Rieti  in  1657;  died 
at  Rome  in  1743. 

Pitot,  pe'to',  (HENRI,)  a  French  geometer,  born  at 
Aramon  in  1695.  He  contributed  several  memoirs  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published  a  good  work 
on  naval  tactics,  entitled  "  Theorie  de  la  Manoeuvre  des 
Vaisseaux,"  (1731.)  Died  in  1771. 

Pit'ri,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "father,"]  a  title 
applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  the  deified  pro 
genitors  of  mankind,  supposed  to  inhabit  the  orbit  of 
the  moon. 

Pits,  [Lat.  PIT'SEUS,]  (JOHN,)  an  English  biographer, 
born  at  Alton  in  1560,  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  be 
came  canon  of  Verdun,  in  Lorraine,  and  dean  of  Liver- 
dun.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Kings,  Bishops,  and 
Writers  of  England,"  (4  vols.)  The  last  volume  was 
published  in  1619.  Died  in  1616. 

Pitseus.     See  PITS. 

Pitt,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Bland- 
ford  in  1699.  He  became  rector  of  Pimpern,  in  Dorset 
shire,  and  published  a  volume  of  poems  in '1727.  He 
produced  a  translation  of  Virgil's  "/Eneid,"  (1740,) 
which  was  received  with  favour.  Died  in  1748. 

Pitt,  (THOMAS,)  a  grandfather  of  the  Earl  of  Chat 
ham,  was  born  at  Blandford  in  1653.  He  was  for  some 
years  Governor  of  Madras.  He  purchased  in  India  for 
.£24,000  a  large  diamond,  (called  the  Pitt  diamond,) 
which  he  sold  to  the  Regent  of  France  for  ^135,000. 
Died  in  1726. 

Pitt,  (  WILLIAM,  )  Earl  of  Chatham,  an  illustrious 
English  statesman  and  orator,  was  born  at  Boconnoc, 
in  Cornwall,  November  15,  1708.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Robert  Pitt,  and  a  grandson  of  Thomas  Pitt, 
Governor  of  Madras,  who  brought  from  India  the  Pitt 
diamond,  which  is  now  esteemed  the  most  precious  of 
the  crown-jewels  of  France.  His  mother  was  Harriet 
Villiers.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  Col 
lege,  Oxford,  which  he  entered  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
The  torments  of  the  gout,  to  which  he  was  subject  nearly 
all  his  life,  induced  him  to  leave  college  without  taking 
a  degree,  and  to  travel  in  France  and  Italy  for  his  health. 
On  his  return  home  he  accepted  a  cornet's  commission 
in  the  army,  and  in  1735  was  chosen  a  member  of  Parlia 
ment  for  Old  Sarum.  He  began  his  political  life  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Walpole  ministry,  and  addressed  the 
House  for  the  first  time  in  April,  1736,  on  the  subject 
of  the  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  Soon  after 
this  date  he  was  appointed  a  groom  of  the  bed-chamber 


<j  as  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal-  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


PITT 


1804 


PITT 


to  that  prince,  and  he  continued  t&  declaim  against 
Walpole  with  increasing  power.  His  figure  was  re 
markably  graceful  and  commanding,  and  his  manner 
highly  imposing.  "  His  play  of  countenance,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "was  wonderful:  he  frequently  disconcerted  a 
hostile  orator  by  a  single  glance  of  indignation  or  scorn. 
Every  tone,  from  the  impassioned  cry  to  the  thrilling 
aside',  was  perfectly  at  his  command.  .  .  .  Yet  he  was 
not  a  great  debater.  His  merit  was  almost  entirely 
rhetorical.  He  did  not  succeed  either  in  exposition  or 
refutation;  but  his  speeches  abounded  with  lively  illus 
trations,  happy  allusions,  passionate  appeals.  His  in 
vective  and  sarcasm  were  tremendous." 

Having  been  excluded  from  the  new  cabinet  which 
was  formed  on  the  resignation  of  Walpole,  in  1742,  he 
continued  to  act  with  the  opposition,  and  fiercely  de 
nounced  Carteret  for  the  favour  shown  to  the  German 
dominions  of  George  II.  The  offence  which  he  thus 
gave  to  the  king  retarded  his  own  promotion  when,  in 
1744,  the  Pelhams  came  into  power.  By  tendering  their 
resignations  in  the  critical  period  of  the  Jacobite  rebel 
lion,  the  ministers  at  last  prevailed  over  the  king,  and 
Pitt  was  appointed  paymaster  of  the  forces  in  1746. 
The  rare  disinterestedness  which  he  showed  in  this 
lucrative  office  convinced  the  public  that  he  was  proof 
against  all  sordid  temptations.  He  married  Hester 
Grenville,  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Temple  and  of  George 
Grenville,  in  1754.  In  this  year  the  premier,  Henry  Pel- 
ham,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle.  Pitt,  who  was  perhaps  offended  because 
his  rival  Henry  Fox  was  chosen  secretary  of  state,  be 
came  the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  November,  1755, 
soon  after  which  date  war  broke  out  between  England 
and  France.  Newcastle  having  been  forced  to  resign,  Pitt 
was  premier  about  five  months,  ending  in  April,  1757. 
The  king,  who  disliked  Pitt  and  his  colleague  Temple, 
dismissed  them,  but  found  great  difficulty  in  forming  a 
new  ministry,  as  Pitt  was  the  most  popular  statesman 
in  England.  After  the  nation  had  remained  eleven  weeks 
without  a  ministry,  a  coalition  was  formed  between  Pitt 
and  Newcastle,  the  former  of  whom  became  secretary 
of  state,  with  the  supreme  direction  of  the  war  and  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  infused  new  energy  and  ardour  into 
every  branch  of  the  service,  and  his  fame  was  raised  to 
the  highest  point  by  a  succession  of  victories  in  Canada, 
India,  and  Europe.  About  1760  he  was  almost  idolized 
by  the  people,  who  called  him  "  the  Great  Commoner" 
and  regarded  him  as  the  foremost  Englishman  of  his 
time. 

On  the  accession  of  George  III.,  Pitt  was  supplanted 
by  Lord  Bute,  the  royal  favourite,  the  success  of  whose 
intrigues  was  promoted  by  dissensions  and  jealousies 
among  the  ministers,  some  of  whom  were  offended  by 
the  imperious  demeanour  of  the  premier.  Pitt  resigned 
in  October,  1761,  and  received  an  annual  pension  of 
^"3000  for  three  lives,  (i.e.  his  own,  his  wife's,  and  his 
eldest  son's.)  In  1765  the  king  requested  Pitt  to  resume 
the  direction  of  affairs  ;  but  the  latter  declined  the  offer 
because  his  friend  the  Earl  of  Temple  refused  to  take 
office  with  him.  During  the  next  session  of  Parliament 
he  condemned  the  Stamp  Act  in  an  eloquent  speech, 
and  argued  that  England  had  no  right  to  tax  the  colo 
nies.  The  renewed  overtures  and  insidious  smiles  of 
the  court  prevailed  on  him,  in  1766,  to  form  a  new  ad 
ministration,  in  which  he  took  the  office  of  privy  seal. 
At  the  same  time  he  sacrificed  his  popularity  by  accepting 
a  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chatham.  This  was 
the  cabinet  that  Burke  described  as  a  "  piece  of  joinery 
so  whimsically  dovetailed  ;  a  tesselated  pavement  with 
out  cement,"  etc.  His  mental  and  physical  maladies 
soon  became  so  aggravated  that  he  ceased  to  take  any 
part  in  the  government,  and  he  resigned  in  October, 
1768.  With  improved  health,  he  returned  to  public  life 
about  1771,  and  spoke  often  against  the  ministers.  In 
1775  he  made  a  brilliant  speech  on  the  American  war. 
Alluding  to  the  Boston  Port  bill,  etc.,  he  exclaimed, 
"You  must  repeal  these  acts,  and  you  WILL  repeal 
them.  I  pledge  myself  for  it  that  you  will  repeal  them. 
I  stake  my  reputation  on  it.  I  will  consent  to  be  taken 
for  an  idiot  if  they  are  not  finally  repealed."  In  1777 
he  made  a  memorable  speech  against  employing  Indians 


to  fight  in  the  United  States.  As  he  rose  to  speak  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  in  1778,  he  was  seized  with  an  apo-' 
plectic  fit.  He  lingered  a  few  weeks,  and  died  in  May, 
1778,  leaving  three  sons,  the  second  of  whom  was  the 
celebrated  statesman  William  Pitt  the  Younger. 

"His  eloquence,"  says  Brougham,  "was  of  the  very 
highest  order  :  vehement,  fiery,  close  to  the  subject, 
concise,  sometimes  eminently,  even  boldly,  figurative  : 
it  was  original  and  surprising,  yet  quite  natural.  The 
fine  passages  or  felicitous  hits  in  which  all  popular  as 
semblies  take  boundless  delight  .  .  .  form  the  grand 
charm  of  Lord  Chatham's  oratory.  ...  A  noble  state 
ment  of  enlarged  views,  a  generous  avowal  of  dignified 
sentiments,  a  manly  and  somewhat  severe  contempt  for 
all  petty  and  mean  views,  always  pervaded  his  whole  dis 
course  ;  and,  more  than  any  orator  since  Demosthenes,  he 
was  distinguished  by  the  grandeur  of  feeling  with  which 
he  regarded,  and  the  amplitude  of  survey  which  he  cast 
upon,  the  subject-matters  of  debate.  He  is  the  person 
to  whom  every  one  would  at  once  point  if  desired  to 
name  the  most  successful  statesman  and  most  brilliant 
orator  that  this  country  ever  produced.  Some  fragments 
of  his  speeches  have  been  handed  down  to  us  ;  but  these 
bear  so  very  small  a  proportion  to  the  prodigious  fame 
which  his  eloquence  has  left  behind  it,  that  far  more  is 
manifestly  lost  than  has  reached  us."  Several  volumes, 
entitled  "Chatham  Papers:  Correspondence  from  the 
Original  MSS.,"  were  published  in  1838-40,  4  vols. 

See  "  History  of  W.  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,"  by  KKANCIS  THACK- 
KRAY,  2  vols.,  1827;  JOHN  AI.MON,  "Anecdotes  of  W.  Pitt,  Earl  of 
Chatham,"  2  vols.,  1792;  BROUGHAM,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of 
George  I  IF.  ;"  MacAULAv's  Review  of  Thackeray's  "  Life  of  Chat 
ham,"  1834;  MACAULAY,  "  Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham,"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1844;  Louis  Dii  VIKLCASTEI., 
"  Essai  historique  siir  les  deux  Pitt,"  2  vols.,  1846. 

Pitt,  (The  Right  Honourable  WILLIAM,)  a  celebrated 
statesman  and  debater,  was  the  second  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  and  was  born  at  Hayes,  in  Kent,  in  May,  1759. 
At  the  age  of  seven,  when  he  heard  that  his  father  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  he  said,  "  I  am  glad  that  I  am  not 
the  eldest  son.  I  want  to  speak  in  the  House  of  Com 
mons,  like  papa."  He  received  the  rudiments  of  educa 
tion  at  home,  under  the  diligent  supervision  of  his  father, 
and  acquired  great  proficiency  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics,  before  he  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam 
bridge,  in  1773.  Having  chosen  the  profession  of  the 
law,  he  took  chambers  in  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1780.  In  1781  he  entered  Parliament  for 
Appleby,  as  an  opponent  of  the  ministry,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  second  session  assumed  his  place  in  the  first 
rank  of  debaters.  His  talents  and  conduct  amply  justi 
fied  and  responded  to  the  partiality  with  which  the  public 
regarded  the  son  of  the  Great  Commoner.  lie  acquired 
a  new  claim  to  public  favour  by  a  motion  (in  May,  1782} 
for  a  reform  in  the  representation,  which  was  rejected 
by  a  small  majority.  His  principles  at  that  time  were 
the  same  with  those  of  the  Whigs.  On  the  formation 
of  the  ministry  of  Lord  Shelburne,  in  July,  1782,  Mr. 
Pitt  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  By  a 
coalition  between  Lord  North  and  Mr.  Fox,  this  ministry 
was  forced  to  resign  in  March,  1783,  and  Pitt  became 
the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  House.  The  king, 
after  procuring  the  defeat  of  Fox's  India  bill,  dismissed 
Fox  and  Lord  North,  whose  coalition  was  very  unpopular, 
and  appointed  Pitt  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  min 
ister)  in  December,  1783.  He  had  to  contend  against  a 
large  majority  in  the  House,  led  by  Fox,  Burke,  North, 
and  Sheridan,  who  triumphed  in  sixteen  divisions.  This 
important  contest  lasted  until  March,  1784,  when  Parlia 
ment  was  dissolved.  His  appeal  to  the  people  resulted 
in  a  great  triumph  of  the  minister,  who,  thus  sustained 
by  the  favour  of  the  court  and  by  that  of  the  nation, 
became  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  the  most  powerful 
subject  of  Europe. 

The  first  eight  years  of  his  administration  were  peace 
ful  and  prosperous.  A  new  constitution  for  the  East 
India  Company  was  framed  in  1784,  and  a  new  sinking- 
fund  established  in  1786.  He  changed  his  course  on  the 
question  of  parliamentary  reform,  which  he  opposed  at 
several  periods  after  1792.  He  supported  with  his  elo 
quence  and  his  vote  the  motions  of  Wilberforce  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  "All  authorities  agree,'1 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PITT 


1805 


PIUS 


says  Brougham,  "in  placing  his  speech  on  the  slave- 
trade,  in  1791,  before  any  other  effort  of  his  genius." 
Yet  he  permitted,  for  many  years,  every  one  of  his  col 
leagues  to  vote  against  the  abolition,  and  thus  furnished 
the  ground  of  the  gravest  charge  to  which  his  memory 
is  exposed.  His  ascendency  was  confirmed  by  the  ex 
cesses  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  by  the  division 
which  that  subject  produced  in  the  Whig  party ;  but  the 
tide  of  his  success  began  to  ebb  when  he  involved  Eng 
land  in  a  war  with  the  French  republic  in  1793, — a  war 
which,  according  to  Alison,  added  three  hundred  millions 
to  the  national  debt.  (See  BONAPARTE,  and  GEORGE  III.) 
"His  conduct  of  the  war,"  says  Brougham,  "betrayed 
no  extent  of  views,  no  commanding  notions  of  policy. 
To  form  one  coalition  after  another  in  Germany,  and 
subsidize  them  with  millions  of  free  gift,  or  aid  with 
profuse  loans,  until  all  the  powers  in  our  pay  were  de 
feated  in  succession,  and  most  of  them  either  destroyed 
or  converted  into  allies  of  the  enemy, — such  were  all  the 
resources  of  his  diplomatic  policy."  In  1800  an  act  for 
the  union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  passed  in 
the  Parliament  of  the  latter.  He  resigned  office  in 
March,  1801,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adclington.  The 
ostensible  cause  of  his  resignation  was  that  the  king 
objected  to  the  measures  which  Pitt  proposed  for  the 
relief  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  Alison  intimates  that 
he  retired  to  make  way  for  a  pacific  administration. 

A  combination  of  Whigs  and  Tories  having  been 
formed  against  Addington,  he  resigned,  and  Pitt  was 
again  appointed  prime  minister,  in  May,  1804.  The  new 
ministry  was  formed  exclusively  of  Tories.  The  pre 
mature  death  of  Pitt  appears  to  have  been  hastened  by 
the  vexation  which  he  suffered  from  the  failure  of  the 
new  coalition,  and  the  victories  of  Bonaparte  at  Ulm  and 
Austerlitz.  He  died  on  the  23d  of  January,  1806,  having 
never  been  married. 

"  Unequalled  in  the  ability  with  which  he  overcame 
the  jealousies  and  awakened  the  activity  of  cabinets," 
says  Alison,  "he  was  by  no  means  equally  felicitous  in 
the  warlike  measures  which  he  recommended  for  their 
adoption.  Napoleon  has  observed  that  he  had  no  turn 
for  military  combinations  ;  and  a  retrospect  of  the  cam 
paigns  which  he  had  a  share  in  directing,  must  confirm 
the  justice  of  the  opinion.  By  not  engaging  England  as 
a  principal  in  the  contest,  and  trusting  for  land  operations 
to  the  continental  armies  put  in  motion  by  British  sub 
sidies,  he  prolonged  the  war  for  an  indefinite  period." 
("History  of  Europe.")  He  is  admitted  by  all  parties 
to  have  been  a  consummate  debater,  and  almost  un 
equalled  as  a  master  of  sarcasm.  His  declamation  was 
copious,  polished,  and  impressive.  He  poured  forth  a 
long  succession  of  round  and  stately  periods,  with  a  full 
and  sonorous  voice  and  with  an  unbending  dignity  of 
manner.  "  Yet,  with  all  this  excellence,"  says  Brougham, 
"  the  last  effect  of  the  highest  eloquence  was  for  the 
most  part  wanting  :  we  seldom  forgot  the  speaker,  or 
lost  the  artist  in  the  work."  His  private  character  is 
described  as  amiable.  Pride  appears  to  have  been  his 
principal  fault. 

See  BROUGHAM,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.  ;"  "Me 
moirs  of  W.  Pitt,"  by  GEORGE  TOMLIVE,  1821 ;  MACAULAY,  article 
"  William  Pitt,"  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica;"  LORD  STAN 
HOPE,  (MAHON,)  "Life  of  William  Pitt,"  1862;  JOHN'  GIFFORD, 
"  History  of  the  Political  Life  of  William  Pitt,"  3  vols.,  1809  ;  PIERRE 
CHANTM,  "Viede-M.  Pitt,"  1805;  AUGUSTE  VIDALIN,  "Etude  sur 
la  Carriere  de  W.  Pitt,"  1851;  ALISON,  "History  of  Europe:" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1856,  and  "The  Addington  and  Pitt 
Administrations,"  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1858. 

Pit'ta-cus,  [ILrraKof,]  a  celebrated  Greek  statesman, 
philosopher,  and  poet,  called  one  of  the  Seven  Wise 
Men  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  about 
650  B.C.  He  distinguished  himself  in  a  battle  against 
the  Athenians  (whose  leader,  Phrynon,  he  killed)  in  606 
B.C.  About  590  he  was  chosen  supreme  ruler  by  the 
popular  party,  which  had  expelled  the  aristocratic  party. 
The  poet  Alcseus  belonged  to  the  latter,  and  was  exiled 
in  the  time  of  Pittacus.  Having  governed  the  state 
wisely  for  ten  years,  he  resigned  his  office  in  580  B.C. 
He  was  famous  as  an  elegiac  poet ;  but  only  a  few  of  his 
lines  are  extant.  Died  in  569  B.C. 

See  DIOGENES  LAERTIUS;  SUIDAS,  "Pittacus." 

Pitthee.    See  PITTHEUS. 


Pit'theus,  [Gr.  Utrdevr ;  Fr.  PITTHEE,  pe'ta',]  a  son 
of  Pelops  and  Hippodami'a,  was  a  king  of  Trcezene,  the 
father  of  /Ethra,  and  grandfather  of  Theseus.  Pausanias 
ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  the  art  of  speaking. 

Fit'tis,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  entered  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  about 
1652.  Died  in  1687. 

Pittoni,  pet-to'nee,  (BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1520;  died  after 

IS8.V 

Pittoni,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1687.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The 
Miracle  of  the  Loaves."  Died  in  1767. 

Pittorio,  pet-to're-o,  or  Pittori,  pet-to'ree,  [Lat. 
PICTO'RIUS,]  (Lonovico  BIGI,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1454.  He  wrote  "  Candida,"  (1491,)  "Moral 
Epigrams,"  ("  Epigrammata  moralia,"  1516,)  and  other 
poems.  Died  about  1524. 

Pitts,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  English  sculptor,  called  "the 
British  Cellini,"  was  born  in  London  in  1790.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  gold-chaser.  He  displayed  a  fine  fancy  for 
design,  and  remarkable  executive  skill.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Creation  of  Eve,"  (1824,)  "The  Shield 
of  .Eneas,"  (1828,)  "The  Shield  of  Hercules,"  (1834,) 
and  the  "  Apotheoses  of  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Mil 
ton,"  in  bas-relief.  He  committed  suicide  in  1840. 

Pi'us  [It.  Pio,  pee'o ;  Fr.  PIE,  pee]  I.,  Pope  or 
Bishop  of  Rome,  was  born  at  Aquileia.  He  succeeded 
Hyginus  in  142  A.D.,  and  died  in  157.  His  successor 
was  Anicetus. 

Pius  (or  Pio)  II.,  POPE,  (/£NE'AS  SYL'VIUS  Picco 
lomini — pek-ko-lom'e-nee,)  was  born  at  Corsignano, 
Tuscany,  in  1405.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  was 
familiar  with  the  ancient  classics.  In  1535  he  produced  a 
history  of  the  Council  of  Bale.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
this  council  in  its  contest  against  Pope  Eugenius  IV., 
and  became  the  secretary  of  Felix  V.,  who  was  elected 
pope  in  place  of  Eugenius,  whom  the  council  deposed. 
About  1442  he  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  Fred 
erick  III.,  of  whom  he  wrote  a  history,  "  Historia  Rerum 
Friderici  III."  In  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.,  /Eneas 
Sylvius  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  Germany.  He  distin 
guished  himself  as  a  negotiator  and  orator  on  various 
occasions.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1456,  and  was 
elected  pope  in  1458,  in  place  of  Calixtus  III.  In  1459 
he  procured  the  meeting  of  a  European  congress  on 
the  subject  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  ;  but  the 
jealousies  and  dissensions  among  the  Christian  powers 
rendered  his  efforts  abortive.  He  issued  a  bull  in  which 
he  retracted  and  condemned  what  he  had  formerly  writ 
ten  in  favour  of  the  supremacy  of  councils.  He  died  in 
August,  1464,  and  was  succeeded  by  Paul  II.  Pius  II. 
was  an  eminent  historian  and  scholar.  Among  his  nu 
merous  works  are  "Epistolse,"  (1473,)  and  a  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1475,)  which  are  highly  prized. 

See  "  Pii  II.  Commentarii  Rerum  memorabilium,"  an  auto 
biography,  published  by  his  secretary,  GOBKLINUS.  1477  and  1614; 
CAMPANUS  or  CAMPMANUS,  "Vita  Pii  II.:"  PLATINA,  "Vita 
Pontificum  ;"  HEI.WING,  "  De  Pii  II.  Rebus  gestis,"  1825; 
VOIGT,  "  Eneas  Piccolomini,"  Berlin,  1859  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pius  III.,  POPE,  (FRANCESCO  Todeschini  Piccolo- 
mini — to-des-kee'nee  pek-ko-lom'e-nee,)  born  at  Sienna 
in  1439,  was  a  nephew  of  Pius  II.  He  succeeded  Alex 
ander  VI.  in  September,  1503,  and  died  in  October  of 
the  same  year.  His  successor  was  Julius  II. 

Pius  IV.,  POPE,  (GIOVANNI  ANGELO  de'  Medici — 
da  mSd'e-chee,)  was  born  at  Milan  in  1499,  and  was  an 
uncle  of  the  eminent  Carlo  Borromeo.  He  was  elected 
pope,  in  place  of  Paul  IV.,  about  the  end  of  1559-  He 
convoked  the  Council  of  Trent  which  reassembled  in 
1561  and  finished  its  labours  in  1563.  The  decrees  of 
this  council  in  relation  to  discipline,  etc.  were  rejected 
by  the  French.  He  is  represented  by  some  historians 
as  an  able  but  rather  unscrupulous  pontiff.  He  died 
in  December,  1565,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  V. 

See  RANKE,  "  History  of  the  Popes." 

Pius  V.,  POPE,  (MICHELE  Ghislieri — ges-le-a'ree,) 
was  born  at  or  near  Alessandria  in  1504.  He  became 
a  cardinal  in  1557,  and  Inquisitor-General  of  Christen 
dom.  In  1566  he  was  elected  pope.  He  was  a  rigorist 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PIUS 


1806 


PIZARRO 


m  discipline,  and  a  violent  persecutor  of  dissenters. 
Palearius,  Zanetti,  and  other  learned  men  were  put  to 
death  by  his  inquisitors.  He  published  in  1568  the  bull 
"In  Coena  Domini,"  which  asserts  the  extreme  ultra 
montane  doctrines  in  relation  to  the  papal  supremacy. 
The  publication  of  this  bull  was  forbidden  by  the  Kings 
of  France  and  Spain  and  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Pius  V.  was  one  of  the  allies  whose  fleet  gained  the 
victory  of  Lepanto  over  the  Turks,  in  1571.  He  died 
in  1572,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XIII. 

See  RANKE,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  AGATIO  DI  SOMMA,  "  Vida 
di  Pio  Quinto  ;"  J.  B.  FEUILI.ET,  "Vie  du  Pape  Pie  V,"  1674 ;  DE 
FALI.OUX,  "  Histoire  de  Saint  Pie  V,"  2  vols.,  1844;  "Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Saint  Pius  V.,"  by  REV.  JOSEPH  MENDHAM,  1832. 

Pius  VI.,  POPE,  (Cardinal  ANGEI.O  Braschi — bras'- 
kee,)  was  born  at  Cesena  in  1717.  He  succeeded  Clem 
ent  XIV.  in  February,  1775.  He  drained  the  Pontine 
marshes,  and  enriched  the  Museum  of  the  Vatican. 
In  1782  he  went  in  person  to  Vienna  to  treat  with  the 
emperor  Joseph,  who  had  suppressed  convents  and 
meddled  with  spiritual  affairs  in  a  manner  which  dis 
pleased  the  pope.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  change  the 
purpose  of  the  emperor.  The  French  Revolution  in 
volved  him  in  a  still  greater  trouble.  He  entered  into 
alliance  with  Austria  and  other  powers  against  the 
French  republic.  After  his  states  had  been  invaded  by 
Bonaparte,  he  sued  for  peace,  which  he  obtained  by  the 
treaty  of  Tolentino,  in  1797.  To  avenge  the  death  of 
General  Duphot,  (who  was  killed  by  a  Roman  mob,) 
the  French  army  entered  Rome  in  February,  1798,  and 
deposed  the  pope,  who  was  conveyed  to  Valence,  in 
France,  where  he  died  in  August,  1799. 

See  FERRARI,  "Vita  Pii  VI.,"  1802;  TAVANTI,  "  Fasti  del  Papa 
Pio  VI.,"  3  vols.,  1804;  AKTAUD  DE  MONTOR,"  Histoire  de  Pie 
VI,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pius  VII.,  POPE,  (Cardinal  GREGORIO  BARNABA  Chi- 
aramonti — ke-a-ra-mon'tee,)  was  born  at  Cesena  in 
August,  1742.  He  became  a  cardinal,  and  Bishop  of 
Imola,  in  1785.  After  the  French  had  become  masters 
of  Imola,  he  exhorted  his  people  to  submit  to  the  new 
regime.  He  was  elected  pope  by  a  conclave  of  car 
dinals  assembled  at  Venice  in  March,  1800,  and  ap 
pointed  Cardinal  Consalvi  secretary  of  state.  The  first 
important  event  of  his  reign  was  a  treaty  with  Bonaparte, 
by  which  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  re-established 
in  France.  This  treaty,  called  the  Concordat,  was  signed 
on  the  151)1  of  July,  1801.  In  compliance  with  the  re 
quest  of  Bonaparte,  Pius  went  to  Paris  and  crowned  or 
anointed  him  as  emperor  in  December,  1804.  He  re 
fused  to  comply  with  the  will  of  Napoleon  when  the 
latter  required  him  to  banish  the  English,  Russians,  and 
Swedes  from  the  Papal  States,  (1806,)  and  resisted  him 
in  other  designs.  The  French  army  occupied  Rome  in 
February,  1808,  but  permitted  the  pope  to  retain  some 
temporal  power.  In  May,  1809,  Napoleon  issued  a 
decree  that  the  Papal  States  were  united  to  the  French 
empire.  The  pope,  having  resorted  to  a  bull  of  ex 
communication  against  his  adversaries,  was  seized  and 
abducted  from  Rome  in  July,  1809.  He  was  detained  at 
Savona,  near  Genoa,  until  1812,  and  was  then  removed  to 
Fontainebleau.  In  his  captivity  the  pope  firmly  resisted 
the  will  of  the*emperor,  who  probably  wished  him  to 
transfer  his  court  from  Rome  to  Avignon.  Pius  refused 
to  give  canonical  institution  to  the  bishops  appointed 
by  Napoleon.  In  January,  1813,  he  was  persuaded  to 
sign  a  new  concordat  and  to  make  concessions,  which, 
however,  by  the  advice  of  his  cardinals,  he  soon  re 
tracted.  In  January,  1814,  he  received  an  order  or 
permission  to  return  to  Rome,  which  he  entered  in  May. 
He  afterwards  made  some  laudable  reforms.  He  died 
in  August,  1823,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XII.  Pius 
VII.  left  a  fair  reputation  for  moderation  and  other 
virtues. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  de  Pie  VII,"  2  vols.,  1836; 
COHEN,  "  Precis  historique  sur  Pie  VII,"  1823;  A.  DE  BEAUCHAMP, 
"  Histoire  des  Majheurs  de  Pie  VII,"  1814;  GUADET,  "  Esquisses 
historiques  et  politiques  sur  Pie  VII,"  1823;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October.  1858  ;  "  Recol 
lections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes,"  by  CARDINAL  WISEMAN,  Lon 
don,  1858. 

Pius  VIII.,  POPE,  (Cardinal  FRANCESCO  Castiglioni 
— kas-tel-yo'nee,)  was  born  at  Cingoli  in  1761.  He  suc 
ceeded  Leo  XII.  in  March,  1829,  and  issued  an  encyclical 


letter  in  which  he  denounced  religious  toleration,  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  and  civil  marriage,  as  impious. 
He  died  in  November,  1830.  His  successor  was  Greg 
ory  XVI. 

Pius  IX.,  [Ital.Pio  NONO,  pee'o  no'no,]  POPE,  (Gio- 
VANM  MARIA  Mastai  Ferretti — mas'ti  fer-ret'tee,) 
was  born,  of  a  noble  family,  at  Sinigaglia,  near  Ancona, 
on  the  131)1  of  May,  1792.  He  visited  South  America 
in  1823  on  a  religious  mission,  and  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Spoleto  in  1827.  In  1840  he  obtained  the  dignity  of 
cardinal.  He  was  elected  by  acclamation  the  successor 
of  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  in  June,  1846.  He  granted  an 
amnesty  to  political  transgressors,  and  acquired  gtcat 
popularity  by  various  measures  of  reform  which  he 
commenced  soon  after  his  election.  His  first  secretary 
of  state,  Cardinal  Gizzi,  was  a  friend  of  progress  and  a 
liberal  policy.  The  expenses  of  the  papal  court  were 
reduced,  the  censorship  of  the  press  was  modified,  and 
the  Jews  were  relieved  from  some  oppressive  regulations. 
His  reforms  were  partly  frustrated  by  the  ill  will  of  many 
of  his  functionaries,  who  opposed  innovation.  His  popu 
larity  began  to  decline  before  the  end  of  1847.  Excited 
and  elated  by  the  French  revolution,  the  Italian  liberals 
required  greater  concessions  than  the  pope  was  willing 
to  grant.  After  several  violent  demonstrations  of  the 
populace,  Pius  IX.  escaped  from  Rome  in  disguise  in 
November,  1848,  and  retired  to  Gaeta.  A  republic  was 
organized  at  Rome  in  February,  1849,  but  was  subverted 
by  a  French  army  which  took  the  city  in  July  of  that 
year  and  restored  the  pope.  Among  the  later  events  of 
his  pontificate  was  the  formal  definition  and  recognition 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  as  a 
part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  creed,  (1854.)  During  the 
war  which  Austria  waged  against  the  French  and  Sar 
dinians  in  1859,  the  people  of  the  Romagna  and  the 
legations  revolted  against  the  pope,  and  the  Papal  States 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  In 
January,  1860,  the  pope  issued  an  anathema,  or  bull, 
against  those  who  abetted  the  invasion  of  his  dominions. 
This  was  probably  aimed  at  Napoleon  III.,  who  sup 
pressed  the  journal  in  which  it  was  published.  Rome 
was  declared  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  in 
1860,  since  which  the  question  of  the  pope's  temporal 
power  has  remained  in  suspense,  as  one  of  the  great 
problems  of  European  diplomacy.  The  recognition  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  by  the  French  court  (1861)  was 
accompanied  by  the  reservation  that  "French  troops 
shall  continue  to  occupy  Rome  so  long  as  the  interests 
which  caused  their  presence  shall  not  be  protected  by 
sufficient  guarantees."  The  pope  was  the  only  power 
that  recognized  the  "  Confederate  States  of  North  Amer 
ica."  The  results  of  the  war  between  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  the  allied  Kings  of  Prussia  and  Italy  in  1866 
were  unfavourable  to  papal  domination.  About  the  loth 
of  December,  1866,  the  French  army  departed  from 
Rome,  and  Italy  was  relieved  from  the  presence  of  for 
eign  soldiery,  for  the  first  time  probably  in  a  thousand 
years.  He  convoked  by  an  encyclical  letter  an  cecu- 
menical  council  which  met  at  Rome  in  December,  1869, 
to  assert  or  define  the  dogma  of  the  pope's  infallibility, 
which,  after  a  long  deliberation,  was  finally  established 
in  July,  1870.  The  Italian  army  took  Rome  on  the  2Oth 
of  September,  without  serious  resistance,  and  the  tem 
poral  power  of  the  pope  was  then  abolished.  Pius  pro 
tested  against  this  innovation,  but  he  remained  in  Rome. 

See  A.  BALI.EYDIER,  "Rome  et  Pie  IX,"  1847;  G.  B.  Nic- 
COI.INI,  "History  of  the  Pontificate  of  Pius  IX.,"  London,  1851  ; 
BRETONNEAU,  "Notice  sur  Pie  IX,"  1847;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1847. 

Fivati,  pe-va'tee,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  an  Ital 
ian  litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1689.  He  published 
"Scientific  Dictionary;"  etc.,  ("Dizionario  scientifico 
e  curioso,"  10  vols.,  1750.)  Died  in  1764. 

Fix,  (MARY,)  originally  GRIFFITH,  an  English  drama 
tist,  born  in  Oxfordshire  about  1665;  died  about  1720. 

Pizarre.     See  PIZARRO. 

Pizarro,  pe-zar'ro,  [Sp.  pron.  pe-thar'ro ;  Fr.  Pi- 
ZARRK,  pe'ztR'.JJFRANCISCO,)  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  born  at  Truxillo,  in  Spain,  about  1475.  He  was  the 
natural  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  who  was  a  colonel  in 
the  Spanish  army.  He  was  employed  as  a  swineherd  in 
his  youth,  and  never  learned  to  read  or  write.  The  date 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PIZARRO 


1807 


PL  AN  CHE 


of  his  emigration  to  the  New  World  has  not  been  pre 
served ;  but  in  1510  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  of 
Ojeda  from  Hispaniola  to  Terra  Firm  a.  He  afterwards 
served  under  Balboa,  with  whom  he  performed  an  ar 
duous  march  across  the  mountains  from  Darien  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  In  1522  Pizarro,  who  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  associated  himself,  at  Panama,  with 
Alinagro  and  a  rich  priest  named  De  Luque,  in  an  enter 
prise  to  explore  and  conquer  the  region  which  lies  south 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Having  enlisted  in  his  service 
about  one  hundred  desperadoes,  he  sailed  from  Panama 
with  one  small  vessel  in  November,  1524.  His  first  ex 
pedition  was  unsuccessful  and  attended  with  great  hard 
ships.  He  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1526,  but  made 
slow  progress  and  lost  many  men.  He  landed  at  the 
city  of  Tumbez  without  opposition,  and  was  stimulated 
to  pursue  his  project  by  the  sight  of  the  gold  trinkets 
and  utensils  which  the  natives  displayed  in  great  pro 
fusion.  Having  explored  the  coast  as  far  as  Truxillo, 
about  9°  south  latitude,  he  found  it  inexpedient  to  pro 
ceed  with  his  reduced  force,  and  returned  to  Panama 
in  1528.  With  the  consent  of  Almagro  and  De  Luque, 
Pizarro  went  to  Spain  to  solicit  aid  from  the  king.  In 
this  mission  he  was  successful.  He  procured  for  himself 
an  appointment  as  governor  and  captain-general*  of  the 
region  which  he  might  conquer  for  a  distance  of  two 
hundred  leagues  south  of  Santiago;  but  he  neglected  to 
obtain  any  high  office  for  Almagro,  who  was  disgusted 
with  this  perfidious  conduct.  In  January,  1531,  Pizarro 
sailed  from  Panama  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  men 
and  about  thirty  horses,  leaving  Almagro  behind  to 
muster  reinforcements.  A  civil  war  which  raged  in  Peru 
between  Atahualpa  and  Huascar  presented  a  favour 
able  opportunity  for  his  design.  Having  marched  across 
the  sierra  of  the  Andes  to  Caxamarca,  he  met  the  Inca 
Atahualpa  in  November,  1532.  The  treacherous  and 
audacious  Spaniard  seized  the  Inca,  who  had  come  to 
the  Spanish  camp  for  a  friendly  interview.  To  obtain 
his  liberty,  the  Inca  offered  to  fill  a  room  twenty-two 
feet  long  and  sixteen  feet  wide  with  golden  vessels  and 
utensils,  etc.  up  to  a  line  as  high  as  he  could  reach. 
Pizarro  assented  to  this  proposal,  and  obtained  about 
1,326,000  pesos  of  gold,  the  value  of  which  Prescott 
estimates  at  over  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  ;  but  he  caused 
Atahualpa  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  garote.  "The 
blood-stained  annals  of  the  conquest,"  says  Prescott, 
"afford  no  such  example  of  cold-hearted  and  systematic 
persecution,  not  of  an  enemy,  but  of  one  whose  whole 
deportment  had  been  that  of  a  friend  and  benefactor." 
In  November,  1533,  Pizarro  entered  Cnzco,  the  capital, 
and  the  conquest  of  Peru  was  virtually  effected.  Civil 
war  broke  out  in  1537  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro, 
who  was  defeated  and  executed  in  1538.  (See  ALMAGRO.) 
To  avenge  his  death,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  by  Alma 
gro  the  Younger,  and  Pizarro  was  assassinated  at  Lima 
in  June,  1541.  "The  name  of  Pizarro  became  a  by-word 
of  perfidy,"  says  Prescott,  who,  however,  praises  his 
invincible  constancy. 

See  PKESCOTT,  "Conquest  of  Peru;"  ROBERTSON,  "History 
of  America  ;"  ZARATE, •"  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Peru ;"  HER- 
RERA,  "  Novus  Orbis ;"  GARCII.ASSO  DE  I.A  VEGA,  "  Comentarios 
Reales  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Pizarro,  (GONZALO,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1506.  He  went  to  the  New  World  in  1530, 
and  served  under  Francisco  Pizarro  in  Peru.  According 
tq,IYescott,  he  was  inferior  in  talent  to  his  brother,  but 
quite  as  unscrupulous.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Quito  in  1540,  and  discovered  the  river  Napo.  In 
1544  he  became  the  leader  of  malcontents  who  revolted 
against  the  viceroy  Nunez.  About  the  end  of  1545  the 
latter  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by  Pizarro,  who 
remained  master  of  Peru.  lie  in  turn  was  defeated  near 
Cuzco  by  the  viceroy  Gasca  in  April,  1548,  and  beheaded 
in  the  same  month. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru  ;"  HERRERA, 
"Novus  Orbis." 

Pizarro,  (HERNANDO,)  was  a  half-brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  left  Spain  in  1530,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  With  a  force  of  about 
seven  hundred  men  he  defeated  Almagro  at  Las  Salinas 
in  April,  1538.  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1539,  and  was 


imprisoned  twenty  years,  probably  for  the  execution  of 
Almagro.  Died  about  1566. 

See  HERRERA,  "  Novus  Orbis." 

Pizarro,  (JuAN1,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Truxillo  about  1505.  He  assisted  in  the  conquest  of 
Peru,  and  became  governor  of  Cuzco.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  at  Cuzco  in  1535. 

Pizarro,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  historian  and  soldier  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Toledo,  was  a  relative  of 
the  celebrated  commander  Francisco  Pizarro.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "Account  of  the  Discovery  and  Con 
quest  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Peru,"  ("Kelaciones  del  Des- 
cubrimiento  y  Conquista  de  los  Reynos  del  Peru,") 
published  about  1847. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii.  book 
iii. 

Pizzi,  pet'see  or  pit'see,  (GiOACCHiNO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Rome  in  1716.  Among  his  poems  is  "The 
Vision  of  Eden,"  (1778.)  Died  in  1790. 

Plaas,  van  der,  vtn  der  plSss,  written  also  Plas, 
(DAVID,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1647.  He  passed  some  years  at  Venice.  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1704. 

Placaeus.     See  LA  PLACE. 

Placcius,  plat'se-us,  (VINCENZ,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1642.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Atlantis  Retecta,"  a  poem,  (1659,)  and  "Treat 
ise  on  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Works  and 
Writers,"  ("  De  Scriptis  et  Scriptoribus  anonymis  et 
pseudonymis  Syntagma,"  1674.)  Died  in  1699. 

Place,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  engraver  and  painter, 
born  in  Durham.  His  etchings  are  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1728. 

Place,  de  la,  (JosulL)     See  LA  PLACE,  DE. 

Place,  de  la,  deh  ISplfss,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant'jurist,  born  at  Angouleme  about  1520.  He  wrote 
a  journal  or  history  of  public  events  in  Fiance  from  1556 
to  1561,  (1565,)  and  other  works.  He  became  president 
of  the  coiir  des  aides,  Paris,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
He  was  a  victim  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew, 
(1572.) 

Place,  de  la,  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer  of  fiction  and  dramas,  born  at  Calais  in  1707;  died 
in  1793. 

Place,  La,  (PIERRE  SIMON.)     See  LAPLACE. 

Pla-ceri-ti'nus,  fit.  PIACENTINO,  pe-a-chen-tee'no,] 
an  Italian  jurist  of  the  twelfth  century,  born  at  Piacenza  ; 
died  in  1192. 

Placeiitius,  plat-sen'se-us,  (PETER,)  or  Joliann  Leo, 
a  German  writer,  who  lived  about  1530,  and  wrote  a 
Latin  poem  entitled  "  The  Battle  of  the  Pigs,"  ("  Pugna 
Porcorum,")  in  which  every  word  begins  with  P. 

Placette,  La.     See  LA  PLACETTE. 

Fla-cid'I-a,  [Fr.  PLACIDIE,  plt'se'de',]  a  Roman 
princess,  borii  about  390  A.D.,  was  a  daughter  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great.  She  was  taken  captive  by  the  Goths, 
and  became  the  wife  of  Ataulphus,  King  of  the  Goths, 
(414.)  Died  in  450  A.I). 

Plag'i-tus  Fa-pyr-i-en'sis,  (  SEXTUS,  )  sometimes 
called  SEXTUS  P'LATON'ICUS  or  SEXTUS  EMPIR'ICUS,  a 
physician,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the 
fourth  century.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  Medicaments 
made  from  Animals,"  ("  De  Medicamentis  ex  Ani- 
malibus."') 

Plaisance,  de,  Due.     See  LEBRUN. 

Plana,  pla'na,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO  AMEDEO,)  BARON, 
an  Italian  savant,  born  in  1781.  He  became  director 
of  the  observatory  at  Turin,  professor  of  analysis,  and 
senator.  He  published,  besides  other  work's,  a  "Theory 
of  the  Motion  of  the  Moon,"  (3  vols.,  1832.) 

Planard,  de,  deh  plJt'naV,  (FRANC.OIS  ANTOINE  EU 
GENE,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Aveyron  in  1783. 
He  produced  successful  comedies  and  comic  operas. 
Died  in  18^5. 

Planche,  ploN'sha',  (JAMES  ROBINSON,)  an  English 
dramatist,  born  in  London  in  1796.  He  published  about 
1827  "Lays  and  Legends  of  the  Rhine,"  and  "The 
Descent  of  the  Danube."  He  composed  numerous 
successful  extravaganzas  and  dramas,  among  which  were 
"  Oberon,"  an  opera,  and  "Charles  XII.,"  (1828.)  He 
also  wrote  a  "  History  of  British  Costume,"  (1834.) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PL  AN  CHE 


1808 


PLATNER 


Planche,  p!6Nsh,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  GUSTAVE,  )  a 
French  litterateur  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  He 
wrote  many  able  criticisms  on  art  and  literature  for  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  published  "  Literary 
Portraits,"  (4  vols.,  1836-49.)  Died  in  1857. 

Planche,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  at  La- 
dinhac  (Cantal)  in  1762,  was  professor  at  the  College 
Bourbon,  at  Paris.  He  published,  besides  other  books 
for  students,  a  "  Greek-French  Dictionary,"  (1809,)  which 
was  successful  and  was  adopted  in  the  university.  Died 
in  1853. 

Flaiicher,  plSx'sha',  (URBAIN,)  a  French  monk  and 
historian,  born  in  Anjou  in  1667.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Burgundy,''  (3  vols.,  1739-48.)  Died  in  1750. 

Plaiiciades.     See  FULGENTIUS. 

Plaiicius,  plai/se-us,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  in  Flanders  in  1552,  was  a  zealous  Calvinist.  He 
preached  at  Brussels  and  Amsterdam.  By  his  astro 
nomical  and  nautical  science  he  rendered  good  service 
to  the  commerce  of  Holland.  Died  in  1622. 

Planck,  plank,  (GOTTLIEB  JAKOB,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  theologian  and  church  historian,  born  at  Niirtingen, 
in  Wurtemberg,  in  1751.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Gottingen  from  1784  to  1833.  His  principal  works 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Protestant  Doctrinal  System," 
("  Geschichte  der  Bildung  des  Protestantischen  Lehr- 
begriffs,"  6  vols.,  1781-1800,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Origin  and  Development  of  the  Organization  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  (5  vols.,  1803-05.)  Died  in  1833. 

See  LUECKE,«"  Dr.  G.  J.  Planck;  biographischer  Versuch." 

Planck,  (HEINRICH  LUDWIG,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Gottingen  in  1785.  He  wrote  several 
theological  and  exegetical  works,  and  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Gottingen.  Died  in  1831. 

Flangoii,  plSN'sox',  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Javron,  in  Maine.  He  translated  Galen's 
"Commentary  on  the  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,"(  1551.) 
Died  in  1611. 

Flan'cus,  (Lucius  MUNATIUS,)  a  profligate  Roman 
politician,  who  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war. 
He  took  arms  for  the  senate  in  43  B.C.,  but  soon  deserted 
to  Antony,  and  was  consul  in  42  u.c.  In  32  B.C.  he 
abandoned  Antony  and  became  a  partisan  of  Octavitis. 
He  was  the  person  to  whom  Horace  addressed  the 
seventh  ode  of  his  first  book. 

His  brother,  TITUS  MUNATIUS  PLANCUS  BURSA,  was 
tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C.  He  was  a  violent 
enemy  of  Milo,  and  caused  a  popular  riot  at  the  funeral 
of  Cloclius,  for  which  he  was  prosecuted  by  Cicero,  and 
condemned  about  50  B.C. 

Planer,  pla'ner,  (JoiiANN  JACOB,)  a  German  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1743.  He  translated 
Linnaeus's  "  Systema  Naturae"  into  German,  (1774,)  and 
wrote  several  scientific  treatises.  Died  in  1789. 

Planque,  p!6xk,  (FRANQOIS,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1696.  He  published  a  good  manual 
of  surgery,  "Chirurgie  complete,"  (2  vols.,  1744,)  and 
"  Select  Library  of  Medicine,"  ("  Bibliotheque  choisie 
de  Medecine,"  10  vols.,  1748-70.)  Died  in  1765. 

Plant,  plant,  (JoHANN  TRAUGOTT,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1756.  He  wrote  a  "  Biographical 
and  Critical  Treatise  on  the  History  of  German  Poetry," 
(1782,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1794. 

Planta,  plan'ta,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Swiss  historian  and  phi 
lologist,  born  in  the  Grisons  in  1744.  He  became  in 
1799  principal  librarian  of  the  British  Museum.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  twenty 
years  or  more.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  Hel 
vetic  Confederacy,"  (2  vols.,  1800,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1827. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1800. 

Planta,  de,  deh  plan'ta,  (MARTIN,)  a  Swiss  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  1727.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  electrical  machines  with  plates,  (a  plateaux.) 
Died  in  1772. 

Plantade,  de,  deh  pl6N'tfd',  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1670.  He  wrote 
"Observations  on  the  Aurora  Borealis,"  (1730.)  He 
made  some  good  maps  of  Languedoc.  Died  in  1741. 

Plantagenet.     See  EDMUND  PLANTAGENET. 

Plantagenet.     See  HENRY  II.  OF  ENGLAND. 


Plan  tin,  plSN'taf/,  (CHRISTOPHE,)  an  eminent  printer, 
born  near  Tours,  in  France,  in  1514.  He  became  the 
proprietor  of  a  printing-office  in  Antwerp  about  1550. 
His  publications  were  renowned  for  correctness  and 
beauty.  He  employed  Kilian,  Pulmann,  (or  Poelmann,) 
and  other  learned  men  as  correctors  of  the  press.  His 
most  remarkable  performance  was  an  edition  of  a  Poly 
glot  Bible,  superintended  by  Arias  Montanus,  (1568-72.) 
Died  in  1589. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Plantin,  plS.v'taN',  (Jr.AN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Swiss  histo 
rian,  born  at  Lausanne  about  1625.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  Switzerland,"  ("  Helvetia  antiqua  et  nova,"  1656,) 
and  other  works.  Died  about  1680. 

Planude.     See  PLANUDES. 

Pla-nu'des,  [Gr.  llA<zM5w%  ;  Fr.  PLANUDE,  plt'niid',] 
(MAXIMUS,)  a  Byzantine  monk,  born  at  Nicomedia,  was 
sent  by  Andronicus  II.  on  a  mission  to  Venice  in  1327. 
He  is  chiefly  noted  as  an  editor  of  a  Greek  Anthology, 
a  collection  of  Greek  epigrams,  some  of  which  he  erc- 
tracted  from  an  Anthology  compiled  by  Constantinus 
Cephalas  in  the  tenth  century.  Planudes  was  very 
deficient  in  the  judgment  and  taste  required  to  edit 
such  a  work,  and  is  accused  of  literary  forgeries.  His 
Anthology  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1494. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Grxca." 

Plas,  van  der,  vtn  der  plas,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  in  1578;  died  at  Brussels  in  1634. 

Platao.     See  PLATO. 

Platea,  pla-ta'a,  (FRANCESCO  PIAZZA,)  an  Italian 
canonist,  born  at  Bologna  about  1390;  died  in  1460. 

Plateau,  plants',  (JOSEPH  ANTOINE  FERDINAND,)  a 
Belgian  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Brussels  in  1801. 
He  has  written  on  optics  and  on  the  statics  of  liquids 
removed  from  the  effects  of  gravity. 

Platen,  von,  fon  pla'ten,  (DuiusLAV  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  1714.  He  served  with  dis 
tinction  against  the  Russians  and  Swedes  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general  about  1758. 
Died  in  1787. 

Plateii-Hallermiinde,  pla'ten  hal'ler-muVdeh,  (Au- 
GUST,)  COUNT,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1796.  Among  his  works  are  a  "History  of  the  King 
dom  of  Naples  from  1414  to  1443,"  and  a  satirical  poem 
entitled  "The  Romantic  CEdipus."  Died  in  1835. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  MINCKWITZ, 
"Graf  von  Platen  als  Mench  und  Dichter,"  1838. 

Plater,  plater,  (EMILIE,)  a  Polish  heroine,  born  at 
Wilna  in  1806.  She  fought,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
against  the  Russians  in  the  insurrection  of  1830.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  "  Emilie  Plater,  sa  Vie  et  sa  Mort,"  Paris,  1834,  and  "  Life  of 
Countess  E.  Plater,"  New  York,  1842;  "Democratic  Review"  for 
July,  1842. 

Plater,  pla'ter,  (FELIX,)  a  Swiss  physician,  born  at 
Bale  in  1536.  He  lectured  and  practised  with  success 
in  that  place.  He  wrote  "  Medical  Practice,"  ("  Praxis 
Medica,"  1602,)  often  reprinted,  and  other  medical 
works.  Died  in  1614. 

Plater,  (FELIX,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1605,  and  became  a  physician  of  Bale.  Died  in  1671. 

Plater,  (STANISLAS,)  COUNT,  a  Polish  soldier,  his 
torian,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1782.  He 
published,  in  French,  a  "  Historical  Atlas  of  Poland," 
and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1851. 

Platina.     See  PAUL  II. 

Platina,  pla-tee'na,  (BARTOLOMMEO  DE  SACCHIS,) 
an  able  Italian  historian,  born  at  Piadena,  near  Cre 
mona,  in  1421.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Lives  of  the  Popes,"  ("  In  Vitas  Summorum  Pontificum 
Opus,"  1479,)  a  work  of  much  merit,  often  reprinted, 
and  a  "History  of  Mantua,"  (1675.)  He  became  li 
brarian  of  the  Vatican  about  1472.  Died  in  1481.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  founded  at  Rome  by 
Pomponius  Loetus,  and  as  such  was  persecuted  by  Pope 
Paul  II. 

See  BAYIJE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NICERON, 
"Memoires;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Platner,  plat'ner,  (£DUARD,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1786.  He  wrote,  besides  many  literary 
essays,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Attic  Races,"  ("  De  Gentibus 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PLATNER 


\  809 


PLATO 


Atticis,"  1811,)  and  "Questions  on  the  Roman  Criminal 
Law,"  ("Quaestiones  de  Jure  criminum  Romano,"  1842.) 

Platner,  (ERNST,)  a  German  philosopher  and  phy 
sician,  horn  at  Leipsic  in  1744,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic 
in  1770.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  and  a 
writer.  Among  his  works  are  "Anthropology  for  Phy 
sicians  and  Philosophers,"  (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  "Philo 
sophic  Aphorisms,"  (2  vols.,  1776-82.)  His  style  is 
commended  for  precision  and  elegance.  Died  in  1818. 

See  "  Biogra'phie  Medicale." 

Platner,  (ERNST  ZACHARIAS,)  a  writer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773.  He  published 
a  "  Description  of  Rome,"  (3  vols.,  1830-43.) 

Platiier,  (JOHANN  ZACHARIAS,)  a  surgeon,  born  at 
Chemnitz  in  1694,  was  the  father  of  Ernst,  noticed  above. 
He  taught  at  Leipsic,  and  was  a  skilful  oculist.  He 
wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  "Surgical  Institutes,"  ("  Insti- 
tutiones  Chirurgiae  rationales,"  1745,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1747. 

Pla'to*  [Gr.  flAuruv ;  Lat.  PLA'TO  ;  Fr.  PLATON,  pli'- 
to.\';  Ger.  the  same  as  the  Latin  ;  It.  PLATON  K,  pla-to'na  ; 
Sp.  PLATON,  pli-t6n';  Port.  PLATAO,  pla-tosv.\';  Arab. 

and  Persian,  AFLATOON,  a-fla'toon',]  one  of  the  most  younger  Dionysius,  and  in  establishing,  through  him,  a 
illustrious  philosophers  of  all  time,  was  born  about  429 
K.C.  He  belonged  to  one  of  the  highest  families  of 
Athens,  being  descended  on  the  side  of  his  father, 
Aris'to,  (or  Aris'ton,)  from  Codrus,  and  on  that  of  his 
mother,  Pericti'one,  he  was  related  to  the  celebrated 
lawgiver  Solon.  As  to  the  place  of  his  birth  there  is 
some  dispute.  Some  svriters  say  that  he  was  born  at 
Athens;  others,  in  the  island  of  /Egina.  His  original 
name  was  Aris'tocles,  after  his  grandfather  :  he  was  sur- 
named  PLATO,  (from  Tr/.ari'c,  "  broad,")  on  account  of 


nations  of  the  East ;  but  of  this  there  is  not  a  partictn 
of  trustworthy  evidence.  While  in  Sicily  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dion,  (or  Dio,)  who  introduced  him  ti, 
Dionysius  the  Elder.  But  the  philosopher,  as  might 
well  be  supposed,  was  not  likely  to  find  much  favour  in 
the  eyes  of  an  unscrupulous  and  reckless  tyrant.  They 
soon  quarrelled,  and  on  one  occasion  Dionysius,  it  is 
said,  was  so  deeply  offended  with  the  freedom  of  some 
of  Plato's  remarks,  that,  had  not  Dion  interposed,  he 
would  have  punished  him  with  death.  Although  the 
tyrant  was  prevailed  on  to  spare  his  life,  he  caused  him  to 
be  sold  as  a  slave.  He  was,  however,  ransomed  and  set 
at  liberty, — some  say  by  Dion,  others,  by  Anniceris  of 
Cyrene.  Having  returned  to  Athens,  he  opened  a  school, 
called  the  Academy,  ( Academia.)  in  a  grove,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  a  citizen  named  Academus  or 
Hecademus.  His  school  was  numerously  attended  by 
young  men  of  the  most  distinguished  families  of  Athens 
and  of  all  Greece.  Even  women  were  numbered,  it 
is  said,  among  his  disciples.  After  having  taught  in 
Athens  more  than  twenty  years,  he  again  visited  Sicily, 
at  the  solicitation  of  Dion,  who  hoped  that  Plato's  influ 
ence  might  be  successful  in  winning  to  philosophy  the 
younger  Dionysius,  and  in  establishing,  through  him,  a 
model  government  in  Syracuse.  (For  a  most  interesting 
account  of  this  experiment  and  its  failure,  see  Grote's 
"  History  of  Greece,"  vols.  x.  and  xi.)  He  afterwards 
visited  Syracuse  for  the  third  time,  in  order  to  effect  a 
reconciliation  between  Dionysius  and  Dion  ;«but  in  this 
attempt  he  was  wholly  unsuccessful.  He  returned  to 
Athens,  where  he  continued  to  write  and  teach  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  347  B.C.,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year. 
According  to  some  writers,  however,  he  died  in  his  eighty- 
first  year.  He  was,  as  Cicero  informs  us,  occupied  in 


the  breadth  of  his  forehead,  or,  as  some  say,  of  his  writing  at  the  very  moment  of  his  death.  There  is  per- 
shoulders.  Very  little  is  certainly  known  of  the  history  haps  in  the  history  of  the  human  intellect  no  example 
of  his  life,  and,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  the  absence  of  any  one  having  dedicated  himself  with  a  more  abso- 
of  positive  information  is  liberally  supplied  by  what  is  l  'ute  devotion  to  philosophy  (the  "love  or  study  of  wis- 
legendary  or  fabulous.  It  is  related  that  while  an  infant,  i  dom")  than  Plato.  He  was  never  married  ;  and,  from 
as  he  was  one  day  sleeping  in  a  bower  on  Mount  Hymet-  tne  time  when  he  first  became  acquainted  with  Socrates, 
tus,  a  number  of  bees  dropping  honey  settled  upon  his  I  (about  his  twentieth  year,)  every  moment  of  his  long 
lips,  thus  foreshadowing  the  extraordinary  sweetness  of  life  appears  to  have  been  spent  in  the  interest  of  his 
his  eloquence.  According  to  another  story,  his  future  j  favourite  pursuit. 

greatness  was  foreshown  'by  a  dream  of  Socrates,  who  Tnis  entire  dedication  of  all  his  powers  to  one  grand 
saw  in  his  sleep  a  young  swan  coming  from  the  grove  object  has  not  been  without  results  of  the  highest  im- 
of  Academus;  after  nestling  in  his  bosom,  it  soared  i  portance  to  mankind.  Probably  no  other  philosopher, 
aloft,  singing  sweetly  as  it  rose..  The  next  morning,  j  °f  whatever  age  or  nation,  has  contributed  so  much  as 
just  as  Socrates  had  finished  relating  his  dream,  Aristo  j  Plato  towards  the  moral  and  intellectual  culture  of  the 
presented  himself,  leading  by  the  hand  young  Plato,  I  human  race.  This  pre-eminence  is  to  be  ascribed  not 
whom  he  wished  to  place  under  the  instruction  of  that  j  solely  to  his  transcendent  intellect  or  to  the  marvellous 
distinguished  sage.  j  depth  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  philosophic  views, 

Plato  was  a  remarkable  example  of  that  universal  !  but  also  in  no  small  measure  to  his  poetic  power,  and 
culture  which  characterized  the  best  period  of  ancient  j  to  that  unrivalled  grace  and  beauty  of  style  which  led 
Greece.  He  appears  to  have  neglected  no  branch  of  '  the  ancients  to  say  that  if  Jove  should  speak  Greek  he 
science  or  art  which  was  considered  to  form  any  part  |  would  speak  like  Plato.  Macaulay,  alluding  to  Plato's 
of  a  liberal  education.  He  studied  music,  rhetoric,  and  j  wonderful  power  as  a  writer,  speaks  of  him  as  "the 
painting,  and,  after  the  manner  of  his  countrymen,  paid  finest  of  human  intellects,  exercising  boundless  dominion 
great  attention  to  gymnastics,  in  which  he  was  so  ex-  over  the  finest  of  human  languages."  ("  Essay  on  Lord 
pert,  we  are  told,  that  he  contended  at  the  Isthmian  and  :  Bacon.'")  The  charms  of  his  style,  indeed,  by  awakening 
Pvthian  games.  In  early  life  he  is  said  to  have  turned  I  the  interest  and  admiration  of  all  lovers  of  literature, 


his  attention  to  poetry,  and  to  have  written  an  epic  poem, 
which,  however,  on  comparing  it  with  the  "  Iliad,"  he 
burned  in  despair.  He  also  composed  some  lyrics  and 
several  tragedies.  But  "having  once,"  as  yEIian  ex 
presses  it,  "been  captivated  by  the  siren  of  Socrates," 
he  gave  himself  up  wholly  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 
He  was  in  his  twentieth  year,  as  it  appears,  when  he 
began  to  attend  the  school  of  Socrates,  where  he  con 
tinued  until  his  master's  death,  (399  B.C.)  After  this 
event,  in  order  to  escape  the  persecutions  which  threat 
ened  them,  he,  with  several  other  Socratic  disciples, 
withdrew  to  Megara,  where  they  were  received  by  the 
philosopher  Euclid,  who  had  also  been  a  pupil  of  Socra 
tes.  Plato  is  said  subsequently  to  have  travelled  exten 
sively,  visiting  Egypt,  Sicily,  and  Magna  Graecia,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras. 
Some  writers  speak  of  his  having  journeyed  into  the 
interior  of  Asia  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  his  mind 
with  the  wisdom  of  the  Persians,  Babylonians,  and  other 

*  Chaucer  gives  the  name  PLATON,  or  PI.ATONE,  and  PLATO. 


have  doubtless  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  that  state 
of  excellent  preservation  in  which  his  works  have  come 
down  to  us.  For,  by  a  singular  good  fortune,  all  his 
philosophical  writings,  there  is  reason  to  Ijelieve,  have 
been  preserved,  not  only  unmutilated  with  respect  to 
the  different  parts,  but  with  the  text,  comparatively 
speaking,  uncorrupted  and  unimpaired. 

With  respect  to  Plato's  character  as  a  man  we  know 
scarcely  anything  except  what  is  revealed  in  his  works. 
"Despite  the  disposition  of  the  Greeks  for  calumny," 
says  Ritter,  "there  are  but  few  evil  rumours  against 
which  we  have  to  vindicate  the  purity  of  his  moral  con 
duct."  The  same  writer  not  only  rejects  as  unfounded 
the  charges  against  the  purity  of  Plato's  private  char 
acter,  but  regards  as  either  wholly  unjust  or  greatly 
exaggerated  the  imputation  against  him  of  malice  or 
ill  feeling  towards  certain  other  disciples  of  Socrates, 
such  as  Xenophon,  Euclid,  Aristippus,  and  others, 
whose  views  on  many  points  differed  widely  from  his 
own.  Plato  has  been  accused  by  some  modern  writers 
of  being  wanting  in  patriotism  and  in  a  sympathy  for 


-c.  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,gutturM:  x,  nasal:  R.  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.      (^ 

114 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLATO 


1810 


PLATO 


humanity.  Both  of  these  charges  seem  to  us  unjust. 
The  state  of  political  morals  in  his  time  was  such  that 
he  could  scarcely  hope  to  effect  any  good  by  taking  an 
active  part  in  public  affairs.  By  doing  so,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe,  he  would  have  only  embroiled  himself 
in  an  endless  conflict  with  men  with  whom  his  standard 
of  right  would  not  permit' him  to  co-operate.  Besides, 
his  talents  do  not  appear  to  have  fitted  him  for  politics  ; 
and  he  is  certainly  not  to  be  censured  for  confining  him 
self  to  that  field  of  labour  for  which  nature  had  best 
qualified  him.  The  charge  that  he  was  wanting  in  a 
sympathy  for  human  nature  appears  to  have  no  other 
foundation  than  the  fact  th-t  he  had  no  sympathy  with 
vice  and  ignorance,  two  niost  conspicuous  features  in 
the  human  nature  which  he  saw  around  him.  Yet  the 
great  object,  and,  we  may  add,  the  tendency,  of  nearly 
all  his  teachings  was  to  make  mankind  happier  by 
making  them  wiser  and  better.* 

With  respect  to  Plato's  philosophic  system,  it  is  im 
possible  to  say  with  any  precision  how  much  of  it  was 
properly  his  own,  and  how  much  svas  derived  from  his 
great  master.  (See  SoCRATES.)  It  is  a  fine  saying  of 
Mr.  Emerson,  that  "  Socrates  and  Plato  are  the  double 
star  which  the  most  powerful  instruments  will  not  en 
tirely  separate. ''t  The  plan  and  limits  of  the  present 
work  will  permit  us  only  to  glance  at  some  of  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  Plato's  philosophy  as  we  find 
it  unfolded  in  his  writings.  His  system  may  be  consid 
ered  from  two  points  of  view, — the  one  having  reference 
to  the  method,  the  other  to  the  results,  of  his  philosophic 
investigations.  His  method,  wL.ch  appears  to  be  scarcely 
more  than  an  extension  of  that  of  Socrates,  was  undoubt 
edly  a  great  improvement  on  the  methods  of  previous 
philosophers. 

But  the  admirable  lessons  of  his  great  teacher,  re 
specting  the  manner  and  spirit  with  which  the  search 
after  truth  should  be  conducted,  would  in  all  probability 
have  been  quickly  forgotten  and  lost  to  the  world,  had 
not  Plato  made  them  immortal  by  his  writings.  Re 
ferring  the  reader  to  the  article  on  SOCRATKS  for  a  brief 
notice  of  the  Socratic  method,  we  shall  here  limit  our 
selves  to  simply  calling  attention  to  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  points  in  Plato's  philosophic  creed,  without 
attempting,  in  our  narrow  space,  to  give  even  a  complete 
outline  of  his  system.  He  taught  that  God  was  the 
supreme  Idea  or  Essence  of  the  universe,  comprising 
within  himself  all  other  beings,  and  was  the  Cause  of  all 
things,  celestial  and  terrestrial.  He  alone  is  good,  with 
out  envy,  willing  good  to  all  so  far  as  each  is  capable  of 
receiving  it  :  God  alone  is  unchangeable.  Plato  strongly 
condemned  the  views,  then  prevalent,  which  represented 
the  cods  as  having  human  passions  and  as  influenced 
by  selfish  human  motives.  While  he  taught  the  exist 
ence  of  one  supreme  God,  the  so  est'e  and  upholder  of 
all  things,  he  appears  to  have  recognized,  at  the  same 
time,  a  class  of  inferior  deities,  or  beings  with  godlike 
attributes,  far  superior  to  man.  One  of  the  most  re 
markable  features  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  his  theory  of 
ideas.  With  him,  an  idea  is  not  simply  an  image  or 
conception  formed  by  the  human  mind:  it  is  rather  an 
eternal  thought  of  the  Divine  mind.  lie  held  that  the 


*  We  need  scarcely  say  that  we  utterly  and  totally  dissent  from 
Macaulay's  estimate  of  Plato's  philosophic  writings,  (see  "  Essay  on 
Lord  Bacon,"  second  part,)  which  he  compares  to  a  magnificent  tree, 
full  of  beautiful  leaves  and  flowers,  but  producing  no  fruit.  Writings 
which  have  inspired  the  souls  of  so  many  thousands  with  loftier  aspi 
rations  and  with  a  more  earnest  love  of  virtue,  may  be  truly  said  to 
have  borne  fruit  of  the  most  precious  kind,  compared  witli  which  the 
boasted  products  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  are  little  better  than 
the  apples  of  the  Dead  Sea.  That  Plato's  writings  have  often  pro 
duced  the  results  which  we  have  ascribed  to  them  will  scarcely  be 
denied,  we  think,  by  any  one  familiar  with  those  writings  or  with  the 
history  of  antiquity.  To  cite  one  example  out  of  many,  Cato  the 
Younger,  confessedly  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  virtuous  of  all  the 
Romans,  when  surrounded  with  misfortunes  on  every  hand,  and 
amid  the  ruins  of  his  country,  sought  and  found  consolation  and  hope 
in  the  subGme  teachings  of  Plato's  "  Phajdo." 

t  See  "Representative  Men,"  article  "Plato,"  the  whole  of 
which  is  well  worthy  of  perusal  by  those  who  would  have  a  vivid 
conception  of  Plato's  power  as  a  philosopher.  This  essay,  it  seems 
to  us,  is  one  of  Mr.  Emerson's  happiest  efforts;  and,  if  he  some 
times  exaggerates  the  greatness  and  worth  of  his  hero,  the  fault  is 
more  than  atoned  for  by  a  thorough  and  vivid  appreciation  of  his 
subject, — perhaps  the  most  important,  as  it  is  the  rarest,  qualification 
of  a  good  critic. 


human  soul  is  not  only  immortal,  but  that  it  has  always 
existed.}:  In  its  pre-existent  state  it  has  had  a  perception 
of  the  eternal  ideas  (i.e.  the  perfect  forms  or  patterns 
of  things)  as  they  exist  in  the  mind  of  God.  A  dim, 
shadowy  remembrance  of  those  celestial  patterns  is  what 
sometimes  enables  us  to  form  a  conception  of  loveliness, 
virtue,  etc.  far  more  perfect,  more  divine,  than  anything 
our  mortal  eyes  have  ever  beheld.  It  is  thus  that  the 
gifted  painter  is  enabled  to  give  us  forms  of  beauty  more 
exquisite  than  any  that  can  be  found  in  this  world.  It 
is  thus,  also,  that  on  hearing  of  a  generous  action  we 
are  enabled  to  form  an  idea  of  generosity;  for  it  is  ob 
vious  that  such  an  action  could  have  no  significance  to 
one  who  had  never  known  the  feeling  of  generosity  in  his 
soul :  in  a  perfectly  selfish  man,  if  such  a  one  could  be 
found,  it  would  not  awaken  admiration,  but  simply  con 
tempt.  Xenophon  tells  us,  in  the  second  book  of  his 
"Anabasis,"  that  Menon  the  Thessalian  considered 
honesty  and  truth  to  be  nothing  else  than  stupidity  or 
folly.  A  Platonist  would  explain  this  by  saying  that  ail 
traces  of  the  Divine  ideas  of  truth  and  justice  had, 
through  the  love  of  gain  or  love  of  power,  become 
obliterated  from  his  soul.  Plato  taught  that  the  only 
way  in  which  men  can  rise  in  wisdom  and  virtue  is 
by  striving  to  restore  the  lost  ideas  and  to  make  their 
minds  approximate  the  mind  of  God. 

Plato  appears  to  have  made  himself  thoroughly  ac 
quainted  with  all  the  previous  philosophic  systems  which 
had  appeared  in  Greece.  He  had  not  only  diligently 
studied  the  doctrines  of  Heracli'tus,  Pythagoras,  and 
Socrates,  but  also  those  of  Anaxagoras,  Parmenides,  and 
others  of  less  note.  "He  reduced,"  says  Kilter,  "into 
a  beautiful  whole  t!ie  scattered  results  of  the  earlier 
Greek  philosophy,  reconciling  their  seeming  differences 
and  conflicting  tendencies.  .  .  .  When,  indeed,  we  com 
pare  the  barrenness  of  the  earlier  philosophers  with  the 
fertility  of  Plato,  that  love,  which  he  knows  so  well  how 
to  inspire  in  us,  warms  almost  to  veneration,  so  rich,  so 
varied,  and  so  abundant  arc  his  observations,  and  so 
profound  his  knowledge  of  man  and  of  the  world.  .  .  . 
To  such  richness  of  materials  Plato  united  the  rarest 
skill  of  language  and  composition  to  a  degree  which  has 
never  since  been  equalled." 

Respecting  Plato's  intellectual  power  as  a  philosopher, 
Mr.  Emerson  grandly  observes  that  "his  strength  is  like 
the  momentum  of  a  falling  planet,  and  his  discretion 
the  return  of  its  due  and  perfect  curve."  Again  he  says, 
"The  way  to  know  him  [Plato]  is  to  compare  him,  not 
with  nature,  but  with  other  men.  How  many  ages  have 
gone  by,  and  he  remains  unapproached  !"  ("  Representa 
tive  Men.") 

The  philosophic  writings  of  Plato  are,  with  some 
slight  exceptions,  in  the  form  of  dialogues,  in  all  of 
which,  save  one,  ("The  Laws,")  Socrates  is  one  of  the 
chief  interlocutors.  The  different  dialogues  have  been 
distributed  by  Schleiermacher  into  three  divisions. 

The  first  division,  in  which  the  development  of  the 
dialogistic  method  is  the  chief  object,  includes  the 
"  Phaedrus,"  "Lysis,"  "Protagoras,"  "Laches,"  "Char- 
mides,"  "Euthyphro,"  and  "Parmenides,"  to  which  are 
added,  by  way  of  appendix  or  supplement,  the  "Apology 
of  Socrates,"  "  Critos,"  "  Ion,"  "  Ilippias  Minor,"  "Hip- 
parchus,"  "Minos,"  and  "Alcibiades  II."  The  second 
division,  in  which  the  predominant  subject  is  the  expla 
nation  of  knowledge,  including  the  difference  between 
philosophical  and  common  knowledge,  comprises  the 
"Gorgias,"  "Theastetus,"  "Meno,"  "  Euthydemus," 
"Cratylus,"  "  Sophistes,"  "Politicus,"  ("Statesman,") 
"Symposium,"  ("Banquet,")  "Phoedo,"  (or  "  Phaedon,") 
and  "  Philebus,"  with  an  appendix  containing  the  "The- 
ages,"  "  Erastas,"  "Alcibiades  I.,"  "  Menexenus,"  "  Hip- 
pias  Major,"  and  "Clitophon."  The  third  division 
consists  of  such  as  contain  an  objective  scientific  ex 
position, — in  other  words,  combine  practical  science 
with  speculative  philosophy:  these  are  the  "Republic," 
"Timaeus,"  and  "  Critias,"  to  which  may  be  added  "The 


He  appears  to  have  believed  not  that  the  soul  has  always  existed 
in  its  present  form  or  condition,  or  anything  like  it,  but  that  as  God 
is  the  source  of  all  things,  and  as  His  thoughts  and  purposes  are 
eternal,  the  soul_may  therefore  be  said  to  have  always  had  an  exist 
ence  in  that  infinite  Being  of  whom  it  is  an  emanation. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  me't;  not;  good;  moon; 


PLATO 


181 1 


PLEMP 


Laws."  The  first  edition  of  Plato's  entire  works  was 
that  published  in  Venice  by  Aldus  in  1513;  the  best 
are  perhaps — first,  that  of  Ast,  published  at  Leipsic,  in 
9  vols.  8vo,  1819-27,  and,  second,  that  of  G.  Stallbaum, 
in  8  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1821-25,  (and  the  same  text  in  8 
vols.  I2mo,  1826.) 

See  FRI.KDRICH  AST,  "  Plato's  Leben  und  Schriften,"  Leipsic, 
1816;  STALLBADM,  "Dispulatio  de  Platonis  Vita,  Ingenio  et 
Scripiis."  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Plato's  works  ;  RITTHK,  "  His 
tory  of  Ancient  Pliilosopliy,"  translated  by  A.  J.  W.  MOKISOX,  4 
'i.  Oxr'urd,  1838  ;  ScHUtiERMACHHR,  "  Introductions  to  the 


Liff  and  Ilenvie  in  1773,  and  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1785.  In  1805  he 
succeeded  Professor  Robison  as  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  same  university.  He  contributed  to 
the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  many  articles,  among  which  is 
a  review  of  La  Place's  "'i.-aite  de  Mecanique  celeste," 
(1808.)  He  published  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1795,) 
which  was  extensively  used  in  schools,  "  Illustrations 
of  the  Huttonian  Theory  of  the  Earth,"  (1802,)  and 


"Outlines  of    Natural    Philosophy,"    (2    vols.,     1812. 


s  Lebsn,  niit   einer  naliern   Angabe    seiner    philosophise!] 


<\'./.e,  aus  dem  Kranzosischen,"  1829;  I.  O<;IEN*;KI,  "Pericles 
et  Plato:  Inqtiisitio  historica  et  phi'osophica,"  1838;  T.  VAN  SWIN- 
DEKKN',  ''Oratio  de  Platone  nptimo  in  Legibus  condendis  Principe 
mapistro."  1807  ;  also  the  articles  on  "  Plato  "  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia 


mica."  Died  in  1819. 
"  He  possessed  in  the  highest  degree,"  says  Jeffrey,  "all 
the  characteristics  both  of  a  fine  and  powertul  under 
standin,  at  once  penetrating  and  vigilant,  but  more 


Hritannica,"  in  SMITH'S  "Greek  and  Roman  Biographv,"  etc.,  and  in     distinguished   perhaps   for  the  Caution   and   sureness   (or 
the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  GeneVale,"  from  tlie  pen  of  DK.  HoEFhR. 


Plato,  [Gr.  Tl/MTur,]  an  eminent  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  about  428-390  B.C., 
and  was  contemporary  with  Aristophanes.  He  attacked 
Cleon  and  other  demagogues  in  his  plays,  which  dis 
played  keen  wit,  vigour,  and  purity  of  style.  Many 
fragments  of  them  have  come  down  to  us.  According 
to  some  critics,  he  was  a  writer  of  the  middle  comedy. 

Platof,  Platov,  or  Platow,  pla'tof,  Hetinan  of  the 


success)  of  its  march  than  for  the  brilliancy  or  rapidity 
of  its  movements." 

See  a  "Life  of  J.  Play  air,"  prefixed  to  bU  collected  works,  4 
vois.,  1822;  CIIAMHKKS,  '•  biographical  Dictionary;"  JKFFKKY, 
"  -Miscellanies." 

Play'fair,  (Lvox,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  Bengal, 
in  India,  in  1819.  He  studied  at  Saint  Andrew's,  and  at 
Giessen  under  Liebig.  He  became  in  1843  Professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution  in  Manchester.  For 


Cossacks,  was  born  on  the  Don  about  1760.      He  served  j  his  services  as  a  commissioner  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
as  general  in  the  Russian  army  which  marched  to  the    of  r85>  lle  was  macle  a  Qjpnpanion  of  the  Bath.     He  was 


aid  of  Prussia  in  1806.  He  harassed  the  retreating 
French  army  in  1812,  and  entered  Paris  with  a  troop 
of  Cossacks  in  1814.  Died  in  1818. 

Platon.     See  PLATO. 

Platon,  pla'ton,  (LEKSIHN  or  LEFFSCHIN,)  an  eminent 
Russian  prelate,  born  near  Moscow  in  1737.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator,  and  be- 


appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1858.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
treatises  and  lectures  on  chemistry. 

Playfair,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  political  writer  and 
ingenious  inventor,  born  near  Dundee  in  1759,  was  a 
brother  of' Professor  John  Playfair.  He  made  several 
useful  mechanical  inventions.  About  1814  he  became 


came  court  preacher  to  Catherine  II.   lie  was  appointed  j  editor  of  Galignani's  "  Messenger,"  in  Paris.     He  after- 


Archbishop  of  Moscow  in  1775,  and  Metropolitan  of  the 
Russian  Church  in  1787.     He  publisher!  many  sermons 


wards  resided  in  London.     Among  his  numerous  works 
are    a   "History  of  Jacobinism,"  (I79v)   and  "  P>ritish 


and    theological    works,  which   are   highly  commended.  I  Family  Antiquity,"  (9  vols.,  1809-12.)      Died  in  1823. 
Died  in  November,   lSl2.  See  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Play'ford,  (Joiix,)  an  English  writer  on  music,  born 
in    1613  ;   died    in    1693.      His   son    HENRY    published 


Platone.     See  PLATO. 


Platte-Montagne,  plSt'mdN'tin',  (MATTHKW  VAX 
PI.ATHEX-BERCH  or  PLATTEXBKKG,)  a  Flemish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1606.  He  removed 
to  Paris,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  engraved  land 
scapes.  Died  in  1660.  His  son  NICOLAS  (1631-1706) 


was  also  a  painter  and  engraver. 
Plaute.     See  PI.AUTUS. 
Plauto.     See  PI.AUTUS. 


"  Orpheus  Britannicus." 

Pleas'pii-ton,  (ALFRED.)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  in  1824,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1844.  He  gained  the  rank  of  captain 


I  in  1855,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
in  1862.  He  commanded  a  body  of  cavalry  at  Antietam, 
September,  1862,  and  at  Chancellorsville,  May,  1863,  and 

Plau'tus,  [Fr.  PLAI:TE,  plot;  It.  PI.AI:TO,  plow'to,]  i  had  the  chief  command  of  the  Union  cavalry  at  Gettys- 
(MARCUS  Acciusor  ATTIUS,)  the  most  celebrated  of  the  !  burg,  July  1-3,  iS<^  He  served  in  Missouri  when  that 
Roman  comic  poets,  was  a  native  of  Sarsina,  in  Umbria.  j  State  was  invaded  uy  General  Price  in  October,  1864. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  born  about  254,  or,  as  some  ;  Pleas'aiits,  (  JAMES,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
say,  in  224  li.c.  In  his  youth  he  served  a  baker  by  I  Virginia  in  1769.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
grinding  corn  with  a  hand-mill.  Little  is  known  of  his  j  States  from  1819  to  1822,  and  Governor  of  Virginia 
history.  According  to  Cicero,  he  died  in  184  B.C.  His  !  from  1822  to  1825.  Died  in  1836. 

plays  were  very  popular  in  his  own  time,  and  are  gen-  j  Pleg'mund,  an  English  prelate  under  the  reign  of 
eraily  admired  by  modern  critics.  His  elegance,  re-  I  Alfred  the  Great,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
finement,  and  wit  are  commended  by  Cicero  and  other  j  in  890  A.n.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  learning  and 
ancient  critics.  Horace  censures  his  coarse  jests  and  j  virtues,  and  was  honoured  with  the  friendship  of  the 
his  versification.  The  titles  of  his  extant  plays  are  !  king.  He  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  part  in  the  com- 
"  Amphitruo."  "  Asinaria,"  "Aulularia,"  "  Bacchides,"  !  pilation  of  the  "Saxon  Chronicle." 

"Captivi,"  "CurcuHo,"  "Casina,"  "Cistellaria,"  "  Epi-  I  See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
dicus,"  "Menaechmi,"  "  Mercator,"  "Miles  Gloriosus,"  vol.  i.  chap,  vi.,  iS6o 

"  Mostellaria,"  "  Persa,"  "  Pcenulus,"  "  Pseudolns,"  "  Ru-  Pleiades,  nlee'va-dez,  [Gr.  UAEtu6e<;  or  Tle/.etu6ef  ;  Fr. 
dens,"  "Stichus,"  "  Trinummus,"  and  "Truculentus."  ;  PLEIADES,  pla'e-Jtl';  Eng.  PLEIADS,  plee'yads,  ]  the 
There  is  a  good  English  version  of  Plautus  by  Bonnel  ,  daughters  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  were  seven  in  number, 
Thornton.  The  "Captivi"  was  pronounced  the  most  and  were  said  to  be  sisters  of  the  Ilyades.  Their  names 
perfect  of  comedies  by  Lessing,  who,  as  a  critic,  had  |  were  ELF.CTRA.  MAIA,  TAYGETK,  ALCYONE,  CEL.-EXO, 


scarcely  any  superior. 

See  GRONOVIUS,  "  Lectiones  Planting,"  1740:  LOMAN.  "Spec! 
men  critico-literarium  in  Plantum  et  Terentium,"  1845  >  ANDRSKN, 
"  De  Vita  Plauti,"  1843;  LKSSING,  "Von  dem  Leben  nnd  den 
Werken  des  Plautus,"  in  the  third  volume  of  his  works,  Berlin,  1838  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1843. 

Flay'fair,  (JoHX,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathemati 
cian  and  astronomer,  born  at  Benvie,  Forfarshire,  on  the 
loth  of  March,  1748,  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Saint  Andrew's.  He  became  minister  of  the  parishes  of 


STF.ROPE,  and  MEROPE.  According  to  one  legend,  they 
were  attendants  of  Diana,  and,  to  protect  them  from  the 
amorous  pursuit  of  Orion,  were  changed  into  doves  and 
placed  among  the  stars.  They  were  sometimes  called 
ATI.AXTIDES. 

Flemp,  plemp,  (CoKXEi.lS,)  a  writer  of  Latin  poetry, 
was  born  at  .-Mnsterdam  in  1574;  died  in  1638. 

Plemp,  [Lat.  PI.EM'PIUS,]  (Vonscus  FORTUNATTS,) 
a  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1601,  be 
came  professor  at  Louvain  in  1633.  Died  in  1671. 


e  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLEMPIUS 


1812 


PLOT  IN  US 


Plempius.     See  PLEMP. 

Plenck,  von,  fon  plenk,  (JOSEPH  JAKOB,)  a  German 
surgeon  and  botanist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1738.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  one  "  On  Diseases  of  the 
Eyes,"  ("  De  Morbis  Oculorum,"  1777,)  and  "Figures 
of  Medicinal  Plants,"  ("  Icones  Plantarum  medicina- 
lium,"  7  vols.,  1788-1804.)  Died  in  1807. 

See  MEUSEI.,  "Gelehrtes  Deutscliland." 

Plessing,  ples'sing,  (FRIEDRICH  VICTOR  LEBRECHT,) 
a  German  philosopher,  born  near  Magdeburg  in  1752. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Duisburg,  and  wrote 
two  works  on  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients,  entitled 
"Osiris  and  Socrates,"  (1783,)  and  "Memnonium,  or 
an  Essay  to  Unveil  the  Mysteries  of  Antiquity,"  (1787.) 
Dit-d  in  1806. 

Flessis.     See  DUPI.ESSIS  and  RICHEUKU. 

Plessis  d'Argentre.     See  ARGENTKE,  D'. 

Plessis-Mornay.     See  MUKNAY. 

Plessis-Praslin.     See  CHOISKUL. 

Pletho  or  Plethon.     See  GEMISTUS. 

Pleville  le  Pelley,  pli'vel'  leh  pi'KV,  (GEORGE 
RENE,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Granville  in  1726.  He 
fought  with  distinction  for  the  United  States,  (1778-83.) 
He  was  minister  of  the  marine  in  1797.  Died  in  1805. 

Pleyel,  pli'el',  (JOSEPH  ETJENNE  CAMILLE,)  a  com 
poser  and  pianist,  was  born  at  Strasburg  about  1790. 
He  became  a  partner  of  Kalkbrenner  in  the  fabrication 
of  pianos  in  Paris.  Died  in  1855. 

Pleyl,  i)lll,  or  Pleyel,  pli'el,  (!GNAZ,)  a  celebrated 
composer,  father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Rnppersthal, 
near  Vienna,  in  1756  or  1757.  Having  studied  under 
Haydn  and  subsequently  visited  Italy,  he  was  appointed, 
after  his  return,  chapel-master  at  Strasburg.  In  1795 
he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  established  a  piano-manu 
factory  and  published  the  "  Bibliotheque  Musicale."  His 
works  are  chiefly  pieces  of  instrumental  music,  which 
were  very  popular  in  his  time.  Died  in  1831. 

See  F£TIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Pliiie.     See  PLINY. 

Plinio.     See  PLINY. 

Pliiiius.     See  PLINY. 

Plin'I-us  Va-le-ri-a'nus,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
medical  work  called  "  Medicinae  Plinianae  Libri  quinque." 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  several  centuries 
after  the  Christian  era. 

Plln'y  |  Fr.  PLINE,  plen;  It.  PLINIO,  plee'ne-o]  THE 
ELDER,  (or,  more  fully,  Ca'ius  Plin'ius  Secvm'dus,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  naturalist,  was  born  at  Verona,  or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  Novum  Covnum,  (the 
modern  Como,)  in  23  A.D.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
Germany,  under  Lucius  Pomponius,  and  returned  to 
Rome  about  the  age  of  thirty.  He  studied  law,  and 
practised  as  a  pleader  for  a  few  years.  He  was  after 
wards  procurator  in  Spain  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and 
became  a  friend  and  favoured  officer  of  Vespasian.  We 
possess  but  little  other  information  of  his  public  life, 
except  that  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  command 
of  a  fleet  stationed  at  Misenum.  In  August,  79  A.D., 
occurred  a  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  Observing  the 
immense  cloud  of  smoke  which  arose  in  the  form  of  a 
tree  from  the  volcano,  he  embarked  at  Misenum  on  a 
vessel  and  approached  nearer  to  the  scene  of  danger. 
He  calmly  noted  the  variations  of  the  portentous  phe 
nomenon,  amidst  the  shower  of  cinders  and  pumice- 
stones  which  fell  around  his  vessel,  and  landed  at  Stabia. 
In  the  ensuing  night  he  attempted  to  return  to  the  vessel, 
but  he  perished  on  land,  suffocated  by  ashes  or  sul 
phurous  exhalations.  This  was  probably  the  eruption 
which  destroyed  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 

He  left  historical  and  grammatical  works,  which  are 
lost.  The  only  work  of  Pliny  that  has  come  down  to  us 
is  his  "  Natural  History,"  (''Naturae  Historiarum  Libri 
XXXVII.,")  which  is  thus  characterized  by  Cuvier,  (in 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle  :")  "  It  is  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  most  precious  monuments  that  antiquity  has  left 
for  us,  and  the  evidence  of  an  erudition  very  wonderful  in 
a  warrior  and  statesman.  In  order  to  appreciate  justly 
this  vast  and  celebrated  composition,  it  is  necessary  to 
direct  our  attention  to  the  plan,  the  facts,  and  the  style. 
The  plan  is  immense.  ...  He  includes  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  geography,  agriculture,  commerce, 


medicine,  and  the  arts,  as  well  as  natural  history  properly 
so  called.  .  .  .  Pliny  was  not  an  observer  like  Aristotle; 
still  less  was  he  a  man  of  genius,  capable,  like  that  great 
philosopher,  of  tracing  the  laws  and  relations  ill  ac 
cordance  with  which  the  works  of  nature  are  formed 
and  arranged,  (co-ordonnee.)  In  general,  he  is  only  a 
compiler.  ...  A  comparison  of  his  extracts  with  the 
originals  which  are  extant,  especially  with  Aristotle, 
convinces  us  that  Pliny  did  not  prefer  to  take  from  the 
authors  he  consulted  that  which  was  most  important 
or  most  exact.  In  general,  he  prefers  the  singular  and 
marvellous.  ...  If  Pliny  has  for  us  little  merit  as  a 
naturalist  and  critic,  it  is  far  otherwise  in  respect  to  his 
talent  as  a  writer,  and  the  vast  treasury  of  Latin  terms 
and  locutions  which  have  made  his  work  one  of  the  rich 
est  depositories  of  the  language  of  the  Romans."  He 
was  a  decided  pantheist,  and  had  no  faith  in  the  future 
existence  of  the  human  soul.  His  style  is  vigorous, 
condensed,  pointed,  and  abounds  in  antithesis.  Among 
the  best  editions  of  Pliny  is  that  published  by  Sillig, 
Hamburg.  "  His  profound  erudition,"  says  Buffon,  "is 
enhanced  by  elevation  of  ideas  and  nobleness  of  style. 
He  not  only  knew  all  that  could  be  known  in  his  time, 
but  he  had  that  large  faculty  of  thinking  which  multi 
plies  science,  he  had  that  delicacy  (finesse)  of  reflection 
on  which  depend  elegance  and  taste,  and  he  imparts  to 
his  reader  a  certain  freedom  of  spirit  and  boldness  of 
thought,  which  is  the  germ  of  philosophy." 

See  SAI.MASIUS,  "  Exercitationes  Plinianx,"  1629:  A.  Jos.  A 
TUKRE  RKZZONICO,  "  Disqiiisitiones  Pliniana:,"  2  vo!s.,  1763-67; 
PAUL  EBHK.  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  C.  Plinii,"  1556;  A.  I,.  A.  KRK, 
"  Eloge  de  Pline  le  Naturaliste,"  1X21;  BAIIR,  "  Geschicltte  der 
Romischen  Literatur:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pliny  HIE  YOUNGER,  [Fr.  PLINE  LE  JEUNE,  plen  leh 
zhun,]  (or,  more  fully,  Cai'us  Plin'ius  Caecil'ius  Se- 
cun'dus,)  a  Latin  author  and  orator,  born  at  Comum, 
(now  Como,)  on  Lake  Larius,  (Lake  Como,)  in  61  or  62 
A.  ix,  was  a  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  a  son  of  Caius  Cascilius  and  Plinia,  a  sister 
of  Pliny  the  Elder.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  wrote  a 
Greek  tragedy.  He  studied  rhetoric  under  Quintilian, 
and  practised  law  at  Rome.  After  he  had  held  other 
high  offices,  he  became,  in  103,  governor  or  proconsul 
of  Bithynia.  He  wrote  to  Trajan  a  famous  letter,  in 
which  he  bore  testimony  to  the  good  morality  of 
the  Christians  and  requested  directions  in  relation  to 
their  treatment.  Although  he  was  a  man  of  humane 
disposition,  he  enforced  the  law  which  condemned  to 
death  those  who  refused  to  abjure  their  religion.  He 
was  a  friend  of  the  historian  Tacitus.  Pliny  wrote, 
besides  several  works  which  are  lost,  a  "  Panegyric  on 
Trajan,"  which  is  greatly  admired,  and  left  a  collection 
of  Letters,  in  ten  books,  which,  after  those  of  Cicero,  are 
perhaps  the  most  precious  relics  of  Roman  epistolary 
correspondence  that  have  come  down  to  us.  They  have 
been  translated  into  English  by  Lord  Orrery  and  Mr. 
Melmoth. 

See  MASSON,  "Vita  Plinii  junioris,"  Amsterdam,  1700;  CF.I.LA- 
RIUS,  "Vita  Plinii;"  ''Life  of  Pliny  the  Younger,"  prefixed  to  K. 
THIRKFBLD'S  German  version  of  his  Epistles,  etc.,  1828;  Oi.i'K, 
"Commentatio  de  C.  Plinio  Secnndo,"  etc.,  1784;  JIII.KS  JAMIN, 
"  Pline  le  Jeune  et  Quintilien,"  1838;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gine- 
rale." 

Ploos  van  Anistel,  plos  vSn  am'stel,  (CoRNEi.is,)  a 
Dutch  amateur  engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Amster 
dam  in  1726.  He  imitated  many  drawings  of  old  Itilian, 
Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German  masters,  and  made  a  rich 
collection  of  the  engravings  of  those  artists.  Died  about 
1800.  A  collection  of  his  imitations  was  published  in 
1821. 

Plot,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  naturalist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Kent  in  1641.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Oxford  about  1684,  and  historiographer-royal  in  1688. 
He  published  a  "  Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire," 
(1677,)  and  a  "Natural  History  of  Staffordshire,"  (1686.) 
Died  in  1696. 

Plotin.     See  PLOTIN  us. 

Flo-ti'na,  (PoMPEiA,)  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Tra 
jan,  is  represented  as  a  woman  of  excellent  character. 
She  died  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  who  erected  a  temple 
in  her  honour. 

Flo-ti'nus,  [Gr.  IY/MTIVOC;  Fr.  PLOTIN,  plo'taN';  Ger. 
PLOTIN,  plo-teen',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher  of  the 


:,  i,  o,  \\,y,/uny:  a,  e,  A,  same, less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  5, xi,  y.  short:  a,  e,  i,  o, obscure:  far,  fill,  fat:  m^t:  ndt;  good:  moon; 


PLOUCQUE7' 


1813 


PL  L'TAR  CH 


Neo-Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt, 
in  204  A.I).  He  was  a  pupil  of  Ammonius  Saccas.  In 
order  to  become  versed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Oriental 
sages,  he  accompanied  the  expedition  of  Gordian  against 
Parthia  in  243.  He  taught  philosophy  at  Rome  from 
245  A.I),  until  his  death,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
emperor  Gallienus.  He  had  many  disciples.  He  died 
about  270  A.D.,  leaving  fifty-four  books  on  abstract  sub 
jects  of  philosophy  and  metaphysics,  which  are  extant 
and  have  exerted  an  important  influence  in  modern 
times.  His  life  was  written  by  Porphyry,  who  was  his 
disciple.  Piotinus  was  preferred  by  Longinus,  who  knew 
him  well,  to  all  other  philosophers  of  that  time.  "  He 
was  intensely  religious,"  says  Hallam,  "and  if  he  had 
come  a  century  later  would,  instead  of  a  heathen  phi 
losopher,  have  been  one  of  the  first  names  among  the 
saints  of  the  Church." 

See  PORPHVKY,  "  Life  of  Piotinus,"  (in  Greek  ;)  KIRCHNER,  "Die 
Philosophic  des  Plotin,"  1854;  DAUNAS,  ''Plotin  et  sa  Doctrine," 
iS4S. 

Ploucquet,  ploo'ki',  (GODEFROI,)  a  metaphysician, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1716.  He  obtained  in  1750  the 
chair  of  logic,  etc.  at  Tubingen.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "Ground-Work  of  Speculative  Philosophy," 
("  Fundamenta  Philosophize  speculative,"  1759,)  in  which 
he  expounds  the  system  of  Leibnitz.  Died  in  1790. 

See  J.  L.  HUBKR,  "  Ploucquet's  Deukmal,"  1790. 

Plougoulm,  ploo'goolm',  (  PIKRKE  AMUROISE,  )  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Rouen  in  1796.  He  was  for  many 
years  procureur-gene'ral,  and  became  a  counsellor  to  the 
court  of  cassation  in  1854. 

FlSw'den,  (EDMUND,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Shropshire  about  1517,  was  a  zealous  Roman 
Catholic.  He  became  a  serjeant-at-law  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  left  "  Reports  or  Commentaries"  of 
cases  tried  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Eliza 
beth, — a  work  of  high  reputation.  Died  in  1585. 

St?e  Ai.MHOXK,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Plowden,  (FRANCIS,)  an  Irish  historian  and  barrister, 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Ireland," 
(1812.)  Having  been  prosecuted  for  libel,  he  retired  to 
France,  where  he  died  in  1829. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804;  "  Monthly  Review" 

for  May  and  January,  1796. 

Pluche,  pliish,  (NoEL  ANTOINK.,)  an  ingenious  French 
writer  and  naturalist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1688.  lie 
became  a  priest  or  abbe,  and  lectured  on  history  and 
geography  at  Paris.  In  1732  he  published  a  description 
of  the  outward  creation,  entitled  "  Spectacle  of  Nature," 
("  Spectacle  de  la  Nature,"  9  vols.,)  which  had  great 
success  and  was  often  reprinted.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
on  cosmogony,  entitled  "  History  of  the  Heavens," 
("  Histoire  du  Ciel,"  2  vols.,  1739,)  and  other  works, 
and  produced  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  is  com 
mended.  Died  in  1761. 

See  R.  I^TIENNE,  "  FUoge  de  Pluche." 

Pluk'e-net,  (LF.ONARD,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  1642.  Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  except 
that  in  his  old  age  he  was  appointed  by  Queen  Mary 
director  of  the  garden  at  Hampton  Court.  He  published 
a  work  of  some  merit,  entitled  "  Phytographia,"  (1691- 
96,)  also  "  Al'nagestum  Botanicum,"  (1696,)  and  "  Amal- 
theum  Botanicum,"  (1705.) 

Plum'er,  (\VII.LIAM.)  an  American  Governor,  born 
at  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  in  June,  1759.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  of 
New  Hampshire  eight  times,  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  from  1802  to  1807,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of 
New  Hampshire  in  1812.  He  was  re-elected  in  1816, 
1817,  and  1818.  His  latter  years  were  devoted  to  lite 
rary  pursuits.  Died  at  Epping,  New  Hampshire,  in  1850. 

See  a  "  Life  of  WTiain  Plumer,"  by  his  son  WILLIAM,  1856. 

Plumer,  (WILLIAM,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Epping,  New  Hampshire,  in  1790.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1819  to  1825.  He  published 
two  volumes  of  Poems.  Died  in  1854. 

Plumier,  plu'me-i',  (  CHARLKS.  )  a  distinguished 
French  botanist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1646,  was  a  pupil 
of  Tournefort.  He  explored  the  West  Indies  with  Su- 
rian  in  1689,  and,  soon  after  his  return,  published  a 
"  Description  of  the  Plants  of  America,"  (1693,  with  108 


good  plates,)  which  was  very  favourably  received,  By 
the  order  of  the  king,  he  revisited  America  in  1693  and 
1695.  In  1703  he  produced  "New  Genera  of  American 
Plants,"("Nova  Plantarum  Americanaium  Genera.")  He 
was  about  to  sail  for  Peru,  to  make  researches  on  the 
subject  of  quinquina,  (Peruvian  bark,)  when  he  died 
near  Cadiz  in  1704.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Ferns  of  America,"  (1705,  with  172  plates,  ex 
quisitely  engraved.)  "This  magnificent  collection,"  says 
the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "is  one  of  the  most 
admirable  monuments  of  skill  and  patience  that  can 
be  named." 

See  NICBRON,"  Memoires;"  MOR^RI,"  Dicdonnaire  Histcrique  ;" 
HALLER,  "  liibliotheca  Botanica." 

Plum'mer,  (JoHN.)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London 
in  1831,  removed  to  Northamptonshire.  He  published 
a  volume  entitled  "Songs  of  Labour,"  (1860,)  and  is 
author  of  numerous  essays. 

Plum'mer,  (JosF.PH  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Massachusetts  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1841.  He  became  a  captain  in  1852,  and  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  October,  1861.  He  served  in 
several  actions  in  Missouri.  Died  at  Corinth,  Missis 
sippi,  in  October,  1862. 

Plump'tre,  (JAMES,)  an  English  clergyman  and  dram 
atist,  born  in  1770.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Great 
Gransden  in  1812.  He  wrote  "Osway,"  (1795,)  and 
other  dramas,  and  "Discourses  on  the  Amusements 
of  the  Stage,"  (1810.)  Died  in  1832. 

Plum'ridge,  (Sir  JAMES  HANWAY,)  an  English  ad 
miral,  born  in  London  in  1787.  He  served  as  rear- 
admiral  in  the  Baltic  during  the  Russian  war,  (1854-55.) 
Died  in  1863. 

Pliink'et,  /OLIVER,)  a  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  the 
county  of  Meath,  Ireland,  about  1630.  He  received 
from  the  pope  the  title  of  Primate  of  Ireland  in  1669. 
He  was  executed  at  Tyburn,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  in 
1 68 1  :  but  his  innocence  was  afterwards  proved. 

Plunk'ett  or  Plunket,  (WILLIAM  CONYNGHAM,) 
first  Lord  Plunkett,  an  eminent  Irish  orator  and  judge, 
was  born  at  Enniskillen  in  July,  1764.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1787.  Having  been  elected  to  the  Irish  Parliament,  he 
acquired  distinction  by  his  impassioned  speeches  against 
the  union  with  England,  in  1800.  He  acted  as  consul 
for  the  insurgents  who  were  engaged  in  the  rebellion  of 
1798.  He  became  solicitor-general  for  Ireland  in  1803, 
and  attorney-general  in  1805,  but  retired  from  office 
with  the  Whigs  in  1807.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  to  the  British  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he 
voted  with  the  Whigs  and  made  a.  few  speeches  that 
were  greatly  applauded.  He  was  returned  to  Parlia 
ment  for  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1812,  and  again  in 
1818.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  Catholic  emanci 
pation.  He  was  lord  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas 
in  Ireland  for  three  years,  (1827-30.)  About  1827  he 
was  created  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  was 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1830  to  1841,  excepting 
an  interval  of  some  months  in  1834-35.  He  died  in  1854, 
leaving  the  title  to  his  son,  who  is  Bishop  of  Tuam. 

See  the  "  Life,  Letters,  etc.  of  Lord  Plunkett,"  London,  1867  ; 
"  Edinburch  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1867  ;  "  Eraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  June,  1867. 

Pluquet,  plii'ki',  (FRANCOIS  ANDR£  ADRIEN,)  a 
learned  and  judicious  French  writer,  born  at  Bayeux  in 
1716.  He  published  in  1757  an  "  Inquiry  into  Fatalism," 
(3  vols.,)  which  is  commended.  His  best  or  most  popu 
lar  work  is  a  "Dictionary  of  Heresies,"  (2  vols.,  1762.) 
He  obtained  in  1776  a  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
College  de  France,  Paris.  He  published  a  translation 
of  the  classic  books  of  the  Chinese,  collected  by  Pere 
Noel,  (7  vols.,  1786.)  Died  in  1790. 

See  QU£RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate. " 

Pluquet,  (FREDERIC,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Bayeux 
in  1781,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  French  antiquities.  Died  in  1834. 

Plu'tar-eh,  [Gr.  n/.orrap^of ;  Lat.  PLUTAR'CHUS;  Fr. 
PLUTARQUE,  plu'ttak';  It.  PLUTARCO,  ploo  taR'ko,]  an 
eminent  Greek  philosopher  or  moralist,  and  the  greatest 
biographer  of  antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Chaeronea,  in 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLVTARCHUS 


1814 


POCHARD 


Bceotin.  He  was  born  probably  about  50  A.I).,  as,  ac 
cording  to  his  own  statement,  he  studied  philosophy 
under  Ammonius,  at  Delphi,  in  66  A. n.  He  passed  soni" 
time  at  Rome,  where  he  lectured  on  philosophy,  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian  or  of  one  of  his  sons.  "  When  I 
was  in  Rome  and  other  parts  of  Italy,"  says  Plutarch, 
"I  had  not  leisure  to  study  the  Latin  tongue,  on  account 
of  the  public  commissions  with  which  I  was  charged, 
and  the  number  of  people  that  came  to  be  instructed  by 
me  in  philosophy.  It  was  not,  therefore,  until  a  late 
period  in  life  that  I  began  to  read  the  Roman  authors." 
("Life  of  Demosthenes.")  Plutarch  resided  at  his  native 
place  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  filled  several  mu 
nicipal  offices.  "As  to  myself,"  says  he,  "I  live  in  a 
little  town,  and  I  choose  to  live  there,  lest  it  should  be 
come  still  less."  He  had  a  wife  named  Timoxena,  and 
several  children.  On  the  death  of  his  infant  daughter 
he  wrote  to  his  wife  a  consolatory  letter,  in  which  he 
commemorated  her  conjugal  and  maternal  virtues,  with 
an  infusion  of  the  antique  sentiments  and  poetic  allu 
sions  which  render  his  writings  so  attractive.  He  was 
an  admirer  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  and  a  decided 
opponent  of  Epicureanism.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  not  known  ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  he  attained  the 
age  of  seventy  or  more. 

Plutarch  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  His  works,  by 
their  extent  and  variety,  constitute  perhaps  the  most 
copious  treasury  of  facts,  ideas,  and  traditions  which  we 
have  inherited  from  antiquity.  There  is  no  uninspired 
Greek  prose  author  whose  works  have  found  in  modern 
times  so  many  readers  and  admirers.  His  principal 
work  is  his  "  Parallel  Lives"  (Bioi  IIa/)aA/,7;Aot)  of  eminent 
Greeks  and  Romans,  arranged  in  pairs.  The  biography 
of  each  Greek  is  accompanied  by  the  life  of  some  Roman 
as  a  pendant,  and  the  latter  is  followed  by  a  rather  minute 
comparison,  in  which  the  two  persons  are  measured 
together,  trait  for  trait.  The  best  English  versions  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives"  are  those  of  Sir  Thomas  North, 
(1612,)  of  Langhorne,  (1771,)  and  of  Arthur  Hugh 
Clough,  (1859.)  Among  the  extant  works  of  Plutarch 
are  many  moral  essays,  which  were  translated  into 
French  by  Amyot.  His  morality,  less  rigid  than  that 
of  the  Stoics  and  less  speculative  than  that  of  Plato,  is 
generally  pure  and  practical.  Among  his  lost  works  are 
a  "Commentary  on  Homer,"  and  biographies  of  Pindar, 
Hesiod,  Scipio,  Epaminondas,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Ca 
ligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero. 

Respecting  Plutarch's  merits  as  a  writer,  we  extract 
the  following  passage  from  an  article  in  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  by  M.  Villemain.  Alluding  to  Plutarch's 
truthful  and  naive  minuteness  in  the  delineation  of  his 
characters,  that  great  critic  remarks,  "  Perhaps  this  merit, 
which  all  recognize  in  Plutarch,  has  diverted  attention 
from  the  picturesque  beauty  of  his  style  ;  but  it  is  this 
double  character  of  eloquence  and  truth  which  has  ren 
dered  him  so  powerful  over  all  vivid  imaginations.  .  .  . 
This  immortal  vivacity  of  the  style  of  Plutarch,  seconded 
by  a  happy  choice  of  the  noblest  subjects  that  can  occupy 
the  imagination  and  the  thoughts,  explains  the  prodigious 
interest  excited  by  his  historical  works.  He  has  painted 
man  as  he  is  ;  he  has  worthily  recorded  the  greatest 
characters  and  most  admirable  actions  of  the  human 
species.  The  attraction  of  such  reading  will  never  pass 
away;  it  appeals  to  all  ages  and  conditions  of  life;  it 
kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  youth,  and  commends  itself 
to  the  sober  wisdom  of  age." 

See  HKF.REN,  "  De  Fontibus  et  Anctoritate  Plutarch!,"  1810; 
NITZSCH,  "  Disputatio  de  Plutarcho,"  1X49;  RITTKR,  "  History  of 
Philosophy  ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Hibliotheca  Grxca  ;"  SCHOEI.I.,  "  His- 
toire  de  la  Literature  Grecque  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1861. 

Plutarchus.     See  PLUTARCH. 

Plutarco.     See  PLUTARCH. 

Plutarque.     See  PLUTARCH. 

Pluto,  the  Italian  of  PI.UTUS,  which  see. 

Plu'to,  [Gr.  TIMVTUV  ;  Fr.  PI.UTON,  plu'tix' ;  It. 
PLUTONE,  ploo-to'ni,]  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions, 
was  also  called  HADES,  ORCUS,  Dis,  and  AIDONEUS. 
He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn  (Cronus  or  Kronos) 
and  Rhea,  and  a  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Neptune.  Ac 
cording  to  the  fable,  these  three  brothers  agreed  to  a 
division  of  the  world,  and  Pluto  obtained  as  his  portion 


the  subterranean  region,  the  realm  of  shades,  which  was 
called  Erebus  or  Hades,  and  the  entrance  of  which  was 
guarded  by  Cerberus,  a  dog  with  three  heads.  Some 
poets  imagined  that  the  realm  of  Pinto  was  divided  into 
two  regions, — namely,  Tartarus,  in  which  the  wicked 
were  confined  and  punished,  and  Elysium,  or  the  Elysian 
Fields,  the  abode  of  the  good. 

The  most  remarkable  features  in  the  geography  of  the 
infernal  world  were  five  rivers, — namely,  Ach'eron,  Co- 
cy'tus,  Styx,  Phleg'ethon,  and  Le'the,  (Gr.  A7/0;;,)  the  river 
of  Oblivion.  Departed  souls  about  to  enter  Elysium 
drank  of  the  river  Lethe  and  forgot  all  their  troubles,  or, 
as  some  say,  forgot  all  the  past : 

"  Secures  latices  et  longa  oblivia  potant."* 

VIRGIL:  sEtieitt,  book  vi.  715. 

The  Styx  was  said  to  encompass  the  kingdom  of  Pluto 
seven  or  nine  times  with  its  circumvolutions,  and  was 
described  as  a  sluggish  stream,  for  which  reason  it  was 
sometimes  called  the  Stygian  pool  or  lake.  The  souls 
of  the  dead  were  carried  across  the  Styx  in  a  boat  by 
Charon.  The  gods  usually  swore  by  the  river  Styx. 
Phlegethon  was  described  as  a  river  of  fire,  and  Cocytus 
as  a  branch  or  affluent  of  the  STYX,  which  see. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  adventures  ol  Pluto  was 
the  abduction  of  Proserpine,  whom  he  married.  The 
poets  feigned  that  he  possessed  a  helmet  which  rendered 
the  wearer  invisible.  (See  an  ample  and  admirable  de 
scription  of  Pluto's  dominions  in  Virgil's  "/Lucid," 
book  vi.  passim.) 

Pluton.     See  PLUTO. 

Plutone.     See  PLUTO. 

Plu'tus,  [Gr.  IIAoDrof,-  It.  PLUTO,  ploo'to,]  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  riches,  was  said  to  be  a  son 
of  lasion  and  Ceres.  The  poets  relate  that  Jupiter  de 
prived  him  of  sight  in  order  that  he  might  distribute 
riches  blindly  and  bestow  his  favours  indiscriminately 
on  the  evil  and  the  good.  He  was  represented  as  lame, 
because  he  generally  comes  so  slowly  to  those  who  seek 
him  ;  yet  he  had  wings,  to  indicate  how  swiftly  he  often 
forsakes  those  whom  he  seems  most  to  favour.  (See 

KUVEKA.) 

Pluvinel,  de,  deh  plii've'ne'l',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French 
man,  noted  for  his  skill  in  horsemanship,  was  born  in 
Dauphine  in  1555-  He  was  under-governor  (soiis- 
gouverneur)  of  the  dauphin,  (Louis  XI IF.,)  and  wrote  a 
work  called  "Manege  Royal,"  (1623.)  Died  in  1620. 

Plu'vi-us,  (i.e.  "the  rainy,")  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
among  the  Romans,  who  invoked  him  during  long 
droughts. 

Pluymer,  ploi'mer,  (JAN,)  a  mediocre  Dutch  poet, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  wrote  during  the  reign  of  William 
III.  of  England,  and  published  a  volume  of  verses  in 
1691. 

Po,  del,  d§!  po,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Palermo  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Domeni- 
chino.  Died  at  Naples  in  1692.  His  son  GIACOMO, 
born  at  Rome  in  1654,  was  a  painter.  He  worked  at 
Naples  with  success.  Died  in  1726. 

Po-ca-hon'tas,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  an  Indian 
chief  of  Virginia,  is  celebrated  for  her  heroism  in  inter 
ceding  for  the  life  of  Captain  Smith,  who  was  con 
demned  to  death  by  her  father.  She  was  afterwards 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  married  to  John  Rolfe, 
an  English  gentleman.  Among  her  descendants  in  Vir 
ginia  was  the  celebrated  John  Randolph.  Died  in  1617. 

Poccetti,  pot-chet'tee,  properly  BERNARDINO  Bar- 
batelli,  (baR-ba-tel'lee,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  about  1542.  He  painted  figures,  landscapes, 
flowers,  and  draperies  with  success,  and  displayed  a 
great  fertility  of  invention.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
Mission  of  the  Apostles."  "  He  was  considered,"  says 
Peries,  "  the  Paul  Veronese  of  his  school."  Died  at 
Florence  in  1612. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pocci,  pot'chee,  (FRANZ,)  COUNT,  a  poet  and  de 
signer,  of  Italian  origin,  was  born  at  Munich  in  1807. 
He  has  written  verses  and  tales. 

Pochard,  po'shaV,  (JKAN,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  near  Pontarlier  in  1715.  He  wrote  "  Method  for 

*  "They  quaff  profound  oblivion,  secure  from  pain  and  woe." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  nAt;  good;  moon; 


POCHOLLE 


POGGIO 


the  Guidance  of  Souls,"  ("  Methode  pour  la  Direction 
des  Ames,"  1772.)  Died  in  1786. 

Pocholle,  po'shol',  (PIERRE  POMPONNK  AMEDEE,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1764,  was  a 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1792.  Died  in  1832. 

Pockels,  pok'kels,  (KARL  FRIEDRICII,)  a  German 
moralist,  born  near  Halle  in  1757.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "An  Essay  on  the  Character  of  Women," 
(5  vols.,  1799-1802,)  and  "Man,"  ("Der  Mann,"  4  vols., 
1805-08.)  Died  in  1814. 

Po'cock,  (EDWARD,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1604,  studied  in  Corpus 
Christi  College.  He  passed  about  six  years  at  Aleppo 
as  chaplain  to  the  English  merchants,  (1630—36,)  and 
learned  Arabic,  Syriac,  Hebrew,  etc.  In  1636  he  be 
came  the  first  professor  of  Arabic  at  Oxford.  Pocock  is 
said  to  have  been  the  best  Arabic  scholar  of  his  time  in 
England.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Childrey 
in  1643,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  in 
1648.  lie  published  in  1648-50  "  Specimen  Historiae 
Arabum,"  consisting  of  extracts  from  the  History  of 
Aboolfaraj,  (Abulpharagius,)  with  a  Latin  version  and 
notes.  His  most  important  work  is  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  entire  History  of  the  same  author,  which  was  pub 
lished  (with  the  original  text)  in  1663,  in  two  volumes. 
Died  at  Oxford  in  1691. 

See  a  "Life  of  E.  Pocock,"  prefixed  to  his  theological  works,  by 
LEONARD  TwEi.t.s,  1740. 

Pocock,  (EDWARD,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1646.  He  published  in  1671 
the  Arabic  text,  with  a  Latin  version,  of  a  work  of 
Ibn-Tofayl,  "Self-Taught  Philosopher,"  ("  Philosophus 
autodidactos.") 

Focock,  (ISAAC,)  an  English  painter  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1782  ;  died  in  1835. 

Pococke,  po'kok,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  at  Southampton  in  1704.  He  travelled  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  Syria,  etc.  in  1734-41,  and  published  a  "  De 
scription  of  the  East  and  of  Some  Other  Countries,"  (3 
vols.,  1743-45,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Ossory  in  1756,  and  Bishop  of  Meath  in  1765. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Giants' 
Causeway."  Died  in  1765. 

Poczobut,  de,  cleh  potch'o-boot,  (MARTIN,)  a  Polish 
astronomer,  born  near  Grodno  in  1729  ;  died  in  1810. 

Fodesta,  po-des-ta',  (  GIAMHATTISTA,  )  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  in  Tstria.  lie  became  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Vienna  in  1674,  and  published  "Grammatical 
Course  of  Oriental  Languages,"  ("  Cursus  grammaticalis 
Linguarum  Orientalium,"  3  vols.,  1687-1703.) 

Podiebrad,  pocl-ya'brad,  (GEORGE,)  King  of  Bo 
hemia,  born  in  1420.  He  commanded  an  army  of 
Hussites  in  the  civil  war  about  1450,  and  was  elected 
king  in  1458,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Catholic 
nobles.  In  1466  he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Paul 
II. ,  because  lie  maintained  the  right  of  communion 
under  two  forms.  The  pope  also  caused  a  crusade  to 
be  preached  against  him.  In  1467  he  was  involved  in 
a  war  against  Matthias  Corvinns,  whom  he  defeated. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  an  able  and  patriotic  ruler. 
He  died  in  1471,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ladislaus  of 
Poland. 

See  M.  JORDAN,  "Das  Konisthum  Georgs  Podiebrad,"  1861  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Foe,  po,  (EDGAR  ALLEN,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  born  at  Baltimore  in  iSn.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1826,  and,  having  spent  a  year 
in  Europe,  became  successively  editor  of  the  "  Southern 
Literary  Messenger"  at  Charleston,  and  the  "Gentle 
man's  Magazine"  and  "Graham's  Magazine"  at  Phila 
delphia.  In  1844  IIG  took  charge  of  the  "Broadway 
Journal,"  New  York.  lie  died  at  Baltimore,  in  1849, 
of  delirium  tremens.  Among  his  principal  prose  works 
are  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,"  "  Tales  of  the 
Grotesque  and  Arabesque,"  and  "  The  Gold  Bug."  His 
"  Raven"  and  other  small  poems  have  been  much  admired. 
He  also  wrote  a  collection  of  critical  essays.  "  His 
poems,"  says  R.  W.  Griswolcl,  "are  constructed  with 
wonderful  ingenuity  and  finished  with  consummate  art. 
They  illustrate  a  morbid  sensitiveness  of  feeling,  a 
shadowy  and  gloomy  imagination,  and  a  taste  almost 

«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


faultless  in  the  apprehension  of  that  sort  of  beauty  most 
agreeable  to  his  temper." 

See  GRISWOLD,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  and  a  "  Memoir 
of  Poe,"  prefixed  to  a  'collection  of  his  works  pub'ished  by  R.  W. 
GRISWOI.D,  in  3  vols.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1X58  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1856;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1857. 

Foel,  van  der,  vfn  der  pool,  (EGBERT,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1620.  He  painted 
landscapes,  interiors,  and  nocturnal  conflagrations  with 
success.  Died  about  1690. 

Foelemburg,  poo'lem-buRc',  (CORNELIS,)  surnamed 
IL  BKUSCO  and  IL  SATIRO,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1586,  was  a  pupil  of  Abraham  Bloe- 
maert.  After  spending  many  years  at  Rome  and  Florence, 
he  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  I.,  for  whom  he 
painted  some  works.  He  excelled  in  landscape-painting, 
and  also  produced  several  historical  pictures.  Died  at 
Utrecht  in  1660. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  La  Vie  des  Peintres." 

Poelitz.     See  POLITY,. 

Poellnitz.     See  POLLNITZ. 

Foeppig.     See  POPPIG. 

Poerio,  po-a're-o,  (CARLO,)  a  liberal  Italian  politician, 
born  at  Naples  in  1803.  He  was  minisu-r  of  public  in 
struction  at  Naples  for  a  short  time  in  1848.  He  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  Neapolitan  government  in 
July,  1849,  and  condemned  to  twenty-four  years'  im 
prisonment  and  hard  labour.  The  cruel  treatment 
inflicted  on  him  and  others  was  denounced  by  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  a  famous  letter  to  Lord  Aberdeen.  He 
escaped,  or  was  released,  about  1858,  after  which  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Died  in  1867. 

Poerio,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  eloquent  Italian  advocate, 
born  at  Catanzaro,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  republic  formed  at  Naples 
in  1799.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  procureur-general 
by  Murat.  Died  at  Florence  in  1843. 

Poernsr.     See  PORNKR. 

Poerson,  po'eR's6N',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
painter  of  history,  born  in  Paris  about  1652  ;  died  at. 
Rome  in  1725. 

Pogge,  Le.     See  POGGIO. 

Poggendorf,  pog'gen-doRf,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a 
German  savant  and  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Berlin,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1796.  He  became  in 
1824  editor  of  the  "  Annals  of  Physics  and  Chemistry." 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Mag 
netism  of  the  Voltaic  Pile,"  in  which  he  was  the  first 
to  explain  the  principles  of  the  multiplicator  and  its 
application. 

Poggi,  de',  da  pod'jee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  CHEVALIER,  an 
Italian  writer,  born  near  Piacenza  in  1761.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  legislative  body  from  181 1  to  1814. 
He  wrote  "  On  Sincere  Reformation,"  ("  Delie  Emende 
sincere,"  3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
France  in  1842. 

Poggiani,  pod-ja'nee,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Suna,  on  Lake  Maggiore,  in  1522.  He  was 
secretary  of  Carlo  Borromeo.  He  left  "  Epistles  and 
Orations,"  in  Latin,  (4  vols.,  1756-62,)  which  are  said  to 
be  elegant.  Died  in  1568. 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  pod'jo  brat-cho-lee'nee,  [Fr. 
LE  POGGE,  leh  pozh,]  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  a  dis 
tinguished  Italian  scholar  and  reviver  of  learning,  was 
born  near  Florence  in  1380.  He  was  a  pupil  of  John  of 
Ravenna,  was  appointed  apostolic  secretary  about  1413, 
and  served  several  successive  popes  in  that  capacity. 
He  rendered  important  services  to  literature  by  the  dis 
covery  of  ancient  manuscripts,  for  which  he  searched  in 
monasteries.  He  discovered  seven  orations  of  Cicero, 
twelve  plays  of  Plautus,  the  commentaries  of  Asconius 
Pedianus,  the  history  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and 
other  classic  works.  He  wrote  satires  against  the  monks 
and  clergy,  and  against  Filelfo,  with  whom  he  was  in 
volved  in  a  long  and  acrimonious  controversy.  In  1435 
he  married  a  young  lady  named  Selvaggia  Buondelmonti. 
After  this  event  he  resided  many  years  at  Florence,  and 
published  in  1437  a  collection  of  letters,  which  were 
greatly  admired.  Having  passed  several  years  in  Rome, 

:  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POHL 


1816 


P01SSONKIER 


he  returned  to  Florence  about  1450,  and  was  appointed 
chancellor  there  in  1453.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
all  in  Latin,  are  a  "Dialogue  on  Nobility,"  ("  De  No- 
bilitate  Uialogus,")  a  "  History  of  Florence  from  1350 
to  1455."  ("  Historia  Florentina,"  etc.,  1476,)  and  "On 
the  Mutability  of  Fortune,"  ("  De  Varietate  Fortunae.") 
He  died  in  Florence  in  October,  1459. 

See  WILLIAM  SHEPIIKKD.  "Life  of  Po^io  BraccioHni,"  1802: 
THORSCHMIDT,  "  Dissertatio  de  F.  Poggii  Bracciolini  Vita,"  1713; 
J  LENKANT,  "Poggiana,"  etc,  ^  vols.,  1720:  NH£KON,  "Me- 
nxiires  ;"  C.  NISARD,  "Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique  des  Let- 
tres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1836. 

Pohl,  p51,  (JoifANN  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  physician, 
born  near  Liegnitz  in  1706;  died  in  1780. 

Pohl,  (JuiiANN  EMANUKI.,)  a  German  botanist,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1784.  He  published,  in  Latin,  "  Descrip 
tions  and  Figures  of  Brazilian  Plants,"  (2  vols.,  1827-31,) 
and,  in  German,  "  Travels  in  Brazil,"  (2  vols.,  1832.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Poilly,  de,  deh  pwa'ye',  (FRANCOIS,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1622.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  Paris,  and  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael, 
Gitilio  Romano,  and  Poussin.  In  1664  he  received  the 
title  of  engraver  to  the  king.  Died  in  Paris  in  1693.  ' 

Poilly,  de,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  skilful  engraver,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1669  ; 
died  in  Paris  in  1728. 

Poilly,  de,  (Xicoi.AS,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Abbe 
ville  in  1626,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
not  equal  to  his  brother  Frai^ois.  Died  in  1696. 

Poin'dex-ter,  (GEORGE,)  an  able  American  states 
man  and  jurist,  bom  in  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  Hav 
ing  removed  to  Mississippi,  he  was  appointed  in  1813 
United  States  judge  for  that  district,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1817.  He  there  distinguished  himself 
by  his  eloquent  defence  of  the  course  of  General  Jack 
son  in  the  Seminole  war.  He  was  afterwards  elected 
Governor  of  the  State,  and  in  1831  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States.  He  became  an  opponent  of  President 
Jackson,  and  ceased  to  be  a  Senator  in  1835.  Died 
in  1853. 

Poin'sett,  (Josi.  ROBERTS,)  a  distinguished  Ameri 
can  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1779.  Having  been  several  times  elected 
to  Congress,  he  was  sent  in  1825  as  minister  to  Mexico 
by  President  Adams.  In  the  contest  between  the  Nul 
lification  and  Union  parties  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
latter.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President 
Van  Buren  in  March,  1837.  lie  retired  from  that  office 
in  March,  1841,  after  which  he  was  not  employed  in  the 
public  service.  He  wrote  "Notes  on  Mexico."  Died 
in  December,  1851. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 
vol.  i.  ;  "  Democratic  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1838,  (with 
a  portrait.) 

Poinsinet,  pwaN'se'n^',  (  ANTOINE  AI.EXANDRE 
HENRI,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Fontainebleau  in 
1735.  He  wrote  several  successful  comedies  and  comic 
operas,  among  which  is  "The  Circle,  or  Soiree  a  la 
Mode,"  (1771.)  He  was  accidentally  drowned  at  Cor 
dova,  in  Spain,  in  1769. 

Poinsiuet  de  Sivry,  pwa.N'se'ni'  deh  se'vue', 
(Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1733. 
He  produced  a  popular  tragedy,  named  "  Briseis," 
(1759,)  and  various  other  works  of  little  merit.  He 
translated  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1771-81.)  He 
was  a  brother-in-law  of  Palissot.  Died  in  1804. 

Poinsot,  pwaN'so',  (Louis,)  a  French  geometer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1777.  He  published  in  1803  "Elements 
of  Statics,"  which  presents  new  and  ingenious  ideas. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "Memoir  on  the  Applica 
tion  of  Algebra  to  the  Theory  of  Numbers,"  (1820.) 
He  was  elected  to  the  fnstitute,'  in  place  of  La  Grange, 
in  1813.  In  1852  he  became  a  senator.  Died  in  De 
cember,  1859. 

Foiret,  pwa'ri',  (JEAN  Louis  MARIE,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  about  1755.  ^e  Pl'b- 
lished  "Travels  in  Barbary,"  (2  vols.,  1789,)  a  work  of 
merit,  a  "Botanical  Dictionary,"  (20  vols.,  1789-1823.) 
which  forms  part  of  the  "Encyclopedic  Methodique," 
and  "The  Philosophical,  Literary,  and  Economical 

a,  e,  I,  5,  fi,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  rruTou; 


History  of  the  Useful  Plants  of  Europe,"  (7  vols.,  ib-!5 
-29.)     Died  in  1834. 

See  QUEKARD,  "  La  Franca  Litteraire." 

Poiret,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  philosopher  and  mystical 
writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1646.  He  became  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  preached  at  Hamburg  and  Amsterdam.  It 
is  stated  that  he  rejected  the  light  and  guidance  of 
reason.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  many  other  works, 
"The  Divine  Economy,"  (7  vols.,  1687.)  Died  in  1719. 

See  NICEKON,  "  Me'moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Poirier,  pwa're-i',  (GERMAIN,)  a  French  monk,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Reign  of  Henry  I.  of  France."  Died  in  1803. 

Poirson,  pwaR'siN',  (AUGUSTE  SIMON  JEAN  CIIRY- 
SOSTOME,) i  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He 
was  principal  of  the  College  Charlemagne  from  1837  to 
1853.  His  chief  works  are  a  "History  of  Rome,"  (2 
vols.,  1824-26,)  and  a  "  History  of  Henry  IV.,"  (2  vols 
1857.) 

Poirson,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,  )  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  the  Vosges  in  1760.  lie  excelled  in  the  con 
struction  of  terrestrial  globes.  Died  in  1831. 

Pois,  Le,  leh  pwa,  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  numismatist, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1525  ;  died  in  1578. 

Pois,  Le,  (CHARLES,)  [Lat.  CAKO'LUS  Pi'so,]  a  dis 
tinguished  physician,  born  at  Nancy,  France,  in  1563. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Book  of  Select  Observa 
tions  and  Counsels,"  ("Selectiorum  Observationum  et 
Consiliorum  Liber,"  1618,)  which,  says  Weiss,  "assures 
to  him  the  reputation  of  a  great  physician."  Died  in  1633. 

Pois,  Le,  (NICOLAS,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1527,  was  a  skilful  physician.  lie 
published  a  good  work  "On  the  Knowledge  and  Cure 
of  Diseases,"  ("  De  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis," 
1580.)  Died  in  1587. 

Poiseuille,  pwa'/ul'  or  pwa'zul/ye,  (JEAN  Louis 
MARIE,)  a  French  physician  and  physiologist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1799.  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Re 
searches  on  the  Course  of  the  Blood  in  the  Veins  " 
(1831.) 

Foissant,  pwa'soN',  (Tim? AUT,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  near  Crecy  in  1605  ;  died  in  1660. 

Poisson,  pwa'sc-N',  (NICOLAS  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1637,  was  a  disciple  of  Des 
cartes.  He  published  "Delectus  Actorum  Ecclesiae 
Universalis,"  (2  vols.,  1706.)  Died  in  1710. 

Poisson,  (RAYMOND,)  a  popular  French  comedian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1633;  died  in  1690.  His  grandson, 
FRANCOIS  ARNOUL,  (1696-1753,)  was  a  favourite  comic 
actor  of  the  Parisian  stage. 

Poisson,  (SIMEON  DENIS,)  an  excellent  and  profound 
French  geometer,  born  at  Pithiviers  (Loiret)  on  the  2ist 
of  June,  1781.  He  entered  the  Polytechnic  School  in 
1798,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  La  Grange  and  La 
Place.  He  became  professor  in  the  same  school  in 
1802,  a  member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes  in  1808.  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1812,  and  counsellor  of  the 
University  in  1820.  In  1811  he  published  an  excellent 
treatise  on  mechanics,  "  Traite  de  Mecanique,"  (2  vols.) 
In  his  "New  Theory  of  Capillary  Action"  (1831)  he 
completes  the  researches  of  La  Place  by  superadding 
the  consideration  of  the  variation  of  density.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  Mathematical  Theory  of  Heat,"  (2' vols.,  1835,) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  theory  of  probabilities  applied  to 
judicial  trials,  "  Recherches  stir  la  Probabilite  des  Jnge- 
ments,"  etc.,  (1837.)  He  also  contributed  more"  than 
three  hundred  memoirs  to  various  journals  and  periodi 
cals.  Among  these  is  a  remarkable  treatise  "On  the 
Invariability  of  the  Mean  Movements  of  the  Grand 
Planetary  Axes."  It  was  in  the  domain  of  mathematical 
physics  that  the  genius  of  Poisson  was  most  signally 
displayed.  He  brought  this  science  to  great  perfection, 
especially  in  its  application  to  static  electricity  and  mag 
netism.  In  1837  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  peer 
of  France,  although  he  never  was  a  politician.  Died  in 
April,  1840. 

See  AKAOO,  "Notices  biogrnphiques,"  tome  ii.  :  "Notice  sur 
Poisson,"  Orleans,  1840:  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Foissomiier,  pwa'so'ne-i',  (PIERRE,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1720.  He  was 


POITEVIN 


1817 


POLI 


sent  by  the  king  about  1760  on  a  secret  mission  to  Eliza 
beth  of  Russia,  and,  on  his  return,  received  the  title  of 
councillor  of  state.  He  invented  an  apparatus  or  pro 
cess  to  convert  sea-water  into  fresh  water.  In  1764  he 
became  inspector  and  director  of  medicine  for  all  the 
hospitals  and  maritime  arsenals  of  France.  Died  in  1798. 

Poiteviu,  pwat'vaN',(jACQUES,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1742.  He  published  "  An  Essay 
on  the  Climate  of  Montpellier,"  (1803.)  Died  in  1807. 

Poitevin,  (PIERRE  ALKXANDRK,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1782;  died  in  1859. 

Poitevin,  (ROBERT,)  a  French  physician,  born  proba- 


blv 


Poitou  about  1390.     He  was  employed  by  the 


queen,  and  by  Agnes  Sorel.     Died  in  1474. 

Poitevin  de  Maureillan,  pwat'va.s'  cleh  mo'ri'ydN', 
(CASIMIR,)  VICOMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Mont 
pellier  in  1772.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz, 
in  1805,  and  at  Borodino,  in  1812.  Died  in  1829. 

Poitiers,  de,  (DIANE.)     See  DIANE. 

Poivre,  pwavR,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1719.  lie  visited  China  in  1740,  after  which 
he  became  an  agent  of  the  French  East  India  Company, 
and  went  to  the  Moluccas,  from  which  he  transplanted 
the  nutmeg-tree  and  other  spices  to  the  Isle  of  France. 
He  was  intendant  of  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon 
from  1767  to  1773.  He  is  said  to  have  exhibited  there 
an  almost  perfect  model  of  an  administrator  and  public 
benefactor.  Died  in  1786. 

See  DUFONT  DE  NEMOURS,  "  Notice  stir  la  Vie  de  M.  Poivre," 
1786;  A.  BOUI.I.EE,  "Notice  sur  Poivre,"  1835. 

Poivre,  Le,  leh  pwavR,  a  geometer,  born  at  Mons, 
Belgium,  lived  about  1700.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Sections  of  a  Cylinder  and  Cone,"  (1704.) 

Poix,  pwa,  (A.NTO1NE  CLAUDE  DOMINIQUE  JUST,) 
Comte  de  Noailles  and  Prince  de  Poix,  a  French  diplo 
matist,  born  in  Paris  in  1777  ;  died  in  1846. 

Poix,  de,  deh  pwa,  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  monk, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens  in  1714.  He  published 
a  new  version  of  the  Psalms,  (1762,)  and  •'  Principles 


works,  which  are  not  extant.  Among  his  disciples 
were  Zeno  the  Stoic,  and  Arcesilaus.  Died  about 
272  B.C. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  DIOGENES  LAP.RTII/S. 

Polemo,  a  Greek  writer,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  between  100  and  250  A.D.  He  left  a  work  on 
Physiognomy,  which  is  extant.  He  is  quoted  by  Origen. 

Polemo  or  Polemon,  sui  named  PERIKGE'TES,  |Fr. 
POLEMON  I.E  PERIEGETE,  po'la'm6N'  leh  pa're'a'zhat',] 
a  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Samos  or  Sicyon,  obtained 
the  citizenship  of  Athens,  and  lived  about  200  H.c.  He 
wrote  many  works  on  geography,  etc.,  of  which  fragments 
are  extant. 

Polemo,  or  Polemo  the  Sophist,  a  celebrated 
Greek  rhetorician,  born  at  Laodicea,  flourished  about 
130  A.I).  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Smyrna,  and  obtained 
the  favour  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  He  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  lost,  except  two  orations.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  fifty-six. 

See  PHILOSTRATUS,  "  Vitae  Sophistarum  ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Grsca." 

Polemoii.     See  POLEMO. 

Poleni,  po-la'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Venice  in  1683.  He  be 
came  professor  of  physics  at  Padua  in  1715,  and  suc 
ceeded  X.  Bernoulli  as  professor  of  mathematics  in  1719. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "  Dialogue  on  Celes 
tial  Vortices,"  (1712,)  and  "On  the  Mixed  Motion  of 
Water,"  ("De  Motu  Aquae  mixto,"  1717.)  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1761. 

See  P.  COSSALI,  "  Elogio  del  Professor  Poleni,"  1813;  KABRONI, 
"Vita?  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  G.  GENNARI,  "  Elogio  del 
Marchese  G.  Poleni,"  1839. 

Polenta,  da,  da  po-len'ta,  (Gumo  NOVELLO,)  became 
Lord  of  Ravenna  in  1275.  He  befriended  the  exiled 
Dante,  who  came  to  his  court  in  1319  and  remained 
there  until  his  death  in  1321.  Died  in  1323. 

Polentone,  po-len-to'na,  [Lat.  PoLKNTCTNUS,]  (SEC- 
CO  or  XiCCO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  l>orn  at 


r    .,-  ,    ,  ,     „  i  Padua  about  n>QO.     Among   his  works  are  a  "Life  of 

discussed  to  facilitate  the  Study  of  the  Prophetic  Books,      o  „      j  j        if  i  ,«/-  .-  •    »»/.o._\     TV    i 

(16  vols.,  1755-64.)     Died  in  1782.  :  Seneca,  '  and  a  comedy  called  "Catima,     (1842.) 

Pojarski.     See  POZHARSKI. 

Polain,   po'laN',    (MATHIEU    LAMBERT,)    a    Belgian 


historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1808.      His  chief  work  is  a 


about  1462. 

See  J.  E.  KAPP,  "  Dissertatio  de  X.  Polentono,"  1733. 

Polevoi,   po'leh-voi',    (  NIKOLAI    AI.EXIEVITCH,  )   a 


"History   of   Liege,"    ("  Histoire   de    Fancien    Pays   de    Russian  litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Siberia  in  1796, 
Liege,"  2  vols.,  1844-48,)  which  is  commended.  became   in  1825  editor  of  the   "Moscow  Telegraph,  '  a 

Polanco,  po-lan'ko,  the  name  of  three  good  Spanish  j  periodical  of  great  ability  and  influence,  which  was  after- 
painters,  who  were  brothers  and  native's  of  Seville.  '  wards  suppressed  by  the  government  on  account  of  its 
The  latest  work  of  Carlos  Polanco  is  dated  1686.  I  liberal  views.  Among  his  works,  which  are  very  mime- 

Pole,  [Lat.  PO'LUS,]  (REGINALD,)  a  celebrated  Eng-  ,  roiis>  we  maY  liame  a  "  Llfe  of  Soovorof,     i 
lish  cardinal  and  scholar,  was  born  in   Staffordshire  'in    a  "  Llfe  of  Peter  tlie  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1843,)  regarded  as 
1500.     His  mother,  Margaret  Plantagenet,  was  a  niece    the  best  llfe  of  that  sovereign  that  has  been  written,  the 
of   Edward   IV.,  a  daughter  of  George,  Duke  of  Clar-    dramas    of    "  Parasha    the    Siberian    Girl      and    ' 
ence,  and  cousin-german   to  Queen  Elizabeth  who  was    Grandfather  of  the  Russian   Fleet,     and  a  " 
the  mother  of  Henry  VIII.     He  was  educated  at  Oxford,    the    Russian   People,"  a   part  of  which   only  has   been 
and  became  Dean  of  Exeter  at  the  age  of  nineteen.     He    published.     He  also  translated    "  Hamlet,     and  wrote 


pursued   his  studies  at  Padua,  where  he  formed  friend- 


a  number  of  valuable  critical  essays  on  Russian  litera 


ture.     Died  in  1846. 

See  "  NouveHe  Biographic  General 


ships  with  Erasmus,  Bembo,  and  Sadolet,  and  returned 

to  England  in  1525.     About  1531  he  lost  the  favour  of 

Henry  VIII.  by  his  opposition  to  the  divorce  of  Queen  I      Polhem,  pol'hem,  or  Polhelm,  pol'helm,  (KRISTO- 

Cathe'rine.     Having  retired  to  the  continent  for  safety,  !  FER,)    a   Swedish    engineer    and    mechanician,   born  in 

he   wrote    a    famous    treatise    "For    the    Unity  of  the  i  Gothland  in  1661.     He  invented  several  useful  machines, 


Church,"  ("Pro  Unitate  Ecclesias,")  printed  at  Rome 
without  date,  in  which  he  controverted  the  pretensions 
of  Henry  to  be  the  head  of  the  Church.  His  mother 
and  brother  were  executed  by  order  of  the  king,  and  he 


constructed  the  docks  at  Carlscrona,  and  obtained  a  title 
of  nobility.     Died  in  1751. 

Poll,  po'lee,  (GIUSEPPE  SAVERIO,)  an  Italian  natural 
ist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Molfetta,  in  the  kingdom  of 


was  attainted.     On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  (1553)  i  Naples,  in  1746.    He  became  professor  of  geography  and 
he  was  sent  by  the  pope  as  legate  to  England.      He  sue-    history  in  a  military  school  at  Napjes  about  1776,  after 


ceeded  Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1555 
or  1556.  Historians  are  divided  in  opinion  in  relation 
to  his  complicity  in  the  persecutions  of  this  reign  ;  and 
his  character  is  commonly  represented  as  mild  and 
humane.  Died  in  1558. 

See  P>ECCADEI.I.I,  "Vita  Poll  Cardinalis,"  1553;  an  English  ver 
sion  of  the  same,  published  by  PYE  in  1766:  FKOUDE,  "  History  of 
England;"  THOMAS  PHII.LIPPS,  "Life  of  R.  Pole,"  1764;  HUME, 
"  History  of  England  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Folemburg.     See  POELEMBURG. 

Pol'e-mo  or  Pol'e-mon,  [Gr.  llo/^uuv;  Fr.  POLE 
MON,  po'la'mc-N',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Athens, 
or  in  Attica.  He  succeeded  Xenocrates  as  the  head 
of  the  old  Academy  about  315  B.C.,  and  wrote  several 


which  he  was  sent  by  the  king  to  France  and  England 
to  examine  educational  institutions  and  procure  scientific 
apparatus.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the  prince  who 
reigned  as  Francis  I.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded 
on  an  excellent  work  on  testaceous  mollusca,  "  History 
and  Anatomy  of  the  Testacea  of  the  Two  Sicilies," 
("  Testacea  utriusque  Siciliae  eorumque  Historia  et 
Anatome,"  2  vols.,  1791-95.)  The  third  volume  was 
published  in  1826.  "This  magnificent  work,"  says  Cu- 
vier,  "  represents  their  anatomy  with  much  accuracy,  and 
throws  new  light  on  their  physiology."  Died  in  1825. 

See  P.  N.  GIAMPAOI.O,  "Elogio  di  S  Poli,"  1825;  SERAFINO 
GATTI,  "  P.iografia  di  G.  S.  Poli,"  1825:  TIPAI.UO,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri." 


«  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POLI 


1818 


POLK 


Poll,  (MARTINO,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at  Lucca 
in  1662;  died  at  Paris  in  1714. 

Fo'H-as,  [Gr.  EOAWC,  from  TroAtc,  a  "city,"]  (the  "  protec 
tress  of  cities,")  a  surname  of  Athena,  (Minerva.)  There 
was  at  Athens  a  celebrated  temple  of  Athena  Polias. 

Polibio.     See  POI.YBIUS. 

Polidoro.     See  CARAVAGGIO. 

Polier,  po'le-i',  (ANTOINE  NOE,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  in  1713,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.  Me  became 
pastor  of  Lausanne  in  1754,  and  wrote  articles  for  the 
"Encyclopedic."  Died  in  1783. 

Polignac,  de,  deh  po'len'yaV,  (AUGUSTE  JULES  AR- 
MANU  MARIE,)  PRINCE,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1780.  His  mother,  the  Duchess  of  Po 
lignac,  was  a  favourite  of  Marie  Antoinette.  He  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  August,  1829,  and  the  chief 
minister  before  the  end  of  the  year.  His  ultramontane 
and  absolutist  policy  rendered  him  very  unpopular.  In 
consequence  of  the  victory  of  the  liberals  and  insurgents 
over  Charles  X.  in  1830,  he  was  arrested,  tried  for  treason, 
and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  re 
leased  in  1836,  and  retired  to  England.  Died  in  1847. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1832,  (by  SOUTHKY.) 

Polignac,  de,  (MELCHIOR,)  a  French  diplomatist  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Puy-en-Velay  (Upper  Loire)  in  1661. 
He  was  sent  in  1695  as  ambassador  to  Poland,  where 
by  his  address  he  induced  a  majority  of  the  electors  to 
choose  the  French  prrnce  De  Conti  as  king  in  1697.  lie 
succeeded  Bossuet  in  the  French  Academy  in  1704.  In 
1712  he  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of 
Utrecht.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1713.  He  acquired 
a  high  literary  reputation  by  his  Latin  poem  (in  refu 
tation  of  Lucretius)  entitled  "Anti-Lucretius,  sive  de 
Deo  et  Natura  Libri  novem,"  (1745.)  Died  in  1742. 
Voltaire,  in  his  "Temple  du  Gout,"  praises  Polignac 
as  a  successful  opponent  of  Lucretius,  and  as  one  who 
combined  the  qualities  of  Virgil  and  Plato  : 
"Reunissant  Virgile  avec  Platon, 
Vengeur  du  Ciel  et  vainqueur  de  Lucrece. " 

See  CHRYSOSTOME  FAUCHER,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Po 
lignac,"  2  vols.,  1777;  DORTOUS  DE  MAIRAN,  "  filoge  du  Cardinal 
de  Polignac,"  1742;  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Poliniere,  po'le'n.fXi.iR',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  near  Vire  in  1671.  He  gained  dis 
tinction  at  the  College  of  Harcourt  as  a  teacher  of  natural 
philosophy  by  the  experimental  method,  and  published 
"Experiments  in  Physics,"  (1709.)  Died  in  1734. 

Poliorcetes.     See  DEMETRIUS  POLIORCETES. 

Polit,  po'le',  Polite,  po'let',  or  Le  Poll,  leh  po'le', 
[Lat.  POLI'TUS,]  (JEAN.)  a  Flemish  poet,  born  at  or 
near  Liege  about  1554;  died  after  1601. 

Politi,  po-lee'tee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Florence  in  1679.  He  became  professor  of 
eloquence  at  Pisa  in  1733.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  edition  of  Eustathius's  "Commentary  on 
Homer,"  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes,  (3  vols.,  1730- 
35.)  Died  in  1752. 

See  FABRONI,  "  Vitae  Italornm  doctrina  excellentinm." 

Politi,  (LANCELOT.)     See  CATHARINUS. 

Politian,  po-lish'e-an,  fit.  POLIZIANO,  po-let-se-a'no  ; 
Lat.  POLITTA'NUS  ;  Fr.  POLITTEN,  po'le'se^N',]  (AN- 
GEI.O,)  a  celebrated  Italian  classical  scholar  and  poet, 
born  at  Montepulciano,  (Mons  Politianus,)  in  Tuscany,  in 
July,  1454.  His  family  name  was  AMHROOINI.  He  studied 
Latin  under  Cristoforo  Landino,  and  Greek  under  An- 
dronictis  of  Thessalonica.  About  1468  he  wrote  stanzas, 
in  Italian,  in  honour  of  Giuliano  de'  Medici,  which  were 
much  admired.  lie  was  patronized  by  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  who  employed  him  as  preceptor  of  his  sons  and 
treated  him  as  a  friend  as  long  as  he  lived.  As  pro 
fessor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Florence,  he  acquired  a 
high  reputation.  He  produced  elegant  Latin  versions 
of  the  History  of  Herodian,  of  the  Manual  of  Epictetus, 
and  of  the  "  Charmides"  of  Plato.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Ovid,  Catullus,  Pliny  the  Younger,  and  other  Latin 
authors.  Among  his  works  are  Latin  odes  and  epi 
grams,  and  a  Latin  poem  called  "  Rusticus."  "  In  his 
Latin  poems,"  says  Ginguene,  "  we  find  the  fire  of  an 
imagination  truly  poetic,  and  that  taste  and  elegance 
which  were  the  natural  attributes  of  his  mind."  Died 
at  Florence  in  1494. 


"  In  1480  or  1483,"  says  Hallam,  "  Politian  was  placed 
in  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  eloquence  at  Florence,- 
a  station  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  and  the  most 
honourable  which  any  scholar  could  occupy.  It  is 
beyond  controversy  that  he  stands  at  the  head  of  that 
class  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  envy  of  some  of  his 
contemporaries  attested  his  superiority.  In  1489  he 
published  his  once  celebrated  'Miscellanea,'  consisting 
of  one  hundred  observations  illustrating  passages  of 
Latin  authors."'  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.")  He  was  characterized  by  Erasmus  as  "  rarum 
naturae  miraculum,"  ("a  rare  miracle  of  nature.") 

See  SERASSJ,  "Vita  di  A.  Poliziano;"  F.  OTTO  MENCKEN,  "  His- 
toria  Vita;  A.  Politiani,"  1736;  WILLIAM  P.  GRESWHLL,  "Memoirs 
of  Angelus  Politianus,"  etc.,  1801  ;  FABRONI,  "  Elogj  di  Dante,  di 
A.  Poliziano," etc.,  1800;  D.  MOM.ER,  "  De  Politiano,"  1698  ;  LONG 
FELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  N.  A.  BONAHOUS,  "  De 
A.  Politiani  Vitn  et  Operibus,"  1845;  BAVI.K,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Ita- 
liana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  REV.  HENRY  STEBBINO  ;  "Italian  Narrative  Poetry." 
in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  PKESCOTT.) 

Politianus  or  Politiano.     See  POLITIAN. 

Politien.     See  POLITIAN. 

Politus.     See  POLIT. 

Politz  or  Poelitz,  pc/lits,  (KARL  HEINRICH  Lun- 
WIG,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Ernstthal  in  1772. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  statistics  at  Leipsic 
in  1815.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "History 
of  Saxony  and  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,"  (3  vols.,  1808-10,) 
and  "Political  Sciences  according  to  the  Ideas  of  our 
Epoch,"  (5  vols.,  1823-28.)  Died  in  1838. 

See  KROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Poliziano.     See  POLITIAN. 

Polk,  pok,  (JAMES  KNOX,)  the  eleventh  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  county, 
North  Carolina,  on  the  2cl  of  November,  1795,  and  re 
moved  with  his  father  to  Middle  Tennessee  in  1806. 
He  graduated  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
about  1816,  and  studied  law.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  from  Tennessee  in  1825  and  at  several  suc 
ceeding  elections.  In  1835  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  by  the  Democrats.  He 
was  also  Speaker  of  the  twenty-fifth  Congress,  (1837-38.) 
In  1839  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Tennessee  for  two 
years.  At  the  election  of  1841  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Whig  candidate  for  Governor.  In  1844  Polk  and  Dallas 
were  nominated  for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice- 
President  by  the  Democratic  National  Convention,  which 
on  the  first  ballot  had  not  given  Mr.  Polk  a  single  vote. 
His  competitor  was  Henry  Clay.  The  principal  issue  in 
this  election  was  the  annexation  of  Texas,  which  Mr. 
Polk  was  pledged  to  promote.  lie  was  elected,  receiving 
one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes  out  of  two 
hundred  and  seventy-five,  which  was  the  whole  number. 
lie  appointed  James  Buchanan  secretary  of  state,  and, 
after  the  formal  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  Union, 
(1845,)  involved  the  country  in  an  aggressive  war  against 
Mexico,  which  began  in  May,  1846.  The  army  of  the 
United  States,  commanded  by  General  Scott,  after 
several  victories,  took  the  city  of  Mexico  in  September, 
1847.  Tne  Mexicans  obtained  peace  by  the  cession  of 
Upper  California  and  New  Mexico.  A  dispute  with  the 
British  government  about  the  boundary  of  Oregon  was 
settled  during  his  administration,  by  an  agreement  thai 
the  parallel  of  49°  should  be  the  dividing  line.  He  re 
tired  from  office  in  March,  and  died  at  Nashville  in 
June,  1849. 

See  L.  CHASE,  "  History  of  the  Administration  of  James  K. 
Polk,"  1850;  LEVI  WOODBURY,  "  Eulogy  on  James  K.  Polk,"  1850. 

Polk,  (LEONIDAS,)  an  American  who  became  famous 
for  his  twofold  character  of  bishop  and  general,  was 
born  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  in  1806,  and  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1827.  He  was  ordained  an  Episcopal 
clergyman  about  1831,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Loui 
siana  in  1841.  In  1861  he  took  arms  against  the  Union, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  distinguished  him 
self  by  his  activity  and  zeal  in  the  Confederate  service. 
He  occupied  Columbus,  Kentucky,  in  September,  1861, 
and  evacuated  it  about  the  ist  of  March,  1862.  lie 
commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April, 
1862,  and  served  as  lieutenant-general  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  led  a 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POLLAJUOLO 


1819 


POLO 


corps  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20, 
1863.  He  was  killed  near  Kenesaw  Mountain,  Georgia, 
in  June,  1864. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Bishop  Polk  in  "Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Pollajuolo,  pol-la-yoo-o'lo,  (ANTONIO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1426  or 
1431,  was  also  a  skilful  goldsmith.  His  master-piece  of 
painting  is  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian."  He 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Innocent  VIII.,  for  whom  (with 
the  aid  of  his  brother  Pietro)  he  made  a  monument  to 
Sixtus  IV.  He  excelled  in  composition  and  in  knowledge 
of  anatomy.  Died  in  1498. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Pollajuolo,  (PiK.TKo,)  a  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at 
Florence  about  1434,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
whom  he  aided  in  many  of  his  paintings  and  sculptures, 
but  was  less  eminent  than  he.  Died  in  1498. 

Pollajuolo,  (Si.Mo.NE. )     See  CRONACA. 

Pollet,  po'Ly,  (JOSEPH  MICHEL  ANGK,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Palermo  in  1814.  He  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Paris  about  1844,  and  obtained  a  first  medal  in 
1850.  His  works  adorn  the  Tuileries  and  other  imperial 
palaces. 

Pollet,  (VICTOR  FLORENCE,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1810.  He  gained  by  his 
engravings  the  prize  of  Rome  in  1838,  and  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1849. 

Pol'lex-fen,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  judge,  born 
probably  in  Devonshire.  He  was  counsel  for  the  bishops 
in  their  famous  trial,  (1688.)  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1689.  Died  in  1692. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Pollicll,  pol'liK,  (JoHANN  ADAM,)  a  German  natural 
ist,  born  at  Lantern  in  1740.  He  published  a  good  Flora 
of  the  Palatinate,  "  Historia  Plantarum  in  Palatinatu 
Electoral!  sponte  nascentimn,"  (1776.)  Died  in  1780. 

Pollich,  [I.at.  POLLICH'IUS,]  (MARTIN,)  a  German 
physician,  eminent  for  learning,  born  at  Mellerstadt, 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  preceding.  lie  became  in  1503 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 
of  which  he  was  the  first  rector.  He  published  "  La- 
conismi,"  (1504,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1513. 

See  P>OERNER,  "Vita  Pollichii,"  1751  :  BISMARK,  "  Vita  Pollichii," 
1614. 

Pollichius.     See  POLLICH. 

Fol'li-o,  (AsiNius,)  a  sophist  or  philosopher,  born  at 
Tralles,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  taught  at  Rome  about  50 
B.C.,  and,  according  to  Suidas,  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Aristotle's  treatise  "On  Animals." 

Pol'li-o,  |Fr.  POLLION,  po'le'6N'M  (CAius  ASINIUS,) 
an  eminent  Roman  orator,  author,  and  patron  of  litera 
ture,  was  born  at  Rome  in  76  «.c.  He  was  a  partisan 
of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49  H.C.,  and 
crossed  the  Rubicon  with  that  chief.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  in  48,  and  commanded  in  Spain 
against  Sextus  Pompey  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  death,  44 
)!.C.  Having  taken  arms  for  Antony  and  Octavius,  he 
obtained  the  office  of  consul  by  their  influence  in  40 
li.c.  and  saved  the  patrimony  of  Virgil  from  confiscation. 
Virgil  addressed  to  him  the  fourth  eclogue  in  40  B.C., 
and  the  eighth  eclogue  .soon  after  that  date.  Pollio 
retired  from  the  public  service  about  the  year  38,  and 
remained  neutral  in  the  war  between  Octavius  and  An 
tony.  He  founded  the  first  public  library  at  Rome,  and 
patronized  Virgil,  Horace,  and  other  poets.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  history  of  the  civil  wars  of  Rome,  and  several 
poems,  which  were  praised  by  Virgil.  None  of  these 
works  are  extant.  His  excellence  as  an  orator  is  attested 
by  Quintilian  and  other  ancient  writers.  He  was  also 
distinguished  as  a  critic.  He  had  a  son  named  C.  Asi- 
nius  Gallus.  (See  CALLUS.)  Died  in  4  A.D. 

See  THORBECKE,  "Commentatio  de  C.  A  Pollionis  Vita  et  Stu- 
diis,"  1820:  EKKRMAN,  "  Pissertatio  de  C.  A.  Pollione,"  1745: 
APPIAN,  "De  Hello  Civil! ;"  DK  BUGNY,  "  Pnllinn,  on  le  Siecle 
d'Auguste,"  4  vols.,  1808  ;  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  (janerale. " 

Pollio,  (TREHF.I.T.IUS,)  a  Roman  historian  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Constantino  I.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta,"  to  which  he  con 
tributed  the  lives  of  the  two  Valerians,  of  the  two 
Gallieni,  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  of  Claudius. 


Pollion.     See  POLLIO. 

Pollnitz  or  Poellnitz,  pol'nits,  (KARL  LUDWIG,)  a 
German  adventurer  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Isso- 
inin  (Prussia)  in  1692.  He  sought  fortune  at  several 
courts  of  Europe,  and  was  appointed  grand  master  of 
ceremonies  by  Frederick  the  Great.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Saxe  galante,"  (1737,)  which  narrates  the 
amours  of  king  Augustus,  and  Memoirs  of  his  own 
life  and  times,  ("Memoires  du  Baron  de  Poellnitz,"  3 
vols.,  1734.)  Died  in  1775. 

Pol'lock,  (Sir  FREDERICK,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  London  in  1783.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1834, 
and  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1844,  which 
position  he  held  until  1866.  Died  in  1870. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix.  ;  "Autobiography 
of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  iii.-iv. 

Pollock,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English  general,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1786.  He 
commanded  an  army  which  defeated  the  Affghans 
in  1841. 

Fol'lock,  (JAMES,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1831. 
He  represented  a  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  '849.  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that 
State  by  the  People's  party,  or  Republicans,  for  three 
years,  (1855-58.) 

Fol'lok,  (ROBERT,)  a  British  poet,  born  at  Muirhouse, 
in  Renfrewshire,  Scotland,  in  1798  or  1799.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  chose  the  profession 
of  minister  of  the  gospel.  He  obtained  a  license  as 
minister  in  the  United  Secession  Church  in  1827,  but 
his  health  was  already  fatally  impaired  by  excessive 
study.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  "The  Course  of 
Time,"  (1827,)  a  didactic  poem,  which  found  many  ad 
mirers,  especially  among  those  who  take  an  interest  in 
religious  poetry.  It  contains  some  beautiful  and  many 
powerful  passages,  but  it  has  great  defects,  and  is  not 
considered  very  attractive  as  a  poem,  apart  from  its 
religious  and  moral  doctrines.  "The  Course  of  Time," 
says  Moir,  "  is  a  very  extraordinary  poem,  vast  in  its 
conception,  vast  in  its  plan,  vast  in  its  materials,  and 
vast,  if  very  far  from  perfect,  in  its  achievement."  "  The 
Course  of  Time,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "  for  so  young 
a  man,  was  a  vast  achievement.  .  .  .  He  had  much  to 
learn  in  composition.  .  .  .  But  the  soul  of  poetry  is 
there,  though  often  dimly  enveloped  ;  and  many  passages 
there  are,  and  long  ones  too,  that  heave  and  hurry 
and  glow  along  in  a  divine  enthusiasm."  lie  wrote, 
in  prose,  "Tales  of  the  Covenanters."  Died  near 
Southampton  in  September,  1827. 

See  "Life  of  R.  Pollok,''  by  his  brother,  1842;  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1827. 

Polluche,  po'liisl/,  (DANIEL,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1689.  He  wrote  a  "  Description  of 
Orleans,"  (1736.)  Died  in  1768. 

Pol'lux,  a  demi-god  of  classic  mythology,  and  a 
brother  of  Castor.  See  CASTOR  and  POLLUX. 

Pol'lux,  (  JULIUS,)  a  Greek  grammarian,  whose  proper 
name  was  POLYDELICES,  was  born  at  Naucratis,  in  Egypt, 
about  130  A.D.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  and  Commoclus,  and  taught  rhetoric  at  Athens  in 
the  reign  of  the  latter.  His  works  are  all  lost,  except 
his  "  Onomasticon,"  a  kind  of  dictionary  of  Greek  words, 
(not  in  alphabetical  order,)  which  is  highly  prized.  lie 
died  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Pol'lux,  (Jui.ius,)  a  Byzantine  writer,  who  lived  in 
the  tenth  or  eleventh  century.  He  wrote  a  "Chronicle, 
or  Universal  History  from  the  Creation  to  the  Time  of 
Valens,"  which  is  extant. 

Po'lo,  (GASPAR  Gil.,)  a'  Spanish  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Valencia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  a  lawyer  and  a  professor  of  Greek. 
He  gained  celebrity  by  a  poetical  romance,  entitled 
"  Diana  in  Love,"  ("  Diana  enamorada,")  which  was 
translated  into  English,  French,  and  Latin. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Polo,  (TAYME,)  called  THE  ELDER,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Burgos  in  1560,  was  a  good  colorist.  Died 
in  1600. 


€  as/£;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v*,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JST^ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POLO 


1820 


POLY CARP 


Polo,  (JAYMK,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  painter,  born  at 
Burgos  in  1620  ;  died  at  Madrid  in  1655. 

Fo'lo,  (MARCO,)  [Fr.  MAKC  POL,  mink  pol,  (or  PAUL, 
pol,)j  a  famous  Venetian  traveller,  born  about  1252, 
was  a  son  of  Niccolo  Polo,  a  merchant  of  jioble  rank. 
About  1255  Niccolo  and  his  brother  Matteo,  or  Maffeo, 
commenced  an  extensive  expedition,  with  a  stock  of 
precious  stones,  which  they  sold  to  a  Tartar  chief  on 
the  Volga.  They  arrived  in  1261  at  Bokhara,  where 
they  learned  the  Mongol  language.  Accepting  the  in 
vitation  of  a  Persian  envoy  whom  they  met  at  Bokhara, 
they  accompanied  him  to  the  court  of  Kooblai  Khan, 
the  Great  Mogul,  who  ruled  over  China  and  Tartary. 
This  prince  received  them  favourably,  and  accredited 
them  as  his  ambassadors  to  the  pope,  whom  he  desired  to 
send  to  him  a  hundred  learned  men  to  teach  his  Mongol 
subjects.  They  returned  home  in  1269,  and  found  that 
the  pope  had  died  in  1268.  His  successor,  who  was 
not  elected  until  1271  or  1272,  gave  them  letters  to 
Kooblai  Khan,  to  whom  they  returned  accompanied  by 
young  Marco.  They  arrived  at  the  court  of  Kooblai 
in  1275.  Marco  learned  several  Asiatic  languages,  and 
obtained  the  favour  of  the  Khan,  who  sent  him  on  im 
portant  missions  to  China  and  other  provinces.  He 
was  the  first  European  that  entered  China,  in  which 
he  passed  several  years.  Having  obtained  the  consent 
of  Kooblai  Khan,  the  three  Venetians  quitted  his  ser 
vice  about  1292,  and,  embarking  on  the  coast  of  China, 
came  to  Ormuz  by  water,  and  reached  Venice  in  1295, 
with  many  diamonds,  rubies,  etc.  of  great  value.  Marco 
commanded  a  galley  in  a  battle  against  the  Genoese,  by 
whom  he  was  taken  prisoner.  Dining  his  long  cap 
tivity  he  composed  a  narrative  of  his  adventures,  by  the 
aid  of  notes  which  he  had  written  previously.  It  is  said 
that  a  French  version  of  his  book  was  made  under  his 
direction.  His  narrative  produced  a  great  sensation, 
and  was  translated  into  many  languages,  but  for  several 
ages  was  regarded  as  a  tissue  of  fictions  or  gross  ex 
aggerations.  The  researches  and  revelations  of  suc 
cessive  centuries  have  more  and  more  confirmed  his 
veracity;  and  it  is  now  recognized  that  his  services  had 
great  influence  on  the  progress  of  navigation  and  com 
merce.  "When  in  the  long  series  of  ages,"  says  M. 
Walckenaer,  "  we  search  for  three  men  who  by  the 
grandeur  and  influence  of  their  discoveries  have  con 
tributed  most  to  the  progress  of  geography  or  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  globe,  the  modest  name  of  the 
Venetian  traveller  presents  itself  in  the  same  line  with 
the  names  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  Christopher 
Columbus."  He  died  about  1324.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  his  book  is  that  of  Baldelli,  "  II  Milione  di 
Messer  Marco  Polo,"  (4  vols.,  1827.)  An  English  ver 
sion,  by  Marsden,  was  published  in  1818. 

See  PI.ACIDO  ZURLA,  "Di  M.  Polo  e  degli  aliri  antichi  Viag- 
giatori,"  etc.,  1818;  STEIN,  "  Ueber  den  Venetianer  M.  Polo,"  1821  ; 
G.  B.  BAI.DELU.  "Vita  di  M.  Polo,"  1827;  G.  PAUTIIIER,  article 
"Polo,"  ill  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  January,  1819,  and  July,  1868. 

Polonceau,  po'los'so',  (ANTOINE  REMI,)  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Rheims  in  1778.  As  engineer-in-chief 
of  the  department  of  Mont  Blanc,  he  constructed  a  road 
over  Mont  Cenis  about  1812.  Among  his  works  is  the 
Pont  du  Carrousel  at  Paris,  (1834.)  He  wrote  several 
professional  works.  Died  in  1847.  His  son,  JEAN  BAR- 
THELKMY  CAMILLE,  (1813-59,)  was  distinguished  as  a 
railway  engineer  and  director. 

Poltrot  de  Mere,  pol'tRo'  deh  meh-ra/,  (JEAN,)  a 
French  fanatic,  who  assassinated  Francis,  Duke  de 
Guise,  in  1563.  He  was  executed  the  same  year. 

Polus.     See  POLE. 

Po'lus,  a  Sophist  of  Agrigentum,  lived  about  400  B.C., 
and  was  a  disciple  of  Gorgias.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
rhetoric. 

Polus,  (MATTHEW.)     See  POOI.E. 

Polwhele,  pol'wheel,  (Rev.  RICHARD,)  an  English 
antiquary  and  poet,  born  at  Truro  in  1759  or  1760. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  Cornwall."  Died 
in  1838. 

Polyaenus,  pol-e-ee'nus,  [ITo/a'atvof,]  OF  LAMPSACUS, 
was  an  eminent  mathematician  ;  but,  having  become  a 
friend  and  disciple  of  Epicurus,  he  renounced  geometry, 
as  unworthy  of  his  notice. 


Polyaenus,  a  Macedonian  writer,  who  lived  about 
150  A.I).  He  wrote  a  work  on  "Stratagems  in  War," 
which  he  dedicated  to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Verus.  It 
is  extant,  and  is  prized  for  the  numerous  anecdotes  and 
facts  which  he  has  collected,  and  which  are  not  found 
elsewhere. 

Polybe.     See  POI.YIUUS. 

Polybius.     See  POLYBUS. 

Po-lyb'I-us,  [Gr.  Ilo~Ai>6ioc ;  Fr.  POLYHE,  po'leb';  It. 
POLIHIO,  po-lee'be-o,]  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about  206  B.C.  lie  was  a 
son  of  Lycortas,  who  succeeded  his  friend  Philopoemen 
as  general  of  the  Achaean  League  in  182  B.C.  Polybius 
obtained  in  169  B.C.  command  of  the  cavalry  raised  to 
fight  for  the  Romans  against  Perseus;  but  his  ser 
vices  were  declined  by  the  Roman  general.  In  167  the 
Romans  transported  to  Italy,  as  hostages  or  exiles,  one 
thousand  Achaeans,  among  whom  was  Polybius.  lie 
found  a  home  in  the  house  of  Paulus  /Kmilius,  and 
became  the  preceptor  of  his  son  Scipio,  afterwards  the 
famous  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger.  A  warm  friend 
ship  was  formed  between  this  pupil  and  Polybius,  who 
accompanied  him  in  all  his  campaigns.  /He  witnessed  the 
conquest  and  destruction  of  Carthage,  (146  B.C.,)  soon 
after  which  he  went  to  Greece  and  exerted  his  influence 
with  some  success  to  procure  favourable  terms  for  the 
conquered  Achnsans.  lie  afterwards  devoted  himself 
to  the  completion  of  a  general  history,  for  which  he  had 
been  preparing  himself  for  some  years  by  studies  and 
by  journeys  to  Egypt,  Spain,  Gaul,  etc.  The  exact  date 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  Lucian  states  that  he  died  at 
the  age  of  eighty-two.  His  great  work,  entitled  KaOo- 
T^iKri,  Kou'ij  ianpia,  ("Universal  History,")  comprised  the 
period  from  220  to  146  B.C.,  and  consisted  of  forty 
books,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  lost.  We  have  the 
first  five  books  entire,  and  many  fragments  and  extracts 
of  several  other  books.  His  impartiality,  his  love  of 
truth,  his  sound  judgment  and  experience  in  military 
and  civil  affairs,  render  this  one  of  the  most  valuable 
and  reliable  histories  that  have  ever  been  written  by  an 
uninspired  writer.  He  is  thus  briefly  characterized  by 
Cicero:  "Polybius  bonus  auctor  in  primis."  Livy's 
account  of  events  after  the  second  Punic  war  appears 
to  be  much  like  a  translation  from  Polybius.  The  latter 
despised  or  neglected  rhetorical  ornaments,  and  was 
deficient  in  imagination.  His  style,  consequently,  is 
not  attractive.  He  aimed  only  to  instruct,  and,  accord 
ing  to  some  critics,  carried  too  far  his  didactic  and 
moralizing  tendency.  He  wrote,  also,  a  "  Life  of  Phi 
lopoemen,"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Tactics."  "Polybius 
and  Arrian,"  says  Macaulay,  "have  given  us  authentic 
accounts  of  facts  ;  and  here  their  merit  ends.  They 
were  not  men  of  comprehensive  minds;  they  had  not 
the  art  of  telling  a  story  in  an  interesting  manner." 
("Essay  on  History,"  1828.)  An  English  version  of 
Polybius,  by  Hampton,  (1772,)  is  commended. 

£ee  K.  W.  NITZSCH,  "Polybius  ?.ur  Geschichte  antiker  Politik," 
etc.,  1842;  L.  F.  HEYD,  "Vita  Polybii,"  1812;  VAN  HRUSDE, 
"  School  van  Polybius  of  Geschiedkunde  voor  the  negentientie 
eeuw,"  1841:  F.  H.  BOTHE,  "Polybiana,"  1844;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Fol'y-bus,  [Gr.  UoAvSo^ ;  Fr.  POLYBE,  po'leb',]  a 
king  of  Corinth,  who  was  said  to  have  educated  or 
adopted  CEdipus. 

Polybus  [IloAu5of]  or  Polybius,  a  pupil  and  son-in- 
law  of  Hippocrates,  lived  in  the  island  of  Cos  about  400 
B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  sect  of  Dogmatic!. 
Several  treatises  usually  printed  with  the  works  of  Hip 
pocrates  are  ascribed  to  Polybus  by  many  critics. 

Pol'y-carp,  [Gr.  noAwcnpTOf ;  Lat.  PoLYCAR'PUS  ;  Fr. 
POLYCARPE,  po'le'utup',]  an  eminent  martyr  and  Father 
of  the  Christian  Church,  of  whose  early  history  we 
have  no  authentic  record.  Irenaeus  states  that  Polycarp 
had  intercourse  with  John  and  others  of  the  apostle*, 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Smyrna  by  the  apostles. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  ordained  by  Saint 
John.  He  was  Bishop  of  Smyrna  when  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  passed  through  that  city  on  his  way  to  Rome, 
which  occurred  between  107  and  116  A.n.  Polycarp 
visited  Rome  in  his  old  age,  and  had  a  conference  with 
Anicetus,  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  differed  from  the 
Eastern  churches  in  relation  to  the  time  for  the  obser- 


a,e,  i,  o,\\,y,long;  a, e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T, 6, u, y,  short:  a, e,  j, o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


POLTCARPE 


1821 


POLTNICES 


vance  of  Easter.  He  suffered  martyrdom  by  fire  at 
Smyrna  about  166  A.D.  A  letter  from  the  church  of 
Smyrna  on  the  subject  of  his  death  is  still  extant.  The 
only  work  of  Polycarp  that  remains  is  a  short  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians,  which  is  prized  because  numerous 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  are  quoted  in  it. 

•SeeTiLt.EMONT,  "  Memoires  ecclesiastiques  ;"  CRUCIGER,  "Ora- 
tio  de  Polycarpi  Vita,"  1543  ;  "  Lite  of  Po'.ycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna," 
London,  1X47  ;  COMTE  DE  COETI.OSQUET,  "  Vie  de  i>.  Ignace  et  de 
S.  Poiycarpe,"  1852. 

Polycarpe  or  Folycarpus.     See  POLYCARP. 

Pol-y-ehar'mus,  [tto/.i'xap/Mf,]  a  Greek  sculptor  of 
unknown  date.  Pliny  mentions  his  statue  of  "  Venus 
washing  herself,"  which  was  at  Rome  in  his  time. 

Polycleitus.     See  POLYCLETUS. 

Pol'y-cles,  [Ylo'/.vKAf/f,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who  lived 
about  370  B.C.,  was  probably  an  Athenian.  He  is  men 
tioned  by  Pliny,  who  says  he  made  a  celebrated  statue 
of  a  hermaphrodite. 

Another  sculptor  named  POLYCLES  is  mentioned  by 
I'iiny  as  flourishing  about  155  B.C.  Pausanias  notices 
some  works  of  Polycles  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  which  of  these 
two  he  refers  to. 

Folyclete.     See  POLYCLETUS. 

Pol-y-cle'tus    or    Pol-y-cli'tus,    [Gr.   YloAvKteirof  ; 
Fr.  POLYCLETE,  po'le'kl^t',]  a  Greek  statuary  of  great 
celebrity,  was  also  a  sculptor  and  architect.    'He  was  a 
native  ot  Sicyon  or  Argos,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ageladas, 
the  Argive  statuary,  who  was  at  the  same  time  the  mas-  I 
ter  of  Phidias.    The  works  of  Polycletus  were  probably 
executed  between  452  and  412  li.'c.     He  surpassed  all 
statuaries  of  his  time  except  Phidias,  and  equalled  the 
latter  in  beauty  if  not  in  sublimity.      He  once  gained 
the  first  prize  for  a  statue  of  an  Amazon,  in  competition 
with   Phidias  and  other   artists.     His   master-pieces   in 
bronze  were  a  statue  of  a  young  man  called  "  Diadu- 
menos"  binding  his  head  with  a  fillet,  "  Doryphorus  the 
Spear-Bearer,"  the  Amazon  noticed  above,  and  a  statue  j 
called  the  Kavuv,  (-"Canon,")  because  it  was  recognized  | 
as  a  perfect  model  of  the  human  figure.     Some  critics  ! 
maintain  that  this  last  statue  was  the  "  Doryphorus."  j 
None  of  his  works  was  more  celebrated  than  a  colossal 
ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Juno,  which  adorned  a  temple 
near  Argos.   He  was  architect  of  a  theatre  at  Epidaurus, 
which  was,  according  to  Pausanias,  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  world.     Cicero  and  Pliny  agree  in   the  opinion 
that  Polycletus  brought  the  art  of  statuary  to  perfection. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Aristides,  Canachus,  Atheno- 
clorus,  and  Phrynon. 

See  PUNY,  "Natural  History;"  £MERIC  DAVID,  "Vies  des 
Artistes  aiiciens  et  modernes ;"  K.  O.  MULI.ER,  "  Haudbuch  der 
Archaologie  der  Kunst." 

Polycletus,  another  statuary  of  Argos,  is  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  as  a  different  person  from  him  "  who  made 
the  statue  of  Juno,"  and  as  a  pupil  of  Naucydes,  (who 
flourished  about  410  B.C.)  Several  works  are  variously 
attributed  to  this  Polycletus  and  to  his  more  celebrated 
namesake. 

Polycletus  OK  LARISSA,  a  Greek  historian  of  un 
known  date.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  is  not  extant. 

Polycrate.     See  POLYCRATES 

Po-lyc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  HoMKpurrjf •  Fr.  POLYCRATE, 
po'le'kutt',]  tyrant  of  Samos,  usurped  the  royal  power 
about  532  K.c.  He  formed  a  powerful  navy,  and  con 
quered  some  other  islands.  He  patronized  literature 
and  the  arts,  and  constructed  some  grand  public  works. 
His  court  was  the  resort  of  eminent  artists  and  poets, 
among  whom  was  Anacreon.  He  defended  Samos  with 
success  against  an  attack  of  the  Spartans  and  Corinthians. 
In  522  B.C.  he  was  induced  to  go  to  Sardi?  by  the  satrap  i 
Oroetes,  who  treacherously  put  him  to  death. 

See  HEKODOTUS,  "  History,"  book  iii.  ;  VEEGENS,  "  Dissertatio 
histnrica  de  Polycrate  Samio,"  1839.  Fora  popular  legend  respecting 
Po'.ycrates,  see  SCHILLER'S  poem  entitled  "  L)er  Ring  des  Po  ykrates." 

Polycrates,  an  Athenian  orator  and  Sophist,  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates.  He  taught  at  Athens 
and  Cyprus. 

Fol-y-dec'tes,  [Tlo/MfeK7jj£,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who 
worked  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

Polydeuces.     See  POLLUX. 

Polydore.     See  POLYDORUS. 


Polydore  Vergil.     See  VERGIL. 

Fol-y-do'rus,  |Gr.  UoAiidcjpof  •  Fr.  POLYDORK,  po'- 
le'dok',]  a  son  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia,  was  King  of 
Thebes,  and  the  father  of  Labdacus. 

Folydorus,  [Eng.  POLYDORE,  pol'e-dor,]  the  youngest 
son  of  Priam,  was,  according  to  the  ancient  poets,  com 
mitted  to  the  care  of  Polymestor,  King  of  Thrace,  by  his 
father,  who  sent  with  him  a  large  sum  of  money.  Poly 
mestor  killed  the  young  prince  and  appropriated  the 
money. 

Polydorus,  a  king  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  Alca- 
menes,  and  the  father  of  Eurycrates.  He  lived  about 
725  B.C. 

Polydorus,  a  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  aided  Agesander 
(who  is  supposed  to  have  been  his  father)  in  the  execu 
tion  of  the  famous  group  of  Laocoon.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny. 

Pol-y-euc'tus,  [Gr.  rio/imiKroc ;  Fr.  POLYEUCTE,  po'- 
le'ukt'.j  an  Athenian  orator,  lived  about  325  B.C.  He 
was  a  political  friend  of  Demosthenes,  and  an  adversary 
of  Phocion. 

Polygnote.     See  POLYGNOTUS. 

Fol-yg-no'tus,  |Gr.  JIoAv/vwrof;  Fr.  POLYGNOTE, 
po'leg'not';  Ger.  POI.YGNOTOS,  po-lig-no'tos,]  an  excel 
lent  Greek  painter,  born  in  the  island  of  Thasos,  was  a 
son  and  pupil  of  Aglaophon.  He  flourished  from  about 
460  to  430  B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Phidias,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  painter  Aristophon.  He  became  a  citizen 
of  Athens  and  a  friend  of  Cimon,  who  employed  him  to 
ornament  the  temple  of  Theseus.  He  painted  gratui 
tously  the  Poecile  or  portico  of  Athens.  After  the  death 
of  Cimon  (449  B.C.)  Polygnottis  probably  retired  from 
Athens,  and  applied  himself  to  the  decoration  of  the 
great  temple  at  Delphi.  He  is  styled  "the  Homer  of 
painting,"  because  he  treated  his  subjects  in  an  epic 
rather  than  a  dramatic  spirit.  Pliny  represents  him  as 
the  first  who  painted  women  with  transparent  or  shining 
drapery,  (Incida  veste,)  and  the  first  who  contributed 
much  to  the  progress  of  the  art.  He  had  imagination 
in  the  highest  degree.  In  allusion  to  the  ideal  charac 
ter  and  moral  expression  of  his  works,  Aristotle  calls 
him  an  ethic  painter.  The  same  critic  says,  in  another 
passage,  Polygnotus  represented  men  better  than  they 
are,  (or  superior  to  nature.)  Among  his  works  were 
the  "Capture  of  Troy,"  and  the  "Visit  of  Ulysses  to 
the  Lower  World." 

See  PLINY,  "Natural  History;"  PAUSANIAS,  i.,  ix.,  and  x.  ; 
SILLIG,  "Catalogus  Artificum ;"  SUIDAS,  "Polygnotus;"  OTTO 
JAHN,  "Die  Gemalde  des  Polygnotos  in  der  Lesche  zu  Delphi," 
1841  ;  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generate. " 

Fol-y-his'tor,  [no/.worup,]  (ALEXANDER,  or  ALEX 
ANDER  CORNELIUS,)  a  Greek  geographer  and  historian, 
born  in  Phrygia  or  Miletus,  lived  at  Rome  about  80  B.C. 
He  was  surnamed  POLYHISTOR  on  account  of  his  great 
learning,  and  is  often  quoted  by  Pliny  the  Elder.  He 
wrote  a  description  of  many  countries,  in  forty  books. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Polyide.     See  POLYIDUS. 

Fol-y-hyrn'ni-a  or  Po-lym'nl-a,  [from  iro?.i'f, 
"much,"  or  "many,"  and  iym>c,  a  "hymn,"  or  "song,"] 
the  name  of  the  muse  who  presided  over  singing  and 
rhetoric,  and  was  supposed  to  be  the  inventress  of 
harmony. 

Pol-y-I'dus,  [Gr.  Uo7.vi6of  ;  Fr.  POLYIDE,  po'le'ed',]  a 
soothsayer  of  classic  mythology,  who  was  fabled  to  have 
restored  to  life  Glaucus,  a  son  of  Minos.  This  story 
was  a  favourite  subject  of  ancient  poets  and  artists. 

Polyidus,  [no/.i'«Soc,]  an  Athenian  poet,  musician,  and 
painter,  lived  about  400  B.C.  His  productions  (dithy 
rambs)  were  very  popular. 

Pol-y-mes'tor  or  Pol-ym-nes'tor,  a  fabulous  king 
of  Thrace,  was  said  to  have  been  a  son-in-law  of  Priam. 
He  murdered  POLYDORUS,  which  see.  His  story  is  related 
with  much  variation  by  different  writers,  some  of  whom 
say  that  he  killed  his  own  son  by  mistake  instead  of 
Polydorus. 

Pol-ym-nes'tus  [IIoAtyu^ffTOf]  or  Fol-ym-nas'tus 
OF  COLOPHON,  an  epic  and  lyric  poet,  and  musician,  lived 
about  660  B.C. 

Polynice.     See  POLYNICES. 

Pol-y-m'ces  or  Pol-y-nei'ces,  [Gr.  HO'/MVELK^  ;  Fr. 
POLYNICE,  po'le'ness',]  a  son  of  CEdipus,  King  of  Thebes, 


t:  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


POLTPHEME 


1822 


POMPEIUS 


and  Jocasta.  He  made  an  agreement  with  his  brother 
Eteocles  that  they  should  each  reign  one  year  alternately. 
Eteocles,  having  reigned  the  first  year,  refused  to  resign 
the  throne.  The  cause  of  Polynices  was  espoused  by 
Adrastus,  King  of  Argos,  who  led  the  famous  expedition 
against  Thebes.  Polynices  and  Eteocles  killed  each  other 
in  single  combat. 

See  SOPHOCLES,  "  CEdipus  et  Co!onus ;"  EURIPIDES,  "Phoe- 
nissa;." 

Folypheme.     Sec  POLYPHEMUS. 

Pol-y-phe'mus,  [Gr.  H<MIX/»;//OC ;  Fr.  POLYPI  IEME, 
po'Ie'l'im  ,  |  a  Cyclops  or  giant  of  Sicily,  who  was  said 
to  have  one  eye  in  his  forehead,  and  was  called  a  son  of 
Neptune.  Homer  relates  in  the  "Odyssey"  a  famous 
adventure  of  Ulvsses  in  the  cave  of  Polyphemus.  (See, 
also,  Virgil's  "  ^ineid,"  book  iii.  617-676.) 

Pol-ys-per'ehon,  [Gr.  YlohvaxEpxuv,]  a  Macedonian 
general,  who  in  332  B.C.  obtained  command  of  a  division 
in  the  phalanx  of  Alexander.  He  served  in  the  cam 
paign  of  India,  and  was  second  in  command  of  a  body 
of  veterans  which  Craterus  conducted  home  in  323  B.C. 
During  the  absence  of  the  regent  Antipater  in  321,  he 
had  the  chief  command  in  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
He  became  regent  in  319  B.C.,  at  the  death  of  Antipater, 
who  designated  him  as  his  successor.  A  coalition  was 
formed  against  him  by  Antigonus  and  Cassander,  who 
expelled  him  from  Macedonia  in  316  K.c.  In  310  he 
raised  an  army  to  obtain  the  crown  for  Heracles,  (a  son 
of  Alexander  and  Barsina,)  but,  having  been  corrupted 
by  Cassander,  he  procured  the  assassination  of  that 
youth.  Died  after  303  B.C. 

See  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece;"  DlODORUS  Sicui.us,  books 
xvii.-xx.  ;  DROYSEN,  "  Geschicl'.';  cler  Nachfolger  Alexanders." 

Polystrate.     See  POI.YSTRATITS. 

Po-lys'tra-tus,  [Gr.  ITo/wrporof ;  Fr.  POLYSTRATE, 
po'le'stuSt',]  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  who  suc 
ceeded  Hermarchus  as  the  head  of  the  school.  He 
lived  probably  about  2^0  B.C. 

Po-lyx'e-na,  [Gr.  UOAV^SVJJ;  Fr.  POI.YXENE,  po'lek'- 
s£n',j  a  daughter  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy,  was  beloved 
by  Achilles.  According  to  one  tradition,  she  was  sacri 
ficed  by  the  Greeks  on  the  tomb  of  Achilles. 

Folyxene.     See  POI.YXENA. 

Pomarancio,  po-ma-ran'cho,  the  surname  of  Nrccoi.6 
CIRCIGNA.NI,  (cheu-chen-ya'nee,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Pomarancio,  near  Volterra.  lie  worked  in  Rome,  and 
aided  Titian  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican.  One  of 
his  latest  works  is  dated  1591. 

See  LANZI,  "  Historv  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pomare,  po-ma'ra,  (.\IMATA,)  Queen  of  Tahiti,  was 
born  about  1822.  Several  chiefs  having  in  1842  placed 
the  island  under  the  protection  of  France,  she  protested 
against  the  act.  The  French  admiral  I)u  Petit-Thouars 
attempted  to  depose  her  by  force,  but  his  act  was  dis 
avowed  by  the  French  court.  She  abdicated  in  favour 
of  her  son,  Tamaton,  in  1852.  27//'«.  /V/y7-':-'«,^  v--rr«,»^s 

Pomarius,  po-ma're-us,  the  Latin  name  of  SAMUEL 
BAUMGARTKN,  (bown/gaK/ten,)  a  German  Protestant 
minister  and  writer,  born  in  1624;  died  in  1683. 

Pombal,  de,  da  pom-ba'/  or  p6x-bal',  (Dom  SKBAS- 
TIAO  JozE  de  Carvalho — da  kaR-val'yo,)  MARQUIS, 
Count  of  Oeyras,  an  eminent  Portuguese  statesman,  born 
at  Soura,  near  Coimbra,  in  1699.  He  studied  law  at 
Coimbra,  and  was  sent  as  envoy-extraordinary  to  London 
in  1739.  He  married  a  niece  of  the  Austrian  general 
Daun,  who  gained  the  favour  of  the  Queen  of  Portugal. 
Bv  her  influence  Carvalho  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1750.  He  greatly  increased  the  prosperity  of 
Portugal,  by  the  promotion  of  education,  manufactures, 
commerce,  etc.  He  reduced  the  power  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  banished  the  Jesuits  in  1759.  His  administrative 
talents  appear  to  have  been  of  a  high  order.  Tn  1770  he 
received  the  title  of  Marquis  de  Pombal.  His  reforms 
and  his  severity  towards  some  of  the  nobility,  who  were 
suspected  of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  the  king's  life, 
rendered  him  unpopular.  He  was  deprived  of  power  at 
the  death  of  Joseph  I.,  in  1777.  Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Life  of  Pombal,"  by  T-  SMITH,  1843;  GUSTA,  "  Vita  di 
Sebastiano  Giuseppe  di  Carvalho,"  4  vols.,  1781;  "  Memoires  du 
Marquis  de  Pombal,"  4  vols.,  1784:  "  Administration  dn  Marquis  de 
Pombal,"  4  vols.,  1787;  OPPERMANM,  "Pombal  nnd  die  Jesiiiten." 
1845;  CHAMPRORKKT,  "  Choiseul  et  «Pomba'.,"  1836;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 


Pomerancio.     See  RONCALLI. 

Pomeranus.     See  BUGENIIAGEN. 

Pomet,  po'mi',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1658.  He  published  a  "Description  of  Drugs," 
(etc.,  (1694,)  which  was  then  the  best  French  work  on 
;  materia  medica.  Died  in  1699. 

Pomey,  po'mi',  (FRANCOIS  ANNE,)  a  French  Jesuit 
j  and  classical  teacher,  b  >rn  at  Perncs  in  1619.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  on  mythology,  "Mythological  Pantheon," 
(r6^Q,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1673. 

PSuv'fret,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Bedford 
shire  in  1667,  became  rector  of  Maiden.  lie  wrote, 
besides  other  poems,  "The  Choice,"  which  was  once 
popular.  "He  pleases  many,"  says  Dr.  Johnson  ;  "and 
he  who  pleases  many  must  have  merit."  Died  in  1703. 

Pommayrac,  de,  deh  po'ini'iaV,  (PIERRE  PAUL,) 'a. 
French  painter  of  miniatures,  was  born  in  Porto-Rico 
about  1818.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1842. 

Pommer,  pom'mer,  (CHRiSTOPH  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  physician,  born  in  1787;  died  in  1841. 

Pommeraye,  pom'nV,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
monk,  born  at  Rouen  in  1617.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Archbishops  of  Rouen,"  (1667.)  Died  in  1687. 

Pommereul,  de,  deli  pom'rul',  ( FRANCOIS  RKNE 
JEAN,)  BARON,  a  French  general  and  politician,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1745  ;  died  in  1823. 

Pommier,  po'me-i',  (VICTOR  Louis  AMEDEE,)  a 
French  poet,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1804.  He  obtained 
several  prizes  of  the  French  Academy  for  poems  on  the 
"Discovery  of  Steam  Power,"  (1848,)  and  other  sub 
jects.  He  published  "Poesies,"  (1832,)  "  Oceanides  et 
Fantaisies,"  (1839,)  and  other  collections.  Died  in  1862. 

See  QUSRARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Po-mo'na,  [Fr.  POMONE,  po'mon';  horn  pomitm,  an 
"apple,")  a  Roman  divinity  supposed  to  preside  over 
the  fruit  which  grows  on  trees. 

Pomone.     See  POMONA. 

Pompadour,  de,  deh  poN'pf'dooR', (Madame  JEANNE 
ANTOINETTE  POISSON,)  MARQUISE,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1721.  She  was  married  in  1741  to  M.  d'Etioles,  a 
publican.  About  1744  her  beauty  and  accomplishments 
attracted  the  favour  of  Louis  XV.,  who  gave  her  the  title 
of  Marquise  de  Pompadour  in  1745.  She  retained  a 
dominant  influence  over  him  until  her  death,  in  1764, 
She  appointed  ministers  and  generals,  received  ambas 
sadors,  and  maintained  correspondence  with  foreign 
courts.  Among  her  diplomatic  acts  was  the  coalition  of 
France  with  Austria  against  Frederick  the  Great,  in  1756. 

See  "History  of  the  Marchioness  de  "Pompadour,"  London,  2 
vo!s.,  1758;  SOUI.AVIK,  "Memoires  de  la  Cour  de  France  pendant 
laFaveurde  Madame  de  Pompadour,"  1802;  CAPEFIGUK.  "Madame 
de  Pompadour."  1858;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  L.  DS 
CARN'K,  "  Le  Gouvernemeut  de  Madame  de  Pompadour,"  in  the 
"Revue  des  Daux  Mondes,"  January  15,  1859. 

Pompee,  the  French  for  POMPEY,  which  see. 

Pompei,  pom-pa'ee,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  Hellenist 
and  translator,  born  at  Verona  in  1731.  He  produced 
some  successful  verses, entitled  "Pastoral  Songs,"  ("Can- 
/oni  pastoral!,"  1766,)  and  several  tragedies.  His  repu 
tation  is  founded  chiefly  on  an  Italian  translation  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1772,)  which  is  the  best  in  that 
language,  and  probably  equal  to  the  best  version  in  any 
language.  Died  at  Verona  in  1788. 

See  FOXTAXA.  "  Ds  Vita  et  Scrintis  Hier.  Pompei,"  1790;  PIN- 
DILMONTE.  "  E'ogio  storico  di  G.  Pompei,"  1789;  TIPALDO,  "  Bio- 
grafia  deg!i  Italian!  illustri." 

Pompeius,  (C-NEIUS.)     See  POMPEY  THE  GREAT. 

Pom-pe'ius,  (QuiNTUS,)  a  Roman  general  and  orator, 
was  consul  in  141  B.C.  He  commanded  in  Spain  in  140, 
and  was  defeated.  In  131  B.C.  he  was  elected  censor. 

Pompeius,  (RuFus  Q.,)  a  son  or  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  100  B.C.,  and 
praetor  in  91.  He  became  consul  with  L.  Sulla  in  SS 
B.C.,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war.  lie 
was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers  in  88  or  87  B.C. 

Pompeius  Festus.     See  FESTUS. 

Pompeius  Magnus.     See  POMPEY  THE  GREAT. 

Pom-pe'ius    Stra'bo,    (CNEius,)    an    able    Roman 

general,  was   the   father  of  Pompev  the   triumvir.      He 

ained  several   victories   in   the   Social  war,   and  was   a 

partisan  of  the  aristocracy  in  the  civil  war  between  Sulla 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short';  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  m5t:  not;  good:  moon; 


POM  PEWS 


1823 


POMPONIUS 


and  Marius.  His  avarice  and  cruelty  rendered  him 
odious.  He  was  killed  by  lightning  in  87  B.C. 

Pompeius  Trogus.     See  TKOGUS. 

Pompeo.     See  POMPEY. 

Pom'pey,  [Lat.  POMPE'HTS;  Fr.  POM  PEE,  po.v'pa' ; 
It.  POMPEO,  pom-pa'o,]  (CNF.rus,)  the  eldest  son  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  was  born  about  78  B.C.  His  mother 
was  Mucia.  He  commanded  a  fleet  for  his  father  in  48 
H.C.,  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  sailed  to  Spain, 
where  he  raised  an  army  of  thirteen  legions.  In  45  li.C. 
this  army  encountered  at  Munda  another,  commanded 
by  Cassar  in  person,  who  gained  a  complete  but  not  an 
easy  victory.  Pompey  was  overtaken  in  his  retreat 
and  killed. 

Pompey,  (Pompeius,)  (SF.XTCS,)  a  son  of  the  trium 
vir,  was  born  in  75  u.C.  He  waged  war  with  some  suc 
cess  against  Cxsar  in  Spain  after  the  battle  of  Munda. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Caesar  (44  i:.c.)  he  was  appointed 
chief  admiral  of  the  fleet  by  the  senate  ;  but  he  was 
proscribed  as  an  outlaw  by  Antony  and  Octavius.  He 
made  himself  master  of  Sicily,  and,  by  means  of  his 
formidable  fleet,  obstructed  the  supply  of  corn  which 
the  Romans  received  by  sea.  The  officers  of  Sextus 
gained  several  victories  over  the  fleet  of  Octavius.  In 
36  is.c.  Agrippa  defeated  Pompey,  who  fled  to  Asia  and 
was  put  to  death  in  35  li.c.  by  the  officers  of  Antony. 

See  APPIAN,  "  Belltim  Civile." 

Pompey  the  Great,  [Lat.  POMPE'IUS  MAG'NUS  ; 
Fr.  POM PEE  LE  GRAND,  pox'pa'  leh  gRON,]  (C.NEius,) 
a  famous  Roman  general  and  triumvir,  was  born  on 
the  30th  of  September,  106  li.C.,  in  the  same  year  as 
Cicero.  lie  fought  under  his  father  in  the  Social  war, 
(89  li.C.,)  and  saved  his  lather's  life  when  China  attempted 
to  assassinate  him  in  87  li.C.  He  raised,  without  a  com 
mission,  three  legions  to  fight  for  Sulla  against  the 
party  of  Marius  in  83  u.C.,  and  began  to  display  his 
great  military  talents  in  the  defeat  of  a  hostile  force 
under  Brutus.  For  this  success  Sulla  sainted  him  with 
the  title  of  imperator.  He  gained  another  victory  over 
the  legates  of  Carbo  in  82  B.C.,  reduced  Xumidia  in  81, 
and  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  although  he 
was  but  a  simple  eqiies. 

In  76  B.C.  he  obtained  command  of  an  army  sent  to 
Spain  against  Sertorius,  who  defeated  Pompey  in  two 
b.ittles,  but  was  assassinated  in  the  year  72,  soon  after 
which  Spain  was  reduced  to  subjection.  With  a  high 
decree  of  popularity,  Pompey  returned  to  Italy  in  71  B.C., 
and  was  elected  consul  (with  Crassus)  for  the  year  70, 
although  he  had  not  held  any  of  the  losver  civil  offices 
and  was  not  legally  eligible  for  other  reasons.  Among 
the  important  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  restora 
tion  of  the  power  of  the  tribunes,  by  which  he  signalized 
his  defection  from  the  aristocratic  party.  He  remained 
at  Rome  inactive  during  69  and  68  B.C.  In  the  next 
year  his  friends  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  by  which 
he  was  selected  to  conduct  a  war  against  the  pirates 
(who  infested  the  Mediterranean  in  great  numbers)  and 
was  invested  with  irresponsible  power  for  three  years. 
He  performed  this  service  with  complete  success  in  less 
than  one  year,  and,  it  is  said,  took  20,000  prisoners. 

The  next  enterprise  to  which  he  was  called  by  his  own 
ambition  and  the  favour  of  the  people  was  the  termina 
tion  of  the  Mithridatic  war,  which  had  been  protracted 
for  years.  His  claims  having  been  advocated  bv  Cicero 
in  a  long  oration,  ("  Pro  Lege  Manilla,")  he  superseded 
Lucullus  in  66  B.C.  He  defeated  Mithridates  in  Lesser 
Armenia  in  the  same  year,  and  after  that  king  had 
escaped  to  the  Crimea,  which  was  difficult  of  access 
to  the  Roman  army,  Pompey  turned  southward,  and 
reduced  Syria  to  a  Roman  province  in  64  B.C.  After  a 
siege  of  three  months,  he  captured  Jerusalem  in  63,  and 
entered  the  sanctuary  of  the  Temple.  Having  received 
intelligence  of  the  death  of  Mithridates,  and  having  re 
duced  Pontus  and  Bithynia  to  subjection,  he  returned  to 
Italy  in  62  B.C.,  and  was  received  with  general  enthusiasm. 
The  triumph  which  he  obtained  on  this  occasion  was  the 
most  brilliant  which  the  Romans  had  ever  witnessed. 
Offended  by  the  refusal  of  the  senate  to  sanction  his 
public  acts  in  Asia,  he  identified  himself  with  the  popu 
lar  party,  and  formed  with  Caesar  and  Crassus  a  coalition 
'>\-  triii  m  v.rate,  (59  B.C.)  Pompey,  having  divorced  ^Mucia, 


his  third  wife,  married  Julia,  a  daughter  of  Caesar.  He 
made  no  effort  to  prevent  the  banishment  of  Cicero,  but 
he  supported  the  bill  for  his  restoration,  in  57  B.C.  His 
popularity  was  now  on  the  decline.  He  had  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  senate  by  his  coalition  with  Cajsar,  who 
was  his  successful  rival  in  respect  to  the  favour  of  the 
people.  Pompey  could  only  obtain  the  consulship  in  5^ 
B.C.  by  the  aid  of  Caesar,  with  whom  he  and  Crassns  had 
formed  another  secret  treaty  or  bargain. 

Anticipating  the  open  hostility  of  Cresar  to  his  ambi 
tious  projects,  Pompey  renewed  his  connection  with  the 
aristocracy,  who  accepted  him  as  their  leader  in  51  B.C. 
About  the  end  of  the  next  year  the  friends  of  Pompey 
obtained  a  decree  of  the  senate  that  Csesar  should  dis 
band  his  army.  In  defiance  of  this  decree,  Caesar  marched 
to  Rome  with  a  force  which  Pompey  was  unable  to  resist. 
His  self-confidence  was  such  that  he  had  neglected  t  > 
levy  troops,  and  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Epirus, 
where  he  collected  an  army.  (See  Cv£SAR.)  Urged  on 
by  the  civilians  and  nobles  of  his  camp,  against  his  own 
judgment  he  offered  battle  to  Caesar  in  the  plain  of 
Pharsalia  in  August,  48  B.C.  and  was  completely  defeated. 
He  escaped  by  sea,  with  his  wife  Cornelia,  and  sought 
refuge  in  F,gvpt,  but  was  murdered  in  the  act  of  landing, 
by  order  of  Theodotns  and  Achillas,  the  chief  ministers, 
in  September,  48  B.C.  His  moral  character  is  repre 
sented  as  better  than  that  of  the  majority  of  Roman 
generals  in  his  time.  He  was  deficient  in  political 
abilities,  and  was  guided  by  no  fixed  principles  as  a 
statesman. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  Life  of  Pompey:"  G.  LONG,  "The  Decli»»  of 
the  Roman  Republic  :"  Drox  CASSIUS,  "  History;"  CICKKO,  "Ora- 
tio  pro  Lese  Manilla  :"  DRUMANN-.  "Geschichte  Roms  ;"  APPIAV, 
"  tisllum  Civile  ;"  J.  Ui'MARCK.  "  Dissertatio  de  Pompejo  Magno," 
170);  "  Nouvelle  Biosraphie  Ginerale." 

Pompignau,  de,  deh  poN'pen'yfix',  (  JEAN  GEORGES 
LE  FRANC,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1715.  lie  became  Archbishop  of  Vienne  in  1774,  and 
a  member  of  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  was  the 
head  of  that  party  of  the  clergy  which  united  with  the 
Tiers-fitat.  Pied  in  1790. 

Pompigiian,  de,  ([KAN  JACQUES  LE  FRANC,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  French  poet,  born  at  Montauban  in  1709,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  produced  in  1734  a  suc 
cessful  tragedy  of  "Dido,"  ("  Didon,")  and  in  1740  a 
poem  entitled  "Voyage  de  Languedoc  et  de  Provence." 
His  "Sacred  Poems"  ("Poesies  sacrees  sur  divers 
Sujets,"  1751)  were  admired.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1759,  and  pronounced  a  discourse 
against  the  skeptical  philosophers  which  provoked  the 
satire  of  Voltaire.  He  wrote  various  other  poems, 
among  which  is  a  beautiful  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  J. 
B.  Rousseau."  Died  in  1784. 

See  RSIJTR  \xn  BARERR,  "  Eio;e  de  Le  Franc  rle  Pompiinan," 
17^5  ;  G  \KKT%  "  Notice  de  L»  Franc  de  Pomnic;nan,"  prefixed  to  his 
SJtioot-.Workj^z  vols  ,  iS22  ;-M  ARMONTEI.,  "  Memoires  ;"  L*  HARPE, 


"  Conrs  <le  Litterature  ;"  "  NouveUe  Biographic  Generate." 

Pomponace.     See  POMPONA/./.I. 

Pomponatius.     See  POMPONAZ/.L 

Pomponazzi,  pom-po-nat'see,  [Lat.  POMPONA'TIUS  ; 
Fr.  POMPONACE,  pAx'po'ni^s',]  (  PIETRO.  )  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Mantua  in  1462.  He  taught  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  at  Padua,  Ferrara,  and  Bologna. 
In  his  treatise  "On  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul"  (1516) 
he  gave  offence  by  affirming  that  Aristotle  did  not  teach 
that  doctrine.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Fate, 
Free  Will,"  etc.,  (1567.)  Died  about  1524. 

See  T.  G.  Ot.KARius.  "T~>e  Pomponatio."  Jena.  1705;  NICERON, 
"Mamoires;"  BAVI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Pompone.     See  POM  PON  NE. 

Pomponio  Leto.     See  POMPON  i  us  L.-'Erns. 

Pom-po'ni-us,  (SFXTUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and 
Antoninus  Pius.  Many  extracts  from  his  works  are 
found  in  the  Digest. 

Pomponius  Atticus.     See  ATTICUS. 

Pom-po'ni-us  Lae'tus,(lee'tus,)  [It.  POMPONIO  LETO, 
pom-po'ne-o  la'to,]  (  JULIUS,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
scholar,  born  in  Upper  Calabria  in  1425,  was  sometimes 
called  PIETRO  ni  CALABRIA.  He  succeeded  Professor 
Lorenzo  Valla  at  Rome  in  1457,  and  founded  there  an 
academy  for  the  cultivation  of  Roman  antiquities  and 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


POMPON!  US 


1824 


PONIATOWSKI 


classic  learning,  which  was  suppressed  by  Paul  II.  in 
1468.  He  and  other  members  of  this  academy  were 
persecuted  by  Paul  II.  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  heresy. 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  permitted  him  to  resume  his  chair  in 
the  Roman  College  in  1471.  He  wrote  a  "Compendium 
of  Roman  History  from  the  Death  of  Gordian  to  Justinus 
III.,"  (1498,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1497. 

See  M.  A.  SABKI.UCUS,  "Vita  Ppmponii  Lseti,"  1510;  TIRA- 
BOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire 
Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Fompcmius  Mela.     See  MELA. 

Fomponne,  de,  deh  po.s'pon',  (SiMON  ARNAULD,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  1618,  was 
a  son  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly.  He  became  min 
ister-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1671,  and 
was  removed  in  1679.  He  was  recalled  at  the  death  of 
Louvois,  in  1691.  He  left  a  high  reputation  for  probity 
and  for  skill  in  diplomacy.  Died  in  1699. 

See  SAINT- SIMON,  "Memoires;"  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des 
Franfais." 

Fona,  po'na,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Verona  in  1594.  He  gained  distinction 
as  a  writer  of  numerous  works,  among  which  were  some 
romances,  dramas,  scientific  treatises,  etc.  He  received 
the  title  of  historiographer  from  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
III.  Died  after  1652. 

Ponce,  pdxss,  (NicoLAS,)a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1746.  He  wrote  nodces  of  several  artists  for 
the  "Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in  1831. 

Ponce,  p6n'tha,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  Benedictine 
monk,  bom  at  Valladolid  about  1525.  He  is  the  reputed 
inventor  of  the  art  of  teaching  the  dumb  to  converse. 
According  to  Ambrosio  Morales,  he  was  very  successful, 
and  trained  his  pupils  to  speak  riva  voce.  No  account 
of  his  method  is  extant.  Died  in  1584. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  pon'tha  da  la-6n',  [sometimes 
Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as  p6nss  de  le'on,]  QUAN,) 
a  Spanish  discoverer  of  Florida,  was  born  in  Leon. 
He  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage, 
(1493,)  and  served  in  Hispaniola  under  Ovando.  In 
1508  lie  commanded  an  expedition  to  Porto  Rico,  which 
he  conquered.  Having  heard  an  Indian  tradition  of 
a  fountain  of  rejuvenescence  in  one  of  the  Bahama  isles, 
he  searched  for  that  fountain  in  1512  without  success,  but 
he  discovered  Florida  the  same  year.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  in  a  fight  with  some  natives  of  Florida  in 
1521,  and  died  in  Cuba. 

See  HEKRERA,  "  Novus  Orbis  ;"  OVIEDO,  "  Historia  general." 

Ponce  de  Leon,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Granada  in  1528.  lie  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Salamanca  about  1562.  He  translated  Virgil's  "Ec 
logues,"  two  books  of  the  "Georgics,"  and  many  odes 
of  Horace.  He  wrote  odes  remarkable  for  beauty  of 
style  and  elevation  of  thought,  which  are  highly  praised 
by  Mr.  Ticknor.  He  is  called  by  a  critic  in  the  "Edin 
burgh  Review"  "the  greatest  of  the  Spanish  poets  of 
this  age,  and  perhaps  one  of  the  noblest  lyric  poets  that 
ever  existed."  Died  in  1591. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Lyric  Poetry  of  Spain,"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  (RoDRir.o,)  Marquis  de  Cadiz,  a 
famous  Spanish  general,  born  in  1443.  ^e  served  in 
many  campaigns  against  the  Moors,  surprised  the  for 
tress  of  Alhama  in  1482,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  conquest  of  Granada,  which  was  effected  in  1492. 
Died  in  1492. 

Ponce  Pilate.     See  PILATE. 

Poncelet,  pdxss'li',  ( FRANC.OIS  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Mouzay  (Meuse)  in  1790.  He  pub 
lished  several  works  on  Roman  law.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1843. 

Poncelet,  (JEAN  VICTOR,)  an  eminent  French  geom 
eter  and  engineer,  born  at  Metz  in  1788.  He  served  in 
the  army  in  Russia,  (1812.)  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and,  about  1834,  professor  of  mechanics  at 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  In  1848  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  general  of  engineers,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly.  Among  his  works  are  "Traite 
des  Proprietes  projectives  des  Figures,"  (1820,)  and 
a  "Course  of  Mechanics  applied  to  Machines,"  (1826.) 


He  rendered  great  service  to  the  industrial  arts  by  his 
improvements  i;i  hydraulics  and  practical  mechanics. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GJnerale." 

Poncelet,  (POLYCARPK,)  a  French  rural  economist, 
born  at  Verdun,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  wrote  a  "Natural  History  of  Wheat," 
(1779,)  and  other  works. 

Foiicelin,  pA.Nss'laN',  (/KAN  CHARLES,)  a  French 
editor  and  compiler,  born  in  Poitou  in  1746;  died  in 
1828. 

Poncet  de  la  Grave,  poN's.V  deh  It  gntv,  (GuiL- 
LAUME,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1725, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Navy,"  (2  vols.,  1780,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Poncher,  po.x'sha',  (£TIENNE,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Tours  in  1446.  lie  became  Bishop  of  Paris  in 
1503,  and  keeper  of  the  seals  of 'France  in  1512.  He 
was  employed  as  a  diplomatist  by  Francis  I.  Died 
in  1524. 

Poiichino,  pon-kee'no,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an 
Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Bozz\TTOor  BAZZACCO, 
was  born  at  Castel- Franco  about  1500.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Titian.  Died  in  1570. 

Foiigol,  de,  deh  p6.\'sol',  (HENRI  SIMON  JOSEPH 
ANSQUER,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Kemper  in  1730; 
died  in  1783. 

Policy,  pix'se',  (Louis  CHARLES,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1821.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of 
stone-mason,  and  published  "  Les  Marines,"  (1842.) 

Pond,  (ENOCH,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Wrentham,  Massachusetts,  in  1791.  In 
1828  he  edited  the  "Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,"  a  religious 
journal,  in  which  he  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  the 
Unitarians.  He  became  in  1856  president  and  professor 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  etc.  at  Bangor  Theological  Semi 
nary,  Maine.  He  has  published  a  "  Memoir  of  Count 
Zinzendorf,"(i839,)  "  Memoir  of  John  Wickliffe,"  (1841,) 
"The  Morning  of  the  Reformation,"  (1842,)  "Plato,  his 
Life,  Works,  Opinions,  and  Influence,"  (1846,)  and 
numerous  other  works. 

Pond,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1767,  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
After  he  left  college  he  passed  several  years  at  West- 
bury,  near  Bristol,  where  he  made  observations.  He 
was  the  first  astronomer  who  depended  on  masses  of 
observations  for  the  determination  of  all  fundamental 
data.  He  succeeded  Maskelyne  as  astronomer-royal  in 
1811,  and  directed  his  attention  chiefly  to  a  determina 
tion  of  the  places  of  fixed  stars.  In  1833  he  completed 
a  standard  catalogue  of  1113  fixed  stars.  He  has  a  high 
reputation  as  an  observer.  Died  in  1836. 

Pongerville,  de,  deh  po.N'zhCR'vel',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE 
AIME  SANSON,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Abbeville  in 
1792.  He  produced  in  1823  an  excellent  translation  of 
Lucretius's  "  De  Rerum  Natura"  into  verse,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1830.  Among 
his  other  publications  are  prose  versions  of  Lucretius, 
(1829,)  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  (1838,)  and  Virgil's 
"/Kneid,"  (1846,)  which  are  commended. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Poniatowski,  po-ne-a-tov'skee,  (JOSEPH  ANTONY,) 
PRINCE,  an  able  Polish  general,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1762, 
was  a  nephew  of  Stanislas  Augustus,  King  of  Poland. 
His  father,  Andreas,  was  a  general  in  the  Austrian  ser 
vice,  lie  commanded  the  Polish  army  in  the  war  against 
Russia  in  1792,  and  served  under  Kosciusko  in  1794. 
In  1806  he  raised  an  army  of  Poles  to  fight  for  Napoleon, 
who  had  persuaded  him  that  he  intended  to  restore 
the  independence  of  Poland.  He  and  his  army  of  Poles 
fought  against  the  Russians  in  1807,  and  opposed  the 
Austrians  with  success  in  1809.  He  commanded  a  corps 
of  the  grand  army  which  invaded  Russia  in  1812,  and 
••endered  important  services  in  that  campaign.  In  Oc 
tober,  1813,  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was 
wounded  at  Leipsic,  and,  in  the  retreat  from  that  battle, 
was  drowned  in  the  Elster,  (1813.) 

See  BOGUSI.AWSKI,  "  Biographic  c!e  Poniatowski,"  1831  ;  L. 
CHODZKO,  "  La  Pologne  iilustree ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gine- 
rale." 

Poniatowski, .  (STANISLAS,)  COUNT,  a  celebrated 
Polish  statesman,  born  in  1677.  He  espoused  the  cause 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolo    •  -d;  a,  e,  T.  5,  fi,  y.  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far.  fill,  fit:  met:  not:  good:  moon; 


PONUTOirSKI 


1825 


PONTEDERA 


of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  Stanislas  Le  zczynski, 
against  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  and  accompanied  Charles 
in  his  Russian  campaign.  After  the  defeat  at  Poltava 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
promoted  the  interests  of  the  Swedish  king  by  inducing 
the  Sultan  to  make  war  upon  Russia.  He  was  subse 
quently  appointed  to  several  high  offices  by  Augustus 
III.  of  Poland.  Died  in  1762. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  XII  :"  L.  CHODZKO,  "La 
Pologne  iilustree." 

Foiiiatowski,  (STANISLAS  AUGUSTUS.)  See  STAN 
ISLAS  AUGUSTUS,  King  of  Poland. 

Poninski,  po-nen'skee,  (A.  L.,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote  Latin  poems, 
"Opera  Heroica,"  (1739.)  Died  in  1742. 

Ponroy,  pox'Rwa',  (PIKRRK  GABRIEL  ARTHUR,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1816.  He  pro 
duced  several  poems,  dramas,  and  other  works. 

Pons,  pox,  (ANDRE,)  Comte  de  Rio,  a  French  his 
torical  writer,  born  at  Cette  in  1772.  He  was  prefect 
of  Lyons  in  1815.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of 
the  Residence  of  Napoleon  at  Elba."  Died  in  1853. 

Pons,  ([KAN  Louis,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Peyres  (ifautes-Alpes)  in  1761.  lie  became  director  of 
the'  Observatory  of  Marseilles,  where  (according  to  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale")  he  discovered  twenty- 
three  comets.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  director  of  an 
observatory  at  Florence.  Died  in  1831. 

Pons,  de,  deh  p6.N,  (JK.AN  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  ec 
clesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Marly-le-Roi  in  1683 ; 
died  in  1732. 

Pons  de  Verdun,  p6x  deh  vea'duN',  (ROBERT,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Verdun  in  1749,  acquired 
some  distinction  as  a  poet.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95.)  Died  in  1844. 

Ponsard,  pox'stR',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Vienna  (Isere)  in  1814.  He  produced  a 
successful  tragedy  of  "  Lucrece,"  (1843,)  and  another 
called  "Charlotte  Corday,"  (1850,)  which  is  admired. 
Among  his  most  popular  works  is  a  comedy  of  "  Honour 
and  Money,"  ("L'Honneur  et  1' Argent,]1  1853,)  which 
opened  to  him  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1867. 

Ponsludon,  de,  deh  pAx'lii'ctox',  (JOSEPH  AXTOINE 
HEDOUIN.)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rheims  in  1739  ; 
died  in  1817. 

Pon'son-by,  (Sir  FREDERICK  CAVENDISH,)  an  Eng 
lish  officer,  born  in  1783,  was  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Besborough.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Spain-,  and 
led  a  regiment  of  dragoons  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was 
wounded.  Died  in  1837. 

Foiisonby,  (GEORGE,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1755.  He  became  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Irish 
House  ot  Commons,  and  in  1806  was  appointed  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland.  About  1807  he  entered  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
Whig  party.  Died  in  1817. 

Poiisonby,  (Jonx,)  BARON,  a  diplomatist,  born  in 
1770.  He  entered  the  British  House  of  Lords  in  1806, 
and  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  He  performed  diplo 
matic  missions  to  Brazil,  Belgium,  and  Naples  between 
1828  and  1832,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  commerce 
with  Turkey  about  1838.  He  was  minister  at  Vienna 
from  1846  to  1851.  Died  in  1855. 

Poiisonby,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  British  general,  born 
in  1782,  was  a  younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  aide-de-camp  of  Wellington,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  of  cavalry  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was  killed 
in  1815. 

Pontano,  pon-ta'no,  [Lat.  PONTA'NUS,]  (GIOVANNI 
GIOVIANO,)  an  eminent  Italian  author  and  statesman, 
born  at  Cereto,  in  Umbria,  in  1426.  He  became  secre 
tary  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Naples  about  1458,  and  prime 
minister  about  1487.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  able 
negotiator,  and  an  elegant  writer  in  prose  and  verse. 
His  "  History  of  the  War  between  Ferdinand  I.  and  the 
Duke  of  Anjou"  (1519)  is  called  a  master-piece.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  moral  essays,  elegies,  odes,  and  other 
poems,  among  which  is  "  Urania,"  an  astronomical 
poem.  Died  in  Naples  in  1503.  "  A  far  superior  name," 
says  Hallam,  "  is  that  of  Pontanus,  to  whom,  if  we  attend 
to  some  critics,  we  must  award  the  palm  above  all  the 


Latin  poets  of  the  fifteenth  century."  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

SeeRoBKKTO  DASARNO,  "Vita  J.  J.  Pontani,"  1761  ;  F.  COLAN- 
GELO,  "  Vita  di  G.  G.  Pontano,"  1820;  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della 
Letteratura  Ita.iana;"  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Pontanus.     See  DUPOXT,  POXTE,  and  PONTANO. 

Pontanus,  pon-ta'nus,  (JAKOB,)  a  Jesuit  and  philolo 
gist,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1542.  He  published  "  Progym- 
nasmata  Latinitatis,"  (4vols.,  1588,)  "Poetic  Institutes," 
("  Institutiones  Poeticae,"  1594,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1626. 

Pontanus,  pon-ta'nus,  QOHAN  ISAAC,)  a  Danish  phi 
lologist  and  historian,  born  at  Elsinore  about  1570,  be 
came  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at  Harderwyk 
in  1604.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Denmark,"  (in  Latin, 
1631,)  and  several  criticisms  on  the  classics.  Died  in  1639. 

See  "Vita  Pontani,"  anonymous,  1640;  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Pontas,  poN'ta',  (JEAN,)  a  French  casuist,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Avranches  in  1638.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  Dictionary  of  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (3  vols.,  1715,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1728. 

Fontault,"de.    See  BEAULIEU,  DE,  (SEBASTIEX.) 

Pontchartrain,  de,  deh  poN'shiR'tRiN',  (Louis 
PHELYPEAUX,)  COMTK,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born 
in  1643.  He  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the 
finances  about  1690,  and  chancellor  of  France  in  1699. 
His  talents  and  virtues  are  eulogized  by  Saint-Simon, 
who  says  "  he  performed  more  than  he  promised."  He 
was  grandfather  of  the  prime  minister  Maurepas.  Died 
in  1727. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique." 

Pontchartrain,  de,  (PAUL  PHELYPEAUX,)  SEIGNEUR, 
born  at  Blois,  France,  in  1569,  was  grandfather  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  secretary  of  state  in  1610,  and 
wrote  memoirs  of  events  from  1610  to  1620,  (1720.) 
Died  in  1621. 

Pont  de  Veyle,  de,  deh  p6x  deh  vil,  (ANTOIXE  DE 
Ferriol — fer're'ol',)  COMTE,  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  1697,  was  a  brother  of  the  Count  of  Argental.  He 
wrote  three  successful  comedies,  one  of  which  is  called 
"The  Somnambulist,"  ("La  Somnambule,"  1739.)  He 
was  a  member  of  the  literary  council  of  Voltaire.  Died 
in  1774. 

Ponte,  da.     See  BASSANO,  (FRANCESCO  and  JACOPO.) 

Poiite,  da,  da  pon'ta,  (GiuVAXNi,)  an  eminent  Ital 
ian  architect,  born  in  Venice  in  1512.  He  built  the 
famous  bridge  of  the  Rialto  across  the  Grand  Canal, 
the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  and  other  fine  edifices  in 
Venice.  Died  in  1597. 

Ponte,  da,  |  Lat.  PON'TICO  VIRU'XIO,!  (Looovico,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Belluno  in  1467.  He  wrote 
a  "  Secret  History  of  Italy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1520. 

Ponte,  da,  (LORENZO.)     See  DA  PONTE. 

Ponte,  de,  da  pon'ta,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  religious 
writer,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1554.  He  wrote  several 
popular  works,  among  which  is  "  Meditations  on  the 
Mysteries  of  the  Faith,"  (1605.)  Died  in  1624. 

Ponte,  de,  deh  p6.xt,  [Lat.  POXTA'NUS,]  (PIERRE,) 
a  Flemish  philologist,  born  at  Bruges  about  1480,  was 
blind  from  infancy.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
after  1529. 

Pontecoulant,  de,  deh  pAx'ta'koo'lSx',  (GUSTAVE 
Doulcet — dool'si',)  COMTE,  a  French  astronomer,  born 
about  1795.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  army,  from 
which  he  retired  about  1830.  He  published  "Analytic 
Theory  of  the  System  of  the  World,"  (4  vols.,  1829-46,) 
and  other  works  on  astronomy,  etc. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1830. 

Pontecoulant,  de,  (Louis  GUSTAVE  Doulcet,) 
COMTE,  a  French  Girondist,  born  at  Caen  in  1766,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792,  was  proscribed  and  outlawed  in 
1793,  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1805,  and  a 
liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  in  1819.  He 
left  "Memoires,"  which  were  published  in  1862.  Died 
in  1853. 

Poiitedera,  pon-ta-da'ra,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  bota 
nist,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1688.  He  became  in  1719  director 


e  as  *  •  c  as  <••  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PONT  I  AC 


1826 


P 008 H KIN 


of  the  botanic  garden  and  professor  of  botany  at  Padua. 
He  published  a  "  Compendium  of  Botanical  Plates," 
("Compendium  Tabularum  botar.icarum,"  1718,)  and 
"  Anthology,  or,  On  the  Nature  of  the  Flower,"  ("  An- 
thologia,  sive  De  Floris  Natura,"  1720.)  The  genus 
Pontederia  was  named  in  his  honour  by  Linnaeus.  Died 
in  1757. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrinaexcellentium  ;"  GENNARI, 
"  Lettera  intorno  la  Vita  del  fu  G.  Pontedera,"  i75». 

Fon'ti-ac,  a  North  American  Indian  chief,  of  the 
Ottawa  tribe,  born  about  1712,  was  an  ally  of  the  French. 
In  1762  he  formed  a  coalition  of  many  western  tribes, 
which,  at  his  instigation,  attacked  various  English  gar 
risons  and  frontier  settlements.  He  besieged  Detroit 
without  success  in  1763.  He  was  killed  in  Illinois  in 
1769. 

See  PARKMAN,  "  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,"  1851. 

Pontianus,  pon-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  PONTIEN,  poN'se'aN',] 
became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  230  A.D..  He  was  banished 
by  Maximin  in  235,  and  died  in  exile  soon  after  that  date. 

Pontiqo  Virunio.     See  PONTE,  n.\,  (Lonovico.) 

Pontien.     See  PONTIANUS. 

Pontier,  poN'te-i',  (PIKRRE,)  an  able  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Aix  (Provence)  in  1711;  died  at  Aix  in  1789. 
His  son,  PIKRRE  HKNRI,  was  a  chemist,  and  wrote 
several  scientific  treatises.  Died  at  Aix  in  1826. 

Poiitin,  de,  deh  pon-teen',  (MAGNUS  MARTIN,)  a  Swe 
dish  physician,  born  at  Askeryd  in  1781.  He  became 
first  physician  to  the  king  in  1825.  He  published  several 
works  in  prose  and  verse. 

Poiitis,  de,  deh  p6.N'tess',  (Louis,)  a  French  gentle 
man,  born  in  Provence  in  1583,  was  an  officer  in  the 
army.  He  left  interesting  Memoirs,  (2  vols.,  1676,)  often 
reprinted.  Died  in  Paris  in  1670. 

Pontius,  pon'she-us,  a  deacon  of  the  church  of  Car 
thage,  lived  about  2^0  A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Life  of  Cyprian." 

Pontius,  pon'te-us,  or  Du  Pont,  (dii  p6\.)  (PAUL.)  an 
eminent  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596  or 
1603,  was  a  pupil  of  Vosterman.  He  engraved  many 
works  after  Rubens,  among  which  is  the  "  Massacre 
of  the  Innocents,"  and  many  portraits  after  Van  Dyck. 
These  prints  are  greatly  admired. 

Pontius  de  la  Fuente,  pon'te-oos'da  la  fwSn'ti.  f  Lat. 
PON'TIUS  FON'TIUS,]  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  Spanish  Prot 
estant,  who  wrote  in  defence  of  the  reformed  doctrines, 
and  was  sentenced  to  death,  but  died  in  prison  (before 
the  sentence  was  executed)  in  1559. 

Pontius  Pilate.     See  PILATE. 

Pontniartin,  de,  deh  poN'mtR'tax',  (.-\RMAND  Au- 
GUSTIN  JOSEPH  MARIE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Avignon  in  1811.  He  published  several  novels,  and 
"Causeries  litteraires,"  (1854.) 

Pontoppidan,  pon-top'pe-dan,  (Euic, )  a  Danish 
poet  and  prelate,  born  in  Funen  about  1620.  He  wrote 
many  Latin  poems,  among  which  are  '  Ancupium  Se- 
landiae,"  (1636,)  "  Sacred  Pastorals,"  ("  Bucolica  Sacra," 
1643,)  and  "Florilegium  Cimbricum,"  (1646.)  He  be 
came  Kishop  of  Drontheim  in  1673.  Died  in  1678. 

See  KRAFT  og  NVKRUP,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Pontoppidan,  (ERIK,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  celebrated 
Danish  prelate,  historian,  and  antiquary,  born  at  Aarhuns, 
in  Jutland,  in  1698.  He  was  successively  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen  in  1738,  Bishop 
of  Bergen  in  1748,  and  chancellor  of  the  University 
at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Annals  of  the  Danish  Church,"  "Theatre  of  Den.nark, 
Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1730,)  "Achievements  of  the 
Danes  out  of  Denmark,"  (1740,)  and  a  "Description 
of  Copenhagen,"  (all  in  Latin,)  also  a  treatise  on  the 
natural  history  of  Norway,  and  a  "Danish  Atlas," 
("Danske  Atlas,"  in  7  vols.,)  in  the  Danish  language. 
Died  in  1764. 

See  "Danische  Bibliotliek."  vol.  vi..  (nntobioTanhy  :)  "Retro 
spective  Review,"  vol.  xiii..  (1826:)  "Monthly  Review"  for  July, 
1755;  KRAFT  OR  NVHRUP,  "  Almindelist  L'tteraturlexiccm  ;" 
HIRSCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisclies  Handbtich." 

Pontorino,  da,  da  pon-toR'mo,  (TACOPO  CARUCCI  or 
CARRUCCI,)  an  eminent  Florentine  painter,  born  at  Pon- 
tormo  about  1498,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Andrea  del  Sarto.  He  imitated  Michael  Angelo.  He 


had  three  manners,  the  last  of  which  was  an  imitation 
of  that  of  Albert  Diirer.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "The 
Deluge,"  a  fresco  at  Florence.  Died  in  1558. 

SeeVASARi,  "Livesofthe  Painters;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario. " 

Pontoux,  de,  deh  pov'too',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  about  1530;  died  in 

I579- 

Ponz,  pAnth,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  distin 
guished  as  a  writer  on  the  fine  arts,  was  born  in  Valencia 
in  1725.  He  passed  about  ten  years  at  Rome  (1751-60) 
in  the  study  of  art  and  antiquities.  Having  returned  to 
Madrid,  he  was  commissioned  by  Charles  HI.  to  paint 
portraits  of  Spanish  authors  for  the  Escurial.  He  pub 
lished  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Viage  de  Espana,"  (18 
vols.,  1771-94,)  which  treats  of  Spanish  works  of  art, 
topography,  etc.  Died  in  1792. 

See  MADOZ,  "  Diccionario  geografico." 

Ponzio,  pon'ze-o,  a  Tuscan  sculptor,  called  by  the 
French  MAJTRE  PONCE,  worked  in  France  from  1530 
to  1571. 

Ponzio,  (Fi.AMiNio,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  about 
1575.  He  designed  the  Capella  Borghese  at  Rome,  and 
the  Palazzo  Sciara  on  the  Corso.  He  was  employed  by 
Pope  Paul  V.  to  continue  the  works  of  the  Quirinal, 
in  which  he  constructed  the  double  staircase.  Died 
about  1620. 

Poogatchef,  Foxigatchef,  Pugatschew,  or  Puga- 
tschev,  poo-ga-cheT,  (YKMEI.IAN,)  a  Cossack  rebel  and 
impostor,  born  in  1726.  Having  been  told  that  he  re 
sembled  Peter  III.,  he  undertook  to  pass  himself  off  for 
that  Czar,  and  incited  the  Cossacks  to  revolt  in  1773. 
He  raised  a  large  army,  took  several  towns,  gained 
some  victories,  and  massacred  thousands  of  people.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  and  executed  in  1775. 

See  POOSHKIN,  "History  of  the  Rebellion  of  Pnonatchef."  iS^. 

Poole,  pool,  [Lat.  Po'i.us,]  (MATTHEW,)  a  learned 
English  nonconformist  divine,  born  at  York  about  1624. 
He  was  rector  of  the  church  of  Saint  Michael-le- 
Qnerne,  London,  from  which  he  was  ejected  in  1662. 
His  principal  work  is  "Synopsis  Criticorum  Biblico- 
nim,"  (5  vols.,  1669-76,)  in  which  he  designed  to  present 
a  synopsis  or  abridgment  of  the  writings  and  labours 
of  former  biblical  critics  of  all  ages  and  countries.  It 
is  esteemed  a  valuable  work.  lie  also  left  "Annota 
tions  on  the  Holy  Bible,"  (2  vols.,  1685.)  He  died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1679. 

See  A.  Woon.  "  Fasti  Oxoniensis ;"  NIC^KOM,  "  Me'moires. " 

Poole,  (PAUL  FALCONER.)  an  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1810.  lie  is  accounted  one 
of  the  most  original  and  successful  English  artists  of  the 
present  time.  Among  his  works  nre  "The  Beleaguered 
Moors,"  (1844,)  "The  Suppression  of  Sion  Monastery," 
(1846,)  "  Job  receiving  Tidings  of  his  Losses,"  (1850,)  and 
"The  Goths  in  Italy,"  (1852.)  He  received  in  1847  a 
prize  of  three  hundred  pounds  for  his  picture  of  "  King 
Edward's  Generosity  to  the  People  of  Calais."  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  about  1861. 

Poole,  van,  vfn  pol,  (JURIAN.)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1666;  died  in  1745.  His 
wife,  RACHEL,  born  in  1664,  was  an  excellent  painter  of 
flowers,  fruits,  etc.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Ruysch  the 
anatomist.  Died  in  1750. 

Poor,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  missionary,  born  at 
Dinvers,  Massachusetts,  in  1780,  spent  many  years  in 
TTindostan  and  Ceylon,  where  he  established  schools. 
Died  in  18?$. 

Pooshkin,  Pushkin,  Pouchekine,  Ptischkin,  or 
Pouschkin,  poosh'kin  or  poosh'ken,  (ALEXANDER 
SKRGEIVITCH,)  a  celebrated  Russian  poet,  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1799.  Having  published  several  poems 
of  a  too  liberal  tendency,  he  was  banished  to  Odessa, 
where  he  held  an  office  under  the  governor-general,  Co-nit 
Vorontsof.  During  his  presence  in  Southern  Russia 
he  studied  the  Spanish  and  Italian  languages,  and  the 
works  of  Byron,  upon  whose  model  he  may  be  sai  1  to 
have  formed  himself.  His  first  considerable  poem,  en 
titled  "Ruslan  and  Liudmila,"  (1821,)  was  very  well 
received  ;  it  was  followed  by  the  "Prisoner  of  the  Can- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T.  o,  it,  \\shnrt:  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  fat.  fall,  fat:  m&t:  not;  good:  moon; 


POOST 


1827 


POP HAM 


casus,"  ("  Plennik  Kavkaskoi,"  1822,)  "The  Fountain 
of  Bakhtcliisarai,"  (1824,)  which  brought  him  three 
thousand  rubles,  "  Eugene  Onegin,"  a  metrical  romance, 
the  "Gypsies,"  ("Tsigani,")  and  the  narrative  poem  of 
"  Poltava."  After  the  accession  of  Nicholas,  Pooshkin 
was  recalled  to  Moscow  and  appointed  historiographer. 
His  only  historical  production  is  an  account  of  Poo- 
gatchefs  rebellion.  Besides  the  above,  he  published 
"  Boris  Godoonof,"  a  dramatic  poem,  esteemed  one  of 
his  master-pieces,  and  a  "  History  of  the  Iron  Mask." 
He  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel  in  1837.  A  critic 
in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  calls  him  "  one  of  that  small 
but  illustrious  band  whose  writings  have  become  part  of 
the  very  household  language  of  their  native  land,  and 
whose  expressions  may  be  said,  like  those  of  Shakspeare, 
of  Moliere,  and  of  Cervantes,  to  have  become  the  natural 
forms  embodying  the  ideas  which  they  have  expressed, 
and,  in  expressing,  consecrated.  In  a  word,  Pooshkin  is 
undeniably  and  essentially  the  great  national  poet  of 
Russia." 

See  GALATHOF,  "  Chrestomathie  Russe  ;"  PKINCE  E.  METCHER- 
SKI,  "  Les  Poetes  Russes  ;"  "  N'ouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;" 
"Sketch  of  Pushkin's  Life  and  Works."  by  T.  B.  SHAW.  iS45; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832  ;  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  June  and  July,  1845. 

Poost  or  Post,  post,  (FRAN'S,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1615.  He  passed  some  years  in  Bra 
zil,  the  scenery  of  which  he  painted.  Died  in  1680. 

Foot,  p5t,  (HUBERT,)  an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born 
near  Delft  in  1689,  was  a  cultivator  of  the  soil.  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1716.  He  excelled  in 
Anacreontic  poetry.  Died  in  1733. 

See  PAQUOT,  "Me'moires;"  DE  VRIES,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie 
Hollandaise." 

P5pe,  (  ALEXA?H)KR,  )  a  popular  English  poet  and 
critic,  born  in  London  on  the  22d  of  May,  1688,  was  a 
son  of  a  linen-draper.  His  parents  were  Roman  Cath 
olics.  In  consequence  of  his  sickly  constitution  and 
deformed  person,  he  was  unfitted  for  active  life.  During 
his  childhood  he  resolved  to  be  a  poet.  His  precocity 
was  remarkable.  He  says  himself  that  he  began  to  write 
verses  farther  back  than  he  could  well  remember.  At 
the  age  of  eight  he  read  with  interest  Ogilby's  transla 
tion  of  Homer.  He  wrote  his  "  Pastorals"  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  ;  but  they  were  not  published  until  1709. 
Among  his  early  productions  are  the  "  Essay  on  Criti 
cism,"  (1710,)  which  was  praised  by  Addison,  and  "The 
Rape  of  the  Lock,"  (1711,)  a  mock-heroic  poem,  which 
was  much  admired.  His  "Messiah,"  an  exquisite  poem 
in  imitation  of  Virgil's  fourth  eclogue,  appeared  in  Ad- 
dison's  "Spectator"  in  1712.  In  1713  he  issued  pro 
posals  for  a  subscription  to  a  translation  of  Homer's 
"Iliad,"  which  was  completed  in  1718-20  and  obtained 
a  great  popularity.  It  is,  however,  far  from  being  a 
faithful  translation.  "It  is  a  fine  poem,"  says  Bentley, 
"but  not  Homer."  About  1715  he  became  estranged 
from  Addison,  whom  he  accused  of  conspiring  with 
Tickell,  who  had  produced  (in  part)  a  rival  translation 
of  the  "Iliad."  Pope  revenged  himself  by  writing  the 
keen,  not  to  say  malicious,  satire  on  "  Atticus."  "  He 
was,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  great  master  of  invective  and 
sarcasm.  He  could  dissect  a  character  in  terse  and 
sonorous  couplets  brilliant  with  antithesis."  ("Essay 
on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Addison.")  His  talent  for 
satire  is  conspicuous  in  the  "Dunciad,"  (1728,)  a  poetical 
work  of  much  critical  merit.  He  published  in  1733  his 
"Essay  on  Man,"  a  philosophic  poem,  which  has  en 
joyed  an  extraordinary  popularity,  and  which  Bulwer 
pronounces  "  unequalled  in  didactic  solemnity  and  splen 
dour  since  Lucretius  set  to  music  the  false  creed  of  Epi 
curus."  With  the  aid  of  Broome  and  Fenton,  he  translated 
the  "Odyssey,"  (1725.)  He  also  produced  admirable 
"Imitations  of  Horace."  He  wrote,  in  prose,  a  number 
of  essays  and  letters,  the  style  of  which  is  considered 
excellent.  "Pope's  epistolary  excellence,"  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  "had  an  open  field:  he  had  no  English  rival, 
living  or  dead."  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  lived  at 
Twickenham,  where  he  had  purchased  a  house.  He  fa 
voured  the  Tory  party  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Among  his  intimate  friends  were  Swift,  Atterbury,  and 
Lord  Bolingbroke.  Died  in  May,  1744.  He  possessed 
little  originality  or  creative  imagination1;  but  he  had  a 


vivid  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and  an  exquisite  taste.  He 
owed  much  of  his  popularity  to  the  easy  harmony  of  his 
verse,  the  keenness  of  his  satire,  and  the  brilliancy  of 
his  antithesis. 

"The  Essay  on  Man,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "affords  an 
egregious  instance  of  the  predominance  of  genius,  the 
dazzling  splendour  of  imagery,  and  the  seductive  powers 
of  eloquence.  Never  was  penury  of  knowledge  and 
vulgarity  of  sentiment  so  happily  disguised.  The  reader 
feels  his  mind  full,  though  he  learns  nothing,  and,  when 
he  meets  it  in  its  new  array,  no  longer  knows  the  talk 
of  his  mother  and  his  nurse."  The  same  critic  pro 
nounces  the  "Rape  of  the  Lock"  "the  most  airy,  in 
genious,  and  delightful  of  his  compositions,  and  the  most 
exquisite  example  of  ludicrous  poetry.  .  .  .  He  was 
sometimes  wanton  in  his  attacks,  and  before  Chandos, 
Lady  Wortley,  and  Hill,  was  mean  in  his  retreat.  His 
malignity  to  Philips,  whom  he  had  first  made  ridiculous 
and  then  hated  for  being  angry,  continued  too  long." 
He  was  extremely  addicted  to  artifice  and  insidious  de 
signs.  It  has  been  said  that  "he  hardly  drank  tea 
without  a  stratagem."  An  edition  of  his  works,  with  a 
commentary,  was  published  by  Warburton,  (9  vols., 
1751-60.) 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  a  "Memoir  of  Pope."  by 
BOWLES,  1*07;  a  "Memoir"  prefixed  to  W.  ROSCOE'S  edition 
of  Pope's  Works,  1824;  R.  CAKUTHERS,  "Life  of  Alexander  Pope," 
1857  ;  "  Life  of  Pope,"  by  OWEN  RUFFHEAD,  1767  ;  WILLIAM  AYRE, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  A.  Pope,"  2  vols.,  1745;  JOSEPH  WARTON, 
"  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope,"  2  vols..  1756-82 ;  M. 
MENDELSSOHN,  "Pope  em  Metaphysiker,"  1757;  LORD  BYRON, 
"Letter  to  Murray  on  Bowles's  Strictures,"  1821;  THACKERAY, 
"The  English  Humourists:"  ALI.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;" 
"  Encyclopaedia  Kritannica,"  article  "  Pope,"  (by  DE  QUINCEY,)  also 
"  Biographical  Essays,"  by  the  same;  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets;"  "Works  and  Character  of  Pope,"  in  the 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1825;  "Pope  and  his 
Contemporaries,"  in  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review''  for  August, 
1847;  SPENCK,  "Anecdotes,  Observations,"  etc.,  1820. 

Pope,  (JoHN,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Kas- 
kaskia,  Illinois,  in  March,  1823.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
commanded  an  expedition  sent  to  survey  the  route  of 
the  Pacific  Railroad  in  1854-59.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1856,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  May,  1861.  He  captured  New  Madrid  in 
March,  and  Island  No.  10  in  April,  1862,  with  several 
thousand  prisoners.  In  June,  1862,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Army  of  Virginia,  composed  of  three 
corps.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army  in  July,  1862.  His  army  was  defeated 
by  Stonewall  Jackson  at  Manassas,  or  Bull  Run,  on  the 
2gth  and  jOth  of  August,  1862.  He  retreated  to  Wash 
ington,  and  resigned  the  command  about  September  3, 
after  which  he  was  employed  against  the  Indians  in 
Minnesota.  He  commanded  in  the  third  military  dis 
trict,  comprising  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida,  from 
March  or  April  to  December,  1867. 

Pope,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  politician,  born  at 
Declington  about  1506,  was  a  patron  of  learning.  He 
held  several  offices  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
had  the  care  or  custody  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  in  the 
reign  of  Mary.  He  founded  Trinity  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1559. 

See  WARTON,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Pope  " 

Pope,  (WALTKR,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1630.  He  was  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford  from  1660  to  1687,  and  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  wrote  "The  Old  Man's  Wish."  a 
poem,  (1693,)  a  "Life  of  Seth  Ward,"  (1697,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1714. 

Popeliniere,  de  la,  deh  If  pop'le'ne-aiR',  (LANCE 
LOT  Voisin — vwa'zax',)  SIF.UR,  a  French  historian, 
born  in  Poitou  about  1540.  He  was  an  officer  in  the 
Huguenot  army,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Civil 
War  which  began  in  1562,"  (1571,)  a  work  of  some  merit. 
Died  in  1608. 

Popham,  pop'am.  (Sir  HOME  RIGGS,)  a  British  naval 
officer,  born  in  1762.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
employed  in  the  capture  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Buenos  Ayres  in  1806.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
1814.  Died  in  1820. 

Popham,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1531,  became  chief  justice  of  the  king's 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POPMA 


1828 


PORSON 


bench  about  1592.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer. 
Died  in  1607. 

Popma,  pop'ma,  (AusoNius,)  a  Dutch  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  in  Fries! and  in  1563.  He  published  a 
good  work  on  Latin  synonyms,  ("  l)e  Differentiis  Ver- 
borum,"  1635,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1613. 

See  D.  RICHTEK,  "Vita  Ausonii  a  Popma,"  1746. 

Poppae'a  (pop-pee'a)  Sa-bi'na,  a  Roman  empress, 
the  wife  of  Nero,  was  more  remarkable  for  beauty  than 
modesty.  Died  in  65  A.D. 

Poppe,  von,  fon  pop'peh,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH  Mo 
RITZ,)  a  German  scientific  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1776.  He  published  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
a  "Technological  Lexicon,"  (5  vols.,  1816-20,)  and 
"  Neueste  Handwerks- und  Fabrikschule,"  (9  vols.,  1827- 
36.)  Died  in  1852. 

Foppi,  II.     See  MORANDINI. 

Foppig  or  Poeppig,  pop'pio,  (EnuARD,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  I'lanen,  in  Saxony,  in 
1797.  He  visited  the  West  Indies  and  North  and  South 
America,  where  he  made  valuable  zoological  and  botan 
ical  collections.  He  published  in  1835  his  "  Travels  in 
Chili,  Peru,  and  on  the  Amazon."  In  1845  he  became 
professor  of  zoology  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  December, 
1868.  Poppig  and  Endlicher  published  a  work  on  the 
plants  of  Chili  and  Peru,  "Nova  Genera  et  Species 
Plantarum,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1835-45.) 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836. 

Poppo,  pop'po,  (ERNST  FRIEORICH,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1794,  published 
editions  of  Thucydides  and  other  classics,  and  several 
critical  svorks. 

Poquelin.     See  MOLIERE. 

Porbus,  poR'bus,  (FRANS,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Bruges  in  1540.  He  painted  portraits,  history,  and 
genre  with  success.  Died  about  1582. 

His  father,  PETER,  born  at  Gouda  about  1510,  was  a 
painter  of  history  and  portraits.  Died  in  1584. 

Porbus,  (FRANS,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  skilful  painter  of 
portraits  and  history,  a  son  of  Frans,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1570.  He  worked  mostly  in  Paris. 
"  His  picture  of  the  Last  Supper,"  says  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  "  is  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  the 
Flemish  school."  Died  in  Paris  in  1622. 

See  FELIBIEN',  "  Entretiens  stir  la  Vie  des  Peintres." 

Porcacchi,  poR-kak'kee,  (To.MMASo,)  an  Italian  litte 
rateur,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1530.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Most  Famous  Islands  of  the  World,"  (1572,) 
and  "Ancient  Funerals  of  Divers  Nations,"  (1574.)  Died 
at  Venice  in  1585. 

Porcellio,  poR-chel'le-o,  (PiKTRO,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  historian,  was  secretary  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Naples, 
in  1452. 

Porchat,  poR'sht',  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  Swiss  writer 
and  translator,  born  near  Geneva  in  1800.  He  wrote 
"The  Mission  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  a  drama,  in  verse, 
(1844,)  and  translated  the  complete  works  of  Goethe 
into  French. 

Forcheron,  poRsh'r6N',  (Doni  PI.ACIDE,)  a  French 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Chiteauroux  in  1652.  He 
edited  a  few  old  works.  Died  in  1694. 

Porcia  or  Portia,  por'she-a,  [Fr.  PORCIE,  poit'se',] 
a  Roman  matron,  eminent  for  her  magnanimity,  pru 
dence,  and  fortitude,  was  the  daughter  of  Cato,  and 
the  wife  of  Marcus  Brutus.  Plutarch  relates  that  she 
inflicted  a  wound  on  herself  to  prove  that  she  was 
worthy  to  be  the  confidante  of  her  husband  in  respect 
to  affairs  of  state.  Died  in  42  B.C. 

Porden,  (ELEANOR  ANNK.)     See  FKANKI.IN. 

Fordeiione,  II,  el  poR-da-no'na,  an  excellent  Italian 
painter,  whose  proper  name  was  GIOVANNI  ANTONIO 
Licinio  (le-chee'ne-o)  or  Licino,  (le-chee'no,)  born  at 
Pordenone,  in  Friuli,  in  1483.  He  assumed  the  name 
of  REGM.LO.  He  was  an  imitator  of  Giorgione,  and  a 
rival  of  Titian.  It  is  not  known  who  was  his  master. 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  had  great  skill  in  design. 
He  painted  frescos  in  Venice,  Mantua,  Cremona,  and 
Piacenza.  His  frescos  (which  represent  subjects  from 
the  New  Testament)  in  the  cathedral  of  Cremona  are 
highly  praised.  Among  his  best  oil-paintings  is  his  "  San 


Lorenzo   Giustiniani    with  John    the    Baptist,"  etc.,   at 
Venice.     He  died  at  Ferrara  in  1540. 

See  YASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Riuoi.n,  "  Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti." 

Pordenone,  (Giui.io  LICINIO,)  a  skilful  painter,  a 
nephew  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Venice 
in  1500.  He  painted  some  frescos  at  Augsburg,  where 
he  died  in  1561. 

Poree,  po'ri',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  near 
Caen  in  1675,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Paris  for 
thirty  years.  Voltaire  was  his  pupil.  He  published 
Latin  tragedies  and  orations.  Died  in  1741. 

Poree,  (CHARLES  GABRIEL,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Caen  in  1685.  He  wrote  "  Histoire 
de  Don  Ranuccio  d'Aletes,"  (1736,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1770. 

Porfirio.     See  PORPHYRY. 

Poiiier,  poR-le-aik',  (Don  JUAN  DIAZ,)  Marquis  de 
Matarosa,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  1775.  He  fought 
for  the  Cortes  against  the  absolutists,  by  whom  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  shot  in  1815. 

Porner  or  Poerner,  poR'ner,  (KARL  WILHELM,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  He  published 
several  works  on  chemistry  and  the  art  of  dyeing.  Died 
in  1796. 

Porphyre.     See  PORPHYRY. 

Porphyrius.     See  PORPHYRY. 

Porphyry,  por'fe- re,  [Gr.  Uoj^vpiog ;  Lat.  PORPHYR'- 
lus  ;  Fr.  PORPHYRE,  poR'feR';  It.  PORKIRIO,  por-fee're-o,] 
a  celebrated  Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  born  at  Bata- 
nsea,  (Bashan,)  in  Syria,  in  233  A.D.  His  original  name 
was  MALCHUS  or  MELECH,  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac 
for  "king."  Porphyrius  signifies  "purple,"  or  "wearer 
of  purple."  He  was  a  pupil  of  Longinus,  and  perhaps 
of  Origen.  About  the  age  of  thirty  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  became  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Plotinus, 
whose  doctrines  and  mysticism  he  adopted.  He  edited 
(or  corrected)  and  arranged  the  works  of  Plotinus,  at 
his  request.  He  wrote  (in  Greek)  a  famous  work,  in 
fifteen  books,  against  the  Christians,  which  is  not  extant, 
the  emperor  Theodosius  having  ordered  it  to  be  burnt 
in  the  fourth  century.  Among  his  extant  works  are  a 
"Life  of  Plotinus"  and  a  "Life  of  Pythagoras."  Died 
at  Rome  about  304  A.I). 

See  HOLSTHNIUS,  "  De  Vitaet  Scriptis  Porpliyrii,"  1711  ;  RITTER, 
"History  of  Philosophy ;"  VAI.EKIEN  PARISOT,  "  Dissertatio  his- 
torica  de  Porphyrio,"  1845  ;  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  F. 
H DEFER,  article  in  ihe  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Porpora,  poR/po-ra,(NiccOL6,)a  distinguished  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Naples  about  1686.  He 
composed  successful  operas,  among  which  is  "  Ariana  e 
Teseo,"  (1717,)  also  oratorios,  masses,  symphonies,  and 
cantatas.  About  1730  he  went  to  London  to  direct  the 
Italian  Opera,  and  became  a  competitor  of  Handel.  He 
obtained  much  success  in  England,  where  he  remained 
several  years.  Died  at  Naples  in  1767. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  BURNEV, 
"  Histoiy  of  Music  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ginerale." 

Porporati,  poR-po-ra'tee,  (CARLO  ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  near  Turin  in  1740 
or  1741.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  at  Paris  in 
1773.  He  engraved  some  of  the  works  of  Raphael,  Cor- 
reggio,  and  other  masters.  Died  at  Turin  in  1816. 

Porquet,  pon'ki',  (PIERRE  CHARLES  FRANC.OIS,)  a 
mediocre  French  poet,  born  at  Vire  in  1728  ;  died  in  1796. 

Porro,  por'ro,  (GlROLAMO,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Padua  about  1520,  worked  at  Venice. 

Porro,  (iGNAZio,)  an  Italian  engineer,  born  at  Pi- 
gnerol  in  1795.  He  settled  in  Paris  about  1850.  He 
published  a  "Traite  de  Tachometrie,"  (1847.) 

For'se-na  or  For-seii'na,  (LARS,)  a  famous  prince  of 
Clusium,  in  Etruria.  According  to  tradition,  he  marched 
against  Rome  to  restore  the  Tarquins  about  508  H.C.,  but 
was  checked  by  Horatius  Codes,  who  defended  a  bridge 
over  the  Tiber.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  best  historians 
that  Porsena  actually  made  himself  master  of  Rome. 

See  MACAUI.AY,"  Horatius:  a  Lay  of  Ancient  Rome;"  NIEBUHR, 
"  History  of  Rome." 

Porsenna.     See  PORSENA. 

Por'son,  (RICHARD,)  a  pre-eminent  Greek  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Norfolk,  England,  December  25, 


a,e,T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fat;  n.e:;  1.6:;  good;  moon; 


PORT  A 


1829 


PORTER 


1759.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  in  1782. 
He  became  regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in 
1790  or  1792,  with  a  salary  of  forty  pounds  per  annum. 
His  scruples  against  subscription  to  the  Thirty-Nine 
Articles  induced  him  to  decline  holy  orders,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  Fellowship  in  1791.  He  had 
a  prodigious  memory  and  great  critical  acumen,  and  was 
remarkable  for  probity  and  love  of  truth.  About  1795 
he  married  Mrs.  Lunan,  a  widow.  He  edited  "  Seven 
Tragedies  of  /Eschylus,"  (1795,)  and  the  "Hecuba," 
"Orestes,"  "  Phcenissas,"  and  "Medea"  of  Euripides, 
(1797-1801.)  In  1805  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
London  Institution.  Among  his  works  are  "  Letters  to 
Archdeacon  Travis,"  (1790,)  in  which  he  maintained  that 
the  seventh  verse  of  the  fifth  chapter  of  John's  First  Epistle 
is  an  interpolation,  "Notes  and  Emendations  on  the 
Greek  Poets,"  ("  Adversaria  Notas  et  Emendationes  in 
Poetas  Graecos,"  1812,)  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Lexicon" 
of  Photius,  (1822.)  Died  in  London  in  September,  1808. 
He  is  considered  by  the  English  scholars,  and  perhaps 
by  foreigners,  the  greatest  verbal  critic  of  modern  times. 
"  It  may  safely  be  conceded  to  common  fame  and  partial 
friendship,"  says  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  "that  he  was  one 
of  the  greatest  men,  and  the  very  greatest  critic,  of  his 
own  or  any  other  age."  Porson  was,  according  to 
several  authorities,  addicted  to  intemperance  in  drink. 
Like  Dr.  Johnson,  he  could  practise  abstinence  more 
easily  than  a  moderate  use  of  wine  or  ardent  spirits. 
Wonderful  stories  are  told  of  his  powers  of  memory. 
He  could  repeat  several  pages  of  a  book  after  he  had 
read  them  once. 

See  "  Life  of  Porson,"  by  J.  S.  WATSON,  1861  ;  article  on  Porson 
in  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  by  DK.  THOMAS  Yot'No;  ''A 
Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character  ot"  Porson,"  by  CRITO  CANTA- 
BRIGIENSIS,  1827  ;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  •'  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  iSti,  and  July,  1861  :  '•  Poison iana."  Lon 
don,  1814;  STEPHEN  WESTO.V,  "Short  Account  of  the  Late  R. 
Porson,"  1808. 

Porta,  pok'ta,  (BERARDO  or  BKRNAKDO,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  operas,  was  born  at  Rome  about  1755  ;  died 
in  Paris  in  1829. 

Porta,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in 
1776,  wrote  several  popular  poems.  Died  in  1821. 

Porta,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Porlizza  in  1542  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1597. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Guglielmo,  noticed 
below. 

Porta,  (GIUSEPPE  SALVIATI,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Castel-Nuovo  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  K.  Salviati, 
whose  name  he  assumed.  He  settled  at  Venice,  where 
he  painted  frescos  with  success.  He  was  employed  by 
Titian  to  decorate  the  library  of  Saint  Mark.  Among 
his  best  oil-paintings  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 
Died  in  1570,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1585. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Porta,  (SIMON.)     See  PORZIO. 

Porta,  della.     See  BACCIO. 

Porta,  della,  del'la  poR'ta,  (GiACOMO,)  a  distin 
guished  Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Milan 
about  1525.  He  built  in  Rome  the  portal  of  Saint 
John  Lateran,  (about  1574,)  the  College  della  Sapienza, 
and  the  facade  of  Santa  Maria  de'  Monti,  (1579.)  He 
was  subsequently  employed  to  finish  the  basilica  of 
Saint  Peter's,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Domenico  Fontana, 
constructed  the  vault  (or  roof)  of  the  dome,  after  the 
plans  of  Michael  Angelo,  (1588-90.)  He  died  in  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  VIII.,  (1592-1605,)  aged  about 
seventy-five. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  FONTENAV, 
"  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes  ;"  CICOGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura  ;" 
QUATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Dictionnaire  d'Architecture." 

Porta,  della,  (  GIAMBATTISTA,  )  an  eminent  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Naples  about  1540. 
He  promoted  the  progress  of  physical  science  by  found 
ing  schools,  and  by  experiments  in  optics,  etc.  He 
was  versed  in  the  ancient  languages.  His  house  was  the 
seat  of  an  academy  called  "  I  Segreti,"  which  he  founded 
for  the  promotion  of  physical  science.  He  invented 
the  camera  obscura,  and  made  improvements  in  lenses. 
His  principal  works  are  "  Perspective,"  (1555,)  "  Natural 


Magic,"  ("  Magiae  Naturalis  Libri  XX.,"  1558-89,)  "  Phy- 
tognomonica,"  (1583,  a  treatise  on  plants,)  an  able 
"Treatise  on  Physiognomy,"  (1586,  often  reprinted,) 
"  Villae  Libri  XII.,"  (on  rural  economy,  1592,)  and  "  On 
Refraction  a  Part  of  Optics,"  ("  De  Refractione  Optices 
Parte,"  1593.)  Died  at  Naples  in  1615. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires ;"  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  G.  H. 
DUCHESNE,  "  Notice  siir  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  B.  Porta," 
1801  ;  COLANGEI.O,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Porta,"  1818;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Porta,  della,  (GUGLIELMO,)  an  able  sculptor,  born 
near  Como  about  1512,  was  a  nephew  of  Giacomo,  noticed 
above.  He  worked  at  Rome  about  1550,  and  made  the 
mausoleum  of  Paul  III.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil  of 
Michael  Angelo.  Died  about  1577. 

Portaels,  poR-ttls',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Vilvorde  (Brabant)  in  1820.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1843. 

Portal,  poR'ttl',  (ANTOINK.)  BARON,  a  distinguished 
French  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Gaillac  (Tarn) 
in  1742.  He  began  to  practise  in  Paris  about  1765,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1770.  He  published  an  important  work  on  the  "  His 
tory  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,"  (7  vols.,  1770-73,)  and 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  1775.  He  was  first  physician  to  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "Course  of 
Medical  Anatomy,"  ("  Cours  d'Anatomie  medicale,"  5 
vols.,  1803.)  Died  in  1832. 

See  PARISET,  "  filoge  de  Portal ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale. " 

Portal,  (PIERRE  BARTHELKMI,)  BARON,  a  French 
administrator,  born  near  Montauban  in  1765.  He  was 
minister  of  the  marine  from  December,  1818,  to  Decem 
ber,  1821.  Died  in  1845. 

Portalis,  poR'tt'less',  (AUGUSTE,)  a  French  writer 
and  liberal  legislator,  born  at  La  Ciotat  in  1801,  was  a 
nephew  of  Jean  fitienne  Marie.  He  wrote  "  Essays  in 
favour  of  Liberty  of  Worship."  Died  in  1855. 

Portalis,  (JEAN  ETIENNE  MARIE,)  a  distinguished 
French  jurist  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Bausset 
(Var)  in  1745.  He  was  an  eloquent  advocate  before 
the  Revolution,  and  was  imprisoned  for  his  moderation 
in  the  reign  of  terror.  In  1795  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Elders,  in  which  he  advocated  humane 
measures.  lie  was  one  of  the  committee  charged  with 
the  redaction  of  the  Civil  Code  in  1800,  and  became 
minister  of  worship  in  1804.  Before  this  date  he  had 
acquitted  himself  with  credit  in  the  task  of  reorganizing 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France.  He  published 
several  able  political  and  legal  works,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1807. 

See  BI.ESSIG.  "  Gedachtnissrede  auf  den  Minister  Portalis,"  1807  ; 
F.  HACQUIN,  "  Eloge  historique  de  Portalis,"  1845;  Louis  LAI.I.E- 
MANT,  "Eloge  de  J.  E.  M.  Porlalis,"  1861  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  RENE  LAVOLLEK,  "  Portalis  et  ses  CEuvres." 

Portalis,  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  COUNT,  an  eminent  states 
man  and  judge,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Aix 
in  February,  1778.  He  became  councillor  of  state  in 
1808,  and  director-general  of  the  press  and  book-trade 
(librairie)  in  1810.  In  1819  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
In  the  moderate  ministry  of  Martignac  he  was  keeper 
of  the  seals  from  January,  1828,  to  May,  1829.  He  was 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  that  date  to  August  7, 
1829,  and  then  became  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation.  He  retained  until  1852  this  office,  (the  highest 
judicial  position  in  France,)  for  which  he  was  qualified 
by  profound  knowledge  of  public  law  and  a  union  of 
dignity  in  manner  with  suavity  of  temper.  Died  in  1858. 

See  MIGNET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte  de 
Portalis,"  1860  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Porte,  de  la,  deh  18  poRt,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  courtier, 
born  in  1603,  was  a  favourite  agent  of  Anne  of  Austria, 
and  a  valet-de-chambre  of  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  "Me 
moires,"  which  were  printed  in  1736.  Died  in  1680. 

Porte,  La.     See  LA  PORTE  and  LA  PORTE. 

For'ter,  (ALEXANDER,)  born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ire 
land,  in  1786,  settled  in  Louisiana,  where  he  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  in  1821,  and  in  1833  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate.  Died  in  1844. 


€  as«;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ' ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^Jf^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PORTER 


i8?o 


PORTE  US 


Por'ter,  (ANDREW,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pennsylvania  about  1810.  He  served  as  colonel  at  Hull 
Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  a  few  days  later  was  appointed 
provost-marshal  of  Washington. 

For'ter,  (ANNA  MARIA,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Durham  about  1781,  was  a  sister  of  R.  Ker  Porter. 
She  resided  successively  in  London,  at  Thames  Ditton, 
and  at  Esher.  She  wrote  many  popular  novels,  among 
which  are  "The  Hungarian  Brothers,"  (1807,)  "Don 
Sebastian,"  (1809,)  "The  Recluse  of  Norway,"  (1814,) 
"The  Fast  of  Saint  Magdalene,"  and  "The  Barony." 
Died  in  1832. 

See  MRS.  EIAVOOD,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843. 

Porter,  (BENJAMIN  ¥.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1808,  translated  the  "  Ele 
ments  of  the  Institutes"  of  Heineccius,  and  published 
a  collection  of  poems. 

Porter,  (DAVID,)  an  American  commodore,  born  at 
Boston  in  1780.  He  became  captain  of  the  frigate  Essex 
in  July,  1812,  and  in  the  same  year  captured  the  vessel- 
of-war  Alert  and  a  number  of  British  trading-vessels. 
He  performed  a  cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the 
Essex  in  1813,  and  took  many  prizes.  In  March,  1814, 
the  Essex  was  attacked  near  Valparaiso  by  two  British 
vessels,  and,  after  a  long  and  desperate  resistance,  was 
captured.  Porter  served  as  a  naval  commissioner  from 
1815  to  1823,  was  sent  as  charge-d'affaires  to  Turkey  in 
1831,  and  became  minister  resident  at  Constantinople 
in  1839.  He  died  at  Pera  in  1843.  He  was  the  father 
of  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  and  Commodore  William  D. 
Porter. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1815. 

Porter,  (DAVID  D.,)  an  admiral,  a  son  of  the  preced 
ing,  was  born  in  or  near  Philadelphia  in  June,  1813.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1829,  and  became  a 
lieutenant  about  1841.  He  served  in  the  naval  operations 
against  the  Mexicans  in  1846-47.  In  1861  he  was  pro 
moted  to  the  rank  of  commander.  He  commanded  the 
mortar-boats,  twenty-one  in  number,  which  bombarded 
Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip,  below  New  Orleans, 
April  18-24,  1862.  These  forts  were  surrendered  to  him 
on  the  28th.  In  September  or  October,  1862,  he  took 
command  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  on  the  Mississippi 
River.  He  aided  the  land  army  in  the  capture  of  Arkan 
sas  Post,  January,  1863,  and  co-operated  with  General 
Grant  in  his  operations  against  Vicksburg.  For  his 
services  in  the  reduction  of  the  last-named  place  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  by  a  commission 
dated  July  4,  1863.  Co-operating  with  General  Banks 
in  an  expedition  against  Shreveport,  he  ascended  Red 
River  with  a  fleet  of  iron-clad  gunboats  to  a  point  many 
miles  above  Grand  Ecore,  in  April,  1864.  He  com 
manded  the  naval  forces  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher 
in  December,  1864,  and  bombarded  the  same  fort  with 
success  on  the  I4th  and  I5th  of  January,  1865.  Ac 
cording  to  General  Grant,  this  was  "  the  most  formidable 
armada  ever  collected  for  concentration  upon  one  given 
point."  He  was  appointed  vice-admiral  July  25,  1866, 
and  admiral  in  August,  1870.  He  holds  a  higher  rank 
than  any  other  officer  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States. 

See  J.  T.  HEADLEY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,'' 
1867;  GREELEV,  "American  Conflict." 

Porter,  (EBENEZER,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Cornwall,  Connecticut,  in  1772,  was  ap 
pointed  in  1812  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  presi 
dent.  He  wrote  an  "  Analysis  of  the  Principles  of  Rhe 
torical  Delivery,"  (1827,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Porter,  (Fixz-JOHN,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Hampshire,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845.  H£ 
became  a  captain  in  1856,  and  a  colonel  in  1861.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  and  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862,  and  for  his  bravery 
in  these  engagements,  in  which  he  had  to  sustain  the 
brunt  of  the  enemy's  attack,  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  volunteers  the  same  month.  His  corps  took 
no  part  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30, 
1862,  although  it  was  "within  sight  and  sound  of  the 
battle."  For  this  delinquency  he  was  censured  by  Gen 
eral  Pope,  tried  by  a  court-martial,  cashiered  in  January, 


1863,  and  dismissed  from  the  service.  In  1870  he  ap 
pealed  to  President  Grant  for  a  reversal  of  the  decision 
of  the  court-martial :  the  grounds  for  this  appeal  are 
succinctly  stated  in  "Old  and  New"  for  June,  1870,  pp. 
816-820. 

Porter,  (FRANCIS,)  an  Irish  Catholic  priest  and  writer, 
became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1702. 

Porter,  (GEORGE  RICHARDSON,)  an  English  writer  on 
trade,  manufactures,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  in  1792. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  work  on  "The  Progress  of  the  Na 
tion  in  its  Social  and  Commercial  Relations,"  (3  vols., 
1836-39.)  In  1841  he  became  a  secretary  to  the  board 
of  trade.  He  was  the  author  or  compiler  of  statistical 
tables  issued  annually  by  that  board,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Manufacture  of  Porcelain  and  Glass,"  (1842.) 
Died  in  1852  or  1855. 

Porter,  (JANE,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at  Durham 
in  1776,  was  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter.  Slu 
lived  with  her  mother  and  her  sister  Anna  Maria  until 
the  death  of  the  former,  in  1831.  She  published  in  1803 
her  first  novel,  "Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,"  which  was  very 
successful.  Her  historical  novel  of  "  The  Scottish 
Chiefs"  (1809)  also  found  many  admirers,  although  it  is 
very  defective  as  a  delineation  of  character  and  manners. 
She  succeeded  in  mystifying  the  public  by  her  anony 
mous  story  "Sir  Edward  Seaward's  Diary,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1850. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1835,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Porter,  (NoAH,)  D.D.,  an  able  American  writer  on 
psychology,  was  born  in  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in 
1811.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1831,  and  in 
1846  became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  meta 
physics  in  that  institution.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Human  Intellect  :  with  an  Introduc 
tion  upon  Psychology  and  the  Soul,"  (i  vol.  8vo,  1868; 
2d  edition,  1869,)  which  has  been  highly  praised  by- 
several  competent  critics,  among  whom  we  may  name 
Dr.  McCosh,  the  distinguished  president  of  Princeton 
College. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Porter,  (PETER  BUEL,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1773.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1812  he  was  appointed  quartermaster- 
general  of  New  York.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
battles  of  Chippewa,  Lundy's  Lane,  and  the  other  prin 
cipal  actions  of  the  war,  and  obtained  a  gold  medal  from 
Congress  for  his  services.  He  was  appointed  secretary 
of  war  in  May,  1828.  General  Porter  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  who  explored  a  route  for  the  Erie  Canal. 
Died  in  1844. 

Porter,  (Sir  ROBERT  KER,)  an  English  painter  and 
traveller,  born  at  Durham  about  1775,  was  a  brother  of 
Anna  Maria  and  Jane  Porter.  He  became  a  student 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1790,  and  acquired 
distinction  as  a  painter  of  battles.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Siege  of  Acre"  and  "The  Battle  of  Agincourt," 
and  an  "Ecce  Homo."  He  went  to  Russia  in  1804,  and 
received  the  title  of  historical  painter  to  the  emperor. 
Having  traversed  several  countries  of  Asia  from  1817  to 
1820,  he  published  "Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  Arme 
nia,  Ancient  Babylonia,"  etc.,  with  engravings,  (2  vols., 
1822.)  Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1842. 

See  the  "Gentleman's  Masja/.ine"  for  July,  1842;  "  Monthly  Re 
view"  for  September,  1821,  and  January  and  February,  1823. 

Porter,  (WILLIAM  D.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  Orleans  in  1809,  was  a  son  of  Commodore 
David  Porter,  noticed  above.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1823.  In  1861  he  took  command  of  the  iron-clad  F^ssex 
on  the  Mississippi  River.  He  fought  at  Fort  Henry, 
where  the  Essex  was  disabled  and  Captain  Porter  was 
severely  scalded,  in  February,  1862.  In  August,  1862, 
having  repaired  the  Essex,  he  destroyed  the  strong 
iron-clad  ram  Arkansas,  between  Baton  Rouge  and  Vicks 
burg.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore. 
Died  in  1864. 

See  J.  T.  HEADLEY,  "Farragut  and  our  Naval  Conmanders," 
1867. 

Fortes,  Des.     See  DESPORTES. 

Por'te-tis,  (BEILBY.)  an  English  prelate  of  high  repu 
tation,  was  born  at  York  in  1731.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  gained  the  Seaton's  prize  for  an 


a, e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  far.  fall,  fat:  m£t;  not;  _;\/6a;  moo   ; 


PORTIA 


1831 


POSSEflNO 


English  poem  "On  Death."  He  was  successively  rector  | 
of  Hunton,  prebendary  of  Peterborough,  and  rector  of 
Lambeth,  (1767.)  In  1769  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  George  III.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1776, 
and  Bishop  of  London  in  1787.  His  principal  work  is 
a  series  of  "Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,"  which 
are  highly  esteemed.  His  works  were  published  in  five 
volumes  (iSll)  by  his  nephew,  Robert  Hodgson.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  "Life  of  Bishop  Porteus,"  by  R.  HODGSON,  1811. 

Portia.     See  PORCIA. 

Portland,  DUKE  OF.     See  BENTINCK. 

Port'lock,  (JOSEPH  ELLISON,)  LIEUTENANT-COLO- 
NEL,  an  English  engineer  and  geologist,  born  about 
1795.  He  assisted  Colby  in  the  trigonometrical  survey 
of  Ireland  commenced  about  1824,  and  produced  an 
able  "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  County  of  London 
derry  and  of  Parts  of  Tyrone  and  Fermanagh,"  (1843.) 
He  also  wrote  on  Geognosy  and  Palaeontology.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Geological  Society  in  1856. 
Died  in  1864. 

Portogallo,  poR-to-gal'lo,  (MARCO  ANTONIO  SIMAO,) 
a  Portuguese  composer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1763.  He 
lived  many  years  in  Italy,  and  composed  successful 
operas.  "  Fernando  in  Messico"  is  called  his  master 
piece.  Died  in  1829. 

Port-Royalists,  a  name  popularly  given  to  the  mem 
bers  of  the  celebrated  convent  or  society  of  Port-Royal- 
des-Champs,  near  Versailles.  It  fills  a  prominent  place 
in  the  history  of  the  Jansenist  controversy.  The  nuns 
were  removed  to  Paris  about  1638,  (or  1644,  according 
to  Hallam,)  after  which  the  old  convent  of  Port-Royal- 
des-Champs  became  the  residence  of  a  community  of 
religious  and  learned  men,  who  practised  some  monastic 
austerities  and  were  called  "Les  Solitaires  de  Port- 
Royal."  Among  these  recluses  were  Claude  Lancelot, 
Antoine  Arnauld,  Le  Maistre  de  Sacy,  Pierre  Nicole, 
and  Blaise  Pascal.  They  were  leaders  of  the  Jansenist 
party.  They  opened  a  boarding-school  which  became 
celebrated,  and  published  several  good  works  on  gram 
mar.  The  convent  of  nuns  was  suppressed  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  1709.  The  history  of  Port-Royal  has  been 
written  by  Racine,  Reuchlin,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  others. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1841  ;  SAINTE-BEUVE, 
"  Histoire  de  Port-Royal,"  4  vols.,  1840-62;  MARY  ANNE  SCHIM- 
MELPENNINCK,  "  History  of  Port-Royal." 

Portsmouth,  DUCHESS  OF.     See  KEROUAL. 

Portugal,  de,  da  poK-too-gal',  (FRANCISCO,)  Count 
of  Vimioso,  a  Portuguese  nobleman  and  poet,  born  at 
Ev'ora  about  1490;  died  in  1549. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Portumne.     See  PORTTMXUS. 

Por-tum'nus  or  Por-tu'nus,  [Fr.  PORTUMNE,  poR'- 
tiimn',]  a  marine  deity  or  genius  among  the  Romans, 
was  regarded  as  the  protector  of  ports  and  harbours, 
and  was  identified  with  the  PAL^EMON  of  the  Greek 
mythology. 

Portuhus.     See  PORTUMNUS. 

Portus,  poR'toos,  (/EMILIUS,)  an  eminent  critic  and 
editor,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1550.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Lausanne  from  1581  to  1591,  soon  after  which 
date  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He 
produced  good  editions  (with  Latin  versions)  of  Thu- 
cydides,  Aristotle  on  Rhetoric,  Xenophon,  Euripides, 
and  other  Greek  authors.  Among  his  works  is  "Lexi 
con  Doricum-Graeco-Latinum,"  (1603.)  Died  in  1610. 

Portus,  (FRANCIS,)  an  eminent  philologist,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Candia  (Crete)  in  1511. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Modena  in  1536,  and 
teacher  of  the  sons  of  Renee,  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  in 
1542.  Having  been  converted  to  the  Protestant  faith, 
he  removed  to  Geneva  in  1561,  and  obtained  there 
a  chair  of  Greek  in  1562.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Aristotle,  Pindar,  Longinus,  Thucydides,  and  other 
Greeks.  Died  at  Geneva  in  1581. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  delta  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  SAX, 
"  Onomasticon." 

Po'rus,  [Gr.  Dupoc,]  a  king  of  India,  who  reigned 
between  the  Hydaspes  and  Acesines  when  that  country 
was  invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  326  B.C.  He  op 
posed  the  Macedonians  with  an  army  composed  partly 


of  elephants,  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  and  taken 
prisoner.  When  asked  by  the  victor  how  he  wished  to  be 
treated,  he  answered,  "  Like  a  king."  (Plutarch.)  He  was 
restored  to  his  kingdom  by  Alexander.  He  was  killed 
by  Euclamus  (or  Eudemus)  in  317  B.C.  Another  Porus 
reigned  at  the  same  time  east  of  the  Acesines,  (Chenab.) 

See  ARKIAN,  "Anabasis." 

Pory,  por're,  ?  (JoHN,)  an  English  geographer  born 
about  1570.  He  published  a  "Geographical  History 
of  Africa,  translated  from  Leo  Africanus,"  (1600.)  In 
1616  he  went  to  Virginia  and  became  secretary  to  that 
colony.  Died  after  1623. 

Porzio,  poiu'se-o,  (Luc  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  phy 
sician,  born  near  Amalfi  in  1639.  He  taught  in  Rome, 
and  published  a  work  on  the  diseases  and  treatment  of 
soldiers,  (1685,  often  reprinted.)  Died  in  1723. 

Porzio  or  Porta,  poR'ta,  [Lat.  POR'TIUS,]  (SiMONE,) 
an  Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Naples  in  1497.  He  pub 
lished  a  treatise  "On  the  Human  Mind,"  ("  De  Humana 
Mente,"  1551,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1554. 

Posadas,  de  las,  da  las  po-sa'Das,  (MIGUEL,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Segorbe  in  1711  ;  died  in  1753. 

Po-sei'don  or  Fo-si'don,  [Gr.  Tloaaduv,]  the  Greek 
name  of  the  god  of  the  sea.  (See  NEPTUNE.) 

Poseidonius.     See  POSIDONIUS. 

Po'sey,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  general,  born  on  the 
banks  of  the  Potomac,  in  Virginia,  in  1750.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1775,  and  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battles  near  Saratoga  and  Stillwater,  September  19  and 
October  7,  1777.  He  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Stony 
Point,  July,  1779,  and  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  army 
which  General  Wayne  led  against  the  Indians  in  1792. 
He  was  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1813  to  1816.  Died 
in  1818. 

See  JAMES  HALL,  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Posey,"  in  SPARKS':: 
"  American  Biography,"  vol.  ix.  of  new  series. 

Posidippe.     See  POSIDIPPUS. 

Pos-i-dip'pus,  [Gr.  Iioai6i--of  ;  Fr.  POSIDIPPE,  po'- 
ze'dep',]  a  Greek  comic  writer,  born  at  Cassandria,  in 
Macedonia.  He  began  to  write  about  290  B.C.  His 
works  are  lost. 

Pos-i-do'iii-us  or  Pos-ei-do'm-us,  [Hoaeiduvtof,] 
a  Greek  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at  Apamea,  in  Syria, 
about  135  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Panaetius,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  head  of  the  school.  He  taught  at  Rhodes, 
had  a  high  reputation,  and  wrote  works  on  astronomy, 
history,  geography,  moral  philosophy,  etc.,  all  of  which 
are  lost.  He  was  visited  at  Rhodes  by  Pompey  about 
68  B.C.  Cicero,  who  was  one  of  his  pupils,  expresses  a 
very  favourable  opinion  of  him.  Like  many  other  Stoics, 
Posidonius  held  that  pain  is  not  an  evil.  According  to 
Suidas,  he  removed  to  Rome  in  the  consulship  of  M. 
Marcellus,  (52  B.C.)  "  Was  it  not  a  fine  acknowledgment 
of  the  inherent  supremacy  of  wisdom,  when  the  impe- 
ratorial  fasces  were  lowered,  by  command  of  Pompey, 
before  the  person  of  Posidonius  ?"  (Arthur  H.  Hallam.) 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 
Grxca  ;"  DIOGENES  LAERTIUS. 

Posidonius  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  a  mathematician,  often 
confounded  with  the  preceding.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  Zeno. 

Possel,  pos'sel,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Parchim  in  1528.  He  published  "  Syntaxis  Graeca,17 
(1560,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Rostock  in  1591. 

Posselt,  pos'selt,  (ERNST  Lumvu;,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  at  Durlach,  in  Baden,  in  1763.  He  began 
to  issue  in  1795  "The  European  Annals,"  a  periodical, 
which  he  edited  until  1804,  and  which,  says  Depping, 
"  was  the  best  German  periodical  work  on  history  and 
politics."  He  also  published  several  works  on  German 
and  French  history.  Died  in  1804. 

See  SCHUBART,  "  Leben  Posselt's,"  1805;  GEHRES,  "  Lebenbe- 
schreibung  Posselts."  2  vols.,  1827. 

Possevin.     See  POSSEVINO. 

Possevino,  pos-sa-vee'no,  [Lat.  POSSEVI'NUS  ;  Fr. 
POSSEVIN,  pos'vaV  or  pos'seh-vaN'',]  (ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  Jesuit,  negotiator,  and  writer,  was  born  at  Mantua  in 
1534.  He  was  sent  by  the  pope  on  important  missions 
to  Germany,  Hungary,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "Select  Library  on  the 
Method  of  Study,"  ("  Bibliotheca  selecta  de  Ratione 
Studiorum,"  2  vols.,  1593,)  and  "Apparatus  sacer,"  (3 


€  as  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POSSEFINUS 


1832 


POTTER 


vols.,  1603-06,)  in  which  he  gives  a  list  and  review  of 
the  works  of  all  ecclesiastical  writers.     Died  in  1611. 

See  JEAN  D'ORIGNY,  "Vie  de  Possevin,"  1712;  NICKKON,  "  Me"- 
moires ;"  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  Lilteraire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Geuerale." 

Possevinus.     See  POSSEVINO. 

Post,  (FRANCIS.)     See  POOST. 

Postel,  pos'tel',  [Lat.  POSTEL'LUS,]  (GuiLLAUME,)  a 
French  visionary,  born  in  Normandy  in  1510,  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He 
became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Paris  in  1539, 
but  soon  resigned,  and  led  a  wandering  life.  It  appears 
that  he  asserted  the  power  of  reason  to  be  sufficient  to 
demonstrate  the  dogmas  of  religion  and  to  convert  all 
nations.  His  book  "  On  the  Harmony  of  the  World" 
("De  Orbis  Terrae  Concordia,"  1544)  is  called  his  best 
work.  Died  in  Paris  in  1581. 

See  DESBM.LONS,  "  Nouveaux  ficlaircissemens  snr  la  Vie  cle  Pos 
tel,"  1773;  CHAUFBPIE,  "Remarques  sur  Postel  ;"  A.  PKKICAUD, 
"  F.  Wilson,  G.  Postel  et  Louis  Castelvetro,"  1850;  NICERCJ.N, 
"Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Postellus.     See  POSTEL. 

Postlethwayt,  pos's'l-thwat,  (MALACHI,)  an  English 
writer  on  commerce,  of  whom  little  is  known.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  was  born  about  1707.  He  published, 
besides  other  books,  "  The  Merchant's  Public  Counting 
House,"  (1750,)  and  "Great  Britain's  True  System," 
(1757,)  which  are  works  of  merit.  Died  in  1767. 

Pos'tu-mus  or  Post'hu-mus,  a  Roman  general, 
whom  Valerian  appointed  governor  of  Gaul.  He  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army  in  257  A.IX  lie  waged 
war  against  Gallienus,  and  continued  to  rule  Gaul  until 
he  was  murdered  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,  in  267  A.D. 
He  is  represented  as  an  able  and  virtuous  ruler. 

See  MERMET,  "  Notice  sur  Posthumus,"  1827. 

Pot'a-mo  or  Fot'a-mon,  [Uoru/Mv,]  a  Platonic  or 
Eclectic  philosopher  of  Alexandria,  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ.  lie 
is  sometimes  called  the  founder  of  the  Eclectic  school. 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Potamon.     See  POTAMO. 

Pote,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  printer  of  Eton,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Windsor  Castle."  Died  in  1787. 

Po-tSm'kin,  [Russ.  pron.  pot-yom'kin,]  (GREGOR 
ALEXANDROVITCH,)  PRINCE,  a  Russian  field-marshal  and 
favourite  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  was  born  near 
Smolensk  in  1736.  He  rose  rapidly  to  the  highest  offices 
and  honours  of  the  empire,  and  exercised  almost  un 
bounded  influence  in  political  affairs.  He  induced  the 
empress  to  engage  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1771,  and  in 
the  campaign  of  1787  was  appointed  to  the  chief  com 
mand  of  the  Russian  army.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
in  taking  several  provinces  from  the  Turks,  Catherine 
bestowed  upon  him  a  superb  palace  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
which  she  called  Taurida,  the  name  previously  given  to 
the  conquered  provinces.  Died  in  1791. 

See  MADAME  DE  CERENVII.LH,  "Vie  de  Potemkin,"  7807-08; 
"  Privatleben  des  Fiirsten  von  Potemkin,"  Gratz,  1793;  "Memoirs 
of  Prince  Potemkiu,"  London,  1X14;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1813. 

Pot'eu-ger  or  Pot'tin-ger,  (JoHN,)  an  English  poet 
and  barrister,  born  at  Winchester  in  1647  ;  died  in  1733. 

Pothier,  po'tjj-i',  (ROBERT  JOSEPH,)  a  celebrated 
French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1699.  He  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  French  law  at  Oilcans  in  1749, 
before  which  he  had  served  as  conseiller  an  ch&telet.  He 
published  a  great  work  on  Roman  law,  entitled  "  Pan 
dects  of  Justinian  digested  into  New  Order,"  ("  Pandectae 
Justinianae  in  Novum  Ordinem  digestae,"  3  vols.,  1748- 
52,)  and  several  treatises  on  contracts.  The  compilers 
of  the  Napoleonic  Civil  Code  availed  themselves  of  the 
works  of  Pothier  to  a  large  extent.  Died  at  Orleans 
in  1772. 


Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Pothier,"  1827;  FREMONT,  "  Recherches  bio- 
graphiques  sur  Pothier,"  1859. 

Pothoven,  pot'ho'ven,  (HENRI,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
portraits  and  cabinet-pictures,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1725;  died  about  1795. 

Potter,  po'te-i',  (CHARLES  GABRIEL,)  a  French 
comedian,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1774;  died  in  1838. 


Potocki,  po-tots'kee,  (CLAUDIA,)  COUNTESS,  a  patri 
otic  Polish  lady,  born  in  Posen  in  1802,  was  noted  for 
her  benefactions  to  the  sick  and  wounded  during  the 
war  in  1830-33.  Died  in  1836. 

Potocki,  (IGNATIUS,)  COUNT,  a  Polish  patriot,  born 
about  1750.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Kosciusko  in  1794. 
Died  in  1809. 

Potocki,  (JAN,)  COUNT,  a  Polish  historian,  born  in 
1761,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Primitive  History  of  the 
Russian  People,"  "Chronicles,  Memoirs,  and  Researches 
towards  the  History  of  all  the  Slavic  Nations,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  in  French.  Died  in  1815. 

Potocki,  (STANISLAS  FELIX,)  COUNT,  a  Polish  noble 
man,  born  in  1750,  took  sides  with  Russia  in  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1791,  and  was  made  a  field-marshal  by 
Catherine  II.  Died  in  1803. 

Potocki,  (STANISLAS  KOSTKA,)  COUNT,  a  Polish 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  1757.  As  a  member  of 
the  Diet  of  1788-92,  he  was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 
He  Was  appointed  in  1815  minister  of  public  instruc 
tion.  He  wrote  an  admired  treatise  "On  Eloquence  and 
Style."  Died  in  1821. 

See  LEI.EWEL,  "Histoire  de  Pologne,"  1844. 

Pott,  pot,  (AUGUST  FUIEDRICH,)  a  German  philolo 
gist,  born  near  Minden,  in  Hanover,  in  1802.  lie  be 
came  professor  of  philology  at  Halle  in  1833.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Researches  in  the  Etymology  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  Languages,"  (2  vols.,  1833-36,)  and  "  Personen- 
Namen,"  (a  treatise  on  proper  names,  1853.) 

Pott,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  chemist,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1692.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry 
in  Berlin,  and  was  chiefly  noted  for  his  successful  ex 
periments  in  search  of  clay  for  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain.  Died  in  1777. 

Pott,  (PKUCIVAL,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  sur 
geon,  born  in  London  in  1713.  He  was  surgeon  of 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  from  1749  to  1787,  and  made 
important  improvements  in  the  practice  of  surgery.  He 
wrote  many  able  works,  among  which  arc  a  "Treatise 
on  Ruptures,"  (1756,)  "Observations  on  Injuries  of  the 
Head,"  (1760,)  "Remarks  on  Fistula  in  Ano,"  (1765,) 
and  "  Remarks  on  Fractures  and  Dislocations,"  (1768.) 
The  style  of  his  writings  is  much  admired.  Died  in 
1788. 

See  JOHN  EARLK,  "Short  Account  of  the  Life  of  P.  Pott/'  1790. 

Fot'ter,  (  ALONZO,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  Episco 
pal  bishop,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1800. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College,  where  he  was  elected  in 
1821  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy. 
Having  been  ordained  the  same  year,  he  became  rector 
of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  Boston,  in  1826,  and  in  1831 
vice-president  and  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Union  College.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Penn 
sylvania  in  1845.  He  published  "Political  Economy, 
its  Objects,  Uses,  and  Principles  considered,"  (1841,) 
"  Hand-Book  for  Readers  and  Students,"  (1847,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1863. 

Fot'ter,  (BARNABAS  or  BARNABY,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1578.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1628.  lie  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
but  was  regarded  by  the  high-church  party  as  a  Puritan. 
Died  in  1642. 

Potter,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  near  Kendal  in  1591.  He  became  Dean 
of  Worcester  in  1635,  and  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford 
University  in  1640.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Charles  I.  in 
the  civil  war.  He  translated  Sarpi's  "  History  of  the 
Quarrels  of  Pope  Paul  V.  with  the  State  of  Venice," 
(1626.)  Died  in  1646. 

Potter,  (CIPRIANI,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  was  prin 
cipal  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  London  for 
many  years.  He  composed  overtures,  symphonies,  duets, 
trios,  and  sonatas  for  the  piano,  on  which  he  was  a  skilful 
performer.  His  style  is  represented  as  purely  classical. 
He  became  professor  of  composition  in  the  Royal  Acad 
emy  soon  after  it  was  founded. 

Potter,  (FRANCis,)an  English  mechanician  and  clergy 
man,  born  in  1594;  died  in  1678. 

Potter,  (HAZARD  ARNOLD,)  an  American  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  in  Yates  county,  New  York,  in  1811, 


a,  e, T,  5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  met:  not;  good:  moon; 


POTTER 


'833 


POURCHOT 


graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1835.  He  subsequently 
settled  at  Geneva,  New  York,  where  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  surgeon. 

Potter,  ( HORATIO,)  U.D.,  LL.D.,  brother  of  Alonzo 
Potter,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New 
York,  in  1802.  He  graduated  at  Union  College,  and  in 
1828  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and  natu 
ral  philosophy  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Connecticut. 
He  became  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New  York  in  1861. 

Potter,  (JOHN,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  born 
at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1674.  While  a  student  at 
Oxford  he  published  ''Antiquities  of  Greece,"  ("Ar- 
chaeologia  Graeca,"  2  vols.,  1698,)  often  reprinted.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1715,  and  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  1737.  He  was  author  of  some  works 
on  theology,  and  editor  of  a  good  edition  of  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  (1715.)  Died  in  1747. 

See  ANDERSON  and  DUXBAR,  "Life  of  John  Potter;"  HOOK, 
"  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury."  ( 

Potter,  pot'ter,  (PAUL,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter 
of  animals,  was  born  at  Enkhuysen  in  1625.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "  Herdsman  with  Cattle,"  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvre,  a  "  Bear-Hunt,"  in  the  Amster 
dam  Museum,  and  a  landscape  with  cattle  and  figures, 
in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster.  His 
pictures  are  generally  of  cabinet  size,  and  are  remark 
able  for  accuracy  of  design  and  exquisite  finish.  He 
also  produced  a  number  of  excellent  engravings.  Died 
in  1654. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands :"  LKCARPEN'TIER, 
"Paul  Potter,"  1818;  NAGF.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiiustler-Lexikon." 

Potter,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
horn  in  1721.  He  became  vicar  of  Seaming,  prebendary 
of  Norsvich,  and  vicar  of  Lowestoft  and  Kessingland. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1774,  and  a  trans 
lation  of  /Eschylus  in  1777,  which  is  commended.  lie 
also  translated  Euripides  (1782)  and  Sophocles,  (1788.) 
Died  in  1804. 

Potter,  de,  cleh  pot'ter,  (Louis  JOSEPH  ANTOINE,)  a 
Belgian  historian  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Bruges 
in  1786.  He  published  a  rationalistic  history  of  the 
Church,  entitled  "Esprit  de  1'Eglise,"  (6  vols.,  1821,) 
which  produced  a  great  sensation.  He  was  a  chief 
promoter  of  the  union  of  Catholics  with  Liberals  which 
secured  the  success  of  the  revolt  against  the  King  of 
Holland  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Philosophical, 
Political,  and  Critical  History  of  Christianity,"  (8  vols., 
1836.)  Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pettier,  po'tej-i',  (ANDR£  ARIODANT,)  a  French  an 
tiquary  and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1799,  lived  manv 
years  at  Rouen. 

Pettier,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  missionary,  born  at 
Loches  in  1718,  laboured  in  China.  Died  in  1792. 

Pot'tin-ger,  (Sir  HENRY,)  Bart.,  G.C.B.,  a  British 
administrator,  born  in  Down  co.mty,  Ireland,  in  1789. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
his  youth.  About  1840  he  was  sent  to  China  as  am 
bassador  and  superintendent  of  the  British  trade.  He 
negotiated  in  1842  a  treaty  which  ended  the  opium  war 
in  China.  In  1846  he  became  Governor  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1847  Governor  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  Madras.  He  returned  to  England  in  1854, 
and  died  at  Malta  in  1856. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  7856. 

Pottinger,  (JOHN.)     See  POTENGER. 

Pouchard,  poo'shtR',  (JuLiyx,)  a  French  classical 
scholar,  born  near  Domfront  in  1656.  He  was  chief 
editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Savants."  Died  in  1705. 

Pouchet,  poo'shi',  (FELIX  ARCHIMEDE,)  an  eminent 
French  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1800.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Botany," 
(1835,)  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Animal  Kingdom," 
(2  vols.,  1841,)  and  a  "  Theory  of  Spontaneous  Ovulation 
and  Fecundation  of  Mammifera,"  (1847.)  He  is  an 
advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation,  on 
which  he  wrote  "Traite  de  la  Generation  spontanee," 
(1859,)  and  "  Nouvelles  Experiences  sur  la  Generation 
spontanee  et  la  Resistance  vitale,"  (1863.)  "  His  works," 
says  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  "are  distin 


guished  for  scrupulous  accuracy,  extent  of  views,  and  an 
excellent  method.  To  him  belongs  the  honour  of  having 
formulated  in  a  neat  and  precise  manner  the  fundamental 
laws  of  fecundation  among  the  mammifera.  His  experi 
ments  on  spontaneous  generation,  in  opposition  to  those 
of  M.  Pasteur,  had  a  great  celebrity  ( rctentissement )  in 
the  scientific  world."  One  of  his  works  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English,  with  the  title  "  The  Universe  :  the 
Infinitely  Great  and  Infinitely  Little,"  (1870.) 
See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review,"  1869. 

Pouchkin  or  Pouschkin.     See  POOSHKIN. 

Pougatchef  or  Pougatchev.     See  POOGATCHEF. 

Pougens,  de,  cleh  poo'zh6.\',  (MARIE  CHARLES  JO 
SEPH,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1755.  He 
became  blind  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  lie  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Four  Ages,"  a  poem,  (1819,) 
and  "  Philosophical  Letters,"  (1826.)  He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Died  in  1833. 

See  T.  LORIN',  "Notice  sur  Charles  de  Pougens,"  1836;  SIL- 
VESTKE  DE  SACY,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Chevalier  de  Pougens," 
1837- 

Pouget,  poo'zhcY,  (FRANCOIS  AIME,)  a  French  priest, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1666,  was  vicar  of  Saint-Koch, 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "  Catechisme  de  Montpellier," 
(1702,)  which  was  adopted  in  all  France.  Died  in  1723. 

Pouillet,  poo'vi',  (CLAUDE  SERVAIS  MATTHIAS,)  a 
French  natural  philosopher  and  elegant  writer,  born  in 
the  department  of  Doubs  in  1791.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1837,  and  obtained  the 
chair  of  physics  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1838.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Experimental 
Physics  and  Meteorology,"  (2  vols.,  1827  ;  7th  edition, 
1856,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  and  best- 
written  treatise  on  that  subject  in  French.  Died  in  1868. 

Fouilly,  de.     See  LEVESQUE. 

Poujoulat,  poo'zhoo'lt',  (JEAN  JOSEPH  FRANCOIS,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Fare  (Bouches  du  Rhone) 
in  1808.  He  accompanied  Michaud  on  a  visit  to  the 
Levant,  (1830,)  and  wrote,  in  partnership  with  him, 
'•  Oriental  Correspondence,"  (  "  La  Correspondance 
d'Orient,"  7  vols.,  1832-35.)  He  received  prizes  from 
the  French  Academy  for  his  "  History  of  ferusalem" 
(1840)  and  "  History  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (3  vols.,  1844.) 

Poullain-Duparc,  poo'laN'  dii'pfR',  (AUGUSTIN 
MARIE,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1703,  was 
a  brother  of  Poullain  de  Saint-Foix.  He  wrote  on  the 
laws  of  Bretagne.  Died  in  1782. 

Poullain  de  Grandprey,  poo'laN'  deh  gRoN'pRa', 
(JOSEPH  CLEMENT,)  a  French  politician,  born  near 
Mirecourt  in  1744.  He  was  a  moderate  republican 
member  of  the  Convention,  1792-95.  Died  in  1826. 

Poullain  de  Saint-Foix.     See  SAINT- Foix. 

Poulle,  pool,  (  NICOLAS  Louis, )  a  French  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Avignon  in  1703.  He  obtained  the  title 
of  preacher  to  the  king.  Died  in  1781. 

Poulletier  de  la  Salle,  pool'te-i' cleh  ItsSl,  (FRAN- 
QOIS  PAUL  LYON,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist,  born 
in  Lyons  in  1719.  He  founded  three  hospitals  in  Paris, 
and  aided  Macquer  in  a  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1766.)  Died  in  1788. 

Poultier-Delmotte,  pool'te-i'  deTmot',  (FRANCOIS 
MARTIN,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Montreuil-sur- 
Mer  in  1753.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the 
Convention,  and  edited  the  "Ami  des  Lois,"  a  journal, 
(1795-1800.)  Died  in  1826. 

Pounds,  (JOHN,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born  at 
Portsmouth  in  1766,  was  a  shoemaker,  and  the  founder 
of  ragged  schools.  He  collected  a  number  of  poor 
children  in  his  workshop  and  taught  them  gratis.  Died 
in  1839. 

Poupart,  poo'pfR',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Mans  in  1661  ;  died  in  1709. 

Pouqueville,  pook'vel',  (FRANCOIS  CHARLES  Hu- 
GUES  LAURENT,)  a  French  writer  of  travels,  was  born 
in  Orne  in  1770.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "Travels 
in  the  Morea,"  etc.,  ("  Voyage  en  Moree,  a  Constanti 
nople  et  en  Albania,"  1805,)  and  "Travels  in  Greece," 
("  Voyage  en  Grece,"  5  vols.,  1820-22.)  Died  in  1838. 

Pourchot,  pooR'sho',  (£DME,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Poilly,  near  Sens,  in  1651.  He  became  about 
1678  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Paris, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POURBUS 


1834 


p or NET 


of  which  he  was  chosen  rector  seven  times.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Boileau  and  Racine.  He  published  "Philo 
sophical  Institutes,"  (  "  Institutiones  Philosophical, " 
1695,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  one  of  the  first  who  taught  philosophy  by  a  rational 
method.  Died  in  1734. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Pourbus.     See  PORBUS. 

Pourfour.     See  PETIT,  DU. 

Poussin,  (CASPAR.)     See  DUGHET. 

Poussin,  poo'saN',  (NICOLAS,)  an  excellent  French 
painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  called  "the  Raphael 
of  France,"  was  born  at  or  near  Andelys,  on  the  Seine,  in 
Normandy,  in  1594.  He  studied  design  with  Quentin 
Varin,  of  Amiens,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  received  lessons  from  Ferdinand  Elle. 
His  early  efforts  were  embarrassed  by  poverty.  He  made 
several  attempts  to  visit  Rome,  which  failed  for  want  of 
funds.  His  long-cherished  desire  to  see  that  metropolis 
of  art  was  gratified  in  1624.  He  there  formed  an  inti 
macy  with  the  sculptor  F.  Duquesnoy,  and  studied  the 
works  of  Raphael  with  ardent  admiration.  He  also 
made  designs  or  models  of  antique  statues  and  bas-reliefs. 
For  Cardinal  Barberini,  who  became  his  patron,  he 
painted  "  The  Death  of  Cermanicus,"  and  "  The  Capture 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus." 

Poussin  married  in  1630  Anne  Marie  Dughet,  a  sister 
of  the  eminent  painter  Caspard  Dughet  surnamed  Pous 
sin.  Among  the  works  which  he  painted  (in  oil)  at  Rome 
are  a  series  of  "The  Seven  Sacraments,"  "The  Rape 
of  the  Sabine  Women,"  "The  Triumph  of  Flora,"  and 
"The  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea."  He  had  acquired  a 
wide  celebrity  when,  about  the  end  of  1640,  he  returned 
to  France  at  the  request  of  the  king,  who  appointed  him 
his  first  painter.  He  painted  for  the  king  a  beautiful 
altar-piece  of  "The  Last  Supper,"  but  soon  became  dis 
gusted  with  the  intrigues  of  the  court  and  the  jealousy 
of  rival  artists.  In  1642  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death,  November,  1665. 

"  With  a  laborious  and  mighty  grasp,"  says  Hazlitt, 
"he  put  Nature  into  the  mould  of  the  ideal  and  antique, 
and  was  among  painters  (more  than  any  one  else)  what 
Milton  was  among  poets.  There  is  in  both  something 
of  the  same  pedantry,  the  same  stiffness,  the  same  ele 
vation,  the  same  grandeur,  the  same  mixture  of  art  and 
nature,  the  same  richness  of  borrowed  materials,  the 
same  unity  of  character."  ("Table-Talk.") 

"  His  life,"  says  Delacroix,  "  was  reflected  in  his  works, 
and  accorded  with  the  beauty  and  nobleness  of  his  in 
ventions."  He  is  considered  the  greatest  historical 
painter  that  France  has  produced.  "  Poussin  has  a  far 
greater  power,"  says  Ruskin,  "  and  his  landscapes,  though 
more  limited  in  material,  are  incomparably  nobler,  than 
Claude's."  The  same  critic  calls  him  "the  principal 
master  of  the  classical  landscape."  ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  fitudes  sur  N.  Poussin  ;"  MARIA  GRA 
HAM,  "Memoirs  erf  N.  Poussin,"  1820;  CASTKI.LAN,  "Vie  de  N. 
Poussin,"  1811  ;  E"MERIC-DAVID,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  Poussin, " 
1812;  RAOUI.-ROCHETTE,  "Discours  sur  N.  Poussin,"  1843;  PAS- 
SERI,  "  Le  Vite  de'  Pittori,"  1772;  BOUCHITTE,  "Le  Poussin,  sa 
Vie  et  son  CEuvre  ;"  GANDAR,  "Les  Andeiys  et  N.  Poussin;"  FE- 
LIBIEN,  "  Entretiens  sur  la  Vie  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
pliie  Generale. " 

Poussiues,  poo'sen',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Laurac  in  1609.  He  edited  and  translated  several 
Greek  works,  among  which  was  Anna  Comnena's 
"  Alexias."  Died  in  1686. 

Fouteau,  poo'to',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1724.  He  published  several  volumes  on 
surgery.  Died  in  1775. 

F6w'ell,  (The  Rev.  BADEN,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  phi 
losopher  and  geometer,  bom  in  or  near  London  about 
1798.  He  became  in  1827  Savilian  professor  of  geometry 
at  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  and  "  Philosophical 
Magazine"  able  memoirs  on  optics  and  other  sciences. 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1824. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  A  Historical  View  of 
the  Progress  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences," 
(i  vol.,  1834,)  "The  Connection  of  Natural  and  Divine 
Truth,"  (1838,)  a  "View  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  as 
applied  to  the  Dispersion  of  Light,"  (1841,)  "The  Unity 


of  Worlds  and  of  Nature  :  Three  Essays  on  the  Spirit 
of  the  Inductive  Philosophy,  the  Plurality  of  Worlds, 
and  the  Philosophy  of  Creation,"  (1856,)  "Christianity 
without  Judaism,"  (1857,)  and  "The  Order  of  Nature 
considered  with  Reference  to  the  Claims  of  Revelation," 
(1859.)  Died  in  1860. 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1859. 

Pow'ell,  (DAVID,)  a  Welsh  historian,  born  in  Den 
bighshire  about  1552,  was  vicar  of  Ruabon  and  rector 
of  Llanfyllin.  He  published  Caradoc's  "History  of 
Cambria,"  with  notes,  (1584.)  Died  in  1598. 

Powell,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  wrote  against  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Catherine,  and  was  hung  in  1540  for  that  offence. 

Powell,  (GABRIEL,)  a  son  of  David,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1575.  He  was  distinguished  for  learning, 
and  was  author  of  some  polemical  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1611. 

Powell,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatist, 
wrote  "Alphonso,"a  tragedy.  Died  in  1714. 

PSw'ell,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  historical  painter, 
born  in  New  York  in  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
Discovery  of  the  Mississippi." 

Powell,  (GRIFFITH,)  was  born  in  Wales  in  1561. 
He  became  principal  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1620. 

Powell,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  British  judge,  noted  for  his 
honesty,  was  born  in  Carmarthenshire.  He  was  de 
prived  of  office  by  James  II.  about  1688  for  his  conduct 
in  the  trial  of  the  seven  bishops.  Died  in  1696. 

Powell,  (  WILLIAM,)  an  English  actor,  who  performed 
with  success  at  Drury  Lane  from  1763  until  1767.  Died 
in  1769. 

Powell,  (WILLIAM  SAMUEL,)  an  English  parson, 
born  at  Colchester  in  1717,  became  archdeacon  of  that 
place  about  1766.  Died  in  1775. 

PSw'er,  (TYRONE,)  an  Irish  comic  actor,  born  in  the 
county  of  Waterford  in  1795.  He  performed  in  the 
United  States  in  1840,  and  took  passage  in  the  steamer 
President,  which  left  New  York  in  March,  1841,  and 
was  never  heard  of  afterwards. 

F6w'ers,  (HiRAM,)  an  eminent  American  sculptor, 
born  at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  in  1805.  Having  re 
moved  to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  he  employed  himself  for  a 
time  in  modelling  busts  in  plaster,  and  subsequently 
engaged  in  the  same  occupation  at  Washington.  In 
1837  he  was  enabled  to  visit  Italy,  where  he  has  resided 
many  years.  His  statue  of  "  Eve"  was  exhibited  in  1838, 
and  was  at  once  acknowledged  as  a  master-piece.  It 
was  followed  soon  after  by  his  "Greek  Slave,"  which 
became  widely  celebrated  and  has  placed  the  artist  in 
the  first  rank  of  living  sculptors.  Among  his  other 
works  may  be  named  "II  Penseroso,"  "The  Fisher- 
Boy,"  "California,"  "America,"  statues  of  Washington 
and  Calhoun,  and  busts  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall, 
Adams,  Webster,  and  Van  Buren. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  "Living  Age"  for 
October,  1847,  by  EIJWARD  EVERETT. 

Pbw'hat-aii',  an  Indian  sachem  who  ruled  over  a 
tract  of  country  in  the  vicinity  of  James  River,  Virginia. 
Died  in  1618.  (See  POCAHONTAS.) 

F6w'is,  (WILLIAM  HERBERT,)  EARL  OF,  an  English 
peer,  who  in  his  youth  fought  for  Charles  I.  against  the 
Parliament.  He  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  aristocracy.  He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council 
in  1686,  and,  according  to  Macaulay,  gave  James  II. 
judicious  and  patriotic  advice. 

Powlett.     See  PAWLETT  and  PA  u LET. 

Pbw'nall,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  governor  and  an 
tiquary,  born  at  Lincoln  in  1722.  He  became  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  1757,  and  of  New  Jersey  in 
1759.  He  returned  to  England  in  1761.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  Pro- 
vincia  Romana  of  Gaul,"  (1788.)  Died  at  Bath  in  1805. 

Poyet,  pwa'yi',  (BERNARD,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1742;  died  at  Paris  in  1824. 

Poy'net  or  Po'net,  (JOHN,)  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Kent  about  1516,  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the 
Reformation.  He  became  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1549, 
and  Bishop  of  Winchester  in  1551.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  book  called  "  King  Edward's  Catechism," 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  it,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POrKINGS 


1835 


PR4SLIN 


(1553.)  Having  gone  into  exile  on  the  accession  of  Mary, 
in  1553,  lie  died  at  Strasburg  in  1556. 

Poyn'ings,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  English  gentleman, 
who  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  performed  an  important 
part  in  the  suppression  of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  which 
Desmond  and  Kildare  were  the  leaders.  Died  in  1512. 

Pozharski  or  Fojarski,  po-zhaR'skee,  (D.MUKI,) 
PRINCK,  a  Russian  general,  born  in  1578,  drove  out  the 
Poles  from  Moscow  in  1612.  He  is  called  by  Prince 
A.  Gallitsin  "  one  of  the  most  popular  heroes  of  Russia.'7 
Died  in  1642. 

See  MALINOWSKY,  "Life  of  Pozharski,"  (in  Russian,)  1817. 

Pozzetti,  pot-set'tee,  (PoMPiuo,)  a  Florentine  writer 
of  biography,  etc.,  born  in  1769;  died  in  1816. 

Pozzi,  pot'see,  (  GIOVANNI  BATTTSTA,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan,  flourished  about  1585.  Died  at 
the  age  of  tsventy-eight. 

Pozzi,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  poet  and  physician, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1695  ;  died  in  1752. 

Pozzo,  pot'so,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  born  at  Trent  in  1642,  was  a  Jesuit.  He 
excelled  in  colouring  and  perspective,  and  adorned  the 
ceiling  of  Sant'  Ignazio,  Rome,  with  pictures,  which 
are  commended.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Per 
spective,"  (2  vols.,  1693-1702.)  Died  at  Vienna  in  1709. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  MILIZIA,  "  Memorie 
degli  Architetti." 

Pozzo,  (MoDESTA.)     See  FONTE,  (MODERATA.) 

Pozzo,  dal,  dal  pot'so,  (CASSIANO,)  an  Italian  an 
tiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  1584.  He  formed  at  Rome  a 
rich  cabinet  of  antiquities,  and  was  a  friend  and  patron 
of  X.  Poussin.  Died  in  1657. 

Pozzo,  dal,  (FEKDINANDO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  lawyer 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1768.  He  was 
elected  to  the  French  legislative  body  in  1803,  and  be 
came  first  president  of  the  imperial  court  at  Genoa  in 
1809.  Died  at  Turin  in  1843. 

Pozzo,  dal,  (GiKOLAMo,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  archi 
tect,  born  at  Verona  in  1718,  was  a  skilful  amateur. 

Pozzo  di  Borgo,  pot'so  de   boR'go,  (CARLO  AN 
DREA,)  an  eminent  diplomatist,  born  at  or  near  Ajaccio, 
in  Corsica,  in  1764.     He  entered   the  service   of  Paoli 
about  1790,  and  was  elected  to  the  French   Legislative 
Assembly  in  1791.     He  was   secretary  of  state   in   the 
new  government  formed  by  Paoli  in  1793.     In  1803  he 
entered   the  service  of  Russia,  and   devoted  himself  to 
diplomacy,  for  which  he  was  qualified  by  his  penetration 
and   address.     He    performed   a  mission   to   Vienna  in 
1804  or  1805,  and  another  to  Turkey  in  1807.     He  re 
garded  Napoleon  as  a  personal  enemy,  and  contributed 
to  his  overthrow.     In  1813  he  took  a  prominent  part  at  I 
the   Congress  of  Frankfort,  and  composed  the  famous  I 
declaration  of  the  allies.     He  acted  as  Russian  commis-  i 
sioner  with   the  army  of  the  allies  in  1815,  and  signed  ', 
the   treaty  of  Paris.      He   was   Russian  ambassador  at  ! 
Paris  from  1815  to  1835.     Died  in  1842. 

See  Yl'HRER,  "Notice  biographique  sur  Poz/.o  di  Borgo,"  1842; 
CAPKFIGI'E,  ''  Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  Comte  Pozzo  di  Borgo,"  1844  ; 
LAMARTIXE,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pradel,  de,  deh  pRt'del',  (PIERRE  MARIE  MICHEL 
COUTRAY,)  a  French  poet  and  improvisateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1787.  He  produced  many  short  poems.  Died 
at  Brussels  in  1857. 

Pradier,  pri'de-i',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  sculptor  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1792.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  (at  Paris)  in  1813,  and  studied  | 
at  Rome  for  five  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1827.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  soft 
ness  and  grace.  His  imagination  was  vivid,  his  design 
correct,  his  execution  good  ;  and  with  more  elevation  of 
stvle  he  would  have  raised  himself  to  the  highest  rank 
of'  French  sculptors.  Among  his  best  works  are  a 
"  Psyche,"  (1824,)  "The  Three  Graces,"  (1831,)  a  mar 
ble  group  of  "Venus  and  Cupid,"  (1836,)  and  a  marble 
statue  of  Sappho,  (1852.)  Died  near  Paris  in  1852. 

See  GEORGE  BELL,  "Pradier,"  Paris,  1852;  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phie  Generale." 

Prado,  pRa'oo,  (IcNAClo,)  a  Peruvian  general,  was 
appointed  president  or  dictator  of  Peru  about  the  end 
of  1865. 


Prado,  del,  del  pRa'Do,  (BLAS,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1544,  was  patronized  by  Philip  II. 
Died  about  1605. 

Pradon,  pxa'doN',  (NICOLAS,)  a  mediocre  French 
tragic  poet,  born  at  Rouen  in  1632.  He  produced  in 
1674  "  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,"  and  attempted  to  rival 
Racine  in  "  Phedre  et  Hippolyte,"  (1677,)  which  was 
applauded  by  a  certain  party  or  cabale.  Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pradt,  de,  deh  pRat,  (Abbe  DOMINIQUE  DUFOUR,)  a 
French  diplomatist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Auvergne 
in  1759.  He  became  almoner  of  Xapoleon  about  1804, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers  in  1805,  and  Archbishop  of  Malines 
in  1808.  In  1812  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Warsaw, 
and,  according  to  some  writers,  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  Xapoleon,  with  whom  he  had  a  curious  conversation 
during  his  retreat  from  Moscow.  He  published  many 
political  and  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Embassy  to  Warsaw,"  (1815.)  Died  in  1837. 

See  QUERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  tor  January,  1816  ; 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxx.,  1816,  (Appendix.) 

Praed,  prad,  (Wi.viHROP  MACKAVOKTH,)  an  English 
poet  and  lawyer,  born  in  London  in  1802.  He  was  the 
chief  contributor  to  "  The  Etonian,"  a  monthly  paper 
issued  in  1820;  after  which  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  gained  prizes  for  the  Greek  ode  and 
epigram,  and  for  English  poems,  entitled  "  Australia," 
(1823,)  and  "Athens,"  (1824.)  In  1829  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  about  1830, 
opposed  the  Reform  bill,  and  was  re-elected  in  1835. 
lie  became  a  successful  debater  and  a  zealous  conserva 
tive.  Died  in  1839.  His  poems  are  highly  commended 
for  wit  and  elegance. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1865;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  1866. 

Praet,  van,  vin  ptlt,  (JOSEPH  BASILE  BERNARD,)  a 
Belgian  bibliographer,  born  at  Bruges  in  1754.  He 
became  in  1784  an  assistant  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris. 
About  1795  Van  Praet  and  Capperonnier  were  appointed 
keepers  of  the  same.  He  published  a  "  Catalogue  of 
the  Books  printed  on  Vellum  in  the  Royal  Library," 
(5  vols.,  1822-28.)  Died  in  1837. 

See  DAI;  NOW,  "  Notice  sur  Van  Praet;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Frajapati,  pra-ja'pa-ti,  [from  the  Sanscrit  prdjd, 
"people,"  or  the  "world,"  and  pati,  "master,"]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  a  title  given  to  certain  divine  per 
soiiages,  called  also  BRAH.MADIKAS,  among  whom  are 
Marichi,  Bhrigu,  Daksha,  and  Narada. 

See  WILSON,  "Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Pram,  pRam,  (CHRISTIAN  HENRIKSEN,)  a  distin 
guished  litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Guldbrands- 
clal,  in  Norway,  in  1756.  He  founded  at  Copenhagen, 
conjointly  with  Rahbek,  the  periodical  entitled  "  The 
Minerva,"  and  in  1811  became  president  of  the  Scandi 
navian  Literary  Society.  Among  his  principal  works, 
which  are  written  in  Danish,  are  "Emilias  Kilde,"  a 
poem,  (1782,)  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Starkodder," 
(1785,)  and  the  tragedy  of  "Damon  and  Pythias."  He 
also  published  several  treatises  on  political  economy 
and  statistics.  His  genius  and  character  are  eulogized 
by  Oehlenschlager.  Died  in  1821. 

See  ERSI.EW,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon  ;"  J  K.  HOEST,  "  C.  H.  Pram  : 
biografisk  Onirids,"  1820  ;  HOWITT,  "  Literature  and  Romance  of 
Northern  Europe." 

Piarond,  pRt'rAN',  (ERNEST,)  a  French  writer  of 
verses,  fiction,  etc.,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1821. 

Praslin,  de,  deh  pRi'lax',  (CESAR  GAHRIEL  de 
Choiseul — deh  shwa'zul',)  Due,  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  1712,  was  a  cousin  of  the  Due 
de  Choiseul.  He  obtained  in  1748  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1760,  and 
minister  of  the  marine  in  1766.  He  was  removed  in 
1770.  Died  in  1785. 

See  COXUORCET,  "  FJoge  du  Due  de  Praslin." 

Praslin  de  Choiseul,  prt'la.\'  deh  shwa'zul', 
(CHARLES  RAYNARD  LAURE  FELIX,)  Due,  a  French 
peer,  born  in  Paris  in  1778  ;  died  in  1841. 

See  NESTOR  ARONSSOHN,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Due  de  Praslin," 
1844- 


€as£;  9 as  s;  ghard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  \nthis.     (E^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRAT 


i3;6 


PRENTICE 


Prat,  du.     See  DUPRAT. 

Prati,  pRi'tee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Uascindo,  in  the  province  of  Trent,  in  1815.  He 
composed  "  Edmenegarda,"  a  poem,  (1841,)  which  was 
received  with  favour.  Among  his  other  popular  poems 
are  "A  Hymn  to  Italy,"  "The  Song  of  the  Future," 
"Rodolfo,"  and  "Count  Riga,"  ("11  Conte  Riga,"  1856.) 
In  1861  he  published  a  poem  called  "  Ariberto,"  (2  vols.) 

Pratilli,  pRa-tel'lee,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Capua  about  1700;  died  about  1766. 

Frat'i-nas,  [Ilparivac,]  an  Athenian  dramatic  and 
lyric  poet,  lived  about  500  B.C.,  and  made  an  improve 
ment  in  the  tragic  art.  He  is  regarded  by  some  as  the 
inventor  of  the  satiric  drama. 

Pratt,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American  judge,  born  at  Bos 
ton  in  1709.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and 
became  chief  justice  of  New  York.  Died  in  1763. 

Pratt,  (CALVIN  E.,)'an  American  lawyer  and  soldier, 
born  near  Worcester,  Massachusetts:,  in  1828.  He 
practised  law  for  a  time  in  New  York  City,  and  in  1861 
commanded  the  Thirty-first  regiment  of  New  York 
volunteers  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  became 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  soon  after  the  battle  of 


Antietam. 

Pratt,  (CHARLES.) 


See  CAMDEN,  EARL  OF. 


Pratt,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1771, 
served  in  the  Peninsular  war  at  Vitoria,  Nivelles,  Or- 
thes,  etc.  Died  in  1839. 

Pratt,  (SAMUEL  JACKSON,)  an  English  poet  and  novel 
ist,  born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1749.  He  published, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  COURTNKY  MKLMOTH, 
"  Sympathy,"  and  other  poems,  and  several  successful 
novels,  among  which  are  "The  Pupil  of  Pleasure," 
(1779,)  and  "Emma  Corbett,"  (1781.)  Died  in  i8[4. 

Praun,  von,  fon  pRown,  (GEORG  ANDREAS  SEPTI 
MUS,)  BARON,  a  German  numismatist,  born  in  Vienna  in 
1701.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Coins  or  Numis 
matics,"  (1739.)  Died  in  1786. 

Prax-ag'o-ras,  [Hpafajopac,]  an  eminent  Greek  phy 
sician  of  Cos,  lived  about  300  n.c.  He  was  noted  for  his 
skill  in  anatomy,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who 


Pray,  pi<oi,  (GEORGE,)  a  Hungarian  historian,  born  at 
Presburg  in  1723  or  1724.  He  published  "  Annals  of  the 
Ancient  Huns,"  ("  Annales  veterum  Hunnorum,"  1761,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Hungary  from  997  to  1564,"  (5  vols., 
1764-70.)  Died  in  1801. 

Freau.     See  DUPREAU. 

Preault,  pRa'o',  (AUGUSTE,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1809.  Among  his  works  are  a  bust  of  N. 
Poussin  in  the  Louvre,  Charlemagne,  (1836,)  and  "Ophe 
lia,"  a  bas-relief,  (1849.) 

Preble,  preb'l,  (EDWARD,)  a  celebrated  American 
commodore,  born  in  Maine  in  1761.  Having  been  made 
a  captain  in  1799,  he  sailed  in  the  Essex  to  Batavia, 
whence  he  convoyed  home  a  fleet  of  fourteen  merchant- 
vessels.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  to  command  a 
squadron  sent  against  Tripoli,  having  for  his  flag-ship 
the  Constitution.  He  attacked  the  batteries  and  gnn- 
boats  which  defended  Tripoli  several  times  in  August 
and  September,  1804.  He  captured  three  gun-boats, 
and  sunk  four  others.  For  these  services  he  received  a 
gold  medal  from  Congress.  Died  in  1807. 

See  SPARKS,  "American  Biography;"  "National  Portrait-Gal 
lery  ot  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Precipiano,  di,  de  pRa-che-pe-a'no,  (  HUMBERT 
GUILLAUME,)  COUNT,  a  prelate,  born  at  Besanjon  in 
1626.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Malines  in  1690,  and 
was  an  opponent  of  Quesnel.  Died  in  1711. 

Precy,  de,  deb.  pRa'se',  (Louis  FRANCOIS  Perrin — 
pi'uaN'',)  COMTE,  an  able  French  general,  born  near 
Semur  in  1742.  He  was  chosen  general-in-chief  by  the 
insurgents  of  Lyons  who  revolted  against  the  Conven 
tion  in  1793.  He  defended  Lyons  for  about  sixty  days 
against  the  besieging  army,  and  escaped  to  Switzerland. 
Died  in  1820. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  pRTs'ler,  (GEORG  MARTIN,)  a 
German  engraver  and  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1700;  died  in  1754. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (JOHANN  DANIEL,)  a  German 
painter  and  designer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1665.  Died  in  1737. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  an  engraver, 


explained  the  difference  between  veins  and  arteries.    He    born  at  Copenhagen  in  1757,  was  a  son  of  fohann  Justin! 

wrote  sevpmi   vvnrL-Q    nt    which  rmlv  i   ff\\r  fmrrti\£kt\ta    it-**      *.•     .  .1  i     i  TV      i   •         ,-,    n  J 


wrote  several  works,  ot"  which  only  a  few  fragments  are 
extant.  Among  his  pupils  was  Herophilus. 

See  SPRENGEI.,  "  Histoire  de  la  Medecine." 

Prax-il'la,  \Tlpu^iA^a,]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at 
Sicyon,  lived  about  450  K.c.  Her  works  are  lost. 

Fraxiphane.     See  PRAXIPHAM.S. 


Prax-iph'a-ne§,  [Gr. 


Fr.  PRAXIPHANE, 


--,        .  .  , 

pRtksVftn',]   a  Greek  philosopher,  born   at   Mitylene, 
was  a  pupil  of  Theophrastus,  and  a  teacher  of  Epicurus. 


See  PKELLER,  "De  Praxiphane,"    1842 

Fraxitele.     See  PRAXITELES. 
Prax-it'e-les,     [  Gr. 


Fr.    PRAXITELE, 


pRiksVtil',]  one  of  the  greatest  of  Grecian  sculptors, 
flourished  about  360  B.C.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  He  was  probably  a  contemporary 
of  Apelles,  and  an  Athenian.  According  to  Pausanias, 
he  lived  three  generations  after  Alcamenes.  The  name 
of  his  master  has  not  been  preserved.  Praxiteles  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  a  school,  or  the  author  of  a 
new  style  of  art.  Ancient  writers  represent  him  as  cele 
brated  for  refinement  and  softness  of  contour,  grace  in 
attitude,  and  delicacy  in  the  expression  of  tender  affec 
tions.  Cicero  considered  the  expression  which  animated 
the  heads  of  Praxiteles  as  one  of  the  most  admirable 
and  difficult  results  which  human  skill  could  attain. 
Among  his  best  works  in  bronze  were  a  statue  of  Bac 
chus,  a  Satyr  or  Faun,  and  a  statue  of  Apollo,  called 
"  Sauroctonos."  An  ancient  copy  (in  marble)  of  the  last 
work  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  His  master-piece  was 
a  marble  statue  of  Venus  (of  Cnidos)  without  drapery, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople  about  475 
A.D.  No  work  of  Grecian  sculptors,  except  the  Jupiter 
of  Phidias,  appears  to  have  been  so  celebrated  as  this 
Venus  of  Cnidos.  He  produced  also  a  statue  of  Venus 
draped,  and  a  marble  statue  of  Cupid,  which  was  praised 
by  Pliny.  He  was  one  of  the  lovers  of  the  celebrated 
courtesan  Phryne. 

See  PLINY,  "  Natural  History ;"  K.  O.    MtJLLER,  "  Archaologie 
der  Kunst ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 


noticed  below.     Died  in  1808. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (JOHANN  JUSTIN,)  an  engraver 
and  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1698,  was  a  brother 
of  Georg  Martin,  noticed  above.  He  etched  some  works 
of  Rubens.  Died  in  1771. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (JOHANN  MARTIN,)  a  skilful 
engraver,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nu 
remberg  in  1715-  He  was  appointed  court  engraver  at 
Copenhagen,  to  which  he  removed  in  1744.  His  en 
graving  of  "  Frederick  V.  on  Horseback"  is  esteemed 
a  master-piece.  He  executed  some  works  of  Raphael 
and  other  masters.  Died  in  1794. 


Preissler.     See  PREISLEK. 
Preller,    pRel'ler,    (  LUDWIG,  ) 


a    German    classical 


scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1809.  He 
became  professor  at  Jena  in  1846.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "History  of  Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy,"  (1838,) 
and  a  "Greek  Mythology,"  (2  vols.,  1854.)  Died  in  1861. 

Premare,  pRi'mta',  (JOSEPH  HENRI,)  a  French  mis 
sionary,  born  about  1670.  He  went  to  China  in  1698, 
and  studied  Chinese  literature  with  success.  He  wrote 
"  Account  of  the  Chinese  Language,"  ("Notitia  Linguae 
Sinicae,")  and  "  Letters  on  China."  Died  at  Peking 
about  1735. 

Premontval,  pRa/m6N/vSK,  the  assumed  name  of 
ANDRE  PIERRE  LE  GUAY,  (gi,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Charenton  in  1716.  He  removed  to  Berlin  in  1752,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
that  city.  He  wrote  "  Monogamy,"  ("  La  Monogamie," 
3  vols.,  1751,)  and  other  works.  'Died  in  1764. 

Premier,  von,  fon  pRen'ner,  (ANTON  JOSEPH,)  a  Ger 
man  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Wallerstein  in  1683. 
He  engraved  the  pictures  of  the  Belvedere  gallery  of 
Vienna.  Died  in  1743. 

Premier,  von,  (GEORG  CASPAR,)  a'  painter  and  en 
graver,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1708. 
He  worked  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1766. 

Prentice,  pren'tiss,  (GEORGE  DENISON,)  an  American 
poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Preston,  Connecticut,  in 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y\  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  ail,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PRENTISS 


1837 


PRESCOTT 


1802,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1823.  He 
founded  in  1828  "The  New  England  Review,"  and, 
having  removed  to  Kentucky,  became  in  1831  editor  of 
the  "  Louisville  Journal,"  which  soon  acquired  the  repu 
tation  of  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  brilliant  journals 
in  the  country.  He  published  a  number  of  small  poems 
of  great  beauty.  A  collection  of  his  witticisms,  entitled 
"  Prenticeana,"  appeared  in  1860.  Died  in  1870. 

See  GRISWOI.D,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Pren'tiss,  (BENJAMIN  M.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Wood  county,  Virginia,  in  1819.  He  became  a  citi 
zen  of  Illinois  about  1842,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1861.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Shiloh,  April 
6,  1862.  About  July  3,  1863,  he  defeated  Generals  Holmes 
and  Price,  who  attacked  him  at  Helena,  Arkansas. 

Prentiss,  (SERGEANT  SMITH,)  an  American  orator, 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1808.  He  studied  law,  and 
became  about  1832  a  resident  of  Vicksburg,  Mississippi, 
where  he  practised  with  success.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Whigs  in  1837.  In  1840  he 
advocated  the  election  of  General  Harrison  by  several 
public  speeches.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator,  and  as  an  advocate  in  jury-trials  was  equal  or 
superior  to  any  lawyer  in  the  Southwestern  States. 
Died  near  Natchez  in  1850. 

See  a  '•  Memoir  of  S.  S.  Prentiss,"  by  his  brother,  1855. 

Pres'cott,  (GEORGE,)  COLONEL,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Littleton,  Massachusetts,  in  1829.  He  served 
as  colonel  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  and  at  the  great 
battles  in  Virginia  in  Slay,  1864.  He  was  killed  near 
Petersburg,  June  18,  1864. 

Frescott,  (OLIVER,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  patriot  of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Groton,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1731.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the 
Revolutionary  war.  Died  in  1804. 

Prescott,  (OLIVER,)  an  American  physician,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1762.  He  practised  at  Gro 
ton,  and  wrote  several  medical  treatises.  Died  in  1827. 

Prescott,  (WILLIAM,)  COLONEL,  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Groton,  Massachusetts,  in 
1 725,  was  a  brother  of  Oliver,  noticed  above.  He  fought 
with  distinguished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill, 
where  he  appears  to  have  had  the  chief  command,  and 
in  other  important  engagements.  Died  in  1795. 

Prescott,  (WILLIAM,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Pepperell  in  1762.  He 
was  appointed  in  1818  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  legal  attainments. 
He  was  the  father  of  William  H.  Prescott,  the  historian. 
Died  in  1844. 

Prescott,  (  WILLIAM  HICKLING,)  an  eminent  American 
historian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  grandson  of  Colonel 
Prescott  who  commanded  at  Bunker  Hill,  was  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  4th  of  May,  1 796.    Both  his 
parents  were  remarkable  for  their  high  moral  qualities. 
His  father  was  distinguished  for  his  manly  beauty,  as 
well  as  for  the  dignity  and  gentleness  of  his  character,  i 
His  mother,  originally  Miss  Catherine  Greene  Hickling, 
was  a  woman  of  great  energy,  vivacity,  and  active  be 
nevolence  ;  and  to  her  influence  her  son  appears  to  have 
owed  not  only  much  of  the  happiness  of  his  life,  but  also  \ 
some  of  those  admirable  moral  traits  which  formed  the  ! 
crowning  ornament  to  his  rare  intellectual  endowments,  j 
In  the  summer  of  1808  his  father  removed  to  Boston,  ! 
and  the  following  autumn  sent  his  son  to  what  was  then 
regarded  as  the  best  classical  school  in  New  England.    It  ' 
was  kept  by  Dr.  Gardiner,  an  excellent  scholar,  who  had 
been  educated  in  England  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Parr,  j 
In  1811   young  Prescott  entered   the  Sophomore  class  \ 
at  Harvard  College.     In  his  knowledge  of  Greek  and  i 
Latin  he  was  far  in  advance  of  most  of  the  members  of  | 
his  class;  but  he  had  no  fondness  for  mathematics,  and  : 
never  attained  any  proficiency  in  mathematical  studies.  ! 
During  his  Junior  year  at  college  an  accident  befell  him 
which  was  destined  to  influence  the  whole  of  his  subse-  \ 
quent  life.     One  day  in  the  Commons   Hall,  while  the  | 
students — as  too  often  happened  after  the  professors  had  | 
left  the  table — were  indulging  in  a  rnde  frolic,  Prescott 
rose  to  go  out  of  the  room,  but,  attracted  by  the  tumult 
behind   him,  suddenly  turned   his  head  to  see  what  it  j 
was.     At  that  instant  a  hard  piece  of  bread,  thrown  at  j 


random,  struck  him  on  his  left  eye,  which,  under  the 
peculiar  circumstances,  having  no  warning,  was  open, 
so  that  nothing — not  even  the  eyelid — was  interposed 
to  mitigate  the  blow.  He  instantly  fell  prostrate  and 
powerless,  as  if  the  brain  itself  had  received  a  severe 
concussion.  After  some  weeks  he  was  able  to  resume 
his  studies ;  but  the  sight  of  his  left  eye — though  this 
was  to  appearance  unchanged — was  gone  forever. 

This  early  misfortune,  while  it  tended  to  check  his 
somewhat  exuberant  vivacity,  far  from  discouraging  him 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  studies,  seemed  to  excite  in  him 
a  more  earnest  and  determined  resolution  to  become 
a  respectable  scholar.  He  graduated  in  August,  1814, 
and  soon  after  commenced  the  study  of  law.  But  the 
excessive  use  of  his  remaining  eye  induced  a  severe 
inflammation  in  the  organ,  followed  by  opacity  of  the 
cornea,  so  that  for  some  weeks  the  power  of  vision  was 
completely  lost. 

Among  the  many  interesting  and  admirable  traits 
in  Mr.  Prescott's  character,  perhaps  none  is  more  re 
markable  than  the  invincible  cheerfulness  and  heroic 
resignation  with  which  he  bore  the  frequent  and  severe 
suffering  and  the  life-long  privations  to  which  he  was 
subjected  in  consequence  of  the  injury  of  his  sight. 

In  the  hope  of  improving  his  general  health,  which 
had  been  seriously  impaired  by  confinement,  and  also  of 
indirectly  benefiting  his  eyes,  he  was  induced  to  under 
take  a  voyage  to  Europe.  He  set  out  in  the  autumn  of 
1815.  He  remained  abroad  nearly  two  years,  visiting 
England,  France,  and  Italy.  His  sight,  though  not 
strong  enough  to  permit  him  to  read  much,  seems  to 
have  been  sufficient  to  give  him  a  vivid  enjoyment  of 
the  various  scenes  and  places  through  which  he  trav 
elled  ;  but  his  health  appears  not  to  have  been  benefited 
by  his  foreign  tour,  and  in  the  summer  of  1817  he  re 
turned  to  his  native  country.  He  now  decided  to  aban 
don  the  law  and  devote  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
His  eye,  however,  was  so  irritable  and  feeble  that  he  was 
obliged  to  pass  much  of  his  time  in  a  darkened  room, 
with  barely  light  enough  to  admit  of  some  one  reading 
to  him, — this  being  now  his  only  means  of  cultivating 
an  acquaintance  with  his  favourite  authors. 

In  May,  1820,  Mr.  Prescott  was  married  to  Miss  Susan 
Amory  ;  and  the  union  appears  to  have  been  a  singularly 
happy  one.  About  1821  he  commenced  a  systematic 
course  of  reading,  (by  the  ear,)  which  was  to  embrace 
the  works  of  the  best  English  prose  writers  from  Roger 
Ascham  to  the  present  day,  and  afterwards  the  best 
productions  of  the  literatures  of  France  and  Italy.  He 
appears  to  have  enjoyed  with  a  peculiar  zest  the  great 
works  of  Italian  genius,  and  especially  the  "  Divina  Coin- 
media"  of  Dante.  He  seems  to  have  taken  less  delight 
in  the  celebrated  authors  of  France,  though  he  admired 
Montaigne  and  Pascal,  and,  above  all,  La  Fontaine  and 
Moliere.  In  the  autumn  of  1824  he  commenced  in 
earnest  the  study  of  that  magnificent  language  and  lite 
rature  which  have  been  immortalized  by  the  genius  of 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Cervantes.  "  This,"  says  Mr.  Tick- 
nor,  "  was  the  opening  of  the  Spanish  campaign,  which 
ended  only  with  his  life."  He  had  at  one  time  enter 
tained  the  design  of  writing  a  sort  of  general  history 
ot  Italian  literature  ;  but  this  was  now  abandoned  for 
labour  in  a  different  field.  After  "long  choosing,"  to 
adopt  the  words  of  Milton,  "and  beginning  late,"  he  at 
last  decided,  in  January,  1826,  to  write  the  "  History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  which,  eleven  years  later,  was 
published,  in  three  8vo  volumes,  simultaneously  in  Bos 
ton  and  in  London.  The  success  of  the  work  was  of  the 
most  flattering  kind,  and  at  once  placed  him  in  the  very 
highest  rank  of  contemporary  historians.  After  six 
years  of  additional  labour,  appeared  his  "  Conquest  of 
Mexico,"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1843.)  Four  years  afterwards  he 
gave  the  world  his  "  Conquest  of  Peru,"  (2  vols.  8vo.) 
In  1845  appeared  a  volume  of  his  "Miscellanies,"  con 
sisting  of  contributions  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 
In  1850  he  made  a  short  visit  to  Europe.  Soon  after  his 
return  he  commenced  the  "  History  of  the  Reign  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  a  work  which  he  did  not  live  to 
complete,  although  the  first  three  volumes  were  published 
in  his  lifetime,  the  first  two  having  appeared  in  1855, 
the  third  in  1858.  The  entire  work  was  designed  to 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  x,  nasal:  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRESL 


1838 


PREflLLE 


be  included  in  6  vols.  8vo.  The  third  volume  was  pub 
lished  in  the  summer  of  1858,  after  the  occurrence  of 
his  first  slight  apoplectic  attack,  (February  4,  1858,)  from 
which  he  seemed  speedily  to  recover.  He  resumed  his 
literary  labours,  but  was  forced  to  limit  himself  to  the 
lightest  kind  of  work  ;  and  he  never  afterwards  had  that 
enjoyment  in  his  studies  which  he  had  experienced  in 
previous  years.  On  the  28th  of  January,  1859,  he  was 
seized  with  a  second  attack  of  apoplexy,  of  which  he 
died  in  about  three  hours. 

In  person  Mr.  Prescott  was  tall  and  well  formed,  with 
light-brown  hair,  a  fine  clear  complexion,  and  an  ex 
pression  of  countenance  singularly  bright,  genial,  and 
attractive.  "  His  smile,"  says  Mr.  Ticknor,  "  was  abso 
lutely  the  most  contagious  I  ever  looked  upon."  His 
disposition  was  in  the  highest  degree  social,  generous, 
and  kindly.  "  Indeed,  take  him  for  all  in  all,"  says  Mr. 
Ticknor,  "  I  think  no  man  ever  walked  our  streets,  as 
he  did  day  by  day,  that  attracted  such  regard  and  good 
will  from  so  many  ;  for,  however  few  he  might  know, 
there  were  very  many  that  knew  him,  and  watched  him 
with  unspoken  welcomes  as  he  passed  along." 

Mr.  Prescott's  merits  as  a  historian  are  of  the  very 
highest  order.  In  vigour  of  thought  and  in  grandeur  of 
style  he  has  undoubtedly  been  surpassed  by  many  of 
the  great  masters  of  historical  composition  ;  but  he  pos 
sessed  other  qualities,  which,  if  less  imposing,  are  far 
more  essential  to  the  character  of  a  perfect  historian. 
In  that  spirit  of  thorough  research  which  never  rests 
satisfied  until  every  field  has  been  explored  and  every 
accessible  source  of  information  consulted  and  ex 
hausted,  he  has  had  few  if  any  superiors  ;  while  in  that 
impartiality  which  proceeds  from  a  high  and  scrupulous 
sense  of  justice  and  unswerving  devotion  to  truth,  he 
has  perhaps  never  been  equalled — certainly  never  sur 
passed — by  any  historian,  of  whatever  age  or  country. 
His  style,  moreover,  is  for  the  most  part  remarkable  for 
its  animation,  clearness,  and  grace  ;  and  in  the  general 
treatment  of  his  subject  he  exhibits  in  an  eminent  de 
gree  the  "  eloquence"  and  "  lucid  order"  which  the  great 
poet-critic  of  ancient  Rome  tells  us  will  not  be  wanting 
to  him  who  knows  how  to  choose  his  subject  wisely.* 

(For  the  opinions  of  various  eminent  critics  on  the 
works  of  Mr.  Prescott,  the  reader  is  particularly  re 
ferred  to  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors.") 

See,  also,  the  admirable  "  Life  of  William  Hickling  Prescott."  by 
GEORGE  TICKNOR,  Boston,  18-4;  R.  W.  GRISWOLU,  "Prose  Writers 
of  America;"  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  ii.  ;  "  New  American  Cyc'opjedia ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  December,  1843,  and  September,  1847  ;  •'  North  American 
Review'"  for  January,  1864. 

Presl,  pR&sl,  (JAN  SVVATOPI.UK,)  a  Bohemian  botanist, 
born  at  Prague  in  1791.  He  wrote  "  Symbolas  Uotanicas," 
(1832,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1849. 

Fresle,  de,  deh  pR§1,  (CMARI.KS  MARIK.  WI.ADIMIR 
BRUNET,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1809. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Critical  Inquiry 
into  the  Succession  of  Egyptian  Dynasties,"  (1850,)  and 
"  Greece  since  the  Roman  Conquest,"  ("  La  Grece  depuis 
la  Conquete  Romaine,"  1859.) 

Pressense,  de,  deh  pRi'sfix'sa',  (Emioxn,)  an  emi 
nent  French  Protestant  divine  and  pulpit  orator  of  the 
present  age.  Among  his  works  are  a  "History  of  the 
First  Three  Centuries  of  the  Church,"  "The  Religions 
before  Christ :  being  an  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  First  Three  Centuries  of  the  Church,"  (1862,)  and 
"Jesus  Christ:  his  Times,  Life,  and  Work,"  (1866.) 
The  second  and  third  of  these  have  been  translated  into 
English.  With  respect  to  faith  he  is  evangelical. 

Prestel,  pReVtel,  (Jon ANN  GOTTLIKB.)  a  German 
engraver  and  portrait-painter,  born  at  Griinbach,  in 
Suabia,  in  1739.  He  worked  at  Nuremberg  for  some 
years.  Died  in  1808. 

Fres'ter  John  or  Joao,  [Fr.  LE  PRETRE  JEAN, 
leh  pratR  zhox,]  ("the  Priest  form,")  the  title  of  an 
imaginary  personage  whom  the  Europeans  of  the  middle 
ages  supposed  to  reign  in  the  interior  of  Asia  and  to 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  Rubruquis,  a  friar, 
was  sent  by  Louis  IX.  of  France  to  search  for  Prester 

*_"  Cui  lecta  potenter  erit  res, 
Non  facundia  deseret  hunc,  nee  hicidns  ordo." 

HORACE  :  De  A  rte  Poctica. 


John,  in  1253,  and  explored  Central  Tartary,  but  did  not 
rind  him.  The  general  belief  in  his  existence  originated 
perhaps  in  a  report  of  some  Nestorian  missionaries  that 
Oong,  (or  Oungh,)  a  Khan  of  Tartary,  had  been  con 
verted  by  them. 

See  S.  BARING-GOUI.D,  "Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Prestet,  pri'ti',  QKAN,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
at  Chalons-sur*Saone  in  1648;  died  in  1690. 

Pres'ton,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
Puritan,  born  at  Heyford,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1587. 
adopted  Calvinistic  opinions.  He  was  chosen  master  of 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  about  1622.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Covenant,"  and  other 
works.  By  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  he 
obtained  the  lectureship  of  Trinity  Church,  Cambridge. 
According  to  Fuller,  he  was  "an  excellent  preacher,  a 
celebrated  disputant,  and  a  perfect  politician."  Died 
in  1628. 

Pres'ton,  (JOHN  S.,)  an  American  politician,  brother 
of  W.  C.  Preston,  was  born  near  Abingdon,  Virginia,  in 
1809.  lie  removed  to  South  Carolina,  where  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature.  Soon  after  the  election 
of  Mr.  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency,  he  joined  the  seces 
sionists. 

Preston,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  a 
Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge.  He  wrote  about 
1=164  "A  Lamentable  Tragedy,  mixed  full  of  Pleasant 
Mirth,  containing  the  Life  of  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia." 
Died  in  1598. 

Preston,  (  WILLIAM,)  an  American  general,  born  near 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1816.  He  practised  law  in 
Louisville,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Spain  in  1858. 
He  joined  the  disunionists  in  1861,  and  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general. 

Preston,  (WILLIAM  C.,)  an  American  Senator  and 
orator,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1794.  His  grandmother 
was  a  sister  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  studied  in  Edin 
burgh.  About  1822  he  removed  to  Columbia,  South 
Carolina,  where  he  practised  law  and  gained  much  dis 
tinction.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  in  1832.  He  op 
posed  the  policy  of  John  C.  C'alhoun,  and  resigned  his 
scat  about  1842.  He  was  afterwards  president  of  the 
South  Carolina  College.  Died  at  Columbia  in  1860. 

Pretender,  The  First.  See  JAMES  FRANCIS  ED 
WARD. 

Pretender,  The  Second.  See  CHARLES  EDWARD 
STUART. 

Preti,  pRa'tee,  (GlROLAMO,)  an  Italian  poet,  bom  in 
Tuscany  in  1582  ;  died  in  1626. 

Preti,  (MATTIA,)  called  Ii.  CALABRESE,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Calabria  in  1613,  was  a  pupil  of  Lan- 
franc  and  Guercino.  He  worked  in  Rome,  Naples,  and 
other  places,  preferring  scriptural  and  tragical  subjects. 
Among  his  works  are  frescos  of  the  life  of  Saint  An 
drew,  at  Rome.  His  design  was  vigorous  rather  than 
graceful,  and  his  colouring  sombre.  Died  in  1699. 

See  PASCOI.I,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  moderni ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Preuschen,  pRoi'shen,  (A.  T.,)  a  German  litth-iitcur 
and  theologian,  born  in  Hesse  in  1734.  Among  his 
works  is  "Monuments  of  Ancient  Physical  and  Political 
Revolutions  in  Germany,"  (1787.)  lie  invented  typoml- 
trie,  or  the  art  of  printing  plans  and  maps  with  movable 
types.  Died  in  180^. 

Preuss,  pRoiss,  (JOHANN  DAVID  ERDMANX,)  a  Ger 
man  historian,  born  at  Landsberg,  on  the  Warthe,  in 
1785.  He  published  several  works  relating  to  Frederick 
the  Great  and  his  times,  among  which  is  a  "Biography 
of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (9  vols.,  1832-34.) 

Preval,  de,  deh  pR.Vvtl',  (CLAUDE  ANTOINE  HIP- 
POLYTE,)  ViCoMiE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Salins 
(Jura)  in  1776.  He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1814, 
and  president  of  the  committee  of  war  in  the  council 
of  state  in  1837.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  on 
military  affairs.  Died  in  1853. 

See  Da  HAII.I.AN,  "  Biographic  du  General  Preval,"  1842; 
QU^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Preville,  pRa'veK,  (PIERRE  Louis  DUBUS,)  a  popular 
French  comic  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1721.  He  performed 
in  Paris  from  1753  to  1786.  Died  in  1799. 


a,  e, !,  5,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o.  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


P REV  IT ALE 


'839 


PRICE 


Frevitale,  pRa-ve-ta'la,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bergamo,  was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  He 
painted  Madonnas,  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
about  1528. 

Prevost,  pRa'vo',  (CLAUDE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1674;  died  in  1753. 

Prevost,  preVost,  ?  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English  gen 
eral,  born  in  1767.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
attack  on  Martinique  in  1809,  and  became  Governor- 
General  of  the  British  possessions  in  North  America  in 
1812.  He  was  defeated  at  Plattsburg  in  1814,  soon  after 
which  he  was  recalled.  Died  in  London  in  1816. 

See  "Some  Account  of  the  Public  Life  of  General  Sir  George 
Prevost,"  London,  1823. 

Prevost,  pRa'vo',  (!SAAC  BENofr,)  a  Swiss  natu 
ral  philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1755.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Montauban  in  1810.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Cause  of  the  Caries  of 
Wheat,  and  of  other  Diseases  of  Plants,"  (1807.)  Died 
in  1819. 

See  P.  PREVOST,  "Notice  sur  I.  B.  Prevost,."  1820. 

Prevost,  (JEAN,)  a  Swiss  medical  writer,  born  near 
Bale  in  1585.  He  succeeded  Alpini  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Padua  in  1617,  and  wrote  many  works,  which 
were  often  reprinted.  Died  at  Padua  in  1631. 

Prevost,  (Louis  CONSTANT,)  an  eminent  French 
geologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1787.  He  published  in  1820 
an  important  work  "  On  the  Geological  Constitution  of 
the  Basin  of  Vienna,"  (in  Austria,)  and  became  professor 
of  geology  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1831.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Chronology  of  Rocks  and  Synchronism  of  Forma 
tions,"  (1845,)  and  "Bearing  of  Ancient  Fossils  in  the 
Basin  of  the  Gironde."  Died  in  1856. 

See  "  Nouvelle   Biographic  Generate. " 

Prevost,  (PIERRE,)  a  Swiss  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1751,  was  eminent  for  the  variety  and  pro 
foundness  of  his  learning.  Me  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1780,  and  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Geneva  about  1784.  In  1788  he  published  a 
work  "On  the  Origin  of  Magnetic  Forces."  He  obtained 
the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Geneva  in  1793,  and  that  of 
general  physics  in  1810.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Researches  on  Heat,"  ( 1 792,)  "  Radiant  Caloric," 
(1809,)  and  an  "  Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  Radiant 
Heat,"  (1832,)  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1839. 

See  A.  P.  PECANDOLLE,  "Notice  sur  P.  Prevost,"  in  the  "Bi- 
bliotlieque  universelle  de  Geneve,"  1839. 

Prevost,  (PiKRRE,)  a  French  painter  of  landscapes 
and  panoramas,  born  near  Chateaudun  in  1764.  He 
designed  or  painted  from  nature  panoramas  of  Rome, 
Naples,  Jerusalem,  Athens,  etc.  "  He  would  perhaps 
have  obtained,"  says  Peries,  "only  the  second  rank  of 
landscape-painters,  if  a  new  discovery  had  not  induced 
him  to  adopt  a  kind  of  painting  in  which  he  remains  un 
rivalled.''  The  invention  of  the  panorama  is  ascribed 
both  to  Prevost  and  to  Robert  Fulton.  Died  in  1823. 

Prevost,  (ZACHEE,)  an  eminent  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1797.  He  obtained  a  medal  in  1827  for 
"  Corinne  at  Cape  Misenum,"  after  Gerard,  and  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1839.  He  engraved  "The  Wedding 
at  Cana,"  after  Paul  Veronese.  (1852.)  Died  in  1861. 

Prevost  d'Exiles,  pna'vS'  dek'sel',  ( ANTOINE  FRAN 
COIS,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Artois  in  1697.  He  took 
the  monastic  vows  in  his  youth,  but  soon  became  dis 
gusted  with  that  life,  and  fled  to  Holland.  He  wrote 
nearly  two  hundred  volumes,  including  many  works  of 
fiction,  among  which  his  novel  entitled  "  Manon  Les- 
caut"  (1733)  was  especially  celebrated.  He  published  a 
"General  History  of  Voyages,"  (2ovols.,  1745-70.)  Died 
in  1763. 

See  LE  BI.ANC,  "  Essii  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrat;es  de  1'Abbe  Pre 
vost."  1810 ;  J.  JANIN,  "  Notice  sur  Prevost,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of '•  Manon  Lescaut,"  iS^  ;  P.  BKRNAKD,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de 
1'Abbe  Prevost,"  iSio;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Prevost  d'Exmes,  Le,  leh  pui'vo'  cldksm,  (FRAN- 
(jois,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  near  Argentan  in  1729; 
died  in  1793. 

Prevost-Faradol,  pRa'vo'  pi'it'dol',  (LrciEN  ANA- 
TOI.E,)  a  French  litterateur  and  orator  of  great  eminence, 
born  in  Paris  in  1829.  He  obtained  from  the  French 
Academy  in  1851  the  prize  of  eloquence  for  an  "Eloge 


de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre."  In  1856  he  began  to 
write  for  the  "Journal  cles  Debats,"  of  which  he  was 
for  many  years  one  of  the  ablest  editors.  He  was  ad 
mitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1865,  in  place  of 
Ampere.  On  this  occasion  Guizot  addressed  him  in  a 
very  complimentary  speech.  He  published  a  volume  of 
"  Essais  de  Politique  et  de  Litterature,"  (1859,)  "  Essais 
de  Politique  et  de  Morale,"  (1862,)  and  "Etudes  sur  les 
Moralistes  Frai^ais,"  (1864.)  He  had  a  great  talent  for 
irony  and  raillery.  In  June,  1870,  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  the  United  States.  He  committed  suicide  at 
Washington,  July  20  of  the  same  year. 

Fri'am,  [Gr.  'Upia^of ;  Lat.  PRI'AMUS;  Fr.  PRIAM, 
pKe'6N',]  a  famous  king  of  Troy,  in  whose  reign  occurred 
the  siege  of  Troy,  which  is  the  theme  of  Homer's  "  Iliad." 
Fie  was  a  son  of  Laomedon,  and  the  father  of  Hector, 
Paris,  and  other  heroes.  According  to  Virgil,  he  was 
killed  by  Pyrrhus  at  the  capture  of  Troy. 

See  the  "vEneid,"  book  ii.  506-55?. 

Friamus.     See  PRIAM. 

Priape.     See  PRIAPUS. 

Pri-a'pus,  [Gr.  Upia-of;  Fr.  PRTAP^L,  pRe'tp',]  an 
obscene  idol  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  repre 
sented  as  a  son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  worshipped 
as  the  protector  of  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  of  grape 
vines  and  gardens,  and  as  the  god  of  fertility. 

Price,  (DAVID,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in  1762. 
He  served  as  a  major  in  the  army  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  published  a  "  Chronological  Retrospect ; 
or,  Memoirs  of  the  Principal  Events  in  Mohammedan 
History  from  the  Death  of  the  Arabian  Legislator  to 
the  Accession  of  the  Emperor  Akbar,"  (4  vols.,  181 1-21.) 
Died  in  1835. 

Price,  (  TAMES,)  an  English  chemist  or  alchemist,  born 
in  1752.  He  committed  suicide  in  1783. 

Price,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  or  Welsh  antiquary, 
wrote  a  "  Defence  of  British  History,"  in  answer  to 
Polydore  Vergil,  (1573.)  Died  about  1553. 

Price,  (JoH.\,)  an  English  critic,  born  in  London  in 
1600.  He  published  commentaries  on  Scripture.  Died 
in  a  convent  at  Rome  in  1676. 

Price,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine,  who  was  chaplain 
to  General  Monk,  and  became  rector  of  Petworth,  in 
Sussex,  under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  published 
"The  Mystery  and  Method  of  his  Majesty's  Happy 
Restauration,"  etc.,  (London,  1660.)  Died  in  1691. 

See  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  GUIZOT. 

Price,  (RICHARD,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting  min 
ister  and  speculative  philosopher,  was  born  at  Tynton, 
in  Glamorganshire,  in  1723.  He  was  chaplain  to  Mr. 
Streathfield,  or  Streatfield,  from  1743  to  1756,  after 
which  he  preached  at  Newington  Green  Chapel  and  the 
Gravel-Pit  Meeting-House,  at  Hackney.  He  married 
in  1757  a  Miss  Blnndell.  He  advocated  the  cause  of 
American  liberty  in  his  "Observations  on  Civil  Liberty 
and  the  Justice  and  Policy  of  the  War  with  America," 
(1776,)  which  was  a  popular  work.  In  1778  he  was  in 
vited  by  Congress  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  ;  but  he  declined.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Dr.  Priestley.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  a  "Review  of  the  Principal  Questions  and  Diffi 
culties  in  Morals,"  (1758,)  "Four  Dissertations,  on 
Providence,  Prayer,  the  State  of  Virtuous  Men  after 
Death,  and  Christianity,''  (1766-68,)  and  Sermons.  Died 
in  London  in  1791. 

See  "Life  of  R.  Price,"  by  W.  MORGAN,  1815. 

Price,  (STERLING,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia.  He  emigrated  to  Missouri,  and  represented  a 
district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1845  to  '^47-  He 
was  Governor  of  Missouri  from  1853  to  1857,  and  joined 
the  disunionists  in  1861.  He  served  as  major-general  at 
Wilson's  Creek  in  August,  1861,  took  Lexington,  Sep 
tember  20,  and  retired  to  Springfield.  He  commanded 
a  division  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  at  Corinth,  in 
October  of  that  year.  In  September,  1864,  he  entered 
Southeastern  Missouri  with  an  army,  made  a  successful 
raid  to  Lexington,  and,  after  several  fights,  returned  by 
a  different  route  to  Arkansas  about  the  end  of  October. 
Died  in  1867. 

See  a  notice  of  Sterling  Price  in  "  Southern  Genera's,"  1865. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


See  Explanations,  p.  73.1 


PRICE 


i  840 


PRIEUR 


Price,  (Rev.  THOMAS,)  a  distinguished  Welsh  scholar, 
born  at  Pencaerelin,  near  Builth,  in  1787.  He  became 
vicar  of  Cwmdu  in  1825.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"A  Critical  Essay  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Wales,"  and  (in  Welsh)  a  "  History  of  Wales  and  the 
Welsh  Nation  from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  Death  of 
Llewelyn  ap  Gruffydd,"  (1836-42,)  which  is  said  to  be 
the  best  work  on  the  subject.  Died  in  1848. 

Price,  (Sir  UVEDALE,)  an  English  gentleman,  born  in 
Herefordshire  in  1747.  He  made  some  improvements 
in  landscape-gardening,  and  wrote  a  work  on  that  sub 
ject,  entitled  "An  Essay  on  the  Picturesque  as  compared 
with  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful  ;  and  on  the  Use  of 
Studying  Pictures  for  the  Purpose  of  Improving  Real 
Landscape,"  (1794.)  An  enlarged  edition  was  published 
in  2  vols.,  1797.  Died  in  1829. 

Price,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in 
1780.  He  went  to  Persia  in  1810  as  secretary  of  the 
British  embassy.  He  published  a  "  Grammar  of  the 
Hindostanee,  Persian,  and  Arabic  Languages,"  (1823,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1830. 

Prichard,  pr?tch'ard,  (JAMKS  COWI.KS,)  an  eminent 
English  ethnologist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Ross, 
Herefordshire,  in  1785.  He  graduated  as  a  physician  at 
Edinburgh,  and  began  to  practise  at  Bristol  about  1810. 
In  1813  he  published  "Researches  into  the  Physical 
History  of  Mankind,"  (i  vol. ;  3d  edition,  5  vols.,  1849,) 
a  work  of  high  reputation.  He  wrote  a  more  popular 
treatise  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  "The  Natural  His 
tory  of  Man,"  (1843.)  Among  his  important  works  are 
"The  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,''  (1822,)  "The 
Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations,"  (1831,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Insanity,"  (1834.)  He  removed  from  Bristol 
to  London  in  1845.  Died  in  December,  1848. 

See  CALLISEN,  "Medicinisches  Scliriftsteller  L-.-xikon  ;"  "Lon 
don  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1836;  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  November,  1844. 

Prichard,  pritch'ard,  (Rev.  RKKS,)  a  Welsh  poet, 
bom  in  Carmarthenshire;  died  in  1644. 

Prideaux,  prld'o  or  prld'iix,  (HUMPHREY,)  a  learned 
English  divine  and  historian,  bom  at  Padstow,  in  Corn 
wall,  in  1648.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
published  the  inscriptions  of  the  Arundel  marbles  in 
1676.  He  became  prebendary  of  Norwich  in  1681,  rector 
of  Bladen  in  168},  rector  of  Saham  in  1686,  archdeacon 
of  Suffolk  in  1688,  vicar  of  Trowse  in  1696,  and  Dean 
of  Norwich  in  1702.  He  opposed  the  acts  of  James  II. 
which  caused  the  revolution  of  1688.  His  principal 
works  are  "A  Life  of  Mahomet,"  (1697,)  once  held  in 
high  esteem,  but  now  admitted  to  be  very  deficient  in 
impartiality  as  well  as  in  true  historical  research,  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa 
ment,"  (6  vols.,  1715-17,)  which  was  much  esteemed 
and  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1724. 

See  "Life  of  H.  Prideaux,"  anonymous,  1748;  "  Biogrnphia 
Bvitannica." 

Prideaux,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine  of  great  learn 
ing,  was  born  at  Stowford,  in  Devonshire,  in  1578.  He 
became  in  1615  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford, 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  rector  of  Ewelme.  In  1641 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester.  He  suffered 
much  loss  in  consequence  of  his  adherence  to  the  royal 
ist  party  in  the  civil  war.  He  left  many  works  on  the 
ology,  logic,  and  other  subjects.  Died  in  1650. 

See  WOOD,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Prieriaa.     See  MAZOLINI. 

Priessnitz,  pRees'nits,  (ViNCF.N/,,)  celebrated  as  the 
founder  of  the  system  of  hydropathy,  ( Kaitwasserctir, 
"cold-water  cure,")  was  born  at  Grafenberg,  in  Austrian 
Silesia,  in  1799.  Having  been  severely  injured  by  a 
loaded  cart  passing  over  his  body,  he  was  enabled  to 
effect  a  cure  by  the  application  of»cold  water,  which  he 
subsequently  made  use  of  as  a  healing  agent  in  various 
diseases  when  consulted  by  his  neighbours.  In  1826 
he  opened  a  hydropathic  institution  at  Grafenberg,  which 
was  soon  resorted  to  by  invalids  from  different  parts  of 
Germany  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  fame 
of  his  successes  became  at  length  so  great  that  the  num 
ber  of  his  annual  guests  exceeded  one  thousand.  His 
system  excluded  all  medicine  and  stimulants  of  whatever 
kind,  as  well  as  blistering  and  depletion  in  any  form, 


relying  only  on  the  various  applications  of  water,  abun 
dant  out-door  exercise,  wholesome  diet,  etc.  He  died 
in  1851.  The  water-cure  has  been  received  with  favour 
in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
States. 

See  DECKEN-HIMMELREICH,  "V.  Priessnitz  und  die  Wassercur," 
1845;  SELINGER,  "  Vincenz  Priessnitz,"  1852. 

Priestley,  preest'le,  (JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  English 
philosopher,  chemist,  and  theologian,  was  born  at  P'ield- 
head,  near  Leeds,  on  the  131)1  of  March,  1733.  He 
studied  at  a  dissenting  academy  at  Daventry  about  three 
years,  (1752-55,)  and  became  versed  in  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  At  an  early  age  he  admitted  doubts  re 
specting  some  doctrines  of  the  orthodox  creed,  though 
he  had  been  educated  as  a  Calvinist.  He  preached  to 
a  small  company  of  dissenters  at  Needham-Market  from 
1755  to  1758,  and  then  removed  to  Nantwich,  Cheshire. 
In  1761  he  became  tutor  of  languages  and  belles-lettres 
in  the  academy  of  Warrington,  and  published  "The 
Scripture  Doctrine  of  Remission,"  in  which  he  rejects 
the  dogma  of  the  atonement. 

During  a  visit' to  London  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Dr.  Franklin,  who  encouraged  him  to  write  a  "His 
tory  of  Electricity."  He  published  in  1767  a  work  with 
this  title,  which  was  favourably  received.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1766.  In  1767  he  took 
charge  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Leeds,  where  he 
wrote  several  works  on  theology  and  found  recreation 
in  experiments  on  pneumatic  chemistry.  He  obtained 
in  1773  the  Copley  medal  for  his  "Observations  on  Dif 
ferent  Kinds  of  Air."  He  discovered  the  effect  of  respi 
ration  on  the  blood,  and  the  tendency  of  vegetation  to 
restore  to  vitiated  air  its  vivifying  principle.  He  also 
discovered  nitrous  gas,  muriatic  gas,  and  oxygen,  which 
he  called  "dephlogisticated  air."  He  obtained  the  last 
in  1774  from  red  precipitate  of  mercury.  "As  a  physicist 
and  chemist,"  says  Cuvier,  "the  talents  of  Priestley  were 
of  the  first  order.  His  researches  and  writings  have 
contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  the  science." 

He  published  in  1772-74  "  Institutes  of  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion."  He  was  librarian  and  literary 
companion  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne  from  1773  to  1780, 
during  which  period  he  published  "  Experiments  and 
Observations  on  Air,"  (5  vols.,  1774-80,)  a  "Defence  of 
Socinianism,"  and  other  works.  In  1780  he  settled  at 
Birmingham  as  minister  of  the  principal  dissenting  con 
gregation.  He  incurred  public  odium  by  the  heterodox 
and  liberal  opinions  expressed  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Corruptions  of  Christianity,"  (1782,)  "Familiar  Letters 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  Birmingham,"  (1790,)  and  "  Reply 
to  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,"  (1791.) 
In  Jnly,  1791,  his  house  was  attacked  and  set  on  fire  by 
a  mob,  who  inflicted  great  damage  on  his  library,  appa 
ratus,  etc.,  while  he  and  his  family  escaped  by  flight. 
For  the  sake  of  a  more  tranquil  life,  he  emigrated  with 
his  wife  and  children  in  1794  to  Northumberland,  Penn 
sylvania,  where  he  was  coldly  received,  especially  by  the 
Anti-Gallican  party.  Died  in  February,  1804. 

See  JOHN  CORRV,  "Lite  r>f  Priestley,"  iSoj  :  "Autobiographic 
Memoirs,"  iSo6;  CUVIER,  "  filoge  de  Priestley,"  1805:  THOMSON, 
"  Annals  of  Philosophy,"  vol.  i.,  1813  ;  J.  P.  SMITH,  "  Discourse  on 
the  Death  of  J.  Priestley,"  1805  ;  English  translation  of  CUVIER'S 
eulogy,  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1858,  pa?e  138  ;  DR.  HOKFER, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Chimie:"  T.  KEI.SHAM,  "Discourse  on  the  Death 
of  Joseph  Priestley  ;"  AI.I.IBONK,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October. 
iSo1},  (by  JEFFREY;}  "Monthly  Review"  for  August,  October,  and 
December,  1767,  et  seq. 

Prieur,  pre'uR',  (BARTHET.KMY,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  Huguenot.  His  chief  work  was  a  monument  to 
Constable  Anne  de  Montmorency.  Died  in  1611. 

Prieur  de  laMarne,  pue'iiu'deh  It  mSun,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Champagne  about 
1760.  He  was  an  active  democratic  member  of  the 
Convention,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In 
June,  1794,  he  became  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety.  Died  at  Brussels  in  1827. 

Prieur-Duvernois,  pRe'iik'  difveVmva',  (Ci.AUDE 
ANTOINE,)  a  French  republican,  born  at  Auxonne  in 
1763.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Convention  in 
1792,  and  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  in  1793. 
He  is  said  to  have  shared  with  his  friend  Carnot  the 
honour  of  having  organized  victory.  The  reform  which 


I, e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v\  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit:  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PRIEUR 


1841 


PR10LO 


rendered  weights  and  measures  uniform  in  France  is 
ascribed  mostly  to  him.  Died  in  1832. 

Prieur,  Le,  leh  pue'i;i<',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  Saint- Vaast,  published  a  work  "On  Canonical 
Letters,"  ("  De  Literis  canonicis,"  1675.)  Died  in  1680. 

Friezac,  de,  cleh  pue'zik',  (DANIEL,)  a  French  advo 
cate  and  writer  on  law,  politics,  etc.,  was  born  in  Bas- 
Limousin  in  1590.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  Died  in  1662.  Mis  son  SOLOMON  was  author 
of  numerous  works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  Ele 
phants,"  (1650.) 

Prilesky,  pne-leVkee,  (JOHN  BAPTIST,)  a  Jesuit,  born 
in  Hungary  in  1709.  lie  wrote  several  works,  among 
which  is  "Account  of  the  Holy  Fathers  who  flourished 
in  the  Two  First  Centuries,"  ("Notitia  SS.  Patrum  qui 
duobus  primis  Seculis  flonicrunt,"  1753.) 

Prim,  puem,  (JuAN,)  Count  de  Kens  and  Marquis 
de  los  Castillejos,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  Catalonia 
about  1814.  He  took  arms  against  Espartero  in  1843, 
and  acted  with  the  party  of  Progresistas.  In  1859  or 
1860  he  obtained  command  of  a  division  of  the  army 
sent  against  Morocco,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
at  Marabout  with  the  title  of  Marquis  de  los  Castillejos. 
lie  commanded  the  Spanish  army  which  co-operated 
with  the  French  and  British  in  the  invasion  of  Mexico  in 
1861,  and  returned  to  Spain  in  1862.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  insurgents  who  deposed  Queen  Isabel  in  Septem 
ber,  1868,  and  he  became  in  the  next  November  minister 
of  war  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Spain. 
Prim  and  Serrano  were  the  most  powerful  and  promi 
nent  members  of  the  provisional  government  formed  by 
the  insurgents  ;  and  the  former  was  the  virtual  dictator  of 
Spain  in  1869-70.  He  was  assassinated,  December,  1870. 

Frimaticcio,  pKe-ma-tet'cho,  [Fr.  LE  PKIMATICE, 
leh  pRe'mt'tess',]  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  sculp 
tor,  and  architect,  born  at  Bologna  in  1490.  He  studied 
design  under  Innocen/.io  da  Imola,  Bagnacavallo,  and 
Giulio  Romano.  In  1531  he  went  to  France,  and  was 
employed  by  Francis  I.  to  adorn  the  chateau  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  which  he  painted  a  number  of  large  frescos. 
Among  these  were  pictures  of  scenes  from  the  "Odys 
sey,"  which  were  much  admired.  He  was  patronized 
by  Henry  II.  and  Francis  II.  Died  at  Paris  in  1570. 


Frimatice,  Le.     See  PRIMATICCIO. 

Prime,  (SAMUEL  IKEN/EUS,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres 
byterian  divine,  born  in  Saratoga  county,  New  York,  in 
1812.  He  became  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Observer" 
in  1840.  He  has  published  "Travels  in  Europe  and  the 
East,"  (2  vols.,  1855,)  "The  Power  of  Prayer,"  (1859,) 
and  various  other  works. 

Prime,  (WILLIAM  COWPER,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Washington  county,  New 
York,  in  1825.  He  has  published,  among  other  works, 
"The  Old  House  by  the  River,"  (1853,)""  Boat-Life  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia,"  (1857,)  and  "Tent-Life  in  the  Holy 
Land,"  (1857.) 

Primerose  or  Primrose,  prlm'roz,  (GILBERT,)  an 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Scotland.  lie  became  chaplain  to 
the  king,  and  canon  of  Windsor.  Died  in  1643. 

Primerose,  (JAMES,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Bordeaux.  He  practised  in  York 
shire,  and  wrote  several  medical  works,  which  are 
commended.  Died  about  1660. 

Pri'mus,  (MARCTS  ANTONIUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
born  at  Tolosa,  (Toulouse,)  in  Gaul.  He  raised  an 
army  for  Vespasian  in  69  A.n.,  and  gained  victories 
over  the  troops  of  Vitellius  at  Verona,  Bedriacum, 
and  Rome. 

Prince,  (HENRY,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  East- 
port,  Maine,  in  1811,  fought  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volun 
teers  in  the  United  States  army  in  1862. 

Prince,  (Jonx,)  an  English  biographer,  born  at  Ax- 
minster  in  1643,  was  vicar  of  Totness.  He  wrote  "The 
Worthies  of  Devon,"  (1710.)  Died  in  1723. 

Prince,  (OLIVER  H.,)  an  American  jurist  and  United 
States  Senator  from  Georgia,  perished  in  the  wreck  of 
the  steamboat  Home  in  1837. 


Prince,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  divine,  born  in  New 
England  in  1687,  was  the  author  of  several  historical 
and  religious  works.  Died  in  1758. 

Prince  de  Beaumont.     See  LE  PRINCE. 

Prince,  Le.     See  LE  PRINCE. 

Pringle,  pring'g'l,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  British  physician, 
born  in  Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1707.  He  studied 
at  Leyden  and  in  Paris,  settled  in  Edinburgh  about  1734, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Earl  of  Stair,  who  was 
commander  of  the  army  on  the  continent,  in  1742.  In 
1743  he  was  appointed  chief  physician  to  the  army  in 
Flanders.  He  held  this  office  until  the  peace  of  1748, 
after  which  he  resided  in  London.  He  gained  a  Euro 
pean  reputation  by  a  valuable  work  "On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Army,"  (1752.)  In  1763  he  was  appointed  phy 
sician  to  the  queen.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1772,  and  became  physician-extraor 
dinary  to  George  III.  in  1774.  In  1778  he  succeeded 
Linnaeus  as  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris.  He  corresponded  with  the  most  eminent  scien 
tific  men  of  Europe.  Among  his  works  was  a  treatise 
entitled  "Experiments  on  Septic  and  Antiseptic  Sub 
stances,"  (1750,)  which  obtained  the  Copley  medal. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  A.  KIHPIS,  "Life  of  Sir  John  Pringle,"  1783:  CONDORCET, 
''Eloge  de  Pringle  :"  VICQ-D'AZVR,  "  filoge  de  J.  Pringle,"  1787; 
"Biographic  Medicale;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Pringle,  (THOMAS,)  a  meritorious  Scottish  poet,  born 
at  Blaiklaw,  in  Teviotdale,  in  January,  1789.  During 
his  infancy  an  accident  occurred  which  compelled  him 
to  use  crutches  for  life.  He  wrote  in  1816  "The  Au 
tumnal  Excursion,"  a  poem,  which  procured  for  him  the 
friendship  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  In  1817  he  united  with 
Lockhart,  Wilson,  and  others  in  founding  the  "  Edin 
burgh  Monthly  Magazine,"  of  which  for  a  short  time 
he  was  the  editor.  During  his  connection  with  it  the 
name  was  changed  to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine."  He 
emigrated  in  1820  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
he  edited  the  "  South  African  Journal"  and  founded  an 
academy.  His  success  having  been  hindered  by  the 
enmity  of  the  governor,  he  returned  to  England  in  1826, 
and  published  a  very  interesting  "Narrative  of  a  Resi 
dence  in  South  Africa."  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems, 
which  are  admired  for  elegance.  Died  in  1834. 

See  L.  RITCHIE,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Pringle,"  prefixed  to  his  Poems  ; 
CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup 
plement  ;)  J.  CONDER,  "  Biographical  Sketch  of  T.  Pringle,"  1835. 

Prills,  pR?ns,  (J.  H.,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1758  or  1759.  He  painted  views  of  the  in 
teriors  of  cities.  Died  about  1805. 

Prin'sep,  (CHARLES  ROBERT,)  an  English  political 
economist,  born  about  1788,  published  an  "Essay  on 
Money,"  (1818,)  and  translated  Say's  "  Political  Econ 
omy"  from  the  French.  Died  in  1864. 

Prinsep,  (HENRY  THOBY,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1792,  was  a  son  of  John  Prinsep,  M.P.,  of  Lon 
don.  He  entered  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  became  a  director  of  the  same  in  1849. 

Prinsep,  (JAMES,)  an  eminent  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1800.  lie  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  his  youth,  passed  some  years  at  Benares 
as  assay-master,  and  wrote  "Sketches  of  Benares." 
Having  removed  to  Calcutta,  he  became  in  1832  editor 
of  the  "  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,"  for  which  he 
wrote  valuable  articles  on  chemistry,  Indian  coins,  and 
Indian  antiquities.  He  succeeded  H.  H.  Wilson  as 
secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society  in  1832.  He  made  some 
important  discoveries  in  the  history  of  India  by  the  aid 
of  inscriptions,  which  he  deciphered,  and  which  had 
baffled  other  antiquaries.  lie  died  at  sea,  during  a 
voyage  to  England,  in  1840. 

Printz,  pRints,  (WOLFGANG  CASPAR,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1641.  He  published 
a  "Historical  Description  of  Song  and  Music,"  (1690,) 
and  other  works.  Died  at  Sorau  in  1717. 

Priolo,  pRe'o'lo',  or  Prioli,  pRe'o'le',  (BENJAMIN,)  a 
French  historian,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in 
Saintonge  in  1602.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of 
France  from  the  Death  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (1662,)  which 
is  praised  by  Bayle.  Died  in  1667. 

See  J.  RHODIUS,  "De  Vita  B.  Prioli,"  1672. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

1 16 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRIOR 


1842 


PROCACCINI 


Pri'pr,  (Sir  JAMKS,)  an  English  biographer  and  sur 
geon,  born  in  1790,  served  many  years  in  the  navy.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Edmund  Burke,"  (1824,)  regarded  as  the 
best  life  of  that  great  statesman  that  has  yet  appeared, 
•>nd  a  "  Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1869. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Prior,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  poet  and  diplomatist, 
was  born  in  Dorsetshire  on  the  2ist  of  July,  1664. 
He  was  educated,  at  the  expense  of  the  Earl  of  Dorset, 
in  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  ad 
mitted  to  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1686,  and  obtained  a 
Fellowship.  To  ridicule  Dryden's  "  Hind  and  Panther," 
Prior  and  Charles  Montague  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"The  City  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse,"  (1687.)  About 
1690  he  was  initiated  into  public  business  as  secretary 
to  the  embassy  which  was  sent  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Hague.  He  was  secretary  to  the  embassy  which  nego 
tiated  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  and  under-secretary 
of  state  for  a  short  time  in  1699.  In  1700  he  produced 
"Carmen  Seculare,"  a  poetical  panegyric  on  William 
III.,  which  Johnson  calls  "one  of  his  most  splendid 
compositions."  He  entered  Parliament  in  1701,  and, 
deserting  the  Whigs,  joined  the  Tory  party,  which, 
having  attained  power,  sent  Prior  to  Paris  privately  with 
propositions  of  peace  in  July,  1711.  He  was  accredited 
as  ambassador  at  Paris  in  August,  1713,  and  obtained 
the  reputation  of  a  skilful  diplomatist.  The  Whigs, 
having  come  into  power,  recalled  him  in  August,  1714, 
and  charged  him  with  treason.  He  was  imprisoned 
about  two  years,  (during  which  he  wrote  "  Alma,"  a 
poem,)  and  was  then  released  without  trial.  He  died  at 
Wi  in  pole  in  September,  1721.  Among  his  poems  are 
"  Solomon, "an  "Ode  on  the  Battle  of  Ramillies,"  (1706,) 
and  several  tales.  "  Prior  has  written  with  great  variety," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  and  his  variety  has  made  him  popu 
lar.  ...  If  his  poetry  be  generally  considered,  his  praise 
will  be  that  of  correctness  and  industry  rather  than  of 
compass  of  comprehension  or  activity  of  fancy.  He 
never  made  any  effort  of  invention." 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  CAMPBEI.T,  "  Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets;"  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  THACKERAY,  "The 
English  Humourists;"  "  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1857. 

Pri'or,  (THOMAS,)  an  Irishman,  noted  for  public 
spirit,  was  born  at  Rathdowney,  Queens  county,  in  1679. 
He  founded  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  published 
"  A  List  of  Absentees,  with  Observations  on  Trade," 
etc.,  (1729.)  Died  in  1751. 

Priscian,  prish'e-an,  (Lat.  PRTSCIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  PRIS- 
CIEN,  pRe'se^x',]  a  distinguished  Roman  grammarian, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Christian,  and  native  of 
Caesarea.  He  taught  grammar  at  Constantinople  about 
525  A.D.,  and  left  several  works,  which  are  extant.  His 
work  "  De  Arte  Grammatica,"  or  "  Commentaria  Gram- 
matica,"  is  the  most  complete  and  philosophic  treatise 
on  that  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity. 
Its  value  is  enhanced  by  many  quotations  from  works 
which  are  lost. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  :"  BAHR,  "Geschichte  der 
Romischen  Literatur." 

Priscianus.     See  PRISCIAN. 

Friscien.     See  PRISCIAN. 

Fris-cil'li-an,  [Lat.  PRISCILLIA'NUS;  Fr.  PRISCIL- 
LIEN,  pRe'se'le^N',]  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  near 
Corduba,  (Cordova,)  is  said  to  have  professed  the  doc 
trines  of  the  Gnostics  and  Manicheans.  He  was  charged 
with  heresy  and  beheaded  by  Maximus  about  385  A.I). 

See  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Priscillianus.     See  PRISCILLTAN. 

Priscillien.     See  PRISCILLIAN. 

Pris'cus,  [Gr.  UpiaKOf,]  an  able  Byzantine  historian, 
born  at  Panium,  in  Thrace.  He  was  sent  by  Theodosius 
on  an  embassy  to  Attila  in  445  A.n.  He  wrote  an 
account  of  this  embassy,  and  of  the  life  of  Attila,  frag 
ments  of  which  are  extant.  His  style  is  commended, 
and  his  history  is  esteemed  for  veracity.  Died  about 
470  A.D. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

Priscus,  (C.  LUTORIUS,)  a  Roman  poet,  composed  a 
poem  on  the  death  of  Germanicus,  which  was  very  popu 
lar.  Died  about  21  A.D. 


Priscus,  (HELVIDIUS,)  a  Roman  senator,  distinguished 
for  his  love  of  liberty  and  his  boldness  of  speech.  He 
was  banished  by  Nero  in  66  A.n.,  and  became  praetor  in 
70,  soon  after  which  he  was  put  to  death  by  Vespasian. 

Priscus,  (TARQUINIUS.)     See  TARQUINIUS. 

Pritch/ard,  (ANDREW,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
microscopist  of  the  present  century.  He  published  a 
number  of  valuable  works,  among  which  are  "  The  Mi 
croscopic  Cabinet,"  (1832,)  a  "  Natural  History  of  Ani 
malcules,"  (1834,)  "  Micrographia :  Essays  on  Micro 
scopes,"  (1837,)  and  a  "  History  of  Infusoria,  Living  and 
Fossil,"  (1841  ;  4th  edition,  1861.) 

Pritz,  puits,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  a  German  Lutheran 
minister,  born  at  Leipsicin  1662.  He  preached  at  Leip- 
sic,  Zerbst,  and  Frankfort,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1732. 

Proaeresius,  pro-e-ree'she-us,  [Gr.  Hpoaipeau>(; ,  ]  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  born  in  Armenia  about  275  A.D.  He 
taught  at  Athens  with  a  high  reputation.  Died  about 
365  A.D. 

Pro'bus,  (MARCUS  AUREUUS,)  an  excellent  Roman 
emperor,  born  at  Sirmium  about  235  A.D.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  armies  of  Valerian  and  succeeding 
emperors,  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Germany.  He 
received  the  command r>f  all  the  legions  in  the  East  from 
Tacitus,  at  whose  death,  in  276  A.D.,  Probus  was  pro 
claimed  emperor  by  his  army.  The  senate  confirmed 
their  choice.  He  defeated  the  Germans  in  Gaul,  and 
his  rivals  Saturninus,  Proculus,  and  Bonosus.  He  was 
killed  by  mutinous  soldiers  in  282  A.D.,  and  left  a  very 
high  reputation  for  virtue  and  ability.  It  is  said  that 
he  had  offended  his  troops  by  the  expression  of  a  hope 
that  the  time  was  near  when  armies  would  be  no  longer 
necessary. 

See  GIHBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  AURE- 
LIUS  VICTOR,  "De  Cxsaribus"  and  "  Epitome." 

Probus,  (MARCUS  VALERIUS,)  a  Roman  grammarian, 
born  at  Berytus,  (Beyroot,)  lived  in  the  first  century  of 
our  era.  He  is  identified  by  some  with  the  Probus  of 
the  next  article. 

Probus,  (VALERIUS,)  an  eminent  Roman  grammarian, 
who  flourished  probably  about  100  A.D.  lie  wrote  a 
commentary  on  Virgil,  often  cited  by  Servius,  and  other 
works. 

Procaccini,  pRo-kat-chee'nee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Rome  about  1675.  He  became  painter 
to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1720.  Died  in  Spain  in  1734. 

Procaccini,  (CAMii.i.o,)  a  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1545  or  1546,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  Ercole  the  Elder. 
He  was  remarkable  for  facility  and  for  fecundity  of  in 
vention.  "He  had,"  says  Lanzi,  "a  simplicity,  grace, 
and  spirit  which  charm  the  eye,  if  they  do  not  always 
satisfy  the  judgment."  Among  his  works  are  a  fresco 
of  "  The  Last  Judgment,"  at  Reggio,  and  an  oil-picture 
of  "  Saint  Rocco  curing  the  Sick."  Died  in  1626. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizio- 
nario." 

Procaccini,  (CARLO  ANTONIO,)  a  painter,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  painted  land 
scapes,  fruits,  and  flowers  with  success.  Some  of  his 
works  are  dated  1605. 

Procaccini,  (ERCOLE,)  THE  ELDER,  a  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1520,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His 
style  was  accurate  and  free  from  mannerism,  but  his 
design  was  rather  minute.  Among  his  disciples  were 
Sabbatini,  Bertoja,  his  three  sons,  and  other  eminent 
artists.  He  was  living  in  1591. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Procaccini,  (ERCOLE,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  son  of  Carlo 
Antonio,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1596.  He  was  an  able 
painter  of  flowers  and  history.  Died  in  1676. 

Procaccini,  (Giui.io  CESARE,)  a  brother  of  Camillo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1548,  and  was  the 
ablest  painter  of  the  family.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
imitators  of  the  style  of  Correggio.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Virgin  and  Child"  and  "  The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea."  His  design  was  correct,  his  composition  inge 
nious,  and  his  style  noble,  or  grandiose.  He  worked 
mostly  at  Milan,  where  he  died  in  1626. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizio- 
nario. " 


fi,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PROCIDA 


PROKOPOl'ITCH 


Procida,  di,  de  puo'che-cli,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
conspirator,  born  at  Salerno  about  1225,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Pedro  of  Aragon,  and  was  engaged  in  intrigues  or 
conspiracies  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  had  made 
himself  master  of  Sicily.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
master-spirit  of  that  massacre  of  the  French  called  the 
Sicilian  Vespers,  (March  30,  1282.)  Died  after  1302. 

See  N.  BUSCEMI,  "  Saggio  de!la  Vita  di  Giovanni  di  Procida," 
1836;  AMARI,  "  La  Guerrn  del  Vespro  Siciliano;"  "  Xouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Pro-cil'li-us,  a  Roman  historian,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Cicero.  His  works  are  not  extant. 

Pro'cles,  [Ilpo/i/tyf,]  a  skilful  Greek  engraver  of 
medals,  whose  period  is  unknown.  His  name  is  found 
on  coins  of  Xaxos  and  Catana. 

Fro'clus,  [Gr.  UpijK/Mf,  Ger.  PRO'KI.US,]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher  of  the  Xeo-Platonic  schi)ol,  was  born 
at  Constantinople  in  412  A.D.,  and  was  simiamed  DIA- 
noCHL'S,  ("  the  Successor.")  He  studied  tinder  Hero 
and  Olympiodorus  at  Alexandria,  and  under  Plutarchus 
at  Athens,  where  he  afterwards  succeeded  Syrianus  as  the 
head  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school.  He  was  very  deficient 
in  judgment.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  treatise 
"On  the  Sphere,"  commentaries  on  the  "  Parmenides" 
and  "Timceus"  of  Plato,  a  treatise  against  the  Chris 
tians,  and  "  Institutio  Theologica,"  (Srot^e/watf  Qeo/.oyiKrj,) 
all  of  which  are  extant,  (except  part  of  the  commentary 
on  the  "Timaeus.")  He  died  in  485  A.I).  According  to 
the  extravagant  estimate  of  M.  Cousin,  all  the  philo 
sophic  rays  which  emanated  from  Pythagoras,  Plato, 
Aristotle,  etc.  were  concentrated  in  Proclus. 

See  BRUCKER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  RITTER,  "  History  of 
Philosophy;"  TEN'NEMANN,  "  Geschichte  der  Philosophie  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Proclus,  SAINT,  was  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
from  434  A.IX  until  his  death,  in  446.  He  left  homilies 
and  epistles,  which  are  extant. 

Froc'ne,  [Gr.  Tlponvi] ;  Fr.  PROGNE,  pRog'na',]  a.- 
daughter  of  Pandi'on,  King  of  Athens,  a  sister  of  Philo 
mela,  and  wife  of  Tereus.  She  was  said  to  have  been 
changed  into  a  swallow. 

Procope.     See  PKOCOPIUS. 

Frocope-Couteau,  pko'kop'  koo'td',  a  French  phy 
sician  and  comic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1684.  His  real 
name  was  MICHEL  COLTKLLI.  Died  in  1753. 

Pro-co'pi-us,  a  Roman  general,  born  in  Cilicia.  He 
aspired  to  supreme  power  in  the  East  in  363  A.D.,  and 
waged  war  against  Valens,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death 
in  366. 

Pro-co'pi-us,  [  Gr.  UpoKo-ioc ;  Fr.  PROCOPE,  pRo'- 
kop',]  an  eminent  Byzantine  historian,  born  at  Caesarea, 
in  Palestine,  about  495  A.D.  He  became  in  527  A.D. 
secretary  to  Belisarius,  whom  he  attended  in  his  cam 
paigns  against  the  Persians,  the  Vandals,  (in  Africa,) 
and  the  Goths.  In  the  Gothic  war  he  had  a  high  com 
mand  in  the  navy.  He  returned  to  Constantinople  about 
^41  A.D.,  and  obtained  the  favour  of  Justinian,  who  ap 
pointed  him  a  senator  and  in  562  prefect  of  the  capital. 
The  question  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a  Pagan  has 
been  disputed  by  many  modern  writers.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  in  eight  books, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  for  veracity.  His  style  is  com 
mended  for  vigour  and  elegance.  There  is  extant  a  secret 
and  scandalous  history  of  the  Byzantine  court,  entitled 
'Arewfera,  which  is  ascribed  to  him  ;  but  his  authorship 
is  doubted.  Died  about  565  A.D. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca ;"  CAVE,  "  Historia  Lite- 
raria  ;"  HANKIUS,  "  Scriptores  Byzantini;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Procopius,  (ANTHEMIUS.)     See  ANTHEMIUS. 

Procopius,  (DEMETRIUS,)  a  biographer,  born  atMos- 
copolis,  in  Macedonia,  lived  about  1730.  He  wrote,  in 
Greek,  a  series  of  biographies  of  Greek  scholars  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  which  is  commended.  It  was 
published  by  Fabricius  in  1722  in  his  "Bibliotheca 
Graeca." 

Procopius  OF  GAZA,  a  biblical  commentator,  flour 
ished  about  550  A.D. 

Pro-co'pi-us  Ra'sa,  an  able  Bohemian  general,  suc 
ceeded  Ziska  in  1424  as  the  leader  of  the  Hussites  or 
Taborites.  He  defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  number  of 


battles,  and  ravaged  Moravia,  Austria,  and  Saxony.  In 
1431  he  routed  an  imperial  army  which  had  invaded 
Bohemia.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1434. 

Fro-crus'tes,  [Gr.  npoKpvoTT/s  ;  Fr.  PROCRUSTE,  puo'- 
kkiist',]  (i.e.  "the  Stretcher,")  a  surname  of  DAMASTKS 
or  POLYPEMON",  a  famous  robber,  who  compelled  his 
captives  to  lie  on  a  bed,  and  made  them  coincide  with 
it  in  length  by  cutting  off  their  legs  or  stretching  them 
in  case  they  were  too  long  or  too  short.  He  was  killed 
by  Theseus. 

Proc'ter,  (ADELAIDE  ANNE,)  an  English  poetess, 
born  in  London  in  1825,  was  a  daughter  of  Bryan 
Waller  Procter.  She  became  in  1853  a  contributor  to 
"Household  Words"  and  "All  the  Year  Round,"  and 
published  in  1858  "Legends  and  Lyrics."  A  second 
volume  of  "Legends  and  Lyrics"  came  out  in  1861. 
Died  in  1864. 

See  an  article,  by  CHARLES  DICKENS,  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  December,  1865. 

Procter,  (BRYAN  WAI.LKR,)  an  English  poet,  who 
wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  BARRY  CORNWALL, 
was  born  about  1790.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1831.  He  acquired  distinction  by  a  volume 
entitled  "Dramatic  Scenes,  and  other  Poems,"  (1819.) 
His  tragedy  of  "  Mirandola"  (1821)  was  performed  with 
success.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  The  Flood  of 
Thessaly,"  "English  Songs,  and  other  Small  Poems," 
(1832,)  "Essays  and  Tales  in  Prose,"  (1851,)  and 
"Charles  Lamb:  a  Memoir,"  (1866.)  His  songs  have 
obtained  much  popularity. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January  and  November,  1820; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1820,  and  May,  1823. 

Proc-u-le'ius,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  knight,  was  an  in 
timate  friend  of  Octavian,  (Augustus.)  After  the  battle 
of  Actium  he  was  sent  by  the  victor  to  Antony  and 
Cleopatra.  He  is  mentioned  favourably  by  Horace, 
(Carm.  ii.  2.) 

Proc'u-lus,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  was  a  contem 
porary  of  Nerva.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  school  or  sect, 
(Proculiani  or  Proculani.)  Among  the  jurists  cited  in 
the  Digest  he  is  the  second  in  order  of  time. 

Proculus,  a  Roman  officer,  who  attempted  to  usurp 
imperial  power  in  Gaul  in  280  A.D.  He  was  defeated 
by  Probus,  and  put  to  death. 

Prod'i-cus,  [HpoiWoc,]  an  eloquent  Greek  Sophist  or 
philosopher,  born  in  Ceos,  lived  about  430  B.C.  He 
lectured  at  Athens  and  other  places.  Among  his  pupils 
or  auditors  were  Isocrates,  Euripides,  and  perhaps  Soc 
rates.  He  was  accused  of  atheism  without  sufficient 
evidence.  He  wrote  a  beautiful  apologue  entitled  "The 
Choice  of  Hercules,"  an  outline  or  abridgment  of  which 
has  been  preserved  by  Xenophon. 

See  XENOPHON,  "Memorabilia:"  HUMMEL,  "  Dissertatio  his- 
torica  de  Prodico  Sophista,"  1847;  PLATO,  "Protagoras." 

Progne.     See  PKOCNE. 

Prcetides,  preYe-dez,  the  daughters  of  Proetus,  King 
of  Argolis  or  Argos,  were  named  Lysippe,  Iphinoe,  and 
Iphianassa.  According  to  the  fable,  they  became  insane 
and  imagined  that  they  were  cows. 

Proetus,  pree'tus,  [Gr.  II/wZYoc,]  a  king  of  Argos,  was 
a  twin-brother  of  Acrisius,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  in 
a  contest  for  the  throne.  He  afterwards  recovered  a 
share  of  the  kingdom,  by  the  aid  of  Jobates.  He  is 
said  to  have  given  Melampus  a  part  of  his  kingdom 
for  curing  his  daughter  of  insanity. 

Frokesch-Osten,  von,  fon  pRo'kesh  os'ten,  (ANTON,) 
BARON,  an  Austrian  diplomatist,  general,  and  able  writer, 
born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1795.  He  was  sent  as  am 
bassador  to  Athens' in  1834,10  Berlin  in  1849,  and  to 
Constantinople  in  1855.  He  published  "Memoirs  and 
Souvenirs  of  the  Orient,"  (1836,)  which  is  said  to  be  a 
work  of  much  merit.  Died  in  1867. 

Proklus.     See  PROCLUS. 

Frokne.     See  PKOCNE. 

Prokofief  or  Prokophief,  pro-ko'fe-eT,  (!VAN  PRO- 
KOFIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  born  in  Saint  Peters 
burg  in  1758,  was  a  pupil  of  Julien,  of  Paris.  He  worked 
with  success  at  his  native  place.  Died  in  1828. 

Pro-ko'po-vitch,  (THEOPHANES,)  a  Russian  prelate, 
born  at  Kiev  in  1681.  He  became  Bishop  of  Pskof  in 
1715,  and  composed,  at  the  request  of  Peter  the  Great, 


•C  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (~3T=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PROMETHEE 


1844 


PROTOGENE 


an  ecclesiastical  code,  in  which  priests  are  treated  as 
employees  of  the  civil  power.     Died  in  1736. 

See  TCHISTOVITCH,  "Theophane  Prokopovitch  et  Theophilacte 
Lopatinski,"  1861. 

Promethee.     See  PROMETHEUS. 

Fro-me'the-us,  [Gr.  Hpopt)6evs ;  Fr.  PROMETHEE, 
pRo'ma'ta',]  a  personage  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  a 
son  of  lapetus.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  stole  fire 
from  heaven,  for  which  offence  Jupiter  chained  him  to 
a  rock  or  pillar,  and  an  eagle  daily  devoured  his  liver, 
which  was  nightly  restored.  /Eschylus  represents  him 
as  an  immortal  being,  a  benefactor  of  men,  the  giver  of 
fire,  and  a  heroic  sufferer,  who  was  oppressed  by  the 
power  of  Jupiter,  but  maintained  an  inflexible  spirit 
until  he  was  liberated  by  Hercules.  His  name  signifies 
"forethought."  Some  authors  relate  that  he  created  a 
man  out  of  clay  and  animated  him  with  fire  which  he 
stole  from  heaven,  and  that  he  was  the  husband  of  Pan 
dora.  (See  ^Eschylus,  "  Prometheus  Bound.") 

See,  also,  LASSAULX,  "Prometheus;  die  Sage  und  ihr  Sinn," 
1843! 

Pro-mo'tus,  (^Euus,)  a  physician  of  Alexandria, 
whose  period  is  unknown.  It  is  supposed  that  he  lived 
before  the  Christian  era.  Some  of  his  works  are  extant 
in  manuscript. 

Prompsault,  pRi.N'so',  (JEAN  HENRI  ROM/UN,)  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Montelimart  in 
1798.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Canon  Law," 
and  several  works  on  grammar.  Died  in  1858. 

Prony,  de,  deh  pRo'ne',  (GASPAUD  CLAIR  FRANCOIS 
MARIE  RICHE,)  a  French  mathematician  and  engineer, 
born  at  Chamelet  (Rhone)  in  July,  1755-  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1791  director  of  the  Cadastre,  and  received 
an  order  to  compose  logarithms  or  mathematical  tables 
adapted  to  the  decimal  division  of  the  circle,  a  work  of 
great  labour  and  utility.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  of  bridges  and  causesvays.  He  became  about 
1794  professor  of  mechanics  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  a 
member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes,  and  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  In  1798  he  was  invited  by  Bonaparte  to 
join  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  but  declined.  He  received 
the  title  of  baron  in  1828,  and  became  a  peer  of  France 
in  1835.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Hydraulic 
Architecture,"  (2  vols.,  1790-96,)  "Philosophical  Me 
chanics,"  (1800,)  "Lectures  on  Analytical  Mechanics," 
(1810,)  and  a  "  Hydrographic  and  Statistical  Description 
of  the  Pontine  Marshes,"  (1823,)  which  is  a  work  of 
much  merit.  He  wrote  a  number  of  articles  for  the 
"Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in  1839. 

See  ARAGO,  "  Notices  biographiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  "  £loge  de 
Prony,"  by  C.  DUPIN;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Properce.     See  PROPERTIUS. 

Propertius,  pro-per'she-us,  [Fr.  PROPERCE,  pRo'- 
peRss';  It.  PROPERZIO,  pRcvpeRt'se-o,]  (SEXTUS  AURE- 
Lius,)  an  eminent  Roman  elegiac  poet,  born  in  Umbria 
about  50  B.C.  He  informs  us  that  he  was  born  in  Umbria, 
on  the  border  of  Etruria.  His  paternal  estate  was  confis 
cated  by  Octavius  because  his  father  had  been  a  partisan 
of  Antony.  He  began  early  to  write  poetry,  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Rome,  and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Maecenas. 
His  life  appears  to  have  been  that  of  "a  man  of  wit 
and  pleasure  about  town."  His  career  as  a  poet  was 
influenced  by  a  passion  for  Cynthia,  a  poetess  and  lady 
of  superior  talents,  who  furnished  a  theme  for  his  early 
elegies.  He  chose  Callimachus  as  his  model,  and  be 
came  a  rather  pedantic  imitator  of  the  Greeks.  His 
style  is  censured  as  too  artificial.  Both  ancient  and 
modern  critics,  however,  assign  to  him  a  high  rank  as 
a  poet.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Ovid.  The  time 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  Four  books  of  elegies  are  the 
only  works  of  Propertins  that  are  now  extant.  A  cor 
rect  English  version  of  his  first  book  was  published 
anonymously  in  1781.  Among  the  best  editions  of  the 
text  is  that  of  Lachmann,  (Leipsic,  1816.) 

See  "Vita  Propertii,"  in  LACHMANN'S  edition,  1816  ;  GILLET  DE 
MOIVRE,  "La  Vie  et  les  Amours  de  Properce,"  1744;  "Nouvelle 
tiographie  Generale  ;"  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Froperzio.     See  PROPERTIUS. 

Propiac,  de,  deh  pro'pe'tk',  (CATHERINE  JOSEPH 
FERDINAND  GIRARD,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1759;  died  in  1823. 


Pros'er-pine,  [Gr.  HepaE<j>6vrj,  ( Perscph' one ; )  Fr. 
PROSERPINE,  pRo'zeR'pen';  Lat.  PROSERPI'NA,]  the 
goddess  and  queen  of  the  infernal  regions,  was  said 
to  have  been  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  and  the 
wife  of  Pluto.  The  poets  feigned  that  as  she  was  gather 
ing  flowers  near  Enna  she  was  abducted  by  Pluto  ;  that 
Ceres,  not  knowing  what  had  become  of  her,  searched 
for  her  with  torches  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  for  nine 
days;  that  Helios  revealed  the  secret  of  her  abduction  ; 
that  Jupiter,  induced  by  the  importunity  of  Ceres,  re 
quested  Pluto  to  restore  her,  and  that  Pluto  consented 
that  she  should  spend  two-thirds  of  the  year  with  the 
gods  above,  and  the  other  third  in  the  lower  world. 
Later  writers  say  that  she  was  to  pass  the  half  of  her 
time  in  Hades  and  the  other  half  in  the  regions  of  light. 
She  is  supposed  to  be  a  symbol  of  vegetation,  and  of 
the  creative  and  destructive  power  of  heat. 

Prosper,  pRos'paiR',  surnamed  AQUITA'NUS,  ("of 
Aqnitaine,")  a  theologian,  born  at  Bordeaux,  in  Gaul, 
about  404  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Semi- 
Pelagians,  and  wrote  in  defence  of  the  doctrines  of  Saint 
Augustine.  His  wovlcs^ among  which  are  some  poems, 
are  still  extant.  Died  atter  463  A.D. 

Pros'per  Ti'ro  or  Ty'ro,  a  poet,  who  is  often  con 
founded  with  Prosper  Aquitanus,  was  born  in  Gaul,  ami 
lived  about  400  A.D.  He  wrote  a  "  Poem  of  a  Husband 
to  his  Wife,"  ("  Poema  Conjugis  ad  Uxorem.") 

Prost,  pRo,  (CLAUDE,)  BARON,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Auxonne  in  1764  ;  died  in  1834. 

Prost  de  Royer,  pRo  deh  rwa'ya',  (ANTOINE  FRAN- 
gois,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1729;  died  in 
1784. 

Pro-tag'o-ras,  [Gr.  Hpurayopas ;  Fr.  PROTAGORE, 
pRo'tt'goR.',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher  and  Sophist, 
born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace,  flourished  about  440  B.C.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Democritus  ;  but  this 
is  doubted  by  some,  because  Protagoras  was  probably 
older  than  his  supposed  master.  According  to  Plato 
and  Diogenes,  he  was  the  first  who  adopted  the  name 
of  Sophist  and  taught  for  pay.  lie  taught  oratory  at 
Athens  and  other  cities.  He  was  banished  from  Athens 
because  he  said  that  he  did  not  know  whether  the  gods 
existed  or  not.  His  works,  which  treated  on  ethics, 
physics,  etc.,  are  lost,  but  his  peculiar  doctrines  are  ex 
plained  in  the  "Theaetetus"  of  Plato.  He  reached  the 
age  of  seventy  or  more,  and  died  about  410  B.C.  It  was 
a  maxim  of  Protagoras  that  "man  is  the  measure  of  the 
universe  or  of  all  things,  and  that  whatever  he  judges  to 
be  true  is  true."  Cicero  says,  "  Putet  id  cuique  verum 
esse  quod  cuique  videatur."  ("  Quasstiones  Academical. ") 

See  PLATO'S  dialogue  entitled  "  Protagoras  ;"  GROTE,  "  Plato  and 
the  other  Companions  of  Socrates."  3  vols.,  1865;  HKRUST,  "Des 
Protagoras  Leben  und  Sophistik,"  etc.,  18^2;  J.  FKEI,  "  Quxstiones 
Protagorese,"  Bonn,  1845;  VITKINGA,  "  Disquisitio  de  Protagoras 
Vita  et  Philosophia,"  1853;  C.  MALLET,  "  fitudes  philosophiques," 
tome  ii.  ;  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece,"  chap.  Ixvii. 

Protagore.     See  PROTAGORAS. 

Protain,  pRo'taN',  (JEAN  CONSTANTIN,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  was  employed  in 
Egypt  in  1798-99  as  architect  to  the  commission  of  arts 
and  sciences,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
Cairo  in  1801.  Died  in  1837. 

Protee.     See  PROTEUS. 

Protet,  pRo'ti',  (AUGUSTE  LEOPOLD,)  a  French  rear- 
admiral,  born  at  Saint-Servan  about  1810.  He  was 
Governor  of  Senegal  from  1850  to  1855,  during  which 
period  he  made  an  exploration  of  that  region.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Taepingsof  China,  in  1862. 

Pro'te-us,  [Gr.  Hpuraif ;  Fr.  PROTEE,  pRo'ta',  |  a 
divinity  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  sometimes  called 
a  son  of  Neptune  and  a  king  of  Egypt.  He  was  repre 
sented  as  a  prophetic  old  man,  who  lived  in  the  sea  and 
could  foretell  future  events,  but  eluded  those  who  seized 
and  importuned  him  to  prophesy,  by  transforming  him 
self  into  a  great  variety  of  shapes.  If  his  efforts  to 
escape  were  baffled,  he  resumed  his  original  or  usual  form 
and  revealed  his  secret  knowledge.  His  occupation  was 
to  tend  the  flocks  of  seals  or  sea-calves  belonging  to 
Neptune. 

See  HOMER,  "Odyssey,"  book  iv. ;  VIRGIL,  "Georgics,"  book 
iv.  387-529. 

Protogene.  See  PROTOGENES. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,y,long;  a,  e,  6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  o, obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not; good;  moon; 


PROTOGENES 


.845 


PR  US  US 


Pro-tog'e-nes,  [Gr.  n/jwroyei^o  ;  Fr.  PROTOGENE, 
pRo'to'zhin',]  a  Greek  painter  of  great  celebrity,  was  a 
native  of  Cannus,  in  Caria.  He  flourished  about  332 
B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Apelles,  and  lived  mostly 
at  Rhodes.  The  name  of  his  master  is  not  known.  His 
advancement  in  fame  and  fortune  was  retarded  by  his 
modesty,  until  Apelles  visited  Rhodes  and  purchased,  at 
the  enormous  price  of  fifty  taleiUs  each,  several  of  his 
pictures,  which  he  proposed  to  sell  as  his  own  works. 
(See  APELLES.)  In  the  opinion  of  some,  Protogenes 
carried  the  elaboration  of  his  works  to  a  fault  ;  but 
Cicero  speaks  of  his  works  as  perfect  in  every  respect. 
His  master-piece  was  a  picture  of  lalysus,  on  which  he 
is  said  to  have  expended  seven  years.  One  of  the  ad 
mirable  parts  of  this  picture  \vas  the  foam  at  the  mouth 
of  a  hound,  "  which,"  says  Pliny,  "he  produced,  after 
many  vain  efforts,  by  throwing  a  sponge  at  the  place, 
under  the  impulse  of  vexation  or  despair." 

See  PUNY,  "Natural  History,"  book  xxxv.  ;  SL'IDAS,  "Proto 
genes;"  K.  O.  MULI.ER,  "Archaologie  der  Kunst." 

Proudhon,  pRoo'dix',  sometimes  written  Prudhon, 
(JEAN  BAPTISTE  VICTOR,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1758.  He  was  for  many  years  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  Dijon.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  laws  of  Usufruct, 
etc.,  "Traite  cles  Droits  d'Usufruit,  d'Usage,  d'Habita- 
tion  et  de  Superficie,"  (9  vols.,  1823-25,)  said  to  be  the 
best  work  on  that  subject.  Died  in  1838. 

See  LORAIN-,  "  FJoge  historique  de  M.  Proudhon,"  1839;  J.  Cu- 
RASSON,  "Kloge  de  M.  Proudhon,"  1839. 

Proudhon,  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  socialist  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Besancon  in  1809.  In  1848  he 
became  editor  of  "The  Representative  of  the  People," 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  made 
a  motion  which  a  large  majority  of  the  Assembly  rejected 
as  "an  odious  attack  on  public  morality  and  subversive 
of  the  rights  of  property."  He  published  several  works 
on  social  and  political  economy.  In  his  essay  entitled 
"What  is  Property?"  ("Qu'est-ce  que  la  Propriete?") 
he  affirms  that  "property  is  robbery,"  ("La  propriete, 
c'est  le  vol.")  Died  in  1865. 

See  J.  VHAU,  "  Proudhon  et  son  Economic  politique,"  1853; 
QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849. 

Proust,  pRoo,  (Louis  JOSEPH,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Angers  about  1760.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1816.  He  contributed  many  memoirs  on 
chemistry  to  various  periodicals,  and  distinguished  him 
self  as  a  supporter  of  the  theory  of  equivalents  or  definite 
proportions.  Died  in  1826. 

Prousteau,  pRoo'to',  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Tours  in  1628.  lie  founded  a  public  library  at 
Orleans,  and  wrote  legal  works.  Died  in  1715. 

Prout,  FATHER,  the  assumed  name  of  FRANCIS  MA- 
HONEY.  (See  MAHONEY.) 

Prout,  prowt,  (SAMUEL,)  a  skilful  English  painter 
of  architecture,  scenery,  etc.,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in 
1783.  He  published  about  1816  "Views  in  the  North 
and  West  of  England,"  "Rudiments  of  Landscape,"  and 
other  successful  works.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
painter  in  water-colours,  a  delineator  of  mediaeval  archi 
tecture,  and  a  lithographer.  After  a  tour  on  the  conti 
nent,  he  published  lithographic  "  Fac-Similes  of  Sketches 
made  in  Flanders  and  Germany,"  and  "  Sketches  in 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,"  (1839.)  Died  1111852. 
Ruskin  pronounces  him  "  a  very  great  man,  who,  though, 
partly  by  chance  and  partly  by  choice,  limited  in  range 
of  subject,  possessed  for  that  subject  the  profoundest 
and  noblest  sympathy.  ...  In  reality  he  is  to  be  num 
bered  among  the  true  masters  of  the  nobler  picturesque." 
("Modern  Painters.") 

See  J.  RUSKIN,  "  Memoir  of  S.  Prout,"  in  the  "Art  Journal," 

1849. 

Prout,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  chemist  and 
physician,  was  born  in  1786.  He  practised  in  London, 
and  was  probably  the  first  physician  who  applied  the 
doctrines  of  chemistry  to  the  explanation  of  the  phe 
nomena  of  disease.  Among  his  important  works  are 
one  "  On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Stomach  an-1 
Renal  Diseases  ;  being  an  Inquiry  into  the  Connection 
of  Diabetes,  Calculus,  etc.  with  Indigestion,"  and 


"Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and  the  Function  of  Diges 
tion  considered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology." 
The  latter  is  one  of  the  "  Bridgewater  Treatises."  Died 
in  London  in  1850. 

Provana,  pRo-va'na,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  admiral, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1511  ;  died  in  1592. 

Frovenzale,  pRo-vdn-za'la,  (MARCKLLO,)  an  Italian 
painter  in  mosaic,  born  at  Cento  in  1575.  Among  his 
works  is  a  portrait  of  Paul  V.  Died  in  1639. 

Provoost,  pro'vost,  ?  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1742,  was  chaplain  to  the 
Continental  Congress  and  subsequently  to  the  United 
States  Senate.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  New  York  in 
1786.  Died  in  1815. 

Frovostaye,  de  la,  deh  \%  pRo'vo'st.V,  (FERDINAND 
HERVE,)  a  French  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Redon 
in  1812.  He  has  written  on  optics,  heat,  etc. 

Proyart,  piiwa'ya'R',  (Abbe  LIEVIN  BONAVENTURE,) 
a  French  historian,  born  at  Arras  in  1743,  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Stanislas,  King  of 
Poland,"  (2  vols.,  1782,)  which' is  commended.  Died 
in  1808. 

Prudence.     See  PRUDENTIUS. 

Prudent,  pru'dS.N',  (fiMiLE,)  a  French  composer  and 
pianist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1817.  Among  his  works 
is  "Fantaisie  sur  Lucie,"  (1842.) 

Prudentius,  pru-den'she^us,  or  Fru'deiice,  SAINT, 
a  learned  bishop,  born  in  Spain.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Troyes  about  846.  1  le  wrote  against  Erigena  on  pre 
destination.  Died  in  861. 

See  LE  CI.ERC,  "Vie  de  Saint-Prudence,"  1689;  BREYER,  "Vie 
de  Saint-Prudence,"  1725. 

Pruden'tius  (pru-dgn'she-us)  [Fr.  PRUDENCE,  pRii'- 
d6.\ss'|  Clem'eiis,  (AURKLlDsJ  a  Latin  Christian  poet, 
was  born  in  Spain  in  348  A.D.  He  practised  law,  and 
became  a  judge  of  a  civil  and  criminal  court.  He  wrote, 
in  barbarous  or  unclassical  Latin,  hymns,  and  other  re 
ligious  poems,  which  procured  for  him  a  high  reputation 
in  the  middle  ages  and  are  admired  by  some  modern 
critics.  He  visited  Rome  about  405,  and  passed  his 
latter  years  in  Spain.  Erasmus  thought  that  his  piety 
and  learning  entitled  him  to  a  place  among  the  doctors 
of  the  Church. 

See  LUDEWIG,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  A.  Prudentii  dementis," 
1692;  TILLEMONT,  "  Memoires  ecclesiastiques." 

Prudhomme,  pKu'dom',  (Louis  MARIE,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1752.  He  issued  an  ultra- 
republican  journal  in  Paris  in  1789.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1796,) 
which  is  of  little  value.  Died  in  1830. 

Prudhon,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  VICTOR.)  See  PROU 
DHON. 

Prud'hon,  prii'dAN',  (PIERRE  PAUL,)  a  French  histor 
ical  painter,  was  born  at  Cluny  (Saone-et-Loire)  in  1758. 
Having  studied  in  Rome,  he  settled  in  Paris  in  1789, 
and  obtained  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  works  are 
"Venus  and  Adonis,"  "The  Abduction  of  Psyche,"  and 
"Justice  and  Divine  Vengeance  pursuing  Crime."  The 
gracefulness  of  his  style  has  procured  for  him  the  sur 
name  of  "the  French  Correggio."  Died  in  1823. 

See  ARSENE  HOUSSAVE,  "  Philosophers  and  Actresses,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
VOIART.  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Prud'hon,"  1824;  QUA- 
TREMEKE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Notice  sur  P.  P.  Prud'hon,"  1824;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Prunelle,  pRti'nel',  (CLEMENT  FRANC.OIS  VICTOR 
GABRIEL,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  La  Tour  du  Pin 
(Isere)  in  1777.  He  lectured  at  Montpellier  from  1807 
to  1819,  and  published  several  medical  works.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  A.  F.  F.  POTTON,  "  Le  Docteur  Prunelle,"  1855. 

Pruner,  pRoo'ner,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  physician  and 
ethnologist,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1808.  He  became  chief 
physician  of  Abbas  Pasha  of  Egypt  in  1847,  before 
which  he  had  visited  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  Le 
vant.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Europe.  Among  his 
works  is  "Man  in  Space  and  Time,"  ("  Der  Mensch  im 
Ratmi  mid  in  der  Zeit,"  1859.) 

Prusias,  pru'she-as,  [Gr.  LTpowf'ac, ]  I.,  King  of  Bithy- 
n ia,  was  a  grandson  of  Nicomedes  I.  He  began  to  reign 
about  228  H.C.,  and  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Gauls 
in  216.  He  aided  Philip  of  Macedon  in  his  first  war 


€  as k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Y^gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (jJ^f^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PR  US  US 


184.6 


PTOLEMT 


against  the  Romans,  but  became  the  ally  of  the  latter 
about  190  B.C.  The  power  and  prosperity  of  the  king 
dom  were  increased  by  his  ability  as  a  ruler.  He 
lacked  the  virtue  or  courage  to  refuse  when  the  Romans 
demanded  the  surrender  of  Hannibal,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  his  dominions. 

See  POLYBIQS,  "History;"  APPIAN,  "Syrinca." 

Prusias  II.  OF  BITHYNIA  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  about  180  B.C.  He 
was  neutral  in  the  war  between  the  Romans  and  Perseus, 
his  brother-in-law.  In  156-154  he  waged  war  against 
Attains  of  Pergamus.  Having  rendered  himself  odious 
by  his  cruelty,  he  was  killed  by  his  subjects  in  149  B.C. 

Prutz,  pRoots,  (ROBERT  ERNST,)  a  German  poet  and 
prose  writer,  born  at  Stettin  in  1816.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  literary  history  at  Halle  in  1849.  Among  his 
works  are  "Poems,"  (1841,)  "Political  and  Literary 
Kssays,"  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  "Dramatic  Works,"  (4 
vols.,  1847-49.) 

Prymie,  prin,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  Puritan  poli 
tician  and  antiquary,  was  born  near  Hath  in  1600.  He 
published  in  1632  a  scurrilous  pamphlet,  entitled  "  His- 
trio-Mastix,  or  a  Scourge  for  Stage-Players,"  for  which 
the  court  of  the  Star-Chamber  sentenced  him  to  pay  a 
large  fine,  to  be  exposed  in  a  pillory,  to  lose  his  ears, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  for  life.  He  was  released  by  a 
warrant  from  the  Speaker  of  the  Commons  in  1641,  and 
elected  to  the  Long  Parliament.  He  was  an  opponent 
of  Cromwell's,  and  was  ejected  from  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  army  in  1648.  He  compiled  several 
volumes  of  Records.  Died  in  1669. 

See  ANTHONY  WOOD,'' Athense  Oxonienses;"  DISRAELI,  "  Ca 
lamities  of  Authors."  ^rtyle.  Z>  t&tf'>r*i.**y  g.-Jt,2-, 

Fry'pr,  (ROGER  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Richmond,  or  in  Dimviddie  county,  Virginia,  about  1826. 
He  was  editor  of  several  papers  issued  at  Petersburg 
and  Richmond,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1859. 
He  challenged  John  F.  Potter,  M.C.,  in  1860,  but  refused 
to  fight  with  the  weapons  which  the  latter  selected.  He 
fought  against  the  Union,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  in  the  civil  war. 

Przipcovius,  pzhlp-kc/ve-us,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Polish 
Socinian  writer,  born  about  1592;  died  in  1670. 

Przybylski, •  pzhip-b!l'skee,  (HYACINTH,)  a  Polish 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Cracow  in  1756.  He  pro 
duced  versions  of  Homer,  Milton,  Virgil,  Horace,  etc. 
Died  in  1819. 

Psalmaiiazar,  sal-ma-na'zar,  (GEORGE,)  the  assumed 
name  of  a  literary  impostor,  born  about  1679,  probably 
in  the  south  of  France.  He  passed  his  youth  as  a  vaga 
bond,  pretended  to  be  a  native  of  Formosa,  and  pub 
lished  in  England  a  fictitious  account  of  that  island, (1704.) 
About  the  age  of  thirty-two  he  renounced  his  evil  habits, 
became  religious,  and  applied  himself  diligently  to  study. 
He  obtained  considerable  success  as  an  English  author. 
He  wrote  for  a  work  entitled  "Universal  History"  nearly 
all  of  the  ancient  history  except  that  of  Rome,  and  left 
memoirs  of  his  own  life,  (1765.)  His  proper  name  re 
mains  a  secret.  Died  in  London  in  1753  or  1763. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  *  *  *,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  George 
Psalmanazar,"  1765  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  November  and  December,  1764. 

Psammeiiitus,  sam-me-nl'tus,  [Gr.  ^a/^wroi; ;  Fr. 
PSAMMENITE,  psl'nia'net',]  King  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father,  Amasis,  in  526  B.C.  He  was  conquered  and 
deposed  in  525  B.C.  by  Cambyses.  Soon  after  this  event 
he  was  accused  of  inciting  the  Egyptians  to  revolt,  and 
was  put  to  death. 

Psammetichus  or  Psametik.    See  PSAMMTTICHUS. 

Fsammis,  sam'mis,  [Gr.  "Pu/^uic,]  King  of  Egypt,  a 
son  of  Necho,  reigned  from  601  to  595  B.C.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Apries. 

Fsammitichus,  sam-mit'e-kus,  or  Psammetichus, 
sam-met/e-kus,  [Gr.  ^a/j/nirixof  or  ^rafifj^rixof  ;  Fr.  PSAM- 
MITIQUE,  pst'me'tek' ;  Egyptian,  PSAMETIK,]  a  king  of 
Egypt,  and  founder  of  the  Saitic  dynasty,  began  to  reign 
about  670  B.C.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  reigned  fifty- 
four  years.  During  his  reign,  which  was  an  important 
epoch,  the  Greeks  were  first  introduced  into  Egypt. 

See  HERODOTUS,  "  History;"  GROTE,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Psammitique.     See  PSAMMITICHUS. 


Psellus,  sel'lus,  [i'tvlAoc,]  (MICHAEL,)  a  Greek  scholar 
of  the  ninth  century,  was  a  native  of  Andros,  and  emi 
nent  for  learning. 

Psellus,  (MICHAEL  CONSTANTINUS, )  a  celebrated 
Greek  writer,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1020  A.D.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  excellent  scholar  of  his 
time.  He  wrote  in  prose  and  verse  on  various  subjects, 
and  received  from  several  emperors  the  title  of  "  Prince 
of  Philosophers."  He  was  living  in  1105. 

Psyche,  sl'ke,  [Gr.  i^?/;  Fr.  PSYCHE,  pse'ka',]  the 
name  given  by  ancient  Greek  poets  and  fabulists  to  a 
personification  of  the  human  soul.  Having  gained  the 
affections  of  the  god  of  Love,  (Amor,)  she  lived  happily 
with  him  until  her  curiosity  to  know  who  he  was  de 
prived  her  of  his  presence.  Wandering  in  search  of 
Amor,  she  entered  the  palace  of  Venus,  who  reduced 
her  to  slavery,  from  which  she  was  finally  liberated  by 
the  return  of  her  first  love.  According  to  a  beautiful, 
allegory  of  Apuleius,  Psyche  was  a  daughter  of  a  king, 
and  her  beauty  excited  the  jealousy  of  Venus,  who  per 
secuted  her.  She  was  represented  in  works  of  art  as  a 
maiden  with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly. 

See  THORI.ACIUS,  "  Disquisitio  mythologies  de  Psyche  et  Cu- 
pidine,"  iSon 

Psychristus,  si-kris'tus,  or  Psycochristus,  sl-ko- 
kris'tus,  (JACOBUS,)  an  eminent  physician  of  the  fifth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria.  lie  became  phy 
sician  to  Leo  the  Great,  who  reigned  at  Constantinople 
from  457  to  474  A.D. 

Ftoiemaeus.     See  PTOLEMY. 

Ptolemaus  and  Ftolemaer.     See  PTOLEMY. 

Ptolemee.     See  PTOLEMY. 

Ptolemy,  tol'e-me,  [Gr.  nroAfua;or ;  Lut.  PTOLK- 
M/E'US  ;  Fr.  PTOLEMEE,  pto'kVma' ;  Ger.  PTOLEMAUS, 
pto-leh-ma'us,  plural  PTOLEMAKK,  pto-leh-ma'er ;  It. 
TOLOMEO,  to-lo-ma'o,  plural  TOLOMKI,  to-lo-ma'ee,]  I., 
surnamed  SOTEK,  or  "Saviour,"  the  son  of  Lagus,  was 
the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Greek  kings  of  Egypt. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  a  son  of  Philip  II.  of  Mace- 
don,  as  his  mother  was  a  concubine  of  that  king.  He 
had  a  high  command  in  the  army  of  Alexander,  and 
displayed  great  abilities  as  a  general  in  India.  He  was 
one  of  the  personal  attendants  of  Alexander,  who  ap 
pears  to  have  regarded  him  with  great  favour.  At  the 
distribution  of  provinces  which  followed  the  death  of  the 
king,  (323  B.C.,)  Ptolemy  obtained  the  government  of 
Egypt.  lie  raised  a  large  army,  and  for.ned  a  secret 
alliance  with  Antipater  against  Perdiccas,  who  invaded 
Egypt  in  321  and 'was  defeated.  As  the  ally  of  Cas- 
sander,  Seleucus,  and  Lysimachus,  he  waged  by  sea 
and  land  a  long  war  against  Antigonus.  This  war  began 
in  315,  and  was  ended  by  the  defeat  of  Antigonus  at 
Ipsus,  in  301  B.C.  I!y  his  able  administration  Ptolemy 
rendered  the  kingdom  prosperous  and  powerful.  He 
promoted  commerce,  science,  and  literature,  and  invited 
many  Greek  philosophers  and  authors  to  his  court. 
Historians  generally  represent  him  as  eminent  for  po 
litical  wisdom.  He  died  in  283  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philadelphia. 

See  GRIER,  "  De  Ptolemaei  I.agidas  Vita  et  Scriptis;"  AKRIAN, 
"  Anabasis, "  books  ii.-vii.  ;  DIODOKUS  Sicui.us,  "  History,"  bonks 
xvii.-xx.  ;  DRUMANN,  "Dissertatio  de  Rebus  Ptolemaeoruin,"  1X21. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  II.,  commonly  called  Ptol 
emy  Philadelphus,*  [Fr.  PTO I.E. MI-IK  Pini.Ani'.i.rni:, 
pto'li'ma'  fe'lt'delf.]  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Cos  in  309  B.C.  His  mother  was  liereni'ce. 
The  partial  favour  of  his  father  secured  the  throne  for 
him  in  preference  to  the  eldest  son,  P.  Ceraunus.  He 
pursued  a  pacific  policy,  promoted  foreign  commerce, 
and  employed  his  vast  resources  in  the  patronage  of 
literature  and  science  and  the  construction  of  public 
works.  He  founded  a  great  library  at  Alexandria,  and 
a  museum  which  was  the  resort  of  eminent  philosophers. 
He  had  received  a  learned  education,  and  manifested  a 
special  interest  in  natural  history.  Among  the  celebrated 

*  I.e.  "brother-loving,"  so  called  in  irony,  because  he  had  ex 
cluded  his  brother  Ceraunus  from  the  throne  and  put  to  death  two 
other  of  his  brothers.  Some  writers,  however,  suppose  that  lie 
received  the  surname  (which  may  also  mean  "loving  one's  sister") 
from  his  having  married  his  sister  Arsinoe,  to  whom  he  appears  to 
have  been  tenderly  attached,  and  to  whose  memory  he  caused  a 
temple  to  be  erected  after  her  death. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PTOLEMY 


1847 


PTOLEMT 


men  whom  he  attracted  to  his  court  were  the  poet  The- 
oe.itus,  Hegesias  the  philosopher,  Euclid  the  geometer, 
and  Aratus  the  astronomer.  According  to  a  tradition 
which  is  credited  by  many,  the  Holy  Scriptures  were 
translated  into  Greek  by  his  command.  His  dominions 
included  Cyprus,  Lycia,  Caria,  Ccele-Syria,  and  parts 
of  Arabia  and  of  Libya.  During  his  reign  Egypt  was 
raised  to  a  high  degree  of  power  and  prosperity.  lie 
died  in  247  B.C. 

See  JUSTIN,  "  History,"  books  xvii.  and  xviii.  ;  DROVSEN.  "  Hel- 
lenismus  ;"  GEORG  GREEN-,  "  Dissertatio  de  Ptolemaeo  (II.)  Phila- 
delplio,"  1676;  DRUMANN,  "Dissertaiio  de  Rebus  Ptolemaeorum," 
1821. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  III.,  surnamed  EUER/GETES, 
(the  "Benefactor,'')  [Fr.  Proi.EMEE  EVEKGETE,  pto'li'- 
ma'  a'veu'zhit',]  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  247  i'..C.  To  avenge  the  death  of  his  sister 
Berenice,  he  invaded  Syria  about  245  B.C.,  defeated 
Seleucus  Callini'cus,  took  Babylon,  and  subjected  many 
large  provinces  of  his  enemy.  His  victorious  career  was 
interrupted  by  a  sedition  in  Egypt,  to  which  he  re 
turned  about  243  n.c.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  patron 
of  literature,  and  made  large  additions  to  the  library  of 
Alexandria.  His  reign  was  eminently  prosperous.  lie 
died  in  222  B.C.  According  to  Justin,  he  was  poisoned 
by  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philopator. 

See  JUSTIN,  "  History,"  book  xxvii. 

Ptolemy  (Ftolemaeus)  IV.,  surnamed  PHII.OP'A- 
TOK,*  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign  in 
222  H.c.  He  was  greatly  inferior  to  his  predecessors  in 
ability,  and  was  notorious  for  cruelty  and  sensual  vices. 
He  put  to  death  his  mother  and  his  brother  Magas.  His 
army  defeated  Antiochus  the  Great  at  Kaphia,  near 
Gaza,  in  217  B.C.  He  died  in  205  B.C.,  leaving  one  son, 
Ptolemy  V. 

See  POLYBIUS,  "  History,"  books  v.,  xiv.,  and  xv. 

Ptolemy  (Ftolemaeus)  V.,  surnamed  EPIPH'ANES, 
(the  "  Illustrious,"')  succeeded  his  father  in  205  B.C.,  when 
he  was  only  five  years  old.  During  his  minority  Antio 
chus  the  Great  conquered  Ccele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Judea,  but  was  checked  in  his  encroachments  by  the 
intervention  of  the  Romans.  At  his  coronation,  in  196 
B.C.,  a  decree  was  issued  which  has  been  preserved  in 
the  famous  inscription  of  the  Rosetta  Stone.  In  his 
reign  the  power  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  declined 
rapidly.  lie  died  (it  is  said,  by  poison)  in  181  B.C. 

See  Poi.YBiL'S,  "History,"  books  xv.,  xvi.,  xvii.,  etc. 

Ptolemy  (Ftolemaeus)  VI.,  surnamed  PHILOMK'- 
TOK,  was  an  infant  when  he  succeeded  his  father,  Ptolemy 
V.,  in  181  B.C.  His  mother,  Cleopatra,  was  regent  until 
her  death,  in  173.  Antiochus  of  Syria  invaded  Egypt 
in  171  B.C.,  reduced  several  cities,  and  took  the  young 
king  prisoner.  The  title  of  king  was  then  assumed  by 
a  younger  brother,  Ptolemy  Euergetes  or  Physcon. 
Philometor  was  soon  released,  and  reigned  jointly  with 
his  brother  for  several  years.  Dissensions  having  arisen 
between  them,  about  164  B.C.  Philometor  invoked  the 
mediation  of  the  Roman  senate,  who  restored  him  to  the 
sole  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  As  an  ally  of  Demetrius  II., 
he  led  an  army  into  Syria,  took  Antioch,  and  defeated 
Alexander  Balas,  in  146  B.C.  At  this  battle  he  was  fatally 
injured  by  a  fall  from  his  horse. 

See  Pdi.YBii's,  "  History,"  books  xxvii.-xxxiii. 

Ptolemy  iPtolemaeusi  VII.,  surnamed  EUER'GETES 
or  PIIYS'CON,  obtained  the  throne  in  146  B.C.,  and  put  to 
death  Ptolemy  Eu'pator,  the  infant  heir  of  the  late  king. 
Provoked  by  his  cruelty  and  vices,  the  people  revolted, 
burnt  his  palace,  and  drove  him  out  of  Egypt  in  130  B.C. 
He  recovered  the  throne  in  127,  and  died  in  117  B.C. 

See  JL-STIX,  "  History,"  books  xxxviii.  and  xxxix. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  VIII.,  surnamed  SO'TER  II., 
and  more  frequently  called  LATH'YRUS,  [Fr.  PTOI.EMEE 
LATHYRE,  pto'li'ma'  It'ten',  ]  succeeded  his  father, 
Ptolemy  VII.,  in  117  B.C.  He  reigned  jointly  with  his 
mother,  Cleopatra,  until  107,  when  she  procured  his  ex 
pulsion  in  order  to  raise  to  the  throne  her  favourite  son, 
Alexander.  Ptolemy  reigned  in  Cyprus  until  the  death 


*  I.e.  "  father  loving,"  so  styled  ironically  because  he  was  sus 
pected  (though  probably  without  sufficient  grounds)  of  having  poisoned 
his  lather. 


of  his  mother,  (89  B.C.,)  and  was  then  restored  to  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  He  died  in  81  B.C.,  leaving  a  daughter, 
Berenice,  w:ho  succeeded  him,  and  a  natural  son,  Ptolemy 
Auletes. 

The  ALEXANDER  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para 
graph  is  styled  Ptolemy  IX.  by  some  writers. 

See  JUSTIN,  "  History,"  book  xxxix. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  X.,  (sometimes  called  Alex 
ander  II.,)  the  son  of  Ptolemy  VIII.,  was  killed  by  the 
Alexandrians  on  account  of  his  cruelty. 

Ptolemy  (Ftolemaeus)  XL,  surnamed  AUI.F/TES, 
(i.e.  the  "Piper,")  [Fr.  PTOLEMEE  AUI.ETE,  pto'li'ma' 
5'iAt',]  also  surnamed  NE'US  DIOXY'SUS,  was  a  son  of 
Ptolemy  VIII.  He  began  to  reign  in  80  B.C.  He  was 
one  of  the  worst  kings  of  the  race  of  Ptolemies,  and 
was  dethroned  by  his  subjects  in  58  B.C.  In  55  lie  was 
restored  by  the  Roman  proconsul  Gabinius.  He  had 
two  sons  named  Ptolemy,  and  a  daughter,  the  famous 
Cleopatra.  Died  in  51  B.C. 

See  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  XII.  of  Egypt  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  According  to  his  father's 
will,  he  reigned  jointly  with  Cleopatra  from  51  to  48  B.C. 
Dissensions  between  the  minister  Potl.inus  and  the 
young  queen  resulted  in  her  expulsion.  Ptolemy  was 
involved  in  war  with  Caesar,  who  entered  Egypt  in  48 
B.C.,  and  he  was  drowned  in  a  retreat  from  a  fight  with 
the  Romans  about  the  end  of  that  year. 

His  brother  PTOLEMY  received  from  Caesar  the  title 
of  king  in  conjunction  with  Cleopatra;  but  his  reign  was 
merely  nominal.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Cleopatra  in 
43  »-c". 

See  C>USAR,  "  BelKim  Civi'e." 

Ptolemy,  (Ptolemaeus,)  a  nephew  of  Antigonus, 
King  of  Asia.  He  obtained  in  315  B.C.  command  of  one 
of  the  armies  of  Antigonus,  and  defeated  the  generals  of 
Cassander  in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  He  was  put  fo 
death  by  Ptolemy  Soter  in  309  B.C. 

Ptolemy,  (Ptolemaeus,)  a  son  of  Pyrrhus,  King  of 
Epirus,  born  in  295  B.C.,  was  a  prince  of  great  promise. 
He  was  left  in  charge  of  Epirus  when  his  father  led  the 
expedition  against  Italy,  in  280.  He  was  slain  in  a 
combat  against  the  Spartans,  in  272  B.C. 

Ptol'e-my  (Ftolemee'us)  Qe-rau'nus,  [Gr.  oKepav- 
vor,\  King  of  Macedonia,  was  a  son  of  Ptolemy  I.  of 
Egypt  by  his  wife  Eurydice.  Having  been  disinherited 
by  his  father,  he  retired  to  Thrace.  He  murdered 
Seleucus  of  Macedonia,  and  usurped  his  throne,  in  280 
B.C.  About  a  year  later  he  was  killed  in  battle  by  the 
Gauls,  who  had  invaded  Macedonia. 

Ptol'e-my  (Ptolemae'us)  Clau'di-us,  [Gr.  Tlro?^- 
fialo^  K/.ar&oc ;  Fr.  PTOI.EMEE  CLAUDE,  pto'la'ma' 
k!5d,]  a  celebrated  Greek  astronomer  and  geographer, 
was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  lived  at  Alexandria.  His 
mature  life  probably  extended  from  125  to  about  160 
A.D.  Of  his  personal  history  we  know  nothing.  He 
was  the  most  celebrated,  but  not  the  greatest,  astronomer 
of  antiquity.  His  contemporaries  and  commentators 
usually  added  to  his  name  the  epithet  "  admirable"  or 
"  divine."  He  was  also  a  great  mathematician.  His  prin 
cipal  work  is  a  treatise  on  astronomy,  entitled  Meya^Tj 
Zw-offf  rrif  '\arpovouiac,  to  which  the  Arabian  translators 
gave  the  name  of  "Almagest,"  composed  of  the  Arabic 
article  al  and  the  Greek  //ey/or*?,  i.e.  "  greatest."  In  this 
work  he  availed  himself  of  the  observations  and  dis 
coveries  of  Hipparchus,  to  whom  he  gives  the  credit  with 
commendable  candour.  Indeed,  it  is  chiefly  through  the 
medium  of  the  "Almagest"  that  the  merit  of  Hipparchus 
has  been  recognized  by  the  moderns.  Ptolemy  main 
tained  that  the  earth  is  a  snhere,  and  that  the  sun  ami 
stars  revolve  daily  around  the  earth,  which  is  fixed  in 
the  centre  of  the  universe.  "  We  find  in  the  Almagest," 
says  Delambre,  "a  clear  exposition  of  the  system  of  the 
world,  of  the  arrangement  of  the  celestial  bodies  and 
their  revolutions,  a  complete  treatise  of  rectilinear  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  and  all  the  phenomena  of  diur 
nal  motion  explained  and  calculated  with  remarkable 
precision.  .  .  .  Such  was  the  '  Syntaxis,'  (' Almagest,')  a 
monument  of  great  value  at  the  present  day,  since  it 
alone  contains  the  verified  (avere)  history  of  the  science, 


e  as  *;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^='?ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PTOLEMY 


1848 


PUG  IN 


and  the  whole  astronomical  knowledge  of  his  times." 
His  astronomical  theory  is  called  the  Ptolemaic  system. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  general  geography,  (Teu- 
ypifyLKri  'ytyrj-yiiaic,)  which  for  many  ages  was  the  chief 
authority  on  that  subject,  and  did  not  become  obsolete 
until  the  fifteenth  century.  He  gave  special  attention 
to  the  determination  of  the  latitudes  and  longitudes 
of  places  by  mathematical  processes,  but  neglected  the 
descriptive  part  of  geography. 

See  SCHAUBACH,  "Ueber  den  Griecliischen  Astronnmen  C. 
Ptolemzeus,"  1825;  FARRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Gneca;"  HEEREN, 
"  Commentatio  de  Fontibus  Geographicorum  Ptolemaei,"  etc.,  1828; 
DR.  HOEFKR,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ptolemy  Lagi,  (or  the  son  of  Lagus.)     See  PTOL- 

KMY  I.   SOTF.R. 

Pub-lic'o-la,  (L.  GELLIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
elected  consul  'in  72  i?.c.,  and  was  defeated  in  battle  by 
Spartacus.  He  supported  Cicero  in  opposition  to  Cati 
line.  Died  soon  after  55  B.C. 

Publicola,  (PuBLius  VALERIUS,)  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Roman  republic,  was  consul  with  Brutus  in  509 
B.C.,  and  was  author  of  laws  which  protected  the  liber 
ties  of  the  common  people,  who  gave  him  the  surname 
of  PUBLICOLA,  "  the  people's  friend."  He  was  re-elected 
consul  in  508  and  507  B.C.,  and  fought  against  Porsena, 
who  attempted  to  restore  the  Tarquins.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Regillus,  (496  B.C.) 

See  NIEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  CICKRO,  "  De  Republic.!." 

Fub-lil'I-us,  (Voi/ERO,)  a  Roman,  who  effected  a 
change  in  the  constitution.  lie  was  tribune  of  the 
people  in  472  B.C.,  and  procured  for  the  plebeians 
greater  freedom  in  the  election  of  tribunes. 

Pub'li-us  Sy'rus,  an  eminent  mimographer,  born  in 
Syria,  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  He 
was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  At  games  exhibited  by  Cassar 
in  45  B.C.  Publius  excelled  all  competitors  as  a  composer 
of  mimes.  There  is  extant  a  collection  of  proverbs  or 
moral  sayings  ascribed  to  him. 

Pucci,  poot/chee,  [Lat.  Puc'cius,]  (FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  theologian,  born  at  Florence  ;  died  in  1600. 

Puccinelli,  poot-che-nel'lee,  (Pi.ACino,)  an  Italian 
biographer,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1609;  died  in  1685. 

Puccius.     See  Pucci. 

Pucelle,  pu'sel',  (RENE,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1655,  was  a  nephew  of  Marshal  Catinat.  Died 
in  1745. 

Pucelle  d'Orleans.     See  JOAN  OF  ARC. 

Pu-chta,  pooK/ta,  (GEOKG  FKIEDRICH,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Cadol/burg  in  1798.  He  published  an 
excellent  work  on  Roman  law,  "  Cursus  der  Institu- 
tionen,"  (3  vols.,  1841-47,)  and  a  "  Manual  of  the  Pan 
dects,"  (5th  edition,  1854.)  Died  at  Berlin  in  1846. 

Puchta,  (WOLFGANG  HKINRICH,)  a  German  jurist, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Erlangen  in  1769  ; 
died  in  1845. 

Piickler-Muskau,  puk'ler  moos'kow,  (HERMANN 
LUDWIG  HEINRICH,)  PIUNCF.  OF,  a  German  writer  of 
travels,  born  at  Muskau,  in  Lusatia,  in  1785.  He  visited 
England,  France,  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia,  and  gave 
an  account  of  those  countries  in  a  work  entitled  "  Let 
ters  of  a  Defunct,"  ("  Briefe  eines  Verstorbenen,"  1830.) 
This  was  followed  by  "  Semilasso  in  Africa,"  (1836,)  and 
other  sketches  of  travel. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June.  1837;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832,  May,  1834,  and  July,  1836. 

Puech-Dupont,  push  du'pox',  (LEONARD,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  anatomist,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1795;  died 
in  1828. 

Pufendorf,  poo'fen-doRf,  written  also  Puffeiidorf, 
(EsAiAS,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  1628,  was  a  brother 
of  Samuel.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  satirical 
work  entitled  "Anecdotes  of  Sweden."  Died  in  1689. 

Pufendorf,  (SAMUEL.)     See  PUFFENDORF. 

Puf'fen-dorf,  [Ger.  PUFENDORF,  poo'fen-doRf';  Lat. 
PUFENDOR'FIUS,]  (SAMUEL,)  BARON,  an  eminent  Ger 
man  jurist  and  publicist,  born  near  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony, 
in  1632.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  giving  his 
attention  chiefly  to  the  political  works  of  Grotius  and 
Hobbes.  He  published  in  1660  his  "Elements  of  Uni 
versal  Jurisprudence,"  (in  Latin,)  which  was  received 
with  general  favour.  Puffendorf  was  soon  after  appointed 
by  the  Elector-Palatine,  Charles  Louis,  professor  of  the 


law  of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Heidelberg,  that  chair 
having  been  created  expressly  for  him.  He  exposed  the 
absurdities  of  the  constitution  of  the  Germanic  empire 
in  his  work  "  De  Statu  Imperii  Germanici,"  published 
under  the  name  of  "  Severini  de  Mozambano,"  (1667,) 
which  attracted  great  attention.  On  the  invitation  of 
Charles  XI.  of  Sweden,  he  accepted  a  similar  professor 
ship  at  Lund  in  1670.  He  brought  out  in  1672  his 
greatest  work,  entitled  "On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of 
Nations,"  ("  De  Jure  Naturae  et  Gentium.")  This  treat 
ise  is  regarded  as  superior  in  some  respects  to  that  of 
Grotius.  The  new  principles  which  he  advocated  were 
violently  opposed  by  some  of  his  contemporaries  ;  but 
the  work  procured  for  him  a  durable  European  reputa 
tion.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
to  the  King  of  Sweden,  and  made  a  baron.  Died  at 
Berlin  in  1694. 

See  JENISCH,  "Vita  Pufendorfii,"  1802;  DANIEL  MUI.I.ER, 
"  L^udes  Pufendorfii,"  1723;  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  SAX,  "  Ono- 
masticon. " 

Pugatchef.     See  POOGATCHEF. 

Fugatschew.     See  POOGATCIIKF. 

Puget,  pii'zhy,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  painter  and 
architect,  was  a  son  of  Pierre,  noticed  below.  He  excelled 
in  portraits.  Died  in  1707. 

Puget,  (IIn.ARioN  PAUL  FKANC.OIS  BIENVENU,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  lie  had  a  high 
command  in  the  campaign  against  Spain  in  1793.  Died 
in  1828.  , 

Puget,  (Louis,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1629.  He  gained  distinction  by  researches  on  magnetism. 
Died  in  1709. 

Puget,  (PiEKRE,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor,  archi 
tect,  and  painter,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1622,  was  a  pupil 
of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  with  whom  he  worked  at  Rome. 
lie  worked  as  architect  at  Marseilles,  where  he  also 
painted  some  historical  pieces.  About  1655  he  renounced 
painting,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  devoted  himself  to 
sculpture,  on  which  his  celebrity  is  founded.  At  Geno;i, 
where  he  passed  some  years,  he  executed  an  admirable 
statue  of  Saint  Sebastian,  abas-relief  of  the  Assumption, 
and  other  works.  Having  been  invited  by  Colbert,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1669,  after  which  he  produced,  as 
sculptor,  "  Alexander  and  Diogenes,"  and  "  Milo  of  Cro- 
tona,"  which  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece.  He  has 
been  called  "the  Michael  Angelo  of  France."  Died  at 
Marseilles  in  1694. 

S'Je  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura  ;"  JiMHRic-DAVin,  "Vie 
de  P.  Puzet,  Peintre."  etc.,  1840:  FERAUD.  "  filoge  liistorique  <le 
P.  Pnset,"  1807;  A.  R.ABHE,  "filoge  de  P.  Puget,"  1807;  "  Xou- 
velle  ISiographie  Generale." 

Pughe,  pfi,  (WILLIAM  OWEN,)  a  Welsh  philologist 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Merionethshire  in  1759.  lie 
published  a  "  Welsh-and-English  Dictionary,"  (1703- 
1803,)  a  collection  of  old  Welsh  poetry  and  chronicles, 
entitled  "  Myvyrian  Archaiologv  of  Wales,"  (1801-07,) 
and  "Cambrian  Biography,"  (1803.)  Died  in  1835. 

Pugin,  pii'zhaN',  (AUGUSTUS,)  an  eminent  architec 
tural  draftsman,  born  in  Normandy  about  1765,  emi 
grated  to  London  in  his  youth.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture,  se 
lected  from  Various  Ancient  Edifices  of  England,"  (2 
vols.,  1821-23,)  an(l  "Specimens  of  the  Architectural 
Antiquities  of  Normandy, "  (1825-28.)  Died  in  1832. 

Pu'gin,  (AUGUSTUS  NORTIIMORE  WEI.BY,)  an' able 
English  architect,  born  in  London  in  1811,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  an  admirer  of  the  mediaeval  Gothic  style  of  archi 
tecture.  He  designed  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Marie  at 
Derby,  and  a  great  number  of  Roman  Catholic  churches 
at  Liverpool,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Reading,  Newcastle, 
and  other  places.  It  appears  that  his  zeal  would  not 
permit  him  to  build  a  Protestant  church.  His  writings, 
one  of  which  is  entitled  "  The  True  Principles  of  Pointed 
or  Christian  Architecture,"  (1841,)  contributed  much  to 
the  prevalence  of  the  Gothic  style  of  churches.  He 
ruined  his  constitution  by  excessive  labour,  was  sent  to 
a  lunatic-asylum,  and  died  in  1852. 

See  B.  FERREV.  "Recollections  of  A.  N.  Welby  Pugin  and  Au 
gustus  Pugin  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1861. 

Pugin,  (^EDWARD  WELBY,)  an  architect,  and  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1834.  He  designed  several 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  nfit;  good:  melon; 


PUG  L 10 


1849 


PULTENET 


large  churches  of  Liverpool,  and  completed  some  works 
which  his  father  had  commenced. 

Puglio.     See  PUI.IGO. 

Pugnani,  poon-ya'nee,  (GAETANO,)  an  Italian  com-  j 
poser,  born  at  Turin  in  1728  ;  died  in  1798. 

Pugnet,  piin'yi',  QEAN  FRANQOIS  XAVIKR,)  a  French  | 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  176$,  was  chief  phy 
sician  of  a  hospital  at  Dunkirk  from  1805  to  1821.    Died 
in  1846. 

Puibusque,  de,  deh  pii-e'biisk',  (Anoi.PHE  Louis,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.    He  obtained  j 
a  prize   of  the  French  Academy  for  his  "Comparative  ' 
History  of  the    Spanish    and    French    Literatures,"   (2  , 
vols.,  1843.) 

Puisaye,   de,   deh   pu-e'zi',   (JOSEPH   GEXEVIEVE,)  I 
COUNT,   a   French  royalist  general,  born   in  1754.     He  \ 
commanded  the  army  of  emigrants  and  Chouans  which  j 
was  completely  defeated  at  Quiberon  in  1794.     He  died 
in  England  in  1827. 

Fuiseux,  pu-e'zuh',  (VICTOR  AI.EXANDRE,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Argenteuil  in  1820.  He  became 
in  1857  professor  of  astronomy  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences 
in  Paris.  He  has  written  several  memoirs  on  astronomy. 

Puisieux,  de,  deh  pii-e'ze-uh',  (MADELEINE  n'Au- 
S\NT,)  <i  French  authoress,  bom  in  Paris  in  1720,  wrote 
"  Les  Caracteres,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1798. 

Puisieux,  de,  (PIERRE  BRUI.ART,)  VICOMTE,  Marquis 
de  Sillery,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1583. 
He  was  employed  in  important  missions  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIII. ,  with  whom  he  had  much  influence. 
Died  in  1640. 

Puissant,  pti-e'sflx',  (Louis,)  a  French  mathemati 
cian,  born  near  Chatelet  (Seine-et-Marne)  in  1769.  He 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  geodesy,  in  which  he  acquired 
eminence,  and  succeeded  LT  Place  in  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1828.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Geodesy,"  (1805.)  Died  in  1843. 

Pujati,  poo-ya'tee,  (GIUSEPPE  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  in  Friuli  in  1701.  He  became  professor 
at  Padua  in  1754.  Died  in  1760. 

Pujol,  pii'zhol',  (Ai.KXANDRE  DENIS  ABET.,)  called 
AISEL  DE  PUJOL,  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at 
Valenciennes  in  1785,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  gained 
the  first  prize  in  iSir,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "Saint  Stephen  preaching 
the  Gospel,"  "Caesar  on  the  Ides  of  March,"  and  a  large 
picture  of  the  "  Renaissance  of  the  Arts,"  painted  on  a 
ceiling  in  the  Louvre.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1835.  Died  in  1861. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ganerale." 

Pujol,  (Ai.EXis,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  near 
Be/iers  in  1 739.  His  best  work  is  an  "  Essay  on  Chronic 
Inflammations  of  the  Viscera,"  (1791.)  Died  in  1804. 

Pujoulx,  pii'zhoo',  (!EAN  BAPTTSTE,)  a  mediocre 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Gironde  in  1762  :  died  in  1821. 

Pulaski,  pu-las'ke,  [Polish  pron.  poo-las'kee,l  (Count 
CASIMIK,)  a  celebrated  Polish  officer,  was  born  in  1747. 
He  was  a  son  of  the  patriotic  Count  Pulaski  who 
formed  the  Confederation  of  Barr  in  1768.  Casimir 
took  arms  in  that  year  against  the  Russian  invaders, 
commanded  in  many  battles  and  sieges,  and  performed 
many  daring  exploits.  "Never  was  there  a  warrior," 
says  Rulhiere,  "who  possessed  greater  dexterity  in  every 
kind  of  service."  He  went  into  exile  in  1772,  and  en 
tered  the  service  of  the  United  States  in  1777.  Four 
days  after  the  battle  of  Brandvwine  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  cavalry,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  resigned  this  command  in  March,  1778,  and 
raised  a  body  called  Pulaski's  Legion,  which  was  ordered 
to  South  Carolina  in  February.  1779.  He  was  killed  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year,  at  the  siege  of  Savannah. 

See  SPARKS,  "American  Biography""  vol.  iv.  of  second  series. 

Pul-ehe'rI-a,  [Gr.  Hov7-\Fpta ;  Fr.  PITLCHERIE,  puT- 
shi're',]  Empress  of  the  E-\st,  born  in  399  A.D.,  was  a 
daughter  of  Arcadins.  She  croverned  the  empire  in  the 
name  of  her  brother  Theodosius  from  414  until  his 
death,  in  450  A.D.,and  in  her  own  name  from  that  event 
until  her  death,  in  453  A. n.  She  was  canonized  as  a 
saint  by  the  Greek  Church. 

See  GIIIBOV,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  CON-- 
TUCCI,  "Vita  deirimperatrice  Pulcheria,"  1754. 


Pulci,  pool'chee,  (BERNARDO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Florence  about  1425,  was  a  brother  of  Luigi,  noticed 
below.  He  translated  Virgil's  "  Bucolics,"  (1481.)  and 
wrote  several  elegies.  He  was  living  in  1494. 

Pulci,  (LuCA.)  an  Italian  poet,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  wrote  "  II  Ciriffo  Calvaneo,"  and  other 
poems. 

Pulci,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1431.  He  lived  on  familiar  terms  with  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  to  whom  his  wit  rendered  him  an  agreeable  com 
panion.  His  principal  work  is"Morgante  Maggiore," 
(1481,)  a  romantic  poem,  in  which  the  serious  and  ludi 
crous  are  blended,  and  which  contains  some  beautiful 
passages.  It  is  sometimes  styled  a  heroico-corr.ic  poem. 
He  employed  the  idioms  and  niceties  of  the  Tuscan 
language  with  much  skill.  His  style  was  commended 
as  a  model  by  Machiavel.  Died  about  1487. 

See  TIR^BOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italians ;"  LONG- 
FEI.I.OW.  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  GINGUEN'K.  "  Histoire 
Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  REV.  HENRY 
STEBBI.NG  :  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  article 
"Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  (by  PRESCOTT.) 

Pulgar,  del,  del  pool-gan',  (HERNANDO,)  a  Spanish 
historian  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Pulgar,  near 
Toledo,  about  1436.  He  was  appointed  in  1482  histo 
riographer  of  Castile  by  Queen  Isabella,  whom  he  served 
as  secretary  and  attended  in  various  journeys  and  cam 
paigns.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  (1565,)  which,  however,  does  not  extend 
quite  to  the  capture  of  Granada.  Among  his  works  is 
a  collection  of  biographies,  entitled  "Claros  Varones  de 
Espana,"  ("Illustrious  Men  of  Spain,"  1524.)  He  died 
about  1490. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  PRESCOTT, 
"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i.  ;  N.  ANTONIO, 
" Bib'.iotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Puligo,  poo-lee'go,  or  Puglio,  pool'yo,  (DoMENiCO,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1475  ;  died  in 
1527. 

Pul'lus  or  Pul'leii,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  cardinal, 
noted  as  a  promoter  of  learning.  Died  about  1150. 

Fulmann,  pool'man,  [written  in  Dutch  POK.LMANN,] 
(THEODOR,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Cleves  about  1510;  died  about  1580. 

Pulszky,  pool'ske,  (FRANCIS  AURELIUS,)  a  Hunga 
rian  writer  and  patriot,  born  at  Eperies  in  1814.  Having 
made  the  tour  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  he  published 
in  1837  "Extracts  from  the  Journal  of  a  Hungarian  trav 
elling  in  Great  Britain,"  (in  German.)  He  took  a  promi 
nent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  appointed 
uncler-secretary  of  state  for  Hungary.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  he  accompanied  Kossuth  as  an  inti 
mate  friend  to  America,  and  published  in  1851  an  account 
of  the  journey,  entitled  "  Red,  White,  and  Black,"  (in 
English,)  in  which  his  wife  had  a  part.  She  was  also  a 
contributor  to  his  "Tales  and  Traditions  of  Hungary," 
(3  vols.,  1851.) 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1851. 

Pulszky,  (THERESA,)  an  authoress,  the  wife  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1815.  She  was  mar 
ried  about  1845.  ^ne  published  "  Memoirs  of  a  Hunga 
rian  Lady,"  (in  English,  2  vols.,  1851.) 

Pulteney,  piilt'ne,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  botanist 
and  physician,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1730.  He  wrote 
a  "General  View  of  the  Writings  of  Linnaeus,"  (1782,) 
and  "  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany  in  England," 
(2  vols.,  1790.)  Died  in  iSoi. 

Pulteney,  (WILLIAM,)  Earl  of  Bath,  an  English 
•statesman  and  orator,  born  in  1682,  descended  from  an 
old  family  of  Leicestershire.  He  began  his  public  life 
as  a  Whig,  entered  Parliament  about  1705,  was  appointed 
secretary  at  war  on  the  accession  of  George  I.,  in  1715, 
and  became  abrilliant  debater  in  Parliament.  He  ceased 
lu  act  with  the  ministry  in  1725,  after  which  he  was  a 
determined  opponent  of  Walpole.  As  the  leader  of 
the  opposition,  or  the  "  patriots,''  he  enjoyed  great 
popularity  for  a  number  of  years.  He  contributed  to 
"The  Craftsman,"  edited  by  Lord  Bolingbroke.  "  He 
became,"  says  Lord  Macaulay,  "  the  greatest  leader  of 
opposition  that  the  House  of  Commons  had  ever  seen." 
(Review  of  Thackeray's  "Life  of  Chatham.")  When 
Walpole  was  removed  from  power,  in  1742,  Pulteney 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttttral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (!Jlf='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PULTOCK 


i8;o 


PUTNAM 


might  have  been  his  successor.  The  formation  of  a  new 
ministry  was  intrusted  to  him,  but,  from  timidity  or  some 
other  reason,  he  declined  the  office  of  prime  minister, 
and  recommended  the  incompetent  Lord  Wilmington. 
At  the  same  time  he  sacrificed  his  own  popularity  by 
accepting  the  title  of  Earl  of  Bath.  The  composition 
of  the  new  cabinet  was  unsatisfactory  to  his  party  and 
to  the  public.  His  rival,  Walpole,  meeting  him  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  said,  "  Here  we  are,  my  lord,  the  two 
most  insignificant  fellows  in  England."  "  He  was,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1840,  "one  of  the 
most  accomplished  debaters,  perhaps  one  of  the  finest 
speakers,  that  ever  appeared  in  our  senate.  .  .  .  His 
style  was  correct  and  classical  beyond  that  of  all  other 
men,  and  his  unpremeditated  compositions  were  as 
correct  and  elegant  as  his  most  prepared."  lie  died  in 
1764,  and  left  no  issue. 

See  CHALMERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generate." 

Pul'tock,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  author  of  the  eigh 
teenth  century.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  life.  He 
published  in  1750  "The  Life  and  Adventures  of  Peter 
\Vilkins,"  a  romance,  which  was  praised  by  Southey. 

Pulzoiie,  pool-xo'na,  (SciPiONE,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at.Gaeta  in  1550;  died  about  1590. 

Fu-pi-e'iius  Max'i-mus,  (Ci.onius,)  a  Roman 
officer,  who  was  elected  (238  A.n.)  emperor  with  Balbinus. 
He  was  killed  in  239  by  his  mutinous  soldiers. 

Purina,  poo-ra'na,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  an 
cient,"  and  applied  to  certain  sacred  books  of  the  Hin 
doos,  treating  of  the  creation,  destruction,  and  renovation 
of  worlds,  and  of  the  history  of  gods  and  heroes.  There 
are  eighteen  recognized  as  eminently  sacred.  The  pu- 
ranas  are  very  voluminous,  comprising,  according  to 
Professor  Wilson,  four  hundred  thousand  stanzas. 

See  WILSON'S  Preface  to  his  translation  of  the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Purbach,  pooR'baK,or  Peurbach,poiR'baK,(GEORG,) 
an  eminent  German  astronomer,  born  at  Peiirbach,  in 
Austria,  in  1423.  He  studied  at  Vienna  and  subsequently 
in  Italy,  and,  after  his  return,  succeeded  Gnunulen  as 
profess'or  of  astronomy  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  an  ex 
planation  of  the  first  six  books  of  the  "Almagest"  of 
Ptolemy,  and  a  work  entitled  "  New  Theories  of  the 
Planets,"  (" Theorise  novae  Planetarum,")  which  had  a 
high  reputation  in  his  time.  The  celebrated  Muller 
(Regiomontanus)  was  his  pupil.  Died  in  1461. 

Fur'cell,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  musician  and 
composer,  born,  probably  in  Westminster,  in  1658,  was 
a  pupil  of  Captain  Cook.  lie  became  organist  of  West 
minster  Abbey  in  1676,  and  one  of  the  organists  of  the 
chapel  royal  in  1682.  His  first  compositions  were  an 
thems,  which  were  greatly  admired.  He  displayed 
greater  genius  in  dramatic  music  and  other  secular 
music.  In  1690  he  produced  the  music  of  Lee's  "The- 
odosius ;  or,  The  Force  of  Love,"  and  that  of  the 
"Tempest"  as  altered  by  Dryden.  He  composed  many 
songs,  cantatas,  sonatas,  duets,  glees,  etc.  Among  his 
popular  works  are  the  song  "Genius  of  England," 
"Britons,  strike  Home,"  (in  "Bonduca,")  the  cantata 
of  "Mad  Bess,"  and  several  songs  in  Dryden's  "King 
Arthur."  He  is  considered  by  some  critics  the  most 
excellent  composer  that  England  has  produced.  Died 
in  November,  1695. 

See  BURNEV,  "  History  of  Music;"  FETIS,  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle  des  Musiciens." 

Purcell,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  musician  and  com 
poser,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  lie  became  a 
gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal  in  1660.  Died  in  1682. 

Fur'chas,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  compiler  of  travels, 
was  born  at  Thaxted,  in  Essex,  in  1577.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Martin's,  Ludgate,  in  London,  and  chap 
lain  to  Archbishop  Abbott.  He  published  "  Purchas 
his  Pilgrimage  ;  or,  Relations  of  the  World  and  the  Re 
ligions  observed  in  all  Ages  and  Places,"  etc.,  (1613,) 
and  "Purchas  his  Pilgrimes,"  (1625,)  which  are  collec 
tions  of  great  research  and  some  value.  Died  in  1628. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Puri,  poo'ree  or  pii're',  (DAVin,)  a  Swiss  philanthro 
pist,  born  at  Neufchatel  in  1709.  He  founded  a  hospital 
at  his  native  town,  to  which  he  bequeathed  about  five 
million  francs  for  charitable  objects.  Died  in  1786. 


Puricelli,  poo-re-chel'lee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Milan  about  1657;  died  in  1738. 

Puricelli,  (GIOVANNI  PIETRO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
priest,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1589.  He  published 
"  Ambrosianae  Mediolanx  Basilicas  Mouumenta,"  (1645.) 
Died  in  1659. 

Pursh,  (FREDERICK,)  a  distinguished  botanist,  born  at 
Tobolsk,  in  Siberia,  in  1774.  He  resided  in  the  United 
States  from  1799  to  1811,  and  in  the  latter  year  went  to 
England.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  the  plants 
of  North  America,  entitled  "Flora  Americas  Septentrio- 
nalis,"  (London,  1814.)  Died  at  Montreal  in  1820. 

Fur'ver,  (ANTHONY,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Hampshire  about  1702,  was  a  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  pro 
duced  a  new  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
which  he  published  (1764)  by  the  aid  of  Dr.  Fothergill. 
Died  in  1777.  Purver's  translation  of  the  Bible  has 
been  pronounced  superior  to  all  others  for  "closeness  to 
the  original."  (For  an  interesting  account  of  Purver's 
life,  see  "  Social  Hours  with  Friends,"  New  York,  1867, 

PP-  75-77-) 

See  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Puschkin.     See  POOSIIKIN. 

Pu'sey,  ( EDWARD  BOUVERIE,)  D.D.,  the  founder  of 
Puseyism,  was  born  in  1800.  Ills  father,  Philip  Bou- 
verie,  was  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Radnor,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  PUSEY.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1822, 
became  Fellow  of  Oriel  College,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
'and  Regius  professor  of  Hebrew  in  1828.  In  conjunction 
with  John  Henry  Newman,  he  wrote  "Tracts  for  the 
Times,"  (1833,)  which  produced  great  excitement.  He 
was  suspended  from  his  pastoral  functions  on  account 
of  a  sermon  on  the  eucharist,  which  he  preached  in  1843. 
lie  favours  auricular  confession  and  several  doctrines 
and  practices  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

S^e  R.  H.  HOUNR,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844. 

Pusey,  (Pmi.iP,)  an  agriculturist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1799.  He  inherited  an  estate 
in  Berkshire,  which  county  he  represented  in  Parliament 
from  1834  to  1852.  His  political  principles  were  con 
servative,  lie  wrote  several  essays  on  agriculture,  and 
edited  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society." 
Died  in  1855. 

Pushkin.     See  POOSHKIN. 

Futeaiius.     See  DUPUY. 

Puteauus,  pii-ta-a'nus,  (EkYClus,)  originally  HEN- 
DRIK  van  der  Putten,  (vtn  cler  put/ten,)  a  Flemish 
antiquary  and  historian,  born  at  Venloo  in  1574.  He 
became  in  1606  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Lou- 
vain.  Died  in  1646. 

Puthod,  pii'tod',  (JACQUES  PIERRE  MARIE  Louis 
JOSEPH,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Bresse  in  1769';  died 
in  1837. 

Putlitz,  poot'lits,  (GusTAV  HEINRICH  CANS,)  a  Ger 
man  nobleman  and  litterateur,  born  in  1821,  has  published 
several  dramas,  and  a  collection  of  charming  tales,  en 
titled  "What  the  Forest  tells  Itself,"  ("Was  sich  cler 
Wald  erzahlt.") 

Put'nam,  (ISRAEL,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
1718.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  French  war  by 
his  reckless  courage  and  adventurous  spirit,  and,  being 
captured  by  the  Indians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ticon- 
deroga  in  1758,  was  only  saved  from  being  burned  alive 
by  the  interposition  of  a  French  officer.  On  the  breaking- 
out  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  he  embraced  with  ardour 
the  cause  of  the  patriots,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his 
skill  and  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  He 
was  made  a  major-general  in  1775-  In  May,  1777,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Highlands 
in  New  York.  He  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  fortifications  at  West  Point.  Died  in  1790.  Among 
his  exploits  was  a  fight  with  a  wolf,  which  he  followed 
into  a  dark  cavern  with  a  torch  and  killed  with  a  gun. 
The  aperture  of  the  cavern  being  very  small,  he  crept 
in  head-foremost,  and  had  a  rope  fastened  to  his  legs,  by 
which  his  companions  drew  him  out.  This  occurred  at 
Pomfret,  Connecticut,  where  he  resided.  According  to 
President  Dwight,  he  was  a  "man  whose  generosity  was 
singular,  whose  honesty  was  proverbial,  who  raised  him- 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


PUTNAM 


1851 


PYM 


self  to  universal  esteem  and  offices  of  eminent  distinction 
by  personal  worth  and  a  useful  life." 

See  "  Essay  on  the  Life  of  General  Putnam,"  byD.  HUMPHREYS; 
O.  W.  PEABODY,  "  Life  of  Israel  Putnam,"  in  SPARKS'S  "  American 
Hiosraphy,"  vol.  vii. ;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Putnam,  (Rurus,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo 
lution,  born  at  Sutton,  Massachusetts,  in  1738,  was  one 
of  the  first  settlers  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  In  1788,  in 
company  with  a  considerable  number  of  colonists  from 
New  England,  he  founded  the  city  of  Marietta.  He 
was  appointed  in  1796  surveyor-general  of  United  States 
lands.  Died  in  1824. 

Putnam,  (WILLIAM  LOWELL,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Boston  in  1840.  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  James 
R.  Lowell.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  gave 
promise  of  extraordinary  genius.  Having  enlisted  as 
a  lieutenant,  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff, 
October,  i86r. 

Putschius,  put'sKe-us,  (El.iAS.)  a  Flemish  philolo 
gist,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1580.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  the  ancient  grammarians,  entitled 
'•Grammatics  Latina;  Auctores  antiqui,"  (1605.)  Died 
at  Stade  in  1606. 

Putte,  van,  (HENRY.)     See  DUPUY,  (HENRY.) 

Putteuham,  put'ten-am,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  poet, 
born  about  1533.  He  wrote  "  Partheniades,"  and  "The 
Art  of  Poesie,"  (1589.)  Died  about  1600. 

Putter  or  Puetter,  put'ter,  (JOIIANN  STEPHAN,)  a 
celebrated  German  publicist,  born  at  Iser!ohn,in  West 
phalia,  in  1725.  He  became  in  1757  professor  of  public 
law  at  Gottingen,  where  he  lectured  more  than  forty 
years.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Institutes 
of  German  Public  Law,"  ("  Institutiones  Juris  public! 
Germanici,"  1770,)  and  a  "  Historical  Development  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1786.) 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1807. 

See  "Putters  Selbstbiographie,"  179?.  TfMit-<S(**fs*'-  •*•' J"a<'- 

Puvis,  pii'vess',  (MARC  ANTOINE,)  a  French  agricul 
turist,  born  at  Cuiseaux  (Saone-et-Loire)  in  1776.  He 
rendered  important  services  by  his  experiments  and 
writings  on  agriculture.  Died  in  1851. 

Puy,  du.     See  DrruY. 

Fuymaurin,  de,  deh  pii-e'ino'i  ax',  (NICOLAS  JOSEPH 
DE  MARCASSU.S,)  a  French  administrator  and  painter, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1718;  died  in  1791.  His  son,  JEAN 
PIERRE  CASIMIR,  (1757-1841,)  was  a  useful  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  wrote  some  scientific 
treatises. 

Puysegur,  de,.  deh  pu-e'za'guR',  (ANTOINE  HYA- 
ciN'i'HE  ANNE,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  in  1752; 
died  in  1809. 

Puysegur,  de,(  ARM  AND  MARIE  JACQUES  de  Chaste- 
net — deh  shat'iuY,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born 
in  1751.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  animal  magnet 
ism,  on  which  he  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1825. 

Puysegur,  de,  (JACQUES  FRANCOIS  DE  CHASTENET,) 
MARQUIS,  an  able  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in 
1656.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  in  1703,  with  the  title  of 
director-general  of  the  troops,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1704.  In  1734  he  received 
a  marshal's  baton.  Died  in  1743.  He  left  a  " Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  War."  His  father,  JACQUES,  born  in  1602, 
was  a  general  of  some  distinction.  Died  in  1682. 

See  DF.  COI'RCEI.LES,  "  Dictionnaire  cles  Generaux  Francais. " 

Puzos,  pii'/o',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1686,  excelled  in  obstetrics.  Died  in  1753. 

Pyat,  pe'3',  (FEi.ix,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Vierzon  (Cher)  in  1810.  He  has  composed  several 
dramas  and  contributed  to  various  journals.  He  is  a 
radical  in  politics.  He  joined  Ledru-Rollin  in  a  se 
ditious  plot  in  June,  1849,  since  which  he  has  been  an 
exile. 

Pye,  pi,  (HENRY  JAMES,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1745.  He  translated  Aristotle's  "Poetics," 
and  wrote  many  poems,  among  which  are  "The  Progress 
of  Refinement,"  (1783.)  and  "Alfred,''  an  epic  poem, 
(1802.)  He  became  poet-laureate  in  1790,  and  was  a 
member  of  Parliament.  Died  in  1813. 

Pye,  (Tonx,)  an  English  engraver  of  landscapes,  was 
born  at  Birmingham  in  1782.  He  engraved  with  success 


some  pictures  of  Turner,  among  which  are  "  Pope's 
Villa"  and  "The  Temple  of  Jupiter."  He  published  a 
work  entitled  "  Patronage  of  British  Art,"  (1845.) 

Fyg-ma'li-on,  [Tlv/na'/j.uv,]  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
king  of  Cyprus,  who  is  said  to  have  fallen  in  love  with 
an  ivory  image  of  a  young  woman  which  he  had  formed, 
and  which  Venus  at  his  request  endowed  with  life. 

Pygmalion,  King  of  Tyre,  and  a  son  of  Belus,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  800  K.C.,  and  to  have  been 
the  brother  of  Dido,  who  founded  Carthage. 

See  VIRC.IL'S  "yEneid,"  book  i. 

Pygmees  or  Pygmaei.     See  PYGMIES. 

Pyg'mies,  [Gr.  Hv^ncuoi ;  Lat.  PYGM.-EI,  pig-mee'i ; 
Fr.  PYGMEES,  peg'ma',]  a  fabulous  nation  of  dwarfs, 
whom  the  ancients  supposed  to  live  near  the  sources  of 
the  Nile,  or  in  India.  According  to  Homer,  they  waged 
against  the  cranes  a  warfare  which  was  annually  re 
newed.  Some  writers  relate  that  an  army  of  pygmies 
once  assailed  Hercules  when  he  was  asleep. 

Pylade.     See  PYLADES. 

Pyl'a-des,  [Gr.  Hv/ju6?jf  :  Fr.  PYLADE,  pe'ltd',]  a  son 
of  Strophius,  King  of  Phocis,  was  a  cousin  and  intimate 
friend  of  Orestes,  whose  sister  Electra  he  married.  The 
friendship  of  Pylades  and  Orestes  was  proverbial.  (See 
ORESTES.) 

Pyle,  pil,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1674.  He  was  prebendary  of  Salisbury,  and 
vicar  of  Saint  Margaret,  at  Lynn.  He  wrote  paraphrases 
on  the  Acts,  Epistles,  and  some  other  books  of  the  Bible. 
Died  in  1756. 

Fym,  (JOHN, )  an  eminent  British  statesman  and 
orator,  born  at  Brymore,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1584.  He 
entered  Broadgate  Hall,  now  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
in  1599,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1614,  after  he 
had  acquired  financial  skill  by  a  service  of  some  years 
in  the  Exchequer.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  country 
party,  and  so  strenuously  opposed  the  measures  of  the 
court  that  King  James  I.  stigmatized  him  as  "a  very  ill- 
tempered  spirit."  He  represented  Tavistock  in  all  the 
Parliaments  held  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  In  1626  he 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  an  impeachment  against  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  made  a  speech  for  which  he 
was  imprisoned  by  the  court.  He  was  released  on  his 
election  to  the  third  Parliament.  He  was  once  a  friend 
of  Wentworth,  who,  having  resolved  to  desert  the  pop 
ular  cause,  obtained  a  private  interview  with  Pym  and 
began  to  sound  him  in  a  set  speech.  Pym,  understand 
ing  his  drift,  stopped  him  short  with  these  words  :  "  You 
need  not  use  all  this  art  to  tell  me  that  you  have  a  mind 
to  leave  us ;  but,  remember  what  I  tell  you,  I  will  never 
leave  you  while  your  head  is  on  your  shoulders!"  In 
the  Parliament  which  met  in  April,  1640,  Pym  made  a 
long  and  celebrated  speech  on  grievances.  "A  more 
massive  document,"  says  Forster,  "was  never  given  to 
history."  Pym  and  Hampden  were  the  most  eminent 
leaders  of  the  popular  party  when  the  Long  Parliament 
met,  in  November,  1640.  He  attacked  Wentworth  (now 
Earl  of  Strafford)  in  a  powerful  speech,  which  had  such 
an  effect  that  he  was  unanimously,  and  without  delay, 
impeached  of  high  treason.  "The  result,"  says  Forster, 
"proved  this  to  have  been,  what  Pym  anticipated,  the 
master-stroke  of  the  time.  It  struck  instant  terror  into 
every  quarter  of  the  court,  and  left  the  king,  for  a  time, 
powerless  and  alone."  At  the  trial  of  Strafford  he  ap 
peared  as  accuser.  His  influence  is  thus  estimated  by 
Clarendon:  "I  think  Mr.  Pym  was  at  this  time  [1641] 
the  most  popular  man,  and  the  most  able  to  do  hurt, 
that  hath  lived  in  any  time."  On  the  22d  of  November, 
1641,  he  presented  to  the  House  the  Grand  Remon 
strance,  a  final  appeal  to  the  people.  In  January,  1642, 
the  king  attempted  to  arrest  Pym. and  four  other  mem 
bers  of  the  House  ;  but  they  escaped.  (See  CHARLES 
I.,  and  HAMPDEN.)  Pym  had  received,  through  Lady 
Carlisle,  timely  notice  of  this  attempt.  At  a  conference 
of  the  two  Houses  on  the  subject  of  grievances,  in  the 
same  month,  Pym  made  a  celebrated  speech.  He  was 
nicknamed  "King  Pym"  by  the  royalists.  He  was  ap 
pointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  ordnance  of  the  king 
dom  in  November,  1643.  He  d;ed  in  December  of  that 
year,  leaving  several  children.  Pym  was  a  consummate 
master  of  parliamentary  science  and  political  tactics.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PYM 


PTRRHUS 


was  not  extreme  in  his  opinions,  and  did  not  partake 
of  the  Puritanic  formality  and  rigorism  which  prevailed 
among  the  members  of  his  party.  "There  is  nothing 
more  remarkable  in  the  speeches  of  Pym,"  says  Forster, 
"than  what  maybe  emphatically  termed  their  -wisdom. 
.  .  .  The  wisdom  I  have  spoken  of  was,  as  it  always 
is  with  the  greatest  men,  a  junction  of  the  plain  and 
practical  with  the  profound  and  contemplative  ;  to  such 
an  extent,  however,  in  his  case,  and  in  such  perfection, 
as  may  not  be  equalled  in  that  of  any  other  speaker  of 
ancient  or  modern  times,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Burke." 

See  FORSTER,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  British  Statesmen  ;"  CLAREN 
DON,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  HUME,  "History  of  England." 

Pym,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Edinburgh  or  in  Warwickshire  about  1775.  He  served 
as  surgeon  in  the  army,  and  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  army  hospitals  about  1816.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Yellow  Fever,"  (1815.)  Died  in 
1861. 

Pynacker.     See  PYNAKER. 

Pynaker  or  Pynacker,  pi'na'ker,  (ADAM,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Pynaker,  between  Delft 
and  Schiedam,  in  1621.  lie  studied  at  Rome,  and  re 
turned  to  Holland.  "  In  his  small  compositions,"  says 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "he  shows  himself  a  skil 
ful  artist.  We  distinguish  the  form  and  aspect  of  the 
different  species  of  trees  ;  his  colour  is  always  beautiful 
and  true  ;  his  distances  and  skies  are  vapory,"  etc. 
Died  about  1676. 

See  DKSCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peiatres  Hollandais." 

Pyn'chon,  (Wn.i.iAM,)  an  Anglo-American  writer 
on  theology,  born  about  1591.  He  emigrated  from 
England  in  1630,  and  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  of 
Springfield,  Massachusetts.  Died  in  Buckinghamshire 
in  1662. 

Pyne,  pin,  QAMES  1!.,)  an  able  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1800.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  about  1835,  and  visited  Italy  and  Switzerland 
in  1846.  In  1853)16  published  some  beautiful  landscapes 
in  a  volume  entitled  "The  English  Lake  District."  His 
style  is  vigorous  a:ul  brilliant,  but  not  free  from  manner 
ism.  Ife  was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of  British 
Artists  for  many  years.  Died  in  1870. 

Pyne,  (WILLIAM  HKNKY,)  an  English  painter  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1770.  He  painted  portraits 
and  landscapes  with  some  success,  but  gained  more 
distinction  by  his  publications,  viz.,  "The  Microcosm, 
or  a  Picturesque  Delineation  of  the  Arts,  Manufactures, 
etc.  of  Great  Britain,"  (1803,)  a  "  History  of  the  Royal 
Residences,"  (3  vols.,  1819,)  and  "  Wine  and  Walnuts," 
(1823.)  Died  in  1843. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  vii. 

Pyn'son,  (RiCHAKD,)  an  early  printer,  who  was  born 
in  Normandy,  and  lived  in  England  about  1500.  He  was 
king's  printer  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Pyot,  pe'o',  (JE.\\  JACQUES  RICHARD,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Isomes  (Haute-Marne)  in  1792;  died  in 
1841. 

Pypers,  pl'pers,  (PIETKK,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amersfoort  in  1749.  He  wrote  several  short  poems, 
and  produced  many  dramas,  some  of  which  were  trans 
lated  or  imitated  from  the  French.  Died  in  1805. 

See  VAN  DEK  AA,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek." 

Pyra,  pee'ra,  QACOB  EMANUKL,)  a  German  poet,  born 
in  Lusatia  in  1715.  He  wrote  "The  Temple  of  True 
Poetry,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1744. 

Fyr'a-mus,  [Fr.  PYKAME,  pe'rfm'.  ]     See  THISBE. 

Pyrard,  pe'rtii',  (FitANgois,)  a  French  voyager,  born 
at  Laval  about  1570.  He  published  a  "Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  to  the  East  Indies,"  (1611,)  which  is  highly 
commended.  Died  in  1621. 

Py-re'i-cus,  a  Greek  painter  of  unknown  period,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  after  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
painted  low  subjects  with  success. 

Pyr-got'e-les,  [IIvpyoreA^f,]  an  excellent  Greek  en 
graver  of  gerns,  lived  about  330  B.C.  An  edict  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great  designated  him  as  the  only  artist  who 
was  permitted  to  engrave  the  royal  seal-rings  or  gems. 
The  extant  works  ascribed  to  him  are  probably  forgeries. 


Pyrker,  peeR'ker,  (JOHANN  LADISLAW,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Langh,  in  Hungary,  in  1772.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Erlau  in  1821.  Among  his  poems  is  one 
entitled  "  Pearls  of  the  Good  Old  Time,"  ("  Perlen  der 
heiligen  Vor/eit,"  1823.)  Died  in  1847. 

Py-rom'a-ehus,  [  llvp<>/m,\of,  ]  sometimes  written 
Phyromachus  or  Philomachus,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  300  or  250 
K.C.  A  famous  statue  of  Asclepius  is  ascribed  to  him. 

Pyr'rha,  a  daughter  of  Epimetheus  and  Pandora,  was 
the  wife  of  Deucalion.  According  to  tradition,  she  and 
her  husband  were  saved  in  an  ark  when  mankind  were 
generally  drowned  by  a  deluge.  (See  DEUCALION.) 

Pyr'rho  or  Fyr'rhon,  [fli^wv,]  a  Greek  philosopher 
and  skeptic,  was  a  native  of  Elis,  and  was  born  about 
380  n.c.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Anaxarchus  or  Anaxan- 
drus.  It  is  said  that  he  accompanied  Alexander  the 
Great  to  India.  His  writings,  if  he  left  any,  arc  nut 
extant.  He  had  numerous  disciples,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  a  skeptical  school,  the  doctrines  of  which 
are  called  Pyrrhonism.  lie  recommended  a  suspension 
of  judgment,  and  cultivated  a  habitual  composure  or 
tranquillity  of  mind,  (u-atifia.)  After  his  return  from 
India  he  became  high-priest  at  Elis.  Died  about  the 


See  C.  MAI. LET,  "  fittides  philosophiques,"  tome  ii.  ;  DIOGKNKS 


LABKTIUS;  MUNCH,  "  I)e  Notione  et  Indole  Scepticism!  nominatim 


Pyrrhonism!,"  1797;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Pyirhcm.     See  PVRRIIO. 

Pyrrhus.     See  NKOPTOI.KMUS. 

Pyr'rhus,  [rb'yW;-,]  King  of  Epirns,  a  son  of  King 
/Eacides  and  Phthia,  was  born  about  318  B.C.  His 
father  was  killed  in  battle  while  Pyrrhus  was  a  child. 
The  young  prince  himself  was  expelled  by  the  Epirotes 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  then  joined  the  army  of 
Demetrius,  who  was  his  brother-in-law.  He  signali/.ed 
his  courage  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  (501  i:.c.)  I  laving 
raised  a  small  army,  he  entered  Epirus,  and  obtained 
the  throne  in  295  B.C.  His  courage  and  generosity 
rendered  him  very  popular.  Ambition  appears  to  have 
been  his  ruling  passion.  In  291  i:.c  he  was  involved  in 
a  war  against  Demetrius,  his  brother-in-law,  for  the  pos 
session  of  Macedonia,  which  he  invaded  in  287  n.c.  The 
army  which  Demetrius  led  against  him,  impelled  by  ad 
miration  of  the  character  of  Pyrrhus,  deserted  to  him  in 
a  body,  and  Demetrius  fled  from  the  kingdom.  Pyrrhus 
divided  his  conquest  with  his  ally  Lysimachus,  who  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  Macedonia.  An  irresistible 
temptation  was  presented  to  the  ambition  of  Pyrrhus  by 
the  Tarentines,  who  in  281  B.C.  solicited  his  aid  in  a  war 
against  the  Romans.  His  wise  minister  Cineas  could 
not  prevail  on  him  to  renounce  his  vast  projects  of  for 
eign  conquest.  In  280  n.c.  he  crossed  over  to  Italy  with 
about  25,000  men  and  a  number  of  elephants.  The 
frivolous  and  unwai  like  Tarentines  failed  to  support  him 
with  the  large  army  which  they  had  promised,  lie  en 
countered  the  superior  numbers  of  the  Romans  on  the 
river  Siris,  and  defeated  them  after  a  long  and  obstinate 
contest.  His  victory  was  so  clearly  bought  that  he  is 
reported  to  have  said,  "  Another  such  victory,  and  I  must 
return  to  Epirus  alone."  He  made  overtures  of  peace, 
which  were  rejected  by  the  Roman  senate. 

In  279  R.c.  another  battle  was  fought,  near  Asculum, 
where  the  Romans  lost  6000  and  Pyrrhus  3500  men. 
Pyrrhus  was  unable  to  improve  his  victory,  and,  having 
received  an  invitation  to  aid  the  Greeks  of  Sicily  against 
the  Carthaginians,  he  concluded  a  truce  with  the  Romans 
in  278  n.c.  He  remained  two  years  in  Sicily,  and  gained 
some  victories,  but  failed  to  conquer  the  island.  "  Hav 
ing  returned  to  Tarentum  to  renew  the  war  against  the 
Romans,  he  was  defeated  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus  near 
Beneventum.  He  retired  from  Italy  to  Epirus  in  274. 
B.C.,  and  invaded  Macedonia,  of  which  he  soon  became 
master  in  consequence  of  the  desertion  of  the  Macedonian 
army  from  Antigonus  Gonatas.  At  the  request  of  Cle- 
onymus,  he  engaged  in  a  new  enterprise,  a  war  against 
the  Spartans,  who  repulsed  his  attack  on  their  capital. 
He  was  killed  in  Argos,  in  battle,  in  272  B.C.,  after  hav 
ing  been  stunned  by  a  tile  thrown  from  a  house  by  a 
woman.  He  was  the  greatest  general  of  his  time,  and 
Hannibal  is  reported  to  have  said  that  he  was  the  great- 


ii,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


PYTHAGORAS 


•853 


PYTHON 


est  of  any  age.  "He  was  reputed,"  says  Plutarch,  "to  i 
excel  in  military  experience  and  personal  prowess  all  the 
princes  of  his  time.  But  what  he  gained  by  his  achieve 
ments  he  lost  by  vain  hopes  ;  his  desire  of  something 
absent  never  suffered  him  effectually  to  persevere  in  a 
present  pursuit." 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Pyrrhus;"  J.  B.  JOURDAN,  "  Histoire 
de  Pyrrhus,"  2  vols.,  1749,  and  English  version  of  the  same  ;  LIVY, 
"History  of  Rome,"  book  xxxv.  ;  JACOB  ABBOTT,  "History  of 
Pyrrhus,"  1853. 

Fy-thag'o-ras,  [Gr.  Uv9a-/6pac :  Fr.  PYTHAGORE,  pe'- 
ti'goR' ;    It.    PITAGORA,  pe-ta'go-ra,]   one  of  the   most 
celebrated  philosophers  of  antiquity,  was  born  in  Samos  | 
about  600  B.C.     Very  little  is  known  with  certainty  re-  i 
specting  his  personal  history.      His  father  was  Mnesar-  | 
cnus,  a  merchant,  and  generally  believed   to   have  been 
a   foreigner,  (not    a   native  of   Samos,)    but  whether    a 
Phcenician  or  Pelasgian  is  uncertain.    He  is  said  to  have 
been  first  instructed  in  his  own  country  by  Creophilus, 
and  afterwards  by  Pherecydes  in   Syros.     There  was  a 
prevailing  belief  among  the   ancients   that   Pythagoras 
travelled  very  extensively,  visiting  Egypt,  Babylon,  and 
even  India.    That  he  visited  Egypt  seems  very  probable, 
and   it   is   perhaps    not    improbable    that    he  journeyed 
as  far  as  Babylonia.     The  notion  that  he  included  India 
in  his  travels  would  seem  to  have  no  other  ground  than  I 
the  circumstance   that   certain   doctrines  of  his  bear  a  | 
striking  resemblance  to  some  of  those  held  by  the  Indian  j 
Brahmans  or  Booddhists.     He  not  only  taught  the  doc-  | 
trine  of  metempsychosis,   (or  transmigration   of  souls,) 
but,  like  the  Hindoos,  made  this  the  ground  for  incul 
cating   the   duty  of  kindness   and    tenderness    towards 
animals,  and  of  abstinence  from  their  flesh.    It  is  related 
that   on  a  certain  occasion   he   interceded  to  prevent  a 
clog  from  being  beaten,  saying  that  he  recognized  in  its 
cries  the  voice  of  one  of  his  friends  who  had  died.     Py 
thagoras   attached   a  great  importance  to  the  study  of 
mathematics.    He  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  several 
important  geometrical   theorems,  among  which  may  be 
named  the  following  :  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  together  equal   to  two  right  angles,  and  that  in  any 
right-angled  triangle  the   square  formed  on  the   hypo 
tenuse  is  equal   to  the   sum   of  the  squares  of  the  two 
sides.     He   is  said  also  to  have   been  the  inventor  of 
stringed  musical  instruments. 

It  is  said  that  Pythagoras  first  made  use  of  the  word 
philosopher,  (4>i/.6cro0of,)  applying  it  to  himself.  He  had, 
we  are  told,  witnessed  the  various  public  games  of 
Greece,  and  came  at  length  to  Phlius,  in  Achaia.  Leon, 
the  king  of  that  country,  was  delighted  with  his  ingenuity 
and  eloquence,  and  asked  him  what  art  or  profession  he 
followed.  He  replied  that  he  was  a  philosopher.  Leon 
asked  him  wherein  philosophers  differed  from  other  men. 
Pythagoras  answered  that  as  at  the  public  games  some 
were  contending  for  glory  and  others  were  buying  and 
selling  for  the  sake  of  gain,  but  there  was  one  class 
who  came  simply  as  spectators,  so  in  human  life  there 
were  those  who,  regarding  as  unworthy  of  a  wise  man 
the  desire  of  fame  or  of  gain,  sought  above  all  to  be 
come  wise :  those  he  called  philosophers,  or  lovers  of 
wisdom. 

Pythagoras  differed  essentially  from  the  other  cele 
brated  teachers  of  wisdom  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
in  that  he  combined  the  character  of  priest  with  that  of 
philosopher.  He  appears  to  have  given  great  attention  to 
the  means  of  acquiring  influence  over  the  minds  of  men, 
and  for  this  purpose  established  a  secret  brotherhood 
among  his  disciples  and  followers.  He  had  certain  doc 
trines  of  which  he  spoke  only  to  his  chosen  disciples, 
which,  as  being  strictly  limited  to  those  within  the 


favoured  circle,  were  called  esoter'ic,  (iaurfpiKu.)  Other 
doctrines  were  treely  communicated  to  those  "without,  or 
to  the  people  at  large  :  these  were  called  exoter'ic,  (i^u-s- 
(Mia.)  One  of  the  necessary  parts  of  the  discipline  of  his 
pupils  was  the  practice  of  absolute  silence.  According 
to  some  authorities,  they  were  required  to  maintain 
silence  for  five  years,  and  during  that  period  were  not 
allowed  once  to  behold  the  face  of  Pythagoras ;  but  this 
is  probably  an  exaggeration. 

So  great  %vas  his  authority  with  his  disciples  that  when 
any  one  asked  why  they  believed  this  or  practised  that, 
they  were  wont  to  answer,  arrdf  ifyrj,  (or  tya,)  i.e.  "  he 
himself  said  so,"  (in  Latin,  ipse  itixit,)  which  was  re 
garded  as  the  most  efficient  mode  of  silencing  all  cavils 
or  doubts. 

Pythagoras,  on  returning  from  his  travels,  settled  at 
Crotona,  in  Italy,  where  for  a  time  he  seems  to  have  pos 
sessed  an  almost  boundless  influence  over  the  minds  of 
the  people.  Many  of  the  most  wealthy  and  influential 
among  the  citizens  of  Crotona  joined  the  brotherhood, 
which  soon  became  the  controlling  power  in  the  state. 
Its  extraordinary  success  appears  to  have  rendered  its 
members  so  arrogant  that  they  became  objects  of  jeal 
ousy  and  bitter  hatred  to  those  who  were  not  admitted 
to  the  favoured  circle, — that  is,  to  the  large  majority  of 
the  populace.  An  attack  was  made  upon  them  while 
assembled  in  one  of  their  general  meetings.  The  building 
in  which  they  met  was  set  on  fire,  so  that  a  great  number 
of  them  perished  in  the  flames :  only  the  younger  and 
more  active,  it  is  said,  were  able  to  escape.  According 
to  one  account,  Pythagoras  himself  perished  with  the 
others  on  this  occasion,  though  some  writers  state  that 
he  died  at  Metapontum  soon  after  the  expulsion  of  his 
disciples  from  Crotona.  A  similar  reaction  took  place 
in  other  parts  of  Italy;  many  of  the  Pythagoreans  were 
killed,  and  many  others  were  driven  into  exile.  The 
brotherhood  as  an  organization  was  completely  sup 
pressed.  Amid  the  uncertainty  which  prevails  in  regard 
to  the  history  of  Pythagoras  and  his  doctrines,  we  can 
form  only  an  imperfect  conjecture  respecting  the  greater 
number  of  his  religious  and  philosophic  tenets.  None 
of  his  writings  are  extant ;  and  what  we  know  of  his 
philosophy  is  derived  mainly  from  writers  who  under 
stood  it  very  imperfectly. 

See  ANDRE  DACIER,  "  Vie  de  Pythagore,"  1706;  A.  POSTEI.MAN, 
"  Leveii  van  Pythagoras,"  1724;  HAMBEKGER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita 
et  Symbolis  Pythagorae,"  1678;  EILSTOCK,  "  Historisch-kritisches 
Leben  des  weltweiseu  Pythagoras,"  1756;  TIEDEMANN,  "  Griechen- 
lands  erste  Philqsophen,  oder  Leben  des  Orpheus,  Pythagoras,"  etc., 
1780;  HEINKICH  RITTER,  "Geschichte  der  Pythagoraischen  Philo 
sophic,"  1826  ;  REINHOI.IJ.  "  Beitrag  zur  EHautening  der  PythagorS- 
ischen  Metaphysik,"  1827;  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  G 
H.  LEWES,  "  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy." 

Fyth'e-as  [Gr.  Uvdeas ;  Fr.  PYTHEK,  pe'ta'j  of  Mas- 
silia,  in  Gaul,  an  ancient  Greek  navigator  of  unknown 
period.  He  probably  lived  between  350  and  200  is.c 
He  sailed  to  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  discoveries,  which  is  not 
extant.  He  described  a  place  called  Thule,  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  earth,  sea,  and  air.  His  statements  were 
credited  by  Hipparchus,  but  discredited  by  Strabo  and 
others. 

Fythee.     See  PYTHEAS. 

Fyth'i-a,  the  name  of  the  priestess  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  where  she  uttered  oracles. 

Pythias.     See  DAMON. 

Pyth'i-us,  [fltftof,]  a  surname  of  Apollo,  applied  to 
him  because  he  was  worshipped  at  Delphi,  the  ancient 
name  of  whi.-.h  was  Pytho. 

Fy'thon,  [Ili'flwv,]  the  name  of  a  fabulous  dragon  of 
Delphi,  killed  by  Apollo. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


QU4CKENBOS 


1 854 


QUATREMERE 


Q. 


Quack'en-bos,  (GEORGE  PAYNE,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  New  York  in 
1826,  has  published  an  "  Advanced  Course  of  Compo 
sition  and  Rhetoric,"  (1854,)  "Primary  History  of  the 
United  States,"  (1860,)  "English  Grammar,"  (1862,)  and 
other  works. 

Quade,  kwa'deh,  (MICHAEL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1628.  lie  wrote  much 
of  what  the  Germans  call  micrologic, — i.e.  treatises  on 
minute  or  unimportant  subjects.  Died  in  1757. 

See  OEI.KICHS,  "  Memoria  M.  F.  Quade,"  1758. 

Quaden,  kwa'den,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  German  geogra 
pher,  born  at  Kilkenbach  ;  died  at  Cologne  in  1609. 

Quad-ra'tus,  |Gr.  Kofya-oc,]  an  early  Christian  min 
ister,  who,  according  to  Saint  Jerome,  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Athens  in  125  A.D.  He  presented  an  Apology  for 
the  Christian  religion  to  Adrian  in  126  A.I). 

Quadri,  kwa'dnee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
statistics  and  political  economy,  was  bom  at  Vicenza  in 
1777.  He  obtained  in  1815  the  office  of  secretary  of  the 
government  at  Venice. 

Quadri,  (GIOVANNI  Lonovico,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1700;  died  in  1748. 

Quad-ri-ga'ri-us,  (QuiNTtis  CLAUDIUS,)  a  Roman 
historian,  lived  about  80  li.c.  He  wrote  Roman  Annals, 
some  extracts  from  which  are  preserved  by  Aulus 
Gellius. 

Quadrio,kwa'dRe-o,  (FRANCESCO  SAVERIO,)  a  learned 
Italian  Jesuit  and  critic,  born  in  Valtellina  in  1695.  IIG 
was  employed  as  professor  at  Padua,  Bologna,  Venice, 
etc.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  general  his 
tory  of  poetry  of  all  nations,  ("  Storia  e  Ragione  cl'ogni 
Poesia,"  7  vols.,  1739-59,)  a  work  of  great  labour  and 
some  value.  It  contains  extracts  from  a  great  number 
of  poets.  Died  in  1756. 

Quaglio,  kwal'yo,  (  ANGELO,)  an  able  scene-painter, 
was  a  brother  of  the  following.  Died  in  1815. 

Quaglio,  (DoMENiCO,)  a  painter,  born  at  Munich  in 
1786,  was  surnamed  THE  GERMAN  CANALETTO.  He 
acquired  a  wide  reputation  as  a  painter  of  architecture. 
Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  Ratisbon  Cathedral. 
He  contributed  much  to  revive  a  taste  for  the  archi 
tecture  of  the  middle  ages.  Died  in  1837.  His  father. 
GIUSEPPE,  born  in  1747,  was  a  skilful  scene-painter. 
Died  at  Munich  in  1828. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemekies  Kikistler-Lexikon." 

Quaglio,  (GiULlo,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Laino,  was  the  ancestor  of  several  artists,  noticed  above 
and  below.  Died  in  1800. 

Quaglio,  (LORENZO,)  an  architect,  born  at  Laino  in 
1730,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Maria,  an  architect,  who 
worked  at  Vienna.  Lorenzo  designed  theatres  at  Man- 
heim  and  Frankfort.  He  died  at^Munich  in  1804.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  Giuseppe,  noticed  above,  and  father  of 
GIOVANNI  MARIA,  a  painter  of  architecture  and  dra 
matic  scenery,  who  was  born  in  1772. 

Quain,  kwan,  (JoNES,)  a  skilful  anatomist,  born  at 
Mallow,  Ireland,  studied  in  Paris.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the 
London  University,  now  called  University  College,  and 
resigned  this  position  in  1836.  His  chief  work  is  "  Ele 
ments  of  Anatomy,"  (6th  edition,  1856,)  which  is  said  to 
be  better  than  any  English  work  previously  published 
on  systematic  anatomy.  Died  in  1865. 

Quain,  (RICHARD,')  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  and  a  distinguished  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was 
born  at  Mallow.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at 
University  College,  London,  about  1836.  lie  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  clinical  surgery  at  the  University 
College  Hospital  in  1848.  He  published  an  excellent 
work  entitled  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Arteries  of  the 
Human  Body,"  (1845.) 

Quain,  (RICHARD,)  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  became 
a  physician  to  the  Consumption  Hospital,  Brompton,ancl 
invented  an  instrument  called  the  Stethometer. 


Quaini,  kwi'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1611,  was  particularly  successful  in 
painting  architectural  views.  Died  about  1680. 

Quaini,  ( Lonovico,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
at  Bologna  in  1643,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Cignani, 
whom  he  imitated.  He  is  said  to  have  painted  the  land 
scapes  and  architecture  of  some  of  Cignani's  great  works. 
He  worked  in  partnership  with  Franceschini  at  Rome, 
Genoa,  etc.,  and  painted  some  historical  pictures  com 
posed  by  himself'.  Died  in  1717. 

Quaiidt,  kwant,  QOHANN  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  writer 
on  fine  arts,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1787,  became  distin 
guished  as  an  amateur  and  collector  of  pictures.  Among 
his  works  are  ''Excursions  in  the  Domain  of  Art,"  and 
"Lectures  on  /Esthetics."  Died  in  1859. 

Quanz,  kwants,  (JoilANN  JOACHIM,)  a  German  com 
poser,  born  near  Gottingen  in  1697;  died  in  177^. 

Quarenghi,  kwa-ren'gee,  (GIACOMO  n,  CAVALIERE,) 
an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1744.  Invited 
by  the  empress  Catherine,  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  works  erected  in  that 
city.  Among  these  are  the  Exchange,  and  the  Theatre 
of  the  Hermitage.  Died  in  1817. 

See  NAGI.EK,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Quarin,  kwa-reen',  (JOSEPH,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1733.  He  gained  distinction  by 
his  writings  on  Fevers  and  Inflammations,  (1774,)  and 
became  first  physician  to  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  Died 
in  1814. 

Quarles,  kwfirlz,  (FRANCIS,)  a  quaint  but  popular 
P^nglish  poet,  born  in  Essex  in  1592.  lie  was  secretary 
to  Archbishop  Usher  before  1641,  and  was  then  deprived 
of  his  situation  by  the  Irish  rebellion.  In  the  civil  war 
he  favoured  the  royalist  party.  His  most  popular  poem 
is  entitled  "Emblems,"  (1635,)  and  has  been  often  re 
printed.  Among  his  other  works  are  "Divine  Poems," 
"Hadassa,"  and  a  "  History  of  Samson."  "We  find  in 
Quarles,"  says  Ileadley,  "original  imagery,  striking 
sentiment,  fertility  of  expression,  and  happy  combina 
tions."  Died  in  1644. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  (1822;)  WOOD,  "Athene 
Oxonienses ;"  AI.UBON'E,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Quarles,  (JOHN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Essex  in  1624.  He  wrote  several  poems.  Died  in 
1665. 

Quarre,  kS'ri',  (ANTOINETTE  SUZANNE,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource  in  1813;  died  at  Dijon 
in  1847. 

Quatrefages  de  Breau,  de,  deh  kttR'fSzh'  deh  buo, 
(JEAN  Louis  ARM  AND,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  in  the 
department  of  Gard  in  1810.  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  and  ethnology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  His 
tory,  Paris.  His  favourite  science  is  zoology.  He  has 
written  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "Souvenirs 
of  a  Naturalist,"  (2  vols.,  1854,)  and  "Anatomical  and 
Zoological  Researches  made  during  a  Voyage  to  Sicily." 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  North  British  Review" 
for  February,  1858;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1858. 

Quatremere,  kStn'maiR',  (£TIENNE  MARC,)  an  emi 
nent  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris,  July  12,  1782.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1815, 
and  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  Syriac,  etc.  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1819.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  "  Researches  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Egypt,"  (1808,)  "Geographical  and  Historical  Memoirs 
of  Egypt,"  (2  vols.,  1810,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Mon 
gols  of  Persia,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1857.  He  had  a  library 
of  about  50,000  volumes.  His  father  was  first-cousin 
to  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  "  Few  savants,"  says  Ernest 
Renan,  "can  be  compared  to  him  for  extent  and  accuracy 
of  erudition." 

See  KENAN'S  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'rale." 
Quatremere  de  Quincy,  kitn'maiR'  deh  kaN'se', 
(ANTOINE  CHRYSOSTOME,)  a  French  archaeologist  and 
art-critic,  was  born  in  Paris  in  October,  1755.     He  pub- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long,  \,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon ; 


QUATREMERE 


•> 1 


QUESNEL 


lished  the  first  volume  of  his  "Dictionary  of  Architec 
ture"  in  1788.  In  1791  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  in  1797  was  condemned  to  deportation 
as  a  loyalist ;  but  he  escaped.  He  was  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  arts  and  public  monuments  in  1815,  and 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1816. 
Among  his  works  are  "Letters  to  Canova  on  the  Elgin 
Marbles,"  (1818,)  an  "  Essay  on  the  Nature,  Object,  and 
Means  of  Imitation  in  the  Fine  Arts,"  (1823,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Raphael,"  (1824.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  QCERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Quatremere-Disjonval,  kftR'maiR'  de'zhox'vfl', 
(DENIS  BERNARD,)  a  naturalist,  born  in  Paris  about 
1754,  was  a  brother  of  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  He  was 
very  eccentric,  and  was  confined  for  some  years  in  an 
asylum  for  the  insane.  Died  in  1830. 

Quatremere -Roissy,  kftR'maiR'  Rwa'se',  (JEAN 
NICOLAS,)  a  French  writer  of  biography  and  tales,  born 
in  Paris  in  1754,  was  an  uncle  of  fitienne  Marc,  above 
noticed.  Died  in  1834. 

Quattromani,  kwat-tRo-ma'nee,  (SERTORIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  writer,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1541  ;  died  in  1611. 

Queens'ber-ry,  (\Yn.i.iAM  DOUGLAS,)  fourth  DUKE 
OF,  and  Earl  of  March,  a  Scottish  peer,  born  about  1724, 
was  notorious  for  his  vices.  He  became  Duke  of  Queens- 
berry  about  1778,  and  inherited  a  large  fortune.  Died, 
without  issue,  in  1810. 

See  "  Life  of  George  Selwvn,"  by  J.  H.  JESSE. 

Queiros,  de,  da  ka/e-ros,  or  Quiros,  de,  da  kee'ros, 
(PEDRO  FERNANDEZ^I  Spanish  or  Portuguese  navi 
gator,  born  about  1560,  commanded  an  exploring 
expedition  sent  from  Callao  in  1605.  He  discovered 
Tahiti,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  other  small  islands  of 
the  Pacific,  and  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  voyage.  Died 
at  Panama  in  1614. 

Quekett,  kwek'et,  (Jonx,)  an  English  microscopist, 
born  in  Somersetshire  in  1815.  He  published  a  "Treat 
ise  on  the  Use  of  the  Microscope,"  and  "  Lectures  on 
Histology,"  (1854.)  He  succeeded  Professor  Owen  as 
conservator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum  in  London.  Died 
in  1861. 

Queleu,  de,  deh  keh'lox',  (HYACIXTHE  Louis,)  a 
French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  lie  became 
Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1821,  and  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1824.  Died  in  1839. 

See  HENRION',  "  Vie  et  Travanx  de  M.  de  Quelen,"  1840  ;  BELLE- 
MARE,  "M.  de  Quelen  pendant  dix  Ans,"  1840. 

Quellinus.     See  QUF.LI.YN. 

Quellyn,  kwel-lin',  (Airrus,)  a  Flemish  sculptor,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1630,  was  a  nephew  of  Erasmus,  noticed 
below.  Died  in  1715. 

Quellyn,  [Lat.  QUELLI'NUS,]  (ERASMUS,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Ant 
werp  in  1607.  His  design,  colour,  and  distribution  of 
light  and  shade  are  commended.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Repose  in  Egypt,"  a  "Last  Supper,"  and  "The 
Guardian  Angel."  Died  in  1678. 

Quellyn,  (J.\x  ERASMUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1629  or  1630,  and  was  a  good 
painter  of  history.  He  worked  in  his  native  city  and 
other  towns  of  Flanders.  A  picture  of  "Christ  healing 
the  Sick"  is  called  his  master-piece.  "Some  of  his 
works,"  says  Descamps,  "may  be  compared  to  those 
of  Paul  Veronese."  Died  in  1715. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Quenstedt,  kwen'ste't,  (JOHANN  ANDREAS,)  a  Ger 
man  Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1617. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  pub 
lished  several  works.  Died  in  1688. 

Quental,  do,  do  kex-tal',  (BARTHOLOMEW,)  a  Por 
tuguese  theologian,  born  in  one  of  the  Azores  in  1626. 
He  was  the  author  of  works  which  are  said  to  be  well 
written.  Died  in  1698. 

Queiitel  or  Queiitell,  kwen'tel,  (HEINRICH,)  a  cele 
brated  printer  of  Cologne,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Quentin,  kSx'tax',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Dijon,  where  he  died  in  1636. 


Quer  y  Martinez,  kaiR  e  maR-tee'nSth,  (JosE,)  a 
Spanish  botanist,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1695.  lie  pub 
lished  a  Flora  of  Spain  according  to  the  system  of  Tourne- 
fort, — "  Flora  Espanola,  o  Historia  de  las  Plantas  que 
se  crian  en  Espafia,"  (6  vols.,  1762-84.)  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  Spaniard  who  published  a  work  on 
Spanish  plants.  Died  in  1764. 

Querard,  ka'rtit',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  a  French  bibli 
ographer,  born  at  Rennes  in  1797.  He  published  an 
important  work  on  French  bibliography,  entitled  "  La 
France  Litteraire,  ou  Dictionnaire  bibliographique,"  (10 
vols.,  1826-42.)  He  left  several  unfinished  works.  Died 
about  December  i,  1865. 

See  "  Life  and  Works  of  J.  M.  Querard,"  by  O.  HAMST,  London, 
1867;  QUEKARU,  i;La  France  Litteraire,"  tome  xi. 

Querbeuf,  de,  deh  keVbuf,  (YVES  MATHURIN  MA- 
RIK,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Landerneau  in  1726; 
died  about  1799. 

Quercetanus,  the  Latin  of  DUCHESXE,  which  see. 

Quercia,  della,  del'Ia  kw^R'cha,  (JACOPO,)  an  able 
Italian  sculptor,  born  near  Sienna  about  1378.  He 
decorated  the  Duomo  or  Cathedral  of  Florence  with 
some  bas-reliefs,  and  sculptured  the  ornaments  of  the 
door-way  of  San  Petronio  at  Bologna.  Died  in  1442. 

Querenghi,  kwi-ren'gee,  (Axroxio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua  in  1546.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Sacred 
College  at  Rome  under  five  popes.  He  wrote  verses  in 
Latin  and  Italian.  Died  in  1633. 

Querini,  kwa-ree'nee,  or  Quirini,  kwe-ree'nee,  [Lat. 
QUERI'XUS,]  (AxGELO  MARIA,)  CARDINAL,  an  eminent 
Italian  writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Venice  in  1680. 
He  published  on  the  liturgy  of  the  Greek  Church  a 
work  entitled  "  Officium  Quadrigesimale  Graecorum," 
(1721.)  About  1722  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Corfu, 
lie  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Brescia  in  1728,  soon 
after  which  he  became  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  Among 
his  works  are  "Specimen  of  Bresciau  Literature," 
("Specimen  Literatures  Brixianae,"  1739,)  and  many 
Latin  Epistles,  (1742-49.)  Voltaire  dedicated  his  "  Semi- 
ramis"  to  Querini,  who  was  remarkable  for  his  amiable 
virtues.  Died  in  1755. 

See  his  autobiography,  "  Commentarius  de  Rebus  pertinentib'.is 
ad  A.  M.  Qiierinuni,''  2  vols.,  1749:  BREITHAUPT,  "Geschichte  des 
Cardinal  Querini,"  1752  ;  C.  F.  HOFFMAN,  "Programma  de  Quirino 
glorioso,"  1753;  SAMBUCA,  "  Lettera  intorno  alia  Morte  del  Cardinal 
Qnirir.i,"  1757  ;  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degii  Ita.iani  illustri ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Querlon,  de,  deh  keR'lox',  (ANNE  GABRIEL  MEUS- 
XIEK,)  a  French  editor  and  compiler,  born  at  Nantes  in 
1702.  He  edited  the  works  of  many  ancient  and  mod 
ern  authors,  and  was  for  twenty  years  editor  of  a  journal 
entitled  "Les  Petites  Affiches."  Died  in  1780. 

Querno,  kwCR'no,  (CAMILLO,)  ai1  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Monopoli  about  1470.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  en 
titled  "  Alexias."  Died  at  Naples  in  1528. 

Querouaille.     See  KEROUAL,  DE,  ( LOUISE.) 

Quesnay,  ki'ni',  (FRAxgoiS,)  a  French  physician, 
distinguished  as  a  political  economist,  was  born  at  Merei, 
near  Montfort  1'Amaury,  in  1694.  He  was  self-educated, 
and  settled  in  Paris  about  1737.  He  purchased  the 
office  of  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  king  about  1745. 
He  advocated  the  abolition  of  coruees,  free  trade  in  grain, 
and  other  reforms,  which  have  been  since  adopted. 
Among  his  works  was  one  entitled  "Economic  Pic 
ture,"  ("Tableau  economique,"  1758.)  He  was  called 
the  chief  of  the  sect  of  economistes,  whose  favourite  maxim 
was  "  Laissez  faire  et  laissez  passer,"  ("Let  things  take 
care  of  themselves.")  Died  in  1774.  Turgot  was  one 
of  his  disciples. 

See  "Vie  de  Quesnay,"  prefixed  to  his  works ;  GRANDJEAN  DK 
FOUCHV,  "  E!loge  de  Quesnay;"  AI.BON,  "fiioge  historique  de  M. 
Quesnay,"  1775  ;  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Quesne,  ki'na',  (JACQUES  SALUTGOTON,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Pavilly  in  1778;  died  in  1859. 
See  "Confessions  de  J.  S.  Quesne,"  3  vols.,  1828-35. 

Quesne,  du.     See  DUQUESNE. 

Quesiiel,  ki'neY,  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  painter,  of  French 
origin,  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1544;  died  in  Paris  in 
1619. 

Quesiiel,  (FRANC.OIS  JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  BAROX,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1765  ; 
died  in  1819. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ':  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


QUESNEL 


1856 


QUINCr 


Quesnel,  (Louis  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1773.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Spain, 
(iSoS-ii.)  Died  in  1815. 

Quesnel,  (PASQUIER,)  a  French  Jansenist  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1634.  He  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  in  1684  because  he  refused 
to  sign  a  formulary  which  condemned  Jansenism.  To 
escape  persecution,  he  retired  to  Brussels  in  1685,  and 
published  his  work  on  the  New  Testament,  called  "  Re 
flexions  morales,"  etc.,  (1694,)  which  was  condemned 
by  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers  and  anathematized 
by  the  pope  in  the  famous  bull  "  Unigenitus,"  (1713.) 
Quesnel  wrote  other  works,  and,  after  the  death  of  Ar- 
nauld,  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  Jansenists.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1719. 

See  "Causa  Quesnelliana,"  Brussels,  1704;  MOKERI,  "  Diclion- 
naire  Historiqne  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale ." 

Quesnel,  (PIERKK,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe 
about  1699.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Jesuits,"  (4 
vols.,  1740,)  in  which  he  shows  himself  hostile  to  that 
society.  Died  about  1774. 

Quesiioy,  du.     See  DUQUESNOY. 

Questel,  ki'tel',  (CHARLES  AUGUSTE, )  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  obtained  medals 
of  the  first  class  in  1852  and  1855. 

Quetant,  keh-t6.\',  (ANTOINE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1733;  died  in  1823. 

Quetelet,  ket-li',  (LAMBERT  ADULPHE  JACQUES,)  a 
Belgian  astronomer,  born  at  Ghent  in  1796.  He  became 
director  of  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Brussels  in  1828, 
and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1834. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Criminal  Statistics 
of  Belgium,"  (1832,)  "Elements  of  Astronomy,"  (4th 
edition,  1848,)  and  "Annals  of  the  Royal  Observatory," 
(14  vols.,  1843-59.)  lie  contributed  many  scientific 
articles  to  various  journals. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge'nerale." 

Quetif,  keh-tef,  (JACQUES),  a  learned  French  Do 
minican  monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1618.  He  wrote 
"Scriptores  Ordinis  Pnedicatorum  recensiti,"  (2  vols., 
1719-21,)  which  contains  notices  of  many  Dominicans 
who  were  authors.  Died  in  1698. 

Quevedo.     See  MAUZINHO. 

Quevedo  y  Villegas,  de,  da  ka-va/Do  e  vel-ya/gas, 
usually  called  simply  Quevedo,  (FRANCISCO  Gomez — 
go'meth,)  an  eminent  and  original  Spanish  author  and 
satirist,  born  in  Madrid  in  September,  1580.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  royal  palace  by  his  mother,  who  was  a 
lady  of  the  bed-chamber,  and  learned  the  ancient  lan 
guages  at  A  leal  a.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  gallantry, 
was  an  expert  swordsman,  and  fought  several  duels.  In 
the  prime  of  life  he  was  employed  in  important  affairs 
at  Naples  by  the  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Ossuna.  He 
wrote  i;i  prose  and  verse  a  variety  of  works,  which  were 
very  popular.  Among  his  prose  works  are  "  Sueiios," 
("  Visions,"  or  "Dreams,"  1649,)  which  are  greatly  ad 
mired  for  their  wit  and  bumour,  and  "  Life  of  the  Great 
Knave,"  ("  Vida  del  gian  Facano,")  a  romance.  He 
wrote  dramas,  (which  are  lost,)  odes,  sonnets,  satires,  etc. 
He  is  said  to  have  resembled  Voltaire  in  his  talent 
for  ridicule,  his  versatility,  and  the  skill  with  which  he 
arraigned  abuses  before  the  tribunal  of  public  opinion. 
He  suffered  much  political  persecution,  and  was  im 
prisoned  several  years.  Died  in  1645. 

See  DOM  PABLO  ANTONIO  DK  TARSIA,  "Vida  de  Don  Fr.de 
Quevedo  y  Villegas,"  Madrid.  1663;  '•  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  BAENA, 
"Hijos  de  Madrid,"  vol.  ii. 

Queverdo,  keh-veVdo',  (FRANC.OIS  MARIE  ISIDORE,) 
a  French  designer  and  etcher,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1740; 
died  in  1808. 

Quicherat,  kesh'Ra"',  (JiiLES,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815,  has  written  several  works  on 
French  antiquities  and  on  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc. 

Quicherat,  (Louis,)  a  lexicographer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1799.  lie  published  an 
excellent  "  Poetical  Treasury  of  the  Latin  Language," 
("Thesaurus  poeticus  Linguae  Latinas,"  1836,)  and  a 
Latin-French  Dictionary,  (1844,)  which  is  said  to  be  the 
best  work  of  the  kind  published  in  France. 

Quick,  (JOHN,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Plymouth  in  1636.  He  wrote,  besides  other 


works,  "  Synodlcon  in  Gallia  reformata,"  (1692.)  He 
preached  in  London  for  many  years.  Died  in  1706. 

Quick,  (JoHN,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in  London 
in  1748  ;  died  in  1831. 

Quieii.     See  LEQUIEN. 

Qui-e'tus,  a  Roman,  who  in  260  A.D.  was  supported 
by  part  of  the  army  as  emperor  or  partner  of  his  brother 
Macrianus  in  imperial  power.  He  was  put  to  death  in 
Asia  by  Odenatus  in  262  A.I). 

Quignones.     See  QUINONES. 

Quillet,  ke'yi',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  writer  of  Latin 
poetry,  sometimes  called  CAI.VIDUS  L/ETUS,  was  born  at 
Chinon,  in  Touraine,  in  1602.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"  On  the  Method  of  having  Beautiful  Offspring,"  ("  Calli- 
pasclia,  seu  de  pulchrae  Prolis  habendae  Ratione,"  1655,) 
which  was  generally  admired.  Died  in  1661. 

Quilliard,  ke'e-ytu/,  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
painter  and  etcher,  born  in  Paris  in  171 1  ;  died  in  Lisbon 

>"  1733- 

Quill,  (JAMES,)  an  eminent  English  actor,  born  in 
London  in  1693,  was  a  grandson  of  Mark  Quin,  a  lord 
mayor  of  Dublin.  He  began  to  perform  at  Dairy  Lane 
about  1716,  obtained  great  success  in  the  role  of  "Fal- 
staff "  in  1720,  and  was  the  most  popular  actor  of  England 
until  he  was  surpassed  by  Garrick.  He  taught  elocution 
to  Prince  George,  (afterwards  George  III.)  On  hearing 
that  king's  first  speech  from  the  throne,  Quin  exclaimed, 
"  I  taught  the  boy  to  speak."  He  once  released  the  poet 
Thomson  from  prison  by  payment  of  the  debt  for  which 
he  was  confined.  He  retired  from  the  stage  in  1748. 
Died  at  Bath  in  1766. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Quin,"  anonymous,  1766. 

Quinault,  ke'no',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  MAURICE,)  a 
French  comic  actor,  born  in  Paris  about  1690;  died 
in  1744. 

Quinault,  (  JEANNE  FRANC.OISE,  )  a  comic  actress, 
a  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1700;  died 
in  1783. 

Quinault,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1635.  lie  produced  in  his  youth  several 
tragedies  and  comedies,  among  which  is  "La  Mere 
Coquette,"  (1664,)  and  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1670.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on 
his  operas,  the  music  of  which  was  composed  by  Lulli. 
Between  1672  and  1686  Quinault  and  Lulli  produced 
fourteen  operas,  among  which  "  Armide"  (1686)  is  the 
master-piece.  Others  are  entitled  "  Cadmus,"  "  Alceste," 
"  Isis,"  "  Persee,"  "  Roland,"  etc.  He  is  called  by 
some  the  first  writer  of  French  operas.  "  What  can  be 
more  beautiful,  and  even  sublime,"  says  Voltaire,  "than 
this  chorus  in  '  Alceste,' '  Tout  mortel  doit  ici  paraitre'  ? " 
etc.  Died  in  1688. 

See  "Vie  de  Quinault,"  prefixed  to  his  Works,  5  vols.,  1739; 
CRAPEI.ET,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Quinault,"  1824;  PERRAULT, 
"  Les  Homines  illustres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Quiiiault-Dufresne,  ke'n5'  clu'fi<iNT/,  (  ABRAHAM 
ALEXIS,)  a  popular  French  actor,  born  at  Verdun-sur- 
le-Doubs  in  1693.  He  performed  in  tragedy  and  high 
comedy.  He  was  a  brother  of  Jean  B.  M.  Quinault, 
noticed  above.  Died  in  1767. 

Quin'by,  (ISAAC  F.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Jersey,  graduated  at  West  Point  about  1843.  lie 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  early  in  1862, 
and  commanded  a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  in 
the  operations  against  Vicksburg  in  1863. 

Quincey,  De.     See  DE  QUINCEY. 

Quinctilianus.     See  QUINTILIAN. 

Quin'cy,  (EDMUND,)  an  American  writer  and  oppo 
nent  of  slavery,  a  son  of  Josiah  Quincy,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Boston  in  1808.  He  contributed  to  several 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  and  wrote  "  Wensley,  a 
Story  without  a  Moral,"  (1854.) 

Quin'cy,  (JoHN,)  an  English  medical  writer,  practised 
medicine  in  London.  Among  his  works  is  "Lexicon 
Physico-Medicum."  Died  in  1723. 

Quincy,  (JosiAH,)  an  American  orator  and  patriot, 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1744,  was  a  son  of  Josiah 
Quincy,  a  merchant  of  Boston.  He  became  a  lawyer, 
and  began  about  1767  to  write  political  essays  against 
the  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  He  also  rendered 
important  services  to  the  popular  cause  by  his  fervid 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


QUINCT 


1857 


QUINTUS 


and  powerful  eloquence.  His  chief  political  svork  is 
"Observations  on  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  with  Thoughts 
on  Civil  Government,"  etc.,  (1774.)  He  gave  proof  of 
moral  courage  by  defending  Captain  Preston  and  several 
soldiers  in  their  trial  for  killing  certain  citizens  in  the 
Boston  massacre  of  March,  1770.  To  promote  the  public 
welfare  and  the  cause  of  liberty,  he  made  a  voyage  to 
England  in  October,  1774.  He  heard  and  reported  a 
celebrated  speech  made  by  Lord  Chatham  in  defence 
of  the  Americans,  January  20,  1775.  He  conferred  with 
Dr.  Franklin  and  other  friends  of  the  cause  in  England, 
and  hastened  to  return  with  counsels  and  plans  which  it 
was  not  prudent  to  commit  to  writing;  but  before  the 
end  of  his  voyage  he  died  at  sea,  April,  1775.  He  was 
deeply  lamented  by  the  public. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,"  by  his  son  JOSIAII,  1825. 

Quincy,  (JosiAH,)  an  eminent  statesman  and  scholar, 
born  in  Boston  on  the  4th  of  February,  1772,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1790,  and  studied  law.  He  joined  the  Federalist  party, 
and  represented  Boston  in  Congress  from  1804  to  1813. 
During  this  period  he  opposed  the  measures  of  the 
dominant  party  with  great  energy  and  decision.  He 
made  a  celebrated  speech  against  the  bill  for  the  admis 
sion  of  Louisiana  in  iSn,  and  opposed  the  war  of  1812. 
"  He  was  equal  to  the  emergency,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold, 
"and  sustained  himself  on  all  occasions  with  manly  in 
dependence,  sound  argument,  and  fervid  declamation." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts  from 
1814  to  1820,  became  a  judge  of  the  municipal  court  of 
Boston  in  1822,  and  served  as  mayor  of  Boston  from 
1823  to  1829.  In  1829  he  was  elected  president  of  Har 
vard  University.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Memoir  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,"  (1825,)  a  "History 
of  Harvard  University,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  "Speeches  in 
Congress  and  Orations,"  and  a  "  Life  of  John  Q.  Adams," 
(1858.)  He  resigned  the  presidency  of  Harvard  in  1845. 
In  1856  he  publicly  advocated  the  election  of  Colonel 
Fremont  to  the  Presidency.  He  died  in  July,  1864,  aged 
ninety-two. 

See  "  Lite  of  Josiah  Quincy,"  by  bis  son,  EDMUND  QUINCY  ;  R. 
W.  GRISWOI.D,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclo 
paedia  of  American  Literature."  vol.  i. 

Quincy,  de,  deli  kaN'se',  (CHARLES  Sevin — seh- 
V&N',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general  and  military  writer, 
born  near  Meaux  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  "Military  His 
tory  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (8  vols.,  1726.)  Died 
in  1736. 

Quincy,  de,  (QUATREMERE.)     See  QUATREMERE. 

Quiiiet,  ke'n.V,  (EDGAR,)  a  French  writer  and  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Bourg  (Ain)  in  1803,  became  a  friend 
of  Michelet.  He  obtained  in  1842  in  the  College  of 
France  a  chair  of  southern  literatures,  (litteratures  meri- 
dionales.)  He  acted  with  the  republicans  ( 'extreme gauche) 
in  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  Assemblies  of  1848-9. 
Among  his  various  works  are  "  Prometheus,"  a  poem, 
(1838,)  "Germany  and  Italy:  Philosophy  and  Poetry," 
(1839,)  "The  Genius  of  Religions,"  (1843,)  and  "The 
Revolutions  of  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1852.)  He  was  banished 
from  France  in  1852. 

See  CHASSIN,  "  E.  Quinet,  sa  Vie  et  son  CEuvre,"  1859;  G. 
Pr.ANCHK,  "  Portraits  Litieiaires  ;"  BATAH.I.ARD,  "GEuvre  philoso- 
phique  et  sociale  d'E.  Quinet,"  1845;  QUINKT,  "Histoire  de  mes 
Idees,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Quinette,  ke'net',  (NICOLAS  MARIE,)  a  French  revo 
lutionist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1762.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  and  was  one  of  the  four  com 
missaries  sent  to  arrest  Dumouriez,  who  seized  and 
delivered  them  to  the  Austrians,  (April,  1793.)  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  for  a  short  time  in  1799.  Died 
in  1821. 

Quinones,  de,  da  ken-yo'nes,  sometimes  written 
Quigiionez,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  cardinal,  born  in 
the  kingdom  of  Leon,  became  confessor  to  Charles  V. 
He  negotiated  the  release  of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  de 
tained  or  besieged  by  the  Spanish  army,  in  1527.  He 
published  "Breviarium  Romanum,"  (1535.)  Died  in 
1540. 

Quinsonas,  de,  deh  kaN'so'nas',  (FRANCOIS  DUGAS,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons  in  1719,  wrote  epigrams 
against  Voltaire.  Died  in  1768. 


Quiiitana,  ken-ta'n3,  (MANUEL  JOSE,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  poet  and  patriot,  was  born  in  Madrid  in  Apiil, 
1772.  lie  studied  law  at  Salamanca,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Melendez  and  Cienfuegos.  He  began 
to  write  verses  about  1790.  His  "Ode  to  the  Sea" 
(1798)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Spanish  lan 
guage.  He  wrote  other  excellent  odes,  one  of  which 
is  "On  the  Battle  of  Trafalgar."  In  1807  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  "  Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards," 
(3  vols.,  1807-34,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Between 
1808  and  1814  he  employed  his  talents  and  influence 
against  the  French  invaders,  and  wrote  several  eloquent 
manifestoes  for  the  national  party.  These  services  were 
rewarded  with  rigorous  imprisonment  for  six  years 
(1814-20)  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  was  offended  because 
Quintana  advocated  liberal  principles.  He  propitiated 
the  king  by  an  ode  in  honour  of  his  marriage  in  1828, 
and  was  permitted  to  return  to  Madrid.  In  1835  he 
was  appointed  director-general  of  public  instruction, 
and  became  a  senator.  He  directed  the  education 
of  the  young  queen  in  1840-43.  He  was  publicly 
crowned  with  laurel  by  the  queen  in  1855.  Died  in 
March,  1857. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature:"  KENNEDY, 
"  Modern  Poets  of  Spain  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Quinte-Curce.     See  QUINTUS  CURTIUS. 

Quiii -til'i-an,  [Lat.  QUINTILIA'NUS  or  QUINCTILIA'- 
NUS  ;  Fr.  QUINTILIEN,  kaN'te'leJ^N',]  (MARCUS  FABIUS,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  critic  and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  was 
born  probably  between  40  and  50  A.D.  ferome  states 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Calagurris,  (Calahorra,)  in  the 
northern  part  of  Spain  ;  but  some  modern  writers  think 
he  was  born  in  Rome.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation 
as  a  pleader,  and  was  the  first  public  instructor  who 
received  from  the  imperial  treasury  a  regular  salary. 
Among  his  pupils  was  the  Younger  Pliny.  He  taught 
rhetoric  for  twenty  years,  and  retired  from  that  pro 
fession  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  who  appointed  him 
preceptor  of  his  grand-nephews,  "is  chief  work  is  a 
treatise  on  the  education  of  an  orator,  "  Institutio  Ora- 
toria,"  divided  into  twelve  books.  'This  is  the  most 
complete  and  methodical  treatise  on  rhetoric  that  has 
come  down  to  us  from  antiquity.  An  entire  copy  of  it 
was  found  by  Poggio  at  Saint  Gall  in  1417.  His  style 
is  clear,  elegant,  and  highly  polished.  His  practical 
ideas  are  good,  but  his  criticisms  are  rather  superficial. 
He  gives  judicious  precepts  for  students,  and  interesting 
details  of  the  education  and  classic  studies  of  the  an 
cients.  His  merit  consists  in  sound  judgment,  propriety, 
and  good  taste,  rather  than  in  originality  or  elevation  of 
mind.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  118  A.D.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  corruption  or  decadence  of  elo 
quence,  "De  Causis  Corruptae  Eloquentias,"  which  is 
not  extant.  His  "Institutio"  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Guthrie  (1756)  and  Patsall,  (1774.) 

See  RUDIGER,  "De  Quintiliano  Paedagogo,"  1850;  V.  OTTO, 
"Quintilian  nnd  Rousseau,"  1836;  J.  JANIN,  "Pline  le  Jeune  et 
Qiiintilien,"  1838;  HUMMEL,  "  Quintiliani  Vita,"  1843;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Geuerale." 

Quintilianus.     See  QUINTILIAN. 

Quintilien.     See  QUINTILIAN. 

Quintinie,  de  la,  deh  \&  kaN'te'ne',  (JEAN,)  an  emi 
nent  French  gardener  and  writer  on  gardening,  was  born 
at  Chabanais  (Angoumois)  in  1626.  He  was  appointed 
intendant  of  the  fruit-gardens  of  the  king  at  Versailles 
in  1673.  He  made  much  improvement  in  the  cultivation 
of  fruit-trees,  and  left  a  work  which  was  for  a  long  time 
the  guide  of  French  cultivators.  It  is  entitled  "  Direc 
tions  for  Fruit  and  Kitchen  Gardens,"  ("  Instructions 
pour  les  Jardins  fruitiers  et  potagers,"  1690.)  Died  in 
1688. 

Quiiito  Curzio.     See  QUINTUS  CURTIUS. 

Quin'tus  Cal'a-ber  or  Q.  Smyr-nae'us,  (smir- 
nee'us,)  [Fr.  QUINTUS  DE  CALABRE,  kaN'tiiss'  deh  kt'- 
Itba',  or  QUINTUS  DE  SMYRNE,  kaN'tiiss'  deh  smeRn,] 
a  Greek  poet,  known  only  as  the  author  of  one  po-em,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  A.D.  He  is  called 
CALABER  because  a  manuscript  of  his  work  was  found 
in  Calabria.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  a 
native  of  Smyrna.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  Homer's 
"Iliad,"  ('O/n?}pov  Hapct7.nr6fi.eva,)  which  contains  some 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  MM. 

117 


xplanations,  p.  23. ) 


QUINTUS 


1858 


RABELAIS 


beautiful  passages.  The  subjects  of  it  are  those  events 
of  the  Trojan  war  which  are  not  related  by  Homer. 

Quintus  Claudius  Quadrigarius.  See  QUADRI- 
GARIUS. 

Quin'tus  Cur'tius  (kur'she-us)  Ru'fus,  [Fr.  QUINTE- 
CURCE,  kaNt  kuRss ;  It.  QuiNTO  CURZIO,  kwen'to 
kooiU'se-o,]  a  Roman  historian  of  uncertain  period,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  after  the  Augustan  age.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  birthplace  or  personal  history.  We 
find  in  ancient  writers  no  passage  which  certainly  refers 
to  him.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Alexan 
der  the  Great,"  ("  De  Rebus  Alexandri  Magni  Regis 
Macedonum,")  in  ten  books,  of  which  the  first  and  second 
are  lost.  The  merit  of  this  history  is  variously  estimated. 
His  style  is  easy,  clear,  and  rhetorical.  He  is  deficient 
in  critical  judgment  and  in  a  knowledge  of  geography 
and  military  tactics.  Among  his  modern  admirers  are 
Vossius,  Bayle,  Rapin,  Tiraboschi,  and  La  Harpe.  His 
work  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Brende  and 
Digby. 

See   BUTTMANN,    "  Ueber  das   Leben    des   Geschichtschreibers 

8uintus  Curtius  Rufus,"   1820;   J.    E.  MUI.I.ER,   "  Program  ma  de 
.   Curtio   Rufo,"  1695;  ADOLPII   HIKT,   "Ueber  das  Leben  des 
Geschichtschreibers  Q.   Curtius  Ruius,"  1820;  NIEBUHR,  "Kleine 
Schriften,"  i. 

Quintus  de  Calabre  or  de  Smyriie.  See  QUIN 
TUS  CALABER. 

Quiot  du  Passage,  ke'o'  dii  pt'stzh',  (JER6ME 
JOACHIM,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Alixan  (Drome)  in 
1775  ;  died  in  1849. 

Qtiirini.     See  QUERINI. 

Quirinus,  a  surname  of  ROMULUS,  (which  see.) 


Quiroga,  ke-ro'ga,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Galicia  in  1707.  About  1745  he  was  sent  by  the  King 
of  Spain  to  explore  Patagonia.  He  wrote  a  journal  of 
his  voyage,  which  was  inserted  by  Charlevoix  in  his 
"History  of  Paraguay."  Died  in  1784. 

Quiros,  kee'ros,  (LORENZO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Estremadura  in  1717.  He  worked  at  Seville,  and 
imitated  Murillo  with  success.  Died  in  1789. 

Quiros,  (PEDRO.)     See  QUEIKOS. 

Quirot,  ke'ro',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1760,  was  a  moderate 
member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95.)  In  the  trial  of 
the  king  he  voted  for  imprisonment.  Died  in  1830. 

Quistorp,  kwis'toRp,  (JoiiANN,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine  and  biblical  commentator,  born  at  Rostock  in 
1584.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  his  native 
city  in  1614.  Died  in  1648. 

Quistorp,  von,  fon  kwis'toRp,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1737,  became  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  Biitzow.  Died  in  1795. 

Quita,  kee'ta,  (DOMINGOS  DOS  REIS,)  a  Portuguese 
poet,  born  in  1728.  He  wrote  "Inez  de  Castro,"  and 
other  tragedies.  Died  in  1770. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Quit'man,  (JoiiN  ANTHONY,)  an  American  general 
and  Democratic  politician,  born  in  Dutchess  county, 
New  York,  in  1799.  Appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
brigade  in  1846,  he  fought  with  distinction  in  the  prin 
cipal  engagements  of  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  subse 
quently  elected  Governor  of  Mississippi.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1855  and  in  1857.  Died  in  1858. 

See  CLAIBORNE,  "  Life  of  J.  A.  Quitman,"  1860. 


B. 


Rabanis,  rf 'bt'ness',  (JEAN,)  a  French  historian,  born 
about  1800.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Bordeaux,"  (ist 
vol.,  1837.) 

Raban  Maur.     See  RABANUS. 

Rabanus  Maurus  Magnentius,  ra-ba'mis  mow'- 
rus  mag-n§n'se-us,  [Fr.  RABAN  MAUR,  rf'bSx'  moR,]  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  or  near  Mentz  about  786  or 
776  A.  D.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Mentz  in  847.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Died  ill  856  A.D. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rabaut,  rt'bo',  (PAUL,)  an  eminent  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Bedarieux  in  1718.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Nimes,  and  was  much  persecuted.  Died  at 
Nimes  in  1794. 

See  J.  PONS,  "  Notice  sur  P.  Rabaut,"  1808. 

Rabaut-Pommier,  rf  bo'  po'me-a',  (JACQUES  AN- 
TOINE,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  atTTJimes  in  1744,  was 
.1  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  to  the  Conven 
tion  in  1792,  was  proscribed  in  1793,  and  imprisoned 
until  the  gth  Thermidor,  1794.  In  1801  he  became  pas 
tor  of  the  Protestant  Church  of  Paris.  Some  French 
writers  claim  for  him  the  honour  of  the  discovery  of 
vaccination.  Died  in  1820. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rabaut-Saint-^tienne,  rt'bo'  saN'ta'te-Sn',  (JEAN 
PAUL,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nimes  in 
1743,  and  was  a  Protestant  minister  before  the  Revolu 
tion.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  in  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  (1789-92,)  and  voted  against  the 
death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention.  Having  taken  side 
with  the  Girondists,  he  was  outlawed  in  July,  and  exe 
cuted  in  December,  1793.  He  left  several  able  historical 
and  political  works. 

See  COI.I.IN  DE  PLANCV,  "  Notice  de  Rabaut-Saint-fitienne," 
prefixed  to  his  works,  1826;  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rabbe,  rtb,  (ALPHONSE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Riez,  in  Provence,  in  1786.  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Biographic  universelle  des  Contemporains,"  by 
Rabbe,  Boisjolin,  and  Saint-Preuve.  Died  in  1830. 

Rabel,  rt'bel',  (DANIEL,)  a  French  painter  of  por 
traits  and  flowers,  was  born  about  1578;  died  after  1630. 


Rabel,  (JEAN,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Beau- 
vais,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  lie  painted 
portraits  of  several  kings  and  queens.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1603. 

Rabelaesius.     See  RABELAIS. 

Rabelais,  ri'beh-l.V  or  ril/LY,  [Lat.  RABEL.-F/SIUS,] 
(FRANQOIS,)  a  famous  and  humorous  French  satirist, 
born  at  Chinon,  in  Touraine,  in  1495,  or>  as  some  say,  in 
1483.  At  an  early  age  he  joined  the  order  of  Franciscans, 
but,  finding  the  monastic  life  incompatible  with  his  genial 
disposition,  he  quitted  the  convent  without  the  consent 
of  his  superiors.  He  had  made  himself  master  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  other  languages.  He  was  also  versed  in 
several  sciences.  It  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  distin 
guish  the  real  events  of  his  life  amidst  the  multitude  of 
strange  adventures  and  ludicrous  anecdotes  which  are 
told  respecting  him.  He  began  to  study  medicine  at 
Montpellier  about  1530,  after  which  he  practised  at 
Lyons.  In  1536  he  accompanied  to  Rome  the  ambas 
sador  Cardinal  Du  Bellay,  who  had  been  his  friend  in 
early  life.  He  obtained  absolution  from  the  pope  for  his 
neglect  of  the  monastic  vows,  and  took  his  degree  in 
medicine  at  Montpellier  in  1537.  His  chief  work  is  a 
humorous  romance,  entitled  "The  Pleasant  Story  of  the 
Giant  Gargantua  and  his  Son  Pantagruel,"  ("Les  Fails 
et  Diets  du  Geant  Gargantua  et  de  son  Fils  Panta 
gruel,")  in  which  he  satirizes  all  classes  of  society,  es 
pecially  the  monks.  He  obtained  from  Francis  I.  in 
1545  a  privilege  to  print  the  third  part  of  this  work. 
The  first  part  had  been  published  anonymously  in  1535. 
The  work  was  denounced  as  heretical  by  the  clergy  and 
monks,  but  the  author  was  protected  by  Francis  I.  He 
became  curate  of  Meudon  about  1545.  Died  about  1553. 

"The  most  celebrated,"  says  Hal  lam,  "and  certainly 
the  most  brilliant  performance  in  the  path  of  fiction  that 
belongs  to  this  age  is  that  of  Rabelais.  Few  books  are 
less  likely  to  obtain  the  praise  of  a  rigorous  critic ;  but 
few  have  more  the  stamp  of  originality,  or  show  a  more 
redundant  fertility  always  of  language  and  sometimes  of 
imagination."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu 
rope.")  "  Beyond  a  doubt,"  says  Coleridge,  "  he  was 
among  the  deepest  as  well  as  boldest  thinkers  of  his 
age.  ...  I  class  Rabelais  with  the  great  creative  minds, 
Shakspeare,  Dante,  Cervantes,  etc." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


R4BENER 


1859 


R4CINE 


A  good  edition  of  his  chief  work  was  published  by 
Burgaud  des  Marets  and  Rathery,  (2  vols.,  1858.) 

See  DELECLUSE,  "  F.  Rabelais,"  1841;  P.  LACROIX,  "  Vie  de 
Rabelais,"  1859;  E.  NOEL,  "  Le.aendes  Francaises ;  Rabelais," 
i85Q;  ALMQUIST,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scripiis  F.  Rabelaesii," 
1838;  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  MRS. 
SHELLKV;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;""  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1843  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November, 
1840;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1839. 

Rabener,  ra'beh-ner,  (GOTTLIEB  WILHELM,)  a  popu 
lar  German  writer,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1714,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Gellert.  He  published  a  collection 
of  satires  in  the  form  of  letters,  (1751,)  also  "Friendly 
Letters."  He  was  employed  many  years  at  Dresden  as 
counsellor  in  the  department  of  customs.  Died  in  1771. 

See  MURR,  "An  Rabeners  Schatten,"  1771  ;  GERVINUS,  "  Natio- 
naUiteratur." 

Ra-bir'i-us,  (CARTS,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  a  contem 
porary  of  Virgil.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  battle  of 
Actium,  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 

Rabirius,  (CAius,)  a  Roman,  who  was  accused  of 
complicity  in  the  death  of  SaUirninus.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero  (63  K.c.)  in  a  speech,  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Raboteau,  rt'bo'to',  (PIKRRE  PAUL,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1765  ;  died  in  1825. 

Rabou,  ri'bou',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  novelist  and 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1803. 

Rabuel,  rit'bu-el',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Ponte-de-Vesle  in  1669  ;  died  at  Lyons  in  1728. 

Rabus,  rd'bus,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rot 
terdam  in  1660.  He  wrote  "Britain  Delivered,"  ("  Ver- 
lost  Britannic,"  1689,)  and  some  prose  works.  Died  in 
1702. 

Rabutin.     See  BussY-RABUTlN. 

Rabutin,  de,  deli  rt'bii'taN',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  was  a  grandfather  of  Bussy-Rabutin. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  War  between  Henry  II. 
and  Charles  V.,"  (1555.)  Died  in  1582. 

Racagui,  ra-kan'yee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  pro 
fessor  of  physicaf  sciences,  born  near  Voghera  in  1741. 
He  wrote  "Theory  of  Fluids,"  ("Teorica  de'  Fluidi," 
1779.)  Died  at  Milan  in  1822. 

Racan,  de,  deh  rS'ko.v',  (HoxoRAT  de  Bueil — deh 
bul  or  bub/ye,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  poet,  born  in  Tou- 
raine  in  1589,  was  a  friend  of  Malherbe.  He  wrote 
"  Les  Bergeries,"  ("  Pastorals,"  1628,)  and  other  ]>oems. 
"  Racan  had  more  genius  than  Malherbe,"  says  Boileau, 
"  but  he  was  more  negligent."  He  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Xouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Racchetti,  rak-ket'tee,  (BERNARDO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1639;  died  in  1702. 

Ra'chel,  [Heb.  ^m  ;  It.  RACHELE,  ra-ka'la,l  a  He 
brew  matron,  was  a  daughter  of  Laban,  and  the  favourite 
wife  of  the  patriarch  Jacob. 

See  Genesis  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi.,  and  xxxv. 

Rachel,  rt'shel',  (  ELISABETH  RACHEL  FELIX,  )  a 
French  tragic  actress,  born  in  the  canton  of  Argovie, 
Switzerland,  in  1821,  was  a  daughter  of  a  Jewish  ped 
lar.  She  made  her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Frai^ais 
of  Paris  in  1838,  and  performed  parts  in  the  tragedies 
of  Corneille  and  Racine  with  great  success.  Her  gait, 
attitudes,  gestures,  and  voice  concurred  to  produce  power 
ful  effects  with  a  great  simplicity  of  means.  She  was 
much  applauded  in  the  rSles  of  "Marie  Stuart"  and 
"Joan  of  Arc."  In  1855  she  performed  in  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Philadelphia.  She  died  near  Cannes  (Var) 
in  1858. 

See  EUGENE  DEMiRECOURT,  "  Mademoiselle  Rachel ;"  L.  BEAU- 
VALLET,  •'  Rachel  et  le  Nouveau- Monde,"  1856;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphie  Generale." 

Rachel,  rait'el,  (JOACHIM.)  a  German  satirical  poet, 
born  at  Lunden,  Holstein,  in  1618.  He  was  rector  of 
colleges  at  Xorden  and  Sleswick,  and  wrote  ten  satires, 
(1664,)  in  which  he  imitated  Juvenal  and  Persius  with 
some  success.  Died  in  1669. 

See  GERVIXUS,  "  Nationailiteratur." 

Rachetti,  ra-ket'tee,  or  Racchetti,  rak-ket'tee, 
(VlNCENZO,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Crema  in 
1777.  He  wrote  a  "Theory  of  the  Physical  Prosperity 
of  Nations,"  (1802.)  Died  in  1819. 

See  CORNELIANI,  "  Elogio  del  Professore  V.  Rachetti,"  1832. 


Racine,  i  t'sen',  (BoXAVENTURE,)  a  French  Jansenist 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Noyon  in  1708,  was  a 
relative  of  the  poet  Racine.  He  published  an  "  Eccle 
siastical  History,"  (13  vols.,  1748-56.)  Died  in  1755. 

Racine,  ras'seen'  or  rt'sen',  (JEAN,)  an  excellent 
French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Ferte-Milon  (Aisne)  De 
cember  21,  1639.  His  parents,  who  were  bourgeois,  died 
before  he  was  four  years  old.  lie  studied  at  the  College 
of  Beauvais,  and  afterwards  at  the  famous  school  of  Port- 
Royal,  in  which  he  passed  three  years,  (1655-58.)  He 
became  a  good  Latin  and  Greek  scholar.  lie  began  his 
poetical  career  by  "  La  Nymphe  de  la  Seine,"  (1660,)  an 
ode  on  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Louis  XIV.,  which 
procured  for  him  a  small  pension.  Having  become  dis 
gusted  with  the  study  of  theology,  which  an  uncle  had 
persuaded  him  to  pursue,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  formed 
friendships  with  Boileau  and  Moliere.  He  produced  in 
1664  the  tragedy  of  "  La  Thebaide,  ou  les  Freres  enne- 
mis,"  which  had  some  success.  The  first  work  which 
revealed  the  power  and  peculiar  character  of  his  genius 
was  "  Andromaque,"  (1667.)  In  1668  he  surprised  the 
public  by  a  comedy  called  "  The  Litigants,"  ("  Les  Plai- 
deurs,")  which  was  very  successful.  He  afterwards  pro 
duced  the  tragedies  of  "  Britannicus,"  (1669,)  "  Bere 
nice,"  (1670,)  "  Bajazet,"  (1672,)  "  Mithridate,"  (1673,) 
"  Iphigenie,"  (1674,)  and  "  Phedre,"  (1677.)  "  I  avow," 
says  Voltaire,  "  that  I  regard  '  Iphigenie'  as  the  chef- 
d'a'iivre  of  the  stage."  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1673. 

At  the  age  of  thirty-eight  he  resolved  to  renounce 
dramatic  composition'  This  resolution  is  variously 
ascribed  to  religious  scruples,  wounded  sensibilities,  or 
disgust  excited  by  envious  intrigues  and  malicious  criti 
cisms.  He  married  in  1677  a  pious  young  woman  of 
Amiens,  named  Catherine  Romanet,  and  was  appointed 
historiographer  by  Louis  XIV.  In  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  Madame  cle  Maintenon,  Racine  wrote  "  Esther," 
a  drama,  (1689,)  and  "Athalie,"  (1691,)  which  was  his 
last,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Boileau,  his  best,  drama.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  gentleman-in-ordinary 
to  the  king,  who  often  conversed  with  him,  and  treated 
him  with  favour.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  and  La  Bruyere.  Racine  wrote 
about  1695  a  "  History  of  Port-Royal,"  the  style  of 
which  is  so  neat  and  perspicuous  that  it  entitles  him  to 
rank  in  the  list  of  those  authors  who  have  succeeded 
both  in  verse  and  prose.  His  natural  disposition  was 
rather  melancholy  and  tender.  During  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life  he  was  a  devout  member  of  the  Church. 
He  died  on  the  2ist  of  April,  1699. 

It  is  usual  to  compare  Racine  with  Corneille  as  a  rival 
poet.  "Voltaire,  La  Harpe,  and  in  general  the  later 
French  critics,"  says  Hallam,  "have  given  the  prefer 
ence  to  Racine.  I  presume  to  join  my  suffrage  to  theirs. 
Racine  appears  to  me  the  superior  tragedian  ;  and  I 
must  add  that  I  think  him  next  to  Shakspeare  among 
all  the  moderns.  The  comparison  with  Euripides  is  so 
natural  that  it  can  hardly  be  avoided.  Certainly  no 
tragedy  of  the  Greek  poet  is  so  skilful  or  perfect  as 
'Athalie' or 'Britannicus.'  .  .  .  The  style  of  Racine  is 
exquisite.  Perhaps  he  is  second  only  to  Virgil  among 
all  poets.  But  I  will  give  the  praise  of  this  in  the  words 
of  a  native  critic  :  '  If  we  consider  that  his  perfection  in 
these  respects  may  be  opposed  to  that  of  Virgil,  and 
that  he  spoke  a  language  less  flexible,  less  poetical,  and 
less  harmonious,  we  shall  readi.ly  believe  that  Racine  is, 
of  all  mankind,  the  one  to  whom  nature  has  given  the 
greatest  talent  for  versification.'  (La  Harpe.)" 

See  "  Memoirs  of  J.  Racine,"  by  his  son  Louis,  1747;  LA  HARPE, 
"  filoge  de  Racine,"  1772;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;" 
LONGFELLOW,  "  Poetsand  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale ;"  L.  A.  C.  BEYLE,  "Racine  et  Shakspeare,"  2  vols.,  1823- 
25;  NAIGEON,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Racine,"  1783;  VILLEMAIN, 
"Cours  de  Litterature  ;"  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French 
Writers,"  by  MRS.  SHELLEY. 

Racine,  (Louis,)  the  second  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1692,  and  was  a  poet  and  critic  of 
considerable  merit.  Boileau  advised  him  not  to  write 
verse ;  for,  said  he,  "  since  the  world  began  there  has 
been  no  instance  of  two  great  poets  related  to  each  other 
as  father  and  son."  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "  La 
Grace,"  (1720,)  and  another  entitled  "La  Religion," 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RACK 


1860 


RADOW1TZ 


(1742,)  which  was  highly  praised  by  J.  15.  Rousseau, 
and  passed  through  sixty  editions.  lie  was  employed 
for  many  years  as  clerk  or  collector  of  taxes,  (directeur 
des  fermes. )  In  1755  his  son  was  drowned  at  Cadiz  by 
the  earthquake  which  nearly  destroyed  Lisbon.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "  E"loge  de  Louis  Racine,"  1763;  ADRIEN  DE  LA 
ROQUE,  "Vie  de  L.  Racine,"  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Rack,  (EDMUND,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Norfolk 
in  1735  ;  died  in  1787. 

Racle,  rfkl,  (LEONARD,)  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Dijon  in  1736.  He  was  employed  at  Ferney  by  Voltaire, 
who  recommended  him  to  the  prime  minister  Choiseul. 
Died  in  1791. 

Raczynski,  ra-chin'skee,  (ATHANASIUS,)  a  Polish 
•writer  on  art,  born  in  1788.  He  was  Prussian  minister 
at  Copenhagen,  Lisbon,  and  Madrid  from  1840  to  1853. 
He  wrote  (in  French)  a  "History  of  Modern  Art  in 
Germany,"  (3  vols.,  1836-42,)  which  is  a  work  of  some 
merit. 

Raczynski,  (EDUARD,)  a  Polish  count  and  writer, 
born  at  Posen  in  1786,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  presented  to  his  native  city  a  library  of  twenty  thou 
sand  volumes.  Among  his  publications  are  "Travels  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Cabinet  of  Polish 
Medals,"  (4  vols.,  1841-45.)  He  committed  suicide  in 
1845- 

Rad'bert,  [Fr.  pron.  rid'baia',]  (PASCIIASE,)  a.French 
monk,  born  near  Soissons.  He  wrote  several  works, 
one  of  which  is  "On  the  Eucharist."  He  advocated 
the  dogma  of  transubstantiation.  Died  in  865  A.D. 

Radcliffe  or  Radclyffe,  rad'klif,  (ANN,)  a  popular 
English  novelist,  born  in  London  in  1764.  Her  maiden 
name  was  WARD.  She  was  married  about  1786  to  Wil 
liam  Radcliffe,  editor  of  the  "English  Chronicle."  Her 
most  successful  works  are  "The  Romance  of  the  Forest," 
(1791,)  and  "The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,"  (1794.)  The 
terrible,  sombre,  mysterious,  and  marvellous  predomi 
nate  in  her  compositions.  Died  in  1823. 

See  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT'S  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  MRS. 
EI.WOOD,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the 
Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1X43:  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1834;  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1792,  and 
March,  1797. 

Radcliffe,  (JAMES.)     See  DERWENTWATER. 

Radcliffe,  (JOHN,)  a  successful  English  physician, 
born  at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1650,  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  He  settled  in  London  in  1684,  and  soon  ob 
tained  a  large  practice,  to  which  his  talent  for  pleasantry 
and  witticisms  is  said  to  have  contributed.  He  became 
chief  physician  to  the  princess  Anne  in  1686,  after  which 
date  he  was  employed  professionally  by  King  William, 
whom  he  once  offended  by  his  rudeness  or  freedom  of 
sneech.  He  died  in  November,  1714.  He  bequeathed 
^40,000  to  build  or  found  a  library  at  Oxford  which 
bears  his  name,  and  other  large  sums  for  charitable  uses. 

See  W.  PITTIS,  "  Radcliffe's  Life  and  Letters,"  1715  ;  "  Biogra- 
phia  Britannica." 

Radcliffe  or  Ratcliffe,  (THOMAS,)  Earl  of  Sussex, 
an  English  statesman,  born  about  1526,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  Earl  of  Sussex.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  to  nego 
tiate  the  marriage  between  Queen  Mary  and  Philip  II., 
and  on  his  return  became  lord  deputy  of  Ireland.  In 
1569  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  North.  He 
rendered  important  services  in  the  suppression  of  the 
northern  rebellion.  He  became  lord  chamberlain  about 
1572.  Died  in  1583. 

Raddi,  rad'dee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born 
at  Florence  in  1770.  He  was  associated  in  1828  with 
Rosellini  and  Champollion  in  a  mission  to  Egypt.  When 
about  to  return  home,  he  died  at  Rhodes  in  1829. 

See  G.  SAVI,  "  Alia  Meinoria  di  G.  Raddi,"  1830. 

Radegunde,  ra'deh-goon'deh,  or  Radegonde,  rf- 
deh-goN'd',  a  Thuringian  princess,  whom  Clothaire  I. 
made  captive  and  forced  to  become  his  wife.  She  was 
noted  for  piety,  and  abounded  in  works  of  charity  to  the 
poor.  She'  escaped  from  Clothaire  about  544  A.D.,  be 
came  a  nun,  and  founded  a  large  convent  at  Poitiers. 
Died  in  587  A.D. 

See  ED.  DE  FLEURY.  "Viede  Sainte-Radegonde,"  1843;  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 


Rademacher,  ra'deh-maK'er.  or  Radermacher,  ra'- 

der-maK'er.  (J.  C.  M.,)  a  Dutch  geographer,  born  in  1741. 
He  founded  the  Society  of  Sciences  at  Batavia  in  1778. 
Died  at  sea  in  1783. 

Rademacher,  ra'deh-maK'er.  (JOHANN  GOTTFRIED,) 
a  distinguished  German  physician,  born  at  Hamm  in 
1772  ;  died  in  1849. 

Rademacker.     See  RADEMAKER. 

Rademaker,  ra'deh-mak'er,  written  also  Rade 
macker,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1675. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  in  water-colours.  His  landscapes 
are  adorned  with  figures,  ruins,  and  buildings.  He  pro 
duced  after  his  own  designs  many  engravings,  which  are 
highly  prized.  Died  in  1735. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Rademaker  or  Rademacker,  (GERARD,)  an  emi 
nent  painter  of  history  and  architecture,  born  at  Amster 
dam  in  1673,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Holland. 
He  excelled  in  invention,  in  facility  of  execution,  and  in 
perspective.  Died  in  1711. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Rader,  ra'der,  [Lat.  RADE'RUS,]  (MATTHAUS,)  a 
learned  Jesuit,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1561.  He  wrote 
notes  on  Quintus  Curtius  and  Martial,  and  several 
original  works,  among  which  is  "  Bavaria  Sancta,"  (3 
vols.,  1625-27.)  Died  at  Munich  in  1634. 

Rader  or  Raeder,  ra'der,  (JACOB  TODK,)  a  military 
writer,  born  in  Norway  in  1798.  He  wrote  a  "Military 
and  Political  History  of  Denmark,"  (3  vols.,  1845-52.) 

Raderus.     See  RADER. 

Radet,  rS'di',  (ETIENNE^)  a  French  general,  born  at. 
Stenay  in  1762.  He  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1800  by  Bonaparte,  who  gave  him  the  chief  command 
of  all  the  gendarmerie,  (armed  police.)  In  1809  he  was 
ordered  to  Rome.  In  July  of  that  year  he  arrested  the 
pope  in  his  palace  and  conducted  him  to  Florence.  He 
received  the  title  of  baron,  (1809,)  and'became  a  general 
of  division  in  1813.  Died  in  1825. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Radet,  (JEAN  BAFTISTE,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1752.  He  wrote  vaudevilles.  Died  in  1830. 

Radetzky,  ra-deYskee,  (JOSEPH  WENZEL,)  a  cele 
brated  field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  service,  born  in 
Bohemia  in  1766.  He  served  in  the  Turkish  campaigns 
of  1788-89,  and  subsequently  against  the  French  on  the 
Rhine  and  in  Italy.  For  his  distinguished  bravery  at 
the  battle  of  Wagram  he  was  made  lieutenant-field-mar 
shal,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaigns  from 
1813  to  1815.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  effected  a 
masterly  retreat  from  Milan,  then  in  open  revolt  against 
Austria,  and,  having  soon  after  gained  several  advantages 
over  the  Sardinians  under  Charles  Albert,  signally  de 
feated  them  at  Novara  in  March,  1849.  He  next  took 
possession  of  Venice,  after  an  obstinate  siege,  and  was 
appointed  governor-general  and  military  commander  of 
Upper  Italy.  He  had  been  created  a  field-marshal  in 
1836,  and  had  received  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa  and 
the  principal  military  orders  of  Europe.  Died  in  1858. 

See  GRAF  RADKTZKY,  "  Biographische  Skizze  nach  den  eigenen 
Dictaten,"  etc.,  Stuttgart,  1858;  PKINCK  TKUBKTZKOI,  "  Les  Cam- 
pagnes  de  Radetzky,"  1861;  "Jahrbiich  zum  Conversations-Lexi- 
kon,"  1860. 

Rad'ford,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1825.  He 
adhered  to  the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  the 
Ironsides  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher  in  December, 
1864.  He  was  appointed  rear-admiral  in  July,  1866. 

Radier,  du.     See  DREUX  DU  RADIKR. 

Rad'nor,  (WILLIAM  PLEYDELL  BOUVERIE,)  EARL 
OF,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1779.  He  acted  with  the 
Liberal  party. 

Radonvilliers,  de,  deh  ri'doN've'ye-a',  (CLAUDE 
FRANgoiS  LYSARDE,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1709.  He  became  sub-preceptor  of  the  princes  in  1757, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1763. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1768.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Radowitz,  von,  fon  ra'do-wits',  (JOSEPH,)  a  Prussian 
statesman  and  general,  born  at  Blankenburg  in  1797, 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t:  n5t;  good;  moon; 


RADZIWILL 


1861 


RAGNAR 


became  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  military  school 
at  Cassel,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  teacher  to 
Prince  Albert.  He  was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
Diet  at  Frankfort  in  1836.  He  published  several  works 
on  mathematics  and  military  affairs.  Died  in  1853. 

Radziwill,  rad'ze-wil,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  a  Lithuanian 
general,  born  in  1585.  He  commanded  a  Polish  army 
which  held  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  check  in  Livonia  and 
Courland.  Died  in  1640. 

Radziwill,  (GEORGE,)  a  Lithuanian  general,  born  in 
1480.  He  gained  a  number  of  victories  over  the  Mus 
covites  and  Tartars,  and  in  1533  obtained  the  rank  of 
grand  general.  Died  in  I541- 

Radziwill,  (NICOLAS,)  a  Lithuanian  nobleman,  born 
about  1515.  He  was  palatin  of  Wilna,  and  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Reformation.  Died  about  1561. 

Rae,  ra,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1772,  was  a  son  of  Sir  David  Rae,  a  judge.  He  became 
a  conservative  member  of  Parliament,  and  lord  ad 
vocate  of  Scotland.  Died  in  1842. 

Raeburn,  ra'burn,  (Sir  HENRY,)  a  British  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  or  near  Edinburgh  in  1756.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  from  which  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1787. 
He  was  afterwards  the  most'  eminent  portrait-painter 
of  that  city  or  of  all  Scotland.  In  1815  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  Among  his 
works  are  portraits  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  James  Watt.  The  heads  of  his  portraits  are  es 
pecially  admired.  Died  in  1823. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Raeder.     See  RADER. 

Raemond.     See  REMOND. 

Raepsaet,  r&p'sSt,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  Belgian  histo 
rian,  born  in  1750.  He  sat  in  the  corps  Ifgislatif  ol  France 
from  1803  to  1813.  His  chief  work  is  "  An  Analysis  of 
the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Civil,  Political,  and  Re 
ligious  Laws  of  the  Belgians  and  Gauls."  Died  in  1832. 

See  CORNEUSSEN-,  "Notice  sur  M.  Raepsaet,"  1836. 

Raethel.     See  RATHEL. 

Raffaelle  or  Raffaello.     See  RAPHAEL. 

Raffaelli,  raf-fa-el'lee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  advo 
cate  and  jurist,  born  in  Calabria  in  1750.  He  succeeded 
Beccaria  in  the  chair  of  public  law  at  Milan  in  1801.  His 
chief  work  is  "Nomotesia  Penale,"  (5  vols.,  1820-25.) 
Died  at  Naples  in  1826. 

Raffaellino  dal  Colle.     See  COLLE,  DAL. 

Raffaellino  del  Garbo,  raf-fa-el-lee'no  del  gaR'bo,  a 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1466.  His  style  is  said  to 
have  degenerated  in  consequence  of  the  haste  with  which 
he  worked  after  he  began  to  be  pressed  with  the  care 
of  a  family.  Died  in  1524. 

Raffei,  raf-fa'ee,  (STEFANO,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
in  Tuscany  in  1712  ;  died  in  1788. 

Raffeneau-Delile,  rtf'no'  deb-lei',  (  ALIRE,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1778.  He  was  associated 
with  the  savants  who  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  in  1798,  and  performed  a  scientific  mission  to  the 
United  States  in  1803.  He  wrote  a  "Flora  of  Egypt," 
and  other  works.  Died  at  Montpellier  in  1850. 

Raffenel,  rtf'nel',  (ANNE  JEAN  BAPTISTF.,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Versailles  in  1809.  He  published 
"  Travels  in  Western  Africa,  comprising  the  Exploration 
of  the  Senegal,"  (1846,)  and  a  description  of  Soodan, 
entitled  "  New  Journey  in  the  Country  of  the  Negroes," 
("  Nouveau  Voyage  dans  le  Pays  des  Negres,"  2  vols., 
1856.)  Died  in  Madagascar  in  1858. 

Raffenel,  (CLAUDE  DENIS,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  1797  ;  died  at  Athens  in  1827. 

Raffet,  rt'fi',  (DENIS  AUGUSTE  MARIE,)  a  French 
designer  and  pninter,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  pub 
lished  many  lithographs  of  battles  and  other  martial 
scenes.  Died  in  1860. 

Raffles,  raf'felz,  (THOMAS,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English 
dissenting  minister,  born  in  London  in  1788,  was  a 
cousin  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles.  He  became  minister 
of  a  Congregational  church  in  Great  George  Street, 
Liverpool,  about  1812,  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
as  a  preacher.  He  continued  to  occupy  that  pulpit 
about  fifty  years.  He  published  a  number  of  sermons 
and  lectures.  Died  in  Liverpool  in  1863. 

See  BALDWIN  BROWN',  "  Life  ofThomas  Raffles,"  1863. 


Raffles,  (Sir  THOMAS  STAMFORD,)  an  English  natu 
ralist  and  administrator,  born  at  sea,  off  Jamaica,  in 
1781.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  government 
of  the  East  India  Company  at  Pulo-Penang  about  1806, 
and  became  in  1811  lieutenant-governor  of  Java,  to  the 
capture  of  which  he  had  greatly  contributed.  He  made 
researches  into  the  geography  and  natural  history  of 
that  island,  and  published  a  "History  of  Java,"  (2  vols., 
1817.)  In  1818  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor 
at  Bencoolen,  in  Sumatra,  in  the  zoology  of  which  he 
made  some  discoveries.  He  made  a  large  collection 
of  animals,  plants,  etc.,  many  of  which,  with  his  papers 
and  drawings,  were  destroyed  by  fire  on  board  of  a  ship, 
(1824.)  His  loss  was  estimated  at  ,£20,000.  He  re 
signed  in  1824,  and  died  in  England  in  1826. 

See  "Memoir  of  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Raffles,"  by  his  wifei 
1830:  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale :"  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  March,  1830;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1818. 

Rafmesque,  rt'fe'nesk',  (C.  S.,)  born  near  Constan 
tinople,  of  French  parents,  in  1784,  became  professor  of 
botany  and  natural  history  at  Transylvania  University, 
Lexington,  Kentucky,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Phila 
delphia.  He  published  a  book  of  travels  and  several 
botanical  works.  Died  about  1840. 

Raffort,  rf'foR',  (fi-riENNE,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Chalons-sur-Saone  about  1805.  He  painted  land 
scapes,  sea-ports,  etc. 

Rafh,  rafn,  (CARL  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish  antiquary, 
distinguished  as  a  lover  of  Icelandic  literature,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Fiinen  in  1796.  He  published 
"  Heroic  Traditions  of  the  North,"  (3  vols.,  1825-30,) 
"Nordlanda,"  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  and  "American  An 
tiquities,"  ("  Antiquitates  Americanae,"  1837,)  which 
contains  evidence  that  the  Icelanders  or  Scandinavians 
discovered  America  in  the  tenth  century.  He  resided 
at  Copenhagen.  Died  in  1865. 

See  ERSI.EW.  '•  Udsigt  over  C.  Rafn's  Levnet,"  1840,  and  "  For- 
fatter-Lexicon." 

Raggi,  rad'jee,  (NICOLAS  BERNARD,)  a  sculptor,  born 
at  Carrara  in  1791,  worked  at  Paris.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Henry  IV.,  "  Bayard  dying,"  and  "Meta- 
bus,  King  of  the  Volsci."  Died  in  1862. 

Rag'laii,(jAMES  HENRY  FITZROY  SOMERSET,)  BARON, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1788,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Henry,  fifth  Duke  of  Beaufort.  His  mother  was  a 
daughter  of  Admiral  Boscawen.  He  served  as  aide-de 
camp  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsula  from 
1809  to  1814,  and  at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost  his  right 
arm.  In  1819  he  became  military  secretary  to  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  and  that  of  Verona,  (1822.)  He  was  appointed 
master-general  of  the  ordnance  in  1852,  and  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Raglan.  Before  this  promotion 
he  was  styled  Lord  Fitzroy  Somerset.  He  commanded 
the  British  army  in  the  Crimean  war,  which  began  in 

1854,  and  co-operated  with  the  French  at  Alma  in  Sep 
tember.     His  army  suffered  great  disasters  during  the 
long  siege  of  Sebastopol,    (1854-55,)  for  want  of  pro 
visions,  etc.     He  was  painfully  affected  by  the  repulses 
and  losses  of  the  allies,  and  died  in  the  camp  in  Tune, 

1855,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  Richard  Henry  Fitzroy. 
See  E.   TEXIER,   "  Les   Homines  de  la  Guerre  d'Orient:    Lord 

Raglan,"    1854;    "Biographical    Sketches,"   by   H.    MARTINEAU; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1857. 

Ragnar,  rag'nar,  (or  Ragnar  Lodbrok — lod'brok,) 
written  also  Reg'ner,  a  famous  legendary  hero  of  the 
Northmen,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  King 
Sigurd  of  Sweden,  and  to  have  lived  about  800  A.:D. 
Matthew  Arnold  calls  him* 

"  No  god,  but  of  the  hero  troop  the  chief, — 
Regner,  who  swept  the  northern  sea  with  fleets, 
And  ruled  o'er  Denmark  and  the  heathy  isles: 

A  king  whose  fame  then  filled  the  vast  of  Heaven ; 
Now  time  obscures  it,  and  men's  later  deeds." 

He  is  regarded  as  the  most  striking  type  of  the  ancient 
vikings  of  the  North.  There  is  a  legendary  history  of 
him,  entitled  "  History  of  King  Ragnar  Lodbrok  and  his 
Sons,"  ("  Saga  af  Ragnari  Konungi  LoSbrok  ok  Sonum 
hans,")  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  the 


*  In  the  poem  entitled  "  Balder  Dead." 


.  ,  ,  .  . 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g,  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     (JST^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAGNAROCK 


1862 


RAINS 


fourteenth  century,  although  it  contains  many  poems  of 
an  older  date,  belonging  to  the  golden  age  of  Skaklic 
literature, — that  is,  about  the  tenth  century.  (For  an 
account  of  some  of  the  principal  events  of  the  life  of 
Ragnar,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Thorpe's  "  Northern 
Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  108-113;  see,  also,  the  Intro 
duction  to  Keyser's  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen.") 

Ragnarock.     See  LOKI. 

Ragon,  ri'goN',  (F.,)  a  French  historian,  born  about 
1795.  He  published  a  "General  History  of  Modern 
Times,"  (3  vols.,  1846,)  and  other  works. 

Ragotzky.     See  RAndczv. 

Ragueau,  rS'go',  (FkANgoiS,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Bourges  ;  died  in  1605. 

Raguenet,  rSg'ni',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  priest  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  about  1660.  He  published  a 
"  Life  of  Cromwell, "(1691,)  "  The  Monuments  of  Rome," 
(1700,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Turenne,"  (1738.)  Died  in  1722. 

Raguet,  ri'gi',  ?  (Coxnv,)  an  American  diplomatist 
ai.d  writer,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1784,  was  appointed 
in  1822  consul  at  Rio  Janeiro.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "On  Currency  and  Banking,"  "Principles  of 
Free  Trade,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1842. 

Ragusa,  DUKE  OF.     See  MARMONT. 

Ragusa,  ra-goo'sa,  (GERONIMO,)  a  learned  Jesuit, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1655;  died  about  1715. 

Rahbek,  ra'be'k,  (KN'un  LYNE,)  a  Danish  author  and 
critic,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1760.  lie  became  pro 
fessor  of  aesthetics  in  his  native  city  in  1790.  He  wrote 
dramas,  tales,  and  lyric  poems,  and  translated  many 
English  svorks.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Danish 
Spectator,"  a  periodical,  (1791-1806.)  He  was  a  judi 
cious  and  candid  critic.  His  writings  are  said  to  have 
exerted  a  happy  influence  on  Danish  literature  and  the 
public  taste.  He  resigned  the  chair  of  aesthetics  in  1825. 
Died  in  1830. 

See  his  Souvenirs,  "  Erindringer  af  mit  Liv,"  4  vols.,  1824-29  :  J. 
P.  MYNSTER,  "  Ved  Ktatsraad  Professor  K.  L.  Rahbek's  Jorde- 
faerd,"  etc.,  1830;  KKEKEN,  "  Ktatsraad  Professor  og  Ridder  K.  L. 
Ralibek's,"  etc.,  1838;  ERSI.EW,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  HOWITT, 
"Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1830,  article  "  Danish  and  Norwegian 
Literature  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rahl,  rSl,  (KARI,,)  a  historical  painter,  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Vienna  in  1812. 

Rahl,  (KARI,  HEINRICH,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
near  Heidelberg  in  1779,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Arts  at  Vienna.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  prints 
after  Raphael's  "  Saint  Margaret,"  Correggio's  "  Night," 
and  the  "Madonna"'  of  Perugino.  Died  in  1843. 

Rahn,  rin,  (Joii\\\  HEINRICH,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1749,  was  noted  for  his  beneficence. 
He  published  numerous  works.  Died  in  1812. 

See  USTERI,  "  Denkrede  auf  Rahn,"  1812. 

Rahn,  (JOHANN  HKINRICH,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1646.  He  wrote  in  German,  besides  other 
works,  a  "History  of  Switzerland,"  (1690.)  Died  in 
1708. 

Rahu,  ra'hoo,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  mighty 
giant,  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Diti,  (or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  the  son  of  Sinhika,)  was  supposed  to 
cause  eclipses  by  swallowing  the  sun  or  moon.  This 
fable  is  doubtless  astronomical  in  its  origin  :  rdhu 
signifies  also  the  "ascending  node." 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  282. 

Raibolini.     See  FRANCIA. 

Raidel,  rl'dSl,  [Lat.  RAIDF/LTUS,]  (GEORG  MARTIN,) 
a  German  savant,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1702,  wrote 
a  work  "  On  the  Geography  of  Ptolemy,"  etc.,  ("  De 
Ptolemaei  Geographia  ejusque  Codicibus,"  1737.)  Died 
in  1741. 

See  A.  GOTZ,  "Vita  Raidelii,"  1741. 

Raikes,  raks,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1735  or  1736,  was  a  printer,  and 
the  editor  of  the  "  Gloucester  Journal."  He  is  noted  as 
the  founder  of  Sunday-schools.  In  1781  he  employed 
several  women  to  teach  a  number  of  ragged  children 
found  in  the  streets  of  Gloucester.  Died  in  1811. 

Raim'ba-eh,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1776,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  Hall.  He 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  Wilkie,  who  employed  him 


to  engrave  a  number  of  his  paintings,  among  which  are 
"The  Village  Politicians,"  "  The  Rent-Day,"  (1816,)  and 
"Blindman's  Buff."  These  engravings  are  highly  prized. 
Died  in  1843.  He  left  an  autobiography,  published  in 
1843,  entitled  "Memoirs  and  Recollections." 

Raimond.     See  RAYMOND. 

Raimoiidi,  li-mon'dee,  (ANNIBALE,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Verona  in  1505.  He  published 
a  "  Treatise  on  the  Flow  and  Ebb  of  the  Sea," 
("Trattato  del  Flusso  e  Reflusso  del  Mare,"  1589.) 

Raimoiidi,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  Ori 
entalist,  born  at  Cremona  about  1540.  He  was  director 
of  an  establishment  of  Oriental  typography  at  Rome, 
and  printed  in  Arabic  the  Gospels  (1591)  and  Euclid. 
(1594.)  Died  about  1610. 

Raimoiidi,  (MARCANTONIO,)  an  excellent  Italian  en 
graver,  born  at  Bologna  about  1475,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
1488.  He  studied  design  under  Raibolini  called  Francia. 
He  went  to  Rome  about  1510,  and  formed  a  friendship 
or  acquaintance  with  Raphael,  who  employed  him  to 
engrave  some  of  his  paintings.  He  engraved  for  that 
master  "The  Death  of  Lucretin,"  "The  Judgment  of 
Paris,"  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  "Saint  Ce 
cilia,"  "  The  Last  Supper,"  "Parnassus,"  "Saint  Paul 
preaching  at  Athens,"  and  other  works.  lie  was  the 
first  Italian  engraver  who  acquired  great  celebrity.  He 
was  a  correct  designer,  and  rendered  the  outlines  with 
fidelity.  When  Rome  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the 
army  of  Constable  Bourbon,  in  1527,  Raimoiidi  lost  his 
property  and  removed  to  Bologna,  where  lie  continued 
until  his  death,  which  is  variously  dated  1534  and  1546. 
One  of  his  prints  is  dated  1539. 

See  VASAKI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  DKI.ESRERT,  "No 
tice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  A.  Raimoiidi,"  1853;  N.  HEI.LONI,  "Vita  di 
M.  Raimoiidi,"  1815;  MALVASIA,  "  Felsina  Patrice  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Raimund,  ri'moont,  (FERDINAND,)  a  German  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Vienna  in  1791,  published  a  number  of 
dramatic  works  and  poems.  Died  in  1836. 

Raiiialdi,  ri-nal'dee,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  1611.  He  designed  the  old  Acade 
mic  de  France  at  Rome,  the  church  of  Saint  Agnes,  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  di  Miracoli,  and  that  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Monte  Santo.  The  last  two  are  on  the  Piazza 
del  Popolo  at  Rome.  Died  in  1691. 

Rainaldi,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  in 
the  march  of  Ancona  in  1600.  He  published  "Food 
for  the  Soul,"  ("Cibo  dell'Anima,"  1637,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1677. 

Raiiialdi,  (Giuoi.AMo,)  an  architect,  born  at  Rome 
in  1570,  was  the  father  of  Carlo,  noticed  above.  Among 
his  works  were  the  ducal  palace  of  Parma,  and  the 
Palazzo  Pamfili  (or  Pamphili)  at  Rome.  Died  in  1655. 

See  MII.IZIA,  "  Memorie  degli  Architetti." 

Raiiialdi,  (ODERIC.)     See  RINAI.DI. 

Rainaud.     See  RAYNAUD. 

Raiiie,  ran,  (JAMES,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Ovington,  Yorkshire,  in  1791,  became  rector  of  Meldon 
in  1822.  He  published  a  "History  of  North  Durham," 
(1830-52.)  Died  in  1858. 

Raiiie,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  1760, 
became  preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1809.  Died  in  1810. 

Rainer,  ri'ner,  (JOSEPH  JOHANN  MICHAEL  FRANZ 
HIERONYMUS,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  and  seventh  son 
of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.,  was  born  in  1783.  He 
became  Viceroy  of  Austrian  Italy  in  1818.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  at  Milan  in  1848,  he 
left  Lombardy  for  the  Southern  Tyrol,  where  he  died  in 
1853.  He  had  married  in  1820  Elizabeth,  sister  of 
Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia. 

Raiiiolds,  re'i/oldz,  (JOHN,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  near  Exeter  in  1549.  He  was  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford,  and  favoured  the  Puritan  doctrines.  lie  was 
one  of  the  persons  who  assisted  in  translating  the  Bible 
into  English  by  order  of  James  I.  Died  in  1607. 

Raiiiolds,  (WILLIAM,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
became  a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1562.  lie 
was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rheims,  France. 
Died  in  1594. 

Rains,  (JAMES,)  an  American  general,  born  in  North 
Carolina,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1827.  He  com- 


1, e, T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moonj 


RAINSSANT 


1863 


RALEIGH 


mantled  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Bragg,  when 
he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended 
Jaiiuary  2,  1863. 

Rainssant,  rax'sS.N',  (PiERRE,)  a  French  numis 
matist,  born  at  Rheims  about  1640.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals.  Died  in  1689. 

Rais  or  Retz,  de,  deli  riss,  (GiLLEs  de  Laval — deh 
It'vtK,)  LORD,  a  Frencli  baron,  notorious  for  his  prodi 
gality  and  crimes,  was  born  about  1406,  and  inherited  a 
great  estate.  He  entered  the  army,  and  became  a  mar 
shal  of  France  about  the  age  of  twenty-three.  He  was 
accused  of  sorcery  and  of  sacrificing  children  in  dia 
bolical  rites.  He  was  executed  in  1440. 

See  AKMAND  GUERAUD,  "  Notice  sur  Gilles  de  Rais,"  1855. 

Raissoii,  ri'soN',  (  HORACE  NAPOLEON,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  published  a  "  His 
tory  of  Napoleon,"  (10  vols.,  1830,)  and  other  works  on 
recent  Frencli  history.  Died  in  1854. 

Raitch,  ra'itch  or  rltch,  a  Servian  historian,  born 
at  Karlovitz  in  1726.  lie  published  a  "History  of 
the  Slavonians  and  Servians,"  (4  vols.,  1795.)  Died  in 
iSot. 

Rakoczy,  ra'kot-se,  written  also  Racoczi  and 
Ragotzky,  (FRANZ  LEOPOLD,)  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
bom  near  Patak  in  1676.  He  commanded  the  Hun 
garian  insurgents  who  revolted  against  Austria  in  1703. 
lie  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  action  in  1708.  Died  in 
exile  at  Rodosto  in  1735. 

See  HORN,  "  Fr.  Rakoc/.y,"  Leipsic,  1854. 

Rale  or  Rasle,  ral,  (SEKASTIEN,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1658.  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Indians  of  Canada  in  1689,  and 
laboured  nearly  thirty  years  at  Norridgevvock,  on  the 
Kennebec  River.  He  gained  great  influence  over  the 
Indians,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  instigated 
them  to  hostile  acts  against  the  English  colonists  of 
Massachusetts,  who  regarded  him  as  their  worst  enemy. 
He  was  killed  by  a  party  of  English  soldiers  who  sur 
prised  the  village  at  Norridgevvock  in  1724. 

See  CONVERS  FRANCIS,  "Life  of  Sebastian  Rale,"  in  SPARKS'S 
'American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.,  new  series. 

Raleigh,  raw'Ie,  (CAKKW,)  a  son  of  Sir  Walter,  was 
born  in  the  Tower  of  London  in  1604.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  an  act  was 
passed  to  "  restore  him  in  blood  ;"  but  he  failed  to  obtain 
the  paternal  estate.  He  wrote  a  vindication  of  his  father, 
(1645.)  and  a  "Brief  Relation  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
Troubles."  In  1659  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Jersey.  Died  in  1666. 

Raleigh  or  Ralegh,  (Sir  WALTER,)  a  famous  English 
navigator,  author,  courtier,  and  comn  ander,  was  born 
at  Hayes,  in  Devonshire,  in  1552.  He  was  a  son  of 
Walter  Raleigh,  Esq.,  and  Catherine  Champernon,  who 
by  a  former  marriage  was  the  mother  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert.  He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1569  joined  a  company  of  volunteers, 
with  whom  he  fought  for  the  Huguenots  in  France  for 
five  years.  He  took  part  in  several  great  battles  of  that 
war.  In  1580,  as  commander  of  a  company,  he  served 
with  distinction  against  the  Irish  insurgents.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
by  an  act  of  gallantry,  of  which  we  have  no  evidence  but 
tradition.  According  to  this  tradition,  the  queen,  in  her 
progress  from  the  royal  barge  to  the  palace,  came  to  a 
spot  where  the  ground  was  so  wet  that  she  hesitated. 
Raleigh  immediately  covered  the  place  with  his  richly- 
embroidered  cloak,  on  which  she  stepped  with  much 
complacency.  It  is  stated  that  he  received  a  grant  of 
twelve  thousand  acres  of  forfeited  land  in  Ireland  soon 
after  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen.  One  of  his 
biographers  observes  that  "all  the  more  important  and 
interesting  transactions  and  occurrences  of  his  life  are 
involved  in  obscurity  or  perplexed  with  doubt." 

In  1584  he  obtained  a  royal  patent  investing  him  with 
ample  powers  to  colonize  and  govern  any  territories  he 
might  acquire  in  the  unoccupied  parts  of  North  America. 
An  exploring  party  in  his  service  discovered  in  1584  a 
region  to  which  the  queen  gave  the  name  of  Virginia. 
He  sent  out  in  1585  a  body  of  colonists  who  attempted 
to  settle  on  or  near  Roanoke  Island,  but  failed,  and  re 
turned  before  the  end  of  1586.  He  renewed  the  enter 


prise  in  1587  ;  but  this  colony  did  not  prosper,  and  those 
colonists  who  escaped  disease  and  famine  were  killed 
by  the  natives.  In  1589  he  transferred  his  patent  and 
colonial  privileges  to  a  company  of  merchants.  Accord 
ing  to  some  writers,  he  distinguished  himself  in  several 
contests  with  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588,  and  rendered 
important  services  to  the  queen  as  a  member  of  Parlia 
ment.  The  introduction  of  the  potato  and  tobacco  into 
Europe  is  generally  attributed  to  him. 

About  1590  he  became  intimate  with  the  poet  Spenser, 
and  married  privately  a  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Throg- 
morton.  She  was  a  maid  of  honour  to  the  queen,  who 
showed  her  resentment  by  confining  Raleigh  in  the 
Tower  for  several  weeks.  Being  excluded  from  the 
royal  favour  through  his  marriage,  his  ambitious  and 
adventurous  spirit  was  attracted  by  a  project  for  the 
discovery  and  conquest  of  El  Dorado,  a  fabled  paradise 
of  gold-seekers,  which  was  supposed  to  exist  in  South 
America.  He  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  five  vessels  in 
February,  1595,  and  ascended  the  Orinoco  in  boats  about 
sixty  leagues,  but  his  farther  progress  is  said  to  have 
been  prevented  by  the  sudden  rise  of  the  water.  Having 
returned  to  England  before  the  end  of  1595,  lie  published 
a  rather  fabulous  narrative,  entitled  "The  Discovery  of 
the  Large,  Rich,  and  Beautiful  Empire  of  Guiana." 

Raleigh  was  restored  to  the  royal  favour  soon  after 
his  return,  and  served  as  rear-admiral  at  the  capture 
of  Cadiz,  in  1596,  to  which  his  skill  greatly  contributed. 
He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  which  took  Fayal 
in  1597.  He  was  appointed  Captain  of  the  Guard  and 
Governor  of  Jersey  about  1597.  It  is  stated  by  some  of 
his  biographers  that  he  received  large  sums  of  money 
from  the  condemned  partisans  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who 
bribed  him  to  intercede  for  them  with  the  queen.  The 
death  of  Elizabeth  terminated  the  prosperity  of  Raleigh, 
who  had  rendered  himself  very  unpopular  by  his  enmity 
to  Essex  and  perhaps  by  his  habitual  haughty  demeanour. 
Ft  appears  that  James  I.  was  prejudiced  against  him  by 
the  insinuations  of  his  rival  Cecil.  Accused  of  com 
plicity  in  Lord  Cobham's  treason,  Sir  Walter  was 
arrested  in  July,  1602,  and  convicted,  without  sufficient 
proof,  in  1603.  During  his  trial  the  public  sentiment 
was  converted  from  hostility  to  warm  sympathy  and 
admiration. 

In  expectation  of  a  speedy  death,  he  wrote  to  his  wife 
an  affecting  letter,  which  is  praised  by  William  Penn. 
Near  the  close  of  it  he  writes  thus  :  "  I  can  say  no 
more  :  Time  and  Death  call  me  away.  The  everlasting 
God,  powerful,  infinite,  and  inscrutable,  God  Almighty, 
who  is  goodness  itself,  the  true  light  and  life,  keep  thee 
and  thine,  have  mercy  on  me,  and  send  us  to  meet  in  his 
glorious  kingdom."  He  was,  however,  reprieved,  and 
confined  in  the  Tower,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years 
and  wrote  his  chief  work,  "The  History  of  the  World," 
(from  the  creation  to  the  year  150  B.C.)  "The  Greek 
and  Roman  story,"  says  Hallam,  "  is  told  more  fully  and 
exactly  than  by  any  earlier  English  writer,  and  with  a 
plain  eloquence  which  has  given  this  book  a  classical 
reputation  in  our  language."  Another  eminent  critic 
(Hume)  pronounces  Raleigh  "the  best  model  of  our 
ancient  style."  He  wrote  several  short  poems,  which  are 
admired. 

In  1615  he  obtained  his  release  by  bribery  and  by  an 
offer  to  open  a  mine  of  gold  in  Guiana.  He  conducted 
a  fleet  of  thirteen  vessels  to  Guiana  in  1617,  and  sent  an 
exploring  party  up  the  Orinoco.  They  encountered  at 
Saint  Thomas  a  body  of  Spaniards,  in  a  fight  with  whom 
Raleigh's  son  Walter  was  killed  ;  but  their  search  for 
the  gold-mine  was  unsuccessful.  Raleigh  sailed  for  New 
foundland,  intending  to  refit  and  to  obtain  provisions  ; 
but  he  was  forced  by  his  mutinous  crew  to  return  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  July,  1618.  He  was  soon 
after  arrested,  and  a  demand  was  made  by  the  Spanish 
court  that  he  should  be  punished  for  the  attack  on  Saint 
Thomas.  The  king  at  that  time  courted  the  alliance  of 
the  Spanish  monarch,  and  sacrificed  the  required  victim 
to  promote  his  policy.  He  resolved  to  execute  the 
sentence  which  had  been  passed  on  him  in  1603,  and 
for  which  pardon  had  never  been  granted.  Raleigh  was 
beheaded  in  October,  1618.  His  stature  was  tall,  his 
features  handsome,  and  his  presence  imposing.  His 


as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RALPH 


1864 


RAM  EL 


moral  character  seems  to  have  been  deformed  by  several 
vices.  Impartial  writers  agree  that  trufti  and  probity 
were  not  always  his  guiding  principles. 

"The  name  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  says  the  "  Edin 
1'iirgh  Review,"  "is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most 
renowned  and  attractive,  and,  in  some  respects,  the  most 
remarkable,  in  English  story.  .  .  .  His  mind  presents  a 
surprising  union  of  strength  and  versatility,  of  intellect 
ual  and  practical  power,  and  of  an  observing,  reflective, 
and  philosophical  with  a  highly  imaginative  or  poetical 
temperament." 

An  able  French  critic  and  geographer,  M.  Walckenaer, 
defends  Raleigh  from  the  charge  of  falsehood  and  ex 
aggeration  :  "The  details  which  he  has  published  on 
his  voyage  [to  Guiana  in  1595]  include  nothing  which 
has  not  been  confirmed  by  subsequent  explorers  :  they 
are  definite,  exact,  important,  and  do  honour  to  his 
sagacity  as  well  as  his  truthfulness." 

See  MACVEV  NAPIER,  "Lord  Bacon  and  Sir  Waller  Raleigh," 
1853;  EDWARD  EDWARDS,  "Life  of  Raleigh,"  1868  :  ARTHUR  CAY- 
I.KV,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Raleigh,"  1805  ;  W.  Oi.ovs,  "  Life  of  Sir  W. 
Rileigh,"  1740;  MRS.  A.  T.  THOMSON,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir 
W.  Raleigh,"  1830;  P.  FRASER  TYTLER,  "  Life  of  S;r  W.  Raleigh," 
etc.,  1833;  J.  HARROW,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  184=;;  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  British  Ad 
mirals;"  DE  THOU,  "  Histoire  universelle ;"  HUME,  "History  of 
England,"  particularly  chaps,  xlv.  and  xlviii.  ;  GARDINER,  "  History 
of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chap.  ii.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1840;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1832;  SOUTHKV, 
"Lives  of  British  Admirals,"  vol.  iv.,  1837. 

Ralph  OF  ESCURES,  an  English  prelate,  who  was 
elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1114.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  learning  and  virtue.  Died  in  1122. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  iv. 

Ralph,  (JAMES,)  an  English  pamphleteer  and  poetas 
ter,  born  at  Philadelphia.  He  emigrated  to  England 
in  1725  in  company  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  pub 
lished  a  poem  on  "Night"  in  1728,  which  was  ridiculed 
by  Pope  in  these  lines  of  the  "  Dunciad  :" 

"Silence,  ye  wolves,  while  Ralph  to  Cynthia  howls 
And  makes  night  hideous  :  answer  him,  ye  owls  !" 

He  afterwards  wrote  several  dramas  and  political  pam 
phlets.  His  continuation  of  Guthrie's  "History  of 
England"  (2  vols.,  1744-46)  is  a  work  of  some  value. 
Died  in  1762. 

Ram.     See  RAMA. 

Ram,  de,  deh  roN,  (PIERRE  FRANCOIS  XAVIER,)  a 
Belgian  historian,  born  at  Louvain  in  1804,  published  "  Sy- 
nodicon  Belgicnm,"  (4  vols.,  1828-58,)  and  other  works. 

Rama,  ra'ma,  often  called  Ram  (rtm)  by  the  modern 
Hindoos,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "  pleasing,"  "dear," 
"beloved,"  from  the  verb  ram,  to  "play,]  called  also 
Rama  Chandra,  (chiin'dra,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  name  of  the  seventh  avatar  of  Vishnu,  who  on  this 
occasion  appeared  as  a  great  hero  and  warrior.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that,  with  the  exception  of  Krishna, 
this  is  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  manifestations  of  the 
preserving  deity.  The  great  Hindoo  epic  entitled  Ra- 
mayana  (rt-ma'ya-na)  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the  ad 
ventures  and  exploits  of  Rama  and  his  famous  minister 
Hanuman,  the  monkey  king.  The  consort  of  Rama  was 
Sita,  (see'tS,)  eminent  for  her  purity  and  other  virtues. 
Her  deliverance  from  the  power  of  the  great  giant  Ra- 
vana,  and  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  ordeal  by  fire,  by 
which  her  perfect  virtue  was  completely  established,  form 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  great  poem 
or  romance  above  named.  They  are  also  among  the 
most  popular  subjects  for  pictures  among  the  Hindoos. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ramage,  ram'ej,  (ADAM,)  a  distinguished  mechani 
cian,  born  in  Scotland  in  1770,  settled  in  America.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  printing-press  called  by  his  name. 
Died  in  1850. 

Ramanuja  or  Ramanoudja,  ra-ma-noo'ja,  a  Hindoo 
philosopher,  a  votary  of  Vishnu  and  adversary  of  Bood- 
dhism.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century. 

Ramayana.     See  RAMA,  and  VALMIKI. 

Ramazzini,  ra-mat-see'nee,  (BERNARDO  or  BERNAR 
DINO,)  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Carpi  in 
1633.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Modena 
about  1680,  and  removed  to  Padua  in  1700.  He  ob 
tained  the  first  chair  of  medicine  at  Padua  in  1708.  lie 


wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  popular  treatise  "  On  the 
Diseases  of  Artisans,"  ("  De  Morbis  Artificum,"  1701,) 
which  was  often  reprinted,  and  was  translated  into 
French  by  Fourcroy.  Died  in  1714. 

See  ETTMULT.ER,  "Viede  B.  Ramazzini,"  1711;  a  "Memoir  of 
Ramazzini,"  prefixed  to  his  collected  works  ("  Opera  Omnia")  by 
his  nephew,  BART.  RAMAZZINI,  London,  1716;  FABRONI,  "  Vita; 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Rambaldi,  ram-bal'dee,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Bologna  in  1680  ;  died  in  1717. 

Ramberg,  ram'beRC,  (JOHANN  HEINKICII,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Hanover  in  1763,  studied 
in  London  under  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  He  was  after 
wards  appointed  court  painter  at  Hanover.  He  excelled 
in  caricature,  and  produced,  among  »ther  works,  illus 
trations  of  "Reineke  Fuchs."  Died  in  1840. 

Ram'bha'  or  Rem'bha',  .[  modern  Hindoo  pron. 
riimb'ha',1  sometimes  incorrectly  written  Rhemba,  [ety 
mology  obscure,]  the  name,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
of  a  famous  Apsara,  produced  by  the  churning  of  the 
ocean.  (See  APSARA  and  KUKMA.)  Rambha  is  some 
times  identified  with  Lakshmi. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon.  V 

Rambouillet,  de,  deh  rox'boo'y.V,  (CATHERINE  de 
Vivomie — deh  ve'von',)  MARQUISE,  a  French  lady, 
born  in  1588,  became  rnistress  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet, 
in  which  she  presided  over  a  celebrated  reunion  of  the 
elite  of  Paris,  the  first  which  in  France  united  the  aris 
tocracy  of  rank  and  of  genius  in  one  circle.  Her  house 
was  frequented  by  Malherbe,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Voiture, 
Balzac,  Corneille,  and  many  other  literati  of  successive 
generations.  The  court  over  which  she  presided  was 
recognized  as  the  arbiter  of  taste  and  propriety  in 
language,  manners,  etc.  Died  in  1665.  Her  daughter, 
JULIA  D'ANGENNKS,  (d&N'/hen',)  was  celebrated  for 
her  beauty  and  accomplishments.  She  was  married  to 
the  Duke  of  Montausier.  (See  MONTAUSIKK.) 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rambour,  roN'boon',  (.\HKAHAM,)  a  French  Prot 
estant  minister,  born  at  Sedan  about  1590.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Sedan  in  1620,  and  published 
several  works.  Died  in  1651. 

Rambuteau.de,  deh  rdN'lw'to',  (CLAUDE  PHIUHERT 
Barthelot — biiu'lo',)  COUNT,  a  French  administrator, 
born  at  Charnay  in  1781.  He  was  prefect  of  the  depart 
ment  of  Seine  from  1833  to  1848.  „ 

Rameau,  rS'mo',  (JEAN  PHILIPPE,)  a  celebrated 
French  composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  at 
Dijon  in  October,  1683.  He  received  his  first  lessons 
in  music  from  his  father,  and  visited  Milan  in  1701. 
Having  joined  a  company  of  itinerant  actors  or  singers, 
he  performed  on  the  violin  in  various  cities  of  France. 
He  became  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Clermont  (An 
vergne)  about  1718,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1722.  He 
established  his  reputation  as  a  theorist  by  a  "  Treatise 
on  Harmony,"  (1722,)  and  "New  System  of  Theoretic 
Music,"  (1726,)  in  which  he  developed  his  theory  of 
basse  fondamentale.  In  1733  he  composed  the  music 
of  the  opera  "  Hippolyte  et  Aricie,"  which  was  very 
successful  and  produced  a  great  excitement  in  the 
musical  world.  The  partisans  of  Lulli  were  indignant 
at  the  innovations  of  Rameau.  He  produced  in  1737 
the  opera  of "  Castor  and  Pollux,"  which  is  called  his 
master-piece.  Among  his  numerous  operas  are  "  Dar- 
danus,"  (1739,)  and  "Zoroaster,"  (1749.)  Died  in  1764. 

SeeMARET,  "filoge  historicjue  de  Rameau,"  1766;  Friris,  "  I?io» 
graphic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Ramee,  rit'ma',  (DANIEL,)  an  architect,  born  at  Ham 
burg  in  1806,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Jacques,  noticed  below. 
He  restored  the  cathedrals  of  Noyon,  Senlis,  and  Beau- 
vais.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of  the  History  of  Archi 
tecture,"  (2  vols.,  1843,)  and  other  works. 

Ramee,  (JOSEPH  JACQUES,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Charlemont  in  1764.  He  designed  the  Exchange  of 
Hamburg,  and  Union  College,  at  Schenectady,  in  the 
United  States.  Died  near  Noyon  in  1842. 

Ramee,  La.     See  RAM  us. 

Ramel.     See  NOGARET,  DE,  (JACQUES.) 

Ramel,  rft'mel',  ([E\N  PIERRE,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Cahors  in  1768,  was  assassinated  in  August,  1815, 
at  Toulouse,  of  which  he  was  then  the  commandant. 


S,e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  goo  1;  moor.; 


RAMELLI 


1865 


RAMSDEN 


Ram'elli,  rd-mel'lee,  (AGOSTINO,)  an  Italian  mecha 
nician,  born  at  Milan  about  1530,  served  as  engineer  in 
the  army  of  Charles  V.  Died  in  1590. 

Ramelli,  (FELICE,)  an  Italian  priest  and.  painter  in 
miniature,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1666.  He  wofkecl  at 
Rome.  Died  in  1740. 

Ramenghi.     See  BAGXACAVALLO. 

Ram'e-ses  or  Rarn'ses,  written  also  Ramesses, 
a  name  common  to  several  kings  of  ancient  Egypt. 
RAMESES  III.  became  king  about  1550  B.C.,  and 
reigned  nearly  sixty  years.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Rameses,  (also  called  Amenophis  II.,)  who,  ac 
cording  to  some  historians,  was  the  father  of  Rameses 
the  Great,  otherwise  called  Sesostjis. 

See  BUNSEN,  "  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History." 

Raniey,  rl'mi',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1754.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1782. 
Among  his  works  are  statues  of  Napoleon  and  Riche 
lieu.  Died  in  Paris  in  1838.  His  son,  ETIENNE  JULES, 
born  in  1796,  was  also  a  successful  sculptor.  He  adorned 
the  Louvre  with  several  works,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  Institute  in  1829.  Died  in  1852. 

Ramirez,  ra-mee'r£th,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1624;  died  in  1692. 

Ramiro  (ra-mee'ro)  I.,  King  of  Asturias,  was  a  son 
of  Hermudez.  •  He  began  to  reign  in  842  A.D.,  and 
defeated  the  Normans  in  843.  Died  in  850. 

Ramiro  H.,  King  of  Asturias  and  Leon,  began  to 
reign  about  930  A.D.  He  defeated  a  large  army  of  the 
caliph  Abderrahrnan  III.  in  939  A.D.  on  the  plain  of 
Simancas.  Died  in  950  A.D. 

Ramler,  ram'ler,  (KARL  WILHELM.)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Kolberg,  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  in  1725.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Berlin.  His 
works  are  chiefly  lyrics,  and  are  remarkable  for  elegance 
of  language.  His  "Death  of  Jesus,"  one  of  his  most 
esteemed  pieces,  was  set  trt  music  by  Graun.  He  also 
translated  Horace,  Martial,  Catullus,  and  Sappho's  odes. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1798. 

See  HKINSIUS,  "  Biographische  Sliizze  Ramlers,"  1798;  LONG- 
FEU.ITW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  GKRVINU<=,  "Geschichte 
tier  Deutschen  Dichtung:"  HIRSCHINO,  "  Historisch-literarisches 
HaiHibuch  ;"  "  Xonvelie  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Ram'mo-kun'Roy,  a  Hindoo  reformer  and  linguist, 
was  born  in  Bengal  about  1776.  His  parents  were  Brah- 
mans  of  high  rank.  He  was  master  of  Sanscrit,  Persian, 
Arabic,  Hindostanee,  and  English.  At  an  early  age  he 
renounced  the  Brahmanical  religion.  He  believed  in 
Christ  as  a  divine  teacher,  but  held  Arian  or  Unitarian 
views.  He  wrote  several  works  against  the  prevailing 
superstitions  of  India,  and  published  in  1820  "  The 
Precepts  of  Jesus  the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness," 
which  consists  of  selections  from  the  New  Testament. 
In  1830  he  was  sent  by  the  King  of  Delhi  as  ambas 
sador  to  London.  Died  near  Bristol  in  1833. 

See  LANT  CARPENTER,  "  Review  of  the  Labours.  Opinions,  and 
Character  of  Rainmohnn  Roy  ;"  "  Last  Days  in  England  of  the 
Rajah  Rammohiin  Roy,"  edited  by  MARY  CARPENTER,  London, 
1867;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  iSi8. 

Ramond  de  Carbonnieres,  rt'mox'  deh  kf  rt'bo'- 
ne-aiK/,  (Louis  FKAXC.OIS,  )  BAROX,  a  distinguished 
French  savant  and  politician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1755. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791, 
and  sat  in  the  corps  legislatif  from  iSoo  to  1806.  He 
wrote  several  able  scientific  and  descriptive  works, 
among  which  is  "Travels  in  the  Pyrenees,"  (1801,) 
which  treats  of  geology,  etc.  Died  in  1827.  Cuvier 
wrote  a  eulogy  on  him. 

See,  also,  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Ramondini,  ra-mon-dee'nee,  (VIXCEXZO,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Messina  in  1758,  was  professor  at 
Naples.  Died  in  1811. 

Ramorino.    See  REMOKINO. 

Ramos,  ra'mos,  (ENRIQUE,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
at  Alicante  in  1738,  was  an  officer  of  the  army.  He 
wrote  successful  tragedies,  named  "Guzman,"  (1780,) 
and  '•  Pelagius"  or  "  Pelayo,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1801. 

Rampalle,  rox'pfl',  (ST.,)  a  French  poet,  whom  Boi- 
leau,  in  his  "Art  Poetique,''  mentions  among  authors 
who  were  no  longer  read  in  his  time.  Died  about  1660. 

Rampeii,  ram'pen,  (HENDRIK,)  a  Flemish  theologian, 
born  at  Hni  in  1572  ;  died  at  Louvain  in  1641. 


Rampinelli,  ram-pe-nel'lee,  (RAMIRO,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Brescia  in  1697  ;  died  at  Milan 
in  1759- 

Rampon,  rSx'poN',  (ANTOINE  GUII.LAUME,)  COUNT, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Saint-Fortunat  (Ardeche)  in 
1759.  He  distinguished  himself  as  general  of  brigade 
at  Montenotte,  Roveredo,  and  Arcola,  (1796.)  For  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  and  in  Syria  he 
was  made  general  of  division  in  1800.  Died  in  1842. 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (ALEXANDER,)  born  in  England 
about  1760,  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  died  in 
1824.  He  published  an  "  Anatomy  of  the  Heart,  Brain, 
etc.,"  (1813.) 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (ALLAN,)  a  distinguished  Scottish 
poet,  born  of  poor  parents  in  Lanarkshire  in  1685.  He 
was  successively  a  barber  and  bookseller  in  Edinburgh. 
He  published  in  1721  a  volume  of  poems,  which  were 
well  received.  His  principal  work  is  a  pastoral  poem 
called  "The  Gentle  Shepherd,"  (1729,)  which  has  been 
greatly  admired.  Died  in  1758. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  British  Poets;"  AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1762. 

Ramsay,  (ALLAN,)  a  portrait-painter,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713.  He  became 
principal  painter  to  George  III.  in  1767,  and  surpassed 
most  of  his  British  contemporaries  in  his  art.  He  wrote 
several  political  tracts,  and  visited  Rome  four  times. 
On  his  return  from  his  last  journey  he  died  at  Dover,  in 
1784,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  a  general  in  the  army. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ramsay,  [Fr.  pron.  rSx'zi',]  (ANDREW  MICHAEL,) 
called  CHEVALIER  RAMSAY,  was  born  at  Ayr,  in  Scot 
land,  in  1686.  He  was  converted  by  Fen  el  on  from 
skepticism  to  Roman  Catholicism  about  1709,  and  be 
came  tutor  to  the  Prince  de  Turenne.  He  acquired 
distinction  by  his  writings,  which  are  in  French  and 
are  admired  for  purity  of  style.  His  chief  works  are 
"Travels  of  Cyrus,"  ("Voyages  de  Cyrus,"  1727,)  which 
is  an  imitation  of  Fenelon's  "  Telemachus,"  a  valuable 
"Life  of  Fenelon,"  (1723,)  and  a  "Life  of  Turenne," 
(1735.)  Died  in  France  in  1743. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Biographia  Britannica." 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (DAVID,)  an  American  historian  and 
physician,  born  in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1749.  Having  graduated  in  1765  at  Princeton  College, 
he  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia  under  Dr.  Rush. 
He  soon  after  removed  to  Charleston,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1782 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  published 
in  1785  his  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  South  Caro 
lina,"  which  was  followed  in  1790  by  the  "History  of 
the  American  Revolution."  His  "Life  of  Washington" 
appeared  in  1801.  He  also  wrote  a  "Eulogium  on  Dr. 
Rush,"  and  other  works  on  various  subjects.  lie  was 
mortally  wounded  by  a  lunatic  in  the  streets  of  Charles 
ton  in  1815.  His  work  entitled  "Universal  History 
Americanized"  was  published  after  his  death.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  of  Martha  Laurens  Ramsay." 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii.  ;  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ramsay,  (EDWARD  BAXNERMAN,)  a  Scottish  writer, 
born  about  1793.  He  became  an  Episcopal  minister  in 
Edinburgh  in  1830.  Among  his  works  are  "Reminis 
cences  of  Scottish  Life  and  Character,"  (1857,)  and 
"Thomas  Chalmers,  D.D.,  a  Biographical  Notice," 
(1867.) 

Ramsay,  (GEORGE  and  JAMES.)     See  DALHOUSIK. 

Ramsay,  ([AMES,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Aberdeen- 
shire,  Scotland,  in  1733.  He  published  Sermons,  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1789. 

Ramsay,  (WILLIAM.)  an  eminent  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1806.  He  became  professor  of 
humanity  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1831,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Manual  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (1851.)  He  was  one  of  the  principal  con 
tributors  to  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography."  Died  in  1865. 

Rams'den,  ( JESSE,)  an  eminent  English  optician  and 
maker  of  astronomical  instruments,  was  born  near 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     (33P"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAMSES 


1866 


RANDOLPH 


Halifax,  Yorkshire,  in  1735.  He  settled  in  London 
about  1755,  married  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Dollond,  and 
became  master  of  a  manufactory  of  instruments  about 
1764.  He  improved  the  sextant,  and  invented  a  dividing 
machine  for  the  graduation  of  instruments,  for  which  he 
received  a  premium  of  six  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds 
from  the  board  of  longitude  in  1777.  Among  his  re 
markable  productions  were  telescopes  erected  at  the 
Observatories  of  Blenheim,  Paris,  Gotha,  and  Dublin. 
He  improved  the  theodolite,  equatorial,  micrometer, 
barometer,  etc.  lie  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1786.  Died  at  Brighton  in  1800. 

See  THOMSON,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Ramses.     See  RAMF.SES. 

Ranius,  rt'mils',  (JOSEPH  MARIUS,)  a  French  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Aix  in  1805.  He  obtained  a  first  medal  in 
1839.  His  works  are  praised  for  elevation  of  style. 

Ranius,  rSt'miis',  (PKTKR,)  or  Pierre  de  la  Ra- 
mee,  pe-aiR'  deh  It  r&'ma',  a  French  philosopher  and 
classical  scholar,  born  in  Vermandois  in  1515,  or,  as 
others  say,  in  1502.  He  was  a  son  of  poor  parents, 
who  employed  him  to  tend  sheep  in  his  boyhood. 
Prompted  by  a  thirst  of  knowledge,  he  ran  away  from 
home  and  entered  the  College  of  Navarre,  in  Paris,  as 
a  servant.  He  showed  his  independence  of  mind  at 
college  by  writing  a  thesis  to  prove  that  Aristotle  was 
not  infallible.  He  incurred  much  persecution  from  the 
partisans  of  Aristotle,  and  was  accused  of  impiety.  In 
1543  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Logic,"  which  ob 
tained  great  success.  He  was  appointed  by  the  king 
professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  in  the  College  of 
France  in  1551.  About  1562  he  avowed  his  attachment 
to  the  Reformed  religion.  He  published  many  works 
on  grammar,  mathematics,  philosophy,  theology,  etc., 
among  which  is  "  Dialectiqne,"  (1555.)  His  disciples, 
called  Ramists,  were  numerous  in  France  and  L'ngland. 
He  perished  in  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  at 
Paris,  in  1572.  He  is  called  the  precursor  of  Descartes. 

See  WADDINGTON,  "Ranius,  sa  Vie,  ses  ficrits  et  ses  Opinions," 
1855  :  LKNTZ,  "  Historin  P.  Rami,"  1713  ;  TKNNKMANN,  "Geschichte 
der  1'hilnsophie;"  BKEITHAUPT,  "  Dissertatio  de  tribtis  Logicas 
Restanratoribus,  Ramo.  Verulaniio  et  Cartesio,"  1712;  E.  SAISSKT, 
"  Les  Precurseurs  de  Descartes,"  1862;  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NICKKON,  "  Me'moires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Ramusio,  ra-moo'se-o,  or  Rannusio,  ran-noo'se-o, 
(GlAMBATTlSTA,)  an  Italian  compiler  and  translator, 
was  born  at  Treviso  in  1485.  He  was  for  many  years 
secretary  to  the  Venetian  Council  of  Ten.  He  pub 
lished  a  valuable  collection  of  narratives  of  voyages  and 
discoveries  made  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  entitled 
"Collection  of  Navigations  and  Journeys,"  ("Raccolta 
di  Navigazioni  e  Viaggi,"  3  vols.,  1550-59.)  He  trans 
lated  into  Italian  those  narratives  which  were  written  in 
other  languages,  and  inserted  some  prefaces  and  dis 
courses  written  by  himself.  Died  in  1557. 

See  NICERON,  "  Me'moires ;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Itali.ina  ;"  DE  THOU,  "  filches." 

Ran.     See  CEom. 

Ranc,  r6\,  (JEAN,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1674.  He  was  patronized  by  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1735. 

Ranee,  de,  deh  rS.x'sa',  (ARMANI)  JEAN  le  Bouthil- 
lier — leh  boo'te'ye-i',)  a  French  abbe,  born  in  Paris  in 
1626,  was  noted  as  the  reformer  ot  the  monks  of  La 
Trappe.  He  subjected  them  to  the  practice  of  great 
austerities  and  the  endurance  of  extreme  privations. 
Died  in  1700. 

See  LE  NAIN  r>E  TII.LEMONT,  "Vie  de  Ranee,"  1719;  MARSOL- 
LIER,  ''Vie  de  1'Abbe  de  Ranee,"  1703  ;  CHATEAUBRIAND,  "Vie  de 
Ranee,"  1844;  CHARLES  BUTLER,  "Lives  of  A.  J.  le  Bouthillier, 
Thomas  a  Kempis,"  etc. 

Ranchin,  rfiN'shaN',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1564  ;  died  in  1641. 

Ranconet,  de,  deh  roN'ko'ni',  (AiMAR,)  a  learned 
French  jurist,  born  at  Periguenx  about  1498,  was  a 
Greek  and  Latin  scholar.  He  wrote  "  Treasure  of  the 
French  Language,"  ("  Tresor  de  la  Langue  Frai^aise," 
1606.)  Died  at  Paris  in  1559. 

Randa,  ran'da,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna,  painted  sacred  history.  Died  in  1650. 


Raii'dall,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Bucks. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in 
1587,  after  which  he  preached  in  London.  He  pub 
lished  Sermons  and  other  works.  Died  in  1622. 

Ran'dolph,  (EDMUND,)  a  son  of  John  Randolph, 
(who  left  the  country  with  Lord  Dunmore  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolution,)  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia 
in  1786,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
formed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787.  In  1789  he  was 
appointed  attorney-general.  lie  was  a  political  friend 
ot  Jefferson,  whom  he  succeeded  as  secretary  of  state  in 
January,  1794.  Having  been  accused  of  bribery  and  a 
corrupt  intrigue  on  the  evidence  of  an  intercepted  de 
spatch  from  Fauchet,  the  P'rench  envoy,  he  resigned  in 
August,  1795,  and  published  a  vindication  of  his  course. 
Died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  (GEORGE  W.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  King  George  county,  Virginia,  about  1812,  was  a 
son  of  Governor  Thomas  M.  Randolph.  He  was  a 
lawyer  before  the  civil  war,  took  arms  against  the  Union 
in  1861,  and  became  a  brigadier-general.  He  was  secre 
tary  of  war  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March  to 
November,  1862.  Died  in  1867. 

Raii'dolph,  (Joi-iN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  1749, 
was  a  son  of  Thomas,  (1701-83.)  He  became  Bishop 
of  Oxford  in  1799,  of  Bangor  in  1807,  and  of  London 
(or  York)  in  1809.  Died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  (  JOHN,)  OF  ROANOKE,  an  American  orator, 
born  at  Cawsons,  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia,  in 
[tine,  1773,  was  a  son  of  John  Randolph.  He  claimed  to 
be  a  descendant  of  Pocahontas  the  Indian  princess.  He 
studied  at  Princeton  and  Columbia  College,  New  York, 
for  short  periods.  In  1799  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  to  represent  the  Charlotte  district,  lie  was 
a  Democrat,  a  partisan  of  State  rights,  and  a  political 
friend  of  Jefferson.  He  was  re-elected  many  times  to 
Congress,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater. 
About  the  end  of  1804  he  was  appointed  chief  manager 
to  conduct  the  trial  of  [uclge  Chase,  who  was  impeached 
before  the  Senate.  He  became  estranged  from  Jefferson 
about  1806,  separated  from  his  political  associates,  tried 
to  defeat  the  election  of  Madison,  and  opposed  the  war 
of  1812.  He  was  defeated  at  the  next  election,  (1813,) 
but  was  again  elected  in  1814  or  1815.  He  opposed  the 
charter  of  the  United  States  Bank  in  1816.  In  a  letter 
dated  September,  1818.  he  says,  "  When  I  speak  of  my 
country,  I  mean  the  commonwealth  of  Virginia."  He 
spoke  against  the  Missouri  Compromise  bill  of  1820, 
because  it  prohibited  the  extension  of  slavery  north  of 
the  line  36°  30'.  At  the  same  time  he  stigmatized  the 
Northern  members  who  voted  for  it  as  "dough-faces," 
a  term  which  has  since  come  into  general  use  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  December,  1824,10  fill  a  vacancy  for  two  years. 
In  a  speech  against  the  President  in  1826,  he  insulted 
Mr.  Clay  by  allusion  to  a  "combination  of  the  Puritan 
with  the  blackleg."  His  apologist  Garland  admits  that 
"he  indulged  in  language  of  the  grossest  personal  in 
sult."  He  was  challenged  by  Mr.  Clay,  and  a  duel  ensued. 
Randolph's  pistol  went  off  before  the  word,  Clay  fired 
without  effect,  and  his  adversary  then  threw  away  his 
fire.  He  was  defeated  in  the  election  of  Senator  in  1827. 
In  a  letter  dated  May  27,  1828,  he  wrote,  "The  country 
is  ruined,  thanks  to  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Mr.  Ritchie."  He 
supported  General  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828, 
and  was  appointed  minister  to  Russia  in  1830.  He  re 
turned  home,  in  very  feeble  health,  in  the  autumn  of  1831. 
He  sympathized  with  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina, 
and  in  December,  1832,  denounced  the  proclamation  of 
President  Jackson,  which  he  called  "the  ferocious  and 
bloodthirsty  proclamation  of  our  Djezzar  Pacha."  He 
died,  in  1833,  in  Philadelphia,  to  which  he  went  to  take 
passage  for  Europe.  He  was  never  married.  He  owned 
about  three  hundred  slaves,  whom  he  manumitted  by  his 
last  will.  In  1803,  as  chairman  of  a  committee  of  Con 
gress,  he  reported  against  the  introduction  of  slaves  into 
Indiana,  as  not  calculated  to  promote  the  prosperity  of 
the  territory.  He  was  a  man  of  decided  genius,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  ready  wit,  which,  joined  to  his 
mastery  of  the  weapons  of  sarcasm  and  invective,  ren 
dered  him  a  formidable  opponent  in  debate.  "  He  was 


•  ei  i>  °>  u>  y»  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RANDOLPH 


1867 


RAOUL 


like  an  Tshmaelite,"  says  Garland, — "  his  hand  against 
every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  him." 

See  HUGH  A.  GARLAND,  "Life  of  John  Randolph,"  2  vols.. 
1850;  JAMES  PARTON,  "Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times,' 
1867  ;  '"  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol 
iv. ;  "  Jvlinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1807;  "North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1866. 

Randolph,  (PEYTON,)  an  American  jurist  and  states 
man,  born  in  Virginia  in  1723,  was  first  president  of 
the  American  Congress  which  met  in  1774.  He  was 
re-elected  president  of  that  body  in  May,  1775.  Died 
in  Philadelphia,  October,  1775. 

Randolph,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  able  British  diploma 
tist,  born  in  Kent  about  1525.  He  performed  many 
missions  to  Scotland,  France,  and  Russia  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  and  was  an  adept  in  political  intrigues. 
He  married  a  sister  of  Walsingham.  Died  in  1590. 
His  Letters,  which  are  of  great  historical  importance, 
are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  are  largely 
quoted  by  Froude  in  his  "  History  of  England." 

Randolph,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1605.  On  leaving  college  he  be 
came  a  resident  of  London  and  a  friend  or  protege  of 
Ben  Jonson.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  several 
dramas,  among  which  is  "  The  Muses'  Looking-Glass," 
(1638.)  His  habits  were  dissipated.  Died  in  1634. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  (1822.) 

Randolph,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Canterbury  in  1701.  He  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford  in  1768.  He  published  several  works  on 
theology,  among  which  is  "Christian  Faith,"  (1744.) 
Died  in  1783. 

Randon,  r6x'd6N',  (CHARLES  JOSEPH,)  Comte  de 
Pullv,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1751  ;  died 
in  1832. 

Randon,  (JACQUES  Louis  CESAR  AI.EXANDRE,  ) 
COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  I79> 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1838,  served  in  Algeria,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division  in  1847.  HC 
was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  January.  1851,  and 
Governor-General  of  Algeria  in  December  of  that  year. 
In  1856  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was 
minister  of  war  from  1859  to  1867.  Died  in  1871. 

Randon-Dulauloy,  rftx'dAx'  dii'lo'lwa',  (CHARLES 
FRANCOIS,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in 
1764.  As  general  of  division,  he  distinguished  himself 
at  Eylau,  Friedland,  Lutzen,  and  Dresden.  Died  in  1832. 

Rangabe.     See  Rizo  RANT.  USE. 

Ranieri,  ra-ne-a'ree,  (Avroxio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1806.  He  wrote  "  Ginevra,"  a  tale, 
(1838,)  and  a  "History  of  Italy  from  Theodosius  to 
Charlemagne,"  (1841.) 

Ranieri-Biscia.  ra-ne-a'ree  bee'sha.  (LuiGi,)  an  Ital 
ian  poet,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1744.  He  wrote  a  poem 
"  On  the  Cultivation  of  Anise,"  (1772,)  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1824. 

Rank,  rank,  (JOSEPH,)  a  German  writer  of  tales,  born 
near  Xeumark,  Bohemia,  in  1815.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Aus  dem  Boehmerwalde,"  (3  vols.,  1851,) 
and  "  Florian,"  (1853.) 

Raiike,  rank'eh,  (FRIEDRICH  HEIXKICH,)  a  distin 
guished  Protestant  theologian  and  preacher,  brother  of 
the  historian  Leopold,  was  born  in  1707.  He  became 
professor  of  dogmatics  at  Erlangen  in  1840. 

Ranke,  (KARL  FF.RDINAXD,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1802.  He  published  several 
educational  and  philological  works. 

Ranke,  (LEOPOLD.)  one  of  the  most  eminent  German 
historians  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Wiehe,  in  Thurin- 
gia,  in  1795.  He  published  in  1824  a  "History  of  the 
Roman  and  German  People  from  1494  to  1535, "and  was 
appointed  the  following  year  professor-extraordinary  of 
history  at  Berlin.  To  this  succeeded  his  "  Princes  and 
Nations  of  Southern  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seven 
teenth  Centuries,"  (1827.)  "The  Servian  Revolution," 
(1829,)  and  "The  Conspiracy  against  Venice  in  1688," 
(1831.)  His  "Popes  of  Rome,  their  Church  and  State 
in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (3  vols., 
1834,)  and  "German  History  during  the  Reformation," 
(5  vols.,  1839-43,)  are  among  his  most  popular  works, 
and  have  become  widely  known  by  the  admirable  trans 


lations  of  Mrs.  Austin.  Besides  the  above-named,  he 
published  "Nine  Books  of  Prussian  History,"  (3  vols., 
1847,)  which  has  been  translated  by  Sir  Alexander  and 
Lady  Duff  Gordon,  a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Six 
teenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (1852,)  and  other 
similar  works.  Ranke  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  Prussia  in  1841.  His  "  History  of  the  Popes"  is 
highly  commended  by  Macaulay. 

See  MACAULAY'S  review  of  {lie  same,  first  published  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  tor  October,  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate  ;"  BROCXHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1840. 

Rankine,  rank'in,  (  WILLIAM  JOHN  MACQUORX,  ) 
F.  R.S.,  a  British  civil  engineer,  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  heat,  elasticity,  mechanics,  etc.  He  became 
professor  of  civil  engineering  and  mechanics  at  Glas 
gow  about  1855.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Manual  of 
Applied  Mechanics,"  (1858,)  and  "On  Energetics." 

Rannequin,  rtn'neh-kin,  Reii'kin,  or  Rennequiii, 
(S\VALM,)  a  hydraulic  engineer,  born  at  Liege  in  1644. 
He  constructed  the  machine  of  Marly,  near  Versailles, 
in  France.  Died  in  1708. 

Ran'som,  (THOMAS  EDWARD  GREENFIELD,)  a  brave 
and  skilful  American  general,  born  at  Norwich,  Ver 
mont,  in  November,  1834.  He  was  a  civil  engineer  in 
Illinois  before  the  civil  war.  In  July,  1861,  he  became 
a  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  February,  1862,  he  was  sc> 
verely  wounded  at  Fort  Donelson.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  at  Shiloh  in  April,  1862,  obtained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  in  January,  1863,  and  served  under 
General  Banks  in  the  Red  River  expedition.  He  was 
disabled  by  a  wound  at  Sabine  Cross-Roads,  Louisiana, 
in  April,  1864.  He  joined  the  army  of  Sherman  after 
his  wound  had  healed,  and  took  command  of  a  division 
or  corps  just  before  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  (September  2.) 
He  died  ^t  Rome,  Georgia,  in  October,  1864. 

See  TENXEV.  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  793; 
"  Sherman  and  his  Campaigns,"  by  COLONELS  BOWMAN  and  IRWIN. 

Ransonnette,  rSx'so'net',  (CHARLES  NICOLAS,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  engraved 
plates  for  several  books  of  travel. 

Rantoul,  ran'tool,  (ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  states 
man  of  the  Democratic  party,  was  born  in  Beverly, 
Massachusetts,  in  1805.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  was  elected  in  1834  to  the  legis 
lature,  in  which  he  advocated  the  abolition  of  capital 
punishment.  In  1845  he  was  appointed  a  district  attor 
ney  of  the  United  States  by  the  President,  and  in  1851 
succeeded  Daniel  Webster  as  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  a  short  term.  Having  avowed  himself  a 
decided  opponent  of  the  extension  of  slavery,  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  by  the  united  votes  of  the  Demo- 
rats  and  Free-Soilers.  Died  in  August,  1852. 

See  "  Memoir"  prefixed  tn  a  volume  of  his  speeches,  published 
t>y  L.  HAMILTON  in  1854  ;  "  Democratic  Review"  for  October,  1850, 

ith  a  portrait.) 

Rantzau,  de,  deh  roxt'so',  (JosiAS,)  COUNT,  a  mar 
shal  of  France,  born  in  Denmark  in  1609.  He  com 
manded  a  French  army  with  success  in  Flanders  from 
1642  to  1649.  Died  in  1650. 

Rantzau,  von,  fon  rant'sow,  (JoHANN,)  COUNT,  a 
German  general,  born  in  1492.  He  entered  the  service 
if  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  (afterwards  Frederick  I.  of 
Denmark,)  for  whom  he  conquered  Denmark  about 
1525.  Died  in  1565. 

Raiizani,  ran-za'nee,  (CAMILLO  ABBATE,)  an  eminent 
Italian  naturalist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1775.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  university 
of  his  native  city  in  1803.  About  1810  he  visited  Paris, 
where  he  was  treated  with  much  attention  by  Cuvier. 
He  began  in  1819  to  publish  a  great  work  entitled  "Ele 
ments  of  Zoology,"  which  he  was  not  able  to  finish. 
About  twelve  volumes  of  it  have  been  published.  Died 
n  1841. 

See  CORRADO  POI.ITI,  "  Elogio  di  C.  Ranzani,"  1842;  TIPALDO, 
'  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Raoul,  ri'ooK,  or  Rodolphe,  ro'dolf,  [Lat.  RA- 
DUI/FUS,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  married  Emma,  a  daughter 
of  Robert,  Duke  of  France.  In  923  he  was  chosen  king 
jy  the  barons  who  deposed  Charles  III.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Normans  under  Rollo.  Died  in  936. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2(^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAOUL 


1868 


RAPIN 


Raoul.     See  ROI.I.O. 

Raoul-Rochette.     See  ROCHETTE. 

Raoux,  rjt'oo',  (JKAN,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1677.  He  obtained  some  vogue  as  a 
portrait-painter.  Died  in  1734. 

Raoux,  (SciPioN  EDOUAKD,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born 
at  Mens  (Isere)  in  1817,  became  professor  at  Lausanne. 

Rapetti,  ra-pet'tee,  (Louis  NICOLAS,)  a  distinguished 
jurist  and  biographer,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1812.  He 
wrote  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale"  a  notice 
of  Napoleon  I.,  and  other  articles.  He  lectured  on 
Roman  law  in  the  College  of  France  from  1841  to  1848. 

Raphael  (ra'fa-el  or>tf'a-el)  [It.  RAFFAEI.I.E,  ilf-ia- 
el'la]  Sanzio,  san'ze-o,  (RAFFAELLO,)  the  most  illus 
trious  of  modern  painters,  was  born  at  Urbino,  in  the 
Papal  States.  April  6,  1483.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
Giovanni  di  Santi  (or  Sanzio)  and  Magia  Ciarla.  After 
he  had  received  the  first  lessons  in  design  from  his 
father,  who  was  a  painter  of  moderate  talents,  he  became 
about  1495  a  pupil  of  Perugino,  whom  he  imitated  so 
well  that  when  that  master  and  Raphael  worked  on  the 
same  canvas  the  result  seemed  to  be  the  product  of  one 
hand.  Among  his  earliest  works  are  a  "Holv  Family," 
(1500,)  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  "The  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin,"  (now  in  the  Vatican,)  and  "The  Marriage 
of  the  Virgin,"  ("  Sposalizio,")  dated  1504,  which  is  now 
at  Milan.  "The  Virgin,"  says  Lanzi,  "is  a  model  of 
celestial  beauty."  In  the  autumn  of  1504  he  visited 
Florence,  where  he  painted  several  works  and  formed 
friendships  with  Fra  Bartolommeo  and  Ridolfo  Ghir- 
landaio.  During  the  period  from  1505  to  1508,  which 
he  passed  at  Perugia  and  Florence,  he  produced  a 
Christ  in  glory,  the  "Madonna  del  Gran  Duca,"  and 
other  Madonnas.  These  works  show  that  his  style  had 
been  modified  by  his  studies  in  Florence. 

Having  received  from  Julius  TI.  an  invitatiorfto  orna 
ment  the  Vatican,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1508.  Here  lie 
studied  the  remains  of  Grecian  genius,  associated  with 
eminent  scholars,  among  whom  were  Bembo,  Ariosto, 
and  Sadoleto,  and  entered  into  a  rivalry  with  Michael 
Angelo.  Raphael  painted  in  the  Vatican  (in  fresco)  the 
large  and  noble  composition  called  "Disputa  del  Sacra 
mento,"  the  admirable  "  School  of  Athens,"  "  Parnassus," 
(1511,)  "The  Miracle  of  Bolsena,"  "  Attila  repelled  from 
Rome,"  and  other  frescos.  "  In  the  composition  and 
execution  of  the  'School  of  Athens,'"  says  Quatremere 
de  Quincy,  "Raphael  had  recovered,  so  to  speak,  the 
long-lost  thread  of  the  manner  and  taste  of  antiquity, 
and  had  at  length  connected  with  the  eternal  models  of 
the  true  and  beautiful  the  chain  of  modern  inventions." 
He  also  painted  in  oil  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  the  "Madonna  di  Foligno,"  (1511.)  and  a  portrait 
of  Julius  II.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at  Rome  he  adopted 
what  is  called  his  third  style. 

Like  all  great  painters  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Raphael  was  a  skilful  architect.  In  1515  the  pope  ap 
pointed  him  chief  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  in 
compliance  with  the  dying  request  of  Bramante.  Raphael 
made  a  model  or  design  for  this  edifice  ;  but  it  was  not 
executed.  He  designed  the  Pandolfini  palace  at  Flor 
ence,  of  which  an  able  critic  remarks,  "There  is  not  in 
architecture  a  palatial  design  more  noble,  of  a  purer 
style,  of  a  more  judicious  distribution."  About  1515  he 
produced  the  celebrated  Cartoons,  ten  designs  for  the 
tapestry  of  the  pope's  chapel,  seven  of  which  are  now 
at  Hampton  Court,  England.  They  represent  "  The 
Charge  to  Peter,"  "  Saint  Paul  preaching  at  Athens," 
and  other  scenes  from  sacred  history. 

Among  his  later  oil-paintings  are  "  Saint  Cecilia,"  (at 
Boloqjna.)  the  "Madonna  del  Pesce,"  (or  "del  Pez,")  (at 
the  Escurial,)  the  "Madonna  di  San  Sisto,"  (the  glory 
of  the  gallery  of  Dresden,)  and  the  "  Transfiguration," 
which  some  consider  his  master-piece,  and  which  is 
now  in  the  Vatican.  His  great  power  was  in  the  ex 
pression  of  passion  and  character.  He  also  excelled  in 
composition,  invention,  and  design  ;  but  as  a  colorist 
he  was  inferior  to  Titian  and  others.  It  is  asserted  that 
in  all  his  endless  inventions  a  single  repetition  of  him 
self  is  not  to  be  found.  He  died  at  Rome  on  the  6th 
of  April,  1520,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven.  He  was 
never  married.  He  had  a  delicate  constitution,  brown 


hair  and  eyes,  regular  and  handsome  features.  His 
modest,  amiable,  and  noble  character  rendered  him  a 
general  favourite. 

"  The  bent  of  his  genius,"  says  Lanzi,  "  led  him  to 
that  ideal  beauty,  grace,  and  expression,  the  most 
refined  and  difficult  province  of  painting.  .  .  .  Raffaelle 
is  by  common  consent  placed  at  the  head  of  his  art." 
"  RafFaelle  was  solely  a  painter,"  says  Hazlitt ;  "  but  in 
that  one  art  he  seemed  to  pour  out  all  the  treasures  and 
various  excellence  of  nature, — grandeur  and  scope  of 
design,  exquisite  finishing,  force,  grace,  delicacy,  the 
strength  of  man,  the  softness  of  woman,  the  playfulness 
of  infancy,  thought,  feeling,  invention,  etc.  He  received 
his  inspiration  from  without,  and  his  genius  caught  the 
lambent  flames  of  peace,  of  truth  and  grandeur,  which 
are  reflected  in  his  works  with  a  light  clear,  transparent, 
and  unfading."  "  If  Michael  Angelo  is  the  first  of 
draughtsmen,"  says  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "  Raphael 
is  the  first  of  painters.  .  .  .  His  'Galatea'  is  a  work 
which  explains,  far  better  than  any  language  of  ours, 
the  diversity  between  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael, 
manifesting  the  exquisite  refinement  of  the  latter,  and 
his  tendency  towards  that  pure,  noble,  graceful  manner 
which  constituted  the  beau-ideal  of  the  ancient  Greeks." 
Among  the  numerous  eminent  pupils  of  Raphael  were 
Giulio  Romano,  Penni  called  II  Fattore,  Perino  del 
Vaga,  Pellegrino  da  Modena,  Garofalo,  and  Polidoro  da 
Caravaggio. 

SeeV.ASAKi.  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy;"  DUPPA,  "Lite  of  Raphael,"  1815;  PASSAVANT,  "Ra 
phael  d'Urbino,"  1839;  G.  C.  BRAUN.  "  Raphael  Sanzio's  Lcben," 
1815;  QUATKKMEKK  IIP.  QUINCY.  "Vie  Me  Raphael,"  1824,  (trans 
lated  into  English  bv  HAZI.ITT,  184(1:)  VON  WOI.ZO<;EN,  "Raphael 
Santis  Leben,"  (an  English  version  of  which  was  published  in  1866;) 
NAGLER,  "  Raphael  als  Mensch  und  Kiinstler;"  LAN-DON.  "  Vie  et 
fEnvres  de  Raphael  ;"  C.  I1'.  VON  RUMOUR.  "  Ueber  Raphael  von 
Urbino;"  PuN(;n.Rovi.  "  Elogio  storico  di  Raffaello."  1829:  HAI.IH- 
NUCCI,  "Noti/.ie;"  Auoi.i'u  SIRKT,  "Raphael  et  Rubens,"  1849: 
CAKI.O  FEA,  "  Noti/.ie  intorno  Raffaello  San/io,"  1822  ;  F.  RKIIIIKKG, 
"  Raphael  San/.ioans  Urbino,"  2  vols.,  1824;  "  Nonvelie  Biographic 
Oanerale;"  "  Raphael  and  his  Times,"  in  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Raphael  of  Volterra.     See  MAFFF.I,  (RAPHAEL.) 

Raphall,  ra'fal,  (MoKRis  JACOH,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
theological  writer,  born  at  Stockholm,  in  Sweden,  in  1798. 
He  studied  in  Germany,  and  subsequently  resided  many 
years  in  England,  where  he  edited  in  1834  "The  He 
brew  Review,  or  Magazine  of  Rabbinical  Literature." 
Having  removed  to  New  York  in  1849,  he  became 
rabbi-preacher  of  the  first  Anglo-German  Hebrew  con 
gregation  in  that  city.  He  published  "  Post-Biblical 
History  of  the  Jews,"  (1856,)  and  other  works,  and  made 
translations  from  the  Hebrew. 

Rapheleng,  ra'feh-leng',  Rapheling,  ra'feh-ling', 
written  also  Raulengien,  (FRANCIS,)  a  learned  printer, 
born  near  Lille  in  1539,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Plantin. 
He  worked  at  Antwerp,  taught  Hebrew  at  Leyden,  and 
published  an  Arabic  Lexicon.  Died  in  1597. 

Rapheling.     See  RAPIIELF.NG. 

Rapin,  rS'paN',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Fontenay-le-Comte  about  1540.  He  fought  for  Henry 
IV.  against  the  League,  and  wrote  part  of  the  famous 
"Satire  Menippee."  (See  LF.ROY,  (PiKURE,)  and  Du- 
RANT.)  He  produced,  in  Latin  and  French,  a  number 
of  odes,  epigrams,  elegies,  etc.,  which  were  admired. 
Died  in  1608. 

See  BAYI.K,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nonvelie 
Biographic  Generale." 

Rapin,  (RKN&)  a  French  Jesuit,  distinguished  as  a 
Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1621.  He  composed, 
besides  many  other  works,  a  series  of  "  Parallels  of 
Great  Men  of  Antiquity,"  (Homer,  Virgil,  Demosthenes, 
Cicero,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,)  (1669-71.)  His  chief  pro 
duction  is  an  ingenious  Latin  poem  "On  Gardens," 
("  Hortorum  Libri  IV.,"  i66>)  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  Evelyn.  "For  skill  in  varying  and  adorning 
his  subjects,"  says  Hallain,  "for  a  truly  Virgilian  spirit 
of  expression,  for  the  exclusion  of  feeble,  prosaic,  or 
awkward  lines,  he  may  perhaps  be  equal  to  any  poet, — • 
to  Sannazarius  himself,"  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera 
ture  of  Europe.")  Died  in  Paris  in  1687. 

See  I?  \vr.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary:"  ROUHOURS, 
"  Vie  de  Rapin,"  in  his  "  Poemata,"  1723  ;  NIC^KON,  "  Memoires  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 


a, e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon- 


RAP  IN 


1869 


RATH  IE  R 


Rapin,  de,  deh  rap'in  or  rf'paN',  (PAUL,)  Sieur  de 
Thoyras,  a  French  historian,  born  of  a  Protestant  family 
at  Castres  in  1661.  He  entered  the  service  of  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  with  whom  he  went  to  England  in 
1688.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  war  in  Ireland  about 
1690.  In  1724  he  published,  in  French,  a  "History  of 
England  from  the  Roman  Conquest  to  the  Death  of 
Charles  I.,"  (8  vols.,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit. 
According  to  Voltaire,  it  was  the  best  history  of  Eng 
land  that  had  then  appeared.  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Tindal,  who  also  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Rapin's  work.  (See  TINDAL.)  Died  at  Wesel  in  1725. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "  Nouveile  Biographic 
Gene-rale." 

Rapoport,  ra'po-poRt/,  (SOLOMON  JEHUDAH,)  a  Jew 
ish  scholar  and  rabbi,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Germany, 
in  1790.  He  published,  in  Hebrew,  a  number  of  his 
torical  and  antiquarian  treatises,  and  translated  Racine's 
"  Esther"  into  Hebrew. 

Rapp,  (GEORGE,)  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Har 
monists  or  Rappites,  born  at  Wiirtemberg,  Germany, 
in  17/0.  He  emigrated  in  1803  to  the  United  States, 
and  founded  a  community  at  Economy,  Beaver  county, 
Pennsylvania.  Died  in  1847. 

Rapp,  rfp,  (JEAN,)  COUNT,  an  able  French  general, 
born  at  Colmar  in  1772.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  De- 
saix  at  Marengo,  and  on  his  death  became  an  aide  to 
Bonaparte,  whose  confidence  he  acquired.  For  his  ser 
vices  at  Austerlitz  (1805)  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  division.  He  received  his  ninth  wound  at 
Golymin,  (1806,)  obtained  the  chief  command  at  Dant- 
zic  in  1807,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Essling  in  1809. 
He  received  four  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Moskwa, 
(1812.)  In  1815  he  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  com 
mander  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  fought  several 
actions  against  the  allies.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
noted  for  his  humanity  and  moderation.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1821. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  General  Count  Rapp,  First  Aide-de-Camp  to 
Napoleon,  by  himself:"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Ra'rey,  (JOHN  S.,)  a  celebrated  American  horse- 
tamer,  burn  at  Madison,  Franklin  county,  Ohio,  about 
1825.  He  was  very  successful  in  subduing  the  most 
vicious  animals  by  substituting  kindness  and  scientific 
skill  for  the  harshness  usually  employed  on  such  occa 
sions.  Died  in  1866. 

Rasario,  ra-sa're-o,  [Lat.  RASA'RIUS,]  (GIAMBAT- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  in  the  province  of 
Novara  in  1517.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  rhetoric 
at  Venice  for  twenty-two  yeais.  He  translated  from 
Greek  into  Latin  some  works  of  Pachymeres,  Oribasius, 
and  Galen.  Died  at  Pavia  in  1578. 

See  GHIUNI,  "  Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati." 

Rasarius.     See  RASARIO. 

Rascas,  rts'kas',  (PIERRE  ANTOINE,)  Sieur  de  Bagar- 
ris,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  about  1567.  He 
was  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a 
treatise  on  medals.  Died  in  1620. 

Rasche,  rash'eh,  (Jon ANN  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  near  Eisenach,  in  Saxony,  in  1703. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Lexicon  of  the 
Monetary  Affairs  of  the  Ancients,"  ("Lexicon  universal 
Rei  nuniariae  Veterum,"  6  vols.,  1785-94.)  Died  in  1805. 

Raschi,  ras'Kee,  ?  (  RABKI  SOLOMON,)  an  eminent  Jew 
ish  writer,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France,  in  1040.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch  and  Talmud. 
Died  in  1 105. 

Raschid,  Al.     See  HAROUN-AL-RASCHID. 

Rasheed-Eddeen  or  Raschid-Eddin,  ra-sheed' 
ed  deen',  a  Persian  historian,  born  at  Hamadan  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Died  about  1320. 

Rasis.     See  RAZES. 

Rasis  or  Rases.     See  RAZKE. 

Rask,  rask,  (RAMUS  or  RASMUS  CHRISTIAN,)  an  emi 
nent  Danish  linguist,  was  born  near  Odense,  in  the  isle 
of  Fiinen,  in  1787.  He  gave  much  attention  to  com 
parative  philology,  in  the  prosecution  of  which  study  he 
visited  Russia,  Persia,  India,  etc.,  (1817-21.)  He  be 
came  professor  of  literary  history  at  Copenhagen  in  1825, 
and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  same  univer 
sity  in  1828.  Among  his  works  are  an  "Anglo-Saxon 


Grammar,"  (1817,)  "Researches  on  the  Origin  of  the 
Icelandic  Language,"  (1818,)  and  "On  the  Age  and 
Authenticity  of  the  Zend-Avesta,"  (1826.)  He  possessed 
a  rare  talent  for  linguistic  researches.  Died  in  1832. 

See  P.  L.  MOEI.I.ER,  "  R.  K.  Rask;"  EKSI.EW,  "  Forfatter-  Lexi 
con  ;"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Rasmussen,  ras'moos'sen,  (JANUS  LASSEN,)  a  Dan 
ish  Orientalist,  born  at  Vestenkov  in  1785.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  the  Kingdoms  of  the  Arabs,"  ("  Historia 
Arabum  Regnorum,"  1817,)  "Annals  of  the  Moslems," 
("Annales  Islamicae,"  1825,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1828. 

Rasori,  ra-so'ree,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Parma  in  1766  or  1767.  He  became 
professor  at  Pavia  about  1796,  and  settled  at  Milan  in 
1800.  He  was  author  of  a  new  medical  doctrine,  called 
"theory  of  the  Counter-Stimulus,"  and  wrote  several 
medical  works.  He  died  in  1837. 

See  G.  PKRIN-I,  "  Cenni  sulla  Mente  di  G.  Rasori,"  1837;  CHI- 
APPA,  "Delia  Vita  di  G.  Rasori,"  1838;  "Nouveile  Biographic 
Generale." 

Raspail,  rts'ptl'  or  rfs'pf'ye,  (FRANgois  VINCENT,) 
an  able  French  chemist  and  politician,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1794.  He  took  arms  against  Charles  X.  in  1830, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  republicans.  In  1831  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  able  "  Course  of  Agri 
culture  and  Rural  Economy."  At  the  revolution  of 
February,  1848,  he  proclaimed  a  republic  at  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  before  the  formation  of  a  provisional  govern 
ment.  In  March,  1849,  he  was  condemned  to  six  years' 
imprisonment  for  conspiracy  against  the  new  regime. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "New  System  of  Organic  Chem 
istry,"  (2d  edition,  3  vols.,  1838,)  which  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English,  and  "  The  Natural  History  of  Health 
and  Disease  of  Plants  and  Animals,  especially  Man," 
(3  vols.,  1846.)  He  was  elected  to  the  corps  legislatij 
in  1869. 

See  CHARLES  MARCHAI.,  "  Biographic  de  F.  V.  Raspail,"  1848; 
Qt'KRARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Gene'- 
rale." 

Raspe,  ras'peh,  (RonoLPH  ERIC,)  a  German  anti 
quary,  born  at  Hanover  in  1737  ;  died  in  Ireland  in  1794. 

Rasponi,  ras-po'nee,  (CK.SARE,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  negotiator,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1615  ;  died  in  1675. 

Ras'tall  or  Ras'tell,  (JOHN,)  an  English  printer, 
was  a  native  or  citizen  of  London.  One  of  the  first 
books  which  he  printed  is  dated  1517.  He  was  con 
verted  to  the  Protestant  religion  by  J.  Frith.  He  was  the 
reputed  author  of  "  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England," 
("  Anglorum  Regum  Chronicon,"  1529.)  Died  in  1536. 

His  son  WILLIAM,  born  in  1508,  was  a  printer  and 
lawyer.  He  emigrated  to  Louvain  in  1558,  and  died 
there  in  1565. 

Rast-Maupas,  ras-mo'pa',  (!EAN  Louis,)  a  French 
rural  economist,  born  at  La  Voulte  in  1731.  He  founded 
the  Condition  des  Soies,  and  made  several  useful  inven 
tions.  Died  at  Lyons  in  1821. 

Rastopchin.     See  ROSTOPCHIN. 

Rastrelli,  rds-tRel'lee,  (JOSEPH,)  a  German  composer 
and  musician,  born  at  Dresden  in  1799.  He  composed 
"  Salvator  Rosa,"  (1832,)  and  other  operas. 

Rataller,  ra-ta'ler,  (GEORGE,)  a  Dutch  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1528.  He  translated 
into  Latin  verse  Hesiod's  great  poem  and  the  tragedies 
of  Sophocles.  He  became  president  of  the  council  at 
Utrecht  about  1570.  Died  in  1581. 

See  RAYI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ratazzi.     See  RATTAZZI. 

Ratcliffe,  (THOMAS,)  Earl  of  Sussex.  See  RAD- 
CI.IFFE. 

Ratdolt.     See  RATHOLD. 

Rathel  or  Raethel,  ra'tel,  (WOLFGANG  CHRTSTOPH,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Selbitz  in  1663  ;  died  in  1729. 

Ratherius.     See  RATHIER. 

Rathery,  rtt're',  (EmiE  JACQUES  BENofr,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  became  assistant 
keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library  in  1859.  He  has  con 
tributed  to  the  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale,"  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  other  periodicals. 

Rathier,  ri'te-i'.  [Lat.  RATHE'RIUS,]  a  learned  ec 
clesiastic,  was  born  at  Liege.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Verona  in  931  A.D.  Died  about  974  A.D. 


e  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanation  s,  p.  23.) 


RAT HOLD 


1870 


RAVAISSON 


Rathold,  rat'holt,  written  also  Ratdolt,  (EKHARD,) 
a  German  printer,  born  at  Augsburg.  He  settled  at 
Venice  in  1475,  where  lie  published  excellent  editions 
of  Appian,  Euclid,  and  other  classics.  Died  about  1516. 

Rat/i,  written  alsoReti,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  rut'i,] 
a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "  passion,"  "  sexual  desire," 
and  forming,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the 
consort  of  Kamadeva,  or  the  Indian  god  of  love. 

See  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Ratier,  it'te-a',  (FEi.ix  SEVKIUN,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  was  bonTin  Paris  in  1797.  He  published  nu 
merous  works. 

Ratramne.  rttrSm',  [Lat.  RATRAM'NUS,]  a  learned 
French  monk  of  the  ninth  century,  belonged  to  the 
abbey  of  Corbie.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  the  Lord,"  ("  De  Corpora  et  Sanguine 
Domini,")  which  was  printed  in  1532  and  1712.  He 
is  sometimes  called  BERTRAM.  Died  after  868  A. D. 

Ratranmus.     See  RATKAMNK. 

Ratschky,  ratsl/kee,  (JOSEPH  FRANZ,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Vienna  in  1757.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1785,  which  were  somewhat  popular.  He 
became  a  councillor  of  state.  Died  in  Vienna  in  1810. 

Rattazzi,  rat-tat'see,  or  Ratazzi,  (URBANO,  )  an 
Italian  minister  of  state,  born  at  Alessandria  about  1810. 
He  gained  distinction  as  an  advocate,  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Turin  in  1848,  and  became  a 
leader  of  the  democratic  party.  About  the  end  of  1848 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry, 
which  was  dissolved  in  consequence  of  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Novara,  March,  1849.  He  was  appointed  min 
ister  of  justice  in  1854,  was  prime  minister  a  short  time 
in  1859,  and  succeeded  Ricasoli  as  prime  minister  about 
March  i,  1862.  His  opponents  denounced  him  as  sub 
servient  to  the  policy  of  the  French  emperor.  He  went 
out  of  power  about  December  I,  1862,  and  became  prime 
minister  again  in  April,  1867.  He  is  the  leader  of  the 
"left  centre."  He  resigned  in  October,  1867. 

See  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1863;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Ratte,  de,  deh  rft,  (EriENNE  HYACINTHE,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1722.  He  wrote 
scientific  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedic,"  and  observed 
the  transit  of  Venus  in  1761.  Died  in  1805. 

See  J.  POITEVIN,  "  filose  d'E".  H.  de  Ratte,"  1805. 

Ratti,  rat'tee,  (Xiccoi.A,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Rome  in  1759,  published  several  biographies  and 
antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1833. 

Rau,  (CHRISTIAN.)     Sec  RAVIUS. 

Rau,  row,  QOHANN  JAKOB,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Baden,  in  Suabia,  in  1668,  was  a  successful 
lithotomist.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Leyden 
in  1713.  Died  in  1719. 

Rau,  (KARL  HEINRICII,)  a  German  political  econo 
mist,  born  at  Erlangen  in  1792,  became  in  1822  professor 
of  political  economy  and  financial  science  at  Heidelberg. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  Political  Economy," 
(3  vols.,  1826-32,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Died 
in  1870. 

Rau,  (SEBALD,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Herborn 
in  1724.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Utrecht  in  1749.  Died  about  1810. 

Rau,  (SEBALD  FOULQUES  JAN,)  an  Orientalist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1765.  He  be 
came  minister  of  a  church  at  Leyden  in  1788.  Died  in  1807. 

See  TEISSEDRE  L'ANGE,  "Vie  de  Ran,"  1810. 

Rauch,  rovvK,  (CHRISTIAN,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
German  sculptors,  born  at  Arolsen,  in  the  principality 
of  Waldeck,  in  1777.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  Pro 
fessor  Ruhl,  at  Cassel,  and  in  1804  was  enabled  to  visit 
Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  W.  von  Humboldt 
and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Thorwaldsen.  While  at 
Rome  he  executed  the  bas-reliefs  of  "  Hippolytus  and 
Phaedra,"  and  "Mars  and  Venus  wounded  by  Diomecl," 
also  a  colossal  bust  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  a  life-size 
bust  of  his  queen  Louise,  and  a  portrait  bust  of  Raphael 
Mengs.  In  1813  he  completed  the  monument  of  the 
Queen  of  Prussia,  at  Charlottenburg,  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  admirable  works  of  the  kind.  During 
a  second  visit  to  Rome  he  executed  statues  of  Generals 
Scharnhorst  and  Billow,  and  a  great  number  of  busts  of 


celebrated  persons.  After  his  return  to  Prussia  he  pro 
duced  two  colossal  bronze  statues  of  Marshal  Bliicher, 
a  statue  of  Goethe,  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  re 
semblance  to  that  great  writer,  a  monument  to  Albert 
Diirer,  and  statues  of  Luther,  Schiller,  and  other  eminent 
Germans.  In  1851  he  finished  his  monument  to  Fred 
erick  the  Great,  with  an  equestrian  statue,  at  Berlin, 
upon  which  he  was  employed  more  than  ten  years,  and 
which  is  esteemed  his  greatest  work.  Died  in  1857. 

See  NAGI.KK,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  7.11111  Conversations- Lexikon,"  1859. 

Raulengieu.     See  RAPHELKNG. 

Raulin,  ro'laN1',  (FEi.ix  VICTOR,)  a  French  geologist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815.  He  has  written  several  treatises 
on  geology. 

Raulin,  (JEAN,)  a  French  professor  of  theology  at 
Paris,  born  at  Ton!  in  1443  >  diet!  in  1514. 

Raulin,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  physician,  born  near  Auch 
in  1708.  lie  became  physician  to  the  king,  and  wrote 
several  able  medical  works.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  Paris  in  1784. 

Ratimer,  von,  fon  row'mer,  (FRIEDRICII  LUDWIG 
GKOKG,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  near  Des 
sau  in  1781.  He  studied  law  and  financial  science  at 
Halle  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1819  became  professor  of 
history  and  political  economy  at  Berlin.  He  published 
in  1810  a  treatise  "On  the  British  System  of  Taxation," 
and  in  1813  a  "  Manual  of  Remarkable  Passages  from 
the  Latin  Historians  of  the  Middle  Ages."  His  "His 
tory  of  the  Hohenstattfen  and  their  Times"  (6  vols., 
1823)  was  very  well  received,  and  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work.  Among  his  other  productions  may  be  named  a 
"History  of  Europe  from  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen 
tury,"  (1832,)  "  England  in  1835,"  which  was  translated 
by  Mrs.  Austin,  and  "The  United  States  of  North 
America,"  (1845.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Genera!e ;"  BKOCKUAUS.  "  Conver- 
sations-Lexikon ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835; 
''Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829,  and  April,  1833. 

Raumer,  von,  (GKOKG  WII.HEI.M,)  a  German  jurist 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Berlin  about  1790;  died 
in  1856. 

Raumer,  von,  (KARI.  GKOKG,)  a  German  geologist, 
born  at  Worlitz  in  1783,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  and  mineralogy  at  Erlangen.  lie  was  a  brother 
of  the  eminent  historian. 

Raumer,  von,  (RUDOLF,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  1815.  lie  was  professor  of  the  Ger 
man  language  and  literature  at  Erlangen  in  1852. 

Raupach,  row'paK,  (ERNST  BENJAMIN  SOLOMON',)  a 
popular  dramatic  poet,  born  near  Liegnitz.  in  Silesia,  in 
1784.  After  residing  several  years  in  Russia  as  a  teacher, 
he  became  professor  of  German  literature  at  Saint  Peters 
burg  in  1817.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous 
and  include  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  were  published 
in  18  vols.,  1830-44.  Died  in  1852. 

See  PAUI.INK  RAUPACH,  "  Raupach  ;  biographische  Skizze,"  1854 ; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  i83S. 

Ranter,  row'ter  or  ro'taiii',  (jAd^UKS  FREDERIC,  )  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1784.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  law  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1854. 

Rauwolf,  row'wolf,  (LEONIIARD,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  at  Augsburg.  He  visited  the  Levant  in  1573,  in 
order  to  study  and  identify  the  plants  noticed  by  Pliny, 
Galen,  Dioscbrides,  etc.  After  his  return  he  published 
a  valuable  "Narrative  of  a  Journey  in  Syria,  Judea, 
Arabia,  Mesopotamia,"  etc.,  (1582.)  Died  in  1596. 

See  M.  ADAM,  "Vitae  Medicorum ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Ravaillac,  ri'vil'ytk'  or  rt'vS'ya'k',  (FRANCOIS,)  a 
French  assassin  and  fanatic,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1578. 
He  approached  the  royal  carriage,  which  was  stopped 
in  the  street  by  a  number  of  wagons,  and  stabbed  Henry 
IV.  mortally,  in  May,  1610.  At  his  examination  he  de 
nied  that  he  had  any  accomplice.  He  was  executed  in 
May,  1610. 

Ravaisson,  ri'v.Ys6N',  (JEAN  GASPARD  FELIX.)  a 
French  philosopher,  born  at  Namur  in  1813.  lie  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1849,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  imperial  council  of  public 
instruction  in  1852.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Meta 
physics  of  Aristotle,"  (2  vols.,  1837-46.) 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long':  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moor.; 


R Ay AN A 


1871 


RAT 


Ravana,*  ra'va-na,  or  Ravanen,  in  the  Hindoo  my 
thology,  the  name  of  a  famous  many-headed  giant,  King 
of  Ceylon,  who  was  killed  by  Kama.  (See  RAMA.) 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Raveiiel,  rtv'r.51',  ( JULES  AMEDEE  DESIRE,)  a  French 
bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  printed  works  of  the  Royal  Library  in  1848. 

Raveiiet,  raVna',  (SiMON  FRANC.OIS,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1708,  removed  to 
England  in  1750.  Died  in  1774. 

Raveiiet,  ( SIMON  FRANCOIS,)  an  engraver,  born  in 
London  about  1755,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Parma,  and  engraved  the  works  of  Correggio. 
Died  about  1812. 

Ravenna,  da,  da  ra-ver/na,  (MARCO,)  an  able  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Ravenna  about  1496,  was  a  pupil  of 
Raimondi.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1527. 

Ravenna,  di,  de  ra-v§n'na,  (  GIOVANNI  MALPA- 
GHINO,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar,  born  at  Ravenna. 
He  was  employed  by  Petrarch  as  a  copyist,  and  after 
wards  taught  the  classics  at  Florence.  Died  about  1420. 

Ra'vens-croft,  (JoiiN  STARK,)  born  in  Prince  George 
county,  Virginia,  in  1772,  was  elected  in  1823  Bishop  of 
the  diocese  of  North  Carolina.  Died  in  1830. 

Ra'vens-croft,  (  THOMAS,  )  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1592.  He  published  in  1611  a  collection  of 
songs  called  "Melismata,  Musical  Phansies,"  etc.,  and  in 
1621  "The  Whole  Book  of  Psalms,  composed  into  Four 
Parts  by  Sundry  Authors  to  such  Several  Tunes  as  are 
usually  sung  in  England,"  etc.  He  was  the  composer 
of  some  of  these  tunes. 

Ravesteyn,  van,  vtn  ri'veh-stTn',(HuBERT,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  about  1645,  painted  fairs,  interiors 
of  shop?,  etc. 

Ravesteyn,  van,  (TAN,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  about  1575.  His  works  are  highly 
praised  by  Descamps  and  others.  Died  at  the  Hague  in 
16^7.  His  son  ARNOLD  (1615-67)  was  a  portrait-painter. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Ravesteyn,  van,  (NIKOLAAS,)  a  relative  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Bominel  in  1661.  He  painted  por 
traits  and  history  with  success.  Died  at  Bommel  in  1750. 

Ravignan.de,  deh  rf'ven'yS.x',  (GUSTAVE  FRANCOIS 
XAVIKR  DELACROIX,)  a  French  Jesuit,  noted  as  a  pulpit 
orator,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  1795.  He  preached  in 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  for  ten  years,  (1837-48,)  and  wrote 
a  book  in  defence  of  the  Jesuits,  (7th  edition,  1855.) 
Died  in  1858. 

See  P.  DE  POM.EVOY,  "  Le  Pere  de  Ravignan,"  2  vo!s.,  1850;  H. 
DE  SAINT-AI.MX,  "Vie  du  Pere  de  Ravignan." 

Ra-vis'i-us  Tex'tor,  the  Latin  name  of  JEAN  TIXIER 
DE  RAVISI,  (te'se-a/  deh  rt've'ze',)  a  French  classical 
scholar,  born  in  Nivernais  about  1480.  He  published 
"Latin  Epithets,''  (''Epitheta  Latina,"  1518,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1524. 

Ravius,  ra've-us,  Rave,  ra'veh,  or  Ran,  row,  (CHRIS 
TIAN.)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1603,  or, 
as  others  say,  in  1613.  He  went  to  the  Levant  in  1639, 
and  studied  the  Turkish,  Persian,  Italian,  Modern  Greek, 
etc.  at  Smyrna.  In  1644  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Utrecht,  and  in  1651  became  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Upsal.  Among  his  works  are  a  Latin  version 
of  part  of  the  Koran,  "  Primre  tredecim  Partium  Alcora- 
ni,"  etc.,  (1646,)  and  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  andChaldaic  Languages,"  (1650.)  Died  in  1677. 

See  B['RMAX>;,  "Trajectum  eruditum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Ravizza,  ra-vet'sa  or  ra-vit'sa,  (DoMENico,)  an  Ital 
ian  writer,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1707;  died  in  1767. 

Rawdon,  LORD.     See  HASTINGS,  MARQUIS  OF. 

Rawle,  rawl,  (WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  American 
jurist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1759,  was  appointed  by 
Washington  district  attorney  of  Pennsylvania.  He  drew 
up  the  new  civil  code  of  Pennsylvania,  and  wrote  several 
legal  works.  Died  in  1836. 

Rawleigh.     See  RALEIGH. 

Raw'ley,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Norwich  about  1588.  He  became  chaplain  to  Lord 
Bacon  and  to  Charles  I.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bacon," 

*  He  is  called  RAVEXEX  in  SOUTHEY'S  "  Curse  of  Kehama." 


which  Hallam  calls  "the  best  authority  we  have,"  and 
edited  the  works  of  Bacon,  (1657.)  Died  in  1667. 

Raw'lins,  (ToHN  A.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Jo  Daviess  county,  Illinois,  in  1831,  was 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  became  assistant 
adjutant-general  of  General  Grant  in  September,  1861, 
and  served  as  such  in  the  campaigns  of  1862  and  1863. 
In  March,  1865,  he  was  appointed  chief  of  General 
Grant's  staff,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  became  secretary  of  war  in  March, 
1869.  Died  in  September,  1869. 

Raw'lin-son,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Essex  in  1677.  He  published  an  edition  of  King 
Alfred's  Saxon  version  of  I5oethius"De  Consolatione 
Philosophic,"  (1698.)  Died  in  1733. 

Rawlinson,  (Rev.  GEORGE,)  an  English  scholar,  born 
about  1815,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  Exeter  College  in  1840.  He  became  professor 
of  ancient  history  at  Oxford  in  1861.  He  published  a 
translation  of  Herodotus,  (4  vols.,  1858-60,)  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  his  brother  Sir  Henry,  and  "  The 
Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World," 
(4  vols.,  1862-68,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1860  ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  June,  1866. 

Rawlinson,  (Sir  HENRY  CRESWICK,)  an  English 
Orientalist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Oxfordshire  in  1810.  He  entered  the  military  service 
of  the  East  India  Company  about  1826,  and  served  in 
Persia  some  years,  during  which  he  studied  the  Persian 
cuneiform  inscriptions  with  success.  In  1843  he  became 
political  resident,  or  agent,  at  Bagdad.  He  deciphered 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  at  Nineveh,  and  wrote  "  An 
Outline  of  the  History  of  Assyria  as  collected  from 
the  Inscriptions,"  etc.,  (1852.)  He  was  sent  as  British 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  Persia  in  1859,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  major-general. 

Rawlinson,  (RiCHARD,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  London  about  1690.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Anthony 
Wood,"  (171 1,)  and  "The  English  Topographer,"  (1720.) 
Died  in  1755. 

Rawlinson,  (THOMAS.)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1680.  He  was  noted  as  a  collector  of 
books,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  original  of 
A  dclison's  character  of  "Tom  Folio."  (See  the  "Taller," 
No.  158.)  Died  in  1725. 

Raw'son,  (Sir  WILLIAM.)  an  English  surgeon  and 
oculist,  born  in  Cornwall.  His  family  name  was  ADA>!S, 
which  he  exchanged  for  Rawson  when  he  became  heir 
to  a  person  of  that  name.  He  settled  in  London  in  1810. 
Died  in  1820. 

Raxis,  rSk'sess',  (GAETAN,)  Comte  de  Flassans,  a 
French  publicist,  born  at  Bedouin  in  1760.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  French 
Diplomacy,"  (6  vols.,  1808.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

Ray,  (ISAAC,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1807,  was  appointed  in  1841 
superintendent  of  the  State  Insane  Hospital  at  Augusta, 
Maine,  and  in  1845  °f  tne  Butler  Hospital  for  the  In 
sane  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  He  has  published 
"Medical  Jurisprudence  of  Insanity,"  (1838,)  which  is 
highly  commended. 

Ray  or  Wray,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  English  botanist 
and  zoologist,  born  near  Braintree,  in  Essex,  on  the 
2gth  of  November,  1628,  was  the  son  of  a  blacksmith. 
He  studied  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  Greek  lecturer  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  In 
1660  he  published  a  "  Catalogue  of  Plants  growing 
around  Cambridge."  He  was  ordained  as  a  priest,  but 
declined  to  subscribe  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662, 
and  never  performed  clerical  functions.  He  found  a 
friend  and  patron  in  Francis  Willoughby,  in  company 
with  whom  he  made  scientific  excursions  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy  in  1663-66.  In  1667  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  a  "Cata 
logue  of  the  Plants  of  England,"  ("Catalogus  Plan- 
tarum  Angliae,"  1670  or  1677,)  and  in  1682  a  "  New 
Method  of  Plants,"  ("Methodus  Plantarum  Nova,")  in 
which  he  proposed  a  new  method  of  classification.  Of 
this  work  Cuvier  and  Du  Petit-Thouars  ("  Biographic 
Universelle")  remark,  "  We  find  the  natural  families  of 


e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAT 


1872 


R4TNAUD 


plants  better  defined,  and  the  grand  division  of  mono 
cotyledons  and  bicotyledons  fully  established ;  he  gave 
the' characters  of  many  classes  with  much  precision,  and 
introduced  several  technical  terms  which  are  very  use 
ful  ;  finally,  he  established  many  principles  and  general 
laws  of  classification  which  have  since  been  adopted." 
His  principal  or  largest  botanical  work  is  "  Universal 
History  of  Plants,"  ("  Historia  Plantarum  Universalis," 

3  vols.,  1686-1704.)     Ray  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
modern   zoologist  who  made  use  of  comparative  anat 
omy.     He  published  in  1693  "  Synopsis  of  Quadrupeds 
and   Serpents,"   ("  Synopsis   Animalium   Quadrupedum 
et  Serpentini  Generis.")    "  His  works  on  zoology,"  says 
Cuvier,  "  are  even  more  important  than  those  on  botany, 
for  their  utility  has  been  more  durable.     They  may  be 
considered  as  the  foundation  of  all  modern  zoology.  .  .  . 
His  distribution  of  the  classes  of  quadrupeds  and  birds 
has  been  followed  by  the  English  naturalists  almost  to 
our  own  days."    He  wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1705. 

See  DR.  DERHAM,  "Select  Remains  of  J.  Ray,"  1760;  "Memo 
rials  of  J.  Ray."  by  EDWIN  LANKESTER,  8v<>,  1844;  "  Biograpliia 
Britannica ;"  DR.  HOEFER'S  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Ge'nerale  ;"  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ray,  (JOSEPH,)  an  American  mathematician,  born  in 
1807.  He  was  an  eminent  teacher,  employed  in  various 
places,  and  published  several  works  on  algebra  and 
arithmetic.  Died  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1855. 

Ray,  (YVn.i.iAM,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Salis 
bury,  Connecticut,  in  1771  ;  died  in  1827. 

Rayer,  ri'ya',  (PIERRE  FRANCOIS  OLIVE,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Saint-Sylvain  (Calvados)  in  1793.  He 
practised  in  Paris,  and  in  1852  was  comprised  in  the 
medical  service  of  the  household  of  the  emperor.  lie 
published  several  works. 

Ray'moiid  (or  Raimond)  I.,  Count  of  Toulouse, 
succeeded  his  brother  Fredelon  in  852  A.I).  Died  in 
864  or-  865. 

Raymond  (or  Raimond)  II.  succeeded  his  father, 
Eudes,  in  918.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Normans 
in  923  A.I).  Died  the  same  year. 

Raymond  III.,  called  RAYMOND  PONS,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  began  to  reign  in  923.  His  dominions 
included  the  large  territory  extending  from  the  Loire 
to  the  Pyrenees  and  eastward  to  the  Rhone.  Died 
about  950. 

Raymond  IV.,  called  RAYMOND  DE  SAINT-GII.LES, 
became  Count  of  Toulouse  about  1090,  about  the  age  of 
forty-five.  He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
Southern  Europe,  and  was  a  famous  leader  in  the  first 
crusade.  In  1096  he  led  a  large  army  (about  100,000 
men)  by  land  to  Asia.  Jerusalem  was  taken  in  1099  by 
the  crusaders,  who  appreciated  so  highly  the  talents  and 
merit  of  Raymond  that  they  offered  him  the  throne  ;  but 
he  declined  it.  He  died  at  Tripoli  in  1105,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Bertrand. 

See  MOMNK  DE  SAINT-YON,  "  Histoire  des  Comtesde Toulouse," 

4  vols.,  1862  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Raymond  V.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1134,  became  Count  of  Toulouse  in  1148.  He  married 
Constance,  a  sister  of  Louis  VII.  of  France.  Henry  II. 
of  England  invaded  his  dominions  and  besieged  Tou 
louse  about  1160,  but  Raymond,  aided  by  Louis  of 
France,  made  a  successful  resistance.  Died  in  1194. 

Raymond  VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse,  born  in  1156, 
succeeded  his  father,  Raymond  V.,  in  1194.  His  reign 
was  disturbed  by  wars  and  crusades  instigated  by  the 
pope  in  order  to  exterminate  the  Albigenses,  who  were 
very  numerous  in  Provence.  Raymond  was  disposed  to 
protect  or  tolerate  these  subjects,  and  was  excommu 
nicated  several  times.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by 
a  large  army  of  crusaders  under  Simon  de  Montfort 
in  1210.  Raymond  opposed  them  bravely  in  several 
battles,  but  was  decisively  defeated  in  1213,  and  lost 
his  throne.  He  was  restored  in  1217.  Died  in  1222. 

See  MOI.INEDE  SAINT- YON,  "  Histoire  cles  Comtes  de  Toulouse," 
4  vols.,  1862  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'rale." 

Raymond,  the  last  Count  of  Toulouse,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  made  peace  with  the  pope  and  became  a 
persecutor  of  the  Albigenses.  Died  in  1249. 

Raymond,  ri'miN',  (GEORGE  MARIE,)  a  meritorious 
teacher  and  writer,  born  at  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1769. 


He  published  a  variety  of  works  on  education,  morality, 
etc.,  and  wrote  many  articles  for  the  "Biographie  Uni- 
verselle."  Died  in  1839. 

Ray'moiid,  (HENRY  JARVIS,)  an  able  American  jour 
nalist,  born  in  Livingston  county,  New  York,  in  1820. 
He  became  associate  editor  of  the  "New  York  Courier 
and  Enquirer"  in  1843,  anc'  m  '851  founded  the  "New 
York  Times."  He  was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  the  State  in  1854,  and,  as  a  leader  of  the  Republican 
party,  favoured  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln  in  1860. 
The  "  New  York  Times,"  which  he  continued  to  edit 
until  his  death,  was  very  successful.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Republican  voters 
of  New  York  City.  He  published  "The  Life,  Public 
Services,  and  State  Papers  of  Abraham  Lincoln,"  (1865.) 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  National  Conven 
tion  of  the  friends  of  Andrew  Johnson  which  met  in 
Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1866  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  new  political  party,  and  wrote  the  address  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States  which  that  convention 
issued.  This  enterprise  proved  a  complete  failure. 
Died  in  June,  1869. 

See  "  Henry  J.  Raymond  and  the  New  York  Press  for  Thiily 
Years,"  by  AuiiUSTUS  MAVERICK,  1870. 

Raymond,  ri'moN1',  (JEAN  ARNAUD, )  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1742,  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  Died  in  1811. 

Raymond,  ([KAN  MICHEL,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Saint- Vallier  (Drome)  in  1766.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Lyons.  About  1810  he  discovered  a  colour 
called  bleu- Raymond,  for  which  he  received  a  present  of 
8000  francs  from  the  government.  Died  in  1837. 

Raymond,  (MICHEL  JOACHIM  MARIE,)  an  able 
French  general,  born  near  Audi  in  1755.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  Nizam  of  Deccan  about  1786,  and 
fought  against  the  English  and  Mahrattas.  Died  at 
Hyderabad  in  1798. 

Raymond,  (ROBERT,)  LORD,  an  English  judge,  born 
about  1673,  was  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in 
the  reign  of  George  L,  and  a  privy  councillor.  His 
"Reports"  were  published  in  3  vols.  Died  in  1733. 

See  LORD  CAMPIIKI.I.,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices.'' 

Raymond,  (\AVIER,)  a  French  journalist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1810  or  1812.  He  became  an  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  about  1838,  and  published  works 
entitled  "  L'Afghanistan,"  (1843,)  and  "L'Inde,"  (1845.) 

Sec  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1863. 

Raymond-Berenger.     See  BEKENGER. 

Raymond  Lulli.     See  LUI.I.I. 

Raymond  (Raimond,  i i-moiu!'.  orRamon,  ra-rnfin') 
de  Penafort,  (Pegnafort,)  da  pai/ya-foiu',  a  Spanish 
canonist  and  Dominican,  born  at  Barcelona  in  1175  or 
1186.  He  compiled  the  "Decretals."  Died  in  1275. 

Raymond!.     See  RAIMONDI. 

Raynal,  ri'nSK,  (Guiu.AUME  THOMAS  FRANCOIS,) 
L'AliliE,  a  French  philosopher  and  historian,  born  at 
Saint-Genie/,  in  Rouergue,  in  1711.  He  was  a  priest  in 
his  youth,  but  renounced  that  profession  soon  after  his 
removal  to  Paris,  (1747.)  He  published  several  mediocre 
histories,  and  became  intimate  with  Helvetins  and  Baron 
Holbach.  He  acquired  temporary  celebrity  by  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Colonies  planted  by  Europeans  in  America 
and  India,  and  of  their  Influence  on  the  Political  Con 
dition,  Commerce,  and  Prosperity  of  Europe,"  ("  His 
toire  philosophique  et  politique  des  fitablissements  ct 
du  Commerce  des  Europeans  dans  les  deux  Indes,"  4 
vols.,  1770.)  It  is  said  that  Diderot  wrote  some  of  the 
ablest  passages  of  this  work,  which  abounds  in  declama 
tions  against  the  political  and  religious  institutions  of 
France.  The  Parliament  in  1781  ordered  the  book  to 
be  burnt  and  the  author  to  be  arrested ;  but  he  escaped, 
and  passed  about  six  years  in  exile.  Died  in  Paris  in 
1796. 

See  A.  JAY,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Raynal,"  1821  ;  CHKRHAL- 
MONTREAL,  "  filoge  philosophique  de  Raynal,"  1796;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Raynal,  de,  deli  ri'nSK,  (Louis  HECTOR  CIIAUDRU,) 
a  French  historian  of  the  present  age.  His  chief  work 
is  a  "History  of  Bern',"  (4  vols.,  1844-47.) 

Raynaud,  rji'no',  written  also  Rainaud  and  Rai- 
naudo,  (ri-now'do,)  (TiiEOPHlLE,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JLAYNEVAL 


1873 


REAGAN 


born  in  the  county  of  Nice  in  1583.  He  wrote  many 

works    on    theology,   which    obtained  success,   though 

they  are  said  to  be  trivial  and  prolix.  Died  in  1663. 
See  MORF.RI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Rayneval,  de,  deh  lin'vil',  (ALPHONSE  GERARD,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1813.  He  was  ap 
pointed  to  represent  the  French  government  at  the  court 
of  Pius  IX.  after  his  flight  to  Gae'ta,  (1849,)  and  entered 
Rome  with  the  army  which  restored  the  pope.  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  ambassador  in  1851,  and  remained 
at  Rome  in  that  capacity  six  years.  Died  in  1858. 

Rayneval,  de,  (FRANC.OIS  MAXIMILIEN  GERARD,) 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1778.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1829,  and  to  Madrid  in 
1832.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1836. 

His  father,  JOSEPH,  (1746-1812,)  was  author  of  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,"  (3d 
edition,  1832,)  and  "On  the  Liberty  of  the  Seas,"  (2 
vols.,  1811.) 

Raynolds.     See  RATNOLDS. 

Raynouard,  ri'noo-tu',  ( FRANCOIS  JUSTE  MARIE,)  a 
French  author  and  philologist,  born  at  Brignoles  (Pro 
vence)  in  1761.  He  practised  law  in  his  youth,  was  im 
prisoned  as  a  Girondist  in  1793,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  about  1800.  He  produced  in  1805  a  tragedy 
(in  verse)  entitled  "The  Templars,"  ("Les  Templiers,") 
which  was  very  successful,  and  opened  to  him  the  doors 
of  the  French  Academy,  (1807,)  of  which  he  became 
perpetual  secretary  in  1817.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  from  1806  to  1813.  He  wrote  other 
dramas,  and  philological  treatises,  among  which  is  a 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Language  of  the  Troubadours,"  (6 
vols.,  1838-44.)  Died  in  1836. 

See  C.  LABITTE,  notice  of  Raynouard  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  February  i,  1837;  REIFFENBERG,  "A  la  Memoire  de 
r.  J.  M.  Raynouard,"  1839;  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Razee  or  Razi,  Al,  al-ra'zee  or  ar-ra'zee,  [written  in 
I  ,atin  R  A'zis.RA'sis.or  R  A'SES,]  ( Ahmed-rbn-Moham- 
med-Ibu-Moosa,(or-Musa,)  aH'medib'n  mo-ham'med 
ili'ii  moo'sa,)  an  Arabian  historian,  born  at  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  about  866  A.D.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arabs."  Only  portions  of  his 
works  are  extant.  There  appears  to  have  been  another 
Arabian  or  Moorish  historian  bearing  the  same  name. 

See  AL-MAKKARI,  "History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  GAVANGOS,  vol.  i.  p.  314. 

Ra'zes,  Rha'zes,  or  Ra'sis,  Latin  forms  of  the  sur 
name  RAZEE,  ra'zee,  (or,  rather,  AR-RAZEE  or  AR-RAZ!,) 
<>f~  a  celebrated  Arabian  physician,  whose  proper  name 

was    MoiIAMMED-IlJN-ZAKARIA-ABOO-BEKR,  (mo-h3m'- 

ined  ib'n  za-ka-ree'a  a'boo  bekr'.)  He  was  born  in 
Irak-Ajemee  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  He 
practised  at  Bagdad,  and  travelled  into  several  foreign 
countries.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Al-Hawi," 
or  "Continens,"  and  a  treatise  on  the  smallpox  and 
measles.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  de 
scribed  the  smallpox  accurately.  Died  about  930  A.D. 

See  IBV-KHALLIKAN,  "Biographical  Dictionary ;"  SPRENGEL, 
"  Geschichte  der  Medicin  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Razis.     See  RAZEE. 

Razoomofski  or  Razoumovski,  ra-zoo-mof'skee, 
written  also  Razumowskij,  (GREGORY,)  a  Russian 
savant,  published  in  French  several  works  on  mineralogy, 
and  "  Coup-d'CEil  geognostique  sur  le  Nord  de  1'Europe," 
(1816.)  Died  in  Moravia  in  1837. 

Razout,  rt'zoo',  (JEAN  NICOLAS,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Paris  in  1772.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
ueneral  of  division  at  Borodino  (iSi2)  and  at  Dresden, 
(1813.)  Died  in  1820. 

Razzi,  rit'see,  or  Bazzi,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,) 
CAVALIERE,  surnamed  IL  SODOMA,  (el  so-do'ma,)  an 
able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont,  or  at 
Yergelli,  near  Sienna,  about  1479.  He  painted  in  the 
Vatican  some  works  which  were  effaced  by  order  of 
Julius  II.  to  make  room  for  those  of  Raphael.  The 
palace  called  Farnesina,  at  Rome,  contains  his  picture 
of  "The  Marriage  of  Roxana."  He  afterwards  worked 
at  Sienna.  A  picture  of  "The  Scourging  of  Christ"  (at 
Sienna)  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  about  1550. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy." 


€  as  K;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  in,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  3;  th  as  in  rt/j. 

Il8 


Razzi,  (GiROLAMO,)  afterwards  called  Silvano,  sel- 
va'no,  an  Italian  monk  and  writer,  born  at  Florence 
about  1530.  He  produced  several  dramas  and  biogra 
phies.  Died  in  161 1. 

Re,  ra,  (FiLiPPO,)  an  Italian  agriculturist,  born  at 
Reggio  in  1763.  He  published  in  1798  an  excellent 
work  on  agriculture,  "Elementi  d'Agricoltura,"  (2  vols.,) 
and  became  professor  of  agriculture  at  Bologna  in  1803. 
He  was  author  of  other  works  on  rural  economy,  etc. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  A.  FAPPANI,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  F.  Re,"  1820. 

Re,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  botanist  and 
physician,  born  near  Susa  in  1773.  He  published  a 
"Flora  of  Susa,"  (1805,)  and  a  "Flora  of  Turin,"  (2 
vols.,  1825,)  both  in  Latin.  Died  at  Turin  in  1833. 

Reach,  (ANGUS  BETHUNE,)  a  Scottish  author  and 
journalist,  born  at  Inverness  in  1821.  He  wrote  a  novel 
entitled  "Clement  Lorimer,"and  contributed  to  various 
periodicals.  Died  in  1856. 

Read,  (ABNER,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1820.  He  served  in  the  civil  war  with  dis 
tinction,  and  gained  the  rank  of  commander.  He  was 
killed  near  Donaldsonville,  Louisiana,  in  July,  1863. 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  763. 

Read,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  medical  writer,  grad 
uated  at  Oxford  in  1620;  died  about  1680. 

Read,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Maryland  in 
1734.  He  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774,  and 
was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
framed  the  United  States  Constitution,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State  of  Delaware.  Died 
in  1798. 

Read,  (JOHN  MEREDITH,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1797,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1818,  and  became 
a  district  attorney  of  the  United  States.  In  1851  he  was 
associated  with  Thaddeus  Stevens  as  counsel  for  the 
defence  in  the  celebrated  trial  of  C.  Hanway  for  con 
structive  treason.  About  1854  he  began  to  advocate  the 
principles  of  the  Republican  party  by  his  speeches  and 
writings.  About  1860  he  was  elected  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania. 

Read,  (NATHAN,)  an  American  mechanician,  born  in 
Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  invented 
a  machine  for  cutting  nails  which  formed  heads  on  the 
nails  by  the  same  operation.  In  1800  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress.  He  made  ome  improvements 
in  the  steam-engine  about  1790.  Died  in  Maine  in  1849. 

Read,  (THOMAS  BUCHANAN,)  a  distinguished  Amer 
ican  poet  and  artist,  born  in  Chester  county,  Pennsyl 
vania,  in  1822.  He  visited  Italy  in  1850,  and  subsequently 
spent  some  time  in  England, Where  he  published  a  col 
lection  of  poems,  which  were  very  favourably  received. 
He  afterwards  resided  several  years  at  Florence  and 
Rome,  whence  he  returned  in  1858.  Among  his  works 
may  be  named  his  prose  romance  "The  Pilgrims  of  the 
Great  Saint  Bernard,"  and  his  poems  of  "  The  House 
by  the  Sea,"  "  The  New  Pastoral,"  (1855,)  "  Sylvia,  or  the 
Lost  Shepherd,"  etc.,  (1857,)  and  "The  Wagoner  of  the 
Alleghenies,  a  Poem,"  (1862.)  His  group  of  "  Longfel 
low's  Children"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  pictures. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1857;  "North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1852  ;  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Reade,  reed,  (CHARLES,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  1814,  graduated  at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford, 
in  1835.  He  established  his  reputation  by  "Peg  Wof- 
fington,"  (1852.)  In  1856  he  published  "Never  too  Late 
to  Mend."  Among  his  other  novels  are  "  Love  me  Little, 
Love  me  Long,"  (1859,)  "  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth," 
(1861,)  "Very  Hard  Cash,"  (1863,)  "Griffith  Gaunt," 
(1866,)  "Foul  Play,"  (1868,)  (written  conjointly  with 
Boucicault,)  and  "Put  Yourself  in  his  Place,"  (1870.) 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  August,  1864;  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  October,  1869. 

Reading,  red'ing,  (JoHN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1588.  He  was  chaplain  to  Charles 
I.,  and  favoured  the  royalist  cause  in  the  civil  war.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1667. 

Reagan,  ree'gan,  ?  (JOHN  H.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Sevier  county,  Tennessee,  in  1818.  He  emi- 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REAL 


1874 


RECHBERGER 


grated  to  Texas,  and  became  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1857.  He  was  re-elected  in  1859.  He  was  postmaster- 
general  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March,  1861, 
to  April,  1865. 

Real,  de,  cleh  ra'SK,  (GASPARD,)  Seigneur  de  Curban, 
a  French  publicist,  born  at  Sisteron  in  1682.  lie  wrote 
an  able  work  "On  the  Science  of  Government,"  (8 
vols.,  1751-64.)  Died  at  Paris  in  1752. 

Real,  de,  (!'IERRK  FRANCOIS,)  COUNT,  a  French  poli 
tician  and  lawyer,  born  near  Paris  about  1760.  He  was 
a  partisan  of  Danton  in  1793,  and  contributed  actively 
in  1799  to  the  success  of  Bonaparte,  who  appointed  him 
a  councillor  of  state  and  gave  him  in  1808  the  title  of 
count.  Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Real,  Saint.     See  SAIN  T-REAL. 

Realino,  ri-a-lee'no,  (BERNARDINO,)  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Carpi  in  1530.  He  wrote  notes  on  Catul 
lus  and  other  ancient  authors.  Died  in  1616. 

Reaumur,  de,  deh  ra'5'miiR',  (RENE  ANTOINE  FER- 
CHAULT,)  a  celebrated  French  natural  philosopher  and 
entomologist,  born  at  Rochelle  in  February,  1683.  He 
inherited  an  easy  or  independent  fortune,  and  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1703.  By  some  memoirs  on 
geometry  he  obtained  admission  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1708.  His  favourite  studies  were  general 
physics,  natural  history,  and  the  industrial  arts.  lie 
made  important  discoveries  or  improvements  in  the  fab 
rication  of  steel,  and  published  in  1722  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Converting  Iron  into  Steel,"  for  which  he  received 
a  pension  of  12,000  livres.  He  made  successful  experi 
ments  on  the  artificial  incubation  of  eggs  and  on  the 
manufacture  of  tin  wares.  His  most  important  contribu 
tion  to  general  physics  was  the  thermometer,  which  he 
invented  in  1731.  He  divided  the  interval  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  water  into  eighty  degrees. 
"  The  most  remarkable  of  the  works  of  Reaumur,"  says 
Cuvier,  "are  his  'Memoirs  Illustrating  the  History  of 
Insects,'  ('Me'moires  pour  servir  a  PHistoire  des  In- 
sectes,'  6  vols.,  1734-42.)  The  author  here  exhibits  the 
highest  degree  of  sagacity  in  the  observation  and  dis 
covery  of  all  those  instincts,  so  complicated  and  so 
constant  in  each  species,  which  maintain  these  feeble 
creatures.  He  constantly  excites  our  curiosity  by  new 
and  singular  details.  .  .  .  Unfortunately,  it  is  not  quite 
finished."  Died  in  1757. 

See  HALLER,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rebecque.     See  CONSTANT. 

Rebecqui,  reh-bi'ke',  (  FRANQOTS  TROPHIMK,  )  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Marseilles  about  1760.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  was  proscribed  in 
June,  1793,  and  escaped  to  Marseilles.  Having  learned 
the  fate  of  his  colleagues,  he  drowned  himself  in  the  sea 
in  June,  1794. 

Rebentisch,  ra'ben-fltsh',  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
German  botanist,  born  at  Landsberg  in  1772.  He  pub 
lished  a  Catalogue  of  Plants  growing  near  Berlin,  (1805.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Reber,  ra'baiR',  (NAPOLEON  HENRI,)  a  French  mu 
sician  and  composer,  born  at  Mulhouse  in  1807.  He 
composed  melodies  for  a  single  voice,  and  comic  operas, 
entitled  "Christmas  Eve,"  (1848,)  and  "  Le  Pere  Gail- 
lard,"  (1852,)  which  are  highly  commended. 

Rebkow  or  Repkow,  von,  fon  re"p'ko,  [Lat.  REP- 
KO'VIUS,]  (EvKE,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Thuringia, 
flourished  about  1210-40.  He  compiled  a  code  or  col 
lection  of  laws,  entitled  "Speculum  Saxonicum,"  which 
was  extensively  used  in  Germany.  His  German  trans 
lation  of  it,  called  "  Sachsenspiegel,"  was  printed  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Rebolledo,  de,  da  ra-bol-ya'Do,  (  BERNARDINO,  ) 
COUNT,  a  Spanish  poet  and  commander,  born  at  Leon 
in  1597.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of 
Nice,  (1626,)  commanded  a  corps  of  lancers  in  Flanders 
in  1632,  and  was  the  leader  of  a  force  sent  in  1636  to 
aid  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  who  rewarded  his  ser 
vices  with  the  title  of  count  of  the  empire.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Denmark  about  1650  or 
1648.  He  showed  respectable  talents  as  a  poet  in  his 
"Military  and  Political  Groves,"?  ("Selvas  militares  y 


politicas,"  1652,)  "Selvas  Danicas,"  (1655,)  and  "Selvas 
sagradas,"  (1657'.)     Died  at  Madrid  in  1676. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  BOUTHKWEK, 
"  Geschichte  tier  Poesie. " 

Reboul,  reh-bool',  ( HENRI  PAUL  IRENEE,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Pezenas  in  1763.  He  assisted  Lavoisier 
in  his  scientific  labours,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on 
geology  and  other  sciences.  He  was  appointed  admin 
istrator  of  Lombardy  by  Bonaparte  about  1798.  Died 
in  1839. 

Reboul,  (|EAN,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Nimes  in 
1796.  He  produced  in  1828  a  poem  called  "The  Angel 
and  the  Infant,"  which  was  much  praised.  He  after 
wards  wrote  other  successful  poems.  Died  in  1864. 

See  COU.OMBET,  "  fitude  biographique  sur  Reboul,"  1839. 

Reboulet,  reh-boo'li',  (SlMON,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Avignon  in  1687.  He  wrote  a  mediocre  "  His 
tory  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1742-44.) 
Died  in  1752. 

Rebuffi,  reli-bii'fe',  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent  French 
jurist,  born  near  Montpellier  in  1487.  He  lectured  on 
law  at  Bourges  and  Paris,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1557. 

Recamier,  ra'Ua'me-a7,  (JEANNE  FRANCHISE  JUI.IE 
ADELA'I'DE  BERNARD,  )~~"a  beautiful  and  accomplished 
French  lady,  born  at  Lyons  in  1777.  She  was  married 
to  M.  Recamier,  a  rich  banker,  in  1793,  after  which  she 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  Madame  dc  Stae'I.  She 
was  courted  in  vain  by  Napoleon  in  1805.  In  conse 
quence  of  the  bankruptcy  of  her  husband,  (1806,)  she 
went  to  reside  with  Madame  de  Stae'I  at  Coppct.  There 
she  captivated  the  heart  of  Prince  August  of  Prussia,  and 
gave  him  a  promise  of  marriage  ;  but  her  compassion 
for  her  first  husband,  who  was  living,  prevailed  on  her 
to  break  the  engagement.  In  1811  she  was  banished 
from  Paris  by  Napoleon,  on  account  of  her  intimacy 
and  sympathy  with  Madame  de  Stae'I  and  other  enemies 
of  the  emperor.  Having  returned  to  Paris  after  the 
restoration,  she  lived  in  intimate  relations  with  Cha 
teaubriand  until  his  death.  Her  salon  at  L'Abbaye-aux- 
Boi's  was  the  most  celebrated  of  those  which  flourished 
between  1815  and  1840.  There  was  a  remarkable  dis 
proportion  between  the  modesty  of  her  life  and  the 
greatness  of  her  fame.  Died  in  1849.  "  We  think  with 
infinite  respect  of  one  who,  having  an  unequalled  in 
fluence  over  the  hearts  and  wills  of  men,  scorned  to  ask 
a  favour,  and  endured  poverty  .  .  .  and  exile,  which  fell 
with  tenfold  severity  on  one  so  beloved  and  admired, 
without  the  smallest  sacrifice  of  dignity  and  independ 
ence."  ("  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1860.) 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Madame  Recamier,"  trans 
lated  from  the  French  and  edited  by  MKS  LUVSTKK,  Boston,  1867  ; 
an  eloquently-written  article  on  "Madame  Recamier  and  her 
Friends,"  in  the  "  Christian  Kxamincr"  for  May,  1^7  ;  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  October,  1864;  W.  H.  ADAMS,  "Famous  Beauties 
and  Historic  Women  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1860  ; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September.  1849. 

Recamier,  (JOSEPH  CLAUDE  ANTIIELME,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Bel  ley  (Ain)  in  1774.  He  was 
physician  ( incited n  ordinaire)  at  the  IIotel-Dieu,  Paris, 
for  forty  years,  (1806-46,)  and  succeeded  Laennec  as 
professor  at  the  College  of  France  in  1827.  He  was 
deprived  of  this  place  by  the  revolution  of  1830.  Died 
in  1852. 

See  SACHAH.E,  "  Les  Medecinsde  Paris." 

Recchi,  rek'kee,  (NARDO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  bota 
nist  and  physician,  born  at  Montecorvo,  lived  about 
1550-80.  He  prepared  an  abridgment  of  the  manuscripts 
left  by  Hernandez.  After  the  death  of  Recchi  this  work 
was  published  under  the  title  of  "Treasury  of  the  Ma- 
teria  Medica  of  New  Spain,"  ("  Rerum  medicinalium 
Nov?e  Hispaniae  Thesaurus,"  1651.) 

Receveur,  res-vuR',  (FRANQOIS  JOSEPH  XAVIER,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Longueville  (Doubs)  in  1800. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  from  its  Foundation  until  the  Pontificate  of 
Gregory  XVI.,"  (8  vols.,  1840-47.)  Died  in  1854. 

Rechberger,  re'K'beRC/er,  (FRANZ,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  designer,  landscape-painter,  and  etcher,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1771.  His  etchings  of  landscapes  are  said 
to  be  beautiful  and  spirited.  Died  about  1842. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RECKE 


1875 


REED 


Recke,  von  der,  fon  der  rek'keh,  (ELISABETH 
CHARLOTTE  CONSTANTIA,)  a  German  authoress,  born 
in  Courland  in  1754.  She  was  for  a  time  a  believer 
in  Cagliostro's  pretensions  of  holding  intercourse  with 
the  dead,  but  subsequently  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Cagliostro  Unmasked,"  (1787.)  She  also  published 
"Travels  in  Italy,"  and  several  poems.  Died  in  1833. 

See  BROCKITAUS,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Reclam,  leVlam,  (FRIKDRICH,)  a  German  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1734;  died  in  1774. 

Reclam,  (PIERRE  CHRETIEN  FREDERIC,)  a  Protest 
ant  minister,  of  French  origin,  born  at  Magdeburg  in 
1741.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Berlin  in  1767. 
Died  in  1789. 

Recorde,  rek'ord,  ?  (ROBERT,)  an  eminent  British 
mathematician,  born  in  Pembrokeshire  about  1500.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Cam 
bridge  in  1545.  He  also  taught  mathematics  at  Oxford, 
and  published  several  works,  among  which  are  "  The 
Ground  of  Arts,  teaching  the  Work  and  Practice  of 
Arithmetic,"  (1540,)  and  "The  Castle  of  Knowledge," 
(1556.)  The  latter  treats  on  astronomy.  He  was  phy 
sician  to  Edward  VI.  and  to  Queen  Mary.  He  is  said 
to  have  invented  the  sign  of  equality  in  algebra.  Died 
in  1558. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athens  Oxonienses  ;"  HUTTOK,  "Mathematical 
Dictionary." 

Recupero,  ri-koo-pa'rp,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian 
numismatist,  born  at  Catania  about  1740;  died  in  1803. 

Recupero,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  mineralogist,  born 
at  Catania  in  1720,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
wrote  a  "Natural  History  of  Etna,"  (1815.)  Died  in 
1778  or  1787. 

Recurt,  reh-kuR',  (AniUKN  BAKNAIIE  ATHANASE,) 
a  French  physician  and  republican,  born  at  Lassalle 
(Hautes-Pyrenees)  in  1797.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848,  and  became  minister  of 
the  interior  on  the  nth  of  May.  He  was  minister  of 
public  works  from  June  to  October,  1848. 

Red-Beard,  (Barbarossa.)    See  FREDERICK  I. 

Red'ding,  (CYRUS,)  an  English  journalist  and  poet, 
born  at  Penryn  about  1785.  He  was  associated  with  the 
poet  Campbell  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  New  Monthly 
Magazine"  from  1820  to  1830.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Modern  Wines,"  (1833.) 
"  Literary  Reminiscences  and  Memoirs  of  Thomas 
Campbell,"  (2  vols.,  1859,)  and  "Past  Celebrities  whom 
I  have  known,"  (2  vols.,  1865.)  Died  in  1870. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  185?. 

Reden,  von,  fon  ra'den,  (FRIEDRICH  WII.HELM 
OTTO  LunwiG,)  BAUON,  an  eminent  German  writer  on 
statistics,  was  born  in  Lippe-Detmold  in  1804.  Among 
his  works  are  "  General  and  Comparative  Statistics  of 
Finances,"  (2  vols.,  1851-56,)  and  "Statistics  of  the 
Products  and  Commerce  of  Prussia,"  (3  vols.,  1854.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Redern,  von,  fon  ra'dern,  (SioiSMOND  EHRENREICH,) 
COUNT,  a  Prussian  diplomatist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1755. 
He  became  a  partner  of  Saint-Simon,  the  French  so 
cialist,  in  speculations.  Died  in  1835. 

Redesdale,  reeds'dal,  (JOHN  FREEMAN  MITFORD,) 
BARON,  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1748.  As  solicitor- 
general,  he  conducted  the  state  trials  in  1794.  He 
became  attorney-general  in  1799,  and  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1801.  Died  in  1830. 

Red'field,  (WILLIAM  C.,)  an  American  geologist  and 
meteorologist,  born  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in 
1789,  became  a  resident  of  New  York  about  1825. 
He  contributed  articles  on  meteorology  to  several 
periodicals,  and  wrote  on  steam-navigation.  Died  in 
February,  1857.  "The  ingenious  theories  of  Mr. 
Redfield  and  Mr.  Espy,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "have 
commanded  the  respect  and  admiration  of  scholars." 
("Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  27.) 

Red'grave,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  painter  of  land 
scapes,  domestic  scenes,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  in 
1804.  He  exhibited  in  1837  a  successful  picture  of 
"  Gulliver  on  the  Farmer's  Table."  His  favourite  subjects 
in  a  subsequent  period  ,were  illustrations  of  the  trials 


,  of  the  poor,  such  as  "The  Sempstress"  and  "The  Poor 
,  Teacher."  He  also  acquired  popularity  as  a  painter  of 
j  landscapes.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in 
j  1851.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Country  Cousins," 
|  "Ophelia,"  and  "  Little  Red-Riding-Hood." 

Redi,  ra'dee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  eminent  Italian  natu 
ralist  and  poet,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1626.     He  practised 
medicine  at  Florence  with  a  high  reputation,  and  wrote 
poetry  with  success.     In  philosophy  he  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Galileo.     He  is  ranked   among  the  greatest 
observers  of  his  age.     Among  his  works  are  "Experi 
ments  on  the  Generation  of  Insects,"  (1668,)  a  poem  on 
\  the  wine   of   Tuscany,  called   "  Bacchus    in    Tuscany," 
I  ("  Bacco  in  Toscana,"  1685,)  and  "  Letters  on   Philoso- 
'  phy,  Natural  History,"  etc.,   (2  vols.,  1724-27.)     "  Few 
!  have  done  so  much  in  any  part  of  science,"  says  Hal- 
|  lam,  "who    have  also   shone  so  brightly  in   the   walks 
|  of  taste.     The  sonnets  of  Redi  are  esteemed  ;   but  his 
j  famous  dithyrambic  '  Bacco  in  Toscana'  is  admitted  to 
[  be  the  first  poem  of  that  kind   in  modern   language." 
j  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")     Died  at 
Pisa  about  1695. 

See  GORANI,  "  Elojrj  di  due  illustri  Scopritori,  (Redi  e  Bandini,") 
1786;  A.  FABRONI,  "Vita:  Italorum  illustrium  ;"  LONGFELLOW, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  NICKRON,  "  Memoires  ;"  G.  V.  M. 
FABRONI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  F.  Redi."  1796;  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

Redi,  (TOMMASO  or  GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Florence  in  1665,  was  a 
pupil  of  Carlo  Marattn.  Died  in  1726. 

Reding,  von,  fon  ra'ding,  ( ALOYS,)  a  Swiss  officer, 
born  in  1755.  He  commanded  the  Swiss  troops  that 
checked  the  French  army  at  Morgarten  in  May,  1798, 
and  was  elected  Landamman  in  1801.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  confederes,  the  aristocratic  and  anti-Gallican  party. 
Died  in  1818. 

Red  Jack'et,  or  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  ( "  Keeper- 
Awake,")  a  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the  Senecas,  born 
in  Western  New  York  about  1759.  He  was  noted  for 
his  eloquence,  and  earnestly  opposed  the  treaty  between 
the  Six  Nations  and  the  United  States  for  the  cession 
of  lands.  General  Washington  bestowed  upon  him  a 
silver  medal.  Died  in  1830. 

See  the  "Life  and  Times  of  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  or  Red  Jacket," 
i?4i,  by  WILLIAM  L.  STONE. 

Red'maii  or  Red'mayne,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1499.  He  was  chosen  master 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1547,  and  became 
archdeacon  of  Taunton.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
theology.  Died  in  1551. 

Red/mall,  (JOHN,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1722,  graduated  at  Leyden.  He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  in  his  profession,  and  was  the  first 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  1808. 

Redmayne.     See  REDMAN. 

Redoute,  reh-doo'ta',  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent 
French  painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Saint-Hubert,  near 
Liege,  in  1759.  He  worked  mostly  in  Paris,  and  received 
the  title  of  painter  of  the  cabinet  of  Queen  Marie  An 
toinette.  He  published  an  admirable  "  Monography  of 
the  Roses,"  ("  Monographic  des  Roses,"  3  vols.,  1817- 
24.)  In  1832  he  became  professor  of  iconography  at 
the  Jarclin  des  Plantes,  Paris.  Died  in  1840. 

See  BOUCHARD,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  M  Re 
doute,"  1840  ;  M.  BONAFOUS,  "  Notice  historique  sur  P.  J.  Redoute." 

Redschid.     See  RESHEED  PASHA. 

Redwitz,  rid'wits,  (OsKAR,)  BARON,  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  near  Anspach  in  1823.  He  became 
in  1851  professor  of  literary  history  at  Vienna.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  poem  of  "  The  Amaranth," 
and  "Tales  of  the  Forest-Brook  and  Fir-Tree,"  (1850.) 

Reed,  (ANDREW,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenter  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  London  in  1787.  He  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  the  churches  of  the  United  States  in  1834 
by  the  Congregationalists.  He  preached  at  Wycliffe 
Chapel,  Stepney,  for  fifty  years,  and  founded  two  orphan- 
asylums  and  a  hospital  for  incurables.  Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Andrew  Reed,"  London,  1863. 

Reed,  (HENRY,)  a  distinguished  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1808.  He  graduated 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REED 


1876 


REGIS 


in  1825  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  became  assist 
ant  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1831,  and  in  1835 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  literature,  in  that  insti 
tution.  In  1854  he  visited  Europe,  and,  having  embarked 
in  the  steamship  Arctic,  was  lost  on  the  voyage  home. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  English  Literature 
from  Chaucer  to  Tennyson,"  (1855,)  "Lectures  on  the 
British  Poets,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  "  Lectures  on  English  His 
tory,"  etc.,  and  the  "Life  of  Joseph  Reed"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography."  He  also  prepared  editions 
of  Graham's  "English  Synonymes,"  Arnold's  "Lec 
tures  on  Modern  History,"  Lord  Marion's  "  History  of 
England,"  and  the  "  Poetical  Works  of  Thomas  Gray." 
See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
AI.LIHONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Reed,  (ISAAC,)  an  English  editor,  critic,  and  biogra 
pher,  born  in  London  in  1742.  He  wrote  biographical 
notices  for  Dodsley's  "Collection,"  (6  vols.,  1782,) 
contributed  to  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and 
edited,  among  other  works,  "  Biographia  Dramatica," 
(1782,)  and  Shakspeare's  Works,  (10  vols.,  1785.)  Died 
in  1807. 

Reed,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  dramatist  and  miscella 
neous  writer,  born  at  Stockton-upon-Tees  in  1723. 
Among  his  works  are  "Dido,"  a  tragedy,  (1767,)  and 
"Tom  Jones,"  an  opera,  (1769.)  Died  in  1787. 

Reed,  (JOSEPH,)  an  American  officer  of  the  Revo 
lution,  born  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  in  1741.  He  was 
president  of  the  first  provincial  convention  held  in  Penn 
sylvania,  (1775,)  and  was  subsequently  aide-de-camp 
and  secretary  to  General  Washington.  He  was  made 
adjutant-general  in  1776,  and  in  1778  became  president 
of  the  supreme  executive  council  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
died  in  1785.  His  Life,  written  by  his  grandson,  Pro 
fessor  Henry  Reed,  is  included  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography." 

Respecting  President  Reed's  character  as  a  man  and  a  patriot, 
very  different  opinions  have  prevailed  from  his  own  time  to  the 
present  day.  See,  on  this  subject,  BANCROFT'S  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vols.  viii.  and  ix.  ;  a  pamphlet  by  WILLIAM  K.  REED, 


(WILLIAM  B.,)  in  AI.LIBONE'S  "  Dictionary  of  Authors.' 

Reedtz,  rats,  (Hoi.c.F.R  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish  min 
ister  of  state,  born  at  Odense  in  1800.  He  was  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  from  August,  1850,  to  December,  1851. 
Died  in  1857. 

Rees,  reess,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  encyclopaedist, 
born  in  North  Wales  in  1743.  He  became  minister  of 
a  dissenting  congregation  in  London  about  1768.  He 
edited  "Chambers's  Cyclopaedia,"  (4  vols.,  1778-85,) 
and  used  that  as  the  basis  of  a  more  extensive  and 
extremely  valuable  work  published  under  the  title  of 
"  Rees's  Cyclopaedia,"  (45  vols.,  1802-20.)  Died  in  1825. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1825. 

Reeve,  reev,  (CLARA,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
at  Ipswich  in  1725.  She  produced  in  1778  a  romance 
called  "The  Old  English  Baron,"  which  was  often 
reprinted.  Among  her  works  is  "The  Progress  of  Ro 
mance  through  Times,  Countries,  and  Manners,"  (2 
vols.,  1785.)  Died  in  1803. 

Reeve,  (LovELL, )  an  English  conchologist,  born 
about  1814.  He  published  "Conchologia  Systematica, 
or  a  Complete  System  of  Conchology,"  (London,  2  vols. 
4to,  1842,)  and  "Conchologia  Iconica,  or  Figures  and 
Descriptions  of  the  Shells  of  Molluscous  Animals,  with 
Critical  Remarks,"  etc.,  (1856.)  Died  in  1865. 

Reeve,  reev,  (TAPPING,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  on  Long  Island  in  1744.  He  began  to  practise  at 
Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1772,  and  married  a  sister 
of  Aaron  Burr.  In  1792  he  opened  a  law  school,  which 
he  taught  for  many  years  at  Litchfield.  He  became  a 
judge  of  the  superior  court  in  1798.  Died  in  1823. 

Reeves,  reevz,  (JOHN,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
London  in  1752.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  History  of  English  Laws,"  (1783.)  He  was  a  deter 
mined  opponent  of  reform.  Died  in  1829. 

Reeves,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1668.  He  was  vicar  of  Saint  Mary's,  Reading.  Several 
volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published,  (1704-29.)  Died 
in  1726. 


Rega,  ra'ga  or  ra'na,  (HENRI  JOSEPH,)  a  Flemish 
physician,  born  at  Louvain  in  1690.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  a  work  "On  Sympathy,"  ("  De  Sympathia," 
1721.)  Died  at  Louvain  in  1754. 

See  MARTENS,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  H.  J.  Riga,"  1840;  MAL- 
COKPS,  "  Rega,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1846. 

Reganhac,  de,  deh  reh-gS'nSk',  (G&RAUD  VALET,)  a 
French  lyric  poet,  born  at  or  near  Cahors  in  1719  ;  died 
in  1784. 

Reggio,  DUKE  OF.     See  OUDINOT. 

Reggio,  red'jo,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Genoa  in  1743.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  on 
astronomy,  and  aided  in  the  triangulation  of  Northern 
Italy,  finished  in  1794.  Died  in  1804. 

Reggio,  da,  (LucA.)     See  FERRARI. 

Regillo.     See  PORDENONE. 

Re-gi'no,  [Fr.  REGINON,  ra'zhe'noN',]  alearned  monk 
of  the  ninth  century,  was  Abbot  of  Prum,  in  the  diocese 
of  Treves.  He  wrote  a  chronicle,  which  has  been  printed. 
Died  in  915  A.D. 

Regio,  ra'jo,  (RAFFAEI.LO,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Bergamo  ;  died  in  1520. 

Regiomoiitan.     See  RKGIOMONTANUS. 

Re-gi-o-mon-ta'nus  or  Regiomoiitaii,  ra'ge-o-mon- 
tan',  a  celebrated  German  astronomer,  whose  proper 
name  was  JOHANN  MULI.ER,  (mul'ler,)  was  born  in  June, 
1436,  probably  near  Konigsberg,  (Saxe-Hildburghausen.) 
The  Latin  name  Regiomontanus  is  derived  from  Konigs 
berg.  Doppelmayer  and  others  give  Konigshofen,  in 
Franconia,  as  the  place  of  his  birth.  He  wrote  his 
own  name  sometimes  JOHANNES  GERMANUS  DE  REGIO- 
MONTE.  About  the  age  of  fifteen  he  began  to  study 
astronomy  under  Purbach,  in  the  University  of  Vienna. 
In  1462  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  Greek  and 
bought  or  copied  Greek  manuscripts  on  his  favourite 
science.  He  passed  several  years  in  Rome,  Padua,  and 
Venice,  whence  he  returned  to  Vienna  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics.  About  1471  he  removed  to 
Nuremberg,  where,  by  the  liberal  aid  of  a  rich  citizen, 
Bernard  Walter,  he  was  enabled  to  construct  instru 
ments,  and  made  a  series  of  observations.  He  published 
there,  with  his  own  press,  his  "  Ephemerides"  for  thirty 
years,  (1475-1506,)  and  other  works,  among  which  was  a 
"  New  Calendar"  ("  Kalendarium  Novum")  for  the  years 
1475,  J494i  and  I5'[3-  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  almanac  published  in  Europe.  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  in 
vited  him  to  Rome  to  reform  the  calendar,  and  offered  him 
the  bishopric  of  Ratisbon.  About  a  year  after  his  arrival 
in  Rome  he  died  there,  in  1476.  "He  was  a  man  of 
great  sagacity  and  enterprise,"  says  Delambre,  "  by  whose 
premature  death  astronomy  sustained  a  loss  which  for  a 
long  time  was  not  repaired."  A  treatise  "  On  Triangles, 
Plane  and  Spherical,"  ("De  Triangulis  Planis  et  Spheri- 
cis  Libri  V.,")  composed  about  1464,  but  not  published 
until  more  than  fifty  years  after  his  death,  is  pronounced 
by  Delambre  his  most  interesting  work. 

See  E.  RHKINHOLT,  "Oratiode  J.  Regiomontano,"  1549;  PAN 
ZER.  "  Bmchstiicke  zu  J.  Regiomontan's  Leben,"  1796. 

Regis,  ra'jess,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  professor  of 
Greek,  born  near  Mondovi.  He  produced  a  good  Ital 
ian  version  of  Xenophon's  "  Cyropaedia,"  (1809.)  Died 
at  Turin  in  1811. 

Regis,  ri'zhess',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  about  1665,  was  a  missionary  to  Peking,  in  China. 
He  spent  several  years  in  executing  a  map  of  China  for 
the  emperor.  Died  in  China  in  1737. 

Regis,  (|EAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Narbonne  in  1597.  He  gave  to  the  poor 
large  sums  of  money  which  he  collected  by  begging. 
Died  in  1640.  He  was  canonized  in  1737. 

See  D'AUBENTON,  "  Vie  de  Saint- Frarxpois-Regis,"  1716;  A. 
BONNET,  "Vita  J.  F.  Regis,"  1692. 

Regis,  (PiERRF.,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1656;  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1726. 

Regis,  (SYLVAIN,  or  JEAN  SYLVAIN,)  a  French  Car 
tesian  philosopher,  was  born  near  Agen  in  1632.  He 
propagated  the  doctrines  of  Descartes  by  lectures  at 
Toulouse  and  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  a  "System  of 
Philosophy  according  to  the  Principles  of  Descartes," 
(3  vols.,  1690.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1707.  "No  one  has 
left,"  says  Hallam,  "so  comprehensive  a  statement  and 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscitre;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


REG  JUS 


1877 


REGNIER 


defence  of  Cartesianism  as  Jean  Sylvain  Regis."     ("In 
troduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"Memoires;"  FONTENEI.LE,  "  filoge  de  Regis." 

Regius.    See  LEROY. 

Regnard,  reh-ntR',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  popular 
French  comic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1655,  was  a  son  of 
a  merchant,  who  left  him  a  handsome  fortune.  On  a 
voyage  between  Civita  Vecchia  and  Toulon,  Regnard 
and  a  lady  whom  he  loved  were  captured  in  1678  by 
Algerine  pirates,  who  sold  them  as  slaves.  They  were 
ransomed  after  a  captivity  of  two  years.  It  is  said  he 
was  on  the  point  of  marrying  the  lady  when  the  fact 
transpired  that  her  first  husband  was  living.  In  1681 
and  1682  he  performed  a  tour  through  Sweden  and  Lap 
land  as  far  as  the  Frozen  Ocean.  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  purchased  the  office  of  treasurer,  (tresorierde 
France.)  He  was  much  addicted  to  the  vice  of  gambling. 
"  Regnard,"  says  Hallam,  "  is  always  placed  next  to 
Moliere  among  the  comic  writers  of  France  in  this,  and 
perhaps  in  any,  age.  The  plays,  indeed,  which  entitle 
him  to  such  a  rank  are  but  few.  Of  these  the  best 
is  acknowledged  to  be  '  The  Gambler,'  ('  Le  Joueur,' 
1696.)  Regnard,  taught  by  his  own  experience,  has 
here  admirably  delineated  the  character  of  an  inveterate 
gamester."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu 
rope.")  Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "  The 
Absent-Minded, "  ("  Le  Distrait,"  1697,)  and  "The  Uni 
versal  Legatee,"  (1708.)  His  comedies  are  characterized 
by  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  humorous  sallies.  Died  in 
September,  1709. 

See  GILBERT,  "  filoge  de  Regnavd,"  1857;  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  June,  1865:  SAINTE-BEUVE.  "Causeries  d»  Lundi  ;"  NICERON, 
"Memoires;''  LA  HARPE,  "Cours  de  Litterature ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Reguaud,  reh-no',  (PIERRE  ETIENNE,)  a  French 
political  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  constant 
adherent  of  the  Bourbons.  Died  about  1820. 

Regnaud  (or  Regnault)  de  Saint-Jean-d'An- 
gely,*  reh'no'  deh  sax  zh6x  dSx'zha'le',  (AUGUSTE 
MICHEL  ETIENNE,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1794.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Morea 
in  1828,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1841,  and  general 
of  division  in  July,  1848.  He  commanded  the  imperial 
guard  at  the  battle  of  Magenta,  June  4,  1859,  and  on 
the  next  day  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  Died  in 
December,  1869. 

Regnaud  (or  Regnault)  de  Saiiit-Jean-d'Angely, 
(MiCHEL  Louis  ETIENNK,)  COUNT,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Fargeau  (Yonne)  in  1762. 
He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Assembly  in  1790, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  1800. 
He  was  employed  in  important  affairs  during  the  em 
pire  as  procureur-general  and  secretary  de  Fetal  of  the 
imperial  family.  In  1803  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1819. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Regnauldin  or  Regnaudin,  reh'no'dax',  (THOMAS,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Moulins  in  1627.  He  exe 
cuted  some  works  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles.  Died 
in  1706. 

Regnault.     See  REGNAUD. 

Regnault,  reh-no',  (fii.iAS,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Paris  about  1802.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  Napoleon,"  (4  vols.,  1847.) 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1850. 

Regnault,  (HENRI  VICTOR,)  a  distinguished  French 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1810.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1840,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  physics  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1841.  He  has  written  memoirs 
on  the  compressibility  of  elastic  fluids,  on  the  elastic 
forces  of  aqueous  vapour  at  different  temperatures,  and 
on  the  laws  and  numerical  data  which  enter  into  the 
calculations  respecting  the  construction  and  power  of 
steam-engines.  He  published  a  good  "Elementary 


*  Authorities  are  divided  in  regard  to  the  proper  mode  of  writing 
this  name  ;  formerly  it  was  universally  written  ANG£LV,  but  at  pres 
ent  many  respectable  works  systematically  omit  the  accent,  and  some 
say  that  the  e  should  be  suppressed  in  pronunciation.  (See  note 
under  PETION  (or  PETHION)  DE  VILLENEUVE.) 


Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  (4  vols.,  1849,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English.  Jjidet,  s&7f 

Regnault,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  BARON,  a  French  painter 
of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1776.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  "Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  and  the  "Education  of  Achilles," 
(1783.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in 
1829. 

See  C.  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Regnault,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  ETIENNE,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  at  Niort  in  1759,  was  consulting  physician 
to  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in  1836. 

Regnault,  (NOEL,)  a  French  natural  philosopher  and 
Cartesian,  born  at  Arras  in  1683.  He  wrote  a  popular 
work  entitled  "  Conversations  of  Ariste  and  Eudoxe  on 
Philosophy,"  ("  Entretiens  physiques  d'Ariste,"  etc.,  3 
vols.,  1729.)  Died  in  1762. 

Regnault- Warin,  reh'no'  vt'raN',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE 
JOSEPH,)  a  mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  at  Bar-le- 
Duc  about  1772.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  La  Fayette," 
(1824,)  and  many  other  works.  Died  in  1844. 

Regner.     See  RAGNER. 

Regner  van  Oosterga,  rec/ner  vtn  os-t§R'ga,  (or  os- 
tCR'na,]  (CYPRIAN,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Friesland  in 
1614;  died  at  Utrecht  in  1687. 

Regnier,  reh-ne_-4/,  (CLAUDE  AMBROISE,)  Due  de 
Massa,  (mt'st',)  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  at 
Blamont,  in  Lorraine,  in  1736.  As  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Elders,  he  supported  Bonaparte  on  the  i8th 
Brtimaire,  1799.  During  the  consulate  he  was  one  of  the 
redacteurs  of  the  Civil  Code.  He  was  appointed  grand 
ju«e  (minister  of  justice)  in  1802,  and  received  the  title 
of  Due  de  Massa  in  1809.  Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Regnier,  (EmiE,)  a  French  mechanician,  born  at 
Semur-en-Auxois  in  1751.  He  invented  a  number  of 
machines  or  instruments.  Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Regnier,  GENERAL.     See  REYNIER. 

Regnier,  (JACQUES  AUGUSTE  ADOLPHE,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Mentz  in  1804.  He  became  in  1843 
preceptor  of  the  Count  de  Paris,  whom  he  followed  into 
exile  in  1848.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1855.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  German  Dictionary," 
(1841,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Sinister,  and  the  "  Pra- 
ti'9akya"  of  the  "  Rig-Veda,"  Sanscrit  text,  with  French 
version,  (3  vols.,  1856-58.) 

Regnier,  (JACQUES  AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1787. 

Regnier,  (Louis,)  Sieur  de  la  Planche,  a  French 
Hucuenot,  noted  as  a  negotiator  and  writer.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Reign  of  Francis  II.,"  (1576,) 
which  is  commended.  Died  about  1580. 

Regnier,  (MATHURIN,)  a  French  satirical  poet,  born 
at  Chartres  in  1573,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  P.  Des- 
portes.  He  obtained  a  canonicate  at  Chartres  in  1604, 
but  he  was  licentious  in  morals.  His  works  consist  of  six 
teen  satires,  and  some  elegies,  odes,  etc.,  the  first  edition 
of  which  was  dated  1608.  He  imitated  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  Martial.  His  style  is  natural  and  remarkable  for 
facility.  "The  satires  of  Regnier,"  says  Hallam,  "  have 
been  highly  praised  by  Boilean, — a  competent  judge,  no 
doubt,  in  such  matters.  Some  have  preferred  Regnier 
even  to  himself,  and  found  in  this  old  Juvenal  of  France 
a  certain  stamp  of  satirical  genius  which  the  more  pol 
ished  critic  wanted."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  Died  at  Rouen  in  1613. 

See  BROSSETTE.  "  Notice  sur  Regnier,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of 
his  works,  17215;  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Histonque;"  NICEKON, 
"  Memoires  ;"  SAINTE-RF.UVE,  "  Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Francaise;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Regnier-Desmarais,  reh-ne-a'di'mt'ri',  (FRANC.OIS 
SERAPHIN,)  a  French  poet  and"'  grammarian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1632.  He  was  appointed  prior  of  Grammont 
by  the  king  in  1668,  and  admitted  into  the  French  Acad 
emy  in  1670.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  authors  or 
editors  of  the  Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy. 
Among  his  works  are  a  good  "  Treatise  on  French 
Grammar,"  (1705,)  and  "Poems  in  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Latin,"  (1707.)  Died  in  1713. 

See  D'ALEMBERT,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  1'Academie  Frnn- 
caise." 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled :  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REGNIER 


REID 


Regnier-Destourbet,  reh-ne-i'  di'tooR'bi',  (Hippo- 
LYTE  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Langres 
in  1804,  wrote  dramas,  tales,  etc.  Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Reg'u-lus,  (MARCUS  ATILUUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
distinguished  in  the  first  Punic  war.  lie  was  consul 
for  the  second  time  in  256  B.C.,  and  gained  a  naval  vic 
tory  over  the  Carthaginians.  Having  invaded  Africa, 
he  defeated  the  enemy  and  advanced  nearly  to  Carthage. 
He  was  defeated  in  turn,  and  taken  prisoner,  in  255. 
The  victors  sent  him  with  some  ambassadors  to  Rome 
to  negotiate  a  peace,  on  condition  that  he  should  return 
if  the  Roman  senate  should  reject  their  terms.  He 
advised  the  senate  not  to  make  peace,  and  returned  to 
Carthage.  This  act  of  patriotism  was  much  celebrated 
by  ancient  writers,  according  to  whom  Regulus  died  a 
victim  to  the  cruelty  of  his  captors. 

See  EKNESTI,  "  Dissertatio  de  M.  A.  Regulo,"  1684;  NIEBUHK, 
"History  of  Rome;"  J.  REV,  "Dissertation  sur  Regulus,"  1836; 
CICERO,  ""De  Officiis." 

Rehberg,  ra'beRG,  (AUGUST  WII.IIKT.M,)  a  German 
publicist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1757;  died  in  1836. 

Rehfues,  von,  fon  ra'fiis,  (PmLiPP  JosKi'H,)  a  Ger 
man  writer  and  journalist,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1779. 
He  was  for  a  time  associate  editor  of  the  "  Morgenblatt." 
He  published  in  1813  his  work  on  Spain,  which  was 
translated  into  French  by  Guizot.  Died  in  1843. 

Rehni,  ram,  (FKIKDRICH,)  a  German  historian,  born 
in  Hesse  in  1792.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages,"  (8  vols.,  1820-38.)  Died  in  1847. 

Rehnskjold,  ran'chold,  (CARL  GUSTAV,  )  COUNT 
OK,  a  Swedish  general,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1651.  He 
gained  a  victory  over  the  King  of  Poland  at  Frauen- 
stadt,  (1703,)  and  accompanied  Charles  XII.  in  the 
invasion  of  Russia.  After  Charlrs  was  wonndcd  at 
Ptiltowa,  (1709,)  Rehnskjold  took  command  of  the  army, 
and  was  made  a  prisoner.  Died  in  1722. 

Re-ho-bo'am,  [Heb.  D^OTTI ;  Fr.  ROISOAM,  ro'- 
bo'oN',]  King  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  Solomon 
in  975  li.c.  By  his  rash  and  ungracious  answer  to  a 
petition  that  he  would  lighten  the  yoke  which  his  father 
had  imposed,  he  provoked  ten  tribes  to  revolt.  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  Jeroboam,  the  leader  of  the 
ten  tribes.  His  reign  lasted  seventeen  years. 

See  I.  Kings  xii.  and  xiv.  ;  II.  Chronicles  x.,  xi.,  and  xii. 

Reicha,  n'xa,  (ANTON,)  a  German  composer  and 
eminent  writer  on  music,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1770. 
He  produced  a  symphony  which  was  performed  with 
success  at  Paris  in  1799.  About  1802  he  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  Haydn  and  Beethoven, 
and  composed,  besides  other  works,  thirty-six  fugues  for 
the  piano.  He  resided  in  Paris  from  1808  until  his 
death.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "Treat 
ise  on  Melody,"  ("Traite  de  Melodic,"  1814,)  and  his 
"System  of  Harmony,"  ("Traite  complet  et  raisonne 
d'Harmonie  pratique,"  1818.)  Died  in  1836. 

_  See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale  ;"  DEI.AIRE,  "Notice  sur  Reicha,  Musicien ," 
1837. 

Reichard,  rl'KaRt,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIEB,)  a  Ger 
man  geographer,  born  at  Schleiz  in  1758.  He  published 
a  number  of  valuable  maps  and  charts,  among  which 
we  may  name  the  "Chart  of  the  World  according  to 
Mercator's  Projection,"  and  "Chart  of  Gaul"  for  the 
explanation  of  Caesar's  writings.  Died  in  1837. 

Reichard,  (HEINRICH  AUGUST,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1751.  He  wrote  dramas,  political 
treatises,  descriptive  works,  and  a  "Traveller's  Guide" 
for  Europe,  (1793,)  which  was  very  successful.  Died 
in  1828. 

Reichard,  (HF.INRICH  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Schleiz  in  1742.  He  produced  a  Latin 
version  of  the  New  Testament,  (1799,)  the  style  of  which 
is  praised  for  purity.  Died  in  1801. 

Reichardt,  rl'KaRt,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  at  Konigs- 
berg  in  1751.  He  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  appointed  him  chapel-master  at  Berlin  on 
the  death  of  Graun.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
funeral  hymn  (  Tratiercantate )  for  Frederick  the  Great. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


Reicheiibach,  n'Ken-baK',  (ANTON  BENEDICT,)  a 
German  naturalist,  a  brother  of  th,e  following,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1807.  He  has  published  several  works  on 

animals,  etc. 

Reicheiibach,  (HEINRICH  GOTTLIEP,  LUDWIG,  ) 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Surgical  Academy  at 
Dresden,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1793.  He  published  a 
"Flora  Germanica,"  (in  15  vols.,  1853,)  and  the  first 
part  of  a  great  work  devoted  to  birds  and  mammalia. 

His  son  GUSTAV,  born  in  1822,  a  botanist,  aided  in 
the  composition  of  the  "Flora  Germanica." 

Reicheiibach,  von,  fon  ri'Ken-baK/,  (  GKOKG,  )  a 
German  mechanician,  born  at  Durlach  in  1772.  He 
established  at  Munich  a  great  manufactory  of  telescopes 
and  other  optical  and  philosophical  instruments  of  su 
perior  quality.  Fraunhofer  was  his  assistant  or  partner. 
Died  in  1826. 

Reicheiibach,  von,  (  KARL,  )  BARON,  a  German 
chemist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1788.  He  discovered 
paraffin  and  creosote,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Geological  Researches  in  Moravia,"  (1834.)  He  main 
tained  the  existence  of  an  imponderable  agent,  which 
he  calls  Qd,  and  which  he  supposes  to  be  widely  diffused 
in  nature.  Died  in  1869. 

Reichstadt,  nK/stat,  DUKK  OF,  (NAPOLEON  II.,) 
King  of  Rome,  the  only  son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria 
Louisa,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  2Oth  of  March,  1811. 
His  lull  name  was  NAPOLEON  FRANC.OIS  CHARLES 
JOSEPH.  In  1814  Napoleon  I.  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
son;  but  Louis  XVIII.  was  preferred  by  the  senate, 
and  the  young  Napoleon  was  taken  to  Austria  by  Maria 
Louisa.  He  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Reichstadt 
from  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  1818.  lie  entered  the 
Austrian  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1831.  His  physical  organization  was  feeble, 
but  his  intellect  was  active,  and  he  is  said  to  have  pos 
sessed  a  rare  aptitude  for  the  acquisition  of  languages. 
Died  near  Vienna  in  July,  1832. 

See  DE  MONTBEL,  "  Le  Due  de  Reichstadt,"  1^32;  FK.  LE- 
COMTE,  "Histoire  de  Napoleon  II,"  1X42,  J.  DE  SAINT-FELIX, 
"Histoire  de  Napoleon  II,"  1856. 

Reid,  reed,  (DAVID  BOSWKLL,)  M.I).,  a  Scottish 
chemist  and  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1805.  He 
began  to  lecture  on  chemistry  in  Edinburgh  in  1833. 
He  invented  an  improved  method  of  ventilation,  and 
was  employed  about  five  years  in  the  ventilation  of  the 
new  Houses  of  Parliament.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Text-Book  for  Students  of  Chemistry,"  (1834.) 
About  1856  he  removed  to  the  United  States.  Died  in 
Washington  in  April,  1863. 

Reid,  reed,  (MAYNE,)  a  novelist,  born  in  the  north  of 
Ireland  in  1818.  He  began  about  1838  a  tbur  in  Mexico, 
Texas,  etc.,  and  passed  some  months  among  the  savages. 
In  1846  and  1847  he  fought  as  captain  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States  against  the  Mexicans.  He  wrote  several 
successful  novels,  among  which  are  "The  Rifle  Rangers," 
(1849,)  and  "The  War-Trail,"  (1857.) 

Reid,  reed,  (SAMUEL  CHESTER,)  CAPTAIN,  an  Ameri 
can  naval  officer,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1783. 
He  commanded  the  brig  General  Armstrong  in  a  fight 
against  three  British  vessels  at  Fayal  in  September,  1814. 
Died  at  New  York  in  1861. 

Reid,  (THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  eminent  writer 
on  mental  philosophy,  was  born  at  Strachan,  in  Kin- 
cardineshire,  in  April,  1710.  He  studied  at  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  became  minister  of  New  Machar 
'n  T737-  I'1  *752  ne  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  He  succeeded 
Adam  Smith  as  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Glas 
gow  in  1763,  and  published  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Human 
Mind,"  (1764,)  which  was  designed  to  neutralize  the 
skeptical  doctrines  which  Hume  had  advocated  as  de 
ductions  from  the  ideal  system  of  Berkeley.  His  other 
principal  works  are  "  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers 
of  Man,"  (1785,)  and  "Essays  on  the  Active  Power  of 
the  Human  Mind,"  (1788.)  Died  at  Glasgow  in  October, 
1796.  In  reply  to  some  writers  who  are  disposed  to 
deny  the  name  of  philosopher  to  Reid,  Mackintosh 
observes,  "  As  there  are  too  many  who  seem  more  wise 
than  they  are,  so  it  was  the  more  uncommon  fault  of 
Reid  to  appear  less  a  philosopher  than  he  really  was." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


REID 


1879 


RE  IN  ESI  US 


In  another  place  he  calls  Reid  "a  patient,  modest,  and 
deep  thinker."  Hume  himself  appears  to  have  enter 
tained  a  similar  estimate  of  Reid,  although  differing  from 
him  so  widely  in  his  philosophical  views. 

See  a  ''Life  of  Dr.  Reid,"  by  DUGALD  STEWART,  prefixed  to  a 
posthumous  edition  of  his  "Essays;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  MACKINTOSH,  "View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy,"  in  his  preliminary  remarks  on 
Dugaicl  Stewart;  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  May  and  July,  1764,  and  February,  1X04;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1804;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May, 
1847. 

Reid,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  MAJOR-GENERAL,  F.R.S.,  a 
British  engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born  in  Fifeshire 
in  1791.  He  served  as  an  officer  of  engineers  in  Spain, 
America,  etc.,  became  Governor  of  Bermuda  in  1838, 
and  commanding  engineer  at  Woolwich  in  1849.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "An  Attempt  to  Develop  the 
Law  of  Storms  by  Means  of  Facts  arranged  according 
to  Place  and  Time,"  (1838,)  which  attracted  much  at 
tention.  In  1849  he  produced  "The  Progress  of  the 
Development  of  the  Law  of  Storms,"  etc.  He  was 
Governor  of  Malta  from  1851  to  1858.  Died  in  London 
in  October,  1858. 

Reiffenberg,  de,  deh  rlf fen-be" RC/,  (FREDERIC  Au- 
GUSTK  FERDINAND  THOMAS,)  BARON,  a  Belgian  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Mons  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
the  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,"  (1830,)  and  several 
works  on  the  history  of  Flanders.  Died  in  1850. 

See  LUTHEKEAU,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Baron  de  Reiffenberg."  1850  ; 
QUF.TELKT,  "  Notice  sur  F.  A.  F.  T.  Baron  de  Reiffenberg,"  1852. 

Reigny,  rin'ye',  (Louis  AKF.L  BEFFROI,  )  called 
COUSIN  JACQUES,  an  eccentric  French  writer  of  plays 
and  burlesque  works,  was  born  at  Laon  in  1757;  died 
in  1810. 

Reil,  ril,  (JoHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Dutch  or  German 
physician,  born  at  Rauden,  in  East  Friesland,  in  1758. 
He  became  professor  of  therapeutics  at  Halle  in  1788. 
He  published  a  number  of-  esteemed  medical  works. 
Died  in  1813. 

Reille,  ril  or  ri'ye,  (HoNORE-  CHARLES  MICHEL 
JOSEPH,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  at  Antibes 
(Var)  in  1775.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Jena,  (1806,)  soon  after  which  he  became  a  general 
of  division,  and  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  victory  at  Friedland,  (1807,)  distinguished 
himself  at  Wagram,  (1809,)  and  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  Portugal  in  1812.  In  1815  he  fought  for 
Napoleon  at  Waterloo,  where  he  commanded  a  corps- 
d'armee.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1847.  Died 
in  1860. 

-See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Genera'e." 

Reiraar.     See  REIMARUS. 

Reimarus,  rl-ma'rus,  [Fr.  RF.IMAR,  ri'miR',]  (HER 
MANN  SAMUEL,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Hamburg 
in  1694,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  mathematics 
in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
"  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,"  a  series  of  essays  published 
by  Lessing  in  1777.  (See  LESSING.)  Reimarus  was  a 
son-in-law  of  J.  A.  Fabricius,  whom  he  assisted  in  sev 
eral  of  his  philological  works.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Principal  Truths  of  Natural  Religion,"  (1754,) 
and  "Observations  on  the  Instinct  of  Animals,"  (1762.) 
Died  in  1765  or  1768. 

See  J.  G.  BtiscH,  "Memoria  Reimari,"  1769;  HIRSCHING, 
"  Historisch-iiterarisches  Handbuch." 

Reimarus,  (JOHANN  ALBRECHT  HEINRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  philosopher  and  economist,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1729,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  practised  medi 
cine  at  Hamburg,  and  wrote  several  works  on  commerce 
and  political  economy.  Died  in  1814, 

See  EBELING,  "  Memoria  Reimari,"  1815  ;  and  "Autobiography," 
1814. 

Reimer,  ri'mer,  (GEORG  ANDREAS,)  a  German  book 
seller,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1776,  founded  at  Berlin,  in 
1800,  a  publishing-house  which  rose  to  be  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Germany.  Among  the  works  issued 
from  this  establishment  were  the  writings  of  Jean  Paul, 
Novalis,  W.  von  Humboldt,  Niebuhr,  Ranke,  Lach- 
mann,  and  other  Germans  most  eminent  in  literature 
and  science,  to  which  we  may  add  Schlegel's  transla 
tion  of  Shakspeare.  Died  in  1842. 


Reimmann,  i  im'man,  (JAKOB  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Groningen  in  1668.  He  became 
minister  of  a  church  at  Hildesheim  in  1717.  Among 
his  works  are  "An  Essay  of  an  Introduction  to  Literary 
History,"  (6  vols.,  1703-13,)  and  "Idea  of  the  Literary 
System  of  Antiquity,"  ("  Idea  Systematis  Antiquitatis 
literariae,"  1718.)  Died  in  1743. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  REIMMANN,  Autobiog 
raphy,  ("  Eigene  Lebensbeschreibung,"  eic.,)  1745. 

Reina,  ra^e-na,  ?  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  in  the  province  of  Coino  in  1772.  He  edited  the 
works  of  Ariosto,  Zanotti,  and  other  Italian  authors. 
Died  in  1826. 

Reinagle,  rin'a-gel,  ?  (GEORGE  PHILIP,)  an  excellent 
English  marine  painter,  born  in  London  about  1802,  was 
a  son  of  R.  Ramsay  Reinagle.  Among  his  works  is 
"  The  Battle  of  Navarino."  He  witnessed  this  action. 
Died  in  1833  or  1835. 

Reinagle,  (PHILIP,)  an  able  English  painter  of  land 
scapes,  hunting-scenes,  and  animals,  born  about  1750, 
was  a  pupil  of  Allan  Ramsay.  lie  was  elected  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1811.  Among  his  works 
is  the  "  Sportsmen's  Cabinet."  Died  in  1833  or  1834. 

Reinagle,  (RICHARD  RAMSAY,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1772,  painted  portraits  and  landscapes  with 
success.  He  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1822. 

Reinaud,  ri'no',  (JOSEPH  TOUSSAINT,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  bom  at  Lambesc  (Bouches-du-Rhone)  in 
1795.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscrip 
tions  in  1832,  and  succeeded  Silvestre  de  Sacy  as  pro 
fessor  of  Arabic  at  Paris  in  1838.  In  1854  he  became 
keeper  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  of  the  Imperial 
Library.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Invasions  of  the 
Saracens  in  France,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont  in  the  Eighth, 
Ninth,  and  Tenth  Centuries,"  (1836.)  Died  in  June, 
1867. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Reinbeck,  rln'bek,  (JOHANN  GUSTAV,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Zell  in  1683.  He  became  first 
minister  of  the  church  of  Saint  Peter,  Berlin,  (or  at  Co 
logne  on  the  Spree,)  in  1717.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Considerations  on  the  Divine  Truths  contained 
in  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,"  (4  vols.,  1731-41.)  Died 
in  1742. 

Reindel,  rin'del,  (ALBRECHT,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1784,  numbered  among  his  pupils 
Wagner,  Miiller,  and  other  distinguished  artists.  He 
was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Nurem 
berg.  Died  in  1853. 

Reineccius.     See  REINECK. 

Reineccius,  ri-neYse-us,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  the  principality  of  Anhalt-Zerbst  in 
1668.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Hebrew  Key  (Janua)  to 
the  Old  Testament,"  (1733.)  Died  in  1752. 

Reineck,  rl'iiSk,  [Lat.  REINEC'CIUS,)  (REINER,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  or  near  Paderborn  in  1541. 
He  taught  belles-lettres  at  Frankfort  and  Helmstedt. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Syntagma  heroicum,  continens 
Historiam  Chaldaeorum,  Assyriorum,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1594,)  which  treats  of  the  history  of  the  Chaldeans  and 
Assyrians.  Died  in  1595. 

See  HABERLIN,  "  De  Reineccii  Meritis,"  etc.,  1746  ;  TEISSIER, 
"  filoges." 

Reinecke,  rl'nek-keh,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  noted 
German  actor,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1747  ;  died  in  1787. 

Reineggs,  ri'nlgs  or  ri'ne'ks,  (JAKOB,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  "Eisleben  in  1744.  He  practised  at 
Tiflis,  in  Georgia,  and  wrote  a  "  Description  of  Cau 
casus."  Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1793. 

Reiner,  rl'ner,  (\VENZEL  LORENZ,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Prague  in  1686.  He  painted  history  and  land 
scapes  with  success,  both  in  oil  and  fresco.  His  design 
and  colour  are  much  praised.  Died  at  Prague  in  1743. 

Reinesius,  ri-na'ze-us,  (THOMAS,)  a  German  phy 
sician  and  scholar,  born  at  Gotha  in  1587,  was  styled  by 
Haller  "  a  miracle  of  learning."  He  was  for  several 
years  public  physician  at  Altenburg,  and  subsequently 
removed  to  Leipsic.  About  the  same  time  he  was  made 
a  councillor  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Among  his 
numerous  works  may  be  named  "On  the  Syrian  Gods," 
(1623,)  "Syntagma  of  Ancient  Inscriptions,"  (1682,) 


, 

•c  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^P^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RE  IN  HARD 


1880 


R EL AND 


"Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Sibylline  Oracles,"  (1702,] 
and  "Observations  on  Suidas,"  (all  in  Latin.)  He  also 
wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  (in  German.)  Died  in  1667. 
See  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Reinhard,  rin'haRt,  (CHRISTIAN  TOBIAS  EPHRAIM,) 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Camenz  in  1719;  died  in 
1792. 

Reinhard,  (FRANZ  VOLKMAR,)  a  Protestant  theolo 
gian  and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Vohen- 
strauss,  in  Bavaria,  in  1753.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1782,  and  in  1792  chief  court 
preacher  at  Dresden.  He  died  in  1812,  leaving  a  num 
ber  of  sermons  and  religious  treatises.  His  "System  of 
Christian  Morality"  (5  vols.,  1788-1815)  is  regarded  as 
a  valuable  and  profound  work. 

See  KARL.  AUGUST  BOTTIGER,  "  F.  V.  Reinhard,"  etc.,  1813; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate ;"  POLITZ,  "Reinhard  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  Wirken,"  1813. 

Reinhard,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  diplomatist,  born  in 
Wiirtemberg  in  1761.  He  became  French  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  July,  1799,  and  was  employed  in  several 
missions  by  Bonaparte  from  1800  to  1814.  He  owed  his 
promotion  to  the  favour  of  Talleyrand.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1837. 

Reinhard,  von,  fon  rin'haut,  (ADOLF  FRIEDRICH, 
a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Strelitz  in  1726.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "On  Optimism,"  (1755,)  and  other 
works.  Died  at  Wetzlar  in  1783. 

Reinhart,  rln'haRt,  (JoiiANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Hof  in  1761. 
Some  of  his  best  pictures  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Mass! mi 
palace  at  Rome.  His  "  Landscape  in  a  Storm,"  one  of 
his  master-pieces  in  engraving,  was  dedicated  to  Schiller. 
Died  in  1847. 

Reinhold,  rin'holt,  (CHRISTIAN  ERNST  GOTTLIEB 
JENS,)  a  philosopher,  a  son  of  Karl  Leonhard,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1793.  He  became  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  Philosophy,"  (2 
vols.,  1828-29.)  Died  in  1855. 

Reinhold,  [Lat.  REINHOI/DUS,]  (ERASMUS,)  a  Ger 
man  astronomer,  born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Thuringia,  in 
October,  1511.  He  taught  astronomy  and  mathematics 
for  some  years  at  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  from 
which  he  removed  in  1552.  He  published  a  "Com 
mentary  on  Purbach's  New  Theory  of  Planets,"  ("  Com- 
mentarius  Theoricae  novae  Planetarum  G.  Purbachii," 
1542,)  and  tables  formed  from  the  observations  of 
Copernicus  compared  with  those  of  Hipparchus  and 
Ptolemy,  "Tables  of  the  Motions  of  the  Heavenly 
Bodies,"  ("  Prutenicas  Tabulce  Ccelestium  Motuum," 
1551,)  in  which  he  clearly  explains  the  equation  of  time. 
Died  in  1553.  His  son,  ERASMUS,  was  a  physician  and 
astronomer. 

See  DELAMBRE,  "  Astronomie  moderne." 

Reinhold,  (KARL  LEONHARD,)  a  German  philoso 
pher,  born  at  Vienna  in  1758.  Having  married  the 
daughter  of  Wieland,  he  became  associated  with  him  as 
editor  of  the  "  Deutschen  Mercur."  In  1794  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Kiel.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  "  K.  L.  Reinholds  Leben,"  by  his  son,  1828;  KUNO  FIS 
CHER,  "Die  neuere  Philosophic  seit  Kant;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Reinholdus.     See  REINHOLD,  (ERASMUS.) 

Reinick,  ri'nik,  (ROBERT,)  a  German  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1805  ;  died  in  1852. 

Reinoso,  ra-e-no'so,  (ANTONIO  GARCIA,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Cabral  in  1623,  was  also  an  architect. 
He  died  at  Cordova  in  1677. 

Reinsberg,  von,  fon  rins'be'RG,  (!DA  von  Diirings- 
feld — fon  du'rings-fe'lt',)  BARONESS,  a  German  authoress, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1815.  She  has  written  many  tales 
and  novels,  which  are  said  to  display  a  rich  imagination 
and  much  knowledge  of  human  nature.  Among  them 
are  "Sketches  of  the  Great  World,"  (1845,)  "Antonio 
Foscarini,"  (1850,)  and  "Clotilda,"  (1855.) 

Reinwardt,  rln'waRt,  (CASPAR  GEORG  CARL,)  a 
naturalist,  born  at  Liittringhausen,  in  Germany,  in  1772. 


He  wrote  "Observations  on  the  Gold-Mines  and  Natural 
History  of  the  Moluccas."  Died  at  Leyden  in  1854. 

Reisch,  rlsh,  (GEORG,)  a  German  savant  and  ecclesi 
astic,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  confessor  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  He 
wrote  "Margarita  philosophica,"  ("Philosophic  Pearl," 
1496,)  often  reprinted. 

Reisen,  rl'zen,  (CHARLES  C.,)  an  able  engraver  of 
gems,  born  in  London  about  1695,  was  the  son  of  a 
Danish  artist.  Died  in  London  in  1725. 

Reiser,  (ANTON.)     See  MORITZ,  (KARL  PHILIPP.) 

Reiset,  de,  deh  ri'zi',  (MARIE  ANTOINE,)  VICOMTE, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Colmar  in  1775.  He  distin 
guished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Dresden,  (1813.)  Died 
in  1836. 

See  "  Notice  sur  Jacques  et  Antoine  de  Reiset,"  1851. 

Reisig,  ri'ziG,  (KARL  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  philolo 
gist,  born  at  Weissensee  in  1792.  lie  was  professor  of 
ancient  literature  at  Halle.  He  wrote  "  Vorlesnngen 
iiber  Lateinische  Sprachwissenschaft,"  (  "  Projections 
on  Latin  Philology.")  Died  at  Venice  in  1829. 

Reiske,  ns'keh,  (JoiiANN,)  a  German  teacher  and 
writer  on  various  subjects,  born  at  Gera  in  1641  ;  died 
in  1701. 

Reiske,  [Lat.  REIS'KIUS,]  (JOIIANN  JAKOB,)  a  Ger 
man  physician  and  Orientalist,  born  near  Leipsic  in 
1716.  At  the  University  of  Leipsic  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  study  of  Arabic,  and  subsequently  visited 
Leyden,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Burmann  and  other 
learned  men.  On  his  return  to  Leipsic  he  obtained 
the  title  of  professor  of  Arabic,  and  became  rector  of 
the  College  of  Saint  Nicholas.  Among  his  works  are 
Latin  translations  of  the  "Geography"  of  Abulfeda,  the 
"Moslem  Annals"  of  the  same  writer,  and  a  German 
translation  of  the  poems  of  Mootenabbee,  (Motenabbi,) 
(unpublished,)  also  editions  of  Theocritus,  (1766,)  "The 
Greek  Orators,"  (12  vols.,  1770-75,)  Plutarch's  Works, 
(12  vols.,  1774-79,)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  (6  vols., 
1 774-77,)  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  Died 
in  1774. 

His  wife,  ERNESTINE  CHRISTINE  MULI.ER,  born  near 
Wittenberg,  was  distinguished  for  her  love  of  learning, 
and  rendered  him  important  assistance  in  his  literary 
labours.  After  his  death  she  completed  several  of  his 
works.  She  also  published  a  work  entitled  "  Hellas," 
(2  vols.,  1778.)  Died  in  1798,  aged  about  sixty-three. 

See  Reiske's  Autobiography,  Leipsic,  1783;  S.  F.  N.  MORUS, 
"Vita  Reiskii,"  1777;  MEUSEI.,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland :"  HIR- 
SCHING,"  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Reiskius.     See  REISKE. 

Reissiger,  ri'sic-er,  (KARL  GOTTLIEB,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  near  Wittenberg  in  1798. 
He  was  appointed  first  chapel-master  at  Dresden  in 
1827.  He  composed  religious  music,  and  a  number 
of  operas,  among  which  are  "  Didone,"  (1823,)  and 
"  Turandot."  Died  in  1859. 

Reiz,  rits,  (FRIEDRICH  WOLFGANG,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Windsheim,  Franconia,  in  1733.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Leipsic  in  1782, 
and  edited  some  works  of  Aristotle,  Persius,  and  other 
classics.  Died  in  1790. 

Reiz  or  Reitz,  rits,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Braunfels  in  1695  >  cnec'  at  Utrecht 
in  1778.  • 

Reland,  ra'lant,  [Lat.  RELAN'DUS,]  (ADRIAAN,)  an  "^ 
eminent  Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Ryp,  near  Alkmaar,'* 
in  1676.    He  was  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities-/' 
as  well  as  in  many  Oriental  languages.     He  became  pra: 
fessor  of  Oriental  languages  and  ecclesiastical  historyJft 
Utrecht  in  1700.     His  principal  works  are  an  "  AccJJmt 
f  the  Moslem  Religion,"  ("  De  Religione  Mohamrrypica 
Libri   duo,"  1705,)  and  "  Palestine  illustrated  by  flKmu- 
ments,"  ("  Palestinaex  Monumentis  veteribus  illustrata," 
2  vols.,  1714,)  which  is  highly  commended.     He  died  at 
Utrecht  in  February,  1718. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  PAQUOT,  "Memoires;"  "  Nou- 
•el!e  Biographie  Generale ;"  SERRURIER,  "  Oratio  in  Obitum  A 
Relandi,"  1718. 

Reland,  (PIETER,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
magistrate  of  Haarlem.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mgt;  n8t;  good;  moon; 


RE  LAND  US 


1881 


REMT 


"Consular  Calendars,"  ("  Fasti  Consulares,")  published 
in  1715.  He  died  before  that  date. 

Relandus.     See  RELAND. 

Relhan,  rel'an,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
about  1755.  He  became  rector  of  Hunningsby,  Lin 
colnshire,  in  1791.  He  wrote  a  "  Flora  Cantabrigensis," 
(1785.)  Died  in  1823. 

Rellstab,  rel'stlp,  (LuowiG,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1799,  published  romances,  dramas, 
and  critical  essays.  Died  at  Berlin  in  1860. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1837. 

Rem-ber'tus,  [Ger.  pron.  re'm-b£R/tus,]  Archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  born  in  Flanders,  was  a  disciple  of  Ansgar. 
He  laboured  as  a  missionary  in  Denmark.  Died  in  888. 

Rembha.     See  RAMBHA. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn  or  Rijn,  ren/buant  vtn  rin, 
or  Rembrandt  Gerritz,  reWbRant  ner'rits,  (PAUL,) 
a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was 
born  on  the  Rhine,  near  Leyden,  June  15,  1606.  He  was 
a  son  of  a  miller  named  Hermann  Gerritz.  His  masters 
in  design  were  P.  Lastmann  and  Jacob  Pinus,  to  whom 
some  add  George  Schooten.  He  became  a  citizen  of 
Amsterdam  in  1630,  and  soon  acquired  celebrity  by  the 
originality  of  his  style,  formed  by  the  study  of  nature. 
In  1632  he  painted  "  The  Lecture  on  Anatomy  of  Dr. 
Tulp."  He  married  in  1634.  He  became  the  master 
of  a  numerous  school,  and,  it  is  said,  sold  the  copies 
painted  by  his  pupils  as  original  works,  after  he  had 
retouched  them.  His  biographers  represent  him  as 
avaricious,  and  some  of  them  affirm  that  he  contracted 
the  habits  of  a  miser  ;  but  this  charge  is  not  substantiated. 
He  derived  a  very  large  income  from  the  sale  of  his 
etchings,  the  fees  of  his  pupils,  and  the  sale  of  copies 
of  his  works  made  by  his  pupils  ;  yet  he  became  insol 
vent  in  1656. 

Rembrandt  was  a  brilliant  colorist,  and  a  consummate 
master  of  chiaroscuro.  He  imitated  the  effects  of  light 
with  great  success,  but  was  deficient  in  design  and  taste. 
He  neglected  or  despised  the  antique.  Among  his  cele 
brated  pictures  are  "Tobit  and  the  Angel  Raphael," 
"The  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  "The  Round  of  the 
Night,"  "The  Syndics  of  the  Merchant  Drapers,"  and 
a  portrait  of  himself  with  his  wife.  His  portraits  are 
by  some  critics  considered  more  admirable  than  his  his 
torical  works.  He  produced  a  great  number  of  etchings, 
some  of  which  command  enormous  prices,  (100  guineas 
each.)  As  an  engraver  in  aquafortis  he  has  never  been 
surpassed.  Among  his  engravings  are  a  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  "Christ  healing  the  Sick,"  "The  Raising 
of  Lazarus,"  and  portraits  of  Van  Coppenol  and  Van 
Thol.  He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  October,  1669. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Rembrandt,"  by  J.  BURN'ET,  1848  ;  P.  SCHELTE.MA, 
"  Redevoerin™  over  het  Leven  en  de  Verdiensten  van  Rembrandt 
van  Rijn,"  1853;  DF.SCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Fiamands,"  etc.  ; 
J.  IMMERZEEI,,  "  Lofrede  op  Rembrandt,"  1841;  NAGI.ER,  ';  Leben 
und  Werke  des  Malers  Rembrandt  von  Ryn,"  1843;  J.  REXOUVIER, 
"  Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des  Maitres-Graveurs  ;"  HOUBRAKEN, 
"Vies  des  Pcintres;"  DAULBV,  "Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the 
Works  of  Rembrandt,"  1796;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rembrantz,  rlm'bRants,   (THIERRY,)   a   Dutch   as 
tronomer,  born  near  the  Zuyderzee  about  1615;  died 
(  after  1677. 

Remer,  ra'mer,  QULIUS  AUGUST,)  a  German  historian, 
.  born  at  Brunswick  in  1736.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of 
.Universal  History,"  (3  vols.,  1783,)  which  was  received 
*  '-with  favour.  Died  in  1803. 

/'  Rerni,  ra'me,  or  Re-migl-us,  Archbishop  of  Rheims, 
Clovis  to  Christianity.     Died  in  533  A.D. 
or  Remigius,  a  French  prelate,  was  Arch- 
of  Lyons.     Died  in  875  A.D. 
i  (or  Remigius)  OF  AUXERRE,  a  French  monk, 
rote  on  theology  and  grammar.     He  is  said  to 
n  the  first  doctor  who  taught  publicly  in  Paris, 
fcut  908. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 
Remi,  ra'me',  (JOSEPH  HONORE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Remiremont  in  1738;  died  in  Paris  in  1782. 

Remigio,  ra-mee'jo,   (FlORENTiNO,)    an   Italian  Do 
minican  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  about  1518.     He 
translated    Ovid's    "Heroic    Epistles,"   and   Cornelius 
Nepos.     Died  in  1580. 
Remigius.     See  REMI. 


Remilly,  reh-me'ye',  (OviDE,)  a  French  politician, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1800.  He  was  elected  mayor  of 
Versailles  seven  times  between  1837  and  1855,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1839  to 

1848.  He  was  a  moderate  republican  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  of  1848. 

Remond,  ri'm6N',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in  1558;  died  at  Mantua  in 
1631. 

Remond,  de,  deh  ra'm6N',  written  also  Raemond, 
(Fi.ORiMOND,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Agen  about 
1540.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Heresy  in  this  Century,"  (1605.)  Died  in  1602. 

Rernond  de  Sainte-Albine,  ra'mix'  deh  saNt 
tl'ben',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1699. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Le  Comedien,"  (1747.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Remond  de  Saint-Mard,  ra'moN'  deh  sax  mf  R, 
(TOUSSAI.NT,)  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1682 ;  died  in  1757. 

Remondini,  ra-mon-dee'nee,  (BALDASSARE  MARIA,) 
an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bassano  in  1698,  was 
Bishop  of  Zante.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Antiqui 
ties  of  Zante,"  (1756.)  Died  in  1777. 

Remoriiio,  ri-mo-ree'no,  (GIOVANNI  PIETRO,  ) 
sometimes  improperly  written  Ramorino,  (JEROME,) 
an  Italian  general,  born  at  Genoa  about  1790.  He  com 
manded  a  division  of  the  Sardinian  army  at  Novara  in 

1849.  He  was  tried  for  disloyalty  by  a  military  court, 
and  shot,  in  May,  1849. 

Re'mus,  one  of  the  founders  of  Rome,  was  a  brother 
of  ROMULUS,  which  see. 

Remusat,  ra'mu'zS',  (JEAN  PIERRE  ABEL,)  an  emi 
nent  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  September, 
1788.  He  studied  medicine  in  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  his  father,  and  learned  the  Chinese  language 
without  a  teacher.  In  i8n  he  published  an  "Essay  on 
the  Chinese  Language  and  Literature."  He  obtained  an 
exemption  from  the  conscription  of  1813  by  the  influence 
of  his  friend  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and  became  professor  of 
Chinese  in  the  College  of  France  in  1814.  In  1822  he 
founded  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  "  Researches  into  the  Tartar  Languages," 
(1820,)  and  "  Elements  of  the  Chinese  Grammar,"  (1822.) 
"  This  vast  and  important  work,"  says  Henri  Thiers,  "  is 
the  true  monument  of  the  reputation  acquired  by  Abel 
Remusat."  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "Biographic 
Universelle."  Died  in  1832. 

See  SILVESTRE  DE  SACY,  "  filoge  d'Abel  Remusat;"  AMPERE, 
"Notice  sur  Abel  Remusat"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes," 
November  i,  1832,  and  November  15,  1833;  •"  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Remusat,  de,  deh  ra'mii'zi',  (AUGUSTE  LAURENT,) 
COUNT,  a  French  politician  and  advocate,  born  in 
Provence  in  1762.  He  became  first  chamberlain  of 
Napoleon  in  1804.  Died  in  1823. 

Remusat,  de,  (CHARLES,)  COUNT,  a  French  philoso 
pher  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  in  1830  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  con 
servatives.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  March 
to  October,  1840.  In  1842  he  published  "Essays  on 
Philosophy,"  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1846,  in  place  of 
Royer-Collard.  In  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  As 
semblies  of  1848  and  1849  he  voted  with  the  friends  of 
order,  (droite  moderee.)  He  has  been  a  frequent  con 
tributor  to  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  German  Philosophy,"  (1845,) 
"  Abelard,"  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "Bacon,  sa  Vie,  son 
Temps,"  etc.,  (1858.) 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Derniers Portraits  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Remusat,  de,  (CLAIRE  ELISABETH  JEANNE,)  COUNT 
ESS,  the  mother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1780.  She  was  a  companion  (dame  du  palais)  of  the 
empress  Josephine,  and  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Edu 
cation  of  Women,"  (1824.)  Died  in  1821. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Portraits  des  Femmes  celebres." 
Remy,   reh-me',    (JULES,)    a   French    traveller    and 
naturalist,  born  near   Chalons-sur-Marne   in  1826.     He 
spent  several  years  in  the  exploration  of  Brazil,  Peru, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REN  AN 


1882 


RENDU 


Chili,  the  Sandwich  Isles,  California,  Utah,  etc.  He 
has  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Journey  to  the 
Country  of  the  Mormons,"  (2  vols.,  1860,)  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Sandwich  Isles,"  (1862.) 

Renan,  reh-n6N',  (ERNEST,)  an  eminent  French 
writer,  Orientalist,  and  critic,  born  at  Treguier  (Cotes 
du  Nord)  in  1823.  He  began  to  study  for  the  priesthood, 
but  renounced  that  profession  because  lie  doubted  the 
truth  of  the  orthodox  creed.  He  displayed  much  learn 
ing  in  his  "General  History  of  the  Semitic  Languages," 
(1855,)  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
in  1856,  and  was  sent  to  Syria  in  1860  to  search  for  relics 
of  ancient  learning  and  civilization.  Soon  after  his  return 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  College  of 
France,  but  he  was  suspended  in  1862,  in  deference  to  the 
will  of  those  who  considered  him  unsound  in  faith.  He 
admits  the  excellence  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  dis 
credits  its  supernatural  origin  and  rejects  the  miracles. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Jesus,"  (1863,)  the  suc 
cess  of  which  is  attributed  partly  to  the  perfection  of  his 
style.  It  has  been  denounced  as  impious  by  several 
French  prelates.  Among  his  later  works  is  "  Histoire 
des  Origines  de  Christianisme,"  "The  Apostles,"  ("Les 
Apotres,"  1866,)  and  "Vie  de  Saint-Paul,"  (1869.)  "It 
is  not  easy,"  says  M.  de  Pressense,  "  to  grasp  the  He 
gelian  atheism  athwart  the  sensibilities,  the  lyric  and 
mystic  effusions,  the  prayers  to  the  Celestial  Father, 
which  abound  in  M.  Kenan's  books;  but  under  this 
unctuous  surface  is  soon  perceived  the  hollow  void, 
the  abyss  whence  we  have  emerged,  the  impersonal 
ideal  of  which  the  name  of  God  is  a  heavy  and  vulgar 
translation." 

See  SCHERER,  "Melanges;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1864:  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
No%-ember,  1861 ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October, 
1863,  and  October,  1866  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1866; 
"North  British  Review"  for  February,  1864. 

Renard,  reh-nf  R',  (JEAN  AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  archi 


tect,  bom  in  Paris  in  1744. 
was  patronized  by  the  kin 


He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
Among  his  works  was  the 


glass  roof  (comblc)  of  the  Salon  d  Exposition  of  the 
Louvre.  Died  in  1807. 

Renard,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  BRUNO,)  a  Belgian  military 
writer,  born  at  Tournai  in  1804.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Political  and  Military  History  of  Belgium,"  (2  vols., 
1847-51.) 

Renard,  (SiMON,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Vesoul,  in 
France,  entered  the  service  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who 
employed  him  as  an  ambassador.  He  was  an  enemy  of 
Cardinal  Granvelle.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1575. 

Renata.     See  RENEE. 

Reiiatus.     See  RK.NE. 

Renau  d'£li9agaray,  reh-no'  da'le'sf'glW,  (BER 
NARD,)  a  French  naval  officer  and  military  engineer, 
born  in  Beam  in  1652.  He  made  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  vessels,  and  invented  bomb-vessels  or 
mortar-boats,  (galiotcs,)  with  which  Algiers  was  bom 
barded  in  1680.  He  directed  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in 
1704,  in  the  service  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  He  published 
a  "Theorie  de  la  Manoeuvre  des  Vaisseaux,"  (1689.) 
Died  in  1719. 

See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV ;"  FONTENELLE,  "  E°loges ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Renaud.     See  REGNAUD. 

Reiiaudie,  de  la,  deh  If  reh-no'de',  (GODEFROI,)  a 
French  Huguenot,  was  the  leader  of  a  conspiracy  against 
the  family  of  Guise,  called  "  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise." 
The  design  having  been  betrayed,  he  was  killed  in  a 
fight  with  the  partisans  of  the  Guises,  in  1560.  . 

See  DAVILA,  "The  Civil  Wars  of  France;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Renaudiere,  La.     See  LA  RENAUDIERE. 

Reiiaudin,  reh-nS'daN',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Saintonge  in  1757.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  captain  of  Le  Vengeur  in  a  battle  against  the 


English  on  the  ist  of  June,  1794. 
in  this  action.     Died  in  1809. 


His  ship  was  sunk 


See  VAN  TEN-AC,  "  Histoire  de  la  Marine  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Renaudin,  (LEOPOLD,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1749,  was  a  partisan  of  Robespierre.  He 
was  guillotined  with  Fouquier-Tinville  in  1795. 


Renaudot,  reh-no'do',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  historian, 
jorn  at  Vesoul  about  1730,  wrote  "The  Revolutions 
of  Empires,"  (2  vols.,  1769,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1780. 

See  QUERARD.  "  La  France  Litteraire." 
Renaudot,  (EusEKE,)  ABBE,  a  French  Orientalist 
and  writer  on  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Church,  a 
grandson  of  Theophraste,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1646.  He  was  versed  in  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
languages.  In  1689  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"History  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Alexandria,"  (1713,) 
which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  work  on  the 
ecclesiastic  history  of  Christian  Egypt,  and  a  "  Col 
lection  of  Oriental  Liturgies,"  (2  vols.,  1716.)  Died 
in  1720. 

SeeNicKRON,  "  Memoires;"  MORERI,"  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Renaudot,  (THEOPHRASTE,)  a  French  physician  and 
journalist,  born  at  Loudun  in  1584,  was  the  grandfather 
of  the  preceding.  He  founded  in  1631  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  the  first  of  French  newspapers,  which  he 
continued  to  publish  in  Paris  until  his  death,  in  1653. 
After  his  death  it  was  published  by  his  sons,  Eusebe 
and  Isaac. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Renauldin,  reh-no'daN',  (LEOPOLD  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Nancy  in  1775.  He  served  as  phy 
sician  in  the  army  during  the  empire,  and  was  one  of 
the  consulting  physicians  of  King  Louis  Philippe.  He 
wrote  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  and  a 
"Sketch  of  the  History  of  Medicine,"  (1812.)  Died 
in  1859. 

See  SACHAILE,  "  Les  Medecins  de  Paris." 

Renazzi,  ra-nat'see,  (FILIPPO  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Rome  in  1742.  He  was  professor  of 
criminal  law  at  Rome  about  thirty-four  years.  He  pub 
lished  "Elements  of  Criminal  Law,"  (3  vols.,  1773-81,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  MONTANARI,  "Elogio  delPAvvocato  F.  M.  Renazzi,"  1836; 
CANCELLIERI,  "  Elogio  di  F.  M.  Renazzi,"  1819. 

Ren'del,  (JAMES  MEADOWS,)  an  English  civil  engi 
neer,  born  near  Dartmoor,  in  Devonshire,  in  1799.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  constructor  of  bridges,  clocks, 
harbours,  and  hydraulic  works.  He  settled  in  London 
in  1838.  Among  his  works  are  the  harbours  of  H 
head  and  Portland,  and  the  docks  at  Birkenhead 
1855  he  was  employed  by  the  senate  of  Hamburg  to 
protect  the  port  of  that  city  from  the  accumulation  of 
sand.  Died  in  November,  1856. 

Rendu,  rdN'dii',  (AMKROISE  MARIE  MODESTK,)  a 
Frenchman,  noted  as  the  organizer  of  primary  instruc 
tion  in  France,  was  born  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  council  of  the  university  in  1809,  and 
was  for  many  years  superintendent  of  primary  schools. 
He  v^rote  several  works  on  education,  morals,  etc.  Died 
in  1860. 

See  EUGENE  RENDU,  "Ambroise  Rendu  et  PUniversite'  de 
France,"  1861  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rendu,  (EUGENE,)  a  publicist,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1824.  He  has  written  on  educa 
tion,  and  on  the  political  relations  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany. 

Rendu,  (JEANNE  MARIE,)  called  SISTER  ROSALIE,  a 
French  nun  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Comfort  in  1787. 
She  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  eminent  for  her  charitable 
deeds.  Several  sovereigns  selected  her  as  the  dispenser 
of  their  alms.  Died  in  1856. 

See   EUGENE  RENDU,  "  Notice  sur 
1856;   VICOMTE   DE   MELUN, 
BESSIE  R.  PARKES,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Rendu,  (Louis,)  a  French  prelate  and  writer,  born 
at  Meyrin  in  1789,  was  a  first-cousin  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Annecy  in  1843.  He  wrote  sev 
eral  scientific  works,  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Influence 
of  Laws  on  Morals,  and  of  Morals  on  Laws,"  (1833.) 
Died  in  1859. 

Rendu,  (VICTOR,)  a  French  writer  on  rural  economy, 
born  in  Paris  about  1800,  is  a  son  of  Ambroise  Marie, 


oy- 
.     In 


Sceur  Rosalie  Rendu," 
de   la  So2ur   Rosalie," 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RENE 


1883 


RENOU 


noticed  above.     Tie   wrote   "Nouveau   Spectacle  de  la 
Nature,"  (10  vols.,  1839.) 

Rene,  reh-na',  [Lat.  RENA'TCS,]  OK  Axjou,  Duke  of 
Anjou  and  Lorraine,  King  of  Naples,  etc.,  called  "the 
good  King  Rene"  by  his  subjects,  was  born  in  1409. 
He  was  a  son  of  Louis  II.,  Duke  of  Anjou  and  Count  of 
Provence.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Louis  III.,  in  1434, 
and  by  the  will  of  Queen  Joanna,  who  died  in  1435, 
he  became  heir  to  the  throne  of  Naples.  This  throne, 
however,  was  claimed  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  who  drove 
Rene  out  of  Naples  in  1442  and  remained  master  of 
that  kingdom.  Rene  was  an  ally  of  Charles  VII.  of 
France  in  his  war  against  the  English.  He  found  recrea 
tion  in  art  and  literature;  he  was  a  painter  and  a  poet. 
His  daughter  Margaret  was  the  wife  of  Henry  VI.  of 
England.  He  died  in  1480,  after  which  Provence  was 
annexed  to  France. 


Reneaulme,  reh-ndm',  (  MICHEL  Lours,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Blois  about  1675.  He  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  charged  by 
his  colleagues  to  revise  and  publish  the  manuscripts  of 
Tournefort,  but  appears  not  to  have  performed  that  task. 
Died  in  1739. 

Reneaulme,  de,  deh  reh-nom',  (PAUL,)  a  French 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Blois  about  1560.  He 
published  "  Specimen  of  the  History  of  Plants,"  ("Speci 
men  Historian  Plantarum,"  1611.)  Died  in  1624. 

Renee,  [It.  RKNATA,  ri-na'ta,]  or  Renee  de  France, 
reh-na'  deh  fRSxss,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XII.,  was  born 
in  1510.  and  was  married  in  1527  to  the  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
She  was  eminent  for  talents  and  learning,  and  was  a 
liberal  pitron  of  literary  men.  She  was  converted  to 
Protestantism  by  Calvin  about  1535.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  (1559)  she  resided  in  France,  at  Mon- 
targis,  where  she  displayed  firmness  and  courage  in 
protecting  the  persecuted  Huguenots.  Died  in  1575 
or  1576. 

See  CATTEAU-CALI.EVIM.E,  "Vie  de  Renee  cle  France,"  17^1; 
MUXCH,  "  Renee  von  Est,"  1831  ;  "  Memorials  of  Renee  of  France, 
Duchess  of  Ferrara,"  London,  1855. 

Renee,  reh-na',  (AMEDEE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Caen  in  1808.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Sorbonne 
in  1849,  and  chief  editor  of  the  "Constitutionnel"  in 
1857.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Ge'ne'rale,"  and  published  several  works,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "The  Nieces  of  Mazarin,"  (2  vols.,  1856.) 
Died  in  November,  1859. 

Reni,  (Gumo.)     See  Guino. 

Renter,  reh-ne-i',  (CHARLES  ALPHOXSE  LEOX,)  a 
French  antiquary7""born  at  Charleville  (Ardennes)  in 
1809.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In 
scriptions  in  1856.  His  researches  in  Latin  inscriptions 
were  so  successful  that  a  chair  of  Roman  antiquities  and 
epigraphy  was  founded  for  him  at  Paris  in  1861.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Imperial  Society 
of  Antiquaries. 

Reiner,  ra-ne-aia',  (STEFANO  ANDREA,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Chioggia,  near  Venice,  in  1759.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  natural  history  at  Padua  in  1806. 
He  wrote  "Tables  of  Zoology,"  a  "Catalogue  of  Shell- 
Fish,"  (1802,)  and  "Elements  of  Mineralogy,"  (1825-28.) 
Died  in  1830. 

See  CALCAGNO,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  A.  Renier,"  1830. 

Renieri,  ra-ne-a'ree,  (VixcExzo,)  an  Italian  astron 
omer,  was  born  at  Genoa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Galileo, 
who,  when  his  sight  failed  in  1637,  committed  to  his  care 
some  observations  on  the  satellites  of  Jupiter.  Renieri 
published  these,  under  the  title  of  "Tabulae  Mediceae 
universales,"  (2  vols.,  1639-47.)  Died  at  Pisa  in  1648. 

Renkin,  (SWALM.)     See  RANNEQUIN. 

Remiefort,  de,  deh  ren'fok',  (URBAIN  SOUCHU,)  a 
French  traveller,  born  about  1630.  He  published  a 
"Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  Madagascar,"  (1668,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  East  Indies,"  (1688.) 

Rennel.     See  RENXELL. 

Reii'nell  or  Ren'nel,  (JAMES,)  a  British  engineer 
and  eminent  geographer,  was  born  near  Chudleigh,  in 
Devonshire,  in  1742.  As  an  engineer  of  the  East  India 


Company,  he  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Lord  Clive, 
obtained  the  rank  of  major,  and  became  surveyor-gene 
ral  of  Bengal.  Having  returned  to  England  about  1782, 
lie  published  an  excellent  map  of  Hindostan,  accom 
panied  by  a  Memoir,  (1783.)  He  was  elected  about 
1783  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  reputation 
was  widely  extended  by  "The  Geographical  System  of 
Herodotus  Examined  and  Explained,"  (1800,)  a  work  of 
great  merit.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Illustrations, 
chiefly  Geographical,  of  the  History  of  the  Expedition 
of  the  Younger  Cyrus  from  Sarclis  to  Babylon,  and  the 
Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,"  (1816,)  and  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Comparative  Geography  of  Western  Asia,"  with 
an  Atlas,  (1831.)  Died  in  London  in  1830. 

See  AVALCKENAER,  "Notice  *ur  !a  Vie  et  les  Ouvrac;es  de 
M.  Rennell,"  1842;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  1800. 

Rennell,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1718;  died  in  1788. 

Rennell,  (THOMAS,)  an  eloquent  English  preacher, 
born  in  1753.  He  became  Dean  of  Winchester  in  1805. 
It  is  said  that  William  Pitt  called  him  the  "Demos 
thenes  of  the  pulpit."  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
published.  Died  in  1840. 

Rennell  or  Reiinel,  (THOMAS,)  a  learned  English 
theologian,  born  at  Winchester  in  1787.  He  became 
vicar  of  Kensington  in  1816,  and  prebendary  of  Salis 
bury  in  1823.  He  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1824. 

Rermeville,  de,  deh  ren'veK,  (RENE  AUGUSTS  CON- 
STANTIX,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Caen  about  1650. 
He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  from  1702  to  1713,  on  a 
charge  that  he  was  a  spy.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Bastille,"  (1715,)  and  several  poems.  Died  in  1723. 

Rermie,  ren'ne,  (GEORGE,)  a  civil  and  mechanical 
engineer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1791,  was  a  son  of  John, 
I  noticed  below.  He  formed  a  partnership  with  his 
!  brother  John.  They  built  docks  at  Deptford,  Chatham, 
and  Plymouth,  the  East  and  West  India  Docks  at 
London,  the  harbour  of  Liverpool,  and  other  harbours. 
They  constructed  steam-engines  for  many  vessels-of- 
war  and  for  the  steamers  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Navigation  Company.  Among  their  works  are  several 
iron  ships,  the  dock-gates  of  Sebastopol,  and  a  number 
of  railroads.  George  Rennie  wrote  treatises  "  On  the 
Friction  of  Solids,"  and  "On  Hydraulics."  Died  in  1866. 

Rennie,  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  British  civil  engineer, 
architect,  and  mechanician,  born  at  Phantassie,  in  Had- 
dingtonshire,  Scotland,  in  June,  1761.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1782,  and  was  first  employed  in  the  fabri 
cation  of  steam-engines  and  other  machinery.  About 
1800  he  erected  a  fine  bridge  at  Kelso.  He  was  after 
wards  employed  as  engineer  of  many  public  works, 
among  which  are  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  the  South- 
wark  Bridge  over  the  Thames,  the  London  Docks,  the 
pier  at  Holyhead,  and  the  Waterloo  Bridge,  which  is 
considered  his  best  work  of  that  class.  It  was  finished 
about  1817.  Died  in  1821. 

See  SMILES,  "  Lives  of  the  Engineers  ;"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographi 
cal  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rennie,  (Sir  JOHX,)  F.R.S.,  a  younger  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1796.  He  was  architect  of 
the  London  Bridge,  which  was  finished  in  1831.  He 
ceased  to  be  a  partner  of  his  brother  in  1845,  after 
which  he  devoted  his  time  to  architecture. 

Ren'ni-ger,  written  also  Rhanger,  (MICHAEL,)  an 
English  clergyman  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Hampshire 
in  1529.  He  was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Queen  Eliza 
beth,  and  Archdeacon  of  Winchester.  Died  in  1609. 

Re'no,  (JESSE  L.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir 
ginia  in  1825,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
became  a  captain  in  1860.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
of  the  Union  army  at  Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern, 
March,  1862.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  major-gene 
ral  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30 
of  the  same  year.  He  rendered  important  services  at 
South  Mountain,  where  he  was  killed,  September  14, 
1862. 

Renou,  reh-noo',  (AXTOIXE,)  a  French  painter  and 
versifier,  born  in  Paris  in  1731.  He  translated  Dufres- 


e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;^-zs,j;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.      (£^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RENOUARD 


1 884 


RESENDE 


noy's  Latin  poem  on  Painting,  (1789,)  and  Tasso's  "Je 
rusalem  Delivered."  Died  in  1806. 

Renouard,  reh-noo'ta',  (ANTOINE  AUGUSTIN,)  a 
French  bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1765,  was  a  book 
seller.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Annals  of 
the  Printing-Press  of  Aldus,  or  a  History  of  the  Three 
.  Manutii  and  their  Editions,"  (1803,)  and  a  "  History  of 
the  Family  of  Estienne  (Stephanus)  and  of  their  Edi 
tions,"  (1838.)  Died  in  1853. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litte'raire." 

Renouard,  ( AUGUSTIN  CHARLES,)  an  advocate,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1794.  He  became  a 
peer  of  France  in  1846.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on 
the  Rights  of  Authors  in  Literature,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1838,) 
and  other  works. 

Renouard,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  translator,  born  in 
Berry,  lived  about  1615-40.  He  produced  a  version 
of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  (1615,)  which  was  very 
popular. 

Renouvier,  reh-noo've-i',  (CHARLES  BERNARD,)  a 
French  writer  on  politics  and  philosophy,  born  in  1815, 
joined  the  radical  party.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Manual  of  Ancient  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  and 
"  Essays  of  General  Criticism,"  ("  Essais  de  Critique 
generale,"  1854.) 

Renouvier,  (JULES,)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1804.  He  was  a  republican  member  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848,  and  an  opponent  of 
Louis  Napoleon  in  1850.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Notes  on  the  Gothic  Monuments  of  Pisa,  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Naples,"  (1841,)  and  a  valuable  treatise  on 
engraving,  entitled  "  Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des 
Maitres-Graveurs,"  (4  parts,  1853-56.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge^ie'rale." 

Reii'shaw,  (WILLIAM  B.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York  State,  entered  the  navy  in  1831.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1841,  and  a  commander  in  1861. 
In  the  latter  part  of  1862  he  obtained  command  of  a 
squadron  which  blockaded  Galveston.  He  blew  up 
his  ship,  which  had  run  aground  near  Galveston,  rather 
than  surrender  it,  and  was  killed  by  the  explosion,  in 
January,  1863. 

See  TENNEV,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Renti  or  Renty,  de,  deh  r6N'te',  (GASTON  JEAN 
BAPTISTE,)  BARON,  a  French  ascetic,  born  near  Bayeux 
in  1611,  was  noted  for  piety.  Died  in  1648. 

See  P.  DE  SAINT-JURE,  "Vie  de  M.  de  Renty,"  1651.  (This 
was  abridged  by  JOHN  WESLEY.) 

Renty,  de.     See  RENTI,  DE. 

Renucci,  ra-noot'chee,  (FRANCESCO  OTTAVIANO,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  in  Corsica  in  1767.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Corsica  from  1789  to  1830,"  (1834.)  Died 
in  1842. 

Renusson,  de,  dehreh-nii'soN',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Mans  in  1632 ;  died  in  1669.  The  French 
biographer  who  gives  the  dates  as  above  says,  "  At  the 
age  of  forty-nine  he  passed  for  one  of  the  ablest  jurists." 

Ren'wick,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  preacher,  called  a 
martyr  of  the  Covenant,  was  born  in  Dumfries -shire 
about  1662.  He  was  an  active  and  uncompromising 
promoter  of  the  cause  of  the  Covenanters.  He  was 
executed  in  1688. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ren'wick,  (JAMES,)  LL.D.,  an  American  savant, 
born  in  1792,  became  in  1820  professor  of  chemistry  and 
physics  at  Columbia  College,  New  York.  He  published 
"Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,"  (1830,)  "Outlines 
of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1832,)  "Outlines  of  Geology," 
(1838,)  a  "Memoir  of  De  Witt  Clinton,"  (1840,)  and 
Lives  of  Robert  Fulton,  David  Rittenhouse,  and  Count 
Rufnford,  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography."  Died  in 
New  York  in  1863. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Renzi,  ren'zee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Castelsalfi  in  1780.  He  edited  the  works 
of  Dante,  Ariosto,  and  Petrarch.  Died  in  1823. 

Repelaer  van  Driel,  ra'peh-ltR'  vSn  dReel,  (OK- 
K.ER,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Dort  in  1759;  died 
in  1832. 


Repfold,  re"p'folt,(JoHANN  GEORG,)  a  German  mecha 
nician,  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  in  1770,  became 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  his  astronomical  and  other 
instruments.  Died  in  1830. 

Repuin,  r£p-nen'  or  r£p-neen',  written  also  Repnine, 
(NICHOLAS  VASILIEVITCH,)  PRINCE,  a  Russian  general 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  1734,  was  a  nephew  of  Count 
Panin.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Poland  in  1764, 
and  gave  much  offence  to  the  Poles  by  his  arrogance 
and  by  his  efforts  to  destroy  their  nationality.  In  1774 
he  signed  with  the  Turkish  vizier  the  treaty  of  Koutchouk- 
Kainardji.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Ukraine,  he  defeated  the  Turks  at  Matzin  in  1791. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1796. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Repp,  rep,  (THORLEIF  GUDMUNDSSON,)  an  Icelandic 
linguist,  born  at  Reykiadal  in  1794.  He  was  versed  in 
nearly  all  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  and  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  About  1825  he  became 
under-Iibrarian  of  the  Advocates'  Library  of  Edinburgh. 
He  removed  to  Copenhagen  in  1837.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Historical  Treatise  on  the  Trial  by  Jury,"  in  Eng 
lish,  (1832,)  and  "Dano-Hungarian  Discoveries,"  (1843.) 

See  ERSI.EW,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Rep'toii,  (HUMPHRY,)  an  English  landscape-gardener, 
born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in  1752.  He  was  a  mer 
chant  in  his  youth,  but,  having  failed  in  business,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  landscape-gardener,  in  which 
he  found  little  or  no  competition.  He  was  author  of 
"Sketches  and  Hints  on  Landscape-Gardening,"  (1795,) 
and  other  professional  works.  Died  in  1818. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Requeiio  y  Vives,  ra-ka'no  e  vce'ves,  (ViNCENCio,) 
a  Spanish  antiquary  and  writer  on  fine  arts,  was  born  at 
Granada  about  1730.  (Another  writer  says  he  was  born 
at  Calatraho  in  1743.)  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome 
about  1767.  lie  produced  a  treatise  on  ancient  painting, 
entitled  "  Essay  on  the  Restoration  of  Ancient  Art," 
("  Saggio  sul  Ristabilimento  dell'antica  Arte,"  etc.,  1784.) 
Died  about  1805. 

Requesens,  ra-ka-sens',  (Luis  DK  Zuniga — thoon- 
yee'ga,)  a  Spanish  commander,  born  in  1522.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  as  lieutenant  of  Don  John  of  Austria 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  and  succeeded  the  Duke  of 
Alva  in  1573  as  Governor  of  the  Netherlands,  the  people 
of  which  were  then  in  arms  against  the  Spanish  domi 
nation.  His  army  gained  a  victory  over  Louis  of  Nassau 
near  Nymwegen  ;  but  this  advantage  was  neutralized  by  a 
mutiny  of  the  Spaniards.  While  his  army  was  besieging 
Ziriczee,  he  died,  in  1576.  lie  was  an  able  general,  and 
inclined  to  moderation  in  the  use  of  power. 

See  MOTLEY'S  "  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Requier,  reh-ke-i',  ?  (AUGUSTUS  JULIAN,)  an  Ameri 
can  politician  and~writer,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1825.  On  the  secession  of  Alabama,  in  1861, 
he  was  appointed  district  attorney  for  the  southern 
district  of  that  State.  He  has  written  several  poems 
and  dramas. 

Requier,  reh-keji',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  writer 
and  translator,  borrTat  Pignans  in  1715  ;  died  in  1799. 

Requin,  reh-kax',  (Acmi.LE  PIERRE,)  a  French  medi 
cal  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1803  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1855. 

Reresby,  reers'be,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  loyalist 
and  member  of  Parliament,  wrote  "  Memoirs  containing 
several  Private  and  Remarkable  Transactions  from  the 
Restoration  to  the  Revolution  inclusively,"  (1734.) 

See  "  Memoires  de  Sir  John  Reresby,"  Paris;  "Monk's  Con 
temporaries,"  by  GUIZOT;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  viii.,  (1823.) 

Resbecq,  de,  deh  r£s'beV,  (ADOLPHE  CHARLES 
THEODOSE  FONTAINE,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lille 
in  1813.  He  published  many  juvenile  books. 

Reschid.     See  RKSHEED. 

Resende,  de,  da  ra-sSn'da,  (GARCIA,)  a  Portuguese 
historian,  born  at  Evora  about  1470.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  John  II.,"  (1545.)  Died  in  1554. 

Resende,  de,  (L.  ANDREA,)  a  Portuguese  antiquary 
and  poet,  born  at  Evora  in  1498.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Antiquities  of  Portugal,"  ("  Antiquitates 
Lusitaniae,"  1593.)  He  opened  a  school  at  Evora,  in 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  t,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


RES  EN  JUS 


1885 


REUCHLIN 


which  many  eminent  scholars  were  educated.  According 
to  M.  Weiss,  he  was  "the  restorer  of  learning  in  Por 
tugal."  Died  in  1573. 

Resenius,  ra-sa'ne-us,  (JoHAN  PAUL,)  a  Danish  theo 
logian,  born  in  Jutland  about  1560.  He  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  translated  the  Bible 
into  Danish.  Died  in  1638. 

Resenius,  (PETER,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1625.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
in  the  University  of  that  city  in  1662.  He  published 
"  Copenhagen  Inscriptions,  Latin,  Danish,  and  German," 
("  Inscriptiones  Hafnienses,  Latinae,  Danicae  et  Germa- 
nicse,"  1668,)  and  some  legal  works.  Died  in  1688. 

See  XICERON,  "Memoires." 

Resheed  (or  Reschid)  Pasha,  reh-sheed'  pa'sha', 
called  also  Mustafa  (moos'ta-fa)  Resheed,  a  Turkish 
grand  vizier  and  reformer,  born  at  Constantinople  about 
1 800,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Alee  Pasha.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  pasha  in  1834,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Paris  and  London.  He  was  grand  vizier  for  a  short 
time  in  1837,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1839,  and  afterwards  ably  and  constantly 
promoted  the  political  and  social  reforms  begun  by 
Mahmood  II.  Died  in  1858. 

Resnel  du  Bellay,  du,  clii  ri'nel'  dii  bill',  (JEAN 
FRANCOIS,)  ABBE,  a  French  poet  and  translator,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1692,  became  canon  of  a  church  in  Paris  in 
1724.  He  produced  poetical  versions  of  Pope's  "  Essay 
on  Criticism"  (1730)  and  "Essay  on  Man,"  (1737,)  in 
which,  it  is  said,  he  was  aided  by  Voltaire.  He  was  ad 
mitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1742.  Died  in  1761. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Restaurand,  reVto'rox',  (RAYMOND,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Pont  Saint-Esprit  about  1627  ; 
died  in  1682. 

Restaut,  res'tS',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  grammarian  and 
advocate,  born  at  Beauvais  in  1696.  He  wrote  an  ele 
mentary  "Treatise  on  French  Giammar,"  (1730,)  which 
the  University  adopted  as  classic.  Died  in  1764. 

Restout,  fes'too',  (JEAN,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1692,  was  a  pupil  and  nephew  of  Jouvenet. 
His  works  were  more  admired  by  his  contemporaries 
than  they  are  now.  Died  in  1768. 

Restout,  (JEAN  BERNARD,)  a  painter,  born  in  Paris 
in  1732,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  gained  the 
lirst  prize  in  1758,  after  which  he  studied  at  Rome. 
Died  in  1796. 

Rethel,  ra/tel,  (ALFRED,)  an  eminent  German  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He 
studied  at  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf,  and  there  painted 
"  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  and  a  picture  of  "  Nemesis," 
both  of  which  were  greatly  admired.  About  1840  he 
removed  to  Frankfort.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a 
series  of  frescos  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  representing  the 
exploits  of  Charlemagne,  and  "The  Passage  of  the  Alps 
by  Hannibal."  He  was  an  excellent  designer.  His  last 
years  were  passed  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1859. 

Reti.     See  RATI. 

Retif  or  Restif  de  la  Bretonne,  ra'tef'  deh  It  bReh- 
ton',  (XiCOLAS  EDME,)  a  prolific  and  licentious  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  near  Auxerre  in  1734;  died  poor, 
in  Paris,  in  1806. 

Rettberg,  ret'beRO,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian  and  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg, 
born  at  Celle  in  1805.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Eccle 
siastical  History  of  Germany,"  (1846.)  Died  in  1849. 

Retz,  riss,  (N.,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  at 
Arras.  He  obtained  the  title  of  physician  to  the  king 
about  1790.  Died  about  1810. 

Retz,  de,  deh  riss,  (ALBERT  de  Gondi — deh  goN'- 
de',)  a  French  courtier  and  general,  born  at  Florence  in 
1522,  was  a  grandfather  of  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  be 
came  a  favourite  of  Charles  IX.,  and  was  one  of  the 
instigators  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 
Died  in  1602. 

See  BRANT6ME,  "Grands  Capitaines ;"  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire 
Historique. " 

Retz,  de,  (GiLLES.)     See  RAIS. 

Retz,  rets,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  riss,]  (JEAN  FRANCOIS 
PAUL  DE  GONDI,)  CARDINAL,  an  ambitious  French  prel 
ate,  distinguished  for  his  talents  and  factious  intrigues, 


was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Montmirail  in  1614.  He 
attempted,  by  debaucheries  and  scandalous  actions,  to 
frustrate  the  purpose  of  his  family,  who  destined  him 
for  the  church.  He  studied,  however,  with  ardour, 
gained  distinction  as  a  disputant,  and  courted  popularity 
by  profuse  donations  to  the  poor.  In  1643  he  was 
nominated  coadjutor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who 
was  his  uncle.  The  civil  war  of  the  Fronde,  which 
began  in  1649,  afforded  him  an  opportunity  to  gratify 
his  ambition  to  be  the  chief  of  a  party.  He  became 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Frondeurs,  but  is  said  to  have 
opposed  the  more  violent  tendencies  of  that  faction. 
He  was  nominated  a  cardinal  by  the  queen-regent,  who 
wished  to  conciliate  him.  Mazarin  having  recovered 
his  power  in  Paris,  De  Retz  was  arrested  in  December, 
1652,  and  confined  at  Vincennes.  He  was  transferred 
to  the  chateau  of  Nantes,  from  which  he  escaped  in 
1654.  He  went  to  Rome  and  took  part  in  the  election 
of  a  new  pope.  After  he  had  passed  some  years  in  the 
Low  Countries,  he  was  permitted  to  return  to  France. 
He  paid  his  debts,  which  were  very  large,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  retirement.  It  appears  that  his  moral 
character  was  somewhat  reformed  after  his  imprison 
ment.  He  died  in  1679,  leaving  some  interesting  "  Me 
moires,"  (1717,)  which  have  been  translated  into  English. 
"Their  animated  style,"  says  Hallam,  "their  excellent 
portraitures  of  character,  their  acute  and  brilliant  re 
marks,  distinguish  their  pages  as  much  as  the  similar 
qualities  did  their  author."  "They  are  written,"  says 
Voltaire,  "with  an  air  of  greatness,  an  impetuosity,  and 
an  inequality  which  are  the  image  of  his  life." 

See  "  Memoires  du  Cardinal  de  Ret?.."  first  printed  in  3  vols., 
1717;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  MUSSET-  PATHAY, 
"  Recherches  historiqnes  sur  le  Cardinal  de  Retz,"  1807,  and  4  vols., 
1859;  English  translation  of  Retz's  "Memoires,"  1723;  SAINTB- 
BEUVE,  "  Canseries  da  Lundi  :"  MICHEI.ET,  "  Histoire  de  France  ;" 
SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Francais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Retzius,  ret'se-us,  (ANDERS  JOHAN,)  a  Swedish  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Christianstadt  in  1742,  was  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus.  He  became  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Lund  in  1777,  and  published  a  good  work  on  the  plants 
of  Sweden,  Norway,  etc.,  entitled  "Florae  Scandinavian 
Prodromus,"  (1779.)  His  treatise  on  botany,  "  Obser- 
vationes  botanicae,"  (1779-91,)  is  called  his  capital  work. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  GEZEI.IUS,  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Retzius,  (ANDERS  OLOFor  ADOLF,)  a  Swedish  phy 
sician,  born  at  Lnnd  in  1796,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Lund  about  1824. 
He  wrote  important  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
history.  Died  at  Stockholm  in  1860. 

Retzius,  (MAGNUS  CHRISTIAN,)  an  able  medical 
writer,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lund 
about  1794.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Stockholm  about  1820. 

Retzsch,  i-e"tsh,  (MoRirz,)  an  eminent  German  de 
signer  and  painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1779.  He  studied 
at  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  that  city,  where  he  became 
professor  of  painting  in  1824.  His  etchings  illustrating 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  published  in  1812,  established  his 
reputation  both  in  Germany  and  other  countries.  They 
were  followed  by  illustrations  of  Schiller  and  Shakspeare, 
of  Burger's  "  Lenore"  and  "  Ballads,"  and  other  popular 
works.  As  a  portrait-painter,  also,  Retzsch  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  was  pre-eminent  as  an  original  designer 
in  outline  among  the  artists  of  his  time  :  his  illustra 
tions  of  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  in  particular,  have  probably 
never  been  surpassed  by  any  works  of  the  kind.  Died 
at  Dresden  in  1857. 

See  NAGI.ER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler- Lexikon  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828,  October,  1833,  and  October, 
1836. 

Reubell.     See  REWBELL. 

Reu'ben,  [Heb.  pixi  ;  Fr.  RUBEN,  rii'bSN',]  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob,  was  the  an 
cestor  of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

See  Genesis  xxix.  32,  xxxv.  22,  and  xxxvii. 

Reuchlin,  roiK-leen'JLat.  REUCHLI'NUS,]  Hellenized 
as  Capnio,  kap'ne-o,  (TOHANN,)  an  eminent  German 
writer,  born  at  Pforzheim  in  1455.  He  became  an 
excellent  Greek  and  Latin  scholar,  and  studied  law  at 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REUCHLINUS 


1886 


REWBELL 


Orleans.  He  was  patronized  by  Eberhard,  Duke  of 
WUrtemberg,  who  employed  him  as  secretary.  Having 
accompanied  Eberhard  to  Rome,  he  became  acquainted 
with  Politian  and  other  eminent  Italian  literati.  He 
resided  mostly  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  was  appointed 
assessor  of  the  supreme  court  about  1484.  He  was  sub 
jected  to  persecution  because  he  opposed  a  proposition 
to  burn  all  Hebrew  books  except  the  Bible,  and  was 
involved  in  a  long  controversy  with  the  monks  and  bigots 
on  this  subject.  He  defended  his  opinions  in  relation 
to  Hebrew  books  in  his  "Ocular  Mirror,"  ("Speculum 
Oculare,"  1511.)  Between  1518  and  1522  he  taught 
Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Ingolstadt  and  Tubingen.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  and  several  other  works. 
lie  contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  classical  learning. 
Died  at  Stuttgart  in  1522. 

See  MEI.ANCHTHON,  "  Historic  Renchlini,"  1552;  J.  H.  MAJUS, 
"Vita  Reuchlini,"  1687;  MAYERHOFF,  •' Reuclihn  und  seine  Zeit, 
1830;  LAMEV,  "Johann  Reiichlin,"  iS;s  :   F.  BARUAM,  "Lite  and 
Times  of  Reucliiin,"  1X43;  GABI.KR,  "  Dissertatio  cle  J.  Reiichlmo, 
1822;  M.  ADAM,  "Vita  Philosophorum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate." 

Reuchlinus.     See  RKUCHLIN. 

Reuilly,  rul/ye',  (JHAN,)  a  French  traveller,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1780.  He  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea 
in  1803,"  (1806.)  Died  at  Pisa  in  1810. 

Reumont,  von,  fon  roi'mont,  (Ai.FRF.n,)  a  German 
diplomatist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1 808,  was  employed  on  missions  to  Florence  and  Rome. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  Italian  history  and  art,  among 
which  are  "  Roman  Letters,"  ("  Romische  Briefe,"  4  vols., 
1840-44,)  and  "Bcnvenuto  Cellini,"  (1846.) 

Reusner,  rois'ner,  [Lat.  REUSNE'RUS,]  (NiKOLAUS,) 
a  German  poet  and  jurist,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Silesia,  in 
1545.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Strasburg  and  at  Jena. 
He  published  numerous  poems  and  treatises  on  law. 
Died  at  Jena  in  1602. 

See  JOHANN  WKITZ,  "Vita  N.  Reusneri,"  1603  ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Ge'nerale." 

Reuss,  roiss,  (EDUARD  WILHELM  EUGEN,)  a  Prot 
estant  theologian,  born  at  Strasburg.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  Christian  Theology  in  the  Apostolic  Age,"  (in 
French,)  and  other  works. 

Reuter,  roi'ter,  (  FRITZ,  )  a  distinguished  German 
poet,  born  at  Stavenhagen,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
November  7,  1810.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Ros 
tock,  and  in  1832  went  to  Jena,  where  he  joined  the 
Biirschenschaft*  (the  association  of  German  students,) 
ami  the  next  year  was  arrested  in  Prussia  and  con 
demned  to  death ;  but  the  sentence  was  commuted  to 
thirty  years'  imprisonment.  He  was,  however,  released 
in  i8'40,  having  been  included  in  the  general  amnesty. 
He  has  written,  in  the  Low  German  ( Plattdeutsch) 
dialect,  various  poems,  comedies,  and  novels,  which  are 
much  admired.  Among  his  works  are  "  Lauschen 
un  Riemels,"  (1853;  3d  edition,  1856,)  "  Polterabendge- 
dichte,"  (1855,)  "  Reise  na  Belligen,"  (1855,)  a  poetical 
romance,  "  Bliicher  in  Treptow,"  etc.,  (1857,)  a  comedy, 
"Kein  Hiisung,"  (1858,)  a  poem,  and  "Olle  Kamellen," 
(1860,)  a  novel. 

See  PIERER,  "Universal-Lexikon." 

Reuter,  ( JULIUS,)  a  German,  born  about  1815,  gained 
distinction  as  the  institutor  of  a  telegraphic  system.  He 
was  the  first  who  furnished  telegrams  of  political  or 
general  news  to  the  public  journals  of  Europe.  He 
established  his  office  in  London  in  1851. 

Reuterdahl,  roi'ter-dal',  (HENRIK,)  a  Swedish  theo 
logian,  born  at  Malmo  in  1795.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Lund  in  1844.  Among  his  works 
are  an  "Introduction  to  Theology,"  (1837,)  and  a  "His 
tory  of  the  Swedish  Church,"  (1838  et  seq.}_ 

Reuven,  ruh'ven,  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1650;  died  in  1718. 

Reuvens,  roi'vens,  (CASPAR  JACOB  CHRISTIAN,)  a 
Dutch  antiquary,  born  at  the  Haeue  in  1793.  He 
became  professor  of  history  and  archaeology  at  Leyden 


*  The  Bnrschenschaft  was  very  obnoxious  to  the  government  on 
account  of  its  political  character,  and  also  on  account  of  some  of  its 
overt  acts.  It  was  as  a  member  of  the  Burschenschaft  that  Sand 
assassinated  Kotzebue,  who  had  shown  himself  a  determined  enemy 
of  the  association. 


in  1818,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.     Died 
in  1837. 

See  LEEMANS,  "  Epistola  de  Vita  Reuvensii,"  1838. 

Reuvens,  (JAN  EVKRAARD,)  an  eminent  Dutch  jurist, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1763,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  a  counsellor  of  the  supreme  court  at  Paris 
about  1810,  and  was  author  of  the  criminal  code  of  Hol 
land.  Died  in  1816. 

Revay,  ra'voi,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  Hungarian  poet  and 
philologist,  born  in  1751.  He  was  professor  of  litera 
ture  at  Pesth.  Died  in  1807. 

Reveille-Parise,  ra'va'ya'  ps'rez',  (JOSEPH  HENRI,) 
a  French  medical  writer,  born  at  Nevers  in  1782.     He 
practised    in    Paris,    and    wrote,    besides    other    works, 
"Researches  on  the  Physique,  Habits,  and  Diseases  of 
Literary  Men,"  (1834,)  which  gained  the  Montyon  prize 
in  1835  and  is  called  a  model  treatise.     Died  in  1852. 
See  CAI.LISEN,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
Revel,  reh-veK,  (GABRIEL,)  a  French   painter,  born 
at  Chateau-Thierry  in  1643  ;  died  in  1712. 

Rev'e-ley,  (WiLLEY,)  an  English  architect  and  an 
tiquary.  According  to  several  authorities,  he  completed 
the  "Antiquities  of  Athens,"  left  unfinished  by  Stuart. 
Died  in  1799. 

Revelliere-Lepaux.     See  LAREVEILLERE. 
Rever,  reh-va',  (MARIE  FRANQOIS  GILLES,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Dol  in  1753  ;  died  in  1828. 

Reve'rchoii,  reh-vek'shoN',  (JACQUES,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  1746,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
(1792-95,)  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
Council  of  Elders.  Died  in  1828. 

Revere,  ra-va'ra,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Trieste  in  1812.  He  published  between  1829  and 
1840  four  dramas,  which  were  popular,  and  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "  Lorenzo  de'  Medici."  He  has  also  written 
some  sonnets. 

Revere,  re-veer',  (PAUL.)  an  American  patriot  of 
the  Revolution,  and  one  of  the  earliest  American  en 
gravers,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1735.  Among  his  best 
prints  are  "The  Seventeen  Rescinders,"  and  "The 
Boston  Massacre."  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
destruction  of  the  tea  in  Boston  harbour,  and  was  con 
spicuous  for  his  patriotism  in  the  political  movements 
of  the  time.  His  midnight  expedition  to  Concord,  to 
give  notice  of  the  intended  attack  of  General  Gage, 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  the  poems  in  Longfellow's 
"  Wayside  Inn."  Died  in  1818. 

Revere,  (PAUL  JOSEPH,)  COLONEL,  an  officer,  born 
in  Boston  in  1832,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  severely  wounded  at  Antietam,  September,  1862, 
and  was  killed  at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863. 

See  P.  C.  HEADI.EY,  "Massachusetts  in  the  Rebellion,"  p.  634. 
Reveroni,  ra-va-ro'nee,  (JACQUES  ANTOTNE,)  a  French 
military  engineer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1767.    He  wrote  sev 
eral  dramas,  novels,  and  military  works.     Died  in  1828. 
Reves,  de,  deh  ra'ves,  [Lat.   RE'VHJS,]    (JAKOB,)   a 
Dutch  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Deventer  in  1586.    He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden  about  1640,  and 
wrote  several  works.     Died  in  1658. 

Rev'ett,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English  antiquary  and  archi 
tect,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1722.  In  company  with 
James  Stuart,  he  went  to  Greece  about  1750  and  spent 
two  years  in  exploring  and  delineating  the  ruins  of 
Athens.  He  was  a  partner  of  Stuart  in  the  important 
work  entitled  the  "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  (3  vols., 
1762,  1790,  1794.)  He  also  produced,  with  Chandler, 
"Ionian  Antiquities,"  (1769.)  After  his  return  to  Eng 
land  he  practised  as  an  architect.  Died  in  1804. 

Reviczky,  ra'vits-ke,  ?  (KARL  EMERICH,)  COUNT  OF, 
a  Hungarian  linguist  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1737.     He 
published  an  edition  of  Petronius,  (1784,)  and  a  Cata 
logue  of  his  own  library,  (Berlin,  1784.)     Died  in  1793. 
Revius.     Sec  REVES,  ( JAKOB.) 

Revoil,  reh-vwal',  (PIERRE  HENRI,)  a  French  painter 
of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Lyons  in  1776,  was  a  pupil 
of  David.  He  was  professor  of  design  in  the  Academy 
of  Lyons.  He  composed  songs  and  other  verses  with 
some' success.  Died  in  1842. 

Rewbell  or  Reubell,  ruh'bel',  QEAN  BAPTTSTE,)  a 
French  republican  and  Director,  born  at  Colmar,  near 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


RET 


1887 


RETNOLDS 


the  Rhine,  about  1746.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con 
stituent  Assembly  and  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
mostly  voted  with  the  radicals  ;  but  after  the  gth  Ther- 
miclor  he  became  an  opponent  of  the  Jacobins.  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory,  and  assumed 
control  of  foreign  affairs.  He  acted  with  the  victorious 
party  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  i8th  Fructidor,  1797,  and  was 
dismissed  from  office  by  lot  in  May,  1799.  Died  in  1807. 
See  DK  BARAN-TE,  "  Histoire  du  Directoire ;"  THIERS,  "History 
of  the  French  Revolution." 

Rey,  ri,  (ANTOINE  GABRIEL  VENANCE,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1768.  He  became  a  gene 
ral  of  division  in  1793  or  1794,  and  commanded  with 
success  in  several  actions  in  Spain  between  1808  and 
1813.  Died  in  1836. 

Rey,  (Gun.i.AUME,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  in 
1687,  practised  in  Lyons.  Died  in  1756. 

Rey,  (JEAN,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist,  born 
at  Bugue,  in  Perigord.  He  published  in  1630  "Essays 
to  ascertain  the  Cause  why  Tin  and  Lead  increase  in 
Weight  when  they  are  calcined."  He  maintains  that 
this  increase  is  the  result  of  a  combination  of  the  metal 
with  atmospheric  air.  Died  about  1645. 

Rey,  (JEAN,)  a  French  writer  and  manufacturer,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1773.  He  substituted  the  forms  of 
flowers  for  the  fantastic  designs  of  the  Orientals  in  the 
fabrication  of  Cashmere  shawls.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Histoire  des  Chales,"  (1823.)  Died  in  1849. 

Rey,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  composer,  born  in 
1734,  became  director  of  the  emperor's  chapel  in  1804. 
Died  in  1810. 

Rey,  (JOSEPH  AUGUSTE,)  a  French  writer  on  law, 
education,  etc.,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1794.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Social  Science," 
(3  vols.,  1842.) 

Reybaud,  ri'bo',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1800,  was  a  brother  of  Marie  Roch 
Louis,  noticed  below. 

Reybaud,  (HENRIETTE  Arriaud,)  a  French  novel 
ist,  born  at  Aries  about  1800,  became  the  wife  of  the 
preceding. 

Reybaud,  (MARIE  ROCH  Louts,)  a  popular  French 
author,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1799.  He  began  life  as 
a  merchant,  and  settled  in  Paris  about  1830.  In  1841 
he  gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy 
(5000  francs)  for  his  "  Studies  on  Modern  Reformers 
or  Socialists,"  (2  vols.,  1840-43.)  His  most  original 
and  popular  work  is  a  novel  called  "Jerome  Paturot  in 
Search  of  a  Social  Position,"  (3  vols.,  1843.)  He  has 
written  other  novels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  September,  1848;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September, 
i8«. 

Reyher,  n'er,  (SAMUEL,)  a  German  professor  of  law 
and  mathematics,  was  born  in  Saxony  in  1635.  He  pub 
lished  "  Mathesis  Mosaico-Biblica,"  (1678,)  and  other 
works.  Died  at  Kiel  in  1714. 

Reyn,  de,  deh  rin,  (JEAN,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Dunkirk  about  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Van  Dyck,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  imitated  with  success.  lie  worked  in 
England  for  Van  Dyck;  but  after  the  death  of  the  latter 
he  returned  to  Dunkirk.  "  The  majority  of  his  pictures," 
says  Peries,  "  have  often  passed  for  the  works  of  his 
master."  Died  in  1678. 

Reyna,  de,  da  ra'na  or  ra^e-na,  (CASSionoRUS,)  a 
Spanish  translator  of  the  Bible,  born  at  Seville,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  Protestant.  His  version  of  the  Bible, 
printed  at  Bale  in  1569,  was  the  first  in  the  Spanish 
language.  Died  at  Frankfort  in  1594. 

Reyiiaud,  r.Yno',  (ANTOINE  ANDRE  Louis,)  BARON, 
a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1771.  He  was 
employed  about  thirty  years  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
as  teacher  and  examiner.  He  published  a  number  of 
standard  'works  on  geometry  and  algebra,  which  were  in 
troduced  as  text-books  into  public  schools.  Died  in  1844. 

See  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Reynaud,  (JEAN  ERNEST,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1806.  In  1836  he  became  associated 
with  Pierre  Leroux  as  editor  of  the  "  Encyclopedic  Nou 
velle."  He  was  a  moderate  democrat  in  the  Assembly 


of  1848,  and  supported  Cavaignac.  His  chief  work, 
entitled  "Earth  and  Heaven,"  ("Terre  et  Ciel,"  1854,) 
had  great  success. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Reyneau,  ri'nS',  (CHARLES  RENE,)  a  French  ge 
ometer,  born  at  Brissac,  in  Anjou,  in  1656.  He  was 
professor  in  a  college  at  Angers.  He  published 
"Analysis  Demonstrated,"  (1708,)  and  "Elements  of 
Mathematics,"  (1714.)  Died  in  1728. 

Reyner,  ra'ner,  ?  (EDWARD,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1600.  He  preached  at 
Lincoln.  Died  about  1670. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-4',  (AccusTiN  BENOIT,)  a  Belgian 
poet,  born  at  Liege  in  1759  ;  died  at  Cologne  in  1792. 

Reynier,  r«Vne-i',  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  French  general, 
was  born  at  Lausanne  in  1771.  As  chief  of  the  staff  of  Mo- 
reau,  he  displayed  skill  at  Rastadt,  Friedberg,  Biberach, 
and  in  the  famous  retreat  of  1796.  He  commanded  at 
the  siege  of  Acre  in  the  temporary  absence  of  Bonaparte, 
and  is  said  to  have  decided  the  victory  at  Heliopolis, 
(1799.)  In  1807  he  had  command  of  the  army  of  Joseph, 
King  of  Naples.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Leipsic, 
(1813.)  Died  in  1814. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-i',  (JEAN  Louis  ANTOINE,)  a  Swiss 
naturalist,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1762,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  in  1798.  Among  his  works  are  "  Egypt  under  the 
Domination  of  the  Romans,"  (1807,)  and  "Treatises 
on  the  Public  and  Rural  Economy  of  the  Celts  and 
Germans,"  (1808,)  of  the  "Arabs  and  Jews,"  (1820,)  of  the 
"Persians  and  Phoenicians,"  (1829,)  etc.  Died  in  1824. 

See  L\  HARFE,  "Notice  sur  L.  Reynier,"  1825;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Reynold  de  Chauvancy,  de,  deh  ri'nol'  deh  sho'- 
vdN'se',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Pont 
de  Veyle  (Ain)  in  1810.  He  produced  a  work  on  mari 
time  signals,  entitled  "Code  de  Signaux,  Telegraphic 
nautique  polyglotte,"  (1856,)  which  has  been  adopted 
by  seventeen  maritime  powers. 

Reynolds,  reVolz,  (ALEXANDER  W.,)  an  American 
officer  in  the  Confederate  service,  born  in  Virginia,  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  in  1861. 

Reynolds,  r§n'olx,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Southampton  in  1599.  He  favoured  the  Pres 
byterians  during  the  civil  war,  and  took  the  Covenant. 
In  1648  he  became  Dean  of  Christ  Church  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  ejected 
from  these  positions  about  1650,  after  which  he  preached 
in  London.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Norwich  in 
1660.  He  published  a  number  of  religious  works,  which 
are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1676. 

Reynolds,  (JOHN.)     See  RAINOLDS. 

Reynolds,  (JOHN  FULTON,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  in  1820,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  He  "served  as  first  lieutenant  in 
the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1855.  ^e  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Seven 
Days'  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  and  for  his 
services  there  received  brevets  as  colonel  and  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  In  January,  1863,  he  was 
appointed  a  major-general  of  volunteers.  His  corps 
formed  the  vanguard  of  the  army  at  Gettysburg,  where 
he  was  killed  on  the  1st  of  July,  1863. 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
p.  760. 

Reynolds,  (JoHN  HAMILTON,)  an  Englrsh  poet,  born 
in  1795,  was  a  member  of  the  legal  profession.  He 
wrote  a  poem  called  "  Safie."  Died  at  Newport  in  1852. 

Reynolds,  (Sir  JOSHUA,)  the  most  celebrated  por 
trait-painter  that  England  has  produced,  was  born  at 
Plympton,  in  Devonshire,  on  the  i6th  of  July,  1723.  He 
was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Reynolds.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  became  a  pupil  of  Hudson  in  London,  with 
whom  he  remained  about  two  years.  He  afterwards 
worked  at  Plymouth  as  a  portrait-painter  until  1746, 
when  he  settled  in  London.  About  1750  he  visited 
Rome,  Florence,  Venice,  and  other  cities  of  Italy. 
When  he  first  saw  the  works  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican, 
he  felt  much  disappointment, — which  he  attributed  to 
his  own  ignorance.  The  works  of  Titian  and  Tintoretto 
contributed  more  to  the  formation  of  his  style  than  those 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23  .) 


RETNOLDS 


1888 


RHET1CUS 


of  the  Roman  school.  He  returned  to  England  in  the 
autumn  of  1752,  soon  after  which  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  a  portrait  of  Commodore  Keppel.  In 
1760  he  raised  his  price  to  twenty-five  guineas  for  a 
head,  and  one  hundred  guineas  for  a  whole-length  por 
trait.  He  painted  in  1762  a  picture  of  "  Garrick  between 
Tragedy  and  Comedy." 

In  1764  Mr.  Reynolds  and  Dr.  Johnson,  who  had 
become  intimate  friends,  founded  the  Literary  Club, 
composed  of  twelve  members,  among  whom  were  Burke 
and  Goldsmith.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1768,  and  was  knighted  on  that  occasion. 
He  delivered  before  the  Academy  a  series  of  "  Lectures 
on  Painting,"  which  were  generally  admired  and  were 
translated  into  several  languages.  In  1784  he  produced 
a  beautiful  allegorical  portrait  of  "  Mrs.  Siddons  as  the 
Tragic  Muse,"  and  received  the  title  of  principal  painter 
to  the  king.  He  painted  for  the  Empress  of  Russia  a 
picture  of  "  The  Infant  Hercules  strangling  the  Ser 
pents,"  (1786,)  which  is  one  of  his  best  historical  works. 
He  was  never  married.  His  career  was  a  remarkable 
instance  of  continual  prosperity.  He  died  in  February, 
1792,  leaving  an  estate  of  about  ,£80,000. 

Sir  Joshua  is  considered  as  the  founder  or  the  head 
of  the  British  school  of  painting.  He  obtained  powerful 
effects  by  a  rich  and  harmonious  colour  and  by  his 
distribution  of  light  and  shade.  His  historical  pieces 
indicate  that  he  was  deficient  in  the  grand  style  of  design. 
"Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  is  the  most  invulnerable  man  I 
know,"  says  Dr.  Johnson, — "  the  man  with  whom  if  you 
should  quarrel,  you  will  find  the  most  difficulty  how  to 
abuse."  "  Reynolds,  swiftest  of  painters,  was  gentlest 
of  companions,"  says  Ruskin ;  "so,  also,  Velasquez, 
Titian,  and  Veronese." 

See  JAMES  NORTHCOTE,  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds," 
1818  ;  MAI.ONE,  "Life  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds;"  THOMAS  REVNOLUS, 
"Life  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds,"  by  his  son,  2  vols.,  1839;  "Life  of 
Sir  J.  Reynolds,"  commenced  by  C.  R.  LESLIE  and  completed  by 
TOM  TAYLOR,  2  vols.,  1865;  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds," 
byJosKi-H  FARRINGTON,  London,  1819:  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  April  and  July,  1866  ;  "  .Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1820. 

Reynolds,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  benefactor,  born 
in  Bristol  in  1735,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  married  Hannah  Darby  in  1757,  and  be 
came  a  partner  in  the  iron  and  coal  works  at  Ketley. 
In  1763  he  removed  to  Coalbrook  Dale,  where  he  super 
intended  a  large  manufactory  of  iron.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  employed  iron  instead  of  wood  in  the 
construction  of  railways.  His  business  afforded  him  a 
large  income,  a  great  part  of  which  he  expended  in  deeds 
of  charity.  He  removed  to  Bristol  in  1804.  Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Letters  of  Richard  Reynolds,  with  a  Memoir  of  his  Life," 
Dy  his  granddaughter,  HANNAH  MAKV  RATHBONE,  Philadelphia, 
iSSS. 

Reynolds,  (SAMUEL  WILLIAM)  an  eminent  English 
engraver  in  mezzotint,  was  born  in  1774.  He  engraved 
many  portraits  and  historical  pieces  after  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  also  Rubens's  "Chapeau  de  Faille,"  and  a 
number  of  the  works  of  Horace  Vernet.  Died  in  1835. 

Reynoso.     See  RKINOSO. 

Reyrac,  de,  deh  ri'rtk',  (FRANCOIS  PHILIPPE  Du- 
LAURENS,)  a  French  poet  and  priest,  born  in  Limousin 
in  1734.  He  wrote  "Rural  Poems,"  and  a  "Hymn  to 
the  Sun,"  (1777,)  in  poetical  prose,  which  was  often 
reprinted.  Died  in  1782. 

See  BERENGEK,  "  Eloge  de  Reyrac,"  1783. 

Reyre,  raiR,  (Abbe  JOSEPH,)  a  French  teacher  and 
writer  of  juvenile  books,  was  born  in  Provence  in  1735  ; 
died  in  1812. 

Reys,  dos,  d6s  ras,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Portuguese  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Santarem  in  1690  ;  died  in 
1738. 

Rezzano,  ret-si'no,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Como  in  1731  ;  died  in  1780. 

Rezzonico,  ret-so-nee'ko,  (ANTONIO  GIUSEPPE,) 
Count  de  la  Tour,  (or  della  Torre,  del'la  tor'ra,)  an 
Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Como  in  1709,  became  an 
officer  in  the  Spanish  army.  His  chief  work  is  "  Re 
searches  into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Pliny,"  ("  Disqui- 
sitiones  Plinianae,"  2  vols.  in  fol.,  1763-67,)  which  is 
praised  as  a  model  of  criticism.  Died  at  Parma  in  1785. 

See  TIPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 


Rezzonico,  (CARLO.)     See  CLEMENT  XIII. 

Rezzonico,  (CARLO  GASTON  DELLA  TORRE,)  COUNT, 
an  Italian  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Como  in  1742, 
was  a  son  of  Antonio  Giuseppe,  noticed  above.  Among 
his  works  is  a  poem  entitled  "The  Ruin  of  Como,' 
which  is  admired.  Died  at  Naples  in  1796. 

See  G.  B.  GIOVIO,  "Della  Vita  di  G.  Rezzonico,"  1802. 

Rhadamante.     See  RHADAMANTHUS. 

Rhad-a-maii'thus,  [Gr.  'Patiuftavdoc ;  Fr.  RHADA 
MANTE,  ra:/da'/m6Nt/,]  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and 
a  brother  of  Minos.  According  to  tradition,  he  married 
Alcmena,  the  mother  of  Hercules,  was  eminent  for  his 
justice,  and  after  death  became  one  of  the  chief  judges 
of  the  lower  world,  or  Elysium. 

Rhallis,  ral'lis,  (GEORGE  ALEXANDER,)  a  modem 
Greek  jurist,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1804.  lie  be 
came  minister  of  justice  of  Greece  in  1841,  and  after 
wards  president  of  the  Areopagus,  or  court  of  cassation. 
He  published  several  legal  works. 

Rhani,  rain,  (Rev.  WILLIAM  LEWIS,)  an  eminenr 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1778.  He  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  and  at  Cambridge  University, 
and  became  rector  of  Fersfield,  Norfolk.  He  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia, "  which  were 
published  separately  under  the  title  of  "Dictionary  of 
the  Farm."  Died  in  1843. 

Rhangabe.     See  Rizo  RANGAK^. 

Rhe'a,  [Gr.  Teia,  'Pea,  'Pdjj,  or  'Peri;  Fr.  RHEA,  ra'a',] 
a  goddess  of  classic  mythology,  whom  the  Romans 
called  Ops  or  Cybele.  According  to  Hesiocl,  she  was  a 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  or  Ccelus  and  Terra,  the 
wife  of  Cronos,  (Saturn,)  and  the  mother  of  Jupiter, 
Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Vesta.  She  was 
called  "the  Great  Mother,"  and  "the  Mother  of  the 
Gods."  The  principal  seat  of  her  worship  was  Pessinus, 
in  Galatia.  (See  CYBELE.) 

See  SMITH'S  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Rhe'a  Sil'vl-a,  orlll-a,  [Fr.  REA  (or  RHEA)  SILVIA, 
ra'a'  sel've'S',  or  ILIE,  e'le',]  in  Roman  mythology,  was 
a  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  mother  of  Romulus  and 
Remus,  whose  father  was  supposed  to  be  Mars.  The 
king  Amulius  had  compelled  her  to  become  a  vestal 
virgin  to  prevent  her  from  having  offspring,  and  after 
the  birth  of  her  sons  he  drowned  her  in  the  river.  The 
poets  feigned  that  she  was  changed  into  a  goddess  and 
became  the  wife  of  the  Anio. 

Rheede,  van,  va~n  la'deh,  (HENDRIK  ADRIAAN 
Draakeiistein — dRa'ken-stin',)  a  Dutch  naturalist,  who 
became  Governor-General  of  the  Malabar  coast.  He 
collected  materials  for  a  costly  work  on  the  plants  of 
India,  entitled  "  Hortus  Indicus  Malabaricus,"  (12 
vols.,  1670-1703,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Casearius, 
Commelin,  and  others.  He  died  about  1700. 

Rhegas.     See  RHIGAS. 

Rheinek,  li'nek,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  musical 
composer,  born  at  Memmingen  in  1748,  was  author  of 
several  operas.  Died  in  1796. 

Rheita,  von,  ton  ri'td,  (ANTON  MARIA  SCHYRLE,)  a 
German  astronomer,  born  in  Bohemia  about  1597.  He 
constructed  a  telescope  with  four  lenses.  Died  at  Ra 
venna  in  1660. 

Rhenanus,  (BEATUS.)     See  BEATUS. 

Rhenferd,  ren'feiU,  (jAKOii,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  in  1654.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  lan 
guages  at  Franeker.  Died  in  1712. 

Rhese,  rees,  ?  (JOHN  DAVID,)  M.D.,  a  philologist, 
born  in  the  island  of  Anglesey  in  1534.  He  taught 
school  in  Italy,  and  published  a  number  of  works  in  the 
Italian  language.  Died  in  1609. 

Rhet'l-cus,  [Ger.  pron.  ra'te-kus,]  the  surname  of  an 
astronomer,  whose  proper  name  was  GEORGE  JOACHIM. 
He  was  born  at  Feldkirch,  near  the  Rhine,  in  1514.  He 
became  a  pupil  and  assistant  of  Copernicus  in  1539  or 
1540,  and  advocated  the  Copernican  system  in  his  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  Libris  Revolutionum  Copernici,"  (1540.)  In 
1541  he  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics  at  Wittenberg. 
He  left  a  work  of  great  labour,  entitled  "  Opus  Palatinum 
de  Triangulis,"  (1596,)  which  contains,  besides  a  treatise 
on  trigonometry,  a  table  of  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  etc. 
Died  in  1576. 


a,e,  1,6,  u,  y,/0«£ya,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  fi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RHETT 


1889 


RIBER4 


Rhett,  (ROBERT  BARNWELL,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1800.  Being  elected 
in  1833  attorney-general  of  the  State,  he  acted  with  the 
Nullification  party,  and  in  1850  became  a  United  States 
Senator.  On  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln,  in  1860,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  State  Convention  which  passed  an 
ordinance  of  secession,  and  drew  up  the  address  giving 
reasons  for  this  measure. 

Rhi-a'nus,  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  Crete,  lived  about 
250  or  225  K.C.  He  wrote  five  or  more  poems,  two  of 
which  are  entitled  "  Heracleia"  and  "  Thessalica."  Frag 
ments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Rhigas,  ree'gas,  written  also  Rhegas  and  Rigas, 
a  modern  Greek  patriot  and  writer,  born  in  Thessaly 
about  1760.  He  formed  in  early  life  a  design  to  liberate 
Greece  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and,  in  order  to  promote 
tiiis  design,  organized  a  secret  society,  wrote  popular 
songs,  founded  a  journal,  published  educational  works, 
etc.  All  these  were  in  the  modern  Greek  language. 
In  1798  he  was  arrested  at  Trieste,  delivered  by  the 
Austrians  to  the  Turks,  and  drowned  in  the  Danube 
by  the  latter. 

See  KEYBAUD,  "Memoires  sur  la  Grece;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rhin'thon,  ['Pivduv,]  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Syracuse  or  Tarentum,  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  works 
are  not  extant. 

Rhizos  Rhangavis.     See  Rizo  RANGABI*. 

Rho,  ro,  (AI.ESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Milan  in  1543  ;  died  in  1627. 

Rhode,  ro'deh,  or  Rhodius,  ro'de-us,  (Jon  A  NX,)  a 
Danish  medical  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Copen 
hagen  about  1587;  died  at  Padua  in  1659. 

Rhode,  ro'deh,  QOHANN  GKOKG,)  a  German  Orien 
talist  of  Breslau,  was  noted  for  his  researches  in  the 
antiquities  and  natural  history  of  India.  Died  in  1827. 

Rhodes,  rodz,  (ROBERT  E.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Lynchburg,  Virginia,  commanded  a  division  of 
General  Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Winchester,  September  19,  1864. 

Rhodes,  de,  deh  rod,  (ALEXANDKE,)  a  French  mis 
sionary,  born  in  1591.  He  preached  in  Cochin  China 
and  Tonquin.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Tonquin," 
(1650,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  Persia  in  1660. 

Rhodiginus,  ro-de-jee'noos,  (CcELius,  )  an  Italian 
philologist,  whose  family  name  was  RICCHIERI  (rek-ke- 
a'ree)  or  RICCHERI,  (rek-ka'ree,)  was  born  at  Rovigo 
about  1450.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
at  Milan  in  1515.  His  chief  work  is  "  Ancient  Readings," 
("  Antiquae  Lectiones,"  1516.)  Died  in  1525. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rhodius.     See  RHODE,  QOHAN.) 

Rhodomami.     See  RHODOMANNUS. 

Rhodomaiinus,  ro-do-man'nus,  or  Rhodomann, 
ro'do-man',  (LAURENTIUS,)  a  German  Hellenist,  born 
at  Sassawerf,  in  Saxony,  in  1546.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  lectured  on  history  at 
Wittenberg.  He  wrote  Greek  verse  with  facility,  and  is 
called  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  Greek  language  in 
Germany.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Luther,  in 
Greek  Verse,"  (1579,)  and  "Christian  Poem  on  Pales 
tine, ';  ("  Poesis  Christiana  Palestine,"  1589.)  Died  in 
1606. 

See  LANGE,  "Vita  Rhodomanni,"  1741  ;  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Rhunken.     See  RUHNKEN. 

Rhy'mer,  Thomas  the,  or  Thomas  of  Ercil- 
doune,  a  Scottish  poet,  flourished  betsveen  1250  and 
1300.  He  had  the  reputation  of  a  prophet. 

Rhyudaceiius  or  Rhyndaconus.     See  LASCARIS. 

Rhyne,  Ten,  ten  rl'neh,  (\\~ILLEM,)  a  Dutch  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Deventer  about  1640.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Batavia,  explored  the  plants  of  Java,  and 
aided  Van  Rheede  in  composing  his  "  Hortus  Mala- 
baricus." 

Rhyzelius,  re-za'le-us,  (ANDREAS,)  a  Swedish  an 
tiquary,  born  in  Westgothland  in  1677.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Linkoping,  and  wrote  several  works  on 
Swedish  antiquities.  Died  about  1758. 

Riancey,  de,  deh  re'SN'si',  (HENRI  LEON  CA- 
MUSAT,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He 


published,  besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  the 
World,"  (4  vols.,  1838-41.)  In  1852  he  became  chief 
editor  of  "L'Union,"  a  journal. 

Rianzares,  DUKE  OF.     See  MUNOZ,  (FERNANDO.) 

Riario,  re-a're-o,  (GiROLAMO,)  Seigneur  of  Forli  and 
Imola,  a  nephew  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  was  born  about 
1442.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  of 
the  family  of  Colonna.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
guards  in  1488. 

Riario,  (PIETRO,)  CARDINAL,  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1445.  -He  was  a  corrupt  favourite 
of  Sixtus  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Flor 
ence.  He  had  great  influence  at  the  papal  court,  and  was 
notorious  for  his  debauchery.  Died  in  1474. 

Ribadeneira,  re-Ba-cla-na^e-ra,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  biographer,  was  bom  at  Toledo  in  1527.  He 
gained  some  distinction  as  a  preacher,  and  was  employed 
by  Loyola  to  propagate  Jesuitism  in  Flanders  and  Spain. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Loyola," 
("  Vida  de  San  Ignacio,"  1570.)  He  is  said  to  have 
been  deficient  in  judgment.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1611. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Ribalta,  re-uaKta,  (FRANCISCO,)  an  eminent  Span 
ish  painter,  born  at  Castellon  de  la  Plana  in  1551.  He 
studied  the  works  of  Raphael  and  Sebastian  del  Piombo 
in  Rome,  and  settled  in  Valencia.  His  design,  colour, 
and  composition  are  highly  commended.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  Last  Supper,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and 
"The  Entombment  of  Christ."  He  was  a  skilful  anato 
mist.  Died  in  1628. 

Ribalta,  de,  da  re-Bal'ta,  (JuAN,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Valencia  in  1597.  He  was  a  painter 
of  great  promise,  and  died  prematurely  in  1628. 

Ribas,  de,  deh  ree'bas,  (JOSEPH,)  born  at  Naples 
about  1735,  entered  the  service  of  Russia,  and  became 
an  admiral.  He  commanded  a  fleet  which  operated 
against  the  Turks  in  1790. 

Ribault  or  Ribaut,  re'bo',  (JEAN,)  a  French  Prot 
estant  navigator,  born  at  Dieppe  about  1520.  He  com 
manded  a  party  sent  by  Coligni  in  1562  to  explore  and 
colonize  some  parts  of  North  America.  He  explored 
Port  Royal,  South  Carolina,  built  a  fort  there,  and  re 
turned  to  France.  In  1565  he  obtained  command  of  a 
fort  and  colony  which  the  French  had  planted  on  the 
Saint  John's  River,  Florida.  He  had  seven  vessels  under 
his  command.  The  French  were  attacked  by  a  Spanish 
fleet  just  after  the  arrival  of  Ribault.  He  was  about  to 
bring  his  vessels  into  action,  when  a  storm  drove  them 
ashore.  Ribault  and  his  men  escaped  to  land,  but  were 
massacred  by  the  Spaniards.  "  John  Ribault,"  says 
Sparks,  "was  the  pioneer  of  a  great  enterprise;  .  .  . 
and,  although  he  was  assisted  by  brave  and  able  asso 
ciates,  yet  his  energy  and  zeal  were  the  chief  springs  of 
the  whole." 

See  SPARKS,  "  Life  of  Ribault,"  in  the  seventh  volume  of  his 
"  American  Biography,"  second  series  ;  HILDRETH,  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Ribault,  re'b5',  (J.  F.,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1767;  died  in  1820. 

Ribbing  von  Leuven,  ril/bing  fon  loi'ven,  ?  (  ADOLPH 
LUDWIG,)  a  Swedish  conspirator,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1764.  He  was  an  accomplice  of  those  who  killed 
Gustavus  III.,  and  was  banished  for  life.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1843. 

Ribeiro  or  Ribeyro,  re-baVro,  (BERNARDIN,)  a 
Portuguese  pastoral  poet  of  the~~sixteenth  century,  was 
born  at  Torrao,  in  Alemtejo.  He  is  pronounced  by 
Longfellow  "  one  of  the  best  poets  of  Portugal,  and  the 
first  Portuguese  writer  who  gained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  pastoral  poet." 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ribeiro  dos  Santos,  re-baVro  d6s  san'tis,  (ANTO 
NIO,)  a  Portuguese  poet  of  the^present  century,  has  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  an  "  Ode  to  the  Infante  Dom 
Henrique,"  which  is  greatly  admired. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ribera.     See  SPAGNOLEITO. 

Ribera,  re-Ba'ra,  (CARLOS  Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
the  son  of  a  distinguished  artist,  was  born  in  Rome 
about  1812. 


c  as^;  9  as  s;  ghard;  gas/;  G,H,K,guttura!;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz/th  as  in  this.     (JJf^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RIBERA 


1890 


RICCIARDI 


Ribera,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  commen 
tator,  born  in  Segovia  in  1537.  He  wrote  Commentaries 
on  the  minor  prophets  and  on  the  Gospel  of  John.  Died 
at  Salamanca  in  1591. 

Ribera,  de,  da  re-Ka'ra,  (ANASTASIO  PANTALEON,)  a 
Spanish  wit  and  burlesque  poet,  bom  at  Saragossa  in 
1580.  He  was  assassinated  at  Madrid  in  1629. 

Ribes,  reb,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Bagneres  de  Bigorre  in  1770.  He  succeeded  Desgenettes 
as  chief  physician  at  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  in  1837. 
He  wrote  on  anatomy,  etc.  Died  in  1845. 

Ribes,  de,  deh  reb,  (ANNE  ARNAUD,)  a  French 
officer  of  engineers,  born  in  1731  ;  died  in  1811. 

Ribeyro.     See  RIUEIRO. 

Riboud,  re'boo',  (THOMAS  PHILIBERT,)  a  French 
litterateur  and  judge,  born  at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1755. 
He  was  a  member  of  successive  legislative  bodies  be 
tween  1791  and  1814.  Died  in  1835. 

Riboutte,  re'boo'ta',  ( FRANCOIS  Louis,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1770;  died  in  1834. 

Ricard,  re'ki'R',  (DOMINIQUE,)  a  French  abbe  and 
translator,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1741.  He  translated 
Plutarch's  "Moral  Works,"  (17  vols.,  1783-95,)  and  his 
"Parallel  Lives,"  (13  vols.,  1798-1803.)  He  wrote  a 
poem  on  the  Sphere.  Died  in  1803. 

Ricard,  (£TIENNE  PIERRE  SILVESTRE,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Castres  in  1771.  He  won  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  at  Borodino  in  1812.  Died  in  1843. 

Ricard,  QEAN  MARIE,)  an  eminent  French  jurist, 
born  at  Beauvais  in  1622  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1678. 

Ricardo,  re-kar'do,  (DAVin,)  an  eminent  political 
economist,  born  in  London  in  April,  1772,  was  a  son  of 
a  Jewish  broker.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Stock 
Exchange  in  London,  and  a  partner  of  his  father.  In 
consequence  of  his  marriage  with  a  Christian,  in  1793, 
this  partnership  was  dissolved.  He  published  in  1809  a 
pamphlet  called  "  The  High  Price  of  Bullion  a  Proof  of 
the  Depreciation  of  Bank-Notes."  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  "The  Principles  of  Political  Economy  and 
Taxation,"  (1817,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1819,  and  spoke  frequently  on 
financial  subjects.  Died  in  September,  1823. 

See  J.  R.  McCuLLOCH,  "  Life  of  Ricardo,"  prefixed  to  Ricardo's 
Works,  1846;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate  ;"  "  Kdinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1818; 
"Monthly  Review''  for  December,  1820. 

Ricardo,  (Tons1  LEWIS,)  an  English  writer  on  inter 
national  law,  born  in  1812.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Parliament  in  1841,  and  greatly  promoted  the  suc 
cessful  operation  of  the  electric  telegraph.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  History  and  Anatomy  of  the  Navigation 
Laws."  Died  in  London  in  1862. 

Ricardos,  re-kaR'd6s,  (Don  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Seville  in  1727.  He  commanded  the 
army  which  opposed  with  some  success  the  French 
invaders  in  1793,  and  he  was  promoted  to  be  captain- 
general  in  1794.  Died  in  1794. 

See  J.  M.  HERVAS  DE  AI.MENAKIA,  "  Elogio  historico  del  Gene 
ral  A.  Ricardos,"  1798. 

Ricardus  Corinensis.     See  RICHARD  OF  CIREN- 

C  ESTER. 

Ricasoli,  re-ka'so-lee,  (Baron  BETTING,)  an  eminent 
Italian  statesman,  born  of  an  ancient  noble  family  in 
Tuscany  about  iSoffl  He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  independence  And  unity  of  Italy  in  1848,  and  acted 
as  dictator  of  Tuscany  in  1859.  In  June,  1861,  he  suc 
ceeded  Cavour  as  prime  minister  of  Italy.  The  policy 
of  his  administration  was  similar  to  that  of  Cavour.  He 
resigned  about  the  1st  of  March,  1862,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Ratazzi.  In  June,  1866,  he  again  assumed  the  direc 
tion  of  the  government  as  president  of  the  council  and 
minister  of  the  interior.  He  retired  from  office  about 
April  7,  1867.  •»C«a  '*** 

See  F.  DALL'ONGARO,  "  Bettino  Ricasoli;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Geuerale." 

Ricaut.     See  RYCAUT. 

Riccaltoun  or  Riccalton,  rik'al-ton,?  (ROBERT,)  a 
Scottish  divine,  born  near  Jedburgh  in  1691.  He 
preached  for  many  years  at  Hobkirk,  and  wrote  several 
able  and  suggestive  religious  works,  among  which  is  the 
"Sober  Inquiry,"  etc.  Died  in  1769. 


Riccati,  di,  de  rek-ka'tee,  (JACOPO  FRANCESCO,) 
COUNT,  an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Venice  in 
1676,  was  the  father  of  Vincenzo,  noticed  below.  Died 
in  1754. 

His  son  GIORDANO,  born  in  1709,  was  a  mathema 
tician  and  writer.  Died  in  1790. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  ItaKaui  illustri." 

Riccati,  di,  (VINCENZO,)  an  Italian  mathematician, 
born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1707;  died  in  1775. 

Ricchieri,  (Lonovico.)     See  RHODIGINUS. 

Ricci,  ret'chee,  (ANTONIO,)  called  BARHAI.UNGA, 
(baR-ba-loon'ga,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Messina  in 
j  1600  ;  died  in  1649. 

Ricci,  (BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  Latinist,  born  at 
,  Lugo  in  1490.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  Dic 
tionary  of  the  Latin  language,  entitled  "Apparatus 
Latinae  Locutionis,"  (1533.)  Died  in  1569. 

See  G.  DELI.A  CASA,  "  Discorso  sulla  Vita  di  ]'..  Ricci,"  1834- 

Ricci,  (CAMILLO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara 
in  1580;  died  at  Ferrara  in  1618. 

Ricci,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Novara  in  1545.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  in  the  Vatican  and  Quirinal.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1620. 

Ricci,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Florence 
in  1703,  was  elected  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in 
1758.  He  opposed  the  proposition  to  reform  that  order, 
which  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773. 
Died  in  prison  at  Rome  in  1775. 

See  SAINTE-FOI,  "  Vie  du  Pere  Ricci ;"  CARACCIOU,  "  Vie  du 
Pere  Ricci,"  1776. 

Ricci,  (MARCO,)  a  painter,  born  at  Bclluno  in  1676. 
He  worked  some  years  as  assistant  of  his  uncle  Se 
bastian  in  England.  According  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  he  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  landscape- 
painters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Died  at  Venice  about 
1728. 

Ricci,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Macerata 
in  1552.  He  was  one  of  the  first  missionaries  who  went 
to  China,  (1583.)  In  1600  he  was  admitted  into  Peking, 
where  he  gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor.  lie  wrote 
interesting  Memoirs  and  Letters  on  China.  Abel  Re- 
musat  calls  him  the  founder  of  the  mission  of  China. 
Died  in  Peking  in  1610. 

See  D'ORLEANS,  "  Viede  M.  Ricci,"  1693  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Geuerale." 

Ricci,  (MiCHEi.ANGEl.O,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1619;  died  in  1682. 

Ricci  or  Ricchi,  rek'kee,  (PiETRo, )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1606,  worked  at  Milan  and 
Venice.  Died  in  1675. 

Ricci,  (SCIPIONE,)  an  Italian  reformer,  born  at  Flor 
ence  in  1741.  He  became  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato 
in  1780,  and  co-operated  with  the  grand  duke  Leopold 
in  his  projects  of  religious  reform.  He  was  opposed  to 
monastic  orders,  to  indulgences,  and  other  practices  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  consequence  of  the  riotous 
demonstrations  of  the  populace  against  him,  he  resigned 
in  1790.  Died  in  1810. 

See  DE  POTTER,  "Vie  et  Memoires  de  Scipion  Ricci,"  4  vols., 
1825,  (translated  into  English  by  THOMAS  ROSCOE,  1829;)  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Ricci  or  Rizzi,  ret/see,  (SEBASTIANO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cividal  di  Belluno  (Venetia)  in  1660. 
He  worked  at  Rome,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  London,  to 
which  he  was  invited  by  Queen  Anne.  .Having  passed 
ten  years  in  England,  he  returned  to  Venice,  and  prac 
tised  his  art  with  success.  He  was  a  skilful  imitator  ot 
the  styles  of  many  masters.  Among  his  remarkable 
works  are  "The  Abduction  of  the  Sabines,"  at  Rome, 
and  "The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin."  Died  at  Venic<; 
in  1734. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "Di/.io- 
nario." 

Ricciardi,  ret-chaR'dee,  (FRANCESCO,)  Count  de 
Camalcloli,  an  Italian  statesman,  born  at  Foggia  in  1758. 
lie  was  minister  of  justice  under  Murat  from  1809  to 
1815.  He  made  some  reforms  in  the  penal  code.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  CEVA-GRIMALDI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  F.  Ricciardi," 
1834- 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


R  1C CURD  I 


1891 


RICHARD 


Ricciardi,  (!RKNE,)  an  Italian  poetess,  a  sister  of 
Joseph  Napoleon  Ricciardi.  She  was  married  in  1831 
to  a  composer  named  Capecelatro. 

Ricciardi,  (JOSEPH  NAPOLEON,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  politician,  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  Xaples  in  1808.  A  liberal  in  politics,  he  has 
lived  in  exile  since  1848.  He  has  written  a  "History 
of  the  Italian  Revolution,"  (1850,)  and  several  political 
poems. 

Ricciarelli     See  VOLTERRA,  DE,  (DANIELE.) 

Riccio,  (BARTOLOMMEO.)     See  NERONI. 

Riccio,  (DAVID.)     See  RIZZIO. 

Riccio,  ret'cho,  (DOMEN1CO,)  an  eminent  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  surnamed  BRUSASORCI,  ("Rat- 
Burner,")  was  born  at  Verona  in  1494.  His  father  in 
vented  a  rat-trap  and  burned  rats :  hence  the  Surname, 
lie  studied  the  works  of  Titian,  and  perhaps  was  his 
pupil.  He  painted  in  the  Palazzo  Ridolfi,  in  Venice,  a 
fresco  called  the  "Cavalcade  of  Clement  VII.  and 
Charles  V.,"  (in  Bologna.)  Died  in  1567. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  RIDOI.FI,  "Vite  degli 
iilustri  Pittori  Veneti ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Riccio,  (FELICE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Verona  in  1540,  was  a  skilful  painter,  especially  of 
portraits.  Died  in  1605. 

Riccioli,  ret'cho-lee,  (  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,  )  an 
Italian  astronomer  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1598. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy,  theology,  etc.  at 
Bologna  and  Parma.  His  superiors  authorized  him  to 
devote  himself  to  astronomy,  that  he  might  confute  the 
Copernican  system.  This  he  attempted  to  do  in  his 
"Almagestum  Xovum,"  (2  vols.,  1651.)  According  to 
his  theory,  the  sun,  moon,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  revolve 
around  the  earth,  while  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Mars  are 
satellites  of  the  sun.  He  also  published  an  able  treatise 
on  mathematical  geography  and  hydrography,  (1661,) 
and  "  Improved  Astronomy,"'  ("Astronomia  Reformata," 
1665.)  Died  in  1671. 

See  FABRONI,  "  Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  TIRA- 
BOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Riccoboni,  rek-ko-b'/nee,  (ANTOINE  FRANCOIS,)  a 
son  of  Luigi,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Mantua  in 
1707,  and  lived  in  Paris.  He  wrote  an  ingenious  work 
called  "Theatrical  Art,"  ("  L'Art  du  Theatre,"  1750.) 
Died  in  1772. 

His  wife,  MARIE  JEANNE  LAUORAS  DE  MEZIERES, 
born  in  Paris  in  1714,  was  a  successful  novelist.  Among 
her  novels  are  "The  Letters  of  Julia  Catesby,"  (1758,) 
"Krnestine,"  and  "Sophie  de  Valliere,"  (1771.)  M. 
Weiss  calls  her  one  of  the  most  spirituelle  women  of  her 
time.  Died  in  1792. 

Riccoboni,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born 
at  Rovigo  in  1541.  He  translated  into  Latin  Aristotle's 
"  Rhetoric,"  "  Ethics,"  and  "  Poetica,"  (1579,)  and  wrote 
several  works.  Died  in  1599. 

Riccoboni,  (I.ciGi, )  an  Italian  comic  writer  and 
actor,  born  at  Modena  about  1675.  Among  his  works  is 
a  poem  "  On  Representative  Art,"  ("  Della  Arte  repre- 
sentativa,"  1728.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1753. 

Rice,  (  LUTHER,)  an  American  Baptist  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  Northborough.  Massachusetts,  in 
1783.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  board 
of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions,  arid-assisted  in 
the  establishment  of  the  Columbian  College,  at  Wash 
ington,  District  of  Columbia.  Died  in  1836. 

Rich,  (CLAUDIUS  JAMES,)  an  Orientalist  and  traveller, 
born  at  Dijon,  in  France,  in  1787,  was  educated  at  Bris 
tol.  He  learned  Arabic,  Syriac,  Persian,  etc.  in  his  early 
youth,  became  an  excellent  linguist,  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1803.  In  1808  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  at  Bombay, 
and  was  appointed  the  East  India  Company's  resident 
at  Bagdad.  He  collected  in  that  vicinity  many  Oriental 
manuscripts,  medals,  and  coins,  and  wrote  a  "Memoir 
on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,"  which  he  had  visited  in  1811. 
A  second  edition  of  it  was  issued  in  1839.  He  visited 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  and  made  an  ex 
cursion  into  Koordistan.  He  died  of  cholera,  at  Shiraz, 
in  October,  1821,  leaving  a  "Narrative  of  a  Residence  in 
Koordistan,"  (1836.) 

See  a  brief  notice  of  his  life,  prefixed  to  the  work  last  named. 


Rich,  (RICHARD,)  BARON,  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  about  1498.  He  became  solicitor-general  in 
1533,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1547.  He  united  with  Pro 
tector  Somerset  in  measures  for  the  conviction  and  exe 
cution  of  Lord  Seymour.  In  1551  he  resigned  his  office 
on  pretext  of  ill  health.  Died  in  1568.  According  to 
Lord  Campbell,  he  was  "a  very  consistent  character 
in  all  that  was  base  and  profligate."  One  of  his  sons 
became  Earl  of  Warwick. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL'S  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors, "  vol.  ii. 

Rich'ard  [Lat.  RICHAK'DUS  ;  It.  RICARDO,  re-kaR'do) 
I.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  CCEUR  DE  LION,  (kuR 
deh  IC'ON',)  was  the  third  or  second  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  his  queen  Eleanor.  He  was  born  at  Oxford  in 
1157,  and  was  invested  in  the  duchy  of  Guienne.  He 
united  with  his  brother  Henry  in  a  revolt  against  his 
father  in  1173.  On  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  in  1183, 
Richard  became  the  heir-apparent- to  the  throne.  He 
formed  in  1188  a  secret  alliance  with  Philip,  King  of 
France,  the  enemy  of  Henry  II.,  and  openly  revolted 
against  the  latter  in  1189.  The  allies  waged  war  with 
success  against  Henry  in  France,  and  induced  him  to 
accept  their  terms  of  peace.  At  this  juncture  Henry 
died,  in  July,  1189.  Richard  showed  compunction  for 
his  undutiful  conduct,  and  chose  for  his  ministers  the 
faithful  servants  of  his  father.  Having  agreed  a  short 
time  before  his  accession  to  join  the  King  of  France  in 
a  crusade,  he  appointed  his  mother  regent  of  the  king 
dom.  "Impelled  more  by  the  love  of  military  glory 
than  by  superstition,"  says  Hume,  "he  acted  from  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  as  if  the  sole  purpose  of  his 
government  had  been  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land  and 
the  recovery  of  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens." 

The  combined  army  of  Richard  and  Philip,  amounting 
to  100,000  men,  began  to  march  in  1190.  They  em 
barked  on  ships  at  Marseilles  and  Genoa,  and  sailed  to 
Sicily,  where  they  passed  the  winter,  during  which  serious 
dissensions  arose  between  Richard  and  Philip,  who  re 
garded  each  other  with  jealous  rivalry.  Richard  married 
Berengaria,  Princess  of  Navarre,  at  Cyprus,  in  1191,  and 
in  the  summer  of  that  year  arrived  at  Acre,  which  had 
been  besieged  by  the  crusaders  for  two  years  and  was 
still  defended  by  Saladin.  The  French  and  English 
kings  were  incited  by  emulation  to  extraordinary  acts 
of  valour  at  this  siege.  "Richard  in  particular,"  says 
Hume,  "animated  with  a  more  precipitate  courage  than 
Philip,  .  .  .  acquired  a  great  and  splendid  reputation." 
Acre  surrendered  in  July,  1191,  soon  after  which  Philip 
returned  to  France.  In  September,  Richard  defeated 
Saladin  in  a  great  battle,  in  which  "  he  performed,"  says 
Hume,  "the  part  both  of  a  consummate  general  and 
gallant  soldier." 

Having  concluded  a  truce  with  Saladin  for  three  years, 
three  months,  three  weeks,  and  three  days,  he  sailed 
homeward  in  October,  1192,  and  was  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Istria.  Attempting  to  pass  through  Germany 
in  disguise,  he  was  arrested  by  Leopold  of  Austria,  who 
transferred  him  to  the  emperor,  Henry  VI.,  who  was  an 
enemy  of  the  captive  prince.  He  was  confined  in  a 
dungeon,  and  subjected  to  many  insults,  until  February, 
1194,  when  he  obtained  his  liberation  by  paying  a  large 
ransom.  In  the  mean  time  his  brother  John  had  at 
tempted  to  usurp  the  royal  power,  but  svas  resisted  with 
success.  The  rivalry  between  Richard  and  Philip  after 
wards  involved  them  in  several  wars,  the  results  of  which 
were  insignificant.  Hostilities  were  suspended  in  1198 
by  a  truce  of  five  years.  At  the  siege  of  the  castle  of 
one  of  his  vassals  near  Limoges,  Richard  was  mortally 
wounded  by  an  arrow,  in  March,  1199.  He  left  no  lawful 
issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John.  "Of  an 
impetuous  and  vehement  spirit,"  says  Hume,  "he  was 
distinguished  by  all  the  good  as  well  as  the  bad  qualities 
incident  to  that  character  :  he  was  open,  frank,  generous, 
sincere,  and  brave ;  he  was  revengeful,  domineering, 
ambitious,  haughty,  and  cruel."  Richard  I.  'forms  a 
prominent  and  brilljant  character  in  Scott's  novel  of 
"  Ivanhoe." 

See  P.  J.  BRUNS,  "  De  Rebus  gestis  Richardi  Angliae  Regis," 
ijSo;  J.  WHITE,  "Adventures  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,"  3  vols., 
1791  ;  G.  P.  R.  JAMES,  "  Life  of  Richard  I.,"  1843  ;  HCME,  "History 
of  England,"  chap.  x.  ;  W.  E.  AVTOUN,  "  Life  of  Richard  I.  of 
England,"  1840. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHARD 


1892 


RICHARD 


Richard  II.,  King  of  England,  horn  at  Bordeaux  in 
1366,  was  a  son  of  Edward  the  ISlack  Prince.  Me  suc 
ceeded  his  grandfather,  Edward  III.,  in  June,  1377. 
Among  the  remarkable  events  which  occurred  during 
his  minority  was  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler,  (1381,) 
which  was  provoked  partly  by  the  tax  imposed  to  sup 
port  a  war  against  France.  The  insurgents,  who  were 
peasants  or  common  people,  entered  London,  massacred 
many  persons  of  the  higher  class,  among  whom  was  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  committed  other  out 
rages.  Richard  acted  with  much  presence  of  mind,  and 
persuaded  the  rioters  to  disperse.  A  great  number  of 
them  were  afterwards  executed.  Edward  III.  had  left 
the  kingdom  involved  in  wars  against  the  French  and 
the  Scotch.  In  1385  Richard  invaded  Scotland  and 
reduced  to  ashes  Edinburgh,  Perth,  Dundee,  etc.  The 
Scots  offered  no  resistance,  but  at  the  same  time  made 
a  successful  raid  into  England.  The  power  of  Richard, 
who  was  indolent  and  incapable,  was  nullified  for  a  time 
by  his  uncle  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  put  to  death 
the  king's  favourites  and  ministers  in  1388.  The  wars 
against  France  and  Scotland  were  conducted  with  little 
vigour,  and  suspended  by  frequent  truces.  In  1396 
Richard  concluded  a  long  truce  with  the  French  court, 
and  was  affianced  to  Isabella  of  France,  who  was  seven 
years  of  age.  In  1398  he  banished  the  Dukes  of  Here 
ford  and  Norfolk,  who  had  met  to  fight  a  duel.  Here 
ford  (who  at  the  death  of  his  father  became  Henry,  Duke 
of  Lancaster)  had  gained  the  favour  of  the  people  by  his 
conduct  and  abilities.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  Richard,  who  was  in  Ireland,  Henry  landed  in  Eng 
land  in  July,  1399,  raised  a  large  army,  and  made  him 
self  master  of  the  kingdom  without  serious  opposition. 
The  troops  which  Richard  brought  from  Ireland  nearly 
all  deserted.  "  His  personal  character  had  brought  him 
into  contempt,"  says  Hume.  He  was  deposed  by  Par 
liament,  which  recognized  his  rival  as  King  Henry  IV., 
and  ordered  or  advised  that  Richard  should  be  impris 
oned  in  some  secret  place.  He  died  mysteriously  in  the 
thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  "  It  is  more  probable," 
says  Hume,  "that  he  was  starved  to  death  in  prison." 
He  left  no  posterity.  Richard  II.  gives  name  to  one  of 
Shakspeare's  tragedies. 

See  J.  EVESHAM,  "Historia  Richard!  II.,"  1729;  HUME,  "  His 
tory  of  England,"  chap.  xvii.  :  "Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  II.," 
London,  i6Si  ;  R.  HOWARD,  "  History  of  the  Reigns  of  Edward  III. 
and  Richard  II.,"  1690. 

Richard  III.,  King  of  England,  a  younger  son  of 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  a  brother  of  Edward  IV., 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire  on  the  2d  of  October, 
1452,  and  was  styled  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Tewksbury,  in  1471,  and,  according 
to  a  report  which  obtained  currency,  was  instrumental 
in  the  death  of  Henry  VI.  In  1472  he  married  Lady 
Anne  Nevil,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  He 
became  regent  or  protector  at  the  accession  of  his 
nephew,  Edward  V.,  who  was  a  minor,  (April,  1483.) 
"His  exorbitant  ambition,"  says  Hume,  "unrestrained 
by  any  principle  either  of  justice  or  humanity,  made  him 
carry  his  views  to  the  possession  of  the  crown  itself." 
By  dissimulation  and  professions  of  loyalty  he  obtained 
possession  of  the  king's  person.  He  arrested  and  exe 
cuted  the  Earl  of  Rivers,  Edward's  maternal  uncle  and 
tutor,  with  other  friends  of  the  young  king.  About  the 
end  of  June,  1483,  he  usurped  the  royal  power  openly 
and  without  resistance.  Soon  after  this  date  Edward 
V.  and  his  brother  were  put  to  death  in  the  Tower  by 
the  order  of  Richard.  His  authority  was  recognized  by 
a  Parliament  which  met  in  1484.  "  But  the  crimes  of 
Richard  were  so  horrid  and  so  shocking  to  humanity 
that  the  natural  sentiments  of  men,  without  any  political 
or  public  views,  were  sufficient  to  render  his  government 
unstable."  (Hume.)  Many  nobles  and  malcontents  as 
sembled  in  Brittany  and  offered  their  services  to  Henry, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  regarded  by  the  Lancas 
trians  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the  crown.  Henry  landed 
at  Milford  Haven  in  August,  1485,  with  a  small  army, 
which  was  increased  to  6000  men.  The  rivals  met  at 
Bosworth  on  the  2ist  of  August.  In  number  of  men 
Richard  had  the  advantage  ;  but,  soon  after  the  battle 
began,  Lord  Stanley,  whose  conduct  had  been  equivocal, 


joined  Richmond  with  about  7000  men  and  decided  the 
victory.  Richard  fought  with  the  energy  of  despair, 
and  was  slain  as  he  was  rushing  forward  to  attack  Henry 
in  person.  Richard  was  of  small  stature,  humpbacked, 
and  had  a  disagreeable  countenance.  Several  modern 
writers  have  appeared  as  his  apologists.  Richard  III. 
furnishes  the  name  to  one  of  Shakspeare's  most  popular 
dramas. 

See  SIR  GEORGE  BUCK,  "Life  of  Richard  III.  ;"  JESSH,  "Life 
of  Richard  III.,"  1860:  BEAI.K,  "Richard  III.  and  his  Times," 
1844;  SIR  THOMAS  MORE.  "  History  of  Edward  V.  and  the  Duke  of 
York,"  1641  ;  HUME,  "  History  of  England,"  chap,  xxiii.  ;  HORACE 
WAI.POLE,  "Historic  Doubts  on  Richard  III.,"  1768;  J.  REV, 
'•  Essais  historiques  et  critiques  stir  Richard  III,"  1818. 

Richard  (re'shln')  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  surnamed 
SANS  PEUK,  ("without  fear,")  was  born  about  933  ;  died 
in  996. 

Richard  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  died  in  1027  or  1026, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Richard  III.,  who  died 
in  1028. 

Richard,  a  native  of  Normandy,  was  a  friend  of 
Thomas  a  Becket,  whom  he  succeeded  as  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1174.  Died  in  1184. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  viii. 

Richard,  a  learned  and  liberal  prelate,  whose  family 
name  was  Frrz-RAU'H.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  in  1347,  and  denounced  the  superstition  and 
licentious  habits  of  the  mendicant  friars.  For  this 
offence  he  was  arraigned  before  Pope  Innocent  VI., 
and  condemned.  Died  at  Avignon  in  1360. 

Richard,  re'shtit',  (AcniLLE,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1794,  was  a  son  of  Louis  Claude  Marie, 
noticed  below.  lie  wrote  many  monographs,  and  con 
tributed  greatly  to  popularize  the  science  of  botany. 
His  "  Elements  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology" 
(1819;  7th  edition,  1846)  is  highly  commended  as  a  text 
book  for  students.  It  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages.  Died  in  1852. 

See  BOUCHARDOT,  "  iSioges  de  Royer-Collard  et  d'A.  Richard," 
1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Richard,  (CHARLES  Louis,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1711.  He  published  a  "Diction 
ary  of  Ecclesiastical  Sciences,"  (6  vols.,  1760.)  Died 
in  1794. 

Richard,  (Fi.EURY  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Lyons  in  1777.  He  received  the  title 
of  painter  to  Charles  X.  about  1824. 

Richard,  (FRANCOIS,)  called  RICHARD  LENOIR,  a 
French  manufacturer,  born  in  Calvados  in  1765.  He 
and  his  partner  Lenoir  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
fine  cotton  stuffs  into  France  about  1795.  Died  in  1839. 

See  his  autobiographic  "  Memoires,"  1837. 

Richard,  (FRANgois  MARIE  CLAUD?:,)  BAROX,  a 
French  physician,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of"  Observations  on  the  Medicine  of  the 
Military  Hospitals,"  ("  Observations  de  Medecine  des 
Hopitaux  militaires,"  1766.)  He  died  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XVI. 

Richard,  (JEAN,)  a  French  moralist  and  religious 
writer,  born  at  Verdun  in  1638.  His  chief  work  is 
"  Universal  Science  of  the  Pulpit,  or  Moral  Dictionary," 
("  La  Science  universelle  de  la  Chaire,  ou  Dictionnaire 
morale,"  etc.,  5  vols.,  1700-12.)  Died  in  1719. 

Richard,  (JOSEPH  CHARLES,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  La  Fleche  in  1752,  was  a  moderate  member  of 
the  Convention.  He  was  specially  excepted  from  the 
operation  of  the  law  which  exiled  regicides  in  1816. 
Died  in  1834. 

Richard,  (Louis  CLAUDE  MARIE,)  an  eminent  French 
botanist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1754.  He  passed  about 
eight  years  (1781-89)  in  exploring  the  botanical  and 
other  productions  of  Guiana  and  the  Antilles.  After 
his  return  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute,  and  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  Ecole  de  Medecine,  Paris.  He 
was  a  good  observer,  and  was  versed  in  various  branches 
of  natural  history.  He  wrote,  besides  several  memoirs 
or  monographs,  an  excellent  "  Analysis  of  the  Fruit, 
considered  in  general,"  (1808.)  Died  in  1821. 

See  Ct'viHR,  "  filoge  de  L.  C.  M.  Richard;"  KUNTH,  "Notice 
snr  L.  C.  M.  Richard,"  1824;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RICHARD 


1893 


RICHARDSON 


Richard,  (RENE,)  a  French  historian,  bom  at  Sau- 
mur  in  1654,  obtained  the  office  of  royal  censor,  (of 
books.)  Died  in  1727. 

Richard,  (THEODORE,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Milhau  (Aveyron)  about  1805. 

Richard  de  Bury,  an  English  prelate  and  patron  of 
learning,  whose  family  name  was  RICHARD  ANGERVILLE 
or  ANGARVILLE,  was  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in 
1287.  He  was  tutor  to  Prince  Edward,  (afterwards  Ed 
ward  III.)  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  pope, 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Petrarch,  was  appointed 
P>ishop  of  Durham  in  1333,  and  chancellor  of  England 
in  1334.  He  collected  a  great  number  of  books,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  a  company  of  scholars  at  Oxford.  It 
is  stated  that  he  owned  more  books  than  all  the  other 
English  bishops  together.  He  was  eminent  for  learning. 
Died  in  1345. 

See  an  account  of  liis  life  in  his  "  Philobiblon,"  an  English  ver 
sion  of  which  was  published  in  London,  1833. 

Richard  de  Saint- Victor,  re'shi R'  deh  san  vek'- 
IOR',  a  mystical  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  in 
Scotland,  was  a  pupil  of  Hugh  de  Saint- Victor.  He 
became  prior  of  the  abbey  of  Saint-Victor,  at  Paris,  in 
1164.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  celebrated  writer  on 
theology,  ethics,  etc.  An  edition  of  his  works  was  pub 
lished  by  John  of  Toulouse  in  1650.  Died  in  1173. 

See  JOANNES  DE  TOLOSA,  "Vita  Richardi,"  prefixed  to  the  edi 
tion  of  his  works,  1650. 

Richard  of  Cirencester,  (sis'e-ter,)  an  English  his 
torian  and  monk,  called  RiCAR'DUsCoRlNF.x'sis,  or  THE 
MONK  OK  WESTMINSTER.  He  entered  a  monastery  at 
Westminster  in  1350.  He  wrote,  besides  several  works 
on  Saxon  and  British  history,  a  celebrated  "  Description 
of  Britain,"  ("  De  Situ  Britannia?,")  the  manuscript  of 
which  was  first  found  in  1747  by  Charles  Julius  Bertram, 
of  Copenhagen.  The  authenticity  of  this  work  is 
doubted  by  many  critics. 

Richard  of  Hexham.     See  ROGER. 

Richard  Plantagenet.    See  YORK,  third  DUKE  OF. 

Rich'ard  Plaii-tag'e-net,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  a  son 
of  John,  King  of  England,  was   born   in   1208.     "His 
ruling  passion  was  to  amass  money, — in  which  he  suc 
ceeded  so  well  as  to  become  the  richest  subject  in  Chris 
tendom,''  (Hume.)     According   to   Michaud,  he  fought  I 
as  a  crusader  in  Palestine  about  1240.     He  was  elected  j 
King  of  the  Romans  in  1256.     "He  was  tempted,"  says 
Hume,  "to  expend  vast  sums  of  money  on  his  election." 
Though  he  was  crowned  at   Aix-la-Chapelle,  his  reign 
was  only  nominal.     He  died  in  England  in  1272. 

See  RYMER,  "  Fcedera  ;"  GEBAUER,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  Herrn 
Richards,"  etc.,  1744. 

Richardot,  re'shaR'do',  (FRANCOIS,)  Bishop  of  Arras, 
a  learned  French  prelate,  born  in  1507;  died  in  1574. 

Rich'ards,  (  WILLIAM,)  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Plainfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  sailed  in  1822 
to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  became  interpreter 
and  chaplain  to  the  king,  and  in  1845  was  appointed 
minister  of  public  instruction.  Died  in  1847. 

Richards,  (W.  T.,)  a  distinguished  American  land 
scape-painter,  is  a  resident  of  Philadelphia.  He  is  one 
of  the  most  successful  cultivators  of  the  pre-Raphaelite 
style  in  landscape-painting.  His  works  are  remarkable 
for  their  accuracy  of  detail  and  the  perfection  of  their 
finish. 

See  TCCKKRMAX,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Rich'ard-son,  (CHARLES,)  an  eminent  English  lexi 
cographer,  born  in  1775.  He  published  in  1805  "Illus 
trations  of  English  Philology,"  in  which  he  advocated 
the  philological  opinions  of  Home  Tooke.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (2 
vols.  4to,  1835-37,  reissued  in  1838,  1839,  1844,  ^49,  and 
1855;  with  Supplement,  1856  and  1859,)  which  is  very 
highly  esteemed.  It  was  pronounced  by  Dean  Trench 
the  best  dictionary  in  the  language.  Died  in  1865. 

See  AI.UBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Rich'ard-son,  (ISRAEL  B.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Burlington,  Vermont,  about  1818,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  war,  became  a  captain  in  1851,  and  resigned 
his  commission  in  1855.  He  commanded  a  division  in 


the  Chickahominy  campaign,  (May-July,  1862,)  was  ap 
pointed  a  major-general  in  July,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.  He  received 
in  this  battle  a  wound  of  which  he  died,  November,  1862. 

S^e  TENNEY,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Richardson,  (JAMES,)  an  English  traveller,  bom  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1806.  He  engaged  in  an  expedition  to 
Lake  Tchad,  in  Africa,  and  departed  from  Tripoli  in 
1850  with  Barth.  He  died  at  Ungouratona  in  March, 
1851,  leaving  a  "Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  Central 
Africa,"  (1853.) 

See  "  Nonvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Richardson,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Chester.  He  became  Bishop  of  Ardagh,  Ire 
land,  in  1633.  Died  in  London  in  1654. 

Rich'ard-son,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  British  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  at  Dumfries,  Scotland,  in  1787.  He 
served  as  surgeon  to  Captain  Franklin's  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1819,  and  to  the  second  expedition 
of  that  navigator  in  1825.  He  published  "  Zoology  of 
the  Northern  Parts  of  British  America,"  ("  Fauna  Bo- 
reali-Americana,"  3  parts,  1829-37,)  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  William  Swainson  and  William  Kirby.  In 
1848  he  conducted  an  expedition  sent  to  search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin.  His  route  was  through  the  lakes  of 
British  America  to  Slave  Lake,  and  thence  down  the 
Mackenzie  River,  the  mouth  of  which  he  reached  in 
August,  1848.  After  his  return  he  published  a  "Journal 
of  a  Boat- Voyage  through  Rupert's  Land  to  the  Arctic 
Sen,"  etc.,  (1851.)  Died  in  1865. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  John  Richardson,"  London,  :86S;  "Bio 
graphical  Sketches,"  by  H.  MAKTINEAU. 

Richardson,  (JOHN  PETER,)  an  American  statesman, 
grandson  of  Richard,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Sumter 
district,  South  Carolina,  in  1801.  He  was  a  prominent 
leader  of  the  Union  party  in  the  Nullification  contest 
of  1835,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1836,  and  became 
Governor  of  the  State  in  1841.  Died  in  1850. 

Richardson,  (JONATHAN,)  an  English  portrait- 
painter  and  writer  on  art,  was  born  about  1665.  He 
painted  heads  with  great  success,  but  failed  in  attitudes, 
draperies,  and  backgrounds.  After  the  death  of  Knel- 
ler  he  was  considered  the  foremost  portrait-painter  of 
England.  His  durable  reputation  is  founded  on  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Whole  Art  of  Criticism  as  it  relates  to 
Painting,  and  an  Argument  in  behalf  of  the  Science  of 
a  Connoisseur,"  (1719,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1745. 

Richardson,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Northumberland.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1784.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of  the 
satires  of  the  "  Rolliad"  and  the  "  Probationary  Odes." 
Died  in  1803. 

Richardson,  (RiCHARn,)  an  American  soldier  and 
patriot,  born  near  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1704,  served 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.  Died  in  1780. 

Richardson,  (SAMUEL,)  an  eminent  English  novel 
ist,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1689,  was  a  son  of  a  joiner. 
At  the  village  school  which  he  attended  he  began  to  dis 
play  his  faculty  for  invention.  He  has  informed  us  that 
in  his  boyhood  he  was  a  favourite  of  young  women,  who 
availed  themselves  of  his  talents  in  the  composition  of 
letters  to  their  lovers.  About  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  of  London,  named  Wilde. 
He  served  as  foreman  in  the  printing-office  about  five 
years,  and  then  became  a  master-printer  in  Fleet  Street. 
He  married  Miss  Wilde,  a  daughter  of  his  former 
master.  In  1740  he  published  his  first  novel,  "  Pa 
mela,"  which  was  very  popular  and  opened  a  new  era  in 
English  romantic  literature.  Fielding's  novel  "Joseph 
Andrews"  was  an  avowed  burlesque  of  "  Pamela." 
Richardson  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his 
"History  of  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  (1748,)  which  is  con 
sidered  his  capital  work.  "  His  personages  have  all 
the  reality  possible,"  says  Diderot;  "his  incidents  are 
realized  in  the  manners  of  all  polished  nations.  What 
fertility  in  the  invention  of  personages  !  what  variety 
in  the  delineation  of  characters !"  He  afterwards 
produced  the  novel  of  "Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  (1753.) 
which  was  less  successful.  Richardson  was  prosperous  in 


;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  thasin  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHARDSON 


1894 


RICHELIEU 


business.  By  the  favour  of  Speaker  Onslovv  he  obtained 
the  lucrative  privilege  of  printing  the  Journals  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  wrote  No.  XCVII.  of  the 
"  Rambler"  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  was  his  friend  and  a 
warm  admirer  of  his  works.  Died  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1761. 

See  FRANCIS  JEFFREY,  "Swift  and  Richardson,"  1853;  DIDE 
ROT,  "E"logede  S.  Richardson,"  1762;  MRS.  BARBAULD,  "Life  of 
S.  Richardson,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Correspondence,"  6  vols.,  1803; 
SIR  WALTER  SCOTT,  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;"  E.  MAN- 
GIN,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  S.  Richardson,"  i8n  ;  ALUBONE,  "  Dic 
tionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1869,  article  "Historical 
Sketches  of  the  Reign  of  George  II.  ;"  "Westminster  Review"  for 
January,  1869;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1805. 

Richardson,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  Norfolk  in  1569.  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the 
Commons  in  1621,  and  became  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  1625  or  1626.  He  decided  that 
torture  was  an  illegal  mode  of  obtaining  evidence  when 
it  was  proposed  to  apply  it  to  Felton  the  assassin,  (1628.) 
In  1631  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench.  He  was  a  noted  jester.  Died  in  1635. 

See  LOUD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England." 

Richardson,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
near  Bedford  in  1698.  lie  became  chaplain  to  the  king 
in  1746.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  published.  Died 
in  1775. 

Richardson,  (WILLIAM,)  a  British  writer  and  critic, 
born  in  Perthshire  in  1743.  He  was  professor  of  hu 
manity  at  Glasgow  from  1773  to  I8i4,  and  was  a 
contributor  to  the  "Mirror."  Among  his  works  are 
"  Anecdotes  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  and  "Essays  on 
the  Characters  of  Shakspeare,"  (3  vols.,  1775,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.  Died  in  1814. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Riche,  resh,  (CLAUDE  ANTOINK  GASI>ARD,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Bcaujolais  in  1762.  He  was  a  coad 
jutor  of  VTicq  d'Azyr  in  the  "  Encyclopedic  Me'thodique." 
He  accompanied  as  a  naturalist  the  expedition  which 
was  sent  in  search  of  La  Perouse  in  1791.  On  their 
arrival  at  Java,  in  1793,  tne  collections  and  journal  of 
Riche  were  seized  by  the  Dutch.  He  died  in  1797, 
leaving  many  memoirs  on  natural  history.  He  was  a 
brother  of  De  Prony,  the  great  engineer  and  geometer. 

See  CUVIER,  "  E"loge  du  Citoyen  Riche,"  1798. 

Riche,  re'sha',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  President  of  Hayti, 
was  born  at  Cap-Haitien  about  1780.  He  served  as  a 
general  under  Christophe,  and  became  President  in 
March,  1846.  Died  in  February,  1847. 

Riche  de  Prony.     See  PRONY,  DE. 

Richelet,  resh'li',  (PiERKE,)  a  French  grammarian, 
born  at  Cheminon  in  1631.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1680,) 
the  success  of  which  was  promoted  by  many  satirical 
remarks  contained  in  it.  Died  at  Paris  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Richelieu,  de,  deh  resh'le-uh',  (  ALPHONSE  Louis 
du  Plessis— dii  pli'se',)  caffec!  CARDINAL  DE  LYON, 
born  in  Paris  in  1582,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  states 
man.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1628,  and 
cardinal  in  1629.  He  meddled  little  with  the  intrigues 
of  the  court.  Died  in  1653. 

See  ABBE  DE  PURE,  "Vie  de  Richelieu,  Cardinal  de  Lyon." 

Richelieu,  de,  (ARMAND  EMANUEL  DU  PLESSIS,) 
DUKE,  a  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  was  a  grand 
son  of  Marshal  Richelieu,  (1696-1788.)  He  emigrated 
in  1789  or  1790,  entered  the  Russian  army,  and  became 
governor  of  Odessa  in  1803.  Having  returned  to  France 
in  1814,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and 
president  of  the  council  (i.e.  prime  minister)  in  Sep 
tember,  1815.  He  negotiated  with  the  allies  a  treaty 
which  secured  the  territorial  integrity  of  France.  He 
resigned  office  about  the  end  of  1818,  and  was  recalled 
to  the  presidency  of  the  council  February  20,  1820.  In 
November,  1821,  he  retired  because  the  majority  of  the 
Chamber  opposed  his  policy.  He  was  a  man  of  estimable 
character.  Died  in  May,  1822. 

See  L.  F.  DE  BAUSSET,  "Notice  sur  M.  le  Due  de  Richelieu," 
1822;  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  GUIZOT,  "  Me- 
moires,"  tome  i.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Richelieu,  resh'e-loo,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  resh'le-uh',  ] 
(ARMAND  JEAN  DU  PLESSIS,)  CARDINAL,  a  celeljrated 
and  ambitious  French  statesman,  born  at  Paris  or  in 
Poitou  on  the  5th  of  September,  1585,  was  a  son  of 
Frai^ois  du  Plessis  and  Susanne  de  la  Porte.  He 
studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre  and  that  of  Lisieux, 
and  chose  the  clerical  profession.  In  1607  he  was 
consecrated  at  Rome  as  Bishop  of  Lujon.  Having  been 
selected  by  the  States-General  to  harangue  the  king  in 
1614,  he  acquitted  himself  so  well  that  he  was  appointed 
almoner  to  the  queen-regnant.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  a  short  time  in  1616,  and  acted  as  mediator 
between  the  king  and  his  mother,  Marie  de  Medicis, 
by  whose  influence  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
in  1622.  About  two  years  later  he  was  admitted  into 
the  royal  council,  which  he  entered  as  a  master  rather 
than  an  adviser.  Even  the  king  was  overawed  by  the 
intensity  of  his  imperious  will.  Richelieu  soon  became 
prime  minister,  and  pursued  a  policy  which  tended 
to  humble  the  powerful  nobility,  to  centralize  the  ad 
ministration,  to  render  the  monarchy  absolute,  and 
to  restore  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe, -which  the 
ascendency  of  the  House  of  Austria  had  disturbed. 
His  most  powerful  opponents  were  Marie  de  Medicis 
and  the  king's  brother  Guston,  who  incited  an  armed 
revolt,  which  was  suppressed  without  difficulty.  Among 
the  important  achievements  of  Richelieu  was  the  subjec 
tion  of  the  Calvinists,  who  had  attempted  to  gain  their 
independence  or  defend  their  rights  by  arms,  and  whose 
head-quarters  were  at  Rochelle.  He  directed  in  person 
the  siege  of  this  city,  which  surrendered  in  1628  on 
condition  that  a  general  pardon  should  be  granted,  with 
|  religious  toleration  to  the  Protestants.  A  contest  for 
ascendency  between  Richelieu  and  Marie  de  Medicis 
ended  in  the  exile  of  the  latter  in  1630.  He  maintained 
the  independence  of  the  civil  power  against  the  usurpa 
tions  of  the  Romish  Church.  He  exhibited  excessive 
severity  in  the  execution  of  Marillac,  Montmorency, 
Cinq-Mars,  and  other  noblemen,  who  were  implicated 
in  a  conspiracy  against  him.  The  first  two  of  these 
were  executed  in  1632. 

In  the  pursuance  of  his  design  to  reduce  the  power 
of  Austria,  he  supported  with  a  subsidy  the  Protestants 
of  Germany,  who  were  waging  war  against  the  emperor, 
and  used  his  influence  to  defeat  the  negotiations  for 
peace.  He  also  ordered  a  large  body  of  French  troops 
to  co-operate  with  the  Swedes  on  the  Rhine  in  1635. 
About  this  time  his  armies  opposed  the  Spaniards  in 
Flanders  and  Italy,  but  without  much  success.  In  1635 
he  founded  and  endowed  the  French  Academy,  the  most 
splendid  literary  institution  of  Europe.  In  the  same 
year  he  made  a  treaty  with  Holland,  which  became  his 
ally  in  a  war  against  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  The  French 
gained  several  victories  in  Germany  and  Italy  in  1640- 
42.  During  his  administration  Alsace,  Artois,  and  Rous- 
sillon  were  annexed  to  France.  Richelieu  detected  a 
dangerous  conspiracy  formed  by  Cinq-Mars  and  Gaston 
of  Orleans,  the  former  of  whom  was  executed  in  Sep 
tember,  1642.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  December, 
1642.  The  people  expressed  by  bonfires  their  joy  for 
his  death. 

Richelieu  had  some  literary  taste,  and  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  authors,  artists,  etc.  He  was  the  reputed 
author  of  several  works,  among  which  are  "  Memoires 
du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  first  printed  in  1823,  and  his 
"Political  Testament,"  ("Testament  politique,")  the 
authenticity  of  which  was  discredited  by  Voltaire  and 
defended  by  Foncemagne.  Although  Richelieu  was  a 
great  and  successful  statesman,  he  is  not  a  general 
favourite  with  the  French,  like  Henry  IV.  or  Louis  XIV. 
Many  modern  French  writers  argue  that  his  policy  did 
not  conduce  to  the  real  and  durable  prosperity  of  the 
nation.  His  system  is  severely  criticised  by  De  Tocque- 
ville,  (in  his  "Ancien  Regime  et  la  Revolution,")  by 
Quinet,  and  by  Charles  de  Remusat. 

SeeAuBERY,  "Memoires  du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  1660  ;  JAY, 
"  Histoire  du  Ministere  de  Richelieu;"  CAPEFIGUE,  "Richelieu  et 
Mazarin,"  1836;  HENRI  MARTIN,  "Histoire  de  France;"  MICHE- 
I.ET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  VIOI.ART,  "Histoire  du  Ministere  de 
Richelieu,"  1649;  J.  CAII.I.ET,  "  L' Administration  en  France  sous 
Richelieu,"  2  vols.,  1861  ;  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  by  WILLIAM 
ROBSON,  1854;  SULLY,  "Memoires;"  CARDINAL  DE  RETZ,  "Me 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  nit;  good;  moon; 


RICHELIEU 


1895 


RICHTER 


Richelieu,  de,  (Loins  FRANCOIS  ARMAND  r>u  PLES- 
Sis,)  a  brilliant  and  profligate  courtier,  born  in  1696,  was 
a  grand-nephew  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  was  a  son 
of  Armand  Jean  Vignerod,  Due  de  Richelieu.  His  in 
trigues  and  libertinism  caused  him  to  be  thrice  confined 
in  the  Bastille.  He  obtained  the  favour  of  Louis  XV., 
and  distinguished  himself  as  a  general  at  Fontenoy  in 
1745.  About  1748  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France. 
He  disgraced  himself  by  his  cupidity,  arrogance,  and 
scandalous  vices.  Died  in  1788. 


See  FAUR,  "Vie  privee  du  Marechal  de  Richelieu,"  1790:  Sou- 


r.AviK.  "  Memoires  du  Marechal  de  Richelieu;"  VOLTAIKE,  "  Cor- 


respondance  gesierale ;"   SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;     CAPEFIGUE, 


'•Le  Mareclial  de  Richelieu,"  1857;  DANGBAU,  "Journal;"   "  Nou- 


e  Biographie  Generale. 


Riohemont,  de,  deh  resh'moN',  (Louis  AUGUSTS 
CAMUS,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1770;  died  in  1853. 

Richepaiise  or  Richepaiice,  resh'pS.vss',  (AN- 
TOINE,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Metz  in  1770.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1796,  and  a  general 
of  division  in  1799.  Having  obtained  command  of  a 
division  of  the  army  of  Moreau,  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Hohenlinden,  (1800.)  Died  at  Guadeloupe 
in  1803. 

See  NOLLET-FABERT,  "  Le  General  Richepance,"  1853. 

Richer,  re'sha',  [Lat.  RICHK'RUS,]  a  French  chroni 
cler,  who  flourished  about  980-1000.  He  wrote  (in 
Latin)  a  history  of  the  period  from  888  to  995,  which 
is  highly  prized.  The  manuscript  of  this  work  was  dis 
covered  in  1833  by  Pertz  and  Boehmer. 

Richer,  (  ADRIEN,)  a  French  biographer  and  historian, 
born  at  Avranches  in  1720.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of 
Celebrated  Mariners,"  (13  vols.,  1780-86,)  and  other 
works.  Died  at  Paris  in  1798. 

Richer,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Auxerre  in  1680;  died  in  1756. 

Richer,  (EDMOND,)  a  French  canonist,  born  in  Cham 
pagne  in  1559  or  1560.  He  became  an  adherent  of 
Henry  IV.  about  1590,  and  syndic  of  the  Faculty  of 
Theology  at  Paris  in  1608.  He  defended  the  privileges 
of  the  Gallican  Church,  and  published  a  work  "On 
Ecclesiastical  and  Political  Power,"  (1611,)  which  sub 
jected  him  to  persecution.  Died  in  1631.  "His  fame," 
says  Hallam,  "has  risen  in  later  times." 

See  BAII.I.ET,  "Vie  de  Richer,"  1714;  PERAU,  "Vie  d'E. 
Richer,"  1748;  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Richer,  (EooUARD,)  a  French  author,  born  in  La 
Vendee  in  1792.  He  produced  a  poem  entitled  "Victor 
et  Amelie,"  (1816,)  and  a  "  History  of  Brittany,"  (1821,) 
which  is  commended.  Having  been  converted  to  the 
doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  he  published  a  work  called 
"The  New  Jerusalem,"  (8  vols.,  1832-36.)  Died  at 
Nantes  in  1834. 

See  PIET,  "Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Richer,"  1836. 

Richer,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist,  a  brother  of 
Adrian,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Avranches  in  1718. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Civil  Death,"  ("  De  la  Mort 
civile,"  1755,)  and  "Celebrated  Trials,"  (22  vols.,  1772 
-88.)  Died  in  1790. 

Richer,  (HENRI,)  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born  at 
Longueil  in  1685.  Among  his  works  are  "  Fables  in 
Verse,"  (1729,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Maecenas,"  (1746.)  Died 
in  1748. 

Richer,  (JEAN,)  a  French  astronomer,  was  sent  to 
Cayenne  in  1671  to  observe  the  parallax  of  the  sun. 
Died  in  1696. 

Richer  d'Aube,  re'sha'  dob,  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1686,  was  a  nephew  of  Fonte- 
nelle.  Died  in  1752. 

Richerand,  resh'r&N',  (ANTHELME,)  an  eminent 
French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  at  Belley,  in  Bugey, 
in  1779.  He  published  "Elements  of  Physiology," 
(1801  ;  loth  edition,  1832,)  which  had  great  success,  and 
became  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  Paris 
in  1806.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle."  Died  in  1840. 

See  DUBOIS  D'AMIENS,  "  filoge  de  Richerand,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Kiographie  Generale." 

Richerus.     See  RICHER. 

Richier,  re'she-i',  (LiGiER,)  a  skilful  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Lorraine  about  1500.  He  studied  in  Rome, 


and    returned    to   Lorraine   while   he    was    still    young. 
Died  about  1572. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Richmann,  riK/man,  or  Rickman,  rik'man,  (GEORG 
WILHELM,)  born  in  Livonia  in  1711,  became  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1745.  He  was 
killed  by  lightning,  while  repeating  the  experiment  of 
Dr.  Franklin,  in  1753. 

Rich'moiid,  (CHARLES  GORDON  LENNOX,)  DUKE 
OF,  born  in  London  in  1791,  was  a  son  of  Charles 
Lennox,  (1764-1819.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  privy 
council,  and  of  the  cabinet  formed  by  Earl  Grey  in  1831. 
Died  in  1861. 

Richmond,  (CHARLES  HENRY  GORDON  LENNOX,) 
DUKE  OF,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1818,  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  poor- 
law  board  in  1859,  resigned  the  same  year,  and  succeeded 
his  father  as  duke  in  1860.  He  was  president  of  the 
board  of  trade  in  1867  and  1868.  In  1870  he  became 
leader  of  the  Conservatives  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Richmond,  (CHARLES  LENNOX,)  DUKE  OF,  born 
in  1672,  was  a  son  of  Charles  II.  and  the  Duchess  of 
Portsmouth.  He  served  in  the  army  under  William 
III.  in  Flanders.  He  died  in  1723,  and  left  the  title  to 
his  son  Charles. 

Richmond,  (CHARLES  LENNOX,)  DUKE  OF,  a  British 
!  general,  born  in  1735,  was  a  grandson  of  a  natural  son 
|  of  King  Charles   II.     He  was   a  friend  of  liberty  and 
reform,  and  a  man  of  superior  talents.     In  1778  he  pro 
posed  to   recognize   the  independence   of  the   revolted 
American  colonies.     He  became  master  of  the  ordnance 
in   1782.     Died  in  1806.     His  sister,  SARAH  LENNOX, 
became  the  wife  of  George   Napier  and  mother  of  the 
famous  commanders  of  that  name. 

Richmond,  (CHARLES  LENNOX,)  DUKE  OF,  a  British 
peer,  born  in  1764.  He  entered  the  army  in  his  youth. 
In  1806  he  inherited  the  dukedom  at  the  death  of  his 
uncle.  He  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in 
1808,  and  governor-general  of  the  British  possessions  in 
North  America  about  1816.  He  died  in  Canada,  of 
hydrophobia,  in  1819,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Charles. 

Richmond,  EARL  OF.  See  HENRY  VII.  of  Eng 
land. 

Richmond,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  portrait-painter, 
born  about  1809.  He  became  popular  as  a  painter  in 
water-colours  in  London.  His  more  recent  works  are 
chiefly  portraits  in  oil.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of 
the  R'oyal  Academy  in  1857. 

Richmond,  (JAMES  STUART,)  fourth  DUKE  OF,  born 
in  1612,  was  a  nephew  of  Ludovic  Stuart,  noticed  below. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  duke  about  1641.  He  was  a 
devoted  adherent  of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  Died 
in  1655. 

Richmond,  (LEIGH,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Liverpool  in  1772.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
obtained  a  curacy  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  from  which  he 
removed  to  London  in  1805  and  became  chaplain  of  the 
Lock  Hospital.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Turvey,  in  Bedfordshire,  about  1808.  He  published 
"Annals  of  the  Poor,"  containing  "The  Dairyman's 
Daughter"  and  other  narratives,  which  obtained  a  wide 
circulation  ;  also,  "The  Fathers  of  the  English  Church," 
(8  vols.,  1807-11.)  Died  in  1827. 

See  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Leigh  Richmond,"  by  REV.  T.  S. 
GRIMSHAW. 

Rich'mpnd  and  Len'nox,  (LUDOVIC  STUART,)  sec 
ond  DUKE  OF,  born  in  1574,  was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Lennox,  and  a  cousin  of  James  I.  of  England.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  that  king,  who  created  him  Duke  of 
Richmond  in  1623.  He  died,  without  issue,  in  1624. 

Richomme,  re'shom',  (JOSEPH  THEODORE,)  an  emi 
nent  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1806  or  1816.  He  engraved  a  number 
of  works  after  Raphael.  Died  about  1850. 

Richter,  riK'ter,  (AooLi'H,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Thorn  in  1813. 

Richter,  (ADRIAN  LUDWIG,)  an  eminent  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1803.  His 
works  are  chiefly  landscapes  representing  German  and 
Italian  scenes. 


•e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as>;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHTER 


1896 


Richter,  (/EMILIUS  LUDWIG,)  professor  of  canon  law 
at  Marburg,  born  at  Stolpen  in  1808,  published  a 
"  Manual  of  Catholic  and  Evangelical  Canon  Law," 
(1841.) 

Richter,  (AUGUST  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  surgeon,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1742.  He  was  professor  of  surgery  at  Got- 
tingen  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  that  subject.  Died  in  1812. 

Richter,  (GEOKG  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Schneeburg,  in  Misnia,  in  1694.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1736,  and  pub 
lished  many  medical  treatises.  Died  in  1773. 

Richter,  rik'ter,  (HENRY,)  an  English  painter  of 
genre  and  occasionally  of  history,  born  in  1772,  was 
of  German  extraction.  He  resided  mostly  in  London, 
where  he  died  in  1857.  His  most  important  historical 
work  is  "Christ  Restoring  Sight  to  the  Blind,"  now  in 
a  church  at  Greenwich,  England. 

Richter,  (HERMANN  EBERHARD,)  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1808,  published  a  number 
of  medical  and  botanical  works. 

Richter,  (JEAN  PAUL  FRIEDRICH,)  commonly  called 
Jean  Paul,  a  popular,  'quaint,  and  original  German 
author,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  near  Baireuth,  (Bavaria,)  on 
the  2ist  of  March,  1763.  His  father  was  a  subaltern 
teacher  in  the  gymnasium  of  that  place,  and  afterwards  a 
clergyman.  His  early  education  was  defective.  He  had, 
however,  made  good  progress  in  Latin  and  Greek  when 
he  entered  the  University  of  Leipsic,  in  1780.  He  was 
destined  for  theology,  but  a  strong  predilection  for  poetry 
and  philosophy  caused  him  to  neglect,  and  at  length  to 
abandon,  his  appointed  profession.  During  his  attend 
ance  at  the  university  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  indi 
gence.  To  supply  his  urgent  want  of  funds,  he  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "Greenland  Lawsuits,"  (1783,)  which  but 
slightly  improved  his  pecuniary  affairs.  He  also  wrote 
a  "Selection  from  the  Papers  of  the  Devil,"  ("Auswahl 
aus  des  Teufels  Papieren,"  1788.)  He  quitted  Leipsic 
in  1785,  after  which  he  lived  some  time  with  his  mother 
at  1 1  of.  He  was  afterwards  a  tutor  in  a  family  of  rank, 
and  in  1793  became  teacher  of  a  school  at  Schwarzen- 
bach.  He  produced  in  1793  "The  Invisible  Lodge," 
("  Die  unsichtbare  Loge,")  which  was  received  with 
favour.  His  "  Hesperus,"  a  novel,  (4  vols.,  1794,)  was 
greatly  admired.  "  By  degrees,"  says  Carlyle,  "Jean 
Paul  began  to  be  considered,  not  a  strange  crack-brained 
mixture  of  enthusiast  and  buffoon,  but  a  man  of  infinite 
humour,  sensibility,  force,  and  penetration."  He  changed 
his  residence  frequently,  living  successively  at  Leipsic, 
Weimar,  Meiningen,  etc.  In  1798  he  published  "The 
Valley  of  Campan,  or  a  Discourse  on  the  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,"  ("  Das  Campanerthal,  oder  die  Unsterb- 
lichkeit  der  Seele.")  He  married  Caroline  Mayer,  of 
Berlin,  in  1801,  soon  after  which  he  settled  at  Baireuth. 
The  prince-primate  Carl  von  Dalberg  granted  him  in 
1809  an  annual  pension  of  1000  florins.  According  to 
Carlyle,  he  received  a  pension  from  the  King  of  Bavaria 
in  1802.  Richter  is  represented  as  having  been  eminently 
happy  in  his  domestic  relations.  Died  at  Baireuth  in 
November,  1825. 

Among  his  principal  works  are  novels  entitled  "  Quin- 
tus  Fixlein,"  (1796,)  "Parson  in  Jubilee,"  ("Der  Jubel 
Senior,"  1797,)  "Titan,"  (1800-03,)  and  "  Flegeljahre," 
(which  may  be  translated  "Wild  Oats,"  1805.)  "Titan," 
which  he  considered  his  master-piece,  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English,  (1863.)  He  also  wrote  two  works 
of  high  order,  entitled  "  Introduction  to  /Esthetics," 
("Vorschule  der  /Esthetik,"  3  vols.,  1804,)  and  "  Le- 
vana,"  (1807,)  a  profound  philosophical  essay  on  educa 
tion.  He  left  an  autobiography,  "  Wahrheit  aus  Jean 
Paul's  Leben,  (8  vols.,  1826-33,)  tne  'ast  Part  °f  wn'ch 
was  written  by  Dr.  Otto.  "  Except  by  name,"  said  Car 
lyle  in  1827,  "  Richter  is  little  known  out  of  Germany. 
The  only  thing  connected  with  him,  we  think,  that  has 
reached  this  country  is  his  saying  imported  by  Madame 
de  Stae'l  and  thankfully  pocketed  by  most  newspaper 
critics:  'Providence  has  given  to  the  French  the  empire 
of  the  land,  to  the  English  that  of  the  sea,  and  to  the 
Germans  that  of — the  air  !'  Of  this  last  element,  indeed, 
his  own  genius  might  easily  seem  to  have  been  a  denizen. 
His  thoughts,  his  feelings,  the  creations  of  his  spirit, 


walk  before  us  embodied  under  wondrous  shapes,  in 
motley  and  ever-fluctuating  groups;  but  his  essential 
character,  however  he  disguised  it,  is  that  of  a  philoso 
pher  and  moral  poet,  .  .  .  whose  delight  and  best 
endeavour  are  with  all  that  is  beautiful  and  tender  and 
mysteriously  sublime  in  the  fate  or  history  of  man."  As 
a  humourist,  he  is  pre-eminent  among  the  Germans. 

Sec  CARI.YLE,  "  Essays,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ;  E.  FORSTER,  "Life  of 
Jean  Paul  Richter,"  1863;  DOKING,  "Leben  und  Charakteristik  J. 
P.  Richters,"  1830;  R.  O.  SPAZIEK,  "Jean  Paul  Richter;  ein  bio- 
graphischer  Com  men  tar  7.11  seinen  Werken,"  5  vols.,  1833;  Z. 
FU.NCK,  "Notice  sur  Jean  Paul  Richter,"  1839;  L.  BOERNE, 
"Denkrede  auf  J.  P.  F.  Richter,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene'rale  ;"  EI.IZA  LEE,  "  Life  of  J.  P.  F.  Richter,"  Boston,  1842  ; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1827;  "British  Quarterly  Review" 
for  November,  1847;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  tor  July,  1847,  a»d 
September,  1863. 

Richter,  (JEREMIAS  BENJAMIN,)  a  Prussian  chemist, 
born  at  Hirschberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1762.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Rudiments  of  the  Art  of  Measuring 
Chemical  Elements,"  (4  vols.,  1792-94.)  It  is  stated  that 
he  discovered  the  law  of  multiple  proportions.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  MEUSEL,  "Gelelirtes  Deutschland." 

Richter,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Freyberg  in  1773  ;  died  in  1806. 

Richter,  von,  fort  riic'ter,  (Orro  FKIEDRICH,)  a 
Russian  traveller,  born  in  1792.  He  visited  Egypt, 
Syria,  etc.  Died  at  Smyrna  in  1816  or  1817. 

Ri9'I-mer,  an  ambitious  general  of  the  Roman  army, 
was  a  Gothic  chief.  He  deposed  Avitus  about  457  A.D., 
and  raised  to  the  throne  Majorian,  whom  he  put  to 
death  in  461.  He  obtained  imperial  power,  though  he 
did  not  assume  the  title  of  emperor.  In  472  A.n.  he 
captured  Rome,  and  caused  Anthemius  to  be  killed. 
He  died  the  same  year. 

See  GIBBON,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  LE  BEAU,  "Histoiredu  Bas-  Empire ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Rick'etts,  (JAMES  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1839,  and  became  a  captain  in  1852.  lie  commanded  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September,  1862,  and 
at  that  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5  and  6,  1864.  He  was 
disabled  by  a  severe  wound  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Creek, 
Virginia,  October  19,  1864. 

Rickman,  (GKOKG  WILHEI.M.)     See  RICHMANN. 

Rick'man,  (Jons',)  F.K.S.,  an  English  statistician, 
born  in  1771,  was  assistant  clerk  of  the  House  of  Com 
mons.  Died  in  1841. 

Rickman,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  architect  and  emi 
nent  writer  on  Gothic  architecture,  was  born  at  Maiden 
head  in  1776.  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  service  of  an 
insurance-broker  of  Liverpool  about  1808,  after  which 
he  began  to  study  design  in  his  leisure  hours.  Having 
adopted  the  profession  of  architect,  he  removed  to  Bir 
mingham,  and  published  "  An  Attempt  to  discriminate 
the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England,"  (1817,)  which 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  was  the  architect  of 
many  Gothic  churches  erected  at  Bristol,  Birmingham, 
Carlisle,  Liverpool,  etc.  Among  his  best  works  is  the 
New  Court  of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Died 
in  1841. 

Ricord,  re'koR',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  skilful  physician,  of 
French  parentage,  born  at  Baltimore,  United  States,  in 
1800.  He  became  chief  surgeon  of  the  Hopital  du 
Midi,  Paris,  in  1831,  and  gave  special  attention  to  vene 
real  diseases,  on  which  he  has  written  with  great  suc 
cess.  His  practice  is  said  to  br.  immense :  it  is  probably 
not  surpassed  by  that  of  any  other  physician  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Letters  on  Syphilis,"  (1854.) 

Ri'der,  (JoiiN,)  a  Protestant  bishop,  born  in  Cheshire 
about  1562.  He  became  Bishop  of  Killaloe,  in  Ireland, 
in  1612.  Among  his  works  is  "An  English-Latin  and 
Latin-English  Dictionary,"  (1589.)  Died  in  1632. 

Rider,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  historian,  pub 
lished  a  "History  of  England."  Died  in  1785. 

Ridg'ley,  (THOMAS,)  a  dissenting  minister,  born  in 
London  about  1666.  He  succeeded  Thomas  Gouge  in 
London  about  1700,  and  became  tutor  in  an  academy  of 
the  Independents  in  1712.  He  published  a  "Body  of 
Divinity,"  (1731.)  Died  in  1734. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  me"t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RIDIXGER 


1897 


RIEKZI 


Ridinger.     See  RIKDINGER. 

Rid'ley,  (GLOUCESTER,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  sea,  on  board  the  "Gloucester"  East  Indiaman,  in 
1702.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Ridley,  Bishop 
of  London,"  (1763,)  and  several  poems,  one  of  which 
was  called  "  Psyche,"  (1782.)  Died  in  1774. 

Ridley,  (JAMES,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  chap 
lain  in  the  army.  He  wrote  "  Tales  of  the  Genii," 
often  reprinted.  Died  prematurely  in  1765. 

Ridley,  (\ICHOLAS,)  an  eminent  English  Reformer 
and  martyr,  born  in  Northumberland  near  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  educated  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  preacher.  About  1540  he  became  chaplain  to  the 
king.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1547, 
and  succeeded  Bonner  as  Bishop  of  London  in  1550. 
He  assisted  Cranmer  in  composing  forty-one  or  forty- 
t\vo  articles  of  faith  in  1551,  attempted  to  convert  the 
princess  Mary,  and  induced  King  Edward  to  found 
several  hospitals  in  London.  On  the  death  of  Edward 
VI.  he  advocated  the  claim  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  He 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  by  Queen  Mary  in  July, 
1553,  and  was  removed  in  1554  to  Oxford,  where  he 
took  part  in  a  disputation  on  the  questions  which  divided 
the  Protestants  from  the  Roman  Catholics.  Having 
been  condemned  as  a  heretic,  he  suffered  death  by  fire 
with  fortitude  on  the  i6th  of  October,  1555. 

See  GLOUCESTER  RIDLEY,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Ridley,"  1763;  Hi:  MR, 
"History  of  England;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1763, 
and  January,  1764. 

Ridley,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  civilian,  born  at 
Ely.  He  wrote  a  "View  of  the  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical 
Law.''  Died  in  1629. 

Ridolfi,  re-dol'fee,  (CARLO,)  an  able  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  was  born  at  or  near  Vicenza  about 
1598.  He  avoided  the  degenerate  style  which  prevailed 
among  his  contemporaries.  A  "  Visitation"  which  he 
painted  for  a  church  in  Venice  is  especially  admired. 
He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Venetian  Painters,"  (2 
vols.,  1648,)  which  is  a  work  of  much  literary  and  critical 
merit.  Died  about  1660. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ridolfi,  (CLAUDIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ve 
rona  in  1560,  was  a  pupil  of  Paul  Veronese.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  a  good  colorist.  Died  in  1644. 

Ridolfi,  (LORENZO,)  a  popular  Florentine  statesman, 
who  in  1425  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  re 
public  by  inducing  the  Venetians  to  form  an  alliance 
with  Florence  against  the  Duke  of  Milan. 

Ridolfi,  di,  de  re-dol'fee,  (CosiMO,)  MARQUIS,  an 
Italian  agriculturist,  born  at  Florence  in  1794.  He 
founded  an  agricultural  school  at  Meleto,  and  wrote 
articles  for  the  "Journal  of  Agriculture,"  founded  by 
himself  and  a  few  others  in  1827.  He  was  minister  of 
the  interior  and  president  of  the  council  for  a  short 
time  in  1847  and  1848. 

Riedel,  ree'del,  (AUGUST,)  a  German  painter,  was 
born  at  Baireuth  in  1800.  He  worked  some  years  in 
Rome. 

Riedel,  (FRIEDRICH  JUSTUS,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  near  Erfurt  in  1742.  Among  his  works  are  Satires, 
(3  vols.,  1786.)  Died  in  Vienna  in  1785. 

Riedesel,  ree'deh-zel',  (JOSEPH  HERMANN,)  a  German 
traveller,  born  in  1740.  He  published  an  account  of 
his  travels  in  Greece,  etc.,  ("  Remarques  d'un  Voyageur 
au  Levant,"  1773.)  Died  in  1785. 

Riedesel,  von,  fon  ree'deh-zel',  (FREDERIKA,)  BAR 
ONESS,  a  German  lady,  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1746. 
She  went  to  the  United  States  in  1777  with  her  husband, 
an  officer  in  the  British  service.  She  wrote  Letters  on 
the  campaign  which  she  witnessed  in  New  York.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1808. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Riedesel,  von,  (FRIEDRICH  ADOLPH,)  BARON,  a 
German  officer,  born  in  1738,  was  the  husband  of  the 
preceding.  He  served  in  the  British  army  against  the 
Americans,  (1777-82,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Journals  of  Major-General  Riede 
sel,"  translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  L.  STONE,  (New 
York,  1868.) 


Riedinger  or  Ridinger,  ree'ding-er,  (  JOHANN 
ELTAS,)  an  eminent  German  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1695.  His  delineations  of  animals,  es 
pecially  wild  ones,  are  unsurpassed  for  accuracy  and 
fidelity  to  nature.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Obser 
vations  on  Wild  Animals,"  (40  copper-plates,)  "Fables 
of  Animals,"  (16  plates,)  and  "Paradise,"  (12  plates.) 
He  worked  mostly  at  Augsburg.  Died  in  1767. 

See  NAGLER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  HIRSCHI'NG, 
"  Hibtorisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Riegger,  von,  fon  reeg'ger,  (JOSEPH  ANTON,)  a  Gei- 
man  jurist  and  writer  on  canon  law.  He  became 
professor  of  law  at  Vienna  in  1764.  Died  in  1795. 

Riego  y  Nunez,  del,  del  re-a'go  e  noon'yeth,  a  Span 
ish  general  and  patriot,  born  in  Asturias  about  1785. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  insurgents  who  in  January,  1820, 
took  arms  for  the  Constitution  of  1812.  He  was  after 
wards  appointed  Captain-General  of  Asturias,  or  of 
Aragon,  and  president  of  the  Cortes.  He  resisted  the 
French  army  of  intervention  in  1823,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  executed  in  November  of  that  year. 

See  MIGUEL  RIEGO,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Riego,"  1823; 
NARD  Y  PIRALA.  "  Vida  miiitar  y  politica  de  Riego,"  1844;  ED. 
BURCKHAKDT,  "  Riego  uiid  Mina,"  1835. 

Riem,  reem,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  rural  economist, 
bom  at  Frankenthal,  on  the  Rhine,  in  1739.  He  wrote 
on  the  methods  of  raising  bees  and  obtaining  honey. 
Died  in  1807. 

Riemer,  ree'mer,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Glatz  in  1774.  He  was 
employed  as  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  W.  von  Hnmboldt, 
and  subsequently  in  that  of  Goethe.  He  became  first 
librarian  at  Weimar  in  1828.  He  published  a  "  Greek- 
German  Hand-Lexicon,"  and  a  number  of  poems.  Died 
in  1845. 

Riencourt,  de,  deh  re4.N'kooR',  (SiMON,)  a  French 
historian,  born  about  1605,  in  Paris,  published  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  French  Monarchy  under  the  Reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,"  (2  vols.,  1688,)  and  a  "History  of  Louis  XIII.," 
(1695.)  Died  in  1693. 

Rienzi,  re-e"n'zee,  or  Rienzo,  re-e"n'zo,  (Nicoi.A  GA- 
IJRINI,)  called  COLAS  DI  RIENZI,  ko'lasdee  re-eVzee,  an 
eloquent  Roman  tribune,  was  born  probably  at  Rome. 
He  received  a  liberal  education,  and  became  a  friend  of 
Petrarch  about  1340.  At  that  period  anarchy  prevailed 
in  Rome,  the  citizens  of  which  were  robbed  and  out 
raged  by  barons  who  occupied  fortified  castles.  Rienzi 
was  a  colleague  of  Petrarch  in  a  deputation  sent  by  the 
Romans  to  Avignon  in  1342  to  persuade  the  pope  to 
return  to  Rome.  In  1347,  by  the  popular  favour,  he 
obtained  power,  with  the  title  of  tribune,  and  made  some 
reforms.  He  soon  became  elated  with  success,  and  dis 
gusted  the  people  by  his  vain  pomp  and  extravagance. 
"  He  degenerated,"  says  Gibbon,  "into  the  vices  of  a 
king."  He  was  driven  out  of  the  city  about  the  end  of 
1347,  after  he  had  been  anathematized  as  a  rebel  and  a 
heretic  by  the  legate  of  the  pope.  Having  passed  seven 
years  as  a  fugitive  in  Germany,  etc.,  he  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  Avignon,  as  a  captive  or  culprit,  in  1352.  In 
1354  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  with  the  title  of  senator,  by  the 
pope,  who  proposed  to  use  the  talents  and  influence  of 
Rienzi  for  the  restoration  of  order  in  that  capital.  Before 
the  end  of  the  year  he  Was  killed  in  a  tumult  fomented 
by  the  barons.  "  Never,  perhaps,"  says  Gibbon,  "  has  the 
energy  and  effect  of  a  single  mind  been  more  remarkably 
felt  than  in  the  sudden  though  transient  reformation 
of  Rome  by  the  tribune  Rienzi.  .  .  .  More  eloquent 
than  judicious,  more  enterprising  than  resolute,  the 
faculties  of  Rienzi  were  not  balanced  by  cool  and  com 
manding  reason."  Byron  apostrophizes  Rienzi  as  the 
"  Redeemer  of  dark  centuries  of  shame, — 
The  friend  of  Petrarch, — hope  of  Italy, — 
Rienzi!  last  of  Romans  !" 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iv.  stanza  cxiv. 

The  history  of  Rienzi  forms  the  basis  of  one  of  Bul- 
wer's  most  popular  novels. 

See  GIBBON',  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  vol.  iv. 
chap.  Ixx.  ;  SCHILLER,  "History  of  Rebellions;"  "  Life  of  Rienzi," 
in  French,  by  Du  CERCEAU,  1733:  GABRINI.  "  Osservazioni  sulla 
Vita  di  Rienzo,"  1806;  ZEFIRINO  RE,  "  La  Vita  di  Rienzi,"  1828; 
PAPENCORDT,  "Rienzi  et  Rome  a  son  fipoque,"  1841;  "The  Life 
and  Times  of  Rienzi,"  Philadelphia,  1836;  F.  BENEDETTI,  "Vita 
di  Rienzi,"  1831;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geneiale;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1843. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


RIENZO 


1898 


RIM  IN  AID  I 


Rienzo.     See  RIENZI. 

Riepenhausen,  ree'pen-how'zen,  (FRANZ,)  an  emi 
nent  German  painter  of  history,  and  engraver,  born  at 
Gottingen  in  1786.  He  went  to  Rome  about  1807  with 
his  brother  Johann.  They  produced  several  oil-paintings, 
and  designs  to  illustrate  the  poems  of  Goethe  and  Schil 
ler  ;  also  a  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1820, 
with  twenty-four  engravings  after  Italian  masters.)  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1831. 

Riepenhausen,  (JoiiANN,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1788.  He  worked  many  years  at  Rome.  After  the 
death  of  Franz,  he  published  a  series  of  engravings 
illustrative  of  the  life  of  Raphael,  under  the  title  of 
"Vita  di  Raffaello,"  (1834.) 

Ries,  reess,  (FERDINAND,)  a  German  composer  and 
pianist,  born  at  Bonn  in  1784,  was  a  pupil  of  Beethoven. 
He  visited  Paris,  Stockholm,  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
London,  and  in  the  last-named  city  was  received  with 
distinguished  favour.  His  compositions  include  sym 
phonies,  instrument  pieces,  and  operas;  also  an  oratorio 
called  "David."  Died  in  1838. 

See  F^TIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Rieter,  ree'ter,  (HENRI,)  a  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Winterthur  in  1751.  He  worked  at  Berne,  and 
painted  Swiss  scenery  with  success.  He  published  col 
oured  engravings  of  the  same  subjects.  Died  in  1818. 

Rietschel,  reet'shel,  (ERNST,)  an  eminent  German 
sculptor,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dres 
den,  was  born  at  Pulsnitz  in  1804.  He  studied  under 
Ranch  at  Berlin,  and  subsequently  in  Italy.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "  Mary  Kneeling  over  the 
Dead  Body  of  Christ,"  a  bust  of  Luther,  a  "Ceres," 
colossal  statues  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  (at  Weimar,) 
and  the  "  Christ- Angel."  Died  at  Dresden  in  1861. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Rietschoof,  reet/sKof,  (HENDRIK,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter  of  marine  views,  was  born  in  1678. 

Rietschoof,  (}AN  KLAASZ,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  ma 
rine  views,  born  at  Hoorn  in  1652,  was  father  of  the 
preceding.  Died  in  1719. 

Rieux,  de,  deh  re-uh',  (JEAN,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
who  was  born  in  1342?^  He  served  with  distinction  under 
Charles  VI.,  and  became  marshal  in  1397.  Died  in  1417. 

Rieux,  de,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  general,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  called  MARECHAL  DE  ROCHEFORT,  and 
was  born  at  Ancenis  in  1389.  He  fought  for  Charles 
VII.  against  the  English.  Died  in  1438. 

Riffault,  re'fo',  (JEAN  RENE  DENIS,)  a  French  chem 
ist,  born  at  Saumur  in  1752.  He  improved  the  method 
of  making  gunpowder,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  Manual  of  Chemistry,"  (1825.)  Died  at  Paris  in  1826. 

Riffaut  or  Riffault,  re'fo"',  (  ADOLPHE  PIERRE,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  obtained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855.  Died  in  1859. 

Rigal,  re'gtK,  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  at  Cussac  in  1755 ;  died  in  1823. 

Rigaltius.     See  RIGAULT. 

Rigas.     See  RHIGAS. 

Rigau  or  Rigaud,  re'go',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  gene 
ral,  born  at  Agen  in  1758.  He  commanded  the  depart 
ment  of  the  Marne  when  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba. 
Having  been  condemned  to  death  for  his  defection  from 
the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815,  he  escaped  to  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  1820. 

Rigaud,  (HYACINTHE,)  an  eminent  French  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1659,  was  a  pupil  of  Ranc 
and  of  other  masters.  He  painted  Philip  V.  of  Spain 
in  1700,  and  Louis  XIV.  in  1701,50011  after  which  he 
received  the  title  of  court  painter.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Bossuet  and  Lebrun.  His  touch  is  bold 
and  free  and  his  design  correct.  He  has  been  called 
"  the  French  Van  Dyck."  His  portraits  have  been 
engraved  by  Edelinck  and  Audran.  Died  in  1743. 

See  FONTENAY,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  C.  BLANC,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres. " 

Rigaud,  (PIERRE  AUGUSTIN,  often  called  AUGUSTE,) 
a  French  fabulist  and  .merchant,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1760.  He  published,  besides  several  poems,  a  volume 
of  Fables,  (1823,)  by  which  he  is  said  to  have  acquired 
a  durable  reputation.  Died  in  1835. 


Rigaud,  re'go',?  (STEPHEN  PETER,)  F.R.S.,  an  able 
English  astronomer,  born  at  Richmond,  Surrey,  in  1774. 
He  became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford 
in  1810.  In  1827  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Observatory,  and  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford.  He  wrote  papers  for  several  scientific  pe 
riodicals  on  astronomy  and  other  physical  sciences,  and 
edited  the  "  Miscellaneous  Works  and  Correspondence 
of  Bradley,"  (1831.)  He  was  eminent  as  a  mathematical 
antiquary.  Died  in  1839. 

Rigault,  re'go',  (ANGE  HIPPOLYTE,)  an  able  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1821.  He 
became  an  editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  in  1853. 
He  wrote  a  "  Histoire  de  la  Querelle  des  Anciens  et 
des  Modernes,"  (1856,)  which  gained  the  prize  of  the 
French  Academy.  Died  in  December,  1858. 

Rigault,  [Lat.  RIGAI/TIUS,]  (NICOLAS,)  a  French 
philologist  and  able  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1577.  He 
succeeded  Casaubon  as  keeper  of  the  King's  Library 
about  16104  and  obtained  the  office  of  procureur-general 
at  Nancy  after  1633.  He  edited  Martial,  Juvenal,  and 
Tertullian.  Among  his  works  are  an  ingenious  satire 
called  "  Funus  Parasiticum,"  (1601,)  and  a  continuation 
of  the  "History"  of  De  Thou,  (1620.)  Died  in  1654. 

See  BAYL.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  MOUERI, 
"Dictionnaire  Historique;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Rigault  de  Geiiouilly,  re'go'  deh  zheh-noo'ye', 
(CHARLES,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  1807.  He  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1854,  and  served  in 
the  Crimean  war.  lie  commanded  the  naval  division 
which  co-operated  with  the  British  in  the  capture  of 
Canton  in  1857. 

Rig'by,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  physiologist,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1747.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
an  "Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Production  of  Animal 
Heat,"  (1785.)  Died  in  1821. 

Righini,  re-gee'nee,  (ViNCENZo,)  an  able  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1758.  He  composed, 
besides  other  operas,  "Armida"  and  "Tigrane,"  which 
are  commended.  Died  in  1812. 

Rigny,  de,  deh  ren'ye',  ( HENRI  GAUTHIER,)  COMTE, 
an  able  French  admiral,  born  at  Toul  in  1782.  He 
commanded  the  French  fleet  which  defeated  the  Turks 
at  Navarino  in  October,  1827.  lie  became  minister  of 
the  marine  in  March,  1831,  and  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  April,  1834,  to  March,  1835.  Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Rigoley  de  Juvigny,  rc'go'LY  de  zhii'ven'ye',  (JEAN 
ANTOINE,)  a  mediocre  French  litterateur,  wrote  "  On  the 
Decadence  of  Letters  and  Morals  since  the  Times  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1787.)  Died  in  1788. 

Rigollot,  re'go'lo',  (M.VRC  JEROME,)  a  French  anti 
quary  and  physician,  born  at  Donllens  in  1796,  wrote 
several  treatises  on  French  antiquities.  Died  in  1854. 

Rigord,  re'goR',  [Lat.  RIGOR'DUS,]  a  French  chron 
icler,  born  in  Languedoc,  wrote  a  history  of  the  reign 
of  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  Died  in  1207. 

Rigord,  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1656  ;  died  in  1727. 

Ri'ley,  (JAMES,)  an  American  sea-captain,  bom  at 
Middletown,  Connecticut.  He  was  wrecked  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa  in  1815,  and  afterwards  pub 
lished  a  "Narrative"  of  his  captivity  among  the  Arabs, 
which  enjoyed  a  great  popularity.  Died  in  1840. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1817. 

Ri'ley,  (JOHN,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born  in 
London  in  1646,  took  Van  Dyck  as  his  model.  He 
was  patronized  by  Charles  II.,  James  II.,  and  William 
III.  He  is  considered  the  best  English  portrait-painter 
before  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  Died  in  1691. 

Rileyef,  re-la'ef,  written  also  Rylejew,  Rilieff,  and 
Rileef,  (KONRAD,)  a  Russian  poet  and  republican,  was 
a  leader  of  a  secret  society  formed  about  1820  to  liberate 
Russia  from  absolute  power.  He  was  hung  in  1826. 

See  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

Rilieff.     See  RILEYEF. 

Rimfaxi  or  Rimfaxe.     See  NORVI. 

Riminaldi,  re-me-nal'dee,  (DOMENICO,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  in  wood,  was  born  at  Pisa  in  1595;  died  in 
1637- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


RIMINALDI 


1899 


RIPLET 


Riminaldi,  (ORAZIO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  sacred 
history,  born  at  Pisa  in  1598,  was  a  promising  artist 
when  he  died,  in  1630. 

Rilialdi,  re-nal'dee,  (ODERICO,)  an  Italian  ecclesi 
astical  historian,  born  at  Treviso  in  1595.  He  wrote  a 
continuation  of  Baronius's  "  Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  to 
which  he  added  ten  volumes,  (1646-77,)  extending  the 
narrative  to  1564.  Died  in  1671. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rinck  or  Rink,  rink,  (FRIEDRICH  THEODOR,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Slave  in  1770;  died  in  1811. 

Riiicon,  del,  del  ren-kdn',  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Guadalaxara  about  1446.  He  aban 
doned  the  Gothic  style,  promoted  a  revolution  in  Spanish 
art,  and  was  considered  the  best  Spanish  painter  of  his 
time.  He  was  court  painter  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 
Died  at  Seville  in  1500.  His  son  FERNANDO  was  also  a 
skilful  painter. 

See  PALOMINO,  "  El  Museo  pictovico." 

Ring,  (JoHN,)  an  English  surgeon  and"  writer,  born 
near  Salisbury  in  1751.  He  published  a  "Translation 
of  the  Works  of  Virgil,"  partly  original  and  partly 
altered  from  Dryden  and  Pitt,  (1820.)  Died  in  1821. 

Ring,  van,  vtn  ring,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
still  life,  flourished  about  1650. 

Ringelbergh,  van,  vtn  ring'el-beRC/,  [Lat.  RINGF.L- 
BKR'GIUS,]  (JOACHIM  STERCK  or  JOACHIM  FORTIUS,)  a 
Flemish  philosopher  and  professor  of  Greek,  born  at 
Antwerp  about  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  various 
well-written  works.  Died  in  1536. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Ringelbergius.     See  RINGELBERGH. 

Ring'gold,  (Major  SAMUEL,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  in  1800,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  (May  8,  1846,)  and 
died  a  few  days  after. 

Ringli,  ring'lee,  written  also  Ringly  and  Ringgli, 
(GOTHARD,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1575,  passed  most  of  his  life  at  Berne.  His 
works  are  highly  commended.  Died  in  1635. 

Ringwaldt,  ring'walt,  (BARTHOI.OMAUS,)  a  German 
preacher  and  sacred  poet,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
in  1530  ;  died  in  1598. 

Rink  or  Rinck,  rink,  (EucHARius  GOTTLIEB,)  a 
German  biographer  and  numismatist,  born  in  Saxony  in 
1670.  Among  his  works  are  a  treatise  "On  the  Value 
and  Quality  of  Ancient  Money,"  ("  De  veteris  Numis- 
matis  Potentia  et  Qualitate,"  1701,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Leopold  the  Great,"  (1708.)  Died  in  1745. 

See  HEUMANN,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  E.  G.  Rinkens,"  1749. 

Rink,  (JoHANN  CHRISTIAN  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
organist  and  composer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha 
in  1770.  He  became  court  organist  at  Darmstadt  in 
1813.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  compositions 
for  the  organ.  Died  in  1846. 

Rinmann,  rin'man,  (SVEN,)  a  Swedish  mineralogist, 
wrote  a  "History  of  Iron,"  (1782,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1792,  aged  seventy-three. 

Rintoul,  rin'tool,  (ROBERT  STEPHEN,)  a  British  editor, 
born  near  Perth  in  1787,  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1825.  He  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the 
"Spectator,"  a  liberal  journal.  Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1858. 

Rimiccini,  re-noot-chee'nee,  (ALAMANNO,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  translator  of  Greek  authors,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1426;  died  in  1504. 

Rinucciiii,  (OrrAVio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Flor 
ence  about  1565.  He  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  the 
lyrical  drama,  and  excelled  in  the  anacreontic  verse. 
Among  his  works  are  pastorals  or  operas  entitled  "Eu- 
ridice,"  (1600,)  and  "Arianna,"  (1608.)  Died  in  1621. 

See  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  I.itteraire  d'ltalie;"  TIRABOSCHI, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rio,  di,  de  ree'o,  (Xiccoi.6,)  COUNT,  an  Italian 
geologist,  born  in  1765.  He  was  president  of  the  Faculty 
of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Padua.  Died  in  1845. 

See  SAINT-MAURICE-CABANY,  "Le  Comte  N.  de  Rio,"  1845. 

Rioja,  de,  da  re-o'na,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Seville  in  1600.  He  was  librarian  to  the  Duke 


i  of  Olivares  while  he  was  prime  minister.  lie  wrote  a 
j  number  of  short  poems  which  are  regarded  as  models 
I  of  elegance.  Died  in  1658. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rioja,  de,  (PEDRO  SOTO,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at 
Granada  about  1590,  was  a  friend  of  Lope  de  Vega. 
Died  in  1658. 

Riolan,  re'o'lS.N',  (JEAN,)  a  learned  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1539.  He  practised  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Compendium  of  Universal 
Medicine,"  ("  Universse  Medicinae  Compendium,"  1598.) 
Died  in  1606. 

Riolan,  (JEAN,)  an  able  anatomist  and  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1578,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  chief  physician  to  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body,"  ("Anatome  Corporis  humani,"  1610,)  and  was 
an  adversary  of  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Died  in  1657. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Rions,  de,  deh  re'oN',  (FRANCOIS  HECTOR  D'ALBERT,) 
COMTE,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1728; 
died  in  1802. 

Rioomantsof  or  Rjumanzow,  ryoo-man'tsof, 
sometimes  written  Rioumiantzof,  Romanzof,  and 
Romaiitzof,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Russian  diplomatist, 
born  in  1680,  was  a  favourite  of  Peter  I.  Died  in  1749. 

Rioomantsof  or  Romanzof,  (written  in  Polish 
RUMIANCOW,)  (NICHOLAS,)  a  minister  of  state  and 
patron  of  learning,  born  in  1754,  was  a  son  of  the  fol 
lowing.  He  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1807. 
At  his  expense  Kotzebue  sailed  on  a  scientific  and 
exploring  expedition  in  1815-18.  Died  in  1826. 

Rioomantsof-Zadoonaiski,  ryoo-man'tsof  za-doo- 
nl'skee,  written  also  Rioumiantzof-  (or  Rumian- 
cov-)  Zadunaiski,  (PETER,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general, 
born  in  1725,  was  surnamed  THE  RUSSIAN  TURENNE. 
He  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks  on  the  Kagool 
in  1770,  and  negotiated  the  famous  treaty  of  Koutchouk- 
Kainardji.  Died  in  1796. 

See  "Vie  du  Comte  Rioumiantzof,"  Moscow,  1803. 

Rioumiantzof.     See  RIOOMANTSOF. 

Rios,  de  los,  deh  16s  ree'ds,  (JEAN  FRANQOIS,)  a 
Flemish  bibliographer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1728.  He 
published  notices  of  rare  books  in  a  work  called  "  Biblio 
graphic  instructive,"  etc.,  (Lyons,  1777.)  Died  in  1820. 

Rios  y  Rosas,  de  los,  da  los  ree'os  e  ro'sas,  (AN 
TONIO,)  a  Spanish  politician  and  minister  of  state, 
born  at  Ronda  in  1812.  He  opposed  Espartero  and 
the  progresistas.  He  became  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1856. 

Riouffe,  re'oof,  (HONORE,)  BARON,  a  French  poli 
tician,  born  at  Rouen  in  1764,  was  a  member  of  the 
Tribunal,  (1800-1804.)  Died  in  1813. 

See  PARISET,  "  Notice  sur  Riouffe  ;"  BERR,  "  Notice  sur  le 
Baron  Riouffe,"  1823. 

Rioult,  re'oo',  (Louis  EDOUARD,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1790;  died  in  1855. 

Ripamonte,  re-pa-mon'ti,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Tignone  in  1573  ;  died  in  1641. 

Ripault.     See  DESORMEAUX. 

Ripault,  re'po',  (Louis  MADELEINE,)  a  French  litte 
rateur  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1775,  was  a 
nephew  of  Desormeaux.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
scientific  commission  of  Egypt  in  1798,  and  wrote  "  An 
Abridged  Description  of  the  Monuments  of  Upper 
Egypt,"  (1800,)  also  a  "  History  of  Marcus  Aurelius," 
(4  vols.,  1820.)  Died  in  1823. 

Ripert.     See  MONCLAR,  DE. 

Rip'ley,  (ELEAZAR  WHEELOCK,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1782,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  made  a  major- 
general.  Died  in  1839. 

Rip'ley,  (GEORGE  or  GREGORY,)  an  English  poet  and 
alchemist,  wrote  "A  Compound  of  Alchemic."  Died 
in  1490. 

Ripley,  (GEORGE,)  an  able  American  editor  and 
scholar,  born  at  Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
Among  his  publications  are  "Edited  Specimens  of 
Foreign  Standard  Literature,"  (14  vols.,  1838-42,)  and 
"Hand-Book  of  Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts,"  (1852- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  gtittitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


R1PLET 


1900 


KITS  ON 


54,)  conjointly  with  Bayard  Taylor.  In  1849  he  became 
literary  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Tribune."  He  was 
associated  as  chief  editor  with  Mr.  C.  A.  Dana  in  the 
publication  of  Appleton's  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia," 
(16  vols.  large  8vo,  1858-63.) 

See  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ripley,  (HENRY  JONES,)  D.D.,  an  American  Bap 
tist  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1798,  became  professor  of 
biblical  literature  at  the  Newton  Theological  Institution, 
Massachusetts.  He  has  published  "  Notes  on  the  Four 
Gospels,"  and  other  theological  works. 

Ripley,  (JAMES  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1797,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1814. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1825,  a  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1854,  and  a  brigadier-general  in  1861.  Died  in  1870. 

Ripley,  (RoswELL  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843.  He 
published  "The  War  in  Mexico,"  (2  vols.,  1849.)  He 
fought  against  the  Union  at  Antietam,  September  17, 
1862.  Died  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1863. 

Rip'on,  (FREDERICK  JOHN  ROBINSON,)  first  EARL 
OF,  an  English  minister  of  state,  born  in  London  in 
1782,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Grantham.  He  began 
public  life  as  a  moderate  Tory.  lie  became  a  member 
of  the  board  of  admiralty  in  1810,  and  vice-president  of 
the  board  of  trade  in  1812.  In  January,  1823,  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  When  Canning 
became  prime  minister,  in  1827,  he  obtained  the  office  of 
colonial  secretary,  and  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Goderich.  He  was  prime  minister 
from  the  death  of  Canning,  August,  1827,  to  January, 
1828.  In  the  Whig  ministry  formed  in  1830  he  was 
colonial  secretary  and  lord  privy  seal.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Ripon  about  1833,  and  resigned  office  in  1834. 
In  1841  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  board  of  trade 
from  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who  appointed  him  president 
of  the  Indian  board  in  1843.  He  resigned  with  Peel  in 
1846.  Died  in  1859. 

See  WILLIAM  JERDAN,  "  Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866. 

Riposo,  II.     See  FICHERELLI. 

Ripperda,  de,  deh  rip-p§R'da,  (J/\N  WILI.EM,)  DUKE, 
an  adventurer  and  diplomatist,  was  born  at  Groningen 
(Holland)  in  1680.     He  served  in  the  Dutch  army,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  colonel.     About  1715  he  was  sent 
as  envoy  to  Madrid   to  negotiate  a  commercial   treaty. 
Having  acquired  the  favour  of  Alberoni   and  the  King 
of  Spain,  he  abjured  the  Protestant  religion  in  1718,  and  j 
was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  manufactories.     He  | 
negotiated  a  secret   treaty  between  the   King  of  Spain  j 
and  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  in  1725,  and  %vas  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  duke.     He  was  prime  minister  of  Spain 
for  a  few  months  in  1726-27,  and  his  next  step  was  into 
prison,  from  which  he  escaped  about  1729.     He  entered 
the  service  of  the  King  of  Morocco  about  1732.     Died 
at  Tetuan  in  1737. 

See  "Vie  du  Due  de  Ripperda,"  par  P.  M.  B.,  1730,  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  JOHN  CAMPBELL,  1739:  "  Vidadel  Duque 
de  Ripperda,"  Madrid,  1740;  G.  MOORE,  "Lives  of  Cardinal  Albe 
roni  and  the  Duke  de  Ripperda,"  1806. 

Rippingill,  rip'ing-gil,  ?  (EDWARD  VILLIERS,)  an 
English  painter,  born  at  King's  Lynn  in  1798;  died  in 

18^9- 

Riquet.     See  CARAMAN,  DE. 

Riquet,  re'ki',  (PIERRE  PAUL,)  Baron  de  Bonrepos, 
a  French  engineer,  born  at  BeV.iers  in  1604,  was  a  rela 
tive  of  the  famous  Mirabeau.  He  acquired  honourable 
distinction  as  the  projector  and  engineer  of  the  great 
canal  of  Languedoc,  which  extends  from  the  Garonne 
to  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  commenced  in  1667  and 
finished  about  1680.  Died  in  1680. 

See  ANDREOSSY,  "  Histoire  du  Canal  du  Midi  ;"DECAMPE,  "  filoge 
de  P.  Riquet,"  1812. 

Riquetti.     See  MIRABEAU. 

Risbeck,  ris'bek,  (CASPAR,)  a  German  publicist,  born 
near  Mentz  in  1749  or  1750.  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  "  Letters  of  a  French  Traveller  about  Germany,"  (2 
vols.,  1783,)  in  which  he  exposed  with  ability  the  political 
and  social  evils  which  prevailed  in  that  country.  Died 
in  1786. 

See  J.  PEZZL,  "  Biographisches  Denkmal  J.  C.  Risbeck's,"  1786; 
HIRSCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 


,  (TRISTRAM,)  an  English  topographer,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1580;  died  in  1640. 

RIsh'I,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "saint"  or  "sage," 
and  applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  certain  sages 
or  demi-gods,  among  whom  Kasyapa,  Viswamitra,  and 
Gautama  are  perhaps  the  most  worthy  of  mention. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ris'ley,  (  THOMAS,)  an  English  Puritan  preacher, 
born  near  Warrington  in  1630.  He  was  ejected  as  a 
nonconformist  in  1662.  Died  in  1716. 

Risso,  res'so,  (ANTONIO,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Nice  in  1777.  lie  made  discoveries 
in  the  zoology  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  "The  Ichthyology  of  Nice,"  (1810,) 
and  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  Principal  Productions 
of  Southern  Europe,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1826,)  both  in  French. 
Died  in  1845. 

Rist,  rist,  (JoHANN,)  a  once  popular  German  poet, 
born  near  Hamburg  in  1607.  lie  wrote  dramas  and 
religious  poems,  which  are  said  by  a  French  critic  to  be 
elegant  in  style  but  devoid  of  sentiment.  Died  in  1667. 

Ristori,  r6s-to'ree,  (ADELAIDE,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
actress,  born  in  Venetia  in  1821.  She  has  performed 
with  great  applause  both  in  tragedy  and  comedy.  She 
visited  the  United  States  in  September,  1866.  "  In  ac 
cording  to  Ristori  the  highest  order  of  dramatic  genius, 
we  merely  allow  what  has  long  since  been  decided  beyond 
appeal  by  the  critical  tribunals  of  France,  Italy,  Ger 
many,  England,  and  Spain.  What  Shakspeare  is  among 
dramatists,  Ristori  is  among  actors."  ("  Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  April,  1867.) 

Risueiio,  re-swan'yo,  written  also  Risvenno,  (Joss,) 
a  Spanish  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Granada  in 
1652,  was  a  pupil  of  Alonzo  Cano.  Died  in  1721. 

Ritchie,  ritch/e,  originally  Ogden,  (Mrs.  ANNA  CORA 
MOWATT,)  an  American  authoress  and  actress,  born  in 
Bordeaux,  France,  of  American  parents,  about  1822. 
She  was  married  first  to  a  Mr.  Mowatt,  and  afterwards 
to  Mr.  W.  Ritchie,  an  editor,  of  Richmond,  Virginia, 
about  1854.  She  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Pelayo,  or  the  Cavern  of  Covadonga,"  a  poem,  a 
comedy  entitled  "Fashion,"  (1845,)  and  "  Armand,"  a 
drama,  (1847.)  She  made  her  debut  as  an  actress  about 
1845.  Died  in  1870. 

See  "Autobiography  of  an  Actress,"  by  ANNA  C.  RITCHIE; 
GRISWOLD,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  (JOSEPH,)  an  Englishman  who  ac 
companied  Captain  Lyon  in  an  expedition  to  Central 
Africa.  He  died  during  the  journey,  in  1819. 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  (LEITCH,)  a  British  journalist  and 
novelist,  born  at  Greenock  about  1800.  Among  his 
novels  are  "  Schinderhannes,  or  the  Robber  of  the 
Rhine,"  (1848,)  "The  Game  of  Life,"  (1851,)  and  "The 
Magician,"  (3  vols.,  1853.)  He  contributed  to  several 
London  journals  and  magazines.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  an  editor  of  "  Chambers's  Journal"  of 
Edinburgh.  Died  in  1865. 

Ritchie,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  journalist  and  poli 
tician  of  the  Democratic  party,  was  born  at  Tappahan- 
nock,  Virginia,  in  1778.  In  1804  he  became  editor  of  the 
"Richmond  Enquirer,"  over  which  he  continued  to 
preside  for  forty  years,  and  which,  under  his  editorship, 
was,  for  a  time,  the  most  influential  journal  of  his  party. 
Died  in  1854. 

Rit'ner,  (JOSEPH,)  an  American  Governor,  born  near 
Reading,  Pennsylvania,  in  1780.  He  served  in  the  legis 
lature  of  that  State  from  1820  to  1827,  and  was  nomi 
nated  for  the  office  of  Governor  by  the  Anti-Masonic 
party  in  1829,  but  was  not  elected.  In  1835  he  was 
chosen  Governor  for  three  years.  He  was  an  efficient 
promoter  of  common  schools,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  opposition  to  slavery.  Died  in  1869. 

Ritschl,  rltsh'l,  (FRIEDRICII  WILHELM,)  a  German 
philologist,  and  professor  of  classical  literature  at  Bonn, 
was  born  in  Thuringia  in  1806.  He  published  several 
critical  treatises  on  the  classics,  and  a  number  of  anti 
quarian  works.  His  edition  of  Plautus  (3  vols.,  1848- 
53)  is  highly  praised. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rit'spn,  (ISAAC,)  an  English  writer,  born  near  Pen- 
rith  in  1761,  resided  in  London.  Died  in  1789. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ti,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  me" t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


R  ITS  ON 


1901 


RWAUD 


Ritson,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poetical 
critic,  born  at  Stockton  (Durham)  in  1752,  resided  mostly 
in  London.  He  published  many  works,  among  which 
are  "  Observations  on  (Warton's)  History  of  English 
Poetry,"  (1782,)  "Ancient  Songs  from  the  Time  of 
Henry  III.  to  1688,"  (1790,)  and  "  Robin  Hood,"  (1795.) 
Died  in  1803. 

See  SIR  X.  HARRIS  NICOLAS,  "  Life  and  Letters  of  J.  Ritson," 
1833;  HASI.EWOOD,  "Life  of  J.  Ritson,"  1824:  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  January,  1806:  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1834; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1803. 

Rit'ten-house,  (D.\vin,)  an  eminent  American  as 
tronomer  and  mathematician,  born  at  Germantown,  near 
Philadelphia,  on  the  8th  of  April,  1732.  He  worked  on 
his  father's  farm  in  his  early  youth,  learned  to  make 
clocks  without  instruction,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Newton's  "Principia"  about  1750.  It  is  stated  that  he 
discovered  the  method  of  fluxions  before  the  age  of 
nineteen.  He  learned  Latin  after  he  was  nineteen  or 
twenty  years  old.  He  worked  for  some  years  at  the 
trade  of  clock-maker  at  Norriton,  in  Montgomery 
county,  Pennsylvania.  About  1767  he  constructed  an 
orrery,  which  was  purchased  by  Princeton  College. 
He  also  made  mathematical  instruments  of  a  superior 
quality.  His  first  communication  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  was  a  calculation  of  the  transit 
of  Venus  which  occurred  on  the  3d  of  June,  1769,  and 
which  he  observed  with  success.  In  1764  he  married 
Eleanor  Colston.  He  was  elected  treasurer  of  Penn 
sylvania  in  1777,  and  continued  to  fill  that  office  until 
1789.  During  this  period  he  was  employed  to  determine 
the  boundaries  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  chosen  presi 
dent  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  hi  1791, 
and  became  first  director  of  the  Mint,  at  Philadelphia, 
in  1792.  In  1795  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he  mar 
ried  Hannah  Jacobs,  of  Philadelphia,  about  1774.  On 
account  of  ill  health,  he  resigned  in  1795  the  direction 
of  the  Mint,  which  he  had  organized  by  arduous  and 
successful  efforts.  He  contributed  numerous  scientific 
treatises  to  the  "Transactions  of  the  American  Philo 
sophical  Society."  Died  in  Philadelphia,  June,  1796. 
"  Were  we  called  upon,"  says  Renwick,  "  to  assign  him 
a  rank  among  the  philosophers  whom  America  has 
produced,  we  should  place  him,  in  point  of  scientific 
merit,  as  second  to  Franklin  alone.  .  .  .  He  had  shown 
himself  the  equal,  in  point  of  learning  and  skill  as  an 
observer,  to  any  practical  astronomer  then  living." 

See  JAMES  RENWICK,  "Life  of  David  Rittenhouse,"  in  SPARKS'S 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.  ;  \V.  BARTON,  "Life  of  David 
Rittenhouse,"  1813;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Ritter,  rit'ter,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1791.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Berlin  about  1824,  and  removed 
to  Gb'ttingen  in  1837.  He  published  a  number  of  works 
on  philosophy,  etc.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Philosophy,"  ("  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  12  vols., 
1829-53,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  It  has  been  well 
translated  into  English  by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison,  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1838-46.)  Ritter  is  called  an  Eclectic  philosopher. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Rit'ter,  (  HENRY,)  an  artist,  born  at  Montreal,  in 
Canada,  about  1815,  studied  painting  at  Hamburg  and 
Dusseldorf.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
"Indians  Flying  from  a  Burning  Prairie."  Died  in  1853. 

Ritter,  (Jon ANN  DANIEL,)  a  German  scholar  and 
writer  on  Roman  antiquities,  etc.,  was  born  near  Bres- 
lau  in  1709;  died  at  Wittenberg  in  1775. 

Ritter,  (JOHANN  WM.HELM,)  a  German  natural  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Samitz,  in  Silesia,  in  1776.  He  wrote 
"Memoirs  on  Physics  and  Chemistry,"  (3  vols.,  1806,) 
and  an  autobiography,  (2  vols.,  1810.)  Died  at  Munich 
in  1810. 

Ritter,  (JOSEPH  IGNAZ,)  a  German  Catholic  theo 
logian,  born  near  Griineberg  in  1787.  He  became  in 
1823  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Bonn.  Died 
in  1857. 

Ritter,  (KARL,)  an  eminent  German  geographer,  born 
at  Quedlinburg  in  1779.  Having  travelled  in  Switzer 
land,  France,  and  Italy,  he  succeeded  Schlosser  as  pro 
fessor  of  history  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1819.  His 


"  Portico  of  a  History  of  the  European  Nations  before 
Herodotus"  came  out  in  1820.  In  1822  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  second  and  enlarged  edition  of 
his  "Geography  in  Relation  to  the  Nature  and  History 
of  Man,"  ("Die  Erdekunde  im  Verhaltniss  zur  Natur 
und  zur  Geschichte  des  Menschen,"  18  vols.,  1822-59,) 
which  is  esteemed  his  greatest  work.  Among  his  other 
productions  we  may  name  "A  Glance  at  Palestine  and 
its  Christian  Population,"  "The  Colonization  of  New 
Zealand,"  (1842,)  and  "The  Jordan  and  the  Navigation 
of  the  Dead  Sea,"  (1850.)  Ritter  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and  of  the  Royal  So 
ciety  of  London.  He  has  been  called  the  founder  oi 
the  science  of  comparative  geography.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1859. 

See  W.  L.  GAGE,  "Life  of  Karl  Ritter,"  New  York,  1867; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1837;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Rittershuys,  rit'ters-hois',  or  Rittershausen,  rit/- 
ters-how'zen,  |Lat.  RITTERSHU'SIUS,)  (CONRAD,)  a  Ger 
man  jurist  and  able  critic,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1560. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Altorf.  He  was  a  good 
classical  scholar,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Phsedrns, 
Oppian,  and  other  authors.  Died  in  1613. 

See  "Vita  C.  Rittershusii,"  by  his  son  GEORG  ;  M.  ADAM, 
"  Vitae  Germanorum  Jurisconsultoruin." 

Rittershuys,  (NIKOLAUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Altorf  in  1597.  He  wrote  "Genealogy  of 
Emperors,  Kings,"  etc.,  ("Genealogia  Imperatorum, 
Regurn,  etc.,  1400-1664,"  1674.)  Died  in  1670. 

Ritzio.     See  RIZZIO. 

Rivail.     See  Ri  VAULT. 

Rivallius.     See  Ri VAULT. 

Rivalz,  re'vil',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1667  ;  died  in  1735. 

His  father,  JEAN  PIERRE,  born  in  1625,  was  a  painter 
at  Toulouse,  where  he  died  in  1706. 

Rivard,  re'va^R',  (DENIS,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
lithotomist,  born  at  Neufchateau,  practised  at  Luneville. 
Died  in  1746. 

Rivard,  (DOMINIQUE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Neufchateau  in  1697.  He  was  professor 
in  the  College  of  Beauvais  for  forty  years,  and  published 
several  valuable  works  on  geometry  and  mathematics. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1778. 

Rivarol,  re'vf'rol',  (ANTOINE,)  a  witty  and  satirical 
French  writer,  born  at  Bagnols,  in  Languedoc,  in  1753, 
assumed  the  title  of  Count  de  Rivarol.  He  was  cele 
brated  for  his  colloquial  powers,  and  abounded  in  that 
ready  wit  which  goes  far  to  justify  all  pretensions  and 
to  excuse  all  excesses  of  audacity.  He  produced  in 
1784  an  able  "Essay  on  the  Universality  of  the  French 
Language,"  and  a  free  translation  of  Dante's  "  Inferno," 
which  had  a  great  success.  His  talent  for  satire,  irony, 
and  persiflage  was  displayed  in  a  series  of  lampoons 
against  living  authors,  entitled  "Little  Almanac  of 
Great  Men,"  ("  Petit  Almanach  des  grands  Hommes," 
1788.)  He  also  gained  distinction  as  a  journalist.  He 
married  an  English  lady  named  Flint.  Having  identi 
fied  himself  with  the  royalist  party,  he  emigrated  in 
1792.  Died  in  Berlin  in  1801. 

See  CUBJERE.S-PAI.MEZEAUX.  "Vie  de  Rivarol,"  1803:  IMBERT 
DE  LA  PLATIERE,  "Vie  de  Rivarol,"  iSoS;  LEONCE-CURNIER, 
"Rivarol,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,"  1858;  SAINTE  BF.UVE,  "  Cause- 
ries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.  ;  LHSCUKE,  "Rivarol,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ou- 
vrages,"  1862;  "  Notice  sur  Rivarol,"  by  his  wife,  1802;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Rivarol,  (CLAUDE  FRANCOIS,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Bagnols  in  1762.  He  was  a  captain 
in  the  army,  and  a  royalist  emigrant  in  1791.  Having 
returned  to  Paris  as  a  secret  agent  of  the  Bourbons, 
he  was  imprisoned  twenty-two  months,  (1795-97.)  He 
wrote  dramas,  verses,  etc.  Died  in  1848. 

Rivarola,  re-va-ro'la,  (ALFONSO,)  a  promising  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1607,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Bononi.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Brazen  Serpent." 
Died  in  1640. 

Rivas,  de,  DUKE.     See  SAAVEDRA. 

Rivaud  de  la  Raffiniere,  re'v5'  deh  It  rt'fe'ne-aiR', 
(OLIVIER  MACOUX,)  a  French  general,  born  in  P^Sitou 
in  1766.  He  served  with  distinction  at  Marengo  and 
Austerlitz.  Died  in  1839. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RIVAULT 


1902 


R1ZZIO 


Rivault,  re'vo',  [Lat.  RIVAI/LIUS,]  (AYMAR,)  written 
also  Rivail,  a  French  jurist,  born  about  1490.  He  was 
counsellor  to  the  parliament  of  Grenoble,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Civil  or  Roman  Law,"  ("  Historia  Juris 
civilis,"  1527.) 

Rivault,  (DAVID,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Laval 
about  1571.  He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  young 
king  Louis  XIII.  in  1612.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Minerva  Armed,  or  the  Union  of  Literature 
and  Arms,"  ("Minerva  armata,  sive  de  Conjungendis 
Literis  et  Armis,"  1610,)  and  "Archimedis  Opera," 
(1615.)  Died  in  1616. 

Rivaz,  de,  deh  re'va',  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  Swiss 
mechanist  and  inventor,  born  at  Saint  Gingolph,  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  in  1711  ;  died  in  1772. 

Rive,  rev,  (JOSEPH  JEAN,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Apt  in  1730.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  and 
was  librarian  to  the  Due  de  la  Valliere.  Died  in  1791. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Rive,  de  la,  (AUGUSTS.)     See  LA  RIVE,  DE. 

Rivera,  re-va'ra,  (JosE  FRUCTUOSO,)  a  South  Amer 
ican  general,  born  about  1790,  was  a  Gaucho.  lie  was 
elected  president  of  the  republic  of  Uruguay  in  1830 
for  four  years.  Died  in  1854. 

Riverius.     See  RIVIERE. 

Riv'ers,  (ANTHONY  \Voonvn.i.K  or  WYDEVILI.E,) 
EAKL  OF,  an  accomplished  English  peer,  born  in  1442, 
was  a  brother  of  the  queen  of  Edward  IV.  After  the 
death  of  that  king  he  had  charge  of  the  young  heir  to 
the  throne.  He  was  beheaded  by  Richard  III.,  without 
a  form  of  trial,  in  1483.  He  left  some  original  poems 
and  translations  from  the  classics,  which  are  commended. 
(Cunningham's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.) 

Riv'ers,  (Wn.i.iAM  J.,)  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1822,  became  professor  of  Greek  literature 
at  South  Carolina  College  in  1856.  He  has  published 
several  works,  in  prose  and  verse. 

Rives,  reevz,  (JoHN  C.,)  an  American  editor,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1796.  With  F.  P.  Blair,  he  founded 
at  Washington  "The  Congressional  Globe"  about  1830. 
He  continued  to  publish  that  journal  until  his  death, 
in  1864. 

Rives,  (WlLUAM  C.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Nelson  county,  Virginia,  in  May,  1793.  He  studied  law, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1823.  He  was 
sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1829,  returned  in  1832,  and 
was  then  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Virginia.  Having  resigned  his  seat  in  1834, 
he  was  re-elected  in  1835.  In  1840  he  was  elected  a 
Senator  for  a  third  term.  He  was  minister  to  France 
again  from  1849  to  1853.  He  published  the  "Life  and 
Times  of  James  Madison,"  (3  vols.,  1850-68,  unfinished.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  from 
February,  1862,  until  the  end  of  the  rebellion.  Died  in 
April,  1868. 

See  the  "  Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1838.  (with  a  por 
trait.) 

Rivet,  re'vi',  [Lat.  RIVE'TUS,]  (ANDRE,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister  and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Saint- 
Maxent  in  1572  or  1573.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden  in  1620,  and  was  governor  of  the 
young  Prince  of  Orange,  (William  III.  of  England.) 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  at  Breda 
in  1651.  "  Rivet,"  says  Hallam,  "  was  the  highest  name 
among  the  Calvinists,"  (i.e.  in  the  department  of  sacred 
criticism.) 

See  DAUBF.R,  "Oratio  ftmebris  in  Excessum  A.  Riveti,"  1651  ; 
HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rivet  de  Champveriion,  re'vi'  deh  SHON^R'HON', 
(Gun.LAUME,)  a  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Saint- 
Maxent  in  1580,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
wrote  on  theology.  Died  in  1651. 

Rivet  de  la  Grange,  re'vi'  deh  It  gR6Nzh,(  ANTOINE,) 
a  learned  French  Benedictine,  born  at  Confolens  in  1683. 
He  was  punished  for  opposition  to  the  bull  "  Unigenitus" 
by  confinement  in  a  monastery  at  Mans.  He  projected 
a  great  work  entitled  "The  Literary  History  of  France," 
of  which  he  composed  9  vols.,  (1733-50.)  He  died  in 
1 749.  His  work  was  continued  by  Clemencet  and  others. 

See  C.  L.  TAILI.ANDIER,  "  filoge  historiqne  de  Dom  Rivet,"  in 
the  ninth  volume  of  the  "Literary  History  of  France." 


Rivetus.     See  RIVET,  (ANDRE.) 

Riviere.     See  MEKCIEK  and  LARIVIERE. 

Riviere,  re-ve-aiit',  [Lat.  RIVK'RIUS, |  (LAZARE,)  a 
French  medical  writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1589. 
His  "Praxis  Meclica"  ("Medical  Practice,"  1640)  was 
often  reprjnted.  Died  in  1655. 

Riviere,  de,  deli  re've-ajk',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS  de 
Riffardeau — deh  re'faVdf/,)  Due,  a  French  royalist 
officer,  born  at  Ferte-sur-Cher  in  1763.  He  was  sen 
tenced  to  death  as  an  accomplice  of  Pichegru  in  1804, 
but  his  life  was  saved  by  the  empress  Josephine.  Died 
in  1828. 

Riviere,  de  la,  deh  It  re've^ani',  (Rocn  LE  BAILLIF, 
rosh  leh  btl'yef',)  Si  EUR,  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Falaise  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1605. 

Rivieren,  van,  vSn  re-vee'ren,  [Lat.  RIV'IUS,]  QEAN,) 
a  Belgian  monk,  born  at  Louvain  in  1599.  He  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (1646.)  Died  in  1665. 

Riv'ing-ton,  ( JAMES,)  an  English  printer  and  book 
seller,  born  in  London  about  1724,  emigrated  to  Amer 
ica,  and  founded  in  New  York  a  journal  entitled  the 
"New  York  Gazetteer,  or  the  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
Hudson's  River,  and  Quebec  Weekly  Advertiser."  In 
consequence  of  his  denunciations  ot  the  patriots,  his 
press  was  destroyed  in  1775  by  a  party  of  American 
soldiers.  He  subsequently  resumed  the  publication  of 
his  journal,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Royal  Gazette."  After 
the  evacuation  of  New  York  by  the  British  he  changed 
the  name  of  his  paper  to  "  Rivington's  New  York  Ga 
zette  and  Universal  Advertiser."  Died  in  1802. 

See  Duvck'iNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Rivimis,  rc-vee'nus,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  philolo 
gist  and  physician,  born  at  Halle  in  1600  or  1601.  His 
proper  name  was  BACIIMANN.  He  was  professor  of 
poetry  and  medicine  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  1656. 

See  KROMAYER,  "  Programing  ad  Funus  A.  Rivini,"  1656. 

Riviiius,  (AunusT  QUIRINUS.)  an  eminent  botanist 
and  anatomist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1652.  He  became  professor  of  physiology  and  botany 
in  his  native  city  in  1691.  His  chief  work  is  "General 
Introduction  to  Botany,"  ("  Introductio  generalis  in  Rem 
Herbariam,"  1690,)  in  which  he  proposed  a  classifica 
tion  of  plants  founded  on  the  form  of  the  corolla.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  (.',.  F.  JI.NIC-HKN',  "  Programma  in  A.  Q.  Rivini  Obitnm," 
1724;  "  Biographic  Universelle ;"  NICEKON,  "  Me moires  ;"  "  Bio 
graphic  Medicale." 

Rivius.     See  RIVIEREN. 

Rivoli,  DUKE  OF.     See  MASSENA. 

Rizi,  re-///ee',  ?  (FRANCISCO,)  DON,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  in  Madrid  in  1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Carduccio.  He 
became  first  painter  to  Philip  IV.  about  1656.  lie  had 
great  fertility  of  invention  and  facility  of  execution,  but 
contributed  to  the  decline  of  art  bv  his  superficial  habits. 
Died  in  1685. 

Rizi,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in 
1595,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1675. 

Rizo-Rhangabe,  ree'zo  ran'ga-be,  (ALEXANDER,) 
also  written  Rhizos-Rhangavis,  an  eminent  Greek 
poet,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  about  1810.  He 
published  in  1837  a  collection  of  poems,  among  which  is 
a  drama  called  "The  Eve,"  ('II  Tlapafiovij,)  and  in  1842 
"Hellenic  Antiquities,"  ("Antiquites  Helleniques,")  in 
French.  In  1845  ne  was  appointed  professor  of  archae 
ology  at  Athens.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
from  April,  1856,  to  June,  1859.  The  second  volume 
of  "Hellenic  Antiquities"  appeared  in  1855.  He  was 
appointed  minister  to  the  United  States  in  1867. 

Rizzio  or  Ritzio,  rit'se-o,  written  also  Riccio, 
(DAVID,)  an  Italian  musician,  born  in  Piedmont  about 
1540.  He  went  to  Edinburgh  about  1563,  in  the  train 
of  the  ambassador  from  Savoy,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who  employed  him  as  her 
French  secretary.  "He  became,"  says  Froude,  "the 
queen's  inseparable  companion  in  the  council-room  and 
the  cabinet.  She  kept  late  hours,  and  he  was  often  alone 
with  her  till  midnight.  He  had  the  control  of  all  the 
business  of  the  state."  The  same  historian,  alluding  to 
the  injurious  influence  of  Rizzio  over  Mary  Stuart,  says, 
"  The  counsels  of  David  Ritzio  were  worth  an  army  to 
English  liberty."  ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  viii.  chap. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


ROBE  I A 


ROBERT 


ix.)  He  was  dragged  from  the  queen's  presence  and 
assassinated  by  Lord  Darnley  and  others,  in  1566. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xliii.  and 
xliv.  ;  ROBERTSON,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Robbia,  della,  del'la  rob'be-a,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1444.  He  worked  in 
marble  and  enamelled  terra-cotta.  Died  in  1527. 

His  son  GIOVANNI,  born  in  1470,  was  a  sculptor. 
Another  son,  GlROLAMO,  went  to  France,  and  was 
employed  by  Francis  I.  He  made  a  marble  statue  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis  at  Saint-Denis. 

See  BARBET  DE  JOUY,  "  Les  Della  Robbia,  ]5tude." 

Robbia,  della,  (LucA,)  a  famous  sculptor  and 
worker  in  enamelled  terra-cotta,  born  at  Florence  about 
1390  or  1400,  was  a  brother  or  an  uncle  of  Andrea, 
lie  adorned  with  bassi-rilievi  the  Campanile  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Florence,  and  made  a  bronze  door  for  the 
sacristy  of  the  same.  He  invented  the  enamelled  terra 
cotta,  and  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  the  fabri 
cation  of  figures  of  this  material,  which  are  called  "  della 
Robbia"  ware.  Died  in  1463,  or,  as  some  say,  1482. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Rob'bins,  (Asui'R,)  an  American  lawyer  and  states 
man,  born  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1757,  settled 
in  Rhode  Island,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1825.  He  served  in  the  Senate  fourteen  years. 
Died  in  1845. 

Roberjot,  ro'ben'zho',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  diplo 
matist,  born  at  Macon  in  1753,  was  a  republican  member 
of  the  Convention,  (1793.)  With  Bonnier  and  Debry,  he 
represented  France  at  the  Congress  of  Rastadt,  in  1799. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Austrian  soldiers  just  after  he 
departed  from  Rastadt,  in  April  of  that  year. 

Rob'ert  OF  BAVARIA,  born  in  1352,  was  elected  Em 
peror  of  Germany  in  1400.  He  attempted  to  conquer 
the  Milanese,  but  was  defeated  by  Visconti  in  1401. 
Died  in  1410. 

Rob'ert  [Fr.  pron.  ro'baik' ;  Lat.  ROBEK'TUS  ;  It. 
ROBERTO,  ro-beR'to]  I.,  King  of  France,  was  the  second 
son  of  Robert  the  Strong,  Duke  of  France.  After  the 
death  of  his  brother  Eudes,  898  A.D.,  the  throne  was 
obtained  by  Charles  the  Simple.  In  922  the  malcontent 
barons  revolted  against  Charles,  and  proclaimed  Robert 
as  his  successor.  In  923  the  army  of  Robert  gained  a 
victory  over  that  of  his  rival ;  but  Robert  was  killed  in 
the  action. 

Robert  II.,  King  of  France,  born  at  Orleans  in  971, 
was  a  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  whom  he  succeeded  in  996. 
He  was  reputed  to  be  very  devout,  but  was  excommu 
nicated  by  the  pope  for  his  marriage  with  a  cousin  in 
the  fourth  degree.  In  1024  he  refused  the  imperial 
crown,  offered  to  him  by  the  Italians.  His  reign  was 
pacific.  He  died  in  1031,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Henry. 

See  RAOUL  GLABER,  "Chronique;"  "  Nouve'ile  Biographie 
Generale." 

Robert  OF  ANJOU,  King  of  Naples,  born  about  1275, 
was  a  son  of  Charles  II.  He  began  to  reign  in  1309, 
and  waged  war  against  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  He 
was  the  judge  selected  to  decide  whether  Petrarch  was 
qualified  to  receive  the  crown  of  poet-laureate.  Died 

in  1343- 

Robert  I.  OF  SCOTLAND.     See  BRUCE,  (ROBERT.) 

Rob'ert  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  born  in  1316,  was  the 
first  king  of  the  House  of  Stewart  or  Stuart.  The  family 
name  was  originally  ALLAN,  or  ALAN.  (See  STUART 
FAMILY.)  His  mother,  Marjory,  was  a  daughter  of 
Robert  Bruce,  and  his  father,  Walter  Allan,  was  the 
high  steward  of  Scotland.  He  acted  as  regent  from 
1338  to  1341,  and  again  while  David  II.  was  held  as 
a  prisoner  by  the  English,  (1346-57.)  He  succeeded 
David  II.  in  1371.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
reign  were  a  war  against  the  English,  and  the  battle  of 
Otterburne,  (1388.)  Died  in  1390. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxvi. 

Robert  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  born  about  1340,  was 
a  son  of  Robert  II.  His  baptismal  name  was  John  ; 
but  John  Baliol  (called  "King  John")  had  rendered  this 
so  unpopular  that  it  was  changed  to  Robert.  He  began 
to  reign  in  1390.  Hostilities  were  renewed  between  the 


Scotch  and  English  in  1399,  and  the  former  were  de 
feated  at  Homildon  Hill,  in  1402.  Robert  died  in  1406, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  James  I. 

See  BURTON,  "History  of  Scotland,"  chap.  xxvi. 

Robert  [Fr.  pron.  ro-baiR']  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
surnamed  LE  DIABLE,  leh  de'Sbl',  ("the  Devil,")  was  a 
son  of  Richard  II.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Richard 
III.,  in  1027.  In  1035  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  on  his  return  from  which  he  died  at  Nicaea 
in  July,  1035.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William 
the  Conqueror  of  England. 

See  DEPPING,  "  Histoire  de  Normandie;"  A.  DEVILLE,  "Notice 
historique  sur  Robert  le  Diable,"  1836. 

Robert  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  surnamed  CURT- 
HOSE  or  SHORT-SHANKS,  born  about  960,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  William  I.  surnamed  the  Conqueror.  He  was 
brave,  but  imprudent  and  unstable.  He  obtained  the 
dukedom  of  Normandy  in  1087.  In  1096  he  went  to 
Palestine  as  a  leader  of  the  first  crusade.  He  distin 
guished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Antioch  and  at  the  battle 
of  Dorylseum,  (1097,)  and  returned  home  in  iioo.  In 
his  absence  his  younger  brother, 'Henry,  obtained  pos 
session  of  the  throne  of  England,  left  vacant  by  the 
death  of  William  Rufus.  In  the  war  that  ensued  between 
Robert  and  Henry,  the  former  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  in  1106.  He  was  confined  at  Cardiff  until  his 
death,  in  1 134. 

See  DEPPING,  "Histoire  de  Nonnandie ;"  ORDERICUS  VITALIS, 
"  History  of  Normandy." 

Robert  I.,  Count  of  Artois,  born  in  1216,  was  a  son 
of  Louis  VIII.  of  France.  He  accompanied  his  brother, 
Saint  Louis,  in  a  crusade  against  the  Saracens,  and  was 
killed  at  Mansourah  in  1250. 

His  son  ROBERT,  born  in  1250,  gained  a  victory  over 
the  English  near  Dax  in  1296,  and  over  the  Flemings 
at  Fumes  in  1297.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1302. 

Robert  III.,  Count  of  Artois,  a  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1287.  He  was  banished  by  Philip 
VI.  of  France  in  1332,  and  entered  the  service  of  Edward 
III.  of  England.  Died  in  1343. 

Robert,  ro'baiR',  (CESAR  ALPHONSE,)  a  French  sur 
geon  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1801. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 

Robert,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  ecclesiastical  historian, 
born  near  Bar-sur-Seine  in  1564  or  1565.  His  chief 
work  is  "Christian  Gaul,"  ("Gallia  Christiana,"  1626,) 
which  was  continued  by  the  Benedictines  and  extended 
to  thirteen  volumes,  (1785.)  Died  in  1637. 

See  E.  SOCARD,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Claude  Robert." 

Robert,  ro'beRt,  (ERNST  FRIKDRICH  LUDWIG,)  a 
German  litterateur,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1778,  was  a  brother  of  Rahel  Varnhagen  von  Ense. 
He  was  the  author  of  poems,  tales,  and  dramas.  Died 
in  1832. 

Robert,  (FRANC.OLS,)  a  French  geographer,  born  near 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1737.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Geographical  Dictionary,"  (1818.)  Died  in 
1819. 

Robert,  (HUBERT,)  an  excellent  French  painter  of 
architecture,  etc.,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  and  passed  twelve  years  in  Italy,  (1753-65-) 
He  painted  views  of  the  monuments  and  ruins  of  Rome. 
After  his  return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  royal  cabinet  and  dessinateur  of  the  royal  gardens. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1808. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biosraphie  Generale." 

Robert,  (Louis  LEOPOLD,)  an  eminent  painter,  born 
at  Chaux-le-Fonds,  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel,  in  1794. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Girardet  and  of  David.  In  1818 
he  went  to  Italy,  in  which  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  represented  Italian  life  and  scenery  with 
fidelity  in  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "  The 
Neapolitan  Improvisator,"  (1824,)  "The  Vintage  in 
Tuscany,"  "  The  Reapers  of  the  Pontine  Marshes,"  and 
"The  Departure  of  the  Fishermen  of  the  Adriatic," 
(1835.)  He  committed  suicide  at  Venice  in  1835.  This 
act  is  ascribed  to  a  passion  for  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte. 

See  E.  DEI.ECLUZE,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  Robert,"  183^  ; 
FF.UILI.ET  DE  CONCHES,  "  L.  Robert,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1848  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


ROBERT 


ROBERTSON 


Robert,  (Louis  VALENTIN  ELIAS,)  a  French  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Etampes  about  1818. 

Robert,  (NiCOi.AS,)  a  French  miniature-  and  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Langres  about  1610.  He  commenced  a 
work  called  "  Recueil  de  Velins."  Died  in  Paris  in  1684. 

Robert,  (PAUL  PONCE  ANTOINE,)  a  French  painter 
and  engraver,  born  near  Rheims  in  1686;  died  in  1733- 

Robert,  (PIERRE  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH,)  a  French  regi 
cide,  born  at  Gininee  in  1763,  was  a  friend  of  Danton. 
He  married  Mademoiselle  de  Keralio,  the  authoress. 
Died  in  1826. 

Robert  de  Courtenay,  ro'baiR'  deh  kooRt'ni',  a 
French  prince,  a  son  of  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  became 
Latin  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in  1220.  Died  in  1228. 

Robert  de  Vaugondy,  ro'baiR'  deh  vo'gc-N'de', 
(DiDiER,)  a  French  geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1723. 
He  published  an  "Atlas  of  France  and  Europe,"  (1785, 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1786. 

Robert  de  Vaugondy,  (GlLLES,)  a  French  geogra 
pher,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  the  father  of  the  pre 
ceding,  and  a  grandson  of  Nicolas  Sanson.  lie  produced 
a  "Universal  Atlas,"  (1758.)  Died  in  1766. 

Robert  of  Avesbury,  an  English  chronicler,  author 
of  an  unfinished  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  III.," 
which  conies  down  to  1356.  Died  about  1360. 

Robert  of  Bavaria.     See  RUPERT,  PRINCE. 

Robert  of  Geneva,  (Anti-Pope,)  born  in  1342,  was 
elected  pope  in  1378,  in  opposition  to  Urban  VI.  He 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  reigned  at  Avignon, 
and  was  recognized  by  the  French  and  Spaniards.  Died 
in  1394. 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  an  English  chronicler  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  in  verse,  a  chronicle 
or  history  of  England  from  fabulous  times  down  to 
the  death  of  Henry  III.  De  Quincey  speaks  of  this 
chronicle  as  "the  very  earliest  of  all  English  books." 

See  tlie  interesting  account  of  De  Quincey's  interview  with  George 
III.,  in  his  "Autobiographic  Sketches." 

Robert  the  Strong,  [Fr.  ROHF.RT  LE  FORT,  ro'baiR' 
leh  foR,]  Count  of  Anjou  and  Duke  of  France,  was 
noted  as  a  military  chief.  He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with 
some  Normans,  led  by  the  famous  sea-king  Hastings, 
in  866  A.D.  He  was  great-grandfather  of  Hugh  Capet. 

Robert  Grosstete.     See  GKOSSETESTE. 

Robert-Fleury,  ro'baiK'  fluh're',  (JOSEPH  NICOLAS,) 
a  popular  French  historical  painter,  was  born  at  Co 
logne  in  1797.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1850.  Among  his  works  are  "  Benvenuto 
Cellini"  and  "Charles  V.  at  the  Monastery  of  Saint 
Just."  About  1855  he  became  professor  in  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux- Arts. 

Robert!,  ro-beVtee,  (ALUERT,)  a  Belgian  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1811. 

Robert!,  ro-beVtee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  me 
diocre  Italian  poet  and  essayist,  born  at  Bassano  in 
1719.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Bologna.  Died 
in  1786. 

Robert!,  (JEAN,)  a  learned  Belgian  Jesuit,  born  at 
Saint-Hubert  in  1569  ;  died  in  1651. 

Roberto,  the  Italian  for  ROUERT,  which  see. 

Rob'erts,  (BENJAMIN  S.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Manchester,  Vermont,  about  1811,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1835.  He  was  serving  with  the  rank  of  major 
in  New  Mexico  when  the  civil  war  began.  In  July,  1862, 
he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the 
Union  army. 

Rob'erts,  (DAVID,)  an  eminent  British  painter  of 
landscapes  and  architecture,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Edinburgh,  in  1796.  Between  1838  and  1840  he  travelled 
in  Egypt  and  Syria,  in  which  he  sketched  many  scenes 
which  he  afterwards  reproduced  on  canvas.  He  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1841.  Among  his  works 
are  "Jerusalem  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  (1841,) 
"Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,"  (1844,)  "Ruins  of  the  Great 
Temple  of  Karnak,"  "The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem," 
(1849,)  and  "Rome,"  (1855.)  The  splendid  work  entitled 
"  The  Holy  Land,  Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Nubia" 
(4  vols.,  1842)  is  illustrated  by  lithographs  of  his 
sketches.  Died  in  1864. 

See  WILLIAM  JERDAN,  "Men  I  have  known."  London,  1866; 
"Biographical  Sketches,"  by  HARRIET  MAKTINK.AU. 


Roberts,  (EMMA,)  an  English  authoress,  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  the  Rival  Houses  of  York  and  Lancas 
ter,"  and  "Oriental  Scenes,  Sketches,  and  Tales."  Died 
at  Poonah,  in  India,  in  1840. 

Roberts,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  Puritan  minister  and 
writer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1609,  became  rector  of 
Wrington  in  1649.  He  wrote  "Key  to  the  Scriptures," 
("Clavis  Bibliorum,"  1649,)  "The  True  Way  to  the 
Tree  of  Life,"  (1673,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1675. 

Roberts,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1768. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Hannah  More."  Died 
in  1849. 

Robertson,  ro'baiR'sd.N-',  (£TIENNE  GASPARD  RO 
BERT,)  a  Belgian  aeronaut  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Liege  in  1763.  It  is  stated  that  he  made  fifty-nine 
ascensions  in  balloons.  Died  in  1837. 

Rob'eit-son,  (FREDERICK  WILLIAM,)  an  eloquent 
minister  and  original  thinker  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  3d  of  February,  1816.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  Frederick  Robertson,  of 
the  royal  artillery.  After  preparatory  studies  at  Edin 
burgh,  he  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  in  1836. 
Among  his  fellow-students  at  Oxford  was  John  Ruskin, 
in  whom  he  found  a  congenial  spirit.  He  would  have 
preferred  the  profession  of  a  soldier  ;  but,  in  compliance 
with  the  wishes  of  his  father,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
church.  After  he  left  college  he  improved  his  health  by 
a  pedestrian  tour  among  the  Alps,  and  on  that  occasion 
became  acquainted  with  Miss  Helen  Denys,  whom  he 
married  in  1842.  He  served  as  curate  at  Cheltenham 
about  four  years,  and  became  incumbent  of  Trinity 
Chapel,  Brighton,  in  August,  1847.  Though  he  rather 
shunned  than  courted  popularity,  his  eloquence  and 
originality  soon  excited  general  admiration.  The  libe 
rality  and  independence  of  his  principles,  however, 
subjected  him  to  persecution  from  some  members  of  his 
own  communion.  He  belonged  to  what  is  called  the 
Broad  Church.  Three  series  of  his  sermons  have  been 
published,  and  have  passed  through  about  eight  editions. 
He  delivered  several  "Lectures  and  Addresses  on  Lit 
erary  and  Social  Topics,"  which  have  been  printed.  He 
died  August  15,  1853,  and  was  buried  at  Brighton. 

See  STOPFOKD  A.  BKOOKE,  "Life  and  Letters  of  F.  \V.  Robert 
son,"  2  vols.,  1865;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1866. 

Robertson,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  in  London  about  1742;  died  in  1788. 

Rob'ert-son,  QAMES,)  called  RAHHI  ROBERTSON,  was 
born  at  Cromarty,  in  -Scotland.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Edinburgh  in  1751.  Died  in  1795. 

Robertson,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
1803.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Edinburgh.  Died  in  1860. 

Robertson,  (Rev.  JOSEPH,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1726.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Punctuation,"  and 
translated  "Telemachns,"  (1795.)  Died  in  1802. 

Robertson,  (PATRICK,)  a  Scottish  judge,  versifier, 
and  lawyer,  noted  for  his  wit  and  humour,  was  born  in 
1794.  He  was  elected  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates 
in  1842.  Died  in  1855. 

Robertson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  grammarian,  born 
at  or  near  Wakefield.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Magda 
lene  College,  Oxford,  in  1532,  and  Dean  of  Durham  about 
1557.  Died  about  1560. 

Rob'ert-son,  (WILLIAM,)  an  Irish  divine,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1705,  is  reputed  to  have  been  an  Arian  or 
Unitarian.  He  wrote  "An  Attempt  to  Explain  the 
Words  Reason,  Substance,  Person,  Creed,  Orthodoxy," 
etc.  Died  in  1783. 

Robertson,  (WILLIAM,)  often  called  PRINCIPAL  ROB 
ERTSON,  a  celebrated  Scottish  historian,  was  born  at 
Borth\vick,in  Edinburghshire,  (Mid-Lothian,)  September 
19,  1721.  His  father,  the  Rev.  William  Robertson,  was 
minister  at  Borthwick  when  his  son  was  born.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Edinburgh.  Young  Robertson 
manifested  an  ardent  devotion  to  literature  from  a  very 
early  age.  He  began  to  preach  before  he  was  twenty 
years  old.  He  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Gladsmuir, 
in  East  Lothian,  in  1743,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  obtained  great  influence  in  ecclesiastical 


a,  e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROBERVAL 


1905 


ROBESPIERRE 


affairs.  He  was  the  leader  of  what  was  called  the  mode 
rate  party,  and  was  more  inclined  to  liberality  and  tole 
rance  than  many  other  members  of  his  church.  He  has, 
however,  been  charged,  perhaps  not  without  reason,  with 
preferring  the  interests  of  literature  to  those  of  religion. 
In  1759  he  published  a  "  History  of  Scotland  during  the 
Reigns  of  Mary  and  of  James  VI.  till  his  Accession  to 
the  Crown  of  England,"  which  was  received  with  great 
and  general  favour.  It  was  extolled  by  Hume,  Burke, 
and  other  eminent  critics.  He  removed  to  Edinburgh 
about  1759,  became  one  of  the  king's  chaplains  in  1761, 
and  principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1762. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  "  History  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  with  ;t  Sketch  of  the  Political  and 
Social  State  of  Europe,"  f:tc.,  (3  vols.,  1769.)  which  is 
considered  his  capital  w^k.  He  afterwards  published 
a  "  History  of  America,"  (2  vols.,  1777.)  He  is  gene 
rally  accurate  and  impartial  in  the  narration  of  events 
and  judicious  in  the  estimation  of  character.  His  style 
is  elegant,  clear,  and  vigorous,  with  occasional  passages 
of  great  beauty.  As  a  writer  he  is  remarkable  for  a 
sustained  unimpassioned  dignity  of  manner,  which,  how 
ever,  too  often  approaches  monotony.  In  politics  he 
was  a  Whig,  with  a  strong  leaning  towards  republicanism. 
He  died  in  June,  1793. 

See  DUGALD  STEWART,  "Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
W.  Robertson,"  1801  ;  SUARD,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de 
Dr.  Robertson;"  "  Memoirs  of  Adam  Smith,  W.  Robertson,  and 
Thomas  Reid,"  1811  ;  BISHOP  GLEIG,  "Memoir  of  W.  Robertson," 
prefixed  to  his  works  ;  BROUGHAM,  "  Men  of  Letters  in  the  Time  of 
George  III.;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  ALI.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Re 
view"  for  Juiy  and  August,  1769. 

Roberval,  de,  deh  ro'beR/viK,  (Gn.ES  Personne — 
pe'u'son',  or  Personier,  pe'tt'so'iie^-i',)  a  French  mathe 
matician,  was  born  at  Roberval,  near  Senlis,  in  1602. 
He  removed  to  Paris  in  1627,  and  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Mersenne.  About  1632  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
mathematics  founded  by  Ramus  at  the  College  de 
France.  He  discovered  about  1636  a  method  to  deter 
mine  the  area  of  a  cycloid,  and  a  method  to  determine 
the  direction  of  a  tangent  at  any  point  of  a  curve  line. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Indivisibles," 
("Traite  des  Indivisibles,")  and  "On  the  World's  Mo 
tions  and  Parts,  according  to  the  System  of  Aristarchus 
the  Satnian,"  ("Aristarchi  Samii  de  Mundi  Systemate 
Partibus  et  Motibus,"  1644.)  It  is  related  that,  having 
been  asked  how  he  liked  a  dramatical  performance 
which  he  had  just  witnessed,  he  answered,  "Qu'est-ce 
que  cela  prouve?"  ("  What  does  that  prove?")  Died  in 
Paris  in  1675. 

Robespierre,  ro'bes'pe-aiR',  (AucusxiN  Box  JO 
SEPH,)  called  THE  YouNcTa  brother  of  the  dictator, 
was  born  at  Arras  in  1764.  He  was  elected  to  the 
National  Convention  in  1792.  When  the  Convention 
ordered  the  arrest  of  his  brother,  he  exclaimed,  "In 
clude  me  with  him  ;  I  partake  his  crimes  !"  He  was 
executed  July  28,  1794. 

Robespierre,  rob'es-peer,  [Fr.  pron.  ro'beVpe-aiR',] 
(MAXIMILIEN  MARIE  ISIDORE,)  a  French  demagogue 
and  Jacobin,  was  born  at  Arras  on  the  6th  of  May, 
1758.  He  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Arras,  from  which 
he  passed  in  1770  to  the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  in 
Paris.  His  habits  at  college  were  studious  and  regular. 
He  studied  law,  acquired  some  distinction  as  an  advo 
cate  at  Arras,  and  was  sent  to  the  States-General  in 
May,  1789,  as  one  of  the  sixteen  representatives  of  the 
province  of  Artois.  He  was  a  person  of  small  stature, 
and  had  nothing  attractive  or  imposing  in  his  aspect. 
His  voice  wras  weak,  his  complexion  "sea-green,"  his 
disposition  reserved  and  timid,  and  his  moral  habits  tem 
perate  and  regular.  According  to  M.  fitienne  Dumont, 
he  had  a  sinister  aspect,  and  a  continual  blinking 
( clignotement )  of  the  eyes.  In  political  opinions  he  was 
a  radical  democrat.  He  spoke  often  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  and  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  over  which  he 
soon  acquired  a  predominant  influence.  While  men  of 
greater  talents  wasted  their  energies  in  vain  efforts  to 
reform  the  old  regime  by  half-way  measures  and  tem 
porizing  expedients,  he  seems  to  have  perceived  the 
necessity  of  a  radical  revolution.  "  He  will  go  far,"  says 
Mirabea'u ;  "  for  he  believes  all  he  says." 


In  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  maintained  a  position 
somewhat  independent  of  party.  He  defended  with  zeal 
the  interests  of  the  inferior  clergy,  advocated  the  abo 
lition  of  the  death-penalty,  (May,  1791,)  and  made  a 
vehement  speech  against  the  re-election  of  the  members 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  to  the  Legislative  Assem 
bly,  on  which  question  he  differed  from  the  other  chiefs 
of  \.\\& gauche.  On  critical  occasions  he  usually  presented 
himself  to  the  people  as  a  resigned  and  devoted  victim 
whom  nefarious  persons  designed  to  immolate  because 
he  loved  the  people  too  well.  Thus,  after  he  had  de 
nounced  the  king,  the  ministry,  etc.,  June  21,  1791,  he 
said,  "I  know  that  I  sharpen  against  myself  a  thousand 
daggers  ;  but  if  in  the  first  stage  of  the  Revolution,  when 
I  was  scarcely  known  in  the  National  Assembly,  I  offered 
my  life  as  a  sacrifice  to  truth,  now  that  the  approbation 
of  my  fellow-citizens  has  rewarded  me  for  this  sacrifice, 
I  should  receive  almost  as  a  benefit  a  death  which  shall 
prevent  me  from  witnessing  the  public  calamities  which 
I  foresee  to  be  inevitable."  In  December,  1791,  he 
opposed  in  a  speech  the  declaration  of  war  against 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  which  was  proposed  by  the 
Girondists.  Although  not  a  great  orator,  he  was 
always  plausible,  and  more  logical  than  the  most  of  his 
competitors.  He  never  took  an  active  or  open  part 
in  the  violent  acts  and  outrages  of  the  populace,  such 
as  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  August,  1792. 

In  September^  1792,  he  was  elected  to  the  Convention 
as  a  deputy  from  Paris.  A  few  clays  after  the  session 
began,  several  Girondist  deputies  accused  him  of  aspiring 
to  a  dictatorship,  and  cast  on  him  the  responsibility  of 
the  recent  massacre  in  the  prisons  of  Paris.  These 
charges  were  repeated  by  Louvet  in  a  long  speech, 
(October  29,)  to  which  Robespierre  read  an  artful 
and  successful  defence.  The  result  of  this  affair  was 
that  Robespierre  became  the  accepted  chief  of  the 
Mountain  and  the  implacable  enemy  of  the  Girondists. 
The  first  victim  of  his  unscrupulous  policy  was  the 
king,  whom  the  Girondists  wished  to  save.  He  said, 
(December  2,  1792,)  "I  pronounce  with  regret  this 
fatal  truth  ;  but  Louis  must  die  that  the  country  may 
live,"  ("Louis  doit  mourir  parcequ'il  faut  que  la  patrie 
vive.")  Aided  by  the  commune  of  Paris  and  the  mob, 
he  triumphed  over  the  Girondists  about  June  I,  1793. 
Then  began  the  Reign  of  Terror,  during  which,  as  presi 
dent  of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  (or  salvation,) 
Robespierre  exercised  almost  unlimited  power.  Two 
of  his  partisans,  Couthon  and  Saint-Just,  were  associated 
with  him  in  the  triumvirate  of  Robespierre.  It  is 
just  to  admit  that  they  defended  France  with  great 
vigour  and  ability  against  the  allied  armies  of  nearly 
all  Europe  and  the  Vendean  royalist  insurgents. 

In  March,  1794,  Hebert  and  the  Hebertists  were 
guillotined  as  exageres  or  ultra-revolutionary.  It  is  stated 
that  when  the  committee  of  public  safety  determined 
to  destroy  Danton  and  his  friends,  Robespierre  at  first 
opposed  the  measure ;  but  he  supported,  by  a  speech  in 
the  Convention,  Saint-Just's  motion  for  their  arrest,  and 
Danton,  with  Desmoulins  and  others,  was  executed  in 
April,  1794.  But  the  death  of  a  powerful  rival  did  not 
render  his  own  position  secure.  His  statesmanship  was 
not  adequate  to  solve  the  enigma  of  the  Revolution.  He 
presided  as  a  high-priest  and  pronounced  an  oration  at 
a  public  ceremony  called  the  Festival  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  in  June,  1794.  In  the  mean  time,  multitudes  ot 
innocent  persons,  of  both  sexes,  perished  daily  by  the 
guillotine.  This  excessive  cruelty  provoked  against  him 
a  combination  of  various  parties,  afterwards  called 
"  Thermidoriens,"  including  Tallien,  Barras,  Billaud- 
Varennes,  Fouche,  and  Carnot.  The  Convention  ordered 
the  arrest  of  Robespierre  on  the  gth  Thermidor.  His 
partisans  rallied  in  the  night  and  released  him  from 
arrest.  He  was  then  declared  an  outlaw  by  the  Conven 
tion,  and  was  guillotined,  with  twenty  of  his  partisans,  on 
the  loth  Thermidor,  (28th  of  July,) '1794.  He  was  sur- 
named  "  the  Incoi  ruptible,"  because  he  was  proof  against 
pecuniary  temptations.  "  Robespierre,"  says  Macaulay, 
in  his  article  on  Barere,  "was  a  vain,  envious,  and  sus 
picious  man,  with  a  hard  heart,  weak  nerves,  and  a 
gloomy  temper.  But  we  cannot  with  truth  deny  that  he 
was,  in  the  vulgar  sense  of  the  word,  disinterested,  tha' 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ':  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

I  2O 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROBILANT 


1906 


ROBINSON 


his  private   life  was   correct,   or   that  he  was  sincerely 
zealous  for  his  own  system  of  politics  and  morals." 

See  LODIKU,  "  Biographic  de  Robespierre  ;"  VII.ATK,  "Causes 
secretes  de  la  Revolution  du  9  Tliermidor,"  1796  ;  PKOYART,  "  Vie  de 
Ri.bespierre,"  1794;  GEORGE  H.  LEWES,  "History  of  Maximilian 
Robespierre,"  1849;  LAMARTINE,  "  Histoire  des  Girondins  ;"  EK- 
NEST  HAMEI,,  "  Histoire  de  Robespierre,"  3  vols.,  1867;  CARI.YI.E, 
"  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  P.  V.  TISSOT,  "  Histoire  de 
Robespierre,"  2  vols.,  1844:  OPITZ,  " Robespierre's  Triumph  und 
Sturz,"  1850;  MIGNET,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Franchise ;' 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  tor 
September,  1835. 

Robilant,  de,  deh  ro'be'loN',  ?  (ESPRIT  BENO!T  NICO 
LAS,)  an  engineer  and  writer  on  metallurgy,  etc.,  born  at 
Turin  in  1724.  He  was  a  son  of  Count  Joseph  Robilant, 
author  of  an  able  work  on  Strategy,  (I744-)  1)iecl  >»  J8oi. 

Robin,  ro'bax',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE,)  a  French  anato 
mist  and  microscopist,  born  at  Jafferon  (Ain)  in  1821. 
Me  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Paris  (profisseur 
agrege&la  Facnlte)  in  1847.  He  applied  the  microscope 
to  the  study  of  anatomy  and  the  intimate  structure  of 
tissues.  He  published  a  number  of  professional  works, 
among  which  is  "Traite  de  Chimie  anatomique  et  phy- 
siologique,  normale  et  pathologique,"  (1852.) 

Robin,  (JEAN,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1550.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  IV.,  and  planted  a 
garden  which  was  the  finest  in  Paris.  He  published  a 
work  on  the  plants  which  grow  near  Paris,  "  Catalogus 
Stirpium  tain  indigenarum  quam  exoticarum,"  etc., 
(1601.)  The  genus  Robinia  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1629. 

See  HALI.ER,  "  BibHotheca  Botanica." 

Robin,  (VESPASIEN,)  a  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1579, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  title  of  arboriste  dn  roi,  and  lectured  on  botany  at  the 
Jardin  Royal.  Died  in  1662. 

Robin  Hood.     See  HOOD,  (RoniN.) 

Robineau.     See  BKAUNOIU. 

Robinet,  ro'be'ni',  (EoMOxn,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Saint-Pol-de-Leon  in  1811.  He  wrote  several 
historical  works. 

Robinet,  (JKAN  BAPTISTE  RENE,)  a  French  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Rennes  in  1735  ;  died  in  1820. 

Robinet,  (STEPHANE,)  a  French  chemist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1796. 

Rob'ins,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  eminent  English  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Bath  in  1707,  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  gunnery.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  at  the  age  of  twenty.  His  chief  work  is 
"New  Principles  of  Gunnery,"  (1742.)  He  was  ap 
pointed  chief  engineer  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
1749,  and  died  at  Madras  in  1751. 

See  DR.  WILSON,  "Lite  of  Benjamin  Robins;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica,"  (Supplement  ) 

Robins  or  Robyns,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  astronomer, 
born  in  Staffordshire  about  1500.  He  was  canon  of 
Windsor,  and  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  He  left  in  manu 
script  several  treatises  on  the  Fixed  Stars.  Died  in 

1558. 

Rob'in-spn,  (ANASTASIA,)  an  English  singer,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  before  1735. 
Died  in  1750. 

Rob'in-son,  (EDWARD,)  an  eminent  American  bibli 
cal  scholar,  born  at  Southington,  Connecticut,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  in  1816, 
and  went  to  Europe  in  1826,  after  which  he  studied 
Oriental  languages  at  Paris  and  Halle.  About  1828  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Professor  Jacob!  or  von  Jakob, 
of  Halle.  He  began  to  edit  the  "  Biblical  Repository" 
in  1831,  was  appointed  professor  of  biblical  literature 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  1837,  and  travelled  in  Palestine  in  1838.  In 
1841  he  published  his  principal  work,  "  Biblical  Re 
searches  in  Palestine,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Petrasa," 
(3  vols.,)  which  is  considered  the  best  that  had  then 
been  published  on  that  subject.  "  The  work  was  recog 
nized,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "as  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  judicious  produced  in  the  world  in  this 
century."  He  received  for  this  work  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,"  in 
Greek,  (1845,)  a"d  "  I\ibliotheca  Sacra."  Died  in  New 


York  in  January,  1863.  "The  names  of  Edward  Robin 
son  and  Moses  Stuart,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  stand 
at  the  head  of  the  catalogue  of  learned  men  who  have 
cultivated  biblical  literature  in  America."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  America,"  p.  382.) 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1841  ; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1851. 

Robinson,  (FREDERICK  JOHN.)  See  RIPOX,  EARL 
OE. 

Robinson,  (HENRY  CRAHH,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  other  eminent  per 
sons  of  his  time.  He  died  in  London  in  1867,  at  the  age 
of  ninety-one,  leaving  a  very  interesting  "Diary,  Remi 
niscences,  and  Correspondence,"  (3  vols.,  London,  1869.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  iS6g  ;  "  British  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  October,  1869;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  tor  October. 
1869;  "Macmillan's  Magazine"  for  August,  1869,  (by  PROFESSOR 
MAURICE.) 

Robinson,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  1575,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  To  escape 
from  persecution,  he  emigrated  to  Holland  with  the  con 
gregation  of  which  he  svas  pastor,  in  1608.  He  and  they 
settled  at  Leyden,  where  they  remained  eleven  years. 
A  portion  of  his  society  emigrated  to  Plymouth,  Massa 
chusetts,  in  1620,  in  the  Mayflower.  lie  intended  to 
follow  them,  but  was  prevented  by  death.  He  was  an 
Independent,  and  a  man  of  superior  talents.  He  wrote 
several  religious  works.  Died  at  Leyden  in  1625. 

Robinson,  (Jon.\,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  York 
shire  in  1650.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  1710, 
and  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  formed  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  (1713.)  He  was  transferred  to  the  see 
of  London  in  1714.  Died  in  1723. 

Robinson,  (JoiiN1  C.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Bingharrtton,  New  York,  in  1817.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  about  April,  1862,  and  served  at  the 
battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  at  Malvern  Hill, 
July  i,  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  at  that  of  the  Wilderness, 
May,  1864.  In  the  advance  from  the  Wilderness  to 
Spottsylvania  Court-House  he  was  severely  wounded, 
May  7. 

Robinson,  (Jonx  II.,)  an  able  English  line-engraver, 
born  at  Bolton,  Lancashire,  in  1796.  lie  engraved  a 
portrait  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  after  Lawrence,  Leslie's 
"Mother  and  Child,"  Murillo's  "Flower-Girl,"  etc. 

Robinson,  (M.\RV  or  MARIA,)  an  English  poetess 
and  actress,  born  at  Bristol  in  1758.  Her  maiden  name 
was  DARUY.  She  was  a  mistress  of  the  Prince  of  \Vales, 
(afterwards  George  IV.)  Died  in  1800. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Mrs.  Robinson,"  London,  1827; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  December,  1801. 

Robinson,  (RICHARD,)  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and 
Baron  Rokeby,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1709.  He 
founded  a  public  library  and  a  school  at  Armagh.  Died 
in  1794. 

Robinson,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Swaffham,  in  Norfolk,  in  1735.  He  preached 
at  Cambridge  from  1759  to  1773,  and  then  removed  to 
Chesterton.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  adopted  Socinian  doctrines. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  "History  of 
Baptism,"  (1790.)  Died  in  1790. 

See  GEORGE  DVER,  "  Life  of  R.  Robinson,"  1796. 

Robinson,  (TANCRED,  )  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  received  the  title  of  physician-in-ordinary  to 
George  I.  Died  in  1748. 

Robinson,  (THERESE  ALHERTINE  LOUISE,)  wife  of 
Dr.  E.  Robinson,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Halle, 
Germany,  in  1797.  She  published  a  collection  of  tales 
under  the  signature  of  TALVI,  and  translated  a  number 
of  poems  from  the  Servian  language,  entitled  "  Volks- 
lieder  der  Serben."  She  has  also  translated  into  Ger 
man  Pickering's  treatise  "  On  the  Indian  Tongues  of 
North  America."  Among  her  other  works  may  be 
named  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  Languages  and  Lite 
rature  of  the  Slavic  Nations,  with  a  Sketch  of  their 
Popular  Poetry."  Died  in  1870. 

Robinson,  (Rev.  THOMAS,)  an  English  naturalist, 
wrote  an  "  Essay  toward  the  Natural  History  of  West 
moreland  and  Cumberland."  Died  in  1719. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall.  fAt:  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ROSINS  ON 


1907 


ROCHEFOUCAULD 


Robinson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Wakefield  in  1749.  He  preached  at  Leicester  for  many 
years,  and  published  "The  Christian  System  Unfolded." 
Died  in  1813. 

See  EDWARD  T.  VAUGHAN,  "  Life  of  T.  Robinson." 

Robiquet,  ro'be'k.V,  (PIERRE  JEAN,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1780.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  and  materia  medica  in  Paris,  and  succeeded 
Chaptal  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1833.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1840. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Rob'i-son,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  mathematician  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Boghall,  county  of  Stirling, 
or  at  Rosehall,  near  Glasgow,  in  1739.  He  succeeded 
Dr.  Black  as  professor  of  chemistry  at  Glasgow  in  1767, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1774.  His  principal 
work  is  "Elements  of  Mechanical  Philosophy,"  (4  vols., 
1822.)  Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1805. 

See  DAVID  BREV.-STER,  "  Notice  of  J.  Robison,"  prefixed  to  the 
work  above  named;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi 
nent  Scotsmen." 

Roboam.     See  REHOBOAM. 

Robortello,  ro-boR-tel'lo,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Udine  in  1516.  He 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Venice,  and  taught  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Padua.  Among  his  works  are  "Annotations 
of  Various  Passages,"  ("Variorum  Locorum  Annota- 
tiones,"  1543,)  and  "  De  Facultate  historica,"  (1548.) 
Died  in  1567. 

See  GIIH.IM,  "Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia 
delia  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rob  Roy,  a  Scottish  adventurer,  whose  original 
name  was  MACGREGOR,  born  about  1660,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  Pretender  in  the  rebellion  of  1715.  The  Duke 
of  Montrose  having  seized  his  lands,  Rob  Roy  carried 
on  a  war  of  reprisals  for  many  years,  and  became  widely 
celebrated  for  his  exploits.  He  is  the  hero  of  one  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  most  popular  novels.  Died  in  1743. 

See  K.  MACI.EAY,  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Rob  Roy,"  1818; 
"  I'lnckwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  November,  and  December, 
1817. 

Rob'soii,  (FREDERICK,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born 
at  Margate  in  1821.  He  performed  in  London  and 
Dublin  with  success.  Died  in  1864. 

Robson,  (GEORGE  FENNEL,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Durham,  worked  in  London.  Died  in 

iS33- 

Robust!    See  TINTORETTO. 

Robusti,  ro-boos'tee,  (DoMENico,)  a  painter,  some 
times  called  TINTORETTO,  born  at  Venice  in  1562,  was 
a  son  and  pupil  of  the  great  painter  Tintoretto.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success.  Among  his 
works  are  au  "Annunciation"  and  a  "  Nativity  of  Christ." 
Died  in  1637. 

See  LAXZI,  ''History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Robusti,  (MARIETTA,)  an  excellent  Italian  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  1560,  was  a  daughter  of  Tintoretto.  She 
died  in  1 590. 

Ro'by,  (JOHN,)  an  English  writer  of  prose  and  verse, 
born  in  Lancashire,  became  a  banker  of  Rochdale.  lie 
wrote  "Sir  Bartram,"  a  poem,  (1815,)  and  "Traditions 
of  Lancashire."  (2  vols.,  1829.)  He  perished  in  the 
wreck  of  the  Orion,  in  June,  1850. 

Rocaberti,  de,  da  ro-ka-bei<'tee,  (JuAN  TOMMASO,) 
a  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Perelada  about  1625.  He 
advocated  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  in  his  work  "On 
the  Authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,"  ("De  Roman! 
Pontiricis  Auctoritate,"  1693.)  Died  in  1699. 

Rocca,  rok'ka,  (ANGELO,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at 
Rocca  Contrata  in  1545.  He  founded  at  Rome  a  public 
library  called  Bibliotheca  Angelica.  Died  in  1620. 

Roch,  rok,  SAINT,  born  at  Montpellier,  in  France,  in 
1295,  was  renowned  for  his  charity  and  his  humane 
attentions  to  the  sick.  Died  in  1327. 

See  DE  SAIXT- AI.BAN,  "Vie  de  Saint-Rocli,"  1849  ;  COFFINIERES. 
"Saint-Roch.  fitude  historique."  1855 ;  MKS.  JAMESON,  "History 
of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Rochambeau,  de,  deh  ro'shoN'bS',  {DONATIEN  (do'- 

nS'se^N')  MARIE  JOSEPH  de  Vimeur — deh  ve'muR',) 
VICOMTE,   a   French    general,   born    near   Vendome    in 


1750.  He  went  to  Saint  Domingo  with  Leclerc,  at 
whose  death,  in  1802,  he  became  commander-in-chief. 
He  was  killed  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 

Rochambeau,  de,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  DONATIEN  DE 
VIMEUR,)  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Vendome  in  1725, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  served  with  dis 
tinction  in  Minorca,  at  Crevelt,  and  at  Minden,  (1759.) 
He  commanded  an  army  of  six  thousand  men  sent  to 
the  United  States  in  1780,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
at  Yorktown  in  October,  1781.  In  1791  he  obtained  the 
baton  of  marshal.  He  commanded  an  army  against  the 
Austrians  in  1792,  but  resigned  in  the  same' year.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  "Memoires  de  Rochambeau."  by  himself,  1809;  "  Nonvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  "Biographic  Universelle" 

Roche,  rosh,  (ACHU.i.E,)  a  French  political  and  his 
torical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1801,  was  a  republican. 
He  wrote  "Albert  Renaud,"  (4  vols.,  1825,)  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1825.)  Died  in  1834. 

Roche,  (CHARLES  Louis,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Xevers  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is  "  Elements 
of  Medico-Surgical  Pathology,"  (5  vols.,  1825-28.) 

Roche,  rotch,  ?  (MARIA  REGINA,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1764.  She  wrote  "The  Children  of  the  Abbey," 
and  other  tales.  Died  in  1845. 

Roche- Ay  men,  de,  deh  rosh  4'm6x',  (ANTOINE 
CHARLES  ETIENNK,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general  and 
writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  in  Paris  about  1775.  HC 
was  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  (1794- 
1802.)  Died  in  1862. 

Rochechouart.     See  MONTESPAN,  DE,  and  MORTE- 

MART,  DE. 

Rochefort,  rosh'foR',  (GUII.LAUME,)  Chancellor  of 
France,  was  noted  for  wisdom.  Died  in  1492. 

Rochefort,  (HENRI,)  Vicomte  de  Lucay,  (deh  lii'si',) 
a  French  republican  agitator,  born  about  1835.  He  be 
came  editor  of  the  "  Lanterne,"  in  which  he  so  violently 
assailed  the  imperial  policy  that  he  was  banished. 
Having  returned  to  Paris,  he  began  to  issue  a  journal 
called  "  The  Marseillaise,"  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  legislative  body  in  1869.  He  published  offensive 
remarks  and  lampoons  on  Napoleon  III.,  for  svhich  he 
was  in  1870  sentenced  to  an  imprisonment  of  six  months. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  provisional  government,  Sep 
tember  4,  1870,  but  resigned  about  the  1st  of  November. 

Rocheforb,  de,  deh  rosh'foR',  (GUILLAUME  DUBOIS,) 
a  French  writer  and  translator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1731. 
He  wrote  against  the  Materialists,  and  translated  Ho 
mer's  "  Iliad"  (1770)  aiid  "Odyssey,"  (1777,)  also  the 
works  of  Sophocles,  (1788.)  Died  in  1788. 

Rochefort,  de,  (HENRI  Louis  D'ALOIGNY,)  MAR 
QUIS,  a  French  general,  who  became  marshal  of  France 
in  1675.  Died  in  16.76. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  deh  It  rosh'foo'ko',  (FRAN 
COIS,)  Prince  de  Marsillac,  (maR'se-ySk',)  a  French 
Huguenot  leader,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  He  fought  at  Chartres  and  Jarnac,  (1569.)  He 
perished  in  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  Paris, 
August  24.  1572. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (FRANCOIS.)  Due,  Prince  de 
Marfiillac,  a  celebrated  French  moralist  and  courtier, 
born  in  December,  1613.  He  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Vivonne  about  1637.  In  his  youth  he  was  engaged  at 
court  as  the  confidential  agent  of  the  queen  in  intrigues 
against  Richelieu.  He  formed  in  1646  a  liaison  with 
Madame  de  Longueville,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Fronde 
was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  party  which  opposed  the 
court.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  near 
Paris  in  1652,  after  which  he  renounced  intrigues  and  fac 
tious  enterprises.  He  produced  in  1665  his  "Maxims," 
("  Reflexions,  ou  Sentences  et  Maximes  morales,")  which, 
according  to  Voltaire,  is  one  of  the  works  whicli  con 
tributed  most  to  form  and  rectify  the  national  taste. 
The  essential  principle  of  this  book  is  that  self-love  or 
interest  is  the  chief  motive  of  human  actions.  In  his 
latter  years  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Madame  de  La 
Fayette  and  Madame  de  Sevigne.  Died  in  1680. 

See  his  autobiographic  "Memoires."  1662:  St'ARO,  "Notice  snr 
La  Rochefoucauld,"  17.82  ;  MADAMEDP.  SEVIGNE,"  Lettres  ;"  SAINTE- 
BEITVE,  "  £tudes  stir  La  Rochefoucauld."  1^53:  G.  B.  DEITIXG, 
".Notice  stir  la  Vie  et  les  Onvrages  de  La  Rochefoucauld."  1822; 
"Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  MRS.  SHELLEY. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  kard;gzs,j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled  '  ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROCHEFOUCAULD 


1908 


RODGERS 


Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (FREDERIC  CHARLES,)  Earl 
of  Lifforcl,  a  French  general,  born  in  1633,  was  a  zealous 
Protestant.  Died  at  Bath,  England,  in  1690. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (Louis  ALEXANDRE,)  Due 
de  la  Roche»Guyon,  (den  IS  rosh  ge'iN7,)  a  French 
patriot,  born  in  1743.  He  favoured  the  popular  cause  in 
the  Revolution,  and  was  an  active  member  of  the  States- 
General  in  1789.  He  was  massacred  at  Gisors  in  1792. 

Rochefoucauld-Liancourt,  de  la,  deli  It  rosh'- 
foo'ko' le'fiN'kooR',  (FRANCOIS  ALEXANDRE  FREDERIC,) 
Due,  a  liberal  French  peer  and  philanthropist,  born  in 
1747,  was  a  cousin  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1789-90,  and  went  into 
exile  in  1792,  after  which  he  travelled  in  the  United 
States.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1799.  He  founded  the 
school  of  Arts  et  Metiers,  (at  Chalons,)  and  the  first 
saving-fund  in  France.  He  published  "Travels  in  the 
United  States  of  America,"  (8  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1827. 
His  son,  FREDERIC  GAETAN,  Marquis  de  la  Rochefou 
cauld-Liancourt,  born  at  Liancourt  in  1779,  is  author 
of  several  poems,  dramas,  and  historical  works. 

See  GAETAN  DE  LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD,  "Vie  dii  Due  de  la  Roche 
foucauld-Liancourt,"  1827;  ''Biographic  Universelle." 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  deh  IS  rosh'zhSk'laN', 
(HENRI  du  Verger — dii  veR'zha',)  COUNT,  a  French 
royalist  chief  of  the  Vendean  war,  was  born  in  Poitou  in 
1772.  He  took  command  of  a  band  of  peasants  in  1793, 
and  was  victorious  in  several  small  battles.  He  said  to 
his  men,  "  If  I  advance,  follow  me  ;  if  I  retreat,  kill  me  ; 
if  I  die,  avenge  me."  In  October.  1793,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  insurgents,  lie  gained  a  victory 
at  Entrames,  October  27,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  at  Mans,  December  13.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at 
Nouaille  in  March,  1794. 

See  THEODORE  MURET,  "Vie  populaire  de  H.  de  la  Rochejaque 
lein,"  1845. 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  (Louis,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1777.  He  was  an  officer  in  the 
army,  and  served  against  the  negroes  in  Hayti.  In  May, 
1815,  he  raised  a  body  of  Vendeans  to  fight  for  Louis 
XVIII.  He  was  killed  in  an  action  at  Pont  des  Mathis 
in  June  of  that  year. 

See  MADAME  DE  LA  ROCHEJAQUELEIN,  "Memoires;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  iSi6. 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  (MARIE  LOUISE  VICTOIRE 
de  Doniiissan — deh  do'ne'sd.N',)  MARQUISE,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1772.  She  married  in  1790  the  Marquis 
de  Lescure,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Choi  let. 
About  1800  she  became  the  wife  of  Louis  de  la  Roche- 
iaquelein,  noticed  above.  She  wrote  "  Memoires"  of 
her  own  life  and  of  the  exploits  of  those  whose  name 
she  bore,  (1815.)  Died  in  1857. 

See  ALFRED  NETTEMF.NT,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  la  Rochejaque 
lein,"  1859;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1816. 

Rochers,  Des.     See  DESROCHKRS. 

Roches,  Des.     See  DESROCHES. 

Rochester.     See  HYDE,  (LAWRENCE.) 

Rochester,  BISHOP  OF.     See  FISHER. 

Roch'es-ter,  (JOHN  WII.MOT,)  EARL  OF,  a  witty  and 
profligate  English  courtier,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1647, 
was  a  son  of  Henry,  Earl  of  Rochester.  He  became  a 
favourite  of  Charles  II.,  and  indulged  in  debauchery  and 
drunkenness  to  such  excess  that  his  constitution  was 
eventually  ruined.  In  1665  he  entered  the  navy,  and 
signalized  his  courage  in  several  actions.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  songs,  satires,  etc.  He  died  in  1680,  professing 
penitence  for  his  sins. 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  ;"  BURNET,  "  Some 
Passages  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  John,  Earl  of  Rochester, "  1681. 

Rochet,  ro'shi',  (Louis,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in 
Paris  in  1817. 

Rochette,  ro'shet',  (DESIRE  RAOUL,)  an  eminent 
French  archaeologist,  born  at  Saint-Aniand  (Cher)  in 
1790.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Houdon  the  sculptor, 
and  succeeded  Guizot  as  professor  of  modern  history  in 
1815.  He  became  professor  of  archaeology  in  Paris  in 
1826,  and  acquired  much  popularity  as  a  lecturer.  In 
1838  or  1839  he  was  elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Critical  History  of  the  Greek  Colonies,"  (4 
vols.,  1815,)  and  "Memoirs  of  Comparative  Archaeology, 


Asiatic,  Greek,  and  Etruscan,"  (1848.)   He  left  unfinished 
a  "  History  of  Ancient  Art."     Died  in  1854. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "  Biographic  Universelle. " 

Rochlitz,  roK'lits,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1769  or  1770,  published  a  number  of 
tales  and  musical  treatises,  among  which  is  "Blicke  in 
das  Gebiet  der  Ku'nste."  Died  in  1842. 

Rochon,  ro'shiN',  (ALEXIS  MARIE,)  a  French  as 
tronomer  and  navigator,  born  at  Brest  in  1741.  He  was 
appointed  astronomer  of  the  marine  in  1766,  and  made 
a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  of  which  he  published  an 
account,  (3  vols.,  1791.)  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  An 
cient  and  Modern  Coins,"  (1792,)  treatises  on  optics, 
etc.  Died  in  1817. 

See  DEI.AMBUK,  "Notice  sur  Rochon,"  1818;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Rochon  de  Chabannes,  ro'shoN'  deh  shS'baV, 
(MARC  ANTOINE  JACQUES,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1730.  He  wrote  some  successful  comedies. 
Died  in  1800. 

Rochow,  von,  fon  ro'Ko,  (GUSTAV  ADOLF  ROCHUS,) 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  in  Rathenow  in  1792,  became 
minister  of  the  interior  and  of  the  police  in  1834.  Died 
in  1847. 

Rockingham,  lok'ing-am, (CHARLES  WATSON  WENT- 
WOKTH,)  second  MARQUIS  OF,  an  English  Whig  states 
man,  was  born  in  1730.  He  succeeded  to  the  marquisate 
in  1750,  and  inherited  a  large  fortune,  which,  joined  with 
an  honourable  character,  rendered  him  a  person  of  great 
influence.  He  became  prime  minister  in  July,  1765,  and 
took  Edmund  Burke  into  his  service  as  private  secretary. 
The  notorious  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  by  this  ministry, 
which  by  the  enmity  of  the  king  was  driven  from  power 
in  July,  1766.  He  opposed  the  measures  by  which  Lord 
North  provoked  the  American  colonies  to  revolt.  When 
North  resigned,  (in  March,  1782,)  the  king  was  reduced 
to  the  painful  necessity  of  accepting  a  Whig  ministry, 
of  which  Lord  Rockingham  was  premier.  He  died  July 
I,  1782,  leaving  no  issue. 

See  LORD  ALREMARI.E,  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Rocking 
ham,"  2  vols.,  1852;  LORD  MAHON,  "History  of  England;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1852. 

Rock'well,  (JAMES  OTIS,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1807.  He  became  associate 
editor  of  the  Boston  "Statesman,"  and  in  1829  assumed 
charge  of  the  "Patriot,"  a  journal  published  at  Provi 
dence.  He  died  in  1831,  of  an  illness  caused  chiefly,  it 
is  supposed,  by  pecuniary  embarrassment.  Among  his 
poems  we  may  name  "The  Lost  at  Sea,"  and  lines  "To 
the  Ice-Mountain."  The  former  is  of  remarkable  beauty 
and  pathos.  Rockwell  was  a  friend  of  Whittier,  who 
has  written  an  eloquent  tribute  to  his  memory. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Rocoles,  de,  deh  rc/kol',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Beziers  in  1620.  He  changed  sides 
three  or  four  times  in  religion,  being  a  Catholic  in  France 
and  a  Protestant  in  Holland.  Died  in  1696. 

Rode,  n/deh,  (CHRISTJAN  BERNHARD,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Berlin  in  1725.  He  painted 
history  and  portraits.  Among  his  prints  are  illustrations 
of  Gellert's  "  Fables."  Died  in  1797. 

Rode,  rod,  (PiERRE,)  a  French  violinist  and  com 
poser,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1774.  He  composed  con 
certos,  which  are  much  admired.  Died  in  1830. 

Rod'er-ic  or  Roderick,  [Fr.  RODRIGUE,  ro'dReg'; 
Lat.  RODKRI'CUS,]  King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  re 
belled  against  Witiza  and  usurped  the  throne  in  709  or 
708  A.D.  Soon  after  this  event  his  dominions  were  invaded 
by  an  army  of  Arabs  or  Berbers,  under  Tarik,  whose  aid 
was  perhaps  solicited  by  the  sons  of  Witiza.  Roderic 
was  defeated  and  killed  by  these  invaders  in  711.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  Visigoths  that  reigned  in  Spain.  His 
story  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Southey's  most  popular 
poems,  entitled  "  Roderick  the  Goth." 

See  CONDE,  "Historia  de  la  Dominacion  de  los  Arabes  ;"  MAS- 
DEU,  "  Historia  critica." 

Rodericus.  See  SANCHEZ  DE  AREVALO,  and  RO 
DRIGUEZ. 

Rodg'ers,  (JOHN,)  an  American  commodore,  born  in 
Maryland  in  1771.  Being  appointed  to  the  command  of 


RODGERS 


1909 


ROGER 


a  squadron  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1812,  he 
captured  seven  British  merchantmen.  He  was  after 
wards  president  of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners, 
and  commander  of  the  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Died  in  1838. 

Rodgers,  (Jon\,)  a  brave  American  commodore,  born 
in  Maryland  about  1809.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1825. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal, 
in  November,  1861.  In  May,  1862,  he  attacked  Fort 
Darling,  or  Drury's  Bluff,  on  the  James  River,  with  the 
iron-clad  Galena  and  other  gun-boats,  but  was  repulsed. 
He  commanded  the  Weehawken  in  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  in  April,  1863,  and  captured  the  iron-clad  At 
lanta  near  Savannah  in  June  of  that  year.  He  was 
complimented  by  the  secretary  of  the  navy  "for  these 
heroic  and  serviceable  acts."  In  1870  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 

See  HEADLEY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  p.  542. 

Rod'man,  (ISAAC  PEACE,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1822.  He  served 
as  captain  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  as  colonel  at 
the  cap'-^re  of  Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern,  North 
Carolina.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1862,  com 
manded  a  division  at  Fredericksburg,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  in  September  of  the  same  year. 

See  TEN-NEY,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  737. 

Rod'iiey,  (C^ESAU,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla 
ration  of  American  Independence,  was  born  at  Dover, 
in  Delaware,  about  1730.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  of  1774,  and  in  1777  was  elected 
President  of  the  State  of  Delaware.  Died  in  1783. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence." 

Rod'ney,  (GEORGE  BKVDGES,)  LORD,  a  British  ad 
miral,  born  at  Walton-upon-Thames  in  1718.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1759,  and  that  of  admiral  of 
the  white  in  1778.  He  defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  near  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  in  1780.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral  of  England,  he  gained  an  important  vic 
tory  over  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse  in  the  West 
Indies,  April  12,  1782.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Rodney.  Died  in  1792. 

SeeMrxDV,  "Life  of  Lord  Rodney;"  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the 
British  Admirals." 

Rodolph  OK  HAPSRUKG.     See  RUDOLPH. 

Rodolphe,  the  French  for  RUDOLPH,  which  see. 

Rodon,  de.     See  DF.RODON. 

Rodrigues,  ro'dReg',  (BENJAMIN  OLINDE,)  a  French 
socialist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1794.  He  became  a  favour 
ite  disciple  of  Saint-Simon,  who  bequeathed  to  him  his 
manuscripts.  Died  in  iS^o. 

Rodriguez,  ro-clRee'geth,  [Lat.  RODERI'CUS,]  (AL 
FONSO,)  a  Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1526. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  "Christian  Perfection,"  (1614,) 
which  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.  Diedini6i6. 

Rodriguez,  (VENTURA,)  an  eminent  Spanish  archi 
tect,  born  at  Cienpozuelos  in  1717.  He  designed  or 
constructed  churches,  palaces,  and  colleges  at  Saragossa, 
Toledo,  Malaga,  Granada,  etc.  He  became  professor  of 
architecture  at  Madrid  in  1752.  Died  in  1785. 

See  Poxz,  "Viage  de  Espana." 

Roe,  ro,  (AZEL  STEVENS,)  an  American  novelist,  born 
in  New  York  in  1798.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  The  Star  and  the  Cloud,"  "  A  Long  Look  Ahead," 
"  Time  and  Tide,  or  Strive  and  Win,"  (1852,)  and  "  True 
to  the  Last,"  (1859.) 

Roe,  ro,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  ambassador,  born 
in  Essex  about  1580.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
the  Great  Mogul  in  1614,  and  to  Constantinople  in  1621. 
Died  in  1644. 

Roe'buck,  (JoHN,)  an  English  chemist  and  iron 
master,  born  in  Sheffield  in  1718,  practised  medicine  in 
Birmingham.  He  invented  a  method  of  procuring  sul 
phuric  acid  at  a  greatly-reduced  cost,  and  about  1760 
established  at  Carron  extensive  iron-works,  in  which  he 
improved  the  method  of  smelting  iron.  He  was  con 
nected  with  James  Watt  in  his  early  experiments  on  the 
steam-engine.  Died  in  1794. 

Roebuck,  (JoHN  ARTHUR,)  a  British  politician,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Madras  in  1801. 
He  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Bath  in  1832, 


and  again  in  1841.  After  1849  he  represented  Sheffield 
in  the  House  of  Commons  until  he  was  defeated  in  1868. 
He  originated  the  motion  on  the  conduct  of  the  Crimean 
war  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  and  removal  of  the 
Aberdeen  ministry.  He  displayed  a  violent  hostility  to 
the  United  States  and  sympathy  with  the  slaveholding 
Confederacy  during  the  great  civil  war. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1852  ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  November,  1846,  (article  "Contemporary  Orators.") 

Roederer,  i6'deh-rer  or  ra'deh-raiR',(jEAN  GEORGES,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1726.  He 
became  professor  of  midwifery  at  Gottingen  in  1751. 
He  published  "Elements  of  the  Obstetric  Art,"  ("Ele- 
menta  Artis  obstetrician,"  1752,)  "On  Mucous  Disease," 
("De  Morbo  mucoso,"  1762,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Roederer,  (PIERRE  Louis,)  COMTE,  a  French  states 
man,  was  born  at  Metz  in  1754.  As  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly,  (1790,)  he  advocated  liberty  and 
equality.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute 
in  1796-  promoted  the  accession  of  Bonaparte  to  power 
in  179-.,  and  became  a  senator  in  1802.  In  1806  Joseph 
Bonaparte  appointed  him  minister  of  finance  in  Naples. 
He  held  no  office  under  the  Bourbons.  He  wrote  an 
able  "Memoir  on  Polite  Society  in  France,"  (1835.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  MIGNET,  "  Roederer,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Travaux,"  1838 ;  SAINTE- 
BHUVE,  "Causeries  duLundi,"  and  "LeComtede  Roederer,"  1853; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Roelas,  de  las,  da  las  ro-a'Ias,  (JuAN,)  an  excellent 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1560,  was  called 
EL  CLERIGO  ROELAS.  He  worked  for  some  time  in 
Madrid,  and  removed  to  Olivares  about  1624.  The 
churches  of  Seville  are  adorned  with  many  of  his  works. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  El  Transito"  of  San  Isi- 
cloro,  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "Santiago."  Died  in  1625. 

See  CEAX-BERMUDEZ,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Roell.     See  ROLL. 

Roemer.     See  ROMER. 

Roenne.     See  RONNE. 

Roepel,  roo'pel,  (CONRAD,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1679  ;  died  in  1748. 

Roer  or  Roeer,  ro'er,  (HANS  HEINRICH  EDUARD,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1805.  In 
1839  he  visited  Calcutta,  and  became  in  1846  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Asiatic  Society.  About  the  same 
time  he  founded  the  "  Bibliotheca  Indica,"  to  which  he 
contributed  a  number  of  translations  from  the  Sanscrit, 
Arabic,  and  Persic. 

Roestraten,  roos'tRa'ten,  (PIETER,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  portraits  and  still  life,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1627.  He 
worked  for  some  years  in  London,  where  he  died  in 
1698. 

Roetscher.     See  ROTSCHER-. 

Roffensis.     See  FISHER,  Bishop  of  Rochester. 

Rog'er,  [It.  RUGGIERO,  rood-ja'ro,]  Count  of  Sicily, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1031,  was  an  enterprising  warrior. 
He  conquered  Sicily  from  the  Saracens.  Died  in  1101. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Roger  I.,  King  of  Sicily,  born  about  1096,  was  a 
son  and  successor  of  the  preceding.  At  the  death  of 
his  cousin,  Duke  of  Apulia,  he  obtained  possession  of 
Apulia  and  Calabria,  (1127.)  He  took  arms  against 
Pope  Innocent  II.,  and  made  him  prisoner,  in  1139. 
By  recognizing  Roger  as  King  of  Sicily,  etc.,  the  pope 
obtained  his  liberty.  Roger  was  an  able  and  powerful 
prince.  Died  in  1154. 

See  MITRATORI,  "Annali  d'ltalia  ;"  ORDERICUS  VITALIS,  "His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rog'er,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  powerful  English  prel 
ate,  became  prime  minister  of  Henry  I.  about  1107. 
Died  in  1139. 

Roger,  ro'zhi',  (ADOI.PHE,)  a  French  painter  of  his 
tory,  born  at  Palaiseau  (Seine-et-Oise)  about  1797. 

Roger,  (GUSTAVE  HIPPOLVTE,)  a  French  vocalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815.  His  voice  is  a  pure  tenor. 

Roger,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Langres  in  1776.  He  produced  "The  Lawyer," 
("  L'Avocat,"  1806.)  and  other  successful  comedies.  In 
1816  he  became  secretary-general  of  the  post-office.  He 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROGER 


1910 


ROGNETTA 


was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1817.     Died 
in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Roger,  (PIERRE.)     See  CLEMENT  VI. 

Roger  Ducos.     See  Ducos. 

Roger  di  Loria.     See  LORIA,  pi. 

Roger  (or  Richard)  of  Hexham,  an  English  chroni 
cler,  was  prior  of  a  convent  at  Hexham  about  1150. 

Roger  of  Hoveden.    See  HOVEDEN,  DE. 

Roger  of  Wendover,  an  English  chronicler,  wrote 
"  Flowers  of  History,"  ("  Flores  Historiarum,")  which 
commences  at  the  creation.  Died  in  1237. 

Rog'ers,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  composer  of  sacred 
music,  born  at  Windsor;  died  about  1698. 

Rogers,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Westminster  in  1711  ;  died  in  1784. 

Rogers,  (DANIEL,)  an  English  scholar  and  diplo 
matist,  born  at  Aston  about  1540,  was  a  pupil  of  Me- 
lanchthon.  He  was  employed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
embassies  to  Germany,  etc.  Died  in  1590. 

Sec  WOOD,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Rogers,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  theological  writer, 
born  in  1741.  He  was  rector  of  Sproughton  for  about 
fifty  years.  Died  in  1835. 

Rogers,  (IlEXRY,)  a  distinguished  English  essayist, 
born  at  Saint  Alban's  in  1806,  was  an  Independent  min 
ister  in  early  life.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  a  number  of  essays  and  biographical  notices, 
which  were  republished  in  1850.  He  is  author  of  "The 
Eclipse  of  Faith,"  (1852,)  and  of  other  works,  some  of 
which  are  designed  to  prove  that  philosophy  and  re 
vealed  religion  are  in  accordance  with  each  other.  He 
became  principal  of  an  Independent  College  near  Man 
chester  in  1857.  In  1866  he  published  "Reason  and 
Faith,  with  other  Essays." 

Rog'ers,  (HENRY  DARWIN,)  an  eminent  American 
geologist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1809.  He  made  a 
survey  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  of  which  he  published 
a  report,  and  a  geological  map,  in  1835.  His  report  on 
the  geology  of  Pennsylvania  came  out  in  1858,  (2  vols. 
410.)  It  enjoys  a  high  reputation  for  thoroughness  and 
accuracy.  He  was  appointed  in  1857  regius  professor 
of  geology  and  natural  history  at  Glasgow,  Scotland. 
He  also  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  New  Philo 
sophical  Journal,"  Edinburgh,  and  contributed  to  various 
other  periodicals.  Died  in  Glasgow  in  May,  1866. 

Rogers,  (JAMES  BI.YTHE,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy 
sician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1803.  He  was  appointed  in  1847  professor  of  chem 
istry  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  author 
of  several  valuable  scientific  treatises.  Died  in  1852. 

Rogers,  (JoHN,)  an  English  martyr,  was  in  his  youth 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest.  Having  been  converted  at 
Antwerp,  he  settled  at  Wittenberg  as  pastor  of  a  Prot 
estant  church.  He  retifVned  to  England  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
He  was  committed  to  prison  in  1553  or  1554,  condemned' 
as  a  heretic  by  Bonner  and  Gardiner,  and  burned  at 
Smithfield  in  1555,  refusing  to  save  his  life  by  apostasy 
from  the  truth. 

See  CHESTER,  "Life  of  John  Rogers." 

Rogers,  (Rev.  JOHN,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
born  at  Ensham,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1679,  lived  some 
time  in  London.  He  published  a  "Discourse  of  the 
Visible  and  Invisible  Church  of  Christ,"  (1719,)  and 
other  controversial  works.  Died  in  1729. 

See  SAMUEL  MILLER,  "Memoirs  of  John  Rogers." 
Rogers,  (JOHN,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts.  Among  his  works  are  the  "Slave  Auc 
tion,"  "  The  Returned  Volunteer,"  "The  Picket  Guard," 
"  The  Wounded  Scout,"  "  The  Union  Refugees,"  and 
other  spirited  illustrations  of  the  war  of  1861-65,  anc' 
of  common  life. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 
Rogers,  (ROBERT  EMPIE,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Henry 
Darwin,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Baltimore  in  1814. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  became  in  1852  professor  of  chemistry.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  dean  of  the  medical  faculty 
in  that  institution. 


Rogers,  (SAMUEL,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  at 
Ne  wing  ton  Green,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  the  3oth  of 
July,  1763.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Thomas  Rogers,  a 
London  banker.  After  leaving  school  he  became  suc 
cessively  a  clerk  and  a  partner  in  his  father's  banking- 
house.  He  published  in  1786  a  volume  entitled  "An 
Ode  to  Superstition,  and  other  Poems,"  which  attracted 
little  notice.  In  1792  he  produced  his  "Pleasures  of 
Memory,"  a  beautiful  and  highly-finished  poem,  which 
was  received  with  much  favour.  lie  removed  in  1803 
to  a  fine  house  in  Saint  James  Place,  in  which  he  passed 
the  rest  of  his  long  life.  This  house  was  celebrated  as 
a  resort  of  eminent  literary  and  political  characters, 
including  Scott,  Byron,  Moore,  Wordsworth,  Southey, 
and  Coleridge.  He  retired  from  business  in  the  prime 
of  life,  with  an  ample  fortune,  of  which  he  made  a  gen 
erous  use.  He  gave  liberally  to  artists  and  literary  men 
who  were  in  pecuniary  distress.  His  reputation  was  fully 
maintained,  or  perhaps  increased,  by  "Human  Life," 
a  poem,  (1819.)  In  1822  he  produced  the  first  part  of 
an  admirable  poem,  entitled  "Italy,"  which  is  his  most 
extensive  work.  It  is  stated  that  lie  spent  _^io,ooo  in 
the  illustration  of  this  poem,  the  complete  edition  of 
which,  with  engravings  after  Prout  and  Turner,  appeared 
in  1836.  He  was  never  married.  Died  in  December, 
1855,  over  ninety-two  years  of  age. 

See  "Recollections  of  the  Table-Talk  of  Samuel  Rogers,"  1856; 
JF.FFKKY,  "Miscellanies;"  "  Nouvellt;  Biographie  Generale;"  "  Kd- 
inbnrgh  Review"  for  October,  1813,  and  March,  iSig;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  iSi3  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine'1  for  April, 
1856;  AI.LIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1X56;  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  li.  MARTINKAU. 

Rogers,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  entered  a 
college  at  Oxford  in  1568.  Died  in  1616. 

Rogers,  (WILLIAM,)  D.I).,  an  American  Baptist  di 
vine,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1751.  He  was 
appointed  in  1778  a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army, 
and  in  1792  became  professor  of  English  and  oratory  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Died  in  1824. 

Rogers,  (WILLIAM  BARTON,)  brother  of  Henry  Dar 
win,  noticed  above,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1805,  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  geology 
in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  has  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  Mechanical  Philosophy," 
(1852,)  and  has  contributed  to  various  scientific  journals, 
both  American  and  foreign. 

Rogers,  (WooDES,)  CAPTAIN,  an  English  navigator 
and  buccaneer,  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Spaniards  in  the  South  Sea  about  1709.  Died  in  1732. 

Roget,  ro'zha',  (PETER  MARK,)  V.  R.S.,  an  English 
physiologist  and  physician,  of  French  extraction,  born 
in  1779,  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He 
settled  in  London,  and  was  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  able  work 
entitled  "Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  (1834,) 
which  is  one  of  the  "  Bridgewater  Treatises."  He  is 
author  of  other  scientific  works,  and  of  a  "Thesaurus 
of  English  Words  and  Phrases,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
September,  1869. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1834. 

Roggeweeri,  rog'geh-wan',  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  navi 
gator,  born  in  Zealand  in  1669.  He  commanded  an 
exploring  expedition  sent  from  Holland  to  the  South 
Sea  in  1721.  Died  in  1733. 

Roghman,  roo'man,  (ROLAND,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1597.  He  painted  Dutch 
and  German  scenery.  He  also  produced  some  fine 
etchings  of  landscapes.  Died  in  1686. 

Rogier,  ro'zhe-i',  (CHARLES  LATOUR,  )  a  Belgian 
statesman,  was  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1800.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  provisional  government 
formed  in  1830.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior,  and  in  1840  minister  of  public  works. 
He  became  again  in  1847  minister  of  the  interior  in  a 
cabinet  of  which  the  king  confided  to  him  the  formation. 
Having  retired  in  1852,  he  was  reappointed  to  the  same 
office  in  1857,  and  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
1861.  He  is  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  party. 

See  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "  M.  Rosier,  par  un  Hoinme  cie  Rien,"  1843. 

Rognetta,  r6n-yet'ta,  (Fn.ii'PO,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  about  1805,  practised  in  Paris.  Died  at 
Naples  in  1857. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


ROGNUT 


191 1 


ROLAND 


Rogniat,  ron'ye-J',  (JOSEPH,)  BARON,  a  French  gene 
ral  of  engineers,  born  at  Saint-Priest  in  1776.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  grand  army  in  1812.  Died  in  1840. 

Rohan,  de.     See  SOUBISK. 

Rohan,  de,  deh  ro'6x',  (ANNE,)  a  French  Protestant 
lady,  distinguished  for  her  piety  and  learning,  born  in 
1584,  was  a  sister  of  Henri,  Due  de  Rohan.  She  was 
mistress  of  the  Hebrew  and  other  ancient  languages. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1646. 

Rohan,  de,  (HENRI,)  Due,  Prince  de  Leon,  an  able 
French  Huguenot  chief,  born  in  Brittany  in  1579,  was  a 
son  of  Renee,  noticed  below.  He  married  in  1605 
Marguerite  de  Bethttne,  daughter  of  the  Due  de  Sully. 
He  commanded  an  army  which  fought  for  religious 
liberty  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  1621,  was  sus 
pended  by  a  treaty  in  1623,  renewed  in  1627,  and  ended 
in  1629.  Having  retired  to  Venice,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army  in  1630,  and  was 
chosen  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  to  direct  the  war  in  the 
Valtelline.  He  defeated  the  Imperialists  in  1635  at 
Luvino  and  Tirano.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Rheinfelden,  where  he  fought  for  his  friend  Bernard 
of  Saxe- Weimar,  in  1638.  He  left  Memoirs  of  events 
which  occurred  in  France  from  1610  to  1629,  and  a 
treatise  on  war, — "  Le  parfait  Capitaine,"  (1636.) 

See  COURTII.Z  DE  SANDRAS,  "Histoire  secrete  du  Due  H.  de 
Rohan,"  i(-ffj:  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante ;"  I'.XZIN,  "Histoire 
de  L'Hiis  XIII  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale.'1 

Rohan,  de,  (Louis,)  PRINCE,  a  Frenchman,  noted 
for  his  gallantry  and  intrigues,  was  born  about  1635. 
He  was  a  son  of  Louis  de  Rohan,  Prince  de  Guemene. 
Having  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against  Louis  XIV.,  he 
was  executed  in  1674. 

Rohan,  de,  (Louis  RENS  £DOUARI>,)  PRINCE  CAR 
DINAL,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1772,  but,  having  offended 
Maria  Theresa,  he  was  recalled  in  1/74.  He  became 
a  cardinal  in  1778.  He  was  a  patron  of  Cagliostro, 
and  was  scandalously  implicated  in  the  affair  of  the 
"Diamond  Necklace,"  (1784,)  in  which  he  was  the  dupe 
of  Madame  La  Motte,  who,  by  forged  letters,  signed 
"  Marie  Antoinette,"  persuaded  the  cardinal  to  buy  a 
necklace  as  a  present  to  the  queen.  For  this  he  was 
tried  and  acquitted.  Died  in  1803. 

See  "Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rohan,  de,  (MARIE.)     See  CHEVREUSE,  DE. 

Rohan,  de,  (RENEE,)  VICOMTE,  Sieur  de  Pontivy 
et  de  Frontenay,  a  French  Protestant,  born  in  1550, 
was  one  of  the  most  valiant  captains  of  his  time.  He 
married  the  celebrated  Catherine  de  Parthenay-Larche- 
veque.  Died  in  1586. 

See  BAVLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  HAAG,  "La 
Fiance  protestante." 

Rohault,  ro'6',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  natural  philoso 
pher,  born  at  Amiens  in  1620,  was  a  teacher  of  Cartesian 
philosophy.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Physics,"  ("  Traite 
de  Physique,"  1671,)  which  was  for  a  long  time  a  standard 
work  on  that  subject.  Died  in  1675. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Rohault  de  Fleury,  ro'o'  deh  fluh're',  (CHARLES,) 
a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  The  govern 
ment  committed  to  him  the  construction  of  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  about  1830. 

Rohini,  ro'hi-nee',  [etymology  obscure,]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha,  said  to  be  the  favourite  wife  of  Chandra,  (or 
the  moon.*)  She  is  the  bright  star  in  the  bull's  eye, 
called  in  Arabic  Aldebaran,  (or  Al  Dabaran.)  Other 
stars  regarded  as  the  sisters  of  Rohini  are  also  num 
bered  among  the  wives  of  Chandra. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Rohmann,  ro'man,  (JOROF.N  LINDEOAARD,)  a  Danish 
historian  and  poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in  1797. 
He  published  several  works  on  Danish  history,  and  be 
came  Bishop  of  Fiinen.  Died  in  1855. 

Rohr  or  Roehr,  roR,  (JoH ANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  near  Naumburg  in  1777.  He  was 
identified  with  the  rationalistic  school,  and  published 


*  The  moon  in  Sanscrit  (as  in  German)  is  masculine, — not  feminine, 
as  in  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome. 


several   works    on    theology.     He   resided   at  Weimar, 
where  he  died  in  1848. 

Rohrbacher,  roK'ba'shaiu',  (  REN£  FRANC.OIS,  )  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Langatte  in  1789. 
He  wrote  a  "General  History  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(29  vols.,  1849-53.)  I>ied  in  1856. 

Rojas  or  Roxas,  de,  da  ro'Has,  (FERNANDO,)  a  cele 
brated  Spanish  author,  who  flourished  about  1500.  His 
dramatic  romance  "Celestina"  obtained  great  popu 
larity.  The  first  edition  of  it  was  dated  1500. 

Rojas  or  Rojas-Zorilla,  de,  da  ro'Has  tho-rel'yS, 
(FRANCISCO,)  an  eminent  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at 
Toledo  in  1601.  Among  his  dramas  are  "  Garcia  del  Cas- 
tanar,""El  Desden  vengado,"  ("The  Insult  Avenged,") 
"  Progne  y  Filomena,"  and  "  Entre  Bobos  anda  el  Juego." 

Rokes,  ro'kes,  (HENRY,)  called  ZORG,  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of 
David  Teniers.  Died  in  1682. 

Rokitansky,  ro-ke-tan'ske,  (KARL,)  a  distinguished 
physician  and  pathologist,  born  at  Koniggratz,  in  Bo 
hemia,  in  1804.  He  became  in  1844  professor  of  patho 
logical  anatomy  at  Vienna,  and  subsequently  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  rector  of  the  University 
in  that  city.  He  was  the  projector  of  the  great  Vienna 
Hospital.  He  has  published  a  "  Manual  of  Pathological 
Anatomy,"  (5  vols.,  1842,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  stand 
ard  work  and  has  been  translated  into  English. -Z><eo^  /S 

Rokmeny.     See  RUKMINI. 

RoTand,  [Lat.  RUTLAN'DUS;  It.  ORLANDO  or  RO 
LANDO,]  a  hero  celebrated  in  the  romances  of  chivalry, 
was  supposed  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  Charlemagne. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles,  in  778  A.D. 

See  ARIOSTO,  "Orlando  Furioso." 

Roland,    ro'loN',   a    brave    and    able    leader   of  the 

French    Camisards,  was    born    in    Gard    in    1675.     He 

gained  several  victories  about  1702  over  the  royal  forces, 

;  who  could  not  capture  him  until  he  was  betrayed  by  one 

|  of  his  party.     He  was  shot  in  1704. 

Ro'land,  [Fr.  pron.  ro'lSN"',]  MADAME,  (originally 
|  MARIE  JEANNE  Phlipon  (fle'p6N')  or  Fhilipoii,  (fe''- 
le'poN',)  also  called  MANON  PHLIPON,)  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  highly-gifted  women  that  France  has  produced, 
was  born  in  Paris,  March  17,  1754.  She  was  the  only 
child  of  an  engraver,  and  was  liberally  educated.  Latin 
and  music  were  included  in  the  list  of  her  studies.  She 
was  fond  of  books  in  early  childhood,  and  received  a 
lasting  influence  from  Plutarch,  who  was  her  favourite 
author  when  she  was  nine  years  of  age.  In  youth  she 
was  an  enthusiastic  devotee  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
about  the  age  of  twelve  persuaded  her  parents  to  send 
her  to  a  convent  for  one  year.  Her  mature  opinions 
;  about  religion  are  thus  indicated  in  a  passage  of  her 
j  Memoirs:  "I  can  still  attend  with  interest  the  celebra 
tion  of  divine  worship  when  it  is  conducted  with  dignity. 
I  forget  the  quackery  of  the  priests,  their  ridiculous 
fables,  and  their  absurd  mysteries.  .  .  .  The  woes  of 
mankind,  the  consoling  hope  of  an  all-powerful  Remune- 
rator,  occupy  my  thoughts  ;  all  other  fancies  vanish  ;  the 
sense  of  duty  is  quickened,"  etc.  After  she  had  arrived 
at  womanhood,  though  her  faith  in  the  Church  was 
shaken,  she  preferred  studious  retirement  to  the  hollow 
and  frivolous  pleasures  of  the  gay  world.  She  rejected 
many  successive  suitors,  whom  her  beauty  attracted  in 
such  numbers  that  she  compared  them  to  &  levee  en  masse, 
and  resolved  to  marry  none  but  a  philosopher. 

About  1775  she  was  introduced  to  M.  Roland,  whom 
she  characterizes  as  "un  veritable  homme  de  bien,"  ("a 
|  truly  good  man.")  He  took  several  years  to  consider 
the  subject,  and  when  he  offered  his  hand  her  father 
refused  his  consent,  although  he  (M.  Phlipon)  was  re 
cently  ruined  in  fortune  by  his  dissipated  habits.  Before 
this  time,  it  appears,  she  had  lost  her  mother,  who  was 
an  excellent  woman.  Her  father's  house  having  ceased 
to  be  a  desirable,  or  even  tolerable,  residence,  she  retired 
to  the  convent  in  Paris  in  which  she  had  formerly  passed 
a  year.  After  she  had  lived  here  five  months,  M.  Roland 
renewed  his  offer,  which  was  accepted.  They  were  mar- 
!  ried  in  1780,  after  which  they  resided  successively  at 
Paris,  Amiens,  and  Lyons.  She  visited  England  with 
her  husband  in  1784,  and  Switzerland  in  1787.  She 
was  an  enthusiastic  votary  of  republican  liberty,  and  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


ROL4ND 


1912 


ROLLI 


the  first  stage  of  the  Revolution  enlisted  in  the  cause 
with  ardour,  although  she  expressed  a  presentiment  that 
she  would  be  placed  in  the  forlorn  hope  of  the  army. 
By  her  fascinating  manners,  commanding  genius,  and 
great  conversational  powers,  she  acquired  such  an  influ 
ence  in  the  councils  of  the  Girondists  that  she  has  been 
called  the  "inspiring  soul"  of  that  party.  She  assisted 
M.  Roland  in  his  official  duties  while  he  was  minister  of 
the  interior,  in  1792.  He  found  that  the  literary  success 
of  his  reports,  etc.  was  in  an  exact  ratio  to  the  part  that 
she  took  in  their  composition,  and  people  were  surprised 
at  the  amount  of  work  which  he  despatched.  She  com 
posed  the  important  letter  addressed  by  her  husband  to 
Louis  XVI.  in  May,  1792. 

About  this  time  she  became  deeply  interested — too 
deeply  for  her  own  peace — in  Buzot,  a  young  Girondist 
of  noble  character  and  handsome  person,  to  whom  she 
alludes  in  this  passage  of  her  "Memoires:"  "I  honour 
and  cherish  my  husband  as  a  sensible  girl  loves  a  vir 
tuous  father,  to  whom  she  would  sacrifice  even  her 
lover  ;  but  I  have  found  a  man  who  might  be  this  lover  ; 
and,  remaining  faithful  to  my  duties,  my  ingenuity  has 
failed  to  conceal  the  feelings  or  passion  which  for  the 
sake  of  duty  I  subdued."  She  adds  that  her  husband 
became  jealous,  and  they  were  both  unhappy. 

M.  Roland,  having  been  proscribed  by  the  Jacobins, 
retired  to  the  country  in  May,  1793;  but  his  wife  pre 
ferred  to  remain  in  Paris,  and  was  committed  to  prison 
about  the  ist  of  June.  She  seems  to  have  considered 
the  prison  as  an  asylum  from  the  suspicion  of  a  jealous 
husband,  and  her  imprisonment  as  a  relief  from  the 
struggle  of  passion  against  duty.  In  a  letter  to  Buzot 
she  says,  "  I  owe  to  my  persecutors  the  possibility  of 
combining  love  and  duty.  Ah  !  do  not  pity  me  !  Others 
may  admire  my  courage, — you  alone  can  appreciate  my 
joy."  She  improved  her  time  in  prison  by  writing  her 
"  Memoires,"  which  are  enlivened  by  many  anecdotes 
and  portraits  of  eminent  persons.  Her  style  is  admi 
rable  and  graceful  in  the  highest  degree.  "  I  never 
heard  any  woman,"  said  Count  Beugnot,  "  speak  with 
so  much  accuracy  and  elegance."  In  the  passage  from 
the  prison  to  the  scaffold  she  had  a  full  view  of  the 
house  in  which  she  had  spent  many  happy  years  in 
youth.  There  was  the  window  from  which  she  had  often 
gazed  on  the  sun  setting  behind  the  distant  hills.  Her 
last  words,  according  to  a  popular  statement,  were,  "  O 
Liberty  !  what  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name  !"  She 
was  beheaded  on  the  gth  of  November,  1793.  She  left 
one  child,  Euclora,  born  in  1781. 

"  According  to  our  modern  notions,"  says  the  "  Edin- 
buigh  Review"  for  April,  1865,  "  she  was  neither  gentle, 
nor  pious,  nor  delicate,  nor  even  virtuous.  .  .  .  Hut, 
viewed  by  that  strange  light  of  her  own  times,  she  stands 
out  in  noble  and  lofty  pre-eminence.  Of  her  greatness, 
if  heroism  is  greatness,  there  can  be  no  doubt." 

See  C.  A.  DAUBAN,  "  E"tude  sur  Madame  Roland  et  son  Temps, 
suivie  des  Lettres  de  Madame  Roland  a  Buzot,"  1864  ;  "  Memoires 
de  Madame  Roland  ecrites  dnraut  sa  Captivite","  nouvelle  Edition, 
revue  et  completee  par  M.  P.  FAUC;ERE,  1864;  LOUISE  COLKT, 
"  Charlotte  Corday  et  Madame  Roland,"  1842;  "  Memoires  de  Ma 
dame  Roland,"  edition  entierement  confonne  au  mannscrit  auto- 
graphe,  etc.,  publie'e  avec  des  notes  par  C.  A.  DAUBAN,  1864; 
SAI  MTE-BEUVE,  "  Portraits  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1865  : 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Memoires  de  Madame  Roland," 
by  MM.  BERVII.I.K  and  BARRIERS  ;  "Appeal  to  Impartial  Posterity," 
etc.,  by  MADAME  ROLAND;  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French 
Writers,"  by  MRS.  SHELLEY. 

Roland,  (PHILIPPE  LAURENT,)  an  able  French  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Marcq-en-Barceul  (Nord)  in  1746.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  Paris,  and  was  commissioned 
by  the  government  to  make  statues  of  Homer,  Solon,  and 
Malesherbes.  Died  in  Paris  in  1816. 

Roland  d'Erceville.     See  HOLLAND. 

Roland  de  la  Platiere,  ro'l&N'  deh  It  plt'te-aiR', 
(JEAN  MARIE,)  a  French  Girondist  minister  of  stateTwas 
born  near  Villefranche  (Beaujolais)  in  1734.  He  was 
inspector-general  of  manufactures  before  the  Revolution. 
His  house  in  Paris  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  party 
of  the  Gironde  in  1791-92.  He  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  March,  1792,  but  was  dismissed  from  office  in 
June  of  the  same  year,  in  consequence  of  a  famous  letter 
addressed  to  the  king.  This  letter  was  composed  by 
his  wife.  (See  ROLAND,  MADAME,  noticed  above.)  He 


again  acted  as  minister  of  the  interior  from  August  10, 
1792,  to  January  23,  1793,  when  he  resigned,  having 
vainly  striven  against  the  reign  of  anarchy  and  violence. 
He  retired  to  Rouen  in  May,  and,  on  hearing  of  the 
death  of  his  wife,  committed  suicide,  in  November,  1793. 
See  MADAME  ROLAND,  "Memoires;"  LAMARTINE,  "History 
of  the  Girondists;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rolander,  ro-lan'der,  (DANIEL,)  a  Swedish  natural 
ist,  born  in  Smiland,  explored  the  botany  and  /.oology 
of  Surinam  in  1755,  and  returned  home  in  1756.  He  died 
soon  after,  before  he  could  publish  his  manuscripts. 

Rolandino,  ro-lan-dee'no,  an  Italian  chronicler,  born 
at  Padua  about  1200.  He  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of 
events  which  occurred  from  1200  to  1260.  Died  in  1276. 

Rolando,  ro-lan'do,  (LuiGl,)  an  eminent  Italian  anat 
omist,  born  at  Turin  in  1773,  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  university  of  that  city  about  1814,  and  wrote 
several  able  works,  etc.  Died  in  1831. 

See  CARLO  BEI.I.INGERI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Professore  L.  Ro 
lando;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Roldan,  rol-dan',  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  born 
at  Seville  in  1624,  worked  at  Rome,  Madrid,  and  Seville, 
where  he  died  in  1700. 

Rolewinck,  ro'leh-wink',  (WERNER,)  a  German 
monk,  born  in  1425,  wrote  a  popular  history  of  the  world, 
called  "  Fasciculus  Temporum,"  (1474.)  Died  in  1502. 

Rolfe,  (R.  MONSEY.)     See  CKANWORTH,  LORD. 

Rolfink,  rol'fink,  (WERNER,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1599;  died  at  Jena  in  1673. 

Roll  or  Roell,  rol,  (HERMANN  ALEXANDER,)  a  Ger 
man  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Doelberg  in  1653.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht,  (1704-18,)  and 
wrote  several  commentaries  on  Scripture.  Died  in  1718. 

Rolland  (or  Roland)  d'Erceville,  ro'ldN'clcuss'vel', 
(BARTHELEMI  GAHRIEI.,)  a  French  writer  and  judge, 
born  in  1734,  was  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits.  He  was 
executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Rolle,  rol,  ?  (DENIS,)  M.P.,  an  opulent  Englishman, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1725.  He  purchased  a  large  tract 
in  Florida,  and  there  planted  a  colony,  (about  1766,) 
which  was  soon  abandoned.  Died  in  England  in  1797. 

Rolle,  (HENRY,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Devon 
shire  in  1589.  He  compiled  a  digest,  which  was  published 
with  the  title  of  "Rolle's  Abridgment."  In  1648  he  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  by  the  Parlia 
ment,  which  he  had  supported  in  the  civil  war.  He  re 
fused  to  preside  at  the  trial  of  Charles  I.  Died  in  1656. 
"  He  was,"  says  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  "a  person  of  great 
learning  in  the  common  law,  profound  judgment,  great 
moderation,  justice,  and  integrity."  (Preface  to  "  Rolle's 
Abridgment.") 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  i.  ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Rolle,  rol'leh,  (JoiiANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  com 
poser  of  church  music,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1718. 
He  succeeded  his  father  as  director  of  music  at  Mag 
deburg  in  1752.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the 
oratorios  of  the  "  Death  of  Abel"  and  "  Abraham  on 
Mount  Moriah."  Died  in  1785. 

Rolle,  (JoiiN,)  LORD,  an  English  Tory  politician,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1751.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1796.  He  is  said  to  have  used  a  large  fortune  liberally, 
and  to  have  been  the  subject  of"  The  Rolliad,"  a  political 
satire,  written  by  several  Whigs.  Died  in  1842. 

Rolle,  rol,  (MiciiEL,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
at  Ambert  in  1652  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1749.  "  He  ren 
dered,"  says  Fontenelle,  "great  service  to  science." 

Rolle,  (PIERRE  NICOLAS,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1770,  was  author  of"  Researches 
into  the  Worship  of  Bacchus,"  (3  vols.,  1824.)  Died  in 
1855.  His  son,  JACQUES  HIPPOLYTE,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1804,  became  an  able  journalist  of  Paris. 

Rollenhagen,  rol'len-ha'gen,  (  GEORG,  )  a  German 
fabulist  and  didactic  poet,  born  at  Bernau  in  1542;  died 
in  1609. 

Rolli,  rol'lee,  (PAOLO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
in  1687.  He  went  to  England  about  1725,  and  taught 
Italian  to  the  princesses  of  the  royal  family.  He  trans 
lated  "Paradise  Lost"  into  Italian  verse,  (1729,)  and 
wrote  some  original  poems,  which  were  popular.  Died 
in  Italy  in  1767. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROLLIN 


ROMBERG 


Rollin,  rol'lin  or  ro'laN',  (  CHARLES,)  an  eminent 
French  historian  and  professor  of  belles-lettres,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  January,  1661.  He  became  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  the  College  du  Plessis  in  1687,  and  ob 
tained  the  chair  of  eloquence  at  the  College  cle  France 
in  1688.  He  was  rector  of  the  University  about  two 
years,  (1694-96.)  He  revived  the  study  of  Greek,  and 
made  reforms  in  the  system  of  education.  In  1726  he 
published  a  good  work  on  the  Study  of  Belles-Lettres, 
("Traite  de  la  Maniere  d'etudier  et  d'enseigner  les 
Kelles-Lettres.")  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  Rome,' 
O7j8,)  and  an  "  Ancient  History,"  ("Histoire  ancienne," 
12  vols.,  1730-38,)  which  enjoyed  much  popularity,  es 
pecially  with  the  young.  It  has  been  translated  into 
English.  According  to  Voltaire,  Rollin  was  one  of  the 
first  French  authors  who  wrote  a  good  style  in  prose. 
His  character  was  amiable  and  virtuous.  Died  in  1741. 

See  GUENKAI;  DE  Mussv,  "Vie  de  Roliin  ;"  TROGNON,  "  Eloge 
de  Roliin,"  1818;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeriesdu  Lmidi,!'  tome  vi. ; 
BOUSSDN  DE  MAIRET,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Rollin;"  NICERONJ 
"  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rollin,  (Ledru.)     See  LKDRU-ROLLIN. 

Rol'lo,  Rou,  roo,  or  Hrolf,  [Fr.  ROLI.ON,  ro'16N', 
and  RAOUL,  ri'ool',]  first  Duke  of  Normandy,  born 
about  860  A.D.  He  was  originally  a  Norwegian  viking  or 
pirate,  and  was  noted  for  strength  and  martial  prowess. 
In  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  he  ascended  the  Seine 
and  took  Rouen,  which  he  kept  as  a  base  of  operations. 
He  gained  a  number  of  victories  over  the  Franks,  and 
extorted  from  Charles  III.  in  912  the  cession  of  the 
province  since  called  Normandy.  By  the  famous  treaty 
which  Charles  and  Rollo  signed  at  this  time  the  latter 
agreed  to  adopt  the  Christian  religion.  Died  about  930. 

See  LE  CAXUT,  "  Raoul  I,  Due  de  Normandie,"  2  vols.,  1781; 
ORDERICUS  VITALIS,  "  Historia." 

Rol'lock,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  scholar, 
born  near  Stirling  in  1555.  He  was  the  first  principal 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  about  1582. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture.  Died  in  1598. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rollon.     See  ROLLO. 

Rolph,  (JoHN  A.,)  an  English  artist  and  engraver 
cf  landscapes,  born  in  Essex  in  1798.  He  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1833,  and  worked  in  New  York 
City._  Died  in  Brooklyn  in  1862. 

Rolt,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  writer  of  history,  biog- 
rsphy,  etc.,  was  born  in  1724  or  1725.  Among  his 
w^rks  is  a  "  History  of  the  General  \Var"  which  ended 
in  1748,  4  vols.,  and  "Cambria,"  a  poem,  (1749.)  Died 
in  1770. 

Romagnosi,  ro-min-yo'see,  (GIOVANNI  DOMENICO,) 
an  eminent  Italian  jurist  and  publicist,  born  near  Pia- 
cerza  in  1761.  He  published  in  1791  an  able  work  on 
petal  legislation,  "Genesis  of  Penal  Law,"  ("Genesi 
delDiritto  penale.")  About  1806  he  and  other  jurists 
forned  a  new  Italian  criminal  code  at  Milan.  He  wrote 
nurrerous  legal  works,  and  lectured  on  law  at  Milan  for 
many  years.  Died  in  1835. 

Se  CANTII,  "  Notizia  di  G.  D.  Romagnosi,"  1835;  FERRARI, 
"Viudi  Romagnosi,"  1835;  G.  SACCHI,  "  Biografia  di  G.  D.  Ro- 
magncsi,"  1835;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Remain.     See  ROMANUS. 

Remain,  n/max',  (ADRIAN,)  a  Flemish  geometer 
and  physician,  born  at  Louvain  in  1561.  He  wrote  on 
geometry,  etc.  Died  at  Mentz  in  1615. 

Remain,  (JULES,)  the  French  name  of  GIULIO  RO 
MANO. 

Remain  de  Hooghe.     See  HOOGE. 

Romaine,  ro-man',  (\VILLTAM,)  an  eminent  English 
Calviniiic  theologian  of  the  Anglican  Church,  born  at 
Hart!ep)ol  in  1714.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  in 
London,married  a  Miss  Price  in  1755,  and  was  appointed 
rector  ofBlackfriars' in  1764.  He  preached  at  this  place 
about  thrty  years.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
"The  \\fclk  of  Faith, "(1771,)  and  "The  Triumph  of 
Faith,"  (£795.)  Died  in  1795. 

See  W.  V  CAOOGAN-,  "Life  of  W.  Romaine,"  1796;  THOMAS 
HAWIES,  "  life  of  the  Rev.  W.  Romaine,"  1797. 

Roman  ro'moN',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  Louis,)  a  French 
statuary,  btrn  in  Paris  in  1792,  gained  the  grand  prize 
in  1816.  Lied  in  1835. 


Roman,  ro'man,  (JoHAN  HELMICH,)  a  Swedish  mu 
sician  and  composer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1694 ;  died 
in  1758. 

Romana,  de  la,  da  la  ro-ma'na,  (Don  PEDRO  Caro 
y  Sureda  —  ka'ro  e  soo-ra'i>a,)  MARQUIS,  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Majorca  in  1761.  He  served  with  dis 
tinction  in  the  war  against  the  French,  (1793-95  and 
1809-10.)  DiediniSn. 

Romanelli,  ro-ma-nel'lee,  (DOMENICO,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1756;  died  in  1819. 

Romanelli,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  an  eminent 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Viterbo  in  1617, 
was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  was  employed 
at  Paris  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He 
also  adorned  several  churches  of  Rome  with  his  works. 
Died  in  1663.  His  son  URBANO,  born  in  1652,  was  a 
painter.  Died  in  1682. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 
Romanet,  ro'mS'ni',  (ANTOINE  Louis,)   a    French 
line-engraver,    born    in    Paris    in    1748.     He    engraved 
successfully  some  works  of  Raphael  and  Titian.     Died 
in  1807. 

Romani.     See  ROMANINO,  (GIROLAMO.) 
Romanino,  ro-ma-nee'no,  (GIORGIO,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born   at  Rome  about  1500.     He  was  invited  to 
France,  and  painted   some   frescos  in  the  Louvre.     His 
design  and  colour  are  highly  praised. 

Romanino  or  Romani,  ro-ma'nee,  (GIROLAMO,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Brescia  about  1490,  imitated 
Titian,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  He  painted  some 
frescos  in  the  Louvre,  Paris.  Died  about  1560. 
Romano.  See  GIULIO  ROMANO. 
Romano,  da,  da  ro-ma'no,  (EZZELINO,  e"t-sa-lee'no, 
or  ECCELINO,  £t-cha-lee'no,)  an  able  commander  and  a 
famous  Ghibeline  leader,  remarkable  for  his  reckless 
courage  and  for  his  cruelty,  was  born  in  1194.  As  an 
ally  or  partisan  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  he  fought 
against  the  Marquis  d'Este,  and  captured  Padua  in  1237. 
He  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope  about  1252,  and  a 
league  was  formed  against  him  by  several  cities  and 
princes  of  Lombardy.  He  died,  or  was  killed  in  battle, 
in  1259. 

Romanof,  Romanov,  or  Romanow,  ro-mi'nof, 
(MICHAEL  FEODOROVITCH,)  the  founder  of  the  reigning 
dynasty  of  Russia,  was  a  son  of  the  Metropolitan  of 
Rostof.  He  was  elected  Czar  or  emperor  in  1613,  when 
he  was  only  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old.  He  made  peace 
with  the  Swedes  by  the  cession  of  Ingria  and  Karelia, 
and  afterwards  waged  against  the  Poles  a  defensive  war, 
which  ended  in  1619.  He  promoted  the  civilization  of 
his  subjects,  and  made  reforms  in  the  laws.  He  died  in 
1645,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexis. 

See  WICHMANN,  "  Urkunde  iiber  die  Wahl  Michael  Romanows," 
etc.,  1819. 

Ro-ma'nus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  called  LECA- 
PENUS,  [Fr.  ROMAIN  LECAVENE,  ro'maN*'  la'ki'pin',] 
was  a  native  of  Armenia,  and  father-in-law  of  Constan- 
tine  VII.,  who  made  Romanus  his  colleague  in  the 
empire  in  919.  Died  in  948. 

Romanus  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son 
of  Constantine  VII.,  was  born  in  939.  He  poisoned  his 
father  and  obtained  the  throne  in  959.  Died  in  963. 

Romanus  III.,  Argy'rus,  f  Fr.  ROMAIN  ARGYRE,  ro' 
maN'  tR'zheR',]  was  born  about  968.  He  married  Zoe, 
a  daughter  of  Constantine  IX.,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1028.  He  was  poisoned  by  Zoe,  his  wife,  in  1034. 

Romanus  IV.,  Diogenes,  obtained  the  throne  by 
marriage  with  Eudocia,  the  widow  of  Constantine  Ducas, 
in  1067  or  1068.  He  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  but  was  defeated  by  Alp  Arslan 
in  Armenia.  He  was  deposed  by  Michael  VII.,  by 
whose  order  he  was  put  to  death  about  1072. 

See  LE  BKAU,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  GIBBON,  "Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Romanus,  (^EGIDIUS.)     See  COLONNA,  (EGIDIO.) 

Ro-ma'nus,  [Fr.  ROMAIN,  ro'maN',]  POPE,  born  near 
Civita  Castellana,  in  Italy.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
September,  897  A.D.  Died  in  898. 

Romanzof.     See  RIOOMANTSOF. 

Romberg,  rom'be'RG,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  in  1767,  became  director  of  music 


€  as  k;  c  as  f  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


ROME  ERG 


1914 


ROM  NET 


at  Gotha  in  1815.  He  produced  several  sacred  pieces 
and  operas,  and  set  to  music  Schiller's  "Song  of  the 
Bell"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1821. 

Romberg,  (BKRNHARD,)  a  cousin  of  Andreas,  born 
at  Bonn  in  1770,  was  celebrated  for  his  performance  on 
the  violoncello.  He  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Conservatory  of  Music  in  Paris  in  1801.  Died  in  1841. 

Rombout,  rom'bowt,  (].,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
lived  about  1670. 

Rombouts,  rom'bowts,  (THEODORE,)  an  excellent 
Flemish  painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1597, 
was  a  pupil  of  A.  Janssens.  He  worked  in  Rome  and 
Florence,  from  which  he  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1625. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham," 
"The  Oath  of  Hannibal,"  and  a  "Descent  from  the 
Cross."  Died  in  1637. 

See  DESCAMHS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Rome  de  Lisle,  (or  de  1'Isle,)  ro'ma'  deh  lei',  QF.AN 
BAITISTE  Louis,)  a  French  mineralogist,  bom  at  Grai 
in  1736.  He  visited  India  and  China,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1764.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "  Crystallography," 
(4  vols.,  1783,)  and  "Metrologie,"  (1789.)  Died  in  1790. 
"  He  first  ascertained  the  important  fact  of  the  constancy 
of  the  angles  at  which  the  faces  of  crystals  meet,  and, 
observing  further  that  many  of  them  appear  in  several 
different  shapes,  first  conceived  the  idea  that  these 
shapes  might  be  reducible  to  one,  appropriated  in  a 
peculiar  manner  to  each  substance  and  modified  by  strict 
geometrical  laws."  (Sir  John  V.  W.  llerschel,  "Dis 
course  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.") 

See  LA  METIIERIE,  "  filoge  de  Rome^  de  Lisle,"  1790;  "  Bio 
graphic  Universelle." 

Romegas,  ro'ina'gts',  (MATHURIN  n'Aux-LEscotrr, 
mit'tu'ra.N'  do'Ies'koo',)  a  brave  French  knight  of  the 
order  of  Malta,  which  he  joined  in  1547.  He  distin 
guished  himself  in  battle  against  the  pirates  and  the 
Turks.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  galleys, 
and  lieutenant-general.  Died  in  1581. 

Romer  or  Roemer,  ro'mer,  (Oi.AK  or  OLAUS,)  a 
Danish  astronomer,  born  at  Aarhuus  on  the  251)1  of 
September,  1644.  lie  went  to  Paris  in  1672,  and  aided 
Picard,  who  procured  for  him  the  office  of  tutor  to  the 
dauphin.  In  1675  he  made  (at  Paris)  the  important 
discovery  of  the  velocity  of  light  by  observations  of  the 
eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1681. 
He  first  applied  the  epicycloidal  curve  in  the  formation 
of  the  teeth  of  wheels.  Romer  held  several  high  civil 
offices.  Died  in  1710. 

See  a  notice  of  Romer  prefixed  by  HORREBOW  to  Romer's 
"Basis  Astronomix,"  1735;  NYERUP,  "  Litteraturlexicon ;"  DE- 
I.AMBRE,  "Histoire  de  1'Astronomie  moderne;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Romer  or  Roemer,  von,  fon  ro'mer,  (FRIKDRICH,) 
a  German  statesman,  born  in  the  Wiirtemberg  Alps  in 
1795.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  for  Wiir- 
temberg  in  1848,  and  resigned  office  in  October,  1849. 
Died  in  1861. 

Romey,  ro'mi',  (CHARLES  OCTAVE,)  a  French  his 
torian,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Spain,"  10  vols.,  (1838-48.) 

Romeyn,  ro'mln,  (THEODORIC  D.,)  an  influential 
minister  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at 
New  Barbadoes,  New  Jersey,  in  1744.  He  preached 
many  years  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  to  which  he 
removed  in  1784.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  principal 
founder  of  Union  College,  Schenectady.  Died  in  1804. 

Romieu,  de,  deh  ro'me-uh',  (MARIE,)  a  French  poet 
ess  and  prose  writer,  lived  at  Viviers.  Died  after  1584. 

Romiguieres,  ro'me'ge-aiR',  (JEAN  DOMINIQUE  JO 
SEPH  Louis,)  a  French  advocate,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1775,  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  liberal  party.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1847. 

Romilly,  ro'me'ye',  QEAN  EDME,  )  a  Swiss  Protest 
ant  minister,  born  at  Geneva  in  1739,  was  a  friend  of 
Rousseau.  Died  in  1779.  His  father,  JEAN,  born  in 
1714,  was  a  skilful  watchmaker.  Died  in  Paris  in  1796. 

Rom'il-ly,  (JOHN,)  BARON,  an  English  lawyer,  a  son 
of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  was  born  in  London  in  1802. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1832,  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1848,  and  attorney-general 


in  1850.     In  1851  he  became  master  of  the  rolls,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Romilly,  in  1866. 

See  Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Romilly,  (Sir  SAMUEL,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  on  the  ist  of  March, 
1757.  He  was  a  son  of  Peter  Romilly,  a  jeweller,  whose 
father  was  a  French  Protestant  exiled  for  his  religion. 
His  education  at  school  was  defective,  but  he  studied 
Latin  after  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  became  a 
good  self-taught  scholar.  He  entered  himself  at  Gray's 
Inn  as  a  student  of  law  in  1778,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1783.  In  1784  he  became  acquainted  with  the  famous 
Mirabeau,  who  introduced  him  to  a  Mr.  Vaughan.  By  the 
favour  of  the  latter,  Romilly  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Lord  Lansdowne,  in  whom  he  found  a  friend  and  patron, 
lie  obtained  an  extensive  practice  in  the  court  of  chan 
cery.  In  politics  he  was  a  Whig  and  advanced  liberal. 
In  1806  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  and  appointed 
solicitor-general.  He  acquired  great  reputation  by  his 
eloquent  speech  against  the  slave-trade.  In  1807  he  was 
removed  from  office  in  consequence  of  the  dissolution 
of  the  Whig  ministry.  He  afterwards  directed  his  efforts 
to  the  reform  of  the  penal  code,  which  at  that  period  was 
very  severe.  Nearly  three  hundred  crimes  of  various 
grades  were  punishable  by  death.  He  procured  the  pas 
sage  of  a  bill,  about  1809,  to  repeal  the  statute  which 
made  stealing  from  the  person  a  capital  crime.  In  this 
enterprise  he  encountered  strong  opposition  from  igno 
rance,  prejudice,  and  party  spirit.  He  made  an  unsuc 
cessful  effort  in  1810  to  repeal  the  statute  which  punished 
with  death  the  crime  of  stealing  from  a  shop  goods  valued 
at  five  shillings.  He  opposed  in  an  eloquent  speech  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba  in  1815.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation.  In  his  profession  he  is  said  to 
have  been  more  successful  and  more  distinguished  than 
any  other  Englishman  of  his  time.  Although  his  style 
was  remarkable  for  plainness  and  simplicity,  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  his  speeches  was,  we  are  told,  almost 
unparalleled.  In  1818  he  was  returned,  at  the  head  of 
the  poll,  by  the  voters  of  Westminster.  His  wife  died  in 
October,  1818.  In  a  fit  of  delirium  or  insanity,  he  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life  in  November,  1818.  He  was 
author  of  "  Observations  on  the  Criminal  Law  of  Eng 
land,"  (1810.) 

See  "The  Life  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  written  by  himself,"  edit.-d 
by  his  sons,  3  vols.,  1840;  BENJAMIN  CONSTANT,  "  Eioge  de  Sir 
Samuel  Romilly,"  1819;  ROSCOE,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  British  Law 
yers  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Reviev" 
for  February,  1X12;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  June,  1840;  "  Lin 
den  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1840. 

Romme,  rom,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  geometer,  burn 
at  Riom  about  1744.  He  wrote  several  useful  works  on 
navigation,  etc.  Died  in  1805. 

Romme,  (GILHERT,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  torn 
at  Riom  in  1750,  was  a  Jacobin  and  an  active  meirber 
of  the  Convention.  Having  been  condemned  to  d;ath 
by  the  Thermidoriens,  he  killed  himself  in  1795. 

Rommel,  rom'mel,  (DIETRICH  CHRISTOPH,)  a  Ger 
man  historian,  born  at  Cassel  in  1781,  became  in  1815 
professor  of  history  at  Marburg.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Hesse  since  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1853.)  Died 
in  1859. 

Rom'iiey,  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent  English  his.orical 
and  portrait  painter,  was  born  at  Dalton,  in  Lancishire, 
in  December,  1734.  In  his  youth  he  worked  in  tie  shop 
of  his  father,  a  cabinet-maker.  He  married  Mcry  Ab 
bot  in  1756.  After  he  had  studied  and  practised  paint 
ing  at  Kendal  for  five  years,  he  settled  in  Londonin  1762, 
but  left  his  wife  and  children  in  the  country,  wlrre  they 
remained  neglected  while  he  was  prosperous  anr famous. 
He  obtained  rapid  success  in  his  profession,  am  became 
the  rival  of  Reynolds.  He  passed  about  tvo  years 
(1773-75)  in  visits  to  several  cities  of  Italy.  At  Rome 
he  painted  a  "  Wood  Nymph,"  which  was  g  eatly  ad 
mired.  He  gradually  raised  his  price  for  a  jortrait  to 
thirty-five  guineas  for  a  head  and  sixty  guiieas  for  a 
whole-length.  Among  his  works  are  "MilDn  and  his 
Daughters,"  "Nature  unveiling  herself  to  Slakspeare," 
and  portraits  of  Cowper  the  poet,  Warrei  Hastings, 
Lord  Chatham,  and  William  Pitt.  About  798  he  was 
compelled  to  desist  from  work  by  ill  health  ind  nervous 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  notjgood;  moon; 


ROM  NET 


1915 


ROOMOFSKI 


dejection.  He  removed  in  179910  Kenclal,  where  he 
was  nursed  by  his  patient  and  forgiving  wife  until  he 
died,  in  November,  1802. 

See  HAYI.EY,  "Life  of  G.  Romney,"  1809;  J.  ROMNF.Y,  (his 
son,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  G.  Romney,"  1830; 
ALLAN  CUNNINGHAM,  "Lives  of  British  Painters;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1809. 

Romiiey,  (HENRY  SIDNEY,)  EARL  OF.    See  SIDNEY. 

Rom'u-lus,  called  also  Qui-ri'iius,  the  founder  of 
Rome,  a  semi-fabulous  personage,  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  750  B.C.  According  to  tradition,  Romulus 
and  Remus  were  the  twin  sons  of  Mars  and  Rhea  Silvia, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  Numitor,  King  of  Alba.  Amu- 
lius  dethroned  Numitor  and  ordered  the  young  twins  to 
be  exposed  to  destruction  ;  but  they  were  stickled  by  a 
wolf  and  educated  by  Faustulus,  a  shepherd  of  the  king. 
After  they  were  grown  up  and  informed  of  the  secret  of 
their  birth,  they  killed  Amulius,  restored  Numitor,  and 
founded  the  city  of  Rome.  Remus  was  punished  with 
death  by  Romulus  for  jumping,  in  derision,  over  the  wall 
of  the  new  city,  and  Romulus  became  the  first  and  sole 
king  of  Rome,  the  population  of  which  was  increased 
by  exiles,  outlaws,  and  fugitive  slaves  invited  from  ad 
jacent  states.  The  deficiency  of  wives  was  remedied 
by  the  abduction  of  Sabine  maidens  who  assembled  at 
Rome  as  spectators  of  a  public  festival.  The  Sabines 
waged  war  against  Rome  on  this  account,  but  peace  was 
restored  by  the  mediation  of  the  Sabine  wives,  and  the 
Romans  and  Sabines  were  united  into  one  state,  which 
Romulus  and  the  Sabine  Tatius  ruled  jointly.  Romulus 
reigned  about  thirty-seven  years,  and,  after  death,  was 
worshipped  under  the  n.ime  of  Quirinus.  According 
to  tradition,  he  disappeared  mysteriously  during  a  thun 
der-storm  which  occurred  as  he  was  reviewing  his  army 
in  the  Campus  Martius,  and  the  opinion  prevailed  that 
he  was  carried  up  to  heaven. 

See  XIEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome ;"  T  ANNEGUY-LKFEVRK, 
"  Discours  sur  Romulus,"  1666;  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Romulus;" 
J.  GKONOVIUS,  "  Oratio  de  Origine  Roniuli,"  16^4. 

Romulus  Augustulus.     See  AUGUSTULUS. 

Roncaglia,  ron-kai'ya,  (CONSTANTINO,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  theology,  etc.,  born  at  Lucca  in  1677;  died 
in  1737. 

Roncalli,  ron-kal'lee,  ( CRISTOFORO,)  called  POME- 
RANCIO  or  POMARANCIO,  an  excellent  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  born  at  Pomerance  in  1552,  was  a 
pupil  of  N.  Circignani.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Genoa, 
etc.,  and  painted  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  Loretto. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1626. 

Rondaiii,  ron-da'nee,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  an  Ital 
ian  painter,  born  at  Parma  about  1490,  was  a  pupil  of 
Correggio.  Died  about  1548. 

Rondel,  du,  dii  roN'del',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  phi 
losopher,  born  about  1630,  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
Sedan  from  1664  to  1681.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Epicurus,"  (1679,)  and  other  works.  Bayle,  who  was 
his  friend,  calls  him  (under  the  article  "Epicurus")  a 
good  poet  and  a  good  Greek  scholar.  Died  at  Maastricht 
in  1715. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rondelet,  roxd'li'  or  r6N'deh-li',  (GLMLLAUME,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1507.  He 
practised  medicine  and  lectured  in  that  city.  He  pub 
lished  a  treatise  "  On  Sea-Fish,"  ("  De  Piscibus  marinis," 
1554,)  and  several  medical  works.  Died  in  1566. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  SAINTE-MARTHE,  "E~loges;" 
"Biographie  Medicale." 

Rondelet,  (JEAN,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Lyons 
in  1734,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1743.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Soufrlot,  and  became  in  1781  his  successor  as  architect 
of  the  Pantheon,  or  church  of  Sainte-Genevieve,  at  Paris. 
He  built  the  dome  of  this  edifice.  He  published  an 
important  treatise  on  architecture,  "  Traite  de  1'Art  de 
Batir,"  (5  vols.,  1802-17,)  which  is  called  a  classical 
work.  Died  in  Paris  in  1829. 

See  VAUDOYER,  "Discours  sur  la  Tombe  de  J.  Rondelet,"  1829. 

Rondet,  ron'di',  (LAURENT  ETIENNK.)  a  French 
writer  on  religion  and  morality,  born  in  Paris  in  1717; 
died  in  1785. 

Rondot,  r6NT/do',  (NATALIS,)  a  French  economist  and 
editor,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1821. 


Roiige,  rong'eh,  (JOHANNES,)  a  celebrated  reformer 
among  the  Catholics,  born  in  Silesia  in  1813.  He  was 
ordained  a  Catholic  priest  in  1840;  but  he  was  soon 
after  suspended  for  his  heretical  opinions,  and  in  1844 
published  a  letter  denouncing  the  exhibition  of  the 
"holy  coat,"  which  Arnold!,  Bishop  of  Treves,  had  just 
proclaimed.  Although  excommunicated  by  the  chapter 
of  Breslau,  Rouge  rapidly  gained  adherents,  and  in 
1845  a  German  Catholic  Church,  independent  of  that  of 
Rome,  was  founded.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  many  of  the  new  societies  were 
suppressed. 

See  "  Vindication  of  J.  Ronge,"  translated  from  the  German  by 
ROBERT  TAYLOR,  1845;  EDUAKO  DULLER,  "  J.  Ronge  und  die  freie 
Kirche,"  1849;  "  Autobiography  of  J.  Ronge,"  translated  from  the 
German  by  JOHN  LORD,  London,  1846;  "Westminster  Review"  lor 
December,  1845,  (article  "German  Theology.") 

Ronne  or  Roenne,  von,  ton  ron'neh,  (LunwiG 
MORITZ  PETER,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Ilolstein  in 
1804.  He  became  about  1843  a  Juclge  or  councillor  in 
Berlin.  Among  his  important  works  is  "The  Political 
Law  of  the  Prussian  Monarchy,"  (ist  vol.,  1850.) 

See  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon,"  1857. 

Ronsard,  de,  deli  ro.N'stR',  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent 
French  poet,  born  in  the  Vendomois  in  1524.  He  learned 
to  speak  English,  German,  and  Italian,  and  was  instructed 
in  Greek  by  Dorat  and  Turnebe.  He  wrote  odes,  epi 
grams,  hymns,  eclogues,  etc.,  and  was  considered  the 
most  popular  poet  of  his  time.  Malherbe  and  Boi- 
leau,  however,  did  not  appreciate  him  highly.  Ronsard 
conceived  the  idea  of  grouping  seven  French  poets, 
including  himself,  into  a  constellation  called  the  Pleiade. 
The  other  six  were  his  imitators.  Died  in  1585. 

See  CLAUDE  BINET,  "Vie  de  Ronsard,"  1586;  GUILI.AUME  COL- 
I.ETET,  "Vie  de  Ronsard,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  1854; 
LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  E.  GANDAR,  "Ron 
sard  considere  coinme  Imitateur  d'Homere  et  de  Pindare,"  1854; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale."  33ajy}e.,ZJi<£t?">UL*-y  f  .-74^ .»£ 

Ronsin,  r6.N/saN',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE,)  a  French 
Jacobin  and  dramatist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1752.  He 
became  a  general  in  1793,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
violent  agents  of  his  party.  He  was  executed  with 
Hebert  in  1794. 

Ron'tho,  (MATTHEW,)  a  monk  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Greece,  translated  Dante's  "  Divina  Commedia"  into 
Latin  verse.  Died  at  Sienna  in  1443. 

Roodtseus,  rot'se-iis,  (JAN  ALBERT,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Hoorn  in  1615  or  1617;  died  in  1674. 

Rooke,  rook,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English  admiral,  born 
near  Canterbury  in  1650.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
post-captain  about  1680,  and  that  of  vice-admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1692.  In  this  year  he  burnt  ten  or  more  French 
ships  at  La  Hogue.  He  was  appointed  "vice-admiral 
and  lieutenant  of  the  admiralty"  by  Queen  Anne  in  1702. 
Sir  George  Rooke  and  Sir  Clouclesley  Shovel  captured 
Gibraltar  in  July,  1704.  He  commanded  the  combined 
English  and  Dutch  fleets  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  which  began  about  1702.  Died  in  1709. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica." 

Rooke,  (LAWRENCE,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  born  at  Deptford  in  1623,  was  one  of  the 
original  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  became 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London,  in 
1652.  Died  in  1662. 

Roo'ker,  (MICHAEL  ANGELO,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  London  in  1743,  was  a 
son  of  Edward  Rooker,  an  engraver.  Died  in  1801. 

Rook'wood,  (AMHROSK,)  an  accomplice  in  the  Gun 
powder  Plot,  was  the  head  of  an  old  and  wealthy  English 
family.  He  was  induced  by  his  friendship  for  Caiesby 
and  by  his  sectarian  zeal  to  take  part  in  that  conspiracy. 
He  was  put  to  death  in  1606,  aged  about  twenty-eight. 

Roonie,  room,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
satirist.  He  offended  Pope  by  a  satire  entitled  "Pas- 
quin,"  and  wrote  "  The  Jovial  Crew,"  a  drama.  Died 
in  1729. 

Roomofski,  Roumovsky,  or  Rumowsky,  roo- 
mof'skee,  (STEPHEN,)  a  Russian  astronomer,  born  in 
Vladimir  in  1734.  lie  became  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1763,  and  vice-president  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1800.  He  published  several 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


See  Explanations,  p. 


ROON 


1916 


ROSA 


mathematical  works,  and  translated  the  "  Annals"  of 
Tacitus  into  Russian,  (1808.)  Died  about  1814. 

Rooii,  von,  fon  ron,  (ALBRECHT  THKODOR  EMU.,)  a 
Prussian  general  and  writer,  born  at  Kolberg  about  1803. 
He  became  a  major-general  in  1856,  and  minister  of  war 
in  1859.  He  rendered  important  services  by  the  re 
organization  of  the  army.  The  Prussian  Chambers  in 
1866  voted  1,500,000  thalers  as  a  national  recompense  to 
six  men,  among  whom  was  Von  Roon.  He  has  published 
several  valuable  treatises  on  geography  and  ethnology. 

Roorda  van  Eysinga,  roR'cla  vSn  I'sing-a,  (PIETKR 
THEODORE,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Leeuwarden 
about  1790.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Dutch- 
Javanese  Dictionary,  (1855.)  Died  in  1860. 

Roore,  de,  deh  ro'reh,  (jACOi;,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1686,  was  a  pupil  of  Van  Opstal. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Capitol  besieged  by  Bren- 
nus,"  and  "The  History  of  Pandora."  Died  in  1747. 

Roos,  ros,  (JoHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  celebrated  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  a  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Otterndorf  in  1631.  Both  his  prints  and  paintings 
command  high  prices.  Died  at  Frankfort  in  1685. 

Roos,  (JoHANN  MELCHIOR,)  a  painter  of  landscapes 
and  animals,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1659,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  not  equal  to  his  brother  Philip  Peter. 
Died  in  1731. 

Roos,  (PHILIP  PETER,)  surnamed  ROSA  DA  TIVOLI,  a 
skilful  painter  of  animals  and  landscapes,  born  at  Frank 
fort  about  1655,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Heinrich,  noticed 
above.  He  worked  many  years  at  Tivoli :  hence  his  sur 
name.  He  painted  with  great  facility.  His  touch  is  said 
to  be  broad  and  mellow.  Among  his  works  are  many 
pastoral  landscapes.  His  backgrounds  and  skies  are 
admirable  for  fidelity  to  nature.  Died  at  Rome  in  1705. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  "  Biographic  Univer- 
selle." 

Roos,  (THEODOR,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Wesel 
in  1638,  was  a  brother  of  [ohann  Heinrich,  noticed  above. 
He  painted  portraits  and  landscapes.  Died  in  1698. 

Roose.     See  LIEMAECKEK,  (NIKOLAAS.) 

Roose,  ro'zeh,  (THEODOR  GEORG  AUGUST,)  a  Ger 
man  medical  writer,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1771.  He 
published  "Principles  of  Legal  Medicine,"  (1802,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Roostam,  Roostem,  Roostum,  Rustem,  or  Rus- 
tam,  roos'tem,  written  also  Roustem,  Roustam,  and 
Rostam,  the  most  illustrious  of  Persian  heroes,  is  sup 
posed  to  have  lived  about  600  years  B.C.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  warrior  Zal  or  Zalzer  and  an  Indian 
princess  named  Ruclaba.  The  exploits  of  Roostam  form 
the  favourite  theme  of  the  Persian  poets  and  romance- 
writers  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  is  historical 
and  what  is  fiction  in  the  accounts  of  him  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  Sir  William  Jones  says,  "  Rostam 
was  certainly  a  commander  under  Cyrus,  [the  Great.]" 
Roostam  forms  the  most  prominent  figure  in  Firdousee's 
great  epic,  the  "Shah  Nameh,"  or  "Book  of  Kings." 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia"  in  volume  v.  of  SIR  W.  JONES'S 
Works  ;  J.  ATKINSON,  "  Abridgment  oftheSliah  Namehof  Firdausi," 
London,  1832;  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,"  by  LAMAR- 
TINE,  1856. 

Roostam-  (Roustam-  or  Rustam-)  Pasha,  roos'- 
tam  pa'sha',  an  able  and  unscrupulous  Turkish  minister 
of  ^.ate,  became  grand  vizier  under  Solyman  the  Mag 
nificent,  who  reigned  from  1520  to  1566. 

Root,  (ERASTUS,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Hebron,  Connecticut,  in  1772.  He  removed  to  Delhi, 
New  York,  about  1796,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  four  times  between  1802  and  1817.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  De  Witt  Clinton.  Died  in  1846. 

Ro'per,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  biographer,  married 
in  1528  Margaret,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  a 
learned  and  accomplished  lady.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of 
Sir  Thomas  More,"  which  is  commended. 

Roque,  de  la,  deh  It  rok,  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1672,  edited  the  "Mercure 
de  France"  from  1721  until  1744.  Died  in  1744. 

Roque,  de  la,  (GiLLES  ANDRE,)  a  French  genealogist, 
born  near  Caen  about  1598.  Among  his  works  is  a 
valuable  "Treatise  on  the  Nobility,"  ("Traite  de  la 
Noblesse,"  1678.)  Died  in  1686. 


Roque,  de  la,  (JEAN,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1661,  was  a  brother  of  Antoine,  noticed 
above.  He  published  several  books  of  travels  in  Arabia, 
Palestine,  and  Syria,  (1716,  1717,  1722.)  Died  in  1745. 

Roquefort,  de,  deh  rok'foii',  QEAN  BAPTISTE  BON  A- 
VENTURE,)  a  French  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Mons  in  1777.  He  published  an  "Etymological  Dic 
tionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1829.)  Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Roquelaure,  de,  deh  rok'loR',  (ANTOINE,)  BARON, 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  1544,  was  a  constant  adherent 
of  Henry  IV.  He  was  in  the  carriage  with  that  king 
when  the  latter  was  killed,  (1610.)  Died  in  1625. 

SeeMoRERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  L'EsroiLE,  "Journal." 

Roquelaure,  de,  (GASTON  JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  Due,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1617.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-generai. 
He  was  noted  for  his  facetious  sayings.  Died  in  1683. 
His  son  ANTOINE  GASTON  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  born  in 
1656,  became  marshal  of  France.  Died  in  1738. 

Roqueplan,  rok'plo.N',  (CAMILLE  JOSEPH  ETIENNE,) 
an  eminent  French  painter  of  landscape;-:  and  genre,  born 
at  Marlemort  in  1802,  was  a  pupil  of  Gros  and  Abel  de 
Pujol.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1828. 
Many  of  his  works  are  illustrative  of  Rousseau's  "Con 
fessions"  and  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Novels.  Died  in  1855. 

Roqueplan,  (Louis  VICTOR  NESTOR,)  a  litterateur, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marlemort  in 
1804.  He  became  editon  of  the  "Figaro"  about  1827, 
and  was  director  of  the  Opera  of  Paris  from  1847  to 
1854.  Died  in  1870. 

Roques,  rok,  (PiERRE,)  a  French  Protestant  writer, 
born  at  La  Caune  in  1685.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Bale  in  1710,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  The 
Evangelical  Pastor,"  (1723,)  and  anew  edition  of  Moreri's 
"Dictionary,"  (6  vols.,  1731.)  Died  in  1748. 

See  FREV,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Roques,"  1784. 

Roquette,  de,  deh  ro'keV,  (GABRIEL,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1623,  became  Bishop 
of  Autun  in  1666.  He  was  notorious  as  the  prototype 
of  Moliere's  "  Tartuffe."  Died  in  1707. 

Rorario,  ro-ra're-o,  [Lat.  RORA'RIUS,]  (GIROLAMO,) 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Pordenone  in 
1485.  He  wrote  a  curious  treatise  "  That  Brutes  often 
reason  better  than  Man,"  ("  Quod  Animalia  bruta  saepe 
Ratione  utantur  melius  Homine,"  1648.)  Died  in  1556. 

Rorarius.     See  RORARIO. 

Rosa,  ro'sa,  (CRISTOFORO,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Brescia.  He  excelled  in  perspective, 
and  painted  the  architecture  in  some  works  of  Titian. 
Died  in  1576. 

Rosa,  (PiETRO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  favour 
ite  pupil  of  Titian.  He  was  a  good  colorist.  He  died 
young,  in  1576. 

Rosa,  (SALVATOR,)  [Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
sal-vd'tor  ro'za,]  a  famous  Italian  painter  of  history, 
landscapes,  and  battles,  was  born  at  Arenella,  near 
Naples,  on  the  2Oth  of  June,  1615.  He  received  lessons 
in  art  from  F.  Francanzani,  his  brother-in-law,  and  was 
a  diligent  student  of  nature.  About  1635  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  worked  and  attained  a  high  reputation. 
In  1647  he  took  part  in  the  revolt  at  Naples,  and  fought 
for  Masaniello.  After  the  final  defeat  of  the  insurgents, 
Salvator  escaped  to  Florence,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  the  grand  duke.  He  was  partial  to  wild,  romantic, 
and  desolate  scenery.  His  imagination  was  morbid, 
gloomy,  and  extravagant.  After  he  had  worked  at 
Florence  for  several  years,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  exhibited  some  pictures  in  1663.  He  produced  at 
Rome  his  "Conspiracy  of  Catiline,"  which  is  accounted 
his  master-piece.  He  made  for  himself  enemies  at 
Rome  by  his  poetical  satires.  Died  in  March,  1673. 
"  Salvator  possessed  real  genius,"  says  Ruskin,  "  but 
was  crushed  by  misery  in  his  youth.  ...  In  heart 
disdainful,  in  temper  adventurous,  conscious  of  power, 
impatient  of  labour,  ...  he  fled  to  the  Calabrian  hills, 
seeking  not  knowledge,  but  freedom.  .  .  .  He  had  not 
the  sacred  sense, — the  sense  of  colour  :  all  the  loveliest 
hues  of  the  Calabrian  air  were  invisible  to  him.  He 
saw  only  what  was  gross  and  terrible.  ...  I  see  in  him, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat-  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


ROSA 


i9'7  ROSE 


notwithstanding  his  baseness,  the  last  traces  of  spiritual 
'ife  in  the  art  of  Europe." 

See  CANT<;,  "Salvaior  Rosa,"  1844;  LADY  MORGAN,  "Life  of 
Salvator  Rosa,"  London,  2  vols.,  1824,  which  is  said  to  be  a  romance, 
or  romantic  biography;  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;" 
RUSKIN,  "Modern  Painters;"  PASSERI,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori ;"  Do- 
MENICI,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  Napoletani ;"  "  N'ouvelle  Biographic 
Generate  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Rosa  da  TivolL     See  Roos,  (PHILIP  PETER.) 

Rosa,  de  la,  (F.  MARTINK/,.)     See  MARTINEZ. 

Rosalba  Carriera,  ro-sii'ba  kar-re-a'ra,  a  famous 
Italian  portrait-painter,  often  called  simply  ROSALHA,  was 
born  at  or  near  Venice  about  1674.  She  is  said  to  have 
been  the  most  excellent  artist  of  her  time  in  the  use  of 
the  crayon  or  pastel.  Her  Madonnas  were  much  ad- 
niiied.  She  visited  Paris  in  1720,  and  obtained  there  great 
success.  About  1746  she  became  blind.  Died  in  1757. 

Rosamel,  de,  deli  ro'st'ineT,  (CLAUDE  CHARLES 
MARIE  Ducampe — du'kS.Np',)  a  French  admiral,  born 
at  Trencq  in  1774.  He  was  minister  of  marine  from 
September,  1836,  to  March,  1839.  Died  in  1848. 

Ros'a-mond,  [Fr.  KOSEMONDE,  roz'moNd',  or  ROSA- 
MONDE,  ro'zi'md.Nd',]  often  called  THE  FAIR  ROSAMOND, 
was  a  daughter  of  Walter,  Lord  Clifford.  She  became  a 
favourite  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  mother  of  two 


Roscoe,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  author  and  translator, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1790.  He 
produced  several  poems  and  tales,  a  "Tour  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,"  and  other  illustrated  works.  Among  the 
works  translated  by  him  are  Sismondi's  "Literature  of 
Southern  Europe,"  and  Silvio  Pellico's  "Memoirs." 

Roscoe,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  historian 
and  poet,  born  at  or  near  Liverpool  on  the  8th  of  March, 
!753-  He  practised  as  an  attorney  in  his  early  life,  and 
married  Miss  Griffiths  in  1781.  He  wrote  several  pam 
phlets  against  the  slave-trade,  and  a  poem  on  the  same 
subject.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded  on  his  "  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  called  the  Magnificent,"  (2  vols., 
1796,)  which  was  very  successful  and  was  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  Italian.  He  retired  from  business 
as  an  attorney  about  1800,  became  partner  in  a  banking- 
house,  and  purchased  an  estate  in  land.  In  1805  he  pub 
lished  an  interesting  and  popular  work,  "The  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X."  He  became  a  Whig  member  of 
Parliament  (for  Liverpool)  in  1806.  He  was  the  prin 
cipal  founder  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Liverpool. 
In  1816  the  banking-house  with  which  he  was  connected 
failed,  and  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  parting  with 
his  magnificent  library.  He  died  in  June,  1831,  leaving 


sons,  William    Longsword,  and  Jeffery,  Archbishop  of    *°ur  sons.  noticed  in  this  work.     As  a  historian,  Roscoe 

has  been  censured  by  some  critics  for  a  too  great  indul 
gence  shown  to  the  character  of  Leo  X.  and  to  the  vices 
of  his  court,  and  particularly  for  his  defence  of  Lucretia 
Borgia.  (See,  on  this  subject,  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1806  ;  also  Dr.  Hoefer's  article  on  ALEX- 
ANDRE  VI,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  HENRY  ROSCOE,  "Life  of  William  Roscoe,"  2  vols.,  1833; 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns,"  by  HARTLEY  COLERIDGE; 
AU.IBONK,  "^Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 

portrait.) 

Roscoe,  (W.  S.,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1781,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  author  of  a  volume  of 


York.     Died  in  1177. 

Rosapina,  ro-sa-pee'na,  or  Rosaspiiia,  ro-sa-spee'- 
n a,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1 762.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "  La  Pinacoteca," 
a  series  of  seventy-two  engravings  of  the  finest  pictures 
of  the  gallery  of  Bologna.  Died  in  1841. 

Rosas,  de,  da  ro'sas,  (Ju.\N  MANUEL  Ortiz— OR- 
teth',)  a  South  American  dictator,  born  in  Buenos  Ayres 
in  1793.  He  lived  as  a  Gaucho  in  his  youth,  and  was  an 
active  partisan  of  the  Federals  in  the  civil  war  against 
the  Unitarians.  In  1829  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
the  Argentine  Republic,  or  Buenos  Ayres. 
dictator  in  1835.  By  some  writers  he  is 


lie  became 


represented  j  poems.     Died  in  1843. 


as  a  monster  of  cruelty.      His  administration,  however,  j      Ros-com'mon,  (\VENT\VORTH  DILI  ON  )  EARL  OF 

"•>  '""  an  English  poet,' born  in  Ireland  about  1633,  was  the  son 
of  James  Dillon,  third  Earl  of  Roscommon,  and  a  Ro 
man  Catholic.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  the  famous 
Earl  of  Strafford.  When  the  latter  was  impeached,  young 
Dillon  was  sent  to  study  at  Caen,  under  Bochart.  He 
returned  to  England  about  1660,  became  master  of  the 
horse  to  the  Duchess  of  York,  and  married  Frances, 


was  beneficial  in  respect  to  trade  and  finance.  He  was 
defeated  in  battle  by  an  army  under  General  Urquiza 
in  February,  1852,  after  which  he  lived  in  exile. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
May,  1852;  "Democratic  Review''  fur  May,  1846. 

Roscelin,  ros'laN',  written  also  Ruzelin,  [Lat.  Ros- 
CELI'NUS  or  ROSCELLI'NUS,]  a  famous  French  theologian 


and  schoolman,  born  at  or  near  Compiegne.  He  was  a  j  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Burlington.  He  wrote  odes, 
Nominalist,  and  was  for  some  time  regarded  as  the  j  prologues,  epilogues,  and  an  "Essay  on  Translated 
inventor  of  Nominalism.  In  1092  he  was  condemned  Verse,"  (1680.)  He  also  translated  Horace's  "  Art  of 

Poetry"  into  blank  verse,  (1680.)     Died  in  1684. 
See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 
Rose,  (GEORGE,)  a  British  politician,  born  at  Brechin, 
Scotland,   in    1744,  was  noted  for  business  talents   and 
practical    sagacity.     He  was  secretary  of  the   treasury 
from  1782  to  1801,  and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  Mr. 


He  was  a  grandfather  of  General  Sir  Hugh  Henry  Rose' 
Died  in  1818. 


3  vols., 
cotsmen  •" 


as  a  heretic  by  a  council  at  Soissons.     Died  about  1122. 

See  P>.  HAUK£AU,  "  De  la  Philosophic  scolastique  ;"  CHLADEN, 
"  De  Vita  et  Ha-resi  Roscelini,"  1756. 

Roscelinus  or  Roscellinus.     See  ROSCEI.IN. 

Roscher,  rosh'er,  (\VILHKLM,)  a  German   political 
economist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1817.      He  became  pro 
fessor  of  political  science,  etc.  at  Leipsic  in  1848.     He  j  Pitt,  who  in  1804  appointed  him  joint  paymaster-general 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Life  and  Times  j  of  the  forces.     In  1807  he  became  treasurer  of  the  navy 
of  Thucydides,"  (1842.) 

Roschid,  (or  Roschd.^  Ibn.     See  AVERROES. 

Roschlaub  or  Roeschlaub,  rosh'lown,  (ANDREAS,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  1768;  died  in  1835. 

Roscius,  rosh'e-us,  (QlMNTUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
actor,  was  born  near  Lanuvium.  lie  amassed  a  large 
fortune  by  his  performance  on  the  stage.  His  name 
was  so  proverbial  for  excellence  that  Garrick  was  stvled 
"the  British  Roscius."  An  oration  which  Cicero  pro 
nounced  for  Roscius  in  a  civil  suit  is  extant.  Died 
about  60  r,.c. 

Ros'coe,  (HENRY,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  1800,  was  a  son  of  the  historian.  He  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  William  Roscoe,"  (1833,)  and  "The  Lives  of 
Eminent  British  Lawyers,"  in  Lardner's  "Cyclopaedia." 
Died  in  1836. 

Roscoe,  (JAMES,)  an  English  poet  and  lawyer,  born 
about  1791.  He  resided  at  Knntsford,  Cheshire,  for 
nearly  fifty  years.  He  contributed  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  and  other  periodicals.  Died  in  May,  1864. 

Roscoe,  (ROBERT,)  a  banister,  a  brother  of  Henry, 
noticed  abcve,  was  born  about  1790.  He  wrote  poems 
of  some  merit.  Died  in  1850. 


See  "Diaries  and  Correspondence  of  George  Rose," 
1860;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Sc 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1860. 

Rose,  roz,  [Lat.  ROSS/F/US,]  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French 
prelate,  notorious  for  his  factious  violence,  was  born  at 
Chaumont  about  1542.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  League 
against  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.  Died  in  1602. 

Rose,  ro'zeh,  (GusrAV,  )'  a  distinguished  German 
mineralogist,  a  brother  of  Heinrich,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1798.  He  became  (1822)  keeper  of 
the  mineral  collection  and  professor  of  mineralogy  (1839) 
at  Berlin.  He  wrote  "  Elements  of  Crystallography," 
and  contributed  the  geognostic  and  mineralogical  part 
to  the  "  Journey  to  the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains," 
etc.,  which  he  made  with  Humboldt  and  Ehrenberg 
in  1829. 

Rose,  (HEINRICH,)  son  of  Valentin  the  Younger,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1795,  was  a  pupil  of  Berzelius  at  Stockholm. 
He  became,  after  his  return,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
his  native  city,  in  1835.  His  principal  work,  entitled 
"Manual  of  Analytical  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1851,)  has 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hr->-d:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROSE 


1918 


ROSENMULLER 


been  translated  into  several  languages.  As  a  practical 
analyst  in  the  department  of  inorganic  chemistry  he  is 
highly  distinguished.  He  discovered  in  1844  tne  sub 
stance  called  Niobium. 

Rose,  (Sir  HUGH  HENRY,)  an  able  British  general, 
born  in  1803.  His  father,  Sir  George  H.  Rose,  was 
British  minister  at  Berlin.  He  commanded  a  division 
in  India,  (1857-60,)  and  contributed  to  the  suppression 
of  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys.  In  1866  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Strathnairn. 

Rose,  (HUGH  JAMES,)  an  English  divine  and  volumi 
nous  writer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1795.  He  became  vicar 
of  Horsham  in  1821,  and  rector  of  Hadleigh  in  1830. 
In  1836  he  was  appointed  principal  of  King's  College, 
London.  He  published  numerous  sermons  and  contro 
versial  works,  and  a  new  edition  of  Parkhurst's  "Greek 
Lexicon."  He  projected  the  '•  Biographical  Dictionary" 
which  bears  his  name,  but  did  not  live  to  finish  it.  Died 
at  Florence  in  1838. 

Rose,  ( | KAN  B.UTLSTE.)  a  French  priest  and  writer  on 
morals,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1714;  died  in  1805. 

Rose,  (SAMUKL,)  an  English  lawyer  and  biographer, 
born  at  Chiswick  in  1767.  lie  wrote  a  "Life  of  Oliver 
Goldsmith."  Died  in  1804. 

Rose,  (VALKNTIN,)  THK  ELDER,  a  German  pharma 
cist,  born  at  Neu-Ruppin  in  1735,  was  assessor  of  the 
medical  college  at  Berlin.  Dieil  in  1771. 

Rose,  (VALENTIN,)  THK  YOUNGER,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1762.  He  studied 
chemistry  under  Klaproth,  and  was  author  of  several 
useful  chemical  treatises.  Died  in  1807. 

Rose,  (WILLIAM  STEWART,)  a  distinguished  scholar 
and  translator,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  a  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Naval  History  of  the  Late  War,"  (1802,) 
and  translated  "  Amadis  de  Gaul"  from  the  French, 
and  the  "Orlando  Innamorato"  (1823)  and  "Orlando 
Furioso"  (1823-31)  from  the  Italian.  These  translations 
are  highly  commended.  Died  in  1843. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  182-? ;  "  Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  [lily,  182^;  "  North  American  Review"  for 
October,  1824,  (by  W.  H.  PRESCOTT.) 

Rosecraiis,  rdz'krans,  (Wn.i.iAM  SPARK,)  an  Ameri 
can  general,  born  at  Kingston,  Delaware  county,  Ohio,  in 
September,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  West  Point,  where 
he  graduated  in  1842.  He  was  employed  as  engineer 
until  1854,  when  he  resigned  his  place  in  the  army. 
In  the  summer  of  1861  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  and  sent  to  Western  Virginia.  He  defeated  the 
insurgents  at  Rich  Mountain  in  July,  1861,  after  which 
he  commanded  in  West  Virginia  for  several  months.  He 
obtained  command  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi  in 
June,  1862,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Corinth 
(October  4)  over  Van  Dorn  and  Price.  He  commanded 
the  Union  army  at  the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  near 
Murfreesboro',  which  ended  on  the  2c\  of  January,  1863. 
General  Bragg  retreated  by  night,  leaving  Rosecrans 
master  of  the  field.  The  Union  loss  was  1533  killed 
and  7245  wounded.  General  Rosecrans  in  June  moved 
his  army  southeastward  in  pursuit  of  Bragg,  who  retired 
into  Georgia,  and  the  Union  army  occupied  Chattanooga 
about  the  gth  of  September.  Bragg,  having  been  rein 
forced,  turned  back  and  attacked  Rosecrans  on  the  igth 
and  2Oth  of  September  at  Chickamauga.  This  battle 
was  disastrous  to  the  Union  army,  which  retreated  to 
Chattanooga.  Rosecrans  was  relieved  from  the  com 
mand  about  the  2Oth  of  October,  1863,  and  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  district  of  Missouri  in  January,  1864. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Mexico  in  July,  1868,  but  was 
recalled  a  few  months  later. 

See  "The  Army  of  the  Cumberland;"  TE.NNEV,  "Military  and 
Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  1865. 

Roseingrave,  ro'zin-grav,  ?  (THOMAS,)  an  Irish  mu 
sician,  went  to  Rome  to  study  in  1710.  He  became 
organist  of  the  church  of  Saint  George,  London,  in  1725. 
Died  in  1750. 

Rosel  or  Roesel,  ro'zel,  (AUGUST  JOHANN,)  a  Ger 
man  painter  and  naturalist,  born  near  Arnstadt  in  1705. 
He  received  the  title  of  VON  ROSEN  HOP.  He  published 
a  periodical  on  insects,  with  good  figures,  (4  vols.,  1746 
-61.)  Died  in  1759. 


Roselli,  ro-sel'lee,  or  Rosselli,  (CosiMO,)  an  emi 
nent  Florentine  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1439.  He 
painted  frescos  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome,  which 
gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  pope,  when  among  his 
competitors  were  Perugino  and  Ghirlandaio.  He  suc 
ceeded  by  a  profuse  use  of  gold  and  ultramarine, 
although  he  was  inferior  to  his  competitors.  Di^d 
after  1506. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy;"  BAI.DINUCCI,  "Noti/.ie." 

Roselli  or  Rosselli,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Pagani.  He 
opened  at  Florence  a  school,  in  which  several  able  artists 
were  formed.  Died  in  1650. 

Rosellini,  ros'el-lee'nee  or  ro-sSl-lee'nee,  (Ippoi.rro,) 
CAVALIERE,  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary  and  writer  on 
Egyptian  antiquities,  born  in  August,  1800.  He  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Pisa  in  1824.  In  1827 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  to 
explore  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  assisted  by  six  com 
panions,  some  of  whom  were  artists.  He  cooperated 
with  Champollion,  who  at  the  same  time  was  sent  to 
Egypt  by  the  French  government.  They  returned  in 
1830,  and,  Champollion  having  died  in  18^2,  the  results 
of  their  researches  were  published  by  Rosellini  in  a 
capital  work  entitled  "The  Monuments  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia  Explained  and  Illustrated,"  ("  I  Monument!  dell' 
Egitto  e  della  Nubia,"  etc.,  10  vols.,  1832-40.)  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  universal  history  at  Pisa  in  1840. 
Died  in  June,  1843. 

See  BAKDEI.I.I,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  I.  Rosellini,"  1843: 
G.  I)KI,  "  Biosjrafia  del  Professove  I.  Rosellini,"  1843;  C.  CAVEDONI, 
"  Biografia  d'l.  Rosellini,"  iS4^. 

Rosemonde.     See  ROSAMOND. 

Rosen,  ro'/en,  (FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  a  celebrated 
German  Orientalist  and  philologist,  born  at  Hanover 
on  the  2d  of  September,  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipsic  and  that  of  Berlin,  the  latter  of 
which  he  entered  in  1824.  lie  gave  special  attention 
to  Sanscrit  and  the  Semitic  languages,  and  published  an 
important  work  entitled  "Sanscrit  Roots,"  ("Radices 
Sanscritee,"  1827.)  In  1828  he  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  in  the  University  of  London,  since 
called  University  College.  He  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  Oriental  Translation  Committee,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  the  college 
above  named.  He  wrote  the  articles  relating  to  Oriental 
literature  for  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia."  Among  his 
numerous  publications  is  "  Rig-Vedae  Specimen,"  (1830,) 
and  a  valuable  fragment  of  the  "Rig- Veda,"  "Sanhita 
Liber  primus,  Sanscrite  et  Latine."  (1838,  unfinished.) 
He  died  prematurely  in  September,  1837. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rosen,  (GEORG,  )  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Detmold  in  1821. 

Rosen,  ro'/.en,  (NiKOLAUS,)  a  Swedish  medical  writer, 
born  near  Gothenburg  in  1706.  He  was  ennobled  in 
1762,  and  his  name  was  then  changed  to  ROSENSTEIN. 
Died  in  1773. 

Rosen,  von,  fon  ro'zen,  (GEORGE,)  BARON,  a  Russian 
poet,  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  about  1805,  was  an  inti 
mate  friend  of  Pooshkin.  He  produced,  besides  other 
poems,  "Ivan  the  Terrible,"  (1833,)  and  "Basmanof," 
(1836.)  Died  in  1860. 

Rosenblut,  ro'zen-bloot',  (IL\NS,)  sometimes  called 
RoSENER,  a  German  poet  and  dramatic  writer  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Rosenhof,  von.     See  ROSEL. 

Rosenkranz,  ro'zen-kRants',  (TOHANN  KARL  FRIED- 
RICH,)  professor  of  philosophy  at  Konigsberg,  was  burn 
at  Magdeburg  in  i8o>  lie  published  a  number  of 
works  in  favour  of  Hegel's  philosophy.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "General  History  of  Poetry,"  (3  vols.,  1833,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Hegel,"  (1844.) 

Rosenmuller,  ro'zen -mui'ler,  (  ERNST  FRIEDRICH 
KARL,)  an  eminent  German  Orientalist,  born  near  Hild- 
burghausen  in  1768.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  in  1813  professor  of  Oriental  literature.  !fe 
was  the  author  of  "  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament," 
("Scholia  in  Veins  Testamentum,"  23  vols.,  1788-1835,) 
"Manual  for  the  Literature  of  Biblical  Criticism  and 
Exegesis,"  (4  vols.,  1797-1800,)  "  Institutes  of  the  Arabic 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good:  moo.i 


ROSENMULLER 


1919 


ROSS 


Language,"  ( 1 818,)  and  "  Manual  of  Biblical  Antiquities," 
(4  vols.,  1823.)  Died  at  Leipsic  in  1835. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rosenmiiller,  QOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  distinguished 
anatomist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hess- 
berg  in  1771.  lie  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  at  Leipsic,  and  prosector  at  the  Anatomical 
Theatre.  He  published  several  anatomical  and  scientific 
works.  Died  in  1820. 

Rosenmiiller,  (JOHANN  GKORG,)  a  German  Prot 
estant  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Ummer- 
stadt  in  1736,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen, 
at  Giessen,  and  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "Scholia  in 
Novum  Testamentum,"  (6  vols.,  1777-1807,)  and  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  Interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Books  in  the 
Christian  Church  from  the  Age  of  the  Apostles  to  the 
Restoration  of  Letters,"  (in  Latin,  5  vols.,  1795-1814;) 
also  several  religious  treatises  in  German.  Died  at 
Leipsic  in  1815. 

See  CUR.  Doi.z,  "J.  G.  Rosenmiiller's  Leben,"  1816;  "Biogra 
phic  Universelle." 

Rosenstein.     See  ROSEN,  (NIKOLAUS.) 


Rosmini-Serbati,  ros-mee'nee  se'R-ba'tee,  (ANTO 
NIO,)  an  eminent  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Roveredo  in  1787  or  1797.  He  produced  "  New 
Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Ideas,"  ("II  nuovo  Saggio 
suH'Origine  delle  Idee,"  1830,)  and  propounded  a  new 
system  of  philosophy.  He  wrote  numerous  other  works, 
on  ethics,  theology,  education,  etc.  Died  in  1855. 

SeeV.  GIOEERTI,  "  Degli  Errori  filosofici  di  A.  Rosmini-Serbati," 
Svois.,  1844;  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Rosny,  de.     See  SULLY. 

Rospigliosi.     See  CLEMENT  IX. 

Ross,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born 
about  1570,  became  minister  at  Aberdeen  in  1636.  He 
was  an  adversary  of  the  Covenanters.  Died  in  1639. 

Ross,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1590.  He  was  a  zealous  partisan 
of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  (1642-49.)  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "View  of  All  Religions,"  and 
"  Virgilii  Evangelizantis  Christias,"  (1634.)  Died  in 
1654. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ross,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  teacher, 
born  in^Abercleenshire  in  1699.  He  wrote  "  Helenore, 


Rosenthal,  rp'zen-til',  (FRIEDRICH  CHRISTIAN,)  a    or  the  Fortunate  Shepherdess,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1784. 
German   anatomist  and   writer,  born  at   Greifswalde  in 
1779.     lie  published  several  professional  works.     Died 


See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 
Ross,  (FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS,)  a  Presbyterian  min 


Rosenviiige,  ro'zen-ving'eh,  QANUS  LARS  ANDREAS 
Kolderup — kol'der-dop',)  a  Danish  jurist,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1792.  He  published  "Elements  of 
the  History  of  Danish  Law,"  (1823.) 

Rosetti.     See  ROSSETTI. 


ister,  born  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1796.  '  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  in  1855,  and 
published  "Slavery  ordained  of  God,"  (1857.) 

Ross,  (GEORGE,)  an  American   patriot  and   signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  New  Cas- 


AV^OCUUJ..       occ    l\. »J :•>:•> r.  l  l  l.  *.l»     Tk    I  •  ,-   ^ 

Rosetti,  ro-set'tee,  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  poet,  born  at  '  £  e>  P"'™"'.,™  I73°' „  He  was  a  mem,ber  of  Con&™* * 
Bucharest  (Wallachia)  about  1816.     He  was  democratic  i  l!?^1^."^  f777;__He_was  appointed  jn_I779  a  judge 


or  liberal   in  .politics,  was  exiled  about  ^48,  and  took 

IGIllliG      111      1    tiriS. 

Rosetti,  ro-set'tee,  (DOMENICO,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Venice  about  1690.  He  is  chiefly 
known  as  an  engraver. 

Roshd,  (or  Roshed,)  Ibii.     See  AVERROES. 

Rosier,  n/xe-i',  (  N.,)  a  French  dramatic  author, 
born  in  Paris  about  1805.  Among  his  works  is  a  comedy 


**  ** 


Ross,  (Sir  JAMES  CLARK,)  ADMIRAL,  F.R.S.,  an  emi- 

'Ufl1'    n^nt  English  Arctic  navigator,  born  in  London  in  April, 
''    1800.     He  served  his  uncle,  Sir  John  Ross,  as  midship 
man  in  his  first  voyage  in  search  of  a  Northwest  Passage, 


called  "  Le  Mari  de  ma  Femme,"  (1830. 

Rosin.     See  ROSINUS. 

Rosini,  ro-see'nee,  (CARLO  MARIA,)  an 
archaeologist  and  bishop,  born  at  Naples  in  1748.  He 
deciphered  and  published  some  manuscripts  of  Hercu- 
laneum,  and  wrote  other  works.  Died  in  1836. 

See  PROSPERO  DEI.LA  ROSA,  "Vita  di  C.  M.  Rosini,"  1837. 

Rosini,  (GIOVANNI,)  a  distinguished  Italian  poet  and 


(1818.)  Between' 1819  and  1825  he  made  three  voyages 
under  Captain  E.  Parry.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
Sir  John  Ross's  second  voyage,  (1829-33,)  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  post-captain  in  1834.  In  1839  he 

was   appointed   commander  of  an  expedition  sent  with 

Italian    •  -  —     -  -  — 


two  vessels,  the  Erebus  and  Terror,  to  explore  the  Ant 
arctic  regions  with  special  reference  to  the  science  of 
magnetism.  He  reached  the  seventy-eighth  degree  of 
south  latitude,  and  discovered  an  ice-bound  continent, 
to  which  lie  gave  the  name  of  Victoria  Land,  and  the 
coast  of  which  his  party  traced  for  seven  hundred  miles. 


novelist,  born  at  Lucignanp,  in  Tuscany,  in  1776.  He  |  After  a  highly  successful  voyage  of  four  years,  he  arrived 
was  professor  of  Italian  literature  at  Pisa  from  1803  !  at  England  in  September,  1843.  He  published  a  "Voy- 
until  1849.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Luisa  age  of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the  Southern  and 


Strozzi,"  (4  vols.,  1833,)  "Torquato  Tasso,"  a  drama, 
(1835,)  anci  a  "History  of  Italian  Painting,"  (7  vols., 
1838-54.)  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works 
of  Canova,"  (1825,)  and  published  a  good  edition  of 
Tasso's  works,  (30  vols.,  1820-30.)  Died  in  18.55. 

See  POZZOI.INI,  "Vita  di  G.  Rosini,"  1855;  ALFRED  vox  REI> 
MONT,  "G  Rosini's  Leben,"  1860:  "Biographic  Universelle;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1829. 

Ro-si'nus,  [Ger.  pron.  ro-zee'nus ;  Fr.  ROSIN,  ro'- 
zd.N'',|  (JoH\NN,)  a  German  antiquary,  whose  proper 
name  was  ROSSFELD  or  ROSZFELD,  was  born  at  Eisenach 
in  1551.  He  published  a  "  Complete  Body  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  ("Antiquitatum  Romanorum  Corpus  abso- 
lutissimum,"  1583.)  Died  in  1626. 

Roslin,  ros-leen',  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Swedish  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Malmo  about  1718.  He  worked  for 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  obtained  great  success. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  of  Art  in 
1753.  Died  in  Paris  in  1793. 

Rosmini,  de',  da  ros-mee'nee,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian 
biographer,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1758.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Ovid,"  (1789,)  a  "Life 
of  Seneca,"  (1793,)  a  "  Life  of  Victorino  da  Feltro,"  (4 
vols.,  1801,)  and  a  "History  of  Milan,"  ("  Storia  di  Mi 


lan 


4  vols.,    1820.)      His   works   are  commended  as 


accurate  and  impartial.     Died  at  Milan  in  1827. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  " |  Biografia  degli    Ita'.iani  illustri ;"  A.  M.  ME.NE- 
GHELLI.  "Rosmini  e  sue  Opere,"  1827. 


Antarctic  Regions,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1847.)     He  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1856.     Died  in  1862. 

See  WII.UAM  JERDAX,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  March,  1819,  and  July,  1835;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1819,  July,  1835,  and  June,  1847; 
'•  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1847. 

Ross,  (Sir  JOHN',)  REAR-ADMIRAL,  a  famous  Arctic 
navigator,  born  at  Balsarroch,  (county  of  Wigton,)  Scot 
land,  in  1777,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He  served 
as  an  officer  in  several  naval  actions  against  the  French 
and  Spaniards  between  1800  and  1814.  In  1818  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  first  expedition  sent  to 
search  for  a  Northwest  Passage.  Lieutenant  Parry  was 
the  second  in  command.  lie  passed  through  Baffin's 
Bay  to  Lancaster  Sound,  where  he  imagined  he  saw 
a  barrier  of  mountains  interposed,  and  he  returned 
home  in  the  same  year.  (See  PARRY,  CAPTAIN.)  In 
1829  he  renewed  the  enterprise  in  the  Victory,  entered 
Prince  Regent  Inlet,  and  was  frozen  up  in  the  Gulf  of 
Boothia  in  October,  1829.  His  party  passed  about  four 
years  of  privation  and  peril  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and 
abandoned  the  Victory  in  1832.  Captain  Ross  dis 
covered  in  1831  a  point  which  he  believed  to  be  the 
Northern  Magnetic  Pole.  He  and  his  party  returned 
by  boats  to  Lancaster  Sound,  where  they  were  rescued 
by  a  whaling-vessel,  and  arrived  home  in  September, 
1833.  He  published  in  1835  a  narrative  of  his  second 
voyage.  Died  in  1856. 


-e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROSS 


1920 


ROSSI 


Ross,  written  also  Rouse  and  Rows,  (JoHN,)  known 
as  "the  Antiquary  of  Warwick,"  wrote  "  History  of  the 
Kings  of  England,"  (in  Latin,  1716.)  Died  in  1491. 

Ross,  (JoHN,)  Bishop  of  Exeter,  an  English  writer, 
born  in  Herefordshire.  He  edited  Cicero's  "  Familial- 
Letters,"  ("Epistolas  Familiares,"  1749.)  Died  in  1792. 

Ross,  (JoHN,)  [called  Koo'wes-koo'we  in  the 
Cherokee  language,]  a  noted  half-breed  Indian,  and 
head  chief  of  the  Cherokees,  was  born  in  Georgia  about 
1790;  died  at  Washington  in  1866. 

Ross,  (LEONARD  FULTON,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Fulton  county,  Illinois.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun 
teers  in  1862. 

Ross,  ross,  (LuowiG,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  in 
Holstein  in  1806,  became  in  1837  professor  of  archae 
ology  in  the  Otto  University  at  Athens,  in  Greece.  He 
subsequently  filled  the  same  chair  at  Halle. 

Ross,  (Sir  WILLIAM  CHARLKS,)  R.A.,  a  popular 
English  miniature-painter,  born  in  London  in  June, 
1794,  was  a  nephew  of  Anker  Smith,  the  engraver.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  career  he  painted  history  and  por 
traits.  He  excelled  in  miniature,  and  became  in  this 
department  the  most  fashionable  artist  of  his  time.  In 
1837  he  was  appointed  miniature-painter  to  the  queen. 
He  gained  a  prize  of  ;£ioo  for  a  picture  of  "The  Angel 
Raphael  discoursing  with  Adam,"  (1843.)  Died  in  1860. 

Rossaeus.     See  ROSE,  (GUILLAUME.) 

Rosse,  ross,  (WILLIAM  PARSONS,)  third  EARL  OF,  an 
eminent  English  practical  astronomer,  born  in  June,  1800, 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1831,  and  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  peerage  in  1841.  He  acquired  a  wide 
reputation  by  the  construction  of  a  telescope  which  was 
finished  about  1844  and  is  unrivalled  in  dimensions  and 
space-penetrating  power,  and  by  his  discoveries  in 
sidereal  or  nebular  astronomy.  This  telescope,  which 
has  an  aperture  of  six  feet  and  a  length  of  fifty-six  feet, 
is  located  near  Parsonstown,  Kings  county,  Ireland.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1849. 
Died  in  October,  1867. 

Rossel,  de,  cleh  n/sel',  (ELISABETH  PAUL  EDOUARD,) 
CHKVALIER,  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Sens  in  1765. 
He  accompanied  D'Entrecasteaux  in  his  expedition  in 
search  of  La  Perouse,  and  succeeded  to  the  chief  com 
mand  in  1794.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English 
in  1795, .and  released  about  1802.  In  1809  he  published 
the  "  Voyage  of  D'Entrecasteaux  in  Search  of  La  Pe 
rouse,"  (2  vols.,)  containing  a  good  treatise  on  nautical 
astronomy.  Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rosselli.     See  ROSKLLI. 

Rossellino,  ros-s£l-lee'no,  or  Rossellini,  ros-sel- 
lee'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  whose 
family  name  was  GAMBAKKLLI,  was  born  at  Florence 
about  1427.  Among  his  works  are  several  statues  of 
the  Madonna.  Died  in  1490. 

Rossellino  or  Rossellini,  (BERNARDO,)  an  architect 
and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1409,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Nicholas 
V.,  and  designed  or  restored  several  churches  of  Rome. 
Died  about  1470. 

Rosset,  ro'si',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Saint-Claude  in  1706;  died  in  1786. 

Rossetti,  ros-set/tee,  (CHRISTINA,)  an  English  con 
temporary  poetess,  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel,  noticed 
below,  has  written  "Goblin  Market,"  (1862,)  "The 
Prince's  Progress,"  (1866,)  and  other  works. 

Rossetti,  (DANTE  GABRIEL,)  an  English  painter  and 
poet,  born  in  London  about  1828,  is  a  son  of  Gabriel 
Rossetti,  noticed  below.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
movement  called  Pre-Raphaelitism,  an  attempt  to  revive 
the  style  of  Italian  painters  who  preceded  Raphael.  He 
prefers  religious  subjects,  and  finishes  his  works  with 
great  minuteness.  In  1862  he  produced  "The  Early 
Italian  Poets,  from  Cuillo  d'Alcamo  to  Dante,  (1100-1200 
-1300,)  in  the  Original  Metres,  together  with  Dante's 
'  Vita  Nuova,'  translated  by  D.  G.  Rossetti."  He  pub 
lished  a  volume  of  original  poems  in  1870. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1870;  "  Putnam's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1870. 


Rossetti  or  Rosetti,  (GABRIEL,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
critic,  born  in  1783.  He  became  professor  of  Italian  in 
King's  College,  London,  and  well  known  as  a  commen 
tator  on  Dante.  Died  in  1854. 

Rossetti,  (WILLIAM  M.,)  an  English  writer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London.  He  wrote  an 
article  on  "English  Opinion  on  the  American  War" 
for  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1866.  He 
contributed  to  the  "Imperial  Dictionary  of  Universal 
Biography."  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley,"  (2  vols.,  1869.) 

Rossfeld.     See  ROSINUS. 

Rosshirt,  ros'hee'Rt,  (KONRAD  FRANZ,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1793,  was  professor  of  law 
at  Heidelberg.  He  wrote  a  number  of  legal  works. 

Rossi,  ros'see,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Zoldo  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  master  of  Titian. 

Rossi,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1700;  died  about  1750. 

Rossi,  (FRANCESCO.)     See  SALVIATI. 

Rossi,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  1616.  Among  his  works  are  the 
Palazzo  Rinuccini,  and  the  church  of  San  Pantaleon, 
Rome.  Died  in  1695. 

Rossi,  [Lat.  ERYTHR^E'US,]  (GIOVANNI  VITTORIO,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  noted  as  a  Latinist,  was  born  at  Rome 
in  1577.  Among  his  works  is  "  Pinacotheca  Imaginum 
ilhistrium  Virorum,"  ("  Gallery  of  Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Men,"  1643-48.)  Died  in  1647. 

See  NICEKON,  "Me'moires;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italians." 

Rossi,  (GlROLAMO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Ravenna  in  1539.  His  Latin  name  was  RUBKUS  or 
DE  RUBEIS.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  good  "  History  of 
Ravenna,"  (1^72.)  Died  in  1607. 

Rossi,  ros'see,  (JoHN  CHARLES  FELIX,)  an  English 
sculptor,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1762,  was  of  Italian 
origin.  He  gained  the  gold  medal  at  London  in  1784, 
after  which  he  studied  at  Rome,  and  returned  in  1788. 
He  became  sculptor  to  William  IV.  His  best  works 
are  monuments  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  Lord  Heathfield, 
Captain  Riou,  Captain  Faulkner,  and  Lord  Rodney,  in 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  Died  in  1839. 

Rossi,  (Luu;i,)  an  Italian  musician,  born  at  Naples 
about  1590.  lie  composed  cantatas,  etc.  Died  after 
1640. 

Rossi,  (OiTAVio.)  an  Italian  writer,  born  nt  Brescia 
in  1570.  Among  his  works  is  "  Brescian  Memoirs," 
("  Memorie  Bresciane,"  1616.)  Died  in  1630. 

Rossi,  (PASQUALE.)     See  PASQUALINO. 

Rossi,  (PELLEGRINO  LUIGI  ODOARDO,)  COUNT,  an 
Italian  orator,  minister  of  state,  and  writer  on  law,  was 
born  at  Carrara  in  1787.  As  a  partisan  of  the  French 
regime  and  of  Murat,  he  was  exiled  in  1815.  He  became 
professor  of  Roman  law  at  Geneva  in  1819,  and  estab 
lished  his  reputation  as  a  jurist  by  his  "Treatise  on 
Penal  Law,"  (Paris,  3  vols.,  1825.)  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  College 
de  France,  Paris.  He  was  nominated  a  peer  of  France 
in  1839,  and  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1845.  I'1 
September,  1848,  he  was  appointed  chief  minister  of 
state  by  the  pope.  He  was  assassinated,  November  15, 
1848,  by  his  political  enemies. 

See  J.  GARNIER,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Rossi,"  1849;  HURER- 
SAI.ADIN,  "  M.  Rossi  en  Suisse  de  1816  a  1833,"  1849;  MIGNET, 
"  Noiice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Rossi,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Rossi,  de',  da  ros'see,  fin  Latin,  DE  RU'BEIS,]  (BER 
NARDO  MARIA,)  a  learned  Italian  monk,  born  in  Friuli 
in  1687.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Life, 
Writings,  and  Doctrine  of  Thomas  Aquinas,"  ("  De 
Gestis  et  Scriptis  ac  Doctrina  Thomae  Aquinatis,"  1750.) 
Died  in  1775. 

See  FABRON-I,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 
Rossi,  de',  (GIOVANNI  BERNARDO,)  an  Italian  Ori 
entalist,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1742.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "  Various  Readings  of  the  Old  Testament," 
("  Varias  Lectiones  Veteris  Testament!, "  4  vols.,  1784- 
88.)  He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Parma.  Died  in  1831. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  r.ftt;  good;  moon; 


ROSSI 


1921 


ROSZFELD 


Rossi,  de',  (GIOVANNI  GHEUARDO,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Rome  in  1754.  He  displayed 
imagination,  learning,  and  taste  in  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  several  comedies,  a  "  Life  of  G.  Pi  Ic 
ier,"  (1792,)  and  "Poetical  and  Pictorial  Sports," 
("  Scher/.i  poetici  e  pittorici,"  1795.)  Died  in  1827. 

See  TIPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Rossi,  de',  (PROPER/.IA,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculptor  and 
musician,  born  at  Bologna  about  1490.  Her  master 
piece  is  a  bas-relief  of  "Joseph  rejecting  the  Overtures 
of  Potiphar's  Wife."  She  made  beautiful  cameos  of 
peach-stones.  Died  in  1530. 

Rossi,  de',  (Rosso.)     See  Rosso. 

Rossignol,  ro'sen'yol',  (JEAN  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  He  obtained  command 
of  an  army  sent  against  the  Vendeans  in  1793,  but  was 
removed  for  incapacity  in  1794.  He  was  banished  in 
1801,  and  died  on  the  African  island  of  Anjonan  in  1802. 

Rossignol,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer,  born  in  1726.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works. 
Died  at  Turin  in  1817. 

Rossignol,  (JtAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Sarlat  about  1805.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1853,  and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College 
de  France  in  1855.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
"  Virgile  et  Constantin  le  Grand,"  (1846,)  and  a  Latin 
poem  called  "Scholastic  Life,"  ("Vita  Scholastica," 
1836.) 

Rossini,  ros-see'nee,  (GlOACCHlMO,)  the  most  cele 
brated  composer  of  music  of  the  present  time,  was  born 
at  Pesaro,  in  the  Papal  States,  on  the  291)1  of  February, 
1792.  His  father  was  a  horn-blower,  and  his  mother 
an  actress  or  singer,  in  an  itinerant  opera-company.  He 
received  some  instruction  in  music  from  Padre  Mattei, 
of  Bologna ;  but  he  formed  his  style  chiefly  by  the  study 
of  Mozart  and  Haydn.  In  1812  he  produced  "The 
Fortunate  Deceit,"  ("L'Inganno  felice,")  and  several 
other  operas.  His  first  famous  work  was  the  opera  of 
"Tancredi,"  (1813,)  which,  performed  first  at  Venice, 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  and  announced  the 
advent  of  anew  epoch  in  dramatic  music.  In  1815  he  was 
engaged  for  a  term  of  seven  years  as  musical  director 
of  the  theatre  of  San  Carlo  at  Naples.  He  produced 
many  operas  in  rapid  succession.  In  1816  appeared 
"The  Barber  of  Seville,"  ("II  Barbiere  di  Seviglia,") 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  his  works,  and 
has  been  performed  in  many  languages  and  in  every 
theatre  of  the  civilized  world.  His  "Mose  in  Egitto" 
(1818)  was  performed  with  success.  He  married  Made 
moiselle  Colbran  or  Colbrand,  a  singer,  about  1822, 
and  left  Italy  in  1823.  He  was  director  of  the  Italian 
Opera  in  Pans  from  182410  1830.  In  1829  he  produced 
the  original  and  incomparable  opera  of  "  William  Tell," 
which,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "was  pronounced  by  all  con 
noisseurs  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  works  of  Rossini." 
It  was  also  his  last,  except  the  "  Stabat  Mater,"  (1842.) 
He  resolved  to  compose  no  more,  saying,  "Another 
success  would  add  nothing  to  my  celebrity,  and  a  failure 
might  impair  it."  The  revolution  of  1830  deprived  him 
of  the  office  of  director  or  intendant-general  in  Paris, 
for  which  his  indolence  rendered  him  incompetent.  In 
iS}6  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  resided  for  many  years  at 
Bologna.  After  1855  he  lived  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  November,  1868. 

See  BEYLE,  (or  STENOAHI.,)  "Vie  de  Rossini,"  2  vols.,  1823, 
and  English  version  of  the  same,  1824:  "Life  of  Rossini,"  by  H.  S. 
EDWARDS.  1869;  ADOI.PHE  ADAM,  "Derniers  Souvenirs  d'un  Musi- 
cien,"  1859;  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "M.  Rossini,  par  mi  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842  ;  FE'TIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Mtisiciens  ;"  DR.  HOEFER, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1869. 

Rosslyn,  EARL  OF.     See  WEDDERBURN. 

Ross'lyn,  (JAMES  SAINT  CI.AIR  EKSKINE,)  EARL 
OK,  a  general,  born  about  1762,  was  a  son  of  General 
Harry  Erskine,  and  a  nephew  of  A.  Wedderburn,  Earl 
of  Rosslyn.  He  became  a  major-general  in  1798,  and 
lieutenant-general  in  1805,  after  which  he  served  in 
Portugal,  Holland,  etc.  He  inherited  the  title  of  earl 
in  1805.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
privy  seal.  He  was  president  of  the  council  in  the 
cabinet  of  Peel  from  December,  1834,  to  April,  1835. 
Died  in  1837. 


Rossmassler  or  Rossmaessler,  ross'mSss'ler, 
(EMIL  ADOLF,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1806.  He  has  published  "Iconography  of  the  European 
Land  and  P'resh-Water  Mollusks,"  (with  sixty  plates 
1835.) 

Rosso,  del,  dgl  ros'so,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  archi 
tect,  born  in  Rome  in  1760,  lived  for  many  years  in 
Florence.  He  published  many  works  on  architecture. 
Died  in  1831. 

Rosso,  del,  (PAOLO.)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Flor 
ence,  was  author  of  "Physics,"  ("La  Fisica,"  1578,)  a 
poem.  Died  in  1569. 

Rosso,  II,  el  "ros'so,  or  del  Rosso,  del  ros'so, 
or  Rossi,  (GIOVANNI  BATTLSTA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1496,  was  called  by  the 
French  MAITRE  Roux.  He  studied  the  works  of  Mi 
chael  Angelo.  About  1535  he  went  to  France.  He  was 
patronized  by  Francis  L,  and  adorned  the  palace  of 
Fontainebleau  with  his  works.  His  style  is  remarkably 
bold.  Died  in  France  in  1541. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rossotto,  ros-sot'to,(ANDKEA,)an  Italian  biographer, 
born  at  Mondovi  in  1610,  wrote  "  Index  of  Piedmontese 
Writers,"  ("Syllabus  Scriptorum  Pedemontii,"  1667.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Rost,  rost,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHEI.M  EHRENFRIER,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Buclissin  in  1768.  He 
became  rector  of  the  "Thomasschule"  at  Leipsic,  and 
published  several  critical  works  on  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics.  Died  in  1835. 

Rost,  (JoiiANX  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1717,  published  a  number  of  tales, 
poems,  and  satires.  Died  in  1765. 

Rost,  (VALENTIN  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
lexicographer,  born  near  Gotha  in  1790.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  a  "Greek  Grammar,"  a  "Greek- 
German  Dictionary,"  and  a  "  German-Greek  Dictionary," 
(1832.)  Died  in  1862. 

Rostan,  ros'tSx',  (Louis  LEON,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Maxitnin  (Var)  in  1790.  He  be 
came  professor  of  medicine  in  Paris  in  1833. 

Rostgaard,  de,  deh  rost'goRd  or  rost'gauR,  (FRED 
ERIC,)  a  learned  Danish  writer,  born  at  Kraagerup  in 
1671.  He  held  several  high  civil  offices.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Beauties  of  the  Danish  Poets," 
("Deliciae  Poetarum  Danorum,"  2  vols.,  1693.)  Died 
in  I74> 

See  KRAFT  og  NYERUP,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Rostolan,  de,  deh  ros'to'lfix',  (  Louis,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Aix  in  1791.  He  served  in  several 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Rome  in  1849.  Died  in  1862. 

Rostoptchin,  ros-top-chen'  or  ros-top-cheen',  written 
also  Rastopchin  and  Rostoptschin,  (FEODOR  VASI- 
LIEVITCH,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general,  born  in  the 
province  of  Orel  in  1765.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  for  a  short  time  under  Paul  I.  In  May,  1812,  he 
was  appointed  governor  of 'Moscow.  According  to  the 
French  accounts,  he  was  the  author  of  the  conflagration 
of  that  city.  He  disclaimed  his  responsibility  for  that 
event,  and  affirmed  that  it  was  burned  partly  by  the 
French  and  partly,  perhaps,  by  some  Russians  acting 
without  orders.  He  was  removed  from  the  office  of 
governor  in  1814.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Memoirs  of  Count  Rostoptchin,  written  in  Ten  Min 
utes,"  (in  French,)  and  "Truth  about  the  Burning  of 
Moscow,"  (1823.)  Died  in  1826. 

See  GENERAL  SCARROW,  "Notice  sur  le  Comte  Rostoptchine,'' 
1854;  GLINKA,  "  History  of  Russia,"  (in  Russian;)  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Rosweide  or  Rosweyde,  ros'wi'deh,  (HERIBERT,) 
a  Dutch  Jesuit,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1569.  He  wrote,  be 
sides  other  works,  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers,"  etc.,  ("  Vitae 
Patrum,  sive  Historia  eremitica,"  1615,)  and  planned 
the  "  Acta  Sanctorum,"  which  was  continued  by  Bolland 
and  others.  Died  in  1629. 

See  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Rosweyde.     See  ROSWEIDE. 
Roswitha.     See  HROTSVITHA. 
Roszfeld.     See  ROSINUS. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

121 


anations,  p.  73.) 


ROTA 


1922 


ROU 


Rota,  ro'ta,  (BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Naples  in  1509.  He  wrote  Latin  elegies,  Italian  sonnets 
in  imitation  of  Petrarch,  and  eclogues  of  the  sea,  entitled 
"Piscatorie,"  (1560.)  Died  in  1575. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  ItaMana;"  LONG 
FELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rota,  (MARTIN,)  a  skilful  engraver  and  designer, 
born  at  Sebenico,  in  Dalmatia,  flourished  between  1550 
and  1590.  lie  worked  at  Rome  and  Venice.  He  en 
graved  some  works  of  Titian  and  Raphael,  and  "  The 
Last  Judgment,"  after  Michael  Angelo.  Bryan  says  he  j 
was  born  about  1540. 

Rota,  (ViNCF.NZO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Padua  in 
1703  ;  died  in  1785. 

See  F.  FANZAGO,  "Memorie  intorno  ail'Abbate  V.  Rota,"  1708. 

Rotari,  ro-ta'ree,  (PiKTRO,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Verona  in  1707.  He 
worked  at  Vienna,  Dresden,  and  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  about  1762. 

Rotembourg,  ro'toN'boou',  (  HENRI,  )  BARON,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Phalsbourg  in  1760.  He  served 
with  distinction  at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  with 
the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  in  1812-13.  1^'ed  m  i857- 

Rotgans,  rot'gans  or  rot/Hans,  (LuCAS,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645.  He  wrote 
"The  Life  of  William  III.,"  in  verse,  and  some  other 
poems.  Died  in  1710. 

See  CHALMOT,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek." 

Roth,  rot,  (JOHANN  RUDOLF,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1815,  travelled  in  Syria  and 
Hindostan,  and  subsequently  accompanied  Harris's 
expedition  to  Abyssinia.  lie  contributed  the  botanical, 
geological,  and  zoological  portions  to  "  The  Highlands 
of  Ethiopia,"  published  by  Major  Harris.  He  died  in 
Palestine  in  1858,  while  on  another  journey  to  the  East. 

Roth'a-ris,  King  of  the  Lombards,  began  to  reign 
in  636  A.f>.  He  conquered  Genoa  and  Liguria.  Died 
in  652. 

Rotheliii,  de,  deh  rot'laN',  (CHARLES  D'ORLEANS,) 
ABHE,  a  French  antiquary,  noted  as  a  collector  of  medals 
and  manuscripts,  born  in  Paris  in  1691  ;  died  in  1744. 

Rothenhamer.     See  ROTTF.NHAMMK.R. 

Roth'er-am,  (JoiiN,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  was' born  in  Cumberland.  He  wrote  several 
religious  works.  Died  in  1788. 

Rotheram,  (Toiix,)  an  English  physician,  wrote  a 
"Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Properties 
of  Water."  Died  in  1787. 

Rotherham,  roth'er-am,  alias  Scott,  (THOMAS,) 
Archbishop  of  York,  was  born  in  1423.  He  became  lord 
chancellor  of  England  in  1474.  Died  in  1500. 

Roth'er-mel,  (  PF.TF.R  F.,)  an  eminent  American 
painter,  born  in  Luzerre  county,  Pennsvlvania,  in  1817. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  De  Soto  discover 
ing  the  Mississippi,"  "Columbus  before  Isabella  the 
Catholic,"  "Christabel,"  and  the  "Christian  Martyrs," 
finished  in  the  early  part  of  1864,  and  exhibited  at  the 
great  Sanitary  Fair  held  in  Philadelphia  in  June  and 
July  of  that  year.  This  has  been  greatly  admired,  and 
is  regarded  as  his  master-piece. 

See  TUCKEKMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Roth'say  or  Rothesay,  (DAVID,)  first  DUKE  OF, 
born  in  1378,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Robert  HI.  of  Scot 
land.  He  contracted  profligate  and  disorderly  habits. 
His  uncle  the  Duke  of  Albany  procured  from  the  aged 
king  an  order  for  his  confinement  in  prison,  where  he 
died  in  1402.  It  is  supposed  that  he  died  of  starvation. 

Roth'say,  DUKKOF,  one  of  the  titles  of  Prince  Albert, 
the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 

Rothschild,  ros'child,  [Ger.  pron.  rot'shllt,]  (MAYF.R 
(or  MEYKR)  ANSF.I.M,)  a  famous  Jewish  banker,  and  the 
founder  of  the  great  monetary  house  of  Rothschild,  was 
born  at  Frankfort  in  1743.  He  commenced  business  on 
a  small  scale  as  an  exchange-broker,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  probity.  He  died  in  1812,  leaving 
five  sons, — ANSEI.M,  who  was  born  in  1773,  settled  at 
Frankfort,  and  died  in  1855  ;  SOLOMON,  who  was  born 
in  1774,  became  banker  at  Vienna,  and  died  in  1855; 
NATHAN  MAYKR,  (see  separate  article;)  CARL,  who  was 
born  in  1788,  and  died  at  Naples  in  1855  ;  and  JAMES," 


born  in  1792,  died  in  November,  1868.     These  brothers 
operated  as  members  of  one  firm. 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Maison  Rothschild,"  Paris,  1831. 

Rothschild,  (NATHAN  MAYER  or  MEYKR,)  an  emi 
nent  financier  and  millionaire,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1777.  He  settled  in  London  about  1800,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  father  was  the  head  of  the  house 
of  Rothschild.  He  engaged  in  large  financial  opera 
tions,  was  very  successful  as  negotiator  of  loans  for 
various  European  powers,  and  became  the  foremost 
capitalist  of  the  world.  He  died  in  1836,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  LIONEL  NATHAN,  Baron  de 
Rothschild,  born  in  1808.  Lionel  was  elected  several 
times  a  member  of  Parliament  for  London,  but  was  not 
admitted  to  a  seat  until  1858,  because  the  oath  adminis 
tered  to  members  was  such  as  a  Jew  could  not  take. 

See  TRKSKOW,  "  Riographische  Notizen  liber  Nathan  Meyer 
Rothschild,"  1837;  MICHAUD  et  VIU.KNAVE,  "  Histoire  de  Saint- 
Simonisme  et  de'la  Famille  de  Rothschild,"  1X47. 

Rotrou,  de,  deh  ro'tRoo',  (JEAN,)  a  popular  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Dreux  in  1609,  is  styled  "  the 
founder  of  the  French  theatre."  He  produced  numerous 
successful  tragedies  and  comedies,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  tragedy  of  "Venceslas" 
was  highly  commended  by  Voltaire.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Cosroes"  and  "Antigone."  He  was  a 
friend  of  Corneille,  who  called  Rotrou  his  master.  Died 
in  1650. 

See  HI.IN  DF.  SAINMORE,  "  Kssai  sur  In  Vie  de  J.  Rotrou,"  1805  ; 
NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Genernle." 

Rotscher  or  Roetscher,  rot'sher,  (HEINRICH  THE 
ODORE,)  a  German  dramatic  poet  and  critic,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Brandenburg  in  1804.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Dissertations  on  the  Philosophy  of  Art," 
(4  vols.,  1837-42.) 

Rotteck,  von,  fon  rot'tSk,  (KARL,)  an  eminent  Ger 
man  historian,  statesman,  and  jurist,  born  at  Freiburg 
in  1775.  He  studied  in  his  native  town,  where  he 
became  in  1798  professor  of  history.  In  1819  he  repre 
sented  his  university  in  the  first  chamber  of  the  States 
of  Baden,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  liberal 
views  and  his  eloquent  advocacy  of  political  reform. 
Having  excited  the  hostility  of  the  conservative  party, 
he  was  forbidden  by  the  government  to  edit  any  news 
paper  for  five  years,  and  to  lecture  in  the  university. 
The  persecution  to  which  he  was  exposed  hastened  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1840.  Rotteck's  "  Universal 
History"  (9  vols.,  1827)  is  perhaps  the  most  popular 
work  of  the  kind  that  has  yet  appeared,  and  in  1841 
had  reached  fifteen  editions.  It  was  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe,  and  a  continuation,  in 
two  volumes,  was  published  by  Hermes  in  1841.  Rot 
teck  also  wrote  a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on  legal, 
historical,  and  political  subjects. 

See  MUNCH,  "Carl  von  Rotteck  peschildert,"  etc.,  1831  ;  BROCK- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Life  of  Rotteck,"  (in  German,) 
by  his  son  HERMANN,  1842. 

Rotteiihammer,  rot'ten-ham'mer,  written  also  Ro- 
theiihamer,  (JOHANN,)  a  celebrated  German  painter, 
born  at  Munich  in  1564.  lie  studied  for  a  time  under 
Tintoretto  at  Venice,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome, 
where  he  produced  several  historical  pieces  of  great 
excellence.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Feast 
of  the  Gods,"  painted  for  the  emperor  Rudolph  II. 
Died  about  1620. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Rottmann,  rot'man,  (KARL,)  a  distinguished  Ger 
man  landscape-painter,  born  near  Heidelberg  in  1798. 
He  adorned  with  frescos  the  arcades  of  the  Hofgarten 
at  Munich,  and  painted  several  works  for  the  Pina- 
kothek.  His  "Field  of  Marathon"  is  much  admired. 
Died  in  1850. 

Rou,  roo,  (JEAN,)  a  French  Protestant  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1638,  lived  in  England  and  Holland.  lie 
became  in  1689  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the  States- 
General.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Seduction 
Avoided,"  ("La  Seduction  eluclee,")  a  series  of  letters 
exchanged  between  Bossuet,  on  the  one  hand,  and  De 
Vrillac  and  Rou  on  the  other.  Died  in  1711.  He  left 
"Memoires,"  which  were  first  published  in  2  vols.,  1857. 

See  HAAG,  "  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 


.1,6, 1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ij,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


ROUBAUD 


ROUSSEAU 


Roubaud,  roo'bo',  (PIF.RKE  JOSF.PH  ANDRE.)  a 
Frencli  writer  on  grammar  and  history,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1730.  Among  his  works  is  "New  French 
Synonyms,"  ("Nouveaux  Syflonymes  Francais,"  4  vols., 
1785,)  which  is  commended.  Died  in  1791. 

Roubiliac,  1-oo'be'le-f.k',  sometimes  written  Rou- 
billac,  (L(juis  FRANCOIS,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1695.  He  passed  a  large  part  of  his 
life  in  England,  where  he  worked  with  great  success. 
Among  his  works,  which  are  remarkable  for  minuteness 
of  finish,  are  a  statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  at  Cambridge, 
the  monument  of  the  Nightingale  family,  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  a  statue  of  Shakspeare,  executed  for  Garrick 
and  given  by  him  to  the  British  Museum.  Died  in  Lon 
don  in  1762. 

See  ALLAN  CUNNINGHAM,  "Lives  of  Painters,"  etc.  ;  WALFOLE, 
"Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Roubiliac.     See  ROUBILIAC. 

Roucher,  roo'sha',  QEAN  ANTOINE,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1745.  He  published  a  poem  en 
titled  "On  the  Months,"  ("Des  Mois,"  1779.)  He  was 
imprisoned  in  Paris  for  seven  months,  and  guillotined, 
with  his  friend  Andre  Chenier,  in  July,  1794. 

See  RIGAUD,  ''filoge  de  Roucher,"  iSoj  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rouelle,  roo'el',  (GUILLAUME  FRAxgois,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  near  Caen  in  1703,  was  the  father-in-law 
of  J.  Darcet.  The  celebrated  Lavoisier  was  one  of  his 
pupils.  lie  contributed  greatly  to  popularize  chemistry 
by  his  lectures  in  Paris,  and  exerted,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  a 
great  influence  on  the  progress  of  that  science.  He  was 
professor  or  demonstrateur  at  the  Jarclin  du  Roi.  Died 
in  17/0. 

See  "  Biographie  Universeile  ;"  PAUL  ANTOINE  CAP,  "  Biogra 
phic  Chimique  ;  Rouelle,"  1842;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
HOEFER,  "Histoire  de  laChimie." 

Rouelle,  (HII.AIRE  MARIX,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  1718,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  in  1768  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi.  Died  in  1779. 

Rouge,  de,  deh  roo'zha',  (OLIVIER  CHARLES  CA- 
MILI.E,)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  an  Egyptologist,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1853.  Among  his  works 
is  "Chrestomathie  figyptienne."  lie  became  professor 
of  Egyptian  archaeology,  etc.  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1860. 

Rouget,  roo'zhi',  (GEORGES,)  a  PYench  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Rouget  de  Lisle,  (or  Delisle,)  roo'zhi'  deh  lei, 
(Ci.AUOE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  poet  and  musician,  born  at 
Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1760.  He  was  an  officer  of  engineers 
in  the  army  when  the  Revolution  began.  Just  after  the 
declaration  of  war  in  April,  1792,  he  dined  with  the 
mayor  of  Strasbourg,  where  a  wish  was  expressed  that 
some  poetical  inspiration  might  respond  to,  or  appeal 
to,  the  national  enthusiasm.  In  the  ensuing  evening 
he  composed  for  this  purpose  the  famous  war-song 
called  the  "Marseillaise."  He  was  imprisoned  during 
the  reign  of  terror,  and  wounded  at  Quiberon,  in  1795. 
T  fe  was  author  of  numerous  ballads,  musical  airs,  etc. 
Died  near  Paris  in  1836. 

See  LONGKF.LLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Eurone;"  MIRAMONT, 
"Biographic  de  Rouget-Delisle,"  1842;  FELIX  PYAT,  "La  Mar 
seillaise,  avec  line  Notice  litteraire  sur  Rouget-Delisle,"  1842; 
"  XouveUe  Biographic  Generale." 

Rougier,  roo'zhe-i',  (Louis  AUGUSTF,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1793.  He  published 
several  valuable  medical  works.  Died  in  1863. 

Rougier  de  la  Bergerie,  roo'zhe-i'  deh  IS  beRzh're', 
(|F.AX  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was 
born  at  Beaulieu  in  1757.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "  French  Georgics,"  a  poem,  (2  vols.,  1804,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Ancient  Agriculture  of  the  Romans," 
(1834.)  Died  in  1836. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rougnon,  roon'y6N',  (NICOLAS  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1727;  died 
in  1799. 

Rouher,  roo'i',  (EUGENE,)  an  eloquent  French  ad 
vocate  and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Riom  in  1814. 


Having  made  profession  of  republican  principles,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848.  He  suc 
ceeded  Odillon-Barrot  as  minister  of  justice  in  October, 
1849,  a"d  retired  from  office  in  October,  1851.  He  was 
afterwards  vice-president  of  the  council  of  state,  and  in 
February,  1855,  was  appointed  minister  of  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  public  works.  In  June,  1863,  he  ex 
changed  that  office  for  the  position  of  president  of  the 
council.  He  became  minister  of  state  October  19,  1863, 
and  as  such  had  precedence  of  all  the  other  ministers. 
In  January  or  February,  1867,  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  finance.  Rouher  was  the  chief  organ  of  the  govern 
ment  in  the  corps  legislatif.  In  April,  1867,  he  made 
a  rather  passionate  speech  in  reply  to  Thiers  on  the 
foreign  policy  of  Napoleon  III.  In  July,  1869,  he  ceased 
to  be  minister  of  state,  and  became  president  of  the 
senate,  which  was  abolished  in  September,  1870. 

Rouille,  roo'ya',  (PIERRE,)  Seigneur  de  Marbeuf,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1657.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Portugal  in  1697,  and  negotiated 
a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  between 
France  and  that  power.  In  1709  he  was  sent  to  Holland 
to  treat  secretly  for  a  general  peace ;  but  he  failed  in 
this  mission.  Died  in  1712. 

Rouille,  (PIERRE  JULIEX,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Tours  in  1681.  He  was  one  of  the  authors  or  compilers 
of  the  "Memoires  de  Trevoux."  Died  in  1740. 

Roujoux,  de,  deh  roo'zhoo',  (PRUDEXCE  GUIL- 
LAUME,)  BARON,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lander- 
neau  in  1779.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
translation  of  Lingard's  "  History  of  England,"  (14 
vols.,  1825-31.)  Died  in  1836. 

Rouland,  roo'lSx',  (GusTAVE,)  a  French  minister 
of  state,  born  at  Yvetot  in  1802.  He  was  appointed 
advocate-general  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1847,  and 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  and  worship  from 
August,  1856,  to  June,  1863. 

Roulin,  roo'la.\',  (FRAXC.OIS  DESIRE,)  a  French  nat 
uralist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1796.  He  contributed  to 
several  scientific  journals,  and  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  a  new  edition  of  Cuvier's  "  Regne  animal." 

Roullet,  roo'li',  (JEAN  Louis,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Aries  in  1645.  He  engraved  after  the  Italian 
masters.  Died  in  Paris  in  1699. 

Roulliard,  roo'le-SR',  (SEBASTIEN,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  pedantic  writer,  was  born  at  Melun.  He  died  in 
Paris,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  1639. 

Rouquette,  roo'ket',  (ADRIAN,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  New  Orleans  about  1808,  has  published  poems 
in  French  and  English.  His  brother,  Francois  Domi 
nique,  has  written  a  work  on  the  Choctaw  nation,  and  a 
number  of  poems. 
Rourik.  See  RURIK. 

Rous  or  Rouse,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  republican 
legislator  and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  at  Hal  ton 
in  1579.  lie  was  a  friend  of  Pym,  the  great  orator,  and 
was  a  member  of  several  Parliaments.  He  became  a 
supporter  of  Cromwell,  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords  in  1657.  Died  in  1659. 
Rouse,  (JOHN.)  See  Ross, 

Roussat,  roo'st',  (JEAX,)  a  French  patriot,  born  at 
Langres  in  1543,  was  noted  for  his  devotion  to  Henry 
IV.  and  his  hostility  to  the  League.  Eighty  letters 
written  to  him  by  that  king  are  extant,  and  were  printed 
in  1816.  Died  in  1613. 

Rousseau,  roo'sd',  (GEORG  LunwiG  CLAUDE,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  near  Wiirzbunr  in  1724,  was 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Ingolstadt.  Died  in  1794. 

Rousseau,  roo'so',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1630,  was  a  Protestant.  He 
worked  some  years  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles  and 
Saint-Cloud  ;  but  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes  (1685)  he  went  into  exile.  Died  in  London  in 
1693  or  1694. 

Rousseau,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  lyric  poet  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  April, 
1670.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  by  whom  he 
was  liberally  educated.  His  first  productions  were  come 
dies,  which  were  not  successful.  About  1698  he  served 
Marshal  Tallard  as  secretary  in  his  embassy  to  London. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  odes,  sacred  and  pro- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


ROUSSEAU 


1924 


ROUSSEAU 


fane,  epigrams,  and  cantatas.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1701.  He  made  many 
enemies  by  his  satires  and  couplets.  In  1712  he  was 
banished  for  life  for  anonymous  satires  against  La  Motte 
and  Saurin.  It  seems  that  he  was  convicted  on  circum 
stantial  evidence  only,  lie  passed  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  exile  at  Brussels,  Vienna,  London,  etc.,  and  found 
powerful  patrons,  among  whom  was  Prince  Eugene. 
About  1717  he  declined  the  offer  of  a  pardon  from  the 
French  court,  and  insisted  on  a  formal  recognition  of 
the  injustice  of  his  sentence.  He  died  at  Brussels  in 
March,  1741.  By  some  critics  he  is  considered  the 
greatest  lyric  poet  of  France.  According  to  the  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale,"  his  reputation  has  declined 
since  the  eighteenth  century.  "  Rousseau  is  extremely- 
skilful  in  versification,"  says  Fournel,  "a  very  adroit 
artisan  of  lyrical  strophes.  It  was  by  calculation  and 
not  by  inspiration  that  he  became  a  lyrical  poet."  ("  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  SEGUY,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  CEnvres  de  J.  B.  Rous 
seau,"  1743;  AMAK-DURIVIER,  "  Nouvel  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
ficrits  de  j.  B.  Rousseau,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  5  vo's.,  iS2o; 
"  Vie  de  J.  B.  Rousseau,"  1748,  attributed  to  VOLTAIRK  ;  VAI.MONT 
BOUREY,  "  J.  15.  Rousseau  ;  Etude  litteraire,"  1852  ;  SAINTE-BKUVK, 
"  Portraits  litteraires." 

Rousseau,  (JEAN  FKANC.OIS  XAVIER,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Ispahan  in  1738.  He  was  consul 
at  Bagdad,  and  was  employed  in  negotiations  with  the 
Persian  court.  Died  at  Aleppo  in  1808. 

His  son,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  Louis  JACQUES,  born  in 
1780,  was  an  Orientalist.  He  wrote  a  "Historical 
Notice  of  Persia,"  (1818,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Tripoli  in  1831. 

Rousseau,  (JEAN  JACQUES,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  phi 
losopher  and  eloquent  writer,  born  at  Geneva  on  the  28th 
of  June,  1712,  was  a  son  of  Isaac  Rousseau,  a  watch 
maker.  His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Bernard, 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  amiable  and  highly  gifted, 
died  during  the  infancy  of  the  subject  of  this  article, 
who  was  not  fortunate  in  his  education.  His  favourite 
author  in  childhood  was  Plutarch,  to  whose  influence 
Rousseau  ascribed  his  own  republican  tendencies  and  his 
love  of  independence.  Jean  Jacques  had  one  brother, 
who  in  early  youth  went  to  seek  his  fortune  in  a  foreign 
country  and  was  never  heard  of  afterwards.  In  conse 
quence  of  a  quarrel  with  a  military  officer,  Isaac  Rous 
seau  fled  or  removed  to  Nyon  in  1722,  leaving  his  son  at 
Geneva  in  the  care  of  his  uncle,  M.  Bernard.  About 
1726  he  was  placed  as  an  apprentice  with  an  engraver, 
named  Ducommun,  a  coarse  man  and  harsh  master,  by 
whom  he  was  so  ill  treated  that  in  March,  1728,  he  ran 
away  in  the  direction  o(  Savoy.  He  was  received  as  a 
guest  at  the  house  of  Madame  de  Warens,  of  Annecy,  a 
benevolent  and  frail  lady,  to  whom  he  formed  a  lasting 
attachment.  Having  become  an  outcast  and  wanderer 
in  a  strange  country  and  without  resources,  he  changed 
his  relig'on  by  a  formal  abjuration  at  Turin.  He  was 
employed  for  a  short  time  at  Turin  as  a  servant  of  the 
Countess  de  Vercellis  and  the  Count  de  Gouvon  ;  but  his 
success  was  hindered  by  irregular  habits  and  instability. 
He  returned  and  became  a  second  time  an  inmate  in 
the  house  of  Madame  de  Warens,  who  procured  for 
him  a  situation  as  clerk  in  the  bureau  of  the  cadastre. 
Finding  this  employment  uncongenial,  he  soon  aban 
doned  it,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  a  teacher  of 
music,  (of  which  he  was  very  fond,)  although  he  was 
scarcely  qualified  to  teach  it.  He  obtained,  however,  a 
number  of  pupils. 

In  the  summer  of  1736  Rousseau  and  Madame  de 
Warens  removed  to  a  rural  residence  called  Charmettes, 
near  Chambery,  where  they  passed  two  or  three  years, 
which,  he  informs  us,  were  among  the  happiest  of  his 
life.  His  early  career  presents  a  series  of  bizarre  ad 
ventures,  absurd  vagaries,  and  surprising  vicissitudes,  of 
which  he  has  given  an  extremely  candid  and  unreserved 
narrative  in  his  "  Confessions."  He  was  subject  to  hy 
pochondria  and  morbid  imaginations  even  in  his  youth. 
Having  invented  a  system  of  musical  notation  by  figures, 
(chiffres,)  which  he  hoped  would  promote  his  interest 
and  reputation,  he  went  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1741, 
with  only  a  few  silver  coins  in  his  purse.  He  was 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  by  Reaumur,  and 


read  a  memoir  on  his  system  of  notation  to  that  body, 
which  decided  that  it  was  neither  new  nor  practicable. 
He  lived  in  great  indigence  until  he  obtained,  in  1743, 
the  place  of  secretary  to  M.  de  Montaigu,  French 
ambassador  to  Venice,  whom  Rousseau  represents  as  an 
incompetent  and  villanous  person.  After  he  had  passed 
about  eighteen  months  at  Venice,  Rousseau  returned 
to  Paris  in  1745,  and  formed  intimacies  with  Diderot, 
Grimm,  Madame  d'fipinay,  and  Therese  Le  Vasseur. 
The  last  was  an  illiterate  woman,  of  low  birth,  whom  he 
married  after  they  had  lived  together  as  husband  and 
wife  for  many  years.  They  had  five  children,  whom 
Rousseau  sent  to  the  foundling-hospital.  He  received 
a  small  legacy  from  his  father,  who  died  in  1747,  after 
which  he  served  as  secretary  to  Madame  Dupin  of  Paris, 
and  her  son,  M.  de  Francueil,  receiver-general  of  finances. 
In  1750  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Dijon  for  an  essay  on  the  question  whether  the  progress 
of  the  sciences  and  arts  had  contributed  to  corrupt 
morals.  He  took  the  affirmative ;  and  never  was  a 
paradox  supported  with  greater  eloquence. 

Rousseau's  physical  infirmities,  his  fondness  for  para 
dox,  and  his  hostility  to  conventional  maxims  and  usurp 
ation,  combined  to  render  him  eccentric  and  singular 
in  his  manners  and  mode  of  living.  He  simplified  his 
costume,  renounced  fashionable  and  convivial  parties, 
and  affected  a  stern  and  sententious  tune.  According 
to  his  own  confession,  a  peculiar  contempt  for  the  riches 
and  pleasures  of  the  world  was  one  of  the  prominent 
traits  of  his  character.  About  1750  he  was  appointed 
cashier  to  M.  de  Francueil ;  but  he  soon  resigned  that 
place,  because  it  seemed  fatal  to  his  health  and  incom 
patible  with  his  principles, — "  for  with  what  grace  could 
the  cashier  of  a  receiver-general  preach  disinterest 
edness  and  poverty?"  He  afterwards  earned  a  scanty 
subsistence  by  copying  music.  In  1752  he  produced 
his  opera  "  Le  Devin  du  Village,"  which  was  performed 
before  the  king  at  Fontainebleau  and  had  a  great  success. 
The  king  expressed  a  wish  to  see  the  author ;  but  the 
timidity  of  Rousseau  caused  him  to  decline  the  honour. 

He  produced  in  1753  a  "Discourse  on  the  Origin  of 
Inequality  among  Men,"  in  which  he  maintains  that  all 
men  are  born  equal.  "  He  was  the  father  of  modern 
democracy,"  says  Professor  Lowell,  in  the  "North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1867.  "and  without  him 
our  Declaration  of  Independence  would  have  wanted 
some  of  those  sentences  in  which  the  immemorial  long 
ings  of  the  poor  and  the  dreams  of  solitary  enthusiasts 
were  at  last  affirmed  as  axioms  in  the  manifesto  of  a 
nation,  so  that  all  the  world  might  hear."  He  offended 
the  national  vanity  by  his  "  Letter  on  French  Music," 
(1753,)  but  in  many  respects  he  was  a  typical  French 
man.  In  1754  he  visited  Geneva,  where  he  was  received 
with  honour  and  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Prot 
estant  communion.  He  passed  seven  days  in  a  tour  or 
promenade,  by  means  of  a  boat,  around  Lake  Geneva. 

In  1756  he  was  persuaded  by  Madame  d'Kpinay  to 
occupy  the  Hermitage,  a  rural  residence  which  she 
built  for  him  in  the  valley  of  Montmorency,  near  Paris. 
He  resided  there  about  two  years,  and  began  to  write  a 
novel  entitled  "  Julie,  or  the  New  Heloise,"  ("  Nouvelle 
Heloise,"  1760,)  which  was  greatly  admired  for  its  elo 
quence  and  sensibility.  Before  this  work  was  finished 
he  became  enamoured  of  Madame  d'Houdetot,  who  was 
a  sister  of  Madame  d'Epinay  and  was  a  married  woman. 
He  was  alienated  from  Diderot,  Grimm,  and  other  friends, 
whom  he  accused  of  perfidious  intrigues  against  his  peace 
and  reputation.  "  It  was  not  so  much  my  literary  celebrity 
as  my  personal  reformation  that  excited  their  jealousy. 
They  could  not  pardon  me  for  giving,  in  my  conduct,  an 
example  which  seemed  to  testify  against  them."  (Rous 
seau,  "  Confessions.")  It  appears  certain  that  Grimm 
became  a  malevolent  calumniator  of  Rousseau.  His 
next  important  works  were  "The  Social  Contract," 
("  Du  Contrat  social,  on  Principes  du  Droit  politique," 
1762,)  and  "fimile,  ou  de  rEducation,"  (4  vols.,  1762,) 
which,  considered  as  a  speculative  philosophical  treatise, 
is  a  work  of  a  high  order.  It  produced  some  useful  re 
forms  in  the  treatment  of  young  children  ;  but  its  tend 
ency  was  considered  so  dangerous  that  it  was  burned  at 
Geneva,  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  issued  an  order  for 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


ROUSSEAU 


1925 


ROUX 


the  arrest  of  Rousseau,  who  escaped  by  flight.   He  found 
refuge  in  the  principality  of  Neufchite),  the  governor  of 
which,  Lord  Keith,  received  him  with  kindness.   In  1765 
David  Hume,  who  was  then  in  Fiance,  offered  the  exiled 
author  of  "  Emile"  an  asylum  in  England.     Rousseau 
accepted  the  invitation,  arrived  in  London  in  January, 
1766,  and  went  to  reside  at  Wootton,  in   Staffordshire. 
He  was  annoyed  by  an  offensive  and  libellous  letter  pub 
lished  in  the  journals  with  the  signature  of  the  King  of 
Prussia;  but  the  real  author  of  it  was  Horace  Walpole. 
Having  become  possessed  by  a  suspicion  that  Hume 
was  not  his  true  friend,  he  returned  to  France  in  May, 
i  767.     It  is  stated  by  M.  Morin   in  the  "  Nouvelle    Bio 
graphic  Generale"  that  Hume  avowed,  in  a  letter  pub 
lished  in  1820,  that  he  co-operated    in  the  redaction  of 
the  forged  letter  from  the  King  of  Prussia.      Rousseau 
married  Therese   Le  Vassetir  in  1768,  resided  in   Paris 
from  1770  until  1778,  and  was  always  on    the  verge  of 
poverty.     Among  his  later  works  were  a  "  Dictionary  of 
Music,"  (1767,)  and  his  autobiographic  "Confessions," 
which  he  began  to  write  about  1766  and  which  were  not 
published  before  1782.     Botany  was  one  of  his  favourite 
pursuits  when  in  the  country.     In  the  spring  of  1778  he 
removed  to  Ermenonville,  where  he  died  on  the  2d  of 
July  in  the  same  year.     He  was  a  man  of  middle  stature 
and  well  proportioned.     "It  was  perhaps  his  sensibility 
to  the  surrounding  atmosphere  of  feeling  and  specula 
tion  which  made  Rousseau  more  directly  influential  on 
contemporary  thought  (or  perhaps  we  should  say  senti 
ment)  than  any  other  writer  of  his  time."    ("  Rousseau 
and    the    Sentimentalists,"    in    the    "  Xorth    American 
Review"  for  July,  1867,  written   by  Professor   Lowell.) 
The  same  critic  observes,   "There   was  a  faith  and  nn 
ardour  of  conviction  in   him  that  distinguish  him  from 
most  of  the  writers  of  his  time.     Nor  were  his  practice 
and  his  preaching  always  inconsistent.     He  contrived  to 
pay  regularly,   whatever   his   own    circumstances  were, 
one  hundred  livres  a  year  to  a  maternal  aunt  who  had 
been  kind  to  him  in  childhood."      "  Though  I  see,"  says 
I  lume,  "  some  tincture  of  extravagance  in  all  his  writings, 
I   also   think    I   see  so  much    eloquence    and    force   of 
imagination,   such   an   energy   of  expression,  and    such 
a    boldness  of  conception,  as    entitle    him    to    a    place 
amongst  the  first  writers  of  his  age."     (Quoted  in  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  BARRURI.-BBAUVERT,  "Vie  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  1789;  HEN-- 
NMNT.S,  "Rousseau,"  Berlin,  1797;  MUSSET-PATIIAV.  "  Histoire  de 
la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  2  vols.,  1821  ;  LORD 
BROUGHAM,  "Voltaire  and  Rousseau,"  1X45:  (',.  H.  MOKIV,  '•  Es- 
sa!  surla  Vie  et  le  Caractere  de  T.  J.  Rousseau."  1851  :  P.  H.  AZAI'S 
"Jugement  pliilosophique  sur  j.  j.  Rousseau."  etc.,  1^17;  ZOI.I.KK, 
"  Pestaloz/i  und  Rousseau,"  1851:  SAINTE-BEUVE.  "  Causeries  du 
Lundi  ;"  BROCKERHOFF,  "J.  f.  Rousseau,"  {in  German,)  3  vols., 
iSfis:  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  MRS. 
SHELLEY  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  :"'  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  February.  1822;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1843:  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1859  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1822,  (by  A.  H.  EVERETT.) 

Rousseau,  (Louis  FRANCOIS  EMMANUEL,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Belleville  (Seine)  in  1788. 

Rousseau,  roo'so',  (LovELL  H.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Lincoln  county,  Kentucky,  about  1820.  He  was  a 
lawyer,  and  a  resident  of  Louisville  before  the  civil  war. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  Shiloh, 
April,  1862,  and  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  became  a  member 
of  Congress  about  1865.  Died  in  January,  1869. 

Rousseau,  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  about  1808.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1848. 

Rousseau,  (SAMUF.I.,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born 
in  London  in  1765.  He  published  "The  Flowers  of 
Persian  Literature,  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (iSoi,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1820. 

Rousseau,  (THEODORE,)  an  excellent  French  land 
scape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  He  gained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1849.  His  works  are  commended 
for  harmony  of  colour  and  for  the  transparency  of  the 
skies.  Died  in  1867. 

Roussel,  roo'sSK,  [Lat.  RU'FUS,]  (GERARD,)  written 
also  Ruffi,  a  French  Protestant  Reformer,  born  near 
Amiens.  He  became  in  1526  chaplain  to  Marguerite,  a 
sister  of  Francis  I.,  and  in  1536  Bishop  of  Oleron.  He 


wished    to   propagate    Reformed    doctrines   without    a 
separation  from  the  old  Church.     Died  in  1550. 

See  CH.  SCHMIDT,  "Gerard  Roussel,"  1845;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Roussel,  (GuiLLAUMF.,)  a  French  Benedictine  and 
writer,  born  at  Conches  in  1658.  He  produced  a  French 
version  of  the  "Letters  of  Saint  Jerome,"  (3  vols.,  1704- 
07.)  Died  in  1717. 

Roussel,  (HENRI  PIERRE  ANSELME,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  near  Domfront  in  1748;  died  at 
Caen  in  1812. 

Roussel,  (NAPOLEON,)  a  French  Protestant  minister, 
born  about  1805.  He  preached  for  many  years  at  Saint- 
Etienne,  from  which  he  removed  to  Paris.  He  published 
numerous  works  on  theology. 

Roussel,    (PIERRE,)   a   French   physician    and   able 
writer,  born  at  Aqs,  near  Foix,  in  1742.     He  produced 
in  1775  "The  Physical  and  Moral   System  of  Woman," 
;  which   passed   through   many  editions.      He    explained 
j  the    organization    of    woman    with    great    penetration 
j  and  subtlety.     "  Roussel  writes  with  elegance  and   in 
terest,"  says   La   Harpe :    "his    observations   are  truly 
philosophic."     Died  in  1802. 

See  AI.IBERT,  "  filoges  de  Spallanzani,  Galvani,  Roussel  et 
Bichat,"  1806;  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Rousselet.     See  CHATEAU-REGNAUD. 

Rousselin.     See  SAINT-ALBIN. 

Rousselot  de  Surgy,  roos'lo'  deh  su'R'zhe', 
(JACQUES  PHILIBERT,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Di 
jon  in  1737,  obtained  the  office  of  royal  censor  at  Paris. 

Rousset  de  Missy,  roo'si'  deh'  me'se',  (TEAM,)  a 
French  historical  writer,  born  at  Laon  in  1686,  was 
exiled  for  his  religion  (Protestantism)  and  settled  in 
Holland  about  1705.'  He  published  numerous  mediocre 
works,  among  which  are  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of 
Peter  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1726.)  Died  in  1762. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Roussin.roo'saN',  (ALBIN  REINE,)  BARON,  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Dijon  in  1781.  He  was  ambassador  at 
Constantinople  from  1832  to  1839,  and  was  minister  of 
marine  from  March  to  October,  1840.  Died  in  1854. 

Roustain,  roo'stax',  (  ARON  JEAN  BAPTISTE  PIERRE,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  Roman  law  in  Paris  in  1855.  Died  in  1856. 

Roustam.     See  ROOSTAM. 

Roustan,  roo'stSN',  (originally  Roustain,  roos'tam,) 
a  Mameluke,  born  probably  in  Georgia  in  1782.  Having 
rendered  some  service  to  Napoleon  in  Egypt,  the  latter 
brought  him  to  France  in  1799.  Roostan  became  a 
favourite  personal  attendant  of  Napoleon,  and  accom 
panied  him  in  his  campaigns  and  journeys.  Died  in 
France  in  1845. 

Roustan,  roo'stSN',  (ANTOINE  JACQUES,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1734. 
He  was  minister  of  a  Swiss  church  in  London  for  twenty- 
six  years,  (1764-90.)  He  was  author  of  several  religious 
and  moral  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed,  and  of 
an  "Abridgment  of  Universal  History,"  (9  vols.,  1790.) 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1808. 

Roustem.     See  ROOSTAM. 

Routh,  rowth,  (Rev.  MARTIN  JOSEPH,)  an  English 
scholar  and  writer,  born  near  Beccles,  in  Suffolk,  in  Sep 
tember,  1755,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became 
president  of  Magdalene  College  in  1791,  and  rector  of 
Tylehurst,  near  Reading,  in  1810.  In  1814  he  published 
a  work  of  superior  merit  on  the  fragments  of  authors 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries,  most  of  whose  writ 
ings  are  lost,  entitled  "Sacred  Relics,"  etc.,  ("Reliquiae 
Sacrae,"  etc.,  3  vols.)  Died  in  1854,  aged  ninety-nine. 

Rouviere,  roo've-aiR',  (PHILIBERT,)  a  French  painter 
and  actor,  born  at  Nimes  in  1809. 

Roux,  roo,  (AuousTiN,)  a  learned  French  physician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1726,  settled  in  Paris  about  1750. 
He  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine  in  1770,  and  published  "Typographic  Annals; 
or,  Account  of  the  Progress  of  Human  Knowledge," 
("Annales  typographiques,  ou  Notice  du  Progres  des 
Connaissances  humaines,"  10  vols.,  1758-62,)  which  is  a 
work  of  merit.  Died  in  1776. 

See  J.  DARCET,  "  E"loge  de  Roux,"  1777. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROUX 


1926 


ROT 


Roux,  ([OSEPH  PHILIBERT,)  an  eminent  French  sur 
geon,  born  at  Auxerre  in  April,  1780,  was  a  favourite 
pupil  of  Bichat.  He  published  in  1812  a  "Treatise  on 
Resection,"  ("Traite  sur  la  Resection,")  and  invented 
in  1819  an  operation  called  Staphyloraphy.  In  1820  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  pathology  at  the  ficole  de  Mede- 
cine  in  Paris,  and  in  1835  succeeded  Dupuytren  at  the 
Hotel-Dieu.  He  was  author  of  several  surgical  treatises. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  SACIIAII.E,  "  Les  Me'decins  de  Paris;"  "Biographic  Medi- 
cale  ;"  MAI.GAIGNE,  "  filoge  de  M.  Roux,"  1855;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Roux,  MA!TRE.     See  Rosso,  IT,. 

Roux  de  Fazillac,  roo  deli  ft'ze'yfk',  (PIERRE,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Excideuil  in  1743.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  War 
in  Germany  in  1756,"  (2  vols.,  1803.)  Died  in  1833. 

Roux-Lavergne,  roo  It've'Rn',  (PIKRRE  CELESTIN,) 
a  French  publicist,  born  at  Figeac  in  1802.  He  aided 
M.  Buchez  in  the  "Parliamentary  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (40  vols.,  1833-38.) 

Roux.  La.     See  LEROUX. 

Rovelli,  ro-veyiee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  MARQUIS,  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Como  in  1738.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Como,"  (5  vols.,  1789  ef  sey.)  Died  in  1813. 

Rovere,  de  la.     See  SIXTUS  IV.  and  JULIUS  II. 

Rovere  della,  del'la  ro'vi-ra,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,) 
Duke  of  Urbino,  an  Italian  general,  born  in  1490, 
was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Julius  II.  He  commanded  the 
papal  army,  and  took  several  towns  from  the  French,  in 
It;i2.  Having  been  appointed  captain-general  of  the 
Venetian  armies  about  1526,  he  displayed  great  military 
skill  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.  Died  in  1538. 

See  DENNISTOUN,  "Memoirs  of  the  Dukes  of  Urbino,"  iRji  ; 
UGOI.INI,  "Storia  del  Conti  e  Duclii  d'Urbino,"  2  vols.,  1859; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Rovere,  della,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  born  in  1548, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  was  eminent  as  a 
patron  of  learning.  He  was  the  last  Duke  of  Urbino. 
He  died  in  1631,  when  Urbino  was  annexed  to  the  Papal 
States. 

See  UGOI.INI,  "Storia  dei  Conti  e  Duchi  d'Urbino,"  1859. 

Rovigo,  de,  Due.     See  SAVARY. 

Row,  ro,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  near  Stirling 
about  1526.  He  was  agent  of  the  Scottish  clergy  at  the 
Vatican,  Rome,  in  1550,  and  afterwards  became  a  Prot 
estant  minister.  He  was  one  of  the  six  ministers  who 
composed  the  Scottish  Confession  and  "  First  Book  of 
Discipline."  Died  in  1580. 

Row,  (fonN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Perth  in  1568.  It  is  stated  that  he  could  read  the  Old 
Testament  in  Hebrew  at  the  age  of  seven.  He  was 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Carnock  for  about  fifty  years, 
and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  from  1558 
to  1637."  Died  in  1646. 

Row,  (ToilN,)  a  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Carnock 
about  1598,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a 
Covenanter  in  the  civil  war,  and,  while  Cromwell  was 
in  power,  held  the  office  of  principal  of  King's  College, 
Aberdeen.  lie  published  a  Hebresv  Grammar  in  1644. 
Died  about  1672. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rowan,  ro'an,  (STEPHEN  C.,)  a  rear-admiral,  born  in 
Ireland.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  early  yont!\ 
and  entered  the  navy  in  1826.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
commander  about  1855.  In  February,  1862,  he  defeated 
and  destroyed  six  gunboats  near  Elizabeth  City,  North 
Carolina.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which  co-operated 
with  General  Burnside  in  the  capture  of  Newbern, 
March  14,  1862.  In  July,  1863,  Captain  Rowan  took 
command  of  the  New  Ironsides,  which  performed  a 
prominent  part  in  the  operations  against  the  defences 
of  Charleston  harbour,  August-September,  1863.  It  is 
stated  that  the  New  Ironsides  was  hit  ninety-four  times 
in  the  actions  of  September  7  and  8.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  July,  1866,  and  that  of  vice- 
admiral  in  1870. 

See  J.  T.  HEADI.KY,  "  Farragnt  and  our  Naval  Commanders. " 

Rowe,  ro,  (El. iz  \BKTH  SINGER,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  at  llchester  in  1674,  became  in  1709  the  wife  of 


Thomas  Rowe,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  several  works, 
in  prose  and  verse,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Friendship 
in  Death,"  (1728.)  Died  in  1737.  J^e^l^,^'^'"^-^  " 

Rowe,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Little  Beckford,  in  Bedfordshire,  in  1673.  He  studied 
law  in  the  Middle  Temple,  but  did  not  practise.  In 
1698  he  produced  "The  Ambitious  Step-Mother,"  and 
in  1702  the  tragedy  of  "Tamerlane,"  which  was  very 
popular.  His  other  chief  works  are  "The  Fair  Penitent," 
(1703,)  "Ulysses,"  (1706,)  "The  Royal  Convert,"  (1708,) 
"Jane  Shore,"  (1714,)  and  "Lady  Jane  Grey,"  (1715.) 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  three  years  while 
the  Duke  of  Queensberry  was  secretary  of  state.  Rowe 
produced  a  version  of  Lucan's  "  Pharsalia,"  which  was 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  an  edition  of  Shikspeare's 
works,  with  a  life  of  the  author,  (1709.)  He  became 
poet-laureate  in  1714.  Died  in  1718. 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  B  \KFU.  "  l!:o- 
praphia  Dramatics  ;"  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  Mriiish  Poets  ;" 
ALLIHONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Rowe,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet  and  historian, 
born  in  1687,  married  Elizabeth  Singer,  an  authoress. 
He  wrote  a  Supplement  to  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1728.) 
Died  in  1715. 

Rowe,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  Devonshire,  wrote  "The  Christian's  Work." 
Died  about  1698. 

Row'lands,  (HENRY,)  a  Welsh  antiquary,  born  in 
Anglesey.  He  published  an  account  of  that  island, 
called  "Mona  Restored,"  ("  Mona  Restaurata.")  Died 
in  1722. 

Row'laiid-son,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  artist,  noted 
as  a  caricaturist,  was  born  in  London  in  1756.  Among 
his  works  are  the  plates  of  "Doctor  Syntax."  Died 
in  1827. 

Rowley,  row'le,  (Sir  Jos  IAS,)  a  British  admiral,  born 
in  Ireland  in  176^  ;  died  in  1842. 

Rowley,  row'le,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  dramatist, 
who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  and  was  a 
contemporary  of  Shakspeare.  Among  his  plays  are 
a  "  Match  at' Midnight,"  and  "The  Birth  of  Merlin." 

Rowley,  (Wn.i.iAM,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  174^,  wrote  "New  School  of  Universal  Medi 
cine."  ( "  Schola  Medicinae  universalis  nova,"  1793.) 
Died  in  1806. 

Row'ning,  (Rev.  JOHN',)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  1699.  He  wrote  on  philosophy  and  mathe 
matics.  Died  in  1771. 

Rox-a'na,  |  Fr.  ROXANE,  rok'stn',]  a  beautiful  Bac- 
trian  or  Persian  princess,  was  captured  by  the  Macedo 
nians  in  327  li.c.  Soon  after  this  date  she  became  the 
wife  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She  had  a  son,  Alexander, 
(born  in  323,)  who  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  heirs 
of  the  king.  She  procured  the  death  of  Statira,  one 
of  the  wives  of  Alexander,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
Cassander  in  311  B.C. 

See  JUSTIN,  books  xii.-xv.  ;  ARKIAN,  "Anabasis,"  books  iv.,  vi., 
and  vii. 

Roxane.     See  ROXANA. 

Roxas.     See  ROJAS. 

Roxas  or  Rojas,  de,  da  ro'iias,  (DOMINGO,)  a 
Spanish  Protestant,  was  originally  a  Dominican  monk. 
Having  been  condemned  to  death  by  the  Inquisition, 
he  was  burned  at  an  auto  de  fe  in  Valladolid  in  1559. 

See  PRRSCOTT,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Roxburgh,  DUKK  OF.  See  KER,  (JoiiN.) 
Roxburgh,  rox'biir-eh,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  bota 
nist,  born  in  Scotland  in  1759,  was  employed  for  many 
years  as  a  physician  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company.  He  introduced  the  culture  of  coffee,  the 
nutmeg,  the  breadfruit-tree,  etc.  into  India.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  of  Calcutta  from 
1793  to  1814.  His  chief  works  are  entitled  "Coroinan- 
del  Plants,"  and  "Flora  Indica,"  (3  vols.,  1832.)  Died 
in  1815. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Roy,  Rwa,  (ANTOINE,)  COUNT,  a  French  financier 
and  legislator,  born  at  Saviguy  (Haute-Marne)  in  1764. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1815,  and  was  minister  of  finance  from  November, 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROT 


1927 


ROZIERE 


1819,  to  December,  1821.  lie  obtained  the  same  office 
in  [.'tnuary,  1828,  and  resigned  in  August,  1829.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Roy,  (PIERRE  CHARLES,)  a  French  dramatic  poet  of 
little  merit,  born  in  Paris  in  1683  ;  died  in  1764. 

Roy,  (R.VMMOHUN.)     See  RAMMOHUN  ROY. 

Roy,  (Major-General  WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  a  British 
surveyor,  who  acquired  distinction  by  a  trigonometrical 
survey  of  Great  Britain.  lie  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1785  for  his  measurement  of  a  base  on  Ilounslovv 
Heath.  Redirected  the  triangulation  by  which  a  portion 
of  the  British  arc  of  the  meridian  was  measured  in  1788. 
He  wrote  "The  Military  Antiquities  of  the  Romans  in 
North  Britain,"  (1793.)  Died  in  1790. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Roy,  de,  deh  Rwa,  [-Lat.  RE'GIUS,]  (HENRI,)  a  Dutch 
writer  on  medicine  and  philosophy,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1598.  He  published  "  Principles  of  Physics,"  ("  Funda- 
nienta  Physices,"  1648,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1679. 

Roy,  de,  (JE.\\  BAPTISTS,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  land 
scape  and  cattle,  born  at  Brussels  in  1759;  died  in  1839. 

Roy,  lie.     See  LE  ROY,  (JULIEX  DAVID.) 

Roy,  Le,  leh  kwa,  [Lat.  RE'GIUS,]  (Louis,)  a  French 
scholar,  who  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Paris  in 
1570.  He.  wrote  a  "Life  of  Budaeus."  Died  in  1577. 

Roye,  de,  deh  Rwa,  (Guv,)  a  French  prelate,  born 
near  Soissons  about  1345.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Rheiins,  and  founded  the  College  of  Rheims  at  Paris. 
Died  in  1409. 

Royen,  vail,  vtn  roy'en,  (ADRIAN,)  a  Dutch  botanist, 
born  in  1705.  He  succeeded  Boerhaave  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Leyden,  and  published  "  Floras  Leidensis  Pro- 
dromus."  (1740.)  Died  in  1779. 

Royer,  Rwa'ya',  (  ALPHONSE,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  produced,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Constable  Bourbon,"  (2  vols.,  1838,)  "  Don 
Pasquale,"  an  opera,  (1843,)  "The  janissaries,"  (2  vols., 
1844,)  and  several  comedies. 

Royer,  Kwa'ya',  (Louis,)  a  Belgian  or  Dutch  sculptor, 
born  at  Malines  in  1793.  He  became  director  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Amsterdam. 

Royer,  de,  deh  Rwa'ya',  (PAUL  HENRI  ERNEST,)  a 
French  minister  of  state,  born  about  1808.  He  studied 
law,  and  became  a  partisan  of  Napoleon  III.,  who  ap 
pointed  him  procureur-general  to  the  court  of  cassation 
in  1853,  and  minister  of  justice  in  November,  1857. 

Royer-Coliard,  Rwa'ya'  ko'l^K',  (ALBERT  PAUL,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  eminent  statesman  of  that  name.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  the  law  of  nations  in  Paris  in  1829. 

Royer-Collard,  (  ANTOINE  ATHANASE,  )  an  able 
French  physician,  born  at  Sompuis  in  1768,  was  a 
brother  of  Pierre  Paul,  noticed  below.  He  founded  in 
1803  the  "  Bibliotheque  Medicale,"  a  periodical.  In 
1806  lie  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  institution  for 
the  insane  at  Charenton.  He  became  professor  of  legal 
medicine  in  Paris  in  1816,  and  physician-in-ordinary 
to  Louis  XVIII.  He  wrote  some  able  treatises  on 
insanity,  etc.  Died  in  1825. 

See  PHILIPPE,  "  Royer-Collard,"  1861  ;  "Biographie  Medicale;" 
"  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Royer-Collard,  (Hii'i'OLYTE  Louis,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  in  Paris  in  1802,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  succeeded  Desgenettes  as  professor  of  hygiene  in 
1838.  Died  in  1850. 

See  BOUCHARDOT,  "filoges  de  Royer-Collard  et  d'A.  Richard," 
1853. 

Royer-Collard,  (PIERRE  PAUL,)  an  eminent  French 
philosopher  and  statesman,  born  at  Sompuis  (Marne)  on 
the  2ist  of  June,  1763.  His  father's  family  name  was 
Royer,  to  which  he  joined  the  name  of  his  wife,  Mademoi 
selle  Collard.  He  chose  the  profession  of  an  advocate, 
and  favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  but 
was  always  a  moderate  royalist.  From  1790  to  1792  he 
acted  as  a  clerk  ( '  secretaire-greffier )  of  the  municipality 
of  Paris.  He  retired  for  safety  to  the  country  in  June, 
1793,  and  remained  in  privacy  during  the  reign  of  terror. 
About  1810  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  LTniversity  of  France.  He  adopted  an  eclectic  sys 
tem  of  philosophy,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  school 


called  the  Doctrinaire.  His  system  of  philosophy  is  the 
same  as  the  Spiritualism  of  Reid.  Jouffroy  and  Cousin 
were  his  most  eminent  disciples. 

In  1815  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  commission 
of  public  instruction,  and  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  in  which  he  supported  liberal  measures.  He 
preferred  a  moderate  and  middle  course  between  that 
of  the  ultra-royalists  and  that  of  the  Bonapartists  and 
democrats.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1827,  and  was  elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1828.  In  1830  he  presented  to  Charles  X. 
the  address  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  deputies 
who  protested  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
court.  He  died  in  September,  1845,  leaving  a  fair  repu 
tation  for  integrity,  firmness,  and  civic  virtues.  His  last 
words  were,  "There  is  nothing  solid  or  substantial  in 
this  world  except  religious  ideas." 

See  BARAXTE,  "Vie  politique  de  Royer-Collard,"  2  vo's.,  1861  ; 
PHIUPPK,  "Royer-Collard,"  1861  ;  DE  REMUSAT,  "Eloge  de 
Royer-Collard;"  M.  DE  LACOMBE,  ''Vie  de  Royer-Collard,"  1863: 
GKNTV  JJE  HUSSY,  "  Memoires  sur  Royer-Collard  ;"  L.  DE  LOMENIE, 
"  M.  Royer-Collard,  par  un  Homine  de  Rien,"  1842;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate  ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1863. 

Royle,  roil,  (JoiiN  FORBES,)  M.D.,  an  English  bota 
nist,  born  at  Cawnpore  about  1799.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  as  assistant  surgeon.  He  made  a  large  collec 
tion  of  the  plants  of  Hindustan.  Having  returned  to 
England  about  1831,  he  published  an  important  work 
entitled  "  Illustrations  of  the  Botany  and  other  Branches 
of  Natural  History  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,"  (2  vols., 
1839.)  He  was  professor  of  materia  inedica  in  King's 
College,  London,  and  published  a  "Manual  of  Materia 
Medica."  Died  near  London  in  1858. 

Royou,  Rwa'yoo',  (JACQUES  COKENTIX,)  a  French 
historian  and  advocate,  born  at  Quimper  about  1745. 
He  published  a  "  Roman  History,"  (4  vols.,  1806,)  a 
"  History  of  France,"  (6  vols.,  1819,)  and  other  histories  ; 
also  the  "  Fault- Finder,"  ("  Frondeur,")  a  comedy, 
(1819.)  Died  in  1828. 

Royou,  (THOMAS  MAURICE,)  ABBE,  a  journalist,  born 
at  Quimper  about  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  College  Louis-le- 
Grand  for  twenty  years,  and  editor  of  the  "  Ami  du  Roi," 
a  royalist  journal  of  Paris,  (1790-92.)  Died  in  1792. 

Roze,  roz,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  philanthropist  of 
Marseilles,  born  in  1671,  was  a  merchant  in  his  youth. 
His  name  was  rendered  memorable  by  his  devoted  and 
courageous  conduct  during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague 
at  Marseilles  in  1720.  Died  in  1733. 

Roze,  (NICOLAS,)  ABBE,  a  French  composer  of  sacred 
music,  born  at  Bourg-Neuf  in  1745.  He  was  appointed 
maitre  de  chapelle  to  the  First  Consul,  but  declined  the 
office  because  he  was  an  ecclesiastic.  Died  in  1819. 

Rozee,  ro'za',  MADEMOISELLE,  a  Dutch  artist,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1632.  She  produced  landscapes,  portraits, 
etc.  embroidered  with  silk  floss.  Died  in  1682. 

Rozet,  ro'zV,  (CLAUDE  ANTOINE,)  a  French  geolo 
gist,  born  at  Chauvart  (Marne)  in  1798.  lie  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Travels  in  Algeria,"  (3  vols., 
1833.)  Died  in  1858. 

Rozier,  ro'ze-a',  (FRANgois,)  ABBE,  a  French  bota 
nist  and  writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Lyons  in  1734. 
He  edited  at  Paris  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  for  ten 
years,  (1771-80.)  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise  on 
agriculture,  "Cours  complet  d'Agriculture  theoriquc  et 
pratique, "(9  vols.,  1781-93,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  killed  in  his  house  by  a  bomb  during  the  siege 
of  Lyons,  in  September,  1793. 

See  A.  DE  BOISSIEU,  "  filo^e  de  F.  Rozier,"  1832;  COCHARD, 
"Notice  histonque  sur  M.  1'Abbe  F.  Rozier,"  1832;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Roziere,  de  la,  deh  It  ro'ze-aiR',  (Louis  FRAN 
gois  Carlet — kaVLV,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general 
and  writer  on  military  tactics,  was  born  near  Cliarleville 
in  1735.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  with 
distinction,  became  marechal-de-camp  in  1781,  and 
emigrated  in  1791,  after  which  he  fought  against  the 
French  republic.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Campaign  of  the  Prince  of  Conde  in  Flanders  in  1674," 
(1765.)  Died  at  Lisbon  in  1808. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


t:  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^';  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JjJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROZOI 


1928 


RUCHRATH 


Rozoi,  de,  deh  ro'zwi',  (BARNAKE  FARMAIN,  )  a 
mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was 
a  royalist  in  the  Revolution.  He  was  guillotined  in 
1792. 

Rozoir,  du.     See  Du  ROZOIR. 

Rualdus.     See  RUAULT. 

Ruar,  roo'ir,  [Lat.  RUA'RUS,]  (MARTIN,)  a  learned 
German  controversial  writer,  born  in  Holstein  in  1588, 
was  a  Protestant  minister.  Died  near  Dantzic  in  1657. 
"His  'Epistles,'"  says  Hallain,  "  throw  much  light  on 
the  theological  opinions  of  the  age.''  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ruarus.     See  RUAR. 

Ruault,  rii'o',  [Lat.  RUAI/DUS,]  (JEAN,)  a  French 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Coutances  about  1575.  He  was 
twice  elected  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  he 
became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the  College  Royal 
in  1629.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  Plutarch, 
(1624.)  Died  in  1636. 

Rubbi,  roob'bee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
mediocre  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1738.  He  edited 
"  Parnasso  Italiano,"  (56  vols.,  1784-91,)  which  is  a  col 
lection  of  Italian  poetry.  Among  his  best  works  is  a 
"Dictionary  of  Sacred  and  Profane  Antiquities,"  (16 
vols.,  1793-1805.)  Died  in  1817. 

See  TIPALDO,  "  I'iografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Rubeis  or  Rubeus.     See  Rossi. 

Ruben,  the  French  of  RKUBKN,  which  see. 

Ruben,  roo'ben,  (CHRISTOPH,)  director  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Arts  at  Vienna,  was  born  at  Treves  in  1805.  He 
studied  painting  under  Cornelius. 

Rubens,  roo'benz,  [Fr.  pron.  rii'bSN',]  (ALBERT,)  an 
antiquary,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1614,  was  a  son  of  the 
great  painter.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Clothing  Material 
of  the  Ancients,"  ("  De  Re  Vestiaria  Veterum,"  1665,) 
which  was  edited  by  Graevius.  Died  in  1657. 

Rubens,  (PETER  PAUL,)  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Flemish  painters,  was  born  at  Siegen  (not,  as  often  stated, 
at  Cologne)  in  1577.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  in 
May  and  on  the  2gth  of  June.  lie  was  the  son  of  John 
Rubens,  a  lawyer,  and  Mary  Pypeling,  both  natives  of 
Antwerp,  to  which,  after  the  death  of  John  Rubens,  his 
widow  returned  with  her  children  in  1587.  His  early 
masters  in  art  were  A.  van  Noort  and  Otto  van  Veen, 
(or  Otto  Venius.)  In  1600  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
passed  about  eight  years  at  Venice,  Mantua,  Rome, 
Florence,  and  Genoa,  and  painted  numerous  works. 
He  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1608,  was  appointed  court 
painter  to  the  archduke  Albert,  and  married  Isabelle 
Brant  or  Brandt  in  1609.  Soon  after  this  date  he  pro 
duced  his  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  is  con 
sidered  by  many  his  master-piece  and  is  now  in  the 
cathedral  of  Antwerp.  He  rose  rapidly  to  fame  and 
affluence,  and  was  employed  in  diplomatic  missions  by 
the  Flemish  court.  In  1629  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  England,  where  he  painted  for  Charles  I.  the  alle 
gorical  picture  of  "War  and  Peace."  lie  succeeded 
in  his  mission,  the  object  of  which  was  to  restore  peace 
between  England  and  Spain.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  he  married  Helena  Forman  or  Fourment,  (1630,) 
who  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age.  He  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1630  from  Charles  I.  of 
England,  and  also  from  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  was 
simple  and  temperate  in  his  habits.  Rising  early,  he 
went  in  the  morning  to  church  to  hear  mass.  In  the 
evening  he  often  took  a  ride  on  horseback. 

Rubens  painted  history,  portraits,  landscapes,  and  ani 
mals  with  equal  success,  lie  was  a  magnificent  colorist, 
was  unsurpassed  in  technical  skill  and  facility  of  execu 
tion,  but  was  deficient  in  a  taste  for  form.  Among  his 
famous  productions  are  "The  Last  Judgment,"  at  Mu 
nich,  "  The  Battle  of  the  Amazons,"  "  The  Rape  of  the 
Sabines,"  and  "  The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  London.  It 
is  stated  that  the  gallery  of  Munich  contains  no  less  than 
ninety-five  of  his  works.  He  died  at  Antwerp  in  May, 
1640.  His  principal  pupils  were  Van  Dyck,  Jordaens, 
Van  Thulden,  Diepenbeck,  and  Quellyn.  "  Rubens," 
says  Ruskin,  "was  an  honourable  and  entirely  well- 
intentioned  man.  He  is  a  healthy,  worthy,  kind-hearted, 
courtly-phrased — Animal, —  without  any  clearly  per 


ceptible  traces  of  a  soul,  except  when  he  paints  chil 
dren.  .  .  .  We  saw  how  Veronese  painted  himself  and 
his  family  as  worshipping  the  Madonna.  Rubens  also 
painted  himself  and  his  family  in  an  equally  elaborate 
piece.  But  they  are  not  worshipping  the  Madonna : 
they  are  performing  the  Madonna  and  her  saintly 
entourage."  ("  Modern  Painters.") 

See  A.  VAN  HASSKI.T,  "Histoire  tie  Rubens,"  1840;  G.  AI.YIN, 
"Vie  de  Rubens,"  1840;  WAAGKN,  "P.  P.  Rubens,  sein  Leben  und 
Genius,"  iS^o.Ctranslated  into  English  by  R.  R.  NOEL  ;)  A.  MICHIEI.S, 
"Rubenset  1'Ecole  d'Anvers,"  1854;  G.  PLANCHK,  "  Rubens,  sa  Vie 
et  ses  CEuvres,"  1854  :  A.  SIRF.T,  "  Raphael  et  Rubens,"  1849;  W. 
NOEL  SAINSBURY,  "Original  Unpublished  Papers  illustrative  of  the 
Life  of  Sir  Peter  Paul  Rubens,'*  185(1 ;  WIKKTZ,  "P.  P.  Rubens," 
1840;  MICHEL,  "  Histoire  de  Rubens,"  1771  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  1'or  January,  1841,  and  January, 
1863. 

Rubens,  (PHILIP,)  a  Flemish  philologist,  born  at 
Cologne  in  1574,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He- 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  the  senate  of  Antwerp 
in  1609.  Died  in  1611. 

Rubini,  roo-bee'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  popu 
lar  Italian  vocalist,  born  at  Romano,  near  Bergamo,  in 
1795.  "e  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London. 
He  was  reputed  the  first  Italian  tenor  of  his  time.  Died 
in  1854. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rubini,  (PiETKO,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  at 
Parma  in  1760.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Parma. 
Died  in  1819. 

Rubio,  roo'be-o,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Rome  in  1797.  He  settled  at  Geneva  about 

I8.S7- 

Rubruquis,  de,  deh  ru'biui'kess',  (  GUILT.AUME,  ) 
sometimes  called  De  Ruysbroek  (rois'brook)  or  Rys- 
bruck,  (ns'l)Rook,)  a  mediaeval  traveller  and  missionary, 
born  in  Brabant  about  1220  or  1230.  In  1253  he  and 
two  other  friars  were  sent  to  Tartary  by  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  who  charged  them  to  propagate  Christianity 
among  the  Tartars,  to  search  for  Prester  John,  and  to 
visit  Sartach,  a  Tartar  chief  who  was  reported  to  be  a 
Christian.  Rubruquis  performed  this  arduous  enterprise 
bravely,  and,  returning  through  Persia  and  Asia  Minor, 
reached  home  in  August,  1255.  He  wrote  a  narrative, 
in  which  the  Caspian  Sea  is  correctly  described. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rucellai,  roo-chel-11',  |  Lat.  ORICEI.LA'RIUS,]  (BER 
NARDO,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Florence  in  1449.  He  married  Nannina,  a  sister  of 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  the  Platonic  Academy.  His  chief  work  is  entitled 
"On  the  City  of  Rome,"  ("De  Urbe  Roma,")  written 
in  elegant  Latin.  Died  in  1514. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rucellai,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent  poet,  born  at 
Florence  in  1475,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a 
cousin-german  to  Pope  Leo  X.  lie  wrote  "  Rosmunda," 
a  drama,  (1525,)  and  a  poem  on  bees,  ("  Le  Api,")  which 
is  regarded  as  his  finest  production.  It  was  printed  in 
1539.  He  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  France  by  Leo  X. 
Died  in  1525. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  GINGUKNR,  "Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie." 

Ruchat,  rii'sha"',  (ABRAHAM,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
about  1680,  taught  theology  at  the  Academy  of  Lau 
sanne.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  Reformation 
of  Switzerland,  1516-56,"  (6  vols.,  1727-40.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Ruchel,  von,  fon  rooK/el,  (ERNST  FRIEDRICH  Wi'.- 
HK.LM,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1/54. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Jena,  (1806.) 
Died  in  1823. 

Ruchrath,  rooic'rSt,  (called  JOHANN  von  Wcsel — 
fon  wa'zel,)  a  German  Reformer,  born  at  Ober-Wesel, 
on  the  Rhine,  about  1410.  He  became  a  professor  of 
divinity  at  Erfurt,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Worms 
for  seventeen  years.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  against 
Indulgences,"  and  a  work  "Concerning  the  Authority, 
Duty,  and  Power  of  Pastors."  He  was  accused  of 
heresy,  tried  before  the  Inquisition  in  1479,  and,  to 
escape  death  or  torture,  recanted.  Died  in  1481. 

See  HODGSON,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 


a, e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  mS :;  n6:;  good;  moon; 


R UCKER T 


1929 


RUDOLPH 


Riickert,  ruVkert,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  popular  German 
lyric  poet  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Schweinfurt  in 
1789.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  in  1818  visited  Rome. 
In  1826  he  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Erlangen.  His  "German  Poems"  came  out  in  1814, 
and  were  followed  by  "Napoleon;  a  Political  Comedy," 
(1816,)  "The  Crown  of  the  Time,"  (1817,)  and  "Eastern 
Roses,"  (1822.)  He  also  published  "  Legends  and  Tales 
of  the  East,"  (1837,)  "Brahman  Tales,"  (1839,)  and  a 
translation  of  Hareeree's  (Hariri's)  "  Makamat,"  under 
the  title  of  "  Metamorphoses  of  Abu-Seid."  His  poems 
are  remarkable  for  beauty  of  versification  as  well  as  the 
great  variety  of  forms  of  which  he  is  a  master,  and  he 
resembles  in  glowing  fancy  and  inventive  power  the 
Eastern  poets  whom  he  made  his  study.  He  was  pro 
fessor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  from  1840  to  1849. 
]  )ied  in  1860. 

See  LONG  FBI.  i.ow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  July,  1866;  G.  PFIZKR,  "Uhiand  und  Riickert; 
kritischer  Versueh,"  1837;  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Riickert,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  historian,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Coburg  in  1823.  He  pub 
lished  "Annals  of  German  History,"  (1850,)  and  other 
works. 

Rudbeck,  rood'bek,  [Lat.  RUDBECK'IUS,]  (JOHAN,) 
a  learned  and  meritorious  Swedish  prelate  and  Re 
former,  born  at  Oerebro  about  1580.  He  was  chaplain 
to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  Bishop  of  Westeras.  Died 
in  1646. 

Rudbeck,  [Lat.  RUDBECK'IUS,]  (OLAUS  or  OLAF,) 
an  eminent  Swedish  anatomist  and  botanist,  born  at 
Westeras  in  1630,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  dis 
covered  the  lymphatic  vessels  about  1650,  after  which 
he  became  professor  at  Upsal.  His  principal  works  are 
'•  Atlantica,"  (4  vols.,  1675-98.)  in  which,  with  great 
learning  and  ingenuity,  he  maintains  that  Sweden  is  the 
"Atlantis"  of  Plato,  and  a  botanical  treatise  called 
"  Elysian  Fields,"  ("  Campi  Elysii,"  2  vols.,  1701.)  He 
was  remarkable  for  versatility  and  activity  of  mind. 
The  genus  Rudbeckia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1702. 

See  XICERON',  "  Memoires ;"  S  \x,  "  Onnmasticon ;"  "  Biogra- 
phiskt-Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Rudbeck,  (OLAUS,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  naturalist  and 
philologist,  born  at  Upsal  in  1660,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  botany 
and  anatomy  at  Upsal,  and  published  some  works  on 
botany,  etc.  He  assisted  his  father  in  writing  the 
"Campi  Elysii."  Died  in  1740. 

See  C.  R.  BERCH,  "  Olaus  Rudbeck's  Lefvernesbeskrifning," 
1798. 

Rudberg,  rood'beug,  (FKEDRIK,)  a  Swedish  natu 
ral  philosopher,  born  at  Norrkjoping  in  1800.  He 
became  professor  of  physics  at  Upsal  about  1828.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  able  treatises  on  phi 
losophy,  and  ascertained  the  rate  of  the  expansion  of  air 
by  heat.  Died  in  1839. 

Rud'borne  or  Rod'burne,  (THOMAS,)  an  English 
prelate  and  skilful  architect.  lie  was  chaplain  to  Henry 
V.,  and  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1433.  He 
built  the  tower  and  gateway  of  Merton  College,  Oxford. 
Died  about  1442. 

Rudder,  de,  deh  rii'daiR',  (Louis  HENRI,)  a  French 
painter  of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  second  class  in  1848. 

Rud'di-maii,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  Scottish  gram 
marian  and  critic,  born  in  the  parish  of  Boyndie,  county 
of  Banff,  in  October,  1674,  was  educated  at  King's  Col 
lege,  Aberdeen.  He  published  in  1714  his  "  Rudiments 
of  the  Latin  Tongue,"  a  popular  school-book.  Among 
his  other  works  is  "  Institutes  of  Latin  Grammar," 
("  Grammaticas  Latinae  Institutiones,"  1725-32.)  Died 
in  1757. 

See  GEORGE  CHALMERS.  "  L;!e  of  Ruddiman,"  1794;  CHAMBERS, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Imminent  Scotsmen." 

Rude,  riid,  (FRAxqois,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1784.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1812  to 
pursue  his  studies,  and  returned  to  Paris  about  1827. 
He  adorned  with  some  figures  the  Arc  de  1'fitoile  at 
Paris.  At  the  Exposition  of  1855  he  gained  the  grand 
medal  of  honour.  Among  his  works  are  a  marble 


statue  of  Joan  of  Arc  in  the  Luxembourg,  and  bronze 
statues  of  Monge  and  Marshal  Ney.     Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Rude,  sa  Vie,  ses  QEuvres,"  etc.,  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1856  ; 
"Biographic  Universelle." 

Rudel,  rii'clel',  (GEOFFROI,)  a  French  poet  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  Prince  of  Blaye 
and  a  favourite  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rudelbach,  roo'del-baK',  (ANDREAS,)  a  Danish  the 
ologian,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1792.  He  published 
a  number  of  dogmatic  works,  in  which  he  advocates  the 
orthodox  Lutheran  creed.  He  became  superintendent 
at  Glanchau,  Saxony,  in  1829.  Died  in  1862. 

Riidiger,  ru'dic-er,  (FEODOR  VASILIEVITCH,)  COUNT, 
a  Russian  general,  born  about  1790.  He  commanded  a 
division  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  in  1828,  and  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Poles  in  1831.  Having  obtained 
command  of  a  corps-d'armee  in  the  Hungarian  war,  he 
defeated  Gorgei,  who  surrendered  to  him  at^VUagos  in 
August,  1849.  Died  in  1856. 

Ru'ding,  (Rev.  ROGERS,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
numismatist,  born  at  Leicester  in  1751.  He  became 
vicar  of  Maldon,  in  Surrey,  in  1793.  He  published  an 
important  work,  entitled  "  Annals  of  the  Coinage  of 
Britain  and  its  Dependencies,"  (4  vols.,  1817.)  Died 
in  1820. 

Rudolf.     See  RUDOLPH. 

Rudolph  or  Rudolf  OF  EMS,  a  mediaeval  German 
poet  or  minnesinger,  born  in  Switzerland,  flourished 
between  1220  and  1250.  His  works  are  highly  extolled 
by  so'.ne  critics. 

'Ru'dolph  (or  Ru'dolf)  [Lat.  RUDOL'PHUS  ;  It.  Ri- 
DOLFO,  re-dol'fo]  OF  HABSIHIRG,  |Fr.  RODOLPHE  DE 
HABSBOURG,  n/dolf  deh  hibs'booR',]  Emperor  of  Ger 
many,  and  founder  of  the  Austrian  empire,  was  born  in 
1218.  He  was  the  son  of  Albert  IV.,  Count  of  Habs 
burg,  and  at  an  early  age  fought  under  Frederick  II.  in 
Italy.  In  1255  he  assisted  Ottocar,  King  of  Bohemia, 
in  his  crusade  against  the  pagans  of  Prussia.  On  the 
j  death  of  his  father,  in  1240,  he  had  succeeded  to  his 
possessions,  and  was  involved  in  many  contests  with  the 
feudal  barons  of  the  country,  in  which  he  was  generally 
victorious.  His  high  reputation  for  courage  and  love 
of  justice  caused  him  to  be  elected  in  1273  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  he  was  soon  after  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  He  procured  from  Pope  Gregory  X.  the 
ratification  of  his  right,  which  had  been  contested  by 
Alfonso  of  Castile  and  Ottocar  of  Bohemia;  and,  after 
a  war  with  the  latter,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which 
Rudolph  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Bohemia  and 
Moravia.  He  had  previously  given  two  of  his  daughters 
in  marriage  to  Albert,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  Count 
Palatine  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Having  secured  himself  on 
the  throne,  he  gave  his  attention  to  various  reforms  in 
the  government  and  to  restraining  the  power  of  the 
turbulent  nobles,  nearly  seventy  of  whose  castles  in 
Thuringia  he  is  said  to  have  destroyed.  He  afterwards 
gave  one  of  his  daughters  in  marriage  to  Wenzel,  the 
young  king  of  Bohemia.  He  died  in  1291,  having  been 
unable  to  secure  the  election  of  his  son  Albert  as  emperor, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Adolphus  of  Nassau. 

See  J.  J.  FISCHEK,  "  Biographic  Rudolph's  I.  von  Habsburg," 
1784:  HUNKI.ER.  "  Rodolpha  de  Habsbourg  Empereur,"  etc.,  1843; 
E.  M.  VON  LICHNOWSKY,  "  Geschichte  des  Hauses  Habsburg,"  8 
vols.,  1836-42;  L.  MEISTER.  "Kaiser  Rudo'ph  von  Habsb'Tg," 
17^3;  M.ULATH,  "  Histoire  d'Autriche;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogr,  phie 
Generale." 

Rudolph  (Rudolf)  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born 
in  1552,  was  the  son  of  Maximilian  II.,  and  was  educated 
at  the  Spanish  court.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  Oc 
tober,  1576,  and,  through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits, 
prohibited  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion  and 
gave  all  the  principal  offices  to  the  Catholics.  He  was 
an  intolerant  and  incapable  ruler.  Absorbed  in  the 
study  of  astrology  and  alchemy,  he  neglected  the  affairs 
of  his  empire,  which  was  subject  to  much  disorder  during 
his  reign.  To  protect  themselves  against  persecution, 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  formed  in  1608  a 
confederation,  of  which  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick 
IV.  was  the  head.  Between  1608  and  1611  his  brother 
Matthias  extorted  from  Rudolph  successively  the  sove 
reignty  of  Austria,  Moravia,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  etc. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RUDOLPH 


1930 


RUFUS 


He  died,  without  issue,  in  January,  1612,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Matthias. 

See  P.  SANTORIO,  "Vite  di  Ridolfo  II.  e  Mattias  Imperatori," 
1664;  F.  S.  KURZ,  "Oesterreich  unter  Rudolph,"  1821;  IMMANUEL 
WKUER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Rudolpho  II.,"  1707. 

Rudolph  von  Rothenberg,  roo'dolf  fon  ro'ten- 
beRG',  a  German  soldier  and  minnesinger,  lived  under 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rudolphi,  roo-dol'fee,  (CARL  ASMUND,)  an  able 
Swedish  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1771.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  physi 
ology  at  Berlin  in  1810.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Anatomy  of  Plants,"  (1807,)  "The  Natural 
History  of  Entozoa,"  (2  vols.,  1808-10,)  and  "The  Prin 
ciples  of  Physiology,"  (3  vols.,  1821-28.)  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1832. 

See  J.  MUI.LER,  "Gedachtnissrede  auf  C.  A.  Rudolphi,"  1837; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Rudra,  rdod'ra,  [etymology  uncertain,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  a  name  of  Siva,  also  applied  to  certain  mani 
festations  of  Siva  in  his  character  of  fate  or  destiny. 
The  eleven  Rudras  appear  to  correspond  in  the  main, 
though  not  in  number,  to  the  Parcas  of  the  Romans 
and  the  Moira:  (Nlolpai)  of  the  Greeks.  (See  SIVA.) 
See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 
Rud'yard,  (Sir  BENJAMIN,)  an  English  gentleman 
and  elegant  scholar,  born  in  1572.  He  became  an  influ 
ential  and  eloquent  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  in 
which  he  acted  with  Hampden  and  Pym.  In  the  civil 
war  which  began  in  1642  he  was  a  moderate  partisai 
of  the  Parliament,  and  often  raised  his  voice  for  peace. 
Some  of  his  speeches  and  poems  have  been  published. 
Died  in  1658. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Benjamin  Rudyard,"  by  J.  A.  MANNING, 

1841. 

Rue,  de  la,  (CHARLES.)     See  LA  RUE. 

Rue,  de  la,  deh  It  rii,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  Bene 
dictine  and  eminent  scholar,  born  at  Corbie,  Picardy,  ii 
1684.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  works  of 
Origen,  (3  vols.,  1733.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1739.  His 
nephew,  VINCENT  DE  LA  RUE,  born  in  1707,  published 
the  4th  volume  of  Origen  in  1759.  Died  in  1762. 

Rue,  de  la,  (GERVAIS.)     See  DELARUE. 

Rueda,  de,  (LOPE.)     See  Lori-:  DE  RUEDA. 

Ruediger.     See  RUDIGER. 

Ruehle  von  Lilienstern.     See  RUHLF. 

Ruel,  rii'el',  [Lat.  RUEI/I.IUS,]  (|EAN,)  a  French  phy 
sician  and  botanist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1479.  He  was 
physician  to  Francis  I.,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"On  the  Nature  of  Plants,"  ("De  Natnra  Stirpium," 
1536.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1537. 

Ruellius.     See  RUEL. 

Rueppell.     See  RUN-ELL. 

Riite  or  Ruete,  rii'teh,  (CHRISTIAN  GEORG,  )  a 
German  medical  writer  and  oculist,  born  near  Bremen 
in  1810.  He  settled  at  Leipsic  in  1852. 

Ruff'head,  (OWEN,)  an  English  barrister  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  about  1723.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "Life  of  Alexander  Pope."  Died  in  1769. 

Ruffi  or  Ruffy,  de,  deh  rii'fe',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1607,  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Marseilles,"  (1643.)  Died  in  1689. 

Ruffi  or  Ruffy,  de,  (Louis  ANTOINE,)  a  historian,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1657; 
died  in  1724. 

Ruffin,  rii'faN',  (FRANCOIS,)  COUNT,  a  French  gene 
ral,  born  at  Bolbec  in  1771.  He  served  with  distinc 
tion  at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  at  Eylau.  He  became 
a  general  of  division  about  1808,  after  which  lie  was 
employed  in  Spain.  He  was  mortally  wounded  near 
Cadiz  in  1811. 

Ruffin,  [Lat.  RUFFI'NUS,]  (PIERRE  JEAN  MARIE,)  a 
diplomatist  and  linguist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Salonica,  in  Turkey,  in  1742.  He  became  interpreter 
to  the  king  for  Oriental  languages  at  Paris  in  1774, 
and  charge-d'affaires  at  Constantinople  in  1798.  Died 
in  1824. 

See  BIANCIII,  "  Notice  historique  sur  M.  Ruffin,"  1825. 

Ruffini,  roof-fee'nee,  an  Italian  patriot,  known  under 
the  pseudonym  of  LORENZO  BENONI,  was  born  at  Genoa 


about  1800.  In  1833  he  took  refuge  in  England,  where 
he  wrote  interesting  Memoirs.  He  was  appointed  am 
bassador  to  Paris  by  Charles  Albert  in  1848. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1854;  "Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  June,  1853;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1853. 

Ruffini,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at 
Valentano  (Papal  States)  in  1765.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  and  medicine  at  Modena,  and  author  of 
several  works  on  algebra,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  at  Modena  in  1822. 

See  LOMBARDI,  "Notizie  sulla  Vita  di  P.  Ruffini,"  1824. 

Ruffmus.     See  RUFINUS,  and  RUFFIN. 

Ruffo,  rooffo,  (DiONioi  FAKRIZIO,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  general,  born  at  Naples,  or  in  Calabria,  about  1744. 
He  raised  in  Calabria  a  large  body  of  royalists,  called 
the  army  of  the  Holy  Faith,  which,  under  his  command, 
expelled  the  French  and  republicans  from  the  country 
in  1799  and  restored  King  Ferdinand  TV.  to  the  throne. 
He  took  at  Naples  a  number  of  republican  chiefs  as 
prisoners  of  war,  who  were  treacherously  put  to  death 
by  order  of  the  king.  Died  in  1827. 

See  LACCHINEI.M,  "Memorie  sulla  Vita  di  F.  D.  Ruffo,"  1836; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Genera'e." 

Ruffo,  (FABRIZIO,)  Prince  of  Castelcicala,  an  Italian 
diplomatist,  born  at  Naples  about  1755.  He  was  ac 
cessary  to  the  judicial  murder  of  the  republicans  who 
were  taken  prisoners  and  executed  in  1799.  He  was 
Neapolitan  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1815  until  his 
denth,  which  occurred  in  1832. 

Ruffy.     See  RUFFI. 

Rufin.     See  RUFINUS. 

Rufino,  roo-fee'no,  (CASIMIR  RUFIXO  Ruiz,)  a  Span 
ish  economist,  born  at  Soto  de  Cameras  in  1806.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Universal  History 
of  Commerce,"  ("La  Historia  mercantil  universal,"  2 
vols.,  18^2-53.) 

Ru-fi'nus,  [Fr.  RUFIN,  rii'faN',]  an  ambitious  Roman 
courtier,  born  at  Elusa,  in  Gaul,  about  335  A.D.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Tlieodosius  at  Con 
stantinople,  and  became  in  394  chief  minister.  He 
rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelty,  and  engaged  in 
a  disloyal  intrigue  with  Alaric  the  Visigoth,  in  order  to 
thwart  Stilico,  who  was  his  rival.  lie  was  assassinated 
in  395  by  a  soldier,  at  the  instigation  of  Gainas,  a  friend 
of  Stilico.  He  was  the  subject  of  Claudian's  poem 
"  In  Rufinum." 


Rufinus,  surnamed  TORA'NIUS,  TORA'NUS,  TYRAN'- 
NIUS,  or  TURRA'NIUS,  a  theologian  and  monk,  born 
about  350  A.D.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Aqnileia.  In  earlv  life  he  was  a  friend  of  Saint 
Jerome.  He  went  to  Palestine  in  377,  and  built  a  mon 
astery  on  Mount  Olivet,  where  he  passed  many  years, 
and  translated  some  works  of  Origen,  whose  doctrines 
he  favoured.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a  con 
troversy  with  Saint  Jerome,  who  denounced  him  with 
extreme  animosity.  Rufinus  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
nn  "  Explanation  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  and  translated 
into  Latin  several  works  of  the  Greek  Fathers.  lie 
was  an  able  writer.  Died  in  410. 

S';e  FONTANINI,  "Historia  literaria  Aquilejensis;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Rufinus,  (LiciNius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  flourished 
about  215  A.D. 

Ru'fus  or  Ru'phus,  an  ancient  Greek  medical  writer 
>f  Ephesus,  called  RUFUS  EI-HESIUS,  of  whom  little  is 
known.  According  to  Suidas,  he  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  (98-117  A.D.)  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  interesting  treatise  on  anatomy,  entitled  "On  the 
Names  of  the  Parts  of  the  Human  Body,"  which  is 
extant  and  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1554. 

See  SPRENGEL,  "  Histoire  de  la  Medecine." 

Rufus,  (M.  Ccelius,)  a  Roman  orator,  born  at  Puteoli 
in  82  H.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  who  calls  him  "  adoles- 
centem  illustri  ingenio."  In  the  year  56  he  was  accused 
)f  an  attempt  to  poison  Clodia,  a  woman  of  depraved 
morals.  He  was  defended  by  Cicero  and  acquitted.  lie 
Became  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  K.C.,  and  supported 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RUFUS 


RUM  3  OLD 


Milo  against  Clodius.  In  49  B.C.  he  .was  a  partisan  of 
Caesar.  Died  in  48  B.C. 

See  CICERO,  "  Oratio  pro  M.  Ccelio." 

Rufus.  (  RUTILIUS,)  a  Roman  orator,  who  became 
consul  in  105  n.c.  and  was  banished  unjustly  in  92  B.C. 

Rufus  Fes'tus  or  Sex'tus  Ru'fus,  a  Latin  his 
torian,  lived  between  350  and  400  A.n.  He  wrote  an 
Abridged  History  of  Rome,  ("  Breviarium  cle  Victoriis 
et  Provinces  Populi  Roman!.") 

Ruge,  roo'geh,  (ARNOLD,)  a  German  scholar  and 
journalist,  born  at  Bergen,  on  the  island  of  RUgen,  in 
1802,  studied  at  the  University  of  Jena.  During  a  five 
years'  imprisonment  to  which  he  was  condemned  for 
his  liberal  opinions,  he  translated  the  "  CEdipus  in 
Colonos"  of  Sophocles.  After  his  release  he  became 
associated  with  Echtermeyer  as  editor  of  the  "  Halli- 
schen  Jahrbiicher,"  which  was  suppressed  in  1843.  I'1 
1848  he  published  at  Leipsic  a  radical  journal  entitled 
"  Reform,"  and  represented  Breslau  in  the  Frankfort 
Parliament.  In  1850  he  repaired  to  London,  where  he 
wrote  a  German  translation  of  the  "  Letters  of  Junius" 
and  the  works  of  P.  Courier. 

Rugendas,  roo-geVdas,  (GEORG  PHII.TPP,)  one  of 
the  greatest  battle-painters  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1666.  He  visited  Rome  and  Venice,  and 
alter  his  return  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Augsburg  in  1710.  He  also  produced  a  number  of  en 
gravings,  among  which  is  "The  Siege  of  Augsburg," 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness.  Died  in  1742. 

See  J.  C.  FiisST.i.  "  Leben  Georg  Philinp  Rugendas,"  175^:  C. 
BLANC,  "  Histoire  dss  Peintres  ;"  NAGLER,  "  Ailgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Rugendas,  (GEORG  PHILIPP,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1701,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1774. 

Rugendas,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1708,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  Died  in  1781. 

Rugendas,  (JOHANN  MORITZ,)  a  German  painter 
and  designer,  a  relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Augsburg  about  1800.  He  spent  many  years  in  South 
America,  and  published  in  1827  "  A  Painter's  Journey 
in  Brazil."  His  collection  of  nearly  three  thousand 
pictures  and  designs  was  purchased  by  the  Bavarian 
government.  Died  in  1858. 

See  NAGI.EK,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexi'con." 

Ruggieri,  rood-ja'ree,  (CoxsTANTiN,)  an  Italian  phi 
lologist  and  antiquary,  born  near  Ravenna  in  1714; 
died  in  1766. 

Rug'gle,  (GEORGE.)  an  English  dramatist,  born  at 
Lavenham  in  1575,  was  a  Fellow  of  a  college  at  Cam 
bridge.  He  wrote  a  satirical  play  entitled  "  Ignoramus," 
(1614.)  Died  in  1622. 

Ruggles,  rug'gelz,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  general  in 
the  Confederate  service,  born  in  Massachusetts  about 
1814. 

Ruhl,  rool,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Cassel  in  1764;  died  in  1842. 

Ruhl,  riil,  (PHILIPPE  JACQUES,)  a  French  Jacobin  and 
member  of  the  Convention,  was  born  near  Strasburg. 
He  killed  himself  in  May,  1795. 

Riihle  von  Lilienstern,  riih'Ieh  fon  lee'le-en-ste'Rn'. 
(JOHANN  JAKOB  OTTO  AUGUST,)  a  Prussian  general  and 
distinguished  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1780,  served  in 
the  campaigns  of  1813-15.  He  published  several  mili 
tary  and  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Prussian  Nation,"  (1837.)  Died  in  1847. 

Se'>  BROCK HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Ruhmkorff,  room'koRf,  (NT.,)  a  mechanician,  born  in 
Germany.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  gained  distinction  as 
a  maker  of  electro-magnetic  apparatus,  coil-machines,  etc. 

Ruhnken,  roon'ken,  or  Rulineken,  roo'neh-ken, 
[Lat.  RUHNKE'NIUS,]  (DAVID.)  an  eminent  German 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Stolpe,  in  Pomerania,  in 
1723.  He  studied  history,  law,  and  classical  literature 
at  Wittenberg.  Through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
the  celebrated  Hemsterhuys,  he  was  appointed  in  1757 
lector  of  the  Greek  language  in  the  University  of  I^ey- 
den,  and  in  1761  succeeded  Oudendorp  as  professor  of 
history,  eloquence,  and  antiquities  in  that  city.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  are  editions  of  the 


"Lexicon  of  Timasus,"  of  Velleius  Paterculus,  Homer's 
"  Hymn  to  Ceres,"  with  a  Latin  translation  and  com 
mentary,  (1780,)  and  the  works  of  Muretus,  (4  vols., 
1789.)  He  also  wrote  several  Latin  essays  of  remark 
able  elegance,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Epistolae 
Critics,"  (1751,)  "Eulogy  on  Hemsterhuys,"  (1768,)  and 
"  Dissertation  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Longinus," 
(1776.)  He  died  at  Leyclen  in  1797,  with  the  reputa 
tion  of  one  of  the  first  critics  and  Latin  writers  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

See  D.  WYTTENBACH,  "Vita  Ruhnkenii,"  1799;  RINK,  "  T. 
Hemsterlniys  und  D.  Rulineken,"  iSoi  ;  MEUSEL,  "  Lexikon ;" 
HIKSCHING,  "  Historiocli-literarisches  Handbuch;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Genera'ie." 

Ruhnkeiiius.     See  RUHNKEN. 

Runs  or  Ruehs,  riis,  (CHRISTOPH  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1780,  became 
professor  of  history  in  Berlin.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (5  vols.,  1803-13,)  which 
is  commended,  and  a  "  Manual  of  Mediaeval  History," 
(1816.)  Died  in  1820. 

Ruinart,  rii-e'ntR',  (TuiERRi,)  DOM,  a  learned  French 
writer  and  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Rheims  in  1657. 
He  became  a  pupil  and  coadjutor  of  Mabillon.  In  1689 
he  published  the  "  Acts  of  the  First  Martyrs,"  ("  Acta 
primorum  Martyrum."  He  took  a  large  part  in  the 
composition  of  Mabillon's  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  (1700.) 
Died  in  1709. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ruisch  or  Ruysch,  roisK,  (FREDERIC,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  anatomist,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1638.  He  was 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Amsterdam  from  1665  until  his 
death.  He  discovered  a  mode  of  preserving  dead 
bodies  for  many  years.  He  made  several  discoveries 
in  anatomy,  and  published  an  "Anatomical  Treasury," 
("Thesaurus  anatomicus,"  1701-15,)  which  is  said  to 
be  a  capital  work.  Peter  the  Great  purchased  his 
anatomical  collection  for  30,000  florins.  Died  in  1731. 

See  FONTENF.LLE,  "  filoge  cle  Ruisch;"  SCHREIBER,  "Vita  F- 
Ruisch,"  1732;  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Ruisch  or  Ruysch,  (RACHEL,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
flower-painter,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1664,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  preceding.  She  married  a  painter 
named  Juriaen  Pool  in  1695.  Her  works  command 
high  prices.  Died  in  1750. 

Ruisdael.     See  RUYSDAEL. 

Ruiter,  de.     See  RUYTER,  DE. 

Ruiz,  roo-eth',  (JuAN,)  Archpriest  of  Hita,  a  Spanish 
poet  and  satirist,  born  probably  at  Alcala  de  Henares. 
He  was  imprisoned  thirteen  years,  (1333-47.)  One  of 
his  principal  poems  is  entitled  "  Praise  of  Little  Women." 

Sie  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rukmeiii.     See  RUKMIXI. 

Rukmini,  rook'ml-nee',  written  also,  but  less  cor 
rectly,  Rokmeny  and  Rukmeni,  [i.e.  "golden"  or 
"  possessing  gold,"  in  allusion  perhaps  to  Lakshnu 
being  the  goddess  of  riches,]  the  name  of  an  avatar  of 
Lakshmi,  who  under  this  form  was  the  favourite  wife 
of  Krishna,  (an  avatar  of  Vishnu.) 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ruland,  roo'lant,  (MARTIN,)  a  German  physician  and 
philologist,  born  at  Freisingen  in  1532;  died  in  1602. 

Rulhiere,  de,  deh  rii'le-aiR',  (Ci.AUDE  CAKLOMAN,) 
a  French  historian,  was  born  at  Bondy,  near  Paris,  in 
1735.  He  accompanied  the  Baron  de  Breteuil  to  Russia 
as  secretary  of  embassy  in  1760,  and  wrote  "  Anecdotes 
of  the  Revolution  of  Russia  in  1762,"  (1797.)  In  1787 
lie  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Anarchy  of  Poland  and  of 
the  Partition  of  that  Republic,"  (4  vols.,  1807.)  Died 
in  1791. 

See  DAUNOU.  "Notice  stir  Rulhiere:"  QUERARO,  "La  France 
Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Ginerale." 

Rulliere,  ru'le-ajR',  ( JOSEPH  MARCEI.I.IN,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Haute-Loire  in  1787.  He  commanded 
an  army  in  Algeria  in  1838.  and  was  minister  of  war 
from  December,  1848,  until  October,  1849. 

Rnmancow.     See  RIOOMANTSOF. 

Rum'bold.  (Colonel  RICHARD,)  an  English  repub 
lican,  was  implicated  in  the  Rye-House  Plot,  (1683,)  and 
was  owner  of  the  building  from  which  that  plot  derived 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RUMFORD 


1932 


R  UNJEET 


its  name.  He  escaped  to  Holland,  and  in  1685  followed 
Argyll  in  his  expedition  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  mor 
tally  wounded,  and,  after  a  hurried  trial,  executed. 

Rtim'ford,  (BENJAMIN'  Thompson,)  COUNT,  a  cele 
brated  natural  philosopher  and  economist,  born  at 
Woburn,  Massachusetts,  March  26,  1753  or  1752. 
His  mother  was  named  Ruth  Simonds.  After  he  left 
school,  about  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  employed  for  a 
short  time  as  a  clerk  by  a  merchant  in  Salem.  In  1770 
he  attended  lectures  on  experimental  philosophy  at 
Harvard  University.  He  was  school-master  at  Rnmford, 
(now  Concord,)  New  Hampshire,  for  about  two  years, 
(1770-72.)  In  1772  he  married  a  rich  widow  of  Rum- 
ford,  named  Mrs.  Rolfe,  and  removed  with  her  to  Wo 
burn.  He  was  a  person  of  tall  stature,  a  model  of  manly 
beauty  in  form  and  feature,  and  had  the  manners  of  a 
courtier.  According  to  Renwick,  he  fought  at  Lexington, 
and  applied  for  a  commission  in  the  Continental  army 
in  1775,  but  his  services  were  rejected.  Renwick  speaks 
of  his  "loyalty,  manifested  by  actual  service  at  the 
battle  of  Lexington,"  but  does  not  say  on  which  side 
he  fought.  His  arguments,  however,  seem  designed  to 
prove  that  Rumford  would  have  fought  for  independence 
if  prejudice  and  persecution  had  not  driven  him  into  the 
ranks  of  the  royalists.  He  was  regarded  as  a  tory  by  his 
fellow-citizens,  and  was  pursued  by  a  mob  with  threats 
of  violence.  Having  resorted  for  safety  to  the  royalist 
camp  at  Boston,  he  was  sent  to  England  in  the  autumn 
of  1775  as  a  bearer  of  despatches  to  Lord  George  Ger 
main,  who  appointed  him  a  clerk  in  the  foreign  office. 
lu  the  course  of  four  years  he  rendered  such  services 
that  he  obtained  in  1780  the  important  position  of  under 
secretary  of  state.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1781  or  1782  with  a  commission  as  major  or  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  British  army,  but  never  took  part  in  any 
action  of  the  war. 

The  next  scene  of  his  eventful  and  prosperous  career 
opens  at  Munich,  whither  he  went  in  1784.  He  soon 
became  aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain  to  the  reigning 
prince  of  Bavaria.  Having  reformed  the  military  es 
tablishment  and  rendered  important  public  services, 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
appointed  a  councillor  of  state.  Rising  by  rapid  gra 
dations,  he  became  successively  lieutenant-general,  com- 
mander-in-chief,  minister  of  war,  and  in  1790  a  count  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  On  this  occasion  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Rumford,  from  the  town  where  he  resided  in 
early  life.  He  suppressed  mendicity  at  Munich  by  the 
establishment  of  work-houses  in  which  beggars  were 
compelled  to  earn  their  subsistence.  In  devising  the 
means  to  warm  and  clothe  the  poor  with  economy,  he 
was  led  to  experiments  on  heat  and  light  which  resulted 
in  important  discoveries.  He  proved  that  gases  are 
non-conductors,  and  fluids  very  imperfect  conductors,  of 
heat, — explained  that  heat  is  propagated  in  liquids  only 
by  convection,  or  the  continuous  transposition  of  the 
particles  of  the  liquid,  and  that  a  flame  in  open  air  gives 
but  little  heat  except  to  bodies  placed  above  it.  He  made 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  chimneys  and  in 
the  apparatus  for  heating  and  lighting  houses.  In  1795 
he  visited  London,  where  he  published  some  essays  on 
the  subjects  above  mentioned.  He  returned  to  Munich 
in  1796,  and  was  appointed  ambassador  to  London  in 
1798;  but  the  English  court  would  not  receive  him  in 
that  capacity,  because  he  was  a  British  subject.  He 
formed  the  plan  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  London, 
founded  about  1800.  His  power  and  influence  at  the 
court  of  Munich  having  ceased,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  Elector,  in  1799,  he  removed  to  France. 
His  first  wife,  whom  he  left  in  the  United  States  when 
he  first  crossed  the  Atlantic,  was  no  longer  living.  He 
married  the  widow  of  Lavoisier,  the  great  chemist,  in 
1805;  but  they  soon  separated,  from  mutual  repulsion. 
He  died  at  Auteuil  in  August,  i8f4-  His  "Essays,  Po 
litical,  Economical,  and  Philosophical,"  were  published 
in  3  vols.,  (1798-1806.)  The  Rumford  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  derives  its  name  from  him. 

"  It  is  a  matter  of  just  national  pride  that  the  two  men 
who  first  demonstrated  the  capital  propositions  of  pure 
science,  that  lightning  is  but  a  case  of  common  elec 
tricity,  and  that  heat  is  but  a  mode  of  motion, — who  first 


converted  these  conjectures  of  fancy  to  facts  of  science, 
— were  not  only  Americans  by  birth  and  education,  but 
men  eminently  representative  of  the  peculiarities  of 
American  character, — Benjamin  Franklin  and  Benjamin 
Thompson."  (Edward  L.  Youmans,  "The  Correlation 
and  Conservation  of  Forces.") 

See  CUVIKR,  "  Eloge  He  Rimiford  ;"  JAMF.S  RENWICK,  "Life  of 
Count  Rumford,"  in  SPARKS'S  "American  Biography,"  vol.  v., 
second  series;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Rumford,  de,  deh  ruVfoR',(MARiE  ANNE  Pierrette 
Paulze — pe'.VreV  pol/,)  COUNTESS,  a  French  lady  of 
superior  talent,  was  born  at  Montbrison  in  1758.  She 
was  married  to  Lavoisier,  the  chemist,  in  1771.  She 
aided  him  in  experiments,  and,  having  learned  the  art 
of  engraving,  she  engraved  plates  for  his  treatise  on 
Chemistry.  In  1805  she  became  the  wife  of  Count 
Rumford,  from  whom  she  separated  in  1809.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  GUIZOT,  "  Madame  de  Rumford,"  1841,  and  bis  article  in  the 
"  Biographie  Universelle." 

Rumiantzov  or  Rumiantzow.  See  RIOOMANTSOF. 

Riimker,  rum'ker,  (!YARL.)  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Stargard  in  1788.  He  made  observations  at 
Paramatta,  in  Australia,  from  1822  to  1831,  and  was 
afterwards  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Hamburg 
for  many  years.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Manual  of 
Navigation,"  (5th  edition,  1850.)  Died  in  1862. 

Rumohr,  roo'moR,  (KARL  FRIEDRICII  LUIHVIG  FE 
LIX,)  a  German  writer  on  art,  born  near  Dresden  in 
1785,  was  a  pupil  of  Fiorillo,  a  painter.  He  made  the 
tour  of  Italy  in  1804,  and  revisited  that  country  in  1816 
and  1828.  His  "  Italian  Researches"  (3  vols.)  came  out 
in  1827.  It  is  a  critical  history  of  the  origin  and  de 
velopment  of  modern  painting,  composed  from  original 
documents,  and  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  like 
wise  published  a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Collection  of 
Engravings  at  Copenhagen,"  (1835,)  and  other  treatises 
on  art;  also  a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays  on 
various  subjects.  Died  at  Dresden  in  1843. 

See  H.  W.  SCHIII.ZK,  "C.  V.  von  Rumohr,  sein  Leben  und  seine 
Schriften,"  1844;  BKOCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Rumowsky.     See  ROOMOKSKL 

Rumph,  roomf,  [Lat.  RUM'PHIUS,]  (GEORC  EVE- 
KARD,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Hanau  in  1637.  lie 
passed  some  years  at  Ambovna,  where  he  was  consul 
or  counsellor  to  the  Dutch  East  India  Company.  He 
was  author  of  a  botanical  work  entitled  "Herbarium 
Amboinense,"  (7  vols.,  1741-55.)  Died  in  1706. 

Rumphius.     See  RUMPH. 

Rum/say,  (J\MES,)  an  American  mechanician,  born 
in  Cecil  county.  Maryland,  in  1743,  was  the  inventor  of 
a  steamboat,  which  he  exhibited  on  the  Potomac  in  1786. 
A  company  called  by  his  name  was  formed  in  Philadelphia 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  his  projects.  In  1702  he 
made  a  successful  trial  of  his  steamboat  on  the  Thames, 
and  was  preparing  for  another,  when  he  died  in  Decem 
ber  of  the  same  year. 

Run'ci-man,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  historical 
painter,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  17^6.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Ascension,"  "King  Lear."  and  a  series  of 
pictures  of  scenes  from  Ossian.  His  style  is  extrava 
gant.  Died  in  1785. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Runeberg,  roo'neh-beKg',  ([OMAN  Lumvio,)  a  very 
popular  Swedish  poet,  born  at  lacobstad,  in  Finland, 
in  1804.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Abo. 
About  1840  he  became  a  teacher  of  Greek  at  Borga,  (<>r 
Borgo.)  Among  his  principal  productions  are  "Na- 
deschda,"  a  poetical  tale,  (1841,)  "Kung  Fialar,"  (1844  ) 
and  "Stories  of  Ensign  Std.1,"  ("Fanrik  Stals  Sagner.1') 
An  edition  of  his  collected  works  appeared  in  1852. 

See  HOWITT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe." 

Runge,  rdong'eh,  (Orro  PHILIPI>,)  a  German  painter, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  fur 
nished  illustrations  to  "Ossian."  His  son,  Otto  Sieg- 
muncl,  studied  sculpture  under  Thorwalclsen  at  Rome. 

Ruriius,  roo'ne-us,  (J"oiiA\,)  a  popular  Swedish  poet, 
born  in  West  Gothland  in  1679  ;  died  in  1713. 

Runjeet  Singh,  run-jeet'  sing,  (or  sing'h,)  called 
MAHA  RAJAH,  ma-ha'  ra'ja,  (i.e.  "Great  Rajah,")  an  am- 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


RUNNINGTON 


'933 


RUSH 


bitious  East  Indian  prince,  born  at  Giigaranwala,  in  the 
Punjab,  in  1780,  is  called  the  founder  of  the  Sikh  empire. 
By  a  series  of  aggressions  against  feeble  and  umvarlike 
chiefs  he  extended  his  dominions.  He  received  the 
province  of  Lahore  as  a  gift  from  the  Shah  of  Afghan 
istan  in  1799,  and  obtained  Cashmere  by  conquest  in 
1819.  In  1809  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  British,  with 
whom  he  always  maintained  peaceful  relations.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  H.  T.  PRINSEP,  "Origin  of  the  Power  of  the  Sikhs  and  the 
Political  Life  of  Runjeet  Singh,"  1839  ;W.  L.  MACGRKGOR,  "  Runjeei 
Singh:  History  of  the  Sikhs;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Run'ning-ton,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  17^1.  He  edited  some 
legal  works  of  Hale,  Gilbert,  etc.  Died  in  1821. 

Rupert,  roc/pert,  [  Ger.  RUPRECHT,  roo'pR^Kt,  ] 
PRINCE,  sometimes  called  ROUKRT  OF  BAVARIA,  son 
of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  V.  and  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was  born  at  Prague  in 
1609.  Having  previously  served  against  the  Imperialists 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  he  entered  the  royalist  army 
in  England,  and  was  appointed  by  his  uncle,  Charles  I.', 
commander  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energy  and  headlong  courage  at  Worcester 
and  Edgehill,  and  took  Bristol  ;  but  he  was  signally  de 
feated  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644.  Being  made  general 
of  all  the  royal  forces,  he  commanded  the  left  wing  at 
Naseby  in  1645.  Owing  to  his  rash  pursuit  of  a  part  of 
Cromwell's  army  while  the  main  body  remained  on  the 
field,  the  day  was  lost,  and  he  soon  after  surrendered 
Bristol,  after  a  short  defence.  He  was,  in  consequence, 
deprived  of  his  command  by  the  king  ;  but  in  1648  he 
obtained  command  of  the  fleet,  and  assisted  Lord  Or- 
mond  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  In  1649  he  was  blockaded 
in  the  harbour  of  Kinsale  by  the  parliamentary  squadron 
under  Blake.  Having  forced  his  way  out,  he  steered  for 
Portugal,  where  he  was  protected  by  the  king  of  that 
country.  In  1651  Blake  attacked  his  fleet  and  destroyed 
all  but  five  of  his  vessels.  Rupert  subsisted  for  some 
time  by  piracy  in  the  West  Indies.  After  the  restoration 
of  1660,  he  served  as  admiral  against  the  Dutch.  Died 
in  1682. 

See  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,"  London,  1683  ;  E. 
WARBURTON,  "Memoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,"  3  vols.,  1849;  CI.AR- 
F.XDON-,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion  ;"  HUME,  "History  of 
England  ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  and 
England,"  by  SIR  EDWARD  CUST,  London,  1867. 

Ru-per'tus  or  Ruprecht,  roo'pReKt,  called  also 
Rhodbert,  one  of  the  early  apostles  of  Christianity 
in  Germany,  was  Bishop  of  Worms,  and  lived  in  the 
seventh  century. 

Riippell  or  Rueppell,  rup'pel,  (WILHELM  PKTER 
EDUARD  SIMON,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Frank-  j 
fort-on-the-Main    in    1794.     He  visited   Arabia,   Nubia,  ! 
and  other  parts  of  Africa,  and  published  in  1829  "  Travels  ] 
in  Nubia,  Kordofan,  and  Arabia  Petraea."     He  also  gave  j 
an  account  of  the  birds  of  Northern  and  Eastern  Africa, 
and    made  valuable    contributions    to    the    Senkenberg  j 
Museum,  at  Frankfort. 

Rupprecht,  roop'preKt,  (FRIEDRICH  KARL,)  a  Ger-  ! 
man  landscape-painter  and  etcher,  born  near  Anspach  j 
in  1779  ;  died  in  1831. 

Ruprecht.     See  RUPERT. 

Rurik,  roo'rik,  [Fr.  ROURIK,  roo'rek',]  the  founder  j 
of  the  Russian  empire,  was  originally  a  Scandinavian. 
He  invaded  Russia  about  862  A.D.,  defeated  the  natives, 
who  were  commanded  by  Vadim,  and  selected  Novogo- 
rod  as  his  capital.  He  died  in  879,  leaving  a  son,  Igor, 
a  minor. 

Rusbroek.     See  RUYSBROEK. 

Rusca,  roos'ka,  (CARLO  FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Lugano  in  1701  ;  died  in  1769. 

Rusca,  ru's'kt',  (F.  DOMINIQUE,)  born  near  Nice  in 
1761,  became  a  general  in  the  French  army.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  victory  at  Lodi,  and  was  made  a  general 
of  division  in  1796.  He  was  commander  of  F.lba  from 
1802  to  1805.  He  was  killed  at  Soissons  in  1814. 

Rusca,  (GIOVANNI  ALESSANDRO,)  a  learned  Italian 
monk  and  writer,  born  at  Turin  about  1600  ;  died  in  1680. 

Ruscelli,roo-shel'lee,  (GIROLAMO,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  prolific  writer,  born  at  Viterbo.  Among  his  works 
are  "On  the  Art  of  making  Verse,"  ("Del  Modo  di 


comporre  in  Versi,"  1559,)  and  "Illustrious  Enterprises," 
("  Imprese  illustri,"  1566.)  Died  at  Venice  in  1566. 

Ruschenberger,  roo'shen-ber'ger,  (WILLIAM  S.  W.,) 
M.D.,  an  American  physician  and  naturalist,  born  in 
Cumberland  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1807,  was  appointed 
in  1843  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Naval  Hos 
pital  at  Brooklyn,  New  York.  He  has  published  a 
"Voyage  round  the  \Vorld,  including  an  Embassy  to 
Muscat  and  Siam,"  (1838,)  also  "Elements  of  Natural 
History,"  (1850,)  and  other  scientific  works. 

Ruscheweyh,  roosh'eh-w!'.  (FERDINAND,)  an  emi 
nent  German  engraver,  born  at  Mecklenburg,  commenced 
his  studies  about  1802,  and  went  to  Rome  in  1808.  He 
engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Romano,  Over- 
beck,  and  others. 

Rusconi,  roos-ko'nee,  (CAMILLO,)  a  skilful  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Milan  about  1658.  Among  his  works 
is  the  mausoleum  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  Saint  Peter's  at 
Rome.  Died  in  1728. 

Rush,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  eminent  American  physician 
and  philanthropist,  born  near  Philadelphia,  December 
24,  1745.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey,  in  1760,  and  afterwards  studied  medicine  in 
Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris.  He  was  elected  pro 
fessor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of  Philadelphia 
in  1769.  He  was  an  active  supporter  of  the  popular 
cause  in  the  Revolution,  was  elected  a  member  of  Con 
gress  in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence.  In  the  same  year  he  married  Julia  Stockton,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Richard  Stockton,  of  New  Jersey. 

In  1777  he  was  appointed  surgeon-general  and  phy 
sician-general  of  the  army.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
writer  on  medicine,  philosophy,  political  affairs,  etc.  He 
voted  for  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  the  State  convention  which  met  in  1/87.  In 
1789  he  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  the  medical  college  of  Philadelphia.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1791,  when  the  medical 
college  was  united  with  the  University.  He  was  a  popu 
lar  lecturer,  and  was  eminently  qualified  as  a  teacher  of 
medical  science  by  his  fluency  of  expression  as  well  as 
his  profound  learning.  His  reputation  was  increased  by 
his  successful  treatment  of  cases  of  yellow  fever,  which 
prevailed  in  Philadelphia  in  1793.  It  is  stated  that  he 
visited  and  prescribed  for  one  hundred  patients  in  one 
day.  His  remedies  for  yellow  fever  were  purging  and 
bleeding.  He  was  treasurer  of  the  Mint  during  the  last 
fourteen  years  of  his  life,  was  president  of  the  society 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  vice-president  of  the 
Bible  Society  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  industry,  benevolence,  and  piety.  In  1811  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  sent  him  a  diamond  ring  as  a  testi 
monial  of  respect  for  his  medical  skill.  Among  his 
writings  are  "Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations,"  (2 
vols.,  1788-93,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the 
Mind,"  (1812.)  He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  April,  1813, 
leaving  about  nine  children,  among  whom  was  Richard 
Rush,  the  statesman. 

See  THACHER.  "Medical  Biography;"  S.  D.  GROSS,  "  Lives  of 
American  Physicians."  1861  ;  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  Ameri 
can  Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Rush,  ( JACOB,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
1746,  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Rush.  He  was 
president  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  for  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  1820. 

Rush,  (JAMES,)  a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1786,  was  author  of  a  treatise  entitled 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice,"  (1827  ;  6th  edition, 
1867,)  which  has  been  highly  commended,  and  of  other 
works.  About  1840  he  married  Miss  Ridgway,  daughter 
of  Jacob  Ridgwav,  a  noted  millionaire.  He  died  in  1869, 
leaving  by  his  will  about  one  million  dollars  for  the  pur 
pose  of  establishing  a  free  public  library  in  Philadelphia. 

Rush,  (RICHARD,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  August,  1780,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1797, 
studied  law,  and  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the  treas 
ury  by  President  Madison.  He  was  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  from  February,  1814,  to  March,  1817. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  gjittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


R  USHTON 


'934 


R  USSELL 


In  the  latter  year  he  was  sent  to  England  by  President 
Monroe  as  minister-plenipotentiary.  After  he  had  ne 
gotiated  several  important  treaties,  he  returned  in  1825. 
He  served  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  March,  1825, 
to  March,  1829.  lie  was  nominated  for  the  Vice-Presi 
dency  by  the  friends  of  John  Quincy  Adams  in  1828,  and 
received  eighty-three  electoral  votes,  but  was  not  elected. 
In  1836  he  was  sent  to  England  as  a  special  agent  or 
commissioner  by  the  President.  He  was  appointed  min 
ister  to  France  in  1847,  and  was  the  first  of  the  foreign 
ministers  at  Paris  to  recognize  the  French  republic 
formed  in  1848.  lie  resigned  his  office  in  1849,  and 
retired  from  the  public  service.  He  published  in  1833 
"  Memorials  of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  Saint 
James."  another  volume  on  the  same  subject  in  1845, 
and  "  Washington  in  Domestic  Life,"  (1857.)  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  July,  1859. 

See  tlie  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Rev  lew"  for  July,  1833  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1833,  article  "Richard  Rush  at  the  Court  of 
London  ;"  "  Democratic  Review"  for  April,  1840. 

Rush'ton,  ( EDWARD,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  Lancashire,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1572. 
He  published  Sanders's  work  "On  the  Anglican  Schism," 
("  De  Schismate  Anglicano,"  1585,)  with  additions.  Died 
at  Lotivain  in  1586. 

Riish'worth,  (JoHN,)  an  English  lawyer,  distin 
guished  as  a  compiler  of  materials  for  history,  was  born 
in  Northumberland  about  1607.  He  was  assistant  clerk 
to  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  Long  Parliament. 
He  diligently  pursued  the  practice  of  taking  notes  of 
public  transactions,  and  reported,  in  short-hand,  the 
speeches  of  members  of  Parliament.  He  served  Sir  T. 
Fairfax  as  secretary  from  1645  to  '650,  during  which 
period  Fairfax  was  commander-in-chief.  He  published 
"Historical  Collections  of  Private  Passages  of  State, 
Weighty  Matters  in  Law,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1659- -1701.) 
Died  in  1690. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Rusk,  (THOMAS  J.,)  an  American  officer  and  politician, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1803.  He  removed  to  Texas 
about  1835,  was  the  first  secretary  of  war  of  the  republic 
of  Texas,  and  commanded  the  army  after  General  Hous 
ton  was  wounded  at  San  Jacinto,  April,  1836.  In  1845 
he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Texas.  He  was  re-elected  Senator  about 
1851.  Died  at  Nacogdoches  in  1856. 

Rus'kin,  (Jonx,)  an  English  artist  and  eloquent 
writer  on  art  and  nature,  was  born  in  London  in  Feb 
ruary,  1819.  He  was  the  only  child  of  a  wine-merchant, 
and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  "The  first  thing  which 
I  remember  as  an  event  in  life,"  says  he,  "  was  being 
taken  by  my  nurse  to  the  brow  of  Friar's  Crag  on  Der- 
wentvvater."  In  his  childhood  he  enjoyed  other  excur 
sions  to  the  country,  on  which  subject  he  remarks,  "  In 
such  journeyings,  whenever  they  brought  me  near  hills, 
and  in  all  mountain  ground  and  scenery,  I  had  a  pleasure, 
as  early  as  I  can  remember,  and  continuing  till  I  was 
eighteen  or  twenty,  infinitely  greater  than  any  which  has 
been  since  possible  to  me  in  anything.  .  .  '.  Although 
there  was  no  definite  religious  sentiment  mingled  with 
it,  there  was  a  continual  perception  of  sanctity  in  the 
whole  of  nature,  from  the  slightest  thing  to  the  vastest, 
— an  instinctive  awe  mixed  with  delight ;  an  indefinable 
thrill  such  as  we  sometimes  imagine  to  indicate  the 
presence  of  a  disembodied  spirit."  ("Modern  Painters," 
vol.  iii.  chap,  xvii.)  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  gained  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1839  for  an 
English  poem  entitled  "  Salsetto  and  Elephanta,"  and 
graduated  in  1842.  He  received  lessons  in  drawing  and 
painting  from  Copley,  Fielding,  and  J.  D.  Harding,  and 
became  an  ardent  admirer  of  Turner.  To  defend  Turner 
from  hostile  critics,  he  wrote  the  first  volume  of  his 
"Modern  Painters,"  (1843,  ^Y  a  Graduate  of  Oxford.) 
This  work,  which  was  expanded  into  a  treatise  on  art, 
nature,  etc.  and  extended  to  five  volumes,  established 
his  reputation  as  the  greatest  art-critic  of  England, 
although  many  of  his  opinions  are  paradoxical.  It  dis 
plays  a  rare  faculty  of  observation,  a 'rich  imagination, 
and  great  mastery  of  language.  He  discusses  many 
questions  of  ethics  and  philosophy  in  an  earnest  but 
rather  impulsive  and  wayward  spirit.  He  devoted  sev 


eral  years  to  the  study  of  art  in  Italy,  especially  in  Venice. 
In  1849  he  produced  "The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architec 
ture,"  and  afterwards  an  eloquent  and  brilliant  work 
on  "The  Stones  of  Venice,"  (3  vols.,  1851-53.)  He 
advocated  the  cause  of  the  Pre-Raphaelites  in  a  pam 
phlet  entitled  "  Pre-Raphaelitism,"  (1851.)  In  1854  he 
published  "Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting," 
(delivered  at  Edinburgh.)  In  1860  he  contributed  to  the 
"Cornhill  Magazine"  a  series  of  essays  on  political 
economy.  Among  his  recent  works  are  "Sesame  and 
Lilies,"  (1864,)  "The  Ethics  of  the  Dust:  Ten  Lectures 
to  Little  Housewives  on  the  Elements  of  Crystalliza 
tion,"  (1865,)  "The  Crown  of  Wild  Olive:  Three  Lec 
tures  on  Work,  Traffic,  and  War,"  (1866.)  and  "The 
Queen  of  the  Air:  being  a  Study  of  the  Greek  Myths 
of  Cloud  and  Storm,"  (1869.)  lie  built  a  number  of 
model  houses  for  the  poor,  in  London.  He  was  elected 
Slade  professor  of  art  at  Oxford  in  1869. 

"  Mr.  Ruskin,"  said  Charlotte  Bronte,  "  seems  to  me 
one  of  the  few  genuine  writers,  as  distinguished  from 
book-makers,  of  this  age.  ...  He  writes  like  a  con 
secrated  priest  of  the  Abstract  and  Ideal." 


See  "  Blackwood's  Maga/ine"  for  September,  1851,  and 


856;   "London    Quarterly  Review"   for  April,   i8<;6;   Eraser's 


M.ma/.ine"  fur  Anril,  1854;  "North    British  Review"  for  Fe 


862;   "British  Quarterly  Review"  for   May,   1847;  "Westminster 


Review"  for  April,  1856;  AI.UBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 


Riiss,  (JOHN  DENISON,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Essex,  Massachusetts,  in 
1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1832  superintendent  of  the 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Blind.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  New  York  Prison  Associa 
tion,  and  was  connected  with  various  other  charitable 
institutions. 

Russ,  rooss,  (KARL,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1779,  was  patronized  by  the  archduke 
John  of  Austria.  He  etched  some  of  his  own  pictures. 
Died  in  1843. 

Rtis'sell,  (ALEXANDER,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  English  Factory  at  Aleppo  in  1740.  In 
1754  he  returned  to  England,  and  published  a  "  Natural 
History  of  Aleppo,"  (1755,)  which  was  received  with 
favour.  He  afterwards  practised  in  London.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  "  Essay  nn  the  Character  of  Alexander  Russell  ;"  CHAMBERS, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

RuVsell,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American  journalist  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1761.  In  1784  he 
founded  the  "  Columbia  Centinel,"  a  leading  journal  of 
the  Federal  party.  Died  in  1845. 

Russell,  (DAVID  A.,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of 
David  Russell,  M.C.,  of  Salem,  New  York,  was  born 
about  1822.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  served 
in  the  Mexican  war,  and  became  a  captain  in  18^4.  lie 
commanded  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863, 
and  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5  and  6,  1864. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Opequan  Creek,  near 
Winchester,  in  September,  1864. 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  790. 

Rus'sell,  (EDWARD,)  Earl  of  Orford,  an  English 
admiral,  born  in  1651,  was  a  nephew  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Bedford.  He  was  a  prominent  Whig  chief  in  the 
revolution  of  1688.  About  1690  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  combined  navies  of  England  and 
Holland  ;  but,  not  satisfied  with  this  honour,  he  is  said 
to  have  secretly  conspired  to  restore  James  II.  In 
1692  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  French  off  La 
Hogue.  He  became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1693, 
after  which  he  commanded  with  success  in  the  Mediter 
ranean.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Orford  and  Viscount 
Barfleur  in  1697.  Died  in  1727. 

See  MACAUI.AY,  "  History  of  England." 

Russell,  (FRANCIS,)  seventh  Duke  of  Bedford,  born 
in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  John  (Earl)  Russell.  He 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  Whig  measures  in  Par 
liament.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  agriculture,  in 
which  he  is  said  to  have  made  important  improvements. 
Died  in  1861. 

Russell,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  poet  and  parson, 
born  in  Minorca  in  1728;  died  in  1767. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RUSSELL 


1935 


RUSSELL 


Russell,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1751.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Bengal  in 
1797.  Died  in  1836. 

Russell,  (JOHN,)  first  Earl  of  Bedford,  obtained  a 
high  position  at  court  in  1505.  He  served  with  distinc 
tion  in  the  expedition  which  Henry  VIII.  led  against 
France  in  1513,  and  was  rewarded  with  lands  attached 
to  the  abbey  of  Tavistock  and  the  monastery  of  Wolnirn. 
He  was  appointed  lord  high  admiral  and  created  Earl 
of  Bedford  in  1550.  Died  in  1555. 

See  T.  H.  WIFFEN,  "Historical  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Rus 
sell,"  1333. 

Russell,  (|OHN,)  fourth  Duke  of  Bedford,  an  Eng 
lish  statesman,  born  in  1710,  succeeded  to  the  dukedom 
in  1732.  He  became  secretary  of  state  in  1748,  and  ne 
gotiated  in  1762  a  treaty  of  peace  with  France.  He  was 
president  of  the  council  in  the  Grenville  ministry,  (1763- 
65.)  He  was  a  man  of  good  intentions,  but  was  misled 
by  a  set  of  political  jobbers,  called  the  "  Bloornsbury 
gang."  Died  in  1771. 

See  DAVID  Ross,  "  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  House  of  Rus 
sell,"  1848. 

Russell,  (Lord  JOHN,)  afterwards  EARL  RUSSELL, 
an  eminent  Britisli  Whig  statesman,  born  in  London  on 
the  i^th  of  August,  1792.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Bedford.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
the  fourth  Viscount  Torrington.  He  studied  first  at  the 
Westminster  School,  from  which  he  passed  to  the  Uni 
versity  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
Dugald  Stewart  and  Thomas  Brown  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Play-fair.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Tavistock  in 
1813,  and  began  his  career  as  a  member  of  the  Whig  party, 
which  was  then  in  the  opposition.  He  soon  became 
a  zealous  advocate  of  Parliamentary  reform,  and  made 
motions  for  the  suppression  of  rotten  boroughs,  which 
he  repeated  year  after  year.  In  1821  he  published  "  An 
Essay  on  the  History  of  the  English  Government  and 
Constitution,"  and  in  1822  "Don  Carlos,  or  Persecu 
tion,"  a  tragedy.  He  procured  in  1828  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  acts  which  subjected  Protestant  dissenters  to  civil 
disabilities.  On  the  accession  of  the  Whig  party  to 
power  in  1830,  Lord  John  was  appointed  paymaster  of 
the  forces,  and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  four  by 
which  the  celebrated  Reform  bill  was  prepared.  Russell 
is  reputed  to  be  the  principal  author  of  this  bill,  which 
was  introduced  in  March,  1831,  and  was  rejected  by  a 
small  majority.  The  ministers,  having  dissolved  Parlia 
ment  and  appealed  to  the  country,  obtained  a  large  ma 
jority  in  the  new  House  of  Commons,  and,  after  a  long 
and  violent  crisis,  caused  by  the  hostility  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  the  Reform  bill  became  a  law  in  1832.  Lord 
John  was  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party  in  the  House  of 
Commons  after  1834,  and  was  appointed  secretary  for 
the  home  department  by  Lord  Melbourne  in  April,  1835. 
He  married  in  1835  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Lord  Ribbles- 
dale  and  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Lister.  He  represented 
Stroud  in  Parliament  from  1834  to  1841,  and  was  secre 
tary  for  the  colonies  from  August,  1839,  to  September, 
1841.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  mem 
bers  for  the  city  of  London,  and  resigned  office  with  his 
colleagues.  He  contributed  in  1845  to  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws.  The  Whig  party  having  been  restored  to 
power  by  the  defeat  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Russell  became 
prime  minister  in  July,  1846.  He  resigned  office  in 
February  or  March,  1852,  and  in  December  of  that  year 
entered  the  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen  as  secretary  for 
foreign  affairs.  Having  retired  from  this  position  in 
February,  1853,  he  was  president  of  the  council  from 
April  or  June^  1854,  to  January,  1855.  He  served  tinder 
Palmerston  as  colonial  secretary  for  a  short  time  in  1855. 

On  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Lord  Palmer 
ston  in  June,  1859,  Lord  John  was  appointed  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs.  In  July,  1861,  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Earl  Russell  of  Kingston-Russell,  and  passed 
into  the  House  of  Lords.  During  the  civil  war  in  Amer 
ica  he  pursued  a  policy  of  neutrality  and  non-interven 
tion.  Like  many  other  European  statesmen,  he  hastily 
judged  that  the  Union  was  doomed,  to  a  premature 
dissolution.  In  October,  1865,  he  was  called  by  public 
opinion  and  the  will  of  the  queen  to  the  office  of  prime 
minister,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston.  The 


cabinet  on  this  occasion  was  reorganized  by  the  admis 
sion  of  a  few  new  members.  His  principal  colleagues 
were  W.  E.  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
Lord  Clarendon,  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  Lord  Gran- 
ville,  president  of  the  council,  the  Duke  of  Somerset, 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  Edward  Cardwell,  secretary 
for  the  colonies,  and  Milner  Gibson,  president  of  the 
board  of  trade.  In  the  early  part  of  the  session  of  1866 
the  ministry  introduced  a  bill  for  the  extension  of  the 
elective  franchise,  with  which  they  pledged  themselves 
to  stand  or  fall.  In  this  Reform  bill  they  proposed  to 
give  the  franchise  to  every  citizen  of  a  borough  who 
occupied,  as  owner  or  tenant,  a  house  of  the  clear 
yearly  value  of  seven  pounds.  A  long  and  excited 
debate  followed.  Although  the  professed  Liberals 
were  a  large  majority  of  the  House,  the  bill  was  de 
feated  by  a  majority  of  eleven,  June  18,  1866,  and  the 
ministry  resigned.  JJ^'t-,  /ays  . 

See  ALISON,  "History  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  L.  L>E  LOMENIE.  "Lord  J.  Russell,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  S.  SMILES,  "  Brief  Biographies;"  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1823;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1838,  June, 
1845,  December,  1852;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1848. 

Russell,  (JOHN  SCOTT,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  engineer 
and  naval  architect,  was  born  in  the  Vale  of  Clyde,  in 
Scotland,  in  1808.  lie  settled  in  London  in  1844.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  experiments  to  ascertain  the 
form  of  ships  which  will  encounter  the  least  resistance, 
and  adopted  the  theory  that  a  ship  should  resemble  in 
form  a  "  wave  of  translation."  The  Great  Eastern  is 
constructed  according  to  his  system. 

Russell,  (MICHAEL,)  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  an 
able  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1781.  He  became 
incumbent  of  Saint  James's  Chapel,  Leith,  about  1810. 
His  principal  work  is  "The  Connection  of  Sacred  and 
Profane  History,"  (3  vols.,  1821-27,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  became  Bishop  of  Glasgow  in  1837.  Died 
in  1848. 

Russell,  (PATRICK,)  M.D.,  born  in  Scotland  in  1726, 
was  a  brother  of  Alexander,  noticed  above.  He  suc 
ceeded  his  brother  in  1754  as  physician  at  Aleppo,  where 
he  witnessed  the  prevalence  of  the  great  plague  of  1760. 
He  published  in  1791  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  the 
Plague."  Died  in  1805. 

Russell,  (Lady  RACHEL  Wriothesley — rot'es-le,) 
born  about  1636,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  South 
ampton,  and  one  of  the  most  lovely  and  noble  of  women. 
Her  first  husband  was  Lord  Vaughan.  In  1669  she  was 
married  to  Lord  William  Russell,  at  whose  trial  she 
served  him  as  amanuensis.  Her  conduct  on  this  occa 
sion  excited  general  admiration  and  sympathy.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  "Letters  of  Lady  Russell;"  "Lady  Russell:  an  Historical 
Study,"  translated  from  the  French  of  GUIZOT.  whose  work  is  entitled 
"  L' Amour  Hans  le  Maria^e,"  8th  edition,  1862;  "Some  Account  of 
the  Life  of  Rachel  Wriothesley,  Ladv  Russell ;"  "  Memoirs  of  Emi 
nent  Englishwomen,"  by  LOUISA  S.  COSTELLO,  1844. 

Russell,  (WILLIAM,)  fifth  EARL,  and  afterwards  Duke 
of  Bedford,  born  about  1614,  inherited  the  earldom  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1641.  He  was  an  adherent 
of  the  Parliament  in  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  but 
became  a  royalist  in  1643.  He  was  the  father  of  Lord 
William  Russell  who  was  beheaded  in  1683.  In  1694 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Bedford.  Died  in  1700. 

Russell,  (Lord  WILLIAM,)  an  English  patriot,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1639.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1660,  and  married  in  1669  the  widow  of  Lord  Vaughan, 
(see  RUSSELL,  LADY,)  with  whom  he  passed  many  happy 
years.  By  his  honourable  character  and  high  rank  he 
acquired  great  political  influence,  which  he  employed  in 
defence  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  He  was  appointed 
by  Charles  II.  a  member  of  a  new  council  of  ministers 
formed  in  1679.  In  1680  he  and  his  friends  procured 
the  passage  of  a  bill  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Duke  of 
York  from  the  throne  because  he  was  a  papist.  The 
bill  was  rejected  by  the  peers.  A  conspiracy  against  the 
king,,  called  the  Rye-House  Plot,  was  formed  by  some 
inferior  partisans.  This  plot  having  been  detected,  Lord 
Russell  was  accused  of  complicity  in  it,  and  unjustly 
condemned  to  death.  lie  was  beheaded  on  the  22cl  of 
July,  1683.  He  left  a  son,  who  became  Duke  of  Bedford. 

He  had  given  such  proofs  of  an  undaunted  courage  and 


€  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  K,  trilled ' :  s  as  3;  th  as  in  ///;>.    (J^^See  "Explanations,  p.  23.) 


R  USSELL 


1936 


R UXTON 


unshaken  firmness,"  says  Burnet,  "that  no  man  of  that 
time  had  so  entire  a  credit  in  the  nation  as  he  had." 

See  LORD  JOHN  KUSSEI.L,  "  Life  of  William  Lord  Russell,"  iSig; 
J.  H.  WIFFEN,  "Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  2  vols.,  1X33; 
"Lord  Russell's  Case,  with  Observations  upon  it,"  by  HKNKY 
I.OKD  L>E  LA  MERE;  BURNKT,  "  Historv  of  liis  Own  Time;"  D. 
Ross,  "Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  184*; 
"Monthly  Review"  tor  March,  1820. 

Russell,  (WILLIAM,)  LL.IX,  a  British  historian,  born 
in  the  county  of  Selkirk  in  1741.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  in  1767,  and  published  various  works  in 
prose  and  verse.  His  most  popular  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Modern  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1779-84.)  Died  in  1793. 

See  IRVINE,  "Life  of  William  Russell,"  1801  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  iSiS. 

Russell,  (.WILLIAM,)  a  teacher  and  educational  writer, 
born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1798.  Having  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  he  became  in  1826  editor  of  the 
"American  Journal  of  Education."  He  has  published 
several  text-books  for  schools. 

RuVsell,  (WILLIAM  HOWARD,)  an  Irish  writer,  noted 
as  correspondent  of  the  London  "Times,"  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  1821.  He  accompanied  the  British  army  to 
the  Crimea  in  1854,  and  wrote  letters  on  the  Crimean 
war,  which  attracted  great  attention  and  were  collected 
in  two  volumes,  (1856.)  In  1861  he  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  to  report  for  the  "Times"  the  progress 
of  the  rebellion. 

Rust,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Cam 
bridge.  He  became  Bishop  of  Dromore  in  1667,  and 
published  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1670. 

Rustani  or  Rustem.     See  ROOSTAM. 

Rustic!,  roos'tee-chee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Sienna  about  1595.  He  died  prema 
turely  in  1625. 

Rustic!,  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO,)  a  skilful  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1460  or  1470,  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  executed  three  colossal 
bronze  statues — Saint  John,  a  Pharisee,  and  a  Levite — 
for  the  baptistery  of  Florence.  He  removed  to  France 
about  1528.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  worked  in 
Paris  for  Francis  I.  Died  about  1550.  "  He  was  without 
an  equal  for  the  casting  of  works  in  metal,"  says  Vasari, 
who  also  praises  his  character  in  high  terms. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Rut'gers,  (Colonel  HENRY,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  about  1746,  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and 
was  afterwards  a  citizen  of  New  York  City.  He  was  very 
rich,  and  gave  large  sums  for  charity.  Died  in  1830. 

Rutgers,  rut'gers  or  rut' Hers,  (JoHN,)  an  able  Dutch 
critic,  born  at  Dort  in  1589,  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Daniel  lleinsius.  He  was  appointed  a  councillor  of 
state  by  the  King  of  Sweden  in  1614,  after  which  he 
was  employed  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  diplomatic  mis 
sions.  Among  his  works  are  "  Variae  Lectiones,"  (1618,) 
and  an  autobiography,  (1646.)  Died  in  1625. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Ruth,  [Heb.  nn,]  a  Moabite  woman,  who  was  mar 
ried  to  Mahlon,  a  Hebrew,  and  afterwards  to  Boaz.  She 
was  a  great-grandmother  of  King  David.  Her  story  is 
the  subject  of  the  canonical  book  of  Ruth. 

Ruth'er-ford,  (DANIEL,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1749.  He  is  regarded  as 
the  discoverer  of  nitrogen,  on  which  he  wrote  a  thesis, 
"  l)e  Acre  mephitico,"  (1772.)  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  botany  at  Edinburgh  in  1786.  Died  in  1819. 

Rutherford,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  Cov 
enanter,  born  in  the  parish  of  Nisbet,  Roxburghshire, 
about  1600,  was  an  eloquent  and  zealous  preacher.  lie 
was  ordained  minister  at  Anworth  in  1627,  and  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Saint  Andrew's  in  1639.  He 
wrote  against  the  divine  right  of  kings,  in  a  work  en 
titled  "Law  is  King,"  ("Lex  Rex.")  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Trial  and  Triumph  of  Faith,"  (1645,) 
and  religious  "  Letters."  Died  in  1661. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
CHAKLES  THOMSON,  "Letters  and  Life  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Ruther 
ford,"  2  vols.,  1846. 

Riith'er-forth,  (THOMAS,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English 
writer,  born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  1712.  He  became 
rector  of  Barley  and  Archdeacon  of  Essex.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  religion,  philosophy,  etc.  Died  in  1771. 


Ruth'er-furd,  (ANDREW,)  a  learned  and  able  Scot 
tish  lawyer  and  judge,  born  in  1791,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Lord  Jeffrey.  He  was  appointed  lord  advocate 
of  Scotland  in  1839,  retired  from  that  office  in  1841,  and 
was  restored  in  1846.  In  1851  he  became  a  lord  of 
session.  Died  in  1854. 

Ruthven.     See  GOWRIE,  EARL  OF. 

Ru-til'i-us  Lu'pus,  a  Roman  rhetorician  of  an  un 
certain  epoch.  He  was  author  of  a  work  "On  the 
Figures  of  Sentences  and  Elocution,"  ("De  Figuris  Sen- 
tentiarum  et  Elocutionis,")  which  is  accounted  valuable. 
Some  suppose  he  was  a  son  of  Rutilius  Lupus  who  was 
tribune  of  the  people  about  55  it.C. 

Rutil'ius  Numatia'nus,  (nu-ma-she-a'nus,)  (CLAU 
DIUS,)  a  Roman  poet,  born  in  Gaul  about  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  a  pagan.  He  became  prccfccttts  url>i 
at  Rome,  and  described  a  journey  from  Rome  to  Gaul 
in  a  poem  called  "  Itinerarium,"  which  is  a  work  of 
much  merit.  Nearly  half  of  it  is  lost. 

Rut'land,  (CHARLES  CKCIL  JOHN  MANNERS,)  DUKK 
OF,  eldest  son  of  John  Henry  Manners,  fifth  Duke  of 
Rutland,  was  born  in  1815.  lie  was  styled  Marquis  of 
Granby  before  he  succeeded  to  the  dukedom,  in  1857. 
He  is  a  conservative  in  politics. 

Rutland,  (CHARLES  MANNERS,)  fourth  DUKE  OF,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  general,  Marquis  of  Granby.  lie 
succeeded  his  grandfather,  the  third  duke,  in  1779.  He 
was  a  personal  and  political  friend  of  William  Pitt,  and 
was  a  patron  of  the  poet  Crabbe.  He  was  eminent  for 
generosity  and  benevolence.  Died  in  1787. 

Rutland,  EARL  OF,  an  English  peer,  whose  family 
name  was  MANNERS,  was  a  favourite  ot  Henry  VIII. 
He  held  important  offices  in  the  reign  of  that  king,  and 
was  created  Earl  of  Rutland  in  1525.  One  of  his  de 
scendants,  JOHN  MANNERS,  the  tenth  earl,  was  created 
Marquis  of  Granby  and  Duke  of  Rutland  about  1702. 

Rut'ledge,  (EDWARD,)  an  American  jurist,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  Charles 
ton,  South  Carolina,  in  1749.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774,  and  in  1798 
became  Governor  of  South  Carolina.  He  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer  and  orator.  Died  in  1800. 

Rutledge,  (JoHN,)  an  American  jurist  and  orator, 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1739,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1774  a  member 
of  the  General  Congress,  in  which  he  was  a  bold  and 
prominent  supporter  of  independence.  He  was  elected 
president  of  South  Carolina  in  1776,  and  Governor  of 
that  State  in  1779.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  the  adoption  of  which  he  afterwards 
advocated.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  in  1789,  and  chief  justice  of 
South  Carolina  in  1791.  He  was  nominated  chief  justice 
of  the  United  States  in  July,  1795,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  Senate  in  December  of  that  year.  He  was  an  elo 
quent  orator,  and  a  man  of  eminent  talents.  Died  in 
July,  1800. 

See  th.,5  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Rut'ty,  (JOHN,)  a  physician  and  writer,  born  in  Dub 
lin  in  1698,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
He  practised  in  Dublin,  and  wrote,  besides  some  medical 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
People  called  Quakers  in  Ireland,"  (1751,)  and  a  "Spir 
itual  Diary  and  Soliloquies,"  (2  vols.,  1776.)  Died  in 

1775- 

Ruvigny,  de,  deh  ru'ven'ye',  (HENRI  de  Massue — 
deli  mS'sii',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  Huguenot  general  and 
able  diplomatist,  born  in  1610,  was  an  uncle  of  the  excel 
lent  Lady  Rachel  Russell.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the 
war  of  the  Fronde.  Having  been  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  on  a 
mission  to  Charles  II.  in  1675,  he  induced  the  latter  for 
a  pecuniary  consideration  to  become  subservient  to  the 
designs  of  the  French  king.  He  emigrated  to  England 
in  1686,  and  died  in  1689,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  a 
famous  general.  (See  GALWAY,  EARL  OF.) 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante. " 

Riix'toii,  (GEORGE  FREDERICK,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  1820,  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  British  army. 
He  wrote  "  Adventures  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RUTSBROEK 


»937 


RTS  BRACK 


Mexico,"  and  "Life  in  the  Far  West."  Died  at  Saint 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  1848. 

Ruysbroek.     See  RUBRUQUIS. 

Ruysbroek,  de,  deh  rois'buook,  (JAN,)  called  THE 
ECSTATIC  DOCTOR,  a  Flemish  mystic  and  writer,  born 
about  1294;  died  in  1381. 

See  ENGELHAROT,  "Richard  von  St.  Victor  und  Jan  Ruysbroek." 
1838. 

Ruysch.     See  Rriscn. 

Ruysdael,  Ruysdaal,  or  Ruisdael,  rois'dll,  QA- 
Coi;,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter  of  high  reputation,  was 
born  at  Haarlem  about  1630.  His  birth  is  variously 
dated  1625,  1630,  and  1635.  lie  was  a  friend  of  Nicholas 
Berghem,  from  whom  perhaps  he  received  instruction 
in  art.  He  imitated  nature  with  fidelity.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  sylvan  scenes,  cascades,  and  marine  views. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Stag-Hunt,"  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden.  Died  in  1681. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands, Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ruysdael,  (Soi.OMON,)  a  painter,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1616,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  invented 
a  composition  which  was  a  good  imitation  of  variegated 
marble.  Died  in  1670. 

Ruyter  or  Ruiter,  de,  deh  ri'ter,  [Dutch  pron.  deh 
roi'ter,]  (MICHAEL  ADRIAANZOON,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
admiral,  born  at  Flushing  in  1607.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1645,  and  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  English  near  Plymouth  in  1652.  In 
1653  he  distinguished  himself  in  a  great  battle  between 
the  Dutch,  under  Van  Tromp,  and  the  English,  under 
Blake.  In  the  service  of  the  King  of  Denmark  he  de 
feated  the  Swedes  in  1659.  He  sailed  up  the  Thames 
in  1667  and  destroyed  the  shipping  at  Sheerness.  In 
1671  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  the  combined  fleets 
of  England  and  France  were  not  able  to  defeat.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  a  fight  against  the  French 
admiral  Duquesne  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1675. 

See  G.  BRANDT,  "  Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  M.  van  Ruiter,"  1687: 
OTTO  KI.OPP,  "  Leben  und  Tliaten  des  Admirals  de  Ruiter,"  1852  ; 
LAST,  "Leven  van  M.  A.  de  Ruyter,"  1842;  "Life  of  M.  A.  de 
Ruyter,"  London,  1687;  BRAND,  "Hulde  aan  den  Admiraal  de 
Ruyter,"  1827. 

Ruyven,  van,  vtn  voi'ven,  (PETER,)  a  Dutch  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Jordaens. 
Died  in  1718. 

Ruzeea-  (or  Razia-)  Begum,  rilz-ee'a  ba'giim,  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Altmish  Shems-ood-Deen,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1236.  On  one  occasion  her  father 
1  ad  appointed  her  regent  during  his  absence  on  a  dis 
tant  campaign.  When  asked  by  his  officers  why  he 
preferred  his  daughter  to  any  of  his  sons,  he  replied  that 
his  older  sons  gave  themselves  up  to  wine  and  every 
excels, — that  she,  though  a  woman,  was  better  than 
twenty  such  sons.  At  first  she  ruled  the  empire  with 
great  prudence  as  well  as  ability.  But  her  partiality  to 
one  of  her  officers,  who  was  an  Abyssinian,  greatly 
offended  her  nobles,  in  consequence  of  which  she  was 
dethroned  and  put  to  death  in  1239,  after  a  reign  of  only 
three  years  and  six  months.  "She  was,"  says  Perish ta, 
"possessed  of  every  good  quality  which  usually  adorns 
the  ablest  princes  ;  and  those  who  scrutinize  her  actions 
most  severely  will  find  in  her  no  fault  but  that  she  was  a 
woman."  Ruzeea-Begum  was  a  half-sister  of  the  able 
but  eccentric  Mahmood-Nasir-ood-Deen. 

See  FKKISUTA,  "  History  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
translated  by  BRIGGS,  vol.  i.  pp.  214-222. 

Rybaut  or  Ribaut,  re'bo',  (PAUL,)  an  excellent 
French  Protestant  minister,  born  near  Montpellier  in 
1718.  He  lived  in  caves  and  huts  in  the  forest,  where 
he  preached  for  many  years  while  the  law  denounced 
death  as  the  penalty  of  preaching  the  Protestant  doc 
trines.  He  had  great  influence,  and  restrained  his  peo 
ple  from  rash  and  desperate  measures.  Died  in  1795. 

Rycaut  or  Ricaut,  re'kf/,  ?  (Sir  PAUL,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  diplomatist  and  historical  writer,  borrt  in  London, 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1650.  He  was  secretary 
of  embassy  at  Constantinople  from  1661  to  1669.  He 
published  "The  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman  Empire," 
(1670,)  a  "History  of  the  Turkish  Empire  from  1623 
to  1677,"  (1680,)  and  other  works.  In  1690  he  was 
appointed  resident  at  the  Hanse  Towns.  Died  in  1700. 


Ryckaert,  nk'SiU,  (DAVID,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1615.  He  painted  interiors,  fairs, 
rustic  gatherings,  musical  parties,  etc.  Died  in  1677. 

Ryckaert,  (MARTIN,)  a  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1591,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  and  returned  to  Antwerp.  Died 
in  1636. 

Rycke,de,deh  ri'keh,  [Lat.  Ric'QUiusorRYc'Qinus,] 
(JosSE,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ghent  in 
1587.  Among  his  works  are  "Two  Books  of  Odes," 
("Odarum  Libri  duo,"  1614,)  and  "On  the  Roman 
Capital,"  ("De  Capitolio  Romano,"  1617.)  Died  in 
1627. 

Rycke,  van,  vtn  ri'keh,  (THEODORE,)  a  Dutch  critic, 
born  at  Arnhem  in  1640.  He  was  professor  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  published  an  edition 
of  Tacitus,  (1687.)  Died  in  1690. 

Rycquius.    See  RYCKE. 

Ry'der,  (Sir  DUDLEY,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  in  1694.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1737, 
and  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1754.  He 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby.  Died  in  1756. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices ;"  Foss, 
"  The  Judges  of  England." 

Ryder,  (HENRY,)  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1824. 
Died  in  1836. 

Rydqvist,  rid'kwlst,  (JoHAN  ERIK,)  a  Swedish 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1800.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Laws  of  the 
Swedish  Language,"  (2  vols.,  1852-57.) 

Ryer,  Du.     See  Du  RYER. 

Ry'er-spn,  (ADOLPHUS  EGERTON,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
Canadian  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Upper  Canada  in 
1803.  He  was  appointed  in  1844  superintendent  of 
public  schools  in  Upper  Canada. 

Ryk,  rlk,  (Jui.ius  CONSTANTINE,)  a  Dutch  naval 
officer,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1787.  He  became  .a 
rear-admiral  in  1838,  minister  of  the  marine  in  1842, 
and  vice-admiral  in  1844. 

Ry'land,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  English  Baptist  minis 
ter,  born  at  Warwick  in  1753,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  J.  C. 
Ryland.  principal  of  the  Enfiekl  Academy.  He  became 
pastor  of  the  Broadmead  Chapel,  Bristol,  in  1793,  and 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Andrew  Fuller,"  (1816.)  Died  in  1825. 

Ry'land,  (JoHN,)  a  Baptist  minister,  preached  at 
Northampton.  He  wrote  "The  Christian  Student  and 
Pastor,"  and  other  works,  and  was  principal  of  an 
academy  at  En  field,  where  he  died  in  1792. 

Rylaiid,  (WILLIAM  WYNNE,)  an  able  English  en 
graver,  born  in  London  in  1732,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Bas, 
of  Paris.  He  was  appointed  engraver  to  George  III. 
with  a  pension  of  ^200  per  annum,  and  engaged  in  busi 
ness  as  a  dealer  in  prints.  He  introduced  the  chalk  or 
stipple  method  into  England.  He  was  convicted  of 
forgery  of  a  bill  of  ^"210  on  the  East  India  Company, 
and  was  executed  in  1783.  He  asserted  his  innocence 
to  the  last.  According  to  Strutt,  "  he  was  a  man  re 
spected  and  beloved  by  all  that  were  acquainted  with 
him."  He  excelled  in  the  use  of  the  graver  and  needle 
combined. 

See  STRUTT,  "Dictionary of  Engravers." 

Rylejew.     See  RILEYEF. 

Rymer.     See  HRYM. 

Ry'mer,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  antiquary  and  editor, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1638  or  1639,  was  a  son  of  Ralph 
Rymer,  who  was  executed  for  insurrection  in  1663.  He 
was  appointed  historiographer  to  William  III.  in  1692, 
with  a  salary  of  ^"200,  and  was  charged  to  collect  and 
edit,  under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Somers  and  Mr.  Mon 
tagu,  the  documents  relating  to  transactions  between 
England  and  foreign  powers.  The  first  volume  of  this 
important  work,  called  "  Rymer's  Foedera,"  appeared 
in  1703,  and  was  followed  by  sixteen  other  volumes. 
Died  in  1714. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biosraphie  Generale  ;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biograph 
ical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rysbrack,  rls'bRak,  written  also  Rysbraeck,  (Mi- 
CHAEL  or  JOHN  MICHAEL,)  an  eminent  Flemish  sculp- 


€  as  K:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K.  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R.  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 

1  22 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RTS  BRACK 


'938 


SAAVEDRA 


tor,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1694,  was  a  son  of  Peter, 
noticed  below.  lie  settled  in  London  in  1720,3110!  soon 
became  the  most  popular  or  successful  sculptor  in  Eng 
land  except  Roubiliac.  Among  his  best  works  are  a 
monument  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  a  monument  to  the  Duke  of  Marl  borough  at  Blen 
heim.  Died  in  1770. 

Rysbrack,  Rysbraeck,  or  Rysbraech,  some 
times  written  Rysbrechts,  (PKTKR,)  an  able  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1657,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  imitated  the  style  of  N.  Poussin  with 
success.  He  excelled  in  colouring  and  in  boldness  and 
freedom  of  touch.  Died  in  1716. 

Rysbraeck.     See  RYSHRACK. 

Rysbrechts.     See  RYSUKACK. 

Ryves,  rlvz,  (BRUNO,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  became  chaplain  of  Mag 


dalene  College,  Oxford,  in  1616.  lie  was  afterwards 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  was  persecuted  during  the 
civil  war.  Died  in  1677. 

Ryves,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  civilian,  became  a 
Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1598,  and  a  master 
in  chancery  in  1618.  He  was  in  the  civil  war  a  zealous 
partisan  of  Charles  I.,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  treaty  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  wrote  "  Ancient  Naval  History," 
("  Historia  navalis  antiqua,")  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1651. 

Rzewuski,  Rzewusky,  zha-woos'ke,  written  also 
Rzewiesky,  (\VKNCKSI.AS,)  a  Polish  general  and  noble 
man,  born  in  1705,  was  noted  for  his  literary  attainments. 
He  was  imprisoned  six  years  at  Smolensk  and  Kalonga 
for  his  opposition  to  the  election  of  Stanislas  Ponia- 
towski,  in  1767.  He  wrote  poems,  dramas,  etc.  Died 
in  1779. 


S. 


Saa,  de,  da  sS,  (EMANUEI.,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born 
in  1530,  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Rome,  and  was 
employed  by  Pius  V.  to  superintend  a  new  edition  of  the 
Vulgate.  Died  in  1596. 

Saa  de  Miranda.     See  MIRANDA. 

Sa  da  Bandeira,  de,  da  sa  da  ban-da'e-ra,  (BiCR- 
NAKDO,)  a  Portuguese  soldier  and  statesman,  born  in 
1796,  fought  against  the  French  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
and  subsequently  became  a  partisan  of  Dom  Pedro,  who 
made  him  a  peer  and  minister  of  the  marine. 

Saad-ed-Deeii  or  Saad-Eddiii,  sa'ad  ed-deen', 
( Mohammed  Effendi,  mo-ham'med  ef-fen'dee,)  an 
eminent  Turkish  historian,  born  in  1536,  was  educated 
at  the  court  of  the  Sultan  Selim  I.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  and  jurisprudence  in  the  college 
attached  to  the  mosque  of  Saint  Sophia,  and  in  1573  was 
appointed  by  Selim  II.  khoja  or  preceptor  to  his  son, 
Amurath  III.  He  also  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Mohammed 
III.,  the  successor  of  Amurath,  and  in  1598  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  grand  mufti.  He  had  previously  been 
appointed  by  Amurath  imperial  historiographer,  —  an 
office  created  expressly  for  him.  His  principal  work, 
entitled  "The  Crown  of  Histories,"  (  "  Taj-al-Towa- 
rikh,")  is  regarded  by  the  Turks  as  a  model  of  elegance 
in  style,  and  is  highly  commended  by  Sir  William  Jones. 
It  was  translated  into  Italian  by  Vincenzo  Bratutti.  Died 
in  1599. 

Saadee,  Saadi,  or  Sadi,  sa'a-dee  or  sa'dee,  (Mus- 
lih-ed-Deen,*  (or  -eddin,)  moos'liii  ed-deen',)  a  cele 
brated  Persian  poet,  born  at  Shiraz  about  1184.  He 
early  manifested  a  remarkable  spirit  of  devotion,  and  he 
is  said  to  have  made  during  his  life  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  besides  which  he  visited  in  his 
travels  Bagdad,  Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Morocco,  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  Hindostan,  and  other  countries.  Among  his 
other  adventures,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  battle  with 
the  crusaders,  by  whom  he  was  held  for  some  time  in 
captivity.  On  his  return  from  his  extended  peregrina 
tions  he  took  up  his  abode  in  his  native  city,  where, 
chiefly  on  account  of  his  religious  character,  he  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  with  the  highest  respect  and 
veneration.  Princes  and  nobles  are  said  often  to  have 
visited  him,  bringing  him  presents.  He  died  in  1291, 
having,  it  is  said,  attained  the  extraordinary  age  of  one 
hundred  and  seven  years,  or,  as  the  Moslem  writers 
state  it,  of  one  hundred  and  ten  (lunar)  years.  After  his 
death  he  was  regarded  as  a  saint,  and  tradition  ascribed 
to  him  the  power  of  working  miracles. 

The  works  of  Saadee  are  probably  more  extensively 
read  than  those  of  any  other  Persian  writer,  Firdousee 
(the  Homer  of  Persia)  not  excepted.  His  "Gulistan" 
("  Rose-Garden")  is  deservedly  the  most  popular  of  all 
his  works.  It  consists  of  stories,  anecdotes,  and  moral 
observations  and  reflections,  partly  in  prose  and  partly 
in  verse,  and  possesses,  besides  other  merits,  the  charm 

*  Muslih  (or  Moslih)  signifies  "mediator,"  "pacificator."  Mus- 
lih-ed  Deen  maybe  translated  "pacificator,  friend,  or  promoter  of 
the  Faith." 


of  endless  variety.  The  religious  character  of  his  mind 
is  conspicuous  in  his  writings  ;  he  appears,  moreover,  to 
have  possessed  a  kindly  and  humane  spirit,  and  his 
moral  sentiments  may  be  said  to  be  for  the  most  part 
elevated  and  pure,  with  one  important  exception,  his 
encouraging  or  conniving  at  deceit,  which,  like  most 
other  Asiatics,  he  seems  to  have  regarded  as  often  a 
venial  fault  and  sometimes  as  a  virtue  of  high  order. 
Among  Saadee's  other  writings  is  the  "  Bostan,"  ("  Fruit- 
Garden,")  which  is  a  religious  and  moral  poem,  divided 
into  ten  books.  Saadee  is  greatly  admired  by  his  coun 
trymen  as  a  lyric  poet. 

The  style  of  Saadee  is  usually  clear,  simple,  and  ani 
mated ;  he  is  sometimes  eloquent  and  highly  poetical. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  some  eminent  critics,  he 
makes  a  more  sparing  use  of  hyperbole  and  metaphor 
than  most  other  Oriental  writers.  His  language,  how 
ever,  differs  from  that  of  Firdousee  in  containing  fewer 
words  from  the  original  Persian,  and  a  much  larger 
admixture  of  Arabic  terms  and  phrases. 

See  L.  M.  LANGLfcs,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Onvrages  de 
Sa'ady,"  about  1X20;  D'HHKHHI.OT,  "  liibliothuque  Orientale  :" 
Oi'SKi-EY,  "Biographical  Notices  of  the  Persian  Poets;"  SILVKSTKE 
UK  SACY,  "Notices;"  VON  HAMMKK,  "  (jeschichte  der  schunen 
Redekiinste  Persiens." 

Saadia,  sa'dee'a,  (Bi«:N  JOSKI'II,)  a  celebrated  Jewish 
theologian  and  philosopher,  sometimes  called  SAADIAS- 
GAO.N,  born  at  Fayoom,  in  Egypt,  in  892.  He  was  teacher 
of  the  Jewish  academy  at  Sura,  and  made  an  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Pentateuch.  He  also  wrote,  in  Arabic, 
a  treatise  "On  Religions  and  Doctrines."  Died  in  942. 

Saas,  sas,  (jEAN,)a  French  ecclesiastic  and  bibliogra 
pher,  born  at  Rouen  in  1703  ;  died  in  1774. 

Saavedra,  de.     See  CKRVANTKS. 

Saavedra,  de,  da  si-va'DRa,  (  ANGKL,)  Duke  of  Rivas, 
a  distinguished  Spanish  poet,  statesman,  and  soldier, 
born  at  Cordova  in  1791.  He  fought  against  the  French 
at  Talavera,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Ocana,  in  1809.  On  the  French  invasion  of  1823,  he 
repaired  to  London,  and  subsequently  to  Malta,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  English  literature. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  was  appointed  procer  of  the 
kingdom,  and  became  a  member  of  the  ministry  under 
Isturiz  in  1836.  He  was  afterwards  ambassador  to 
Naples,  and  filled  other  important  offices.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  poem  of  "The  Moorish  Found 
ling,"  ("  El  Moro  Exposito,"  1834,)  the  tragedy  of  "  Don 
Alvaro,"  (1835,)  "La  Morisca  de  Alajuar,"  a  drama, 
(1842,)  and  a  history  of  Masaniello's  insurrection  at 
Naples. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  KEN-TIDY, 
"Modern  Poets  of  Spain." 

Saavedra  y  Fajardo,  (or  Faxardo,)  sS-va'DKae  fa- 
Hau'do,  (  DIKGO,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist  and  distinguished 
writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Murcia  in  1584.  He  was 
sent  on  diplomatic  missions  to  several  courts  of  Germany 
and  Italy.  His  principal  works  are  an  "Idea  of  a  Chris 
tian  Prince,"  ("  Idea  de  un  Principe  politico  Christiano," 
etc.,  1640,)  consisting  chiefly  of  a  collection  of  political 


,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  \,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


'939 


SACADAS 


maxims,  and  an  ingenious  critique  of  ancient  and 
modern  writers,  entitled  "  Republica  Literaria,"  (1670.) 
Died  in  1648. 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  G.  MAYANS  v 
SISCAR,  "Oracion  en  Alabanza  de  las  Obias  de  Don  D.  de  Saavedra 
y  Kaxardo,"  1725. 

Sa'ba  or  Sa'bas,  [SuSac,]  a  Greek  monk  of  high 
reputation,  born  in  Cappadocia  about  439  A.D.  He 
founded  a  monastery  near  the  river  Jordan.  lie  was  an 
opponent  of  the  Monophysites.  Died  in  532  A.D. 

Sab'a-cou  or  Sab'a-cp,  [Gr.  ZaCaKuiv,]  King  of 
Ethiopia,  invaded  Egypt,  dethroned  its  king,  and  reigned 
many  years  over  that  country.  He  lived  probably  about 
750  or  800  B.C. 

Sabas.     See  SABA. 

Sabatei  Sevi,  sa-ba-ta'ee  sa'vee,  a  Jewish  impostor, 
born  at  Smyrna  in  1626,  claimed  to  be  the  Messiah. 
Being  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks,  he  saved  his  life  by 
embracing  Mohammedanism.  Died  in  1676. 

Sabatier,  sS'bt'te-i',  (ANDRE  HYACINTHK.)  a  French 
lyric  poet,  was  borrT  at  Cavaillon  in  1726;  died  at 
Avignon  in  1806. 

Sabatier  or  Sabbathier,  sfbt'teji',  (PIERRE,)  a 
French  Benedictine  monk,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in 
1682.  He  prepared  an  edition  of  all  the  Latin  versions 
of  the  Scriptures.  Died  in  1742. 

Sabatier,  (RAPHAEL  BIK.NVKNU,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  in  Paris  in  1732,  was  royal  censor  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  received  from  Bonaparte  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour.  lie  published  several  able  surgical 
treatises.  Died  in  1811. 

Sabatier  de  Castres,  st'bt' te-i'  deh  kSstu,  (Ax- 
TOINK,)  a  French  writer,  was  born  at  Castres  in  1742. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Three  Ages  of 
French  Literature,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1772,)  in  opposition 
to  the  doctrines  of  Helvetius.  lie  also  wrote  "The 
Heathen  Ages,  or  Mythological,  Political,  Literary, 
and  Geographical  Dictionary  of  Pagan  Antiquity,"  (9 
vols.,  1784,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1817. 

See  QUEKAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouve'le  Biographic 
Generale." 

Sabatini,  sa-ba-tee'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  architect,  born  at  Palermo  in  1722,  was  a  son- 
in-law  of  Vanvitelli,  whom  he  assisted  in  building  the 
palace  of  Caserta  near  Naples.  He  afterwards  settled 
at  Madrid,  where  he  built  the  custom-house,  (Aduana,) 
the  gate  of  Alcala,  and  that  of  Saa  Vincente.  Died 
in  1798. 

Sabbathier,  st'ba-'te-i',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  mis 
cellaneous  writer,  born^  at  Condom  in  1735.  His 
chief  work  is  "  Dictionnaire  pour  ITntelligence  des 
Auteurs  Grecs  et  Latins,"  (37  vols.,  1766-1815,)  which 
treats  of  ancient  history,  geography,  mythology,  etc. 
and  presents  a  copious  analysis  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
historians.  Died  in  1807. 

Sabbathier,  (PIERRE.)     See  SABATIER. 

Sabbatini,  sab-ba-tee'nee,  (  ANDREA,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  sometimes  called  ANDREA  DA  SALERNO,  born 
about  1480,  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael.  He  settled  at 
Naples,  where  several  of  his  master-pieces  are  to  be 
seen.  He  is  regarded  as  the  best  painter  of  the  Nea 
politan  school.  Died  in  1545. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Sabbatini,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  painter,  called 
I.IIRI-.NX.A  DA  BOLOGNA,  was  born  in  that  city  about 
1540 ;  died  in  1577. 

Sabbatini,  (P.  Lrnovico  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
musician  and  writer  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  some 
times  called  SABBATINI  OF  PADUA.  Died  in  1809. 

Sa-bel'li-cus,  (M.\Rcrs  ANTONIUS  Coccius,)  origin 
ally  KfARCANTONlO  Coccio,  (kot'cho,)  an  Italian  histo 
rian  and  scholar,  born  in  the  Campagna  di  Roma  in 
1436.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Venice. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Republic  of 
Venice,"  (in  Latin,  1487.)  Died  in  1508. 

See  Vossirs.  "  De  Historic!*  Latinis  :"  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Sa-bel'li-us,  an  African  bishop  or  presbyter,  who 
lived  about  250-270  A.D.  and  dissented  from  the  ortho 
dox  creed  in  relation  to  the  Trinity.  His  doctrines  were 
adopted  by  a  numerous  sect,  called  Sabellians.  Little  is 


known  of  his  personal  history.     He  taught  that  there  is 
only  one  hypostasis,  or  person,  in  the  Divine  nature. 

See  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 
Sa-bi'na,   a    Roman  empress,    was    married    to    the 
emperor    Hadrian    about    100    A.D.,    and    received    the 
title  of  Augusta.     Having  been  ill   treated  by  Hadrian, 
she  committed  suicide  about  137  A.D. 

Sabina,  (Poi>p.-E\.)     See  POI-IVEA. 

Sab'ine,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  in  October,  1788, 
accompanied  Parry's  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regiors 
in  1819.  He  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans 
actions,"  after  his  return,  the  result  of  his  observations 
on  the  action  of  the  magnetic  needle.  In  1822  he  made 
a  voyage  to  Africa  and  North  and  South  America,  of 
which  he  gave  an  account  in  his  "  Pendulum  Expe 
dition,"  (1825.)  He  has  also  written  "Reports  on 
Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Observations,"  and  other 
similar  works.  He  became  vice-president  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1850,  and  president  of  the  same  in  1861. 

Sabine,  (JosEi'H,)  an  English  savant,  born  in  1770, 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  filled  the  post 
of  vice-president  of  the  Zoological  Society,  and  other 
important  offices.  Died  in  1837. 

Sa-bin-i-a'nus  [Fr.  SABINIEN,  st'be'ne-^N'']  suc 
ceeded  Gregory  I.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  604  A.D.  He 
survived  his  election  only  eighteen  months,  and  Boni 
face  III.  was  his  successor. 

Sa-bi'nus,  (AULUS,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  the  friend 
of  Ovid,  and  the  author  of  Epistles,  or  "  Heroides,"  in 
reply  to  those  of  Ovid.  Only  three  of  them  are  extant. 

Sabinus,  (CALVisius,)  a  Roman  commander,  was  an 
adherent  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war.  He  obtained  the 
province  of  Africa  in  45  B.C.,  was  consul  in  39,  and 
commanded  the  fleet  of  Octavius  in  38  B.C. 

Sabinus,  (CcELius  M.,)  a  Roman  jurist,  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and  became  consul  in  69  A.D. 

Sabinus,  (FLAVIUS,)  a  Roman  general  of  high  repu 
tation,  \vss  a  brother  of  the  emperor  Vespasian.  He  held 
the  high  office  of  prtzfectus  urbis  from  58  to  69  A.D. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Vitellius, 
he  was  massacred  at  Rome  in  69  A.D. 

Sabinus,  sa-bee'mis,  (GKORG,)  a  German  scholar  and 

Latin  poet,  whose  original  name  was  SCHULER,  (slui'ler,) 

I  was  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1508.     He  was  a  son-in-law 

of  Melanchthon.     He  became  professor  of  poetry  and 

i  eloquence  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  in  1544  rector 

of  the  University  of  Konigsberg.     Among  his  works  we 

I  may  name  his  Latin  elegies,  entitled  "  Sabini  Carmina." 

!  Died  in  1560. 

See   P.   AI.BINUS,    "Vita  G.  Sabini,"    1724:  M.  W.  HEFFTER, 
I  "  Erinnerung  an  G.  Sabinus,"  1844;    A.   FUKSTENHAUPT,  "Georg 
Sabinus,"  1849. 

Sabinus,  (JuLius,)  a  Gallic  chieftain  of  the  district 

of  the  Lingones,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Caesar 

about  70  A.D.,  and  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Sequani. 

j  He  was  soon  after  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  order  of 

Vespasian. 

Sabinus,  (MASSURIUS  or  MASURUTS,)  an  eminent 
Roman  jurist,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Ca 
ligula.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Capito,  and  the  founder  of 
a  school  of  jurists  called  Sabiniani.  He  wrote  an  im- 
|  portant  treatise  on  civil  law,  on  which  Pompon  ins, 
Paulus,  and  Ulpian  wrote  commentaries. 

See  GROTIUS,  " Vitae  Jurisconsultorum  ;"  ARNTZEN,  "De  Ma- 
I  surio  Sabino,"  1768. 

Sablier,  sjfble-a/,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1693" He  wrote,  besides  several  dramas, 
"  An  Essay  on  Languages  in  general,  and  the  French 
in  particular,"  (1777.)  Died  in  1786. 

Sabliere,  de  la,  deh  It  sf'ble-aiR',  (ANTOINE  Ram- 
bouillet  —  rS.N'boo'ya',)  a  French  poet,  born  about 
1615,  inherited  a  large  fortune.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
madrigals,  which  were  praised  by  Voltaire,  ("  Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV,"  1751,  tome  ii.)  He  died  in  1680. 

His  wife,  MADAME  DE  LA  SAKLIEKE,  was  celebrated 
for  her  talents  and  accomplishments.  She  was  a  friend 
and  benefactor  of  La  Fontaine.  Died  in  1693. 

Sac'a-das  [2rt/td<5af]  OF  ARGOS,  an  eminent  Greek 
musician  and  poet,  lived  about  600  B.C.  He  excelled  as 
a  flute-player. 


€  as  c;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  gtfttural  ;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SACCHETTI 


1940 


SADE 


Sacchetti,  sak-ket'tee,  (FRANCO,)  an  Italian  novelist 
and  poet,  born  at  Florence  about  1335,  was  contempo 
rary  with  Boccaccio.  As  a  novelist,  he  was  regarded 
by  his  countrymen  as  only  second  in  genius  to  that 
celebrated  writer.  Died  in  1410. 

Sacchetti,,  (GIAMKATTISTA,)  a  distinguished  archi 
tect,  born  at  Turin  in  1736.  He  was  patronized  by 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  employed  him  to  build  the  new 
palace  at  Madrid.  He  afterwards  became  director  of  the 
public  school  of  architecture  in  that  city.  Died  in  1764. 

Sacchi,  sak'kee,  (ANDREA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  near  Rome 
about  1598.  He  was  patronized  by  Urban  VIII.,  who 
employed  him  to  paint  one  of  the  great  altar-pieces  of 
Saint  Peter's.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  a 
fresco  in  the  Barberini  palace  representing  "  Divine 
Wisdom,"  eight  pictures  from  the  life  of  John  the 
Baptist,  the  "Miracle  of  Saint  Anthony,"  and  "Saint 
Romualdo  relating  his  Vision  to  Five  Monks  of  his 
Order."  The  last-named  is  esteemed  his  master-piece, 
and  one  of  the  best  productions  of  the  Roman  school. 
Sacchi  numbered  among  his  pupils  Carlo  Maratta  and 
N.  Poussin.  Died  in  1661. 

See  PASSERI,  "Vite  de'  Pittori;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in 
Italy." 

Sacchi,  (PiETRO  FRANCKSCO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Pavia.  He  began  to  work  in  Milan  about  1460. 
Many  years  after  that  date  he  lived  at  Genoa. 

Sacchi,  or  Sacchini,  .sak-kee'nee,  (JUVENAL,)  an 
Italian  writer  on  music,  born  at  Milan  in  1726,  was  a 
monk  or  priest.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Music  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,"  (1778.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Sacchini,  sak-kee'nee,  (ANTONIO  MARIA  GASPARO,) 
an  Italian  composer  of  great  celebrity  in  his  time,  born 
at  Naples  in  1735,  was  a  pupil  of  Durante.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  operas  of  "CEdipe  a  Colone,"  "  Mon- 
tezuma,"  "The  Cid,"  and  "Olympia."  He  passed  about 
eight  years  in  England,  whither  he  went  in  1772.  lie 
wrote  with  purity  and  elegance,  and  accomplished  great 
effects  by  simple  means.  Died  in  Paris  in  1786. 

See  FRAMKHV,  "  FJoge  cle  Saccliini,"  1787;  F^TIS,  "Biographic 
Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sacchini,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
near  Perugia  in  1570,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  Orlandino's  History  of  his  Order,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Sacheverell,  sa-shev'e-rel,  (HENRY,)  an  English 
churchman,  notorious  as  a  partisan  of  Toryism,  was  born 
about  1672,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  ap 
pointed  preacher  at  Saint  Saviour's,  Southwark,  in  1705, 
and  preached  in  1709  two  political  sermons  which  were 
offensive  to  the  ministry  and  the  majority  of  Parliament. 
J  le  was  impeached  for  libel  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  convicted  in  1710  by  the  peers,  who  sentenced  him 
to  suspension  from  the  ministry  for  three  years.  The 
clergy  and  country  squires  sympathized  with  him  as  the 
champion  of  the  Church.  The  excitement  occasioned 
by  his  trial  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  Whigs  in  the 
next  general  election,  and  to  the  removal  of  Goclolphin 
and  his  colleagues  from  power,  (1710.)  Queen  Anne 
rewarded  him  with  the  valuable  rectory  of  Saint  An 
drew's,  Holborn,  in  1713.  Died  in  1724. 

See  "  The  Life  of  Dr.  H.  Sacheverell,"  London,  1710. 

Sachs.     See  HANS  SACHB. 

Sachseii,  von,  (Moiurz.)  See  SAXE,  (HERMANN 
MAURICE.) 

Sachtleven,  saKt-la'ven,  or  Zachtleven,  zaKt-la'- 
ven,  (CoRNEi.is,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1606  or  1612.  His  subjects  are  generally  taken  from 
low  life,  and  painted  in  the  style  of  Brauwer  and  Teniers. 
Died  in  1685. 

Sachtleven,  (HERMAN,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter 
of  great  merit,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1609,  was  a  pupil 
of  J.  van  Goyen.  He  painted  many  scenes  on  the  Rhine 
and  Meuse.  Died  in  1685. 

Saci.     See  LEMAISTRE  DE  SACI. 

Sack,  sak,  (FRIEDRICH  SAMUEL  GOTTFRIED,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1738,  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "On  the  Union  of  the  Two  Prot 


estant  Church  Parties,"  (1812,)  which  was  chiefly  in 
strumental  in  promoting  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Churches  in  Prussia.  He  also  translated  the 
principal  part  of  Blair's  "  Sermons"  into  German.  Died 
in  1817. 

Sack,  (JoiiANN  AUGUST,)  an  able  Prussian  adminis 
trator,  born  at  Cleves  in  1764.  He  was  appointed  in 
1800  privy  councillor  of  finance  at  Berlin,  (Oberfinanz- 
rath,)  and  in  1813  became  civil  governor  of  all  the  country 
between  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder.  Died  in  1831. 

Sack,  (KARL  HEINRICH,)  a  son  of  Friedrich  Samuel 
Gottfried,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1790. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1823,  and 
published  several  theological  works. 

Sackborn.     See  SAXIUS,  (CHRISTOPH.) 

Sacken.     See  OSTEN-SACKEN. 

Sackville,  (CHARLES.)     See  DORSET,  EARL  OF. 

Sackville,  (EDWARD.)     See  DORSET,  EARL  OE. 

Sack'ville,  (  GEORGE,  )  VISCOUNT,  called  LORD 
GEORGE  GERMAIN,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  was  born 
in  1716.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Minden,  in  1759,  commanded  the  British 
forces  under  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick.  Having 
disobeyed  the  prince's  orders,  he  was  tried  in  England 
by  a  court-martial  and  dismissed  the  service.  Under 
George  III.  he  became  in  1775  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies.  In  this  capacity  he  directed  the  military 
operations  in  the  American  war.  Having  inherited 
the  estates  of  Lady  Germain,  he  assumed  that  name  in 
1770.  Died  in  1785. 

See  R.  CUMBERLAND,  "  Character  of  Lord  G.  Germain,"  1785; 
LORD  STANHOPE,  (MAHON.)  "History  of  England." 

Sacro-Bosco.     See  HOLYWOOD. 

Sacy,  de,  deh  st'se',  (ANTOINE  ISAAC  SILVESTRE,) 
BARON,  often  called  simply  SILVESTKE  DE  SACY,  an 
eminent  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  2ist 
of  September,  1758.  He  was  a  son  of  J.  Abraham  Sil- 
vestre,  a  notary.  After  he  had  become  a  good  classical 
scholar,  he  studied  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Arabic, 
and  Persian.  He  was  also  versed  in  German,  English, 
Italian,  and  Spanish.  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  wrote  a  "  Memoir  on 
the  History  of  the  Arabs  before  Mohammed."  He  con 
tributed  to  the  Academy  four  able  "Memoirs  on  Divers 
Antiquities  of  Persia,"  printed  in  1793.  He  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  Arabic  in  a  school  founded  at  Paris 
in  1795.  In  1799  he  published  his  "Principles  of  Gen 
eral  Grammar,"  which  is  one  of  his  best  works.  He 
became  professor  of  Persian  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1806,  and  published  in  the  same  year  a  work  called 
"  Chrestomathie  Arabe,"  consisting  of  extracts  from 
Arabian  authors,  with  French  versions  and  notes.  He 
wrote  many  articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle" 
and  the  "Journal  Asiatique."  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XVIII.  he  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  public  in 
struction.  S.  de  Sacy  and  Abel  Remusat  founded  the 
Asiatic  Society  in  1822.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  1832,  and  perpetual  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1833.  Among  his  works 
are  an  Arabic  Grammar,  (1810,)  and  "  Pend-Nameh," 
in  Persian  and  French,  (1819.)  Died  in  February,  1838. 

See  REINAUD,  "  Notice  liistorique  et  litteraire  sur  Silvestre  de 
Sacy,"  1838;  DAUNOU,  "  FJoge  de  Silvestre  de  Sacy,"  1838;  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 

September,  182?. 

Sacy,  de,  deh  st'se',  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate  and 
litterateur,  born  in  1654,  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Friendship," 
and  translated  some  works  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  Died 
in  1727. 

Sacy,  de,  (Louis  ISAAC.)     See  LEMAISTRE. 

Sacy,  de,  (SAMUEL  USTAZA  SILVESTRE,)  a  French 
journalist,  a  son  of  the  eminent  Orientalist,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1801.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  contributors 
to  the  "Journal  des  Debats."  In  1854)16  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  It  is  stated  that  during  a  period 
of  twenty  years  (1828-48)  he  furnished  two-thirds  of  the 
political  articles  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats." 

Sade,  de,  deh  std,  (DONATIEN  AI.PIIONSE  FRANgois,) 
MARQUIS,  a  profligate  French  novelist,  a  nephew  of  the 
following,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1740;  died  in  1814. 


,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long- ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


SADE 


'941 


SAHAG UN 


Sade,  de,  (JACQUES  FRANCOIS  PAUL  ALPHONSK,) 
AKHE,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1705,  wrote  "  Me 
moirs  of  the  Life  of  Petrarch,"  (3  vols.,  1764,)  which 
is  said  to  be  a  work  of  much  merit.  Died  in  1778. 

Sadeel,  (ANTOINE.)     See  CHANDIEU. 

Sadeler,  sa'deh-ler,  (GILES,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1570,  was  a  brother  or  nephew  of 
Jean,  noticed  below.  He  engraved  after  the  Italian 
masters.  Among  his  works  are  "Vestiges  of  Roman 
Antiquities."  Died  in  1629.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  best  engraver  of  the  family. 

Sadeler,  (JEAN,)  an  able  Flemish  engraver  and 
designer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1550.  He  studied  and 
worked  in  Italy,  and  engraved  many  works  of  Italian 
masters.  Among  his  prints  are  scriptural  subjects,  por 
traits,  and  landscapes.  He  died  at  Venice  about  1600 
or  1610. 

Sadeler,  (RAPHAEL,)  a  skilful  Flemish  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1555  ;  died 
in  1616. 

Sadi.     See  SAADEE. 

Sad'ler,  (ANTHONY,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wilt 
shire,  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  He  published  a 
number  of  sermons,  and  a  work  entitled  a  "  Divine 
Masque."  Died  in  1680. 

Sadler,  (JoHN,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Shropshire 
in  1615.  He  published  "  Rights  of  the  Kingdom,  or 
Customs  ot  our  Ancestors."  Died  in  1674. 

Sadler,  (MICHAEL  THOMAS,)  an  English  philanthro 
pist  and  statesman,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1780.  He 
was  twice  elected  to  Parliament  for  Newark-upon-Trent, 
and  in  1831  represented  Aldborough,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
laboured  earnestly  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor 
and  of  the  children  employed  in  factories.  He  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "  Ireland  :  its  Evils  and  their  Remedies," 
and  "The  Law  of  Population."  Died  in  1835. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Lite  of  M.  T.  Sadler,"  1842;  "Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1831;  "  Maltlnis  and  Sadler."  in 
the  '•  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1831  ;  "  Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  September,  1835. 

Sadler,  (Sir  RALPH,)  was  born  in  Middlesex,  Eng 
land,  in  1507.  At  an  early  age  he  obtained  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  employed  him  in 
various  important  missions.  For  his  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Pinkie  he  was  made  knight-banneret  on  the 
field.  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  became  a 
member  of  her  first  Parliament,  and,  on  the  imprison 
ment  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  at  Tutbury,  was  appointed 
her  keeper.  He  died  in  1587.  His  "State  Papers  and 
Letters,"  edited  by  Arthur  Clifford,  appeared  in  1809. 

See  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT.  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  FROUDE, 
"History  of  Knglanrl;"  BITRTOX,  "History  of  Scotland  ;"  "  Edin 
burgh  Review'' for  August,  1810;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
November,  1810. 

Sadler,  (\VILLIAM  WINDHAM,)  an  English  aeronaut 
and  chemist,  who  crossed  the  Irish  Channel  from  Dub 
lin  to  \Vales,  and  made  many  other  voyages  of  the  kind. 
He  was  subsequently  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  balloon,  in 
1824,  at  the  age  of  about  twenty-eight. 

Sadlier,  std'le-i',  ?  (MARY  ANNK,)  a  writer  of  fiction, 
whose  original  name  was  MADDEN,  was  born  in  the 
county  of  Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1820.  Having  emigrated 
to  Canada,  she  married  a  Mr.  Sadlier,  and  published  a 
luimber  of  tales  in  favour  of  Catholicism. 

Sa'doc  or  Za'dok,  a  learned  Jew,  who  lived  about 
250  ii. c.,  was  the  disciple  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  and 
became  the  principal  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sadducees. 

Sadolet.     See  SADOLETO. 

Sadoleto,  sa-do-la'to,  or  Sadoletti,  sa-do-let'tee, 
[Fr.  SADOLET,  st'do'li',]  (JACOPO,)  an  eminent  Italian 
writer  and  cardinal,  born  at  Modenain  1477,  was  a  friend 
of  Bembo.  He  became  secretary  to  Leo  X.  about  1514, 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Carpentras  in  1517.  He  was 
employed  as  secretary  by  Clement  VII.,  and  was  made  a 
cardinal  by  Paul  III.  about  1536,  after  which  he  passed 
the  most  of  his  time  at  Rome.  In  1542  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Francis  I.  of  France.  He  is  represented 
as  a  man  of  noble  character,  pious,  modest,  and  liberal. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  treatise  on  education, 
entitled  "  De  Liberis  recte  Instituendis,"  (1533,)  "On 
the  Merits  of  Philosophy,"  ("  Phaedrus,  sive  de  Laudibus 
Philosophise,"  1538,)  and  "  Latin  Poems,"  (1548.)  Died 


at  Rome  in  1547.  "There  were  two,"  says  Hallam, 
"  Bembo  and  Sadolet,  who  had  by  common  confession 
reached  a  consummate  elegance  of  style,  in  comparison 
of  which  the  best  productions  of  the  last  age  seemed 
very  imperfect."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  F.  G.  CANCEI.LIERI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  J.  Sadoletti,"  1828; 
A.  PEKICAUD,  "Fragments  biographiques  sur  J.  Sadolet,"  1849; 
Joi.v,  "  fitude  sur  Sadolet,"  1857;  NICERON,  "  Mcmoires  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Sadoleto  or  Sadolet,  (PAOLO,)  a  poet  and  bishop, 
born  at  Modena  in  1508,  was  a  cousin-german  or  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Carpentras 
in  1547.  He  wrote  Latin  Poems  and  Epistles.  Died 
in  1572. 

Saeed  (or  Said)  Pasha,  sa'eed'  pa'sha',  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  and  fourth  son  of  Mehemet  Alee,  was  born  in 
1822,  and  succeeded  Abbas  Pasha  in  1854.  He  died  in 
January,  1863. 

Saehrimnir,  sa-rim'nir,  written  also  Serimner,  the 
boar  on  whose  flesh  the  heroes  who  are  admitted  to 
Valhalla  feast.  Although  boiled  and  served  up  every 
day,  the  boar  is  always  whole  again  at  evening. 

See  THORPE'S  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Saemund.     See  SAMUND. 

Saenredam,  sin'reh-dam',  (JAN,)  an  able  Dutch 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  about  1565. 
He  engraved  historical  and  scriptural  subjects  after 
various  masters,  also  some  of  his  own  designs.  Died 
in  1607. 

Saenredam,  (PIETER,)  a  painter,  born  at  Assendelft 
about  1597,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  painted 
architecture  and  interiors  of  churches.  His  works  are 
highly  praised.  Died  in  1666. 

Safarik.     See  SCHAFARIK. 

Saga,  sd'ga,  [from  saga  or  saga,  to  "say,"  to  "re 
late,"]  according  to  the  Norse  mythology,  the  goddess 
or  muse  of  history.  She  is  the  intimate, companion  of 
Odin,  (or  "  Mind.") 

Sage,  sfzh,  (BALTHASAR  GEORGES,)  a  French  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  1740.  He  pub 
lished  numerous  treatises  on  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
electricity.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the  School 
of  Mines,  (1783,)  and  contributed  much  to  the  art  of 
docimasie  in  France.  In  1801  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute.  Died  in  1824. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1818  ;  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Sage,  (JoHN,)  a  bishop  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal 
Church,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1652,  was"  eminent  for 
learning  and  talents.  He  preached  at  Edinburgh,  wrote 
several  polemical  works  against  the  Presbyterians,  and 
became  a  bishop  in  1705.  Died  in  1711. 

See  J.  On. LAN,  "Life  of  John  Sage,"  1714;  CHAMBERS,  "  Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sage,  Le.     See  LE  SAGE. 

Sagittarius.     See  SCHUTZ,  (HEINRICH.) 

Sagittarius,  sa-git-ta're-iis,  (CASPAR,)  a  German  his 
torian  and  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Lunenburg  in 
1643.  He  became  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in  1674. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  German  history,  and  an 
"  Introduction  to  Ecclesiastic  History,"  (1694.)  Died 
in  1694. 

Sagittarius,  (TOHANN  CHRISTFRIED,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  1617,  became  professor  of 
history  at  Jena.  He  wrote  many  dissertations,  and 
edited  the  works  of  Luther,  (9  vols.  folio,  1661-64.) 
Died  in  1689. 

Sagoskin.     See  ZOGOSKIN. 

Sagra,  de  la,  da  la  sa'gRJi,  (Don  RAMON,)  a  Spanish 
writer,  born  at  Corunna  in  1798,  published  "The 
Physical,  Political,  and  Natural  History  of  the  Island 
of  Cuba,"  (1837,)  and  several  treatises  on  political 
economy. 

Sagredo,  sa-gRa'do,  (GIOVANNI,)  a  Venetian  diplo 
matist  and  historian,  published  "  Historical  Memoirs 
of  the  Ottoman  Monarchs  from  1300  to  1646,"  (1677,) 
said  to  be  well  written.  He  became  procurator  of  Saint 
Mark's  about  1668.  Died  after  1691. 

Sahagun,  de,  da  sa-a-goon',  (BERNARDINO,)  a  Frar- 
ciscan  friar,  born  at  Sahagun,  in  Spain,  was  a  missiorary 
to  Mexico  in  1529.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history  entitled 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  *h  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAID 


1942 


SAINTE-AULAIRE 


"  Historia  universal  de  Nueva  Espafia,"  first  published 
at  Mexico  in  1829.     Died  in  1590. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Said.     See  SAEED. 

Said-lbn-Batric.     See  EUTYCHIUS. 

Saigey,  si'/hi',  (JACQUES  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1797,  published  a  num 
ber  of  scientific  treatises. 

Sailer,  si'ler,  (JOHANN  MICHAEL,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  born  near  Schrobenhausen,  in  Bavaria,  in 
1751.  He  was  successively  professor  of  divinity  at 
Ingolstadt  and  at  Landshut,  and  Bishop  of  Ratisbon, 
(1829.)  He  published  a  "Prayer-Book  for  Catholic 
Chri'stians,"  (1831,)  and  other  religious  works.  Died 
in  1832. 

See  E.  VON  SCHENK,  "  Die  Bischofe  J.  M.  von  Sailer  und  G.  M. 
Wittinann."  1838. 

Saillet,  de,  deh  st'y4',  (ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  litte 
rateur  and  educational  writer,  born  about  1805. 

Sainctes,  de,  deh  saxkt,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  prelate 
and  controversial  writer,  born  in  1525,  became  a  deputy 
to  the  Council  of  Trent.  lie  was  made  Bishop  of  Evreux 
in  1575,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  the  Catholic  League.  Died  in  1591. 

Saint-Aignan,  de,  deh  stx'tin'yS.x',  (PAUL  de 
Beauvillier — deh  bo've'ya',)  Due,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  at  Saint-Aignan  in  1648.  He  was  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  council  of  finances  in  1685,  and  governor  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1689.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Fenelon,  whom  he  selected  as  preceptor  of  that  prince, 
and  to  whom  he  remained  faithful  after  Fenelon  had 
lost  the  royal  favour.  He  was  a  favourite  counsellor  of 
Louis  XIV.  Died  in  1714. 

Saint- Albin,  de,  deh  sax'titl'bax',  (ALEXANDRE 
CHAKLKS  OMER  Rousselin  de  Corbeau — roos'lax' 
deh  koR'bS',)  COMTE,  a  French  writer  and  epigram 
matist,  born  in  1773.  He  became  in  1816  editor  of  the 
"  Constitutionnel,"  a  liberal  journal  of  Paris.  Among 
his  works  are  lyric  poems,  epigrams,  and  a  "  Life  of 
General  Hoche,"  (2  vols.,  1798.)  Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saiiit-Aldegonde.     See  MARNIX. 

Saint-Allais,  de,  deh  sax'tt'li',  (XICOLAS  Vitoil — 
ve'tox',)  a  French  genealogist  and  litterateur,  born  at 
Langres  in  1773.  lie  published,  besides  many  works 
on  genealogy,  a  new  edition  of  "The  Art  of  Verifying 
Dates,"  (6  vols.  410,  and  23  vols.  8vo,  1818-20.)  Died 
in  1842. 

Saint- Alphouse,  de,  deh  sax'tSl'fdxs',  (  PIERRE 
WATHIER,)  born  at  Laon,  in  France,  in  1770,  served 
under  Napoleon  in  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  be 
general  of  division  in  1811.  He  was  afterwards  made  a 
count  of  the  empire,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour.  Died  in  1840. 

Saint  Am'and,  (J AMES,)  an  English  scholar,  made 
a  valuable  collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  which 
at  his  death,  in  1754,  he  bequeathed  to  the  Bodleian 
Library. 

Saiiit-Amans,  de,  deh  saN'tt'mox',  (JEAN  FLO- 
RIMOND  BOUDON,)  a  French  antiquary  and  naturalist, 
was  born  at  Agen  in  1748.  He  published  numerous 
treatises  on  agriculture,  botany,  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Saint-Amant,  sax'tf'mSx',  (MARC  ANTOINE  GE 
RARD,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Rouen  in  1594,  became 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1633.  He  wrote 
odes,  idyls,  satires,  etc.  Died  in  1661. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saint-Amour,  sax'tt'mooa',  (Louis,)  a  doctor  of 
theology  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  a  distinguished  advocate 
of  Jansenism,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1619;  died  in  1687. 

Saint- Amour,  de,  deh  saN'tS'inoou',  (GUILLAUME,) 
a  French  philosopher  and  theologian,  born  at  Saint- 
Amour,  in  Franche-Comte.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Paris,  and  rector  of  the  University.  His 
name  is  chiefly  memorable  on  account  of  the  prominent 
part  he  performed  in  defending  the  privileges  of  the 
University  against  the  Dominicans,  who  were  favoured 


by  the  pope.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"Perils  of  the  Latter  Times,"  ("De  Periculis  novissi- 
morum  Temporum.")  Died  in  1272. 

See  DUPIN,  "  Histoire  des  Controverses  dans  le  treizieme 
Siecle." 

Saint-Andre,  (JEAN  BON.)  See  JEAN  BON  SAINT- 
ANDRE. 

Saint- Andre,  de,  deh  sax'toN'dRa',  (JACQUES  d'Al- 
bon — diTboN',)  MARSHAL,  a  French  commander,  who 
united  with  the  Due  de  Guise  and  Constable  Mont- 
morency  to  form  a  triumvirate  against  the  Huguenots. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  in  the  civil  war  in  1562. 

Saiiit-Aiige,  de,  deh  saN'tdxzh',  (ANGE  FRANCOIS 
FARIAU,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Blois  in  1747.  He 
produced  a  French  version  of  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses," 
(1778-89,)  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  trans 
lated  other  poems  of  Ovid,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1810.  Died  in  Paris  in  1810. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saint-Arnaud.     See  LKROY  DE  SAINT-ARNAUD. 

Saint-Aubin,  sax'tf/bax',  (]>.AN,)  a  physician  of 
Metz,  assisted  Foes  in  his  translation  of  Hippocrates, 
and  wrote  a  work  on  the  plague.  Died  in  1597. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  deh  sax'to'bax',  (AccusriN.)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1736.  He  engraved 
fine  portraits  and  vignettes  for  books.  His  works  are 
extremely  numerous.  Died  in  1807. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (CHARLES  GERMAIN,)  a  designer 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1721,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  Died  in  1786. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (GABRIEL  JACQUES,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1724,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  Died  in  1780. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (JEAN,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
1587,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  City  of  Lyons,  Ancient 
and  Modern."  Died  in  1660. 

Saint-Bris.     See  LAMHERT,  DE,  (HENRI.) 

Saint-Chamaiis,  de,  deh  sax'shS'md.x',  (AUGUSTS,) 
VISCOUNT,  a  French  jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  in  1777,  published  several  political  and  miscel 
laneous  works. 

Saint-Clair,  sent  klar,  (ARTHUR,)  a  general,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1735.  He  became  a  citixcn  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  served  as  brigadier-general  at  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  in  the  winter  of  1776 
-77.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  February, 
1777,  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1785,  and  Presi 
dent  of  Congress  in  1787.  In  1789  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Ohio.  He  commanded  an  army  which 
was  sent  against  the  Miami  Indians,  and  was  defeated 
in  Ohio,  near  the  Miami  River,  with  heavy  loss,  in  No- 
i  vember,  1791.  He  ceased  to  be  Governor  of  Ohio  in 
1802.  Died  in  1818. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Saint-Clost,  de,  deh  sax'klost',  or  Saint-Cloud, 
de,  deh  sax'kloo',  (PERROSor  PIERRE,)  a  French  writer 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  whose  principal  work  is  an 
allegorical  poem  entitled  "The  Romance  of  the  Fox." 

Saint-Cyraii.     See  DUVERGIER. 

Saint-Didier.     See  LIMOJOX. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  deh  sax'to'laV,  (COME  JOSEPH 
de  Beaupoil — deh  bo'pwal',)  COUNT,  a  French  royal 
ist,  born  about  1742,  served  against  France  during  and 
after  the  Revolution,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  in  1814.  Died  in  1822. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  DE  BEAU 
POIL,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  poet  and  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  born  in  the  Limousin  in  1643.  UG 
wrote  madrigals  and  amatory  verses.  Died  in  1742. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (Louis  CLAIR  DE  BEAUPOIL,) 
COMTE,  a  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  in  1778.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  from  1818  to  1824,  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  about  1830,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna 
in  1833.  In  1841  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  He  was  minister  at  London  from 
1841  to  1847.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
Fronde,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  Died  in  1854. 

See  DE  BAH  ANTE,  "  F!tiides  historiques  et  biographiques ;"  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SAINTE-AVLAIRE 


'943 


SAINT-GELAIS 


Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (MARTIAL  Louis  DE  BEAU- 
POIL,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1720,  becr.me  Bishop  of 
Poitiers,  and  was  a  deputy  of  the  clergy  from  Poitou  to 
the  States-General  in  1789.  Died  in  1798. 

Sainte-Beuve,  saxt'buv',  (CiiARi.KS  AUGUSTIX,) 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  French  critics,  was  born  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer  on  the  23d  of  December,  1804.  He  was 
educated  in  several  colleges  of  Paris,  and  studied  medi 
cine,  which  he  practised  several  years.  Me  was  succes 
sively  a  contributor  to  the  "Globe,"  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  and  the  "  National."  Me  published  in  1828  his 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Picture  of  French  Poetry  and  the 
French  Theatre  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  in  1829 
poems  entitled  "Life,  Poetry,  and  Thoughts  of  Joseph 
Pelorme."  His  other  principal  works  are  "Consola 
tions,"  a  collection  of  poems,  (1830,)  "Literary  Por 
traits,"  (8  vols.,  1832-39,)  a  series  of  criticisms  which 
first  appeared  in  the  reviews,  an  excellent  "  History 
of  Port-Royal,"  (4  vols.,  1840-62,)  and  a  series  of  able 
critiques  entitled  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  (13  vols.,  1851— 
57,)  which  first  appeared  in  the  "  Constitutionnel."  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845.  In 
1852  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in  the 
College  of  France,  and  in  1857  maitre  des  'conferences 
in  the  Normal  School.  In  1865  he  was  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  a  senator.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Etude 
sur  Virgile,"  (2  vols.,  1857.)  and  "  Nouveaux  Lundis," 
(1863.)  Died  in  October,  18  9. 

"The  peculiarity  and  excellence  of  his  criticism  is 
its  disinterestedness,  its  singular  power  of  appreciating 
whatever  may  be  good  in  the  most  opposite  schools, 
and  its  wonderful  faculty  for  penetrating  into  the  secrets 
ot  the  most  strangely  different  natures.  And  now,  if  we 
turn  from  the  man's  works  to  the  man  himself,  we  see 
great  natural  power,  a  mind  originally  pliable,  subtle, 
and  comprehensive  to  the  very  highest  degree,  curious 
and  penetrative,  impartial  to  a  fault."  ("Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1866.) 

See  L.  DE  LOMEXIE,  "  M.  Sainte-Beuve,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien."  1841;  PI.ANCHE,  "Portraits  litteraires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Geuerale." 

Sainte-Beuve,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  casuist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1613.  He  was  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Sorbonne  from  1643  to  1654.  Died  in  1677. 

Sainte  -  Claire  -  Deville,  saNt'kliu'  deh-vel', 
(CHARLES,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Saint  Thomas, 
in  the  Antilles,  in  1814.  Me  has  published  a  "Geo 
logical  Voyage  to  the  Antilles  and  the  Island  of  Tene- 
riffe,"  etc.,  and  other  scientific  works. 

Sainte-Claire-Deville,  ( HENRI,)  a  French  chemist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint  Thomas  in 
1818.  He  studied  in  France,  and  in  1851  succeeded 
Balard  as  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Normal  School. 
He  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  having  invented  a 
method  of  producing  in  considerable  quantities  the 
metal  aluminum,  first  discovered  by  Wohler  in  1827. 
lie  published  an  account  of  his  experiments  in  the  "An- 
nales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,"  (vols.  xliii.  and  xlvi.) 

Sainte-Croix,  de,  cleh  saxt'kRwd',  (GUILLAUME 
EMANUEL  JOSEPH  Guilhem  de  Clermout-Lodeve — 
ge'lfix'  deh  kleVmox'  lo'div',)  BAROX,  a  French  anti 
quary  and  scholar,  born  at  Mormoiron  in  1746.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Historical  Researches 
into  the  Mysteries  of  Paganism,"  (1784,)  and  a  "Critical 
Examination  of  the  Historians  of  Alexander  the  Great," 
(1804,)  which  are  praised  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in  1809. 

See  DACIER,  "  filoge  de  Sainte-Croix;"  SILVESTRE  r>E  SACY, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  de  Sainte-Croix,"  1809; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sainte-Edme,  sax'tedm',  (properly  EDME  THEO 
DORE  Bourg — booR,)  a  French  political  writer  and 
biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  wrote  against 
the  Bourbons  and  Louis  Philippe.  In  conjunction 
with  Sarrut,  he  published  "  Biography  of  Living  Men," 
("  Biographic  des  Hommes  du  Jour,"  6  vols.,  1835-42.) 
He  committed  suicide  in  Paris  in  1852. 

See  Qi'ERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Sainte-Elme,  sax'telm',  (!DA,)  a  French  courtesan, 
whose  real  name  was  ELZELINA  TOLSTOI  VANAYL  DE 
YONGH,  was  born  in  1778.  She  was  the  author  of 


"  Memoirs  of  a  Contemporary,  or  Recollections  of  the 
Principal  Personages  of  the  Republic,  the  Consulate, 
the  Empire,  and  the  Restoration,"  (8  vols.,  1827.)  Died 
in  1845. 

Sainte-Foi,  saxt'fwa',  (£LOI  JOURDAX,)  a  French 
theologian,  born  at  Beaufort  in  1806,  has  published 
several  religious  works. 

Saiiite-Marie,  saNt'mS're',  (£TIEXNE,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Lyons  in  1777,  published  several 
medical  works.  Died  in  1829. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  deh  saxt'ma'Rt',  (  AHEL,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Loudun  in  1566,  was 
a  son  of  Scevole,  noticed  below.  He  was  appointed  a 
councillor  of  state  by  Louis  XIII.  Died  in  1652. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (An EL  Louis,)  a  French  theo 
logian,  bom  in  Paris  in  1621,  was  a  son  of  Scevole  the 
Younger.  He  became  general  of  the  Oratory  in  1672. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Christian  World," 
("Orbis  Christianus,"9  vols.,  manuscript.)  Died  in  1697. 

See  NicEKON1,  "Memoires." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Fontevrault  He  taught  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Lyons, 
after  he  had  been  imprisoned  two  years  on  suspicion  of 
being  a  Lutheran.  Died  after  1562. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (I)EXis,)  a  theologian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1650.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Gallia  Christiana,"  (4  vols.,  1715-28.)  Died  in  1725. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  [Lat.  SAMMARTHA'XUS,]  (ScE- 

VOLE  or  GAUCHER,)  a  French   writer  and   Latin  poet, 

born  at  Loudun  in  1536,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles.     He 

|  held  several   high  offices  under   Henry  III.  and  Henry 

j  IV.,  and  was  an  opponent  of  the   League.     He  wrote 

;  "  Paedotrophia,"  and  other  Latin   poems,  which    were 

j  much  admired.     Died  fn  1623. 

See  LA  ROCHE-MAII.I.ET,  "Vie  de  Sainte-Marthe,"  1629:  LEON 
FEUGERE,  "  fitude  sur  S.  de  Sainte-Marthe,"  1853;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (SCEVOLE  and  Louis,)  twin 
brothers,  born  at  Loudun  in  1571,  were  sons  of  the  pre 
ceding.  They  produced  an  account  of  French  bishops, 
entitled  "Gallia  Christiana,"  (4  vols.,  1656.)  Scevole 
died  in  1650;  Louis  died  in  1656. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Sainte-Maure.     See  MOXTAUSIER,  (Due  DE.) 
Sainte-Palaye,  de,  deh  saxt'pt'li',  QEAX  BAPTISTE 
,  DE  LACURXE,)  a  distinguished  writer,  and  a  member  of 
|  the  French  Academy,  was  born  at  Anxerre  in  1697.    He 
published    "Memoirs    of    Ancient    Chivalry,"   (3-    vols., 
1759-81,)  which  was   translated   into   English,  and  col 
lected   materials   for   a  "History  of  the   Troubadours," 
which  was  published  by  Millot,  (1774.)     Died  in  1781. 

See  SE'GUIER,  "  filoee  de  Lacurne  de  Sainte-Palaye,"  1782; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sahite-Suzamie,    de,  deh    saxt'sii'zin',   (GILHERT 

JOSEPH   MARTIN    Bruneteau  —  bRiin'to', )   COMTE,   a 

;  French  general,  born  near  Poivre  (Aube)  in  1760.     He 

became  a  general  of  division  in  1796,  and  count  in  1809. 

Died  in  1830. 

Saint-fitienne.     See  RAHAUT. 

Saint-Eve,  sax'tiv',  (JEAX  MARIE,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Lyons  in  1810.  Having  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1840,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension, 
and  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
and  Ary  Scheffer.  Died  in  1856. 

Saint-Evremond.     See  £VREMOXD. 

Saint-Fargeau.     See  LE  PELLETIER. 

Saint-Felix,  de,  deh  sax'fa'leks',  (Jui.ES,)  called 
also  FELIX  D'AMOREUX,  a  French  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1806. 

Saint-Foix,  de,  deh  sax'fwa',  (GERMAIN  FRANCOIS 
POUI.LAIN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rennes,  in 
Brittany,  in  1698,  was  the  author  of  "Turkish  Letters," 
(1730,)  and  several  dramas  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
famous  duellist.  Died  in  1776. 

See  DUCOUDRAV,  "  filoge  de  Saint- Foix,"  1777;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grnphie  Generale." 

Saint-Fond.     See  FAUJAS  DE  SAINT-FOND. 
Saint-Gelais,   de,   deh   sax'zheh-li',   (MELLLV,  )  a 
French   ecclesiastic,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1491,  pub- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SJINT-GEL4IS 


i944 


S41NT  JOHN 


lished  a  number  of  poems  in  Latin  and  French.  Died 
in  1558.  He  was  a  nephew  (or,  as  some  say,  a  son)  of 
Octavien,  noticed  below. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  CASTAIGNE,  "Notice  sur  les  Saint- 
Gelais,"  1836. 

Saiiit-Gelais,  de,  (OCTAVIEN,)  a  French  poet  and 
prelate,  born  at  Cognac  in  1466.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Angouleme  in  1494.  His  principal  work  is 
"The  Abode  of  Honour,"  ("Le  Sejour  d'llonneur.'') 
Died  in  1502. 

See  E.  CASTAIGNE,  "  Notice  sur  les  Saint-Gelais,"  1836. 

Saint -Geiiies,  saN'zheh-ne-i',  (JEAN,)  a  French 
scholar  and  Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Avignon  in  1607. 
He  wrote  elegies,  idyls,  and  satires,  (1654,)  which  are 
commended.  Died  in  1663. 

Saint-Georges,  siN'zhoRzh',  (N.,)  CHKVAUKK,  a 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1745. 
His  mother  was  a  mulatto.  He  was  an  expert  fencer. 
He  composed  several  operas.  Died  in  Paris  in  1799. 

Saint-Georges,  de,  deh  sa.N'zhoRzh',  CHEVALIER, 
a  French  naval  officer,  who,  as  commander  of  the 
Invincible,  was  defeated  by  Lord  Anson  off  the  coast  of 
Spain,  in  1747,  while  assisting  to  convoy  a  fleet  of 
merchant-vessels.  Died  in  1763. 

Saint-Georges,  de,  (  JULES  HENRI  VERNOY,  )  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801,  has  published 
numerous  dramatic  works  and  romances. 

Saint-Germain,  saN'zheR'maN',  COUNT,  a  notorious 
adventurer,  sometimes  called  THE  MARQUIS  DE  BETMAR, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Portuguese.  About  1770 
he  appeared  at  the  Parisian  court,  where  he  made  a 
great  sensation  by  his  various  accomplishments  and 
pretended  skill  in  alchemy.  He  professed  to  be  three 
hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  and  to  possess  the  elixir  of 
life  and  the  philosopher's  stone.  Died  in  1795. 

See  "  Nachrichten  vom  Giafen  Saint-Germain,"  1780. 

Saint-Germain,  de,  deh  saN'zheR'maN',  (Cr.AUDE 
Louis,)  COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  near  Lons-le- 
Saulnier  in  1707.  He  served  as  general  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  afterwards  passed  several 
years  in  the  Danish  service,  in  which  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal.  lie  became  minister  of  war  in 
France  in  1775,  and  made  important  reforms  in  that 
department.  He  resigned  in  1777.  Died  in  1778. 

See  ABBE  DE  LA  MONTAGNE.  "  Memoires  du  Comte  de  Saint- 
Germain,"  1779;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  SISMONUI, 
"  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Saint-Ger'man  or  Ger'main,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an 
English  jurist,  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Doctor 
and  Student,  or  Dialogues  between  a  Doctor  of  Divinity 
and  Student  in  the  Laws  of  England,"  (1523,  in  Latin.) 
Died  in  1540. 

Saint-Haouen,  saN'7/t'wflN',  (YVES  MARIE  GABRIEL 
PIERRE  Lecoat — leh-ko't',)  BARON,  born  in  Brittany  in 
1 756,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  served  against 
the  English  in  several  campaigns  of  the  Revolution.  He 
was  made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1804,  and 
subsequently  a  rear-admiral.  Died  in  1826. 

Saint-Hilaire.     See  GEOFFROY  SAINT-HII.AIRE. 

Saint-Hilaire,  saN'te'laR',  (JEAN  HENRI,)  sometimes 
called  JAUME  SAINT-HILAIRE,  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Grasse  in  1772.  A  genus  of  composite  plants  was 
named  Jaumea  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1845. 

Saint-Hilaire,  (JULES  BARTHELEMY.)  See  BARTHE 
LEMY. 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  deh  saN'te'laR',  (AUGUSTE,)  a 
French  naturalist,  bom  at  Orleans  in  1779,  (some  author 
ities  say  1799,)  spent  six  years  in  a  botanical  exploration 
of  Brazil,  to  which  he  went  in  1816.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "Flora  Brasilise  Meridionals, "  (1825, 
with  192  coloured  plates,)  "Travels  in  the  Provinces 
of  Rio  Janeiro  and  Minas  Geraes,"  (1830,)  "History  of 
the  Most  Remarkable  Plants  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay," 
"Journey  to  the  Diamond  District  of  Brazil,"  (1833,)  and 
"Lectures  on  Botany,"  ("  Le9ons  de  Botanique,"  1841.) 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1830.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  GeneVale." 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  (£MILE  MARC  HILAIRE,)  some 
times  called  MARCO  DE  SAINT-HILAIRE,  a  French 
writer,  born  about  1790,  became  at  an  early  age  one 


of  the  pages  of  the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  published 
"  Recollections  of  the  Private  Life  of  Napoleon,"  (1838,) 
"History  of  the  Imperial  Guard,"  (1845,)  ancl  other 
works  illustrating  the  history  of  his  time. 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  (Louis  JOSEPH  VINCENT  LE- 
HLOND,)  a  French  general  of  division,  born  at  Ribemont, 
in  Picardy,  in  1766,  served  in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in 
Italy,  and  in  the  principal  Austrian  campaigns.  He  died 
of  a  wound  received  at  Essling  in  1809. 

Saint-Huberti,  sa.\'//u'beR'te',  (ANNE  ANTOINETTE 
CLAVEL,)  a  favourite  French  actress,  born  about  1756. 
She  performed  operas  with  great  success  in  Paris.  About 
1790  she  was  married  to  the  Count  d'Entraigues.  who 
became  an  exile  in  England.  They  were  assassinated 
near  London  in  1812. 

Saint-Hyaciiithe.  See  CHARRIERE,  DE,  (MADAME.) 

Saint-Hyacinthe,  saN'te'S'saNt',  (HYACINTHE  COK- 
DONNIER,)  called  also  CHEVAI.IKR  DE  THEMISEUL,  (deh 
ta'me'zuK, )  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1684.  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  satire  called 
"The  Master-Piece  of  an  Unknown  Author,"  ( "  Le 
Chef-d'CEuvre  d'un  Inconnu,"  1714.)  lie  was  a  Prot 
estant,  and  an  adversary  of  Voltaire.  Died  in  1746. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  MM.  HAAG,  "  La  France 
protestante." 

Saintiiie,  saN'ten',  (JOSEPH  XAVIER  BONIFACE,)  a 
distinguished  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  lie 
published  dramas,  poems,  and  romances,  a  collection 
of  philosophical  stories,  entitled  "Jonathan  the  Vision 
ary,"  (1827,)  and  "  History  of  the  Wars  in  Italy."  His 
most  popular  work  is  the  tale  of  "  Picciola,"  for  which 
he  received  the  Monthyon  prize  in  1837.  It  passed 
through  ten  editions  in  eight  years,  and  was  translated 
into  several  languages. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January.  1838. 

Saint-Ives  or  Saint- Yves,  sa.Vtev',  (CHARLES,)  an 
eminent  French  oculist,  born  near  Rocroy  in  1667.  His 
principal  work,  entitled  "  New  Treatise  on  Diseases  of 
the  Eye,"  (1722,)  was  translated  into  English  and  Ger 
man.  Died  in  1733. 

Saint-Jacques  de  Sylvabelle,  de,  deh  saN'zhaV 
deh  sel'vt'bel',  (Guii.LAUME,)  a  French  savant,  and 
director  of  the  observatory  at  Marseilles,  was  born  in 
that  city  in  1722.  He  published  numerous  treatises  on 
mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  Died  in  1801. 

Saint-Jean,  saN'zhoN',  (SlMON,)  a  French  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1812. 

Saint  John.     See  BOLTNGHROKE. 

Saint  John,  popularly  called  sin'jen,  (BAYLE,)  son 
of  James  Augustus,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London 
in  1822.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Adven 
tures  in  the  Libyan  Desert, ""The  Subalpine  Kingdom," 
"  Purple  Tints  of  Paris,"  and  "The  Turks  in  Europe," 
(1853.)  Died  in  1859.  His  brother  HORACE  has  written 
a  "  History  of  British  Conquests  in  India,"  and  several 
other  works. 

Saint  John,  (JAMES  AUGUSTUS,)  a  distinguished 
writer  and  traveller,  born  in  Caermarthenshire,  in  Wales, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was 
for  a  time  associated  with  |.  S.  Buckingham  as  editor 
of  the  "Oriental  Herald,"  for  which  he  wrote  a  history 
of  British  dominion  in  India.  Having  visited  Egypt, 
Malta,  and  Italy,  he  published  in  1834  a  "Description 
of  Egypt  and  Nubia."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  "The  Lives  of  Celebrated  Travellers,"  (1830,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Greeks,"  (3  vols.,  1842,)  and  "  Philosophy  at  the  Foot 
of  the  Cross,"  (1855  ;)  also  the  novels  of  "Margaret 
Ravenscroft"  and  "  Sir  Cosmo  Digby." 

Saint  John,  (OLIVER,)  an  English  judge  and  re 
publican,  born  in  Bedfordshire  about  1596,  was  an  able 
lawyer.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  about  1628,  and 
became  a  leader  of  the  country  party.  He  was  counsel 
for  Hampden  in  the  Ship-money  case,  (1637,)  and  then 
"  delivered  the  finest  argument  that  had  ever  been  heard 
in  Westminster  Hall."  (Lord  Campbell.)  In  1640  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament.  According 
to  Lord  Campbell,  "he  was  the  first  Englishman  that 
seriously  planned  the  establishment  of  a  republican  form 
of  government  in  this  country."  He  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  in  1641,  and  was  influential  in  procuring 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


S4INT-JORRT 


'945 


S41NT-M4RTIN 


the  condemnation  of  the  Earl  of  Strafforcl.  In  1648  he 
became  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas.  He  retained 
that  position  till  the  restoration,  (1660.)  He  was  ap 
pointed  a  member  of  Cromwell's  House  of  Lords  in 
1657.  His  life  was  spared  at  the  restoration,  on  condition 
that  he  should  never  hold  any  office.  He  died  in  1673. 
Clarendon  says  "  he  was  a  man  reserved,  and  of  a 
dark  and  clouded  countenance,  very  proud,  and  con 
versing  with  very  few."  He  was  a  great-grandfather  of 
Henry  Saint  John,  Lord  Bolingbroke. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  i.  ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England  ;"  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the 
Great  Rebellion." 

Saint-Jorry,  de,  deh  sax'zho're',  (PIERRE  du  Faur 
— dii  foR,)  [Lat.  PE'TRUS  FA'BER,]  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1540;  died  in  1600. 

Saint-Jullien,  saN'zhii'leJ^N',  (BARTHELKMI  £ME,) 
BARON,  a  French  diplomatist,  was  patronized  by  Fran 
cis  I.,  who  employed  him  in  several  embassies.  Died 
in  1597. 

Saint-Just.     See  FRETEAU. 

Saint-Just,  de,  deh  saN'zhiist/,  (ANTOINE  Loris 
LEON,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Decize  in  1767 
or  1768,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Robespierre,  through 
whose  influence  he  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
without  delay  or  appeal  to  the  people,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  one  of  the  most  violent  of  the  Jacobin  party. 
He  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  downfall  of  the  Giron 
dists,  and,  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety, 
was  sent  with  Lebas  to  the  Rhine,  where  he  established 
the  guillotine  and  put  to  death  great  numbers  of  the 
people.  Appointed  president  of  the  Convention  in  1794, 
he  contributed  mainly  to  the  defeat  of  Danton's  party, 
and  became,  with  Robespierre  and  Couthon,  one  of  the 
triumvirate  of  the  reign  of  terror.  He  was  involved 
in  the  ruin  of  Robespierre  and  his  associates,  with  whom 
he  was  executed  in  July,  1794.  He  left  a  number  of 
political  works. 


See  FI.EURV,  "Saint-Just  et  la  Terreur,"  2  vols..  1852;  E.  HA- 


MEL,       Histoire   de   Saint-Just,"  1850;    THIERS,  "  History   of  the 


French  Revolution;"    LAMARTINE,  "History  of  the  Girondists;" 

(t  XT ii~   T>: i.  •      r*  '_'_!_   » 


Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. 


Saint-Just,  de,  (C.  GODARD  d'Auccmr — do'kooR',) 
BARON,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  was 
the  author  of  tragedies,  comedies,  and  comic  operas. 
Among  the  last-named  the  "  Caliph  of  Bagdad"  was 
very  successful.  Died  in  1826. 

Saint-Lambert,  de,  deh  saN'Io.x'baiR',  (CHARLES 
FRANgois,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  poet  and  infidel  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Vezelise,  in  Lorraine,  in  1716  or 
1717.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Encyclopedic, " 
and  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire,  who  commends  his 
poems  in  extravagant  terms.  The  principal  of  these, 
entitled  "The  Seasons,"  (1769,)  procured  for  him  ad 
mission  to  the  French  Academy.  lie  also  published 
"  Universal  Catechism,"  (1798,)  and  other  philosophical 
works.  Died  in  1803. 

See  PrvMAiGRE,  "  Saint-Lambert,"  1840  ;  QUERARD,  "  La  France 
Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saint-Laurent,  sax'lo'rSN',  (NOMBRET,  n6x'bRi',) 
a  French  dramatist,  published  a  number  of  popular 
vaudevilles.  Died  in  1833. 

Saint-Leger.     See  MERCIER. 

Saint-Legier,  de,  deh  saN'la'zhe-i',  (JEAN  GEORGES 
LAURENT,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Saint  Leonards,  sent  leVardz,  (EDWARD  BURTEN- 
SHAW  SUGDEX,)  BARON,  an  English  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1781.  He  became  a  member  of  Par 
liament  for  Weymouth  in  1828,  and  in  1829  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  made 
a  knight.  He  was  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1841  to 
1846,  and  in  1852  was  created  a  peer  and  lord  chancellor 
of  England.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Practical 
Treatise  on  Powers,"  (1808,)  "A  Series  of  Letters  to  a 
Man  of  Property  on  Sales,  Purchases,  Mortgages,"  etc., 
(1809,)  and  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Property  as  admin 
istered  in  the  House  of  Lords,"  (1849.)  Died  in  1870. 

Saint-Leu,  de,  DUCHESSE.  See  HORTEXSE  BEAU- 
HARXAIS. 


Saint-Lo,  de,  deh  sax'lo',  (ALEXIS,)  a  French  Ca 
puchin  friar,  born  in  Normandy,  visited  America  and 
Africa  as  a  missionary,  and  published  in  1637311  "Ac 
count  of  a  Voyage  to  Cape  Verd."  Died  in  1638. 

Saint  Loe,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
born  about  1520,  was  captain  of  the  guard  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  held  other  important  offices.  Died  about 
I565- 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  2d  series,  1828. 

Saint  Louis.     See  Louis  IX.  OF  FRANCE. 

Saint-Luc,  de,  deh  sax'ltik',  (FRANgois  D'ESPINAY,} 
a  French  soldier  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  appointed 
grand  master  of  artillery  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Amiens,  in  1597. 

Saint-Luc,  de,  (TiMOLEo.x  D'ESPINAY,)  a  French 
marshal,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1580; 
died  in  1644. 

Saint-Marc,  de,  deh  sax'miRk',  (CHARLES  HUGUES 
LEKEBVRE,)  a  French  svriter,  born  in  Paris  in  1698.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "Chronological  Abridgment  of  the 
History  of  Italy  from  the  Downfall  of  the  Western 
Empire,"  (6  vols.,  1761-70.)  Died  in  1769. 

Saint-Marc,  de,  (JEAN  PAUL  ANDRE  des  Rasins — 
cli  rt'zax',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  lyric  and  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  the  province  of  Guienne  in  1728.  His  opera 
of  "Adele  de  Ponthieu"  met  with  brilliant  success,  and 
was  set  to  music  by  Piccini.  Died  in  1818. 

Saint  -  Marc  -  Girardiu,  sax'mtuk'zhe'ra'R'dax',  a 
French  writer  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He 
succeeded  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  the  Faculty 
of  Letters  about  1830,  and  was  appointed  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  1848.  He  has  published  "Essays 
on  Literature  and  Morals,"  and  other  works,  and  has 
contributed  to  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  and  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1844. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saint-Marcellin,  sax'mtRs'laN',  (JEAN  VICTOR,)  a 
French  officer  and  litterateur,  born  in  1791,  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812.  He  fell  in  a  duel  in  1819. 

Saint-Mard.     See  REMOXD  DE  SAINT-MARD. 

Saint-Marsaii,  de,  deh  sax'miK'sSN',  (  ANTOINE 
MARIE  PHILIPPE  Asiiiari — t'ze'ni're',)  MARQUIS,  born 
at  Turin  in  1761,  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  in  1809 
minister -plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  and  was  subse 
quently  minister  of  war  under  Victor  Emanuel.  Died 
in  1828. 

Saint-Martin,  saN'mSit'taN',  (ANTOINE  JEAN,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1791,  was  a  disciple 
of  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  through  whose  influence  he  became 
in  1820  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
was  afterwards  associated  with  Abel  Remusat  as  editor 
of  the  absolutist  journal  "  L'Universel."  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Historical  and  Geographical  Memoirs  on 
Armenia,"  (1818,)  "New  Researches  on  the  Epoch  of 
the  Death  of  Alexander  and  the  Chronology  of  the 
Ptolemies,"  (1820,)  "Historical  Notice  on  the  Zodiac 
of  Denderah,"  (1822,)  and  several  other  works.  He 
published  a  good  edition  of  Lebeau's  "  Histoire  du  Bas- 
Empire,"  (21  vols.,  1824-36.)  Died  in  1832. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Biographic  Univer- 
selle. " 

Saint-Martin,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  Pasinato — pa-se- 
na'to,)  an  Italian  savant,  born  in  the  province  of  Treviso 
in  1739,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on  agriculture 
and  natural  science.  Died  in  1800. 

Saint-Martin,  de,  deh  sax'mSR'tax',  (JEAN  DIDIER,) 
a  French  missionary  to  China,  born  in  Paris  in  1743, 
translated  into  Chinese  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1801. 

Saint-Martin,  de,  (Louis  CLAUDE,)  MARQUIS,  a 
French  mystic,  sometimes  called  "the  Unknown  Phi 
losopher,"  ("  Le  Philosophic  inconnu,")  was  born  at  Am- 
boise  in  1743.  He  was  a  warm  admirer  of  the  writings 
of  Jacob  Bohme,  a  number  of  which  he  translated  into 
French.  Among  Saint-Martin's  principal  works  are  his 
treatise  "On  Errors  and  on  Truth,"  (1775,)  "  Natural 
View  of  the  Relations  which  exist  between  God,  Man, 
and  the  Universe,"  (1782,)  "The  New  Man,"  (1792,) 
and  "On  the  Spirit  of  Things,"  (1800.)  Died  in  1803. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAINT-MARTIN 


1946 


SAINT-PRIEST 


Chateaubriand  characterized  him  as  "a  man  of  great 
merit." 

See  GENCE,  "Notice  sur  L.  C.  de  Saint- Martin,"  1824;  CARO, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  la  Doctrine  de  Saint-Martin,"  1852  ;  MATTER, 
"  Saint-Martin,  le  Philosophe  inconiui,"  1862  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Saint-Martin  de  la  Motte,  de,  deh 

deh  13  mot,  (FELIX,)  COMTE,  a  Piedmontese  jurist  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Turin,  was  created  by  Napoleon  a 
count  and  senator.  Died  in  1818. 

Saint-Maur.     See  DUPRE  DE  SAINT-MAUR. 

Saint-Maurice,  de,  deh  saN'mo'ress',  (CHARLES 
R.  E.,)  a  French  historian  and  novelist,  born  about  1796. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Crusades,"  (1824.) 

Saint-Mauris,  de,  deh  saN'mo'ress',  (JEAN,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Dole  about  1495,  became  pro 
fessor  of  law  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1555. 

Saint-Morys,  de,  deh  sa.\'mo're',  ?  (fi'riENNE  Bour- 
gevin- Vialart  —  booRzh'vaN'  ve't'ltV, )  COMTE,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1772,  published  several 
political  and  miscellaneous  works.  Died  in  1817. 

Saint-Non,  de,  deh  sa.x'noN',  (JEAN  CLAUDE  RI 
CHARD,)  Ann6,  a  French  amateur  artist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1727.  He  published  in  1781  "Voyage  pittoresque 
de  Naples  et  de  Sicile,"  in  5  vols.,  illustrated  with  fine 
engravings.  Died  in  1791. 

Saint-Olon.     See  PIDOU. 

Saintonge,  saN'toNzh',  (LOUISE  GENEVIEVE  Gillot 
— zhe'yo',)  born  in  1650,  was  the  author  of  dramatic 
works  and  poems  on  various  subjects.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Madame  de  Gomez,  also  a  distinguished 
writer.  Died  in  1718. 

Saint-Ours,  de,  deh  saN'toon',  QEAN  PIERRE,)  a 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Geneva  about  1756;  died  in  1809. 

Saint-Pard,  de,  deh  sax'paV,  (PIERRE  NICOLAS 
van  Blotaque  —  vin  blo'tSk',)  A  HUE,  born  near  Liege 
in  1734,  studied  in  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  hon 
orary  canon.  lie  wrote  a  number  of  religious  works. 
Died  in  1824 

Saint  Paul,  (the  Apostle.)     See  PAUL,  (SAINT.) 

Saint-Paul,  de.     See  SAINT-POL,  DE. 

Saint-Paul,  de,  deh  saN'pol',  (FKANC.OIS  PAUL  BAR- 
LETTI,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1734,  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Segovia,  in  Spain,  in  1770. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  educational  works.  Died 
in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saint-Pavin,  de,  deh  saN'pI'vaN',  (DENIS  SANGUIN,) 
a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris,  was  a  priest  or  abbe.  His 
works  are  chiefly  sonnets,  epistles,  and  epigrams.  Died 
in  1670. 

Saint-Peravi,  de,  deh  saN'peh-rt've',  (JEAN  NICO 
LAS  MARCELLIN  GUERINKAU,)  a  French  poet  and  mis 
cellaneous  writer,  born  at  Janville  in  1732  ;  died  in  1789. 

Saint-Pern,  de,  deh  saN'peiui',  (BERTRAM),)  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  Brittany,  was  a  friend  and 
companion-in-arms  of  the  famous  Du  Guesclin.  He 
lived  about  1330-60. 

Saint-Peru,  de,  (JUDES  VINCENT,)  MARQUIS,  a 
French  lieutenant-general,  born  in  1694,  served  in  Flan 
ders  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  subsequently  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.  Died  in  1761. 

Saint  Philip,  MARQUIS  OF.   See  BACCALAR  Y  SANNA. 

Saint-Pierre,  de,  deh  saN'pe-a.iR',  (CHARLES  IRE- 
NEE  CASTEL,)  a  French  writer  "and  priest,  born  near 
Barfleur,  in  Normandy,  in  1658,  was  a  friend  of  Fon- 
tenelle.  He  was  eccentric  and  eminently  benevolent. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  who  used  the  word  bien- 
faisance,  ("beneficence.")  In  1695  he  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works  on 
politics,  morality,  and  political  economy.  His  favourite 
hobby  was  a  project  to  maintain  perpetual  peace  by 
a  congress  or  European  Diet.  Having  censured  the 
policy  of  Louis  XIV.  in  his  "  Polysynodie,"  (1718,)  he 
was  expelled  from  the  Academy.  J.  J.  Rousseau  ex 
pressed  the  opinion  that  "  he  was  an  honour  to  his  age 
and  to  his  species."  Died  in  1743. 

See  D'ALEMBERT,   "  £"loge  de  1'Abbe   de   Saint- Pierre,"  1775; 


Saint-Pierre,  de,  (EUSTACHE,)  a  noble  citizen  of 
Calais,  who,  as  Froissart  relates,  when  that  city  was 
besieged  by  Edward  III.  of  England,  offered  himself 
with  five  others  to  the  English,  on  condition  that  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  should  be  spared. 

See  FROISSART,  "Chronicles." 

Saint-Pierre,  de,  (JACQUES  HENRI  Bernardm— 
beR'ntR/daN',)  a  celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  at 
Havre  on  the  igth  of  January,  1737.  Having  finished 
his  studies  with  distinction  at  the  College  of  Rouen,  he 
entered  the  army  as  a  military  engineer,  but  he  was  soon 
after  dismissed  the  service  for  an  act  of  insubordination. 
He  subsequently  went  to  Russia,  where  he  remained 
four  years,  employed  as  an  engineer.  Having  returned 
to  France  in  1766,  he  obtained  a  commission  as  engineer 
for  the  Isle  of  France.  After  a  residence  of  three  years 
in  that  country,  he  set  out  in  1771  for  Paris,  where  he 
resolved  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Rousseau  and  other  distinguished  writeis 
of  the  time.  He  published  in  1773  his  "Voyage  to 
the  Isle  of  France,"  etc.,  and  in  1784  his  "Studies  of 
Nature,"  which  was  very  favourably  received.  It  was 
followed  in  1788  by  the  charming  tale  of  "Paul  and 
Virginia,"  which  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  edi 
tions  and  was  translated  into  the  principal  languages 
of  Europe.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Desires 
of  a  Solitary,"  ("  Les  Vceux  d'un  Solitaire,"  1789,) 
"The  Indian  Cottage,"  (1791,)  "  Harmonies  of  Nature," 
and  "Essay  on  J.  J.  Rousseau."  Saint-Pierre  enjoyed 
Jhe  patronage  of  Louis  XVI.,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and 
the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  died  in  January,  1814.  He 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  prose  writers  of  France, 
and  his  "Paul  and  Virginia"  is  pronounced  by  a  French 
critic  not  only  the  chef-cTaiivre  of  the  author,  but  one 
of  the  chcfs-irccnvre  of  the  language.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Pierre  F.  Didot,  book-publisher  of  Paris, 
and  had  two  children,  named  Paul  and  Virginie. 

See  Louis  AIME  MARTIN,  "Vie  de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre," 
prefixed  to  his  complete  works,  12  vols.,  1817-20,  also,  '•  Memoires 
sur  la  Vie  de  B.  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1826;  PATIN,  "filoge  de  B.  de 
Saint- Pierre,"  1816;  SAINTE-BKUVE,  "Portraits  litte'raires ;"  A. 
FI.EURY,  "Vie  de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1844;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "North  American  Review"  tor  July,  1821, 
(by  A.  H.  EVERETT;)  "Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March. 
1816. 

Saint-Pol,  de.     See  LUXEMBOURG,  DE,  (Louis.) 

Saint-Pol,  de,  deh  saN'pol',  (ANTOlNEMoNTBETON,) 
a  French  marshal  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an  ad 
herent  of  the  Guises,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
wars  of  the  League.  He  was  treacherously  assassin 
ated  by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  son  of  Henry  of  Lorraine, 
about  1594. 

Saint-Pol  or  Saint-Paul,  de,  (FRANQOIS  de  Bour 
bon- Vendonie — deh  booR'bo.N1'  vS.N'dom',)  CO.MTE,  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  Picardy  in  1491,  was  a  friend  of 
the  Count  of  Angouleme,  afterwards  Francis  I.,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  principal  military  expeditions. 
Died  in  1545. 

Saint-Prest  or  Saint-Fret,  de,  deh  saN'piii',  (JEAN 
YVES,)  a  French  jurist,  was  director  of  the  political 
academy  founded  at  Paris  in  1710  by  M.  de  Torcy.  He 
wrote  for  the  pupils  of  this  institution  a  "History 
of  the  Treaties  made  between  the  Different  European 
Powers,  from  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  Peace  of 
Nymwegen,  in  1679."  Died  in  1720. 

Saint-Priest,  de,  deh  s&N'pKe'est',  (ALEXIS,)  COUNT, 
a  diplomatist  and  litterateur,  of  French  extraction,  born 
at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1805,  was  a  nephew  of  Guillaume 
Emmanuel,  noticed  below.  He  was  successively  French 
ambassador  to  Brazil,  Portugal,  and  Copenhagen  be 
tween  1833  and  1841.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Fall 
of  the  Jesuits  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (1844,)  "His 
tory  of  the  Conquest  of  Naples  by  Charles  of  Anjou," 
(1847,)  which  procured  him  admission  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1849,  and  "Diplomatic  and  Literary 
Studies,"  (1850.)  Died  at  Moscow  in  1851. 

See  DE  BARANTE,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Cornte  A.  de  Saint-Priest," 
1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (EMMANUEL  Louis  MARIE  Gui- 
gnard — gen'ySR',)  VICOMTE,  a  general  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1789,  was  a  son  of  Frai^ois  Emmanuel, 
noticed  below.  He  fought  in  the  Russian  army  at  Aus- 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


SAINT-PRIEST 


'947 


SAINT-SIMON 


terlitz  and  Lutzen.  He  became  French  ambassador  at 
Berlin  in  1825,  and  was  minister  at  Madrid  from  1827 
to  1831. 

See  DE  BARANTE,  "  Etudes  historiques  et  biographiques ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (FRANCOIS  EMMANUKI.,)  COMTE,  a 
French  diplomatist  and  statesman,  horn  at  Grenoble  in 
1735,  was  employed  before  the  Revolution  in  important 
embassies  to  Portugal,  Constantinople,  and  the  Hague. 
He  succeeded  Villedeuil  as  secretary  of  state  or  minister 
of  the  interior  in  1789,  and  resigned  in  December,  1790. 
Died  in  1831. 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (GUILLAUME  EMMANUEL,)  COMTE, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1776. 
Having  entered  the  Russian  service,  he  fought  against 
the  French  at  Austerlitz  and  in  other  engagements,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
at  Rheims  in  1814. 

Saint-Prix,  sa.x'pRe',  (JEAN  AMAIILK  FUUCAULT,)  a 
French  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1834. 

Saint-Prosper,  de,  deh  S&N  pRos'paiR',  (ANTOINE 
JEAN  CASSE,)  a  French  journalist  and  political  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790  ;  died  in  1841. 

Saintrailles  or  Xaiiitrailles,  de,  deh  saN'tKaT  or 
sa.N'tRt'ye,  (PoTON,)  a  French  warrior,  born  about  1395, 
fought  for  Charles  VII.  against  the  English,  and  became 
marshal  of  France  in  1454.  Died  in  1461. 

Saiiit-Rambert,  de,  deh  sa.N'rO.N'baiR',  (GABRIEL,) 
a  French  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Descartes,  born 
at  Pontarlier,  was  the  author  of  "  Physical  Explana 
tions  of  the  First  Chapter  of  Genesis,"  (1713.)  Died 
about  1720. 

Saintre,  de,  deh  sax'tRa/,  written  also  Xaintre, 
(JEAN  or  JEHAN,)  a  brave  French  soldier,  born  at 
Vendome  in  1320,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Poitiers,  where  lie  was  severely  wounded.  Died 
in  1368. 

Saint-Real,  de,  deh  sax'ia'iK,  (CESAR  VICHARD, 
sa'zSa'  ve'shf  R',)  AliKE,  a  distinguished  historical  writer, 
born  at  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1639.  He  published 
a  treatise  "On  the  Use  of  History,"  (1671,)  the  his 
torical  romance  of  "  Don  Carlos,"  (1672,)  a  "  History 
of  the  Spanish  Conspiracy  against  the  Republic  of 
Venice  in  1618,"  (1674,)  and  several  other  works.  lie 
resided  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  intimate  with  Hor- 
tense  Mancini.  Died  in  1692.  His  work  on  the 
"  Conspiracy  against  Venice"  was  ranked  among  the 
chcfs-d'a'iti'rc  of  the  French  language  by  Voltaire,  who 
says  that  "  his  style  is  comparable  to  that  of  Sallust." 
("  Siecie  de  Louis  XIV.")  A  large  part  of  this  work 
is  fictitious. 

See  F.  ui  BAROLO,  "  Memorie  spettanti  alia  Vita  di  Saint-Real," 
1788;  NICERON-,  "  Memoires ;"  MOKEKI,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saiiit-Remy,  de,  deh  sa.N'ri'me',  (PIERRE  SURIREY,) 
a  French  general,  born  about  1650,  was  the  author  of 
"  Memoirs  of  Artillery."  Died  in  1716. 

Saint-Ruth,  saN'riit',  a  French  general,  and  perse 
cutor  of  the  Huguenots,  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He 
was  sent  to  Ireland  in  1691  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  which  fought  for  James  II.,  and  was  opposed 
by  General  Ginkell.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Aughrim  in  1691. 

See  MACAULAY'S  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Saint-Samson,  de,  deh  saN'sdN'si.N',  (JEAN,)  a 
French  Carmelite  monk  and  devotional  writer,  who 
became  blind  in  infancy,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1571; 
died  in  1636. 

Saint-Saphorin,  de,  deh  saN'si'fo'raN',  (ARMAND 
FRANC.OIS  Louis,)  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1738, 
entered  the  service  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark,  who 
made  him  a  privy  councillor  and  conferred  upon  him 
other  distinctions.  Died  in  1805. 

Saint-Silvestre,  de,  deh  sax'sel'vestR',  QUSTE 
Louis  du  Faure — dii  for,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  lieu 
tenant-general,  born  in  Paris  in  1627.  He  served  under 
Turenne  in  1672,  and  subsequently  in  the  Spanish  cam 
paign  of  1693.  "Died  in  1719. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  deh  saN'se'mdV,  (  CHARLES 
FRANCOIS  Vermandois  de  Rouvroy-Sandricourt 
— veR'md.N'dwa'  deh  roo'vRwa'  sdN'dre'kooR',)  a  French 


prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1727,  became  Bishop  of  Agde 
and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
was  executed  in  1794,  by  order  of  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (CLAUDE  ANNE,)  MARQUIS,  a 
French  commander,  born  in  1743,  entered  the  Spanish 
service,  and  was  created  captain-general  by  Ferdinand 
VII.  Died  about  1820. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (CLAUDE  DE  ROUVROY,)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1607,  was  the  father  of  the 
famous  writer  of  Memoirs.  Died  in  1693. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (CLAUDE  DE  ROUVROY,)  a  French 
prelate,  of  noble  family,  born  in  Paris  in  1695,  became 
Bishop  of  Metz  in  1733.  Died  in  1760. 

Saint-Simon,  sant  si'mon,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  saNx- 
se'moN',]  (CLAUDE  HENRI,)  COUNT,  a  famous  French 
socialist  and  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  October, 
1760,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles  Frai^ois,  Bishop  of 
Agde,  and  a  relative  of  the  Due  de  Saint-Simon.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  energy  of  character.  Having 
entered  the  army  young,  he  served  under  Washington 
in  the  United  States.  After  the  end  of  the  American 
war  he  passed  several  years  in  travel.  He  took  little 
part  in  the  French  Revolution,  but,  in  partnership  with 
Count  de  Redern,  speculated  in  confiscated  property. 
They  realized  a  large  fortune;  but  Redern  appropriated 
all  of  it  except  $30,000.  Saint-Simon  entertained  or 
professed  a  conviction  that  his  mission  was  to  be  a  social 
reformer,  for  which  he  qualified  himself  by  various 
studies.  In  1801  he  married  Mademoiselle  de  Champ- 
grand,  whom  he  divorced  in  1802  because  he  wished  to 
marry  Madame  de  Stael  ;  but  she  declined  his  offer.  He 
soon  dissipated  his  money  in  projects,  experiments,  etc. 
In  1807  he  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Scientific 
Labours  of  the  Nineteenth  Century."  With  the  aid 
of  his  disciple  Augustin  Thierry,  he  produced  "  The 
Reorganization  of  European  Society,"  (1814.)  Among 
his  most  remarkable  works  is  "  New  Christianity," 
("  Nouveau  Christianisme,"  1825,)  in  which  he  maintains 
that  Christianity  is  progressive.  His  doctrines  exerted 
great  influence  in  France,  and  attracted  many  eminent 
disciples,  among  whom  were  Auguste  Comte,  Michel 
Chevalier,  Hy'ppolite  Carnot,  and  O.  Rodrigues.  He 
died  in  1825.  After  his  death,  Bazard,  Rodrigues,  and 
Entantin  were  chief  priests  of  the  Saint-Simonian  sect, 
which  was  very  numerous  until  divergent  tendencies 
produced  its  dissolution. 

See  VII.LENAVE,  "  Histoire  du  Saint-Simonisme,"  1847;  *J- 
HUBBARD,  "  Saint-Simon,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Travaux,"  1857  '•  LOMEXIE, 
"Galerie  des  Conteniporains,"  vol.  x.  ;  F.  W.  CAROVE,  "Der  Saint- 
Simonismus,"  etc.,  1831  ;  "  Nonvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;",  "  Doc 
trines  of  Saint-Simon,"  in  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1831,  (by  SOUTHEY;)  "Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1863. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (HENRI  JEAN  VICTOR  DE  ROU 
VROY,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Prereuil  in  1782.  He  served  under  Marshal  Ney  in 
Spain,  and,  after  the  second  restoration,  was  appointed 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  Copenhagen,  (1820.)  He 
was  afterwards  created  lieutenant-general  and  senator, 
and  obtained  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Louis  DE  ROUVROY,)  Due,  a 
celebrated  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1675. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  took  part  in 
several  important  engagements  under  Marshal  Luxem 
bourg.  At  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  had  never 
regarded  him  with  favour,  Saint-Simon  became  a  partisan 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  an  opponent  of  the  legiti 
mate  princes.  He  was  also  a  zealous  Jansenist  and  friend 
of  Fenelon.  After  the  death  of  the  king  he  was  appointed 
by  the  regent  Orleans  one  of  his  council,  and  in  1721  was 
sent  to  Spain  to  negotiate  the  marriage  of  Louis  XV. 
with  the  Infanta.  Though  unsuccessful  in  this  affair,  he 
was  made  a  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  On  the  death  of  the  regent,  Saint- 
Simon  applied  himself  to  the  composition  of  his  "Me 
moires,"  portions  of  which  were  first  published  in  1788. 
A  complete  edition  came  out  in  1830,  entitled  "  Complete 
and  Authentic  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Saint-Simon  on 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Regency,"  (20  vols.) 
They  are  distinguished  by  great  independence  of  thought 
and  expression,  fearless  satire,  and  fine  delineation  of 
character,  and  rank  among  the  most  valuable  and  attract- 


c  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAINT-SIMON 


'948 


SAL  AD  IN  US 


ive  works  of  the  kind.     An  abridged  English  version  was 
published  by  Bayle  Saint  John  in  1857.     Died  in  1755. 

See  A.  LEFEVRE-PONTAI.IS,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres 
de  Saint-Simon,"  1855;  SAINTK-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  V. 
TREMBI.AV,  "  Biographic  du  Ducde  Saint-Simon,"  1850  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generate;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1832;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1857. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (MAXIMILIEN  HENRI,)  MARQUIS, 
a  French  litterateur,  born  about  1720,  was  a  brother  of 
Charles  Francois,  Bishop  of  Agde.  He  published  sev 
eral  historical  works,  and  translated  Pope's  "Essay  on 
Man."  Died  neai  Utrecht  in  1799. 

Saint-Scrim.     See  DESMARKTS  DE  SAINT-SORLIN. 

Saint-Ursin,  de,  deh  saN'tiiR'saN',  (MARIE,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Chartres  in  1763  ; 
died  in  1818. 

Saint-Vallier,  saN'vf  le-a',  QEAN  DE  POITIERS,)  a 
French  soldier  of  noble  family,  born  in  Dauphine  about 
1475,  served  in  the  Italian  wars  of  Charles  VIII.  and 
Louis  XII. 

Saint- Veiiaiit,  de,  deh  saN'veh-nfiN',  MADAME,  a 
French  novelist,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century;  died 
in  1815. 

Saint- Victor,  de,  deh  sax'vek'toR',  (JACQUES  BEN 
JAMIN  BINSSE,)  COMTE,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
1772.  He  published  various  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
and  translated  the  Odes  of  Anacreon  into  verse,  (1810.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Saint- Vincens,  de,  deli  saN'vaN'sdN',  (AI.EXANDRE 
JULES  ANTOINE  Fauris — fo'ress',)  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Aix  in  1750.  He  made  large  additions  to 
the  valuable  collection  of  medals  formed  by  his  father, 
and  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  numismatics  and  the 
ancient  monuments  of  France.  Died  in  1819. 

Saint- Vincens,  de,  (Junes  FRANCOIS  PAUL  FAU 
RIS,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  in  1718,  published 
several  treatises  on  numismatics.  Died  in  1798. 

Saint  Vincent,  EARL  OF.     See  JKRVIS,  (JoiiN.) 

Saint- Vincent,  sa.\'vaN's6.N',  (GREGORY,)  a  Flemish 
mathematician,  born  at  Bruges  in  1584,  was  a  pupil  of 
Clavius.  His  "  Opus  Geometricum  Quad  rat  u  roe  Circuli," 
etc.  (1647)  is  highly  commended  by  Montucla.  Died  in 
1667. 

Saisset,  s.Ysi',  (£MILE  EDMOND,)  a  French  philo 
sophical  writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1814.  He  became 
in  1856  professor  of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  complete 
history  of  skepticism,  entitled  "/Enesideme,"  (1840;) 
he  also  contributed  to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
philosophiques"  and  to  other  periodicals  a  number  of 
philosophical  essays  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1863. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1863. 

Saisseval,  de,  deh  sis'vil',  (CLAUDE  Louis,)  MAR 
QUIS,  born  in  1754,  attained  the  rank  of  marechal-de- 
camp  in  the  French  army.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
treatises  on  politics  and  finance.  Died  about  1820. 

Saissy,  si'se',  QEAN  ANTOINE,)  a  French  surgeon 
and  anatomist,  born  near  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1756; 
died  in  1822. 

Saiva,  si'va,  written  also  Shaiva,  the  name  applied 
by  the  Hindoos  to  the  worshippers  of  SIVA,  which  see. 

Saix,  du,  diisi,  [Lat.  SAXA'NUS,]  (ANTOINE,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bourg  in  1515,  wrote  several  re 
ligious  and  moral  works.  Died  about  1579. 

Sakawee,  (Sakawi,)  sa-ka'wee,  ?  written  also  Sa- 
kavi,  an  Arab  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  a  "History  of  Great  Men  from  1340  to  1383." 

SAK'  TI  or  SHAK'TI,  written  also  SA CTI,  [modern 
Hindoo  pron.  siik'tee  or  shiik'tee,]  a  Sanscrit  word  de 
noting  "  power"  or  "  energy,"  often  applied  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology  to  the  wives  or  consorts  of  the  chief  deities  ; 
or,  to  speak  more  definitely,  the  power  of  each  of  the 
male  deities  was  supposed  to  be  personified  in  his  consort. 
Thus,  Lakshmi  was  the  Sakti  ("  power"  or  "energy")  of 
Vishnu  ;  Parvati  or  Kali  was  the  Sakti  of  Siva  ;  and  so  on. 

Sakya  Muni  or  Sakya  Singha.     See  GAUTAMA. 

Sala,  sa'la,  (ANGIOLO,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at 
Vicenza,  nourished  about  1610-40.  He  lived  in  Holland 
from  1613  to  1617,  removed  to  Hamburg  about  1620, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg  about 
1632.  He  wrote  numerous  chemical  works,  which  were 


highly  commended  by  Haller.  They  were  published 
collectively  in  1647,  under  the  title  of  "Opera  Medico- 
Chymica." 

See  HALLER,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Sa'la,  (GEORGE  AUGUSTUS,)  an  English  litterateur, 
born  in  London  in  1827,  has  contributed  numerous 
articles  to  "  Household  Words."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Twice  round  the  Clock,  or  the  Hours  of 
the  Day  and  Night  in  London,"  (1859,)  "The  Badding- 
ton  Peerage;  a  Story  of  the  Best  and  Worst  Society," 
(1860,)  "The  Seven  Sons  of  Mammon,"  (3  vols.,  1861,) 
"Quite  Alone,"  (3  vols.,  1864,)  "My  Diary  in  America 
in  the  Midst  of  War,"  (2  vols.,  1865,)  and  "Rome  and 
Venice,  with  other  Wanderings,  1866-67,"  (1869.) 

Sala,  (Niccoi.6,)  an  Italian  composer  and  writer  on 
music,  born  at  Naples  about  1702.  He  produced  "  Re- 
gole  del  Contrapunto  pratico,"  (1794.)  Died  in  1800. 

Sala,  (ViTALE,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Cano  in 
1803  ;  died  in  1835. 

Sala  y  Berart,  sa'la  e  ba-raiu',  (GASPAR,)  a  Spanish 
theologian  and  preacher,  born  at  Saragossa ;  died  in 
1670. 

Salaberry,  de,  deh  sa'/la'/bi/re',  (CHARLES  MARIE 
d'Yrumberry — de'niN'b.Vre',)  COMTE,  a  French  roy 
alist,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1815.  He  was  afterwards  as 
sociated  with  Chateaubriand  as  editor  of  the  "  Conser- 
vateur."  He  published  several  political  and  historical 
works,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."  Died  in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sal'a-din,  [Fr.  pron.  sf'lt'daN',]  the  common  English 
and  French  form  of  Salah-ed-Deen  or  Salah-eddin 
— sa'lan  ed-deen',  i.e.  the  "  Integrity  of  the  Faith,"  |  Lat. 
SALADI'NUS;  It.  SALADINO,  sa-la-clee'no,]  I..  (Malek- 
Nasir-Yoosuf,  (or  -Yousouf,)  mSl'ek  na'sir  yoo'- 
soof,)  a  famous  Sultan  of  Egypt,  born  at  the  castle  of 
Tekrit,  on  the  Tigris,  in  1137,  was  a  son  of  Aiyoob,  a 
|  Koord,  who  had  a  high  rank  in  the  army  of  Noor-ed- 
Deen.  In  1168  he  became  vizier  of  Egypt,  then  under 
Noor-ed-Deen.  Saladin,  however,  refused  to  obey  him, 
and  assumed  the  sovereign  power.  After  the  death  of 
Noor-ed-Deen,  (1173,)  he  made  himself  master  of  South 
ern  Syria.  His  ambitious  efforts  to  extend  his  conquests 
soon  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  Christians  of 
Palestine,  whom  he  defeated  in  the  great  battle  of  Tibe 
rias  or  Hitten  in  July,  1187.  Jerusalem  surrendered  to 
Saladin  in  October  of  the  same  year.  His  victorious 
progress  was  arrested  by  the  armies  of  the  third  crusade, 
led  by  Richard  I.  of  England  and  Philip  Augustus  of 
France.  The  crusaders  commenced  in  1189  the  memo 
rable  siege  of  Acre,  which  was  defended  by  Saladin  with 
great  valour,  but  was  taken  in  July,  1191.  He  excited 
the  admiration  even  of  his  enemies  by  his  chivalrous 
spirit  and  magnanimity.  In  September,  1192,  Saladin 
and  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  suspended  hostilities  by  a 
truce  of  three  years.  The  former  remained  master  of 
Jerusalem.  lie  treated  with  humanity  the  numerous 
Christian  prisoners  that  fell  into  his  power.  He  died  at 
Damascus  in  March,  1193,  leaving  three  or  more  sons, 
among  whom  his  vast  dominions  were  divided. 

See  ABOOI.KEUA,  "  Life  of  Saladin  ;"  BOIIADIN,  "  Saladini  Vita  et 
Res  gesta; ;"  MARIN,  "  Histoire  de  Saladin,"  2  vols. ,  176-? ;  RKINAUD, 
"  Noiice  sur  la  Vie  de  Saladin,"  1824;  A.  SCHUI.TKNS,  "Saladini 
Vita,"  1755:  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  iii.  ;  MICH  ADD, 
"  History  of  the  Crusades  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Giiierale." 

Saladin  or  Salah-ed-Deeii  II.,  Sultan  of  Aleppo, 
born  in  1229,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding. 
His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Mongols,  who  took 
Aleppo  in  1260.  Saladin  was  killed  by  Hoolagoo,  the 
chief  of  the  Mongols,  in  1261. 

Saladin,  sS'lJt'daN',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS  MICHEL,)  a 
French  lawyer,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  (1792- 
95,)  and  opposed  the  excesses  of  the  Jacobins.  Died 
in  1813. 

Saladin,  (NICOLAS  JOSEPH,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  La  Bassee  in  1743.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  at  Douai  in  1792.  Died  in 
1829. 

Saladino.     See  SALADIN. 

Saladinus.     See  SALADIN. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  \,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  me"t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SJLAGNT 


1949 


SALFI 


Salagny,  de,  deh  st'iSn'ye',  (GEOFFROI,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  1316;  died  in  1374. 

Salah-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddin.)     See  S  A  I.ADI  N. 

Salai,  sa-11',  or  Salaino,  sa-li'no,  (ANDREA,)  an 
Italian  painter,  of  remarkable  personal  beauty,  was  born 
at  Milan  about  1475.  ^e  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  whom  he  frequently  served  as  a  model.  He  pro 
duced  several  admired  works  in  the  style  of  Da  Vinci. 

See  V  ASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Paint 
ing  in  Italy." 

Salamanca,  sa-la-man'ka,  (  ANTONIO,  )  an  Italian 
dealer  in  prints,  flourished  at  Rome  about  1540-50.  He 
published  many  engravings,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
engraved  a  "  Pieta"  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Salamee  or  Salami,  sa-la'mee,  (Abool-Hassan- 
Mohanimed,)  an  Arab  poet,  born  at  Bagdad  in  915; 
died  in  1002. 

Salamon,  de,  deh  st'lt'moN',  (Louis  SIFREIN  Jo- 
SEPH  FoNCROs6,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1759,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Belley  in  1817, 
and  of  Saint-Flour  in  1823.  Died  in  1829. 

Salandri,  sa-lan'ditee,  (PELLEGRI.NO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Reggio  in  1723.  He  wrote  sonnets  and  other 
short  poems,  the  style  of  which  is  said  to  be  pure  and 
elegant.  Died  in  1771. 

Salas,  sa'las,  (GREGORIO  FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  pas 
toral  poet,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1740;  died  in  1808. 

Salat,  sa'lat,  (JAKOI!,)  a  German  philosopher  and 
Catholic  priest,  born  at  Abbtsgmiind  in  1766.  He  be 
came  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Landshut  in 
1807,  and  published  numerous  works  on  philosophy, 
psychology,  etc.  Died  in  1851. 

Salat,  sa-lat',  (Don  JOSE\)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Cervera  in  1762  ;  died  about  1828. 

Salaville,  st'is'vel',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Leger  in  1755,  published  an 
"  Essay  on  Duelling,"  and  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Salaza,  de,  da  sa-la'tha,  (CASTRO  Luis,)  historiogra 
pher  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  lived  about  1680.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Genealogical  History 
of  the  House  of  Silva,"  (1685.) 

Salazar,  de.     See  MENDOZA,  DE,  (PEDRO.) 

Salazar  y  Torres,  de,  da  sa-la-thau'  e  tor're's,  (Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Soria  in  1642.  He 
\.rote  comedies,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Segunda 
Celestina,"  and  lyric  poems.  Died  in  1675. 

Saldanha  Oliveira  e  Dauri,  sal-dan'ya  o-le-va^e-ra 
a  down,  (  TOAO  CARLOS,)  DL'KK  OF,  a  Portuguese  states- 
mini  and  marshal,  was  born  at  Arinhaga  about  1785.  He 
was  a  grandson  of  the  famous  Marquis  de  Pombal.  In 
1825  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
subsequently  minister  of  war  under  Dom  Pedro.  After 
the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  at  Oporto,  he 
became  conjointly  with  Palmella  commander-in-chief 
of  the  constitutional  army.  \\  ith  the  assistance  ot  the 
Duke  of  Terceira,  he  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Miguelists  in  1833.  He  was  prime  minister  from  1851 
to  June,  1856.  lie  recovered  power  by  a  coup  d'etat  in 
May,  1870. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Salden,  sal'den,  [  Lat.  SALDE'NUS,  ]  (  WILI.EM,  )  a 
Dutch  theologian,  was  a  native  of  Utrecht.  He  pub 
lished  a  number  of  learned  works  in  Latin  and  Dutch. 
Died  in  1694. 

Saldenus.     See  SAI.DKN. 

Saldern,  von,  fon  sal'deRn,  (FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH.) 
a  Prussian  general  and  skilful  tactician,  born  in  1719, 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  He  published  "In 
fantry  Tactics,"  and  other  military  works.  Died  in  1785. 

Sale,  (Gr.ORGE,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in  1680. 
His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  English  translation 
of  the  Koran,  (1734,)  with  explanatory  notes  from  the 
most  approved  commentators.  He  also  contributed  to 
the  "Universal  History''  edited  by  S  win  ton  and  others, 
and  to  the  "General  Dictionary"  published  in  London 
in  1734.  Died  in  1736. 

Sale,  (Sir  ROBERT  HENRY,)  an  eminent  British  gene 
ral,  born  in  1782.  He  became  a  captain  in  1806,  and  a 
major  in  1813.  After  he  had  served  many  years  in  India, 
he  gained  distinction  in  the  Afghan  war,  which  began 


about  1838,  and  became  a  major-general  in  1840.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  stormed  the  Khoord  Cabool 
Pass  in  1841,  and  defended  Jelalabad  in  a  long  siege, 
from  November,  1841,  till  April,  1842.  For  his  conduct 
at  the  capture  of  Cabool  he  was  knighted.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  against  the  Sikhs  at  Mookee  in  1845. 

Saleh-Ibii-Nahala.     See  SALIH-IHN-NAHALA. 

Salel,  st'lel',  (HucuES,)  a  French  poet  and  ecclesi 
astic,  born  in  1504,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I. 

Salemon  or  Salmon,  saTmi.N',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Nancy  in  1744;  died  in  1814. 

Salemon,  sa-li-min',  or  Salmon,  sal-m6n',  (Don 
MANUEL  GONZALES,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at 
Cadiz  in  1778,  was  employed  in  important  missions  to 
Portugal,  France,  and  Saxony,  and  was  appointed  by 
Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1830,  first  secretary  of  state,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  1832. 

Salerne,  st'liRn',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Orleans,  translated  Ray's  "Orni 
thology."  Died  in  1760. 

Sales,  de,  deh  sal,  (CHARLES,)  brother  of  the  fol 
lowing,  was  born  at  Thorens  in  1625.  In  1665  he  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  Viceroy  of  Saint  Christopher 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  He  was  killed  in  an  engage 
ment  with  the  English  in  1666. 

Sales,  de,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTE,)  nephew  of  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,  born  in  Savoy  in  1606,  became  Bishop 
and  Prince  of  Geneva.  He  wrote  "The  Life  of  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,"  (in  Latin  and  French,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1660. 

Sales,  de,  deh  stl  or  sa'les,  [sometimes  Anglicized 
in  pron.  as  salz,]  (Saint  FRANCIS,)  an  excellent  bishop 
and  writer,  born  at  Sales,  in  Savoy,  on  the  2ist  ot" 
August,  1567,  was  a  son  of  the  Count  de  Sales.  He 
entered  the  College  of  the  Jesuits,  in  Paris,  in  1578, 
and  studied  Greek,  with  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
afterwards  studied  law  at  Padua,  where  he  also  became 
a  pupil  of  Antonio  Possevino.  Having  resolved  to 
renounce  the  world,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1593, 
and  became  not  only  an  eloquent  preacher  but  a  model 
of  humility  and  other  Christian  virtues.  He  was  soon 
employed  as  a  missionary  among  the  Calvinists  of  Ge 
neva  and  Chablais,  many  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
converted.  About  1602  he  visited  Paris  and  preached 
before  Henry  IV.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Geneva 
in  1602.  He  enforced  strict  discipline,  reformed  the 
monasteries,  and  abounded  in  works  of  charity  to  the 
poor.  In  1608  he  published  an  "Introduction  to  a 
Religious  Life,"  which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
offered  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal,  but  he  declined  it. 
Among  the  eminent  persons  converted  by  him  was 
Marshal  Lesdiguieres.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God,"  ("Traite  de  FAmour 
de  Dieu,"  1616.)  He  died  at  Lyons  in  December,  1622, 
and  was  canonized  in  1665. 

See  "  Histoire  de  Francois  de  Sales,"  by  his  nephew,  CHARLES 
AUGUSTE  DE  SALES,  1634;  JEAN  PIERRE  CAMUS,  "Esprit  de 
Saint- Francois  de  Sales,"  1641  ;  Louis  DE  LA  RIVIERE,  "Vie  de  B. 
Francois  de  Sales,"  1634;  GAI.I.IZIA,  "La  Vita  di  S.  Francesco  de 
Sales,"  1711;  MARSOLLIER,  "Vie  de  Saint- Francois  de  Sales," 
1700,  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  1737;)  RF.NSING,  "  Lebens- 
gescliichte  des  heiiigen  Franz  von  Sales,"  1818. 

Sales,  de,  (Louis,)  a  Catholic  theologian,  born  in 
Savoy  in  1564,  was  a  cousin  of  the  celebrated  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales.  Died  in  1625. 

Sales,  de,  (Louis,)  COMTE,  a  brother  of  Saint  Fran 
cis  de  Sales,  was  born  in  Chablais  in  1577.  He  served 
as  general  of  the  army  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  His 
character  is  represented  as  excellent.  Died  in  1654. 

See  HUFFIER,  "  Vie  de  Louis  de  Sales,"  1718. 

Salfi,  sal'fee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  philosopher 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza,  in  Calabria,  in  1759. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  philosophy  at  Milan 
in  1800,  and  subsequently  of  public  law.  He  published 
a  number  of  dramas,  among  which  are  "Medea,"  "  Ido- 
meneo,"  and  "Saul,"  and  critical  essays,  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  Ginguene's  "Literary  History  of  Italy," 
(1834.)  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."  Died  near  Paris  in  1832. 

See  ANGKLO  RENZI,  "  Memnire  sur  la  Vie  politique  et  litteiaire  de 
F.  Salfi,"  1832  ;  L.  GRECO,  "  Vita  letteraria  ossia  Analisidelle  Opere 
di  F.  Salfi,"  1839. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


S4LGUES 


1950 


S4LLENGROS 


Salgues,  stlg,  (JACQUES  BARTHELF.MY,)  a  French 
litterateur  and  journalist,  born  at  Sens  about  1760. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
France  under  Napoleon,"  (9  vols.,  1814-28.)  Died  in 
1830. 

Saliaii,  st'le'SN1',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
'557'  was  rector  of  the  College  of  Besai^on.  He  wrote 
"  Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1640. 

Salicet.     See  SAUCKTO. 

Saliceti,  sa-le-cha'tee,  (AuRKi.io,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
born  in  the  Abruzzo  in  1804,  filled  several  important 
offices  under  the  government. 

Saliceti,  [Fr.  pron.  st'le'si'te',]  (CHRISTOPHE,)  born 
at  Bastia,  in  Corsica,  in  1757,  was  a  deputy  to  the  French 
National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king.  He  was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Coun 
cil  of  Five  Hundred,  and  minister  of  war  at  Naples  under 
Joseph  Bonaparte.  Died  in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saliceto,  sa-le-cha'to,  [  Lat.  PLACKNTI'NUS  ;  Fr. 
SALICET,  st'le's.V,]  (GuGi.iF.i.Mo,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Piacenza,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  Sur 
gery,"  (14/6.)  and  other  medical  works,  in  Latin,  which 
were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  The  celebrated  Lan- 
franc  was  one  of  his  disciples.  Died  in  1280. 

Salieri,  sa-le-a'ree,  ( ANTONIO.)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Legnano,  in  the  Venetian  States,  in 
1750.  He  studied  under  Gnssmann  at  Vienna,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Gluck,  at  whose  request 
he  composed  the  opera  of  "  Les  Dana'ides,"  for  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  in  Paris.  This  work  was  received 
with  the  greatest  favour,  and  was  followed  by  "  La  Grotta 
de  Trofonio,"  "Tarare,"  "Assur  Koi  d'Ormus,"  and 
other  popular  operas.  Died  in  1825. 

See  MOSEI.,  "Life  and  Works  of  Salieri,"  (in  German,)  1827; 
FRTIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Salies  or  Saliez,  de,  deh  sjt'lcjt'.  (ANTOINETTE 
SALVAN,)  a  French  authoress,  barn  at  Alby  in  1638. 
Her  works  comprise  poems,  historical  romances,  and 
religious  essays.  Died  in  1730. 

Salignac,  de,  deh  sflen'yak',  (BF.RTRAND,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  was  a  great-uncle  of  the  illustrious  Fenelon. 
He  was  ambassador  at  London  from  1572  to  1575,  and 
was  afterwards  sent  on  a  mission  to  Madrid  by  Henry 
IV.  Died  in  IS99- 

Salih-Ibn-Nahala,  sa'iiii  ib'n  ni'ha-la,  sometimes 
written  Salih-  (or  Saleh-)  Ben-Bahleh,  a  celebrated 
physician  of  Bagdad,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Haroun-al- 
Kaschid.  According  to  Abulpharagius,  (Aboolfaraj,)  he 
was  a  native  of  India. 

Salimbeiii,  sa-lem-ba'nee,  written  also  Salimbene, 
(ARCANGtOLO,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  about 
15^6,  was  a  native  of  Sienna. 

Salimbeni,  (VENTURA,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Sienna  in  1557.  He  executed  a 
number  of  fine  frescos  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  is 
"Abraham  and  the  Angels."  He  is  sometimes  called 
BEVILACQUA,  after  his  patron  the  cardinal  of  that  name. 
Died  in  1613. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "Dizio- 
nario. " 

Salinas,  de,  da  sa-lee'nas,  (FRANCISCO.)  a  Spanish 
musician  and  writer  on  the  theory  of  music,  was  born  at 
Burgos  about  1512,  and  was  blind  from  his  infancy.  He 
published  in  1577  his  celebrated  treatise  "  De  Musica," 
in  seven  books.  Died  in  1590. 

Salinas  y  Cordova,  de,  da  sa-lee'nas  e  koR'do-va, 
(BoNAVKNTURA,)  a  Franciscan  monk,  born  at  Lima,  in 
Peru,  became  vicar-general  of  his  order  for  the  provinces 
of  New  Spain,  Florida,  and  the  Philippines.  Died  in 
1653.  His  brother  DIEGO  was  historiographer  of  his 
order  in  South  America. 

Sal-i-na'tor,  (M.  Livnis,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
consul  with  L.  /Emilius  Paulus  in  219  B.C.  He  was 
again  elected  consul  in  207,  as  a  colleague  of  C.  Claudius 
Nero,  who  was  his  personal  enemv.  The  consuls,  how 
ever,  co-operated  in  opposing  the  Carthaginian  invaders, 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Hasdrubal  on  the 
Metaurus,  (207  B.C.)  He  became  censor  in  204  B.C., 
and  put  a  tax  on  salt :  hence  his  surname  SAUNATOK. 


Saliiis,  de,  deh  s&'laN',  (HuGUK.s,)  a  French  phy 
sician  and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Beaune  in  1632  ; 
died  in  1710. 

Salio,  sa'le-o,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born 
at  Padua  in  1700.  His  principal  work  is  a  sacred  poem 
on  the  Messiah.  Died  in  1737. 

Sails,  de,  deh  sJt'less',  (CHARLES  UI.YSSE,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  at  Marschlins  in  1728.  He  was  appointed 
French  minister  for  the  Orisons  in  1768.  He  published 
several  historical  works.  Died  in  1800. 

Salis,  de,  deh  st'less',  (Ronoi.i'iiK  ANTOINE  HU 
BERT,)  BARON,  born  in  1732,  entered  the  French  service, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  Died  in 
1807. 

Salis,  de,  (TATIUS  RODOLIMIE  GILBERT.)  a  French 
royalist,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1752,  became  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  Ardennes.  Died  in  1820. 

Salis,  de,  (ULYSSE,)  BARON,  a  Swiss  soldier  and 
writer,  born  in  1594,  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  La  Rochelle  and  in  other  important  engagements. 
He  died  in  1674,  leaving  a  collection  of  "Memoirs," 
written  in  Italian,  which  are  highly  commended  by 
Haller. 

Salisbury,  EARL  OK.     See  CKCII,,  (KOHKRT.) 

Salisbury,  (Joif.N  OK,)  THE  ELDER.  See  JOHN  OF 
SALISBURY. 

Salisbury,  saulx/ber-e,  (JOHN  OF,)  THE  VOUNGER, 
an  English  fesuit,  born  about  1575,  translated  several 
religious  works  into  Welsh.  Died  in  1625. 

Salisbury,  MARQUIS  OF.     See  CRANBORNE. 

Salisbury,  (RICHARD  ANTHONY,)  an  English  bot 
anist,  born  in  1762,  contributed  a  number  of  treatises 
to  the  "  Acts"  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  of  which  he 
was  a  member. 

Salisbury  or  Salesbury,  saulz'ber-e,  ?  (\Vu.i, IA.M,) 
a  Welsh  writer,  born  in  Denbighshire,  published  a 
"  Dictionary  in  English  and  Welsh,"  (1547,)  and  assisted 
Bishop  Davies  in  translating  the  New  Testament  into 
Welsh.  lie  also  translated  into  that  language  the  Lit- 
urgv  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Salis-Seewis,  sa'lis  sa'wis  or  s&'less'  sa'vess',  (Jo- 
HANN  GAUDENZ,)  BARON,  born  at  Malans,  (or  Seewis,) 
in  Switzerland,  in  1762,  published  a  collection  of  lyric 
poems,  (in  German.)  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
poet  Matthisson.  Died  in  1834. 

See  I,ON<;FKI.I.OW,  "Poets  nnc!  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Salis-Soglio,  von,  fon  sa'less  sol'yo,  (JoiiANN  UL- 
RIC,)  a  general,  born  at  Chnr,  Switzerland,  in  1790.  lie 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Snnderlwiid — i.e.  the  league 
formed  by  the  seven  Roman  Catholic  cantons — in  1847. 
He  was  reduced  to  subjection  in  November  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1855. 

Salle,  sJt'la',  (JACQUES  ANTOINE,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1712,  was  the  author  of  "Spirit  of  the 
Statutes  of  Louis  XV.,"  and  other  legal  works.  Died 
in  1778. 

SaJle,  de  la,  deh  IS  sSl,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Rheims  in  1651,  was  founder  of  the 
Institution  of  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  having 
for  its  object  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  the  poor.  Died 
in  1719. 

Salle,  de  la,  (PHILIPPE,)  an  ingenious  French  artisan 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Seyssel  in  1723.  lie  obtained 
in  1783  a  gold  medal  for  his  improvements  in  the  silk- 
loom.  Died  in  1804. 

Salle  de  Letang,  de  la,  deh  IS  sSl  deh  la'toN',  (Si- 
MON  PHILIBERT,)  a  French  agricultural  writer,  bom  at 
Rheims  about  1700;  died  in  1765. 

Salle,  La.     See  LA  SALLE. 

Sallengre,  sal-leng'Greh,  ?  (ALBERT  HENDKIK,)  a 
Dutch  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1694.  He  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  a  "New Treasury  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (3  vols.,  1716-19,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Literary  Journal  of  the  Hague."  He  died  in 
1723,  leaving  a  "History  of  the  United  Provinces  for 
the  Year  1621,"  which  came  out  in  1728. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Sallengros,  st'lo.N'gRo',  (A.  BENOIT  FRANCOIS.)  a 
French  Jacobin,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Conven 
tion  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died 
about  1816. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


S4LLES 


1951 


SALM-DTCK 


Salles,  sit!,  (EusEliE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  physician 
and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1799.  He 
was  appointed  in  1835  professor  of  Arabic  at  Marseilles. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "General  History 
of  Legal  Medicine,1'  "  Peregrinations  in  the  East,"  and 
"General  History  of  the  Human  Races,  or  Ethnographic 
Philosophy/' 

Salles, '(  JEAN  BAFTISTE,)  a  French  revolutionist  and 
member  of  the  National  Convention.  During  the  trial 
of  the  king  he  voted  for  the  appeal  to  the  people,  which 
he  was  the  first  to  propose.  He  was  executed  at  Bor 
deaux  in  1794. 

Salles,  de,  deh  stl,  (CHARI.KS  MARIE,)  COMTE,  a 
French  general,  born  about  1804.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Sebastopol  in  May-September,  1855.  Died 
in  iS^S. 

Sallet,  von,  fon  sf'li',  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Neisse,  in 
Silesia,  in  1812.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Laien- 
evangelium,"  is  a  poem  in  praise  of  Pantheism.  Died 
in  1843. 

Sallier,  st'lej-i',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Saulieu  in  1685.  In  1719  he  succeeded  Sarrazin 
as  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal  College,  and  was 
afterwards  appointed  keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the 
Royal  Library.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
in  1729,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Societies  of 
London  and  Berlin.  His  works  are  chiefly  critical  and 
antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1761. 

Sallier-Chamcmt,  st'le-i'  shS'inox',  (Gui  MARIE,) 
a  French  writer,  born  about  1750.  He  was  appointed 
in  1814  master  of  requests,  and  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  Died  about  1840. 

Salliii,  si'lix',  (MAURICE,)  a  Savoyard  artist,  skilled 
in  sculpture  and  engraving,  born  in  1760;  died  in  1809. 

Sallior,  st'le'oR',  (MARIE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  poli 
tician  and  writer,  born  at  Versailles  about  1740;  died 
in  1804. 

Sallo,  de,  deh  st'lo',  (DENIS,)  Sieur  de  La  Coudraye, 
born  in  Paris  in  1626,  is  called  the  founder  of  modem 
literary  journals.  He  brought  out  in  1665,  conjointly 
with  other  writers,  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  which 
was  at  first  very  successful,  but  subsequently  gave  great 
offence  by  the  freedom  and  severity  of  its  criticisms. 
The  Abbe  Gallois  afterwards  became  editor  of  the 
"  fournal,"  which  was  continued  till  1792.  Died  in  1669. 

See  MOKERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  XICEROK,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Sal'lust,  [Lat.  SALLUS'TTUS;  Fr.  SAT.LUSTE,  st'lust'; 
It.  S AI.I.USTIO,  sal-loos'te-o,]  (or,  more  fully,  Caius  Sal- 
lustius  Crispus,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian,  who 
was  born  of  a  plebeian  family  at  Amiternum  in  86  li.c. 
He  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  is.c.,  and  was 
expelled  from  the  senate  by  the  censors  in  50  for  alleged 
immoral  conduct.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war.  In  the  year  47  he  obtained  the  office  of  praetor, 
and  accompanied  Caesar  in  his  African  campaign.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  Xumidia  by  Caesar  in  46  li.c. 
According  to  Dion  Cassius,  he  enriched  himself  by  the 
oppression  and  plunder  of  the  people  of  that  province. 
After  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and  built  a  sumptuous  palace  on  the  Quirinal,  with 
large  gardens,  still  called  Horti  Sallustiani.  Having 
retired  from  public  life,  he  devoted  his  latter  years  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  died  in  34  H.C.  The  scandalous 
charges  against  the  character  of  Sallust,  made  by  several 
ancient  and  modern  writers,  may  have  been  true,  but,  in 
the  opinion  of  some  of  the  best  critics,  they  are  far  from 
having  been  established  by  any  decisive  evidence.  He 
was  much  influenced  by  party  spirit,  and  probably 
hated  the  aristocratic  party  more  than  he  loved  the  ple 
beians.  Sallust  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of 
Catiline,"  ("  Bellum  Catilinarium,'')  and  a  "History  of 
the  War  between  the  Romans  and  Jugurtha,"  ("  Bellum 
Tugurthinum.")  The  speeches  which  he  ascribes  to 
Cato,  Caesar,  and  others  in  his  histories,  though  proba 
bly  expressed  in  the  language  of  Sallust,  give  us,  there 
is  reason  to  believe,  the  substance  of  what  was  said  by 
those  eminent  men.  He  also  wrote  a  history  of  Rome 
for  the  period  included  between  78  and  66  B.C.,  which 
is  lost.  "The  ancient  critics,"  says  Macaulay,  "placed 


Sallust  in  the  same  rank  with  Livy  ;  and  unquestionably 
the  small  portion  of  his  works  which  has  come  down  to 
us  is  calculated  to  give  a  high  opinion  of  his  ta'ents. 
But  his  style  is  not  very  pleasant ;  and  his  most  power 
ful  work,  the  account  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  has 
rather  the  air  of  a  clever  party  pamphlet  than  that  of  a 
history."  (Essay  on  History  in  the  "Edinburgh  Re 
view,"  1828.) 

See  DES  BROSSES,  "Vie  de  Salluste  ;"  D.  W.  MOLI.ER,  "De  C. 
Salliistio,"  1684;  MULLHR,  "  C.  Sallustius,  oder  liistorisclie  Un- 
tersuchung,"  etc.,  1817;  F.  D.  GERLACH,  "  Ueber  den  Geschichts- 
schreiber  C.  Sailustius  Ciispus,"  1831  ;  E.  C.  DE  GERI.ACHE, 
"Etudes  sur  Salluste."  etc.,  1847;  BREGOLINI,  "Vita  di  C.  C. 
Sallustio,"  1802;  ''  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  February,  1846. 

Salluste,  the  French  for  SALLUST,  which  see. 

Sallustio.     See  SAI.LUST. 

Sallustius.     See  SALLUST. 

Sal-lus'ti-us  or  Salus'tius,  surnamed  THE  PHILOSO 
PHER,  a  Roman  officer,  and  a  pagan,  was  pretorian  pre 
fect  under  the  emperor  Julian.  Me  dissuaded  the  latter 
from  persecuting  the  Christians.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  an  extant  work  "  On  the  Gods 
and  the  World." 

Sallustius,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  born  in  Syria,  lived 
probably  between  450  and  500  A.D.  He  gained  distinc 
tion  as  an  orator. 

Sallus'tius  Cris'pus,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  knight  and 
courtier,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Sallust  the  historian, 
|  whose  large  fortune  he  inherited.  He  was  a  man  of 
superior  talents  for  public  affairs,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  favoured  and  influential  advisers  of  Augustus.  Ife 
also  obtained  the  confidence  of  Tiberius.  Died  in  20  A.D. 

Salm,  stlm,  a  French  general,  born  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Vosges  in  1768,  served  under  Pichegru  in  1794, 
|  and  subsequently  in  Italy  and  Spain.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Olivo,  in  1811. 

Salmanasar.     See  SHALMANESER. 

Salmasius,  sal-ma'she-us,  (CLAUDIUS,)  [Fr.  CLAUDE 
DE  SAUMAISE,  klod  deh  so'maz',]  a  celebrated  French 
scholar,  born  at  Semur  in  1588.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  Latin  and  Greek  verses  and  to  have  read  Pin 
dar  at  the  age  of  ten.  While  pursuing  his  studies  in 
Paris,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Casaubon,  by  whom 
he  was  induced  to  become  a  Protestant.  He  subse 
quently  studied  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  became  ac 
quainted  with  Gruter,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  edition 
of  Florus,  published  in  1609.  This  was  succeeded  by 
his  "Historiae  Augustas  Scriptores  Sex,"  (1620,)  a  con 
tinuation  of  the  "Twelve  Caesars"  of  Suetonius  ;  edi 
tions  of  Tertullian's  "  De  Pallio,"  of  Achilles  Tatius,  and 
other  classics.  His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "  Plinianae 
Exercitationes  in  C.  J.  Solini  Polyhistoria,"  (2vols.,  1629.) 
The  immense  and  varied  learning  displayed  in  this 
production  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest  point, 
and  he  received  invitations  from  several  princes  of 
Europe  to  settle  in  their  respective  countries.  In  1632 
he  became  honorary  professor  at  Leyclen,  where  he  con 
tinued  chiefly  to  reside  till  he  visited  Sweden  in  1650  at 
the  invitation  of  Queen  Christina.  At  the  request  of 
Charles  II.,  then  in  Holland,  Salmasius  wrote  his  "  De- 
fensio  Regia  pro  Carolo  I.,"  (1649,)  being  a  defence 
of  monarchy  and  of  the  king  Charles  I.,  who  had  just 
been  put  to  death.  This  called  forth  Milton's  celebrated 
reply  entitled  "  Defensio  pro  Populo  Anglicano,"  which 
Salmasius  was  about  to  answer,  when  he  died,  in  1653. 

"But  the  greatest,"  says  Hallain,  "in  this  province  of 
literature  [philology]  was  Claude  Saumaise,  best  known 
in  the  Latin  form  Salmasius,  whom  the  general  suffrage 
of  his  compeers  placed  at  their  head.  An  incredible 
erudition,  so  that  it  was  said  what  Salmasius  did  not 
know  was  beyond  the  bounds  of  knowledge, — a  memory 
such  as  none  but  those  great  scholars  of  former  times 
seem  to  have  possessed, — a  life  passed,  naturally  enough, 
in  solitary  labour, — were  sufficient  to  establish  his  fame 
among  the  learned."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.'') 

See  A.  CLEMENT,  "Vita  Salmasii,"or  "Vie  de  Saumaise,"  1656; 
M»KERI,  "Dictionnaire  Historique;"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Salm-Dyck,  sflm'dek',  (CONSTANCE  MARIE,)  PRIX- 
CESS  OF,  a  French  poetess  and  miscellaneous  writer, 


€  as  K;  9  as  s  •  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ' ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SALMEGGIA 


1952 


SALTONSTALL 


whose  original  name  was  THEIS,  born  at  Nantes  in  1767, 
was  the  author  of  the  lyric  tragedy  of  "  Sappho,"  set  to 
music  by  Martini,  "Epistle  to  Women,"  "  Eulogy  on 
Lalancle,"  and  "My  Political  and  Literary  Reminis 
cences,"  (1833.)  Died  in  1845. 

See  MICHEL.  BERR,  "  Notice  sur  la  Princesse  de  Salm  ;"  A.  MON- 
T£MONT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Princesse  de  Salm-Dyck,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle 
Biogvaphie  Generale." 

Salnieggia,  sal-med'ja,  (£NF.A,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  TALPINO,  was  a  native  of  Bergamo.  He 
studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  and  became  one  of  his 
most  successful  imitators.  Among  his  best  productions 
are  the  altar-pieces  in  the  churches  of  Santa  Marta  and 
Santa  Grata  at  Bergamo.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Painting."  Died  in  1626,  at  an  advanced  age. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Salmeron,  sal-ma-r6n',  (ALFONSO,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
bora  at  Toledo  in  1515,  was  one  of  the  chief  disci  pies  of 
Ignatius  Loyola.  He  published  several  theological  works, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  founding  the  order  of  Jesuits. 
He  was  one  of  the  orators  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  to 
which  he  was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  III.  Died  in  1585. 

See  RIBADENEIRA,  "  Vita  Salmeronis  ;"  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Biblio- 
tbeca  Hispana  Nova." 

Salmerou,  (CRISTOVAI.  GARCIA,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Cuenca  in  1603  ;  died  in  1666. 

Salm-Kyrburg,  de,  deh  saMm-keK'buV,  (FREDERIC 
ERNEST  OTTO,)  PRINCE,  born  in  Paris  in  1789,  served 
in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in  the  campaign  of  1807,  and 
afterwards  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy.  Died  in  1835. 

Salmon,  stl'mA.N',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  born  in  Paris  in  1677,  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Study  of  the  Councils,"  (1724.)  Died  in  1736, 

Salmon,  (JEAN,)  surnamed  MAIGRET  (m.VgRi')  or 
MACRI'NUS,  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Loudun  in  1490, 
was  the  author  of  Latin  odes,  which  were  highly  esteemed 
in  his  time.  Died  in  1557.  His  son  CHARLES  was  like 
wise  noted  for  his  learning,  and  was  preceptor  to  Cathe 
rine  of  Bourbon,  sister  of  Henry  IV.  He  perished  in 
the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572. 

Salmon,  (Louis  ADOLPHE,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1806.  Among  his  works  are  plates  after 
Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Da  Vinci. 

Salmon,  sa'mon,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  divine 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Bedfordshire.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Hertfordshire,"  "  Survey  of  the  Roman 
Stations  in  Britain,  according  to  the  Roman  Itinerary," 
(1721,)  "Survey  of  the  Roman  Stations  in  the  Midland 
Counties,"  (1726,)  "Antiquities  of  Surrey,"  (1736,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1742. 

Salmon,  (ROHKRT,)  an  English  mechanician,  born  in 
Warwickshire  in  1763;  died  in  1821. 

Salmon,  (THOMAS,)  brother  of  Nathaniel,  noticed 
above,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Chronological  Histo 
rian,"  "Examination  of  Burnet's  History  of  his  Own 
Times,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  about  1745. 

Salmon,  (WILLIAM,)  a  celebrated  English  empiric, 
published  "A  Universal  Herbal,"  "Compendium  of  the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1700. 

Salmonee._  See  SALMONEUS. 

Sal-mo'neus,  [Gr.  ^a^uuvEvf ;  Fr.  SALMON£E,  stl'- 
mo'iii',]  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of  ^£olus,  a  brother 
of  Sisyphus,  and  a  king  of  Elis.  The  poets  relate  that  he 
claimed  divine  honours,  imitated  thunder  and  lightning 
by  driving  his  chariot  over  a  brazen  bridge,  and  by 
throwing  burning  torches,  etc.,  for  which  impiety  he  was 
killed  by  a  thunderbolt  from  Jupiter. 

See  VIRGIL,  "/Eneid,"  book  vi.,  585. 

Salm-Reifferscheidt,  salm  ri'fer-shlt',  (NICHOLAS,) 
COUNT,  a  distinguished  general  in  the  Austrian  service, 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  and  took  prisoner  the 
French  king,  Francis  I.  In  1530  he  defended  Vienna 
against  the  Turks  under  Solyman  II.,  but  he  was  mor 
tally  wounded  during  the  last  attack. 

Salm-Salm,  salm  salm,  (FELIX,)  PRINCK,  was  born 
of  a  distinguished  Austrian  family,  December  28,  1828. 
In  1862  he  married  Mademoiselle  Le  Clerq,  of  New 
York,  which  act  offended  his  family  and  caused  his 
exclusion  from  the  Austrian  court.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Federal  army  during  the  civil  war, 


towards  the  close  of  which  he  was  made  post-commander 
at  Atlanta.  He  accompanied  Maximilian  to  Mexico  in 
1864,  and  was  appointed  by  him  aide-de-camp  and  chief 
of  his  household.  After  the  downfall  and  death  of  Maxi 
milian,  to  whom  he  remained  faithful  to  the  last,  he  re 
turned  to  Europe.  Having  entered  the  Prussian  service, 
as  major  in  the  fourth  regiment  of  grenadiers,  he  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Gravelotte,  August  16-17,  1870. 

Salnove,  de,  deh  s&l'nov',  (ROHKRT,)  a  French  writer 
on  the  art  of  hunting,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XIII.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Venerie 
royale,"  (1655.) 

Sa-lo'me,  [Gr.  Sa/l<j/.«?,]  an  artful  and  cruel  woman, 
who  was  a  sister  of  Herod  the  Great.  By  calumnious 
accusations  she  induced  Herod  to  put  to  death  her  own 
husband,  Josephus,  and  Mariamne  the  wife  of  Herod. 
Died  about  12  A.D. 

Salomon,  the  French  for  SOLOMON,  which  see. 

Salomon,  sa^'lo'inoN',  (FRANCOIS  HENRI,)  a  French 
litterateur  of  little  merit,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1629,  be 
came  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1646,  having 
for  his  competitor  the  great  Corneille.  Died  in  1670. 

Sal'o-mou  or  Sol'o-mon,  (FREDERICK,)  a  general, 
born  in  Prussia  in  1826.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  worked  as  an  engineer  in  Wisconsin  before 
the  civil  war.  lie  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
about  July,  1862. 

Salomon,  sa'lo-mon',  (GoTTHOi.n,)  a  Jewish  theo 
logian  and  preacher  at  Hamburg,  born  in  1784,  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  prophets  Ilaggai  and  Zechariah. 

Salomon,  (JOHANN  PETER,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Bonn  in  1745.  After 
visiting  Berlin  and  Paris,  he  settled  in  London,  where 
he  began  about  1790  a  series  of  subscription  concerts, 
for  which  Haydn  produced  his  twelve  grand  symphonies, 
generally  known  as  "  composed  for  Salomon's  Concerts." 
Haydn's  oratorio  of  "The  Creation"  was  brought  out 
in  1798  by  Salomon  at  the  Opera  concert-room.  Died 
in  18115. 

Sal'o-monii,  (DAVin,)  a  Jewish  magistrate  and  states 
man,  born  in  London  in  1801.  He  was  elected  to  Par 
liament  for  Greenwich  in  1851,  and  in  1855  became 
lord  mayor  of  London,  being  the  first  Jew  who  had 
ever  filled  that  office. 

Sal-o-m'na,  (Pmu.iA  LICINIA  JULIA  CORNELIA,)  a 
Roman  empress,  was  the  wife  of  Gallienus,  to  whom 
she  was  married  about  240  A.D.  Died  about  268. 

Sa-lo'ni-us,  a  French  prelate  of  the  fifth  century,  was 
the  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Lyons. 

Salornay,  de,  deh  sit'IoR'ni',  (JEAN,)  a  French  eccle 
siastic,  who  became  Bishop  of  Macon.  Died  about  1445. 

Salt,  (HENRY,)  an  English  antiquary  and  savant,  born 
in  Yorkshire,  accompanied  in  1802  Lord  Valentia  as 
secretary  and  draughtsman  on  an  expedition  to  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  and  Hindostan.  He  discovered  the  cele 
brated  inscription  at  Axoom,  in  Abyssinia,  and  gave 
an  accurate  description  of  the  grand  obelisk  and  other 
monuments  of  that  city.  About  1815  he  was  appointed 
English  consul  in  Egypt,  where  he  prosecuted  his  anti 
quarian  researches,  and  was  treated  with  distinguished 
favour  by  Mehemet  Alee.  He  died  in  1827,  while  en 
gaged  on  a  work  relating  to  Egyptian  antiquities  and 
hieroglyphics.  He  had  previously  published  a  splendid 
atlas  of  engravings,  entitled  "Twenty- Four  Large  Views 
taken  in  Saint  Helena,  the  Cape,  Abyssinia,  Egypt, 
etc.,"  (1809,)  and  an  "Account  of  a  Voyage  to  Abys 
sinia,  and  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  that  Country,"  (1814.) 

See  J.  J.  HAM.,  "The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  H.  Salt," 
1834;  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1814,  and  January,  1815. 

Sal'ter,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English .  divine  and  Greek 
scholar,  was  born  at  Norwich.  He  became  rector  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  London,  in  1756,  and  master  of  the 
Charter-House  in  1761.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of 
the  "Athenian  Letters."  (See  YORKE,  CHARLES.)  Died 
in  1778. 

Salt/marsh,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  York 
shire,  wrote  several  treatises  in  favour  of  Antinomianism, 
which  were  replied  to  by  Gataker.  Died  in  1647. 

Sal'toii-stall,  (QuRDON,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1666,  was 
elected  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1707.  Died  in  1724. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ~-,  <:hn>--;  a,  e,  i.  o,  onsrnre:  fir,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SALTONST4LL 


'953 


Saltonstall,  (LEVERETT,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
and  member  of  Congress,  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Haverhil!,  Massachusetts,  about  1782.  He 
served  in  Congress  from  1839  to  1843.  Died  at  Salem 
in  1845. 

Saltoun,  sil'toon  or  sal'ton,  (ALEXANDER  GEORGE 
FRASKR,)  LORD,  a  British  general,  born  probably  in 
Scotland  in  1785.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula,  1808- 
13,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of  Hougou- 
mont,  near  Waterloo,  in  June,  1815.  Died  in  1853. 

Saluces.     See  SALUZZO. 

Saluces,  de,  deh  si'liis',  (DIEUDONNEE,)  Countess 
of  Revel,  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Turin  in  1774, 
wrote  both  in  French  and  Italian.  Her  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Hypatia,"  ("Ippazia,"  1817.)  Died  in  1840. 

Salutato.     See  COLUCCIO. 

Saluzzo  di  Menusiglio,  sa-loot'so  de  mi-noo- 
sel'yo,  [Fr.  SALUCES,  sS'liis',]  (GIUSEPPE  ANGELO,) 
COUNT,  an  Italian  chemist  and  general,  born  at  Sa 
luzzo  in  1734.  He  made  discoveries  in  gases,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Turin,  for  which  he  wrote  several  able  memoirs.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  GRASSI,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  G.  A.  Saluzzo  di  Menu 
siglio,"  1813. 

Salva,  sal'va,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Tortosa  in  1747,  was  the  first  to  introduce  inoculation 
into  Cataloirta.  He  published  several  medical  and  sci 
entific  works.  Died  about  1808. 

Salva  y  Perez,  sal'va  e  pa'reth,  (Don  VINCENTE,)  a 
learned  Spanish  bookseller  of  recent  times,  was  a  native 
of  Valencia.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
University  of  Alcala.  He  published  editions  of  Men- 
doza's  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  Granada,"  and  other 
standard  works  in  Spanish,  and  a  translation  of  Cor 
nelius  Xepos,  with  notes.  Died  in  1851. 

Salvador,  sIl'vS'doR',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  writer,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1796,  pub 
lished  a  treatise  "  On  the  Law  of  Moses,  or  the  Reli 
gious  and  Political  System  of  the  Hebrews,"  and  other 
works. 

Salvador,  sal-va-D6R',  (JuAN,)  born  at  Barcelona  in 
1683,  wrote  a  number  of  botanical  treatises,  (still  in 
manuscript.)  Died  in  1726.  His  brother  JOSE  was  also 
a  distinguished  botanist  and  anatomist,  and  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Royal  Medical  Academy  of  Spain.  Died  in 
1771.  The  genus  Salvadora  was  named  in  honour  of 
this  family  of  naturalists,  who  rendered  great  service  to 
botanical  science  in  Spain. 

Salvador  y  Bosca,  sal-va-DOR'  e  bos'ka,  (Don 
TITAN,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1598, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1681. 

Salvador  y  Pedrol,  sal-va-o6R'  e  pa-DRdl',  (JAYME,) 
son  of  Don  Juan  Salvador,  the  first  of  that  name,  was 
born  at  Barcelona  in  1649.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputa 
tion  as  a  naturalist,  and  was  a  friend  of  Tournefort, 
Boerhaave,  and  other  eminent  savants.  Died  in  1740. 

Salvandy,  de,  deh  sSl'v&N'de',  (NARCISSE  ACHILLE,) 
COMTE,  a  French  statesman  and  Litterateur,  was  born  at 
Condom  in  1795.  He  became  master  of  requests  in 
the  State  Council  in  1819,  having  previously  published 
"  The  Coalition  and  France,"  and  other  political  pam 
phlets.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1835, 
and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  April,  1837, 
to  March,  1839.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Don 
Alonzo,  or  Spain,"  a  political  romance,  (1824,)  a  "  His 
tory  of  Poland  before  and  under  the  Reign  of  John 
Sobieski,"  (3  vols.,  1827-29,)  and  "Sixteen  Months,  or 
the  Revolution  of  1830."  Died  in  1856. 

See  L.  DE  LOMEN'IE,  "  M.  de  Salvandy,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841;  CHARLES  ROBIN,  ''Biographic  de  M.  de  Salvandy,"  1848; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1832. 

Salvemini.     See  CASTILLON,  DE. 

Salverte,  saTve"Rt',  (ANNE  JOSEPH  EUSEBE  BACON- 
NIERE,)  a  French  litterateur  and  statesman,  born  in 
Paris  in  1771.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  for  the  department  of  Seine  in  1828,  and 
voted  with  the  opposition.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Literary  Picture  of  France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
(1809,)  "  Historical  and  Philosophical  Essays  on  the 


Names  of  Men,  Nations,  and  Places,"  etc.,  (1824,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1839. 

See  QiiERAKi),  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1830. 

Salvi,  sSl'vee,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  surnamed  SASSOFERRATO,  born  in  that  place  in 
1605.  His  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  are  particu 
larly  admired  ;  also  the  altar-piece  in  the  cathedral  of 
Montefiascone  representing  the  death  of  Saint  Joseph. 
Died  in  1685. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Salvi,  (NiccoL6,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  in  1699. 
His  greatest  work  is  the  fountain  of  Trevi,  at  Rome, 
executed  by  order  of  Clement  XII.  Died  in  1751. 

Salviani,  sal-ve-a'nee,  (!PPOLITO,)  an  Italian  natural 
ist,  and  physician  to  Pope  Julius  III.,  was  born  at  Citta 
di  Castello  in  1514.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  History  of  Water  Animals,"  ("  Aquatilium  Animalium 
Historia,"  1554.)  Died  in  1572. 

See  CUVIER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles." 

Sal-vl-a'nus,  [Fr.  SALVIEN,  stl've^N',]  a  presbyter 
of  Marseilles,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Cologne, 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Treatise  against  Avarice,"  and  one  "On  the  Govern 
ment  of  God,"  which  are  written  in  elegant  Latin. 

Salviati,  sal-ve-a'tee,  (BERNARDO,)  an  Italian  cardi 
nal,  born  at  Florence  before  1500;  died  in  1568. 

Salviati,  (FRANCESCO  Rossi  da — ros'see  di,)  called 
also  CECCO  (che"k'ko)  Rossi,  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1510,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Salviati,  who  conferred  upon  him  his  name.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  del  Sarto  and  of  Bandinelli.  He  was 
also  the  intimate  friend  of  Vasari,  who  was  his  fellow- 
student  at  Rome.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Battles  and  Triumph  of  Camillus,"  in  the  Palazzo  Vec- 
chio  at  Florence,  "The  Taking  down  from  the  Cross," 
in  the  church  of  the  Celestines  in  Paris,  and  the  frescos 
representing  the  history  of  Psyche  in  the  Palazzo  Gri- 
mani.  Died  at  Rome  in  1563. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzr,  "  Dizionario." 

Salviati,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Florence  in  1490,  was  a  brother  of  Bernardo,  noticed 
above,  and  a  grandson  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Died  in 

1553- 

See  PAOLO  Giovio,  "  Elogia." 

Salviati,  (GIUSEPPE.)     See  PORTA. 

Salviati,  (LEONARDO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  littera 
teur,  born  at  Florence  in  1540,  was  an  adversary  of 
Tasso,  and  caused  the  Academy  Della  Crusca  to  share 
his  hostility  against  that  poet.  He  wrote  comedies  and 
treatises  on  language,  rhetoric,  etc.  His  "  Avvertimenti 
della  Lingua  sopra'l  I>ecamerone"  (2  vols.,  1584-86)  was 
highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1589. 

See  NEGRI,  "Scrittori  Fiorentini:"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della 
Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Salvien.     See  SALVIANUS. 

Salvini,  s51-vee'nee,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1653.  He 
translated  several  Greek  and  Latin  authors  into  Italian. 
In  1676  he  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Florence.  He 
wrote,  besides  many  other  works,  "  Academic  Dis 
courses,"  (3  vols.,  1695-1733,)  "Prose  sacre,"  (1716,) 
and  "  Sonetti,"  (1728.)  Died  in  1729. 

See  FABRONI,  "  Vitae  Italorum,"  etc.;  PERUZZI,  "  Orazione  in 
Morte  di  A.  M.  Salvini,"  1731 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Salvini,  (SALVINO,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1667.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
learned  works,  among  which  is  "  Fasti  consolari  dell' 
Accademia  Fiorentina,"  (1717.)  Died  in  1751. 

Sal  vino  degli  Arrnati,  sal-vee'no  dal'yee  aR-ma'tee, 
born  at  Florence  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen 
tury,  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
spectacles, — though  the  Chinese  appear  to  have  used 
them  ages  before. 

Salvolini,  sal-vo-lee'nee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Faenza  in  1809,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
celebrated  Mezzofanti.  He  published  a  "Grammatical 
Analysis  of  the  Different  Ancient  Egyptian  Texts," 
(1836.)  Died  in  1838. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled';  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

12.3 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


N i 


1954 


SAX  CUES 


Salvoiii,  sal-vo'nee,  (PiERo  BERNARDO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Parma  in  1723;  died  in  1784. 

Saly,  st'le',  (JACQUES  FRANC.OIS  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1717,  worked  about 
twenty  years  at  Copenhagen.  His  chief  work  is  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark.  Died 
in  1776. 

Salza,  von,  fon  salt'sa,  (HERMANN,)  a  German  diplo 
matist  and  soldier,  born  about  1180;  died  in  1239. 

Salzmann,  sdlts'mdn,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTHILK,  )  a 
German  Protestant  divine  and  educational  writer,  born 
near  Erfurt  in  1744.  He  founded  in  1784,  at  Schnep- 
fenthal,  a  school  on  the  system  of  Basedow  and  Rous 
seau,  which  became  widely  popular.  Died  in  1811. 

Salzmanu,  (FRIEDRICH  ZACHARIAS,)  a  German 
horticulturist,  born  in  1730,  was  gardener  to  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia.  He  published  several  works  on 
gardening  and  fruit-culture.  Died  in  1801. 

Samacchiiii,  sa-mak-kee/nee,  (OkA/.io,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1532,  was  a  pupil  of  Pelle- 
grino.  His  picture  of  the  "  Purification,"  in  the  church 
of  Saint  James  at  Bologna,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece. 
Died  in  1577. 

Samau  or  Samani.     See  SAMANIDES. 

Samanidee.     See  SAMANIDES. 

Samaiiiden.     See  SAMANIDES. 

Samaiiides,  sam/a-rmk  or  sd-man'idz,  sing.  Sam'a- 
nide,  [Fr.  pron.  si'mS'iied';  Ger.  SAMANIDEN,  sd-md- 
nee'den  ;  Lat.  SAMAN'ID.*:,]  the  name  of  a  Persian 
dynasty,  which  ruled  in  the  tenth  century.  Its  founder 
was  Saman,  (sa'man',)  who  flourished  about  930.  The 
last  prince  of  this  line  was  assassinated  in  the  reign  of 
Mahmood  the  Gaznevide,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century. 

Samaiiiego,  sd-md-ne-a'go,  (FELIX  MARIA,)  a  dis 
tinguished  fabulist,  sometimes  called  "the  Spanish  La 
Fontaine,"  born  at  Bilbao  about  1742.  His  works  are 
entitled  "Fables  in  Verse."  Died  about  1804. 

See  TICKXOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Samary,  sjt'mt're',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
poet,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1731  ;  died  in  1803. 

Sambhu,  a  surname  of  SIVA,  (which  see.) 

Sambiasi,  sdm-be-d'see,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  mis 
sionary  to  China,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1582  ;  died  in  1649. 

Sambiii,  s&N'ba.v',  (HuGUEs,)  a  French  architect, 
and  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo,  was  born  at  Dijon.  lie 
wrote  "On  the  Terms  used  in  Architecture,"  (1572.) 

Samblansai,  de,  deh  s&N'bldN'sV,  (JACQUES  DE 
Beaune — bon,)  BARON,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  superintendent  of  finance  under 
Charles  VIII.,  Louis  XII.,  and  Francis  I.  Being  ac 
cused  of  peculation  by  the  queen-mother,  the  Duchess 
of  Angouieme,  he  was  executed  in  1527. 

Sam-bu'cus,  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  scholar,  born 
at  Tyrnau,  'in  Hungary,  in  1531.  He  was  historiogra 
pher  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.,  and  was  also 
patronized  by  his  successor,  Rudolph  II.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  continuation  of  the  "  History  of  Hungary"  of 
Bonfinius  ;  also  commentaries  on  various  classics.  Died 
in  1584. 

See  HORANYI,  "  Memoria  Hutigarorum  ;"  SAX,  "  Onomasticon." 

Sa-me'ri-us,  (HENRY,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in  France  in 
1540,  was  for  a  time  confessor  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Sacred  Chro 
nology,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  about  1610. 

Sammarthaiius.     See  SAINTE-MARTHE. 

Sammartino,  sam-maR-tee'no,  (MATTEO,)  Count  of 
Vische,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1494,  was  the  author  of 
"  Eclogues"  and  other  poems  ;  also  "  Grammatical  and 
Poetical  Observations  on  the  Italian  Language." 

Sammes,  samz,  (AYLETT,)  an  English  antiquary,  who 
wrote  "The  Antiquities  of  Ancient  Britain  derived  from 
the  Phoenicians."  Died  in  1679. 

Sammicheli.     See  SANMICHELI. 

Sa-mon'i-cus  or  Sam-monl-cus,  (QUINTUS  SE- 
RENUS,)  a  Roman  writer,  of  whom  little  is  known,  ex 
cept  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  Caracalla  about  212 
A.D.  A  medical  treatise,  in  verse,  entitled  "  Carmen  de 
Medicina,"  is  ascribed  to  him. 

See  REUSS,  "  Lectiones  Sammonics,"  1837. 


Sampietro,  sdm-pe-a'tito,  a  Corsican  soldier,  born 
in  the  district  of  Ajaccio  about  1500,  served  with  dis 
tinction  in  the  French  army  under  Francis  I.  and  Henry 
II.  lie  perished  by  assassination  in  1567. 

Samp'spn,  (HKNRY,)  an  English  physician  and  non 
conformist  divine,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  studied  at 
Leyden  and  Padua,  and  became  a  member  of  the  College 
of  Physicians.  Died  in  1705. 

Sampson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Puritan  divine  and 
theologian,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1517;  died  in  1589. 

Sam  Slick.     See  HAI.IHURTON. 

Samsoe,  stm-so'eh,  (Oi.E  JOHAN,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Nestved  in  1759.  His  principal  works  are 
"  FrithioP  and  other  Scandinavian  tales,  and  the  tragedy 
of"  Dyvecke,"  which  was  very  successful.  Died  in  1796. 

Sam'son,  [Heb.  jlKOjy,]  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel, 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  the  son  of  Manoah,  was 
born  about  1155  is.C.,  and  at  an  early  age  gave  proof 
of  supernatural  bodily  strength.  After  performing 
several  wonderful  actions,  he  was  made  prisoner  and 
deprived  of  his  sight  by  the  Philistines,  a  great  number 
of  whom  he  subsequently  destroyed,  along  with  him 
self,  by  pulling  clown  the  temple  in  which  they  were 
assembled. 

See  Judges  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi. 

Sam'son,  (GEORGE  WHITFIEI.D,)  D.I).,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1819,  was  elected  in  1859  president  of  Columbian 
College,  Washington.  He  has  published  letters  on 
Egypt,  Palestine,  etc.,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "Spiritual 
ism  Tested." 

Samson,  SON 'SON',  (JOSEPH  ISIDORE,)  a  French  actor 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Saint-Denis  in  1793. 

Samuel,  [  I  leb.  Sxi'Djyil  a  Hebrew  prophet  and  judge, 
born  about  1155  or  1170  li.C.,  was  the  son  of  Elkanah 
and  Hannah.  About  the  age  of  forty  he  became  judge 
or  chief  ruler  of  Israel.  Having  been  urgently  requested 
by  the  elders  to  give  them  a  king,  he  anointed  Saul  to 
reign  over  Israel.  He  afterwards  prophesied  against 
Saul,  and  anointed  David  as  his  successor.  lie  died 
about  the  age  of  ninety-five.  His  name  has  been  given 
to  two  historical  books  of  Scripture.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  written  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  first 
book  of  Samuel,  which  see. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Samuel,"  London,  1843. 

Samund,  sa'moond,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  his 
torian,  born  in  Iceland  about  1056.  His  principal  work 
was  a  "  History  of  the  Norwegian  Kings  from  Harold 
Haarfager  to  Magnus  the  Good,"  which  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  He  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  one  of  the  authors  ot  the 
"  Edda."  Died  in  1133. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sam'well,  ( DAVID,)  a  native  of  Denbighshire,  Wales, 
accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  last  voyage,  and  was 
a  witness  of  his  murder,  of  which  he  published  an  ac 
count.  Died  in  1799. 

San,  s6.N  or  san,  (GERARD  XAVIER,)  a  Belgian  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1754  ;  died  in  1830. 

Sanadon,  sa'nt'doN',  (NoEL  ETIENNE,)  a  learned 
French  fesuit,  born  at  Rouen  in  1676,  was  appointed 
in  1728  librarian  of  the  College  of  Louis  le  Grand  in 
Paris.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  French  translation 
of  Horace,  (in  prose,  1728,)  which  was  highly  esteemed 
at  that  time.  He  also  wrote  elegant  Latin  poems.  Died 

m  1733- 

See  MOR£RI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sanatroces,  (Sanadrug.)  See  ARSACES  XI.  of 
Parthia. 

San  Carlos,  san  kaR'Ios,  QOSEF  MIGUEL  DK  Carva- 
jal — kaR-vd-Hal',)  DUKE  OF,  a  statesman  and  diploma 
tist,  born  at  Lima,  in  South  America,  in  1771.  Having 
been  educated  in  Spain,  he  was  appointed  governor  to 
the  Prince  of  Asturias,  afterwards  Ferdinand  VI I. ,  and 
in  1807  became  Viceroy  of  Navarre. 

Sanche.     See  SANCHO. 

Sanches,  sdn'shSs,  (ANTONIO  NUNHEZ  RIBEIRO,)  a 
Portuguese  physician,  born  in  1699,  studied  at  Leyden 
under  Boerhaave,  and  subsequently  became  physician 
to  the  Empress  of  Russia,  (1731.)  Died  in  1783. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  \i,y,/o»g;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  nftt;  good;  .noon; 


SANCHEZ 


1955 


SJND 


Sanchez,  sSn'chSth,  [Lat.  SANC'TIUS,]  (FRANCISCO,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Las  Brocas,  in 
Estremadura,  in  1523,  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages  and  rhetoric  at  Salamanca.  Me 
published  editions  of  several  Latin  classics,  and  a  num 
ber  of  original  treatises  in  Latin,  among  which  we  may 
name  his  "Minerva,  seu  de  Causis  Linguae  Latinas  Com- 
mentarius,"  ("Commentary  on  the  Principles  of  the 
Latin  Tongue,")  which  was  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
Died  in  1601. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Sanchez,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  physician,  of  Jew 
ish  extraction,  was  the  author  of  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Physics  of  Aristotle,"  (in  Latin,)  and  several  medical 
works.  Died  in  1632. 

Sanchez,  (GASPAKD,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  biblical 
critic,  born  at  Cifuentes  about  1553,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Alcala.  Died  in  1628. 

Sanchez,  (PKDRO  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,, 
born  in  Galicia  in  1740,  was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  religious  works,  and  filled  the 
chair  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Santiago  de  Coin- 
postella.  Died  in  1796. 

Sanchez,  (ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Cordova  in  1550.  His  principal  work  is  en 
titled  "Disputations  concerning  the  Holy  Sacrament  of 
Marriage,"  ("  Disputationes  de  Sancto  Matrimonii  Sa 
cramento,"  1602.)  Died  in  1610. 

Sanchez,  (ToMAS  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1730,  published  a  "Collection  of 
Castilian  Poetry  before  the  Fifteenth  Century."  Died 
in  1798. 

Sanchez  de  Arevalo,  san'cheth  da  a-ra-va'lo,  (Ro- 
DRIGO,)  [Lat.  RODERI'CUS  SANC'Tius,]  a  learned  Spanish 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Segovia  in  1404.  He 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  II.  governor  of  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  and  Bishop  successively  of  Zamora, 
Calahorra,  and  Palencia.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  Latin,  among  which  may  be  named  his  "  Mirror  of 
Human  Life,"  ("Speculum  Vitas  Humana?,")  and  a 
"History  of  Spain."  Died  in  1470. 

See  X.  ANTONIO,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Vetns." 

Sanchez  Coello.     See  COELI.O. 

Saucho,  san'cho  or  san'chd,  [Fr.  SANCHE,  sfiNsh,]  I., 
King  of  Leon,  succeeded  his  brother,  Ordono  III.,  in 
955  A.D.  Died  in  967. 

Sancho  II.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  born  about 
1035.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Ferdinand  I.,  in  1065. 
Died  in  1072. 

Sancho  III.,  a  son  of  Alfonso  VIII.,  born  about  1130, 
began  to  reign  over  Castile  in  1157.  Died  in  1158. 

Sancho  IV.,  surnamed  EL  BRAVO,  ("the  Brave,") 
King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  born  in  1258,  was  a  son  of 
Alfonso  X.  He  revolted  against  his  father  in  1282,  and 
involved  the  country  in  a  long  civil  war.  He  became 
king  at  the  death  of  Alfonso,  in  1284.  Died  in  1295. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Fernando  IV. 

See  MARIANA,  "  Historic  de  Espana  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biograpbie 
Generale." 

Sancho  III,  King  of  Navarre,  called  THE  GREAT, 
was  born  about  965  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Garcia  II.,  about  loco.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and 
extended  his  dominions  by  conquest.  Died  in  1035. 

San'cho  [Port.  pron.  san'sho]  I.,  King  of  Portugal, 
born  in  1154,  succeeded  his  father,  Alfonso  I.,  in  1185. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  beneficent  ruler. 
Died  in  1212. 

Sancho,  san'cho  or  sank'o,  (IGNATIUS,)  a  negro 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  on  board  a  slave- 
ship  in  1729,  was  taken  to  England,  where  he  was 
educated,  and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
Garrick,  and  other  distinguished  persons.  He  published 
poems,  dramatic  works,  and  "  Letters."  Died  in  1780. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1783. 

San-eho-m'a-thon  or  San-ehu-ni'a-thon,  [Gr. 
'SayxawiaOuv,]  a  Phoenician  writer,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Ber'ytus,  and  to  have  flourished  about 
fourteen  centuries  B.C.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  His 
tory  of  Phoenicia,"  which  was  translated  into  Greek  from 
the  Phoenician  by  Philo  of  Byblus.  The  manuscript  of 


this  translation  is  said  to  have  been  found  in  Portugal  in 
1835  ;  but  it  is  now  generally  believed  to  he  spurious. 
It  was  translated  into  German  by  Wagenfeld,  (1836.) 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  F.  L.  VIBE,  "Comnien- 
tatio  de  Sanchoiiiathone,"  1842  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

San  Concordio,  da,  da  san  kon-koR'de-o,  (BAKTO- 
LOMMEO,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Pisa  in  1262. 
His  work  entitled  "  Ammaestrnmenti  degli  Antichi"  is  a 
translation  from  the  maxims  of  the  ancient  philosophers, 
and  is  esteemed  a  model  of  elegance  in  style. 

San'croft,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  nonjuror,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1616,  lose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1678.  After  James  II.  had  issued  his  edict  of  toleration, 
Sancroft  and  six  other  bishops  presented  a  petition 
against  it,  and  were,  in  consequence,  imprisoned  for  a 
time  in  the  Tower.  Having  refused  to  take  the  oaths 
on  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  (1689,)  he  was 
superseded  in  his  office  by  Archbishop  Tillotson.  Died 
in  1693. 

See  the  "  Life  of  William  Sancroft,"  by  GEORGE  D'Ovi-EY,  Lon 
don.  1866;  MACAUI.AV,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Miss  STRICKLAND, 
"Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops." 

Sanctius.     See  SANCHEZ,  (FRANCISCO.) 

Sanc-to'ii-us,  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  whose 
original  name  was  SANTOUIO,  (sin-to'te-o,)  was  born  at 
Capo  d'Istria  in  1561.  He  was  appointed  in  1611  pro 
fessor  of  the  theory  of  medicine  at  Padua.  He  published 
several  valuable  medical  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  entitled  "Ars  de  Statica  Medicina  Sectionibus 
Aphorismorum  Septem  Comprehensa."  This  treatise, 
which  was  translated  into  several  languages,  gives  the 
result  of  a  series  of  experiments  on  insensible  perspira 
tion.  Died  in  1636. 

See  A.  CAPF.LLI,  "  De  Vita  Sanctorii,"  1750:  HAI.I.ER,  "Biblio 
theca  Medica  ;"  notice  in  the  "  Biographic  Meciica'e,"  (by  BOISSEAU.) 

Saricy,  de,  deli  SON'SC',  (NICOLAS  HARLAY,  )  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  1546,  rose  to  be  superintend 
ent  of  finance  under  Henry  III.  Died  in  1629. 

Sand,  sant,  [Lat.  SAN'DIUS,]  (CnuisroPii,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  at  Kb'nigsberg  in  1644,  published 
several  works  in  favour  of  Socinianism.  Died  in  1680. 

Sand,  [Fr.  pron.  soNd,]  (GEORGE,)  the  assumed  name 
of  AMANTINE*  LUCILE  AURORE  DUPIN,  (JTmSN'tei/ 
lii'sel'  o'rou'dii'paN',)  Madame  Dudevant,  (du'deh-vSN',) 
a  celebrated  French  novelist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  1st 
of  July,  1804.  Her  father,  Maurice  Dupin,  an  officer  of 
the  army,  was  a  son  of  M.  Dupin  de  Francueil,  who  mar 
ried  a  daughter  of  the  famous  Maurice  de  Saxe.  The 
subject  of  this  article  is  thus  a  great-granddaughter  of 
Maurice  de  Saxe,  who  was  a  natural  son  of  Augustus 
II.  of  Poland.  Her  father  having  died  in  1808,  she  was 
educated  by  her  grandmother,  Madame  Dupin,  at  the 
chateau  de  Nohant,  in  the  department  of  Indre,  where 
she  had  full  liberty  to  indulge  and  develop  her  romantic 
and  wayward  tendencies.  She  passed  three  years  (1817- 
20)  in  the  convent  of  the  Augustines  Anglaises,  Paris, 
and  was  for  a  time  a  zealous  devotee,  accepting  the 
mysteries  of  Catholicism  with  ecstasy,  which  was  fol 
lowed  by  a  morbid  reaction.  She  tormented  herself 
with  scruples,  accused  herself  of  constant  sin,  and  be 
came  very  despondent.  In  1820  she  left  the  convent 
and  returned  to  Nohant,  where  her  love  and  taste  for 
natural  scenery  were  fostered  and  developed.  She 
delighted  in  horseback-excursions,  and  studied  philos 
ophy  in  the  works  of  Aristotle,  Leibnitz,  and  Locke  ; 
but  Rousseau  was  her  prime  favourite  among  authors. 

She  inherited  the  estate  of  Nohant  on  the  death  of  her 
grandmother,  in  1821,  and  was  married  in  1822  to  M. 
Dudevant,  a  retired  officer  of  the  army.  They  had  two 
children,  Maurice  and  Solange.  After  living  together 
about  ten  years,  they  separated  by  mutual  consent,  be 
cause  their  tastes  or  tempers  were  incompatible.  She 
became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and,  having  given  up  her  for 
tune  to  her  husband,  adopted  the  profession  of  literature 
for  a  subsistence.  In  conjunction  with  her  friend  Jules 
Sandeau,  she  wrote  ''  Rose  et  Blanche,"  a  tale,  (5  vols., 
1831.)  She  alone  produced  in  1832  a  novel  called  "  In- 


*  The  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale"  gives  this  name  as 
ARMAMMNE;  Pierer's  "  Universal-Lexikon"  has  AMANDINE;  nearly 
all  the  other  authorities,  including  Vapereau,  have  it  as  given  above. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAND 


1956 


SANDFORD 


diana,"  which  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of  George 
Sand  and  had  great  success.  Her  celebrity  was  in 
creased  by  "Valentine,"  (2  vols.,  1832,)  and  a  paradoxi 
cal  work  of  fiction,  entitled  "  Lelia,"  (2  vols.,  1833,)  which, 
says  the  "  National  Review,"  "  is  the  most  famous  and 
the  most  typical  of  her  novels.  It  is  to  an  English 
reader,  and  judged  of  from  the  point  of  view  of  common 
sense,  one  of  the  most  incoherent,  foolish,  morbid,  blas 
phemous,  and  useless  books  that  have  been  sent  across 
the  Channel  during  the  present  century."  The  same 
critic  remarks,  "She  has  a  true  and  a  wide  appreciation 
of  beauty,  a  constant  command  of  rich  and  glowing 
language,  and  a  considerable  faculty  of  self-analysis 
and  self-reflection.  ...  In  spite  of  all  her  defects,  she 
awakens  an  admiration  which  cannot  be  reasoned  away." 
(See  article  "George  Sand"  in  the  "National  Review," 
reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age"  of  February  27,  1858.) 

She  afterwards  produced  "  Metella,"  (1833,)  "Leone 
Leoni,"  (1834,)  "Jacques,"  (1834,)  and  "Mauprat,"  (2 
vols.,  1836,)  which,  with  other  tales,  appeared  first  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Moncles."  Her  "  Spiridion"  (1839) 
and  "Consuelo"  (1844)  are  said  to  have  been  written 
under  the  inspiration  of  her  friend  Pierre  Leroux. 
Between  1844  and  i85oshe  published  pastoral  romances 
entitled  "La  Mare  au  Diable,"  (1846,)  "  Franfois  le 
Champi,"  (1849,)  and  "La  petite  Fadette,"  which  were 
much  admired,  as  models  of  a  new  style  of  fiction. 
"  They  are  free,"  says  the  "  National  Review,"  "  from  all 
that  provokes  censure  in  her  other  writings, — from  theo 
ries,  from  declamation,  from  indelicacy.  They  move  as 
with  a  quiet  flow  that  is  irresistibly  fascinating,  and  are 
full  of  beauties  of  language  to  which  it  is  impossible  to 
do  justice." 

George  Sand  is  an  advanced  liberal  in  politics.  About 
the  beginning  of  her  literary  career  she  assumed  the 
costume  of  the  male  sex.  She  professes  to  be  a  socialist, 
and  denounces  the  conventional  system  of  marriage.  She 
was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  after 
which  she  edited  a  democratic  weekly  paper  for  a  short 
time.  She  is  author  of  a  number  of  dramas,  among 
which  are  "  Claudie,"  (1851,)  "  Moliere,"  (1853,)  "  Fla- 
minio,"  (1854,)  and  "  Lucie,"  (1856.)  In  1854  she  pub 
lished  her  autobiography,  "  Histoire  de  ma  Vie,''  (10 
vols.,)  in  which  the  disappointed  public  found  too  little 
of  personalities  and  anecdotes  and  too  much  of  psychol 
ogy.  Among  her  recent  works  are  "  Constance  Ver- 
rier,"  (1860,)  "  Flavie,"  (1860,)  "Tamaris,"  (1861,) 
"  Antonia,"  (1861,)  and  "  Laura,"  (1864.)  "  G.  Sand," 
says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  "stands  in 
the  first  rank  among  contemporary  novelists.  Her  com 
positions  are  in  general  magnificently  planned  or  ar 
ranged,  (ordonnees.)  .  .  .  She  has  had  the  original 
merit  to  perceive  and  express  the  poetry  of  the  land 
scapes  of  France.  .  .  .  But  it  is  by  her  style  that  she 
especially  excels." 

See  R.  WALSH,  "George  Sand,"  1837;  SAINTE  BEUVE,  "Can- 
series  du  Liindi ;"  LOMENIE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1834,  January,  1843, 
July,  1844,  and  April,  1846. 

Sand,  sand  or  zant,  (KARL  LUDWIG,)  the  murderer  of 
Kotzebue,  born  at  Wunsiedel  in  1795.  While  a  student 
at  Jena  he  embraced  with  ardour  the  cause  of  the  patriots, 
and,  exasperated  by  Kotzebue's  ridicule  of  the  liberal 
party,  stabbed  him  at  his  residence  in  Mannheim  in  1819. 
He  was  executed  in  1820. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Charles  Louis  Sand;"  "  Monthly  Review''  for 
February,  1820. 

Sandberg,  sand'bgRg,  (JoHAN  GUSTAF,)  a  Swedish 
historical  painter,  born  in  1782,  worked  at  Stockholm, 
where  he  died  in  1854. 

Sand'by,  (PAUL,)  R.A.,  a  celebrated  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Nottingham  about  1730.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768, 
and  the  same  year  appointed  chief  drawing-master  to 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.  He  was  the 
first  of  his  countrymen  to  execute  aquatint  engravings  ; 
and  among  his  master-pieces  of  this  kind  are  "The 
Carnival  at  Rome,"  after  David  Allan,  and  "  Views  of 
Windsor  and  Eton."  As  a  painter  in  water-colours  he 
occupies  a  high  rank,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  that  school  of  art  in  England.  Died  in  1809. 


Saiidby,  (THOMAS,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Nottingham  in  1721.  On  the  foundation  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  in  1768,  he  became  first  professor  of 
architecture  in  that  institution.  As  deputy  ranger  of 
Windsor  Great  Park,  he  planned  the  construction  of 
Virginia  Water,  (1754,)  and  in  1775  he  furnished  the 
design  of  Freemasons'  Hall,  London.  Died  in  1798. 

Sande,  van  den,  vSn  den  sSn'deh,  (JAN,)  a  Flemish 
jurist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Geklerland  in  the 
;  sixteenth  century  ;  died  in  1638. 

Sandeau,  s6.\'d5',  (LEONARD  SYLVAIN  JULES,)  a 
French  novelist,  born  at  Aubusson  in  1811.  He  began 
his  literary  career  as  an  associate  of  George  Sand,  (Du- 
devant,)  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  wrote  "  Rose  et 
Blanche,"  (5  vols.,  1831,)  and  other  novels.  Among 
his  works  are  "Mariana,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  "Valcreuse." 
(1847,)  "Un  Heritage,"  (1849,)  and  "Olivier,"  (1854.) 
lie  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1858,  and 
became  keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library  in  1859. 

Sand'e-mau,  (ROBERT,)  born  at  Perth,  in  Scotland, 
in  1718  or  1723,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  by 
his  name.  He  emigrated  in  1764  to  New  England, 
where  he  died  in  1771.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  John 
Glass,  the  founder  of  the  Glassites. 

Sander,  san'der,  (ANTONY,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1586,  was  the  author  of  several  re 
ligious  and  historical  works,  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1664, 

Sander,  san'der  or  zan'der,  (HKINKICH,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  in  1754;  died  in  1782. 

See  FKDDERSEN,  "  Leben  H.  Sander's,"  1784;  GOETZ,  "  Leben 
H.  Sander's,"  17X6. 

San'ders,  (WILLIAM  P.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1833,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1856.  He  fought  for  the  Union  as  an  officer  of  cavalry 
in  several  campaigns,  and  was  killed  near  Knoxville, 
Tennessee,  in  November,  1863. 

San'ders  or  Saun'deis,  [Lat.  SANDE'RUS,]  (NICH 
OLAS,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian,  born  in  Surrey 
in  1527,  published  several  controversial  works.  Died 
about  1580. 

San'ders,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  litterateur,  born  at 
Breadalbane  in  1727.  He  published  "The  Newgate 
Calendar."  (1764,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1783. 

San'der-sou,  (JoHN,)  an  American  litterateur,  born 
at  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  in  1785.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "Biography  of  the  Signers  of  the  Decla 
ration  of  Independence,"  (1827.)  In  1835  he  visited 
France,  and  published,  after  his  return,  "Sketches  of 
Paris,"  etc.,  which  was  afterwards  enlarged  and  entitled 
"The  American  in  Paris."  It  was  very  favourably  re 
ceived,  and  was  translated  into  French  by  Jules  Janin. 
About  1836  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages  in  the  Philadelphia  High  School. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  GKISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

San'der-son,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Rotherham,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1587.  He  graduated 
at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  afterwards  appointed 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  in  1642  became  regius  pro 
fessor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  He  refused  to  sign  the 
covenant.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1660, 
after  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  treatise  "On  the  Obligation  of  Oaths," 
("De  Juramenti  Obligatione,"  1647,)  and  "Nine  Cases 
of  Conscience  Resolved,"  (1678.)  Died  in  1663. 

See  ISAAC  WALTON,  "Life  of  Bishop  Sanderson,"  1678. 

Sanderson,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Durham  in  1660.  lie  assisted  in  the  compilation  of 
Rymer's  "  Fcedera,"  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Henry  V." 
Died  in  1741. 

Sanderus.     See  SANDERS. 

Sand'fprd,  (Sir  DANIEL  KEYTE,)  a  Scottish  professor 
of  Greek,  born  about  1798,  was  a  son  of  Bishop  Sand- 
ford  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  also  a  popular  orator  and  advocate  of  the 
Reform  bill.  Died  in  1838. 

Sand'ford,  (FRANCIS,)  an  Irish  writer  and  herald, 
born  in  the  county  of  Wicklow  in  1630,  published  a 
"Genealogical  History  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal/'  and 
other  similar  works.  Died  in  1693. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


SANDIFORT 


'957 


SAN  GALLO 


Sandifort,  san'de-fort',  (EuuARD,)  a  Dutch  anato 
mist,  born  at  Dort  in  1742,  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Leyden,  and  published  several  works  on  that  science. 
Died  in  1814. 

His  son  GERARD,  born  at  Leyden  in  1779,  was  pro 
fessor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  his  native  citv. 
Died  in  1848. 

Sandini,  san-dee'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  writer, 
and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Padua,  born  at 
Vicentino  in  1692.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Lives 
of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1751. 

Sandius.     See  SAND,  (CHRISTOPH.) 

Sandoval,  de,  di  san-do-val',  (GoNZAT.o,)  a  brave 
and  able  Spanish  general,  who  fought  under  Cortez  in 
Mexico  and  was  distinguished  by  his  especial  favour. 
"  He  was,"  says  Prescott,  "  in  many  respects  the  most 
eminent  of  the  great  captains  formed  under  the  eye  of 
Cortez."  Died  in  1528,  soon  after  his  return  to  Spain. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vols.  ii. 
and  iii. 

Sandoval,  de,  (Fray  PRTDKNCKJ,)  a  Spanish  prelate 
and  historian,  born  at  Valladulid  about  1560.  He  was 
appointed  historiographer  to  Philip  III.,  who  employed 
him  to  continue  the  "Cronica  General"  of  Ambrosio 
Morales,  which  appeared  under  the  title  of  "  History 
of  the  Kings  of  Castile  and  Leon."  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Deeds  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V".,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work,  and  has  been  translated  into  English,  and  a 
"Chronicle  of  the  Illustrious  Emperor  of  Spain,  Don 
AlonzoVII."  Sandoval  was  created  Bishop  of  Pampe- 
luna  in  1612.  Died  in  1621. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  ANTONIO, 
"  Bibiiotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Sandiait,  von,  fon  san'drirt  or  zan'dt<iRt,  ( JOA 
CHIM,)  a  German  painter,  engraver,  and  art-historian, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1606.  He  studied 
painting  at  Utrecht  under  Gerard  Honthorst,  and  sub 
sequently  spent  several  years  in  Italy,  where  he  executed 
a  number  of  works  for  Cardinal  Barberini.  After  residing 
for  a  time  at  Amsterdam,  he  settled  at  Nuremberg,  where 
he  died  in  1688.  Sandrart's  pictures  and  engravings  had 
a  high  reputation  in  his  time  ;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  work  entitled  "German  Academy  of  Architecture, 
Sculpture,  and  Painting,"  ("  Die  Deutsche  Academic 
der  Bau,  Bildhauer  und  Malerkunst,"  2  vols.,  1675,)  a 
part  of  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin,  under  the 
title  of  "Academia  Artis  Picturae." 

See  his  Autobiography.  "  Lebenslauf  Joachims  von  Sandrart," 
1675:  CHARLES  BLANC.  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  NAGLER,  "  All- 
gemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Sandras.     See  COURTII.Z. 

Sandras,  so.x'dRa's',  (CLAUDE  MARIE  STANISLAS,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Rocroy  in  1802.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  History  of  the  Cholera,"  and  other  medical 
works.  Died  in  1856. 

San-dro-cot'tus,  [Gr.  SavApoKOTTOf;  Sanscrit,  CHAN'- 
DRAGUP'TA,  modern  Hindoo  pron.  chiin-dra-goop'ta,]  an 
Indian  king,  who  reigned  over  the  region  watered  by 
the  Ganges  about  310-300  n.C.  His  capital  was  Pali- 
bothra.  He  resisted,  with  success,  Seleucus  Nicator, 
who  invaded  his  dominions.  He  is  the  Chandragupta 
of  Sanscrit  writers.  He  was  a  man  of  low  caste,  and 
his  history  is  especially  interesting  as  marking  the 
progress  of  that  great  revolution  which  accompanied 
the  introduction  of  Booddhism  into  India.  (See  GAU 
TAMA.) 

Sands,  (ROBERT  CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  Ameri 
can  journalist  and  litterateur,  born  in  New  York  City  or 
at  Flatbush,  Long  Island,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  and  published  in  1820  the  poem  of 
"  Yarnoyden,"  written  conjointly  with  his  friend  Tames 
Wallis  Eastburn.  He  subsequently  became  associated 
with  the  poet  Bryant  and  Mr.  G.  C.  Yerplanck  as  a 
writer  for  "The  Talisman,"  a  literary  annual  of  a  high 
character.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Atlantic 
Magazine,"  and  in  1827  became  associate  editor  of  the 
New  York  "  Commercial  Advertiser."  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "  Historical  Notice  of  Hernan  Cortez,"  and 
the  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  John  Paul  Jones."  He 


was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Tales  of  Glauber  Spa," 
published  in  1832.     Died  in  1832. 

See  G.  C.  VEKPLANCK,  "Life  of  R.  C.  Sands;"  GRISWOLD, 
"  Poets  of  America  ;"  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Lite 
rature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "Knickerbocker  Magazine"  for  March  and  May, 
iS.34- 

Sandwich,  EARL  OF.     See  MONTAGU,  (EDWARD.) 
San'dys,  (EDWIN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Lan- 
'  cashire   in  1519.     He  rose  to  be  vice-chancellor  of  the 
j  University  in  1553,  but  he  was  deprived  of  this  office  on 
the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  on  account  of  his  refusal 
to  proclaim  her.     Under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  was 
successively   created   Bishop   of   Worcester,    (1559,)  of 
London,  (1570,)  and   Archbishop  of  York,  (1576.)     He 
!  assisted  in  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  known  as 
;  the  Bishops'  Bible,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  revise  the  Liturgy.     Died  in  1588. 
See  WHITAKER,  "Life  of  Edwin  Sandys." 

Sandys,  (Sir  EDWIN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 

in   Worcestershire   about  1561.      He  was  employed   by 

James  I.  on  several  missions,  and  was  the  author  of  a 

work  entitled   "  Europae  Speculum,"  being  an  account 

1  of  his  travels.     Died  in  1629. 

Sandys,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  York 
in  1577,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York, 
:  noticed  above.     In  1610  he  visited  Palestine,  Egypt,  and 
Turkey,  of  which  he  published  an  account  after  his  re 
turn.    Among  his  other  works  are  paraphrases  upon  the 
I  Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  Lamentations,  the 
j  Song    of  Solomon,    etc.,    and    a    translation    of  Ovid's 
|  "  Metamorphoses."    His  poetry  is  eulogized  by  Dryden, 
'.  Pope,  Warton,  and  other  eminent  writers.      Died  about 
1644. 

See  H.  J.  Tonn,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  G.  Sandys,"  1839;  SIR 
E.  HKYDGES,  "Censura  Literaria;"  WILI.MOTT,  "Lives  of  the 
English  Sacred  Poets." 

Sane,  st' na',  (JACQUES  NOEL,)  BARON,  an  eminent 
French  naval  engineer,  born  at  Brest  in  1740.  He  was 
called  "the  Vauban  of  the  navy."  Died  in  1831. 

Saii'fprd,  (EDWARD,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  the 
I  city  of  New  York  in  1805,  was  a  son  of  Nathan,  noticed 
I  below.      He  studied  law,  but  declined  to  practise.     He 
I  was  editor  of  the  "  Standard,"  a  Democratic  journal  of 
i  New  York,   and  afterwards  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
i  "Globe"  at  Washington.     Among  his  poems,  which  are 
'  distinguished  for  grace,  vivacity,  and  delicate  humour, 
we  may  name  the  "Lines  to  a  Mosquito,"  and  the  ad 
dress  "To  Black-Hawk." 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
GRISWOI.D,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Sanford,  (NATHAN,)  an  American  jurist  and  states 
man,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1779.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1816,  and  in  1823  be 
came  chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Died  in 
1838. 

San  Gallo,  da,  da  sin  gal'lo,  (ANTONIO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  architect,  whose  original  name  was  PICCONI, 
(pek-ko'nee,)  a  nephew  of  Antonio  Giamberti,  was  born 
at  Mugello  about  1482.  Under  the  patronage  of  Alex 
ander  Farnese,  afterwards  Paul  III.,  he  constructed  a 
number  of  magnificent  edifices  at  Rome,  among  which 
we  may  name  the  Palazzo  Sacchetti,  and  the  church  of 
Madonna  di  Loretto.  In  1536  he  was  appointed  sole 
architect  of  Saint  Peter's,  for  which  he  prepared  a 
model  at  great  cost ;  but  it  was  not  approved  by  Michael 
Angelo,  and  was  finally  rejected.  The  Palazzo  Farnese, 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Michael  Angelo,  is  e^eemed 
one  of  his  best  works.  Died  in  1546. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  :  Qi'ATRF.MiKE  DE 
QUINCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  ;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionaiio." 

San  Gallo,  da,  (ANTONIO  BATTISTA  GOBBO,)  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  also  distinguished  as  an  architect, 
and  assisted  in  most  of  the  important  works  of  his 
brother. 

San  Gallo  or  Sangallo,  da,  (ANTONIO  GIAMRF.RTI,) 
an  Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  church 
of  the  Madonna  at  Montepulciano,  the  fortress  of  Civita 
Castellana,  and  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  formerly  the 
mausoleum  of  Hadrian.  He  was  a  brother  of  GiuliariO, 
noticed  below.  Died  in  1534. 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAN  GALLO 


1958 


SANTA  ANA 


San  Gallo,  da,  (BASTIANO,)  an  Italian  painter,  and 
relative  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Florence  in  1481  ; 
died  in  1551. 

San  Gallo,  da,  or  Sangallo,  (GlUMANO,)  an  emi 
nent  Italian  architect,  whose  proper  name  was  GIULIANO 
GIAMHEKTI,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1443.  He  was 
patronized  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  for  whom  he  built  a 
palace  or  villa  at  Poggio  Cajano,  and  a  large  convent  at 
Florence,  near  the  gate  of  San  Gallo,  from  which  he 
derived  his  name.  Among  his  works  was  a  palace  at 
Savona  for  Pope  Julius  II.  lie  was  selected  by  Leo  X. 
to  succeed  Bramante  as  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  ;  but 
he  declined  the  honour.  He  was  a  brother  of  Antonio 
Giamberti  da  San  Gallo.  Died  in  1517. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  CICOGNARA,  "Storia 
della  Sciiitura;"  QUATREMERE  UE  QUINCY,  "  Dictiomiaire  d'Ar- 
chitecture." 

Sangro,  da,  dd  san'gRo,  (RAIMONDO,)  Prince  of  San 
Severo,  an  Italian  savant,  born  in  Naples  in  1710.  lie 
was  versed  in  various  sciences,  arts,  and  languages,  and 
displayed  much  inventive  genius.  Died  in  1771. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Sanlecque,  de,  deh  s&N'lek',  (Louis,)  a  French 
satirical  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1652,  was  also  a  priest. 
Died  in  1714. 

San  Micheli,  san  me-ka'le,  written  also  Sammi- 
cheli  or  San  Michele,  (GiAN  GIKOI.AMO,)  an  able 
Italian  architect,  born  about  1514,  was  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  following,  whom  he  aided  in  his  works. 
Died  in  I  ^59. 

San  Micheli,  san  me-ka'lee,  or  Samniicheli,  sam- 
me-ka'lee,  (MiCHEi.K,)  a  celebrated  civil  and  military 
architect,  born  at  Verona,  in  Italy,  in  1484.  Having 
resided  for  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he  acquired 
the  friendship  of  Michael  Angelo,  Bramante,  and  other 
artists  of  the  time,  he  was  employed  about  1525  to  con 
struct  the  new  fortifications  of  Verona,  in  which  he  first 
introduced  the  angular  bastions,  since  generally  adopted 
by  engineers.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named 
the  Grimani  and  Cornaro  palaces  at  Venice,  and  the 
Cappella  Pellegrini  and  church  of  the  Madonna  di  Cam- 
pagna  at  Verona.  Died  in  1559. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  A.  SEI.VA,  "  Klosio  di 
M.  Saninicheli,'1  1814;  MII.IZIA,  "  Vite  degli  Architetti;"  CICO 
GNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

San  Miguel,  san  me-gel',  (Don  EVARISTE,)  a  Span- 
ish  general  and  statesman,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  1780, 
served  in  the  campaigns  of  1808  and  1820,  and  subse 
quently  was  appointed  military  governor  of  Aragon. 
He  was  afterwards  made  captain-general  of  Madrid,  and 
president  of  the  revolutionary  junta.  Died  in  1862. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gsnerale." 

Sannazar.     See  SANNAZARO. 

Sannazarius.     See  SANNAZAKO. 

Saimazaro,  san-nad-za'ro,  [  Lat.  SANNAZA'RIUS  ; 
Fr.  SANNAZAK,  st'iifzin',  |  (JACOPO,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples  in  1458,  was  descended 
from  a  noble  family  in  Spain.  While  on  a  visit  in  France 
he  composed  his  "Arcadia,"  (1504,)  a  pastoral  in  prose 
and  verse,  which  is  esteemed  a  model  of  elegance  and 
purity  of  style.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems 
which  were  greatly  admired,  and  several  dramatic  works 
and  sonnets  in  Italian.  Sannazaro  was  patronized  by 
Frederick,  King  of  Naples,  and  accompanied  that  mon 
arch  in  his  exile  to  France.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1530, 
having  attained  the  rank  of  one  of  the  best  classics  of 
his  country. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  REV.  H.  STEBBING;  LONG- 


graphic  Generale  ;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italian.i  ;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  (1824.) 

San-iiyr'i-on,  [SawiyKo/i',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
flourished  about  400-375  B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  Aristophanes. 

San  Roman,  san-ro-man',  (MIGUEL,)  a  Peruvian 
general,  born  in  1802.  He  had  obtained  a  high  rank  in 
the  army,  when  he  was  elected  President  of  Peru  in 
1862.  Died  in  April,  1863. 

San  Severo.     See  SANGRO,  DA. 

Sans-Malice.     See  AKAKIA. 


Sanson,  s6.\/s6N/,  (AnuiEN,)  a  French  geographer, 
was  a  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below.  He  had  the  title 
of  geographer  to  the  king.  Died  in  1708  or  1718. 

Sanson,  (GuiLLAUMK,)  a  geographer  of  Paris,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1703. 

Sansoii,  (Louis  JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  succeeded  Dupuy- 
tren  as  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  the  Hotel-Dieu 
in  1836.  He  was  eminent  as  a  practitioner  and  a  writer. 
Among  his  works  are  "New  Elements  of  Medico-Sur 
gical  Pathology,"  (4  vols.,  1825,)  and"Des  Ht:morrhagies 
traumatiques,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Sanson,  (NICOLAS,)  one  of  the  earliest  French  geog 
raphers,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1600.  His  first  work  was 
a  map  of  ancient  Gaul,  which  obtained  for  him  the 
patronage  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII.,  and 
he  was  employed  by  the  latter  as  an  engineer  in  Picardy. 
He  was  treated  with  marked  distinction  by  the  king, 
who  appointed  him  his  geographer  about  1640.  Besides 
his  numerous  maps,  he  published  a  work  entitled  "Bri 
tannia,  or  Researches  concerning  the  Antiquity  of  Abbe 
ville,"  (1638.)  Died  in  1667. 

Sanson,  (NicoLAS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1626.  He  rescued  Chancellor  Seguier  from  the 
fury  of  a  mob  in  Paris,  but  was  killed  himself  on  that 
occasion,  in  1648. 

Saiisovino,  san-so-vee'no,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  son  of  Jacopo,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1521.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  works 
are  his  "  Hundred  Novels  from  the  Most  Eminent  Italian 
Writers,"  ("Cento  Novelle  scelti  de'  piu  nobili  Scrittori 
della  Lingua  volgare,")  "Turkish  Annals,"  (1573,)  and 
a  "Description  of  Venice,"  (1604.) 

See  FONTANINI  and  ZENO,  "  Bihlioteca  Italiana;"  NICEKON, 
"  Memoires ;"  TIRAHOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteraturn  Italiana." 

Sansovino,  (JACOPO  TATTI,)  an  eminent  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1479.  He 
studied  sculpture  under  Contucci  da  Monte  Sansovino, 
whose  surname  he  assumed.  He  afterwards  visited 
Rome,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Bramante 
and  other  artists  and  was  patronized  bv  Pope  Julius  II. 
After  the  sack  of  Rome  he  repaired  to  Venice,  where  he 
constructed  numerous  public  and  private  edifices.  Among 
these  may  be  named  La  Zecca,  or  Mint,  the  Palazzo  Cor 
naro,  and  La  Scuola  della  Misericordia.  His  colossal 
statues  of  Mars  and  Neptune  in  the  Doge's  palace,  and 
the  Four  Evangelists  in  the  chapel  of  Saint  Mark,  are 
ranked  among  his  master-pieces  in  sculpture.  Died 
about  1570. 

See  GIORGIO  VASARI,  "Vita  di  J.  Sansovino,"  1785;  TEMANZA, 
"Vita  di  J.  Sansovino,"  1752;  MII.IZIA,  "Vite  dejili  Architetti;" 
QUATREMERE  DE  QUINCY,  "  Vies  des  Architectes  ;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizi- 
onario." 

Sansovino,  da,  da  san-so-vee'no,  (  ANDREA  CON- 
j  TUCCI,)  an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
in  1460.  lie  worked  at  Rome  and  Loretto.  He  was 
the  master  of  Jacopo  Sansovino.  Died  in  1529. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cico- 
GNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Santa  Ana,  (or  Anna,)  de,  da  san'ta  an'na,  (ANTO 
NIO  LOPEZ,)  a  Mexican  President  and  general,  born  in 
Mexico  or  Jalapa  about  1798.  He  fought  against  Itur- 
bicle  in  1823,  against  Pedra/.a  in  1828,  and  against  Bus- 
tamente  in  1830.  lie  was  chosen  President  in  1833,  and 
became  dictator  in  1835.  The  Texans  revolted  against 
Santa  Anna,  who  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at 
San  Jacinto  in  April,  1836,  by  General  Houston.  He 
was  released  in  1837,  and  lost  a  leg  in  a  battle  against 
the  French  in  December,  1838.  He  recovered  power  in 
1841,  was  banished  in  1845,  but  returned  in  1846,  and 
became  general-in-chief.  lie  was  defeated  by  General 
Taylor  at  Buena  Vista  in  February,  1847,  and  a'  Cerro 
Gordo  by  General  Scott  in  April  of  that  year.  About 
this  time  he  was  again  chosen  President ;  but,  the 
American  army  having  taken  the  capital  of  Mexico  in 
September,  1847,  he  went  into  exile.  In  1853  he  re 
turned,  and  was  appointed  dictator  for  life.  After  he 
had  ruled  with  despotic  power  about  two  years,  he  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  in  August,  1855,  after  which  he 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SANTA  CRUZ 


'959 


SAPOR 


passed  many  years  in  exile.  Soon  after  the  death  of 
Maximilian,  June,  1867,  Santa  Anna  returned  and  made 
an  attempt  against  the  republic,  but  failed,  and  was  made 
a  prisoner. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "North  American  Re 
view"  for  July,  1836. 

Santa  Cruz,  san'ta  ICROOSS,  (or  kuooth,)  (ANDRES,)  a 
South  American  statesman  and  soldier,  born  in  Peru 
about  1800,  served  in  the  war  of  independence  in  1823, 
and  in  1829  succeeded  General  Sucre  as  President  of 
Bolivia.  He  was  defeated  at  Yungai  in  1839,  and  com 
pelled  to  leave  the  country.  In  1849  he  became  minister- 
plenipotentiary  from  Bolivia  to  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Madrid. 

Santa  Cruz,  de,  da  san'ta  KRooth,  or  Sainte-Croix, 
saxt'kRwi',  (Don  ALVAREZ  de  Bassano — da  ba-sa'- 
110,)  MARQUIS,  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  about  1510, 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  lie 
was  appointed  about  1587  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
Invincible  Armada,  but  died  before  it  was  ready  for 
action. 

Santa  Cruz  de  Marzenado,  de,  da  sai/ta  kRooth 
di  maR-tha-na'Do,  (Alvar  de  Navia  Osorio,  al-van' 
da  na-vee'a  o-so're-o,)  MARQUIS,  a  Spanish  officer  and 
military  writer,  born  in  1687,  served  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  and  became  governor  of  Oian.  He 
was  killed  in  an  action  near  that  town  in  1732. 

Santafede,  san-ta-fa'da,  (FAHRIZIO,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1560.  He  worked  mostly  in 
his  native  city.  Died  in  1634. 

Santander,  san-tan-daiRr,  (FRANCISCO  de  Paula — 
da  pow'la,)  a  South  American  statesman,  born  in  New 
Granada  in  1792.  He  fought  against  Spain  in  the  war 
of  independence,  and  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia  in  1821.  Having  conspired  against 
Bolivar  about  1828,  he  was  banished.  In  1832  he  was 
elected  President  of  New  Granada.  Died  in  1840. 

Santarelli,  san-ta-rel'lee,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an 
Italian  engraver,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1759,  worked 
in  Rome  and  Florence.  Died  in  1826. 

Santarem,  san-ta-r§Nr,  (MANGEL  FRANCISCO  de 
Barros  y  Souza — da  bau'ros  e  so'za,)  VISCOUNT,  a 
Portuguese  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
1790,  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Copen 
hagen,  and  in  1827  became  minister  of  state.  He  was 
the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the  History  of  Cosmography 
and  Cartography  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1856. 

Santen,  van,  vtn  san'ten,  (LAURENT,)  a  Dutch  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1746.  He  resided  mostly 
at  Leyden.  He  edited  several  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
works,  on  which  he  wrote  critical  notes.  Died  in  1798. 

See  BERGMAN,  "  Levensschets  van  L.  van  Santen,"  1840. 

Saiiterre,  sS.x'taiR',  (.\NTOINE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
revolutionist  of  the  Jacobin  party,  born  in  Paris  in  1752, 
had  acquired  a  large  fortune  as  a  brewer  in  the  Faubourg 
Saint-Antoine.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  storming 
of  the  Bastille,  and  in  the  subsequent  insurrections  of 
the  2Oth  of  June  and  the  loth  of  August.  As  com 
mander  of  the  National  Guard,  he  caused  the  king  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  tower,  and  afterwards  presided  at  his 
execution.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Vendeans,  under 
Piron  de  la  Varenne,  in  September,  1793.  Died  in  1808 
or  1809. 

See  CARRO,  "  Saiiterre,  sa  Vie  pubh'que  et  prive'e,"  1847. 

Saiiterre,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,  )  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1651  ;  died  in  1717. 

Santeul,  SON'IU!',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean,  noticed  below.  Died  in  1684. 

Saiiteul,  sSN'tul',  or  Santeuil,  de,  deh  sS.v'tuF, 
(JEAN,)  |Lat.  SANTO'LIUS,]  an  excellent  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1630,  was  a  canon  regular  of  Saint-Vic 
tor.  He  wrote  Latin  hymns  with  great  success.  "  A 
nobleness  of  thought  and  splendour  of  language,"  says 
Hallam,  "distinguished  the  poetry  of  Santeul,  who  fur 
nished  many  inscriptions  for  public  monuments."  ("  In 
troduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in  1697. 

See  "Vieetbons  mots  de  Santeul,"  Cologne,  1735;  DINOUART, 
"Santoliana,"  1764  ;  MoNTALANT-BouGLEUX,  "  Santeul,  oula  Poesie 
Latine  sous  Louis  XIV,"  1854  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Santi,  san'tee,  or  Sanzio,  san'ze-o,  (GIOVANNI,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  painter,  born  at  Colbordolo,  was  the 
father  of  Raphael.  He  painted  Madonnas  and  other 
religious  subjects.  Died  in  1494. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  PASSAVANT,  "  Rafael  von 
Urbino  und  sein  Vater,  G.  Santi." 

Santi  di  Tito  or  Titi.     See  TITO. 

Santillana.     See  MENDOZA,  (!NIGO  LOPEZ.) 

Santini,  san-tee'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  in  Tuscany  in  1786.  He  became  rector  of  the 
University  of  Padua  in  1825,  and  was  afterwards  ap 
pointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  mathe 
matical  studies  in  that  institution.  He  is  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  has  published 
several  scientific  works. 

Saiitolius.     See  SANTEUL. 

Santorini,  san-to-ree'nee,  (GIOVANNI  DOMENICO,) 
an  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Venice  in  1681.  He  wrote 
several  able  works  on  anatomy  and  medicine.  Died  in 

1736. 

See  HAI.I.ER,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica  ;"  POI.I.AROI.I,  "  Notizie 
per  servire  alia  Storia  della  Vila  di  G.  D.  Santorini,"  1763. 

Santorio.     See  SANCTORIUS. 

Saiiuto,  sa-noo'to,  (Livio,)  an  Italian  geographer  of 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  died  before  1588. 

Sanuto,  (MARINO,)  called  TORSELLO,  (toR-sel'lo,)  a 
Venetian  traveller,  who  visited  the  Levant  and  wrote  the 
"  Book  of  Faithful  Secrets  concerning  the  Recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land,"  ("Liber  Secretorum  fidelium  super 
Terrse  Sanctae  Recuperatione.")  Died  after  1330. 

See  POSTANSQUE,  "De  Maiino  Sanuto,''  1856;  TIRABOSCHI, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Sanuto,  (MARINO,)  THE  YOUNGER,  an  Italian  his 
torian,  born  in  Venice  in  1466,  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  founded  by  Aldus  Mann  tins.  He  wrote,  in 
Italian,  a  history  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,  which  was 
published  in  1733  in  Muratori's  "  Italiae  Scriptores," 
under  the  title  of  "Lives  of  the  Doges  of  Venice," 
("  Vit^e  Ducum  Venetorum.")  Died  in  1535. 

See  RAWDON  BROWN,  "Ragguagli  sr.lla  Vita  e  suile  Opere  di  M. 
Sanuto,"  3  vols.,  1837-38;  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  deila  Lstteratura 
Italiana." 

Sanvitale,  san-ve-ta'la,  (GIACOMO  ANTONIO,)COUNT, 
an  Italian  poet  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Parma  in  1699. 
He  published  numerous  poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
"  Poema  Parabolica,"  (1746.)  Died  in  1780. 

Sanz,  santh,  (AucusriN,)  a  Spanish  architect,  born 
at  Saragossa  in  1724,  was  appointed  in  1792  director  of 
the  Academy  of  San  Luis.  Among  his  best  works  are 
the  church  of  Santa  Cruz  and  the  theatre  at  Saragossa. 
Died  in  1801. 

Sanzio,  (RAPHAEL.)     See  RAPHAEL. 

Saphir,  sa'feeR,  (MORITZ,)  a  distinguished  writer,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Pesth  in  1794,  successively 
edited  the  journals  entitled  "Berliner  Schnellpost," 
"  Der  Deutsche  Horizon!,"  and  "  Der  Humorist." 
Among  his  works,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  humorous  and 
satirical  character,  we  may  name  his  "  Humoristische 
Damenbibliothek,"  and  his  "  Dictionary  of  Wit  and 
Humour,"  ("  Conversations-Lexikon  fur  Geist,  Witz  und 
Humor.")  Died  in  1858. 

See  F.  FORSTER,  "  M.  G.  Saphir  und  Berlin,"  1828;  BROCK- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Sapieha,  sap-ya'ha,  (JOHN  PETER,)  a  Polish  military 
commander,  born  in  1569,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  with  Sweden  and  Russia.  Died  in  1611. 

Sapieha,  (LEO,)  high  chancellor  of  Lithuania,  born 
in  1557,  served  against  the  Russians  under  Stephen 
Bathori  in  1579,  and  subsequently  concluded  a  peace  of 
twenty  years  with  the  Czar.  After  the  death  of  Bathori 
he  promoted  the  election  of  the  Swedish  king,  Sigis- 
mund  III.,  to  the  throne  of  Poland.  Died  in  1633. 

Sa'por  [Persian,  SHAPOOR  or  SHAPUR,  sha'poor']  I., 
son  of  Artaxerxes,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Persia  in 
238  A.D.  He  conquered  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and 
caused  the  emperor  Valerian  to  be  put  to  death.  He 
was  eventually  assassinated  by  his  satraps,  (269  A.D.) 

Sapor  II.  succeeded  Hormisdas  II.  as  King  of  Persia. 
He  was  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Romans,  and  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  persecution  of  the  Christians. 
Died  in  380  A.D. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAPPHO 


1960 


SARMIENTO 


Sappho,  saph'o,  [Gr.  2a;r0a>,  genitive  ZanQovf ;  Lat. 
SAPPHO,  genitive  SAPPHUS  ;  Ital.  SAFFO,  saf'fo,]  written 
also  Sapho,  a  Greek  lyric  poetess  of  great  celebrity,  was 
born  at  Mitylene  or  Eresos,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  about 
625  B.C.  We  have  little  positive  knowledge  of  the 
events  of  her  life,  but  it  is  known  that  she  lived  about 
600  B.C.  and  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Alcaeus.  The 
popular  tradition  that  she  cherished  an  unrequited  love 
for  Phaon,  and  that  she  threw  herself  in  despair  from 
the  Leucadian  rock  into  the  sea,  is  rejected  by  modern 
critics.  She  belonged  to  the  ^£olian  race,  the  women 
of  which  were  not  kept  in  so  strict  seclusion  as  the 
lonians.  She  wrote  hymns,  elegies,  and  erotic  odes  ot 
exquisite  beauty.  It  is  admitted  that  she  has  never  been 
surpassed  in  sweetness  and  grace  by  any  lyric  poet, 
ancient  or  modern.  Her  works  are  lost,  except  a  hymn 
to  Venus  and  short  fragments  of  other  poems.  "Among 
the  mutilated  poets  of  antiquity,"  says  Addison,  "there 
is  none  whose  fragments  are  so  beautiful  as  those  of 
Sappho.  .  .  .  One  may  see,  by  what  is  left  of  them,  that 
she  followed  nature  in  all  her  thoughts,  without  descend 
ing  to  those  little  points,  conceits,  and  turns  of  wit  with 
which  many  of  our  modern  lyrics  are  so  miserably  in 
fected.  Her  soul  seems  to  have  been  made  up  of  love 
and  poetry.  She  felt  the  passion  in  all  its  warmth  and 
described  it  in  all  its  symptoms.  She  is  called  by  ancient 
authors  the  tenth  muse."  (See  the  "  Spectator,"  No. 
223,  which  contains  an  English  version  of  her  hymn  to 
Venus.)  Versions  of  her  ode  to  Lesbia,  by  Catullus, 
Boileau,  and  A.  Philips,  may  be  found  in  the  "  Spectator," 
No.  229. 

See  K.  G.  WELCKER,  ''  Sappho  von  einem  herrschenden  Vornr- 
theil  befreit,"  1816;  MULI.ER,  "Literature  of  Ancient  Greece," 
vol.  i.  ;  E.  TEGNER,  "  Sapphus  Vita  et  Carmina,"  1817;  RICHTER, 
"Sappho  und  Erinna,"  1833;  C.  M.  DE  SALM-DVCK,  "  Precis  de  la 
Vie  de  Sapho,"  1810;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saracino,  sa-ra-chee'no,  or  Saraceni,  sa-ra-cha'nee, 
(CARLO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1585, 
painted  frescos  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  Died  in  1625. 

Sa'rah  or  Sarai,  [Ileb.  mjy,  originally  ^V,}  a  He 
brew  matron,  was  the  wife  of  Abraham,  and  the  mother 
of  Isaac.  Her  name  signifies  "princess." 

See  Genesis  xi.  29,  xii.,  xvi.,  xvii.   15-21,  xviii.,  xx.,  xxi. 

Sarapis.     See  SERAPIS. 

Sarasin.     See  SARRASIN. 

Sar'as-wat'i,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  sur'iis-wiit'ee, 
from  Saras-Mat,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "juicy," 
"racy,"  "flowing,"  also  "elegant,"]  the  name  of  the 
consort  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of  speech,  elo 
quence,  and  music.  She  was  regarded  as  the  inventress 
of  the  Sanscrit  language  and  of  the  Devanagari  alphabet. 
(See  Introduction,  p.  21.)  As  the  patroness  of  music, 
she  has  by  some  writers  been  identified  with  Minerva, 
('AOrjvu,)  who  was  sometimes  surnamed  Musice,  (/lovamr/,) 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  flute. 
Sir  William  Jones  addressed  to  Saraswati  a  hymn,  in 
which  he  speaks  of  her  as  one 

"  Whose  sigh  is  music,  and  each  tear  a  pearl." 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  125  et  seq. 

Sara  via,  sa-ra-vee'a  or  st'rt've'S',  (HADRIAN  A.,)  a 
Protestant  theologian,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at 
Artois,  in  France,  in  1531,  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Leyden.  Having  settled  in  England  in  1587,  he  was 
made  prebendary  of  Westminster.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  celebrated  Hooker,  and  was  one  of  the 
divines  employed  by  James  I.  in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible.  Died  in  1613. 

See  PAQUOT,  "Memoires;"  MEURSIUS,  "Athena?  Batavae." 

Sarazin  or  Sarrazin,  si'ri 'zars1',  (JACQUES,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Noyon  in  1590.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Aldobrandini,  for  whom  he  executed  the  colossal  statues 
of  Atlas  and  Polyphemus  at  the  Villa  Frascati.  Among 
his  master-pieces  in  Paris  may  be  named  the  Mauso 
leum  of  Cardinal  Berulle,  "Group  of  Children  playing 
with  Goats,"  "The  Four  Cardinal  Virtues,"  in  the 
church  of  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Mausoleum  of  Henri  de 
Bourbon-Conde.  Died  in  1660. 

SeeV.  TREMBLAY,  "  Notice  sur  Sarrazin,"  1848:  "  Biographic  de 
J.  SarraziD,"  Noyon,  1851  ;  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Sarazin,  (JEAN.)     See  SARRAZIN. 


Sarbievius.     See  SARKIEWSKI. 

Sarbiewski,  saR-be-£v'skee,  [Lat.  SARHIK'VIUS,] 
(MATTHIAS  KASIMIR,)  a  Polish  Jesuit  and  poet,  born  in 
1595,  became  court  preacher  to  Ladislaus  IV.  He  was 
the  author  of  Latin  lyrics  and  other  poems,  which  ob 
tained  for  him  the  name  of  the  Sarmatian  Horace.  Died 
in  1640. 

See  LANGBEIN,  "  Commentatio  de  M.  C.  Sarbievii  Vita,"  1753. 

Sarcey,  stu'si',  (FRANCISQUE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Donrdan  (Seine-et-Oise)  in  1828.  Among  his 
works  is  a  collection  of  tales  entitled  "  Le  Nouveau 
Seigneur,"  (1862.) 

Sarcmasius.     See  SCHURTZFI.F.TSCH. 

Sarcoue,  saR-ko'na,  (MiCHKi.F,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  Apulia  in  1732  ;  died  in  1797. 

Sardanapale.     See  SARDANAPALUS. 

Sar-da-na-pa'lus,  [Gr.  ZapJawtTraAof ;  Fr.  SARDANA- 
PALF.,*  saVdS'nt'pal',  |  a  king  of  Assyria,  noted  for  the 
weakness  and  effeminacy  of  his  character,  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  880  B.C.  His  satrap  Ai baces  having 
conspired  with  the  Medes  against  him  and  besieged 
Nineveh,  Sardanapalus  defended  his  capital  with  great 
courage  and  resolution  nearly  two  years.  At  length, 
finding  resistance  vain,  he  is  said  to  have  set  fire  to  his 
palace  and  consumed  himself,  together  with  his  women 
and  his  treasures.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
last  king  of  Assyria.  His  fortunes  have  been  made  the 
subject  of  one  of  Lord  Byron's  best  tragedies.  The 
story  of  Sardanapalus  is  probably  fabulous  :  it  is  sup 
ported  by  no  authority  except  Ctesias.  It  does  not 
seem  probable  that  such  a  man  would  die  like  a  stoic. 

See  KOOPMANS,  "  Disputatio  de  Sardanapalo,"  1819. 

Sardi,  saa'dee,  (Al.ESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Ferrara  about  1520.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Coins,"  ("De  Nummis  Tractatus,"  1579.) 
Died  in  1588. 

Sardou,  sa'k'doo',  (VlCTORlF.N,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1831.  He  produced  numerous  suc 
cessful  dramas,  among  which  are  "Nos  Intimes,"  "  Les 
Ganaches,"  (1862,)  and  "La  Patrie,"  (1869.) 

Sar'gent,  (El'ES,  £ps,)  an  American  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
in  1812.  He  has  been  successively  editor  of  the  New 
York  "Mirror"  and  the  Boston  "Evening  Transcript." 
1  le  has  published  "  Velasco,"  a  tragedy,  and  several  other 
dramas,  "Songs  of  the  Sea,  and  other  Poems,"  "Arctic 
Adventures  by  Sea  and  Land,"  (1857,)  and  a  number  of 
excellent  educational  works. 

See  GKISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Sargent,  (JOHN  OSBORNF.,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in  1810.  He 
became  associate  editor  of  the  New  York  "Courier 
and  Enquirer"  in  1837,  and  subsequently  of  the  "  Re 
public"  at  Washington. 

Sargent,  (Lucius  MANLIUS,)  an  able  and  popular 
American  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1786.  He  pub 
lished  a  series  of  "Temperance  Tales,"  which  were 
very  favourably  received,  a  work  entitled  "  Dealings 
with  the  Dead,  by  a  Sexton  of  the  Old  School,"  (2 
vols.,  1856,)  and  a  number  of  poems.  Died  in  1867. 

Sar'gon,  a  king  of  Assyria,  ascended  the  throne  in 
721  B.C.  He  conquered  several  adjoining  nations,  cap 
tured  Samaria,  and  carried  away  many  Israelites  as 
captives.  Died  in  704  B.C. 

Sar'jeant  or  Serjeant,  (JoiiN,)  a  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1621,  became  secretary  of 
the  secular  clergy  in  England.  He  published  a  great 
number  of  controversial  works.  Died  in  1707. 

Sarmiento,  saR-me-en'to,  (  MARTIN,  )  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  teacher,  born  at  Segovia  in  1692.  He  wrote 
several  literary  works.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1770. 

Sarmiento,  de,  da  saR-me-eVto,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  who  lived  about  1550,  travelled  in  Peru,  and 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Account  of  the  Government  of 
the  Incas,"  ("  Relacion  de  la  Sucesion  y  Govierno  de  las 
Ingas,"  etc.,  in  manuscript.)  He  is  praised  by  Prescott 
for  his  candour  and  accuracy  and  the  humane  spirit  he 


*  In  Sir  David  Lindsay's  "Three  Estates"  the  name  is  written 
SardanapM. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SARNELLI 


1961 


manifests  towards  the  natives.  He  held  the  office  of 
president  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Sarnelli,  saR-nel'lee,  (PoMPEO,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Polignano  in  1649.  He  wrote  various 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1724. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Saron  or  Sarron.     See  BOCHART  DE  SARRON. 

Sar-pe'don,  [Gr.  2ap-f/6<jv ;  Fr.  SAKPEDON,  stR'pa'- 
d6.N',]  a  personage  in  the  Greek  mythology,  regarded 
as  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and  a  brother  of  Mi 
nos.  Having  been  expelled  from  Crete  by  Minos,  he 
retired  to  Lycia,  of  which  he  became  king. 

Sarpedon,  a  hero  and  prince  of  Lycia,  mentioned 
in  the  "  Iliad,"  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Laodami'a.  According  to  Homer,  he  fought  for  the 
Trojans  and  was  killed  by  Patroclus. 

Sarpi,  saR'pee,  (PAOLO,)  an  eminent  Italian  writer 
and  theologian,  born  at  Venice  in  1552,  is  generally 
known  as  FRA  PAOLO,  or  FATHER  PAUL.  He  entered 
the  order  of  Servites  at  an  early  age,  was  subsequently 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Venice,  and  in 
1579  was  elected  general  of  his  order.  Being  made 
procureur-general  in  1585,  he  went  to  reside  at  Rome, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine 
and  other  distinguished  men  ;  but,  having  been  suspected 
of  heretical  opinions  and  threatened  with  the  Inquisi 
tion,  he  returned  to  Venice.  He  was  chosen  in  1605 
consulting  theologian  of  the  republic  during  its  contest 
with  Pope  Paul  V.,  and  defended  its  cause  with  signal 
ability  and  success.  Repeated  attempts  on  his  life,  and 
the  entreaties  of  his  friends,  induced  him  to  retire  to  a 
convent,  where  he  died  in  1623.  His  "History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent"  ("  Istoria  del  Concilio  Tridentino," 
1619)  is  his  most  celebrated  work,  and  was  translated 
into  Latin  and  several  other  languages.  In  his  writings 
Father  Paul  has  boldly  attacked  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope  and  condemned  his  usurpations  of  temporal  power. 
He  is  also  supposed  to  have  favoured  Protestantism. 

See  MICANZIO,  "Vita  di  Sarpi,"  1646;  GRISEI.INI,  "  Memorie 
spettanti  alia  Vita  di  Sarpi,"  1760;  BlANCHl-Giovim,  "  Biografia 
di  Fra  Paolo,"  2  vols.,  1836;  G.  FONTANINI,  "  Storia  arcana  della 
Vita  di  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,"  1805:  DR.  JOHNSON'S  Works,  vol.  xii., 
1812;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale:"  "Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1838.  (bv  TAMES  MAETINEAU.)-®***  j2yoC*»^f,v.*.vfi  . 

-o  5$  "-  *V-f  ';~y-rZ£  *k  *"•?••  '^"J\f  •'"  ^  - 1  •  .      i 
Sarrans,  sa  rON  ,  (BERNARD,)  a  French  journalist  and 

political  writer,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1795,  became 
editor  of  "La  Nouvelle  Minerve"  about  1830.  He 
published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Spanish  War  and  the 
Tyranny  of  the  Bourbons,"  "  History  of  Bernadotte, 
King  of  Sweden,"  etc.,  (1845,)  and  other  works. 

Sarrasin  or  Sarasin,  sS'rf'zaN',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,) 
a  facetious  French  litterateur,  born  near  Caen  in  1603, 
was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Siege  of  Dunkirk," 
(1649,)  "The  Conspiracy  of  Wallenstein,"  and  other 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was  secretary  to  the 
Prince  de  Conti,  and  a  literary  rival  of  Voiture.  Died 
in  1654. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Menagiana  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Sarrazin,  (JACQUES.)     See  SARAZIN. 

Sarraziii,  sa'rS'zax',  (jE.vx,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  17/0.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
about  1800,  after  which  he  served  in  several  campaigns. 
In  1810  he  deserted  to  the  British.  Died  about  1840. 

Sarrus,  sf'riis',  (P.  F.,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Aveyron  about  1795.  He 
became  professor  of  analysis  at  Strasbourg. 

Sarrut,  st'ru',  (GERMAIN,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
democrat,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1800,  has  published  a 
number  of  political  and  miscellaneous  works. 

Sars,  (MICHAEL,)  an  eminent  zoologist,  born  at  Ber 
gen,  in  Norway,  August  30,  1805.  In  1830  he  was 
pastor  of  Kinn,  and  in  1840  of  Manger,  on  the  coast  of 
Norway.  He  published  in  1846  the  first  part  of  his 
"Fauna  Littoralis  Norvegias,"  which  established  his 
reputation.  In  1854  he  became  professor  of  geology  in 
the  University  of  Christiania,  which  office  he  filled  with 
great  honour  to  his  country  until  his  death.  His  "  Me- 
moire  pour  servir  a  la  Connaissance  des  Crinoides  vi- 
vants"  attracted  much  attention  by  showing  that  the 


crinoids,  or  "stone-lilies,"  supposed  to  have  been  long 
extinct,  occur  in  a  living  state  in  the  abysses  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Died  October  22,  1869. 

Sars'field,  (PATRICK,)  an  able  Irish  commander  and 
Roman  Catholic,  who  was  a  partisan  of  James  II.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690.) 
He  won  the  confidence  of  the  Irish  Jacobites  in  an  emi 
nent  degree,  induced  a  large  part  of  his  army  to  accom 
pany  him  to  France  in  1691,  and  entered  the  service  of 
Louis  XIV.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Landen, 
in  1693. 

See  MACAULAV,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xvii. 

Sartain,  sar-tan',  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1808,  emigrated  to  America  in  1830, 
and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  the  first  to  in 
troduce  mezzotinto  engraving  into  the  United  States. 
In  1 849  he  established  "  Sartain's  Union  Magazine,"  (pub 
lished  monthly,)  of  which  he  was  for  some  time  editor. 
Besides  engraving,  Mr.  Sartain  has  given  considerable 
attention  to  painting  in  oil  and  to  architecture.  Among 
I  his  works  in  the  latter  field  we  may  mention  the  lofty 
]  granite  monument  in  Monument  Cemetery,  near  Phila- 
|  delphia,  in  which,  also,  the  colossal  medallion  portraits 
of  Washington  and  La  Fayette  were  cast  in  bronze  from 
his  models. 

Sarti,  saR'tee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Faenza  about  1730.  He  became  successively  chapel- 
master  at  the  court  of  Copenhagen,  the  Conservatorio 
della  Pieta,  at  Venice,  and  the  Conservatory  of  Kate- 
rinoslaf,  in  Russia.  The  empress  Catherine  II.  also 
conferred  upon  him  a  munificent  salary,  and  created  him 
a  noble  of  the  first  rank.  His  works  are  principally 
sacred  music  and  operas:  of  the  latter,  his  "Giulio  Sa- 
bino"  is  most  esteemed.  Died  in  1802. 

See  FETIS,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Sarti,  (MAURO,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1709,  was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  Camalclules.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Univer 
sity  of  Bologna,"  in  Latin,  (2  vols.,  1769-71.)  Died  in 
1766. 

Sartine,  de,  deh  sfR'ten',  (ANTOINE  RAYMOND  JEAN 
GUALBERT  GABRIEL,)  Comte  d'Albv,  a  French  adminis 
trator,  born  in  1729.  He  became  lieutenant-general  of 
police  (in  Paris)  in  1759,  and  was  minister  of  marine 
from  1774  until  1780.  Died  in  1801. 

Sarto,  del,  del  saR'to,  (ANDREA  Vanucchi — va- 
nook'kee,)  a  celebrated  painter  of  the  Florentine  school, 
born  at  Florence  in  1488.  He  studied  under  Pietro  di 
Cosimo,  and  subsequently  visited  Rome.  Among  his 
master-pieces  at  Florence  are  his  "Madonna  di  San 
Francesco,"  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  "The  Last  Sup 
per,"  (a  fresco,)  and  "  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in 
the  monastery  of  the  Salvi.  He  also  executed  several 
works  for  the  French  king,  Francis  I.  Sarto  is  distin 
guished  for  correctness  of  design,  harmonious  colouring, 
and  skill  in  chiaroscuro.  Died  in  1530. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.:  MRS.  JAMESON, 
"  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  :"  A.  REUMONT,  "  A.  del  Sarto," 
1835;  L.  BIAGI,  "  Notizie  inedite  della  Vita  d'A.  del  Sarto,"  1830. 

Sartorius,  saR-to're-us,  (ERNST  WILHELM  CHRIS 
TIAN,)  a  German  theologian  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Darmstadt  in  1797  ;  died  in  1859. 

Sartorius,  (GEORG,)  Baron  von  Waltershausen,  born 
at  Cassel  in  1765,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,"  (1802,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1828. 

Sartorius,  saR-to're-oos,  (Luis  JOSE,)  Count  de  San 
Luis,  a  Spanish  journalist  and  statesman,  of  German 
extraction,  born  about  1810.  He  was  appointed  in  1847 
minister  of  the  interior  in  the  cabinet  of  Narvaez. 

Sas'nett,  (WILLIAM  J.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Method 
ist  divine  and  writer,  born  in  Georgia  in  1820. 

Sass,  sas,  (FREDERICK,)  a  Russian  general,  born  in 
Courland  in  1798;  died  in  1852. 

Sassanid,  (plural  Sassaiiids.)     See  SASSANID^E. 

Sassariidse,  sas-san'e-de,  [Fr.  SASSANIDES,  sS'sS'- 
ned' ;  Ger.  SASSANIDEN,  sas-sa-nee'den :  the  English 
form  SASSAN'IDS  is  also  used,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
dynasty  which  reigned  in  Persia  from  226  to  651  A.D. 
It  was  founded  by  Ardsheer  Babegan,  a  grandson  of 
Sassan,  (or  Sasan,)  from  whom  it  took  its  name.  Among 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.     (B^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


S4SS4N1DES 


SAURAU 


the  chief  rulers  of  this  dynasty  were  Sapor  (Shapoor) 
and  Chosroes  I.,  (Noushirvan.) 

See  SMITH,  "Dictionary of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Sassanides  or  Sassanideu.     See  SASSANID^E. 

Sassi,  sas'see,  [Lat.  SAX'IUS,]  (GIUSKPPE  ANTONIO,) 
an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1673  or 
1675.  He  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Milan,  and  aided 
his  friend  Muratori  in  his  great  work.  Died  in  1751. 

Sassi,  (PANFILO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena 
about  1455  !  died  in  1527. 

Sassoferrato.     See  SALVI,  (GIAMBATTISTA.) 

Sassoiie,  II.     See  HASSE,  (JOHANN  ADOLF.) 

Sat'i,  Sut'ee,  or  Sut'tee,  [modern  Hindoo  pron. 
siit'ee',  the  feminine  form  of  the  Sanscrit  adjective  sat, 
"  true,"  "  good,"  "  virtuous,"  "  pure,"]  the  name  given  by 
the  Hindoos  to  those  widows  who  burn  themselves  on 
the  funeral  pile  of  their  husbands,  from  the  belief  not 
merely  that  no  true  or  good  wife  will  marry  a  second 
time,  but  that  no  devoted  wife  ought  to  survive  her  hus 
band.  According  to  one  of  the  Hindoo  legends,  Sati 
was  the  name  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Siva:  through  indignation  on  account  of  some  disre 
spect  shown  by  her  father  to  Siva  or  to  herself,  she  cast 
herself  into  a  sacrificial  fire,  and  was  consumed. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Sat'urn,  [Gr.  Kporof  ;  Lat.  SATUR'NUS  or  CKO'NUS; 
Fr.  SATURNE,  si'tttRn',]  a  god  of  classic  mythology, 
and  a  mythical  king  of  Italy,  was  called  a  son  of  Uranus 
and  Ge,  (or  Ccelus  and  Terra,)  the  husband  of  Rhea, 
and  the  father  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Ceres, 
and  Vesta.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  dethroned  Uranus, 
and  devoured  his  own  children  as  soon  as  they  were 
born  ;  but  Rhea  deceived  him  by  giving  him  stones, 
(wrapped  in  a  cloth,)  which  lie  swallowed,  and  she  thus 
saved  the  lives  of  those  above  named.  He  was  de 
throned  by  Jupiter,  took  refuge  in  Italy,  and  was  kindly 
received  by  Janus,  the  king  of  that  country,  who  gave 
him  a  share  of  the  royal  power.  Saturn  is  said  to  have 
civilized  the  people  of  Italy  and  to  have  taught  them  agri 
culture  and  useful  arts.  His  reign  was  so  mild,  pacific, 
and  beneficent  that  it  was  called  the  Golden  Age. 

The  Romans,  in  honour  of  Saturn,  celebrated  an  an 
nual  festival  called  Saturnalia,  during  which  general 
mirth  and  license  prevailed  and  slaves  were  waited  on 
at  table  by  their  masters,  with  whom  they  were  allowed 
to  jest  with  impunity.  Saturn  was  represented  as  an 
old  man,  holding  in  his  hand  a  scythe  or  priming-knife, 
with  a  serpent  biting  its  own  tail,  (the  emblem  of  eternity.) 

Saturnalia.     See  SATURN. 

Saturne.     See  SATURN. 

Saturnin.     See  SATURNINUS. 

Sat-ur-ni'nus  or  Saturnilus,  one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  Syrian  Gnostics,  flourished  about  125  A.D. 

Sat-ur-ni'nus,  (CLAUDIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  the  time 
of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  is  the  supposed  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  De  Pcenis  Paganorum." 

Saturninus,  [Fr.  SATURNIN,  st'tu'R'naN',]  (Lucius 
APPUI.EIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman  demagogue,  who 
became  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  senate  and  aristo 
cratic  party.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  102  B.C., 
and  again  in  the  year  100.  He  proposed  an  agrarian 
law,  which  was  passed.  His  conduct  was  so  seditious 
and  violent  that  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  the  senate,  in 
99  B.C. 

See  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Saturniiius,  (VENULIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus. 

Saturnus.     See  SATURN. 

Sat'yr,  [Gr.  Zarvpor ;  Lat.  SAT'YRUS  ;  Fr.  SATYRE, 
st'tek'.  j  The  Satyrs  were  fabulous  beings,  or  demi-gods, 
associated  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus,  and  supposed 
to  have  been -the  offspring  of  Mercury.  They  were  rep 
resented  as  having  a  body  like  a  man,  with  the  legs  and 
feet  of  a  goat,  and  small  horns  on  the  head.  They  were 
fond  of  wine,  sleep,  and  sensual  pleasure,  and  were  con 
founded  or  identified  by  some  with  the  Fauni  of  the 
Roman  mythology.  The  older  Satyrs  were  called  Silent. 

Satyre  or  Satyrus.     See  SATYR. 

Saucerctte,  sSs'rot',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  surgical 
writer,  born  at  Luneville  in  1741,  was  chief  surgeon  of 
a  French  army  from  1794  to  1798.  Died  in  1814. 


His  grandson,  ANTOINE  CONSTANT  SAUCEROTTE, 
born  at  Moscow  in  1805,  became  a  physician  at  Lune 
ville.  He  wrote  several  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
history. 

Saul,  [Heb.  blNE?,]  the  son  of  Kish,  and  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  was  anointed  first  king  of  the  Israelites,  by 
Samuel.  He  waged  war  successfully  against  the  Am 
monites  and  Philistines,  and  in  a  battle  with  the  Amalek- 
ites  took  captive  their  king,  Agag.  Having  through 
disobedience  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Jehovah,  he 
was  killed  in  an  engagement  with  the  Philistines,  to 
gether  with  three  of  his  sons,  B.C.  1056. 

See  I.  Samuel  ix.-xxxi. 

Saul  of  Tarsus.     See  PAUL,  SAINT. 

Saulcy,  de,  deh  so'se',  (Louis  FELTCIEN  JOSEPH 
Caignart — k.in'y&R',)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  at 
Lille  in  1807.  He  published  in  1836  an  "Essay  on  the 
Classification  of  Byzantine  Coins,"  which  obtained  the 
prize  from  the  French  Institute.  In  1842  he  succeeded 
Mionnet  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions, 
and  in  1859  became  a  senator.  Having  visited  Pales 
tine  in  1850,  he  published  his  "  Travels  around  the  Dead 
Sea  and  in  the  Biblical  Lands,"  (1852.)  He  has  written 
other  works  on  numismatics,  etc. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saulx  de  Tavarmes.     See  TAVANNES. 

Saumaise.     See  SALMASIUS. 

Saumarez  or  Sausmarez,  de,  deh  so'mi'ia', 
(JAMES,)  LORD,  a  British  admiral,  of  French  extraction, 
born  on  the  island  of  Guernsey  in  1757.  Having  served 
for  a  time  in  America,  and  subsequently  against  the 
Dutch  in  1781,  he  was  appointed  in  1793  to  the  com 
mand  of  the  Crescent,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
several  engagements  with  the  French.  As  commander 
of  the  Orion,  he  assisted  in  gaining  the  victory  over  the 
Spanish  fleet  off  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  after 
wards  second  in  command  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile. 
Having  been  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1801,  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  squadron  off  Cadiz,  and 
soon  after  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  united  French 
and  Spanish  fleet,  for  which  achievement  the  order  of 
the  Bath  was  conferred  upon  him.  In  the  subsequent 
war  with  Russia  he  commanded  the  Baltic  fleet,  and 
after  peace  was  restored  was  created  in  1821  vice-ad 
miral  of  Great  Britain.  He  was  made  a  peer,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  de  Sausmarez,  in  1831.  Died  in  1836. 

See  SIR  JOHN  Ross,  "Memoirs,  etc.  of  Admiral  Lord  de  Sau 
marez,"  i83S  ;  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Saun'ders,  (Sir  EDMUND,)  an  English  jurist  under 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  rose  to  be  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  king's  bench  in  1682.  Died  in  1683. 

Saunders,  (JoiiN  CUNNINGHAM,)  an  English  sur 
geon  and  oculist,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1773,  published 
treatises  "  On  the  Diseases  of  the  Eye"  and  "  On  the 
Anatomy  and  Diseases  of  the  Ear."  Died  in  1810. 

Sauii'ders,  (PRINCE,)  an  American  negro,  born  at 
Thetford,  Vermont,  about  1775,  was  for  a  time  teacher 
of  free  coloured  schools  in  Connecticut  and  at  Boston, 
lie  afterwards  studied  divinity  and  became  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Philadelphia.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
attorney-general  of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  where  he  died 
in  1840. 

Saunders,  (WILLIAM,)  M.D.,  born  in  1743,  was  ap 
pointed  senior  physician  to  Guy's  Hospital,  London. 
He  wrote  several  medical  works.  Died  in  1819. 

Sauii'der-soii,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English  scholar  and 
mathematician,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1682.  He  lost  his 
sight  at  the  age  of  twelve  months,  but,  notwithstanding 
this  misfortune,  he  made  rapid  progress  both  in  the 
classics  and  the  exact  sciences.  In  1711  he  succeeded 
Whiston  as  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cam 
bridge,  having  previously  received  the  degree  of  M.A., 
and  in  1728  he  was  made  Doctor  of  Laws.  He  was  the 
author  of  treatises  on  the  "  Elements  of  Algebra"  and 
"On  Fluxions."  He  was  a  friend  of  Newton  and  other 
eminent  philosophers  of  the  time.  Died  in  1739. 

See  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Saurau,  von,  fon  so'r5',  (FRANZ,)  COUNT,  an  Aus 
trian  statesman,  born  in  Vienna  in  1760.  lie  was  ap 
pointed  governor  of  the  province  of  Austria  in  1810,  and 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


SAURIN 


1963 


SAVAGE 


governor  of  Lombardy  in  1815.  In  the  last-named  year 
he  became  the  chief  of  all  the  chanceries  of  the  empire. 
Died  about  1830. 

Sauriii,  so'ra.v',  (BERNARD  JOSEPH,)  a  French  drama 
tist,  born  in  Paris  in  1706,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Saurin, 
noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  "Spartacus,"  a 
tragedy,  (1760.)  "The  Manners  of  the  Time,"  ("Moeurs 
du  Temps,")  and  other  comedies.  Me  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and  numbered  among  his  friends 
Voltaire  and  Montesquieu.  Died  in  1781. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saurin,  (EtiAS,)  a  French  Protestant  divine,  born  in 
1639,  was  the  author  of  "Reflections  on  the  Rights  of 
Conscience,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1703. 

Saurin,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  and 
eloquent  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Nimes  in  1677.  Having 
studied  at  Geneva,  he  became  in  1701  pastor  of  the 
Walloon  church  in  London,  and  subsequently  resided 
at  the  Hague,  in  Holland,  where  he  preached  for  twenty- 
five  years  with  the  highest  reputation.  He  published 
a  large  collection  of  sermons,  some  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English,  a  treatise  "  On  the  State  of 
Christianity  in  France,"  (1725,)  and  "  Discourses,  His 
torical,  Theological,  and  Moral,  on  the  Principal  Events 
of  the  Old  and  Xew  Testaments."  Died  in  1730. 

See  CHARLES  WKISS,  "Notice  stir  la  Vie  de  J.  Snurin,"  1854; 
J.  P.  ROMAN-.  "  Essai  sur  Saurin,"  1836;  HAAC,  "  Li  France  pro- 
testante;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1785;  "Xouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Saurin,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  mathematician,  brother 
of  Elias,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Courtaison  in  1659. 
In  1707  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to 
which  he  contributed  a  number  of  valuable  scientific 
essays.  He  was  originally  a  Calvinist  minister,  but  sub 
sequently  became  a  Catholic.  Died  in  1737. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Sau'riii,  (WILLIAM,)  an  Irish  jurist  and  statesman, 
born   in   1767,   became  attorney-general   for   Ireland   in  j 
1807.     Died  in  1840. 

Sausmarez.     See  SAUMAREZ. 

Saussay,  so's.Y,  (ANDRE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  ' 
in  Paris  about  1595,  was  appointed  preacher-in-ordinary 
to  Louis  XIII.,  and  made  Bishop  of  Toul  in  1649.     He 
published  a  work  entitled  "Martyrologium  Gallicanum."  I 
Died  in  1675. 

Saussaye,  La.     See  LA  SAUSSAYE,  DE. 

Saussure,  (.\LBERTINE  ADRIKNNE.)     See  NECKER.   i 

Saussure,  de,  deh  SO'SUK',  (HORACE  BENEDICT,)  an  ; 
eminent  Swiss  naturalist,  born   at  Geneva  in  February,  : 
1740.     He  was   assisted   in  his  scientific  studies  by  his  ! 
maternal   uncle,  Bonnet,  and  by  the  celebrated  Haller,  j 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  became  professor  of  philos-  ! 
ophy  in  the  College  of  Geneva.     Having  made  numerous  : 
excursions  among  the  Alps,  Jura,  and  other  mountain-  ; 
chains,  with   the  view  of  exploring  their   natural   phe-  i 
nomena,  he  ascended  in  1788   to   the   summit  of  Mont  '. 
Blanc.     His  most  important  work,   entitled  "Voyages 
dans    les    Alpes,"   was    published    in    4   vols.    in   1796. 
Among  his  other  writings  we  may  name  a  "  Physical  , 
Dissertation  on  Fire,"  (1759,  in  Latih,)  "  Essays  on  Hy-  j 
grometry,"  (1783,)  and  "Relation  abregee  d'un  Voyage 
a  la  Cime  du  Mont  Blanc  en  Aout,  1787,"  (1787.)     He  j 
was  the  inventor  of  instruments  called  the  cyanometer  j 
and  the  diaphanometer,  for  ascertaining  the  transparency  ! 
of  the  air  at  different  heights,  and  also  made  improve-  '• 
ments  in  the  thermometer,  hygrometer,  etc.     Of  Saus-  I 
sure,  Cuvier  observes,  "The' new  facts   which  he  has! 
signalized,  and  the  errors  he  has  destroyed,  will  always 
render  his  labours  infinitely  valuable  to  naturalists,  and 
will  make  of  them  the  principal  base  and  true  touch-  j 
stone  of  the  systems  one  can  imagine  for  the    future." 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1799. 

See  CUVIER,  "  FJoge  de  Saussure  ;"  SENEBIER,  "  Memnires  his- 
toriques  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Saussure,"  1801  ;  "  Nouvelle  j 
Biographie  Generale." 

Saussure,  de,  (XICOLAS,)  a  Swiss  rural  economist,  ! 
born  at  Geneva  in  1709,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  published  several  works  on  rural  economy.     Died 
in  1790. 

Saussure,  de,  (NICOLAS  THEODORE,)  a  chemist  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1767,  was  a  son  of  Horace  | 


Benedict,  noticed  above.  He  published  "  Chemical  Re 
searches  on  Vegetation,"  (1804,)  and  contributed  many 
memoirs  to  several  scientific  journals.  In  1810  he  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French  Institute. 
Died  in  1845. 

Sautel,  so'tel',  (PIERRE  JUST,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Valence  in  1613.  He  wrote  several 
elegant  Latin  poems.  Died  in  1662. 

Sauvage,  so'vtzh',  (DEMS,)  Sieur  Du  Pare,  a  French 
litterateur,  born  about  1520,  became  historiographer  to 
Henry  II.  He  edited  the  works  of  Froissart,  Comines, 
and  Monstrelet.  Died  about  1587. 

Sauvage,  so'vizh',  (£TIENNE  NOEL  JOSEPH,)  a  Bel 
gian  advocate,  born  at  Liege  in  1789.  He  was  minister 
of  the  interior  from  March  to  August,  1831,  and  became 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1832. 

Sauvages,  de,  deh  so'vizh',  (FRANCOIS  BOISSIER,)  a 
French  medical  writer  and  botanist,  born  at  Alais  (Gard) 
in  1706.  He  became  professor  at  Montpellier  about 
1740,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "Methodical 
Nosology,"  ("Nosologia  Methodica,"  5  vols.,  1763.) 
Died  in  1767. 

See  BARBASTE,  "  fittide  sur  Boissisr  de  Sauvages,"  1791  ;  "  Bio 
graphie  Medicate;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sauval,  so'vil',  (HENRI,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Paris  about  1620.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  An 
tiquities  of  Paris,"  (3  vols.,  1724.)  Died  in  1669  or  1670. 

Sauveur,  SO'VUR',  (JOSEPH.)  a  French  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  at  La  Fleche  in  1653.  He  was 
appointed  in  1680  teacher  to  the  pages  of  the  dauphin- 
ess,  and  in  1686  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
College  at  Paris.  He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1696.  He  was  especially  distinguished  for 
his  improvements  in  the  science  of  acoustics,  upon  which 
he  published  a  number  of  essays.  Died  in  1716. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  filoges  ;"  MONTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathe- 
matiques." 

Sauzet,  so'zi',  (JEAN  PIERRE  PAUL,)  an  eloquent 
French  advocate  and  politician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1800. 
He  gained  distinction  as  counsel  for  the  defence  in 
political  trials,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1834.  He  was  minister  of  justice  from 
February  to  September,  1836.  Between  1839  and  1848 
he  was  elected  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
ten  times.  He  presided  during  the  revolution  of  Febru 
ary,  1848,  and  resisted  the  insurgents  who  invaded  the 
chamber.  Since  that  event  he  has  taken  no  part  in 
public  life. 

See  CORMENIN,  "Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  Louis  BLANC,  "Histoire 
de  dix  Ans  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sav'age,  (EDWARD,)  an  American  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Princeton,  Massachusetts,  in  1761,  was 
a  pupil  of  Benjamin  West.  He  painted  the  family  of 
Washington.  Died  in  1817. 

Sav'age,  (HENRY,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wor 
cestershire  about  1604,  was  chaplain-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.,  and  rector  of  Bladon,  in  Oxfordshire.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Baliol  College."  Died  in  1672. 

Savage,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  published  a  "Collection  of  Letters  of  the  An 
cients,  whereby  is  discovered  the  Morality,  Wit,  Hu 
mour,  etc.  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans."  Died  in  1747. 

Savage,  (Jonx,)  an  American  jurist,  born  about  1780. 
He  was  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York 
for  fourteen  years.  Died  at  Utica  in  October,  1863. 

Savage,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  poet,  noted  for  his 
misfortunes  and  for  his  dissolute  habits,  was  born  in 
London  in  1698.  lie  is  believed  to  have  been  a  natural 
son  of  the  Countess  of  Macclesfield  and  the  Earl  of 
Rivers.  He  was  abandoned  by  his  mother  and  placed 
with  a  nurse,  who  was  charged  to  bring  him  up  in  ig 
norance  of  his  birth.  Having  subsequently  discovered 
the  secret  of  his  parentage,  he  made  many  ineffectual 
attempts  to  obtain  recognition  and  support  from  Lady 
Macclesfield.  He  was  befriended  by  Sir  Richard  Steele 
and  Dr.  Johnson.  Among  his  works  were  "The  Wan 
derer,"  a  poem,  (1729,)  and  several  dramas.  He  killed 
a  man  in  a  brawl  in  1727,  and  was  condemned  to  death, 
but  was  pardoned.  Died  in  1743. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


SAfARON 


1964 


SAVONAROLA 


Savaron,  st'vi'riN',  (JEAN,)  a  French  historian  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Clermont  in  1550.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  the  tiers-etat,  (third  estate,)  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  States- 
General,"  (1615.)  Died  in  1622. 

See  NICERON,"  Memoires;"  MORBKI,"  Dictionnaire  Historique;" 
H.  COCHON,  "  fitudes  historiques  et  litteraires  sur  J.  Savaron," 
1847. 

Savart,  si'viV,  (FELix,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Mezieres  in  1791,  was  a  physician.  He  succeeded  Am 
pere  as  professor  of  physical  philosophy  in  the  College 
of  P'rance.  He  wrote  on  the  vibrations  of  bodies  and 
the  laws  of  their  communication.  Died  in  Paris  in  1841. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Savary,  st'vf  re',  (ANNE  JEAN  MARIE  RENE,)  Due 
de  Rovigo,  an  able  French  general  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Marcq  (Ardennes)  in  1774.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1790,  served  as  captain  under  Moreau  in  1796, 
and  was  aide-de-camp  of  Desaix  in  Egypt  in  1798-1800. 
He  became  aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte  in  1800,  a  gen 
eral  of  brigade  in  1803,  and  general  of  division  in  1805. 
Having  obtained  command  of  a  corps,  he  gained  a  vic 
tory  over  the  Russians  at  Ostrolenka  in  1807.  In  1808 
he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Rovigo,  and  was  sent  on 
a  diplomatic  mission  to  Madrid.  He  succeeded  Fouche 
as  minister  of  police  in  June,  1810.  He  adhered  to  Bona 
parte  after  his  defeat  at  Waterloo,  and  offered  to  accom 
pany  him  to  Saint  Helena,  but  was  detained  in  prison 
at  Malta  seven  months.  He  wrote  autobiographic  "  Me 
moires,"  (8  vols.,  1828.)  In  1831  he  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  in  Algeria.  Died  in  1833. 

See  ACHII.I.E  ROCHE,  "De  MM.  le  Due  de  Rovigo  et  le  Prince 
de  Talleyrand,"  1823  ;  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the 
Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1823. 

Savary,  (FRANCOIS.)     See  BRAVES,  DE. 

Savary,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  writer  on  commerce, 
born  in  Anjou  in  1622.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"The  Complete  Merchant,"  ("  Le  parfait  Negociant,") 
which  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan 
guages.  Died  in  1690. 

Savary,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Vitre, 
in  Brittany,  in  1750.  He  set  out  in  1776  for  Egypt,  where 
he  passed  three  years,  and  subsequently  visited  the 
Grecian  Archipelago.  On  his  return  to  France  he  pub 
lished  a  translation  of  the  Koran,  accompanied  with 
notes,  and  a  Life  of  Mohammed,  which  is  esteemed  the 
best  in  the  French  language.  His  "  Letters  on  Egypt" 
came  out  in  1785,  and  obtained  great  popularity,  having 
been  translated  into  English,  German,  Dutch,  and  Swed 
ish.  His  "  Letters  on  Greece"  came  out  a  short  time 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788.  He  also  trans 
lated  from  the  Arabic  a  tale  entitled  "  The  Loves  of 
Anas  Eloujoud  and  Ouardi,"  (1789.) 

Savary  des  Brulons,  s&'vt're'  di  buii'liN', 
(JACQUES,)  a  son  of  Jacques  Savary,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1657.  He  was  appointed  inspector-general  of 
manufactures  in  1686.  With  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Philemon  Louis,  he  compiled  a  "  Dictionary  of  Com 
merce,  Arts,  and  Trades,"  (3  vols.,  1723-30.)  Died  in 
1716.  PHILEMON  Louis  was  born  in  1654  ;  died  in  1727. 

Savelli.     See  HONORIUS  III. 

Saverien,  siv're^N',  (ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  savant 
and  writer,  born  at  Aries  about  1722,  was  a  naval  en 
gineer,  (ingenieur  de  marine.)  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Marine  Dictionary,"  ("  Dictionnaire  de  Ma 
rine,"  1758,)  and  a  "  History  of  Modern  Philosophers," 
(4  vols.,  1760-73.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1805. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Saverio.     See  XAVIER,  (FRANCIS.) 

Savery,  stv're',  (ROLAND,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Courtray  in  1576,  was  a  pupil 
of  his  father.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Ru 
dolph  II.,  for  whom  he  worked  at  Prague.  He  removed 
to  Utrecht  in  1612.  Many  of  his  pictures  are  rocky  land 
scapes  adorned  with  figures  of  animals.  Died  in  1639. 

Sa'ver-y,  (THOMAS,)  CAPTAIN,  an  English  engineer, 
and  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  He  was 
associated  with  Newcomen  as  patentee  of  the  invention 
for  producing  a  vacuum  under  the  piston.  Died  in  1715. 


Savigny,  von,  fon  sS'ven'ye',  (FRIEDRICH  KARL,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the  Main  in  1779.  He  published  in  1803 
an  important  work  entitled  "  Right  of  Possession," 
("Rechtdes  Besitzes.")  In  1804  he  married  Miss  Bren- 
tano,  a  sister  of  the  poet  of  that  name.  He  became 
professor  of  law  at  Landshut  in  1808,  and  obtained  in 
1810  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  which  he  filled 
thirty-two  years.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state  about  1817.  His  principal  works  are 
a  "  History  of  Roman  Law  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (6 
vols.,  1815-31,)  and  "System  of  Modern  Roman  Law," 
("  System  des  heutigen  Romischen  Rechts,"  8  vols., 
1840-48.)  In  1842  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice 
of  Prussia.  "  His  ideas  have  made  the  tour  of  the  world," 
says  Laboulaye  ;  "  they  have  transformed  the  science." 
Died  in  October,  1861. 

See  LABOUI.AYE,  "  F.  C.  de  Savigny,"  1842;  RUDORFF,  "  Erin- 
nerung  an  Savigny,"  1862;  STINZING,  "  F.  C.  von  Savigny,"  1862  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Savile  or  Saville,  (GEORGE.)  See  HALIFAX,  MAR 
QUIS  OF. 

Savile,  sav'il,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  mathemati 
cian  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1549. 
He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1570,  and,  after  his  return 
from  a  tour  on  the  continent,  became  tutor  in  the  Greek 
language  and  mathematics  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was 
made  provost  of  Eton  College  in  1596,  and  was  subse 
quently  knighted  by  James  I.  He  was  the  founder  of  two 
professorships  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  besides  other 
liberal  donations  to  that  institution,  to  which  he  also 
bequeathed  a  valuable  library.  Among  his  principal 
publications  are  "  Lectures  on  the  First  Book  of  Euclid's 
Elements,"  a  collection  of  English  historians,  entitled 
"  Rerum  Anglicarum  Scriptores  post  Bedam,"  (1596,) 
and  an  excellent  edition  of  the  works  of  Saint  Chrys- 
ostom,  (1613.)  He  died  in  1622,  having  acquired  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  profound  and  accomplished 
scholars  of  his  time.  "We  may  justly  deem  him,"  says 
Hallam,  "the  most  learned  Englishman  in  profane  liter 
ature  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth." 

See  WOOD,  "Athens  Oxonienses  ;"  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of 
Authors." 

Savioli,  sa-ve-o'Iee,  (Luict  VICTOR,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1729.  He  wrote  Anacreontic  poems, 
entitled  "  Amori,"  (1795.)  Died  in  1804. 

Savonarola,  sa-vo-na-ro'la,  (GIOVANNI  MICHELE,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1384.  was 
a  grandfather  of  Girolamo,  noticed  below.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Ferrara,  and  published  several 
medical  works.  Died  in  1461. 

Savonarola,  [Fr.  SAVONAROLE,  si'vo'ni'rol',]  (Gi- 
ROLAMO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  reformer  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1452.  lie  became  a  Dominican 
monk  in  1475.  H's  nrst  attempts  to  preach  proved  a 
failure  ;  but  he  persevered  until  he  became  an  eloquent 
and  popular  preacher.  He  boldly  denounced  the  cor 
ruptions  of  the  Church,  and  the  vices  of  priests  and 
monks.  He  also  advocated  republicanism  or  political 
liberty.  In  1491  he  was  chosen  prior  of  the  convent  of 
Saint  Mark  at  Florence,  where  he  effected  important 
reforms.  He  acquired  great  political  influence  at  Flor 
ence,  and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici  (1494)  was 
the  leader  of  the  liberal  party,  called  "  Piagnoni,"  (pe-an- 
yo'nee,)  by  which  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  on 
Christian  principles.  Having  refused  to  submit  to  papal 
authority,  he  was  excommunicated  by  Alexander  VI.  in 
1497.  The  popular,  enthusiasm  grew  cool,  a  reaction 
ensued,  and  the  enemies  of  Savonarola  gained  the  ascend 
ency  in  Florence.  He  was  arrested,  tortured,  condemned, 
and  strangled  in  May,  1498.  A  few  years  later,  Raphael 
painted  his  portrait  in  the  Vatican  among  the  saints  and 
doctors  of  the  Church.  Savonarola  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Triumph  of  the  Cross,"  etc., 
("  Triumphus  Crucis  de  Veritate  Ficlei,"  1497.)  "  His 
absolutely  blameless  moral  character,  his  wonderful 
abilities,  his  command  of  all  the  knowledge  of  his  time, 
his  power  of  communicating  his  own  holiness  to  others, 
even  his  rigid  authority  as  regards  the  great  doctrines 
of  his  Church,  who  will  impeach?"  ("Quarterly  Re 
view,"  article  on  Savonarola,  reprinted  in  the  "  Living 


a,  e,  1, 5, u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  not;  good;  moon; 


SAVQT 


1965 


serous 


Age,"  vol.  1.  p.  641,  1856.)     Mis  complete  works  were 
published  at  Lyons,  (6  vols.,  1633-40.) 

See  T.NERI,  "Apologiain  Difesa  della  Dottrina  cli  G. Savonarola," 
1564;  Pico  DELI.A  MIKANDOLA,  "Vita  Savonarolae,"  1674;  SPANG- 
ENBERG.  "Leben.  Lehre  und  Tod  Savonarola,"  1557;  BURI.AMAO 
CHI,  "Vita  di  G.  Savonarola,"  1764;  RUDEI.HACH,  "  Savonarola  und 
seine  Zeit,"  1835;  FR.  KAKL  MEIER,  "  G.  Savonarola,"  1836;  E. 
MARION  or  MARIN,  "Viede  J.  Savonarole,"  1839;  P.  J.  CARLE, 
'•  Histoire  cle  Savonarole,"  1842;  MADDEN,  "Life  and  Martyrdom 
of  Savonarola,"  2  vols.,  1853  ;  PERRENS,  "  Savonarole,  sa  Vie,"  etc., 
1854;  P.  VU.I.ARI,  "Storiadi  G.  Savonarola,"  1860.  (translated  into 
English  by  HORNER,  1863;)  W.  HODGSON,  "Reformers  and  Mar 
tyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1856;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  tor  June,  1863  ;  "  British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  November,  1849. 

Savot,  sf'vo',  (Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  anti 
quary,  born  at  Saulieu  in  1579,  was  physician  to  Louis 
XIII.  He  published  several  treatises  on  medicine  and 
numismatics.  Died  in  1640. 

Savoy,  COUNTS  and  DUKES  OF.  See  AMADEUS  and 
CHAKI.ES  EMMANUEL. 

Saw'yer,  (CAROLINE  M.  FISHER,)  wife  of  T.  J.  Saw 
yer,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts, 
in  1812.  She  lias  published  several  religious  works,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  German  and 
French.  In  1861  she  became  editor  of  the  "Ladies' 
Repository." 

Saw'yer,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
statesman,  rose  to  be  attorney-general  in  1680.  He 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  Univer 
sity  of  Cambridge.  He  was  accessory  to  the  death  of 
Lord  Russell.  Died  in  1692. 

Sawyer,  (THOMAS  JEFFERSON,  D.D.,)  an  American 
Universalist  preacher,  born  in  Windsor  county,  Ver 
mont,  in  1804.  He  published  a  "Discussion  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Universal  Salvation,"  (1854.) 

Sax,  stks,  (ANTOINE  JOSEPH  ADOLPHE,)  a  Belgian 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  born  at  Dinant  in  1814. 
He  invented  the  saxophone  and  other  brass  instruments 
of  military  music.  He  became  professor  of  music  in  the 
Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1857. 

Sax,  saks,  [Lat.  SAX'IUS,]  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Saxony  in  1714.  He  became  in  1753 
professor  of  history  at  Utrecht.  His  chief  work  is  his 
"Onomasticon  Literarium,  sive  Nomenclator  historico- 
criticus  prsestantissimorum  omnis  yEtatis,  Populi,  Arti- 
umque  Formulae  Scriptorum,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1775-90.) 
This  is  a  dictionary  of  the  eminent  authors  of  all  ages 
and  countries.  Died  in  1806. 

Saxe,  saks,  (HERMANN  MAURICE,)  [Ger.  MORITZ 
VON  SACHSEM,  mo'rits  fon  saks'en,]  COUNT  OF,  a  fa 
mous  general,  born  at  Goslar  or  Dresden,  in  Saxony, 
October  28,  1696,  was  a  son  of  Augustus  II.,  Elector 
of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  and  the  Countess  von 
Konigsmark.  He  entered  the  army  in  1708,  and  dis 
tinguished  himself  in  several  battles  against  the  Swedes 
and  French.  About  1720  he  entered  the  French  ser 
vice.  He  was  elected  Duke  of  Coin-land  in  1726,  but 
was  soon  driven  out  of  that  duchy  by  the  Russians  and 
Poles.  He  was  for  a  time  the  favoured  lover  of  Anna 
Ivanovna,  who  became  Empress  of  Russia  in  1730.  In 
1734  he  fought  against  the  Austrians  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  French  army.  He 
captured  Prague  in  1741,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  in  1744,  and  obtained  command  of 
the  army  in  Flanders  in  1745.  He  gained  victories  over 
the  allies  at  Fontenoy,  (1745,)  Raucoux,  (1746,)  and 
Laufeld,  (1747.)  He  had  married  a  Countess  of  Loben 
about  1712,  but  he  obtained  a  divorce  from  her  a  few 
years  later.  He  wrote  a  work  on  military  affairs,  en 
titled  "My  Reveries,"  ("Mes  Reveries,"  5  vols.,  1757.) 
Died  in  1750.  His  daughter,  Madame  Dupin,  was  a 
grandmother  of  George  Sand  the  authoress. 

See  BARON  D'ESPAGNAC,  "  Histoire  dn  Marechal  Saxe;"RANFT, 
"Leben  des  Grafen  von  Sachsen,"  1746;  LA  BARRE  DU  PAKCQ, 
"  Biographic  et  Maximes  du  Marechal  de  Saxe,"  1851  ;  C.  VON 
WEBER,  "  Moritz  von  Sachsen,"  1863:  MAJOR-GENERAL  J.  MIT 
CHELL,  "Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Cen 
turies,"  1865  ;  A,  THOMAS.  "  filoge  de  Maurice  Comte  de  Saxe," 
1759;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Genera'e  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1841. 

Saxe,  saks,  (JOHN  GODFREY,)  a  distinguished  Ameri 
can  humorous  poet,  born  in  Franklin  county,  Vermont, 
in  1816.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  Vermont, 
in  1839,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the  "  Bur 


lington  Sentinel."  He  was  elected  State's  attorney  in 
1851.  A  collection  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1849. 
They  rank  among  the  most  successful  productions  of 
their  kind,  and  have  obtained  extensive  popularity.  A 
new  edition  of  his  collected  poems  Jvas  published  in 
1864.  He  produced  in  1866  "The  Masquerade,  and 
other  Poems." 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Saxe-Coburg,  DUKE  OF.     See  ERNEST. 

Saxe-Coburg,  PRINCE  OF.     See  COBURG. 

Saxe-Weimar,  DUKE  OF.     See  BERNHARD. 

Saxius,  (CHRISTOPH.)     See  SAX. 

Sax'o  Gram-mat'  i-cus,  (genitive,  Saxo'nis  Gram- 
mat'ici,)  an  eminent  Danish  historian,  born  in  the  first 
halt  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  a  priest,  and  secretary 
of  Absalom,  Archbishop  of  Lund.  He  wrote  (in  Latin) 
a  "History  of  Denmark,"  which  is  one  of  the  most  cu 
rious  documents  of  the  middle  ages.  It  abounds  in 
traditions  and  romantic  or  fabulous  legends.  Died 
about  1204. 

See  REIMER,  "De  Vita  Saxonis  Grammatici,"  1762;  G.  L. 
BADEN,  "Om  vor  Danske  Histories  Fader  Saxo  Grammaticus," 
1809;  J.  B.  CAKPZOV,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Saxonis 
Grammatici,"  1762. 

Sax'ton,  (RuFus,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1849.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  about  April,  1862,  and  defended  Harper's 
Ferry  with  success  in  May  of  that  year.  He  was  assigned 
to  the  command  at  Port  Royal  about  the  end  of  1862, 
and  was  employed  in  South  Carolina  until  1865. 

Say,  si,  (HORACE  EMILE,)  a  French  writer  on  politi 
cal  economy,  son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below,  was 
born  near  Paris  in  1794.  He  has  published  a  "History 
of  the  Commercial  Relations  between  France  and  Bra 
zil,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 

Say,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  distinguished  French  writer 
on  political  economy,  born  at  Lyons  in  1767.  At  an 
early  age  he  visited  England,  where  he  became  conver 
sant  with  the  writings  of  Adam  Smith.  In  1794  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  "La  Decade  philosophique,"  a 
literary  and  political  journal  in  Paris,  of  which  he  was 
principal  editor  for  six  years.  He  was  appointed  in 
1799  a-  member  of  the  Tribunate,  but  resigned  on  Napo 
leon's  becoming  emperor.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  of  other 
learned  institutions.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (2  vols.,  1803,)  which 
has  been  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan 
guages,  a  "Catechism  of  Political  Economy,"  (1815,) 
and  "On  England  and  the  English."  Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  P.  DECANDOLLE,  "  Notice  stir  J.  B.  Say,"  1832;  BLANQUI, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  B.  Say,"  1841;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Say,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born  in 
1675,  became  pastor  at  Westminster  in  1734.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays. 
Died  in  1743. 

Say,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  naturalist,  born  at 
Philadelphia  in  1787,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in  that  city.  In  1819  he 
accompanied  Long's  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
as  chief  zoologist.  His  principal  work  is  an  "American 
Entomology,"  illustrated.  Died  in  1834. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Say,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  mezzotinto  engraver, 
born  at  or  near  Norwich  in  1768.  He  engraved  history, 
landscapes,  etc.  Died  in  1834. 

Saye  and  Sele.     See  FIKNNES,  (WILLIAM.) 

Say'ers,  (FRANK,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1763.  He  published  "Dramatic 
Sketches  of  the  Ancient  Northern  Mythology,"  (1790,) 
"Disquisitions,  Metaphysical  and  Literary,"  (1793,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1817. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1827,  (by 
SOUTH  EV.) 

Sayous,  sS'yoo',  (PIERRE  ANDRE,)  a  Swiss  littera 
teur,  born  at  Geneva  in  1808.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  French  Literature  among 
Foreign  Nations,"  ( a  T  Stranger,)  (2  vols.,  1853.) 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCACCHI 


1966 


SCANDERBEG 


Scacchi,  skak'kee,  (FoRTUNATO,)  an  Italian  anti 
quary  and  monk,  born  at  Ancona  about  1572.  He  pub 
lished  "  Sacrorum  Elseochrismatum  Myrothecia,"  (3  vols., 
1625-37.)  Died  in  1643. 

Sccevola,  seVo-la.  [Fr.  SCEVOI.E,  si'vol',]  (C.  Mu- 
CIUS,)  a  Roman,  who,  according  to  the  ancient  legends, 
went  to  the  camp  of  Porsena,  then  besieging  Rome, 
and  attempted  to  kill  him  with  a  dagger.  He  was  seized 
by  the  guards  of  the  king,  who  ordered  him  to  be  put  to 
death.  Scasvola,  it  is  said,  held  his  right  hand  in  a  fire, 
which  was  at  hand,  until  it  was  consumed,  so  that  Por 
sena,  struck  with  admiration  at  his  extraordinary  forti 
tude,  spared  his  life.  From  this  circumstance  he  is  said 
to  have  received  the  surname  of  Scaevola,  or  "left- 
handed." 

Scaevola,  (Puni.ius  Mucius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  was 
elected  consul  in  133  is.c.,  and  two  years  after  was  created 
pontifex  maximus.  lie  was  the  author  of  several  legal 
works. 

Scgevola,  (QuiNTUS  CKRVIPIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
lived  under  the  reigu  of  Marcus  Antoninus.  He  num 
bered  among  his  pupils  Septimius  Severtis,  afterwards 
emperor.  There  are  extracts  from  his  works  contained 
in  the  Digest  of  Justinian. 

Scaevbla,  (QUINTUS  Mucius,)  surnamed  THE  AUGUR, 
became  a  Roman  consul,  with  L.  Cecilius  Metellus,  117 
Ji.C.  He  was  eminent  as  a  jurist,  and  was  one  of  the 
teachers  of  Cicero,  who  has  introduced  him  into  his 
treatises  "  De  Oratore,"  "  De  Amicitia,"  and  "  De  Re- 
publica."  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  C.  Lrelius  Sapiens. 
Died  after  88  B.C. 

Scaevola,  (QUINTUS  Mucius,)  surnamed  PONTIFEX, 
was  the  son  of  Pub! ins,  noticed  above.  He  was  chosen 
consul  in  95  u.c.,  and  was  subsequently  proconsul  of 
Asia,  and  pontifex  maximus.  He  enjoyed  a  high  repu 
tation  as  a  jurist  and  orator,  and  wrote  several  legal 
works,  which  are  not  extant.  Having  been  proscribed 
by  the  younger  Marius,  he  was  killed  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  82  B.C.  His  virtues  are  highly  extolled  by  Cicero. 

Scala,  ska'la,  (BARTOI-OMMEO,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  in  1430,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Florentine 
Republic."  His  daughter  Alessandra  was  distinguished 
as  a  classical  scholar,  and  became  the  wife  of  the  poet 
Manillas.  Died  in  1497. 

Scala,  della,  del'la  ska'la,  or  Scaligeri,  ska-le-ja'- 
ree,  (CAN  FRANCKSCO,)  an  Italian  military  commander, 
born  about  1290,  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Ghibe- 
line  faction  in  Lombardy.  He  died  in  1329,  having  been 
ruler  over  Verona  nearly  twenty  years.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  and  has  been  cele 
brated  by  Dante,  who  found  an  asylum  at  his  court. 

Scala,  della,  (MASTING,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding, 
became  Podesta  of  Verona  about  1260.  He  was  assas 
sinated  about  1275. 

Scal'i-ger,  [I, at.  SCAI/IGER,  genitive  SCAI/IGERI,] 
(JOSEPH  JUSTUS,)  a  celebrated  philologist,  a  son  of  Julius 
Caesar,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Agen,  in  France,  in 
August,  1540.  Under  the  instruction  of  his  father  he 
early  became  a  proficient  in  the  Latin  language,  and 
subsequently  studied  Greek  and  the  Oriental  languages 
in  Paris.  He  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the 
University  of  Leyden  in  1593,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  the  celebrated  Grotius.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  which  are  characterized  by  the  most  profound 
learning  and  critical  acumen,  we  may  name  his  treatise 
"  De  Emendatione  Temporum,"  (1583.)  being  an  ex- 
planaiion  of  the  Julian  period,  "Thesaurus  Temporum," 
(1606,)  Latin  poems  and  epistles,  a  Latin  translation  of 
Arabian  proverbs,  besides  commentaries  on  Ausonius, 
Varro,  and  other  classics.  He  adopted  the  Protestant 
religion  in  his  youth,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil 
war  about  1568.  He  was  generally  recognized  as  the 
most  eminent  scholar  of  his  time.  Died  at  Leyden  in 
1609.  "  Scaliger,"  says  Niebuhr,  "  stood  on  the  summit 
of  universal  solid  philological  learning  in  a  degree  that 
none  have  reached  since  ;  so  high  in  every  branch  of 
knowledge,  that  from  the  resources  of  his  own  mind  he 
could  comprehend,  apply,  and  decide  on  whatever  came 
in  his  way."  (Quoted  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  1860.) 

"The  two  greatest  scholars  of  the  sixteenth  century," 
says  Hallam,  "  are  yet  unnamed;  Joseph  Scaliger  and 


Isaac  Casaubon.  The  former,  son  of  Julius  Cassar 
Scaliger,  and,  in  the  estimation  at  least  of  some,  his  in 
ferior  in  natural  genius,  though  much  above  him  in 
learning  and  judgment,  was  perhaps  the  most  extraordi 
nary  master  of  general  erudition  that  has  ever  lived.  .  .  . 
He  was,  in  fact,  conversant  with  all  ancient,  and  very 
extensively  with  modern,  literature.  ...  In  the  depart 
ment  of  philology  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  excellent 
critic,  both  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages;  though 
Hayle,  in  his  own  paradoxical  but  acute  and  truly  judi 
cious  spirit,  has  suggested  that  Scaliger's  talents  and 
learning  were  too  great  for  a  good  commentator, — the 
one  making  him  discover  in  authors  more  hidden  sense 
than  they  possessed,  the  other  leading  him  to  perceive 
a  thousand  allusions  which  had  never  been  designed." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Kurope.") 

See  HKINSIUS,  "  Orationes  II.  in  Obituin  J.  J.  Scaligeri,"  1600; 
J.  BKKNAYS,  "J.  J.  Sc.iliger,"  Merlin.  iS^;  "  Scaligerana,"  Am 
sterdam,  1695;  CMAKI.KS  NISAKP.  "  Le  Trhimvirat  litteraire  an 
XVI  Siecle  ;"  JUSTK  LIPSH,  "J.  Scaliger  et  I.  Casaubon,"  1X52; 
NICEKON,  "  Memnires  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gent-rale  ;"  "Quar 
terly  Review"  for  July,  1860. 

Scaliger,  (  JULIUS  C/ESAR,  )  a  celebrated  Italian 
scholar  and  critic,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  on 
Lago  di  Garda  or  at  Padua' on  the  23(1  of  April,  1484. 
His  real  name  is  said  to  have  been  BOKDONK.  He  pre 
tended  to  be  descended  from  the  noble  family  Delia 
Scala.  lie  studied  medicine,  and  practised  some  years 
in  Italy.  According  to  his  own  account,  he  served  sev 
eral  campaigns  in  the  army  of  the  emperor  Maximilian 
in  his  youth.  In  1525  he  removed  to  Agen,  France,  to 
which  he  had  been  invited  by  the  bishop  of  that  diocese. 
There  he  practised  medicine  and  passed  the  rest  of  his 
life.  lie  married  Andiette  de  Roques-Lobejac  about 
1528.  Scaliger  published,  besides  other  works,  "  An 
Oration  against  Krasmus,"  ("  Adversus  I).  Krasmum 
Oratio,"  1531,)  "On  the  Principles  of  the  Latin  Lan 
guage,"  ("  De  Causis  Linguae  Latinre,"  1540,)  "Seven 
Books  of  Poetry,"  ("  Poetices  Libri  septem,"  1561,)  and 
"On  the  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("  DC  Arte  Poetica.")  He  was 
an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  was  considered  one  of 
the  greatest  intellects  of  his  time.  His  stature  was  tall, 
his  presence  dignified  and  imposing.  He  died  at  Agen 
in  October,  1558. 

See  J.  [•  SCAI.IGKR,  "  De  Vetustate  et  Splendore  gentis  Scaligerae 
et  Vita  \.  C.  Scaligeri,"  j  ^94  :  BAYI.K,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dic 
tionary:"  BKIQUKT,  "  ftloge  de  J.  C.  Scaliger,"  1812;  NICEKON, 
"  Meim.ires  ;"  "Nmivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Scaligeri.     See  SCAI.A,  DKI.I.A. 

Scam'mon,  (Ei.iAKiM  P.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Maine,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1853,  and  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  October,  1862.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
on  the  Kanawha  River  in  February,  1864. 

Scamozzi.     See  BKRTOTTl-SCAMOZzr. 

Scamozzi,  ska-mot'see,  (  VINCENZIO,  )  an  Italian 
architect  and  writer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1552.  Having 
spent  some  time  at  Rome  and  Naples,  he  settled  at 
Venice,  where  he  was  employed  to  finish  some  works 
left  incomplete  bv  Sansovino  and  Palladio,  who  had 
recently  died.  He  afterwards  constructed  the  church 
of  San  Niccolo  di  Tolentino,  and  the  range  of  buildings 
called  the  Procuratie  Nuove  at  Venice.  He  was  em 
ployed  in  1604  by  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  to  design 
the  cathedral  in  that  city,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  his 
master-pieces.  His  work  entitled  "  Architettura  Uni- 
versale"  came  out  in  1616,  a  few  months  before  his 
death. 

See  SCOI.ARI,  "Vita  di  Scamozzi,"  1^37;  MII.IZIA,  "  Memorie 
degli  Architetti  ;"  CICOGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scnhura  :"  THMANZA, 
"  Vita  di  V.  Scamozzi,"  1770;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Scan'der-beg,  [from  Scantier  or  Iska»der*  "  Alexan 
der,"  and  beg,  "lord"  or  "chief,"]  a  celebrated  Eastern 
warrior,  born  in  Albania  in  1404,  was  originally  named 
GEORGE  CASTRIOTA,  (or  CASTRIOTO.)  At  an  early  age 
he  was  sent  by  his  father,  a  prince  of  Albania,  who  was 
tributary  to  the  Turks,  to  the  court  of  Amurath  II., 

*  Byron  speaks  of  him  under  the  name  of  ISKANDER  :— 
"  Land  of  Albania  !  where  Iskander  rose, 

Theme  of  the  young,  and  beacon  of  the  wise, 
And  he,  his  namesake,  whose  oft-baffled  foes 
Shrunk  from  his  deeds  of  chivalrous  emprise." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  ii.,  stanza  xxxviii. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e.  T,  o.  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t:  n6t;  good:  moon 


SC4PINELLI 


1967 


where  he  soon  acquired  the  favour  and  confidence  of 
that  monarch.  His  father  having  died  in  1432,  his  prin 
cipality  was  seized  by  the  Sultan,  upon  which  Scander- 
beg  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Huniades,  com 
mander  of  the  Christian  army  in  Transylvania,  to  betray 
into  his  hand  the  Turkish  forces  under  his  command. 
Me  soon  after  took  possession  of  his  hereditary  do- 


works 

".-Enei 
selle 


i   are    "The   Comic    Romance,"  (1651,)    and  the 
:id  Travestied."     He  married  in   1652  Mademoi- 
d'Attbigne,     afterwards    known    as    Madame    de 
Maintenon.     (See  MAINTENON.)     Died  in  1660. 

See  COUSIN  D'AVALON,  "  Scarroniana,"  1801  ;  BAILLET,  "  Juge- 
ments  des  Savants;"  TALI.EMANT  DF.S  REAUX,  "  Historiettes ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 


minions,  and  renounced  Mohammedanism,  in  which  he 

had    been    educated.      He    subsequently    carried    on    a 

successful   war   with  the   Turks,   and    in    1462    assisted 

Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples,  against  the  Count  of  Anjoti.  !  Ferrara  about  1560. 

Died  in  1467. 

See  MAJOR-GENERAL  J.  MITCHELL,  "Biographies  of  Eminent 
Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865:  HAMMER  I'URGSTAI.L, 
"  Geschichte  des  Osmanisches  Reichs;''  C.  G.  MOORE,  "George 
Castriot,  surnamed  Scanderbeg  ;"  MONARDO,  "  Vita  di  G.  Castrioto," 
1591;  S.  PUFFENDORF,  "  G.  Castriotae  Historia,"  1684;  PAGANEI, 
"  Histoire  de  Scanderbeg,"  1855:  M.  BARLESIO,  "DeVita,  Mori- 
bus  ac  Rebus  gestis  G.  Castrioti,"  1537;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 


Scarsella,   skaR-sel'la,    or    Scarsellino,   skaR-sgl- 
lee'no,    (IPPOLITO,)    a    skilful    Italian    painter,  born    at 
lie  imitated  Paul  Veronese  with 


success.     Died  in  1621. 

Scars'gill  or  Scar'gill,  (W.  P.,)  an  English  writer, 
published,  among  other  works,  "Provincial  Sketches," 
"  The  Usurer's  Daughter,"  and  "  The  Puritan's  Grave." 
Died  in  1836. 

Scau'rus,  (M.  /EMILIUS,)  a  Roman  soldier  and  states 
man,   born    in   163    B.C.     After   serving  for    a    time    in 
Spain,  he  became  successively  praetor  urbanus,  consul, 
Scapinelli,  ska-pe-nel'lee,    (Lonovico,)    an    Italian  '  and  princeps  senatus.    His  talents  and  virtues  are  eulo- 
poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1585,  was  blind  from  his  birth,  i  gized  bY  Cicero.    He  died  about  90  B.C.,  and  his  widow 
Died  in  1634.  j  afterwards  married  the  celebrated  Sulla. 

Scapula,  ska'poo-la,  (JoiiAXX,)  a  German  philologist,  j       See  DRUMAXX,  "  Geschichte  Roms." 

born  about  1545,  was  employed  as  a  proof-reader  in  the  >  Scaurus,  (M.  ^EMILIUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
printing-office  of  Henry  Estienne  at  Geneva.  He  pub-  I  served  as  quaestor  under  Pompey  in  the  Mithridatic 
lished  a  "Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum,"  (1579,)  an  abridg-  j  war,  and  afterwards  filled  several  offices  in  the  republic. 


ment  of  Stephanus's  (Estienne's)  "Thesaurus." 


He   was  chiefly  noted   for  his  profligacy  and  extrava- 


Scaramuccia,  ska-ra-moot'cha,  (LoDOViCO,)  an  Ital-    gance,  and  was  twice   brought  to  trial  for   his  crimes, 
ian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Perugia  in  1616,  was  a    being  on  both  occasions  defended  by  Cicero. 
pupil  of  Guido  Reni.     Died  in  1680.  Scaurus,  (MAMERCUS,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 

Scarborough,  skar'bur-eh,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  an  Eng-  was  distinguished  as  a  poet  and  orator.  Accused  of  high 
lish  physician,  born  about  1616.  He  succeeded  Harvey  >  treason  and  other  crimes,  he  committed  suicide,  34  A.D. 
as  Lumleian  lecturer  on  anatomy  in  1656.  He  was  after-  !  Sceve,  siv,  (MAURICE,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons, 
wards  appointed  first  physician  to  Charles  II.,  James  II.,  was  an  advocate  by  profession.  Among  his  works  are 
and  William  III.  He  was  the  author  of  several  medical  "La  Saulsaye,"  (1547,)  and  "  Le  Microcosme,  ou  petit 
and  mathematical  treatises,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  '  Monde,"  (1562.)  Died  in  1564. 
College  of  Physicians.  Died  in  1693.  Scevole.  See  SC.'EVOLA. 

Scarcellin'o.     See  SCARSELLA.  Schaaf,  shlf,  (CHARLES,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born 

Scarlatti,  skaR-lat'tee,  (ALESSAXDRO,)  a  celebrated  in  1646,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages 
Italian  composer  and  musician,  born  at  Xaples  about  at  Leyden.  He  published  several  grammatical  works. 
1656,  was  a  pupil  of  Carissimi.  His  productions  are  Died  in  1729. 

very  numerous,  including  one  hundred  operas  and  three  Schack,  von,  fon  shak,  (ADOLF  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
thousand  cantatas,  and  he  is  said  to  have  originated  German  litterateur,  born  near  Schwerin  in  1815.  He 
ritornels  and  violin  accompaniments.  Died  in  1725.  j  published  a  "  History  of  Dramatic  Literature  and  Art 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians."  :  '»  Spain,"  (1845,)  which  has  a  high  reputation,  and  made 

Scarlatti,  (DoMEXico,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  i  Se^  fi*"?!??0118  ^T  ^  Pe^ 

Schad,  shat  or  shad,  (JOHANN  BAPTIST,)  a  German 

He  succeeded 
17-5       i      -  ~  -"  r-_-~ 


born  in  1683.     He  was  appointed  in  1735  chapel-master  -      "'  *  '  r     T     u  • 

to  the  Queen  of  Spain.     His  principal  work  is  a  collec-  '  £h'  f'Pher,  born  at  Mursbach  in  1758      H, 

tion  of  pieces  for  the  harpsichord.     Died  about  1755.         FlC'lt^  a*   P™fes*or  of  philosophy  at  Jena 

Scarlatti,  (GIUSEPPE,)  a  composer,  born  at  Xaples  in  i  and  .obta'"ed  a  <^'r  of  philosophy  at  Kharkof  in  Rus- 
1718,  was  a  son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  com-  i  *'a>. in  j^4'  Hf  published  several  esteemed  works 
posed  numerous  operas.  Died  at  Vienna  in  1796.  designed  to  popularize  the  philosophy  of  Fichte.  Died 

C£<-1~1*- 1«4-4-  /    T     »     •»    »¥-C-       \  C^n  \      T1  T»'^-,-»  "^         1^.14* 


Scarlett,  (JAMES.)     See  AKIXGER. 

Scar'lett,  (Sir  JAMES  YOKKE,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  1799.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war  of  1854, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  commander 
of  the  cavalry. 

Scarpa,   skaR'pa,    (ANTONIO,)    a   celebrated  Italian 


See  his  Autobiography,  2  vols.,  1804. 

Schadow,  sha'do,  (JoHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  cele 
brated  German  sculptor,  born  at  Berlin  in  1764.  Having 
spent  several  years  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  Berlin  in 
1788,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  director  of  the 


anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at  La  Motta,  in  Friuli,  on  i  Academy  of  Arts.    Among  his  master-pieces  are  statues 
the   I3th  of  June,  1747.     He  studied  under  Morgagni,  |  °(  Frederick  the  Great,  Marshal   Bliicher,  and  General 


at  Padua,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Modena  in  1772.  After  a  journey  to  France  and  Eng 
land,  he  obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  University 
of  Pavia  in  1783.  He  acquired  a  European  reputation 
by  his  researches  and  treatises  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
ear,  the  organs  of  smell,  the  nerves  of  the  heart,  etc. 
In  1801  he  produced  an  able  treatise  on  the  diseases  of 
the  eye.  He  received  the  title  of  surgeon  to  Napoleon 
in  1805.  Among  his  numerous  works  is  an  excellent 
"Treatise  on  Hernia,"  ("  Sull'  Ernie  Memorie,"  1809.) 
He  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  a  very  skilful 
draughtsman.  He  was  never  married.  Died  in  1832. 

See  TAGLIAFERRI,  "  Ragionamento  intorno  la  Vita  del  Cavaliere 
A.  Scarpa,"  1834  ;  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biocrafia  degli  Italian!  illustri  ;" 
BEGIN,  notice  in  the  "  Biographie  Medicale ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphie  Generale." 

Scarron,  ska"r6x',  (PAUL,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
comic  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1610.  After  leading 
a  very  dissolute  life,  he  was  deprived  of  the  use  of  his 
limbs  by  an  accident,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  and 
henceforth  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  principal 


Ziethen,  a  group  of  Queen  Luise  and  her  sister,  the 
Duchess  of  Cumberland,  the  monument  of  Luther  at 
Wittenberg,  and  that  of  Tauenzien  at  Breslau.  He 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Dannecker,  Ranch,  and 
other  eminent  sculptors,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  modern  school  of  sculpture  in  Germany. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  treatises  on  art. 
Died  in  1850. 

See  his  autobiography,  entitled  "  Kunstwerke  tind  Kunstan- 
sichten,"  1849;  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Schadow,  (RUDOLF,)  a  sculptor,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1785.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
father,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  died  in 
1822.  He  left  several  portrait-busts  and  statues  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  latter  may  be  named  "  The  Girl  fast 
ening  her  Sandal." 

Schadow-Godenhaus,  von,  fon  sha'do  go'den- 
howss',  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  an  eminent  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1789.  He  studied  at  Rome  under 
Cornelius  and  Overbeck,  whose  peculiar  views  of  art 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHAEFFER 


1968 


SCHEFFER 


he  adopted.  (See  CORNELIUS  and  OVKRBECK.)  Having 
joined  the  Catholic  Church  while  at  Rome,  he  returned 
to  Berlin,  where  he  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  in  1826  succeeded  Cornelius  as  director 
of  the  Academy  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  principal 
historical  pictures  are  the  Four  Evangelists,  in  the 
Werder  Church  at  Berlin,  an  "  Ascension  of  Mary,"  in 
the  Paulskirche  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  series  repre 
senting  "  Paradise,"  "  Purgatory,"  and  "  Hell."  Schadow 
numbers  among  his  pupils  Lessing,  Schroter,  and  other 
distinguished  German  artists.  Died  in  1862. 

See  NAGI.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstier-  Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Schaeffer.     See  SCHAFFER. 

Schaeffer,  sha'fer,  (CHARLES  FREDERICK,)  an  Ameri 
can  divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Germantown  in  1807, 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1827. 
He  has  been  chairman  of  the  faculty  in  the  Lutheran 
Seminary  in  Philadelphia  since  its  organization  in  1864. 
He  has  published,  besides  numerous  other  works,  an 
excellent  translation  from  the  German  of  Lechler's  "Acts 
of  the  Apostles  :  an  Exegetical  Commentary, "etc.,  (1866.) 

Schafei.     See  SHAIEY. 

Schafarik,  sha'fa-rik,  written  also  Safarik,  (PAUL 
JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  philologist  and  antiquary,  born 
in  Northern  Hungary  in  1795.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Slavonic  Language  and  Literature," 
etc.,  (in  German,  1826,)  "Slavonic  Ethnology,"  and 
"Bohemian  Antiquities."  Died  in  1861. 

Schaff,  shaf,  (PHILIP,)  D.D.,  a  theologian  and  divine 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Switzer 
land  in  1819.  He  graduated  at  Berlin  in  1841,  and  in 
1844  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Mercersburg,  Pennsylvania.  He  pub 
lished  "The  Principles  of  Protestantism,"  (in  German 
and  English,  1845,)  a  "History  of  the  Apostolic  Church," 
(in  German,  1851,)  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Reign  of  Constantine, 
A.D.  1-311,"  (1859,)  "The  Person  of  Christ  the  Miracle 
of  History,"  (1865,)  and  many  other  works.  He  became 
in  1870  professor  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York. 

See  AI.UBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Schaffer  or  Schaeffer,  shei'fer,  (JAKOB  CHRISTIAN,) 
a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Querfurt,  Prussia,  in  1718. 
He  wrote  on  entomology,  botany,  etc.,  and  was  skilful 
in  the  fabrication  of  optical  instruments.  Died  in  1790. 

See  HIRSCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch ;"  "Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Schaffner,  shaf'ner,  (MARTIN,)  a  German  historical 
and  portrait  painter  of  Uhn,  flourished  from  1508  to 
1539.  His  works  are  highly  praised. 

Schagen,  van,  vtn  sKa'gen  or  sKt'fien,  (^Eoioius,) 
a  Dutch  historical  painter,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1616. 
Among  his  works  are  interiors  and  conversation-pieces. 
Died  in  1668. 

Schalcken,  sKal'ken,  (GODFREY,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  genre,  born  at  Dort  in  1643,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Dow.  He  painted  the  effects  of  candle-light  with  suc 
cess.  Died  at  the  Hague  in  1706. 

Schaldemose,  shal'deh-mo'seh,  (FRIEDRICH  JU 
LIAN,)  a  Danish  litterateur,  born  in  the  island  of  Fionia 
in  1782,  made  numerous  translations  from  the  German, 
English,  French,  and  other  languages,  and  published 
several  original  works. 

Schall,  shal,  (JoHANN  ADAM,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Cologne  in  1591.  He  went  to  China 
in  1622,  and  obtained  favour  at  the  court  of  Peking  by 
his  skill  in  astronomy  and  other  sciences.  Died  in 
Peking  in  1669. 

Schall,  (KARL,)  a  German  dramatist,  born  at  Breslau 
in  1780,  was  the  founder,  and  for  many  years  the  editor, 
of  the  "Breslau  Zeitung."  Died  in  1833. 

Schaller,  shal'ler,  (ANTON,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1772  ;  died  in  1844. 

Schaller,  (JoHANN,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1777.  He  became  in  1823  professor  of  sculp 
ture  in  the  Academy  at  Vienna.  Died  in  1847. 

Schaller,  (JULIUS,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Magde 
burg  in  1810,  publishec.  a  "History  of  Natural  Philos 
ophy  from  Bacon  to  the  Present  Time,"  (1844.) 


Schammai,  sham'mT,  a  celebrated  Jewish  doctor  of 
law,  lived  at  Jerusalem  about  80-50  B.C.,  and  was  a  rival 
of  Hillel  the  Elder. 

See  GEIGER  et  GEISSMANN,  "  Brevis  Commentatio  de  Hillela  et 
Schammai,"  1707. 

Schamyl.     See  SHAMYL. 

Schanfari.     See  SHANFAREE. 

Schank,  shank,  ?(JoiiN,)  a  Scottish  naval  officer  and 
engineer,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1740.  He  served  in  the 
American  war,  and  was  subsequently  employed  in  the 
defence  of  the  British  coast  against  the  French.  lie  was 
made  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1821.  Died  in  1823. 

Scharmat,  shan'nat,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  historian,  born  at  Luxemburg  in  1683.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  German  history.  Died  in  1739. 

Schard,  shaRt,  (SiMON,)  a  learned  German  lawyer 
and  compiler,  born  in  Saxony  in  1535,  published  "Opus 
historicum  de  Rebus  Germanicis,"  (4  vols.,  1574.)  Died 

'"  1573- 

Scharling,  shau'ling,  (CARL  EMII.E,)  a  Danish  theo 
logian,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Theological  Review,"  (1837 

-49-) 

Scharling,  (EDWARD  AUGUSTUS,)  a  chemist,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1807. 

Scharnhorst,  von,  fon  shain/hoRst,  (GERHARD 
DAVID,)  a  Prussian  commander  and  military  writer, 
born  at  Hamelsee,  in  Hanover,  in  1756.  lie  was  pres 
ent  at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt,  in  1806,  and,  as  chief  of 
Bliicher's  staff,  distinguished  himself  at  Eylau,  in  1807. 
Having  been  made  lieutenant-general,  and  retaining  the 
position  of  chief  of  the  staff  of  BHicher,  he  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  battle  near  Grossgorchen,  and  died  from 
the  effects  of  his  wound,  in  June,  1813. 

See  BOYEN,  "  Beitra^e  zur  Kenntniss  von  Scharnhorst,"  1833; 
CI.AUSEWITZ,  "  Leben  von  Scharnhorst,"  iS32. 

Schatz,  shats,  (GF.ORG,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1763,  published  fables,  sonnets,  and  critical 
essays ;  he  also  made  a  translation  of  Machiavelli's 
"History  of  Florence,"  (unfinished.)  Died  in  1795. 

Schauflein  or  Schauffelein.     See  SCHKUFFEI.IN. 

Schaumbourg.     See  LIITE-SCHAUMBOURG. 

Schedone.     See  SCHIDONI. 

Schedoni,  ska-do'nee,  (PiETRo,)  an  Italian  philoso 
pher,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena  in  1759,  published 
several  works  on  moral  philosophy.  Died  in  1835. 

Scheele,  sheel,  [Sw.  pron.  snii'leh,]  (CARL  WIL- 
HELM,)  an  eminent  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Stralsund 
in  December,  1742.  lie  served  an  apprenticeship  to  an 
apothecary  of  Gothenburg,  and  devoted  his  leisure  and 
his  nights  to  the  study  of  chemistry.  About  1770  he  re 
moved  to  Upsal,  where  he  formed  friendships  with  Gahn 
and  Bergman.  In  1 774  he  produced  a  remarkable  treatise 
on  Manganese.  He  discovered  tartaric  acid,  fluoric  (or 
fluo-silicic)  acid,  barytes,  chlorine,  and  several  other 
substances.  He  settled  as  an  apothecary  at  Koping  in 
1775.  I'1  !777  ne  published  his  discovery  of  "  empyreal 
air,"  (oxygen.)  This  gas  had  been  previously  discovered 
by  Priestley ;  but  Scheele  was  not  aware  of  the  fact. 
He  was  the  first  that  ascertained  the  composition  of 
prussic  acid.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Air 
and  Fire,"  (1777.)  He  was  an  excellent  observer  and 
experimenter.  Died  at  Koping  in  1786. 

See  VICQ-D'AZYR,  "  tfloge  de  Scheele,"  17^7  ;  GKZELIUS, 
"  Biographiskt-Lexicon ;"  F.  HOEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Ctiimie  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Scheelstrate,  van,  vtn  sKal'stRa'teh  or  shil'stRat, 
or  Schelstraate,  sKel'stui'teh,  (EMANUEL.)  a  Flemish 
antiquary  and  priest,  born  at  Antwev  in  1649,  was  a  zeal 
ous  asserter  of  papal  supremacy.  Died  in  Rome  in  1692. 

Scheemakers,  sKa'ma'kers,  (PIETER,)  a  distin 
guished  sculptor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1691,  studied  at 
Rome,  and  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  England. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  monuments  to  Shak- 
speare  and  Dryden  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the  statue 
of  Lord  Clive  in  the  India  House.  Died  about  1770. 

Schefer,  sha'fer,  (LEOPOLD,)  a  German  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1784,  published 
numerous  poems  and  novels.  Died  in  1862. 

Scheffer,  shef'fer,  (ARNOLD,)  a  brother  of  Ary 
Scheffer,  was  born  in  Holland  in  1796.  lie  was  for  a 


i,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SCHEFFER 


1969 


SCHEMMELPENNINCK 


time  associated  with  Armand  Carrel  as  editor  of  the 
"  National"  in  Paris.  He  published  (in  French)  "  Po 
litical  Pictures  of  Germany,"  "Essays  on  Four  Political 
Questions,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1853. 

Scheffer,  (ARY,)  an  eminent  painter,  of  French  ex 
traction,  born  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  in  1795,  studied  under 
Guerin  in  Paris.  He  painted  portraits  of  La  Fayette, 
Beranger,  and  Lamartine.  He  worked  chiefly  in  Paris. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Francesca  da  Rimini," 
(1835,)  Byron's  "Giaour,"  "Christ  the  Comforter," 
(1836,)  Goethe's  "Faust,"  "Margaret  at  the  Spinning- 
Wheel, "  and  "Margaret  at  Church."  He  married  the 
widow  of  General  Baudrand  about  1850.  His  works 
are  characterized  as  sentimental  and  poetical.  Died 
near  Paris  in  1858. 

See  I?TEX,  "Ary  Scheffer,"  1859;  MRS.  GROTE,  "Life  of  Ary 
Scheffer,"  1860;  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "London 
(Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1860;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
November,  1860. 

Scheffer,  ( HENRI,)  a  painter,  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1798.  He  studied  in 
Paris  under  Guerin.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"Charlotte  Corday  protected  by  the  Members  of  the 
Section  against  the  Fury  of  the  People,"  and  "  Parents 
Weeping  for  the  Death  of  their  Child."  Died  in  1862. 

Scheffer,  shef'fer,  (HENRY  THKOPHILUS,)  a  grandson 
of  Johann  Scheffer,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stock 
holm  in  1710.  He  acquired  considerable  reputation 
as  a  chemist,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1759. 

See  CRONSTEDT,  "Aminnelse  Tal  ofver  H.  T.  Scheffer,"  1760. 

Scheffer,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1621,  published  editions  of  numerous 
classics,  and  a  treatise  "  On  the  Naval  Militia  of  the 
Ancients."  Died  in  1679. 

Scheibel,  shi'bel,  (JOHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Breslau  in  1783.  He  be 
came  professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city  in  1818. 
Died  in  1843. 

Scheid,  sKit,  [Lat.  SCHEI'DICS,]  (EVERARD,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Arnhem  in  1742, 
became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Leyden, 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  Arabic  Grammar, 
"  Minerva,  sen  de  Causis  Latinse  Linguae,"  and  "  Ebn- 
Doreydi  Kassida,  sive  Idyllium  Arabicum,"  etc.  Died 
in  1795. 

Scheidius,     See  SCHEIDT. 

Scheldt,  shit,  (BALTHASAR,)  a  German  schofar  and 
theologian,  born  at  Strasbnrg  in  1614,  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  learned  works.  Died  in  1670. 

Scheldt,  [Lat.  SCHEI'DIUS,]  (CHRISTIAN  Lunwir,,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Waldenburg  in  1709.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became  professor  of  the  law 
of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Copenhagen.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  legal  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1761. 

Scheiner,  shl'ner,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  Jesuit 
and  savant,  born  near  Mundelsheim,  in  Suabia,  in  1575, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  at  In- 
golstadt.  He  observed  the  spots  on  the  sun  in  1611, 
wrote  a  number  of  scientific  works,  and  was  the  in 
ventor  of  the  instrument  called  the  pantograph.  Died 
in  1650. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Schelhammer,  shel'ham'mer,  (GUXTHF.R  CHRIS 
TOPH,)  a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Jena  in 
1^49,  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Kiel,  in  Holstein. 
Died  in  1716. 

Schelhorn.shel'hoRn,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  THE  ELDER, 
a  German  theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  MenV.ningen 
in  1694.  He  became  pastor  of  that  town  in  1734,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Literary  Amenities," 
("  Amcenitates  Literariae,"  7  vols.,  1725.)  He  was  dis 
tinguished  as  a  bibliographer.  Died  in  1773. 

Schelhorn,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  THE  YOUNGER,  born 
at  Memmingen  in  1733,  published  several  historical  and 
theological  works.  Died  in  1802. 

Scheller,  shel'ler,  (!MMANUEL  JOHANN  GERHARD,) 
a  German  lexicographer,  born  at  Jhlow,  in  Saxony,  in 
1735.  ^e  published  a  "Complete  Latin-German  and 
German-Latin  Dictionary,"  (3  vols.,  1783,)  a  "Small 


Latin  Dictionary,"  a  "  Latin  Grammar,"  and  other  simi 
lar  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Schelling,  von,  fon  shgl'ling,  (FRIEDRICH  WIL- 
HELM  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  German  philosopher,  born 
at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  on  the  271)1  of  January, 
1775.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  his  father,  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  who  became  prelate  at  Manl- 
bronn.  About  1790  he  entered  the  University  of  Tu 
bingen,  where  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology  and 
remained  until  1795.  In  the  latter  year  he  published  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Possibility  of  a  Form  of  Philosophy," 
("  Ueber  die  Moglichkeit  einer  Form  der  Philosophic," 
etc.,)  and  "  On  the  Ego  as  the  Principle  of  Philosophy," 
("Vom  Ich  als  Princip  der  Philosophic.")  He  removed 
about  1795  to  Leipsic,  where  he  was  employed  as  tutor 
to  a  young  nobleman,  and  in  1798  became  professor- 
extraordinary  at  Jena,  which  was  then  the  great  focus 
of  German  philosophy.  Here  he  associated  with  Fichte 
and  Hegel,  and  delivered  lectures  on  philosophy  which 
excited  great  enthusiasm  and  displayed  a  remarkable 
beauty  of  style.  He  produced,  in  rapid  succession, 
"  Ideas  for  a  Philosophy  of  Nature,"  ("  Ideen  zu  einer 
Philosophic  der  Natur,"  1797,)  "On  the  Soul  of  the 
World,"  etc.,  ("Von  der  Weltseele,  eine  Hypothese  der 
hohern  Physik,"  etc.,  1798,)  a  "First  Sketch  of  a  System 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Nature,"  ("  Erste  Entwurf  eines 
Systems  der  Naturphilosophie,"  1799,)  and  a  "System 
of  Transcendental  Idealism,"  ("  System  des  transcen- 
dentalen  Idealismus,"  1800.) 

In  1803  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Wiirzburg,  and  in  1808  became  secretary  to  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  Munich,  where  he  remained  until  1841.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Munich  about  1826.  His  celebrity  as  a  lecturer  attracted 
multitudes  of  students  from  various  countries  of  Europe. 
He  was  appointed  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  Bavaria.  Having  lost 
his  first  wife,  Caroline  Michaelis,  in  1810,  he  married 
Pauline  Cotter.  He  succeeded  Hegel  as  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1841. 

Schelling  is  one  of  the  four  chief  metaphysical  philoso 
phers  of  Germany.  His  system,  like  those  of  Fichte  and 
Hegel,  was  originally  a  sort  of  idealistic  pantheism;  but 
in  his  later  writings  his  views  seem  to  approximate  more 
and  more  nearly  to  those  which  may  be  said  to  form 
the  philosophic  basis  of  Christianity.  On  his  succeeding 
Hegel,  in  1841,  he  was  hailed  as  one  who  was  destined 
to  deliver  Philosophy  from  the  logic  of  pantheism  and 
lead  her  back  to  Christ.  Schelling  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  great  philosophers  of  Germany  by  his  com 
bining  with  rare  intellectual  powers  poetic  gifts  of  a 
high  order. 

Among  his  works,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are 
"  Bruno,  or  the  Divine  and  Natural  Principle  of  Things," 
("Bruno,  oder  iiber  das  gottliche  und  natiiiliche  Princip 
der  Dinge,"  1802,)  "  Philosophy  and  Religion,"  ("Phi 
losophic  und  Religion,"  1804,)  and  "On  the  Relation  of 
Art  to  Nature,"  ("Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  der  bildenden 
Kiinste  zu  der  Natur,"  1807.)  He  regarded  art  as  the 
perfect  union  of  the  real  with  the  ideal.  He  also  wrote 
"  Philosophic  Researches  on  the  Essence  of  Human 
Liberty,"  ("  Philosophischen  Untersuchungen  iiber  das 
Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit,"  1809.)  He  died  at 
Ragaz,  in  Switzerland,  in  August,  1854,  leaving  several 
sons  and  daughters.  His  collected  works  were  pub 
lished  at  Stuttgart,  in  14  vols.  8vo,  1856-61. 

See  ROSENKRANZ.  "  Schelling,  Vorlesungen  geha'ten  im  Sommer 
1*42,"  etc.,  1843;  MATTER,  "  Schelling.  on  la  Philosophic  de  la 
Nature,"  etc.,  1845  :  L.  DE  LOMENIK,  "  M.  Schelling,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1844  :  COI.KRIDGE,  "  Biographia  Literaria ;"  RITTER, 
"History  of  Philosophy;"  Appleton's  "New  American  Cyclo 
paedia." 

Schellinks,  sK^l'links,  (DANIEL,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1633  or  1638;  died  in 
1701. 

Schellinks,  sKel'links,  (WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  sea-ports,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632, 
was  a  brother  of  Daniel.  lie  worked  in  England.  Ac 
cording  to  Bryan,  he  was  a  first-rate  artist.  Died  in  1678. 

Schemmelpenninck,  sKem'mel  -  pen'nink,  or 
Schimmelpennmck,  sKim'mel-pen'nink,  (RUTGER 
JAN,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Deventer  in  1761, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

124 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHENCK 


1970 


SCHILLER 


was  grand  pensionary  of  Holland  in  1805.  He  refused 
to  hold  office  under  King  Louis  Bonaparte.  Died  in 
1825. 

See  M.  C.  VAN  HALL,  "R.  J.  Schiramelpenninck,"  etc.,  1847; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Schenck,  shSnk,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  in  Brisgau  in  1531,  practised  at  Friburg.  Died  in 
1598. 

Schenck,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  a  medical  writer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Friburg;  died  about  1620. 

Schenck,  skenk,  (ROBERT  C.,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  general,  born  in  Warren  county,  Ohio,  in  1809.  He 
represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress  from  1843  to 
1851,  and  was  minister  to  Brazil  in  1852-53.  lie  com 
manded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  was 
wounded  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  30, 
1862,  and  was  raised  to  the. rank  of  major-general  about 
October  of  that  year.  He  was  a  Republican  member 
of  Congress  for  the  third  district  of  Ohio  from  1863  to 
1869,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means  in  the  Fortieth  Congress  and  the  Forty-first 
Congress.  He  was  re-nominated  as  a  member  of  Con 
gress  in  1870. 

Scheuk,  sKenk,  (MARTIN,)  a  Dutch  soldier  of  for 
tune,  noted  for  his  courage  and  ferocity,  was  born  in 
Gelderland  in  1549.  He  served  for  a  time  under  William 
of  Orange,  but  subsequently  went  over  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma.  Dissatisfied,  however,  with  his  treatment,  and 
thinking  his  services  ill  rewarded,  he  joined  the  patriots 
in  1585,  and  performed  many  daring  exploits,  among 
which  was  the  capture  of  Bonn.  Having  attempted  to 
take  Nymwegen  in  1589,  he  was  drowned  while  making 
his  retreat. 

See  MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  ix.-xx. 

Schenkels,  shenk'els,  (LAMBKRT  THOMAS,)  a  Dutch 
grammarian,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1547.  He  wrote  on 
grammar  and  mnemonics.  Died  about  1630. 

Schenkendorf,  von,  fon  shenk'en-doRf,  (MAX,) 
born  at  Konigsberg  about  1784,  wrote  "Christian 
Poems,"  and  other  poetical  works.  Died  in  1817. 

Scherer,  sha'raiR',  (BARTH^LEMI  Louis  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Delle  (Haut-Rhin)  in  1747.  lie 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees 
in  1795,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Loano  in  Novem 
ber  of  that  year.  He  was  minister  of  war  from  July, 
1797,  to  February,  1799,  after  which  date  he  commanded 
in  Italy  for  a  few  months.  Died  in  1804. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  DE  COURCELI.ES,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  Kranipais." 

Scherr,  sheR,  (THOMAS  IGNAZ,)  a  German  teacher 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Hohenrechberg,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1801,  was  the  founder  of  the  Institute 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Zurich. 

Scherz,  sheRts,  (JOSEPH  GKORG,)  a  German  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1678,  became  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  Halle  in  1711.  Died  in  1754. 

Scheuchzer,  shoiit'tser,  (JOHANN,)  a  Swiss  natural 
ist,  born  at  Zurich  in  1682,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  in  his  native  city.  He  published  a  number  of 
botanical  works,  in  Latin.  Died-in  1738. 

Scheuchzer,  (JOHANN  JAKOB,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
physician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1672.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  works, 
among  which  we  name  a  "Natural  History  of  Ssvitzer- 
land,"  (in  German,  3  vols.,  1708,)  and  "Physica  Sacra," 
or  natural  history  of  the  Bible,  (8  vols.,  1732-37,)  written 
m  German  and  translated  into  French  and  Latin.  Died 
in  1733- 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Scheuchzer,  (JOHANN  KASPAR,)  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1702.  He  translated 
Kampfer's  "  History  of  Japan"  into  English,  and  pub 
lished  a  "Treatise  on  Inoculation."  Died  in  1729. 

Scheuffeliii,  shoif'teh-leen',  or  Scheuffelein,  shoif- 
feh-lln',  (HANS,)  an  eminent  German  painter  and  wood- 
engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1490,  was  a  favourite 
pupil  of  Albert  Diirer.  His  engravings  resemble  those 
of  Diirer.  He  worked  at  Nordlingen,  where  he  died  in 
*539  or  1540. 

See  RENOUVIER,  "Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des  Maitres- 
Graveurs." 


Scheureii,  shoi'ren,  (KASPAR,)  a  German  landscape- 
painter  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  was  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1810. 

Scheutz,  shoits,  (GEORGE  and  EDWARD,)  two  scien 
tific  Swedes  of  the  present  century,  distinguished  as 
inventors  of  a  machine  which  calculates  mathematical 
tables  and  prints  the  results.  Edward  is  a  son  of  George. 
Their  machine  is  said  to  be  a  success.  A  gold  medal 
was  awarded  to  the  inventors  by  a  committee  of  the 
Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Schiavone,  ske-a-vo'ni,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  MEDULA,  was  born  at  Scbenico,  in 
Dalmatia,  in  1522.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Nativity  of  Christ,"  and  the  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin." 
He  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  was  employed  by  Titian 
in  painting  the  ceilings  of  the  Library  of  San  Marco,  in 
Venice.  Died  in  1582. 

See  VASAKI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;''  LANZI,  "History  ol 
Painting  in  Italy;"  RIDOLFI.  "  Vite  degli  Pittori  Veneti." 

Schiavonetti,  ske-a-vo-net'tee,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Bassano  in  1765,  was  a  friend  of  Bar- 
tolozzi,  whose  style  he  imitated  successfully.  He  resided 
many  years  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1810.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "  Mater  Dolorosa,"  after  Van  Dyck, 
and  the  "  Nativity  of  Christ,"  after  Correggio. 

Schicht,  shlKt,  (JoHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German 
composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  near  Zittau  in 
1753.  His  works  are  principally  oratorios  and  other 
sacred  music.  Died  in  1823. 

Schick,  shlk,  (GOTTMKH,)  a  German  painter,  bom 
at  Stuttgart  in  1779,  studied  in  Paris  under  David.  lie 
painted  history  and  portraits,  and  acquired  a  high  repu 
tation.  Died  in  1812. 

Schickard,  shik'kaRt,  or  Schickhard,  shik'haiU, 
(WiLHKLM,)  a  German  Orientalist  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Herrenberg,  near  Tubingen,  in  1592.  He  became 
pastor  at  Nurtingen  in  1616,  and  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Tubingen  in  1619.  He  also  learned  Arabic,  Persian, 
and  Turkish  without  a  master.  He  published  several 
works  on  Oriental  languages  and  on  astronomy.  Died 
at  Tubingen  in  1635. 

See  SCHNURRER,  "  Schickard's  Leben,"  1792;  "Nonvelie  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Schidoni,  ske-do'nee,  or  Schedone,  ska-do'ni, 
(BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Modena  in 
1560.  He  painted  both  historical  pieces  and  portraits 
with  success,  and  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  imitators 
ofCorreggio.  Died  in  1615. 

Schikaneder,  shee'ka-na'der,  (EMANUF.L,)  a  Ger 
man  dramatist,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1751.  His  principal 
work,  the  "  ZauberflSte,"  ("Magic  Flute,")  was  set  to 
music  by  Mozart,  and  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Died 
in  1812. 

Schilder,  shil'der,  (CHARLES  ANDRF.IEVITCH,)  a  Rus 
sian  general,  born  about  1795,  was  distinguished  as  a 
military  engineer.  Died  in  1857. 

Schill,  von,  fon  shll,  (FERDINAND,)  a  Prussian  par 
tisan  officer,  born  near  Pless  in  1773.  He  commanded 
a  regiment  or  free  corps,  with  which  he  fought  against 
the  French  and  performed  daring  exploits.  He  was 
attacked  by  the  Dutch  and  Danes  at  Stralsund,  and  was 
killed  in  the  defence  of  that  place,  in  1809. 

See  "  Schilliana,"  1810-19;  HAKEN,  "Ferdinand  von  Schill," 
1824;  DAERING,  "Leben  Schill's,"  1838. 

Schiller,  von,  fon  shil'ler,  (JOHANN  CHRISTOPH 
FRI  EDRICH,)  the  great  national  poet  of  Germany,  was  born 
at  Marbach,  November  10,  1759.  His  father  was  for  a  time 
an  army-surgeon,  and  was  afterwards  employed  by  the 
Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  as  inspector  of  his  nurseries'  and 
ornamental  gardens.  From  his  mother,  whose  maiden- 
name  was  Kodweis,  the  poet  appears  to  have  inherited 
his  sensitive  and  enthusiastic  temperament  and  his  love 
for  poetry.  His  parents  having  removed  to  Ludwigs- 
burg,  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin  school  of  that  town.  His 
mother  wished  him  to  become  a  minister  ;  but  his  tastes 
led  him  in  a  different  direction.  At  first  he  made  choice 
of  the  legal  profession,  but  soon  after  turned  his  attention 
to  medicine.  Later  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Rousseau, 
and  Goethe  appear  to  have  determined  the  direction  of 
his  mind  to  the  drama  and  general  literature.  Lessinar, 
Herder,  and  Klopstock  seem  to  have  had  no  unimportant 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


SCHILLER 


1971 


S  CHINK  EL 


influence  in  the  formation  of  his  literary  character.  Among 
his  earliest  essays  in  composition  were  an  epic  poem 
entitled  "  Moses,"  and  two  dramas,  "  Der  Student  von 
Nassau"  and  "  Cosmo  von  Medici,"  of  which  only  a  few 
fragments  have  been  preserved.  In  1777,  when  only 
eighteen  years  of  age,  he  wrote  "  The  Robbers,"  ("  Die 
Kauber,")  a  tragedy  of  extraordinary  power,  though  he 
himself,  at  a  later  day,  characterized  it  as  a  "monster  for 
which  fortunately  there  was  no  original."  It  was  trans 
lated  and  read  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and,  having  been 
remodelled,  was  brought  out  on  the  stage  at  Mannheim 
in  1782.  The  author,  having  gone  incognito  to  witness 
the  representation,  was  arrested,  and  the  Duke  of  Wiir- 
temberg  sternly  forbade  him  to  write  anything  except 
what  related  to  the  medical  profession.  To  escape  from 
this  intolerable  thraldom,  he  fled  to  Mannheim,  and  after 
wards  spent  some  time  in  Franconia,  near  Meiningen  ; 
subsequently  (in  1783)  he  was  naturalized  as  a  subject  of 
the  Elector-Palatine,  and  was  thus  freed  from  all  control 
of  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  took  up  his  residence 
at  Mannheim,  where  he  became  poet  to  the  theatre.  About 
this  time  he  wrote  his  tragedies  of  "  Fiesco"  and  "  Cabale 
und  Liebe."  He  began  in  1784  to  edit  the  "Thalia," 
a  literary  journal,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  stage,  in  which 
were  published  the  first  parts  of  his  tragedy  of  "Don 
Carlos."  In  1785  he  left  Mannheim  for  Leipsic,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Huber  and  the  elder  Korner, 
and  wrote  his  beautiful  "  Ode  to  Joy,"  ("  Lied  an  die 
Freude.")  His  tale  entitled  the  "  Ghost-Seer"  ("Geist- 
Sieher")  was  never  finished.  Having  visited  Weimar 
in  1787,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  Herder, 
and  Wieland,  and,  on  the  recommendation  of  Goethe, 
was  appointed  in  1789  professor  of  history  at  Jena.  The  i 
next  year  he  married  Charlotte  von  Lengefeld,  a  lady  of  [ 
fine  intellect  and  culture.  In  1791  he  brought  out  his 
"  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  (pronounced  by  ' 
Carlyle  in  1824  as  the  best  historical  performance  which 
Germany  could  boast  of,)  and  soon  after  commenced  his 
"  Wallenstein,"  which  was  completed  in  1799.  It  is  per 
haps  his  greatest  work,  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
finest  tragedy  in  the  German  language.  It  consists  of 
three  parts,  "The  Camp  of  Wallenstein,"  ("  Wallen- 
stein's  Lager,")  "The  Piccolomini,"  and  the  "Death  of 
Wallenstein,"  ("  Wallenstein's  Tod.")  The  second  and 
third  parts,  rendered  into  English  blank  verse  by  Cole-  j 
ridge,  constitute  one  of  the  most  admirable  and  perfect  j 
translations  to  be  found  in  our  language.  In  1799  Schiller  i 
removed  to  Weimar.  His  growing  intimacy  with  Goethe  | 
appears  to  have  exercised  a  most  happy  influence  upon  j 
the  productions  of  his  genius.  Between  1799  and  1801 
he  composed,  besides  smaller  works,  his  dramas  entitled 
"  The  Maid  of  Orleans."  ("  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,")  j 
"  Mary  Stuart,"  and  "  The  Bride  of  Messina,"  ("  Die 
Braut  von  Messina.")  He  was  associated  with  Goethe 
in  contributions  to  the  "  Musen-Almanach,"  of  which 
for  a  time  Schiller  was  the  editor.  Among  his  minor 
poems  "The  Song  of  the  Bell"  ("  Das  Lied  von  der 
Glocke,"  iSoi)  may  claim  the  first  place.  Nothing  more 
admirable  in  its  way  has  ever  been  written  in  any  lan 
guage,  ancient  or  modern.  In  it  the  three  great  events 
of  human  life — Birth,  (or  Christening,)  Marriage,  and 
Death,  all  marked  by  the  ringing  of  the  bell — are  touched 
upon  with  an  exquisite  beauty  and  pathos  which,  had 
the  author  composed  nothing  else  but  this  single  poem, 
would  have  secured  him  a  place  among  those  rare  poets 
whose  fame  seems  destined  to  be  coeval  with  the  exist 
ence  of  the  human  race.  In  1804  Schiller  produced  his 
"  William  Tell,"  the  most  popular  of  all  his  dramas. 
He  died  on  the  gth  of  May,  1805,  of  an  affection  of  the 
lungs,  under  which  he  had  suffered  for  many  years.  His 
last  words,  uttered  a  little  before  he  expired,  were, 
"Many  things  are  growing  plain  and  clear  to  me." 

As  a  poet,  Schiller  is  characterized  by  strong  feeling 
and  intense  ideality.  His  mind  is  eminently  subjective, 
all  his  representations  being  strongly  coloured  with  his 
own  individuality,  and  in  this  one  respect  he  is  much 
inferior  as  a  dramatist  to  Goethe  ;  but  his  enthusiastic 
faith  in  ideal  excellence,  and  his  deep  and  earnest  sym 
pathy  with  all  human  joy  and  sorrow,  have  given  him 
an  influence  over  the  common  heart  of  mankind  not 
possessed  by  his  many-sided  and  more  gifted  rival. 


There  is  indeed  between  Schiller  and  Goethe  something 
of  the  same  kind  of  difference  that  exists  between  Byron 
and  Shakspeare,  the  one  being  characterized  by  intense 
concentrated  feeling,  the  other  by  endless  variety.  The 
comparison,  however,  fails  to  do  justice  to  Schiller,  who, 
if  he  had  less  passion,  had  far  greater  wealth  of  thought 
and  far  higher  moral  endowments  than  Byron.  On  the 
other  hand,  Goethe,  though  scarcely  yielding  to  Shak 
speare  in  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  human  heart 
or  in  the  inexhaustible  riches  of  his  ideas,  was  yet  infe 
rior  to  the  great  English  dramatist  in  the  very  point  in 
which  he  was  inferior  to  Schiller,  viz.,  in  a  deep  and 
earnest  sympathy  with  universal  humanity;  and  this 
will  explain  why  the  dramatic  works  of  Goethe,  though 
giving  proof  of  genius  of  the  richest  and  rarest  order, 
have  never  possessed  that  strong  hold  upon  the  popular 
heart  for  which  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  Shakspeare 
are  so  remarkable. 

See  THOMAS  CARLVI.K,  "Life  of  Schiller,"  1825;  E.  LYTTON 
BULWER,  "Life  and  Works  of  Schiller,"  1847:  H.  DORING,  "  F. 
von  Schiller:  biographisches  Denkmal,"  1832;  VIANA,  "Schiller's 
Leben  und  Werken,"  1836;  HOFFMEISTER,  "Schiller's  Leben,"  5 
vols.,  1838-42;  E.  BOAS,  "Schiller  und  Goethe  im  Xenienkampfe," 
2  vols.,  1851  ;  CAROUNE  VON  WOI.ZOGEN,  "  F.  von  Schiller's  Le 
ben,"  2  vols.,  1830;  G.  SCHWAB,  "Urkunden  iiber  Schiller  und  seine 
Familie,"  1840;  the  article  in  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1831, 
(by  CAKLYLK  ;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1841;  translations 
from  Schiller's  Poems  in  "  Biackwood's  Magazine"  for  September, 
1842.  February  and  April,  1843,  (by  BUI.WER;)  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1823,  (by  BANCROFT.) 

Schilling,  shilling,  (FRIEDRICH  GUSTAV,)  a  German 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1766, 
became  a  captain  in  the  Saxon  army.  His  works  display 
much  originality  and  talent  for  invention.  Died  in  1839. 

Schilling,  (GUSTAV,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1805,  published  a  "  Universal  Dictionary 
of  Music,"  ("  Universal  Lexikon  der  Tonkunst,")  and 
other  similar  works.  Died  in  1860. 

Schilter,  shll'ter,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Pegau  in  1632,  published  a  number  of  legal  and  anti 
quarian  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1705. 

Schimmelpenniiick.     See  SCHEMMF.LPENNINCK. 

Schimmelpenniiick,  shim'mel-pen'nink,  (MARY 
ANNK,)  an  English  authoress,  originally  named  GALTON, 
was  born  at  Birmingham  in  1778.  Her  mother  was  a 
Barclay,  highly  gifted  and  a  good  scholar.  Mary  Anne 
Gallon  was  a  cousin  of  Priscilla  Gurney  and  of  Mrs. 
Fry.  She  was  well  versed  in  Latin,  German,  and  French. 
In  1806  she  married  a  Dutchman  named  Lambert  Schim- 
melpenninck,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a  brother  of  the 
pensionary  or  chief  ruler  of  Holland.  She  joined  the 
Moravian  Church  about  1818.  She  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  Port-Royal,"  (2  vols.,  1853.)  Died 
in  1856. 

See  "  Life  of  M.  A.  Schimmelpenninck,"  2  vols.,  1859,  the  first 
volume  of  which  is  autobiography  ;  "  Living  Age",  for  April  16,  1859. 

Schimper,  sha.N'paiR',  (GUII.LAU.ME  PHILIPPE,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  in  Alsace  in  1808,  has  published 
a  number  of  botanical  treatises,  and  "  Palasontologica 
Alsatica." 

Schimper,  sMm'per,  (WILHELM,)  a  German  natu 
ralist  and  traveller,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1804,  visited 
Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Abyssinia,  and  published  in  1834 
his  "Travels  in  Algeria." 

Schinderhannes,  shln'der-han'nes  or  Schmder- 
hans,  shln'der-hanss',  a  German  robber-chief  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  who  for  several  years  infested  with 
his  band  the  shores  of  the  Rhine.  He  was  taken  and 
executed,  with  a  number  of  his  companions,  in  1803. 
His  adventures  form  the  subject  of  a  novel  by  Leitch 
Ritchie. 

Schindler,  shind'ler,  (VALENTINE,)  a  German 
scholar,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Witten 
berg,  was  the  author  of  "  Instittitiones  Hebraicae,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1611. 

Schinkel,  shink'el,  (K.\RL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
architect  of  great  celebrity,  born  at  Neu-Ruppin,  in 
Brandenburg,  in  March,  1781,  was  a  pupil  of  David 
Gilly,  of  Berlin.  He  practised  landscape-painting  in 
his  early  life.  About  1804  he  visited  Italy.  Having 
returned  to  Berlin  in  1806,  he  became  about  1815  archi 
tect  of  the  king,  who  employed  him  in  the  erection  of 
public  edifices  in  his  capital.  He  designed  the  Royal 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHINNER 


1972 


SCHLEIERMACHER 


Museum,  a  large  building  of  the  Ionic  order,  which  was 
greatly  admired,  and  the  theatre  in  Berlin.  Among  his 
other  works  was  a  theatre  at  Hamburg.  He  preferred 
the  Greek  style  of  architecture.  Died  in  1841. 

See  F.  KUGLER,  "  K.  F.  Schinkel ;  eine  Charakteristik,"  etc., 
1842. 

Schinner,  shin'ner,  (MATTHEW,)  a  German  or  Swiss 
bishop,  called  CARDINAL  DE  SION,  was  born  in  the 
Valais  about  1470.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1511.  He 
instigated  the  Swiss  to  fight  against  Francis  I.  of  France, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Marignano, 
(1515.)  Died  in  1522. 

Schirach,  von,  fon  shee'raK,  (GorrLOB  BENEDICT,) 
a  German  historian,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1743. 
In  1770  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Helni- 
stedt.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Biography 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,"  (1776,)  for  which  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  trans 
lated  Plutarch's  "Lives"  into  German.  Died  in  1804. 

Schirmer,  she~e"Rrmer,  (JOHANN  WILHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  landscape-painter  of  great  merit,  and  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf,  was  born  at  Julich  in  1807. 

Schischkow.     See  SIUSHKOF. 

Schlagiritweit,  shla'gin-twTt',  (ADOLF,)  a  German 
traveller,  born  at  Munich  in  1829.  Having  explored 
the  Alps  in  company  with  his  brother  Hermann,  he  pub 
lished  in  1850  an  account  of  their  researches.  In  1854  he 
set  out  for  India,  accompanied  by  his  brothers  Hermann 
and  Robert,  for  the  purpose  of  making  scientific  investi 
gations.  Adolf  was  killed  at  Kashgar  in  1857  or  1858. 
An  account  of  their  travels  and  researches  in  India  was 
published  about  1861. 

Schlatter,  sblat'ter,  (MICHAEL,)  a  Swiss  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1716,  emigrated  to 
America,  where  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  synod  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church.  Died  in  1790. 

Schlegel,  shla'gel,  (JOHANN  ADOLF,)  a  German 
divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Meissen  in  1721, 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Zerbst.  He  published 
"Fables  and  Tales,"  in  verse,  and  "Spiritual  Songs." 
Died  in  1793. 

Schlegel,  (JOHANN  ELI  AS,)  elder  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Meissen  in  1718.  He  published  the 
tragedies  of  "Hermann"  and  "Canute,"  and  the  com 
edy  of  "  Dumb  Beauty,"  ("  Stumme  Schonheit.")  Died 
in  1749. 

See  J.  H.  SCHLEGEI.,  "Leben  J.  E.  Schlegels,"  1770. 

Schlegel,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  WILHKLM,)  son  of 
the  following,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1765,  and 
became  professor  of  law  in  his  native  city  in  1800.  He 
wrote  several  legal  works  in  Danish.  Died  in  1836. 

Schlegel,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  younger  brother 
of  Johann  Adolf,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Meissen  in 
1724.  He  became  professor  of  history  and  royal  his 
toriographer  at  Copenhagen.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Danish  Kings  of  the  House  of  Oldenburg,"  and 
translated  several  of  Thomson's  dramas  into  German. 
Died  in  1780. 

Schlegel,  (JOHANN  KARL,)  fourth  brother  of  August 
Willielm  von  Schlegel,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Zerbst 
in  1758.  He  wrote  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  North 
ern  Germany,"  (1828,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1831. 

Schlegel,  (KARL  GUSTAV  MORITZ.)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Hanover  in  1756.  He  became 
superintendent-general  and  first  preacher  at  Harburg, 
and  wrote  several  theological  works.  Died  in  1826. 

Schlegel,  von,  fon  shla'gel,  (AUGUST  WILHKLM,)  a 
celebrated  German  poet,  Orientalist,  and  critic,  born  at 
Hanover  on  the  8th  of  September,  1767,  was  a  son  of 
Johann  Adolf,  noticed  above.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Heyne 
at  the  University  of  Gottingen,  which  he  quitted  in  1793. 
In  1797  he  became  professor  or  teacher  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  Jena.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  Schiller.  About  1798  Schlegel  and  his 
brother  Friedrich  began  to  edit  the  "Athenaeum,"  a 
critical  review,  which  had  great  influence  in  propagating 
the  principles  of  the  romantic  school.  He  was  a  warm 
admirer  of  Shakspeare's  works,  of  which  he  produced 
a  translation,  (n  vols.,  1798-1810.)  He  resided  in  Ber 
lin  from  1802  to  1805,  and  became  a  friend  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  whom  he  accompanied  in  her  travels,  as  her 


instructor  and  as  tutor  to  her  children.  He  passed  a 
number  of  years  in  her  society,  and  exercised  a  decided 
influence  over  her  literary  character.  In  1808  he  de 
livered  at  Vienna  a  course  of  lectures  on  dramatic 
literature  and  art,  which  were  greatly  admired  both  in 
Germany  and  foreign  countries.  They  were  translated 
into  English  by  John  Black,  (1840.) 

"  I  was  at  Vienna,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "  when  W. 
Schlegel  gave  his  public  course  of  lectures.  I  expected 
only  good  sense  and  instruction,  where  the  object  was 
only  to  convey  information.  I  was  astonished  to  hear  a 
critic  as  eloquent  as  an  orator."  In  another  place  she 
calls  him  "the  first  literary  critic  of  Germany."  (De 
Stael's  "  Germany.") 

Schlegel  served  as  secretary  to  liernadotte,  Crown - 
Prince  of  Sweden,  in  1813-14,  and  wrote  several  polit 
ical  pamphlets.  After  the  end  of  the  war,  in  1815,  he 
remained  with  Madame  de  Stael  until  her  death.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  Bonn  in  1819,  ami 
applied  himself  rather  late  in  life  to  the  study  of  San 
scrit,  in  which  he  became  proficient.  He  founded  about 
1820  the  "  Indische  Bibliothek,"  a  review  devoted  to 
Indian  languages  and  antiquities.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  whose  name  was  Michaelis,  he  married  a  daughter 
of  the  eminent  Professor  Paulus,  from  whom  he  was 
soon  divorced.  Among  his  remarkable  productions  are 
a  poem  entitled  "  Arion,"  and  a  German  version  of  some 
of  Calderon's  dramas,  (1803-09.)  lie  also  wrote,  in 
French,  "Literary  and  Historic  Essays,"  ("  Essais  litte- 
raires  et  historiques,"  1842.)  Died  at  Bonn,  in  May,  1845. 
His  complete  works  were  published  by  Bocking,  (13 
vols.,  1846.) 

See  Louis  DE  LOMENIE,  "M.  A.  W.  cfe  Schlegel,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1842;  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  General*;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1814;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
February,  1816;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1833,  and 
October,  1843. 

Schlegel,  von,  (KARL  WILHELM  FRIFDRICII,)  an 
eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Hanover  on  the  loth  of  March, 
1772.  His  first  important  work  was  "Greeks  and 
Romans,"  ("Griechen  and  Romer,"  1797,)  which  was 
received  with  favour.  In  1799  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  "  Lucinde,"  a  novel,  which  has  been  cen 
sured  as  immoral.  It  was  never  finished.  About  1800 
he  married  Madame  Veit,  a  daughter  of  Mendelssohn. 
Her  first  husband  was  living,  but  she  obtained  a  divorce 
in  order  to  marry  Schlegel.  In  1802  he  produced  a 
tragedy  called  "Alarkos."  Having  been  converted  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  about  1808,  he  removed  to 
Vienna,  where  he  became  secretary  to  the  archduke 
Charles  in  1809.  He  composed  the  proclamations  which 
were  issued  to  excite  the  Atistrians  against  Napoleon. 
He  delivered  at  Vienna  several  courses  of  lectures, 
(which  were  published,)  and  edited  "The  German  Mu 
seum,"  (1812-13.)  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Literature,"  (2  voJs.,  1815,)  "Lec 
tures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Life,"  (1828,)  and  "  Lectures 
on  the  Philosophy  of  History,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  He 
was  an  admirer  of  medieval  Jife  and  institutions,  and 
belonged  to  the  romantic  school  in  literature.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Schleiermacher.  Died  at  Dresden 
in  1829. 

See  "Noiivelle  Biographic  General  e;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  i$iS. 

Schleiden,  shli'den,  (MATTHIAS  JAKOB,)  a  German 
physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1804,  pub 
lished  *'  Elements  of  Scientific  Botany,"  (1842,)  "Plants 
and  their  Life,"  (1850,)  and  other  works.  He  became 
professor-extraordinary  at  Jena  in  1839. 

Schleiden,  (RUDOLF,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Hamburg.  He  became  in  1853  minister  for 
Bremen  at  Washington. 

Schleiermacher,  shli'er-maK'er,  (FRIEDKICH  ERNST 
DANIEL,)  a  distinguished  German  author,  critic,  and 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  at  Breslau  on  the  2ist  of  No 
vember,  1768.  He  was  sent  to  a  Moravian  school  at 
Barby  to  study  for  the  ministry.  About  1786  he  entered 
the  University  of  Halle,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
theology,  philosophy,  and  the  ancient  languages.  He 
quitted  the  university  in  1790,  after  which  he  was  em 
ployed  several  years  as  a  tutor  in  a  private  family  and 


a,e.  T,  5,  u,y,  long;  a,  e,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moor.; 


SCHLESINGER 


'973 


SCHMID 


in  a  seminary  in  Berlin.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
preacher  to  the  hospital  of  Charite  in  Berlin.  He  pub 
lished  in  1799  an  excellent  work  entitled  "Discourses 
on  Religion,"  the  doctrines  of  which  were  approved  by 
pious  and  orthodox  readers.  He  removed  to  Stolpe  in 
1802,  with  the  title  of  court  preacher,  and  wrote  there  a 
"Critique  of  all  Past  Systems  of  Ethics,"  ("Grundlinien 
einer  Kritik  der  bisherigen  Sittenlehre,"  1805,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  In  1804  he  became  professor  of  theology 
and  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  acquired  great  influence 
as  a  theologian.  The  conquests  of  Napoleon  having 
separated  Halle  from  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  Schleier 
macher  removed  to  Berlin  about  1806.  He  produced  an 
excellent  translation  of  a  large  portion  of  Plato's  works, 
(published  in  3  vols.,  1804-28,)  with  an  introduction, 
which  may  be  pronounced  one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  towards  the  elucidation  of  Plato's  philo 
sophic  system  that  have  been  made  in  modern  times. 
In  1809  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  Trinity  Church, 
Berlin,  and  in  1810  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
new  university  of  that  capital.  His  profound  learning, 
eloquent  language,  and  original  thoughts  rendered  him 
very  popular  as  a  professor  and  preacher.  He  was 
chosen  secretary  to  the  philosophical  section  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1814. 

Among  his  most  important  works  are  "A  Critical 
Essay  on  the  Writings  of  Luke,"  ("Ueber  die  Schriften 
des  Lukas,  ein  kritischer  Versuch,"  1817,)  and  "Exhibi 
tion  of  the  Christian  Faith  according  to  the  Principles 
of  the  Evangelical  Church,"  ("  Darstellung  des  Christ- 
lichen  Glaubens  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  Evange- 
lischen  Kirche,"  2  vols.,  1821-22.)  "To  his  vast  sweep 
of  thought,  now  ranging  round  the  outposts  of  theological 
systems,  and  again  darting  upon  the  smallest  detail  and 
opening  it  up  to  the  light,  he  united  immense  learning, 
not  of  the  cumbrous  bibliographical  sort  so  peculiar  to 
the  Germans,  but  of  the  living  facts  and  principles  of 
all  times,  combined  with  a  grand  faculty  of  utterance 
which  gave  the  most  musical  form  to  the  most  golden 
thoughts,  holding  his  hearers  in  raptures  while  he  spoke, 
and  carrying  them  breathless  away  with  him  in  his  airy 
chariot  of  fire."  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  Died  in 
Berlin  in  February,  1834. 

See  a  collection  of  his  letters,  entitled  "  Aus  Schleiermachers 
Leben  in  Briefen,"  2  vols.,  1858  ;  "  Life  of  Schleiermacher."  trans 
lated  from  the  German;  E.  BOMNELT.,  "  Erinnerung  an  Schleier 
macher  als  Lehrer,"  1838:  F.  DKLRKUCK.  "  Der  verewigte  Schleier 
macher,"  1837;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1849; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1861;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  July,  1861. 

Schlesinger,  shla'zing-er,  (WILHELM  HEINRICH,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maiu  about 
1814.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 

Schlichtegroll,  shllK'teh-gRol',  (ADOLF  HEINRICH 
FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  antiquary,  bom  at  Wakershausen 
in  1765,  became  secretary-general  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Munich.  He  published  the  "Obituary  of 
the  Germans,"  ("Nekrolog  der  Deutschen,"  28  vols., 
1791,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1822. 

Schlichtiiig,  schliK'ting,  or  Schlichtingius,  shl?K- 
ting'ge-us,  (Jo.VAS,)  a  Polish  Socinian,  apparently  of 
German  extraction,  was  born  at  Bucowiec  in  1596.  He 
wrote  a  "Confession  of  Faith,"  for  which  he  was  ban 
ished,  and  the  work  was  publicly  burnt.  Died  in  1664. 

Schlik  or  Schlick,  shlik,  (FRANZ,)  an  Austrian 
general,  born  at  Prague  in  1789.  He  served  in  the 
campaign  of  1813  against  the  French,  and  in  the  Hun 
garian  war  of  1849. 

Schloetzer.     See  SCHLOZER. 

Schlosser,  shlos'ser,  (FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH,)  a 
celebrated  German  historian,  born  at  Jever  in  1776.  In 
1793  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  where, 
in  addition  to  theology,  history,  and  mathematics,  he 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  English,  Italian,  and 
Spanish  literature.  He  published  in  18(2  his  "  History 
of  the  Iconoclast  Emperors  of  the  East  Roman  Empire." 
In  1817  he  became  professor  of  history  at  Heidelberg. 
His  chief  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  World  in  a  Con 
nected  Relation,"  (4  vols.,  1817-41,)  and  the  "  History 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  Nineteenth  till  the  Fall 
of  the  French  Empire,"  (8  vols.,  1846,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English.  He  also  wrote  a  "Critical 


Examination  of  Napoleon,"  and  other  works.  As  a  his 
torian,  Schlosser  occupies  a  high  rank  and  has  acquired 
extensive  popularity.  Died  at  Heidelberg  in  1861. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "Jahrbuch  zum 
Conversations- Lexikon,"  1862;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1X43;  "Westminster  Review"  for  September,  1845;  GERVI- 
NUS,  '' Necrolog  Schlosser's,"  1862. 

Schlosser,  (JOHAN.N  GKORG,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1739,  was  a  brother-in-law 
of  Goethe.  He  published  several  prose  essays,  and 
made  translations  from  yEschylus,  Plato,  and  Aristotle. 
Died  in  1799. 

See  NICOLOVIUS,  "  J.  G.  Schlosser's  Leben,"  1844. 

Schlotheim,  von,  fon  shlot/hlm,  (ERNST  FRIED- 
RICH,)  BARON,  a  German  savant,  born  in  1764,  published 
several  works  on  mineralogy.  Died  in  1832. 

Schlozer  or  Schloezer,  von,  fon  shlot'ser,  ( AU 
GUST  LUDWIG,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  in 
the  principality  of  Hohenlohe-Kirchberg  in  1735.  He 

In 

here  he 

wrote  a  "History  of  Commerce,"  (in  Swedish.)  He 
was  appointed  in  1765  professor  of  Russian  history  at 
the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1767  of  political 
science  at  Gottingen.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"  General  History  of  the  North,"  (2  vols.,  1772,)  "  Pre 
paratory  History  of  the  \Vorld  for  Children,"  (1790,) 
and  •'  History  of  the  World  in  Extracts  and  Connection," 
(2  vols.,  1792.)  He  also  translated,  from  the  Russian, 
Nestor's  "  Chronicle"  to  the  year  980,  and  wrote  several 
able  political  treatises.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  Em 
peror  of  Russia  in  1804.  He  died  in  1809.  His  daughter 
DOROTHEA  was  highly  distinguished  for  her  talents  and 
acquirements,  and  the  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred 
upon  her  in  1787.  Died  in  1825. 

See  "A    L.  von  Schlozer's  Leben,"  b' 
DOKIXG.  "  Leben  A.  L 
L.  Schlozer,"  1^44. 


studied    theology    at    Wittenberg   and    Gottingen. 
1755  ne  went  as  a  private  teacher  to  Sweden,  whe: 


izer's  Leben,"  by  his  son,  1828;  HEINRICH 
von  Schlbzer's,"  1836  ;  ADOLPH  BOCK,  "A. 


Schlozer  or  Schloezer,  von,  (CHRISTIAN,)  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  the  author  of  "  Elements  of  Political 
Science,"  (1804,  in  German  and  Russian,)  and  published 
a  life  of  his  father.  Died  in  1831. 

Schliiter  or  Schlueter,  shiii'ter,  (ANDREAS,)  a 
German  architect  and  sculptor,  born  about  1662,  was 
patronized  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia.  He  built  several 
edifices  at  Berlin,  where  he  also  executed  a  number  of 
admirable  works  in  sculpture.  Died  in  1714. 

Schlyter,  shlii'ter,  (CARL  JOHAN,)  a  Swedish  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Carlscrona  in  1795. 

Schmaltz,  shmilts,  (MORITZ  FERDINAND,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  near  Dresden  in  1785,  has 
published  numerous  sermons  and  other  religious  works. 

Schmalz,  (THEODOR  ANTON  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1760,  published  treatises  on 
law  and  political  economy.  Died  in  18^1. 

Schmauss,  shmowss,  (J"OHANN  JAKOK,)  a  distin 
guished  German  writer  on  public  law,  was  born  at 
Landau,  in  Alsatia,  in  1690.  He  became  in  1734  pro- 
tessor  of  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Gottingen. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,"  (1720,)  and  "Corpus  Juris  Gentium  Academi- 
cum,"  (2  vols.,  1730.)  Died  in  1757. 

Schmeller,  shmel'ler,  ({OHANN  ANDREAS,)  a  Ger 
man  philologist,  born  at  Tirschenreuth  in  1785,  pub 
lished  "The  Dialects  of  Bavaria,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Bava 
rian  Dictionary,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1852. 

Schmerling,  von,  fon  shmeVling,  (  A.NTOM,  )  an 
Austrian  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Vienna  in  1805, 
rose  to  be  president  of  the  first  tribunal  and  court  of 
cassation  at  Vienna,  (1851,)  and  was  appointed  prime 
minister  in  1861.  lie  resigned  or  was  removed  in  1866. 

Schmettau,  von,  fon  shmet'tow,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Prus 
sian  commander,  born  in  1684.  He  served  under  Prince 
Eugene  and  Marlborough,  and  subsequently  entered 
the  Austrian  army  and  fought  against  the  Spaniards  in 
Sicily.  He  was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1741,  and  was 
afterwards  employed  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  several 
embassies.  Died  in  1751. 

See  "Lebensgeschichte  des  Grafen  von  Schmettau,"  Berlin,  1806, 

Schmid,  shm?t,  (KARL  CHRISTIAN  ERHARD,)  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Jena,  was  born  near  Weimar  in 


€  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  a.-/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHMID 


1974 


SCHNORR 


1761.  He  wrote  several  works  in  favour  of  the  system 
of  Kant.  Died  in  1812. 

Schmid,  (KARL  ERNST,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Weimar  in  1774.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Jena  in  1809,  wrote  a  number  of  legal  treatises,  and 
contributed  to  Brockhaus's  "Conversations-Lexikon." 
Died  in  1852. 

Schmid,  (REINHOLD,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Jena 
in  1800.  He  published  a  work  "On  the  Theory  of 
Civil  Law,"  (1848,)  which  is  esteemed. 

Schmid,  von,  fon  shmlt,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Dinkelsbiihl  in  1768,  published  a  number 
of  moral  and  religious  works  for  children  and  youth. 

Schmidel,shmee'del,  (CASIMIR  CHRISTOPH,)  a  Ger 
man  botanist,  born  at  Baireuth  in  1718.  He  published 
"  Icones  Plantarum  et  Analyses  Partium,"  (1747.)  Died 
in  1792. 

Schmidt,  shm!t,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Nordheimer  in  1740,  wrote  "Letters  on 
Russia,"  and  several  historical  works.  Died  in  1801. 

Schmidt,  (EBERHARD  KARL  KLAMKR,)  a  German 
poet  and  fabulist,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1746,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Gleim.  He  translated  the  "  Odes  and 
Epodes"  of  Horace.  Died  in  1824. 

See  "  E.  K.  Schmidt's  Leben." 

Schmidt,  (ERASMUS,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in 
Misnia  in  1560,  became  professor  of  Greek  and  math 
ematics  at  Wittenberg.  He  published  a  "Concordance 
to  the  Greek  Testament,"  an  edition  of  Pindar,  with  a 
Latin  version  and  notes,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1637. 

Schmidt,  (GEORG  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Berlin,  executed  numerous  portraits  of  great 
merit.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
in  Paris.  Died  in  1775. 

Schmidt,  (!SAAK  JAKOB,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born 
in  1779,  published  a  Grammar  and  a  Dictionary  of  the 
Mongol  Language,  also  a  "Thibetan  Grammar,"  and 
made  several  translations  from  the  Mongol  and  Thibetic. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1847. 

Schmidt,  (JOHANN  ANDREAS,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Worms  in  1652,  became  professor  of  the 
ology  and  ecclesiastical  history  at  Helmstedt.  He 
translated  Paidie's  "Elements  of  Geometry"  from 
French  into  Latin,  and  wrote  several  controversial 
works.  Died  in  1726. 

Schmidt,  (  MICHAEL  IGNAZ,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Arnstein  in  1736,  was  appointed  director  of  the 
archives  at  Vienna.  lie  wrote  a  good  "  History  of  the 
Germans,"  (22  vols.,  1778-1808.)  which  was  very  pop 
ular,  and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  aulic  coun 
cillor  at  Vienna  in  1780.  Died  in  1794. 

Schmidt,  (SEBASTIAN,)  a  German  scholar  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  professor  of  Oriental  lan 
guages  at  Strasburg.  Died  in  1697. 

Schmith,  shmft,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  Hungarian  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  was  rector  of  the  college  at  Tyr- 
nau.  Died  in  1767. 

Schmitthenner,  shmlt'hen'ner,  (FRIEDRICH  JAKOB,) 
professor  of  political  science  at  Giessen,  was  born  in 
1796.  He  published  several  works  on  philology,  his 
tory,  and  political  economy.  Died  in  1850. 

Schmitz,  shmlts,  (LEONARD,)  a  historian  and  philol 
ogist,  born  near  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1807.  He  removed 
to  England  about  1836,  and  became  rector  of  the  High 
School  of  Edinburgh  in  1845.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  Rome,"  a  "  Manual  of  Ancient  History,"  and  other 
works.  He  also  contributed  to  W.  Smith's  "  Classical 
Dictionary  of  Biography." 

Schmuck'er,  (SAMUEL  M.,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  New  Market,  Virginia,  in  1823.  He  practised 
law  in  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  a  number  of  historical 
works  and  biographies.  Died  in  186}. 

Schmutzer,  shmoot'ser,  (JAKOB  MATTHIAS,)  a  Ger 
man  engraver,  born  at  Vienna  in  1733,  became  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Design  in  that  city,  and  court  en 
graver.  His  prints  after  Rubens  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1813. 

Schnaase,  shna'zeh,  (KARL,)  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1798,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Plastic  Arts,"  (1843,) 
and  other  similar  works. 


Schneb'be-lie,  (JACOB,)  an  English  artist,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1760,  was  appointed  draughtsman  to 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Died  in  1792. 

Schneider,  shni'daiit',  (ANTOINE  VIRGILE,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1780.  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
May,  1839,  to  March,  1840.  Died  in  1847. 

Schneider,  shm'der,  (CONRAD  VICTOR,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Bitterfeld,  in  Saxony,  in  1610,  was 
the  author  of  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  De  Catarrhis," 
in  which  he  gives  an  anatomical  description  of  the  in 
terior  structure  of  the  nose.  The  lining  of  the  cavities 
of  the  nose,  which  he  first  described,  has  been  named, 
in  his  honour,  the  Schneiderian  membrane.  Died  in 
1680. 

Schneider,  (EUGENE,)  a  French  manufacturer,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1805.  He  became  proprietor  of  a  very 
extensive  manufactory  of  machinery,  locomotives,  etc., 
at  Creuzot.  He  was  elected  in  1852  and  in  1857  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body,  of  which  he  was  presi 
dent  from  1867  until  September  4,  1870. 

Schneider,  shm'der,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  composer,  born  near  Zittau  in  1786. 
His  works  comprise  oratorios,  operas,  and  instrument- 
pieces.  Died  in  1853  or  1854. 

Schneider,  (JOHANN  GEORG,  called  afterwards  Eu- 
LOGius,)  a  German  poet  and  monk,  born  at  Wipfeld,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1756.  Having  removed  to  Strasburg  in  1791, 
he  became  a  violent  revolutionist,  and  caused  many 
persons  to  be  put  to  death.  He  was  guillotined  in  Paris 
in  April,  1794. 

See  HEITZ,  "  Notes  sur  la  Vie  d'Euloge  Schneider,"  1862. 

Schneider,  (JOHANN  GOTTLOB,)  a  brother  of  Johann 
Christian  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born  near  Zittau 
in  1789.  He  was  appointed  court  organist  at  Dresden 
in  1825,  and  composed  a  number  of  pieces  for  the  organ. 
DJed  in  1864. 

Schneider,  (JOHANN  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  philolo 
gist  and  naturalist,  born  near  Wurzen,  in  Saxony,  in 
1750.  He  studied  under  Heyne  at  Gottingen,  and  in 
1776  became  professor  of  ancient  languages  and  elo 
quence  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  published  edi 
tions  of  Nicander's  "  Alexipharmaca,"  /Elian's  "  De 
Natnra  Animalium,"  Xenophon's  Works,  the  "  Ar- 
gonautica"  of  Orpheus,  the  "  Politics"  of  Aristotle, 
/Esop's  "  Fables,"  and  the  Works  of  Theophrastus. 
He  also  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  natural  history, 
among  which  we  may  name  "  Ichthyology  of  the  An 
cients,"  (1782,)  and  "  Physiology  of  Amphibious  Ani 
mals,"  (1790.)  His  "Greek-and-German  Lexicon"  (1797) 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  Died  in  1822. 

See  CUVIKR,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

Schneider,  (KARL  ERNST  CIIRISTOPH,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Wiehe,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1786. 
He  translated  some  of  Plato's  works  into  German,  and 
published  an  edition  of  Caesar's  "Commentaries." 

Schueidewin,  shm'deh-win',  (FRIEDRICH  WIL- 
HELM,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1810. 
He  was  appointed  in  1842  professor  of  classic  literature 
at  Gottingen.  He  published  "Critical  Observations  on 
the  Lyric  Poets  of  Greece,"  "Commentaries  on  Sopho 
cles,"  and  other  original  works;  also  editions  of  several 
Greek  and  Latin  classics.  Died  in  1856. 

Schneller,  shnel'ler,  (JULIUS  FRANZ  BORGIAS,)  a 
historian,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1777,  was  the  author  of 
several  historical  and  dramatic  works.  Died  in  1833. 

Schnetz,  shne'ts,  (Jp.AN  VICTOR,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  He  became  director  of  the 
French  school  of  painting  at  Rome  in  1840.  Among  his 
works  we  may  name  "  The  Sack  of  Rome  by  the  Con 
stable  de  Bourbon,"  and  "  Christ  calling  Little  Children," 
for  which,  at  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1855,  he  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class. 

Schnitzler,  shn!ts'ler,  (JEAN  HENRI,)  a  litterateur, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1802.  He  published,  besides 
other  historical  and  statistical  works,  "  General  Statistics 
of  the  Empire  of  Russia,"  (1829,)  "General,  Methodi 
cal,  and  Complete  Statistics  of  France,"  (4  vols.,  1846,) 
and  "Ancient  and  Modern  Russia,"  (1854.) 

Schnorr,  shnoR,  (LuowiG  FERDINAND,)  an  artist,  a 
brother  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1789. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCHNORR 


'975 


SCHOMBERG 


He  is  chiefly  known  from   his   illustrations  of  Goethe's 
"  Faust"  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna.     Died  in 

I853- 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  shnoR  fon  ka'rols-felf, 
(JULIUS,)  an  eminent  painter,  son  of  Veit  Hans,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1794.  After  studying  for 
a  time  at  Vienna,  he  visited  Rome  in  1818,  and  during 
his  residence  there  executed  the  frescos  in  the  Villa 
Massimi  in  conjunction  with  Cornelius  and  Overbeck ; 
he  also  painted  a  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  "  The  Marriage 
in  Cana,"  "  The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  and  other  oil-pic 
tures  of  great  excellence.  In  1827  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  historical  painting  in  the  Academy  ot  Arts 
at  Munich,  and  was  commissioned  by  Ludwig,  afterwards 
King  of  Bavaria,  to  decorate  the  new  palace  with  frescos 
illustrating  the  poem  of  the  "  Nibelungen."  His  next 
productions  were  a  series  of  paintings  in  encaustic  in 
the  Fest-Saalbau,  representing  events  from  the  history 
of  Charlemagne,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  Rudolph 
of  Habsburg.  He  became  in  1846  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  director  of  the  Picture- 
Gallery  at  Dresden.  Schnorr  also  executed  a  series 
of  Bible  pictures,  ("  Die  Bibel  in  Bildern,")  which  have 
been  engraved.  He  has  been  censured  by  some  critics 
for  his  mannerism. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition ;)  BROCKHAUS, 
"  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  (VEIT  HANS,)  a  German 
painter,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Leipsic, 
born  at  Schneeberg  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  "  In 
struction  in  the  Art  of  Design."  Died  in  1841. 

Schnurrer,  shnoor'rer,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIEDKICH,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Cannstadt,  in  Wtirtemberg, 
in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Tubin 
gen,  (1770,)  and  chancellor  of  the  university,  (1805.)  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Biblictheca  Arabica." 
Died  in  1822. 

Schoeffer.     See  SCHOFFER. 

Schoelcher,  shol'Ker  or  sho'eTshaiR',  (VICTOR,)  a 
French  journalist  and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1804, 
has  published  several  treatises  on  African  slavery  and 
in  favour  of  emancipation.  He  has  also  written  a  "  Life 
of  Handel,"  (in  English,)  and  other  works. 

Schoell.     See  SCHOLL. 

Schoemann.     See  SCHOMAXX. 

Schoeiibein.     See  SCHOXBEIN. 

Schoeiilein.     See  SCHOXLEIN. 

Schoenning.     See  SCHOXXIXG. 

Schoepf.     See  SCHOPF. 

Schoepflin.     See  SCHOPFLIX. 

Schoffer  or  Schoeffer,  shof'fer,  (PETER,)  celebrated 
for  his  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing,  was  born  at 
Gernsheim,  in  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  invented  punches 
in  types  while  in  the  employ  of  Gutenberg  and  Faust  at 
Mentz,  and  after  their  separation  became  the  partner 
of  Faust,  who  was  his  father-in-law.  Schoffer  continued 
the  business  after  the  death  of  Faust,  and  published, 
among  other  books,  a  Latin  Bible,  the  Institutes  of 
Justinian,  and  some  of  the  works  of  Saint  Thomas 
Aquinas.  Died  about  1502. 

See  A.  F.  Diner's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Schoffer,  (PETER,)  a  printer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
worked  at  Worms  several  years,  (1513-20,)  removed  to 
Strasburg  about  1521,  and  to  Venice  in  1541. 

See  HEI.BIG,  "Notice  sur  P.  Schoffer  fils,"  1846. 

S-eho'field,  QOHX  MCALLISTER,)  an  American  gene 
ral,  born  in  Chautauqua  county,  New  York,  in  1831. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
where  he  graduated  in  1853,  in  the  same  class  with 
P.  H.  Sheridan  and  J.  B.  McPherson.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  captain  in  May,  1861,  soon  after  which  he  be 
came  the  chief  of  the  staff  of  General  Lyons,  with 
whom  he  served  in  Missouri.  In  November,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1862  he  was  selected  to  command  the 
district  of  Missouri.  He  resigned  this  position  in  Sep 
tember,  but  was  restored  to  it  in  May,  1863,  with  the 
rank  of  major-general.  The  forces  under  his  command 
operated  with  success  in  Arkansas  after  the  capture  of 
Vicksburg,  and  took  Little  Rock.  In  February,  1864, 


Schofield  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Ohio.  He  contributed  to  the  success  of  Sherman's 
brilliant  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  At 
lanta  on  the  2d  of  September,  1864. 

About  the  end  of  October  he  was  sent  with  the 
Twenty-third  corps  to  Chattanooga,  with  orders  to  report 
to  General  Thomas  at  Nashville.  He  commanded  at 
the  battle  of  Franklin,  where  he  was  attacked  by  Hood 
on  the  3Oth  of  November,  and,  having  repulsed  the 
enemy,  fell  back  towards  Nashville  during  the  night.  In 
this  action  Hood  lost  1750  killed  and  3800  wounded; 
the  entire  loss  of  the  Union  army  was  2300.  This 
campaign  was  ended  by  the  decisive  victory  gained  by 
General  Thomas  near  Nashville  on  the  I5th  and  i6th 
of  December.  In  February,  1865,  the  State  of  North 
Carolina  was  constituted  into  a  military  department, 
of  which  General  Schofield  was  appointed  commander, 
with  instructions  to  co-operate  with  General  Sherman, 
He  captured  Fort  Anderson,  occupied  Wilmington  on 
the  22<i  of  February,  and  formed  a  junction  with  Sher 
man  at  Goldsborough,  where  he  arrived  on  the  2ist  of 
March.  In  the  spring  of  1867  he  was  appointed  com 
mander  of  the  first  military  district,  which  was  created 
by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  March,  1867,  and  which 
comprised  the  State  of  Virginia.  He  became  secretary 
of  war  in  May,  1868,  resigned  in  March,  1869,  and  was 
then  promoted  to  be  a  major-general  of  the  regular 
army. 

Scholarius.    See  GEXXADIUS. 

Scholefield,  skol'feld,  ?  (JAMES,)  an  English  divine 
and  scholar,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1789.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  and  in  1825  became  regius  professor  of 
Greek  in  that  university.  Among  his  publications  are 
an  edition  of  ^Eschylus  with  notes,  an  edition  of  Middle- 
ton's  "Treatise  on  the  Greek  Article,"  and  "Hints  for 
an  Improved  Translation  of  the  New  Testament."  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "  Life  of  J.  Scholefield,"  by  his  widow,  1855. 

Scholl  or  Schoell,  shol,  (ADOLF,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Briinn  in  1805,  became  professor  of  archaeology 
at  Halle,  in  1842.  He  published  a  translation  of  Hero 
dotus,  and  of  the  "Ajax"  of  Sophocles,  and  has  written 
several  critical  essays. 

Scholl  or  Schoell,  (MAXIMILIAX  SAMSOX  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  historian  and  publicist,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Saarbriick  in  1766.  He  was  Prussian  secre 
tary  of  legation  at  Paris,  (1816-18,)  and  became  privy 
councillor  at  Berlin  in  1819.  He,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Roman  Literature,"  in 
French,  (Paris,  4  vols.,  1815,)  a  "  History  of  Greek  Lit 
erature  from  its  Origin,"  etc.,  ("  Histoire  de  la  Littera- 
ture  Grecque  profane  depuis  son  Origine  jusqu'a  la  Prise 
de  Constantinople,"  8  vols.,  1823-25,)  and  "A  Course 
of  History  of  the  European  States  to  1789,"  (46  vols., 
1830—34,)  which  is  commended  as  accurate  and  impartial. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1833. 

See  PIHAN  DE  I.A  FOREST,  "  Essai  snr  la  Vie  de  Schoell,"  1834  ; 
"Biographie  F.  Schoell's,"  Leipsic,  1821;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate  ;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Scholz,  sholts,  (JOHAXX  MARTIX  AUGUSTIX,)  a  Ger 
man  Catholic  theologian  and  scholar,  born  near  Breslau 
in  1794.  He  visited  Palestine  and  Syria  in  1821,  and 
published  in  1822  an  account  of  his  journey.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1823.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  his  "  Novum  Testamentum 
Graece,"  (2  vols.,  1830,)  and  "Manual  of  Biblical  Archae 
ology,"  (1834.)  Died  in  1853. 

Schbmanii  or  Schoemann,  sho'man,  (  GEOKG 
FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Stralsund 
in  1793,  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  and  elo 
quence  at  Greifswalde.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
critical  essays  (in  Latin)  on  the  Greek  classics. 

Schomberg,  shom'berg,  (ALEXAXDER  CROWCHER,) 
an  English  divine,  born  in  1756,  published  a  "Chrono 
logical  View  of  the  Roman  Laws,"  and  other  similar 
works.  Died  in  1792. 

Schomberg,  (ISAAC,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
served  under  Admiral  Rodney  in  the  American  war, 
and  subsequently  under  Lord  Howe  in  1794.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Naval  Chronology,"  (5  vols.)  Died 
in  1813. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHOMBERG 


1976 


SCHOQNJ4NS 


Schomberg,  de,  de  shom'berg  or  deh  shoN'baiR', 
(CHARLES,)  Due  d'Halluin,  a  marshal  of  France,  liorn 
in  1601,  was  a  son  of  Henry,  noticed  below.  He  gained 
in  September,  1637,  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at 
Lucate.  Died  in  1656. 

Schomberg,  de,  DUCHESS.     See  HAUTEFORT,  n'. 

Schomberg,  shom'berg,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  sh6.\'- 
baiR',]  (HENRI,)  COUNT,  an  eminent  French  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1575,  (or,  as  some  say 
in  1583,)  was  a  son  of  the  following.  He  was  ap 
pointed  superintendent  of  the  finances  in  1619,  soon 
after  which  he  gained  victories  over  the  Huguenots. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1625,  repulsed  the 
English  at  the  Isle  of  Rhe  in  1627,  and  defeated  the 
insurgents  under  Montmorency  at  Castelnaudary  in  1632. 
Died  in  1632. 

See  BACHOT,  "  Tpmbeau  du  Marechal  de  Schomberg,"  1633  ;  DE 
COURCEU.ES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  GeneVaux  Frangais  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Schom'berg,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fonshom'beuo,]  (CAS 
PAR,)  a  German  general,  born  in  Saxony  in  1540.  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  French  king,  and  fought 
against  the  Huguenot*  about  1567-75.  In  1597  Schom 
berg  and  De  Thou  prepared  the  bases  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  Died  in  1599. 

Schomberg,  von,  fon  shon/beuc,  (FRIKDRICH  AR- 
MAND  HERMANN,)  a  celebrated  Protestant  military 
commander,  was  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1616.  Having 
served  in  the  Swedish  army  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
he  fought  successively  in  the  armies  of  the  Netherlands, 
France,  and  Portugal,  and  attained  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France  in  1675.  He  was  driven  from  France  by  per 
secution  in  1685.  In  1688  he  accompanied  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  to  England,  and,  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  in  Ireland,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
<the  Boyne,  in  1690.  "  He  was  generally  esteemed,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  the  greatest  living  master  of  the  art  of  war. 
His  rectitude  and  piety,  tried  by  strong  temptations  and 
never  found  wanting,  commanded  general  respect  and 
confidence.  Though  a  Protestant,  he  had  been  during 
many  years  in  the  service  of  Louis,  and  had,  in  spite  of 
the  ill  offices  of  the  Jesuits,  extorted  from  his  employer, 
by  a  series  of  great  actions,  the  staff  of  marshal  of 
France."  ("  History  of  England.") 

See  KAZNER,  "  Leben  F.  von  Schomberg,"  2  vols.,  1789  :  "  Abrege 
de  la  Viede  F'.  von  Schomberg,"  by  BEAUCUATEAU,  1690  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Schomburgk,  shom'booRk,  (OTTO,)  a  German  writer, 
born  about  1810,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Robert  Hermann, 
noticed  below.  He  translated  into  German  his  brother's 
"Description  of  British  Guiana."  Died  in  1857. 

Schomburgk,  shom'burk,  [Ger.  pron.  shom'boouk,] 
(Sir  ROBERT  HERMANN,)  a  celebrated  German  traveller, 
born  at  Freiburg  in  1804.  Having  been  sent  in  1835 
by  the  Geographical  Society  of  London  to  explore  the 
interior  of  Guiana,  he  discovered  the  magnificent  water- 
lily  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Victoria  Regia. 
He  published,  after  his  return,  a  "  Description  of  British 
Guiana,"  which  was  followed  in  1847  by  a  "  History  of 
Barbadoes."  Appointed  in  1848  British  consul  to  Saint 
Domingo,  he  contributed  to  the  Journal  of  the  Geo 
graphical  Society  a  number  of  valuable  articles  on  the 
physical  geography  of  that  island.  Schomburgk  was 
elected  a  member  of  various  learned  societies  in  Europe, 
created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  knight 
of  the  Prussian  order  of  the  Red  Eagle,  and  obtained 
other  similar  distinctions.  Died  in  1865.  The  plant 
called  Schomburgkia  Orchida  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Schon  or  Sclioen,  shon,  or  Schongauer,  shon'- 
gow'er,  (MARTIN,)  an  eminent  German  painter,  was  a 
native  of  Kolmbach  or  Ulm,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Franz  Stoss.  He  was  called  BUON  MAR- 
TINO  by  the  Italians,  and  was  a  friend  of  PietroPerugino. 
His  principal  works  are  at  Colmar,  Vienna,  Munich,  and 
Nuremberg.  His  "  Madonna,"  in  the  minster  at  Colmar, 
ranks  among  the  most  admirable  productions  of  early 
German  art.  He  also  executed  a  number  of  excellent 
engravings.  Died  in  1488. 

See  GALICHON,  "Martin  Schongauer,"  1859;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Schonaeus.     See  SCHOON. 


Schonbein  or  Schoenbein,  shon'bin,  (CHRISTIAN 
FRIKDRICII,)  a  German  chemist,  and  the  inventor  of 
gun-cotton,  born  at  Mitzingen  in  1799.  He  became  pro 
fessor  at  the  University  of  Basle  in  1828.  In  1839  he 
discovered  ozone,  and  subsequently  made  the  discovery 
of  nitro-saccharin  and  nitre-fibrin  or  gun-cotton.  He 
published  "Contributions  to  Physical  Chemistry,"  (1844,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  September,  1868. 

See  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  1868. 

Schoner,  sho'ner,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  mathema 
tician  and  astronomer,  born  at  Carlstadt  in  1477,  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Nuremberg.  Died  in  1547. 

Schongauer.     See  SCHON. 

Schoning  or  Schoeiiing,  sho'ning,  (GERHARD,)  a 
Norwegian  scholar,  born  in  Nordland  in  1722,  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Soroe.  Died  in 
1780. 

Schonlein  or  Schoenlein,  shbn'lin,  (JOHANN 
LUKAS,)  an  eminent  German  physician,  born  at  Bam- 
berg  in  1793.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  pathology 
and  therapeutics  at  Berlin  in  1840,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  lectures. 

See  G.  W.  SCIIARI.AU,  "Dr.  Schonlein  und  sein  Anliang,"  i$43; 
RICHTKR,  "Dr.  Schonlein  und  sein  Verhaltniss  zur  neuern  Heil- 
kunde,"  etc.,  1843. 

Schoockius,  sKo'ke-us,  or  Schoock,  sKok,  (MAR 
TIN,)  born  at  Utrecht  in  1614;  was  professor  of  languages, 
history,  etc.  in  his  native  city,  and  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.  He  published  several  critical  and  historical 
works.  Died  in  1669. 

See  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Schoolcraft,  skool'kraft,  (HENRY  ROWE,)  LL.D.,  a 
distinguished  American  traveller,  ethnologist,  and  scien 
tific  writer,  born  near  Albany,  New  York,  in  179^;.  In 
1818  he  made  a  geological  survey  of  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  and  published  in  1819  his  "  View  of  the  Lead- 
Mines  of  Missouri,"  etc.  In  1820,  as  geologist,  he  accom 
panied  General  Cass  on  his  expedition  to  the  Lake 
Superior  copper-region,  of  which  he  published  a  narra 
tive  in  1821.  Being  appointed  in  1822  agent  for  Indian 
affairs,  he  resided  several  years  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  in  1832,  while  on  an  embassy  to  some 
Indian  tribes  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
discovered  the  sources  of  that  river  in  the  Itasca  Lake. 
An  account  of  this  tour  was  published,  entitled  a  "  Nar 
rative  of  an  Expedition  to  Itasca  Lake,"  etc.,  (1834.)  In 
1828  he  founded  the  Michigan  Historical  Society,  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  elected  president.  Among  his 
numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  "Notes 
on  the  Iroquois,  or  Contributions  to  American  History, 
Antiquities,  and  General  Ethnology,"  (1848,)  "  Algic 
Researches,"  etc.,  "  Personal  Memoirs  of  a  Residence 
of  Thirty  Years  with  the  Indian  Tribes  on  the  Ameri 
can  Frontiers,"  (1853,)  and  "The  Myth  of  Hiawatha,  and 
other  Oral  Legends  of  the  North  American  Indians." 
He  married  about  1823  a  daughter  of  John  Johnston, 
of  Saulte  Sainte-Marie.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
an  Indian  chief.  Died  in  1864. 

"Mr.  Schoolcraft's  ethnological  writings,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "are  among  the  most  important  contributions 
that  have  been  made  to  the  literature  of  this  country.  .  .  . 
His  works  abound  in  materials  for  the  future  artist  and 
man  of  letters,  and  will  on  this  account  continue  to  be 
read  when  the  greater  portion  of  the  popular  literature 
of  the  day  is  forgotten." 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOI.D,  "Prose  Writers  of  America  ."  "North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1822,  and  October,  1839. 

Schoolcraft,  (LAURENCE,)  COLONEL,  an  American 
officer,  born  in  1760,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  It  is  stated  that 
the  original  family  name  was  Calcraft.  Died  at  Verona, 
New  York,  in  1840. 

Schoon,  van,  vtn  sKon,  [Lat.  SCHON/E'US,]  (CORNE 
LIUS,)  a  Dutch  dramatist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Gouda 
about  1540.  He  published  "  Carminum  Libellus," 
(1570,)  and  "Terentius  Christianus,"  (1614.)  The  latter 
is  a  collection  of  dramas  in  imitation  of  Terence.  Died 
in  1611. 

Schoonjans,  sKon'yans,  (ANTHONY,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1650.  He  worked  in 
Vienna  and  England.  Died  in  Vienna  in  1726. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SCHOOTEN 


'977 


SCHRODER 


Schooten,  sKo'ten,  (FRANS,)  a  Dutch  mathematician 
and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leyden.  He  published 
among  other  works,  "  Principia  Matheseos,"  and  "Ma 
thematical  Exercises."  Died  in  1659. 

Schopenhauer,  sho'pen-how'er,  (ARTHUR,)  a  cele 
brated  pessimist  philosopher  of  Germany,  a  son  ol 
Johanna,  mentioned  below,  was  born  at  Dantzic  in  1788 
He  published  "The  World  as  Will  and  Appearance 
or  Representation,"  ("Die  Welt  als  Wille  und  Vor 
stellung,"  1819,)  "  The  Two  Ground-Problems  of  Ethics,' 
(1841,)  "  On  the  Freedom  of  the  Will,"  and  a  collectior 
of  essays  entitled  "  Parerga  und  Paralipomena,"  (1851. 
According  to  Schopenhauer,  Will  is  the  one  reality  in  the 
universe,  all  else  is  mere  appearance.  He  taught,  among 
other  things,  that  the  world  is  essentially  and  radically 
evil.  Died  in  1860. 

See  GWINNER,  "  Schopenhauer's  Leben  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review' 
for  February,  1843. 

Schopenhauer,  (JOHANNA,)  a  German  authoress 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1770,  published  a  number  of  tales 
and  romances,  the  most  popular  of  which  are  "  Gabri- 
ele,"  "  Die  Tante,"  ("  The  Aunt,")  and  "  Sidonia."  Dice 
in  1849. 

See  "Youthful  Life  and  Pictures  of  Travel;  Autobiography  of 
Madame  Schopenhauer." 

Schopf  or  Schoepf,  shopf,  (Al.iUN,)  a  general,  born 
in  Hungary  about  1822.  He  fought  against  Austria  in 
1848  and  1849,  after  which  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  1861, 
and  defeated  a  body  of  insurgents  at  Camp  Wild-Cat, 
Kentucky,  October  21  of  that  year. 

Schopflin  or  Schoepflin,  shop'fieen,  (JoiiANN 
DANIEL,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Sulzburg  in  1694, 
became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Strasburg, 
(1720.)  He  was  the  author  of  "  Alsatia  Illustrata,"  (2 
vols.,  1751-61,)  and  other  historical  works.  Died  in  1771. 
"Without  any  close  contact,"  says  Goethe,  "he  had 
had  a  deep  influence  on  me.  .  .  .  He  was  one  of  those 
happy  persons  who  are  able  to  unite  the  past  and  the 
present,  and  know  how  to  knit  the  interests  of  life  and 
historical  knowledge  together.  .  .  .  He  came  into  con 
tact  with  all  the  scholars  of  his  time  ;  he  entertained 
princes;  he  gained  the  confidence  of  statesmen,  elabo 
rated  for  them  the  most  profound  deductions,  and  thus 
found  everywhere  a  theatre  for  his  talents."  ("Auto 
biography,"  vol.  ii.  p.  24.) 

See  RING,  "Vita  J.  D.  Schoepflini,"  1764:  LOBSTEIN,  "Leben 
J.  D.  Schopflins,"  1776;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Schopin  or  Chopin,  sho'paN',  (HENRI  FREDERIC,) 
a  painter,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1804, 
was  a  pupil  of  Baron  Gros.  His  works  are  principally 
historical  pictures. 

Schopp.     See  SCIOPPIUS. 

Schoppe,  shop'peh,  (AMALIA  EMMA,)  born  on  the 
island  of  Femern,  on  the  coast  of  Holstein,  in  1791, 
published  romances,  tales,  and  historical  works.  Died 
in  1858. 

Schoreel,  sKo-ral',  ?  Scoorel,  or  Schorel,  sKo'rel, 
(JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  near  Alkmaar  in  1495. 
Having  previously  visited  Palestine,  he  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  in  studying  the  works  of  the  Italian 
masters.  His  pictures  enjoy  a  high  reputation,  but  they 
are  very  rare,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  many  of  them 
by  the  Iconoclasts  in  the  disturbances  of  1566.  Died 
in  1562. 

Schorel.     See  SCHOREEL. 

Schorn,  von,  fon  shoRn,  (JOHANN  KARL  LUDWIG,) 
a  German  writer  upon  art,  born  in  Franconia  in  1793, 
became  professor  of  aesthetics  and  the  history  of  art  at 
Munich.  Died  in  1842. 

Schorn,  von,  (!VARL,)  a  historical  painter,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1802. 

Schotanus,  sKo-ta'nus,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Dutch  divine, 
born  in  Friesland  in  1603,  became  professor  of  Greek  and 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Franeker.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  Friesland  down  to  1558,"  and  several 
other  works.  Died  in  1671. 

Schott,  sKot,  (ANDREAS,)  an  eminent  Dutch  scholar, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1552.  He  studied  at  Louvain,  and 
subsequently  visited  Paris  and  Spain.  He  was  appointed 
in  1584  professor  of  Greek  and  rhetoric  at  Saragossa, 


and,  having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  afterwards 
invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  Jesuits'  College 
at  Rome.  His  works  are  very  numerous,  and  display 
profound  learning ;  among  the  most  esteemed  we  may 
name  "  Hispania  Illustrata,"  etc.,  a  collection  of  the  his 
torians  of  Spain,  Portugal,  India,  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1603-08,) 
"Hispania  Bibliotheca,"  (1608,)  being  an  account  of  the 
libraries  and  state  of  letters  in  Spain,  "  Selecta  Variorum 
Commentaria  in  Orationes  Ciceronis,"  (3  vols.,  1621,) 
and  "  Adagia  sive  Proverbia  Grascorum  ex  Zenobio," 
etc.  He  also  edited  the  works  of  Pomponius  Mela, 
Saint  Basil,  and  other  classics.  Died  in  1629. 

See  NICE'RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  FELIX  VAN  HULST,  "A.  Schott," 
1847;  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Schott,  shot,  (HEINRICH  AUGUST,)  a  learned  writer, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1780,  became  successively  professor 
of  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  native  city,  and  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  and  Jena.  Died  in  1835. 

Schott,  (KASPAR,)  a  German  Jesuit  and  experimental 
philosopher,  born  in  1608.  He  published  a  number  of 
scientific  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1666. 

Schott,  (WILHELM,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Mentz  in  1807. 

Schottgen  or  Schoettgen,  sh6t'c,en  or  shot'gen, 
(CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  Saxony  in 
1687,  published  "Horse  Hebraicag."  Died  in  1751. 

Schouvaloff.     See  SHOOVALOF. 

Schouw,  skow,  (JOACHIM  FREDRIC,)  a  Danish  botan 
ist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1789.  He  was  appointed  in 
1821  professor  of  botany  in  his  native  city.  In  1835  ne 
represented  the  University  in  the  Danish  Assembly,  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  president.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Elements  of  a  Universal  Geography  of  Plants," 
(1822,)  "  Delineations  of  Nature,"  (1839,)  "Earth,  Plants, 
and  Man,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1852. 

Schrader,  shRa'der,  (HEINRICH  ADOLF,)  a  German 
physician,  botanist,  and  writer,  born  near  Hilclesheim  in 
1761  ;  died  in  1836. 

Schrader,  (HEINRICH  EDUARD  SIEGFRIED.)  a  Ger 
man  jurist  and  writer  on  law,  was  born  at  Hilclesheim 
in  1779;  died  in  1860. 

Schrader,  (Junus,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1815.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Death 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  "  The  Temptation,"  and  "  Milton 
Dictating  to  his  Daughter." 

Schramm,  shRam,  (JEAN  PAUL  ADAM,)  COMTE,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Arras  in  1789.  He  commanded 
an  army  in  Algeria  in  1840,  was  minister  of  war  from  Oc- 
tobe:  to  December,  1850,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Schraudolph,  shRovv'dolf,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  his- 
;orical  painter,  born  at  Obersdorf  in  1808.  He  painted 
a  number  of  frescos  at  Munich. 

Schreber,  von,  fon  shRa'ber,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN 
DANIEL,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1739,  studied  under  Linnaeus  at  Upsal.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Erlangen  in  1769. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Description  of  the  Grasses,"  (in 
"erman,  1769-74.)  Died  in  1810. 

Schreiber,  shRi'ber,  (ALOYS  WILHELM,)  a  German 
listorian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1763  ;  died  in  1841. 

Schreiber,  (HEINRICH,)  a  theological  writer,  born  at 
Fribourg,  in  Belgium,  in  1793,  was  appointed  in  1826 
professor  of  moral  theology  in  his  native  city. 

Schrevel.     See  SCHRKVELIUS. 

Schrevelius,  skre-vee'le-us,  [Dutch  pron.  sKRa-va'- 
e-us,]  originally  Schrevel,  sKRa'vel,  (CORNELIS,)  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  at  Haarlem,  in  Hol- 
ancl,  about  1615,  was  rector  of  a  school  at  Leyden.  His 
most  important  work  is  his  "Lexicon  Manuale  Graeco- 
atinum,"  (1645,)  which  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  also  published  editions  of  numerous  Latin 
:lassics.  Died  about  1665. 

Schrockh  or  Schroeckh,  shRok,  (JOHANN  MAT- 

HIAS,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Vienna  in  1733,  was 

a  contributor  to  the  "  Acta  Eruditorum,"  and  wrote  two 

aluable  works  on  ecclesiastical  history.     Died  in  1808. 

Schroder   or   Schroeder,    shRo'der,   (FRIEDRICH 

^UDWIG,)  a  celebrated  German  actor  and  dramatist,  born 

t  Schwerin  in  1744.     He  wrote  a  number  of  comedies, 

and  made  translations   from   Shakspeare,  whose  works 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHRODER 


1978 


SCHULTZE 


he  contributed  to  make  popular  in  Germany.     Died  in 
1816. 

See  MEYER,  "  F.  L.  Schroder,"  1819;  LOBNER,  "  F.  L.  Schroder, 
biografisk  Skizze,"  1847. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  (JOIIANN  JOACHIM,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  in  Ilesse-Cassel  in  1680.  He 
visited  Armenia,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his 
"Thesaurus  Linguae  Armenicae."  Died  in  1756. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  (SOPHIE,)  a  German 
actress,  born  at  Paderborn  in  1781,  attained  the  highest 
reputation  in  her  profession,  particularly  in  tragic  parts. 
Her  daughter,  Wilhelmine  Schroder-Devrient,  was  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  vocalists  of  Germany.  Sophie 
died  about  1856. 

Schroder-Devrient,  (deVre-SN',)  (WILHELMINE,)  a 
popular  singer,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Hamburg  in  1805.  She  was  married  in  1823  to  Karl 
August  Devrient,  an  actor.  She  performed  in  Paris, 
London,  and  Saint  Petersburg.  Died  in  1860. 

Schroderus.     See  SKYTTK. 

Schrodter  or  Schroedter,  sliKot'ter,  (ADOLF,)  a 
German  comic  painter,  bom  at  Schwedt  in  1805. 

Schroeckh.     See  SCHROCKH. 

Schroeder.     See  SCHRODER. 

Schroter  or  Schroeter,  sliRo'ter,  (CHRISTOPH 
GOTTLIEB,)  the  inventor  of  the  piano-forte,  was  born  at 
Hohenstein,  in  Saxony,  in  1699.  He  became  organist 
a1:  Minden,  and  afterwards  at  Nordhausen,  where  he  died 
in  1782. 

Schroter  or  Schroeter,  QOIIANN  HIERONYMUS,) 
a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1745.  He  con 
structed  a  telescope  which  Lalande  declared  one  of  the 
best  that  had  been  made,  and  published  several  astro 
nomical  works.  Died  in  1816. 

Schryver,  sKrl'ver,  [Lat.  SCRIVE'RIUS,]  (PETER,)  a 
Dutch  writer,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1576,  published  a 
number  of  poems  and  critical  treatises,  in  Latin;  also 
"  Antiquitatum  Batavicarum  Tabularium,"  (1609.)  Died 
in  1660. 

Schubart,  shoo'baRt,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH  DAN 
IEL,)  a  German  litterateur  and  poet,  born  in  1739,  founded 
in  1774  a  literary  and  political  journal,  entitled  the 
"Deutsche  Chronik."  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Hymn 
to  Frederick  the  Great."  Died  in  1791. 

See  DAVID  F.  STRAUSS,  "Schubart's  Leben  in  seinen  Briefen," 
1849;  L.  A.  SCHUBART,  "  C.  F.  D.  Schubart's  Charakter,"  1789. 

Schubart  von  Kleefeld,  shoo'baRt  fon  kla'felt, 
(JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  agriculturist,  born  at 
Zeitz,  in  Prussia,  in  1734;  died  in  1787. 

See  ROCKSTROH,  "  J.  C.  Schubart  von  Kleefeld,"  1846. 

Schubert,  shoo'beRt,  (FRANZ,)  an  eminent  German 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1797.  He  became  at  an 
early  age  one  of  the  singers  of  the  court  chapel,  and 
was  subsequently  instructed  in  music  by  Ruziczka  and 
Salieri.  He  exercised  himself  in  almost  every  species 
of  musical  composition  ;  but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  songs  and  ballads,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
most  exquisite  productions  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Franz  Schubert:  a  Musical  Biography,"  by  DR.  KREISSLE 
VON  HEI.LBORN,  London,  1866. 

Schubert,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  German  writer 
on  history  and  statistics,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1799. 

Schubert,  von,  fon  shoo'beRt,  (FRIEDRICH  THEO- 
DOR,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  in  1758.  He  removed 
to  Saint  Petersburg  about  1785,  and  became  in  1805 
director  of  the  observatory  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  that  capital.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  councillor 
of  state  by  the  Czar  of  Russia.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Theoretical  Astronomy,"  (in  German,  3 
vols.,  1798.)  Died  in  1825. 

Schubert,  von,  (GOTTHILF  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Hohenstein, 
in  Saxony,  in  1780.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena, 
and  became  professor  of  natural  science  at  Erlangen. 
He  published  "Views  of  the  Night  Side  of  Natural 
Science,"  (1808,)  "History  of  the  Soul,"  (1830,)  and 
Manuals  of  Natural  Historv,  Mineralogy,  etc.  Died  in 
1860. 

Schiicking  or  Schuecking,  shiik'king,  (CHRISTOPH 
BERNHARD  LEVEN,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in  1814, 
has  published  poems,  dramas,  and  romances. 


Schuetz.     See  Scuiirz. 

Schulenburg,  von,  fon  shoo'len-booRG',  or  Schu- 
lemberg,  shoo'lem-beRG7,  (ADOLF  FRIEDRICH,)  COUNT, 
a  Prussian  general,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1685,  was  a 
nephew  of  Johann  Matthias,  noticed  below.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Mollwitz,  where  he  commanded 
the  cavalry,  in  April,  1741. 

Schulenburg,  Schulenburg,  or  Schulembourg, 
von,  (JOHANN  MATTHIAS,)  COUNT,  a  Prussian  general, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1661,  served  in  the  Polish  wars 
under  Sobieski,  and  subsequently  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army,  and  defended  Corfu 
against  the  Turks.  Died  about  1745. 

See  "Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  by  J. 
MITCHELL,  1865  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1840. 

Schiller.     See  SAHINUS,  (GEORG.) 

Schuler,  shoo'ler,  (CHARLES  AUGUSTE,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1804;  died  in  1859. 

Schultens,  sKul'tens,  (ALBERT,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Groningen  in  1686. 
He  was  ordained  a  minister  in  1708,  and  became  pro 
fessor  of  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  languages  at  Ley- 
den  about  1720.  He  filled  this  chair  until  his  death. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Hebrew  Roots," 
("Origines  Hebraeas,"  2  vols.,  1724-38,)  "Older  Monu 
ments  of  Arabia,"  ("  Monumenta  vetustiora  Arabias," 
1740,)  and  a  "Life  of  Saladin,"  in  Arabic  and  Latin, 
(1755.)  Died  in  1750. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Schultens,  (HENDRIK  ALBERT,)  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Herborn  in  1749.  He  studied 
the  classics  and  the  Oriental  tongues  at  Leyclen,  and 
afterwards  spent  some  time  in  England.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1778  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Leyden,  and  became  rector  of  the  university  in  1787. 
He  published  "On  the  Diligence  of  the  Belgians  in  cul 
tivating  Arabic  Literature,"  ("De  Studio  Belgarum  in 
Literis  Arabicis  Excolendis,"  1779,)  "Part  of  the  Arabic 
Proverbs  of  Meidan,  with.  Notes,"  ("Meidanii  Prover- 
biorum  Arabicorum  Pars,  Latine,  cum  Notis,"  1795,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1793. 

See  F.  T.  RINCK,  "  H.  A.  Schultens,"  1795  ;  KANTELAAR,  "  Lof- 
rede  op  H.  A.  Schultens,"  1794. 

Schultens,  (JAN  JACOB,)  an  Orientalist,  born  at 
Franeker  in  1716,  was  a  son  of  Albert,  and  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
at  Leyden.  Died  in  1778. 

Sc'hultet,  shool'tet,  J  Lat.  SCULTF/TUS,]  (ABRAHAM,) 
a  German  Protestant  divine,  born  in  Silesia  in  1556  or 
1566,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  moral  and  theological  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Schulting,  sKiil'ting,  (ANTONIUS,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1659.  In  1713  he  was 
associated  with  Noodt  as  professor  of  law  at  Leyden. 
His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "Jurisprudence  before  the 
Time  of  Justinian,"  ("  Jurisprudentia  Vetus  ante-Justi- 
nianea.")  Died  in  1734. 

Schulting,  (CORNELIUS,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born 
at  Steenwyck  about  1540.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Bibliotheca  Catholica  contra  Theologiam  Cal- 
vinianam,"  (2  vols.,  1602.)  Died  in  1604. 

Schultz,  shoolts,  [Lat.  SCULTE'TUS,]  (BARTHOLO- 
MAUS,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1540, 
contributed  to  the  reform  of  the  calendar.  Died  in  1614. 

Schultz,  (DAVID,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
born  near  Freistadt  in  1779.  He  published  several 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  Died  in  1854. 

Schultz,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  novelist  and  his 
torical  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1762  ;  died  in  1798. 

Schultz-Schultzenstein,  shoolts-shoolt'sen-stln', 
(KARL  HEINRICH,)  a  German  physiologist,  born  at  Alt 
Ruppin  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  1833.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  treatise  (in  French)  "  On  the  Circulation  and 
Lactiferous  Vessels  in  Plants,"  (1839,)  and  "Discovery 
of  the  True  Nourishment  of  Plants."  He  has  also 
published  the  "Universal  Doctrine  of  Disease,"  (1844,) 
and  other  valuable  medical  treatises. 

Schultze,  shoolt'seh,  (JOHANN  ABRAHAM  PETER,) 
a  German  composer,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1747.  His 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


SCHULZ 


1979 


SCHWANTHALER 


works  include  oratorios,  hymns,  and  songs.  His  ballad 
"Am  Rhein"  enjoys  great  popularity.  Died  in  1800. 

Schulz,  shoolts,  (WiLHELM,)  a  German  political 
writer,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1797. 

Schulze  or  Schultze,  shoolt'seh,  (ERNST,)  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born  at  Celle  in  1789.  While  a  student  at 
Gottingen,  he  published  his  narrative  poem  of  "  Psyche," 
and  subsequently  "  Cecilia,  a  Romantic  Poem,  in  Twenty 
Cantos."  His  "Enchanted  Rose"  ("Die  bezauberte 
Rose,"  1818)  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  and  has 
taken  its  place  among  German  classics.  It  was  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Caroline  von  Crespigny.  He  died 
in  1817.  A  collection  of  his  works,  with  a  biography 
prefixed,  was  published  in  1822  by  his  friend  Bouterwek. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1827. 

Schulze,  (FRIKDRICH  AUGUST,)  a  German  novelist 
and  poet,  born  at  Dresden  in  1770,  assumed  the  syno 
nym  of  FRIEDRICH  LAUN.  Died  in  1849. 

Schulze,  (FRIEDRICH  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  econo 
mist,  born  near  Meissen  in  1795.  He  published  several 
works  on  political  economy.  Died  in  1860. 

Schulze,  (GoTTLOi!  ERNST,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Heldrungen,  in  Thuringia,  in  1761,  published 
several  treatises  against  the  systems  of  Kant  and  Rein- 
hold.  Died  in  1833. 

Schulze,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  scholar,  and  reformer 
in  education,  born  in  1786.  He  entered  the  Prussian 
civil  service,  and  became  privy  councillor.  He  directed 
for  many  years,  ending  in  1840,  the  administration  of 
the  Prussian  colleges,  universities,  and  public  libraries, 
and  was  the  principal  manager  of  great  scientific  enter 
prises  and  voyages  of  exploration.  In  these  services 
he  displayed  wisdom  and  great  activity. 

Schulze,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg  in  1687, 
wrote  "  Historia  Medicinas  ad  Annum  Romae  535," 
(1728,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1745. 

Schumacher,  shoo'maK'er,  (CHRISTIAN  ANDREAS,) 
a  Danish  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  Seeland  in  1810,  is  a  nephew  of  Ileinrich  Christian, 
noticed  below.  He  translated  Ilumboldt's  "  Cosmos" 
into  Danish. 

Schumacher,  (HEINRICH  CHRISTIAN,)  an  able 
astronomer,  born  at  Bramstedt,  Holstein,  in  1780.  He 
became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen  in  1815, 
a  few  years  after  which  date  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Observatory  of  Altona.  He  edited  for  many 
years  a  valuable  periodical  entitled  "  Astronomische 
Nachrichten."  Died  in  1850. 

See  QUETELET,  "Notice  sur  H.  C.  Schumacher,"  1851. 

Schumann,  shoo'man,  (ROBERT,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Zwickau  in  1810,  became  in  1850 
chapel-master  at  Dusseldoif.  Among  his  best  works  is 
the  oratorio  of  "  Paradise  and  the  Peri."  He  died  in 
1856.  His  wife,  CLARA  WIECK,  is  one  of  the  most  dis 
tinguished  female  pianists  of  the  time. 

Scliuppen,  van,  vtn  sKup'pen,  (PiETER,)  a  Flemish 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1625, -was 
a  pupil  of  Nanteuil.  He  worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1702.  His  son  JACQUES  (1670-1751)  was  a  portrait- 
painter. 

Schurmann,  von,  fon  shoon'man,  (ANNA  MARIA,)  a 
German  lady,  distinguished  for  her  talents,  learning,  and 
piety,  was  born  at  Cologne  in  1607.  She  became  a  con 
vert  to  the  doctrines  of  the  mystic  Labadie,  and  after  his 
death  retired  to  a  religious  association  near  Leeuwarden, 
where  she  died  in  1678. 

See  NICKRON,  "  Memoires  ;"  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique ;"  SCHOTEL,  "A.  M.  von  Schurmann,"  1854. 

Schurtzfleisch,  shooRts'fllsh,  [Lat.  SARCMA'SIUS,] 
(CONRAD  SAMUEL,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  1641, 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  of  history  at  Wittenberg. 
Died  in  1708. 

Schurz,  shoorts,  (CARL,)  a  German  orator  and  gen 
eral,  born  near  Cologne  in  1829,  was  liberally  educated. 
He  took  part  in  the  revolutionary  movements  of  1849, 
and  when  they  were  defeated  he  went  into  exile.  About 
1852  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin.  In  1856  he  advocated  the  election 
of  Fremont  by  public  speeches  in  the  German  language. 


He  afterwards  made  political  speeches  in  English,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  1860  he 
addressed  the  people  of  various  States  in  favour  of  the 
election  of  Lincoln.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  Spain 
in  1861,  and  brigadier-general  in  1862.  He  commanded 
a  division  at  Chancellorsville,  May,  1863,  and  a  corps  at 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3  of  that  year.  In  1869  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from  Missouri. 

Schuselka,  shoo'zel-ka,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Budweis  in  1811,  has  written  a  number  of  politi 
cal  and  miscellaneous  works. 

Schuster,  shoo'ster,  (!GNAZ,)  a  German  comic  actor 
of  great  popularity,  born  about  1780,  was  a  resident  of 
Vienna.  Died  in  1835. 

Schut,  sKiit,  (CORNELIUS,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1600,  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He 
had  a  brilliant  imagination  and  great  facility  of  execu 
tion.  Died  in  1649. 

Schiitz  or  Schuetz,  shuts,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTFRIED,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Duderstadt  in  1747,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "  Allgemeine  Literaturzeitung" 
at  Jena,  (1785.)  He  published  editions  of  ^schylus 
and  Cicero.  Died  in  1832. 

Schiitz,  [Lat.  SAGITTA'RIUS,]  (HEINRICH,)  a  German 
composer  and  musician,  born  in  Voigtland  in  1585.  He 
studied  at  Venice,  and  became  first  chapel-master  at 
Dresden.  His  church  music  was  highly  esteemed  by 
his  contemporaries,  and  he  is  said  to  have  first  intro 
duced  the  Italian  Opera  into  Germany.  Died  in  1672. 

Schiitze  or  Schuetze,  shut'seh,  (JOHANN  STE- 
PHAN,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Magdeburg  in 
1771,  wrote  tales,  travels,  and  dramatic  works.  Died 
in  1839. 

Schuur,  van  der,  va*n  der  sKiiR,  (THEODORUS,)  a 
Dutch  historical  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1628. 
He  worked  at  Rome  fourteen  years,  and  returned  to  the 
Hague  in  1665.  Died  in  1705. 

Schuyler,  skl'ler,  (PHILIP,)  an  able  American  gen 
eral  and  Senator,  born  at  Albany  in  November,  1733. 
He  served  in  the  war  against  the  French  and  Indians  in 
1756.  In  June,  1775,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
an  army  in  New  York,  with  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  about  to  move  the  army  into  Canada,  but  he 
was  taken  sick,  and  the  command  devolved  in  Septem 
ber  on  General  Montgomery.  In  August,  1777,  he  was 
superseded  by  General  Gates,  in  consequence  of  the  un 
reasonable  jealousy  with  which  Congress  regarded  him. 
His  conduct  was  vindicated  by  a  court  of  inquiry.  He 
afterwards  rendered  important  services  in  military  affairs, 
although  he  declined  to  take  command  of  an  army.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  General  Congress  from  1778  to 
1781,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York  in  1789.  He  was  again 
elected  a  Senator,  in  place  of  Aaron  Burr,  in  1797.  One 
of  his  daughters  was  the  wife  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 
Died  at  Albany  in  November,  1804. 

See  BENSON  J.  LOSSING,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Philip  Schuyler," 
1860;  BANCROFT,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  "National  Por 
trait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Schwab,  shwap,  (GusTAV,)  a  distinguished  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1792.  He  became  in 
1817  professor  of  ancient  literature  in  his  native  city. 
He  published  a  number  of  popular  songs  and  ballads, 
also  prose  essays  on  various  subjects,  and  an  excellent 
"  Life  of  Schiller."  He  was  for  a  time  associated  with 
Chamisso  as  editor  of  the  "Musenalmanach."  Died  in 
1850. 

See  WASSERMANN,  "G.  Schwab,  der  edle  Barde  Schwabens," 
1851. 

Schwanthaler,  shftan'ti'ler,  (Luowic  MICHAEL,) 
an  eminent  German  artist,  born  at  Munich  in  1802. 
He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Rome,  and  on  his  return, 
in  1826,  executed  two  bas-relief  friezes  for  the  Glypto- 
thek,  and  a  statue  of  Shakspeare  for  the  theatre.  He 
became  in  1835  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Academy 
of  Munich.  Among  the  numerous  works  which  he 
produced  within  about  twelve  years,  we  may  name  the 
relievo  frieze,  over  two  hundred  feet  long,  in  the  Barba- 
rossa  Hall,  the  twelve  colossal  statues  of  the  ancestors 
of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  the  "Myth  of  Aphrodite," 
and  the  fifteen  statues  of  the  "  Battle  of  Arminius,"  (  Her- 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHWARTZ 


1980 


SCIOPPIUS 


manns-schlacht,)  in  the  northern  pediment  of  the  Wai- 
halla  at  Ratisbon.  His  colossal  bronze  statue  of  "  Ba 
varia,"  in  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Munich,  esteemed  one  of 
his  master-pieces,  is  of  greater  magnitude  than  any  other 
group  of  modern  sculpture,  the  main  figure  being  fifty- 
four  feet  high.  Schwanthaler  also  executed  statues  ot 
the  emperor  Rudolph,  of  Goethe,  Mozart,  and  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  as  well  as  numerous  subjects  from  Grecian 
mythology.  He  died  in  1848.  Among  his  most  distin 
guished  pupils  are  Brugger,  Widmanh,  and  Kriesmeyer. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  PIERER,  "  Univer 
sal- Lexikon." 

Schwartz,  shwaiUs,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Ingolstadt  about  1550,  worked  at  Munich.  Died 
in  1594. 

Schwarz,  shwaRts,  (BF.RTHOLD,)  called  also  CON- 
STANTINE  ANCKLITZEN,  (ank'klifsen,)  a  German  chemist 
and  Franciscan  monk,  born  at  Freiburg,  is  said  to  have 
invented  gunpowder  about  1330.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  him  at  Freiburg  in  1853. 

Schwarz  or  Schwartz,  shwftKts,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIED- 
RICH,)  an  eminent  German  missionary,  born  at  Sonnen- 
burg,  Prussia,  in  1726.  He  went  to  India  in  1750,  and 
laboured  many  years  about  Tranquebar,  Tanjore,  and 
Trichinopoly  with  great  success.  He  gained  the  confi 
dence  of  Hyder  Ali.  His  character  was  highly  com 
mended  by  Bishop  Heber.  Died  in  India  in  1798. 

See  PEARSON,  "Life  of  Schwarz,"  1834. 

Schwarz,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTMKB,)  a  learned  German 
writer  and  bibliographer,  born  in  Misnia  in  1675,  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Altorf.  Died  in  1751. 

Schwarz,  (FKIEDRICH  HEINRICH  CHRISTIAN,)  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  was  born  at  Giessen 
in  1766.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Jung-Stilling,  and 
published  several  educational  works.  Died  in  1837. 

Schwarzenberg,  shwaRt/sen-beRG',  (FELIX  LUIHVIG 
JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  an  Austrian  statesman  and  mili 
tary  commander,  born  at  Krumau,  in  Bohemia,  in  1800. 
He  was  made  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1848,  and  sub 
sequently  became  prime  minister.  Died  in  1852. 

Schwarzenberg,  von,  fon  shwart/sen-beRG',  (FRIED- 
RICH  JOHANN  JOSEPH,)  PRINCE,  an  Austrian  prelate, 
born  in  1809.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  in 
1836,  cardinal  in  1842,  and  Archbishop  of  Prague  in 
1850.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Rome  in 
1869-70. 

Schwarzenberg,  von,  (KARL  PHILIPP,)  PRINCE, 
an  Austrian  field-marshal,  born  at  Vienna  in  1771.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1794  and 
1799,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden, 
where  he  succeeded  in  saving  his  own  corps.  In  1808 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in 
1810  became  general  of  the  Austrian  cavalry.  After  the 
peace  of  Vienna  he  was  appointed  to  negotiate  the 
marriage  of  Napoleon  with  Maria  Louisa.  On  the  alli 
ance  of  Austria  with  France,  he  was  placed  by  Napoleon 
at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  Russian  cam 
paign  of  1812,  and  obtained  for  his  services  the  rank 
of  field-marshal.  In  1813  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  allied  armies,  and,  having  defeated  the 
French  at  Leipsic,  advanced  to  Paris.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  imperial 
council  of  war,  and  obtained  many  other  distinctions. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  PROKESCH  VON  OSTEN,  "  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Karl  zu 
Schwarzenberg,"  1822;  "Nouvelle  Kiographie  Generale." 

Schwegler,  shwSc'ler,  (ALUKECHT,)  a  German  theo 
logian  and  disciple  of  Baur,  born  at  Michelbach,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1819.  He  published  a  "History  of 
Philosophy,"  and  "Roman  History,"  (1853,)  also  Ger 
man  translations  of  Aristotle's  "Metaphysics"  and  the 
"Church  History"  of  Eusebius.  Died  in  1857. 

Schweidel,  shwl'clel,  (GEORG  JAKOB,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1690,  published 
"Thesaurus  Bibliothecalis,"  (4  vols.,  1739.)  Died  in 
1752. 

Schweigaard,  shwi'gaRd,  (ANTONY  MARTIN,)  a 
Norwegian  jurist,  born  at  Krageroe  in  1808,  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  political  economy  and  statistics  at 
the  University  of  Chi  istiania.  He  has  published  several 
works  on  law,  finance,  and  statistics. 


Schweighauser,  shwir/hoi'zer,  (JEAN  GEOFFROI,) 
an  antiquary,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1776;  died  in  1844. 

Schweighauser  or  Schweighaeuser,  shwic'hoi'- 
zer,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Strasburg  in 
1742,  became  in  1778  professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages  in  his  native  city.  He  published  editions  of 
Appianus,  Polybius,  Herodotus,  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1830. 

See  CUVIER,  "  filoge  de  Schweiphaenser,"  1830;  STIEVENART, 
"ElogedeJ.  Schweighaeuser,"  1830;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Schweiiiitz,  von,  fon  shwl'nits,  (LEWIS  DAVID,)  an 
American  botanist  and  Moravian  minister,  was  born  at 
Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  in  1780.  He  discovered  more 
than  a  thousand  new  species  of  plants,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  Fungi.  Died  in  1834. 

Schweizer,  shwTt/ser,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  German  the 
ologian  of  the  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at  Murten 
in  1808. 

Schwenkfeld,  shwenk'fclt,  (KASPAR,)  founder  of  a 
sect  called  by  his  name,  was  born  at  Ossig,  in  Silesia,  in 
1490.  He  embraced  with  zeal  the  cause  of  the  Refor 
mation,  but  differed  from  the  other  Protestants  in  his 
views  of  the  eucharist,  (he  deified  the  body  of  Christ,) 
and  in  other  points  of  Christian  doctrine.  lie  died  about 
1560.  A  number  of  his  followers  took  refuge  in  North 
America  in  1733. 

Schwerin,  von,  fon  shweh-reen',  (KURT  CHRIS 
TOPH,)  COUNT,  a  distinguished  commander,  born  in 
Swedish  Pomerania  in  1684.  He  served  under  Eugene 
and  Marlborough,  and  subsequently  in  the  army  of 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  and  made  him  a  count.  He  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Moll \vitz,  in  1741. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Prague,  in  1757. 

See  VARNHAGEN  VON  ENSE,  "Leben  des  Grafen  von  Schwerin," 
1841;  KOENIG,  "  Lebensbeschreibiing  des  Grafen  von  Schwerin," 
i?qo;  PAULI,  "Leben  grosser  Helden  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Schwilgue,  shvel'ga',  (JEAN  BAPTLSTE,)  a  French 
mechanician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1776.  He  invented 
several  useful  instruments,  and  reconstructed  the  ad 
mirable  mechanism  of  the  clock  of  the  Strasburg  Cathe 
dral.  Died  in  1856. 

Schwind,  von,  fon  shw?nt,  (MoRrrz,)  professor  of 
painting  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Munich,  was  born 
at  Vienna  in  1804.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cornelius,  and 
has  produced  a  number  of  frescos  and  oil-paintings. 

Schyrle.     See  RHEITA,  VON. 

Scialoia,  sha-lo'ya  or  she-a-lo'ya,  (ANTONIO,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  near  Naples  in  1817,  has  published 
"  Principles  of  Social  Economy,"  and  other  works. 

Sciarpelloni.     See  CREDI,  ni. 

Scina,  she-na',  (DoMENico,)  an  eminent  Italian 
mathematician  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Palermo  in 
1765,  became  professor  of  physics  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Report  on  the  Fossils  of  Mar- 
dolce,"  etc.,  "  Introduction  to  Experimental  Physics," 
(1803,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Philosophy  of  Em- 
pedocles,"  (1813,)  "Topography  of  Palermo  and  its 
Environs,"  (1818,)  "View  of  the  Literary  History  of 
Italy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1827,)  "Ex 
periments  and  Discoveries  in  Electro-Magnetism,"  and 
other  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1837. 

See  S.  COSTANZO,  "  Vida  publica  y  privada  de  D.  Scina,"  1846  : 
MALVICA,  "  Elogio  di  D.  Scini,"  1838;  D.  AVELLA,  "  Esequie  alia 
Memoria  di  D.  Scina,"  1838. 

Scioppius,  stse-op'pe-iis,  [Ger.  SCHOPP,  shop,]  (CAS 
PAR,)  a  celebrated  classical  scholar,  born  at  Neumark, 
in  the  Palatinate,  in  1576.  Having  visited  Rome,  he 
was  patronized  by  the  pope  and  renounced  the  Prot 
estant  religion.  He  was  afterwards  created  a  count 
palatine  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  Among  his  numer 
ous  works  we  may  name  his  "  Elements  of  Stoic  Mornl 
Philosophy,"  ("  Elementa  Philosophise  Stoicae  Moralis,") 
"  De  Arte  Critica,"  etc.,  "  Paradoxa  Literaria,"  and 
"GrammaticaPhilosophica,"  or  Institutesof  Latin  Gram 
mar.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  controversial  works 
against  the  Protestants  and  their  leaders,  particularly 
Henry  IV.  of  France  and  James  I.  of  England.  Sciop 
pius  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time;  but 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCIPIO 


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SCIPIO 


he   was   equally   conspicuous    for    his    intolerance    and 
quarrelsome  propensities.     Died  in  1649.      ^, 

See  HAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;  NICERON, 
"  Memoires :"  C.  NISARD,  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique  des 
Lettres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge^neiale." 

Scipio,  s!p'e-o,  [Gr.  I^KL-'IUV  ;  Fr.  SCTPION,  se'pe'iN"'; 
It.  SCIPIONK,  she-pe-o'na,]  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Roman  family  of  the  patrician  gens  Cornelia.  The  word 
Scipio  signifies  a  "staff"  or  "stick."  The  first  member 
of  this  family  that  appears  in  history  was  PUBLIUS 
CORNKLIUS  SCIPIO,  who  was  appointed  master  of  the 
horse  by  the  dictator  Furius  Camillas  in  396  B.C.  He 
was  consular  or  military  tribune  in  394,  and  interrex  in 
389  B.C.  A  PUBLIUS  CORNELIUS  SCIPIO,  probably  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  curtile  sediles 
appointed  in  366  B.C.  Lucius  CORNELIUS  SCIPIO  was 
consul  in  350  B.C.  PuBi.ius  CORNELIUS  SCIPIO  BAR- 
HATUS  was  chosen  dictator  in  306  and  pontifex  maximus 
in  305  H.C.  Lucius  CORNELIUS  SCIPIO  BARHATUS  was 
consul  in  298  H.C.,  and  defeated  the  Etruscans.  He 
was  the  father  of  CNEIUS  CORNELIUS  SCIPIO  ASINA 
(see  separate  article)  and  of  Lucius  CORNELIUS,  who 
was  consul  in  259  B.C.  and  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 

Scipio,  [Fr.  SCIPION,  se'pe'iN',]  (Puiii.ius  CORNE 
LIUS,)  a  Roman  commander,  father  of  the  great  Scipio, 
(surnamed  "  Africanus,")  was  consul  in  the  first  year  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  218  B.C.  He  commanded  the 
army  of  Northern  Italy  when  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps 
on  his  way  to  Rome.  Scipio  met  the  enemy  near  the 
Ticino,  where  lie  was  defeated  and  severely  wounded. 
Soon  after  this  event  the  other  consul,  Sempronius,  took 
command  uf  the  army,  which  was  again  defeated,  with 
great  loss,  on  the  Trebia,  218  B.C.  Scipio  was  sent  to 
Spain  in  217,  and  fought  many  battles  against  the  Car 
thaginians  in  that  peninsula.  He  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  211  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Scipio,  or,  more  fully,  Scip'I-o  Af-ri-ca'nus* 
Ma'jor,  [Fr.  SCIPION  L'AFRICAIN,  se'pe'ox'  li'fRe'- 
ka.x',]  (PUBLIUS  CORNELIUS,)  an  illustrious  Roman  com 
mander,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  235  or  234 
B.C.  After  he  had  assumed  the  togavirilis,  he  was  accus 
tomed  to  pass  several  hours  each  morning  in  the  Capi 
tol  in  solitary  devotion  or  meditation.  He  gained  in  his 
youth  the  confidence  of  the  people,  who  were  persuaded 
that  he  was  a  special  favourite  of  the  gods.  It  is  also 
stated  that  he  professed  to  seek  and  receive  divine  coun 
sel,  by  which  his  public  conduct  was  directed.  He  fought 
at  the' battle  of  the  Ticino,  and  rescued  his  wounded  father 
there,  in  218  B.C.  In  216,  as  military  tribune,  he  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Cannas.  Scipio  and  Appius  Claudius 
were  appointed  commanders  of  the  troops  which  escaped 
from  that  battle.  He  was  elected  ajdile  in  212  B.C.,  and 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Spain  in 
210.  He  took  New  Carthage  (Cartagena)  in  the  first 
campaign,  and  his  personal  influence  or  liberal  policy 
induced  many  native  chiefs  to  become  allies  of  Rome. 
In  209  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  Hasdrubal  in  the 
south  of  Spain.  Another  decisive  victory  at  Silpia, 
Carmo,  or  Elinga,  in  207,  rendered  him  master  of  nearly 
all  Spain.  Soon  after  this  event  he  crossed  over  to 
Africa  with  a  few  attendants,  and  attempted  to  gain  the 
alliance  of  Syphax.  Having  completed  the  conquest  of 
Spain,  in  206  n.c.  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  205,  although  he  was  under  the  legal  age.  He 
at  once  resolved  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa,  although 
Hannibal  still  remained  in  Italy.  This  plan  was  opposed 
by  Fabius  Maximus  and  other  senators.  Scipio  obtained 
Sicily  as  his  province,  with  permission  to  cross  into 
Africa  ;  but  the  senate  refused  to  grant  him  an  army  for 
that  purpose.  He  thereupon  raised  an  army  of  volun 
teers,  invaded  Africa  in  204,  and  was  joined  by  King 
Massinissa.  He  defeated  Hasdrubal  (son  of  Cisco)  and 
Syphax  in  several  battles,  after  which  the  Carthaginians 
recalled  Hannibal  for  the  defence  of  their  capital.  The 
question  of  peace  was  discussed  by  Scipio  and  Hanni 
bal  in  a  personal  interview  ;  but  they  failed  to  agree  on 

*  Chaucer  calls  him  simply  AFFKIKAN,  obviously  a  corruption  of 
Africanus.  (See  "Assembly  of  Foules.") 


the  terms.  In  October,  202,  Scipio  defeated  Hannibal 
in  the  memorable  battle  of  Zama,  which  decided  the 
fate  of  Carthage.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  in  201,  he 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  obtained  the 
surname  of  AFRICANUS.  The  people  proposed  to  make 
him  dictator  for  life  ;  but  he  declined  the  honour.  He 
was  chosen  censor  in  199,  and  consul  in  194  B.C. 

In  the  year  190  he  volunteered  to  serve  as  legate  of 
his  brother,  Lucius  Scipio,  who  was  then  consul,  and 
who  commanded  in  the  war  against  Antiochus  of  Syria. 
The  two  Scipios  defeated  Antiochus,  and  ended  the  war 
by  a  treaty  of  peace.  About  187  B.C.  Africanus  and  his 
brother  were  publicly  accused  of  receiving  biibes  from 
Antiochus.  Lucius  was  first  tried,  and  condemned  to 
pay  a  large  fine.  Africanus,  in  defiance  of  the  law,  res 
cued  his  brother  from  the  officer  who  was  dragging  him 
to  prison.  He  was  afterwards  prosecuted,  and  made  a 
speech  in  his  defence,  which  was  partially  successful,  as 
his  enemies  and  judges  abandoned  the  case.  Deeply 
affected  by  the  ingratitude  of  the  people,  he  left  Rome, 
never  to  return,  and  died  at  Liternum  in  183  B.C.,  in  the 
same  year  as  Hannibal.  He  had  married  yEmilia,  a 
daughter  of  L.  /Emilius  Patilus,  and  left  two  sons  and 
two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was  the  famous  Cornelia. 
With  the  exception  of  Julius  Caesar,  (and  perhaps  of 
Sertorins,)  Scipio  was  probably  the  greatest  military 
genius  that  Rome  ever  produced.  He  cultivated  the 
Greek  language  and  literature.  He  had  a  high  repu 
tation  for  generosity  and  clemency,  but  is  censured  by 
some  for  his  disregard  of  the  forms  of  law. 

See  POI.VBIUS,  "History,"  books  x.-xxiv.  ;  Livv,  "  History  of 
Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxxix.  ;  SERAN  DE  I.A  TOUK,  "  HistoiredeScipion 
FAfricain,"  173!*;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  of  the  Elder  Scipio  Africanus,"  by  REV.  EDWARD  BER 
WICK. 

Scip'io  .ZEmilia'nus  Africa'nus  Mi'nor,  (PUBLIUS 
CORNELIUS,)  a  famous  Roman  general,  born  about  185 
B.C.,  was  a  son  of  /Emilius  Paulus,  and  an  adopted  son 
of  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  whose  father  was  the  great 
Scipio.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  was  well  versed 
in  Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  In  168  B.C.  he  fought 
at  the  battle  of  Pydna,  where  his  father  commanded. 
He  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  the  historian 
Polybius,  who  became  the  companion  of  his  studies  and 
military  expeditions.  As  military  tribune,  he  went  to 
Spain  in  151  B.C.,  and  signalized  his  courage  in  a  single 
combat  with  a  gigantic  Spanish  chief,  whom  he  killed. 
In  the  third  Punic  war,  which  began  about  149,  he  dis 
played  great  military  ability  in  Africa.  Having  returne'd 
to  Rome  in  148,  he  was  elected  consul  for  147,  and  ob 
tained  Africa  as  his  province.  He  finished  the  Punic  war 
by  the  capture  and  destruction  of  the  city  of  Carthage  in 
146  B.C.,  and  was  granted  a  splendid  triumph  at  Rome  for 
this  victory.  In  the  year  142  he  became  censor  with  L. 
Mummius.  He  endeavoured  to  restrain  the  growing 
love  of  luxury  of  the  Romans  and  to  maintain  the  simple 
habits  and  austere  virtues  of  their  ancestors ;  but  in  this 
he  was  not  successful.  Having  been  elected  consul,  134 
B.C.,  he  obtained  the  chief  command  in  Spain,  and  took 
Numantia,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  defence,  in  133.  He 
was  an  inflexible  supporter  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and 
approved  the  execution  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  although 
his  wife  Sempronia  was  a  sister  of  that  tribune.  He  lost 
his  popularity  by  his  course  in  this  affair.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  bed  in  129  B.C.  The  public  suspected  thai- 
he  was  murdered  ;  but  no  person  was  convicted  of  the 
crime.  Scipio  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  Roman  orators  of  his  time. 
Cicero  expresses  a  high  opinion  of  him  in  his  book 
"De  Republica."  A  report  prevailed  among  the  an 
cients  that  he  assisted  Terence  in  the  composition  of 
his  plays. 

See  POLYBIUS,  books  xxxii.-xxxix.  ;  CASI.O  SIGONIO,  "De  Vita  et 
Rebus  gestis  P.  Scipionis,"  1569;  F.  D.  GERI.ACH,  "Tod  des  P. 
Z.  Scipio  jdniliaiitis,"  1839;  L.  NORMANN,  "  Scipio  Africanus  Mi 
nor,"  Upsala,  i6SS  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sgipl-o  A-sI-atl-cus  or  A-sI-ag'e-ne§,  [Fr.  SCI 
PION  L'ASIATIQUE,  se'pe'o.s'  It'ze't'tek',]  (Lucius  COR 
NELIUS,)  was  a  brother  of  Africanus  Major.  He  was 
chosen  praetor  in  193  B.C.,  and  consul  in  190,  when  he 
obtained  the  province  of  Greece.  With  the  aid  of  his 
brother,  he  defeated  Antiochus  at  Mount  Sipylus  in  190, 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


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a  few  years  after  which  he  was  fined  for  taking  a  bribe 
from  that  king. 

Scipio  Asiaticus,  (Lucius  CORNELIUS,)  was  a  par 
tisan  of  Mai  ins  in  the  civil  war,  and  became  consul  with 
C.  Norbanus  in  83  B.C.  He  marched  against  Sulla  in 
that  year,  but  was  deserted  by  his  troops,  and  went  into 
exile  in  82  B.C. 

Scip'io  As'I-na,  (CNEius  CORNELIUS,)  a  Roman 
commander,  was  consul  with  C.  Duilius  in  260  B.C.  He 
obtained  command  of  a  fleet,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Carthaginians.  He  became  consul  again  in  254  B.C. 
His  son  PUBLIUS  CORNELIUS  was  consul  in  221  B.C.,  and 
interrex  in  217. 

Scip'io  Cal'vus,  (CNEIUS  CORNELIUS,)  a  Roman 
general,  became  consul  with  M.  Claudius  Marcellns  in 
222  B.C.  He  went  to  Spain  in  217  B.C.  as  legate  of  his 
brother,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  with  whom  he  served 
about  eight  years  against  the  Carthaginians  in  the  second 
Punic  war.  He  was  killed  in  Spain  in  211  B.C. 

Scip'io  His-pal'lus,  (CNKIUS  CORNELIUS,)  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  171  B.C.  He  had  a  son 
of  the  same  name,  who  was  praetor  in  139  B.C. 

Scip'io  Na-si'ca,  (PuHi.ius  CORNELIUS,)  a  Roman 
consul  and  jurist,  was  a  ir".i  of  Cn.  C.  Scipio  Calvus,  who 
was  killed  in  Spain  in  211  B.C.  He  was  praetor  in  194, 
and  served  with  distinction  in  Spain  in  193.  Having 
been  chosen  consul  for  191  B.C.,  he  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Boii.  He  died  after  171  B.C. 

Scip'io  Nasi'ca  Cor'cu-lum,  (PUBLIUS  CORNE 
LIUS.)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  an  able  jurist,  lie 
married  a  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus  Major.  He  was 
censor  in  159  B.C.,  and  consul  in  155.  During  his  con 
sulship  he  procured  the  demolition  of  a  new  theatre,  as 
injurious  to  the  public  morals.  He  became  pontifex 
maximus  in  1150  B.C. 

Scip'io  Nasi'ca  Se-ra'pi-o,  (PUBLIUS  CORNELIUS,) 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the 
aristocracy.  lie  became  consul  in  138  B.C.  with  I). 
Junius  Brutus,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  party  which 
assassinated  Tiberius  Gracchus  in  133. 

His  son,  PUBLIUS  CORNELIUS  Scirio  NASICA,  was 
consul  in  in  B.C.  He  was  greatly  distinguished  for  wit 
and  humour.  He  left  a  son  of  the  same  name,  who  was 
praetor  in  94  B.C.  This  last  was  the  father  of  Q.  Metellus 
Pius  Scipio,  the  father-in-law  of  Pompey  the  Great.  (See 
METELLUS.) 

Scipion,  the  French  for  SCIIMO,  which  see. 

Scla'ter,  (PHILIP  L.,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  1829.  He  published  several  treatises  on  birds, 
and  edited  "The  Natural  History  Review." 

Sclater,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Somersetshire.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Otter- 
den,  Kent,  and  wrote  verses  in  Latin  and  English.  Died 
in  1647.  Another  William  Sclater  was  vicar  of  Pitmin- 
ster.  Died  in  1626. 

Sclo'pis,  (Count  FEDERIGO,)  an  Italian  senator  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Turin  in  1798.  He  became  a  senator 
in  1849,  and  president  of  the  senate  in  1857.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Italian  Legis 
lation,"  (3  vols.,  1840-57.) 

Scolari,  sko-la'ree,  (Fiurro,)  Count  of  Ozora,  called 
PIPPO  SPANO,  (pep'po  spa'no,)  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Florence  in  1369.  He  rendered  important  services 
to  the  emperor  Sigismund.  Died  in  1426. 

See  MKLLINI,  "Vita  di  F.  Scolari,"  1570. 

Scoorel.     See  SCHOREEL. 

Sco'pas,  [2/c6;T-af,]  an  eminent  Grecian  sculptor  and 
architect,  born  in  the  island  of  Paros,  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  after  400  B.C.  Among  his  master-pieces 
in  sculpture  Pliny  mentions  a  number  of  figures,  repre 
senting  Neptune,  Thetis,  the  Nereids,  etc.,  mounted  on 
dolphins,  and  statues  of  Venus,  Vesta,  and  Apollo.  He 
also  assisted  in  executing  the  celebrated  monument  to 
Mausolus  about  350  B.C.  The  temple  of  Minerva  Alea 
at  Tegea  was  constructed  by  Scopas. 

See  PLINY,  "Natural  History ;"  Sn.ur,,  "  Catalogus  Artificnm  ;" 
NAGI.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate." 

Scopoli,  skop'o-lee,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  a  cele 
brated  naturalist,  was  born  at  Cavalese,  in  the  Tyrol,  in 
1723.  He  became  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Schemnitz 


in  1766,  and  in  1777  filled  the  chair  of  natural  history  at 
Pavia.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Entomologia  Carniolica," 
"Flora  Carniolica,"  (1769,)  "Crystallographia  Hunga- 
rica,"  (1776,)  and  other  scientific  works.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Linnaeus,  who  named  a  plant  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  MAIRONI  DA  PONTE,  "  Elogio  del  Dottore  G.  A.  Scopoli,'' 
iSn  ;  TIPAI.DO,  "Biografia  clegli  Italian!  illustri." 

Scores'by,  (WILLIAM,)  a  celebrated  English  navi 
gator,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1760.  Having  engaged  in 
the  Greenland  whale-fishery,  he  made  his  first  voyage 
in  1791.  His  voyages,  amounting  to  thirty  in  all,  were 
eminently  successful, — he  having  returned  from  one  of 
them  with  thirty-six  whales.  He  made  a  number  of 
improvements  in  the  apparatus  for  whale-fishing,  and 
invented  the  cylindrical  observatory  attached  to  the  main 
top-mast,  called  the  "round  top-gallant  crow's-nest." 
Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "  Life  of  W.  Scoresby,"  by  his  son,  1851. 

Scoresby,  (WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  Arctic  navi 
gator,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1790.  In 
1806  he  served  as  chief  mate  to  his  father  in  a  voyage 
which  extended  to  latitude  81°  12',  a  point  nearer  the 
north  pole  than  any  other  navigator  had  reached.  lie 
j  published  in  1820  a  valuable  "Account  of  the  Arctic 
i  Regions,  with  a  History  of  the  Northern  Whale-Fish 
ery."  He  ceased  to  follow  the  sea,  studied  at  Cam 
bridge,  graduated  in  1834,  and  was  ordained  a  priest.  1  le 
became  vicar  of  Bradford,  Yorkshire.  Among  his  works 
are  "Memorials  of  the  Sea,"  and  "My  Father:  being 
Records  of  the  Adventurous  Life  of  William  Scoresby," 
(1851.)  lie  wrote  several  papers  on  magnetism  and  the 
influence  of  iron  ships  on  the  mariner's  compass.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  "Monthly  Review"  for  November  and  December,  1820. 

Scorza,  skmul'za,  (SINIHALDO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Voltaggio  in  1589.  He  painted  landscapes  with 
animals;  also  mythological  subjects.  Died  in  1631. 

Scot,  (REGINALD,)  a  learned  English  writer  and  Re 
former,  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Discoverie  of 
Witchcraft,"  in  which   he  boldly  condemns  the  super 
stitions  of  the  time.     It  was  against  this  book,  and  that 
of  Wierus,  that  James  I.  of  England  wrote  his  "  Demon- 
ologie,"  in  which  he  says  that  Scot  "is  not  ashamed  in 
public  print  to  deny  that  there  can  be  such  a  thing  as 
witchcraft."     Died  in  1599. 
Scot,  (THOMAS.)     See  ROTHERHAM. 
Scott,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  writer,  born  probably 
1  in  London  in  1814.      He  published   several   educational 
I  works,  and  became  chamberlain  of  London  about  1858. 
Scott,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  East  Lo 
thian  in  1675,  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Scotland." 
!  Died  in  1742. 

Scott,   (DAVID,)   a  Scottish  painter,  born  at    Edin 
burgh   in  1806.     He  resided  for  a  time  at  Rome,  where 
he    produced  several   large  pictures.     Among  his  best 
works  may  be  named  "  Vasco  da  Gama  encountered  by 
the  Spirit  of  the  Storm   in   passing  the  Cape,"   "The 
Genius  of  Discord,"  and  "  Orestes  pursued  by  Furies." 
|  He   published    "  Essays   on    the  Characteristics  of  the 
Great  Masters,"  and  other  works  on  art.    Died  in  1849. 
See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Scott,  (Sir  FRANCIS  EDWARD,)  an  English  writer  on 
art,  born  in  1824,  lived  near  Birmingham.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  and  promotion  of  art.  Died 
in  1863. 

Scott,  (GEORGE  GILBERT,)  an  eminent  English  archi 
tect,  born  near  Buckingham  about  1810.  Among  his 
most  admired  edifices  are  the  Gothic  church  of  Saint 
Nicholas  at  Hamburg,  in  Germany,  and  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  John,  in  Newfoundland.  He  furnished  the 
design  for  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Hamburg,  which  when 
completed  will  probably  be  one  of  the  finest  Gothic 
structures  of  recent  times.  Mr.  Scott  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1855.  He  published 
"  A  Plea  for  the  Faithful  Restoration  of  oar  Ancient 
Cathedrals,"  (1850,)  and  "Some  Remarks  on  Secular 
and  Domestic  Architecture,  Present  and  Future,"  (1857.) 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858.     3)iHtt  ,'%?& 


a,  e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


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Scott,  (GEORGE  LEWIS,)  a  mathematician,  born  at 
Hanover,  was  appointed  one  of  the  preceptors  of  George 
III.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in 
1780. 

Scott,  (HELF.NUS,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  writer, 
who  resided  for  some  time  in  India,  was  the  author  of 
a  romance  entitled  "  The  Adventures  of  a  Rupee."  Died 
in  1821. 

Scott,  (JAMES,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Leeds  in 
1733,  became  rector  of  Simonburn,  in  Northumberland. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  was  the 
author  of  political  essays  published  under  the  signature 
of  "  Anti-Sejanus"  and  "Old  Slyboots."  Died  in  1814. 

Scott,  (JOHN.)     See  ELDON,  LORD. 

Scott,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1638,  became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Christian  Life." 
Died  in  1694. 

Scott  OF  AMWELL,  (JOHN,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Bermondsey,  near  London,  about  1736,  was  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Amwell,  a  Descriptive  Poem,"  (1776.)  Died  in  1783. 

Scott,  (JoHX,)  an  English  journalist,  and  first  editor 
of  the  "  London  Magazine,"  was  killed,  in  1821,  in  a 
duel  resulting  from  a  dispute  with  the  editor  of  "  Black- 
wood's  Magazine."  He  published  "  A  Visit  to  Paris  in 
1814." 

Scott,  [Lat.  SCO'TUS,]  (Sir  MICHAEL,)  a  Scottish 
writer,  celebrated  for  his  learning,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Fifeshire.  He  passed  several  years 
in  France,  and  at  the  court  of  the  German  emperor 
Frederick  II.  Among  the  principal  works  attributed 
to  him  are  the  "  Philosopher's  Banquet,"  ("Mensa  Phi- 
losophica,")  "  Questio  curiosa  de  Natura  Solis  et  Luna," 
a  treatise  on  the  transmutation  of  silver  and  gold,  and 
a  "  History  of  Animals,"  (in  Latin.)  His  uncommon 
attainments  in  science  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  a 
magician  by  his  contemporaries  ;  and  Sir  Walter  Scott 
has  introduced  the  legends  concerning  him,  with  great 
effect,  into  his  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel."  He  is  also 
alluded  to  in  Dante's  "  Inferno."  Died  about  1290. 

See  G.  NAUDE,  "Apologie  des  grands  Hommes  accuses  de  Ma- 
gie;"  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scott,  (SAMUEL,)  a  skilful  English  painter  of  land 
scapes  and  marine  views.  Died  in  1772. 

Scott,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dissenting  divine  and 
resident  of  Ipswich,  published  a  poetical  version  of  the 
book  of  Job,  (1774.) 

Scott  or  Scot,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  prelate.  (See 
ROTHERHAM.) 

Scott,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine  and 
commentator,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1747.  He  became 
curate  of  Olney  in  1781,  and  rector  of  Aston-Sandford  in 
1801.  He  associated  with  Cowper  and  Newton  at  Olney. 
He  published,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  "  Com 
mentary  on  the  Bible,"  (1796,)  which  had  an  extensive 
circulation,  and  a  defence  of  Calvinism,  (2  vols.,  1811.) 
Died  in  1821. 

See  "  Life  of  T.  Scott,"  (partly  autobiographical.)  by  his  son, 
JOHN  SCOTT,  1822;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Scott,  (Sir  WALTER,)  a  celebrated  novelist  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  August  15,  1771.  He  was  de 
scended  from  Walter  Scott,  the  famous  freebooter,  known 
in  border  story  as  "  Auld  Wat."  His  father,  named  also 
Walter  Scott,  was  a  writer  to  the  signet;  his  mother, 
Anne  Rutherford,  was  the  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Ruther 
ford,  medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
Walter  was  the  seventh  child  in  a  family  of  twelve. 
When  he  was  about  eighteen  months  old,  he  was  attacked 
with  a  fever,  which  left  him,  after  a  few  days,  with  a 
lameness  that  proved  incurable.  In  1779  he  was  sent  to 
the  Edinburgh  High  School.  In  addition  to  the  instruc 
tion  received  at  school,  he  had  a  tutor  at  home,  by  whom 
he  was  taught  writing,  arithmetic,  and  French,  and  from 
whom  he  may  be  said  to  have  also  taken  lessons  in  the 
art  of  disputation.  The  pupil  was  a  Tory  and  Cavalier, 
the  tutor  a  Whig  and  Roundhead,  so  that  they  never  were 
at  a  loss  for  subjects  about  which  to  argue.  "  I  took  up 
my  politics  at  that  period,"  says  Scott,  "as  King  Charles 
II.  did  his  religion,  from  an  idea  that  the  Cavalier  creed 
was  the  more  gentlemanlike  persuasion  of  the  two."  He 


studied  Latin  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Adam,  then  rec 
tor  of  the  High  School ;  and,  though  he  seems  to  have 
had  but  little  relish  for  the  details  of  syntax  or  prosody, 
he  was  not,  even  at  that  age,  without  an  appreciation  of 
the  beauties  of  the  Roman  classics.  "This  was  really," 
he  observes  in  his  autobiography,  "gathering  grapes 
from  thistles  ;  nor  shall  I  soon  forget  the  swelling  of  my 
little  pride  when  the  rector  pronounced  that,  though 
many  of  my  school-fellows  understood  Latin  better, 
Giialterus  Scott  was  behind  few  in  following  and  enjoying 
the  author's  meaning."  "  In  the  intervals  of  my  school- 
hours,"  says  he,  "  I  had  always  perused  with  avidity  such 
books  of  history  or  poetry,  or  voyages  and  travels,  as 
chance  presented  to  me, — not  forgetting  the  usual,  or 
rather  ten  times  the  usual,  quantity  of  fairy-tales,  East 
ern  stories,  romances,  etc."  He  left  the  High  School,  he 
says,  "with  a  great  quantity  of  general  information,  ill 
arranged,  indeed,  and  collected  without  system,  yet 
deeply  impressed  upon  my  mind,  and  gilded,  if  I  may 
be  permitted  to  say  so,  by  a  vivid  and  active  imagina 
tion."  About  this  time  he  read  Hoole's  translation  of 
Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered;"  he  likewise  became 
acquainted  with  Richardson's  novels,  and  other  works 
of  imagination.  Having  spent  some  months  at  the 
house  of  a  relative  living  at  Kelso,  the  beauties  of  that 
romantic  spot,  with  the  neighbouring  ruins,  appear  to 
have  awakened  in  his  mind  that  passionate  love  for  the 
beautiful  and  picturesque  in  nature,  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  so  distinguished. 

In  1783  he  entered  the  university,  and  commenced 
!  Greek  under  the  learned  and  accomplished  Professor 
Dalzell.  But,  having  no  previous  acquaintance  with  that 
tongue,  he  found  himself  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  class. 
"I  could,"  he  says,  "hit  upon  no  better  mode  of  vindi 
cating  my  equality  than  by  professing  my  contempt  for 
the  language,  and  my  resolution  not  to  learn  it."  He 
afterwards  excited  the  utmost  indignation  of  the  pro 
fessor  by  writing  a  composition  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  show  that  Ariosto  was  superior  to  Homer.  In  some 
of  his  other  collegiate  studies  he  appears  to  have  been 
more  successful.  In  moral  philosophy  he  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  instructed  by  Dugald  Stewart,  "  whose 
striking  and  impressive  eloquence  riveted  the  attention 
even  of  the  most  volatile  student."* 

In  1786  he  was  indentured  as  an  apprentice  to  his 
father,  and  "entered  upon  the  dry  and  barren  wilderness 
of  forms  and  conveyances."  He  did  not,  however,  dis 
continue  the  perusal  of  works  of  imagination.  He  even 
studied  Italian,  and  added  an  acquaintance  with  several 
eminent  authors  in  that  tongue,  as  Dante,  Boiardo,  Pulci, 
etc.,  to  his  previous  stores  of  romantic  and  historic  lore. 
About  the  second  year  of  his  apprenticeship,  in  conse 
quence  of  an  attack  of  hemorrhage,  he  was  for  several 
weeks  confined  to  his  chamber  ;  during  this  time  he 
amused  himself  by  representing  the  battles  and  sieges  of 
which  he  had  read,  by  means  of  shells,  pebbles,  or  other 
objects.  His  recovery,  though  interrupted  by  one  or  two 
relapses,  was  at  length  complete ;  and  from  that  time 
until  near  his  death  he  enjoyed  the  most  robust  health. 

In  1792  Scott  began  the  study  of  German,  in  which  he 
afterwards  made  such  proficiency  that  (in  1796)  he  pub 
lished  poetical  translations  of  Burger's  "  Lenore"  and 
"Wild  Huntsman."  This  was  his  first  appearance  be 
fore  the  public  as  an  author. 

In  December,  1797,  he  married  Charlotte  Margaret 
Carpenter,  daughter  of  Jean  Charpentier,  of  Lyons,  a 
devoted  French  royalist.  She  had  been  educated  in  the 
Protestant  religion,  and  when  her  father  died,  at  the  be 
ginning  of  the  French  Revolution,  she  and  her  mother 
fled  to  England,  where  they  found  a  friend  and  protector 
in  the  Marquis  of  Downshire,  who  had  previously  be 
come  acquainted  with  the  family  during  his  travels  on 


*  The  following  testimony  from  Scott's  autobiography,  in  favour  of 
a  solid  and  thorough  education,  is  too  important  to  be  omitted.  "If," 
says  he,  "  it  should  ever  fall  to  the  lot  of  youth  to  peruse  these  pages, 
let  such  a  reader  remember  that  it  is  with  the  deepest  regret  that  I 
recollect  in  my  manhood  the  opportunities  of  learning  which  I  neg 
lected  in  my  youth  :  that  through  every  part  of  my  literary  career  I 
have  felt  pinched  and  hampered  by  my  own  ignorance  ;  and  that  I 
would  at  this  moment  give  half  the  reputation  I  have  had  the  good 
fortune  to  acquire,  if  by  doing  so  I  could  rest  the  remaining  part  upon 
a  sound  foundation  of  learning  and  science." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCOTT 


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the  continent.  In  1798  Scott  became  acquainted  with 
M.  G.  Lewis,  by  whom  he  was  prevailed  on  to  furnish 
several  contributions  to  the  "  Tales  of  Wonder,"  a  mis 
cellany  gotten  up  under  the  auspices  of  Lewis.  Scott's 
translation  of  Goethe's  famous  historical  drama,  "  Goetz 
von  Berlichingen  of  the  Iron  Hand,"  appeared  in  1799. 
The  first  two  volumes  of  the  "  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scot 
tish  Border,"  a  collection  of  ancient  ballads  that  had 
occupied  his  attention  for  many  years,  were  published 
in  1802.  In  the  following  year  appeared  the  third  vol 
ume  of  the  "Border  Minstrelsy,"  consisting  of  original 
ballads  by  Scott  and  others.  lie  contributed  during 
the  years  1803-04  several  articles  to  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review."  His  poem  "  Sir  Tristrem"  was  given  to  the 
public  in  1804.  The  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  which 
had  been  commenced  several  years  before,  made  its  ap 
pearance  in  January,  1805,  and  at  once  gave  its  author 
a  place  among  the  most  distinguished  poets  of  the  age. 
Its  popularity  was  so  great  that  more  than  forty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  Great  Britain  before  1830.  "  In  the 
history  of  British  poetry,"  says  Lockhart,  (writing  about 
1833,)  "nothing  has  ever  equalled  the  demand  for  the 
'Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.'"  In  November,  1806,  he 
began  "Marmion;"  it  was  finished  and  ready  for  publi 
cation  by  the  middle  of  February,  1808.  "Constable," 
says  Lockhart,  "  offered  a  thousand  guineas  for  the  poem 
shortly  after  it  was  begun,  and  without  having  seen  one 
line  of  it ;  and  Scott,  without  hesitation,  accepted  this 
proposal."  Two  other  booksellers,  however,  Miller  and 
Murray,  were  admitted  to  the  honour  of  sharing  in  the 
publication  of  the  new  poem. 

Scott  was  zealously  engaged,  in  the  latter  part  of  1808, 
in  starting  a  new  review,  which,  while  espousing  different 
political  views  from  those  of  the  "  Edinburgh, "should,  if 
possible,  rival  that  journal  in  literary  ability  and  surpass 
it  in  moderation  and  impartiality.  The  result  of  these 
efforts  was  the  "  London  Quarterly,"  the  first  number 
of  which  appeared  in  January,  1809.  The  "  Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  the  last  of  "Scott's  three  great  poems,  was 
published  in  May,  1810.  In  a  critical  notice  of  it  in 
the  "  Edinburgh  'Review,"  Mr.  Jeffrey  says,  "  Upon  the 
whole,  we  are  inclined  to  think  more  highly  of  the  '  Lady 
of  the  Lake'  than  of  either  of  its  author's  former  publi 
cations.  .  .  .  There  is  nothing  so  fine,  perhaps,  as  the 
battle  in  '  Marmion,'  or  so  picturesque  as  some  of  the 
scattered  sketches  of  the  '  Lay,'  but  there  is  a  richness 
and  a  spirit  in  the  whole  piece  which  does  not  pervade 
either  of  those  poems, — a  profusion  of  incident  and  a 
shifting  brilliancy  of  colouring  that  reminds  us  of  the 
witchery  of  Ariosto."  According  to  Lockhart,  "  the 
'  Lay'  is  generally  considered  as  the  most  natural  and 
original,  '  Marmion'  as  the  most  powerful  and  splendid, 
and  the  '  Lady  of  the  Lake'  as  the  most  interesting,  ro 
mantic,  picturesque,  and  graceful,  of  his  great  poems." 
"  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  says  Prescott,  "  was  welcomed 
with  an  enthusiasm  surpassing  that  which  attended  any 
other  of  his  poems.  It  seemed  like  the  sweet  breathings 
of  his  native  pibroch  stealing  over  glen  and  mountain 
and  calling  tip  all  the  delicious  associations  of  rural  soli 
tude,  which  beautifully  contrasted  with  the  din  of  battle 
and  the  shrill  cry  of  the  war-trumpet  that  stirred  the 
soul  in  every  page  of  his  '  Marmion.' "  Twenty  thou 
sand  copies  of  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake"  were  disposed 
of  within  a  year  after  its  publication,  and  not  less  than 
fifty  thousand  were  sold  in  Great  Britain  before  the  mid 
dle  of  1836.  In  1811,  encouraged  by  the  extraordinary 
success  of  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  Scott  resolved,  in 
stead  of  remaining  a  "  tenant  at  will  under  a  heavy  rent," 
to  purchase  a  freehold  estate  for  himself.  After  some 
deliberation,  he  fixed  upon  Abbotsford,  (in  the  county 
of  Roxburgh,  about  twenty-eight  miles  southeast  from 
Edinburgh^)  a  beautiful  site,  commanding  a  view  of  the 
Tweed,  and  of  Melrose  Abbey,  the  most  graceful  and 
picturesque  of  all  the  monastic  ruins  in  Scotland.  The 
great  expense  which  he  was  tempted  to  incur  in  order 
to  improve  and  beautify  this  place  became  afterwards  the 
chief  source  of  his  pecuniary  difficulties.  The  "  Vision 
of  Don  Roderick,"  a  poem  in  the  Spenserian  measure, 
came  out  in  1811.  "  Rokeby"  appeared  towards  the 
close  of  1812  ;  it  was  followed  within  two  months  by  an 
other  smaller  poem,  entitled  the  "  Bridal  of  Triermain." 


The  latter,  having  been  composed  pari  passtt  with 
"  Rokeby,"  was  published  anonymously.  Coming  out  as 
it  did  so  soon  after  the  other,  many  persons  were  led 
to  believe  it  must  be  the  production  of  a  different  author. 
Some  eminent  critics,  indeed,  regarded  it  as  a  very  suc 
cessful  imitation  of  Scott's  style  of  composition,  and. 
while  it  was  admitted  that,  as  a  whole,  it  fell  below  the 
best  works  of  the  great  master,  it  was  pronounced  to  be 
in  some  respects  fully  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  them. 
The  popularity  enjoyed  by  "  Rokeby"  was  far  from  equal 
ling  that  of  Scott's  earlier  poems.  This  was  probably 
due  in  part  to  the  public  having  become,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  number  of  wretched  imitations  which  had 
appeared,  surfeited  with  that  kind  of  poetry,  and  per 
haps  still  more — as  Scott  himself  believed — to  the  rising 
influence  of  Byron's  bolder  and  more  impassioned  genius. 
The  position  of  poet-laureate  was  offered  to  Scott  on 
the  part  of  the  prince  regent  in  August,  1813,  but  was 
respectfully  declined.  In  July,  1814,  was  published 
"Waverley,  or  'Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,"  the  first  of  that 
marvellous  series  of  novels  which  were  destined  to  form 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  romance,  and  to  place  the 
name  of  Scott  on  the  highest  pinnacle  of  literary  fame. 

Contrasting  "  Waverley"  with  the  coarse  prosaic  or 
gossiping  character  of  some  of  the  previous  popular 
novels,  Prescott  observes,  "  But  a  work  now  appeared  in 
which  the  author  swept  over  the  whole  range  of  charac 
ter  with  entire  freedom  as  well  as  fidelity,  ennobling  the 
whole  by  high  historic  associations,  and  in  a  style  varying 
with  his  theme,  but  whose  pure  and  classic  flow  was  tinc 
tured  with  just  so  much  of  poetic  colouring  as  suited  the 
purposes  of  romance.  It  was  Shakspeare  in  prose." 

"  Waverley"  had  been  commenced  nine  years  before, 
but,  discouraged  by  the  criticism  of  one  of  his  friends,  Scott 
had  laid  the  work  aside.  Me  appears,  however,  not  to 
have  wholly  lost  sight  of  it ;  for  in  1810  be  sent  a  por 
tion  of  it  to  his  friend  James  Ballantyne  the  publisher, 
desiring  his  opinion.  Ballantyne,  although  severely 
criticising  some  parts,  warmly  praised  the  humour  and 
spirit  of  the  work  ;  and  in  reply  to  the  question,  "  Should 
the  author  go  on  ?"  said,  "  Certainly :  I  have  no  doubt 
of  success,  though  it  is  impossible  to  guess  how  much." 

In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  Scott  says,  "  I  had  written  a 
great  part  of  the  first  volume,  and  sketched  other  pas 
sages,  when  I  mislaid  the  manuscript,  and  only  found  it 
by  the  merest  accident  as  I  was  rummaging  the  drawers 
of  an  old  cabinet  ;  and  I  took  the  fancy  of  finishing  it, 
which  I  did  so  fast  that  the  last  two  volumes  were  written 
in  three  weeks." 

The  work  was  published  anonymously.  Five  editions 
of  it  (in  all,  6000  copies)  were  called  for  within  less  than 
seven  months.  "'Guy  Mannering,'  by  the  author  of 
'Waverley,'"  followed  in  February,  1815.  The  name 
"  Waverley  Novels"  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  en 
tire  series  of  those  wonderful  fictions  ;  and  their  anony 
mous  author  was  popularly  styled  "  the  Great  Unknown." 
The  "  Lord  of  the  Isles,"  which  Scott  had  had  for  some 
time  in  preparation,  was  published  a  month  before  "Guy 
Mannering."  This  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  of  his 
minor  poems.  If  in  its  general  tone  it  is  not  equal  to 
"  Marmion"  or  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  it  has  occasional 
passages  which  are  scarcely  if  at  all  inferior  to  the  finest 
in  those  poems.  "The  Field  of  Waterloo,"  generally 
considered  as  among  the  least  successful  of  Scott's 
poetical  works,  made  its  appearance  in  October,  1815. 
"  Harold  the  Dauntless,"  another  poem,  published  in 
1817,  maybe  regarded  as  the  last  of  his  efforts  in  this 
line.  He  appears  afterwards  to  have  directed  all  his 
energies  towards  working  the  new  and  richer  mine  of 
prose  fiction,  which  his  genius  had  so  lately  opened. 
Next  to  his  ail-but  unrivalled  skill  in  the  delineation  of 
character,  and  the  graphic  power  and  wonderful  vivid 
ness  of  his  pictures, — whether  of  the  scenes  of  tranquil 
nature,  or  of  the  intense  excitement  and  wild  tumult  of 
battle, — what  most  amazes  us  is  the  marvellous  fertility 
of  his  genius.  There  is  in  the  whole  history  of  literature 
no  other  example  of  such  rapid  and  inexhaustible  pro 
ductiveness,  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  character 
as  well  as  the  number  and  extent  of  his  writings, — Lope 
de  Vega  alone  excepted.  "  Guy  Mannering"  was  followed 
by  "The  Antiquary,"  in  May,  1816,  "The  Black  Dwarf" 


•i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


SCOTT 


1985 


SCOTT 


and  "Old  Mortality'' appeared  in  December  of  the  same 
year,  "Rob  Roy"  was  published  in  1817;  and  thus  for 
more  than  ten  years  he  continued  to  pour  forth,  appa 
rently  without  effort,  those  brilliant  and  fascinating 
fictions  which  quickly  spread  his  fame  not  merely 
wherever  the  English  language  was  spoken,  but  to  the 
utmost  limits  of  the  civilized  world.  A  list  of  his  novels 
and  other  prose  writings  will  be  given  in  another  place. 
In  1820,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part  or  that 
of  his  friends,  the  rank  of  a  baronet  was  conferred  on 
Scott  by  the  king.  Up  to  his  fifty-fifth  year  Scott  ap 
pears  to  have  experienced  a  degree  of  prosperity  rarely 
vouchsafed  to  mortals.  His  success  as  a  writer  had 
been  without  example  in  the  history  of  literature.  He 
had  enjoyed  in  the  largest  measure  not  merely  the  ap 
plause  of  the  multitude  and  the  friendship  of  the  great, 
but  what  was  far  more, — the  universal  esteem  of  those 
whose  esteem  was  most  to  be  valued.  His  good  sense, 
his  manly  modesty,  his  unaffected  kindness  of  heart, 
and  his  nobleness  of  spirit,  commanded  the  respect 
and  admiration  of  those  who,  from  religious  or  party 
prejudice,  were  the  most  opposed  to  him, — for  personal 
enemies  he  had  none.  Perhaps  the  only  considerable 
weakness  in  his  character  was  his  ambition  to  found  a 
new  family,  which  should  constitute  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  famous  house  or  clan  from  which  he  boasted  his 
descent.  To  accomplish  this  grand  aim  was  the  goal 
of  all  his  aspirations, — the  object  of  all  his  plans  and 
labours.  ]!y  his  friendship  for  the  Ballantynes,  whom  he 
had  known  from  boyhood,  he  was  induced  not  only  to 
intrust  to  them  the  publication  of  his  works,  but  to  be 
come  a  secret  partner  in  their  firm.  He  was  thus  com 
plicated  in  commercial  speculations  which  were  destined 
to  involve  him  in  irretrievable  disaster.  He  appears 
to  have  reposed  unlimited  confidence  in  the  prudence 
and  mercantile  ability  of  the  Ballantynes,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  Constable,  with  whom  they  were  commercially 
connected.  But  Constable,  though  an  able  man,  was 
sometimes  rash  ;  and  James  Ballantyne  appears  to  have 
been  wanting  in  thorough  business  habits.  The  final 
catastrophe  was  hastened  by  the  commercial  excitement 
of  1825.  After  some  months  of  painful  suspense,  the 
storm  at  length  burst,  in  all  its  fury,  in  January  of  1826. 
On  examining  into  the  state  of  their  affairs,  it  was  found 
that  Constable  &  Co.  were  able  to  pay  only  two  shillings 
and  ninepence  on  the  pound.  The  firm  of  Ballantyne 
&  Co.,  by  allowing  itself  to  be  declared  bankrupt,  might 
readily  have  come  to  a  settlement  with  its  creditors,  had 
not  Scott  been  a  partner.  He  would  listen  to  no  terms 
of  compromise  ;  all  he  asked  for  was  time.  He  was 
resolved  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life,  if  necessary, 
to  the  payment  of  his  debts,  even  to  the  uttermost  far 
thing.  His  heroic  purpose  was  at  last  crowned  with 
success  ;  but  it  cost  him  his  life.  To  be  brief,  from  this 
time  forward  he  applied  himself  to  his  literary  labours 
with  an  assiduity  and  zeal  such  as  even  he  had  never 
exhibited  before.  Neither  the  attacks  of  severe  indis 
position  nor  the  overwhelming  grief  caused  by  the  death 
of  his  wife,  (which  occurred  in  May,  1826,)  in  the  midst 
of  the  other  misfortunes,  were  allowed  to  interpose  more 
than  a  temporary  interruption  to  the  arduous  task  which 
he  had  undertaken.  In  consequence  of  these  unre 
mitting  and  unparalleled  exertions,  he  had  a  severe 
paralytic  attack  on  the  I5th  of  February,  1830;  but  he 
recovered  in  a  fesv  weeks  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  resume  his 
labours.  He  had,  however,  another  attack  in  Novem 
ber,  1830,  and  one  still  more  severe  in  April,  1831.  As 
his  health  continued  to  fail,  it  was  at  length  resolved,  in 
the  autumn  of  1831,  that  he  should  pass  the  winter  in 
Italy.  He  arrived  in  Naples  in  December,  and  re 
mained  there  till  the  middle  of  April,  1832.  In  one  of 
his  letters,  written  while  at  Naples,  he  says,  "My  plan 
of  paying  my  debts  has  been — thank  God — completely 
successful ;  and,  what  I  think  worth  telling,  I  have  paid 
very  near  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pounds,  with 
out  owing  any  one  a  halfpenny, — at  least,  I  am  sure  this 
will  be  the  case  by  midsummer."  After  spending  a  short 
time  in  Rome,  he  manifested  a  great  anxiety  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  He  reached  London  on  the  I3th  of 
June.  Four  weeks  later  he  arrived  at  Abbotsford,  where 
he  died  on  the  aist  of  September,  1832. 


Scott  has  the  rare  distinction  of  uniting  with  his  fame 
as  an  eminently  successful  author  a  character  as  a  man 
remarkable  not  only  for  modesty,  manliness,  and  com 
mon  sense,  but  for  a  genuine  kindliness  towards  all  with 
whom  he  came  in  contact. 

"  As  to  Scott,"  says  Washington  Irving,  "  I  cannot 
express  my  delight  at  his  character  and  manners.  He 
is  a  sterling,  golden-hearted  old  worthy,  full  of  the 
joyousness  of  youth,  with  an  imagination  continually 
furnishing  forth  pictures,  and  a  charming  simplicity  of 
manner  that  puts  you  at  ease  with  him  in  a  moment.  It 
has  been  a  constant  source  of  pleasure  to  me  to  remark 
his  deportment  towards  his  family,  his  neighbours,  his 
j  domestics,  his  very  clogs  and  cats ;  everything  that 
I  comes  within  his  influence  seems  to  catch  a  beam  of 
that  sunshine  which  plays  round  his  heart."  ("  Life  and 
Letters,"  vol.  i.  pp.  381-2.) 

Referring  to  a  conversation  about  Goethe,  which 
Scott  had  with  Mr.  Cheney  in  Rome  in  the  spring  of 
1832,  the  latter  remarks,  "  He  did  not  seem,  however,  to 
be  a  great  admirer  of  some  of  Goethe's  works  ;  .  .  . 
much  of  his  popularity,  he  observed,  was  osving  to 
pieces  which  in  his  latter  moments  he  might  have 
wished  recalled.  He  spoke  with  much  feeling.  I 
answered,  he  must  derive  great  consolation  in  the  re 
flection  that  his  own  popularity  was  owing  to  no  such 
cause.  .  .  .  He  added,  '  It  is  a  comfort  to  me  to  think 
that  I  have  tried  to  unsettle  no  man's  faith,  to  corrupt 
no  man's  principles,  and  that  I  have  written  nothing 
which  on  my  death-bed  I  should  wish  blotted.'  " 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Scott's  novels,  with  the  dates 
of  their  publication:  "  Waverley,"  July,  1814;  "Guy 
Mannering,"  February,  1815;  '"'The  Antiquary,"  May, 
1816;  "The  Black  Dwarf  and  "Old  Mortality,"  (forming 
the  first  series  of  the  "Tales  of  my  Landlord,")  Decem 
ber,  1816;  "Rob  Roy,"  December,  1817;  "The  Heart 
of  Midlothian,"  ("  Tales  of  my  Landlord,"  second  series,) 
June,  1818;  "The  Bride  of  Lammermoor"  and  "Legend 
of  Montrose,"  (third  series  of  "Tales  of  my  Landlord,") 
June,  1819;  "  Ivanhoe,"  December,  1819;  "The  Mon 
astery,"  March,  1820;  "The  Abbot,"  September,  1820; 
"  Kenil  worth, "January,  1821  ;  "The  Pirate,"  December, 
1821  ;  "The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,"  May,  1822;  "  Peveril 
of  the  Peak,"  January,  1823 ;  "  Quentin  Durward," 
June,  1823;  "Saint  Ronan's  Well,"  December,  1823; 
"The  Red  Gauntlet,"  June,  1824;  "The  Talisman"  and 
"The  Betrothed,"  ("Tales  of  the  Crusaders,")  June,  1825  ; 
"  Woodstock,"  June,  1826;  "Chronicles  of  Canongate," 
(containing  the  "Highland  Widow,"  and  other  tales,) 
November,' 1827  ;  "Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  April,  1828; 
"Anne  of  Geierstein,"  May,  1829;  "Count  Robert  of 
Paris"  and  "  Castle  Dangerous,"  (fourth  series  of  "  Tales 
of  my  Landlord,")  November,  1831.  Scott  had  written 
in  the  department  of  history  "The  Life  of  Buonaparte," 
of  which  two  editions  yielded  to  the  author's  creditors 
the  enormous  sum  of  ^"18,000.  Of  the  "Tales  of  a 
Grandfather,"  a  popularized  history  of  Scotland,  (dedi 
cated  to  his  little  grandson,  John  Hugh  Lockhart,)  the 
first  series  appeared  in  December,  1827,  the  second  was 
completed  in  December,  1828,  and  the  third  in  Decem 
ber,  1829.  A  "History  of  France,"  constituting  a  fourth 
series  of  the  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  was  published 
in  1830.  In  addition  to  his  poems,  novels,  and  histories, 
Scott  wrote  many  books  of  less  importance,  among 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  :  a  "  Life  of  Dry- 
den,"  prefixed  to  his  works  in  eighteen  volumes,  edited 
by  Scott,  1808;  "Swift's  Life,"  prefixed  to  his  works  in 
nineteen  volumes,  1814;  "Paul's  Letters  to  his  Kins 
folk,  written  from  the  Continent  after  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo,"  January,  1816;  "Letters  of  Malachi  Mc- 
Growther,''  March,  1820;  "Letters  on  Demonology  and 
Witchcraft,"  December,  1830;  miscellaneous  writings, 
including  critical  notices  of  various  authors,  etc. 

Among  those  writers,  of  whatever  age  or  country, 
who  have  successfully  attempted  the  delineation  of  char 
acter,  Scott  may  justly  claim  to  stand  in  the  foremost 
rank.  Shakspeare,  it  must  be  confessed,  surpassed  him 
in  versatility  as  well  as  in  depth  and  power;  Goethe  was 
undoubtedly  his  superior  in  that  exquisite  art  which 
seems  to  be  only  another  name  for  nature  herself;  Field 
ing  may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  have  excelled  him  in 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gHttura!;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCOTT 


1986 


SCOTT 


the  occasional  representation  of  some  individual  char 
acter;  Victor  Hugo,  Bulwer,  and  many  others  may 
sometimes  rise  above  him  in  that  sort  of  interest  which 
is  due  to  an  artfully-devised  plot  or  to  the  eloquent  ex 
pression  of  intense  passion.  But  if  we  take  into  account 
Ai.L  those  qualifications  which  properly  belong  to  this 
kind  of  writing,  such  as  the  power  of  vivid  description, 
a  just  appreciation  of  the  nice  shades  of  character,  an 
easy  and  exquisite  humour,  a  sustained  interest,  not 
dependent  so  much  on  marvellous  or  startling  occur 
rences,  or  on  unheard-of  and  harrowing  complications  of 
calamity,  as  upon  the  power  and  vividness  of  the  repre 
sentation  and  the  depth  of  genuine  feeling  evinced  by  the 
author, — if  to  such  qualifications  be  added  a  healthy, 
pure,  and  elevated  moral  sentiment,  as  far  removed  from 
narrowness  and  bigoted  austerity  on  the  one  hand,  as 
from  affectation  and  extravagance  on  the  other,  we 
cannot  deny  that,  although  many  writers  may  have  ex 
celled  Scott  in  some  one  or  two  points,  yet,  "take  him 
for  all  in  all,"  few  have  equalled  and  scarcely  any  have 
surpassed  him. 

"Sir  Walter  Scott,"  says  a  writer  in  "Blackwood," 
"did  for  literature  what  Shakspeare  did  for  the  drama, 
— provided  a  long  and  gorgeous  gallery  of  great,  noble, 
and  sublime  characters,  that  live  in  all  memories,  and 
become,  though  they  are  fictitious,  as  real  as  if  we  all 
of  us  had  actually  seen  and  conversed  with  them."  (See 
article  on  Charles  Kean  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1868.) 

Scott  has  often  been  called,  on  account  of  his  marvel 
lous  power  of  creating  illusions,  "  the  Great  Enchanter/' 
"Great  and  good  enchanter,"  says  Miss  Edgeworth  ;  "  for 
in  his  magic  there  is  no  dealing  with  unlawful  means. 
...  In  his  writings  there  is  no  private  scandal,  no  per 
sonal  satire,  no  bribe  to  human  frailty,  no  libel  upon 
human  nature.  .  .  .  His  morality  is  not  in  purple  patches 
ostentatiously  obtrusive,  but  woven  in  through  the  very 
texture  of  the  stuff."  (See  Miss  Edgeworth's  "Helen," 
vol.  i.  chap,  xii.)  It  has  often  been  urged  as  a  reproach 
to  Scott  that  he  had,  on  the  one  hand,  such  a  high  re 
spect  for  royalty  and  aristocracy,  and,  on  the  other, 
such  an  aversion  to  everything  like  democracy.  This 
peculiarity — or  weakness,  as  some  may  call  it — was  due 
in  part  to  an  innate  reverence  for  antiquity,  which  seemed 
indeed  to  be  an  essential  element  of  his  mental  consti 
tution,  and  in  part  to  the  influence  of  the  French  Revo 
lution,  which  occurred  at  that  period  of  his  youth  when 
the  character  is  peculiarly  susceptible  of  being  moulded 
by  external  circumstances.  Indeed,  not  a  few  persons  who 
could  boast  of  a  cooler  temperament,  if  not  of  stronger 
intellect,  were  powerfully  influenced  by  that  strange  and 
terrible  phenomenon,  and  some  who  otherwise  would,  in 
all  probability,  have  been  ardent  republicans,  appear  to 
have  lost  by  that  event  all  confidence  in  the  power  of 
the  common  people  to  govern  themselves. 

Walter  Scott  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters;  his 
eldest  daughter,  Sophia,  was  married  in  1820  to  Mr. 
!,ockhart,  afterwards  editor  of  the  "Quarterly  Review." 
Their  daughter  was  married  a  few  years  since  to  Mr. 
Robert  Hope,  who,  by  act  of  Parliament,  took  the  name 
of  Scott,  and  whose  daughter,  Miss  Hope  Scott,  is  the 
possessor  of  Abbotsford,  and  the  only  surviving  descend 
ant  of  Sir  Walter.  The  eldest  son,  Walter,  born  in  1799, 
entered  the  army,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  inherited 
his  title.  He  died  on  his  return  from  India  in  1847,  and 
with  .him  the  title  became  extinct.  His  younger 
brother,  Charles,  born  in  1805,  had  died  previously. 

See  LOCKHART,  "  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,"  3  vols..  1835  :  GKORGE 
ALLAN,  "Life  ot'  Sir  W.  Scott ;"  JAMES  Hoco.  "  Famili-ir  Anecdotes 
of  Sir  W.  Scott,"  1834;  AMEDEF.  PICHOT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  W. 
Scott,"  1821 :  C.  G.  JACOB,  "  \V.  Scott;  biograplu'sch-literarischer 
Versncli,"  1820;  NAYI.KR.  "Memoirs  of  ihe  Life  of  W.  Scott," 
1833;  I,.  r>B  LOMENIE.  "Sir  W.  Scott,  i>ar  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
i84I;  S.  ROBERTS,  "W.  Scott's  JunKendleben."  1837;  C.  P.  HAG- 
BFRG,  "  Cervantes  et  W.  Scott,"  1838  ;  G.  VON  KRAMHR,  "  Leben  mid 
Werke  W.  Scotts,"  1833 ;  PRRSCOTT.  "Biographical  and  Critical 
Miscellanies;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1808.  February, 
1815,  and  March,  1817,  (by  JEFFREY;)  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
Mav,  iSio.  December,  1812,  April,  1816,  January  and  April,  1868; 
"  Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1838,  (by  CARI.VI.E  :)  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1838,  (by  PRRSCOTT:)  "  Domestic 
Manners  of  Sir  W.  Scott,"  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
1834,  (by  JAMES  HOGG.) 

Scott,  (WILLIAM.)     See  STOWET.L,  LORD. 


Scott,  (WiNFiKi.n,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  American  generals,  was  born  near  Petersburg,  Vir 
ginia,  on  the  131)1  of  June,  1786.  His  paternal  grand 
father,  a  native  of  Scotland,  took  part  in  the  rebellion 
of  1745,  and,  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Culloden,  in 
which  his  elder  brother  was  slain,  emigrated  to  Vir 
ginia,  where  he  married,  and  engaged  in  the  profession 
of  law.  His  son  William  married  Ann  Mason, — a  lady 
of  one  of  the  most  respectable  families  in  the  State.  Of 
the  two  sons  of  William  Scott,  who  died  in  1701,  Win- 
field,  the  subject  of  the  present  article,  was  the  younger. 
He  studied  law  at  William  and  Mary  College,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1806.  In  1807  he  became  a 
volunteer  in  a  troop  of  horse,  called  out  under  the  pro 
clamation  which  President  Jefferson  issued  after  the  at 
tack  on  the  Chesapeake,  forbidding  English  war-vessels 
to  enter  the  harbours  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
next  session  of  Congress  (1807-08)  a  bill  was  passed  for 
increasing  the  army  ;  and  Scott  was  soon  after  appointed 
a  captain  of  artillery.  In  1809  he  was  ordered  to  New 
Orleans,  to  join  the  army  under  General  Wilkinson. 
Having  indiscreetly  censured  the  conduct  of  his  gene 
ral,  and  even  intimated  his  complicity  with  the  treason 
of  Burr,  Scott  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  sen 
tenced  to  be  suspended  for  one  year.  What  was  de 
signed  as  a  punishment  proved,  it  would  seem,  a  real 
advantage  to  him.  He  spent  the  term  of  his  suspension 
in  the  diligent  prosecution  of  studies  connected  with  his 
profession,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  thorough 
acquaintance  with  military  science  for  which  he  became 
afterwards  so  distinguished.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  war  of  1812  he  was  made  a  lieutenant-colonel  and 
ordered  to  the  Canada  frontier.  In  October,  General 
Van  Rensselaer  planned  an  attack  on  the  British  forces 
then  occupying  Queenstow*  Heights.  Some  time  after 
the  action  had  commenced,  Scott  crossed  over  from 
Lewiston,  and  arrived  on  the  field.  Colonel  Van  Rens 
selaer,  who  had  the  chief  command  of  the  American 
troops  on  the  Canada  side,  having  been  severely 
wounded,  Scott  succeeded  to  the  command.  His  ex 
hortations,  supported  by  his  heroic  example,  so  in 
spirited  his  men  that  they  drove  back  the  enemy  with 
great  loss  ;  and  even  after  the  British  had  been  largely 
reinforced  by  the  arrival  of  General  Sheaffe,  they  still 
for  a  time  bravely  maintained  the  fight,  though  out 
numbered  by  more  than  three  to  one.  Unhappily,  at 
this  critical  juncture,  the  main  body  of  the  American 
army,  which  had  not  yet  crossed  the  river,  was  seized 
with  a  panic,  and  could  not  by  any  considerations  be 
prevailed  upon  to  enter  the  boats.  All  hope  of  succour 
being  thus  cut  off,  Scott  was  compelled  to  surrender  his 
entire  force  ;  whii  h  he  did  with  the  honours  of  war. 
Having  been  excl-anged  in  the  early  part  of  1813,  he 
soon  after  joined,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  the  army 
under  General  Dearborn,  in  the  capacity  of  adjutant- 
general.  He  especially  distinguished  himself  at  the 
capture  of  Fort  George,  Upper  Canada,  in  May,  1813. 
After  braving  incredible  perils,  he  carried  the  place, 
which  he  was  the  first  to  enter,  and  with  his  own  hands 
took  down  the  flag  that  was  waving  over  it.  We  cannot 
here  forbear  to  relate  an  incident  which,  while  it  shows 
the  magnanimity  of  Scott's  character,  may  serve  to  re 
lieve  for  a  moment  the  harsh  and  repulsive  features  of 
"  grim-visaged  war."  After  Scott  had  been  taken  pris 
oner  at  Queenstown,  a  British  officer  asked  him  if  he 
had -ever  seen  the  neighbouring  Falls.  Scott  answered, 
"Yes;  from  the  American  side."  The  other  remarked, 
"You  must  have  a  successful  fight  before  you  can  see 
them  in  all  their  grandeur,"  (the  finest  view  being  from 
the  Canada  shore.)  Scott  rejoined,  "  Sir,  if  it  be  your 
intention  to  insult  me,  honour  should  have  prompted 
you  first  to  return  me  my  sword."  The  officer  was  re 
buked  by  General  Sheaffe,  and  the  subject  was  dropped 
for  the  time.  At  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  this 
same  officer  was  taken  prisoner  in  turn.  Scott  treated 
him  with  every  mark  of  attention  and  kindness,  and  at 
last  obtained  permission  for  him  to  return  to  England 
on  parole.  Overcome  by  this  generosity,  he  said,  with 
feeling,  "  I  have  long  owed  you  an  apology,  sir.  You 
have  overwhelmed  me  with  kindnesses.  You  can  now 
at  your  leisure  view  the  Falls  in  all  their  glory." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,\,/oug:  a,  e,  o,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  v,. short:  a,  e,  i,  o. obscure:  far,  fall,  fat:  met:  nut;  good;  moon; 


SCOTT 


1987 


SCR  I  BAN  I 


In  March,  1814,  Scott  was  made  a  brigadier-general. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  troops  of  three  brigades  were 
placed  in  a  camp  of  instruction  at  Buffalo,  under  his 
immediate  supervision,  and  for  three  months  were 
thoroughly  drilled  in  the  modern  French  system  of 
tactics.  The  discipline  thus  acquired  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  operations  of  the  ensuing  campaign. 
On  the  3d  of  July,  the  American  army,  consisting  of 
Scott's  and  Ripley's  brigades  and  Hindman's  artillery, 
crossed  the  Niagara  River  and  captured  Fort  Erie.  On 
the  5th,  the  battle  of  Chippewa  was  fought,  and  the 
British  army  under  General  Riall  was  driven  beyond  the 
Chippewa  River.  The  25th  of  July  witnessed  the  hard- 
fought  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  (otherwise  called  "  the 
battle  of  Niagara,")  on  which  occasion  General  Scott 
had  two  horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  twice  wounded, 
the  second  time  severely,  by  a  musket-ball  passing 
through  the  left  shoulder.  It  was  after  eleven  o'clock 
P.M.  when  the  fighting  ceased,  the  Americans  remaining 
for  the  night  in  possession  of  the  field  of  battle,  al 
though,  unhappily,  for  the  want  of  water,  they  were 
compelled  to  abandon  it  early  the  next  morning.  Several 
months  elapsed  before  Scott  had  recovered  from  his 
wounds.  For  his  eminent  services  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general,  and,  not  long  after,  Congress 
passed  a  vote  of  thanks,  (November  3,  1814,)  at  the 
same  time  requesting  the  President  to  bestow  upon  him 
a  gold  medal  "  for  his  distinguished  services"  and  for 
his  "uniform  gallantry  and  good  conduct  in  sustaining 
the  reputation  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States."  The 
medal  was  afterwards  presented  to  him  by  President 
Monroe.  The  treaty  of  peace  having  been  ratified  by 
the  Senate  in  February,  1815,  Scott  was  offered  a  seat 
in  the  cabinet  as  secretary  of  war,  which  position,  how 
ever,  he  declined.  In  the  summer  of  1815  he  visited 
Europe  in  a  diplomatic  as  well  as  military  capacity; 
and  he  afterwards  received  a  letter  of  thanks  from  the 
President,  through  the  secretary  of  state,  for  the  success 
with  which  he  had  fulfilled  his  mission.  lie  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1816  ;  and  the  following  year  he 
was  married  to  the  daughter  of  John  Mayo,  Esq.,  of 
Richmond,  Virginia. 

In  1832  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Sac  Indians, 
under  their  chief  Black  Hawk,  and  the  whites  on  the 
northwestern  frontier.  Scott  was  ordered  by  the  war 
department  to  proceed  to  the  scene  of  action  ;  but 
Black  Hawk  was  taken  prisoner  and  the  war  virtually 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  reached  the  place  of  his 
destination.  During  the  passage  the  cholera  broke  out 
among  his  troops  with  a  fearful  fatality.  On  this  oc 
casion  General  Scott  exhibited  traits  of  character  more 
rare,  and  certainly  not  less  glorious,  than  those  which 
had  won  for  him  so  brilliant  a  reputation  on  the  battle 
field.  Not  satisfied  with  merely  making  such  general 
arrangements  as  were  required  for  the  proper  attendance 
of  the  sick,  and  such  as  were  deemed  necessary  to  pre 
vent  the  spread  of  infection,  he  visited  and  comforted 
the  suffering,  and  by  his  courageous  example  sought 
to  inspire  the  well  with  hope  and  confidence, — which 
was  the  more  difficult  because  at  that  time  the  cholera 
was  almost  universally  regarded  as  contagious.  When, 
towards  the  end  of  1832,  the  nullification  difficulties 
began  in  South  Carolina,  General  Scott  was  sent  by 
President  Jackson  on  a  confidential  mission  to  Charles 
ton,  that  he  might  take  the  proper  measures  to  prevent, 
or,  if  need  be,  to  quell,  the  threatened  insurrection.  In 
this  difficult  enterprise  he  displayed  great  tact  as  well  as 
prudence  and  firmness,  and  was  completely  successful. 
On  the  death  of  General  Macomb,  in  June,  1841,  Scott 
succeeded  to  the  position  of  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States. 

After  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  in 
the  spring  of  1846,  the  first  campaign  was  made,  and 
the  battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and 
Buena  Vista  were  fought,  under  the  conduct  of  General 
Taylor.  In  1847  vigorous  preparations  were  made  for 
prosecuting  the  war  on  a  more  extensive  scale,  and 
General  Scott  was  directed  to  take  the  chief  command 
of  the  army  in  Mexico.  A  particular  account  of  the 
operations  which  followed  belongs  rather  to  history  than 
to  a  biography.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  if  Scott  had  ac 


quired  on  the  fields  of  Chippewa  and  Niagara  the  most 
brilliant  reputation  as  a  gallant  and  skilful  soldier, in  the 
Mexican  war  he  gave  proof  of  strategic  talents  of  the 
highest  order,  and  won  for  himself  a  place  in  the  front  rank 
of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  the  age.  He  began 
the  campaign  in  March,  1847,  by  investing  the  city  of 
Vera  Cruz,  which,  with  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa, 
capitulated  on  the  26th  of  that  month, — the  garrison, 
which  consisted  of  about  five  thousand  men,  surren 
dering  on  parole.  The  army  of  the  besiegers  amounted 
to  about  twelve  thousand  men.  On  the  i8th  of  April 
Scott  attacked  and  took  Cerro  Gordo, — a  mountain- 
fastness  of  great  strength,  defended  by  fifteen  thousand 
Mexicans  under  the  command  of  Santa  Anna  himself. 
Subsequently  were  fought  the  battles  of  Churubusco, 
(August  20,)  Molino  del  Key,  (September  8,)  and  Cha- 
pultepec,  (September  13,) — all  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Early  in  the  morning  of  Sep 
tember  14  the  army  of  General  Scott  entered  the  city 
in  triumph  ;  and  at  seven  A.M.  the  American  flag  floated 
over  the  National  Palace.  The  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo  was  signed  February  2,  1848,  and  the  Mexican 
capital  was  soon  after  evacuated  by  the  American  forces. 

In  1852,  Scott  was  nominated  by  the  Whig  party  as 
their  candidate  for  the  Presidency  ;  but,  in  the  subse 
quent  election,  General  Pierce,  the  Democratic  nominee, 
was  chosen  President,  Scott  receiving  the  electoral  vote 
of  but  four  States.  In  1855  the  honorary  rank  of  lieu 
tenant-general  was  conferred  upon  Scott,  with  the  pro 
vision  that  the  title  should  cease  at  his  death. 

He  worthily  closed  his  long  and  illustrious  public 
career,  by  casting  his  powerful  influence  into  the  trem 
bling  scale  of  his  country's  fortunes,  at  a  time  when  not 
only  his  native  State,  but  a  large  number  of  his  former 
friends  and  comrades,  in  whom  the  nation  once  trusted 
with  unwavering  confidence,  were  doing  everything  in 
their  power  to  strengthen  the  cause  of  rebellion.  In 
November,  1861,  Scott  resigned  his  active  duties  at 
Washington,  and  retired  to  private  life,  though  he  re 
tained  his  full  pay,  according  to  a  special  provision 
passed  by  Congress  in  the  summer  session.  Having 
sailed  to  Europe  for  his  health,  a  few  days  after  he 
landed,  the  news  of  Mason  and  Slidell's  capture  arrived 
in  England.  The  danger  of  a  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  appearing  imminent,  that 
his  country  might  not  be  deprived  of  his  counsels  or 
services  at  so  critical  a  moment,  regardless  of  all  merely 
personal  considerations,  he  at  once  returned  to  his 
native  shores.  He  soon  after  retired  to  his  residence 
in  New  York.  He  died  at  West  Point  in  May,  1866. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Lieutenant-General  Scott,  written  by  Himself," 
2  vois.,  1864;  MANSFIELD,  "  Life  01  'General  Scott,"  1846  :  HEADLEY, 
"  Li.e  ot  Scott,"  1852  ;  '*  National  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  iv.  ;  MAN-.FIKI.U,  ". \lexic  in  War,"  1848. 

Scotti,  skot'tee,  (Giuuo  CI.EMENTE,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1602.  He  joined  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  but  afterwards  became  their  enemy.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Monarchia  Solipsorum,"  (1645,)  directed 
against  the  Jesuits.  Died  in  1669. 

Scotti,  (M. \RCF.I.I.O,)  a  political  writer,  born  at  Naples 
in  1742  ;  died  in  1800. 

Scotus.     See  SCOTT  and  DUNS  SCOTUS. 

Scotus,  (Duxs.)     See  DUNS  SCOTUS. 

Scotus,  (JoHX.)     See  ERIGENA. 

Scougal,  skoo'gal,  (HENRY,)  a  Scottish  divine  and 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Aberdeen,  was  born  in  East 
Lothian  in  1650.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The 
Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man,"  etc.  Died  in  1678. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scoutetten,  skoo"t4't6N',  (ROBERT  JOSEPH  HENRI,) 
a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Lille  in  1799,  has  published  a 
number  of  medical  works. 

Scran'ton,  (GEORGE  W.,)  an  American  manufacturer, 
born  in  New  Haven  county,  Connecticut,  in  1811.  He 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  established  iron-works  at 
Scranton,  which  was  named  in  his  honour.  He  repre 
sented  the  twelfth  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress 
from  1859  until  his  death.  He  died  in  1861. 

Scribani,  skRe-ba'nee,  (CHARLES,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1561.  He  wrote  many  theological 
and  polemical  works.  Died  in  1629. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/V  G,  H,  ^  guttural;  N.  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


SCRIBE 


1988 


SEBA 


Scribe,  skReb,(AuGUSTiN  EUGENE,)  a  popular  French 
comic  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  lie  wrote  comic 
operas  and  vaudevilles  in  which  the  character  and  foibles 
of  the  middle  classes  of  Paris  are  well  represented.  He 
employed  many  collaborators  in  the  production  of  his 
works,  which  are  very  numerous.  In  1835  he  was  ad 
mitted  into  the  French  Academy,  where  Villemain  re 
ceived  him  with  a  complimentary  speech.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Solicitor,"  ("  Le  Solliciteur,"  1817,) 
"  Fra  Diavo'o,"  (1830,)  "The  Crown  Diamonds,"  (1841,) 
"  The  Glass  of  Water,"  (1842,)  and  "  Bertrand  et  Raton." 
His  plots  are  ingenious,  and  his  dialogues  natural  and 
animated.  Died  in  1861. 

See  L.  DK  LOMENIE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains  ;"  SAINTR- 
BF.UVE,  "Portraits  contemporains  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene"- 
rale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

Scri-bo'nl-us  Lar'gus  Des-ig-na-ti-a'nus,  (des- 
ig-na-she-a'nus,)  a  Roman  physician  in  the  time  of  Tibe 
rius  and  Claudius,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"On  the  Composition  of  Medicaments,"  ("  De  Compo- 
sitione  Medicamentorum.") 

Scrim'zeor  or  Scrim'ger,  (HENRY,)  a  Scottish 
critic,  eminent  for  learning,  was  born  at  Dundee  in 
1506.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  civil 
law  at  Geneva,  where  he  died  in  1571  or  1572. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scriv'en,  (EnwARD.)  an  English  engraver  in  the 
chalk  and  dotted  manner,  was  born  at  Alcester  in  1775. 
He  engraved  portraits  and  illustrated  various  expensive 
works  tor  the  booksellers.  Died  in  1841. 

Scriver,skRee'ver,(CHRiSTiAN,)  a  German  divine,  born 
at  Rendsburg  in  1629,  was  court  preacher  at  Quedlinburg 
in  1690.  He  was  the  author  of  "Gotthold's  Emblems," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1693. 

Scriverius.     See  SCHRYVEK. 

Scroggs,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  English  judge  of  ill  repu 
tation,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1623.  He  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1678.  Suspected  of 
collusion  with  Titus  Oates  in  the  Popish  Plot,  he  was 
removed  in  1681.  Died  in  1683. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices." 

Scrope,  (GEORGE  POULETT  THOMSON,)  an  English 
geologist,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  brother 
of  Lord  Sydenham,  was  born  in  1797.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Geology  of  Cen 
tral  France,"  (1827,)  and  a  "Life  of  Lord  Sydenham," 
(1843.)  HC  was  elected  to  Parliament,  as  a  Liberal,  for 
the  borough  of  Strond,  in  1833. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1847. 

Scud'der,  (HENRY,)  an  English  Presbyterian  divine 
of  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
work  entitled  "The  Christian's  Daily  Walk." 

Scud'der,  (JOHN  M.,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  divine  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1793.  In  1819  he  sailed 
as  a  missionary  to  Ceylon,  where  he  resided  nineteen 
years.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Redeemer's  Last 
Command,"  "Letters  to  Children  on  Missionary  Sub 
jects,"  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in  1855. 

Scuderi  or  Scudery.de,  deh  skii'da're',  (GKORGE,) 
a  French  dramatist,  was  born  at  Havre  about  1601.  He 
was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  his  works 
had  great  popularity  in  his  time,  but  are  now  forgotten. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1667. 

Scuderi  or  Scudery,  de,  (MADELEINE,)  sister  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1607.  She  wrote  numerous  ro 
mances,  which  were  greatly  admired  by  her  contempo 
raries.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  Artamene,  ou  le 
Grand  Cyrus,"  (10  vols.,)  "Clelie,"  (10  vols.,)  and  "  Ibra- 
ham,  ou  1'illustre  Bassa."  She  also  published  numerous 
tales,  fables,  and  poems.  Mademoiselle  de  Scuderi  was 
the  most  distinguished  member  of  the  society  which 
met  at  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  and  which  has  been 
immortalized  by  Moliere  in  his  "  Precieuses  ridicules." 
Died  in  1701. 

See  TALLEMANT  DES  REAVX,  "  Historiettes;"  NICERON,  "Me- 
moires;"  "  Nouvell"  Biographic  Generale." 

Scudery.    See  SCUD£RI. 

Scultetus.     See  SCHULTET,  SCHULTZ,  and  SCULTZ. 

Scultz,    skoolts,    [Lat.    SCULTE'TUS,]    (JOHANN.)   a 

German  surgeon,  born  at  Ulm  in  1595,  was  a  pupil  of 


Spigelius.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Armamentarium 
Chirurgicum,"  a  surgical  work  highly  esteemed  at  the 
time.  Died  in  1645. 

Scylax,  si'laks,  [S/ci'/la^,]  a  Greek  mathematician  and 
geographer,  was  a  native  of  Caryanda,  near  Halicarnas- 
sus,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  B.C.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Periplus  of  the  Parts  beyond  the 
Columns  of  Hercules,"  which  was  first  published  by 
Hoeschel  in  1600. 

S9y-lit'zes  or  Sgy-lit'za,  | S/nwrfj??,]  (JOHN,)  a 
Byzantine  historian,  sometimes  called  CUROPALA'TES, 
flourished  about  1050-80.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history 
of  the  Greek  Empire,  Zvvaipif  iarofHuv. 

See  SMITH,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

S9yl'la  [Gr.  2/c{'/ia]  and  -eha-ryb'dis,  of  classic 
mythology,  were  represented  as  two  monsters  which  in 
fested  the  strait  between  Italy  and  Sicily  and  rendered 
the  navigation  of  that  passage  very  dangerous.  They 
were  located  one  on  each  side  of  a  narrow  channel, 
through  which  ships  must  pass,  so  that  the  mariner  who 
avoided  one  was  apt  to  become  a  victim  of  the  other, 
as  the  proverb  says, — 

"  Incidit  in  Scyllam  qui  vult  vitare  Charybdim  " 

The  poets  feigned  that  Scylla  was  a  maiden  transformed 
by  Circe  into  a  monster  that  barked  like  a  dog.  Scylia 
is,  perhaps,  the  personification  of  a  rock,  and  Charybdis 
of  a  whirlpool. 

Scymnus,  sim'nus,  [S/«ym)f,]  OF  CHIOS,  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  lived  about  80  li.c.,  was  the  author  of  a 
description  of  the  earth,  in  Iambic  verse,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant. 

Seabury,  see'ber-e,  (SAMUi'.i.,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Groton,  Connecticut,  in  1729.  lie  grad 
uated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Con 
necticut  in  1783.  Died  in  1796. 

Seabury,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1801.  He  became  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Churchman"  in  1834.  He  published  "  American  Sla 
very  Justified  by  the  Law  of  Nature,"  (1861,)  and  other 
works. 

Seals'field,  (CHARLES,)  a  litterateur,  of  German  ex 
traction,  resided  many  years  in  the  United  States,  and  be 
came  associate  editor  of  the  "Courrier  des  fitats-Unis," 
New  York,  in  1829.  He  published  (in  English)  "Tokeah, 
or  the  White  Rose,"  and  "Sketches  of  Transatlantic 
Travels,"  "Pictures  of  Life  from  both  Hemispheres," 
and  "South  and  North,"  (in  German,  3  vols.,  1842.) 
Translations  of  portions  of  the  three  last-named  works 
appeared  in  "  Blackwood's  Maga/ine."  Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1846. 

Sea'man,  (LAZARUS,)  an  English  dissenter  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  one  of  the  divines  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly.  Died  in  1675. 

Sears,  seerz,  (BARNAS,)  D. D.,  an  American  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Sandisfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
Having  studied  at  several  German  universities,  he  be 
came,  after  his  return,  president  of  Brown  University, 
at  Providence,  (1855.)  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  "Ciceroniana ;  or,  The  Prussian  Mode  of  In 
struction  in  Latin,"  and  a  "Life  of  Luther,  with  Special 
Reference  to  its  Earlier  Periods,"  etc.,  (1850.)  He  has 
also  contributed  to  the  "Bibliotheca  Sacra"  and  the 
"Christian  Review." 

Sea'ton,  (JOHN  COLHORNE,)  BARON,  an  English 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1776.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  Governor  of  Canada.  He  obtained  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath  in  1838,  was 
made  a  general  in  1854,  and. in  1855  commander  of  the 
military  forces  in  Ireland.  Died  in  1863. 

Sea'tpii,  (WILLIAM  WINSTON,)  an  American  jour 
nalist,  born  in  King  William  county,  Virginia,  in  1785, 
was  editor  successively  of  the  Petersburg  "Republican" 
and  the  "North  Carolina  Journal,"  and  in  1812  became 
associated  with  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Gales,  as  editor 
of  the  "National  Intelligencer,"  at  Washington.  Died 
in  1866. 

Seba,  sa'ba,  (AIJSERT,)  a  Dutch  amateur  naturalist, 
born  in  East  Friesland  in  1665,  acquired  a  large  fortune 


a,e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SEBASTIAN 


1989 


SEDAINE 


in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  which 
he  spent  in  forming  a  museum  of  objects  in  natural  his 
tory.  This  collection  having  been  purchased  by  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia,  Seba  made  another,  still  larger, 
which  was  esteemed  the  finest  in  Europe.  He  pub 
lished  a  description  of  his  museum,  in  Latin  and  French, 
(4  vols.  fol.)  He  died  in  1736,  soon  after  which  his  col 
lection  was  sold  at  auction. 

Sebastian,  se-bast'yan,  [Port.  SEBASTIAO,  sa-bas-te- 
OWN';  Fr.  SEBASTIEN,  sa'bis'te^N';  Sp.  SEBASTIAN, 
sa-bas-te-an' ;  Lat.  SEBASTTA'NUS,]  DOM,  King  of  Por 
tugal,  and  grandson  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1554.  He  manifested  at  an  early  age 
a  passion  for  military  adventure  and  romantic  exploits. 
In  1578  he  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions  which  had 
broken  out  in  Morocco  to  invade  that  country,  under 
the  pretext  of  assisting  Muley  Mohammed  to  recover  his 
throne,  which  had  been  usurped  by  his  uncle,  Abdul- 
Melek  (or  -Malek.)  He  invaded  Morocco,  and  was  op 
posed  by  Abdul-Melek  in  a  battle  near  Alcazar-quivir, 
where  Sebastian  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1578. 

See  BERNARDO  DA  CRUZ,  "Chronica  de  L)om  Sebasiiao,"  1837  ; 
BARBOSA  MACHADO,  "Memorias  para  a  Historia  de  Portugal,"  4 
vols.,  1736-51;  "Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  BAENA  PAREDA, 
"  Vida  de  D.  Sebastian,"  1691. 

Sebastian,  [Lat.  SEBASTTA'NUS  ;  Fr.  SEBASTIEN,  sa'- 
bts't.e^N' ;  It.  SEBASTTANO,  sa-bas-te-a'no,]  SAINT,  a 
celebrated  Christian  martyr  of  the  third  century,  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Xarbonne,  in  France. 
He  served  as  a  captain  in  the  praetorian  guard  under 
Diocletian.  Having  refused  to  abjure  his  faith,  he  was 
tied  to  a  tree  and  pierced  with  arrows,  A.n.  288.  His 
martyrdom  has  been  a  favourite  subject  with  the  painters 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  his  protection  is  invoked  by  the 
Catholics  against  pestilence. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Sebastian  del  Fiombo.     See  PIOMBO. 

Sebastiani,  sa-bas-te-a'nee  or  sa'bis'te't'ne',  (HOR 
ACE  FRANCOIS,)  COUNT,  a  distinguished  general  and 
diplomatist  in  the  French  service,  was  born  in  Corsica 
about  1775.  He  took  part  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of 
1796  and  1799,  and  rose  to  be  general  of  brigade  in  1802. 
He  afterwards  served  in  Austria,  Spain,  and  Russia. 
1  le  was  appointed  minister  of  marine  after  the  revolution 
of  1830  by  Louis  Philippe,  and  subsequently  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  In  1835  he  was  ambassador  to  London, 
and  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1840.  Died  in  1851. 

See  L.  DE  LoMEN'iE,  "  M.  le  Comte  de  Sebastiani,"  1841; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sebastiani,  (JEAN  ANDRE  TIKURCE,)  VISCOUNT,  a 
general,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Cor 
sica  in  1788.  He  took  part  in  the  Spanish  campaigns 
from  1808  to  1811,  and  accompanied  the  grand  army  to 
Russia  in  1812.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  after 
the  revolution  of  1830,  and  received  the  grand  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour  in  1845. 

Sebastiano.     See  SEBASTIAN. 

Sebastianus.     See  SEBASTIAN. 

Sebastiao.     See  SEBASTIAN. 

Sebastien.     See  SEBASTIAN. 

Seber,  sa'ber  or  za'ber,  (WOLFGANG,)  a  German 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Sula  in  1573,  published  an 
•'Index  of  all  the  Words  in  Homer,"  ("Index  omnium 
in  Hotnero  Verborum,")  and  editions  of  several  Greek 
classics.  Died  in  1634. 

Sebonde,  de,  da  si-bon'da,  or  Sabunde,  sa-boon'- 
da,  (RAYMOND,)  a  Spanish  physician  and  theologian, 
born  at  Barcelona,  became  professor  of  medicine,  phi 
losophy,  and  divinity  at  Toulouse.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Theologia  Naturalis,"  (1496,)  which  was  translated 
into  French  by  Montaigne.  Died  about  1432. 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  J.  HOLBERG, 
"De  Theologia  Naturali  R.  de  Sebonde,"  1846. 

Sebron,  sa'bRox',  (HIPPOLYTE,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Daguerre. 

Seckelles.     See  HERAULT  DES  SECHELLES. 

Seckendorf,  von,  fon  sek'en-doKf  or  zek'en-doRf, 
(CHRISTIAN  ADOLF,)  BARON,  a  German  dramatist  and 
poet,  born  in  1767;  died  in  1833. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (FRIF.DRICH  HEINRICH,)  COUNT, 
a  German  commander  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Konigs- 


berg,  in  Franconia,  in  1673,  was  a  nephew  of  Veit  Lud- 
wig,  noticed  below.  He  served  against  the  Turks  under 
Prince  Eugene,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes 
sion,  and  subsequently  entered  the  army  of  Augustus 
II.  of  Poland.  As  Polish  ambassador  at  the  Hague,  he 
assisted  in  negotiating  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 
Created  fiekl-marshal-lieutenant  in  1717,  he  fought  under 
Eugene  at  the  battle  of  Belgrade,  and  was  soon  after 
made  a  count  of  the  empire,  general  of  ordnance,  and 
governor  of  Leipsic.  He  concluded  the  treaty  of  Wus- 
terhausen,  in  1726.  On  the  death  of  Eugene  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  army  at  Belgrade. 
Died  in  1763. 

See  THERESIUS  VON  SECKENDORF,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des 
Grafen  von  Seckendorf,"  1792-94  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Seckendorf,  von,  (GUSTAV,)  BARON,  a  German 
writer,  known  by  the  pseudonym  of  PATRICK  PEALE, 
born  near  Altenburg  in  1775,  was  author  of  a  number 
of  dramas  and  prose  essays.  He  died  in  America 
in  1823. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (LEO,)  BARON,  a  German  litte 
rateur,  brother  of  Christian  Adolf,  noticed  above,  was 
born  near  Hassfurt  about  1773  ;  died  in  1809. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (VEIT  LUDWIG,)  an  eminent 
German  statesman,  scholar,  and  theologian,  born  near 
Erlangen  in  1626.  In  1691  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Elector  Frederick  III.  (afterwards  Frederick  I.  of  Prus 
sia)  his  privy  councillor,  and  made  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Halle.  He  was  the  author  of  a  political 
work  entitled  "  Deutsche  Fiirstenstaat,"  (1665,)  "His 
torical  and  Apologetical  Commentary  on  Lutheranism," 
"Compendium  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (both  in 
Latin,  1666,)  and  "  Christenstaat,"  a  defence  of  Chris 
tianity  against  the  infidel  philosophers.  Died  in  1692. 

See  SCHREBER,  "  Historia  Vitae  V.  L.  a  Seckendorf,"  1733 ; 
PIPPING,  "Memoriae  Theologorum." 

Seck'er,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  prelate,  born 
at  Nottingham  in  1693.  He  studied  at  an  academy  for 
dissenters  at  Tewkesbury,  where  Butler,  the  author  of 
the  "  Analogy,"  was  one  of  his  fellow-students.  He 
afterwards  conformed  to  the  Church  of  England,  entered 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  was  ordained  in  1723.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Bristol,  (1735,)  of  Oxford,  (1737,) 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1758.)  He  died  in  1768, 
leaving  a  number  of  sermons,  lectures,  etc. 

See  BEILBY  PORTEUS,  "  Review  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Archbishop  Seeker." 

Second,  (JEAN.)     See  EVERARD,  QOANNES.) 

Secondat,  de.     See  MONTESQUIEU,  DE. 

Secondat,  de,  deh  seh-koN'dt',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,) 
BARON,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  Montesquieu,  was  born 
near  Bordeaux  in  1716.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises.  Died  in  1796. 

Secondo,  sa-kon'do,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
lawyer  and  litterateur,  born  at  Lucera  in  1715.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Julius  Caesar,"  ("  Storia  della 
Vita  di  C.  Giulio  Cesare,"  3  vols.,  1777.)  Died  in  1798. 

Secousse,  seh-kooss',  (DENIS  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1691.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  held  the 
office  of  censor  royal.  He  published  "  Memoires  de 
Conde,"  (5  vols.,  1743,)  "Memoirs  towards  the  History 
of  Charles  the  Bad,"  (1755-58,)  a  "Collection  of  Royal 
Ordinances,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1754. 

Secretan,  sa'kreh-tan'  ?  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  writer  and 
politician,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1758.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  executive  directory  in  1799.  Died  in  1839. 

Secundus,  (JOANNES.)     See  EVERARD,  (JOANNES.) 

Sedaine,  sa'din',  (MICHEL  JEAN,)  a  popular  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1719.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  comedies  entitled  "  The  Philosopher  with 
out  knowing  it,"  ("  Le  Philosophe  sans  le  savoir,") 
"The  Unexpected  Wager,"  ("La  Gageure  imprevue,") 
and  "  Raimond,  Count  of  Toulouse  ;"  also  the  operas 
of  "Aline,  Queen  of  Golconda,"  "Amphitryon,"  "  Rich 
ard  Coeur-de-Lion,"  and  "  William  Tell."  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1786. 
Died  in  1797. 

See  MADAME  DE  SAI.M-DYCK,  "  filoge  de  Sedaine,"  1797; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  LA  HARPE,  "  Cours  de  Lit- 
tsrature.' 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  rt/j.     (!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEDANO 


1990 


SEDLET 


Sedano,  de,  da  sa-da'no,  (Don  JUAN  Jos£  LOPEZ,) 
a  Spanish  antiquary,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  in  1729, 
published  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Medals  and  Ancient 
Monuments  found  in  Spain,"  a  compilation  of  poems 
entitled  "  The  Spanish  Parnassus,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1801. 

Sed'doii,  (JAMES  A.,)  an  American  politician  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Virginia.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1845  and  in  1849.  He  was  appointed  secre 
tary  of  war  of  the  Confederate  States  about  November, 
1862,  and  retained  that  office  until  January,  1865. 

Sedecias,  the  French  for  ZEDEKIAH,  (King  of  Judah,) 
which  see. 

Sedg'wick,  (ADAM,)  an  eminent  English  geologist, 
born  at  Dent,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1785  or  1786.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity 
College  in  1809.  He  obtained  in  1818  the- chair  of 
geology  founded  at  Cambridge  by  Dr.  Woodward,  and 
became  a  canon  of  Norwich  in  1834.  Professor  Sedgwick 
gave  much  attention  to  the  crystalline  and  palaeozoic 
rocks,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  geology 
in  England.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Synopsis  of  the 
Classification  of  the  British  Palaeozoic  Rocks."  He  is 
reputed  to  have  written  an  able  criticism  which  appeared 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  on  a  book  called  "  Vestiges 
of  Creation." 

Sedgwick,  (AMY,)  (Mrs.  PARKES,)  a  popular  Eng 
lish  actress,  born  at  Bristol  in  1835. 

Se"dg'wick,  (CATHERINE  MARIA,)  an  eminent  Amer 
ican  writer  and  moralist,  daughter  of  Judge  Sedgwick, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts, 
in  1789.  Her  first  publication,  entitled  "  The  New  Eng 
land  Tale,"  (1822,)  was  received  with  great  favour,  and 
was  followed  by  "  Redwood,"  a  novel,  (1824.)  Her  tale 
of  "  Hope  Leslie"  came  out  in  1827,  and  soon  obtained 
a  wide  popularity  in  America  and  Europe,  having  been 
translated  into  German.  Her  other  novels  are  entitled 
"  Clarence,  or  a  Tale  of  our  Own  Times,"  (1830,)  "  The 
Limvoods,"  (1835,)  and  "Married  or  Single,"  (1857.) 
She  also  wrote  numerous  popular  tales  for  the  young, 
which  are  among  the  most  valuable  and  attractive  works 
of  the  kind.  Among  these  may  be  named  the  "  Love-  | 
Token  for  Children,"  "  Poor  Rich  Man  and  Rich  Poor  | 
Man,"  "  Live  and  Let  Live,"  "  Means  and  Ends  of  Self- 
Training,"  and  "  Morals  of  Manners."  Having  visited 
Europe,  Miss  Sedgwick  published  in  1841  "  Letters  from 
Abroad  to  Kindred  at  Home."  She  contributed  to 
Sparks's  "  American  Biography"  the  "  Life  of  Lucretia 
Maria  Davidson,"  and  wrote  a  number  of  tales  for  the 
leading  periodicals.  Died  in  1867. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  HARRIHT  MAR- 
TINEAU,  article  in  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1837  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1825.  April,  182*.  January,  1831.  and 
October,  1837  ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri 
cans,"  vol.  i. 

Sedgwick,  (JOHN,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  Connecticut  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1837.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  first  lieutenant, 
(1846-47,)  and  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular 
army  when  the  civil  war  began.  He  obtained  command 
of  a  brigade  in  August,  1861,  distinguished  himself  at 
Fair  Oaks,  May  31  and  June  I,  1862,  and  took  part  in 
the  Seven  Days'  battles,  June  26  to  July  I.  Having 
displayed  great  courage  and  skill  at  Antietam,  Septem 
ber  1 6  and  17,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general 
in  December.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863,  and  in  the  army  which 
Grant  moved  towards  Richmond.  He  was  killed  near 
Spottsylvania  Court-House  on  the  gth  of  May,  1864. 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p. 
777- 

Sedgwick,  (OHADIAH,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1600.  He  was  preacher  at  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Anatomy 
of  Secret  Sins,"  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in 
1658. 

Sedgwick,  (ROBERT,)  an  ancestor  of  Theodore  Sedg 
wick,  was  a  major-general  in  the  army  of  Cromwell. 
He  was  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  Charlestown,  Mas 
sachusetts.  He  took  Port  Royal  from  the  French.  Died 
in  Jamaica  in  1656. 


Sedgwick,  (SUSAN  RIDI.KY,)  wife  of  Theodore  Sedg 
wick,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  has  published  several 
fictitious  works  and  juvenile  tales,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Young  Emigrants,"  "The  Morals  of  Pleas 
ure,"  (1829,)  "The  Children's  Week,"  (1830,)  "Allen 
Prescott,"  (1834,)  and  "  Walter  Thornley,"  (1859.) 

Sedgwick,  (THEODORE,)  an  able  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1746. 
He  entered  the  army  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo 
lutionary  war,  pii d  in  1785  was  elected  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  in  which  he  served  until  1796.  He  became  a 
United  States  Senator  in  1796,  and  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1799.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1802  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa 
chusetts.  In  this  post  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  earn 
est  opposition  to  slavery;  and  to  his  efforts  was  owing, 
in  a  great  degree,  the  abolition  of  that  institution  in  Mas 
sachusetts.  He  resided  many  years  at  Stockbridge.  to 
which  he  removed  in  1785.  He"  was  an  active  member 
of  the  Federal  party,  and  was  a  communicant  in  the 
church  of  Dr.  Channing  in  Boston,  where  he  died  in 
January.  1813. 

Sedgwick,  (THEODORE,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Sheffield,  Massachusetts,  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Public 
and  Private  Economy,  illustrated  by  Observations  made 
in  Europe  in  1836-7."  As  a  member  of  the  State  legis 
lature,  he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  anti-slavery, 
temperance,  and  other  reforms.  Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "  Democratic  Review"  for  February,  1840. 

Sedgwick,  (THKODORK,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Albany  in  iSit.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1829,  and  subsequently  made  the  tour  of 
Europe.  He  obtained  a  hiuh  reputation  and  extensive 
practice  as  a  lawyer,  and  published  several  legal  works 
of  great  merit.  Among  these  we  may  name  his  "Treat 
ise  on  the  Measure  of  Damages,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  which  govern  the  Amount  of  Compensation 
recovered  in  Suits  at  Law,"  (1847.)  In  1858  he  was 
appointed  United  States  attorney  for  the  southern  dis 
trict  of  New  York.  Died  in  1859. 

Sedgwick,  (Wn.i.iAM.)  an  English  Puritan,  was 
called  "the  Apostle  of  Ely,"  also  "  Doomsdav  Sedgwick," 
from  his  prophecies  of  the  end  of  the  world  being  near. 
Died  about  1660. 

Sedillot,  si'de'yo',  (CHARLES  EMMANUEL,)  a  skilful 
French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1804, 
was  appointed  in  1841  professor  of  surgical  clinics  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Strasbourg.  He  published  a 
"Manual  of  Legal  Medicine,"  (1830,)  and  other  works. 

Sedillot,  (JEAN,)  a  French  physician,  born  near 
Rambouillet  in  1757.  He  founded  in  1797  the '•  Journal 
of  Medicine,  Snrgerv,  and  Pharmacy,"  which  he  edited 
for  twenty  years.  Died  in  1840. 

Sedillot,  (JEAN  JACQUES  EMMANUEL,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  the  father  of  Charles  Emmanuel,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Montmorency  in  1777;  died  in  1832. 

Sedillot,  (Louis  PIERRE  EUGENE  AMEI.IE,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1808.  He  was  successively  appointed  professor  of 
history  in  the  Colleges  of  Bourbon  and  Saint  Louis, 
secretary  in  the  College  of  France,  and  of  the  school  for 
living  Oriental  tongues.  Among  his  numerous  works 
we  may  name  "  Letters  on  some  Points  of  Oriental 
Astronomy,"  (1834,)  "New  Researches  towards  the 
History  of  Mathematical  Science  among  the  Orientals," 
(1837,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Arabs,"  (1854) 

Sed'ley,  (CATHERINE,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  Charles 
Sedley,  "whose  abilities  and  impudence,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "she  inherited."  She  became  the  mistress  of 
James  II.,  who  gave  her  the  title  of  Countess  of  Dor 
chester.  She  co-operated  with  the  king's  ministers  in 
resisting  his  infatuated  purpose  to  hazard  the  loss  of  the 
throne  by  his  zeal  for  popery.  Died  in  1692. 

See  MACAULAV,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  vi. 

Sedley,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  an  English  poet  and  drama 
tist,  born  in  Kent  in  1639,  was  distinguished  at  the 
court  of  Charles  II.  for  his  wit  and  profligacy.  He  was 
a  member  of  Parliament  from  New  Romney,  Kent,  and 
after  the  revolution  of  1688  he  joined  the  party  of  the 


;!,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m?t;  not;  good;  moon; 


SEDULIUS 


1991 


SEGUIER 


Prince  of  Orange.  He  was  the  author  of  tragedies 
entitled  "  Antony  and  Cleopatra"  and  "  The  Tyrant 
King  of  Crete,"  also  a  number  of  comedies  and  licen 
tious  poems.  Died  in  1701. 

Se-du'li-us,  (C/ELius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  Christian 
of  the  fifth  century,  was  the  author  of  "Mirabilium  Di- 
vinorum,"  being  portions  of  the  history  of  the  Bible,  in 
hexameter  verse,  a  "  Hymnus"  in  praise  of  Christ,  and 
other  similar  works. 

Seebach,  sa'baK  or  za'baK,  (MARIE,)  a  popular  Ger 
man  actress,  born  at  Riga  in  1837.  After  she  had 
acquired  a  European  reputation,  she  visited  the  United 
States  in  1870. 

Seebach,  von,  fon  za'baK,  (ALBIN  LEO,)  a  German 
diplomatist,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1811.  He  became 
ambassador  from  Saxony  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1847, 
and  to  Paris  in  1853. 

Seebeck,  sa'bek  or  za'bek,  QOHANN  THOMAS,)  a 
German  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Reval  in  1770,  be 
came  a  resident  of  Nuremberg  about  1812.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  Berlin,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  that  city.  He  made  discoveries  in  optics,  and 
invented  the  thermo-electric  pile,  (1821.)  Died  in  1831. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Seebode,  sa'bo'deh  or  za'bo'deh,  QOACHIM  GOTT 
FRIED,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  1792.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Tacitus  and  Thucydides.  Died  in  1860. 

Seed,  (JEREMIAH,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cum 
berland,  published  a  number  of  Sermons,  Letters, 
Essays,  etc.  He  preached  at  Twickenham  and  Enhani. 
Died  in  1747. 

Seekatz,  sa'kats  or  za'kats,  (JOHANN  KONHAD,)  a 
German  painter  of  superior  merit,  born  at  Griinstadt  in 
1719  ;  died  in  1768. 

Seelen,  von,  fon  sa'len  or  za'len,  (J.  H.,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1687;  died  in  1762. 

Seeta.     See  SITA. 

Seetzen,  sat 'sen  or  zat'sen,  (Ui,RiCH  JASPER,)  a 
German  naturalist,  born  near  Oldenburg  in  1767, 
travelled  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Arabia,  and  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts  and  objects  in  natural 
history,  now  in  the  museum  at  Gotha.  He  is  said  to 
have  adopted  the  Moslem  religion.  He  died  near  Mocha, 
Arabia,  in  1811. 

Seeva.     See  SIVA. 

Sefi,  sef'ee,  written  also  Suffee,  originally  Sam- 
Meerza,  (Mirza,)  sSm  meer'zi,  Sultan  of  Persia,  was 
a  grandson  of  Abbas  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  in 
1628,  and  committed  great  excesses  of  cruelty.  He  was 
involved  in  war  with  the  Turkish  Sultan  Amurath  IV., 
who  took  Bagdad.  Died  in  1642. 

Sefstrom  or  Sefstroem,  set'strbm,  (Nn.s  GABRIEL,) 
a  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Helsingland  in  1787.  He  dis 
covered  the  metal  Vanadium  about  1830.  Died  in  1854. 

Segalas,  sa'gt'lts',  (PIERRE  SALOMON,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Saint-Palais  in  1792,  published  a 
number  of  medical  works. 

Se'gar,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  magistrate  and 
writer,  held  the  office  of  Garter  king-at-arms.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  entitled  "  Honour,  Civil  and  Military." 
Died  in  1633. 

Seghers  or  Segers,  sa'gers  or  sa'Hers,  (DANMEL,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1590,  was  a  pupil  of  Breughel.  He  attained  great  ex 
cellence  in  his  department  of  the  art,  and  was  employed 
by  Rubens  to  paint  the  flowers  in  some  of  his  historical 
pictures.  Died  in  1660. 

Seghers,  (GERAART,)  brother  or  cousin  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1589.  He  studied 
painting  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  visited  Spain,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  court.  His  works  are  chiefly 
historical.  Died  in  1651. 

Segneri,  san-ya'ree,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
celebrated  pulpit  orator,  born  near  Rome  in  1624.  He 
filled  the  post  of  preacher  to  Pope  Innocent  XII.  His 
''Quaresimale,"  or  sermons  for  Lent,  are  esteemed 
among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1694. 

See  G.  MASSEI  or  MAFFEI,  "Vita  del  P.  Segneri,"  1717;  ME- 
NEGHELLI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  P.  Segneri,"  1815;  NICERON,  "Me- 
moires  ;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 


Segneri,  (PAOLO,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Rome  in  1673.  He  was  a  Jesuit  and  a  noted 
preacher.  Died  in  1713. 

See  GALUZZI,  "  Vita  del  P.  Segneri  Juniore,"  1716. 

Segni,  san'yee,  (BERNARDO,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His  principal 
work,  a  "  History  of  Florence  from  1527  to  1555,"  has 
a  high  reputation.  He  also  translated  several  works  of 
Aristotle  into  Italian.  Died  in  1559. 

Segrais,  de,  deh  seh-gki',  (JEAN  REGNAULD,)  a 
French  poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Caen  in  1624.  He 
was  secretary  of  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier  for  many 
years.  He  translated  Virgil  into  verse,  and  wrote  pas 
toral  poems,  the  style  of  which  was  praised  by  Boileau. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  BRKDIF,  "Segrais,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1863;  NICERON, 
"  Memoires  ;"  A.  GALLAND,  "  Segraisiana,"  1720;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Geuerale." 

Seguier,  sa'gc-a',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  judge,  born 
in  Paris  in  i552T~was  a  son  of  Pierre,  (1504-80.)  He 
was  appointed  advocate-general  in  1587,  was  loyal  to 
the  king  during  the  League,  and  defended  the  liberty 
of  the  Gallican  Church  against  Pope  Gregory  XIV. 
Died  in  1624. 

Seguier,  (ANTOINE  JEAN  MATHIEU,)  a  French  judge, 
born  in  Paris  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  president  of 
the  court  of  appeal,  Paris,  in  1802,  and  retained  that 
position  more  than  forty  years.  Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Seguier,  (ANTOINE  Louis,)  a  celebrated  French  jurist 
and  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1726,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Appointed  advocate-general  in  the  Parlia 
ment  of  Paris  in  1755,  he  soon  acquired  the  highest 
reputation  for  eloquence,  legal  knowledge,  and  integrity. 
In  1757  he  succeeded  Fontenelle  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Died  in  1792. 

See  PORTAMS,  "  Eloged'A.  L.  Seguier,"  1806 ;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Let- 
tres:"  SAPEY,  "  Les  Seguier  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Seguier,  (ARMAND  PIERRE,)  BARON,  a  French  ad 
vocate,  a  son  of  Antoine  Jean  Mathieu,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Montpellier  in  1803.  He  became  about 
1830  a  councillor  at  the  royal  court  of  Paris.  In  1848 
he  resigned  his  functions  and  devoted  himself  to  works  of 
mechanism.  He  is  noted  for  his  mechanical  skill  and 
knowledge  of  machines,  and  is  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Seguier,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1703,  was  related  to  the 
eminent  jurists  of  that  name.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Scipio  Maflfei,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  made  a 
large  collection  of  ancient  inscriptions.  He  died  in  1784, 
leaving  his  museum  of  medals  and  objects  in  natural 
history  to  the  Academy  of  Nimes.  He  translated  into 
French  the  "  Memoirs  of  Alexander,  Marquis  of  Maffei," 
and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Seguier,  (NICOLAS  MAXIMILIEN  SIDOINE,)  Marquis 
de  Saint-Brisson,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
1773.  Among  his  works  is  an  "  Essay  on  Polytheism," 
(2  vols.,  1840.)  Died  in  1854. 

Seguier,  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and 
magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1504.  He  rose  through 
several  important  offices  to  be  president  a  morticr  in 
1554,  and,  while  filling  this  post,  was  chiefly  instrumental 
in  preventing  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition  into 
France.  He  died  in  1580,  leaving  six  sons,  who  were 
distinguished  for  their  legal  attainments. 

See  MORERI,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Seguier,  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent  French  statesman 
and  patron  of  learning,  born  in  Paris  in  May,  1588,  was 
a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Jean  Seguier. 
He  became  chancellor  of  France  in  1635,  and  retained 
that  office  (except  for  short  intervals)  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Richelieu,  with  whom  he  shares  the 
honour  of  being  the  founder  of  the  French  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  president.  Voltaire  praised  his  fidelity  in 
these  terms, — "  Toujours  fidele  dans  1111  temps  oil  c'etait 
un  merite  de  ne  pas  1'etre,"  ("  Always  faithful  in  a  time 
when  it  was  a  merit  not  to  be  so.")  Died  in  1672. 

See  FLOQUET,  "  Diaire  du  Chancelier  Seguier,"  1842;  SAPEY, 
"  Les  Seguier  ;"  F.  TALLEMANT,  "  Eloge  funebre  de  P.  Seguier," 
1672;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Biographic  Universelle." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEGUR 


1992 


SELDEN 


Segur,  de,  deh  sa'giiK',  (HENRI  FRANCOIS,)  COMTE, 
a  French  soldier,  bom  in  1689,  served  with  distinction 
in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1738.  Died  in  1751. 

Segur,  de,  (JOSEPH  ALEXANDRE,)  VICOMTK,  brother 
of  Count  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1756. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Romances  and  Songs,"  "  Women  : 
their  Condition  and  Influence  in  the  Social  Order," 
(1820,)  and  numerous  comedies,  operas,  and  romances. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  QU^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Segur,  de,  (Louis  PHILIPPE,)  COMTE,  a  French  diplo 
matist  and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1753,  was  a  son 
of  Philippe  Henri,  noticed  below.  He  served  under 
Rochambeau  in  the  American  war,  and  after  its  ter 
mination  was  appointed  in  1784  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinc 
tion  by  Catherine  II.  He  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolu 
tion,  and  in  1792  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  court 
of  Prussia.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1803,  and  was  subsequently  made  a  peer 
by  Louis  XVIII.  He  published  a  "  Historical  and 
Political  Picture  of  Europe  from  1786  to  1796,"  "  Moral 
and  Political  Tales,"  "  Universal  History,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  (1819,)  "Moral  and  Political  Gallery,"  and 
"Memoirs,  Souvenirs,  and  Anecdotes,"  (3  vols.,  1824.) 
The  last-named,  a  very  entertaining  and  attractive  work, 
obtained  great  popularity.  Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  SAINTK-BEUVE,  notice  in 
the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  May  15,  1843. 

Segur,  de,  (PHILIPPE  HKNKI,)  MARQUIS,  son  of 
Henri  Fran9uis,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1724.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Italian  and  German  cam 
paigns  of  Louis  XV.,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  1780,  and 
marshal  of  France  in  1783.  Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Segur,  de,  (PHILIPPE  PAUL,)  COMTE,  a  general  and 
historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  noticed  above.  lie  became  an  officer  of  Bo 
naparte's  staff,  and  obtained  the  confidence  of  that  chief, 
who  employed  him  in  several  foreign  missions.  He 
served  as  a  general  of  the  imperial  staff  in  the  campaign 
of  Russia.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Napoleon  and  the 
Grand  Army  in  1812,"  (1824,)  which  had  great  success, 
and  a  "  History  of  Russia  and  Peter  the  Great,"  (1829.) 
In  1830  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Segur  d'Aguesseau,  de,  deh  sa'gtiR'  dt'gi'so', 
(RAYMOND  JOSEPH  PAUL,)  COMTE,  born  in  Paris  in 
1803,  studied  law,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Seguy,  seh-ge',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  preacher  and 
poet,  born  at  Rodez  in  1689,  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1736.  Died  in  1761. 

Seidl,  sid'l  or  zid'l,  (]OHANN  GAHKIEL,)  an  Austrian 
litterateur  and  antiquary,  born  at  Vienna  in  1804,  was 
appointed  in  1840  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  and 
antiques  at  Vienna. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1852. 

Seignelay,  de.     See  COLBERT,  (JEAN  BAPTISTS.) 

Seller,  sl'ler  or  zl'ler,  (GEOKG  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
writer,  born  near  Baireuth  in  1733,  became  in  1770  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Erlangen.  Died  in  1807. 

Seiss,  seess,  (JOSEPH  AUGUSTUS,)  D.D.,  a  learned 
Lutheran  divine,  born  near  Emmetsburg,  Maryland,  in 
1823,  became  in  1858  the  pastor  of  Saint  John's  Church, 
Philadelphia.  He  has  published,  besides  many  other 
works,  sermons,  etc.,  "The  Last  Times  and  the  Great 
Consummation,"  (1856  ;  6th  edition,  1864.) 

Seissel,  de,  deh  si'sel',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  histo 
rian,  born  in  Savoy  about  1450.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Marseilles  in  1509.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  La 
grande  Monarchic  de  France,"  (1519.)  Died  in  1520. 

Sejan.     See  SEJANUS. 

Sejan,  sa'zh&N',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  composer  and 
excellent  organist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745  ;  died  in  1819. 

Se-ja'nus,  [Fr.  S&JAN,  sa'zh6\',]  (Lucius  /ELIUS,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  courtier  and  favourite  of  the  em 
peror  Tiberius,  was  born  at  Vulsinii,  in  Etruria.  He 


rose  through  various  promotions  to  be  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  praetorian  cohorts,  and,  aiming  at  the  im 
perial  power,  soon  after  effected  the  death  of  Drusus,  son 
of  the  emperor,  by  poison,  in  23  A.D.,  having  previously 
seduced  Livia,  the  wife  of  Drusus,  and  made  her  an 
accomplice  in  his  crime.  With  a  view  of  obtaining  the 
sole  direction  of  public  affairs,  he  induced  Tiberius  to 
retire  to  the  island  of  Capreae,  and  subsequently  caused 
Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Germanicus,  and  her  sons,  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  emperor,  aroused  at  length  to  sus 
picion,  deprived  Sejanus  of  his  office,  and  ordered  him 
to  be  arrested  and  executed,  31  A.I). 

See  TACITUS,  "  Annales  ;"  J.  ARRHENIUS,  "  Dissertatio  de  Se- 
jano,"  1696;  MERIVALE,  "The  Romans  under  the  Empire." 

Sejour,  sa'zhooR',  (VICTOR,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1816. 

Sel'by,  (PRIDEAUX  JOHN,)  an  English  ornithologist, 
was  the  author  of  "  Figures  of  British  Birds,"  (Edin 
burgh,  1821,)  which,  says  Professor  Wilson,  "is  perhaps 
the  most  splendid  work  of  the  kind  ever  published  in 
Britain,"  and  of  a  "History  of  British  Forest-Trees," 
(London,  1842.)  Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1826,  and  June, 
1828. 

Sel'den,  (DUDLEY,)  an  American  lawyer,  practised 
his  profession  in  New  York  with  distinction,  and  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1833.  Died  in  Paris  in  1855. 

Sel'den,  (JoHN,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer  and 
statesman,  born  at  Salvington,  in  Sussex,  or.  the  i6th 
of  December,  1584.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  which 
he  quitted  about  1602,  and  entered  the  Inner  Temple, 
London,  in  1604.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Ben 
Jonson.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  history,  lan 
guages,  antiquities,  etc.  His  first  work  was  "  Analecton 
Anglo-Britannicon,"  (1606.)  In  1614  he  published  a 
work  "  On  Titles  of  Honour,"  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
His  reputation  was  augmented  by  a  learned  treatise 
"On  Syrian  Divinities,"  ("  De  Diis  Syris,"  1617.)  In 
1623  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted 
with  the  country  party,  or  opposition.  He  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  prosecution  of  the  Duke  of  Buck 
ingham,  in  1626-28.  In  the  session  of  1629  Selden  was 
a  prominent  opponent  of  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
king,  who  committed  him,  with  other  leaders,  to  the 
Tower.  After  he  had  passed  eight  months  in  prison,  the 
court  offered  to  release  him  if  he  would  give  security  for 
his  good  behaviour,  which  he  refused  to  do.  He  was 
then  transferred  to  another  place  of  confinement,  and 
detained  until  1634.  In  1635  he  published  a  celebrated 
work  entitled  the  "Closed  Sea,"  ("  Mare  Clausum,")  in 
which  he  claimed  for  England  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
sea.  This  was  written  to  refute  the  work  of  Grotius 
called  "  Open  Sea,"  ("  Mare  Liberum.")  He  represented 
the  University  of  Oxford  in  the  Long  Parliament,  which 
met  in  1640.  In  the  contest  between  the  king  and  the 
Parliament  he  pursued  a  moderate  or  irresolute  course. 
He  opposed  the  execution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  but 
subscribed  the  Covenant  in  1643,  and  was  one  of  the  lay 
members  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster. 
Among  his  important  works  are  one  "On  the  Law  of 
Nature  and  of  Nations  according  to  the  Teaching  of 
the  Hebrews,"  ("  De  Jure  naturali  et  Gentium  juxta 
Disciplinam  Hebrasorum,"  1640,)  and  "  A  Commentary 
on  English  Law,"  ("  Fleta,  seu  Commentarius  Juris 
Anglican!, "  1647.)  Selden  remained  in  Parliament  until 
1650  or  later.  His  latter  years  were  passed  in  the  house 
of  the  Countess-dowager  of  Kent,  to  whom  it  was  re 
ported  he  was  married.  He  died  in  November,  1654. 
His  character  is  highly  extolled  by  men  of  both  parties, 
including  Clarendon,  who  says,  "Mr.  Selden  was  a 
person  whom  no  character  can' flatter  or  transmit  in  any 
expressions  equal  to  his  merit  and  virtue."  "His  say 
ings,"  says  Hallam,  "are  full  of  vigour,  raciness,  and  a 
kind  of  scorn  of  the  half-learned  far  less  rude  but  more 
cutting  than  that  of  Scaliger.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Table-Talk  of  Selden  is  worth  all  the  Ana  of  the 
Continent.  In  this  I  should  be  disposed  to  concur." 
'"  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  WILKINS,  "  Life  of  Selden,"  1726  ;  J.  AIKIN,  "  Life  of  John 
Selden,"  1812;  G.  W.  JOHNSON,  "Memoirs  of  J.  Selden,"  1835 ; 
'' Selden's  Table-Talk,"  1689:  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1856;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 


ii,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  xi.  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


SELDJOUKIDES 


'993 


SELWTN 


Seldjoukides.     See  SELJOOKIDES. 
Seldschuken   or   Seldschukiden.     See   SEIJOO- 

KIDKS. 

Se-le'ne,  [Gr.  IK/JJV*I ;.  Fr.  SELENE,  si'lin';  Lat. 
LU'NA,]  the  goddess  of  the  moon,  sometimes  called 
MF.NE  or  PHCEHE.  She  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of 
Helios  or  Hyperion,  and  by  some  writers  was  identified 
with  DIANA,  (which  see.) 

Seleucidee,  se-lu'si-de,  the  name  of  the  dynasty 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  (See  next  article.) 

Se-leu'cus  [Gr.  I,EAEVKO<;]  I.,  surnamed  NICA'TOR, 
fcjuncler  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidae,  was  the  son 
of  Antiochus,  a  general  in  the  service  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.  He  rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  sovereign, 
became  Satrap  of  Babylonia  about  321  B.C.  He  subse 
quently  carried  on  a  war  against  Antigonus  and  his  son 
Demetrius,  which  resulted  in  his  obtaining  possession 
of  Media,  Bactria,  and  other  large  portions  of  Asia,  and 
forming  thereby  the  Syrian  monarchy.  Having  set  out 
on  an  expedition  against  Macedonia,  he  was  assassinated 
by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  280  B.C.  He  founded  the  cities 
of  Antioch  and  Seleucia,  (or,  more  correctly,  Seleuceia,) 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning.  He  was  highly 
distinguished  for  military  ability.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Antiochus  I. 

Se-leu'cus  Cal-li-m'cus,  son  of  Antiochus  II.,  as 
cended  the  throne  of  Syria  in  246  B.C.  He  carried  on 
wars  with  the  Egyptians  and  Parthians.  Died  about 
226  B.C. 

Seleu'cus  III.  Qle-rau'nus,  King  of  Syria,  was  a 
son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  226 
B.C.  He  died  in  223,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Antiochus  III. 

Seleu'cus  IV.  Fhilop'ator,  a  son  of  Antiochus  III., 
became  King  of  Syria  in  186  or  187  B.C.  He  paid  a 
large  sum  of  money  to  the  Romans,  who  had  defeated 
Antiochus.  Died  in  175  B.C. 

Seleucus  V.,  a  son  of  Demetrius  Nicator,  began  to 
reign  in  124  B.C.  He  was  put  to  death  by  his  mother, 
Cleopatra,  in  the  same  year. 

Seleucus  VI.,  snrnamed  EPIPH'ANES,  was  a  son  of 
Antiochus  VIII.  lie  became  king  in  96,  and  was  killed 
in  95  or  94  B.C. 

Se'lim  [Turk.  SELEKM  or  SELIM,  seh-leem']  I.,  a  son 
of  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  II.,  was  born  in  1467,  and  became 
Emperor  of  Turkey  in  1512.  Having  put  to  death  his 
two  brothers,  he  invaded  Persia,  took  its  capital,  and 
subsequently  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Egypt 
and  Syria.  He  was  preparing  for  another  invasion  of 
Persia,  when  he  died,  in  1520. 

See  VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Selini  (Seleem)  II.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
son  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  was  born  about  1524, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1566.  Among  the  principal 
events  of  his  reign  were  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  from 
the  Venetians,  and  the  signal  defeat  of  the  Turks  in  the 
naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)  Died  in  1574. 

See  Vox  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Selim  (Seleem)  III.,  son  of  Mustafa  III.,  born  in 
1761,  became  Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1789.  Having  an 
earnest  desire  to  reform  the  government,  he  had,  before 
his  accession,  corresponded  with  the  French  ambassador, 
Count  Choiseul,  and  with  other  distinguished  statesmen. 
After  the  termination  of  the  wars  in  which  Turkey  had 
been  engaged  with  Russia,  Austria,  and  France,  Selim 
entered  upon  his  various  reforms,  among  the  most  im 
portant  of  which  was  the  Nizam  Jedeed,  (or  Jedid,)  i.e. 
the  "new  order,"  or  organization  of  the  army  after  the 
European  manner.  In  1806  war  again  broke  out  between 
Turkey  and  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  England, 
and  the  Janissaries,  availing  themselves  of  the  dissatis 
faction  of  the  army  with  the  new  arrangements,  openly 
revolted,  and  took  possession  of  the  arsenal.  The  Sultan 
was  deposed,  and  succeeded  by  Mustafa  IV.,  who  soon 
after  caused  him  to  be  strangled  in  prison,  (1808.) 

See  LAMARTINE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Turquie ;"  "  Nnuvelle  Bio- 
graph  ie  Generate. '° 

Sells,  sa'less',  (NICOLAS  JOSEPH,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1737,  became  professor  of  Latin  poetry 


in  the  College  of  France  in  1796.  He  produced  a  good 
translation  of  the  Satires  of  Persius.  Among  his  works, 
which  are  commended  as  elegant  in  style,  are  "Epistles 
in  Verse  on  Various  Subjects,"  (1776.)  Died  in  1802. 

Seljookides  or  Seljukides,  tel-joo'kidz,  sing. 
Seljukide  or  Seljookide,  sel-joo'kid,  [Fr.  SELDJOU 
KIDES,  seTjoo'ked';  Ger.  SELDSCHUKEN,  sel-joo'ken,  or 
SELDSCHUKIDEN,  sSl-joo-kee'den ;  Lat.  SELGIU'KID,-E 
or  SELJU'KID^E,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated  dynasty, 
which  was  established  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Its  founder  was  Togrul  Beg,  whose  grand 
father  Seljook,  (Seljuk,)  having  been  expelled  from 
Toorkistan  by  the  ruling  prince,  accompanied  by  a 
powerful  tribe,  (of  which  he  was  the  head,)  settled  in 
Bokhara  and  embraced  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
Seljook,  when  over  a  hundred  years  of  age,  was  killed 
in  battle,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Togrul 
Beg.  This  chieftain  overran  a  large  part  of  Central 
Asia,  took  Bagdad,  and  obtained  possession  of  the  per 
son  of  the  Caliph,  whom,  however,  he  treated  with 
profound  respect.  The  prince  of  the  faithful  afterwards 
appointed  Togrul  the  lieutenant  of  his  vast  empire,  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Togrul  Beg  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  the  famous  ALP-AusLAN, 
(which  see.)  Under  him  and  his  son,  Malik  Shah,  the 
Seljookian  empire  attained  its  highest  point  of  power 
and  glory.  It  soon  after  began  to  decline,  and  ended 
with  the 'death  of  Togrul  III. 

Seljuk.     See  SEIJOOKIDKS. 

Seljukides.     See  SELJOOKIDES. 

Sel'kirk,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  sailor,  born  at 
Largo  in  1676.  Having  in  one  of  his  voyages  quar 
relled  with  his  captain,  he  was  left  on  the  uninhabited 
island  of  Juan  Fernandez  in  1704,  with  only  his  gun, 
axe,  ammunition,  and  a  few  other  necessaries.  Here 
he  remained  more  than  four  years,  living  on  game 
and  clothing  himself  with  the  skins  of  goats.  He  was 
taken  off  in  1709,  by  Captain  Vvoodes  Rogers,  who  made 
him  his  mate.  He  died  in  1723,  having  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  in  the  navy.  Selkirk's  adventures 
suggested  to  Defoe  the  celebrated  romance  of"  Robinson 
Crusoe." 

See  JOHN  HOWELL,  "  Life  and  Adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk." 

Selle,  sel'leh  or  zel'leh,  (CHRISTIAN  THEOPHILUS,) 
a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Stettin,  in  Pome- 
rania,  in  1748,  became  physician  to  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia.  He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  medi 
cal  works,  and  treatises  against  the  philosophy  of  Kant. 
Died  in  1800. 

Sel'ler,  (ABEDNEGO,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Plymouth,  wrote  "  Tracts  against  Popery,"  "  The  Devout 
Communicant,"  and  other  works.  Died  about  1720. 

Sellius,  sel'le-us,  (GODFREY,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Dantzic,  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Monograms," 
"  Geographical  Description  of  Dutch  Brabant,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1767. 

Sel'lon,  (BAKER  JOHN,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1762,  was  the  author  of  an  "Analysis  of  the  Practice  of 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas,"  which 
is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1835. 

Sellon,  (PRISCILLA  LYDIA,)  an  English  philanthro 
pist,  born  about  1820,  established  in  1849  a  Protestant 
sisterhood,  corresponding  with  the  religious  ?)rders  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  their  chief  employment  being  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  the  education  of  poor  children. 

Selmer,  seTmer,  (HANNIBAL  PKTF.K,)  a  Norwegian 
writer,  born  at  Gaarden-Mein,  in  Norway,  in  1802. 

Selva,  sel'va,  (GIANANTONIO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Venice  in  1753  ;  died  in  1819. 

Selve,  de,  deh  selv,  (JEAN,)  a  French  judge  and 
negotiator,  born  in  Limousin.  He  was  sent  to  Madrid 
is  1525  to  negotiate  for  the  liberation  of  Francis  I.,  who 
had  been  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia.  Died  in  1529. 

Sel'wyn,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  gentleman,  distin 
guished  for  his  wit,  was  born  in  1719.  He  became  a 
member  of  Parliament.  Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  H.  JESSE,  "  George  Selwyn  and  his  Contemporaries," 
1843- 

Selwyn,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1774,  published,  among  other  works,  an 
"  Abridgment  of  the  Law  of  Nisi  Prius."  Died  in  1855. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


lanations,  p.  23.) 


SELWTN 


1994 


SENARMONT 


Selwyn,  (WILLIAM,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1806.  He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1855,  and  published  several 
works  on  theology,  etc. 

Selys-Loiigchamps,  de,  deh  seh-less'  liN'shSN1', 
(MiCHKL  EDMUND,)  BAKON,  a  naturalist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1813.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Belgian 
Fauna,"  (1st  vol.,  1842.) 

Seni,  the  French  for  SHEM,  which  see. 
Sem'e-le,  [Gr.  Se/ue/.^ ;  Fr.  SEMELE,  sa'ma'la',]  a 
daughter  of  Cadmus,  and  sister  of  Ino,  was  said  to  have 
been  beloved  by  Jupiter,  and  to  have  been  by  him  the 
mother  of  Bacchus.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  re 
quested  Jupiter  to  appear  to  heV  with  his  greatest 
splendour,  and  that  he  came  with  flashes  of  lightning, 
by  which  she  was  consumed,  and  that  Bacchus  rescued 
her  from  Erebus  and  raised  her  to  Olympus,  where  she 
was  called  Thyo'ne. 

Semiiii,  sa-mee'nee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Genoa  in  1510;  died  in  1594. 

Seniini,  (ANTONIO,)  a  painter,  the  father  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1485  ;  died  in  1550. 

Semiiii,  (OTTAVIO,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1520;  died  in  1604. 
Semiramide.  See  SKMIRAMIS. 
Se-niir'a-mis,  [Gr.  Sefripa/ue ;  It.  SKMIRAMIDE,  sa- 
me'ra-mee'da,]  a  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria,  whose 
history  is  greatly  obscured  by  fables,  supposed  to  have 
reigned  about  1250  li.C.  She  was,  according  to  Dio- 
dorus,  the  wife  of  Omnes,  a  general  in  the  Assyrian 
army;  but,  having  attracted  the  notice  of  Ninus,  King 
of  Assyria,  he  made  her  his  queen.  Having  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Ninus,  she  built  Babylon 
and  several  other  cities,  and  planned  a  number  of  mag 
nificent  works.  She  invaded  Persia  and  Ethiopia,  and 
conquered  large  portions  of  those  countries.  She  was 
less  successful  in  her  invasion  of  India,  where  her  army 
was  overthrown,  chiefly,  as  it  would  appear,  by  means 
of  the  war  elephants  which  her  enemies  possessed.  She 
is  stated  by  some  writers  to  have  been  murdered  by 
her  son  Ninyas,  and  by  others  to  have  been  killed  in 
battle. 

See  NIEHUIIR,  "Geschiclite  Assurs  mid  Babels,"  1857:  RAWMN- 
SON,  "The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World." 

Semler,  sSm'ler  or  zSm'ler,  QOHANN  SALMON,)  an 
influential  and  liberal  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Saalfeld  in  December,  1721,  (or,  as  some  writers  say, 
1725.)  He  studied  in  the  University  of  Halle,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  there  in  1751.  He  has 
been  called  "the  father  of  German  rationalism."  In 
1757  he  succeeded  Baumgarten  as  director  of  the  theo 
logical  seminary.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his  method 
of  historical  hermeneutics.  He  wrote,  besides  many 
other  works,  "  Apparatus  ad  Liberam  Novi  Testament} 
Interpretationem,"  (1767,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Examination  of  the  Canon,"  ("Abhandlung  von  der 
Untersuchung  des  Kanons,"  4  vols.,  1771-75.)  Died 
at  Halle  in  1791. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Semlers  Lebensbeschreibung," 
2  vols.,  1781-82;  F.  A.  WOLF,  "  Ueber  Semler's  letzte  Lebenstage," 
1791  :  H.  _SCHMIU,  "Theologie  Semler's,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Semines,  s£mz,  (RAPHAEL,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Maryland,  entered  the  navy  about  1826. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  about  1855.  In 
the  summer  of  1861  he  took  command  of  the  steamer 
Sumter,  which  captured  many  merchant-vessels  owned 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States.  In  August,  1862, 
he  became  captain  of  a  swift  war-steamer,  called  the 
"290,"  or  Alabama,  just  built  in  England,  and  manned 
by  British  subjects.  He  inflicted  immense  damage  on 
the  American  mercantile  marine.  On  the  igth  of  June, 
1864,  he  encountered,  near  Cherbourg,  France,  the 
Kearsarge,  Captain  \Vinslow.  In  the  battle  that  ensued, 
both  vessels  moved  rapidly  in  circles,  swinging  around 
an  ever-changing  centre.  After  they  had  described 
seven  circles,  the  Alabama  began  to  sink,  and  Semmes 
escaped  in  the  English  yacht  Deerhound.  He  lost  nine 
killed  and  twenty-one  wounded,  while  Captain  Winslow 
lost  only  one  killed  and  two  wounded. 

See  TENNEY,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  pp. 
276-81. 


Semolei.     See  FRANCO,  (BATTISTA.) 

Seinonville,  de,  deh  seh-miN'vel',  (CHARLES  Louis 
Huguet — /ni'gi',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  diplomatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1759.  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Italy  in  1793,  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  Austrians  for 
two  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1805, 
and  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers  from  1815  to  1830. 
Died  in  1839. 

See  MOUNIKK,  "  E~loge  de  Seinonville;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Semper,  sSm'per  or  ze'm'per,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  Ger 
man  architect,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1804.  Among  his 
.best  works  is  the  new  theatre  at  Dresden.  He  pub 
lished  two  esteemed  works, entitled  "The  Four  Elements 
of  Architecture,"  (1851,)  and  "Science,  Industry,  and 
Art,"  (1852.) 

Semple,  sem'p'l,  (ROBERT  BAYLOR,)  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  in  King  and  Queen  county,  Virginia, 
in  1769.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Virginia  Baptists," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1831. 

Sem-pro'm-a,  a  Roman  lady,  was  the  sister  of  the 
celebrated  Gracchi,  and  the  wife  of  Scipio  Africanus  the 
Younger. 

Sempronia,  the  beautiful  but  profligate  wife  of  D. 
funius  Brutus,  who  was  consul  in  77  li.c.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  literary  talents,  and  was  an  ac 
complice  in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

Semprcmia  Gens,  an  ancient  Roman  gens,  was 
divided  into  many  families,  known  as  the  Atratini, 
Gracchi,  Longi,  Rufi,  Tuditani,  etc.  A.  SEMPKONIUS 
ATRATINUS,  who  was  consul  in  497  B.C.,  belonged  to  this 
gens. 

Sem-pro'nl-usTu-di-ta'mis,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  his 
torian,  became  consul  in  129  B.C.  His  works  are  not 
extant. 

Seiiac,  seh-ntk',  (JEAN,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lombez  in  1693,  became  phy 
sician  to  the  king  in  1752.  He  was  author  of  a  treat 
ise  on  the  structure  and  diseases  of  the  heart,  which 
was  esteemed  a  standard  work  at  the  time.  Died  in 
1770. 

Senac  de  Meilhan,  seh-nSk'  deh  m-VISx',  (GA 
BRIEL,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  published  fictitious  "  Memoirs 
of  Anne  de  Gonzague,"  (1786,)  and  "Considerations 
on  Mind  (or  Intellect)  and  Manners,"  ("Considerations 
sur  1'Esprit  et  les  Mceurs,"  1787.)  Died  at  Vienna  in 
1803. 

See  CRAUFURD,  "  Essai  biographique  sur  Senac  de  Meilhan," 
1803;  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale." 

Senan,  sC-nSn',  a  celebrated  physician  and  astron 
omer,  born  in  Mesopotomia,  flourished  in  the  tenth 
century.  He  was  appointed  archiater  or  chief  of  the 
physicians  by  Moktader,  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  geometry  and  astronomy,  and  on  the 
doctrines  of  the  Sabians.  He  died  in  942  A.M. 

Senancour,  de,  deh  seh-nSx'kooK',  (firiENNE  PI- 
VERT,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a 
melancholy  and  meditative  person.  He  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  "Reveries  on  the  Primitive  Nature 
of  Man,"  (1799,)  "Obermann,"  a  tale,  (1804,)  and  "Free 
Meditations  of  a  Recluse,"  ("  Libres  Meditations  d'un 
Solitaire,"  1819.)  M.  Villemain  procured  for  him  a 
pension  from  the  state.  Died  in  1846. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  contemporains ;"  QUERARD, 
"La  France  Litternire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Senarmont,  de,  deh  seh-naVindx',  (ALEXANDRE 
ANTOINE  Hureau — /lu'vo',)  BARON,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Strasburg  in  1769.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Friedland,  where  ha  directed  the 
artillery,  (1807.)  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Cadiz, 
in  1810. 

See  MARION,  "  Memoires  sur  General  de  Senarmont,"  1846. 

Senarmont,  de,  (HENRI  HUREAU,)  a  mineralogist 
and  engineer,  born  at  Broue  in  1808,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  preceding.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Modifica 
tions  which  Reflection  at  the  Surface  of  Crystals  produces 
in  Polarized  Light,"  (1840,)  a  "Geological  Description 
of  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Marne,"  (1844,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1862. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


SEN4R T 


1995 


SENNERT 


Senart,  sa'naV,  (ANTOINE  MARIE  JULES,)  a  French 
advocate  and  republican,  born  at  Rouen  in  1800.  He 
became  president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  about 
May,  1848,  and  was  minister  of  the  interior  for  a  short 
time  in  that  year. 

Senault,  seli-no',  ([OHN  FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish  ecclesi 
astic,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1600.  He  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He 
published  several  moral  and  religious  works.  Died  in 
1672. 

Senebier,  sen'be-i',  QEAN,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
litterateur,  was  bornatGeneva  in  1 742.  I  le  was  ordained 
a  minister  about  1762,  and  preached  several  years  at 
Chancy.  In  1773  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  public 
library  of  Geneva.  He  wrote  numerous  and  various 
works,  among  which  are  "  Essay  on  the  Art  of  Observing 
and  Making  Experiments,"  (2  vols.,  1775,)  a  "  Literary- 
History  of  Geneva,"  (3  vols.,  1786,)  and  "Vegetable 
Physiology,"  (5  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1809. 

See  MAUNOIK,  "  filoge  de  J.  Senebier,"  1810;  •'  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Sen'e-ca,  [Fr.  SENEQUE,*savnek/,]( Lucius  ANN.-EUS,) 
an  eminent  Roman  Stoic,  philosopher,  and  moralist,  born 
at  Corduba,  in  Spain,  about  5  B.C.  He  was  educated  in 
Rome,  whither  he  was  brought  by  his  parents  in  his  child 
hood.  Having  studied  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  law,  he 
gained  distinction  as  a  pleader.  Accused  by  Messalina 
of  improper  intimacy  with  Julia,  a  niece  of  Claudius,  he 
was  banished  to  Corsica  in  41  A.I).  During  his  exile  he 
composed  his  "  Consolatio  ad  Helviam."  (Helvia  was 
the  name  of  his  mother.)  Through  the  influence  of 
Agrippina,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Rome  in 
49  A.D.,  was  raised  to  the  prsetorship,  and  appointed 
tutor  to  L.  Domitius,  (commonly  known  as  Nero,)  who 
became  emperor  in  54  A.D.  According  to  Tacitus,  Sen 
eca  endeavoured  to  reform  or  restrain  the  evil  propensi 
ties  of  his  pupil.  Some  writers,  however,  censure  his 
conduct  in  this  connection,  by  arguments  which  derive 
plausibility  from  the  immense  wealth  which  Seneca 
amassed.  About  the  year  56  he  wrote  a  treatise  on 
clemency,  addressed  to  Nero,  "  De  dementia,  ad  Nero- 
nem."  Seneca  consented  to  the  death  of  Nero's  mother, 
Agrippina,  who  was  killed  by  order  of  her  son  in  60  A. I)., 
and  wrote  the  letter  which  Nero  addressed  to  the  senate 
in  his  justification.  He  was  afterwards  supplanted  in 
the  favour  of  Nero  by  Tigellinus  and  Rufus,  who  sought 
to  ruin  Seneca  by  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  tyrant 
against  him.  He  was  accused  of  being  an  accomplice 
of  Piso,  (who  had  conspired  against  the  emperor,)  and 
was  ordered  to  put  himself  to  death.  Having  opened 
his  veins,  he  died  in  a  warm  bath  in  65  A.D.  He  was 
an  uncle  of  the  poet  Lucan. 

Seneca  was  an  eloquent  and  popular  writer.  His  style 
is  aphoristic,  antithetical,  and  somewhat  inflated.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a  treatise  "On  Anger,"  ("  De 
Ira,")  "A  Book  on  Providence,"  (•'  De  Providentia 
Liber,")  "On  Tranquillity  of  Mind,"  ("De  Animi  Tran- 
quillitate,")  "On  the  Brevity  of  Life,"("De  Brevitate 
Vitas,")  essays  on  natural  science,  entitled  "  Quaestiones 
Naturales,"  and  numerous  epistles,  "  Epistolae  ad  Lu- 
ciliuni,"  which  are  a  collection  of  moral  maxims.  We 
have  also  ten  tragedies  in  verse  which  are  attributed  to 
Seneca,  and  which,  though  not  adapted  to  the  stage, 
have  considerable  literary  merit. 

There  has  been  great  diversity  of  opinion  respecting 
the  character  and  'writings  of  Seneca.  He  has  been 
quoted  as  an  authority  by  councils  and  fathers  of  the 
Church.  He  was  highly  extolled  as  a  writer  by  Mon 
taigne.  Quintilian  observes  that  his  writings  "abound 
in  charming  defects,"  (dulcibusvitiis.)  Macaulay  is  among 
those  who  take  the  least  favourable  view  of  the  character 
and  influence  of  the  great  Stoic.  He  says,  "It  is  very 
reluctantly  that  Seneca  can  be  brought  to  confess  that 
any  philosopher  had  ever  paid  the  smallest  attention 
to  anything  that  could  possibly  promote  what  vulgar 
people  would  consider  as  the  well-being  of  mankind. 
.  .  .  The  business  of  a  philosopher  was  to  declaim  in 
praise  of  poverty,  with  two  millions  sterling  out  at 
usury ;  to  meditate  epigrammatic  conceits  about  the 


*  Chaucer  usually  has  SKNKK,  with  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  ; 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  SENEC. 


evils  of  luxury,  in  gardens  which  moved  the  envy  of  sove 
reigns  ;  to  rant  about  liberty,  while  fawning  on  the 
insolent  and  pampered  freedmen  of  a  tyrant."  ("Essay 
on  Lord  Bacon.'') 

See  ROSMINI,  "Vita  di  Seneca,"  1793;  JUSTUS  LIPSIUS,  "Vita 
L  A.  Seneca:,"  1607;  KLOTZSCH,  "Seneca,"  2  vols.,  1799-1802; 
RRINHARDT,  "  De  Seneca  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1817;  VEKMIER,  "  Vie 
de  Seneque,"  1812;  AM.  FI.F.UKY,  "  Seneque  et  Saint-Paul,"  2 
vols.,  1853;  P.  EKEKMAN,  "Vita  et  Dogmata  L.  A.  Seneca;,"  1742; 
RITTKK,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  UIKSCHIG,  "  Dood  en  Gedach- 
tcnis  van  Seneca,"  1831;  DENIS  DIDKKOT,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de 
Seneque."  1779:  F.  SAI.VADOKI.  "II  Filosofo  cortigiano,  o  sia 
il  Seneca,"  1674;  TACITUS,  "Annales;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Seneca,  (MARCUS  ANN/EUS,)  a  Latin  rhetorician, 
born  at  Corduba  (Cordova)  about  61  B.C.,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding,  and  the  grandfather  of  Lucan.  He 
wrote  "  Book  of  Persuasives,"  ("  Suasoriarum  Liber,") 
and  "Ten  Books  of  Controversies,"  ("  Controversia- 
rum  Libri  decem,")  which  are  extant,  but  have  little 
merit. 

Seiiecai  or  Senece,  de,  deh  sa'neh-sa'  or  san'sa', 
(ANTOINE  BAUDEKON,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Macon 
in  1643.  lie  wrote  "Kaimac;  Les  Travaux  d'Apollon," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1737. 

Seiiecio,  se-nee'she-o,  (HKRENNIUS,)  a  native  of 
Spain,  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Domitian.  The 
charges  against  him  were  that  he  was  a  candidate  for 
no  public  office,  and  that  he  had  written  the  life  of  Hel- 
vidius  Priscus. 

Senefelder,  sa'tieh-feld'er,  (ALOIS,)  the  inventor  of 
lithography,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1771.  He  became  a 
play-actor  in  his  youth,  but  did  not  succeed  in  that  pur 
suit.  He  also  wrote  several  dramas.  Being  poor,  he 
meditated  various  new  modes  of  printing  his  works 
cheaply,  and  tried  experiments  in  etching,  and  writing 
backwards  on  calcareous  stone.  One  clay  it  was  neces 
sary  to  make  a  memorandum  in  haste,  but  he  had  no 
white  paper  :  so  he  wrote  it  on  a  smooth  stone  with  a 
peculiar  ink.  It  afterwards  occurred  to  him  to  apply 
diluted  nitric  acid,  which  etched  away  the  stone  where 
there  had  been  no  ink,  the  part  on  which  the  ink  had 
been  placed  being  protected  from  the  action  of  the  acid, 
so  that  the  letters  were  left  in  relief.  He  invented  about 
1798  the  process  of  lithography  which  is  now  generally 
used,  and  was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  lithographic 
office  at  Munich  in  1809.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
Lithography,"  (1819.)  Died  in  1834. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Senek.     See  SENECA. 

Senior,  seen'yor,  (NASSAU  WILLIAM,)  an  English 
lawyer,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1790,  became  in  1826  pro 
fessor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford.  He  published 
"On  Foreign  Poor-Laws  and  Labourers,"  (1840,)  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (1850,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Senkenberg,  von,  fon  senk'en-beuo'  or  zenk'en- 
beRr/,  (HEINRICH  CHRISTOPH,)  BARON,  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1704,  became 
professor  of  law  at  Gottingen.  Died  in  1768. 

Senkenberg,  von,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in 
1717.  He  founded  in  that  city  a  hospital,  with  a  library, 
botanical  garden,  anatomical  theatre,  etc.  Died  in  1772. 
The  Senkenberg  Museum  of  Natural  Plistory  was  estab 
lished  in  his  honour  in  1817. 

Sen-na-eh'er-ib,  [Heb.  TTUD,]  King  of  Assyria, 
was  a  son  of  Sargon,  whom  he  succeeded  about  702  B.C. 
He  invaded  Judea  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  defeated 
the  Egyptian  allies  of  the  King  of  Judah,  and  extorted 
from  him  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  silver.  His  army 
besieged  Jerusalem,  but  was  overthrown  by  the  angel  of 
the  Lord,"  who  "  went  forth  and  smote  in  the  camp  of 
the  Assyrians  an  hundred  and  four  score  and  five  thou 
sand,"  so  that  Sennacherib  returned  in  haste  to  Nineveh. 
He  reigned  twenty-two  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xviii.,  xix.  ;  NIEDUHR.  "  Geschichte  Assurs  und 
Babels." 

Sermert,  sen'neRt,  [Lat.  SENNER'TUS,]  (ANDREAS,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1606,  was 
a  son  of  Daniel,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SENNERT 


1996 


SERGIUS 


of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg   in   1638.     He    published    a 
number  of  works.     Died  in  1689. 

See  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Sennert  or  Sen-ner'tus,  [Fr.  SENNERT,  si'naiR',] 
(I)ANIKL,)  a  German  physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1572, 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Wiirtemberg.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  works,  and  enjoyed  a  high  repu 
tation  in  his  profession.  Died  in  1637. 

See  BAVI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires." 

Semiertus.     See  SENNERT. 

Senneterre.     See  FERTE-SENNETERRE. 

Sen'ter,  (ISAAC.)  an  eminent  American  physician, 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1755.  He  served  as  surgeon 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  afterwards  practised  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island.  Died  in  1799. 

Seona.     See  SIOFN. 

Sepp,  sep  or  zep,  (JoHANN  NEPOMUK,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Toltz,  in  Bavaria,  in  1816,  became 
professor  of  history  at  Munich.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Jesus,"  in  answer  to  that  of  Strauss,  and  "  Paganism 
and  its  Signification  for  Christianity,"  (1853,)  in  which 
he  favours  the  system  of  Scheliing. 

Sep'pings,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  English  naval  architect, 
born  in  1768,  made  several  important  improvements  in 
ship-building,  among  which  was  the  system  of  diagonal 
bracing  and  trussing.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  ser 
vices  he  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1814,  and 
obtained  the  Copley  medal  from  that  institution.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  a  New  Principle  of  construct 
ing  Ships  in  the  Mercantile  Navy,"  and  other  similar 
works,  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  Died  in  1840. 

Septalius.     See  S ETT ALA. 

Septimius  Severus.    See  SEVERUS. 

Sepulveda,  de,  da  sa-pool'va-oa,  (JUAN  GINEZ,)  a 
celebrated  Spanish  historian  and  scholar,  born  near 
Cordova  about  1490.  lie  studied  at  the  University 
of  Alcala,  and  subsequently  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Carpi.  In  1536  he  became  his 
toriographer  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  was  after 
wards  appointed  tutor  to  his  son  Philip.  Among  his 
principal  historical  works  are  his  "  History  of  the  Em 
peror  Charles  V.,"  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  and  "  His 
tory  of  the  Spanish  Conquests  in  Mexico,"  all  in  Latin. 
He  also  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  "  Democrates  Se- 
cundus,"  in  which  he  attempts  to  justify  the  barbarous 
treatment  of  the  Indians  by  the  Spaniards,  and  to  refute 
the  arguments  of  Las  Casas  in  their  favour.  The  work 
was  condemned  by  the  principal  Spanish  universities, 
and  was  never  printed.  Sepulveda  translated  portions 
of  Aristotle  into  Latin,  and  published  a  number  of 
learned  essays  in  that  language.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  scholars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Died  in  1574. 

See  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova  ;"  ANDRE  SCHOTT, 
"  Vita  Sepulvedse,"  prefixed  to  Sepulveda's  works,  Cologne,  1602; 
NICERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sepulveda,  de,  (LORENZO,)  a  Spanish  writer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of"  Romances  nueva- 
mente  sacadas  de  Historias  antiguas  de  la  Cronica  de 
Espana,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind,  which  had  a  high 
reputation  at  the  time. 

Sequard.     See  BROWN-S^QUARD. 

Serao,  sa-ra'o,  [Lat.  SERA'US,]  (FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  near  Aversa  in  1702.  He  be 
came  professor  of  medicine  at  Naples,  and  chief  physician 
to  Ferdinand  IV.  Died  in  1783. 

See  FASANO,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Serai,"  1784. 

Se-ra'pi-on,  [Sepam'wv,]  a  physician  of  the  sect  of 
the  Empiric!,  who  lived  at  Alexandria  about  250  n.C. 

Serapion,  a  Syrian  physician,  called  SERAPION  SE 
NIOR,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  tenth  century. 
Two  of  his  medical  works  are  extant. 

Serapion,  an  Arabian  physician,  commonly  called 
JUNIOR,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  eleventh  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  "  On  Simple  Medicaments/' 
which  has  been  translated  into  Latin. 

Se-ra'pis  or  Sa-ra'pis,  [Gr.  2«pam? :  Fr.  S^RAPIS, 
si'rt'pess',]  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  divinity,  was 
regarded  by  some  writers  as  another  title  of  Osiris. 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Macrobius,  and  others  mention 


Serapis  and  Isis  as  the  great  divinities  of  Egypt.  Ac 
cording  to  Apolloclorus,  Serapis  was  a  name  given  to 
Apis  after  his  death. 

Se-ra'ii-us  or  sa'ri're'iis',  (NICOLAS,)  a  learned 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1550.  He  wrote 
several  works  against  Luther ;  also,  commentaries  on 
Scripture.  Died  in  1609  or  1610. 

Seiassi,  sa-ras'see,  (PIETRO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
biographer  and  critic,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1721.  He 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Furietti  at  Rome  about 
1760.  He  edited  the  poems  of  Petrarch,  Dante,  and 
other  Italian  poets.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Tor- 
quato  Tasso,"  ("  Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1785,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  presents  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
literary  history  of  Tasso's  time.  Died  in  1791. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustli;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  (jenerale." 

Serbelloiii,  seR-bel-lo'nee,  (GABRIEL,)  an  able  Italian 
general,  born  at  Milan  in  1508.  He  fought  for  Charles 
V.  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)  Died  in  1580. 

Sercey,  de,  deh  sek'si',  (PiKRRE  CE\SAR  CHARLES 
GUILLAUME,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  vice-admiral,  born 
near  Autun  in  1753.  He  commanded  in  the  East  Indies 
with  success  in  1796-99.  Died  in  1836. 

Se-re'mis,  (AULUS  SEPTIMIUS,)  a  Roman  lyric  poet, 
and  contemporary  of  Martial,  was  the  author  of"  Opus- 
cula  Ruralia,"  on  the  enjoyments  of  country  life.  A  few 
fragments  only  of  this  work  are  extant. 

Serenus,  (QUINTUS.)     See  SAMONICUS. 

Sergardi,  seK-gaR'dee,  (Lonovico,)  an  Italian  satiri 
cal  poet,  born  at  Sienna  in  1660,  called  himself  QUINTUS 
SECTANUS.  He  attacked  Gravina  in  a  series  of  satires 
entitled  "Satires  of  Quiiitus  Sectanus  against  Philode- 
mus,"  ("Quinti  Sectani  Satyrae  in  Philodemum,"  1694.) 
Died  in  1726. 

See  FAHKONI,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Serge.     See  SERGIUS. 

Sergeant,  sar'jant,  (JOHN.)  an  eminent  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1779.  He 
was  a  son  of  Jonathan  Dickinson  Serjeant,  who  was 
attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1795,  and  practised  law  in  Phila 
delphia.  He  was  retained  as  counsel  in  the  most  impor 
tant  cases  in  the  supreme  court  of  his  own  State  and 
in  that  of  the  United  States.  He  represented  a  district 
of  his  native  city  in  Congress  from  1815  to  1823,  from 
1827  to  1829,  and  from  1837  to  1842.  In  1832  he  was 
the  Whig  candidate  for  the  office  of  Vice-President, 
(Henry  Clay  being  the  Presidential  candidate,)  but  re 
ceived  only  forty-nine  electoral  votes.  He  took  an 
important  part  against  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the 
contest  which  resulted  in  the  Missouri  compromise  of 
1820,  and  delivered  on  that  occasion  a  speech  of  rare 
eloquence  and  power.  He  was  a  man  of  high  integrity 
and  great  personal  influence  in  the  community.  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  November,  1852.  His  "Select  Speeches" 
were  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1832. 

See  W.  M.  MEREDITH,  "  Eulogy  on  John  Sergeant,"  1853. 

Sergei  or  Sergell,  seu'gel,  (JoHAN  TOBIAS,)  an  emi 
nent  Swedish  sculptor,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1740.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1767,  where  he  resided  many  years,  and, 
after  his  return,  was  appointed  by  Gustavus  III.  court 
sculptor  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "Cupid  and  Psyche,"  "Othryades 
the  Spartan,"  and  "  Diomedes  carrying  off  the  Palla 
dium."  Died  in  1814. 

Sergent,  seVzhftN',  (ANTOINE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born   at   Chartres  in  1751.     He  was  a  violent 
member   of  the  Convention,   (1792-95,)  and   published 
several  works.     Died  in  1847. 
,  See  NOEI.  PARFAIT,  "Notice  sur  A.  F.  Sergent,"  1848. 

Ser'gl-us  [Fr.  SERGE,  sgRzh ;  It.  SERGIO,  seVje-o  or 
sek'jo]  I.,  Pope  of  Rome,  born  at  Palermo,  succeeded 
Conon  in  687  A.D.  He  sent  missionaries  to  convert  the 
Saxons.  Having  refused  his  consent  to  the  canons 
issued  by  the  council  assembled  in  Constantinople  by 
Justinian  II.,  the  latter  ordered  his  arrest  ;  but,  the 
soldiers  taking  sides  with  the  pope,  he  remained  in  pos 
session  of  his  see.  He  died  in  701,  and  was  succeeded 
by  John  VI. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


SERG1US 


'997 


SERTORIUS 


Sergius  II.,  born  at  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  844 
A.I>.  During  his  pontificate  the  Saracens  invaded  Italy 
and  ravaged  the  country  near  Rome,  but  did  not  enter 
the  city.  Died  in  847. 

Sergius  III.  succeeded  Christopher  as  pope  in  904 
A.D.,  being  clewed  through  the  influence  of  the  Marquis 
of  Tuscany  and  the  profligate  Theodora  and  her  daugh 
ter  Marozia.  His  son  by  Marozia  was  afterwards  Pope 
John  X.  Sergius  died 'in  913,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Anastasius  IV. 

Sergius  IV.  was  elected  successor  to  John  XVIII. 
in  1009  A.I).  He  died  in  1012,  and  Benedict  VIII.  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him. 

Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  probably 
in  Syria,  was  a  Monothelite.  He  became  patriarch  in 
6ic,  and  died  in  639  A.D. 

Serieys,  seh-re-i',  (AXTOINE,)  a  French  compiler  of 
histories,  etc.,  born  in  Kouergue  in  1755  >  d'ed  in  1829. 

Serimnir.     See  SAKHRIMNIR. 

Seripandi,  sa-re-pan'dee,  or  Seripando,  sa-re-pan'- 
do,  (GlROLAMO,)  a  learned  Italian  prelate  and  writer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1493,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Died  in  1563. 

Serizay,  de,  deh  seh-re'zi',  (JACQUES,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  about  1590,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1653. 

Serle,  *en,  (.AMBROSE,)  an  English  devotional  writer, 
born  about  1740.    Among  his  works  is  "Christian  Hus-  | 
bandry."  (1804.)     Died  in  1812. 

Serlio,  sek'le-o,  (SEBASTIANO,)  an  Italian  architect ! 
and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Bologna  in  1475.  He  was  j 
appointed  in  1541,  by  Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  archi-  ' 
tect  at  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau.  He  was  author  of 
"Treatises  on  Architecture,"  ("Opere  di  Architettura.'')  i 
Died  in  1552. 

Sermoneta,  da.     See  SICIOI.ANTK. 

Seroux  d'Agincourt.     See  D'AGINCOURT. 

Serrano,  ser-ia'no,  ( FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  general 
and  politician,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.      He  was  I 
appointed  captain-general  of  the  artillery  in  1854.     He  ' 
opposed   Narvaez    in    1857,    and    was    Captain-General  ! 
ot  Cuba   from  1860  to  1862.      He   was  president  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  by  the  insurgents  who 
deposed    Isabel    in    September,    1868,   and   was   elected 
Regent  of  Spain  by  the  Cortes  in  June,  1869. 

Serrarms.    See'  LAMBERT,  (FRANC.OIS,)  and  SERRES, 

DE,   (JEAN.) 

Serrao,  ser-ra'o,  (GiovAN  ANDREA,)  a  learned  Ital 
ian  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Calabria  in  1731.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Potenza  in  1782.  In  1799  he  was  massacred 
by  the  royalists  because  he  was  a  Liberal. 

See  DAVANZATI,  "Vie  d' Andrea  Serrao,"  1806. 

Serre,  de,  deh  sain,  (PIERRE  FRANCOIS  HERCUI,E,) 
COM  rr.,  a  French  orator  and  minister  of  state,  born  near 
Pont-a-Mousson  in  1776.  He  was  appointed  first  presi 
dent  of  the  court  of  Colmar  in  1815,  and  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1816.  He  was  a  moderate 
royalist  and  doctrinaire  in  politics.  In  December,  1818, 
he  became  keeper  of  the  seals,  or  minister  of  justice. 
He  resigned  office  in  December,  1821.  Died  in  1824. 

See  GL'IZOT,  "  Memoires,"  tome  i.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Serres,  saiR  or  sairz,  ?  (DoMixic,)  a  painter  of  ma 
rine  views  and  naval  battles,  was  born  at  Auch,  in 
France.  He  went  to  England  about  1764,  and  worked 
in  that  country  many  years.  Died  in  1793. 

Serres,  saiR,  (ExiENNE  RENAUD  AUGUSTIN,)  a  French 
physiologist,  born  at  Clairac  in  1787.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  comparative  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  1839.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Laws  of  Osteogeny,"  (1815,)  and  "The  Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Brain  in  the  Four  Classes  of  Vertebrate 
Animals,"  (2  vols.,  1824-26.)  He  discovered  that  the 
development  of  animals  and  their  organs  proceeds  from 
the  circumference  towards  the  centre. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  CALLISEN,"  Medicinisches 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Serres,  sairz,?  (OLIVE,)  an  English  artist,  wife  of 
Dominic,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Warwick  in  1772, 
and  was  appointed  landscape-painter  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  In  1815  she  publicly  claimed  the  title  of  Princess 


of  Cumberland,  pretending  that  she  was  the  daughter 
of  Henry  Frederick,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  by  his  mar 
riage  with  a  Miss  Wilmot.  In  1822  a  motion  was  made 
in  the  House  of  Commons  to  investigate  her  claims, 
which  was  successfully  opposed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
She  died  in  poverty  in  1834. 

Serres,  de,  deh  saiR,  [Lat.  SERRA'NUS,]  (JEAN,)  a 
French  Protestant  minister  and  historian,  born  at  Ville- 
neuve  de  Berg  about  1540.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  the  Third  Civil  War,"  (1569,)  and 
"History  of  France  in  the  Reigns  of  Henry  II.,  Francis 
II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.,"  (1595.)  He  received 
from  Henry  IV.  the  title  of  historiographer  in  1597. 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1598. 

See  NIC£RON,  "Memoires;"  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France  protes- 
tante;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Serres,  de,  (MARCEL,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
geology  and  natural  history  in  his  native  city  in  1820, 
and  wrote  numerous  works  on  geology,  palaeontology, 
etc.,  among  which  is  "The  Cosmogony  of  Moses  com 
pared  with  Geological  Facts,"  (1838.)  Died  in  1862. 

Serres,  de,  (OLIVIER,)  Seigneur  de  Pradel,  a  French 
Protestant  and  writer  on  agriculture,  born  near  Ville- 
neuve  de  Berg  (Ardeche)  about  1539,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  rational 
and  methodical  agriculture,  entitled  "  Le  Theatre  d'Agri- 
culture,"  (1600,)  often  reprinted.  His  style  is  admirable 
anil  finely  adapted  to  the  subject.  Died  in  1619. 

See  K.  DF.  NEUFCHATEAU,  "  Eloge  hislorique  d'O.  de  Serres," 
1790;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  MM.  HAAG,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Serret,  si'ri',  (JOSEPH  ALFRED,)  a  French  mathe 
matician,  born  in  1819,  has  written  on  analysis,  etc. 

Serrigny,  si'ren'ye',  (DENIS,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Savigny-sur-Beaune  about  1804.  He  published  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Public  Law  of  the  French,"  (2  vols., 
1845,)  and  other  works. 

Sertorio.     See  SERTORIUS. 

Ser-to'ri-us,  [It.  SERTORIO,  s£R-to're-o,]  (QuiNTus,) 
a  famous  Roman  general,  born  at  Nursia,  in  the  country 
of  the  Sabines.  He  was  liberally  educated.  He  displayed 
courage  and  capacity  in  the  war  which  Marius  conducted 
against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  about  IOI  B.C.  Just 
before  the  Marsic  war  began,  he  was  appointed  quaestor 
in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  91  B.C.  "  His  martial  intrepidity  did 
not  abate,"  says  Plutarch,  "  when  he  arrived  at  the  de 
gree  of  general.  His  personal  exploits  were  still  great, 
and  he  faced  danger  in  the  most  fearless  manner  ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  had  one  of  his  eyes  struck 
out."  He  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  tribune,  but  was  defeated  by  Sulla's  faction,  and 
became  an  enemy  of  that  great  leader.  In  the  civil  war 
which  began  about  88  he  fought  with  Cinna  against  the 
partisans  of  Sulla.  After  Marius  returned  from  Africa, 
the  troops  of  the  popular  party  were  divided  into  three 
equal  parts,  commanded  respectively  by  Marius,  Ser- 
torius,  and  Cinna,  who,  acting  in  concert,  defeated  the 
enemy  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Rome.  Ser- 
torius  was  the  only  one  of  the  three  that  treated  the 
vanquished  with  humanity,  and  he  reproached  Marius 
for  his  cruelty.  The  return  of  Sulla  with  a  large  army 
from  the  East,  in  83  B.C.,  put  an  end  to  the  ascendency 
of  Marius.  Sertorius,  having  obtained  the  office  of  pro 
consul,  retired  with  a  few  troops  to  Spain,  from  which  he 
soon  passed  over  to  Africa.  Having  been  invited  by 
the  Lusitanians  to  command  their  army,  he  returned  to 
Spain,  where  he  acquired  great  popularity.  He  defeated 
several  Roman  generals,  and  extended  his  power  over  a 
great  part  of  Spain.  "  He  subdued  several  great  nations," 
says  Plutarch,  who  expresses  the  opinion  that  he  was 
not  inferior  to  Hannibal  in  capacity.  About  76  B.C. 
Pompey  arrived  in  Spain  with  a  new  army.  Sertorius 
defeated  Pompey  at  Sucro,  and  again  near  Saguntum. 
"  When  he  was  victorious  he  would  make  an  offer  to 
Metellus  or  Pompey  to  lay  down  his  arms  on  condition 
that  he  might  be  permitted  to  return  in  the  capacity  of 
a  private  man.  He  said  he  would  rather  be  the  meanest 
citizen  in  Rome,  than  an  exile  with  the  command  of  all 
the  other  countries  in  the  world.  .  .  .  The  magnanimity 
of  Sertorius  appeared  in  every  step  he  took."  (Plu- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SERULLAS 


1998 


SESSI 


tarch.)  He  was  assassinated  by  Perpenna  and  several 
accomplices  in  72  K.c.  It  may  well  be  doubted  whether 
he  had  any  superior  in  military  genius  among  all  the 
great  generals  that  Rome  ever  produced,  with  the  single 
exception  of  fulius  Caesar. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Sertorius  ;"  DRUMANN,  "  Geschichte 
Roms;"  APFIAN,  "  History  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Serullas,  sa-i ii'lts',  (written  also  without  the  accent,) 
(GEORGES  SIMON,)  a  French  chemist  and  apothecary, 
born  at  Poncin  (Ain)  in  1774.  He  discovered  some 
compounds  of  iodine  and  bromine,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  memoirs  on  chemistry.  He  succeeded  Vauquelin 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1829.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1832. 

See  VIREY,  "  Notice :  stir  SeVullas,"  1832;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Serurier,  seh-rii-re-a',  ([KAN  MATHIEU  PHILIHERT,) 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in  1742.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1793,  a  general  of  di 
vision  in  1795,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Italian 
campaigns  of  1796-97.  As  commandant  at  Saint-Cloud, 
he  supported  Bonaparte  on  the  l8th  Brumaire,  1799. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1804.  Died  in  1819. 

See  DK  COURCEI.I.ES,  "Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Servan,  SCR'V&N',  (ANTOINE  JOSEPH  MICHEL,)  an 
eloquent  French  advocate  and  publicist,  born  at  Romans 
in  1737.  He  wrote  many  works  on  legislation,  politics, 
etc.,  and  promoted  legal  reforms.  Died  in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Servan  de  Gerbey,  seVvoN'  deh  zheR/b£/,(JosEPH,) 
a  French  Girondist  and  general,  born  at  Romans  in  1741, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  lie  was  minister  of 
war  from  May  to  October,  1792,  and  commanded  the 
army  of  the  Pyrenees  from  the  latter  date  to  May,  1793. 
Died  in  1808. 

Servan  de  Sugny,  seVvflx'  deh  siin'ye',  (PIERRE 
FRANCOIS  JULES,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons  in  1796  ; 
died  in  1831. 

Servandoni,  seR-van-do'nee,  (]EAN  JEROME,)  a  dis 
tinguished  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in 
1695.  At  an  early  age  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  ac 
quired  great  celebrity  as  a  scene-painter.  The  most 
important  of  his  architectural  works  is  the  facade  of  the 
church  of  Saint-Sulpice  in  Paris.  Died  in  1766. 

See  QUATREMRRE  DE  QUINCV,  "Vies  des  Architectes ;"  TICOZZI, 
"  Di/.ionario ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Servet.     See  SERVE/PCS. 

Ser-ve'tus,  [Fr.  SERVET,  seR'vi' ;  It.  SERVKTO,  SC"R- 
va'to,]  (MlCHAKi.,)  a  Spanish  theologian  and  physician, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1509.  His  family  name  is  said  to  have 
been  REVES,  (ra'ves.)  He  opposed  the  dogma  of  the 
Trinity,  in  a  work  entitled  "  On  the  Errors  of  the  Trin 
ity,"  ("  De  Trinitatis  Erroribus,"  1531.)  About  1533  he 
studied  medicine  at  Paris.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
syrups,  "Universal  Theory  of  Syrups,"  ("  Syrnporum 
universa  Ratio,"  Paris,  1537.)  After  he  left  Paris  he 
practised  medicine  at  Lyons,  and  had  a  doctrinal  con 
troversy  with  Calvin.  He  published  anonymously  hin 
"Christianity  Restored,"  ("  Christianismi  Restitutio," 
etc.,  Vienne,  1553.)  Calvin  having  informed  against 
him,  Servetus  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy  by 
the  Inquisition  in  France  ;  but  he  escaped  from  prison 
and  sought  refuge  in  Geneva.  Cilvin  caused  him  to  be 
again  arrested,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  prosecu 
tion  which  led  to  the  death  of  Servetus,  who  was  burned 
at  Geneva  in  October,  1553.  (See  CALVIN.) 

See  BOYSEN,  "  Historia  M.  Served,"  1712;  "Impartial  History 
of  Michael  Servetus,"  London,  1724;  AI.WORDKN,  "Historia  M. 
Serveti,"  1727;  MOSHEIM.  "  Gescliichte  M.  Serveti,"  1748;  W.  H. 
DRUMMOND,  "Lite  of  Michael  Servetus,"  184^;  J.  JAIRO,  "Life  of 
Servetus,  "•  1771  ;  PAUL  HENRY.  "Life  of  Calvin,"  1835;  ''Nouvelle 
Biographic  Ginerale;"  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  tor  May,  1849. 
See,  aisci,  COI.UKIUUK'S  "Table-Talk,"  (January  3,  1834.) 

Servien,  SCR'VC-^N',  (Amu.,)  Marquis  de  Sable,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1593.  He  lie- 
came  secretary  of  state  for  war  in  1630,  and  resigned  in 
1636.  Servien  and  Avaux  represented  France  at  Mini 
ster  in  1643  anfl  tne  ensuing  years.  The  former  signed 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648.  Died  in  1659. 

See  G.  MENAGE,  "  Histoire  de  Sable1  ;"  MOR£RI,  "Dictionnaire 
Historique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Ser-vil'I-a,  [Fr.  SERVILIE,  seVve'le',]  a  Roman  lady, 
was  a  niece  of  the  celebrated  M.  Livius  Drusus,  and  the 
wife  of  Marcus  Junius  Brutus,  and  mother  of  M.  Junins 
Brutus  the  younger,  who  killed  Caesar.  She  was  a  fa 
vourite  mistress  of  that  dictator. 

Servilia  Gens,  a  Roman  gens,  originally  patrician, 
was  highly  distinguished  in  the  early  ages  of  the  republic. 
Among  the  families  into  which  it  was  divided  were  Ahala, 
Crepio,  Cascn,  and  Prisons. 

Servilie.     See  SKKVIUA. 

Ser-vil'I-us,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  statesman,  who  be 
came  praetor  in  206  H.C.,  consul  in  203,  dictator  in  202, 
and  pontifex  maximus  in  183.  Died  in  180  K.C. 

Servin,  seK'va.\',  (Louis,)  a  French  magistrate,  born 
in  the  Vendomois  in  1555.  He  was  appointed  advocate- 
general  in  1589,  and  was  a  strenuous  asserter  of  the 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,  on  which  subject  he 
wrote  a  work  called  "  Defence  of  the  Liberty  of  the 
Gallican  Church,"  ("Vindiciae  secundum  Libertatem 
Ecclesiae  Gallicanas,"  1590.)  Died  in  1626. 

See  "  Le  Tombeau  de  L.  Servin,"  Paris,  1626;  GRANGIER,  "Ora- 
tioin  Lauclem  L.  Serviui,"i626:  MORERI,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Ser'vl-us,  (M.u/KUS  HONORA'TUS,)  a  Roman  gram 
marian,  supposed  to  have  lived  between  300  and  400 
A.D.  He  wrote,  besides  several  grammatical  works,  com 
mentaries  on  the  "  Eclogues,"  "  Georgics,"  and  "  /Eneid'' 
of  Virgil,  which  are  highly  valued  for  the  variety  of  in 
formation  they  contain  relating  to  the  Romans. 

Ser'vl-us  Tul'li-us,  the  sixth  King  of  Rome,  began 
to  reign  about  578  B.C.  According  to  tradition,  he  was 
a  son  of  Ocrisia,  a  female  slave  of  Queen  Tanaquil,  and 
was  adopted  as  a  son  by  King  Tarquin,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded.  His  reign,  which  lasted  forty-four  years,  was 
pacific.  He  granted  a  new  constitution  to  the  Romans, 
and  formed  a  federal  union  or  league  between  Rome  and 
the  towns  of  Latium.  His  constitution  is  supposed  to 
have  been  beneficial  to  the  plebeians.  He  was  killed 
by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  with  whom  his  own  daughter 
Tullia  was  an  accomplice. 

See  NIEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  MOMMSEN,  "Histoire  Ro- 
maine  ;"  F.  D.  GKRI.ACH,  "  Die  Vcrfassung  des  Servius  Tul'ius," 
1837;  CICKRO,  "  De  Kepublica  ;"  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generate." 

Sdsha,  sa'sha,  or  Shesha,  sha'sha,  [etymology  ob 
scure,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  vast 
thousand-headed  serpent,  the  emblem  of  eternity,  on 
which  Vishmi  is  believed  to  repose.  (See  VISHNU.) 
He  is  often  called  ANANTA,  which  signifies  "without 
end."  Sesha  is  regarded  as  the  great  king  of  the  serpent 
race.  He  is  also  called  VASUKI  (va'sdo-kl)  or  VASOKY, 
and  is  fabled  to  have  been  used  as  the  churn-string  when 
the  gods  and  giants  (Asurs)  churned  the  ocean.  (See 

K0RMA.) 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Seso,  de,  d<\  sa'so,  (CARLOS,)  a  Protestant  Reformer, 
born  at  Florence,  resided  in  Spain,  where  he  was  pa 
tronized  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  He  was  one 
of  the  chief  champions  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain, 
and  perished  at  the  stake,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition, 
in  1559. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Se-sos'tris,  [Gr.  Zeoua-ptf,]  written  also  Sesoosis, 
a  celebrated  king  of  Egypt,  also  called  Ranieses,  is 
supposed  to  have  reigned  about  1400  or  1350  K.c.  He 
was  a  powerful  and  warlike  monarch.  According  to 
tradition,  he  conquered  Ethiopia,  Thrace,  and  several 
countries  of  Southern  Asia.  He  also  made  canals  in 
Egypt,  built  a  great  wall  from  Pelusium  to  Ifeliopolis, 
and  erected  several  obelisks  and  temples.  Monuments 
bearing  his  name  are  still  extant  in  Egypt,  of  which  he 
was  the  great  national  hero. 

See  HERODOTUS,  "History;"  BUNSEM,  "Egypt's  Place  in  Uni 
versal  History;"  "  Biographie  Universelie." 

Sessa,  seVsi,  an  Indian  mathematician,  to  whom  is 
attributed  the  invention  of  the  game  of  chess,  is  sup 
posed  to  have  lived  in  the  eleventh  century. 

Sessi,  ses'see,  (ANNA  MARIA,)  an  Italian  vocalist, 
born  at  Rome  in  1793.  She  performed  with  success  at 
Vienna  and  other  cities  of  Germany,  and  assumed,  after 
her  marriage,  the  name  of  Neumann-Sessi.  Her  sister 
IMPERATRICE,  born  at  Rome  in  1783,  also  acquired  a. 
high  reputation  as  a  vocalist.  Died  in  1808. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat:  met:  n5t;  good:  moon; 


SESTINI 


1999 


SEVER  US 


Sestiiii,  s§s-tee'nee,  (DoMENico,)  an  eminent  Italian 
antiquary  and  traveller,  born  at  Florence  about  1750. 
Having  successively  visited  Constantinople,  the  Levant, 
Germany,  and  France,  he  was  appointed  in  1814  honor 
ary  professor  in  the  University  of  Pisa.  Among  his 
works  on  numismatics,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
most  valuable  of  their  kind,  we  may  name  his  "System 
of  Numismatics,"  ("  Sistema  Xumismatico,"  14  vols. 
fol.,)  "General  Classes  of  Numismatic  Geography,  or 
Coins  of  the  Cities,  Nations,  and  Kings,  in  Geographical 
Order,"  ("  Classes  generales  Geographies  Numismaticas, 
sen  Monetae  Urbium,  Pnpulorum  et  Regum,  Ordine 
Geographico,"  etc.,  1797,)  and  "Numismatic  Letters  and 
Dissertations,"  (9  vols.,  1813.)  He  also  published  a 
"Journey  from  Constantinople  to  Bucharest/'  (1794,)  a 
"Scientific  and  Antiquarian  Voyage  through  Wallachia, 
Transylvania,  and  Hungary  to  Vienna,"  (1815,)  and 
other  works  of  travels.  Sestini  was  a  member  of  various 
learned  societies  in  Europe.  Died  in  1832. 

See  MONALDI.  "  Elngio  di  D.  Sestini,"  1835;  "  Biographic  Ur.i- 
verse'le,"  (new  edition.) 

Sesto,  da,  dases'to,  (CESARK,)  an  able  Italian  painter, 
called  also  Cesare  Milanese,  born  at  Milan,  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whom  he  imitated  with 
success.  Died  about  1524. 

Sethos,  a  name  of  SESOSTRTS,  which  see. 

Se'thos,  King  of  Egypt,  was  a  son  of  Rameses,  and 
the  father  of  Rameses  the  Great,  (Sesostris.)  He  is  sup 
posed  to  have  reigned  about  1425  H.C.,  and  is  said  to 
have  gained  victories  over  several  neighbouring  nations. 
He  adorned  Egypt  with  fine  monuments,  temples,  etc. 

Se'toii,  (ANN  EI.IZA,)  an  American  lady,  born  in 
New  York  in  1774,  founded  at  Emmet tsburg,  Maryland, 
in  1809,  the  first  establishment  of  Sisters  of  Charity  in 
the  United  States.  Died  in  1821. 

Settala,  set-ta'ia,  [Lat.  SKPTA'LIUS,]  (Lonovrco,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Milan  about  1550.  He  pub 
lished  several  medical  works,  and  was  professor  at 
Milan.  Died  in  1633.  His  son  MANFREDI,  born  in 
1600,  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  inventive  talent 
as  a  mechanician.  Died  at  Milan  in  1680. 

Settimo,  set'te-mo,  (RUGGIERO,)  an  Italian  patriot, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1778,  inherited  a  large  estate.  He 
served  in  the  navy,  and  gained  the  rank  of  admiral.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  of  the  revolutionary  move 
ment  which  in  1820  extorted  some  reforms  from  the 
king.  In  1848  he  became  the  chief  of  the  Sicilian  in 
surgents,  and  organized  a  provisional  government.  He 
was  chosen  president  by  the  new  parliament,  which  gave 
him  royal  power  to  appoint  ministers,  etc.  He  was  very 
popular,  and  was  saluted  as  the  father  of  his  country. 
On  the  restoration  of  the  king,  Ferdinand  II.,  he  retired 
to  Malta.  Died  in  1863. 

Settle,  set't'l,  (ELKANAH,)  an  English  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Dunstable  in  1648,  is  noted  for  having  been 
for  a  time  the  successful  rival  of  Dryden.  Under  the 
patronage  of  Wilmot,  Earl  of  Rochester,  the  enemy  of 
Dryden,  he  brought  out  his  tragedies  of  "Cambyses" 
and  the  "  Empress  of  Morocco,"  which,  though  pos 
sessing  little  merit,  were  received  with  great  applause. 
He  was  afterwards  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dry 
den,  who  satirized  him  under  the  name  of  "  Doeg"  in  his 
"  Absalom  and  Achitophel."  He  was  also  introduced 
into  Pope's  "  Dunciad."  He  died  in  poverty  in  1723. 

Seunie,  soi'meh  or  zoi'meh,  (|OHAXN  GOTTFRIED,) 
a  German  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1763. 
He  travelled  extensively  on  foot.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Obolen,"  (2  vols.,  1797.)  Died  in  1810. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Mein  Leben,"  1813;  H.  DORING, 
"  Lebcnsimirisse  von  Carl  August  von  Sachsen- Weimar,  von  Moe- 
ser,  Fnik,  Seume,"  etc.,  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Seun-King.     See  SIUN-KING. 

Seurre,  SUR,  (BERNARD  GABRIEL,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of 
Rome  in  1818,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1852.  Among  his  works  is  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  for 
the  Colonne  Vendome. 

Seurre,  (CHARLES  MARIE  EMII.E,)  a  sculptor,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
He  obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1824.  His  master-piece 
is  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  Died  in  1858. 


Sevajee  or  Sivaji,  se-va'jee,  the  founder  of  the 
Mahratta  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  Poonah  in  1627. 
He  was  ambitious  and  warlike.  By  a  series  of  conquests 
he  made  himself  master  of  a  large  part  of  Southern 
India.  About  1670  he  was  involved  in  war  with  Aurung- 
Zeb,  whose  army  he  defeated.  Died  in  1680. 

Severe.     See  SEVERUS,  (ALEXANDER.) 

Severino,  sa-va-ree'no,  (MARCO  AURELTO,)  an  emi 
nent  Italian  physician,  born  in  Calabria  in  1580,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  principal  restorer  of  surgery  in  Italy. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  medicine  at  Na 
ples,  and  published  a  number  of  professional  works. 
Died  in  1656. 

See  MAGI.IARI,  "  Elogio  di  M.  A.  Severino,"  1815;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Geuerale." 

Sev-er-i'nus,  [Fr.  SEVERIN,  sav'rax',]  POPE,  was  a 
native  of  Rome.  He  succeeded  Honorius  I.  in  640  A.IX, 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Se-ve'rus,  a  Gnostic,  who  lived  about  180  A.D.  and 
founded  a  heretical  sect  called  Severiani.  Their  doc 
trines  were  similar  to  those  of  TATIAN,  (which  see.) 

Se-ve'rus,  [¥r.  SEVERE,  sa'vaiR',]  (ALEXANDER,)  a 
Roman  emperor,. born  in  Phoenicia  about  205  A.D.,  was 
a  son  of  Gessius   Marcianus  and  Julia  Mammaea.     In 
221  he  was  adopted  by  his  cousin   Elagabalns,  then  em 
peror,  who  also  gave  him  the  title  of  Cassar.     He  was 
called   M.  Aurelius   Alexander  before   his  accession   to 
|  the  throne.     Elagabalus  soon  became  jealous,  and  made 
|  several  unsuccessful  efforts  to  destroy  Alexander.      He 
succeeded  Elagabalus  in  March,  222  A.D  ,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Severus.     During  the  first  nine  years  he 
reigned  in  peace,  and  applied  himself  to  the  reform  of 
'  abuses.     The  King  of  Persia  having  renewed  hostilities, 
i  Severus   marched   across   the    Euphrates,   defeated   the 
I  Persians  in  232,  and  returned  to  Rome.     He  was  pre 
paring  to  repel  an  irruption  of  the  Germans,  when  he 
was  killed  by  his  mutinous  troops  in  235  A.D.     He  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  justice,  clemency, 
and  other  virtues. 

See  GIBBON,  "  Decline  and  Fail  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  TILI.E- 
|  MONT,  •'  Histoire  des  Empereurs ;"  LAMPRIDIUS,  "Alexander 
[  Severus." 

Severus,  (ALEXANDRINUS,)  a  Greek  writer  of  the 
fifth  century,  was  the  author  of  "Narratives"  and 

j  "  Ethopceiae,"  or  speeches  attributed   to  supposed   per- 

I  sons.     The   latter   are   contained   in    Gale's   "Rhetores 

I  Selecti." 

Severus,  (CORNELIUS,)  a  Roman  poet  under  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on 
the  "  Sicilian  War,"  ("  Bellum  Siculurn,")  and  an  account 

1  of  the  death  of  Cicero,  (in  verse.)  A  fragment  of  the 
latter  is  extant. 

Severus,  [Fr.  SEVERE,  sa'vaiR',] (Lucius  SEPTIMIUS,) 
a  Roman  emperor,  born  at  Leptis,  in  Africa,  in  146  A.D. 

i  He  was  educated  at  Rome,  and,  after  filling  various 
offices,  became  proconsul  of  Africa.  While  commander 
of  the  Pannonian  legions  in  Germany,  he  heard  of  the 
death  of  Commodus,  upon  which  he  hastened  to  Rome, 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  in  193  A.D. 
in  opposition  to  Didius  Julianus,  who  was  soon  after 
assassinated.  He  next  marched  against  Pescennius 
Niger,  commander  of  the  Syrian  legions,  who  had  lately 
been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops.  He  defeated 
Niger  at  Issus  or  Cyzicus  in  194,  after  which  he  waged 
war  with  success  against  the  Parthians.  In  197  he 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Albinus  (a  rival  claimant 
of  the  throne)  near  Lyons.  He  renewed  the  war  against 
Parthia  in  198,  defeated  the  Parthians,  and  took  Ctesi- 
phon,  their  capital.  In  208  he  led  an  army  to  Britain 
to  subdue  the  Caledonians,  and  built  a  rampart,  called 
the  wall  of  Severus,  extending  across  the  island.  He 
died  at  York  in  211  A.D.,  leaving  two  sons,  Caracalla 
and  Geta. 

See  DION  CASSICS,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxiv.-xxvi.  : 
GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Severus,  (Sui.Picius,)  [Fr.  SUI.PICE  SEVERE,  sur 
pass'  sa'vaiR',]  a  Christian  historian,  born  in  Aquitania, 
Gaul,  about  363  A.D.,  was  the  author  of"  Historia  Sacra," 
and  a  "Life  of  Saint  Martin,"  in  Latin.  He  has  been 
stvled  "the  Christian  Sallust."  Died  about  410. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K.guttural;  x,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEXIER 


SEWARD 


Sevier,  se-veer',  (AMBROSE  II.,)  an  American  Senator, 
bom  in  East  Tennessee  in  1802.  Me  removed  to  Ar 
kansas  at  an  early  age,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State 
in  1836.  In  1848  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate, 
and  went  on  a  special  mission  to  Mexico,  where  he 
negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace.  Died  at  Little  Rock  in 
December,  1848. 

Sevier,  (JoHN,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in  Ten 
nessee  in  1744.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle 
of  King's  Mountain,  in  1780.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and  again  in  1803,  and  was  a  mem 
ber  of  Congress  from  1811  to  1815.  Died  in  1815. 

Sevigne,  de,  deli  sa'ven'ya',  (MARIE  de  Rabutin- 
Chantal — deli  ri'bii'tiN'  shdN'ttl',)  MADAME,  a  cele 
brated  French  writer  and  beauty,  born  in  Burgundy 
about  1626.  Left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  she  re 
ceived  an  excellent  education  from  her  maternal  uncle, 
the  Abbe  de  Coulanges,  and  learned  Latin,  Italian,  and 
Spanish.  She  was  married  in  1644  to  the  dissolute 
Marquis  de  Sevigne,  who  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1651, 
leaving  one  son  and  one  daughter.  She  was  courted  by 
Turenne,  the  Prince  of  Conti,  and  the  poet  Menage,  but 
declined  all  overtures  for  a  second  marriage.  She  was 
one  of  the  most  admired  ladies  of  the  circle  of  the  Hotel 
de  Rambouillet,  and  was  celebrated  for  her  epistolary 
talent.  Her  letters  display  a  fertile  imagination,  a  re 
fined  sensibility,  a  graceful  and  na'ive  vivacity,  and  are 
much  admired  for  their  charming  and  picturesque  style. 
She  has  been  pronounced  the  most  admirable  letter- 
writer  that  ever  lived.  Died  in  1696.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  her  Letters  is  that  of  Adolph  Regnier,  (12 
vols.,  1862-64.) 

See  MADAME  ACHU.I.E  COMTE,  "  filoge  de  Madame  de  Sivigne," 
1840;  J.  A.  WAI.SH,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Sevij-ne,"  iS42  :  WAI.C- 
KKNAER,  "  M&moires  touchant  la  Vie  de  Marie  de  R  ibtitin  Chantal," 
4  vols..  1842-48;  AUBRNAS,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
etc.,  1842;  SAINTE-BKUVR,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  LAMAKTINK, 
"  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters;"  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  vol. 
Ixxvi.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Generale  ;"  "  Madame  de  Sevigne 
and  her  Contemporaries,"  London,  1841  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1842;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  1864. 

Sevin,  seh-vaN1',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Villeneuve-le-Roi  in  1682,  was  a  collector  of 
Oriental  manuscripts.  Died  in  1741. 

Sewall,  sii'al,  (JOSEPH,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  1688, 
was  a  son  of  Samuel,  the  chief  justice  of  Massachu 
setts.  He  preached  in  Boston  for  many  years.  Died 
in  1769. 

Sewall,  (SAMUEL,)  a  judge,  born  at  Bishop-Stoke, 
England,  in  1652.  He  was  brought  to  America  in  his 
childhood.  He  became  a  judge  in  1692,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1718.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  eminent  for  wisdom  and  learning. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  1728,  and  died  in  1730. 

Sewall,  (SAMUEL,)  a  jurist,  born  in  Boston  in  1757, 
was  a  grandson  of  Joseph  Sewall,  noticed  above.  I  le 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1796  to  1800,  and  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts  in  1813.  Died 
at  Wiscasset,  Maine,  in  1814. 

Sewall,  (STEPHEN,)  an  American  judge,  born  in 
Massachusetts  about  1702,  was  a  nephew  of  Samuel, 
(1652-1730.)  He  became  chief  justice  of  the  superior 
court  in  1752.  Died  in  1760. 

Sewall,  (STEPHEN,)  an  American  scholar,  born  at 
York,  Maine,  in  1734.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Harvard  College  about  1765,  and  published  various 
works.  Died  in  1804. 

Sew'ard,  (ANNA,)  an  English  writer  of  considerable 
reputation  in  her  time,  was  born  at  Eyam,  in  Derbyshire, 
in  1747.  Her  metrical  novel  entitled  "  Louisa"  (1782) 
was  very  successful,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection  of 
sonnets,  and  a  "  Life  of  Dr.  Darwin,"  (1804,)  in  which 
she  claims  to  have  written  the  first  fifty  lines  of  his 
"Botanic  Garden."  She  died  in  1809.  Her  poems 
and  part  of  her  literary  correspondence  were,  at  her 
request,  published  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  (1810.)  Her 
works  possess  little  merit  of  any  kind,  and  are  now 
nearly  forgotten. 

See  WALTER  SCOTT'S  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1811  ;  MRS.  ELWOOD,  "Me 
moirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement 
of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843. 


Seward,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1708.  lie  became  canon- 
residentiary  of  Lichfield.  Died  in  1790. 

Seward,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  and  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He  published 
"  Biographiana,"  and  "Anecdotes  of  Distinguished  Per 
sons."  Died  in  1799. 

Seward,  su'ard  or  soo'ard,  (WILLIAM  HENRY,)  an 
eminent  American  statesman,  born  at  Florida,  Orange 
county,  New  York,  on  the  i6th  of  May,  1801,  was  a  son 
of  Samuel  S.  Seward,  M.D.  His  mother's  maiden- 
name  was  Mary  Jennings.  He  was  educated  at  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  which  he  entered  in  1816.  His 
favourite  studies  were  rhetoric,  moral  philosophy,  and 
the  ancient  classics.  He  taught  school  in  one  of  the 
Southern  States  for  six  months  in  1819,  and  returned  to 
Union  College  in  1820.  Having  studied  law  under  John 
Duer  and  Ogden  Hoffman,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1822.  He  became  a  resident  of  Auburn,  Cayuga 
county,  in  1823,  and  married  in  1824  Frances  Adeline,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Elijah  Miller,  lie  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  in  criminal  trials  acted 
almost  exclusively  as  counsel  for  the  defendant. 

In  1828  he  was  president  of  a  State  Convention  of 
young  men  who  favoured  the  re-election  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  to  the  Presidential  chair.  Soon  after  this  date 
he  joined  the  Anti-Masonic  party,  by  which  he  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York,  in  1830,  by  a  large 
majority.  In  the  session  of  1832  he  made  an  able  speech 
in  favour  of  the  United  States  Bank.  He  became  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  party  in  his  own  State,  and  a 
supporter  of  the  national  party  which  afterwards  adopted 
the  name  of  Whig.  In  1833  he  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
and  made  a  rapid  tour  through  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
Holland,  Germany,  and  France.  He  published  some 
observations  on  those  countries,  in  a  series  of  letters. 

He  was  nominated  as  the  Whig  candidate  for  Governor 
of  New  York  in  1834,  but  was  defeated  by  William  L. 
Marcy.  He  joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
1837.  In  1838  he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  by 
a  majority  of  10,000,  being  the  first  Whig  that  was  ever 
elected  to  that  office.  In  the  exercise  of  his  official 
power  he  favoured  internal  improvements,  reform  in  the 
courts  of  law  and  chancery,  and  the  extension  of  edu 
cation  among  the  people.  Among  the  events  of  his  ad 
ministration  was  a  controversy  with  the  executive  of 
Virginia,  who  claimed  the  surrender  of  three  coloured 
seamen  charged  with  abetting  a  slave  to  escape  from 
his  master.  Governor  Seward  refused  to  comply  with 
this  requisition,  and  argued  that  no  State  can  force 
a  requisition  on  another  State,  founded  on  an  act 
which  is  only  criminal  according  to  its  own  legislation, 
but  which  compared  with  general  standards  is  humane 
and  praiseworthy.  Through  his  influence  the  legislature 
repealed  the  law  which  permitted  a  slaveholder,  travel 
ling  with  his  slaves,  to  hold  them  for  nine  months  in 
the  State  of  New  York. 

Mr.  Seward  supported  General  Harrison  for  President 
in  1840,  and  at  the  same  time  was  re-elected  Governor 
for  two  years.  He  declined  to  be  a  candidate  in  1842, 
and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  the  courts  of  his  own 
State  and  in  those  of  the  United  States.  He  displayed 
much  courage  and  coolness  in  the  defence  of  Free 
man,  a  negro  who  massacred  a  family  near  Auburn  in 
1845,  ancl  ne  provoked  a  violent  explosion  of  popular 
indignation  by  his  effort  to  prove  that  Freeman  was 
insane.  Although  his  argument  failed  to  convince  the 
jury,  it  was  confirmed  by  a  post-mortem  examination 
of  the  brain  of  Freeman.  In  the  Presidential  election 
of  1844  he  was  an  active  supporter  of  Henry  Clay,  and 
opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  John  Quincv  Adams,"  (published 
in  1849.) 

In  1848  he  advocated  the  nomination  and  election  of 
General  Taylor  to  the  Presidency.  In  February,  1849, 
Mr.  Seward  was  elected  by  the  State  legislature  to  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States,  receiving  one  hundred  and 
twenty-one  votes  against  thirty  for  all  others.  He  soon 
became  an  intimate  friend  and  favourite  counsellor  of 
President  Taylor,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  firm 
resistance  to  the  extension  of  slavery.  In  March,  1850, 


a,  e,  i,  5,  ft,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  n  &:;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


SEWARD 


SEXTVS 


he  made  a  speech  in  favour  of  the  admission  of  Cali 
fornia  into  the  Union,  in  which  occurs  his  famous  phrase 
"the  higher  law."  "The  Constitution,"  he  said,  "de 
votes  the  national  domain  to  union,  to  justice,  to  defence, 
to  welfare,  and  to  liberty.  But  there  is  a  higher  law 
than  the  Constitution,  which  regulates  our  authority 
over  the  domain,  and  devotes  it  to  the  same  noble  pur 
poses."  He  opposed  the  "Compromise  Bill"  (July, 
1850)  in  an  elaborate  and  eloquent  speech,  asserting 
that  "the  love  of  liberty  is  a  public,  universal,  and  un 
dying  affection."  For  his  course  on  the  slavery  question 
he  was  denounced  as  a  seditious  agitator.  It  was  his 
habitual  practice  never  to  notice  the  abusive  person 
alities  which  were  often  applied  to  him  by  his  opponents 
in  the  Senate. 

In  1852  he  voted  for  General  Scott,  the  Whig  candi 
date  for  President.  He  constantly  opposed  the  Native 
American  or  Know-Nothing  party,  which  was  secretly 
organized  about  1854,  "  on  a  foreign  and  frivolous  issue," 
and  he  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  Republican 
party,  which  was  formed  about  the  same  period,  wkh 
a  view  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery.  lie  was 
re-elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1855.  In 
a  speech  at  Rochester  in  October,  1858,  he  declared 
that  the  antagonism  between  freedom  and  slavery  "  is 
an  irrepressible  conflict  between  opposing  and  endur 
ing  forces  ;"  but  this  oft-quoted  phrase  ("irrepressible 
conflict")  is  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  Abraham 
Lincoln. 

About  this  time  he  predicted  that  the  Democratic 
party  would  be  fatally  damaged  by  its  support  of  slavery. 
In  a  memorable  speech  delivered  in  the  Senate,  March 
3,  1858,  he  said,  "  All  parties  in  this  country  that  have 
tolerated  the  extension  of  slavery,  except  one,  have 
perished  for  that  error  already.  That  last  one — the 
Democratic  party — is  hurrying  on  irretrievably  to  the 
same  fate." 

Mr.  Seward  visited  Europe  a  second  time  in  1859. 
At  the  Republican  Convention  which  met  in  1860  to 
nominate  a  candidate  for  President,  Seward  received  I 
one  hundred  and  seventy-three  votes  on  the  first  ballot, 
(more  than  any  other  candidate,)  two  hundred  and  ! 
thirty-three  votes  being  necessary  for  a  choice.  His  | 
failure  to  obtain  the  nomination  was  attributed  to  the  hos-  j 
tility  of  Horace  Greeley.  During  the  session  of  1860- 
61  he  made  an  able  speech  in  the  Senate  against  dis 
union.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  March, 
1861.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  he  displayed  much 
ability  in  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  during  the 
civil  war.  Among  the  important  acts  of  his  ministry 
was  the  liberation  of  Mason  and  Slidell,  who  were 
arrested  on  board  the  British  steamer  Trent  in  Novem 
ber,  1861,  and  were  demanded  by  the  British  govern 
ment.  "To  his  admirable  skill,  foresight,  and  good 
judgment,"  says  the  "  North  American  Review"  for 
April,  1866,  "the  country  owes  its  deliverance  from 
perils  and  embarrassments  such  as  it  never  before 
encountered.  His  fairness  and  good  temper  have  been 
more  than  a  match  for  the  plausible  insincerity  of 
Thouvenel  and  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  and  the  haughty  arro 
gance  of  Earl  Russell.  .  .  .  Some  of  his  despatches, 
especially  that  relating  to  the  Trent  case,  have  a  world 
wide  renown,  and  there  are  sentences  scattered  through 
his  published  volumes  which  deserve  to  live  forever." 
A  different  and  far  less  favourable  view,  however,  is 
taken  of  his  despatches  and  his  policy  in  a  number  of 
the  same  periodical  published  October,  1866. 

The  invasion  of  Mexico  by  the  French  in  1862  raised 
another  important  subject  of  diplomacy.  In  despatches 
dated  September  and  October,  1863,  Mr.  Seward  dis 
claimed  the  right  and  the  disposition  to  intervene  by 
force  in  Mexico.  He  persisted  in  recognizing  the 
government  of  Juarez,  and  after  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  (April,  1864)  declared,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
against  the  recognition  of  the  Mexican  empire,  he 
affirmed  that  this  resolution  "truly  interprets  the  unani 
mous  sentiment  of  the  people."  In  November,  1865, 
he  wrote  to  Mr.  Bigelow,  the  American  minister  at 
Paris,  "The  United  States  regard  the  effort  to  establish 
permanently  a  foreign  and  imperial  government  in 
Mexico  as  disallowable  and  impracticable."  The  result 


of  this  despatch,  and  of  others  of  the  same  import,  was 
that  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  about  the  end 
of  1866,  and  Napoleon  HI.  witnessed  the  disastrous 
and  humiliating  failure  of  his  costly  and  ill-judged 
enterprise. 

In  the  spring  of  1865  Secretary  Seward  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage  with  such  violence  that  his  arm  and 
jaw  were  broken.  While  he  was  lying  in  this  crippled 
condition,  on  the  I4th  of  April,  1865,  Lewis  Payne, 
alias  Powell, — an  accomplice  of  J.  Wilkes  Booth, — pre 
sented  himself  at  the  door  of  his  house,  rushed  past  the 
porter,  broke  the  skull  of  Frederick  Seward,  and  in 
flicted  with  a  knife  several  severe  wounds  on  the  neck 
and  face  of  the  secretary  of  state.  The  assassin  was 
then  grasped  by  Mr.  Robinson,  so  that  he  failed  to  effect 
his  purpose,  but  stabbed  two  other  men  as  he  ran  out 
of  the  house. 

Mr.  Seward  was  retained  in  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state  by  President  Johnson,  and  supported  his  policy  in 
relation  to  reconstruction,  against  the  almost  unanimous 
sentiment  of  the  Republican  party.  In  August  and 
September,  1866,  President  Johnson,  accompanied  by 
his  secretary  of  state,  made  an  extensive  electioneering 
tour,  on  which  occasion  Mr.  Seward  gave  great  offence 
even  to  the  most  moderate  and  impartial  of  his  former 
friends.  At  Niagara,  in  attempting  to  answer  the  charge 
that  he  had  deserted  his  party,  he  said,  in  addition  to 
many  other  things  still  more  objectionable,  "  Must  I 
desert  my  course,  my  government,  and  my  country 
to  follow  a  party  divided,  distracted,  weak,  imbecile?" 
The  next  ensuing  elections,  however,  gave  a  decisive 
and  unanswerable  refutation  to  the  misstatement  that 
the  party  was  weak  and  distracted.  (See,  on  this 
subject,  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October, 
1866.) 

That  historic  impartiality  which  belongs  to  the  biogra 
phy  of  public  men,  forbids  us  wholly  to  pass  over  those 
errors  and  foibles  which  have  disappointed  so  many  of 
Mr.  Seward's  former  friends  ;  but  we  gladly  turn  from 
the  consideration  of  such  topics  to  the  contemplation  of 
his  long  life  of  usefulness,  and  especially  of  his  eminent 
services  to  his  country  in  her  late  hour  of  trial. 

See  "Memoir  of  W.  H.  Seward,"  prefixed  to  bis  works,  by 
GEORGE  E.  BAKER,  3  vols.,  1853;  BARTI.ETT,  "  Modern  Agitators." 

Sew'el,  (WILLIAM,)  M.D.,  a  historian  and  linguist, 
of  English  extraction,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1654,  was 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  published  a 
"Dictionary  of  the  Dutch  and  English  Languages," 
(1690,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
the  Society  called  Quakers,"  (1717,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  Died  about  1725. 

Sew'ell,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  physician  and  miscel 
laneous  writer,  born  at  Windsor,  was  a  pupil  of  Boer- 
haave.  He  published  a  "Vindication  of  the  English 
Stage,"  "  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  a  tragedy,  and  trans 
lations  from  Lucan  and  other  Latin  poets.  Died  in 
1726. 

Sewell,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer  and 
teacher,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  about  1805.  He 
was  a  tutor  or  professor  at  Oxford  University.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Christian  Morals," 
(1840,)  "Christian  Politics,"  and  a  version  of  the  Odes 
of  Horace. 

Sex'ti-us,  (CAius,)  was  elected  Roman  consul  in  124 
B.C.,  and  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Southern  Gaul, 
where  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Arverni.  Near  the 
warm  springs,  where  one  of  his  battles  was  fought,  he 
founded  the  city  of  Aquae  Sextiae,  now  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Sex'tj-us,  Etex'tus,  or  Six'tus,  (QuiNrus,)  a 
Roman  Stoic  philosopher,  who  lived  about  50  B.C.  and 
is  highly  praised  by  Seneca.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  author  of  a  book  of  moral  aphorisms,  ("Sen- 
tentioe,")  which  Rufinus  translated  from  Greek  into 
Latin. 

Sex'tus  [2e£roc]  OF  -€HKRON/E'A,  a  Greek  Stoic 
philosopher  of  the  second  century,  was  a  nephew  of 
Plutarch,  and  a  preceptor  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Sex'tus  Em-pir'i-cus,  [Se?rof  6  'Efi-eipvicof,]  a  cele 
brated  Greek  skeptical  philosopher  and  physician,  whose 
birthplace  is  unknown,  flourished  about  200  A.D.  He 
belonged  to  the  medical  sect  of  Empiric!.  He  wrote 


e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §*as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

126 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


SETBERT 


SFORZA 


two  works  which  have  come  down  to  us,  namely, "Against 
the  Mathematicians  or  Dogmatists,"  ("  Adversus  Mathe- 
maticos,")  and  "  Pyrrhonistic  Sketches,"  ("  Pyrrhonre 
Hypoty poses.")  These  works  are  highly  prized  as  docu 
ments  for  the  history  of  philosophy.  They  contain  all  the 
arguments  and  maxims  of  the  ancient  skeptics,  and  tend 
to  involve  in  doubt  all  the  doctrines  of  science,  religion, 
and  philosophy.  The  former  work  has  been  described 
as  "a  perfect  store-house  of  doubts  regarding  every 
imaginable  phasis  of  human  knowledge."  ("Encyclo 
paedia  Britannica.") 

See  C.  JOURDAIN,  "Sextus  Empiricus  et  la  Philosophie  scolas- 
tique,"  1858;  TENNEMANN,  "  Geschichte  der  Philosophie  ;''  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Seybert,  sl'bert,  (ADAM,)  an  American  mineralogist 
and  physician,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1773,  studied 
in  Paris,  Edinburgh,  and  Gottingen.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1809  to  1815.  He  published  "  Statis 
tical  Annals  of  the  United  States  from  1789  to  1818." 
Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Seydelmaiin,  si'del-man'  or  zl'del-man',  QAKOH 
CRKSCENZ,)  a  German  artist,  celebrated  for  his  admira 
ble  drawings  in  sepia,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1750. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  copy  of  Correggio's 
"Night."  Died  in  1829. 

Seydelmaiin,  (KARL,)  a  celebrated  German  actor, 
born  at  Glatz,  in  Silesia,  in  1795  ;  died  in  184.3. 

Seydlitz,  von,  fon  sid'lits  or  zid'lits,  (FRIEDRICH 
WILHKI.M,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  near  Cleves  in 
1721,  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  For  his  distin 
guished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Rossbach,  in  1757, 
he  received  from  his  sovereign  the  order  of  the  Black 
Eagle.  He  became  general  of  cavalry  in  1767.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  VARNHAGEN  VON  ENSE,  "  Leben  des  Generals  von  Seydlitz," 
1834;  COUNT  VON  BISMAKK,  "  Der  General  F.  von  Seydlitz,"  1837; 
BLANKENBURG,  "Charakter  des  Generals  von  Seydlitz,"  1797- 

Seyflarth,  sif'faRt  or  ziffaRt,  (GusTAV,)  a  German 
antiquary  and  professor  of  archaeology  at  Leipsic,  was 
born  at  (jebigau,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1796.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Rudimenta  Ilieroglyphices,"  (1826,) 
and  of  "Principles  of  Mythology,"  and  wrote  a  continua 
tion  of  Spohn's  treatise'"  On  the  Language  and  Letters 
of  the  Ancient  Egyptians."  In  1855  he  became  professor 
in  the  Lutheran  College  of  Saint  Louis,  in  the  United 
States.  Died  in  1860. 

See  AM.IBONE.  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Seyfried,  sT'fRet  or  zi'fRet,  (!GNAZ,)  a  German  com 
poser,  born  at  Vienna  in  1776  ;  died  in  1841. 

Seymour,  (EDWARD.)     See  SOMERSET,  DUKE  OF. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  Tory 
politician,  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  Dnke  of  Som 
erset,  who  was  Protector  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  debaters  in  the  kingdom. 
He  joined  the  party  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  in 
1688.  In  1692  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the 
treasury  and  member  of  the  cabinet.  He  was  removed 
in  1694.  He  was  factious  in  politics  and  licentious  in 
morals.  Died  in  1707. 

See  MACAULAY,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i. 

Seymour,  (Sir  GEORGE  HAMILTON,)  an  English  di 
plomatist,  born  about  1797.  He  was  sent  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1851  as  envoy-extraordinary  and  minister- 
plenipotentiary.  In  1853  Nicholas  I.  made  to  him  over 
tures  on  the  subject  of  Turkey,  offering,  it  is  said,  to 
co-operate  with  England  in  the  spoliation  of  "the  sick 
man."  His  mission  in  Russia  ended  in  1854. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (HoRATro,)  an  American  poli 
tician,  born  in  Onondaga  county,  New  York,  in  1811. 
He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  for  several  years  in 
Utica.  He  was  nominated  for  the  office  of  Governor  of 
New  York  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1850,  but  was 
defeated  by  Washington  Hunt.  Having  been  nominated 
again  in  1852,  he  was  elected  Governor  for  two  years 
by  a  large  majority.  In  1854  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  same  office.  In  the  crisis  of  1861  he 
opposed  the  coercion  of  the  secessionists.  According 
to  Mr.  Greeley,  he  was  understood  to  urge  the  adhesion 
of  New  York  to  the  Southern  Confederacy.  ("  American 
Conflict,"  vol.  i.  p.  438.)  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
New  York  in  1862.  About  the  1st  of  August,  1863, 


he  urged  President  Lincoln  to  suspend  the  draft,  and 
insisted  that  the  enforcement  of  the  draft  should  be 
postponed  till  the  courts  decided  the  question  of  its 
constitutionality.  He  was  president  of  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  which  met  at  Chicago  in  August, 
1864,  and  then  made  a  speech,  in  which  he  declared, 
"This  administration  cannot  now  save  this  Union  if  it 
would.  It  has  by  its  proclamations,  by  vindictive  legis 
lation,  by  displays  of  hate  and  passion,  placed  obstacles 
in  its  own  pathway  which  it  cannot  overcome,  and  has 
hampered  its  own  freedom  of  action  by  unconstitutional 
acts."  He  was  again  presented  as  a  candidate  for  the 
office  of  Governor  in  November,  1864,  and  was  defeated. 
He  was  president  of  the  National  Democratic  Convention 
which  met  in  New  York,  July  4,  1868,  and  was  nomi 
nated  as  the  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United 
States  on  the  9th  of  that  month,  although  he  had  an 
nounced  his  resolution  to  decline  the  honour,  and  had 
declared  in  that  convention  that  "he  could  not  be  nomi 
nated  without  putting  himself  and  the  Democratic  party 
in  peril."  He  received  only  eighty  electoral  votes,  and 
was  defeated  by  General  Grant. 

Seymour,  (|ANE,)  was  a  sister  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Somerset,  and  the  third  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  to  whom 
she  was  married  in  1536.  She  was  the  mother  of  Ed 
ward  VI.  Died  in  1537. 

Seymour,  (Sir  MICHAEL,)  an  English  vice-admiral, 
born  in  1802.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1855,  and 
commanded  the  naval  force  which  operated  against 
Canton  in  1857. 

Seymour,  (THOMAS,)  Lord  Sudely,  lord  high  ad 
miral  of  England,  was  a  brother  of  Edward,  Dnke  of 
Somerset.  He  married  Catherine  Parr,  a  widow  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and,  after  her  death,  became  a  suitor  of 
the  princess  Elizabeth.  He  aspired  to  be  governor  of  the 
young  king,  and  to  supplant  the  Duke  of  Somerset  as 
regent  or  protector.  Having  been  convicted  of  treason, 
he  was  beheaded  in  1549. 

See  HUME,  "History  of  England." 

Seymour,  (TRUMAN,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Burlington,  Vermont,  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846.  He  was  a  captain  in  Fort  Sumter  when  it 
was  bombarded  in  April,  1861,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  about  April,  1862.  He  served  at 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862,  and  com 
manded  a  small  army  which  w.is  defeated  at  Olustee, 
Florida,  on  the  2oth  of  February,  1864. 

Seymour,  (WILLIAM,)  Duke  of  Somerset,  was  a 
great-grandson  of  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of  Somerset. 
I  le  offended  James  I.  by  his  marriage  with  Arabella 
Stuart,  who  was  a  cousin  of  the  king.  In  the  civil  war 
he  fought  for  Charles  I.  Died  in  1660.  (See  STUART, 
ARABELLA.) 

Seyssel.     See  SETSSEL. 

Seze,  de,  deh  siz,  (RAYMOND,)  COUNT,  a  French  ad 
vocate  and  royalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1748.  He  was 
one  of  the  counsel  selected  by  Louis  XVI.  to  defend 
him  in  his  trial,  and  made  an  eloquent  plea  before  the 
Convention.  He  became  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation  in  1815,  and  a  member  of  the  French  Acad 
emy  in  1816.  Died  in  1828. 

See  CHATEAUBRIAND,  "  fi  oge  d'i  Comte  de  SV.e,"  1861  ;  MAR- 
MONTEI.,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nmivelle  Biographic  Ginerale." 

Sfoiidrati,  sfon-dRa'tee,  (CELESTINO,)  an  Italian 
cardinal  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1644;  died  in 
1696. 

Sfondrati,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Cremona  in  1493,  was  an  influential  adviser  of  Pope 
Paul  III.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  "  On  the  Rape  of 
Helen,"  ("De  Raptu  Helenae,"  1559.)  Died  in  1550. 

Sforce.     See  SFORZA. 

Sforza.     See  BONNA  SFORZA. 

Sforza,  sfoRt'sa,  [Fr.  SFORCE,  sfoRss,]  (FRANCESCO,) 
son  of  Giacomuzzo,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1401, 
and  was  equally  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  After  he 
had  for  a  time  assisted  the  Florentines  against  Filippo 
Maria  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  the  latter  gave  him  in 
marriage  his  daughter  Bianca.  On  the  death  of  Visconti 
he  took  possession  of  Milan,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Venetians,  and  was  proclaimed  duke  in  1450.  He  dis 
played  great  ability  and  moderation  as  a  ruler,  and. 


a,  e,  T,  o, u,  y, long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,"i,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SFORZA 


2003 


SHAFTESB  UR  T 


among  other  valuable  public  works,  constructed  the 
Naviglio  della  Martesana,  or  canal  between  Milan  and 
the  Adda.  Died  in  1465. 

See  HOVER,  "  Franz  Sforza,"  2  vols.,  1846:  "The  Life  and  Times 
of  Francesco  Sforza,"  by  W.  P.  UKQUHART,  1852;  G.  SIMONETTA, 
•' De  Rebus  gestis  F.  Sforza,"  1480;  ROBKRTSON,  "History  of 
Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  iv.-vi.  ;  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Repiib- 
liques  Itaiiennes  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sforza,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  the  last  Duke  of  Milan, 
a  son  of  Ludovico  "  il  Moro,"  was  born  in  1492.  He 
obtained  the  dukedom  by  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.,  about  1525,  and  died,  without  issue,  in  1535. 

Sforza,  (G.M.EAZZo  MARIA,)  a  son  of  Francesco,  was 
born  in  1444.  He  became  Duke  of  Milan  in  1465. 
Having  made  himself  odious  to  the  people  by  his  tyranny 
and  licentiousness,  he  was  assassinated  in  1476. 

Sforza,  (GiACOMUZZo  ATTENDOI.O,  ja-ko-moot'so 
at-tSn'do-lo,)  an  Italian  soldier  of  fortune,  born  near 
Faenza  about  1370.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the 
service  of  Alberico  da  Harbiano,  one  of  the  most  noted 
of  the  "  condottieri,"  or  party  leaders  of  the  time,  who 
were  striving  for  the  deliverance  of  Italy  from  foreign 
mercenaries.  By  his  distinguished  bravery  and  energy 
he  contributed  to  the  success  of  Alberico's  enterprises, 
and  received  from  him  the  surname  of  "Sforza,"  from 
his  great  strength.  He  afterwards  assisted  the  Floren 
tines  against  the  republic  of  Pisa,  and,  having  entered 
the  service  of  Joanna,  Queen  of  Naples,  attained  the 
rank  of  Commander-in-chief.  Having  marched  against 
Braccio  da  Montone,  he  was  drowned  while  attempting 
to  ford  the  river  Pescara,  in  1424. 

See  RATTI,  "Memorie  della  Famiglia  Sforza,"  2  vols.,  1795;  Sis- 
VIOXDJ,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Itaiiennes." 

Sforza,  (GIOVANNI  GALKAZZO  MARIA,)  Duke  of 
Milan,  the  son  of  Galeazzo  Maria,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1468.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1476,  his 
mother  acting  as  regent ;  but  the  power  was  usurped 
about  1480  by  his  uncle  Ludovico.  Died  in  1494. 

Sforza,  ( LUDOVICO,)  surnamed  IL  MORO,  ("the 
Moor,")  brother  of  Galeazzo  Maria,  was  born  in  1451. 
He  imprisoned  his  nephew,  the  legitimate  heir,  and 
usurped  the  government  of  Milan,  about  1480.  In  order 
to  strengthen  himself  against  Ferdinand,  King  of  Xaples, 
who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  young  duke,  he  in 
vited  Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  attempt  the  conquest 
of  Naples,  thus  originating  the  devastating  wars  which 
afflicted  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  French, 
having  taken  Naples,  soon  roused  the  people  to  resist 
ance  by  their  oppression,  and  were  expelled  from  Italy 
by  the  united  efforts  of  Ludovico,  the  pope,  and  the 
Venetians.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French 
king,  Louis  XII.,  in  1499,  Ludovico,  after  opposing  him 
with  varying  success,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  in 
France  in  1510.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  made  numerous  improvements  in  the 
city  of  Milan. 

See  MOSTI,  "Vita  di  Ludovico  Sforza,"  1653;  SISMOXDI,  "  His 
toire  des  Republiqiies  Itaiiennes  ;"  ROSCOE,  "  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  ;" 
"  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sforza,  (MASSIMILIANO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
enjoyed  for  a  time  the  rank  of  Duke  of  Milan,  but  was 
deposed  by  the  French  king,  Francis  I.,  after  the  battle 
of  Marignano,  in  1515.  Died  in  1530.  His  brother 
FRANCESCO  was  made  Duke  of  Milan  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  to  whom,  on  his  dying  without  issue  in 
1535,  he  bequeathed  the  dukedom. 

Sgravesande.     See  GRAVESANDE. 

Sgricci,  sgRet'chee,  (TOMMASO,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
improvisatore,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  productions  entitled  "The  Death  of 
Charles  T."  ("La  Morte  di  Carlo  I.")  and  "L'Ettore" 
were  published  in  1825. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Shad'well,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1640,  was  for  a  time  a  friend  of  Dryden,  who 
subsequently  satirized  him  in  his  poem  of  "  MacFleck- 
noe."  He  succeeded  Dryden  as  poet-laureate  in  1688, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester.  He 
published,  among  other  comedies,  "The  Humourist," 
"The  Sullen  Lovers,"  "The  Lancashire  Witches,"  and 
"The  Volunteers."  Died  in  1692. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  (1828.) 


Shafey,  sha'fa'  or  sha'fi',  [Lat.  SHAFEI'US,]  written 
also  Shafay  and  Schafei,  (sometimes  called  Aboo- 
Abdallah-  Mohammed  -Ibn-Idrees,  <or  -Edris,) 
a'boo  ab-dal'lah  mo-ham'med  ib'n  e-drees',)  a  cele 
brated  Mohammedan  doctor,  born  at  Gaza  in  767  A.D., 
was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  four  orthodox  sects  of 
Moslems,  and  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
I  Fe  lived  for  many  years  at  Mecca,  and  wrote  treatises 
on  canon  and  civil  law.  Died  about  820. 

Shaftesbury,  shafs'ber-e,  (  ANTHONY  ASHLEY 
COOPER,)  Lord  Ashley,  and  first  EARL  OF,  an  English 
politician,  famous  for  his  talents,  intrigues,  and  versa 
tility,  was  born  at  Wimborne  Saint  Giles,  Dorsetshire, 
on  the  22d  or  23d  of  July,  1621.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir 
John  Cooper,  and  a  grandson  of  Sir  Anthony  Ashky. 
from  each  of  whom  he  inherited  a  large  estate. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640. 
In  the  civil  war  he  first  supported  the  cause  of  the  king, 
but  in  1643  he  joined  the  popular  party,  and  took  Ware- 
ham  in  1644.  He  became  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
1653,  after  which  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  Crom 
well's  council  of  state.  Between  1654  and  1660  he  sat 
in  several  Parliaments,  was  an  opponent  of  Cromwell, 
and  very  efficiently  promoted  the  restoration.  Charles 
II.  rewarded  him  in  1660  with  the  office  of  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  and  raised  him  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Ashley,  in  1661.  Lord  Ashley  was  a  political 
opponent  of  Lord  Clarendon  while  the  latter  was  prime 
minister.  He  became  in  1670  a  member  of  the  famous 
and  notorious  Cabal  ministry,  whose  domestic  -policy 
was  arbitrary,  and  whose  foreign  policy  was  basely  sub 
servient  to  the  will  of  Louis  XIV.  "  Ashley,  with  a  far 
stronger  head  [than  Buckingham], "says  Macaulay,  "and 
with  a  far  fiercer  and  more  earnest  ambition,  had  been 
equally  versatile ;  but  Ashley's  versatility  was  the  effect 
not  of  levity,  but  of  selfishness.  He  had  served  and 
betrayed  a  succession  of  governments  ;  but  he  had  timed 
all  his  treacheries  so  well  that  through  all  revolutions 
his  fortunes  had  been  constantly  rising."  ("  History 
of  England.")  He  was  created  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  in 
1672,  and  held  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  from  No 
vember,  1672,  till  November,  1673.  After  the  seals  had 
been  taken  from  him,  he  went  over  to  the  opposition  or 
country  party,  and  signalized  his  zeal  against  popery.  A 
majority  of  the  Commons  having  opposed  the  measures 
of  the  court,  the  king  prorogued  that  House  from  time 
to  time.  When  it  assembled  in  1677,  Shaftesbury  as 
serted  that  it  was  dissolved.  For  this  offence  he  was 
confined  in  the  Tower  for  more  than  a  year.  This  affair, 
and  his  officious  action  in  relation  to  the  Popish  Plot, 
rendered  him  so  popular  that  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  new  council  formed  in  1679.  While  he  held  this 
high  position,  he  procured  the  passage  of  the  famous 
Habeas  Corpus  act,  of  which  he  was  the  author.  Having 
been  dismissed  from  the  presidency  of  the  council  in 
October,  1679,  he  presented  the  Duke  of  York  to  the 
grand  jury  as  a  popish  recusant.  Suspected  of  conspir 
ing  with  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  he  was  seized  in  July, 
1681,  and  confined  in  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  treason  ; 
but  the  bill  of  indictment  was  ignored  by  the  grand  jury. 
Dryden  satirized  him,  under  the  name  of  "  Achitophel," 
in  his  admirable  poem  of  "  Absalom  and  Achitophel." 
It  is  said  that  Shaftesbury  advised  his  party  to  revolt 
openly  against  the  court,  but  the  other  leaders  refused 
to  follow  this  advice.  He  therefore  left  England  in  1682, 
and  died  at  Amsterdam  in  June,  1683,  leaving  one  son. 

See  ITORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors:"  "Life 
of  Lord  Shaftesbury,"  by  B.  MARTIN  and  DR.  KIPPLS.  new  edition, 
by  C.  \V.  COOK,  1836:  also  "Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Speeches," 
edited  by  W.  D.  CHRISTIE. 

Shaftesbury,  (ANTHONY  ASHLEY  COOPER,)  seventh 
EARL  OF,  an  English  philanthropist,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  sixth  Earl,  was  born  in  1801.  He  was  styled  LORD 
ASHLEY  in  his  youth.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  as  first 
class  in  classics,  in  1822,  and  entered  Parliament  in  1826. 
He  procured  the  passage  of  the  "  Ten  Hours'  Bill,"  which 
requires  that  children  in  factories  shall  not  work  more 
than  ten  hours  in  a  day.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
an  advocate  of  the  "Evangelical  party"  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  as  a  promoter  of  benevolent  enterprises. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1851,  he  inherited  the 
earldom. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^=366  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHAFTESBURT 


2004 


SHAKSPEARE 


Shaftesbury,  (ANTHONY  COOPER,)  third  EARI.  OF, 
a  celebrated  English  writer,  born  in  London  in  1671, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  first  Earl.  He  was  educated  by 
John  Locke,  the  philosopher,  who  was  a  friend  of  his 
grandfather.  According  to  a  statement  of  the  pupil 
himself,  Locke  "had  the  absolute  direction  of  his  educa 
tion."  In  1693  he  entered  Parliament,  where  he  acted 
with  the  Whigs.  During  a  residence  in  Holland,  to 
which  he  went  in  1698,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Bayle  and  Leclerc.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1699, 
he  passed  into  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  a  political 
friend  of  William  III.,  who  consulted  him  in  important 
affairs.  After  the  death  of  William  (1705)  he  retired 
from  public  service.  He  published  a  "  Letter  on  Enthu 
siasm,"  (1708,)  "Moralists,  a  Philosophical  Rhapsody," 
(1709,)  and  "  Sensus  Communis,  or  Essay  on  Wit  and 
Humour,"  (1709.)  His  style  as  a  writer  was  greatly  ad 
mired,  though  it  is  wanting  in  ease  and  simplicity.  He 
died  at  Naples  in  February,  1713,  leaving  one  son,  An 
thony.  His  collected  works  were  published  in  1713, 
under  the  title  of  "Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners, 
Opinions,  and  Times."  Leibnitz  warmly  applauded  his 
"  Characteristics."  "  His  fine  genius  and  generous  spirit," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "shine  through  his  writings; 
but  their  lustre  is  often  dimmed  by  peculiarities,  and,  it 
must  be  said,  by  affectations,  which  are  peculiarly  fatal  to 
the  permanence  of  fame."  Referring  to  his  "  Moralists," 
the  same  critic  says,  "  Perhaps  there  is  scarcely  any 
composition  in  our  language  more  lofty  in  its  moral  and 
religious  sentiments  and  more  exquisitely  elegant  and 
musical  in  its  diction.  .  .  .  'The  Inquiry  concerning 
Virtue'  is  nearly  exempt  from  the  faulty  peculiarities  of 
the  author;  the  method  is  perfect,  the  reasoning  just, 
the  style  precise  and  clear.  .  .  .  This  production  is  un 
questionably  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of 
English  tracts  on  moral  philosophy.  It  contains  more 
intimations  of  an  original  and  important  nature  on  the 
theory  of  ethics  than  perhaps  any  preceding  work  of 
modern  times.  His  demonstration  of  the  utility  of  vir 
tue  to  the  individual  far  surpasses  all  attempts  of  the 
same  nature, — being  founded  not  on  a  calculation  of 
outward  advantages  or  inconveniences,  alike  uncer 
tain,  precarious,  and  degrading,  but  on  the  unshaken 
foundation  of  the  delight  which  is  of  the  very  essence 
of  social  affection  and  virtuous  sentiment,  ...  on  the 
all-important  truth  that  to  love  is  to  be  happy  and  to 
hate  is  to  be  miserable,  that  affection  is  its  own  reward 
and  ill  will  its  own  punishment.  .  .  .  The  relation  of 
religion  to  morality,  as  far  as  it  can  be  discovered  by 
human  reason,  was  never  more  justly  or  more  beauti 
fully  stated."  (See  "General  View  of  the  Progress  of 
Ethical  Philosophy.") 

SHAH,  shah,  a  Persian  word,  signifying  "king,"  and 
forming  part  of  the  name  or  title  of  many  Oriental  sove 
reigns  ;  as,  SHAH  ABBAS,  i.e.  "King  Abbas,"  NADIR 
SHAH,  "  wonderful  king,"  etc. 

Shah-Alam,  shah  a'lam,  ("King  of  the  World,") 
written  also  Schah-Alam  (-Alem  or  -Alim)  and 
Shah- Alum,  (or  -Allum,)  sometimes  called  Bahadur 
Shah,  ba-ha'door  shSh,  ("Brave  King,")  a  son  of 
Aurung-Zeb,  Emperor  of  India,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1707.  He  died  in  1712,  while  carrying  on  a  war  against 
the  Sikhs. 

Shah-Alam  (or  Schah-Alem)  II.  ascended  the 
throne  of  India  in  1759.  In  order  to  strengthen  his 
authority  over  his  empire,  he  had  recourse  to  the  British, 
to  whom  he  gave  a  grant  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa, 
in  return  for  the  city  and  district  of  Allahabad  which 
they  assigned  him.  Died  in  1806. 

Shah-Jehan  or  Shahjehan,  shah  je-han',  written 
also  Shah-Jahan  and  Schah-  (or  Chah-)  Djehan, 
("King  of  the  World,")  the  fifth  Mogul  Emperor  of 
India,  the  son  of  Jehan-Geer,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1627.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  rebellion  of  his 
sons,  one  of  whom,  the  famous  Aurung-Zeb,  put  to  death 
two  of  his  brothers  and  deposed  his  father.  Fie  died  in 
1666  at  Agra,  where  a  large  establishment  had  been 
granted  him.  The  court  of  Shah-Jehan  was  celebrated 
for  its  splendour.  The  "  peacock  throne,"  formed  of 
jewels  valued  at  ,£6,500,000,  was  constructed  by  him. 
He  also  founded  the  city  of  Shah  Jehanabad,  or  New 


Delhi,  and  erected  many  magnificent  public  buildings, 
among  which  the  Taj-Mahal,  a  mausoleum,  erected  in 
honour  of  his  favourite  wife,  called  Taj-Mahal,  ("the 
Crown  of  the  Palace,")  near  Agra,  is  justly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  and,  in  the  opin 
ion  of  several  competent  judges,  is  the  most  elegant 
and  splendid  edifice  on  the  globe.  It  is  said  to  have 
cost — in  a  country  where  almost  every  kind  of  labour 
is  marvellously  cheap — not  less  than  sixty  millions 
of  dollars. 

Shah-Rokh-Behadur,  shth  roK  be-ha'door,  or 
Shah-Rokh-Meerza,  a  son  of  Tamerlane,  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne  in  1405.  He  rebuilt  the  fortress  of 
the  city  of  Herat,  and  constructed  other  public  edifices. 
Died  about  1450. 

Shah-Temaii,  shah  te-man',  or  Shah-Temaun, 
("  King  of  the  Age,")  succeeded  his  father,  Timoor  Shah, 
as  King  of  Cabul  and  Afghanistan  in  1793. 

Shaiva.     See  SAIVA. 

Shakhovsky  or  Schachowski,  sha-Kov'ske, 
(Ai.KXANDKR  AI.KXANDROVITCH,)  PRINCK,  a  celebrated 
Russian  dramatist,  born  in  the  government  of  Smolensk 
in  1777.  Among  his  numerous  and  popular  works  may 
be  named  his  "  Aristophanes,"  a  comedy,  and  "  A  Lesson 
to  Coquettes."  Died  in  1846. 

Shakespear,  shak'speer,  (Joux,)  an  English  Orien 
talist,  born  at  Lount,  Leicestershire,  in  1774.  He  was 
professor  of  Hindostanee  at  the  Royal  Military  College, 
and  published,  among  other  works,  an  excellent  "Dic 
tionary  of  the  Hindustani  Language,"  (1817,)  and  a 
"Grammar  of  the  Hindustani  Language,"  (6th  edition, 
1855,  Svo.)  Died  in  1858. 

Shakspeare  or  Shakespeare,*  shak'speer,  (WIL 
LIAM,)  the  greatest  dramatic  genius  that  ever  lived, 
was  born  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  in  April,  (probably 
on  the  23d.)  1564.  His  father,  John  Shakspeare,  was  a 
glover.  His  mother's  maiden-name  was  Mary  Arden  ; 
she  belonged  to  a  respectable  and  ancient  family  of 
Warwickshire.  William  was  the  eldest  of  four  brothers  ; 
he  had  four  sisters,  two  of  whom  were  older  and  two 
younger  than  himself.  The  materials  for  writing  the 
life  of  Shakspeare  are  extremely  meagre.  Of  his  child 
hood,  after  his  christening,  (which  took  place  on  the 
26th  of  April,)  and  his  early  youth,  we  know  absolutely 
nothing.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  was  married  in 
his  nineteenth  year  to  Anne  Hathaway.  He  appears 
soon  after  his  marriage  to  have  gone  to  London,  where 
he  followed  the  profession  of  an  actor,  and,  if  Aubrey's 
statement  may  be  trusted,  he  "  did  act  exceedingly  well." 
There  is  a  pretty  generally  received  tradition  that  he 
fled  from  Warwickshire  in  consequence  of  having  been 
detected  in  deer-stealing.  Rowe,  in  his  Life  of  Shak 
speare,  relates  the  story  as  follows :  "  He  had,  by  a 
misfortune  common  enough  to  young  fellows,  fallen  into 
ill  company ;  and  amongst  them  some  that  made  a  fre 
quent  practice  of  deer-stealing  engaged  him  with  them 
more  than  once  in  robbing  a  park  that  belonged  to  Sir 
Thomas  Lucy,  of  Charlecote,  near  Stratford.  For  this 
he  was  prosecuted  by  that  gentleman,  as  he  thought, 
somewhat  too  severely;  and  in  order  to  revenge  that  ill 
usage,  he  made  a  ballad  upon  him.  And  though  this, 
probably  the  first  essay  of  his  poetry,  be  lost,  yet  it  is 
said  to  have  been  so  very  bitter  that  it  redoubled  the 
prosecution  against  him,  to  that  degree  that  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  his  business  and  family  in  Warwickshire 
for  some  time,  and  shelter  himself  in  London."  It 
seems  very  probable  that  the  passage  in  the  first  scene 
of  the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  in  which  the  "  luces" 
(or  "louses")  on  Justice  Shallow's  coat  are  spoken  of, 
was  intended  as  a  hit  at  Sir  Thomas  Lucy.  A  similar 
play  upon  the  name  of  Lucy  occurs  in  a  coarse  ballad 
which  tradition  ascribes  to  Shakspeare.  After  having 
taken  up  his  abode  in  London,  he  appears  to  have  acted 
by  turns  at  the  Globe  and  at  Blackfriars'  Theatre. 

Speaking  of  Shakspeare  soon  after  his  arrival  in  Lon 
don,  Rowe  says,  "  He  was  received  into  the  company 
then  in  being,  at  first  in  a  very  mean  rank  ;  but  his  ad 
mirable  wit,  and  the  natural  turn  of  it  to  the  stage,  soon 

*  Respecting  the  spelling  of  this  name,  see  ALMBONE'S  "  Diction 
ary  of  Authors." 


a,  e,  T,  5,  \\,-y,long;  a,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  p,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SHAKSPEARE 


2005 


SHAKSPEARE 


distinguished  him,  if  not  as  an  extraordinary  actor,  yet 
as  an  excellent  writer.  His  name  is  printed,  as  the 
custom  was  in  those  times,  amongst  those  of  the  other 
players,  before  some  old  plays,  but  without  any  particu 
lar  account  of  what  sort  of  parts  he  used  to  play ;  and, 
though  I  have  inquired,  [  could  never  meet  with  any 
further  account  of  him  this  way  than  that  the  top  of  his 
performance  was  the  ghost  in  his  own  '  Hamlet.'" 

It  is  not  known  when  Shakspeare  first  began  to  write 
plays,  or  which  he  wrote  first.  '•  He  began  early,"  says 
Aubrey,  "to  make  essays  at  dramatic  poetry,  which  at 
that  time  was  very  low,  and  his  plays  took  well."  In 
his  dedication  of  "Venus  and  Adonis,"  which  appeared 
'n  !593>  Shakspeare  calls  this  poem  \\-\zfirst  heir  of  his 
invention.  It  is,  however,  not  impossible  that  he  might 
have  commenced  the  work  many  years  earlier.  His  first 
published  play  appeared  in  1594,  the  same  year  that  his 
"  Lucrece"  was  given  to  the  world.  From  this  time 
there  is  reason  to  suppose  that,  although  he  may  have 
continued  to  act  occasionally,  his  principal  attention  was 
directed  to  the  composition  of  his  dramas  ;  since,  accord 
ing  to  Meres,  he  had  written  the  "Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona,"  "Comedy  of  Errors,"  "  Love's  Labour's  Lost," 
"Love's  Labour's  Won,"  (i.e.,  perhaps,  "All's  Well 
that  Ends  Well,")  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  "  Mer 
chant  of  Venice,"  "Richard  II.,"  "Richard  III.," 
"Henry  IV.,"  "King  John,"  "Titus  Anclronicus,"  and 
"Romeo  and  Juliet"  before  the  end  of  1^98. 

There  is  much  evidence  to  show  that  the  genius  of 
Shakspeare  was  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries. 
The  Earl  of  Southampton  was  so  captivated  with  his 
accomplishments  that  "  he  gave  him  a  thousand  pounds 
to  enable  him  to  go  through  with  a  purchase  which  he 
heard  he  had  a  mind  to."  (Rowe's  "  Life  of  Shakspeare.") 
In  order  properly  to  appreciate  the  munificence  of  this 
gift,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  thousand  pounds 
at  that  day  was,  in  all  probability,  equal  to  five  or  six 
thousand  at  the  present  time,  if  not  more.  The  poet 
dedicated  to  the  Earl  of  Southampton  his  earliest  works, 
— "  Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  "  Lucrece."  In  the  dedica 
tion  of  the  latter,  he  says,  among  other  things,  "The 
love  I  dedicate  to  yonr  lordship  is  without  end." 

In  1596  Shakspeare  lost  his  only  son.  In  1598  he 
became  acquainted  with  P.en  Jonson.  as  Rowe  tells  us, 
in  the  following  manner:  "Jonson,  who  was  at  that 
time  altogether  unknown  to  the  world,  had  offered  one 
of  his  plays  to  the  players  in  order  to  have  it  acted,  and 
the  persons  into  whose  hands  it  was  put,  after  turning  it 
carelessly  and  superciliously  over,  were  just  upon  return 
ing  to  him  an  ill-natured  answer,  that  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  their  company,  when  Shakspeare  luckily  cast  his 
eye  upon  it,  and  found  something  so  well  in  it  as  to 
engage  him  first  to  read  it  through,  and  afterwards  to 
recommend  Mr.  Jonson  and  his  writings  to  the  public. 
After  this  they  were  professed  friends."  The  play 
referred  to  was  "Every  Man  in  his  Humour."  If  any 
thing  could  be  wanting  to  the  honour  thus  conferred 
upon  Jonson's  play  by  the  approbation  of  the  greatest 
dramatic  genius  the  world  ever  saw,  it  was  surely  sup 
plied  in  the  fact  that  Shakspeare  himself  was  one  of  the 
actors  in  the  piece  which  he  had  already  recommended 
to  the  public. 

The  great  dramatist  appears  to  have  enjoyed  a  large 
measure  of  the  favour  ot  his  sovereigns.  Queen  Eliza 
beth  and  King  James  I.  "  Besides  the  advantages  of  his 
wit,"  says  Rowe,  "  he  was  in  himself  a  good-natured 
man,  of  great  sweetness  in  his  manners,  and  a  most 
agreeable  companion.  .  .  .  Queen  Elizabeth  had  several 
of  his  plays  acted  before  her,  and  without  doubt  gave 
him  many  gracious  marks  of  her  favour.  .  .  .  She  was 
so  well  pleased  with  that  character  of  Falstaff,  in  the 
two  parts  of  'Henry  IV.,'  that  she  commanded  him  to 
continue  it  for  one  play  more,  and  to  show  him  in  love." 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  occasion  of  his  writing 
the  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor."  It  is  stated  that 
King  James  I.,  who  was  fond  of  dramatic  exhibitions, 
had  six  of  Shakspeare's  plays  acted  before  him  at  White 
hall  between  the  beginning  of  November,  1604,  and  the 
end  of  March,  1605,  and  that  the  monarch,  as  a  mark 
of  his  particular  favour,  wrote  the  poet  a  letter  with  his 
own  hand. 


Shakspeare  had  lost  his  father  in  1601.  In  1607  his 
daughter  Susanna  was  married  to  Dr.  Hall,  a  highly 
respectable  physician  of  Warwickshire.  In  the  year 
following,  his  mother  died.  The  great  poet  passed,  it  is 
said,  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  his  native  Stratford  in 
honour  and  affluence.  One  writer  (the  Rev.  John  Ward, 
Vicar  of  Stratford)  says  he  had  heard  that  "  in  his  elder 
days  he  lived  at  Stratford,  and  supplied  the  stage  with 
two  plays  every  year  ;  and  for  it  had  an  allowance  so 
large  that  he  spent  at  the  rate  of  ^1000  a  year."  He 
closed  his  earthly  career  on  the  23d  of  April,  (supposed 
to  be  the  anniversary  of  his  birth,)  1616,  at  the  age  of 
fifty-two. 

In  regard  to  Shakspeare's  intellectual  and  moral 
attributes,  we  have  far  less  difficulty  in  coming  at  the 
truth,  than  we  meet  with  in  seeking  to  trace  the  events 
of  his  life.  Respecting  his  mental  endowments,  indeed, 
the  data  furnished  by  his  dramas,  added  to  the  testimony 
of  Jonson  and  other  writers  living  at  or  near  his  time, 
would  seem  to  be  ample  and  explicit.  We  are  warranted 
in  inferring  from  his  writings  that  he  was,  as  Rowe  in 
forms  us,  not  merely  a  "good-natured"  man,  and  "of  a 
free  and  open  nature,"  as  we  are  told  by  Jonson,  but 
that  he  was  of  an  extremely  generous  and  forgiving  dis 
position.  In  his  imaginative  dramas  (in  which  he  was 
under  no  obligation  to  follow  the  facts  of  history)  he 
shows  a  disinclination  to  treat  with  severity  even  the 
most  flagrant  offences.  Thus,  for  example,  in  "  The  Tem 
pest,"  Prospero,  as  it  appears,  not  only  freely  pardons 
Alonzo  and  Antonio,  by  whom  he  had  been  expelled 
from  his  dukedom,  but  the  monster  Caliban,  though 
detected  in  an  attempt  to  take  the  life  of  his  master,  is 
let  off  with  a  very  slight  punishment.  A  similar  example 
of  clemency  occurs  in  the  "  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona," 
in  which  Valentine,  after  freely  forgiving  Proteus,  who 
had  been  the  author  of  all  his  calamities,  uses  these 
words  : 

"  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied, 
Is  nor  of  heaven  nor  earth." 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance  is  found  in 
"Cymbeline,"  the  plot  of  which  is  from  Boccaccio.  The 
Italian  novelist  makes  the  wretch,  who  has  so  cruelly 
destroyed  the  reputation  of  a  lovely  and  innocent  lady,  . 
expiate  his  crime  at  last  by  a  death  of  lingering  torture.* 
Shakspeare,  while  taking  many  other  of  the  leading 
incidents  of  his  plot  from  the  Italian  story,  changes  the 
issue  entirely.  When  lachimo  kneels  beseeching  Post- 
humus  to  take  his  life,  the  latter  replies, 

''  Knee!  not  to  me  ; 

The  power  that  I  have  on  you,  is  to  SPARE  YOU  ; 
The  malice  towards  you,  to  FOKGIVE  you." 

We  have  no  means  of  determining  the  exact  order 
in  which  Shakspeare  composed  his  different  plays.  To 
those  already  mentioned,  on  the  authority  of  Meres, 
as  having  been  produced  before  1598,  we  may  add  the 
second  and  third  parts  of  "  Henry  VI.,"  published  pre 
viously  to  1596.  It  is  probable  that  "Taming  of  the 
Shrew,"  the  "  Twelfth  Night,"  "  Hamlet,"  (as  first  writ 
ten,)  "  Henry  V.,"  "  Much  Atlo  about  Nothing,"  and 
the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  were  composed  before 
1600.  His  other  dramas  are  as  follows:  "King  Lear," 
"Macbeth,"  "Timon  of  Athens,"  "Hamlet,"  (altered 
and  enlarged,)  "  Cymbeline,"  "  The  Winter's  Tale," 
"The  Tempest,"  "  Sleasure  for  Measure,"  "Antony  and 
Cleopatra,"  "Julius  Caesar,"  "Troilus  and  Cressida," 
"  Coriolanus,"  (and  "Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre.")  Of 
Shakspeare's  tragedies,  "  Macbeth,"  "  King  Lear," 
"Othello,"  "Hamlet,"  and  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  are 
especially  remarkable  for  the  power  with  which  the 
mightiest  passions  of  the  human  soul  are  portrayed. 
But  he  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less  successful  in  comedy. 
Of  the  character  of  Falstaff  in  "  Henry  the  Fourth,"  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  is  nothing  superior  to 
it  in  the  whole  range  of  comedy,  ancient  or  modern. 
Among  his  best  comic  pieces  may  also  be  mentioned 
"Twelfth  Night,"  "  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  "Mid 
summer  Night's  Dream,"  "  Merry  Wives  of  Wind 
sor,"  and  "  Taming  of  the  Shrew."  Of  Shakspeare's 
dramas  which  cannot  properly  be  classed  under  the 


*  See  Giornata  II.,  Novella  IX. 


€  as*;  533*;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled:  s  as  0;  th  as  in  this.    (3^=S2e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHAKSPEARE 


2CO6 


SHAKSPEARE 


head  either  of  comedy  or  tragedy,  "The  Merchant  ot 
Venice,"  "  The  Tempest,"  and  "  As  You  Like  It"  are 
perhaps  the  most  admirable.  Two  of  the  plays  com 
monly  printed  with  Shakspeare's  works  are  believed  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  best  critics  not  to  be  his,  viz. ^: 
"  Titus  Andronicus"  and  "  Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre. 
In  "  Titus  Andronicus,"  both  the  thoughts  and  the  style 
seem  very  unlike  and  inferior  to  Shakspeare's.  The 
same  is  true,  though  perhaps  not  in  the  same  degree,  ot 
"Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre."  Some  passages  in  both 
plays  may  probably  have  been  retouched  by  the  great 
dramatist,  and  thus  his  name  may  have  become  asso 
ciated  with  them. 

Shakspeare  appears  to  have  taken  the  plots  of  his 
plays,  for  the  most  part,  from  other  writers,  making  little 
or  no  change  in  the  general  conduct  of  the  story,  but 
exhibiting  the  different  dramatis  persome,  and  their  end 
less  variety  of  character,  with  that  inimitable  grace  and 
power  which  are  so  peculiarly  his  own.  His  historical 
dramas,  generally  speaking,  correspond  very  exactly,  in 
regard  to  the  principal  persons  and  events,  to  the  actual 
histories  from  which  they  are  derived.  There  is  the 
same  exact  conformity  in  some  of  his  plays  which  are 
not  properly  historical.  Thus,  "  All's  Well  that  Ends 
Well,"  taken  from  the  "Decameron,"  (Giornata  III., 
Novella  IX.,)  not  only  follows  the  plot  of  the  story  as, 
related  by  Boccaccio,  but  even  the  names  of  the  chief 
personages  are  the  same,  with  such  modifications  only 
as  the  difference  of  the  languages  requires. 

"If  ever  any  author,"  says  Pope,  "deserved  the  name 
of  an  original,  it  was  Shakspeare."  "  He  is  not  so  much 
an  imitator  as  an  instrument  of  nature  ;  and  it  is  not  so 
just  to  say  that  he  speaks  from  her,  as  that  she  speaks 
through  him.  His  characters  are  so  mucli  nature  her 
self,  that  it  is  a  sort  of  injury  to  call  them  by  so  distant 
a  name  as  copies  of  her." 

"  Widely  excelling,"  says  Warburton,  "  in  the  know 
ledge  of  human  nature,  he  hath  given  to  his  infinitely 
varied  pictures  of  it  such  truth  of  design,  such  force  of 
drawing,  such  beauty  of  colouring,  as  was  hardly  ever 
equalled  by  any  writer,  whether  his  aim  was  the  use,  or 
only  the  entertainment,  of  mankind." 

.        "  Never,  perhaps,"  says  Schlegel,  the  great   German 
|  critic,  "was  there   so   comprehensive    a  talent  for  the 
*  delineation  of  character  as  Shakspeare's.      It  not  only 
,  grasps  the  diversities  of  rank,  sex,  and  age  down  to  the 
'  dawnings  of  infancy,  not  only  do  the  king  and  the  beg 
gar,  the  hero  and  the  pickpocket,  the  sage  and  the  idiot, 
speak  and  act  with  equal  truth,  but  he  opens  the  gates 
of  the   magical  world   of  spirits,  calls  up  the  midnight 
ghost,  peoples  the  air  with  sportive  fancies  and  sylphs  ; 
and  these   beings  existing   only  in  the  imagination  pos 
sess  such  truth  and  consistency  that,  eve.n  when  deformed 
monsters  like  Caliban,  he  extorts  the  conviction  that  if 
there   should  be   such   beings    they   would   so  conduct 
themselves."     The  following  observation,  by  the  same 
writer,  is  not  less  strikingly  just  than  the  foregoing  :  "  If 
Shakspeare  deserves  our  admiration  for  his  characters, 
he  is  equally  deserving  of  it  for  his  exhibition  of  passion, 
taking  this  word  in  its  widest  signification,  as  including 
every  mental  condition,  every  tone  from  indifference  or 
familiar  mirth  to  the  wildest  rage  and  despair." 

"Of  all  poets,"  says  Lessing,  "perhaps  he  alone  has 
portrayed  the  mental  diseases,  melancholy,  delirium, 
lunacy,  with  such  wonderful  and  in  every  respect  definite 
truth,'  that  the  physician  may  enrich  his  observations 
from  them  in  the  same  manner  as  from  real  cases." 

But,  among  all  the  critics  who  have  treated  of  the 
merits  of  Shakspeare,  none  has  portrayed  his  character 
istics  as  a  poet  more  admirably  than  Dryden  : 

"  He  was  the  man  who,  of  all  modern  and  perhaps 
ancient  poets,  had  the  largest  and  most  comprehensive 
soul  :  all  the  images  of  nature  were  still  present  to  him, 
and  he  drew  them,  not  laboriously,  but  luckily  :  when 
he  describes  anything,  you  more  than  see  it, — you  feel  it 
too.  Those  who  accuse  him  to  have  wanted  learning, 
give  him  the  greater  commendation  :  he  was  naturally 
learned ;  he  needed  not  the  spectacles  of  books  to  read 
nature, — he  looked  inwards  and  found  her  there.  lean- 
not  say  he  is  everywhere  alike.  .  .  .  But  he  is  always 
great  when  some  great  occasion  is  presented  to  him  ;  no 


man  can  say  he  had  a  fit  subject  for  his  wit  and  did  not 
then  raise  himself  as  high  above  the  rest  of  poets 
"  '  Quantum  lenta  solent  inter  viburna  cupressi.'  "' 
From  the  data,  imperfect  as  they  are,  which  we  pos 
sess  concerning  the  life  of  Shakspeare,  we  seem  war 
ranted  in  inferring  that  his  scholastic  education  must 
have  been  extremely  defective.  This  inference  is  sup 
ported  by  the  direct  testimony  of  Ben"  Jonsgn,  who  says 
that  Shakspeare  had  "  small  Latin  and  less  Greek." 
That  one  with  so  little  opportunities  of  learning  should 
have  exhibited  not  merely  a  wonderful  mastery  of  the 
human  heart,  with  its  infinitely  complex  affections  and 
motives,  but  also  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  many  of 
the  operations"  of  external  nature,  and,  what  is  perhaps 
still  more  remarkable,  with  some  of  the  nicest  points  of 
English  law,  has  "to  not  a  few  appeared  strange  and 
inexplicable,  if  not  absolutely  incredible.  In  attempting 
to  solve  the  difficulty,  some  have  adopted  the  extraor 
dinary  hypothesis  that  the  dramas  going  under  the  name 
of  Shakspeare  must  have  been  written  by  some  other 
person.  The  late  Ddia  Bacon  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  start  this,  hypothesis.  She  publicly  announced  the 
idea  in  an  article  published  in  "  Putnam's  Magazine" 
for  January,  1856.  In  the  following  year  appeared  her 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Plays  of  Shakspeare  unfolded,"  in 
which  she  states  in  full  her  reasons  for  believing  that 
Lord  Bacon  was  the  true  "  Shakspeare."  Since  then, 
Mr.  Nathaniel  Holmes,  late  of  Saint  Louis,  Missouri, 
I  now  professor  of  law  at  Harvard,  availing  himself  of 
j  the  suggestion  given  by  Miss  Bacon,  but  taking  a  some- 
what  different  view  of  the  question,  has  published  a 
well-written  and  highly  readable  book  entitled  "The 
Authorship  of  Shakspeare."  in  which  he  sets  forth  with 
elaborate  ingenuity  the  various  arguments  against  the 
claims  of  William  Shakspeare  and  in  favour  of  those  of 
Lord  Bacon. 

Here  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  a  particular  con- 
|  sideration  of  this  question.     We  may,  however,  observe 
!  that  Mr.  Holmes  adduces  as  by  far  his  strongest  argu- 
'  ment  the  great  number  of  coincidences  which  are  found 
to   exist  between   the  ideas  and   expressions  of  Shak 
speare    and    those   occurring    in    the   works   of   Bacon, 
(or,  as  he  states  it,  "  that  general,  inwrought,  and  all- 
i  pervading  identity  which  is  found  in  these  writings  ;'')  a 
|  very  large  proportion  of  these  coincidences  or  proofs  of 
I  identity  being,  as  it  seems  to  us,  just  such  as  might  by  dili- 
!  gent  search  be  discovered  in  the  voluminous  works  of  any 
!  two  authors  living  in  the  same  age  and  writing  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects:  though  some  of  them  are  clearly  the 
I  creation  of  the  writer's  fancy,  as  when,  in  pointing  out  the 
!  similarity  between  the  leading  ideas  of  "The  Tempest" 
and  those  of  the  "  New  Atlantis"  of-Bacon,  he  says,  "  Like 
the  island  of  Atlantis,  Prospero's   isle  is  situated  afar 
off  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  somewhere  near  the  'still- 
vexed    Bermoothes.' "     Now,   this    supposition    is    not 
improbable  merely, — it  is    simply  impossible.     For,  in 
the  first   place,  there  is   not  the  slightest  intimation  in 
the  words  of  the    poet   of  Prospero  and   his   daughter 
having  made  a  long  voyage  in  "  the  rotten  carcass  of  a 
boat"  without   tackle,  sail,  or  mast  ;    on   the  contrary, 
the  inevitable  inference  is  that  it  was  a  very  short  one  ; 
and,  in  the  second  place,  it  was  clearly  impossible  that 
the  brief  storm  which  wrecked  the  king  and  his  com 
panions  on   their  return    from  Tunis   to  Naples,  could 
have  carried   their   fleet  not  only  out   of  the   Mediter 
ranean  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  but  more  than 
half-way  across  the  Atlantic.    (See  "The  Tempest,"  Act 
I.    Scene  2,  and    Act   II.    Scene   I.)     Add   to  this   that 
Bacon  distinctly  and   repeatedly  tells  us  that  the  New 
Atlantis  was  in  the  "  South  Sea,''   and  not  in   the  At 
lantic  Ocean. 

But  were  Bacon's  claims  to  the  authorship  of  Shak 
speare's  dramas  a  hundred  times  stronger  than  they  are, 
they  could  scarcely  outweigh  the  direct  and  uniform 
testimony  of  the  contemporaries  of  those  illustrious 
men.  Can  it  be  believed  that  Ben  Jonson,  who  was 
personally  and,  as  it  appears,  intimately  acquainted  with 
Shakspeare,  would  have  spoken  of  him  in  the  manner 


*  Literally,    "  A*   the  cypresses   are  wont  [to  raise  themselves] 
among  the  pliant  viburnums."     (See  VIRGIL,  "  Eclogue  I.") 


a,  e, 1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moor.; 


SHAKSPEARE 


2007 


SHAO-KANG 


that  he  has  done  had  he  been  a  mere  man  of  straw, 
whose  only  use  was  to  conceal  from  public  view  the 
greatest  genius  the  world  had  ever  known  ?  For,  in 
addition  to  these  well-known  lines, — 

'  To  draw  no  envy,  Shakspeare,  on  thy  name, 
Am  I  thus  ample  to  thy  book  and  fame  ; 
While  I  confess  thy  writings  to  be  such 
As  neither  Man  nor  Muse  can  praise  too  much. 
******* 
Triumph,  my  Britain  !  thou  hast  one  to  show 
To  whom  all  scenes*  of  Europe  homage  owe. 
He  was  not  of  an  age,  but  for  all  time  ! 
****** 
Nature  herself  was  proud  of  his  designs, 
And  joyed  to  wear  the  dressing  of  his  lines ; 
Which  were  so  richly  spun  and  woven  so  fit, 
As  since  she  will  vouchsafe  no  other  wit." 

—  Written  in  the  Folio  edition  of  Shakspeare '  s  Plays,  published  in 

1623,— 

Jonson  says,  in  another  place,  "I  loved  the  man,  and  do 
honour  his  memory — on  this  side  idolatry  —  as  much  as 
any.  He  was  indeed  honest  and  of  an  open  and  free 
nature,  had  an  excellent  phantasy,  [fancy,]  brave  notions, 
and  gentle  expressions,  wherein  he  flowed  with  that  fa 
cility  that  sometimes  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  be 
stopped."  How  strikingly  descriptive  is  this  of  Shak- 
speare's  most  remarkable  peculiarity  !  It  is  this  excess 
ive  "facility"  or  exuberance  of  expression,  joined  with 
his  "excellent  phantasy,"  which  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  quality  distinguishes  him  above  all  other  writers, 
ancient  or  modern.  Or  are  we  to  suppose  that  Jonson 
was  in  the  secret,  and  composed  this  lying  eulogy  of 
Shakspeare  for  the  express  purpose  of  deceiving  pos 
terity,  and  also  that  the  poet  Spenser,  Mr.  Meres,  the  Earl 
of  Southampton,  the  queen,  the  managers  of  the  thea 
tres,  besides  many  others,  (see  the  conversation,  reported 
by  Rowe,  between  Ben  Jonson  and  Sir  John  Suckling, 
Sir  William  D'Avenant,  and  others,)  were  all  in  the  same 
conspiracy,  and  kept  the  secret  so  faithfully  that  not  a 
line  or  a  word  tending  to  expose  the  stupendous  decep 
tion  has  come  down  to  us  ?  But  this  is  not  all  ;  the  new 
hypothesis  would  require  us  to  believe  not  merely  that, 
in  all  the  works  that  go  under  his  name,  Bacon  was  at 
the  pains  to  curb  and  repress  that  "excellent  phantasy" 
and  wonderful  "  facility"  of  expression,  and  to  exhibit 
them  in  his  dramatic  writings  only,  but  that  he  pur 
posely  affected  ignorance  about  things  with  which  he 
must  have  been  perfectly  acquainted,  as,  for  example, 
when  he  makes  Cassius  (in  "Julius  Caesar")  speak 
of  the  "  eternal  devil, "t  when  he  gives  the  names  of 
Bottom,  Quince,  Snug,  and  Snout  (in  "  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream")  to  Athenian  mechanics,  or  when  (in 
"  Winter's  Tale")  he  represents  Bohemia  as  a  maritime 
kingdom  ! 

There  might  be  good  reasons  why  Bacon  should  not 
wish  to  be  known  as  a  dramatic  writer  in  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  when  he  was  aspiring  to  the  highest 
honours  in  the  state  ;  but  it  is  inconceivable  that  he 
should  have  taken  such  extraordinary  pains  to  keep  the 
secret  of  his  poetic  genius  from  posterity.  But  the 
advocates  of  the  new  hypothesis  lose  sight  of  the  most 
essential  point  of  all.  The  great  wonder  is  not  that  a 
man  without  learning  should  have  written  such  plays 
as  those  which  go  under  the  name  of  Shakspeare :  the 
wonder  is  that  any  man  should  have  written  them.  The 
works  of  a  great  genius  must  always  seem  marvellous  in 
our  eyes  ;  and,  if  the  genius  be  transcendent,  the  con 
templation  of  its  productions  must  fill  us  with  a  sort  of 
bewildering  astonishment.  It  would,  however,  be  still 
more  miraculous  if  it  could  be  proved  that  Bacon,  and 
not  Shakspeare,  had  written  those  wonderful  dramas  ; 
for  examples  have  repeatedly  occurred  of  men  in  whom 
a  rare  genius  has  supplied  the  want  of  almost  every 
external  advantage,  but  no  well-authenticated  instance 
can  be  found  in  the  whole  history  of  the  human  intel 
lect,  of  one  and  the  same  man  belonging  to  the  highest 
rank  of  philosophers  and  the  highest  rank  of  poets. 
Nor  can  a  single  example  be  cited  of  any  one  author 


*  I.e.  all  the  "  Stages"  of  Europe. 

t  The  reader  need  scarcely  be  told  that  not  only  the  word  "devil," 
(diabolus,)  but  all  idea  of  a  devil,  as  understood  in  modern  times,  was 
wholly  unknown  to  the  Romans  before  the  Christian  era. 


writing  in    two  styles    so  totally  different  as    those  of 
Bacon  and  Shakspeare. 

See  MALONE,  "Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1821  ;  N.  DRAKE,  "Shak 
speare  and  his  Times,"  2  vols.,  1817;  CHARLES  KNIGHT,  "  Shak- 
spere;  a  Biography,"  1845:  J.  O.   HAI.LIWELL,  "New  Life  of  W. 
Shakespeare,"  1X47  ;  GEOKG  G.  GERVINUS,  "Shakespeare,"  4  vols., 
1849-50;  R.  G.  WHITE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Shakespeare, '' 
1865;    W.    HAZLITT,   "Characters  of  Shakspeare's   Plays,"  1817; 
GUIZOT,   "  Shakspere  et   son    Temps,"  1851  :    RICHARD    FARMER, 
"Essays   on    the    Learning   of   Shakespeare,"  1767;  J.    BRITTON. 
"  Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare, "  1814;  FRANZ 
HORN,  "Shakespeare's  Schauspieie  erlautert,"  5  vols.,  1822-31  ;  J. 
P.   COLLIER,   "  Life   of  Shakespeare,"   1841  :   J.    MKYER,   "  Leben 
Shakespeare's,"  1825  ;  S.  T.  COLERIDGE,  "  Notes  and  Lectures  on 
Shakespeare,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1849;  S.   NEIL,  "Critical   Biography  of 
Shakespeare,"  1861  ;  P.  CHASI.ES,  "  Eludes  sur  Shakspere,"  1852; 
VICTOR  HUGO,  "William  Shakespeare."  1864;  A.  DYCE.  "  Life  of 
Shakespeare,"  1857 ;  A.  SKOTTOWE,  "Life  of  Shakespeare, "  1824; 
R.  WHEI.ER,  "  Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1806  :  JOSEPH  HUNTER,  "New 
j  Illustrations  of  the  Life  of  Shakespeare,"  2  vols,  1845;  F.  DOUCE, 
I  "  Illustrations  of  Shakespeare  and  of  Ancient  Manners,"  2  vols., 
:  '807:  J-  J-   ESCHENBURG,  "  Ueber  W.    Shakespeare,"   1787;  NA- 
I  THANIEL  DRAKE,   "Memorials  of  Shakspeare,  or  Sketches  of  his 
Character  and  Genius,"  1828;  CHARLES  KNIGHT,  "Studies  and  II- 
1  lustrations  of  Shakspere,"  etc.,  1850;  HUDSON,  "  Lectures  on  Shake- 
|  speare,"   1848;    HAGBERG,   "  Shakspeare   och    Skalderna,"    Lund, 
i  1848;  N.   DELIUS,  "Der  Mythus  von  W.  Shakspeare,"  1851;  DE 
QUINCEY,  "  Life  of  Shakspeare,"  in  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica," 
republished  in  his  works,  vol.  xv.  ;  HALLAM,  "  Introduction  to  the 
!  Literature  of  Europe;"  A.  W.  VON  SCHLEGEL,  "Lectures  on  Dra- 
I  matic  Art  and  Literature,"  (translated  into  English  by  JOHN  BLACK, 
!  1815  ;)  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT,  "  Essay  on  the  Drama  ;"  "  Biographia 
Dramatica ;"    CIBBER.    "Lives  of  the    Poets;"    article,   by   LORD 
JEFFREY,  in  the  "Edinburgh   Review"  for  August,  1817:  "  Shake- 
speariaua:  a  List  of  Works  illustrative  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Shakespeare,''  etc.,  by  J.  O.    HAI.LIWELL,  1867;  MARY  COWDEN 
CLAKKK,    "Complete   Concordance  to  Shakspeare,"   1844-45;  DR. 
JOHNSON,   Preface   to   his   edition  of  Shakespeare,   1765  ;  also  the 
excellent  and  elaborate  article  on  Shakspeare  in  ALLIBONE'S  "Dic 
tionary  of  Authors." 

,  Shaller,  shal'ler,  (Lunwio,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1804.  He  worked  at  Munich  for  the  King 
of  Bavaria. 

Sharium,  [Heb.  D'7ty,]  King  of  Israel,  obtained  the 
throne  by  killing  Zachariah,  in  770  B.C.  He  was  assas 
sinated  by  Menahem  in  the  same  year. 

See  II.  Kings  xv. 

Shambhu.     See  SIVA. 

Shamul,  sha-mooK,  written  also  Samoul,  a  learned 
Jewish  physician,  born  in  Spain,  was  converted  to  Mo 
hammedanism.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  medi 
cine,  astronomy,  and  mathematics.  Died  about  1175. 

Shamyl  or  Schamyl,  sham'il,  a  famous  Circassian 
chief,  born  at  Himry  in  1797,  was  a  man  of  great  energy. 
In  religion  he  was  a  Mohammedan.  He  fought  bravely 
against  the  Russian  invaders  in  1828  and  the  ensuing 
years.  In  1834  he  was  chosen  Imam  of  Circassia.  He 
displayed  much  political  as  well  as  military  ability  in 
the  long  contest  against  Russia.  Avoiding  regular 
battles,  he  wasted  the  enemy  by  ambuscades,  surprises, 
and  partisan  warfare.  After  a  heroic  defence  against 
superior  numbers,  he  surrendered  about  the  end  of  1859. 
From  that  time  the  emperor  assigned  him  a  residence 
(with  a  pension)  at  Kalooga,  in  Russia. 

See  ROUNOVSKI,  "Schamyl;"  "Schamyl,  the  Sultan,  Warrior, 
and  Prophet  of  the  Caucasus,"  (translated  from  the  German  of  WAG 
NER  and  BODENSTEDT,  1854  ;)  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Feb 
ruary,  1855;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1854;  E.  TEXIER, 
"  Les  Hoinmes  de  la  Guerre  d'Orient:  Schamyl,"  1854;  MAJOR 
WARNER,  "Schamyl,  le  Prophete  du  Caucase,"  1854;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^nerale." 

Shanfaree  or  Schanfari,  shiin-fa'ree,  an  Arabic 
poet,  who  lived  a  short  time  before  Mohammed,  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  called  "  Lamayat  el-Arab,"  which 
is  admired  for  richness  of  imagery.  A  French  version 
of  it  was  published  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  in  1806. 

Shao-Hao  or  Chao-Hao,  shi'o  h&'o,  almost  show- 
how',  second  Emperor  of  China,  was  the  son  of  Hoang- 
Tee,  whom  he  succeeded  in  2597  B.C.  He  is  censured 
for  having  tolerated  the  rise  and  progress  of  idolatry  in 
his  reign,  from  a  lack  of  firmness  and  energy.  He  died, 
it  is  said,  after  a  reign  of  eighty-four  years. 

See  PAUTHIER,  "Chine." 

Shao-Kang  or  Chao-Kang,  sha'o  kang,  a  Chinese 
emperor,  supposed  to  have  been  born  2118  B.C.,  was  the 
son  of  Tee-Siang,  who  was  killed  in  battle  the  same  year. 
A  usurper  then  obtained  the  throne,  and  the  young 
prince  lived  disguised  as  a  shepherd  until  he  was  about 
forty  years  old.  He  raised  an  army,  defeated  the  usurper, 
and  reigned  in  peace  until  he  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one. 


t:  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  a;  th  as  in  /Aw.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23  J 


SH4POOR 


2008 


SHATS 


Shapoor  or  Shapur.     See  SAPOR. 

Sharp,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
mechanist,  born  near  Bradford  in  1651.  He  became  an 
assistant  to  Flamsteed,  royal  astronomer,  about  1688. 
He  graduated,  with  extraordinary  accuracy,  a  mural 
quadrant  or  sector  for  the  Observatory  of  Greenwich, 
and  calculated  excellent  logarithmic  tables.  Died  in  1742. 

Sharp,  (DANIEL,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  at 
Huddersfield,  England,  in  1783.  He  became  pastor  of 
a  church  at  Boston  in  1812,  and  subsequently  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  "American  Baptist  Magazine."  He 
published  a  number  of  sermons,  etc.  Died  in  1853. 

Sharp,  (GkANViu.E,)  an  eminent  English  philanthro 
pist,  born  in  Durham  in  1734,  was  a  &on  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Sharp,  noticed  below.  He  early  distinguished  himself 
by  his  earnest  opposition  to  negro  slavery,  and  published 
in  1769  "A  Representation  of  the  Injustice  and  Danger 
ous  Tendency  of  tolerating  Slavery  in  England,"  etc. 
About  the  same  time,  having  met  with  a  negro  named 
Somerset,  who,  being  ill,  had  been  turned  into  the 
streets  of  London  by  his  master,  he  took  him  under  his 
care,  and,  on  his  recovery,  procured  him  employment. 
Two  years  after,  Somerset  was  claimed  by  his  former 
owner ;  but,  the  case  being  brought  before  the  lord 
mayor  on  the  application  of  Sharp,  it  was  decided 
against  the  master,  who,  however,  insisted  upon  retain 
ing  his  slave.  After  a  trial  before  the  court  of  king's 
bench  in  1772,  it  was  finally  decided  that  a  slave  could 
not  be  held  in  England.  Granville  Sharp  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  Association  for  the  Abolition  of 
Negro  Slavery,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding 
the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  in  Africa.  He  published, 
besides  numerous  treatises  against  slavery,  a  "Declara 
tion  of  the  People's  Natural  Rights  to  a  Share  in  the 
Legislature,"  etc.,  (1778,)  "  Remarks  on  the  Prophecies," 
and  "Remarks  on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in 
the  Greek  Testament."  Died  in  1813. 

See  PRINCE  HOARR,  "Memoirs  of  Granville  Sharp,"  1810: 
CHARLES  STUART,  "Memoirs  of  G.  Sharp,"  New  York,  1836. 

Sharp,  QAMKS,)  a  Scottish  prelate,  born  in  1618, 
studied  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  was  after 
wards  professor  of  philosophy  in  Saint  Leonard's  Col 
lege,  at  Saint  Andrew's.  In  1660  he  was  sent  by  several 
leading  Presbyterians  as  their  representative  to  General 
Monk,  and,  after  a  conference  with  Charles  II.  at  Breda, 
went  over  to  the  Church  of  England.  1  le  was-rewarded 
for  his  apostasy  by  being  created  Archbishop  of  Saint 
Andrew's,  and  obtaining  other  distinctions.  In  1679, 
while  travelling  from  Kennoway  to  Saint  Andrew's,  he 
was  assassinated  by  a  party  of  Presbyterians,  who  were 
lying  in  wait  for  another  person. 

See  HUME,  "  History  of  England;"  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sharp,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1644.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1669, 
became  Dean  of  Norwich  in  1681,  and  was  subsequently 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.  and  his  successor,  James  II. 
Having  given  great  offence  to  the  latter  by  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  against  popery,  he  was  suspended 
for  a  time  from  his  functions.  In  1689  he  succeeded 
Tillotson  as  Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  was  created  Arch 
bishop  of  York  MI  1691.  He  died  in  1714,  leaving 
numerous  sermons,  often  reprinted. 

See  "Life  of  Archbishop  Sharp,"  by  his  son,  THOMAS  SHARP, 
1829. 

Sharp,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  litterateur  and  Whig 
member  of  Parliament,  born  about  1759,  obtained  the 
sobriquet  of  "  Conversation  Sharp,"  from  his  extra 
ordinary  colloquial  powers.  He  published  "  Letters 
and  Essays  in  Prose  and  Verse."  Died  in  1835. 

Sharp,  (TnuMAS,)  a  son  of  John  Sharp,  Archbishop 
of  York,  was  born  about  1693.  He  rose  through  several 
preferments  to  be  Archdeacon  of  Northumberland  and 
prebendary  of  Durham.  He  published  "Discourses  on 
the  Hebrew  Tongue,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1758. 

Sharp,  (WILLIAM,)  acelebrated  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  London  about  1745.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  after  Carlo  Dolce,  "  Saint 
Cecilia,"  after  Domenichino,  the  portrait  of  John  Hunter, 
after  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  the  "  Sortie  from  Gibral 
tar,"  after  Trumbull.  Sharp  was  remarkable  for  his 


credulity,  and  became  a  dupe  to  the  impostures  of  Joanna 
Southcott  and  other  fanatics.  Died  in  1824. 

Sharpe,  sharp,  (DANIEL,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geolo 
gist,  born  in  London  in  1806,  was  a  nephew  of  Samuel 
Rogers  the  poet.  He  visited  Portugal,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  geology  of  that  country.  Among  his 
works  are  f  Memoirs  on  the  Silurian  Rocks  and  Old 
Red  Sandstone  of  Wales,"  (1842-44.)  Died  in  1856. 

Sharpe,  (GREGORY,)  an  English  divine  and  Orien 
talist,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1713.  He  published  "Dis 
sertations  on  the  Origin  of  Languages  and  the  Powers 
of  Letters,  with  a  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  "Defence  of  Dr. 
Clarke  against  Leibnitz,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1771. 

Shar'pey,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  phys 
iologist,  born  at  Arbroath.  In  1837  he  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  University  College,  Edin 
burgh.  He  has  contributed  several  valuable  treatises  to 
the  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology." 

Shars'wood,  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent  jurist,  born  in 
^Philadelphia,  July  7,  1810,  graduated  with  the  highest 
honours  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1828.  Ad 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1831,  he  became  in  1845  associate 
judge,  and  in  1848  president  judge,  of  the  district  court 
of  the  city  and  county  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  after 
wards  elected  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  State,  and  was  for  many  years  professor  of  law 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Judge  Sharswood's 
legal  writings  enjoy  the  very  highest  character  with  the 
profession.  His  "  Byles  on  Bills  of  Exchange"  has 
been  adopted  as  a  text-book  at  Harvard. 

Shaw,  (CiJTHHKRT,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  York 
shire  in  1738.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Odes  on  the  Four 
Seasons,"  "  Liberty,"  "  The  Race,"  a  satire,  "  Address  to 
a  Nightingale,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1771. 

Shaw,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in  Buck 
inghamshire  in  1751.  He  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  keeper  of  natural  history 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1789.  He  wrote  "General  Zoology,  or 
Natural  History,"  (9  vols.,)  "The  Naturalist's  Miscel 
lany,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1813. 

See  CUVIHR,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale :"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  September  and 
October,  1802,  et  seq. 

Shaw,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  British  merchant,  born  in  Ayr 
shire  in  1764,  became  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1805,  and 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Parliament.  Died  in  1843. 

Shaw,  (LEMUEL,)  an  able  American  jurist,  born  at 
Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1781.  He  was  many  years 
a  member  of  the  State  legislature,  and  in  1830  was  ap 
pointed  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts.  lie  performed 
the  duties  of  that  office  with  great  credit  for  thirty  years, 
and  resigned  in  18.10.  His  reported  decisions  have  been 
published  by  Pickering,  Cashing,  and  others.  He  died 
in  Boston  in  1861. 

Shaw,  (PETER,)  an  English  physician,  edited  Bacon's 
"Philosophical  Works."  Died  in  1763. 

Shaw,  (ROBERT  GOULD,)  COLONEL,  an  American 
officer,  born  about  1836,  was  a  son  of  Francis  G.  Shaw, 
of  Staten  Island.  He  commanded  the  first  coloured 
regiment  organized  in  a  free  State.  He  was  killed  in  the 
assault  on  Fort  Wagner,  Sojith  Carolina,  July,  1863. 

Shaw,  (S TEiiiii.NG,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Staf 
fordshire  in  1762.  wrote  a  "  History  of  Staffordshire," 
"Tour  in  the  West  of  England,"  and  "The  Topogra 
pher."  Died  in  1802. 

Shaw,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar,  born 
at  Kendal  about  1692,  became  chaplain  to  the  English 
factory  at  Algiers.  [le  was  afterwards  appointed  regius 
professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  published  "  Travels  or  Obser 
vations  relating  to  Several  Parts  of  Barbary  and  the 
Levant,"  (1738.)  Died  in  1751. 

Shaw,  (THOMAS  BUDD,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1813.  He  became  professor  of  English 
literature  in  the  Imperial  Lyceum  of  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1842.  He  published  "Outlines  of  English  Literature," 
(1848,)  and  translated  several  Russian  works  into  Eng 
lish.  Died  in  1862. 

Shays,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in  1740, 
was  the  leader  of  a  rebellion  which  broke  out  in  Massa- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SHEA 


2009 


SHELLET 


chusetts  in   1786   and  was  called   by  his  name.     T 
insurgents  gave  as  reasons  for  their  revolt  the  high  taxes 
the  extortions  of  the  lawyers,  etc.     The  rebellion  was 
suppressed  by  an'  armed  force  in  1787.     Died  in  1825. 

Shea,  sha,  ?  (DANIEL,)  a  distinguished  Orientalist 
born  at  Dublin  in  1772,  became  professor  at  Haileyburj 
College.  He  made  a  translation  of  Mirkhond's  "  His 
tory  of  the  Early  Kings  of  Persia."  Died  in -1836. 

Shea,  sha,  (JoHN  AUGUSTUS,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  ii 
Cork  about  1802,  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1827.  He 
wrote  for  several  journals  and  magazines,  and  severa 
volumes  of  poems.  Died  in  1845. 

Shebbeare,  sheb-beer',  ?  (JOHN,)  an  English  phy 
sician  and  political  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1709 
published  "  Letters  on  the  English  Nation,"  "  History 
of  the  Sumatrans,"  a  satire,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1788. 

Shee,  (Sir  MARTIN  ARCHKR,)  a  distinguished  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Dublin  in  1770.  Having  visited  London 
in  1788,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Burke  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  and  became  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  was  elected  an  associate  in  1798,  and  in 
1800  an  Academician.  Though  inferior  as  an  artist  to 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  he  obtained  extensive  patronage 
among  the  aristocracy.  In  1830  he  succeeded  Lawrence 
as  president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Sir  Martin  wa 
the  author  of  "  Rhymes  on  Art,  or  the  Remonstrance  of 
a  Painter,"  "  Alasco,"  a  tragedy,  and  other  poems.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  Martin  Archer  Shee,"  by  his  son,  1860;  "  Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  April,  1806. 

Sheep'shanks,  (JOHN,)  a  collector  of  books  and 
pictures,  was  a  brother  of  Richard,  noticed  below. 
About  1857  he  presented  to  the  English  nation  his 
large  collection  of  the  pictures  of  British  artists.  Died 
in  1863. 

Sheepshanks,  (Rev.  RICHARD,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Leeds  in  1794,  inherited  an  easy 
fortune.  He  was  ordained  a  priest,  but  devoted  his  time 
chiefly  to  science.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Penny  Cyclo 
paedia"  several  articles  on  astronomical  instruments,  and 
aided  Professor  Airy  in  his  operations  with  the  pendulum 
in  Cornwall.  Having  been  appointed  a  member  of  a 
commission  for  the  restoration  of  the  standards  of  weight 
and  measure,  (which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire,)  he 
expended  the  labour  of  several  years  in  determining  the 
standard  of  measure.  Died  at  Reading  in  1855. 

Sheffield,  (Joiix.)  See  BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,  DUKE 
OF. 

Sheil,  sheel,  (RICHARD  LALOR,)  a  celebrated  Irish 
orator  and  patriot,  born  at  Dublin  in  1793,  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  in  his  native  city.  As  a  member  of  the 
Catholic  Association,  he  was  active  in  promoting  the 
election  of  Mr.  O'Connell  to  Parliament  for  the  county 
of  Clare.  Mr.  Sheil  was  elected  in  1829  to  represent 
the  borough  of  Milborne  Port,  and  soon  became  con 
spicuous  for  his  brilliant  eloquence.  In  1832  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  county  of  Tipperary.  He 
became  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  a 
member  of  the  privy  council,  in  1839,  was  appointed 
master  of  the  Mint  under  Lord  Russell's  ministry  in 
1846,  and  British  minister  at  Florence  in  1850.  Mr. 
Sheil  was  the  author  of  several  popular  dramas,  and 
"Sketches  of  the  Irish  Bar."  Died  at  Florence  in  1851. 

See  M'Cuu.AGH,  "Memoirs  of  R.  L.  Siiiel,"  1855;  THOMAS 
McGEE,  "Sketches  of  O'Connell  and  his  Friends;"  ALUBONE, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Shel'burne,  (WILLIAM  PETTY,)  EARL  OF,  and  Mar 
quis  of  Lansdowne,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1737, 
was  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne.  He  in 
herited  the  earldom  at  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1761, 
and  was  appointed  president  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
1763.  He  opposed  the  measures  by  which  the  ministers 
endeavoured  to  coerce  the  American  colonists,  and  soon 
resigned  his  office.  He  became  a  political  friend  of 
William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  who  in  1766  appointed 
him  secretary  of  state.  In  this  office  he  had  the  direc 
tion  of  the  American  colonies,  and  pursued  a  liberal  or 
conciliatory  policy  ;  but  he  was  counteracted  by  other 
members  of  the  cabinet,  and  by  the  king.  He  was  dis 
missed  from  office  in  October,  1768,  by  the  Duke  of 


Grafton,  who   had   become   prime  minister.     In  conse 
quence  of  this  event  Lord  Chatham  resigned. 

Lord  Shelburne  accjuired  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  political  knowledge.  He 
opposed  the  administration  of  Lord  North  on  the  most 
important  questions,  and  after  the  death  of  Lord  Chatham 
formed  a  political  connection  with  Rockingham,  who  in 
March,  1782,  succeeded  Lord  North  as  prime  minister. 
Lord  Shelburne  was  secretary  of  state  in  this  ministry, 
which  was  dissolved  by  the  death  of  its  chief,  and  the 
favour  of  the  king  enabled  him  to  become  prime  minister 
about  July  i,  1782.  During  his  administration  Howe  and 
Rodney  gained  decisive  naval  victories  over  the  French, 
and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  negotiated  which  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States.  He  was  driven 
from  power  by  the  coalition  of  Fox  and  Lord  North, 
February,  1783,  after  which  he  never  returned  to  office. 
In  1784  he  received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
He  afterwards  supported  the  ministry  of  Pitt,  but  op 
posed  the  war  against  the  French  republic.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and  had  one  of  the  finest 
private  libraries  in  the  kingdom.  About  1765  he  had 
married  Sophia  Carteret,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Gran- 
ville.  He  died  in  May,  1805,  leaving  two  sons,  one  of 
whom  was  an  eminent  statesman.  (See  LANSDOWNE, 
MARQUIS  OF.) 

See  BKOUGHAM,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;" 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Shel'by,  (ISAAC,)  ah  American  officer  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  born  near  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  in  1750,  became 
Governor  of  Kentucky  in  1792,  and  again  in  1812.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain, 
1780.  Died  in  1826. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Shel'don,  (DAVID  NEWTON,)  D. D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Sulfield,  Connecticut,  in  1807,  was  origi 
nally  a  Baptist,  but  subsequently  became  a  Unitarian. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "Sin  and  Redemption." 

Shel'don,  (GILHKKT.)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1598.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1620,  and,  having  taken  orders,  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  chaplain  -  in -ordinary  to 
Charles  I.  O.i  the  accession  of  Charles  H.  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  London,  (1660,)  and  in  1663  succeeded  Juxon 
as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Dr.  Sheldon  was  distin- 
uished  for  his  liberality  and  his  extensive  charities,  and 
constructed,  among  other  public  works,  the  theatre  at 
Oxford  called  by  his  name.  Died  in  1677. 

Shel'ley,  (PERCY  Bysshe — bish,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
ish  poet,  born  at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  in  the 
county  of  Sussex,  August  4,  1792.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Timothy  Shelley,  Bart.  At  the  age  of  thir- 
:een  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Eton,  where  his  refusal  to 
ag  exposed  him  to  the  anger  and  persecution  of  the 
other  boys.  His  painful  experiences  at  this  period  con- 
ributed  much,  no  doubt,  to  the  development  of  that 
n  tense  hatred  of  established  wrong  which  afterwards 
jecame  the  ruling  passion  of  his  life.  Shelley  was  early 
distinguished  for  his  romantic  and  speculative  turn  of 
nind,  as  well  as  for  a  remarkable  facility  in  the  acquisi- 
:ion  of  every  kind  of  knowledge  in  which  he  took  any 
nterest.  When  he  was  about  sixteen,  he  composed  two 
'omances,  the  one  entitled  "Zastrozzi,"  the  other  "  Saint 
'rvyne ;  or,  The  Rosicrucian."  In  1810  he  went  to 
Oxford,  and  was  entered  at  University  College.  Here 
ic  published  a  small  pamphlet  on  the  necessity  of  athe- 
sm.  The  authorities,  in  consideration,  it  Would  seem, 
f  Shelley's  youth  and  peculiar  character,  at  first  resolved 
o  take  no  notice  of  it.  But  this  did  not  satisfy  the 
oung  enthusiast :  "  so  he  sent,"  says  De  Quincey,  "  his 
pamphlet,  with  five-and-twenty  separate  letters,  addressed 
o  the  five-and-twenty  heads  of  colleges,  courteously 
nviting  all  and  every  of  them  to  notify,  at  his  earliest 
)nvenience,  his  adhesion  to  the  enclosed  unanswerable 
arguments  for  atheism."  Thereupon  he  was  summoned 
Before  the  master  and  some  of  the  Fellows  of  the  col- 
ege,  and,  as  he  could  not  deny  that  he  was  the  author 
f  the  pamphlet,  he  was  expelled.  Shelley  and  some 
f  his  friends  have  bitterly  complained  of  his  expulsion, 
is  an  act  of  injustice  and  cruelty  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  see, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (23^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHELL  ET 


2010 


S HEN STONE 


if  De  Quincey's  account  of  the  transaction  be  correct, 
how  he  could  with  any  propriety  have  been  treated  with 
greater  lenity  than  was  shown  him  on  that  occasion.  As 
he  refused  to  make  any  concessions,  his  father  also 
rejected  him,  and  forbade  his  appearance  at  Field  Place. 
Shelley  then  went  to  London,  where  he  composed 
"Queen  Mab,"  which,  however,  he  did  not  publish,  but 
only  distributed  a  few  copies  of  it  among  his  friends. 
While  in  London,  money  is  said  to  have  been  furnished 
for  his  support  by  his  sisters,  who  employed  one  of  their 
school-mates,  Harriet  Westbrook,  (the  daughter  of  a  re 
tired  hotel-keeper,)  as  the  medium  of  communication  with 
their  brother.  After  a  very  short  acquaintance,  Shelley 
eloped  with  Miss  Westbrook,  and  married  her  at  Gretna 
Green  in  August,  1811.  They  soon  discovered  that  they 
were  not  suited  to  each  other,  and  in  1813  they  separated, 
it  is  said,  by  mutual  consent.  The  next  year  Shelley 
visited  the  continent  in  company  with  Miss  Mary  God 
win,  (a  daughter  of  William  Godwin  and  Mary  Woll- 
|  stonecraft,)  who  all  considered  marriage  a  useless  'or 
.  tyrannical  institution.  In  1816  he  learned  that  his  wife 
had  drowned  herself.  His  sorrow,  perhaps  not  unmin- 
gled  with  remorse,  is  said  to  have  rendered  him  for  a 
time  almost  insane.  But  the  same  year  he  was  formally 
married  to  Miss  Godwin,  and  settled  at  or  near  Marlow, 
in  Buckinghamshire.  •  His  first  wife  had  borne  him  two 
children,  of  whom  he  now  claimed  the  custody,  but 
their  grandfather,  Mr.  Westbrook,  refused  to  give  them 
up.  This  led  to  a  suit  in  chancery;  and  in  March, 
1817,  Lord  Eldon  gave  his  decision,  that,  on  account  of 
Shelley's  demoralizing  and  atheistical  opinions,  he  was 
unfit  to  have  charge  of  the  children,  who  were,  accord 
ingly,  committed  to  the  care  of  Mr.  Westbrook. 

While  at  Marlow,  in  1817,  Shelley  wrote  the  "Revolt 
of  Islam,"  the  longest  of  all  his  poems,  and  the  one  in 
which  he  has  most  fully  developed  his  political  senti 
ments  and  his  peculiar  views  respecting  the  regenera 
tion  of  society.  It  abounds  in  passages  of  surpassing 
beauty,  but,  as  a  story,  is  deficient  in  connection,  and, 
we  may  add,  in  human  interest.  Amid  the  wilderness 
of  luxuriant  imagery,  and  of  subtle,  vague,  or  visionary 
though  sometimes  glorious  thoughts,  the  reader  often 
finds  it  difficult  to  trace  his  way  and  retain  the  thread 
of  the  narrative. 

•"  In  1818,  fearing  lest  his  son  by  Mary  Godwin  should 
be  taken  from  him,  as  his  other  children  had  been,  he 
left  England,  never  to  return.  He  went  to  Italy,  where 
he  composed  "The  Cenci,"  (1819,)  perhaps  the  most 
successful  of  all  his  larger  works,  the  "  Witch  of  Atlas," 
(1819,)  "Prometheus  Unbound,"  (1820.)  "Adonais,"  an 
elegy  on  the  death  of  John  Keats,  (1821.)  and  many 
minor  poems,  some  of  which  are  of  exquisite  beauty. 

In  July,  1822,  he  set  sail  from  Leghorn  for  Lerici. 
The  boat,  having  been  overtaken  by  a  sudden  squall, 
disappeared.  Two  weeks  afterwards,  Shelley's  body  was 
washed  ashore,  with  a  copy  of  Keats's  poems  in  one  of 
his  pockets.  The  Tuscan  quarantine  regulations  at  that 
time  required  that  whatever  came  ashore  from  the  sea 
should  be  burned.  Shelley's  body  was  accordingly 
placed  on  a  pile  and  reduced  to  ashes,  in  the  presence 
of  Lord  Byron,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Mr.  Trelawney.  His 
ashes  were  collected,  and  interred  in  the  Protestant 
burying-ground  at  Rome,  near  the  grave  of  his  friend 
Keats. 

There  is  perhaps  no  writer  (as  De  Quincey  intimates) 
of  whom  it  is  so  difficult  to  speak  with  a  proper  regard 
.for  the  interests  of  society,  and  at  the  same  time  making 
!  that  charitable  allowance  for  his  eccentricities  and  errors 
which  his  peculiar  temperament  and  his  amiable  and 
jnoble  traits  of  character  seem  justly  to  claim,  as  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley.  We  cannot,  however,  agree  with  De 
Quincey  in  the  opinion  that  "  harsh  treatment  had  no 
concern  in  riveting  his  fanaticism."  What  is  more  prob 
able  than  that  his  bitter  experience  at  Eton,  where  he 
was  exasperated  almost  to  madness  by  the  galling 
"chain  of  Custom,"  acting  on  a  mind  so  sensitive  yet  so 
resolute  and  withal  so  speculative  as  his,  should,  at  that 
susceptible  and  most  critical  age,  have  led  him  first  to 
question,  and  then  to  deny  and  spurn,  every  custom 
'that  would  impose  the  slightest  restraint  upon  his  free 
dom  or  his  pleasure  ?  It  was  but  another  step  for  him 


to  reject  or  adopt  opinions  or  systems  according  as  he 
conceived  them  to  favour  or  oppose  the  power  of  the 
hated  tyrant,  which  he  also  styles  the  "  Anarch  Cus 
tom."  That  he  was  influenced  by  such  motives  in  the 
choice  of  his  pursuits  clearly  appears  from  the  follow 
ing  lines  : 

"And  from  that  hour  did  I  with  earnest  thought 
Heap  knowledge  from  forbidden  mines  of  lore  ; 
Yet  nothing  that  my  tyrants  knew  or  taught 
I  cared  to  learn."* 

In  his  poetry  he  repeatedly  associates  "  Faith"  and. 
"  Custom,"  (or  "  Tyranny  ;")  he  evidently  considered 
the  former  the  chief  support  of  the  latter,  and  cherished 
towards  them  both  an  equal  hatred.  Whatever  may 
have  been  his  early  opinions,  he  would  appear  not  to 
have  been  an  atheist  when  he  wrote  the  preface  to  his 
"  Revolt  of  Islam  ;"  for  he  there  says,  "  The  erroneous 
and  degrading  idea  which  men  have  conceived  of  a  Su 
preme  Being  is  spoken  against, — not  the  Supreme  Being 
itself.  .  .  .  The  belief  which  some  persons  entertain  of 
the  Deity  is  widely  different  from  my  own." 

Speaking  of  Shelley's  poetry,  Bulwer  observes,  "  Each 
line  is  a  separate  thought;  the  effort  glitters  on  the  eye 
till  it  aches  with  the  glare  ;  it  is  the  mirror  broken  into 
a  thousand  pieces,  and  the  representation  it  would  give 
is  rendered  confused  and  phantasmagoric  by  the  mul 
tiplication  of  the  images."  "  La  Cenci,"  however,  is 
expressly  excepted  from  the  above  criticism. 

The  intimacy  that  subsisted  between  Shelley  and 
Byron,  and  the  supposed  similarity  of  their  principles, 
have  led  to  frequent  comparisons  between  these  eminent 
poets.  But  they  had  in  fact  scarcely  anything  in  com 
mon,  except  a  vivid  and  intense  feeling  of  poetic  beauty. 
The  mind  of  Shelley  was  singularly  speculative,  and  he 
had  a  great  facility  in  persuading  himself  of  the  truth  of 
whatever  he  wished  to  believe.  Byron,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  an  equally  intense  ideality,  (i.e.  feeling  or  sentiment 
of  beauty,)  was  by  the  constitution  of  his  mind  restricted 
far  more  within  the  limits  of  the  actual, — or,  it  may  be, 
the  conventional.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  one  of  the 
great  efforts  of  his  life  to  cast  off  the  trammels  imposed 
upon  him  by  his  religious  education  ;  but  in  this  he  was 
never  wholly  successful.  To  this  deep-rooted  respect 
for  the  actual,  or  the  established,  must  be  ascribed  the 
intense  feeling  of  reality  which  pervades  his  poetry,  as 
well  as  the  strong,  practical  common  sense  evinced  in 
his  actions  when  not  under  the  influence  of  passion.  But 
if  we  compare  the  moral  attributes  of  the  two  men, 
phelley  will  be  found  to  stand  immeasurably  higher  than 
pyron.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  errors  of  his  head, 
Jiis  heart  appears,  by  the  testimony  of  all  who  knew  him, 
to  have  been  eminently  kind,  generous,  and  unselfish. 
And  if  his  conduct  seems  occasionally  to  contradict  this 
view,  it  was  a  rare  exception  to  the  general  rule,  while 
with  Byron  the  reverse  was  true, — pride  and  selfishness! 
were  the  rule,  disinterestedness  the  exception. 

See  THOMAS  MEUWIN,  "Life  of  P.  B.  Shelley,"  2  vols.,  1847; 
CHARLKS  S.  MIDDI.KTON,  "  Shelley  and  his  Works,"  iS?8;  T.  J. 
HOGG,  "Life  of  P.  B.  Shelley,"  1858;  WILLIAM  M.  ROSSKTTI, 
"The  Life  of  Percy  Hvsshe  Shelley,"  2  vols.,  i86g;  E.  J.  TRE- 
I.AWNRY,  "  Recollections  of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  Byron," 
185*  :  DE  QriNCEY,  "  Essays  on  the  Poets,"  Koston,  1853  ;  "  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  October.  1861  ;  article  on  Shelley  in  the  "  Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  February,  1863.  "  by  one  who  knew  him,"  (i.e.  THORN 
TON  HUNT  ;)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824,  and  July,  1839; 
ALLIBONE.  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  ••Memoir"  prefixed  to  his 
works  by  MRS.  SHELLEY,  1830;  "The  Shelley  Memorials,  from 
Authentic  Sources,"  edited  by  LADY  SHELLEY,  1859. 

Shel'ton,  (FKKDERICK  WILLIAM,)  an  American 
writer  and  Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Jamaica,  Long 
Island,  about  1814.  He  has  published  "  Salander  and 
the  -Dragon,"  a  romance,  "The  Rector  of  Saint  Bar- 
dolph's,  or  Superannuated,"  (1853,)  a"d  other  works. 

Shem,  [Heb.  DP  ;  Gr.  ZTJ/U  ;  Fr.  SKM,  sem,]  a  pa 
triarch,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  and  one  of  the  survivors 
of  the  deluge.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Semitic  (or 
Shemitic)  nations. 

Sse  Genesis  v.  32,  ix.  18-27,  x   '.  21.  31. 

Shen'stone,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  pastoral  poet, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1714.  He  was  the  author  of  odes, 
elegies,  and  pastorals,  and  a  poem  entitled  "  The  School- 


*  See  the  lines  addressed  to  his  wife,  prefixed  to  the  "  Revolt  of 
Islam." 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fa-;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SHEPARD 


201  I 


SHERIDAN 


mistress,"  which,  Dr.  Johnson  observes,  "  is  the  most 
pleasing  of  Shenstone's  performances."  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  .he  became  involved  in  debt,  owing  to 
expenses  incurred  in  the  embellishment  of  his  grounds. 
"  He  was  always  wishing,"  says  Gray,  "  for  money,  for 
fame,  and  other  distinctions,  and  his  whole  philosophy 
consisted  in  living,  against  his  will,  in  retirement,  and  in 
a  place  which  his  taste  had  adorned,  but  which  he  only 
enjoyed  when  people  of  note  came  to  see  and  commend 
it."  Died  in  1763. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
May  and  June,  1764. 

Shep'ard,  (CHARLES  UPHAM,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  naturalist,  born  at  Little  Compton,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1804,  graduated  at  Amherst  College.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Charleston  Medi 
cal  College  in  1834,  and  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Amherst  College.  He  wrote  a  "  Report  on  the  Geo 
logical  Survey  of  Connecticut,"  (1837,)  and  other  works. 

Shepard,  (SAMUEL,)  M.D.,  a  physician  and  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1739,  pub 
lished  a  number  of  controversial  treatises.  Died  in  1815. 

Shepard,  (TnoM.\s,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
in  1605,  emigrated  to  New  England,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  Harvard  College.  Died  in  1649. 

Shep'herd,  (\YILUAM,)  a  general,  born  in  Massachu 
setts  in  1737,  fought  in  twenty-two  battles.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1797  to  1803.  Died  in  1817. 

Shep'herd  Kings,  called  by  the  Egyptians  Hyk'sos, 
[from /£}'/£,  "king,"  and  .TAT,  a  "shepherd,"]  a  race  of  kings, 
probably  of  Tartar  origin,  supposed  to  have  ruled  over 
Egypt  from  about  22OO  to  1550  li.C.  The  only  account 
we  have  of  them  is  given  in  a  fragment  of  Manetho, 
preserved  by  Joseph  us. 

See  article  "  Hyksos,"  in  the  "New  American  Cyclopaedia." 

Shep'ley,  (GEOKGK  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saco,  Maine,  about  1820.  He  served  under  General 
Butler,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  appointed 
military  governor  of  New  Orleans  about  May  i,  1862. 

Shep'pard,  (ELIZAHKTH  SARA,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  at  Blackheath  about  1830.  She  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Double  Coronet,"  a  novel,  (2  vols.,  1856,) 
and  "  Rumour,"  a  novel,  (3  vols.,  1858.)  Died  in  1862. 

Shep'reve,  (JuiiN,)  an  English  scholar,  became  pro 
fessor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  about  1538.  Died  in  1542. 

Sher'ard,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  botanist  and  ama 
teur,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1659.  Having  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  he  was  appointed  in  1702  Brit 
ish  consul  at  Smyrna,  where  he  made  collections  for  his 
valuable  "  Herbarium."  While  travelling  on  the  con 
tinent,  he  had  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort  and 
Dillenius,  and  on  his  invitation  the  latter  came  to  Eng 
land,  where  he  subsequently  filled  the  chair  of  botany 
at  Oxford,  endowed  by  Mr.  Sherard.  Sherard  died  in 
1728,  leaving  his  Herbarium  of  more  than  12,000  species 
to  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Sher'burne,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  English  scholar  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1618,  was  clerk  of  the  ord 
nance  under  Charles  I.  He  translated  several  works 
from  the  Latin,  among  which  we  may  name  Seneca's 
"  Troades"  and  "  Medea."  Died  in  1702. 

Shereef-ed-Deen-Alee  or  Scherif-Eddiia-Ali, 
sheh-reef'  ed-deen'  a'lee,  a  Persian  author,  whose  style 
is  compared  to  pearls  and  diamonds  of  the  first  water, 
was  a  native  of  Yezd.  He  composed,  about  1425,  a 
"History  of  Tamerlane." 

See  PKTIS  DE  I.A  CKOIX,  "  Histoire  de  Timur  Bey." 

Sher'i-dan,  (FRANCES,)  wife  of  Thomas  Sheridan, 
(the  second  of  the  name,)  born  in  Ireland  in  1724, 
was  the  author  of  an  Oriental  romance  entitled  "  Nour- 
jahad,"  "  Sidney  Biddulph,"  a  novel,  highly  commended 
by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  the  comedies  of  "The  Dupe"  and 
"The  Discovery,"  the  latter  of  which  Garrick  pro 
nounced  "one  of  the  best  he  ever  read."  Died  in  1766. 

See  MRS.  Ei.woon,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i.  ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  April,  1761. 

Sher'I-daii,  (PHILIP  HENRY,)  an  eminent  American 
general,  born  in  Perry  county,  Ohio,  in  1831.  He  en 
tered  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and 
graduated  with  honour  in  1853,  as  a  classmate  of  McPher- 


son  and  Schofield.  He  served  several  years  in  Oregon, 
and,  having  returned  to  the  East,  was  appointed  a  captain 
in  the  regular  army  in  May,  1861.  In  March  or  May, 
1862,  he  became  chief  quartermaster  under  General 
Halleck.  He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Second 
Michigan  cavalry  in  May,  and  obtained  command  of  a 
cavalry  brigade  in  June,  1862.  Having  defeated  a  troop 
superior  in  number  to  his  own,  at  Booneville,  Mississippi, 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  |uly. 
He  took  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  Ohio 
in  September,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Perryville,  October  8,  1862.  For  his  gallant  conduct  at 
the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1863,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Chattanooga  or  Missionary  Ridge,  November  25,  1863. 

In  April,  1864,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  all 
the  cavalry  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  which  crossed 
the  Rapidan  and  began  operations  against  Lee's  army 
on  the  4th  of  May.  On  the  gih  Sheridan  started  on  a 
raid  against  the  enemy's  lines  of  communication  with 
Richmond.  He  destroyed  the  depots,  etc.  at  Beaver 
Dam  and  Ashland,  advanced  to  the  outer  defences  of 
Richmond,  defeated  the  rebel  cavalry  under  General 
Stuart,  and  rejoined  the  army  of  General  Grant  on  the 
251)1  of  May.  On  the  7th  of  June  he  led  an  expedition 
against  the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  from  which  he 
returned  to  the  White  House  on  the  iQth,  after  he  had 
routed  the  enemy's  cavalry  at  Trevilian  Station  and 
destroyed  part  of  the  railroad.  About  the  7th  of  August 
he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  "  Middle  Mili 
tary  Division,"  which  was  then  constituted  in  order  to 
oppose  the  incursions  of  the  rebels  from  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  into  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania. 

His  operations  during  the  month  of  August  and  the 
first  part  of  September  were  of  both  an  offensive  and 
defensive  character,  resulting  in  many  severe  skirmishes 
with  the  army  of  General  Early.  On  the  ijth  of  Septem 
ber  General  Grant  left  City  Point  to  visit  Sheridan  and 
confer  with  him.  "  I  saw,"  says  Grant,  "there  were  but 
two  words  of  instruction  necessary — Go  in  !"  Sheridan 
attacked  Early  on  the  igth  near  Winchester,  defeated 
him,  and  took  several  thousand  prisoners.  He  gained 
another  victory  at  Fisher's  Hill  on  the  2Oth,  and  pur 
sued  the  enemy  with  great  energy  through  Harrisonburg 
and  Staunton.  Soon  after  this  battle  he  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  During  a  brief 
absence  of  Sheridan,  who  was  called  to  Washington, 
General  Early,  having  been  reinforced,  attacked  suddenly 
the  Union  army  near  Cedar  Creek  and  Strasburg  on  the 
igth  of  October,  and  at  first  was  victorious.  Alter  the 
Federals  had  retreated  about  three  miles  with  much 
loss,  Sheridan,  riding  at  full  speed,  arrived  on  the  field, 
rallied  his  men  with  words  of  magical  power,  and  con 
verted  the  disaster  of  the  morning  into  a  complete  vic 
tory.  General  Early  lost  here  the  most  of  his  artillery 
and  trains,  besides  1500  prisoners.  In  a  letter  dated 
October  20,  General  Grant  wrote  thus:  "Turning  what 
bid  fair  to  be  a  disaster  into  a  glorious  victory,  stamps 
Sheridan,  what  I  have  always  thought  him,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  generals."  He  was  appointed  a  major-general 
of  the  regular  army  in  place  of  McClellan,  resigned, 
November,  1864. 

Sheridan  moved  from  Winchester  on  the  27th  of 
February,  1865,  took  Staunton  on  the  2d  of  March,  and 
defeated  Early  near  Waynesborough.  Having  inflicted 
much  damage  on  several  railroads  and  the  James  River 
Canal,  he  reached  his  base  at  the  White  House  about 
the  igth  of  March.  On  the  27th  he  joined  the  main 
army  of  General  Grant  near  Petersburg,  and  on  the 
2gth  commenced,  with  nine  thousand  cavalry,  a  move 
ment  for  the  destruction  of  the  Danville  and  South  Side 
Railroads,  the  only  remaining  avenues  of  supply  to 
Lee's  army.  He  was  supported  by  a  corps  of  infantry. 
He  encountered  near  Five  Forks  a  superior  force  on 
the  3ist  of  March,  and  was  driven  back  towards  Din- 
widdie  Court-House.  "  Here,"  says  General  Grant, 
"General  Sheridan  displayed  great  generalship.  In 
stead  of  retreating  with  his  whole  command  on  the  main 
army  to  tell  the  story  of  superior  forces  encountered,  he 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHERIDAN 


2012 


SHERMAN 


deployed  his  cavalry  on  foot,  leaving  only  mounted  men 
enough  to  take  charge  of  the  horses."  On  the  1st  of 
April,  Sheridan,  having  been  reinforced,  drove  the  enemy 
back  on  Five  Forks,  assaulted  and  carried  his  strongly 
fortified  position,  and  captured  over  five  thousand  pris 
oners.  He  pursued  Lee's  army  retreating  from  Rich 
mond  and  Petersburg,  attacked  it  near  Sailor's  Creek 
on  the  6th  of  April,  and  took  about  six  thousand  pris 
oners.  A  few  days  after  this  action  the  war  was  virtu 
ally  ended  by  the  surrender  of  General  Lee.  In  the 
spring  of  1867  Sheridan  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  Fifth  Military  District,  comprising  the  States  of 
Louisiana  and  Texas.  He  removed  the  Governors  of 
those  States  because  they  were  impediments  to  recon 
struction,  and  he  supported  Congress  in  its  contest  with 
President  Johnson.  He  was  removed  from  his  command 
by  Johnson  in  August,  1867,  against  the  advice  of  Gene 
ral  Grant,  who  declared  that  Sheridan  "  lias  pei  formed 
his  civil  duties  faithfully  and  intelligently,"  and  protested 
against  his  removal,  for  military,  pecuniary,  and  patriotic 
reasons.  Sheridan  was  then  ordered  to  take  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Missouri.  In  March,  1869,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Sheridan  in  Rein's  "  Ohio  in  the  War," 
pp.  495-560;  GKKKI.KV.  "American  Conflict;"  P.  C.  HEADI.EV, 
"  Lite  of  Sheridan  ;"  "  Life  of  Sheridan,"  by  G.  VV.  DKNISON. 

Sheridan,  (RICHARD  BRINSLKY  BUTLER,)  a  celebrated 
Irish  orator  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1751.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  and  at  Harrow,  where  he  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  indolence  ;  and  he  left  school  with 
the  reputation  of  an  "  impenetrable  dunce."  He  mar 
ried  Miss  Linley  in  1772.  His  first  important  publica 
tion  was  the  comedy  of  "The  Rivals,"  (1775,)  which, 
though  at  first  coldly  received,  soon  acquired  great  popu 
larity.  It  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  the  opera 
of  "The  Duenna,"  which  also  met  with  brilliant  success, 
being  acted  seventy-five  times  during  the  season.  His 
"  School  for  Scandal,"  published  in  1777,  established  his 
reputation  as  a  dramatic  genius  of  the  highest  order. 
He  soon  after  purchased  a  share  in  the  Drury  Lane 
Theatre.  His  farce  of  "  The  Critic"  came  out  in  1779. 
In  1780  he  represented  Stafford  in  Parliament,  where  he 
soon  became  conspicuous  as  an  orator,  and  supported 
the  measures  of  Fox  and  the  opposition  party.  He  also 
filled  for  a  time  the  post  of  under-secretary  of  state.  On 
the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  in  1787,  he  de 
livered  his  celebrated  Begum  speech,  which  made  an 
extraordinary  sensation  at  the  time,  and  is  still  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  splendid  displays  of  eloquence  in 
ancient  or  modern  times.  The  Whigs  having  come  into 
power  on  the  death  of  Pitt,  (1806,)  Sheridan  was  ap 
pointed  treasurer  of  the  navy  and  a  privy  councillor. 
He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Westminster  in  1806. 
His  style  of  living  was  so  extravagant  that  he  was  much 
embarrassed  by  debts  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Died 
in  July,  1816. 

"  Mr.  .Sheridan,"  says  Hazlitt,  "  has  been  justly  called 
a  dramatic  star  of  the  first  magnitude;  and,  indeed, 
among  the  comic  writers  of  the  last  century  he  shines 
like  Hesperus  among  the  lesser  lights.  The  '  School  for 
Scandal'  is,  if  not  the  most  original,  perhaps  the  most 
finished  and  faultless  comedy  which  we  have."  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  the  moral  tone  of  this  drama 
(reflecting,  as  it  doubtless  does,  the  morals  of  the  upper 
classes  of  English  society  at  that  time)  is  not  very  ele 
vated.  Byron  observes,  "  Whatever  Sheridan  has  done, 
or  chosen  to  do,  has  been,/#r  excellence,  always  the  best 
of  its  kind." 

See  THOMAS  MOORK,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  R.  B.  Sheridan," 
1825:  W.  SMYTH,  "Memoir  of  Mr.  Sheridan,"  1840;  AI.I.IBONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  December, 
1826  ;  "  Blackwond's  Magazine"  for  February,  July,  and  August, 
1826;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1842. 

Sheridan,  (Dr.  THOMAS,)  born  in  the  county  of 
Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1684,  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  subsequently  became  teacher  of  a  free 
school  at  Cavan.  He  published  prose  translations  of 
the  "  Satires"  of  Persius.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Dean  Swift.  Died  in  1738. 

Sheridan,  (THOMAS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
the  father  of  R.  B.  Sheridan,  was  born  at  Quilca,  Ire 
land,  in  1721.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  and, 


having  embraced  the  profession  of  an  actor,  obtained 
considerable  reputation  and  success.  He  was  after 
wards  for  many  years  manager  of  the  Dublin  Theatre. 
He  published  a  "Course  of  Oratorical  Lectures,"  an 
essay  entitled  "British  Education,"  (1756,)  a  "Pro 
nouncing  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (2  vols., 
1780,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Swift,"  (1784.)  Died  in,  1788. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  lor  September  and  October,  1762,  and 
October,  1780. 

Sher'tock,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1613.  He  became  rector  of  Winwick, 
and  published  "The  Practical  Christian."  Died  in  1689. 

Sherlock,  (THOMAS,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1678,  was  a  son  of  William  Sherlock, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  became  vice- 
chancellor  of  that  university  in  1714,  anil  in  1715  Dean 
of  Chichester.  lie  was  afterwards  created  successively 
Bishop  of  Bangor,  Salisbury,  and  London,  (1748.)  He 
published  several  works  in  opposition  to  Dr.  Hoaclly 
in  the  Bangorian  controversy  ;  also  a  number  of  valu 
able  religious  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  his 
"Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy"  and  "Trial  of  the  Wit 
nesses  of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus."  Died  in  1761. 

Sherlock,  (Dr.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Southwark,  London,  in  1641.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  became  master  of  the  Temple  in  1684,  and 
Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1691.  "No  name,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "  was  in  1689  cited  by  the  Jacobites  so  proudly 
and  fondly  as  that  of  Sherlock."  But  in  1690  lie  took 
the  oaths  to  William  III.,  and  published  in  his  justifi 
cation  "The  Case  of  Allegiance  to  Sovereign  Powers 
Stated."  "The  sensation  produced  by  this  work  was 
immense.  The  rage  of  the  nonjurors  amounted  almost 
to  frenzy."  ("  History  of  England.")  His  chief  work  is 
a  "discourse  on  Death,"  (1690.)  Died  in  1707. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  BUKNKT,  "  History  of  his  Own 
Times." 

Sher'man,  (JollN,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  1613.  lie  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1634,  and 
preached  at  Watertown  from  1644  until  his  death.  He 
was  an  eminent  mathematician.  Died  in  1675. 

Sher'maii,  (JollN,)  an  American  Senator,  a  brother 
of  General  William  T.  Sherman,  was  born  at  Lancaster, 
Ohio,  in  May,  1823.  lie  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1844.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Con 
gress  in  1854,  in  1856,  and  again  in  1858.  He  was  the 
Republican  candidate  for  Speaker  of  the  House  in  De 
cember,  1859  ;  but  he  lacked  a  few  votes  of  being  elected, 
and,  after  a  contest  of  eight  weeks,  his  party  elected  an 
other  candidate.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the  commit 
tee  of  ways  and  means  in  1860-61.  In  1860  he  was  again 
chosen  to  represent  the  thirteenth  district  of  Ohio  in  Con 
gress.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by 
the  legislature  of  Ohio  for  a  term  of  six  years,  (1861-67.) 
Thaddeus  Stevens  and  Senator  Sherman  were  the  au 
thors  of  the  bill  which  Congress  enacted  in  the  winter 
of  1866-67  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded  States. 
By  this  act  those  States  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  territories,  to  be  governed  by  military  power  until 
they  should  have  passed  through  a  certain  process  ot 
restoration  to  the  Union.  Fie  was  re-elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  in  1867.  He  is  one  of  the  ablest 
debaters  in  the  Senate,  has  acted  a  prominent  part  in 
financial  affairs,  and  is  now  (1870)  chairman  of  the  com 
mittee  on  finances. 

Sherman,  (ROGER,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Newton,  Massachusetts,  on  the  igtli  of  April,  1721.  He 
worked  at  the  trade  of  shoemaker  in  his  youth,  removed 
to  New  Milford,  Connecticut,  in  1743,  and  soon  after 
that  date  became  a  partner  of  his  brother,  who  was  a 
merchant.  He  studied  law.  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1754,  and  settled  at  New  Haven  in  1761.  About  1765 
he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  or  com 
mon  pleas.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General 
Congress  in  1774,  and  continued  to  serve  in  that  body 
for  nineteen  years.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence  in  1776,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in 
1787.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  rendered  im 
portant  services  on  committees  of  Congress.  "  Roger 
Sherman,"  said  Mr.  Macon,  "  had  more  common  sense 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  goo :i;  moon; 


SHERMAN 


2OI 


SHERMAN 


than  any  man  I  ever  knew."  He  was  elected  a  Senator 
ot  the  United  States  in  1791.  Died  at  New  Haven  in 
July,  1793. 

See  SANDKRSOM,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  iS4S. 

Sherman,  (RoGKR  MINOTT,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Wo- 
burn,  Massachusetts,  about  1772,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  practised  law  with  distinction  at  Nor- 
\valk  and  Fairfield,  in  Connecticut.  Died  in  1844. 

Sherman,  (THOMAS  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Rhode  Island  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1836.  He  served  as  brigadier-general  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861,  and  commanded  the  land-forces  which, 
aided  by  the  fleet,  took  Port  Royal  in  November  of  that 
year.  He  commanded  a  division  under  General  Banks 
in  Louisiana  in  1863. 

Sherman,  (WILLIAM  TECUMSEH,)  a  distinguished 
American  general,  born  at  Lancaster.  Ohio,  on  the  8th 
of  February,  1820,  is  a  son  of  Charles  Robert  Sherman, 
once  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Ohio,  and  a  brother 
of  John  Sherman,  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  His 
mother  was  named  Mary  Hoyt.  After  the  death  of 
his  father,  which  occurred  in  1829,  he  was  adopted  as 
a  son  by  Thomas  Ewing,  M.C.,  through  whose  infiiience 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point  in  1836.  He  graduated  there  in  June,  1840,  stand 
ing  sixth  in  the  order  of  general  merit  among  a  class  of 
forty  members,  including  George  H.  Thomas  and  Rich 
ard  S.  Ewell.  Immediately  after  his  graduation  he  was 
appointed  second  lieutenant  in  the  artillery  and  ordered 
to  Florida.  He  became  a  first  lieutenant  in  January, 
1842,  a  few  months  after  which  his  company  was  sta 
tioned  at  Fort  Moultrie,  near  Charleston.  He  went 
with  his  company  to  California  by  sea  in  1846,  returned 
to  the  Atlantic  States  in  1850,  and  in  May  of  that  year 
married  Ellen  Ewing,  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Ewing, 
then  secretary  of  the  interior.  In  1851  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  captain,  and  in  1853  ne  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army  and  engaged  in  the  business  of  banker  at 
San  Francisco. 

In  the  early  part  of  1860  he  accepted  the  position  of 
superintendent  of  a  new  military  academy  founded  by 
the  State  of  Louisiana.  He  proved  himself  so  eminently 
qualified  for  the  duties  of  this  place  that  the  leaders  of 
the  secession  movement  in  Louisiana  wished  to  secure 
his  services  in  the  impending  conflict,  and  made  efforts 
to  pervert  his  loyalty  to  the  Union,  but  without  success. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  January,  1861.  In  March  he 
went  to  Washington,  and  endeavoured  in  vain  to  con 
vince  the  authorities,  who  were  then  unable  to  realize 
the  greatness  of  the  crisis,  of  the  necessity  of  preparing 
for  war  on  a  large  scale. 

He  received  a  commission  as  colonel  of  the  thirteenth 
regiment  of  infantry  in  June,  1861,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21.  On  the  3d 
of  August  ensuing,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  in  the  next  month 
he  was  ordered  to  Kentucky.  In  consequence  of  the 
ill  health  of  General  Anderson,  the  chief  command  of 
the  department  of  Kentucky  devolved  on  Sherman  in 
October,  1861.  When  asked  by  the  secretary  of  war 
how  many  men  he  should  require,  he  replied,  "  Sixty 
thousand  to  drive  the  enemy  out  of  Kentucky,  and  two 
hundred  thousand  to  finish  the  war  in  this  section." 
His  estimate  was  considered  as  wildly  extravagant,  and 
he  was  removed  from  the  command,  with  orders  to 
report  to  General  Halleck,  who  was  commander  of  the 
department  of  the  West. 

In  March,  1862,  Sherman  obtained  command  of  the 
fifth  division  of  General  Grant's  army  of  the  Tennessee. 
He  displayed  great  coolness,  energy,  and  skill  in  the 
sanguinary  battle  of  Shiloh,  (Pittsburg  Landing,)  on  the 
6th  and  7th  of  April  of  that  year.  His  services  were 
acknowledged  by  General  Grant  in  these  terms:  "At 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  on  the  first  day,  he  held,  with  raw 
troops,  the  key-point  of  the  landing.  .  .  .  To  his  indi 
vidual  efforts  I  am  indebted  for  the  success  of  that 
battle."  (Letter  to  the  War  Department,  July  26,  1863.) 
He  was  wounded  in  the  hand  on  this  occasion,  and  had 
three  horses  shot  under  him.  His  division  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  siege  of  Corinth,  which  the  enemy 


evacuated  on  the  2gth  of  May.  A  few  days  before  that 
date  he  received  a  commission  as  major-general.  He 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  military  post  of 
Memphis  in  July,  1862.  In  the  campaign  against 
Vicksburg,  which  began  in  December,  Sherman,  who 
commanded  the  first  division  of  the  army,  was  ordered 
to  proceed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River  and  attempt 
to  capture  Vicksburg  from  the  north  side.  This  enter 
prise  was  not  successful.  General  Sherman  rendered 
important  services  in  several  battles  which  were  fought 
in  Mississippi  during  the  months  of  April  and  May,  and 
which  preceded  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  He  commanded 
one  of  the  three  corps  which  made  an  unsuccessful  as 
sault  on  the  works  at  Vicksburg  on  the  22d  of  May. 
After  the  surrender  of  that  fortress,  July  4,  1863,  Sherman 
marched  against  General  Johnson,  and  occupied  Jack 
son,  from  which  the  enemy  were  driven  on  the  171)1  of  the 
month.  About  this  date  he  wrote  a  letter  in  which  these 
sentences  occur:  "The  people  of  the  North  must  con 
quer  or  be  conquered.  There  can  be  no  middle  course." 

He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  of 
the  Tennessee  in  October,  1863,  and,  moving  his  army 
by  rapid  marches,  joined  the  army  of  General  Grant 
at  Chattanooga  about  the  I5th  of  November.  Sher 
man  occupied  Missionary  Ridge  on  the  24th,  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Chattanooga  on 
the  251)1  of  November,  and,  three  days  later,  began  to 
move  his  army,  with  the  utmost  celerity,  to  the  relief 
of  Burnside,  who  was  besieged  at  Knoxville.  His  cav 
alry  reached  Knoxville  on  the  3d  of  December,  before 
which  date  the  enemy  had  raised  the  siege  and  fled. 
Sherman  returned  to  Chattanooga,  and  thence  to  Mem 
phis,  where  he  arrived  in  January,  1864.  Having  or 
ganized  a  large  column,  he  marched  from  Vicksburg 
eastward,  destroying  the  railroads,  and  entered  Meridian 
about  the  141)1  of  February.  After  he  had  destroyed 
the  depots,  arsenals,  etc.  at  Meridian,  he  returned  to 
Vicksburg.  In  March  he  received  a  letter  from  General 
Grant, 'who  mentioned  his  own  nomination  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  said,  "  I  express  my  thanks  to  you 
and  McPherson  as  the  men  to  whom,  above  all  others, 
I  feel  indebted  for  whatever  I  have  had  of  success." 

When  Grant  was  transferred  to  Virginia,  in  March, 
1864,  Sherman  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  embracing  all  the 
armies  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  He  was  instructed  to  move  against  the 
army  of  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  who  occupied  a 
strong  position  at  Dalton,  Georgia,  covering  and  defend 
ing  Atlanta,  which  was  the  objective  point  of  General 
Sherman.  On  the  6th  of  May  he  moved  from  Chatta 
nooga  with  the  armies  of  the  Cumberland,  Tennessee, 
and  Ohio,  commanded  respectively  by  Generals  Thomas, 
McPherson,  and  Schofield.  His  force  amounted  then 
to  98,797  men  and  254  pieces  of  cannon.  He  com 
menced  operations  by  turning  the  enemy's  position  with 
a  part  of  his  army,  so  that  General  Johnston,  finding  his 
retreat  likely  to  be  cut  off,  fell  back  to  his  fortified  post 
at  Resaca,  where  he  was  attacked  on  the  I5th  of  May. 
After  a  severe  battle,  Johnston  retreated  during  the 
night  towards  the  south,  and  made  another  stand  at 
Allatoona.  Sherman  again  turned  the  flank  of  the  enemy 
by  moving  his  army  to  Dallas,  through  a  rugged  and 
densely-wooded  country.  Severe  actions  were  fought 
at  Dallas  and  New  Hope  Church  about  the  28th  of 
May,  and  on  the  4th  of  June  the  rebels  retreated  to  the 
strong  positions  of  Kenesaw,  Pine,  and  Lost  Mountains. 
On  the  27th  of  Tune  the  Union  army  assaulted  the  works 
of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but  were  repulsed  with  severe 
loss.  In  consequence  of  another  flank  movement  of 
Sherman's  army,  General  Johnston  abandoned  his  posi 
tion  at  Kenesaw  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  retreated  across 
the  Chattahoochee.  After  resting  several  days,  the  Union 
army  crossed  that  river  on  the  tyth  of  July,  and  drove 
the  enemy  to  Atlanta.  At  this  date  General  Hood  took 
command  of  the  insurgents  and  assumed  the  offensive- 
defensive  policy.  On  the  22d  of  July  Hood  attacked 
Sherman  near  Atlanta,  and  was  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
In  August,  1864,  Sherman  was  appointed  a  major-general 
in  the  regular  army.  About  the  28th  of  August  he 
moved  his  main  force  round  by  the  enemy's  left  flank, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  X,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHER-SHAH 


2014 


SHI  RLE  T 


and  gained  victories  at  Jonesborough  and  Lovejoy's. 
These  actions  forced  Hood  to  evacuate  Atlanta  on  the 
1st  of  September.  The  capture  of  Atlanta  excited  great 
exultation  among  the  Unionists.  "General  Sherman's 
movement  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta,"  says  General 
Grant,  "was  prompt,  skilful,  and  brilliant." 

By  moving  his  army  northwestward  for  the  inva 
sion  of  Middle  Tennessee,  in  October,  Hood  opened 
the  way  for  Sherman  to  march  through  Georgia  to  the 
sea  without  much  resistance.  Abandoning  his  com 
munications  with  Chattanooga,  and  leaving  Atlanta  in 
ruins,  Sherman  began  his  famous  march  on  the  I4th 
of  November,  with  about  65,000  men.  His  plan  was 
to  obtain  subsistence  from  the  country  through  which 
he  passed,  and  to  destroy  the  railroads  and  other  public 
property.  His  army,  moving  in  three  columns,  passed 
between  Macon  and  Augusta,  had  several  skirmishes 
with  the  enemy's  cavalry,  and  arrived,  after  a  very  safe 
and  successful  march,  at  the  outworks  of  Savannah  on 
the  loth  of  December.  "  We  have  not  lost  a  wagon 
on  the  trip,"  says  Sherman,  "and  our  trains  are  in  a 
better  condition  than  when  we  started."  On  the  2Oth  of 
December  General  Hardee  evacuated  Savannah,  which 
Sherman  occupied  on  the  2ist.  In  this  march  of  three 
hundred  miles  he  had  lost  63  killed  and  245  wounded. 

Sherman  left  Savannah  with  his  veteran  army  on  the 
1 5th  of  January,  1865,  marched  northward,  and  took 
Columbia  on  the  I7th  of  February.  This  operation 
compelled  the  enemy  to  evacuate  Charleston,  which  was 
occupied  by  the  Federal  army  on  the  i8th.  Proposing 
to  co-operate  or  unite  with  the  army  of  Grant,  which 
was  then  near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  Sherman  moved, 
by  way  of  Cheraw  and  Fayetteville,  towards  Goldsbo- 
rough,  North  Carolina.  He  met  and  defeated  a  body 
of  rebels  at  Averysborough  about  the  i6th  of  March. 
On  the  1 8th  the  combined  forces  of  the  enemy,  under 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  attacked  the  Union  army  at  Ben- 
tonville.  Having  repulsed  this  attack,  Sherman  entered 
Goldsborough  on  the  23(1  of  March,  and  there  formed 
a  junction  with  the  army  of  Schofield.  After  he  had 
received  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Richmond,  April  3, 
he  moved  against  the  army  of  Johnston,  then  "  the  only 
remaining  strategic  point."  He  entered  Raleigh  on  the 
131)1,  had  an  interview  with  General  Johnston  on  the 
1 7th,  and  agreed  with  him  on  a  memorandum  or  basis 
of  peace,  which  was  disapproved  by  the  President  and 
cabinet.  The  terms  offered  by  Sherman  were  deemed 
too  liberal.  On  the  26th  of  April  Johnston  surrendered 
his  army  on  the  same  terms  as  were  granted  to  Lee,  and 
the  war  ended.  Sherman  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  in  place  of  U.  S.  Grant,  promoted,  in  July  or 
August,  1866.  He  was  nominated  general  by  brevet 
in  February,  1868,  by  President  Johnson  ;  but  he  de 
clined.  When  General  Grant  became  President,  in 
March,  1869,  Sherman  succeeded  him  as  general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  General  Sherman  is  a 
man  of  nervous  temperament  and  intense  energy.  His 
stature  is  tall,  his  hair  brown  or  auburn,  his  eyes  dark 
hazel,  large,  and  piercing. 

See  "  Sherman  and  his  Campaigns,"  by  COLONEL  S.  M.  P.OWMAN 
and  LIEUTENANT  COLONEL  R.  B.  IRWIN,  1865  ;  REID,  ''Ohio  in  the 
War,"  1868. 

Sher-Shah,  shair  shah,  (i.e.  "the  Lion  King,")  an 
Indian  prince,  whose  original  name  was  Fereed,  (or 
Feryd.)  He  acquired  the  chief  power  in  Bahar  and 
Bengal,  defeated  the  Sultan  Humayoonin  battle  in  1540, 
and  became  master  of  Hindostan.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  an  able  and  popular  ruler.  Died  in  1545. 

Sher'win,  (JoHN  KEYSE,)  an  eminent  English  en 
graver,  born  in  Sussex  about  1751.  He  was  of  humble 
parentage,  and  was  employed  in  his  youth  as  a  wood 
cutter  on  the  estate  of  Mr.  Mitford,  near  Petworth. 
Having  produced  a  drawing  which  obtained  the  silver 
medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts,  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Bartolozzi  in  London,  and  soon  attained  great  excellence 
in  his  art.  In  1785  he  succeeded  Woollett  as  engraver 
to  the  king.  Died  in  1790. 

Sher'wood,  (Mrs.  MARY  MARTHA,)  a  popular  Eng 
lish  writer,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1775,  published 
tales  of  a  moral  and  religious  character,  among  which 
we  may  name  "  The  Lady  of  the  Manor,"  "  Roxobel," 


"  Ermina,''  and  "  Little  Henry  and  his  Bearer."  She 
also  wrote  "Chronology  of  Ancient  History,"  and 
"  Dictionary  of  Scripture  Types."  Died  in  1851. 

See  "Life  of  Mrs.  Sherwood,"  by  her  daughter;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  May,  1X43. 

Shesha.     See  SESHA. 

Shew,  (JoF.i,,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Saratoga  county,  New  York,  in  1816,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  hydropathic  practitioners  in  America,  and  the 
founder  of  the  "Water-Cure  Journal,"  New  York.  He 
published  the  "Water-Cure  Manual,"  (1850,)  "Hydro 
pathic  Family  Physician,"  (1854,)  and  other  similar 
works.  Died  in  1855. 

Shield,  sheeld,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  composer 
and  musician,  born  in  the  county  of  Durham  about 
1750.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are  the  operas 
of"  Rosina,"  "Robin  Hood,"  "The  Poor  Soldier,"  and 
"The  Woodman."  Died  in  1829. 

Shields,  sheeldz,  (JAMES.)  a  general,  born  in  Tyrone 
county,  Ireland,  in  1810,  emigrated  to  the  United  States 
about  1826.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Illinois  in  1849.  In  1857  he  was  elected 
a  Senator  for  the  State  of  Minnesota.  He  commanded 
the  division  which  defeated  Stonewall  Jackson  near 
Winchester,  March  23,  1862. 

Shil'li-toe,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  philanthropist  and 
missionary,  born  in  London  in  1754,  was  a  minister  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  lie  travelled  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  Died  in  1836. 


See  the  "Journal   of  the 
Shillitoe,"  etc.,  London,  iS}< 
Missionary  and  Temperance 
TAI.LACK. 


Life,  Labours,  and  Travels  of  Thomas 

>.  and  "Thomas    Shillitoe,   the  Quaker 
Pioneer,"  London,  1867,  by  WILLIAM 


Ship'ley,  (JONATHAN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
1714,  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Saint  Asaph  in  1766.  One  of  his  daughters  was  the 
wife  of  Sir  William  Jones.  Died  in  1788. 

Shipley,  (Wn.i.iAM,)  the  originator  of  the  Society 
for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  and  a  brother  <>f  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1715.  He  was  a  teacher 
of  drawing  in  London.  Died  in  1804. 

Shipley,  (WILLIAM  DAVIKS,)  born  in  Berkshire  in 
1745,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Shipley,  Bishop  ot  Saint  Asaph, 
and  a  brother-in-law  of  Sir  William  Jones.  He  became 
Dean  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1774.  Died  in  1826. 

Ship'pen,  (EDWAKD,)  a  native  of  England,  who  emi 
grated  to  Massachusetts  and  settled  at  Boston  about 
1669.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and 
was  driven  from  Boston  by  persecution.  He  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  of  which  city  he  became  the  first  mayor. 

Ship'pen,  (EDWARD,)  an  able  American  lawyer  and 
jurist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1729.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  Pennsylvania  in  1799.  Died  in  1806. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Shippen,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1734,  was  a  descendant  of  Edward 
Shippen,  (the  first  of  the  name.)  He  studied  medicine 
in  Edinburgh,  and  commenced  in  1764  a  course  of  lec 
tures  on  anatomy  at  Philadelphia.  In  1765  he  became 


was  one  of  the  founders. 
Shippen,  (WILLIAM,) 


professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  school  of  which 

Died  in  1808. 

an    English   Jacobite  member 

of  Parliament,  was  a  son  of  the  rector  of  Stockpnrt. 
He  was  an  opponent  of  Wai  pole,  and  was  characterized 
by  Pope  as  "downright  Shippen."  Died  about  1742. 

Shir'ley  or  Sher'ley,  (Sir  ANTHONY,)  an  English 
traveller  and  navigator,  bom  in  1565.  In  1598  he  visited 
Persia,  where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinction  by 
Shah  Abbas,  by  whom  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the 
different  European  courts,  to  induce  them  to  form  a 
league  with  him  against  the  Turks.  He  died  in  Spain 
about  1630,  having  been  previously  created  admiral  of 
the  Levant  Seas,  by  the  King  of  Spain.  His  principal 
works  are  entitled  "A  True  Relation  of  the  Voyage 
undertaken  by  Sir  Anthony  Shirley,  Knight,  in  1596," 
etc.,  and  "  Relation  of  Sir  Anthony  Shirley's  Travels  in 
Persia,"  (1632.) 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820.) 

Shirley,  (JAMES,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1594.  Among  his  plays,  which  amount  in  ail 


a,  e,  T,  5,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fa'l,  fat;  m§t:  not;  good;  moor.; 


SHIRLET 


2O  I 


SHVTTLE1TORTH 


to  about  forty,  we  may  name  "  The  Traitor,"  a  tragedy. 
He  also  wrote  a  poem,  entitled  "  The  Echo,  or  the  Un 
fortunate  Lovers."  Died  in  1666. 

See  BAKER,  "  Biographia  Dramatical"  WOOD,  "  Athenas  Oxo- 
nienses;"  CAMPBELL,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Shirley,  (ROBERT,)  brother  of  Sir  Anthony,  noticed 
above,  was  born  about  1570.  He  served  for  a  time  in 
the  army  of  Shah  Abbas,  and  was  afterwards  employed 
by  him  in  several  missions.  Died  in  1628. 

'Shirley,  (THOMAS,)  eldest  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1564.  He  visited  Turkey,  and  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  that  country. 

Shirley,  (WILLIAM,)  an  Anglo-American  Governor, 
born  in  England  about  1705.  lie  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1741,  and  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  forces  in  America  in  1755.  He  ceased  to  be 
Governor  in  1757.  Died  in  1771. 

Shishkof,  Schischkow,  or  Chischkof,  shish'kof, 
(ALEXANDER  SEMENOVITCH,)  a  Russian  writer  and 
minister  of  state,  born  in  1754.  He  rose  gradually  in 
the  navy  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  He  published  a  "Mari 
time  Dictionary,  English,  French,  and  Russian,"  an  ex 
cellent  "Treatise  on  the  Old  and  New  Russian  Style," 
(1802,)  and  other  works.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  presi 
dent  of  the  Russian  Academy,  which  he  enriched  with 
philological  essays.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  council  of  the  empire  in  1820,  and  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  from  1824  to  1828.  Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Memoiren  des  Admirals  A.  Schischkoff  u'ber  die  Zeit  seines 
Aiifenthaltes,"  etc.,  1832. 

Shiva.     See  SIVA. 

Shoovalof,  Chouvalof,  or  Schuwalow,  shoo-vi'- 
lof,  (ANDREI  PETROVITCH,)  a  Russian  poet  and  courtier, 
who,  in  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  became  a  member  of 
the  imperial  council  and  a  senator.  He  was  intimate 
with  Voltaire  and  other  French  authors.  He  wrote,  in 
French  verse,  an  "Epistle  to  Voltaire"  and  an  "Epistle 
to  Ninon  de  Lenclos."  Died  in  1789. 

His  son  PAUL,  born  about  1775,  became  a  general  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five.  In  the  campaign  of  1813  he  was 
a  persona]  attendant  of  the  Czar  Alexander,  and  in  1814 
he  accompanied,  in  the  name  of  Russia,  Bonaparte  to 
Elba.  Died  in  1823. 

See  LEVESQUE,  "  Histoire  de  Russie  ;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspon- 
dance  Generale." 

Shoovalof  or  Chouvalof,  (PETER,)  a  Russian  gene 
ral,  was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  cannon  which  bears 
his  name.  lie  was  the  father  of  Andrei  Petrovitch, 
noticed  above.  Died  in  1762. 

Shore,  (JANE,)  the  wife  of  a  London  jeweller,  subse 
quently  became  the  mistress  of  Edward  IV.,  King  of 
England.  After  his  death  she  formed  a  connection  with 
Lord  Hastings.  She  was  tried  for  witchcraft  by  order 
of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III. 
Died  about  1525. 

See  HUME,  "  History  of  England." 

Shore,  (JOHN.)     See  TEIGNMOUTH,  LORD. 

Short,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  mathematician   and    op 
tician,   born   at    Edinburgh   in    1710,    was   employed   to  I 
make  a  survey  of  the  Orkney  Islands.    He  was  a  Fellow  I 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  constructor  of  telescopes.     Died  in  1768. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Short,  (THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  physician,  was  the  au 
thor  of  the  "  Natural  History  of  Mineral  and  Medicinal 
Waters,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1772. 

Shovel,  shiiv'el,  (Sir  CLOTDESLEY,)  a  distinguished  | 
English  admiral,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1650.  In  1688  he 
became  an  adherent  of  William  III.,  who  made  him  a 
knight  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of  Bantry  Bay.  He 
had  a  prominent  share  in  the  victory  of  La  Hogue,  and 
was  soon  after  appointed  vice-admiral  of  the  red.  In 
1705  he  commanded  the  fleet  sent  against  Spain,  and 
subsequently  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1707, 
but,  while  on  his  voyage  home,  was  wrecked  off  the 
Scilly  Isles,  and  all  on  board  perished. 

See  CAMPRELL,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  HUME,  "  His 
tory  of  England." 

Shbw'er,  (Sir  BARTHOLOMEW,)  an  English  lawyer 
under  the  reign  of  James  II.,  was  a  native  of  Exeter. 


He  became  recorder  of  London,  and  published  a  work 
entitled  "Cases  in  Parliament  Resolved." 

Shower,  (Jon\,)  a  Puritan  divine,  born  at  Exeter  in 
1657,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  "  Re 
flections  on  Time  and  Eternity,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1715. 

Shrap'nel,  (HENRY,)  an  English  general,  entered  the 
army  about  1779.  He  invented  the  case-shot  called 
shrapnel-shells.  Died  in  1842. 

Shrewsbury,  sliroz'ber-e  or  shruz'ber-e,  (CHARLES 
TALHOT,)  DUKE  OF,  an  English  peer  and  scholar,  born 
in  1660,  was  educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  became 
a  Protestant  and  Whig,  promoted  the  revolution  of 
1688,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state 
in  1689.  He  resigned  about  1691.  In  1694  he  was  again 
j  appointed  to  that  office,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Shrews 
bury.  He  was  very  popular.  "Before  he  was  of  age," 
says  Macaulay,  "  he  was  allowed  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
gentlemen  and  finest  scholars  of  his  time.  He  was 
early  called  the  king  of  hearts,  and  never,  through  a 
long,  eventful,  and  checkered  life,  lost  his  right  to  that 
name."  ("History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.)  He  resigned 
office  in  1700,  became  Viceroy  of  Ireland  in  1713,  and 
lord  treasurer  in  1714.  Died  in  1718. 

See  "  Life  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Shrewsbury,"  1718. 

Shrewsbury,  EARL  OF.     See  TALBOT,  (JOHN.) 

Shu'brick,  (JoHN  TEMPLAR,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1778.  He  served  as 
first  lieutenant  under  Commodore  Decatur  against  the 
Algerines  in  1815.  After  peace  was  concluded  with  Al 
giers,  he  sailed  as  commander  of  the  Epervier  for  the 
United  States,  and  the  vessel  was  lost  at  sea  in  the 
same  year. 

Shuck'burgh-Ev'e-lyn,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  classical  scholar  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  1750,  resided  in  Warwickshire.  He  determined  the 
relation  between  the  British  unit  of  measure  (i.e.  the 
yard)  and  the  length  of  a  pendulum  which  makes  a  cer 
tain  number  of  vibrations  in  a  given  time.  He  also 
wrote  on  the  measurement  of  altitudes  by  the  barome 
ter,  etc.  Died  in  1804. 

Shuck'fprd,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  divine,  became 
prebendnry  of  Canterbury.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  the  World,  Sacred  and  Profane."  Died  in  1754. 

Shukowski.     See  ZHOOKOFSKL 

Shun  or  Chun,  shuv,  an  ancient  Chinese  sage  and 
ruler,  who,  according  to  Pauthier,  was  raised  to  the  im 
perial  throne  2285  B.C.  (See  YAO.)  On  account  of  his 
rare  wisdom  and  virtue,  he  was  selected  by  Yao  to  be 
his  successor;  but  Shun,  deeming  himself  unworthy,  at 
first  declined  the  proffered  honour,  and  was  with  diffi 
culty  prevailed  on  to  accept  it.  Like  Yao,  he  introduced 
many  useful  regulations,  encouraged  science  and  the 
arts,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  by  the  attention 
which  he  paid  to  music.  He  materially  modified  the 
penal  code  of  China,  rendering  it  more  humane,  and 
making  the  various  punishments  bear  a  just  proportion 
to  the  grade  of  the  offence.  Every  three  years  he  made 
an  examination  into  the  conduct  of  his  officers,  punishing 
the  culpable  and  rewarding  those  who  had  properly  per 
formed  their  duties.  He  died  (according  to  Pauthier, 
2208  B.C.)  after  a  long  and  prosperous  reign,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Yu. 

See  PAUTHIER'S  "Chine,"  pp.  $'y-42. 

Shun-Tchee  or  Chun-Tchi,  shuN-chee,  the  first  Chi 
nese  emperor  of  the  present  Tartar  or  Mantchoo  dynasty, 
obtained  the  throne  in  1644  in  consequence  of  a  revolu 
tion.  He  was  the  heir  of  the  Khan  of  Tartary,  and  was 
born  about  1637.  He  retained  the  ancient  laws  and 
institutions  of  the  Chinese.  To  the  Dutch  embassy, 
which  came  in  1656  to  open  commercial  intercourse,  he 
accorded  permission  to  enter  his  ports  once  only  in  eight 
years.  He  died  in  1691,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Kang-Hee,  (or  Kang-Hi.) 

Shute,  (JosiAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  became  Arch 
deacon  of  Colchester.  He  published  a  volume  of  Ser 
mons  on  Genesis  xvi.  Died  in  1643. 

Shu'ter,  (EDWARD,)  a  popular  English  comedian, 
died  in  1770. 

Shut'tle-worth,  (PHILIP  NICHOLAS,)  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 


€  as  -c:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ^ 


SIBAUTEH 


2016 


S1CKLER 


Chichester  in  1840.  He  published  several  works  on 
theology.  Died  in  1842. 

SibVuyeh.se-bow'yeh,  or  Sibooyeh,  (or  Sibfiyeh,) 
se-boo'yeh,  written  also  Sibcmieh  orSibouyeh,  (Am- 
roo  (Amru)  Ibn  Othniaii,  am'roo  ib'n  oth-maV,)  a 
celebrated  Arabian  grammarian,  born  in  Farsistan  about 
750  A.D.  ;  died  about  800.  He  is  sometimes  called  AL- 
FARSKE,  (-FAKsf,)  i.e.  "  the  Persian." 

Sib'bald,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  Fifeshire,  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  the  first  presi 
dent,  of  the  College  of  Physicians  at  Edinburgh.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Scotia  lllustrata,"  and  other  works, 
and  filled  the  post  of  physician  and  geographer  to 
Charles  II.  Sibbaldia,  a  genus  of  plants,  was  so  named 
in  his  honour.  Died  in  1712. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Sir  R.  Sibbald,"  1833;  CHAMBERS, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sibbern,  sib'bern,  (FREDERIK  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish 
jurist  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1785.  After  visiting  Germany,  he  was  appointed  in  1813 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  Among  his 
numerous  works,  which  favour  the  system  of  Schelling, 
we  may  name  his  "  Psychology  introduced  through  Bi 
ology,"  (1849,)  and  "On  Poetry  and  Art,  or  Discourses 
on  Universal  ./Esthetics  and  Poetry,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
1859. 

Sibbes  or  Sibbs,  (RICHARD,)  an  eminent  English 
Puritan  minister,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1577,  was  a  Fellow 
of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  lie  became 
preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1618,  and  master  of  Cathe 
rine's  Hall  about  1625.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  The  Bruised  Reed."  Died  in  1635. 

Sibbs.     See  SIBBES. 

Sibert,  de,  deh  se'baiu',  (GAUTIF.R,)  a  French  his 
torian,  born  at  Tonnerre  about  1720.  Among  his  works 
is  "The  Variations  of  the  French  Monarchy  in  its  Po 
litical,  Civil,  and  Military  Government,"  (4  vols.,  1765.) 
Died  in  1798. 

Sibilet,  se'be'li'i  (THOMAS,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1512.  His  chief  work  is  "  L'Art 
poetique  Fran9ois,"  (1548.)  Died  in  1589. 

Sib'ley,  (HENRY,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Louisiana  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838. 
He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861.  He  com 
manded  a  small  army  which  invaded  New  Mexico, 
attacked  Fort  Craig,  in  February,  1862,  and  was  re 
pulsed. 

Sibley,  (HENRY  H.,)  an  American  Governor,  born  at 
Detroit,  Michigan,  in  1811.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Minnesota  in  1857,  and  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  1862.  He  led  an  expedition  against  the  Sioux  In 
dians  in  Tune  and  July,  1863. 

Sibley,  (MARK  H.,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer, 
born  at  Great  Barrington,  Massachusetts,  in  1796.  He 
practised  at  Canandaigua,  New  York,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1837.  Died  in  1852. 

Sib'ly,  (MANOAH,)  an  English  Orientalist  and  Swe- 
denborgian  divine,  born  in  London  in  1757;  died  in 
1840. 

toibooyeh.     See  SIBAUYEH. 

Sibouieh.     See  SIBAUYEH. 

Sibour,  se^booR',  (MARIE  DOMINIQUE  AUGUSTE,)  a 
French  prelate,  born  in  the  department  of  Drome  in 
1792.  Pie  studied  at  Avignon  and  Paris,  and  became 
successively  Bishop  of  Digne  (1840)  and  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  (1848.)  He  was  afterwards  made  a  senator,  and 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  (1854.)  He  was  assas 
sinated  in  1857,  by  a  priest  named  Jean  Verger,  who 
had  been  suspended,  (interdit.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sibrecht,  see'bReKt,  or  Sibrechts,  see'bReKts, 
(JAN,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1625,  worked  in  London.  Died  in  1703. 

Sib'thorp,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  English  botanist, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1758.  Having  studied  medicine  at 
Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  visited  France,  he  was 
appointed,  after  his  return,  to  succeed  his  father  in  the 
chair  of  botany  at  Oxford.  In  1786  he  set  out  on  a 
scientific  expedition  to  Greece  and  the  adjacent  regions, 
and  in  1794  revisited  those  countries.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "  Flora  Oxoniensis,"  (1794,)  and  "  Flora 


Grseca,"  (10  vols.  fol.)  He  died  in  1796,  leaving  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  two  hundred  pounds  a  year  for  the 
publication  of  his  "  Flora  Graeca,"  a  magnificent  work, 
with  plates. 

Sibuyeh.     See  SIBAUYEH. 

Sibyl.     See  SIBYLLA. 

Si-byl'la,  [Gr.  Sifoa/uz;  Fr.  SIBYLLE,  se'bel' ;  Eng 
lish,  SII/YL, |  the  name  of  several  ancient  prophetesses, 
the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  the  Cumaean  Sibyl, 
sometimes  called  Deiph'obe,  Amalthe'a,  or  Demoph'ile. 
According  to  Virgil,  she  accompanied  /Eneas  in  his  visit 
to  the  infernal  regions.  (See  "/Eneid,"  book  vi.) 

See  ISAAC  Vossius,  "Tractatus  de  Sibyllarum  Oraculis,"  1680; 
R.  VOI.KMANN,  "  De  Oraculis  Sibyllinis  Dissertatio,"  1854;  (). 
PANVINIO,  "Tractatus  de  Sibyllis,"  1673. 

Sibylle.     See  SIBYLLA. 

Sicard,  se'kSu',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  military  writer, 
born  at  Thionville  (Meurthe)  in  1787.  He  entered  the 
army,  and  became  a  captain.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  the  Military  Institutions  of  the  French," 
(4  vols.,  1830-31.) 

Sicard,  (Kocn  AMBROISE  CUCURRON,)  a  French 
abbe,  distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
was  born  at  Fousseret,  near  Toulouse,  in  1742.  He 
went  to  Paris  to  learn  the  method  of  the  Abbe  1'fipe'e, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1789  as  director  of  the  Institution 
in  Paris.  During  the  Revolution  he  was  arrested  and 
confined  in  prison,  from  which  he  was  released  in  Sep 
tember,  1792,  after  a  narrow  escape  from  massacre. 
He  became  professor  of  grammar  in  the  normal  school 
about  1795,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  had 
great  success  as  a  teacher  of  grammar.  In  1800  he 
established  a  printing-press  for  the  use  of  the  deaf-mutes. 
He  improved  or  perfected  the  method  of  instructing 
such  persons,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "The 
ory  of  Signs  for  the  Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,"  (1808.) 
Died  in  1822. 

See  DUVIVIER,  "Notice  sur  PAbbe  Sicard;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Ge'nerale/"«»,c;  I#/b{f/-<»/»A'<;/#></:ve/^c #«..'' 

Sichel,  s?K'el  or/lK'el,  (Jui.ius,)  a  skilful  oculist,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about  1800,  graduated  at  Ber 
lin  in  1825.  He  began  to  practise  in  Paris  about  1833, 
and  published  several  treatises  on  ophthalmy.  "  He  is, 
says  Vapereau,  "the  most  popular  oculist  of  Paris." 

Si-9in'i-us  Den-ta'tus,  a  Roman  warrior,  who  is 
said  to  have  fought  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  battles, 
and  to  have  decided  the  victory  in  many  of  them,  was  a 
champion  of  the  plebeians  in  the  contest  against  the 
patricians.  He  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  454  B.C., 
and  was  assassinated  in  450  by  the  opposite  party. 

Siciolante,  se-cho-lan'ta,  or  Da  Sermoneta,  da 
s§R-mo-na'ta,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sermoneta  in  1504.  He  was  employed  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  Died  in  1550. 

Sickingen,  von,  fon  sik'king'en  or  zik'king'en, 
(FRANZ,)  a  celebrated  German  soldier  and  Protestant 
Reformer,  born  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  in  1481. 
He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and 
of  Charles  V.,  whom  he  accompanied  in  several  of  his 
expeditions.  He  distinguished  himself  on  all  occasions 
as  the  champion  of  the  oppressed,  and  the  patron  of 
learned  men  ;  he  gave  an  asylum  to  CEcolampadius, 
Bucer,  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  protected  Reuchlin 
from  the  persecution  of  the  monks  of  Cologne.  Having 
become  involved  in  a  feud  with  Hesse  and  the  Palatinate, 
he  was  mortally  wounded  while  defending  his  castle  of 
Neustall,  in  1523. 

See  BUDUEUS,  "  Franz  von  Sickingen,"  1704:  MUNCH,  "Franz 
von  Sickingen,"  3  vols.,  1827;  BOUTKII.LER,  "  Histoire  de  F.  von 
Sickingen,"  Met?.,  1860;  KARL  LANG,  "  Ritter  F.  von  Sickingen," 
1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sickler,  sik'ler  or  zik'ler,  (FRIEDRICH  KARL  Lun- 
WIG,)  a  German  antiquary,  son  of  Johann  Volkmar, 
noticed  below,  was  born  near  Gotha  in  1773.  He  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  "The  Political  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Rome."  Died  in  1836. 

Sickler,  (JOHANN  VOLKMAR,)  a  German  pomologist, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1742,  published  "The  German  Fruit- 
Cultivator,"  ("Deutscher  Obstgartner,")  "  Pomological 
Cabinet,"  (1796,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1820. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SICKLES 


2017 


S1DXET 


Sickles,  sik'elz,  (DANIKL  E..)  an  American  general, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1822.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Democrats  of  New 
York  in  1856.  He  killed  Philip  Barton  Key  in  Feb 
ruary,  1859,  for  criminal  connection  with  his  wife.  In 
1860  he  was  re-elected  to  Congress  by  the  voters  of  the 
third  district  of  New  York,  lie  commanded  a  brigade 
in  t'ne  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  and  a  corps 
at  Chancellorsville,  May  2  and  3,  1863.  At  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  he  directed  the  third  corps,  and  lost  a  leg 
on  the  2d  of  July,  1863.  He  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  Second  Military  District,  comprising  North  and 
South  Carolina,  about  April,  1867.  Having  supported 
the  policy  of  Congress  in  preference  to  that  of  Presi 
dent  Jnhnson,  he  was  removed,  Anytime  26,  1667.  lie 
was  appointed  minister  to  Spain  in  May,  1869. 

Sicidharta.     See  GAUTAMA. 

Sid'dpiis,  (SAKAH,)  a  celebrated  English  tragic  act 
ress,  born  at  Brecon,  South  Wales,  in  July,  1755,  was 
a  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble.  She  was  married  in  1773 
to  an  actor  named  Siddons,  and  made  her  first  appear 
ance  at  Drury  Lane  in  December,  1775.  Her  form  was 
exquisitely  symmetrical,  her  countenance  beautiful,  and 
her  deportment  majestic.  She  was  for  many  years  the 
most  popular  tragic  actress  on  the  English  stage.  Her 
performance  of  the  part  of"  Lady  Macbeth"  svas  especially 
admired.  She  retired  from  thestage  in  1812.  Her  private 
character  is  said  to  have  been  irreproachable.  She  is, 
by  general  consent,  admitted  to  have  been  the  greatest 
actress  that  England  has  produced.  Died  in  1831. 

A  critic  of  rare  taste,  and  one  not  likely  to  be  swayed 
by  the  opinions  of  the  multitude,  speaks  thus  of  Mrs. 
Siddons  as  an  actress,  although,  when  he  saw  her,  she 
had  been  long  past  her  prime:  "What  a  wonderful 
woman  !  The  very  first  time  I  saw  her  perform,  I  was 
struck  with  admiration.  .  .  .  Her  looks,  her  voice,  her 
gestures,  delighted  me.  She  penetrated  in  a  moment  to 
my  heart.  She  froze  and  melted  it  by  turns  ;  a  glance 
of  her  eye,  a  start,  an  exclamation,  thrilled  through  my 
v.-hole  frame.  The  more  I  see  her,  the  more  I  admire 
her.  I  hardly  breathe  while  she  is  on  the  stage.  She 
works  up  my  feelings  till  I  am  like  a  mere  child."  (See 
"The  Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving,"  vol.  i. 
P-  159.) 

See  THOMAS  CAMPBHI.U  "Life  of  S.  Siddons,"  2  vols.,  1834; 
JAMES  BOADEX,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  1832; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1834. 

Sidi-Mohamnied,  sid'I  mo-hain'med,  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  born  about  1702,  succeeded  his  father,  Muley 
Abdallah,  in  1757.  Adopting  a  pacific  policy,  he  made 
treaties  of  peace  with  England,  France,  Spain,  and  other 
powers.  During  his  reign  Morocco  enjoyed  an  unusual 
degree  of  prosperity.  Died  in  1790. 

Sidmouth,  LORD.  See  ADDINGTON,  (HENRY.) 
Sid'ney  or  Syd'ney,  (ALGERNON,)  an  eminent 
English  republican  patriot,  born  in  1622,  was  a  younger 
sun  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  a  grand-nephew 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  His  mother  was  Dorothy  Percy, 
a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northumberland.  He  served 
against  the  Irish  insurgents  in  1642,  while  his  father 
was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  entered  the  army  of  Par 
liament  in  1643,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1645.  In  1646  he  served  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
horse  under  his  brother,  Lord  Lisle,  who  was  lieutenant- 
general  of  Ireland.  1  le  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges 
for  the  trial  of  the  king  in  1648,  but  was  not  present 
when  he  was  condemned.  He  held  no  office  under 
Cromwell.  In  May,  1659.  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  council  of  state.  He  was  absent  on  a  mission  to 
the  court  of  Denmark  when  Charles  II.  was  restored  to 
t'ne  throne  in  1660,  and  thought  it  most  prudent  to  re 
main  on  the  continent.  About  1666  he  solicited  Louis 
XIV.  toco-operate  with  him  and  his  friends  in  estab 
lishing  a  republic  in  England.  By  the  permission  of 
the  English  government,  he  returned  home  in  1677  to 
see  his  aged  father,  who  left  him  a  legacy  of  ^5100. 
He  afterwards  acted  in  concert  with  Lord  Russell  and 
Shaftesbury,  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  According 
to  the  statement  of  the  French  minister  Barillon,  Sidney 
and  other  leaders  of  his  party  received  bribes  or  presents 


from  Louis  XIV.*  In  June,  1683,  Sidney  and  Russell 
were  arrested  as  accomplices  in  the  Rye-House  Plot. 
He  was  tried  before  Jeffries,  convicted  without  good 
evidence,  and  beheaded  in  December,  1683.  His  sen 
tence  was  declared  unjust  by  Parliament  about  1690. 
He  left  "Discourses  on  Government,"  which  were  pub 
lished  in  1698.  Burnet,  who  knew  Sidney,  represents 
him  as  "a  man  of  most  extraordinary  courage,  a  steady 
man  even  to  obstinacy,  sincere,  but  of  a  rough  and  bois 
terous  temper  that  could  not  bear  contradiction." 

See  GEOK<;E  W.  MKAUI.EV,  "Life  of  Algernon  Sidney,"  1813: 
R.  C.  SIDNEY,  "  Brief  Memoirs  of  A.  Sidney,"  1835;  G.  VAN  SANT- 
VOORD,  "Life  of  A.  Sidney,"  New  York,  iS<;i  ;  BUKNET,  "  History 
of  his  Own  Time;"  ARTHUR  COLLINS,  "Memoirs  of  the  Lives  and 
Actions  of  the  Sydneys,"  1746;  WINTHKOH.  "Algernon  Sidney:  a 
Lecuire  ;"  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Sidney,  (Eu\vi.\,)  a  popular  English  preacher  of  the 
Anglican  Church.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  about 
1820.  He  published  a  "Life  of  General  Lord  Hill,"  a 
number  of  sermons,  and  other  works. 

Sidney,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  statesman,  and  the 
father  of  Sir  Philip.  He  was  a  favoured  companion  of 
Edward  VI.,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  France.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  was  lord  deputy  of  Ireland. 
He  had  a  high  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity.  Died 
in  1586. 

Sidney,  (HENRY,)  Earl  of  Romney,  an  English  Whig, 
was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  a  younger  brother 
of  Algernon  Sidney.  He  was  an  efficient  promoter  of 
the  revolution  of  1688,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
William  III.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Romney. 
He  was  secretary  of  state  in  1690-92.  "Sidney,"  says 
Macaulay,  "with  a  sweet  temper  and  winning  manners, 
seemed  to  be  deficient  in  capacity  and  knowledge,  and 
to  be  sunk  in  voluptuousness  and  indolence.  His  face 
and  form  were  eminently  handsome."  The  same  writer 
adds  that  he  had  a  rare  political  tact,  and  "  the  conse 
quence  was  that  he  did  what  Mordaunt,  with  all  his 
vivacity  and  invention,  or  Burnet,  with  all  his  multi 
farious  knowledge  and  fluid  elocution,  never  could  have 
done."  ("  History  of  England.")  Died  in  1700. 

Sidney,  (MARY,)  Countess  of  Pembroke,  "Sidney's 
sister,  Pembroke's  mother,"  an  accomplished  lady,  and 
sister  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  was  married  to  Henry,  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  in  1576.  She  wrote  "An  Elegy  on  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,"  and  a  "  Pastoral  Dialogue  in  Praise  of 
Astrasa,"  (Queen  Elizabeth.)  She  translated  many  psalms 
from  the  Hebrew  into  English  verse,  and  several  works 
from  the  French.  Died  in  1621.  Ben  Jonson  wrote  for 
her  a  well-known  epitaph. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  LOUISA  S.  Cos- 
TEI.LO,  London,  1844. 

Sidney,  (Sir  PHILIP,)  an  English  gentleman,  soldier, 
and  author,  possessed  of  rare  accomplishments,  born 
at  Penshurst,  in  Kent,  on  the  291)1  of  November,  1554. 
was  a  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney,  and  a  nephew  of  the 
famous  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester.  His  mother 
was  Mary  Dudley,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  North 
umberland,  lie  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1568 
or  1569,  and  commenced  a  tour  on  the  continent  in  1572. 
He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo 
mew,  and  afterwards  visited  Germany  and  Italy.  During 
this  tour  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Hubert  Languet, 
who  was  afterwards  a  regular  correspondent  of  Sidney. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1575,  and  became  a  lover  of 
Penelope,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Essex  ;  but  she  was 
compelled  to  marry  another.  She  was  the  "  Stella"  of 
his  amatory  poems.  Sir  Philip  gained  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in  1577  was  sent  to 
Vienna  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  ostensibly  to  condole 
with  the  emperor  on  the  death  of  his  father,  but  with 
instructions  to  promote  union  among  the  Protestant 
princes.  His  first  literary  production  was  "  The  Lady 
of  the  May,"  a  masque,  performed  in  1578.  He  had 
the  courage  to  address  to  the  queen  a  letter  of  remon 
strance  against  her  proposed  marriage  with  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  about  1580.  He  retired,  or  was  exiled,  from 
court  for  a  time,  and  resided  at  Wilton  with  his  sister 
Mary,  Countess  of  Pembroke,  and  there  composed  his 

*  This  charge,  if  admitted,  does  not  necessarily  convict  him  of  any 
infidelity  to  his  principles. 


k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttitral ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ' ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

127 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


SIDOXIUS 


2018 


SIETES 


"Arcadia,"  a  pastoral  romance  of  much  celebrity,  pub 
lished  in  1590.'  In  1583  he  was  knighted,  and  married 
Frances,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  secre 
tary  of  state.  According  to  some  writers,  the  crown  of 
Poland  was  offered  to  him,  but  he  declined  it.  He  was 
about  to  accompany  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  his  expedition 
against  the  Spaniards,  when  the  queen  interposed,  and 
sent  him,  in  1585,  as  Governor  of  Flushing,  to  the  seat 
of  war  between  the  Dutch  and  the  King  of  Spain.  The 
troops  under  his  command  took  Axel,  and  again  encoun 
tered  the  enemy  at  Zntphen,  where  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  in  September,  1586.  After  he  was  wounded 
he  called  for  some  drink,  which  was  brought,  but,  before 
he  had  tasted  it,  gave  the  bottle  to  a  wounded  soldier, 
saying,  "Thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine."  }Ie  died 
at  Arnhem  in  October,  1586.  He  left  one  child,  Eliza 
beth,  Countess  of  Rutland.  Among  his  principal  works 
is  "The  Defence  of  Poesie,"  (1^95,)  an  admirable  pro 
duction,  displaying  great  erudition  and  taste.  "The 
first  good  prose  writer,"  says  Hallam,  "in  any  positive 
sense  of  the  word,  is  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  .  .  .  The  'Ar 
cadia'  displayed  a  superior  mind  rather  complying  with 
a  temporary  taste  than  affected  by  it.  .  .  .  I  think  it,  never 
theless,  on  the  whole,  inferior,  in  sense,  style,  and  spirit, 
to  the  'Defence  of  Poesie.'"  ("Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  "The  highest  testimony  to  his 
merits,"  says  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  "was  his 
having  won  the  esteem  and  affection  of  William,  Prince 
of  Orange,  probably  the  most  wise  and  politic  chief  of 
his  time.  He  enjoined  it  to  be  told  to  the  queen  that, 
if  he  were  a  judge,  she  had  in  Philip  Sidney  one  of 
the  ripest  and  greatest  councillors  of  state  in  that  day 
in  Europe." 

See  F.  GREVII.LE,  (Lonn  BROOKE,)  "  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney," 
1652;  THOMAS  Zourn,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Sid 
ney,"  i8oS;  H.  K.  ¥.  IJOUKNK,  "Memoir  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney," 
1862;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820:  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  February,  1847,  and  January,  1X63  ;  ALI.IBONE,  "  Dic 
tionary  of  Authors." 

Bidonius.     See  APOI.I.INARIS  SIDOXIUS. 

Siebenkees,  see'ben-kas'  or  zee'ben-kas',  (JoiiANN 
PHII.IPP.)  a  German  antiquary  and  Hellenist,  born 
at  Nuremberg  in  1759.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  State  Inquisition  at  Venice," 
(1791,)  and  a  good  edition  of  Strabo.  Died  at  Altdorf 
in  1796. 

See  KOENIG,  "  Memoria  J.  P.  Siebenkees,"  1796. 

Siebold,  von,  fon  see'bolt  or  zee'bolt,  (  ADAM  EI.IAS,) 
the  fourth  son  of  Karl  Kaspar,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Wiirzburg  in  1775.  He  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  his  native  city,  and  subsequently  at  Berlin.  lie  pub 
lished  a  "  Manual  for  the  Knowledge  and  Cure  of  the 
Diseases  of  Women,"  (181 1.)  Died  in  1828. 

Siebold,  von,  (EDUARD  KASPAR  JAKOH,)  a  German 
physician,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Wiirzburg 
in  1801.  He  became  in  1833  professor  of  medicine  and 
surgery  at  Gottingen.  He  published  several  works  on 
obstetrics.  Died  in  1861. 

Siebold,  von,  (KARL  KASPAR,)  a  German  surgeon, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Jiilich  in  1736,  became  professor 
of  anatomy,  surgery,  and  obstetrics  at  Wiirzburg,  and 
was  ennobled  in  1801.  Died  in  1807.  His  sons  JOHANN 
GF.ORG  CHRISTOPH,  JOHANN  THEODOR  DAMIAN,  and 
JOHANN  BARTHKL  were  likewise  distinguished  physi 
cians  and  surgeons. 

Siebold,  von,  (KARL  THKODOR  ERNST,)  a  German 
physiologist,  a  son  of  Adam  Elias,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1804.  He  became  successively 
professor  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  at  Er- 
langen,  Freiburg,  and  Munich.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  a  "Manual  of  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the 
Invertebrate  Animals,"  (1848,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  and  French. 

Siebold,  von,  (PHII.TPP  FRANZ,)  a  celebrated  German 
naturalist,  a  grandson  of  Karl  Kaspar,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1796.  He  accompanied  the 
'Dutch  embassy  to  Japan  as  physician  and  naturalist  in 
1823,  and  spent  about  seven  years  in  scientific  researches 
in  that  country.  He  published  after  his  return  a  num- 
'ber  of  valuable  works,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Epitome  of  the  Japanese  Language,"  (1824,)  "  Flora  Ja- 
ipouica,"(i835,)  "  Catalogue  of  Japanese  Books,"  (1845,) 


"  Atlas  of  Land  and  Marine  Charts  of  the  Japanese 
Empire,"  also  "Fauna  Japonica,"  (1833,)  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Temminck  and  other  savants.  His 
"Archives  towards  the  Description  of  Japan"  is  still 
unfinished. 

Siegeii,  von,  fon  see'gen,  (Ltimvio,)  a  celebrated 
artist,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1609, 
was  the  inventor  of  mezzotint  engraving.  His  first 
production  in  the  new  art  was  a  portrait  of  Amelia 
Elizabeth,  mother  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  which  he 
executed  about  1640.  Siegen  subsequently  imparted 
his  discovery  to  Prince  Rupert,  who  introduced  it  into 
England,  and  who  has  been  generally  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  mezzotinto.  Among  Siegen's  other  engrav 
ings  may  be  named  a  "IIolv  Family,"  after  Annibal 
Carracci,  and  a  portrait  of  Ferdinand  III.  of  Austria. 
Died  about  1680. 

See  EVELYN,  "  Sculptura,  or  History  of  Chalcography  ;"  NAGI.KR, 
"  All«emeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Siegenbeek,  see'gen-bak'  or  see'nen-bak',  (M.vr- 
THIJS,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  divine,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1774,  was  preacher  to  the  Mennonite  congregation  at 
Leyden,  and  became  in  1797  professor  of  eloquence  in 
the  university  of  that  city.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Dictionary  for  Dutch  Orthography,"  ("  Woordenboek 
voor  de  Nederduitsche  Spelling,")  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1850. 

Siegfried,  seeg'freed,  [Gcr.  pron.  zeer/fueet,]  [from 
siegen,  to  "conquer,"  and  Friade,  "peace."  In  the 
Norse  legends  the  name  is  usually  written  SIGURD, 
(which  see,)]  the  name  of  a  legendary  or  semi-fabulous 
personage  who  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  many 
of  the  ancient  tales  of  the  Teutonic  nations.  He  is 
especially  distinguished  as  the  hero  of  the  famous 
German  epic  known  as  the  "  Niebelnngen  -  Lied," 
(nee'beh-loong'en  leet,)  or  the  "Lay  of  the  Niebe- 
lungen."*  For  an  account  of  this  poem,  and  the  ex 
ploits  of  Siegfried,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Carlylc's 
"Miscellanies"  and  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  pp.  217-227. 

Siena,  da.     See  MATTEO. 

Sienna,  SIMON  OK.     See  MARTINI,  m. 

Sieveking,  see'veh-king'  or  zee'veh-king',  (AMALIE 
WlLHELMINK,)  born  at  Hamburg.in  1794,  was  celebrated 
for  her  philanthropy,  and  founded  several  charitable 
institutions  for  the  poor  in  Hamburg  and  other  cities. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Amelia  Sieveking,"  translated  from  the  German, 
London,  1863. 

Sieveking,  (KARL.)  a  German  diplomatist,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1787,  was  sent  in  1819  as  resident  minister 
to  Saint  Petersburg.  Died  in  1847. 

Sieves,  se'ess'  or  se'i'y^s',  (EMMANUEL  JOSEPH,) 
COMTE,  commonly  called  Ann6  SIEVES,  a  French  poli 
tician  and  publicist,  born  at  Frejus  in  May,  1748.  lie 
was  educated  in  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  in  Paris, 
and  in  1780  went  to  Chartres,  where  he  became  canon, 
vicar-general,  and  chancellor.  He  advocated  the  popular 
cause  in  his  famous  pamphlet  entitled  "  What  is  the 
Third  Estate?"  ("  Qu'est-cc  que  le  Tiers-Etat?"  1789,) 
which  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  publicists  who 
favoured  the  Revolution.  Having  been  sent  to  the 
States-General  by  the  electors  of  Paris,  he  was  the  chief 
promoter  of  the  union  of  the  orders,  and  one  of  the 
most  radical  leaders  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  lie 
opposed,  however,  the  abolition  of  tithes,  and  on  that 
question  used  the  famous  phrase,  "They  would  be  free, 
and  they  do  not  know  how  to  be  just."  He  became  in 
1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  pursued 
a  cautious  and  silent  course;  but  he  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred  in  1795,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  in 

1798,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory  in  May, 

1799.  He  formed  a  coalition  with  Bonaparte,  promoted 
the  revolution  of  the  iSth  Brumaire,  and  was  one  of  the 
three  consuls  of  the  new  regime.     His  power  and  in 
fluence  ended  about  the  end  of  1799;  and  his  plan  of  a 
new  constitution  was  not  adopted.     He  held  no  office 


*  The  name  Niebehmgen  is  said  to  be  derived  from  an  ancient 
Burgundian  race  or  family,  whose  downfall  forms  the  subject  of  the 
poem. 


£,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SIF 


2019 


S1GORG^7E 


under  the  empire,  and  he  lived  in  exile  from  1815  to 
1830.  Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

See  CEi.sxF.R,  "  Des  Opinions  po'itiques  de  Sieyes  et  de  sa  Vie," 
1800;  VON^SEIDA,  "Sieyes  und  Napoleon,"  1824;  E.  DE  BEAU- 
VERGKR,  "  Etude  sur  Sieyes,"  1851  ;  MIGNET,  "  Notices  histoiiques  ;" 
THIERS,  "  History  of  the  Frer.ch  Revolution;"  LAMARTINE,  "  Les 
Constituants  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sif,  seef,  [probably  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  sift, 
"  pure,"  "  chaste,"  "  inviolate,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  wife  of  Thor,  and  the  goddess  of  harvests.  She  is 
said  to  have  a  head  of  hair  of  pure  gold, — in  allusion, 
doubtless,  to  the  golden  fields  of  ripening  grain.  Her 
connection  with  Thor,  the  great  warrior-god  of  the 
Northmen,  may  denote  the  dependence  of  the  arts  of 
peace,  and  of  agriculture  in  particular,  on  the  protecting 
arm  of  war. 

See  KEVSER,  "Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by  PEN- 
NOCK,  p.  131  ;  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Sigalon,  se'gt'lo.x',  (X.AVIKR,)  a  French  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Uzes  about  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  Guerin. 
He  worked  in  Paris  for  many  years.  In  1833  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  painted  for  M.  Thiers  a  copy  of  Michael 
Angelo's  "  Last  Judgment,"  for  which  he  received  eighty- 
eight  thousand  francs.  Died  at  Rome  in  1837. 

See  CH.  SAINT-MAURICE.  "  filoge  de  Xavier  Sigalon,"  1848; 
CHARLES  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Sigaud-Lafond,  se'go'  It'fo.x',  (JOSEPH  AIGNAN,)  a 
French  surgeon  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bourges 
in  1730  or  1740,  wrote  treatises  on  electricity,  and  pub 
lished  a  "  Dictionary  of  Physics,"  (5  vols.,  1780-82.)  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1796.  Died  in  1810. 

See  MECHIX-DKSQUINS,  "Notice  sur  Sigaud-Lafond;"  J.  P. 
CHEVALIER,  "Notice  sur  Sigaud-Lafond,"  iS4i  ;  QUERARO,  "La 
K  ranee  Litteraire." 

Sig'e-bert  [Fr.  pron.  se'zhe'baik' ;  Lat.  SIGKBKR'-  | 
Ti's]  I.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  535  A.D.,  was  a  i 
son  of  Clotaire  I.,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  obtained  in  I 
561  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  which  included  Germany  : 
and  the  northeast  of  Gaul.  He  was  involved  in  war 
with  his  brother  Chilperic,  whom  he  defeated.  In  575  ; 
he  was  killed  by  assassins  who  were  hired  by  Frede-  ; 
gunda,  the  wife  of  Chilperic. 

Sigebert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  601  A.D., 
was  a  son  of  Thierry  II.      He  was   killed  by  order  of  j 
Clotaire  II. 

Sigebert  III.,  born  in  630  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Dagobert  j 
I.,  at  whose  death,  about  634,  the  kingdom  was  divided  j 
between  Sigebert  and  his  brother  Clovis.  Died  in  654.  j 

Sig'e-bert  OF  GEMBLOURS,  [Lat.  SIGEHKK'TUS  GEM-  j 
BI.ACKN'SIS,]  a  learned  monk  and  historian,  born  in  Bra-  i 
bant  about  1030,  wrote  a  "Chronicon"  (or  "  History")  j 
"of  Germany  from  381  to  1112."  Died  in  1112. 

Sigebertus.     See  SIGEBKKT. 

Sigel,  see'gel,  (FiiANZ,)  a  general,  born  in  Baden, 
Germany,  in  1824.  He  became  minister  of  war  of  the 
government  formed  by  the  revolutionists  of  Baden  in 
June,  1848.  About  1850  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  He  enlisted  as  a  colonel  in  the  Union  army 
early  in  1861,  defeated  a  superior  force  at  Carthage, 
Missouri,  July  5,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  August  of  that  year.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
Pea  Ridge,  March  6  and  7,  1862,  and  a  corps  under 
General  Pope  in  Virginia,  July-September  of  that  year. 
He  was  defeated  at  New  Market,  May  15,  1864. 

Sigismond.     See  SIGISMT.M). 

Sig'is-mund,  [Fr.  SIGISMOND,  se'z.hess'm6N',]  writ 
ten  also  Sigmund,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born •  in 
1368,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  Having 
married,  in  1386,  Maria,  daughter  of  Lewis,  King  of 
Poland,  he  was  crowned  King  of  Hungary  in  1387.  In 
1396  he  was  signally  defeated  by  the  Turks  under 
Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  at  Nicopolis.  He  was  elected  Em 
peror  of  Germany  in  1410,  and  crowned  in  1414.  In 
consequence  of  his  treachery  in  consenting  to  the  mar 
tyrdom  of  John  Huss  after  he  had  granted  him  a  safe- 
conduct,  Sigismund  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
Bohemians,  and  was  several  times  defeated  by  the 
celebrated  Ziska.  The  treaty  of  Iglau  was  concluded 
between  them  in  1435.  Died  in  1437. 

See  ASCHBACH,  "Geschichte  Sigismur.ds,"  4  vols.,  1838-4^  ;  KA- 
TONA,  ''  Historic  Rerum  Hungariorum  ;"  EXCEL,  "Geschichte  von 
Ungarn  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Sig'is-mund  [Polish  ZVG.MUNT,  zlg'moont]  I.,  King 
of  Poland,  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was  born  in  1466.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  1507.  He  was  involved  in  wars 
with  the  Russians,  Moldavians,  and  Wallachians,  against 
whom  he  was  eventually  successful.  Died  in  1548. 

See  LELEWEL,  "Histoire  de  Pologne ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Genera'e." 

Sigismund  (called  also  Augustus)  II.,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1518.  He  was  elected  king 
during  his  father's  lifetime,  and  came  to  the  throne  in 
1548.  During  his  reign  Lithuania  was  united  to  Poland, 
to  which  Livonia  was  also  annexed.  Sigismund  is  sup 
posed  to  have  secretly  favoured  the  Reformed  religion, 
which  made  great  progress  under  his  rule  ;  he  was  also  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Died  in  1572. 

See  LELEWEL,  "Histoire  de  Pologne." 

Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland  and  Sweden,  born 
in  1566,  was  the  son  of  John  III.  of  Sweden  and  Cathe 
rine,  sister  of  Sigismund  II.  of  Poland.  He  was  elected 
in  1587  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  in  1594  crowned 
King  of  Sweden.  His  zeal  in  behalf  of  Catholicism 
having  made  him  unpopular  with  the  Swedes,  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  caused  himself  to  be  made 
king,  in  1604,  under  the  name  of  Charles  IX.,  and  thus 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  protracted  strife  between  the 
two  countries.  In  1610  he  invaded  Russia,  and  placed 
his  son  Vladislaf  on  the  throne,  which,  however,  he  was 
subsequently  compelled  to  resign  to  Michael  Feodoro- 
vitch.  He  was  also  involved  in  wars  with  the  Turks, 
Tartars,  and  Cossacks,  and  was  obliged  to  yield  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus  a  considerable  part  of  Livonia  and 
Prussia.  He  (lied  in  1632,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Vladislaf  IV. 

See  NIEMCEWICZ,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Sigismond  III.,"  3 
vols.,  1819. 

Sig'is-mund  or  Sigismond,  King  of  Burgundy, 
was  a  son  of  Gondebaud,  (Gundibald,)  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  in  516  A.D.  Having  been  defeated  in  battle  by 
the  sons  of  Clovis,  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  Clodomir, 
in  524. 

Sigmund.     See  SIGISMUND. 

Sigiiol,  sen'y6K,  (fi.Mii.K,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1835. 

Signorelli,  sen-yo-rel'Iee,  (LuCA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cortona  in  1439,  was  a  nephew  of  Vasari. 
His  frescos  of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  cathedral 
of  Orvieto,  are  esteemed  master-pieces,  and  were  highly 
commended  by  Michael  Angelo.  Died  in  1521. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON.  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;" 
VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Signorelli,  (PiETRO  NAPOI.I,)  an  Italian  critic  and 
historical  writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1731.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  literary  history  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  entitled  ''  Vicende  della  Coltura  nelle  Due  Sicilie," 
(5  vols.,  1784-86.)  Died  in  1815. 

See  F.  M.  AVEI.I.INO,  "  Elogio  storico  di  P.  N.  Signorelli,"  1815  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sigonio,  se-go'ne-o,  [Lat.  SIGO'NIUS,]  (CARLO,)  an 
eminent  Italian  historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Modena 
about  1520.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  literature 
in  his  native  city  in  1546,  and  obtained  in  1560  the  chair 
of  eloquence  at  Padua.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  treatise  "  On  the  Ancient  Law  of  Roman  Citizens," 
("  De  antiquo  Jure  Civium  Ronianorum,"  1560,)  "His 
tory  of  the  Western  Empire,"  ("  Historias  de  Occidentali 
Imperio,"  1577,)  and  "Ecclesiastical  History,"  ("  His- 
toriae  Ecclesiasticae.")  Sigonio  was  one  of  the  first 
scholars  of  his  time,  and  his  Latin  style  is  remarkable 
for  clearness  and  elegance.  He  also  wrote  "On  the 
Athenian  Republic,"  ("  De  Republica  Atheniensium," 
1564,)  and  a  "Life  of  Scipio  African  us  Minor,"  (1569.) 
Died  in  1584. 

Pee  MfRATORi,  "Vita  C.  Sigonii,"  prefixed  to  Sigonio's  works 
6  vols.,  1732-37:  J.  P.  KREBS,  "Vita  C.  Sigonii,"  1837;  J.  P- 
KRKBS,  "  C.  Sigomus,  einer  der  grossten  Humanisten,"  etc.,  1840; 
GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Sigonius.     See  SIGONIO. 

Sigorgne,  se'goim',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1719.  He 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


SIGOURNET 


2020 


SILL  I  MAN 


advocated  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  Died  at  Macon 
in  1809. 

Sigourney,  sig'iir-ne,  (LvniA  HUNTLEY,)  an  Ameri 
can  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Norwich, 
Connecticut,  in  1791.  She  published,  in  1815,  "Moral 
Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse."  Having  visited  Europe  in 
1840,  she  brought  out  in  1842  a  work  entitled  "  Pleasant 
Memories  of  Pleasant  Lands."  She  was  married  in 
1819  to  Charles  Sigourney,  a  merchant  of  Hartford. 
Among  her  numerous  poems  are  "The  Aborigines  of 
America,"  (1822,)  and  "  Poeahontas,"  (1841.)  She  also 
wrote  many  works  in  prose.  Died  in  1865. 

See  GRISWOI.D.  ''Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Siguenza,  de,  da  se-gwen'za,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  monk 
and  historical  writer,  born  about  1545,  published  a  "  Life 
of  Saint  Jerome,"  (1595.)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1606. 

Sigurd,  see'goord  or  see'giird,  [from  a  root  cognate 
with  the  German  Sieg  and  Swedish  Sfger,  victorv,]  the 
name  of  a  hero  celebrated  in  the  legends  of  the  North 
as  the  greatest  of  human  warriors.  He  may  be  styled 
the  Roostam  of  the  Northmen.  He  had  a  sword  with 
which  he  could  cleave  an  anvil  and  cut  through  floating 
wool.  Sigurd  appears  to  be  another  name  for  SIEGFRIED, 
(which  see.)  For  the  particulars  of  Sigurd's  lineage  and 
history,  see  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp. 
91-108. 

Sike  or  Siecke,  sce'keh  or  zee'keh,  (HiciNRicn,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Utrecht,  and  subsequently  at  Cambridge, 
England.  He  committed  suicide  in  1712. 

Si-la'ni-on,  [Z/P.rtw'wv,]  a  Greek  statuary  in  bronze, 
lived  in  the  fourth  century  n.c.  According  to  Pliny,  he 
was  a  contemporary  of  Lysippus,  and  excelled  in  the 
imitation  of  strong  passions.  Among  his  works  was  a 
statue  of  Sappho,  which  was  highly  praised  by  Cicero,  a 
statue  of  Plato,  and  a  statue  of  Jocasta  dying. 

Sl-la'nus,  (DKCIMUS  JUNIUS,)  a  Roman  senator,  was 
elected  consul  in  63  n.c.  In  the  trial  of  Catiline's  ac 
complices,  he,  as  consul  elect,  was  the  first  to  express 
his  opinion.  He  advocated  severe  measures. 

Silanus,  (M.  JUNIUS,)  an  orator,  was  a  grandson  of 
IX  funius  Silanus.  He  became  consul  in  19  A.D.  His 
daughter  Claudia  was  the  wife  of  Caligula,  who  caused 
Silanus  to  be  put  to  death. 

Silbermann,  sil'ber-man'  or  zil'ber-man',  (Gorr- 
ykiKD,)  a  German  organ-builder,  born  near  Frauenstein, 
in  -Saxony,  in  1683  ;  died  in  1753. 

Silber'schlag,  sil'ber-shlar/or  zil'ber-shlaG',(JoHANN 
JKSAIAS,)  a  German  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Aschers- 
leben  in  1721.  He  was  pastor  at  Magdeburg,  and  rector 
of  the  Real-Schule  in  Berlin.  Died  in  1791. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1788. 

Silene.     See  Si  LENDS. 

Sileuo.     See  SILKNUS. 

Si-le'nus  or  Sei-le'iius,  [Gr.  Zetiijvos ;  Fr.  SII.ENE, 
se'lin';  It.  SILENO,  se-la'no,]  in  the  classic  mythology, 
one  of  the  Satyrs,  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Mercury,  and 
the  preceptor  and  inseparable  attendant  of  Bacchus. 
He  was  represented  as  a  jovial  old  man,  corpulent,  bald, 
always  intoxicated,  and  carrying  in  his  hand  a  wine-bag, 
and  often  riding  on  an  ass.  Like  the  other  Satyrs,  he 
was  fond  of  sleep,  music,  and  dancing.  He  was  also 
renowned  for  his  prophetic  insight  into  the  future. 

See  VIRGIL'S  Sixth  Eclogue,  entitled  "Silenus." 

Silhon,  de,  deli  se'lo.N1',  (JEAN,)  a  French  author,  born 
near  Nerac  about  1596.  He  was  one  of  the  first  mem 
bers  of  the  French  Academy,  and  was  employed  by 
Richelieu  in  political  affairs.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  (1662.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Silhouette,  de,  deh  se'loo'eV,  (fi'riENNE,)  a  French 
financier  and  writer  on  politics,  etc.,  was  born  at  Li 
moges  in  1709.  He  became  controller-general  of  the 
finances  in  1759,  practised  excessive  economy,  but  was 
found  to  be  incompetent,  and  resigned  before  the  end  of 
the  year.  Died  in  1767.  His  name  is  applied  to  an 
economical  sort  of  portrait,  (commonly  called  a  profile.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 


Sil'I-us  I-tal'I-cus,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  imi 
tator  of  Virgil,  whose  birthplace  is  unknown,  lived  under 
the  reign  of  Nero,  and  in  68  A.I),  was  elected  consul. 
He  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Asia.  His  only  work 
extant  is  an  epic  poem  entitled  "  Punica,"  in  seventeen 
books,  giving  an  account  of  the  second  Punic  war.  It 
is  a  long  and  very  dull  poem.  Died  about  100  A.n. 

See  C.  CEI.LARIUS,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  Silio  Italico,"  1712; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Siljestrom,  seel'yes-tRom',  (PKHK  ADAM,)  a  Swedish 
writer,  born  at  Calmar  in  1815,  became  professor  of  ex 
perimental  physics  at  Up.sal.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
report  on  the  educational  system  of  the  United  States. 

Sill,  (JOSHUA  W.,)  born  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  in  1831 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853.  He  became  a  briga 
dier-general  in  the  Union  army  in  July,  1862,  and  was 
killed  at  Stone  River,  December  31  of  that  year. 

Silla,  the  Italian  of  STI.I.A,  (which  sec.) 

Sillery,  de,  deh  sel're',  (CHARLES  ALEXIS  Brulart 
— IJKU'I^R',)  MARQUIS,  and  Count  de  Gcnlis,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  the  husband  of  Ma 
dame  de  Genlis  the  authoress.  lie  served  as  captain  in 
the  navy  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
States-General  in  1789.  lie  was  a  follower  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  in  politics,  and  was  guillotined  in  October, 

1793- 

Sillery,  de,  (NICOLAS  Bruslart — biu'ltk',)  MAR 
QUIS,  an  able  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Champagne 
in  1544.  lie  was  employed  in  foreign  missions  by 
Henry  IV.,  and  became  chancellor  of  Fiance  in  1607. 
Died  in  1624. 

See  I'.ouTRAYS,  " Breviarium  Vitae  N.  Brulartii,"  1624 ;  SULI.V, 
"MfSmoires." 

Sillig,  sil'lir,  or  zil'lio,  (KARL  JULIUS,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Dresden  in  1801,  published  an  edition 
of  the  "Natural  History"  of  Pliny,  (1851,)  and  a  valu 
able  "Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Roman  Artists,"  ("Cata- 
logus  Artificum  Grascorum  et  Komanorum,")  which 
has  been  translated  into  English.  Died  in  1857. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838. 

Sil'li-maii,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  eminent  American  natu 
ralist  and  professor,  born  •  in  North  Stratford,  (now 
Trumbull,)  Connecticut,  on  the  8th  of  August,  1779. 
He  was  a  son  of  Gold  Selleck  Silliman,  a  general  who 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  He  entered  Yale 
College  in  1792,  graduated  in  1796,  and  was  appointed 
tutor  in  that  institution  in  1799.  About  1802,  Dr. 
Dwight  offered  him  a  chair  of  chemistry  in  Yale  Col 
lege.  To  prepare  himself  for  that  position,  he  studied 
chemistry  at  Philadelphia  for  two  years.  lie  began  to 
lecture  to  the  students  of  Yale  College  in  1804,  and 
performed  a  voyage  to  Europe  about  the  end  of  1805. 
Having  returned,  after  an  absence  of  fourteen  months, 
he  resumed  the  chair  of  chemistry,  and  published  a 
"Journal  of  Travels  in  England,  Holland,  and  Scot 
land,"  (2  vols.,  1810,)  which  was  a  very  interesting  and 
popular  book.  Soon  after  his  return  he  made  a  geo 
logical  survey  of  a  part  of  Connecticut.  In  1809  he 
married  Harriet,  a  daughter  of  Governor  Trumbull,  of 
Connecticut.  He  made  a  chemical  analysis  of  a  famous 
meteorite  which  fell  at  Weston,  Connecticut,  in  1807. 
In  1818  he  founded  "The  American  Journal  of  Science 
and  Arts,"  usually  called  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  which 
was  recognized  at  home  and  in  Europe  as  the  chief 
repository  of  American  science.  lie  was  the  sole 
editor  of  this  journal  for  twenty  years,  and  maintained 
it  at  his  own  pecuniary  risk. 

He  attained  great  eminence  as  a  lecturer  and  teacher 
of  science.  "The  professor's  chair,  in  the  laboratory 
or  the  lecture-room,  was  the  place  above  all  others  in 
which  his  enthusiasm,  his  sympathy  with  youthful  aspira 
tions,  his  varied  acquisitions,  and  his  graceful  utterance, 
exerted  their  highest  and  most  enduring  influence." 
("  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  May,  1865.) 
He  applied  the  blowpipe  to  the  fusion  ot  a  variety  of 
bodies  which  were  before  regarded  as  infusible.  About 
1822  he  demonstrated  the  transfer  of  particles  of  carbon 
from  one  charcoal  point  to  the  other  in  the  galvanic 
battery.  He  published  a  text-book  on  chemistry  in  1830. 
Between  1835  and  1850  he  delivered  popular  lectures 
on  chemistry  and  geology  in  Boston,  Lowell,  New  York, 


u,  e,  i,  o,  \\,\\fang:  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  vt,  v.  short:  a.  e.i.  o. 


e:  fir.  fill,  fat:  m*t:  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SILL  I  MAN 


2021 


SIMLER 


Philadelphia,  Saint  Louis,  and  New  Orleans.  He  was 
one  of  the  few  men  in  the  country  that  could  hold  a 
popular  audience  with  a  lecture  on  science.  In  1853  he 
resigned  his  professorship,  and  published  "  A  Visit  to 
Europe  in  1851,"  (2  vols.,)  which  was  often  reprinted. 
He  felt  a  deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  when 
Kansas  became  the  scene  of  conflict,  about  1857,  he 
came  out  with  all  his  youthful  ardour  as  the  opponent  of 
the  slave-power.  He  died  at  New  Haven  on  the  241)1 
of  November,  1864.  In  the  language  of  the  writer  already 
quoted  above,  "  he  was  a  man  of  vigorous  understanding 
and  sound  judgment,  led  on,  but  never  carried  away,  by 
an  enthusiastic  disposition,  glowing  and  constant.  .  .  . 
Blending  with  and  ennobling  all  these  virtues  was  the 
childlike  simplicity  of  his  Christian  faith." 

See  "American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  May,  1865  ;  GEORGE 
P.  FISHER,  "Life  of  Benjamin  Silliman,"  2  vols.,  1866;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1832. 

Silliman,  (BENJAMIN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  New  Haven  in  1816,  and  graduated  at  Yale  Col 
lege  in  18^7.  He  was  employed  as  teacher  of  chemistry 
in  that  college  for  a  number  of  years,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  applied  to  the  arts  in  1846.  About 
1838  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "American  Jour 
nal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  of  which  he  and  Professor 
f.  D.  Dana  are  now  the  chief  editors.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  general  and  applied  chemistry  in 
Vale  College  in  1854.  He  published  "First  Princi 
ples  of  Chemistry,"  (1846,)  and  "  Principles  of  Physics," 
(1858.) 

Silly,  de,  deh  se'ye',  (JACQUES  JOSEPH  Vipart — 
ve'pSk',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born  in  Normandy 
in  1671.  He  was  a  friend  of  Madame  de  Stael.  Died 
in  1727. 

Silva,  sel'vt',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1682.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and 
received  the  title  of  consulting  physician  to  Louis  XV. 
in  1724.  Died  in  1742. 

Silva  y  Figueroa.     See  FIGUEKOA.  HE. 

Silvani,  sel-va'nec,  (GUKKARDO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Florence  in  1579.  He  built,  besides  other 
edifices  in  his  native  city,  the  magnificent  Palazzo  Maru- 
celli  and  the  Palazzo  Ricardi.  His  design  for  the  fa9ade 
of  the  cathedral  of  Florence  was  adopted  and  executed. 
Died  in  1675. 

Sil-va'iius  or  Syl-va'nus,  |  Fr.  SYLVAIN,  sel'va.v',] 
[from  sih'a  or  sylva,  a  "wood"  or  "grove,"]  a  rural  deity 
in  Roman  mythology,  was  the  guardian  of  groves,  fields, 
and  cattle.  He  was  supposed  to  be  the  protector  of  the 
boundaries  of  fields  or  farms.  By  some  mythographers 
he  was  identified  with  Faunus  and  with  Pan. 

Sil-ve'ri-us  or  Sylverius,  [Fr.  SII.VEIU-:,  sel'vaiit',] 
a  native  of  Frosinone,  near  Rome,  became  pope  in  536 
A.I).  He  was  a  son  of  Pope  Hormisdas.  In  537  he 
was  banished  to  Lycia  by  Belisarius,  who  chose  Vigilius 
as  his  successor.  Died  in  538. 

Silvester,  POPE.     See  SYLVESTER. 

Silvestre,  sel-veVtRa,  (GUKGORIO,)  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1520,  was  the  author  of  numerous  poems  published 
in  1592,  under  the  title  of  "Obras  poeticas."  Died  in 
1570. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Silvestre,  sel've'stR',  (!SRAEL,)  a  PVench  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Nancy  in  1621.  He  worked  in  Paris, 
and  received  the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king  in  1662. 
He  engraved  views  of  French  and  Italian  scenery.  Died 
in  1691. 

Silvestre,  de,  deh  sel'vSstR',  (AuGUSTiN  FRANCOIS,) 
BARON,  a  French  savant  and  rural  economist,  born  in 
1762,  was  descended  from  the  preceding.  He  was  chief 
of  the  bureau  of  agriculture  during  the  first  empire.  He 
contributed  to  several  scientific  journals,  and  wrote 
biographies  of  many  French  savants.  Died  in  1851. 

.  See  HOUCH  -\KD.  "  Notice  sur  Baron  de  Silvestre,"  1852  :  QUERARU, 
"  La  France  Litteraire." 

Silvestre,  de,  (Louis,)  a  painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1675,  was  a  son  of  Israel  Silvestre,  noticed  above.  He 
was  patronized  by  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  and  be 
came  director  of  the  Academy  of  Dresden.  Died  in 
1760.  His  nephew,  NICOLAS  CHARLES,  (1698-1767,) 
was  a  painter  and  engraver. 

Silvestre  de  Sacy.     See  SACY,  DE. 


Silvia.     See  KHEA  SILVIA. 

Siniart,  se'miiu/,  (PIERRE  CHARLES,)  a  French  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Troyes  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Pradier.  He 
gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1833.  He  was  em 
ployed  by  the  government  to  execute  statues  and  bas- 
reliefs  for  the  Louvre  and  other  public  buildings.  Among 
his  works  is  an  imitation  of  Phidias'  statue  of  Pallas 
Athene,  composed  of  gold  and  ivory.  Died  in  1857. 

See  C.  LEVEQUK,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Simart,"  1857  ;  G.  EY 
RIES,  "  Simart  Statuaire,"  1860;  HALEVV,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ouvrages  de  Simart,"  iS6i. 

Sim'e-oii,  [Heb.  jU'Oiy,]  the  second  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  received  his  father's  curse  on  account  of  his  share 
in  the  treacherous  murder  of  the  Shechemites. 

See  Genesis  xxxiv. 

Sim'e-pii  OF  DURHAM,  an  English  chronicler  of  the 
eleventh  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Kings  of  England  from  616  to  1130." 

Simeon  OF  POLOTZK,  a  Russian  poet  and  monk,  born 
at  Polotzk  in  1628.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Feodor, 
who  became  Czar  of  Russia  in  1676.  He  wrote  dramas 
and  religious  treatises.  Died  in  1680. 

Sim'e-on  surnamed  STYLI'TKS,  [Gr.  Zvueuwjso  STIM/'- 
rrjf;  Fr.  SIMEON  STYI.ITK,  se'ma'oN'  ste'let',]  an  ascetic 
or  fanatic,  born  near  the  boundary  of  Syria  and  Cilicia 
about  390  A.D.  He  acquired  a  sort  of  celebrity  by  stand 
ing  or  living  for  many  years  on  the  top  of  a  pillar,  and 
attracted  crowds  of  spectators,  who  came  from  a  great 
distance,  and  to  whom  he  preached.  He  was  venerated 
as  a  saint.  Died  about  460. 

See  LAUTENSACH,  "De  Simeone  Stylita,"  1700;  UHLBMANN, 
"Simeon  der  erste  Saulenheilige  in  Syrien,"  1846;  KREBS,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  Sty. ids,"  1753. 

Sim'e-on,  (Rev.  CHARLES,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Reading  in  1759,  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Cambridge.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theo 
logical  and  devotional  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  earnest  piety  and  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  religion,  and  gave  large  sums  to  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews,  and  other 
similar  associations.  Died  in  1836. 

See  W.  CARUS,  "  Life  of  Charles  Simeon,"  1847  ;  REV.  ERSKINE 
NEAI.E,  "Christianity  and  Infidelity  Contrasted  ;"  "  Nonh  British 
Review"  for  August,  1847. 

Simeon,  se'ma'o.N',  ([OSEPR  BAI.THASAR,)  COMTE,  a 
French  politician,  born  at  Aix  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  the 
following.  He  was  prefect  of  several  departments  be 
tween  1815  and  1824,  and  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers 
in  1835.  Died  in  1846. 

Simeon,  (JOSEPH  JEROME,)  COUNT,  a  French  min 
ister  of  state,  born  at  Aix  in  1749.  He  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  council  of  state  in  1804,  and  minister  of  the 
interior  in  Westphalia  in  1807.  He  was  French  minister 
of  the  interior  from  February,  1820,  to  December,  1821. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  MIC.NET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte 
Simeon,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ganerale." 

Sim'e-oii  Met-a-phras'tes,  a  theologian,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Lives  of  the  Saints."  Died  in  976. 

Sim'e-on  Se'thus  or  Simeon  Seth,  a  learned 
Greek  writer  of  the  eleventh  century,  was  a  resident 
of  Constantinople.  lie  was  the  author  of  a  treatise 
on  edible  things  and  their  properties,  which  has  been 
translated  into  Latin  under  the  title  of  "  Syntagma 
de  Cibariorum  Facilitate."  He  translated  into  Greek 
the  Arabic  Fables  of  Pilpay;  and  the  translation  of  a 
fabulous  history  of  Alexander  the  Great,  from  the  Per 
sian,  is  also  ascribed  to  him. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Simeoiii,  se-ma-o'nee,  (GARRIELLO,)  an  Italian  writer 
on  various  subjects,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1509.  He 
led  a  wandering  life.  Among  his  works  is  "  Devices 
and  Emblems,"  ("  Devises  et  Emblemes,"  in  French, 
1559.)  Died  in  1575. 

Simiane,  de,  deh  se'ine'Si/,  (PAULINE  d'Adhemar 
de  Monteil  de  Grignaii — dl'di'mar/  deh  m6.\'til' 
deh  gKin'yoN',)  MARQUISE,  a  French  lady,  born  in  Paris 
in  1674,  was  a  granddaughter  of  Madame  de  Sevigne. 
Died  in  1737.  Her  Letters  were  published  in  1773. 

Sim'ler,  (JosiAS,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister  and 
historian,  born  at  Cappel,  near  Zurich,  in  1530.  He  was 


€  as  *;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^f^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIMMUS 


SIMONIDES 


professor  of  theology  at  Zurich,  and  wrote,  besides 
treatises  on  theology,  a  "  History  of  the  Swiss  Republic," 
("De  Helvetiorum  Republics,"  1574.)  Died  in  1576. 

See  STUCK,  "  Vita  J.  Simleri,"  1577;  NIC^RON,  "Memoires." 

Sim'mi-as,  [Ziitpzf,]  a  Greek  grammarian,  born  at 
Rhodes,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  Some 
fragments  of  his  poems  are  contained  in  the  "Anthologiu 
Grocca."  Another  writer  of  this  name  was  the  author  of  A 
historical  work,  not  extant. 

Simmias  OF  THEBES,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  a 
disciple  and  friend  of  Socrates,  at  whose  death  he  was 
present.  He  and  his  brother  Cebes  are  the  chief  speakers 
(besides  Socrates)  in  the  "  Phaedon"  of  Plato.  His 
works  are  not  extant. 

Sim'moiis,  (SAMUEL  FOART,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Kent  in  1752,  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  took 
his  medical  degree  at  Leyden.  Having  settled  in  Lon 
don,  he  was  appointed  physician  of  Saint  Luke's  Hos 
pital  and  to  George  III.,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  published  several  medical  works. 
Died  in  1813. 

Sinims,  (WILLIAM  GILMORE,)  an  American  novelist 
and  voluminous  writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Caro 
lina,  in  1806.  He  published  a  number  of  poetical  pieces 
at  an  early  age,  and  brought  out  in  1833  his  "  Atalantis, 
a  Story  of  the  Sea,"  which  is  esteemed  his  finest  poem. 
Among  his  numerous  romances  may  be  named  "Guy 
Rivers,"  (1834,)  "The  Vemassee,"  (1835,)  "The  Parti 
san,"  (1835,)  "Mellichampe,"  (1836,)  "  Pelayo,"  (1838,) 
"The  Wigwam  and  the  Cabin,"  and  "Katherine  Wal 
ton,"  (1851.)  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  South  Caro 
lina,"  (1840,)  a  "Life  of  Marion,"  (1844,)  and  other 
biographical  works,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
various  Reviews.  Died  in  June,  1870. 

See  GRISWOI.D,  "  Prp.se  Writers  of  America;"  DUYCKINCK, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  :  AU.IRONK,  "Dic 
tionary  of  Authors ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1846. 

Sim'nel,  (LAMBERT,)  an  English  impostor,  bom  at 
Oxford  about  1472,  was  the  son  of  a  joiner  or  baker.  In 
1486  he  assumed  to  be  Edward  Plantagenet,  Earl  of 
Warwick,  a  nephew  of  Richard  III.,  and  was  supported 
by  many  partisans  of  the  House  of  York.  The  army 
of  Simnel  was  defeated  by  the  royal  army  at  Stoke  in 
1487.  Simnel  was  taken  prisoner,  but  his  life  was 
spared. 

Simolin,  see'mo-leen',  (JOHANN  MATHIAS,)  an  emi 
nent  diplomatist,  born  at  Abo,  in  Finland,  was  employed 
by  the  Russian  empress  Catherine  on  important  mis 
sions  to  Austria,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  England.  Died 
in  1799. 

Simoliii,  (KARL  GUSTAV.)  BARON,  a  Russian  diplo 
matist,  born  at  Abo  in  1715.  He  was  ennobled  by 
Stanislas  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  Died  in  1777. 

Simon.     See  PKTF.R,  SAINT. 

Simon,  se'moN',  (EnouARD  THOMAS,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Troyes  in  1740;  died  in  1818. 

Simon,  (JF.AN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
in  Paris  in  1654;  died  in  1719. 

Si'moii,  (JoHN,)  an  English  surgeon  and  anatomist, 
born  in  1810,  studied  at  King's  College,  became  in  1844 
a  Fellow  of  the  CoTlege  of  Surgeons,  London,  and  was 
subsequently  appointed  medical  officer  to  the  general 
board  of  health.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Phys 
iology  of  the  Thymus  Gland,"  (1845,)  and  "Lectures  on 
General  Pathology,"  (1850.)  The  former  obtained  the 
Astley  Cooper  prize. 

Simon,  (JULES,)  sometimes  called  JULES  SIMON- 
SUISSK,  a  French  philosopher  and  legislator,  born  at 
Lorient  in  1814.  He  was  chosen  in  1839  by  M.  Cousin 
to  supply  his  place  as  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  lectured  about  twelve  years.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Studies  on  the  Theodicea  of 
Plato  and  Aristotle,"  (1840.)  a  "  History  of  the  School 
of  Alexandria,"  (2  vols.,  1844-45,)  anc^  "Natural  Re 
ligion,"  (1856.)  "  His  works,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale,"  "give  proof  of  profound  study,  and 
are  remarkable  for  elevation  of  thought."  In  1863  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislative  body  by  the 
voters  of  Paris,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  He  is  an  advanced  liberal 


in  politics.  In  1869  he  was  re-elected  to  the  legislative 
body,  and  in  September,  1870,  became  minister  of  public 
instruction  under  the  republic. 

Simon,  (RICHARD,)  an  eminent  and  liberal  French 
theologian  and  critic,  born  at  Dieppe  in  May,  1638,  was 
a  man  of  profound  learning.  He  entered  the  congrega 
tion  of  the  Oratory,  studied  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  College  of  Juilly. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Critical  History  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  (1678,)  which  was  condemned  as  unsound 
and  suppressed.  He  was  proscribed  by  Bossuet  as  a 
heretic,  and  was  expelled  from  the  Oratory.  He  was 
much  addicted  to  controversy,  and  was  very  tenacious 
of  his  opinions.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Critical  His 
tory  of  the  New  Testament,"  (1689.)  Died  at  Dieppe 
in  1712. 

See  NICRKON,  "Memoires:"  MORRRI,  "Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique;"  '•  Nouvelle  Biographic  G-;nerale." 

Simon,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  engraver  of  medals, 
born  about  1612.  lie  was  employed  as  engraver  to 
the  Mint  during  the  Commonwealth.  Died  in  1665. 

Si'mon  Maccabae'us  (mak-ka-bee'us)  orMat'thes, 
[Fr.  SIMON  MACIIABEK,  se'moN'  mf'shS'ba',]  called 
also  THA'SI,  was  the  brother  of  Judas  Maccabaeus.  lie 
succeeded  his  brother  Jonathan  in  143  r,.c.  as  high- 
priest  and  ruler  of  the  Jews.  He  formed  an  alliance 
with  Demetrius  Nicator,  of  Syria,  who  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Jews.  Jtulea  was  invaded  in  139 
by  an  army  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  which  Simon  defeated. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  son-in-law  Ptolemreus,  in 

135   B.C. 

Si'mon  Ma'gvis,  [Fr.  SIMON  I.F.  MAGICIEN,  se'moN' 
leh  mi'zhe'se^N'',  ]  a  magician  of  Samaria,  and  a  pre 
tended  convert  to  Christianity,  who  offered  money  to 
the  apostles  Peter  and  John  to  obtain  from  them  the 
power  of  conferring  the  Holy  Ghost.  For  this  he  was 
severely  rebuked  by  Peter. 

See  Acts  viii.  iS,  19.  20,  etc. 

Simon  de  Montfort.     See  MONTFORT,  DF. 

Simond,  se'moN',  (PHILIBKRT,)  a  Jacobin,  born  in 
Savoy  in  1755,  was  a  member  of  the  French  Convention 
of  1792.  He  was  proscribed  as  a  friend  of  Danton,  and 
executed  in  April,  1794. 

Simonde  de  Sismondi.     See  SISMONDI. 

Simone  da  Pesaro.     See  CANTARINI. 

Simoiiet,  sc'mo'n.y,  (EDMOND,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Langres  in  1662  ;  died  in 

1771 

Simoiietta,  se-mo-net'ta,  (BONIFAZIO,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  about  1430.  He  wrote  "  De  Persecu- 
tionibus  Christianas  Fidei  et  Romanorum  Pontificum," 
(1492.) 

Simoiietta,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  politician,  an 
uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Calabria  in  1410. 
He  became  the  chief  adviser  or  minister  of  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  and  had  much  power 
during  the  minority  of  that  prince's  son.  He  was  be 
headed,  by  order  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  in  1480. 

Simoiietta,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  historian,  a  bro 
ther  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Calabria.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Francesco  Sforza,"  (1480.)  Died 
about  1491. 

Simonide.     See  SIMONIDES. 

Si-moii'I-des  [Gr.  Si//uW($7?c;  Fr.  SiMONiDK,  se'mo'- 
ned'l  OF  AMOKCUS,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Samos, 
flourished  about  690-665  B.C.  lie  wrote  satires  in  the 
Iambic  metre.  His  satire  on  women  is  extant. 

See  K.  O.  MUI.I.KR,  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece." 

Simonides  OF  CEOS,  a  famous  Greek  lyric  poet, 
born  at  Julis,  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  about  556  B.C.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Athens  in  the  reign  of  Hipparchus, 
by  whom  he  was  patronized,  and  there  associated  with 
Anacreon.  After  the  death  of  Hipparchus  (about  514) 
he  retired  to  Thessaly.  He  returned  to  Athens  about 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  celebrated  the  victory 
of  Marathon  in  verse,  489  H.C.,  and  acquired  great  popu 
larity.  He  was  employed  by  the  Amphictyons  to  write 
inscriptions  for  the  tombs  of  those  who  fell  in  defence 
of  Greece  against  the  Persians.  For  those  who  fell  at 
Thermopylae  he  composed  an  inscription  which  may  be 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SIMONNEAU 


2023 


SINCLAIR 


translated,  "Stranger,  tell  the  Lacedaemonians  that  we 
lie  here  in  obedience  to  their  laws."  He  was  intimate 
with  Themistocles,  and  was  a  rival  of  Pindar.  His  lat 
ter  years  were  passed  at  the  court  of  Hieron  of  Syra 
cuse,  where  he  died  in  467  li.c.  His  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments.  He  excelled  in  epigram  and 
in  pathetic  poetry.  Many  witty  sayings  are  ascribed  to 
him.  lie  was  victorious  over  Aeschylus  in  a  contest  for 
the  prize  which  was  offered  for  the  best  elegy  on  those 
who  fell  at  Marathon.  He  was  greatly  distinguished 
for  his  moral  wisdom  and  moderation. 

See  Boissv,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Simonide,"  1755;  SCHNEI- 
UEWIN,  "  De  Vita  et  Carminibus  Simonidis  Cei,"  1835;  DUCKER, 
"  De  Simonide,"  1768;  F.  W.  RICIITKR,  "Simonides  der  Aeltere 
von  Kens  nach  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1836:  K.  O.  MULLER,  "History 
of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1830. 

Simomieau,  se'mo'no',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  en 
graver,  born  at  Orleans  in  1645.  He  engraved  the  works 
of  several  French  masters.  Died  in  1728. 

Simonueau,  (Louis,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1654,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1727. 

Simplicius,  sim-plish'e-us,  (Z^Tr/lkwo,)  a  Nee-Pla 
tonic  philosopher  and  commentator  on  Aristotle,  was 
born  in  Cilicia.  He  was  persecuted  as  a  pagan  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  who  closed  the  school  at  Athens  in  529  A.n. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle's  "Categories," 
"  De  Ccelo,"  and  "  De  Anima"  and  "  Physica  Ausculta- 
tio."  These  are  esteemed  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
Greek  commentaries  on  Aristotle  that  are  extant. 

See  HOFFMANN,  "  Bibliographicum  Lexicon  :"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale ;"  BUIILE,  "  Dissertatio  de  Simplicii  Vita,"  etc., 
1816. 

Simplicius,  sim-plish'c-u.s,  an  Italian  prelate,  born  at 
Tivoli,  (Tibur,)  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  467  A.D.  Died 
in  483. 

Simp'son,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  English  composer, 
born  about  1610  ;  died  about  1668. 

Simpson,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  writer  on  chro 
nology  and  theology,  born  at  Tottenham  in  1578.  He 
became  rector  of  Eastling,  Kent.  Among  his  works  is 
"Universal  Chronology,"  ("  Chronicon  Catholicum," 
1652.)  Died  in  1651. 

Simpson,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  British  general,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1792.  He  served  against  the  French  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812  and  1815,  and  subsequently 
under  Sir  Charles  Napier  in  India.  In  1855  he  suc 
ceeded  Lord  Raglan  as  commander  of  the  British  forces 
in  the  Crimea.  He  received  from  Napoleon  III.  the 
grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour.  Died  in  1868. 

Simp'son,  (Sir  JAMES  YOUNG,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  1811,  graduated  at  Edin 
burgh  in  1832.  He  became  professor  of  midwifery  in 
the  university  of  that  city  in  1840,  and  was  the  first  who 
employed  anresthetics  in  obstetric  practice,  (1847.)  In 
1856  he  received  from  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
the  Monthyon  prize  of  two  thousand  francs.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
Edinburgh,  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Acad 
emy  of  Medicine  and  of  other  similar  institutions.  He 
was  author  of  "Contributions  to  Obstetric  Pathology," 
"  Essays  on  Anaesthesia,"  and  other  medical  works. 
Died  in  1870. 

Simp'son,  (MATTHEW,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  barn  at  Cadiz,  Ohio,  ]»ne  21, 
1810.  While  he  was  still  an  infant,  his  father  died,  and 
the  care  of  his  education  devolved  upon  his  mother. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinary  English  branches,  he  began 
the  study  of  German  when  he  was  eight  years  of  age, 
and  the  following  year  read  the  Bible  through  in  the 
German  language.  He  afterwards  studied  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  He  graduated  as  a  physician  in  1833. 
lie  had  joined  the  Church  in  1829,  and  in  1839  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Indiana  Asbury  University, 
(Methodist.)  and  did  much  to  promote  the  usefulness 
and  success  of  that  institution.  In  1848  he  was  ap 
pointed  editor  of  "  The  Western  Christian  Advocate." 
He  was  elected  bishop  in  1852.  He  took  a  deep  in 
terest  in  the  national  cause  during  the  war  of  the  rebel 
lion,  and  by  his  zeal  and  eloquence  contributed  much  to 
strengthen  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  to  uphold 
.  the  hands  of  the  government  during  that  great  crisis  in 


our  country's  history.  Bishop  Simpson  was  an  intimate 
personal  friend  of  President  Lincoln. 

Simpson,  (THOMAS,)  an  able  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Market-Bosworth  in  1710.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  a  weaver,  and  practised  astrology  or  fortune-telling 
in  his  early  life.  About  1736  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  became  a  teacher  of  mathematics.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  New  Treatise  on  Fluxions,"  (1737,)  and  seve 
ral  works  on  mathematics.  In  1743  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich.  Died  in  1761. 

See  HUTTOX,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphie  Gene'rale." 

Simrock,  sim'rok  or  zim'rok,  fKARi.,)  a  distinguished 
German  poet  and  translator,  born  at  Bonn  in  1802.  He 
published  in  1827  a  translation  of  the  "  Nibelungenlied," 
and  in  1831  a  work  entitled  "Sources  of  Shakspeare's 
Plots  in  Novels,  Tales,  and  Legends,"  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Echtenneyer  and  Henschel.  He  also  trans 
lated  "  Tsventy  Songs  of  the  Nibelungen,"  (1840,)  pro 
nounced  genuine  by  Lachmann,  and  several  other  Ger 
man  poems  of  the  middle  ages.  Among  his  principal 
original  works  are  his  poem  of  "  Wieland  the  Smith," 
"  Legends  of  the  Rhine,  from  the  Mouths  of  the  People 
and  the  German  Poets,"  (1850,)  and  "M  uuial  of  Ger 
man  Mythology."  He  became  professor  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  at  Bonn  in  1850. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sims,  (JAMES,)  an  English  physician  and  botanist, 
born  at  Canterbury.  He  published  "Observations  on 
Epidemic  Disorders,"  (1773,)  "  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Midwifery,"  and  other  medical  works.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Linnaean  Society.  Died  in  1831. 

Sims,  (JAMES  MARION,)  a  distinguished  American 
surgeon,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1813.  He  removed 
in  1853  to  New  York,  where  he  was  instrumental  in 
founding  a  hospital  for  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of 
women. 

Simsou,  sim'son  or  zim'son,  (MARTIN  EDUARD,)  a 
German  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Konigsberg.  In 
1810  he  studied  at  Bonn  under  Niebuhr,  and  in  1836 
became  professor  of  law  at  Konigsberg.  In  1848  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  National  Assembly  at 
Frankfort. 

Sim'son,  (ROBERT,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Kirton  Hall,  Ayrshire,  in  1687.  He 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  1711,  and  continued  to  fill  that  chair  about 
fifty  years.  He  produced  an  edition  of  Euclid's  "Ele 
ments,"  which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  made  some 
discoveries  in  relation  to  the  porisms  of  the  ancients. 
Died  in  1768. 

See  WILLIAM  TRAIL,  "  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  R. 
Simson,"  1812;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Sina,  Ibn.     See  AVICENNA. 

Sinan,  se-nan',  (SCIPIONE  CICAI.E,)  an  Italian  rene 
gade,  born  about  1515.  He  became  a  Turkish  general 
and  grand  vizier.  Died  in  1595. 

Sin'clair,  (CATHERINE,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  John  Sin 
clair,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1800.  She  published 
numerous  tales  and  novels,  which  have  had  an  extensive 
circulation  :  among  these  we  may  name  "  Modern  Soci 
ety,"  "Beatrice,"  "Business  of  Life,"  and  "James  Bou- 
verie."  She  also  wrote  several  books  for  children,  the 
"  Kaleidoscope  of  Anecdotes  and  Aphorisms,"  "  Shet 
land  and  the  Shetlanders,"  etc.  Died  in  1864. 

Sinclair,  sin'klair,  ?  (CHARLES  GIDEON,)  BARON,  a 
Swedish  general  and  military  writer,  born  about  1730. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  many  campaigns  in  France, 
Prussia,  and  Saxony.  Died  in  1803. 

Sinclair,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  Scottish  statesman  and  phi 
lanthropist,  born  in  the  county  of  Caithness  in  1754. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  Oxford,  and  in  1780  rep 
resented  his  native  county  in  Parliament,  being  several 
times  re-elected.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his  efforts  to 
promote  internal  improvements  in  his  country,  originated 
the  board  of  agriculture,  of  which  he  became  first  presi 
dent,  and  founded  a  society  for  the  improvement  of  wool. 
Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  treatises,  which  em 
brace  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  may  be  named  his 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gttttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  ass,-  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  , 


SIN  CLARE 


2024 


SISEXNJ 


"  History  of  the  Revenue  of  Great  Britain,"  "  Considera 
tions  on  Militias  and  Standing  Armies,"  "  Essays  on 
Agriculture,"  and  "  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland.' 
The  last-named  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  Dice: 
in  1835. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionaryof  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;' 
"  Memoir  of  Sir  John  Sine, air,"  by  his  son,  1837  :  "  Edinburgh  Re 
view"  tor  April,    1803  ;  "  HiacUwood's   Magazine"  for   July,  1837 
"Monthly  Review"  for  June,  iSoS,  and  September,  1814. 

Sin'clare  or  Sinclair,  (GEORGE,)  a  Scottish  mathe 
matician  and  philosopher,  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Glasgow.  lie  published  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  a  work  entitled  "Satan's  Invisible  World  dis 
covered."  Died  in  1696. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Siii'dl-a  or  Sgin'di-ah,  (Dow'lut  R6w,)  a  Mah- 
ratta  chief,  born  about  1780,  was  a  grand-nephew  of 
Madajee,  noticed  below,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1794. 
He  was  involved  in  war  against  the  British,  who,  under 
Sir  A.  Wellesley,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  him  at 
Assaye  in  1803.  His  army  was  defeated  in  several 
battles  in  the  same  year,  and  he  was  forced  to  cede  a 
large  part  of  his  territories.  Died  in  1827. 

Sindia,  (Madajee  or  Madhajee,  ma-da'jee,)  a  cele 
brated  Mahratta  chief,  born  in  Hindostan  about  1741. 
'  He  was  a  warlike  and  energetic  prince,  made  extensive 
conquests,  and  became  master  of  Delhi.  His  dominions 
extended  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Nerbudda.  Died  in 
1794- 

Singh,  (Runjeet.)     See  RUNJKKT  SINGH. 

Sin'gle-ton,  (HENRY,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1766.  He  produced  both  historical  pictures 
and  portraits  ;  among  his  master-pieces  are  a  series  of 
illustrations  from  Shakspeare,  "Christ  Healing  the 
Blind,"  "  Coriolanus  and  his  Mother, "and  "  The  Storm 
ing  of  Seringapatam."  Died  in  1839. 

Singlin,  sa.N'gla.N',  (ANTOINK,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Paris,  was  confessor  to  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal. 
He  preached  with  much  unction.  It  is  stated  that  Pascal 
had  so  high  an  opinion  of  the  solidity  of  his  judgment 
that  he  read  all  his  works  to  Singlin  before  he  published 
them.  Died  in  1664. 

See  GOUJET,  "Vie  de  Singlin."  prefixed  to  Singlin's  "Instruc 
tions  chretiennes,"  12  vols.,  1736. 

Sinnamus.     See  CINNAMUS. 

Sinner,  sii/ner  or  zin/ner,  [Fr.  pron.  se'iiaiii',}  (Jo 
HANN  RUDOLF,)  a  Swiss  philologist,  born  at  Berne  in 
1730  ;  died  in  1787. 

Sinner,  de,  deli  se'naiR.',  (R.  G.  Louis,)  a  Swiss  Hel 
lenist,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1801.  He  published 
good  editions  of  Aristophanes,  Plato,  Euripides,  Sopho 
cles,  and  Xenophon,  (1829-47.) 

Si'iion,  [Gr.  Zivuv,]  a  semi-fabulous  or  fictitious  per 
son,  who,  according  to  Homer  and  Virgil,  acted  an  in 
sidious  part  in- the  siege  of  Troy.  They  relate  that  he 
presented  himself  to  the  Trojans  as  a  deserter  from  the 
Greek  army,  affirming  that  the  Greeks  had  abandoned 
the  siege,  and  that  he  ran  away  because  they  were  about 
to  offer  him  as  a  sacrifice.  By  his  artful  tale  and  well- 
feigned  passion  he  imposed  on  the  credulous  Trojans, 
and  persuaded  them  to  introduce  the  wooden  horse  into 
Troy. 

See  VIRGIL'S  "  JEne\d,"  book  ii.,  57-198. 

Sintenis,  sin'teh-nis  or  zin'teh-nis,  (CHRISTIAN 
FKIKDRICH,)  a  German  theologian  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1750.  His  voluminous  works 
comprise  sermons,  educational  treatises,  and  moral  and 
religious  romances.  Died  in  1820. 

Siuteiiis,  (KARL  FKIEDRICII  FERDINAND,)  a  German 
jurist,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zerbst 
in  1804. 

Siofn,  se-6f'n',  written  also  Se-o'na,  [etymology 
doubtful,]  a  goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  whose 
office  it  is  to  inspire  the  passion  of  love.  She  may  be 
said  to  be  a  sort  of  female  Cupid.  From  her  name  a 
lover  is  called  Siafiti. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  MAI.I.ET,  "  North 
ern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XVIII. 

Sionita,  (GABRIEL.)     See  GABRIEL. 
Sirani,  se-ra'nee,  (EUSABRTTA,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born   at    Bologna  in   1638,  was  a  daughter   of 


Giovanni  Andrea,  noticed  below.  She  imitated  the 
second  manner  of  Guido  with  success,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation.  Died  in  1665. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  C.  BONAFEDE, 
"  El  snbetta  Sirani  Azione  storico-drammatica,"  1856. 

Sirani,  (GIOVANNI  ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1610,  was  a  successful  imitator  of  the  style 
of  Guido.  Died  in  1670. 

Si'reiii,  singular  Si'ren,  [Gr.  2etp//rec,  (singular 
Zetfifjv :)  Lat.  SIRI-/NE.S  or  SK.IRE'NES  ;  Fr.  SIRENES, 
se'rin',]  mythical  beings,  who  were  supposed  to  have 
the  power  of  enchanting  all  who  heard  them  sing.  Ac 
cording  to  Homer  and  other  poets,  they  lived  in  an 
island  near  the  coast  of  Italy,  where  they  sat  in  a  meadow 
near  the  shore  and  allured  those  who  were  sailing  past 
the  island  ;  and  whoever  listened  to  their  song  forgot 
his  home  and  remained  with  the  Sirens  until  he  perished 
or  became  brutalized. 

Siret,  se'ri',  (Al)oLl'HK,)  a  Belgian  litterateur,  born 
at  Beaumont,  in  Hainault,  about  1805.  He  published, 
besides  several  poems  and  dra'mas,  a  "Historical  Dic 
tionary  of  Painters  of  all  Schools,"  (1848.) 

Siret,  (Louis  PIERRE,)  a  French  grammarian,  born 
at  Evreux  in  1745,  published  good  works  on  English 
and  Italian  grammar  for  French  students.  Died  in 

1797; 

Siret,  (PiERRE  HUBERT,)  a  French  preacher,  born  at 
Rlieims  in  1754;  died  in  1834. 

Sirey,  se'ri',  (]E\N  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Sarlat  (Pe'rigord)  in  1762,  published  several  legal 
works.  Died  in  1845. 

Siri,  see'ree,  (VITTORIO,)  an  Italian  monk  and  his 
torian,  born  at  Parma  about  1615,  was  patronized  by 
Louis  X  I  V.  of  France,  who  made  him  his  almoner  and 
historiographer.  lie  conducted  for  many  years  a  jour 
nal  entitled  "Mercurio  Politico,"  (15  vols.,)  which  treats 
of  events  that  occurred  from  1635  to  1655.  He  also 
published  "Secret  Memoirs,"  ("Memorie  recondite,") 
a  journal  in  8  vols.  Died  in  1685. 

Siricius,  se-rish'c-us,  [Fr.  SMUCE,  se'ress',]  born  at 
Rome  about  324  A.D.,  was  elected  Pope  or  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  384.  He  issued  decrees  against  the  Mani- 
cheans,  Donatists,  and  other  heretics.  Died  in  398. 

Siries,  see're-eV,  (VIOLANTE  BEATRICE,)  an  Italian 
portrait-painter,  born  in  1710;  died  about  1760. 

Sirleto,  seR-Ia'to,  [Lat.  SIRI.E'TUS;  Fr.  SIRI.ET,  SCR'- 
Ii',]  (Gur.i.iEi.Mo,)  a  learned  Italian  cardinal,  born  in 
Calabria  in  1514.  He  became  keeper  of  the  library  of 
the  Vatican  in  1549.  He  acted  as  intermediary  between 
the  pope  and  the  Council  of  Trent  about  1560.  Died 
in  1585. 

Sirietus.     See  SIRLETO. 

Sirmoiid,  SCR'HION',  [Lat.  SIRMOND'US,]  (JACQUES,) 
a  learned  French  Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Riom  in 
1559,  vvas  for  a  time  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Paris.  lie 
subsequently  examined  the  archives  of  the  convents, 
where  he  obtained  many  valuable  manuscripts.  Among 
these  he  published  editions  of  Apollinaris  Sidonius,  the 
"Chronicles"  of  Idatius  and  Marceliinus,  the  "Opus 
cules"  of  Geo.Troi,  Abbe  de  Vendome,  and  other  writers 
of  the  middle  ages.  Sirmond  was  appointed  in  1637 
confessor  to  Louis  XI I  \.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1651. 

See  BRIET,  "  Eulbgium  J.  Sirmondi,"  1653;  COI.OMIES,  "Vie  du 
Pere  Sirmond,"  1671  ;  "  Nouvelle  liiographie  Generale." 

Sirmond,  (JEAN,)  a  wiiter,  born  at  Riom  about  1589, 
was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  member  of 
:he  French  Academy,  and  received  a  pension  from  Riche- 
'ieu.  Died  in  1649. 

See  MoR^RI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sis'e-but  [Lat.  SISKHU'TUS]  was  elected  King  of  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain  in  612  A.D.  lie  was  a  zealous  pro- 
essor  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  was  an  able  ruler. 
Died  in  620  A.D. 

Si-seii'na,  (Lucius  CORNELIUS,)  a  Roman  annalist, 
)orn  about  118  B.C.  He  was  prretor  about  78  B.C.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  Roman  history,  entitled  "  Ilistoriae," 
which  was  praised  by  Cicero,  ("Brutus"  and  "De  Legi- 

JUS.") 

See  KARL  L.  ROTH,  "L.  C.  Sisennaj  Vita,"  1834. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


S1S1FO 


2025 


SIVA 


Sisifo.     See  SISYPHUS. 

Si-sin'ni-us,  a  native  of  Syria,  became  pope  at  the 
death  of  John  VI  I.,  in  708.  He  died  in  the  next  month. 

Sismondi,  sis-mon'dee,  [It.  pron.  ses-mon'dee,]  de, 
[Fr.  pron.  deli  ses'm6N'de',]  (JEAN  CHARLES  LEONARD 
Si  MONDE,)  an  eminent  Swiss  historian  and  publicist,  of 
Tuscan  extraction,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  gth  of 
May,  1773.  He  was  educated  in  the  College  of  Geneva, 
and  became  a  clerk  in  the  counting-house  of  a  merchant 
or  banker  in  Lyons.  In  consequence  of  the  civil  war,  he 
left  this  position  in  1792  and  visited  England,  the  lan 
guage  and  institutions  of  which  he  appears  to  have 
studied  with  much  attention.  In  1795  he  removed  with 
his  father  to  Val  Chiusa,  Tuscany,  where  he  was  employed 
as  a  farmer  for  five  years.  He  returned  to  Geneva  in 
1800,  and  published  a  work  "On  Commercial  Riches," 
(2  vols.,  1803,)  in  which  he  advocated  the  doctrines  of 
Adam  Smith.  Soon  after  this  event  he  formed  a  friend 
ship  with  Madame  de  Stael,  with  whom  he  travelled  in 
Italy  and  Germany,  (1804-08.)  By  the  advice  of  his 
mother,  lie  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  history. 
In  1807  he  published  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  an 
important  work,  "The  History  of  the  Italian  Repub 
lics,"  which  was  received  with  favour.  The  sixteenth 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1818.  "  Sistnondi,"  says 
Mignet,  "has  traced  this  history  with  vast  learning,  a 
noble  spirit,  a  vigorous  talent,  sufficient  art,  and  much 
eloquence."  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "  Uio- 
graphie  Universelle"  of  Midland.  In  1819  he  married 
Miss  Allen,  an  English  lady  and  a  sister-in-law  of  Sir 
James  Mackintosh.  About  this  time  Guizot  offered  to 
him  a  professorship  in  the  College  of  France,  but  he 
declined  it.  He  expended  many  years  in  writing  his 
"  History  of  the  French,"  ("  Histoire  des  Frai^ais,"  30 
vols.,  1821-44,)  which  some  critics  consider  his  best 
work.  Sismondi  was  a  Protestant  and  a  republican. 
His  moral  character  is  highly  commended.  He  died  at 
Geneva  in  1842,  leaving  no  children. 

See  "Vie  de  Sismondi,"  Paris,  1845;  LOMENIK,  "  Galerie  des 
Contemporains,"  tome  vii.  ;  K.  A.  A.  MIGNET,  "Notice  historique 
sur  la  Vie  de  M.  de  Sismondi,  '  1845  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1812,  and  September, 
1843;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1815;  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1829. 

Sisto,  the  Italian  of  SIXTUS,  which  see. 

Sisto  Rosa.     See  BADALOCCHIO. 

Sis'y-phus,  [Gr.  2tcw<pof;  Fr.  SISYPHE,  se'sef  ;  It. 
SISIFO,  see'se-fo,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Corinth,  was  called 
a  son  of  yKolus,  a  brother  of  Cretheus,  Athainas,  and 
Salmoneus,  and  the  husband  of  Merope.  He  was  ex 
tremely  crafty  and  deceitful.  The  poets  feigned  that 
when  Death  was  sent  to  take  him  he  outwitted  Death 
and  bound  him  in  fetters  ;  and  that  for  his  various  crimes 
he  was  doomed  in  the  infernal  regions  to  roll  up  hill  a 
large  stone,  which,  as  soon  as  it  reached  the  top,  rolled 
down  again.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was  the 
father  of  Ulysses. 

Sita,  see'ta,  written  also  Seeta,  in  the  Hindoo  my 
thology,  the  name  of  the  beautiful  and  spotless  wife  of  the 
god  Rama.  As  Rama  was  an  avatar  of  Vishnu,  so  Sita 
is  regarded  as  an  avatar  of  Lakshmi.  (See  RAMA.) 

Siun-  (or  Seun-)  King,  se-u\  king,  a  Chinese  phi 
losopher,  regarded  by  many  as  the  ablest  of  all  the  fol 
lowers  of  Confucius,  flourished  from  about  270  to  220 
K.C.  He  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  doctrine  of  Mencius 
that  man  is  naturally  good.  He  maintained,  on  the 
contrary,  that  "  the  nature  of  man  is  evil  ;  that  the  good 
which  it  shows  is  factitious,  (or  artificial.")  lie  supports 
his  position  with  great  ingenuity  and  force  of  reasoning. 
He  says,  if  man's  nature  were  good,  men  would  not  need 
to  be  continually  taught  and  governed  ;  they  would  do 
right  spontaneously.  To  live  properly  and  virtuously 
requires  continual  self-denial  ;  but  why  deny  our  natural 
inclinations,  if  these  are  good?  "A  straight  piece  of 
wood,"  he  says,  "  does  not  need  the  pressing-boards  to 
make  it  straight:  it  is  so  by  its  nature.  A  crooked 
piece  of  wood  must  be  submitted  to  the  pressing-boards 
to  soften  and  straighten  it,  because  it  is  not  straight  by 
its  nature."  As  man  is  naturally  crooked  and  perverse, 
his  nature  needs  to  be  corrected  by  the  government  of 
wise  rulers  and  the  restraints  of  just  laws.  (See  Legge's 
"Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii.  page  2  and  pages  81-91.) 


Siva,  see'vi,  the  goddess  of  harvests  among  the 
Wends  and  some  other  northern  nations.  She  is  called 
in  the  Norse  mythology  SIK,  which  see. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  179. 

Siv'a  or  Qiva,  commonly  pronounced  (in  English) 
and  sometimes  written  See' va,  spelled  also  Shiva,  [from 
the  Sanscrit  adjective  shfv&s,  sMvd,  sMvam,  "prosper 
ous,"  "  happy,"]  the  usual  name  of  one  of  the  gods  of 
the  Hindoo  triad  ;  also  popularly  known  as  Mahaddva, 
ma-ha'  da'va,  (generally  called  by  the  common  people 
of  India  Mahadeo,  ma-ha'  da'o,)  or  the  "great  god." 
Mahesa  (ma-ha'sa)  is  another,  and  one  of  the  most 
common,  of  his  many  names.  He  may  be  said  to  repre 
sent  the  destructive  powers  of  nature  ;  and  since,  in  the 
present  order  of  things,  destruction  seems  necessary  to 
prepare  the  way  for  a  renewal  of  life,  he  is  also  believed 
to  preside  over  generation  or  reproduction.  In  this  lat 
ter  character  his  power  is  typified  by  the  phallic  emblem 
called  in  Sanscrit  the  Linga  (ling'ga)  or  Lingam  ;  which 
is  commonly,  if  not  invariably,  found  in  temples  or  places 
dedicated  to  his  worship.  Among  the  gods  of  classic 
mythology  the  character  of  Saturn,  or  Time,  (who  both 
produces  and  destroys,)  would,  in  its  leading  features, 
seem  most  to  resemble  that  of  Siva;  but  the  attributes 
and  offices  of  the  Hindoo  deity  are  so  multitudinous 
that  we  must  seek  his  counterpart,  not  in  one,  but  in 
several,  of  the  Western  divinities.  As  being  the  might 
iest  of  all  the  gods,  as  he  is  usually  regarded  at  least  by 
the  common  people,  and  as  his  name  Mahadeva  would 
appear  to  imply,  he  may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the 
Zeus  (or  Jupiter)  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  and,  if  we 
take  simply  the  radical  part  of  the  two  names,  Zen  or 
Zev*  and  SiiA  or  S/u'vJ  the  resemblance  might  well 
seem  to  be  something  more  than  a  mere  accident.  Add 
to  this  that  Siva  is  represented  with  three  eyes,  (one  in 
the  middle  of  his  forehead,)  whence  he  was  surnamed 
in  Sanscrit  triloc/iand,  (or  "three-eyed,")  and  that  the 
Greek  triophthalmos,  having  exactly  the  same  meaning, 
was  also  an  epithet  of  Zeus.J  It  is,  moreover,  expressly 
stated  by  Hindoo  authorities  that  Siva  had  a  thousand 
separate  names.  Zeus  also  had  a  multitude  of  names; 
in  the  noble  hymn  to  Jupiter  by  Cleanthes  the  god  is 
addressed  as  TTO/.VUVV/IE,  "thou  many-named."  (See, 
on  this  subject,  Sir  William  Jones's  article  "On  the 
Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,,  and  India,"  in  vol.  i.  of  "  Asiatic 
Researches.") 

In  India,  a  country  where  the  vegetation  is  so  often 
destroyed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  would  be  natural  to 
associate  not  only  fire  or  heat,  but  the  sun  itself,  with 
the  destroying  power.  Accordingly,  not  only  fire§  in 
general,  but  the  sun  in  particular,  is  considered  to  be 
one  of  the  many  forms  of  Siva.  Again,  cold,  another 
cause  of  the  destruction  of  life,  would  seem  to  be  an 
especial  favourite  with  Mahadeva,  who  is  said  to  have 
seleoted  the  inaccessible  snows  of  Mount  Kailasa  (or 
Cailasa)  as  his  permanent  abode.  There  his  devoted 
consort  Parvati  (i.e.  the  "mountain-born")  is  ever  at 


*  As  it  may  have  been  pronounced  by  the  ancients,  and  as  it  is 
pronounced  by  the  modern  Greeks. 

t  So  called  iu  the  common  dialect  of  India. 

J  We  are  told  by  Pausanias  that  a  statue  of  Zens  had  been  found 
having  a  third  eye  in  his  forehead. 

§  There  is  iu  one  of  the  Pmanas  a  singular  legend,  which  runs 
substantially  as  follows:  One  day,  as  Brahma  and  Vishnu  were  dis 
puting  which  was  the  elder,  Siva  came  between  them  in  great  wrath, 
saying,  "  It  is  I  who  am  truly  the  first  born;  but  I  will  yield  my  pre 
tensions  to  either  of  yon  who  shall  be  able  to  reach  or  behold  the 
summit  of  my  head  or  the  soles  of  my  feet."  Brahma  instantly 
ascended,  but,  having  searched  in  vain  in  the  regions  of  immensity, 
he  returned  and  falsely  declared  that  he  had  seen  the  crown  of 
Siva's  head.  When  Vishnu  came  back  from  his  search,  he  frankly 
acknowledged  he  had  not  been  able  to  find  the  teet  of  Siva.  There 
upon  Mahadeva  cut  off  the  fifth  head  of  Brahma  for  his  falsehood, 
leaving  him  only  four.  This  story  seems  at  first  sight  sufficiently 
absurd  ;  but  if  we  may  suppose  that  the  Hindoos  were  acquainted 
with  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  (and  why  may  not  the  nation 
which  \vas  in  advance  of  all  others  in  some  departments  of  mathe 
matics  and  astronomy  have  known  something  also  of  geology?)  the 
explanation  of  the  fable  is  simple  enough.  Brahma  is  the  earth  ; 
Vishnu,  water,  (including  the  sea  ;)  Siva,  fire  in  all  its  forms.  As  the 
highest  parts  of  the  eartli  (the  mountains)  can  never  reach  the 
heavenly  fire,  (the  sun,)  so  the  sea  can  never  reach  the  feet  or  lowest 
part  of  the  internal  fire  of  the  earth.  Brahma's  four  heads  are  doubt 
less  the  four  corners  of  the  earth  ;  the  fifth  head  may  possibly  have 
been  some  mountain  whose  summit  (like  that  of  Vesuvius  iu  the  year 
79  A.D.)  was  carried  away  by  volcanic  fire. 


<;  as  k;  9  as  t;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SWAJ1 


2026 


SKELTON 


his  side.  It  is  related  that  on  a  certain  occasion,  in 
beseeching  a  favour  of  her  lord, — or,  as  some  say,  in 
mere  playfulness,— she  placed  one  of  her  hands  upon 
his  forehead  ;  his  middle  eye  (the  sun)  was  completely 
eclipsed,  and,  although  she  instantly  took  her  hand 
away,  the  period  of  darkness  seemed  an  age  to  the  in 
habitants  of  the  earth.  When  she  removed  her  hand, 
it  was  covered  with  the  perspiration  from  Siva's  temples. 
Shaking  off  the  moisture,  she  produced  the  Ganges.  The 
fable  is  related  variously,  but  the  universal  tradition  is 
that  the  Ganges  sprang  from  Siva's  hair  ;  and  in  many  of 
his  pictures  it  is  seen  flowing  from  the  top  of  his  head. 

As  the  destroying  power,  the  office  of  Siva  is  to  rid  the 
world  of  monsters,  wicked  men  or  evil  giants;  although 
in  this  capacity  his  Sakti  (Kali  or  Durga)  is  more  usually 
employed.  (See  KAi.f  and  PARVATI.)  As  presiding  over 
generation,  he  is  Worshipped  with  offerings  by  those  who 
are  desirous  of  obtaining  offspring,  in  this  character 
he  is  sometimes  represented  as  Aidha-Nari,  or  Ardha- 
Narisha,  (see  VIKAJ,)  a  being  combining  the  two  sexes 
or  two  principles,  male  and  female,  of  which  the  Linga 
(or  Ling)  and  Yoni  are  the  respective  symbols. 

Siva  has  a  great  multitude  of  names,  as  Sambhu,*  (or 
Shambhu,)  Kudra.t  (roocl'ra,)  and  Nilakantha,  (nee'la- 
kiin't'ha,)  i.e.  the  "  blue-throated,"  because,  when  the 
gods  and  Asms  churned  the  ocean,  there  came  forth  a 
poison  of  such  deadly  power  that  it  would  have  destroyed 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  had  not  Siva  come  to  the 
rescue  and  swallowed  it ;  its  only  effect  was  to  leave  a 
dark-blue  mark  on  his  neck  or  throat,  whence  he  is  often 
called  the  "blue-throated."  He  is  also  styled  iswaraor 
Isa,  (or  lea,)  i.e.  "  ruler."  Mahesa  is  a  contraction  of 
Maha  Isa,  i.e.  the  "  Great  Ruler. 

A  worshipper  of  Siva  is  called  by  the  Hindoos  SAIVA, 
(si'va.)  It  may  be  remarked  that  while  the  pious  Hindoos 
render  a  sort  of  homage  to  all  the  gods,  they  have  certain 
favourites  to  whom  they  dedicate  an  especial  worship. 

In  pictures,  Siva  is  sometimes  represented  with  one, 
and  sometimes  with  five  heads,  usually  riding  on  awhile 
bull  called  Nandi.  Like  his  consort  Kali,  he  is  generally 
adorned  with  a  necklace  of  human  skulls,  and  often  has  a 
trident  (trisilla)  in  his  hand.  He  frequently  holds  an 
antelope  in  one  of  his  hands,  typical  perhaps  of  his  skill 
as  a  hunter.  His  son  Ganesa  is  usually  near  at  hand, 
sometimes  as  an  infant  in  the  arms  of  Parvati,  and  some 
times  as  an  attendant  waiting  on  his  parents. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  GUIGNIAUT,  "Religions  de 
I'Antiquile,"  vol.  i.  book  i.  chap.  ii. 

Sivaji.     See  SEVAJKK. 

Six,  s!x,  (JoHN,)a  Dutch  dramatic  poet,  born  in  1618 
in  Amsterdam,  of  which  he  became  burgomaster.  His 
tragedy  of  "Medea"  was  much  admired.  Died  in  1700 

See  DE  BOSCH,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollnndaise." 

Sixte.     See  SIXTUS. 

Six'tus  [Fr.  SIXTE,  sekst ;  It.  SISTO,  ses'to]  I.,  a 
bishop  of  Rome,  of  who-n  little  is  known,  succeeded 
Alexander  I.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  128  A.I). 

Sixtus  II.  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  257  A.D.,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Valerianus  in  258  A. D. 

Sixtus  III.  succeeded  Celestine  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome 
in  431  A.D.  Died  in  440. 

Sixtus  IV.,  (FRANCESCO  della  Rovere — del'la  ro- 
va'ra,)  POPE,  born  about  1414,  succeeded  Paul  II.  in 
1471.  He  was  an  accomplice  or  abettor  of  the  Pazzi, 
who  conspired  against  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  he  ex 
communicated  Lorenzo  for  hanging  the  Archbishop  of 
Pisa.  The  clergy  of  Florence  supported  Lorenzo  and 
openly  condemned  the  conduct  of  the  pope.  He  ren 
dered  himself  unpopular  by  his  nepotism,  simony,  and 
other  vices.  Died  in  1484. 

See  PI.ATINA,  "De  Vitis  Pontificum ;"  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR, 
"  Histoire  des  Pontifes  Romains." 

Sixtus  V.,  [Fr.  SIXTK-QUINT,  sekst'kaN' ;  Lat.  SIX' 
TUS  QUIN'TUS,]  whose  original  name  was  Felix  Pe- 
retti,  was  born  near  Montalto  in  1521,  and  in  1585 
succeeded  Gregory  XIII.  as  pope.  As  a  ruler  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  energy  and  munificent  spirit  :  he 
constructed  the  Vatican  Library,  the  obelisk  in  the  piazza 


*  From  the  Sanscrit  shUmbhtt,  "prosperous." 

t  Signifying  a  "storm,"  or  "  stormy,"  according  to  some  writers. 


of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  the  great  aqueduct  called  by 
his  name,  and  other  magnificent  public  works.  lie  also 
founded  several  colleges,  published  editions  of  the  Vul 
gate  and  the  Septuagint,  and  edited  the  works  of  Saint 
Ambrose.  Died  in  1589.  He  was  succeeded  by  Urban 
VII.  It  is  reported  that  Sixtus  V.,  before  his  election, 
simulated  the  infirmities  of  old  age  so  artfully  that 
the  cardinals  thought  he  had  not  long  to  live  ;  but  as 
soon  as  he  became  pope  he  threw  away  his  crutch  and 
astonished  them  by  his  vigour. 

See  TKMPESTI,  "  Storia  della  Vita  e  Gesti  di  Sisto  V.,"  1754; 
RANKE,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  V.  ROBAKDI,  "  Sixti  V.  Gesta," 
1500;  J.  LORENTZ,  "Sixtus  V.  nnd  seine  Zeit,"  1852:  G.  ROGKRI, 
"Vita'di  Sisto  V.  ;"  "Life  of  Sixtus  V.,"  by  G.  LETI,  (translated 
from  the  Italian  ;)  SHGRETAIN,  "Sixte  Vet  Henri  IV,"  1861; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sixtus  OF  SIENNA,  an  Italian  monk  and  popular 
preacher,  born  at  Sienna  in  1520.  He  wrote  "Sacred 
Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Sancta,"  1586.)  Died  in  1569. 

Sjoberg  or  Sjoeberg,  sho'beug,  (EKIK,)  a  Swedish 
poet,  born  in  Sodermanland  in  1794.  He  published  in 
18193  collection  of  lyrics  under  the  signature  of  VITALIS, 
which  gave  him  a  high  reputation.  He  also  translated 
into  Swedish  some  of  the  works  of  Washington  Irving. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sjogren  or  Schoegren,  sho'guen,  (ANDREAS  Jo- 
IIAN,)  a  distinguished  philologist,  born  in  Finland  in 
1794.  lie  studied  at  the  University  of  Abu,  and  sub 
sequently  resided  in  Russia.  He  was  appointed  in  1833 
adjunct  librarian  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  in  1845  director  of  the  Ethnographical  Museum  of 
that  institution.  lie  published  an  "Ossetic  Grammar 
and  Vocabulary,"  (1844,  in  German,)  a  treatise  "On 
the  Finnish  Language  and  Literature,"  and  other  similar 
works  of  a  high  character.  Died  in  1855. 

Skadi,  ska'de,  or  Ska'Si,  ska'the,  (from  skada,  to 
"  injure,"  cognate  with  the  Danish  shade,  the  German 
schaden,  and  the  English  scat/i,]  in  the  Norse  mythol 
ogy,  the  daughter  of  the  Jb'tun  Thiassi,  (or  Thjassi,) 
and  the  wife  of  Njord,  with  whom,  however,  she  does 
not  live  harmoniously.  Njord  prefers  the  fertile  plains 
wear  the  sea,  or  the  ocean  ruled  by  gentle  winds,  (see 
NJORD  ;)  but  Skadi  delights  in  the  storms  of  the  moun 
tains.  Her  dwelling  is  called  Thrymheim,  (the  "home 
or  habitation  of  storms.")  She  excels  in  running  on 
snow-shoes,  and  in  shooting  with  her  bow  the  wild  beasts 
of  the  mountain. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  KKYSER,  "Re 
ligion  of  the  Northmen." 

Skanda.     See  KARTIKEYA. 

Skanderbeg.     See  SCANI>ERI;E(;. 

Skarbek,  skau'bek,  (FRICDKIK  KI.ORIAN,)  COUNT,  a 
popular  Polish  writer,  born  at  Thorn  in  1792,  was  ap 
pointed  in  1818  professor  of  political  economy  at  the 
University  of  Warsaw.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Theory  of  Financial  Science,"  (1824,)  "Theory  of 
Social  Wealth,"  (in  French,)  and  a  collection  of  "Tales 
and  Humorous  Writings,"  (6  vols.,  1840,)  which  have 
won  for  him  a  high  reputation. 

Skarga,  skan'ga,  (PlOTR  PAWKLSKI,)  a  celebrated 
pulpit  orator  and  theologian,  surnamed  THE  POLISH 
CHRYSOSTOM,  born  in  Masovia  in  1536.  Having  entered 
the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  he  contributed  greatly  by 
his  eloquence  to  the  establishment  of  Catholicism  in 
Poland.  He  was  for  many  years  court  preacher  to 
Sigismund  III.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  ser 
mons,  and  of  "  Lives  of  the  Saints,"  which  is  esteemed 
a  model  of  elegance  in  style,  and  has  passed  through 
many  editions.  Died  in  1612. 

Skel'ton,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  poet  and  scholar,  born 
about  1460.  Having  studied  at  Cambridge  and  taken 
holy  orders,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  afterwards  Henry  VIII.  He  was  the  author  of 
satires,  elegies,  and  religious  pieces.  His  learning  is 
highly  commended  by  Erasmus.  Died  in  1529. 

See  article  entitled  "Satirical  Laureate  of  the  Sixteenth  Century," 
in  the  "Dublin  University  Magazine"  for  January.  1X67  ;  "Retro 
spective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  1822;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  March, 
1844. 

Skel'ton,  (PHILIP,)  an  Irish  divine,  born  in  1707, 
was  the  author  of  "  Deism  Revealed,"  and  "  Proposals 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SK1NF4XI 


2O27 


SLIKGEL4KDT 


for  the  Revival  of  Christianity."    The  latter  was  ascribed 
to  Dean  Swift.     Died  in  1787. 

Skinfaxi.     See  Noitvi. 

Skin'ner,  (EZEKIEL,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  Baptist  divine,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1777;  died 
in  1855. 

Skin'ner,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  the  county  of  Aberdeen  in  1721.  He  published  an 
"Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scotland,"  and  a  number  of 
popular  lyrics.  Died  in  1807. 

Skinner,  (Jo UN  STUART,)  an  American  journalist 
and  agricultural  writer,  born  in  Maryland  in  1788.  In 
1819  he  became  editor  of  the  "American  Farmer,"  the 
first  agricultural  journal  published  in  the  United  States. 
He  afterwards  edited  successively  the  "Turf  Register," 
"The  Farmer's  Library  and  Agricultural  Journal,"  and 
"  The  Plough,  The  Loom,  and  The  Anvil."  Died  in  1851. 

Skinner,  (RICHARD,)  an  American  jurist  and  states 
man,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1778.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1812,  and  in  1817  chief  justice 
of  Vermont,  and  was  subsequently  twice  elected  Gov 
ernor  of  that  State.  Died  in  1833. 

Skin'ner,  (STEPHEN,)  an  English  philologist  and 
physician,  born  in  London  in  1623.  He  studied  at  Ox 
ford,  and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Heidelberg.  He 
died  in  1667,  leaving  unfinished  an  etymological  dic 
tionary  of  the  English  language,  which  was  published, 
with  additions,  by  Thomas  Henshaw,  under  the  title  of 
"Etymologicon  Linguae  Anglicanae." 

Skinner,  (THOMAS  HARVEY,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Harvey's  Neck,  North 
Carolina,  in  1791.  He  became  in  1848  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology  at  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  He  has  published 
"Hints  to  Christians,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Skoda,  sko'da,  (JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished  physician, 
born   at   Pilsen,  in   Bohemia,  in    1805.      He  became  in  i 
1846  professor  of  clinics  at  Vienna,  and  in  1848  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Skovoroda,  sko-vo-ro'da,  known  also  as  GREGORY 
SAVITCH,  a  Russian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  near 
Kief  about  1730.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  and, 
after  his  return  to  the  Ukraine,  devoted  himself  to  the 
work  of  reconciling  the  so-called  United  Greeks  with  the 
national  Church.  He  died  in  1778,  leaving  a  number  of 
poems,  moral  fables,  and  a  prose  work  entitled  "  Sym- 
phonon,"  also  some  translations  from  the  Homilies  of 
Saint  Chrysostom.  He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest 
writer  the  Ukraine  has  produced. 

Skrym'mr,  Skrym'iier,  or  Skrym'er,  [supposed 
to  be  so  called  from  Skrum,  "show,"  "feint,"  on  account 
of  the  illusions  which  he  practised,]  the  name  of  a 
mighty  giant,  (mentioned  in  the  Edda,)  who  baffled, 
with  his  magic  illusions,  all  the  prowess  of  Thor.  The 
god  of  thunder  is  said  to  have  struck,  with  his  terrible 
Miolnir,  the  sleeping  Skrymnir  on  his  head,  putting  forth 
all  his  might.  The  giant  awoke,  and  asked  whether 
some  small  leaf  or  a  grain  of  dust  had  not  fallen  on  his 
head.  The  myth  of  Skrymnir  is  supposed  to  typify  the 
unconquerable  might  of  a  Northern  winter. 

For  a  particular  account  of  Thor's  adventures  with  Skrymnir.  see 
MAI.I.ET,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fables  XXIII.'-XXVI.  ; 
THORPE.  ''Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  57-65. 

Skrzyiiecki,  skzhe-net'skee,  (JoHN,)  a  Polish  gene 
ral,  born  in  Galicia  in  1787,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  army  of  Napoleon  against  the  Austrians  and  Rus 
sians,  and,  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 
of  1830,  succeeded  Prince  Radziwill  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Polish  forces.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Poles 
at  Ostrolenka,  (1831,)  he  was  deprived  of  his  command, 
and  retired  to  Belgium,  where  he  resided  till  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  in  1860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Hiographie  Generale." 

Skytte,  skut'teh  or  skit'teh,  (JoHAN,)  called  also 
Schroderus,  a  Swedish  statesman  and  writer,  born  at 
Nykoping  in  1577.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Gustavus  ! 
Adolphus,  who  appointed  him  president  of  the  chamber 
of  accounts  in  1620.  He  was  employed  in  several 
foreign  missions,  and  obtained  the  dignity  of  senator. 
Died  in  1645. 

See  NEIKTER,  "  Monumenta  et  Liters  Historian!  J.  Skytte  illus- 
trantes,"  1802. 


Slade,  (ADOLPHUS,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born 
about  1804.  He  entered  the  Turkish  naval  service, 
in  which  he  effected  several  reforms.  He  published 
"  Records  of  Travels  in  Turkey." 

Slade,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in 
Cornwall,  Vermont,  in  1786.  He  served  in  Congress 
from  1831  to  1843,  distinguished  himself  by  his  oppo 
sition  to  slavery,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Vermont 
in  1844.  Died  in  1859. 

Sla'ter,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  artisan  and  mecha 
nician,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1768.  Having  emigrated 
to  America,  he  established  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1790,  one  of  the  first  cotton-factories  in  the  United 
States.  Died  in  1835. 

Slater  or  Slatyer,  (WILLIAM,)  REV.,  an  English 
poet,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1587.  He  became  rector 
of  Otterden,  in  Kent.  Among  his  works  is  "  Palae- 
Albion  ;  or,  A  History  of  Great  Britain,  in  Latin  and 
English  Verse."  Died  in  1647. 

Slee'man,  (Sir  WILLIAM  HENRY,)  an  English  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1788.  He  served  in  the 
Indian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  in  1820 
agent  for  the  districts  of  Nerbudda  and  Saugur.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Review  and  Analysis  of  the  Pe 
culiar  Doctrines  of  the  System  of  Political  Economy 
founded  by  Ricardo,"  "  Rambles  and  Recollections  of 
an  Indian  Officer,"  (1843,)  anc'  other  works.  Sir  William 
was  made  a  knight  commander  of  the  Bath  for  his 
services  in  suppressing  the  Thugs,  and  for  other  reforms 
in  India.  Died  in  1856. 

Sleidan,  sli'dan  or  sli'dfiN'',  [Lat.  SLEIDA'NUS,] 
(JoHANN,)  an  eminent  historian  and  diplomatist,  whose 
original  name  was  PHILIPSOHN,  was  born  at  Sleida.  near 
Cologne,  in  1506.  He  studied  law  at  Liege,  Lou  vain, 
Paris,  and  Orleans,  and  was  subsequently  employed  by 
Francis  I.  of  France  as  his  delegate  to  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 
bon.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Strasburg  in  1542, 
and  in  1545  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  England  by 
the  Protestant  princes,  who  had  previously  appointed 
him  historiographer  of  the  Schmalkaldic  League.  He 
was  a  deputy  from  Strasburg  to  the  Council  of  Trent 
in  I551-  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Commentaries 
on  the  State  of  Religion  and  of  the  Republic  under 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,"  ("De  Statu  Religionis  et  Rei- 
publicae  Carolo  V.  Caesare  Commentarii,"  in  25  books, 
1555.)  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy  and  im 
partiality,  and  for  the  purity  of  its  style,  and  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  Died  in  1556. 

See  D.  W.  MOI.I.ER,  "  Disputatio  circularis  de  J.  S'eidano," 
1697;  AM  ENDE.  "Vermischte  Anmerkungen  den  beriihmten  J. 
Sleidan,"  1780;  THEOOOR  PAUR,  "Commentatio  de  J.  Sleidano," 
1842;  "Nouvelle  Hiosraphie  Generale."  Jf?«vw.7ce,  ZT. .  JXr'~*"K- dteJ*^"1"*-^- 

Sleidanus.     See  SLEIDAN. 

Sleipnir  or  Sleipner,  sllp'nir,  [from  sleipr,  "smooth," 
"gliding,"  cognate  with  the  English  "slippery,"]  a 
wondrous  horse  belonging  to  Odin,  on  which  the  god 
rode  over  land  and  sea.  He  had  eight  legs,  which,  ac 
cording  to  some  writers,  are  simply  expressive  of  his 
extraordinary  fleetness  ;  others,  with  much  plausibility, 
suggest  that  the  myth  is  intended  to  represent  the  wind 
blowing  from  the  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 
Sleipnir  is  occasionally  spoken  of  as  four-footed. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  :  MALI.ET,  "  North 
ern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XXI.  ;  also  MATTHEW  ARNOLD'S 
poem  emitted  "  Haider  Dead." 

Sli-dell',  (JoHN,)  an  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
born  in  New  York  in  1793.  Having  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1843,  and  in 
1845  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Mexico. 
He  was  subsequently  elected  (1853)  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  from  which  he  withdrew  after  the  ordinance  of 
secession  was  passed  in  1861.  During  a  voyage  to 
France,  to  which  he  was  sent  by  Jefferson  Davis,  he 
was  captured  from  the  steamer  Trent,  in  November, 
1861,  by  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  United  States  navy. 
(See  MASOX,  TAMES  MURRAY.) 

Sliiigelandt,  van,  vtn  sling'eh-lant',  (PiETER,)  a 
celebrated  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1640,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  whose  works  he  imitated  suc 
cessfully  in  exquisite  finish  and  minuteness  of  detail. 
Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named  the  portraits 
of  the  Meerman  family,  in  the  Louvre,  upon  which  he 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SLIKGENETER 


2028 


SMERDIS 


is  said  to  have  been  employed  three  years.  Died  in 
1691. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC.  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Slingeneyer,  sling'en-i'er,  (EUNKST,)  a  Belgian  his 
torical  painter,  born  near  Ghent  in  1823.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Death  of  Jacobsen,"  "  The  Battle  of 
Lepanto,"  and  "The  Death  of  Nelson." 

Sloan,  slon,  (SAMUKI,,)  an  American  architect,  born 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1815.  He  es 
tablished  himself  in  Philadelphia,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  the  "Model  Architect,"  (1850-51,)  "City 
and  Suburban  Architecture,"  (1859,)  and  "Homestead 
Architecture,"  (1860.)  He  also  publishes  the  "  Archi 
tectural  Review,"  (commenced  in  1868.)  Some  of  the 
most  important  edifices  in  Pennsylvania  and  other  States 
have  been  built  after  his  designs.  Among  these  we 
may  name  the  Blockley  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  near 
Philadelphia,  and  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at 
Montgomery,  in  Alabama* 

Sloane,  slon,  (Sir  HANS,)  a  celebrated  physician  and 
naturalist,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  in  the  county 
of  Down,  Ireland,  in  1660.  lie  studied  medicine  and 
the  natural  sciences  in  London,  and  subsequently  visited 
France,  where  Ire  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort 
and  other  distinguished  savants.  Having  returned  to 
London  with  a  large  collection  of  plants,  he  settled  as  a 
physician  in  that  city,  and  was  elected  in  1685  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  afterwards  spent  some  time 
in  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  islands,  where  he 
collected  a  great  number  of  plants.  After  his  return, 
he  became  successively  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society, 
(1693,)  physician-general  to  the  army,  (1716,)  president 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  (1719,)  and  physician  to 
the  king,  (1727.)  About  the  same  time  he  succeeded 
Newton  as  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  filled 
for  thirty  years  the  post  of  physician  to  Christ's  Hos 
pital,  London,  devoting  his  salary  entirely  to  charitable 
purposes,  and  assisted  in  establishing  the  Foundling 
Hospital.  He  died  in  1753,  leaving  his  library  of  fifty 
thousand  volumes,  a  cabinet  of  two  hundred  volumes 
of  dried  plants,  and  an  immense  collection  ot  other 
objects  in  natural  history,  chiefly  accumulated  by  him 
self,  to  be  offered  to  the  nation  for  twenty  thousand 
pounds.  This  purchase  being  made  by  the  govern 
ment,  originated  the  British  Museum.  Besides  numer 
ous  contributions  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  published  the  "  Natural  History  of 
Jamaica,"  (2  vols.  fol.,  1725.)  a  work  of  high  reputation. 

See  "  Kiosraphia  Britannica  ;"  GRANDJEAN  OE  FOUCHY,"  filoges," 
tome  i.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Slo'cum,  (IlKNKY  WADSWORTH,)  an  American  gene 
ral,  born  at  or  near  Syracuse,  New  Y9rk,  in  1827.  He 
entered  the  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and  gradu 
ated  there  in  1852.  In  1856  he  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  lawyer.  Soon 
after  the  civil  war  began,  lie  became  colonel  of  a  regi 
ment  of  volunteers,  and  was  sent  to  Virginia.  He  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the  autumn  of  1861, 
commanded  a  division  in  the  battles  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
White  Oak  Swamp,  and  Malvern  Hill,  and  was  pro 
moted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  July,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville, 
and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863.  In  August,  1864, 
he  obtained  command  of  a  corps  in  the  army  of  Gene 
ral  Sherman.  He  led  one  of  the  wings  or  columns  of 
that  army  in  the  great  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah, 
November-December,  1864. 

Slodtz,  slos  or  slots,  (PAUL  AMBROISE,)  a  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1702,  was  a  son  of  Sebastien,  noticed 
below.  Died  in  1758. 

Slodtz,  (RK\6  MICHKI.,)  a  French  sculptor,  called 
MICHAKL  ANGEI.O,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  His 
chief  work  is  "The  Tomb  of  the  Curate  Languet." 
Died  in  1764. 

Slodtz,  slots,  (S6BASTIF.N,)  a  Flemish  sculptor,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1655,  was  the  father  of  Paul  Ambroise, 
noticed  above.  Died  in  Paris  in  1726. 

Slowacki,  slo-vats'kee,  (Jui.ius,)  a  popular  Polish 
poet,  born  at  Wilna  in  1809.  He  took  an  active  part 
as  a  soldier  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  published  a 


number  of  spirited  lyrics  in  favour  of  the  patriotic 
cause,  lie  also  wrote  epic  poems,  entitled  "Jan  Bie- 
lecki,"  "  Lambro,"  and  "Hugo;"  also  "  Mazeppa," 
"  Maria  Stuart,"  and  other  dramas.  Died  in  1851. 

Sluse,  sliiz,  (R.  F.  WALTF.R,)  a  Flemish  Orientalist 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Vise  in  1622,  was  canon  of 
Liege.  Died  in  1685. 

Sluys,  van  der,  vtn  der  slois,  (JACOB,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1660.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  festivals,  conversation-pieces,  and  assem 
blies.  Died  in  1736. 

Smalbroke,  smawl'brook,  (RICHARD,)  an  English 
theologian,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1672  or  1673.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1730,  and 
wrote  a  "  Vindication  of  Our  Saviour's  Miracles,"  (1729.) 
Died  in  1749. 

Smalcius,  smalt'sc-us,  or  Smalz,  smaUs,  (VALKN- 
TIN,)  a  German  Unitarian  minister  and  writer,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1572.  He  preached  at  Racow,  in  Poland.  Died 
in  1622. 

Smal'rfdge,  (Gr.ouGK,)  a  learned  English  prelate, 
born  at  Lichfield  in  1663.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol 
in  1714.  He  published  a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1717.) 
Died  in  1719. 

Snialz.     See  SMAI.CUJS. 

Smart,  (CIIKISTOIMIKK,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Kent  in  1722.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  he  be 
came  noted  for  his  classical  knowledge,  and  subsequently 
made  prose  translations  from  Horace  and  Phxdrus. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  wrote  his  biogra 
phy.  Died  in  1770. 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Smea'ton,  (JoiiN,)  an  eminent  English  civil  engineer 
and  mechanic,  born  at  Austhorpc,  near  Leeds,  in  1724. 
He  commenced  business  as  a  maker  of  mathematical 
instruments.  lie  had  great  mechanical  ingenuity,  ;ind 
made  improvements  in  hydraulic  machinery.  In  1759 
he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  for  his 
treatise  "On  the  Natural  Power  of  Wind  and  Water  to 
drive  Mills."  His  greatest  work  is  the  Eddystone  Light- 
House,  finished  in  1759.  He  constructed  Ramsgate 
harbour,  and  was  the  engineer  of  the  great  canal  of 
Scotland,  extending  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth.  Died 
in  1792. 

See  SMII.F.S,  "I/ives  of  the  Engineers  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
July,  August,  and  September.  1791. 

Smed'ley,  (Rev.  EDWARD,)  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  about  1790.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  suc 
cessively  four  Seatonian  prizes  for  English  poems.  He 
also  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reformed  Religion  in 
France,"  and  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Encyclo 
paedia  Metropolitana."  Died  in  1836. 

Smedley,  (FRANCIS  E.,)  an  English  novelist,  born 
about  1820.  He  published  "  Lewis  Arundel,"  (18^2,)  and 
"The  Fortunes  of  the  Colville  Family,"  (1856.)  Died 
in  1864. 

Sniee,  (ALFRED,)  an  English  surgeon  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  1818,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Lectures  on  Electro-Metallurgy"  (1841)  and  "  Klectro- 
Biology,"  (1849.)  He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1840,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1841. 

Smel'lie,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and  writer 
on  midwifery.  lie  practised  for  some  years  in  Scotland, 
and  afterwards  in  London.  He  gave  many  courses 
of  lectures  on  midwifery  in  London,  and  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Midwifery"  in  1752.  Died  in  1763. 

Smellie,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  printer, 
and  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1740.  He  printe  1 
a  good  edition  of  Terence,  wrote  "The  Philosophy  of 
Natural  History."  (2  vols.,  1790-95.)  and  translated 
BufFon's  "  Natural  History."  He  printed  the  first  edi 
tion  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  to  which  he 
contributed  several  articles.  Died  in  i/9v 

See  ROBKRT  KKRR,  "Memoirs  of  the  L'fe  of  \V.  Smellie,"  2 
vols.,  1811 ;  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men." 

Smer'dis,  |Gr.  Z.uf'p&f,]  a  Persian  prince,  was  a 
younger  son  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  went  to  Egypt 
with  his  brother  Cambyses,  who  sent  him  back  to  Persia 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moor.; 


SMET 


2029 


SMITH 


and  caused  him  to  be  secretly  put  to  death.  A  Magian 
who  resembled  Snierdis  pretended  that  he  was  the  son 
of  Cvrus,  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  false  Snierdis 
was  killed  by  seven  conspirators,  in  521  K.C. 

See  GKOTE,  "  History  of  Greece;"  HERODOTUS,  "  History." 

Sniet,  de,  deh  smet  or  smi,  (JOSEPH  JEAN,)  a  Belgian 
writer,  born  at  Ghent  in  1794.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  Belgium,"  (1822.) 

Smet  van  der  Ketten,  smet  vSn  der  ket'ten,  [Lat. 
SME'TIUS,]  ([AN,)  a  Dutch  antiquary,  born  in  Gelder- 
land  about  1585  ;  ilied  in  1651. 

Smi'bert  or  Smy'bert,  ( JOHN,)  a  Scottish  painter, 
born  at  Edinburgh  about  1680,  emigrated  in  1728  to 
America,  and  followed  his  profession  in  Boston.  Died 
in  1751. 

Sniidt,  smit,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born 
at  Bremen  in  1773  ;  died  in  1857. 

Smiedel,  smee'del,  or  Schmeidel,  shml'del,  (Ui.- 
RICH,)  a  German  traveller,  born  at  Straubingen.  He 
was  one  of  a  party  which  went  to  .South  America 
about  1534  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres.  lie  explored 
the  river  Paraguay  and  visited  Peru.  An  account  of 
his  travels  was  published  in  1554. 

Smiglecius  or  Smigletius,  snu-glee'she-us,  (MAR 
TIN,)  a  Polish  Jesuit  and  logician,  born  in  1562.  He 
wrote  several  works  against  Protestantism,  and  a  "Sys 
tem  of  Logic,"  (1618.)  Died  in  1618. 

Smiles,  (SAMUEL,)  a  British  biographer,  born  at 
Haddington  about  1816.  He  was  editor  of  the  Leeds 
"Times,"  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life 
of  George  Stephenson,"  (1859,)  and  "The  Lives  of  the 
Kngineers,"  (3  vols.,  1861.) 

See  AI.I.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Smiii'theus,  [Gr.  'ZuivOevt; ;  Fr.  SMINTHEE,  sma.v'ta',] 
a  sin  name  of  APOI.I.O,  (which  see.) 

Smirke,  smjrk,  (ROKEKT,)  a  distinguished  English 
painter,  born  in  1751.  Among  his  master-pieces,  which 
are  principally  domestic  and  rural  scenes  and  comic 
subjects,  we  may  name  "The  Combat  between  Don 
Quixote  and  the  Giants,"  "  Sancho's  Audience  of  the 
Duchess,"  "The  Gypsy,"  and  "Prince  Henry  and  Fal- 
staff."  He  was  elected  an  Academician  in  1792.  Died 
in  1845. 

Smirke,  (Sir  ROKKRT,)  an  architect,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1780.  Having  visited  Italy, 
Germany,  and  Greece  in  1805,  lie  published,  after  his 
return,  "  Specimens  of  Continental  Architecture,"  (1806.) 
He  constructed  a  number  of  public  edifices  in  London, 
among  which  the  British  Museum  is  the  most  celebrated. 
It  is  of  the  Ionic  order,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most 
superb  Grecian  structure  in  the  city.  His  other  princi 
pal  works  are  the  new  Post-Office,  the  Mint,  the  College 
of  Physicians,  and  the  restoration  of  York  Minster.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1812.  Died  in  1867. 

Smirke,  (SYDNKY,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  also 
distinguished  as  an  architect,  executed  several  works  in 
conjunction  with  Sir  Robert.  The  New  Reading-Room 
of  the  British  Museum  is  esteemed  his  master-piece. 

Smith,  (ADAM,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  philosopher 
and  political  economist,  born  at  Kirkaldy,  in  Fifeshire, 
June  5,  1723.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  remained  from  1737  to  1740,  and 
at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  about  1747. 
Having  returned  to  Scotland,  he  formed  friendships 
with  Hume  and  Lord  Kames.  In  1751  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  university  in 
1752,  and  published  his  "Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments" 
in  1759.  He  was  very  popular  as  a  lecturer.  In  1763 
he  resigned  his  professorship,  and  accepted  the  place 
of  companion  to  the  young  Duke  of  Buccleugh,  with 
whom  he  travelled  on  the  continent  two  or  three  years. 
He  associated  in  Paris  with  D'Alembert,  Necker,  Tur- 
got,  and  Quesnay.  In  1766  he  returned  to  Kirkaldy, 
where  he  passed  ten  years  in  the  composition  of  the 
work  on  which  his  reputation  is  chiefly  founded,  "An 
Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1776.)  He  maintains  that  labour 
rather  than  money  or  land  is  the  true  source  of  national 
wealth.  He  also  advocated  free  trade  and  opposed  the 
policy  of  those  governments  which  attempt  to  control  I 


the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  After  the  publication 
of  this  work  he  passed  two  years  in  London.  He  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  customs  for 
Scotland  in  1778,  after  which  date  he  resided  in  Edin 
burgh  until  his  death.  He  never  married.  Died  in 
July,  1790. 

"  Perhaps,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  there  is  no  ethical 
work  since  Cicero's  '  Offices,' of  which  an  abridgment 
enables  the  reader  so  inadequately  to  estimate  the  merit, 
as  the  '  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments.'  This  is  not  chiefly 
owing  to  the  beauty  of  diction,  as  in  the  case  of  Cicero, 
but  to  the  variety  of  explanations  of  life  and  manners 
which  embellish  the  book  often  more  than  they  illustrate 
the  theory.  Vet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  owned 
that  for  philosophical  purposes  few  works  more  need 
abridgment ;  for  the  most  careful  reader  frequently  loses 
sight  of  principles  buried  under  illustrations.  .  .  .  That 
Smith  is  the  first  who  has  drawn  the  attention  of  phi 
losophers  to  one  of  the  most  curious  and  important  parts 
of  human  nature — who  has  looked  closely  and  steadily 
into  the  workings  of  sympathy,  its  sudden  action  and 
reaction,  its  instantaneous  conflicts  and  its  emotions,  its 
minute  play  and  varied  illusions — is  sufficient  to  place 
him  high  among  the  cultivators  of  mental  philosophy." 
The  same  writer  speaks  of  Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations" 
as  "perhaps  the  only  book  which  produced  an  imme 
diate  general  and  irrevocable  change  in  some  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  legislation  of  all  civilized 
nations." 

See  DUGAI.D  STEWART,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  Adam  Smith;" 
LORD  BROUGHAM,  "Memoir  of  Adam  Smith,"  in  "Lives  of  Men 
of  Letters  and  Science;"  MACKINTOSH.  . "  General  View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;"  CHAM  BERK,  "  Biographical  Dic 
tionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  ALUBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Au 
thors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1759,  and  April,  1776. 

Smith,  (Ai.KKRT,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at 
Chertsey  in  1816.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
novels,  entitled  "The  Scattergood  Family,"  "The  Pot- 
tleton  Legacy,"  "  Marchioness  of  Brinvilliers  ;"  also  the 
"National  Histories  of  Stuck-up  People,"  "The  Idler 
upon  Town,"  and  other  humorous  sketches.  In  1851 
he  ascended  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  which  adven 
ture  he  afterwards  made  the  subject  of  a  popular  dramatic 
entertainment.  Died  in  1860. 

Smith,  (  ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Kilmar- 
nock,  Ayrshire,  in  1829  or  1830.  He  learned  the  business 
of  pattern-drawer.  About  1852  he  produced  a  poem 
entitled  '-The  Life  Drama,"  which  was  greatly  admired 
by  many.  He  was  elected  secretary  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  in  1854,  and  married  Flora  Macdonald  in 
1858.  He  contributed  articles  in  prose  to  the  "  North 
British  Review,"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  other 
periodicals.  Among  his  chief  works  were  "  City  Poems," 
(1857,)  and  "Edwin  of  Deira,"  a  historical  poem,  (1861.) 
His  style  is  censured  as  spasmodic  by  some  critics.  His 
poetry  abounds  in  beautiful  images  ;  but  he  is  deficient 
in  sustained  power.  His  prose  writings  have  been  much 
and  generally  admired.  Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  AI.LIBON-E,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  October.  1853;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  tor  March,  1854; 
"North  British 'Review"  for  August,  1853;  "Good  Words"  for 
March,  1867;  "London  Review"  for  January,  1867. 

Smith,  (ANDREW  J.,)  an  American  major-general, 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1814,  gradu 
ated  at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  commanded  two  divis 
ions  which  were  sent  by  General  Sherman  to  aid  General 
Banks,  and  took  Fort  de  Russy,  on  Red  River,  March 
14,  1864.  He  defeated  the  enemy  at  Tupelo,  Mississippi, 
about  July  14,  and  aided  to  drive  General  Price  out  of 
Missouri  in  October,  1864.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
the  great  battle  of  Nashville,  December  15  and  16,  1864, 
and  in  the  operations  against  Mobile,  March-April,  1865. 
He  became  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  the  United  States 
army  in  1866. 

See  GREKI.EY,  "  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii. 

Smith,  (ANKER,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1759.  Among  his  best  works  may  be  named 
the  "  Death  of  Wat  Tyler,"  after  Northcote,  and  the 
"  Apotheosis  of  Handel."  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1797.  Died  in  1819. 

Smith,  (CALEB  B.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1808.  He  removed  to  Indiana, 


€  ssa;  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N.  nasal:  R,  trillea:  s  ass.   th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SMITH 


SMITH 


and  represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1843  to  '849-  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  in 
terior  in  March,  1861,  and  resigned  in  December,  1862. 
Died  in  January,  1864. 

Smith,  (CHARLES  FERGUSON,)  an  American  general, 
born  about  1806.  He  graduated  at  the  Academy  of 
West  Point  in  1825,  and  was  employed  there  for  many 
years  as  instructor  in  tactics  and  commandant  of  cadets. 
For  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war  'he  received  three 
brevets,  as  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  August,  1861,  and 
rendered  important  services  at  Fort  Donelson,  February, 
1862,  soon  after  which  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  major- 
general.  He  died  at  Savannah,  Tennessee,  in  April, 
1862.  "The  more  perfect  beau-ideal  of  a  soldier,"  says 
Coppee,  "  never  existed  in  any  army  than  General 
Smith." 

Smith,  (Lieutenant-Colonel  CHARLES  HAMILTON,)  an 
English  officer  and  naturalist,  born  about  1790,  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Races 
and  Varieties  of  Man,"  and  "Observations  on  some 
Animals  of  America  allied  to  the  Genus  Antilope." 

Smith,  (CHARLOTTE,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1749.  She  was  the  author  of  "The 
Old  Manor-House,"  "  Marchmont,"  "Desmond,"  "The 
Romance  of  Real  Life, "and  other  novels  ;  also  "  Elegiac 
Sonnets,"  and  various  other  poems.  Her  life  was 
written  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Died  in  1806. 

See  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT,  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  MRS. 
ELWOOD,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc. 

Smith,  (CHRISTOPHER  W.,)  an  English  ornithologist, 
born  about  1794.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "  Ornithology 
of  Hindustan." 

Smith,  (En.MUND  KIRUV,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saint  Augustine,  Florida,  about  1825,  graduated  at 
WTest  Point  in  1845.  He  became  a  captain  in  1855, 
resigned  his  commission  in  1861,  and  commanded  a 
division  of  General  Bragg's  army  which  invaded  Ken 
tucky  in  August,  1862.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  which  ended  fannary  2,  1863.  He  had  the 
command  of  all  the  forces  in  Texas  and  Arkansas  from 
April,  1863,  till  April,  1865. 

See  a  notice  of  General  E.  K.  Smith  in  "  Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Smith,  (EDMUND  Neale,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
1668.  His  family  name  was  Neale,  to  which  lie  added 
Smith.  Died  in  1710. 

Smith,  (Ei.i,)  an  American  missionary  and  accom 
plished  Arabic  scholar,  born  near  New  Haven,  Con 
necticut,  in  iSoi.  He  went  to  Syria  in  1826,  studied 
Arabic,  and  settled  at  Beyroot.  In  1838  he  explored 
Palestine  in  company  with  Dr.  Edward  Robinson.  He 
translated  portions  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  Died  at 
Beyroot  in  January,  1857. 

Smith,  (ELIZABETH,)  an  English  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  attainments  in  the  languages,  mathematics,  and 
the  natural  sciences,  was  born  near  Durham  in  1776. 
Besides  Latin  and  Greek  and  the  principal  European 
languages,  she  was  versed  in  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
Persian.  She  wrote  a  "Life  of  Klopstock,"  and  trans 
lated  the  book  of  Job.  Died  in  1806. 

See  Miss  BOWDI.ER,  "Life  of  Elizabeth  Smith;"  MRS.  Et.vvoou, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commence 
ment  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January  and  June,  1811. 

Smith,  (Mrs.  ELIZABETH  OAKKS,)  an  American  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  wife  of  Seba  Smith,  noticed 
below,  was  born  near  Portland,  Maine.  She  has  pub 
lished  "The  Sinless  Child,  and  other  Poems,"  "Jacob 
Leisler,"  a  tragedy,  "  Woman  and  her  Needs,"  (1851,) 
and  other  works.  Mrs.  Smith  has  been  a  prominent 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  woman,  both  as  a  writer  and 
lecturer. 

See  GKISWOLD,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Smith,  (FRANCIS  PKTTIT,)  an  English  inventor,  born 
at  Hythe,  Kent,  in  1808.  He  invented  the  mode  of  pro 
pelling  steamboats  by  the  screw,  which  was  employed 
in  the  royal  navy  about  1838. 

Smith,  (GABRIEL,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
London  in  1724;  died  in  1783. 


Smith,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  landscape-painter,  born 
in  1714 ;  died  in  1776. 

His  brothers  TOIIN  and  WILLIAM  were  also  distin 
guished  as  painters. 

Smith,  (GKRKiT,)  a  distinguished  American  philan 
thropist,  born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1797.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  and 
studied  law.  After  a  temporary  connection  with  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  he  withdrew  from  it  in 
1835,  and  became  a  prominent  and  active  member  of  the 
Anti-Slavery  .Society.  I  Ie  has  also  been  an  earnest  advo 
cate  of  temperance  and  other  reforms,  and,  having  in 
herited  one  of  the  largest  landed  estates  in  the  country, 
has  distributed  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  acres  of 
it  among  the  poor,  without  distinction  of  colour.  Mr. 
Smith  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1852. 

Smith,  (GOI.OWIN,)  an  English  teacher  and  writer, 
born  at  Reading  in  1823.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  that 
university  in  1858.  Among  his  works  are  "  Irish  His 
tory  and  Irish  Character,"  (1861,)  and  "Three  English 
Statesmen,  (Pym,  Cromwell,  and  Pitt),"  1867.  In  poli 
tics  he  is  an  advanced  Liberal.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1864,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  English 
history  in  Cornell  University,  at  Ithaca,  in  1868. 

See  AI.I.IHONK,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "North  British  Ke- 
view"  for  August,  iSfu. 

Smith,  (GREEN  CLAY,)  an  American  general  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Richmond,  Kentucky,  about  1831.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union  army 
about  June,  1862,  and  served  in  several  actions.  lie 
was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1863. 

Smith,  (GUSTAVUS  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  was  a  street  commissioner  in  New  York  City 
when  the  civil  war  began.  About  September,  1861,  he 
became  a  major-general  of  the  Confederate  army.  lie 
succeeded  to  the  command  at  Fair  Oaks  when  General 
J.  E.  Johnston  was  wounded,  May  31,  1862. 

Smith,  (IlKNRY,)  called  "the  Silver-Tongued,"  an 
English  Puritan  minister,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1550. 
He  preached  in  London,  and  was  patronized  by  Lord 
Burleigh.  He  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died 
about  1595. 

See  FULLER,  "Life  of  H.  Smith." 

Smith,  (HENRY  BOYNTON,)  D.D.,an  American  Con 
gregational  minister  and  scholar,  born  at  Portland,  Maine, 
in  1815.  He  was  appointed  in  1855  professor  of  sys 
tematic  theology  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  lie  published  "The  Relations  of  Faith 
to  Philosophy,"  (1849,)  "The  History  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  in  Chronological  Tables,"  etc.,  (1859,)  and 
other  similar  works.  He  became  in  1859  editor  of  the 
"American  Theological  Review,"  and  contributed  a 
number  of  able  articles  to  Appleton's  "Cyclopaedia." 

Smith,  (Sir  HENRY  GEORGE  WAKELYN,)  an  English 
general,  born  at  Whittlesea,  in  the  isle  of  Ely,  in  1788. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  principal  battles  of  the 
Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  in  the  American  war  of 
1812.  He  commanded  as  adjutant-general  in  the  Indian 
campaigns  of  1840  and  1846,  and  had  a  prominent  share 
in  the  signal  victory  over  the  Sikhs  at  Aliwal.  For 
these  services  he  was  made  a  baronet  and  received  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath.  Appointed  Gov 
ernor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1847,  he  brought 
the  Caffir  war  to  a  successful  close  in  1852.  He  was 
created  lieutenant-general  in  1854. 

Smith,  (HORACE  and  JAMES,)  English  humorists  and 
miscellaneous  writers,  born  in  London,  the  former  about 
1780,  the  latter  in  1775.  They  first  became  known  by 
their  contributions  to  "The  Pic-Nic,"  the  "  London  Re 
view,"  and  the  "Monthly  Mirror;"  the  poems  entitled 
"  Horace  in  London,"  in  the  last-named  periodical, 
being  mostly  written  by  James  Smith.  In  1812  they 
brought  out  their  "Rejected  Addresses,"  composed  on 
the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre  at  Drury 
Lane,  the  committee  of  which  had  requested  a  number 
of  addresses  to  be  sent  in,  one  of  which  should  obtain 
the  prize.  These  poems,  which  are  humorous  imitations 
of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Scott,  Crabbe,  and 
other  prominent  writers  of  the  time,  met  with  brilliant 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SMITH 


2031 


SMITH 


success,  and  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  editions. 
James  Smith  wrote  for  the  so-called  "entertainments" 
of  Charles  Mathews  "Trips  to  Paris,"  "Country 
Cousins,"  and  other  comic  sketches.  He  died  in  1839, 
and  his  "  Memoirs,  Letters,"  etc.  were  published  by  his 
brother  in  1840.  Among  the  other  works  of  Horace 
Smith  we  may  name  the  novels  of  "  Brambletye  House," 
"The  Moneyed  Man,"  and  "Love  and  Mesmerism." 
Died  in  1849. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1812; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1812;  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1833,  and  November,  1X34. 

Smith,  (J.\MKS,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  American  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  about  1719. 
Having  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  he  was  elected  in 
1776  to  the  Continental  Congress.  Died  in  1806. 

See  SANDERSON,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Smith,  (JAMES,)  of  Deanston,  a  Scottish  agriculturist 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1789.  He  pub 
lished  in  1831  a  treatise  "  On  Thorough  Draining  and 
Deep  Ploughing,"  which  improvements  he  was  the  first 
to  bring  into  general  use.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a 
reaping-machine,  for  which  he  obtained  a  gold  medal 
from  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He 
invented  other  useful  machines.  Died  in  1850. 

Smith,  (Sir  JAMES  EDWARD,)  an  English  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Norwich  in  1759.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at  Leyden,  and,  after  his 
return,  became  in  1788  one  of  the  founders  and  first 
president  of  the  Liiinaean  Society.  He  had  previously 
purchased  the  natural  history  collections  and  library  of 
Linnaeus.  He  was  appointed  in  1792  teacher  of  botany 
to  Queen  Charlotte  and  the  princesses,  and  in  1814  i 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "  English  Flora,"  (4  vols.,)  "  Elora  Britannica," 
(3  vols.,  1804.)  "English  Botany,"  (36  vols.,  1807,)  with 
more  than  2000  coloured  plates  bySowerby,  and  "  Flora 
Grasca,"  (1808.)  He  also  wrote  the  principal  articles  on 
botany  in  Rees's  "Cyclopaedia."  Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  James  Edward  Smith," 
by  LADY  SMITH  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1833. 

Smith,  (TKKKMIAH,)  an  American  jurist  and  states 
man,  born  at  Peterborough,  New  Hampshire.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1791,  served  in  that 
body  until  1797,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1809,  after  which  he  held  the  office  of 
judge.  His  ability  and  merit  are  highly  extolled.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  J.  H.  MORRISON,  "  Life  of  Jeremiah  Smith,"  1845. 

Smith,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Warwick 
shire  in  1563,  was  lecturer  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 
1  )ied  in  1616. 

Smith,  (foiiN,)  an  English  writer  on  theology,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  in  1618,  was  a  Fellow  of  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge.  Died  in  1652. 

Smith,  (Jonx,)  CAPTAIN,  the  founder  of  Virginia,  was 
born  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1579.  He  began  at 
an  early  age  to  display  a  propensity  to  daring  adven 
tures.  About  1600  he  enlisted  in  the  Austrian  army, 
and  performed  bold  and  successful  exploits  against  the 
Turks.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  reduced  to  slavery, 
killed  his  master,  and  escaped  into  Russia.  Having 
returned  to  England,  he  accompanied  a  party  of  emi 
grants  who  formed  a  colony  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in 
April,  1607.  He  was  captured  by  the  Indians,  and  was 
condemned  to  death  by  Powhatan,  but  his  life  was  saved 
by  Pocahontas,  a  daughter  of  that  chief.  He  became 
the  principal  person  of  the  colony,  which  was  saved 
from  ruin  by  his  energy  and  fortitude.  In  1608  he  ex 
plored  the  coasts  <;f  Chesapeake  Bay,  of  which  he  con 
structed  a  map.  He  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  1609, 
and  explored  the  coast  of  New  England  in  1614.  The 
latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  England.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  a  "General  History  of  Vir 
ginia,  New  England,  and  the  Summer  Isles,"  (1627,)  and 
"The  True  Travels  and  Adventures  of  Captain  John 
Smith  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,"  (1630.) 
Died  in  London  in  1631. 

See  HII.I.ARD,  '•  Life  of  John  Smith."  in  SPARKS'S  "American 
Biography,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1867. 


Smith,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  diplomatist  and  sol 
dier  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  sent  in  1576 
on  an  embassy  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Died  in  1600. 

Smith,  (JoHN,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  1630, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Portrait  of  Old  Age."  Died 
in  1679. 

Smith,  (JoHN,)  a  learned  English  divine  arid  anti 
quary,  born  in  1659,  published  an  edition  of  the  his 
torical  works  of  the  Venerable  Bede.  Died  in  1715. 

Smith,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  English  mezzotint  en 
graver,  born  about  1654.  He  executed  numerous  por 
traits  after  Kneller.  Died  about  1720. 

Smith,  (JoHN,)  of  Chichester,  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  1717,  was  a  brother  of  George,  noticed 
above.  Died  in  1764. 

Smith,  (JoHN  BI.AIR,)  born  at  Pequea,  Pennsylvania, 
about  1756,  was  a  brother  of  Samuel  Stanhope,  noticed 
below.  He  became  in  1795  first  president  of  Union 
College,  Schenectady.  Died  in  1799. 

Smith,  (JoHN  PYE,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  learned  English 
divine  and  theologian,  born  at  Sheffield  in  1774,  became 
pastor  of  the  Independent  church  at  Homerton.  He 
received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Yale  College,  Con 
necticut,  in  1807.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  may  be  named  "The  Scripture  Testimony  to 
the  Messiah,"  (2  vols.,  1821,)  "Four  Discourses  on  the 
Sacrifice  and  Priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ,"  (1827,)  and 
"The  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation  and  the  Deluge 
illustrated  by  the  Discoveries  of  Modern  Science," 
(1837.)  Dr.  Smith  was  also  distinguished  as  a  geologist, 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society  and  the  Royal 
Society.  Died  in  1851. 

See  JOHN  MKDWAY,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John 
Pye  Smith,"  1853. 

Smith,  (JOHN  RAPHAEL,)  an  English  engraver  and 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Derby  about  1750.  He  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  mezzotint  engravings,  among  which 
is  a  full-length  portrait  of  Charles  James  Fox.  Died 
in  1812. 

Smith,  (Jonx  STAFFORD,)  an  English  composer  of 
great  merit,  was  born  at  Gloucester  about  1750,  and 
succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  in  1802  as  organist  of  the  chapel 
royal.  He  produced  a  number  of  admired  glees  and 
madrigals,  and  published  "Antient  Songs  of  the  Fif 
teenth  Century."  Died  in  1836. 

Smith,  (JoHN  THOMAS,)  an  English  engraver  and 
amateur,  born  in  London  in  1766.  lie  studied  draw 
ing  with  the  sculptor  Nollekens,  and  subsequently 
entered  the  Royal  Academy.  He  published  in  i8co 
his  "  Antiquities  of  London  and  its  Environs,"  which 
was  followed  by  "Antiquities  of  Westminster,"  (1807,) 
"Ancient  Topography  of  London,"  (1815,  410,  with 
thirty-two  plates,)  and  "Nollekens  and  his  Times," 
(1828.)  He  was  appointed  in  1816  keeper  of  the  prints 
in  the  British  Museum.  Died  in  1833. 

Smith,  (JOSEPH,)  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mormons, 
was  born  in  Sharon,  Windsor  county,  Vermont,  in  1805. 
He  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Palmyra,  New  Yoik, 
about  1815,  and,  according  to  his  own  account,  worked 
on  his  father's  farm  in  his  youth.  The  residents  of  that 
vicinity,  however,  testified  that  the  Smith  family  avoided 
honest  labour,  had  a  bad  reputation,  and  spent  much 
time  in  digging  for  hidden  treasures.  He  pretended 
that  he  received  in  1827  a  divine  revelation  written  on 
golden  plates  which  were  brought  to  him  by  an  angel, 
and  that  the  "  Book  of  Mormon,"  which  he  published 
in  1830,  was  translated  from  those  golden  plates.  The 
real  author  of  the  "  Book  of  Mormon"  was  Solomon 
Spalding,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who  at  his  death  left 
in  manuscript  an  absurd  story  of  his  invention,  purport 
ing  to  be  a  narrative  of  the  migration  of  the  ten  lost 
tribes  of  Israel  to  America,  and  maintaining  the  hy 
pothesis  that  the  American  Indians  are  descended  from 
the  Hebrews.  Smith  obtained  possession  of  this  manu 
script,  and  published  it  with  some  additions.  Having 
made  a  number  of  converts,  he  removed  with  them  to 
Kirtland,  Ohio,  in  1831,  and  afterwards  to  Independence, 
Missouri.  The  number  of  his  disciples  increased  rapidly, 
but  they  came  into  violent  collision  with  the  "Gentiles," 
and  were  expelled  from  Missouri  about  1838,  after  they 
had  defied  the  officers  of  the  law  and  committed  many 


e  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  ;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^ST^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SMITH 


2032 


SMITH 


outrages.  They  next  settled  in  Illinois  and  founded  the 
town  of  Nauvoo, where  they  began  to  build  a  great  tem 
ple  in  1841.  Smith  amassed  a  large  fortune,  assumed 
the  title  of  lieutenant-general  and  president  of  the  Church, 
and  exercised  absolute  authority  over  his  "saints."  He 
provoked  the  popular  indignation  by  attempts  to  seduce 
the  wives  of  other  men,  and  was  arrested  and  confined  in 
jail  at  Carthage.  In  June,  1844,  a  mob  broke  into  the 
jail  and  killed  Josep'li  Smith.  Mo  was  succeeded  by 
Brigham  Young.  (See  YOUNG,  BKIGIIAM.) 

See  "Autobiography  of  Joseph  Smiili  :"  "Mormonism;  its 
Leaders  and  Designs,"  by  JOHN  HVDK,  JR.,  iS57;  J.  B.  TURNER, 
"  Lite  of  Joseph  Smith;  '  also  article  "  Mormons,"  in  the  "  New 
American  Cyclopaedia." 

Smith,  (MELANCTHON,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1810.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  commander  in  1855.  He  commanded  the 
steamer  Mississippi  in  the  battle  by  which  Captain  Far- 
ragut  took  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862.  On  the  5th 
of  May,  1864,116  fought  an  indecisive  battle  against  the 
iron-clad  ram  Albemarle  at  the  mouth  of  the  Roanoke 
River. 

See  J.  T.  HEADLEY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
1867. 

Smith,  (MiLES,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  Hereford 
in  1568,  was  one  of  the  principal  translators  ot  the  Bible. 
Died  in  1624. 

Smith,  (RiCHAKD,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Worcestershire  in  1500.  He  became  a  professor 
of  divinity  at  Oxford,  and  chaplain  to  Queen  Mary.  At 
the  execution  of  Ridley  and  Latimer,  Smith  preached  a 
sermon  on  the  text,  "  Though  I  give  my  body  to  be 
burned,  and  have  not  charity,  it  profiteth  me  nothing." 
Died  in  1565. 

Smith, (RICHARD,)  an  English  polemical  writer,  born 
in  Lincolnshire  in  1566.  lie  wrote  in  defence  of  popery. 
Died  in  1655. 

Smith,  (RoHKRT,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  dis 
tinguished  mathematician,  born  in  1689,  was  preceptor 
to  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  He  became  I'lumian  pro 
fessor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1716,  and  in  1742 
succeeded  Bentley'as  master  of  Trinity  College.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled  "  Harmonics,  or 
the  Philosophy  of  Musical  Sounds,"  and  a  "  Complete 
System  of  Optics,"  (2  vols.  410,  1738:)  the  latter  is  es- 
te'emed  a  standard  work.  Dr.  Smith  was  a  cousin  of 
Roger  Cotes,  some  of  whose  writings  he  published.  He 
had  been  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1718. 
Died  in  1768. 

Smith,  (ROBERT,) of  Maryland,  an  American  minister 
ofstate,  born  about  1757.  He  was  secretary  of  the  navy 
from  January,  1802,  to  March,  1805,  and  secretary  of 
state  from  March,  1809,  to  November,  1811.  Died  in 
Baltimore  in  1842. 

Smith,  (RoiiERT  ANGUS,)  F.R.S.,a  Scottish  chemist, 
born  near  Glasgow  about  1817.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Life  of  Dalton  and  a  History  of  the  Atomic 
Theory." 

Smith,  (ROBERT  PAYNE,)  an  English  clergyman,  dis- 
tininiished  as  a  Hebraist  and  Arabic  scholar,  was  born 
in  1818.  He  became  in  1865  regius  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  University  of  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Authenticity 
and  Messianic  Interpretation  of  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah 
vindicated  in  a  Course  of  Sermons,"  (Oxford,  1862.) 

Smith,  (RoBKRT  VKRNON.)     See  LYVKDEN,  LORD. 

Smith,  (SAMUEL,)  a  popular  English  writer  of  re 
ligious  tracts,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1588,  was  a 
Presbyterian  preacher  during  the  civil  war  which  began 
in  1642.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Great 
Assize."  Died  after  1660. 

Smith,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  historian,  born  at 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1720.  He  published  a  "  His 
tory  of  New  Jersey,"  (1755.)  Died  in  1776. 

Smith,  (S.-\MUKi,)an  English  engraver  of  great  merit, 
lived  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Smith,  (SAMUEL  FRANCIS,)  D.D.,  an  American  Bap 
tist  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1808.  He  became  in  1842 
editor  of  the  "Christian  Review,"  at  Newton,  Massa 
chusetts.  He  has  published  a  number  of  popular  lyrics 
and  hymns. 


Smith,  (SAMUEL  J-,)  an  American  poet,  born  near 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1771.  He  died  in  1835,  and 
his  "Miscellaneous  Writings"  were  published  in  1836. 
See  CLEVELAND'S  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 
Smith,  (SAMUEL  STANHOPE.)  1). I).,  LL.D.,  an  Amer 
ican  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  I'equea,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1750.  He  was  appointed  in  1779  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1794 
succeeded  his  father-in-law,  Dr.  Witherspoon,  as  presi 
dent  of  that  institution.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lec 
tures  on  the  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1819. 

Smith,  (Si-'.HA,)  an  American  writer,  born  at  Buck- 
field,  Maine.  He  published  in  1833,  under  the  name  of 
"  Major  Jack  Downing,"  a  series  of  humorous  letters  on 
political  subjects,  which  became  widely  popular.  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Powhatan,"  a  poem,  "Away 
Down  East,  or  Portraitures  of  Yankee  Life,"  (1855,)  and 
"New  Elements  of  Geometry."  Died  in  1868. 

Smith,  (Rev.  SYDNEY,)  a  celebrated  English  divine 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Woodford,  in  Essex,  in  1771.  1  le 
studied  at  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a 
Fellow  in  1790.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  obtained 
the  curacy  of  Netherhaven,  in  Wiltshire,  about  1795.  He 
became  tutor  to  the  son  of  a  Mr.  Beach,  with  whom  he 
passed  about  five  years  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  asso 
ciated  with  Jeffrey,  Brougham,  and  other  Whigs.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  editor  ot  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  number  of  which  was 
issued  in  ^802.  He  married  about  1800  a  lady  named 
Pybus,  and  removed  to  London  in  1804.  In  1806  he 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Foston-le-Clay,  in  York 
shire.  He  greatly  promoted  the  cause  of  Catholic  eman 
cipation  by  an  anonymous  work,  entitled  "  Letters  on 
the  Subject  of  the  Catholics  to  my  Brother  Abraham, 
by  Peter  Plymley,"  (1807-08,)  which  had  a  very  large 
circulation.  In  1809  he  published  two  volumes  of  Ser 
mons.  For  many  years  he  was  a  regular  contributor 
to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  He  was  appointed  preb 
endary  of  Bristol,  and  rector  of  Combe- Florey,  (near 
Taunton,)  in  1828,  and  obtained  a  prebendal  stall  in 
Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  1831.  Died  in  February,  1845. 

Sydney  Smith  was  greatly  distinguished  for  his  wit. 
humour,  and  conversational  powers.  Among  his  works 
is  "Elementary  Sketches  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1850.) 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Sydney  Smith."  by  his  daughter,  LADY  HOL 
LAND,  2  vols.,  1855;  ALI.IMONK,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Klin- 
burgh  Review"  for  April.  18^0,  and  July,  1855  :  "  Quarterly  R-view," 
vol.  xcvii.,  pub'ished  in  June  and  September.  1855;  "  Kraser's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1X55;  "North  American  Review'1  for  Ju'y, 
1844,  (by  E.  P.  WHIPPLK.) 

Smith,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  statesman  and 
scholar,  born  in  Essex  about  1512.  He  studied  at 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge.  I  laving  spent  several 
years  in  France  and  Italy,  and  taken  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
at  Padua,  he  was  appointed,  after  his  return,  regius 
professor  of  law  at  Cambridge.  After  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.,  he  was  appointed  in  1 548  secretary  of  state, 
and  subsequently  sent  on  missions  to  Brussels  and  to 
the  court  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  He  was  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "The  English  Commonwealth,"  (1584,) 
a  treatise  "On  the  Correct  Pronunciation  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1577. 

See  STRYPE,  "Lire  of  Sir  Thomas  Smith,"  i6cjS ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Smith,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
London  in  1638,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Credibility  of 
the  Mysteries  of  the  Christian  Religion."  Died  in  1710. 

Smith,  (THOMAS  Sou THWOOD,)  M.  1).,  an  English 
physician  and  writer  of  great  merit,  born  about  1790. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  settled  in 
London,  where  he  became  physician  to  the  Fever  Hos 
pital.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Westminster 
Review,"  to  which  he  contributed  several  excellent 
treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Use  of  the  Dead 
to  the  Living,"  obtained  extensive  popularity.  His  other 
principal  works  are  an  essay  on  the  "  Divine  Govern 
ment,"  "The  Philosophy  of  Health,"  (1834,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Fever,"  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valua 
ble  that  has  appeared  on  the  subject. 

See  ALLIBONK,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "New  Spirit  of  the 
Ase,"  by  R.  H.  HORNE. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nAt;  good;  moon; 


SMITH 


2°33 


SMYTH 


Smith,  (\VII.I.IAM,)  an  English  herald  and  antiquary, 
wrote  a  "Description  of  Cheshire."  Died  in  1618. 

Smith,  (WILLIAM,)  of  Chichester,  an  English  por 
trait-painter,  born  in  1707,  was  a  brother  of  George, 
noticed  above.  Died  in  1764. 

Smith,  (WiLi.TAM,)  an  English  translator,  born  at 
Worcester  in  1711.  He  translated  Longinus  and  Thu- 
cydides  into  English.  He  became  Dean  of  Chester 
about  1758.  Died  in  1787. 

Smith,  (Wn.i.iAM,)  an  English  statesman,  was  elected 
to  Parliament  from  Sudbury  in  1784,  and  was  a  repre 
sentative  from  Norwich  in  1802.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  cause  of  the  dissenters,  and  of  other 
reforms.  Died  in  1835. 

Smith,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  geologist,  born  at 
Churchill,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1769,  is  called  the  father 
of  English  geology.  He  was  the  first  in  England  to 
discover  the  constancy  in  the  order  of  the  superposition 
of  strata.  In  1799  he  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Order  of  the  Strata  and  their  Imbedded  Organic  Re 
mains  in  the  Vicinity  of  Bath."  He  published  the  first 
"Geological  Map  of  England,"  (1801,)  and  a  larger  map 
of  the  same  about  1815.  He  was  an  uncle  of  John 
Phillips  the  geologist.  Died  in  1839. 

See  JOHN  PHILLIPS,  "Memoirs  of  William  Smith,"  1844. 

Smith,  (  WILLIAM,)  LL.D.,an  English  philologist  and 
jurist,  born  in  London  in  1814.  He  studied  in  the 
University  of  London,  and  afterwards  became  professor 
of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  German  languages  at  the  in 
dependent  colleges  of  Ilomerton  and  Highbury.  He 
published  in  1842  his  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (i  vol.  8vo,)  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
other  distinguished  scholars.  This  was  followed  by  the 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  My 
thology,"  (3  vols.  8vo.  1849.)  and  the  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Geography,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1857.) 
These  excellent  works  are  probably  the  most  valuable 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  are  illustrated  by 
numerous  engravings.  Dr.  Smith  lias  also  written  a 
"School  History  of  Greece,  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Roman  Conquest,"  etc.,  a  "  Latin-English  Diction 
ary,"  (1855,)  and  other  educational  books.  lie  is  the 
chief  editor  of  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  comprising 
its  Antiquities,  Biography,  Geography,  and  Natural  His 
tory,"  (3  vols.  Svo,  1860-63.)  In  1867  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Quarterly  Review." 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1854,  and  October,  1864. 

Smith,  (Sir  WILLIAM  CUSACK,)  a  distinguished  Irish 
jurist,  and  friend  of  Edmund  Burke,  born  in  1766.  lie 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  high  offices 
to  be  solicitor-general  for  Ireland  in  1800,  and  baron  of 
the  exchequer  in  1802.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for 
eloquence,  legal  knowledge,  and  moral  rectitude,  and 
was  an  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation  and  other 
important  reforms.  Died  in  1836. 

Smith,  (WILLIAM  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saint  Alban's,  Vermont,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the  Chfck- 
ahominy  campaign,  became  a  major-general  about  July, 
1862,  and  served  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17 
of  that  year.  He  led  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg,  December  13,  1862,  and  at  that  of  Cold  Harbour, 
June  3,  1864.  His  corps  made  an  unsuccessful  attack 
upon  the  defences  of  Petersburg,  June  15,  1864. 

Smith,  (WILLIAM  LOUGHTON,)  an  American  diplo 
matist  and  statesman,  was  elected  to  Congress  from 
South  Carolina  in  1789,  and  in  1800  was  appointed 
minister  to  Spain.  He  published  several  political  works 
and  essays,  under  the  signature  of  "  Phocion."  Died 
in  1812. 

Smith,  (Sir  WILLIAM  SIDNEY,)  a  celebrated  English 
admiral,  born  at  Westminster  about  1764.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  attained  the  rank  of  captain, 
and  commanded  a  flotilla  against  the  French  in  the 
campaign  of  1796,  in  which  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
Having  effected  his  escape  in  1798,  he  was  appointed  to 
command  a  squadron  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  skill  and  bravery  in  the  defence 
of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre  against  Napoleon's  army.  After 
signing  a  treaty  with  Kleber  for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt 


by  the  French,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Rochester  in  1802.  He 
became  vice-admiral  in  1810,  and  admiral  in  1821.  Died 
in  1840  or  1841. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  JOHN  HAR 
ROW,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  Wm.  Sidney  Smith,"  1848; 
CAPTAIN  MARKVAT.  "Memoirs  cf  Sir  Wm.  .Sidney  Smith,"  1839; 
LA  ROQUETTK,  ''Notice  historique  sur  Sidney  Smith,"  1850; 
"  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
March,  iS4S. 

Smith'spn,  (JAMES,)  an  English  chemist  and  scien 
tific  writer,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  chemical  analysis 
and  experimental  physics.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Composition  and  Crystalliza 
tion  of  Certain  Sulphurets  from  Huel  Boys  in  Cornwall," 
"  On  a  Saline  Substance  from  Mount  Vesuvius,"  and 
"  Facts  relating  to  the  Colouring-Matter  of  Vegetables." 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  friend  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  and  other  eminent  philosophers  of  the 
time.  He  died  in  1829,  leaving  the  whole  of  his  property 
to  found  at  Washington,  in  the  United  States,  an  insti 
tution,  called  by  his  name,  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge. 

Smlts,  (DiRK,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rotterdam  in 
1702.  His  productions,  among  which  is  "  De  Rotte 
Stroom,"  (1750,)  are  eulogized  by  Gravenweert.  Died 
in  1752. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  GRAVEN- 
WEEKT,  "  Litterature  Neerlandaise." 

Smitz  or  Smits,  smlts,  (GASI'AR,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  who  worked  in  England  and  Ireland.  He  ex 
celled  in  painting  Magdalens,  and  was  called  MAGDALEN 
SMITH.  Died  in  1689. 

Smitz,  (Louis,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit, 
born  at  Dort  in  1635;  died  in  1675. 

SmolTett,  (TOBIAS  GEORGE,)  a  distinguished  British 
novelist  and  historian,  born  in  the  vale  of  Leven,  Dum 
bartonshire,  Sco'tland,  in  1721.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Glasgow,  and  entered  the  royal  navy  as  surgeon's  mate 
about  1741.  Having  quitted  the  naval  service  in  disgust 
about  1744,  he  settled  in  London.  He  produced  coarse 
satires,  entitled  "  Advice,"  (1746,)  and  "Reproof."  In 

1747  he  married  a  Creole  named  Miss  Lascelles,  and  in 

1748  published   "Roderick    Random,"  a   novel,   which 
was  successful  and  displayed  a  great  talent  for  humour. 
His  next  work  was  "Peregrine  Pickle,"  a  coarse  and  li 
centious  tale,  (1751.)  "Count  Fathom," another  romance, 
similar  in  character  to  the  preceding,  appeared  in  1753. 
lie  was   not  successful   in  obtaining  practice  as  a  phy 
sician.     In  1758  he  published  a  "Complete   History  of 
England  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,"  (6  vols.,)  which  was  received  with  favour, 
although  it  has  little  merit  except  the  style.     He  after 
wards  wrote  a  "  Continuation  of  the  History  of  England" 
to   the  year  1764.     During  the   administration  of  Lord 
Bute,  Smollett  edited   "The   Briton,"  a  political  paper 
which   supported   the   ministry  and  was  denounced  by 
John    Wilkes    in    the    "North    Briton."      Among    his 
numerous    works    is    "The    Expedition'  of   Humphrey 
Clinker,"   (1771.)     He  went  to  Italy  for  his   health  in 
1770,  and  died,  near  Leghorn,  in  October,  1771. 

See  R.  ANDERSON,  "Life  of  T.  Smollett,"  1803;  SIR  WALTER 
SCOTT,  "  Biographic.il  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;"  DR.  MOORK, 
"Life  of  Smollett ;"  CHAMBERS.  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  HAZMTT,  "  Comic  Writers  ;"  "  Inedited  Memorials  of 
Smollett,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1859  ;  CAKY,  "  Lives 
of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  m  Kirke  White  ;"  ALLIBONE,  "  Dic 
tionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1858. 

Smybert.     See  SMIUF.UT. 

Smyth,  (JAMES  CARMICHAEL,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  1741,  published  several  medical  works,  and  dis 
covered  a  method  of  preventing  contagion  by  the  use 
of  nitrous  vapour.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So 
ciety.  Died  in  1821. 

Smyth,  (THOMAS,)  D.D.,  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in 
1808,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1832  be 
came  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  He  has  published  "The 
Life  and  Character  of  Calvin  Defended,"  and  other 
theological  and  controversial  works. 

Smyth,  (THOMAS  A.,)  a  general,  born  in  Ireland, 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.  For  his  conduct  at 


t  as  K:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (TJf^See  Explanations,  p.  23  ; 

128 


SMYTH 


2034 


SOBIESKI 


Cold  Harbour,  June,  1864,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general,  lie  was  killed  near  Farmville,  Virginia,  in 
April,  1865. 

Smyth,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet  and  scholar, 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1766.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1809  professor 
of  modern  history.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity,"  "  English  Lyrics,"  and  a 
collection  of  "  Lectures."  Died  in  1849. 

Smyth,  (Wn.i.iAM  HENRY,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1788,  was  employed  in  1823 
in  a  survey  of  the  coast  of  Sardinia.  He  published 
a  "  Sketch  of  the  Present  State  of  the  Island  of  Sar 
dinia,"  and  "The  Mediterranean:  a  Memoir,  Physical, 
Historical,  and  Nautical,"  (1854.)  He  was  made  a 
rear-admiral  in  1853.  Died  in  1865. 

His  son,  CHARLES  P.  SMYTH,  has  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Teneriffe  :  an  Astronomer's  Visit,"  giving  an 
account  of  his  scientific  observations. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  iS66. 

Snape,  (ANDREW,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Hampton  Court  about  1670.  He  wrote  against  Hoadly. 
Died  in  1742. 

Snayers,  sni'ers,  (HENRY,)  a  skilful  Flemish  en 
graver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1612.  He  engraved  some 
works  of  Rubens. 

Snayers,  (PIERRE,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant 
werp  in  1593.  He  painted  landscapes  and  battles.  Died 
in  1670. 

Snell,  (Lumvic,,)  born  at  Idstein,  in  the  duchy  of 
Nassau,  in  1785,  became  professor  of  political  science 
at  Berne,  in  Switzerland.  Died  in  1854. 

Snell,  ( RUDOLPH,)  a  Dutch  mathematician  and  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Oudenarde  in  1547,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Leyden.  Died  in  1613. 

Snell,  (Wii.HEi.M,)  a  German  jurist,  brother  of  Lud- 
wig,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Idstein  in  1789.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Bale,  Zurich, 
and  Berne,  in  Switzerland.  Died  in  1851. 

Snell,  |  Lat.  SNEI/LIUS,]  (  WILLEHROD,  )  a  Dutch 
mathematician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1591,  was  a  son  of 
Rudolph,  noticed  above.  lie  discovered  the  law  of  the 
refraction  of  light,  that  the  sines  of  the  angles  of  incidence 
and  refraction  have  to  each  other  a  constant  ratio.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Cyclometricus,"  (1621.) 
a  treatise  on  the  measurement  of  a  circle.  Died  in  1626. 

See  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica  ;"  MONTUCI.A,  "  Histoire  des 
Maihematiques." 

Snellaert,  snel'lint,  (FERDINAND  AUGUSTYN,)  a 
distinguished  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Courtrai  in  1809. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  essay  on  the  history 
of  Flemish  poetry,  entitled  "Over  de  Nederlandsche 
Dichtkunst  in  P>elgie,"  (1838,)  and  "A  Brief  Sketch  of 
Dutch  and  Flemish  Literature,"  ("  Kort  Begrip  eener 
Geschiedenis  der  Nederlandsche  Letterkunde,"  1849.) 
He  has  founded  a  society  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
Flemish  language. 

Snellincks,  snel'links,  or  Snellinx,  (JAN,)  a  Flem 
ish  painter  of  history  and  battles,  born  at  Mechlin  in 
1544.  He  worked  at  Antwerp.  Died  in  1638. 

Snellius.     See  SNELL. 

Sne'then,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  American  Methodist  di 
vine,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1769,  settled  in  Maryland, 
and  was  elected  chaplain  to  Congress.  He  was  an 
eloquent  and  popular  preacher,  and  one  of  the  principal 
founders  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  Died  in 

1845- 

Sneyders.     See  SNYDERS. 

Sniadecki,  sne-a-dets'skee,  (ANDREW.)  a  Polish 
physiologist,  born  in  1768,  studied  at  Pavi'a  under  Gal- 
vani  and  Volta,  and  subsequently  at  Edinburgh.  He 
became  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy  at  Wilna 
in  1797.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Theory  of  Organic 
Existences,"  (in  Polish,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard 
work  and  has  been  tra-nslated  into  French  and  German. 
'Died  in  1838. 

See  UALINSKI,  "  Biographic  d'A.  Sniadecki,"  1846. 

Sniadecki,(JoHN,)  a  celebrated  Polish  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Gnesen  in  1756,  was  a  brother 
of  Andrew,  noticed  above.  He  studied  at  Cracow,  and 
subsequently  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaint 


ance  of  D'Alembert,  Laplace,  and  other  eminent  savants, 
and  on  his  return  to  Poland  became  professor  of  astron 
omy  and  mathematics  at  Cracow.  (laving  resided  for  a 
time  in  England,  and  made  another  tour  on  the  continent, 
he  was  appointed  in  1806  rector  of  the  University  of 
Wilna,  which  under  his  direction  obtained  the  highest 
reputation  for  the  culture  of  the  exact  sciences.  Snia 
decki  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Saint  Peters 
burg  Academy,  to  which  he  contributed  a  number  of 
valuable  astronomical  observations.  He  published  a 
"  Physical  and  Mathematical  Description  of  the  Globe," 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  in  which  he  opposes 
the  system  of  Kant,  "Spherical  Trigonometry,"  (1820,) 
"Miscellaneous  Writings,"  2  vols.,  (1822-24,)  a"d  other 
works,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1830. 

Siiorri-Sturluson,  snok'ree  stur'lu-son,  written  also 
-Sturlesoii  or  -Sturulson,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
poets  and  scholars  of  Iceland,  was  born  in  1178.  He 
was  educated  by  the  learned  Ion,  and  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  almost  every  department 
of  knowledge.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to  the  high 
office  of  interpreter  of  the  law,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  jarl,  (a  word  etymological ly  related  and  nearly  corre 
sponding  to  our  "earl.")  His  avarice  and  his  turbulent 
disposition,  however,  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  his 
own  family,  several  of  whom  joined  a  faction  of  his  ene 
mies,  and  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  sons-in-law,  (1241.) 
His  greatest  work  is  a  collection  of  sagas,  entitled  the 
"  Heimskringla,"  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin, 
Swedish,  and  Darish  ;  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  writ 
ten  the  first  part  of  the  Snorra-Edda,  entitled  "The 
Gylfa-Ginning,"  the  Scaldic  songs  called  "  Kanningar," 
and  "  Hattalykill,"  (the  "Key  of  the  Wise.") 

See  CRONHOI.M,  "  Dissertatio  de  Snorronis  Sturlonidis  Historia, " 
1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gener.iie. " 

Snoy,  snoi,  (!\EGNIEK  or  RKNIKK,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  physician,  born  at  Gouda  in  1477.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  history  of  Holland,  "  De  Rebus  Batavicis,"  (1620.) 
Died  in  1537. 

Snyders  or  Sneyders,  sni'ders,  or  Snyers,  sni'ers, 
(FRANCIS,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant 
werp  in  1579,  studied  fruit-  and  flower-painting  under 
Henry  van  Balen.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself 
|  chiefly  to  the  delineation  of  animals  and  hunting-scenes, 
which  are  among  the  most  admirable  works  of  their 
kind.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Rubens  and  Jor- 
daens,  for  whose  pictures  lie  frequently  painted  the 
animals  and  still  life.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  stag-hunt,  and  other  similar  productions,  painted  for 
Philip  III.  of  Spain.  Died  in  1657. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Soane,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  celebrated  English  architect, 
born  at  Reading  in  1753.  Having  studied  for  a  time 
under  Dance  and  Holland,  he  was  enabled,  through  the 
influence  of  Sir  William  Chambers,  to  visit  Italy  as 
a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  was  successively  appointed  architect  to  the 
royal  woods  and  forests,  surveyor  to  Chelsea  Hospital, 
and  professor  of  architecture  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
(1806.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  the  Free 
masons'  Hall,  Dulwich  Gallery,  and  the  State  Paper 
Office  in  Saint  James's  Park,  London.  He  died  in 
1837,  bequeathing  to  the  nation  his  valuable  collections 
of  ancient  and  modern  art. 

Soanen,  so't'no.N',  (JEAN,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at 
Riom  in  1647,  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Senez  in  1695,  and,  having  identified  himself 
with  the  Jansenists,  was  suspended  in  1727.  Died  in 
1740. 

See  ABBE  GAULTIKR,  "Vie  de  Soanen,"  1750. 

Soave,  so-a'vi,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  teacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Lugano  in  1743.  He  was  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Milan,  and  professor  of  ideology  at  Pavia. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Moral  Tales," 
("  Novelle  moral i,")  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
at  Pavia  in  1806. 

See  SAVKII.I,  "  Elogio  di  Soave,"  1806;  "Vita  di  Fr.  Soave," 
(anonymous,)  1815. 

Sobieski,  so-be-es'kee,  (JAMES  Louis,)  a  Polish 
nobleman,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris  in 


T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


SOS1ESKI 


2035 


SOCRATES 


1667.  lie  displayed  great  courage  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Turks  in  1683.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1696,  he  aspired  to  the  throne  ;  but  the  Poles  pre 
ferred  Augustus  of  Saxony.  Died  in  1734. 

Sobieski,  (JoHN  III.,)  a  celebrated  Polish  warrior 
and  king,  bom  of  a  noble  family  in  Galicia  in  1629.  At 
an  early  age  he  distinguished  himself  by  repelling  the 
invasions  of  the  Cossacks,  Tartars,  and  Russians,  and 
in  1665  was  made  grand  marshal  and  hetman  of  Po 
land.  In  1671  he  defeated  the  Turks  under  Mahomet 
IV.,  and  took  the  fortress  of  Kotzini.  On  the  death  of 
Michael,  King  of  Poland,  in  1674,  John  Sobieski  was 
elected  his  successor.  The  Turks,  having  again  invaded 
Poland,  were  soon  after  driven  out  by  Sobieski,  and  a 
peace  was  concluded  between  the  nations.  In  1683  he 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  Austrians  besieged  in  Vi 
enna  by  a  numerous  army  under  the  grand-vizier  Kara 
Mustafa,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  his  French  and 
German  allies,  raised  the  siege  of  the  city  and  expelled 
the  Turks  from  the  country.  He  died  in  1696,  having 
earned  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  truest  patriots  his 
country  has  produced. 

See  COYER,  "  Histoire  de  Jean  Sobieski,"  3  vols.,  1761  ;  SAL- 
VANIJY,  "Histoire  de  Pologne  sous  Jean  Sobieski,"  3  vols.,  1829; 
L.  RO<;ALSKI,  ''  Histoire  du  Regne  de  Sobieski,"  1847;  "Authentic 
Memoirs  of  John  Sobieski,"  by  A.  T.  PALMER  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generate. " 

Socin.     See  SOCINUS. 

So-ci'nus,  (FAUSTUS.)  the  Latin  name  of  FAUSTO 
Sox.7.INI,  (fows'to  sot-see'nee,)  [Fr.  FAUSTE  SOCIN,  fost 
SO'S«LN',}  an  eminent  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1539.  He  passed  twelve  years  at  Florence  in  the 
service  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  adopted 
anti-trinitarian  opinions.  In  1574  he  removed  to  Swit 
zerland.  After  he  had  spent  three  years  at  Hale  in  the 
study  of  theology,  he  visited  Transylvania,  and  in  1579 
began  to  propagate  his  doctrines  in  Poland,  where  he 
made  many  converts.  He  rejected  the  doctrines  of  pre 
destination,  atonement,  and  original  sin.  In  1594  he 
published  a  work  "On  Christ  the  Saviour,''  ("De  fesu 
Christo  Servatore,")  for  which  he  was  violently  perse 
cuted.  Died  in  Poland  in  1604. 

See  J.  Tori.MiN,  "Life  of  F.  Socinus,"  1777;  SAMUEL  PKZYP- 
covius,  "  Vita  Fausti  Socini,"  1636  ;  RAYLE.  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  PISARSKI,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  F.  Socini,"  1788; 
"  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Socinus,  (L^ELIL'S,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  and 
the  first  teacher  of  Socinian  doctrines,  was  born  at  Sienna 
in  1525.  He  was  versed  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  lan 
guages.  About  1545  he  emigrated  from  Italy,  probably 
to  avoid  persecution.  He  travelled  or  wandered  in 
France,  England,  Germany,  and  Poland.  He  appears 
to  have  acted  with  much  circumspection  and  reserve  in 
the  assertion  of  his  opinions,  which  were  similar  to 
those  of  Faustus  Socinus,  and  which  neither  Catholics 
nor  Protestants  would  then  tolerate.  Died  at  Zurich 
in  1562. 

See  C.  T.  ILLGEN-,  "  Vita  F.  Socini,"  1814  ;  "  Nouve'le  Biographie 
Generale." 

Socquet,  so'ki',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  a  chemist,  born 
in  Savoy  in  1771,  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Lyons  in  1809.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1839. 

Soc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  2<j/cpu7?f ;  Lat.  SOC'RATKS  ;  Fr.  So- 
CRATK,  so'kuft' ;  It.  SOCRATE,  so-kRa'ta,]  the  illustrious 
founder*  of  Grecian  philosophy,  was  born  at  Athens 
about  470  n. c.  Several  modern  writers,  on  the  author 
ity  of  Demetrius  Phalereus  and  others,  have  given  the 
fourth  year  of  the  seventy-seventh  Olympiad — that  is, 
468  li.c. — a-s  the  date  of  his  birth  ;  but  this  can  scarcely 
be  correct,  as  we  are  told  in  the  "Apology"  of  Socrates 
that  he  was  then  (399  li.c.)  more  than  seventy  years  old  : 
hence  he  could  not  have  been  born  later  than  469  H.C. 
His  father,  Sophroniscus,  was  a  sculptor,  his  mother, 
Phaenarete,  a  midwife.  He  was  educated  to  his  father's 
art,  by  which  he  supported  himself  after  he  was  grown 
to  manhood.  Subsequently  Crito,  a  wealthy  and  gener 
ous  Athenian,  admiring  the  zeal  for  knowledge  and  the 
genius  evinced  by  Socrates,  furnished  him  with  the  means 

*  "  He  may  be  justly  called,"  says  Cicero,  "  the  father  of  Philoso 
phy,"  (jtarens  Philosophic  jure  did  potest.)  ("  De  Finibus,"  ii.  i.) 


to  procure  books  and  pay  his  teachers  in  the  various 
branches  of  art  and  science  then  taught  at  Athens,  and 
afterwards  became  one  of  his  most  faithful  and  devoted 
disciples.  According  to  some  writers,  Socrates  was  a 
pupil  of  Anaxagoras  ;  but  this  is  very  doubtful,  as  Plato 
represents  him  in  the  "  Phaedo"  as  saying  that  he  be 
came  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Anaxagoras  from 
a  book  written  by  this  philosopher. 

Socrates  served  as  a  soldier  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war  in  three  different  campaigns.  He  was  remarkable 
for  the  fortitude,  or  rather  indifference,  with  which  he 
bore  the  severest  privations  and  hardships  of  a  military 
life.  In  one  of  the  actions  during  his  first  campaign  he 
saved  the  life  of  his  pupil  Alcibiades,  for  which  exploit 
he  would  have  received  the  prize  of  bravery,  (upiareia ;) 
but,  at  Socrates'  own  request,  it  was  transferred  to  Alci 
biades.  In  the  second  campaign,  at  the  battle  of  Delinm, 
in  which  the  Athenians  were  defeated,  he  saved  the  life 
of  Xenophon,  another  of  his  pupils.  On  this  occasion, 
when  everywhere  around  him  was  fear  and  flight,  he 
exhibited  a  calm,  determined  courage  which  inspired  his 
pursuers  with  such  respect  and  fear  that  they  gladly 
permitted  him  to  retreat  unmolested.  He  afterwards, 
as  senator,  displayed  a  far  higher  and  rarer  courage. 
He  was  ordered  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants  to  assist  in 
bringing  back  to  Athens  Leon,  who,  to  escape  their 
tyranny,  had  fled  to  Salamis.  Socrates  firmly  refused 
to  take  any  part  in  the  affair,  for  which  he  would  per 
haps  have  suffered  death  had  not  the  government  of 
the  Thirty  been  soon  after  overthrown.  On  a  previous 
occasion,  when  president  (epis'tates)  of  the  Prytanes, 
his  inflexible  devotion  to  justice  was  still  more  signally 
shown.  The  question  before  the  assembly  was  the  sen 
tence  to  be  passed  on  the  admirals  who  had  neglected 
to  bury  the  dead  after  the  battle  of  Arginusae.  The 
burial  of  the  dead  was  regarded  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
as  among  the  most  important  and  sacred  of  all  duties. 
It  was,  however,  clearly  proved  that,  owing  to  a  violent 
storm,  it  was  impossible  to  recover  the  bodies  of  the 
slain.  Had  the  question  then  been  put  to  vote,  the  ad 
mirals  would  beyond  doubt  have  been  acquitted.  But 
the  accusers  succeeded  in  adjourning  the  assembly,  on 
the  pretext  that  it  was  then  too  dark  to  count  the  hands 
of  the  voters.  Meanwhile,  everything  possible  was  done 
to  inflame  the  minds  of  the  people  against  the  accused. 
In  their  pity  for  the  dead,  the  multitude  lost  sight  of 
their  duty  to  the  living.  The  votes  were  to  be  given  on 
the  general  question  whether  the  admirals  had  been 
guilty  in  omitting  the  recovery  of  the  bodies  of  those 
who  fell  at  Arginnsae.  If  they  should  be  found  guilty, 
the  penalty  for  all  was  death  and  the  confiscation  of 
their  property.  But  it  was  contrary  to  law  to  condemn 
all  by  one  vote  of  the  assembly.  Socrates,  as  epistates, 
refused  to  put  the  question  to  vote  ;  he  would  in  no  wise 
sanction  what  was  illegal  and  unjust.  The  populace  be 
came  furious,  and  demanded  that  those  who  opposed 
their  will  should  themselves  be  punished.  The  other 
prytanes  yielded ;  Socrates  alone  remained  firm  and 
unmoved  by  the  menaces  of  the  angry  multitude.*  So 
the  question  could  not  be  put  to  vote  that  day,  and  the 
assembly  was  again  adjourned.  Afterwards,  however, 
another  epistates  was  chosen,  and  the  admirals  were 
condemned.  (See  Wigger's  "Life  of  Socrates,"  pp.  lii.- 
Iv.)  Socrates  appears  to  have  held  no  office  in  the  gov 
ernment  except  that  of  senator,  already  referred  to.  He 
believed  that  he  was  called  by  Heaven  to  a  different 
class  of  duties, — to  be  a  teacher  of  wisdom  and  virtue, 
— and,  therefore,  the  voice  of  the  divinityt  within  him  had 


*  It  seems  more  than  probable  that   Horace  had  before  his  mind 
the  example  of  Socrates  braving  the  fury  of  the  Athenian  mob,  and 
resisting  the  tyrannical  command  of  the  Thirty,  when  he  wrote  those 
well-known  lines  "On  the  Just  Man,"  (lib.  iii.,  ode  3.) 
"  Justum  et  teuacem  propositi  virum 

Non  civiuni  ardor  prava  jubentium, 

Non  vultus  instantis  tyranni 

Mente  quatit  solidS." 

t  It  may  not  be  improper  to  caution  the  reader  against  a  mistake 
that  has  sometimes  arisen  from  the  use  of  the  term  "  demon"  or 
"  daemon"  in  speaking  of  the  divine  intimations  which  Socrates  be 
lieved  were  sometimes  triven  him.  The  primary  signification  of  the  ex 
pression  TO  iaifiortoi'.  (ironi  &aifj.ov,  "god,'')  which  Socrates  applied 
to  his  supernatural  monitor,  is  "the  divinity,"  or  "the  divine  one." 
He  doubtless  meant  simp'y  to  say  thai  some  divine  power  admonished 


•t  as  *:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOCRATES 


2036 


SOCRATES 


warned  him  against  engaging  in  the  contests  of  a  political 
life.  He  availed  himself  of  every  opportunity  of  awaking 
in  the  minds  of  the  young  the  love  of  wisdom  ;  and,  if 
we  may  trust  the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
he  was  endowed  not  only  with  a  talent  for  subtle  and 
profound  reasoning,  which  rendered  him  more  than  a 
match  for  the  ablest  sophists  and  rhetoricians  of  that 
age,  but  there  was  also  a  marvellous  and  irresistible 
fascination  in  his  talk,  of  which  history  furnishes  per 
haps  no  other  example.  /Elian  calls  this  peculiar  power 
"the  Siren  of  Socrates."  "When  I  hear  him  speak," 
says  Alcibiacles,*  "  my  heart  leaps  up  more  than  the 
hearts  of  those  who  celebrate  the  Corybantic  mysteries; 
my  tears  are  poured  out  as  he  talks, — a  thing  I  have  seen 
happen  to  many  others  besides  myself.  I  have  heard 
Pericles  and  other  excellent  orators,  and  I  have  been 
pleased  with  their  discourses,  but  I  suffered  nothing  of 
this  kind  ;  nor  was  my  soul  ever  on  these  occasions 
disturbed  and  filled  with  self-reproach.  .  .  .  But  he  has 
often  affected  me  in  the  way  I  describe,  until  the  life 
which  I  lead  seemed  hardly  worth  living.  ...  I  stop 
my  ears,  therefore,  as  from  the  Sirens,  and  flee  away  as 
fast  as  possible,  that  I  may  not  sit  down  beside  him  and 
grow  old  in  listening  to  his  talk.  .  .  .  But  I  know  not 
if  any  one  of  you  have  ever  seen  the  divine  images 
which  are  within  when  he  is  serious  and  opens  himself. 
I  have  seen  them  ;  and  they  are  so  supremely  beautiful, 
so  golden,  so  divine  and  wonderful,  that  everything  which 
Socrates  commands  surely  ought  to  be  obeyed,  even  like 
the  voice  of  a  God." 

It  is  impossible  to  state  precisely  at  what  time  Socra 
tes  first  began  to  teach  ;  but  from  the  manner  in  which 
he  is  spoken  of  in  the  "Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  (repre 
sented  for  the  first  time  423  li.C.,)  lie  must  have  been 
already  well  known  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy.  Some 
have  assumed  that,  as  the  representation  of  that  comedy 
occurred  twenty-four  years  before  the  death  of  Socrates, 
it  could  have  had  no  share  in  producing  his  condemna 
tion  ;  but  the  truth  of  this  is  very  questionable.  It  is 
by  no  means  improbable  that  a  popular  drama  addressed 
to  the  prejudices  of  the  masses  should  leave  upon  their 
minds  a  permanently  unfavourable  impression,  which 
any  fresh  cause  might  excite  into  active  hostility. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  about  400  is.C.  an  orator  named  Lycon, 
with  Meletus,  a  poet,  and  Anytus,  an  influential  dema 
gogue,  brought  an  accusation  against  Socrates  that  he 
disbelieved  the  gods  of  his  country  and  sought  to  intro 
duce  new  deities,  and  that,  moreover,  he  was  guilty  of 
corrupting  the  Athenian  youth.  The  judges  declared 
him  guilty,  leaving  the  punishment  as  yet  undetermined. 
When  called  upon  to  offer  what  he  could  in  mitigation 
of  the  sentence,  he  would  make  no  concession.  Con 
scious  of  innocence,  he  would  not  confess  himself  guilty. 
His  calm,  dignified,  and  almost  haughty  manner  ap 
pears  to  have  irritated  ant]  incensed  the  judges,  who 
were  accustomed  to  the  most  humble  and  even  abject 
behaviour  from  those  whom  thev  had  condemned.  He 
closed  his  defence,  or  "apology,"  with  these  memorable 
words  :  "  We  must  now  depart,  I  to  die,  and  you  to 
live  ;  but  which  of  us  has  the  happier  destiny  is  known 
only  to  God."  He  was  sentenced  to  death  by  a  majority 
far  greater  than  that  by  which  he  had  beeji  pronounced 
guilty.  By  a  law  of  Athens,  the  sentence  could  not  be 
carried  into  execution  until  the  return  from  Dclosof  the 
vessel  which  had  been  sent  thither  on  the  periodic  reli 
gious  embassy  or  mission  called  Theoria.  This  obtained 
for  him  a  reprieve  of  thirty  days,  which  he  spent  in  con 
versation  with  his  friends  on  the  highest  and  most  im 
portant  subjects, — among  others,  on  the  duty  of  obeying 
the  laws,  and  not  seeking  to  escape  from  them,  even  in 
cases,  like  his  own,  where  they  might  seem  to  be  applied 
unjustly;  and  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  for  his 
own  belief  in  which  he  gave  perhaps  the  most  admirable 
arguments  that  have  ever  yet  been  offered  by  the  human 
intellect  in  support  of  that  sublime  doctrine. 


him  to  do  or  not  to  do  certain  things.  The  suggestion  of  some  modern 
writers  that  Socrates  used  TO  SOLUJLOVIOV  merely  to  express  certain 
intuitions  or  practical  judgments  which  lie  could  not  readily  explain, 
will  scarcely  bear  examination.  It  appears  to  be  quite  evident  that 
he  himself  considered  these  intimations  to  be  not  merely  inexplicable, 
but,  in  the  strictest  sense,  supernatural  and  divine. 
*  See  PLATO'S  "  Banquet,"  (or  "  Symposium.") 


When  at  length  the  sacred  vessel  had  returned  from 
Delos,  and  the  order  was  sent  for  his  execution,  he 
drank  the  fatal  hemlock  with  the  utmost  composure,  as 
one  who  was  setting  out  on  a  happy  journey  might  drink 
to  the  health  of  the  friends  he  left  behind.  In  the  clos 
ing  scene  of  his  life  he  was  serene  and  even  cheerful, 
but  in  his  manner  there  was  nothing  like  bravado,  no 
thing  in  his  conduct  or  language  that  was  not  indicative 
of  simplicity  and  entire  sincerity.  He  approached  his 
death  not  as  one  who  demanded  of  the  gods  a  happy 
futurity  in  return  for  a  virtuous  life,  but  rather  as  one 
who  had  a  firm  though  humble  hope  that  the  Great 
Being,  whom  he  believed  to  exercise  a  benevolent  and 
constant  care  for  man,  would  free  him  from  the  disease 
and  darkness  incident  to  his  earthly  life,  and  give  him 
an  inheritance  in  a  divine  and  spiritual  kingdom.  He 
died  in  399  or,  as  some  say,  400  15. c. 

Socrates  has  been  regarded  by  almost  universal  con 
sent  as  the  most  perfect  example  of  a  wise  and  virtuous 
man  that  pagan  antiquity  presents  to  us.  Pope  but  ex 
presses  the  prevailing  sentiment  when  he  assigns  to  him 
the  first  place  among  the  heroes 

"  Of  less  noisy  and  less  guilty  fame, 
Fair  Virtue's  silent  train  :  supreme  of  these 
Here  ever  shines  the  godlike  Socrates." — Temple  of  Fame. 

His  character  is  thus  given  by  his  friend  and  disciple 
Xenophon  :  "As  to  myself,  knowing  him  to  be  such  a 
man  as  I  have  described  ;  so  pious  towards  the  gods  as 
never  to  undertake  anything  without  first  consulting 
them  ;  so  just  towards  men  as  never  to  do  the  slightest 
injury  to  any  one,  while  he  conferred  the  greatest  bene 
fits  on  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him  ;  so  temperate 
and  chaste  as  never  to  prefer  pleasure  to  what  was  right ; 
so  wise  as  never  to  err  in  judging  of  good  and  evil,  nor 
needing  the  aid  of  others  in  order  properly  to  discrimi 
nate  between  them  ;  so  able  to  discourse  upon,  and 
accurately  define,  such  points  as  those  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking;  so  skilful  in  penetrating  the  hidden 
characters  of  men,  and  seizing  the  fittest  time  to  reprove 
the  erring  and  turn  them  to  the  paths  of  virtue  ;  being 
such,  I  cannot  but  consider  him  as  the  most  excellent 
and  most  happy  of  mankind.  But  if  any  one  thinks 
differently,  let  him  compare  the  character  of  Socrates 
with  that  of  any  other  man  whatsoever,  and  then  let 
him  decide." 

Socrates  is  commonly  believed  to  have  been  very 
unfortunate  in  his  domestic  relations.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  there  is  much  exaggeration  in  the  reports 
that  have  come  down  to  us  of  Xanthippe's  intolerable 
temper.  Socrates  evidently  entertained  for  her  a  sincere 
regard,  and  speaks  highly  of  her  domestic  virtues.  (See 
Xenophon's  "Memorabilia,"  lib.  ii.  2,  7.) 

Socrates  committed  nothing  to  writing;  he  taught  his 
disciples  by  oral  instruction  only.  Almost  all  that  we 
know  of  his  philosophic  views,  as  well  as  of  his  personal 
character,  is  derived  from  the  works  of  his  disciples 
Plato  and  Xenophon.  Of  all  whom  he  taught,  Plato 
alone  appears  to  have  fully  understood  the  essential 
character,  the  depth  and  extent,  of  his  philosophy.  But 
although  Plato  makes  Socrates  the  chief  interlocutor  in 
his  dialogues,  we  are  not  therefore  warranted  in  as 
suming  that  the  master  taught  every  doctrine  which  the 
disciple  has  attributed  to  him.  Plato,  doubtless,  often 
puts  his  own  thoughts  into  the  mouth  of  Socrates,  either 
from  motives  of  modesty  or  for  the  purpose  of  clothing 
them  with  greater  authority.  As  Mr.  Emerson  has  aptly 
remarked,  "Socrates  and  Plato  are  the  double  star  which 
the  most  powerful  instruments  will  not  entirely  separ 
ate."*  By  a  comparison,  however,  of  the  writings  of 
Xenophon  and  Plato,  we  are  enabled  to  conjecture  with 
a  good  degree  of  confidence  the  essential  characteristics 
of  Socrates'  philosophy.  That  which  cannot  fail  to 
strike  every  thoughtful  reader  is  the  prominence  which 
he  gives  to  morality  in  all  his  teachings.  He  may  be 
said,  indeed,  to  contemplate  the  universe  from  an  ex 
clusively  moral  stand-point.  Anaxagoras  had  previously 
taught  that  there  was  an  infinite  autocratic  Intelligence 
or  Soul,  that  created  and  governed  all  things  ;  but  he 
ascribed  to  this  Intelligence  no  distinctly  moral  attri- 


*  See  article  "Plato,"  in  his  "Representative  Men." 


a,  e,  T,  5,  ii,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SOCRATES 


2037 


SOLE 


butes.  Socrates  likewise  recognized  an  infinite  creative 
Intelligence  as  the  Soul  of  the  universe,  hut  he  also 
taught  that  this  power  was  invariably  exerted  in  con 
formity  to  certain  moral  attributes  which  constituted,  so 
to  speak,  the  basis  of  the  Divine  character. 

In  the  opinion  of  some  able  critics,  (of  Schleiermacher 
among  others,)  the  world  is  less  indebted  to  Socrates 
for  the  truths  which  be  arrived  at  or  discovered  than 
for  his  improved  method  of  "philosophic  investigation. 
Socrates  employed  with  remarkable  success  a  mode  of 
reasoning  first  introduced  by  Zeno  of  Elea.  lie  would 
ask  some  person,  the  errors  of  whose  opinions  he  wished 
to  expose,  a  simple  question,  the  answer  to  which  would 
seem  to  be  quite  obvious,  then  gradually  lead  him  on 
from  one  admission  to  another,  till  it  was  too  late  to 
retreat,  and  impossible  to  advance  without  ending  in 
some  absurdity.  It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  (as 
already  intimated)  how  much  of  the  improved  method, 
or  of  the  great  doctrines  which  we  discover  in  the  writings 
of  Plato,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Socrates,  and  how  much  to 
his  illustrious  disciple.  (See  PI.ATO.)  We  have,  however, 
the  direct  testimony  of  Aristotle  that  Socrates  must  be 
regarded  as  the  author  of  inductive  reasoning  and  of  ab 
stract  definitions.  In  Socrates  inductive  reasoning  is  seen 
in  its  incipient  and  simplest  form.  Subsequently  Aris 
totle  improved  greatly  on  the  idea  of  Socrates,  and  he 
has  given  us  a  definition  of  induction  so  complete  and 
perfect  that  it  could  scarcely  be  bettered  even  in  the  light 
of  modern  science.  (See  ARISTOTLE.)  But  philosophy 
is  under  the  greatest  obligation  to  Socrates  for  teaching 
so  clearly  and  impressively  the  manner  and  spirit  with 
which  the  search  after  truth  should  be  conducted.  By 
pointing  out  the  importance  of  thoroughly  and  accurately 
defining  our  ideas  before  we  proceed  to  reason  upon 
them,  he  has  done  much  to  remove  the  most  fruitful 
and  most  universal  source  of  error  connected  with  human 
thought.  While  exposing  the  pretended  knowledge  of 
the  Sophists,  who  claimed  to  be  so  wise,  he  taught  how 
necessary  were  modesty  and  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
limits  and  weakness  of  the  human  intellect,  as  well  as 
of  its  powers,  for  the  successful  pursuit  of  truth.  So 
great,  so  transcendent  are  his  merits  in  these  respects, 
that,  as  has  justly  been  observed,  his  life  forms  an  era 
not  merely  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  but  in  that  of 
the  human  race. 

See  WIGGER,  "  Life  of  Socrates  ;"  RITTHR,  "  History  of  Ancient  j 
Philosophy,"  (translated  by  A.  J.  W.  MORRISON,  Oxford,  183?;) 
G.  H.  LKWES,  "  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy ;"  the  excellent 
article  on  "  Socrates"  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Hritannica  ;"  SCHI.KIER- 
MACHER  on  the  "Worth  of  Socrates  as  a  Philosopher,"  (translated 
by  THIRLWALL.  and  included  in  the  recent  English  version  of  WIG- 
GER'S  "Life  of  Socrates  ;")  F.  CHAKPSNTIBR,  "Vie  de  Socrate," 
1650:  GILBERT  COOPER,  "  Life  of  Socrates,"  1749;  F.  D.  GERI.ACH, 
"Socrates  nnd  die  Sophisten,"  1827:  J.  A.  EBERHARD,  "  Neue 
Apoiogie  des  Socrates,"  1772;  H.  W.  HELLER,  "Socrates,"  2 
vo!s.,  1789;  J.  G.  HAMANN,  "  Socratische  Denkwiirdigkeiten,"  1759; 
KNOKR,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita,  Fatis  atqne  Philnsophia  Socratis," 
1720:  A.  WINBOM,  "  Dissertatio  de  Socrate,"  1734;  XENOPHON,  "Me- 
morabilia ;"  PLATO,  "Dialogues:"  GROTK,  "History  of  Greece," 
chap.  Ixvii.  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1850. 

Socrates,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  320  H.c. 

Socrates  surnamed  SCHOLAS'TICUS,  [Fr.  SOCRATK  LE 
SCHOLASTIQUE,  so'kRtt'  leh  sko'ijts'tek',]  a  Greek  eccle 
siastical  historian,  born  at  Constantinople  about  379  A.M. 
He  was  an  advocate  or  lawyer.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Church  from  306  to  439  A.I).,"  which  is  a  continua 
tion  of  the  history  of  Eusebius,  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  accuracy,  moderation,  and  impartiality.  lie  was  op 


posed  to  all  persecution  for  religious  opinions.      Died 
after  440. 

See  VALESIUS  or  V  ALOIS,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Socratis;"  Voss, 
"  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Soden,  so'den  or  zo'den,  (FRIEDR'CH  JULIUS  HEIN- 
RICH,)  COUNT,  a  German  writer,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1754.  He  published  several  dramas,  and  treatises  on 
political  economy.  Died  in  1831. 

Soderini,  so-di-ree'nee,  (GIOVANNI  VETTORIO,)  an 
Italian  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1526  ;  died  in  1596. 

Soderini,  (PIETRO,)  an  Italian  magistrate,  born  at 
Florence  about  1450.  He  was  elected  gonfalonier  for 
life  in  1502,  but  was  deposed  in  1512.  Died  in  1513. 

-See  S.  RAZZI,  "Vita  di  P.  Soderini,"  1737. 


Sodoma,  II.     See  RAZZI. 

Soemmering.     See  SUMMERING. 

Soest.     See  Susr. 

Sceur,  Le,  leh  SUR,  sometimes  written  Le  Sueur, 
( HUBERT,)  an  able  French  sculptor,  born  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  removed  to  London  about  1630.  Among  his 
works  is  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  I.,  now 
at  Charing  Cross. 

Sogaro,  II.     See  GATTI,  (BERNARDINO.) 

Sogliani,  sol-ya'nee,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  lived  about  1530. 

Sografi,  so-gRa'fee,  (ANTONIO  SIMONE,)  an  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Padua  in  1760.  He  produced  suc 
cessful  comedies,  among  which  is  "  Olive  and  Pascal." 
Died  in  1825. 

Sohn,  son  or  z5n,  (KARL  FERDINAND,)  a  German 
'  painter  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  and  professor  in  the 
i  Academy  of  that  city,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1805. 

Soiron,  von,  fon  swa'ri.N',  (ALEXANDER,)  a  German 
politician,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1805.     Devoted  to  the 
cause  of  the  unity  of  Germany,  he  took  a  prominent  part 
i  in  the  movements  of  1848. 

Soissons,  de,  deh  swaps',  (CHARLES  de  Bour 
bon — deh  book'bo.N',)  COUNT,  born  in  1566,  was  a  son 
of  Louis  I.,  Prince  of  Conde.  He  fought  for  Henry  IV. 
against  the  League,  and  was  appointed  grand  master  of 
France  in  1589.  He  was  turbulent  and  inclined  to 
treachery.  Died  in  1612. 

Soissons,  de,  COUNTESS.  See  MANCINI,  (OLYMPIA.) 

Soissons,  de,  (Louis,)  COUNT,  a  son  of  Charles, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1604.  He  rebelled 
against  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
in  1641. 

Solauder,  so-lan'der,  (DANIEL  CHARLES,)  an  emi 
nent  Swedish  naturalist  and  physician,  born  in  No rd land 
in  1736,  was  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus.  He  took  his  medical 
degree  at  the  University  of  Upsal,  and  afterwards  visited 
Russia  and  England,  where  he  subsequently  became  an 
assistant  in  the  natural  history  department  of  the  Brit 
ish  Museum,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1764.  He  sailed  in  1768,  accompanied  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  first  voyage 
round  the  world.  They  returned  in  1771,  having  made 
a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  objects  in  natural  his 
tory,  and  in  1773  Solander  was  appointed  under-librarian 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  contributed  several  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  other 
scientific  journals.  Diet!  in  1782. 

Solari,  so-la'ree,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter,  called 
also  ANDREA  DEL  Goisno,  an  Italian  painter,  flourished 
at  Milan  about  1500—20. 

Solari,  (CRISTOEORO,)  called  IL  GOBBO,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  a  brother  of  Andrea,  noticed  above,  worked 
at  Milan  about  1500. 

Solario,  da,  dd  so-la're-o,  or  Solari,  so-la'ree,  (AN 
TONIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  ZINOARO,  ("the 
Gypsy,")  born  about  1382,  was  originally  a  blacksmith. 
He  became  the  son-in-law  of  Colantonio  del  Fiore,  who 
gave  him  his  daughter  on  condition  of  his  acquiring 
distinction  as  a  painter.  Died  in  -1455. 

See  G.  A.  MOSCIIINI,  "  Memorie  della  Vita  di  A.  de  Solario,"  1828. 
Soldani,  sol-da'nee,  (AMHROGIO.)  an  Italian  natural 
ist,  born  at  Foppi,  in  Tuscany,  in  1733.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  researches  in  microscopic  fossil  shells, 
and  published  "  Testaceography  and  Zoophytqgraphy," 
etc.,  ("  Testaceographia  ac  Zoophytographia  parva  et 
microscopica,"  3  vols.,  1789-98.)  Died  in  1808. 

See  G.  BIANCHI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Soldani,"  iSoS  ;  RICCA, 
"  Discorso  sopra  le  Opere  di  A.  Soldani,"  1810;  TIPALDO,  "  Bio- 
grafia  deg'i  Italian!  illnstri." 

Soldani,  (JACOPO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
in  1579.  He  wrote  seven  Satires,  which  the  Academy 
Delhi  Crusca  approved  as  testi  di  lingua.  Died  in  1641. 

Soldani,  (MASSLMILIANO,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  en 
graver  of  medals,  born  at  Florence  in  1658  ;  died  in  1740. 

Sole,  del,  deM  so'la,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
landscape-painter,  born  about  1600 ;  died  about  1680. 

Sole,  del,  (GIANGIOSEFFO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1654,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
painted  some  frescos  at  Milan.  His  works  (part  of 
which  are  in  oil)  are  highly  praised.  Died  in  1719. 


«as  k;  cas.r;g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas«;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOLEIL 


20:58 


SOLON 


Soleil,  so'lil'  or  so'li'ye,  (N.,)  a  Frenchman,  dis 
tinguished  for  his  skill  in  the  fabrication  of  optical  in 
struments  and  philosophical  apparatus,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1798.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Fresnel  in  his 
scientific  labours. 

Solger,  sol'ger  or  zol'ger,  (KARL  WILHELM  FKRDI- 
NAND,)  a  German  writer  on  philosophy  and  aesthetics, 
born  at  Schvvedt  in  1780;  died  in  1819. 

Solie,  so'le-i',  or  Soulier,  soo'le-i',  (JEAN  PIERRE,) 
a  French  actoT  and  composer  of  operas,  was  born  at 
Nimes  in  1755  ;  died  in  1812. 

Solignac,  so'len'ySk',  (PiKRRE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1687,  became  secretary  to 
Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Poland,"  (6  vols.,  1751.)  Died  in  1773. 

Soliman,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)     See  SOLYMAN. 

Soliman  or  Solyman,  so'le-man',  Sultan  of  Persia, 
born  in  1646,  was  the  son  of  Abbas  II.,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  in  1666.  He  was  a  weak  and  depraved  prince, 
and  abandoned  the  control  of  the  empire  to  his  able 
minister,  Sheik  Alee  Khan.  Died  in  1694. 

See  MALCOLM,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Soliman,  so'le-man',  or  Suleyman,  soo-la-man', 
written  also  Solyman,  (Ibn-Abd-el-Malek,  ib'n  abd- 
el  mtl'ek,)  seventh  Caliph  ot  the  Omeyyade  dynasty, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  715  A.I).  Died  in  717. 

See  WKII.,  "  Geschiclite  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi. 

Soliman  or  Suleyman,  (Ibn-Al-Hakem,  ib'n  al- 
ha'kem,)  a  Moorish  soldier,  who  took  possession  of 
Coidova,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  in 
1009  A.D.  He  was  defeated  and  slain  in  1016. 

Solimena,  so-le-ma'ni,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter  and  poet,  sometimes  called  L'ABATK  Ciccio, 
(chet'cho,)  was  born  in  1657.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  his  oil-paintings  in  the  chapel  of  San  Felippo  Neri, 
and  the  frescos  of  the  sacristy  of  the  Theatines  of  San 
Paolo  Maggiore.  He  was  a  friend  of  Luca  Giordano, 
whom  he  equalled  in  genius  and  reputation.  He  pub 
lished  a  collection  of  sonnets.  Died  in  1747. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  DOMENICI,  "  Vite 
de'  Pittori  Napoletani." 

Solin.     See  SOLI  N  us. 

So-li'nus,  [Fr.  SOI.IN,  so'las',]  (CAius  JULIUS,)  a 
Latin  writer,  of  whom  little  is  known,  lived  probably  in 
the  third  century.  He  left  a  work  called  "  Polyhistor," 
which  describes  the  world  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
is  a  compilation  from  Pliny's  "Natural  History."  Sal- 
masius  published  an  edition  of  the  "Polyhistor,"  in 
1629. 

Solis,  de,  da  so'less,  (JiMN  DIAZ,)  a  Spanish  navi 
gator,  born  in  the  province  of  Seville,  sailed  in  company 
with  Pinzon  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  and 
discovered  Yucatan.  In  1512  Solis  set  out  on  another 
voyage,  in  which  he  discovered  Cape  Frio  and  obtained 
information  from  the  Indians  of  gold  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Paraguay.  Having  returned  with  this  account,  he 
sailed  again,  in  1515,  with  three  vessels,  lout  was  mur 
dered,  with  a  great  part  of  his  crew,  by  the  Indians,  soon 
alter  landing. 

Solis  y  Ribadeneira,  de,  da  so'less  e  re-ba-na- 
na/e-ra,  (ANTONIO,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist  and 
historian,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  in  1610.  While 
studying  law  at  Salamanca,  he  published  a  comedy  en 
titled  "  Love  and  Duty,"  which  was  very  successful. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  Philip  IV.,  and,  after  his 
death,  historiographer  of  the  transactions  of  the  Span 
iards  in  the  Indies.  Among  his  dramas  we  may  name 
the  comedies  of  "  The  Gypsy-Girl  of  Madrid,"  ("  La 
Gitanilla"  (or  "  Preciosa")  "de  Madrid,")  "One  Fool 
will  make  a  Hundred,"  ("  Un  Hobo  hace  Ciento,")  and 
"The  Castle  of  Mystery,"  ("El  Alcazar  de  Secreto.") 
His  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  ("  Con- 
quista  de  Mejico,"  5  vols.,  1684,)  though  not  reliable  in 
point  of  accuracy  and  impartiality,  possesses  merit  of  a 
very  high  order,  and  has  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  Prescott  observes,  "  In  the  judgment  of 
eminent  Spanish  critics,  the  style  of  Solis  claims  the 
merits  of  perspicuity,  copiousness,  and  classic  elegance;" 
and  he  adds,  "such  is  the  charm  of  its  composition  and 
its  exquisite  finish  as  a  work  of  art,  that  it  will  doubtless 
be  as  imperishable  as  the  language  in  which  it  is  written, 


or  the  memory  of  the  events  which  it  records."     Died 
in  1686. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  iii.  book  vi.  ;  TICK- 
NOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  :"  N".  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliothecn 
Hispana  Nova;"  NIC£RON,  "Memoires." 

Sollohub  or  Sollognb.     See  ZOI.T.OOUB. 

Sol'o-mon,  |  Heb.  noSiV  ;  Gr.  SoAo^wv ;  Fr.  SALO 
MON,  st'lo'mAN' ;  Ger.  SAI.OMO,  za'lo-mo,]  a  Jewish 
king,  whose  name  is  proverbial  for  wisdom,  was  a  son 
of  King  David  and  Hathsheba.  He  was  born  about 
1033  K.C.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1015.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Pharaoh,  King  of  Egypt,  whose  daughter 
he  married.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  began  to  build 
the  magnificent  Temple  which  bore  his  name.  He  founded 
the  city  of  Tadmor  or  Palmyra.  In  his  pacific  reign  the 
Jewish  kingdom  rose  to  its  highest  prosperity  and  great 
est  power.  He  wrote  or  compiled  the  collection  of 
Proverbs  which  form  one  of  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Bible  ;  also  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Book  of 
Canticles.  He  married  a  large  number  of  "strange 
women,"  who  seduced  him  into  idolatry.  He  died,  after 
a  reign  of  forty  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Rehoboam. 

See  I.  Kings  i  -xi  :  II.  Chronicles  i.-x.  ;  THOMAS  THOMAS, 
"  History  of  the  Reign  of  Solomon,"  1813;  J.  L.  Ewu.n.  "  Salomo  ; 
Versuch  einer  psychologisch-biographischen  Darstellunc;,"  iSoo. 

Sol'o-mon,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  painter,  born 
ab  >ut  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "  Waiting  for  the 
Verdict."  Died  at  Biarritz  in  December,  1862. 

Sol'o-mon  Ben  I'saac,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi, 
sometimes  called  Rashi,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France, 
about  1040,  was  the  author  of  Commentaries  on  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  and  the  Talmud.  Died  in  1105. 

Sol'o-moii  Ben  Vir'ga,  a  Spanish  physician  and 
rabbi  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Jews. 

Sol'o-mos,  (DENYS,)  COUNT,  a  modern  Greek  poet, 
born  in  the  island  of  Zante  in  1798.  Besides  other  poems, 
he  wrote  about  1825  a  "  Hymn  to  Liberty,"  which  was 
very  popular.  Died  in  1857. 

So'lon,  [Gr.  SoAuc;  It.  SOI.ONE,  so-lo'na,]  an  illus 
trious  Athenian  legislator,  born  in  the  island  of  Salamis 
about  638  H.C  ,  was  a  son  of  Execestides  and  a  descend 
ant  of  Codrus.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  merchant  and 
visited  foreign  countries.  Some  say,  however,  that  he 
travelled  rather  to  gratify  his  curiosity  and  extend  his 
knowledge  than  to  improve  his  fortune.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  poetical  talents  in  the  early  part  of 
his  life,  and  cultivated  chiefly  that  part  of  moral  phi 
losophy  which  treats  of  civil  obligations.  Fragments 
of  his  poetry  are  still  extant  and  highly  prized.  The 
first  recorded  public  service  of  Solon  was  his  successful 
expedition  to  Salamis,  which  he  recovered  from  the  Me- 
garians.  When  he  began  his  career,  the  Athenian  state 
was  demoralized  by  discordant  factions  and  oppressive 
laws.  A  large  portion  of  the  people  were  insolvent 
debtors,  liable  to  be  reduced  to  slavery.  There  were 
three  political  parties,  thus  described  by  Plutarch  :  "The 
inhabitants  of  the  mountains  were,  it  seems,  for  a  de 
mocracy,  those  of  the  plains  for  an  oligarch v,  and  those 
of  the  sea-coast  contended  for  a  mixed  kind  of  govern 
ment."  In  594  B.C.  he  was  elected  archon,  and  was 
accepted  as  mediator  and  lawgiver  by  the  opposing 
parties,  "  the  rich  accepting  him  readily  as  one  of  them, 
and  the  poor  as  a  good  and  worthy  man."  (Plutarch.) 
I  le  relieved  debtors  by  a  reduction  of  the  rate  of  interest, 
and,  according  to  some  authorities,  cancelled  debts  and 
liberated  lands  from  mortgage.  "This  was  the  first  of 
his  public  acts,"  says  Plutarch,  "that  debts  should  be 
forgiven,  and  that  no  man  should  take  the.  body  of  his 
debtor  for  security."  He  refused  to  make  himself  King 
of  Athens,  although  both  parties  urged  him  to  accept 
the  supreme  power.  He  repealed  the  bloody  laws  of 
Draco,  except  those  made  for  the  punishment  of  murder. 
He  established  the  council  or  court  of  the  Areopagus  to  be 
inspectors  and  guardians  of  the  laws,  and  he  remodelled 
the  political  constitution  by  dividing  the  people  into  four 
classes,  the  influence  or  privilege  of  which  was  propor 
tioned  to  their  income.  The  lowest  class  could  vote,  but 
could  not  hold  office.  He  ordained  that  new  measures 
should  be  first  considered  in  the  senate,  and,  if  they  were 
approved  by  that  body,  should  be  proposed  to  the  popular 


a, e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SOLON 


2039 


SOMERS 


assembly,  which  had  power  to  adopt  or  reject  them. 
Havi.ig  been  asked  whether  he  had  given  the  Athenians 
the  best  of  laws,  he  answered,  "  The  best  they  were 
capable  of  receiving."  After  he  had  finished  his  great 
legislative  task,  he  obtained  leave  of  absence  for  ten 
years,  and  visited  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  He  returned 
to  Athens  in  his  old  age,  and  opposed  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Pisistratus.  He  began  a  poem,  the  subject 
of  which  was  the  fabulous  island  of  Atlantis,  but  did  not 
live  to  finish  it.  Solon  was  ranked  among  the  Seven 
Sages  of  Greece.  Died  about  558  n.c. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Solon  ;"  MEUKSIUS,  "  Solon,  sen  de  ejus 
Vita,  Legibus,"  etc.,  1632:  G.  SCHMIDT,  ''De  Solone  Legislatore," 
i6SS  ;  H.  SCHEM.ING,  "  De  Solonis  Legibus,"  1842  ;  GROTE,  "  History 
of  Greece;"  BOcKH,  "ficonomie  politique  des  Atlieuiens  ;"  KLEINE, 
"  Quxstiones  de  Solonis  Vita  et  Fragmentis,"  1832. 

Solon,  a  Greek  gem-engraver,  who  flourished  proba 
bly  about  I  A.D.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Dioscorides. 
His  name  occurs  on  several  gems. 

Soltikof,  sol'te-kof,  written  also  Soltikow,  Sol- 
tikov,  and  Ssaltykow,  (Nicoi.Ai  IVANOVITCH,)  a  Rus 
sian  general  and  statesman,  born  in  1736,  was  tutor  to 
the  grand  duke  Alexander,  afterwards  emperor.  He  was 
appointed  field-marshal  in  1796,  president  of  the  Impe 
rial  Council  in  1812,  and  made  a  prince  in  1814.  Died 
in  1816.  His  grandson  Alexei  has  published  "Travels 
in  India,"  (1849,)  ar|d  "Travels  in  Persia,"  (1851,)  in 
French  and  Russian. 

See  SVINIXI,  "  Histoire  dn  Feld-Marech.il  Soltikof."  iSiS. 

Soltikof,  Soltikow,  or  Ssaltykow,  (PETER  SE- 
MENOVITCH,)  a  Russian  general,  born  about  1700,  became 
in  1759  commander- in-chief  of  the  Russian  army  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  shared  in  the  victory  of  Kuners- 
dorf  over  Frederick  the  Great.  He  was  created  a  field- 
marshal,  and  appointed  governor-general  of  Moscow. 
Died  in  1772. 

Soltikof  or  Soltikow,  (PRASCOVIA  FEDOROVNA,) 
was  married  to  the  Czar  Ivan  Alexeievitch,  and  was  the 
mother  of  the  empress  Anna. 

Soltyk,  sol'tik,  (ROMAN,)  a  Polish  nobleman  and 
patriot,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1791,  served  in  the  French 
army  in  the  campaigns  of  1810—12,  and  afterwards  took 
an  active  part  in  the  insurrection  of  1830.  He  died  in 
1843,  leaving  a  work  entitled  "  Napoleon  in  1812." 

Soltyk,  (STANISLAS,)  a  Polish  patriot,  born  in  1751, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  exiled  about 
1794,  and  was  marshal  of  the  Diet  in  1811.  Died  in 
1830. 

Solvyns,sol-vlns',  (FRANCIS  BALTHASAR,)  a  Flemish 
writer  and  artist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1760.      He  spent  ' 
many  years  in   Hindostan,   and  published,  after  his  re-  | 
turn,  a  work  entitled   "  The  Hindoos,  or  a  Picturesque 
Description   of  the    Manners,   Customs,   and    Religious  | 
Ceremonies  of  this  People,"  (4  vols.,  in  French.)     Died  j 
in  1824. 

Sol'y-man  or  Soliman  [Turk.  pron.  so'lee-mSn'  or 
so-la-mSn'|  I.,  written  also  Suleyman,  soo-la-mSn',  an 
Ottoman  Sultan,  eldest  son  of  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet,)  was 
involved  in  a  contest  with  his  brother  Moosa,  and  was 
killed  in  battle  in  1410. 

Solyman  or  Soliman  II.,  snrnamed  THE  MAGNIFI 
CENT,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1496,  was  the  son  of 
Selim  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1520  A.D.  Soon  after 
his  accession  he  invaded  Hungary  and  took  Belgrade, 
and  in  1522  besieged  Rhodes,  which  surrendered  after 
an  obstinate  defence.  In  1526  he  defeated  Louis  II., 
King  of  Hungary,  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz.  Having 
bestowed  the  crown  of  Hungary  upon  John  Zapolya, 
Solyman  roused  the  opposition  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
against  whom  he  subsequently  turned  his  arms.  He 
also  subjected  a  large  portion  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  and 
in  1537  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Austrians  at 
Essek,  resulting  in  the  conquest  of  Croatia.  In  1560  his 
general,  Piali,  defeated  the  combined  fleet  of  the  Chris 
tian  powers  at  Jerbeh,  and  a  truce  was  concluded  with 
Austria  in  1562,  leaving  Turkey  in  possession  of  her 
conquests  in  Hungary.  The  Turks,  having  besieged 
Malta  in  1565,  were  repulsed  with  a  heavy  loss,  and  in 
1566  Solyman  died,  while  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Szi- 
geth  in  Hungary.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  his 
country  and  his  time,  and  equally  eminent  in  the  arts  of 


war  and  of  peace.  He  constructed  numerous  magnifi 
cent  public  edifices,  encouraged  learning  and  the  arts, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  literary  attainments.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Selim  II. 

See  C.  ANCII.LON,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  So'iman  II,"  1706: 
VON  HAMMER,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale  ;"  ROBERTSON,  "History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii. 
book  ii.  Zwhts-sen- ,  S« «?•"'»**-  a  osmn.n  .  _J{,;  t/ies/  v,«.  . 

Solyman  or  Soliman,  son  of  Ibraheem,  became 
Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1687,  his  brother,  Mahomet  IV., 
having  been  deposed.  During  his  reign  the  Austrians 
regained  a  great  part  of  Hungary,  previously  conquered 
by  the  Turks.  He  died  in  1691,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Ahmed  II. 

So'nia,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  name  for  the 
moon.  (See  CHANDRA.) 

Sombreuil,  de,  deh  soN'bRuI',  (CHARLES  VIROT,)  a 
French  officer,  distinguished  for  his  zeal  and  courage  in 
the  defence  of  the  royal  cause,  was  born  in  1769.  He 
commanded  a  party  of  royalist  emigrants  who  took  arms 
against  the  republic.  He  was  captured  at  Quiberon,  and 
shot,  in  1795. 

Sombreuil,  de,  (MARIE  MAURILLE  VIROT,)  a  sister 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Limoges  in  1774.  She 
saved  the  life  of  her  father  from  the  massacre  of  Sep 
tember,  1793,  after  he  had  been  imprisoned  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1823. 

Somer,  van.     See  VANSOMER,  (PAUL.) 

Somer,  van,  vtn  so'mer,  (J.\N,)  a  Dutch  mezzotint 
engraver,  flourished  about  1675. 

Someren,  van,  vtn  so'mer-en,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  lawyer 
and  poet,  born  at  Dort  in  1622,  was  a  friend  of  Hiiy- 
ghens.  He  was  noted  for  learning  and  eloquence.  Died 
in  1676. 

Somers,  sum'erz,  (JOHN,)  Lord  Somers,  an  excellent 
English  statesman  and  lawyer,  born  at  Worcester  about 
1650,  was  a  son  of  John  Somers,  an  attorney.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  studied  law  at  the 
Middle  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1676.  He 
continued  to  reside  for  about  five  years  at  the  university, 
where  he  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "A  Brief  History 
of  the  Succession  of  the  Crown  of  England,"  (1681,)  and 
"The  Security  of  Englishmen's  Lives;  or,  The  Trust, 
Power,  and  Duty  of  the  Grand  Juries  of  England."  He 
also  translated  into  verse  some  of  Ovid's  "Epistles."  In 
1682  he  began  to  practise  law  in  London.  His  success 
as  a  pleader  was  remarkably  rapid.  He  was  selected  in 
1688  as  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  impor 
tant  trial  of  the  seven  bishops.  He  spoke  briefly  in  this 
case,  "but  every  word,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  full  of 
weighty  matter  ;  and  when  he  sat  down,  his  reputation 
as  an  orator  and  a  constitutional  lawyer  was  established.'' 

He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  Whig  party.  He 
represented  Worcester  in  the  Parliament  or  Conven 
tion  which  met  in  January,  1689,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  first,  and  chairman  of  the  second,  of  the  two  com 
mittees  which  prepared  the  memorable  Declaration  of 
Rights.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and 
knighted.  He  became  attorney-general  in  May,  1692,  and 
lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  March,  1693.  "Neither 
in  forensic  nor  in  parliamentary  eloquence,"  says  Mac 
aulay,  "had  he  any  superior.  The  consistency  of  his 
public  conduct  had  gained  for  him  the  entire  confidence 
of  the  Whigs;  and  the  urbanity  of  his  manners  had 
conciliated  the  Tories.  It  was  not  without  great  reluc 
tance  that  he  consented  to  quit  an  assembly  over  which 
he  exercised  an  immense  influence  for  an  assembly  where 
it  would  be  necessary  for  him  to  sit  in  silence."  ("His 
tory  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xix.) 

In  1697  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor,  and  received 
the  title  of  Baron  Somers  of  Evesham.  The  great  seal 
was  taken  from  him  in  1700,  in  consequence  of  a  reso 
lution  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  impeached 
by  the  Tory  majority  of  the  lower  House,  but  was 
acquitted  by  the  Lords,  (1701.)  While  he  was  in  power 
he  patronized  Locke  and  Addison,  the  latter  of  whom 
dedicated  to  Lord  Somers  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Spec 
tator,"  and  said,  "  I  knosv  that  the  homage  I  now  pay 
you  is  offering  a  kind  of  violence  to  one  who  is  as 
solicitous  to  shun  applause  as  he  is  assiduous  to  deserve 


east;  $zss;  gkard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (j^^S^e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOMERSET 


2040 


SO'KNRRXT 


it."  He  waf.  appointed  president  of  the  council  in  1708, 
when  the  Whig  party  returned  to  power.  He  died  in 
April,  1716.  Lord  Somers  was  never  married.  "  He  was 

equally  eminent,"  says  Macaulay,  "as  a  jurist  and  as  a 
politician,  as  an  orator  and  as  a  writer.  His  speeches 
have  perished;  but  his  state  papers  remain,  and  are 
models  of  terse,  luminous,  and  dignified  eloquence." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xx.) 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors ;"  COOK- 
SKY,  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Lord  Somers,"  1791  ; 
HKNRV  MADDOCK,  "Life  of  Lord  Somers,"  1812;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  October,  1847. 

Somerset,  sum'er-set,  (CHARLES,)  was  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Henry  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  was 
executed  in  1463.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  talents, 
and  performed  important  diplomatic  missions  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Worcester 
in  1513  or  1514.  Died  in  1526. 

Somerset,  (Cii.MU.K.s  SEYMOUR.)  DUKE  OF,  called 
"  the  Proud  Duke  of  Somerset,"  was  the  second  in  rank 
among  the  temporal  peers  of  the  realm.  He  acquired 
the  greatest  estate  in  England  by  his  marriage  with  the 
heiress  of  the  noble  family  of  Percy.  He  was  a  Prot 
estant  and  a  Whig.  In  1687  he  offended  James  II.  by 
his  refusal  to  officiate  in  a  procession  of  the  papal  nuncio. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  William  HI.  in  1688,  and  acted 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of  Anne.  Died  in  1748, 
aged  eighty-seven. 

Somerset,  EARL  OF,  (favourite  of  James  I.)  See 
CARR,  ROHKRT. 

Somerset,  (EDWARD.)  See  WORCESTER,  MARQUISOF. 

Somerset,  (EDWARD  ADOLPHUS  SAINT  MAUR,) 
DUKK  OF,  an  English  Liberal  statesman,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  eleventh  Duke,  was  born  in  1804.  He  was  styled 
Lord  Seymour  previous  to  1855,  when  he  succeeded  to 
the  dukedom.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from 
June,  1859,  to  June,  1866. 

Somerset,  (EDWARD  SEYMOUR,)  Earl  of  Hertford, 
Duke  of  Somerset,  and  Protector  of  England,  was  a 
brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
an  uncle  of  Edward  VI.  He  commanded  an  army  which 
invaded  Scotland  in  1544  and  committed  great  devas 
tation.  On  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1547,  he  re 
ceived  the  title  of  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  became  lord 
treasurer  and  Protector  of  the  realm.  He  favoured  the 
Protestant  cause.  In  1547  he  undertook  to  coerce  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  to  marry  Edward  VI.,  and  defeated  the 
Scotch  at  Pinkie  Cleugh.  He  found  a  rival  in  his  own 
brother,  Thomas  Seymour,  who  conspired  against  the 
Protector  and  was  executed  for  treason  in  1549.  Som 
erset  made  many  enemies  by  his  ambition,  his  severity, 
and  his  zeal  against  popery.  His  most  powerful  enemy 
was  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  by  whose  agency  he  was  de 
prived  of  his  high  office  in  1549.  He  was  tried  on  the 
charges  of  treason  and  felony,  convicted  of  the  latter 
crime,  and  beheaded  in  January,  1552.  He  left  several 
sons,  one  of  whom,  named  Edward,  was  created  Earl 
of  Hertford  about  1558,  and  married  Catherine  Grey,  a 
sister  of  Lady  Jane. 

See  HUMH,  "History  of  England." 

Somerset,  (FITZROY.)     See  RAGLAN,  LORD. 

Somerset,  (Sir  HENRY,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1794,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort.  lie 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Caffre  war.  Died  in  1862. 

Somerset,  (HENRY  DE  BEAUFORT,)  DUKK  OF,  was 
a  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He  fought  for  the  Lan 
castrians  in  the  war  of  the  Roses,  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Hexiiam  and  beheaded  in  1463. 

Somerset,  (JoHN  DE  BEAUFORT,)  EARL  OF,  a  son 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  a  grandson  of  Edward  III.,  was 
cre-ated  Earl  of  Somerset  about  1396.  Died  in  1410. 

Somerville,  sum'er-vil,  (Mrs. 'MARY,)  an  eminent 
astronomer  and  scientific  writer,  the  daughter  of  Sir 
William  Fairfax,  was  born  at  [edburgh,  in  Scotland, 
about  1780.  At  the  request  of  Lord  Brougham,  she 
wrote  for  the  "  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge"  a  summary 
of  the  "  Mecanique  Celeste"  of  Laplace,  which  appeared 
in  1832  under  the  title  of  "  Mechanism  of  the  Heavens." 
Her  other  principal  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Con 
nexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences,"  (1834,)  and  "  Physical 
Geography,"  (2  vols.  ismo,  1848.)  She  was  elected  an 


honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 
and  received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds  a  year 
in  acknowledgment  of  her  great  services  to  science. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1832;  "  Black  wood's  Mag- 
azine"  for  October,  1*49;  and  a  notice  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  May,  1860,  (by  Miss  MARIA  MITCHELL.) 

Somerville,  (THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  his 
torian,  was  born  at  Hawick  in  1741.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Reign  of  William  III.,"  (1792,)  and  a 
"  History  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne,"  (1798.)  Died  in  1830. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  iS6i. 

Somerville,  sum'er-vil,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1692.  His  principal  work  is 
a  poem  in  blank  verse,  entitled  "The  Chase."  He  also 
wrote  lyrics,  tales,  and  fables,  and  a  poein  called  "Field 
Sports."  Died  in  1742. 

Sommariva,  som-ma-ree'va,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,) 
an  Italian  statesman  and  celebrated  collector  of  pictures, 
was  born  at  Milan.  He  was  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Cisalpine  republic  in  1800-1802.  Died  in  1826. 

Sommer,  so'maiit',  (JEAN  EUOUARD  ALHERT,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1822.  He  published 
several  dictionaries. 

Sommerard.     See  Du  SOMMEKARD. 

Sommering  or  Soemmering,  von,  fon  som'meh- 
ring  or  zom'meh-ring,  (SAMUEL  THOMAS,)  a  celebrated 
German  anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Thorn  in 
1755-  UG  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Mentz  in  1784.  Among  his  numerous  and 
valuable  works  we  may  name  his  treatise,  in  German,  "  On 
the  Brain  and  Spinal  Marrow,"  (1788,)  "On  the  Struc 
ture  of  the  Human  Body,"  (5  vols.,  1791,)  "On  the  Organ 
of  the  Soul,"  (1796.)  and  (in  Latin)  "On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Absorbing  Vessels  of  the  Human  Body."  He 
maintained  the  theory  that  the  nerves  act  independently 
of  the  brain,  which  he  considered  not  essential  to  the 
continuance  of  life.  Died  in  1830. 

See  Ri'Doi.pii  WAGNKR,  "  Soemmering's  Leben  and  Verkehr  mit 
seinen  Zeitgenossen,"  2  vols.,  1844;  I.  DOU.INGKR,  "Gedachtniss- 
rede  anf  S.  T.  von  Soemmering,"  1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale. " 

Sommier,  so'me-i',  (JEAN  CLAUDE,)  a  French  prel 
ate  and  writer,  born  at  Vanvillers  in  1661,  published 
"  Dogmatic  History  of  Religion,"  ("  Histoire  dogmatique 
de  la  Religion,"  6  vols.,  1708-11,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1737. 

Somner,  i-iiin'ner,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  philologist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1606.  He  pub 
lished  "The  Antiquities  of  Canterbury,"  (1640,)  a  "  Saxon 
Dictionary,"  (1659,)  a  "  Treatise  on  Gavelkind,"  one  "  On 
the  Roman  Ports  and  Forts  in  Kent, "and  other  valuable 
works.  He  was  a  friend  of  Archbishop  Usher  and  other 
learned  men  of  the  time.  Died  in  1669. 

Som'nus,  |Gr.  "T~wc;  Fr.  SO.MMEIL,  so'mil'  or  sox- 
m.Vye,]  in  classic  mytho'og,',  the  god  of  sleep,  was  called 
a  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  a  brother  of  Death, 
(Mors  or  Thanatos.)  (See  MORPHEUS  ) 

Sondeiiaiid,  son'der-lant'or  zon'der-lant',  (JoiTANN 
BAPTIST,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dus- 
seldorf  in  1804,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his 
best  works  are  etchings  illustrating  Burger's  "Lenore," 
and  "The  Magician's  Pupil,"  by  Goethe. 

Somienberg,  son'nen  -be'Ro'  or  zon  'nen-beRC/, 
(FRANZ  ANTON  JOSEPH  IGNAZ  MARIA,)  BARON,  a 
German  poet  and  imitator  of  Klopstock,  was  born  at 
Minister,  in  Westphalia,  in  1779.  Died  in  1805. 

See  GRUBF.R,  "  Lebensbeschreibmig  Sonnenbergs,"  1806. 

Sonnenfels,  von,  fon  son'nen-fels'  or  z.pn'nen-fe'ls', 
(JOSEPH,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Nikolsburg,  in 
Moravia,  in  1733.  He  became  professor  of  political 
science  at  Vienna  in  1763,  and  filled  several  high  offices 
under  Maria  Theresa  and  the  emperor  Francis  II.  He 
published  in  1775  a  treatise  "On  the  Abolition  of  the 
Torture,"  which  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  abolishing 
that  barbarous  practice  in  Austria.  Died  in  1817. 

Sonnerat,  son'rt',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Lyons  about  1746.  He  spent  about  seven  years 
in  exploring  Hindustan,  Malacca,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
etc.,  and  published  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitled 
"  Travels  in  the  Er.st  Indies  and  China,"  ("  Voyage  aux 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  till,  fa:;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


SONN1NI 


2041 


SOPHRON 


Incles  Orientales  et  &  la  Chine,"  2  vols.,  1782,)  which  is 
esteemed  valuable.  Died  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Somiiiii  de  Manoacourt,  so'ne'ne'  deli  mS'ni.N'- 
koou',  (CHARLES  NICOLAS  SIGISHKRT,)  a  celebrated 
French  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Luneville  in 
1751.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Pont-a- 
Mousson,  and  in  1772  was  sent  as  an  officer  of  marine 
engineers  to  Cayenne,  where  he  spent  several  years  in 
scientific  researches.  In  1777  he  accompanied  Baron 
cle  Tott  on  his  African  expedition,  visiting  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Asia  Minor.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1780,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  reign  of  terror.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "Travels  in  Egypt,"  (3  vols.,  1799,) 
"Travels  in  Greece  and  Turkey,"  (2  vols.,  1801,)  and 
"Natural  History  of  Fishes  and  Cetaceas,"  (14  vols., 
1804.)  He  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  works 
of  Buffon,  (127  vols.,  1798-1807.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1812. 
lie  had  been  employed  by  Buffon  to  describe  many 
species  of  birds  for  his  "Natural  History." 

See  THIEBAUT  DE  BERNEAUO,  "  filoge  historique  de  Sonnini," 
1812;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1802. 

Soiitag,  son'tag  or  zon'tac,  (HENRIETTK,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  female  vocalists  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Coblentz  in  1805.  Having  studied  at  the  Conservatory 
of  Music  at  Prague,  she  visited  successively  the  principal 
cities  of  Germany,  Paris,  and  London,  being  received 
everywhere  with  enthusiastic  applause.  In  1830  she 
was  married  to  Count  Rossi,  ambassador  of  Sardinia  at 
the  Hague,  and  retired  from  the  stage.  Owing  to  pecu 
niary  embarrassments,  she  appeared  again  in  public  in 
1848,  and  in  1853  set  out  for  America,  where  she  also 
met  with  brilliant  success.  She  died  in  1854,  while  on 
the  way  to  Mexico. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Countess  de  Rossi,"  London,  1849;  T. 
GAUTIER,  "  L'Ambassadrice ;  Biographic  de  la  Comtesse  de  Rossi," 
1850;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1850. 

Sonthoiiax,  s6N'to'ntks',(LEGER  FELiciTE,)aFrench 
political  agent,  born  in  Bugey  (Ain)  in  1763.  He  was 
sent  in  1792  as  commissary  to  Hayti  to  restore  order, 
and  liberated  the  slaves  of  that  island  in  1793,  in  con 
sequence  of  which  the  pro-slavery  party  commenced  a 
civil  war.  Died  in  1813. 

Soodra  or  Sudra,  written  also  Qudra,  soo'dra, 
called  Soo'der  by  the  modern  Hindoos,  [etymology 
uncertain.]  The  Soodras  are  the  lowest  of  the  four  prin 
cipal  Hindoo  castes.  (See  BRAHMAMSM.) 

Soomarokof  or  Sumarokow,  soo-ma-ro'kof,  writ 
ten  also  Somarokof  and  Sumarokov,  a  Russian 
poet  and  dramatist,  called  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
drama,  was  born  at  Moscow  in  171801-  1727.  He  was 
the  author  of  both  comedies  and  tragedies.  Among 
the  latter  we  may  name  his  "Demetrius,"  and  "  Sinov 
and  Truvor."  He  also  wrote  numerous  lyrics,  elegies, 
sonnets,  epigrams,  and  satires.  Died  in  1777. 

Soora.     See  SURAS. 

Soorya.     See  SURYA. 

Sop'a-ter  [Zu-arpof]  OF  APAMEA,  a  Greek  Sophist, 
and  a  pupil  of  Jamblichus.  He  enjoyed  for  a  time  the 
favour  of  Constantine  the  Great,  but  was  afterwards  put 
to  death  by  him,  about  334  A.D. 

So-phi'a,  [Ger.  SorniK,  zo-fee'eh;  Fr.  SOPHIE,  so'- 
fe',]  Klectressof  Hanover,  born  about  1630,  was  a  daugh 
ter  of  the  Elector-Palatine.  Her  mother  was  Elizabeth, 
a  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England.  Sophia  was  married 
in  1658  to  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Brunswick- Liine- 
burg,  who  became  Elector  of  Hanover.  She  was  intimate 
with  Leibnitz.  In  1701  she  was  recognized  as  the  heir 
to  the  English  crown  (next  to  the  princess  Anne)  by 
Parliament,  which  preferred  her  to  other  members  of 
the  royal  family  because  she  was  a  Protestant.  Her  son 
became  George  I.  of  England.  She  died  in  1714. 

See  FF.DER,  "Sophie  Churfiirsten  von  Hannover,  im  Umriss," 
1810. 

So-phi'a  Al-ex-I-ev'na,  a  Russian  princess,  daugh 
ter  of  the  Czar  Alexis  Mikhailovitch,  and  half-sister  of 
Peter  the  Great,  was  born  in  1657.  She  was  ambitious  and 
energetic.  At  the  death  of  Feodor  (1682)  she  instigated 
the  Strelitzes  to  revolt  against  Peter  I.,  and  caused  her 
brother  Ivan  to  be  recognized  as  joint  sovereign  with 
Peter.  She  acted  as  regent  from  1682  to  1689,  and  then 
was  confined  in  a  convent.  Died  in  1704. 


So-phi'a  Dor-o-the'a  [Ger.  SOPHIK  DOROTHEA,  zo- 
fee'eh  do-ro-ta'a  ;  Fr.  SOPHIE  DOROTHEA,  so'fe'  do'ro'- 
ta'[  OF  BRUNSWICK,  born  in  1666,  was  a  daughter  of 
George  William,  Duke  of  Zell.  She  was  married  in  1682 
to  her  cousin  George,  afterwards  George  I.  of  England, 
who  treated  her  ill.  Having  been  suspected  of  a  passion 
for  the  Count  de  Konigsmarck,  she  was  divorced  in  1694, 
and  confined  in  prison  until  she  died,  in  1726. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  Consort  of  George  I.,"  Lon 
don,  2  vols.,  1845;  HKNRI  BLAZE,  "  Les  Koeuigsmark,"  1856. 

Sophia  Dorothea,  Queen  of  Prussia,  born  in  1687, 
was  a  daughter  of  George  I.  of  England.  She  was  mar 
ried  to  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia.  Died  in  1757. 

Sophie.     See  SOPHIA. 

Soph'o-cles,  [Gr.  Zo^cw/j/f  ,•  Fr.  SOPHOCLK,  so'fok'l',] 
a  celebrated  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  at  the  village  of 
Colonus,  near  Athens,  in  495  B.C.  lie  received  a  liberal 
education.  His  first  drama  was  represented  in  468,  when 
he  appeared  as  a  rival  of  ^ischylus,  and  gained  the  first 
prize,  which  was  awarded  by  Cimon  and  other  judges. 
The  drama  which  he  exhibited  at  this  time  is  supposed 
to  have  been  "  Triptolemus,"  which  is  not  extant.  We 
have  no  record  of  the  events  of  his  life  between  the  years 
468  and  440  B.C.,  when  he  produced  his  "Antigone," 
which  was  very  successful.  The  Athenians  were  so  well 
pleased  with  it  that  they  elected  Sophocles  one  of  the 
ten  strategi,  or  generals.  The  illustrious  Pericles  was 
one  of  the  sfrafegi  chosen  at  the  same  time.  Sophocles 
acted  as  a  general  in  the  war  against  Samos  in  440- 
439,  but  did  not  distinguish  himself  in  military  affairs. 
His  conduct  appears  to  have  been  consistent  with 
the  patriotic  sentiments  expressed  in  his  writings.  He 
was  invited  to  their  courts  by  several  monarchs,  but 
always  refused  to  abandon  his  native  country  or  accept 
their  patronage. 

He  composed  more  than  a  hundred  tragedies,  of  which 
seven  are  extant,  namely,  "Antigone,"  "  Electra,"  "  Tra- 
chiniae,"  "  CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  "  Ajax,"  "  Philoctetes," 
and  "CEdipus  at  Colonus."  He  is  said  to  have  gained 
the  first  prize  twenty  times  or  more.  His  son  lophon 
was  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  poet.  Sophocles  was 
remarkable  for  personal  beauty  and  symmetry,  and 
excelled  in  music  and  gymnastics.  He  died  in  40^  B.C. 

"  By  the  universal  consent  of  the  best  critics,"  says 
Professor  Philip  Smith,  "both  of  ancient  and  of  modern 
times,  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles  are  not  only  the  per 
fection  of  the  Greek  drama,  but  they  approach  as  nearly 
as  is  conceivable  to  the  perfect  ideal  model  of  that 
species  of  poetry."  (See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.) 

"  Sophocles  was  the  high-priest  of  humanity.  He 
chose,  as  he  phrased  it,  'to  put  away  the  pomp  of  /Es- 
chylus  along  with  his  childish  things  ;'  and  he  exhibited 
that  mild  grandeur  and  matchless  refinement  in  which 
he  excels  all  the  dramatists  of  Greece.  He  made  tragic 
poetry  a  true  mirror  of  the  passions  of  the  soul  of 
man,  and  exhibited,  as  has  seldom  been  done,  the  true 
moral  significance  of  human  action."  ("Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.':) 

See  LESSIN-G,  "  Lebcn  des  Sophocles,"  1790;  SCHOI.I,  "  Sopho- 
kles,  sein  Leben  mid  Wirken,"  etc..  1*42;  BEKGK,  "  De  Vita  So- 
phoclis,"  1858;  K.  O.  MUI.I.EK,  "History  of  the  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece;"  WKI.CKKK,  "Die  Griechischen  Tragodien,"  3 
vols.,  1839-41;  K.  Sciii'i.TZ.  "  Commentatin  de  Vila  Sophoclis 
Poets,"  1836;  REUTER,  "  Dissertatio  de  yEschyio,  Sophocle  et 
Euripide,"  1831. 

Sophocles,  the  son  of  Ariston,  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  grandson  of  the  great  Sophocles.  He  flour 
ished  about  390  B.C.,  and  produced  numerous  dramas, 
some  of  which  gained  prizes. 

Sophouie  or  Sophonias.     See  ZEPHANIAH. 

Soph-o-nis'ba,  [Gr.  Soponofia  ,-  Fr.  SOPHONMSBK,  so'- 
fo'nesb',]  a  Carthaginian  lady,  became  the  wife  of  Syphax, 
King  of  Numidia,  about  206  li.C.  She  was  taken  pris 
oner  in  203  by  Masinissa,  who  had  formerly  been  her 
lover.  He  married  her,  or  resolved  to  marry  her  ;  but 
Scipio  would  not  permit  him  to  keep  her,  because  he 
feared  she  would  convert  him  into  an  ally  of  Carthage. 
She  died  by  poison  given  to  her  by  Masinissa. 

Sophoiiisbe.     See  SOPHONISBA. 

So'phron,  [2<I»ty>ur,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  born  at 
Syracuse  about  450  01-425  B.C.  He  is  considered  to  be 


€  as  *,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOPRANI 


SOUBISE 


the  inventor  of  "mimes."  His  works,  which  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments,  were  greatly  admired  by  Plato, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  largely  indebted  to  them.  So- 
phron  wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graca;"  GRYSAR,  "DeComcedia 
Doriensium  ;  cle  Sophrone  mimograplio,"  1838. 

Soprani,  so-pra'nee,  (RAFFAELLO,)  an  Italian  biogra 
pher,  born  at  Genoa  in  1612.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of 
the  Genoese  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (in 
Italian,  1674.)  Died  in  1672. 

So-ra'nus,  ['Zupavof,}  a  celebrated  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Ephesus,  was  the  son  of  Menander,  and  lived 
under  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Obstetric  Art,"  etc.,  a  por 
tion  of  which  is  extant,  and  of  other  medical  works. 

Soranzo,  so-ran'zo,  (GIOVANNI,)  a  Venetian  states 
man,  was  elected  doge  in  1312.  He  is  said  to  have 
governed  wisely.  Died  in  I327- 

Sorbait,  sou'bi'  or  soR'bit,  (PAUL,)  a  medical  writer, 
born  in  Hainault,  practised  in  Vienna.  Died  in  1691. 

Sorbier,  soit'be-i',  (JKAN  BARTHOLOM^,)  a  French 
general  of  artillery,  svas  born  in  Paris  in  1762.  He  served 
at  Borodino,  Lutzen,  and  Leipsic.  Died  in  1827. 

Sorbiere,  soR'bej-aJK',  (SAMUEL,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  born  at  Saint- Ambroix  in  1615.  He  studied  medi 
cine,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Letters  on  Divers 
Curious  Matters,"  (1660,)  and  a  "Life  of  Gassendi," 
(1662.)  He  received  the  title  of  historiographer  to  the 
king  in  1660.  Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Sorberiana,"  Toulouse,  1691  ;  NICI£RON,  "Memoires." 

Sorbin  de  Sainte-Foi,  soR'baN1'  deh  saNt'fwi', 
(AKNAUD,)  a  French  priest  and  polemical  writer,  born 
in  1532.  He  became  court  preacher  to  Charles  IX.  and 
Henry  HI.,  the  latter  of  whom  appointed  him  Bishop 
of  Nevers  in  1578.  Died  in  1606. 

See  REY,  "  Vie  d'A.  Sorbin,"  1860  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene1- 
rale." 

Sorbon,  de,  deh  soR'boN',  (ROBERT,)  a  French  ec 
clesiastic,  born  near  Rethel  in  1201,  was  confessor  to 
Saint  Louis,  and  founded  about  1250  the  College  of  the 
Sorbonne  in  Parrs.  Died  in  1274. 

See  MORERI,  " Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sor'by,  (HENRY  CLIFTON,)  an  English  geologist, 
born  at  Sheffield  in  1826.  He  has  contributed  numerous 
scientific  articles  to  the  "  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical 
Journal,"  and  other  periodicals  of  the  kind,  and  has  been 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geo 
logical  Society. 

Sordello,  soR-del'lo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  near 
Mantua  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  patronized  by 
Charles  of  Anjou,  and  wrote  amatory  and  satirical 
poems.  He  is  eulogized  by  Dante  in  his  "  Purgatorio." 
Died  after  1266. 

Sorel,  so'rel',  (AGNES,)  a  beautiful  Frenchwoman, 
born  in  Touraine,  became  the  mistress  of  King  Charles 
VII.,  over  whom  she  exercised  great  influence.  She 
incited  him  to  greater  resolution  and  activity  in  resisting 
the  English  invaders,  who  had  conquered  a  large  part 
of  France.  She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents.  Died 
in  1450. 

Sorel,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  novelist  and  historian, 
born  in  Paris  about  1597.  Among  his  works  were  a 
"Comic  History  of  Francion,"  ("  Histoire  comique  de 
Francion,"  1622,)  a  "  History  of  the  French  Monarchy," 
(1636,)  and  "French  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheque  Fran- 
9oise,"  1664.)  Died  in  1674. 

Sorgh.     See  ZORGH. 

Sorri,  sor'ree,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1556.  He  painted  history,  landscapes,  and 
portraits.  His  works  are  highly  praised.  Died  in  1622. 

Sor-tain',  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1809, 
was  for  many  years  minister  of  an  Independent  church 
at  Brighton.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lec 
tures  on  Romanism  and  Anglo-Catholicism,"  (1841,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Lord  Bacon,"  (1851.)  Died  in  1860. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Sortain,"  by  his  widow,  1861. 

So-sib'I-us,  [Swoifiw;,]  an  Athenian  sculptor  of  un 
known  date.  Among  his  works  is  a  vase  adorned  with 
figures  of  Artemis  and  Hermes.  This  vase  is  now  in  the 
Louvre,  at  Paris. 


So-sig'e-nes,  [Gr.  "Zumyevrif ;  Fr.  SOSIGENE,  so'ze'- 
zh<ln',]  a  Greek  or  Egyptian  astronomer,  born  in  Egypt, 
was  a  Peripatetic  in  philosophy.  He  was  employed  by 
Julius  Caesar  (46  B.C.)  to  reform  the  calendar,  and  de 
fined  a  year  to  be  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  and 
five  or  six  hours. 

So-siph'a-nes,  [Gr.  Zuaujtuvris ;  Fr.  SOSIPHANE,  so'- 
zc'f&n',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet  of  Syracuse,  lived  about 
300  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  seven 
poets  called  the  "Tragic  Pleiad." 

Sosithee.     See  SOSITHKUS. 

So-sith'e-us,  [Gr.  2wo7#fo<; ;  Fr.  SOSITHEE,  so'zeW,] 
a  Greek  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  lived  in  the 
third  century  B.C. 

Sost,  sost,  Soest,  or  Zoest,  (GERARD,)  a  German 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1637.  lie  worked 
in  England.  Died  in  1681. 

Sostrate.     See  SOSTRATUS. 

Sos'tra-tus,  |Gr.  Zwarparof,-  Fr.  SOSTRATE,  so'strti/,] 
a  Greek  architect,  bom  at  Cnidos,  lived  about  300  B.C. 
Among  his  works  was  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria. 

Sostratus  OK  CHIOS,  a  Greek  statuary,  the  master 
of  Pantias,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  400  B.C. 

Sot'a-des,  [Gr.  £<jru<i?/ft-  Fr.  SOTADE,  so'tSd',]  a 
Greek  poet,  who  flourished  at  Alexandria  about  280 
B.C.  His  poems  were  extremely  lascivious.  He  was 
imprisoned  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  against  whom  he 
had  written  a  lampoon. 

So'ter,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Rome  about  165  A.I). 
lie  is  said  to  have  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Montanus. 
Died  in  177. 

Sotheby,  siith'be,  (SAMUEL  LEIGH,)  an  English 
antiquary  and  bibliographer  ot  London,  born  in  1805  ; 
died  in  1861. 

Sotheby,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  scholar  and  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1757.  He  made  a  number  of  trans 
lations  from  the  German  and  other  languages,  among 
which  we  may  name  the  "  Oberon"  of  Wieland,  Virgil's 
"  Georgics,"  and  Homer's  "  Iliad"  and  "Odyssey."  He 
was  also  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Orestes," 
and  of  "Constance  de  Castile,"  and  other  poems.  lie 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.  Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807;  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  April  and  May,  1831,  and  February,  1832. 

Soto,  so'to,  (DOMINGO,)  a  Spanish  Dominican  monk, 
born  at  Segovia  in  1494,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Alcala  in  1519.  He  was  sent  in  1545  by  Charles  V. 
as  his  first  theologian  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he 
was  conspicuous  for  learning  and  ability.  He  afterwards 
became  confessor  to  Charles  V.  He  wrote  "Summnlas," 
or  a  treatise  on  the  Dialects  and  Physics  of  Aristotle, 
and  other  works  in  Latin.  Died  in  1560. 

Soto,  so'to,  ( PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  monk,  who  went  to 
England  with  Philip  II.  lie  was  afterwards  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Died  in  1563. 

Soto,  de,  (HERNANDO.)     See  DE  SOTO. 

Sotomayor,  de,  da  so-to -ma-ydi*',  (Luis,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valencia  in  1635  ;  died  in  1673. 

Sotzmann,  sots'man,  (DANIEL  FKIEDRICH.)  a  Ger 
man  geographer,  born  at  Spandau  in  1754,  published  a 
number  of  valuable  maps  and  charts.  Died  in  1840. 

Soubeiran,  soo'b&'roN',  (EUGENE,)  a  French  writer 
on  pharmacy,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  became  pro 
fessor  in  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  Paris.  Died  in  1858. 

Soubeyran,  (PIERRE,)  a  Swiss  engraver,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1709,  worked  in  Paris.  Died  in  1775. 

Boubise,  soo'bez',  ( JEAN  de  Parthenai — deli  ptut'- 
ni',)  LORD  OF,  a  Huguenot  leader,  born  of  a  noble 
family  of  Poitou  about  1512.  Sent  by  the  Prince  of 
Conde  to  defend  Lyons,  he  compelled  the  Duke  of  Ne 
mours  to  raise  the  siege  of  that  place.  Died  in  1566. 

Soubise,  de,  deh  soo'bez',  (BENJAMIN  de  Rohan — 
deh  ro'6N',)  SEIGNEUR,  a  French  nobleman  and  soldier 
of  the  Huguenot  party,  born  about  1585,  was  a  brother 
of  the  Duke  de  Rohan.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
religious  wars  of  the  time,  and  fought  with  varying  suc 
cess  against  Louis  XIII.  and  the  Catholic  faction.  He 
was  noted  for  his  turbulence  and  audacity.  In  1626  a 
peace  was  concluded,  and  Soubise  was  created  a  duke. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  induced  the  Duke  of  Bucking- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


SOUBISE 


2043 


SOUMET 


ham  to  aid  the  Huguenots  with  an  English  fleet.  He 
passed  his  latter  years  in  England,  and  died  in  London 
in  1642. 

See  HAAC,  "  La  France  protestante;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gene  rale. " 

Soubise,  de,  (CHARLES  de  Rohan,)  PRINCE,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1715.  He  became  a 
favourite  courtier  of  Louis  XV.  In  1757  he  was  de 
feated  by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Rossbach.  He  gained 
two  victories  in  1758,  at  Sondershausen  and  Lut/elberg, 
and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  1787. 

See  DE  COURCEI.LES.  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Fran^ais ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Souchay  or  Souchai,  soo'shi',  (JEAN  BAPTISTF.,)  a 
French  writer  and  editor,  born  near  Vendome  in  1688. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Boileau  (1735)  and  other  authors. 
Died  in  1746. 

Souchon,  soo'shAN1',  (FRANQOIS,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Alais  (Card)  in  1785  ;  died  in  1857. 

Souciet,  soo'se-i',  or  Souchiet,  soo'she-i',  (firi- 
ENNE,)  a  learned  French  priest,  born  at  Bourges  in 
1671.  He  wrote  on  theology,  chronology,  etc.  Died 
in  1744- 

Souciet,  (£TIENNE  AUC.USTIN,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Bourges  in  1685,  was  an  elegant 
Latinist.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  on  comets,  ("  Co- 
metae,"  1710.)  Died  in  1744. 

Soufflot,  soo'flo',  (JACQUES  GERMAIN,)  a  celebrated 
French  architect,  born  near  Auxerre  in  1713.  He  spent 
several  years  at.  Rome  in  the  study  of  his  profession, 
and  after  his  return  constructed  the  Great  Hospital  at 
Lyons,  also  a  theatre  of  uncommon  size  and  elegance. 
Having  settled  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Architecture,  and  in  1757  was  employed  to  rebuild 
the  church  of  Saint  Genevieve,  since  called  the  Pan 
theon,  a  superb  edifice,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live 
to  complete.  Died  in  1781. 

See  Qu'ATRKMEKE  r>K  QUINCV,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres  Archi- 
tectes  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Genera'e." 

Souham,  soo'6x',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Lubersac  in  1760.  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1793,  and  served  under  Pichegru  in  Flanders.  Sus 
pected  of  complicity  with  Moreau,  he  was  imprisoned 
in  1804,  but  was  restored  to  his  rank  in  the  army  in 
1807.  He  rendered  important  services  at  Lutzen  (1813) 
and  Leipsic.  Died  in  1837. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generale.' 

Soulange-Bodin,  soo'IoN/h'  bo'dax',  (£TIENNE,)  a 
French  horticulturist  and  writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1774. 
He  planted  a  botanic  garden  at  Fromont,  (Seine-et-Oise.) 
Died  in  1846. 

Soulange-Teissier,  soo'lfi.vzh'  ti'se-i',  (Louis  EMA- 
NUEL,)  a  French  lithographer,  was  born  at  Amiens  in 
1815. 

Soulas.     See  FI.ORIDOR. 

Soulavie,  soo'lt've',  (JEAN  Louis  GIRAUD,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  in  Ardeche  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  French  resident  at  Geneva  in  1793.  ^e 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  Marshal 
Richelieu,"  (9  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Historical  Memoirs  of 
the  Reign  of  Louis  XVI.,"  (6  vols.,  1802.)  Died  in  1813. 

See  QL'ERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie 
Genera  e." 

Soule,  sool,  (  JOSHUA,)  D.D.,  an  American  Method 
ist  divine,  born  at  Bristol,  Maine,  in  1781,  rose  through 
several  promot'ons  to  be  senior  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1843. 

Soule,  soo'li',  (PiERRE,)  a  diplomatist  and  politician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Ariege,  France,  about  1802, 
emigrated  to  America  in  1825,  and  settled  in  New  Or 
leans,  where  he  rose  to  distinction  as  a  lawyer.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1849.  and  in  1853 
appointed  minister  to  Spain.  I  le  was  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  "Ostend  Manifesto"  in  relation  to  Cuba,  (1854.) 
He  returned  home  in  1855.  In  1862  he  was  arrested  for 
disloyalty  in  New  Orleans.  Died  in  1870. 

Soulie,  soo'le-i',  (MELCHIOR  FKEDEUIC,)  a  French 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Foix,  in  the  de 
partment  of  Ariege,  in  1800.  Among  his  numerous  ro 
mances,  which  appeared  originally  in  the  journals  as 


feuilletons,  we  may  name  the  "  Vicomte  de  Beziers," 
(1834,)  "  Le  Magnetiseur,"  "Diane  et  Louise,"  (1836,) 
"The  Man  of  Letters,"  (1838,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
Devil,"  (1842.)  The  last-named  had  an  i-mmense  sale 
and  great  popularity.  His  drama  of  "Clotilde"  was 
also  highly  successful.  Died  in  1847. 

SeeM.  CHAMPION,  "  F.  Soulie,  sa  Vie  etsesOuvrages,"  1847  ;  QUE- 
RARD,  "  La  France  Lilteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Soulouque.soo'look',  (F.vusTiN,)  Emperor  of  Hayti, 
a  negro,  born  about  1785,  was  originally  a  slave.  He 
entered  the  army,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  elected  president  in  1847,  and  usurped  the  title  of 
emperor  in  1849.  His  reign  is  said  to  have  been  tyran 
nical  and  cruel.  He  was  deposed  in  1859,  and  retired 
to  France.  Died  in  1867. 

See  G.  D'AI.AUX,  "Soulouque  et  son  Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphie  Generale." 

Soult,  scolt,  (NAPOLEON  HECTOR,)  Duke  of  Dalma- 
tia,  a  diplomatist,  born  in  1801,  was  a  son  of  Marshal 
Soult.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turin  in  1839, 
and  to  Berlin  in  1843.  ^e  was  recalled  in  1848.  Died 
in  1857. 

Soult,  (NICOLAS  JEAN  DE  DIEU,)  Duke  of  Dalmatia, 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  at  Saint-Amans  la 
Bastide  (Tarn)  in  March,  1769.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1785,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1794,  gained  sev 
eral  victories  in  Germany,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  division  in  1799.  He  shared  with  Massena 
the  honour  of  defending  Genoa  in  1800,  was  appointed 
a  colonel  of  the  consular  guard  in  1802,  and  became  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1804.  He  rendered  important 
services  at  Austerlitz,  in  1805,  and  at  Jena,  in  1806.  In 

1807  he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Dalmatie,  and  in 

1808  was  sent  to  Spain.    He  commanded  the  army  which 
attacked  Sir  John   Moore  at  Corunna  in  January,  1809, 
and  was  repulsed.     In  March  ensuing  he  took  Oporto. 
Having  succeeded   Jourdan   as   commander-in-chief  of 
the  armies   in   Spain,  he   gained  a  victory  at  Ocana  in 
November,  1809,  and  occupied  Andalusia  in  1810.     He 
was  defeated   by  General  Beresford  at  Albuera   in  May, 
i8u.     Dissension    arose    in    1812    between    Soult    and 
King  Joseph,  who  preferred  Jourdan  as   his  second  in 
command.      In    March,    1813,    Soult  joined    the  grand 
army  in  Germany.     He  commanded  the  Old  Guard  at 
Lutzen,  and  the  centre  at  Bautzen.     In   the  summer  of 
1813  he  was  sent  as  commander-in-chief  to  oppose  the 
victorious  progress  of  Wellington  in   Spain.     He   dis 
played  great  skill  in  this  campaign,  but  was  defeated  at 
Orthez,  February,  1814.     The  English  also  claimed  the 
victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Toulouse,  fought  in  April, 
1814,  after  the  allies  had  taken  Paris. 

Soult  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  Louis  XVIII. 
in  December,  1814,  but  he  joined  the  standard  of  Napo 
leon  in  March,  1815,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was 
banished  in  January,  1816,  recalled  in  1819,  and  restored 
to  the  rank  of  marshal  in  1820.  He  became  minister  of 
war  in  November,  1830,  and  prime  minister  in  October, 
1832,  with  Guizot  as  one  of  his  colleagues.  In  July, 
1834,  he  retired  from  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  M. 
Thiers.  Soult  was  president  of  the  council  from  May, 
1839,  to  March  I,  1840.  In  October,  1840,  Guizot  and 
Soult  were  requested  by  the  king  to  form  a  new  ministry, 
in  which  Soult  was  president  of  the  council  and  minister 
of  war,  but  the  former  was  the  real  chief.  He  resigned 
in  September,  1847,  and  died  in  November,  1851. 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  His- 
toire  de  1'Empire  :"  SOUTHEV.  "  History  of  the  Peninsular  War;" 
\V.  NAPIER,  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula."  6  vols.,  1828- 
40:  SAI.I.E,  "  Vie  politique  du  Marechal  Soult. "1834;  LOMENIE, 
"  Galerie  des  Contemporains :"  GUIZOT.  "Memoires:"  GROZE- 
I.IER,  "  Le  Marechal  Soult.  sa  Vie  militaire,"  1852  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Ganerale;"  '•  Foreicn  Quarterly  Review"  for  June, 
1835  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1844. 

Soult,  (PIERRE  BENOIT,)  BARON,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Amans  in  1770.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1807,  and  a  general  of 
division  in  1813.  Died  in  1843. 

Soumarokof.     See  SOOMAROKOF. 

Soumet,  soo'mi',  (AI.EXANDRE,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Castelnaudary  in  1788.  He  produced,  in  1822.  trage 
dies  entitled  "  Clytemnestra"  and  "  Saul,"  which  were 
successful,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOURDIS 


2044 


SOVTHET 


Academy  ill  1824.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The 
Divine  Epopee,"  ("La  divine  Epopee,"  1840,)  and 
"Joan  of  Arc,"  an  epic  poem,  (1845.)  Died  in  1845. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sourdis,  de,  deh  sooR'dess',  (FRANCOIS  D'Escou- 
liLEAU,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  in  1575.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  in  1599.  Died  in  1628. 

Sourdis,  de,  (llENRi,)  a  prelate,  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1593.  lie  became  Archbishop  of 
Bordeaux  in  1629.  Died  in  1645. 

Sousa.     See  FARIA  Y  SOUZA. 

South,  (Sir  JAMES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  probably  in  London.  He  practised  medicine  or 
surgery  in  his  early  life.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  organized  about 
1820,  and  he  distinguished  himself  as  an  observer.  In 
1826  he  obtained  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  October,  1867. 

South,  (ROBERT,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  divine, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1633.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  John  Locke  was  one  of  his  fellow-students. 
He  graduated  in  1657,  was  ordained  in  1658,  and  in  1660 
became  university  orator.  He  was  made  a  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1670.  He  subsequently  ac 
companied  Lawrence  Hyde,  son  of  Chancellor  Claren 
don,  on  his  mission  to  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland. 
After  his  return  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Islip,  in 
Oxfordshire,  and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  He 
was  repeatedly  offered  the  highest  preferments  in  the  I 
Church  by  that  sovereign  and  his  successor,  James  II.,  | 
but  he  declined  them  all.  Dr.  South  was  a  zealous  ad 
vocate  of  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and 
strongly  opposed  to  Roman  Catholics  and  dissenters, 
whom  he  frequently  assailed  in  his  sermons  with  all  the 
powers  of  his  brilliant  wit  and  keen  sarcasm.  He  wrote 
a  polemical  work  on  the  Trinity  against  Dr.  Sherlock 
about  1693.  Died  in  1716. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  lor  April,  1868. 

Southampton,  suth-ham'ton,  (HENRY  WRIOTHES- 
I.EY,)  EARL  OF,  an  English  peer,  noted  as  a  patron  of 
Shakspeare,  was  born  about  1573.  Shakspeare  dedi 
cated  his  "Venus  and  Adonis"  to  him  in  1593.  South 
ampton  was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  (1601,)  and  was  imprisoned  for  that  offence,  but 
was  released  in  1603,  and  became  a  favourite  of  James 
I.  Died  about  1624. 

Southard,  suth'ard,  (SAMUEL  L.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Baskingridge,  New  Jersey,  in  June, 
1787.  *  He  acquired  eminence  as  a  lawyer,  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1821,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  December,  1823,  by  President 
Monroe.  He  was  retained  in  that  office  by  President 
Adams  from  1825  to  1829,  became  Governor  of  New 
Jersey  in  1832,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in  1833. 
He  continued  to  serve  for  nine  years  in  the  national 
Senate,  of  which  he  was  president  in  1842.  Died  in 
Virginia  in  June,  1842. 

South'cott  or  South'cote,  ( JOANNA,)  a  religious 
fanatic  and  pretended  prophetess,  born  in  Devonshire 
about  1750,  was  originally  a  domestic  servant  at  Exeter. 
About  1792  she  claimed  to  have  received  divine  revela 
tions,  and  afterwards  published  "A  \Varning  to  the 
Whole  World  from  the  Sealed  Prophecies  of  Joanna 
Southcott,"  (1803,)  "The  Book  of  Wonders,  in  Five 
Parts,"  (1813,)  and  other  pamphlets  of  absurd  and  nearly 
unintelligible  contents.  She  died  in  1814,  having  pre 
viously  announced  that  she  would  give  birth  to  the 
"second  Shiloh"  or  the  "Prince  of  Peace."  Her  fol 
lowers  were  very  numerous,  and  are  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

See  DAVID  HUGHSON,  "  Life  of  J.  Southcott,"  1814  ;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  February,  1815. 

Southern,  suth'ern,  (THOMAS,)  an  Irish  dramatist, 
born  in  the  county  of  Dublin  in  1660,  was  a  friend  of  Pope 
and  Dryden.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of 
"Oronooko"  and  "Isabella,  or  the  Fatal  Marriage."  He 
also  wrote  comedies  entitled  "The  Rambling  Lady," 
"The  Disappointment,"  and  "The  Wives' Excuse."  His 
denunciations  of  the  slave-trade  1n  "  Oronooko"  are  said 


to  have  been  the  first  occurring  in  any  English  writer. 
Died  in  1746. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Southey,  sow'the,  (CAROLINE  ANNK  BOWLES,)  an 
authoress,  born  at  Buckland,  Hampshire,  in  1787.  She 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Ellen  Fitz-Arthur,"  a 
poem,  (1820,)  "The  Widow's  Tale,  and  other  Poems," 
(1822,)  and  "  Solitary  Hours,"  prose  and  verse,  (1826,) 
which  were  received  with  favour.  In  1839  she  was 
married  to  Robert  Southey,  whose  mental  faculties  soon 
after  failed.  She  nursed  him  with  patient  devotion  to 
the  end  of  his  life.  Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1837. 

Southey,  (HENRY  HERBERT,  or  THOMAS,)  an  Eng 
lish  medical  writer,  born  about  1784,  was  a  brother  of 
the  poet,  Robert  Southey.  He  was  physician-in-ordinary 
to  George  IV.,  and  examiner  of  lunatics  under  the  court 
of  chancery.  He  wrote  "On  Pulmonary  Consumption," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  June,  1865. 

Southey,  (ROBERT,)  an  eminent  English  author,  was 
born  at  Bristol  on  the  I2th  of  August,  1774.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  linen-draper,  who  failed  in  business  and  left 
him  little  or  nothing.  During  his  childhood  he  lived  in 
the  house  of  his  maiden  aunt,  Miss  Tyler,  an  eccentric 
lady,  who  often  took  him  to  the  theatre  before  he  was 
seven  years  of  age,  but  subjected  him  to  a  rigid  disci 
pline.  He  began  to  write  verse  before  he  was  ten  years 
old,  and  was  placed  at  Westminster  School  in  1788,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  mother's  brother,  the  Rev.  Herbert 
Hill.  In  1792  he  was  expelled  from  Westminster  for 
writing  an  essay  against  corporal  punishment,  which  was 
printed  in  a  school  periodical  called  "The  Flagellant." 
His  political  principles  at  this  period  were  republican 
or  radical.  lie  entered  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1792, 
and  there  adopted  Unitarian  doctrines.  In  1793  he 
wrote  "Wat  Tyler,"  a  drama,  and  "Joan  of  Arc,"  an 
epic  poem,  which  was  first  published  in  1796.  In  June, 
1794,  he  was  introduced  at  Oxford  to  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship.  As  he 
had  no  definite  prospect,  and  was  much  perplexed  in 
relation  to  the  choice  of  a  profession,  he  resolved  to  join 
Coleridge  in  his  visionary  project  to  emigrate  to  Penn 
sylvania  and  found  a  Pantisocracy  on  the  banks  of  the 
Susquehanna.  His  aunt  Tyler,  who  was  a  staunch  Tory 
and  abhorred  dissenters,  on  being  informed  of  his  pro 
ject  and  opinions,  turned  him  out  of  her  house  in  a 
rainy  night  of  October,  1794.  lie  left  Oxford  in  the 
same  year,  received  from  Joseph  Cottle  fifty  guineas  for 
his  "Joan  of  Arc,"  and  married  Edith  Fricker  in  Novem 
ber,  1795.  About  the  same  date  the  project  of  Pantisoc 
racy  was  abandoned,  for  want  of  money.  Immediately 
after  his  marriage  he  sailed  tor  Lisbon  with  his  uncle 
Mr.  Hill,  who  was  chaplain  to  the  British  embassy  in 
that  city.  He  remained  about  six  months  in  the  penin 
sula,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  acquaintance  with 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  literature  in  which  he  was  sur 
passed  by  few,  if  any,  Englishmen.  Alter  his  return,  he 
published  "Letters  written  during  a  Short  Residence  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,"  (1797,)  and,  having  entered  Gray's 
Inn,  London,  began  to  study  law,  which  he  found  so 
uncongenial  that  he  soon  abandoned  it.  Reading  law 
seemed  to  him  "like  thrashing  straw." 

He  published  in  1801  "Thalaba  the  Destroyer:  a 
Metrical  Romance."  After  various  adventures,  and  sev 
eral  changes  of  occupation  and  residence,  he  settled  in 
1803  at  Greta  Hall,  near  Keswick,  with  Coleridge,  who 
was  his  brother-in-law.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Wordsworth  and  the  most  beautiful  scenery  of  England, 
— the  lake  country.  The  subsequent  part  of  his  life 
affords  an  example  of  almost  unequalled  literary  indus 
try,  combined  with  a  faithful  performance  of  his  domestic 
duties.  After  his  youthful  enthusiasm  had  cooled,  he 
became  a  conservative  in  politics,  and  a  zealous  member 
of  the  Anglican  Church.  In  1805  he  published  "Met 
rical  Tales,  and  other  Poems  ;"  and  "Madoc,  a  Poem,  in 
Two  Parts,"  which  was  not  received  with  much  favour. 
He  became  a  contributor  to  the  "Quarterly  Review" 
about  1808,  published  a  Indian  poem  entitled  "The  Curse 
of  Kehama"  in  iSio,  and  was  appointed  poet-laureate  in 
1813.  He  generously  supported  the  family  of  Coleridge, 
whom  the  latter  left  dependent  on  him  at  Greta  Hall. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SOUTHGATE 


2045 


SPADA 


In  1835  'ie  received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds 
a  year  irom  the  government.  Having  lost  his  wife  in 
1837,  he  married  Caroline  Bowles  in  1839.  About  this 
time  his  overtasked  faculties  became  prostrated,  and  he 
sank  into  a  state  of  mental  imbecility.  He  died  at  Greta 
Hall,  March  21,  1843.  Besides  the  poems  above  named, 
he  wrote  "Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths,"  (1814.) 
Among  his  numerous  prose  works  are  an  excellent 
"Life  of  Lord  Nelson,"  (2  vols.,  1813,)  a  "Life  of  John 
Wesley,"  (2  vols.,  1820,)  a  "History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,"' (3  vols.,  1822-32,)  "Essays,  Moral  and  Political," 
(1832,)  "The  Doctor,"  (7  vols.,' 1834-37,)  and  a  "Life 
of  William  Cowper." 

"Mr.  Southey's  prose  style,"  says  Hazlitt,  "can 
scarcely  be  too  much  praised.  It  is  plain,  clear,  pointed, 
familiar,  perfectly  modern  in  its  texture,  but  with  a  grave 
and  sparkling  admixture  of  archaisms  in  its  ornaments 
and  occasional  phraseology."  ("  Spirit  of  the  Age.")  "It 
is  Southey's  almost  unexampled  felicity,"  says  Coleridge, 
"to  possess  the  best  gifts  of  talent  and  genius,  free  from 
all  their  characteristic  defects.  ...  As  son,  brother,  hus 
band,  father,  master,  friend,  he  moves  with  firm  yet  light 
steps,  alike  unostentatious  and  alike  exemplary.  As  a 
writer,  he  has  uniformly  made  his  talents  subservient 
to  the  best  interests  of  humanity,  of  public  virtue,  and 
domestic  piety."  ("  Biographia  Literal  ia.") 

See  "The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Robert  Southey,"  edited 
by  liis  son,  the  REV.  CHARLES  CUTHBERT  SOUTHEY,  6  vols.,  1849- 
50  ;  JOSEPH  COTTI.E,  "  Reminiscences  of  S.  T.  Coleridge  and  R. 
Southey,"  1847:  CHARLES!'.  BROWNE,  "The  Life  of  R.  Southey." 
1854;  "Selections  from  the  Letters  of  R.  Southey,"  edited  by  his 
son-in-law,  J.  W.  WARTER.  4  vols.,  1856:  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
April,  1851;  MACAULAV'S  essay  entitled  "  Southey's  Colloquies  on 
Society,"  1830;  JEFFREY'S  critiques  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1811,  (vol.  xvii..)  and  for  June,  1815,  (vol.  xxv.  ,)  AL- 
I.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

South'gate,  (RICHAKD,)  RKV.,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1729.  He  became  an  assist 
ant  librarian  of  the  British  Museum.  Died  in  1795. 

South'well,  (NATHANIEL,)  was  secretary  to  the 
general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome  about  1650.  He 
wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jesu,"  or  "Jesuits'  Library,"  down  to  1676,  in 
which  year  he  died. 

South'well,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  Catholic,  born  in 
1560,  became  prefect  of  the  English  Jesuits'  College  at 
Rome,  and  was  afterwards  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Eng 
land.  Having  admitted  that  he  came  for  the  purpose 
of  making  converts,  he  was  tried  and  executed  in  1595. 
He  was  the  author  of  hymns  and  religious  treatises. 

See  "Gent'eman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1798:  "Retro 
spective  Review."  vol.  iv.,  (1821;)  CLEVELAND,  "Compendium  of 
English  Literature." 

South'worth,  (Mus.  EMMA  D.  E.  NK.VITT,)  an 
American  novelist,  born  at  Washington,  District  of 
Columbia,  in  1818.  She  contributed  a  number  of  tales 
and  sketches  to  the  "National  Era"  at  Washington,  and 
subsequently  published  in  that  journal  her  novel  entitled 
"  Retribution."  Among  her  other  works  may  be  named 
"The  Deserted  Wife,"  "The  Lost  Heiress,"  and  the 
"Curse  of  Clifford." 

Soutman,  sowt'man,  (PKTER,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  born  about  1590;  died  in  16^3. 

Soutzo,  soot'zo,  or  Sutzos,  soot'zos,  (ALEXANDER,) 
a  modern  Greek  poet  and  historian,  born  at  Constanti 
nople  about  1800.  He  wrote  political  satires  against 
various  parties  which  divided  Greece  after  1824.  In 
1829  he  published,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Greek 
Revolution."  He  is  considered  by  some  writers  as  the 
greatest  poet  of  modern  Greece. 

Soutzo,  (P.,)  a  modern  Greek  poet,  was  a  younger 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  councillor  of 
state  at  Athens. 

Souvarof.     See  SUWAROW. 

Souvestre,  soo've'stR',  (£MILE,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Morlaix,  in  Brit 
tany,  in  1806.  He  published  in  1836  a  work  entitled 
"  Les  derniers  Bretons,"  an  admirable  description  of  the 
manners,  customs,  etc.  of  Brittany.  About  the  same 
time  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  de  Paris" 
and  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among  his  best 
productions,  many  of  which  appeared  first  in  the  leading 
Parisian  journals,  we  may  name  "The  Confessions  of  a 


Workman,"  ("  Les  Confessions  d'un  Ouvrier,")  "  Pierre 
et  Jean,"  "Travels  in  Finisterre,"  (1836,)  "  The  Greased 
Pole,"  ("Le  Mat  de  Cocagne,"  1842,)  and  "  Le  Philo- 
sophe  sous  les  Toils."  His  works  are  highly  commended 
for  their  moral  purity.  Died  in  Paris  in  1854. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Souvorof  or  Souvorov.     See  SUWAROW. 

Souza.     See  FARIA  Y  SOIIZA. 

Souza,  de,  da  so'za,  (A DELE,)  MARCHIONESS,  a 
French  romance-writer,  whose  original  name  was  FIL- 
LEUL,  was  born  in  Normandy  in  1760.  She  was  first 
married  in  1784  to  Count  Flahault,  who  perished  under 
the  guillotine  in  1793,  and  in  1802  became  the  wife  of 
the  Portuguese  ambassador  Souza-Botelho,  noticed  be 
low.  She  published  several  popular  romances,  among 
which  we  may  name  "Eugene  de  Rathelin,"  (1808,)  and 
"Adele  de  Senanges."  Died  in  1836. 

See  QKERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Cri 
tiques  et  Portraits." 

Souza,  de,  (JoAO,)  a  learned  monk,  born  at  Damas 
cus,  in  Syria,  about  1730,  settled  in  Portugal,  where  he 
became  professor  of  Arabic.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
Arabic  Grammar.  Died  in  1812. 

Souza,  de,  (PED*o  LOPEZ,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
who  explored  the  coast  of  Brazil  about  1532.  He  was 
drowned  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar  in  1539. 

Souza-Botelho,  so'za  bo-tel'yo,  (Dom  JOZE  MARIA,) 
a  Portuguese  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Oporto  in 
1758,  was  employed  in  important  embassies  to  .Sweden, 
Denmark,  England,  and  France.  He  published  in  1818 
a  valuable  edition  of  the  works  of  Camoens.  Died  in 
1819. 

S6w'er-by,  (GEORGE  BRETTINGHAM,)  an  English 
naturalist,  born  in  1788,  was  a  son  of  James,  noticed 
below.  He  gave  special  attention  to  conchology  and 
entomology.  Died  in  1854. 

Sowerby,  (GEORGE  BRETTINGHAM,)  an  artist  and 
naturalist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1812. 
lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Popular  British 
Conchology,"  (1854,)  and  "Illustrated  Index  of  British 
Shells,"  (1859.) 

Sowerby,  JAMES,)  an  English  naturalist  and  artist, 
born  at  Lambeth  about  1760.  He  published  "English 
Botany,"  (1790,)  in  conjunction  with  Sir  James  Smith  ; 
also,  "Exotic  Mineralogy,"  a  treatise  "On  the  Eng 
lish  Fungi  or  Mushrooms,"  (3  vols.,  1797-1803.)  "  Brit 
ish  Mineralogy,"  (5  vols.,  1804-17,)  and  the  "Mineral 
Conchology  of  Great  Britain,"  (6  vols.,  1812-30.)  These 
works  are  beautifully  illustrated  by  himself  with  coloured 
plates.  Died  in  1822.  His  son,  JAMES  DE  CARLE,  born 
in  1787,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Botanical 
Society,  of  which  he  was  appointed  secretary. 

Soyer,  swa'ya',  (ALEXIS,)  a  celebrated  French  cook 
and  writer  on  gastronomy,  born  about  1800  :  died  in 
1858. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1851. 

Soz'o-men,  [Gr.  Sw^ufvof;  Lat.  SOZOM'ENUS  ;  Fr. 
SOZOMENE,  so'zo'niin',)  or,  more  fully,  So-zom'e-nos 
Her'mi-as,  a  Greek  ecclesiastical  historian,  born  at 
Bethel,  in  Palestine,  about  400  A.n.  He  practised  law 
at  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Church 
from  323  to  439  A.D.,  which  is  extant.  He  is  deficient 
in  judgment,  compared  with  Socrates,  (who  lived  at  the 
same  time  and  wrote  on  the  same  subject,)  but  his  style 
is  commended. 

See  VAI.ESH-S,  "  De  Vitis  et  Scriptis  Socratis  et  Sozomeni ;" 
Voss,  "  De  Historicis  Gr^cis;"  FABRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Sozomeiie  and  Sozomenus.     See  SOZOMEN. 

Sozzini.     See  SOCINUS. 

Spach,  spfk,  (EnouARD,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1801.  He  wrote  several  botanical  works. 

Spada,  spa'cla,  (BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1594,  was  a  patron  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts.  Died  in  1661. 

Spada,  (LiONELLO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1576.  He  studied  at  Rome  under 
Caravaggio,  whose  manner  he  adopted  and  refined. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "San  Domenico  burn 
ing  the  Proscribed  Books  of  the  Heretics,"  at  Bologna, 
"  Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,"  at  Modena,  and  "  The 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.    (2^="See  Explanations,  p.  2  \.} 


SPADAFORA 


2046 


SPARKS 


Miracle  of  Saint  Benedict,"  in  the  monastery  of  San 
Michele  at  Bosco.  He  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  artists  of  his  time.  Died  in 
1622. 

See  MALVASIA,  "  Felsina  pittrice." 

Spadafora,  spa-da-fo'ra,  (Pi.ACiDO,)  an  Italian  gram 
marian,  born  at  Palermo  in  1628.  Among  his  works  is 
"Prosodia  Italiana,"  (1682.)  Died  in  1691. 

Spaendonck,  van,  vtn  spin'donk,  (GKRAART,)  a 
celebrated  Dutch  flower-painter,  born  at  Tilbtirg  about 
1750.  He  became  miniature-painter  to  the  King  of 
France  in  1774,  and  professor  of  iconography  at  the 
Jardin  des  PI  antes.  Died  in  Paris  in  1822. 

Spagnoletto,  span-yo-let'to,  [Fr.  ESI>AGNOI.ET,  eV- 
ptn'yo'l.Y,]  an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  whose  proper 
name  was  JOSE  Ribera,  (re-ua'ra,)  was  born  at  San 
Felipe  de  Xativa  in  1588.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Michael 
Angelo  de  Caravaggio.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Madrid,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  painter  to 
the  court  of  Spain.  Among  his  master- pieces  are  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  and  a  "  Mater  Dolorosa." 
His  favourite  subjects  were  martyrdoms,  executions,  and 
other  tragical  scenes.  Died  at  Naples  in  1656. 

Spagnuoli,  span-yoo-o'lee,  or  Spagiioli,  span-yo'lee, 
(GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  poet  and  monk,  born 
at  Mantua.  He  wrote  Latin  verses  which  were  admired 
by  his  contemporaries.  Died  in  1516. 

Spalatin,  spl'la-teen',  [Lat.  SPALATI'NUS,]  (GEORG,) 
a  German  scholar  and  Reformer,  whose  original  name 
was  BuuCKllARn,  was  born  at  Spalt,  in  the  bishopric  of 
Eichstadt,  in  1484.  Having  become  a  convert  to  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  he  was  appointed  in  1514  by  Fred 
erick  the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony,  his  court  chaplain 
and  private  secretary.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
his  biographies  of  Frederick  the  Wise  and  John  the 
Constant,  and  "  History  of  the  Popes  and  Emperors  of 
the  Time  of  the  Reformation."  Died  in  1545. 

See  SCIILEGEL,  "  Historia  Vita;  G.  Spnlatini ;"  P.  EKERMAN, 
"Dissertatio  de  G.  Spalatino,"  1760;  J.  WAGNER,  "G.  Spalatin 
und  die  Reformation  der  Kirchen,"  etc.,  1830;  UBRTHBL,  "  G. 
Spalatini  in  Emendationem  sacrorum  Merita,"  1840. 

Spalatinus.     See  SPALATIN. 

Spalding,  spal'ding,  (GEORGLuDWlG,)adistinguished 

philologist,  a  son  of  Johann  Joachim,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Barth  in  1762.  He  prepared  an  excellent  edi 
tion  of  the  works  of  Quintilian,  published  after  his  death. 
He  also  wrote  (in  Latin)  "  Vindication  of  the  Megaric 
Philosophers."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  councillor  in  the  ministry  for 
public  instruction.  Died  in  1811. 

See  GEORG  LUDVVIG  SPAI.DING,  "  Memoria  G.  L.  Spaldingii," 
1822. 

Spalding,  (JOHANN  JOACHIM,)  a  Protestant  theolo 
gian  and  religious  writer,  born  in  Swedish  Pomerania  in 
1714  ;  died  in  1804. 

Spal'ding,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  historian,  lived  in  Aber 
deen.  He  wrote  "  Memorials  of  the  Troubles  in  Scot 
land."  Died  about  1670. 

Spal'ding,  (LYMAN,)  an  eminent  American  physician, 
born  at  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  in  1775.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Harvard  College  in  1797,  and  settled  at  Ports 
mouth  in  1799.  He  published  a  "  New  Nomenclature 
of  Chemistry,"  (1799.)  In  1812  he  became  president  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  at  Fairfield,  New  York,  and 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  removed  to  the 
city  of  New  York  in  1813.  He  originated  the  "Phar 
macopoeia  of  the  United  States,"  the  plan  of  which  he 
formed  about  1818.  He  died  in  October,  1821. 

SeeTHACHEK,  "Medical  Biography." 

Spal'ding,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  theologian  and  dis 
senting  divine,  born  in  London  in  1807.  He  died  in 
1844  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whither  he  had  gone 
on  account  of  his  health.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"The  Philosophy  of  Christian  Morals." 

Spalding,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  about  1809.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands  from  the  Earliest 
Ages,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1841,)  and  became  professor  of  logic 
in  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1845.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  Died  in 
1859- 


Spallanzani,  spal-lan-za'nee,  (!,AZZARO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Scandiano,  in  the  duchy  of 
M6dena,  in  1729,  was  educated  at  Bologna.  He  became 
professor  of  logic  and  Greek  at  Reggio  in  1754.  and  ob 
tained  a  chair  at  Modena  in  1761.  In  1768  he  published 
"On  the  Action  of  the  Heart  in  the  Blood-Vessels," 
("  Dell'  Azione  del  Cuore  ne'  Vasi  sanguigni.")  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  at  Pavia  about 
1770.  He  wrote  treatises  on  respiration,  digestion,  re 
production,  etc.  Died  in  1799. 

See  J.  TOUKDES,  "  Notice  siir  la  Vie  de  Spallanzani,"  1799 :  Poz- 
ZETTI,  "  Elogio  di  L.  Spallanzani,"  1X00  ;  J.  1,.  AI.IHEKT,  "filoge 
lustoriqne  de  Spallanzani,"  1806;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Spangeiiberg,  spang'gen-berg'  or  spang'en-beRc/, 
(AUGUST  GOTTLIEB,)  founder  of  the  Moravian  Church 
in  America,  was  born  at  Klettenberg,  in  Germany,  in 
1704.  In  1735  he  visited  America  and  founded  a  Mo 
ravian  settlement  in  Georgia.  Having  been  made  a 
bishop  in  1744,  lie  continued  to  reside  nearly  twenty 
years  in  America,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  estab 
lishing  Moravian  colonies  at  Bethlehem  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  North  Carolina.  He  returned  to  Germany  in 
1762,  and  died  in  1792.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Life  of  Count  Zinzendorf,"  (1772,)  and  "Exposition 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  United  Brethren,"  ("Idea  Fidei 
Fratrum.") 

Spangeiiberg,  spang'en-beiu;',  (CYRIACUS,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Herden 
in  1528,  was  the  author  of  "Chronicles  of  Henneberg, 
Holstcin,  etc."  Died  in  1604. 

Spaiiheim,  span'hlm,  (KzEKiEi,,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
diplomatist,  scholar,  and  numismatist,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1629.  He  studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  theology  at 
Leyden.  In  1659  he  was  sent  by  the  Elector-Palatine  to 
Italy  on  a  diplomatic  mission.  He  published  at  Rome  a 
work  on  ancient  coins,  "  De  Praestantia  et  Usu  Numis- 
mattim  antiquorum,"  (1664.)  He  returned  to  Heidelberg 
in  1665,  after  which  he  was  employed  by  the  Elector  as 
minister  to  England.  About  1680  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  sent  him  as  ambas 
sador  to  Paris.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Roman 
World,"  etc.,  ("  Orbis  Roman  us,"  etc.,  1697.)  Died  in 
London  in  1710. 

See  NICERDN,  "Memoires;"  SKN'KBIEK,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de 
Geneve;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Spaiiheim,  span'hlm,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  theologian, 
born  at  Amberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1600,  was  the  father  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Leyden  in  1642.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Gospel  Doubts,"  ("  Dubia  Evangelica,"  1639,)  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Universal  Grace,"  (1646.)  Died  in  1649. 

See  NICEKON,  "Memoires;"  BAYI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary." 

Spaiiheim,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Geneva  in  1632.  He  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Heidelberg  in  1655,  and  obtained  the  chair 
of  theology  and  sacred  history  at  Leyden  in  1670. 
Among  his  works  is  "  A  Summary  of  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  ("  Summa  Historian  ecclesiastical,"  1689.) 
Died  in  1701. 

See  NICEKON,  "M  "moires." 

Spark  or  Sparke,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergy 
man,  born  in  1655,  became  prebendary  of  Lichfield  and 
Rochester.  He  published  an  edition  of  Lactantius, 
(1684.)  Died  in  1692. 

Sparke,  (THOMAS,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  min 
ister,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  i  S4&  He  became  preb 
endary  of  Lincoln  in  1582.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.  Died  in  1616. 

Sparks,  (JARKD,)  a  distinguished  American  historian 
and  biographer,  born  at  Willington,  Connecticut,  in 
May,  1789,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1815.  lie 
studied  theology,  and  was  ordained  minister  of  the  First 
Unitarian  Church  of  Baltimore  in  1819,  after  which  he 
wrote  several  treatises  on  theology.  He  became  in  1823 
the  editor  of  the  "North  American  Review,"  which  he 
conducted  (in  Boston)  until  1830.  He  published  "The 
Life  of  John  Ledyard,"  (1829,)  and  "  The  Life  of  Gouver- 
neur  Morris,"  (3  vols.,  1832,)  and  expended  much 
labour  on  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  George  Wash 
ington  ;  being  his  Correspondence,  Addresses,  Mes- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SP4RR 


2047 


SPENCE 


sages,  etc.,"  (12  vols.  8vo,  1833-40,)  which,  says  R.  W. 
Griswolcl,  is  "a  work  in  all  respects  as  nearly  perfect 
as  possible."  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  com 
plete  works  of  Franklin,  (10  vols.,  1835-40.)  In  1839 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  and  modern  history 
in  Harvard  University.  He  edited  "The  Library  of 
American  Biography,"  (First  Series,  10  vols.,  1835-39, 
and  Second  Series,  15  vols.,  1844-48.)  For  this  valuable 
collection  he  wrote  the  biographies  of  Ethan  Allen,  Ben 
edict  Arnold,  Marquette,  Count  Pulaski,  La  Salle,  Ri- 
bault,  and  General  Charles  Lee.  He  was  president  of 
Harvard  University  from  1849  to  1852.  It  is  stated  that 
he  was  engaged  for  many  years  on  a  History  of  the 
American  Revolution.  Died  in  1866. 

"The  great  merits  of  Mr.  Sparks,"  says  Griswold, 
"are  reverence  for  truth,  soundness  of  judgment  in  re 
gard  to  evidence,  and  exhausting  fulness  of  detail  and 
illustration."  (See  "Prose  Writers  of  America.") 

See  BRANTZ  MEYF.R,  "Memoir  of  Jared  Sparks"  1869;  REV. 
GEORGE  E.  Ei.US,  "Memoirs  of  Jared  Sparks,"  1669;  AU.IBONE, 
'"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American  Review"  tor  July, 
1844. 

Sparr,  span,  (OTTO  CHRISTOPH,)  BARON,  a  German 
commander,  born  in  1593,  served  against  the  Swedes  in  | 
1655,  and  was  made  field-marshal-general  in  1657.   Died  | 
in  1668. 

Sparre,  spar'reh,  (Euic  LARSSON,)  a  Swedish  states 
man  and  writer,  born  in  1550.  lie  was  an  adherent  of 
Sigismund  in  a  civil  war  which  resulted  in  the  de 
thronement  of  that  king.  He  was  executed  for  treason 
in  1600. 

Sparre,  (GKHR  GF:ORG,)  a  Swedish  novelist,  born 
near  Kronoberg  in  1790.  He  entered  the  army  in  1807, 
and  became  a  colonel  in  1832. 

Sparrmami,  spaK'man,  (ANDREAS,)  a  Swedish  natu 
ralist,  born  in  the  province  of  Upland  about  1747.  He 
studied  at  Upsal  under  Linnaeus,  and  in  1772  visited 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  afterwards  accompanied 
the  Forsters  in  their  voyage  round  the  world  with  Cap 
tain  Cook  in  1772.  In  1775  he  set  out  for  the  interior 
of  Africa,  where  he  made  a  valuable  collection  of  plants, 
animals,  etc.  After  his  return  to  Sweden,  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm, 
and  appointed  conservator  of  the  Museum.  His  travels 
are  highly  esteemed  for  their  accuracy,  and  have  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  Died  in  1820. 

Spar'iow,  (ANTHONY,)  an  English  prelate  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  became  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He 
published  a  "  Rationale  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer." 
Died  in  1685. 

Spar'ta-cus,  a  Thracian  soldier,  who  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Romans,  reduced  to  slavery,  and  trained 
as  a  gladiator.  Having  escaped  with  a  number  of  his 
associates,  he  became  leader  of  a  numerous  band,  and  j 
defeated  Claudius  Pulcher,  who  was  sent  against  him  ' 
about  73  B.C.  Having  proclaimed  freedom  to  all  slaves 
who  should  join  him,  he  raised  a  powerful  army  and  de 
feated  several  times  the  consuls  sent  against  him.  He 
was  prudent  as  well  as  brave.  His  army  amounted  to 
about  100,000  men,  and  was  invincible  until  dissensions 
arose  among  them.  In  71  is.c.  he  was  blockaded  by 
M.  Licinius  Crasstis  at  Rhegium,  and  killed  in  a  battle 
which  ended  the  great  Servile  war.  Spartacus  was  an 
extraordinary  man,  and  had  the  qualities  of  a  hero. 

See  Livv,  "Epitome;"  MEKIMEE,  "Guerre  sociale;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Spartianus,  spar-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  SPARTIEN,  spaV- 
se-^,Nr,]  (,-Ei.ics,)  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  about 
300  A.D.,  wrote  a  "  History  in  Single  Biographies  of  the 
Roman  Emperors  from  Cassar  down  to  his  Own  Time." 
Only  fragments  of  it  are  extant. 

Spartien.     See  SPARTIANUS. 

Sparwenfeldt,  spaR'vven-fe'lt/,  (JOHAN  GABRIEL,)  a 
Swedish  linguist,  born  in  1655.  He  left,  in  manuscript, 
a  "Lexicon  Slavonicum."  Died  in  1727. 

Speckbacher,  spe'k'baK'er,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Tyrolese 
patriot,  and  friend  of  Hofer,  was  born  near  Innspruck  in 
1768  ;  died  in  1820. 

Speckter,  spek'ter,  (ERWIN,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Cornelius  at 
Munich.  He  visited  Italy  in  1824,  and  while  at  Rome 


produced  his  picture  of  the  "  Sleeping  Samson,"  es 
teemed  one  of  his  master-pieces.  He  died  in  1835. 
His  interesting  "  Letters  of  a  German  Artist  from  Italy" 
were  published  in  1846. 

Speckter,  (OTTO,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1807.  He  acquired  a  high  repu 
tation  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  exe 
cuted  a  number  of  lithographs  and  etchings,  among 
which  we  may  name  "Twelve  Etchings  to  Puss  in 
Boots." 

Spedalieri,  spa-da-le-a'ree,  (XiccoLO,)  an  Italian 
priest  and  writer,  born  in  Sicily  in  1740.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  on  the  Rights  of  Man,  "  De'  Diiitti  del 
Uomo,"  (1791,)  which  gave  offence  to  the  clergy.  Died 
in  1795. 

Spee,  von,  fon  spa,  (FRIF.DRICH,)  a  German  Jesuit, 
born  near  Kaiserswei  th,  on  the  Rhine,  about  1595, 
wrote  devotional  poems  of  great  beauty,  and  an  able 
treatise  against  the  belief  in  witchcraft.  Died  in  1635. 

Speed,  (JoHN,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Che 
shire  about  1550.  He  was  the  author  of  a  chronicle 
entitled  "The  History  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Con 
quests  of  the  Romans,  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans," 
(1611,)  "The  Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1629. 

Spegel,  spii'gel,  (H.AQUiN,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
at  Ronneby  in  1645.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Swedish  Church,"  ("Svenska  Kyrke- 
historie,"  2  vols..  1708.)  In  1711  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Upsal.  Died  in  1713  or  1714. 

Speke,  speek,  (Captain  JOHN  HANNiNG,)an  English 
officer,  distinguished  as  an  explorer  of  Africa,  was  born 
in  1827.  He  served  in  the  army  in  India  several  years. 
About  1855-57  he  was  a  companion  of  Captain  Burton 
in  a  journey  in  Africa.  He  discovered  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza  in  1858.  In  company  with  Mr.  Grant,  he  per 
formed  another  journey  to  that  part  of  Africa  in  1860-61, 
and  discovered  the  sources  of  the  Nile  in  1862  by  tracing 
that  river  to  Lake  Xyanza.  He  was  killed  in  England 
in  1864  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  his  own  gun. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1864;  "Black- 
wood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1859,  ar>d  May,  1860;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1864. 

Spel'man,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  scholar  and  trans 
lator,  was  a  descendant  of  Sir  Henry,  noticed  below. 
He  translated  Xenophon's  "  Cyropaedia,"  and  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnasstis.  Died  in  1767. 

Spelman,  (Sir  HKNRY,)  an  eminent  English  anti 
quary,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1562.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  settled  in  London. 
He  published  in  1626  the  first  part  of  his  "  Glossarinm 
Archaiologicum,"  a  standard  work  of  its  kind,  which  he 
left  unfinished  ;  the  remaining  part  was  brought  out  by 
his  friend  Sir  William  Dugdale.  He  also  wrote  "Coun 
cils,  Decrees,  Laws,  etc.  of  Britain  in  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs,"  (in  Latin,  unfinished.)  Died  in  1641. 

His  son,  Sir  JOHN  SPELMAN,  wrote  a  "Critical  Life 
of  King  Alfred,"  and  another  son,  CLEMENT,  became 
baron  of  the  exchequer  under  Charles  II.  Sir  John 
died  in  1643. 

Spelta,  spel'ta,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  an  Italian  littera 
teur^  born  at  Pa  via  in  1559.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Istoria  de'  Fatti  notabili  occorsi  nelP  Universe," 
etc.,  (1603.)  Died  in  1632. 

Spence,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  divine  and  critic,  born 
in  Hampshire  in  1699.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  entered, 
into  orders,  and  in  1728  became  professor  of  poetry  in 
that  college.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent,  he  was 
appointed  after  his  return  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Polymetis  ; 
or,  An  Enquiry  concerning  the  Agreement  between  the 
Works  of  the  Roman  Poets  and  the  Rem.iins  of  the 
Ancient  Artists,"  etc.,  which  was  very  well  received. 
He  also  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Pope's  Translation  of  the 
Odyssey,"  which  procured  for  him  the  friendship  of 
that  poet,  and  "Anecdotes,  Observations,  and  Charac 
ters  of  Books  and  Men,"  a  valuable  and  interesting 
work.  Mr.  Spence  was  made  a  prebendary  of  Durham 
Cathedral  in  1754.  He  was  accidentally  drowned  in 
1768. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1820. 


€  as 


k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SPENCE 


2048 


SPENSER 


,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  entomolo 
gist,  bom  in  1783,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on 
natural  history,  among  which  we  may  name  "Obser 
vations  relative  to  Dr.  Carus's  Discovery  of  the  Circu 
lation  of  Blood  in  Insects."  He  also  assisted  the  Rev. 
William  Kirby  in  his  "  Introduction  to  Entomology, 
or  Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  Insects."  lie 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  other  learned 
institutions.  (See  KIRBY.)  Died  in  1860. 

Splhi'cer,  (AMHRUSE,)  LL.D.,  an  able  American 
jurist,  born  at  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1765.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  subsequently  rose 
through  various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  State 
of  New  York  in  1810.  lie  retired  from  the  bench  in 
1823.  He  married  successively  two  sisters  of  De  Witt 
Clinton.  Died  in  1848. 

Spencer,  (CHARLES.)     See  SUNDERI.AND,  EARL  OF. 

Spen'cer,  (CHAULES,)  Duke  of  Marlborough,  born 
in  1707,  was  a  son  of  Charles  III.,  Earl  of  Sunderland, 
and  a  grandson  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
whose  title  he  inherited  in  1733.  He  served  in  the  army, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Died  in 

1759- 

Spencer,  (FREDERICK,)  Earl  of  Spencer,  an  English 
peer,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  served  in  the  navy, 
and  gained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  In  1845  'ie  entered 
the  House  of  Lords. 

Spencer,  (GEORGE,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  1799,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Viscount  Althorp. 
He  joined  the  order  of  Passionists,  and  assumed  the 
name  of  Father  Ignatius.  Died  in  1864. 

Spencer,  (GEORGE  JOHN,)  Karl  Spencer,  born  about 
1758,  was  a  grandson  of  the  third  Earl  of  Sunderland. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  cabinet  under  Pitt  about  1795- 
1801.  He  died  in  1834,  leaving  a  son  John  Charles, 
Lord  Althorp. 

Spencer,  (HENRY.)     See  SUNDERLAND,  EARL  OF. 

Spencer,  (HKRBERT,)  a  distinguished  English  philos 
opher  and  author,  was  born  at  Derby  about  1820.  He 
learned  the  business  of  civil  engineer,  which  he  aban 
doned  about  1845.  lie  published  "Social  Statics;  or 
the  Conditions  essential  to  Human  Happiness  Speci 
fied,"  etc.,  (1851,)  and  ''The  Principles  of  Psychology," 
(1855.)  His  contributions  to  the  "Westminster  Re 
view"  and  other  periodicals  were  reprinted  in  a  volume 
entitled  "Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative," 
(1857.)  Among  his  principal  works,  which  have  attracted 
much  attention,  are"  Education,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and 
Physical,"  (1861,)  "Progress,  its  Law  and  Course," 
"  First  Principles,"  (1862,)  "  The  Principles  of  Biology," 
(1863,)  and  "  Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress,"  (1864.) 
Some  of  these  are  portions  of  an  extensive  work  entitled 
a  "  System  of  Philosophy,"  the  prospectus  of  which  was 
issued  in  1860. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1863. 

Spencer,  (IIuon.)     See  DKSPKNCKR. 

Spencer,  (JKSSE  AMES,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episco 
palian  divine  and  theologian,  born  in  Dutchess  county, 
New  York,  in  1816.  He  was  appointed  in  1850  professor 
of  Latin  and  Oriental  languages  at  Burlington  College, 
New  Jersey.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  English 
Reformation,"  (1846,)  "Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land," 
(1849,)  and  other  works. 

Spencer,  (Jonx,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  in  Kent  in  1630,  was  created  Dean  of  Ely.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  Legibus  Hebrzeorum  Ritu- 
alibus  et  eorum  Rationibus."  Died  in  1695. 

Spencer,  (JoiiN  CANFIELD,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  at  Hudson,  New  York,  in  1788, 
was  a  son  of  Ambrose,  noticed  above.  He  practised 
for  many  years  at  Canandaigua,  to  which  he  removed  in 
1809.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1816,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  New  York  from  1824  to  1828. 
lie  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  revision  of  the  statutes 
of  New  York,  on  which  he  wrote  a  series  of  essays.  In 
1839  he  became  secretary  of  state  for  New  York.  He 
was  secretary  of  war  under  the  national  government 
from  October,  1841,  to  March,  1843,  anc^  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  treasury  at  the  latter  date.  He  resigned 
in  1844  because  he  was  opposed  to  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  Union.  About  1845  'le  removed  from 


Canandaigua  to  Albany,  where  he  died  in  May,  1855. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  powerful  intellect  and 
intense  energy. 

Spencer,  (JoiiN  CHARLES.)     See  ALTHORP,  LORD. 

Spencer,  (JOSEPH,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Connecticut  about  1714.  He  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  in  August,  1776,  resigned  in  1778,  and  was 
elected  to  the  General  Congress  in  that  year.  Died 
in  1789. 

Spencer,  (Hon.  WILLIAM  ROBERT,)  an  accomplished 
English  v#riter,  son  of  Lord  Charles  Spencer,  was  born 
in  1770.  lie  produced  a  translation  of  "Lenore."  Died 
in  1834. 

Spener,  spa'ner,  (JAKOB  KARL,)  a  German  writer  and 
jurist,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Frankfort  in 
1684.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "General 
History  of  Germany,"  ("  Historia  Germanise  Universalis 
et  Pragmatica,"  2  vols.,  1717.)  Died  in  1730. 

Spener,  (Pim.ipp  JAKOB,)  an  eminent  German  Prot 
estant  minister,  born  at  Rappoltsweiler,  now  Ribeauville, 
in  Alsace,  in  January,  1635.  He  is  called  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Pietists,  lie  studied  theology,  Hebrew, 
etc.  at  Strasburg,  and  began  to  preach  in  that  city  in 
1663.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher, 
he  became  in  1666  first  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  church 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main. .  He  instituted,  about  1670, 
meetings  tor  religious  instruction  and  prayer,  which  were 
called  collegia pietatis.  In  1675  he  published  a  small  work 
entitled  "  Pious  Desires,"  ("  1'ia  Desideria,")  which  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  appointed  court  preacher  at 
Dresden  in  1686,  and  removed  in  1691  to  Berlin,  where 
he  obtained  the  office  of  provost  of  the  church  of  Saint 
Nicholas  and  enjoyed  great  influence.  He  was  eminent 
for  charity  and  tolerance.  His  efforts  were  directed  to 
the  promotion  of  vital  and  practical  religion.  The  chairs 
of  theology  in  the  new  University  of  Halle  were  filled 
by  disciples  of  Spener.  A  controversy  arose  between 
his  friends  and  the  faculty  of  Wittenberg,  who  censured 
as  heretical  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  propositions 
found  in  his  writings.  He  died  in  Berlin  in  February, 
1705,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Interior  and  Spiritual  Peace,"  (1686,)  and  "The  Duties 
of  the  Evangelical  Life,"  (1692.) 

See  CANSTEIN,  "  Lebensbeschreibmis;  Speners,"  1740  ;  HOSSRACU, 
"Spener  und  seine  Zeit,"  2  vo!s.,  1828;  VV.  Tmi.o,  "Spener  als 
Katechet,"  1840:  WII.DKNHAHN,  "P.  J.  Spener,"  1*42;  A.  STKIN- 
METZ.  "  Leben  P.  J.  Spener's,"  1741  :  PI'ANNENHKKG,  "P.  J  Spe 
ner  cler  Kirchenvater  ties  Evanpelischen  Deiitschlancls,"  iSj^  ;  II  AAG, 
"  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gine'rale." 

Spen'ser,  [Lat.  SPENSE'RUS,]  (EDMUND,)  an  illus 
trious  English  poet,  was  born  in  Last  Smithfield,  Lon 
don,  about  1553.  His  early  history  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity  ;  he  is  supposed,  however,  to  have  been  of  a 
good  family,  though  probably  in  indigent  circumstances, 
as  he  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  as  a  si/.ar,  in 
1569.  Having  taken  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1576,  he 
resided  for  a  time  in  the  North  of  England,  where  he 
wrote  his  "  Shephearde's  Calendar,"  a  pastoral  poem, 
dedicated  to  his  friend  and  patron  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
and  first  published  in  1579.*  He  became  secretary  to 
Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  in  1580,  and 
obtained  for  his  services  a  grant  of  3028  acres  of  land 
from  the  forfeited  estate  of  the  Earl  of  Desmond.  Soon 
after  he  had  fixed  his  residence  in  this  place,  which  was 
situated  in  the  county  of  Cork,  he  acquired  the  friend 
ship  and  patronage  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  his  poem  entitled  "Colin  Clout's  come  Home 
Again,"  (1591.)  About  the  same  time  he  published  the 
first  three  books  of  his  "  Faerie  Queene,"  and  in  1595 
his  "  Astrophel,"  an  elegy  on  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He 
married  the  same  year  an  Irish  lady,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  Miss  Nagle,  and  wrote  on  the  occasion  an  epi- 
thalamium,  which  Flail  am  styles  a  "splendid  little  poem, 
.  .  .  an  intoxication  of  ecstasy,  ardent,  noble,  and  pure." 
The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  books  of  "The  Faerie 
Queene"  came  out  in  1596.  Spenser  was  appointed  in 
1 798  sheriff  of  the  county  of  Cork.  The  rebellion  of 
the  Earl  of  Tyrone  having  broken  out  soon  after,  he 
was  compelled  to  leave  his  estate,  which  was  plundered 
by  the  rebels,  and  the  house  burned,  with,  it  is  said,  an 
infant  child  in  it.  He  did  not  long  survive  this  severe 
calamity,  and  died  in  great  destitution.  He  was  buried 


a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,y,long;  a,  £,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  \, short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good:  moon; 


SPENSER  US 


2049 


SPILLER 


in  Westminster  Abbey,  near  Chaucer,  in  compliance  with 
his  own  request.  He  left  two  sons,  Sylvanus  and  Pere 
grine.  Of  Spenser's  poetry  Campbell  observes,  "  He 
threw  the  soul  of  harmony  into  our  verse,  and  made  it 
more  warmly,  tenderly,  and  magnificently  descriptive 
than  it  ever  was  before,  or,  with  a  few  exceptions,  than 
it  has  ever  been  since  ;"  and  Hazlitt  says,  "  There  is  an 
originality,  richness,  and  variety  in  his  allegorical  per 
sonages  and  fictions  which  almost  vies  with  the  splen 
dour  of  the  ancient  mythology.  If  Ariosto  transports 
us  into  the  regions  of  romance,  Spenser's  poetry  is  all 
fairy-land." 

See  J.  P.  COLLIER,  "Life  of  E.  Spenser,"  1862;  DR.  JOHN 
AIKIN,  ''Life  of  E.  Spenser,"  1806:  H.  J.  TODD,  "Life  of  E. 
Spenser,"  1805;  PRESCOTT,  "Miscellanies;"  WAKTON,  "Observa 
tions  on  the  Faerie  Queen  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Novem 
ber,  1833  ;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Spenserus.     See  SPENSER. 

Speransky  or  Speranski,  spa-ran'ske,  (MICHAEL,) 
COUNT,  an  eminent  Russian  statesman  and  mathemati 
cian,  born  in  the  government  of  Vladimir  in  1772.  He 
became  secretary  to  the  privy  council  in  1801,  and  col 
league  of  the  minister  of  justice  in  1808.  He  made 
important  reforms  in  several  departments  of  the  gov 
ernment.  In  1812  he  was  removed  from  office,  but  in 
1819  he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Siberia.  He 
enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence  of  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission 
appointed  to  make  a  digest  or  code  of  Russian  laws, 
which  was  published  in  45  vols.,  1830.  For  these 
services  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  count.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  BARON  VON  KORF,  "  Vie  du  Comte  Speranski,"  2  vols., 
1861  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sperling,  speVHng,  (OTTO,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1602.  He  practised  medicine  at 
Copenhagen  and  at  Hamburg.  He  wrote  on  botany. 
Died  in  1681. 

See  MOI.LER,  "  Cimbria  Literata." 

Sperling,  (OTTO,)  an  antiquary,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Christiania  in  1634.  He  became 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  Copenhagen  in  1692,  j 
and  published  several  works  on  numismatics  and  North 
ern  antiquities,  among  which  is  "  Monumentum  Ham- 
burgense  Benedictinum,"  (1675.)  Died  in  1715. 

See  MOI.LER,  "Cimbria  Literata." 

Spercmi,  spa-ro'nee,  (SPERONE,)  an  eminent  Italian 
writer  and  orator,  born  at  Padua  in  1500.  He  passed 
for  the  foremost  orator  of  Italy  in  his  time.  He  wrote 
several  works  in  verse  and  prose,  among  which  are 
moral  dialogues,  ("  Dialoghi,"  1542,)  and  an  admired 
tragedy,  called  "Canace,"  (1546.)  His  style  is  highly 
praised.  Died  in  1588.  His  complete  works  were  pub 
lished  at  Venice  in  5  vols.  410,  1740. 

See  DE  THOU,  "  filoges;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  GINGUEN^, 
"  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Itaiiana." 

Speusippe.     See  SPEUSIPPUS. 

Speu-sip'pus,  f  Gr.  S-erawTrof ;  Fr.  SPEUSIPPE,  spuh'- 
zep',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Attica  about  380 
H.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  nephew  of  Plato.  His  mother, 
Potone,  was  a  sister  of  Plato,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
his  third  journey  to  Syracuse.  Having  been  selected 
by  Plato  as  his  successor,  Speusippus  directed  the 
Academy  from  347  to  339  B.C.  He  adopted  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  with  slight  modifications.  Aristotle  testified 
his  respect  for  the  ability  of  Speusippus  by  writing  a 
refutation  of  his  doctrines.  His  works  are  not  extant. 
Died  in  339  B.C. 

See  RITTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  RAVAISSON,  "  Speusippi 
de  Primis  Rerum  Principiis  Placita,"  1838;  M.  A.  FISCHER,  "  Scrip- 
tio  Academica  de  Speusippi  Vita,"  1845. 

Sphaerus,  sfee'rus,  [ScVwpof,]  a  Greek  Stoic  philoso 
pher,  was  a  pupil  of  Zeno,  and  lived  at  Alexandria  in 
the  reigns  of  Ptolemy  I.  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

Sphinx,  sflnks,  J2#yf,]  a  monster  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  said  to  have  the  face  of  a  woman, 
the  wings  of  a  bird,  and  the  breast,  feet,  and  tail  of  a 
lion.  According  to  some  writers,  the  Sphinx  was  the 
offspring  of  Typhon  and  Chimaera.  The  poets  feigned 
that  this  monster  appeared  near  Thebes,  in  Bceotia, 


proposed  a  riddle  to  every  person  that  passed,  and  de 
stroyed  all  that  failed  to  solve  the  enigma.  After  many 
had  failed  and  had  perished,  CEdipus  came,  and  the 
Sphinx  demanded,  "  What  animal  is  that  which  goes  on 
four  feet  in  the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three 
at  evening  ?"  He  answered,  "  That  is  Man,  who  creeps  in 
infancy,  walks  on  two  feet  in  manhood,  and  uses  a  staff 
in  old  age."  The  Sphinx  then  killed  herself,  or  disap 
peared.  This  was  a  favourite  emblem  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  with  whom  it  probably  originated.  At  the 
present  time  there  may  be  seen  near  the  pyramid  of 
Ghizeh  a  colossal  figure  of  a  sphinx,  cut  out  of  a  solid 
rock,  and  probably  as  old  as  the  pyramids. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle,"  (Partie  mytho'ogique  ;)  SMITH> 
"Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

Spiegel,  spee'gel,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1820,  has  published  a  "Chres- 
tomathia  Persica,"  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Zend  Avesta," 
or  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees,  with  a  translation. 
He  became  in  1849  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Erlangen. 

Spiegel,  spee'gel  or  spee'Hel,  (HENDRIK,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  merchant,  called  THE  DUTCH  ENNIUS,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1549.  He  wrote  "The  Mirror  of  the 
Heart,"  ("Hart  Spieghel,"  1614.)  Died  in  1612. 

Spieghel,  van  den.     See  SPIGEI.IUS. 

Spieker,  spee'ker,  (CHRISTIAN  WII.HEI.M,)  a  Ger 
man  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Brandenburg,  on 
the  Havel,  in  1780.  He  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
and  educational  works,  which  were  very  popular. 

Spielberg.     See  SPILBERG. 

Spielbergen,  van,  vtn  speel'be'R'gen,  or  Spilber- 
gen,  (GEORGE,)  a  Dutch  navigator,  who  made  a  voynge 
to  the  East  Indies  in  1601.  In  1614  he  commanded  a 
flotilla  of  six  vessels  which  sailed  through  the  Strait  of 
Magellan  to  the  Moluccas. 

Spielmann,  speel'man,  QAKOB  REINHOI.D,)  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1722,  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  his 
native  town.  He  published  "  Elements  of  Chemistry," 
and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1782. 

Spieriiigs  (spee'rings)  OF  ANTWERP,  (HENRY,)  an 
able  landscape-painter,  born  about  1633.  He  worked 
in  France  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  Italy.  Died  in  1715. 

Spierings,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1633,  imitated  Salvator  Rosa  with 
success.  Died  at  Antwerp  in  1691. 

Spiers,  van,  vtn  speeRs,  (ALBERT,)  a  Dutch  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1666.  He  worked 
at  Rome  and  Venice,  and  returned  to  Amsterdam  in 
1697.  Died  in  1718. 

Spieshammer.     See  CUSPINIAN. 

Spiess,  speess,  (CHRISTIAN  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Freiberg,  in  Sax 
ony,  in  1755  ;  died  in  1799. 

Spifame,  spe'ftm',  (JACQUES  PAUL,)  a  Frenchman, 
born  in  Paris  in  1502.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nevers 
in  1548,  abjured  Catholicism  in  1559,  and  was  ordained 
a  minister  by  Calvin  at  Geneva.  Charged  with  calumny 
and  other  offences,  he  was  executed  at  Geneva  in  1566. 

See  BAYI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Spifame,  (RAOUL,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  having  become  deranged,  imagined  that  he  was 
King  Henry  II.  of  France,  whom  he  resembled  in 
features.  He  was  confined  by  that  king,  who  ordered 
him  to  be  treated  as  a  sovereign.  Died  in  1563. 

Spi-ge'll-us,  (or  spe-na'le-us,)  (ADRIAN,)  a  Flemish 
anatomist  and  physician,  whose  original  name  was  VAN 
DEN  SPIEGHEL,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1578.  He  studied 
at  Louvain  and  Padua,  where  he  graduated  in  medicine, 
and  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  1616. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  "On  the  Struc 
ture  of  the  Human  Body,"  (1627,)  and  other  treatises. 
One  of  trie  lobes  of  the  liver  has  been  called  by  his 
name.  Died  in  1625. 

Spilberg  or  Spielberg,  speel'beRG,  (JOHANN,)  a 
German  paintei  of  history,  bom  at  Dusseldorf  in  1619, 
was  a  pupil  of  Flink.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Count- 
Palatine.  Died  in  1690. 

Spilbergen,  van.     See  SPIELBERGEN,  VAN. 

Spil'ler,  (JOHN,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1763,  was  a  pupil  of  Bacon.  His  principal  work 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  gas/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

I29 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SPINCKES 


2050 


SPIRITO 


is  the  statue  of  Charles  II.  in  the  centre  of  the  Royal 
Exchange.  He  died  soon  after  its  completion,  in  1794. 

Spinckes,  sp!nks,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  non- 
juror,  horn  at  Cantor  in  1653  or  1654.  He  became 
prebendary  of  Salisbury  about  1687,  and  was  ordained 
a  bishop  of  the  nonjuro'rs  in  1713.  Died  in  1727. 

Spindler,  spind'ler,(KARi.,)  a  popular  and  voluminous 
German  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  about  1795-  Among 
his  works  we  may  mention  "The  Jew,''  (1827.)  "The 
Jesuit,"  (1829,)  "The  Invalid,"  and  "The  Bird-Fancier 
of  Imst,"  ("  Der  Vogel  handler  von  Imst.")  His  writings, 
including  several  dramatic  pieces,  amount  to  one  hun 
dred  volumes.  Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1833. 

Spinelli.     See  SPINKLI.O. 

Spinelli,  spe-nel'lee,  (NlCCOt.6,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Naples  about  1325.  He  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  kingdom  by  Queen  Joan  I.  of  Naples.  Died 
after  1304. 

Spinelli,  (PAKRI,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Arezzo 
about  1390,  was  the  son  of  the  artist  Spinello  Aretino, 
by  whom  he  was  instructed  in  painting.  His  frescos 
were  distinguished  for  their  richness  of  colouring.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  about  1410,  1426,  or  1444. 

Spinello,  (AKKTINO.)     See  AKKTINO. 

Spinello,  spe-nel'lo,  or  Spinelli,  spe-nel'lee,  (MAT- 
TEO,)  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  in  the  province  of  Bari 
in  1230,  wrote  a  chronicle  of  events  of  his  time  in  Italy. 
Died  after  1285. 

Spin'ner,  (FRANCIS  E.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Herkimer  county,  New  York,  in  1802.  He  repre 
sented  the  seventeenth  district  of  New  York  in  Congress 
from  1855  to  1861,  and  was  then  appointed  treasurer  of 
the  United  .States. 

Spinola,  spee'no-la,  (AMBROSIO,)  MARQUIS  OF,  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  at  Genoa  in  1569. 
In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Frederick,  at  that  time 
admiral  of  the  Spanish  fleet  on  the  coast  of  Holland, 
he  fought  against  the  Flemish  insurgents  in  the  cam 
paign  of  1602.  His  brother  having  been  killed  in  an 
engagement  with  the  Dutch  in  1603,  Spinola  became 
general-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Nether 
lands,  and  in  1604  took  the  city  of  Ostend,  which  had 
been  besieged  more  than  three  years  by  the  Spaniards. 
He  afterwards  opposed  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange, 
without,  however,  gaining  any  decided  victory  ;  and,  the 
Spanish  fleet  near  Gibraltar  having  been  defeated  by 
Admiral  Heemskerk  in  1607,  a  truce  was  concluded 
with  Maurice  for  twelve  years,  (1609.)  Hostilities  being 
renewed  in  1621,  Spinola  was  again  the  opponent  of 
Maurice,  over  whom  he  gained  several  important  vic 
tories,  among  which  was  the  capture  of  Juliers,  Wesel, 
and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  1625,  after  a  siege  of  ten 
months,  lie  took  the  city  of  Breda,  Maurice  having  died 
of  a  fever  during  the  progress  of  the  siege.  Spinola 
afterwards  commanded  against  the  French  in  Italy  ;  but 
he  died  in  1630. 

See  ADOLPHE  SIRET,  "A.  Spinola,  Episode,"  etc.,  1851  ;  J.  BA- 
LINUS,  "  De  Hello  Bels;ico  Aiispiciis  A.  Spinolse,"  1609;  P.  CASONI, 
"Vita  d'Ambrogio  Spinola,"  1691;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  MOTLEY,  "  History  of  the  Netherlands,"  chap.  xlii. 

Spiiiosa.     See  SPINOZA. 

Spinoza,  spe-m/za,  or  Spijuosa,  spe-no'si,  (BENE 
DICT,)  a  celebrated  pantheistical  philosopher,  born  at 
Amsterdam  on  the  241!)  of  November,  1632.  His  parents 
were  Spanish  or  Portuguese  Jews,  who  gave  him  the 
name  of  BARUCH,  which  he  exchanged  for  its  equivalent 
Benedict.  lie  learned  Hebrew  and  other  ancient  lan 
guages,  and  read  with  avidity  the  works  of  Descartes, 
who  was  one  of  his  favourite  authors.  At  an  early  age 
he  announced  opinions  which  were  considered  heretical 
and  for  which  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Jews. 
One  of  them  also  attempted  to  assassinate  hfin  in  the 
night,  about  1656;  but  he  escaped  with  a  slight  wound. 
To  avoid  persecution,  he  retired  to  Leyden  or  Ryns- 
berg,  and  gained  a  subsistence  by  making  lenses  for 
telescopes  and  microscopes.  He  passed  his  life  as  a 
solitary  recluse,  and  practised  great  frugality.  About 
1668  he  settled  at  the  Hague,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  I  fe  published  a  "Theological  and  Political 
Treatise,"  ("Tractatus  theologico-politicus,''  1670,)  and 


left  several  works,  which  were  published  in  1677  under 
the  title  of  "Opera  Posthuma." 

Spinoza  was  never  married.  In  1673  the  Elector- Pal 
atine,  Charles  Louis,  offered  him  a  chair  of  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg,  promising  to  allow  him  liberty  of  thought 
and  discussion  provided  he  should  not  speak  or  write 
against  the  established  religion.  He  politely  declined 
this  offer.  His  constitution  was  naturally  frail  and 
delicate.  He  died  in  February,  1677.  For  more  than 
a  century  after  his  death  he  was  generally  stigmatized  as 
an  atheist,  a  monster,  and  a  blasphemer.  A  reaction 
followed,  especially  in  Germany,  and  he  became  a  great 
favourite  witli  Goethe,  Lessing,  Novalis,  and  Schleier- 
macher.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Ethics  De 
monstrated  by  a  Geometrical  Method,"  ("  Ethica  More 
Geometrico  demonstrata.")  "  Spinosa  was  truly,"  says 
Hallam,  "what  Voltaire  has  with  rather  less  justice 
called  Clarke, — a  reasoning  machine.  A  few  leading 
theorems,  too  hastily  taken  up  as  axiomatic,  were  sufficient 
to  make  him  sacrifice,  with  no  compromise  or  hesitation, 
not  only  every  principle  of  religion  and  moral  right,  but 
the  clear  intuitive  notions  of  common  sense.  .  .  .  Spi 
nosa  does  not  essentially  differ  from  the  Pantheists  of 
old.  He  conceived,  as  they  had  done,  that  the  infinity 
of  God  required  the  exclusion  of  all  other  substance." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

"  Bayle's  article  'Spinoza,'"  says  Goethe,  "excited 
displeasure  and  mistrust  in  me.  In  the  first  place,  the 
man  was  represented  as  an  atheist,  and  his  opinions  as 
most  abominable ;  but  immediately  after  it  was  con 
fessed  that  he  was  a  calm,  reflective,  diligent  scholar,  a 
good  citizen,  a  sympathizing  neighbour,  and  a  peaceable, 
domestic  man.  They  seemed  to  have  quite  forgotten 
the  words  of  the  gospel:  '  By  their  fruits  you  shall 
know  them?"  ("  Autobiography,"  book  xvi.  p.  2.)  The 
same  critic  says  in  another  place,  "The  mind  which 
worked  upon  me  so  decisively,  and  which  was  destined 
to  affect  so  deeply  my  whole  mode  of  thinking,  was 
Spinoza.  After  looking  through  the  world  in  vain  to 
find  a  means  of  development  for  my  strange  nature,  I 
at  last  fell  upon  the  '  Ethics'  of  this  man.  .  .  .  Here 
I  found  a  sedative  for  my  passions,  and  a  free  wide  view 
over  the  material  world  seemed  to  open  before  me.  But 
what  especially  bound  me  to  him  was  the  great  disin 
terestedness  that  shone  from  every  sentence.  .  .  .  The 
all-composing  calmness  of  Spinoza  was  in  striking  con 
trast  with  my  all-disturbing  activity,  his  mathematical 
method  was  the  opposite  of  my  poetic  imagination  and 
way  of  writing,  and  the  very  precision  which  was  thought 
ill  adapted  to  moral  subjects,  made  me  his  enthusiastic 
disciple,  his  most  decided  woi'shipper."  ("  Autobiog 
raphy,"  book  xiv.  p.  170.)  From  the  article  "Spinoza," 
in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  by  John  Downes, 
we  extract  the  following  :  "The  character  of  Spinoza  is 
naturally  one  of  the  most  devout  on  record,  for  his  life 
was,  in  a  manner,  one  unbroken  hymn.  He  was  not  a 
pious  man,  as  that  word  is  now  usually  understood,  for 
he  was  not  a  Christian,  at  least  in  profession."  Among 
the  numerous  biographies  of  Spinoza,  that  of  J.  Colerus, 
"Vie  de  B.  Spinosa,"  (1706,)  is  said  to  be  the  best. 

See,  also,  LUCAS  VR^BSE,  "  La  Vie  et  1' Esprit  de  Spinoza,"  1719  ; 
H.  F.  VON  DIETZ,  "  Spinoza  nach  Leb=n  nnd  Lehre,"  1783  ;  PIKRKK 
BAYLE,  "  Het  Leven  van  B.  de  Spinoza,"  ifigS;  JACOHI,  "  Briefe 
ueber  die  Lehre  des  Spinoza,"  1786;  PHIUPPSON,  "  Leben  von 
Spinoza,"  1790;  KAKI.  THOMAS.  "Spino/a  als  Metaphysiker,"  1840; 
A.  SAINTES,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Spinoza,"  1842:  CONRAD  VOM 
ORKI.I.I,  "  Spinozas  Leben  nnd  Lehre,"  1843;  VON  VLOTRN,  "  Ba- 
nich  d'Espinoza,"  1862.  For  an  excellent  (popular)  notice  of  the 
philosophic  system  of  Spinoza,  see  FROUDK,  "Short  Studies  on 
Great  Subjects,"  1868;  see,  also,  MATTHEW  ARNOLD,  "Essays  in 
Criticism;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843,  (by  G.  H. 
LEWES;)  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November.  1848;  "North 
British  Review"  for  May,  1863,  article  "  Saisset  and  Spinoza." 

Spira,  de,  deh  spee'ra,  (JOHANNES,)  or  JOHN  OF 
SPEYER,  a  German  printer,  who  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  removed  to  Venice,  where  he  founded 
the  first  printing-establishment.  Among  the  works 
issued  from  his  press  were  editions  of  Cicero's  "Epistles" 
and  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1469.) 

Spiriti,  spee're  tee,  (SALVATORE,)  MARQUIS,  an  Ital 
ian  litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1712  ;  died  in  1776. 

Spirito,  spee're-to,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  satirical 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  about  1430.  He  wrote  "  Sorti," 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SPITTA 


2051 


SPRAGUE 


(1473,)  anfl  other  works,  which  were  once  popular.  He 
died  about  1495. 

Spitta,  spit'ta,  (KARI.  TOHANN  PHILIPP,)  a  German 
devotional  poet,  born  at  Hanover  in  1801. 

Spittler,  spit'ler,  (Lt;n\viG  TIMOTHEUS,)  BARON, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1752,  became  in  1779  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Gb'ttingen.  He  published  several  his 
torical  and  ecclesiastical  works.  Died  in  1810. 

Spitzel.     See  SPIZF.UUS. 

Spix,  von,  fon  spiks,  QOHANN  BAPTIST,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Hochstadt,  in  Bavaria,  in  1781.  Hav 
ing  published  in  1811  his  "History  and  Review  of  all 
Systems  of  Zoology,"  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  made  conservator  of  the  Zoological  Mu 
seum  at  Munich.  In  1817  he  accompanied  Von  Martins 
on  his  scientific  expedition  to  Brazil.  He  died  in  1826, 
having  with  some  assistance  completed  five  splendidly 
illustrated  works  on  the  birds,  apes,  bats,  and  reptiles 
of  Brazil. 

See  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830; 
"  Monthly  Review"  tor  December,  1824. 

Spizelius,  spit-sa'le-us,  or  Spitzel,  spit'sel,  (THF.o- 
PHiLi'S,)  a  German  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1639,  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  State 
of  Literature  among  the  Chinese,"  (1660,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1691. 

Spoffprth,  (REGINALD,)  an  English  composer  of 
great  merit,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1768.  He  is 
chiefly  known  by  his  glees,  which  are  esteemed  master 
pieces  of  their  kind.  Died  in  1826. 

Spohn,  spon,  [Lat.  SPOH'MUS,]  (FRIKDRICH  AU 
GUST  WII.HKLM,)  an  eminent  German  scholar,  born  at 
Dortmund  in  1792.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  in  1819  professor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan 
guages.  He  published  editions  of  the  "  Panegyricns" 
of  Isocrates,  the  two  geographical  works  of  Nicephorus 
Blemmida,  and  the  "Opera  et  Dies"  of  Hesiod.  He 
died  in  1824,  leaving  a  work  on  hieroglyphics,  entitled 
"  De  Lingua  et  Literis  veterum  /Egyptiorum,"  which 
was  continued  and  published  by  Seyffarth  in  1825. 

See  G.  SEVFFARTH,  "  Memoria  F.  A.  G.  Spohnii,"  1825. 

Spohnius.     See  SPOH.V. 

Spohr,  sp5R,  (Louis,)  one  of  the  greatest  composers 
and  musicians  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1784.  He  was  instructed  in  violin-playing  by  Maucourt 
and  Eck,  and  subsequently  made  a  professional  tour  in 
Russia,  France,  and  Italy,  being  everywhere  received 
with  distinguished  favour.  In  1813  he  became  chapel- 
master  at  Vienna,  where  he  produced  his  opera  of 
"  Faust,"  and  several  other  admired  works.  He  was 
appointed  in  1822  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  soon  after  composed  his  popular  operas  of 
"  Jessonda,"  "  The  Alchymist,"  "  Pietro  of  Abano,"  and 
"The  Crusader."  His  oratorios  of  "The  Crucifixion," 
"  The  Last  Judgment,"  and  the  "  Fall  of  Babylon"  are 
entitled  to  a  very  high  rank  among  works  of  the  kind  ; 
the  last-named  was  composed  for  a  musical  festival  in 
England,  where  Spohr's  music  enjoys  great  popularity. 
He  also  produced  numerous  symphonies,  cantatas, 
and  pieces  for  the  violin  and  other  instruments.  Died 
in  1859. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  Louis  Spohr,"  1865  ;  EBERS,  "  Spohr  und 
Halevy,"  etc.,  1837;  CHORON  et  FAVOLLE,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Mu- 
siciens  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Con 
versations-  Lexikon,"  1863. 

Spolverini,  spol-va-ree'nee,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  MAR 
QUIS,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1695.  He  wrote 
a  poem  "  On  the  Cultivation  of  Rice,"  ("  La  Coltivazione 
del  Riso,"  1758,)  which  was  much  admired.  Died  in 
1762. 

Spolverini,  (Hn.ARiox,)  an  Italian  painter  of  battles, 
was  born  at  Parma  in  1657;  died  in  1734. 

Spon,  sp6x,  (CHARLF.s.)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1609.  He  practised  at  Lyons,  and  translated 
into  Latin  verse  the  "  Prognostics"  of  Hippocrates, 
(1661.)  Died  in  1684. 

Spon,  (jACOii,)  a  celebrated  French  antiquary  and 
physician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1647,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  In  1676  he  explored  Greece,  from  which  he 
brought  several  thousand  inscriptions.  He  published 
"Researches  on  the  Antiquities  of  Lyons,"  (1673,) 


"  Travels  in  Italy,  Dalmatia,  Greece,  and  the  Levant," 
(3  vols.,  1678,)  which  was  highly  esteemed,  a  "  History 
of  the  Republic  of  Geneva,"  (1680,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1685. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  HAAG,  "  La  France 
protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Spondanus.     See  SPONDE,  DE. 

Sponde.de,  dehspo.Ncl,  [Lat.  SPONDA'NUS,]  (HENRY,) 
a  French  prelate,  born  at  Mauleon  in  1568,  became 
Bishop  of  Pamiers  in  1626.  He  published  an  abridgment 
of  the  "  Annals"  of  Baronius,  and  wrote  a  continuation 
of  them  from  1197  to  1640,  (2  vols.,  1639.)  Died  in 
1643. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  NICERON",  "  Memcires." 

Sponde,  de,  [Lat.  SPONDA'NUS,]  (JEAN,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  at  Mauleon  in  1557,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  Latin  version  of  Homer's 
poems,  with  notes,  (1583.)  Died  in  1595. 

Sponneck,  von,  fon  spon'n£k,  (\\"ILHELM  CARL 
EPPINGEN,)  COUNT,  a  Danish  economist  and  financier, 
born  at  Rinkjobing  in  1815.  He  published  a  systematic 
treatise  on  customs,  or  tariffs,  (2  vols.,  1840.)  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1848. 

Spontini,  spon-tee'nee,  (GASPARO  LUIGI  PACIFICO,) 
an  Italian  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Jesi  in  1778 
or  1779.  He  produced  in  1796  an  opera  called  "  I  Pun- 
tigli  delle  Donne."  About  1803  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  his  "  Finta  Filosofa"  was  performed  in  1804.  He 
composed  "  La  Vestale,"  an  opera,  (1807,)  which  had 
great  success.  In  1820  he  became  director  of  the  Royal 
Opera  in  Berlin,  and  chapel-master  to  the  king.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "  Olympic"  and  "  Fernand  Cortez." 
Died  in  1851. 

See  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "  M.  Spontini,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841  ;  E.  M.  PE^INGER,  "  Spontini,"  '$43  I  RAOUI.-ROCHETTE, 
"  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Spontini,"  1852  ;  FETIS,  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Spontone,  spon-to'na,  (CiRO,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1552.  He  wrote  many  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.  Died  about  1610. 

Spork,  von,  fon  spoRk,  (JoHANN,)  COUNT,  a  Ger 
man  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1597.  He  fought 
for  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  afterwards  for  the  em 
peror  Ferdinand  III.  Died  in  1679. 

See  ROSEN'KRANZ,  "  Johann  Spork,"  1845. 

His  son,  FRANZ  ANTON,  also  a  count,  born  in  1662, 
was  a  philanthropist  in  Bohemia.  He  founded  hospitals 
and  public  libraries.  Died  in  1738. 

See  STILLENAU,  "  Lebensgeschichte  des  Grafen  Spork,"  1725. 

Spots'wood  or  Spot'tis-wood,  (JoHN,)  an  ambi 
tious  Scottish  prelate,  born  at  Mid-Calder  in  1565.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  in  1603,  and  Archbishop 
of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1615.  He  was  the  object  of  popu 
lar  odium  among  the  Scotch.  In  1635  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  of  Scotland.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,"  (1655.)  In  1638  he  was  de 
posed  and  declared  infamous.  Died  in  1639. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Spotswood,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1596.  He  was  appointed 
lord  president  of  the  court  of  session  by  Charles  I.  In 
the  civil  war  he  was  a  royalist,  fought  under  Montrose, 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  executed  in  1646. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Spottiswood.     See  SPOTSWOOD. 

Spragg  or  Spragge,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  English  ad 
miral  under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  distinguished  him 
self  in  several  engagements  with  the  Dutch  in  1666-67, 
and  subsequently  fought  Van  Tromp  in  three  successive 
battles.  During  the  last  he  was  drowned,  while  going 
from  one  boat  to  another,  (1673.) 

Sprague,  sprag,  (CHARLES,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Boston  on  the  26th  of  October,  1791.  He  left  school 
at  an  early  age,  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  mer 
cantile  business,  which  he  pursued  for  some  years. 
About  1825  he  was  elected  cashier  of  the  Globe  Bank 
of  Boston.  He  produced  in  1823  an  ode  in  honour  of 
Shakspeare,  "which,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "is  one  of 
the  most  vigorous  and  beautiful  lyrics  in  the  English 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/':  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  c;  t-h  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


SPRAGUE 


2052 


SQUARCIONE 


language."  His  most  extensive  work  is  "  Curiosity,' 
a  didactic  and  satirical  poem,  delivered  before  the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  Society  of  Harvard  University  in  1829. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  centennial  ode  on  the  foun 
dation  of  Boston,  pronounced  in  1830,  and  short  poems 
entitled  "  The  Winged  Worshippers,"  "  Art," and  "The 
Family  Meeting,"  which  exhibit  much  skill  in  the  use 
of  language. 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOLD,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1830. 

Sprague,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  Senator,  a  nephew 
of  William  Sprague  who  was  chosen  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1842,  was  born  at  Cranston,  Rhode 
Island,  September  12,  1830.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Rhode  Island  in  1860.  In  1861  he  raised  a  regiment, 
with  which  he  fought  at  Bull  Run,  July  21.  He  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States,  by  the  legislature 
of  Rhode  Island,  for  six  years,  (1863-69,)  and  re-elected 
in  June,  1868.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Chief-Justice 
Chase. 

Sprague,  (WILLIAM  BUF.L,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres 
byterian  divine,  born  at  Andover,  Connecticut,  in  1795. 
He  published  "Lectures  to  Young  People,"  (1825,) 
"Hints  on  Christian  Intercourse,"  (1834,)  "Visits  to 
European  Celebrities,"  (1855,)  and  "Annals  of  the 
American  Pulpit,"  (9  vols.,  1856-69.)  Of  this  valuable 
work,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  treat  of  Trinitarian  Congregationalist 
divines  ;  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  Presbyterian  ;  vol.  v.,  Epis 
copalian  ;  vol.  vi.,  Baptist ;  vol.  vii.,  Methodist ;  vol.  viii., 
Unitarian,  and  vol.  ix.,  Lutheran;  Dutch  Reformed,  etc. 
He  also  contributed  a  "  Life  of  Timothy  Dwight"  to 
Sparks's  "  American  Biography." 

See  the  "North  American  Review"  for  April,  1857:  ALLIBONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Spranger  or  Sprangher,  spRilng'er^or  spuang'ner, 
(BARTHOLOMEW,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1546,  studied  in  Italy,  and  while  at  Rome  was  patron 
ized  by  Pius  V.  and  Cardinal  Farnese.  He  painted  for 
the  former  a  "  Last  Judgment,"  containing  nearly  five 
hundred  heads.  Died  about  1625. 

Sprat,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Devon 
shire  in  1636.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1657,  was 
appointed  successively  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  Dean  of 
Westminster,  (1683,)  and  Bishop  of  Rochester,  (1684.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  "On  the  Death  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,"  and  other  poetical  pieces,  and  an  account 
of  the  Rye-House  Plot,  entitled  "A  True  Account  and 
Declaration  of  the  Horrid  Conspiracy  against  the  Late 
King,"  etc.  He  also  published  a  "  Life  of  Cowley,"  and 
a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society,"  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  original  members  ;  and  lie  is  said  to  have  been 
associated  with  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  Butler,  and 
others  in  writing  "The  Rehearsal."  Died  in  1713. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  a  "Life  of  Thomas 
Sprat,"  London,  1715. 

Sprang,  (JAMES,)  called  PR^EPOS'ITUS,  a  Flemish  theo 
logian,  born  at  Ypres  about  1485.  He  adopted  the  prin 
ciples  of  Luther,  and  became  in  1524  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Bremen.  Died  in  1562. 

See  J.  H.  VON  SEELEN,  "Vita  J.  Praepositi,"  1747;  JANSSEN, 
"Jacobus  Praspositus,"  1862. 

Sprengel,  spRe"ng'el,  (KARL,)  professor  of  agricultural 
science  at  Brunswick,  was  born  near  Hanover  in  1787. 
He  published  "Chemistry  for  Farmers,"  (1831,)  and 
other  similar  works.  Died  in  1859. 

Sprengel,  (KURT,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  phy 
sicians  and  botanists  of  Germany,  was  born  near  Anklam, 
in  Pomerania,  in  1766.  He  studied  at  Halle,  where  he 
took  his  medical  degree  in  1787,  and  in  1797  became 
professor  of  botany.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
his  "Manual  of  Pathology,"  (3  vols.,  1795,)  "  Institu- 
tiones  Medicse,"  (6  vols.,  1809,)  a  "  History  of  Botany," 
(1817,)  "New  Discoveries  in  the  Entire  Circuit  of  Bot 
any,"  (3  vols.,  1819,)  "  Pragmatic  History  of  Medicine," 
(5  vols.,  1828,)  "  Historia  Rei  Herbariae,"  and  "Flora 
Halensis."  Died  at  Halle  in  1833. 

See  LEROY  DUPRE,  "Notice  historique  sur  Sprengel,"  1850; 
CALLISEN,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supplement;) 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sprengel,  (MATTHAUS  CHRISTIAN,)  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Rostock  in  1/46,  and  became 


professor  of  history  at  Halle  in  1^79.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  a  "History  of  the 
Mahrattas,"  (1786,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Sprenger,  spReng'er,  (  ALOYS,)  a  distinguished  Ori 
entalist,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1813.  After  a  residence 
of  several  years  in  Hindostan,  he  became  in  1850  inter 
preter  of  the  government  at  Calcutta  and  secretary  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  He  translated  from  the 
Arabic  into  English  Masoodee's  "  Meadows  of  Gold," 
(1849,)  wrote  a  valuable  "Life  of  Mohammad,"  (1851,) 
and  published  several  translations  of  English  works  into 
Hindostanee. 

Sprenger,  (PLACinus,)  a  German  monk  and  writer, 
born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1735.  ^e  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Literature  of  Catholic  Germany,"  (11  vols., 
1775-90.)  Died  in  1806. 

Spreti,  spRa'tee,  (DESIDERIO,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1444,  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  "History 
of  Ravenna,"  (1489.)  Died  about  1474. 

Spring,  (GARDINER,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  son  of  Samuel 
Spring,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newburypoi  t,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1785.  Having  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
he  became  in  1810  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church 
in  New  York.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Obligations  of  the  World  to  the  Bible,"  (1844,)  "  The 
Attraction  of  the  Cross,"  (1845,)  "Discourses  to  Sea 
men,"  and  "  The  Power  of  the  Pulpit,"  (1848.) 

See  "  Personal  Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Gardiner 
Spring,"  1866. 

Spring,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Northbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1746, 
became  a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army  in  1775. 
He  published  a  number  of  religious  and  controversial 
works.  Died  in  1819. 

Spruner,  von,  fon  spRoo'ner,  (KARL,)  a  German 
historian  and  geographer,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1803. 
He  published  a  "District  Map  of  East  Franconia," 
(1835,)  a  "  Historical-Geographical  Hand-Atlas,"  (1837,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  a  "  Universal  His 
torical  School-Atlas,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Spurgeon,  spur'jon,  (CHARLKS  HADDON,)  a  popular 
and  eloquent  English  Baptist  preacher,  born  at  Kelve- 
don,  Essex,  in  1834.  He  began  to  preach  in  London 
about  1853,  and  attracted  large  audiences  in  Exeter 
Hall  and  Surrey  Music- Hall.  A  new  chapel,  of  vast 
dimensions,  was  erected  for  him,  and  opened  in  1861. 
He  has  published  several  religious  works. 

See  "Life  of  C.  H.  Spurgeon,"  New  York,  1857. 

Spu-rin'na,  (VESTRICIUS,)  a  Roman  poet  and  soldier, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Tacitus  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 
He  gained  several  victories  over  the  Germans  on  the 
Rhine,  and  held  various  offices  under  the  government. 
His  lyric  poems,  in  Latin  and  Greek,  are  praised  by  Pliny. 

Spurs'tow,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  was  minister  of  Hackney,  from  which  he  was 
ejected  for  nonconformity  in  1662.  Died  in  1666. 

Spurzheim,  spdoRts'him,  (JOHANN  KASPAR,)  a  Ger 
man  physician,  and  one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  phre 
nology,  was  born  at  Longwich,  near  Treves,  in  1776.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  and  there  met  Dr.  Gall,  of 
whom  he  became  a  disciple.  About  1805  he  left  Vienna, 
and  accompanied  Dr.  Gall  in  visits  to  various  cities  of 
Germany,  France,  etc.  As  partners,  they  lectured  in 
Paris  from  1807  to  1813,  and  published  "The  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System  in  general,  and 
of  the  Brain  in  particular."  Spurzheim  is  reputed  to 
have  discovered  the  fibrous  structure  of  the  brain.  He 
lectured  in  England  several  years,  and  returned  to  Paris 
in  1817.  He  published  a  number  of  works  on  phre 
nology,  etc.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1832,  and 
died  at  Boston  in  the  same  year. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Philosophy  of  Spurzheim,"  by  A. 
AKMicHAEt.,  1833;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge"nerale  ;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October,  1815. 

Squarcione,  skwiR-cho'iia,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  amateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1394.  He  enjoyed 
i  very  high  reputation  as  a  teacher,  and  numbered  among 
lis  pupils  Bellini,  Marco  Zoppo,  and  Andrea  Mantegna. 
He  possessed  great  wealth,  and  was  the  owner  of  a  large 
and  choice  collection  of  works  of  art.  Died  in  1444. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  SELVATICO,  "IlPittoreF. 
Squarcione,"  1839. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SQUIER 


2053 


ST4EL-HOLSTEIN 


Squi'er,  (EPHRAIM  GEORGE,)  an  American  archae 
ologist,  born  in  Albany  county,  New  York,  in  1821.  He 
became  in  1843  editor  of  the  "Hartford  Daily  Journal," 
an  organ  of  the  Whig  party,  and  in  1844  took  charge 
ofthe"Scioto  Gazette,"  Ohio.  In  1848  he  published 
in  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge"  a 
description  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  in  1849  an  account  of  the  aboriginal  monu 
ments  of  the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  soon  after 
appointed  charge-d'affaires  to  Guatemala.  In  1851  he 
furnished  the  plan  for  an  inter-oceanic  railway  through 
Honduras,  the  survey  of  which  road  he  subsequently 
conducted.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
"  Nicaragua,  its  People,  Scenery,  Ancient  Monuments," 
etc.,  (1852,)  "Notes  on  Central  America,"  etc.,  (1854,) 
"Monograph  of  Authors  who  have  written  on  the  Abo 
riginal  Languages  of  Central  America,"  and  "Tropical 
Fibres  :  their  Production  and  their  Economic  Extraction," 
(1861.)  Mr.  Squier  has  been  a  contributor  to  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  and  Appleton's  "American 
Cyclopaedia,"  and  has  been  admitted  to  the  London 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  other  learned  institutions 
of  Europe. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Squire,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  writer  and  scholar, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Cambridge, 
and  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Saint  David's  in  1761.  He  was  the  author  of  "  An  En 
quiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1741,) 
"The  Ancient  History  of  the  Hebrews  Vindicated," 
(1741,)  and  other  learned  works,  also  a  number  of  ser 
mons.  Died  in  1766. 

Sree.     See  SKI. 

Sri,  sree,  or  Shri,  shree,  (sometimes  written  Sree,) 
a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "prosperity,"  "wealth," 
"  splendour,"  is  often  applied  as  an  epithet  to  Lakshmi, 
the  consort  of  Vishnu,  and  is  sometimes  given  as  a  name 
to  Saraswati,  the  wife  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of 
music  and  eloquence.  (See  LAKSHMf  and  SARASWATL) 

Sse-ma-Kwaiig,  (or  -Kouang,)  sa  ma  kwang,  writ 
ten  also  Sze-ma-K'wang,  an  eminent  Chinese  his 
torian,  born  in  the  province  of  Shen-see  about  1018 
A.D.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  several  successive  sove 
reigns.  About  the  year  1084  he  was  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Han-lin,  the  highest 
literary  institution  in  China.  He  died  in  1086.  He  left 
a  great  historical  work,  entitled  "  Universal  Mirror," 
("  Toong-Kian,")  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
by  Pere  Mailla. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sse-ma-Tsien,  sa-ma-tse-en  (or  -tse-an,)  or  Sse-ma- 
Tsian,  written  also  Sze-ina-Ts'een  and  Se-ma-Tsieii, 
a  celebrated  Chinese  historiographer,  scholar,  and  critic, 
born  in  the  province  of  Shen-see  about  145  B.C.  His 
father,  who  held  the  office  of  historiographer  to  the  em 
peror  \Voo-tee,  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
in  collecting  and  arranging  the  writings  of  the  ancients. 
After  his  death  the  son  succeeded  to  his  office,  and  ap 
plied  himself  with  equal  industry  and  zeal  to  collecting 
and  preserving  the  writings  of  antiquity.  Having  by 
his  freedom  and  boldness  incurred  the  anger  of  the  em 
peror,  he  was  banished.  While  in  exile,  he  wrote  his 
principal  work,  entitled  "Historical  Memoirs,"  ("  Sse- 
Kee  or  -Ki,")  which  was  not  published  until  after  his 
death.  Having  recovered  the  favour  of  his  sovereign,  he 
was  recalled  from  banishment  and  treated  with  distin 
guished  regard.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
80  B.C. 

See  "Nouvelle   Biographie  Generale." 

Staal,  von,  fon  still,  (KARL,)  a  Russian  general,  of 
German  extraction,  born  at  Reval  in  1777,  served  under 
Suwarow  in  Italy  in  1799,  and  subsequently  in  the  princi 
pal  Austrian  and  German  campaigns  against  the  French. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
commandant  of  Moscow  and  general  of  cavalry,  (1843.) 
Died  in  1853. 

Staal,  von,  fon  sttl,  (MARGUERITE  JEANNE  Cordier 
— koR'de^cl',)  BARONESS,  an  accomplished  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1693,  was  the  daughter  of  the  painter 
Launai,  and  was  married  to  Baron  von  Staal,  a  Swiss 


officer.  She  was  the  author  of  poems,  letters,  and 
"  Memoirs,"  (3  vols.,  1755,)  which  are  remarkable  for 
the  elegance  of  their  style.  Died  in  1750. 

Staben,  sta'ben,  (HENDRiK,)a  Flemish  painter,  born 
in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Tintoretto.  He  worked  at  Venice, 
and  excelled  in  pictures  of  small  dimensions.  Died  in 
1658. 

Stabili     See  CECCO  D'ASCOLI. 

Stace,  the  French  for  STATIUS,  which  see. 

Stackelberg,  stak'el-beRc',  (  OTTO  MAGNUS,) 
BARON,  a  distinguished  archaeologist,  of  German  extrac 
tion,  born  near  Reval,  in  Russia,  in  1787.  His  principal 
works  are  entitled  "The  Sepulchres  of  the  Greeks," 
and  "Greece,  Picturesque  and  Topographic  Views," 
(1830.)  Died  in  1834. 

Stack'house,  (stak'iis,)  JOHN,)  an  English  botanist, 
was  a  nephew  of  Thomas  Stackhouse,  noticed  below.  He 
published  in  1801  a  description,  in  English  and  Latin, 
of  the  Algae,  Fuci,  and  Confervae  of  England,  entitled 
"  Nereis  Britannica,"  (fol.,  with  coloured  plates.)  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Illustrations  of  Theophrastus,"  (in 
Latin,  i8n,)and  contributions  to  the  "Transactions" 
of  the  Linnasan  Society,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
Died  in  1819. 

Stackhouse,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine  and  the 
ological  writer,  born  in  1681,  became  vicar  of  Benham, 
in  Berkshire.  He  published  "Memoirs  of  Bishop  At- 
terbury,"  (1723,)  a  "History  of  the  Holy  Bible,"  (2 
vols.,  1732,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1752. 

Stadion,  sta'de-on,  QOHANN  PHILIPP  KARL  JOSEPH,) 
COUNT,  an  Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Mentz  in  1763,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Stockholm, 
London,  and  Saint  Petersburg,  and  succeeded  Cobenzl 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1806.  He  relinquished 
this  post  to  Count  Metternich  in  1809.  He  was  restored 
to  power  in  1813,  and  signed  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 
Died  in  1824. 

Stadius,  sta'de-us,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  astronomer  and 
astrologer,  born  in  Brabant  in  1527,  wrote  "Roman 
Calendars,"  ("  Fasti  Romanorum,")  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1579. 

Stadler,  stad'ler,  (MAXIMILIAN,)  a  German  organist 
and  composer  of  church  music,  born  at  Melk  in  1748. 
Among  his  works  we  may  name  his  oratorio  of  "  The 
Deliverance  of  Jerusalem."  Died  in  1833. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  deh  stal-hol'stin,  [Fr.  pron. 
sti'eY  /jol'staN',]  (ANNE  LOUISE  GERMAINE  NECKER,) 
BARONNE,  commonly  called  MADAME  DE  STAEL,  a 
French  lady  of  great  genius,  and  the  most  celebrated 
authoress  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  22d 
of  April,  1766.  She  was  the  only  child  of  Necker,  the 
eminent  financier.  Her  education  was  directed  by  her 
mother,  whose  nature  was  far  less  genial  and  expansive 
than  that  of  the  daughter.  Madame  Necker  subjected  her 
to  a  strict  and  rigid  regime  of  formalism,  adapted  rather 
to  contract  than  to  develop  her  genius.  Her  character 
was  better  appreciated  by  her  father,  for  whom  she  always 
felt  the  most  ardent  affection  and  even  adoration.  In  her 
early  youth  she  listened  with  interest  to  the  conversation 
of  Marmontel,  Raynal,  and  other  authors,  who  frequented 
her  father's  house.  To  restore  her  health,  impaired  by 
hard  study,  she  was  sent  to  the  country  at  about  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  enjoyed  more  liberty.  Her  favourite 
author  at  this  period  of  her  life  was  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
"She  was  from  the  first  the  very  incarnation  of  genius 
and  of  impulse.  Her  precocity  was  extraordinary,  and 
her  vivacity  and  vehemence,  both  of  intellect  and  tem 
perament,  baffled  all  her  mother's  efforts  at  regulation 
and  control."  ("  North  British  Review"  for  November, 
1853.)  In  1786  she  was  married  to  Eric,  Baron  de  Stae'l, 
a  Swedish  diplomatist,  and  received  from  her  father  an 
immense  dowry.  It  appears  that  she  did  not  love  De 
Stae'l,  but  that  she  or  her  parents  preferred  him  to  other 
suitors  because  he  was  a  Protestant  and  intended  to 
reside  permanently  at  Paris.  Her  first  literary  produc 
tion  was  "  Letters  on  the  Writings  and  Character  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,"  (1788.)  During  the  reign  of  terror  she 
made  courageous  and  successful  efforts  to  save  the  lives 
of  a  number  of  proscribed  persons,  among  whom  was  the 
Count  de  Narbonne. 

In  1793  she  retired  to  England,  and  resided  for  a  time 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STAEL-HOLSTEIN 


2054 


STAHL 


near  Richmond  with  M.  Talleyrand,  the  Count  de  Nar- 
bonne,  and  other  French  exiles.  She  returned  to  Paris  in 
1795,  and  passed  her  time  happily  for  the  next  four  years. 
She  was  an  advocate  of  constitutional  liberty,  and  during 
the  Directory  was  the  leading  spirit  of  a  party  whose 
chief  orator  was  Benjamin  Constant.  Her  influence  was 
so  great  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom 
she  constantly  refused  to  offer  homage.  A  mutual  and 
invincible  antipathy  arose  between  her  and  the  First 
Consul,  who  not  only  persecuted  her  but  bullied  and 
banished  others  because  they  sympathized  with  her. 
She  published  in  iSoo  a  work  "  On  Literature  consid 
ered  in  its  Relations  with  Social  Institutions."  In  1802 
she  was  banished  from  Paris  and  forbidden  to  reside 
within  forty  leagues  of  that  capital,  the  social  charms 
of  which  she  deemed  indispensable  to  her  happiness. 
She  published  in  1802  a  novel  entitled  "  Delphine,"  and 
visited  Germany,  where  she  associated  with  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  A.'W.  Schlegel,  (1803-04.)  Some  of  these 
are  said  to  have  listened  to  her  brilliant  conversation 
"with  vast  admiration  and  not  a  little  fatigue."  "To 
philosophize  in  society,"  observes  Goethe,  "  means  to 
talk  with  vivacity  about  insoluble  problems.  This  was 
her  peculiar  pleasure  and  passion.  .  .  .  More  than  once 
I  had  regular  dialogues  with  her,  with  no  one  else  pres 
ent  :  in  these,  however,  she  was  likewise  burdensome  ; 
never  granting,  on  the  most  important  topics,  a  moment 
of  reflection,  but  passionately  demanding  that  we  should 
despatch  the  deepest  concerns  as  lightly  as  if  it  were  a 
game  at  shuttlecock."  ("  Dichtung  und  \Vahrheit.") 

After  a  tour  in  Italy,  she  produced  in  1807  her  "  Co- 
rinne,"  a  novel,'  which  displays  profound  insight  and 
equal  sensibility.  It  had  immense  success,  which  irri 
tated  Napoleon  to  renew  his  persecution  of  the  author. 
She  was  ordered  to  leave  France.  She  afterwards 
travelled  in  Germany,  and  settled  at  Coppet  in  Switzer 
land,  where  a  number  of  her  friends  came  to  console 
her.  Among  these  were  Sismondi,  Schlegel.  Madame 
Recamier,  and  B.  Constant.  In  1810  she  published  her 
capital  work  on  Germany,  ("  De  i'Allemagne,")  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  Goethe,  "  ought  to  be  considered  a  power 
ful  battery  which  made  a  wide  breach  in  the  sort  of 
wall  raised  up  between  the  two  nations  by  superannuated 
prejudices."  "Thus  terminates,"  says  Sir  J.  Mackin 
tosh,  "  a  work  which,  for  variety  of  knowledge,  flexi 
bility  of  power,  elevation  of  view,  and  comprehension  of 
mind,  is  unequalled  among  the  works  of  women,  and 
which  in  the  union  of  the  graces  of  society  and  litera 
ture  with  the  genius  of  philosophy  is  not  surpassed  by 
many  among  those  of  men."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1813.)  Among  her  other  works  are  her  auto 
biographic  memoirs,  entitled  "  Ten  Years  of  Exile,"  and 
"Considerations  on  the  French  Revolution,"  ("Con 
siderations  sur  la  Revolution  Frai^aise,"  1818.)  She 
was  privately  married  to  M.  Rocca,  a  young  Italian 
officer,  in  1810  or  1812.  In  1813  she  visited  Saint 
Petersburg  and  England,  and  after  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon  she  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  died  in  July, 
1817.  She  was  rather  deficient  in  personal  beauty,  but 
she  is  said  to  have  had  magnificent  eyes.  She  had  two 
sons  and  one  daughter,  who  became  the  Duchess  de 
Broglie. 

See  MADAME  DE  STAEL,  "  Dix  Ans  d'Exil ;"  MADAME  NECKER 
DE  SAUSSURE,  "  Notice  sur  le  Caractere  et  les  Edits  de  Madame  de 
Stael,"  1820:  F.  SCHLOSSER,  "Madame  de  Stael  et  Madame  Ro 
land,"  1830:  SAINTE-BF.UVE,  "Portraits  de  Femmes ;"  MARIA 
MORRIS,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Madame  de  Stael,"  1853  :  MARC 
ANTOINE  Puvis  "Notice  stir  Madame  de  Stael- Hnlstein,"  1828; 
VILI.EMAIN,  "Tableau  du  dix-huitieme  Siecle  :"  CHATEAUBRIAND, 
"Memoiresd'Outre-Tombe  ;"  BAUDRILLART,  "Eloge  de  Madame  de 
Stael,"  1850:  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate;"  articles  by  JEFFREY  in  the  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  February,  1813,  September,  1818,  and  October,  1821  ; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1814;  "Foreign  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  July,  1834 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Sep 
tember,  1818. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  (AUGUSTE  Louis,)  BARON, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
education  was  directed  by  August  W.  Schlegel  at  Cop- 
pet.  He  was  a  Protestant,  and  a  distinguished  philan 
thropist.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade,  arid  gave  much  attention  to  the  im 
provement  of  rural  economy.  His  character  is  said  to 
have  been  highly  honourable.  Died  in  1827.  His 


writings,  "  CEuvres  diverses,"  were  published  in  5  vols., 
1829. 

See  C.  MOUNARD,  "Notice  sur  Aug.  de  Slael-Holstein,"  1827. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  (Euic  MAGNUS,)  BARON,  a 
Swedish  diplomatist,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  at  Paris  about  1783,  and 
married  the  daughter  of  M.  Necker  in  1786.  He  was 
many  years  older  than  his  wife,  and  was  very  prodigal 
of  money.  They  were  not  compatible,  and  soon  sepa 
rated  by  mutual  consent.  lie  ceased  to  be  ambassador 
at  Paris  in  1799.  Died  in  1802. 

Staeudliii.     See  STAUDI.IN. 

Stafford,  (ANTHONY,)  a  learned  English  writer,  born 
in  Northamptonshire,  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in  1623. 
He  wrote  "  Niobe  dissolved  into  Nilus,"  "  The  Life  and 
Death  of  Our  Blessed  Lady,  the  Holy  Virgin  Mary," 
(1635,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1641. 

Stafford,  (JoHN,)  an  English  prelate,  became  Arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury  in  1443.  He  was  also  lord  chan 
cellor  for  nearly  eighteen  years.  Died  in  1452. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  v.  chap.  xix. 

Stafford,  (Wiu.iAM  HOWARD,)  VISCOUNT  OF,  born 
in  1612,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Howard,  the  Earl  ot 
Arundel.  He  married  a  sister  and  heiress  of  Baron 
Stafford.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  a  royalist  in 
the  civil  war.  Having  been  accused  by  Titus  Oates 
of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot,  he  was  convicted  of 
treason  and  executed  in  1680.  He  was  probably  in 
nocent. 

See  HUME,  "History  of  England;"  HURNET,  "History  of  his 
Own  Times." 

Stafford,  de,  (HKNKY,)  Duke  of  Buckingham,  was  a 
son  of  Humphrey,  noticed  below.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  Richard  III.,  and  was  accessory  to  his  crimes,  but 
revolted  against  him,  and  was  beheaded  in  1483. 

See  A.  STAFFORD,  "  Life  of  Henry,  Lord  Stafford,"  1640;  SMAK- 
SPEARE,  "Richard  III." 

Stafford,  de,  (HUMPHKKY,)  an  English  peer,  was 
an  adherent  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  in  the  war  of 
the  Roses.  He  was  created  Duke  of  Buckingham  about 
1465. 

Stagemann  or  Staegemann,  von,  fon  sta'geh- 
man',  (FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  a  Prussian  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  1763.  He  published  a  number  of  poems 
and  political  treatises.  Died  in  1840. 

Stagnelius,  stag-niT'le-iis,  (EuiK  JOHAN,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  in  1793  at  Col  mar,  where  his  father 
was  bishop.  He  studied  at  the  Universities  of  Lund 
and  Upsal.  His  epic  poem  entitled  "  Wladimir  the 
Great"  ("Wladimir  den  Store,"  1817)  obtained  the 
prize  from  the  Swedish  Academy.  This  was  followed 
by  "The  Lilies  of  Sharon,"  ("  Liljor  i  Saron,"  1821,) 
and  tragedies  entitled  "The  Bacchanals,"  and  "The 
Martyrs."  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  office  or  depart 
ment  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  1815.  Died  in  1823. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  HOVVITT, 
"  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe  ;"  H  AMMERSKOELD, 
"  E.  J.  Stagnelius,"  1823. 

Stahel,  sta'el,  or  Stahl,  stal,  (Jui.ius,)  a  general, 
born  in  Hungary  in  1825.  He  fought  against  Austria  in 
1848-49,  and  afterwards  emigrated  to  the  United  States. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers 
about  November,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at 
Cross  Keys,  June  8,  1862. 

Stahelin  'or  Staehelin,  sta'el-leen',  (BENEDICT,)  a 
Swiss  botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1695.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  researches  in  cryptogamous 
plants,  and  published  several  works.  Died  in  175°- 

Stahl,  stil,  (FRIKDRICH  JULIUS,)  a  German  jurist,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Munich  in  1802,  became  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  Berlin  in  1840.  He  published  several 
political  and  philosophical  works.  Died  in  1861. 

See  "  Jahrbuch  /.urn  Conversations-Lexikon,"  1862. 

Stahl,  (GEORG  ERNST,)  an  eminent  German  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Anspach  in  1660.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1694,  and  in  1716 
physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  His  principal  medical 
work  is  entitled  "  Theoria  Medica  Vera,"  (1707,)  in 
which  he  opposes  Hoffmann's  theories  and  advances  a 
new  doctrine  of  physical  influence.  He  made  several 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  okscim;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STAHR 


2055 


STANHOPE 


valuable  discoveries  concerning  the  alkalies,  acids,  etc., 
originated  the  theory  of  phlogiston,  and  contributed 
more  than  any  other  of  his  contemporaries  to  give  to 
chemistry  a  scientific  form.  He  published,  among  other 
works  on  this  subject,  "  Experimenta  et  Observationes 
Chemicae,"  (1731,)  and  "  Funclamenta  Chymiae  Dog 
matics,"  (3  vols.,  1723.)  Died  in  1734. 

See  SPKENGEL,  "History  of  Medicine;"  HOKFER,  "Histoire  de 
la  Chimie  ;"  STREBEI.,  "  Programma  de  Vita  Stahl,"  1759;  A.  LE- 
MOINE,  "  Le  Vitaiisme  et  1'Animisme  de  Stahl,"  1864;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

Stahl,  (P.  J.)     See  HETZEL. 

Stahr,  situ,  (ADOLF  WILHELM  THEODOR,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Prenzlau,  in  the  Uckermark,  in  1805.  He 
published  "  Aristotelia,"  (1832,)  or  an  explanation  and 
criticism  of  Aristotle's  works,  "The  Republicans  in  Na 
ples,"  a  romance,  (3  vols.,  1849,)  and  various  other  works. 
He  married  Fanny  Lewald,  the  authoress,  about  1854. 

Stahremberg!     See  STARHEMKERG. 

Stai'ner  or  Stayner,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  English 
naval  officer,  who  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Blake 
over  the  Spaniards  at  Santa  Cruz  in  1657.  For  this 
service  he  was  knighted  by  Cromwell.  He  became  a 
rear-admiral.  Died  in  1662. 

Stair,  LORD.     See  DAI.RYMPLE,  (JAMES.) 

Stalbent,  stil'bent,  (ADRIAN,)  of  Antwerp,  a  skilful 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  in  1580.  He  worked 
in  England  for  Chnrles  II.  Died  at  Antwerp  in  1660. 

Stallbaum,  stal'bowm,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  distinguished 
German  scholar,  born  near  Delitzsch  in  1793.  His 
editions  of  the  works  of  Plato  are  particularly  esteemed. 
He  svas  professor  of  classics  in  the  University  of  Leipsic, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  education. 

Starn'ford,  (HENRY  WILLIAM,)  a  general  and  poet, 
born  at  Bourges,  France,  in  1742.  He  entered  the  ser 
vice  ot  Holland,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  Died  at  Hamburg  in  1807. 

Stam'ford,  (THOMAS  GREY,)  EARL  OF,  an  English 
peer,  accused  of  a  share  in  the  Rye-House  Plot,  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  in  1685.  and  liberated  the  same 
year,  having  turned  king's  evidence.  He  joined  William 
III.  in  1688. 

Stampa,  strim'pa,  [Fr.  ESTAMPES,  eVt6Mp',]  (GAS- 
PARA,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Padua  about  1524, 
wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  ANASILLA.  She  was 
a  victim  of  unrequited  love.  Died  at  Venice  in  1554. 

Stampart,  stam'part,  (FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish  por 
trait-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1675.  He  worked  in 
Vienna,  and  was  painter  to  the  emperor  Leopold.  Died 
in  1750. 

Stampfli  or  Staempfli,  stempf'lee,  (JAKOB,)  a 
Swiss  politician,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1820. 
He  became  about  1845  a  leader  of  the  radical  party,  was 
elected  president  of  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1849,  and 
federal  president  in  18=58. 

Stan'bridge,  QOHN,)  an  English  schoolmaster,  born 
in  Northamptonshire,  became  a  Fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  about  1480.  He  wrote  several  school-books. 
Died  after  1522. 

Stancari,  stan-ka'ree,  [Lat.  STANCA'RUS,]  (FRAN 
CESCO,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Mantua  in  1501. 
He  became  a  Protestant,  and  emigrated  to  Poland.  He 
taught  Hebrew  at  Cracow,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1574. 

See  BAYI.B,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Stancari,  (VrrroRio  FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Bologna  in  1678,  was  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  that  city.  Died  in  1709. 

Stancel,  stan'sel,  [Port.  ESTANCEL,  es-tan-sel',] 
(VALENTIN,)  a  German  astronomer  and  Jesuit,  born  near 
Briinn,  in  Moravia,  in  1621.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  San  Salvador,  in  Brazil,  about  1663.  Died 
in  1715. 

Staiid'ish,  (FRANK  HALL,)  an  English  writer  and 
connoisseur  of  art,  was  born  in  1798.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Voltaire,"  a  volume  of  poems,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1840. 

Standish,  (MILES,)  an  English  officer,  born  in  Lan 
cashire  about  1584.  He  was  one  of  the  emigrants  that 
arrived  at  Plymouth  in  the  "Mayflower"  in  1620,  and 
became  the  military  leader  of  the  pilgrims  in  their  war 


against  the  Indians.  His  adventures  form  the  subject 
of  one  of  Longfellow's  poems.  Died  in  1656. 

Staii'field,  (Ci.ARKSON,)  an  eminent  English  marine 
painter,  born  at  Sunderland  in  1798.  lie  served  for  a 
time  as  a  sailor,  and  subsequently  employed  himself  in 
scene-painting  at  the  London  theatres,  where  he  brought 
that  branch  of  the  art  to  a  perfection  hitherto  scarcely 
known.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1835. 
He  contributed  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Academy  a 
great  number  of  pictures  of  marine  and  coast  scenery, 
which  he  delineated  with  a  beauty  and  fidelity  per 
haps  never  surpassed.  Among  these  are  views  on  the 
Adriatic,  the  Italian  lakes,  and  the  coasts  of  Holland, 
Normandy,  and  England.  He  also  executed  several 
admirable  works  of  a  different  character,  such  as  "  Saint 
Sebastian  during  the  Siege  under  the  Duke  of  Welling 
ton,"  and  "  Port  na  Spana,  near  the  Giant's  Causeway, 
with  the  W'recked  Vessels  of  the  Armada."  Died  in 
May,  1867. 

Stanfield,  (GEORGE,)  a  landscape-painter,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1822. 

Stan'ford,  (JoHN,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
England  in  1754,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and 
settled  as  a  pastor  at  New  York.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Stanhope,  (CHARLES.)  See  HARRINGTON,  EARL  OF. 

Stanhope,  stan'op  or  stan'iip,  (CHARLES,)  third 
EARL,  a  liberal  English  nobleman,  distinguished  for  his 
mechanical  inventions,  born  in  1753,  was  a  son  of  Philip, 
the  second  Earl.  He  married  Hester  Pitt,  a  daughter  of 
the  great  Earl  of  Chatham.  He  invented  the  printing- 
press  which  bears  his  name,  a  calculating  machine,  etc. 
In  politics  he  was  radical.  He  opposed  the  American 
war  and  the  war  against  the  French  republic.  He  was 
the  father  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,  and  grandfather  of 
Lord  Mahon  the  historian.  Died  in  1816. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Stanhope,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1660.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  1701. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Paraphrase  and  Comment  on 
the  Epistles  and  Gospels  as  they  are  read  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,"  (4  vols.  8vo,)  which  passed  through 
numerous  editions  ;  he  also  translated  Charron's"  Three 
Books  of  Wisdom,"  "  Pious  Breathings,"  from  Saint 
Augustine,  and  other  devotional  works.  Died  in  1728. 

Stanhope,  (Lady  HESTER,)  an  eccentric  English 
woman,  born  in  London  in  1766,  was  a  daughter  of 
Charles,  Earl  Stanhope,  and  a  niece  of  William  Pitt  the 
eminent  statesman.  She  lost  her  mother  in  her  infancy, 
and  her  education  was  consequently  neglected.  About 
the  age  of  twenty  she  went  to  reside  with  her  uncle, 
then  prime  minister,  whom  she  aided  in  his  corre 
spondence.  She  was  energetic,  impulsive,  and  disdainful 
of  conventionality.  The  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  was  felt 
by  her  as  a  great  disaster.  In  i8ioshe  abandoned  Eng 
land  in  disgust,  and  entered  on  a  career  of  Oriental  ad 
venture.  She  arrived  in  Syria  in  1812,  adopted  Oriental 
customs,  and  excited  the  admiration  of  the  natives,  who 
were  disposed  to  receive  her  as  a  queen.  She  resided 
nrrany  years  on  or  near  Mount  Lebanon,  with  a  large 
retinue  of  servants  or  subjects,  and  acquired  great  pres 
tige  as  a  magician  and  mistress  of  mystical  lore.  Died 
in  Syria  in  1839. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,"  by  her  physician.  3 
vols.,  1845;  LAMAKTINK,  "Souvenirs  d'un  Voyage  en  Orient;"  W. 
RUSSELL,  "Eccentric  Personages,"  2  vols.,  1864;  "Memoirs  of  a 
Babylonian  Princess,"  2  vols,  1845;  A.  F.  DIDOT,  article  in  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
1845;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1845. 

Stanhope,  (JAMES  STANHOPE,)  first  EARL,  a  British 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1673,  was  a  son  of  Alex 
ander  Stanhope,  and  a  grandson  of  Philip,  Earl  of  Ches 
terfield.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1704,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Spain  in  1705.  In  1708  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Spain. 
He  gained  victories  at  Almenara  and  Saragossa  in  1710, 
but  was  compelled  to  surrender  his  army  to  the  Duke 
of  Vendome  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He  became  a 
leader  of  the  Whig  party,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the 
chief  secretaries  of  state  in  1714.  He  was  first  lord  of 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STANHOPE 


2056 


STAN LET 


the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  April, 
1717,  to  March,  1718.  About  this  date  he  received  the 
title  of  Earl  Stanhope,  and  resumed  the  office  of  secre 
tary  of  state.  He  died  in  1721,  leaving  a  fair  reputation 
as  a  statesman. 

See  LORD  MAHON,  "  History  of  England  ;"  COXE,  "  History  of 
Spain." 

Stanhope,  (PHILIP,)  second  EARI.,  born  about  1712, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  the  father 
of  Charles,  above  noticed,  and  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
Died  in  1786. 

Stanhope,  (Captain  PHILIP,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
brother  of  James,  first  Earl  Stanhope,  was  commander 
of  the  Milford  at  the  siege  of  Ostend,  and  subsequently 
served  in  the  Mediterranean.  He  was  killed  in  the 
attack  on  Port  Mahon,  in  1708. 

Stanhope,  (PHILIP  DORMER.)  See  CHESTERFIELD, 
(LORD.) 

Stanhope,  (PHILIP  HENRY,)  fifth  EARL  OF,  an  Eng 
lish  statesman  and  historian,  born  in  Kent  in  1805.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  was  elected  in  1832  member  of 
Parliament,  as  Lord  Mahon,  for  Wotton  Basset.  In  1835 
he  was  returned  for  Hertford,  which  he  continued  t 
represent  until  1852.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1834,  and  was  afterwards 
secretary  to  the  board  of  control  under  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
He  introduced  and  carried,  while  in  Parliament,  the 
copyright  act  known  by  his  name.  He  has  published  a 
"  History  of  the  War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain,"  (8vo, 
1832,)  "  Spain  under  Charles  II.,"  (1840,)  "  Life  of  Louis, 
Prince  of  Conde,"  "  Life  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  (1853,)  "  His 
tory  of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace 
of  Versailles,  1713-1783,"  (1854,)  which  is  regarded  as  a 
standard  work,  and  "Historical  Essays"  contributed  to 
the  "Quarterly  Review." 

See  the  "  Kdinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1833,  and  October, 
1836;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1836,  and  January, 
1839;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1847. 

Stan'is-las  or  Stan'is-laus,  SAINT,  a  Polish  prelate, 
born  in  1030,  became  Bishop  of  Cracow  in  1071.  He 
was  killed  in  1079  by  King  Boleslaus,  because  he  had 
rebuked  the  wickedness  of  that  monarch. 

Stan'is-las  (or  Stan'is-laus)  Augustus,  King  of 
Poland,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1732,  was  the  son  of  Count 
Stanislas  Poniatowski.  He  was  in  his  youth  a  favour 
ite  of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia.  Through  the  influence 
of  his  uncles  the  princes  Czartoryski,  assisted  by  Russia, 
he  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  Poland  in  1764.  The 
first  partition  of  that  country,  which  took  place  in  1772, 
was  in  vain  opposed  by  him  ;  and  he  subsequently  de 
voted  himself  to  internal  improvements  and  promoted 
various  reforms,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
new  constitution  of  1792.  Overawed  by  the  power  of 
Russia,  he  afterwards  joined  the  Confederation  of  Tar- 
gowicz,  formed  for  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution, 
and  which  was  followed  by  a  second  partition  of  Poland, 
in  1793.  After  the  entire  dismemberment  of  his  country, 
in  1795,  Stanislas  abdicated  the  throne  and  retired  to 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  a  pension  was  assigned  him  by 
the  emperor  Paul.  Died  in  1798. 

See  RUI.HIERE,  "  Histoire  de  PAnarchie  de  Pologne  :"  LEI.KWEI., 
''Regne  du  Roi  Stanislas  Anguste,"  1X18;  CHODZKO,  "La  Pologne 
illustree;"  DE  FERRAND,  "Histoire  des  trois  pemembrements  de 
la  Pologne,"  3  vols.,  1820;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Stanislas  Leszczynski,  (Igsh-chin'skee,)  written 
also  Leszinski,  King  of  Poland,  born  at  Lemberg  in 
1677,  was  a  son  of  the  grand  treasurer  of  Poland.  Having 
been  sent  in  1704,  by  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  to  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  to  consult  him  on  the  election  of  a  king  to 
succeed- Augustus  II.,  he  made  so  favourable  an  impres 
sion  upon  Charles  that  he  recommended  him  as  a  can 
didate,  and  he  was  elected  the  following  year.  Being 
compelled  to  abdicate  after  the  battle  of  Poltava,  (PnJ- 
towa,)  in  1709,  he  was  again  called  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  Augustus  II.,  in  1733  ;  but  he  was  finally  forced 
to  resign  the  crown  in  favour  of  Augustus  III.,  whose 
claims  were  supported  by  Austria  and  Russia.  He  was 
afterwards  invested  with  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and 
Bar,  in  1737,  retaining  the  title  of  King  of  Poland.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  talents  and  literary  attain 
ments,  and  published,  in  French,  "The  Works  of  the 
Benevolent  Philosopher,"  (1765.)  His  daughter  Maria 


became   the  wife   of  Louis   XV.    of  France.      Died   in 
February,  1766. 

See  A.  AUBERT,  "Vie  de  Stanislas  Leszc/ynski,"  1769  ;  SRYLER, 
"  Leben  Stanislai  I.  ,"1737;  BOM  BART,  "  £.oge  du  Roi  Stanislas  I," 
1766;  ABIIE  MAURV,  "  filoge  du  feu  Roi  Stanislas,"  1766  ;  PROYART, 
"  Stanislas  I,"  2  vols.,  1784 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Staii'ley,  (ANTHONY  D.,)  an  American  mathema 
tician,  born  in  1812.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Yale  College,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  Spherical 
Trigonometry."  Died  in  1853. 

Staii'ley,  (Rev.  ARTHUR  PENRHYN,)  commonly 
known  as  DEAN  STANLEY,  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Nor 
wich,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Cheshire  in  1815.  He 
studied  at  Rugby  under  Dr.  Arnold,  and  subsequently 
graduated  at  Oxford.  He  published  in  1844  "The 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Arnold,  D.D.," 
which  obtained  wide  popularity  and  has  been  trans 
lated  into  several  languages.  He  was  appointed  chap 
lain  to  Prince  Albert,  and  in  1856  was  elected  regins 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Oxford.  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  named  "  Historical  Memorials 
of  Canterbury,"  etc.,  (1855,)  "Sinai  and  Palestine  in 
Connection  with  their  History,"  (1856,)  "Lectures  on 
the  Eastern  Church,"  (1861,)  "Lectures  on  the  History 
of  the  Jewish  Church,"  (1863,)  and  numerous  Sermons, 
published  at  different  times.  He  became  a  canon  of 
Christ  Church  in  1858,  and  Dean  of  Westminster  in 
1864.  He  has  contributed  to  the  "Quarterly  Review" 
and  "Edinburgh  Review." 

See  ALLIBONK,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Stanley,  (DAVID  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Wayne  county,  Ohio,  in  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1852.  He  was  a  captain  of  cavalry  when  the  civil 
war  began,  served  in  several  actions  in  Missouri,  and 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  September,  1861. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Rose- 
crans  at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  October  4,  1862,  and  dis 
tinguished  himself  as  commander  of  all  the  cavalry  at 
the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1863.  He  was  afterwards  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers.  About  the  ist  of 
August,  1864,  he  obtained  command  of  the  fourth  corps 
in  the  army  of  Sherman,  then  near  Atlanta.  General 
Stanley  and  his  corps  were  sent  back  to  Chattanooga  in 
October  or  November,  with  orders  to  report  to  General 
Thomas  at  Nashville.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Franklin,  November  30,  1864.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  the  United  States  army  in  1866. 

Stanley,  (F^DWARD.)     See  DERBY,  EARL  OF. 

Stanley,  (Rev.  EDWARD,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine 
and  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1779.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Cambridge  in  1805,  was  subsequently  appointed 
rector  of  Alderley,  and  in  1837  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He 
was  the  author  of  "A  Familiar  History  of  Birds,  their 
Nature,  Habits,  and  Instincts,"  (2  vols.,  1835,)  and 
contributed  a  number  of  treatises  on  natural  history  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1851. 

Stanley,  ( EDWARD  HENRY,)  Earl  of  Derby,  formerly 
styled  LORD  STANLEY,  an  able  English  statesman,  born 
at  Knowsley  in  1826,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  Col 
lege,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  first-class  in 
classics  in  1848.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1848,  and 
became  under-secretary  of  state  forforeign  affairs  in  1852. 
He  gained  distinction  as  a  social  reformer,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  liberal  and  popular  members  of  the 
Conservative  party.  In  February,  1858,116  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  and  in  May  of  that 
year  became  commissioner  for  the  affairs  of  India.  He 
resigned  office  in  1859.  On  the  formation  of  a  new  min 
istry  by  his  father,  in  June,  1866,  he  was  appointed  sec 
retary  for  foreign  affairs.  He  presided  at  the  European 
Conference  which  met  at  London  and  settled  the  dis 
pute  between  France  and  Prussia  in  May,  1867.  Lord 
Stanley  retired  with  his  colleagues  from  office  in  Decem 
ber,  1868,  and  became  Earl  of  Derby  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1869. 

Stanley,  (EDWARD  JOHN,)  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley, 
an  English  statesman  of  the  Liberal  party,  was  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1802.  He  was  a  relative  of  the  Earl  of 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


STANLEY 


2057 


STAFFER 


Derby.  He  entered  Parliament  about  1831,  after  which 
he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  (1835-41,)  and 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  (1846-52.)  In 
1848  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Eddisbury. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  Baron  Stanley  of  Alderley  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1850,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  cabinet,  as  postmaster-general,  from  1859  to  June, 
1866.  Died  in  June,  1869. 

Stanley,  (JOHN,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  1713.  He  became  blind  at  the  age  of  two  years, 
but,  notwithstanding  this  misfortune,  made  such  pro 
gress  in  music,  under  the  tuition  of  Dr.  Greene,  that 
he  was  appointed  organist  of  Saint  Andrew's,  Holborn, 
London,  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  He  was  appointed  mas 
ter  of  the  king's  band  in  1779.  His  compositions  are 
chiefly  voluntaries  for  the  organ,  songs,  cantatas,  etc. 
Died  in  1786. 

Stanley,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Cumberlow,  in  Herts,  in  1625,  was  a  son 
of  Sir  Thomas  Stanley,  a  poet  of  some  note.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  a 
"  History  of  Philosophy,  containing  the  Lives,  Opinions, 
Actions,  and  Discourses  of  the  Philosophers  of  every 
Sect,"  (3  vols.,  1655-60,)  which  was  highly  esteemed, 
and  a  good  edition  of  /Eschylus,  (1663.)  lie  also  pub 
lished  "Poems  and  Translations,"  (1647.)  Died  in  1678. 

See  EGERTON  HRVDGES,  "Memoir  of  Stanley,"  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  Stanley's  Poems,  1814-15;  WOOD,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Stanley,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lei 
cestershire  in  1647.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  London 
in  1692,  and  Dean  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1706.  Died  in  1731. 

Staimina.     See  STARNINA. 

Stansel.     See  STANCEL. 

Stans'feld,  ([AMES,)  an  English  lawyer  and  radical, 
born  at  Halifax  in  1820.     He  was  elected  a  member  of  ' 
Parliament  for  Halifax  in  1859,  was  appointed  a  lord  of  i 
the  admiralty  in  April,  1863,  and  resigned  in  April,  1864. 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  fr^m  February  to  July,  i 
1866,  and  became  third'  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1868,  and 
financial  secretary  in  October,  1869. 

Stan'ton,  (Enwix  M.,)  an  American  statesman  and  \ 
lawyer,  born  at  Steubenville,  Ohio,  in  1815.    He  studied  '• 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1836,  and  practised  ! 
for  some  time  at  Steubenville  with  success.     In  1847  or 
1848  he  removed  to  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  where  he  ' 
became  the  leader  of  the  bar.      He  was  frequently  em 
ployed  in  the  supreme  court  at  Washington,  of  which 
city  he  became  a  resident  about  1857.     In  1858  he  was  ; 
engaged  by  the  government  to  conduct  an   important  i 
case  in   relation  to  some  land  in  California.     He  was  ' 
appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  in  De 
cember,  1860,  and  in  the   great  crisis  that  ensued  op 
posed  the  designs  of  the  disunionists  with  energy  and  i 
efficiency.     He  retired  from  office  on  the  4th  of  March,  '. 
1861,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  about  the  I2th  j 
of  January,  1862.     In  this  position,  which  he  occupied  j 
through  all  the  subsequent  portion  of  the  civil  war,  he  ' 
displayed    great   administrative   abilities   and    rendered 
important  services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.     After 
the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  Mr.  Stanton  continued  ; 
to  conduct  the  department  of  war.     In  the  controversy  ', 
which   arose  about  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
States  between   President  Johnson    and  Congress,   he 
took  no  prominent  part.     During  the  years   1865  and 
1866  he  did   not  appear  as  a  decided  partisan  or  oppo-  \ 
nent  of  the  policy  of  Johnson.     To  prevent  the  removal 
of  Mr.  Stanton  and  others,  the  Senate  passed  the  Tenure-  j 
of-Office  Bill.     He  was  invited  to  resign  by  the  Presi 
dent,  August  5,  1867,  but  he  refused  to  comply,  assigning 
as  his  motive  important  public  considerations.     About 
the    I2th   of  August,    1867,   he   was  suspended  by   the 
President,  who  appointed  General  Grant  secretary  of 
war  ad  interim.     The  President  expected,  with  the  co 
operation  of  General   Grant,  to  render  his  suspension 
permanent ;    but   that  general   defeated    his   design   by 
surrendering  the  office  on  the  I4th  of  January,  1868,  to 
Mr.  Stanton,  who  had  been  reinstated  by  the  Senate  on 
the  I3th.     Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  pub 
lication,  in  February,  1868,  of  the  letters  exchanged  on 
this  subject  between  the  President  and  General  Grant. 
The  public  then  learned  that  the  general-in-chief  recog 


nized  Mr.  Stanton  as  secretary  of  war,  although  he  was 
directed  by  the  President  to  disobey  his  orders.  On  the 
2 1st  of  February,  General  Lorenzo  Thomas  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  ad  interim,  and  attempted  to  get  pos 
session  of  the  department  of  war,  but  was  not  successful. 
Mr.  Stanton  retired  from  the  office  of  secretary  of  war 
on  the  26th  of  May,  1868,  in  consequence  of  the  decision 
of  the  Senate  that  Johnson  was  not  guilty  of  the  crimes 
for  which  he  had  been  impeached.  In  December,  1869, 
he  was  appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  Died  in  December,  1869. 

Stanton,  (Mrs.  ELIZABETH  CADY,)  distinguished 
as  an  advocate  of  "  Women's  Rights,"  was  born  at 
Johnstown,  Fulton  county,  New  York,  in  1816.  Her 
father,  Daniel  Cady,  was  for  many  years  an  able  and 
prominent  lawyer,  and  afterwards  judge,  in  Fulton 
county.  In  her  early  years  she  was  accustomed  to 
spend  much  time  in  her  father's  office,  and  her  attention 
was  first  drawn  to  the  wrongs  of  women  by  hearing  the 
complaints  which  they  made  to  her  father  of  the  injus 
tice  of  the  laws  towards  their  sex.  She  had  been  deeply 
mortified  to  notice  how  little  regard  was  shown  to  girls 
compared  with  boys,  and  she  formed  a  resolution  to 
prove  herself  not  inferior  in  courage  and  ability  to  the 
more  favoured  half  of  the  human  family,  to  whom  an 
unjust  and  arbitrary  usage  had  given  a  monopoly  of 
privilege  and  power.  She  studied  mathematics,  Latin, 
and  Greek.  In  the  last-named  study  she  strove  for  and 
won,  as  her  first  prize,  a  Greek  Testament.  She  after 
wards,  we  are  told,  graduated  at  the  academy  in  her 
native  place  at  the  head  of  her  class.  But,  though  boys 
who  were  far  behind  her  in  ability,  or  at  least  in  appli 
cation,  could  be  sent  to  college,  no  such  privilege  existed 
for  her.  This  excited  her  utmost  indignation.  In  1839 
she  was  married  to  Mr.  Henry  B.  Stanton,  then  a  popu 
lar  and  eloquent  anti-slavery  lecturer,  and  soon  after 
set  out  with  him  for  Europe  to  attend  the  "  \Vorld's 
Anti-Slavery  Convention,"  (held  in  London  in  1840,)  to 
which  Mr.  Stanton  was  a  delegate.  Many  female  dele 
gates  also  left  their  homes  in  America  to  attend  the 
convention  ;  but  they  were  not  admitted,  because  they 
were  women.  In  the  number  of  these  was  Lucretia 
Mott,  with  whom  Mrs.  Stanton  formed  an  intimate 
friendship.  After  her  return  to  her  native  country,  she 
resolved  to  devote  the  energies  of  her  life  to  resisting, 
in  all  its  forms,  the  time-honoured  tyranny  against  her 
sex.  In  July,  1848,  chiefly  through  Mrs.  Stanton's  in 
fluence,  "  the  first '  Women's  Rights  Convention,'  (known 
to  history  by  that  name,)"  says  Mr.  Tilton,  "  was  held 
at  Seneca  Falls,  in  New  York."  Since  that  time  no  one 
has  been  more  active  than  she  in  promoting  the  move 
ments  in  this  cause  which  have  recently  attracted  so 
much  attention  both  in  England  and  America. 

See  article  on  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  in  the  "'  Eminent 
Women  of  the  Age,"  by  THEODOKE  TILTON. 

Stanton,  (HENRY  B.,)  an  American  lawyer,  distin 
guished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  in  New 
London  county,  Connecticut,  in  1810.  In  1839  he  mar 
ried  Miss  Elizabeth  Cady.  (See  preceding  article.)  He 
has  published  "  Sketches  of  Reforms  and  Reformers  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  (1849,)  and  other  works. 

Stan'y-hurst,  (RICHARD,)  an  Irish  poet,  historian, 
and  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  Dublin  in  1545  01 
1546,  was  an  uncle  of  Archbishop  Usher.  Died  in  1618. 

Stanzioni,  stln-ze-o'nee,  (MASSIMO,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter,  sometimes  called  "  the  Guido  of  Naples,"  was 
born  in  1585.  His  works  are  principally  frescos  and 
portraits.  Died  in  1650. 

Stapel,  sta'pel,  QOHN  BOD/EUS,)  a  Dutch  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  studied  at  Leyden  under  Vorstius.  His 
principal  work  is  an  edition  of  the  botanical  writings  of 
Theophrastus,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  com 
plete,  dying  in  1636.  An  edition  of  the  ten  books  of 
Theophrastus,  entitled  "  De  Historia  Plantarum,"  was 
published  in  1644.  The  genus  Stapelia  was  named  in 
his  honour  by  Linnaeus. 

Stapfer,  stap'fer,  QEAN,)  a  Swiss  preacher  and 
writer,  born  in  1719.  He  produced  a  metrical  version 
of  the  Psalms,  which  was  used  in  the  churches  of 
Berne;  also  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died  in  1801. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STAFFER 


2058 


ST AUNT ON 


Stapfer,  (JEAN  FREDERIC,)  a  theologian,  born  at 
Brugg  in  1708,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
preached  at  Diesbach,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Principles  of  True  Religion,"  (12  vols., 
1746-53.)  Died  in  1775. 

Stapfer,  (PHILIP  ALBERT,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born 
at  Berne  in  1766.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Philosophia  Socratis,"  (1786,)  and  "  De  Republica 
Ethica,"  (1797.)  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Berne.  Died  in  Paris  in  1840. 

Stapleaux,  stt'plo',  (MiCHKL  GHISLAIN,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  in  Brussels  in  1798,  was  a  pupil  of  David. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels  in 
1822  and  1823.  His  works  are  mostly  portraits  and 
historical  pictures. 

Sta'ple-dpn,  (WALTER,)  an  English  prelate,  founded 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1307  ;  died  in  1326. 

Sta'ple-toii,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  English  officer,  of  the 
royalist  party,  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
Charles  I.  lie  published  several  dramas,  and  a  trans 
lation  of  Juvenal.  Died  in  1669. 

Stapleton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  controversialist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1535,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
Died  at  Louvain  in  1598. 

Starck  or  Stark,  stank,  (JOHANN  AUGUST,)  BARON, 
a  German  divine  and  scholar,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in 
1741.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Konigsberg  in  1769,  and  in  1781  chief  court  preacher  at 
Darmstadt.  He  published  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Starhemberg  or  Stahremberg,  sta'iem-b^RG', 
(ERNST  RUDIGEK,)  COUNT,  an  Austrian  field-marshal, 
born  in  1635,  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Vienna  against  the  Turks  in  1683.  For  his  services  on 
that  occasion  he  was  made  a  marshal  and  a  minister  of 
state  by  the  emperor  Leopold,  who  also  gave  him  a  ring 
worth  100,000  thalers.  Died  in  1701. 

Starhemberg  or  Stahremberg,  (Gumo,)  COUNT, 
an  Austrian  field-marshal,  born  in  1657,  was  a  cousin  of 
the  preceding.  lie  assisted  in  the  defence  of  Vienna  in 
1683,  and  served  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  against 
the  Turks.  He  afterwards  took  part  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
the  French  at  Almenara  in  1710.  He  became,  in  the 
absence  of  Prince  Eugene,  president  of  the  Imperial 
council  of  war  at  Vienna.  Died  in  1737. 

See  ALFRED  ARNETH,  "  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Grafen  G. 
Starhemberg,"  1X53;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Stark,  (JoHN,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  born  at  Londonderry,  New  Hampshire,  in  1728. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  war  against  the  French 
in  1754,  and  subsequently  fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  Tren 
ton,  and  Princeton.  In  August,  1777,  he  gained  a  signal 
victory  over  the  British  at  Bennington,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress.  He  joined  the  army  of  General  Gates  in 
September,  1777,  served  in  Rhode  Island  in  1779,  and 
in  New  Jersey  in  1780.  He  had  the  command  of  the 
Northern  department,  with  his  head-quarters  at  Saratoga, 
in  1781.  Died  in  1822. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Stark,"  by  EDWARD  EVERETT,  in 
SPARKS'S  "American  Biography,"  vol.  i.  of  second  series;  "Me 
moirs,  etc.  of  General  John  Stark,"  by  CALED  STARK,  1X60. 

Stark,  (WILLIAM,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Birmingham  in  1740.  He  graduated  at  Ley  den  in 
1767,  and  after  his  return  made  a  series  of  experiments 
on  diet  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  effect  of  dif 
ferent  kinds  of  food  on  the  human  body.  He  died  in 
1769,  in  consequence  of  illness  brought  on  by  his  experi 
ments.  He  was  the  author  of  several  medical  works. 

Starke,  staR'keh,  (GOTTHELF  WILHELM  CHRIS- 
TOPH,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Bernburg  in  1762. 
He  published  a  number  of  hymns,  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1830. 

Stamina,  staR-nee'na,  or  Stannina,  stan-iiee'na, 
(GHERARDO,)  a  Florentine  painter,  born  about  1350. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  art.  Died  about  1405. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Starowolski,  sta-ro-wol'skee,  [Lat.  STAROVOI/- 
SCius,]  (SiMON,)a  Polish  historian  and  biographer,  born 


in  1585.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  Polish  history. 
Died  in  1656. 

Stas'a-iior,  [Gr.  Sraow'up,]  an  officer  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  born  in  Cyprus.  He  was  Satrap  of 
Drangiana  during  Alexander's  campaign  in  India,  and 
in  321  is.c.  became  Governor  of  Bactriana  and  Sogdiana. 

Sta-si'nus  [ZTaaivof]  OF  CYPRUS,  a  Greek  epic  poet, 
who  lived  about  700  B.C.,  or  earlier.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Cypria," 
(Kinrpia,)  which  was  one  of  the  poems  of  the  epic  cycle 
relating  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  ascribed  to  Homer 
by  some  ancient  critics. 

Stassart,  de,  deh  stt'sSu'  or  stas'sart,  (GoswiN  JO 
SEPH  AUGUSTIN,)  BARON,  a  Belgian  litterateur  and  sen 
ator,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1780.  He  became  Governor  of 
Brabant  i-n  1834,  and  was  a  member  of  the  senate  from 
1831  to  1847.  lie  wrote  various  works.  Died  in  1854. 

See  "Notice  sur  M.  le  P.aron  de  Stassart,"  Brussels,  1852. 

Stassart,  de,  (JACQUES  JOSEPH,)  BARON,  a  Belgian 
judge  and  statesman,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1711,  was  a 
grandfather  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1801. 

Staszyc,  sta'sh!ts,  (XAV1ER  STANISLAS,)  a  Polish 
philanthropist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Pila  in 
1755.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  and  after 
wards  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
D'Alembert  and  Buffon,  whose  "  Epochs  of  Nature"  he 
translated  into  Polish.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Geography  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,"  "  The 
Political  Balance  of  Europe,"  and  "  Statistics  of  Poland." 
He  died  in  1806,  leaving  large  bequests  to  various  chari 
table  and  educational  institutions. 

Sta-ti'ra,  [Gr.  Sr«-«pa,|  a  Persian  lady,  celebrated 
for  her  beauty,  was  the  wife  of  Darius  Codomannus. 
She  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  B.C., 
and  treated  with  much  courtesy  by  Alexander.  She 
died  about  331  H.c. 

Statius,  (ACHILLES.)     See  ESTAC.O. 

Statins,  sta'she-us,  |Fr.  STACK,  stSss,]  (PuiiLius 
PAPINIUS,)  a  Roman  poet,  born  at  Naples  about  60  A.D., 
was  a  son  of  an  eminent  grammarian  of  the  same  names. 
He  wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "Thebais,"  ("  Thebaid," 
in  12  books,)  "Sylvae,"  a  collection  of  poems  on  various 
subjects,  and  "  Achilleis,"  an  unfinished  epic  poem.  His 
poems  were  received  by  his  contemporaries  with  warm 
applause,  to  which  Juvenal  refers  in  his  Satire  VII. 
Modern  critics  prefer  his  "  Sylvse"  to  the  "Thebaid," 
which  is  deficient  in  creative  energy.  Died  about  100  A.D. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale." 

Sta'tor,  [i.e.  "he  who  stops  or  stays,"]  a  surname 
given  to  Jupiter  by  the  Romans,  because  he  stopped  or 
stayed  them  when  they  were  retreating  from  the  Sabines. 
Romulus  erected  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome. 

Staudeiimaier,  stow'den-mT'er,  (FRANZ  ANTON,)  a 
German  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at  Danzdorf, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1800,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  about  1830. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Spirit  of 
Christianity,"  (1835,)  and  a  systematic  treatise  on  the 
ology,  entitled  "Die  Christliche  Dogmatik,"  (4  vols., 
1844-52.)  Died  in  1856. 

Staudigel,  stow'de-gel,  or  Staudigl,  (Ui.RiCH,)  a 
learned  German  monk,  born  at  Landsberg  in  1644.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Logica  Practica,"  (1686.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Staudlin  or  Staeudlin,  stoid-leen',  (!<ARL  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Stutt 
gart  in  1761,  became  professor  at  Gottingen  in  1790.  He 
published  numerous  works  on  religion,  morals,  and 
ecclesiastical  history.  Died  in  1826. 

Staughton,  staw'ton,  (WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
divine  and  popular  preacher,  born  in  Warwickshire, 
England,  in  1770.  Having  emigrated  to  America,  he 
became  in  1805  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  at 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1823  was  appointed  president  of 
Columbian  College,  Washington.  Died  in  1829. 

Staun'ford  or  Stan'ford,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  Eng 
lish  lawyer,  born  at  Hadley  in  1509.  He  became  a  judge 
of  common  pleas  in  1554,  and  wrote  "  Placita  Coronae." 
Died  in  1558. 

Staun'ton,  (Sir  GEORGE  LEONARD,)  a  distinguished 
diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Cargin,  in  Ireland,  in 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat:  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ST4UNTON 


2059 


STEFANO 


1737.  Having  studied  medicine  at  Montpellier,  he  re 
sided  for  some  years  at  Granada,  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lord  Macartney, 
Governor  of  the  island.  He  accompanied  that  noble 
man,  who  had  been  appointed  Governor  of  Madras,  as 
his  secretary,  and  while  in  India  negotiated  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Tippoo  Sultan,  (1784,)  and  was  employed  in 
other  important  missions.  In  1792  Lord  Macartney  and 
Sir  George  were  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  court  of 
Peking.  He  published  "An  Authentic  Account  of  an 
Embassy  from  the  King  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Emperor 
of  China,"  which  is  still  regarded  as  a  standard  work. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  G.  L.  Staimton."  1823,  by 
G.  T.  STAUNTON;  "Monthly  Review"  tor  September,  October,  and 
November,  1797. 

Staunton,  (Sir  GEORGF.  THOMAS,)  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1781.  In  1816  he 
accompanied  Lord  Amherst  on  his  embassy  to  China, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Chinese 
language.  He  published  "  Miscellaneous  Notices  re 
lating  to  China,"  etc.,  (1822.)  and  translated  the  criminal 
code  of  China  into  English.  Died  in  1859. 

Staupitius.     See  STAUPITZ. 

Staupitz,  stow'pits,  [Lat.  STAUPI'TIUS,]  (JOHN,)  cel 
ebrated  as  the  friend  and  patron  of  Luther,  was  vicar- 
general  of  the  order  of  the  Augustines  in  Germany.  He 
was  the  author  of  Latin  treatises  "  On  the  Love  of 
God"  and  "On  Christian  Faith."  Died  in  1524. 

See  ARNOLD,  "  Ketzer-Historie ;"  GEUDKR,  "Vita  J.  Staupitii," 
1837  ;  L.  W.  GRIMM,  "  Dissertatio  de  J.  Staupitio,"  1837. 

Stavely,  stav'le,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  lawyer,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Churches  in  England," 
(1712.)  Died  in  1683. 

Stay,  stl,  (BENEDETTO,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ra- 
gusa  in  1714,  was  a  priest.  lie  wrote  poems  on  natural 
philosophy,  entitled  "  Modern  Philosophy,"  ("  Philoso- 
phia  recentior,"  3  vols..  1655-92,) -and  ""Philosophy  in 
Verse,"  ("Philosophia  Versibus  tradita,"  1744.)  Died 
in  1801. 

Stayner.     See  STAIN KR. 

Steb'bing,  (HENRY,)  an  English  divine  and  theolo 
gian,  was  engaged  in  the  Bangorian  controversy.  Died 
in  1763. 

Stebbing,  (HENRY,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
about  1800.  He  published  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
(3  vols.,  1831,)  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  (2 
vols.,  1833-34,)  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation,"  (2  vols., 
1836,)  and  other  works.  He  became  rector  of  Saint 
•Mary  Somerset,  in  or  near  London,  about  1857. 

Sted'man,  (JOHN  GABRIEL,)  a  Scottish  officer,  born 
in  1745,  served  in  the  Dutch  army,  and  wrote  a  "  Nar 
rative  of  an  Expedition  against  the  Revolted  Negroes 
of  Surinam."  Died  in  1797. 

Steed'man,  (JAMES  11, )  an  American  general,  born 
in  Union  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1820.  He  became 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  summer  of  1862,  served  at 
the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September,  1863,  and  com 
manded  a  corps,  or  several  detachments,  at  the  battle 
of  Nashville,  December  15  and  16,  1864. 

Steele,  (FREDERICK,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Delhi,  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  which  assaulted 
Vicksburg,  May  22,  1863.  He  took  Little  Rock  on  the 
Qth  or  loth  of  September.  In  March,  1864,  he  moved 
his  army  from  Little  Rock  towards  Shreveport,  designing 
to  co-operate  with  General  Banks ;  but  that  design  was 
frustrated. 

Steele,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  a  popular  essayist  and  dram 
atist,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1671.  He  was  educated 
at  Merton  College,  and  became  in  early  life  a  friend  of 
Addison.  After  he  left  college  he  was  an  ensign  in  the 
guards.  He  produced  "  The  Christian  Hero"  in  1701, 
and  a  comedy  called  "  The  Funeral,  or  Grief  a  la  Mode," 
(1702.)  His  comedy  of  "The  Tender  Husband"  was 
performed  in  1703.  In  1709  he  began  to  publish,  under 
the  assumed  name  of  "  Isaac  Bickerstaff,"  "  The  Tatler," 
a  series  of  periodical  essays,  to  which  Addison  was  a 
frequent  contributor.  The  "Tatler"  was  issued  three 
times  a  week,  with  great  success,  until  January,  1711. 
In  politics  Steele  was  a  zealous  Whig.  Steele  and  Ad 


dison  were  associated  as  editors  of  the  "  Spectator," 
which  was  published  daily  from  March  i,  1711,  to  De 
cember  6,  1712.  They  afterwards  produced  another 
series  of  essays,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Guardian," 
(1713.)  Steele  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1713,  and 
expelled  in  1713  or  1714  for  writing  "The  Crisis,"  a 
political  pamphlet.  He  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the 
royal  stables  in  1715,  and  commissioner  of  forfeited 
estates  in  Scotland.  In  1722  he  produced  a  successful 
comedy  called  "The  Conscious  Lovers."  He  involved 
himself  in  debt  and  trouble  by  his  improvidence  ami 
expensive  habits.  "  He  was,"  says  Mrs.  Barbauld,  "a 
character  vibrating  between  virtue  and  vice."  He  was 
a  sprightly  and  genial  writer,  rather  negligent  in  style. 
Died  in  1729. 

See  H.  R.  MONTGOMERY,  "Life  of  Sir  Richard  Steele,"  1864; 
MACAULAY,    "Essays,"  article   "Addison;"    DRAKE,   "Essays;" 


thors. 

Steell,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  at  Aberdeen 
in  1804.  Among  his  works  are  a  marble  statue  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  at  Edinburgh,  and  a  marble  statue  of  Lord 
Jeffrey. 

Steen,  stan,  (JAN,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1636.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Brouwer,  and 
subsequently  of  Van  Goyen,  whose  daughter  he  married. 
Many  of  his  master-pieces  are  tavern-scenes,  which  he 
represented  with  unrivalled  fidelity,  and  with  which  his 
occupation  as  landlord  made  him  familiar.  He  died 
in  1689,  in  extreme  poverty,  caused  by  his  dissipated 
habits. 

See  VAN  WESTRHEENEN,  "Jan  Steen,"  1856. 

Steen,  van  den,  (CORNELIS.)     See  LAPIDE. 

Steenbock,  (MAGNUS,)  COUNT.     See  STENBOCK. 

Steenstrup,  stan'strup,  (JOHANN  JAPHET  SMITH,)  a 
Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Vang  in  1813.  He  published 
several  works. 

Steenwyk  or  Steenwijk,  stan'wik,  (HENDRIK,) 
THE  ELDER,  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Steen 
wyk  in  1550.  He  was  a  pupil  of  De  Vries.  His  inte 
riors  of  Gothic  churches  are  exceedingly  admired  for 
the  perfect  disposition  of  light  and  shade  and  the  know 
ledge  of  chiaroscuro  which  they  display.  Died  in  1604. 

Steenwyk,  (HENDRIK,)  THK.  YOUNGER,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1588.  He  was  instructed  in 
painting  by  his  father,  and,  like  him,  excelled  in  archi 
tectural  views  and  interiors  of  churches  and  palaces. 
He  was  introduced  by  his  friend  Van  Dyck  to  the  court 
of  England,  where  he  was  extensively  patronized.  His 
wife  was  also  celebrated  as  a  painter.  Died  after  1642. 

Steers,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  naval  constructor, 
born  in  1821.  He  built  the  famous  yacht  America,  the 
steam-packet  Adriatic,  and  the  United  States  steam- 
frigate  Niagara.  He  died  on  Long  Island  in  1856. 

Stee'vens,  (GEORGE.)  an  English  critic,  born  at 
Stepney  in  1736.  He  published  in  1766  "Twenty  of 
the  Plays  of  Shakspeare,  being  the  Whole  Number 
printed  in  Quarto  during  his  Lifetime,"  etc.  He  was 
afterwards  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  preparing  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  which  came  out  in  1773.  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  Nichols's  "  Biographical  Anec 
dotes  of  Hogarth"  and  the  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 
Died  in  1800. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1780. 

Stefaneschi,  stef'a-neVkee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,) 
a  Florentine  historical  painter,  born  in  1582;  died  in 
1659. 

Stefani,  de,  da  stSTa-nee  or  sta'fa-nee,  (TOMMASO,) 
one  of  the  earliest  Neapolitan  painters,  was  born  about 
1230.  None  of  his  works  have  been  preserved. 

Stefano,  steTa-no,  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  Fio- 
RENTINO,  born  at  Florence  in  1301,  was  a  grandson  and 
pupil  of  Giotto.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  artist 
who  attempted  foreshortening.  Died  in  1350. 

Stefano,  di,  dee  ste7'a-no,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  GIOTTINO,  born  in  1324,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His  style  strongly 
resembles  that  of  Giotto.  Died  in  1356. 


as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this, 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STEPFANI 


2060 


STELLA 


Steffani,  stef'fi-nee,  (AcoSTlNO,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Castel-Franco  about  1650.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  father  of  George 
I.  of  England,  who  appointed  him  manager  of  the  Opera 
in  Hanover.  He  composed  operas,  madrigals,  and  duets. 
The  last-named  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  their 
kind.  Died  in  1729. 

See  FETIS,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 
Steffens,  stef'fens,  (HEINRICH,)  an  eminent  Norwe 
gian  writer  and  philosopher,  bom  at  Stavanger  in  1773. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  after 
wards  visited  Jena,  where  he  became  an  earnest  advo 
cate  of  the  doctrines  of  Schelling,  who  intrusted  him 
with  the  revision  of  his  works  on  natural  philosophy. 
While  on  a  visit  to  Freiberg,  he  acquired  the  friend 
ship  of  Werner,  and  wrote  his  "  Geognostic-Geological 
Essays,"  which  in  1819  he  expanded  into  a  "Manual 
of  Oryctognosy,"  ("  Handbuch  der  Oryktognosie.")  In 
1804  he  was  offered  a  professorship  at  Halle,  where  he 
soon  after  embraced  the  cause  of  the  patriots  in  their 
resistance  to  French  domination,  and  entered  the  Prus 
sian  army  as  a  volunteer.  On  his  return,  in  1813,  he 
became  professor  of  physics  and  natural  history  at  Bres- 
lau,  and  in  1831  filled  the  same  chair  at  Berlin.  Among 
his  works  not  yet  mentioned,  we  may  name  "  Elements 
of  Philosophical  Natural  Science,"  (1806,)  "On  False 
Theology  and  True  Faith,"  (1824,)  "On  the  Secret  So 
cieties  of  the  Universities,"  (1835,)  and  "  Caricatures  of 
the  Holiest,"  ("  Caricaturen  des  Heiligsten.")  He  also 
published  religious  essays  of  a  Pietistic  character,  one 
of  which  is  entitled  "  How  I  became  again  a  Lutheran, 
and  what  Lutheranism  is  to  me,"  (1831.)  Steffens  like 
wise  wrote  several  novels  of  a  high  character,  entitled 
"The  Four  Norwegians,"  ("Die  vier  Norweger,"  6 
vols.,)  "The  Families  of  Walseth  and  Leith,"  (3  vols.,) 
and  "  Malcolm."  They  contain  fine  delineations  of  Nor 
wegian  character  and  manners,  and  beautiful  descriptive 
passages,  and  are  imbued  with  deep  religious  feeling. 
Died  in  1845. 

See  his  Memoirs,  called  "What  I  have  seen,"  (or  "  experienced,") 
("Was  ich  erlebte,")  10  vols.,  1840-44;  H.  GELZER,  "  Zur  Erinne- 
rung  an  H.  Steffens,"  1X45:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  GeneYale ;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1843;  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1843. 

Stefonio,  sta-fo'ne-o,  (BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  the  Papal  States  in  1560. 
He  was  the  author  of  tragedies,  orations,  and  epistles. 
Died  in  1620. 

Steibelt,  sti'belt,  (DANIEL,)  a  celebrated  German 
pianist  and  composer  for  the  piano,  was  born  at  Berlin 
in  1756.  He  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  became  imperial  chapel -master  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1823. 

Steigentesch,  sti'gen-tesh'.  (AUGUST,)  BARON,  a 
German  dramatist,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1774;  died 
in  1826. 

Stein,  stln,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTFRIED  DANIEL,)  a  Ger 
man  geographer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771,  published  a 
"Manual  of  Geography  and  Statistics,"  (1809,)  and 
other  works  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1830. 

Stein,  (JoHANN  ANDREAS,)  a  German  organist  and 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in 
1728  ;  died  in  1792. 

Stein,  (LUDWIG,)  a  distinguished  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  in  Sleswick  in  1813.  Having  studied  at 
Kiel  and  Jena,  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  became  ac 
quainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Fourier,  and  published  a 
work  entitled  "The  Socialism  and  Communism  of 
France  at  the  Present  Time,"  (1844.)  In  1846  he  be 
came  professor  at  Kiel,  and  the  same  year  brought  out, 
in  conjunction  with  Warnkonig,  a  "  History  of  French 
Jurisprudence."  He  also  wrote  a  "  System  of  Political 
Science,"  (1854.) 

Stein,  von,  fon  stln,  (HEINRICH  FRIF.DRICH  KARL,) 
BARON,  a  celebrated  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Nassau 
in  October,  1757.  He  studied  law  at  Gottingen,  and 
entered  the  service  of  Prussia  in  1778  as  director  of 
mines.  In  1786  he  visited  England,  the  institutions  of 
which  he  studied  with  much  interest.  Elaving  been 
appointed  president  of  the  Westphalian  Chambers  at 
Wesel,  Hamm,  and  Minden  in  1796  or  1797,  he  dis 


played  superior  administrative  talents.  He  was  minister 
of  commerce,  customs,  etc.  at  Berlin  from  180410  i8~>7, 
and  became  prime  minister  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
July,  1807.  He  resolved  to  "compensate  the  kingdom's 
loss  in  extensive  greatness  by  intensive  strength,"  and 
reorganized  the  political  system  of  Prussia  on  a  more 
liberal  basis.  Serfdom  and  feudal  privileges  were  abol 
ished.  These  and  other  reforms  constituted  what  was 
called  "  Stein's  system."  The  enmity  of  Napoleon  caused 
him  to  be  removed  from  office  in  November,  1808,  and 
exiled.  He  founded  the  Tugend-Bund,  ("  League  of 
Virtue,")  a  secret  society  to  promote  the  liberation  of 
Germany.  In  1813  he  was  chief  of  the  council  for  the 
administration  of  the  German  territories  which  had  been 
reoccupied  by  the  allies.  He  lost  his  influence  in  1815, 
and  retired  from  public  life.  Died  in  1831. 

See  PERTZ,  "  Leben  des  Freiherrn  von  Stein,"  5  vols.,  1855; 
"  Leben  des  Freiherrn  von  mid  zum  Stein,"  Leipsic,  2  vols.,  1841  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge'ne'rale;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
September,  1845. 

Steinbach,  von.     See  ERWIN  VON  STKINHACH. 

Steinbart,  stin'bakt,  (GOTTHKLF  SAMUEL,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian  of  the  rationalistic  school,  born  at  Ziil- 
lichau  in  1738;  died  in  1809. 

Steinbock.     See  STENHOCK. 

Steinbriick,  stin'bKuK,  (EDUARD,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1802.  He  worked  at  Dusseldorf 
from  1833  to  1846,  and  then  removed  to  Berlin. 

Steinia,  stin'la,  (MoRiTZ  MULLER,)  a  German  en 
graver,  born  at  Steinia  in  1791.  His  proper  name  was 
Muller.  He  engraved  Raphael's  "Massacre  of  the  In 
nocents"  and  "  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  ;"  also  some  works 
of  Titian  and  Holbein.  Died  at  Dresden  in  1858. 

Steinle,  stin'leh,  (JOHANN  EDUAKD,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Vienna  in  1810. 

Steinmar,  stln'mar,  a  German  minnesinger,  of  a 
Tyrolese  family,  lived  about  1250. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Steinmetz,  von,  fon  stln'mets,  (KARL  FRIF.DRICH,) 
a  German  general,  born  at  Eisenach  in  1796.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  in  France  in  1814,  and  entered  Paris  with 
the  army  of  the  allies.  In  1866  he  commanded  an  army 
corps  which  gained  victories  over  the  Austrians  at  Ska- 
litz  and  other  places.  The  Prussian  Chambers  in  the 
autumn  of  1866  voted  1,500,000  thalers  as  a  national 
recompense  to  six  men,  among  whom  was  General  von 
Steinmetz.  He  commanded  the  first  army  which  in 
vaded  France  in  August,  1870,  and  contributed  to  the 
great  victory  near  Metz  in  that  month.  He  was  re 
moved  from  command  about  the  1st  of  September. 

Steinwehr,  von,  fon  stln'waK,  (AnoLPH  WILHF.LM 
AUGUST,)  BARON,  a  general,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Bruns 
wick  in  1822.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  about 
1854,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun 
teers  in  October,  1861.  lie  commanded  a  division  at 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Stella/   See  JOHNSON,  (ESTHER.) 

Stella,  sti'lt',  ( ANTOINE  Bouzonnet — boo'zo'na',)  a 
French  painter,  a  nephew  of  Jacques,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Lyons  in  1637;  died  in  1682. 

Stella,  (CLAUDINE  BOUZONNET,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1636,  was  sister  of  the  preceding. 
She  died  at  Paris  in  1697. 

Stella,  sti'lt',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Malines  in  1563,  was  the  father  of  Jacques,  noticed 
below.  Died  at  Lyons  in  1605. 

Stella,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  painter,  born  at  Lyons  about 
1602,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  worked  in  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1647. 

Stella,  stel'la,  (Giui.io  CESARF.,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Rome  in  1564.  He  was  author  of  an  unfinished  poem 
on  the  discovery  of  Columbus,  (1585.)  Died  about  1624. 

Stella,  (JACQUES,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1596.  He  resided  many  years  in  Florence,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  II.  After 
his  return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king, 
and  obtained  the  cross  of  Saint  Michael,  and  other  dis 
tinctions.  He  was  a  friend  of  Poussin,  whose  style 
he  imitated.  Died  in  1657. 

See  FELIBIEN,  "  Entretiens ;"  FONTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des 
Artistes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate. " 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


STELLINI 


2061 


STEPHEN 


Stellini,  stel-lee'nee,  (JACOPO  or  GIACOPO,)  a  learned 
Italian  ethical  writer,  born  at  Cividale  di  Friuli  in  1699. 
He  was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Padua,  and 
wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1770. 

See  CARONEU.I,  "Vita  del  J.  Stellini,"  1784;  P.  COSSAI.I, 
"  Elogio  di  G.  Stellini,"  181 1  ;  FABRONI,  "Vits  Italorum  doctrina 
excellentuim." 

Stelliola,  stel-le-o'la,  (NiccoL6  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Nola  in  1547.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Naples,  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "II  Telescopic),"  (1627.) 
Died  in  1623. 

Stelluti,  stel-loo'tee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Fabriano  in  1577,  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Lincei.  Among  his  works  is  "  II 
Parnasso,"  a  canzone,  (1631.)  Died  after  1651. 

Stenbock,  steVbok,  or  Steenbock,  (MAGNUS,)  a 
Swedish  commander  under  Charles  XII.,  was  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1664.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Narva,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Danes  at  Helsingborg  in  1710.  Being  afterwards  be 
sieged  in  the  fortress  of  Tonningen  by  the  Russian, 
Danish,  and  Saxon  army,  he  was  forced  to  capitulate, 
and  was  made  prisoner  by  the  King  of  Denmark.  He 
died  in  prison  in  1717,  leaving  a  narrative  of  his  life. 

See  GEIJER,  "  History  of  Sweden;"  GBZBLIUS,  "  Biographiskt- 
Lexicon  ;"  LOENBOM,  "  M.  Stenbocks  Lefverne,"  4  vols.,  1757-65; 
ENBERG,  "Areminne  ofver  M.  Stenbock,"  1X17;  OXENSTIERNA, 
"  M.  Stenbock  och  Villars  Sammanstallde,"  1790. 

Stendahl  or  Stendhal.     See  BEYLE. 

Steiio,  sta'no,  (MiCHKi.E,)  a  Venetian  ruler,  born  in 
1331.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1400.  Verona, 
Padua,  and  other  places  were  added  to  the  state  during 
his  administration.  Died  in  1413. 

See  DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Steiio,  sta'no,  (NICHOLAS.)  an  eminent  Danish  anat 
omist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1638.  He  studied  three 
years  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  which  he  entered  in 
1661,  and  afterwards  pursued  his  researches  in  Paris. 
About  1662  he  discovered  and  described  the  duct  of  the 
parotid  gland,  called  Steno's  duct.  He  made  other  dis 
coveries,  and  published  several  works,  (in  Latin,)  among 
which  are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Muscles  and  Glands," 
(1664.)  and  one  "On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,"  (1669.) 
He  became  a  Catholic  priest  in  1675,  after  which  he 
wrote  works  on  theology.  Haller  called  him  "magnus 
inventor."  Died  at  Schwerin  in  1687. 

See  MANNI,  "Vita  del  litteratissimo  Stenone,"  1775;  FABRONI, 
"Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium;"  HAI.LER,  "  Bibliotheca 
anatomica  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale." 

Sten'tor,  [Srevrop,]  a  Grecian  warrior  or  herald, 
who  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  whose  voice,  accord 
ing  to  Homer,  was  as  loud  as  the  combined  voices  of 
fifty  men. 

Stenzel,  stSnt'sel,  (GUSTAV  ADOLF  HARALD,)  a  Ger 
man  historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1792.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Germany  under  the  Frank- 
ish  Emperors,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1854. 

Stephani,  sta'fa-nee,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  educa 
tional  writer,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1761  ;  died  in  1850. 

Stephanie,  sta'fa-nee,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTLOB,)  a  Ger 
man  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1733  ;  died 
in  1798. 

Stephanus,  the  Latin  of  STEPHEN  and  ETIENNE, 
which  see. 

Steph'a-nus  [Ireipavof]  A-the-ni-en'sis,  a  Greek 
physician,  the  time  and  place  of  whose  birth  are  un 
known.  Among  his  extant  works  are  a  commentary  on 
the  "  Prognostics"  of  Hippocrates,  and  a  commentary  on 
one  of  the  works  of  Galen. 

Steph'anus  By-zan-ti'nus,  or  Stephen  of  By 
zantium,  [Fr.  ETIENNE  DE  BYZANCE,  a'te-Sn'  deh 
be'zoNss',]  a  Greek  writer,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
fifth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  geographical  dic 
tionary,  entitled  "  Ethnica,"  of  which  only  an  abridgment 
is  extant,  and  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
work  of  the  kind  ever  written. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  [Fr.  ETIENNE,  a'te-en';  It.  STE- 
FANO,  st§f'a-no,]  the  first  Christian  martyr,  was  one  of 
the  seven  deacons  of  the  Christian  Church  at  Jerusalem. 
Being  charged  by  the  Jews  with  blasphemy,  he  was 


stoned  to  death.     The  time  of  this  event  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  35  to  37  A.D. 

See  Acts  vi.,  vii. 

Stephen  [Lat.  STEPH'ANUS]  I.  succeeded  Lucius  as 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  253  A.D.  He  was  engaged  in  a  con 
troversy  with  Cyprian  on  the  baptism  of  heretics.  He 
died  in  257  A.D. 

Stephen  II.,  chosen  pope  in  752  A.D.,  died  three 
days  after  his  election,  and  is  not  generally  mentioned  in 
the  series  of  the  popes. 

Stephen  III.,  sometimes  called  Stephen  II.,  (see 
preceding  article,)  was  elected  pope  in  752  A.D.  Astol 
phus,  King  of  the  Longobards,  having  threatened  Rome, 
Stephen  solicited  the  aid  of  Pepin,  King  of  the  Franks, 
who  marched  into  Italy,  defeated  Astolphus,  and  com 
pelled  him  to  give  up  the  district  (Exarchate)  of  Ravenna, 
and  other  provinces  previously  conquered  by  him.  In 
755  Astolphus,  with  a  recruited  army,  again  attacked 
Rome,  but  was  finally  driven  back  by  Pepin,  who  con 
ferred  upon  the  Roman  See  Pentapolis  and  the  Exarch 
ate  of  Ravenna.  Stephen  died  in  757,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Paul  I. 

Stephen  IV.,  a  native  of  Sicily,  became  pope  in  768 
A.D.  During  his  pontificate  the  Longobards  again  took 
possession  of  portions  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna. 
He  died  in  772,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  I. 

Stephen  V.  was  elected  pope  in  816  A.D.  His  pon 
tificate  was  marked  by  no  important  events,  and  he  died 
within  a  year  after  his  consecration. 

Stephen  VI.  succeeded  Adrian  III.  as  Pope  of  Rome 
in  885.  In  the  quarrel  between  Guido,  Duke  of  Spoleto, 
and  Berengarius,  Duke  of  Friuli,  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  former,  whom  he  crowned  King  of  Italy  in  891. 

Stephen  VII.  succeeded  Benedict  VI.  in  896.  He 
annulled  the  acts  and  decrees  of  Formostis,  one  of  his 
predecessors,  and  a  political  opponent,  and  caused  his 
remains  to  be  treated  with  dishonour.  In  897  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  strangled  by  the  friends  of 
Formosus. 

Stephen  VIII.  succeeded  Leo  VI.  in  928.  He  died 
in  930,  and  was  followed  by  John  XL,  son  of  Marozia, 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.  (See  MAROZIA.) 

Stephen  IX.  was  elected  pope  in  939,  and  died  in 
942.  He  was  succeeded  by  Martin  III. 

Stephen  X.,  brother  of  Godfrey,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
was  elected  pope  in  1057.  Under  his  rule  occurred  the 
schism  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches,  and  a 
long  controversy  was  carried  on  concerning  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy.  Died  in  1058. 

Stephen,  SAINT,  King  of  Hungary,  born  at  Gran 
about  979,  vvas  the  son  of  a  chief  named  Geysa.  He 
was  instructed  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  in  995  married 
the  sister  of  the  emperor  Otho  III.  He  was  crowned 
in  1000  first  King  of  Hungary,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
pope.  During  his  reign  Christianity  was  firmly  estab 
lished  in  his  country.  Died  in  1038. 

Stephen  II.,  King  of  Hungary,  was  the  son  of  Kolo- 
man,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1114.  He  carried  on 
unsuccessful  wars  with  Poland,  Austria,  and  Russia,  and 
in  1131  abdicated  his  throne  in  favour  of  a  relative 
named  Bela.  He  died  in  a  monastery  in  the  same  year. 

Stephen  III.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  crowned  in 
1161,  but  he  was  soon  forced  to  resign  in  favour  of  his 
uncle  Ladislaus,  whose  claims  were  supported  by  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Stephen  IV.  became  .King  of  Hungary  on  the  death 
of  Ladislaus,  in  1161.  His  subjects,  however,  soon  re 
volted  against  him,  and  restored  Stephen  III.  to  the 
throne.  Stephen  IV.  died  in  1163,  and  his  nephew, 
Stephen  III.,  in  1173. 

Stephen  V.  succeeded  his  father  Bela  in  1270  as 
King  of  Hungary.  He  carried  on  war  with  the  Bohe 
mians  and  Bulgarians,  and  died  in  1272. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  [Lar.  STEPH'ANUS;  Fr.  ETIENNE, 
a'te-Sn',]  King  of  England,  born  in  France  in  1105,  was 
a  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois.  His  mother,  Adela, 
was  a  daughter  of  William  the  Conqueror.  He  ren 
dered  himself  popular  in  England  by  his  martial  courage, 
and  became  a  competitor  for  the  crown  at  the  death 
of  Henry  I.,  in  1135,  although  that  king  had  designated 
his  daughter  Matilda  as  his  successor.  Stephen  was 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

128 


anations,  p.  23.) 


STEPHEN 


2062 


STEPHENSON 


recognized  as  king  by  a  large  portion  of  the  people,  and 
a  civil  war  began  in  1139.  In  1153  Prince  Henry,  a  son 
of  Matilda,  came  from  Normandy  with  an  army.  The 
contest  was  decided  by  an  agreement  that  Stephen 
should  retain  the  throne  until  his  death,  and  that  Henry 
should  succeed  him.  Died  in  1154. 
See  HUME,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  vii. 

Stephen,  KING  OF  POLAND.     See  IUTHORI. 

Stephen  of  Muret,  [Fr.  ETIENNE  DE  MURET, 
a'te-en'  deh  mu'r£',]  SAINT,  a  French  monk,  born  in 
Auvergne  in  1048.  He  founded  a  monastery  at  Muret. 
Died  in  1124. 

Stephen  of  Tournay.    See  UTIENNE  DE  TOURNAY. 

Ste'phen,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  brother  of  Sir  James,  no 
ticed  below,  was  born  about  1794.  He  published  "The 
Jesuit  at  Cambridge,"  "Adventures  of  an  Attorney," 
and  several  other  works. 

Stephen,  (JAMES,)  an  English  lawyer  and  philan 
thropist,  born  in  Dorsetshire.  He  was  an  earnest  advo 
cate  of  African  emancipation,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
planned  the  system  of  the  continental  blockade  during 
the  French  war.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  War 
in  Disguise,  or  the  Frauds  of  Neutral  Flags."  He  be 
came  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Tralee,  and  for  many 
years  held  the  post  of  a  master  in  chancery.  Died  in 
1832. 

Stephen,  (Sir  JAMES,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  writer  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  about  1790.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  rose  through  various  offices  to  be  per 
manent  tinder-secretary  to  the  colonial  department,  which 
post  he  filled  with  eminent  ability.  He  was  appointed 
in  1849  regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge. 
He  published  "  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography," 
originally  published  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  "  Lec 
tures  on  the  History  of  France,"  (1851,)  and  other  works, 
which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1859. 

Stephen,  sta'pen,  (JoiiN,)  a  Danish  professor  of  his 
tory,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1599;  died  in  1650. 

Stephens,  (celebrated  printers.)     See  ETIENNE. 

Stephens,  stee'venz,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  writer, 
born  at  Elgin  in  1757,  published  "Memoirs  of  Home 
Tooke,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1821. 

Stephens,  stee'vens,  (ALEXANDER  H.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Taliaferro  county,  Georgia,  in  1812. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Whig  party  in  1843, 
and  continued  in  office  till  1859.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  advocates  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  was 
active  in  promoting  the  passage  of  the  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  Act  of  1854.  He  subsequently  joined  the 
Democratic  party,  and  supported  the  measures  of  Presi 
dent  Buchanan.  He  opposed  the  secession  of  Georgia 
in  1860,  but,  having  subsequently  joined  the  secession 
ists,  was  elected  in  1861  Vice-President  of  the  Confede 
rate  States.  He  published  "A  Constitutional  View  of 
the  War  between  the  States,"  (1870.) 

Stephens,  (Mrs.  ANN  SOPHIA  W.,)  a  popular  Ameri 
can  novelist,  born  at  Derby,  Connecticut,  in  1813.  She 
has  published  "The  Heiress  of  Greenhurst,"  "  The  Old 
Homestead,"  "  Fashion  and  Famine,"  (1854,)  and  con 
tributed  numerous  tales  to  "Graham's  Magazine"  and 
other  periodicals. 

Stephens,  (HENRY,)  a  Scottish  writer  on  agriculture, 
born  in  Bengal  in  1795,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh. 
He  published  "The  Book  of  the  Farm,"  (3  vols.,  1844,) 
and  other  works. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1849  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  lor  May,  1851. 

Stephens,  stee'vens,  (JAMES  FRANCIS,)  an  English 
entomologist,  born  in  Sussex  in  1792.  He  was  the 
author  of  "The  Systematic  Catalogue  of  British  Insects," 
"A  Manual  of  the  British  Coleoptera,"  and  "  Illustra 
tions  of  British  Entomology,"  (lovols)  The  last-named 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the 
kind.  He  was  president  of  the  Entomological  Society, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  Society.  Died  in  1852. ' 

Stephens,  (JEREMY,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1592.  He  became  rector  of  Wotton,  and 
published  several  works.  Died  in  1665. 

Stephens,  (JOHN  LLOYD,)  an  American  traveller, 
born  at  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  in  1805.  He  published 


in  1837  "Incidents  of  Travel  in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petrsea, 
and  the  Holy  Land,"  which  was  followed  in  1838  by 
"Travels  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,"  etc.  Being  ap 
pointed  in  1839  ambassador  to  Central  America,  he 
brought  out,  after  his  return,  "  Incidents  of  Travel  in 
Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan,"  (1841,)  and 
"Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan,"  (1843,)  illustrated  by 
Catherwood.  These  works  obtained  great  popularity 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  and  the  two  last- 
named  are  esteemed  among  the  most  valuable  contribu 
tions  to  American  antiquities.  Mr.  Stephens  was  elected 
president  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  about  1850. 
Died  in  1852. 

See  Au.imiNE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  December,  1841  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1842; 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,' 1841,  and  July,  1843. 

Stephens,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  antiquary,  entered 
a  college  at  Oxford  in  1681,  and  was  appointed  royal 
historiographer.  lie  published  the  "Letters"  of  Lord 
Bacon.  Died  in  1732. 

Stephenson,  stee'ven-son,  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent 
English  engineer,  and  inventor  of  the  locomotive  engine, 
was  born  at  Wylain,  in  Northumberland,  June  9,  1781. 
His  father  was  a  fireman  of  a  colliery,  and  was  unable 
to  give  his  children  an  education  at  school.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen,  George  became  an  assistant  fireman  in  the 
colliery.  He  learned  to  read  and  write  at  a  night-school. 
Having  been  promoted  to  the  office  of  brakesman,  he 
married  Fanny  Henderson  about  1802.  He  exercised 
his  mechanical  skill  in  mending  clocks,  studied  me 
chanics,  and  acquired  a  knowledge  of  steam-engines. 
In  1812  he  became  chief  engineer  of  Killingworth  Col 
liery.  His  first  locomotive  engine  was  completed  in 
July,  1814,  and  drew  eight  loaded  cars  four  miles  an 
hour.  He  made  another,  with  important  improvements, 
and  applied  the  steam  blast-pipe,  in  1815,  and  soon  after 
that  date  improved  the  construction  of  the  railway.  In 
1822  he  was  employed  to  construct  a  railway  from  Stock 
ton  to  Darlington,  which  was  opened  in  1825  ami  was 
the  first  railway  made  for  public  use.  About  1824  Mr. 
Stephenson  and  Edward  Pease,  of  Darlington,  established 
a  manufactory  of  locomotives  at  Newcastle.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway, 
finished  in  1830,  not  without  violent  opposition  from 
land-owners  and  others.  A  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds, 
offered  by  the  directors  of  this  railway  for  the  best  loco 
motive,  was  awarded  to  the  "  Rocket,"  made  by  George 
Stephenson  and  his  son  Robert,  (1830.)  This  engine  is 
said  to  have  run  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour,  to 
the  great  amazement  of  the  public.  He  was  employed 
as  engineer  of  the  Grand  function  Railway,  of  that  which 
connects  London  with  Birmingham,  and  of  others.  His 
latter  years  were  spent  in  the  superintendence  of  exten 
sive  coal-mines  which  he  owned.  Died  at  Tapton  in 
August,  1848. 

"  By  patient  industry,"  says  Smiles,  "  and  laborious 
contrivance,  he  was  enabled  to  do  for  the  locomotive 
what  [ames  Watt  had  done  for  the  condensing  engine. 
He  found  it  clumsy  and  inefficient;  and  he  made  it 
powerful,  efficient,  and  useful."  "  Men  in  the  best  ranks 
of  life  have  said  of  him  that  he  was  one  of  Nature's 
gentlemen." 

See  S.Mti.Es,  "Life  of  George  Stephenson,"  1859;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1857. 

Stephenson,  (ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  engineer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Willington  in  October, 
1803.  He  studied  for  one  session  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  (1820-21,)  after  which  he  assisted  his  father 
in  the  construction  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Rail 
way,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  locomotives.  In  1824 
he  was  employed  in  South  America  as  inspector  of  gold- 
and  silver-mines.  He  returned  to  England  in  1827,  and 
became  associated  with  his  father  in  the  fabrication  of 
locomotives.  He  was  engineer  of  the  Leicester  and 
Swannington  Railway,  and  of  the  London  and  Birming 
ham  Railway  which  was  opened  in  1838.  He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  a  railway  engineer,  and  was  em 
ployed  as  such  in  various  foreign  countries.  Among  his 
greatest  works  are  the  viaduct  over  the  Tweed  at  Ber 
wick,  the  high  level  bridge  at  Newcastle,  the  Britannia 
tubular  bridge  over  Menai  Straits,  (1850,)  the  Victoria 


I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  mobrt; 


STEP  NET 


2063 


STEVENS 


tubular  bridge  at  Montreal,  finished  about  1860,  and  a 
railway  connecting  Cairo  with  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  He 
was  fleeted  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Whitby  in  1847. 
Died  in  October,  1859. 

See  SMILES,  "Lives  of  the  Engineers;"  J.  C.  JEAFFRESOX, 
"Lite  of  Robert  Stephenson,"  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1859. 

Step'iiey,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  diplomatist  and 
poet,  born  at  Westminster  in  1663.  Me  was  employed 
in  embassies  to  Germany,  Poland,  and  the  States-Gene 
ral,  (Netherlands.)  He  was  the  author  of  several  origi 
nal  poems,  and  assisted  Dryden  in  his  translation  of 
Juvenal.  "He  is,"  says  Johnson,  "a  very  licentious 
translator,  and  does  not  recompense  the  neglect  of  his 
author  by  beauties  of  his  own."  Died  in  1707. 

Sterbeeck,  van,  vfn  stex'bak,  (FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish 
botanist  and  priest,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1631.  He  pub 
lished  "Theatrum  Fungorum."  Died  in  1693. 

Ster'ling,  (EDWARD,)  a  journalist,  born  at  Waterford, 
in  Ireland,  in  1773.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  army  in  his 
early  life.  He  began  about  1812  to  write  for  the  London 
"Times,"  of  which  he  became  editor.  He  wrote  many 
political  editorials  for  that  journal,  and  supported  the 
Reform  bill  of  1832.  Died  in  1847. 

Ster'ling,  (JoHN,)  a  British  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  island  of 
Bute  in  1806.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Mr. 
(afterwards  Archdeacon)  Hare,  Monckton  Milnes,  and 
other  distinguished  men.  Having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  became  curate  of  Ilurstmonceaux,  in  Sussex,  in  1834. 
He  was  the  author  of  "Arthur  Coningsby,"  a  novel, 
(1833,)  "The  Election  ;  a  Poem,  in  Seven  Books,"  (1841,) 
"  Strafford,"  a  tragedy,  (1843,)  anc'  "Essays  and  Tales." 
He  numbered  among  his  friends  Coleridge  and  Thomas 
Carlyle,  and  his  Life  has  been  written  by  the  latter. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  T.  CARI.YLE,  "  Life  of  John  Sterling,"  1851  ;  "  Brief  Biogra 
phies,"  by  SAMUEL  SMILES;  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February, 
1848;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1848. 

Stern,  (DANIEL.)     See  AGOULT,  n'. 

Stern,  (MARIE  UK  FI.AVIGNY.)     See  AGOULT,  D'. 

Stemberg,  stei<i/beRG,  (ALEXANDER,)  BARON,  a 
celebrated  novelist,  born  in  Esthonia,  in  Russia,  in  1806, 
studied  at  Dorpat,  and  in  1830  settled  in  Germany. 
Among  his  most  popular  works,  which  are  written  in 
German,  we  may  name  "  The  Missionary,"  "  Diana," 
and  "  Saint  Sylvan." 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1837. 

Sternberg,  (KASPAR  MARIA,)  COUNT,  a  German 
naturalist,  and  president  of  the  Bohemian  National 
Museum,  born  in  1761  ;  died  in  1838. 

Sterne,  stern,  (LAURENCE,)  a  celebrated   humorist, 
born  at  Clonmel,  Ireland,  in  1713,  was  a  great-cjrandson  ! 
of  Richard    Sterne,   Archbishop  of  York.     His   father  ! 
was   a   lieutenant   in    the   army.     He   was   educated    at  | 
Cambridge,  which  he  entered  in  1733,  took  holy  orders,  i 
and  became  vicar  of  Sutton  about  1738.   He  was  inarmed  , 
in  1741.    Through  the  influence  of  an  uncle,  he  obtained  j 
a   prebend    in    York   Cathedral.     He   remained    nearly  ! 
twenty  years  at  Sutton,  and  acquired  a  sudden  celebrity  j 
by  the  publication  of  two  volumes  of  "Tristram  Shandy," 
(1759,)  a  humorous  story,  which  had  a  great  success.    In 
1760   he  published   two  volumes  of  sermons,  and   was 
appointed    curate   of  Coxwold,    Yorkshire.     The    poet 
Gray  praises  his  sermons,  as  showing  "a  strong  imagi 
nation  and  a  sensible  heart,"  but  adds,  "you  see  him 
[the  preacher]   often  tottering  on  the  verge  of  laughter, 
and  ready  to  throw  his  periwig  in  the  face  of  his  audi 
ence."    (See  Gray's  "  Letters.")     Sterne's  promotion  in 
the  Church  was  hindered  by  his  dissipated  or  irregular 
habits.     He  visited  Paris  and  other  parts  of  France  in 
1762-63,  and  published  the  ninth  volume  of  "Tristram 
Shandy"  in  1767.    Having  made  another  tour  in  France 
and  Italy,  he  produced  in  1768  his  "Sentimental  Jour 
ney,"  which    enjoyed   a  great   popularity.     He  died  in 
London  in  1768,  leaving  one  child,  a  daughter. 

Sterne  is  considered  one  of  the  most  humorous  and 
original  writers  in  the  language.  "His  wit,"  says  Haz- 
litt,  "is  poignant,  though  artificial;  and  his  characters 
(though  the  groundwork  of  some  of  them  had  been  laid 


before)  have  yet  invaluable  original  differences  ;  and  the 
spirit  of  the  execution,  the  master-strokes  constantly 
thrown  into  them,  are  not  to  be  surpassed."  ("Lectures 
on  the  English  Comic  Writers.") 

See  MEDALLE,  "Letters  of  Laurence  Sterne,  to  which  are  pre 
fixed  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  written  by  himself,"  3  vols.,  1775;  SIR 
WALTER  SCOTT,  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists:"  THACKERAY, 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Humourists:"  PERCY  FITZGERALD,  "  Life 
of  Laurence  Sterne,"  2  vols.,  1864;  JOHN  FKRRIAR,  "Illustrations 
of  Laurence  Sterne,  with  other  Essays,"  1798:  AI.I.IBONE,  "Dic 
tionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1854  : 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1864. 

Sterne,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Not 
tinghamshire  in  1596,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  York  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  assisted  in  revising  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Died  in  1683. 

Stern'hold,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Hampshire,  was  groom  of  the  robes  to  Henry  VIII. 
and  his  successor  Edward  VI.  He  is  chiefly  known 
from  his  English  version  of  the  Psalms,  of  which  he 
translated  fifty-one.  The  principal  part  of  the  remainder 
were  translated  by  John  Hopkins,  the  whole  being  pub 
lished  in  1562,  and  annexed  to  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Whole  Booke  of  Psalmes, 
collected  into  English  Metre,  by  T.  Sternhold,  J.  Hop 
kins,  and  others,"  etc.  Died  in  1549. 

Stesichore.     See  STESICHORUS. 

Ste-si-eh'o-rus,  [Gr.  Sr^cr/^opoc;  Fr.  STESICHORE, 
sta'ze'koR';  It.  STESICORO,  sta-se-ko'ro,]  a  celebrated 
Greek  poet,  born  at  Himera,  in  Sicily,  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  about  600  B.C.  He  is  styled  the  inventor 
of  choral  songs,  and  his  original  name  of  Tisias  was 
changed  to  Stesichorus  on  account  of  his  directing  the 
choruses  at  religious  festivals.  His  works,  of  which  only 
fragments  remain,  were  composed  in  the  language  of  the 
epic  poets,  with  a  mixture  of  Doricisms,  and  combine 
the  material  of  the  epic  poem  with  the  lyric  f>rm.  They 
are  warmly  eulogized  by  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  cither 
eminent  writers  of  antiquity.  He  died  about  555  B.C., 
aged  about  85. 

See  KLEINK,  "  De  Stesichori  Vita,"  1825:  FABRICIUS,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Grseca  ;"  F.  DE  BEAUMONT.  "  Memorii  sopra  Xanto.  Aris- 
tossene  e  Stesicoro,"  1835  :  K.  O.  MULLER,  "  History  of  the  Litera 
ture  of  Ancient  Greece  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ginerale." 

Steuart.     See  STEWART,  (Sir  JAMES.) 

Steubeii,  stu'ben,  [Ger.  pron.  stoi'ben,]  (FREDERICK 
WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS,)  BARON,  a  celebrated  general 
of  the  American  Revolution,  was  born  at  Magdeburg, 
Prussia,  in  1730.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  rose  to  be  adjutant-general  in 
the  king's  staff  in  1762.  In  1777  he  offered  his  services 
to  General  Washington  as  a  volunteer  in  the  American 
army.  He  was  appointed  major-general  in  1778,  and 
subsequently  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Mon- 
mouth  and  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  A  life-annuity  of 
$2500  was  voted  him  by  Congress  in  1790,  and  he  also 
received  16,000  acres  of  land  in  Oneida  county,  New 
York,  where  he  died  in  1794.  His  life,  written  by 
Francis  Bowen,  is  included  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography." 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1864. 

Steuben,  von,  fort  stoi'ben,  (KARL  WILHELM  AU 
GUST,)  BARON,  a  German  historical  painter,  born  near 
Mannheim  about  1790,  worked  in  Paris  and  in  Russia, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Nicholas. 
Among  his  works  are  "Napoleon's  Return  from  Elba," 
and  "  Esmeralda  and  Quasimodo."  Died  in  Paris  in  1856. 

Steuco,  ste-oo'ko,  [Lat.  STEU'CHUS,]  (AGOSTINO,)  an 
Italian  scholar,  born  at  Gubbio  in  1496.  He  succeeded 
Aleandro  as  prefect  of  the  Vatican  Library  in  1542.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.  Died  in  1549. 

See  NICERON',  "  Memoires." 

Ste'vens,  (ABEL,)  an  American  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1815.  He  has  edited  succes 
sively  several  religious  journals,  and  published,  among 
other  works,  "Memorials  of  the  Introduction  of  Meth 
odism  into  New  England,"  and  "  History  of  the  Re 
ligious  Movement  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  called 
Methodism,"  (1859.) 

Ste'vens,  (ALEXANDER,)  an  English  architect,  con 
structed  the  bridge  over  the  Liffey  at  Dublin,  and  other 
important  works.  Died  in  1796. 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


_-e  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STEVENS 


2064 


STEP  IN 


Ste'vens,  [Belgian  pron.  sta'vens,]  (ALFRED,)  a  Bel 
gian  painter,  horn  at  Brussels  about  1822.  He  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1851. 

Stevens,  (EmvARD,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia.  He  was  commended  by  General  Washington 
for  his  conduct  at  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  Ger- 
mantown,  September— October,  1777.  Died  in  1820. 

Stevens,  (GKORGE  ALEXANDER,)  an  English  actor 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  London,  was  the  author  of 
a  novel  entitled  "Tom  Fool,"  and  other  works  of  a 
comic  and  satirical  character.  Among  these  may  be 
named  a  "Lecture  on  Heads,"  "Distress  upon  Dis 
tress,"  a  burlesque  tragedy,  and  "The  Adventures  of  a 
Speculist."  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  popular  songs. 
Died  in  1784. 

Stevens,  (ISAAC  INGALLS,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  or  near  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1818,  gradu 
ated  at  West  Point  in  1839,  at  the  head  of  his  class. 
He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Washington  Territory 
in  1853,  and  resigned  in  1857.  In  September,  1861,  he 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers.  lie 
served  in  the  army  which  captured  Port  Royal,  South 
Carolina,  in  November,  1861,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  ensuing  summer,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Chantilly,  September  i,  1862. 

See  TENNEY,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
P-  734- 

Stevens,  (JoHN,)  an  American  mechanician,  born 
at  New  York  in  1749,  was  the  inventor  of  a  steamboat, 
which  he  exhibited  in  1804.  He  also  wrote  a  pamphlet 
giving  plans  for  a  railway  and  steam-carriages.  Died 
in  1838. 

His  son,  ROBERT  LIVINGSTON  STEVENS,  born  in 
1788,  also  distinguished  himself  as  an  inventor,  and 
made  numerous  improvements  in  steamboats.  Died 
in  1856. 

Stevens,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Belgian  painter,  a  brother  of 
Alfred,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Brussels  about  1819. 
He  has  resided  alternately  in  Brussels  and  Paris.  He 
excels  in  the  painting  of  animals,  especially  dogs. 

Stevens,  (RICHARD  JAMES  SAMUEL,)  an  English 
composer,  born  in  London  about  1750,  published  nu 
merous  songs  and  glees,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
master-pieces  of  their  kind.  Died  in  1837. 

Stevens,  (THADDEUS,)  an  eminent  American  legis 
lator,  distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born 
in  Caledonia  county,  Vermont,  on  the  4th  of  April, 
1793.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1814, 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  studied  law.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1833,  and 
re-elected  four  times  between  that  date  and  1841.  In 
April,  1835,  he  made  a  powerful  speech  for  common 
schools,  and  secured  the  triumph  of  a  system  to  which 
the  majority  of  the  legislature  had  been  hostile.  In 
1836  he  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which  revised 
the  Constitution  of  the  State.  He  settled  at  Lancaster 
about  1842,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by 
the  voters  of  the  ninth  district  in  1848.  He  acted  with 
the  Whig  party  while  that  party  survived,  and  was  re- 
elected  to  Congress  in  1850.  About  1855  he  joined  the 
Republican  party,  which  was  at  first  called  in  Pennsyl 
vania  the  People's  party.  He  represented  the  ninth  dis 
trict,  i.e.  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  Congress 
from  1858  to  1868.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  ways  and  means  in  the  Thirty-seventh  Congress, 
1861-63,  anc'  m  several  subsequent  terms.  In  Decem 
ber,  1861,  he  offered  a  resolution  that  all  slaves  who 
shall  leave  their  masters  or  aid  in  quelling  the  rebellion 
shall  be  declared  free.  After  the  end  of  the  civil  war 
he  became  the  most  prominent  and  influential  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  a  strenuous  opponent 
of  President  Johnson's  policy.  He  advocated  the  exten 
sion  of  the  right  of  suffrage  to  the  freedmen,  and  other 
measures  of  the  Radical  party.  Mr.  Stevens  and  Sena 
tor  Sherman  were  the  authors  of  the  bill  for  the  recon 
struction  of  the  seceded  States  which  was  passed  by 
Congress  in  the  session  of  1866-67  and  became  a  law 
notwithstanding  the  veto  of  the  President.  By  this  act, 
ten  of  the  Southern  States  were  divided  into  five  mili 
tary  districts,  and  each  district  was  subjected  to  the 
authority  of  a  military  commander  until  the  people  of 


those  districts  should  adopt  new  Constitutions  conceding 
impartial  suffrage.  Mr.  Stevens,  who  was  chairman  of 
the  joint  committee  on  reconstruction,  reported  in^eb- 
ruary,  1867,  the  original  bill,  which  Senator  Sherman 
modified  by  an  important  amendment.  He  advocated 
the  impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson  in  a  speech  on  the 
241)1  of  February,  1868,  and  was  a  member  of  the  com 
mittee  of  seven  then  appointed  to  prepare  and  report 
articles  of  impeachment.  He  was  also  one  of  the  seven 
members  elected  March  2,  1868,  as  managers  to  conduct 
the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  He  was  never 
married.  Died  at  Washington  in  August,  1868. 

"  lie  was  one  of  the  few  who  are  not  afraid  to  grasp 
first  principles  and  lay  hold  of  great  truths,  or  to  push 
them  to  their  remotest  logical  result."  (New  York 
"Times"  for  August  13,  1868.) 

Stevens,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer  on  religion, 
born  in  London  in  1732,  was  a  cousin  of  George  Ilorne, 
Bishop  of  Norwich.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Nature 
and  Constitution  of  the  Christian  Church,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1807. 

Stevens,  (WILLIAM  BARSHAW,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Abingdon  about  1755.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Retirement,"  a  poem,  and  of  a  collection  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1800. 

Ste'ven-son,  (ANDREW,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Culpepper  county,  Virginia,  in  1784.  He  studied 
law,  became  eminent  as  a  pleader,  and  represented  a 
district  of  Virginia  in  Congress  from  1821!  to  1834. 
During  this  period  he  was  thrice  elected  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  in  1827,  1829,  and  1831. 
He  was  minister  to  England  from  1836  to  1841.  He 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party.  Died  in  1857. 

Ste'ven-son,  (Sir  JOHN  ANDREW,)  an  Irish  composer, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1761.  He  produced  numerous  duets, 
songs,  and  anthems,  and  an  oratorio,  entitled  "The 
Thanksgiving."  Died  in  1833. 

Ste'ven-son,  (JoHN  HALL,)  an  English  satiric  poet, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1718,  was  a  friend  of  Laurence 
Sterne,  who  has  described  him  in  his  "Tristram  Shandy" 
under  the  name  of  "  Eugenius."  He  published  "Lyric 
Epistles,"  "  Fables  for  Grown  Gentlemen,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1785. 

Ste'ven-spn,(Roi;ERT,)an  eminent  Scottish  engineer, 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1772.  About  1796  he  became  en 
gineer  to  the  Northern  Light-House  Commissioners.  He 
began  in  1807  the  construction  of  the  Bell  Rock  Light- 
House,  off  Arbroath,  in  Forfarshire,  which  was  completed 
in  1811.  He  built  upwards  of  twenty  light-houses,  and 
was  employed  in  various  other  important  works  in  Scot 
land  and  England.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  suggestion 
of  malleable  iron  instead  of  the  cast-iron  rails  hitherto 
used.  Died  in  1850. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stevenson,  (THOMAS  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
about  1836,  was  a  son  of  the  Hon.  J.  Thomas  Stevenson, 
of  Boston.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  about 
the  end  of  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  when  he 
was  killed,  near  Spottsylvania,  May  10,  1864. 

See  TENNEY,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
P.  77S. 

Stevenson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1772,  held  a  situation  in  the  Treasury.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Pro 
gress  of  Discovery,  Navigation,  and  Commerce."  Died 
in  1829. 

Stevenson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Nottinghamshire,  was  proprietor  of  the  "  Norfolk 
Chronicle"  for  thirty-five  years.  Died  in  1821. 

Ste"v'in  [Fr.  pron.  sta'vaN']  or  Stevinus,  sta-vee'- 
nus,  (SlMoN,)  an  able  Flemish  engineer  and  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Bruges  about  1550.  He  was  employed  as 
civil  engineer  and  inspector  of  dykes  by  the  government 
of  Holland.  He  made  important  improvements  in 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  mechanics.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Treatise  on  Arithmetic,"  (1585,)  a  "Treatise  on 
Statics  and  Hydrostatics,"  (1586,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Navigation,"  (1599.)  Died  about  1620. 

See  GOETHALS,  "  Notice  historiqne  sur  la  Vie  de  S.  Stevin,"  1841  ; 
QUETELET,  "Simon  Stevin,"  1845;  STEICHEN,  "  Me'moire  sur  la 
Vie  de  Stevin,"  1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  5,  ii,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


STRAIN  US 


2065 


STIG4ND 


Stevinus.     See  STEVIN. 

Stew'art,  (CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1778.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  operations  against  Tripoli  in  1804, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1806.  In  1812  the 
government  of  the  United  States  adopted  the  over 
cautious  policy  of  withdrawing  all  their  vessels  of  war 
from  the  ocean,  but  Captain  Stewart  and  W.  Bainbridge 
induced  them  to  abandon  that  policy.  The  former, 
in  the  summer  of  1813,  took  command  of  the  frigate 
Constitution,  which  carried  fifty-two  guns.  He  cap 
tured  in  February,  1815,  the  British  ship  Cyane  and 
the  sloop  Levant,  for  %vhich  service  he  received  a  gold 
medal  from  Congress.  He  afterwards  rendered  impor 
tant  services  in  the  organization  of  the  navy,  and  during 
the  civil  war  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
Died  in  1869. 

Stewart,  (CHARLES  WILLIAM.)  See  LONDONDERRY. 
Stew'art,  (DuGALD,)  an  eminent  Scottish  professor 
of  moral  philosophy,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  22d 
of  November,  1753.  He  was  a  son  of  Matthew,  noticed 
below,  was  educated  at  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh, 
and  attended  the  lectures  of  Reid  at  Glasgow.  In  1772 
he  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Dreaming,"  and  became  an  as 
sistant  or  substitute  of  his  father  in  the  chair  of  mathe 
matics.  He  was  appointed  joint  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Edinburgh  in  1775,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Ferguson  as 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  university  in 
1785.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  didactic  orator, 
and  his  lectures  were  attended  by  many  students  from 
England,  and  even  from  the  continent.  He  promoted 
the  triumph  of  liberal  opinions  in  politics  by  his  influ 
ence  over  such  men  as  Lord  Brougham,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  Lord  John  Russell,  who  were  his  pupils.  In  1792 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  "Elements  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  which,  being  written 
in  an  elegant  and  attractive  style,  enjoyed  a  great  popu 
larity.  The  second  volume  appeared  in  1814,  and  the 
third  in  1827.  He  produced  "  Outlines  of  Moral  Phi 
losophy"  in  1793,  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Robertson"  in  1796, 
and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Reid"  in  1802.  On  account  of  his 
feeble  health,  he  resigned  the  active  duties  of  his  pro 
fessorship  in  1810.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "Phi 
losophical  Essay,"  (i  vol.,  1810,)  and  his  preliminary 
dissertation  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  entitled 
a  "General  View  of  the  Progress  of  Metaphysical, 
Ethical,  and  Political  Science  since  the  Revival  of  Let 
ters,"  which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  married  Helen 
Bannatyne  about  1783,  and  after  her  death  a  Miss  Crans- 
toun.  Died  at  Edinburgh  in  June,  1828. 

Referring  to  Stewart  as  a  lecturer,  Sir  Walter  Scott 
says,  his  "striking  and  impressive  eloquence  riveted  the 
attention  even  of  the  most  volatile  student."  "Perhaps 
few  men  ever  lived,"  says  Mackintosh,  "who  poured 
into  the  breasts  of  youth  a  more  fervid  and  yet  reason 
able  love  of  liberty,  of  truth,  and  of  virtue.  How  many 
are  still  alive  in  different  countries,  and  in  every  rank 
to  which  education  reaches,  who,  if  they  accurately 
examined  their  own  minds  and  lives,  would  not  ascribe 
much  of  whatever  goodness  and  happiness  they  possess 
to  the  early  impressions  of  his  gentle  and  persuasive 
eloquence!  .  .  .  Without  derogation  from  his  writings, 
it  may  be  said  that  his  disciples  were  among  his  best 
works."  Respecting  his  style,  the  same  able  writer 
observes,  "He  reminds  us  not  unfrequently  of  the 
character  given  by  Cicero  to  one  of  his  contemporaries, 
'  who  expressed  refined  and  abstruse  thoughts  in  soft  and 
transparent  diction.'  ...  It  would  be  difficult  to  name 
works  in  which  so  much  refined  philosophy  is  joined 
with  so  fine  a  fancy, — so  much  elegant  literature  with 
such  a  delicate  perception  of  the  distinguishing  excel 
lences  of  great  writers,  and  with  an  estimate  in  general 
so  just  of  the  services  rendered  to  knowledge  by  a  suc 
cession  of  philosophers." 

See  "General  Review  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy ;" 
CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
COUSIN,  "Cours  de  Philosophic  et  Fragments  philosophiqiies,"  also 
the  same  writer  in  the  ''Journal  des  Savants,"  1817;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1810,  September,  1816,  and  October,  1821  : 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815,  and  January,  1822; 
"North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858;  article  in  the  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1830,  (by  SIR  WILLIAM  HAMILTON  ;)  "  Black- 
wood's  Magazine,"  1828;  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica." 


Stewart  or  Steuart,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  Scottish  political 
economist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713,  was  a  Jacobite. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Wemyss.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  the  Pretender  in  1745,  he  was  exiled 
for  many  years.  lie  returned  about  1763,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of 
Political  Economy,"  (1767.)  Died  in  1780. 

Stew'art,  (JAMES  HALDANE,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  1775,  was  rector  of  Limpsfield,  in  Surrey.  He 
published  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1854. 

See  a  "  Life  of  J.  H.  Stewart,"  by  his  son,  1856. 

Stewart,   (JOHN,)   called   WALKING   STEWART,   an 
English  traveller,  born  in  London  before  1750.     He  per 
formed  journeys  on    foot   through   Hindostan,   Persia, 
|  Xubia,  etc.,  and  walked  back  to  England.     Died  in  Lon 
don  in  1822. 

See  DEQUINCEV'S  interesting  account  of  Stewart  in  his  "  Literary 
Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii. 

Stewart,  (MATTHEW,)  a  Scottish  mathematician, 
born  at  Rothsay,  in  the  Isle  of  Bute,  in  1717,  was  the 
father  of  Dugald  Stewart.  He  was  minister  of  the  parish 
of  Rosiieath,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  in  his  early  life. 
In  1747  he  succeeded  Maclaurin  as  professor  of  mathe 
matics  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  published 
"General  Theorems,"  etc.,  (1746,)  "Tracts,  Physical 
and  Mathematical,"  (1761,)  and  "Propositions  demon 
strated  by  the  Method  of  the  Ancients,"  (1762.)  He 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  geometry.  Died  in  1785. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stewart,  (Roi'.ERT.)     See  CASTLEREAGH,  LORD. 

Stewart  (or  Steward)  Family.     See  STUART. 

Sthen'e-lus,  [Gr.  Z0eve/u>c;  Fr.  STHENELE,  sta'nil',] 
a  king  of  Mycenae,  was  a  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda, 
and  the  father  of  Eurystheus. 

Sthenelus,  a  son  of  Capaneus,  was  one  of  the  Epi- 
goni,  (i.e.  the  sons  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  led  the  expe 
dition  against  Thebes.)  He  was  a  friend  of  Diomecle, 
under  whom  he  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  one 
of  the  band  inclosed  in  the  wooden  horse. 

Stiefel  or  Stifel,  stee'fel,  |Lat.  STIFF/LIUS,]  (MI 
CHAEL,)  a  German  mathematician,  born  at  Esslingen,  in 
Saxony,  in  1486.  He  was  a  Lutheran  minister,  and 
preached  at  various  places,  including  Lochau  and  Holts- 
dorf,  near  Wittenberg.  He  made  discoveries  in  algebra. 
His  principal  work  is  "  Arithmetica  Integra,"  (1544.) 
Died  in  1567. 

See  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Stieglitz,  steec'lits,  (CHRISTIAN  LUDWIG,)  a  German 
writer  upon  art,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1756,  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Architecture  from 
the  Earliest  Antiquity  to  Modern  Times,"  (  1827,) 
"Archaeology  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,"  and  "On  the  Pigments  used  by  Ancient 
Artists."  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  war  lyrics.  Died 
in  1836. 

Stieglitz,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Arolsen,  in  Waldeck,  in  1803,  was  the  author  of  poems 
and  dramatic  works.  Died  in  1849. 

Stieglitz,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  physician,  of  Jewish 
extraction,  was  born  at  Arolsen  in  1767.  He  published 
a  treatise  "On  Animal  Magnetism,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1840. 

Stieler,  stee'ler,  (ADOLF,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1775  '•>  died  '"  l^3^- 

Stier,  steeR,  (Wn.iiELM,)  a  German  architect,  born 
near  Warsaw  in  1799.  He  became  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  at  Berlin,  and  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  architects.  He  designed  the  cathedral 
of  Berlin  and  the  Athenaeum  of  Munich. 

Stiernhielm.     See  STJERNHJELM. 

Stifel.     See  STIEFEL. 

Stifelius.     See  STIEFEL. 

Stifter,  stif'ter,  (ADALBERT,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  in  Southern  Bohemia  in  1806,  wrote  novels,  poems, 
and  prose  essays.  "  He  is,"  says  Vapereau,  "one  of  the 
best  prose-writers  of  his  country." 

Stig'and,  a  Saxon  prelate  under  the  reigns  of  Ed 
ward  the  Confessor  and  William  the  Conqueror,  be 
came  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1052.  Having  been 
convicted  of  several  misdemeanours,  he  svas  deprived  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  kard;gzs,j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

130 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STIGANT 


2066 


STIRLING 


his  office  and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
but  he  died  soon  after  the  sentence  was  passed. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury." 

Stig'aiit,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer  and  lawyer, 
born  in  '1827.  Me  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Re 
view,"  and  published  a  collection  of  poems,  including  the 
"Vision  of  Barbarossa,"  (1860.) 

Stigliani,  stel-ya'nee,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Matera  in  1545.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
New  World,"  ("II  Mondo  nuovo,"  1617.)  Died  at 
Rome  in  1625. 

Stiglmaier  or  Stiglmayer,  stigl'mi'er,  (JOHANN 
BAPTIST,)  a  celebrated  German  brass-founder,  born  near 
Munich  in  1791.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819,  with  a  view 
of  perfecting  his  knowledge  of  the  art,  and  soon  es 
tablished  his  reputation  by  his  bust  of  Lewis,  King  of 
Bavaria,  after  Thorwaldsen's  model.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed,  in  1824,  superintendent  of  the  bronze- 
foundry  at  Munich.  Among  the  numerous  works  which 
he  executed  during  the  twenty  years  following,  are  the 
monument  of  Schiller  at  Stuttgart,  after  Thorwaldsen, 
the  fourteen  colossal  statues  of  the  Bavarian  princes  in 
the  new  palace  at  Munich,  after  Schwanthaler,  the  eques 
trian  statue  of  the  Elector  Maximilian,  after  Thorwald 
sen,  and  Schwanthaler's  colossal  statue  of  "  Bavaria,"  in 
front  of  the  Ruhmeshalle  at  Munich.  Died  in  1844. 

Stiles,  (EzRA,)  D.D.,  an  American  theologian  and 
scholar,  born  at  North  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1727. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1756  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church  at  Newport, 
Rhode  Island.  He  was  elected  in  1777  president  of 
Yale  College,  and  subsequently  professor  of  ecclesias 
tical  history.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Oriental  tongues,  and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most 
learned  of  American  divines.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  was  the  first  one  in  New  England 
who  made  experiments  in  electricity.  He  published  an 
"Account  of  the  Settlement  of  Bristol,"  (1785,)  "His 
tory  of  Three  of  the  Judges  of  Charles  I.,"  and  a  num 
ber  of  sermons  and  orations.  Died  in  1795. 

See  the  "Life  of  Ezra  Stiles,"  in  SPARKS'S  "American  Biogra 
phy,"  by  J.  L.  KINGSLEY,  vol.  vi.,  second  series  ;  SPRAGCB,  "  Annals 
of  the  American  Pulpit,"  vol.  i. 


Stil'I-eho,  [Gr.  ^TL'MX^V  ;  Fr.  STILICON,  ste'le'kiN',] 
(FLAVius,)  an  eminent  commander  of  the  Roman  armies, 
was  a  son  of  a  Vandal  officer.  He  rose  rapidly  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Persia  in  384  A.D.,  at  which  date  he  was  a  young  man. 
On  his  return  he  married  Serena,  a  niece  of  Theodosius 
I.,  and  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  He 
found  a  rival  and  dangerous  enemy  in  Rufinus,  the  chief 
minister  of  Theodosius.  In  394  Theodosius  appointed 
Stilicho  guardian  of  his  young  son  Honorius,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  Western  Empire.  Rufinus  at  the  same  time 
was  chief  minister  of  Arcadius,  Emperor  of  the  East. 
After  the  death  of  Theodosius,  (395,)  Stilicho  ruled 
with  unlimited  authority  at  Rome.  He  marched  against 
the  Goths,  who  had  invaded  Thrace,  and  who  were 
aided  by  the  treacherous  intrigues  of  Rufinus.  This 
rival  was  removed  by  assassination  in  395  A.n.  Stilicho 
drove  Alaric  out  of  the  Peloponnesus  in  396  A.n.  ;  but 
his  victorious  progress  was  checked  by  the  jealousy  of 
Arcadius,  who  made  a  treaty  with  Alaric  and  took  him 
into  his  own  service.  The  war  was  renewed  by  Alaric, 
who  invaded  Italy  about  402.  Stilicho  gained  a'decisive 
victory  over  him  at  Pollentia  (or  Polentia)  in  403,  soon 
after  which  the  Goths  retired  from  Italy.  It  is  stated 
that  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Alaric  against  Arca 
dius,  with  a  design  to  make  himself  master  of  both  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Empires.  In  406  he  defeated  a 
host  of  barbarians  who  invaded  Northern  Italy  under 
Radagaisus.  The  enemies  of  Stilicho  excited  the  fears 
and  suspicion  of  Honorius  against  him,  and  procured 
an  order  for  his  death.  He  was  massacred  at  Ravenna 
in  408  A.n. 

See  CI.AUDIAN,  "De  Laudibus  Stilichonis:"  GIBBON,  "  History 
of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  C.  F.  SCHUI.ZE, 
"  F.  Stilicho  em  Wallenstein  der  Vorzeit,"  1805;  LR  BEAU,  "His- 
toifedu  Bas-  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G6ierale." 

Stilicon.     See  STILICHO. 

Stilke,  stil'keh,  (HERMANN,)  a  German  historical 
painter,  born  in  Berlin  in  1803,  was  a  pupil  of  Cor 


nelius  at  Dusseldorf.  He  painted  many  religions  and 
mediaeval  subjects,  and  was  employed  by  the  King  of 
Prussia  to  adorn  with  frescos  a  hall  in  the  castle  of 
Stolzenfels. 

Still,  (JoHN.)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in  Lin 
colnshire  in  1543.  He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor 
at  Cambridge  in  1570,  and  was  afterwards  master  of 
Saint  John's  and  Trinity  Colleges.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1592.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  one  of  the  earliest  comedies  in 
the  English  language,  entitled  "A  Ryght  Pithy,  Pleas- 
aunt,  and  Merie  Comeclie,  intytuled  Gammer  Gurton's 
Nedle."  Died  in  1607. 

Stille,  stil'le,  (CHARLES  JANEWAY,)  LL.D.,  an  Amer 
ican  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1839.  He  published 
in  1862  a  well-timed  and  able  pamphlet,  entitled  "  How 
a  Free  People  Conduct  a  Long  War,"  (republished  in 
Littell's  "  Living  Age"  and  "  Harper's  Monthly  Maga 
zine.")  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his 
"  History  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission,'' 
etc.,  (1866.)  In  May,  1866,  he  was  elected  professor 
of  the  English  language  and  literature  in  the  Univer 
sity  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1868  provost  of  the  same 
institution.  ~ 

See  ALI.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Stille,  (KARL.)     See  DEMME. 

Stilling.     See  JUNG. 

Stil'ling-fleet,  (BENJAMIN,)  grandson  of  Edward 
StUlingfleet,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1702.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  travelled  on 
the  continent.  Among  his  publications  may  be  named 
"Miscellaneous  Tracts  on  Natural  History,"  being 
chiefly  translations  from  Linnaeus,  and  an  abridgment 
of  Tartini's  "Treatise  on  Music."  Died  in  1771. 

See  WILLIAM  COXK,  "Life  and  Works  of  Benjamin  Stilling- 
fleet,"  1811. 

Stillingfleet,  (EmVAKn,)  an  eminent  English  prel 
ate  and  polemical  writer,  born  at  Cranbotirn,  in  Dorset, 
in  April,  1635,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  became 
rector  of  Stitton  in  1657.  His  reputation  is  chiefly 
founded  on  his  " Origines  Sacrae,  or  Rational  Account 
of  the  Christian  Faith  as  to  the  Truth  and  Divine  Au 
thority  of  the  Scriptures,"  (1662.)  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  against  popery  and  the  nonconformists.  He 
was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Charles  II.,  and  was  ap 
pointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1678.  In  answer  to 
Baxter,  Howe,  and  Owen,  he  published  "The  Unrea 
sonableness  of  Separation,"  (1681.)  "Stillingfleet,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  was  renowned  as  a  consummate  master 
of  all  the  weapons  of  controversy."  ("  History  of  Eng 
land,"  vol.  ii.)  In  1685  he  produced  "Origines  Bri- 
tannicae,  or  Antiquities  of  the  British  Churches."  lie 
became  Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1689.  Died  in  1699. 

See  GOODWIN,  "  Life  of  E.  Stillingfleet,"  1710. 

Still'man,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1737.  He  settled  at 
Boston  as  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  and 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Brown  University,  and  was 
conspicuous  for  his  benevolence.  Died  in  1807. 

Stil'po,  [Gr.  ETL^-UV  ;  Fr.  STILPON,  stel'p6N',]  an 
eminent  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Megara,  lived  about 
325  or  300  H.C.  He  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  wisdom 
by  the  ancients,  and  attracted  a  large  number  of  dis 
ciples,  among  whom  were  Zeno  the  Stoic  and  Crates 
the  Cynic.  Little  is  known  about  his  life  or  doctrines, 
which  seem  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  Megaric 
school. 

See  DIOGENES  LARRTIUS;  MALLET,  "  Histoire  de  1'ficole  de 
Me'gare." 

Stilpon.     See  STILPO. 

Stirling,  EARL  OF.  See  ALEXANDER,  (WILLIAM.) 
Stir'ling,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born  in 
Stirlingshire  about  1690.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1729.  His  chief  work  is  entitled 
"The  Differential  Method,  or  Treatise  on  the  Summing 
Up  and  Interpolation  of  the  Infinite  Series,"  ("  Methoclus 
Differentialis,  sive  Tractatus  de  Summatione  et  Inter- 
polatione  Serierum  Infinitarum,"  1730.)  Died  about 
1770. 


a.  e,  T,  6,  ft,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tar,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moot.; 


STIRLING 


2067 


STOFFLER 


Stirling  or  Maxwell,  (\VIU.IAM,)  a  Scottish  writer 
and  statesman,  born  near  Glasgow  in  1818.  Having 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  he  visited  Spain,  where  he 
resided  several  years.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Perthshire  in  1852.  He  has  published  "Annals  of 
the  Artists  of  Spain,"  (1848,)  "The  Cloister-Life  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,"  (1852,)  and  "Velasquez  and  his 
Works,"  (1855.)  He  assumed  the  name  of  Maxwell  in 
1866. 

Stjernhjelm,  sh§Rn'he-ehn,  (GEORGE,)  a  Swedish 
savant  and  poet,  born  in  1598;  died  in  1672. 

Stjernhok  or  Stierrihoek,  sheRn'hok,  QAN,)  a 
Swedish  jurist,  born  in  Dalecatlia  in  1596.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  "On  the  Ancient  Law  of  the  Swedes  and 
Goths,"  ("  De  Jure  Sueonum  et  Gothorum  vetusto," 
1672.)  Died  in  1675. 

Stjernstolpe,  sheuns'stol-peh,  (JONAS  MAGNUS,)  a 
Swedish  litterateur,  born  in  the  province  of  Soderman- 
land  in  1777.  He  was  the  author  of  tales  in  verse,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  German,  French, 
English,  and  Spanish.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  and 
conversational  powers.  Died  in  1831. 

See  BESKOW,  "  Minnesord  ofver  J.  M.  Stjernstolpe,"  1833. 

Stobaeus,  sto-bee'us,  [Gr.  Zrofialof ;  Fr.  STOBEE, 
sto'ba',]  (JOANNES,)  a  Greek  writer,  born  at  Stobi,  in 
Macedonia,  lived  probably  between  350  and  500  A.D. 
He  made  a  collection  of  extracts  from  about  five  hun 
dred  Greek  authors,  in  prose  and  verse.  This  work  is 
divided  into  "Eclogre  Physicce  et  Ethicse,"  and"An- 
thologicon,  or  Sermones,"  and  is  of  great  value  as 
preserving  portions  of  authors  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  lost. 

See  FABKICIUS,  "  Ribliotheca  Graeca :"  JACOBS,  "  Lectiones  Sto- 
benses,"  1797;  BERING.  '•  Remarques  critiques  sur  Stobee,"  1833. 

Stobee.     See  STOB/EUS. 

Stobee,  sto-ba',  ?  (Kn.iAN,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  in  Scania  in  1690;  died  in  1742. 

Stober  or  Stoeber,  sto'ber,  (AUGUST,)  a  son  of 
Daniel,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1808.  He  published 
(in  German)  in  1852  "The  Traditions  of  Alsace." 

Stober  or  Stoeber,  (DANIEL  EHRENFRIED,)  born 
at  Strasbnrg  in  1779,  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems,  a 
"Life  of  Jeremias  J.  Oberlin,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1835. 

Stoccade,  sto'ktd',  (NICHOLAS  DE  HKLT  or  VAN 
HEI.T,)  a  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  at  Nymwegen 
in  1614.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Venice,  and  Paris.  His 
pictures  were  highly  prized. 

Stock,  (SiMON,)  an  English  Catholic,  who  became 
general  of'  the  order  of  Carmelites.  He  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Scapulary,  in  honour  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Died  in  1265. 

Stock'dale,  (PERCIVAL,)  REV.,  an  English  writer  on 
various  subjects,  born  in  1736  ;  died  in  iSil. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Percival  Stockdale,"  by  himself;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  iSog. 

Stockfleth,  stok'flet,  (NIELS  JOACHIM  CHRISTIAN,) 
a  Norwegian  missionary  to  Lapland,  born  at  Christiania 
in  1787.  He  translated  into  Lappish  portions  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  Luther's  "  Small  Catechism."  He 
also  wrote  a  "Lappish  Grammar,"  and  other  works. 

Stockhardt  or  Stoeckhardt,  stok'haRt,  (Juuus 
ADOLPH,)  a  German  chemist,  born  near  Meissen  in  1809. 
He  became  in  1847  professor  of  agricultural  chemistry 
at  the  Academy  for  Agriculture  and  Forest  Science  at 
Tharand. 

Stockmans,  stok'mans,  (PETER,)  a  Flemish  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1608.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  about  1663,  and  held  other 
high  offices  in  Flanders.  He  published  several  legal 
works.  Died  in  1671. 

See  C.  DE  BAVAV,  "  P.  Stockmans,  Jurisconsulte  Beige,"  1844. 

Stocks,  (JoHN  E.,)  an  English  physician  and  natural 
ist,  born  in  1822.  He  visited  India,  where  he  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  plants.  Died  in  1854. 

Stocks,  (LuMB,)  an  English  line-engraver,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1812,  He  engraved  plates  for  the  "Art 
Journal,"  and  Frith's  picture  of  Claude  Dnval. 

Stock'ton,  (RICHARD,)  an  American  patriot,  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 


near  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1730.  He  rose  to  distinc 
tion  as  a  lawyer,  and  was  appointed  in  1774  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1776.  Died  in  1781. 

His  daughter  JULIA  was  the  wife  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush. 

See  SANDERSON,  "  Biography  of  tlie  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Stockton,  (RICHARD,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  born  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1764,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1796  to  1799,  and  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  in  1813.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  bar  of 
New  Jersey  for  many  years.  Died  at  Princeton  in  1828. 

Stockton,  (ROBERT  FIELD,)  an  American  commo 
dore,  born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1796,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  served  in  several  naval  actions 
in  the  war  of  1812-14.  About  1823  he  cruised  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  captured  several  slavers.  He  be 
came  a  post-captain  in  1839.  He  gave  much  attention 
to  naval  architecture,  and  was  one  of  the  first  American 
officers  to  apply  steam  to  vessels  of  war.  The  sloop-of- 
war  Princeton,  which  was  finished  in  1844,  was  built 
according  to  his  plan,  and  was  a  very  successful  experi 
ment.  By  the  explosion  of  one  of  the  guns  of  the 
Princeton,  in  1844,  two  members  of  the  cabinet,  Gilmer 
and  Upshur,  were  killed.  He  obtained  command  of  the 
squadron  on  the  Pacific  coast  about  the  end  of  1845.  I" 
1846  he  conquered  California,  in  which  he  established  a 
provisional  government.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  for  six  years  by  the  legislature  of  New 
Jersey  in  1851.  Died  in  1866. 

Stockton,  (THOMAS  HEWLINGS,)  D.D.,  an  eloquent 
Methodist  divine,  born  at  Mount  Holly,  New  Jersey, 
in  1808,  for  many  years  filled  the  post  of  chaplain  to 
Congress.  He  published  a  number  of  religious  works. 
Died  in  1868. 

Stod'art,  (JAMES,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  cutler  and 
metallurgist,  born  about  1760,  lived  in  London.  He 
manufactured  surgical  instruments,  and  was  associated 
with  Faraday  in  experiments  on  the  alloys  of  steel.  He 
also  made  improvements  in  the  art  of  tempering  steel. 
Died  in  1823. 

Stodart,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1773,  became  in  1812  political 
editor  of  the  "Times."  He  translated  Schiller's  "  Don 
Carlos"  and  "  Fiesco,"  and  wrote  several  works  on  va 
rious  subjects.  He  was  appointed  in  1826  chief  justice 
and  judge  of  the  vice-admiralty  court  at  Malta.  Died 
in  1856. 

Stod'dard,  (RICHARD  HENRY,)  an  American  poet, 
bom  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1825.  He  pub 
lished  a  volume  entitled  "  Footprints"  in  1848,  and  a 
second  collection  of  poems  in  1851.  About  1852  he 
married  Elizabeth  D.  Barstow,  a  poetess,  and  obtained 
a  place  in  the  custom-house  of  New  York.  Among  his 
other  poems  is  "The  Burden  of  Unrest."  "  His  style," 
says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  is  characterized  by  purity  and 
grace  of  expression.  He  is  a  master  of  rhythmical 
melody,  and  his  mode  of  treating  a  subject  is  sometimes 
exquisitely  subtle." 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Stoddard,  (SOLOMON,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Boston  in  1643.  He  was  minister  at  Northampton 
from  1672  until  his  death,  and  published  numerous 
works  on  theology.  He  was  a  grandfather  of  Jonathan 
Edwards.  Died  in  1729. 

Stod'dart  or  Stod'dard,  CAPTAIN,  an  English 
officer,  who  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Bokhara  about  1838. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  murdered  by  the  ruler  of 
Bokhara  in  1842  or  1843. 

Stoeber.     See  STOBER. 

Stoeffler.     See  STOKFI.ER. 

Stoeflerus.     See  STOFFI.F.R. 

Stoerk.     See  STORK,  VON,  (ANTON.) 

Stoffler  or  Stoeffler,  stb'f'fler,  [Lat.  STOFFLERI'NUS 
or  STOEFLE'RUS,]  (JOHANN,)  a  German  astronomer,  bom 
in  Suabia  in  1452,  was  professor  of  mathematics,  as 
tronomy,  and  geography  at  Tubingen,  and  numbered 
Melanchthon  and  Minister  among  his  pupils.  He  pub 
lished  an  account  of  an  astrolabe  of  his  own  construc- 


€  as  k;  c as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.     (I^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STOFFLET 


2068 


STONE  MAN 


tion,  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  I531-  Ue 
predicted  that  there  would  be  a  great  deluge  in  1524. 

See  WAHL,  "  De  J.  Stofflerino  Mathematico,"  1743;  BAYLE, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Stofflet,  sto'fLY,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  general  of  the 
royalist  party,  born  at  Luneville  in  1751.  He  joined  the 
Vendeans  in  the  spring  of  1793,  and  was  appointed 
major-general  in  July  of  that  year.  After  fighting  with 
great  bravery  in  numerous  battles  with  the  republicans, 
he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  exe 
cuted,  in  1796. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Stokes,  (GEORGE  GABRIKL,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
mathematician  and  physicist,  born  in  Ireland  about 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  there  in  1849.  The 
Rum  ford  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  was  awarded  to 
him  in  1852  for  his  discovery  of  the  change  in  the  re- 
frangibility  of  light. 

Stolberg,  stol'bSRG,  (CHRISTIAN,)  COUNT,  a  German 
litteratenr,\3om  at  Hamburg  in  1748,  was  the  author  of 
several  dramas  and  a  collection  of  poems.  He  also 
published  a  translation  of  Sophocles,  and  other  poems 
from  the  Greek.  Died  in  1821. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Stolberg,  (FRIEDRICH  LEOPOLD,)  COUNT,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1750.  He  was  sent  in 
1777  by  the  Prince  Bishop  of  Lubeck  as  minister-pleni 
potentiary  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  resided  several 
years,  and  in  1789  was  Danish  ambassador  to  Berlin. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  romance  of  "  The 
Island,"  the  classical  drama  of  "Theseus,"  "Travels 
through  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Sicily,"  (1794,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Alfred  the  Great,"  (1815.)  He  translated 
into  German  Homer's  "  Iliad,"  four  tragedies  of  /Eschy- 
lus,  some  of  the  works  of  Plato,  and  the  poems  of  Ossian. 
In  1800  he  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
soon  after  which  he  brought  out  his  "  History  of  the 
Religion  of  Jesus  Christ,"  (15  vols.,  1811.)  Died  in  1819. 

See  A.  NICOLOVIUS,  "  F.  L.  Grafzn  Stolberg,"  1846;  LONCFF.I.- 
LOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  J.  H.  MARX,  "  Des  Grafen 
F.  L.  zu  Stolberg  religioser  Geist,"  iSiS  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate. " 

Stoll,  (MAXIMILIAN,)  a  German  physician,  born  in 
Suabia  in  1742.  He  practised  in  Vienna,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Ratio  Meclendi,"  (3  vols.,  1777- 
80,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1788. 

See  J.  PKZZL,  "  Denkmal  auf  M.  Stoll,"  1788  ;  SPKENGEI.,  "  His- 
toire  de  la  Medecine. " 

Stolle,  stol'leh,  (Gorn.iEi!,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  in  1673.  He  became  in  1717  pro 
fessor  of  political  sciences  at  Jena.  Among  his  works 
are  an  "Introduction  to  the  History  of  Erudition," 
(1718,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  Lives  and  Writings  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,"  (1733.)  ^'e£l  'n  r744- 

Stolle,  (LUDWIG  FERDINAND,)  a  German  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1806.  He  published 
"  Stolle's  Werke,"  (25  vols.,  1847,)  and  (in  German) 
"Palms  of  Peace,"  (1855.) 

Stole.     See  LICINIUS  STOLO. 

Stolze,  stolt'seh,  (HEINRICH  AUGUST  WILHEI.M,)  a 
German  stenographer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1794,  published 
a  "Theoretical-Practical  Manual  of  German  Stenog 
raphy." 

Stone,  (CHARLES  P.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1826,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  summer  of  1861,  and  commanded  a  division  sta 
tioned  on  the  Potomac  River.  A  part  of  his  command 
was  defeated  at  Ball's  Bluff,  October  21,  1861.  He  was 
by  some  suspected  of  treachery  on  that  occasion,  and  was 
imprisoned,  apparently  without  any  just  cause,  in  Fort 
Lafayette  from  February  to  August,  1862. 

Stone,  (EDMUND,)  a  British  mathematician,  bom 
about  1690.  He  published  a  "  Mathematical  Dictionary," 
(1726,)  and  translated  L'Hopital's  "  Analysis  of  Infini 
tesimals,"  and  Bion's  "  Treatise  on  Mathematical  In 
struments,"  from  the  French.  Died  in  1768. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stone,  (FRANK,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Manches 
ter  in  1800.  He  settled  in  London,  where  he  contributed 


a  number  of  oil-paintings  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  1851  was  elected  an  associate  of  that 
institution.  Among  his  most  admired  works  we  may 
name  "Christ  and  the  Woman  of  Bethany,"  "The 
Gardener's  Daughter,"  and  a  group  of  French  peasants, 
entitled  "  Bon-Jour,  Messieurs."  Died  in  1859. 

Stone,  (HENRY,)  an  English  painter  and  sculptor  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  called  "Old  Stone."  He  made 
numerous  and  good  copies  from  Flemish  and  Italian 
pictures.  Died  in  16^3.  lie  was  a  son  of  Nicholas 
Stone,  architect,  noticed  below. 

Stone,  (foiiN,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  devoted 
himself  to  sculpture,  and  was  also  the  author  of  a  treat 
ise  on  fortification,  entitled  "  Enchiridion."  Died  in  1690. 

Stone,  (JoHN  H.,)  an  American  officer,  born  probably 
in  Maryland.  lie  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Long  Island  and  Princeton;  and  was  Governor  of 
Maryland  from  1794  to  1797.  Died  in  1804. 

Stone,  (LuCY,)  a  distinguished  advocate  of"  Women's 
Rights,"  was  born  at  West  Brookfield,  Massachusetts, 
in  1818.  At  an  early  age  she  determined  to  go  to 
college  and  obtain  a  liberal  education.  She  went  to  Ober- 
lin,  then  the  only  college  in  the  United  States  open  to 
her  sex.  By  hard  work  between  the  hours  of  study, 
she  earned  enough  to  pay  both  her  board  and  tuition 
for  nearly  the  whole  of  her  collegiate  course.  In  the 
debating-society  at  Oberlin  her  rare  oratorical  talents 
were  first  manifested  and  developed.  Having  graduated 
with  high  honours,  she  became  an  agent  and  lecturer 
of  the  Massachusetts  Anti-Slavery  Society,  in  which 
capacity  she  often  pleaded  for  the  rights  of  woman  as 
well  as  for  those  of  the  slave.  "Lucy  Stone,"  says  Mrs. 
E.  C.  Stanton,  "was  the  first  speaker  who  really  stirred 
the  nation's  heart  on  the  subject  of  woman's  wrongs." 
In  1855  Miss  Stone  was  married  to  Henry  B.  Blackwell, 
(the  brother  of  Elizabeth  Blackwell,  the  first  woman  in 
the  United  States  who  took  the  degree  of  M.I).  ;)  but, 
believing  that  her  influence  as  an  individual  would  be 
compromised  by  giving  up  her  name,  it  was  expressly 
agreed  that  she  should  still  retain  the  one  she  had  always 
borne.  As  a  speaker,  Mrs.  Stone's  merits  are  of  a  pe 
culiar  and  rare  order.  Though  possessing  uncommon 
logical  ability,  it  is  not  to  this  that  she  owes  her  remark 
able  influence  over  her  auditors  ;  nor  is  it  due  to  the 
eloquence  of  emotion  or  passion,  in  the  ordinary  signifi 
cation  of  these  words,  but  rather  to  a  magnetic  sympathy, 
which  seems  all  the  more  powerful  from  its  being  united 
with  the  utmost  quietness  and  simplicity  of  manner  in 
the  orator. 

Stone,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English  architect  and  sculptor, 
born  near  Exeter  about  1586,  was  appointed  master- 
mason  of  Windsor  Castle  by  Charles  I.  Among  his 
works  are  a  monument  to  Spenser  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  statues  of  Edward  V.  and  Henry  VII.  Died 
in  1647. 

Stone,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  also  a 
sculptor,  and  made  copies  of  the  "  Laocoon"  and  other 
celebrated  works.  Died  in  1647. 

Stone,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  patriot,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Charles 
county,  Maryland,  in  1743.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Congress  of  1774,  and  was  subsequently  three  times 
re-elected.  Died  in  1787. 

Stone,  (WILLIAM  LEETE,)  an  American  journalist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Ulster  county,  New 
York,  in  1792.  He  became  in  1821  editor  of  the  "Com 
mercial  Advertiser,"  a  political  and  literary  journal  in 
New  York,  which  he  conducted  with  great  ability.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "Letters  on  Masonry 
and  Anti-Masonry,"  (1832,)  "  Border  Wars  of  the  Ameri 
can  Revolution,"  (1834,)  "  Ups  and  Downs  in  the  Life 
of  a  Distressed  Gentleman,"  (1836,)  which  was  very 
popular,  "The  Life  of  Joseph  Brant,"  (1838,)  and  "The 
Poetry  and  History  of  Wyoming,"  (1841.)  Died  in  1844. 

Stone'maii,  (UKORGK,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Chautauqua  county,  New  York,  about  1824,  gradu 
ated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1858,  and  became  brigadier-general  of  volun 
teers  in  August,  1861.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville,  May,  1863.  While  serving  under  General  Sher- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STONHOUSE 


2069 


STORT 


man  near  Atlanta,  he  conducted  a  raid  against  Macon 


with  very  ill  success,  July,  1864. 
of  his  command  were  captured. 


He  and  a  large  part 


Storehouse,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  English  physician  and 
divine,  born  near  Abingdon  in  1716.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  studied  medicine  in  France. 
Having  practised  his  profession  for  many  years  with 
eminent  success,  he  entered  holy  orders,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  was  noted  for  his 
practical  benevolence,  and  published  a  number  of  tracts 
on  moral  and  religious  subjects.  Died  in  1795. 


Stoordza, 

(ALEXANDER, 


Stourdza,     or     Sturdza,    stooRd'za, 
a  Russian   writer  and   diplomatist,  born 


at  Jassy  in  1788.  He*was  privy  councillor  in  the  reign 
of  Nicholas.  He  wrote  several  political  and  religious 
works.  Died  in  1854. 

See"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Stop'ford,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  able  English  naval  offi 
cer,  born  in  1768.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  captain, 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Lord  Howe  in  the 
battle  against  the  French,  June  I,  1794.  He  afterwards 
captured  many  French  vessels,  became  a  rear-admiral 
about  1808,  and  full  admiral  in  1825.  He  commanded 
the  naval  force  which  took  Acre  in  November,  1840. 
Died  in  1847. 

Storace,  sto-ra'cha  or  stor'ass,  (ANNA.)  a  singer  and 
actress,  born  in  1761,  was  a  sister  of  the  following.  She 
performed  in  England.  Died  in  1814. 

Storace,  (STEPHEN  or  STEFANO,)  a  distinguished 
composer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1763. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  "The  Siege  of 
Belgrade,"  "The  Haunted  Tower,"  and  "The  Pirates." 
Died  in  1796.  His  sister,  ANNA  SELINA,  was  a  highly 
esteemed  vocalist. 

Storch,  stoRK,  [Lat.  PELAR'GUS,]  (CHRISTOPH,)  a 
German  Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Schweidnitz  in 
1565.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Epitome  Uni- 
versce  Theologiae,"  (1617.)  Died  in  1633. 

Storch,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  physician  and  chemist, 
born  near  Eisenach  in  1681.  He  wrote  several  profes 
sional  works.  Died  in  1751. 

Storch,  (LuDWlG,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in 
Thuringia  in  1803,  published  a  number  of  lyric  poems 
and  historical  romances. 

Storch,  (NICHOLAS.)  a  German  Anabaptist  preacher, 
born  at  Stolberg,  in  Saxony,  about  1490,  is  called  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Pacificators.  He  taught  that  men 
should  be  guided  by  immediate  revelation  or  inspira 
tion,  and  opposed  infant  baptism.  By  the  agency  of 
Luther  he  was  banished  from  Saxony.  He  gained  many 
proselytes  in  Suabia,  Thuringia,  etc.  Died  in  1530. 

Storch,  von,  fon  stoRK,  (HEINRICH  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
Russian  political  economist,  born  in  1766.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Historical  and  Statistical  View  of  Russia  at 
the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Century."  Died  in  1835. 

Sto'rer,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  poem  on  "  The  Life 
and  Death  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  (1599.)  Died  in  1604. 
Stork,  stoRk,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter 


of  the   latter  part   of 
native  of  Amsterdam. 


the   seventeenth   century,   was  a 
His  sea-views  are  distinguished 


by  great  spirit  and  fidelity  to  nature.     Died  in  1708. 

Stork  or  Stoerk,  von,  fon  stoRk,  (ANTON,)  BARON, 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1731.  He 
practised  at  Vienna,  and  became  physician  to  the  em 


press  Maria  Theresa, 
works.     Died  in  1803. 


He    published  several   medical 


Storks,  (Sir  HENRY,)  a  British  general,  born  about 
1811.  He  was  appointed  lord  high  commissioner  of 
the  Ionian  Islands  in  1859,  and  succeeded  Mr.  Eyre  as 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  November,  1865. 

Storm,  ( EDWARD,)  a  Norwegian  poet,  born  in  1749, 
was  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem  entitled  "  Infodret- 
ten,"  a  number  of  popular  lyrics,  and  a  collection  of 
"Fables  and  Tales."  Died  in  1794. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetrv  of  Europe:"  HOWITT, 
"Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  June,  1830,  article  "Danish  and  Norwegian  Lit 
erature." 

Stor'mont,  (DAVID  MURRAY,)  VISCOUNT,  and  Earl 
of  Mansfield,  a  British  statesman,  born  about  1728,  was 


c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy';  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N.  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


a  nephew  of  the  famous  Lord  Mansfield.  He  was  am 
bassador  at  Vienna  and  at  Pun's.  In  the  ministry  formed 
by  Fox  and  Lord  North  (1783)  he  was  president  of  the 
council.  Died  in  1796. 

Storr,  (Gorn.oB  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  theologian,' 
and  professor  of  divinity  at  Tubingen,  was  born  at  Stutt 
gart  in  1746.    He  was  the  author  of  "  Biblical  Theology" 
and  other  works.     Died  in  1805. 

Storrs,  (CHARLES  B.,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
about  1794,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Salter  Storrs, 
who  died  in  1819.  He  became  president  of  the  Western 
Reserve  College,  Ohio,  about  1830.  Died  at  Braintree 
in  1833. 

Storrs,  (HENRY  RANDOLPH,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  orator,  boru  at  Middletovvn,  Connecticut,  in  1787. 
He  practised  law  at  Utica,  New  York,  and  represented 
the  Oneida  district  in  Congress  from  1819  to  1832,  ex 
cept  one  term.  It  is  stated  that  he  had  a  ready  and 
powerful  elocution,  and  as  a  debater  attained  the  first 
rank.  He  was  an  adherent  of  President  Adams.  He 
died  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1837. 

Storrs,  (RICHARD  SALTER,)  Junior,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts, 
in  1821.  He  became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Pil 
grims,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  1846,  and  in  1848  asso 
ciate  editor  of  "The  Independent,"  a  religious  journal 
published  in  that  city.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
sermons  and  orations,  and  "  Lectures  on  the  Wisdom, 
Power,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  Human  Soul." 

Storrs,  (WILLIAM  Lucius,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1795,  was  a  brother  of 
Henry  R.  Storrs,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1829,  in  1831,  and  in  1839.  He 
became  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Connecticut 
about  1840,  and  chief  justice  of  the  same  in  i8;6. 
Died  in  1861. 

Sto'ry,  (JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  American  jurist,  born 
in  Marbleheacl,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i8th  of  Septem 
ber,  1779,  was  a  son  of  Elisha  Story,  a  physician.  He 
graduated  in  1798  at  Harvard  College,  where  William 
E.  Channing  was  his  classmate.  He  studied  law  tinder 
Samuel  Sewall  and  Judge  Putnam,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1801,  and  began  to  practise  at  Salem.  In  1802 
he  produced  a  didactic  poem  called  "The  Power  of 
Solitude,"  which  was  reprinted  with  several  short  poems 
in  1804.  He  then  ceased  to  cultivate  his  poetical  talents, 
and  devoted  himself  with  great  assiduity  to  legal  sci 
ence,  in  which  he  became  profoundly  versed.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  1805,  be 
gan  his  political  life  as  a  Democrat,  and  was  chosen  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1808.  He  acquired  a  high  repu 
tation  as  a  debater.  In  1809  or  1810  he  advocated  the 
repeal  of  the  embargo,  and  became  an  opponent  of  Jef 
ferson  on  that  question.  He  declined  to  be  a  candidate 
for  Congress  in  1810,  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  Massachusetts  in  1811,  and  was  ap 
pointed  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  by  President  Madison  in  November  of  that  year. 
So  young  a  man  had  never  before,  in  America  or  Eng 
land,  been  appointed  to  so  high  a  judicial  position.  He 
continued  to  occupy  that  office  for  thirty-four  years.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  revised  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  in  1820.  In  1829  he  ac 
cepted  a  chair  of  law  founded  in  Harvard  Cojlege  by 
Nathan  Dane.  He  delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  the 
law  of  nature,  the  laws  of  nations,  maritime  and  com 
mercial  law,  federal  equity,  and  the  constitutional  law  of 
the  United  States.  He  acquired  a  European  reputa 
tion  by  the  publication  of  a  series  of  works, — viz.,  "  Com 
mentaries  on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States," 
(IS33,)  "Commentaries  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws,"  (3 
vols.,  1834,)  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  most  origi 
nal  and  profound  of  his  writings,  "  Commentaries  on 
Equity  Jurisprudence,"  (1836,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Agency,"  (1839.)  His  judgments  in  the  supreme 
court  may  be  found  in  the  Reports  of  Cranch,  Wheaton, 
Peters,  and  Howard.  His  principal  literary  writings  are 
contained  in  a  collection  of  his  discourses,  reviews,  and 
miscellanies,  published  in  1835.  "  I  think  all  the  treatises 
of  Story,"  says  Chancellor  Kent,  "are  on  the  whole  the 


See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STORT 


2070 


STOWE 


most  finished  and  perfect  of  their  kind  to  be  met  with  in 
any  language,  foreign  or  domestic ;  and  for  learning,  in 
dustry,  and  talent,  he  is  the  most  extraordinary  jurist  of 
.  the  age."  The  Earl  of  Carlisle  (formerly  Lord  Morpeth) 
speaks  of  Story  as  one  "whose  reputation  and  authority 
as  a  commentator  and  expounder  of  law  stand  high  wher 
ever  law  is  known  or  honoured,  and  who  was,  what  at 
least  is  more  generally  attractive,  one  of  the  most  gener 
ous  and  single-hearted  of  men."  He  was  endowed  with 
extraordinary  conversational  powers,  which  rendered  him 
a  great  favourite  in  society.  His  constitutional  doctrines 
were  similar  to  those  of  Marshall  and  the  Federalists. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Unitarian  Church.  Died  at 
Cambridge  on  the  loth  of  September,  1845.  He  left  one 
daughter,  who  was  married  to  George  \V.  Curtis. 

Judge  Story's  works  are  more  voluminous  than  those 
of  any  other  lawyer  of  great  eminence.  His  commen 
taries  and  his,  written  judgments  in  his  own  circuit 
occupy  twenty-seven  volumes,  and  his  judgments  in  the 
supreme  court  form  an  important  part  of  thirty-four 
volumes  more. 

See  a  "Life  of  Joseph  Story,"  by  his  son,  WJI.UAM  W.  STORY, 
2  vols.,  1851  ;  GRISWOLD,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  "  National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1852  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu 
ary,  1853;  AI.I.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Sto'ry,  (ROBERT,)  a  British  lyric  poet,  born  in  North 
umberland  about  1790,  was  minister  at  Ruseneath  or 
'Rosneath.  Died  in  1859. 

See  R.  H.  STORY,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Robert  Story,"  1862. 

Story,  (THOMAS,)  born  in  Cumberland  about  1666, 
was  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1698.  Died  in  1742. 

See  "Journal  of  the  Life  of  Thomas  Story,''  etc.,  1747;  anil  an 
abridgment  of  the  same  in  "  Friends'  Library,"  vol.  x.  ;  J.  KHNDALI., 
"  Life  of  T.  Story,"  1801. 

Story,  (Wn.i.iAM  WKTMORE,)  a  lawyer  and  sculptor, 
a  son  of  Chief-Justice  Story,  was  bom  at  Salem,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  February,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Har 
vard  College  in  1838,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  Boston  bar.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Contracts,"  (1844,)  a  volume  of  Poems,  (1847,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Joseph  Story,"  (his  father,)  (1851.)  He 
afterwards  studied  sculpture  at  Rome,  where  he  passed 
many  years.  He  published  a  second  volume  of  Poems 
in  1865. 

Stosch,  von,  fon  stosh,  (PHILII-P,)  BARON,  a  German 
diplomatist  and  amateur,  born  at  Kiistrin  in  1691,  resided 
several  years  in  Rome  and  Florence,  and  made  a  large 
and  choice  collection  of  works  of  art.  He  published 
"Gemmae  antiquas  Sculptorum  imaginibus  insignitae," 
(2  vols.,  1724.)  A  catalogue  was  published  by  Winckel- 
mann  in  1760,  entitled  "Description  of  the  Engraved 
Gems  of  the  Late  Baron  Stosch,"  (in  French.)  Died 
in  1757. 

See  LENZ,  "  Historische  Abhandlung  von  dem  Gen.  von  Stosch," 
1751  ;  SAX,  "  Onomasticon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Stoss,  stos,  (VEIT,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  early  German  sculptors,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1490  ;  died  in  1542. 

Stoth'ard,  (CHARLES  ALFRED,)  an  English  painter 
and  designer,  born  in  London  in  1786,  was  a  son  of 
Thomas  Stothard,  noticed  below.  Having  been  ap 
pointed  historical  draughtsman  to  the  Society  of  An 
tiquaries  in  1815,  he  visited  France,  where  he  made 
drawings  of  the  Bayeux  tapestry.  After  his  return,  he 
published  in  the  "  Archaeologia"  a  treatise  proving  the 
tapestry  to  be  coeval  with  the  Norman  Conquest.  He 
brought  out  in  1820  the  ninth  part  of  his  "Monumental 
Effigies  of  Great  Britain,"  which  was  very  favourably 
received.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  in  1821,  and  his  last- 
named  work  was  completed  by  his  widow,  afterwards 
Mrs.  Bray. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  C.  A.  Stothard,"  by  MRS.  BRAY. 

Stothard,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Long- 
acre  in  1755.  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  Associate  in  1785,  and  in  1794 
an  Academician.  Among  his  best  works  are  his  designs 
for  Rogers's  "Poems,"  Boyclell's  "  Shakspeare,"  and 
"The  Canterbury  Pilgrims."  Died  in  1834. 

See  MRS.  BRAY,  "Life  of  Thomas  Stothard,"  1851;  "Black- 
wood's  Magazine''  for  May  and  June,  1836. 


Stouf,  stoof,  (JKAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1742.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Insti 
tute.  Died  in  1826. 

Stourdza.     See  STOORDZA. 

Stow,  (  BARON,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  divine, 
born  in  Sullivan  county,  New  Hampshire,  in  1801.  He 
published  "  Daily  Manna  for  Christian  Pilgrims,"  (1848,) 
"Question-Book  of  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  other  re 
ligious  works. 

Stow,  (JonN,)an  English  antiquary,  born  in  London 
in  1525.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Summary  of  the 
Chronicles  of  England,"  afterwards  enlarged,  and  pub 
lished  under  the  title  of  "  Flores  Historiarum  ;  or,  An 
nals  of  this  Kingdom  from  the  Time  of  the  Ancient 
Britons  to  his  Own,"  (r6oo,)and  a  "  Survey  of  London.'' 
He  died  in  1605,  leaving  materials  for  a  "Chronicle 
of  England,"  subsequently  published,  with  additions,  by 
Edmund  Howes.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Stow 
was  reduced  to  great  indigence,  and  lettiis-patent  were 
granted  him  by  James  I.,  permitting  him  to  collect 
gratuities  throughout  the  country  and  in  the  churches. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  STRVPK,  "  Life  of  Stow,"  prefixed 
to  his  works. 

Stowe.sto,  (CALVIN  ELI. is,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Natick,  Massachusetts,  in  1812. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1824,  became  pro 
fessor  of  languages  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1830,  and  in 
1833  professor  of  biblical  literature  at  Lane  Seminary, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.  Having  visited  Europe  in  1836,  lie 
published,  after  his  return,  a  report  on  "  Elementary 
Education  in  Europe."  He  was  appointed  in  1852 
professor  of  sacred  literature  in  Andover  Theological 
Seminary. 

Stowe,  (Mrs.  HARRIET  BEECHEK,)  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  American  authors,  was  born  at  Litch- 
field,  Connecticut,  on  the  I4th  of  June,  1812.  She  was 
the  third  daughter  and  sixth  child  of  the  celebrated 
Lyman  Beecher.  Her  mother,  whose  maiden-name 
was  Roxana  Foote,  was  a  granddaughter  of  General 
Ward,  who  served  under  Washington  in  the  Revolu 
tionary  war.  When  Harriet  was  not  yet  four  years  old, 
her  mother  died  ;  but  the  memory  of  her  spirit  and  ex 
ample  appears  to  have  had  no  little  influence  in  moulding 
the  character  of  her  gifted  daughter.  After  about  two 
years,  Mr.  Beecher  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Harriet 
Porter,  of  Maine.  The  new  step-mother,  writing  soon 
after  to  her  friends,  said,  "  Harriet  and  Henry  .  .  .  are 
as  lovely  children  as  I  ever  saw, — amiable,  affectionate, 
and  very  bright."  While  still  a  child,  Harriet  was  pas 
sionately  fond  of  books  ;  among  those  in  which  she 
took  especial  delight  were  Scott's  novels,  the  "  Arabian 
Nights,"  and  "  Don  Quixote."  When  at  Mr.  Brace's 
school  in  Litchfield,  between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twelve, 
she  was  deeply  interested  in  hearing  him  converse  on  his 
tory  and  moral  philosophy.  Before  she  had  completed 
her  twelfth  year,  she  wrote  a  composition  on  the  ques 
tion,  "Can  the  immortality  of  the  soul  be  proved  by  the 
light  of  nature  ?"  maintaining  the  negative.  At  an  exhi 
bition  in  the  school,  the  compositions  were  read  aloud 
before  "  the  literati  of  Litchfield."  When  hers  came  to 
be  read,  she  noticed  that  her  father,  "  who  was  sitting  on 
high  by  Mr.  Brace,  brightened  and  looked  interested." 
To  Mr.  Beecher's  question,  "Who  wrote  that?"  the 
reply  was,  "Your  daughter,  sir."  That,  she  tells  us, 
"was  the  proudest  moment  of  her  life."  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  she  became  a  pupil  of  her  sister  Catherine, 
then  principal  of  the  Female  Seminary  at  Hartford,  in 
which  institution  she  remained  several  vears.  Her 
father  having  in  1832  been  elected  president  of  Lane 
Seminary  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  she  accompanied  him 
thither.  In  1836  she  was  married  to  Professor  Calvin 
E.  Stowe,  (see  preceding  article.)  A  charming  sketch 
entitled  "  Uncle  Tim,"  written  in  1834,  and  afterwards 
published  in  "The  Mayflower,"  first  attracted  public 
attention  to  her  as  a  writer  of  rare  promise.  In  1850  she 
accompanied  her  husband,  who  had  been  appointed  to  a 
professorship  in  Bowdoin  College,  to  Brunswick,  Maine. 
While  here,  she  wrote  her  novel  of  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  furnished  to  the  "  National  Era"  (published  at 
Washington)  in  weekly  contributions.  The  success  of 
this  work  has  been  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mooi.; 


STOW  ELL 


STRAFFORD 


literature.  It  is  said  that  nearly  half  a  million  have 
been  sold  in  the  United  States,  and  probably  more  than 
that  number  have  been  distributed  in  the  British  do 
minions,  the  work  there  not  being  protected  by  copy 
right.  Acid  to  this  that  it  has  been  translated  into  all 
the  principal  European  and  into  several  Asiatic  lan 
guages,  including,  it  is  said,  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
Two  different  translations  of  it  have  been  made  into 
Russian,  three  into  the  Magyar  language,  and  thirteen  or 
fourteen  into  German.  In  1653  Mrs.  Stowe  visited  Eng 
land  and  the  European  continent,  and  on  her  return  gave 
to  the  world  her  "  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands," 
(2  vols.,  1854.)  "  Dred,  a  Tale  of  the  Dismal  Swamp," 
appeared  in  1856;  "The  Minister's  Wooing,"  a  tale  of 
New  England  life,  (i  vol.  121110,)  in  1859,  first  published 
in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  in  which  appeared  also  "The 
Pearl  of  Orr's  Island,"  and  "  Agnes  of  Sorrento,"  (gener 
ally  regarded  as  inferior  to  her  other  works  of  fiction.) 
Her  "  Men  of  our  Times,"  a  biographical  work,  came  out 
in  1868.  In  1869  appeared  her  "Oldtown  Folks,"  pre 
senting,  among  other  things,  a  masterly  picture  of  the 
phases  of  religious  thought  and  feeling  in  New  Eng 
land  in  the  last  century.  In  1868  there  was  published  j 
in  London  a  book  entitled  "  My  Recollections  of  Lord  i 
Byron,  and  those  of  Eye-Witnesses  of  his  Life,"  (with-  i 
out  a  name,  but  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  the  j 
Countess  Guiccioli,)  which  contained  some  very  severe 
reflections  on  the  character  of  the  late  Lady  Byron. 
Partly  in  replv  to  these,  Mrs.  Stowe  wrote  the  "  True 
Story  of  Lord'  Byron's  Lite,"  published  in  September, 
1869,  in  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly,"  Boston,  and  "Macmil- 
lan's  Magazine,"  London.  This  was  severely  criticised 
in  several  European  and  American  journals.  "As  an 
impartial  chronicler,''  says  Dr.  Allibone,  "it  is  proper 
to  state  that  we  know  of  no  instance  of  such  sweeping 
censure — of  such  general,  almost  universal,  condemna 
tion — as  that'with  which  Mis.  Stowe's  alleged  offence  was 
visited;  and  this  equally  by  the  few  who  believed  as 
by  the  many  who  disbelieved  her  story."  Mrs.  Stowe 
replied  to  her  critics  in  a  small  volume  entitled  "Lady 
Byron  Vindicated,"  (December,  1869.) 

See  the  interesting  notice  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  in  the  "  Emi 
nent  Women  of  the  Age,"  'by  the  REV.  E.  P.  PARKF.R  :)  ALLIBONE, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia." 

Stow'ell,  (Ilt'GU,)  an  English  theologian  and  writer, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Man  in  1799.  He  took  orders  in 
the  Anglican  Church,  and  preached  at  Salford.  He 
published  numerous  religious  works.  Died  in  1865. 

See  J.  B.  MARSDHN,  "Life  of  Hugh  Stowell,"  1866. 

Stowell,    (WILLIAM    SCOTT,)    BARON,    an    English 
judge,   born    near    Newcastle  in   1745,  was    a    brother 
of  Lord  Eldon.     He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
became  Camden  reader  of  ancient  history.     He  passed 
about  eighteen  years  at  Oxford,  (1761-79.)     About  1778 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  famous  Literary  Club,  i 
and  became  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.     He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1780,  and  practised  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts  \ 
and  high  court  of  admiralty.    He  was  more  distinguished  : 
for  learning  than  for  oratorical  talents.     In  1788  he  was  i 
appointed  a  judge   of   the   consistory   court,   advocate- 
general,  and  privy  councillor.     He  was  elected  a  mem 
ber  of  Parliament  in  1790,  and  became  judge  of  the  high 
court  of  admiralty  in   1798.     He  represented  the  Uni 
versity  of  Oxford  in  Parliament  from  1801  till  1821,  and  j 
constantly  supported  the  Tory  party.     He  was  raised  to  i 
the  peerage,  as  Baron   Stowell,  in  1821.     Lord   Stowell  : 
is   regarded  as  a   high   authority  for  ecclesiastical   and 
international  law.     Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November.  1849;  LORD 
BROIGHAM,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.  ;"  W.  E.  SUR- 
TEF-;.  '•  Lives  of  Lords  Stowell  and  Eldon,"  1846. 

Stra'bo,  [Gr.  2-patuv  ;  Fr.  STRABON,  stRf'bAx',]  an 
eminent  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Amasia,  in  Pontus, 
about  60  B.C.  He  studied  under  Aristodemus,  Tyran- 
nio,  and  Xenarchus  the  Peripatetic,  and  in  philosophy 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics.  He  also  pursued 
his  education  by  extensive  journeys  in  Egypt,  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Italy.  He  passed  a  number  of  years  at 
Rome,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the  composition  of  a 
work  on  geography  which  he  designed  to  be  attractive 
in  form  and  adapted  to  general  use.  To  the  descriptions 


of  countries  he  added  notices  of  the  customs  and  former 
history  of  the  people,  enlivened  by  the  anecdotes,  tra 
ditions,  and  comparisons  which  give  interest  to  positive 
geography.  His  work  is  highly  prized  as  an  animated, 
broadly  conceived,  and  skilfully  executed  picture  of  the 
world  as  known  to  the  ancients.  He  is  rather  deficient 
in  the  department  of  physical  geographv.  Died  about 
24  A.D. 

See  SIEBEI.IS.  "  De  Strabonis  Patria,  Genere,  /Etate,"  etc.,  1828; 
MEINECKE,  "Vindiciae  Strabonianae, "  1852;  Vossius,  "De  His- 
toricis  Graecis;"  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Stra'bo,  (C.\ius  FANNIUS,)  a  Roman  orator,  was 
consul  in  122  B.C.  He  made  a  famous  speech  against 
C.  Gracchus  on  the  subject  of  giving  the  franchise  to 
the  Latins. 

Strabo,  (CAius  FANMUS,)  a  Roman  historian,  was 
a  son-in-law  of  Laelius.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
the  capture  of  Carthage,  146  B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
Roman  history,  which  is  lost. 

Strabon.     See  STRABO. 

Strack,  stRak,  (JoHA.NN  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
architect,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  at  Berlin,  was 
born  at  Biickeburg  in  1806.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  castle  of  Freclericksborg,  built  for  the  King  of 
Denmark,  and  Peter's  Church  (Petrikirche)  at  Berlin. 

Strada,  stna'da,  (FAMIANO,)  [Lat.  FAMIA'NUS,]  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Rome  in  1572,  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Gregorian  College  in  that 
city.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  De  Bello  Belgico 
ab  Excessu  Carli  V.  ad  Annum  1590,"  or  a  history  of 
the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  Spain,  (2  vols., 
1632-47.)  He  also  wrote  Latin  essays,  entitled  "  Pro- 
lusiones,"  (1617,)  being  commentaries  on  the  classics 
and  ancient  literature.  Died  in  1649. 

See  TIKABOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Strada  or  Stradano,  stRa-da'no,  called  also  Stra- 
dan,  [Lat.  STRADA'NUS  ;  Fr.  STRADAN,  stRt/d6.\',](jAN,) 
a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1536. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  Cosimo  I.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  his  "Crucifixion,"  in  the  Church  of  the 
Annunciation  at  Bruges.  He  also  excelled  in  painting 
animals,  hunting-scenes,  etc.  Died  in  1605. 

Strada,  di,  de  stRa'da,  QACOPO,)  an  Italian  anti 
quary,  born  at  Mantua  about  1515,  was  an  expert  con 
noisseur  of  art.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Epitome  Thesauri  Antiquitatum,  hoc  est  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  Iconum,"  etc.,  (1553,)  which  treats  of  the 
medals  of  the  Roman  emperors.  Died  in  1588. 

Stradan  or  Stradano.  See  STRADA. 

Stradanus.  See  STRADA. 

Stradella,  stRa-del'la,  (ALKSSANDRO,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1645.  His  oratorio 
of  "San  Giovanni  Battista"  is  greatly  admired;  and  he 
produced  a  number  of  cantatas,  duets,  etc.  of  remarkable 
beauty.  He  was  assassinated  about  1678  by  the  lover 
of  a  Venetian  lady  whom  he  had  seduced. 

Stradivarius,  stRa-de-va're-ooss,  (ANTONIO,)  an 
Italian  maker  of  stringed  instruments,  born  at  Cremona 
about  1670;  died  about  1735. 

Straeten,  van  der,  vtn  der  stRa'ten,  sometimes 
written  Streten,  (HKNDRIK,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
born  about  1665  or  1680.  He  worked  in  England. 

Straf'ford,  (GEORGE  STEVENS  BYNG,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  peer,  was  born  in  1806.  He  was  a  Liberal 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  from  1831  to  1852, 
and  held  several  high  civil  offices.  In  1860  he  succeeded 
to  the  earldom. 

Strafford,  (JoHN  BYNG,)  EARL  OF,  a  British  general, 
born  in  London  about  1775,  was  the  father  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  served  with  distinction  as  major-general 
at  the  battles  of  Vitoria,  Nivelle,  and  Orthez.  He  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Died  about  1860. 

Strafford,  (THOMAS  WENTWORTH,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  London  in  April,  1593,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Wentworth,  from  whom 
he  inherited  a  large  estate.  He  was  educated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  married  in  1611  a  Miss 
Clifford,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Cumberland.  In 
1614  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Yorkshire,  which 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STR4H4N 


2072 


S  TRITON 


he  also  represented  in  that  which  met  in  1621.  His 
wife  having  died  in  1622,  he  married  Arabella  Hollis,  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clare.  He  was  appointed  sheriff 
of  Yorkshire  in  1625.  In  the  Parliament  which  met  in 
1628,  he  acted  with  the  popular  party,  and  made  able 
speeches  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  court,  in 
order,  perhaps,  to  give  the  king  a  proper  idea  of  the 
value  of  his  services.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  he 
was  created  a  baron,  and  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  (1628)  he  was  appointed  lord  president 
of  the  North,  and  privy  councillor.  Me  was  a  political 
and  personal  friend  of  Archbishop  Laud.  He  was  am 
bitious,  energetic,  haughty,  and  unscrupulous.  He  de 
clared  that  he  would  "  lay  any  man  by  the  heels"  who 
should  appeal  from  his  sentence  to  the  courts  at  West 
minster.  In  1631  or  1632  he  was  appointed  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland,  which  he  governed  in  a  tyrannical  manner. 
His  cruelty  to  Lord  Mountmorris  and  others  excited 
great  indignation.  He  directed  his  highest  energies  to 
the  formation  of  a  standing  army,  and  boasted  that  in 
Ireland  "the  king  was  as  absolute  as  any  prince  in  the 
whole  world  could  be."  (Letter  to  Laud,  1634.)  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Strafford  in  1639  or  1640. 

"He  had  been,"  says  Macaulay,  "one  of  the  most  dis 
tinguished  members  of  the  opposition,  and  felt  towards 
those  whom  he  had  deserted  that  peculiar  malignity 
whicji  has  in  all  ages  been  characteristic  of  apostates. 
He  perfectly  understood  the  feelings,  the  resources,  and 
the  policy  of  the  party  to  which  he  had  lately  belonged, 
and  had  formed  a  vast  and  deeply-meditated  scheme, 
which  very  nearly  confounded  even  the  able  tactics  of 
the  statesmen  by  whom  the  House  of  Commons  had 
been  directed.  To  this  scheme,  in  his  confidential  cor 
respondence,  he  gave  the  expressive  name  of  Thorough." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  p.  25.)  His  design  was 
to  make  the  royal  power  as  absolute  in  England  as  it 
was  in  Ireland.  The  revolt  of  the  Scotch,  whom  the 
king  foolishly  provoked  to  fight  for  their  religious  rights, 
interfered  with  the  success  of  Strafford's  scheme.  He 
was  summoned  to  London  by  Charles  I.  in  1639,  and 
appointed  general-in-chief  in  1640;  but  before  he  could 
join  the  army  it  was  driven  from  the  border  by  the 
insurgents,  and  the  war  was  ended  by  a  treaty.  The 
Long  Parliament,  which  met  in  November,  1640,  im 
peached  Strafford  of  high  treason.  He  was  accused  of 
an  attempt  "to  subvert  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
country."  John  Pym  was  the  principal  speaker  against 
him.  (See  PYM.)  The  Commons  abandoned  the  im 
peachment  and  passed  a  bill  of  attainder  by  a  large 
majority,  of  whom  Falkland  was  one.  He  was  beheaded 
iti  May,  1641.  Two  volumes  of  his  "  Letters  and  De 
spatches"  have  been  published. 

See  GEORGE  RADCI.IFFK,  "  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  ;"  HUME, 
"  History  of  England ;"  JOHN  FORSTF.R,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  British 
Statesmen;"  MACAUI.AY,  Review  of  LORI>  NUGENT'S  "  Memorials 
of  Hampden  ;"  CLARENDON,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion;" 
LAI.LY-TOI.LENDAI.,  "  Essai  stir  la  Vie  du  Comte  de  Strafford," 
'795 :  GUIZOT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre  ;"  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica." 

Strahan,  strt'an,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
printer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1715.  He  became 
a  resident  of  London,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1775.  Died  in  1785. 

Strahl,  stR&l,  (Monrrz  HERMANN,)  a  German  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  at  Glogau  in  1800.  He  became 
in  1842  Sanitatsrath  in  Berlin.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Der  Mensch  nach  seiner  .  leiblichen  und  geistigen 
Natur,"  (1835-38.) 

Strange,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  eminent  Scottish  engraver, 
born  in  Pomona,  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  in  1721.  He 
studied  under  Le  Bas  in  Paris,  passed  several  years  in 
Italy,  and  settled  in  London,  where  he  worked  with  great 
success.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Jerome," 
after  Correggio,  "Saint  Cecilia,"  after  Raphael,  "The 
Death  of  Dido,"  after  Guercino,  and  "  Venus  Reclining," 
after  Titian.  Died  in  1792. 

See  J[.  DKNNISTOUN,  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  R.  Strange  and  of  his 
Brother-in-Law  A.  Lumisden,"  2  vols.,  1854;  CHAMBERS,  "Bio 
graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  C.  L.  BRIGHTWRU., 
"Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  1863;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1855. 

Strang'ford,  (PERCY  CLINTON  SYDNEY  SMYTHE,) 
VISCOUNT,  an  Irish  diplomatist  and  scholar,  born  in 


1780.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
became  successively  British  ambassador  to  Stockholm 
in  1817,  to  Constantinople  in  1820,  and  to  Saint  Peters 
burg  in  1825.  He  was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  and  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Hanoverian 
Guelphic  Order.  He  made  a  translation  of  the  poems 
of  Camoens,  which  was  commended  by  Lord  Byron. 
In  1825  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  as  Lord  Penshurst.  Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805;  "Monthly  Re 
view"  for  September,  1804. 

Straiigford,  (PERCY  ELLEN  ALGERNON  FREDERICK 
WILLIAM  SYDNEY  SMYTHE,)  VISCOUNT,  an  Orientalist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1825.  His  "Selected  Writings;  Political,  Geographical, 
and  Social,"  were  published  in  2  vols.,  1869.  Died  in  1869. 

Straparola,  stRa-pa-n/la,  (GiAN  FRANCESCO,)  an 
Italian  writer  of  tales,  was  born  at  Caravaggio  before 
1500.  He  published  "  Piacevole  Notte,"  (2  vols.,  1550- 
54,)  often  reprinted.  Died  after  1557. 

Strat'ford,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  learned  English  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1633.  lie  became  Dean 
of  Saint  Asapli  in  1673,  and  chaplain  to  the  king.  In 
1689  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chester.  He  wrote 
several  works  against  popery.  Died  in  1707. 

Strat'ford  de  Red'cllffe,  (STRATFORD  CANNING,) 
first  VISCOUNT,  a  cousin  of  George  Canning,  was  born 
in  London  in  1788.  He  studied  at  King's  College,  Cam 
bridge,  and  in  1810  succeeded  Mr.  Robeit  Aclair  as 
minister-plenipotentiary  at  Constantinople.  He  became 
envoy-extraordinary  and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
United  States  in  1820,  and  in  1825  was  again  sent  as 
minister  to  Constantinople,  where  he  exerted  himself  to 
procure  from  the  Sultan  some  alleviation  of  the  oppres 
sion  under  which  the  Greeks  were  then  suffering.  His 
appeals  being  unheeded,  the  chief  European  powers 
determined  upon  coercive  measures,  and  the  battle  of 
Navarinof  in  1827,  decided  the  fate  of  Greece.  Mr. 
Canning  was  soon  after  elected  to  Parliament  for  Old 
Sarurn,  and  in  1829  was  created  knight  grand  cross  of  the 
Bath.  In  1841  he  was  a  third  time  appointed  minister 
to  Constantinople,  having  on  a  previous  mission  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  defining  the  boundaries  of  Greece.  In 
this  post  he  continued  till  1858,  when  he  returned  to 
England.  Through  his  influence  with  the  Sultan,  he  was 
instrumental  in  effecting  many  important  reforms,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  abolition  of  torture,  and 
the  establishment  of  political  and  religious  freedom  for 
the  Protestants  in  Turkey. 

Stratico,  stita'te-ko,  (SiMONE,)  COUNT,  a  celebrated 
mathematician,  born  at  Zara,  in  Dal  mat  ia,  about  1730. 
He  became  professor  of  navigation  and  mathematics  at 
Padua,  and  in  1801  filled  the  chair  of  navigation  at  Pavfa. 
In  1803  he  was  made  a  senator  by  Napoleon,  who  also 
bestowed  upon  him  the  orders  of  the  legion  of  honour 
and  the  iron  crown.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Marine 
Vocabulary,"  and  several  works  on  hydraulics,  navi 
gation,  etc.,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  He  also 
prepared,  conjointly  with  Poleni,  a  valuable  edition  of 
Vitruvius,  published  after  the  death  of  Stratico,  which 
took  place  in  1824. 

Strato.     See  STRATON. 

Strat'o-cles,  [I,rparoK'Af^,]  an  Athenian  orator  and 
demagogue,  lived  about  325  n.c.  He  was  a  violent  op 
ponent  of  Demosthenes. 

Stra'ton  [Gr.  Srpurwi>]  or  Stra'to,  a  Greek  physi 
cian  and  medical  writer,  a  pupil  of  Erasistratns,  lived  in 
the  third  century  B.C. 

Straton  (or  Strato)  OF  LAMPSACUS,  [Fr.  STRATON 
DE  LAMPSAQUE,  strt'toN'  deh  ISMp'stk',]  a  Greek  Peri 
patetic  philosopher,  born  at  Lampsacus,  succeeded 
Theophrastus  as  chief  of  the  school  about  288  H.c.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  According 
to  some  authorities,  he  taught  that  each  particle  of 
matter  has  a  principle  of  motion,  or  a  plastic  power. 

See  RITTKR,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  NAUWEKCK,  "  De  Stra- 
tone  Philosopho,"  1836. 

Straton  (or  Strato)  OF  SARDIS,  a  Greek  epigram 
matic  poet,  who  probably  lived  in  the' second  century 
of  our  era.  He  compiled  an  anthology  of  licentious 
epigrams,  many  of  which  he  composed. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  tai ;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STR4TONICE 


2073 


STRICKLAND 


Strat-o-ni'ge,  [Gr.  Zrparow'/o?,]  a  beautiful  queen  of 
Syria,  born  about  316  B.C.,  was  a  daughter  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  She  was  married  to  Seleucus  I.  of  Syria, 
whose  son,  Antiochus  I.,  became  enamoured  of  her. 
She  had  a  daughter  Stratonice,  who  was  married  to 
Demetrius  II.  of  Macedonia.  Antiochus  I.  was  the 
father  of  the  second  Stratonice. 

Strat'tis,  [2-pur-£o,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the 
old  comedy,  flourished  about  410-380  B.C.  His  works 
are  lost. 

Strauchius,  stRow'Ke-iis,  (/£GIDIUS,)  a  German  Lu 
theran  theologian  and  mathematician,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1632,  was  the  author  of  a  "  BreviariumChronologicum" 
and  a  number  of  controversial  works.  Died  in  1682. 

Strauss,  stRowss,  (DAVID  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
rationalistic  theologian,  the  author  of  what  is  termed  the 
"mythical  theory"  of  interpreting  the  Gospels,  was  born 
at  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1808.  He  studied 
theology  at  Tubingen.  In  1832  he  became  assistant 
teacher  (rcpctent)  in  the  Theological  Institute  of  Tubin 
gen.  He  produced  in  1835  his. "Life  of  Jesus  Critically 
Treated,"  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  that  the  New 
Testament  history  is  substantially  a  tissue  of  fables.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Zurich  in  1839,  but 
(he  hostility  of  the  people  to  his  doctrines  was  so  loudly 
expressed  that  his  position  there  became  untenable. 
He  published  several  other  works,  among  which  are 
"The  Christian  Dogmatics  considered  in  its  Historical 
Development  and  its  Conflict  with  Modern  Science,"  (2 
vols.,  1840-41,)  and  a  "  New  Life  of  Jesus,"  ("  Das  Leben 
Jesu  :  fiir  das  Deutsche  Volk  bearbeitet,"  1864.) 

Strauss's  idea  of  a  God  appears  to  be  similar  to  that 
of  many  other  Hegelians,  who  regard  the  Deity  not  as  a 
conscious  Being,  but  as  an  unconscious  spirit  or  influ 
ence,  or  what  might  be  termed  a  system  of  laws,  mate 
rial  and  spiritual.  This  spirit  first  becomes  conscious 
in  Humanity,  which,  according  to  Strauss  and  his  fol 
lowers,  is  God  manifest  in  the  flesh. 

"  Thirty  years  ago,"  says  the  "  London  Quarterly 
Review,"  '"The  Life  of  Jesus'  of  Strauss  startled  the 
world  like  a  clap  of  thunder  out  of  a  calm  sky.  ...  In 
the  name  of  criticism,  he  declared  that  the  Gospels  were 
almost  valueless  as  historical  materials  ;  in  the  name  of 
science,  he  pronounced  that  miracles  were  impossible." 
(See  article  on  "The  Life  of  our  Lord,"  October,  1866.) 
"The  supposition  that  the  healthiest,  simplest,  and 
sanest  form  of  religion  the  world  has  ever  seen  should 
have  taken  its  rise  from  such  a  hotbed  of  fatuity  and 
insanity  as  Strauss  would  have  us  believe,  appears  to 
us  to  make  greater  demands  by  far  upon  our  credulity 
than  the  hypothesis  it  is  invented  to  supersede."  (See 
"  Edinburgh  Review,"  article  on  "  Strauss,  Renan,  and 
'  Ecce  Homo,'"  October,  1866.) 

"  Strauss  declined,"  says  Dorner,  in  his  able  work 
entitled  "  History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  "  the  rude 
method  of  combating  Christianity  in  the  style  of  the 
'  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  ;'  as  he  likewise  covered  with 
ridicule  the  naturalistic  explanations  of  the  miracles 
by  Dr.  Paulus.  To  the  biblical  supernaturalism  which 
sought  to  found  the  truth  of  Christianity  upon  inspira 
tion,  miracles,  and  prophecy,  he  opposed  the  mythical 
theory  ;  according  to  which,  the  portrait  of  Christ  in  I 
the  Gospels  was  the  product  of  tradition,  of  which  the  j 
historic  element  was  obscure,  determined  in  its  unin 
tentional  fabrication  by  Old  Testament  images,  par 
ticularly  the  Messianic.  Christ,  however,  to  whom  the 
Messianic  predictions  were  transferred  by  the  common 
people,  could  not  have  been  a  supernatural  phenomenon, 
since  a  miracle  includes  an  impossibility  ;  so  also  the  j 
four  Gospels  could  not  have  proceeded  from  apostles  or  j 
eye-witnesses,  because,  with  their  better  knowledge,  de 
signed  fabrication  must  be  imputed  to  them.  He  then 
seeks  for  internal  contradictions  in  the  Gospels,  in  order 
thereby  to  prove  their  unhistoric  character.  As,  how 
ever,  these  contradictions  do  not  extend  to  what  is  es 
sential,  it  is  clear  that  they  are  not  what  really  decided 
him.  He  demands  a  historical  criticism,  free  from  pre- 
assumptions,*  and  yet  he  makes  (as  we  have  seen)  for 


*  The  expression  in  the  original  is  "  eine  voraussetzungslose  his- 
torische  Kritik,"  that  is,  "a  historical  critique  without  pre-supposi- 
lions  or  pre-assumptions." 


his  mythical  theory  a  twofold  pre-assumption, — the  one 
dogmatic,*  the  other  historical."!  (See  Dorner's  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  protestantischen  Theologie,"  p.  787.) 

See  "Straussiade  in  Zurich,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'- 
rale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1847. 

Strauss,  (FRIEDRICH  ADOLF,)  a  Protestant  minister, 
a  son  of  Gerhard  Friedrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Elberfeld  in  1817.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"Sinai  and  Golgotha:  Travels  in  the  East,"  (1847,) 
which  has  been  translated  into  several  languages. 

Strauss,  (GERHARD  FRIEDRICH,)  professor  of  the 
ology  at  Berlin,  was  born  at  Iserlohn  in  1786.  He 
published  a  number  of  popular  religious  works,  of  which 
we  may  name  "  Helen's  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, "(1820,) 
and  "The  Baptism  in  Jordan,"  (1822.) 

Strauss,  (JOHANN,)  a  celebrated  German  composer, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1804.  His  works  are  principally 
waltzes  and  other  lively  airs,  in  which  department  of 
music  he  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  music  for  the  court  balls  at  Vienna.  Died 
in  1849. 

Streat'er,   (ROBERT,)  an   English    painter,  born   in 
1624.      His    landscapes    and    historical     pictures   were 
i  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.     Died  in  1680. 
Streckfuss,  stRik'foos,  (ADOLF  FRIEDRICH  KARL,) 
a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Gera  in  1779.      He  wrote 
a  number  of  poems  and  tales,  and  translated  into  Ger- 
j  man  Tasso's  "  Gerusalemme   Liberata,"  the  "Orlando 
j  Furioso"  of  Ariosto,  and  Dante's  "  Inferno,"  "  Purga- 
|  torio,"  and  "  Paradiso."     Died  in  1844. 

Streek,  van,  vfn  stRak,  QURIAN,)  a  Flemish  or 
Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632; 
died  in  1678.  His  son  HENRY,  born  in  1659,  was  a 
painter  of  interiors  of  churches,  etc.  Died  in  1713. 

Street,  (ALFRED  BILLINGS,)  an  American  poet  and 

j  miscellaneous   writer,   born   at    Poughkeepsie    in    1811. 

j  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Frontenac,"  a  poem, 

!"The    Burning    of    Schenectady,    and    other    Poems," 

"  Woods  and  Waters,  or  the  Saranacs  and  Racket,"  an 

account  of  the  forests  of  Northern  New  York,  and  "The 

Council  of  Revision,"  (in  prose.)     He  practised  law  in 

Albany,  to  which  he  removed  in  1839. 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOLD,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Streight,  strat,  (ABEL  D.,)  COLONEL,  an  American 
officer,  was  a  resident  of  Indiana.  He  commanded  a 
party  of  1800  cavalry  sent  from  Tennessee  on  a  raid 
into  Northern  Georgia  in  April,  1863.  He  was  cap 
tured  near  Rome,  and  confined  in  a  prison  at  Richmond, 
from  which  he  escaped  in  February,  1864.  He  was  killed 
at  Dalton,  Georgia,  in  August,  1864. 

Strein,  stRin,  or  Striii'i-us,  (RICHARD,)  a  German 
baron  and  antiquary,  born  in  Austria  in  1538,  was  libra 
rian  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  Died  in  1600  or  1601. 

Stremonius.     See  AUSTREMOINE. 

Streten.     See  STRAETEN. 

Strick  van  Linschoten,  strik  vfn  lins'Ko'ten, 
BARON,  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1769.  He 
was  appointed  in  1795  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Wiir- 
temberg.  Died  in  1819. 

Strick'laiid,  (AGNES,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1806.  Among  her  numerous  works 
are  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England,  from  the  Nor 
man  Conquest,"  etc.,  (12  vols.,  with  portraits,  1849,) 
"  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland  and  English  Prin 
cesses  connected  with  the~'Regal  Succession  of  Great 
Britain,"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1850,)  both  written  conjointly  with 
her  sister  Elizabeth,  "The  Pilgrims  of  Walsingham,  or 
Tales  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1835,)  "  Worcester  Field, 
or  the  Cavalier;  a  Poem,  in  F*our  Cantos,"  and  "Tales 
and  Stories  from  History,"  (1836.)  She  brought  out  in 


*  In  assuming  that  a  miracle  is  impossible. 

t  In  rejecting  the  historical  character  of  the  Gospels ;  not  on 
account  of  the  minute  discrepancies  found  in  them, — but  evidently 
from  a  predetermination  to  make  out  his  mythical  theory  at  whatever 
cost.  For  if  the  minute  discrepancies,  not  essentially  affecting  the 
main  narrative,  destroy  the  historical  character  of  the  Gospels,  simi 
lar  or  greater  discrepancies  would  overthrow  ALL  history,  ancient  and 
modern.  A  great  historical  critic,  who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of 
any  tendency  to  credulity,  took  a  very  different  view  of  the  Gospel 
narratives.  (See  the  article  on  NIEBUHR  the  historian,  in  this 
work.) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (iJ^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STRICKLAND 


2074 


STRONG 


1842  "Letters  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  now  first  pub 
lished  from  the  Originals,"  etc.  Miss  Strickland's 
productions  have  acquired  an  extensive  popularity  both 
in  Great  Britain  and  America. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1849. 

Strickland,  (CATHERINE  PARR,)  sister  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  married  to  Lieutenant  Trail,  of  the  twenty- 
first  British  Fusileers.  Having  settled  in  Canada,  she 
published  "The  Canadian  Crusoes,  a  Tale  of  the  Rice- 
Lake  Plains,"  and  "  The  Backwoods  of  America,  being 
Letters  from  the  Wife  of  an  Emigrant  Officer,"  etc. 

Strickland,  (HUGH  EDWIN,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1811.  Me  visited  Asia  Minor  in 
1835,  and  published,  after  his  return,  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Geology  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus,"  and  other  similar 
works.  He  also  wrote  "Descriptions  of  New  Species 
of  Birds  from  West  Africa,"  and  a  volume  "  On  the 
Dodo  and  its  Kindred,  or  the  History  and  Affinities  of 
the  Dodo,  Solitaire,  and  other  Extinct  Birds,"  (1848.) 
He  was  killed  by  a  railroad-train  in  1853. 

Strickland,  (SAMUEL,)  a  brother  of  Agnes,  noticed 
above,  was  born  about  iSio.  He  published  "Twenty- 
Seven  Years  in  Canada  West,  or  the  Experience  of  an 
Early  Settler,"  (1853.)  Died  in  1867. 

Strickland,  (SUSANNA,)  sister  of  Agnes  Strickland, 
was  married  to  J.  W.  1).  Moodie,  of  the  British  Fusi 
leers,  and  subsequently  removed  to  Canada.  She  pub 
lished  "  Roughing  it  in  the  Bush,  or  Life  in  Canada," 
(1852,)  "  Life  in  the  Clearings,"  etc.,  and  novels  entitled 
"Mark  Hurdlestone"  (1852)  and  "  Flora  Lindsay,"  (2 
vols.,  1854.) 

Her  sister,  JANE  MARGARET,  has  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Rome,  Regal  and  Republican." 

Strick'laiid,  (WlLLIAM,)  an  eminent  American  ar 
chitect,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1787.  He  studied  archi 
tecture  under  Latrobe.  His  first  public  work  of  any 
importance  was  the  old  Masonic  Hall  in  Chestnut 
Street.  This  established  his  reputation  as  an  architect, 
and  he  was  subsequently  employed  to  prepare  the 
designs  and  superintend  the  erection  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  (now  the  Custom-House,)  in  Chestnut 
Street,  above  Fourth,  long  regarded  as  the  most  mag 
nificent  edifice  in  his  native  city.  For  many  years  he 
was  the  architect  of  nearly  all  the  most  remarkable 
public  buildings  in  Philadelphia  or  its  vicinity:  we  may 
name,  among  others,  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  (near 
Third  and  Dock  Streets,)  the  United  States  Mint,  and 
the  United  States  Naval  Asylum.  In  1825  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Franklin  Institute  commissioner  to 
visit  England  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  canal 
and  railway  systems  of  that  country.  On  his  return,  he 
was  employed  to  superintend  the  construction  of  the  rail 
road  between  Newcastle  and  Frenchtown,  in  Maryland, 
which  was  one  of  the  first  passenger-railways  made  in 
the  United  States.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  also  a  member 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  His  last  and 
perhaps  greatest  work  was  the  Capitol  at  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  commenced  in  1845  an<^  completed  in  1857. 
He  died  at  Nashville,  April  7,  1854  ;  and,  according  to 
a  special  act  of  the  Tennessee  legislature,  his  remains 
were  deposited  in  a  vault  under  that  magnificent  edifice 
which  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  crowning  glory  of 
his  life. 

Strickland,  (WILLIAM  P.,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  divine,  born  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1809.  He  has  published  a  "History  of  the  American 
Bible  Society,"  "  Genius  and  Mission  of  Methodism," 
and  other  works. 

Strigel,  stRee'gel,  [Lat.  STRIGE'LIUS,]  (VicroRiN,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  in  1514,  was  a  pupil  of  Mel- 
anchthon.  He  was  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
Flacius,  and  subsequently  became  a  Calvinist.  He 
was  professor  at  Leipsic  and  Heidelberg.  Died  in  1569. 

See  WF.ISSMANN,  "Historia  Vitae  V.  Strigelii,"  1732;  J.  K.  T. 
OTTO,  "  De  V.  Strigeiio  liberioris  mentis  in  Ecclesia  Lutherana  Viu- 
dice,"  1843. 

Strigelius.     See  STRIGEL. 

Stringham,  string'am,  (SILAS  H.,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Orange  county,  New  York,  about 
1798.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  1821.  In 


1846  he  commanded  the  ship  Ohio  at  the  bombardment 
of  Vera  Cruz.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  appointed  (about  April,  1861)  flag-officer  of  the 
Atlantic  blockading  squadron.  He  commanded  the 
naval  forces  of  the  armament  which  captured  Fort  Hat- 
teras,  August  29,  1861.  He  was  appointed  a  rear-admiral 
on  the  retired  list,  August  I,  1862. 

See  J.  T.  HEAUI.EY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Strinius.     See  STUEIN. 

Strinnholm,  stuin'holm,  (ANDERS  MAGNUS,)  a 
Swedish  historian,  born  in  the  province  of  Westerbot- 
ten  in  1786.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  a  "History 
of  Sweden  from  the  Earliest  to  the  Present  Time," 
("Svenska  Folkets  Historia  fran  aldsta  till  narvarende 
Ticler,"  1834.)  In  1837  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Swedish  Academy,  and  in  1845  °f  tne  Koyal  Academy 
of  Sciences. 

Stritter,  von,  fon  stRit'ter,  (JOHANN  GOTTHILF,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Idstein  in  1740,  became  a  resi 
dent  of  Russia.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  (in  German,  2  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1801. 

Strobel,  stRo'bel,  (ADAM  WALTHEK,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Strasbnrg  in  1792.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "History  of  Alsace,"  (6  vols.,  1841,)  which 
was  continued  by  Engelhardt.  Died  in  1850. 

Stroctius.     See  STROZZI,  (PALLA.) 

Stroemer.     See  STKOMKK. 

Strogonof  or  Stroganow,  stRo'ga-nof',  (ALEX 
ANDER,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  nobleman,  born  in  1734, 
was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  He 
was  appointed  a  privy  councillor  of  the  first  class,  and 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters 
burg.  Died  in  181 1. 

Strogonof,  Stroganov,  or  Stroganow,  (ALEX 
ANDER,)  COUNT,  second  son  of  Gregory,  noticed  below, 
served  against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  rose  to  be 
successively  minister  of  the  interior,  (1839,)  member  of 
the  imperial  council  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  Governor- 
General  of  New  Russia,  (1855.) 

Strogonof,  (GREGORY,)  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1770,  was  successively  employed  in  mis 
sions  to  Madrid,  Stockholm,  and  Constantinople,  (1821.) 
In  1838  he  was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary  to 
England  on  the  occasion  of  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Victoria.  He  was  created  high  chamberlain  in  1846. 
Died  in  1850. 

Strogonof,  (KARL  SERGEI,)  a  general,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1800,  filled  several 
high  offices  under  the  government,  and  attained  the 
dignity  of  senator.  He  published  a  number  of  treatises 
on  Russian  antiquities.  Died  in  1857. 

Strogonof,  (PAUL,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  general,  a  son 
of  Alexander,  (1734-1811,)  was  born  about  1774.  He 
was  a  friend  and  adviser  of  the  Czar  Alexander.  Died 
in  1817.  His  wife,  SOPHIE  GALLITSIN,  was  distinguished 
for  her  talents. 

Strombeck,  von,  fon  stRom/bSk,(FRlKDRiCH  KARL,) 
a  German  jurist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1771.  He  published  a  number  of  legal  and  miscel 
laneous  works,  and  made  translations  from  Tacitus, 
Sallust,  and  other  classics.  Died  in  1848. 

His  brother,  FRIEDKICH  HEINRICH,  was  also  a  distin 
guished  jurist.  Died  in  1832. 

See  F.  K.  VON  STROMBECK,  "  Darstellungen  aus  meinem  Leben," 
2  vols.,  1835. 

Stromer  or  Stroemer,  stRo'mer,  (MARTIN,)  a  Swed 
ish  savant,  born  at  Upsal  in  1707,  succeeded  Celsius 
as  professor  of  astronomy  in  that  city.  He  translated 
Euclid's  "Elements"  into  Swedish.  Died  in  1770. 

Stromeyer,  stRo'ml'er,  (GEOUG  FRIEDRICH  Louis,) 
a  German  surgeon,  born  at  Hanover  in  1804,  became 
successively  professor  at  Erlangen,  Munich,  and  Frei 
burg.  He  published  several  works  on  surgery. 

Strong,  (CALEB,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1745.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1789  and  in  1793,  and 
became  Governor  of  the  State  in  1800,  which  office  he 
continued  to  fill  for  ten  years.  Died  in  1819. 

Strong,  (JAMES,)  an  American  theologian  and  scholar, 
born  at  New  York  in  1822.  He  published  a  "  Har 
mony  and  Exposition  of  the  Gospels,"  (1852,)  a  "Greek 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


STRONG 


2075 


Sl'RUENSEE 


Harmony  of  the  Gospels,"  (1854,)  and  has  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  "Methodist  Quarterly  Review." 
He  was  appointed  in  1858  professor  of  biblical  literature 
and  acting  president  of  the  Troy  University.  In  con 
junction  with  the  late  Dr.  McClintock,  he  published  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Ecclesi 
astical,  and  Theological  Literature,"  (6  vols.,  1867  et  sey.) 

Strong,  (NATHAN,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1748.  He  preached  at  Hartford,  and 
published  numerous  sermons.  Died  in  1816. 

Strong'bow,  the  surname  of  Richard  de  Clare,  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  an  English  warrior,  distinguished  for  his 
victories  over  the  Irish.  Died  in  1176. 

Stroth,  stRot,  (FRIEDRICH  ANDREAS,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1750.  He  published 
several  classical  works.  Died  in  1795  or  1785. 

Strozzi,  stkot'see,  (BERNARDO,)  surnamed  n.  CAPUC- 
cixo,  or  "The  Genoese  Priest,"  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1581.  His"  Virgin  and  Child" 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  He  painted  many  easel- 
pictures,  and  was  an  excellent  colorist.  Died  in  1644. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  SOPRANM,  "Pittoii 
Genovesi." 

Strozzi,  (CiRlACO,  che-ree'a-ko.)  an  Italian  philoso 
pher,  born  near  Florence  in  1504.  He  wrote  a  sup 
plement  to  Aristotle's  work  "  De  Republica,"  (1562.) 
Died  in  1565. 

See  PAPIRE  MASSON,  "Vita  Kyriaci  Strozse,"  1604. 

Strozzi,  (ERCOLE,)  an  Italian  poet,  a  son  of  Tito 
Vespasiano,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1471. 
He  was  the  author  of  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  which 
were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
assassinated  in  1508  by  some  person  unknown. 

See  PAOLO  GIOVIO,  "Elogio;"  GINGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie." 

Strozzi,  (FiLlPPO,)  an  opulent  Florentine  merchant, 
noted  for  his  generosity,  was  born  in  1426.  He  built 
the  magnificent  Palazzo  Strozzi  at  Florence,  which  is 
still  standing.  Died  in  1491. 

Strozzi,  ( FILIPPO,)  a  Florentine  statesman,  born  in 
1488,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  Though  connected 
with  the  Medici  by  his  marriage  with  Clarice,  niece  of 
Leo  X.,  he  exerted  himself  to  deprive  that  family  of  the 
chief  power  in  Florence.  After  the  murder  of  the  duke 
Alexander  de'  Medici,  and  the  election  of  Cosimo  as  his 
successor,  Strozzi  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  an  army 
of  French  and  Italian  mercenaries,  and  marched  against 
the  troops  of  Cosimo,  who  was  assisted  by  the  soldiers 
of  Charles  V.  The  insurgents  were  signally  defeated, 
('537>)  av>d  Strozzi  was  made  prisoner,  and  confined  for 
a  year  in  a  fortress,  where  he  committed  suicide  in  1538. 

See  LORENZO  STROZZI,  "Vie  de  P.  Strozzi,"  (translated  from  the 
Italian  by  RKQUIER.)  1762;  G.  B.  NICOI.INI,  "  Vita  di   F.  Strozzi," 
1847  ;  '•  Vita  di  F.  Strozzi,  scritta  da  Lorenzo  Strozzi  suo  Figlio,"  j 
1851  ;  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Strozzi,  (FILIPPO,)  a  commander,  born  at  Venice  in 
1541,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of 
Piero,  noticed  below.    He  served  with  distinction  against  j 
the  French    Huguenots  in   the  civil  wars  which   began  ; 
about  1562,31x1  was  appointed  in  1581  lieutenant-general 
of  the   naval  army  by  Henry  III.     He  was  killed   in  a 
naval  action  against  the  Spaniards  in  1582. 

See  TORZAY,  "Viede  P.  Strozzi,"  1608;  DAVII.A,  "History  of 
the  Civil  Wars  of  France." 

Strozzi,  (FRANCESCO  di  Soldo — de  sol'do,)  an  Ital 
ian  scholar,  who  translated  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon's 
"  History  of  Greece,"  into  Italian,  (1550.) 

Strozzi,  (GlAMBATTiSTA,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1551,  was  a  nephew  of  Piero, 
noticed  below.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his  generous 
patronage  of  learning,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1634. 

Strozzi,  (GiULiO,)  a  Venetian  poet,  born  about  1583, 
resided  at  Rome,  where  he  became  papal  prothono- 
tary.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Building  of  Venice," 
("  Venezia  Edificata,")  an  epic  poem,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1660. 

Strozzi,  (LEONE,)  a  naval  officer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1515,  was  a  son  of  Filippo  Strozzi,  (1488-1538.)  He 
obtained  command  of  a  French  fleet  about  1550,  and 


was  opposed  to  Andrew  Doria  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Died  in  1554. 

Strozzi,  (\ICCOL6,)  an  Italian  writer,  was  the  author 
of  idyls,  sonnets,  etc.,  and  tragedies  entitled  "  Conradus" 
and  "  David  of  Trebizond."  Died  in  1654. 

Strozzi,  [Lat.  STROC'TIUS,]  (PALLA,)  an  Italian  di 
plomatist  and  scholar,  born  at  Florence  in  1372.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature,  and  devoted  his  large 
fortune  to  the  promotion  of  classical  studies,  employing 
in  his  house  many  copyists  to  transcribe  ancient  manu 
scripts.  He  also  founded  several  chairs  in  the  Univer 
sity  of  Florence.  Having  opposed  the  Medici,  he  was 
banished  about  1434,  and  settled  at  Padua.  Died  in  1462. 

See  ANGELO  FARRONI,  "P.  Stroctii  Vita,"  1802;  /ENEAS  SYL 
VIUS,  "  Commentarii." 

Strozzi,  (PIERO,)  an  able  general,  a  son  of  Filippo 
Strozzi,  (1488-1538,)  was  born  in  1500,  and  entered  the 
P'rench  army  after  the  death  of  his  father.  In  1553  he  was 

|  sent  to  the  defence  of  Sienna,  then  besieged  by  Cosimo 

I  I.  ;  but,   having  imprudently  invaded  Tuscany,  he  was 

j  defeated  by  the  Marquis  of  Marignano,  near  Lucignano, 
in  1554.  He  was  afterwards  charged  by  the  pope,  Paul 

I  IV.,  with  the  defence  of  Rome  against  the  Duke  of  Alva. 

|  In  1558  he  assisted  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  the  capture  of 
Calais,  but  he  was  killed  the  same  year  at  the  siege  of 
Thionville.  He  had  been  created  marshal  of  France  by 

'  Henry  II.  about  1555. 

See    BRAN-TOME,    "Vies  des    Capitaines    etraugers :"   VARCHI, 

'  "  Storia  Fiorentina  ;"  DE  COURCELLES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux 
Francais  ;"  F.  TKUCCHI,  "  Vita  e  Geste  di  P.  Strozzi,"  1847  ;  "  Xou- 

j  velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Strozzi,  (PIETRO,)  an   Italian  scholar,  born   at  Flor- 
'  enee  about   1575,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Pisa. 
!  He  published  a  work  on   the  Nestorians,  entitled  "  De 
Origine  et  Dogmatibus  Chaldasorum,  sive  hodiernorum 
Xestorianorum,"  (1617.)     Died  about  1640. 

Strozzi,  (Tiro  VESPASIANO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
i  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1422.  He  was  the  author 
:  of  Latin  lyrics,  satires,  and  epigrams.  He  became 
]  president  of  the  supreme  council  of  Ferrara  in  1485. 
i  Died  about  1508. 

Strudel  or  Strudell,  stRoo'del,  (PETKR,)  a  historical 
painter,  born   in   the  Tyrol   in  1680,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
!  1660.      He  worked   in  Vienna,  and   was   patronized   by 
:  the  emperor  Leopold.     Died  in  1717. 

Struensee,  stRoo'en-za',   (A DAM,)  a  German   theo- 
I  logian,  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1708.     He  preached  at 
Halle,  and  became   superintendent   or  l>ishop  of  Sles- 
i  wick  and  Holstein  in  1761.     He  wrote  several  religious 
|  works.     Died  in  1791. 

Struensee,  von,  fon  stRoo'en-za',  (TOHAXX  FRIED- 
RICH,)  COUNT,  a  minister  of  state,  born  at  Halle  in  1737, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  medicine,  and 
practised  with  success  at  Altona.  His  habits  are  said 
to  have  been  licentious.  In  1768  he  became  physician 
to  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark,  whom  he  attended  in  a 
tour  through  Germany,  France,  and  England.  He  in 
sinuated  himself  into  the  favour  of  Christian  VII.,  and 
of  his  queen,  Caroline  Matilda,  a  sister  of  George  III. 
of  England.  His  talents  and  ambition  enabled  him  to 
gain  an  ascendency  over  the  king,  who  was  a  man  of 
feeble  character.  He  was  aided  in  his  ambitions  project* 
by  his  friend  Brandt,  and  by  the  queen.  He  procured 
the  removal  of  Count  Bernstorff  in  1770,  and  became 
prime  minister.  He  made  many  innovations  in  political 
affairs,  some  of  which  were  beneficial  ;  but  he  offended 
the  people  by  his  preference  of  the  German  to  the  Danish 
language.  Prince  Frederick  and  others  formed  a  con 
spiracy  against  Struensee,  who  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
put  to  death  in  April,  1772. 

See  FALKENSKIOLD,  "  Memoirs  of  Struensee,"  (in  German,)  1788  ; 
J.  K.  HOST.  "Struensee  og  hans  Ministerium,"  3  vols.,  1824;  J. 
GIHSSING,  "Struensee,"  1X48;  REVKKDIL,  "Struensee  a  la  Cour  de 
Copenhague,"  1858;  "Authentic  Elucidation  of  the  History  of 
Struensee  and  Brandt :"  DR.  MI'NTER.  "  Narrative  of  the  Conversion, 
and  Death  of  Count  Struensee  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  September.  1826,  article  ''Danish  Revo 
lutions  under  Count  Struensee,"  (by  SIR  JAMES  MACKINTOSH.) 

Struensee,  von,  (K.\Ri.  AUGUST,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1735.  He  became  in 
1757  professor  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  the 
military  academy  of  Liegnitz.  His  "Rudiments  of 
Artillery,"  published  in  1760,  obtained  for  him  the  notice 


€  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STRUTHERS 


2076 


STUART 


and  patronage  of  Frederick  the  Great.  It  was  followed 
in  1771  by  "  Elements  of  Military  Architecture,"  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  the  subject  that  had  then  appeared  in 
Germany.  After  the  publication  of  his  "Description  of 
the  Commerce  of  the  Principal  European  States,"  he 
was  ennobled  and  made  minister  of  state  and  president 
of  the  board  of  excise.  Died  in  1804. 

See  MEUSEI.,  "Gelehrtes  Deutscliland ;"  HIRSCHING,  "  His- 
torisch  literarisches  Hanclbuch  ;"  VON  HELD,  "  Struensee,  Skizze 
fur  Diejenigen,"  etc.,  1805. 

Stiuth'ers,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Lanark 
shire  in  1776,  worked  at  the  trade  of  shoemaker  in  his 
youth.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Poor  Man's  Sabbath," 
(1804.)  Died  in  1853. 

Strutt,  (EnwARD,)  Baron  Helper,  an  English  peer, 
born  in  iSot.  He  was  chosen  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  in  1830,  and  was  re-elected  several  times. 

Strutt,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  antiquary  and  engraver, 
born  in  Essex  in  1742.  ile  was  the  author  of  "The 
Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  England,"  etc., 
"  Horda  Angel  Cynnan  ;  or,  View  of  the  Manners,  Cus 
toms,  etc.  of  the  Inhabitants  of  England  from  the  Arrival 
of  the  Saxons,"  (3  vols.,  1776,)  a  "Biographical  Diction 
ary  of  Engravers  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Present 
Time,"  (2  vols.,  1786,)  and  "Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the 
People  of  England,"  etc.,  (1801.)  Among  his  engravings 
are  a  series  of  illustrations  of  the  "Pilgrim's  Progress." 
He  died  in  1802,  leaving  several  works  in  manuscript, 
one  of  which,  a  romance,  entitled  "  Queen-Hoo  Hall," 
was  completed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1775,  and  June,  1802. 

Struve,  stroo' veh,  (BuRKHAKD  GoTTHELF,)  a  jurist, 
a  son  of  Georg  Adam,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Weimar  in  1671.  He  studied  law  and  history  at  Jena 
and  Helmstedt,  became  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in 
1704,  and  in  1730  of  public  and  feudal  law.  Among  his 
voluminous  works  we  may  name  his  "  Syntagma  Juris 
Publici,"  (1711,)  "  Body  of  German  History,"  ("Corpus 
Historice  Germanicae,"  1730,)  and  "Introduction  to  the 
History  of  the  German  Empire,"  (in  German.)  He 
also  published  an  edition  of  the  "  Illustres  Veteres  Scrip- 
tores"  of  Pistorius,  and  of  Freher's  "  Rerum  Germani- 
carum  Scriptores."  Died  in  1738. 

See  HIRSCHING,"  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  LIPRNIUS, 
"  Bibliotheca  Juridica." 

Struve,  (FRIKDRICH  GEORG  WII.HELM,)  an  eminent 
German  astronomer,  born  at  Altona  in  April,  1793.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Dorpat 
about  1818.  In  1839  he  became  director  of  a  new  and 
magnificent  observatory  erected  by  the  Russian  govern 
ment  at  Pulkova,  near  Saint  Petersburg.  He  acquired 
distinction  by  his  observations  on  double  and  multiple 
stars,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Astronom 
ical  Observations,"  ("  Observationes  Astronomies, "  8 
vols.,  1820-40,)  "Micrometric  Measurements  of  the 
Double  Stars,"  ("  Stellarum  duplicium  Mensurae  micro- 
metricae,"  1827,)  and  "Studies  of  Sidereal  Astronomy 
on  the  Milky  Way,"  ("Etudes  d'Astronomie  stellaire 
sur  la  Voie  lactee,"  etc.,  1847.)  Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  BROCKHAUS,  "  Conversa 
tions- Lexikon." 

Struve,  (GEORG  ADAM,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at 
Magdeburg  in  1619.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Jena 
in  1646,  and  in  1667  was  appointed  privy  councillor  to 
the  Duke  of  Weimar.  Among  his  numerous  legal  works, 
which  had  a  high  reputation  in  his'  time,  we  may  name 
his  "  Jurisprudentia  Romano-Germanica  forensis,"  and 
"  Syntagma  Juris  Feudalis."  Died  in  1692. 

See  B.  G.  STRUVE,  "Vita  G.  A.  Stnwii,"  1705. 

Struve,  (GUSTAVUS,)  a  German  political  writer  and 
revolutionist,  born  in  Livonia  about  1805.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  insurrection  in  Baden  in  1848,  and 
became  an  exile  in  1849.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  System  of  Political  Science,"  (4  vols.,  1847.) 
Died  in  1870. 

Struve,  (Orro  WILHELM,)  an  astronomer,  a  son  of 
Friedrich  Georg  Wilhelm,  was  born  at  Dorpat  in  1819. 
He  obtained  the  position  of  second  astronomer  at  Pul- 
kowa.  He  discovered  many  double  stars,  and  computed 
the  movement  of  translation  of  the  solar  system. 


Struve,  von,  fon  stuoo'veh,  (HEINRICH  CHRIS- 
Toi'H  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born  at  Ratis- 
bon  in  1772,  was  employed  in  embassies  to  Hamburg, 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  other  European  courts.  Died 
in  1851. 

Struys,  stRois,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  traveller,  who  visited 
several  countries  of  Asia,  and  published  a  narrative  in 
1677.  Died  in  1694. 

Stry,  van,  vSn  stuT,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1753,  imitated  A.  Cuyp.  lie 
painted  landscapes,  cattle,  etc.  Died  in  1826. 

Stry,  van,  (JACOB,)  a  skilful  painter  of  landscapes  and 
cattle,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Doit  in 
1756.  "  Many  of  his  imitations  of  Albert  Cuyp,"  says 
Bryan,  "have  passed  as  originals  of  that  master."  Died 
in  1815. 

Stryk,  stidk,  [Lat.  STRYK'IUS,]  (SAMUEL,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Lenzen  in  1640.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1672,  and  obtained 
a  chair  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg  in  1691.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  writings  on  law. 
Died  in  1710. 

See  BKRGEK,  "Memoria  Strykii,"  1711. 

Strykius.     See  STKYK. 

Strype,  strip,  (JoHN.)  an  English  divine  and  biogra 
pher,  born  in  London  in  1643.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "  Memorials  of  the  Most  Renowned  Father 
in  God,  Thomas  Cranmer,"  etc.,  (1694,)  "Historical 
Collections  relating  to  the  Life  and  Acts  of  Bishop 
Aylmer,"  (1701,)  "  Life  and  Acts  of  Archbishop  Parker," 
(1711,)  "Ecclesiastical  Memorials,  relating  chiefly  to 
Religion  and  the  Reformation  of  it,"  etc.,  and  "Annals 
of  the  Reformation  and  Establishment  of  Religion,"  (4 
vols.,  1731.)  Died  in  1737. 

Stu'art,  (ALEXANDER  II.  H.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Staunton,  Virginia,  in  1807.  He  gained  dis 
tinction  as  a  lawyer,  became  an  orator  of  the  Whig 
party,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1841.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  interior  from  September,  1850,  to  March, 
1853.  He  was  loyal  to  the  Union,  until  the  secession 
of  Virginia  induced  him  to  change  sides. 

Stu'art,  (ARABELLA,)  born  about  1575,  was  a  daughter 
of  Charles  Stuart,  Duke  of  Lennox,  (a  brother  of  Lord 
Darnley,)  and  was  a  cousin-german  to  James  I.  of  Eng 
land.  She  was  secretly  married  about  1609  to  William 
Seymour,  against  the  will  of  the  king,  who  imprisoned 
her  in  the  Tower.  She  was  so  harshly  treated  that  she 
became  insane,  and  died  in  the  Tower  in  September, 
1615.  William  Seymour  was  afterwards  made  Marquis 
of  Hertford.  Arabella  Stuart  was  a  woman  of  superior 
talents  and  high  spirit. 

See"  Life  and  Letters  of  Arabella  Stuart,  "by  P^UZABKTH  COOPER, 
London,  1866:  GARDINER,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  ;  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  LOUISA 
S.  COSTEI.I.O. 

Stuart,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1753,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Bute,  the  prime  min 
ister.  He  fought  against  the  American  patriots,  ( 1 776-82,) 
gained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1793,  and  com 
manded  in  Corsica  in  1794.  He  took  Minorca  in  1798. 
Died  in  1801. 

Stuart,  (CHARLES  EDWARD,)  THE  PRETENDER.  See 
CHARLES  EDWARD. 

Stuart,  (GILBERT,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1746. 
He  became  in  1773  associate  editor  of  "  The  Edinburgh 
Magazine  and  Review,"  in  which  he  published  criti 
cisms  on  prominent  authors,  displaying  great  ability,  but 
disfigured  by  bitter  personalities.  He  was  aflerwards 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Political  Herald"  and  "  English 
Review,"  London.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"  Historical  Disquisition  concerning  the  Antiquity  of 
the  British  Constitution,"  (1767,)  "View  of  Society  in 
Europe  in  its  Progress  from  Rudeness  to  Refinement," 
etc.,  (1768,)  "History  of  the  Establishment  of  the  Re 
formation  of  Religion  in  Scotland,  1517-1561,"  (1780,) 
and  "  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Establishment  of 
the  Reformation  to  the  Death  of  Queen  Mary,"  (1782.) 
Died  in  1786. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
AI.I.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  Sep 
tember  and  October,  1783. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


STUART 


2077 


STURE 


Stuart,  (GILBERT  CHAKI.ES,)  an  eminent  American 
painter,  born  at  Narraganset,  Rhode  Island,  in  1756. 
He  studied  in  London  under  West,  and  subsequently 
executed  a  number  of  portraits,  which  obtained  for  him 
a  high  reputation.  Among  these  may  be  named  that  of 
George  III.,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  John  Kemble. 
After  his  return  to  America  he  painted  a  portrait  of 
Washington,  which  is  esteemed  the  best  ever  taken  ; 
also  portraits  of  Mrs.  Washington,  John  Adams,  Jeffer 
son,  Madison,  and  other  distinguished  Americans.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 

vol.  i. 

Stuart,  (HENRY  BENEDICT,)  Cardinal  York,  born  in 
1725,  was  a  grandson  of  James  If.  of  England,  and  a 
brother  of  Charles  Edward  the  Pretender.  He  lived 
at  Rome,  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1747.  Died  in  1807. 

Stuart,  (JAMES,)  an  English  antiquary  and  architect, 
commonly  known  as  "Athenian  Stuart,"  was  born  in 
London  in  1713.  He  resided  many  years  at  Rome, 
where  he  studied  antiquities  and  the  ancient  languages, 
and  in  1750  visited  Athens  in  company  with  Nicholas 
Revett,  also  an  artist.  In  1762  he  brought  out  the  first 
volume  of  the  "Antiquities  of  Athens,"  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Mr.  Revett.  It  was  received  with  great 
favour,  and  a  second  and  a  third  volume  were  published 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788.  Among  his 
architectural  works  may  be  named  the  chapel  of  Green 
wich  Hospital. 

Stuart,  (JAMES  E.  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Patrick  county,  Virginia,  about  1833,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1854.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the 
insurgents  in  September,  1861,  and  obtained  command 
of  a  body  of  cavalry.  In  August,  1862,  he  surprised 
General  Pope's  head-quarters  at  Catlett's  Station  and 
captured  some  of  his  private  papers.  In  October  of 
that  year  he  conducted  a  daring  and  successful  raid  to 
Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania.  His  cavalry  covered  the 
retreat  of  General  Lee  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July, 
1863.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness,  in  May,  1864,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  a 
battle  against  General  Sheridan,  at  Yellow  Tavern,  on 
the  1 2th  of  May  in  that  year. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Stuart  in  "Southern  Generals,"  1865; 
TENNEY'S  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  779. 

Stuart,  (JAMKS  F.  E.,)  THE  PRETENDER.  See  JAMES 
FRANCIS  EDWARD. 

Stuart,  (JOHN.)     See  BUTE,  LORD. 

Stuart,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  antiquary,  born  in  1751, 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Aberdeen.  Died  in  1827. 

Stuart,  (MosKS,)  an  American  theologian  and  Con 
gregational  divine,  born  at  Wilton,  Connecticut,  in  1780. 
He  was  appointed  in  1809  professor  of  sacred  literature 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  which  post  he  held 
for  more  than  thirty  years.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  without  Points," 
(1813,)  "  Letters  to  Dr.  Channing  on  Religious  Liberty," 
(1830,)  "Hints  on  the  Prophecies,"  (1842,)  "A  Scrip 
tural  View  of  the  Wine  Question,"  (1848,)  and  a  number 
of  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  He  published  in 
1827  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 
which,  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "continues  in  all  countries 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  noblest  examples  of  philo 
logical  theology  and  exegetical  criticism."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  America.")  Died  in  1852. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;''  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Stu'art  or  Stew'art  Family,  a  famous  and  unfor 
tunate  royal  family  which  reigned  in  Scotland  several 
centuries  and  in  England  for  more  than  a  century.  The 
first  member  of  this  family  that  became  king  was  Robert 
II.,  whose  father  was  Walter,  high  steward  of  Scotland, 
and  whose  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce.  (See 
ROBERT  II.)  The  last  king  of  this  dynasty  was  James  II., 
who  was  deposed  in  1688,  after  which  two  of  his  descend 
ants,  styled  Pretenders,  attempted  to  ascend  the  throne. 
(See  JAMES  FRANCIS  EDWARD,  and  CHARLES  EDWARD.) 

"The  name  of  the  family,"  says  Burton,  "was  Allan 
or  Fitz-Allan  ;  but  it  had  become  habitual  to  call  them 
by  the  name  of  the  feudal  office  held  by  them  in  Scot 
land,  and  hence  Robert  II.  was  the  first  of  the  Steward 


— or,  as  it  came  to  be  written,  the   Stewart — dynasty." 
("  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxvi.) 

See  C.  D.  Voss,  "Geschichte  der  Stuarts  auf  dem  Englischen 
Throne,"  4  vols.,  1794-97;  R.  VAUGHAN,  "Memorials  of  the  Stuart 
Dynasty,"  2  vols.,  1831. 

Stu'art  de  Rothe'say,  (roth'sa,)  (CHARLES  STU 
ART,)  LORD,  a  distinguished  British  diplomatist,  grandson 
of  Lord  Bute,  was  born  in  1779.  lie  was  sent  in  1810 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Portugal,  and  for  his  ser 
vices  on  this  occasion  obtained  from  the  prince-re'gent  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath.  The  King  of  Por 
tugal  also  made  him  a  grandee  of  that  kingdom.  He  was 
afterwards  successively  minister  at  Paris,  the  Hague, 
and  Saint  Petersburg.  In  1828  he  was  raised  to  the  peer 
age,  with  the  title  of  Stuart  de  Rothesay.  Died  in  1845. 

Stubbe,  stub,  (HENRY,)  an  English  writer  and 
scholar,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1631.  He  joined  the 
party  of  Cromwell  during  the  civil  war,  and  wrote  "  A 
Vindication  of  Sir  Harry  Vane,"  "  Light  shining  out 
of  Darkness,  with  an  Apology  for  the  Quakers,"  and 
other  works.  After  the  restoration  he  went  over  to  the 
royalists,  and  published  numerous  attacks  on  his  former 
friends.  He  was  accidentally  drowned  in  1676. 

Stubbe,  (JOHN.)     See  STUBBS,  (JOHN.) 

Stubbs,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  painter,  born  at  Liver 
pool  in  1724,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
anatomy.  He  excelled  in  delineating  animals,  par 
ticularly  horses.  He  published  in  1766  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Anatomy  of  the  Horse."  His  picture  of  "The 
Grosvenor  Hunt"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces. 
Died  in  1806. 

Stubbs  or  Stubbe,  (JOHN,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
Puritan,  born  about  1540.  Having  written  a  pamphlet 
against  Queen  Elizabeth's  marriage  with  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  entitled  "The  Discovery  of  a  Gaping  Gulph, 
wherein  England  is  like  to  be  swallowed  by  another 
French  Marriage,"  his  right  hand  was  amputated  by 
order  of  the  queen. 

Stuck.     See  BATTISTTN. 

Stuck,  stock,  [Lat.  STUCK'IUS,]  QOHANN  WILHELM,) 
a  Swiss  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Zurich  about 
1550.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Feasts  of  the 
Ancients,  and  their  Sacrifices,"  (1591.)  Died  in  1607. 

Studer,  stoo'cler,  (BtRNHARD.)  a  Swiss  savant,  born 
at  Buren-on-the-Aar  in  1794,  became  professor  of  geol 
ogy  at  Berne.  He  published  several  scientific  works. 

Stuerbout,  stii'er-b6wt',(DiKRiCK,)  one  of  the  earliest 
Dutch  painters,  sometimes  called  DIRK  VAN  HAARLEM, 
was  born  in  that  town.  He  lived  about  1450-70.  There 
are  two  historical  pictures  by  him  in  the  royal  collection 
at  the  Hague,  representing  incidents  in  the  life  of  the 
emperor  Otho  III.  and  his  empress.  Stuerbout  ranked 
among  the  first  artists  of  his  time. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Stuermer.     See  STURMER. 

Stuhr,  stooR,  (PETER  FEDDERSEN,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Flensborg  in  1787,  published  a  number  of  philo 
sophical  and  historical  svorks.  Died  in  1851. 

Stuke'ley,  (WILLIAM,)  M.D.,  an  English  divine,  an 
tiquary,  and  physician,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1687. 
Having  practised  medicine  for  a  time  with  great  reputa 
tion  and  success,  he  took  .holy  orders,  and  in  1747 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Saint  George  the  Martyr,  in  Lon 
don.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Itinerarium  Curiosum,  or 
an  Account  of  the  Antiquities,  etc.  observed  in  Travels 
through  Great  Britain,"  (1724,)  "  Palaeographia  Britan- 
nica,  or  Discourses  on  Antiquities  in  Britain,"  (1743-54,) 
"  Some  Account  of  the  Medallic  History  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Valerius  Carausius,  Emperor  of  Britain," 
(1757-59,)  and  other  valuable  antiquarian  works;  also 
a  collection  of  sermons,  entitled  "  Palaeographia  Sacra," 
(1760-63.)  Died  in  1765. 

Stiller  or  Stueler,  stii'ler,  (AUGUST,)  a  German 
architect,  born  in  Berlin  in  1800,  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  pupils  of  Schinkel.  Among  his  greatest 
works  are  the  new  museum  at  Berlin,  and  the  Exchange 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

Sturdza.     See  STOORDZA. 

Sture,  stoo'reh,  (STEN,)  called  THE  ELDER,  a  Swed 
ish  statesman,  related  to  the  royal  family  of  Sweden. 
On  the  death  of  Charles  VIII.,  in  1470,  he  became  re 
gent  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  defended  with  signal 


e  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^P'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STURE 


2078 


STTX 


ability  against  the  attempts  of  the  Danes  and  the  Rus 
sians.  Died  in  1504. 

See  GEIJER,  "  Areminne  ofver  S.  Sture,"  1803. 

Sture,  (STEN,)  THE  YOUNGKR,  son  of  Svantc  Sture, 
noticed  below,  succeeded  his  father  as  regent  in  1512. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  ability,  and 
for  a  time  successfully  resisted  the  encroachments  of 
Denmark,  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle 
near  Jonkoping,  in  1520. 

See  SILFVERSTOLPE,  "  Areminne  ofver  S.  Sture,"  1791. 

Sture,  (SvANTE,)  became  Regent  of  Sweden  on  the 
death  of  Sten  Sture  the  Elder,  in  1504.  Died  in  1512. 

Sturge,  stiirj,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Elberton,  Gloucestershire,  in  1793,  was  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  became  a  corn-factor 
at  Bewdley,  from  which  he  removed  to  Birmingham  in 
1822.  By  his  probity,  energy,  and  moral  courage  he 
acquired  much  influence.  He  svas  one  of  the  first  in 
England  to  advocate  the  immediate  abolition  of  slavery, 
and  he  became  a  prominent  leader  of  the  anti-slavery 
movement.  In  1836  he  visited  the  West  Indies,  and 
collected  evidence  against  the  slaveholders.  He  per 
formed  an  anti-slavery  mission  to  the  United  States 
in  1841.  After  his  return  he  co-operated  actively  with 
Cobden  and  Bright  in  the  anti-corn-law  movement. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  HENRY  RICHARD,  "  Memoir  of  Joseph  Sturge,"  1864. 

Sturgeon,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  electrician,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1783.  He  learned  the  trade  of  shoe 
maker,  and  served  a  number  of  years  in  the  royal  artil 
lery.  He  invented  or  improved  an  electro-magnetic 
machine,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  electro-magnet 
ism.  Died  at  Manchester  in  1850. 

Stur'ges,  (|OHN,)  an  English  divine,  was  prebendary 
of  Winchester.  He  published  "  Discourses  on  the  Evi 
dence  of  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  and  was  en 
gaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Milner.  Died  in  1807. 

Stur'gis,  (SAMUEL  D.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Shippensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  major  in  May, 
1 86 1,  and  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  at 
Wilson's  Creek  when  General  Lyon  was  killed,  August 
10  of  that  year.  He  commanded  an  army  which  was 
defeated  at  Guntown,  Mississippi,  Time  10,  1864. 

Sturleson.     See  SNORRO-STURLKSON. 

Sturm,  stooRm,  or  Sturrne,  first  abbot  of  Fnlda, 
was  born  in -Bavaria  about  715  A.D.  He  founded  about 
744  the  monastery  of  Fulda,  which  became  a  famous 
seat  of  learning.  Died  in  780. 

Sturm,  stooRm,  (CinusToPH  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Ger 
man  moralist  and  preacher,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1740. 
He  preached  at  Magdeburg  and  Hamburg,  and  wrote 
a  number  of  popular  religious  works,  among  which  was 
"  Meditations  on  the  Works  of  God  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Nature,"  (2  vols.,  1772-97.)  Died  in  1786. 

See  FEDDERSEN",  "  Leben  und  Charakter  ties  Hanptpastors  C. 
C.  Sturm,"  1786;  HIKSCHING,  "  Historisch-liierarisches  Hand- 
buch." 

Sturm,  stooRm  or  stuRtn,  (JACQUES  CHARLES  FRAN 
COIS.)  an  excellent  Swiss  mathematician,  born  at  Geneva 
in  September,  1803.  He  was  a  tutor  to  the  son  of 
Madame  de  Stael,  with  whom  he  visited  Paris  in  1823. 
In  1827  Sturm  and  his  friend  Colladon  obtained  the 
grand  prize  of  mathematics  proposed  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Paris  for  the  best  memoir  on  the  compres 
sion  of  liquids.  He  discovered  in  1829  the  celebrated 
theorem  which  completes  the  resolution  of  numerical 
equations  by  determining  the  number  of  real  roots  which 
are  included  between  given  limits.  This  is  known  as 
"  Sturm's  theorem."  He  became  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  the  College  Rollin  in  1830,  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1836,  and  professor  of  analysis  at  the  Poly 
technic  School  in  1840.  Died  in  1855. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sturm,  (JAKOB,)  an  eminent  German  statesman  and 
Reformer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1489.  He  became  in 
early  life  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  and  was 
chosen  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  Strasburg  in  1526. 
His  learning  and  wisdom  were  such  that  he  was  regarded 
as  an  oracle  by  his  fellow-citizens.  It  is  stated  that  he 


was  sent  ninety-one  times  on  missions  to  various  courts, 
between  1525  and  1552.     Died  in  1553. 
See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Sturm,  [Lat.  STUR'MIUS,]  (JOHANN,)  an  eminent 
scholar  and  teacher,  surnamed  "  the  German  Cicero," 
was  born  at  Schleiden  in  1507.  He  became  in  1538  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  at  Strasburg,  which,  under  his  direc 
tion,  attained  a  very  high  reputation.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Cicero,  (9  vols.,  1557  et  sey.,)  a  number  of 
translations  from  the  Latin,  and  several  original  works 
in  that  language  :  among  these  we  may  name  "On  the 
Proper  Opening  of  Schools  of  Learning,"  ("De  Litera- 
rum  Ludis  recte  Aperiendis,"  1538,)  and  "On  the  Uni 
versal  Method  of  Rhetorical  Elocution,"  ("  De  universa 
Ratione  Elocutionis  Rhetorics,"  1576.)  Died  in  1589. 

See  BAVI.E,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires  :"  M.  ADAM,  "  Vit.-E  Germanorum  Philosophornm  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sturm,  (JOHANN  CIIRISTOPH,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1635.  Having 
graduated  at  [ena,  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Altdorf  in  1669.  He  translated  into  Latin  Bockler's 
"  Hydraulic  Architecture,"  and  published  several  valua 
ble  works  on  mathematics  and  physical  science.  Died 
in  1703. 

Sturm,  (LF.ONHARD  CHRISTOPH,)  an  architect,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Altdorf  in  1669.  He 
wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Military  Architecture,"  and  other 
similar  works.  Died  in  1719. 

Stiirmer  or  Stuerrner,  stiiu'mer,  (BARTHOLOMAUS,) 
COUNT,  son  of  Igna/,,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Con 
stantinople  in  1787,  and  was  educated  at  Vienna.  He 
was  consul-general  to  the  United  States  in  1818,  and  in 
1834  appointed  internuncio  at  Constantinople. 

Stiirmer  or  Stuermer,  (IGNAZ,)  BARON,  a  German 
diplomatist  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Vienna  in  1752. 
He  was  appointed  in  1789  court  interpreter,  and  in  1802 
internuncio  at  the  Porte,  and  magnate  of  Hungary  in 
1820.  Died  in  1829. 

Sturmius.     See  STURM,  (JOHANN.) 

Sturt,  (JoHN,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  London 
in  i65S,  was  celebrated  for  his  exquisite  illustrations  of 
the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer."  Died  in  1730. 

Sturtzenbecher,  stooRts'en-bek'er,  (OSCAR  PAP- 
RICK,)  a  Swedish  writer  and  liberal  politician,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  181 1. 

Sturz,  stooRts,  (FRiF.nuicn  WILHELM,}  a  German 
scholar,  born  near  Freiberg  in  1762,  published  editions 
of  Empeclocles,  the  fragments  of  llellanicus,  and  of  other 
Greek  writers.  Died  in  1832. 

Sturz,  (IlELFREiCH  PETER,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Darmstadt  in  1736,  was  a  friend  of  Klopstock,  and  was 
patronized  by  Count  Bernstorff.  His  principal  works 
are  "Recollections  of  the  Life  of  Bernstorff,"  and  "  Let 
ters  of  a  Traveller."  Died  in  1770. 

Stiive  orStueve,stu/veh,(JoHANN  KARL  BERTRAM,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1798,  filled  several 
offices  under  the  government,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
political  treatises. 

Stuven,  stoo'ven,  (ERNST,)  a  German  flower-painter, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1657  ;  died  in  1712. 

Stuyvesant,  sti've-sant,  (PETER,)  the  last  Dutch 
Governor  of  the  Ne\v  Netherlands,  (New  York,)  was 
born  about  1602.  He  was  appointed  governor  or  di 
rector-general  about  1645.  He  had  previously  served 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  lost  a  leg  in  battle.  Tn  1655 
he  conquered  a  Swedish  colony  on  the  Delaware  River. 
His  administration  was  vigorous  and  rather  arbitrary. 
New  Amsterdam  was  attacked  by  an  English  fleet,  to 
which  Governor  Stuyvesant  surrendered  in  September, 
1664.  He  died  at  New  York  in  1682.  Peter  Stuyvesant 
forms  a  conspicuous  character  in  Irving's  humorous 
work  entitled  "History  of  New  York,  by  Diedrich 
Knickerbocker." 

Style,  (Wn.LiAM,)  an  English  law-writer,  born  in 
1603.  He  published  "  Reports,"  (1658.)  Died  in  1679. 

Stylites.     See  SIMEON  STYLITES. 

Styx,  [Gr.  2n'£,]  a  personage  of  classic  mythology, 
was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  the 
wife  of  Pallas,  and  the  mother  of  Victory,  (Nice,)  Power, 
(Cratos.)  and  Zelus.  She  fs  a  personification  of  a  cele- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SU4BED1SSEN 


2079 


SUE 


brated  river  of  Hades.  The  poets  feigned  that  the  gods 
in  taking  a  solemn  oath  used  to  swear  by  Styx,  and  if 
they  violated  such  an  oath  they  were  deprived  of  nectar 
for  nine  years. 

Suabedissen,  soo'a-beh-dis'sen,  (DAVID  THEODOR 
AUGUST,)  a  German  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Mel- 
sungen  in  1773  ;  died  in  1835. 

Sualem,  (REXKIN.)     See  RAXNEQUIN. 

Suard,  sii'aV,  QEAX  BAPTISTS  AXTOINE,)  a  French 
journalist  and  litterateiir,  born  at  Besancon  in  1734. 
He  was  successively  associate  editor  of  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  and  editor  of  the  political  journals  entitled 
"  Les  Independants"  and  "Le  Publicists. "  He  trans 
lated  into  French  Robertson's  "  History  of  Charles  V.," 
and  published,  among  other  works,  "Literary  Miscel 
lanies,"  (5  vols.,  1805,)  and  "Lettres  de  1'Anonyme  de 
Vaugirard,"  a  witty  and  satirical  production,  which  ob 
tained  great  and  deserved  popularity.  He  also  made 
numerous  valuable  contributions  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1772,  and  afterwards  became  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution.  Died  in  1817. 

See  C.  NISAKD,  "Memoires  et  Cnrrespondance  Litte'raire  stir 
Suard,"  1859;  GARAT,  "Historical  Memoirs  ot'  M.  Suard;"  PE- 
KKNNES,  "filoge  de  Suard,"  1841;  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Suard,  MADAME,  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Lille  in  1750,  and  was  a  sister  of  Charles  J.  Panc- 
koucke  the  author.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Memoirs  of  M.  Suard,"  ("  Essai  de  Memoires  sur  M. 
Suard,"  1820.)  Died  in  1830. 

Suares,  sii'f'i ess',  (JoSKi-H  MARIE,)  a  French  anti 
quary,  born  at  Avignon  in  1599,  became  Bishop  of 
Vaison  in  1633.  He  wrote  numerous  antiquarian  works. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1677. 

Suaresius.     See  SUAREZ. 

Suarez,  swa'reth,   [Lat.   SUARF/SIUS,]  (FRANCIS,)  a 
learned   and   eloquent    Spanish   Jesuit   and   theologian, 
born  at  Granada  in  1548.     He  became  successively  pro 
fessor  of  divinity  at  Valladolid,  Rome,  Alcala,  and  Coim-  j 
bra.     Among  hi's  principal  works  is  his  "  Defensio  Fidei  ! 
Catholicae,"  etc.,  (1613,)  being  designed  as  a  refutation  | 
of  the  oath  of  allegiance  exacted  by  James  I.  of  England  j 
from   his  subjects,  and  a  "Treatise   on  Laws."     Died 
about  1615. 

See  DESCHAMPS,  "Vita  Fr.  Suaresii,"  1671;  "  Xouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generate. " 

Suavius,  swa've-us,  or  Suterman,  soo'ter-man', 
(LAMKKRT,)  sometimes  called  Schwab,  a  Flemish  en 
graver,  born  at  Liege,  flourished  about  1550.  He 
engraved  his  own  designs,  and  others.  Died  about  1565. 

Subervie,  sii'beVvV,  (JACQUES  Gervais — zheR'vi',) 
BARON,  a  French  general,  born  at  Lectoure  in  1776.  He 
served  as  general  of  brigade  in  Spain,  (1808-11,)  and 
in  Russia  in  1812.  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1814,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was  republican 
minister  of  war  from  February  25  to  March  19,  1848. 
Died  in  1856. 

See  ALEXAXDRF.  THIERRY,  "  Le  Genera]  Subervie,"  1856  ;  "  Xou- 
velie  Biographic  Generate. " 

Sublet,  sii'bli',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  about  1580.  He  was  secretary  of  war  from 
16^6  till  1643.  Died  in  1645. 

Subleyras,  sii'bli'ras',  (PiKRRE,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1699.  He  resided  many  years  in  Rome, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "Saint  Basil  celebrating  Mass  in 
the  Presence  of  the  Emperor  Valens,"  and  "  Saint 
Benedict  restoring  a  Child  to  Life."  Died  in  1749. 

Subow.     See  ZOOIKJK. 

Subtermans.     See  SUSTERMANS. 

Suchet,  sii'shi',  (Louis  GABRIEL,)  Duke  of  Albufera, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  at  Lyons  in  March, 
1770.  lie  served  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  for  his  distin 
guished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Neumark,  (1797.)  Ap 
pointed  in  1799  general  of  division  under  Massena,  he 
successfully  opposed  the  Austrians  under  General  Melas, 
and  made  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Massena,  then  besieged 
at  Genoa,  (1800.)  After  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  which 
he  took  a  prominent  part,  he  was  made  governor  of 


Genoa  and  commander  of  the  centre  of  the  army  of 
Italy.  He  successively  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Poz- 
zolo,  Borghetto,  Verona,  and  Montebello,  and  in  1805 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  Marshal  Lannes's  division 
or  corps  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  Having  been  created 
by  Napoleon  a  count  of  the  empire,  he  was  appointed 
in  1808  to  the  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of 
Spain.  In  this  post,  by  his  brilliant  successes  at  Lerida, 
Mequinanza,  (1810,)  Tortosa,  (1811,)  and  Tarragona, 
(1811,)  he  won  the  highest  reputation  as  a  brave  officer 
and  an  able  disciplinarian  and  tactician.  He  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France  in  1811.  His  subsequent  victories 
at  Murviedro,  Valencia,  and  Albufera  were  rewarded 
by  Napoleon  with  a  large  domain,  and  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Albufera.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of  his  honours  ;  but  the 
title  of  peer  was  restored  to  him  by  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1819.  He  died  in  1826,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  the  War 
in  Spain,"  (1829.)  It  is  stated  that  Napoleon  estimated 
his  ability  higher  than  that  of  any  other  of  his  marshals 
except  Massena. 

See  Bom,  "  Notice  sur  le  Mareclial  Suchet,"  1826;  BARRAULT- 
Rouu.ox,  "  Le  Marechal  Suchet,"  1854;  DE  COURCELI.ES,  "  Dic- 
tionuaire  des  Generaux  Francois  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge"ne"rale." 

Suchtelen,  suK'teh-len',  (JAX  PIETER,)  COUNT,  a 
Dutch  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Oberyssel  in 
1759,  entered  the  Russian  service,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  capture  of  Sweaborg,  (1789.)  Died  in  1836. 

Suck'ling,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Middlesex  about  1608.  lie  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and,  after  travelling  on  the  continent,  served 
for  a  time  in  the  army  of  Gustavus  Aclolphus,  King  of 
Sweden.  He  subsequently  became  celebrated  as  a  wit 
at  the  court  of  Charles  I.  In  1640  he  was  elected  to  the 
Long  Parliament  for  Bramber,  but,  having  joined  in  the 
conspiracy  to  rescue  the  Earl  of  Strafford  from  the 
Tower,  in  1641,  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
France,  where  he  died  about  1642.  His  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  his  lyric  poems;  but  he  also  wrote  several 
dramas  and  satires,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "An  Account 
of  Religion  by  Reason."  "  His  style,"  says  Hazlitt,  "is 
almost  entirely  free  from  the  charge  of  pedantry  and 
affectation.  His  compositions  are  almost  all  of  them 
short  and  lively  effusions  of  wit  and  gallantry,  written 
in  a  familiar  but  spirited  style." 

See  HAZLITT,  "  Comic  Writers  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
ix.,  (1824.) 

Suckow,  sook'ko,  (K.\Ri.  ADOLF,)  a  German  novelist, 
born  at  Miinsterberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1802,  has  written 
under  the  pseudonym  of  POSGARU.  Died  in  1847. 

Sucre,  de,  da  'soo'kRa,  (  ANTONIO  JOSE,)  a  South 
American  patriot  and  general,  born  at  Cumana  in  1793, 
fought  under  Bolivar,  and  in  1819  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Pichincha  in 
1822,  and  in  1824,  having  succeeded  Bolivar  as  com- 
mander-in-chief,  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  royal 
ists  at  Ayacucho,  by  which  the  country  was  delivered 
from  the  Spanish  yoke.  He  was  created  grand  marshal 
of  Ayacucho  by  Bolivar,  and  in  1825  chosen  President 
of  Bo'livia.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent 'Congress 
from  Quito  in  1830.  He  was  assassinated  soon  after,  at 
the  instigation,  it  is  supposed,  of  General  Ovando. 

Sudhodana,  soo-d'ho'da-na,  a  Hindoo  prince,  the 
father  of  GAUTAMA,  (which  see.) 

Sudra  or  Suder.     See  SOODRA. 

Sudre,  siidR,  QEAX  PIK.RRE,)  a  French  lithographer, 
born  at  Alby  in  1783.  He  produced  lithographs  of 
several  work's  of  Raphael  and  Ingres.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1834. 

Sue,  sii,  (EUGENE,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1804,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph  Sue,  (1760- 
1830.)  He  was  named  in  honour  of  Eugene  de  Beau- 
harnais,  son  of  the  empress  Josephine,  who  was  his 
sponsor.  Having  studied  medicine,  he  accompanied 
the  French  army  into  Spain  in  1823  as  military  surgeon. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  from  whom  he  inherited  a 
large  fortune,  he  studied  painting  for  a  time  under 
Gudin  ;  but  he  soon  renounced  this  art  for  literature, 
and  published  several  tales  of  sea-life,  entitled  "  Kernock 
le  Pirate,"  (1 830,)  "  Plick  et  Plock,"  (1831,)  "AtarGull," 
"La  Salamandre,"  (1832,)  and  "La  Vigie  de  Koatven," 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  X,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SUE 


2080 


SUIDAS 


(1833.)  Encouraged  by  the  success  uf  these  productions, 
he  brought  out  in  the  Paris  feuilletons  a  series  of  his 
torical  romances,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Latreau- 
monte,"  "Jean  Cavalier,"  "  Le  Vicomte  de  Letorieres," 
and  "  Le  Commandeur  de  Malfe."  He  next  published 
in  rapid  succession  his  "  Mathilde,"  "Therese  Dunoyer," 
"Mysteres  de  Paris,"  (1842,)  and  "  Le  Juif  errant," 
("TheWandering  Jew,"  1846.)  These  romances,  in  which 
Sue  has  unveiled  the  most  revolting  forms  of  vice,  and 
for  the  most  part  represented  wickedness  triumphant, 
obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  translated  into  the 
principal  European  languages.  He  was  elected  in  1850 
a  member  of  the  Assemblee  Nationale.  Died  in  1857. 

See  G.  PLANCHH,  "  Portraits  Litte>;\ires  ;"  QUERARD,  "  La  France 
Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1838,  and  July,  1842. 

Sue,  (JEAN,)  a  French  surgeon  and  writer,  born  in 
Var  in  1699.  He  practised  in  Paris.  Died  in  1762. 

Sue,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  writer  on  anatomy  and 
surgery,  born  in  1710,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  lectured  on  anatomy  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1792. 

See  "Biographic  Me'dicale." 

Sue,  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  surgeon,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  He  wrote  "Physiological 
Researches  on  Vitality,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.  He 
became  consulting  physician  to  the  king  in  1824.  Died 
in  1830. 

Sue,  ( PIERRE,)  a  learned  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in 
1739,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Sue,  noticed  above.  He  pub 
lished  numerous  works  on  surgery  and  medicine,  which 
are  commended.  Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Sueno.     See  AAGE.SEN  and  SWEYN. 

Sueiion,  the  French  for  SWEYN,  King  of  Denmark. 
(See  SWEYN.) 

Suetone.    See  SUETONIUS. 

Sue-to'm-us,  [  Fr.  SUETONE,  su-a'ton',]  (CAius 
TRANQUILLUS,)  an  eminent  Latin  historian,  born  about 
70  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  a  military  tribune.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Pliny  the  Younger,  who  wrote  to  Suetonius  several 
letters,  which  are  extant.  He  practised  law,  and  was 
versed  in  various  departments  of  learning.  In  the  reign 
of  Hadrian  he  obtained  the  office  of  magister  epistolanim, 
or  secretary,  but  he  did  not  keep  it  long.  Pliny  the 
Younger  speaks  in  high  terms  of  his  integrity  and  learn 
ing.  Suetonius  wrote,  besides  numerous  works  which 
are  lost,  "The  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  ("  Vitae 
Caesarum,"  which  is  highly  prized,  and  appears  to  be 
impartial.  The  subjects  of  this  work  are  the  twelve 
emperors  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Domitian  inclusive, 
whose  private  lives  and  vices  he  exposes,  with  copious 
details.  Saint  Jerome  says  pithily  of  Suetonius,  "that 
he  wrote  of  the  emperors  with  the  same  freedom  that 
they  themselves  lived,"  ("  pari  libertate  ac  ipsi  vixerunt.") 
His  work  is  rather  anecdotical  than  historical.  There 
are  extant  two  other  works  ascribed  to  him, — namely, 
"On  Illustrious  Grammarians,"  ("De  Grammaticis  il- 
lustribus,")  and  "On  Celebrated  Orators,"  ("  De  Claris 
Rhetoribus.") 

See  A.  KRAUSE,  "De  Suetpnii  Fontibus,"  etc.,  1831:  D.  W. 
MOI.I.F.R,  "Disputatio  circularis  de  C.  Suetonio,"  1685:  BAVI.E, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Sue-to'nI-us  Pau-li'nus,  a  Roman  general,  served 
in  Mauritania  in  42  A.n.  He  was  appointed  commander 
of  Nero's  army  in  Britain  in  59,  and  defeated  the  natives 
commanded  by  Boadicea.  Died  after  70  A.n. 

Su'ett,  (RICHARD,)  a  celebrated  English  comedian, 
born  in  London  ;  died  in  1805. 

Sueur,  Le,  (EUSTACHE.)     See  LE  SUEUR. 

Sueur,  Le,  (HUBERT.)     See  SCEUR. 

Sueur,  Le,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS.)     See  LE  SUEUR. 

Suffee,  (King  of  Persia.)     See  SEFEE. 

Suf'field,  (HENRY  HARBORD,)an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1781,  was  elected  in  1820  a  member  of  Parlia 
ment  for  Shaftesbury.  He  was  an  advocate  of  the  abo 
lition  of  colonial  slavery,  and  of  other  important  reforms. 
Died  in  1835. 

Suffolk,  DUKE  OF.     See  BRANDON,  (CHARLES.) 

Suffolk,  siif'fok,  (MICHAEL  DE  LA  POLE,)  first  EARL 
OF,  an  English  statesman,  who  served  in  the  army  under 


Edward  III.  He  became  lord  chancellor  in  March,  1383, 
was  created  Earl  of  Suffolk  in  August,  1386,  and  removed 
in  October  of  that  year.  Died  in  1389. 

Suffolk,  (WILLIAM  DE  LA  POLE,)  DUKE  OF,  was  lord 
high  admiral  of  England.  He  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  Orleans,  in  1429,  and  was  defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc. 
He  was  beheaded,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  in  1450. 

Suffren,  su'fuSN',  (JEAN,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Provence  in  1565.  He  was  for  many  years  confessor  to 
the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He  wrote  "The  Christian 
Year,"  ("  Annee  chretienne,"  1641.)  Died  in  1641. 

Suffren  Saint-Tropez,  de,  deli  sii'iKoN'saN  tko'pa/.) 
(PiERRE  ANDRE,)  a  distinguished  French  naval  com 
mander,  born  in  Provence  in  1726.  Soon  after  his  en 
tering  the  naval  service  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Maltese  order,  from  which  he  received  the  honorary 
title  of  Bailli.  He  accompanied  Count  d'Kstaing  to 
America  in  1778,  and,  being  subsequently  appointed  to 
a  command  under  Don  Luis  de  Cordova,  took  twelve 
merchant-ships  from  the  British,  (1780.)  In  1781  he 
defeated  the  British  commodore  Johnstone  near  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands.  He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in 
1784.  Died  in  1788. 


See  TKUBI.ET,  "  Kssai    historique  snr  la  Vie  et  les  Campasnes 


du   Bailli   de  Suffren  ;"    HBNNBQUIN,  "  Kssai  historique  sur  la  Vie 


et  lesCampaenes  du  Bailli  de  Suffren,"  1824  ;  CUNAT,  "  Histoire  du 


Bailli  de  Suffren,"  1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 


Sugdeii.     See  SAINT  LEONARD'S. 

Suger,  sii'/.ha/,  Abbe  of  Saint-Denis,  an  able  and 
powerful  French  statesman,  born  about  1085.  lie  was 
chosen  Abbe  of  Saint-Denis  about  1122,  and  became  the 
favourite  counsellor  and  chief  minister  of  Louis  VI. 
His  influence  was  equally  great  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
VII.,  and  his  administration  was  beneficent  to  the  peo 
ple.  Died  in  1152. 

See  BAUDIF.R,  "  Histoire  de  1' Administration  de  1'Abbe  Suger," 
1645;  GERVAISK,  "  Histoire  de  Suger,"  3  vols.,  1721  :  A.  NKTTE- 
MHNT,  "Histoire  de  Suger,"  ,1842 :  F.  COMBES,  "Suger  et  son 
Ministere,"  1853;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sugny.     See  SERVAN  DE  SUGNV. 

Sugriva,  soo-gree'va,  \i.e.  "handsome-necked,"  from 
the  Sanscrit  sn,  "  handsome,"  and  grivti,  "ncck,"|  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  monkey  chief,  the  son 
of  Surya,  (or  the  Sun,)  and  the  next  in  rank  among  the 
monkeys  to  Hanuman,  and,  like  the  last-named  hero,  a 
great  favourite  with  Rama.  (See  HANUMAN.) 

Suhm,  soom,  (PF.DEU  FREDEUIK,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1728,  was  a  son  of  Ulrich  Friedrich,  noticed  below. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  philology,  Northern 
antiquities,  etc.,  and  published  "  On  the  Origin  of  the 
Northern  Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1770,)  "Odin,  or  the  My 
thology  of  Northern  Paganism,"  (1771,)  "  History  of  the 
Migration  of  the  Northern  Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1773,) 
"Critical  History  of  Denmark  in  the  Time  of  the  Pa 
gans,"  (4  vols.,  1781,)  and  "  History  of  Denmark  to  the 
Year  1319,"  (n  vols.,  1812.)  He  was  also  the  author  of 
"  Idyls,"  and  several  tales  and  romances,  which  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  Died  in  1798. 

See  RASMUS  NYERUP,  "Udsigt  over  P.  F.  Suliins  Levnet  og 
Skrifter,"  i7gS;  R.  NYERUP,  "Suhmiana,"  1799;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphie  Generale." 

Suhm,  von,  fon  soom  or  zoom,  (Ui.Ricn  FRIEDRICH,) 
an  intimate  friend  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1691.  His  "  Familiar  and  Friendly 
Correspondence  with  Frederick  II."  (in  French)  was 
published  after  the  king's  death.  Died  in  1740. 

Suicer,  swit'ser,  or  Schweitzer,  shwlt'ser,  (Jo- 
HANN  CASPAR,)  a  Swiss  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1620,  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Ecclesiastical  Thesaurus  of  the  Writings 
of  the  Greek  Fathers,"  ("  Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus  e 
Patribus  Graecis,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1682.)  Died  in  1684. 

Suicer,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Zurich  in  1644.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  chair  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  1683,  and  published 
a  "Compendium  of  the  Aristotelico-Cartesian  Philoso 
phy,"  and  other  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1705. 

Su'I-das,  [Gr.  IiavMaf,]  a  Greek  grammarian  and 
lexicographer,  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  the 
tenth  century.  Nothing  is  known  of  him,  except  that 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SLUDGER 


2081 


SULLY 


he  compiled  a  Lexicon  or  encyclopaedia  of  biography, 
literature,  geography,  etc.  This  work,  though  defective 
in  plan  and  not  accurately  executed,  is  highly  prized,  as 
a  contribution  to  the  literary  history  of  antiquity,  and 
contains  many  valuable  extracts  from  writers  whose 
works  are  lost.  A  good  edition  of  this  Lexicon  was 
published  by  T.  Gaisford,  Oxford,  (3  vols.,  1834.) 

See  FABRICIITS,  "  Bibliotheca  Grzca  ;"  MULLER,  "  Programma 
de  Suida,"  1796. 

Suidger.     See  CLEMENT  II. 

Suintila,  swin'ti-la,  became  King  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain  in  621  A.n.  Died  about  630. 

Suleau,  sii'Io',  (FnANgois  Lours,)  a  French  royalist 
and  pamphleteer,  born  in  1757.  He  was  massacred  by 
the  mob  of  Paris  in  August,  1792. 

Suleyman.    See  SOLYMAN  and  SOLIMAN. 

Sul'i-van,  (Sir  RICHARD  JOSEPH,)  an  Irish  writer, 
and  member  of  Parliament  for  Seaford,  published  "A 
View  of  Nature,  in  Letters  to  a  Traveller  among  the 
Alps,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1806. 

Sulkowski,  sool-kov'skee,  (ANTON  PAUI,,)  PRINCE, 
a  Polish  general,  born  at  Lissa  in  1785,  served  with  dis 
tinction  in  Napoleon's  army,  and  was  made  a  general  of 
division  in  1812.  Died  in  1836. 

Sulkowski,  (JOSEF,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
entered  the  French  service,  and,  having  accompanied 
Napoleon  to  Egypt  as  adjutant,  was  killed  in  the  insur 
rection  at  Cairo  in  1798.  He  wrote  "  Historical,  Political, 
and  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Polish  Revolutions,"  etc. 

Sul'la  or  Syl'la,  (FAUSTUS  CORNELIUS,)  a  son  of 
the  dictator,  was  born  about  88  B.C.  He  served  under 
Pompey  in  Asia,  and  was  the  first  to  mount  the  wall  of 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  63.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
the  senate  in  the  civil  war,  fought  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.C., 
and  at  Thapsus,  in  46.  Having  been  taken  prisoner, 
he  was  murdered  by  the  soldiers  of  Caesar  in  46  B.C. 

Sulla  or  Sylla,'  [It.  SII.LA,  sel'li,]  (Lucius  COR 
NELIUS,)  surnamed  FELIX,  (the  "  Fortunate,")  a  famous 
Roman  general,  born  in  138  B.C.,  was  of  a  patrician 
family.  Though  addicted  to  pleasure,  and  though  his 
favourite  companions  are  said  to  have  been  actors, 
buffoons,  and  mimics,  he  early  gave  indications  of  un 
common  powers,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  by 
the  art  he  possessed  of  reading  the  various  characters 
of  men.  He  obtained  the  office  of  quaestor  in  107  B.C., 
and  served  under  Marius  against  Jugurtha,  who  was  be 
trayed  by  Bocchus  into  the  power  of  the  Romans.  Sulla 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Jugurtha,  and 
shared  with  Marius  the  credit  of  that  achievement.  In 
104  he  was  employed  as  legate  of  Marius  in  the  war 
against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones.  He  joined  the  army 
of  L.  Catulus  in  102,  and  gave  proof  of  great  military 
talents.  His  personal  qualities  were  eminently  adapted 
to  render  a  general  popular  with  his  soldiers.  Having 
been  elected  praetor  in  93  B.C.,  he  was  sent  the  next 
year  to  Cilicia,  and  restored  Ariobarzanes  to  the  throne 
of  Cappadocia. 

In  the  year  91  began  the  Social  war,  in  which,  says 
Plutarch,  "Sulla  performed  so  many  memorable  things 
that  the  citizens  looked  upon  him  as  a  great  general, 
his  friends  as  the  greatest  in  the  world,  aiid  his  enemies 
as  the  most  fortunate."  Sulla  became  the  leader  of  the 
aristocratic  party,,  was  elected  consul  for  88  B.C.,  and 
obtained  from  the  senate  the  command  of  the  war 
against  Mithridates,  which  command  was  also  coveted 
by  his  rival  Marius.  A  violent  contest  arose  between 
these  two  leaders,  which  was  the  beginning  of  a  great 
civil  war.  Sulla  marched  with  an  army  against  Rome, 
and  Marius  escaped  to  Africa,  leaving  his  enemy  master 
of  the  capital.  Sulla  departed  from  Rome  early  in  87  B.C., 
and  commenced  the  war  against  Mithridates  by  an  attack 
on  Athens,  which  he  took,  after  a  long  siege,  in  March, 
86  B.C.  The  Athenians  were  treated  with  great  cruelty 
by  the  victor  on  this  occasion.  Sulla  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  Archelaus,  a  general  of  Mithridates,  at  Chae- 
ronea,  and  again  at  Orchomenus,  in  85  B.C.,  after  which 
he  crossed  the  Hellespont.  In  the  mean  time  the  Marian 
party  had  recovered  possession  of  Rome,  and  had  mas 
sacred  many  partisans  of  Sulla.  lie  concluded  a  peace 
with  Mithridates,  extorted  large  sums  of  money  from 
the  Orientals,  and  returned,  with  his  armv  of  veterans, 


to  Italy,  where  he  arrived  in  the  spring  of  83,  and  re 
newed  the  civil  war.  The  popular  party  had  a  larger 
army  than  that  of  Sulla,  but  had  no  able  generals.  Sulla 
defeated  Norbanus  near  Capua  in  the  year  83,  and  young 
Marius  at  Sacripoi  tus  in  82  B.C.  He  then  became  master 
of  Rome,  massacred  his  opponents  and  prisoners  by 
thousands,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Samnites  and 
Lucanians  near  Rome.  He  made  a  list  of  his  enemies, 
whom  he  outlawed,  and  called  this  list  a  Proscriptio. 
This  was  the  first  instance  of  a  proscription  among  the 
Romans.  Sulla  was  appointed  dictator  for  an  unlimited 
time,  and  made  important  changes  in  the  constitution, 
tending  to  increase  the  power  of  the  senate  and  aris 
tocracy  and  to  destroy  the  authority  of  the  tribunes  of 
the  people.  He  also  made  reforms  in  the  criminal  law, 
which  were  more  enduring  than  the  changes  just  men 
tioned.  He  resigned  the  dictatorship  in  79,  and  died 
in  78  B.C.  Byron  apostrophizes  Sulla  in  the  following 
striking  lines  : — 

"  O  thou,  whose  chariot  roll'd  on  fortune's  wheel, 
Triumphant  Syila  !  thou  who  didst  subdue 
Thy  country's  foes  ere  thou  wouldst  pause  to  feel 
The  wrath  of  thy  own  wrongs,  or  reap  the  due 
Of  hoarded  vengeance  till  thine  eagles  flew 
O'er  prostrate  Asia  ; — thou,  who  with  thy  frown 
Annihilated  Senates, — Roman,  too, 
With  all  thy  vices,  for  thou  didst  lay  down, 
With  an  atoning  smile,  a  more  than  earthly  crown." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iv.,  stanza  Ixxxiii. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  Life  of  Sulla  ;"  DRUMANN,  "  Geschichte  Roms," 
vol.  ii.  ;  (.  A.  HARTMANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Sulla,"  1727  ;  L.  SACHSE, 
"  Lebendes  Dictators  Sulla,"  1791  ;  ZACHARI^E,  "  L.  Cornelius  Sulla 
als  Ordner  des  Rbmischen  Freistaates,"  1834;  APPIAN,  "  Bellum 
Civile  :"  PLINY,  '•  Natural  History,"  books  vii.,  xi.,  and  xxvi.  ; 
MOMMSRN,  "  Histoire  Romaine  ;"  A.  CVBULSKI,  "  De  Bello  Civili 
Sullano,"  1838. 

Sulla,  (PuBLius  CORNELIUS,)  a  Roman  patrician, 
was  a  great-grandfather  of  the  dictator  Sulla.  He  was 
praetor  urbanus  in  212  B.C.,  and  presided  over  the  Ludi 
Apollinares,  then  first  instituted.  His  son,  of  the  same 
names,  was  praetor  in  186  B.C. 

Sulla,  (PuiiLius  CORNELIUS,)  a  nephew  of  the  dic 
tator  Sulla.  He  was  probably  an  accomplice  of  Catiline, 
but  after  a  trial,  in  which  he  was  defended  by  Cicero,  he 
was  acquitted.  He  fought  for  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
and  commanded  the  right  wing  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.C. 
Died  in  45  H.C. 

Sul'li-van,  (GEORGE,)  LL.D.,  son  of  General  Sulli 
van,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Durham,  New  Hamp 
shire,  in  1774.  He  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  jurist, 
and  rose  to  be  attorney-general  of  his  native  State  in 
1805.  Died  in  1838. 

Sullivan,  (JAMES,)  a  brother  of  General  Snllivan,  wus 
born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1744.  He  became  attorney- 
general  of  Massachusetts  in  1790,  and  was  twice  elected 
Governor  of  that  State.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
District  of  Maine,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1808. 

See  a  "Life  of  James  Sullivan,"  by  T.  C.  AMORY,  1859. 

Sullivan,  (JOHN,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo 
lution,  was  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1740.  He  was 
present  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  led 
the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine.  He  was  after 
wards  appointed  attorney-general  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  thrice  elected  President  of  that  State.  His  life  is 
included  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography."  Died  in 

1795- 

Sullivan,  (JoHN  L.,)  an  engineer  and  physician,  born 
at  Saco,  in  Maine,  in  1777,  was  a  son  of  James,  noticed 
above.  He  invented  the  steam  tow-boat  about  1814.  It 
is  stated  that  he  made  discoveries  in  medicine  and 
surgery. 

Sullivan,  (WILLIAM,)  LL.D.,  ason  of  James  Sullivan, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Saco,  Maine,  in  1774.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Familiar  Letters  on  Public  Characters 
and  Events  from  1783  to  1815,"  "The  Public  Men  of 
the  Revolution,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1839. 

Sully,  sul'li,  [Fr.  pron.  sii'le',]  (MAXIMILIEN  de  Be- 
thune — deh  ba'tiin',)  Due  DE,  and  Baron  de  Rosny,  a 
French  statesman  of  great  merit  and  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Rosny,  near  Mantes,  in  December,  1560.  He  was  a 
son  of  Francois,  Baron  de  Rosny,  who  was  a  Protestant, 
and  who  presented  Maximilien  to  Henry  of  Navarre  in 
1571.  He  was  a  student  in  Paris  when  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew  occurred.  In  1575  he  entered  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 

131 


See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SULLT 


2082 


SUMNER 


service  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  whom  lie  accompanied  in 
his  escape  from  Paris  and  his  perilous  enterprises  which 
followed.  By  his  courage,  prudence,  and  immutable 
fidelity  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Henry,  who  appointed 
him  a  councillor  of  Navarre  in  1580.  He  married  Anne 
de  Courtenay  in  1583.  In  1587  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  at  Coutras,  where  he  directed  the  artillery.  He 
received  several  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Ivry,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Chartres,  in  1591.  lie 
advised  Henry  IV.  to  adopt  the  Roman  Catholic  reli 
gion,  being  convinced  that  by  this  policy  only  could 
peace  be  restored  on  a  permanent  basis.  Sully  himself, 
however,  constantly  adhered  to  the  Protestant  Church. 
Having  been  app'ointed  councillor  of  state  and  of 
finances  in  1596,  he  reformed  many  abuses  in  the  ad 
ministration  of  the  finances,  and  became  superintendent 
of  the  same  in  1599.  By  order  and  economy  he  greatly 
improved  the  financial  condition  of  France  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  people.  He  turned  his  attention  to 
other  departments  of  government,  and  soon  became 
virtually  prime  minister.  He  encouraged  agriculture 
more  than  manufactures  or  commerce,  and  projected  a 
system  of  canals  to  unite  all  the  large  rivers  of  France. 
In  1606  he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Sully.  His 
morals  were  austere,  compared  with  those  of  the  court 
and  the  king,  to  whom  he  acted  in  the  capacity  of  a 
faithful  Mentor.  He  even  ventured  to  tear,  in  the  pres 
ence  of  the  king,  a  paper  on  which  Henry  had  written  a 
promise  to  marry  the  Marquise  de  Verneuil.  The  death 
of  Henry,  in  1610,  ended  Sully's  political  power.  He 
resigned  the  direction  of  the  finances,  and  retired  from 
court,  but  retained  the  position  of  grand  master  of  ar 
tillery,  and  some  other  offices.  In  1634  he  received  the 
baton  of  marshal  of  France.  He  employed  his  latter 
years  in  writing  memoirs  of  his  life  and  times,  entitled 
"  Memoires  des  sages  et  royales  (Economies  d'Estat  de 
Henri  le  Grand,"  (4  vols.,  1634-62.)  He  died  at  Ville- 
bon  in  December,  1641,  leaving  a  son  and  several 
daughters. 

See  THOMAS,  "  filoge  de  Sully,"  1763;  SISMONOI,  "  Histoire  des 
Francais ;"  MICHF.I.KT,  "Histoire  de  France;"  HOFF,  "  Biographic 
des  Her/.ogs  von  Sully,"  1782;  MOTLHY.  "United  Netherlands," 
vol.  iv. ;  SKWKIN,  "  Les  Amis  de  Henri  IV."  3  vols.,  1X05;  D'Au- 
BIGN^,  "Histoire  universelle ;"  BAUMSTARCK,  "Des  Her/.o;;s  von 
Sully  Verdienste,"  etc.,  1828;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale ;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  (1822;)  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
April  and  May,  1831. 

Sul'ljr,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  in  Lin 
colnshire,  England,  in  1783.  Having  emigrated  to  Amer 
ica  in  1792,  he  studied  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
and  afterwards  applied  himself  to  portrait-painting  suc 
cessively  at  Richmond,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 
Among  his  best  works  are  full-length  portraits  of  Jeffer 
son,  La  F'ayette,  Commodore  Decutur,  George  Frederick 
Cooke  as  "  Richard  III.,"  and  Queen  Victoria.  He  has 
also  produced  several  historical  pictures,  among  which 
we  may  name  "Washington  crossing  the  Delaware." 

See  DUNI.AP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chaps,  vi.,  vii.,  and  viii.  ;  TUCKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Sulpice.     See  SULPICIUS. 

Sulpice  Severe.     See  SEVERUS,  (SULPICIUS.) 

Sulpicia,  siil-pish'e-zi,  a  Roman  poetess  under  the 
reign  of  Domitian.  Her  only  extant  svork  is  a  satire 
against  that  emperor  on  his  condemnation  of  the  phi 
losophers  to  exile.  It  is  entitled  "  De  Edicto  Domitiani 
quo  Philosophos  Urbe  exegit." 

Sulpicia  Gens,  an  ancient  Roman  gens,  originally 
patrician,  produced  many  distinguished  men.  Among 
the  names  of  the  families  into  which  this  gens  was 
divided  were  Galba,  Gallus,  Longus,  and  Rufus. 

Sulpicius.     See  SEVERUS,  (SULPICIUS.) 

Sulpicius,  sul-pish'e-us,  [Fr.  SULPICK,  sul'pess',] 
(LEMON IA  RUFUS  SERVIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist 
and  orator,  born  about  106  B.C.  He  was  elected  consul 
in  51  B.C.,  and  filled  other  high  offices.  After  his  death 
a  eulogy  was  pronounced  on  him  by  Cicero,  who  was 
his  intimate  friend.  His  legal  works  were  very  numerous 
and  highly  esteemed,  but  only  fragments  of  them  are 
extant.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Achaia  by  Caesar 
in  46  or  45  B.C.  Died  in  43  B.C. 

Sulpicius  Rufus,  (PUBLIUS,)  a  Roman  orator,  born 
in  124  B.C.,  became  tribune  in  88  B.C.,  and  was  an  ad 


herent  of  Marius  in  the  civil  war  with  Sulla.  His  elo 
quence  is  commended  in  the  highest  terms  by  Cicero, 
who  has  introduced  him  into  his  dialogue  "  De  Oratore." 
After  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Sulla,  Sulpicius  was  be- 
traved  into  his  hands  and  put  to  death,  87  B.C. 

Sulzer,  sooh'ser,  (JOHANN  GEOKG,)  a  Swiss  philoso 
pher  and  aesthetic  writer,  born  at  Winterthur  in  1720. 
He  became  in  1747  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  Berlin,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Euler  and  Maupertuis,  and  was  elected 
in  1750  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  professor  in  the  Ritter-Academie  at  Berlin. 
His  principal  work  isentitled  "A  Universal  Theory  of  the 
Fine  Arts,"(''  Allgemeine  Theorieder  Schonen-Kunste," 
1794,)  a  cyclopaedia  of  art  and  literature,  which  has  a 
high  reputation.  Died  in  1779. 

See  HANS  CASPAR  HIKZEL,  "  Ueber  Sulzer  den  Weltweisen," 
1780;  "  J.  G.  Sulzer's  Lebensbeschreibung,  vonihm  selbstaufgesetzt," 
etc.,  1809. 

Sum-ma'rms,  an  ancient  Roman  or  Etruscan  divinity, 
whose  character  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Some  authors 
represent  him  as  equal  in  rank  to  Jupiter.  Nocturnal 
lightnings  were  supposed  to  be  manifestations  of  his 
power. 

Sum'mer-field,  (JoHN,)  a  Methodist  divine  and 
distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Preston,  England, 
in  1798.  He  emigrated  in  1821  to  America,  where  his 
labours  as  a  preacher  were  eminently  successful.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Tract  Society. 
Died  in  1825. 

See  J.  HOLLAND,  "  Life  of  J.  Summerfield,"  1829. 

Sum'mers,  (THOMAS  OSMOND,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  England,  in  1812,  emi 
grated  to  the  United  States,  and  became  in  1858  editor 
of  the  "Methodist  Quarterly  Review."  He  has  written 
a  "  Treatise  on  Baptism,"  "  The  Golden  Censer,"  and 
other  religious  works. 

Summcmte,  soom-mon'ta,  (GiAN  ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  historian,  born  at  Naples.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  City  and  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  ("  Istoria  della  Citta 
e  Regno  di  Napoli,"  (4  vols.,  1601-43.)  Died  in  1602. 

Sum'ner,  (CHARLES,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
Senator,  distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  6th  of  January, 
1811.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1830,  after 
which  he  was  a  pupil  of  Judge  Story  in  the  law-school 
of  Cambridge.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834, 
practised  law  in  Boston,  and  svas  appointed  reporter  in 
the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States.  He  published 
three  volumes  entitled  "  Sumner's  Reports,"  edited  the 
"  American  Jurist,"  and,  in  the  absence  of  Judge  Story, 
lectured  to  the  students  of  the  law-school  at  Cambridge, 
(1834-37.)  He  passed  about  three  years  in  visits  to 
various  countries  of  Europe,  (1837-40.)  On  the  4th 
of  July,  1845,  he  pronounced  in  Boston  an  oration  on 
"The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,"  which  attracted  much 
attention  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  The  de 
sign  of  this  argument  was  to  promote  the  cause  of  peace. 
He  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United 
States  in  1845.  About  this  time  he  separated  himself 
from  the  Whig  party  and  joined  that  of  the  Free-Soilers. 
He  supported  Martin  Van  Biiren  for  the  Presidency  in 
1848.  He  delivered  numerous  orations  and  lectures  on 
various  subjects,  which  were  published  in  two  volumes, 
(1850.)  By  a  coalition  of  Democrats  and  Free-Soilers 
he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1850 
as  the  successor  of  Daniel  Webster.  He  opposed  the 
Fugitive  Slave  bill  by  a  speech  in  the  Senate,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  debate  on  the  Nebraska-Kansas 
bill  in  1854.  On  the  igth  and  2Oth  of  May,  1856,  he 
made  in  the  Senate  an  eloquent  speech  on  the  contest 
in  Kansas  and  on  the  aggressions  of  the  slave-power. 
Some  passages  of  this  speech  excited  the  anger  of  Pres 
ton  S.  Brooks,  a  Southern  member  of  Congress,  who,  on 
the  22d  of  May,  1856,  assaulted  Mr.  Sumner  while  he 
was  sitting  in  the  Senate-chamber,  and  beat  him  on  the 
head  with  a  cane  until  he  became  insensible.  Mr.  Sum 
ner  was  so  severely  injured  that  he  was  disabled  for  the 
public  service  for  several  years,  and  he  sailed  to  Europe 
in  March,  1857,  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  He  was 
re-elected  to  the  Senate  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  in 


§,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


SUMNER 


2083 


SVNDERLAND 


January,  1857,  and  returned  home  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year,  hut  made  another  voyage  to  Europe  in  the  spring 
of  1858.  He  remained  under  medical  treatment  in  Paris 
for  a  year  or  more,  and  resumed  his  seat  about  the  end 
of  1859.  He  afterwards  denounced  the  peculiar  institu 
tion  of  the  Southern  States  in  a  speech  which  was  pub 
lished  under  the  title  of  "The  Barbarism  of  Slavery" 
and  produced  an  immense  effect.  In  1860  he  advocated 
the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency. 
During  the  session  of  1860-61  he  opposed  the  attempts 
to  propitiate  the  disunionists  by  concessions  which  would 
sacrifice  the  rights  of  the  oppressed  or  favour  the  in 
terests  of  slavery.  He  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  foreign  relations  in  March,  1861,  and  about 
the  end  of  1862  was  again  elected  a  Senator  for  six 
years,  ending  March  4,  1869.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  admirable  resolutions  on  foreign  mediation  which 
were  passed  March  3,  1863,  by  both  Houses  of  Con 
gress.  In  a  series  of  resolutions  which  he  offered  on  the 
8th  of  February,  1864,  he  affirmed  that  "any  system  of 
reconstruction  must  be  rejected  which  does  not  provide 
by  irreversible  guarantees  against  the  continued  exist 
ence  or  possible  revival  of  slavery."  After  the  close  of 
the  civil  war  he  advocated  the  reconstruction  of  the  se 
ceded  States  on  the  basis  of  impartial  suffrage.  During 
the  rebellion  he  was  a  confidential  adviser  of  President 
Lincoln,  who,  in  April,  1865,  said  to  Mr.  Sumner, 
"  There  is  no  person  with  whom  I  have  more  advised 
throughout  my  administration  than  yourself."  Among 
his  important  services  was  the  production  of  the  Freed- 
man's  Bureau  bill.  He  has  been  chairman  of  the  com 
mittee  on  foreign  relations  since  1861,  and  has  lived  to 
witness  the  triumph  of  the  principles  for  which  he  so 
long  and  strenuously  contended.  In  April,  1869,  he 
made  an  elaborate  speech  on  the  Alabama  claims.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  8  vols.,  1870. 

See  CHARLES  A.  PHEI.FS,  "Lite  of  Charles  Sumner,"  1870;  D. 
HAKSHA,  "Life  of  C.  Sumner,"  1856;  MRS.  STOWE,  "Men  of  Our 
Time,"  1868. 

Sum'uer,  (CHARLES  RICHARD,)  an  English  prelate, 
brother  of  Archbishop  Sumner,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Kenilworth  in  1790.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
to  George  IV.,  made  Bishop  of  Llandaff  in  1826,  and  of 
Winchester  in  1827.  He  published  in  1825  a  translation 
from  the  Latin  of  Milton's  "Treatise  on  Christian  Doc 
trine."  lie  is  identified  with  the  evangelical  party. 

Sumner,  (Eowix  V.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Boston  in  1796.  He  served  as  captain  on  the  Western 
frontier  for  many  years,  obtained  the  rank  of  major  in 
1846,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  war, 
which  ended  in  1847.  He  became  a  colonel  in  1855, 
escorted  Abraham  Lincoln  from  Springfield  to  Washing 
ton  in  February,  1861,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army  in  March  of  the  same  year. 
He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
3i-June  I,  1862,  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  I,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  September  17  of  that  year.  He 
directed  one  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  Burnside's 
army  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13, 
1862.  He  died  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  in  March,  1863. 

See  TENNEV,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
P-  747- 

Sumner,  (INCREASE,)  an  American  judge  and  Gov 
ernor,  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1746.  He 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa 
chusetts  in  1782,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
in  1797  and  in  1798.  His  ability  and  merit  are  highly 
commended.  Died  at  Roxbury  in  1799. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  J.  Simmer,"  by  his  son  WILLIAM,  in  the 
"  New  England  Register"  for  April,  1854. 

Sumner,  (Jons  BIRD,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Kenilworth  iii  1780.  Having  studied  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  he  was  created  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1828, 
and  in  1848  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  published 
"Records  of  Creation,"  (1816,)  "Evidences  of  Chris 
tianity,"  (1824,)  an  essay  "On  Apostolical  Preaching," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1862. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1816. 

Sum'ter,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  born  in  South  Carolina  about  1734,  was 


distinguished  for  his  skill  and  success  as  a  partisan 
leader,  and  obtained  several  important  advantages  over 
the  British.  He  was  afterwards  elected  to  Congress, 
was  appointed  minister  to  Brazil  in  1809,  and  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1811.  Died  in  1832. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Sun'der-land,  (CHARLES  SPENCER,)  third  EARL  OF, 
an  English  statesman,  born  in  1674,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Robert,  the  second  Earl.  At  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  in  1690,  he  received  the  title  of  Lord  Spencer. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1695,  succeeded  his 
father  as  earl  in  1702,  and  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Vienna 
in  1705.  He  married  Anne  Churchill,  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  about  1700,  and  became  a  leader 
of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  secretary  of  state  from 
1707  to  June,  1710.  On  the  accession  of  George  I., 
September,  1714,  he  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
He  entered  the  cabinet  as  lord  privy  seal  in  1715,  and 
supplanted  his  rival,  Lord  Townshend,  in  the  favour  of 
the  king.  By  his  intrigues  or  influence  the  ministry  was 
changed  in  April,  1717,  when  Sunderland  and  his  friend 
Joseph  Addison  became  the  two  secretaries  of  state.  In 
1718  he  exchanged  his  office  for  that  of  first  lord  of  the 
treasury, — i.e.  prime  minister.  He  was  accused  in  1721 
of  having  received  a  bribe  from  the  South  Sea  Com 
pany,  but  was  acquitted  by  a  large  majority  of  his  judges. 
He  resigned  office  in  April,  1721,  although  the  king  de 
sired  to  retain  him  in  power.  He  died  in  1722,  leaving 
three  sons,  Robert,  Charles,  and  John. 

See  LORD  STANHOPE,  (MAHON,)  "  History  of  England." 

Sunderland,  (!!KNRY  SPENCER,)  first  EARL  OF,  born 
about  1622,  was  a  son  of  Lord  Spencer.  He  married 
Dorothy  Sidney,  a  sister  of  Algernon  Sidney,  a  lady 
whom  Waller  praised  under  the  name  of  "  Saccharissa." 
Although  he  disapproved  the  measures  of  the  court, 
he  joined  the  royal  army  in  the  civil  war,  assigning 
"the  punctilio  of  honour"  as  his  motive.  He  fought  at 
Edgehill,  (1642,)  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Sunderland 
in  1643,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  in  the 
same  year. 

See  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 

Sunderland,  (ROBERT  SPENCER,)  second  EARL  OF, 
a  courtier  and  politician,  famous  for  his  talents  and  in 
trigues,  was  born  about  1642,  and  was  the  only  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1672, 
and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  1679.  Having 
been  dismissed  in  the  spring  of  1681,  he  was  restored  to 
the  same  office  in  1682.  He  appears  to  have  been  totally 
destitute  of  any  fixed  principles,  and  had  great  facility  in 
changing  sides  in  the  game  of  politics.  He  insinuated 
himself  into  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  in  1685,  retained  Sunderland  in  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.  About  this  time  he  received 
a  large  bribe  or  pension  from  Louis  XIV.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  in  December,  1685,  and  prime 
minister  in  1686.  "  It  was  only  in  private  conference," 
says  Macaulay,  "that  his  eminent  abilities  displayed 
themselves.  In  the  royal  closet,  or  in  a  very  small  circle, 
he  exercised  great  influence,  but  at  the  council-board  he 
was  taciturn,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  he  never  opened 
his  lips."  ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.)  In  June, 
1688,  he  openly  avowed  his  conversion  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  made 
overtures  to  William  of  Orange,  to  whom  he  revealed 
the  plans  of  James  II.  Sunderland  was  dismissed  from 
power  in  October,  1688,  on  suspicion  of  treason.  A  few 
weeks  later  he  fled  to  Holland  in  disguise,  and  changed 
his  religion.  "  He  had  rendered  to  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  the  Protestant  religion  services  of  which  it  is  diffi 
cult  to  overrate  either  the  wickedness  or  the  utility." 
("Macaulay's  History,"  vol.  iv.)  He  returned  to  Eng 
land  about  the  end  of  1690,  and  soon  regained  his  influ 
ence  at  court.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  chief  adviser 
of  \Villiam  III.  for  several  years,  although  he  held  no 
office  until  1695,  when  he  was  appointed  lord  chamber 
lain.  He  resigned  office  in  1697.  His  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bristol.  He  died  in  1702,  leaving 
his  title  to  his  son  Charles.  "  His  tact,"  says  Macaulay, 

his  quick  eye  for  the  foibles  of  individuals,  his  caressing 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Z^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


SVKDEP4LL 


2084 


SUTHERLAND 


manners,  his  power  of  insinuation,  and,  above  all,  his 
apparent  frankness,  made  him  irresistible  in  private 
conversation."  ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

See,  also,  BURNET,  "  History  of  bis  Own  Time ;"  LODGE,  "  Por 
traits." 

Sundevall,  soon'cleh-val',  (CARL  JAKOB,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist,  born  at  Hoegestad  in  1801.  He  became  di 
rector  of  the  museum  of  natural  history  at  Lund  in  1835. 

Su'per-i,  [i.e.  those  "above"  or  "on  high,"  from 
siiperus,  "high,"]  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the 
gods,  particularly  to  the  gods  of  the  celestial  regions. 

Superville,  de,  cleh  sii'peR've!',  (DANIEL,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister,  born  at  Saumur  in  1657.  He  re 
moved  to  Rotterdam  about  1685,  and  preached  there 
until  his  death.  Died  in  1728. 

Sura.     See  SURADEVI  and  SURAS. 

Surabhi,  a  name  of  KAMADHENU,  (which  see.) 

Suraddvi,  soo-ra-da'vee,  called  also  simply  Sura, 
soo'ra,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Surd,  "wine,"  and  Devi, 
"goddess,"]  the  Hindoo  goddess  of  wine,  was  supposed 
to  have  been  produced  from  the  churning  of  the  ocean. 
(See  KURMA.) 

Surajah  Dowlah,  soo-ra'ja  dow'la,  a  Hindoo  prince, 
who  took  Calcutta  in  1756  and  confined  a  number  of 
English  prisoners  in  the  Black  Hole.  His  army  was 
defeated  by  Clive  at  the  famous  battle  of  Plassey,  June 
23,  1757;  and  he  was  taken  a  few  days  after  and  put  to 
death  by  the  order  of  Meer  Jaffier. 

See  MACAULAY'S  article  on  Lord  Clive,  (in  bis  "  Essays.") 

Suras  or  Sooras,  soo'ras,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Sura, 
a  "god,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  class  of  inferior 
deities,  the  children  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi.  They  appear 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Adityas,  (see  AIMTYA,)  and  are 
regarded  as  the  natural  enemies  or  opponents  of  the 
ASURS,  (which  see.) 

Surcouf,  su'R'koof/,  (ROBERT,)  a  French  corsair,  born 
at  Saint-Malo  in  1773.  He  captured  many  English 
merchant- vessels.  Died  in  1827. 

See  CUNAT,  "  Histoire  de  K.  Surcouf,"  1847. 

Su-re'na  or  Su-re'nas,  a  Parthian  general  in  the 
service  of  King  Orodes.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Roman  general  Crassus  near  Carrhae  in  53  B.C. 
According  to  Plutarch,  "  he  was  superior  to  the  Parthians 
of  his  time  in  courage  and  capacity."  ("  Life  of  Crassus.") 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Orodes  about  52  B.C. 

See  MERJVAI.E,  "History  of  the  Romans;"  "  Nonvelle  Bio- 
grapbie  Generale." 

Surenhuis,  su'ren-hois',  [Lat.  SURENHU'SIUS,]  (WiL- 
LF.M,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  lived  about  170x3.  He  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Amsterdam,  and 
published  an  edition  of  the  Mishna,  (3  vols.,  1698-1703.) 

Surenhusius.     See  SURKNHUIS. 

Surin,  sti'raN',  (JKAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  fesuit  and 
ascetic  writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1600.  He  went  in 
1634  to  Loudun  to  exorcise  some  persons  possessed 
with  demons,  and  became  himself,  as  we  are  told,  a  de 
moniac,  or  victim  of  the  demons.  So  much,  at  least,  is 
certain,  that  he  was  insane  for  many  years.  Died  in  1665. 

See  BOUDON,  "Vie  de  Surin,"  1689;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Su'ri-us,  (LAURENTIUS,)  a  German  monk,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1522.  He  wrote  "Lives  of  the  Saints," 
(1570.)  Died  in  1578. 

Surlet  de  Chokier,  suVli'  deh  sho'ke-i',  (£RASME 
Louis,)  BARON,  a  Belgian  statesman,  born  at  Liege  in 
1769.  Having  previously  filled  several  high  offices,  he 
was  elected  Regent  of  Belgium  in  1831.  Died  in  1839. 

Surowiecki,  soo-ro-ve-et'skee,  (L.  W.,)  a  Polish 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  near  Gnesen  in  1769,  pub 
lished  a  work  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Slavic  Nations," 
and  other  treatises.  Died  in  1827. 

Surrey.     See  HOWARD,  (HENRY,)  EARL  OF. 

Surt,  soort,  or  Surtur,  (Surtr,)  soor'ter,  [etymologic- 
ally  related  to  the  Danish  sort,  English  swart,  and  Ger 
man  sf/twarz,  "black,"  because  it  is  the  property  of  fire 
to  blacken  what  it  burns,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
god  of  fire,  who  rules  over  Muspellheim,  the  entrance 
to  which  he  guards  with  a  flaming  sword.  At  Ragna- 
rock  he  will  lead  the  formidable  band  of  Muspell's  sons, 
his  fire-sword  flashing  more  brightly  than  the  sun  itself. 
In  the  battle  with  the  yEsir  he  will  slay  Frey ;  and  after 


the  other  gods  have  fallen,  he  will  scatter  his  fire  over 
the  world  and  burn  it  up.  (Compare  Seneca's  descrip 
tion  of  the  destruction  of  the  world,  in  his  "  Hercules 
QEtastis,"  1.  1102.) 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mytholosy,"  vol.  i.  ;  KEYSER,  "Reli 
gion  of  the  Northmen  :"  MAI.I.KT,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii. 
Fables  XXXII.  and  XXXIII.  ;  PKTKRSKM,  "  Nordisk  Mylhologi." 

Sur'teel,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poet, 
born  at  Durham  in  1779.  lie  published  a  "History  of 
Durham,"  (about  1820.)  Died  in  1834. 

Suruswuttee.     See  SARASWATL 

Surville,  sitR'veK,  (MARGUKRITF.  EL:EONORE  CLO- 
TILDE  DE  VALI.ON-CHALIS,)  a  French  poetess,  born 
about  1405,  was  the  author  of  a  heroic  poem  entitled 
"  Lygdamir."  Died  about  1480. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Surya,  soor'ya,  the  Sanscrit  name  of  the  Sun,  re 
garded  as  an  important  deity  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
though  much  more  so  in  the  primeval  ages  than  later, 
when  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  claimed  nearly  all  the 
devotion  of  mankind.  In  the  earlier  Sanscrit  writings 
the  Sun  is  often  called  Mitra.  Surya  is  represented  in 
a  human  form,  (but  having  four  arms,)  surrounded  by 
radiating  flames  and  riding  in  a  car  drawn  by  seven 
horses. 

Su-sa'rI-on,  [I,ovoa/>'ujv,]  a  Greek  poet,  to  whom  the 
origin  of  the  Athenian  comedy  is  attributed,  was  born 
in  Megara,  and  lived  about  575  B.C.  He  was  the  first 
who  employed  metrical  composition  in  comedy. 

Suso,  soo'zo,  (HF.INRICH,)  a  celebrated  mystic  and 
theologian,  surnamed  AMANDUS,  was  born  at  Constance, 
Switzerland,  about  1300.  He  entered  the  order  of  Do 
minicans  at  an  early  age,  and  subsequently  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Book  of  Eternal  Wisdom,"  ("  Horolo- 
gium  Sapiential  Eternre,")  and  a  "Dialogue  on  Truth." 
They  were  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan 
guages,  and  obtained  extensive  popularity.  Died  in  1365. 

Susruta,  soos'roo-ta,  or  .Sushruta,  stxjsh'roo-ta,  a 
Hindoo  physician,  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the 
earliest  medical  writers  in  India.  The  date  and  the 
place  of  his  birth  are  unknown.  One  of  his  works  was 
published  in  1836  by  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Calcutta. 

Sussex,  DUKE  OF.     See  AUGUSTUS  FREDERICK. 

Siissmeyer,  siis'mi'er,  (FRAN/.  XAVER,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  1766,  became  chapel-master  at  the 
court  of  Vienna.  He  completed  the  parts  of  Mozart's 
Requiem  which  the  latter  left  unfinished.  Died  in  1803. 

Sussmilch,  soos'milK,  (JoHAN.v  PETER,)  a  German 
Lutheran  minister,  born  about  1706.  He  wrote  on  sta 
tistics  and  population.  Died  in  1767. 

Siiss-Oppenheimer,  siis  op'pen-hi'mer,  a  German 
Jew,  who  rose  to  be  minister  of  finance  to  Karl  Alex 
ander,  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  For  his  abuse  of  power 
and  many  acts  of  oppression  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  in  1738.  His  history  forms  the  subject  of 
one  of  HaufTs  popular  novels. 

Sustermans,  siis'ter-mans,  written  also  Subter- 
mans,  (JUSTUS,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1597.  He  resided  in  Florence,  and  became  court  painter 
to  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  II.  de'  Medici.  His  works, 
which  include  portraits  and  historical  pictures,  are  eulo 
gized  by  Rubens.  Died  in  1681. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Sut'cliffe,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Devonshire,  was  the  founder  of  a  college  at  Chelsea,  the 
Fellows  of  which  were  required  to  assail  the  errors  of 
Romanism,  Pelagianism,  etc.  Died  in  1629. 

Sutee  or  Suttee.     See  SATI. 

Suterman.     See  SUAVIUS. 

Suth'er-land,  (ALEXANDER  JOHN,)  F.R.S.,  an  Eng 
lish  physician,  born  about  1810.  He  became  physician 
to  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  London,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  insanity.  Died  in  1867. 

Sutherland,  (GEORGKGRANVII.LF.LEVESONGOWER,) 
DUKE  OF,  an  English  peer  and  Liberal,  born  in  1786, 
was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Sutherland.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1861, 
leaving  his  title  to  his  son. 

Sutherland,  (GEORGIANA  HOWARD,)  DUCHESS  OF, 
the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1806,  was  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  \\,  V,  short:  a,  e,  i,  p.  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m?t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SUTTEE 


2085 


Stt'ARTZ 


daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  She  was  distinguished 
for  beauty,  talents,  and  beneficence.  About  1846  she 
became  mistress  of  the  robes  to  the  queen.  She  em 
ployed  her  influence  against  slavery.  Died  in  October, 
1868. 

See  an  article  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1869,  by 
MRS.  STOWR. 

Suttee.     See  SAT?. 

Sut'ton,  (AMOS,)  an  English  missionary  to  Orissa, 
India,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1798.  He  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Oriya  language,  and  also  published 
a  dictionary,  grammar,  and  other  works  in  that  tongue. 
He  wrote  a  "Narrative  of  the  Mission  to  Orissa,"  and 
several  religious  treatises.  Died  in  1854. 

Sutton,  (CHARLES  MANNERS.)  See  CANTERBURY, 
VISCOUNT. 

Sut'tpn,  (CHARLES  MANNERS,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  1755.  He  became  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1792, 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1805.  Died  in  1828. 
His  son  became  Viscount  Canterbury. 

Sutton,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  English  lawyer,  noted 
as  one  of  the  founders  and  benefactors  of  Brazennose 
College,  Oxford.  Died  about  1524. 

Sutton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  merchant,  born  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1532,  was  the  founder  of  a  hospital  for 
the  poor,  known  as  the  Charter-House,  and  which  was 
formerly  the  monastery  of  the  Chartreux  in  Suffolk. 
Died  in  1611. 

Sutzos.     See  SOUTZO. 

Suvee,  sii'va',  (JOSEPH  BENOIT,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Bruges  in  1743.  He  became  director  of  the 
French  School  of  Art  in  Rome.  Died  in  1807. 

Su-war'ow,  or,  more  properly,  Soo-vo'rof,  written 
also  Souvorof,  Suvorov,  Souvarof,  Suworow,  and 
Suwarrow,  (ALEXANDER  VASILIEVITCH,)  surnamed 
RVMNIKSKI,  (rim-nik'skee,)  a  famous  Russian  general, 
born  in  Finland  in  1729,  was  of  Swedish  origin.  His 
father  was  a  general  of  high  rank.  He  served  as  lieu 
tenant  in  the  Seven  Vears'  war,  1755-63,  and  became  a 
colonel  in  1763.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  a  general, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks 
in  1774.  He  commanded  in  a  war  against  the  Turks 
which  began  in  1787,  and  gained  a  victory  on  the  river 
Rymnik,  (1789,)  for  which  he  .received  the  title  of  Count 
Rymnikski.  In  1794  he  conquered  the  revolted  Poles, 
whom  he  treated  with  great  barbarity,  and  for  this  ser 
vice  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1799 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian 
and  Austrian  armies  which  opposed  the  French  in  Italy. 
He  defeated  Macdonald  on  the  Trebia  in  June,  and 
gained  a  victory  over  Joubert  at  the  great  battle  of 
Novi,  in  August,  1799.  Soon  after  this  event  the  army 
was  recalled,  and  Suwarow  lost  the  favour  of  Paul  I. 
He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  May,  1800.  He  was  a 
great  favourite  with  the  soldiers,  and  was  probably  the 
ablest  of  all  the  Russian  generals. 

See  ANTHING,  "Versuch  einer  Kriegsgeschichte  des  Grafen 
Suwarow,"  3  vols.,  1799.  (English  translation  of  the  same;)  DK 
LAVEXNE,  "  Histoire  de  Souvarow,"  1809  ;  SERGE  GLINKA,  "  Vie  de 
Souvarof,"  1819;  F.  VON  SCHMITT,  "Suworow's  Leben  und  Heer- 
ziige,"  2  vols.,  1834;  ASTAFIEF,  "Souvenirs  de  Souvorof,"  1856; 
MAJOR-GENERAL  J.  MITCHELL,  "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers 
of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865;  "Sketch  of  Suwarrow  and  his 
Last  Campaign,"  by  E.  NEVIL  MACREADY,  1851. 

Suwarrow.    See  SUWAROW. 

Suze,  de  la.     See  COLIGNI,  DE,  (HENRIETTE.) 

Svanberg  or  Svansberg.     See  SWAN  BERG. 

Svartalfar.     See  ELVES. 

Svartz.     See  SWARTZ. 

Svedberg.     See  SWEDBERG. 

Svedenborg.     See  SWEDEN I'.ORG. 

Svetchine  or  Swetchine,  svetch-en',  (SOPHIA 
SOYMONOF,)  MADAME,  a  Russian  lady  and  writer,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1782,  became  the  wife  of  General  Svetch 
ine.  She  removed  to  Paris  in  1818,  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  was  distinguished  for  her  piety 
and  talents.  Died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

See  M.  DE  FAI.LOL-X,  "  Madame  de  Swetchine,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEu- 
vrcs,"  2  vols.,  1858  ;  ERNEST  NAVILLE,  "  Madame  Svetchine,"  1863 

Swain,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  writer  and  engraver, 
known  as  "  the  Manchester  poet,"  was  born  in  that 
city  in  1803.  He  published  "Metrical  Essays,"  (1828,) 
•'  Beauties  of  the  Mind, "etc.,  (1831,)  "  Rhymes  for  Child- 


hood,"  (1846,)  "English  Melodies,"  (1849,)  and  other 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  His  "Dryburgh  Abbey,"  an 
elegy  on  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  particularly  admired. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xx. 

Swain,  (DAVID  LOWRY,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Buncombe  county,  North  Carolina,  in  lobl.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1832,  and  in  1835  Ire- 
came  president  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 
Died  in  1868. 

Swain'son,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
voluminous  writer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1789.  He  visited 
South  America  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  made  valuable  collections  of  objects  in  natural  his 
tory.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Zoological 
Illustrations,  or  Original  Figures  and  Descriptions  of 
New,  Rare,  or  Interesting  Animals,"  (6  vols.,  1820,) 
"Exotic  Conchology,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Malacology,"  (1840.)  He  also  contributed  to  Lardner's 
"Cabinet  Cyclopaedia"  numerous  treatises  on  natural 
history,  of  which  we  may  name  "  The  Natural  History 
and  Classification  of  Fishes,  Amphibians,"  etc.,  (2  vols., 
1838-39,)  and  "On  the  Habits  and  Instincts  of  Animals," 
(1840.)  He  was  likewise  a  contributor  to  the  "Fauna 
Boreali-Americana"  of  Sir  John  Richardson.  Mr. 
Swainson  emigrated  in  1841  to  New  Zealand,  where  he 
died  in  1855. 

Swammerdam,  swam'mer-dam',  (JAN,  or  JOHN,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  Feb 
ruary,  1637.  He  studied  medicine  at  Leyden,  but  not  with 
a  design  to  practise  as  a  physician.  He  also  passed  some 
years  at  Saumur  and  Paris  in  the  study  of  anatomy  and 
entomology.  In  1664  he  discovered  the  valves  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels.  He  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medi 
cine  in  1667,  and  published  in  1669  a  "General  History 
of  Insects,"  a  work  of  great  merit.  He  made  several 
discoveries  in  entomology,  and  was  very  skilful  in  the 
dissection  of  insects.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Natural 
History  of  Bees,"  (1673,)  and  "The  Book  of  Nature,  or 
the  Natural  History  of  Insects,"  etc.,  ("Biblia  Naturae, 
seu  Historia  Insectorum  in  certas  Classes  redacta,"  2 
vols.,  1737-38.)  He  destroyed  his  health  by  intense  ap 
plication,  became  melancholy,  and  diverted  his  attention 
from  science  to  religion.  He  entered  into  religious 
fellowship  with  Antoinette  Bourignon.  Died  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1680. 

See  BOERWAAVE,  "Life  of  Swammerdam,"  prefixed  to  the  "  Biblia 
Naturas,"  1737-38;  CUVIER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles;" 
"  Biographic  Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Swanberg  or  Svanberg,  svan'be'Rg,  written  also 
Svansberg,  (Jo.NS,)  a  Swedish  mathematician,  born  in 
the  province  of  Westerbotten  in  1771.  In  1801,  in  con 
junction  with  Oefverbom,  he  measured  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  in  Lapland.  Of  this  enterprise  he  published 
an  account  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Upsal  in  1811,  and  published  a  "Theory  of  the  Planets 
and  Comets,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1851. 

Swanevelt,  van,  vin  swa'neh-ve'lt',  (HERMAN,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Woerden  about 
1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  and  subsequently  of 
Claude  Lorrain.  His  pictures  are  few  in  number,  but 
of  great  excellence.  He  died  about  1690,  at  Rome, 
where  he  had  long  resided.  He  also  executed  many 
admirable  etchings.  He  was  surnamed  THE  HERMIT, 
from  his  solitary  habits. 

Swar'ga,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  swur'ga  or  swtirg,] 
written  also  Swerga,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the 
name  of  Indra's  heaven  or  paradise,  supposed  to  be 
situated  among  the  clouds  in  the  sky,  and  regarded  as 
the  abode  of  the  inferior  gods  and  deified  mortals.  (See 
INDRA.) 

Swartz  or  Svartz,  swaRts,  (OLAUS  or  OI.OF,)  a  Swed 
ish  botanist,  born  at  Norrkoping  in  1760.  He  studied  at 
Upsal,  and  subsequently  travelled  in  Finland,  Lapland, 
the  West  Indies,  and  the  western  part  of  America, 
bringing  with  him  on  his  return  a  rich  collection  of  plants. 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Institute  at  Stockholm.  He 
was  also  made  a  knight  of  the  Polar  Star,  and  received 
other  distinctions.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  his 
"  Icones  Plantarum  Incognitarum,"  illustrating  the  rare 


€  as  k;  9  as  r;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SWAYAMBHU 


SWEDENBORG 


plants  of  the  West  Indies,  "  Flora  Incliae  Occidentals," 
(1806,  3  vols.,  with  plates,)  and  "  Synopsis  of  the  Ferns," 
("Synopsis  Filicum,"  1806.)  He  also  wrote  the  text  of 
four  volumes  of  the  "Botany  of  Sweden,"  ("  Svensk 
Botanik,")  and  contributed  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Linnasan  Society,  London,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
He  died  in  1818,  having  acquired  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  first  botanists  of  his  time.  The  genus  Swart/.ia, 
of  the  order  Leguminosae,  was  named  in  his  honour. 

See  WILKSTROEM,  "  Biographic  iiber  den  Professor  O.  Swartz," 
1828. 

Swayambhft,  swl'am-b'hoo',  or  Swayambhuva, 
swram-b'hoo'va,  [from  the  Sanscrit  nvdydm,  "self,"  and 
PM,  to  "exist,"]  a  Sanscrit  term,  signifying  "self-exist 
ent,"  and  used  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  as  an  epithet 
of  Brahm  (the  infinite  eternal  Being)  and  of  Brahma. 
It  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  first  Mann,  (or 
Menu,)  in  which  case  it  may,  perhaps,  mean  "born  (or 
son)  of  the  Self-existent,"  ffhu  signifying  to  "be  born" 
as  well  as  to  "exist."  (See  MANU.) 

Swedberg,  sw£d'be"Kg,  written  also  Svedberg,  QK.S- 
PKR,)  a  Swedish  theologian,  father  of  the  celebrated 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  was  born  near  Fahlun  in  1653. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1692,  and 
in  1702  was  made  Bishop  of  Skara  by  Charles  XII.  His 
family  was  ennobled  in  1719,  under  the  name  of  Sweden 
borg.  He  died  in  1735,  leaving  a  number  of  religious 
and  miscellaneous  works. 

See  FAUI.CRANTZ,  "Minneskrift  bfver  Biskopen  Dr.  Svedberg," 
1852. 

Swe'd§n-borg,  [Sw.  pron.  swn'den-boRg',]  written 
also  Svedenborg,  (originally  Swid'berg,)  (KM.\- 
NUKI.,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  naturalist,  mathematician, 
and  theosophist,  was  born  at  Stockholm  on  the  2gth  of 
January,  1688.  His  father,  Jesper  Swedberg,  at  that 
time  a  chaplain  of  the  army,  became  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Skara.  The  family  was  ennobled  by  Queen  Ulrica 
in  1719,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Swedenborg. 
Even  in  early  childhood  Emanuel  appears  to  have  given 
indications  of  those  peculiar  powers  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  so  distinguished.  He  says,  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Beyer,  "  From  my  fourth  to  my  tenth  year  my  thoughts 
were  constantly  engrossed  by  reflections  on  God,  on 
salvation,  and  on  the  spiritual  affections  of  man.  I  often 
revealed  things  in  my  discourse  which  filled  my  parents 
with  astonishment,  and  made  them  declare  at  times  that 
certainly  the  angels  spoke  through  my  mouth."  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Upsal,  where,  in  his 
twenty-second  year,  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy.  On  leaving  the  university  he  set  out  on 
his  travels.  He  passed  about  a  year  in  England  ;  he 
then  visited  the  chief  cities  of  Holland,  spent  subse 
quently  a  year  in  Paris  and  Versailles,  and  returned  by 
Hamburg  and  Greifswalde  to  his  native  country,  after  an 
absence  of  more  than  four  years.  In  early  life  Sweden- 
borg's  favourite  pursuit  was  mathematics.  About  1715- 
16  he  edited  a  scientific  publication  entitled  "  Dcedalus 
Hyperboreus."  The  distinction  which  he  had  acquired 
as  a  mathematician  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  Charles 
XII.,  who  employed  him  in  the  construction  of  some  of 
his  military  works.  In  the  siege  of  Fredericsliall,  (1718,) 
under  the  direction  of  Swedenborg,  rolling-machines 
were  made  by  means  of  which  two  galleys,  five  large 
boats,  and  a  sloop  were  carried  overland  a  distance  of 
fourteen  miles.  He  had  been  appointed  by  Charles 
XII.,  in  1716,  assessor  of  the  board  of  mines.  In  1717 
he  published  "An  Introduction  to  Algebra,"  and  "  At 
tempts  to  find  the  Longitude  of  Places  by  Lunar  Obser 
vations."  Soon  after  he  wrote  several  other  works  on 
kindred  subjects.  Some  of  these  have  not  been  published. 

In  1721  he  again  visited  Holland,  and  while  in  that 
country  published  (at  Amsterdam)  several  small  works, 
chiefly  on  subjects  connected  with  natural  philosophy. 
The  following  year  he  published  at  Leipsic  "Miscel 
laneous  Observations  connected  with  the  Physical  Sci 
ences,"  ("  Miscellanea  Observata  circa  Res  Naturales.") 
All  the  above  works  give  indications  of  a  profound  and 
most  original  intellect.  In  1733  he  published  at  Leipsic 
and  Dresden  his  "Opera  Philosophica  et  Mineralia," 
in  3  vols.  fol.,  with  numerous  engravings.  This  work, 
as  its  title  indicates,  is  written  in  Latin.  The  first 


volume  in  particular,  entitled  "  Principin,  or  the  First 
Principles  of  Natural  Things,  being  a  New  Attempt 
towards  a  Philosophical  Explanation  of  the  Elementary 
World,"  has  attracted  great  attention.  It  is  claimed  by 
Swedenborg's  admirers  that  this  publication  anticipated 
several  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  modern 
science.  Gorres,  a  distinguished  German  writer  and 
journalist,  says  of  the  "  Principia,"  "  It  is  a  production 
indicative  of  profound  thought  in  all  it.s  parts,  and  not 
unworthy  of  being  placed  by  (he  side  of  Newton's  '  Ma 
thematical  Principia  of  Natural  Philosophy.'"  Sweden 
borg's  father  died  in  1735.  The  next  year  he  again  set 
out  on  his  travels,  visiting  Holland  and  France,  and 
afterwards  Italy,  where  he  passed  rather  more  than  a 
year,  five  months  being  spent  at  Rome.  He  appears  to 
have  returned  to  Sweden  in  1740.  In  1740-41  he  pub 
lished  at  Amsterdam  his  "  Economy  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom,"  ("  CEconomia  Regni  Animalis.")  The  "Ani 
mal  Kingdom,"  ("  Regnum  Animale,")  which  may  be 
said  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  preceding  work,  appeared 
in  1744-45,  Pai"ts  Olle  anc'  two  being  published  at  the 
Hague,  and  part  three  in  London.  Swedenborg,  refer 
ring  to  the  plan  pursued  in  the  foregoing  works,  says, 
"The  reader  may  see  that  the  end  I  propose  to  myself  in 
the  work  ts  a  knmvledge  of  the  soul,  since  this  knowledge 
will  constitute  the  crmvn  of  my  stitdiss."  In  one  of  his 
manuscripts,  also,  he  observes,  "  I  have  gone  through 
anatomy  with  the  single  end  of  investigating  the  soul." 
Of  the  "Animal  Kingdom,"  Emerson  remarks,  "  It  was 
an  anatomist's  account  of  the  human  body  in  the  highest 
style  of  poetry.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  bold  and  bril 
liant  treatment  of  a  subject  usually  so  dry  and  repulsive." 
When  Swedenborg  reached  the  age  ot  fitty-seven,  his 
life  took  a  new  direction.  1  le  no  longer  occupied  himself 
with  the  pursuit  of  physical  science.  He  had,  it  appears, 
in  1747,  resigned  his  assessorship ;  but,  in  consideration 
of  his  long  and  faithful  services,  his  full  salary  was  con 
tinued  to  him  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Some  time  before 
he  had,  as  he  believed,  been  brought  into  intimate  com 
munication  with  the  spiritual  world,  and  "the  Lord  him 
self,"  as  Swedenborg  says  in  one  of  his  letters,  "granted 
me  the  privilege  of  conversing  with  spirits  and  angels 
which  I  enjoy  to  this  day."  No  candid  and  intelligent 
person  who  attentively  peruses  the  writings  of  the 
Swedish  snge  can  doubt  the  perfect  sincerity  of  his  own 
belief  in  his  divine  illumination.  Nor  can  the  random 
assertion  that  he  was  a  dreamer,  or  that  he  was  insane, 
be  accepted  as  any  satisfactory  refutation  of  his  claims. 
As  Tennemann  well  observes,  in  his  "History  of  Phi 
losophy,"  "If  he  must  needs  be  mad,  there  is  a  rare 
method  in  his  madness.  In  vain  will  you  ransack  the 
archives  of  his  family  or  his  personal  history  for  any 
trace  of  insanity."  As  probably  few  who  are  compe 
tent  to  form  an  intelligent  and  impartial  opinion  would 
be  disposed  to  deny  that  Swedenborg  was  gifted  with  a 
rare  insight  into  the  mysteries  of  external  nature,  so 
it  would  seem  almost  impossible  for  any  one,  who  will 
allow  unimpeachable  testimony  to  prevail  against  preju 
dice  or  skepticism,  to  doubt  that  he  was  endowed  with 
an  extraordinary  perception  of  some  things  not  discern 
ible  by  the'  senses  or  mental  faculties  of  the  generality 
of  mankind.  On  Saturday,  the  191)1  of  July,  1759,  Swe 
denborg  was  at  Gotienburg,  (which  is  about  three  hun 
dred  English  miles  from  Stockholm,)  having  recently 
arrived  from  England.  He  was  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
Castel,  with  a  party  of  fifteen  persons.  "At  about  six 
o'clock  P.M.,"  says  Kant,  the  celebrated  German  phi 
losopher,  "Swedenborg  went  out,  and,  after  a  short 
interval,  returned  to  the  company  quite  pale  and 
alarmed.  He  stated  that  a  dangerous  fire  had  broken 
out  in  Stockholm,  at  Sundermalm,  and  that  it  was 
spreading  very  fast.  He  was  restless,  and  went  out 
often.  He  said  that  the  house  of  one  of  his  friends, 
whom  he  named,  was  already  in  ashes,  and  that  his  own 
was  in  danger.  At  eight  o'clock,  after  he  had  been  out 
again,  he  joyfully  exclaimed,  'Thank  God!  the  fire  is 
extinguished  the  third  door  from  my  house.'  .  .  .  The 
next  morning  Swedenborg  was  sent  for  by  the  governor, 
who  questioned  him  concerning  the  disaster.  Sweden 
rg  described  the  fire  precisely, — how  it  had  begun,  in 
what  manner  it  had  ceased,  and  how  long  it  had  con- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SWEDENBORG 


2087 


SWETT 


tinuerl.  .  .  On  Monday  evening  a  messenger  arrived 
at  Gotterrburg,  who  was  despatched  during  the  time  of 
the  fire.  In  the  letters  brought  by  him  the  fire  was  de 
scribed  precisely  in  the  manner  stated  by  Swedenborg." 
Kant  states  this  on  the  authority  of  a  friend  of  his,  who, 
he  says,  "  has  examined  the  circumstances  of  this  extra 
ordinary  case,  not  only  at  Stockholm,  but  also  at  Gotten- 
burg,  where  he  is  acquainted  with  the  most  respectable 
houses,  and  where  he  could  obtain  the  most  authentic 
and  complete  information,  as  the  greatest  part  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  are  still  alive,  were  witnesses  to  the 
memorable  occurrence."  It  is  proper  to  observe  that 
Kant  was  skeptically  inclined  respecting  the  extra 
ordinary  claims  of  Swedenborg;  those,  indeed,  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  character  of  that  philosopher  need 
not  be  told  that  he,  of  all  men,  was  one  of  the  least  likely 
to  give  credence  to  any  marvellous  statement,  unless  it 
were  supported  by  evidence  of  the  most  unimpeachable 
character.* 

The  first  volume  of  Swedenborg's  first  theological 
work,  entitled  the  "Secrets  or  Mysteries  of  Heaven," 
("Arcana  Ccelestia,")  appeared  in  1749.  It  was  com 
pleted  in  1756,  having  extended  toeight  quarto  volumes. 
The  work  is  an  exposition  of  the  books  of  Genesis  and 
Exodus,  with  intervening  chapters  describing  the  won 
ders  of  the  future  world.  In  1758  Swedenborg  published 
in  London  the  following  works  :  "An  Account  of  the 
Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction  of  Babylon  ;  show 
ing  that  all  the  Predictions  in  the  Apocalypse  are  at 
this  day  fulfilled,  being  a  Relation  of  Things  Heard  and 
Seen,"  "Concerning  Heaven  and  its  Wonders,  and  Con 
cerning  Hell,  being  a  Relation  of  Things  Heard  and  Seen," 
"On  the  White  Horse  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse," 
"On  the  Planets  in  our  Solar  System,  and  on  those  in 
the  Starry  Heavens,  with  an  Account  of  their  Inhabitants 
and  of  their  Spirits  and  Angels,"  and  "On  the  New 
Jerusalem  and  its  Heavenly  Doctrine  as  revealed  from 
Heaven."  In  1763  he  published  at  Amsterdam  "The 
Doctrine  of  the  New  Jerusalem  concerning  the  Lord," 
"The  Sacred  Scripture,"  "Faith,"  a  "Continuation  re 
specting  the  Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction  of 
Babylon,"  and  "Angelic  Wisdom  concerning  the  Divine 
Love  and  Divine  Wisdom."  He  published  at  Amster 
dam  in  1766  an  explanation  of  the  book  of  Revelation, 
entitled  "The  Apocalypse  Revealed,"  ("  Apocalypsis 
Revelata;")  a  much  more  extensive  work  on  the  same 
subject,  written  also  in  Latin,  was  published  after  his 
death,  in  1790;  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  pub 
lished  in  1815  with  the  title  of  "  Apocalypse  Explained." 
In  1768  he  published  at  Amsterdam  his  treatise  on  "  Con 
jugal  (Conjugial)  Love,"  ("  Amor  Conjugialis,")  in  which 
he  teaches  that  the  marriage  relation  exists  in  heaven 
as  well  as  on  earth.  In  1769  appeared  at  Amsterdam  a 
small  work  entitled  a  "  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  New  Church,"  and  in  the  same  year,  at  London, 
another  little  book, — "The  Intercourse  between  the 
Soul  and  the  Body."  He  published  in  1771,  at  Amster 
dam,  the  last  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
— "The  True  Christian  Religion,"  ("  Vera  Christiana 
Religio,")  which  is  in  fact  a  system  of  universal  theology 
of  the  "New  Church,"  (i.e.  the  Church  introduced  or 
revealed  by  Swedenborg.) 

Swedenborg  died  in  London,  from  the  effects  of  a 
paralytic  stroke,  the  agth  of  March,  1772,  in  the  eighty-' 
fifth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  never  married.  In  person 
he  was  of  a  medium  height ;  his  manners  were  dignified 
and  somewhat  reserved  ;  his  countenance  mild  and 
pleasing.  He  had  a  slight  impediment  in  his  speech,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  talked  slowly  but  very  distinctly. 

The  views  entertained  of  the  theological  doctrines  of 
Swedenborg,  and  of  his  ideas  of  a  future  life,  will,  of 
course,  vary  according  to  the  preconceived  opinions  or 
the  habits  of  thought  of  his  readers  ;  but  of  his  merits 
as  a  writer  on  intellectual  and  moral  subjects,  several 
competent  and  (as  we  have  reason  to  believe)  impartial 
critics  have  spoken  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 

"  I  have  often  thought,"  says  Coleridge,  "  of  writing  a 
work  to  be  entitled  'Vindication  of  Great  Men  unjustly 
branded  ;'  and  at  such  times  the  names  prominent  to  my 

*  See  Kant's  letter  on  this  subject  to  the  Fran  von  Knobloch. 


mind's  eye  have  been  Giordano  Bruno,  Bbhmen,  Spi 
noza,  and  Swedenborg.  Grant  that  the  origin  of  the 
Swedenborgian  theology  is  a  problem ;  yet,  on  which 
ever  of  the  three  possible  hypotheses  (possible,  I  mean,  for 
gentlemen,  scholars,  and  Christians)  it  maybe  solved, — 
I,  Swedenborg's  own  assertion  and  constant  belief  in  the 
hypothesis  of  a  supernatural  illumination  ;  or,  2,  that 
the  great  and  excellent  man  was  led  into  this  belief  by 
becoming  the  subject  of  a  very  rare  but  not  (it  is  said) 
altogether  unique  conjunction  of  the  somniative  facul'y 
with  the  voluntary  and  other  powers  of  the  waking  state  ; 
or,  3,  the  modest  suggestion  that  the  first  and  second  may 
not  be  so  incompatible  as  they  appear, — still  it  is  never 
to  be  forgotten  that  the  merit  and  value  of  Swedenborg's 
system  do  only  in  a  very  secondary  degree  depend  on  any 
one  of  the  three.  ...  So  much,  even  from  a  very  partial 
acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Swedenborg,  I  may  ven 
ture  to  assert,  that  as  a  moralist  he  is  above  all  praise, 
and  that  as  a  naturalist,  psychologist,  and  theologian  he 
has  strong  claims  on  the  gratitude  and  admiration  of  the 
professional  and  philosophical  student."  (See  "Notes 
on  Noble's  Appeal,"  in  Coleridge's  "  Literary  Remains.") 

"There  is,"  says  Emerson,  "an  invariable  method  and 
order  in  his  delivery  of  his  truth,  the  habitual  proceed 
ing  of  the  mind  from  inmost  to  outmost.  What  earnest 
ness  and  weightiness  ! — his  eye  never  roving,  without  one 
swell  of  vanity  or  one  look  to  self  in  any  common  form 
of  literary  pride  !  a  theoretic  or  speculative  man,  but 
whom  no  practical  man  in  the  universe  could  affect  to 
scorn."  In  another  place  he  says,  "  Not  every  man 
can  read  them,  [his  books,]  but  they  will  reward  him 
who  can.  .  .  .  The  grandeur  of  the  topics  makes  the 
grandeur  of  the  style.  .  .  .  His  writings  would  be  a 
sufficient  library  to  a  lonely  and  athletic  student;  and 
the  'Economy  of  the  Animal  Kingdom'  is  one  of  those 
books  which,  by  the  sustained  dignity  of  thinking,  is  an 
honour  to  the  human  race."  But  this  high  praise  is 
not  bestowed  without  important  qualifications.  (See 
"  Swedenborg,  or  the  Mystic,"  in  "  Representative  Men.") 

Professor  von  Gorres,  already  refer'  id  to  in  this  article, 
says  of  Swedenborg,  "  He  was  guided  in  his  researches 
by  a  mind  clear,  acutely  analytic,  endowed  with  skill,  and 
well  disciplined  in  mathematics  and  logic." 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  attempt  even  an  out 
line  of  his  theosophic  system  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  what 
seems  to  be  the  g/eat  central  idea  in  this  system  is  the 
doctrine  of  correspondences,  according  to  which  every 
thing  in  the  natural  world  is  a  correspondent  or  type 
of  something  existing  in  the  supernatural  or  spiritual 
world. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  Swedenborg's  theosophy  has 
exerted  an  important  influence  upon  many  gifted  minds 
who  are  far  from  accepting  all  the  details  of  his  extra 
ordinary  revelations.  This  need  surprise  us  the  less 
because  "  what  appears  as  Swedenborg's  crudities  and 
fantasies,"  to  adopt  the  words  of  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Sears, 
"are  extraneous  to  his  essential  system."  (See  "  Monthly 
Religious  Magazine"  for  March,  1865.) 

See  "  Emamiel  Swedenborg:  his  Life  and  Writings,"  by  WILLIAM 
WHITE,  2  vols.  Svo,  London,  1867,  (pronounced  by  Henry  James  "by 
far  the  best  life  of  Swedenborg;"  see  "  North  American  Review"  for 
[uly,  1867  ;)  J.  G.  WILKINSON,  "  E.  Swede nborg ;  a  Hiography,  1849  : 
GOERRES,  "  E.  Swedenborg,"  1827;  S.  SANDELS,  "  Aminnelse-Tal 
bfver  E.  Swedenborg,"  1772;  CARL  F.  RANZ,  "  E.  Swedenborg,  der 
Nordische  Seller,"  etc.,  1841;  EDWIN-  I'.  HOOD,  "Swedenborg;  a 
Biography  and  Exposition,"  1854;  ELIHU  RICH,  "Biographical 
Sketch  of  E.  Swedenborg,"  1849;  BARRETT,  "  Life  of  E.  Sweden 
borg,"  1842;  TAFKL,  "  E.  Swedenborg  mid  seine  Gegner,"  2  vols., 
1841 ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1857,  and  June,  1868. 

Sweerts,  swaiUs,  (EMMANUKI,,)  a  Belgian  botanist, 
born  near  Breda  about  1552,  published  "  Florilegium 
Amplissimum  et  Selectissimum,"  (1612.) 

Sweerts,  (PIERRE  FRANCOIS,)  a  Belgian  historian, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1567  ;  died  in  1629. 

Swerga.     See  SWAKGA. 

Swetchine,  (Madame  SOPHIA.)     See  SVETCHINE. 

Swett,  (JoHN  APPLKTON,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy 
sician,  born  at  Boston  in  1808.  He  became  in  1840 
associate  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Journal  of  Medicine," 
and  in  1853  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  medi 
cine  in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Chest,"  (1852.) 
Died  in  1854. 


«  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SWETN 


2088 


SWINBURNE 


Sweyn,swan,  [Lat.  SUE'NO;  Fr.  SuENUN,su-a'n6.\',] 
King  of  Denmark,  obtained  the  throne  about  986  A.D. 
He  began  about  994  a  series  of  piratical  expeditions 
against  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  ravaged  the  coasts  of 
England.  King  Ethelred,  unable  to  protect  his  realm 
by  arms,  induced  Svveyn  to  retire  by  paying  him  a  large 
sum  of  money.  Sweyn  soon  returned,  and  obtained 
possession  of  a  great  part  of  England.  He  died  about 
1014,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Canute  the  Great. 

Sweyii  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1025,  and  became  King  of  Denmark  in  1047. 
Died  in  1076. 

Sweynheym,  swm'him,  (  CONRAD,  )  a  German 
printer,  who,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Pannartz, 
first  introduced  printing  into  Italy.  Died  about  1476. 

Swieten,  van,  vtn  swee'ten,  (GEKAAKD,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  physician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1700.  lie  studied 
medicine  and  chemistry  under  Boerhaave,  and  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  his  native  city.  Having  been 
obliged  to  resign  this  professorship  on  account  of  his 
being  a  Catholic,  he  was  appointed  in  1745  first  phy 
sician  to  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  He  was  created  by 
the  empress  a  baron  of  the  empire,  superintendent  of 
the  Imperial  Library,  and  perpetual  president  of  the 
medical  faculty.  His  "Commentaries  on  the  Aphorisms 
of  Hermann  Boerhaave  on  the  Diagnosis  and  Cure  of 
Diseases"  ("Commentaria  in  H.  Boerhaavii  Aphorismos 
de  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis")  is  regarded  as  a 
standard  work. 

Swift,  (DEANE,)  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  writer, 
noticed  below,  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Life, 
Character,  and  Writings  of  Dr.  Jonathan  Swift,"  etc., 
(1755.)  He  published  in  1765  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Swift.  Died  in  1783. 

Swift,  (JONATHAN,)  a  celebrated  humorist  and 
satirist,  born  in  Dublin  on  the  jOth  of  November,  1667, 
was  a  son  of  Jonathan  Swift,  an  English  attorney,  who 
removed  to  Ireland,  and  died  before  the  birth  of  the 
subject  of  this  article.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col 
lege,  Dublin,  (which  he  entered  in  1682,)  at  the  expense 
of  his  uncle,  Godwin  Swift,  for  he  inherited  nothing  from 
his  father.  He  graduated  in  1685,  and  remained  at 
Trinity  College  until  i6S8.  About  this  date  he  entered 
into  the  service  of  Sir  William  Temple,  (a  distant  relative 
of  Swift's  mother,)  who  employed  him  as  secretary  and 
received  him  as  an  inmate  in  his  family  at  Moor  Park. 
His  salary  was  only  twenty  pounds  a  year.  He  obtained 
the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford  in  1692,  after  which  he 
took  holy  orders.  Aspiring  to  a  more  independent 
position,  he  left  the  service  of  Sir  William  Temple  in 
1694,  and  went  to  Ireland.  He  became  prebendary  of 
Kilroot,  but,  having  received  an  invitation  from  Sir 
William,  with  promise  of  patronage,  he  returned  to  Moor 
Park  in  1695.  He  was  treated  as  a  friend  by  Temple, 
who  died  in  1699  and  left  him  a  legacy.  At  Moor  Park 
he  became  acquainted  with  Esther  Johnson,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  poetical  name  of  "  Stella."  In  1699  or  1700 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  Agher  and  vicar  of  Laracor 
in  Ireland.  At  his  invitation,  Miss  Johnson  went  in  1700 
to  reside  at  or  near  Laracor,  expecting  that  Swift  would 
make  her  an  offer  of  marriage.  It  appears  that  he  did 
not  wish  to  marry,  but  was  fond  of  her  society,  and 
generally  conversed  with  her  in  the  presence  of  some 
third  person. 

In  1701  he  published  a  political  tract,  entitled  "A 
Discourse  of  the  Contests  and  Dissensions  between  the 
Nobles  and  Commons  of  Athens  and  Rome,"  which 
procured  for  him  the  friendship  of  the  Wrhig  leaders, 
Somers,  Halifax,  and  Addison.  He  produced  in  1704 
his  humorous  and  satirical  "Tale  of  a  Tub,"  (anony 
mous,)  and  "The  Battle  of  the  Books."  "The  'Tale  of 
a  Tub,'  "  says  Hallam,  "  is,  in  my  apprehension,  the  mas 
ter-piece  of  Swift :  certainly  Rabelais  has  nothing  superior 
even  in  invention,  nor  anything  so  condensed^so  pointed, 
so  full  of  real  meaning,  of  biting  satire,  of  felicitous 
analogy."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Swift  was  often  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  prefer 
ment,  and  gradually  turned  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory 
party.  About  1708  he  published  a  "Project  for  the 
Advancement  of  Religion,"  which  is  said  to  be  the  only 
work  to  which  he  ever  put  his  name.  During  a  visit  to 


London  he  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  Miss  John-son, 
entitled  "  Journal  to  Stella."  He  edited  the  "  Examiner,'' 
a  weekly  Tory  paper,  (from  November,  1710,  to  June 
14,  1711,)  in  which  he  displayed  great  talents  for  satire 
and  raillery  in  personal  attacks  on  Godolphin,  Sunder- 
land,  Marl  borough,  and  others.  He  became  very  inti 
mate  with  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  with  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
and  with  Pope,  the  poet.  He  advocated  the  cessation  of 
hostilities  against  Louis  XIV.,  in  an  able  tract  on  "The 
Conduct  of  the  Allies,"  (1712,)  which  had  great  success, 
and  efficiently  promoted  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  (1713.) 
For  this  service  he  was  rewarded  with  the  place  of  Dean 
of  Saint  Patrick's,  Dublin,  in  1713.  He  would  probably 
have  obtained  a  bishopric  if  he  had  not  written  the  "  Tale 
of  a  Tub,"  in  which  he  exposed  religious  abuses,  and 
popery  especially,  with  great  freedom  and  even  levity. 
Though  ill  satisfied  with  his  recent  preferment,  he  went 
to  take  possession  of  the  deanery;  but  he  remained  only 
a  few  weeks  in  Dublin.  He  returned  to  London,  where 
his  presence  was  required  to  reconcile  Oxford  and  Boling 
broke  ;  but  he  failed  in  this  attempt. 

About  1713  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Esther 
Vanhomi  igh,  ("  Vanessa,")  who  became  fondly  attached 
to  him,  and  is  said  to  have  made  him  a  proposal  of  mar 
riage,  which  he  declined.  On  this  subject  he  wrote  a 
poem  entitled  "Cadenus  and  Vanessa."  In  1716  Swift 
and  Stella  were  privately  married  ;  but  they  never  lived 
together  or  met  except  when  others  were  present.  She 
presided  at  his  table  on  public  days,  and  attended  him 
during  illness.  She  died  in  1728.  He  produced  in  1726 
or  1727  his  famous  "Travels  of  Lemuel  Gulliver,"  a 
satirical  romance,  displaying  great  originality  and  wit. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  became  morose,  misan 
thropic,  and  solitary.  His  memory  and  other  faculties 
tailed  in  1741.  He  died  in  Dublin  in  October,  1745. 

There  was  much  paradox  and  inconsistency  in  Swift's 
character.  He  is  said  to  have  given  a  large  part  of  his 
income  to  the  poor,  and  he  acquired  great  popularity 
among  the  Irish,  although  he  regarded  them  as  aliens 
and  inferiors.  Swift's  style  is  remarkable  for  its  direct 
ness,  simplicity,  and  perspicuity.  In  description,  even 
of  the  most  commonplace  things,  his  power  is  often 
perfectly  marvellous  ;  everything  is  presented  to  the 
mind  with  a  distinctness  and  vividness  which  remind 
one  of  the  works  of  the  old  Dutch  painters.  Macaulay 
describes  him  at  Moor  Park  as  a  "  poor  scholar,  under 
whose  plain  garb  and  ungainly  deportment  were  con 
cealed  some  of  the  choicest  gifts  that  have  ever  been 
bestowed  on  any  of  the  children  of  men, — rare  powers  of 
observation,  brilliant  wit,  grotesque  invention,  humour 
of  the  most  austere  flavour,  yet  exquisitely  delicious, 
eloquence  singularly  pure,  manly,  and  perspicuous." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

See  J.  HAWKESWORTH,  "  Life  of  Jonathan  Swift,"  1755;  T. 
SHERIDAN,  "  Life  ot"  Swift,"  1784;  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  English 
Poets  ;"  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT,  "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;" 
THACKERAY,  "  English  Humorists  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  Sep 
tember,  1816;  DKANE  SWIFT,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Swift,"  1755  ;  QUINTIN  CRAUHURD,  "  Kssai  historiqite  sur  le  Docteur 
Swift, "iSoS;  CAMPBELL,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  LORD 
JEFFREY,  "Essays;"  "  Swiftiana,"  London,  2  vols.,  1804;  CARL 
NYREN,  "J.  Swift's  Lefverne,"  1760;  W.  RUSSELL,  "Eccentric 
Personages,"  1864;  H.  REYNAI.D,  "  Biographie  de  J.  Swift,"  1860; 
ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Swift,  (JOSEPH  GARDNER,)  an  American  general  and 
engineer,  born  in  Nantucket  in  1783.  He  graduated  at 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  and  was  subse 
quently  made  captain  of  engineers.  He  was  appointed 
in  1829  superintendent  of  the  harbour  improvements  on 
the  lakes.  He  has  published  several  scientific  works. 

Swift,  (THEOPHILUS,)  son  of  Deane  Swift,  noticed 
above,  was  the  author  of  poems  entitled  "  The  Gamblers" 
and  "The  Temple  of  Folly,"  an  "  Essay  on  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  Rhyme,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1815. 

Swift,  (ZiU'HANiAH,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Wareham,  Massachusetts,  in  1759,  was  secretary  of  the 
embassy  to  France  in  1800,  and  in  1806  chief  justice 
of  Connecticut.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Bills  of 
Exchange,"  and  other  legal  works.  Died  in  1823. 

Swinburne,  swln'biirn,  (ALGERNON  CHARLES,)  an 
English  poet,  born  near  Henley-on-Thames  in  1843. 
He  studied  at  Oxford,  which  .he  quitted  without  a  de 
gree.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Atalanta 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SWINBURNE 


2089 


in  Calydon,"  (1864,)  "Chastelarcl,"  a  tragedy,  (1865,) 
"Poems  and  Ballads,"  (1866,)  "Siena,"  a  poem,  (first 
published  in  "  Lippincott's  Magazine,"  1868,)  and  "  Both- 
well,"  a  tragedy,  (1870.) 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1866;  "  Eclectic  Maga 
zine"  for  November,  1866;  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Swinburne,  (HENRY,)  an  English  civilian  and  jurist, 
born  at  York.  He  wrote  on  wills,  etc.  Died  in  1624. 

Swinburne,  (HENRY,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
1752.  He  spent  many  years  in  visiting  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Sicily,  and  published  "  Travels  through  Spain 
in  1775  and  1776,"  "  Travels  in  the  Two  Sicilies,"  and  a 
correspondence  entitled  the  "Courts  of  Europe  at  the 
Close  of  the  Last  Century,"  (1841.)  Died  in  1803. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1841. 

Swin'den,  (TOBIAS,)  an  English  divine,  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Place 
of  Hell."  Died  in  1720. 

Swinden,  van,  vitn  swin'den,  (JAN  HENDRIK,)  a 
Dutch  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1746.  He  became  in  1785  professor  of  physics 
and  astronomy  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of  other  learned 
societies,  and  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "  Dis 
sertation  on  the  Analogy  between  Electricity  and  Mag 
netism,"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Weights  and  Measures," 
(1802.)  Died  in  1823. 

See  G.  MOLL,  "  Redevoering  over  J.  H.  van  Swinden,"  1824. 

Swin'nock,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Maidstone.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.  Died  in  1673. 

Swin'ton,  (JOHN,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1703.  He  became  keeper  of  the  archives 
at  Oxford,  and  published  several  treatises  on  Roman 
and  Phoenician  antiquities.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  "Universal  History."  Died  in  1777. 

Swith'in,  SAINT,  an  English  prelate,  was  chaplain 
to  King  Egbert,  and  preceptor  to  his  son  Ethelwolf.  He 
was  afterwards  tutor  to  Prince  Alfred,  and  in  852  was 
made  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Died  in  862. 

Swoboda,  swo-bo'da,  (  WF.NZEL  ALOYS,)  a  Bohemian 
litterateur,  born  in  1781,  published  tales,  novels,  and 
treatises  on  music.  He  also  translated  Seneca's  dramas 
into  German.  Died  in  1849. 

Swurg  or  Swurga.     See  SWARGA. 

Sy-a'gri-us,  SAINT,  an  influential  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Autun  (Augustodunum)  about  520  A.D.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Autun  about  560.  Died  in  600. 

Sybrecht,  (JAN.)     See  SIBRECHT. 

Sydenham,  sld'en-ain,  (CHARLES  EDWARD  POULETT 
THOMPSON,)  LORD,  an  English  Whig  statesman,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1799,  was  a  merchant  in  his  youth.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Dover  in  1826,  and  again 
in  1830.  His  superior  talents  for  business  procured  for 
him  a  rapid  promotion.  He  became  president  of  the 
board  of  trade  in  June,  1834,  and  a  member,  of  the  cabi 
net  in  1835.  He  represented  Manchester  in  Parliament 
from  1832  till  1839,  was  appointed  Governor-General 
of  Canada  in  1839,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Syclenham,  in  1840.  Died  in  Canada  in  September,  1841. 

See  SCROPE,  "Life  of  Lord  Sydenham,"  1843:  "Westminster 
Review"  for  December,  1843 ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
i«43- 

Sydeuham,  (FLOYER,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
1710.  He  published  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
principal  part  of  the  works  of  Plato,  but,  having  be 
come  embarrassed,  he  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  knd 
died  in  1787.  This  melancholy  event  gave  rise  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Literary  Fund  for  the  relief  of  in 
digent  and  deserving  writers.  Sydenham  also  published 
"Onomasticon  Theologicum ;  or,  An  Essay  on  the 
Divine  Names,  according  to  the  Platonic  Philosophy," 
and  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Doctrine  of  Heraclitus," 
etc.,  (I775-) 

Sydeuham,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  English  physi 
cian,  sometimes  called  "the  English  Hippocrates,"  was 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1624.  He  entered  Magdalene 
Hall,  Oxford,  as  a  commoner  in  1642,  and  took  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  physic  in  1648.  Having  subse 
quently  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at  Cambridge, 


he  settled  in  London  about  1660.  In  1663  he  was  ad 
mitted  as  a  licentiate  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  the 
majority  of  whom,  it  is  said,  were  hostile  to  him.  He 
rose  rapidly  to  the  foremost  rank  in  his  profession,  and 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Locke  and  Boyle.  In  1666 
he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Fevers."  He  discovered 
the  efficacy  of  a  cool  regimen  in  smallpox,  by  which  dis 
covery  he  saved  many  thousand  lives.  He  wrote  several 
short  medical  treatises,  which  were  published  collectively 
with  the  title  of  "Opera  Omnia  Medica,"  (1685,)  and 
have  been  often  reprinted.  The  best  edition  is  that 
entitled  "Opera  Medica,"  published  at  Geneva,  (2  vols. 
4to,  1716.)  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  suffered 
much  from  the  gout.  Died  in  December,  1689.  "  His 
skill  in  physic,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "was  not  his  highest 
excellence  ;  his  whole  character  was  amiable  :  his  chief 
view  was  the  benefit  of  mankind,  and  the  chief  motive 
of  his  actions,  the  will  of  God,  whom  he  mentions  with 
a  reverence  well  becoming  the  most  enlightened  and 
most  penetrating  mind." 

See  JOHNSON,  "Life  of  Sydenliam,"  1742;  PKUNELLE,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  Sydenliam,"  1816;  K.  JAHN.  "Sydenham;  Beitrag 
zur  wissenscliaftlichen  Medicin,"  1X40;  GOKDEN,  "  T.  Sydenham," 
1827;  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica ;"  "Lives  of  the  British  Phy 
sicians,"  London,  1857;  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Sydney,  (Sir  PHILIP.)     See  SIDNEY. 

Sykes,  siks,  (ARTHUR  ASHLEY,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  London  about  1684,  rose  through  several  prefer 
ments  to  be  prebendary  of  Winchester.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  etc.,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1756. 

See  DISNEY,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  A.  A.  Sykes." 

Sykes,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Delaware  or  Maryland  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Gaines's 
Mill,  June  27,  1862,  and  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gettys 
burg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Syiburg,  sil'booKG,  [Lat.  SYLBUR'GIUS,]  (FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  scholar,  born  near  Marburg  in  1536. 
He  studied  Greek  at  Jena,  and  subsequently  entered 
into  a  connection  with  the  printer  Jerome  Commelin, 
at  Heidelberg,  as  director  of  the  printing  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics.  He  published  editions  of  Pausa- 
nias,  Aristotle,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Zosimus, 
Justin  Martyr,  and  other  ancient  writers.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  "  Thesaurus"  of  Henry  Stephens. 
Syiburg  was  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  his  editions  of  the  classics  have  perhaps  never  been 
surpassed  in  critical  accuracy.  Died  in  1596. 

See  J.  G.  JUNG,  "  Lebensbesclireibinig  F.  Sy'.burg's,"  1745:  M. 
ADAM,  "Vitas  Phi'osophorum  ;"  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Sylburgius.     See  SYLBURG. 

Sylla.     See  SULLA. 

Sylvanus.     See  SILVANUS. 

Sylverius.     See  SILVKRIUS. 

Syl-ves'ter,  [Fr.  SILVESTRE,  sel'vSstR';  It.  SILVES- 
TRO,  sel-veVtRo,]  SAINT,  was  elected  Pope  of  Rome 
in  314  A.D.  Under  his  pontificate  the  celebrated  Coun 
cil  of  Nice  was  assembled  (325)  and  the  Arian  heresy 
was  first  promulgated.  Died  in  335. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  Histoiy  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Sylvester  II.  succeeded  Gregory  V.  as  Pope  of 
Rome  in  999  A.D.  His  original  name  was  GERBERT, 
and  he  was  a  native  of  Auvergne.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  attainments  in  mathematics  and  philosophy,  and 
made  several  valuable  discoveries.  He  died  in  1003, 
leaving  a  number  of  scientific  treatises. 

Sylvester  III.,  ANTI-POPE,  was  raised  to  the  pon 
tificate  in  1013,  in  opposition  to  Benedict  IX.,  but  after 
a  short  time  he  was  deposed. 

Syl-ves'ter,  (JOSHUA,)  an  English  Puritan  writer, 
born  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "To 
bacco  Battered  and  the  Pipes  Shattered  by  a  Volley  of 
Holy  Shot  ^Thundered  from  Mount  Helicon."  He  made 
several  translations  from  the  French.  Died  in  1618. 

Sylvester,  (MATTHEW,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  was  ejected  about  1662,  after  which  he  preached 
in  London.  He  edited  Baxter's  "  History  of  his  Life 
and  Times."  Died  in  1708. 

Sylvius,  the  Latin  of  DUBOIS,  (which  see.) 

Sylvius,  (/ENEAS.)     See  Pius  II. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^f^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


srirws 


2090 


SZIGLIGETI 


Sylvius,  sll've-us,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  physician, 
originally  named  LE  BOB,  born  at  Hanau  in  1614.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden,  where  he  died 
in  1672.  He  published  several  medical  works,  in  Latin. 

Sylvius,  sil've-us,  (LAMBERT,)  or  Van  den  Bosch, 
vfn  den  bosk,  a  Dutch  writer,  born  at  Dort  in  1610. 
He  wrote  histories,  poems,  etc.  Died  in  1688. 

Syme,  (JAMES,)  an  eminent  Scottish  surgeon  and  phy 
sician,  born  in  Fifeshire  about  1800.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Robert  Liston,  at  Edinburgh.  He  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  an  operator  and  as  a  writer  on  surgery. 
About  1833  he  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Excision  of  Diseased  Joints,"  (1831,) 
"Principles  of  Surgery,"  (1832,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Diseases  of  the  Rectum,"  (1838-46.) 

Synies,  simz,  (MICHAEL,)  an  English  officer  and  di 
plomatist,  was  ambassador  to  the  Burmese  court  in  1795, 
and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "Embassy  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Ava."  Died  in  1809. 

Sym'ing-ton,  (W.,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  in 
1795.  He  was  a  professor  of  theology  of  the  Re 
formed  Presbyterian  Church,  and  lived  in  Glasgow.  He 
published  works  entitled  "The  Atonement  and  Interces 
sion  of  Christ,"  and  "Mediatorial  Dominion  of  Christ." 
Died  in  Glasgow  in  January,  1862. 

Sym'ma-ehus,  [Gr.  ^Aftpajgof ;  Fr.  SYMMAQUE,  se'- 
mtk',]  surnamed  THE  SAMARITAN,  is  supposed  to  have 
flourished  about  200  A.I>.  Having  been  converted  to 
Christianity,  he  made  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Greek,  which  has  been  highly  commended  for  the 
grace  and  perspicuity  of  its  style. 

Symmachus,  (CcELius,)  born  in  Sardinia,  succeeded 
Anastasius  II.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  498  A.I).  Died  in  514. 

Symmachus,  (QuiNTUS  AUREI.IUS,)  a  Roman  orator 
and  statesman,  lie  became  successively  proconsul  of 
Africa,  prefect  of  Rome,  (384,)  and  consul,  (391  A.D.) 
He  was  a  zealous  defender  of  paganism,  and  laboured 
earnestly  to  prevent  its  downfall.  Died  about  410. 
Among  his  extant  works  are  ten  books  of  letters,  which 
contain  a  great  deal  of  interesting  and  valuable  infor 
mation.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  ability 
and  learning.  Fragments  of  his  orations  have  been  pub 
lished  by  Angelo  Mai. 

See  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  I.atina  :"  ANC;EI.O  MAI,  "  Com- 
mentarii  Prxvii  de  Syminaclio  ;"  K.  MORIN,  "  Etude  sur  la  Vie  de 
Symmaque,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G£n£rale." 

Symmaque.     See  SYMMACHUS. 

Symmes,  simz,  (Jon.\  CLEVKS,)  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  New  Jersey  about  1780,  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
advocate  of  a  theory  representing  the  earth  as  hollow, 
open  at  the  poles,  and  habitable  within.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  the  subject,  but  made  very  few 
converts.  Died  in  1829. 

Sym'mons,  (CHARLES,)  M.D.,  born  at  Cardigan, 
Wales,  in  1749,  was  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  Milton," 
and  dramatic  poems  entitled  "Inez"  and  "  Constantia." 
Died  in  1826. 

Sy'monds,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  rear-admiral 
and  naval  architect,  born  in  1782.  He  made  improve 
ments  in  the  construction  of  ships,  and  was  surveyor  of 
the  navy  from  1832  to  1847.  Died  in  1856. 

Sy'mons,  (JELINGER  C.,)  an  English  writer  and  phi 
lanthropist,  born  in  1809  or  1810.  He  wrote  on  educa 
tion  and  social  reform.  Died  in  1860. 

Syn,  sin,  or  Synia,  sin'e-a,  [perhaps  from  syn, 
"sight,"  and  so  named  on  account  of  her  watchfulness 
and  sagacity,]  a  goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
portress  of  the  hall  or  palace  of  Odin,  and  also  the 
patron  of  those  who  in  a  lawsuit  are  in  danger  of  being 
injured  by  false  testimony. 

Syii-cel'lus,  [Gr.  Ify/ce/Aoc;  ;  Fr.  LE  SYNCELLE,  leh 
B&N's&l',]  (GEORGE,)  a  Greek  monk  and  chronicler  of  the 
eighth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Chronography,"  or 
chronological  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to 
the  time  of  Diocletian. 

Synesius,  st-nee'she-us,  [Gr.  liVveaios,}  a  celebrated 
Neo- Platonic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Gyrene,  in  Africa, 
in  378  A.D.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Hypatia  at  Alexandria  ; 
but  he  was  afterwards  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  in  410  A.D.  He  was  the 


author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Dreams,"  "  Dion,  or  on  Self- 
Discipline,"  a  large  collection  of  letters,  and  several 
hymns  and  epigrams.  His  works  are  admired  for  the 
style  and  other  merits.  Died  about  430. 

See  CLAUSKN,  "De  Synesio  Philosopho,"  1831;  DROUON, 
"  fitude  sur  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  Synesius,"  1859:  B.  KOLBK, 
"])er  BischofSynesiusvon  Cyreneals  Pliysiker,"  1850  ;  TII.LKMONT, 
"  Memoires  ecclesiastiques  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Synesius,  a  Greek  writer  on  medicine,  the  date  of 
whose  birth  is  unknown.  His  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  a 
translation  from  the  Arabic  of  Ibnu'l-Jezzar,  is  his  only 
extant  work. 

Synge,  slnj,  (EDWARD,)  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in 
1659,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Tuam.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1741. 

Syn'tl-pas,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  Seude- 
bad,  seVdeh-bid',  a  Hindoo  or  Persian  philosopher,  to 
whom  is  ascribed  a  collection  of  tales  and  apologues 
which  were  translated  into  Greek  by  Michael  Andreo- 
poulos.  These  tales  were  published  by  Boissonnade 
in  1828. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sy'phax,  [Gr.  2t'0aj,]  a  king  of  Numidia,  made  an 
alliance  with  the  Romans  in  213  it.c.,  after  which  he 
waged  war  against  Masinissa.  About  the  year  204  he 
became  an  ally  of  Carthage  in  the  second  Punic  war. 
He  was  defeated  by  Scipio  in  203  is.C.,  and  was  taken 
as  a  prisoner  to  Rome.  Died  about  201. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Syr-i-a'iius,  [Gr.  Zvpiavii^,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of 
the  Neo- Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Alexandria  or 
Gaza.  He  succeeded  Plutarchus  as  the  head  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  school  at  Athens.  Among  his  disciples 
was  the  celebrated  Proclus,  who  expressed  a  very  high 
opinion  of  Syrianus.  lie  wrote  several  works,  which 
are  lost,  and  a  "Commentary  on  the  Metaphysics  of 
Aristotle,"  which  is  extant.  Died  about  450  A.D. 

See  RITTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graca." 

Syr-o-pu'lus,  (SYLVESTER,)  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  resident  of  Constantinople  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Council  of  Florence." 

Syrus.     See  PUHLIUS  SYRUS. 

Szabo,  sa'bo,  ( DAVID,)  a  Transylvanian  poet,  born 
in  1739,  made  a  translation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost" 
and  of  Virgil's  "  /Eneid,"  and  published  a  poem  entitled 
a  "  Description  of  Rural  Life."  Died  in  1819. 

Szalay,  soh'loi,  (LADISI.AUS,)  a  Hungarian  writer, 
born  at  Buda  in  1813,  succeeded  Kossuth  in  1844  as 
editor  of  the  "  Pesti  Hirlap."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "History  of  Hungary,"  "  The  Book  of 
Statesmen,"  (1847,)  and  "  Publicistic  Writings,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1864. 

Szalkai,  sol'kl,  (ANTHONY,)  a  Hungarian  dramatic 
poet  of  the  eighteenth  century.  His  "  Pikko  Hertzeg" 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  regular  drama  in  the  Hun 
garian  language.  Died  in  1804. 

Szechenyi,  sa'KSn-ye,  (STEPHEN,)  COUNT,  a  Hun 
garian  nobleman,  eminent  for  his  public  spirit,  was  horn 
at  Vienna  in  1792.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  promoter  of  rural  economy.  He  was  a  pioneer  in 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube  by  steam.  In  politics  he 
opposed  the  measures  of  Kossuth  which  produced  or 
preceded  the  revolution  of  1848.  Died  in  1860. 

Szegedi,  sa'gSd-e,  (JoHN  BAPTIST,)  a  Hungarian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Eisenstadt  in  1699.  He  published  seve 
ral  works  on  Hungarian  history  and  laws.  Died  in  1760. 

Sze-ma-Kwaiig.     See  SSK-MA-KWANG. 

Sze-ma-Tsieii.     See  SSE-M A-Tsi  EN. 

Szernere,  sa'meh-ra,  (BARTHOLOMEW,)  a  Hungarian 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Borsod  in 
1812.  Having  previously  filled  several  important  offices 
under  the  government,  he  became  in  1849  president  of 
the  new  ministry.  After  Gorgey  became  dictator,  Sze- 
mere  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  published 
a  number  of  political  treatises.  Died  in  1865. 

Szigligeti,  sig'le-ga-te,  (JOSEPH,)  a  distinguished 
Hungarian  dramatist,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1814.  lie 
has  published,  among  other  plays,  "The  Travelling 
Actor,"  and  "Crown  and  Sword." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TABARAUD 


2091 


T 'A 'FUR  I 


T. 


Tabaraud,  ti'bi'rS',  (MATHIEU  MATHURIN,)  a 
French  Jansenist  priest  and  writer,  born  at  Limoges  in 
1744.  He  wrote  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  de  Be'rulle,"  (2 
vols.,  1817,)  and  many  controversial  works,  among  which 
is  an  "Essay  on  the  State  of  the  Jesuits  in  France," 
(1828.)  Died  in  1832. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tabaree  or  Tabari,  (Aboo-  (Abu-)  Jaafar-Mo- 
hammed,  d'lxx)  ja/a-far  mo-ham'med,)  an  eminent  Arab 
historian,  born  in  Tabaristan  in  839  A.D.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Universal  History  from  the  Creation  10314 
A.D.,"  a  "Commentary  on  the  Koran,"  and  other  works. 

Tabari.     See  TAHAREE. 

Tabarrani,  ta-bar-ra'nee,  (P.,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  near  Lucca  in  1702.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
at  Rome  and  Padua,  and  published  "  Observationes 
Anatomicae,"  (1753.)  Died  in  1779. 

Tabernaemontanus,  ta-bei<'na-mon-ta'nus,  (JACO- 
isus  THEODORUS,)  a  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Berg-Zabern,  in  Alsace,  about  1520.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  a  "New  Complete  Herbal,"  ("X'eue  volkom- 
men  Krauterbuch,")  which  was  highly  esteemed  in  his 
time.  Died  in  1590. 

Tabor,  ta'bor,  (JoiiANN  OTHO,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Bautzen  in  1604;  died  in  1674. 

Tabouet,  tt'boo-i',  [Lat.  TAI!OE'TIUS,]  (JuLiEN,)  a 
French  jurist  and  historian,  born  near  Le  Mans  about 
1500.  He  was  banished  in  1556  for  an  alleged  official 
misdemeanour.  Died  in  1562. 

Tabourot,  tt'boo'ro',  (ETIENNE,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  humorous  writer,  called  the  "  Seigneur  des  Accords," 
was  born  at  Dijon  in  1547.  He  published  a  collection 
of  facetious  poems  entitled  "  Les  Bigarrures  et  Touches 
du  Seigneur  des  Accords,"  etc.,  (1572.)  Died  in  1590. 

See  ABKI.  JEANDET,  "Tabourot  Seigneur  des  Accords,"  1861. 

Tabreezee  or  Tabrizi,  ta-bree'zee,  (Aboo-  (Abu-) 
Zacharia-Yahia,  a'boo  za-Ka-ree'a  yah'he-a,)  an  Arab 
grammarian  and  critical  writer,  was  professor  at  Bagdad. 

Tabrizi.     See  TABREEZEE. 

Tacca,  tak'ka,  (PIETRO  GIACOMO,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
was  a  pupil  of  John  of  Bologna.  Died  in  1640. 

Taccoli,  tik'ko-lee,  (XiccoiA)  COUNT,  an  Italian 
historian,  bom  at  Reggio  in  1690;  died  in  1768. 

Tac-fa-ri'nas,  a  Numidian,  who,  during  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  took  arms  against  the  Romans,  about  18  A.D. 
He  gained  some  victories,  but  was  defeated  and  killed 
in  24  A.D. 

Tachard,  tt'shiR',  (Gui,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  mis 
sionary  to  Siam  in  1685,  published,  after  his  return,  an 
account  of  his  travels,  (2  vols.,  1689.)  Died  in  1711. 

Tacite.     See  TACITUS. 

Tacito.     See  TACITUS. 

Tag'I-tus,  [Fr.  TACITE,  ti'set';  It.  TACITO,  ta'che-to,] 
(CAlus  CORNELIUS,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian,  was 
born  about  55  A.D.  The  events  of  his  early  life  have 
not  been  recordVd.  He  entered  the  public  service  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and  married  a  daughter  of  C. 
Julius  Agricola,  the  famous  general,  in  78  A.D.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  from  whose 
letters  we  derive  a  large  part  of  the  knowledge  which 
we  have  of  his  life.  In  the  year  88  he  obtained  the 
office  of  praetor.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
orators  of  his  time.  In  the  reign  of  Nerva  he  became 
consul,  97  A.D.,  and  about  the  same  date  he  wrote  his 
work  on  Germany, — "On  the  Situation,  Customs,  etc. 
of  Germany,"  ("  De  Situ,  Moribus  et  Populis  Germaniae.") 
Tacitus  and  Pliny  conducted  the  prosecution  against 
Marius  Priscus,  who  was  convicted  of  cruelty  and  other 
crimes  in  100  A.D. 

Among  his  earlier  works  is  a  "Life  of  Agricola," 
which  is  much  admired.  After  the  death  of  XTerva,  he 
wrote  "The  Histories,"  ("  Historiarum  Libri  XIV.,") 
which  treat  of  the  period  from  68  to  96  A.D.  This  work 
is  lost,  except  the  first  five  books.  His  reputation  is 
chiefly  founded  on  his  "  Annals,"  ("  Annales,")  in  sixteen 


books,  which  record  the  history  of  the  Roman  empire  from 
the  death  of  Augustus,  14  A.D.,  to  the  death  of  Xero,  68 
A.D.  This  excellent  work  is  extant,  except  the  seventh, 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  books,  and  parts  of  three  other 
books.  His  "  Annals"  were  completed  about  116  A.D. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  He  was  a  Stoic  in 
philosophy,  and  probably  knew  nothing  of  Christianity. 
According  to  Gibbon,  "he  was  the  first  historian  who 
applied  the  science  of  philosophy  to  the  study  of  facts." 
("  History,"  vol.  i.  225.)  He  displays  profound  insight 
into  the  motives  of  human  conduct  and  the  dark  recesses 
of  character.  His  style  is  eminently  concise  and  vigorous. 

"Of  the  Latin  historians,"  says  Macaulay,  "Tacitus 
was  certainly  the  greatest.  His  style,  indeed,  is  not  only 
faulty  in  itself,  but  is  in  some  respects  peculiarly  unfit 
for  historical  composition.  .  .  .  He  tells  a  fine  story 
finely,  but  he  cannot  tell  a  plain  story  plainly.  He  stim 
ulates  till  all  stimulants  lose  their  power.  ...  In  the 
delineation  of  character,  Tacitus  is  unrivalled  among 
historians,  and  has  very  few  superiors  among  dramatists 
and  novelists."  (Essay  on  "  History,"  published  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  1828.) 

"Tacitus,"  says  F.  W.  Farrar,  "towered  like  a  giant 
above  all  his  contemporaries,  isolated  and  unapproach 
able.  .  .  .  The  little  we  know  of  his  private  life  is  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  noble  standard  of  his  re 
corded  sentiments."  ("Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  BOTTICIIEK,  '•  De  Vita.  Scriptis  ac  Slilo  Taciii,"  1834;  SIE- 
VERS,  "Tactus  und  Tiberius,"  1850;  Di'Bois-GucHAN,  "Tacite  et 
son  Siecle,"  2  vols.,  1857;  BAVLK,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic 
tionary  ;"  D.  W.  MOLI.EK,  "  Disputatio  de  C.  C.  Tacito,"  1686; 
MAI.VEZZI,  "Discorsi  sopra  Tacito,"  1622;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Tacitus,  (MARCUS  CLAUDIUS,)  Emperor  of  Rome, 
was  elected  to  succeed  Aurelian  in  275  A.D.  He  was 
distinguished  for  the  wisdom  and  energy  of  his  admin 
istration.  He  defeated  the  Scythians,  who  had  invaded 
Pontus,  but  he  soon  after  died  (276)  of  a  fever,  (though 
one  account  says  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  and 
was  assassinated,)  having  reigned  about  eight  months. 

Taconnet,  tt'ko'ni',  (TousSAINTGASPARD,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1730;  died 
in  1774. 

Tacquet,  tt'ki',  (ANDREW,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1611,  became  professor  of  mathe 
matics  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
mathematical  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1660. 

Tadda,  del.     See  FERRUCCI,  (FRANCESCO.) 

Tadino,  ta-dee'no,  (GAHKIEI.,)  an  Italian  general, 
born  near  Bergamo  about  1480.  He  fought  for  the  Ve 
netians  against  the  League  of  Cambray,  and  became 
grand  master  of  the  artillery  of  Charles  V.  Died  in  1543. 

Tadolini,  ta-do-lee'nee,  (ADAMO,)  an  Italian  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Bologna  in  1789,  was  a  pupil  of  Canova. 
His  statue  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales  is  highly  praised. 

Tadolini,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1793.  He  composed  successful  operas, 
among  which  were  "  II  Tamerlano"  and  "  Almanzor." 

Tafel,  ta'fel,  (GOTTLIEB  LUCAS  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  1787;  diedatUlmin  1860. 

Tafel,  (JoHANN  FRIEDRICH  IMMANUEL,)  a  distin 
guished  German  Swedenborgian,  was  born  at  Sulzbach, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1796.  He  became  librarian  of  the 
University  at  Tiibingen,  translated  several  of  Sweden- 
borg's  works  into  German,  and  wrote,  besides  many 
other  works,  "  Swedenborg  and  his  Opponents,"  ("  Swe- 
denborg  und  seine  Gegner,"  2  vols.,  1841.)  Died  at 
Rogaz,  in  Switzerland,  in  1862. 

See  C.  DO  BERG,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  von  Dr.  J.  F.  Immanuel 
Tafel,"  Wismar,  1864. 

Taffl,  taf'fee,  (ANDREA,)  a  Florentine  artist,  born  in 
1213,  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  art  of  painting  in 
mosaic  into  Italy.  Died  in  1294. 

Tafuri,  ti-foo'ree,  (G.  B.,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Xardo  in  1695.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an 
"  Account  of  the  Writers  born  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,"  (9  vols.,  1744-70.)  Died  in  1760. 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  z&j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


T A  FUR  I 


2092 


TALBOT 


Tafuri,  (MATTEO,)  called  MATTH/EUS  SOLETA'NUS,  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  physician,  born  at  Soleto  in 
1492.  He  wrote  on  theology,  medicine,  astronomy,  etc. 
Died  about  1585. 

Ta'ges,  [Fr.  TAGES,  tt'zheV,]  an  Etrurian  genius  or 
mythical  personage,  who  is  said  to  have  issued  from  a 
clod  of  earth,  and  is  represented  as  a  boy  with  the  wis 
dom  of  an  old  man.  He  is  said  to  ha%'e  taught  the  art 
of  predicting  the  future  by  the  inspection  of  the  entrails 
of  victims. 

Tagesen.     See  TAUSSEN. 

Tagliacarne,  tal-ya-kak'na,  (BENEDETTO,)  called 
THEOCRE'NUS,  [Fr.  THEOCRENE,  ta'o'kR&n',]  an  Italian 
litterateur  and  poet,  born  at  Sarzana  about  1480.  He 
removed  to  France,  obtained  the  favour  of  Francis  I., 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Grasse  in  1533.  Died 
in  1536. 

Tagliacozio.     See  TAGLIACOZZI. 

Tagliacozzi,  tal-ya-kot'see,  or  Tagliacozio,  tal-ya- 
kot'se-o,  [Lat.  TALIAO/TIUS,]  (GASPARO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Bologna  in  1546.  He  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  ;  but  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  skill  in  restoring  lost  features, 
particularly  noses.  He  published  several  surgical  works, 
in  Latin.  His  method  of  forming  the  nose  has  been 
called  the  "Taliacotian  process."  Died  in  1599. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale;"  FANTUZZI,  "Scriltori  Bolognesi." 

Taglioni,  tal-yo'nee,  (MARIE,)  a  celebrated  opera- 
dancer,  born  in  1804  at  Stockholm,  where  her  father, 
Filippo  Taglioni,  held  the  post  of  ballet-master.  She 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  Paris,  London,  and 
the  other  principal  cities  of  Europe.  In  1832  she  was 
married  to  Count  Gilbert  de  Voisins,  and  in  1847  retired 
from  the  stage,  having  amassed  a  large  fortune.  Her 
brother,  Paul  Taglioni,  born  at  Vienna  in  1808,  became 
royal  ballet-master  in  London,  and  composed  a  number 
of  ballets. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tahureau,  tt'ii'rS',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Mans  in  1527  ;  died  in  1555. 

Taillandier,  ti'yS.N'deJt',  (AI.PHONSE  HONORE,)  a 
French  publicist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He 
was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  published  several  works 
on  legislation  and  penal  laws,  and  contributed  to  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Taillandier,  (CHARLES  Louis,)  a  learned  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  writer,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1705  ; 
died  in  1786. 

Taillandier,  (RENE  GASPARD  ERNEST,)  a  French 
philosopher  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1817.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  at  Heidelberg,  and 
was  appointed  in  1843  profesSor  of  French  literature  at 
Montpellier.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  treat 
ise  "  On  Erigena  the  Scot,  and  the  Scholastic  Philos 
ophy,"  (1843,)  a  "  History  of  Young  Germany,"  (1848,) 
and  "  Maurice  de  Saxe,"  (2  vols.,  1865.)  He  has  been  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes." 

Taillasson,  ti'yf'siN',  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  skilful 
French  historical  painter  and  litterateur,  born  near  Bor 
deaux  in  1746,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Painting  jn  1784.  Died  in  1809. 

Taillepied,  tjft'pe-i'  or  ti'ye-pejl',  (NoEL,)  a  French 
biographer  and  antiquary,  born  near  Rouen  about  1540. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Luther," 
(1577,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  State  and  Republic  of  the 
Druids,"  etc.,  (1585.)  Died  in  1589. 

Taine,  tin,  (HiPPOLYTE  ADOLPHF.,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Vouziers  in  1828.'  He  has  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Titus  Livius,"  (1854,) 
"The  French  Philosophers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1856,)  and  a  "  History  of  English  Literature,"  (4  vols., 
1864.)  In  1864  he  was  chosen  to  teach  aesthetics  and 
the  history  of  art  in  the  New  School  of  Fine  Arts. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale;"  "Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1866. 

Tai-Ping-Wang.     See  TIEN-TE. 
Taisand,  ti'zdN',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1644.    He  wrote  "  The  Lives  of  the  Most  Cele 


brated  Jurists  of  all  Nations,"  (in  French,  1721.)  Died 
in  1715. 

Tait,  (ARCHIBALD  CAMPBELL,)  a  British  prelate,  born 

in  Edinburgh  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  opposed  the  Tractarian  principles  and  gradu 
ated  about  1836.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  as  head 
master  of  Rugby  School  in  1842,  was  appointed  Dean  of 
Carlisle  in  1850,  Bishop  of  London  in  1856,  and  Arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury  in  November,  1868.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Dangers  and  Safeguards  of  Theology." 

Talachon.     See  TAI.OCHON. 

Talbert,  taTbaiR',  (FRANCOIS  XAVIER,)  a  French 
writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Besai^on  in  1728,  pub 
lished  eulogies  on  Bossuet,  Montaigne,  and  other  emi 
nent  men  ;  also  several  poems.  Died  in  1803. 

Tal'bpt,  (CATHERINE,)  an  English  writer,  grand 
daughter  of  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  was  born  in  1720. 
She  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Seven  Days 
of  the  Week,"  "  Letters  to  a  Friend  on  a  Future  State'," 
"Essays  on  Various  Subjects,"  "Dialogues,"  "Pas 
torals,"  and  "  Poems."  She  is  also  said  to  have  con 
tributed  to  the  "  Athenian  Letters,"  and  to  have  written 
the  thirtieth  number  of  "The  Rambler."  She  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Carter.  Died  in  1770. 

See  PKNNINCTON,  "Life  of  C.  Talbot ;"  DRAKE,  "Essays:" 
MKS.  Er.wooo,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from 
the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i.  ;  "Month'y  Re 
view"  for  April,  1772. 

Talbot,  (CHARLES.)     See  SHREWSBURY,  DUKE  OF. 

Talbot,  (CHARLES,)  an  eminent  English  jurist,  born 
in  1684,  was  a  son  of  W.  Talbot,  Bishop  of  Durham. 
He  practised  law  with  great  success,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  debater  in  Parliament. 
In  1733  he  became  lord  chancellor  of  England,  and  was 
created  Baron  Talbot.  According  to  Lord  Campbell, 
"he  was  without  an  accuser,  without  an  enemy,  without 
a  detractor,  without  any  one,  from  malice  or  mistake,  to 
cavil  at  any  part  of  his  character,  conduct,  or  demean 
our."  Died  in  1737. 

See  LORD  CAMPBKM.,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  iv.  ; 
Fo.ss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Talbot,  tfl'bo',  (EUGENE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Chartres  in  1814.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  College  Louis-Ie-Grand,  Paris.  He  produced  ver 
sions  of  the  works  of  Lucian  and  Xenophon,  (1857-58.) 

Talbot,  (JOHN,)  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  a  celebrated 
military  commander,  born  in  Shropshire,  England,  in 
J373-  Appointed  in  1414  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he 
brought  the  insurgent  chiefs  into  subjection,  and  took 
prisoner  the  famous  Donald  McMurrough.  From  ,1419 
to  1422  he  served  in  the  French  campaigns  of  Henry 
V.,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  sovereign,  gained  a 
succession  of  signal  victories  over  the  French  armies. 
Having  laid  siege  to  Orleans,  he  was  compelled  to 
retire  before  the  forces  of  the  enemy,  led  on  by  Joan  of 
Arc,  (1429,)  and  after  the  battle  of  Patai,  in  the  same 
year,  was  made  prisoner.  He  was  created  commander- 
in-chief  after  his  release,  and  took  Le  Crotoy,  Harfleur, 
and  several  other  towns.  He  was  subsequently  made 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury  in  England,  Earl  of  Waterford 
and  YVexford  in  Ireland,  and  in  1446  appointed  for  the 
third  time  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  While  attempting 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Castellan,  in  France,  in  1453,  he 
was  killed,  together  with  his  son,  Lord  de  ITsle. 

See  HUMS,  "  History  of  England  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  MONSTREI.ET,  "Chronicle;"  SHAKSPEARK'S  "Henry  VI.," 
part  i.  act  iv. 

Talbot,  (PETER,)  a  learned  Jesuit  and  writer  on  the 
ology,  born  in  Ireland  in  1620.  He  was  appointed  Arch 
bishop  of  Dublin  in  1669.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Nature  of  Faith,"  (1657,)  and  several  controver 
sial  works.  Accused  of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot, 
he  was  confined  in  prison  from  1678  until  his  death,  in 
1680.  He  was  a  brother  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel. 

Talbot,  (RICHARD.)     See  TYRCONNEL. 

Talbot,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  divine,  and  prebendary 
of  Wells  Cathedral,  was  a  native  of  Northamptonshire. 
He  published  a  commentary  and  notes  on  the  "  Itine 
rary"  of  Antoninus.  Died  in  1558. 

Tal'bot,  (SiLAS,)  an  American  Revolutionary  officer, 
born  in  Rhode  Island  about  1750,  distinguished  himself 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


TALBOT 


2093 


TALLEYRAND 


in  several  important  engagements  both  by  land  and  sea. 
Having  been  made  a  captain  in  the  navy,  he  was  ap 
pointed  to  the  command  of  the  frigate  Constitution  in 
1799.  Died  in  1813.  His  life  has  been  written  by  H.  T. 
Tuckerman. 

Talbot,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1659.  He  became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1699,  and  of  Salisbury  in  1715.  He  was  transferred  to 
the  see  of  Durham  in  1722.  Died  in  1730.  His  son 
Charles  became  lord  chancellor. 

Talbot,  (WILLIAM  HKNKY  Fox,)  the  inventor  of 
photography  on  paper,  was  born  in  Wiltshire,  England, 
in  1800.  He  discovered  the  process  of  photography  in 
1833  or  1834,  but  he  did  not  announce  it  to  the  public 
until  1839.  Daguerre  anticipated  him  by  the  publication 
of  a  similar  discovery.  The  process  of  Talbot  was 
called  Calotype,  and  Talbotype.  He  published  "The 
Pencil  of  Nature,"  (1844,)  and  other  works. 

Talfourd,  tawl'ford,  (THOMAS  NOON,)  called  SER 
GEANT  TALFOURD,  an  English  dramatist,  essayist,  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Doxey,  a  suburb  of  Stafford,  in  1795.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Valpy,  and  studied  law  under  Mr. 
Chitty.  Having  been  called  to  the  bar  in  1821,  he  married 
a  Miss  Rutt,  and  joined  the  Oxford  circuit.  In  1835  he 
became  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he 
procured  the  passage  of  an  important  law  of  copy 
right.  He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
and  other  periodicals.  In  1835  he  produced  "  Ion,"  a 
tragedy,  which  was  very  successful.  He  wrote  several 
other  dramas,  and  "Memorials  of  Charles  Lamb,"  (1848.) 
He  was  appointed  a  judge  in  1849.  Died  in  1854. 

See  R.  H.  HORNE,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844:  ALLIBONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1836; 
"North  British  Review"  for  May,  1856;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  January,  1838. 

Talhouet,  de,  deh  ti'loo'i',  (AUGUSTS  FREDERIC 
BON  AMOUR,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  peer,  born  at  Rennes 
in  1788,  was  rich,  and  noted  for  his  liberality.  He 
founded  in  1819  a  society  for  the  amelioration  of  prisons. 
Died  in  1842. 

Taliacotius.     See  TAOI.IACOZZI. 

Taliaferro,  tol'e-ver,  (JoHN,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in   Virginia  in    1768,  was  a  member  of  Congress  I 
more  than  twenty  years,  and  for  a  time  librarian  of  the 
treasury  department  at  Washington.     Died  in  1853. 

Tal'le-siii,  a  British  poet  of  the  sixth  century,  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Henwg,  was  surnamed  CHIEF  OF  THE 
BARDS.  Scarcely  anything  is  positively  known  of  his  life. 

Tallard  or  Tallart,  de.deh  tSxl$R','(C AMII.LE  d'Hos- 
tuii — dos'tu.s',)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Dau- 
phine  in  1652.  Having  previously  served  under  Conde 
and  Turenne,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary 
to  England  in  1697  to  negotiate  with  respect  to  the  Span 
ish  succession.  In  1703  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France, 
and  soon  after  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Imperial 
ists,  under  the  Prince  of  Hesse,  at  Spire  ;  but  he  was  ' 
subsequently  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at 
Blenheim,  (1704,)  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  created 
in  1712  Duke  of  Hostun,  and  afterwards  became  minister 
of  state  under  Louis  XV.  Died  in  1728. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  filoge  du  Marech.il  de  Tallart ;"  SAINT- 
SIMON,  "Memoires;"  DE  COURCRI.I.KS,  "  Dictiounaire  des  Generaux 
Francais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ginerale." 

Tallart.     See  TALLAKD. 

Tallemaiit,  taTmS.N',  (  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  translator, 
born  near  Jonzac  in  1620.  He  translated  Plutarch's 
''  Lives"  into  French.  Died  in  1693. 

Tallemant,  (PAUL,)  a  French  priest  and  mediocre 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1642,  was  a  cousin  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1666.  Died  in  1712. 

Tallemant  des  Reaux,  tSl'mSx'  cli  ra'S',  (GEDEON,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1619,  was  a 
brother  of  Frai^ois,  noticed  above.  He  was  one  of  the 
wits  that  frequented  the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  and  wrote 
"  Historiettes,"  (6  vols.  1833-35.)  a  gossiping  record  of 
what  he  had  heard  and  witnessed.  This  work  contains 
much  interesting  matter,  highly  seasoned  with  scandal 
and  anecdotes,  the  truth  of  many  of  which  may  reason 
ably  be  doubted.  Died  in  1692. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ganerale ;"  MONMERQUE,  "Notice 
sur  Tallemant  des  Reaux,"  1836. 


Talleyrand,  the  famous  diplomatist.     See  TALLEY- 

RAND-PEKIGORD,   DE,  (CHARLES  MAURICK.) 

Talleyrand,  de,  deh  d'^'ioN',  (AUGUSTE  Louis,) 
COMTE,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1770,  svas  a  nephew 
of  the  cardinal.  He  was  minister  to  Switzerland  from 
1814  to  1823.  Died  in  1832. 

Talleyrand,  de,(  fii.iE,)  Cardinal  de  Perigord,  a  French 
prelate,  eminent  for  his  learning,  was  born  at  Perigueux 
in  1301.  He  was  a  friend  of  Petrarch,  and  had  much 
influence  both  in  the  church  and  state.  Died  in  1364. 

See  AITBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Talleyrand,  de,  (GABRIEL  MARIE,)  Comte  de  Pe"ri- 
gord,  a  French  general,  born  in  1726,  was  an  uncle  of 
Talleyrand  the  famous  diplomatist.  He  served  with 
distinction  at  Hastenbeck  ar.d  Crefeld.  Died  in  1795. 

Talleyrand,  de,  (HENRI,)  Comte  de  Chalais,  a 
French  courtier,  born  in  1599,  was  a  friend  of  Gaston, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  with  whom  he  conspired  against  Riche 
lieu.  He  was  convicted  of  treason  and  executed  in  1626. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  BASSOMPIERRE,  "Me 
moires." 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  de,  deh  tt'li'r6N'  pa're'goR', 
(ALEXANDRE  ANG£LIQUK,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  in 
Paris  in  1736,  was  a  brother  of  Gabriel  Marie,  noticed 
above.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Rheims  in.  1777,  and  a 
member  of  the  States-General  in  1789,  soon  after  which 
he  emigrated.  In  1817  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  cardi 
nal.  Died  in  1821. 

See  DE  B  AUSSET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  de  Talleyrand- 
Perigord,"  1821;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Talleyrand-Perigord,  de,  deh  tS'li'rS.x'  pa're'goR', 
(CHARLES  MAURICE.)  Prince  of  Benevento,  (ba-na-veV- 
to,)  [Fr.  PRINCE  DE  BE.N^VENT,  pRaNss  deh  ba'na'vS.N',] 
commonly  known  as  simply  Tal'ley-rand,  a  celebrated 
French  diplomatist  and  wit,  born  in  Paris  on  the  131)1  of 
February,  1754,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Daniel, 
Count  de  Talleyrand.  An  accident  which  occurred  in 
his  infancy  made  him  lame  for  life.  In  consequence  of 
this  lameness,  he  was  required  to  renounce  his  birthright 
and  enter  the  Church,  although  the  clerical  profession 
was  very  distasteful  to  him.  In  his  youth  he  was  styled 
the  Abbe  de  Perigord.  He  was  appointed  general  agent 
of  the  clergy  of  France  in  1780,  and  held  this  important 
office  for  eight  years.  In  1788  he  became  Bishop  of 
Autun,  and  in  1789  a  member  of  the  States-General. 
Enlisting  in  the  service  of  liberty  and  equality,  he  joined 
the  Third  Estate,  and  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
appointed  by  the  National  Assembly  to  form  a  consti 
tution.  Among  the  important  measures  which  he  pro 
posed  was  the  confiscation  of  the  lands  of  the  Church. 
He  also  supported  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy, 
and  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Autun  about  the  end  of 
1790.  He  was  the  author  of  an  able  and  celebrated 
report  on  public  instruction  read  in  September,  1791. 
Early  in  1792  he  was  sent  to  London,  without  official 
character,  to  dissuade  the  British  ministry  from  joining 
the  allies  in  hostilities  against  France.  He  enjoyed  the 
society  of  his  friend  Madame  de  Stael,  who  was  then 
in  England,  but  was  treated  with  neglect  or  incivility  by 
the  English  aristocrats  and  ministers.  In  1793  he  was 
ordered  by  Pitt  to  quit  the  island  in  twenty-four  hours, 
and,  as  he  had  been  proscribed  by  Robespierre,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  By  the  agency  of  Chenier, 
he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  France  in  Septem 
ber,  1795.  About  this  time  he  wrote  an  able  "Memoir 
on  the  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States  with 
England,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  Institute.  In 
July,  1797,  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  partly 
through  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Stael.  He  re 
signed  in  July,  1799,  co-operated  with  Bonaparte  in  the 
revolution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  November,  1799.  He 
was  grand  chamberlain  from  1804  to  1809. 

Talleyrand  was  distinguished  for  his  sarcastic  and 
subtle  wit,  his  exquisite  tact,  his  moderation  and  self- 
restraint,  and  his  finesse  and  dexterity  as  a  negotiator. 
"  He  was  a  profound  thinker,"  says  the  "  North  British 
Review,"  (November,  1853;)  "he  had  strong  political 
opinions,  if  he  had  no  moral  principles  ;  he  was  at  least 
as  bold,  daring,  and  decided  in  action  as  he  was  saga- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TALLIEN 


TALON 


cious  in  council  ;  his  political  and  social  tact — which  is 
wisdom  so  quick  and  piercing  as  to  seem  unreasoning — 
bad  the  promptitude  and  certainty  of  an  instinct."  His 
coolness,  sobriety,  and  "  masterly  inactivity"  were  well 
adapted  to  temper  the  impetuosity  and  redundant  energy 
or  ambition  of  Napoleon.  He  received  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Benevento  in  1806.  He  offended  the  emperor  by  the 
boldness  with  which  he  opposed  some  of  his  measures. 
In  August,  1807,  he  resigned  his  office.  Napoleon  in 
vited  him  to  resume  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs  in 

1813,  but  he  declined. 

Talleyrand  promoted  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIIL, 
and  insisted  on  the  "Charter,"  by  which  a  constitutional 
government  was  guaranteed.  He  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  the  first  cabinet  of  Louis  XVII I.,  repre 
sented  France  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  which  met  in 

1814,  and  obtained  favourable  terms  for  his  country  by 
sowing   dissension    among   the  allies.     He  resigned  in 
September,  1815,  because  he  would  not  sign  the  humili 
ating  treaty  which  was  concluded  with  the  allied  powers. 
He   became  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  opposition  in  the 
Chamber  of  Peers,  and  opposed  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  government  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.    In  September,  1830,  he  was  sent  to  London 
as  ambassador  and  minister-plenipotentiary,  and  had  an 
opportunity  to  realize  what  had   long  been  with  him  a 
favourite  ooject, — the  formation  of  an  alliance  between 
France  ancl  England.    His  mission  ended  about  the  close 
of  1834.      He  died  in  Paris  in  May,  1838,  leaving  "  Me- 
moires,"  which  he  ordered  should  not  be  published  until 
thirty  years  after  his  death.     Among  his  famous  sayings 
is,  "  Language  is  given  to  man  to  conceal  his  thoughts." 

See  SAI.LK,"  Vie  politique  du  Pri nee  de  Talleyrand,"  1834  ;  MIUNKT, 
"Notices  et  Portraits;"  VIU.KMAKBST,  "M.  de  Talleyrand,"  1X35; 
DL'FOUK  DE  I. A  TilUILBRis,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Prince  de  Tal 
leyrand,"  1838;  I,.  DE  LOMENIK.  "  M.  Talleyrand,  par  un  Hoinme 
de  Kien,"  1841;  G.  A.  VOGEI.,  "Talleyrand  der  grosste  Diplomat 
seiner  Zeit,"  1838;  MIGNKT,  "Notice  histoiique  sur  la  Vie  de  M. 
le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1839  ;  L.  G.  MICH  AUL>,  "  Histoire  politique 
et  prive'e  de  C.  M.  de  Talleyrand,"  1853;  DE  BARANTE,  "  EJoge 
de  M.  le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1838  ;  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the 
Restoration;"  THIERS,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Em 
pire;"  GUIZOT, "'  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"Historical  Characters,"  by  H.  L.  BUI.WKR,  1868;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April  and  October,  1X05,  (the  former  article  by  BROU- 
CHAM,  the  latter  by  JEFKUEY  ;)  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February 
and  March,  1839. 

Tallien,  tt'le4.N',  (JEAN  LAMBERT,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  published  in  1792  the  "Citi 
zen's  Friend,"  ("Ami  du  Citoyen,")  gained  distinction 
by  his  audacious  eloquence,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
violent  riot  of  the  loth  of  August,  1792,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  commune  of  Paris.  Having  been  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Convention,  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king,  and  was  an  active  persecutor  of  the 
Girondists.  In  1793  Tallien  and  Isabeau  were  sent  by 
the  Convention  to  Bordeaux,  where  they  established 
the  reign  of  terror  by  numerous  executions.  Me  was 
induced  to  adopt  a  milder  policy  by  the  influence  of  Ma 
dame  de  Fontenay,  nee  Cabarrus,  who  became  Madame 
Tallien.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  April,  1794,  after  the 
death  of  his  friend  Danton,  and  formed  with  Fouche, 
Barras,  and  others  a  conspiracy  against  Robespierre, 
who  denounced  Tallien  in  the  Convention,  June  12, 
1794.  Tallien  was  the  boldest  or  most  prominent  leader 
of  the  party  or  coalition  of  parties  which  triumphed 
on  the  gth  Thermidor,  July,  1794.  It  is  stated  that  he 
drew  a  dagger  in  the  Convention  and  threatened  the 
life  of  Robespierre.  He  continued  to  oppose  the  reign 
of  terror,  and  used  his  influence  in  favour  of  humanity, 
excepting  in  the  case  of  the  royalists  captured  at  Qui- 
beron.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
with  the  title  of  savant,  and  returned  in  1801,  after  which 
he  fell  into  neglect  and  obscurity.  Died  in  Paris  in  1820. 

See  LAMARTINE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists;"  THIERS,  "  History 
of  the  French  Revolution;"  DUVAI.,  "Souvenirs  Thermidoriens ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tallien,  MADAME.     See  CHIMAY,  DE. 

Tal'lis,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI., 
Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  He  held  the  office  of  organist  of 
the  chapel  royal.  His  works  are  exclusively  of  a  religious 
character,  and  his  anthems  and  other  compositions  are 
esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1585. 


Tallmadge,  ta'/mij,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1754.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Connecticut.  Died  in  1835. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Tallmadge,  (JAMES,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1778. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1817,  and  in  1825  became 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed 
president  of  the  American  Institute  in  1833,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  University.  While 
in  Congress  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition 
to  the  extension  of  slavery  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
Died  in  1853. 

Talma,  tal'mt',  (CHARLOTTE  VANHOVE,)  an  actress, 
the  wife  of  the  following,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1771. 
She  was  married  to  Talma  in  1802.  She  excelled  in 
comedy,  and  wrote  "  Studies  on  the  Theatrical  Art," 
(1835.)  I)iecl  '»  1860. 

Tal'ma,  [Fr.  pron.  laTina"',]  (FRANgois  JOSEPH,)  a 
celebrated  French  tragedian,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He 
manifested  at  an  early  age  an  extraordinary  predilection 
for  the  drama.  His  father,  who  was  a  dentist,  took 
him  to  London,  where  he  passed  several  years  in  his 
childhood.  Young  Talma  also  practised  dentistry  in 
early  life.  He  made  his  debut  at  the  Theatre  Frai^ais 
in  1787,  in  the  r&le  of  "Seide"  in  "  Mahomet."  In  1789 
he  performed  Chenier's  "Charles  IX.,"  with  great  ap 
plause.  He  soon  became  the  most  popular  tragic  actor 
in  France,  and  received  from  Bonaparte  some  tokens  of 
special  favour.  He  excelled  in  the  expression  of  intense 
passion.  A  noble  countenance  and  a  powerful  voice 
contributed  to  his  success.  Among  the  roles  which  he 
performed  were  those  of  "Sulla,"  "Orestes,"  "  Leoni- 
das,"  "Hamlet,"  and  "Othello."  Died  in  Paris  in  1826. 

See  TISSOT,  "Souvenirs  liistoriques  sur  Talma,"  1826;  MOKKAU, 
"  Memoires  sur  Talma,"  1826;  N.  LEMEKCIHR,  "Notice  sur  Tal 
ma,"  1827;  REGNAUI.T-WAKIN,  "  Memoires  liistoriques  sur  Talma," 
1827;  AI.EXANDRE  DUMAS,  "Memoires  de  F.  J.  Talma,"  4  vols., 
1X4^-50;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  September,  1825. 

Tal'mash,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  general,  who  was 
second  to  Marlborotigh  in  command  of  the  English  troops 
in  Flanders  in  1689.  He  served  under  Ginkell  in  Ire 
land  in  1691.  "  Since  the  disgrace  of  Marlborough,"  says 
Macaulay,  "he  [Talmash]  was  universally  allowed  to  be 
the  best  officer  in  the  army."  ("  History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.)  He  commanded  a  force  sent  in  1694  to  surprise 
Brest,  and  was  killed  in  the  attack  on  that  place. 

Talmont,  tal'moN',  (A.  P.  de  la  Trimoille — deh 
lit  tRe'mwal'  or  tRe'mwa'ye,)  a  French  royalist  of  the 
Revolution,  distinguished  himself  in  the  principal  battles 
of  the  Vendean  war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general  of 
cavalry.  Being  made  prisoner,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Convention,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Talochon,  tJt'lo'shi.N',  (MARIE  VINCENT,)  a  French 
surgeon,  called  PERE  EI.YSEE,  born  near  Lagny  in  1753. 
lie  served  Louis  XVIII.  as  surgeon,  before  and  after 
his  accession  to  the  throne.  Died  in  1817. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Talon,  I&'ION',  (ANTOINE  OMER,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  royalist  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790.  Died  in  i8n. 

Talon,  (DENIS,)  a  French  judge,  born  in  Paris  in 
1628,  was  a  son  of  Omer,  noticed  below.  He  became 
president  ft  mortier  in  1693.  Died  in  1698. 

Talon,  (Nicoi.AS,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Moulins 
in  1605.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Histoire  sainte,"  (4 
vols.,  1640.)  Died  in  1691. 

Talon,  (OMER,)  a  FVench  humanist,  born  at  Amiens 
about  1510,  published  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  (in  Latin, 
1544.)  Died  in  1562. 

Talon,  (OMER,)  an  eminent  French  advocate  and 
judge,  born  about  1595.  He  became  advocate-general  to 
the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1631,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  brave  and  eloquent  assertion  of  the  rights  of  the 
Parliament  and  the  interests  of  the  people.  He  died  in 
1652,  leaving  "  Memoires,"  which  Voltaire  said  were  the 
productions  of  "a  good  magistrate  and  good  citizen." 

See  TALLEMANT  DES  REAUX,  "  Historiettes;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Ge'ne'rale." 


5,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ft,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


T4LPINO 


2095 


TANET 


Talpiuo,  II.     See  SAI.MKGGIA. 

Tamasp.     See  THAMASP. 

Tamasp  Kouli  Khan.     See  NAniK  SHAH. 

Tamberlick,  tarn  beK-lek',  (ENRICO,)  a  noted  tenor 
singer,  born  in  Rome  in  1820. 

Tambroiii,  tam-buo'nee,  (CLOTILDA,)  sister  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1758.  She  was  dis 
tinguished  for  her  attainments  in  the  classics,  and  was 
appointed  in  1794  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University 
of  Bologna.  She  also  published  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian.  Died  in  1817. 

Tambroiii,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1773.  He  filled  several  offices  under  the 
government,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Vienna,  and  foreign  associate  of  the  French 
Institute.  He  published  a  "  Compendium  of  Polish 
History,"  (1807,)  and  a  number  of  poems  and  prose 
treatises.  Died  in  1824. 

See  TIPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Tamburini,  tam-boo-ree'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
singer,  born  at  Faenza  in  1800.  He  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1855. 

Tamburini,  (PIETRO,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Brescia  in  1737.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  divinity  at  Pavia,  (1778,)  and  afterwards 
filled  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  and  the  law  of  na 
ture  and  of  nations,  in  the  same  university.  He  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  iron  crown  by  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  and  received  other  distinctions.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (1797,)  "  Elements  of  the  Law  of 
Nature,"  (in  Latin,  1815,)  and  an  "Idea  of  the  Holy 
See,"  ("Idea  della  Santa  Sede.")  Died  in  1827. 

See  ZUKADELLI,  "  Elogio  del  Professore  P.  Tamburini,"  1827. 

Tam'er-lane',  [Fr.  TAMERLAN,  tt'nieR'ld.N',]  (a  cor 
ruption  of  Taimoor-leng,  i.e.  "Taimoor  the  Lame,") 

called  also  Taimoor  or  Taimur,  (ti'moor',)  and  Timur 
or  Timcmr,  (tee'moor',)  Timoor  (Timour  or  Timur) 
Beg  or  Bee,  (i.e.  "Lord  Timoor,")  a  celebrated  Asiatic 
conqueror,  born  at  Kesh,  in  Independent  Tartary,  in 
1336,  was  of  Mongol  extraction,  and  a  descendant  of 
Jengis  Khan.  About  1361  he  supported  the  cause  of 
Husein,  Khan  of  Northern  Khorassan,  against  several 
neighbouring  tribes,  and  in  this  war  received  a  wound 
in  the  thigh,  from  which  he  acquired  the  surname  of 
LENG,  (or  the  "Lame.")  He  afterwards  quarrelled  with 
Husein,  took  Balkh,  his  capital,  by  storm,  (1369,)  and 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Khan  of  Jagatai.  He 
then  successively  brought  into  subjection  Khorassan, 
the  principal  part  of  Persia,  and  Armenia,  and  in  1387 
turned  his  arms  against  Toktamish-Khan,  in  Western 
Tartary,  whom  he  defeated  at  Bashkiria,  destroying  his 
whole  army.  Tamerlane's  capital  was  Samarcand. 
Having  taken  Bagdad  and  Damascus,  subdued  Georgia, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Moscow,  he  next  invaded  India, 
where,  in  1398,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  forces 
of  Mahmood,  then  Emperor  of  Delhi,  near  Delhi.  In 
1402  he  met  the  famous  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet,)  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  in  Angora,  and,  after  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
battles  on  record,  totally  routed  his  army,  and  took  the 
Sultan  prisoner.  He  was  preparing  for  the  invasion  of 
China,  when  he  died  on  his  march,  in  1405.  A  great 
part  of  his  acquisition  was  lost  by  his  successors  soon 
after  his  death. 

"  Timour,"  says  Sir  J.  Malcolm,  "although  one  of  the 
greatest  warriors,  was  one  of  the  worst  monarchs.  He 
was  able,  brave,  and  generous,  but  ambitious,  cruel,  and 
oppressive.  He  considered  the  happiness  of  every  human 
being  as  a  feather  in  the  scale  when  weighed  against  the 
advancement  of  what  he  deemed  his  personal  glory;  and 
that  appears  to  have  been  measured  by  the  number  of 
kingdoms  he  laid  waste  and  the  people  he  destroyed." 
("  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  xi.)  "  The  fame 
of  Timour,"  observes  Gibbon,  "  has  pervaded  the  East 
and  the  West,  and  the  admiration  of  his  subjects,  who 
revered  him  almost  as  a  deity,  may  be  justified  in  some 
degree  by  the  praise  or  confessions  of  his  bitterest  ene 
mies.  He  might  boast  that,  at  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
Asia  was  the  prey  of  anarchy  and  rapine,  whilst,  under 
his  prosperous  monarchy,  a  child,  fearless  and  unhurt, 


might  carry  a  purse  of  gold  from  the  east  to  the  west. 
By  their  rapine,  cruelty,  and  discord,  the  petty  tyrants 
of  Persia  might  afflict  their  subjects,  but  whole  nations 
were  crushed  under  the  footsteps  of  the  reformer.  The 
ground  which  had  been  occupied  by  flourishing  cities  was 
often  marked  by  his  abominable  trophies,  by  columns 
or  pyramids  of  human  heads." 

See  LANGI.£S,  "Institute  politiques  et  militaires  de  Tamerlan  ;" 
HAMMER-PUKGSTALL,  "  Geschiclne  des  Osmanischeu  Reichs," 
vol.  i.  ;  "  Histoire  de  Timur- Hec,  coiinu  sous  le  Nom  du  grand 
Tamerlan,"  translated  from  the  Persian  of  SHEKKEF-KD  UEKN  AI.KK 
by  Peris  DE  LA  CROIX;  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  chap.  Ixv.  ;  ARGOTE  L>E  MOI.INA,  "  Historia  del  gran  Ta 
merlan,"  1582;  SAMUEL  CLAKKE,  "  Lite  of  Tamerlane  the  Great," 
1676;  AL-HACEM,  "History  of  the  Life  of  Tamerlane, "  translated 
from  the  Arabic  by  L.  VANE,  1753. 

Tan'a-quil,  the  wife  of  Tarquinius  Prisctis,  King  of 
Rome,  is  described  as  a  woman  of  high  spirit  and  energy. 
The  Latin  poets  used  her  name  to  indicate  an  imperious 
consort. 

Tanaquillus  Faber.     See  LEFEVRE,  (TANNEGUL) 

Tancred,  tang'kred,  [Fr.  TANCREDE,  tdN'kRid'; 
Ger.  TAXCRED,  tang-kRat';  It.  TANCKEDI,  tan-kka'dee; 
Lat.  TANCRE'DUS,]  a  celebrated  hero  of  the  first  crusade, 
was  born  in  Normandy  in  1078,  and  was  a  nephew  ot 
Robert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Apulia.  In  1096  he  joined 
the  crusading  army  in  company  with  his  cousin  Bohe- 
mond,  Prince  of  Tarentum.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his 
valour  at  the  battle  of  Dorylseum  and  the  siege  of  An- 
tioch,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  mount  the  walls  at  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  subsequently  had  a  promi 
nent  part  in  the  battle  of  Ascalon,  took  Tiberias,  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Tiberias 
or  Galilee.  He  died  in  1112,  having  previously  defeated 
the  Saracens  and  driven  them  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
Tancred's  achievements  are  highly  extolled  by  Tasso  in 
his  "  Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  and  they  are  also  cele 
brated  by  Raoul  de  Caen  in  "  Les  Gestes  de  Tancrede." 

See  MICHAUD,  "  History  of  the  Crusades  ;"  DEI.BARE,  "  Histoire 
de  Tancrede,"  1822:  SCHMBRBAUCH,  "Tancred  Fiirst  von  GalilSa," 
1830;  ''  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Tancred,  King  of  Sicily,  and  the  last  of  the  Norman 
rulers  in  that  country,  was  a  grandson  of  Roger  II.  He 
died  in  1194,  and  Henry  VI.  of  Germany  took  posses 
sion  of  Sicily. 

Tancrede.     See  TANCRED. 

Tancrede  de  Hauteville,  tfix'kRid'  deh  hot'vel',  a 
Norman  baron  of  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  the  father  of  twelve  sons,  one  of  whom,  Robert 
Guiscard,  became  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria. 

Tancredi,  or  Tancredus.     See  TANCRED. 

Tandy.     See  NAPPER  TANDY. 

Taney,  taw'ne,  (ROGER  BROOKE,)  a  distinguished 
American  jurist,  born  in  Calvert  county,  Maryland,  in 
March,  1777.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Penn 
sylvania,  in  1795,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1799.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  Maryland  in 
1816,  and  became  a  resident  of  Baltimore  about  1822. 
He  was  originally  a  Federalist ;  but  he  became  a  partisan 
of  General  Jackson,  who  appointed  him  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  in  1831.  About  September,  1833, 
he  was  nominated  secretary  of  the  treasury,  in  place  of 
William  J.  Duane,  (who  was  dismissed  from  the  cabinet 
because  he  refused  to  remove  the  public  deposits  from 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States,)  but  he  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  He  was  nominated  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  by  President  Jackson  in  1835  ;  but  this 
nomination  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  In  March, 
1836,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court, 
in  the  place  of  John  Marshall,  deceased.  In  1857,  Judge 
Taney,  yielding  to  the  ever-encroaching  and  aggressive 
spirit  of  slavery,  pronounced  an  important  decision  in 
the  case  of  Dred  Scott,  a  slave,  who  had  been  carried 
by  his  master  from  Missouri  into  Illinois,  thence  to  the 
territory  of  Wisconsin,  and  back  to  Missouri.  Dred 
Scott  brought  a  suit  for  his  freedom.  Judge  Taney 
affirmed  that  for  more  than  a  century  before  the  Decla 
ration  of  Independence  the  negroes  "had  been  regarded 
as  beings  of  an  inferior  order,  and  altogether  unfit  to 
associate  with  the  white  race,  either  in  social  or  political 
relations,  and  so  far  inferior  that  they  had  no  rights 
which  the  white  man  was  bound  to  respect,  and  that  the 
negro  might  justly  and  lawfully  be  reduced  to  slavery  for 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2£^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TJNNJffILL 


2096 


TARD1EU 


his  benefit."  This  strange,  this  monstrous  decision  was 
pronounced  by  one  whose  opinions  on  any  question  not 
connected  with  slavery  would  have  commanded  the  re 
spect  of  all,  as  those  of  an  able  lawyer  and  upright  judge. 
He  further  affirmed  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  was 
unconstitutional,  and  that  the  suit  must  be  dismissed 
for  want  of  jurisdiction.  "The  reader  will  be  puzzled  to 
decide,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "whether  law,  humanity,  or 
history  is  most  flagrantly  defied  in  Chief-Justice  Taney's 
opinion."  He  died  in  October,  1864. 

"Judge  Taney,"  says  Horace  Greeley,  "  had  long  been 
a  main  bulwark  of  slavery,  not  only  in  Maryland,  but 
throughout  the  Union.  The  Dred  Scott  decision  is  in 
separably  linked  with  his  name."  ("American  Conflict," 
vol.  ii.  p.  671.) 

See  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1865. 

Tan'na-hill,  (ROKERT,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Paisley  in  1774.  His  songs  and  ballads  are  remarkable 
for  their  grace,  simplicity,  and  pathos;  among  the  most 
admired  may  be  named  his  "  Song  of  the  Battle  of 
Vittoria,"  and  "Jessie  the  Flower  of  Dumblane."  He 
committed  suicide,  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity,  by  drown 
ing,  in  1810. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tanneguy.  See  DUCHATEL,  (CHARLES  MARIE,)  and 
CHATEL,  nu. 

Tanner,  tin'ner,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
biographer,  born  at  Pilsen  about  1625.  He  wrote  notices 
of  many  eminent  Jesuits.  Died  about  1705. 

Taii'ner,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  prelate  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1674.  He  was  the  author  of  "No- 
titia  Monastica,  or  an  Account  of  the  Religious  Mouses 
in  England  and  Wales,"  and  "  Bibliotheca  Hritannico- 
Hibernica,"  (1748,)  a  biographical  and  bibliographical 
work  of  great  value.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph  in  1732.  Died  in  1735. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Tannevot,  ttn'vo',  (AI.KXANDRE,)  a  French  drama 
tist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1692.  He  wrote  several  me 
diocre  tragedies,  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1773. 

Taiisillo,  tan-sel'lo,  (Lumi,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Venosa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  1510.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "The  Tears  of  Saint  Peter," 
("Le  Lagrime  di  San  Pietro,"  1585.)  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  lyrics,  sonnets,  etc.,  which  had  a  high  repu 
tation  in  his  time.  Died  in  1568. 

See  LONGFRLI.OW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  TiRAHOSCHi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Tanska.     See  HOFFMANN,  (CLEMENTINA.) 

Tantale.     See  TAN  TALUS. 

Tantalo.     See  TANTALUS. 

Tan'ta-lus,  [Gr.  Tdvra/.of:  Fr.  TANTALE,  tS.N'tSl'; 
It.  TANTALO,  tan'ti-lo,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Lydia  or 
Phrygia,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Jupiter,  and  the 
father  of  Pelops  and  Niobe.  He  was  the  subject  of 
various  legends,  according  to  one  of  which,  having  been 
admitted  to  the  table  of  the  gods,  he  divulged  some 
secrets  which  he  heard  there.  For  this  offence  he  was 
condemned  to  suffer  perpetual  thirst,  standing  in  water 
which  receded  whenever  he  attempted  to  drink  it ;  he 
was,  moreover.  "  tantalized"  by  the  sight  of  fruit  which 
hung  close  to  his  lips,  but  which  he  could  never  taste. 
According  to  some  writers,  this  penalty  was  inflicted  on 
him  because  he  killed  his  son  Pelops  and  offered  his 
flesh  as  food  to  the  gods  whom  he  once  entertained  at 
his  house. 

Tanucci,  di,  de  ta-noot/chee,  (BERNARDO,)  MARQUIS, 
an  Italian  minister  of  state,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1698. 
He  became  prime  minister  at  Xaples  about  1740,  and 
continued  in  power  until  1776.  During  this  period  he 
banished  the  Jesuits  and  resisted  some  papal  encroach 
ments.  He  patronized  learning  liberally.  Died  in  1783. 

See  COPPI,  "Annali  d'ltalia  dal  1760;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Taparelli.  See  AZEGLIO,  D',  (MASSIMO.) 
Tapia,  de,  da  ta'pe-a,  (Don  EUGENIO,)  a  Spanish 
litterateur  and  jurist,  born  at  Aviha,  in  Old  Castile,  about 
1785,  published  "Poems,  Lyrical,  Satirical,  and  Dra 
matic,"  (1821,)  "History  of  Spanish  Civilization,"  (4 
vols.,  1840,)  which  is  highly  commended,  "Elements  of 


Commercial  Law,"  (15  vols.,)  and  other  works.  He  is 
regarded  as  a  Liberal  in  politics. 

Tap'lin,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  English  veterinary  surgeon, 
who  made  improvements  in  his  art,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  farriery  and  the  treatment  of  lame  horses. 
Died  in  1807. 

Tap'pan,  (ARTHUR,)  an  American  merchant,  dis 
tinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  North 
ampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1786.  He  became  a  merchant 
of  New  York  City,  gave  money  liberally  to  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Oberlin 
College,  Ohio.  Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Life  of  Arthur  Tappan,"  by  LEWIS  TAPPAN,  1870. 

Tappaii,  (BENJAMIN,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in 
1773.  He  became  a  judge  in  Ohio,  and  was  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  from  1839  to  1845.  Died  at  Steu- 
benville  in  1857. 

Tappan,  (DAVID,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Manchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1753.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  divinity  at  Harvard  College  in  1792.  Died  in 
1803. 

Tappan,  (HK.NRY  PHILIP,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Rhinebeck,  New 
York,  about  1806.  He  was  appointed  in  1832  pro 
fessor  of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  subsequently 
became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  published  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Will  applied  to 
Moral  Agency  and  Responsibility,"  (1841,)  and  several 
other  works. 

Tappan,  (WILLIAM  BINGHAM,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1794,  became  gen 
eral  agent  of  the  American  Sunday-School  Union.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  poems.  Died  in  1849. 

Taraise.     See  TARASIUS. 

Tarakanof.     See  TARRAKANOF. 

Tarasius,  ta-i a'shc-us,  [Fr.  TARAISE,  tfrAz',]  SAINT, 
born  about  745  A. n.,  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  784.  Died  in  806. 

Taraval,  tt'rS'vSl',  (HUGUKS,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1728;  died 
in  1785. 

Tarayre,  tJt'rdR',  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  general, 
distinguished  as  an  agriculturist,  was  born  at  Solsac 
(Aveyron)  in  1770.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  troops 
that  opposed  the  English  at  Walcheren  in  July,  1809. 
Died  in  1855. 

Tarbe,  ia*R'ba',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  royalist,  born 
at  Sens  in  1756.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.  Died  in  1804. 

Tarbe,  (Louis  HAKDOUIN,)  a  French  financier,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1753. 
He  was  minister  of  contributions  from  May,  1791,  to 
March,  1792.  Died  in  1806. 

Tarbe,  (PROSPER,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  about 
1814.  He  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Rheims. 

Tarcagnota.     See  MARULLO. 

Tarcagnota,  taR-kan-yo'ta,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Gae'ta.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  World,"  of  little  merit,  (4  vols.,  1562.)  Died 
in  1566. 

Tarchi,  taR'kee,  (ANGELO,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Naples  in  1759,  produced  several  operas.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1814. 

Tar'-ehoii,  a  hero  of  the  Etruscan  mythology,  was, 
according  to  some  authors,  aPelasgian  chief  who  founded 
a  colony  in  the  north  of  Italy.  Virgil  relates  that  Tar- 
chon  offered  the  crown  of  the  Etruscans  (Tyrrheni)  to 
Evander. 

See  ".i'Eneid,"  book  viii.,  506. 

Tardieu,  ttR'de-uh',  (AMHROISE,)  a  French  en 
graver,  was  born  nTlParis  in  1788.  lie  published  an 
"Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography,"  and  other  similar  works, 
and  engraved  a  number  of  portraits  and  architectural 
pieces.  Died  in  1841. 

Tardieu,  (ANTOINE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  map- 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1757,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
maps  of  Choiseul-Gouffier's  "Voyage  pittoresque  de  la 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


TARD1EU 


2097 


TARQUIN 


Grece,"  and  the  great  Chart  of  European  Russia.  Died 
in  1822. 

Tardieu,  (AuGUSTE  AMBROISE,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Tardieu,  (JACQUES  NICOLAS,)  a  son  of  Nicolas 
Henri,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1716,  and 
attained  distinction  as  an  engraver.  He  executed 
numerous  portraits  and  landscapes.  Died  about  1792. 

Tardieu,  (JEAN  BAFHSTE  PIERRE,)  an  engraver,  a 
nephew  of  Nicolas  Henri,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1746. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  geographical  en 
graver.  Among  his  best  works  are  his  "  Charts  of  the 
Netherlands,"  engraved  for  the  empress  Maria  Theresa. 
Died  in  1816. 

Tardieu,  (JEAN  CHARLES,)  an  artist,  a  son  of  Jacques 
Nicolas,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He 
studied  painting  under  Regnault,  and  executed  a  number 
of  historical  pictures.  Died  in  1837. 

Tardieu,  (NICOLAS  HENRI,)  a  skilful  French  en 
graver,  born  in  Paris  in  1674,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Audran.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting  in  1720.  Died  in  1749. 

Tardieu,  (PIERRE  ALEXANDRE,)  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1756,  and  studied  en 
graving  under  J.  G.  Wille.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "  The  Communion  of  Saint  Jerome,"  after  Domeni- 
chino,  and  "The  Archangel  Michael,"  after  Raphael. 
Died  in  1843  or  1844. 

Tardieu,  (PIEURE  FRANC.OIS,)  a  nephew  and  pupil 
of  Nicolas  Henri,  noticed  above,  was  distinguished  as 
an  engraver,  and  executed,  among  other  works,  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris,"  after  Rubens.  Died  about  1774. 

Tardif,  tfR'def,  (ALEXANDRE,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  1801.  Among  his  works  are  "Dramatic  Essays," 
(1835,)  and  "  Varietes  poetiques,"  (1841.) 

Tardif,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  about 
1440,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Rhetoricae  Artis 
Compendium,"  (about  1475.) 

Tareef  or  Tarif,  ta-reet',  (Aboo-  (or  Abu-)  Zarah, 
a'bod  zar'ah,)  a  freedman  of  Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  Mohammedan  officer  who  effected 
a  conquest  in  Spain.  About  the  beginning  of  Septem 
ber,  710  A.D.,  he  took  possession  of  a  small  island  fifteen 
miles  west-southwest  of  Gibraltar,  since  called  Tarifa, 
from  his  name,  and  made  incursions  into  the  adjacent 
country,  carrying  off  much  booty. 

Tarello,  ta-rel'lo,  (CAMILLO,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
agriculture,  published  in  1567  a  work  entitled  "Agri 
cultural  Instruction,"  ("  Ricordo  d'Agricoltura,")  which 
is  commended. 

Tarente,  Due  DE.     See  MACDONALD. 

Targe,  ttRzb,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Orleans  about  1716.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Italy,"  (4  vols.,  1774,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1788. 

Target,  taVzhi',  (Gui  JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  an  eloquent 
French  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1790,  and 
favoured  the  popular  cause.  In  December,  1792,  Louis 
XVI.  selected  Target  as  one  of  his  defenders  in  his  trial, 
but  the  latter  declined  to  serve.  Died  in  1806. 

See  ML'RAIRE,  "  filoge  de  G.  J.  B.  Target,"  1807;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale. " 

Targioni-Tozzetti,taR-jo'neetot-set'tee,(GiovANNi,) 
an  Italian  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Florence  in 
1712.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Travels  in  Tus 
cany  for  the  Exploration  of  its  Natural  Productions,"  (6 
vols.,  1751-54,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  Advancement 
of  Physical  Science  in  Tuscany  during  Sixty  Years,"  (3 
vols.,  '1780.)  Died  in  1783. 

See  M.  LASTRI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Targioni-Tozzetti,"  1783  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tarif.     See  TAREEF. 

Tarik-Ibn-Zeyad,  ta'rik  Ib'n  za'ytd',  written  also 
Tarik-Ben-Zeiad,  a  famous  Arab  chief,  was  the  leader 
of  the  Moors  who  invaded  Spain,  crossing  the  Straits 
and  landing  at  Gibraltar,  in  711  A.n.  He  defeated  King 
Roderick,  and  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Spain. 
The  name  Gibraltar  is  a  corruption  of  Gibel-Tarik, 
("mountain  of  Tarik.") 

See  MARIANA,  "  Historia  de  Espana  ;"  AI.-MAKKARI,  "  Moham 
medan  Dynasties  in  Spain,"  (translated  by  GAYANGOS.) 


Tarin,  tf'  raN',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  near  Montargis  about  1700.  He  wrote  articles  on 
anatomy  and  physiology  for  the  "Encyclopedic"  of 
Diderot,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1761. 

Tarleton,  tarl'ton,  (Colonel  BANNASTRE,)  an  Eng 
lish  officer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1754,  served  under 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  the  war  of  the  American  Revolution. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  and  bravery,  and 
gained  several  important  advantages  over  the  American 
troops ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  General  Morgan  at  the 
battle  of  Cowpens,  (1781.)  After  his  return  to  England, 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Liverpool  and  made  a 
baronet  and  K.C.B.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Cam 
paigns  of  1780-81  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  North 
America,"  (1787.)  Died  about  1833. 

Tarleton,  (RICHARD,)  a  celebrated  English  actor  and 
j  dramatist,  was  a  native  of  Shropshire.  He  was  noted 
for  his  extempore  wit,  and  was  unrivalled  in  comic  parts. 
He  was  treated  with  distinguished  favour  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  appointed  him  a  groom  of  the  chamber 
at  Barn  Elms.  He  was  the  author  of  a  play  entitled 
"  The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  which  is  not  extant.  Died 
in  1588. 

Tariiow,  taR'no,  (FANNY,)  a  German  novelist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  in 
1783.  Among  her  principal  works  are  "Natalie,"  a 
romance,  (1804,)  "Two  Years  in  Saint  Petersburg," 
(1833,)  and  a  collection  of  tales,  (4  vols.,  1840-42.)  Died 
in  1862. 

Tarnowski,  taR-nov'skee,  (JOHN,)  a  famous  Polish 
military  commander,  born  in  1488,  was  appointed  by 
Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  leader  of  his  army  against 
the  Moors.  He  afterwards  commanded  in  the  Polish 
wars  with  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  and  was  charged 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  with  the  chief  command  of 
his  forces  against  the  Turks.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
military  treatise  entitled  "Concilium  Rationis  Bellicae." 
Died  in  1561. 

See  ORZECHOWSKI,  "Life  of  Tamovvski,"  (in  Polish,)  1830; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tar-pela  or  Tarpeja,  was  a  daughter  of  Spurius 
'  Tarpeius,  governor  of  one  of  the  citadels  of  Rome  during 
the  war  with  the  Sabines.  Allured  by  the  gold  orna 
ments  worn  by  the  enemy,  she  opened  to  them  the  gate 
of  the  fortress  ;  but  they,  in  passing,  threw  upon  her 
their  shields,  by  which  she  was  crushed  to  death.  The 
hill  where  she  was  buried  was  called  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

Tar'quin,  [Fr.  pron.  tf  R'kaN';  Lat.  TARQUIN'IUS  ;  It. 
TARQUINIO,  taR-kwee'ne-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Lu'cius 
Tarquin'ius  Fris'cus,  fifth  King  of  Rome,  was  a 
son  of  Demaratus,  a  merchant  of  Corinth.  His  original 
name  was  LUCUMO.  Having  removed  to  Rome,  he 
was  patronized  by  Ancus  Martius,  who  appointed  him 
guardian  of  his  sons.  After  the  death  of-Ancus  Martius 
he  caused  himself  to  be  elected  king,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  rightful  heirs.  He  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Sabines  and  Latins,  built  the  Circus  Maximus,  the 
immense  Cloacae,  or  sewers,  at  Rome,  and  promoted 
various  important  public  works.  He  was  assassinated, 
by  order  of  the  sons  of  Ancus,  in  578  B.C. 

See  NiKBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  PURRUCKER,  "  Programma 
de  Vita  Tarquinii  Prisci,"  1760;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tarquin  the  Proud,  [Lat.  Lu'cius  TARQUIN'IUS 
SUPER'BUS;  Fr.  TARQUIN  LE  SUPERBE,  taVkaN'  leh 
sii'paiRb',]  son  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  seventh  King 
of  Rome.  In  534  B.C.  he  succeeded  Servius  Tullius, 
whom  he  had  caused  to  be  assassinated,  and  whose 
daughter  Tullia  he  had  married.  He  put  to  death  the 
senators  who  had  favoured  the  reforms  of  Servius,  and, 
while  displaying  great  ability,  governed  with  despotic 
power.  He  conquered  several  neighbouring  cities,  built 
the  Capitol  and  other  public  edifices,  and  established 
colonies  at  Signia  and  Circeii. 

The  outrage  committed  by  his  son  Sextus  upon  Lu- 
cretia  roused  the  people,  already  exasperated  by  his 
tyranny,  to  throw  off  the  yoke,  and  Tarquin  was  deposed 
by  an  armed  force  led  by  Junius  Brutus.  After  several 
ineffectual  attempts  to  regain  his  power,  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium,  in  conjunction 
with  whom  he  fought  the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  (496 
B.C.)  They  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  kard;g*s,j;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

132 


anations,  p.  23.) 


TARQUINIO 


2098 


TASSO 


Tarquin  escaped  to  Cumae,  where  he  died  in  495  B.C. 
He  was  the  last  of  the  Roman  kings. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  i.  and  ii. ;  NIEBUHR,  "  His 
tory  of  Rome;"  V.  MALVEZZI,  "Tarquinio  Superbo,"  1635;  K.  O. 
MUI.I.ER,  "Etrusker;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  PUR- 
RUCKER,  "Programmata  II.  de  Tarquinii  Superb!  Rebus  gestis," 
i 764-66. 

Tarquinio.     See  TARQUIN. 

Tarquinius.     See  TARQUIN. 

Tarquinius  Collatinus.     See  COLLATINUS. 

Tarrakaiiof,  Tarakanof,  or  Tarrakanow,  ta-rft- 
ki'nof,  (ANNA  PETROWNA,)  a  Russian  princess,  born  in 
1755,  was  supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  the  empress 
Elizabeth.  Having  been  imprisoned  by  Catherine  II.  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  she  was  drowned  in  prison  by  an  inun 
dation  in  1777. 

Tar-ren-te'nus,  (PATERNUS,)  a  Roman  jurist  under 
the  reign  of  Commodus,  was  the  author  of  a  work  en 
titled  "  De  Re  militari,"  a  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Tarsia,  di,  de  taR-see'a,  (GAI.EAZZO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
of  noble  family,  born  in  1476.  His  works  are  principally 
sonnets  in  the  style  of  Petrarch.  Died  about  1530. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tartaglia,  taR-tal'ya,  [Lat.  TARTA'LEA,]  (NiccoiA) 
an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Brescia  about  1500. 
His  family  name  is  not  known.  He  was  surnamed  Tar 
taglia,  (from  tartagliare,  to  "stammer,")  because  he 
had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  caused  by  a  wound 
received  in  1512.  He  taught  mathematics  at  Verona, 
Brescia,  and  Venice,  edited  the  works  of  Archimedes, 
(1543,)  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  mathematics,  etc. 
He  discovered  a  method  of  resolving  cubic  equations. 
Cardan,  by  a  promise  of  secrecy,  obtained  this  method 
from  him,  but  published  it  in  his  "  Ars  Magna."  Died 
in  1559. 

See  COSSAI.I,  "  Progress!  dell'Algebra,"  1790;  FANTUZZI,  "  Scrit- 
tori  Bolognesi ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tartagni,  taR-tan'yee,  [Lat.  TARTAG'NUS,]  (ALESSAN- 
DRO,)  called  IMOLEN'SIS,  from  Imola,  his  native  place, 
was  an  eminent  Italian  jurist,  born  about  1424.  He 
wrote  on  the  Digest,  and  was  professor  of  law  at  Padua 
and  Bologna.  Died  in  1477. 

Tartagnus.     See  TARTAGNI. 

Tartalea.     See  TARTAGLIA. 

Tartare.     See  TARTARUS. 

Tartaro.     See  TARTARUS. 

Tartarotti,  taR-ti-rot'tee,  (GiROLAMO,)  a  learned 
Italian  litterateur  and  antiquary,  born  at  Roveredo  in 
1706.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  "Idea  of 
the  Logic  of  the  Scholastics  and  Moderns,"  (1731,)  and 
"Del  Congresso  notturno  delle  Lammie,"  ("On  the 
Nocturnal  Meeting  of  the  Witches,"  1749,)  which  is 
highly  commended.  Died  in  1761. 

See  C.  LORENZI,  "De  Vita  H.  Tartarotti  Libri  III.,"  1805; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tar'ta-rus,  [Gr.  Taprapof ;  Fr.  LE  TARTARE,  leh  tSRx- 
tf  R'  ;  It.  TARTARO,  taR'ta-ro,]  in  classic  mythology,  was 
a  son  of  Either  and  Ge,  and  the  father  of  the  Gigantes, 
or  Giants.  The  name  was  also  applied  to  that  part  of 
the  infernal  regions  in  which  the  wicked  were  confined. 
(See  PLUTO.) 

Tartas,  ttR'ta',  (EMILE,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Mezin  in  1796.  He  served  in  Algeria  from  1840  till 
1846. 

Tartini,  taR-tee'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Pisano  in  1692.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  violinists  of  his  time,  and  presided 
over  a  school  in  Padua,  where  he  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Pugnani  and  Viotti.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Treatise  on  Music  according  to  the  True  Science  of 
Harmony,"  (1754,)  and  was  the  discoverer  of  the  so- 
called  grave  harmonics,  or  third  sounds.  Died  in  1770. 

See  FAVOI.LE,  "Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,"  etc.,  1810;  FAN- 
ZAGO,  "Gramme  delle  Lodi  di  G.  Tartini,"  1762;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Taruffi,  ta-roof'fee,  (EMiLio,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1632  ; 
died  in  1694. 

Taruffi,  (GIUSEPPE  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1722  ;  died  in  1786. 

Ta-ru'tius  or  Tarru'tius  (tar-roo'she-us)  Fir-mi- 
a'nus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  astrologer,  waiTa  friend  of 


Cicero.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  work  on  astronomy,  and, 
at  the  request  of  Varro,  took  the  horoscope  of  Romulus. 

Tar'ver,  (JOHN  CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  writer,  of 
English  extraction,  born  at  Dieppe,  in  Normandy,  in 
1790.  He  published  a  "  Phraseological  French-and- 
English  Dictionary,"  (1849,)  a  very  valuable  work,  also 
a  translation  of  Dante's  "  Inferno"  into  French  prose. 
Died  in  1851. 

Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  tt'sha'  deh  It  paV.h're', 
(Louis  ROBERT  PIERRE  CLAUDE,)  COMTE,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Martinique  in  1787,  was  a  cousin-german 
to  the  empress  Josephine.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Eugene  de  Beauharnais  in  many  campaigns.  In  1852 
he  became  a  senator.  Died  in  1861.  His  son,  ROHKRT 
CHARLES  EMILE,  born  in  1822,  received  the  title  of  duke 
in  1859,  and  was  chosen  a  senator  in  1861. 

Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  MADEMOISELLE.  See  JOSE 
PHINE. 

Taschereau,  tfsh'ro',  (JuLES  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
writer  of  biography,  etc.,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1801. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Moliere,"  (1825,)  a  "History  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Corneille,"  (1829,)  and  "Revue 
Retrospective,"  (20  vols.,  1833-37.)  He  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1837,  and  to  the  Con 
stituent  Assembly  in  1848.  About  1858  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Imperial  Library. 

See  QUEHARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Taschifellone.     See  CAFFARO. 

Tas'ker,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Devonshire.  He  produced  translations  of  some 
of  the  odes  of  Pindar  and  Horace.  Died  in  1800. 

Tasman,  tas'man,  (.\BEL  JANSSEN,)  a  Dutch  navi 
gator  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  employed  by 
Van  Diemen,  Governor-General  of  Batavia,  in  making 
discoveries  in  the  South  Sea.  In  1642  he  discovered 
the  island  which  he  named  in  honour  of  his  patron, 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  also  Prince  William's  Islands,  and 
others  in  the  vicinity.  Van  Diemen's  Land  has  been 
named,  in  his  honour,  Tasmania. 

See  LAUTS,  "A.  J.  Tasman,"  1843. 

Tassaert,  tt'stk',  (NICOLAS  FRANC.OTS  OCTAVE,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  painted 
history  and  portraits,  and  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1849. 

Tasse,  Le,  the  French  for  TASSO,  which  see. 

Tassel,  tS'sel',  (RiCHAKD,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Langres  about  1580;  died  in  1660. 

Tas'sie,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  artist,  born  near  Glasgow 
about  1735.  lie  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  skil 
ful  imitation  of  engraved  gems  by  means  of  pastes,  or 
coloured  glass.  Died  in  1799. 

Tassin,  tt'saN',  (REN6  PROSPER,)  a  French  Bene 
dictine  monk  and  historian,  born  near  Domfront  in  1697, 
published  "  New  Treatise  on  Diplomacy,"  ("  Nouveau 
Traite  de  Diplomatique,"  6  vols.,  1765.)  Died  in  1777. 

Tasso,  tas'so,  (BERNARDO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1493.  He  was  patronized  by  Sansevei  ino, 
Prince  of  Salerno,  whom  he  accompanied  in  1531  on  the 
expedition  of  Charles  V.  to  Tunis.  In  1537  he  was  sent 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Spain.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  heroic  poem,  entitled  "L'Amadigi,"  founded  on  the 
romance  of  Amadis  de  Gaul  ;  also  numerous  sonnets, 
hymns,  eclogues,  lyrics,  etc.  He  died  in  1569,  leaving 
one  son,  the  celebrated  Torquato  Tasso. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  REV. 
HENKY  STEBBING. 

Tas'so,  [It.  pron.  tas'so;  Fr.  LE  TASSE,  leh  tiss,] 
(TORQUATO,)  [Lat.  TORQUA'TUS  TAS'SUS,]  a  celebrated 
Italian  epic  poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Sorrento  on  the  nth  of  March,  1544.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome,  Bergamo,  Venice,  and  Padua.  To  the  last 
city  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  study  law,  which  he 
disliked  and  soon  renounced.  He  produced  in  1562  an 
epic  or  romantic  poem,  entitled  "Rinaldo,"  which  he 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  cardinal  and  his  brother  Alfonso  II.,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  at  whose  court  he  passed  many  years,  beginning 
with  1565.  The  court  of  the  Dukes  of  Este  was  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  in  Italy,  and  vied  with  that  of  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


TASSO 


TATISHCHEF 


Medici  in  the  patronage  of  literature  and  art.  There 
Tasso  wrote  a  number  of  sonnets  and  amatory  verses, 
and  commenced  his  great  poem  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
("  Gerusalemme  Liberata.")  In  1571  he  accompanied 
Cardinal  d'Este  on  a  mission  to  Charles  IX.  of  France. 
He  returned  to  Ferrara  in  1572,  and  entered  the  service 
of  Alfonso,  who  gave  him  a  pension  of  sixteen  gold 
crowns  per  month  and  admitted  him  to  his  own  table. 
In  1573  he  produced  his  "Aminta,"a  pastoral  drama, 
which  was  received  with  great  favour.  lie  completed 
in  1575  his  epic  poem,  entitled  "Gerusalemme  Libe 
rata,"  which  is  his  chief  title  to  celebrity.  About  this 
time  his  prosperity  and  peace  were  ruined  by  causes 
which  are  partly  involved  in  mystery.  He  cherished  a 
romantic  passion  for  Leonora,  a  sister  of  the  Duke  of 
Este,  and  addressed  to  her  a  number  of  sonnets  ex 
pressive  of  his  admiration.  It  is  not  known  whether 
she  had  any  feeling  for  him  beyond  that  of  simple 
friendship  ;  but  the  difference  in  their  rank  was  such 
that  he  could  not  hope  to  marry  a  princess  of  the  proud 
and  sovereign  house  of  Este.  Some  writers  ascribe  his 
misfortunes  and  imprisonment  to  this  love  for  Leonora  ; 
and  others  suppose  that  he  offended  Alfonso  by  his  irri 
table  temper,  or  that  he  was  actually  insane.  He  was 
confined  in  a  convent  in  1577  by  order  of  Alfonso,  who 
directed  that  he  should  be  treated  as  a  madman.  He 
soon  escaped,  and  fled  to  Sorrento,  where  his  sister 
Cornelia  lived,  and  remained  with  her  a  short  time. 
Tasso  solicited  permission  to  return  to  Ferrara  by  a 
letter  to  Alfonso,  who  consented  to  receive  him  on  con 
dition  that  he  should  submit  to  such  treatment  as  the 
physicians  might  prescribe.  He  accordingly  returned  in 
1578,  but  was  not  restored  to  the  favour  of  the  duke  nor 
permitted  to  associate  with  Leonora.  Before  the  end  of 
the  year  he  absconded,  and  began  to  wander  about  from 
city  to  city.  By  some  strange  infatuation,  he  was  again 
attracted  to  Ferrara  in  February,  1579,  and  was  treated 
with  a  coldness  or  neglect  which  provoked  him  to  utter 
offensive  language  against  the  duke.  He  was  then  con 
fined  in  a  hospital  for  lunatics,  where  he  remained  seven 
years,  during  which  he  wrote  several  dialogues  and  philo 
sophical  treatises.  In  1580  an  incomplete  or  incorrect 
edition  of  his  "  lerusalem  Delivered"  was  published  at 
Venice,  without  the  consent  of  the  author.  The  first 
complete  edition  appeared  in  1581.  It  was  censured  by 
many  critics,  in  answer  to  whom  he  wrote  a  "  Defence 
of  the  Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  (1585.)  After  his  release 
from  the  hospital  (1586)  he  passed  some  months  at 
Mantua,  as  the  guest  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  and  wrote 
the  tragedy  of  "  Torrismondo,"  (1587.)  About  1588  he 
removed  to  Naples,  where  he  was  befriended  by  Gio 
vanni  Battista  Manso.  He  published  in  1593  a  poem 
called  "Jerusalem  Conquered,"  ("Gerusalemme  Con- 
quistata.") 

Influenced  by  Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  the  pope  invited 
Tasso  to  Rome,  to  be  crowned  with  laurel,  as  Petrarch 
had  been.  He  accordingly  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
lodged  in  the  pope's  palace,  but  before  the  day  of  coro 
nation  arrived  he  died,  in  April,  1595.  "Many  more 
Italian  poets,"  says  Hallam,  "ought,  possibly,  to  be  com 
memorated  ;  but  we  must  hasten  forward  to  the  greatest 
of  them  all.  .  .  .  The  Jerusalem  is  the  great  epic  poem, 
in  the  strict  sense,  of  modern  times.  It  was  justly 
observed  by  Voltaire  that,  in  the  choice  of  his  subject, 
Tasso  is  superior  to  Homer.  Whatever  interest  tra 
dition  might  have  attached  among  the  Greeks  to  the 
wrath  of  Achilles  and  the  death  of  Hector,  was  slight 
to  those  genuine  recollections  which  were  associated 
with  the  first  crusade.  It  was  not  the  theme  of  a  single 
people,  but  of  Europe.  ...  In  the  delineation  of  char 
acter,  at  once  natural,  distinct,  and  original,  Tasso  must 
give  way  to  Homer,  perhaps  to  some  other  epic  and 
romantic  poets.  .  .  .  Yet  here,  also,  the  sweetness  and 
nobleness  of  his  mind  and  his  fine  sense  of  moral  beauty 
are  displayed.  .  .  .  The  diction  of  Tasso  excites  per 
petual  admiration ;  it  is  rarely  turgid  or  harsh,  and, 
though  more  figurative  than  that  of  Ariosto,  it  is  so 
much  less  than  that  of  most  of  our  own  or  the  ancient 
poets,  that  it  appears  simple  in  our  eyes.  Virgil,  to 
whom  we  most  readily  compare  him,  is  far  superior  in 
energy,  but  not  in  grace."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera 


ture  of  Europe.")  The  "Gerusalemme  Liberata"  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Carew,  Fairfax,  Hoole, 
and  Wiffen. 


1810;  EBERT,  "T.  Tasso's  Leben,"  1819  :  ZUCCALA,  "Delia  Vita  di 
Tasso,"  1819;  R.  WILDE,  "Love  and  Madness  of  Tasso,"  New 
York,  1842;  R.  MILMAN,  "Lite  of  Tasso,"  2  vols.,  1850;  AUG. 
DESPLACES,  "  VieduTasse;"  LEIGH  HUNT,  "  Italian  Poets;"  LOXG- 
FEI.I.OW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  REV.  HENRY  STUBBING;  VILI.EMAIN,  "  Cours  de  Lit- 
terature  ;"  N.  MOREI.LI,  "  Delia  Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1834  ;  L.  CIBRA- 
RIO,  "Degii  Amori  e  della  Prigione  di  Tasso,"  1862;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate;"  "Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  in  the  "North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  PRESCOTT;)  "Retro 
spective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1825;)  "Horace  and  Tasso,"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1850;  "London  Quarterly 
Review''  for  July,  1821,  and  June,  1826. 

Tassoni,  tas-so'nee,  [Lat.  TASSO'NUS,]  ( AI.ESSANDRO,) 
an  Italian  critic  and  satirist,  born  at  Modena  in  1565, 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Ascanio  Colonna  at  Rome. 
He  published  in  1609  "Considerations  on  Petrarch," 
a  rather  severe  criticism  upon  that  poet,  which  gave  rise 
to  a  bitter  controversy  with  several  of  the  admirers  ot 
the  bard  of  Vaucluse.  Tassoni's  principal  work  is  a 
satirical  poem  entitled  "The  Rape  of  the  Bucket,"  ("La 
Secchia  rapita,")  which  is  greatly  admired  for  its  humour. 
It  is  founded  on  an  incident  occurring  in  a  war  between 
Modena  and  Bologna, — the  carrying  off  of  a  wooden 
bucket  from  the  latter  city  by  the  Modenese.  Among 
his  other  productions  may  be  named  his  "  Pensieri 
Diversi,"  (1612,)  or  observations  on  various  subjects, 
literary  and  scientific.  Died  in  1635. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  REV.  HENRY  STEBBIVG  ;  "Italian  Narrative 
Poetry,"  in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by 
PRESCOTT;)  MURATORI,  "Vitadi  A.  Tassoni,"  1739:  J.  C.  WALKER, 
"Memoirs  of  A.  Tassoni,"  1815;  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana;"  DUBOIS-FONTANELLE,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Aretin  et 
d'A.  Tassoni,"  1768;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tassoni,  (ALESSANDRO  MARIA,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
•"born  at  Collalto  in  1749.  He  wrote  an  eloquent  work 
entitled  "La  Religione  climostrata  e  difeso,"  ("Religion 
Explained  and  Defended,"  3  vols.,  1800-05.)  In  1802 
the  pope  appointed  him  auditor  di  rota.  Died  in  1818. 

See  LUIGI  BIONDI,  "Vita  di  A.  M.  Tassoni,"  1822. 

Tassonus.     See  TASSONI,  (ALESSANDRO.) 

Tassus,  (TORQUATUS.)     See  TASSO. 

Tastu,  taVtii',  (SAKINE  CASIMIRE  AMABI.E  VOIART,) 
a  French  authoress,  born  at  Metz  about  1798,  was  mar 
ried  in  1816  to  M.  Tastu.  She  wrote  a  number  of 
poems  and  educational  works,  which  were  received  with 
great  favour.  "  Her  style,"  says  Longfellow,  "  frequently 
suggests  the  impassioned  manner  and  stately  diction  of 
Mrs.  Hemans." 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  January,  1832. 

Tate,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  lawyer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1560.  He  wrote  sever  il 
works  on  British  antiquities.  Died  in  1616. 

Tate,  (NAHUM,)  a  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1652.  He  succeeded  Shadvvell  as  poet-laureate  in 
1690.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Miscellanea  Sacra,  or 
Poems  on  Divine  and  Moral  Subjects,"  (1698,)  "  Pana 
cea,  a  Poem  on  Tea,"  (1700,)  a  number  of  original  dramas, 
and  an  alteration  of  Shakspeare's  "  Lear."  He  made 
a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  in  conjunction  with 
Nicholas  Brady,  which  superseded  that  of  Sternhold  and 
Hopkins.  Tate  also  assisted  Dryden  in  the  composition 
of  his  "Absalom  and  Achitophef."  Died  in  1715- 

Tatian,  ta'she-an,  (or  ta'she^un,)  [Lat.  TATIA'NUS  ; 
Fr.  TATIEN,  tt'se^N',]  an  ancient  writer,  born  about 
120  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Syria,  and  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Justin  Martyr.  He  afterwards  adopted 
the  heresy  of  the  Marcionites,  and  founded  a  sect  called 
Tatianists.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Discourse  to  the 
Heathen,"  and  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels."  The 
former  only  is  extant. 

See  EUSEBIUS,  "Historia  Ecclesiistica  ;"  RITTER,  "  History  of 
Christian  Philosophy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tatien.     See  TATIAN. 

Tatishchef  or  Tatichtchef,  ta-tesh-cheT,  written 
also  Tatischtschew  and  Tatischev,  (DMITRI  PAV- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TATISHCHEF 


2100 


TAVERK1ER 


LOVITCH,)  a  Russian  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  in 
1769,  was  successively  ambassador  to  Naples,  Madrid, 
and  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of  the  imperial  council 
of  Russia.  Died  in  1845. 

Tatishchef,  Tatischtchef,  or  Tatischtschew, 
(VASILII  NIKITITCH,)  a  Russian  statesman,  and  Gov 
ernor  of  Orenburg,  born  in  1686,  was  the  author  of  the 
first  History  of  Russia,  published  in  1769.  Died  in  1750. 

Tatius.     See  ACHILLES  TATIUS. 

Tatius,  ta'she-us,  (Trrus,)  a  king  of  the  Sabines,  who 
was  provoked  by~the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women  to  lead 
a  large  army  against  the  Romans.  After  a  great  but 
indecisive  battle,  peace  was  restored  through  the  me 
diation  of  the  Sabine  women,  and  Romulus  and  Tatius 
reigned  jointly  over  the  united  Romans  and  Sabines 
until  the  death  of  Tatius,  which  occurred  soon  after  the 


Tat'nall,  (JosiAH,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
in  Georgia,  entered  the  navy  about  1812.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1850,  and  commanded  a  squadron  in  the 
East  Indies  from  1856  to  1859.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  the  famous  iron-clad 
Merrimac,  (alias  Virginia,)  which  lie  destroyed  by  fire 
on  the  nth  of  May,  1862,  near  Norfolk,  to  prevent  the 
Unionists  from  taking  possession  of  the  vessel. 

Tat' tarn,  (HENRY,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  archaeologist, 
born  in  '1788,  became  Archdeacon  of  Bedford  in  1845. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lexicon  Egyptiaco- 
Latinum,"  (1835,)  and  "  Prophetae  Majores  in  Dialecto 
Linguae  ^Egyptiacae,"  (1852.) 

Tatti.     See  SANSOVIXO,  (jACoro.) 

Taube,  tow'beh,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  German 
historical  and  statistical  writer,  born  in  London  about 
1726.  He  practised  law  in  Vienna.  Died  in  1778. 

Taubert,  tow'beRt,  (WILHELM,)  a  German  composer 
and  pianist,  born  in  Berlin  about  1812.  Among  his 
works  is  an  opera  called  "  Blue-Beard,"  ("  Blaubart.") 

Taubmann,  towp'man,  [Lat.TAURMAN'Nus,]  (FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  scholar  and  poet,  born  near  Baireuth, 
in  Franconia,  in  1565.  He  became  professor  of  poetry 
at  Wittenberg  in  1595,  wrote  elegant  Latin  poems,  and 
was  distinguished  for  his  wit.  Died  in  1613.  A  col 
lection  of  his  bon-mots,  entitled  "Taubmanniana,"  was 
published  in  1702.  He  published  editions  of  Virgil 
and  Plant  us. 

See  EBERT,  "  Leben  und  Verdienste  Taubmann's,"  1814;  NICE- 
RON,  "Memoires." 

Taubmannus.     See  TAURMANN. 

Tauchnitz,  towK'nits,  (KARL  CHRISTOPH  TR.-YU- 
GOTT,)  a  celebrated  German  printer  and  bookseller,  born 
near  Grimma  in  1761.  About  1796  he  founded  at  Leip- 
sic  a  printing-establishment,  which  has  since  become  one 
of  the  most  important  in  Germany.  Among  the  mul 
titudinous  works  issued  from  his  press  are  splendid 
editions  of  Homer  and  other  Greek  classics,  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  and  the  Koran  in  the  original  tongue.  Died  in 
1836. 

Tauler  or  Thauler,  tow'ler,  [Lat.  TAULE'RUS,]  (|o- 
HANN,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  and  founder 
of  the  mystic  theology  in  Germany,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1290.  He  entered  at  an  early  age  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  and  subsequently  stud'ied  theology  in 
Paris.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  an  earnest  reformer  of  the 
Church.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Imitation 
of  the  Humble  Life  of  Christ,"  ("Nachfolge  des  armen 
Lebens  Christi.")  As  a  prose  writer,  he  effected  a  great 
improvement  in  the  German  language.  Many  of  his 
writings  have  been  translated  into  Latin  and  other  lan 
guages.  Died  in  1361. 

See  HODGSON,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
HEUPEL,  "  Memoria  Tauleri,"  i6S8;  ARND,  "  Die  Historic Tauleri." 
1689;  C.  SCHMIDT,  "  J.  Tauler  von  Strassburg,"  etc.,  1841  :  F.  W. 
EDEL,  "  J.  Tauler,  Prediger  zu  Strasburg,"  etc.,  1853:  MADAME 
WINKWORTH,  "  Life  of  J.  Tauler,"  London,  1857  ;  H.  SIVERUD, 
"  Taulers  Omvendelses  Historie,"  1772. 

Taulerus.    See  TAULER. 

_  Taulier,  to'le-i',  (MARC  JOSEPH  FREDERIC,)  a  French 
jurist,  was  borrT'at  Grenoble  in  1806.  He  published 
"Theorie  raisonnee  du  Code  civil,"  (6  vols.,  1840-44.) 

Taunay,  to'ni',  (AUGUSTE,)  a  French  statuary,  born 
in  Paris  in  1769.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome 


in  1792,  and  accompanied  his  brother  Nicolas  Antoine 
to  Brazil  in  1816.  Died  in  1824. 

Taunay,  (NICOLAS  ANTOINE,)  a  skilful  French  his 
torical  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1755.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
1795,  visited  Brazil  in  1816,  and  returned  to  Paris  in 
1819.  Died  in  1830. 

Taunton,  LORD.     See  LAROUCHERE,  (HENRY.) 

Taun'ton,  (Sir  W.  E.,)  an  English  jurist,  born  at 
Oxford,  was  appointed  in  1830  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
king's  bench.  Died  in  1835. 

Taurellius.     See  TORKLLI. 

Taur'I-on,  [Gr.  Tavpiuv,]  a  Macedonian  general,  who 
had  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  the  Pelopon 
nesus  during  the  minority  of  Philip  V.,  about  220  u.c. 
He  was  an  enemy  of  Aratus. 

Tau-ris'cus  OK  TRAI.LK.S,  a  Greek  sculptor,  who,  with 
his  brother  Apollonius,  executed  a  celebrated  marble 
group,  called  "  Toro  Farnese,"  which  was  found  at 
Rome  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  now  in  Naples. 
(See  APOLLONIUS.) 

Tau'rus,  (STATII.IUS,)  a  Roman  general,  who  com 
manded  Mark  Antony's  fleet  in  the  war  against  Sextus 
Pompey.  He  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph  in  34 
u.c.  for  his  success  in  Africa,  and  commanded  the  laiul- 
anny  of  Augustus  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  31  H.c.  In 
the  year  26  he  was  elected  consul.  Died  alter  16  H.C. 

Tausan.     See  TAUSSKN. 

Taussen,  tow'sen,  written  also  Tausan  and  Tagesen, 
(JOHAN,)  a  Danish  theologian  and  Reformer,  born  in  the 
island  of  Fiinen  in  1494.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
under  Luther,  and  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  pro 
mulgating  the  Reformed  religion  in  Denmark.  lie  was 
appointed  by  Frederick  I.  preacher  to  the  church  of 
Saint  Nicholas  at  Copenhagen  in  1529,  and  in  1541 
made  Bishop  of  Ripen.  He  published  several  theo 
logical  and  controversial  works.  Died  in  1561. 

Tauvry,  to'vRe',  (DANIEL,)  a  French  anatomist  and 
writer,  born  at  Laval  in  1669  ;  died  in  1701. 

Tavannes,  de,  deh  tt'vSn',  ((JASPARD  de  Saulx — 
cleh  so,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1509.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia  in  1525,  and  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Cerisoles,  in  1544.  He  rendered  important 
services  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.,  and  in  tiie  civil 
war  he  fought  against  the  Huguenots  at  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour.  About  1570  he  obtained  the  rank  of  mar 
shal  of  France.  Died  in  1573. 

Tavannes,  de,  (GUILLAUME  DE  SAULX,)  SEIGNEUR, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1553.  He  was  con 
stantly  loyal  to  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  fought, 
with  the  rank  of  general,  against  the  League.  He  died 
in  1633,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  Events  from  1560  to 
1596." 

Tavannes,  de,  (JEAN  DE  SAULX,)  VICOMTE,  a  French 
general,  born  in  1555,  was  a  son  of  Gaspard,  noticed 
above.  As  a  partisan  of  the  League,  he  fought  against 
Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.  Died  about  1630. 

Tavarone,  ta-va-n/na,  (LAZARO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  frescos  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1556.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Luca  Cambiaso,  with  whom  he  went  to 
Madrid.  He  painted  some  works  in  the  Escurial  for 
the  king.  Died  in  1641. 

Tav'er-ner,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  religious  writer, 
born  in  Norfolk  in  1505,  was  a  lawyer  and  preacher. 
He  wrote  several  works  to  promote  the  Reformation, 
and  published  a  revised  edition  of  the  Bible,  (1539,) 
also  "Postils  on  the  Epistles  and  "Gospels."  Died  in 

1575- 

Tavernier,  ti'veVne-a',  (JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  Baron 
d'Aubonne,  a  celebratecf~French  traveller  and  merchant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1605.  At  an  early  age  he  visited  the 
principal  parts  of  Europe,  and,  having  entered  the  Aus 
trian  army,  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Prague,  in  1620. 
He  set  out  about  1630  for  Palestine  and  Persia,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  merchandise  in  jewels,  etc.  After 
having  made  six  journeys  to  the  East,  he  returned  to 
France  with  a  large  fortune,  and  was  ennobled  by  Louis 
XIV.  His  "Six  Voyages  en  Turquie,  en  Perse  et 
aux  Indes"  came  out  in  1677,  (3  vols.  410.)  This  work 
obtained  a  wide  popularity,  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages.  Tavernier  died  at  Moscow  about 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  p,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TAVERNIER 


2101 


TATLOR 


1688,  while  on  his  seventh  journey  to  the  East  Indies 
by  way  of  Russia. 

See  FKIEDLAENDER,  "  J.  B.  Tavernier  Kammerherr,"  etc.,  1849; 
BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene>ale." 

Tavernier,  tt'vSR'ne-i',  (MELCHIOR,)  a  Flemish  en 
graver  of  maps,  was  b~oni  at  Antwerp  in  1544.  He 
worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1641. 

Tavernier,  (MELCHIOR,)  an  engraver,  a  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1594;  died  in  1665. 

Tax'i-lejC[Gr.  Ta^r/f,]  sometimes  called  Tax'i-lus, 
an  Indian  king,  who  reigned  over  the  tract  between  the 
Indus  and  Hydaspes  when  Alexander  the  Great  invaded 
India,  327  B.C.  He  was  an  ally  of  that  conqueror  in  the 
war  against  Porus. 

Taxilus.     See  TAXILES. 

Ta-yg'e-te,  |Gr.  Tai'yerj?;  Fr.  TAYGETE,  tf'e-zhkt',] 
one  of  the  Pleiades,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Atlas, 
and  the  mother  of  Lacedaemon,  who  was  supposed  to 
be  a  son  of  Jupiter. 

Tay'ler,  (FREDERICK,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1804.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  "The  Vicar  of  Wakefield's 
Family  going  to  Church,"  "Festival  of  the  Popinjay," 
and  "Weighing  the  Stag."  His  pictures  include  nu 
merous  hunting-scenes  and  views  in  the  Highlands,  and 
are  ranked  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 

Tayler  or  Taylor,  QOHN  WILLIAM,)  an  English 
mineralogist,  born  about  1822.  He  explored  the  mines 
of  Greenland  about  1850-56. 

Tay'lpr,  (ALFRED  SWAINE,)  an  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  in  Kent  in  1806.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  medical  jurisprudence  and  chemistry  in  Guy's 
Hospital  about  1832.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  lecturer  and  writer  on  medical  jurisprudence  and 
toxicology.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  (1844.) 

Taylor,  (ANN,)  an  English  authoress,  was  the  wife 
of  Isaac  Taylor,  noticed  below.  She  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Maternal  Solicitude."  Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Memorials,  Biographical  and  Literary,  of  the  Taylor  Family." 

Tay'lor,  (BAYARD,  bi'ard,)  a  distinguished  American 
traveller,  writer,  and  poet,  born  in  Chester  county,  Penn 
sylvania,  in  1825.  Having  made  a  pedestrian  tour  in 
Europe,  he  published,  after  his  return,  "Views  Afoot; 
or,  Europe  seen  with  Knapsack  and  Staff,"  (1846.) 
In  1849  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York 
"  Tribune,"  to  which  he  soon  after  contributed  a  series  of 
letters  descriptive  of  his  European  travels.  He  brought 
out  in  1850  "El  Uorado ;  or,  Adventures  in  the  Path  of 
Empire,"  being  an  account  of  a  journey  to  California. 
He  spent  the  three  ensuing  years  in  visiting  various 
parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  Syria,  China,  and  Japan,  and 
published  in  1853  his  "Journey  to  Central  Africa," 
"Lands  of  the  Saracen,"  "Visit  to  India,  China,  Loo 
Choo,"  etc.  These  were  followed  by  "Summer  and 
Winter  Pictures  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Lapland," 
(1857,)  and  "Travels  in  Greece  and  Russia,  with  an 
Excursion  to  Crete."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  "Book  of  Romances,  Lyrics,  and  Songs,"  (1851,) 
"Poems  of  the  Orient,"  (1854,)  "Poems  of  Home  and 
Travel,"  (1855,)  "At  Home  and  Abroad,  a  Sketch-Book 
of  Life,  Scenery,  and  Men,"  (1859,)  and  "  Hannah  Thurs- 
ton,"  (1864,)  a  novel.  Mr.  Taylor  has  been  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  and  other  literary 
journals.  3J.'r*.  z),c.»,t,rr  ,'*•?& 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1847. 

Taylor,  (BROOK,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Edmonton  in  1685.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  inherited  a  competent  fortune  from 
his  father.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Perspective,"  (1715,)  and  "Method  of  Increments,"  etc., 
("Methodus  Incrementorum  directa  et  inversa,"  1715.) 
In  the  latter  work  he  announced  the  important  discovery 
of  a  theorem  in  the  differential  calculus,  which  is  called 
Taylor's  theorem.  Died  in  1731. 

Taylor,  (CHARLES,)  a  biblical  writer,  was  a  brother 
of  Isaac  Taylor  of  Ongar.  He  edited  Calmet's  "Dic 
tionary  of  the  Bible."  Died  in  1821. 

Taylor,  (CHEVALIER  JOHN,)  an  English  oculist,  who 
removed  to  the  continent  in  1733.  He  travelled  exten 


sively,  and  published  an  account  of  his  travels.  Died 
after  1767. 

Taylor,  (GEORGE,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla 
ration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1716.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1776.  Died 
in  1781. 

Taylor,  (GEORGE  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Clinton,  Hunterdon  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1808.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
June  27,  1862,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  and  died  September  i  of  that  year. 

Taylor,  (HENRY,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1710,  is  said  to  have  been  an  Arian.  He  wrote  an 
"Essay  on  the  Beauty  of  the  Divine  Economy."  Died 
in  1785. 

Taylor,  (HENRY,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist,  born 
about  1800,  published  "Philip  Vain  Artevelde,"  (1834,) 
"Edwin  the  Fair,  an  Historical  Drama,"  (1842,)  "The 
Eve  of  the  Conquest,  and  other  Poems,"  (1847,)  also 
several  prose  works,  among  which  may  be  named  "The 
Statesman,"  (1836,)  and  "  Notes  from  Life,  in  Six  Essays," 
(1848.)  His  "Philip  Van  Artevelde,"  a  drama,  in  blank 
verse,  has  won  for  him  a  very  high  reputation,  and  has 
been  translated  into  German. 

See  R.  H.  HOKNE,  "Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844;  "Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  April,  1849 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  tor  November,  1851  ; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1862,  and  December,  1865* 

Taylor,  (Sir  HERBERT,)  an  English  general,  born  in\ 
1775.      He  was  private  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  York, 
and  to  George  III.     Died  in  1839. 

Taylor,  (ISAAC,)  Senior,  OF  ONGAR,  an  English  artist 
and  writer,  was  originally  an  engraver.  In  1796  he  became 
minister  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Colchester.  He 
published  a  number  of  religious  and  educational  works  ; 
among  the  latter  we  may  name  "  Beginnings  of  Biogra 
phy,"  and  "  Scenes  for  Tarry-at-Home  Travellers."  He 
preached  at  Ongar  from  1810  to  1829.  Died  in  1829. 

Taylor,  (ISAAC,)  Junior,  an  eminent  English  writer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1787.  He 
published  a  number  of  moral,  philosophical,  and  theo 
logical  works  of  a  high  character.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  are  a  "  History  of  the  Transmission 
of  Ancient  Books  to  Modern  Times,"  (1827,)  "The 
Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm,"  (1829,)  "The  Natural 
History  of  Fanaticism,"  "Spiritual  Despotism,"  "The 
Physical  Theory  of  Another  Life,"  (1836,)  "Ancient 
Christianity,"  (2  vols.,  1839-43,)  and  "  Loyola  and  Jesu 
itism,"  (1849.)  Died  in  1865. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1840;  ALLIBONE,  "Dic 
tionary  of  Authors." 

Taylor,  tl'lor,  ?  (ISIDORE  SEVERIN  JUSTIN,)  a  Belgian 
traveller  and  amateur  artist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1789. 
He  visited  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  etc.,  and  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  works  of  art  for  the  galleries  and 
museums  of  Paris.  He  published  "  Picturesque  and 
Romantic  Journeys  in  Old  France,"  ("  Voyages  pitto- 
resques  et  romantiques  de  1'ancienne  France,"  24  vols., 
1820-63.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Taylor,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  mechanician,  born  about 
1757.  He  gained  distinction  as  one  of  the  inventors  of 
steam  navigation.  Died  in  1825. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Taylor,  (JANE,)  a  meritorious  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1783,  was  a  sister  of  Isaac  Taylor,  Jr.,  noticed 
above.  In  conjunction  with  her  sister  Ann,  she  composed 
"  Original  Poems,"  which  were  very  popular,  and  "  Hymns 
for  Infant  Minds,"  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
She  also  published  "Display,"  a  tale,  (1814,)  a  series 
of  able  essays  entitled  "  Contributions  of  Q.  Q.,"  and 
"  Essays  in  Rhyme."  Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Memorials,  Biographical  and  Literary,  of  the  Taylor  Family," 
by  the  REV.  I.  TAYLOR,  London,  1867;  MRS.  EI.WOOD,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Last  Century,  vol.  ii.,  1843. 

Taylor,  (JEREMY,)  an  English  bishop  and  author  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1613,  and  was 
baptized  on  the  I5th  of  August.  He  was  a  son  of  a 
barber,  and  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  M.A.  about  1633.  Having  taken 
holy  orders,  he  obtained  the  patronage  of  Archbishop 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TAYLOR 


2102 


TAT LOR 


Laud,  through  whose  influence  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  in  1636.  He  became  rec 
tor  of  Uppingham,  in  Rutlandshire,  in  1638,  and  married 
Phebe  Landisdale  (or  Langsdale)  in  1639.  In  the  civil 
war  he  was  a  decided  adherent  of  Charles  I.,  whom  he 
served  as  chaplain.  He  published  in  1642  "  Episcopacy 
Asserted  against  the  Acephali  and  Aerians,  New  and 
Old."  His  rectory  of  Uppingham  was  sequestrated  by 
Parliament  in  1642,  after  which  he  supported  himself  by 
teaching  school  in  Carmarthenshire.  In  1647  he  pro 
duced  one  of  his  greatest  works,  "  The  Liberty  of  Pro 
phesying,"  which,  says  Hallam,  "was  the  first  famous 
plea,  in  this  country,  for  tolerance  in  religion  on  a  com 
prehensive  basis  and  on  deep-seated  foundations.  Taylor, 
therefore,  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  sapped 
and  shook  the  foundations  of  dogmatism  and  pretended 
orthodoxy ;  the  first  who  taught  men  to  seek  peace  in 
unity  of  spirit  rather  than  of  belief,  and,  instead  of  ex 
tinguishing  dissent,  to  take  away  its  sting  by  charity  and 
by  a  sense  of  human  fallibility."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  He  afterwards  published  his 
"Holy  Living  and  Dying,"  (1651,)  "The  Great  Exem 
plar,  or  the  Life  of  Christ,"  (3  vols.,  1653,)  and  "The 
Golden  Grove,"  (1654,)  in  which  he  displayed  a  rich 
imagination  and  poetical  genius.  He  was  imprisoned 
several  times  by  the  partisans  of  the  Parliament  during 
the  civil  war.  In  1658,  at  the  invitation  of  Lord  Con- 
way,  he  removed  to  Lisburn,  Ireland,  where  he  officiated 
as  a  clergyman.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor  in  1660.  Before  this  date  he  had  married  a 
second  wife,  who  was  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles  I. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  very  learned  treatise  on 
casuistry,  entitled  "  Ductor  Dubitantium,"  ("Rule  of 
Conscience,"  1660.)  He  was  intrusted  with  the  adminis 
tration  of  the  small  see  of  Dromore  in  1661.  He  died 
at  Lisburn  in  August,  1667,  leaving  three  daughters. 

"  His  Sermons,"  says  Hallam,  "  are  far  above  any 
that  had  preceded  them  in  the  English  Church.  An 
imagination  essentially  poetical,  and  sparing  none  of 
the  decorations  which  by  critical  rules  are  deemed  almost 
peculiar  to  verse  ;  a  warm  tone  of  piety,  sweetness,  and 
charity  ;  an  accumulation  of  circumstantial  accessories 
whenever  he  reasons,  or  persuades,  or  describes,  .  .  . 
distinguish  Taylor  from  his  contemporaries  by  their 
degree,  as  they  do  from  most  of  his  successors  by  their 
kind.  .  .  .  The  eloquence  of  Taylor  is  great,  but  it  is 
not  eloquence  of  the  highest  class  ;  it  is  far  too  Asiatic, 
too  much  in  the  style  of  Chrysostom  and  other  declaimers 
of  the  fourth  century,  by  the  study  of  whom  he  had 
probably  vitiated  his  taste  ;  his  learning  is  misplaced, 
and  his  arguments  often  as  much  so  ;  not  to  mention 
that  he  has  the  common  defect  of  alleging  nugatory 
proofs ;  his  vehemence  loses  its  effect  by  the  circuity  of 
his  pleonastic  language."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Lite 
rature  of  Europe.") 

See  H.  K.  BONNY,  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor,"  1815;  REGINALD 
HEBER,  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor,"  1824;  R.  WILLMOTT,  "  Bishop 
J.  Taylor,  his  Predecessors,"  etc.,  1846;  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of 
Authors." 

Taylor,  (JOHN,)  surnamed  THE  WATER  POET,  born 
at  Gloucester,  in  England,  in  1580,  was  originally  a 
waterman  in  London.  His  verses  possess  but  little 
intrinsic  merit,  but  they  are  valuable  as  illustrations 
of  society  and  manners  at  that  time.  Died  in  1654. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Taylor,  (JOHN,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born 
in  Lancashire  about  1680.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Sketch  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  "The  Scripture  Doc 
trine  of  Original  Sin,"  a  "  Hebrew  Concordance,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1761. 

Taylor,  (JOHN,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  at  Shrewsbury  about  1703.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  subse 
quently  was  made  registrar  of  the  university.  He  was 
profoundly  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  law,  and  pub 
lished  an  edition  of  the  "  Orations"  of  Lysias.  He  also 
edited  some  of  the  works  of  Demosthenes,  and  other 
Greek  classics.  He  also  wrote  "  Elements  of  Civil  Law," 
(*755-)  Having  entered  into  holy  orders,  Dr.  Taylor 
was  created  in  1757  canon-residentiary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
Died  in  1766. 


Taylor,  (JOHN,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in  Orange 
county,  Virginia.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1792,  in 
1803,  and  in  1822.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  agricul 
turist.  Died  in  Caroline  county,  Virginia,  in  1824. 

Taylor,  (Jon.\,)  an  English  writer,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  songs,  epigrams, 
humorous  tales,  etc.  Died  in  1832. 

Taylor,  (JoHN,)  an  English  political  economist,  born 
in  1781.  He  wrote  "The  Identity  of  Junius  with  a 
Distinguished  Living  Character  Established,"  (1818,) 
also  "  Essays  on  Currency,"  etc.  Died  in  1864. 

Taylor,  (JoHN  \V.,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Saratoga  county,  New  York,  in  1784.  He  studied  law, 
and  represented  a  district  of  New  York  in  Congress 
from  1813  to  1833.  He  made  an  eloquent  speech  against 
the  establishment  of  slavery  in  Missouri,  February,  1819. 
He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  the 
second  session  of  the  Sixteenth  Congress,  (1820-21,) 
during  the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  He 
removed  about  1843  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  he  died 
in  1854. 

Taylor,  (NATHANIEL  WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
American  divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  New  Milford, 
Connecticut,  in  1786.  In  1812  he  succeeded  Moses 
Stuart  as  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at 
New  Haven,  and  in  1822  became  D wight  professor  of 
didactic  theology  at  Yale  College.  He  svrote  a  number 
of  theological  essays,  which  favour  the  views  of  Jonathan 
Edwards.  Died  in  1858. 

Taylor,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  printer  and  journalist, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1781,  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Philosophical  Magazine,"  and  in  1838  founded  the 
"Annals  of  Natural  History."  He  published  editions 
of  Warton's  "  History  of  English  Poetry,"  and  of  other 
standard  works.  Died  in  1858. 

Taylor,  (RICHARD,)  an  American  general,  was  a  son 
of  President  Zachary  Taylor.  He  commanded  a  Con 
federate  army  in  Louisiana  in  1863.  His  army  resisted 
General  Banks  with  success  near  Mansfield  and  Pleasant 
Hill,  Louisiana,  in  April,  1864.  He  surrendered  to 
General  Canby  on  the  4th  of  May,  1865,  near  Mobile. 

Taylor,  (RICHARD  COWLING,)  an  English  geologist, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1789.  Having  emigrated  to  America 
in  1830,  he  was  employed  in  geological  explorations  in 
Pennsylvania  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  He 
published  in  1848  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Statistics 
of  Coal."  Died  in  1851. 

Taylor,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  an  English  sculptor  and  archi 
tect,  born  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  after  his 
return  to  London  devoted  himself  principally  to  archi 
tectural  works.  Among  his  most  admired  structures 
we  may  name  Lord  Grimstone's  mansion  at  Gorham- 
bury.  He  died  in  1788,  leaving  a  fortune  of  ^180,000, 
a  portion  of  which  he  bequeathed  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  towards  founding  an  institute  for  the  study  of 
modern  languages. 

Taylor,  (ROWLAND,)  an  English  clergyman,  chaplain 
to  Archbishop  Cranmer,  was  condemned,  under  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary,  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake.  The 
sentence  was  executed  in  February,  1555- 

Taylor,  (SiLAS,)  sometimes  called  D'OMVILLK,  an 
English  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1624.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  History  of  Gavel- 
kind,"  etc.,  and  prepared  a  "  History  of  Harwich,"  pub 
lished  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1678. 

Taylor,  (STEPHEN  WILLIAM,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
teacher,  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in 
1791.  He  became  in  1838  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  Madison  University,  New  York, 
of  which  he  was  subsequently  president.  Died  in  1856. 

Taylor,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1576.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died  in  1632. 

Taylor,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  scholar,  sur 
named  THE  PLATONIST,  born  in  London  in  1758.  From 
early  youth  he  applied  himself  with  ardour  to  the  study 
of  the  Greek  philosophers,  and  about  1780  began  the 
publication  of  a  series  of  translations  from  the  classics, 
including  the  writings  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  Besides 
the  above,  Mr.  Taylor  translated  "The  Hymns  of  Or- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fat;  m£t;  ndt;  goo  ;;  mooi 


TAT LOR 


2103 


TCHING-TCHING  KONG 


pheus,"  (1787,)  "Proclus  on  Euclid,"  (1792,)  Pausa- 
nias's  "Description  of  Greece,"  (1794,)  "Five  Books  of 
Plotinus,"  (1794,)  "The  Six  Books  of  Proclus  on  the 
Theology  of  Plato,"  (1816,)  "lamblichus  on  the  Mys 
teries  of  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,"  etc.,  (1821,)  "The 
Metamorphoses  and  Philosophical  Works  of  Apuleius," 
(1822,)  "Select  Works  of  Porphyry,"  (1823,)  "Argu 
ments  of  Celsus  relative  to  the  Christians,  taken  from 
Origen,''  etc.,  "Proclus  on  Providence  and  Evil,"  (1833,) 
and  other  classics.  He  also  published,  among  other 
original  treatises,  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Eleusinian  and 
Bacchic  Mysteries."  Died  in  1835.  Mr.  Taylor  was 
distinguished  for  his  great  conversational  powers  and 
attractive  social  qualities,  which  gained  for  him  the 
friendship  of  many  persons  of  wealth  and  influence,  by 
whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to  publish  his  volumi 
nous  works.  Among  his  patrons  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  Mr.  Meredith  deserve  especial  mention  for  their  mu 
nificence.  As  a  translator  from  the  Greek,  Mr.  Taylor 
does  not  hold  a  high  rank,  but  he  merits  the  gratitude 
of  the  admirers  of  Plato  for  having  done  so  much  to 
attract  attention  to  the  works  of  that  philosopher. 

See  J.  WELSH,  "Notice  of  Thomas  Taylor,"  iS^r  :  "  Xouvelle 
Biographic  Generale:"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1809;  ALLI- 
BON'E,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Taylor,  (TOM,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in  Dur 
ham  in  1817.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  professor  of  the 
English  language  and  literature  at  University  College, 
London.  He  has  published  a  "Biography  of  Benjamin 
Robert  Havdon,"  "The  Unequal  Match,"  and  other 
dramas,  and  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  "  Punch." 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  board  of  health  in 
1854,  and  secretary  to  a  department  of  the  home  office 
about  1866. 

Taylor,  (WILLIAM,)  an  accomplished  English  writer 
and  translator,  born  at  Norwich  in  1765.  He  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  French,  German,  and  Italian  lan 
guages  during  a  residence  on  the  continent,  and  pub 
lished,  after  his  return,  an  excellent  translation  of 
Burger's  "  Lenore,"  and  other  German  poems.  His 
version  of  Lessing's  "Nathan  der  Weise"  came  out  in  i 
1806,  and  a  collection  of  his  translations,  entitled  a 
"  Survey  of  German  Poetry,"  was  published  in  1830. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  English  synonyms,  and  essays 
on  the  German  poets.  Died  in  1836. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Late  William 
Taylor,"  etc.,  by  T.  W.  ROBBKRDS;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1843. 

Taylor,  (WILLIAM  COOKE,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  at 
Youghal  in  1800,  published  a  number  of  biographical 
and  historical  works.  Among  the  principal  we  may 
name  a  "  History  of  France  and  Normandy,"  (1830,) 
"History  of  Popery,"  (1837,)  and  "Life  and  Times  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel,"  (3  vols.,  1846-51.)  Died  in  1849. 

Taylor,  (ZACHARY,)  a  distinguished  American  gene 
ral,  and  the  twelfth  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Orange  county,  Virginia,  in  1784.  He  was  a  son  of 
Colonel  Richard  Taylor.  He  was  educated  in  Kentucky, 
his  father  having  removed  to  Louisville,  in  that  State, 
about  1785.  He  entered  the  army  in  1808,  and  married 
Margaret  Smith  in  1810.  In  the  war  which  began  in 
1812  he  served  as  captain  against  the  Indians.  He  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1832,  and  was  employed  in 
the  war  against  Black  Hawk  the  same  year.  He  de 
feated  the  Seminoles  at  Okechobee  in  December,  1837, 
and  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Florida  in  April,  1838.  About  1840  he  purchased  an 
estate  near  Baton  Rouge,  on  which  he  settled.  He  com 
manded  an  army  which  was  sent  in  the  summer  of  1845 
to  Corpus  Christi,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nueces  River. 
"Mr.  Polk  and  his  cabinet  desired  General  Taylor  to 
debark  at,  occupy,  and  hold  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  though  they  shrank  from  the  responsibility 
of  giving  an  order  to  that  effect,  hoping  that  General 
Taylor  would  take  a  hint.  .  .  .  Official  hints  and  innuen 
does,  that  he  was  expected  to  advance  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
continued  to  reach  him ;  but  he  disregarded  them  ; 
and  at  length,  about  the  1st  of  March,  1846,  he  received 
positive  orders  from  the  President  to  advance."  (Greeley, 
"American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  p.  1 86.)  On  the  8th  of 


May  he  was  attacked  at  Palo  Alto  by  the  Mexican  army, 
which  he  signally  defeated.  He  gained  another  victory 
at  Resaca  de  la  Palma  on  the  gth  of  May,  soon  after 
which  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
On  the  22cl  of  February,  1847,  he  defeated  Santa  Anna  in 
a  hard-fought  battle  at  Buena  Vista.  He  received  from 
his  soldiers  the  familiar  name  of  "  Rough  and  Ready." 
In  June,  1848,  he  was  nominated  as  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  by  the  Whig  National  Convention.  His  com 
petitors  were  Lewis  Cass,  Democrat,  and  Martin  Van 
Buren,  Free-Soil.  General  Taylor  received  one  hundred 
and  sixty-three  electoral  votes,  (cast  by  fifteen  States,  in 
cluding  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,)  and  was  elected. 
In  the  next  Congress,  which  met  in  December,  1849,  the 
Democrats  had  the  majority.  An  exciting  contest  en 
sued  about  the  organization  of  the  spacious  territories 
recently  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
admission  of  California,  which  had  formed  a  constitution 
excluding  slavery.  In  his  message  of  December,  1849, 
the  President  recommended  the  admission  of  California, 
which  was  violently  opposed  by  the  Southern  members 
of  Congress,  who  threatened  to  dissolve  the  Union.  This 
difficulty  was  obviated  or  postponed  by  Mr.  Clay's  Com 
promise  bill,  which  gave  the  pro-slavery  party  some 
compensation  for  the  admission  of  California,  by  more 
effectual  enactments  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves 
to  their  masters.  According  to  this  bill,  New  Mexico 
and  Utah  were  to  be  organized  without  the  Wilmot 
proviso;  that  is,  the  people  of  those  territories  were  per 
mitted  to  decide  whether  slavery  should  be  admitted  or 
prohibited.  Before  the  passage  of  this  compromise  bill, 
President  Taylor  died,  on  the  9th  of  July,  1850,  and  the 
executive  power  devolved  on  the  Vice-President,  Millard 
Fillmore.  The  administration  of  President  Taylor  was 
generally  popular,  especially  in  the  Free  States,  but  it 
gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  extreme  pro-slavery 
party  of  the  South. 

See  C.  F.  POWELL,  "Life  of  General  Taylor,"  1846;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1851 ;  "  New  American  Cyclo 
paedia." 

TazewelL,  taz'wel,  (LITTLETON  W.,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  Senator,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in 
1774.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1824  to  1832,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1834.  Died  at  Norfolk  in  1860. 

Tcheou-Kong.     See  TcHEW-KpNG. 

Tchernyshef,  cheR'ne-sheT',  written  also  Tscher- 
nyschew  and  Tschernytschew,  (ALEXANDER  IVANO- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1779, 
served  with  distinction  in  several  campaigns  against  the 
French,  and  was  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1811.  He  was 
present  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  soon  after  the 
accession  of  Nicholas  was  appointed  minister  of  war 
and  chief  of  the  imperial  staff  of  generals.  In  1848  he 
became  president  of  the  imperial  council,  having  been 
previously  made  a  prince  of  the  empire. 

Tchernyshef  or  Tschernyschew,  (GREGORY,)  a 
Russian  general  in  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  was 
born  in  1672.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Livonia 
in  1726,  and  ennobled  by  the  empress  Elizabeth  in  1742. 
Died  in  1745. 

His  sons  ZAKHAR  (SACHAR)  and  IVAN  rose  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal ;  and  a  third  son,  Count  PETER, 
became  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  courts  of  Berlin 
and  Paris. 

Tchew-Kong,  choo  kong,  or  Tcheou-Kong,  a  Chi 
nese  legislator,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  eleven  cen 
turies  before  the  Christian  era.  He  filled  several  high 
offices  under  the  government,  and  also  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  an  astronomer,  poet,  and  warrior. 

Tchihatchef,  von,  fon  che'ha-cheT,  (PETER,)  a  Rus 
sian  geologist,  born  near  Saint  Petersburg  in  1812.  He 
spent  about  six  years  in  the  exploration  of  Asia  Minor. 
He  published  in  1846  an  account  of  his  exploration  of 
the  Altai  Mountains,  entitled  "Voyage  scientifique  dans 
1'Altai  et  dans  les  Contrees  adjacentes,"  and  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Asia  Minor,  a  Physical,  Statistical,  and 
Archaeological  Description  of  that  Country,"  (in  French, 
2  vols.,  1853-56.) 

Tching-Tching  Kong,  ching  ching  kong,  a  Chinese 
admiral,  sometimes  called  Koxinga,  fought  against  the 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TCHITCHAGOF 


2  104 


TEX  ELI 


Mantchoo  Tartars,  whom  he  besieged  in  the  city  of 
Nanking  about  1656.  He  subsequently  drove  the  Dutch 
from  the  island  of  Formosa,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  English  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  their  aid  against 
the  Mantchoos.  Died  about  1670. 

Tchitchagof,  Tchitchagov,  or  Tschitschagow, 
chitch'a-gof,  (PAUL  VASILIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  admiral 
and  general,  was  born  in  1766.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  in  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  I., 
and  became  an  admiral  in  1807.  In  1812  he  received 
command  of  an  army  destined  to  intercept  the  retreat 
of  Napoleon  from  Moscow,  but  he  failed  in  that  design. 
He  resigned  soon  after,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
foreign  countries.  Died  in  Paris  in  1849. 

Tchitchagof  or  Tschitschagow,  (VASILII  YAKOV- 
LEVITCH,)  a  Russian  admiral,  born  in  1726,  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  in  1790  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Swedes  near  Viborg.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Died  in  1809. 

Tchoung-Ni.     See  CONFUCIUS. 

Tebaldeo,  ta-Ml'da-o,  or  Tibaldeo,  te-bdl'da-o, 
(ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1456, 
published  numerous  lyrics  and  pastorals,  in  Italian,  also 
Latin  epigrams  and  other  poems,  which  were  esteemed 
by  his  contemporaries.  Died  in  1537. 

Tebaldus.     See  THEOKAI.DUS. 

Te-cum'seh,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the  Shawnee 
tribe,  was  born  near  the  Scioto  River,  Ohio,  about  1770. 
Having  effected  an  alliance  of  the  Western  Indians 
against  the  whites,  a  battle  was  fought  at  Tippecanoe 
in  1811,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated  by  General 
Harrison.  Tecumseh  joined  the  English  in  the  war  of 
1812,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  in  1813,  where  he 
commanded  the  right  wing. 

Tedaldi-Fores,  ta-ddl'dee  fo'res,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Cremona  in  1793.  Among  his  works  are 
tragedies  entitled  "  Bondelmonte"  and  "Beatrice  Ten- 
da,"  which  are  praised  by  Sismondi  in  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."  Died  in  1829. 

Tedeschi,  ta-des'kee,  (NiccoL6,)  surnamed  PANOR- 
MITANO,  pa-noR-me-ta'no,  [Lat.  PANORMITA'NUS;  Fr. 
LE  PANORMITAIN,  leh  pt'noR'me'taN',  i.e.  "the  Paler- 
mian,"]  an  Italian  canonist,  born  at  Catania  in  1386. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  Council  of  Bale,  sup 
ported  the  anti-pope  Felix  V.,  and  became  a  cardinal  in 
1440.  Died  in  1445. 

Tefft,  left,  (BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Oneida  county, 
New  York,  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the  Asbury  University,  Indiana, 
and  subsequently  became  president  of  Genesee  Col 
lege,  New  York.  lie  has  published  several  theological 
works. 

Tegel,  tii'gel,  (ERIC,)  a  Swedish  historian,  was  ap 
pointed  historiographer  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1614. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Gustavus  I.,"  (1622,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1638. 

Tegethoff,  von,  fon  ta'get-hof,  (WILHELM,)  an  Aus 
trian  vice-admiral,  born  in  Styria  in  1827.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1857,  and  defeated  the  Danish  fleet  near 
Heligoland  in  May,  1864.  Having  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  Austrian  fleet,  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Italians 
at  Lissa,  in  the  Adriatic,  July  19,  1866. 

Tegner,  teng-naiR'  or  t§ng-nnR',  (E.SAIAS,)  the  most 
celebrated  poet  of  Sweden,  was  born  in  Wermland  in 
1782.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and  in 
1812  became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  institution.  He 
had  previously  published  a  number  of  lyrics,  and  several 
larger  poems,  entitled  "  Svea,"  (1811,)  which  obtained 
the  prize  from  the  Swedish  Academy,  "Children  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,"  (1820,)  and  "  Axelj"  (1821.)  Having 
graduated  in  theology,  he  was  appointed  in  1824  Bishop 
of  Wexio.  His  "  Frithiofssaga,"  published  in  1825,  is 
esteemed  his  best  production.  It  has  obtained  a  world 
wide  reputation,  and  been  translated  into  the  principal 
modern  languages,  four  different  versions  of  it  having 
appeared  in  German.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  "  Schulreden"  and  "Orations,"  which  were 
greatly  admired,  and  were  translated  into  German  by 


Mohnike.  Tegner  died  in  November,  1846,  and  a 
colossal  statue,  admirably  executed  by  Svarnstrom,  was 
raised  to  his  memory  at  Lund  in  1853.  Several  of  his 
poems  have  been  translated  by  Longfellow.  He  had 
married  Anna  Myrhman  in  1806,  and  left  six  children. 

"  E.  Tegner,  the  greatest  poet  of  Sweden,  was  a 
native  of  Wermland.  His  '  Frithiof  Saga,'  though  not 
a  regular  epic, — for  it  is  rather  a  bundle  of  lyrical 
poems  woven  into  one  epic  cycle, — is  yet  a  complete 
and  great  poem.  .  .  .  We  have  had  five  or  six  transla 
tions  of  '  Frithiof,'  none  of  which  give  any  conception 
of  the  exquisite  beauty  and  splendour  of  the  original." 
(See  article  on  "Scandinavian  Literature"  in  the  "En 
cyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  FRANZEN,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  E.  Tegner,"  iS46;  E.  (',. 
GEIJER,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  E.  Testier."  1846;  BOET'TIGKR,  "  E. 
Tegner's  Levnet,"  1847;  ACHARD  KAMI.,  " Tegner  och  bans  Somtida 
i  Lund,"  1851;  HAGBERG,  "  Minnetal  ofver  E.  Tegner,"  1847; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  HOWITT,  "  Literature  and  Ro 
mance  of  Northern  Europe;"  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1828  ;  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828  ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  July,  ,837. 

Tegoborski,  ta-go-boR'skee,  (LEWIS,)  a  Polish  econ 
omist  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1793.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Studies  on  the  Pro 
ductive  Forces  of  Russia,"  (4  vols.,  1852-54.)  He  was 
a  privy  councillor  of  Russia.  Died  in  1857. 

Teia,  tee'ya,  the  last  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy, 
began  to  reign  in  552  A.D.,  as  the  successor  of  Totila. 
He  was  killed  near  Vesuvius,  in  a  battle  against  Narses, 

'»  553- 

Teichmeyer,  tlK'ml'er,  (HERMANN  FRIEDRICH,)  an 
eminent  German  physician,  born  at  Minden  in  1685. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy,  etc.  at  Jena  in  1727, 
and  published  several  works.  Died  in  1746. 

Teigumouth,  tin'miith,  (Jon.\  SHORE,)  LORD,  an 
English  statesman  and  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in 
1751.  He  was  appointed  in  1773  Persian  translator  and 
secretary  to  the  provincial  council  of  Moorshedabad, 
in  India,  and  subsequently  became  a  member  of  the 
supreme  council  under  Lord  Cornwallis.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1792,  and  in  1793  succeeded  Cornwallis  as 
Governor-General  of  India.  He  resigned  this  office  in 
1797,  and  was  soon  after  made  a  peer  of  Ireland,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Teignmouth.  lie  had  been  elected  in 
1794  president  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  and  in  1804  be 
came  first  president  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  He  published  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings, 
and  Correspondence  of  Sir  William  Jones,"  (1804,) 
afterwards  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Jones's  works  which 
he  brought  out  in  1807  in  13  vols.  8vo.  Lord  Teignmouth 
also  wrote  "Considerations  on  Communicating  to  the 
Inhabitants  of  India  the  Knowledge  of  Christianity," 
(1811.)  He  died  in  1834,  having  been  previously  ap 
pointed  a  member  of  the  privy  council  of  India. 

See  "  Life  of  Lord  Teignmouth,"  by  RICHARD  TEMPLE,  1859. 

Teil,  du,  dii  t.\I  or  uVye,  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  BARON,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1722.  He  was 
commandant  of  the  school  of  artillery  at  Auxonne,  and 
rendered  some  services  to  Bonaparte,  who  was  a  lieuten 
ant  under  him.  Bonaparte  left  a  legacy  of  one  hundred 
thousand  francs  to  the  heirs  of  Du  Teil.  Died  in  1794. 

Teiresias.     See  TIRESIAS. 

Teisserenc,  tis'ro.s',  (PIERRE  EDMOND,)  a  French 
writer  on  railroads,  was  born  at  Chateauroux  in  1814. 

Teissier,  ti'se-i',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1632.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  Frederick  I. 
of  Prussia,  who  made  him  a  councillor  of  state  and  his 
historiographer,  and  also  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his 
son.  He  made  translations  from  Saint  Chrysostotn,  Saint 
Clement,  and  Calvin,  and  wrote  "  Eulogies  of  Learned 
Men,  taken  from  the  History  of  M.  de  Thou,"  (1683,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1715. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Teissier,  (GUILLAUME  FERDINAND,)  a  French  anti 
quary,  born  at  Marly-la- Ville  in  1779.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Thionville,"  (1828.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Teissier,  (JEAN  ANTOINE.)     See  MARGUERITTES. 

Tekeli.     See  TOKELY. 


,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


TELAMON 


2105 


TELLEZ 


Tel'a-mon,  [Gr.  Tehauuv ;  Fr.  TELAMON,  ta' 
a  hero  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  king  of  Salami's,  a 
brother  of  Peleus,  and  the  father  of  Ajax  and  Teucer, 
whose  mother  was  Hesione,  a  daughter  of  Laomeclon. 
He  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  fought 
for  Hercules  against  Laomeclon  and  against  the  Amazons. 
Tel-e-cli'des  or  Tel-e-clei'des,  [Tr//.t-K/.«'(57/o,]  an 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  about 
444  B.C.  His  works  are  lost. 

Te-leg'o-nus,  [Gr.  TV^oroc :  Fr.  TELEGONE,  ta'Ia'- 
gon',]  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe,  was,  according  to 
the  fable,  thrown  by  shipwreck  on  the  island  of  Ithaca. 
Being  urged  by  hunger,  he  began  to  pillage  from  the 
natives,  and  was  attacked  by  Ulysses,  whom  he  killed, 
not  knowing  who  he  was. 

Teleki  or  Teleky,  ta'leh-ke,  (LADISLAUS,)  a  Hun 
garian  patriot,  orator,  and  writer,  born  at  Pesth  in  1811. 
He  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  by  the 
Liberal  party  in  1848,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
movement  for  the  independence  of  Hungary.  During 
his  absence  on  a  mission  to  France,  he  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  elected  in  1860  a 
member  of  the  Diet,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  radical 
party.  He  died,  probably  by  suicide,  in  May,  1861. 

Te-lem'a-ehus,  [Gr.Tritefiaxoe;  Fr.  TELEMAQUE,  ta'- 
li'mik',]  son  of  Ulysses  (King  of  Ithaca)  and  Penelope, 
was  induced  by  Minerva,  under  the  form  of  Mentes, 
(called  also  Mentor,)  King  of  the  Taphians,  to  undertake 
a  voyage  in  search  of  his  father,  who  had  engaged  with 
the  other  Grecian  princes  in  the  Trojan  war.  After 
his  return  home,  he  discovered  Ulysses  disguised  as  a 
beggar,  and,  with  his  assistance,  put  to  death  the  suitors 
of  Penelope.  The  fortunes  of  Telemachus  form  the 
subject  of  the  admirable  moral  romance  of  Fenelon. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  he  is  said  to  have  married 
Nausicaa,  or,  as  some  say,  Circe.  (See  the  "Odyssey.") 
Telemann,  ta'leh-man',  (GEOKG  PHILIPP,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1681,  was  appointed 
director  of  music  at  Hamburg.  His  works  were  prin 
cipally  operas.  Died  in  1767. 
Teiemaque.  See  TELKMACHUS. 
Tel-e-phas'sa,  [Gr.  T7//£oaaoa  :  Fr.  TELEPHASSE,  ta'- 
la'ffs',]  the  wife  of  Agenor,  and  the  mother  of  Cadmus, 
Europa,  and  Phoenix. 
Telephe.  See  TELEPHUS. 

Tel'e-phus,  [Gr.  T///.COOC;  Fr.  TELEPHE,  ta'lkf.l  an 
ancient  hero,  the  son  of  Hercules  and  Auge,  was  King 
of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  passed  many  years  in 
poverty  and  exile.  He  fought  against  the  Greeks  in 
the  beginning  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  wounded  by 
Achilles.  An  oracle  which  he  consulted  informed  him 
that  his  wound  could  only  be  cured  by  him  who  inflicted 
it.  Having  persuaded  Achilles  to  heal  his  wound,  he 
became  an  ally  of  the  Greeks.  Euripides  and  Sopho 
cles  each  wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "Telephus." 

Tel-e-sil'la,  [Gr.  TeXeottto;  Fr.  TELESILLK,  ti'la'- 
sel',]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at  Argos,  lived  about 
510  B.C.  She  is  said  to  have  served  in  the  army  against 
Sparta,  and  to  have  been  equally  celebrated  for  her 
courage  and  poetical  genius. 

Teiesio,  ta-la'se-o,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
scholar,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1482.  He  was  professor  of 
Latin,  etc.  at  Rome  and  Venice.  Died  in  1534. 

Teiesio,  [Lat.  TELE'SIUS,]  (BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1508  or  1509,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
an  opponent  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  and  an 
asserter  of  mental  independence.  He  published  some 
new  ideas  in  his  book  "  On  the  Nature  of  Things  ac 
cording  to  Proper  Principles,"  ("  De  Natura  Rerum 
juxta  propria  Principia.")  He  was  persecuted  by  the 
clergy  for  his  opinions.  Died  in  1588. 

See  LOTTER,  "DeVita  et  Philosophia  B.  Telesii,"  1733  :  RIXNER 
and  SIBER,  "  Bernardin.  Telesius."  1820:  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;" 
C.  BARTHOLOMESS,  "  Dissertatio  de  B.  Teiesio,"  1849:  GINGUENE, 
"  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Telesius.     See  TF.LESIO. 

Te-les'pho-rus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  elected  in  127.  Died  in  138  A.D. 

Te-leVtas  or  Te-les'tes,  [Tf/£<ira?  or  Tetearijs,]  an 
Athenian  dithyrambic  poet,  flourished  about  400  B.C. 


Tel'ford,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  Scottish  engineer, 
born  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1757.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
shepherd,  and  was  apprenticed  at  an  early  age  to  a 
stone-mason.  Having  subsequently  removed  to  London, 
he  was  employed  in  various  architectural  works,  and 
in  1796  completed  an  iron  bridge  over  the  Severn.  In 
1801  he  finished  the  Ellesmere  Canal,  which  was  fol 
lowed  by  the  aqueduct  bridge  over  the  valley  of  the 
Dee,  and  the  Caledonian  Ship-Canal,  esteemed  one  of 
his  greatest  works.  His  improvement  of  the  harbours 
of  Aberdeen  and  Dundee,  the  construction  of  the  Saint 
Catherine  docks,  London,  and  the  Menai  suspension 
bridge,  are  also  monuments  of  engineering  skill.  Mr. 
Telford  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London 
and  Edinburgh,  and  was  for  many  years  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  to  which  he  bequeathed 
£2000  for  a  premium-fund.  He  contributed  a  number 
of  articles  on  architecture,  inland  navigation,  etc.  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Encyclopasdia."  Died  in  1834. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839;  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1839. 

Teligny,  de,  deh  teh-len'ye',  (CHARLES,)  a  French 
Protestant  officer  and  able  negotiator.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  civil  wars,  and  was  employed  in  sev 
eral  treaties  between  his  party  and  the  court.  He  mar 
ried  in  1571  Louise  de  Coligny,  a  daughter  of  Admiral 
de  Coligny,  and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  August, 
1572,  at  Paris.  His  widow  afterwards  was  married  to 
William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange. 

See  HAAG,  "La  France  protestante." 

Tell,  t£l,  (WiLHELM,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  hero  and 
patriot,  born  in  the  canton  of  Uri  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  1307  he  entered  into  a  league 
with  his  father-in-law,  Walter  Fiirst,  Stauffacher  von 
Schwyz,  and  Arnold  von  Melchthal  to  resist  the  tyranny 
of  the  Austrian  governor,  Hermann  Gessler.  This  officer 
having  insolently  required  the  Swiss  to  make  obeisance 
to  his  hat,  which  was  hung  up  in  public,  Tell  refused  to 
comply,  upon  which  Gessler  commanded  him  to  shoot 
an  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son,  and,  if  he  failed  to 
hit  the  mark,  his  life  should  be  the  penalty.  Tell  struck 
the  apple,  but,  on  being  asked  what  he  intended  to  do 
with  a  second  arrow  which  he  carried,  replied  that  in  case 
he  had  killed  his  son  it  was  destined  for  Gessler.  For 
this  he  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  governor's  vessel  ;  but, 
a  violent  storm  arising,  he  was  required  to  steer  the  boat, 
and,  watching  his  chance,  sprang  on  shore.  Gessler, 
having  landed  soon  after,  was  shot,  by  Tell,  while  on  his 
way  to  Kussnacht.  These  incidents  form  the  subject 
of  Schiller's  most  popular  drama.  In  the  opinion  of 
some  of  the  best  modern  critics,  there  is  a  considerable 
infusion  of  the  mythic  element  in  the  history  of  Tell  as 
it  has  come  down  to  us.  According  to  tradition,  William 
Tell  was  drowned  about  1350,  while  attempting  to  save 
a  child, — an  event  which  Uhland  has  celebrated  in  one 
of  his  lyrics. 

See  IDELER,  "  Die  Sapce  vom  Schusse  des  Tell,"  1836;  G.  E.  VON 
HALLER,  "Rede  iiber  \V.  Tell,"  1772:  "Les  Origiues  de  la  Con 
federation  Suisse,"  by  A.  RII.I.IET,  Geneva,  i86S;  J.  VON  Mur.LER, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Suisse  ;"  HENNING,  "  W.  Tell,"  1836  ;  J.  J.  HISELY, 
"G.  Tell,  Mythe  et  Histoire,"  etc.,  1843;  BARING-GOULD,  "Curious 
Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1869. 

Teller,  tel'ler,  (WILHELM  ABRAHAM,)  a  German 
theologian,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt,  was 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1734.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual 
of  Christian  Faith,"  "  Dictionary  of  the  New  Testament," 
and  other  religious  works.  Died  in  1804. 

Tellez.     See  ELEANOR  OF  PORTUGAL. 

Tellez,  tel-lez',  (BALTHAZAR,)  a  learned  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1595.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  in  his  native  city,  having  previously  taught 
belles-lettres,  philosophy,  etc.  in  the  principal  colleges 
of  Portugal.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  "  History 
of  Ethiopia,"  including  an  account  of  the  Jesuit  missions 
in  that  country,  "  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Por 
tugal,"  and  "Compendium  of  Universal  Philosophy," 
("  Summa  universae  Philosophise.")  He  was  appointed 
provincial  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  Portugal.  Died  in 
1675. 

See  BARBOSA  MACHADO,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitano." 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TELLEZ 


2106 


TEMPLE 


Tellez,  tel-ye'th/,  (GABRIEL,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
dramatist,  known  by  his  pseudonym  of  TIKSO  DK  MOLINA, 
(teK'so  da  mo-lee'na,)  was  born  at  Madrid  about  1585. 
Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  became  prior  of  the  con 
vent  of  Soria  in  1645.  His  comedies  are  said  to  have 
amounted  to  three  hundred,  only  sixty-eight  of  which 
have  been  preserved.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  El 
Condenado  por  Desconfiado,"  "The  Woman  who  Com 
mands  at  Home,"  ("  La  Muger  que  manda  en  Casa,") 
"Prudence  in  Woman,"  ("  Prudencia  en  la  Muger,") 
"The  Country-Girl  of  La  Sagra,"  ("La  Villana  de  La 
Sagra,")  "The  Scoffer  of  Seville,"  ("El  Burlador  de 
Sevilla,")  which  was  imitated  by  Moliere  in  his  "  Festin 
de  Pierre,"  and  "  The  Bashful  Man  in  the  Palace,"  ("El 
Vergonzoso  en  Palacio.")  These  dramas  are  ranked 
among  the  master-pieces  of  the  Spanish  theatre,  being 
esteemed  second  only  to  those  of  Lope  de  Vega,  whom 
Tellez  made  his  model.  Died  in  1648. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  article  TIRSO 
DE  MOI.INA,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tellez  da  Sylva,  tel-leV  dd  sel'va,  (MANGEL,)  Mar 
quis  d'Alegrete  and  Count  de  Villamayor,  a  Portuguese 
litterateur,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1682;  died  in  1736. 

Tellier,  Le.     See  LK  TELLIER  and  Louvois. 

Telluccini,  t§l-loot-chee'nee,  (MARIO,)  called  BER- 
NINO,  an  Italian  poet,  lived  about  1560-90.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Artemidoro,"  a  poem,  (1566.) 

Tel'lus  or  Ter'ra,  [Gr.  P;j>  or  Tea,]  the  goddess  of 
the  earth,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  called  the  wife  of 
Uranus  or  Ccelus. 

Temanza,  ta-man'za,  (TOMMASO,)  a  Venetian  architect 
and  writer,  born  in  1705.  He  built  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maddalcna  at  Venice,  the  bridge  of  Dolo  over 
the  Brenta,  and  the  facade  of  Santa  Margarita  at  Padua. 
His  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Venetian  Architects 
and  Sculptors  of  the  Sixteenth  Century"  (1777)  is 
esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  also  published  several 
treatises  on  architecture  and  antiquities.  Died  in  1789. 

See  NEGKI,  "  Notizie  intorno  alia  Persona  ed  alle  Opere  di  T. 
Temanza,"  1830. 

Temme,  tem'meh,  (Jooocus,  yo-do'kus,)  a  German 
jurist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Lette,  Westphalia, 
in  1799.  He  was  elected  to  the  Prussian  National 
Assembly  in  1848.  He  wrote  treatises  on  the  Civil  Law 
and  Penal  Law  of  Prussia,  (1846-53,)  and  other  works. 

Temminck,  tem'mink,  (C.  J.,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
naturalist,  born  about  1770.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  in  French,  "  The  Natural  History  of  Pigeons  and 
Gallinaceous  Birds,"  (3  vols.,  1813-15,)  a  "Manual  of 
Ornithology,"  (4  vols.,  1820-39,)  and  a  "  Monography 
of  Mammalogy,  or  Descriptions  of  Some  Genera  of 
Mammifera  of  which  Species  have  been  observed  in  the 
Museums  of  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1825-41.)  Died  in  1858. 

Tempelhoff,  von,  fon  tem'pel-hof,  (GEORG  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  Prussian  general  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Trampe  in  1737.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  subsequently  under  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  in  1792.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Bom 
bardier  Prussien,"  a  "  History  of  the  Seven  Years'  War," 
and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  teacher  of  military 
science  to  the  sons  of  Frederick  William  II.  Died  in 
1807. 

Tempesta,  tem-peVta,  or  Tempesti,  tem-peVtee, 
(ANTONIO,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Florence  in  1555.  He  studied  under  Strada, 
and  afterwards  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  executed  a 
number  of  admired  works  for  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  Car 
dinal  Farnese,  and  other  persons  of  rank.  He  painted 
landscapes,  animals,  hunting-scenes,  and  battles  with 
great  spirit  and  fidelity,  and  produced  more  than  fif 
teen  hundred  etchings.  Among  the  best  of  these  we 
may  name  "The  Life  of  Saint  Anthony,"  (in  24  plates,) 
"The  Victory  of  the  Jews  over  the  Amalekites,"  and 
"Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  Apostles."  Died  in  1630. 

Tempesta,  CAVALIERE,  a  celebrated  painter,  some 
times  called  PIKTRO  MULIER,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in 
1637.  His  original  name  was  PETER  MOLYN,  but,  owing 
to  his  skill  in  delineating  storms  at  sea,  it  was  changed 
to  Tempesta.  After  residing  for  some  time  at  Rome, 
where  he  married  and  obtained  extensive  patronage,  he 
visited  Venice  and  Genoa.  He  soon  after  contrived  the 


murder  of  his  wife,  in  order  to  marry  a  Genoese  lady, 
and,  being  convicted  of  the  crime,  was  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  He  was  liberated  at  the  end 
of  five  years,  according  to  one  statement,  while  other 
writers  assert  that  he  was  confined  much  longer.  On 
his  release  he  settled  at  Milan,  where  he  acquired  great 
wealth  by  the  sale  of  his  pictures.  Died  in  1701. 

See  DESCA.MI'S,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais." 

Tem'ple,  (FREDERICK,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
1821,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1842.  lie  became  chaplain 
to  the  queen,  head-master  of  Rugby  School  in  1858,  and 
Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1869.  He  was  author  of  one  of  the 
well-known  "Essays  and  Reviews,"  (1860.) 

Temple,  (HENKY.)     See  PALMERSTON,  LORD. 

Temple,  (Sir  JOHN',)  an  English  lawyer  and  states 
man,  born  in  London,  became  a  privy  councillor  in  Ire 
land  under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  in  1641."  Died 
in  1677. 

Temple,  (JOHN,)  a  son  of  Sir  William,  (1628-99,) 
became  secretary  of  war  in  1689.  About  a  week  after 
his  appointment  he  committed  suicide.  lie  left  a  note 
expressing  regret  for  undertaking  a  task  for  which  he 
was  incompetent. 

Temple,  (RICHARD  GRENVILLE,)  EARL,  an  English 
politician,  born  about  1710,  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Lord  Chatham.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in 
1756,  and  became  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  about  1758. 
"  His  talents  for  administration  and  debate,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "\\ere  of  no  high  order.  But  his  great  posses 
sions,  his  turbulent  and  unscrupulous  character,  and  his 
skill  in  the  most  ignoble  tactics  of  faction  made  him 
one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  that  a  ministry  could 
have."  (Essay  on  "Lord  Chatham.")  Died  in  1777. 

Temple,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  jurist,  was  sec 
retary  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  subsequently  became  a 
master  of  chancery.  Died  in  1626.  He  was  grandfather 
of  the  famous  Sir  William  Temple. 

Temple,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  celebrated  English  states 
man,  diplomatist,  and  writer,  born  in  London  in  1628, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Temple,  who  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1641.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  Henry  Hammond  the  eminent  divine.  His 
early  education  was  directed  by  the  uncle  just  named. 
He  also  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  Cudworth  was  his 
tutor,  but  he  left  college  without  a  degree  about  1647, 
and  then  set  out  upon  his  travels  on  the  continent.  He 
professed  to  be  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  After  a  long 
courtship,  in  which  a  variety  of  obstacles  were  encoun 
tered,  he  married,  about  1654,  Dorothy  Osborne,  who 
preferred  him  to  Henry  Cromwell,  a  son  of  the  Pro 
tector.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Irish  Convention  of 
1660,  and  of  the  first  Irish  Parliament  that  met  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  In  1665  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  Bishop  of  Minister,  and  acquitted  himself  so  well 
that  he  was  created  a  baronet  in  1666,  and  appointed  resi 
dent  at  the  vice-regal  court  of  Brussels.  "  From  this  ex 
cellent  school,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  soon  came  forth  the 
most  accomplished  negotiator  of  his  age."  He  formed 
a  friendship  with  De  Witt,  then  chief  minister  of  Hol 
land.  Temple  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  negotiating 
with  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  the  triple  alliance  against 
the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1668.  "This  memo 
rable  negotiation  occupied  only  five  days."  (Macaulay.) 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  at  the  Hague  in  1668. 
In  October,  1670,  he  was  recalled  by  the  "Cabal,"  and 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  English  court  was  reversed. 
During  the  retirement  which  followed  he  wrote  an  "  Ac 
count  of  the  United  Provinces,"  (1672,)  and  other  works. 
The  members  of  the  Cabal  raised  against  themselves 
such  a  storm  of  popular  indignation  by  subservience  to 
the  French  king,  that  the  services  of  Temple  were  re 
quired  by  Charles  II.  in  1674  to  negotiate  a  peace  with 
Holland.  "  The  highest  honours  of  the  state  were  now 
within  Temple's  reach."  (Macaulay.)  He  declined  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state,  and  accepted  the  embassy  to 
the  Hague,  (1674.)  In  1677  he  was  earnestly  pressed 
by  the  king  to  accept  the  office  of  secretary;  but  he  was 
unwilling  to  take  the  responsibility,  for  he  perceived 
that  the  signs  of  the  times  were  very  portentous  of  evil. 
By  the  advice  of  Temple,  Charles  appointed,  in  April, 


a, e, T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


TEMPLE 


2107 


TENNENT 


1679,  a  new  privy  council  of  thirty  members,  fifteen  of 
whom  were  great  officers  of  state.  Sir  William  was  a 
member  of  this  council.  "The  perfidious  levity  of  the 
king,  and  the  ambition  of  the  chiefs  of  parties,  produced 
the  instant,  entire,  and  irremediable  failure  of  this  plan." 
(Macaulay.)  He  took  no  part  in  the  violent  contests 
which  preceded  the  revolution  of  1688,  and  after  that 
event  refused  to  become  secretary  of  state,  in  spite  of  the 
pressing  solicitations  of  William  III.  He  passed  his 
latter  years  at  Moor  Park,  Surrey,  where  Swift,  the  great 
humorist,  acted  as  his  secretary.  He  wrote  in  this  re 
treat  his  "Memoirs  of  Events  from  1672  to  1679,"  and 
several  miscellaneous  treatises.  "  Next  to  IJryden," 
says  Hallam,  '•  the  second  place  among  the  polite  writers 
of  the  period  from  the  restoration  to  the  end  of  the  cen 
tury  has  commonly  been  given  to  Sir  William  Temple. 
...  If  his  thoughts  are  not  very  striking,  they  are  com 
monly  just.  He  has  the  merit  of  a  comprehensive  and 
candid  mind."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu 
rope.")  lie  died  in  January,  1699.  Macaulay  censures 
his  neutrality  in  politics,  and  his  habit  of  shrinking  from 
responsibility,  but  admits  "  that  he  won  the  esteem  of  a 
profligate  court  and  of  a  turbulent  people  without  being 
guilty  of  any  great  subserviency  to  either." 

See  M.-\  CAUL  AY,  "  Essay  on  Sir  William  Temple  ;"  THOMAS  P. 
Coi'RTENAY,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Sir  William  Tem 
ple."  2  vols.,  1836;  ABEL  BOYEK,  "Memoir  of  Sir  W.  Temple," 
1714;  "  Leven  von  der  Ridder  Temple,"  Leyden,  1736;  "Life 
of  Sir  W.  Temple,"  by  liis  sister,  LADY  GIFFARD,  1731  ;  H. 
LUDEX,  "  Sir  W.  Temples  Biographic,"  1808;  BUKNET,  "  History 
of  his  Own  Times;"  "  Biographia  Britannica. " 

Temple,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  diplomatist,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  Palmerston.  He 
was  for  many  years  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Naples. 
Died  in  1856. 

Tem'ple-man,  (PETER,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Dorchester  in  1711,  translated  Norden's  "Travels  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia"  from  the  Danish,  and  wrote  several 
medical  treatises.  Died  in  1769. 

Tencin,  de,  deh  t6N'sax',  (CLAUDIXE  ALEXANDRINE 
Gi'EKix,)  a  French  courtesan,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1681. 
She  became  successively  the  mistress  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  Chancellor  d'Argenson,  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
and  other  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  She  was 
the  mother  of  the  celebrated  D'Alembert,  whom  she 
abandoned  and  exposed.  She  subsequently  attained 
distinction  for  her  literary  tastes  and  acquirements,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  novels.  She  numbered  among 
her  friends  Fontenelle  and  Montesquieu.  Died  in  1749. 

See  L.  BARTHELEMV,  "  Memoires  secrets  de  Madame  de  Ten 
cin,"  1790;  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Tencin,  de,  (PIERRE  GUERIN,)  a  French  cardinal  and 
politician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1680,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  creature  or  trusted  agent 
of  Dubois,  and  an  adversary  of  the  Jansenists.  In  1739 
he  became  a  cardinal,  and  in  1742  received  the  title  of 
minister  of  state.  Died  in  1758. 

See  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Tencin," 
1758- 

Tenerani,  ta-na-ra'nee,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  sculp 
tor,  born  near  Carrara  about  1800.  He  studied  under 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  and  subsequently  produced 
a  number  of  admirable  works  illustrating  Greek  and 
Roman  mythology.  Among  the  principal  of  these  we 
may  name  his  "Cupid  extracting  a  Thorn  from  the  Foot 
of  Venus,"  a  "  Faun  playing  on  a  Flute,"  and  a  group 
of  "Psyche  and  Venus."  He  has  also  executed,  among 
other  religious  works,  a  "Christ  on  the  Cross,"  and  the 
"  Martyrdom  of  Eudorus."  His  monumental  statues 
and  portrait-busts  are  likewise  highly  esteemed.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of 
other  learned  societies,  and  became  professor  of  sculpture 
in  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke  at  Rome. 

Te'nes  or  Teii'iies,  [Gr.  T^vw?f  ;  Fr.  TENES,  ta'ne'ss',] 
a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Cycnus. 
His  step-mother,  by  a  calumnious  charge,  iuduced  Cycnus 
to  throw  him  into  the  sea,  and  he  wa^  cast  upon  an 
island  which  derived  from  him  the  name  of  Tenedos. 
He  was  killed  by  Achilles. 

Teniers,  teVe-erz,  [Fr.  pron.  ti'ne-aiR',]  (DAVID,) 
THE  ELDER,  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  surnamed 


IL  BASSANO,  from  his  admirable  imitations  of  that  artist, 
was  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1582.    He  studied  under  Rubens, 
and    afterwards    resided    many   years    in    Rome.      His 
favourite  subjects  were  tavern-scenes,  and  boors  drink 
ing  and  smoking.     Died  in  1649. 

Teniers,  (DAVID,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1610.  He  was  instructed 
by  his  father,  whom  he  surpassed  in  genius,  and  was 
also  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Academy  at  Antwerp.  He  is  esteemed,  in  his  de 
partment,  one  of  the  greatest  artists  of  the  Flemish 
school.  He  produced  several  historical  pieces  of  supe 
rior  merit ;  but  his  master-pieces  are  delineations  of  low 
life.  He  also  excelled  in  marine  views  and  as  a  painter 
of  animals.  Died  in  1690. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands ;"  LECARPEN- 
TIER,  "  David  Teniers,"  1804;  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Ten'i-soii,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  prelate, 
born  at  Cottenham,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in  1636.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  rose  successively 
to  be  Archdeacon  of  London,  (1689,)  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
(1691,)  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1694.)  He  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  learning  and  piety,  and  made 
numerous  bequests  for  charitable  and  educational  pur 
poses.  He  published  several  religious  and  controversial 
works.  Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Archbishop  Tenison,"  1716. 

Tenivelli,  ta-ne-vel'lee,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  biogra 
pher,  born  at  Turin  in  1756.  He  published  "  Pied- 
montese  Biography,"  ("  Biografia  Piemontese,"  5  vols., 
1784-92.)  He  was  condemned  as  a  revolutionist  by  a 
court-martial  and  shot  in  1797. 

Ten  Kate.     See  KATE,  TEN. 

Ten'iiant,  (SMITHSON,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist, 
born  in  1761,  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Cam 
bridge  in  1813.  He  contributed  a  number  of  valuable 
essays  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Philosophical  So 
ciety.  Died  in  1815. 

Ten'iiant,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  Oriental 
scholar,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1785.  He  was  appointed  in 
1835  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  in  Saint  Mary's 
College,  Saint  Andrew's.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas,  a  humorous  poem  entitled  "  Anster  Fair,"  and 
other  poetical  pieces.  He  also  made  translations  from 
the  Greek,  Persian,  etc.,  and  compiled  grammars  of  the 
Chaldee  and  Syriac  languages.  Died  in  1848. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men,"  (Supplement;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1814. 

Temiecker,  von,  fon  ten'n£k-er,  (CHRISTIAN  SEI- 
FERT,)  a  German  veterinary  writer,  born  near  Freiberg 
in  1770,  published  several  works  on  the  diseases  and 
cure  of  horses.  Died  in  1839. 

Termemann,  ten'neh-man',  (WILHELM  GOTTLIEB,) 
an  eminent  German  philosopher,  born  near  Erfurt  in 
December,  1761,  was  an  adherent  of  the  doctrines  of 
Kant.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in 
1798,  and  at  Marburg  in  1804.  He  translated  into  Ger 
man  Locke's  "Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding." 
His  chief  work  is  a  valuable  "  History  of  Philosophy," 
("Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  n  vols.,  1798-1811,) 
of  which  he  also  published  an  abridgment,  entitled 
"Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  (1812.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  G.  F.  CREI'ZER,  "Rede  am  Grabe  Tennemann's,"  i8ig  ; 
WAGNER,  "Memoria  G.  T.  Tennemanni,"  1819;  COUSIN,  "  Cours 
de  Philosophic." 

Teii'nent,  (GILBERT,)  an  eloquent  Presbyterian  di 
vine,  born  in  the  county  of  Armagh,  Ireland,  in  1703, 
emigrated  at  an  early  age  to  America,  and  became  in 
1743  pastor  of  a  church  in  Philadelphia.  Died  in  1764. 

His  brother  WILLIAM,  born  in  1705,  settled  as  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Freehold,  New  Jersey.  During  an  attack 
of  fever,  he  lay  for  three  days  in  a  trance,  and  on  his 
recovery  gave  a  description  of  what  he  saw  in  the  celes 
tial  world.  A  full  account  of  this  extraordinary  event 
was  published  by  Elias  Boudinot.  Died  in  1777. 

See  REV.  ROBERT  STEEL,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

Ten'nent,  (Sir  JAMES  EMERSON,)  a  distinguished 
traveller  and  statesman,  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in 
1804.  He  published,  under  the  name  of  EMERSON,  (his 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TEN  NTS  ON 


2108 


TERENCE 


original  name,)  "Travels  in  Greece,"  (1825,)  "Letters 
from  the  /Egean,"  (1829,)  and  "A  History  of  Modern 
Greece,"  (1830.)  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Bel 
fast  in  1832,  and  was  several  times  re-elected.  He  was 
appointed  civil  secretary  to  the  colonial  government  of 
Ceylon  in  1845,  having  previously  been  made  a  knight. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  named  "  Christianity  in 
Ceylon,"  etc.,  (1850,)  "Wine:  its  Use  and  Taxation," 
etc.,  (1855,)  and  "Sketches  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Ceylon,"  etc.,  (1861.)  Died  in  March,  1869. 
See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  i85g. 
Ten'iiy-spii,  (ALFRED,)  D.C.L.,  a  popular  English 
poet,  the  third  son  of  George  Clayton  Tennyson,  rector 
of  that  parish,  was  born  at  Somerby,  in  Lincolnshire,  in 
1809.  His  mother's  maiden-name  was  Elizabeth  Fytche. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  obtained  a  prize  for  an  English  poem  in  blank  verse 
on  "  Timbuctoo,"  (1829.)  He  was  still  an  under-gradu- 
ate  of  Trinity  College  when  he  published  a  volume 
entitled  "  Poems,  chiefly  Lyrical,"  (1830.)  In  this  col 
lection  were  several  short  poems  which  were  omitted 
from  the  subsequent  editions.  In  1833  there  appeared 
another  volume  of  "  Poems,  by  Alfred  Tennyson,"  in 
cluding,  besides  a  number  of  pieces  reprinted,  "  Mariana 
in  the  South,"  "The  May  Queen,"  "The  Palace  of  Art," 
a  "  Dream  of  Fair  Women,"  and  other  new  poems,  which, 
compared  with  his  earliest  efforts,  indicated  great  im 
provement  in  richness  of  thought  and  beauty  of  imagery. 
He  extended  his  reputation  by  his  "  Morte  d'Arthur," 
"  Locksley  Hall,"  "  Godiva,"  "  Dora,"  "  Lady  Clara  Vere 
De  Vere,"  and  other  poems,  in  2  vols.,  (1842.) 

He  afterwards  produced  an  admirable  poem  called 
"The  Princess,  a  Medley,"  (1847;)  a  beautiful  tribute 
to  the  memory  of  his  friend  Arthur  II.  Hallam,  entitled 
"  In  Memoriam,"  (1850  ;)  and  "  Maud,"  (1854.)  He  suc 
ceeded  Wordsworth  as  poet-laureate  in  1851.  Among 
his  later  works  are  "  The  Idylls  of  the  King,"  (1859,)  and 
a  volume  entitled  "  Enoch  Arden,  and  other  Poems," 
(1864.)  This  volume  includes  "  Aylmer's  Field"  and 
"Tithonus,"  which  is  greatly  admired. 

"  If  Mr.  Tennyson's  poetry,"  says  the  "Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  January,  1866,  "comes  short  of  the  highest 
standard,  it  is  because  the  conditions  under  which  he 
works  are  those  which  we  have  just  indicated.  .  .  .  He 
gives  us  symmetry  rather  than  grandeur  of  workman 
ship,  and  his  exploring  temper  is  more  often  exercised 
in  completing  the  web  of  delicate  sensibilities  within  the 
range  of  experience,  than  in  pressing  beyond  the  veil. 
.  .  .  After  the  descriptive  beauty  of  the  Laureate's  verse, 
perhaps  no  quality  of  it  is  more  highly  praised  than  its 
measure  ;  and  truly  the  purity  and  delicacy  of  its  move 
ment  is  almost  beyond  praise.  When  we  judge  it  by 
the  highest  standard,  however,  it  still  seems  to  lack  that 
lofty  and  ringing  flight  and  those  unforeseen  vivacities 
of  cadence  which  we  find  in  the  greatest  masters.  .  .  . 
Though  certain  common  excellences  may  make  a 
plausible  resemblance,  yet,  in  truth,  no  contrast  is 
greater  than  that  between  the  jewelled  beauty  of  Mr. 
Tennyson's  style  and  the  crystalline  effulgence — the  j 
'non  imitabile  fulgur' — of  the  great  ancients."  Tennyson 
has  resided  for  some  years  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  lie 
published  in  1870  a  poem  called  "The  Holy  Grail." 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly"  for  September,  1842,  March,  1848, 
and  October,  1859;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849, 
September,  1855,  and  November,  1859;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1859;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1855,  and  Sep 
tember,  1859;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1850,  and  Oc 
tober,  1859;  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1859. 

Tenon,  teh-n6N',(jACQUES  REN£,)  a  celebrated  French 
surgeon,  born  near  joigny  in  1724.  He  studied  anatomy 
in  Paris  under  Winslow,  and  was  appointed  in  1744 
army  surgeon  of  the  first  class.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1759.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  his  "  Memoirs  on  the  Exfoliation 
of  Bones"  and  "  Researches  on  Capsulary  Cataracts." 
Died  in  1816. 

See  CUVIER,  "  E"loge  de  Tenon  ;"  "  Biographic  Medicale." 
Tenore,  ta-m/ra,  (MICHELE,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born 
at  Naples  in  1781.  He  founded  the  botanic  garden  of 
Naples,  of  which  he  was  director  for  many  years.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora  Neapolitana," 
(5  vols.)  Died  in  1861. 


Tenot,  ta'no',  (EUGENE,)  a  French  journalist  of  the 
present  age.    He  became  editor  of  the  "  Siecle,"  a  popu 
lar  and  liberal  daily  journal  of  Paris.     He  published  an 
able  and  impartial  work,  entitled  "  Paris  in  December, 
1851,  or  the  Coup-d'Etat  of  Napoleon  III.,"  which  has 
been  translated  into  English. 
Ten  Rhyne.     See  RHYNE. 
Tenterden,  LORD.    See  ABBOTT,  (CHARLES.) 
Tentori,    ten-to'ree,  (CRISTOFORO,)  a  .distinguished 
historian,  of  Venetian  extraction,  born  in  Spain  in  1745. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Civil  and  Political  History  of 
the   Republic  of  Venice,"  etc.,  (12  vols.,    1785,)   which 
was  followed  in  1799  by  an  account  of  the  destruction 
of  the  republic  in  1797.     Died  in  1810. 

Tentzel  or  Teiizel,  tent'sel,  (\VM.HELM  ER.XST,)  a 
German  antiquary  and  journalist,  born  in  Tliuringia 
in  1659.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  Saxonia 
Numismatica,"  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation,"  and 
other  works  on  the  history  and  antiquities  of  Germany. 
In  1688  he  established  a  monthly  literary  review,  which 
was  the  first  journal  of  the  kind  that  had  appeared  in 
Germany.  Died  in  1707. 
Teiizel.  See  TENTZEL. 

Teobaldo,  the  Italian  for  THEOBALD,  which  see. 
Teocrito.     See  THEOCRITUS. 
Teodoro.     See  THEODORUS. 
Teodosio.     See  THKODOSIUS. 
Teofilo.     See  THEOPHILUS. 
Teofrasto.     See  THEOPHRASTUS. 
Teplof  or  Teplow,  tep'lof,   written   also  Teplov, 
(GREGORY  NIKOLAIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  savant  and  sena 
tor,  born  about  1720.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  wrote  various  works.     Died 
in  1779. 

Teramo,  da,  da  ta'ra-mo  or  ter'a-mo,  (JACOPO  PAL- 
LADINO,)  an  Italian  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Teramo 
1349.  lie  wrote  "Trial  of  Lucifer  against  Jesus," 
("Processus  Luciferi  contra  Jesum,")  and  the  "Consola 
tion  of  Sinners,"  ("Consolatio  Peccatorum,"  1472.)  Died 
in  1417. 

Terburg,  ter'biirg  or  teVbuRH,  (GKKAART,)  a  cele 
brated  painter  of  the  Dutch  school,  born  near  Overyssel 
in  1608.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  subsequently  visited 
Madrid,  London,  and  Paris,  his  works-  being  everywhere 
received  with  distinguished  favour.  His  most  admired 
productions  are  conversation-pieces,  which  department 
of  the  art  he  is  said  to  have  originated.  His  pictures 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  Dresden,  Amsterdam, 
Paris,  Munich,  and  Vienna,  also  a  number  in  England  ; 
and  many  of  them  have  been  engraved  and  lithographed. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  picture  of  the  pleni 
potentiaries  at  the  Congress  of  Minister,  and  portraits 
of  the  royal  family  of  Spain.  Died  in  1681. 
See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 
Terceira,t§R-sa^era,  DUKE  OF,  and  Count  ofVillaflor, 
a  Portuguese  statesman  and  military  commander,  born 
about  1790.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  queen  Maria  da 
Gloria,  and  gained  several  advantages  over  Don  Miguel. 
Having  been  made  a  marshal,  he  was  appointed  in  1829 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  constitutional  army.  lie 
became  minister  of  war  in  1842.  Died  in  1860. 

Tercier,  teVse-i',  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  diplomatist  and 
linguist,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  was  employed  by 
Louis  XV.  to  direct  his  secret  correspondence.  Died 
in  1767. 

See  SOLIGNAC,  "  E"loge  de  Tercier,"  1767. 
Terence,  teVenss,  or  Terentius,  te-ren'shc-us,  [Fr. 
TERENCE,  ta'rd.Nss';  It.  TERENZIO,  ta-ren'ze-o/for,  more 
fully,  Pub'lius  Tereii'tius  A'fer,  a  celebrated  Roman 
comic  poet,  born  at  Carthage  about  195  B.C.  At  an  early 
age  he  became  the  slave  of  a  Roman  senator,  named 
Terentius  Lucanus,  who  gave  him  a  good  education,  to 
which  he  added  the  gift  of  liberty.  Terence  was  on  in 
timate  terms  with  Scipio  Africanus  Minor  and  Laelius, 
who  are  said  to  have  aided  him  in  the  composition  of  his 
plays.  His  first  work,  entitled  "  Andria,"  was  performed 
at  Rome  in  166  B.C.  He  produced  "  Hecyra"  in  165, 
and  "The  Self-Tormentor"  ("  Heauton-timorumenos") 
in  163.  Three  other  of  his  plays  have  come  down  to  us, 
viz.,  "Adelphi,"  "  Phormio,"  and  "Eunuchus." 

After  he  had  written  these,  he  travelled  in  Greece,  and 


a,  e,  I, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a, e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a, e,  j,  o,  obscure-  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 

' 


TERENTIA 


2109 


TERTULLUN 


translated,  it  is  said,  one  hundred  and  eight  of  Menan- 
der's  comedies.  He  never  returned  to  Rome,  but  died 
in  159  or  158  B.C.  His  works  are  models  of  elegant 
diction  and  pure  Latinity.  They  were  praised  by  Caesar 
and  Cicero,  and  are  said  to  have  escaped  the  censures 
of  the  Church.  He  is  deficient  in  vis  comica,  ("comic 
power,"  or  "  broad  humour,'T)  but,  according  to  Horace, 
excels  in  art.  (Epistle  II.  1.  59.)  The  kindly  human  | 
sympathy  manifested  by  Terence  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  popularity  of  his  dramas.  When  the  words 

"  Homo  sum;  humani  niliil  a  me  alienum  puto,"* 
were  spoken  on  the  Roman  stage,  they  were  received 
by  all  classes  with  tumultuous  and  reiterated  applause. 
His  plays  have  been  translated  into  English  by  George 
Colman. 

See  L.  SCHOPEN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Terentio  et  Douato,"  1821  ;  J. 
B.  LOMAN,  "Specimen  critico-literarium  in  Piautum  et  Terentium," 
1845  ;  N.  FRITSCH,  "Suetonii  Vita  Terentii  einendata  et  illustrata," 
1851;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Terentia,  te-re'n's'he-a.,  a  Roman  lady,  who  became 
the  wife  of  Cicero  the  orator  about  80  H.C.  She  bore 
him  a  daughter  Tullia  and  a  son  Marcus.  In  the  year 
46  she  was  repudiated  by  her  husband,  for  reasons  that 
have  not  been  satisfactorily  explained ;  but  this  act  is 
generally  considered  to  have  left  a  stain  on  the  reputation 
of  Cicero.  Terentia  appears  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
good  sense  and  great  firmness  of  character.  She  is  said 
to  have  attained  the  extraordinary  age  of  one  hundred 
and  three  years. 

Terentianus.     See  MAURUS  TERENTIANUS. 

Terentius.     See  TF.RENCF. 

Terentius  (te-ren'she^-us)  Cle'mens,  a  Roman  jurist, 
the  date  of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "Ad  Legem  Jnliam  et  Papiam,"  in  tsventy 
books.  Only  fragments  of  it  are  extant. 

Terentius  Varro.     See  VARRO. 

Terenzio.     See  TERENCE. 

Teresa.     See  THERESA. 

Terme.     See  TERMINUS. 

Ter'mi-nus,  [Fr.  TERME,  t?Rm,]  a  Roman  divinity, 
who  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  boundaries  of 
nations  and  of  private  landed  property.  The  worship 
of  Terminus  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa. 

Ternaux,  teR'no',  (GUILLAUME  Louis,)  BARON,  a 
French  statesman  and  manufacturer,  born  at  Sedan  in 
1763.  He  represented  the  department  of  Seine  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1818  to  1823.  He  was  an 
earnest  supporter  of  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons,  but  took 
an  active  part  against  Charles  X.  in  the  revolution  of 
1830.  He  published  several  treatises  on  finance  and 
manufactures,  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  spinning- 
machines  for  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  the  improvement  of  the  national  industry. 
Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ternaux,  (HENRI,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  pub 
lished  "  Voyages,  Relations,  and  Memoirs  relating  to 
the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of  America,"  the  "  Biblio- 
theque  Americaine,"  and  other  works. 

Ter-pan'der,  [Gr.  Tep-ai'dpof ;  Fr.  TERPANDRE,  I£R'- 
pS.NdR',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  musician,  born 
on  the  island  of  Lesbos  about  680  R.c.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  heptachord,  or  seven-stringed  lyre,  and  is 
said  to  have  founded  the  first  school  of  music  in  Greece. 
He  was  the  author  of  hymns  and  lyrics,  none  of  which 
are  extant. 

See  K.  O.  MULLER,  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece;"  BODE,  "  Poetae  lyrici  Graeci." 

Terpandre.     See  TERPANDER. 

Terp-si-eh'o-re,  [  Gr.  Tepibixopr;  or  Tepnpixopa,  i.e. 
"delighting  in  the  dance,"  from  rep-u,  to  "delight," and 
Xope'ia,  a  "dance,"]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
dancing  and  choral  song.  She  was  represented  with 
a  crown  of  laurel,  and  with  a  lyre  in  her  hand. 

Terquem,  teR'k6NT/,  (Oi,RY,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Metz  in  1782,  was  a  Jew.  He  published  several 
mathematical  works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1862. 

Ter'ra,  [Fr.  TERRE,  taiR,]  a  name  given  by  the  Ro 
mans  to  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  and  identified  with 

*  "  I  am  a  man  :  and  I  have  an  interest  in  everything  that  concerns 
humanity."  See  Heauton-timorumenos,  Act  I.,  Scene  I. 


the  Ge  [Gr.  Tea  or  Tf/]  of  the  Greek  mythology.  She 
was  the  mother  of  the  Titans,  Gigantes,  and  Oceanus. 
(See  TFLLUS.) 

Terrail,  du.     See  BAYARD,  (PIERRE.) 

Terrasson,  ti'rt'sdN'',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  He  wrote  a  "His 
tory  of  Roman  Jurisprudence,"  (1750.)  Died  in  1782. 

Terrasson,  (GASPARD,)  a  French  Jansenist  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1680.  His  sermons  were  pub 
lished  in  4  vols.,  1749.  Died  in  1752. 

Terrasson,  (JEAN,)  a  distinguished  French  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1670,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Critical  Disserta 
tion  on  Homer's  Iliad,"  (1715,)  "Three  Letters  on  the 
New  System  of  Finance,"  (1720,)  in  defence  of  John 
Law's  projects,  a  philosophical  romance  entitled  "  Se- 
thos,"  on  the  model  of  Fenelon's  "Telemaque,"  and 
other  works.  In  1732  he  succeeded  Morville  in  the 
French  Academy.  Died  in  1750. 

See  D'ALEMBF.RT,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Acade'mie  Fran- 
caise  ;"  GRANDJEAN  DE  FOUCHV,  "  filogede  Terrasson  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  (1821.) 

Terrasson,  (MATHIEU,)  an  eloquent  French  lawyer 
and  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1669,  was  the  father  of 
Antoine,  noticed  above.  Died  in  1734. 

Terray,  ti'ri',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Forez  in  1715.  He  became  controller-general 
of  the  finances  in  1769,  and  was  removed  in  1774.  Died 
in  1778. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Terreros  y  Pando,  ter-ra'r6s  e  pan'do,  (ESTEBAN,) 
a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  grammarian,  born  in  Biscay  in 
1707.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Spanish 
Language,  with  Definitions  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian," 
("Diccionario  Castellano,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1785-93.)  Died 
at  Forli,  in  Italy,  in  1782. 

Ter'rill,  (WILLIAM  R.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in-Virginia  about  1832,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  (fighting 
for  the  Union,)  April,  1862,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Perryville,  October  8  of  that  year. 

Ter'ry,  (ALFRED  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1827,  was  a  lawyer  before  the 
civil  war.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the  expedition  against 
Port  Royal  in  November,  1861,  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  March,  1862,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  capture  of  Fort  Wagner,  in  September,  1863.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  James  River 
in  Virginia  in  the  summer  of  1864.  He  was  selected  by 
General  Grant  to  command  an  expedition  against  Fort 
Fisher,  North  Carolina,  with  the  co-operation  of  Admiral 
D.  D.  Porter.  On  the  I5th  of  January,  1865,  he  assaulted 
that  fort,  which,  after  a  very  obstinate  defence,  was  cap 
tured,  with  its  entire  garrison  and  armament.  "Thus 
was  secured,"  says  General  Grant,  "by  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  navy  and  army,  one  of  the  most  important 
successes  of  the  war." 

Ter'ry,  (DANIEL,)  an  English  comedian,  born  at  Bath 
about  1780.  He  performed  with  success  at  Liverpool 
and  Edinburgh,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  subsequently 
for  a  time  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Adelphi  Theatre, 
London.  Died  in  1828. 

Terry,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1590,  accompanied  the  embassy  to  the  Great  Mogul  in 
1615,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "Travels  in 
the  East  Indies,"  etc.,  (1655.) 

Tersan,  de,  deh  teVsos',  (CHARLES  PHILIPPE  CAM 
PION,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1736; 
died  in  1819. 

Tertre,  du.    See  DUTERTRE. 

Ter-tul'11-an,  [Lat.  TERTULLIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  TERTUL- 
LIEN,  teVtii'le'-aN'';  It.  TERTULLIANO,  teR-tool-le-a'no,] 
(QuiNTUS  SEPTIMIUS  FLORENS,)  an  eminent  Latin  Father 
of  the  Church,  born  at  Carthage  about  160  A.D.,  was 
originally  a  heathen.  He  adopted  the  profession  of 
advocate  or  lawyer.  The  date  of  his  conversion  to 
Christianity  is  not  preserved.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
was  ordained  a  presbyter  in  the  Church  of  Carthage. 
About  the  end  of  the  second  century  he  left  the  Catholic 
Church  and  joined  the  Montanists.'  He  acquired  great 


€  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TERTULLIANO 


21  10 


TEUCER 


influence  among  the  Christians  of  his  time.  He  was  a 
man  of  powerful  intellect,  ardent  temper,  austere  char 
acter,  and  great  erudition.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
unknown,  but  he  is  said  to  have  attained  a  great  age. 

Tertullian  wrote  numerous  works,  partly  devotional 
and  partly  controversial,  which  are  still  extant.  The 
following  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  before  he 
became  a  Montanist:  "Letter  to  the  Martyrs,"  ("Ad 
Martyres,")  "On  Prayer,"  ("  De  Oratione,")  "On  Bap 
tism,"  ("  De  Baptismo,")  "  Advice  to  his  Wife,"  ("  Ad 
Uxorem,")  "  On  Public  Games  or  Shows,"  ("  De  Spec- 
taculis,"  about  198,)  and  "  De  Praescriptione  Hrereti- 
corum,"  a  treatise  against  heretics.  After  he  joined  the 
Montanists,  he  wrote  (probably)  "Against  Marcipn," 
("  Adversus  Marcionem,")  "On  the  Body  of  Christ," 
("  De  Came  Christi,")  "On  the  Resurrection  of  the 
Body,"  ("  De  Resurrectione  Carnis,")  "On  the  Soldier's 
Crown,"  ("  De  Corona  Militis,")  and  several  others. 
Among  his  most  important  works  is  his  "  Apology  to 
the  Nations  for  the  Christians,"  ("  Apologeticus  adversus 
Gentes  pro  Christianis,"  dated  198  A.D.)  This  is  an  elo 
quent  and  powerful  vindication  of  the  Christian  Church 
against  false  accusations. 

See  EUSEBIUS,  "  Historic  Ecclesiastica  ;"  AI.LIX,  "Dissertatio 
de  Tertiilliani  Vita  et  Scriptis :"  1680;  NEANDER,  "  Antignosticus 
Geist  des  Tertullianus,"  etc.,  1825  :  A.  DE  MARGERIE,  "  De  Tertul- 
liano,"  1853;  P.  EKKRMAN,  "  Dissertatio  deTertulliano,"  1761  ;  PHO 
TIUS,  "  Bibliotheca ;"  HESSEI.BERG,  " Tertullian's  Lehre  aus  seinem 
Schriften  entwickelt,"  1848;  BARONIUS,  "Annales;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generate. " 

Tertulliano.    See  TERTULLIAN. 

Tertullianus.     See  TERTULLIAN. 

Tertullien.     See  TKRTULLIAN. 

Terwesten,  ter-wes'ten,  or  Terwestyii,  (Aucus- 
TYN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1649.  He 
studied  in  Italy,  and  became  about  1690  court  painter 
to  the  Elector' of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  Frederick 
William  of  Prussia.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  principal  founders.  Died  in  171 1. 

Terwesten,  (Ei.i.AS,)  a  painter  of  flowers  and  fruits, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1651,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  Died  at  Rome  in  1724. 

Terwesten,  (MATTHEW,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1670,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  Died  in  1735. 

Terzi.     See  LAN  A  TERZI. 

Tesi,  ta'see,  (MAURO  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
also  called  IL  MAURINO,  born  at  Montalbano  in  1730. 
He  was  patronized  by  Algarotti,  who  commends  his 
genius  in  very  high  terms.  He  excelled  particularly  in 
architectural  pictures.  Died  in  1766. 

Tess6,  de,  deh  ti'sa',  (MANS  JEAN  BAPTISTS  RENE 
de  Froulay — deh  fuoo'li',)  COMTE,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1651.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703, 
and  obtained  command  of  the  army  in  Spain  in  1704. 
Died  in  1725. 

Tessier,  ti'se-4',  (ALEXANDRE  HENRI,)  a  French 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  near  fitampes  in  1741  ;  died 
in  1837. 

Tessin,  tes-seen',  (KARL  GUSTAF,)  COUNT,  a  Swedish 
diplomatist  and  statesman,  son  of  Nicodemns  Tessin, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1695.  He  was 
employed  in  embassies  to  Vienna,  Versailles,  and  Berlin, 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  governor  of  the  crown- 
prince,  afterwards  Gustavus  III.  He  wrote  for  his 
pupil  a  work  entitled  "  Letters  from  an  Old  Man  to  a 
Young  Prince."  Died  in  1770. 

See  HOEPKEN,  "Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  C.  G.  Graf  Tessin,"  1771  ; 
EHRENHEIM,  "Tessin  ocli  Tessiniana,"  1819;  MONTGOMERY,  "  C. 
G.  Tessin's  Dagbok  med  historik  Inledning,"  1824. 

Tessin,  (NICODEMUS  VALENTINSON.)  born  at  Stral- 
sund  in  1619,  was  appointed  royal  architect  by  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden.  Died  about  1688. 

His  son,  Count  NICODEMUS,  born  in  1654,  studied 
under  Bernini  at  Rome.  Being  appointed  court  archi 
tect,  he  began  in  1697  the  erection  of  the  royal  palace 
at  Stockholm,  which  ranks  among  his  best  works.  He 
also  constructed  the  cathedral  at  Calmar,  and  Count 
Oxenstiern's  monument.  Died  in  1728. 

TeVta,  (CAius  TREBATIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  was  a 
correspondent  of  Cicero,  and  a  master  of  Labeo.  He, 


wrote  on  civil  law.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war. 

Testa,  tes'ta,  (PIETRO,)  called  IL  LUCCHKSINO,  (el 
look-ka-see'no,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Lucca  in  1617,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino.  I  le  worked 
in  Rome.  Among  his  best  pictures  are  "The  Death  of 
Beato  Angelo,"  and  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents." 
His  etchings  are  highly  prized.  Died  in  1650. 

Teste,  test,  (ALPHONSE,)  a  French  physician,  born 
about  1808.  He  has  written  in  defence  of  the  homoeo 
pathic  system. 

Teste,  (FRANgois  ANTOINE,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Bagnols  in  1775.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Boro 
dino  in  1812,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1813. 
Died  in  1862. 

Teste,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  jurist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bagnols  in  1780.  After  the 
revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  became  minister  of  justice  in  1839,  and 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1843.  Being 
convicted  of  corruption  in  1847,  ne  was  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment,  and  deprived  of  his  office.  Died 
in  1852. 

Testelin  or  Tattelin,  tct'laN',  (Louis,)  an  eminent 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1615.  He  studied  under 
Vouet,  anil  was  elected  in  1648  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture.  He 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  in  1650.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  Resurrection  of  Ta- 
bitha,  by  Saint  Paul,"  and  "The  Flagellation  of  Saint 
Paul  and  Silas,"  both  in  the  church  of  Notre- Dame, 
at  Paris.  Died  in  1655. 

His  brother  HENRI,  born  in  1616,  also  became  pro 
fessor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Opinions  of  the  Most 
Skilful  Painters  on  the  Practice  of  Painting  and  Sculp 
ture,"  etc.,  (1699.)  Died  in  1695. 

See  FONTENAV,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Testi,  tes'tee,  (Fui.vio.)  COUNT,  an  eminent  Italian 
lyric  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1593.  He  published  a 
volume  of  poems  ("Rime")  in  1613.  He  became  secre 
tary  of  state  under  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Modena,  who 
employed  him  in  important  missions  to  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  and  to  Venice.  In  1646  he  offended  the  Duke  of 
Modena  by  overtures  to  obtain  office  under  Cardinal 
Mazarin.  Died  in  1646. 

See  TIRAHOSCHI,  "  Vita  del  Conte  F.  Testi,"  i7?o ;  "  NouveUe 
Biographic  Gendrale." 

Testu,  tSs'tii'.,  (JACQUES,)  AHHE,  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1626.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy  in  1665.  Died  in  1706. 

Te'thys,  [Gr.  Tf/fli'c  ;  Fr.  TETHYS,  ta'tcss',]  in  classic 
mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  Uranus,  the  wife  ot  Ocean  us, 
and  the  mother  of  the  Oceanides. 

Tet'ri-cus,  (CAius  PESUVIUS,)  a  Roman  officer,  some 
times  called  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He  assumed 
imperial  power  at  Burdig'ala  (Bordeaux)  in  267  A.D.  He 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Chalons  in  274  by 
Aurelian,  who  treated  him  kindly. 

Tettenborn,  tet'ten-bdRn',  (FRIEDRICH  KARL,)  BA 
RON,  a  German  general,  born  in  the  county  of  Hohn- 
stein  in  1778,  served  in  the  Austrian  campaigns  of  1805 
and  1809,  and  subsequently  entered  the  Russian  army. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  ambassador  from  Baden  to 
Vienna,  where  he  died  in  1845. 

Tetzel  or  Tezel,  tet'sel,  [Lat.  TETZK'I.IUS,]  origi 
nally  Diez,  deets,  or  Diezel,  deet'sel,  (JOHANN,)  a 
famous  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Leipsic,  was  appointed 
by  the  pope,  about  1502,  vendor  of  indulgences.  His 
scandalous  deception  of  the  people,  together  with  his 
loose  life,  attracted  the  attention  of  Luther,  and  was 
one  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  Reformation.  (See 
LUTHER.)  Died  in  1519. 

See  P.  EKERMAN,  "  Dissertatio  dej.  Tetzelio,"  1761  ;  V.  GROE\E, 
"Tetzel  mid  Luther,"  1853;  ROBERTSON,  "History  of  Charles  V.," 
vol.  ii.  book  ii. 

Teu'ger,  [Gr.  Trikpof,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Troy,  from 
whom  the  Trojans  derived  the  name  of  Teucri,  was 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  the  river  Scamander  and  the 
nymph  Idaea.  His  daughter  Batea  or  Arisbe  was  mar 
ried  to  Dardanus. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TEUCER 


21  I  I 


T  HALES 


Teucer,  a  Greek  hero,  a  son  of  Telamon  and  He- 
sione,  was  a  half-brother  of  Ajax  the  Great,  and  was 
renowned  for  his  skill  as  an  archer.  Having  been  one 
of  the  suitors  of  Helen,  he  joined  the  expedition  against 
Troy,  and  signalized  his  valour  in  the  siege  of  that  city. 
After  the  capture  of  Troy,  he  was  banished  or  excluded 
from  his  native  country  by  Telamon,  and  emigrated  to 
Cyprus,  in  which  he  reigned,  and  founded  Salamis. 

See  HORACE'S  "Odes,"  book  i.  ode  vii. 

Texeira,  ta-sha^e-ra,  or  Texera,  ti-sha'ra,  (JozE,)  a 
learned  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1543,  became 
prior  of  the  convent  of  Santarem.  He  was  subsequently 
appointed  chaplain  to  Henry  III.  of  France,  and  was 
retained  in  the  same  office  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Genealogy  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Conde," 
"On  the  Origin  of  Portugal,"  etc.,  and  other  historical 
and  genealogical  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1604. 

See  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  NICERON, 
"  Memoires. " 

Texeira,  (PEDRO,)  a  Portuguese  traveller  and  Ori 
ental  scholar,  born  about  1570.  Having  spent  several 
years  in  Persia,  where  he  became  thoroughly  versed  in 
the  language  of  that  country,  he  visited  Italy,  France, 
and  Holland.  His  principal  work,  written  in  Spanish, 
is  entitled  "An  Account  of  the  Kings  of  Persia  and 
Ormuz,"  etc.,  (1610.)  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Texera.     See  TEXKIRA. 

Texier,  tes'se-i',  (CHARLES  FELIX  MARIE,)  a  French 
archaeologist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1802.  Having  re 
ceived  from  the  government  in  1833  a  mission  to  explore 
the  antiquities  of  Asia  Minor,  he  made  four  visits  to 
that  region  in  ten  years.  He  published  a  "Description 
of  Asia  Minor :  Fine  Arts,  Monuments,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1839-48,)  and  a  "Description  of  Armenia,  Persia,"  etc., 
(2  vols.,  1842-45.) 

Texier,  (EDMUND,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Rambouillet  in  1816.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Siecle"  of  Paris,  and  published  several  political  and 
critical  works. 

Textor.     See  RAVISICS  TEXTOR. 

Teyler  van  der  Hulst,  ti'ler  via  der  hulst,  (PiETER,) 
a  Dutch  Anabaptist,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1702,  left  the 
greater  part  of  a  large  fortune  to  found  in  his  native 
town  a  learned  institution  called  by  his  name.  Died 
in  1778. 

Tezel.     See  TETZEL. 

Thaarup,  taw'rup,  (THOMAS,)  a  Danish  poet,  born 
at  Copenhagen  in  1749.  He  was  the  author  of  dramatic 
poems  entitled  "The  Harvest-Home"  and  "Peter's 
Wedding,"  and  of  numerous  lyrics,  which  enjoy  great 
popularity  among  his  countrymen.  Died  in  1821. 

See  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe." 

Thabaud.     See  LATOUCHE. 

Thabet,  tha'bet,  (Ben  Kor'rah  or  Ibn  (Ib'n)  Kor'- 
rah,)  a  celebrated  Oriental  physician  and  mathematician, 
born  at  Harran,  in  Mesopotamia,  in  835  A.n.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  caliph  Motadhed  Billah,  who  made 
him  one  of  his  astrologers.  He  was  the  author  of  nu 
merous  works  on  medicine,  mathematics,  and  natural 
history.  Died  in  gor. 

Thabet,  iBen  Senan,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  ob 
tained  a  high  reputation  as  a  physician  and  philosopher, 
and  became  superintendent  of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad  in 
946  A.I).  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times." 

Thach'er,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  judge,  born  at 
Yarmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1789  to  1 80 1 ,  and  was  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  from  1800  to  1824. 
He  was  noted  for  his  wit.  Died  in  1824. 

Thacher,  QAMES,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He 
was  appointed  in  1778  chief  surgeon  of  the  first  Virginia 
regiment,  and  subsequently  of  a  New  England  regiment. 
He  published  the  "American  Xew  Dispensatory,"  (1810,) 
"A  Military  Journal  during  the  Revolutionary  War," 
(1823,)  "American  Medical  Biography,"  (1828,)  and 
several  other  works.  Died  in  1844. 

Thacher,  (PETER,)  D.D.,  an  American  Calvinistic 
divine  and  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Milton, 
Massachusetts,  in  1752.  He  became  in  1785  pastor  of 


the  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston.  He  was  the  author 
of  an  "Oration  against  Standing  Armies,"  "Observa 
tions  on  the  State  of  the  Clergy  in  New  England,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1802. 

His  son,  SAMUEL  C.  THACHER,  born  at  Boston  in 
1785,  published  a  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  S. 
Buckminster."  He  was  ordained  a  minister  in  1811,  and 
died  at  Moulins,  France,  in  1818.  A  memoir  of  his  life 
was  published  in  1824. 

Thackeray,  thak'er-e,  (WILLIAM  MAKEPEACE,)  a 
popular  English  novelist  and  humorist,  was  born  in 
Calcutta  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  which  he  left  without  taking  a  degree.  He 
inherited  from  his  father  a  considerable  fortune.  In 
the  choice  of  a  profession  or  pursuit,  he  first  inclined  to 
be  an  artist,  but  after  he  had  devoted  a  few  years  to  art 
he  adopted  a  literary  career.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Times"  and  other  journals  of  London.  He  displayed 
superior  talent  for  humour  and  irony,  in  a  series  of 
tales,  essays,  and  criticisms  which  appeared  in  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  under  the  assumed  name  of  Michael  Angelo 
Titmarsh.  The  progress  of  his  reputation  was  not  rapid. 
He  published  about  1840  "The  Paris  Sketch-Book," 
and  "The  Great  Hoggarty  Diamond,"  a  genial  satire, 
which  was  much  admired.  As  a  contributor  to  "  Punch" 
he  gained  popularity. 

In  1846  he  began  to  publish,  under  his  proper  name, 
"  Vanity  Fair,  a  Novel  without  a  Hero,"  which  is  one  of 
his  best  and  most  popular  works.  He  afterwards  pro 
duced  works  of  fiction  entitled  "Pendennis,"  (1849-50,) 
and  "The  History  of  Henry  Esmond,  Esq.,"  (3  vols., 
1852.)  In  1851  he  delivered,  in  London,  a  course  of 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  was  published  in  1853.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1852,  and  repeated  the  lectures  just 
named  in  several  great  cities  of  the  Union.  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  The  Snob  Papers,"  "  The  Newcomes," 
(3  vols.,  1854,)  "Miscellanies,"  (2  vols.,  1855-56,)  and 
"  The  Virginians." 

About  1856  he  revisited  the  United  States,  where  he 
gave  "  Lectures  on  the  Four  Georges,"  (i.e.  Kings  of 
England,)  which  he  repeated  in  London,  Edinburgh, 
etc.  In  1857  he  offered  himself  as  Liberal  candidate  for 
Parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford,  but  was  defeated  by 
Mr.  Cardwell.  He  began  to  edit  the  "Cornhill  Maga 
zine"  in  1860.  He  had  married  a  Miss  Shaw  about  1837. 
He  died  in  December,  1863,  leaving  several  daughters. 

See  THEODORE  TAYLOR,  "Thackeray,  the  Humorist  and  Man 
of  Letters,"  1864;  article  on  "Thackeray,"  in  the  "  Westminster  Re 
view"  for  April,  1853,  (reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age"  for  May  14, 
'853:)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1854,  (reprinted  in  the 
"  Living  Age"  for  March  1 1,  1854  :)  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1848,  and  January,  1854;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
October,  1853,  and  January,  1855  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Sep 
tember.  184^,  January,  1851,  December,  1852.  and  April,  1864; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1850,  and  Eebruary,  1864. 

Thaer.     See  THAR. 

Tha'is,  [0aif,]  an  Athenian  courtesan,  mistress  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Asia. 
She  is  said  to  have  instigated  him  to  burn  the  royal 
palace  at  Persepolis.  She  was  married  after  his  death  to 
Ptolemy,  King  of  Egypt. 

Thalberg,  til'bSRG,  (SIGISMUND,)  a  celebrated  pianist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1812,  was  a  pupil  of  Sechter  and  Hum 
mel  at  Vienna.  He  visited  London,  Paris,  and  different 
parts  of  Germany,  his  performances  being  everywhere 
received  with  applause.  Among  his  compositions  are 
Studies  for  the  Piano,  and  the  opera  of  "Florinda." 

Thalebee  or  Thalebi,  Al,  SI  thdl'e-bee,  an  Arabian 
author,  born  at  Nishapoor,  in  Persia,  in  961  A.D.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "History  of  Illustrious  Poets."  Died 
about  1038. 

Tha'les,  [Gr.  Qa/.rjf,]  a  celebrated  Ionian  philosophei, 
and  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Mile 
tus  about  640  B.C.  He  is  styled  the  originator  of  philos 
ophy.  He  travelled  in  Egypt  and  other  foreign  countries. 
According  to  Herodotus,  he  predicted  the  eclipse  of  the 
sun  which  occurred  during  a  battle  between  Cyaxares  the 
Mede,  and  Alyattes,  King  of  Lydia,  about  609  B.C.  He 
was  distinguished  for  political  sagacity  and  sententious 
wisdom,  and  was  employed  in  public  affairs.  He  con 
sidered  water  to  be  the  origin  or  principle  of  all  things, 
fixed  the  length  of  the  year  at  three  hundred  and  sixty- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Mi,  guttural;  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


T HALES 


21  12 


THEMIS 


five  days,  and  attributed  the  attractive  power  of  the 
magnet  to  a  soul  or  life  by  which  it  is  animated.  He  is 
said  to  have  invented  several  propositions  or  demon 
strations  of  geometry.  He  died  about  550  B.C.,  aged 
about  ninety. 

See  RITTEK,  "  History  of  Philosophy:"  BUDDEUS,  "  Dissertatio 
de  Ethica  Thaletis,"  1690;  PLOUCQUKT,  "  Dissertatio  de  Dogmatibus 
Thaletis,"  1763;  TIEDEMANN,  "  Griechenlands  erste  Philosopher!, 
Oder  Leben  mid  Systeme  des  Orpheus,  Thales,"  etc.,  1780  ;  HAKLES, 
"  Programmata  III.  de  Thaletis  Doctrina,"  1780-84. 

Thales  or  Tha-le'tas,  [Gr.  SaA^raf,]  a  Greek  musi 
cian  and  lyric  poet,  born  in  Crete.  He  probably  lived 
about  650  B.C.,  or  earlier.  It  is  said  that  he  instructed 
the  Spartans  in  some  new  principles  of  music,  and  paci 
fied  the  factions  of  Sparta  by  his  art,  or  by  the  sacred 
character  of  his  musical  productions.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  was  invited  to  Sparta  by  Lycurgus. 

Thaletas.     See  THAI.ES. 

Tha-li'a  or  Tha-lei'a,  [Gr.  Qatia  or  Qufcia;  Fr. 
THAL'IE,  tk're',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
comedy,  pastoral  poetry,  and  banquets.  Also,  one  of 
the  Graces. 

Thalie.     See  THAI.IA. 

Thamasp  (ti'mlsp')  or  Tamasp  I.,  King  of  Persia, 
born  in  1513,  succeeded  his  father,  Ismail,  in  1523. 
Died  in  1576. 

See  MALCOLM,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Thamer,  ti'mer,  (THEOBALD,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  in  Alsace,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg 
in  1545.  He  controverted  some  doctrines  of  Luther, 
and  joined  the  Catholic  Church.  Died  in  1569. 

Tham'muz,  [Fr.  THAMMOUZ,  tt'mooz',]  a  divinity  of 
the  Syrians  or  Assyrians,  identified  with  Adonis.  He 
was  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  a  wicked  king. 
The  festival  of  Thammnz  was  celebrated  by  the  idolatrous 
Jews.  (See  Ezekiel  viii.) 

Tham'y-ris  or  Tham'jf-ras,  [Qa/wptf,]  a  Greek  mu 
sician  or  poet,  who  lived  before  Homer,  was  a  son  of 
Philammon,  and  a  native  of  Thrace.  According  to 
tradition,  he  pretended  to  surpass  the  Muses,  and  was 
punished  for  his  presumption  by  blindness. 

Than'a-tos,  [Gr.  Qavarof ;  Lat.  MORS,]  a  personifica 
tion  of  Death,  in  classic  mythology,  was  represented  by 
Homer  as  the  brother  of  Sleep. 

Thar  or  Thaer,  ta"R,  (ALHRECHT,)  a  German  agricul 
turist,  born  at  Celle  in  1752,  was  the  author  of  an  "  In 
troduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  English  Husbandry," 
(1816,)  and  "Principles  of  Rational  Agriculture."  The 
latter  was  translated  into  several  languages.  In  1807 
he  founded  an  Academy  of  Agriculture  at  Moglin.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  W.  KORTE,  "A.  Thaer,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1839. 

Thatch'er,  (BENJAMIN  BUSSEY,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Warren,  Maine,  in  1809.  He  published  a  "  Biog 
raphy  of  North  American  Indians  who  have  been  Dis 
tinguished  as  Orators,  Statesmen,"  etc.,  (1832,)  "Tales 
of  the  American  Revolution,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1848. 

Thatcher,  (HENRY  KNOX,)  an  American  rear-admiral, 
born  in  Maine.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1823.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  commodore  in  July,  1862,  and  com 
manded  the  Colorado  in  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  in 
December,  1864,  and  January,  1865.  "  His  ship,"  says 
Admiral  Porter,  "was  handled  with  admirable  skill." 
He  commanded  the  fleet  which  co-operated  with  the 
army  in  the  capture  of  Mobile,  April  12,  1865. 

See  HEAIJLEY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Thauler.     See  TAULER. 

Thaumas  de  la  Thaumassiere,  to'mf '  deh  IS  to'- 
mt'se-aiR',  (GASPARD,)  a  French  jurist  and  historian, 
was  born  about  1620  ;  died  in  1702. 

Thay'er,  (SYLVANUS,)  an  American  officer  and  mili 
tary  engineer,  born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts,  in  1785. 
Having  graduated  at  West  Point,  he  served  in  the  war  of 
1812,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major.  He  was  appointed 
in  1817  superintendent  of  the  West  Point  Military  Acad 
emy,  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in  1838. 

Theaetetus/^e-e-tee'tus.lGEa/T^rof,]  an  Athenian  phi 
losopher,  and  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  lived  about  420  B.C. 

The-ag'e-nes,  [Gr.  Qsayevyt ;  Fr.  THEAofeNE,  ta't'- 
zhin',]  a  famous  Greek  athlete  of  Thasos,  gained  many 


victories  at  the  Olympian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian  games. 
He  lived  about  480  B.C. 

The-a'no,  [Gr.  Qeavu,]  a  native  of  Crete,  was  the  wife 
of  Pythagoras,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  number  of  "  Letters"  and  "  Maxims,"  which  have 
been  published  in  Wolfe's  "  Mulierum  Graecarum  Frag- 
menta."  She  was  distinguished  as  a  philosopher. 

Theaulon,  ta'o'loN',  (£TIENNK,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Aigues-Mortes  in  1739  ;  died  in  1780. 

Theaulon  de  Lambert,  ta'o'loN'  deli  loN'baiR', 
(MARIE  EMMANUEL  GUILLAUME,)  a  Fiench  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Aigues-Mortes  in  1787.  lie  produced 
many  successful  comedies,  operas,  and  vaudevilles. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Theden,  ta'den,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN  ANTON,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Meck 
lenburg  in  1714.  Owing  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
family,  he  encountered  many  difficulties  in  obtaining 
an  education  ;  but  he  was  at  length  enabled  to  study  at 
Berlin,  where  he  acquired  the  patronage  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  made  him  his  chief  military  surgeon.  Ife 
was  the  author  of  several  surgical  works.  Died  in  1797. 

Theil,  til  or  t.Vye,  (JEAN  FKANC.OIS  NAPOLEON,) 
a  French  philologist,  born  at  Langon  (Gironde)  in 
1808.  He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Homer  and  the 
Homerides,"  (1842,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Latin 
Language,"  (3  vols.,  1855-65.) 

Theiner,  ti'ner,  (AuousTiN,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  and  priest  of  the  Oratory  at  Rome,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  1804.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Pontificate  of  Clement  XIV.,"  (1833,)  and  other 
works. 

Theiner,  ( JOHANN  ANTON,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Breslau  in  1799.  He  published 
"The  Reformatory  Labours  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(1845.)  and  other  treatises  in  favour  of  the  Reform 
party  in  Germany.  Died  in  1860. 

Theis,  ti'ess',  (ALEXANDRE  ETIENNE  GUILLAUME,) 
a  French  novelist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1765.  lie  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  a  Spaniard,"  (1818.)  "Journey  of  Poly- 
cletes,"  ("  Voyage  de  Polyclete,"  1821,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1842. 

Thek'la,  SAINT,  a  saint  in  the  Catholic  Church,  was 
a  native  of  Isauria,  and  was  converted,  it  is  supposed, 
to  Christianity  by  the  Apostle  Paul  about  45  A.n.  The 
cathedral  of  Milan  bears  her  name  and  possesses  her 
relics. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Thellusson,  tel'lus-son  or  tk'lii'soN'',  (PETER  ISAAC,) 
a  wealthy  Swiss  merchant,  born  at  Geneva,  became  a 
resident  of  London,  where  he  died  in  1798.  He  left 
more  than  half  a  million  pounds  to  accumulate  during 
the  lives  of  his  sons  and  grandsons,  and  to  be  invested 
in  land  for  the  benefit  of  his  eldest  lineal  male  descend 
ant.  This  led  to  a  famous  lawsuit ;  but  the  will  was 
finally  established  by  the  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

Thel'wall,  (JoHN,)  an  English  litterateur  and  teacher 
of  elocution,  born  in  London  in  1764.  He  published  in 
1787  a  collection  of  poems.  Having  afterwards  become 
engaged  in  the  political  agitation  of  that  period,  he  was 
tried  with  Home  Tooke  and  Hardy  in  1794  for  high 
treason,  and  acquitted.  In  1801  he  began  a  series  of 
lectures  on  elocution,  which  were  highly  successful.  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Political  Miscellanies,"  a 
"Letter  to  Mr.  Cline  on  Stammering,"  "The  Peripa 
tetic,"  and  "  The  Daughter  of  Adoption,"  a  novel.  Died 
in  1834. 

Themines,  de,  deh  ta'men',  (Poxs  DE  LAUZIERKS, 
poN  deh  lo'zej-aiR',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born 
about  1553,  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1616.  He 
afterwards  commanded  against  the  Protestant  insur 
gents.  Died  in  1627. 

The'mis,  [Gr.  Qe/uf,  Fr.  THEMIS,  ta'mess',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  goddess  of  justice  and  law,  was  called  a 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  a  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  the 
mother  of  Astraea,  Eirene,  (Peace,)  the  Parcae,  and  the 
Horse.  She  was  a  personification  of  justice  and  the 
order  of  things  sanctioned  by  custom  or  law.  According 
to  Homer,  she  appeared  among  the  inhabitants  of  Olym- 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


THEMISEUL 


2113 


THEOCRITUS 


pus,  and  it  was  her  office  to  convene  the  assembly  of 
the  gods.  She  was  also  represented  as  a  prophetic 
divinity  who  presided  over  the  oracle  of  Delphi  before 
Apollo. 

Themiseul  or  Themiseuil.  See  SAINT-HYACINTHE. 

Theni'i-son,  [ Qeiuauv, ]  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Methodic!,  was  born  at  Lao- 
dicea,  in  Syria.  lie  was  a  pupil  of  Asclepiades,  and 
probably  lived  about  80-40  B.C.  Mis  works  are  not 
extant.  Some  critics  think  that  he  is  the  person  men 
tioned  by  Juvenal  in  the  following  line: 

"  Quot  Themison  xgros  autumno  Occident  uno."* — Sat.  x.  221. 

The-mis'tl-us,  [Gr.6efuariof,\  a  celebrated  orator  and 
philosopher,  surnamed  Eu'PHRADES,  (i.e.  "eloquent,") 
born  in  Paphlagonia  about  315  A.D.  He  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  emperors  Constantius,  Julian,  and  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son 
Arcadius.  In  religion  he  was  a  pagan.  Among  his 
extant  works  are  commentaries  on  portions  of  Aristotle, 
and  thirty-three  orations  in  Greek,  which  were  published 
by  Dindorf  in  1832.  Died  about  390  A.D. 

See  SOCRATES,  "  Historia  Eccleslastica  ;"  FABRICIUS,  "  Biblio- 
tlieca  Graca;"  E.  BARET,  "De  Themistio  Sophista,"  1853;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Themistocle.     See  THEMISTOCI.ES. 

The-mis'to-cles,  [Gr.  Q^iaroK^f/f ;  Fr.  THEMISTO- 
CLK,  ta'mes'tokl',]  an  Athenian  statesman,  orator,  and 
commander  of  great  celebrity,  born  about  514  K.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Neocles,  a  citizen  of  Athens.  His  mother  was 
a  foreigner.  According  to  Nepos,  in  early  life  he  was 
addicted  to  pleasure,  but,  having  lost  his  patrimonial 
estate,  he  changed  his  entire  course  of  life.  Ambition 
became  his  ruling  passion.  He  is  said  to  have  spent  his 
hours  of  leisure  and  vacation  in  composing  declamations. 
Just  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  his  friends  observed 
that  he  was  silent,  abstracted,  and  passed  the  night  in 
watching.  Having  been  questioned  as  to  the  cause  of 
this  change  in  his  habits,  he  said  the  "trophies  of  Mil- 
tiades  would  not  suffer  him  to  sleep."  Others  imagined 
that  the  victory  at  Marathon  had  ended  the  war.;  but 
he  regarded  it  as  the  beginning  of  a  great  conflict,  and 
advised  the  Athenians  to  increase  their  navy.  His 
principal  rival,  Aristides,  was  ostracized  111483  B.C.,  after 
which  Themistocles  became  the  foremost  statesman  of 
Athens.  He  was  elected  archon  eponymus  in  481,  and 
when  Greece  was  invaded  by  Xerxes  he  was  chosen 
commander-in-chief.  The  oracle  of  Delphi  advised  the 
Athenians  to  defend  themselves  by  wooden  walls,  which 
Themistocles  interpreted  to  signify  ships.  He  induced 
the  people  of  Athens  to  abandon  that  city  and  embark 
in  the  fleet.  The  Greeks,  reduced  to  a  desperate 
extremity,  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  the  great  naval 
battle  of  Salamis,  480  B.C.  "This  success,"  says  Plu 
tarch,  "  was  owing  chiefly  to  the  sagacity  and  conduct 
of  Themistocles."  He  overreached  the  Spartans  when 
they  attempted  to  prevent  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of 
Athens,  about  476,  and  he  fortified  the  Pirjeus  on  a  grand 
scale.  In  471  B.C.  he  was  banished  by  ostracism,  and 
retired  to  Argos.  Having  been  accused  of  treason  as  an 
accomplice  of  Pausanias,  he  sought  refuge  at  the  court 
of  Persia  in  465,  and  was  kindly  treated  by  Artaxerxes, 
over  whom  he  acquired  much  influence.  He  died,  or 
killed  himself,  in  Persia  about  449  B.C.  According  to 
Thucydides,  Themistocles  was  the  strongest  example  of 
the  power  of  natural  talent,  made  the  best  conjectures 
as  to  future  events,  and  had  an  excellent  foresight. 
Plutarch  relates  that  of  two  men  who  courted  his  daugh 
ter  he  preferred  the  less  wealthy,  saying,  "  I  would 
rather  she  should  have  a  man  without  money  than 
money  without  a  man."  When  Simonides  offered  to 
teach  him  the  art  of  memory,  he  said  he  would  rather 
learn  the  art  of  forgetting.  According  to  Mr.  Grote,  he 
was  "alike  vast  in  his  abilities  and  unscrupulous  in  his 
morality." 

See  PLUTARCH,  "Life  of  Themistocles;"  CORXEI.IUS  NEPOS, 
"  Themistocles:"  KIRCHMAIER,  " Dissertatio de Themistocle,"  1663  ; 
THKODUR  FINCK,  "  Coinmentatio  historico-philologica  de  Themis- 
toclis  /Etate,  Vita,  Ingenio  Rebusque  Gestis,"  1849;  GROTE,  "His 
tory  of  Greece;"  THIRLWALL,  "  History  of  Greece." 

*  Literally,  "As  many  patients  as  Themison  has  killed  (or  shall 
have  killed)  in  a  single  autumn." 


Thenard,  ta'ntR',  (Louis  JACQUES,)  BARON,  an  emi 
nent  French  chemist,  born  at  Nogent-sur-Seine  in  1777. 
He  studied  under  Vauquelin,  in  Paris,  and  became  suc 
cessively  demonstrator  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic 
School,  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  College  of  France 
(1804)  and  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1810.  He  was  also  made  a 
peer  of  France,  (1833,)  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour,  and  chancellor  of  the  university.  His  "Ele 
mentary  Treatise  on  Theoretical  and  Practical  Chemis 
try"  (4  vols.,  1813)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  and 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  He  con 
tributed  a  great  number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the 
"  Annales  de  Chimie"  and  other  scientific  journals,  and 
published,  conjointly  with  Gay-Lussac,  "  Physico-Chemi- 
cal  Researches,"  made  with  the  voltaic  pile,  (2  vols., 
1811.)  Died  in  1857.  Thenard  and  his  friend  Gay- 
Lussac,  whose  names  are  inseparably  associated  in 
science,  discovered  boron,  and  proved  that  oxymuriatic 
acid  is  a  simple  substance.  Thenard  discovered  the 
peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

See  "N'ouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  a  translation  of  FLOU- 
RENS'S  "  Eloge  on  Thenard"  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1862, 
P-  373:  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Thenot,  ta'no',  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  painted 
hunting-scenes,  landscapes,  etc.,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  perspective  and  lithography.  Died  in  1857. 

The'o-baid,  [It.  TEOBAI.DO,  ta-o-bal'do,]  sometimes 
written  Thiebaut,  was  a  brother  of  Ladislaus  II.  of 
Bohemia.  He  served  with  distinction  as  a  general  under 
Frederick  Barbarossa  in  Italy,  about  1158-63. 

The'o-bald,  (LEWIS,)  an  English  critic  and  commen 
tator  on  Shakspeare,  was  a  native  of  Kent.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  dramas,  which  are  now  forgotten.  Having 
offended  Pope  by  exposing  the  errors  of  his  edition 
of  Shakspeare,  he  was  severely  satirized  by  that  poet 
in  the  "  Dunciad."  In  1733  Theobald  brought  out  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  (7  vols.  8vo,)  which  was  received 
with  great  favour,  and  is  still  highly  esteemed  for  the 
judgment  and  accuracy  it  displays.  He  also  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh."  Died  in  1744. 
Theobald  OF  CANTERBURY.  See  THIBAUD. 
The-o-bal'dus,  written  also  Tibaldus  and  Tebal- 
dus,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  supposed  to  have  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  en 
titled  "  Physiologus  de  Naturis  duodecim  Animalium," 
being  a  description  of  the  habits  of  twelve  animals,  with 
moral  reflections  drawn  from  each. 
Theocrene  and  Theocrenus.  See  TAGLIACARNE. 
Theocrite.  See  THEOCRITUS. 
The-oc'ri-tus,  [Gr.  e«kp«roc;  Fr.  THEOCRITE,  taV- 
kRet',]  one  of  the  most  celebrated  pastoral  poets  of 
antiquity,  was  a  rative  of  Syracuse,  and  flourished  about 
270  B.C.  He  resided  for  a  time  at  Alexandria,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus.  Among  the  extant  works  attributed  to  Theoc 
ritus  are  thirty  idyls  and  more  than  twenty  epigrams. 
His  bucolics  are  written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  are 
universally  regarded  as  master-pieces  of  their  kind.  He 
is  called  the  creator  of  bucolic  poetry.  His  idyls,  unlike 
most  modern  pastorals,  are  natural  and  free  from  affected 
sentimentality.  The  Eclogues  of  Virgil  are  imitations 
of  the  Bucolics  of  Theocritus,  and  are  generally  re 
garded  as  inferior  to  the  original  works,  which  are 
essentially  dramatic  and  mimetic  and  are  truthful  pic 
tures  of  the  real  life  of  the  common  people.  It  appears 
from  his  sixteenth  idyl  that  he  returned  to  Syracuse 
and  lived  there  in  the  reign  of  Hieron  II.,  who  be 
came  king  in  270  B.C.  He  was  intimate  with  the  poet 
Aratus.  Few  events  of  the  life  of  Theocritus  have  been 
preserved. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Grzca  ;"  NAEKR,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Theocrito,"  1828:  E.  Rouz,  "Dissertatio  de  Theocriti  Idylliis," 
1846;  SUIDAS,  "Theocritus;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1842  ;  "  Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  August  and  October,  1835  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1836,  article  "  Epigrams  of  Theocritus." 

The-oc'ri-tus  OF  -Cni'os,  a  Greek  orator  and  Sophist, 
famous  for  his  sarcastic  wit,  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexan 
der  the  Great.  He  wrote  an  epigram  against  Aristotle. 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Antigonus  Gonatas. 


k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

133 


THEODAT 


21  14 


THE  ODOR  US 


Theodat.     See  TIIKODATUS. 

The-od'a-tus,  [Fr.  THEOOAT,  ta'o'dt',]  King  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,  was  a  nephew  of  Theodoric.  He  began 
to  reign  about  534  A.D.,  was  defeated  by  Belisarius,  and 
was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers  in  536. 

The-od'e-bert  [Fr.  pron.  ta'o'deh-baiR';  Lat.  THEO- 
DEISEK'TUS)  I.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  504  A.D., 
was  a  grandson  of  Clovis.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
good  and  able  prince.  Died  in  547  A.D. 

Theodecte.     See  THKODECTES. 

The-o-dec'tes,  [Or.  Gtw5cKn?f ;  Fr.  THEODECTE, 
ta'o'dekt',]  an  eminent  Greek  rhetorician  and  tragic 
poet,  born  at  Phaselis,  in  Pamphylia,  lived  about  350 
H.C.,  and  was  a  pupil  ot"  Isocrates.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  friend  of  Aristotle,  who  expresses  a  high  opinion 
of  him  in  some  of  his  writings.  His  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments. 

See  MAKCKKR,  "  Commentatio  cle  Theodectas  Vita  et  Scriptis," 
1835- 

The-od-e-lin'da,  [Fr.  THEODELINDE,  ta'o'deh-laNd'; 
It.  TEODKI.INDA,  ti-o  da-len'da,]  a  Bavarian  princess, 
was  married  in  589  A.D.  to  Autharic,  King  of  the  Lom 
bards,  who  died  in  590.  She  afterwards  exercised  royal 
power.  Died  in  625  A.D. 

See  I.ISINI,  "  Memorie  tli  Teodelimla,"  1646. 

The-od'e-mir,  the  father  of  Theodoric  the  Great, 
was  chief  ruler  of  the  Ostrogoths.  Died  in  475  A.D. 

Theodemir,  a  chief  of  the  Visigoths,  and  a  native 
of  Spain.  He  served  under  Roderick  against  the  Moors 
in  71  r.  Died  after  713  A.D. 

Theoderic  or  Theoderich.     See  THEODORIC. 

Theodericus.     Sec  THEODORIC. 

The-o-do'ra,  Empress  of  the  East,  was  in  her  youth 
an  actress  and  courtesan  of  Constantinople.  She  retired 
from  the  stage,  reformed  her  conduct,  and  gained  the 
affection  of  Justinian,  who  married  her  in  525  A.D.  In 
527  he  proclaimed  her  as  empress  and  his  equal  col 
league  in  the  empire.  Died  in  548  A.D. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  J.  P. 
Luinvic,  "Vila  Justini.ini  et  Theodoras,"  1731. 

Theodora,  Empress  of  the  East,  born  about  810 
A. ix,  was  married  to  the  emperor  Theophilus  in  830. 
She  became  regent  at  his  death,  842,  and  governed  the 
empire  with  wisdom  for  fifteen  years.  Died  in  867  A.D. 

Theodore.     See  THEODORUS. 

Theodore,  (King  of  Corsica.)     See  NEUHOF. 

The'o-dorc  jl.at.  TIIEODO'RUS]  I.  succeeded  John 
IV.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  641  A.D.  In  a  council  at  Rome 
he  excommunicated  Panlns,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
who  supported  the  heresy  of  the  Monothelites.  Died 
in  649  A.D. 

Theodore  (Theodorus)  II.  was  elected  pope  as  suc 
cessor  to  Romanus  in  897  A.D.,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Theodore  or  Theodorus,  a  native  of  Tarsus,  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  669  A.D.,  which 
office  he  filled  with  great  zeal  and  fidelity.  He  founded 
numerous  schools,  and  converted  Saint  Augustine's 
monastery  into  a  college,  where  Latin  and  Greek  were 
taught  with  great  purity.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "The  Penitential."  Died  in  690  A.D. 

See  \V.  F.  HOOK,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  chap.  iv. 

Theodore  or  Theodorus,  late  King  of  Abyssinia, 
was  born  about  1820.  His  original  name  was  KASSAI. 
Having  raised  himself  from  a  humble  condition  by  his 
talents  and  success  as  a  soldier,  he  began  to  reign  about 
1855.  He  maltreated  some  subjects  of  Great  Britain, 
the  government  of  which  sent  an  army  to  Abyssinia  in 
1867.  Theodore  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by 
the  British  under  General  Napier  in  April,  1868. 

The'o-dore  An'ge-lus,  [Lat.  THEODO'RUS  AN'GE- 
i.us ;  Fr.  THEODORE  I.'ANGE,  ta'o'doR'  l6Nzh,]  became 
Greek  Emperor  of  Thessalonica  in  1222.  He  waged 
war  against  the  Latins  and  the  Bulgarians,  who  defeated 
him  and  took  him  prisoner  in  1230. 

Theodore  1'Ange.     See  THEODORE  ANGELUS. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.    See  THEODORUS  MOP- 

SUKSTENUS. 

The-od'o-ret  or  The-od-o-re'tus,  [Gr.  e«x5«Wroc; 
Fr.  THEODORKT,  ti'o'do'ri',]  an  eminent  Christian 
writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Antioch  about  390  A.D., 


was  a  pupil  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  He  was  a  per 
sonal  friend  of  Nestorius.  About  422  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Cyrus,  in  Syria.  He  was  moderate  and  liberal, 
and  equally  eminent  for  piety  and  learning.  He  em 
ployed  his  influence  against  the  intolerant  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  and  Dioscurus.  In  449  he  was  deposed  by 
the  Synod  of  Ephesus,  over  which  Dioscurus  presided. 
He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Nestorius  at  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  in  451.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
valuable  "  History  of  the  Church"  from  325  10429  A.D., 
and  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament  and  Epistles 
of  Paul.  Died  in  457. 

See  RICHTER,  "Commentatio  de  Theodoreto,"  1822;  SCIIUI.ZK, 
"  Dissertatio  de  Vita  B.  Theodoreti,"  1769;  NEANDER,  "History 
of  the  Church  ;"  CAVE,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Theodoretus.     See  THEODORKT. 

The-od'o-ric  or  The-od'e-ric  [Lat.  THEODORI'CUS] 
I.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  and  a  son  of  the  famous 
Alaric,  was  elected  king  in  418  or  419  A.D.  He  defeated 
the  Romans  at  Toulouse  in  439,  and,  having  conquered 
a  large  part  of  Gaul,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Avitus.  Theodoric  and  the  Roman  general  Aetitis  united 
their  forces  against  Attila  the  Hun,  who  invaded  Gaul 
in  450.  The  opposing  armies  met  at  Chalons,  where 
Attila  was  defeated  and  Theodoric  was  killed,  in  451  A.D. 
He  left  two  sons,  Thorismond  and  Theodoric. 

See  JORNANDES,  "  De  Rebus  Geticis." 

Theodoric  II.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  at  Tolosa  (Toulouse) 
in  452  A. i).,  and  became  an  ally  of  Avitus,  Emperor  of 
Rome.  He  invaded  Spain,  defeated  the  Suevi,  and 
made  extensive  conquests  in  the  peninsula.  He  was 
assassinated  by  his  brother  Euric  in  466  A.D. 

The-od'o-ric  or  The-od'e-ric  [Lat.  THKODORI'CUS 
or  THEODERI'CUS  ;  Ger.  THEODORICH,  ti-o'do-riK,  or 
THEODEKICH,  ta-o'der-iK,  which  was  afterwards  cor 
rupted  into  DIETRICH,  dee'tRiK]  THE  GREAT,  King 
of  the  Ostrogoths,  born  in  455  A.D.,  was  the  son  of 
King  Theodemir.  He  was  educated  at  Constantinople, 
whither  he  had  been  sent  as  a  hostage  at  an  early  age. 
Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  (475)  he  was 
involved  in  a  war  with  Zeno,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
and  subsequently  turned  his  arms  against  Odoacer, 
who  had  usurped  the  chief  power  in  Italy.  The  latter, 
after  having  been  defeated  in  three  battles,  was  be 
sieged  in  Ravenna,  which  he  surrendered  at  the  end  of 
three  years.  Being  acknowledged  King  of  Italy  by  the 
emperor  Anastasius,  Theodoric  assumed  the  name  of 
Flavins,  celebrated  a  triumph  at  Rome,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  the  wisdom  and  liberality  of  his  rule.  He 
defeated  the  Gepidae,  assisted  the  Visigoths  against  the 
French  king  Clovis,  and  possessed  himself  of  Provence. 
He  died  in  526  A.D.,  his  death  being  hastened,  it  is  said, 
by  remorse  fir  having  unjustly  condemned  to  death 
Symmachus  and  Boethius.  Gibbon  observes  of  Theodo 
ric,  "  His  reputation  may  repose  on  the  visible  peace  and 
prosperity  of  a  reign  of  thirty-three  years,  the  unanimous 
esteem  of  his  own  times,  and  the  memory  of  his  wisdom 
and  courage,  his  justice  and  humanity,  which  was  deeply 
impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  Goths  and  the  Italians." 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap, 
xxxix.  ;  ENNOIJIUS,  "  Panepyricus  Theodoricodictus;"  J.  COCHI.^JUS, 
"  Vita  Theodorici,"  1544  ;  HURTHR,  "  Geschichte  des  Konigs  Theo- 
dorich,"  1807;  Du  ROURE,  "  Histoire  de  Theodoric  le  Grand,"  2 
vols.,  1846:  TII.LEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Theodoric,  [It.  TEODORICO,  ta-o-do-ree'ko,]  an  Ital 
ian  surgeon  and  ecclesiastic,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Cervia. 
He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  his  skill  in  surgery, 
and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On  Surgery  according  to 
the  System  of  Hugo  de  Lucca."  Died  in  1298. 

Theodorich.     See  THEODORIC. 

Theodoricus.     See  THEODORIC. 

The-o-do'rus  (or  The'o-dore)  [Gr.  Qeodupof ;  Fr. 
THEODORE,  ta'o'doR']  OF  CYRF/NE,  a  Greek  philoso 
pher,  belonged  to  the  Cyrenaic  school.  His  doctrines, 
which  resembled  those  of  Epicurus,  gave  so  much  offence 
that  he  was  banished  from  his  native  city  of  Cyrene. 
He  resided  at  Athens  about  312  B.C.  Cicero  and  Seneca 
admired  his  answer  to  Lysimachus,  who  threatened  to 
crucify  him.  He  professed  that  he  did  not  care  whether 
he  should  rot  on  the  ground  or  in  the  air. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  fang ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


THEODORUS 


21  I 


THEOPHANES 


Theodo'rus  OF  HERACLK'A,  a  learned  bishop  and 
leader  of  the  Arian  party.  He  was  Bishop  of  Heraclea 
on  the  Propontis,  and  was  one  of  the  delegates  who 
presented  the  Confession  of  Antioch  to  Constans  in 
342  A.D.  Died  about  356  A.D. 

Theodo'rus  (or  The'odore)  OF  SA'MOS,  an  eminent 
Greek  statuary  and  architect,  who  probably  flourished 
about  600  H.C.  He  was  one  of  the  first  artists  that  cast 
statues  in  bronze.  The  Theodoras  who  made  a  cele 
brated  ring  for  Polycrates  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
nephew  of  the  artist  above  noticed. 

Theodo'rus  OF  TAR'SUS,  sometimes  called  DIODO- 
KUS,  a  prelate  and  theologian,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Antioch.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Tar 
sus  in  378  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Arian 
heresy,  and  wrote  a  number  of  theological  works,  which 
are  not  extant. 

The-o-do'rus  An-ag-nos'te§,  (or  Lec'tor,)  (i.e. 
"Theodore  the  Reader,")  [Fr.  THEODORE  LKCTEUR, 
ti'o'doR.'  ISk'tUR',]  a  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  He  was  reader  in  the 
church  of  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  to  the  Time  of  Justinian  I." 

The-o-do'rus  As'gl-das,  a  Cappadocian  monk,  who 
gained  the  favour  of  Justinian  I.,  and  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Cassarea  about  536  A.D.  He  favoured 
the  Origenists.  Died  about  558  A.D. 

Theodorus  Lascaris.     See  LASCARIS. 

The-o-do'rus  Mop-sues-te'iius  or  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  [Fr.  THEODORE  DE  MOPSUESTE,  taVdoR' 
deh  mop'sii'Sst',]  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  born  at  An 
tioch  about  350  A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  Libanius  and  a 
friend  of  Chrysostom.  His  controversial  and  theological 
writings  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
but  very  few  of  them  are  extant.  Died  in  429  A.D. 

See  NEANDER,  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  ;"  FRITZSCHE, 
"De  Theodori  Mopsuesteni  Vita,"  1837;  SIEFFERT,  "Theodorus 

Mopsvestenus, "  1827. 

The-o-do'rus  Fris-ci-a'nus,  a  physician  and  medical 
writer  of  the  fourth  century,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  i 
at  Constantinople. 

The-o-do'rus  Frod'ro-mus,  [Fr.  THEODORE  PRO 
DROME,  ta'o'doR7  pRo'dRom',]  a  learned  monk  and  By 
zantine  writer  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  also  called 

HlLARION. 

The-o-do'rus  Stu-di'ta,  [Fr.  THEODORE  STUDITE, 
ta'o'dou'  stii'det',]  a  Greek  monk  and  writer,  born  at 
Constantinople  in  759  A.D.,  was  an  adversary  of  the 
Iconoclasts.  He  incited  the  people  to  sedition  and 
violent  resistance  to  the  decrees  against  the  worship  of 
images.  Died  in  826  A.D. 

Theodose.     See  THEODOSIUS. 

Theodosius,  an  able  Roman  general  under  the  reign 
of  Valentinian  I.,  served  with  distinction  against  the 
barbarians  of  Britain  and  Germany,  and  subsequently 
quelled  an  insurrection  in  Africa  in  373  A.D.  He  was 
beheaded  at  Carthage,  376  A.D.  The  cause  of  his  execu 
tion  is  not  known.  His  son  became  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Theodosius  (the-o-do'she-us)  [Fr.  THEODOSE,  ta'o'- 
doz' ;  It.  TEODOSIO,  ta-o-do'se-o]  I.,  Flavius,  a  Ro 
man  emperor,  surnamed  THE  GREAT,  was  the  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  was  born  in  Spain  in  346  A.D.  He 
accompanied  his  father  in  his  various  campaigns,  and 
acquired  at  an  early  age  great  proficiency  in  the  art  of 
war.  In  379  A.D.  the  emperor  Gratian  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  Augustus,  with  the  command  over  the 
Eastern  provinces.  Having  been  received  into  the 
Christian  Church,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
against  the  Arians,  and  in  380  appointed  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen  Archbishop  of  Constantinople.  He  carried  on  a 
successful  war  with  the  Goths,  whom  he  induced  to 
become  the  allies  of  the  Romans.  After  the  death  of 
Gratian,  Maximus,  who  had  usurped  his  empire  and 
invaded  Italy,  was  defeated  by  Theodosius,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Huns  and  Goths,  in  388.  Theodosius 
reigned  at  Constantinople,  and  Valentinian  II.  was  em 
peror  at  Rome  until  his  death,  in  392.  After  this  event 
Theodosius  became  sole  emperor  of  the  Roman  world. 
Before  his  death  he  divided  his  dominions  between  his 
two  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  to  the  former  of 
whom  he  gave  the  Eastern  empire,  and  to  the  latter  the 


Western.  Died  in  395  A.D.  Although  he  was  guilty  of 
several  acts  of  cruelty,  his  character  is  generally  eulo 
gized  by  historians. 

See  GIBBON,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall ;"  TII.LEMONT, 
"  Histoire  des  Empereurs  ;"  FLECHIER,  "  Histoire  de  Theodose  le 
Grand,"  1679;  SOCRATES,  "Historia  ecclesiastica ;"  LE  BEAU, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Theodosius  II.,  called  THE  YOUNGER,  born  in  401 
A.D.,  was  the  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  the  son  of 
Arcadius.  Being  but  seven  years  of  age  at  the  death  of 
his  father,  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  sister 
Pulcheria.  Among  the  most  important  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  collection  of  the  code  of  laws  known  as 
the  "  Codex  Theodosianus."  Died  in  450  A.D. 

See  GIBBON,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  GERI.ACH,  "  De  Theodosio  Juniore,"  1751. 

Theodosius  III.,  surnamed  ADRAMYTTE'NUS,  suc 
ceeded  Anastasius  II.  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in 
715  A.D.  After  a  reign  of  about  a  year,  he  withdrew  to 
a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  III. 

Theodosius  OF  TRIPOLI,  a  Greek  geometer,  born  in 
Bithynia,  lived  probably  between  100  li.C.  and  100  A.D. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Spherics,"  (2<j>aipiKa,)  which 
is  extant. 

Theodotion,  the-o-do'she-on,  [Gr.  QeoSoriuv,]  an 
early  Christian  writer  under  the  Roman  emperor  Coin- 
modus,  made  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
He  l>elonged  to  the  sect  of  Ebionites. 

The-od'o-tus,  [Gr.  Qeodo-of ;  Fr.  THEODOTE,  ti'o'- 
dot',1  an  able  Greek  general,  commanded  in  Coele-Syria 
for  Ptolemy  Pliilopator  in  222  B.C.  About  three  years 
later  he  entered  the  service  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 

Theodotus  OF  SAMOS,  a  rhetorician,  was  preceptor 
to  Ptolemy  XII.  of  Egypt.  He  was  responsible  for  the 
murder  of  Pompey  the  Great,  for  which  he  was  put  to 
death,  by  order  of  Brutus,  in  43  B.C. 

Theodulfe,  ta'o'diilP,  [Lat.  THEODUL'FUS,]  a  learned 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Spain,  was  the  author  oY  several 
works.  He  became  Bishop  of  Orleans  about  788.  Died 
about  820  A.D. 

The-og'ilis,  [Qeo-yn^,]  a  Greek  poet  and  philosopher, 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  540-500  B.C.,  was  a  native 
of  Megara.  His  works  were  principally  elegies  and 
didactic  poems,  of  which  fragments  only  are  extant.  He 
was  a  noble  or  aristocrat,  and  was  driven  into  exile  by 
the  democratic  party. 

See  FRERE,  "  Theognis  Restitutus:  The  Personal  History  of 
the  Poet  Theognis."  etc.,  1842;  K.  O.  MUI.I.ER,  "History  of  the 
Literature  of  Ancient  Greece ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

The'oii,  [6eon>,]  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  in 
Samos,  lived  under  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
His  works  are  highly  commended  by  Pliny. 

Theon,  (ALiAUS,)  a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  sup 
posed  to  have  lived  about  315  A.D.  His  principal  extant 
work  is  entitled  "  Progymnasmata,"  or  rules  on  rhetoric. 

Theon  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  called  THE  YOUNGER,  a 
Platonic  philosopher  and  mathematician,  lived  about 
350-400  A.D.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Almagest 
of  Ptolemy,  and  edited  the  works  of  Euclid.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  celebrated  Hypatia. 

Theon  OF  SMYRNA,  sometimes  called  THE  ELDER,  a 
Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  flourished  about  125  A.D.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  astronomy,  mathematics, 
music,  etc.,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  extant.  He  is 
called  a  Pythagorean. 

The-oph'a-ne,  [Gr.  Qtoouvri ;  Fr.  THEOPHANE,  ta'o'- 
ftn',]  a  beautiful  woman,  who,  according  to  the  fable,  was 
beloved  by  Neptune,  was  changed  by  him  into  a  sheep, 
and  was  the  mother  of  the  golden-fleeced  ram  of  Colchis. 

Theophane.     See  THEOPHANES. 

The-oph'a-nes,  |  Gr.  Qsoyavrjf ;  Fr.  THEOPHANE, 
ta'o'ftn',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Mitylene,  was 
patronized  by  Pompey  the  Great,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  his  military  expeditions.  His  principal  work  was  a 
history  of  the  achievements  of  Pompey,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant. 

Theophanes,  (GEORGE  or  ISAURUS,)  a  Greek  histo 
rian,  born  in  758  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Constantinople. 
He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  period  from  277  to  811  A.D. 
Died  in  818. 

Theophanes,  (PKOKOPOVITCH.)  See  PROKOPOVITCH. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


THEOPHILE 


2116 


THER'JMEKES 


Theophile,  the  French  of  THEOPHILUS,  which  see. 

Theophile  de  Viaud,  ta'o'fel'  deh  ve'6',  a  French 
satiric  poet,  born  in  1590.  He  wrote  elegies,  tragedies, 
etc.,  was  accused  of  atheism  and  condemned  to  death 
in  1623,  but  escaped.  The  sentence  was  afterwards 
annulled.  Died  in  1626. 

The-oph'I-lus,  [Gr.  QEO^L'AO^  ;  Fr.  THEOPHILE,  taV- 
fel';  It.  TEOFILO,  ta-of'e-lo,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  unknown  period.  His  works  are  lost. 

Theophilus,  Kmperor  of  Constantinople,  was  a  son 
of  Michael  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  829  A.I).  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  the  Saracens  with  ill  success. 
He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast.  Died  in  842  A.D. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Theophilus,  a  theologian,  and  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
wrote  an  "Apology  for  the  Christian  Faith,"  which 
is  extant  and  is  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  Died 
about  182  A.D. 

See  GRABENER,  "De  Theophilo  Episcopo  Antioclieno,"  1744. 

Theophilus,  a  turbulent  ecclesiastic,  who  became 
Bishop  of  Alexandria  in  385  A.D.  He  condemned  the 
writings  of  Origen  and  persecuted  the  Origenists.  lie 
was  the  chief  agent  in  the  banishment  of  Chrysostom, 
(403.)  Died  in  412  A.D. 

Theophilus,  a  distinguished  jurist  of  the  sixth  cen 
tury,  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Justinian  to  assist 
in  compiling  the  Digest  and  the  Institutes. 

The-opti'Mus  Prot-o-spa-tha'ii-us,  [Fr.  THEO- 
]>HII.E  PROTOSPATHAIRK,  ta'o'fel'  pKo'to'spit'taV,]  a 
Greek  medical  writer,  the  place  and  date  of  whose  birth 
are  unknown.  The  most  important  of  his  extant  works 
is  an  anatomical  treatise,  which  has  been  translated  into 
Latin  under  the  title  of  "  De  Corporis  Human!  Fabrica," 
("On  the  Structure  of  the  Human  Body.") 

Theophraste.     See  THEOPHRASTUS. 

The-o-phras'tus,[Gr.  QEotfipaaror  :  Fr.  THEOPHRASTE, 
ti'o'fRist'  ;  It.  TKOFKASTO,  ta-o-fRas'to,]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Eresus,  in  Lesbos,  about 
374  B.C.  His  original  name  was  TYK'TAMUS.  I  le  studied 
at  Athens,  where  he  first  attached  himself  to  Plato,  and 
afterwards  became  a  favourite  pupil  of  Aristotle.  In 
accordance  with  the  last  will  of  that  master,  Theophras- 
tus  succeeded  him  as  president  of  the  Lyceum  in  322 
B.C.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  eloquence, 
and  attracted  from  all  parts  of  Greece  a  multitude  of 
disciples,  among  whom  was  Menander  the  poet.  With 
a  design  to  explain  the  system  of  Aristotle  and  sup 
plement  his  works,  he  wrote  numerous  treatises  on 
philosophy  and  natural  history,  the  most  of  which  are 
not  extant.  Several  of  his  works  have  come  clown  to 
us,  (though  perhaps  in  an  imperfect  state,)  viz.  :  "  Moral 
Characters,"  (rjftiKol  xapaKTypEf  ,)  which  was  translated 
into  French  and  imitated  by  La  Bruyere,  a  "  History  of 
Plants,"  (in  ten  books,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Causes  of 
Plants,"  (mpi  tyvruv  CIITUJV.)  Died  about  286  H.C.  His 
"  Moral  Characters"  are  admired  for  subtlety  of  thought, 
Attic  wit,  (sel,)  and  elegance  of  style. 

See  MAX  SCHMIDT,  "  De  Theophrasto  Rhetore,"  1839:  SPE- 
RANZA,  "Teofrasto  primo  Botanico,"  1841;  HALLER,  "Blbliotheca 
Botanica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


The-oph'y-lact,  [Gr.  QSO^V^UKTO^  ;  Lat.  THEOPHY- 
LAC'TUS  ;  Fr.  THEOPHYLACTE,  ta'o'fe'likt',]  a  Greek 
ecclesiastic,  became  Archbishop  of  Achris,  in  Bulgaria, 
about  1070.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Education  of  Princes,"  also  commentaries  on  the  twelve 
minor  prophets,  and  numerous  epistles.  Died  alter  1112. 

Theophylactus.     See  THF.OPHYLACT. 

The-o-phy-lac'tus  Sim-o-cat'ta,  [Gr.  QEO$V'MIKTO<; 
6  I,i{j.oKu.TT7jf  or  ZIUOKUTTOC;,]  a  Greek  historian,  born  in 
Locris.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Em 
peror  Maurice  from  582  to  602  A.D.,"  also  numerous 
letters.  Died  about  630  A.D. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Theopompe.     See  THEOPOMPUS. 

The-o-pom'pus,  [Gr.  Qeoiroinroe;  Fr.  THEOPOMPE, 
ta'o'piMp  ,]  a  king  of  Sparta,  who  reigned  about  750 
li.C.  The  power  of  the  Ephori  was  established  or  in 
creased  in  his  reign. 

Theopompus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  old 
and  of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  probably  about 
400  B.C.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes. 


Theopompus,  an  eminent  Greek  historian  and  orator, 
born  in  Chios  (Scio)  about  378  H.C.,  was  a  brother  of 
Caucalus  the  rhetorician,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
He  was  one  of  the  aristocrats  who  were  banished  by  the 
popular  party,  when  he  was  a  young  man.  In  his  exile 
he  composed  a  number  of  orations  and  eulogiums,  which 
were  received  with  applause  in  many  cities  of  Greece. 
In  352  li.C.  he  contended  with  success  against  Isocrates 
and  others  for  a  prize  offered  by  Artemisia  for  an  oration 
in  honour  of  Mausolus.  He  was  restored  to  his  native 
state  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  (333  H.C.)  His  principal 
works  were  a  "  History  of  Greece  from  411  to  394  i:.c.," 
('FJi/.i/viKtzl  taTopiai,  in  twelve  books,)  which  is  lost  except 
a  few  fragments,  and  a  "  History  of  Philip  of  Macedon," 
(QihiTTTiiKu,  in  fifty-eight  books,)  of  which  many  fragments 
are  extant.  The  ancient  critics  say  that  he  was  apt  to 
err  by  the  extravagance  of  his  censure  and  his  praise  ; 
but  they  commend  his  accuracy.  He  died  after  305  H.C. 

See  ASCHBACH,  "  Dissertatio  He  Theopompo,"  1823  ;  J.  E.  Pin.uoK, 
"  De  Tlieopompi  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1827  ;  G.  F.  KOCH,  "  Dissertatio 
de  Theopompo,"  1790;  PLUTARCH,  "  Vhaedecem  Oratornm  ;"  ATHE- 
N^:us,  passim. 

Theorell,  tn'o-rel,  (JoiiAN  PETKR,)  a  Swedish  journal 
ist,  born  at  Halljunga  in  1791.  He  edited  a  democratic 
journal,  called  "  Aftonposten,"  and  published  several 
historical  essays. 

Theorell,  (SVEN  LORKNS,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Halljunga  in  1784.  He  published  a  work 
"  On  the  Influence  of  Manufactures  on  the  Wages  of 
Labourers,"  (1845.) 

Theotocopuli,  ta-o-to-ko-poo'lee,  (DOMINICO,)  an 
eminent  painter  and  sculptor,  surnamed  Ki.  GRKCU,  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian.  He  resided  at  Toledo,  in  Spain,  where 
he  produced  a  number  of  his  finest  pictures.  Among 
these  may  be  named  "The  Parting  of  Christ's  Raiment 
before  the  Crucifixion,"  an  altar-piece  in  the  cathedral  of 
Toledo,  and  "The  Entombment  of  Count  Orgax,"  in  the 
church  of  Santo  Tome.  His  monuments  and  sculptures 
are  highly  esteemed.  He  also  designed  the  church  of  the 
Augustines  at  Madrid,  and  other  architectural  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Tlieotocopuli,  (GEORGE  MANUEL,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  sculptor  and 
architect,  and  built  a  considerable  part  of  the  cathedral 
of  Toledo.  Died  in  1631. 

Theramene.     See  THF.RAMENES. 

The-ram'e-nei,  |Gr.  Qqpapevrif;  Fr.  THERAMENE,  ta'- 
r3'm,\n',]  an  Athenian  politician,  and  one  of  the  famous 
Thirty  Tyrants.  As  a  leader  of  the  oligarchic  party,  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of  411  H.C.,  and  was 
one  of  the  principal  members  of  the  new  government 
then  formed.  He  served  as  a  subordinate  officer  at 
the  battle  of  Arginusce,  (406.)  Although  the  Athenians 
gained  the  victory  there,  the  six  commanding  generals 
were  put  to  death,  because  many  of  their  men  were 
drowned  and  they  were  unable  even  to  recover  their 
bodies  for  burial.  Theramenes  was  one  of  the  principal 
accusers,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  respon 
sible  for  that  great  injustice.  He  negotiated  the  treaty 
which  opened  Athens  to  the  Spartan  general  Lysander 
in  405  H.C.,  and  was  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  who 
subverted  the  old  constitution  and  usurped  power  in  404. 
Having,  it  is  said,  from  motives  of  policy  rather  than 
humanity,  remonstrated  against  the  excessive  cruelty  of 
his  colleagues,  he  was  proscribed  by  Critias  and  con 
demned  to  death.  When  he  drank  the  cicuta,  he 
exclaimed,  "This  to  the  health  of  the  lovely  Critias  !" 
He  died  in  404  B.C. 

The  character  of  Theramenes  was  throughout  that  of 
an  intriguing,  unscrupulous  politician  ;  but  the  equa 
nimity,  or  rather  indifference,  which  he  displayed  at  his 
death,  commanded  the  admiration  of  Xenophon  and 
Cicero.  It  might  truly  be  said  of  him,  in  the  words  of 
the  great  dramatist, 

"  Nothing  in  his  life 
Became  him  like  the  leaving  it ;  he  died 
As  one  that  had  been  studied  in  his  death 
To  throw  away  the  dearest  thing  he  owed  [owned] 
As  'twas  a  careless  trifle." 

Macbeth,  Act  I.  Scene  IV. 

See  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece;"  SUIDAS,  "Theramenes:'" 
SCHNEITHF.R,  "Dissertatio  de  Theramene,"  1821;  SMITH,  "Dic 
tionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.  ;  THIRLWALL,  "His 
tory  of  Greece." 


a  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  Jong:  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  xi,  y.  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


THERJSSE 


2117 


THEVENOT 


Therasse,  td'rts',  (VICTOR,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  about  1808. 

Theremin,  ta'reh-meen',  (LunwiG  FRIKDRICU 
FRANZ,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1783, 
became  in  1815  court  preacher  at  Berlin.  lie  published 
several  religious  and  miscellaneous  works,  and  made 
translations  from  Cervantes  and  Byron.  Died  in  1846. 

Theresa,  te-ree'sa  or  ta-ra'sa,  [Fr.  THERESE,  ta'riz' ; 
It.  and  Sp.  TERESA,  ta-ra'sa,]  commonly  called*  SAINT 
THERESA,  a  Spanish  nun,  celebrated  for  her  talents  and 
piety,  was  born  at  Avila  in  1515.  She  entered  the  order 
of  Carmelites  at  an  early  age,  and  about  1562  founded, 
in  her  native  town,  a  reformed  society  of  Barefooted 
Carmelites.  She  died  in  1582,  leaving  a  number  of 
religious  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Europe. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "  Thoughts  on  the  Love  of 
God,"  "The  Road  to  Perfection,"  "The  Castle  of  the 
Soul,"  "  Life  of  Saint  Theresa,  written  by  Herself,"  and 
'•  Letters  of  Saint  Theresa."  She  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  XV.  in  1621. 

See  RIBERA,  "Vida  de  la  Madre  Teresa,"  1601;  COLI.OMRET, 
"Vie  de  Sainte-Therese,"  1836;  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish 
Literature;"  ALBAN  BUTLER,  "  Leben  der  heiligen  Theresia,"  1825; 
"  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Thermes,  de,  cleh  t§Km,  (PAUL  de  la  Barthe — deh 
IS  bSkt,)  SEIGNEUR,  a  French  general,  born  at  Couse- 
rans  in  1482.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1557. 
Died  in  1562. 

Theioigne  de  Mericourt,  ti'Rwan'  deh  meh-re'- 
]<OOR',  (or  Marcourt,  maVkooR',)  (ANNE  JOSEPHS,)  a 
Frenchwoman,  noted  for  her  courage  and  beauty,  was 
born  in  Luxemburg  in  1762.  She  became  a  Girondist, 
and  harangued  the  people  of  Paris  during  the  Revolution. 
About  1793  she  was  maltreated  by  some  viragos  of  the 
Jacobin  party,  and  lost  her  reason.  Died  in  1817. 

See  TH.  Fuss,  "  Theroigne  de  Mericourt  dite  la  belle  Liegoise," 
1854  ;  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

The'roii,  [Q'r](Mv,\  a  Greek,  who  became  Tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  about  488  B.C.  As  an  ally  of 
Gelon  of  Syracuse,  he  fought  against  the  Carthaginians 
in  480.  His  reign  was  prosperous.  lie  obtained  at 
the  Olympic  games  victories  which  were  celebrated  by 
Pindar.  Died  in  472  B.C. 

Ther-san'der,  [Gr.  Qepoavfipof ;  Fr.  THERSANDRE, 
tSu'sfiNdR',]  a  mythical  king  of  Thebes,  and  a  son  of 
Polynices.  lie  joined  the  expedition  against  Troy,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  killed  by  Telephus.  He  was  one 
of  the  EPIGONI,  (which  see.)  According  to  Virgil,  Ther- 
sander  was  one  of  the  Greeks  who  were  concealed  in  the 
wooden  horse. 

See  "jEneid,"  book  ii.  261. 

Thersite.     See  THERSITF.S. 

Ther-sl'tes,  [Gr.  Qspain/f :  Fr.  THERSITE,  t£i<'set',j 
a  Greek,  noted  for  his  personal  ugliness,  impudence,  and 
ill  nature,  was  publicly  chastised  bv  Ulysses  for  having 
slandered  Agamemnon.  According  to  tradition,  he  was 
slain  by  Achilles. 

See  "Iliad,"  book  ii. 

Thery,  ta're',  (Auc.usTlN  FRANgois,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  College  of  Versailles,  and  afterwards  provisenr. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "La  Renaissance,"  a 
poem,  (1822,)  and  a  "  History  of  Literary  Opinions,"  (2 
vols.,  1844.) 

Thesee.     See  THESEUS. 

The'seus  or  zV&ee'se-us,  [Gr.  Orjaevf  :  Fr.  THESEE,  ta'- 
zi/ ;  It.  TESEO,  ta-sa'o,]  the  great  national  hero  of  Attica, 
regarded  by  some  critics  as  a  mythical  personage.  Ac 
cording  to  tradition,  he  was  a  son  of  /Egeus,  King  of 
Athens,  and  a  cousin  of  Hercules,  whose  exploits  he 
emulated  by  the  destruction  of  monsters  and  robbers. 
The  Athenians  were  bound  to  pay  tribute  to  Minos  of 
Crete,  in  the  form  of  seven  young  men  and  seven  maidens, 
who  were  destined  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur  in  the 
Labyrinth.  Theseus  volunteered  to  go  as  one  of  these 
victims.  He  gained  the  affection  of  Ariadne,  a  daughter 
of  Minos,  killed  the  Minotaur,  and  readily  found  his  way 
out  of  the  Labyrinth  by  means  of  a  clue  (ball  of  thread) 
which  Ariadne  gave  him,  one  end  of  which  he  made  fast 
at  the  entrance  and  let  it  trail  after  him.  He  afterwards 


became  King  of  Athens,  defeated  the  Amazons,  who  in 
vaded  Attica,  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition, 
and  abducted  the  famous  Helen  from  Sparta  while  she 
was  a  girl.  He  marrfed  Antiope,  the  Queen  of  the 
Amazons,  who  bore  him  a  son  named  Ilippolytus,  and 
after  her  death  he  married  Phaedra,  a  daughter  of  Minos. 
He  was  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as  the  author  of  an 
important  political  reform  in  Attica,  which  before  his 
time  was  divided  into  many  petty  states  or  denti,  claim 
ing  to  be  independent.  These  he  reduced  to  a  state  of 
unity  and  subjection  to  a  central  authority.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Pirithous,  whom  he  aided,  the  legend 
says,  in  an  audacious  attempt  to  abduct  Proserpine  from 
the  palace  of  Pluto.  They  failed,  and  Theseus  was  con 
fined  in  Tartarus,  but  was  finally  released  by  Hercules. 
Tradition  adds  that  he  was  treacherously  killed  by 
Lycomedes,  King  of  Scyros. 

See  VIRGIL,  "^Eueid,"  book  vi.  393  and  618  ;  PLUTARCH,  "Life 
of  Theseus." 

Thesiger.     See  CHELMSFORD. 

Thes'pis,  [0£07uf,]  a  Greek  dramatist,  born  at  Icaria, 
in  Attica,  nourished  about  540  B.C.  lie  is  called  the 
inventor  of  tragedy.  His  works  have  perished,  the  titles 
only  of  four  dramas  being  preserved. 

See  J.  C.  CRAMER,  "  Commentatio  de  Thespide,"  1754;  K.  O. 
MUI.I.EK.  "  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece." 

Thes'pi-us,  [Gr.  Qiamof,]  a  son  of  Erechtheus,  and 
a  king  of  Thespias.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  had 
fifty  daughters,  who  were  the  wives  or  concubines  of 
Hercules,  to  whom  Thespius  gave  them  as  a  reward 
for  killing  a  lion. 

Thes'sa-lus,  [Gr.  Gc'aaa/oc;  Fr.  THESSALE,  ti'sil',] 
a  son  of  Jason  and  Medea,  was  supposed  to  be  the 
ancestor  of  the  Thessalian  people. 

Thessalus,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  physician  Hip 
pocrates,  lived  about  360  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  the  Dogmatici. 

Thessalus,  a  physician  who  lived  under  the  reign  of 
Nero,  was  a  native  of  Lydia,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Methodic!. 

Thes'ti-us,  [Gr.  Gecmoc,]  a  fabulous  king  of  /Etolia, 
said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Mars  or  of  Agenor,  and 
the  father  of  Althaea,  Leda,  Iphiclus,  Plexippus,  and 
Eurypylus. 

T'he''tis,  [Gr.  Gmc;  Fr.  THETIS,  ta'tess',]  a  beautiful 
sea-nymph,  and  one  of  the  Nereids,  was  said  to  be  a 
granddaughter  of  Neptune,  and  a  daughter  of  Nereus  and 
Doris.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  was  courted  by  Ju 
piter  and  Apollo,  who  desisted  from  the  pursuit  because 
Themis  predicted  that  her  son  should  be  greater  than 
his  father  ;  that  she  was  married  to  Peleus,  and  became 
the  mother  of  Achilles;  and  that  their  wedding  was  at 
tended  by  all  the  gods  except  Eris,  (or  Discord,)  who 
threw  among  the  guests  the  golden  apple,  on  which  was 
written,  "  For  the  most  beautiful,"  and  which  Paris 
awarded  to  Venus  as  the  prize  of  beauty.  (See  ACHILLES.) 

Theu'dis,  King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  succeeded 
Amalaric  in  531  or  532  A.D.  He  waged  a  successful  war 
against  the  Franks,  who  invaded  Spain  in  542.  He  was 
an  uncle  of  Totila.  Died  in  548  A.D. 

Theux  de  Meylandt,  de,  deh  tuh  deh  mi'lant,  (or 
mi'lS.vt',)  (BARTHELEMY  THEODORE,)  COMTE,  a  Belgian 
minister  of  state,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Schabroek  in 
1794.  He  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Catholic 
party.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  1831-32, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  between  1835  anc'  1840,  and 
minister  of  the  interior  from  1846  to  1848. 

Thevenard,  tev'naV,  (ANTOINE  JEAN  MARIE,) 
COMTE,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
173-?.  He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1792.  Died  in  1815. 

Theveiieau,  tav'no',  (CHARLES  SIMON,)  a  French  poet 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1821. 

Theveiiin,  tav'nax',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1764,  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1825.  His  master-piece  is 
the  "Passage  of  Mont  Saint  Bernard."  Died  in  1838. 

Thevenin,  (CLAUDE  NOEL,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Isere  in  1800;  died  in  1849. 

Thevenot.     See  COULON  DE  THEVENOT. 

Theveiiot,  tav'no',  (MELCHISEDECH,)  a  French  com 
piler  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Paris  about  1620. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THE  YE  NOT 


21 18 


THIEBAUT 


He  was  sent  in  1652  on  an  important  mission  to  Rome, 
and  in  1684  appointed  librarian  of  the  Royal  Library. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
His  principal  work  is  a  compilation  of  travels  and 
voyages,  entitled  an  "  Account  of  Many  Curious  Voyages 
hitherto  unpublished,"  etc.,  (2  vols.  fol.,  1672.)  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  scientific  attainments,  as  well  as  his 
profound  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  tongues,  and  was 
the  inventor  of  an  air-level.  He  also  collected  many 
valuable  books  and  manuscripts  for  the  Royal  Library, 
of  which  he  published  a  catalogue,  entitled  "Bibliotheca 
Thevenotiana."  Died  in  1692. 

Thevenot,  de,  deh  tiv'no',  (JEAN,)  a  traveller,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1633. 
He  studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre,  and,  having  pre 
viously  visited  England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  set  out  in 
1655  for  the  East.  He  spent  seven  years  in  Egypt  and 
different  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  1664  started  on  a  second 
journey,  during  which  he  visited  Persia  and  India.  lie 
died  of  a  fever  in  1667,  while  on  his  way  to  Tabreez, 
(Tabriz.)  His  principal  works,  which  have  a  high  repu 
tation,  are  "Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (1664,)  to  which 
were  added  a  description  of  Persia,  and  "  An  Account  of 
Ilindostan,  the  Modern  Mongols,  and  other  Peoples  and 
Countries  of  India,"  ("Voyage  contenant  la  Relation  de 
1'IIindoustan,  des  nouveaux  Mogols,"  etc.,  1684.)  He 
was  well  versed  in  the  Arabic  and  Persian  languages. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle. " 

Thevet,  teh-vi',  (ANDRE,)  a  French  traveller,  born 
at  Angouleme  in  1502.  lie  visited  the  Levant,  and 
published  a"  Universal  Cosmography,"  (1571,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1590. 

Thew,  thii,  (RoBKRT,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  York 
shire  in  1758,  was  appointed  engraver  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  His  principal  works  are  nineteen  plates  in  Boy- 
dell's  "Shakspeare  Gallery."  Died  in  1802. 

Thialfi.     See  THOR. 

Thiard  or  Tyard,  de,  deh  te'^R',  (PoNTUS,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  1521.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  III., 
who  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1578. 
Died  in  1605. 

See  MARTIN,  "  Notice  sur  Pontiis  de  Thiard,"  1786. 

Thiard  de  Bissy,  de,  deh  te'aV  deh  be'se',  (Au- 
XONNE  THEODORE  MARIE,)  COMTE,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1820  to  1848.  Died  in  1852. 

Thiassi  or  Thjassi,  te-as'se,  (said  to  signify  "  im 
petuous,"  "  violent,"]  a  famous  giant,  the  father  of  Skadi, 
mentioned  in  the  Eddaic  legends.  It  is  related  that, 
having  taken  the  form  of  an  eagle,  Thiassi  succeeded  in 
catching  the  subtle  Loki,  and  refused  to  release  him 
unless  he  would  swear  to  bring  Iduna,  with  her  apples 
of  immortality,  from  the  habitation  of  the  /Esir.  There 
upon  Loki  told  Iduna  that  he  had  found  some  beautiful 
apples  in  a  wood  just  without  the  walls  of  Asgard, 
urging  her  to  take  her  own  out  with  her  for  the  pur 
pose  of  comparing  them.  Iduna  fell  into  the  snare. 
No  sooner  had  she  left  the  fortress  of  the  gods  than 
Thiassi  came,  with  his  eagle's  plumage,  caught  her  up, 
and  carried  her  to  Thrymheim,  his  abode  among  the 
mountains.  But  the  gods  fared  ill  in  her  absence  ;  they 
grew  rapidly  old  and  gray.  At  length,  Loki,  terrified 
by  their  menaces,  was  prevailed  on  to  attempt  her 
restoration.  Having  himself  assumed  the  form  of  a 
falcon,  he  flew  to  Thrymheim  in  the  giant's  absence, 
transformed  Iduna  into  a  nut,  and  carried  her  in  his 
talons  to  Asgard.  But  Thiassi  pursued  and  had  nearly 
overtaken  Loki,  when  the  ^sir  came  out  to  his  assist 
ance,  and  Thiassi  was  caught  and  slain.  It  is  said  that 
the  gods,  in  order  to  appease  Skadi  for  the  death  of  her 
father,  cast  his  eyes  up  to  heaven,  where  they  became 
two  stars. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  43-45. 

Thibaud.     See  THIBAUT. 

Thibaud,  te'bo',  or  The'o-bald,  an  ecclesiastic, 
became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (England)  in  1139. 
He  quarrelled  with  King  Stephen.  Died  in  1161. 

Thibaud  (te'bo')  or  Thibautll.,  called  THE  GREAT, 
Count  of  Champagne  and  Blois,  was  born  about  1090. 
His  mother  was  Alice,  a  daughter  of  William  the 


Conqueror.     He    was   a  brother  of  Stephen,  King   of 
England.     Died  in  1152. 

Thibaud  or  Thibaut,  sometimes  called  The'o-bald, 
[Lat.  THEOBAL'DUS,]  Count  of  Champagne  and  King 
of  Navarre,  was  born  in  1201.  He  was  a  son  of  Thi 
baut,  Count  of  Champagne,  and  was  the  most  powerful 
feudatory  of  the  French  king.  On  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  Sancho,  King  of  Navarre,  in  1234,  he  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  that  country.  In  1239  he  conducted  an 
army  of  crusaders  to  the  Holy  Land  ;  but  he  proved 
himself  an  incompetent  general,  and  was  defeated  with 
great  loss  at  Ascalon  or  Gaza.  Died  in  1253.  He  was 
celebrated  as  a  troubadour,  and  left  many  songs,  which 
are  extant. 


Thibaudeau,  te'bo'do',  (ADOI.PHK  NAUCISSE,)  a 
French  journalist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Poitiers 
in  1795  !  c''ed  i"  1856. 

Thibaudeau,  (ANTOINE  CLAIRE,)  COUNT,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  historical  writer,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in  1765.  lie  was  elected 
to  the  National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king  without  the  appeal  to  the  people.  In 
1796  he  became  president  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun 
dred,  and  a  count  of  the  empire  in  1808.  lie  was 
appointed  a  senator  by  Louis  Napoleon  in  1852.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Memoirs  of  the  Convention  and  the 
Directory,"  (1824,)  "General  History  of  Napoleon," 
(1827,)  "  Memoirs  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire," 
(1835,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1854. 

See  TISSRRON,  "  Le  Senat  de  1'Empire  Krangais;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Thibaut,  te'bo',  (ANTON  FRIEDRICII  JUSTUS,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  born  at  Hameln,  in  Hanover,  in 
1774.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  Konigsberg,  and  Kiel, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1802,  and  obtained 
in  1805  the  same  chair  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  taught 
with  distinguished  success  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  His  legal  works  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
ranked  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  appeared. 
Among  these  may  be  named  his  "Juristic  Encyclopaedia 
and  Methodology,"  (1797,)  "Theory  of  the  Logical 
Interpretation  of  Roman  Law,"  "On  Possession  and 
Prescription,"  (1802,)  "System  des  Pandektenrechts," 
(1803,)  and  "On  the  Necessity  of  a  Common  Code  of 
Laws  for  Germany,"  (1814.)  Died  in  1840. 

Thibaut,  (JEAN  THOMAS,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Hante-Marne  in  1757;  died  in  1826. 

Thibotiville,  de,  deh  te'boo'vel',  (HENRI  LAMBERT 
D'HERUIGNY,)  MARQUIS,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1710,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire.  He 
wrote  dramas,  novels,  etc.  Died  in  1784. 

Thick'nesse,  (Mrs.  ANNE,)  an  English  lady,  dis 
tinguished  for  her  talents  and  beauty,  was  born  in  1737. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Philip  Thicknesse,  noticed  below. 
She  wrote  "  Biographical  Sketches  of  Literary  Females 
of  the  French  Nation,"  "The  School  of  Fashion,"  a 
novel,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1824. 

Thicknesse,  (PHILIP,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
about  1720.  Among  his  works  are  "Memoirs  and 
Anecdotes  of  Philip  Thicknesse,"  (3  vols.,  1788-91.) 
Died  in  1792. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1777. 

Thiebault  or  Thiebaut,  te'd'bo',  (DIEUDONNE,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  near  Remiremont  in  1733.  He 
became  professor  of  grammar  in  Berlin  in  1765,  and  was 
intimate  with  Frederick  the  Great.  He  published,  be 
sides  several  works  on  grammar,  "  Souvenirs  of  Twenty 
Years'  Residence  in  Berlin,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1804.)  Died 
in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Thiebault,  (PAUL  CHARLES  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Berlin  in  1769,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Austerlitz,  and 
became  a  general  of  division  in  1808.  He  wrote  several 
military  works.  Died  in  1846. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneVale." 

Thiebaut.     See  THEOBALD. 


a,  e, T, o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


TH1EBAUT 


21  19 


THIERS 


TMebaut  de  Berneaud,  te'a'bo'  deh  beR'no', 
(ARbiiNE,)  a  French  writer  on  rural  economy  and  biog 
raphy,  born  at  Sedan  in  1777,  was  a  republican.  He- 
contributed  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1850. 

Thiele,  tee'leh,  (Jusr  MATTHIAS,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1795.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Thorvvaldsen's  Youth,"  and 
"Thorvvaldsen  and  his  Works,"  (4  vols.,  1831-50.) 

Thielen,  van,  vfn  tee'len,  ([AN  PHILIP,)  a  Flemish 
flower-painter,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1618.  His  works  are 
esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1667. 

Thielmami,  von,  fon  teel'man,  (JOHANN  ADOLF,) 
FREIHKRR,  a  German  general,  born  at  Dresden  in  1765. 
1  le  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1806  and  1809,  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1810,  and  fought  for  Napoleon  in 
Russia  in  1812.  He  afterwards  entered  the  Prussian 
service,  and  obtained  command  of  a  corps  or  division 
of  the  army  of  Bliicher.  On  June  18  he  held  in  check 
the  corps  of  Grouchy  at  Wavre,  and  by  his  obstinate 
resistance  contributed  to  the  victory  of  the  allies  at 
Waterloo.  Died  in  1824. 

See  OBKRREIT,  "  Beitrage  zur  Biographic  des  Generals  von  Thiel- 
niann,"  1829;  HOI.ZENDORFF,  "Beitrage  zur  Biographic  des  Gene 
rals  von  Thielmann,"  1830. 

Thieme,  tee'meh,  (KARL  AUGUST,)  a  German  philol 
ogist,  was  professor  at  Leipsic.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Xenophon,  (4  vols..  1763-66.)  Died  in  1795. 

Thiemo,  tee'mo,  |  Fr.  THIEMON,  te'a'moN',]  some 
times  called  DIETHMAR,  a  German  prelate,  distinguished 
as  a  sculptor  and  painter,  was  born  in  Bavaria  about 
1045.  HC  became  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  about  1088. 
Died  in  Palestine  about  iioo. 

Thienemarm,  tee'neh-man',  (FRIEDRICH  AUGUST 
LunwiG,)  a  German  ornithologist,  born  near  Freiburg 
111  i?93-  Having  graduated  at  Leipsic,  he  visited  North 
ern  Europe  and  Iceland,  of  which  he  published  an 
account  after  his  return.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Reproduction  of  Divers  Species  of  Birds,"  with 
one  hundred  coloured  plates,  (1845-53.)  Died  in  1858. 

Thierri.     See  THIKRRY. 

Thierry  or  Thierri,  te-er're,  [Fr.  pron.  te'i're',]  or 
Theodoric  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  486  A.D., 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis.  He  began  to  reign  in 
511.  Died  in  534. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  II.,  King  of  Austrasia  and  Bur 
gundy,  born  in  587  A.n.,  was  a  son  of  Childebert  II., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  596.  Died  in  613  A. P. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  I.  or  III.,  King  of  Neustria  and 
Burgundy,  (or  France,)  a  son  of  Clovis  II.,  was  born 
about  654  A.D.  He  received  the  title  of  king,  but  the 
royal  power  was  exercised  by  Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace. 
Died  in  691  A.n. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  II.  or  IV.,  born- in  713  A.n.,  was 
a  sun  of  Dagobert  III.,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  was 
one  of  the  rois  faineants,  or  nominal  kings.  The  king- 
clnin  was  governed  by  Charles  Martel,  under  the  name 
of  Thierri.  Died  in  737  A.n. 

Thierry,  te'i're',  (  ALEX  ANDRE,)  a  French  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  in  1803,  practised  in  Paris,  and  gained 
distinction  as  an  operator.  He  wrote  for  the  "  National," 
and  actively  promoted  the  revolution  of  1848. 

Thierry,  (AMEDEK  SIMON  DOMINIQUE,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Blois  in  1797.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  requests  in  the  council  of  state  under  Louis 
Philippe,  and  continued  in  the  same  office  by  Louis 
Napoleon.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Gaul  under 
the  Roman  Rule,"  (1826,)  "History  of  Attila  and  of  his 
Sons  and  Successors  in  Europe,"  etc.,  (1856,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Gauls  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the 
Subjection  of  Gaul,"  etc.,  (1857.)  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  in  1841,  and 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator  in  1860. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832. 

Thierry,  (finoUARD,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1813.  He  contributed  critiques  on  the  drama 
to  several  journals  of  Paris. 

Thierry,  (JACQUES  NICOLAS  AUGUSTIN,)  an  eminent 
French  historian,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Blois  in  1795.  Having  studied  in  the  College  of  Blois, 
he  repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  became  in  1817  associate 


editor  of  the  "Censeur  Europeen."  He  brought  out  in 
1825  his  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans,"  which  met  with  brilliant  success  and  was 
translated  into  German  and  English.  Soon  after  this, 
his  sight,  which  had  been  gradually  failing,  was  entirely 
lost.  He  still,  however,  pursued  his  historical  researches, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  secretary,  Annand  Carrel,  and 
published,  successively,  "Ten  Years  of  Historical  Stu 
dies,"  (1834,)  "Narratives  of  the  Merovingian  Times, 
preceded  by  Considerations  on  the  History  of  France," 
(1840,)  and  an  "Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Formation 
and  Progress  of  the  Third  Estate,"  (1853.)  He  was 
recognized  as  the  master  of  the  modern  French  school 
of  historians.  Died  in  May,  1856. 


See  GUIGNIAUT,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  d  Aug.  I  merry. 


Generale  ;"  "  Biographic  Universelle  ;" 


Thierry,  (JEAN,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1669,  worked  in  Spain  for  Philip  V.     Died  in   Paris 


in  1739. 
Thierry,   (JOSEPH    FRANgois 


DESIKE,)    a     French 


painter  of  landscapes  and  decorations,  n  brother  of 
Edouard,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1812. 

Thierry,  (JULIE  de  Querangal — deh  kei/roN'gSi',) 
a  literary  French  lady,  became  in  1831  the  wife  of 
Augustin  Thierry  the  historian.  She  aided  him  in  his 
literary  labours,  and  wrote  two  works,  entitled  "  Scenes 
of  Manners  and  Characters,"  (1835,)  and  "Adelaide: 
Memoirs  of  a  Young  Woman,"  (1839.)  Died  in  1844. 

Thierry  (or  Theodoric)  OK  NIKM,  a  native  of  West 
phalia,  became  papal  secretary  at  Rome.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  Schism,"  ("  De  Schismate.")  Died 
in  1417. 

Thiers,  te'aiR',  QEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  theo 
logian  of  great  erudition,  was  born  at  Chartres  in  1636. 
He  published  numerous  religious  and  controversial 
works,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Among  these  is  a 
"Treatise on  Superstitions  according  to  Holy  Scripture," 
("Traite  des  Superstitions  selon  1'ficriture  Sainte," 
1679.)  Died  in  1703. 

Thiers,  (Louis  AnOLPHE,)  an  eminent  French  his 
torian  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Marseilles  on 
the  i6th  of  April,  1797.  He  studied  law  at  Aix,  where 
M.  Mignet  was  his  fellow-student  and  his  friend.  In 
1818  he  was  received  as  advocate  at  the  bar  of  Aix,  from 
which  he  removed  to  Paris  in  1821  and  became  an  assist 
ant  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  liberal  journal.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  finesse,  by  his  political  in 
sight,  and  by  the  vivacity  of  his  style.  In  1823  he  pub 
lished  the  first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (10  vols.,  1823-27,)  which  enjoyed  much 
popularity,  especially  with  the  Liberal  party.  Thiers, 
Mignet,  and  Armand  Carrel  founded  in  January,  1830,  the 
"National,"  with  an  agreement  that  each  should  be  alter 
nately  editor-in-chief  for  one  year.  Thiers  was  the  editor 
for  the  first  year,  and  contributed  to  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830.  He  is  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  phrase, 
"  The  king  reigns,  and  does  not  govern."  He  employed 
his  influence  to  raise  Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne,  and 
was  rewarded  by  the  office  of  councillor  of  state  in  1830. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  the 
finances  during  the  short  ministry  of  Lafitte,  1830-31, 
and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  October,  1832. 
He  acquired  eminence  as  a  parliamentary  debater.  His 
speeches  are  characterized  as  familiar,  amusing,  con- 


versational,  and    incisive. 
French  Academy  in  1834. 


He   was    admitted   into    the 
About  this  time  Thiers  and 


Guizot  became  rivals  and  competitors  for  the  place  of 
chief  minister,  the  former  being  the  leader  of  the  centre 
gauche,  ("  left  centre.")  He  was  president  of  the  council 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  February  to  August, 
1836,  when  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Count 
Mole.  In  March,  1840,  he  was  again  appointed  chief 
minister,  with  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  His  policy 
on  the  Eastern  question  was  counteracted  by  Palmerston, 
who,  by  a  concerted  action  with  Russia  and  Austria, 
isolated  France.  Thiers  resolved  to  support  Mehemet 
Ali,  at  the  risk  of  a  war  against  England  ;  but,  as  the  king 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     C£f=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TH1ERSCH 


TH1STLEWOOD 


would  not  assent  to  this  course,  he  resigned  in  October, 
1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  Guizot. 

Among  his  chief  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Consulate 
and  the  Empire,"  (20  vols.,  1845-63.)  This,  as  well  as  his 
"  History  of  the  Revolution,"  stands  in  the  very  highest 
rank  among  historical  works  in  the  French  language. 
He  was  one  of  the  orators  of  the  opposition  in  the  last 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  did  not  give  a 
hearty  support  to  the  republic  of  1848.  In  the  Con 
stituent  Assembly  he  acted  with  the  droite.  He  voted 
for  Louis  Napoleon  as  president  in  December,  1848,  but 
after  that  president  became  emperor  he  ceased  to  be 
his  partisan.  In  1863  Thiers  was  elected  to  the  legis 
lative  body,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  opposition,  and 
to  which  he  was  re-elected  in  1869.  He  made  in  April, 
1867,  a  speech  against  Napoleon's  foreign  policy,  which 
excited  much  sensation.  He  avowed  his  enmity  to  Ital 
ian  nationality.  "  The  whole  drift  of  this  speech,"  says 
the  London  "Spectator,"  "is  that  selfishness  is  the  first 
of  national  duties."  In  July,  1870,  he  boldly  opposed 
the  war  against  Prussia,  in  a  speech  to  the  legislative 
body,  and  declared  that  Napoleon  had  committed  an 
other  blunder.  The  republicans  of  Paris  offered  to 
appoint  him  a  member  of  the  provisional  government 
formed  in  September,  1870,  but  he  declined  to  serve  in 
that  capacity. 

See  Louis  DE  LOMKNIE,  "M.  Thiers,  par  un  Honime  de  Rien," 
1841  ;  A.  LAVA,  "  E"tudes  historiques  sur  la  Vie  privee,  politique  et 
litteraire  de  M.  A.  Thiers,"  2  vols.,  1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  CORMENIN,  "  Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  L.  BLANC,  "  His- 
toire  de  dix  Ans ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
1845;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  lor  March,  1838;  "Foreign  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  April,  1845;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April  and 
July,  1858,  and  October,  1861  :  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1845; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1848;  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1860;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  lor  January,  1863. 

Thiersch,  teeush,  (BERNARD,)  a  German  philologist, 
became  director  of  the  College  of  Dortmund.  He  wrote, 
besides  several  works  on  philology,  "The  Epoch  and 
Native  Land  of  Homer,"  ("Das  Zeitalter  und  Vaterland 
des  Homer.")  He  was  a  brother  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
noticed  below.  Died  in  1855. 

Thiersch,  (FRIKURICH  WILHELM,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  near  Freiburg  in  1784.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  in  1809  pro 
fessor  of  ancient  literature  in  the  gymnasium  at  Munich. 
He  soon  after  founded  a  philological  institute,  which  was 
subsequently  united  to  the  university.  He  visited  Greece 
in  1831,  and  published,  after  his  return,  a  treatise  "On 
the  Actual  Condition  of  Greece,  and  the  Means  of  Ac 
complishing  her  Restoration,"  (in  French,  1833.)  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  his  "  Greek  Grammar, 
especially  for  the  Homeric  Dialects,"  (1826,)  and  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Epochs  of  the  Plastic  Art  among  the 
Greeks,"  (1829.)  He  also  edited  Pindar's  "Odes,"  ac 
companied  with  notes  and  with  a  German  translation 
in  verse,  and  published  several  treatises  on  the  higher 
schools  of  Bavaria,  and  in  favour  of  classical  studies. 
Died  in  1860. 

See  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Thiersch,  (HEINRICH  WILHELM  JOSIAS,)  a  nephew 
or  son  of  the  preceding,  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "Grammatical  Manual  for  the  First  Instruc 
tion  in  the  Hebrew  Language,"  (1842.) 

Thiesse,  te'cVsa',  (LEON,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1793.  He  wrote  political  pamphlets,  several 
poems,  and  "Manuel  des  Braves,"  (7  vols.,  1817  et  seq.) 

Thile,  von,  fon  tee'leh,  (Lunwio  GUSTAV,)  a  Prussian 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1787,  served  against  the 
French  in  the  campaigns  of  1806,  1813,  and  1815,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  state  under  Frederick  William 
IV.  in  1840.  Died  in  1852. 

Thilo,  tee'lo,  (JOHANN  KARL,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1794.  He  published 
a  "  Codex  Apocryphus  Novi  Testament!,"  and  other 
learned  works.  Died  in  1853. 

Thiollet,  te'o'li',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Poitiers  in  1782.  He  published  several  treatises 
on  Architecture. 

Thion  de  la  Chaume,  te'ox'  deh  It  shorn,  (CLAUDE 
ESPRIT,)  a  French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris 
in  1750.  He  was  appointed  in  1778  physician  to  the 


military  hospital  at  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  and  soon  after 
to  the  army  destined  to  attack  Gibraltar.  While  in  this 
post  he  was  eminently  successful  in  his  treatment  of  an 
epidemic  fever  which  had  made  great  ravages  among 
the  troops.  After  his  return  to  France  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  physicians  of  the  Count  d'Artois,  afterwards 
Charles  X.  Died  in  1786. 

Thirion,  te're'oN',  (DiniKK,)  a  French  Jacobin,  be 
came  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He  opposed 
Robespierre  on  the  gth  Thermidor.  Died  in  1814. 

Thiriot,  te're'o',  a  Frenchman,  born  about  1696,  was 
a  friend  of  Voltaire,  some  of  whose  works  he  edited. 
Died  in  1772. 

Thjrl'by,  (STYAN,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic,  born 
at  Leicester  in  1692,  published  an  edition  of  Justin 
Martyr,  with  notes.  Died  in  1753. 

Thirl'wall,  (Co.NNoi',)  an  eminent  English  historian, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col 
lege,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1821.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1840. 
He  has  published,  conjointly  with  fulius  Charles  Hare, 
a  translation  from  the  German  of  two  volumes  of  Nie- 
buhr's  "History  of  Rome."  He  brought  out  in  1852 
his  "  History  of  Greece,"  (8  vols.  Svo,)  which  is  esteemed 
a  standard  work.  "Having,"  says  Mr.  Grote,  "studied, 
of  course,  the  same  evidence  as  Dr.  Thirlwall,  I  am 
better  enabled  than  others  to  bear  testimony  to  the 
learning,  the  sagacity,  and  the  candour  which  pervade 
his  excellent  work."  (Preface  to  Grote's  "History  of 
Greece.") 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Thiroux  d'Arconville.     See  AKCONVILLE,  D'. 

Thiroux  de  Crosne,  te'roo'  deh  kron,  (Louis,)  a 
French  magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  became  lieu 
tenant-general  of  the  police  in  1785.  He  was  guillotined 
in  1794. 

Thirty  Tyrants,  The,  [commonly  called  in  Greek 
simply  Ot  Tpakorm,  or  "The  Thirty,"]  the  name  of  a 
tyrannical  oligarchy  which  was  established  in  Athens, 
under  the  protectorate  of  Sparta,  continuing  about  a  year, 
at  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  All  the  Athenian 
citizens  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  liberty  were  espe 
cially  obnoxious  to  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  many  of  them 
were  put  to  death  without  regard  to  justice  or  even  the 
forms  of  law  ;  and  great  wealth,  particularly  if  it  belonged 
to  those  who  were  not  citizens  of  Athens,  was  almost  sure 
to  bring  destruction  upon  its  possessor.  Among  the 
Thirty  the  most  conspicuous  were  Critias,  Theramenes, 
and  Eratosthenes.  See  THRASYHDI.US. 

.See  GK-OTH,  "  History  of  Greece;"  THIKI.WAI.I.,  "History  of 
Greece;"  XENOPHON,  "  Hellenica ;"  LVSIAS,  "Oration  against 
Eratosthenes." 

g^^  The  name  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  |in  Latin, 
TRK;I.N'TA  TYRAN'NI]  was  also  sometimes  incorrectly 
applied  to  a  number  of  pretenders  or  usurpers  who 
arose  in  different  parts  of  the  Roman  empire  during  the 
reigns  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  Among  their  number 
were  Odenathus  and  the  famous  Zenobia. 

See  GIBBON,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  TKEBKI.LIUS  POLI.IO,  "  Triginta  Tyranni." 

This'be,  [Gr.  Bia6r) ;  Fr.  THLSHE,  tes'ba',]  a  beautiful 
maiden  of  Babylon,  beloved  by  Pyramus.  They  lived 
in  adjoining  houses,  and  conversed  privately  through  a 
chink  of  the  wall.  They  agreed  to  meet  at  the  tomb  of 
Ninus,  under  a  mulberry-tree.  Thisbe,  who  first  came 
to  that  place,  was  driven  away  by  the  sight  of  a  lioness, 
and  dropped  her  veil,  which  the  lioness  stained  with 
blood.  This  veil  was  found  by  Pyramus,  who,  hastily 
concluding  that  Thisbe  had  been  killed,  destroyed  him 
self.  She  soon  returned,  saw  the  dead  body  of  Pyramus, 
and  followed  his  example.  The  poets  feigned  that  the 
mulberries,  in  sympathy  with  their  fate,  changed  colour 
from  white  to  red. 

See  OVID,  "Metamorphoses." 

Thisted,  tis'ted,  (WALDEMAU  ADOLF,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  romance-writer,  known  under  the  pseudonym 
of  SAINT  HKRMIDAD,  born  at  Aarhuus  in  1815,  has 
published,  among  other  works,  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Heart  of  the  Wilderness,"  (1850.) 

Thistlewood,  this'sl-wood,  (ARTHUR,)  an  English 
adventurer,  born  near  Lincoln  in  1772,  was  the  principal 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


THJ4SSI 


2121 


THOMAS 


leader  in  the  so-called  Cato  Street  Conspiracy,  designed 
to  excite  an  insurrection  in  London.  Being  arrested, 
with  several  of  his  accomplices,  he  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  in  1820. 

See  "The  Closing  Scene;  or,  Christianity  and  Infidelity  Con 
trasted,"  by  the  REV.  ERSKINE  NEALE. 

Thjassi.     See  THIASSI. 

Thoghrul  Beg.     See  TOGRUL  BEG. 

Thograi.    See  TOGRAI. 

Thoiras.   See  RAPIN,  DE,  (PAUL.) 

Tholuck,  to'luk,  [Ger.  pron.  to'look,]  (FRIEDRICH 
AUGUST  GOTTREU,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Breslau,  March  30,  1799.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  where  he  acquired 
much  proficiency  in  the  Oriental  languages,  and  was 
induced  by  Neander  to  devote  himself  to  theology.  In 
1823  he  produced  a  popular  work,  called  "  Wahre  Weihe 
des  Zweiflers,"  which  was  reprinted  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Doctrine  of  the  Sinner  and  of  the  Mediator," 
(1851.)  He  became  extraordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Berlin  in  1824,  visited  England  and  Holland  in  1825, 
and  obtained  in  1826  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Halle.  Having  passed  about  two  years  as 
chaplain  to  the  Prussian  embassy  at  Rome,  where  he 
formed  a  friendship  with  Bunsen,  he  returned  to  Halle 
in  1829,  and  resumed  the  duties  of  his  professorship. 
He  opposed  the  rationalism  which  was  prevalent  among 
his  colleagues  at  Halle,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
influential  teachers  of  the  evangelical  doctrines.  Among 
his  numerous  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  are  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,"  (4th 
edition,  1842,)  "  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John," 
(1826;  7th  edition,  1857,  of  which  an  excellent  English 
translation  has  been  made  by  Dr.  Krauth,  of  Philadelphia, 
1859.)  "Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 
(1836,)  "The  Authenticity  of  the  Gospel  History," 
(1837,)  "  Hours  of  Devotion,"  ("  Stunden  cler  Andacht," 
1840,)  and  several  volumes  of  sermons.  He  has  been  for 
several  years  engaged  on  a  "  History  of  Rationalism." 
Most  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into  English. 

Thorn,  torn,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  in 
Ayrshire  in  1799^  was  a  stone-mason  in  his  youth. 
Having  taught  himself  sculpture,  he  produced  sandstone 
statues  of  "Tarn  O'Shanter"  and  "  Souter  Johnnie," 
which  obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  reproduced 
by  several  copies.  Among  his  other  works  is  a  group 
of  "Old  Mortality,"  in  sandstone,  which  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery,  near  Philadelphia. 
He  came  to  America  in  1836.  Died  at  New  York  in  1850. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Thorn,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Aber 
deen  in  1799.  His  means  of  instruction  were  very 
scanty,  and  at  an  early  age  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
weaver.  He  published  in  1841  "  Rhymes  and  Recollec 
tions  of  a  Hand-Loom  Weaver."  He  died,  in  great 
destitution,  in  1850. 

See  the  "  Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843. 

Thomander,  to-man'der,  (JoHAN  HENRIK,)  a  Swed 
ish  theologian  and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  in 
the  province  of  Scania  in  1798,  was  appointed  in  1833 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  in  the  Theological  Semi 
nary  at  Lund.  He  has  published  sermons  and  other 
religious  works,  and  translated  into  Swedish  several  of 
Shakspeare's  works,  the  "  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes, 
and  Byron's  "  Manfred." 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  [Fr.  pron.  to'ma';  Gr.  Qujj.ug; 
It.  ToMMASO,  tom-ma'so  ;  Sp.  TOMAS,  to-mas',]  or 
Didymus,  [Gr.  A«5f/uof,]  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Galilee.  He  is  first 
mentioned  in  John  xi.  16.  According  to  tradition,  he 
preached  the  gospel  in  India  and  suffered  martyrdom 
in  that  region. 

See  John  xx.  24-29. 

Thomas,  to'ma',  (ALEXANDRE  GERARD,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1818.  He  contributed  many 
able  articles  to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He 
removed  to  England  in  1852,  and  wrote  for  the  "  Edin 
burgh  Review."  Died  at  Brussels  in  1857. 

Thomas,  (AN'TOINE  LEONARD,)  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1732.  He  studied 


in  Paris,  and  about  1754  obtained  a  professorship  in  the 
College  of  Beauvais.  He  published  in  1756  "Philoso 
phical  and  Literary  Reflections  on  the  Poem  of  Natural 
Religion."  His  "Eulogy  on  Marshal  Saxe"  obtained 
the  prize  from  the  French  Academy  in  1759.  It  was 
followed  by  eulogies  on  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau  and 
Duguay-Trouin,  which  were  also  crowned  by  the  Acad 
emy.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his  "Epis 
tle  to  the  People,"  a  poem,  eulogies  on  Sully,  Descartes, 
and  Marcus  Aurelius,  "  Essay  on  the  Character,  Man 
ners,  and  Intellect  of  Women  in  all  Ages,"  (1772,)  and 
an  "  Essay  on  Eulogies,  or  the  History  of  Literature 
and  Eloquence  applied  to  this  Kind  of  Writing,"  (1773.) 
In  1767  he  succeeded  Hardion  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Died  in  1785. 

See  A.  DELEYRE,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Thomas,"  1792  ;  SAINT- 
SURIN,  "Notice  snr  Thomas,"  1825;  VILI.EMAIN,  "Tableau  de  la 
Litterature  au  dix-huitieme  Siecle ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Thomas,  (CHARLES  Louis  AMBROISE,)  a  French  mu 
sical  composer,  born  at  Metz  in  1811.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  for  musical  composition  in  1832,  produced 
successful  comic  operas,  etc.,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1851.  Among  his  works  are  operas  entitled 
"LeCaid"  and  "  Le  Songe  d'une  Nuit  d'Ete,"  (1850.) 

Thomas,  (CHRISTIAN.)     See  THOMASIUS. 

Thomas,  (CLEMKNT,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Li- 
bourne  in  1812.  He  was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  the 
national  guard  of  Paris  in  May,  1848,  but  was  removed 
in  the  next  month.  He  commanded  the  national  guards 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1870. 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  (DAVID,)  an  American  pomologist, 
florist,  and  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  in  Montgomery 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1776.  Fie  was  educated  by 
his  parents  in  the  religious  principles  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  In  1805  he  removed  to  near  Aurora,  in  Cayuga 
county,  New  York.  In  1817  he  published  "Travels  in 
the  West,"  a  work  which  attracted  the  notice  of  De  Witt 
Clinton  and  led  to  Mr.  Thomas  being  appointed  chief 
engineer  on  the  Erie  Canal,  west  of  Rochester,  which 
position  he  held  until  the  canal  was  completed.  Subse 
quently,  on  the  recommendation  of  Governor  Clinton, 
he  was  employed  as  one  of  the  principal  engineers  on 
the  Welland  Canal  in  Canada.  As  a  florist  and  pomolo 
gist  Mr.  Thomas  had  few,  if  any,  superiors  in  the  United 
States.  By  his  contributions  to  "The  Genesee  Farmer" 
he  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  cause  of  agri 
culture,  particularly  in  refuting  an  error,  once  widely 
prevalent,  that  wheat  under  certain  circumstances  was 
liable  to  be  changed  into  "chess,"  (Bromus  secalinus,) 
a  plant  of  quite  a  different  genus.  Mr.  Thomas  showed 
that  when  the  seed-wheat  was  perfectly  clean,  and 
when  the  soil  had  been  thoroughly  burnt,  so  as  to 
destroy  the  seeds  of  different  kinds  of  weeds,  including 
chess,  the  alleged  transmutation  never  took  place,  even 
under  the  circumstances  supposed  to  be  most  favour 
able  to  such  a  change.  His  writings,  supported  as  they 
were  by  carefully-conducted  experiments,  led  not  merely 
to  the  diffusion  of  more  enlightened  views,  but  to  a  great 
practical  improvement  in  this  department  of  agriculture. 
Died  in  1859. 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  (ELIZABETH,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  1675,  was  the  author  of  letters  and  poems  which 
were  admired  by  Dryden,  who  gave  her  the  name  of 
Corinna.  Pope,  however,  has  introduced  her  into  his 
"  Dunciad."  Died  in  1730. 

Thomas,  (FELIX,)  a  French  architect,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1815.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1845  f°r  a  design 
for  a  cathedral.  He  performed  an  artistic  mission  to 
Babylonia  about  1851. 

Thomas,  (FREDERIC,)  a  French  advocate  and  littera 
teur,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1814.  He  became  a- resident 
of  Paris  in  1835,  wrote  for  the  "  Presse/'  and  published 
several  novels. 

Thomas,  (FREDERICK  WILLIAM,)  an  American  novel 
ist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1808.  He  published  "Clinton  Bradshaw," 
(1835,)  "East  and  West,"  (1836,)  and  "Howard  Pinck- 
ney,"  also  "  The  Beechen  Tree,  and  other  Poems,"  (1844,) 
"John  Randolph  of  Roanoke,  and  other  Sketches  of 
Character,"  and  "The  Emigrant,"  a  poem. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THOMAS 


2122 


THOMASIUS 


Thomas,  (GKORGK  H.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Southampton  county,  Virginia,  on  the 
3ist  of  July,  1816.  Me  entered  the  Academy  at  West 
Point  in  1836,  and  graduated  twelfth  in  a  class  of  forty- 
five,  in  1840.  Having  become  first  lieutenant  in  1843, 
he  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war  at  Mon 
terey  and  Buena  Vista,  (1847,)  and  gained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1853.  HC  was  employed  in  Texas  from  1856 
to  November,  1860,  and  maintained  his  loyalty  to  the 
Union  amidst  the  general  defection  of  Southern-born 
officers.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
fifth  United  States  cavalry,  and  in  August  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  ordered  to 
Kentucky  in  September,  obtained  command  of  a  di 
vision  of  the  army  of  Buell,  and  defeated  General  Zolli- 
koffer  near  Mill  Spring  about  the  i8th  of  January,  1862. 
In  April  of  that  year  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  in  the  next  month  he  obtained  command 
of  five  divisions,  forming  the  right  wing  of  Halleck's 
army  operating  against  Corinth.  He  became  in  Sep 
tember,  1862,  second  in  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Ohio,  which  was  opposed  to  General  Bragg  in  Kentucky. 
He  rendered  important  services  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862,  to  January  2,  1863,  and  took 
part  in  the  movements  by  which  the  Union  army  gained 
possession  of  Chattanooga,  September  9.  His  reputa 
tion  was  increased  by  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Chick- 
amanga,  September  19  and  20.  There  his  corps  stood 
firm  after  the  rest  of  the  army  had  been  routed,  and 
repulsed  the  attacks  of  the  enemy  until  darkness  put  an 
end  to  the  battle.  He  succeeded  Rosecrans  as  com 
mander  in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  on  the 
igth  of  October,  1863,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  the  regular  army  in  the  same  month. 

General  Thomas  contributed  to  the  victory  which 
General  Grant  gained  near  Chattanooga,  November  25, 
1863.  He  served  under  Sherman  in  the  campaign 
against  Atlanta,  which  began  in  May,  1864,  and  took 
part  in  the  battles  at  Dallas  and  Kenesavv  Mountain,  and 
in  several  actions  fought  near  Atlanta  in  July.  When 
Sherman  was  about  to  abandon  Atlanta  and  inarch 
through  Georgia  to  the  sea,  he  sent  General  Thomas 
with  an  army  to  Middle  Tennessee  to  operate  against 
Hood,  who  invaded  Tennessee  about  the  end  of  Octo 
ber.  As  Hood  moved  north,  General  Thomas  fell  back 
slowly  towards  Nashville,  and  summoned  reinforcements 
to  join  him  at  that  city.  On  the  3Oth  of  November  the 
Union  army  was  attacked  at  Franklin  by  the  army  of 
Hood,  which  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss,  but  after 
wards  advanced  to  Nashville.  General  Thomas  attacked 
Hood  in  position  at  Nashville  on  the  151)1  of  Decem 
ber,  1864,  and,  in  a  battle  lasting  two  days,  defeated  and 
drove  him  from  the  field  in  the  utmost  confusion.  In 
this  battle  Hood  lost  about  6000  prisoners  and  sixty 
pieces  of  cannon.  Soon  after  this  victory  General 
Thomas  was  appointed  a  major-gener.il  in  the  regular 
army.  After  the  end  of  the  war  he  commanded  the 
department  of  the  Cumberland,  comprising  the  States 
of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
modesty,  simplicity  of  character,  stability,  discretion,  and 
other  virtues.  President  Johnson  having  offered  him  the 
brevet  of  lieutenant-general  and  of  general  in  February, 
1868,  he  declined  the  compliment,  saying  he  had  done 
nothing  since  the  war  to  merit  such  promotion.  Died 
in  1870. 

Thomas,  (ISAIAH,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
printer  and  journalist,  born  at  Boston  in  1749.  In  1770 
lie  published  at  Boston  the  "  Massachusetts  Spy,"  in 
which  he  denounced  th£  measures  of  the  British  gov 
ernment.  He  subsequently  carried  on  an  extensive 
business  as  a  bookseller  in  that  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "History  of  Printing  in  America,"  (1810.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Thomas,  to'mas,  (JAKOB  ERNST,)  a  German  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Hagelstein  in  1588.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy.  Died  in  1653. 

Thomas,  (JOHN,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mas 
sachusetts.  He  served  against  the  French  and  Indians 
in  1756.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  March, 
1776,  and  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Canada  on  the  death  of  General  Montgomery.  'lie 


raised  the  siege  of  Quebec,  and  began  to  retreat,  but 
died  at  Chambly  in  May,  1776. 

Thomas,  (JOHN,)  an  able  English  sculptor,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1813.  He  executed  or  designed  the 
statues  and  carvings  which  adorn  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament.  He  was  also  an  architect.  Died  in  1862. 

Thomas,  (JOHN,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1712.  He  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1774.  Died  in  1793. 

Thomas,  (JoHN  J.,)  an  American  pomologist  and 
writer  on  agriculture,  a  son  of  David  Thomas,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Cayuga  county,  New  York,  in  1810. 
Among  his  publications  may  be  named  the  "  American 
Fruit-Culturist,"  (ist  edition  in  1846;  last  edition, 
greatly  enlarged  and  improved,  1867,)  "  Farm  Ma 
chinery,"  (last  edition,  1868,)  and  a  serial  entitled  "  Rural 
Affairs,"  (6  vols.,  1858-70.)  Mr.  Thomas  has  been  one 
of  the  editors  of  "  The  Country  Gentleman"  (issued 
at  Albany)  from  the  date  of  its  first  publication,  in 
1 8.5  2. 

Thomas,  (LoRKNZO,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Delaware  about  1804,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1823. 
He  became  adjutant-general  in  March,  1861,  and  ob 
tained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  August  of  that 
year.  lie  had  a  prominent  part  in  President  fohnson's 
coup  cTftat  of  February  21,  1868,  when  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  ad  interim  in  place  of  E.  M.  Stanton, 
who,  however,  refused  to  give  up  the  office. 

Thomas,  (PHILIP  F.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Maryland  in  1847,  and  appointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  about  December  12,  1860.  He  resigned 
January  1 1,  1861. 

Thomas,  (PIKRKK  liMli.K,)  a  French  publicist  and 
civil  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  National  Workshops,"  (Ateliers,)  (1848.) 

Thomas,  (ROBERT,)  an  able  English  physician,  born 
in  1743,  published  a  popular  work  entitled  "  The  Modern 
Practice  of  Physic,"  and  other  medical  treatises.  Died 
in  1835. 

Thomas,  (WILLIAM,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in 
Wales,  was  patronized  by  King  Edward  VI.  Under 
the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  executed  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  (1553.)  He  published  a  "History  of  Italy," 
and  other  works. 

Thomas,  (WILLIAM,)  born  at  Bristol,  in  England,  in 
1613,  was  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  York  and  preceptor 
to  the  princess  (afterwards  queen)  Anne.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Worcester.  Died  in  1689. 

Thomas,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  English  divine,  grand 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1670.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Nicholas,  in  Worcester,  in  1723.  lie 
published  a  "  Survey  of  Worcester  Cathedral,"  and 
other  antiquarian  works.  Died  in  1738. 

Thomas  Aquinas.     See  AQUINAS. 

Thomas  d'Aquin.     See  AQUINAS. 

Thom'as  Can-ti-pra-ten'sis,  [Fr.  THOMAS  OF.  CAN- 
TiMi'Ktf,  to'ma'  deh  l<6N'taN'pRa',j  a  Flemish  monk  and 
biographer,  born  near  Brussels  in  1201  ;  died  in  1263. 

Thomas  Dufosse,  (PIERRE.)     See  Foss6,  nu. 

Thomas  a  Kempis.     See  K  EM  PIS. 

Thomas  the  Riymer.     See  RIIVMKR. 

Thomas  de  Villeneuve,  SAINT,  or  THOMAS  Gar- 
cias,  (gaK-//iee/as,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  in  Leon  in 
1488.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Valencia  in  1545. 
Died  in  1555. 

See  DABHKT.  "  Histoire  tie  Saint  Thomas  de  Villeneuve,"  1853. 

Thomasen.     See  THOMASIUS. 

Thomasin,  tom'a-sin  or  to-ma-zeen',  written  also  To- 
masin,  Zerkler,  or  Tirkelare,  a  poet  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  born  at  Frinli,  in  Italy,  was  the  author  of  a 
didactic  poem  in  German,  entitled  "The  Italian  Guest," 
("  Der  Welsche  Gast.")  Of  this  work,  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  productions  of  the  age,  only 
small  portions  have  been  printed. 

Thomasius,  to-ma'ze-iis,  or  Thomasen,  to'ma-zen, 
(CHRISTIAN,)  an  eminent  German  philosopher  and  re 
former,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1655.  Having  studied  law 
and  graduated  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  he  founded  in 
1688  a  monthly  review,  which  soon  became  noted  for  its 
bold  censures  of  prevailing  abuses.  In  1694  he  was 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met:  n6t;  good;  moon; 


THOMASIUS 


2123 


THOMSEN 


appointed  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  the  University 
of  Halle,  where  he  became  rector  in  1710.  He  was  the 
first  to  introduce  the  practice  of  lecturing  and  writing  in 
German,  and,  by  his  denunciation  of  the  superstitions  of 
the  time,  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  abolishing  trials  for 
witchcraft.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an  "  Intro 
duction  to  the  Doctrine  of  Reason  or  Logic,"  (1691,) 
"  Introduction  to  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1692,)  and  "  His 
tory  of  Wisdom  and  Folly,"  (1693.)  Thomasius  was 
eulogized  by  Frederick  the  Great  as  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  philosophers  of  Germany.  Died  in  1728. 

See  LUDEN,  "  C.  Thomasius  nacli  seinen  Scliicksalen,"  etc.,  1805; 
F.  HOFFMANN,  "  Programma  inObitum  C.  Thomasii."  IJJQ;  ZKD- 
I.HK,  "  Universal- Lexikon  ;"  S.AXE,  "Onomasiicon  ;"  '•  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Thomasius  or  Thomasen,  QAKOI?,)  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1622,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  and  phi 
losophy  at  Leipsic,  and  one  of  the  teachers  of  Leibnitz. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Origins  of  History, 
Philosophical  and  Ecclesiastical,"  ("  Origines  Historian 
Philosophies  et  Ecclesiastical,"  1665.)  Died  in  1684. 
See  SAXE,  "  Onomasticon  ;"  ZKDI.ER,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Thomassin,  to'mt'sax',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesi 
astic,  born  at  Aix  in  1619,  became  professor  of  theology 
in  the  seminary  of  Sainte-Magloire,  at  Paris.  lie  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Ancient  and  Modern  Ecclesi 
astical  Discipline,"  "Theological  Dogmas,"  and  other 
learned  works.  Died  in  1695. 

Thomassiii,  (PHILIPPE,)  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
bom  at  Troyes  about  1550.   He  worked  mostly  at  Rome, 
and  engraved  many  antique  statues,  also  numerous  por-  i 
traits  of  eminent  men.     lie  died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Thomassin,  (SIMON,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Troyes  about  1652,  is  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  Died  in  1732. 

His  son  HKNRI  SIMON,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  an 
able  engraver.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens 
and  Paul  Veronese.  Died  in  1741. 

Thomassy,  to'mt'se',  (MARIE  JOSEPH  RAYMOND,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1810.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Morocco  and  its  Caravans," 
(1845.) 

Thomines.     See  Bosc,  nu,  (PIERRE.) 

Thomond,  to'mi.x',  (THOMAS,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1759.  He  removed  to  Saint  Peters 
burg,  where  he  was  employed  by  the  Russian  govern 
ment  to  remodel  the  Great  Theatre  and  build  several 
splendid  public  edifices.  The  Imperial  Exchange,  com 
pleted  in  1810,  is  esteemed  one  of  his  finest  works.  Died 
in  1813. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (AUGUSTUS  CHARLES,)  D.D., 
a^n  American  Congregational  divine,  born  at  Goshen, 
Connecticut,  in  1812.  He  has  published  "  The  Young 
Martyrs,"  "  Last  Hours,  or  Words  and  Acts  of  the 
Dying,"  (1851,)  and  other  religious  works. 

Thompson,  (BENJAMIN.)     See  RUMFORD,  COUNT. 

Thompson,  (DANIEL  PIERCE,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  popular  novelist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massa 
chusetts,  in  1795.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"May  Martin,  or  the  Money-Diggers,"  (1835,)  "The 
Green  Mountain  Boys,"  (1840,)  "  Locke  Amsden,"  (1847,) 
an  admirable  tale,  descriptive  of  the  experience  of  a 
New  England  school-master,  "The  Rangers,  or  the 
Tory's  Daughter,"  (1851,)  and  "  Gant  Gurley,  or  the 
Trappers  of  Lake  Umbagog,"  (1857.)  Died  in  May  or 
June,  1868. 

See  DUYCKIXCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Hull  about  1737.  He  served  in  the  royal  navy 
in  his  youth,  and  wrote  several  licentious  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Demirep,"  (1766.)  He  also  published  a 
"  Sailor's  Letters,"  (autobiographic,  2  vols.,  1767.)  Died 
in  1786. 

Thompson,  (HENRY,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  about  1797.  He  became  vicar  of  Chard,  in 
Somersetshire.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Hannah 
More."  He  contributed  to  several  periodicals. 

Thompson,  (JACOB,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Caswell  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1810.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  Mississippi  in  1839,  and  in  1857 


was  appointed  secretary  of  the  interior  under  President 
Buchanan.  He  subsequently  joined  the  secessionists, 
and  in  1861  was  elected  Governor  of  Mississippi. 

Thompson,  (JoHN  R.,)  an  American  litterateur,  born 
at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1823,  was  for  many  years 
editor  of  the  "  Southern  Literary  Messenger." 

Thompson,  (JOSEPH  PARRISH,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1819. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  Church, 
New  York,  in  1845.  lie  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  "  Independent"  at  Brooklyn,  and  also  of  the  "  New 
Englander,"  to  which  he  made  many  contributions.  He 
has  published  "Lectures  to  Young'Men,"  "Egypt,  Past 
and  Present,"  "  The  Christian  Graces,"  and  various 
other  works.  He  has  also  contributed  many  valuable 


articles  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  Smith's  "  Dictionary 
of  Biblical  Geography  and  Antiquities,"  and  the  "North 
American  Review." 

Thompson,  (ROBERT  ANCHOR,)  an  English  divi 
born  in  Durham  in  1821,  has  published,  among  ot 
works,  "Christian  Theism,"  (1855,)  and  "Principles 
Natural  Theology,"  (1857.) 


Thompson,  (ROBERT  ANCHOR,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Durham  in  1821.  has  nublished.  amoinr  other 

es  of 

•gy."  (1857-) 

Thompson,  (SMITH,)  an  American  judge,  born  prob 
ably  in  New  York  State  about  1767.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  New  York  in  1814,  was  secretary  of  the  navy 
from  November,  1818,  to  December,  1823,  and  was  then 
appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.  Died  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1843. 

Thompson,  (THOMAS  PERRONET,)  an  English  officer 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Hull  in  1783.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  and,  having 
entered  the  army,  served  with  distinction  in  South 
America,  Spain,  and  India,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
major  in  1825.  About  1830  he  became  associate  pro 
prietor  of  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  in  which  he  advo 
cated  the  abolition  of  slavery,  free  trade,  and  various 
other  reforms.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  Hull 
in  1835,  anc'  twice  re-elected  for  Bradford,  in  Yorkshire. 
He  was  made  a  major-general  in  1854.  He  published  the 
"Corn-Law  Catechism,"  (1827,)  "True  Theory  of  Rent," 
"Enharmonic  Theory  of  Music,"  etc.,  (1829,)  "Geometry 
without  Axioms,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1869. 

Thompson,  (WADDY,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  at  Pickensville,  South  Carolina,  in  1798. 
lie  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Whig  party  in  1835, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  Calhoun 
and  the  State-Rights  party.  He  was  appointed  in  1842 
minister  to  Mexico,  and  published,  after  his  return,  "  Re 
miniscences  of  Mexico." 

Thompson,  (Wn.i.iAM,)  an  eminent  Irish  naturalist, 
born  at  Belfast  in  1805.  Having  previously  made  him 
self  acquainted  with  the  natural  history  of  Ireland,  he 
made  a  voyage  in  1841  to  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "Catalogue  of  Birds 
new  to  the  Irish  Fauna,"  "  On  some  Vertebrata  new  to 
the  Irish  Fauna,"  and  "On  the  Natural  History  of  Ire 
land,"  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1856.)  He  also  contributed  to  the 
"Annals  of  Natural  History."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  and  other  learned  societies. 
Died  in  1852. 

Thompson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Westmoreland,  became  Dean  of  Raphoe,  in  Ireland. 
He  published  a  collection  of  poems.  Died  in  1766. 

Thompson,  (Z.ADOC,)  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Bridgewater,  Vermont,  in  1796.  He  became  about 
1842  professor  of  natural  history  and  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Vermont,  and  in  1853  was  appointed  State 
naturalist.  He  was  the  author  ot  the  "Natural,  Civil, 
and  Political  History  of  Vermont,"  etc.,  a  "Gazetteer 
of  Vermont,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1856. 

Thorns,  tomz,  (WILLIAM  JOHN,)  an  English  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Westminster  in  1803.  He  pub 
lished  a  "Collection  of  Early  Prose  Romances,"  (1828,) 
"Lays  and  Legends  of  Various  Nations,"  (1834,)  and 
editions  of  Stow's  "Survey  of  London"  and  Caxton's 
"  Reynard  the  Fox."  He  has  also  been  the  principal 
editor  of  "  Notes  and  Queries,"  a  work  first  published 
at  his  suggestion. 

Thomsen,  tom'sen,  (CHRISTIAN  JUKGENSEN,  )  a 
Danish  antiquary,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1788.  He 
became  director  of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals  in  1842. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THOMSON 


21  24 


THOR 


He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Northern  Antiquities,"  (1831,) 
and  other  works. 

Thompson,  (tom'sgn,)  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  poet, 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  British  Par 
nassus  at  the  Close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Thomson,  (ANDREW,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1779.  He  became  in 
1814  pastor  of  Saint  George's  Church,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  zeal  and  eloquence. 
Died  in  1831. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Thomson,  (ANTHONY  TODD,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
physician,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1778.  He  studied  in 
his  native  city,  attending  the  lectures  of  Munro,  Black, 
and  other  distinguished  men,  and  about  1800  began  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  London.  lie  published  the 
"London  Dispensatory,"  (1811,)  which  met  with  great 
success  and  was  translated  into  several  languages,  a 
"Conspectus  of  the  Pharmacopoeias  of  London,  Edin 
burgh,  and  Dublin,"  etc.,  (1816,)  "  Lectures  on  Botany," 
"Elements  of  Materia  Medica,"  (1832,)  and  other  works 
on  various  subjects.  He  was-  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1828  became  professor 
of  materia  medica  in  the  London  University.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  medical  jurisprudence  in 
1832.  Died  in  1849. 

Mrs.  A.  T.  THOMSON,  wife  of  the  preceding,  pub 
lished  "Memoirs  of  Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough," 
etc.,  "Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Henry  VIII.,"  "Recol 
lections  of  Literary  Characters  and  Celebrated  Places," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1862. 

Thom'son,  (tom'son,)  (CHARLES,)  a  patriot,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1729  or  1730.  lie  emigrated  to  America  in 
1741,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  served  as  secretary  of  Congress  from  1774 
to  1789,  and  was  highly  respected  for  his  virtues  and 
learning.  He  produced  a  translation  of  the  Septuagint, 
which  was  published  in  4  vols.,  (1808.)  Died  in  1824. 

Thom'son,  (EDWARD,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Portsea,  England,  in  1810,  emigrated  to  America, 
and  was  elected  in  1843  professor  of  mental  and  moral 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  He  subse 
quently  became  president  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univer 
sity.  In  1864  he  was  elected  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  Died  in  1870. 

Thomson,  (JAMES,)  a  celebrated  poet,  born  in  Rox 
burghshire,  Scotland,  in  1700.  He  studied  theology  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  but  he  soon  renounced 
it  for  literary  pursuits,  and  published  in  1726  his  poem 
entitled  "Winter."  Its  success  at  first  was  moderate, 
but  it  subsequently  acquired  great  popularity,  and  was 
followed  in  a  few  years  by  his  "Spring,"  "Summer," 
and  "  Autumn,"  all  of  which  appeared  in  1730,  under  the 
title  of  "The  Seasons."  His  tragedies  of  "  Sophonisba," 
"Agamemnon,"  and  "Edward  and  Eleonora,"  as  well 
as  his  poem  on  "Liberty,"  were  received  with  little  fa 
vour.  Through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Sir  George — 
afterwards  Lord — Lyttleton,  he  was  appointed  about  1745 
surveyor-general  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  He  published 
in  1748  his  "Castle  of  Indolence,"  an  allegorical  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  measure,  which  is  generally  esteemed 
his  finest  production.  He  died  in  1748.  Translations  of 
his  "  Seasons"  have  been  made  into  German,  and  both  a 
prose  and  poetical  version  of  it  have  appeared  in  French, 
while  among  all  classes  in  Great  Britain  it  is  still  one 
of  the  most  popular  poems  in  the  language.  Campbell 
observes,  "  The  unvaried  pomp  of  Thomson's  diction 
suggests  a  most  unfavourable  comparison  with  the  manly 
and  idiomatic  simplicity  of  Covvper ;  at  the  same  time, 
the  pervading  spirit  and  feeling  of  his  poetry  is  in  gen 
eral  more  bland  and  delightful  than  that  o'f  his  great 
rival  in  rural  description." 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  DAVID,  EARI.  OF  BUCHAN, 
"  Essays  on  the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun  and  the 
Poet  Thomson,"  1792;  CHAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Thomson,  (Rev.  JOHN,)  a  Scottish  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1778.  He  painted  stormy  seas  with 
success.  Died  in  1840. 

Thomson,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1794,  lived  many  years  in  London.  He  published, 


besides  other  works,  "Chronicles  of  London  Bridge," 
(1827.)  Died  in  1865. 

Thomson,  (ROKKRT  DUNDAS,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  about  1805.  lie  resided  in 
London,  and  published  a  "Cyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy,  and  Physiology."  Died  in  1864. 

Thomson,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  Scottish  chemist 
and  physician,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1773.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  at  Edinburgh, 
where  about  1800  he  began  a  course  of  lectures  on 
chemistry.  In  1796  he  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  to  which  he  contributed 
the  articles  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  suggest  the  use  of  chemical  symbols.  In 
1813  he  edited  the  "  Annals  of  Philosophy"  in  London, 
and  in  1818  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  He  published  a  "  System  of 
Chemistry,"  (4  vols.,  1802,)  "Elements  of  Chemistry," 
(1810,)  "Outline  of  the  Sciences  of  Heat  and  Electricity," 
"Travels  in  Sweden,"  (1813,)  "The  History  of  Chemis 
try,"  (1830,)  "Outlines  of  Mineralogy,  Geology,"  etc.,  (2 
vols.,  1835,)  and  other  similar  works,  which  enjoy  a  high 
reputation.  Died  in  1852.  His  son,  of  the  same  name, 
has  been  appointed  superintendent  of  the  botanic  gar 
dens  at  Calcutta,  ar.d  has  published  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  Thibet. 

See  CHAMHKRS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Thomson,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1746,  was  editor  successively  of  the  "  Eng 
lish  Review,"  "  Political  Magazine,"  and  other  journals, 
and  published  "Memoirs  of  the  War  in  Asia,"  and  a 
number  of  compilations.  Died  in  1817. 

Thomson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1819.  He  became  preacher  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1858,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in  1861, 
and  Archbishop  of  York  in  1862.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
logic,  called  "  An  Outline  of  the  Laws  of  Thought." 

Thonissen,  to'ne'sftN',  (GEORGES  FRANC.OIS,)  a  Bel 
gian  economist,  born  at  Hasselt  in  1817.  He  wrote 
several  svorks  on  socialism  and  political  economy. 

Thor,  thor,  (or  toR,)  or  Thonr,  (i.e.  "  thunder,")  [Norse, 
THONAR,  of  which  Thor  is,  in  all  probability,  a  con 
traction  ;  in  Anglo-Saxon  he  was  variously  called  THUK, 
THOR,  THUNDER,  and  TIIUNER, — both  the  last-named 
terms  signifying  "  thunder."  Some  writers,  with  less  prob 
ability,  have  supposed  the  name  to  be  allied  to  the  Greek 
Oof-jtof,  "impetuous,"  "resistless,"]  in  the  mythology  of 
the  North,  the  god  of  thunder,  and  also  the  god  of 
strength,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Odin.  His  mother  was 
Fjorgyn,  (or  the  Earth.)  He  is  sometimes  called  Oeku- 
Thor,  ("car  Thor,"  or  "driving  Thor,")  and  Hlorridi, 
"fire  rider,")  and  sometimes  Ving-Thor,  ("winged 
Thor.")  As  the  god  of  thunder,  he  is  sometimes  styled 
the  Northern  Jupiter  ;  and  hence  Thursday  (Thor's  day*) 
is  called,  in  the  Latin  of  the  middle  ages,  jfovis  dies, 
("Jupiter's  day,")  which  the  French  have  corrupted  into 
yeudi.  As  the  god  of  strength,  cind  the  great  conqueror 
of  the  giants,  he  resembles  the  Hercules  of  classic  my 
thology.  His  only  daughter  was  named  Thrud,  (i.e. 
"strength,")  and  his  dwelling-place  is  Thrudheim,  (or 
Thruclheimr,)  the  "home  or  habitation  of  strength,"  or 
Thrudvangr,  the  "field"  or  "realm"  of  strength.  His 
vast  hall,  called  Bilskirnir,  has  five  hundred  and  forty 
floors. 

Thor  appears  to  have  been  regarded  in  Iceland  and 
in  some  portions  of  Norway  as  the  greatest  of  all  the 
gods,  Odin  not  excepted.  He  had  three  possessions  of 
inestimable  value, — the  hammer  Mjolnir,  (myoKnir,)  the 
terror  of  the  giants  and  of  all  powers  hostile  to  the 
yEsir,  his  Megin-gjortS,  (me'g'in-gyorth.t)  or  "strength- 
girdle,"  and  his  gloves  of  iron,  with  which  he  grasped 
the  handle  of  Mjolnir.  In  the  legends  of  the  North, 
Thor  is  represented  as  hot-tempered,  but  at  the  same 
time  very  frank  and  good-natured.  He  is  said  to  be  ac 
companied  by  the  light-footed  boy  Thialfi  (te-al'fe,  i.e. 
"diligent")  and  the  girl  Roskva,  ("quick,")  expressive 
of  the  rapidity  with  which  a  thunder-storm  flies  over  the 


*  In  Anglo-Saxon,  Thunres  daeg  or  Thundres  daeg,  i.e.  "  Thun 
der's  day." 

t  Also  written  Megingjardar. 


a, e,  J,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


THORBECKE 


2125 


THORNDIKE 


earth.  His  chariot  is  said  to  be  drawn  by  goats, — proba 
bly  because  these  animals  inhabit  the  highest  mountain- 
tops.  Thor's  wife,  Sif,  (seef,)  with  golden  hair,  is  said 
to  denote  the  autumnal  earth,  with  its  fields  of  ripening 
corn.  The  ripening  of  the  grain  was  supposed  to  be 
promoted  by  the  lightning.  Thor  is  called  in  the  Edda 
"  Midgard's  defender,"  or  the  defender  of  the  habitation 
of  men.  Although  the  most  valiant  of  the  gods,  he  is, 
in  fact,  the  personification  of  defensive  war,*  whose  office 
it  is  to  protect  the  works  of  industry  and  the  arts  of 
peace.  Hence  he  is,  with  great  propriety,  represented 
as  the  husband  and  protector  of  Sif  or  Siva,  (the  "in 
violate,")  the  goddess  of  harvests.  (See  SIF.)  For 
some  curious  and  interesting  legends  respecting  Thor, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Mallet's  "  Northern  Antiquities," 
vol.  ii.  Fable  XL,  also  Fables  XXIII.-XXVII.  At 
Ragr.arock  (the  "  twilight  or  evening  of  the  gods")  Thor 
will  slay  the  World-Serpent,  (see  MIDGARD'S  SERPENT,) 
but  will  himself  perish  from  the  effects  of  its  venom. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  PKTERSEN,  "  Nor- 
rlisk    Mythologi ;"    "Religion   of   the    Northmen,"   by   RUDOLPH  j 
KEVSER,  translated  by  BARCLAY  PENNOCK,  New  York,  1854;  also,  j 
LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  p.  31  et  seg. 

Thorbecke,  toR'bek'keh,  (JAN  RUDOLPH,)  a  Dutch 
statesman,  born  at  Zvvolle  in  1796.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  the  University  of  Leyden  about  1830.  He  was 
one  of  seven  persons  charged  in  1844  to  propose  a  new 
constitution,  which  the  king  rejected  as  too  liberal.  In 
1848  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission  to  revise  | 
the  constitution,  and  procured  the  adoption  of  reforms  I 
similar  to  those  which  were  rejected  in  1844.  He  was 
prime  minister  from  October,  1849,  to  April,  1853,  and 
was  restored  to  that  position  in  February,  1862.  He 
resigned  in  1866. 

Thor'burn,  (GRANT,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  near 
Dalkeith  in  1773.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1794, 
and  became  a  dealer  in  garden-seeds.  He  wrote  for  the 
newspapers  under  the  signature  of  LAURIE  TODD.  Died 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1863. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1834;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1833.  j 

Thorburn,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dumfries  in  1818.  He  settled  about  1836  in 
London,  where  he  has  obtained  extensive  patronage 
and  produced  numerous  miniatures  of  great  merit. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  miniature  portraits  of  the 
queen  and  several  members  of  the  royal  family.  In  1848 
he  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Thordo,  toR'do,  or  Thord  Degen,  tok  da'gen,  a 
Danish  lawyer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  chief  judge 
of  the  province  of  Jutland.  He  made  a  collection  of 
Danish  laws,  including  the  earliest.  They  have  been 
translated  into  Latin  by  Ludewig. 

Thordson,  toRd'son,  (SruRLA,)  a  Danish  historian, 
born  about  1218,  was  a  nephew  of  Snorri  Sturluson. 
He  filled  several  high  offices  under  the  government,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Snorri 
Sturluson.  Died  in  1288. 

Thore,  to'ra',  (THEOPIIII.E,)  a  French  republican, 
journalist,  and  critic,  born  about  1810.  He  founded  in 
Paris,  in  1848,  a  journal  called  "  The  True  Republic," 
and  became  an  exile  in  1851.  He  wrote  critiques  on  art, 
inserted  in  the  "  Artiste"  and  the  "  Siecle,"  and  edited 
"  L'Art  moderne." 

Thoreau,  f/ia-ro'  or  //;o'ro,  (HENRY  DAVID,)  an 
American  author  and  naturalist,  born  in  Concord,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1817,  was  descended  from  an  ancestor 
who  came  from  the  island  of  Guernsey.  His  father  was  a 
manufacturer  of  lead-pencils.  The  son  was  educated  at 
Harvard  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1837.  Besides 
being  a  classical  scholar,  he  was  well  versed  in  Oriental 
literature.  It  is  asserted  that  he  had  the  best  Oriental 
library  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  In  his  man 
ners,  dress,  and  way  of  life  he  was  eccentric.  He  was 
bred  to  no  profession  ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  never  went 
to  church,  never  voted,  and  never  paid  a  tax  to  the 
State.  He  lived  in  the  simplest  manner;  he  sometimes 
practised  the  business  of  land-surveyor.  In  1845  he 


*  He  is  nowhere  represented  as  stirring  up  strife  among  men  ; 
on  the  contrary,  all  his  hostility  and  all  his  prowess  are  exerted 
against  the  Jbtuns,  who  are  the  aggressive,  irreconcilable  enemies  of 
mankind  and  of  all  thrift  and  improvement. 


built  a  small  frame  house  on  the  shore  of  Walden  Pond, 
near  Concord,  where  he  lived  two  years  as  a  hermit,  in 
studious  retirement.  He  published  an  account  of  this 
portion  of  his  life,  in  a  small  book  entitled  "Walden."- 
He  was  intimate  with  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and  Na 
thaniel  Hawthorne.  The  former  has  written  a  brief 
memoir  of  Thoreau,  from  which  we  extract  the  follow 
ing  :  "  Mr.  Thoreau  dedicated  his  genius  with  such  entire 
love  to  the  fields,  hills,  and  waters  of  his  native  town, 
that  he  made  them  known  and  interesting  to  all  reading 
Americans  and  to  people  over  the  sea.  .  .  .  He  grew  to 
be  revered  and  admired  by  his  townsmen,  who  had  at 
first  known  him  only  as  an  oddity.  ...  I  have  repeat 
edly  known  young  men  of  sensibility  converted  in  a 
moment  to  the  belief  that  this  was  the  man  they  were 
in  search  of, — the  man  of  men,  who  could  tell  them  all 
they  should  do.  .  .  .  Whilst  he  used  in  his  writings-  a 
certain  petulance  of  remark  in  reference  to  churches 
and  churchmen,  he  was  a  person  of  rare,  tender,  and 
absolute  religion, — a  person  incapable  of  any  profana 
tion."  Thoreau  was  never  married.  He  died  in  1862. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  "  The  Concord  and 
Merrimac  Rivers,"  and  "The  Excursions,"  (1863.)  A 
volume  of  his  letters  was  published  in  1865. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  : 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  1865  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1866. 

Thorer,  (ALIUN.)     See  TORINUS. 

Thoresby,  th5rz'be,  ?  (RALPH,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  at  Leeds  in  1658. 
His  principal  works  are  "  The  Topography  of  the  Town 
and  Parish  of  Leeds,"  ("  Ducatus  Leodiensis,")  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Church  of  Leeds,"  ("  Vicaria  Leodien 
sis.")  He  possessed  a  very  valuable  collection  of  coins, 
manuscripts,  etc.  Died  in  1725. 

Thorigny.     See  BEAUFORT  DE  THORIGNY. 

Thorild,  to'rild,  (THOMAS,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Bohuslan  in  1759.  He 
published,  besides  poems  and  prose  essays  in  Swedish, 
"  Cromwell,"  an  epic  poem,  and  other  works,  in  English. 
Died  in  1819. 

Thorinus.    See  TORINUS. 

Thor'Is-mond,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Theodoric  I.  He  fought  bravely  against  Attila 
at  Chalons  in  451  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
that  year.  He  was  killed  by  his  brother  Theodoric  in 
452  A.D. 

Tho'rf-us  [Fr.  pron.  to're'iis'j  orTho'ris,  (RAPHAEL,) 
a  French  physician,  who  practised  in  England.  Died 
in  1625. 

Thorkelin,  toR'keh-leen',  (GRIM  JOHNSEN,)  a  distin 
guished  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  Iceland  in  1752. 
In  1786  he  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  pub 
lished  in  1788  "  Fragments  of  English  and  Irish  History 
in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Century."  He  also  wrote 
several  works  in  illustration  of  Danish  and  Norwegian 
history.  Died  in  1829. 

See  ERSLEW,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Thorlacius,  tor-la'se-us,  (SKULETnoRDSEN,)  born  in 
Iceland  in  1741,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises 
on  Northern  antiquities.  Died  in  1815. 

His  son  BORGE,  born  in  1775,  became  professor  of 
eloquence  at  Copenhagen,  and  published  several  classical 
and  antiquarian  works.  Died  in  1829. 

Thorlaksen,  toR'lak'sen,  or  Thorlakson,  (Guo- 
RRAND,)  an  Icelandic  writer,  born  in  1542,  became  a 
bishop.  Died  in  1629.  According  to  one  authority,  he 
was  born  in  1642,  and  died  in  1729. 

Thorlaksscm,  toR'laks-son',  (JoiiN,)  an  Icelandic 
poet,  born  in  1744,  was  a  clergyman.  He  made  a 
translation  of  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  Icelandic,  which  is 
highly  commended.  Died  in  1819. 

Thorn'bur-y,  (GEORGE  WALTER,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1828.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Buccaneers,"  (1855,)  "British  Artists  from  Hogarth  to 
Turner,"  (2  vols.,  1861,)  a  "Life  of  Joseph  M.  W. 
Turner,"  (1862,)  a  novel  called  "True  as  Steel,"  and 
other  works. 

Thorn'dike,  (HERBERT,)  an  English  divine  and  able 
controversial  writer.  He  became  rector  of  Barley,  in 
Hertfordshire,  in  1642,  and  obtained  a  prebend  at  West 
minster  after  the  restoration.  He  was  a  learned  Orien- 


e  as  K:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  \  .  23.) 


THORXHILL 


2126 


THO  U 


talisl,  and  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Discourse  of  Religious  Assem 
blies  and  the  Public  Service  of  God,"  a  "  Discourse  of 
the  Rights  of  the  Church  in  a  Christian  State,"  and  an 
"Epilogue  to  the  Tragedy  of  the  Church  of  England." 
Died  in  1672. 

Thorn'hill,  (Sir  JAMES,)  a  distinguished  English 
painter,  born  at  Weymouth  in  1676,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  celebrated  physician  Sydenham.  Having  travelled 
in  France,  Holland,  and  other  parts  of  the  continent,  he 
was  employed,  after  his  return,  in  the  decoration  of  the 
cupola  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  the  ceiling  of  the  hall  at 
Greenwich  Hospital,  the  palace  at  Kensington,  and  other 
edifices.  He  was  appointed  historical  painter  to  Queen 
Anne,  and  was  made  a  knight  by  George  I.  He  opened 
an  academy  for  drawing  in  his  house,  where  he  num 
bered  among  his  pupils  the  celebrated  Hogarth,  who 
subsequently  married  his  daughter.  Died  in  1734. 

Thorn'tpii,  (Bu.NNELi.,)  an  English  litterateur  and 
humorous  writer,  born  in  London  in  1724.  He  was 
associated  with  George  Colman  in  the  proprietorship 
of  the  "  Saint  James  Chronicle,"  and  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Colman,  the  periodical  essays  entitled  "The  Con 
noisseur."  He  also  translated  the  comedies  of  Plantus 
into  English  blank  verse,  in  Conjunction  with  Colman 
and  Warner,  and  was  the  author  of  burlesque  poems, 
entitled  "  An  Ode  on  Saint  Cecilia's  Day,  adapted  to 
the  Antient  British  Music,"  etc.,  and  "The  Battle  of 
the  Wigs."  Died  in  1768. 

Thornton,  (JoiiN  ROBERT.)  an  English  physician 
and  botanist,  born  about  1758,  was  a  son  of  Thomas 
Thornton,  noticed  below.  lie  was  the  author  of  "  The 
Philosophy  of  Medicine,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,)  and  "Temple 
of  Flora,  or  Garden  of  the  Botanist,  Poet,  Painter,  and 
Philosopher."  Died  in  1837. 

Thornton,  (MATTHEW,)  a  patriot  of  the  American 
Revolution,  born  in  Ireland  in  1714.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Congress  by  the  people  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Died  in  1803. 

Thornton,  (SAMUEL,)  of  Clapham  Park,  Surrey,  born 
in  1775,  was  a  director  of  the  Bank  of  England  for  fifty 
years.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  nearly  forty 
years.  Died  in  1838: 

Thornton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  writer  on  field- 
sports,  published  "  A  Sporting  Tour  through  France," 
and  "  A  Sporting  Tour  through  the  North  of  England 
and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland."  Died  in  1823. 

Thornton,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  British  general,  served 
in  the  United  States  in  1814-15.  Died  in  1840. 

Thornton,  (WILLIAM.)  an  English  political  econo 
mist,  born  at  Burnham,  Bucks,  in  1813.  He  published 
"Over-Population  and  its  Remedy,"  (1846.) 

Thorii'well,  (JAMES  HENRY,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Marlborough  district,  South 
Carolina,  in  1811.  He  has  published  several  theological 
works,  and  written  in  defence  of  the  secession  movement 
of  1860. 

Thorn'y-croft  or  Thorn'ey-croft,  (MARY  FRAN 
CES,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  at  Thornham,  Norfolk, 
in  1814.  She  was  married  in  1840  to  Mr.  Thornycroft,  a 
sculptor.  She  was  patronized  by  Queen  Victoria,  for 
whom  she  executed  statues  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
Prince  Alfred,  and  Princess  Alice. 

Thorpe,  thorp,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  philologist, 
distinguished  for  his  attainments  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
tongue,  was  born  about  1808.  Among  his  publications 
may  be  named  "  The  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  the  Story 
of  Apollonius,"  (1834,)  the  collection  entitled  "Ancient 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,"  etc.,  "  Codex  Exoni- 
ensis,"  (1842,)  and  "Northern  Mythology,"  or  legends 
of  Scandinavia,  Northern  Germany,  and  Holland,  (3 
vols.,  1852.)  Died  in  July,  1870. 

Thorpe,  (JoHN,)  M.D.,'an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Kent  in  1682,  practised  at  Rochester.  Died  in  1750. 

Thorpe,  (JoHN,)  an  English  antiquary,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1713,  wrote  an  account  of  the  city  of 
Rochester,  entitled"  Registrum  Roffense."  Died  in  1792. 
Thorpe,  thorp,  (THOMAS  BANGS,)  an  American  artist 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Westfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1815. 
Among  his  paintings  are  a  full-length  portrait  of  General 


Zachary  Taylor,  and  the  "  Bold  Dragoon,"  an  illustration 
of  Irving's  story  of  that  name.  He  has  published  "  Tom 
Owen  the  Bee- Hunter,"  being  sketches  of  Western  and 
Southern  life,  and  contributed  numerous  articles  to 
"  Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine." 

Thortsen,  toiu'sen,  (CARL  ADOLPH,)  a  Danish  critic 
and  poet,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  wrote  a 
"Historical  Notice  of  Danish  Literature,"  (3d  edition, 
1851,)  and  other  works. 

Thorwaldsen,  tor'wald-sen  or  toK'wal-sen,  (ALHERT 
UKRTEL,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  sculptors, 
was  born  in  November,  1770,  on  the  sea  between  Ice 
land  and  Copenhagen,  and  was  the  son  of  a  Danish 
carver  in  wood.  He  studied  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Copenhagen,  where  he  obtained  two  gold  medals, 
and  soon  after  set  out  for  Rome.  He  there  employed 
himself  on  a  statue  of  Jason  of  natural  size  ;  but,  as 
it  attracted  no  particular  regard,  he,  in  a  fit  of  despond 
ency,  destroyed  it.  He  next  attempted  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  same  subject,  which  obtained  the  admiration  of 
Canova,  and  being  seen  by  Mr.  Thomas  Hope,  a  wealthy 
English  amateur,  he  ordered  a  copy  of  it  in  marble  for 
eight  hundred  zechins.  From  this  time  Thorwaldsen 
produced  rapidly  works  which  raised  his  reputation  to 
the  highest  point.  Among  these  may  be  named  his 
"Triumphal  March  of  Alexander,"  executed  for  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  and  the  bas-reliefs  of  "Night"  and 
"  Day"  and  of  "  Priam  and  Achilles."  In  1819  he  visited 
Denmark,  where  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and 
subsequently  made  a  tour  through  Germany,  and  while 
at  Warsaw  executed  a  portrait-bust  of  Alexander  of 
Russia,  also  the  monuments  of  Copernicus  and  Prince 
Poniatowski.  One  of  his  most  remarkable  productions 
is  the  image  of  a  wounded  and  dying  lion,  of  colossal 
size,  near  Lucerne,  in  Switzerland,  designed  to  com 
memorate  the  heroic  fidelity  of  the  Swiss  guards  who 
fell  August  10,  1792.  About  1838  he  returned,  after 
many  years'  residence  at  Rome,  to  Denmark,  where  he 
continued  to  reside  till  his  death,  in  March,  1844.  He 
was  never  married.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Christ 
and  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  a  statue  of  Schiller,  and  a 
colossal  statue  of  Hercules. 

See  HANS  CHRISTIAN  ANDERSEN,  "15.  Thorwaldsen,"  1844;  J. 
M.  THIKI.E,  "Den  Danske  Hilledhugger  15.  Thorwaldsen,"  etc., 
2  vo!s.,  1831-32;  L.  UK  LOMKNIE,  "  M.  Thorwaldsen,  parun  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1841;  AI.KRED  RKUMONT,  "Thorwaldsen:  Gedachtniss- 
rede,"  1844;  HIM.F.RUI',  "Thorwaldsen  03  hans  Vaerker,"  2  vols., 
1841-42;  J.  M.  THIKI.K,  "  ThorwaMsen's  Arbeiten  und  Lebensver- 
haltnisse  im  Zeitraume  1828-1844."  etc.,  2  vols.,  1854;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832. 

Thoth  or  Toth,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  supposed  to  cor 
respond  to  the  Greek  Hermes  and  the  Roman  Mercury. 

Thott,  von,  fon  tot,  (OTTO,)  COUNT,  a  Danish  finan 
cier,  born  in  1703,  became  minister  of  state  in  1772.  lie 
owned  a  library  of  121,945  volumes,  of  which  a  cata 
logue  was  published,  in  12  vols.,  (1789-95.)  Died  in  1785. 

Thou,  de,  deli  too,  (CHRISTOPHE,)  an  eminent  French 
judge,  born  in  Paris  in  1508.  He  became  first  president 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  about  1562.  He  pursued  a 
neutral  or  moderate  course  in  relation  to  the  civil  wars 
and  the  League.  Died  in  1582. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  DETnou,  "  Memoires." 

Thou,  de,  (FRANCOIS  AUGUSTE,)  eldest  son  of  the 
celebrated  historian,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris 
about  1607.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of  the 
Royal  Library,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  master  of 
requests  and  councillor  of  state.  Having  been  accused 
of  being  privy  to  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq-Mars,  he  was 
executed  in  1642.  (See  CINQ-MARS.) 

Thou,  de,  [Lat.  THUA'NUS,]  (JACQUES  AUGUSTE,)  an 
eminent  French  historian  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris 
in  October,  1553,  was  a  son  of  Christophe  de  Thou,  first 
president  of  the  Parliament.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and 
subsequently  under  Cujas  (Cujacius)  at  Valence,  in  Dau- 
phine,  where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  Joseph 
Scaliger.  Returning  to  Paris  in  1572,  he  was  present 
at  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  and  entered  the 
church  as  canon  of  Notre-Dame.  The  following  year 
he  accompanied  Paul  de  Foix  on  an  important  mission 
to  Italy,  and  after  the  accession  of  Henry  III.  he  was 
appointed  master  of  requests,  (1584,)  and  councillor  of 
tate,  (1588.)  He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  promoting 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


THOUARS 


2127 


THROCMORTON 


an  alliance  between  Henry  III.  and  Henry  of  Navarre, 
and,  on  the  latter  being  crowned,  under  the  title  of  Henry 
IV.,  became  one  of  his  most  faithful  adherents.  In  1593 
he  was  appointed  by  Henry  grand  master  of  the  Royal 
Library,  and  soon  after  president  a  mortier  in  the  Parlia 
ment  of  Paris.  He  had  a  prominent  part  in  framing  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  (1598,)  assisted  at  the  Conference  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  1600,  and  was  employed  in  other  important 
transactions.  He  published  in  1604  the  first  eighteen 
books  of  his  "  History  of  his  Own  Time,"  ("  Historia  sui 
Temporis,")  of  which  a  complete  edition  first  appeared 
in  1620,  in  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  books.  This 
work,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the  public, 
gave  offence  to  the  zealots  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
was  formally  condemned  by  being  placed  in  the  "  Index 
Expurgatorius."  It  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  its 
style,  as  well  as  its  accuracy  and  impartiality,  and  has 
obtained  the  commendations  of  the  most  eminent  critics. 
De  Thou  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"Thuani  Commentarius  de  Vita  sua,"  and  several  Latin 
poems.  The  edition  of  his  "  History"  published  in  Lon 
don  in  1733  (7  vols.  fol.)  is  esteemed  the  best,  and  a 
French  translation  of  it,  by  Le  Mascrier,  Desfontaines, 
and  others,  appeared  in  1734,  (16  vols.  410.)  He  died 
in  May,  1617.  "  De  Thou,"  says  Duplessis,  "showed 
himself  a  great  statesman,  with  a  profound  knowledge 
of  men  and  things,  equally  removed  from  the  fanaticism 
of  the  different  factions  which  divided  France.  A  faithful 
subject  of  the  prince,  but  devoted  also  to  the  interests 
of  his  country,  he  defended  at  the  same  time  the  rights 
of  the  crown  and  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom,  alternately 
menaced  by  enemies  from  within  and  without." 

See  DE  THOIT,  "  Memoires,"  (autobiographic.)  1711  ;  JOHN  COL- 
I.INSON,  "Life  of  Thuanus,"  1807;  P.  CHASLES,  "  Discours  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824  ;  HENRI  PATIN,  "  Dis 
cours  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824 ;  GUERARD.  "  Discours  sur 
la  Vie,  etc.  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824;  DUNTZER,  "  J.  A.  de  Thou's 
I.ehen,"  etc..  1*37;  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;'y 
NICEROX,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale."  lis>df*. 

Thouars.     See  DUPETIT-THOUARS. 

Tliouin.     See  LKCLERC,  (OSCAR.) 

Thoiiin,  too'a.N',  (ANDR:E,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  chief  gardener  of  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  about  1765.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Culture  and  Naturalization 
of  Plants,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  "  Few  men,"  says  Cuvier, 
"exercised  a  more  useful  influence."  Died  in  1824. 

^ee  DE  SII.VESTRE,  "Notice  sur  A.  Thoiiin,"  1825:  CUVIER, 
'•  Ivnge  de  M.  A.  Thoiiin,"  1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thouret,  loo'rk',  (ANTTOIXE,)  a  French  republican 
writer,  born  at  Tarragona  (Spain)  in  1807.  He  was 
imprisoned  nearly  five  years  for  his  political  writings, 
(1831-35,)  wrote,  while  in  prison,  several  political  novels, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848. 
Having  opposed  the  policy  of  Napoleon,  he  was  banished 
in  January,  1852.  Died  in  1857. 

Thouret,  (JACQUES  GUTLLAUME,)  an  able  French 
legislator  and  political  writer,  born  at  Pont-l'fiveque  in 
1746.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  States-General 
in  1789,  and  was  a  member  of  the  committee  which 
formed  the  new  constitution  in  1790.  In  his  principles 
he  was  moderate  and  liberal.  He  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

See  DESSEAUX,  "  Notice  sur  Thouret,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phie  Generale." 

Thouret,  (MICHEL  AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  physician,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Pont-l'Iiveque  in 
1748.  He  studied  medicine  at  Caen  and  in  Paris,  and 
in  1776  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Medicine.  He  published  several  valuable 
medical  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Re 
port  on  the  Exhumations  of  the  Cemetery  of  the  Inno 
cents."  Died  in  1810. 

Thouvenel,  toov'neK,  (£DOUARD  ANTOINE,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Verdun  in  November,  1818.  He 
was  minister  at  Athens  in  1849  and  1850,  and  was 
charged  with  the  political  direction  of  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs  from  December,  1851,  to  1855.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople  in  1855,  and  ap 
pointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  January,  1860.  He 
res  gned  office  in  October,  1862.  He  published  in  1840 
"Hungary  and  Wallachia :  Souvenirs  of  Travel,"  etc. 
Died  about  November,  1866. 


Thouvenel,  (PIKKRE,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1745,  practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote  several 
professional  works.  Died  in  1815. 

Thoynard.     See  TOINARD. 

Thoyras.     See  RAPIN,  DE,  (PAUL.) 

Tlirale,  MRS.     See  PIOZZI. 

Thra'se-a,  (P/KTUs,)  a  Roman  senator  and  Stoic 
philosopher,  eminent  for  his  virtue  and  integrity,  was  a 
native  of  Padua.  Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Nero 
by  his  condemnation  of  that  emperor's  crimes,  he  was 
sentenced  to  death,  together  with  several  of  his  friends, 
in  66  A.I). 

Thrasybule.     See  THKASYBULUS. 

Thras'y-buTus,*  [Gr.  Qfiaai-Sov/jOf :  Fr.  THRASYBULK, 
tut'ze'bii'/, |  an  eminent  Grecian  patriot  and  military 
commander,  was  a  native  of  Attica,  and  flourished  about 
400  B.C.  Being  appointed  general  by  the  democratic 
party  at  Athens,  conjointly  with  his  friend  Thrasyllus, 
he  procured,  by  a  decree,  the  recall  of  Alcibiades  from 
exile.  He  rendered  an  important  service  at  the  battle 
of  Cyzicus,  (410,)  and  was  a  subordinate  officer  at  the 
naval  victory  of  Arginusae,  (406.)  Soon  after  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  obtained  power  (404  B.C.)  he  was  banished,  and 
retired  to  Thebes.  Having  raised  a  small  band  of  sol 
diers  and  exiles,  he  seized  Phyle,  which  he  used  as  a 
base  of  operations  against  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He 
gained  some  advantages,  and  occupied  the  Piraeus.  Here 
he  was  besieged  by  the  Spartan  Lysander,  but  was  re 
lieved  from  his  perilous  position  by  the  intrigues  of 
Pausanias.  The  Thirty  having  been  deposed  by  their 
own  subjects,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  and  the 
exiles  were  restored  to  citizenship.  He  commanded  a 
fleet  sent  to  aid  the  democrats  of  Rhodes  in  390.  He 
was  killed  near  Aspendus  in  389  B.C. 

See  GROTE,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  "  Thra- 
sybulus;"  THIRLWALL,  "History  of  Greece;"  XENOPHON,  "  Hel- 
lenica ;"  HINRICHS,  "  Commentatio  de  Theramenis,  Critix  et 
Thrasybuli  Rebus,"  etc.,  1820;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thrasybulus,  sometimes  called  THE  COI.I.YTIAN, 
from  his  birthplace,  Collytus,  in  Attica,  was  contempo 
rary  with  the  preceding,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his 
exile  to  Phyle. 

Thras'y-bu'lus,  [Gr.  Qpaav6ov/.of,]  Tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Hiero  I., in  466  B.C.  Having  ex 
asperated  his  subjects  by  his  cruelty  and  oppression,  he 
collected  a  great  number  of  mercenaries,  at  the  head  of 
whom  he  attacked  the  Syracusans,  who  had  solicited  aid 
from  the  Greeks  in  Sicily.  Unable  to  maintain  himself 
against  these  forces,  he  was  compelled  to  go  into  exile, 
having  reigned  less  than  a  year. 

Thrasylle.     See  THRASYLLUS. 

Thra-syl'lus,  [Gr.  Qpdav'/./.o£ ;  Fr.  THRASYLLE,  tRf- 
zel',]  an  Athenian  general  and  democrat,  co-operated 
with  Thrasybulus  against  the  oligarchy  in  411  B.C.  He 
commanded  a  fleet  which,  in  409,  was  defeated  at  Ephe- 
sus,  and  gained  a  victory  over  a  Syracusan  squadron. 
He  was  one  of  the  six  generals  who  commanded  at 
Arginusae  in  406  B.C.  and  was  unjustly  put  to  death. 
(See  THERAMENES.) 

Threl'keld,  (CALEB,)  a  British  botanist,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1676.  He  practised  medicine  in  Dublin, 
and  published  "Synopsis  of  Irish  Plants,"  ("  Synopsis 
Stirpium  Hibernicarum.")  Died  in  1728. 

Thriverus,  the  Latin  of  DRIVERE,  which  see. 

Throc'mor-tpn  or  Throg'mor-ton,  (Sir  NICHO 
LAS,)  an  English  diplomatist,  born  about  1513.  He 
accompanied  Henry  VIII.  to  France  in  1544,  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Boulogne,  and  subsequently  served  in  the 
Scottish  campaign  of  1547.  Having  been  charged  in 
1554  with  being  implicated  in  Wyatt's  rebellion,  he 
defended  himself  on  his  trial  with  so  much  eloquence 
and  ability  that  he  was  acquitted.  Under  Queen  Eliza 
beth  he  became  chamberlain  of  the  exchequer,  and 
ambassador  to  France,  where  he  resided  four  years. 
He  was  afterwards  sent  on  important  missions  to  Scot- 


*  This  name  is  not  (infrequently  mispronounced  with  the  accent 
on  the  an  tepen  ultima.  The  following  couplet  from  Byron  exhibits 
the  true  accentuation : 

"  Spirit  of  F'reedom  !  when  on  Phyle's  brow 
Thou  sat'st  with  Thrasybulus  and  his  train." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  ii.  stanza  Ixxiv. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THROSBT 


2128 


THUNBERG 


land.  He  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  Died  in  1571. 

Thros'by,  (JoHN,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1746, 
published  "The  History  and  Topography  of  Leicester," 
and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1803. 

Thrud,  a  daughter  of  THOK,  which  see. 

Thrudheim  and  Thrudvangr.     See  THOR. 

Thrymheim.     See  SKADI. 

Thuanus.     See  THOU,  OE. 

Thmcydide.     See  THUCYDIDES. 

Thu-9yd'I-de§,  [Or.  QovKvtiubje ;  Fr.  THUCYDIDE, 
tu'se'ded',]  an  Athenian  politician  and  general,  who 
became  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party  in  449  B.C. 
"  He  was  a  man  of  great  prudence,"  says  Plutarch,  "  and 
brother-in-law  to  Cimon.  He  had  not,  indeed,  Cimon's 
talents  for  war,  but  was  superior  to  him  in  forensic  and 
political  abilities."  (Plutarch,  "  Pericles.")  He  was 
the  chief  adversary  of  Pericles,  and  maintained  a  con 
test  against  him  until  444  B.C.,  when  Thucydides  was 
ostracized. 

Thucydides,  [Gr.  Qovicvdidqc ;  Fr.  THUCYDIDE,]  an 
illustrious  Greek  historian  and  general,  born  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  demus  Halimus,  in  Attica,  in  471  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Olorus.  He  was  related  to  Miltiades  and  to 
Cimon,  and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  informs  his 
readers  that  he  owned  gold-mines  in  Thrace,  near  the 
island  of  Thasos.  According  to  a  current  tradition,  he 
heard  Herodotus  read  his  history  at  Olympia,  when  he 
was  a  boy,  and  was  so  deeply  affected  that  he  shed  tears. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Antiphon  in  oratory, 
and  of  Anaxagoras  in  philosophy.  He  was  one  of  the 
sufferers  attacked  by  the  plague  at  Athens  in  430  B.C., 
(of  which  he  afterwards  wrote  a  masterly  description,) 
which  was  the  second  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
In  424  he  commanded  a  squadron  of  seven  ships  near 
Thasos,  when  the  Spartan  general  Brasidas  attacked 
Amphipolis.  He  hastened  to  the  defence  of  that  town, 
but  he  arrived  too  late,  and  found  that  it  had  just 
surrendered  to  the  Spartans.  For  this  failure  he  was 
banished,  or,  as  some  suppose,  went  into  exile  to  avoid 
the  penalty  of  death  to  which  unfortunate  generals  were 
liable.  He  informs  us  that  he  passed  twenty  years  in 
exile  after  this  event.  He  availed  himself  of  the  leisure 
and  opportunities  which  he  enjoyed  in  consequence  of 
his  exile,  to  collect  materials  for  a  history  of  the  Pelopon 
nesian  war,  which  lasted  about  twenty -seven  years,  (431 
-404.)  He  used  the  greatest  diligence  and  care  in  ascer 
taining  the  facts  by  visits  to  the  localities  of  the  war 
and  by  interviews  with  the  prominent  actors  of  that 
period.  It  is  supposed  that  he  returned  to  Athens  in 
403,  when  a  general  amnesty  was  granted  to  exiles.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates  and  Euripides. 

His  celebrity  is  founded  on  his  "History  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War,"  in  eight  books,  which,  however,  he 
did  not  live  to  finish.  It  ends  in  411  B.C.,  seven  years 
before  the  termination  of  the  war.  The  first  book  of 
this  work  consists  of  introductory  observations  on  the 
early  history  of  Greece.  Ancient  and  modern  critics  are 
unanimous  in  commending  the  accuracy,  veracity,  and 
impartiality  of  Thucydides.  His  history  combines  the 
merits  of  the  orator,  historian,  philosopher,  and  states 
man,  and  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  monuments  of 
political  wisdom. 

His  style  is  concise,  noble,  and  intensely  energetic. 
It  is  stated  that  Demosthenes  transcribed  the  history 
of  Thucydides  eight  times,  in  order  to  improve  his  own 
style.  Cicero  described  Thucydides  as  "  a  faithful  and 
dignified  narrator  of  facts,"  ("rerum  gestarum  pro- 
nunciator  sincerus  et  grandis.")  ("  Brutus,"  cap.  83.) 
The  same  critic  also  expresses  the  opinion  that  this 
historian  easily  surpasses  all  others  in  the  art  of  com 
position  :  "Thucydides  omnes  clicencli  artificio,  mea  sen- 
tentia,  facile  vicit."  ("  De  Oratore,"  ii.) 

"In  spite  of  this  great  fault,"  says  Macaulay,  (refer 
ring  to  his  fictitious  speeches,)  "it  must  be  allowed  that 
Thucydides  has  surpassed  all  his  rivals  in  the  art  of  his 
torical  narration,  in  the  art  of  producing  an  effect  on  the 
imagination  by  skilful  selection  and  disposition  without 
indulging  in  the  license  of  invention.  .  .  .  His  book  is 
evidently  the  book  of  a  man  and  a  statesman,  and  in  this 
respect  presents  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  delightful 


childishness  of  Herodotus.  Throughout  it  there  is  an 
air  of  matured  power,  of  grave  and  melancholv  reflection, 
of  impartiality  and  habitual  self-command."  (Macaulay's 
Essay  on  "History,"  1828.)  He  died  about  401  B.C., 
leaving  one  son,  Timotheus.  Several  ancient  writers 
state  that  he  was  assassinated,  but  they  disagree  in 
respect  to  the  place  of  his  death.  His  "  History"  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Hobbes,  by  William 
Smith,  (1753,)  and  by  S.  T.  Bloomfield,  (1829.) 

See  DODWKLI.,  "  Annales  Thucydidei,"  1702;  KRUGER,  "  Unter- 
suchmigen  fiber  das  Leben  des  Thucydides,"  1832  ;  ROSCHKR,  "  Le- 
ben  des  Thucydides,"  1842;  GIKARD,  "  Thucydide,"  1860;  GKOTK, 
"  History  of  Greece  ;"  THIKLWALI.,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  F.  ROTH, 
" Vergleichende  Betrachtungen  iiber  Thucydides  und  Tacitus," 
1812;  BONNKL-L,  "  De  Thucydide  et  Herodoto  Qtixstionum  histori- 
carum  Specimen,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  ULRICH, 
"  Beitrage  zur  Krklarung  des  Thucydides,"  1846. 

Thuemmel.     See  THUMMEL. 

Thuermer.     See  THUKMEK. 

Thugut,  too'goot,  (FRANZ  MARIA,)  BARON,  an  Aus 
trian  diplomatist,  born  at  Linz  in  1734.  He  was  early 
distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
employed  on  missions  to  Paris,  Naples,  and  other  Euro 
pean  courts.  In  1794  he  succeeded  Prince  Kaunitz  as 
prime  minister.  He  was  removed  in  1797,  restored 
in  1799,  and  finally  driven  from  power  in  1801.  Died 
in  1818. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Thuillier,  tiiVye-i',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  1799.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1839  at  Paris.  Died  in  1858. 

Thuillier,  (VINCENT,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Laon  in  1685,  was  a  monk  of  Saint-Maur. 
He  published  a  version  of  the  "  History"  of  Polybius, 
(6  vols.,  1727-30.)  Died  in  1736. 

Thulden,  van,  vSn  tul'den,  (TiiEonoK,)  a  celebrated 
Flemish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in 
1607.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  whose  style  his  own 
greatly  resembles,  and  whom  he  assisted  in  the  series 
of  paintings  which  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Saint 
Andrew,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  Michael  at  Ghent,  and 
"The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  the 
Jesuits  at  Bruges.  He  also  excelled  in  delineating  mar 
kets,  fairs,  etc.,  and  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
etchings,  among  which  we  may  name  "The  Life  of  Saint 
John  de  Matha,"  (in  24  plates,)  and  "  The  History  of 
Ulysses,"  (58  plates.)  Died  in  1676. 

See  "  1  iographie  Universelle." 

Thulen,  van,  vSn  tii'len,  (JOHN  PHILIP,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Malines  in  1618,  was  a  pupil  of  Seghers. 
lie  painted  flowers,  insects,  etc.  Died  in  1667. 

Thiimmel  or  Thuemmel,  von,  fon  tum'mel,  (Mo- 
RITZ  AUGUST,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Leipsic 
in  1738.  His  principal  work  is  a  romance,  entitled  "A 
Journey  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  France,"  (9  vols., 
1791-1805,)  which  is  commended  by  Schiller  and  enjoys 
great  popularity  in  Germany.  His  "  Wilhelmine,"  a 
comic  prose  poem,  is  also  highly  esteemed,  and  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  He  was  privy  coun 
cillor  and  minister  under  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  from 
1768  to  1783.  Died  in  1817. 

See  J.  E.  VON  GKUNEK,  "Leben  M.  A.  von  Thiimmel's,"  1819; 
"Biographic  Universelle." 

Thummig,  toorn'mic,  (LunwiG  PHILIPP,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Culmbach  in  1697,  published  seve 
ral  works.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Wolf.  Died  at  Cassel 
in  1728. 

Thunberg,  toon'bgRG,  (KARL  PETER,)  a  celebrated 
Swedish  botanist  and  physician,  born  in  the  province  of 
Smaland  in  1743.  He  studied  natural  history  at  the 
University  of  TJpsal,  under  Linnaeus.  In  1772  he  visited 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1775  accompanied,  as 
physician,  the  embassy  of  the  East  India  Company  to 
Japan.  He  succeeded  the  younger  Linnaeus  as  professor 
of  botany  at  Upsal  in  1784.  He  was  instrumental  in 
founding  a  botanic  garden  in  that  city,  and  bestowed 
upon  the  university  his  valuable  collection  of  objects 
in  natural  history.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"  Flora  Japonica,"  "  Flora  Capensis,"  "  Icones  Planta- 
rum  Japonicarum,"  and  "Travels,"  (4  vols.,  1788,)  which 
were  translated  into  English  and  German.  A  genus  of 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


THUNMANN 


2129 


TURKS 


beautiful  climbing  plants  lias  been  named  in  his  honour, 
also  several  spedes  in  different  genera  of  insects.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  BIILUKKC,,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  C.  P.  Thunberg,"  1832; 
SCHROF.DKR,  "  Vita  C  P.  Thunberg,"  1832  :  GKZBUOS,  "  P.iosvafiskt- 
Lexicon  :"  CI-VIER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Thunmann,  toon'man,  (JonN,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
born  in  Sudermania  in  1746.  lie  wrote  "  Researches  on 
the  History  of  the  People  of  Eastern  Europe,"  (1774.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Thura,  too'ra,  (LAWRENCE,)  a  poet,  born  in  Laaland 
in  1656.  He  became  Bishop  of  Kibe  in  1714.  Died 
in  1731. 

Thtiriot,  tii're-o',  (JACQUF.S  AI.KXANDRF.,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Convention,  in 
which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  As  president 
of  that  body,  he  promoted  the  fall  of  Robespierre  on  the 
9th  Thermidor,  1794.  Died  in  1829. 

Thur'loe,  (JoHN,)  an  English  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Abbot's  Roding,  in  Essex,  in  1616.  He  studied  law, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1647,  and  obtained  several 
offices  by  the  favour  of  his  patron,  Oliver  Saint  John.  In 
1652  he' was  appointed  secretary  to  the  council  of  state. 
He  was  secretary  of  state  from  December,  1653,  until 
the  restoration,  1660.  During  a  part  of  this  period  he 
was  also  postmaster-general,  and  a  member  of  Parlia 
ment.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Cromwell  by 
the  detection  of  plots  against  the  Commonwealth.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  talents  for  business,  and  his 
moderation.  After  the  restoration,  Charles  II.  invited 
him  to  take  office,  which  he  declined.  Died  in  1668. 
His  "State  Papers,"  published  by  Dr.  Birch,  (7  vols., 
1742,)  are  considered  very  valuable. 

See  DR.  BIRCH,  "Life  of  J.  Thurloe,"  1742;  BL-RNET,  "  History 
of  his  Own  Times." 

Thur'low,  (EDWARD,)   LORD,   an  eminent    English 
lawyer  and   politician,  born   in  Norfolk  or  near   Stow- 
niarket,  in   Suffolk,  in  1732,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Thomas 
Thin  low.     He  was  sent  to  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  was  compelled  to  leave  without  a  degree,  on 
account  of  his  turbulent   and   refractory  conduct.     He 
studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1754  or  1756,  (Lord  Campbell  says  1754.)  ancl  joined 
the  Western   circuit.     In  early  life   he  was  a  friend  of 
the   poet  Cowper.     He   rose  rapidly  in  his   profession,  . 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  king's  counsel  in  1761.      He  j 
distinguished    himself  as   junior   counsel    in   the    great  j 
Douglas  cause,  tried  in  the  House  of  Lords,  (1769.)    In 
1768  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  | 
he  supported  Lord  North's  administration.    He  became 
solicitor-general   in  1770,  and  attorney-general   in  1771. 
Having   commended   himself  to   the   favour  of  George 
III.  by  his  zealous  support  of  Lord  North's  American 
policy,  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  in  June,  1778, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Thurlow.     In 
1782  the  ministry  was  changed,  but  Thurlow  was  re 
tained  as  chancellor,  although  he  was  opposed  to  the 
measures    of    the    new    prime    minister,    Rockingham. 
When  a   new  cabinet  was   formed   by  the   coalition  of 
Lord  North  and  Fox,  in  1783,  Thurlow  lost  his   office, 
but  he  was  again  appointed  lord  chancellor  by  Mr.  Pitt 
in  December,  1783.     He  soon  became  an  enemy  to  Pitt, 
and,  relying  on  the  personal  favour  of  the  king,  thought 
he  could   displace  or  circumvent   that    minister.     "He 
espoused  the  cause  of  Warren  Hastings  with  indecorous 
violence."     (Macaulay.)     lie  opposed  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-ttade.     In  consequence  of  his  open  hostility 
to  Pitt  and  some  of  his  measures,  he  was  removed  from 
office  in  1792,  after  which  he  became  a  "  flaming  patriot." 
He  ceased   to  be  influential   or  prominent   in    political 
affairs  many  years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
September,  1806. 

"He  contrived,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "to  persuade 
mankind  that  he  was  a  great  judge,  a  great  orator,  and 
a  great  statesman, — although  I  am  afraid  that  in  all 
these  capacities  he  was  considerably  overrated,  and  that 
he  owed  his  temporary  reputation  very  much  to  his  high 
pretensions  and  his  awe-inspiring  manners.'' 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol. 
RROL-GHAM.  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.  ;  '  Foss,     The 
Judges  of  England;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1814. 


Thurmami,  tooR'man,  (JULES,)  a  Swiss  6r  German 
geologist  and  botanist,  born  at  Neufbrisach  in  1804. 
He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Jurassic  Upheavals," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1855. 

Thiirmer  or  Thuermer,  tiin'mer,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Ger 
man  architect,  born  at  Munich  in  1789.  He  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  and  Athens,  and  became  in  1832  pro 
fessor  in  the  Academy  of  Architecture  at  Dresden.  He 
published  "  Views  of  Athens  and  its  Monuments,"  (1823.) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1833. 

Thurneysser  or  Thurneisser  zum  Thuru,  IOOR'- 
ni-ser  tsoom  tookn,  (LEONARD,)  a  Swiss  alchemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1531.  He  was  patronized 
by 'the  archduke  Ferdinand,  brother  of  Maximilian  II., 
who  charged  him  with  the  administration  of  the  mines 
of  Tyrol.  In  1571  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  I  le  amassed  a  large  fortune  by 
his  pretended  skill  in  astrology  and  alchemy,  but,  his 
deceptions  being  at  length  discovered,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  Berlin,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1596.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  works,  which  are  now  forgotten. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1853. 

Thurot,  tii'ro',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  seaman,  born 
in  Burgundy  in  1727.  Having  previously  distinguished 
himself  as  captain  of  a  privateer,  he  entered  the  royal 
marine,  and  gained  several  important  victories  over  the 
English,  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement 
near  the  Isle  of  Man,  (1760') 

Thurot,  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  philosopher  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1768.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  Greek  language  and  philosophy  in  the  College 
de  France  in  1814.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Understanding  and  the  Reason,"  ("  De  1'Entende- 
ment  et  de  la  Raison,"  1830.)  Died  in  1832. 

See  SILVESTRK  DE  SACY,  "  Notice  snr  la  Vie  de  M.  Thurot,'' 
1832:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thury.     See  CASSINI  DE  THURY  and  HERICART. 

Thwaites,  thwats,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1667,  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford.  He 
published  several  Anglo-Saxon  works.  Died  in  1711. 

Thy-es'tes,  [Gr.  Qvearrif ;  Fr.  THYESTE,  te'gst',]  Jn 
classic  mythology,  was  a  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodami'a, 
a  brother'of  Atre'us,  and  father  of  /Egisthus.  The  enmity 
between  Thyestes  and  Atreus  was  the  subject  of  several 
discordant  legends,  which  ascribe  to  each  a  number  of 
vindictive  crimes  and  atrocities.  (See  ATREUS.)  This 
story  was  dramatized  by  Sophocles  and  Euripides  in 
tragedies  which  are  not  extant. 

Thymbraeus,  thim-bree'us,  [Gr.  QvpSpaiof ;  Fr. 
THVMHREK,  tas'bRa',]  a  surname  of  Apollo,  derived 
from  the  temple  of  Thymbra,  in  Troas. 

Thynne,  thin,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer  on  heraldry.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  Dover  Castle  and  the  Cinque  Ports,"  (in  manuscript,) 
and  a  "  Discourse  of  the  Duty  and  Office  of  an  Herald 
)fArms."  Diedini6li.  • 

Thyonee.     See  THYONEUS. 

Thy-o'neus,  [Gr.  Qvuvri-f ;  Fr.  THYONEK,  te'o  - 
na' :  supposed  to  be  derived  from  Mu,  to  "  rush,"  to 
"be  excited,"]  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  whose  mother 
was  called  Thyone  (Qvunnj)  after  she  was  translated  to 
Olympus. 


II   ll]UU3a 

Thys,  tTss,  [Lat.  THY'SIUS,]  a  Dutch  philologist,  born 
at  Harderwyck  in  1603.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence 
and  law  at  Leyden,  edited  several  Latin  authors,  and 
wrote  a  few  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1665. 

Thysius.     See  THYS. 

Tiarini,  te-a-ree'nee,  (Al.ESSANDRO,)  an  eminent  Ital 
ian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1577,  was  a  pupil  of 
Fontana  and  Passignano.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"  Saint  Peter  denying  Christ,"  a  "  Miracle  of^  Saint 
Dominic,"  and  the'"  Deposition  from  the  Cross." 
works  are  principally  oil-paintings,  and  his  style  resem 
bles  that  of  the  Caracci.  Died  in  1668. 

Tiarks,  tee'auks,  (JoHN  LEWIS,)  a  German  astron 
omer,  born  at  Jever  in  1789,  removed  to  London,  where 
he  became  assistant  librarian  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
About  1821  he  was  sent  on  an  expedition  to  various 
parts  of  Europe  in  order  to  determine  the  longitude  by 
means  of  chronometers.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  Died  in  1837. 


*  •  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, gitfairal;  X,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

'34 


Explanations,  p.  23 . 


TIBALDEO 


21  30 


TICOZZI 


Tibaldeo.     See  TKHAI.DEO. 

Tibaldeo,  te-bal'da-o,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  scholar,  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1460. 
He  wrote  Latin  and  Italian  poems.  Died  in  1537. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tibaldi,  (DOMKNICO.)     See  PELLEGRINI. 

Tibell,  tee'bel,  (GUSTAVUS  WILHELM,)  a  Swedish 
general,  born  in  Suclermania  in  1772.  He  served  under 
Bonaparte  in  Italy,  (1795-1802.)  Died  in  1824. 

Tibere.     See  TIBERIUS. 

Tib-e-ri'nus,  a  mythical  king  of  Alba,  was  said  to 
have  been  drowned  in  the  river  which  was  afterwards 
called  from  him  the  Tiber,  (Tiberis.) 

Tiberio.     See  TIHKRIUS. 

Ti-be'ri-us,  [Fr.  TIKEKE,  te'baiu';  It.  TniEiuo,  te- 
ba're-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Ti-be'ri-us  Clau'di-us  Ne'ro, 
a  celebrated  emperor  of  Rome,  born  in  42  H.C.  He  was 
a  son  of  Livia  Drusilla,  the  wife  of  Augustus,  by  her 
tii-Kt  marriage,  and  belonged  to  the  patrician  gens  Clau 
dia.  His  father  was  T.  Claudius  Nero.  At  an  early 
age  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  military  affairs,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  Spain,  Asia  Minor,  and  Ger 
many.  His  talents  were  respectable,  if  not  superior.  He 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature.  His  first 
wife  was  Vipsania  Agrippina,  a  daughter  of  Agrippa. 
About  12  is.C.  he  was  compelled  to  divorce  her,  and  to 
marry  Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  lie 
passed  seven  years  at  Rhodes  in  retirement,  and  returned 
to  Rome  in  2  A.IX  After  the  death  of  Cains  Caesar,  in  4 
A.D.,  Augustus  adopted  Tiberius  as  his  son  and  suc 
cessor.  He  became  emperor  in  the  year  14,  and  at  first 
used  his  power  with  moderation.  He  had  a  suspicious 
temper,  and  was  a  most  artful  dissembler.  He  chose 
for  his  favourite  minister  and  adviser  the  infamous 
Sejinus,  to  whom  he  soon  abandoned  the  direction  of 
the  government.  Tiberius  was  suspected  of  being  acces 
sory  to  the  death  of  Germanicus,  (19  A.D.)  His  only 
son,  Drusus,  was  poisoned  by  Sejanus  in  23.  In  the  year 
26  he  left  Rome,  to  which  he  never  returned,  and  retired 
to  the  island  of  Capri,  (Capreae.)  Avoiding  publicity 
and  neglecting  affairs  of  state,  he  abandoned  himself  to 
debauchery.  In  31  A.n.  Sejanus  was  put  to  death  by  the 
order  or  permission  of  Tiberius,  and  Macro  became  the 
powerful  favourite.  Tiberius  died  in  37  A,p.,  without 
appointing  his  successor.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  suf 
focated  by  Macro,  by  whose  aid  Caligula  then  became 
emperor.  "The  historian,"  says  Macaulay,  (referring  to 
Tacitus,)  "  undertook  to  make  us  intimately  acquainted 
with  a  man  singularly  dark  and  inscrutable, — with  a 
man  whose  real  disposition  long  remained  swathed  up 
in  intricate  folds  of  factitious  virtues,  and  over  whose 
actions  the  hypocrisy  of  his  youth  and  the  seclusion  of 
his  old  age  threw  a  singular  mystery.  .  .  .  He  was  to 
exhibit  the  old  sovereign  of  the  world  sinking  into  a 
dotage  which,  though  it  rendered  his  appetites  eccentric 
and  his  temper  savage,  never  impaired  the  powers  of 
his  stern  and  penetrating  mind,  conscious  of  failing 
strength,  raging  with  capricious  sensuality,  yet  to  the 
last  the  keenest  of  observers,  the  most  artful  of  dis 
semblers,  and  the  most  terrible  of  masters.  The  task 
was  one  of  extreme  difficulty.  The  execution  is  almost 
perfect."  (Essay  on  "History.") 

See  SUETON-IIK,  "Tiberius;"  TACITUS,  "  Annales  ;"  SIEVERS, 
"Tacitus  mid  Tiberius,"  1850:  V.  DUKUY,  "  De  Tiberio  Impera- 
tnre,"  1853  ;  MERIVAI.E,  "  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Em 
pire  ;"  BOSE,  "  De  Tiberio  Czsare,"  1661  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Tiberius  (Axic/ius  FLA'VIUS  CONSTANTI'NUS)  II., 
snrnamed  THRAX,  (or  the  "Thracian,")  Emperor  of  the 
East,  a  native  of  Thrace,  was  born  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century.  He  was  treated  with  great  distinction 
bv  Justin  II.,  who  bestowed  upon  him  the  dignity  of 
Crcsar  in  574,  and  subsequently  abdicated  in  his  favour. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the  Persians 
tinder  Chosroes,  whom  he  signally  defeated  at  Melitene, 
(576  A.D.)  He  died  in  582  A.n.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son-in-law  Mauritius,  whom  he  had  previously 
created  Caesar. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 
Tiberius,  a  Greek  philosopher  and  grammarian,  sup 
posed  to  have  lived  in   the  fourth  century.      One  of  his 
rhetorical  works  is  extant,  and  a  number  of  fragments. 


Ti-be'ri-us  Ab-sim'a-rus,  a  Greek  general  of  the 
seventh  century,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Em 
peror  of  Constantinople  in  opposition  to  Leontius,  (698 
A.D.)  He  was  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Justinian 
II.,  (705  A.D.) 

Tibe'rius  Alexaii'der,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Nero  governor  of  Judea,  and 
subsequently  prefect  of  Egypt.  He  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  assisted  the 
latter  in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

Tibull,  the  German  for  Tiisui.LUS,  which  see. 

Tibulle.     See  Tiuuu.us. 

Tibullo.     See  TIIHII.LUS. 

Ti-bul'lus,  [Fr.  TIHULI.K,  te'biil' ;  Ger.  TIHULL, 
te-bool';  It.  Tinui.i.o,  te-bool'lo,]  (Ai.iMUS,)  a  distin 
guished  Roman  elegiac  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  was 
born  in  Italy  about  55  K.C.  lie  was  a  son  of  a  knight, 
(eques,)  from  whom  he  inherited  an  estate  between  Tibur 
and  Praeneste.  This  estate  was  confiscated  in  the  civil 
war,  but  he  recovered  a  part  of  it,  and  passed  much 
of  his  life  there,  enjoying  the  peaceful  pleasures  of  the 
country,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  admirer.  He  was 
patronized  by  Valerius  Messala,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  a  campaign  in  Gaul  in  31  n.c.  lie  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to  him  an  epistle  and 
an  ode,  ("Carmina,"  i.  33.)  His  character  is  said  to  have 
been  amiable.  He  wrote  amatory  elegies  addressed  to 
Delia  and  Nemesis.  His  poems  are  models  of  graceful 
simplicity  and  genuine  tenderness.  The  best  editions 
of  Tibullus  are  those  published  by  Lachmann  (1829)  and 
by  Dissenus,  (or  Dissen,)  (1835.)  Died  about  iS  n.c. 

See  AYKMANV.  "Vita  Tibulli."  1710.  :  DKCEN,  "A.  Tibiill," 
i7So;  GRUITK.  •'  Die  RomUche  Elesie,"  183,8;  HKDNK.K,  "Tibul- 
lus,  Pronertius  et  Ovidius,"  1841;  I)K  Got.uiiKV.  "  Dissertatio  de 
Tibulli  Vita,"  etc.,  1825;  "  Xouvelle  Hio;;raphie  G-jnerale." 

Tick'ell,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  writer  and  politician 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  published  a  pamphlet,  entitled 
"Anticipation,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1793. 

Tickell,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Cumberland  in  1686.  He  studied  at  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1710. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Addison,  who  made  him 
under-secretary  of  state  in  1717.  He  subsequently  be 
came  secretary  to  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland.  He  was 
the  author  of  poems  entitled  "The  Prospect  of  Peace" 
and  "The  Royal  Progress."  The  latter  is  character 
ized  by  Dr.  Johnson  as  "neither  high  nor  low."  His 
translation  of  the  first  book  of  the  "  Iliad"  is  highly 
commended  by  Addison,  but  it  is  regarded  by  other 
critics  as  greatly  inferior  to  Pope's.  Tickell  also  wrote  a 
number  of  prose  essays,  and  an  admired  "  Elegy  on 
the  Death  of  Addison."  Died  in  1740. 

Tick'npr,  (C.-vi.EK,)  a  skilful  American  physician, 
born  in  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  about  1804.  He  prac 
tised  in  New  York,  and  wrote  much  for  medical  journals. 
Died  about  1840. 

See  WILLIAMS,  "Medical  Biography." 

Ticknor,  (ELISHA,)  an  American  teacher,  born  about 
1760,  was  the  father  of  George  Ticknor.  He  taught  in 
Boston,  where  he  died  in  1821. 

Ticknor,  (GEOKGK,)  a  distinguished  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1791.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  subsequently  spent  five  years 
in  visiting  various  parts  of  Europe.  He  was  appointed 
after  his  return  professor  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
languages  and  literature  at  Harvard  College.  He  brought 
out  in  1849  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  (3  vols. 
8vo.)  It  immediately  established  the  reputation  of  the 
author,  and  has  obtained  the  highest  eulogy  from  emi 
nent  critics  of  all  countries,  having  been  translated  into 
Spanish  and  German.  In  1863  Mr.  Ticknor  published 
his  "Life  of  William  H.  Prescott,"  one  of  the  most  in 
teresting  biographies  in  the  language. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1850;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1850. 

Ticozzi,  te-kot'see,  (STF.FANO,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  in  the  province  of  Como  in  1762.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  his  "  Dictionary  of  Architects,  Sculp 
tors,  Painters,  etc.  of  every  Age  and  Nation,"  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1830,)  "  Historical  Memoirs,"  and  translations  of 
Sismondi's  "History  of  the  Italian  Republics"  and  Llo- 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


Tl DEMAND 


2131 


TIER  NET 


rente's  "  History  of  the  Inquisition."  lie  was  prefect 
of  the  department  of  the  Piave  under  the  French  empire. 
Died  in  1836. 

See  TIPAI.OO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  i'lustri  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
giaphie  Generale." 

Tidemand,  tee'den-mand',  (Aooi-PH,)  a  Norwegian 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Mandal  in  1815.  He 
was  appointed  painter  to  the  king,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  a  painter  of  national  manners.  His  favourite 
subjects  are  scenes  of  Norwegian  domestic  life. 

Tidemann,  tee'cleh-man',  (Pmi.HT,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1657,  was  a  pupil  of 
I.airesse  at  Amsterdam.  He  painted  mythological  sub 
jects  with  success.  Died  in  1715. 

Tieck,  teek,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIKDRICII,)  a  German 
sculptor,  brother  of  the  celebrated  Ludwig  Tieck,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1776.  In  1805  he  visited  Rome,  and 
subsequently  repaired  to  Munich,  where  he  executed 
portrait-busts  of  Schelling,  Jacobi,  and  the  crown-prince 
Ludwig.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  a  life- 
si/c  statue  of  Necker,  and  busts  ot  I.essing,  Grotitis, 
Wallenstein,  and  William  of  Orange.  Died  in  1851. 

See  NAGLF.R,  "  Allgemeiiies  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Tieck,  (Lunwio,)  a  distinguished  German  poet  and 
novelist,  born  in  Berlin  in  May,  1773,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Halle,  Gottingen,  and 
Krlangen.  His  favourite  studies  were  history  and  liter 
ature,  ancient  and  modern.  lie  produced  "  Abdallah," 
a  novel,  (1795,)  "  William  Lovell,"  (1795,)  and  "Travels 
of  Sternbald,"  ("  Sternbald's  Wanderungen,"  1798.)  He 
associated  at  Jena  with  the  Schlegels,  Novalis,  and 
Schelling.  About  1800  he  married  a  young  woman 
named  Albert!.  In  literature  he  belonged  to  the  ro 
mantic  school.  His  reputation  was  increased  by  dramas 
entitled  "Genoveva,  or  Genevieve  of  Brabant,"  (1800,) 
and  the  "Emperor  Octavian,"  ("Kaiser  Octavianus," 
1804.)  He  resided  a  few  years  at  Dresden,  (1800-04,) 
and  travelled  in  Italy  in  1805.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "  Phantasus,''  (3  vols.,  1812-15,)  "The  Revolt 
of  the  Cevennes,"  a  novel,  (1826,)  and  "Poet-Life," 
("  Dichterleben,"  1828.)  He  displayed  great  talent  for 
irony  and  humour  in  his  comedies  or  satires  entitled 
"  Puss  in  Boots,"  "The  World  turned  Upside  Down," 
and  "  Prince  Zerbino,  or  Travels  in  Search  of  Good 
Taste,"  (2  vols.,  1799-1800.)  After  a  visit  to  France 
and  England,  (1817,)  he  settled  at  Dresden  in  1819. 
He  produced  a  good  translation  of  "Don  Quixote," 
(4  vols.,  1799-1801,)  and  assisted  Schlegelin  the  trans 
lation  of  Shakspeare.  In  1840  the  King  of  Prussia 
•  invited  Tieck  to  Berlin,  appointed  him  a  privy  councillor, 
and  granted  him  a  pension.  After  that  date  he  resided 
at  Berlin  and  Potsdam.  Tieck  was  a  very  prolific  writer. 
His  versions  of  Shakspeare's  plays  are  among  the  best 
ever  made.  He  died  in  Berlin  in  April,  1853. 

See  "  L.  Tieck,"  Cassei,  1854  ;  L.  DK  LOMENIK,  "  M.  Tieck,  par 
1111  Homme  de  Rieu."  1841;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838,  and  July,  1839: 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1831,  and  November,  1847. 

Tiedemami,  tee'deh-man',  (DIETRICH,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  near  Bremen  in  1748.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg,  and  was  an  adversary 
of  Kant.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  which  are 
highly  commended,  "The  Spirit  of  Speculative  Philoso 
phy,  from  Thales  to  Berkeley,"  (6  vols.,  1790-97.)  Died 
in  1803. 

See  G.  F.  CRRUZRR,  "Memoria  Tiedemamii,"  1803. 

Tiedemann,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  distinguished  German 
anatomist  and  physiologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Cassei  in  1781.  He  graduated  at  Marburg  in 
1804.  and  in  1805  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  at  Landshut.  In  1812  he  obtained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  French  Institute  for  the  best  work  on  the 
structure  of  the  Radiata,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  that  body.  He  was 
called  in  1816  to  fill  the  chair  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
etc.  at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  numerous  works  we 
may  name  the  "Anatomy  and  Natural  History  of  Am 
phibious  Animals,"  (1817,)  "Arteries  of  the  Human 
Body,"  "  Nerves  of  the  Uterus,"  and  "  Physiology  of 
Man,"  (3  vols.,  1830-36.)  Died  in  1861. 

See  FI.OURENS,  "  Eloges  liistoriques  ;"  CAI.I.ISRN,  "  Medicinisches 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


•e  as  k;  cas  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  §  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Tiedge,  teed'oeh,  (almost  teed'yeh,)  (CHRISTOPH  AU 
GUST,)  a  German  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at 
Gardelegen  in  1752.  While  filling  the  office  of  private 
tutor  at  Hohenstein,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gleim 
and  the  Baroness  von  der  Recke,  and  in  1804  visited 
Italy  in  company  with  the  latter.  His  principal  poem, 
entitled  "  Urania,"  was  received  with  great  favour,  and 
was  followed  by  his  "  Mirror  for  Women,"  ("  Frauen- 
spiegel,")  "  Wanderings  through  the  Market  of  Life," 
"  Elegies,"  etc.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Tiedge 
resided  with  his  friend  Madame  von  der  Recke,  whom 
he  survived  about  eight  years,  dying  in  1841.  His  poetry 
is  characterized  by  great  moral  beauty  and  devotional 
feeling,  and  has  many  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of 
Cowper. 

See  FAI.KENSTEIN,  "C.  A.  Tiedge's  Leben  mid  Naclilass,"  4 
vo!s.,  1841;  LONT.FKI.I.OW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  EDER- 
HARD,  "  lilicke  in  Tiedge's  und  in  Elisa's  Leben,"  1844. 

Tieftruiik,  teef'tKoonk,  (JoHANN  HF.INRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  philosopher  and  disciple  of  Kant,  born  near  Ros 
tock  in  1759,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle. 
Died  in  1837. 

Tielemaiis,  tee'leh-mans',  (JEAN  FRANCOIS,)  a  Bel 
gian  jurist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Brussels  in 
1799.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  about  one  month, 
March,  1831,  was  afterwards  governor  of  Antwerp,  and 
professor  ot  law  in  Brussels. 

Tien-Te,  te-en'  ti,  or  Tien-Tih,  te-gn'  tih,  called 
also  Tai-Fiiig-Wang,  a  Chinese  leader  of  insurgents, 
born  in  1813.  His  original  name  was  Pnuil,  and  his 
literary  name  HuNG-SiU-TsHUEN.  He  was  educated 
for  the  class  of  literati,  but  at  the  final  examination  in 
Canton  he  failed  to  obtain  a  degree.  About  1833  he 
received  from  an  agent  of  the  London  Bible  Society 
some  tracts  or  a  version  of  the  Lloly  Scriptures,  which 
he  read  with  great  interest.  He  professed  to  have 
received  a  divine  mission,  and  began  to  preach  against 
the  worship  of  idols.  He  was  successful  in  converting 
many  to  the  "foreign  righteousness,"  wrote  religious 
essays  and  poems,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new 
religion,  similar  to  Christianity  in  some  respects.  Ac 
cording  to  some  authorities,  he  joined  several  secret 
political  societies  formed  to  liberate  China  from  the 
domination  of  the  Mantchoos.  In  1850  he  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt.  His  followers  cut  off  their  pig-tails, 
which  is  accounted  an  act  of  high  treason  in  China. 
Tien-Te  marched  victoriously  through  several  provinces, 
and  captured  Nanking  in  1853,  after  he  had  defeated  the 
imperialist  armies  in  a  number  of  battles.  His  govern 
ment,  of  which  Nanking  was  the  capital,  was  a  military 
theocracy.  In  July,  1864,  Nanking  was  taken  by  the 
imperialists,  the  rebellion  was  suppressed,  and  Tien-Te 
killed  himself. 

See  "Life  of  Tai-Ping-Wang,"  by  J.  MILTON  MACKIE,  1857; 
"The  Taeping  Rebellion,"  in  the  "  Merchants' Magazine"  for  Jan 
uary.  1865. 

Tiepolo,  te-ep'o-lo,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  Vene 
tian  painter,  born  in  1693.  was  patronized  by  Charles 
III.  of  Spain,  where  he  executed  several  works  of  great 
merit.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  frescos,  painted  in  the 
style  of  Paul  Veronese.  It  is  stated  that  his  oil-paint 
ings  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  galleries  of  Europe.  Died 
at  Madrid  about  1770. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,   "  Dizio- 

rio." 

Tiepolo,  (JACOPO,)  a  Venetian  jurist,  became  Doge 
of  Venice  in  1229.  Died  in  1249. 

His  son  LORENZO  became  Doge  in  1268.    Died  in  1275. 

Tiepolo,  (Niccol.6,)  a  Venetian  poet  and  senator, 
eminent  for  his  talents  and  learning.  He  was  employed 
in  several  diplomatic  missions.  Died  in  I551- 

Tierney,  teer'ne,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  at  Gibraltar  in  1761.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  South wark  in  1796  by  the  Whig  party,  and  distin 
guished  himself  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  opponents 
of  Mr.  Pitt,  with  whom  he  fought  a  duel.  He  was  ap 
pointed  treasurer  of  the  navy  in  1802,  and  became  mas 
ter  of  the  mint  under  the  Canning  ministry,  (1827.)  He 
was  a  great  master  of  sarcasm  and  irony.  Died  in  1830. 

Tierney,  (MARK,)  an  English  antiquary  and  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  born  in  1785.  He  published  the  "His 
tory  and  Antiquities  of  Arundel."  Died  in  1862. 

Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIFERN4S 


2132 


T1LLOT 


Tifernas,  le-feVnas,  (GkKGORio,)  an  Italian  Hellenist, 
born  at  Citta  cli  Castello  about  1415.  lie  taught  Greek 
in  Venice,  where  he  died  about  1465. 

Tigellin.     See  TIGKLLINUS. 

Tig-el-li'nus,  [Fr.  TIGKI.I.IN,  te'zhi'liN',]  (SoPHO- 
Nius,)  a  Roman  courtier,  notorious  for  his  crimes,  was 
born  at  Agrigentum.  In  63  A.D.  he  became  the  favourite 
minister  of  Nero,  with  the  title  of  praetorian  prefect.  He 
abused  by  cruelty  and  rapacity  the  power  which  he  had 
obtained  by  subservience  to  the  worst  passions  of  Nero. 
He  committed  suicide  in  70  A.D. 

Tighe,  ti,  (Mrs.  MARY,)  a  distinguished  poetess,  born 
in  Wicklow  county,  Ireland,  in  1773,  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  William  Blachford.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
poem  entitled  "Psyche,"  which  is  greatly  admired,  also 
a  number  of  miscellaneous  and  devotional  pieces.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1811. 

Tigny,  de,  deh  ten'ye',  (MARIN  GROSTETE,)  a  French 
entomologist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1736.  His  wife  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Insects,"  a  work  of  merit,  which  was  pub 
lished  in  his  name,  (10  vols.,  1802.)  He  died  in  1799. 

Tigrane.     See  TIGKANKS. 

Ti-gra'nes,  |Gr.  Ttypdvjjf ;  Fr.  TIGRANE,  te'gRtn'; 
Armenian,  DIKRAN,  de-kiln',]  an  Armenian  prince  or 
hero,  flourished  about  550  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  and,  according  to  some  authorities, 
aided  Cyrus  in  his  war  against  Astyages  the  Mede. 

Tigranes  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  began  to  reign  about 
96  B.C.,  and  married  a  daughter  of  Mithridates  the 
Great.  Having  extended  his  dominions  by  conquest,  he 
assumed  the  title  of  "King  of  kings."  In  the  year  83 
he  invaded  and  conquered  Syria.  He  afterwards  founded 
the  city  of  Tigranocerta,  which  became  his  capital.  As 
an  ally  of  his  son-in-law,  Mithridates,  he  declared  war 
against  the  Romans,  whose  army,  under  Lucullus,  in 
vaded  Armenia  in  69  li.c.  and  defeated  Tigranes;  but 
the  mutiny  of  the  Roman  soldiers  prevented  Lucullus 
from  terminating  the  war.  After  Pompey  had  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Mithridates,  (66  is.C.,)  Tigranes 
made  an  abject  submission  to  the  Roman  general,  who 
permitted  him  to  keep  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  proper. 
Died  in  55  K.C.  He  was  noted  for  his  pride  and  tyranny. 
It  is  said  that  he  kept  tributary  kings  in  his  palace  as 
servants. 

See  PLUTARCH,  "  Lucullus ;"  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of  Rome  ;" 
SMITH,  ".Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Til,  van,  vSn  til,  (SOLOMON,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  near  Amsterdam  in  1644.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden,  and  published  a  number  of  works 
on  that  subject.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Coccejus.  Died 
in  1713. 

See  MOREKI,  "  Dictiounaire  Historique,"  1759;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generate. " 

Tilborg.     See  TILBURGH. 

Tilburgh,  van,  vtn  til'biir'H,  written  also  Tilborg, 
(Gii,K.s,)a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Brussels  about  1625. 
He  painted  fairs,  rustic  dances,  interiors  of  taverns,  etc. 
Died  in  1678. 

Tilbury,  (GERVASE  OF.)     See  GERVASE. 

Tilenus,  te-la'nus,  or  Tilenius,  te-la'ne-us,  (DANIKI.,) 
a  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1563.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Sedan,  France, 
i"  1602,  and  became  preceptor  of  the  famous  Turenne. 
Having  adopted  Arminian  tenets,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  chair  at  Sedan  in  1619.  He  wrote  numerous  works 
on  theology.  Died  in  Paris  in  1633. 

See  BOUII.I.OT,  "  Notice  sar  D.  Tilenus,"  1806;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale. " 

Tilesius.     See  TELKSIO. 

Tilesius  von  Tilenau,  voii,  fon  te-la'ze-us  fon  tee'- 
leh-now',  (WiLHELM  GOTTLIEB,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  in  Thuringia  in  1769.  He  accompanied  the  Russian 
navigator  Krusenstern  in  his  voyage  around  the  world 
in  1803,  and  published,  in  1813,  "Results  in  Natural 
History  of  the  First  Russian  Voyage  around  the  World, 
under  Captain  Krusenstern."  Died  in  1857. 

Tilghman,  til'man,  (EDWARD,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  a  relative  of  Chief-Justice  Tilghman,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Wye,  in  Maryland,  December  1 1,  1750. 


He  studied  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  the  Middle  Temple, 
in  London.  He  established  himself  in  Philadelphia,  and 
rose  to  the  first  place  at  the  bar  of  that  city,  which  was 
then  noted  for  its  eminent  lawyers.  "  Mr.  Tilghman  was 
an  advocate  of  great  power,"  says  Mr.  Binney,  "a  fault 
less  logician, — a  man  of  the  purest  integrity  and  brightest 
honour, — fluent,  without  the  least  volubility, — concise 
to  a  degree  that  left  every  one's  patience  and  attention 
unimpaired."  Died  in  1815. 

See  a  notice  of  Edward  Tilghman,  by  HORACE  BINNEY,  in  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Tilghman,  (Li.oYD,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Maryland  about  1816,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836. 
He  commanded  at  Fort  Henry,  in  Tennessee,  which  he 
surrendered  to  the  Union  navy  or  army  in  February 
1862.  He  was  killed  at  the  ba'ttle  of  Champion  Hill, 
May  1 6,  1863. 

Tilghman,  (  WILLIAM,)  an  American  jurist  and  schol 
ar,  was  born  in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  August  12, 
1756.  He  studied  law  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1783.  He  was  repeatedly  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  his  native  State.  In  1793  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  chief  judge  of 
the  United  States  court  for  Pennsylvania.  In  1805  he 
was  made  president  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and 
in  1806  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State,  a 
position  which  he  filled  with  eminent  ability  until  his 
death,  in  1827.  It  has  been  justly  observed  that  Penn 
sylvania  owes  him  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  "the  incorpo 
ration  of  the  principles  of  scientific  equity  with  the  laws 
of  the  State." 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Til'le-mans,  (PETER,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant 
werp,  resided  in  England,  where  he  produced  a  number 
of  admired  works.  Died  in  1734. 

Tillemont,  de,  deh  te!'m6N'  or  te'ye-moN',  (SEBAS- 
TIEN  Lenain — leh-naN',)  a  French  ecclesiastical  histo 
rian,  born  in  Paris  in  1637.  He  studied  at  Port-Royal, 
under  Nicole  and  other  distinguished  Jansenists,  and 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1676.  He  published  in  1693 
the  first  volume  of  his  "  Memoirs  towards  the  Eccle 
siastical  History  of  the  First  Six  Centuries,"  ("  Memoires 
pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  ecclesiastique,"  etc.,)  which 
first  appeared  complete  in  1712,  (16  vols.  4to.)  His 
other  principal  work  is  entitled  a  "  History  of  the  Em 
perors  and  other  Princes  who  reigned  during  the  First 
Six  Centuries,"  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1690-97.)  Two  other 
volumes  were  published  in  1701-38.  These  works  are 
highly  esteemed.  Tillemont  was  eminently-modest  and 
humble.  Died  in  Paris  in  1698. 

SeeTRONCHAY,  "  ViedeM.  Lenain  de  Tillemont,"  1711  ;  SAIN-TH- 
BEIIVE,  "  Histoire  de  Port-Royal :"  PERRAUI.T,  "  Memoires  des 
Homines  illu^tres;"  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Ge'nerale." 

Tillet,  te'v,y,  (MATHIEU,)  a  French  writer  on  agri 
culture,  born  at  Bordeaux  about  1720.  He  co-operated 
with  Duhamel  du  Monceau.  Died  in  1791. 

Tillet,  du,  du  te'yi',  (JEAN,)  a  learned  French  com 
piler  of  historical  documents,  born  in  Paris.  He  was 
secretary  (greffier)  of  the  Parliament.  Among  his  works 
is  "Collection  of  the  Kings  of  France,"  etc.,  ("  Recueil 
des  Rois  de  France,  leur  Couronne  et  Maison,"  1580.) 
Died  in  1570. 

Tilli,  teel'lee,  (MICHELANGELO,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Castel-Fiorentino  in  1655.  He  became  a  pro 
fessor  at  Pisa,  and  published  a  "Catalogue  of.  the  Plants 
in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Pisa,"  (1723.)  Died  in  1740. 

Tillier,  te'ye-a',  (JoHANN  ANTON,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Berne~in  1792,  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Confederation  (Eidgenossenschaft)  at  the  Epoch  of  the 
Restoration,"  (1848^)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1854. 

Til'lo-eh,  (ALEXANDER,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  journalist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1759. 
Having  settled  in  London,  he  became  editor  of  "The 
Star"  in  1789,  and  subsequently  of  the  "Philosophical 
Magazine.".  He  published  several  theological  essays. 
Died  in  1825. 

Tillot,  du,  dii  te'yo',  (GuiLLAUME  LEON,)  Marquis 
de  Felino,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  1711.  lie  became 
about  1755  minister  of  finance  to  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
Died  in  1774. 


a,  e,T,  o,  ,i,  y,  long;\,^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  v, short:  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat:  m§t;  n&t;  good;  rroor ; 


TILLOTSON 


TIMOLEON 


Til'lot-son,  (JoHN,)  D.I).,  a  celebrated  English  prel 
ate,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1630.  He  studied  at  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1651. 
Though  educated  a  Calvinist,  he  subsequently  conformed 
to  the  Church  of  England,  and,  having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  was  appointed  in  1664  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn  and 
Saint  Lawrence's  Church  in  the  Jewry,  where  he  ac 
quired  a  very  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Under 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  became  successively  Dean  of 
Canterbury,  (1672,)  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  (1675,)  an<^ 
canon-residentiary  of  that  cathedral,  (1677.)  He  was 
created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  William  III.  in 
1691.  He  had  married  Elizabeth  French,  a  niece  of 
Oliver  Cromwell.  In  theology  he  was  called  a  latitudi- 
narian.  The  nonjurors  lampooned  him  outrageously, 
denouncing  him  as  atheist,  Deist,  Arian,  thief,  etc.  Died 
in  1694.  Addison  considered  his  writings  as  models  of' 
language. 

"Of  all  the  members  of  the  Low-Church  party,"  says 
Macatilay,  "Tillotson  stood  highest  in  the  general  esti 
mation.  As  a  preacher  he  was  thought  by  his  contem 
poraries  to  have  surpassed  all  rivals,  living  or  dead. 
Posterity  has  reversed  this  judgment.  Yet  Tillotson 
still  keeps  his  place  as  a  legitimate  English  classic.  .  .  . 
His  reasoning  was  just  sufficiently  profound  and  suffi 
ciently  refined  to  be  followed  by  a  popular  audience  with 
that  slight  degree  of  intellectual  exertion  which  is  a 
pleasure.  .  .  .  The  greatest  charm  of  his  compositions, 
however,  is  derived  from  the  benignity  and  candour 
which  appear  in  every  line,  and  which  shone  forth  not 
less  conspicuously  in  his  life  than  in  his  writings." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.) 

See  BIRCH,  "Life  of  Tillotson."  prefixed  to  his  works;  LE 
NEVE,  "  Lives  of  the  Protestant  Archbishops  of  England ;"  BL'RNET. 
"  History  of  his  Own  Times."  jB**/J*.,-O''f.~K*rr'**y  • 

Tilly,  de,  deh  te'ye',  (ALEXANDRE,)  COMTE,  a  French 
royalist  and  political  writer,  born  at  Mans  in  1764.  He 
wrote  "Memoirs  towards  a  History  of  Manners  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Tilly,  de,  (PIERRE  ALEXANDRE,)  COUNT,  a  French 
general  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Normandy  in  1754, 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Vendeans,  and  became 
governor  of  Brussels  in.  1796.  Died  in  1822. 

Tilly  or  Tilli,  von,  fon  til'lee,  (JOHANN  T/ERKLAS,) 
COUNT,  a  celebrated  military  commander,  born  near 
Gembloux,  in  Brabant,  in  1550.  Having  served  for  a 
time  in  the  Netherlands  under  Alva,  Don  John  of 
Austria,  and  Alexander  Farnese,  he  entered  the  army  of 
Maximilian,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1609.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  League,  and  in 
1620  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Protestants,  and 
subsequently  defeated  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  near 
Lutter.  Having  been  made  a  field-marshal,  in  1630  he 
succeeded  \Vallenstein  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Imperial  troops,  and  in  May,  1631.  took  Magdeburg  by 
storm.  This  victory,  which  was  followed  by  the  most 
atrocious  cruelty  perpetrated  on  the  inhabitants,  was 
celebrated  by  Marshal  Tilly  by  Te  Deums  sung  in  the 
cathedral.  He  was  soon  after  defeated  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  near  Leipsic,  and  a  second  time  at  the  battle 
of  the  Lech,  in  1632,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

See  VII.I.ERMONT,  "Tilly,  ou  la  Guerre  de  Trente  Ans,"  2  vols., 
1859  ;  SCHILLER,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Til'tpn,  (JAMES,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1745.  He  served  as  surgeon  of  the  army 
from  1776  to  1783,  and  was  appointed  physician-  and 
surgeon-general  of  the  army  of  the  United  States  in 
1812  or  1813.  Died  in  1822. 


Timgeus,  ti-mee'us,  (Gr. 


FT.  TIME>.,  te'ma',] 


a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  born  at  Locri,  in  Italy,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  teacher  of  Plato.  He  flourished  probably 
about  420-380  B.C.  A  work  "On  the  Soul  of  the  Uni 
verse,"  which  is  extant,  has  been  ascribed  to  him  ;  but 
many  critics  doubt  that  he  was  the  author  of  it,  and 
regard  it  as  an  abridgment  of  Plato's  dialogue  of 
"Timaeus." 

Timaeus,  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  born  at  Tau- 
romenium,  in  Sicily,  about  352  B.C.  Having  been 
banished  from  his  native  island  by  Agathocles,  he  re 


tired  to  Athens,  where  he  resided  about  fifty  years. 
Died  about  256  B.C.  His  principal  work  was  a  "His 
tory  of  Sicily  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  264  B.C.,"  of 
which  fragments  are  extant.  He  is  severely  criticised 
by  Polybius,  but  is  praised  by  Cicero,  who  says,  in  his 
treatise  "  De  Oratore,"  "  Timaeus,  quantum  judicare 
possim,  longe  eruclitissimus,  et  rerum  copia  et  senten- 
tiarum  varietate  abundantissimus  .  .  .  mngnam  elo- 
quentiam  ad  scribendum  attulit."* 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Grascis." 

Timaeus,  [Fr.  TIM£E  LE  SOPHISTE,  te'ma'  leh  so'- 
fest',]  a  Greek  Sophist  and  grammarian,  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  third  century  after  Christ.  His  only 
extant  work  is  a  vocabulary  or  glossary  of  the  phrases 
of  Plato,  ("  Lexicon  Vocnm  Platonicai  um,")  edited, 
with  a  commentary,  by  Kuhnken,  (1754.) 


Timagene.     See  TIMAGENES. 


Ti-mag'e-nes,  [Gr. 


:  Fr.  TIMAGENE,  te'mt'- 


zh,\n',  ]  a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  became  a  resident 
of  Rome  about  55  B.C.  He  wrote  several  works  on  his 
tory,  etc.,  and  gained  the  friendship  of  Augustus.  Some 
critics  identify  him  with  the  Timagenes  who  wrote  a 
"Periplus"  of  the  whole  sea. 

See  SCHWAB,  "  De  Livio  et  Timagene  Historiarum  Scriptoribus 
jemulis,"  1834. 

TI-man'thes,  [Gr.  Tifiui-G^;  Fr.  TIMANTHE,  te'- 
mo.Nt',1  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at  Sicyon, 
flourished  about  400  B.C.  He  was  a  rival  of  Parrhasius, 
over  whom  he  gained  the  prize  at  Samos  for  his  "Con 
test  of  Ajax  and  Ulysses  for  the  Arms  of  Achilles." 
Among  his  other  master-pieces  were  "The  Sacrifice 
of  Iphigeni'a"  and  "The  Stoning  of  Palamedes."  He 
excelled  in  the  power  of  expression  and  suggestion. 

Tl-mar'-ehus,  [T^ap^-oc,]  a  Greek  grammarian  of 
uncertain  date. 

Timbal,  taN'bil',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  about  1822.  He  painted  many  scriptural  sub 
jects. 

Timbs,  t!mz,  (JOHN,)  an  English  writer  and  journalist, 
born  in  London  in  1801.  He  became  editor  of  "The  Mir 
ror"  in  1827,  and  subsequently  associate  editor  of  "  The 
Illustrated  London  News."  He  has  published,  among 
other  popular  works,  "Laconics,"  (3  vols.,  1825-26,) 
"The  Year-Book  of  Facts,"  "Things  not  generally 
Known  familiarly  Explained,"  (1856,)  "Curiosities  of 
History,"  (1859,)  and  "A  Century  of  Anecdote,  1760 
to  1860,"  (2  vols.,  1864.) 

Timee.     See  TIM.^EUS. 

Tim'o-cles,  \Tiuon/.r/f,}  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  lived  about  350-320  B.C.  His  style 
is  commended  for  its  purity.  His  works  are  not  extant. 


Ti-mo'cre-on 


OF  RHODES,  a  Greek  lyric 


poet,  lived  about  500-450  B.C.  He  wrote  bitter  satirical 
verses  against  Themistocles  and  Simonides.  Some  of 
his  verses  are  quoted  by  Plutarch  in  his  "  Life  of  The 
mistocles." 

Ti-mo'le-on,  \Tifto7.euv,]  an  illustrious  Greek  states 
man  and  general,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Corinth 
about  400  B.C.  He  was  so  zealous  for  liberty  that  he 
conspired  against  his  elder  brother  Timophanes,  who 
had  usurped  supreme  power  and  was  killed.  Accord 
ing  to  Plutarch,  Timoleon  became  a  prey  to  sorrow  on 
account  of  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  withdrew 
from  public  affairs  for  many  years.  In  344  B.C.  the 
people  of  Syracuse  sent  ambassadors  to  Corinth  to 
implore  assistance  against  Dionysius  and  other  tyrants. 
The  Corinthians  granted  a  small  army,  and  appointed 
Timoleon  to  command  it.  Three  parties  were  then  con 
tending  for  mastery  in  the  Syracusan  state,  —  Dionysius, 
Hicetas,  and  the  popular  party.  Before  the  end  of  344 
Timoleon  defeated  Hicetas  and  occupied  part  of  Syra 
cuse.  In  the  next  year  Dionysius  surrendered  the  citadel 
to  Timoleon  and  retired  from  the  contest.  Hicetas,  who 
still  held  two  quarters  of  the  capital,  obtained  aid  from 
the  Carthaginians  ;  but  Timoleon  soon  expelled  him  from 
Syracuse,  and  restored  democratic  institutions  in  that  city. 


*  The  following  is  a  nearly  literal  translation:  " Timaeus,  as  well 
as  I  am  able  to  judge,  was  by  far  the  most  learned  of  all,  and  the  most 
rich  in  the  abundance  of  his  facts  and  variety  of  his  opinions;  he  dis 
played,  also,  great  eloquence  in  composition." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zs,j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIMOMACHUS 


2'34 


TINNE 


In  339  he  defeated  the  Carthaginian  generals  Hasdrubal 
and  Hamilcar,  who  invaded  the  Syracusan  state  with 
an  army  five  times  larger  than  that  of  Timoleon.  He 
ascribed  all  his  successes  to  fortune,  or  to  the  will  of  the 
gods.  He  restored  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  people 
of  Sicily,  who  honoured  him  as  a  great  benefactor.  Died 
at  Syracuse  in  337  B.C.  Plutarch  says  that  "  he  performed 
greater  things  than  any  Grecian  of  his  time,  and  was  the 
only  man  that  realized  those  glorious  achievements  to 
which  the  orators  of  Greece  were  constantly  exhorting 
their  countrymen." 

See  PI.UTAKCH,  "  Life  of  Timoleon  ;"  C.  NEPOS,  "  Life  of  Timo 
leon  ;"  GROTE,  "History  of  Greece;"  THIRLWALL,  "History  of 
Greece;"  ARNOLDT,  "Timoleon  ;  biographische  Darstellung,''  1850: 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  GeneVale." 

Ti-mom'a-ehus,  an  eminent  painter,  born  in  Byzan 
tium,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  His 
pictures  of  "Medea  about  to  destroy  her  Children"  and 
"  Ajax  brooding  over  his  Misfortunes"  were  esteemed 
master-pieces  by  the  ancients,  and  were  purchased  by 
Julius  Caesar  for  an  immense  sum. 

Ti'mon  [Ti/iuv]  THE  MISANTHROPE,  a  native  of  At 
tica,  and  contemporary  of  Socrates,  was  notorious  for  his 
hatred  of  mankind,  from  whom  he  lived  secluded.  lie 
lias  been  introduced  into  the  works  of  Aristophanes, 
I.ucian,  and  other  eminent  ancient  writers,  and  forms 
the  subject  of  one  of  Shakspeare's  dramas. 

See  COOI'.MAN,  "Dissertatio  historica  de  Timone  Misanthrope," 

Timon,  a  Greek  poet  and  skeptical  philosopher  of 
the  third  century  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Pyrrho.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  dramas,  and  satiric  poems 
entitled  "  Silli."  Fragments  of  the  latter  are  extant. 

Timon,  tee'mon,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Hungarian  historian, 
born  in  1675,  wrote  on  the  history  of  Hungary.  Died 
in  1736. 

Timoneda,  de,  da  te-mo-na'na,  (JUAN,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Valencia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Patranuelo," 
("The'  Story-Teller,")  and  several  comedies. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Timoteo,  the  Italian  for  TIMOTHY,  which  see. 

Timoteo  da  Urbino,  te-mo-ta'o  da  ooR-bee'no, 
called  also  Delia  Vite,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ur 
bino  about  1475.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Raphael,  whom 
he  assisted  in  some  of  his  works  at  Rome.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  an  "  Annunciation  of  the 
Virgin,"  and  a  "Noli-me-Tangere."  Died  about  1530. 

Timothee.     See  TIMOTHY  and  TIMOTHEUS. 

Ti-mo'the-us,  [Gr.  Tt./iodt-oc;  Fr.  TIMOTHEE,  te'mo' 
ta';  It.  TIMOTEO,  te-mo-ta'o,]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet 
and  musician  of  Miletus,  was  a  contemporary  of  Eurip 
ides,  and  flourished  about  390  B.C.  His  innovation  of 
the  lyre  with  eleven  strings  was  publicly  condemned  by 
the  Spartans.  His  lyrics  were  highly  esteemed  by  his 
countrymen,  but  a  few  fragments  only  are  extant.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  in  357  B.C.,  aged  about  ninety. 

See  K.  O.  MULLF.R,"  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece." 

Timotheus,  a  Greek  statuary  of  high  reputation, 
flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  artists  who 
adorned  the  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum  with  bas-reliefs. 
Among  his  works  was  a  statue  of  Artemis,  (Diana.) 

Timotheus,  an  eminent  Athenian  commander,  was 
the  son  of  the  famous  Conon,  and  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
He  assisted  the  Thebans  to  repel  an  invasion  of  the 
Spartans,  whose  fleet  he  defeated  near  Leucas  in  376  or 
375  B.C.  He  entered  the  service  of  Artaxerxes,  King 
of  Persia,  in  372,  and  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
Athenian  army  in  Macedonia  in  364  B.C.  He  captured 
several  cities  from  the  Olynthians,  and  all  the  Chalcidian 
towns.  Timotheus,  Iphicrates,  and  Chares  commanded 
the  fleet  in  the  Social  war  which  began  in  357  B.C.,  and 
were  unsuccessful.  Timotheus  was  condemned  to  pay 
a  large  fine.  Died  in  354. 

See  CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  "  Timotheus  :"  GROTE,  "  History  of 
Greece;"  THIRLWALL,  "History  of  Greece." 

Timotheus,  (of  Scripture.)     See  TIMOTHY. 

Timotheus,  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  the  date  of  whose 
birth  is  unknown,  was  a  resident  of  Athens.  None  of 
his  works  are  extant.  He  was  a  poet  of  the  middle 
comedy. 


Tim'o-thy,  [Gr.  Ti[M0eos ;  Lat.  TIMO'THEUS;  Fr. 
TIMOTHEE,  te'mo'ta';  It.  TIMOTKO,  te-mo-ta'o,]  the 
friend  and  coadjutor  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  was  a  native 
of  Lycaonia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  carefully  educated 
in  the  Christian  faith  by  his  mother  Eunice,  a  converted 
Jewess.  He  was  ordained  at  an  early  age  by  Saint  Paul, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  missions  to  Greece  and 
Macedonia.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Church  at  Ephesus,  and,  according  to  tradition, 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Domitian. 

See  Acts  xvi.  ;  also  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  Timothy. 

Timour.     See  TAMERLANE. 

Timour-Beg,  (or  -Bee.)     See  TAMERLANE. 

Timur.     See  TAMERLANE. 

Tinctor,  tink'tor,  or  Tinctoris,  tink-to'ris,  (JAN,)  a 
Flemish  musician,  born  at  Nivelle  about  1434,  or,  as  some 
say,  1450.  lie  went  to  Naples,  and  was  patronized  by 
King  Ferdinand  I.  He  produced  a  musical  dictionary, — 
"Terminorum  Musicae  Definitorium,"  (without  date.) 
Died  about  1520. 

Tin'dal,  (MATTHEW,)  I.L.D.,  an  English  jurist  and 
deistical  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  about  1657.  Soon 
after  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  embraced  Roman 
Catholicism,  but  he  subsequently  returned  to  the  Church 
of  England.  He  published  in  1706  a  work  entitled 
"The  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church  Asserted,"  etc., 
being  an  attack  upon  hierarchical  power,  which  involved 
him  in  a  bitter  and  protracted  controversy  with  several 
clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  political  essays;  but  he  is  princi 
pally  known  by  his  "Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation, 
or  the  Gospel  a  Republication  of  the  Religion  of  Nature," 
(1730.)  Died  in  1733. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  :"  SMALL,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
M.  Tindal,"  1733;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tindal,  (Rev.  NICHOLAS,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1687,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to 
be  rector  of  Alverstoke,  in  Hampshire.  lie  translated 
from  the  French  Rapin's  "  History  of  England,"  of  which 
he  wrote  a  continuation  brought  down  to  the  reign  of 
George  II.  Died  in  1774. 

Tindal,  (Sir  NICHOLAS  CONYNGHAM,)  an  English 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  1777.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1827  represented 
that  university  in  Parliament.  He  was  afterwards  ap 
pointee!  lord  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
Died  in  1846. 

Tin'dale  or  Tyii'dale,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  Eng 
lish  Reformer  and  martyr,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire 
about  1480.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  subsequently  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree.  Having  been 
converted  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  by  which  he 
was  exposed  to  persecution  in  England,  he  repaired  to 
Germany,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
into  English.  The  first  edition  came  out  about  1525, 
and  met  with  a  rapid  sale  both  in  England  and  on  the 
continent.  He  published  in  1534  a  new  and  improved 
edition.  His  translation  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale,  had  appeared  in  1530. 
In  1534  Tindale,  whose  writings  had  been  previously 
denounced  by  the  English  government,  was  seized  at 
Antwerp  through  the  interference  of  the  King  of  Eng 
land,  brought  to  trial  for  heresy,  and,  after  an  imprison 
ment  of  nearly  two  years,  strangled  and  burnt  at  the 
stake,  (1536.) 

See  Fox,  "Acts  and  Monuments;"  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxoni- 
enses;"  WORDSWOKTH,  "Ecclesiastical  Biography." 

Tin'dall,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1754.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Evesham,"  "Plain 
Truth  in  a  Plain  Dress,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1804. 

Tinelli,  te-nel'lee,  (TiBERio,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Venice  in  1586,  was  a 
pupil  of  L.  Bassano.  His  works  are  highly  praised. 
Died  in  1638. 

Tinne,  tin'neh,  (ALEXANDRINE,)  a  rich  heiress  and 
traveller,  born  in  Holland  about  1844.  I'1  1863-64  she 
explored  the  sources  of  the  Gazelle  River,  the  west 
ern  branch  of  the  White  Nile.  She  was  murdered  by 
the  Tuariks  in  1869,  between  Moorzook  and  Ghat. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ft,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


T INTO  RET 


T1SCHENDORF 


T'ntoret,  Le.     See  TINTORETTO. 

Tintoretto,  tin-to-ret'to  or  ten-to-ret'to,  [Fr.  LE 
TINTORET,  leh  taN'to'ri',]  (GiACOMO,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at 
Venice  in  1512.  His  original  name  was  ROBUSTI,  but 
lie  assumed  that  of  Tintoretto  from  the  occupation  of 
his  father,  who  was  a  dyer,  (Tintore.)  He  made  Titian 
his  model  in  colouring  and  Michael  Angelo  in  design. 
He  painted  with  great  rapidity,  and  his  works,  both  in 
oil  and  fresco,  are  very  numerous.  Among  his  master 
pieces  may  be  named  "The  Last  Judgment"  and  "The 
Worship  of  the  Golden  Calf,"  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  dell'  Orto,  "  The  Miracle  of  the  Slave,"  (some 
times  called  "  The  Miracle  of  Saint  Mark,")  in  the  Acad 
emy  of  Venice,  "The  Marriage  at  Cana,"  the  "Cruci 
fixion,"  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  and  a  •'  Paradise,"  a 
colossal  picture  containing  more  than  a  hundred  figures. 
Died  in  1594.  His  son  Domenico  and  daughter  Mari 
etta  were  distinguished  as  painters  ;  the  latter  excelled 
in  portraits.  "All  landscape  grandeur,"  says  Ruskin, 
"vanishes  before  that  of  Titian  and  Tintoret ;  and  this 
is  true  of  whatever  these  two  giants  touched."  ("Mod 
ern  Painters.'') 

See  CARLO  RIUOLFI,  "Vitadi  G.  Robust!  detto  II  Tintoretto," 
1642;  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  VASARI,  "Lives  of 
the  Painters  ;"  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;" 
TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario." 

Tipaldo,  te-pal'do,  (EMILIO  AMEDEO,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Corfu  in  1798.  He  became 
in  1829  professor  of  history,  etc.  in  the  Marine  College 
of  Venice.  He  published  many  important  works,  among 
which  we  may  notice  a  "  History  of  Profane  Greek  Lite 
rature,"  (9  vols.,  1824-30,)  and  "  Biography  of  Illustrious 
Italians  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  of  the  Present 
Age,"  ("Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri  del  Secolo 
XVIII.  e  de'  Contemporanei,"  10  vols.,  1834-46.) 

Tippoo  Sahib,  tip'poo'sah'nib,  written  alsoTippoo 
Saib,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  born  in  1749,  was  the  son  of 
Hyder  Alee,  (or  Aly,)  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne 
in  1782.  He  prosecuted  the  war  which  he  had  pre 
viously  waged  against  the  English  until,  in  1784,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  at  Mangalore.  In  1790  he  in 
vaded  the  territory  of  the  Rajah  of  Travancore,  an  ally 
of  the  British,  who  soon  after  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Mahrattas  and  took  the  fort  of  Bangalore,  (1791.) 
The  forces  of  General  Abercromby,  having  joined  those 
of  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1792,  advanced  against  Seringa- 
patam,  when  Tippoo  consented  to  renounce  one-half  of 
liis  dominions  to  the  allies,  give  up  two  of  his  sons  as 
hostages,  and  pay  a  sum  of  more  than  ^3, 000,000.  He 
nevertheless  endeavoured  in  secret  to  incite  the  native 
princes  against  the  English  government,  and  solicited 
aid  from  France.  In  1799  he  was  besieged  in  Seringa- 
patam  by  the  British  forces  under  General  Harris,  and 
was  killed  in  the  assault. 

See  MicHAfn.  "  Histoire  de  1' Empire  de  Mysore,"  2  vols.,  1801  ; 
R.  MACKENZIE,  ''Sketch  of  the  War  with  Tippoo  Sultaun,"  1793; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tip'toft,  (JoiiN,)  Earl  of  Worcester,  became  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland,  and  filled  other  high  offices.  He 
was  noted  for  his  patronage  of  literature  and  of  learned 
men,  particularly  Caxton.  He  was  executed  in  1470, 
on  a  charge  of  maladministration. 

Tiraboschi,  te-ra-bos'kee,  (GiROLAMO,)  a  learned 
Italian  Jesuit  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Bergamo  in 
1731.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Milan  in 
1766,  and  in  1770  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  Duke 
of  Modena.  liis  principal  work,  entitled  "  History  of 
Italian  Literature,"  ("Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana," 
13  vols.,  1772-83,)  enjoys  the  highest  reputation  for  ac 
curacy  and  impartiality.  Among  his  other  productions 
may  be  named  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  Modena,"  and 
"Life  of  Count  Fulvio  Testi."  Died  in  1794.  An  im 
proved  edition  of  his  great  work  was  published  at  Milan, 
in  1 6  vols.,  (1822-26.) 

See  A.  G.  LOMBARDI,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Tiraboschi,"  1796: 
FABRONI,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  exceilentimn  ;"  BELTRAMKLLI, 
"Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  Tiraboschi,"  1812:  UGONI,  "Della 
Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tiraqueau,  te'ri'ko',  (ANDRE,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Fontenoy-le-Comte  about  1480.  While  he  held  the 


office  of  judge  he  released  Rabelais,  whom  the  monks 
had  put  in  prison.  Died  in  1558. 

Ti-re'si-as  (ti-ree'she-as)  or  Tei-re'si-as,  [Gr.  Tape- 
OTac;  Fr.  TIR^SIAS,  te'ra'ze'as', ]  a  famous  soothsayer 
of  classic  mythology,  lived  at  Thebes,  and  belonged 
to  the  race  of  Udasus.  The  poets  and  mythographers 
relate  that  he  was  deprived  of  sight  by  the  gods,  be 
cause  he  divulged  some  of  their  secrets,  or  because  he 
had  seen  Minerva  bathing,  that  Jupiter  gave  him  the 
gift  of  prophecy  and  extended  his  life  to  seven  genera 
tions,  and  that  he  was  connected  with  many  important 
events  in  the  fabulous  history  of  Greece.  He  was  the 
father  of  Manto. 

Tir-i-ba'zus  or  Ter-i-ba'zus,  [Gr.  Tipi6afrf  or  Tr/p!- 
fia^or,]  a  Persian  satrap  under  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  gov 
erned  Western  Armenia  in  401  B.C.  He  commanded  the 
Persian  fleet  which  defeated  Evagoras  of  Cyprus  in  386 
B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  conspired  with  Darius  against 
the  king.  He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  officers  who  came 
to  arrest  him. 

Tir-i-da'tes  [Gr.T^M&m/f;  Fr.  TIRIDATE,  te're'dtt'] 
I.,  King  of  Armenia,  carried  on  a  war  against  the  Romans, 
who  defeated  him  at  Artaxata,  and  took  his  capital, 
Tigranocerta.  He  finally  became  tributary  to  Nero, 

(63  A.I).) 

Tiridates  III.  OF  ARMENIA  was  a  son  of  Chosroes, 
whom  the  King  of  Persia  conquered  and  dethroned.  Tin- 
dates  was  educated  at  Rome,  and  restored  to  the  throne 
by  Diocletian  in  286  A.D.  Died  about  314  A.n. 

"Ti'ro,  [Fr.  TIRON,  te'riN',]  (MARCUS  TUI.I.IUS,)  a 
Roman  author  and  scholar,  was  a  favourite  freedman  and 
amanuensis  of  Cicero.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his  famous 
patron,  and  other  works.  It  is  supposed  that  he  invented 
or  improved  the  art  of  short-hand  writing,  and  that  we 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  collection  of  Cicero's  "  Let 
ters"  and  other  works. 

Tiron.     See  TIRO. 

Tirso  de  Molina.     See  TELLEZ,  (GABRIEL.) 

Tischbein,  tish'bin,  (HKINRICH  WILHELM,)  sur- 
named  THE  NEAPOLITAN,  born  at  Haina,  in  Hesse-Cas- 
sel,  in  1751.  After  a  residence  of  six  yeaie  at  Rome, 
he  settled  at  Naples,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1790 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He  excelled  in 
classical  subjects  and  in  delineations  of  animals.  Died 
in  1829. 

Tischbein,  (TOHANN  FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  a  relative 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Maestricht  in  1750,  rose  to 
distinction  as  a  portrait-painter.  Died  in  1812. 

Tischbein,  QOHANN  HEINRICH,)  THE  ELDER,  a  Ger 
man  historical  painter,  born  in  Hesse  in  1722,  became 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Cassel.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Dying  Alcestis,"  "  Electra," 
"Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  "The  Transfigura 
tion,"  "  Resurrection  of  Christ,"  and  sixteen  illustrations 
of  the  life  of  Telemachus.  Died  in  1789. 

See  ENGELSCHALI,  "J.  H.  Tischbein,  als  Menschund  Kiinstler," 
'797- 

Tischbein,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Haina  in  1751. 
He  visited  Rome  in  1781,  and  afterwards  resided  several 
years  at  Naples,  where  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Painting.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  Conraclin  of  Suabia,"  "  Ajax  and  Cassandra,"  "  Christ 
blessing  Little  Children,"  and  the  "Parting  of  Hector 
and  Andromache."  He  published  in  1804  "Illustra 
tions  of  Homer,"  with  explanations  by  Heyne.  Tisch 
bein  excelled  as  a  painter  of  animals,  and  was  also  a 
skilful  engraver.  Died  in  1829. 

Tischendorf,  tish'en-doRf,  (LOBEGOTT  FRIEDRICH 
KONSTANTIN,)  an  eminent  German  philologist  and  bibli 
cal  critic,  born  at  Lengenfeld  in  January,  1815.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  and  subsequently  visited  England, 
|  various  parts  of  the  continent,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor. 
Having  obtained  some  very  valuable  manuscripts,  he 
was  appointed,  after  his  return,  professor  of  theology  at 
Leipsic,  (1850.)  He  has  published  editions  of  the 
"Codex  Friderico-Augustanus,"  (1846,)  "Evangelium 
Palatinum,"  (1847,)  "Codex  Amiatianus,"  (1850,)  "  Frag- 
menta  Sacra  Palimpsesta,"  "  Anecdota  Sacra  et  Pro- 
fana,"  "Monumenta  Sacra  inedita,"  (4  vols.,  1846-60,) 
"Travels  in  the  East,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  and  "  Bibliorum 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  gitttttral  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


TIS I  CRATES 


2136 


TITIAN 


Codex  Sinaiticus,"  (4  vols.  folio,  1862,)  which  he  dis 
covered  at  Mount  Sinai  in  1859.  He  obtained  in  1859 
a  chair  of  biblical  palaeography  at  Leipsic. 

Ti-sic'ra-tes,  [Twcwipur^f,]  a  distinguished  Greek 
statuary,  flourished  about  300  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  teen  a  pupil  of  Lysippus.  His  works  are  praised 
by  Pliny. 

Tisio  or  Tisi,  (BKNVENUTO.)     See  GAROFALO. 

Ti-siph'o-ne,  the  "Avenger  of  Murder,"  [Ttoujtov?;, 
from  T«J,  to  "estimate,"  to  "judge,"  and,  hence,  to 
"punish"  or  "avenge,"  and  0woc,  "murder,"]  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  name  of  one  of  the  three  Furies,  or 
Erinnves. 

Tissaphenie.     See  TISSAPHKRNES. 

Tis-sa-phei'nes,  [Gr.  TiaoaQepvqf ;  Fr.  TISSAPHKRNE, 
te'st'finn',]  a  famous  Persian  general  and  crafty  nego 
tiator,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Spartans  against  the 
Athenians  in  412  B.C.  He  svas  an  enemy  of  Cyrus  the 
Persian  prince,  and  was  one  of  the  four  generals  who 
commanded  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  against  Cyrus  at 
Cunaxa,  in  401  B.C.  He  afterwards  married  a  daughter 
of  Artaxerxes,  and  was  appointed  satrap  or  viceroy  of 
the  maritime  part  of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Agesilaus.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  King  of  Per 
sia  in  394  u.c. 

See  XENOPIION,  "Anabasis;"  ROLLIN,  "Ancient  History;" 
GKOTE,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Tissard,  te'sjtu',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Amboise  about  1460,  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
the  University  of  Paris.  He  published  a  Hebrew  gram 
mar,  (1508.)  Died  in  1508. 

Tissier,  te'se-i',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  ANGE,)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Tissot,  te'so',  (ALEXANDKE  PASCAL,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  1782,  published  several  works  on  public  law. 
Died  in  1823. 

Tissot,  (CLAUDE  JOSEPH,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
about  1800.  He  practised  law  in  .Paris  in  early  life,  and 
about  1837  l)ecame  professor  of  philosophy  at  Dijon.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Ethics,  or  the  Science  of 
Morals,"  (1840,)  and  a  "  History  of  Philosophy."  (1840.) 

Tissot,  (PIERRE  FRANQOIS,)  a  French  journalist, 
litterateur,  and  politician,  born  at  Versailles  in  1768.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  a  short  time 
before  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
imperial  censor  by  Napoleon.  In  1814  he  succeeded 
Delille  as  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in  the  College  of 
France,  and  in  1833  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  lie  translated  Virgil's  "Bucolics"  into 
French,  and  published,  among  other  works,  "  Historical 
Memoirs  of  Carnot,"  (1824,)  "Studies  on  Virgil  com 
pared  with  all  the  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poets,"  (4  vols., 
1825-30,)  which  is  highly  commended,  "Complete 
History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1833,)  and 
"  Lessons  and  Models  of  Ancient  and  Modern  French 
Literature,"  (1835.)  Died  in  1854. 

See  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Tissot,  (SiMON  ANDRE,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  physi 
cian,  born  at  Grancy,  in  the  canton  de  Vaud,  in  1728. 
He  studied  at  Geneva  and  Montpellier,  and  subsequently 
resided  at  Lausanne,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation.  Having  filled  the  chair  of  medicine  in  that 
place  for  many  years,  he  became  in  1780  professor  of 
clinical  medicine  at  Pavia.  He  published  a  number  of 
works,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have  been  widely 
circulated.  Among  these  may  be  named  his  "  Advice 
to  People  respecting  Health,"  ("  Avis  au  Peuple  stir  sa 
Sante,"  1761,)  which  was  translated  into  seven  languages, 
"  On  Diseases  caused  by  Masturbation,"  ("Tentamen  de 
Morbis  ex  Manustupratione  Ortis,")  and  "  On  the  Health 
of  Literary  Men,"  ("  De  Valetudine  Literatorum,"  1766.) 
Died  in  1797.  His  son  CLEMENT  JOSEPH,  born  in  1750, 
was  the  author  of  several  medical  treatises. 

See  EYNARD,  "Vie  de  S  A  Tissot,"  1839;  HAI.LE,  "Notice  snr 
Tissot,"  prefixed  to  Tissot's  works,  n  vols.,  1809-13;  "  Biographic 
Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review" 
tor  July,  1765. 

TTtan,  [Gr.  Tiruv,]  plural  Titans,  [Gr.  Tiruvef  ;  Lat. 
TITA'NES,]  the  name  of  mythical  beings  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  (or  Ccelus  and  Terra.)  There 


were  six  sons,  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  lapetin, 
and  Cronus,  and  six  daughters,  Theia,  Rheia,  Themis, 
Mnemosyne,  Phcebe,  and  Tethys.  According  to  the 
fable,  the  Titans  rebelled  against  their  father,  who  was 
deposed  and  was  succeeded  by  Cronus,  (Saturn.)  After 
the  accession  of  Jupiter  to  the  sovereignty,  occurred  the 
celebrated  war  of  the  Titans  against  the  Olympian  gods, 
(called  the  "  Titanomachia,")  which  laste'd  ten  years. 
The  Titans  were  finally  defeated  and  hurled  down  to 
Tartarus  by  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove. 

See  VIRCJIL,  "^Jneid,"  book  vi.  580. 

Tite-Live,  the  French  for  LIVY,  (which  see.) 

TIte,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  architect,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1802.  His  principal  work  is  the  Royal  Ex 
change  of  London,  completed  in  1844.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Bath  in  1854,  and  re-elected  in  1857. 
He  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  president 
of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects. 

Tithon.    See  TITHONUS. 

Tl-tho'iius,  [Gr.  Tt0ui>6c;  Fr.  TITHON,  te'to.x',]  a 
mythical  personage,  a  son  of  Laomedon,  was  beloved  by 
Aurora,  (Eos.)  The  poets  feigned  that  she  obtained  for 
him  the  privilege  of  immortality,  but  not  eternal  youth, 
and  that  he  became  a  decrepit  old  man.  He  was  the 
reputed  father  of  Memnon. 

Titi,  di,  de  tee'tee,  (SANTI,)  an  Italian  artist,  born  in 
Tuscany  in  1538,  was  distinguished  both  as  a  painter 
and  architect.  Died  in  1603. 

Titi,  di,  (TiBERio,)  a  painter,  born  at  Florence  in 
1578,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1637. 

Titian,  tish'e^n,  [It.  TIZIANO,  t£t-se-a'no  ;  Fr.  LE 
TrriEN,  leh  te'se'aN';  Ger.  TIZIAN,  tit-se-an',]  or,  more 
fully,  Tiziano  Vecellio,  (va-cliel'le-o.)  the  greatest 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Capo  del 
Cadore,  in  Venetia,  in  1477.  He  studied  for  a  short 
time  with  Sebastiano  Zuccati,  and  afterwards  became 
a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  He  was  intimate  with 
Giorgione,  his  fellow-pupil,  to  whose  example  or  influ 
ence  some  critics  ascribe  the  fact  that  Titian  acquired 
a  bolder  and  more  vigorous  style  than  that  of  Bellini 
and  other  Venetian  painters.  In  1512  he  was  em 
ployed  by  the  Venetian  government  to  paint  the  hall 
of  the  grand  council,  in  which  he  represented  the 
"  Homage  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  the  Pope." 
About  1514  he  was  invited  to  Ferrara  by  Alphonso  I., 
for  whom  he  painted  a  beautiful  oil-picture  of  "  Bacchus 
and  Ariadne,"  and  another  of  a  "  Pharisee  showing 
Tribute-Money  to  Christ,"  (now  at  Dresden.)  At-Fer- 
rara  he  formed  a  friendship  with  the  poet  Ariosto,  whose 
portrait  he  painted.  Having  returned  to  Venice,  he 
painted  in  1516  a  celebrated  picture  of  the  "  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,"  which  is  one  of  his  best  works,  and  is 
now  in  the  Academy  of  Venice.  lie  married  about 
1524,  and  had  several  children.  He  produced  about 
1528  an  admirable  picture  of  "The  Death  of  Saint 
Peter."  "Titian's  power,"  says  Ruskin,  "culminates 
in  the  '  Assumption,'  the  '  Peter  Martyr,'  and  the  '  Pre 
sentation  of  the  Virgin.'  "  About  1530  he  was  invited 
to  Bologna  by  Charles  V.,  and  painted  a  portrait  of  that 
emperor,  whom  (according  to  some  accounts)  he  accom 
panied  to  Spain  in  1533.  He  visited- Rome  in  1545, 
painted  an  excellent  portrait  of  Paul  III.,  and  returned 
to  Venice  in  1546.  Titian  received  the  title  of  Count- 
Palatine  from  Charles  V.  He  painted  for  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  a  number  of  works,  among  which  are  "The  Last 
Supper"  and  a  "Sleeping  Venus."  His  subjects  were 
mostly  religious.  As  a  portrait-painter  he  has  never 
been  surpassed.  In  the  opinion  of  many  critics,  he  was 
the  greatest  colorist  that  ever  lived.  He  also  excelled 
in  landscape.  "  All  landscape  grandeur,"  says  Ruskin, 
"vanishes  before  that  of  Titian  and  Tintoret  ;  and  this 
is  true  of  whatever  these  two  giants  touched.  .  .  .  The 
religion  of  Titian  is  like  that  of  Shakspeare, — occult 
behind  his  magnificent  equity.  .  .  .  The  Venetian  mind, 
and  Titian's  especially,  as  the  central  type  of  it,  was 
wholly  realist,  universal,  and  manly."  ("Modern  Paint 
ers.")  He  refused  the  invitations  of  several  sovereigns 
who  wished  to  attract  him  to  their  courts,  and  preferred 
to  reside  at  Venice.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Pietro  Aretino,  and  Sansovino  the  architect.  He  con 
tinued  to  paint  until  he  was  ninety-eight  years  old  ;  but 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o, obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


T1TIEN 


2137 


TOCQVEriLLS 


his  last  works  are  not  equal  to  those  of  his  prime.     He 
died  at  Venice  in  August,  1576. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters:"  RIDOLFI,  "Pittori  Ve- 
neti;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Ita'y;"  TICOZZI,  "Vite  dei 
Piitori  Vecelli,"  1817;  NORTHCOTE,  "Life  of  Titian,"  2  vols.,  1830; 
a  notice  of  Titian,  by  CADORIN,  in  Italian,  1833;  MRS.  JAMESON, 
"Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  ZONDADELLA,  "Elogio  di 
Tiziano  Vecellio,"  1802. 

Titien,  Le.     See  TITIAN. 

Titius,  tit'se-us,  (GOTTLIEB  GERHARD,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1661,  wrote  on  the  public 
law  of  Germany.  Died  in  1714. 

Titmarsh.    'See  THACKERAY. 

Titon  du  Tillet,  te'tiN'  clii  te'vi',  (EVERARD,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1677.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  became  commissary  of  war.  He  projected 
or  designed  a  monument  to  Louis  XIV.  and  the  great 
men  of  his  reign.  This  monument,  which  he  called  the 
French  Parnassus,  represented  a  mountain,  on  the  sum 
mit  of  which  Louis  XIV.  sat  in  the  form  of  Apollo.  He 
could  not  raise  the  funds  requisite  to  execute  it  on  a 
grand  scale,  but  he  published  a  "  Description  of  the 
French  Parnassus,"  ("  Description  du  Parnasse  Fran- 
cais,"  1727.)  Died  in  1762. 

Titsingh,  tit'sinc,  (ISAAC,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist  and 
writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1740.  Having  entered 
the  East  Indian  service,  he  was  sent  as  supercargo  to 
Japan  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  in  1794,  by  the  Ba- 
tavian  government,  ambassador  to  Peking.  He  died  in 
1812,  leaving  several  valuable  works  in  manuscript; 
among  these  we  may  name  "  Memoirs  and  Anecdotes 
of  the  Reigning  Dynasty  of  the  Djogouns,  Sovereigns 
of  Japan,"  etc.,  published  in  French  by  Abel  Remusat. 

Tittmann,  tit'man,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  historical  writer,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1784.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  Know 
ledge  and  Art  in  History,"  (1817,)  "Exposition  of  the 
Greek  Constitutions,"  (1822,)  "History  of  Henry  the 
Illustrious,"  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "Life  and  Matter,'1 
("Leben  und  Stoff,"  1855.) 

Tittmann,  (Jon ANN  AUGUST  HEINRICH,)  an  eminent 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Langensalza,  in  Germany, 
in  1773.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became  first 
professor  of  theology  in  1818.  Me  published  a  "  Manual 
of  Homiletics,"  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Theological  Science," 
(1798,)  "Theocles,  a  Conversation  on  Belief  in  God," 
(1799,)  "Pragmatic  History  of  Theology  and  Religion 
in  the  Protestant  Church  during  the  Second  Half  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1805,  unfinished,)  "On  Super- 
naturalism,  Rationalism,  and  Atheism,"  (1816,)  and 
other  standard  works  of  the  kind.  He  also  prepared 
editions  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  and  the  "  Libri 
Symbolici,"  and  a  Latin  treatise  "On  the  Synonyms 
of  the  New  Testament."  Died  in  1831. 

Tittmann,  (KARL  AUGUST,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1775.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Gottingen,  and  rose  to  distinction  as  a  jurist.  He 
published  a  "  Manual  of  the  Science  of  Criminal  Law," 
etc.,  (1807,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1834. 

TTtus,  [Gr.  Tt'roc;  Fr.  TITE,  let,]  a  disciple  of  Saint 
Paul,  who  was  converted  by  him  to  Christianity,  and 
subsequently  accompanied  him  to  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and 
other  cities. 

See  SAINT  PAUL,  "  Epistle  to  Titus." 

Ti'tus,  [Fr.  TITE,  tet ;  It.  TITO,  tee'to,]  or,  more 
fully,  Ti'tus  Fla'vi-us  Ves-pa-si-a'nus,  Emperor  of 
Rome,  born  in  40  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Vespasian,  and 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  Nero.  He  early  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  military  talents  in  Britain  and 
Germany,  and  assisted  his  father  in  quelling  an  insurrec 
tion  of  the  Jews,  (67  A.D.)  After  the  death  of  Vitellius, 
Vespasian  was  proclaimed  emperor,  in  69  A.D.,and  Titus, 
having  been  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  Judea, 
laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  taken  by  storm  in  70 
A.D.  On  the  death  of  Vespasian,  in  79  A.D.,  Titus  be 
came  emperor,  and,  by  the  wisdom  and  benignity  of 
his  rule,  acquired  the  affection  and  reverence  of  his  sub 
jects,  who  gave  him  the  name  of  "The  love  and  delight 
of  the  human  race."  Under  his  reign  a  great  part  of 
Rome  was  destroyed  by  a  conflagration,  which  was  fol 
lowed  by  the  plague,  of  which  many  thousands  perished 
daily.  He  completed  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  (Co 


losseum,)  which  had  been  commenced  by  his  father.  It 
is  stated  that  at  the  end  of  a  day  in  which  he  had  per 
formed  no  act  of  beneficence,  he  exclaimed,  "  My  friends, 

1  have  lost  a  day !"     Died  in  8l  A.D. 

See  SUETONIUS,  "Titus;"  TACITUS,  "History;"  MERIVAI.R, 
"  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire;"  TILLEMONT,  "  His- 
toire  des  Einpereurs  ;"  J.  H.  JONG,  "  Dissertatio  de  Tito  Impera- 
tore,"  1761;  HOLLAND,  "  Histoire  des  Einpereurs  Vespasien  et 
Titus,"  1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tit'y-us,  [Gr.  Tmwc,-  Fr.  TITYE,  te'te',]  a  giant  of 
classic  mythology,  was  called  a  son  of  Terra,  or  of 
Jupiter  and  Elara.  Having  offered  violence  to  Latona, 
he  was  killed  by  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  cast  down  to 
Tartarus.  According  to  Virgil,  his  body  extended  over 
nine  acres  of  ground.  (See  "/Eneid,"  book  vi.  595.) 

Tixier,  (JOHN.)     See  RAVISIUS  TEXTOR. 

Tizian  or  Tiziano.     See  TITIAN. 

Toaldo,  to-al'do,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  geographei, 
born  near  Vicenza  in  1719,  became  professor  of  physical 
geography  and  astronomy  at  Padua  in  1762.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Gnomonics," 
"  Meteorological  Essay  on  the  True  Influence  of  the 
Stars,"  (1770,)  and  "Compendium  of  Spherics  and 
Geography,"  (1773.)  Died  in  1798. 

See  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illiistri." 

Tobar,  de,  da  to-baR',  (ALFONSO  MIGUEL,)  a  Span 
ish  painter,  born  near  Aracena  in  1678,  produced  good 
copies  of  some  works  of  Murillo.  Died  in  1758. 

Tobiesen.     See  DUI:Y. 

To'bin,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at  Salis 
bury  in  1768,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns 
of  1782  and  1804.  Died  in  1838. 

Tobin,  (JoilN,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  at  Salis 
bury  in  1770,  was  the  author  of  several  comedies,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "The  Honeymoon,"  obtained  great 
popularity.  Died  in  1804. 

See  "Memoirs  of  John  Tobin,"  by  Miss  BENGER,  1820; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1820. 

Tobler,  to'bler,  (Trrus,)  a  Swiss  traveller  and  lit 
terateur,  born  at  Stein  in  1806,  visited  Palestine,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "  Topography  of  Jerusalem 
and  its  Environs,"  (1853.) 

Tochon  d'Anuecy,  to'sh6.\'  din'se',  (JOSEPH  FRAN 
COIS,)  a  French  numismatist,  born  near  Annecy  in  1772. 
Among  his  works  is  "Researches  on  the  Medals  of  the 
Nomes  or  Prefectures  of  Egypt,"  (1822.)  Died  in  1820. 

Tocque,  to'ka',  (Louis,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1696;  died  in  1772. 

Tocqueville,  de,  deh  tok'vil  or  tok'vel',  (ALEXIS 
CHARLES  HENRI  CLEREL,)  an  eminent  French  states 
man  and  political  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  on  the  2gth 
of  July,  1805.  He  studied  law,  (1823-26,)  and  became 
judge-auditor  at  the  tribunal  of  Versailles  in  1827.  In 
1831  he  visited  the  United  States  in  company  with  his 
friend  Gustave  de  Beaumont,  having  received  a  mission 
to  examine  the  penitentiary  systems  of  that  republic. 
He  passed  a  year  in  the  United  States,  returned  home, 
resigned  his  office  in  1832,  and  published  in  1835  the  first 
volume  of  his  work  "  On  Democracy  in  America,"  ("  De 
la  Democratic  en  Amerique,"  4  vols.,  1835-40,)  the  suc 
cess  of  which  was  prodigious.  Royer-Collard  affirmed 
that  since  Montesquieu  nothing  comparable  to  it  had 
appeared.  De  Tocqueville  predicted  the  progress  and 
predominance  of  democracy  in  the  world,  although  his 
own  predilections  were  in  the  opposite  direction.  He 
married  an  English  lady,  named  Mary  Mottley,  about 
1835,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1838,  and  was  elected  to  the  Cham 
ber  of  Deputies  in  1839.  In  1841  he  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He- was  elected  in  1848  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  supported  the  cause 
of  order,  and  he  voted  for  Cavaignac  in  the  election  of 
president.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  June 

2  to  October  31,  1849,  and  was  driven  from  the  public 
service  by  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851.     In  1856 
he  published  "The  Old  Regime  and  the  Revolution," 
("  L'ancien  Regime  et  la  Revolution,")  a  work  of  much 
merit.    Died  at  Cannes  in  April,  1859.     Commenting  on 
his  "  Democracy  in  America,"  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
of  April,   1861,  says,  "  Far  from   having  suffered  from 
the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a   century,  it  has  gained  in 
authority  and  interest,  from  the  inexhaustible  depth,  the 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOCQVEflLLE 


2138 


TOLEDO 


unflinching  truth,  and  the  extraordinary  foresight  which 
are  its  characteristics." 

See  G.  DE  BEAUMONT,  notice  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  Works 
and  Letters,  1860;  LACOKUAIKE,  "Discours  de  Reception  a  1'Aca- 
de'mie  Francaise,"  1861  ;  SAINTE-BKUVE,  "  Nouvelles  Causeries  du 
Lundi;"  REMUSAT'S  article  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for 
August  i,  1856;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  September,  1836,  and  July,  1849  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1861  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1861  ; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  November,  1861. 

Tocqueville,  de,  (HERVE  Louis  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH 
CLERKL,)  COMTE,  a  French  peer  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
prefect  of  the  departments  of  Moselle,  Somme,  and 
Seine-et-Oise  between  1816  and  1827.  He  wrote,  be- 
'sides  other  works,  a  "  Philosophic  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Louis  XV.,"  (2  vols.,  1846.)  Died  in  1856. 

Tod,  (Ei.i,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born  at 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  about  1768,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Insane  Retreat  at  Hartford,  of  which  he 
became  president.  Died  in  1833. 

Tod,  (Lieutenant-Colonel  JAMES,)  an  English  officer, 
born  in  1782,  entered  the  East  India  service,  and  was 
appointed  in  1817  political  agent.  He  was  the  author 
of  "  Travels  in  Western  India,"  etc.,  and  "  Annals  of 
Rajasthan ;"  the  latter  contains  an  excellent  map  of 
Rajpootana.  Died  in  1835. 

Todd,  (Rev.  HENRY  JOHN,)  an  English  clergyman 
and  writer,  born  in  1763,  studied  at  Hertford  College, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be 
Archdeacon  of  Cleveland  in  1832.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,"  (1831,)  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Right  Reverend  Brian 
Walton,"  and  other  works ;  he  also  edited  Milton's 
"Poems"  and  "The  Works  of  Edmund  Spenser."  Died 
in  1845. 

Todd,  (Rev.  HUGH,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Cum 
berland  in  1658,  lived  at  Carlisle.  Died  in  1728. 

Todd,  (JAMES  HENTHORNE,)  a  clergyman  and  an 
tiquary,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1805.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  and 
published  several  works  on  theology,  etc.  Died  in  1869. 

Todd,.  (JoHN,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Rutland,  Vermont,  in  1800,  settled  in 
1842  as  pastor  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mount  Holyoke  Female  Semi 
nary.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  "  Lectures  to 
Children,"  (1834,)  also  translated  into  several  languages, 
"The  Student's  Manual,"  (1835,)  which  had  a  very 
extensive  sale  both  in  America  and  Europe,  and  was 
translated  into  French,  "The  Bible  Companion,"  "  The 
Sabbath-School  Teacher,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Lost  Sister 
of  Wyoming,"  (1841.) 

Todd,  (ROBERT  BENTLEY,)  a  physician  and  writer  on 
physiology,  a  brother  of  James  II.  Todd,  noticed  above, 
was  born  about  1810.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  and 
subsequently  settled  in  London.  lie  became  associate 
editor  of  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology" 
in  1836,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord,  and  Gan 
glions,"  (1845,)  and  "Physiological  Anatomy  and  Phy 
siology  of  Man,"  (2  vols.,  1845-56.)  He  was  appointed 
physician  to  King's  College  Hospital.  Died  in  1860. 

Toderini,  to-da-ree'nee,  (GIAMBATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1728,  published  a  work  "On 
Turkish  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1787.)  Died  in  1799. 

Todleben,  tSt'la'ben,  (FRANCIS  EDWARD,)  a  Russian 
general  and  engineer,  of  German  extraction,  born  at 
Milan  in  1818.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Crimean 
war  of  1854,  and  by  his  skilful  defence  of  Sebastopol 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  prolonging  the  siege  of  that 
place.  He  was  afterwards  created  general  of  engineers. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

Todt,  tot,  (KARL  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Auerbach  in  1803.  He  has  published  several  legal 
works. 

Toepfer.     See  TOPPER. 

Toepffer.     See  TOI'EFER. 

Tofino  de  San  Miguel,  to-fee'no  cli  san  me-gel',  a 
Spanish  savant  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Cartagena  in 
1740,  published,  among  other  works,  "Astronomical 
Observations  made  at  Cadiz."  Died  in  1806. 


Tograi,  to-gn',  or  Toghrai,  a  celebrated  Persian 
poet,  born  at  Ispahan  about  1060.  He  became  vizier  to 
Masood,  Sultan  of  Mosul,  and,  after  the  defeat  of  that 
prince  by  his  brother  Mahmood  in  1120  A.D.,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  put  to  death.  His  principal  work  is  an 
elegiac  poem,  entitled  "  Lamiato  1'Ajam,"  which  has 
passed  through  several  editions  and  been  translated  into 
Latin,  English,  French,  and  German. 

See  ZENKER,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,"  1840;  "Specimens  of 
Persian  Poetry,"  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1839. 

Togrul  or  Thogrul-Beg,*  (or  -Bek,)  to'grool  beg, 
written  also  Tugrol,  the  founder  of  the  Seljookide 
dynasty  in  Persia,  was  a  grandson  of  Seljook,  (Seljuk.) 
He  became  king  or  chief  of  his  tribe  about  1038,  and 
conquered  Persia  by  victories  over  the  Sultan  Mahmood 
and  his  son  Masood.  Died  about  1065. 

Togrul  II.,  the  last  Sultan  of  the  Seljookide  dynasty, 
began  to  reign  in  1176;  died  in  1194. 

Togrul-Beg,  (or  -Bee.)     See  TOGRUL. 

ToinardorTlioynard,  twa'ntu',  (NicoLA.s,)a  French 
numismatist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1629;  died  in  1706. 

Toiras,  de,  deh  twa'rd',  (JEAN  de  Saint-Bonnet — 
deh  sa.N'bo'ni',)  SEIGNEUR,  a  French  general,  born  in 
Languedoc  in  1585.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots, 
and  in  1625  took  the  Isle  of  Rhe,  which  he  defended 
against  the  English  Duke  of  Buckingham  in  1627.  For 
his  defence  of  Casal  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  in  1630.  lie  was  killed  at  a  siege  in 
the  Milanese  in  1636. 

See  BAUDIF.R,  "  Histoire  du  Marechal  de  Toiras,"  1644  ;  TAI.I.E- 
MANTDEsREAUx,  "  H istoriettes ;"  "  Nouvelle  HicigraphieCieuerale." 

Tokely,  to'kal,  (EMMERIC,)  a  Hungarian  patriot, 
born  in  1656.  Having  taken  up  arms  against  the  Aus 
trian  government,  he  solicited  aid  from  the  Sultan  Ma 
homet  IV.,  who  in  1682  declared  him  King  of  Hungary. 
After  waging  war  many  years,  with  varying  success,  he 
was  compelled  to  take  retuge  in  Turkey,  where  he  died 
in  1705. 

Toktamish-Aglen,  tok'td-mish  ag'len,  a  warlike 
Khan  of  Kaptchak,  in  Tartary,  was  a  descendant  of  Jengis 
Khan.  He  began  to  reign  in  1376,  invaded  Russia  in 
1382,  and  took  Moscow.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was 
involved  in  a  war  with  Tamerlane,  who  defeated  and 
deposed  him  about  1395.  Died  in  1406. 

To'land,  (JoHN,)  a  cleistical  and  controversial  writer, 
born  near  Londonderry,  in  Ireland,  in  1669.  He  studied 
at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and  sub 
sequently  at  Leyden,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Leibnitz.  His  first  publication,  entitled  "Christianity 
not  Mysterious,"  (1696,)  caused  a  great  sensation  and 
gave  rise  to  a  protracted  controversy.  He  afterwards 
produced  "A  Life  of  Milton,"  (1698,)  "Amyntor,  or  a 
Defence  of  Milton's  Life,"  (1699,)  "Anglia  Libera,  or 
the  Limitation  and  Succession  of  the  Crown  of  England 
Explained  and  Asserted,"  (1701,)  "  Socinianism  Truly 
Stated,"  etc.,  (1705,)  and  other  works.  He  was  patronized 
by  Harley,  secretary  of  state,  who  in  1707  sent  him  to 
the  continent  as  a  political  agent  or  spy.  Toland  was  a 
pedantic  and  mediocre  writer.  Died  in  1722. 

See  DF.S  MAIZEAUX,  "Life  of  John  Toland,"  1726;  MOSUEIM, 
"De  Vita,  Fatis  et  Scriptis  J.  Tolandi,"  1722;  LELAND,  "Deistical 
Writers;"  NICERON,  "  Me:noires."  hatft  ,-3>tr<«naT^  . 

Toldy,  tol'de,  (almost  tolj.)  (F.  S.,)  a  Hungarian 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Bucla  in  1805.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  the  Hungarian  Lan 
guage  and  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1851-55.)  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Pesth,  1838-44. 

Toledo,  de,  da  to-la'no,  [Lat.  TOLE'TUS  ;  Fr.  TOLET, 
to'li',]  (FRANCISCO,)  a  learned  Spanish  cardinal,  born 
at  Cordova  in  1532.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Rome,  and  gained  distinction  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  lie  wrote  a  work  on  Casuistry,  (1602.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1596. 

Toledo,  de,  (PEDRO,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  near 
Salamanca  in  1484,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  of  Toledo, 
Duke  of  Alba.  He  obtained  the  title  of  Marquis  of 
Villafranca  from  his  marriage  with  a  lady  of  that  house. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who 
appointed  him  in  1532  Viceroy  of  Naples.  He  died  in 
1553,  after  a  prosperous  rule  of  more  than  twenty  years, 


*  See  Introduction,  p.  9,  §  16. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  c,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TOLEDO 


TOMMASI 


during  which  he  greatly  enlarged  and  improved  the  city 
of  Naples  and  adorned  it  with  splendid  edifices. 

See  GlANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Res;no  di  Xapoli ;"  BOTT.A, 
"Storia  d'ltalia." 

Toledo,  de,  (RODRIGO,)  [Lat.  RODERI'CUS  TOLETA'- 
NL'S,]  a  distinguished  prelate  and  historian,  born  in 
Navarre  about  1170,  was  originally  named  RODRIGO 
XIMEXES.  He  became  Bishop  of  Siguen/.a  in  1192. 
and  subsequently  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  History  of  Spain,  ("  Rerum  in  Hispania 
Gestarum  Chronicon,"  1545,)  and  History  of  the  Western 
Arabs,  ("  Historia  Arabum,"  1603,)  both  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed. 

To'ler,  (JoHX,)  Earl  of  Norbury,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1745.  He  was  successively 
appointed  solicitor-general,  (1789,)  attorney-general, 
(1798,)  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  (1800.) 
He  afterwards  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Norbury  and 
Viscount  Glandine.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a 
jurist,  but  he  was  still  more  celebrated  for  his  brilliant 
wit  and  repartee.  He  presided  at  the  trial  of  Robert 
Emmet.  Died  in  1831. 

See  "  Eccentric  Personages,"  by  WM.  RUSSELL,  iS66. 

Tolet  or  Toletus.     See  TOLEDO,  DE,  (FRAXCISCO.) 
Toletanus.     See  TOLEDO,  DE,  (RODRIGO.) 
Tolken  or  Toelkeii,  tol'ken,  (ERNST  HEIXUICII,)  a 
German  archaeologist,  born    at   Bremen    in    1785,   pub 
lished   a  number  of  treatises  on    ancient   art.      He  be 
came  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1823,  and 
director  of  the  cabinet  of  antiques  in  1832. 

Toll,  tol,  (KARL,)  Cot'vr,  a  Russian  general,  born 
near  Hapsal,  Esthonia,  in  1778,  served  against  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  1812,  and  subsequently  in 
the  Turkish  war  of  1829.  Died  in  1842. 

Tollens,  tol'Iens,  (HENDRIK  COKXEI.ISZOOX,)  a  dis 
tinguished  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1780.  His 
poem  "On  the  Death  of  Egmont  and  Iloorn"  (1806) 
obtained  a  prize  from  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
National  Poetry,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection  of 
lyrics  which  became  widely  popular  and  are  esteemed 
master-pieces  of  their  kind  by  his  countrymen.  Among 
the  principal  we  may  name  the  "Patriotic  War-Songs," 
("  Vaderiandisch  Krijgslied,"  1815,)  "The  Call  to 
Arms,"  ("  Wapenkreet,")  and  "The  Wintering  of  the 
Hollanders  in  Nova  Zembla."  In  1850  the  King  of 
Holland  bestowed  upon  him  the  order  of  the  Dutch 
Lion.  Died  in  1856. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and 'Poetry  of  Europe ;"  VAX  EICH- 
STORFF,  "  H.  Tollens,  bin^raphische  Schets  en  Proeve  en  Krinken 
van  zijne  Dichtungeii ;"  "  Frasers  Magazine"  for  December,  1854. 

Tol'let,  (ELIZABETH,)  an  English  scholar  and  poetess, 
born  in  1694,  was  a  friend  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Died 
in  1754. 

Her  nephew,  GEORGE  TOLI.ET,  wrote  notes  on  Shak- 
speare.  Died  in  1779. 

Tollius,  tol'le-iis,  (CoRXELis,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Vossius,  and 
afterwards  his  private  secretary.  '  He  published  editions 
of  several  of  the  classics.  Died  about  1652. 

Tollius,  (HERMAXX,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at 
Breda  in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Ley- 
den,  where  he  died  in  1822. 

Tollius,  (JACOB,)  brother  of  Cornelis,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Utrecht  about  1630.  He  studied  under 
Vossius,  and  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence 
at  Duisburg  in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of  several  phi 
lological  and  scientific  treatises.  Died  in  1696. 

Tolmach.     See  TALMASH,  (THOMAS.) 

Tolomei,  to-lo-ma'ee,  or  Tolommei,  (CLAUDIO,)  an 
Italian  scholar  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1492. 
He  was  sent  in  1552  on  a  mission  to  the  French  court, 
on  which  occasion  he  delivered  an  eloquent  oration  in 
the  presence  of  Henry  II.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
poems  and  orations,  and  a  collection  of  letters  which 
rank  among  the  best  compositions  of  the  kind  in  the 
language.  Died  in  1554. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "Storia  della  Letteratnra  Italinna;"  LONGFEL 
LOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tolomei,  (GIOVAXXI  BATTISI-A,)  a  learned  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Florence  in  16^3.  He  was  employed 
by  Clement  XI.  in  important  affairs.  Died  in  1726. 


Tolomeo,  the  Italian  of  PTOLEMY,  which  see. 

Tolommei.     See  TOLOMEI. 

Tolstoi.     See  OSTERMANN-TOLSTOI. 

Tolstoi,  tol'stoi,  (FEODOR  PETROVJTCH.)  a  Russian 

sculptor,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1783,  became 
professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  that  city. 

Tolstoi  or  Tolstoy,  (PETER,)  COUXT,  a  Russian 
diplomatist,  born  about  1650.  He  was  employed  by 
Peter  the  Great  on  missions  to  several  European  courts. 
Died  in  1728. 

Tolstoi,  (PETER  ALEXAXDROVITCH,)  a  Russian  diplo 
matist  and  soldier,  born  in  1769,  served  under  Suwarow 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Friedland  was  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Paris.  In 
1831  the  emperor  Nicholas  appointed  him  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  reserve.  Died  in  1844. 

Tolstoy.     See  TOLSTOI. 

To-lum'm-us,  (LAR,)  was  King  of  the  Veientes  in 
438  i:.c.,  and  persuaded  the  people  of  Fidenae  to  kill  four 
Roman  ambassadors.  He  was  killed  in  single  combat 
by  Cornelius  Cossus. 

Tomacelli.     See  BOXIFACE  IX. 

Tomaschek,  to'ma-skek',  (\VENZET.  TOSEF,)  a  Ger 
man  musician  and  composer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1774; 
died  in  1850. 

Tomaselli,  to-ma-sel'lee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  natu 
ralist,  born  near  Verona  in  1733  ;  c''efl  nl  1818. 

Tomasini,  to-ma-see'nee,  or  Tommasini,  tom-ma- 
see'nee,  (J.\COPO  FII.IPPO,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Padua  in  1597.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Life  of  Livy,"  (1630,)  a  "  Life  of  Pe 
trarch,"  ("  Petrarcha  Redivivus,"  1635,)  and  "  Eulogies 
of  Illustrious  Men,"  (2  vols.,  1630-44.)  Died  in  1654. 

See  XICERON',  "  Memoires." 

Tombes,  toomz,  (Jonx,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1603.  He  became 
a  Baptist,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1676. 

Tomitano,  to-me-ta'no,  (BKRXARDIXO,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1506;  died  in  1576. 

Tom'ko  or  Tom'kus,  (Jonx,)  a  learned  Flungarian 
prelate,  born  at  Sebenico  about  1580;  died  at  Rome 
in  1639. 

Tom'lme,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1750,  was  originally  named  PRF.TYMAN,  but 
assumed  that  of  Tomline  in  compliance  with  the  wishes 
of  a  gentleman  who  left  him  a  large  fortune.  He  studied 
at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  elected  Fellow  of 
the  college  in  1773,  and  subsequently  became  tutor  to 
Mr.  Pitt.  When  that  statesman  obtained  the  office  of 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  Tomline  was  appointed  his 
secretary.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  and  Dean 
of  Saint  Paul's  in  1787,  and  in  1820  Bishop  of  Win 
chester.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Elements  of  Chris 
tian  Theology,"  (1799,)  a  "  Life  of  the  Right  Honourable 
William  Pitt,"  (1821,)  a  "Refutation  of  Calvinism,"  and 
a  number  of  sermons.  Died  in  1827. 

Tom'lins,  (ELIZABETH  SOPHIA,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1768,  published  a  number  of  poems, 
"  The  Victim  of  Fancy,"  and  other  novels,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  French.  Died  in  1828. 

Tomlins,  (FREDERICK  GUEST,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  about  1804.  He  edited  several  periodicals,  and 
originated  the  Shakspeare  Society,  (1840.)  Died  in  1867. 

Tommaseo,  tom-ma-sa'o,  (Niccoi.6,)  a  distinguished 
statesman  and  scholar,  born  in  Dalmatia  about  1804. 
He  was  educated  in  Italy,  and  resided  subsequently 
for  a  considerable  time  at  Venice.  After  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  instruction  and 
religious  affairs.  After  Venice  had  surrendered  to  the 
Austrians  in  1849,  he  took  refuge  in  Corfu.  He  pub 
lished  a  treatise  "On  Education,"  (1834,)  "New  Dic 
tionary  of  Synonyms,"  (1835,)  "Critical  Studies,"  (1843,) 
and  other  works  of  a  high  character;  also  a  "History 
of  France  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  a  historical 
romance,  entitled  "The  Duke  of  Athens,"  (1837.) 

Tommasi,  tom-ma'see,  (GIUSEPPE  MARIA,)  a  learned 
Italian  cardinal,  born  in  Sicily  in  1649,  was  the  author 
of  a  number  of  valuable  works  illustrating  ecclesiastical 
history  and  antiquities  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Died  in  1713. 

See  REKNINI,  "Vita  del  Cardinale  Tommasi,"  1719;  UGHEI.LI, 
"  Italia  Sacra." 


€  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  x,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TO  MM  AS  INI 


2140 


TOORGENEF 


Tommasini.     See  TOMASINI. 

Tommaso,  the  Italian  of  THOMAS,  which  see. 

Tommaso  d'Aquino.     See  AQUINAS,  (THOMAS.) 

Tomori,  to'mo-re,  [Fr.  TOMOR£E,  to'mo'ri',]  (PAUL,) 
a  Hungarian  prelate  and  general.  He  commanded  the 
army  of  Lewis  II.  against  the  Turks,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Mohacs,  in  1526. 

Tomp'kins,  (DANIEL  D.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Westchester  county,  New  York,  in  1774.  He 
represented  the  city  of  New  York  in  Congress  in  1804, 
was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1807,  continuing 
in  that  office  till  1817,  when  he  was  chosen  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  United  States.  He  was  re-elected  Vice- 
President  in  1820.  While  Governor  of  New  York,  he 
was  instrumental  in  having  slavery  abolished  in  that 
State,  and  gave  an  efficient  support  to  the  war  waged 
against  England.  Died  in  New  York  in  June,  1825. 

Tom'y-ris  [Gr.  To/tvpif]  was  Queen  of  the  Massa- 
getae  (Scythians)  when  Cyrus  the  Great  invaded  Scythia. 
According  to  Herodotus,  she  defeated  him  in  battle  in 
529  H.C. 

Tondi,  ton'dee,  (MATTEO,)  an  Italian  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  born  at  San  Severo  in  1762,  published 
several  works.  Died  about  1837. 

Tondu.     See  LEBRUN,  (PIERRE  HKNKI  MARIE.) 

Tone,  (TuEoiiAi.D  WOLFE,)  an  Irish  politician  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1763,  was  the  founder 
of  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen.  In  1796  he  applied 
to  the  French  Directory  to  send  an  expedition  against 
England,  which  soon  after  set  sail,  commanded  by  Gene 
ral  Hoche.  This  fleet  having  been  scattered  by  a  hurri 
cane,  Tone  made  another  attempt  with  a  small  armament, 
but  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  an  engagement  with  the 
English,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  committed 
suicide  in  prison,  (1798.) 

See  "Memoirs  of  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone,"  by  his  son,  1826; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1827. 

Toii'na,  (CHARLOTTE  E.  BROWN,)  an  English  author 
ess,  known  under  the  nom  dc  plume  of  CHARLOTTE 
ELIZABETH,  was  born  in  Norwich  in  1792.  She  was 
married  about  1840  to  a  Mr.  Tonna,  who  was  her  second 
husband.  She  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  "Judah's  Lion,"  "Judaea  Capta,"  "Personal  Recol 
lections,"  (1841,)  "Chapters  on  Flowers,"  and  "Princi 
palities  and  Powers."  Died  in  London  in  1846. 

Tonnel6,  ton'la',  (Louis  NICOLAS  ALFRED,)  a  French 
litterateur  and  poet,  born  at  Tours  in  1831  ;  died  in  1858. 

Toii'son,  (JACOB,)  an  English  publisher,  born  in 
London  about  1656.  He  published  the  works  of  Dryden 
and  other  eminent  authors,  [n  several  letters  to  Tonson, 
Dryden  complains  that  he  (Tonson)  sent  him  brass  shil 
lings  and  clipped  coins.  Died' in  1736. 

See  MACAULAV,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Tonstall,  pronounced  and  sometimes  written  Tun'- 
stall,  (CUTHBERT,)  a  learned  English  prelate  and  states 
man,  born  in  Yorkshire  about  1475.  He  finished  his 
studies  at  Padua,  and  in  1516  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
the  King  of  Spain,  afterwards  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
He  became  Bishop  of  London  in  1522,  in  the  following 
year  was  made  lord  privy  seal,  and  in  1530  Bishop  of 
Durham.  Under  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
deprived  of  his  office  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  favouring  an  insurrection.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  was  restored  to  his  bishopric,  (1553,)  but,  having 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  after  Elizabeth 
was  proclaimed  queen,  he  was  again  deprived.  He  died 
in  1559,  leaving  several  theological  and  scientific  works, 
which  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  He  was  con 
spicuous  for  his  humanity  and  moderation  in  that  age  of 
intolerance,  and  permitted  no  burning  of  heretics  in  his 
diocese. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses  ;"  "  Biographia  Britannica ;" 
HUME,  "  History  of  England." 

Tonti,  ton'tee,  (LORENZO,)  an  Italian  banker,  who 
settled  in  France,  and  originated  Tontines,  or  loans 
raised  on  life-annuities,  about  1653. 

His  son  served  under  La  Salle,  who,  in  1680,  ordered 
hjm  to  build  a  fort  on  the  Illinois  River.  He  afterwards 
descended  the  Mississippi  in  search  of  La  Salle.  Died 
after  1700. 


Tooke,  took,  (ANDREW,)  an  English  writer  a  i,l 
teacher,  born  in  London  in  1673.  He  was  master  of 
the  Charter-House  School,  and  published  a  "Synopsis 
of  the  Greek  Language,"  ("Synopsis  Graces;  Linguae.") 
Died  in  1731. 

Tooke,  (JOHN  HORNE,)  a  celebrated  English  philolo 
gist  anil  politician,  born  in  London  in  June,  1736,  was  a 
son  of  John  Home.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  took  his  degree  as  B.A.  in  1758,  and,  to  please  his 
father,  was  ordained  a  priest;  but  he  preferred  the  pro 
fession  of  -the  law.  He  became  an  active  politician,  an 
opponent  of  the  ministry,  and  a  friend  of  John  Wilkes. 
Having  been  adopted  by  William  Tooke,  of  Purley,  as 
his  heir,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Tooke.  He  studied 
law,  and  applied  about  1779  for  admission  to  the  bar, 
but  was  rejected  because  he  had  been  a  priest.  Before 
this  event  he  had  been  fined  £200  and  imprisoned  one 
year  for  libel.  His  offence  consisted  in  saying  that  cer 
tain  Americans  were  "murdered"  by  the  king's  troops 
at  Lexington.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his 
'"ETT«Z  Trrepoevra;  or,  Diversions  of  Purley,"  (1786,) 
which  treats  of  language,  and  displays  much  acuteness 
and  originality  of  thought  and  presents  many  good 
ideas.  He  was  tried  in  1794  on  a  charge  of  treason, 
made  an  able  speech  in  his  own  defence,  and  was 
acquitted.  In  1801  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Old  Sarum.  Died  in  1812.  lie  was  distinguished  for 
his  conversational  powers. 

See  W.  HAMILTON,  "Life  of  J.  Home  Tooke;"  "Memoirs  of 
John  Home  Tooke,"  by  J.  A.  GKAHAM,  tSaS;  "Life  of  J.  Home 
Tooke,"  by  AI.KXANDER  STEPHEN,  1813  ;  "  Hlackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  1833,  and  April,  1840;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January, 
1787,  and  December,  1806. 

Tooke,  (THOMAS,)  a  son  of  Rev.  William,  noticed 
below,  published  in  1838  a  "  History  of  Prices  and  of 
the  State  of  the  Circulation  from  1793  to  1837,"  etc.,  in 
2  vols.,  to  which  were  subsequently  added  four  more 
volumes.  Died  in  1858. 

Tooke,  (Rev.  WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Islington  in  1744,  became  minister  of  the  English  church 
at  Cronstadt.  He  was  appointed  in  1774  chaplain  to 
the  factory  of  the  Russia  Company  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  published  a  "Life  of  Catherine  II.,"  (3  vols.,  1797,) 
"  History  of  Russia  from  the  Foundation  of  the  Empire 
to  the  Accession  of  Catherine  II.,"  "  Varieties  of  Lite 
rature,"  and  other  works,  and  translated  Zollikofer's 
"  Sermons"  from  the  German.  Died  in  1820. 

Tooke,  (WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  younger  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1777.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge.  He  edited  the  poetical  works  of 
Churchill,  and  published  "The  Monarchy  of  France: 
its  Rise,  Progress,  and  Fall,"  (1855.)  Died  in  1863. 

ToolooiiorTuluii,  too'loon',  or,  more  fully,  Ahmed 
Ibu  Tooloon,  aii'med  ib'n  too'loon',  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty  of  Tooloonites,  was  born  in  835.  lie  had 
been  made  Governor  of  Egypt  in  873,  and  ruled  the 
country  with  great  ability,  when  an  attempt  was  made 
to  dispossess  him  ;  on  which  he  raised  an  army,  defeated 
the  troops  sent  against  him  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
and  declared  himself  independent.  He  died  about  883. 
The  dynasty  which  he  founded  lasted  till  905,  when  the 
caliph  Al-Mooktafee  reduced  Egypt  and  put  to  death 
the  last  of  the  Tooloonite  princes. 

Toombs,  (ROBERT,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Wilkes  county,  Georgia,  in  1810.  He  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1853,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1859.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  secession  party  in 
Georgia,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  when  that 
State  withdrew  from  the  Union.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  Southern  Confederacy  from  February  to 
July,  1 86 1,  was  elected  a  Senator  about  February,  1862, 
and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  same  year. 

Toorgenef,  toor'geh-ne'P  or  toor'neh-neT,  Turgenef, 
or  Turgenev,  written  also  Turgenew,  .(.ALEXANDER 
IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  historian,  born  in  1784.  Having 
visited  England  and  various  parts  of  Europe  in  search 
of  documents,  he  published  in  1841  his  "  Historical 
Monuments  of  Russia,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1845. 

Toorgenef  or  Turgenew,  (!VAN,)  a  Russian  poet 
and  litterateur  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Orel  in  • 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mgt;  not;  good;  moon; 


TOORGENEF 


2141 


TOR  IB  10 


1818.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  poem  entitled 
"Parascha"  or  "  Panascha,"  (1843,)  anc*  "Papers  of  a 
Sportsman,"  (1852.)  The  latter  enjoys  great  popularity, 
and  lias  been  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages. 

See  the  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1869;  "North 
British  Review"  for  March,  1869. 

Toorgenef,  Turgenef,  or  Turgenew,  (NIKOLAI 
IVANOVITCH,)  a  brother  of  Alexander,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1790.  He  distinguished  himself  as  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom  in  Russia. 
Having  been  connected  with  the  secret  societies  which 
favoured  that  reform,  he  was,  after  the  accession  of 
Nicholas,  condemned  to  death  during  his  absence  on  his 
travels.  He  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he 
published  in  1847  his  work  entitled  "Russia  and  the 
Russians,"  (in  French.) 

Topal-Osman,  to'pal  os-min',  an  able  Turkish 
general  and  minister  of  state.  lie  became  grand  vizier 
in  1731,  and  defeated  Nadir  Shah  in  battle  on  the  Tigris 
in  July,  1733.  He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Persians 
in  the  same  year. 

Topete,  to-pa'ti,  (JuAN,)  a  Spanish  admiral  of  the 
present  age.  As  commander  of  the  naval  force  at 
Cadiz,  he  gave  an  impulse  to  the  insurrection  against 
Isabella  in  September,  1868.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  from  Tune  to  November,  1869. 

Topfer  orToepfer,  top'fer,  (KARL,)  a  German  drama 
tist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1792,  has  published  several  popu 
lar  comedies,  among  which  we  may  name  "The  King's 
Command"  and  "  Hermann  and  Dorothea." 

Topffer  or  Toepffer,  top'fer,  (RUDOLPH,)  a  Gene- 
vese  artist  and  writer  of  rare  genius,  was  born  in  1799. 
Among  his  first  publications  was  his  "Voyages  en 
Zigzag,"  a  series  of  humorous  sketches,  which  attracted 
general  admiration.  These  were  followed  by  the  "  Pres- 
bytere,"  (1839,)  "Genevese  Tales,"  ("Nouvelles  Gene- 
voises,"  1841,)  and  "Rosa  et  Gertrude,"  (1845,)  all  of 
which  were  received  with  great  favour.  His  other  prin 
cipal  works  are  the  comic  sketches  entitled  "  M.  Vieux- 
Bois"  and  "  Reflections  on  Art."  The  former  appeared 
in  the  United  States  in  1842,  under  the  title  of"  Adven 
tures  of  Mr.  Obacliah  Oldbuck,"  etc.  Died  in  1846. 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Portraits  contemporains  ;"  CLEMENT  DE 
Ris,  "Portraits  a  la  Plume;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate;" 
the  "Living  Age"  for  September,  1847;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for 
November,  1865. 

Topino-Lebrun,  to'pe'no'  leh-briix',  (FRAxgois 
JEAN  BAPTISTS,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Marseilles 
in  1769,  was  a  republican  and  a  friend  of  Ceracchi  the 
sculptor.  He  was  accused  of  conspiring  with  Ceracchi 
against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  was  executed  in  1801, 
although  his  guilt  was  not  proved. 

Top'la-dy,  (AUGUSTUS  MONTAGUE,)  an  English  Cal- 
vinistic  divine,  born  in  Surrey  in  1740.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  became  vicar  of  Broad 
Henbury,  Devonshire.  lie  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works,  and  of  a  number  of  beautiful  and 
popular  hymns.  Died  in  1778. 

Toppi,  top'pee,  (Niccoi.6,)  an  Italian  compiler,  born 
at  Chieta  about  1603,  published  a  wOrk  on  the  history 
of  Neapolitan  literature,  (1678.)  Died  in  1681. 

Toranus  or  Toranius.     See  RUFLNUS. 

Torbido,  tok'be-do,  or  Turbido,  tooR'be-do,  (FRAN- 
CESCO,)  called  IL  MORO,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Verona  about  1500.  He  painted  frescos  and  portraits. 
Died  about  1581. 

Tor'bert,  (ALFRED  T.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Delaware,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855.  He 
served  as  an  officer  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Sep 
tember  17,  1862,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2-3,  1863,  and 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sheridan 
at  Opecjuan  Creek,  September  19,  and  Cedar  Creek, 
October  19,  1864.  At  the  end  of  1864  he  was  chief  of 
cavalry  in  the  Middle  military  division.  He  resigned  in 
October,  1866. 

Torcy.    See  COLBERT  and  JEAN  BAPTISTE. 

Tordeiiskjold  or  Tordenskiold,  tou'den-ske-old', 
(PETER,)  a  celebrated  admiral  in  the  Danish  service, 
Ixirn  at  Drontheim,  in  Norsvay,  in  1691,  was  originally 
named  WESSEL.  As  commander  of  a  privateer  in  the 
war  with  Sweden,  he  captured  numerous  merchant- 


vessels,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  1712.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  commodore  in  1715  for  his  services  in  de 
stroying  a  number  of  Swedish  ships  on  the  coast  of 
Norway.  In  1716  he  won  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Swedes,  under  Admiral  Wachtmeister,  for  which  the 
king  bestowed  upon  him  a  gold  medal.  He  was  soon 
after  ennobled  by  Frederick  IV.,  with  the  name  of  Tor- 
clenskiold,  ("Shield  against  Thunder,")  and  in  1717 
captured  the  fortified  town  of  Marstrand.  After  the 
peace  of  Fredericksberg  he  visited  Germany,  and  was 
killed  in  a  duel  at  Hanover,  (1720  or  1721.) 

See  ROTHE,  "Tordenskjold's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  3  vols.,  1747-50; 
THARUP,  "P.  Tordenskjold's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  1838;  BOHR,  "P. 
Tordenskjold,"  etc.,  1838;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tordesillas.     See  HERRERA. 

Torelli,  to-rel'lee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  mathematician,  born  at  Verona  in  1721.  He 
studied  at  Padua,  where  he  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  the  ancient  languages.  He  subsequently  prepared 
an  edition  of  all  the  works  of  Archimedes,  (both  in 
Greek  and  Latin,)  which  was  published  in  1792.  He  also 
translated  /Esop's  "Fables"  into  Latin.  Died  in  1781. 

See  SIBII.IATO,  "  De  Vita  J.  Torelli  Commentarius,"  1782. 

Torelli,  [Lat.  TAURE'LIUS,]  (LELIO,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Fano  in  1489,  settled  at  Florence 
about  1528,  and  became  podesta  of  that  city.  He  was 
appointed  chancellor  and  chief  secretary  to  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  about  1546.  He  published  an  excellent  edition 
of  the  important  Florentine  manuscripts  of  the  Pandects, 
(3  vols.  fol.,  1553.)  Died  in  1576. 

See  MAN-NI,  "Vita  di  L.  Torelli,"  1770. 

Torelli,  (PoMPONio,)  Count  of  Monte-Chiarugola, 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  in  1539.  He  wrote 
tragedies,  etc.  Died  in  1608. 

Toreiio,  to-rin'yo,  (Don  Jos6  MARIA  QUEYPO  DE 
LLANO  Ruiz  DE  SARAVIA,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and 
historian,  born  at  Oviedo  in  1786.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  insurrection  against  the  French  in  1808,  and 
in  1810  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Cortes.  After  the 
return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1814,  he  left  Spain,  and 
resided  many  years  in  France,  England,  and  Germany. 
On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1834,  and  in  1835 
succeeded  Martinez  de  la  Rosa  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  and  president  of  the  council.  He  was  compelled, 
on  account  of  his  moderate  policy,  to  resign  the  same 
year ;  and  he  lived  subsequently  in  Paris  and  London. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Insurrection, 
War,  and  Revolution  of  Spain,"  (5  vols.,  1835.)  Died 
in  1843. 

See  L.  DE  LOM^MIE,  "M.  Toreno,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Torenvhit,  to'ren-vit',  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1631.  His  works  are  chiefly  his 
torical  pieces  and  portraits.  Died  in  1719. 

Torfaeus.     See  TORFAUS. 

Torfaus,  Torfaeus,  tor-fa'us,  or  Tor'fes-en,  [Fr. 
TORFEE,  toR'fa',]  (THORMODR,)  an  Icelandic  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1740.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  in  1682  became  royal  historiographer.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Norway,"  (in  Latin,  4  vols., 
1711,)  "History  of  the  Orkney  Islands,"  ("  Historia 
Rerum  Orcadensium,"  1715,)  "Series  Dynastarum  et 
Regum  Dania,"  etc.,  and  other  works  on  Scandinavian 
history.  His  Latin  style  is  remarkable  for  its  elegance, 
and  his  writings  exhibit  great  learning  and  research. 
Died  in  1719. 

Sse  J.  ERICHSEN,  "T.  Torfesens  Levnetsbeskrivelse,"  1788. 

Torfee.     See  TORFAUS. 

Torfesen.     See  TORFAUS. 

Toribio,  to-ree'i?e-o,  (ALFONSO  Mongrovejo — mon- 
gRO-va'Ho,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  near  Valladolid  in 
1538.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Lima  in  1580.  Died 
in  1606. 

See  PINELO,  "  Vida  de  Don  Toribio,"  1653. 

Toribio  de  Benavente,  to-re'ne-o  da  ua-ni-ven'ta, 
a  Spanish  missionary  of  the  sixteenth  century,  resided 
many  years  in  Mexico,  and  was  guardian  of  a  convent  at 
Tezcuco.  He  wrote  a  history  of  New  Spain,  which  is 
still  in  manuscript. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii. 
book  iii. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ':  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


\  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOR  IN  US 


2142 


TORRIGUNO 


Torinus,  to-ree'nus,  (ALBANUS.)  a  Swiss  physician, 
originally  named  ALBAN  THORKK,  born  in  the  canton  of 
Zurich  in  1489,  became  professor  of  practical  medicine 
at  Bale.  He  translated  a  number  of  Greek  medical 
works  into  Latin,  and  published  editions  of  several  Latin 
treatises  on  medicine.  Died  in  1550. 

Torlonia,  toR-lo'ne-a,  (ALESSANDRO,)  Duke  of  Cesi 
and  Marquis  of  Roma-Vecchia,  an  opulent  Italian  banker, 
was  born  in  1800.  He  expended  his  fortune  liberally 
in  collecting  works  of  art  and  erecting  fine  buildings  at 
Rome. 

Torlonia,  (GIOVANNI,)  a  distinguished  Italian  banker, 
born  in  1754,  in  indigent  circumstances,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  acquired  a  large  fortune  by  his 
enterprise  and  financial  talent,  and  was  ennobled,  with 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Bracciano.  Died  in  1829. 

Tornberg,  toiin'beRg,  (CARL  JOHAN,)  a  Swedish  Ori 
entalist,  born  at  Linkoping  in  1807,  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Lund  about  1844.  He  has  written 
much  on  Arabic  literature  and  antiquities. 

Tornielli,  toR-ne-el'lee,  (AGOSTINO,)  an  Italian  histo 
rian,  born  near  Novara  in  1543.  He  published  "  Annals, 
Sacred  and  Profane,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Time  of 
Christ,"  ("  Annales  sacri  et  profani,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1610.) 
Died  in  1622. 

Tor'por-ley,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  mathema 
tician  and  divine,  born  about  1570,  was  amanuensis  to 
Francis  Vieta.  He  published  a  treatise  on  spherical 
trigonometry,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1632. 

Torquatus.     See  MANI.IUS. 

Torquemada,  toR-ka-ma'na,  a  Spanish  monk  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  Mexico, 
entitled  "  Monarchia  Indiana,"  published  at  Seville  in 
1615  and  at  Madrid  in  1723. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Torquemada,  [Lat.  TURRECREMA'TA,]  (JUAN,)  a 
Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1388.  He 
became  a  cardinal  in  1439,  and  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1468. 

Torquemada,  de,  da  toR-ka-ma'na,  (Toxus,)  a  Span 
ish  Dominican  monk,  infamous  for  his  cruelty,  was  born 
in  1420.  He  was  made  first  Inquisitor-General  in  1483, 
and  he  is  said  in  sixteen  years  to  have  condemned 
ninety  thousand  persons  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
and  more  than  eight  thousand  to  be  burned.  Died  in 
1498. 

See  PKESCOTT.  "  HUtnrv  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella."  vol.  i.  part 
i.  :  T.I.ORENTE.  "  Histoire  de  1'Inquisition  d'Espagne  ;"  MARIANA, 
"  Historia  de  Espana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Torre,  tor'ra,  (Fi.AMiNiO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
Reni.  Died  in  1661. 

Torre,  del,  del  tor'ra,  (Fii.irpo,)  a  learned  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  Friuli  in  1657,  was  made  Bishop  of 
Adria  by  Pope  Clement  XT.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  antiquarian  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  entitled  "Monuments  of  Ancient  Antium,"  ("Monti- 
menta  vcteris  Antii.")  Died  in  1717. 

See  FACCIOLATI,  "Vita  di  P.  Turri,"  1729;  NICERON,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Torre,  della,  del'13.  tor'ri,  (FILOMARINO,)  DUKE,  an 
Italian  nobleman,  noted  for  his  scientific  attainments, 
was  born  in  Naples.  Having  been  unjustly  charged 
with  favouring  the  designs  of  the  French,  he  fell  a 
victim  to  the  fury  of  the  Neapolitan  mob,  which,  after 
destroying  his  property,  killed  him,  together  with  his 
brother,  (1799.) 

Torre,  della,  (GIOVANNI  MARIA,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Rome  about  1712,  became  professor  of  philoso 
phy  and  mathematics  at  Venice  and  other  Italian  cities, 
lie  published  a  "  Course  of  Physics,"  (Latin  and  Italian,) 
"The  History  and  Phenomena  of  Vesuvius  Explained," 
(1755,)  and  other  scientific  works.  He  also  made  great 
improvements  in  the  microscope.  He  was  a  correspond 
ing  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  of 
other  learned  institutions.  Died  in  1782. 

Torre,  della,  (jACOPo,)  or  Jacopo  da  Forli,  an 
Italian  medical  writer,  born  at  Forli;  died  in  1414. 

Torremuzza,  de,  da  toR-ra-moot'sa,  (GABRIEL  Lan- 
cillotto  Castello— lan-chel-lot'to  kas-tel'lo,)  PRINCE, 


an  Italian  numismatist,  born  at  Palermo  in  1727.  He 
published  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1792. 

Tor'rens,  (Sir  HENRY,)  a  distinguished  Irish  officer, 
born  at  Londonderry  in  1779.  Having  previously  served 
in  the  West  Indies  and  Holland,  he  accompanied  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  to  Portugal  as  his  secretary.  lie  was 
made  adjutant-general  in  1820.  Died  in  1828. 

Torrens,  (ROBERT,)  F.R.S.,  M.P.,  an  economist 
and  writer,  born  in  Ireland  in  1780.  He  supported  the 
Reform  bill  of  1831,  and  wrote  several  works  on  trade 
and  political  economy.  Died  in  1864. 

Torrentinus,  tor-ren-tee'nus,  a  German  grammarian, 
whose  proper  name  was  HERMANN  VON  BKEK,  was  born 
at  Zwolle  about  1450.  He  wrote  "  Elucidarius  Carminum 
et  Historiarum,"  (1510.)  Died  about  1520. 

Tor-reu'ti-us,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1589;  died  in  1640. 

Tor-ren'ti-us,  (L/EVINUS,)  a  Flemish  scholar  and 
prelate,  originally  named  VAN  DER  BEKEN,  was  born  at 
Ghent  in  1525.  lie  became  Bishop  of  Antwerp,  and  sub 
sequently  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  (i59>) 
He  died  the  same  year.  He  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  of  great  elegance,  and  commentaries  on  several 
Latin  classics,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
of  Roman  antiquities. 

Torres,  tor're"s,  (DoMiNGOs  MAXIMIANO,)  a  Portu 
guese  poet,  born  about  1750. 

See  LONGFKLI.OW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Torres,  (Luis  DA  MOTTA,)  a  Portuguese  admiral, 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1769.  lie  was  appointed  Captain- 
General  of  Angola  about  1815.  Died  in  1822. 

Torres,  de,  da  tor'res,  (CLEMENTK,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1665.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  best  painters  of  his  time.  Died  in  1730. 

Torres  Naharro.     See  NAHARRO. 

Tor'rey,  (JoHN,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
botanist,  born  in  New  York  in  1798.  lie  published 
in  1819  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  New  York,  which  was  succeeded  in  1824  by  the  first 
volume  of  his  "  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States." 
In  conjunction  with  Professor  Gray,  he  produced  a 
"Flora  of  North  America,"  (1838.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1827  professor  of  chemistry  and  botany  in  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York.  He  has  also 
prepared  the  botanical  reports  of  the  natural  history 
survey  of  the  State  of  New  York,  (2  vols.  410,  1844.) 

Torricelli,  tor-re-sel'lee  or  tor-re-chel'lee,  (KVANCE- 
LISTA,)  an  eminent  Italian  natural  philosopher,  born  at 
Piancaldoli,  in  the'Romagna,  in  1608.  He  studied  mathe 
matics  at  Rome  under  Benedetto  Castelli,  discovered 
the  law  which  regulates  the  flowing  of  water  out  of  an 
orifice  of  a  vessel,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Motion.  This 
commended  him  to  the  favour  of  Galileo,  who  invited 
him  to  Florence.  Torricelli  went  thither  in  1641,  and 
remained  with  Galileo  until  the  death  of  the  latter.  lie 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Florence  by 
the  grand  duke  Ferdinand.  He  discovered  a  method  of 
ascertaining  the  area  of  a  cycloid.  His  chief  title  to 
celebrity  is  the  discovery  of  the  Torricellian  vacuum  and 
the  invention  of  the  barometer,  which  occurred  in  1643. 
lie  filled  with  mercury  a  glass  tube  about  three  feet  long, 
closed  at  one  end,  and  inserted  the  open  end  in  a  quan 
tity  of  mercury.  He  thus  found  that  a  vacuum  was 
formed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tube,  and  that  the  column 
of  mercury  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
remained  about  twenty-nine  or  thirty  inches  high.  He 
published  "Opera  Geometrica,"  (1644.)  Died  at  Flor 
ence  in  October,  1647. 

See  FABRONI,  "  Vita?  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  TIRA- 
BOSCHI,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Torrigiano,  tor-re-ja'no,  (PIETRO,)  a  celebrated  Ital 
ian  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1472.  He  was  a 
fellow-student  of  Michael  Angelo,  of  whom  he  was  so 
jealous  that  he  once  assaulted  him  violently,  disfiguring 
his  face  for  life.  He  afterwards  resided  for  a  time  in 
England,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Henry  VIII.,  and 
executed  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  other  works.  Having  returned  to  Spain  in  1519, 
he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  Inquisition  for  having 
broken  in  pieces  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  which  he  had 


a,e,  i,  6,  xi,  y, 


;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  6,ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fta,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


TORR1JOS 


2H3 


TOULONGEON 


made    for   a   nobleman,  who  refused    to  pay  the   price 
demanded,  (1522.) 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  TICOZZI,  "  Dizio- 
nario." 

Torrijos,  tor-ree'uds,  (JosE  MARIA,)  a  Spanish  gene 
ral,  born  at  Madrid  in  1791,  was  educated  among  the 
pages  of  Charles  IV.  Me  served  in  the  campaigns  of 
1808  and  1811.  and,  having  been  made  Captain-General 
of  Valencia,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  the  constitution.  After  the  capture  of  Cadiz 
by  the  French,  he  left  Spain,  but  returned  in  1830,  soon 
after  which  he  was  betrayed,  with  fifty  of  his  companions, 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  they  svere  all  shot, 
by  order  of  King  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1831. 

Tor'ring-tpn,  (ARTHUR  HKRKKRT,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  admiral,  was  a  brother  of  Chief-Justice  Herbert. 
Me  was  dismissed  from  all  his  places  by  James  II.  in 
1687,  because  he  would  not  vote  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  Act.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  fleet  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  during  his  voyage  from  Holland  to  Torbay, 
(1688,)  and  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  by 
William  HI.  "  He  was  utterly  inefficient,"  says  Mac- 
aulay.  In  1690  he  was  removed  from  that  office,  and 
obtained  command  of  the  fleet.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Beachy  Head,  in  June,  1690.  His  conduct  in 
that  battle  was  so  disgraceful  that  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  service. 

See  MACAL'LAY,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 

Torrington,  VISCOUNT.     See  BYNG,  (GEORGE.) 

Torsellino.     See  TURSELLINUS. 

Torstenson,  toR'sten-son,  or  Torstensson.  (LEN- 
NART,)  Count  of  Ortala,  a  Swedish  commander,  born  at 
Torstena  in  1603.  He  accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus 
to  Germany  in  1630,  and  after  his  death  served  under 
Baner  in  various  campaigns  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in 
Germany  in  1641,  and  in  May,  1642,  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Imperial  troops  at  Schweidnitz,  which  was  fol 
lowed  by  other  successes.  He  defeated  the  Imperialists 
at  Jankowitz  in  February,  1645.  Having  resigned  his 
command  in  1646,  he  was  created  a  count  by  Queen 
Christina,  and  obtained  other  distinctions.  Died  in  1651. 

See  GEIJER,  "  Histoire  de  Suede  ;"  CASSTROKM,  "Areminne  ofver 
L.  Torstensson,"  1786;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate. " 

Tortelli.toR-tel'lee,  [Lat.  TOKTEI/LIUS,]  (GIOVANNI,) 
an  Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1400.  He 
wrote  "  On  the  Power  of  Letters,"  ("  De  Potestate  Lite- 
rarum.1')  Died  about  1466. 

Tortellius.     See  TOKTEI.LT. 

Torti,  toR'tee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Modena  in  1658,  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Modena  about  1680.  He  composed  several  oratorios  in 
his  youth.  His  chief  work  is  a  Treatise  on  Pernicious 
Fevers,  entitled  "  Therapeutice  specialis  ad  Febres  quas- 
dani  perniciosas,"etc.,  (1709,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  died  in  1741. 

See  MCRATORI,  "Life  of  Torti." 

Tory,  to're',  (GEOFFROI,)  a  French  engraver  and 
printer,  born  at  Bourges  about  1480.  He  learned  Greek 
and  Latin,  established  himself  as  a  printer  in  Paris,  and 
translated  several  classical  works.  He  also  illustrated 
numerous  books  with  engravings.  Died  in  1533. 

Toscanella,  di,  de  tos-ka-nel'la,  (OkAZio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  in  the  Papal  States  about  1510;  died  about 
1580. 

Toscanelli,  tos-ka-nel'lee,  (PAOLO  DEL  Pozzo,)  an 
Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Florence  in  1397.  He  formed 
a  project  to  shorten  the  route  to  China  by  navigating 
westward,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  Columbus  on  this  subject 
about  1474.  He  constructed  a  gnomon  on  the  cathedral 
of  Florence.  Died  in  1482. 

Toschi,  tos'kee,  (DoMENlCO,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
cardinal,  born  near  Reggio  in  1535  ;  died  in  1620. 

Toschi,  (PAOLO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Parma  in  1788,  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  best  works 
maybe  named  his  prints  after  Correggio's  "Madonna 
della  Scodella,"  and  the  "  Venus  and  Adonis"  of  Albano. 
Died  in  1854. 

Tosetti,  to-set/tee,  (URBANO,)  an  Italian  philosopher, 
born  at  Florence  ;  died  in  1768. 


Tostado  or  Tostatus.   See  AI.PHONSUS  ABULENSIS. 

Tos'ti  or  Tos'tig,  Earl  of  Northumberland,  was  a 
brother  of  King  Harold  II.  In  1066  Tosti  and  the 
King  of  Norway  invaded  England,  and  were  defeated 
by  Harold.  Tosti  was  killed  in  this  battle,  September, 
1066. 

Tot'i-la,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  began  to  reign  in 
541  A.D.  He  invaded  Italy  and  captured  Rome  in  546, 
after  Belisarius  had  made  an  effort  to  raise  the  siege  of 
that  capital.  He  was  defeated  in  Tuscany  by  the  army 
of  Justinian,  under  Narses,  and  was  killed  in  the  retreat, 
in  552  A.D. 

Totleben  or  Todleben,  tot'la'ben,  (GorrLOB  HEIN- 
RICH,)  a  profligate  German  adventurer,  born  in  Saxony 
about  1710.  Having  been  banished  for  his  crimes,  he 
went  to  Russia  about  1755,  entered  the  army,  and  be 
came  a  general.  He  took  Berlin  in  1760,  and  committed 
great  cruelties  on  the  Prussians.  Died  in  1773. 

Tott,  de,  deh  tot,  (FRAXC.OIS,)  BARON,  a  French 
officer,  of  Hungarian  extraction,  born  in  1733,  held  an 
office  in  the  French  embassy  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  appointed,  after  his  return,  consul  to  the  Crimea, 
(1767.)  He  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  Turkey, 
where  he  effected  great  improvements  in  the  artillery 
and  military  fortifications.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Memoirs  of  the  Turks  and  Tartars,"  (1784,)  which 
obtained  great  popularity  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages.  Died  in  1793. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review''  for  September  and  October,  1785; 
"  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1837. 

Tot'ten,  (GEORGE  MUIRSON,)  an  American  civil  en 
gineer,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1809.  He 
was  appointed  engineer-in-chief  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
in  1849. 

Totten,  (JOSEPH  GILBERT,)  an  American  officer,  born 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1788,  served  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was 
made  colonel  and  chief  engineer  in  1838,  and  in  the 
latter  capacity  accompanied  the  army  to  Mexico  in  1847, 
where  he  was  soon  after  appointed  a  brigadier-general. 
He  wrote  a  "  Report  on  the  Subject  of  National  De 
fence."  Died  in  1864. 

Tottenham,  tot'ten-am,  (EDWARD,)  an  English 
divine  and  controversialist,  born  in  1810  ;  died  in  1853. 

Toucey,  tow'se,  (ISAAC,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  •born  in  Connecticut  in  1798.  He  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1846,  became  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States  in  June,  1848,  and  was  a 
j  Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1852  to  1857.  In 
;  March,  1857,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy. 
I  He  has  been  accused  of  dispersing  the  navy  to  remote 
i  parts  of  the  globe  in  1860,  with  a  design  to  favour  the 
I  movements  of  the  disunionists.  Died  in  1869. 

Touchard-Lafosse,  too'shtR'  It'foss',  (G.,)  a  me- 
!  diocre  French  writer,  born  in  1780,  published  many 
historical  works  and  novels.  Died  in  1847. 

Touche-Treville.    See  LA  TOUCHE. 

Tougard,  too'giR',  (JEROME  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  horticulturist,  born  at  Havre  in  1781.  He 
published  several  treatises  on  law  and  on  horticulture. 

Toullier,  too'le-a',  (CHARLES  BONAVENTUKE  MARIE,) 
a  distinguished  French  jurist,  born  about  1760.  He  be 
came  professor  of  law  at  Rennes,  and  published  an  im 
portant  work  entitled  "The  French  Civil  Law  according 
to  the  Order  of  the  Code  Napoleon,"  (i4\-ols.,  1811-31.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Biogranhie  Universelle,"  (new  edition;)  C.  PACLMIER, 
"filogede  Toullier,"  1836. 

Toulmin,  (CAMILLA.)     See  CROSSLAND. 

Toulmin,  tool'min,  QOSHUA,)  an  English  Unitarian 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1740,  became  one  of  the  pas 
tors  of  the  congregation  at  Birmingham.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Memoirs  of  Socinus,"  (1777,)  "Review  of 
the  Life,  Character,  and  Writings  of  John  Bicldle," 
(1789,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1815. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1816. 

Toulongeon,  de,  deh  too'lA.N'zhdN',  (FRANC.OIS 
EMANUEL,)  VISCOUNT,  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1748.  Having  joined  the  popular 
party  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  a 
deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  published, 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,git(tural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOULOUSE 


2144 


TOUSSAIN 


among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  France  from  the 
Revolution  of  1789,"  (4  vols.,  1801-10,)  and  "Revolu 
tionary  Manual,"  etc.  ;  also  a  translation  of  Caesar's 
"Commentaries."  Died  in  1812. 

See  QUERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  DUPONT  UE  NEMOURS, 
"Notice  sur  M.  de  Toiiloiigeun,"  1818;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
Generate." 

Toulouse,  de,  deh  too'looz',  (Louis  ALEXANDREde 
Boxirbon — deh  boou'bdN',)  COUNT,  a  French  admiral, 
born  in  1678, 'was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame 
de  Montespan.  He  received  command  of  a  fleet,  and 
opposed  with  success  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  near 
Malaga  in  1704.  Died  in  1737. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires." 

Toup,  toop,(JONATHAN,)an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1713.  Hestudied  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  became  a  prebendary  of  Exe 
ter  Cathedral.  He  published  several  critical  works  of 
great  merit,  the  most  important  of  which  is  entitled 
"  Emendations  of  Suidas,"  ("  Emendationes  in  Suidam," 
4  vols.,  1760-75.)  Died  in  1785. 

Tour  d'Auvergne,  La.  See  TUKKNNK,  LATOUR, 
and  BOUILLON. 

Tour,  de  la,  (BAILLET,)  COUNT.  See  LA  TOUK,  VON. 

Tour,  La.     See  LA  TOUR. 

Tourette,  La.     See  TOURRETTE,  LA. 

Tournefort,  de,  deh  tooR'neh'foR'  or  tooRn'foR', 
(JosEi'H  PITTOX,)  an  eminent  French  botanist,  born  at 
Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1656.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Montpellier,  and  subsequently  made  scientific  excursions 
in  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees.  He  was  appointed  in  1683 
assistant  professor  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  in  Paris,  where 
his  lectures  won  for  him  a  high  reputation.  He  set  out 
in  1700  on  a  journey  to  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  the 
adjacent  countries,  accompanied  by  Gundelsheimer.  On 
his  return  to  Paris  he  obtained  the  chair  of  medicine 
in  the  College  of  France.  He  died  in  1708.  His  prin 
cipal  works  are  his  "  History  of  Plants  in  the  Environs 
of  Paris,"  ("  Histoire  des  Plantes  qui  naissent  aux  Envi 
rons  de  Paris,"  etc.,  1698,)  "Elements  of  Botany,"  ("  In- 
stitiition.es  Rei  Herbaria;,''  3  vols.  410,  with  476  plates, 
1700,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (2  vols.,  1717.) 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  filoges  ;"  "Biographic  Medicale  ;"  MAURY, 
"Histoire  de  PAcademie  des  Sciences;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Tournely,  tooR'ni'le',  (HoNOR^,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Antibes  in  1658  ;  died  in  1729. 

Tournemine,  tooR'neh'men'  or  tooRn'men',  (KEN£ 
JOSEPH,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1661.  Having  previously  filled  various  professorships, 
he  became  in  1701  editor  of  the  "Journal  de  Trevoux." 
Among  his  works  sve  may  name  "  Reflections  on  Athe 
ism,"  and  an  edition  of  Prideaux's  "  History  of  the  Jews." 
Died  in  1739. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  FELLEK,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Tournemiiie,  de,  deh  tooR'neh'men',  (CHARLES,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Toulon  in  1825. 
Tourneur,  (CHARLES  Louis   FRANgois.)     See  LE- 

TOURNEUR. 

Tourneur,  Le,  leh  tooR'nim',  (PIERRE,)  a  French 
translator,  born  at  Valognes  in  1736.  He  produced  in 
1770  a  translation  of  Young's  "Night  Thoughts,"  which 
was  praised  by  Diderot,  and  commenced  a  prose  version 
of  Shakspeare's  plays,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared 
in  1776.  The  admiration  of  Shakspeare  which  he  ex 
pressed  provoked  the  hostility  of  Voltaire.  Le  Tour- 
neur's  version  of  Shakspeare  (20  vols.,  1776-82)  is 
considered  the  best  in  the  French  language.  It  was 
revised  and  republished  by  M.  Guizot  in  1824.  lie  also 
translated  "Clarissa  llarlowe,"  "Ossian's  Poems,"  and 
other  English  books.  Died  in  1788. 

See  LA  HARPE,  "Cours  de  Litlerature ;"  DESESSARTS,  "Slecles 
Litteraires." 

Tourneux,  Le,  leh  tooR'nuh',  (NICOLAS,)  an  eloquent 
French  preacher,  born  at  Rouen  in  1640.  lie  preached 
in  Paris,  was  praised  by  Boileau,  and  received  a  pension 
from  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  several  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1689. 

Touriion,  de,  deh  IOOR'HON',  (CHARLES  THOMAS 
MAILLARD,)  born  at  Turin  in  1668,  studied  at  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  was  appointed  by  the 


pope  apostolic  vicar  in  India.  In  1701  he  went  on  a 
mission  to  China,  where  his  indiscreet  zeal  caused  him 
to  be  imprisoned  by  the  emperor  in  1707.  Died  in 
prison  in  1710. 

See  CARDINAL  PASSIONEI,  "  Memorie  storiche  della  Legazione  e 
Morte  del  Cardinale  di  Tournon." 

Tournon,  de,  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  cardinal  and 
statesman,  born  at  Tournon  in  1489,  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  In  1526  he  assisted  in  ne 
gotiating  for  the  deliverance  of  the  king,  who  had  been 
made  prisoner  by  Charles  V.,  and  in  1529  concluded  the 
peace  of  Cambray.  He  was  soon  after  made  a  cardinal 
and  Archbishop  of  Bourges.  He  was  instrumental  in 
effecting  the  marriage  of  the  son  of  Francis,  afterwards 
Henry  II.,  with  Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  in  1538  nego 
tiated  with  Charles  V.  the  ten  years'  truce  of  Nice.  He 
was  made  prime  minister  of  state  about  1542,  in  which 
post  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  cruel  persecution  of  the 
Protestants.  Died  in  1562. 

See  FI.EURY-TERNAI.,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Tournon,"  1728; 
DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  SAINTK-MARTHK,  "Gallia 
Christiana  Nova;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geueraie." 

Tournon,  de,  (PHILIPPE  CAMILLE  CASIMIR  MAUCE- 
LIN,)  COUNT,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Apt  in  1778. 
He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Rome  by  Napoleon,  and 
after  the  second  restoration  became  prefect  of  the 
department  of  the  Gironde.  He  wrote  "  Statistical 
Studies  of  Rome,"  etc.,  (1831.)  Died  in  1833. 

Touro,  too'ro,  (Jui)AH,)  a  wealthy  and  benevolent 
American  Jew,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1776. 
He  settled  at  New  Orleans,  and  at  his  death  left  $80,000 
to  found  an  almshouse  in  that  city,  as  well  as  numerous 
munificent  bequests  for  various  charities  in  other  cities 
of  the  United  States,  and  for  the  relief  of  the  Jews  in 
Palestine.  Died  in  1854. 

Touron,  too'ro.N',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  biographer 
and  monk,  born  near  Castres  in  1686.  He  wrote,  be 
sides  other  works,  in  French,  a  "  Life  of  Thomas  Aqui 
nas,"  (1737,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Charles  Borromeo,"  (1761.) 
Died  in  1775. 

Tourreil,  de,  deh  too'ril'  or  too'ri'ye,  (JACQUES,)  a 
French  litterateur, \>or\\  at  Toulouse  in  1656.  He  trans 
lated  some  orations  of  Demosthenes,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  1692.  Died  in  1715. 

Tourret,  too'ri',  (CHARLES  GILBERT,)  a  French  min 
ister  of  state,  born  at  Montmarault  in  1795.  He  was 
minister  of  agriculture  from  June  to  December,  1848, 
and  founded  agricultural  schools,  (fermes  ecoles.)  Died 
in  1857. 

Tourrette,  de  la,  deh  It  too'ret',  (MARC  ANTOINE 
Louis  CLARET,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1729,  was  a  friend  of  J.  J.  Rousseau.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  (2  vols., 
1766,)  and  "Chloris  Lngdunensis,"  (1785.)  Died  in  1793. 

Tourtelle,  tooit'tel',  (£TIKNNE,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Besancon  in  1756.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Philosophic  History  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1804.) 
Died  in  1801. 

Tourville,  de,  deh  tooR'vel',  (ANNE  HILARION  de 
Cotentin — deh  ko'tSN'ta.N1',)  COUNT,  a  celebrated 
French  admiral,  born  at  Tourville  in  1642.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1667,  and  served  with  distinction  against 
the  Dutch  and  Spaniards.  In  1682  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1689  was  made  a  vice- 
admiral.  "Tourville,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  the  ablest 
maritime  commander  that  his  country  then  possessed." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.)  He  defeated  the  Eng 
lish  admiral  Torrington  at  Beachy  Head  in  June,  1690. 
In  1692  he  was  ordered,  with  forty-four  ships,  to  protect 
the  descent  of  an  army  on  England.  The  English  and 
Dutch  fleets  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  him  at  La 
Ilogue  the  same  year.  He  .was  created  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1693.  Died  in  1701. 

See  "Memoires  de  Tourville,"  3  vols.,  1742;  RICHER.  "Viede 
Tourviile,"  1783;  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  des  Krangais ;"  SAINT- 
SIMON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Toussaiii,  too'saN',  (DANIEL,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Montbelliard  in  1541.  He  taught 
Hebrew  at  Orleans,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Heidel 
berg,  where  he  also  was  professor  of  theology.  He 
wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1602. 


a, e, T,  o,\\,y,Iong;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, I,  6,  u,  y,  shore:  a,  e,  i,  o,  onscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


TO  USS4IN 


2145 


TOWNSHEND 


Toussain,  [Lat.  TUSSA'NUS,]  (JACQUES,)  a  French 
Hellenist,  born  at  Troyes.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  Greek  at  the  College  Royal  by  Francis  I.  about  1532. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Turnebe  (Turnebus)  and  Henri 
Estienne.  Died  in  1547. 

Toussaint,  too'saN',  (ANNA  LUISE  GERTRUDE,)  a 
Dutch  novelist,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1812.  She  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "Almagro,"  (1837,)  "The 
English  in  Rome,"  (1840,)  and  "  Lauernesse  House," 
("  Met  Huis  Lauernesse,"  1841,)  which  had  a  great 
success  ;  also  a  popular  historical  novel,  entitled  "  Ley- 
cester  in  Nederland,"  (about  1851.)  She  was  married 
to  the  painter  Bosboom  in  1851. 

See  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  August,  1843. 

Toussaint,  too'saN',  (FRANCOIS  CHKISTOPHE  AR- 
MAND,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1806,  was  a 
pupil  of  David  of  Angers.  Among  his  works  is  "Two 
Indian  Slaves  bearing  a  Torch."  Died  in  1862. 

Toussaint,  (FRANgois  VINCENT,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1715.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
ethics,  entitled  "  Les  Mceurs  par  Panage,"  (1748.)  Died 
in  Berlin  ill  1772. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  too'saN'  loo'v^R'tiiR',  a 
celebrated  negro  general  and  liberator,  born  near  Cap 
Frai^ois,  in  Hayti,  in  1743,  was  descended  from  an 
African  prince.  His  parents  were  both  slaves  and  of 
pure  negro  blood.  He  learned  to  read  and  to  write, 
and  by  his  good  conduct  and  intelligence  gained  the 
confidence  of  his  master,  who  appointed  him  steward 
of  the  implements  employed  in  making  sugar.  In 
August,  1791,  began  a  general  insurrection  of  the  slaves 
of  Hayti,  who  massacred  many  of  the  whites.  Tous 
saint,  however,  was  innocent  of  these  acts  of  cruelty, 
and  saved  the  lives  of  his  master's  family.  After  they 
had  escaped  from  the  island,  Toussaint  joined  the  army 
which  was  fighting  for  liberty.  The  insurgents  espoused 
the  cause  of  Louis  XVI.,  while  their  former  masters 
received  aid  from  the  English. 

The  horrible  confusion  which  prevailed  in  the  island 
was  increased  by  dissensions  among  the  whites  and  by 
the  interference  of  the  Spaniards.  Toussaint  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  negroes,  and  after  the  French 
Convention  had  decreed  the  liberation  of  the  slaves 
(February,  1794)  he  fought  against  the  English  and 
Spaniards,  and  aided  the  French  general  Laveaux  to 
expel  those  invaders.  He  gained  a  number  of  victories. 
"  His  energy  and  his  prowess,"  says  Beard,  "  made  him 
the  idol  of  his  troops.  ...  In  his  deeds  and  warlike 
achievements  he  had  equalled  the  great  captains  of 
ancient  and  modern  times."  He  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  by  the  French  commissioner  in  1796, 
and  confirmed  as  such  by  Bonaparte  about  December, 
1799.  He  was  regarded  as  a  general  benefactor  by  all 
classes  and  colours.  He  restored  order  and  prosperity, 
and  governed  with  moderation  and  humanity.  Under 
his  auspices  a  liberal  constitution  was  formed,  and  he 
was  elected  president  for  life.  Toussaint  sent  this  con 
stitution  to  Bonaparte  for  his  approbation  in  July,  1800, 
but  the  French  Consul  exclaimed,  "  He  is  a  revolted 
slave,  whom  we  must  punish  ;  the  honour  of  France  is 
outraged."  Having  resolved  to  reduce  the  negroes 
again  to  slavery,  Bonaparte  sent  an  army  of  about 
35,000  men,  under  Leclerc,  to  subdue  Toussaint.  This 
army  arrived  at  Hayti  about  the  end  of  iSoi,  and,  though 
courageously  resisted  by  Toussaint,  occupied  the  sea 
ports.  Retiring  to  the  mountains,  Toussaint  maintained 
the  contest,  and  killed  thousands  of  the  French.  Le 
clerc  resorted  to  negotiation,  and  offered  the  negroes 
their  liberty.  These  conditions  were  accepted  by  Tous 
saint,  who  concluded  a  peace  and  retired  to  his  estate. 
He  was  taken  by  treachery  in  June,  1802,  and  carried  to 
France,  and  confined  in  the  dungeon  in  the  castle  of 
Joux,  near  Besai^on,  where  he  died  in  April,  1803. 
According  to  some  authors,  he  was  starved  to  death. 

See  SAINT-R^MY,  "Vie  de  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  1850;  JOHN 
R.  BEARD,  "Life  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  1853;  J.  REDPATH, 
"Toussaint  L'Ouverture;  a  Biography,"  1863;  DCBROCA,  "Vie  de 
Toussaint  Louverture,"  1802;  JAMES  STEPHEN,  "  History  of  Tons- 
saint  Louverture,"  1814;  "Lecture  on  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  by 
WENDELL  PHILLIPS,  Boston,  1863. 

Toussenel,  toos'nel',  (  ALPHONSE,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  journalist,  born  at  Montreuil-Bellay  in  1803.  He 


published,  besides  other  works,  "  Le  Monde  des  Oiseaux  ; 
Ornithologie  passionnelle,"  (1852.) 

T6w'er,  (ZEALOUS  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Massachusetts  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1841.  He  became  a  captain  about  1855,  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30, 
1862. 

TSw'ers,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  Unitarian  divine  and 
writer,  born  in  Southwark  in  1737.  He  was  a  con 
tributor  to  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  and  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great,  King  of  Prussia,"  (2 
vols.,  1788,)  "  Observations  on  the  Rights  and  Duties 
of  Juries,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1799. 

Tow'good,  (MiCAjAH,)  an  English  dissenter,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1700,  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  book  entitled  "  High-Flown  Episcopal  and  Priestly 
Claims  freely  Examined."  He  preached  at  Exeter.  Died 
in  1792. 

Towianski,  to-ve-an'skee,  a  Polish  mystic,  who  pre 
tended  to  have  divine  revelations,  was  born  in  Lithuania 
about  1800.  He  successively  visited  the  principal  cities 
of  Europe,  and  while  in  Paris  made  a  convert  of  the 
Polish  poet  Mickiewicz,  who  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour 
of  his  doctrines,  entitled  "The  Official  Church  and  Mes- 
sianism."  Being  soon  after  banished  from  France,  he 
retired  to  Switzerland. 

T6wn'ley,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  amateur,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1737,  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  made  a 
large  and  choice  collection  of  statuary,  medals,  and  other 
remains  of  ancient  art,  which  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum  and  are  called  the  "  Townley  marbles."  His 
collection  was  purchased  for  twenty-eight  thousand  two 
hundred  pounds.  Died  in  1805. 

Towuley,  (JAMES,)  an  English  divine  and  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1715.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Hogarth,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  "  Analysis  of  Beauty." 
He  was  the  author  of  the  popular  farce  of  "  High  Life 
Below-Stairs,"  (1759,)  and  he  is  said  to  have  assisted 
Garrick  in  the  composition  of  his  dramas.  Died  in 
1778. 

Townley,  (JOHN,)  an  uncle  of  Charles,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1697.  Pie  served  with  distinction  in  the 
French  army,  and  made  a  good  French  translation  of 
"Hudibras."  Died  in  1782. 

TSwii'send,  (ELIZA,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Boston  about  1788,  was  the  author  of  an  admired  poem, 
entitled  "The  Incomprehensibility  of  God,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1854. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

T5wn'send,  (JOHN,)  an  English  divine  and  philan 
thropist,  born  in  London  in  1757.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at 
Bermondsey,  (1792.)  He  wrote  "Hints  on  Sunday- 
Schools,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 

Townsend,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  divine  and  physi 
cian,  born  about  1740,  was  chaplain  to  Lady  Huntingdon. 
He  published  "The  Physician's  Vade-Mecum,"  (1794,) 
"The  Character  of  Moses  established  for  Veracity  as  an 
Historian,"  etc.,  (2  vols.  4to,  1813-15,)  which  is  highly 
commended,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1816. 

Towiishend,  town'zend,  (CHARLES,)  Viscount  Town- 
shend,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1676,  was  the 
son  of  Horatio  Townshend,  the  first  viscount  of  that 
name.  He  succeeded  to  the  peerage  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  about  1686.  In  1709  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Dutch  United  Provinces,  and  negotiated  the  Bar 
rier  treaty.  He  married  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Wai  pole. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  became  secre 
tary  of  state  and  prime  minister.  He  and  the  other 
ministers  were  all  Whigs.  By  the  intrigues  or  agency  of 
Sunderland,  he  was  removed  in  1716,  and  was  offered 
the  place  of  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  he  indig 
nantly  refused.  Sir  Robert  Wai  pole,  who  was  his  friend, 
resigned  office,  and  went  with  Townshend  into  the  op 
position.  In  1721  Townshend  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  in  a  new  ministry,  of  which  Walpole  was  the 
premier,  or  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He  resigned 
in  1730,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  Walpole. 
"Townshend  retired,"  says  Macaulay,  "and,  with  rare 
moderation  and  public  spirit,  refused  to  take  any  part  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

135 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


TOWNSHEND 


2146 


TRAJAN 


politics."  (Review  of  the  "Life  of  Lord  Chatham.") 
He  died  in  1738,  leaving  the  reputation  of  an  honest 
statesman. 

Townshend,  (CHARLES,)  a  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1725,  and  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
third  Viscount  Townshend.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1747,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator.  He  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the  chamber  in 
1756.  In  politics  he  was  a  Whig.  He  became  secretary 
at  war  under  Pitt  in  1761,  and  first  lord  of  trade  and 
plantations  in  1763.  He  supported  the  Stamp  Act,  so 
obnoxious  to  the  American  colonies,  (1765.)  In  the  new 
ministry  formed  by  Lord  Chatham  in  1766,  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  procured  the  passage  of  the  bill  which 
imposed  a  tax  on  tea  and  other  articles  imported  into 
the  American  colonies,  and  which  provoked  them  to 
revolt.  "Charles  Townshend,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  man 
of  splendid  talents,  of  lax  principles,  and  of  boundless 
vanity  and  presumption,  would  submit  to  no  control.  .  .  . 
He  had  always  quailed  before  the  genius  and  the  lofty 
character  of  Pitt;  but,  now  that  Pitt  [Lord  Chatham] 
had  quitted  the  House  of  Commons  and  seemed  to  have 
abdicated  the  part  of  chief  minister,  Townshend  broke 
loose  from  all  restraint."  (Essay  on  the  "Earl  of  Chat 
ham,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1844.) 
He  died  in  September,  1767.  He  had  married  a  daughter 
of  John,  Duke  of  Argyle. 

Townshend,  (GEORGE,)  Marquis  Townshend,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1724.  He  became 
a  general,  was  sent  to  Canada,  and  succeeded  Wolfe  as 
commander-in-chief  when  the  latter  was  killed,  (1759.) 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in  Germany  and  Portugal. 
Died  in  1807. 

T6wn'son,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
in  Essex  in  1715.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Archdeacon  of  Richmond  in  1780.  He  published  several 
theological  works,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Discourses 
on  the  Four  Gospels,"  (1778,)  was  very  favourably  re 
ceived,  and  was  praised  by  Bishop  Lowth.  The  degree 
of  D.D.  was  bestowed  on  the  author  by  the  University 
of  Oxford.  Died  in  1792. 

TSw'spn,  (NATHAN,)  an  American  general,  born 
near  Baltimore  in  1784.  As  captain  of  the  second  regi 
ment  of  artillery,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  (afterwards  General)  Scott,  he  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  the  brig  Caledonia  from  the  British,  (October, 
1812.)  In  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814  he  won  a 
high  reputation  for  skill  and  bravery,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  actions  of  Chippewa,  Niagara,  and  Fort 
Erie.  He  became  successively  lieutenant-colonel,  (1816,) 
paymaster-general,  (1819,)  brigadier-general,  (1834,)  and 
major-general,  (1849.)  Died  in  1854. 

To'zer,  (HENRY,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1602.  He  preached  at  Oxford,  and 
afterwards  at  Rotterdam,  where  he  died  in  1650.  He 
had  published  several  sermons. 

Tozzetti.    See  TARGIONI. 

Tozzi,  tot'see,  (LuCA,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  near 
Aversa  in  1638,  succeeded  Malpighi  as  professor  at  Rome 
and  physician  to  the  pope  in  1695.  Died  in  1717. 

Tra'be-a,  (QuiNTUS,)  a  Roman  comic  poet,  who  lived 
about  130  B.C.  His  works  are  lost,  except  small  frag 
ments. 

Tra'cy,  (ALBERT  H.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1793,  removed  to  the  State  of 
New  York  about  1812.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1819  to  1825.  Died  at  Buffalo  in  1859. 

Tracy,  (URIAH,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Franklin,  Connecticut,  in  1755.  He  represented  a  dis 
trict  of  Connecticut  in  Congress  from  1793  to  1796, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  that  State  in  the  latter  year.  He  was 
an  able  speaker,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  wit  and 
humour.  He  remained  in  the  Senate  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  1807. 

Tracy,  de,  cleh  tid'se',  (ALEXANDRE  CESAR  VICTOR 
CHARLES  Destutt — di'tii',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  poli 
tician,  born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  was  a  Liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1827  to  1848,  and  was 


minister  of  the  marine  from  December,  1848,  to  October, 
1849.     Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Tracy,  de,  (ANTOINE  Louis  CHARLES  DESTUTT,) 
COMTK,  a  French  philosopher,  born  in  the  Bourbonnais 
in  1754,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in  the  army  in  1792,  and 
was  imprisoned  for  ten  months  in  the  reign  of  terror. 
About  1800  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  senate. 
Having  acquired  distinction  by  several  works  on  logic, 
grammar,  etc.,  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad 
emy  in  1808.  His  chief  work  is  "  Elements  of  Ideology," 
("Elements  d'Icleologie,"  4  vols.,  1817-18.)  His  phi 
losophy  is  the  sensualism  or  sensationalism  of  Condillac 
carried  to  the  extreme  issues.  Died  in  1836. 

See  DAMIRON,  "  Essai  de  la  Philosophic  en  France;"  MIGNET, 
"Notices  et  Portraits;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate. " 

Tra'cjf,  de,  (SARAH  NEWTON,)  MARQUISE,  born  at 
Stockport,  in  England,  in  1789,  was  married  in  1816  to 
the  Marquis  de  Tracy,  noticed  above.  She  died  in  1850, 
leaving  "Essais  divers,  Lettres  et  Pensees,"  (3  vols., 

1852-55.) 

See  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi. " 

Trad'es-cant,  (JOHN,)  a  distinguished  traveller  and 
naturalist,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Holland, 
settled  in  England,  and  became  in  1629  gardener  to 
Charles  I.  He  had  previously  visited  Asia  and  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  made  a  collection 
of  plants.  Died  about  1640.  His  son,  of  the  same 
name,  born  in  1608,  went  on  a  scientific  expedition  to 
Virginia.  He  published  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  his 
father's  Museum,  entitled  "Museum  Tradescantium," 
etc.,  (1656.)  He  died  in  1662,  and  the  collection,  which 
he  greatly  increased,  now  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford.  The  genus  Tradescantia 
was  named  in  honour  of  these  botanists. 

Traetta,  tRa-et'ta,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Bitonto  in  1727.  He  composed  a  number  of 
operas.  Died  in  1779. 

Tragua.     See  BOCK,  (HIERONYMUS.) 

Traheron,  trah'er-on,  ?  (BARTHOLOMEW,)  an  English 
Protestant  minister,  born  after  1500.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  Royal  Library  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  at  whose 
death  (1553)  he  went  into  exile.  He  wrote  several  the 
ological  works. 

Traill,  tral,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  Calvinistic  divine, 
born  in  Fifeshire  in  1642,  was  imprisoned  under  the 
Conventicle  Act  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  religious  works.  His  grandson, 
James  Traill,  went  over  to  the  Church  of  England,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.  Died  in  1783. 

Traill,  (THOMAS  STEWART,)  M.I).,  a  Scottish  natural 
ist  and  physician,  born  in  Orkney  in  1781.  He  became 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  at  Edinburgh  about 
1832,  and  edited  the  eighth  edition  of  the  "Encyclo 
paedia  Britannica."  Died  in  1862. 

Tra'jan,  [Lat.  TRAJA'NUS;  It.  TRAJANO,  tRa-ya'no ; 
Fr.  TRAJAN,  tRt'zh6N' ;  Ger.  TRAJAN,  tRa-yai/,  |  or, 
more  fully,  Mar'cua  Ul'pi-us  Ner'va  Tra-ja'nus, 
Emperor  of  Rome,  born  near  Seville,  in  Spain,  about 
52  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Trajan,  an  Iberian  officer,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns  in  Asia  Minor.  He 
was  chosen  consul  in  91  A.D.,  and  was  afterwards  ap 
pointed  to  command  the  legions  on  the  Lower  Rhine. 
His  eminent  virtues  and  ability  obtained  for  him  the 
favour  and  confidence  of  the  emperor  Nerva,  who 
adopted  him  and  made  him  his  successor.  On  the 
death  of  Nerva,  in  98  A.D.,  Trajan  was  proclaimed  em 
peror,  and  soon  after  marched  against  Decebalus,  King 
of  the  Dacians,  whom  he  repeatedly  defeated.  In  106 
A.D.  Dacia  became  a  Roman  province,  and  a  column 
(which  is  still  extant)  was  erected  on  the  Forum  Trajani, 
in  commemoration  of  these  victories,  by  Apollodorusof 
Damascus.  In  the  year  115  he  commanded  in  person  an 
army  which  invaded  Parthia,  and  defeated  the  Parthians 
in  several  battles.  He  took  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of 
Parthia,  and  deposed  the  king  of  that  country.  In 
116  he  descended  the  Tigris  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  He 
was  returning  to  Rome,  when  he  died,  without  issue,  at 
Selinus,  in  Cilicia,  in  117  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TRAJANO 


2147 


TRELAT 


Hadrian.  Trajan  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  best  em 
perors  of  Rome.  He  is  commended  for  his  moderation, 
sound  judgment,  and  the  simplicity  of  his  mode  of  living. 
Yet  he  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  presided  as  judge 
at  the  tribunal  when  the  martyr  Ignatius  was  sentenced 
to  death.  Among  his  friends  was  Pliny  the  Younger, 
who  wrote  a  "Panegyric  on  Trajan." 

SeeTiLLEMONT,  "  Histoiredes  Empereurs;"  RITTER,  "Trajanus 
in  Lucem  reproductus,"  1768;  H.  FRANCKE,  "  Zur  Geschiclite  Tra 
jan's,"  etc.,  1840;  GENERSICH,  "Trajan;  biographisches  Gemalde," 
1811  ;  MERIVALE,  "History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire;" 
MORALES,  "  Hechos  y  Dichos  de  Trajano,"  1654;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale. " 

Trajano  and  Trajanus.     See  TRAJAN. 

Trajanus,  a  Roman  general  under  the  emperor 
Valens.  In  373  A.D.  he  commanded  an  army  which 
defeated  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Adrianople,  in  378  A.n. 

Trail,  (RussEi.LTHACHER,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Ameri 
can  physician  of  the  hydropathic  school,  born  in  Tolland 
county,  Connecticut,  in  1812.  Having  removed  to  New 
York,  he  founded  in  1843  a  water-cure  establishment, 
to  which  he  afterwards  joined  a  medical  school,  called 
the  "  New  York  Hygeio-Therapeutic  College,"  designed 
for  both  sexes.  He  has  edited  successively  the  "  Hydro 
pathic  Review,"  the  "  Water-Cure  Journal,"  and  "  Life 
Illustrated."  Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name 
the  "Hydropathic  Encyclopaedia,"  (1852,)  "  Hydropathic 
Cook-Kook,"  (1854,)  "Prize  Essay  on  Tobacco,"  "The 
Scientific  Basis  of  Vegetarianism,"  and  "  Diseases  of 
the  Throat  and  Lungs." 

Tralles,  tRal'les,  (BALTHASAR  LUDWIG,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1708.  He  practised  in  that 
city,  and  wrote  a  number  of  medical  works,  which  were 
esteemed.  Died  in  1797. 

Trallianus.    See  ALEXANDER  OF  TRALLES. 

Transtamare,  de,  (HENRY.)  See  HENRY  II.  OF 
CASTILE. 

Trapp,  (JOHN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  1601. 
He  was  vicar  of  Weston-on-Avon,  and  wrote  a  com 
mentary  on  the  Bible.  Died  in  1669. 

Trapp,  (JOSEPH,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1679.  He  became 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1708,  and  was  subse 
quently  chaplain  to  Lord  Bolingbroke,  who  bestowed 
upon  him  the  living  of  Harlington,  in  Middlesex.  He 
published  "  Praelectiones  Poeticae,"  (3  vols.,  1711-19,) 
"Notes  upon  the  Gospels,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  and  several 
political  treatises  ;  also  a  translation  of  the  "  yEneid" 
into  blank  verse,  and  a  Latin  version  of  "Paradise 
Lost."  Died  in  1747. 

Traun,  von,  fon  tRown,  (O'rro  FERDINAND,)  COUNT, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1677.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  field-marshal  in  1740,  and  commanded  the  army 
which  under  Charles  of  Lorraine  opposed  Frederick 
the  Great  in  1745.  He  forced  the  Prussians  to  evacuate 
Bohemia.  Died  in  1748.  Frederick  compared  him  to 
Sertorius,  and  ascribed  to  him  the  success  of  the  Aus- 
trians  in  the  campaign  of  1745- 

Trautson,  von,  fon  tRowt'son,  QOHANN  JOSEPH,) 
COUNT,  a  liberal  German  prelate,  born  in  1704.  He 
promoted  reform  in  religion  and  morals.  In  1756  he 
became  a  cardinal.  Died  at  Vienna  in  1757. 

Trauttmansdorf,  tRowt'mans-doRf,  (MAXIMILIAN,) 
COUNT,  an  Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Gratz  in  1584.  He  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1619 
between  Ferdinand  II.  and  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  and 
subsequently  negotiated  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  He 
enjoyed  the'esteem  and  confidence  of  the  emperor  Fer 
dinand  II.,  and  was  the  first  to  communicate  to  him  the 
treasonable  designs  of  Wallenstein.  Died  in  1650. 

See  SCHILLER,  "Thirty  Years'  War." 

Travasa,  tRa-va'sa,  (GAF.TANO  MARIA,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Bassano  in  1698.  He  wrote  a  "His 
tory,  of  the  Heresiarchs  of  the  First  Four  Centuries," 
(6  vols.,  1752-62,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1774. 

Travers,  tRi'vaiR',  (GiLLES  JULIEN,)  a  French  scholar 
and  poet,  born  at  Valognes  (Marche)  in  1802.  He  was 
professor  of  Latin  at  Caen  from  1844  to  1856.  He  pro 
duced  poems  called  "Les  Algeriennes,"  (1827,)  and 
"Mourning,"  ("  Deuil,"  1837.) 


Trav'ers,  (JOHN,)  an  English  composer,  was  a  pupil 
of  Dr.  Greene,  and  was  appointed  organist  to  the  cha 
pels  royal  in  1737.  Died  in  1758. 

Travers,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  Jansenist  priest  and 
writer,  born  at  Nantes  in  1674.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Nantes,"  (3  vols.,  1836-41.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Traversari.     See  AMBROSIUS  OF  CAMALDOLI. 

Travies  de  Villiers,  tRt've-eV  deh  ve'ya',  (CHARLES 
JOSEPH,)  a  Swiss  painter  of  genre,  born  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich  in  1804.  He  painted  grotesque  scenes  with 
success,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Charivari" 
of  Paris.  Died  in  1859.  His  brother  EDOUARD  is  a 
skilful  painter  of  animals  and  still  life. 

Trav'is,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Lancashire,  became  Archdeacon  of  Chester.  He  wrote 
several  letters  to  Gibbon  on  the  authenticity  of  the  text 
I.  John  v.  7.  Died  in  1797. 

Travot,  tRt'vo',  (JEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Poligny  in  1767  ;  died  in  1836. 

Trayer,  tRa'ya',  QEAN  BAPTISTE  JULES,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1806. 

Tread'well,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  mechanician, 
born  at  Ipswich,  Massachusetts,  in  1791.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Boston  Journal  of  Philosophy 
and  the  Arts"  in  1822,  and  in  1834  Rumford  professor 
of  technology  in  Harvard  College.  He  has  invented  a 
machine  for  spinning  hemp  for  cordage,  and  a  cannon 
called  by  his  name. 

Trebatius.     See  TESTA, . 

Trebatti.     See  Po^rffb. 

Tre-bel'U-us  Max'I-mus,  a  Roman  magistrate  under 
the  reign  of  Nero,  was  chosen  consul  with  Lucius  An- 
naeus  Seneca  in  62  A.D. 

Trebellius  Pollio.     See  POLLIO,  (TREBELLIUS.) 

Tre-bo'm-us,  (CAius,)  a  Roman  politician,  became 
tribune  of  the  people  in  55  B.C.,  and  one  of  Caesar's  legates 
in  Gaul.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
was  elected  city  praetor  in  48,  and  consul  in  45  B.C.  He 
performed  a  prominent  part  in  the  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  Caesar.  In  43  B.C.  he  was  killed  at  Smyrna 
by  Dolabella. 

Trebutien,  tRa'bii'seJ.N',  (GUILLAUME  STANISLAS,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Calvados 
in  1800.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "History  and 
Antiquities  of  Caen,"  (1847.) 

Treb'y,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1644,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Plymp- 
ton  in  1678,  and  subsequently  rose  to  be  attorney-gen 
eral  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  the  reign 
of  William  III.  Died  in  1702. 

Tred'gold,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
at  Brandon,  in  Durham,  in  1788.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London,  and  published  in  1820  "Elementary  Prin 
ciples  of  Carpentry,"  which  is  a  valuable  work.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  joinery,  railroads,  the 
steam-engine,  etc.  Died  in  London  in  1829. 

Trediakovsky,  tra-de-a-kov'ske,  (VASILII  KIRILO- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  in  1703,  studied  in 
Paris,  and  after  his  return  became  secretary  to  the  Saint 
Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences,  (1733.)  He  translated 
Rollin's  "  Ancient  History,"  and  published  numerous 
original  poems.  Died  in  1769. 

Treilhard,  tRa'lf  R',  or  Trelliard,  tR^le-tR',  (JEAN 
BAPTISTE,)  COUNT,  a  French  statesman  of  the  Revo 
lution,  born  at  Brives  in  1742.  He  was  a  republican 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1792-95,  observed  a  cautious 
silence  during  the  reign  of  terror,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795.  He  was  one  of  the 
directors  of  the  republic  from  May,  1798,  to  June,  1799. 
In  1802  he  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state.  He  re 
ceived  the  title  of  minister  of  state  in  1809,  and  that  of 
count  in  1810,  and  died  the  same  year.  . 

See  THIERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  GeneYale." 

Treitschke,  tritsh'keh,  (KARL  GEORG,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1783.  He  published  several 
legal  works. 

Trelat,  tRa'lf',  (ULYSSE,)  a  French  physician  and  re 
publican,  born  at  Montargis  in  1795.  He  was  minister 
of  public  works  in  May-June,  1848. 


«  as  k;  c  a?  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TRELAWNET 


2148 


T RES  CHOW 


Tre-law'iiey,  (Sir  JOHN,)  Bishop  of  Bristol,  was  one 
of  the  seven  bishops  prosecuted  in  1688  for  refusing  to 
publish  King  James's  declaration  of  indulgence..  He  was 
acquitted. 

See  Miss  STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

Trelliard.     See  TREILHARD. 

Trellund,  treTlund,  (JoHAN  or  HANS,)  a  Danish 
bishop,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1669.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Viborg  about  1726,  and  published  several 
theological  works.  Died  in  1735. 

See  TYCHONIUS,  "  Ligpraediken  over  Biskop  H.  Trellund,"  1735. 

Trembecki,  trgm-bits'skee,  (STANISLAS,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  the  dis»ict  of  Cracow  about  1724,  was 
patronized  by  the  kifc  Stanislas  Augustus.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  descriptive  poem,  entitled  "Zofijowka,'' 
which  is  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  He  died 
in  1812,  leaving  a  "History  of  Poland,"  in  manuscript. 

Tremblay.     See  JOSEPH,  (FRANgois  LECLERC.) 

Trembley,  tRfiiVbli',  (ABRAHAM,)  a  Swiss  naturalist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1700,  published  "Memoirs  on  Fresh- 
Water  Polypes,"  (1744,)  "Instructions  on  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion,"  (1775,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1784. 

See  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  de  Trembley,"  1787. 

Tremellius,  tRa-mel'le-oos,  (EMMANUEL,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1510.  He  was  con 
verted  to  the  Protestant  faith  by  Peter  Martyr,  (Vermigli, 
with  whom  he  retired  for  safety  to  Germany.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  taught  Hebrew  at  Cambridge. 
He  was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  translated  the  New  Testament  from  Syriac 
into  Latin,  (1569.)  Aided  by  Francis  Junius,  he  pro 
duced  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1575-79,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed.  Died  at  Sedan  in  1580. 

See  M.  ADAM,  "  Vitz  Theologorum  exteroi  um ;"  TEISSIER, 
"Hloges." 

Tremoille,  de  la,  deh  If  tRa'mwal'  or  tRa'mwa'ye, 
or  Trimouille,  tRe'mooT,  (Louis,)  Prince  de  Talmont, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1460.  He  rendered  an  im 
portant  service  at  the  battle  of  Fornovo,  in  1495,  and 
commanded  the  army  which  Louis  XII.  sent  into  Italy 
about  1500.  He  conquered  Lombardy,  was  defeated  at 
Novara  in  1513,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Pavia, 
in  I525- 

See  J.  BOUCHET,  "  Pane'gyrique  du  Chevalier  sans  reproche," 
etc.,  1527. 

Tremolliere,  tRa'mo'le-aiR',  (PIERRE  CHARLES,)  a 
French  painter  of  history,  was  born  in  Anjou  in  1703  ;  died 
in  Paris  in  1739.  He  was  an  artist  of  fine  promise. 

Tremouille.    See  TREMOILLE,  DE  LA. 

Trench,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother  of 
Archbishop  Trench,  was  born  in  1806.  He  became 
rector  of  Islip.  He  published  "Travels  in  France  and 
Spain,"  and  several  religious  works. 

Trench,  (Rev.  RICHARD  CHENEVIX,)  an  eminent 
English  ecclesiastic  and  philologist,  born  in  1807.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
Hulsean  lecturer  in  1845.  He  was  appointed  theological 
professor  and  examiner  at  King's  College,  London,  in 
1847,  and  in  1856  created  Dean  of  Westminster.  He 
has  published  "The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  Illustrated 
from  Saint  Augustine,"  (1844,)  "  Notes  on  the  Miracles," 
(1846,)  a  treatise  "On  the  Study  of  Words,"  (1851,) 
often  reprinted,  "  Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament," 
(1854,)  also  a  number  of  poems,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Story  of  Justin  Martyr,"  (1835,)  "Poems 
from  Eastern  Sources,"  and  "Genoveva,"  (1842.)  He 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1863. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Trench'ard,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1650.  He  represented  Taunton  in 
Parliament  in  1679,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an 
active  member  of  the  opposition.  He  was  an  advocate 
for  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
1683,  on  a  charge  of  being  implicated  in  the  Rye-House 
Plot.  After  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  took  refuge 
in  France,  but  he  returned  to  England  after  the  Revolu 
tion  of  1688,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
William  III.,  (1693.)  Died  in  1695. 


Trenchard,  (Jonx,)  an  English  journalist  and  po 
litical  writer,  born  about  1662.  He  was  the  author  of 
"The  Natural  History  of  Superstition,"  (1709,)  "A 
Comparison  of  the  Proposals  of  the  Bank  and  South 
Sea  Company,"  "Thoughts  on  the  Peerage  Bill,"  and 
"Cato's  Letters,"  the  last-named  in  conjunction  with 
Mr.  T.  Gordon, — and  was  associated  with  that  gentleman 
as  editor  of  the  "  Independent  Whig."  Died  in  1723. 

Trenck,  von  der,  fon  d§R  tR§nk,  (FRANZ,)  BARON,  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  at  Reggio,  in  Cala 
bria,  in  1714,  was  the  son  of  a  Prussian  officer.  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  Russian  service,  where  he  dis 
tinguished  himself  equally  by  his  reckless  courage  and 
his  ferocity.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Austrian  war 
of  succession,  he  offered  his  services  to  Maria  Theresa, 
and  at  the  head  of  his  pandours  made  himself  every 
where  formidable  by  his  barbarities  and  rapacity.  He 
was  at  length  imprisoned  at  Spielberg,  in  Moravia,  where 
he  died  in  1749.  His  autobiography,  called  "  Remarkable 
Life  and  Deeds  of  Baron  Trenck,"  appeared  in  1807. 

See,  also,  HUBNER,  "  Franz  von  der  Trenck,"  3  vols.,  1788-89. 

Trenck,  von  der,  (FRIEDRICH,)  BARON,  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1726.  He 
entered  the  Prussian  army  at  an  early  age,  and  for  a 
time  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  but, 
having,  as  is  supposed,  offended  the  king  by  an  impru 
dent  attachment  to  his  sister  the  princess  Amelia,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Glatz.  Having  escaped 
from  his  prison  in  1747,  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  the  empress  and  made  a  captain  of 
hussars.  While  on  a  visit  to  his  family,  in  1754,  he  was 
arrested  by  order  of  Frederick,  confined  in  a  narrow  cell 
at  Magdeburg,  and,  after  several  attempts  at  escape, 
loaded  with  heavy  irons.  He  was  released  in  1763,  but 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  kingdom.  After  the  death 
of  Frederick,  Baron  Trenck  published  his  autobiographic 
"Memoirs,"  (3  vols.,  1787,)  which  acquired  great  popu 
larity  and  were  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages.  After  residing  for  a  time  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
and  other  cities  on  the  continent,  he  went  in  1792  to 
Paris,  where  he  joined  the  Jacobin  faction,  by  whom  he 
was  sentenced  to  the  guillotine  in  1794. 

See  WAHRMANN,  "  F.  von  der  Trenck,  Leben,"  etc.,  1837; 
ERICH,  "  Leben  und  Schicksaledes  Abenteurers  F.  von  der  Trenck," 
1846  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  GeneVale." 

Trendlenburg,  tRen'dlen-booRo',  written  also  Tren- 
delenburg,  (FRIKDRICH  ADOLF,)  a  German  scholar  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  at  Eutin  in  1802,  published 
"  Logical  Researches,"  ("  Logische  Untersuchungen," 
1840,)  and  other  works.  He  became  professor  of  phi 
losophy  at  Berlin  in  1833. 

Treneuil,  tReh-nu!'  or  tReh-nuh'ye,  (JOSEPH,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Cahors  in  1763.  Among  his  works 
is  "The  Tombs  of  Saint-Denis,"  ("Les  Tombeaux  de 
Saint-Denis,"  1806.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Tren'holm,  (GEORGE  A.,)  of  South  Carolina,  an 
American  financier,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
treasury  by  Jefferson  Davis  in  June,  1864. 

Trenta,  tRen'ta,  (FILIPPO,)  an  Italian  tragic  poet,  born 
at  Ascoli  in  1731  ;  died  in  1795. 

Trento,  da,  da  tRen'to,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  wood- 
engraver,  originally  named  FANTUZZI,  (fin-toot'see,) 
born  at  Trent.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Parmigiano,  several 
of  whose  works  he  engraved.  Died  about  1545. 

Treritowski,  tRen-tov'skee,  (FERDINAND  B.,)  an 
eminent  Polish  philosopher,  born  near  Warsaw  in  1808. 
Being  compelled  to  leave  his  country  during  the  rebellion 
of  1830,  he  repaired  to  Germany,  where  he  devoted  him 
self  to  teaching  philosophy.  He  published,  in  German, 
his  "Basis  of  Universal  Philosophy,"  (1837,)  "Prelimi 
nary  Studies  to  the  Science  of  Nature,"  (1840,)  and  a 
Latin  treatise  "On  the  Eternal  Life  of  Man."  Among 
his  other  works,  which  are  written  in  Polish,  we  may 
name  "The  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Science  of 
Government,"  "  Education  on  a  System  of  Pedagogics," 
and  "  Logic." 

Treschow,  tResh'ov,  (NEILS,)  a  Norwegian  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Drammen  in  1751.  He  studied  at 
"openhagen,  and  was  appointed  in  1803  professor  of 
ohilosophy  in  the  university  of  that  city.  Among  his 
orincipal  works  are  "Principles  of  Legislation,"  "Spirit 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TRESHAM 


2149 


TRIGAULT 


of  Christianity,"  "Morality  for  the  State  and  People, 
and  "Philosophical  Testament,"  etc.     Died  in  1833. 

Tresham,  tresh'am,  (HENRY,)  an  Irish  artist  am 
poet,  studied  at  Rome,  and  was  chosen,  after  his  return 
a  Royal  Academician.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Sea 
Sick  Minstrel,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1814. 

Tressaii,  de,  deh  tR<¥s6N',  (Louis  ELISAHETH  de  la 
Vergne— deli   It  viRn,)  COUNT,  a  French  officer  anc 
litterateur,  born  at  Mons  in  1705.     He  was  the  author  o 
a  "Treatise  on  Electricity,"  (1749,)  and  other  origina 
works,  and  made  translations  of  the  "Orlando  Furioso,' 
"  Amadis  de  Gaul,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind.     H 
was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in   1781,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Voltaire.     He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
king  at  Fontenoy  in  1745,  and  became  lieutenant-genera 
in  1747.     Died  in  1783. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  tflo.ses  ;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance  ;' 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge"nerale." 

Trevigi.     See  TREVISL 

Treville.     See  LA  TOUCHE-TKEVIU.E. 

Treviranus,  tRa-ve-ra'nus,  (GOTTFRIED  REINHOI.D,', 
a  German  physiologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1776,  practisec 
medicine  in  that  city.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Biology,  or  the  Philosophy  of  Living  Nature,' 
etc.,  (6  vols.,  1802-22,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1837. 

Treviranus,  (LunoLPH  CHRISTIAN,)  a  botanist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1779. 
He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Bonn,  and  published 
"  Physiology  of  Plants,"  (1835-39.) 

Trevisani,  tRa-ve-sa'nee,  (ANGELO,)  a  Venetian 
painter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  distinguished  for 
the  excellence  of  his  portraits. 

Trevisani,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  some 
times  called  ROMAN  TREVISANI,  was  born  near  Trieste 
in  1656.  He  studied  under  Zanchi  at  Venice,  and  after 
wards  visited  Rome,  where  he  executed  several  of  hi 
best  works.  Among  these  may  be  named  a  "  Cruci 
fixion,"  and  "  The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents."  Died 
in  1746. 

Trevise,  de,  Due.     See  MORTIER. 

Trevisi,  da,  da  tRa-vee'see,  or  Trevigi,  tra-vee'jee, 
(GlROLAMO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at 
Trevigi  about  1500,  resided  for  a  time  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Henry  VIII.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  a  "  Madonna  accompanied 
by  Saints."  His  portraits  also  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1544. 

Treviso,  (tRa-vee'so,)  DUKE  OF.     See  MORTIER. 

Trev'i-thick,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  engineer,  born 
in  Cornwall  in  1771,  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  high- 
pressure  steam-engines.  He  obtained  in  1802  a  patent 
for  a  steam-carriage  to  run  on  common  roads.  In  1804 
he  constructed  a  locomotive  for  railways.  Died  in  1833. 

See  WILLIAM  WALKER,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Distinguished  Men 
of  Science  of  Great  Britain,"  etc.,  London,  1864;  "All  the  Year 
Round"  for  August,  1860. 

Tre'vor,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  able  English  statesman,  born 
in  1626,  was  a  son-in-law  of  the  illustrious  Hamp- 
den.  Early  in  1668  he  was  sent  as  an  envoy  to  France, 
and  negotiated  the  provisional  treaty  of  April  15,  1668. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  September  of 
that  year.  Having  opposed  without  success  the  foreign 
policy  which  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of  York  adopted, 
he  was  turned  out  of  the  cabinet  in  1670;  but  he  con 
tinued  to  be  secretary  until  his  death,  in  1672. 

Trevor,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1633, 
was  a  cousin  and  parasite  of  the  infamous  Judge  Jef 
freys.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  solicitor- 
general.  He  became  master  of  the  rolls,  and  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  1685.  He  was  made  a  privy 
councillor  in  1688,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  first 
commissioner  of  the  great  seal.  Having  been  convicted 
of  bribery,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Speakership  in  1695, 
but  was  allowed  to  retain  the  mastership  of  the  rolls. 
Died  in  1717. 

Trevor,  (THOMAS,)  LORD,  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  John  Trevor,  (1626-72,)  and  a  grandson 
of  John  Hampden.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  common  pleas  in  1701,  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Lord  Trevor,  in  1711,  and  became  lord  privy  seal  in 


1726.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  council  in 
1730,  and  died  the  same  year,  leaving  a  son,  who  about 
1766  received  the  title  of  Viscount  Hampden. 

Trew,  tRa,  (CHKISTOPH  JAKOB,)  a  celebrated  German 
botanist  and  anatomist,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1695. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  became  physician-in-ordinary 
to  the  Margrave  of  Anspach.  In  1746  he  was  made 
president  of  the  "  Academic  des  Curieux  de  la  Nature," 
with  the  titles  of  Count-Palatine  and  physician  to  the 
emperor.  He  published  "  Plantae  Selectas,"  etc.,  (1570- 
73,)  a  magnificent  publication,  illustrated  by  Ehret,  and 
"History  and  Botanical  Character  of  the  Cedars  or" 
Lebanon,"  ("  Cedrorum  Libani  Historia  et  Character 
Botanicus,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1757-67;)  also  "  Osteological 
Plates  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  Tabulae  Osteologicae 
Corporis  Humani,"  1767,  with  coloured  plates,)  and 
other  anatomical  works.  Died  in  1769. 

See  RUMPEL,  "  Monumentum  Trewio  positum,"  1769;  "  Bio- 
graphie  Medicale." 

Trezel,  tRa'zel',  (CAMILLE  ALPHONSE,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1780;  died  in  1860. 

Trezel,  (PIERRE  FELIX,)  a  French  painter  of  history 
and  allegory,  born  in  Paris  in  1782;  died  in  1855. 

Trianon,  tRe't'nd.N',  (HENRI,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  critic,  born  about  1810.  He  wrote  critiques  for  the 
"Artiste"  and  other  periodicals,  and  published  editions 
of  Homer's  Poems. 

Tribolo,  di,  de  tRee'bo-lo,  (NiccoiA)  an  eminent 
Italian  sculptor,  whose  family  name  was  PERICOLI,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1500,  or,  as  some  say,  1485.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Sansovino,  and  was  patronized  by  Pope 
Clement  VII.,  who  employed  him  to  assist  Michael 
Angelo  in  sculptures  for  the  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo  at 
Florence.  Among  his  works  are  a  statue  of  Nature,  at 
Fontainebleau,  and  bas-reliefs,  representing  the  mar 
riage  of  the  Virgin,  at  Loretto.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  was  employed  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  to  adorn 
with  statues  and  fountains  the  gardens  of  the  Pitti  palace. 
Died  in  1550. 

See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  CICOGNARA, 
"Storia  della  Scultura." 

Tri-bo'm-an  or  Tri-bo-nl-a'nus,  [Fr.  TRIKONIEN, 
tRe'bo'neji.N',]  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  born  in  Pam- 
phylia  about  475  A.D.,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour 
of  the  emperor  Justinian,  by  whom  he  was  successively 
appointed  quaestor,  master  of  the  imperial  household, 
praetorian  prefect,  and  consul.  He  was  charged  by 
the  emperor,  conjointly  with  nine  other  commissioners, 
to  prepare  the  first  Justinian  Code.  Died  in  545  A.D. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  LUDE- 
WIG,  "  Vita  Justinian!  et  Triboniani,"  1731. 

Tribonianus.     See  TRIBONIAN. 

Tribouien.     See  TRIKONIAN. 

Tribune,  tRe-boo'no,  (PIETRO,)  was  elected  Doge  of 
Venice  in  888  A.D.,  and  defeated  the  Hungarians  in  906. 
Died  in  912. 

Tri-bu'nus,  [Gr.  TpiSovvof,]  an  eminent  physician, 
jorn  in  Palestine,  lived  about  530  A.D.,  and  was  noted 
br  his  benevolence.  He  attended  Chosroes,  King  of 
Persia,  whom  he  cured. 

Tricaud,  tR«'k5',  (ANTHELME,)  a  French  writer  and 
Driest,  born  at  Belley  in  1671.  He  wrote  several  his- 
:orical  works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1739. 

Tricoupi.     See  TRIKUPIS. 

Triest,  tReest,  (ANTOINE,)  a  Flemish  prelate,  born 
near  Audenarde  in  1576,  was  noted  for  his  charity.  He 
Became  Bishop  of  Bruges  in  1616.  Died  in  1657. 

Triewald,  tRee'wald,  or  Trivald,  (MARTIN,)  a  Swed- 
sh  engineer  and  mechanician,  born  at  Stockholm  in 
1691.  He  visited  England  at  an  early  age,  and  made 
he  acquaintance  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Having  applied 
himself  for  many  years  to  the  study  of  mechanics  and 
latural  philosophy,  he  returned  to  Sweden,  where  he 
constructed  a  steam-engine  and  made  a  number  of 
mprovements  in  machinery.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
f  the  Academy  of  Stockholm,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
^.oyal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1741. 

See  LAUREL,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  M.  Trievald,"  1748. 

Trigault,  tRe'go',  (NICOLAS,)  a  FYench  Jesuit  and 
nissionary,  born  at  Douay  in  1577.  He  was  employed 
n  China.  Died  at  Nanking  in  1628. 


o-,ora  irevor,  in   1711,  ana  oecame   lord   privy  seal    in     n  ^nina.     uiea  at  iNaiiKing  in  1025. 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     O^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TRIG  INT  A 


2150 


TRITO 


Triginta  Tyranni.     See  THIRTY  TYRANTS. 

Trigueros,  tRe-ga'rds,  (Don  CANDIDE  MARIA,)  a 
Spanish  poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Orgaz,  in  Castile, 
in  1736.  Among  his  works  is  a  comedy  called  "Los 
Menestrales,"  (1784.)  Died  about  1800. 

Trikupis,  tRe-koo'pis,  or  Tricoupi,  tRe-koo'pee, 
(SPIRIDION,)  a  modern  Greek  historian  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Missolonghi  in  1791.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  Greek  revolution  which  began  in  1821.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador,  to  England  in  1838,  in  1842, 
and  in  1850.  He  published,  in  Greek,  a  "  History  of 
the  Greek  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1853-57,)  a  work  of 
high  reputation.  He  returned  to  Athens  in  1862. 

Triller,  tRil'Ier,  (DANIEL  WILHELM,)  a  German  phy 
sician,  poet,  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1695. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became  in  1749  professor  of 
medicine  at  Wittenberg.  He  published  a  great  number 
of  medical  treatises,  in  Latin,  also  Latin  poems  on  medi 
cine.  Died  in  1782. 

Trflochana,  tri-lo'cha-na,  (i.e.  "  three-eyed"  or 
" having  three  eyes,")  [from  the  Sanscrit  trt,  "three," 
and  lochana,  an  "eye,"]  an  epithet  of  SIVA,  which  see. 

Trim/ble,  (DAVID,)  an  American  legislator,  born  in 
Frederick  county,  Virginia,  about  1782,  removed  to 
Kentucky  about  1804.  He  represented  a  district  of 
Kentucky  in  Congress  from  1817  to  1827,  and  was  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1842. 

Trimble,  (ISAAC  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia  about  1800,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822. 
He  was  a  railroad-engineer  before  the  war.  He  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  was  killed  at  Cedar 
Mountain,  Virginia,  in  August,  1862. 

Trimble,  (WILLIAM  A.,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  1786.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  war  of  1812, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Ohio  in  1819.  Died  in  December,  1821. 

Trim'mer,  (SARAH,)  an  English  writer,  whose  original 
name  was  KIRBY,  born  at  Ipswich  in  1741,  was  the  au 
thor  of  numerous  juvenile  and  educational  works  of 
great  merit,  which  have  acquired  extensive  popularity. 
Among  these  we  may  name  an  "  Easy  Introduction  to 
the  Knowledge  of  Nature,"  (1780,)  "Sacred  History 
selected  from  the  Scriptures,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1782-85,) 
"The  Economy  of  Charity,"  (1786,)  and  the  "Guardian 
of  Education,"  (5  vols.,  1806.)  Died  in  1810. 

See  MRS.  ELWOOD,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843;  "Life 
and  Writings  of  Mrs.  Trimmer,"  London,  1816. 

Trimouille.  See  TREMOUILLE,  DE  LA,  and  TAL- 
MONT. 

TrimurtI,  tri-moor'ti,  (i.e.  "triform,")  [from  the  San 
scrit  tri,  "three,"  and  murti,  "form,"]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  given  to  the  united  form  of  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and  Siva,  constituting  what  is  termed  the 
'•  Hindoo  triad."  (See  note  t  under  VISHNU.) 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Triiicavella,  tRen-ka-vel'la,  written  also  Trincavela 
or  Trincavelli,  [Lat.  TRINCAVEI/LIUS,]  (VICTOR,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Venice  in  1496, 
succeeded  Montanus  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Padua, 
(1551.)  He  published  a  number  of  medical  works,  in 
Latin.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  and  edited 
the  works  of  several  Greek  authors  which  had  never 
been  printed  in  the  original.  He  greatly  promoted  the 
introduction  of  Greek  writings  into  the  medical  schools 
of  Italy.  Died  at  Venice  in  1568. 

See  ALBERICI,  "  Scrittori  Veneti ;"  GHILLINI,  "Teatro." 

Trincavelli  or  Trincavellius.     See  TRINCAVELLA. 

Trionfetti,  tRe-on-fet'tee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an 
Italian  botanist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1656,  published 
several  works  on  botany.  Died  at  Rome  in  1708.  His 
brother  LELIO,  born  in  1647,  was  also  a  botanist.  Died 
at  Bologna  in  1722. 

Trip,  trip,  (HENDRIK  RUDOLPH,)  a  Dutch  general, 
born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1779.  He  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  war  in  1834,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general 
in  1840. 

Tripier,  tRe'peJi',  (NICOLAS  JEAN  BAFHSTE,)  an  emi 
nent  French  advocate  and  judge,  born  at  Autun  in  1765. 
He  became  a  peer  of  France  about  1832.  Died  in  1840. 

See  JOSSEAU,   "  Eloge  de  Tripier,"  1841;  "  Biographic  Univer- 


Trippel,  tidp'pel,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Swiss  sculptor, 
born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1744.  In  1776  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  executed  the  monuments  of  Count  Tchernichef 
and  of  Gessner,  busts  of  Goethe  and  Herder,  and  other 
works,  which  gained  for  him  a  very  high  reputation.  His 
bust  of  Goethe  is  esteemed  a  master-piece.  Died  in  1793. 

Triptoleme.     See  TRIPTOLEMUS. 

Trip-tol'e-mus,  [Gr.  T/wnTo^of ;  Fr.  TRIPTOLEME, 
trep'to'lim',]  a  mythical  person,  said  to  have  been  a  son 
of  King  Eleusis  or  of  Celeus,  King  of  Eleusis.  The 
Greeks  regarded  him  as  a  favourite  of  Ceres,  and  as  the 
inventor  of  the  plough  and  of  agriculture.  It  was  fabled 
that  Ceres  gave  him  a  chariot,  (drawn  by  dragons,)  in 
which  he  rode  all  over  the  earth,  distributing  corn,  and 
that  he  founded  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries. 

Triqueti,  de,  deh  tRe'keh-te',  (HENRI,)  BARON,  a 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Conflans  (Loiret)  in  1802,  was 
also  a  painter  in  his  youth.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1839.  Among  his  works  (in  sculpture)  are 
"  The  Death  of  Charles  the  Bold,"  and  "  Petrarch  Read 
ing  to  Laura." 

Trissin,  Le.     See  TRISSINO. 

Trissino,  tRes-see'no,  [Fr.  LE  TRISSIN,  leh  tRe'saN',] 
(GIOVANNI  GIORGIO,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  diplo 
matist,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1478.  He  was  patronized  by 
Leo  X.  and  Clement  VII.,  and  employed  by  them  in 
various  embassies.  He  was  the  author  of  a  critical  work 
entitled  "  La  Poetica,"  and  a  number  of  poems  in  Italian, 
also  several  Latin  compositions.  Died  in  1550.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Sofonisba"  (1524)  was  much  admired.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Italian  who  wrote  in  versi 
sciolti. 

See  CASTELLI,  "VitadiG.  G.  Trissino,"  1753;  GINGUENE,  "  His- 
toire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  TIRABOSCHI, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
by  REV.  HENRY  STEBBING. 

Tristam  (or  Tristao)  da  Cunha.     See  CUNHA,  DA. 

Tris'tan  or  Tris'tram,  the  hero  of  one  of  the  earliest 
traditions  of  Britain.  His  history  has  been  more  or  less 
blended  with  that  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table. 
His  adventures  have  formed  the  subject  of  numerous 
poems  in  the  principal  European  languages,  and  were 
dramatized  by  Hans  Sachs. 

See  "  Sir  Tristram,"  published  by  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT  in  1806. 

Tristan,  tRes-tan',  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
near  Toledo  in  1594,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1586.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "  Moses  Striking  the  Rock."  Died 
about  1645. 

Tristan  L'Hermite,  tRes't6.\'  leR'met/,  (FRANC.OIS,) 
a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  in  La  Marche  in  i6oi,was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  His  tragedy  of 
"Mariamne"  was  very  successful.  Died  in  1655. 

Tristram.     See  TRISTAN. 

Trisula,  tri-soo'la,  or  Tri-shu'la,  [from  the  Sanscrit 
trt,  "three,"  and  shftla  or  stila,  a  "dart"  or  "spear- 
point,"]  the  name  of  Siva's  trident.  (See  SIVA.) 

Tritheim,  tRit'him,  [Lat.  TRITHF/MIUS  ;  Fr.  TRI- 
THEME,  tRe'tim',]  (JOHANNES,)  a  German  writer  and 
Benedictine  monk,  originally  named  HEIDENISERG,  was 
born  near  Treves  in  1462.  He  wrote,  besides  several  his 
torical  and  religious  works,  in  Latin,  "  On  the  Illustrious 
Men  of  Germany,"  ("  De  Luminaribus  Germaniae," 
1495.)  Died  in  1516. 

See  HORN,  "J.  Trithemius  ;  biographische  Skizze,"  1843;  Nic£- 
ROX,  "Memoires;"  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Tritheme  or  Trithemius.     See  TRITHEIM. 

Trithen,  tRee'ten,  (FREDERICK  HENRY,)  a  distin 
guished  Swiss  linguist,  born  in  1820,  removed  at  an 
early  age  to  Odessa,  in  Russia,  where  he  became  versed 
in  the  modern  European  languages,  and  afterwards 
studied  Sanscrit  at  Berlin.  Having  visited  England  in 
1841,  he  was  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  in  1848  was  chosen  professor  of  modern  European 
languages  in  the  Taylor  Institution  at  Oxford.  He  made 
a  number  of  valuable  contributions  to  the  "  Biographical 
Dictionary"  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge.  Died  in  1854. 

Tri'to,  TrI-to'nis,  Trit-o-ge-nei'a,  or  Tri-to'ni-a, 
[Gr.  Tpiru,  Tpiruv'if,  or  TpiTO-ysveia ;  Fr.  TRITOGENIE, 
tRe'to'zha'ne',]  surnames  of  Athena  or  Minerva.  (See 
MINERVA.) 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TRITON 


215 


T ROM  MEN 


Tri'ton,  [Gr.  Tpfrwv,]  the  name  of  a  marine  deity, 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  described  as 
having  a  body  of  which  the  upper  part  was  human  and 
the  lower  part  like  a  fish.  Sometimes  the  term  occurs 
as  a  common  noun  and  in  the  plural  number,  (Tritons.) 
They  are  represented  as  blowing  a  trumpet  consisting; 
of  a  sea-shell,  (concha.) 

Tritonia  and  Tritonis.     See  TRITO. 

Triv'et  or  Tryv'et,  written  also  Trev'etk,  [Lat. 
TRIVE'TUS  or  TREVK'TUS,]  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English 
Dominican  monk,  born  in  Norfolk  about  1258,  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
His  principal  work  is  a  chronicle  of  England,  entitled 
"  Annales  sex  Regum  Angliae,"  which  has  passed  through 
several  editions.  Died  in  1328. 

Trivetus.     See  TRIVET. 

Tri-vik'ra-ma,  (i.e.  the  "three-step-taker,"  or  "he 
who  takes  three  steps,")  [from  the  Sanscrit  frt,  "three," 
and  vfkrama,  "going"  or  "stepping,"]  a  celebrated  sur 
name  of  Vishnu.  (See  VAMANA.) 

Trivulce.     See  TRIVULZI  and  TRIVULZIO. 

Trivulzi,  de',  da  tRe-vool'zee,  [Fr.  TRIVULCE,  tRe'- 
viilss',]  (AGOSTINO,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and  diplomatist. 
Died  in  1548. 

Trivulzi,  de',  or  Trivulce,  (TEODORO,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  about  1456,  was  a  cousin-german  of  the 
great  Trivulzio.  He  entered  the  French  service  in  1495, 
and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1526.  Died  in  1532. 

Trivulzio,  tRe-vool'ze-o,  sur named  THE  GREAT,  [Fr. 
TRIVULCE  LE  GRAND,  tRe'viilss'  leh  gR&x,]  (GiAX  GIA- 
COMO,)  an  Italian  military  commander,  born  in  1441. 
He  served  in  the  army  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples, 
and  in  1495  entered  the  service  of  Charles  VIII.  of 
France.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1499. 
After  the  accession  of  Louis  XII.  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Italian  army,  and  soon  after  de 
feated  the  Milanese  under  Ludovico  Sforza,  (1499,)  and 
again  at  Novara,  (1500.)  In  1513  he  was  compelled  to 
evacuate  Milan  by  Maximilian  Sforza,  and,  having  lost 
the  battle  of  Novara,  in  1514,  the  French  were  again 
driven  from  Italy.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  vic 
tory  of  the  French  at  Marignano  in  1515.  Died  in  1518. 

See  ROSMINI,  "  Istoria  intorno  alle  militari  Impresi  ed  alia  Vita 
di  G.  G.  Trivulzio,"  2  vols.,  1815;  BKANTOME,  "  ViesdesCapitaines 
Francises." 

Trochu,  tRo'shii',  (Louis  JULES,)  an  able  French 
general,  born  about  1820.  He  became  a  captain  in  1843, 
served  as  chief  of  the  general  staff  in  the  Crimean  war, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  in  1854. 
He  displayed  a  superior  genius  for  strategy.  In  1864 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  of  division,  and 
about  1866  was  directed  to  form  a  plan  to  reorganize 
the  army.  On  this  subject  he  wrote  a  very  popular 
work,  entitled  "  L'Armee  Frai^aise,"  (1867.)  In  August, 
1870,  he  was  appointed  major-general  of  the  army  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris.  "  He  is  un 
deniably,"  says  the  "Army  and  Navy  Journal"  for  July, 
1870,  "'the  best  soldier  of  France."  On  the  formation 
of  the  republic,  September  4,  he  became  president  of 
the  executive  committee,  the  highest  office  in  the  pro 
visional  government.  He  commanded  the  forces  which 
defended  Paris  against  the  Germans  during  the  siege  of 
that  capital  in  the  autumn  of  1870.  General  Trochu  is 
stated  to  be  an  adherent  of  the  party  of  Orleans. 

Trogue  Fompee.     See  TROGUS  POMPEIUS. 

Tro'gus  Fom-pe'ius,  [Fr.  TROGUE  POMPEE,  tRog 
pi.v'pa',)  a  Roman  historian  under  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Universal  History  from  the  Time 
of  Ninus,  King  of  Assyria,  down  to  5  A.D.,"  which  is 
lost.  An  abridgment  of  it,  by  Justin,  is  extant. 

Troil,  tRo'il,  [Lat.  TROI'LIUS,]  (Uxo,)  a  Swedish 
savant  and  bishop,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1746.  He 
travelled  in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  In  1784  he 
became  Bishop  of  Linkoping,  and  in  1787  Archbishop 
of  Upsal.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "History  of 
the  Church  and  the  Reformation  in  Sweden,"  (5  vols., 
1790.)  Died  in  1803. 

See  ADLERBETH,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  U.  von  Troil,"  1804; 
GEZELIUS,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Troile.     See  TROILUS. 

Troili,  tRo-ee'lee,  (PLACIDO,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
monk,  born  at  Montalbano  in  1687;  died  in  1757. 


Troilius.     See  TROIL. 

Tro'i-lus,  [Gr.  Tpui/,oc ;  Fr.  TROILE,  tRo'el',]  a  son 
of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  distinguished  for  his  beauty. 
He  was  slain  in  battle  by  Achilles. 

Trolde.     See  TROLL. 

Troll,  [  Icelandic  and  Swedish,  TROLL  ;  Danish, 
TROLDE,  trol'deh,]  in  Northern  mythology,  a  being  who 
was  supposed  to  possess  magical  or  supernatural 
powers,  and  to  dwell  in  the  interior  of  hills  and  moun 
tains.  The  term  appears  to  be  used  with  some  loose 
ness  of  application  ;  it  is  often  applied  to  the  Dwarfs, 
(Dwergar,)  who  were  generally  believed  to  possess  rare 
skill  or  cunning  in  working  in  metals,  stone,  etc.,- and  to 
be  endowed  with  magic  powers.  (See  ELVES.)  One 
class  of  Trolls,  dwelling  in  Norway,  were  called  Thusser 
or  Thurser,  (doubtless  of  the  same  etymology  as  the 
Norse  Thursar,  signifying  "giants.")  They  are  de 
scribed  not  as  dwarfs,  but  as  large  as  men,  well  formed, 
and  of  a  pale-blue  colour.  It  is  a  popular  belief  in  the 
North  that  when  the  rebellious  angels  were  cast  out  of 
heaven,  some  fell  into  hell,  while  others,  who  had  not 
sinned  so  deeply,  were  scattered  through  the  air,  under 
the  earth,  and  in  the  waters,  and  that  these  became 
elves,  dwarfs,  or  trolls. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  i  and  2,  also  56 
and  57. 

Trolle,  tRol'leh,  (GUSTAVUS,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  was 
a  partisan  of  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  on  whose  head 
he  placed  the  crown  of  Sweden  in  1510  or  1520.  He  was 
Archbishop  of  Upsal.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1535. 

See  GEIJER,  "  Histoire  de  Suede." 

Trolle,  tRol'leh,  (HERLUF,)  a  Danish  admiral,  born 
in  1516.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Swedes  in  1564, 
but  was  afterwards  mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement 
with  the  Swedish  admiral  Horn,  (1565.) 

See  BOESEN,  "  H.  Trolle's  Levnet,"  1780. 

Trolley,  tRo'lk',  (FRANQOIS  ALFRED,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Nederzwallen  in  1808.  He  published  a  "  Treat 
ise  on  the  Administrative  Hierarchy,"  (5  vols.,  1844-54.) 

Trol'lope,  (ANTHONY,)  an  English  novelist,  a  son  of 
Frances  Trollope,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1815. 
He  has  published  a  number  of  popular  novels,  among 
which  are  "The  Warden,"  (1855,)  "Doctor  Thome,"  (3 
vols.,  1858,)  "Framley  Parsonage,"  (1861,)  "The  Helton 
Estate,"  (3  vols.,  1864,)  and  "  Phineas  Finn,  the  Irish 
Member,"  (1869;)  also  a  descriptive  work,  entitled 
"  North  America,"  (1862.) 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1862 ;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  May,  1864;  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Au 
thors." 

Trollope,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1817,  became  rector  of  Leasingham  in  1843,  and  Arch 
deacon  of  Stow  in  1867.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Labyrinths,  Ancient  and  Modern." 

Trollope,  (FRANCES,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  1790.  Having  spent  three  years  in  the  United 
States,  she  published,  in  1832,  "Domestic  Life  of  the 
Americans."  This  was  followed  in  rapid  succession  by 
a  great  number  of  tales,  sketches,  and  novels,  among 
which  may  be  named  "  Belgium  and  Western  Germany," 
(1833,)  "  Paris  and  the  Parisians  in  1835,"  (1836,)  "The 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Jonathan  Jefferson  Whitlaw," 
etc.,  (1836,)  ''Vienna  and  the  Austrians,"  etc.,  (1838,) 
"  The  Vicar  of  Wrexhill,"  and  "  The  Widow  Barnaby," 
(1839.)  She  was  married  in  1809  to  Anthony  Trollope, 
a  barrister.  Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1832;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  December,  1839;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May, 

1832,  and    April,  1838;  "North   American    Review"  for  January, 

1833,  (by  EDWARD  EVERETT;)  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Trollope,  (THOMAS  ADOLPHUS,)  an  English  writer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1810.  He  resided 
many  years  at  Florence.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Summer  in  Brittany,"  (1840.)  a  "Decade  of 
Italian  Women,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Filippo  Strozzi." 

Trombelli,  tRom-bel'lee,  (GiAN  CRISOSTOMO,;)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena 
in  1697  ;  died  at  Bologna  in  1784. 

Trommen,  van  der,  vtn  der  tRom'men,  [Lat.  TROM'- 
MIUS,]  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Groningen  in  1633. 
He  preached  at  Groningen  about  forty-eight  years.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TROMMIUS 


2152 


TROUP 


published  a  "  Concordance  of  the  Bible"  in  the  Flemish 
language,  (1685-92.)  Died  in  1719. 

Trommius.     See  TROMMEN. 

Trommsdorff,  tRoms'doRf,  (JOHANN  BARTHOLO- 
MAUS,)  a  German  chemist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1770,  be 
came  professor  of  chemistry  and  physics  in  the  univer 
sity  of  his  native  city.  He  published  several  scientific 
works.  Died  in  1837. 

Tromp,  tRomp,  (MARTEN  Harpertzooii — hau'pe'Rt- 
zon',)  a  celebrated  naval  commander,  born  at  Briel,  in 
Holland,  in  1597.  At  an  early  age  he  accompanied  Ad 
miral  Peter  Heijn  in  his  engagements  with  the  Spaniards 
off  Flanders,  and  in  1639  was  made  Admiral  of  Holland. 
In  October  of  the  same  year  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  fleet  under  Ocquendo. 
For  this  action  he  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  France. 
In  1652  Admiral  Tromp,  having  been  defeated  by  the 
English  under  Blake,  was  for  a  time  superseded  by  De 
Ruyter.  He  was  soon  after  reinstated,  and  in  November, 
1652,  again  encountered  Blake,  taking  two  of  his  ships 
and  sinking  several  others.  In  August,  1653,  the  last 
engagement  took  place  between  the  English  and  Dutch 
admirals,  in  which  the  latter  was  mortally  wounded. 
Tromp  was  one  of  the  ablest  seamen  of  his  time,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  victor  in  more  than  thirty  battles. 

See  RICHER,  "Vie  de  1'Amiral  Tromp."  1784;  OOSTKAMP, 
"  Het  Leven  en  de  Daden  van  M.  H.  Troinp,"  1825. 

Tromp,  van,  vtn  tRomp,  (CoRNEi.is,)  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1629.  He  distin 
guished  himself  in  several  engagements  with  the  pirates 
of  the  Mediterranean,  but  in  1665  he  was  defeated  by 
the  English  at  Solebay  under  the  Duke  of  York.  In 
1666,  in  conjunction  with  De  Ruyter,  he  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English,  after  a  contest  of  four  successive  days. 
The  King  of  Denmark  subsequently  bestowed  on  him 
the  title  of  count,  and  other  distinctions,  as  a  reward 
for  services  rendered  him  in  his  war  with  Sweden. 
After  the  death  of  De  Ruyter,  Van  Tromp  succeeded 
him  as  lieutenant-admiral-general  of  the  United  Prov 
inces.  Died  in  1691. 

See  "Vie  de  C.  Tromp  Amiral  de  Hollande,"  the  Hague,  1694. 

Tronchet,  tR6N'shi',  (FRANCOIS  DENIS,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  was  elected  to  the 
States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  member  of  the  consti 
tutional  party.  In  December,  1792,  he  was  employed 
by  Louis  XVI.  to  defend  him  in  his  trial.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Elders  from  1795  to  1799, 
became  president  of  the  court  of  cassation  about  1800, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  redaction  of  the  Code 
Napoleon.  Died  in  1806. 

See  LAVALLEH,  "Notice  historique  sur  F.  D.  Tronchet,"  1806; 
ANDRK  DUHIN,  "Tronchet,  Ferey,  Poirier,"  1810;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Tronchin,  tRi.N'shaN',  (JEAN  ROBERT,)  a  Swiss  jurist 
of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1710.  lie 
became  procureur-general.  Lord  Mansfield  once  said, 
"In  our  country  he  [Tronchin]  would  be  chancellor." 
He  defended  the  action  of  the  Swiss  government  in  re 
lation  to  Rousseau's  "  Emile,"  by  "  Letters  written  from 
the  Country,"  ("Lettres  ecrites  de  la  Campagne,"  1763.) 
Died  in  1793. 

See  SENEBIER,  "Histoire  litteVaire  de  Geneve;"  HAAG,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Tronchin,  (THEODORE,)  a  Genevese  theologian,  born 
in  1582,  was  professor  and  rector  in  the  Academy  of  his 
native  city.  He  was  an  earnest  opponent  of  the  doc 
trines  of  Arminius.  Died  in  1657. 

Trouchin,  (THEODORE,)  an  eminent  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1709.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  in 
England,  and  subsequently  under  Boerhaave  at  Leyden. 
He  practised  at  Amsterdam  nearly  twenty  years,  became 
honorary  professor  of  medicine  at  Geneva  in  1750,  and 
soon  acquired  a  high  reputation,  particularly  for  his 
efforts  to  promote  the  practice  of  inoculation.  He  was 
appointed  in  1765  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau. 

(  See  VOLTAIRE,  "  Correspondance  geneVale;"  CONDORCET, 
"  Eloges  ;"  "  Biographic  Medicale  ;"  HAAG,  "  La  France  protes 
tante." 

Tronson,  IRON'SON',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1622.  He  published,  besides 


other  works,  "Forma  Cleri,"  (3  vols.,  1669.)  Died  in 
1700. 

Tronsondu  Coudray,  tR6N/soN'dii  koo'dRi',(GuiL- 
LAUME  AI.EXANDRE,)  a  French  advocate  and  royalist, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1750.  He  volunteered  his  services 
as  counsel  of  Louis  XVI.  in  December,  1792  ;  but  he 
was  not  permitted  to  speak  in  that  case.  lie  made  a 
speech  in  defence  of  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  in 
1793.  As  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Elders,  he  op 
posed  the  Directory  in  1797,  and  was  transported  to 
Guiana,  where  he  died  in  1798. 

See  BLONDEAU,  "  Notice  sur  Tronson  du  Coudray,"  1825  ;  "  Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Troost,  tR5st,  (CORNELIS,)  an  able  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1697.  He  painted  portraits,  familiar 
scenes,  conversations,  etc.  His  drawings  in  colours  are 
highly  commended.  Died  in  1750. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Troost,  (GERARD,)  a  distinguished  chemist  and  geol 
ogist,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc,  Holland,  in  1776,  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  and  was  appointed  in  1828  pro 
fessor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  at  Nash 
ville,  Tennessee.  He  became  State  geologist  in  1831. 
Died  in  1850. 

Tio-pho'm-us,  [Gr.  Tpo^wrwc,]  a  celebrated  archi 
tect,  called  a  son  of  Erginus,  King  of  Orchomenos,  (or, 
according  to  some,  of  Apollo.)  He  and  his  brother 
Agamedes  built  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  the 
treasury  of  King  Ilyrieus.  His  name  was  connected 
with  a  cave  and  oracle  at  Lebadea,  in  Boeotia,  which  is 
described  by  Pausanias.  A  visit  to  this  cave  was  sup 
posed  to  render  people  serious  or  melancholy. 

See  ADUISON'S  paper,  entitled  "The  Cave  of  Trophomus,"  in 
the  "Spectator,"  No.  599. 

Troplong,  tRo'liN',  (RAYMOND  THEODORE,)  a  French 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Saint-Gaudens  in  1795. 
He  became  in  1835  a  counsellor  in  the  court  of  cassa 
tion  in  Paris,  first  president  of  the  court  of  appeal  in 
1848,  first  president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1852, 
and  first  president  of  the  senate  in  1854.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sci 
ences  in  1840.  His  chief  work  is  "The  Civil  Law  Ex 
pounded,"  ("  Le  Droit  civil  explique,"  27  vols.  8vo, 
1834-56.)  Died  in  February,  1869. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tros,  [Gr.  Tpwf,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Phrygia,  was  a 
grandson  of  Dardanus,  and  a  son  of  Erichthonius.  He 
was  the  father  of  Ilus,  Asaracus,  and  Ganymedes,  (Gany 
mede.)  The  Trojans  derived  their  name  from  him. 

Troschel,  tRosh/el,  (JoHANN,)  a  skilful  German  en 
graver,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1592.  lie  worked  at 
Rome.  Died  in  1633. 

Trot'ter,  (THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Roxburghshire,  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
and  became  in  1793  physician  to  the  Royal  Hospital 
at  Portsmouth.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Review  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  British 
Navy,"  (1790,)  "Medical  and  Chemical  Essays,"  (1795,) 
and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Diseases  of  Seamen,"  (3  vols., 
1797-1803.)  Died  in  1832. 

Trotti,  tRot'tee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  IL  MALOSSO,  was  born  at  Cremona 
in  1555,  and  was  a  pupil  of  B.  Campi.  The  graceful 
ness  of  his  heads  is  praised  by  several  critics.  Died 
after  1607. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Troughton,  trow'ton,  ?  (EDWARD,)  F.R.S.,  an  ex 
cellent  English  mechanician  and  maker  of  astronomical 
instruments,  was  born  in  Cumberland  in  1753.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London,  made  telescopes  for  seve 
ral  observatories,  and  invented  improvements  in  astro 
nomical  instruments,  in  the  fabrication  of  which  he  is 
said  to  have  surpassed  all  of  his  contemporaries.  Died 
in  1835. 

Troup,  troop,  (GEORGE  M.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  on  the  Tombigbee  River  in  1780.  He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  Congress  for  Georgia  from  1807  to  1815,  was  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1816  to  1818,  and 
Governor  of  Georgia  from  1823  to  1827.  He  also  repre 
sented  Georgia  in  the  Federal  Senate  from  1829  to  1834. 
He  was  a  champion  of  State  sovereignty.  Died  in  1856. 


,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


TROUSSEAU 


2153 


TRUMBULL 


Trousseau,  tRoo'sS',  (ARMAND,)  an  eminent  French 
physician,  born  at  Tours  in  1801.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "Treatise  on  Therapeutics  and 
Materia  Medica,"  ("Traite  de  Therapeutique  et  de  Ma- 
tiere  medicale,"  3  vols.,  1836-39.)  He  became  professor 
of  therapeutics  at  Paris  in  1839.  He  had  a  high  repu 
tation  as  a  professor  and  a  writer.  Died  in  June,  1867. 

See  SACHAILE,  "  Medecins  de  Paris;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Trouvaiii,  tRoo'vax',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  G.  Edelinck. 
Died  in  1708. 

Trouve  -  Chauvel,  tRoo'va'  sho'veY,  (ARISTE,)  a 
French  republican  minister  of  state,  born  at  Suze  (Sai  the) 
in  1805.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly 
in  1848,  and  was  minister  of  finance  from  October  to 
December  of  that  year. 

Trow'bridge,  (EDMUND,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1709,  became 
attorney-general  of  the  State  in  1749,  and  was  afterwards 
justice  of  the  supreme  court.  Died  in  1793. 

Trowbridge,  (JOHN  TOWNSEND,)  an  American  novel 
ist,  born  in  Monroe  county,  New  York,  in  1827.  He 
contributed  to  the  '•  Atlantic  Monthly."  Among  his 
works  are  "Neighbour  Jackwood,"  (i'857,)  "The  Old 
Battle -Ground,"  (1859.)  "The  Vagabonds,"  (1863,) 
"Cudjo's  Cave,"  (1864,)  "Lucy  Arlyn,"  (1866,)  and 
"Coupon  Bonds,"  (1866.) 

Trow'bridge  or  Troubridge,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  London,  served  with  great 
distinction  under  Lord  Howe,  and,  as  commander  of 
the  Culloden,  was  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Nelson  in 
the  Mediterranean  in  1798.  He  served  at  the  battle 
of  the  Nile.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1799,  and  an 
admiral  in  1804.  As  commander  of  the  Blenheim,  he 
sailed  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1807,  and  is  sup 
posed  to  have  perished  by  shipwreck  off  the  coast  of 
Madagascar. 

Trowbridge,  (Sir  THOMAS  SAINT  VINCENT  HOPE 
COCHKANE,)  an  English  officer,  a  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1817.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Crimean  war,  and  lost  a  leg  at  Inkerman,  (1854.)  Died 
in  1867. 

Troxler,  tRoks'ler,  (!GNAZ  PAUL  VITAL,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne  in  1780,  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Bale  in  1830.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  philosophical  works. 

Troy,  de,  deh  titwa,  (FR.\xgois,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1645,  became  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris.  He  painted  portraits 
with  success,  and  some  historical  pieces.  Died  in  1730. 

Troy,  de,  (JEAN  FRANQOIS,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1676.  He  was  appointed  by  Louis 
XIV.  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  about 
1738.  Died  in  1752. 

Troya,  tRo'ya,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Naples  in  1785.  He  was  exiled  in  1823  for  his  liberal 
ism,  lie  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  Apparato  preliminale  alia  Storia 
dal  niedio  Evo,"  1839  et  seq.)  Died  in  1858. 

Troyen,  van,  vSn  tRoi'en,  (ROMBOUT,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1600.  He  painted  ruins 
and  other  objects  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome.  Died  in  1650. 

Troyon,  tRwa'ydN',  (CONSTANT,)  an  eminent  French 
painter  of  animals  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Sevres 
in  1813.  He  gained  medals  of  the  first  class  in  1846 
and  1848.  His  works  are  admired  for  variety  of  effects, 
fidelity  to  nature,  and  brilliant  colouring.  He  painted 
numerous  pictures  of  French  scenery.  Died  in  1865. 

Trublet,  tuii'bli',  (NICOLAS  CHARLES  JOSEPH,) 
ABBE,  a  French  essayist,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1697. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Literary  and 
Moral  Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1735.)  D'Alembert  said  this 
might  be  made  an  excellent  book  by  erasing  some  parts 
of  it.  Trublet  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1761.  Died  in  1770. 

See  D'ALEMBERT,  "  Histoire  de  1' Academic  Francaise." 

Truchet,  tRii'shi',  (JEAN,)  a  French  Carmelite  monk, 
sometimes  called  FATHER  SEBASTIAN,  born  at  Lyons 
in  167,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  mathe 


matics  and  mechanics.  He  invented  several  useful 
machines.  Died  in  1729. 

Truchsess,  (GEBHARD.)     See  GEBHAKD. 

Trudaine  de  Moutigny,  tRu'din'  deh  m6N'ten'ye', 
(JEAN  CHARLES  PHILIBERT,)  a  French  financier,  born 
at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1733  '•>  died  in  1777. 

Trueba  y  Cosio,  de,  di  tRoo-a/B§.  e  ko'se-o,  (TELES- 
FORO,)  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Santander,  in 
Spain,  in  1805,  was  educated  in  England,  where  he  pub 
lished  a  number  of  romances,  dramas,  and  historical 
works,  in  English.  Among  these  may  be  named  "The 
Castilian,"  "  Salvador  the  Guerrilla,"  and  a  farce  entitled 
"  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pringle."  Died  in  1835. 

Truguet,  tkii'gi',  (LAURENT  JEAN  FRANC.OIS,)  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Toulon  in  1752.  He  was  min 
ister  of  marine  from  November,  1795,10  July,  1797.  In 
1802  he  took  command  of  the  combined  fleets  of  France 
and  Spain.  He  was  disgraced  in  1804,  on  suspicion  of 
his  being  averse  to  Napoleon's  elevation  to  the  imperial 
power.  Died  in  1839. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tru'man,  (Rev.  JOSEPH,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1631,  was  the  author  of  several  theological  works,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "  A  Discourse  of  Natural  and  Moral 
Impotency,"  obtained  great  popularity.  He  became  a 
nonconformist,  and  was  deprived  of  his  living  in  1662. 
Died  in  1671. 

Trumball.     See  TRUMBULL,  (Sir  WILLIAM.) 

Trum'bull,  (BENJAMIN,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre 
gational  divine  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Hebron, 
Connecticut,  in  1735.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  Connecticut,"  (2  vols.,  1797-1818,)  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  (1810,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1820. 

Trumbull,  (JOHN,)  an  American  satirical  poet  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Waterbury,  Connecticut,  on  the  24th  of 
April,  1750.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1767, 
after  which  he  was  a  tutor  in  that  institution  for  several 
years.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Dwight.  In 
1772  he  produced  "The  Progress  of  Dulness,"  a  poem. 
Having  studied  law  under  John  Adams,  at  Boston,  he 
began  to  practise  at  New  Haven.  He  became  a  dis 
tinguished  and  popular  lawyer,  and  in  1781  settled  at 
Hartford.  In  1782  he  published  "  McFingal,"  a  satirical 
poem,  which  passed  through  thirty  editions  and  was 
serviceable  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  "  It  is  much  the 
best  imitation  of  the  great  satire  of  Butler,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "that  has  been  written."  He  was  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  errors  (or  superior  court)  from 
1808  to  1819.  Died  at  Detroit  in  May,  1831. 

See  R.  W.  GRISWOLD,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  41; 
DUYCKIXCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Trumbull,  (JoHN,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  at  Leba 
non,  Connecticut,  in  1756.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Revolution,  he  entered  the  army,  and  was  appointed  in 
1775  aide-de-camp  to  Washington.  In  1780  he  visited 
London,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  West.  Returning 
to  America,  he  produced,  in  1796,  his  "  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,"  a  master-piece  of  its  kind,  which  was  followed  by 
the  "Death  of  Montgomery,"  and  "  Sortie  of  the  Garri 
son  from  Gibraltar."  His  most  important  works  are  the 
pictures  in  the  rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "The  Surrender  of  Corn- 
wallis,"  the  "  Resignation  of  General  Washington  at 
Annapolis,"  "Declaration  of  Independence,"  and  the 
"Surrender  of  Burgoyne."  He  presented  fifty-five  of 
his  works  to  Yale  College.  Died  in  1843. 

Sec  his  "Autobiography." 

Trumbull,  (JONATHAN,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1710,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1769, 
continuing  in  that  office  fourteen  years.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Washington  for  his  talents  and  integrity. 
Died  in  1785. 

Trumbull,  (JONATHAN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1740.  On  the  break 
ing  out  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  appointed 
paymaster  to  the  Northern  department  of  the  army,  and 
was  afterwards  secretary  and  first  aide-de-camp  to  Wash 
ington.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1 789,  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1791  to  1793,  and 
became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1795.  He 


ii  KJ^/,   w<i»  uisiuiguisncu   ioi  nis  Kiiuwicugc  ui   manic-     uecame   a   oenacor  01    me    uiiucu  aiaies    in    lyy>      xic 
€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ($^*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TRUMBULL 


2154 


TUCKER 


enjoyed  the  friendship  and  confidence  of  General  Wash 
ington.  In  1 798  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Connecticut. 
He  held  the  office  of  Governor  eleven  years.  Died  in 
1809. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 

Trumbull,  (LYMAN,)  an  American  judge  and  Senator, 
born  at  Colchester,  Connecticut,  in  1813.  He  removed 
to  Illinois  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State  in  1848.  Having  joined  the  Repub 
lican  party,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  Illinois  in  1854,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1860  and  in  1866.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  the  judiciary  for  many  years. 

Trum'bull  or  Trttm'ball,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  Eng 
lish  statesman,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1636.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  and  was  successively  appointed  to  several 
important  offices  under  the  government.  He  was  envoy- 
extraordinary  to  France  in  1685,  and  after  the  accession 
of  Tames  II.  was  ambassador  to  Constantinople.  Having 
returned  to  England  in  1691,  he  was  appointed  in  1695 
secretary  of  state.  He  died  in  1716.  He  was  distin 
guished  for  his  learning  and  his  literary  tastes,  and  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Pope  and  Dryden. 

See  BURNET,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times." 

Tru'ro,  (THOMAS  WILDE,)  LORD,  an  English  Whig 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  1782.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Newark  in  1831,  and  in  1841  represented 
Worcester,  being  made  attorney-general  the  same  year. 
He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  in  1846,  and  lord  high  chancellor  in  1850.  He  re 
signed  in  February,  1852.  Died  in  1855. 

Trus'ler,  (JoiiN,)  an  English  bookseller  and  compiler, 
born  in  London  in  1735;  died  in  1820. 

Trutzschler,  von,  fon  tRoots'shler,  (FRIEDRICH 
KARL  ADOLF,)  a  German  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born 
near  Weida  in  1751  ;  died  in  1831. 

Trux'ton  or  Triix'tun,  (THOMAS,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1755.  As  captain  of 
a  privateer,  he  took  several  valuable  prizes  during  the 
Revolution.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  navy 
in  1795,  with  the  command  of  the  frigate  Constellation, 
thirty-eight  guns,  and  captured  in  February,  1799,  the 
French  frigate  L'Insurgente.  He  received  from  Congress 
a  gold  medal  for  his  victory  over  the  French  frigate  La 
Vengeance,  fifty-four  guns,  February,  1800.  Died  in  1822. 

Truxtun.     See  TUUXTON. 

Tryphiodore.     See  TRYPHIODORUS. 

Tryph-i-o-do'i  us,  |Gr.  TpuQiMupoc ;  Fr.  TRYPHIO 
DORE,  tRe'fe'o'doR',]  a  Greek  poet  and  grammarian,  born 
in  Egypt  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  or  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  several  editions  of  which  have 
been  published. 

Try'phon,  [Gr.  Tpi'<j>uv,]  an  eminent  engraver  of 
gems,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  Among 
his  extant  works  is  a  gem  representing  the  reconciliation 
of  Eros  and  Psyche. 

Try'phon,  (Dlor/OTUS,)  King  of  Syria,  usurped 
the  throne  in  142  B.C.,  after  he  had  murdered  Antiochus, 
the  infant  son  of  Alexander  Balas.  He  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death  by  Antiochus  Sidetes  in  139  B.C. 

Tryph-o-m'iius,  (CLAUDIUS,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  under  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  legal  works,  fragments  of  which 
are  extant. 

Tscharner,  tshaR'ner,  QOHANN  BAPTIST,)  a  Swiss 
statesman,  born  in  1751  ;  died  in  1835. 

Tscherning,  tshgR'ning,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Bunzlau  in  161 1,  became  professor  of  poetry 
at  Rostock.  Died  in  1659. 

Tscherning,  (ANTON  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Danish  states 
man,  born  at  Frederiksvark  in  1795.  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  war  in  1848,  and  in  1854  a  member  of  the 
imperial  council. 

Tschirner,  (HEINRICH  GOTTLIEB.)  See  TZSCHIRNER. 

Tschirnhausen,  von,  fon  tsheeRn'hSw'zen,  (£HREN- 
FRIED  WALTER,)  an  eminent  German  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  near  Gorlitz,  in  Upper  Lusatia, 
in  1651.  He  travelled  in  various  countries  of  Europe, 
and  after  his  return  established  in  Saxony  several  man 
ufactories  of  glass.  He  made  burning  lenses  and 


mirrors  of  enormous  size.  One  of  these  was  three  feet 
in  diameter,  with  a  focal  distance  of  twelve  feet.  About 
1867  he  published  a  philosophical  work  called  "Medicine 
of  the  Mind,"  ("Medicina  Mentis.")  Died  in  1708. 

See  "  Leben  Tschirnhausens,"  1709;  FONTHNELLE,  "  FJoges ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene'rale." 

Tschudi,  tshoo'dee,  [Lat.  TSCHU'DIUS,]  (/EGIDIUS,) 
one  of  the  earliest  Swiss  historians,  was  born  at  Glarus 
in  1505.  He  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government,  and  in  1559  was  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  Vienna.  His  voluminous  works  are  chiefly  in  manu 
script.  The  most  important  of  those  published  is 
his  "Chronicle  of  Switzerland  from  1000  A.I),  to  1470." 
(in  German,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  authority  in 
Swiss  history.  Died  in  1572. 

See  FUCHS,  "  JE.  Tschudi's  Leben  und  Schriften,"  2  vols.,  1805; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tschudi,  von,  von  tshoo'dee,  QOHANN  JAKOB,)  a 
Swiss  naturalist,  of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Glarus  in  1818.  He  visited  Peru  in  1838,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "  Sketches  of  Travel  in  Peru," 
"  Antiquities  of  Peru,"  prepared  in  conjunction  with  Don 
Mariano  de  Rivera,  and  other  works. 

Tschudius.     See  TSCHUDI,  (/EGIDIUS.) 

Tu'bal-Cain,  a  son  of  Lamech,  is  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  the  art  of  working  in  metals. 

See  Genesis  iv.  22. 

Tu'be-ro,  (QuiNTUS,)  a  Roman  orator  and  jurist,  and 
friend  of  Cicero.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  senate  and 
of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war. 

Tubi,  too'bee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  [Fr.  TUBY  I.E 
ROMAIX,  tii'be'  leh  ro'maN',]  a  sculptor,  born  at  Rome 
in  1635.  HG  worked  at  Versailles  and  Paris.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1700. 

Tuby.     See  TUBI. 

Tuch,  tooK,  (JoHANN  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in 
1806.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Leipsic  about  1842.  He  published  a  "Com 
mentary  on  Genesis,"  (1838,)  which  is  commended. 

Tuck'er,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  metaphysician,  born 
in  London  in  1705,  was  a  son  of  a  merchant,  who  left 
him  a  large  fortune.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  pur 
chased  Betchworth  Castle,  near  Dorking,  in  1727,  and 
married  a  Miss  Barker  in  1736.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "The  Light  of  Nature  Pursued,"  by  Edward 
Search,  (4  vols.,  1765.)  "He  was  naturally  endowed," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "  not,  indeed,  with  more  than 
ordinary  acuteness  or  sensibility,  nor  with  a  high  degree 
of  reach  and  range  of  mind,  but  with  a  singular  capacity 
for  careful  observation  and  original  reflection,  and  with 
a  fancy  perhaps  unmatched  in  producing  various  and 
happy  illustration.  It  is  in  mixed,  not  in  pure,  philoso 
phy,  that  his  superiority  consists.  In  the  part  of  his 
work  which  relates  to  the  intellect,  he  has  adopted  much 
from  Hartley."  (See  "View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy.")  "  I  have  found  in  this  writer,"  says  Paley, 
"more  original  thinking  and  observation  upon  the  seve 
ral  subjects  that  he  has  taken  in  hand  than  in  any  other, 
not  to  say  than  in  all  others  put  together."  (Preface  to 
"Moral  and  Political  Philosophy.")  Died  in  1774. 

See  SIR  HENRY  MILDMAV,  notice  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the 
"  Liyht  of  Nature  Pursued,"  7  vols.,  1852. 

Tuck'er,  (BEVERLY,)  son  of  Saint  George  Tucker, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Matoax,  Virginia,  in  1784. 
He  became  in  1834  professor  of  law  in  William  and 
Mary  College.  He  published  legal  works  and  several 
novels,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Partisan  Leader," 
dated  in  1837,  foretold  the  secession  of  the  Southern 
States,  which  took  place  in  1861.  Died  in  1851. 

Tucker,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Vir 
ginia  in  1775.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1819, 
1821,  and  1823,  and  became  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1825.  He  published  a  "  Life 
of  Thomas  Jefferson"  and  a  "  Political  History  of  the 
United  States."  Died  in  1861. 

Tucker,  (HENRY  SAINT  GEORGE,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1779,  was  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Virginia.  He  published  "Lectures  on 
Natural  Law  and  Government,"  and  other  legal  works, 
which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1848. 


a, e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met:  not;  good;  moon; 


TUCKER 


2155 


TULLUS 


Tucker,  (JosiAH,)  an  English  political  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  in  Carmarthenshire  in  1711,  was  edu 
cated  at  Oxford.  He  became  curate  of  Saint  Stephen's, 
Bristol,  and  obtained  the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Bishop  Butler,  who  appointed  him  rector  of  Saint  Ste 
phen's  iii  1749.  In  1758  he  became  Dean  of  Gloucester. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  commerce,  taxes,  monop 
olies,  etc.,  among  which  we  notice  "  Reflections  on  the 
Present  Matters  in  Dispute  between  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland, ",(1785.)  In  this  work  he  advocated  greater  free 
dom  of  trade.  He  also  published  a  "  Treatise  concerning 
Civil  Government,"  (1781.)  Died  in  1799. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
October  and  November,  1781. 

Tucker,  (LUTHER,)  an  American  journalist,  born  at 
Brandon,  Vermont,  in  1802.  He  became  a  printer,  and 
in  1826  established  at  Rochester,  in  New  York,  "The 
Rochester  Daily  Advertiser,"  the  first  daily  paper  west 
of  Albany.  In  January,  1831,  he  began  to  issue,  at  Roch 
ester,  "The  Genesee  Farmer,"  which  was  afterwards  con 
solidated  with  "The  Albany  Cultivator."  In  1852  he  com 
menced  the  publication  of  "The  Country  Gentleman, "an 
agricultural  paper  of  high  character.  To  Mr.  Tucker 
belongs  the  credit  of  having  been  the  pioneer  in  the  suc 
cessful  introduction  of  agricultural  periodical  literature 
among  the  masses  of  the  people  in  the  United  States. 

Tucker,  (SAINT  GEORGE,)  an  American  jurist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  on  the  island  of  Bermuda  in 
1752.  Having  settled  in  Virginia,  he  married  in  1778 
Mrs.  Randolph,  mother  of  the  celebrated  John  Ran 
dolph.  He  rose  through  several  offices  to  be  judge  of 
the  district  court  of  the  United  States.  He  published 
numerous  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died  in  1827. 

Tucker,  (SAMUKL,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  captain 
in  the  navy  by  General  Washington,  and  commanded 
with  success  in  several  actions.  Died  in  1833. 

Tuck'er-man,  (HENRY  THEODORE,)  an  American 
critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1813. 
Having  visited  Italy,  he  published  in  1835  "The  Italian 
Sketch-Book, "  which  was  followed  by  "  Sicily,  a  Pilgrim 
age,"  (1839,)  "  Thoughts  on  the  Poets,"  (1846,  translated 
into  German,)  "  Artist  Life,  or  Sketches  of  American 
Painters,''  (1847,)  "  Characteristics  of  Literature,"  (1849,) 
"Memorial  of  Horatio  Greenough,"  (1853,)  "  Biographi 
cal  Essays,"  (1857,)  "Book  of  the  Artists,"  (1867,)  and 
a  number  of  poems.  Mr.  Tuckerman  occupies  a  high 
rank  among  the  art  critics  of  America. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Tuckerman,  (JOSEPH,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1778.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Seamen's  Friend  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions. 
He  afterwards  assisted  in  organizing  the  Benevolent 
Fraternity  of  Churches,  for  the  support  of  a  city  mission 
called  the  Ministry  at  Large,  of  which  he  became  a  min 
ister.  Died  in  1840. 

See  "Discourse  on  the  Life,  etc.  of  Rev.  Joseph  Tuckerman," 
by  W.  E.  CHANNING. 

Tuck'ey,  (JAMES  HINGSTON,)  an  Irish  writer  and 
naval  officer,  born  in  the  county  of  Cork  in  1778,  was 
employed  in  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  published  a  work  entitled  "Maritime  Geog 
raphy."  Died  in  1816. 

Tuck'ney,  (ANTHONY,)  a  learned  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1599.  He  preached 
at  Boston  and  in  London.  Died  in  1670.  His  Sermons 
were  published  about  1676. 

Tudela.     See  BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA. 

Tu-di-ta'nus,  (P.  SEMPRONIUS,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  served  as  tribune  at  Cannae  in  216  B.C.,  became 
praetor  in  213,  and  censor  in  209.  Having  been  elected 
consul  for  the  year  204,  he  obtained  Bruttii  as  his  prov 
ince,  with  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Hannibal, 
whom  he  defeated. 

Tu'dpr,  (OwEN,)  a  Welsh  gentleman,  who  married 
Catherine  of  France  after  the  death  of  her  first  husband, 
Henry  V.  of  England.  He  supported  the  Lancastrian 
party  in  the  war  of  the  Roses.  Died  in  1461.  He  had 
a  son,  EDMOND  TUDOR,  who  was  created  Earl  of  Rich 


mond  about  1452  and  died  in  1456.  Henry,  the  son  of 
Eclmond,  became  King  of  England. 

Tu'dpr,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  litterateur,  born  at 
Boston  in  1779,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Athe 
naeum  in  that  city.  He  became  in  1815  the  first  editor 
of  the  "  North  American  Review."  Besides  his  numerous 
contributions  to  this  journal,  he  published  "Letters  on 
the  Eastern  States,"  (1819,)  a  "Life  of  James  Otis," 
(1823,)  and  a  work  entitled  "Gebel-Teir."  He  was 
appointed  in  1823  United  States  consul  at  Lima.  Died 
in  1830. 

Tudor  Family,  the  name  of  a  royal  family  of  Eng 
land,  which  exercised  power  during  a  period  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years,  (1485-1605.)  Henry  VII. 
was  the  first  and  Queen  Elizabeth  the  last  monarch  of 
this  house.  The  father  of  Henry  VII.  was  Edinond 
Tudor,  and  his  mother  was  the  heiress  of  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster. 

Tud'way,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  musician  and  com 
poser,  lived  about  1670-1700,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Dr. 
Blow.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Cam 
bridge,  and  organist  to  Queen  Anne.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Lord  Oxford,  whom  he  assisted  in  forming  his  valu 
able  collection  of  books. 

Tuerlinckx,  tii'er-links,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Belgian  statuary, 
born  at  Malines  in  1820. 

Tuet,  tii'k',  (JEAN  CHARLES  FRANQOIS,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Ham  in  1742;  died  in  1797. 

Tugrol.     See  TOGRUL. 

Tulasne,  tii'lan',  (Louis  RENE,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Azay-le-Rideau  in  1815.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Studies  on  Vegetable  Embryogeny," 
(1849,)  and  "  Fungi  hypogsei,"  (1851.)  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1854. 

Tulden.     See  THULDEN. 

Tull,  (JETHRO,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born  in  Ox 
fordshire  about  1680,  was  the  originator  of  what  is  called 
the  "horse-hoeing  system"  of  husbandry.  He  published 
in  1731  a  number  of  essays  on  this  subject,  which  were 
subsequently  edited  by  Mr.  Cobbett,  with  an  introduc 
tion.  Died  in  1740. 

Tul'H-a,  a  daughter  of  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  wife 
of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  She  was  accessory  to  the  murder 
of  her  father. 

Tul'li-a,  [Fr.  TULLIE,  tii'le',]  a  Roman  lady,  the 
daughter  'of  Cicero  the  orator,  was  born  in  78  B.C. 
She  svas  married  to  Calpurnius  Piso  Frugi  in  the  year 
63,  and  to  Furius  Crassipes  about  56.  Having  been 
divorced  from  him,  she  became  the  wife  of  Dolabella  in 
50  is.c.  Died  in  45  B.C. 

See  SAGITTARIUS,  "  Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis  Tulliae,"  1679;  MA 
DAME  DE  LASSAY,  "Histoire  de  Tullie,"  1726. 

Tullie.     See  TULLIA. 

Tullin,  tool'lin,  (CHRISTIAN  BRAUNMAN  or  BRAU- 
MAN,)  a  Danish  poet,  born  at  Christiania,  in  Norway,  in 
1728,  was  also  a  judge.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  poem  on  navigation,  and  another  on  the  creation.  He 
is  called  the  first  classic  Danish  poet.  Died  in  1765. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tul'11-us,  (Arnus,)  was  KJng  of  the  Volscians  when 
Coriolanus  was  banished  from  Rome.  He  induced  the 
Volscians  to  send  an  army  against  Rome,  and  gave  the 
command  of  it  to  Coriolanus. 

Tullius,  (SERVIUS.)     See  SERVIUS  TULLIUS. 

TuFlo-eh,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  theologian  and  minister 
of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  in  Perth 
shire  in  1823.  He  became  principal  of  Saint  Mary's 
College,  Saint  Andrew's,  in  1854.  He  has  contributed 
to  the  "  North  British  Review."  Among  his  works  are 
"  The  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,"  (1855,)  and  "  The 
Leaders  of  the  Reformation,"  (1859.)  For  the  former 
he  received  a  prize  of  £600. 

Tul'lus  Hos-til'I-us,  third  King  of  Rome,  succeeded 
Numa  Pompilius  in  673  B.C.  He  carried  on  a  war  against 
the  Albans,  in  which  occurred  the  celebrated  combat 
between  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii,  and  which  ended  in 
the  conquest  of  Alba.  He  was  a  very  warlike  king. 
According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  lightning  about 
640  B.C. 

See  GEBAUER,  "  Tullus  Hostilius,"  1720  ;  SCHOEMANN,  "  Dis- 
sertatio  critica  de  Tullo  Hostilio,"  1847. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TV  LIT 


21  56 


TV ROOT 


Tully,  (the  Roman  orator.)     See  CICERO. 

Tul'ljf,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  divine,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Government  of  the  Thoughts," 
and  other  religious  works.  Died  in  1697. 

Tully,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1620,  published  several  controversial  works.  Died 
in  1676. 

Tul'ly,  (WILLIAM,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
physician,  born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  in  1785.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  became,  in  1830,  profes 
sor  of  materia  medica  in  the  medical  department  of  that 
institution.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Dr.  Thomas 
Miner,  essays,  entitled  "  Miner  and  Tully  on  Fever." 
Died  in  1859. 

Tulp,  tulp,  (NiKOLAAS,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  ma 
gistrate,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1593.  He  was  elected 
burgomaster  of  his  native  city  four  times,  and  gave  proof 
of  courage  and  energy  when  Holland  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1672.  He  published  a  medical  treatise,  called 
"Observationes  Medicae,"  (1641.)  Died  in  1674. 

See  WITTWER,  "  N.  Tulp,"  1785;  VAN  BOCHOVE,  "  Dissertatio 
de  N.  Tulpio,"  1845. 

Tuiistall,  (CuTHBERT.)     See  TONSTALL. 

Tun'stall,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
writer,  born  about  1710.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  vicar  of  Roch 
dale,  in  Lancashire.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Discourses  upon  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  "A 
Vindication  of  the  Power  of  the  State  to  Prohibit  Clan 
destine  Marriages,"  and  "  Observations  on  the  Present 
Collection  of  Epistles  between  Cicero  and  Brutus." 
Died  in  1772. 

Tup'per,  (MARTIN  FARQUHAR,)  a  popular  English 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  London  in  1810.  He  pub 
lished  in  1839  his  "  Proverbial  Philosophy,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour  both  in  England  and  America 
and  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  editions.  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  the  "Dirge  on  Welling 
ton,"  "Ballads  for  the  Times  on  White  Slavery,"  (1852,) 
and  novels  entitled  "The  Twins,"  and  "The  Crock  of 
Gold."  He  has  also  translated  the  poems  of  Alfred  the 
Great  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  into  English  verse. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1838. 

Tura,  too'ra,  or  Turra,  toor'ra,  (CosiMO,)  sometimes 
called  COSIMO  DA  FERRARA,  (da  fer-ra'ra,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1406.  He  painted  in  the 
dry,  Gothic  style.  Died  in  1469,  or  after  that  date. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Turamini,  too-ra-mee'nee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Sienna  about  1558.  He  lectured  at  Sienna 
and  P'errara,  and  published  several  legal  works. 

Tur'ber-ville,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1530,  went  to  Russia  as  secretary  to  Randolph,  the 
ambassador  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Songs  and  Sonnets,"  and  translated  Ovid's  "  He- 
roical  Epistles."  Died  after  1594. 

Turbido.     See  TORKIDO. 

Turchi,  took'kee, (ALESSANDRO,)  surnamed  ORBETTO, 
(•  R-bet'to,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1582. 
He  worked  at  Verona  and  Rome,  and  attempted  to 
combine  the  Roman  style  of  design  with  the  Venetian 
colouring.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Death  of 
Forty  Martyrs."  Died  at  Rome  in  1648. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  TICOZZI,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Turchin,  toor'chin,  (JOHN  BASIL,)  a  general,  born  in 
the  valley  of  the  Don,  in  Russia,  about  1822.  He  served 
as  a  Russian  officer  in  the  Crimean  war,  (1855,)  soon 
after  which  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He 
fought  for  the  Union  in  the  civil  war. 

Turck,  tiiRk,  (Louis,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1798.  He  was  a  republican  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1848. 

Turenna.     See  TURENNE. 

Tu-rerme',  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  tii'reV ;  Lat.  Tu- 
RKN'NMUS;  It.  TUREXNA,  too-reVna,]  (HENRI  de  la 
Tour  d'Auvergne— deh  13  tooR  do'viRn',)  YICOMTE, 
a  famous  French  general,  born  at  Sedan,  September  11, 
1611,  was  the  second  son  of  Henri,  Due  de  Bouillon. 
His  mother  was  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  William  the 
Silent,  Prince  of  Orange.  His  father  was  an  able  gene 


ral,  and  a  leader  of  the  French  Protestants.  Young 
Turenne  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion  by 
Daniel  Tilenus,  a  tolerant  Calvinist.  He  served,  in  his 
early  youth,  under  his  uncles  Maurice  of  Nassau  and 
Henry  Frederick,  (1625-30.)  During  this  period  of  five 
or  six  years  he  fought  against  the  Spaniards,  and  acquired 
much  practical  knowledge  of  the  art  of  war.  In  1630 
he  returned  to  France,  and  received  command  of  a  regi 
ment.  He  obtained  the  high  rank  of  marechal-de-camp 
in  1635,  and  was  sent  in  the  same  year,  under  La«Vallette, 
to  defend  Mentz  against  the  Imperialists.  In  1637  he 
took  Landrecies,  and  gained  some  successes  in  Flanders. 
As  second  in  command  under  Harcourt,  he  had  the 
principal  part  in  the  capture  of  Turin  in  1640.  His 
promotion  was  retarded  by  the  political  course  of  his 
brother,  the  Due  de  Bouillon.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1643,  and  ordered  to  Ger 
many,  where  he  was  second  in  command  under  the 
Prince  of  Conde.  The  success  of  the  French  at  Nord- 
lingen  in  1645  was  attributed  to  Turenne  by  Conde 
himself.  In  1646,  by  judicious  plans  and  skilful  man 
oeuvres,  he  gained  important  advantages  without  much 
loss  of  life.  He  effected  a  junction  with  the  Swedish 
army,  invaded  Bavaria,  and  compelled  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria  to  sue  for  peace.  The  long  war  was  terminated 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648,)  and  the  civil  war  of 
the  Fronde  began  in  1649.  Turenne,  probably,  felt  little 
zeal  for  either  party  in  this  contest.  He  declined  to 
fight  for  Mazarin,  and  retired  to  Holland  after  he  had 
been  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  army.  The 
Prince  of  Conde  having  been  imprisoned  by  Mazarin,  in 
January,  1650,  Turenne  declared  himself  in  favour  of  the 
captive  prince,  and  took  arms  at  Stenay  against  the 
court.  He  was  defeated  near  Rethel  by  the  royal  army 
in  December,  1650,  soon  after  which  Conde  was  liberated 
from  prison. 

In  1651  he  went  to  Paris,  and  married  Charlotte  de 
Caumont,  a  daughter  of  Armand,  Due  de  La  Force. 
He  accepted  in  March,  1652,  the  chief  command  of  the 
royal  army,  and  was  opposed  to  the  Prince  of  Conde, 
who,  in  alliance  with  the  Spaniards,  had  renewed  the 
war.  Turenne  defeated  his  adversary  at  Paris  in  1652, 
and  at  Arras  in  1654,  after  which  the  seat  of  war  was 
transferred  to  Flanders.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  Conde  and  the  Spaniards  at  the  battle  of  the 
Dunes,  near  Dunkirk,  in  1658.  Peace  was  concluded  in 
1659.  After  the  death  of  Mazarin,  Turenne  had  much 
influence  in  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  of  France. 
He  was  persuaded  to  become  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1668. 
He  commanded  a  large  army  which  invaded  Holland  in 
1672,  and  conquered  several  provinces  of  that  country. 
Unable  to  resist  this  army  in  battle,  the  Dutch  opened 
the  dykes,  flooded  the  country,  and  thus  checked  the  in 
vaders.  In  1674  he  defeated  the  Imperialists  in  several 
actions  near  the  Rhine,  and  ravaged  the  Palatinate  with 
excessive  cruelty, — which  is  perhaps  the  only  stain  on 
his  memory.  He  was  opposed  in  the  next  campaign  to 
Montecuculi,  an  Austrian  general  of  great  skill,  and  was 
killed  at  Salzbach  in  July,  1675.  Turenne  was  distin 
guished  for  his  modesty,  sobriety,  sound  judgment,  and 
impassible  composure  in  action. 

See  BOSSUET,  "Oraison  funebre  du  Vicomte  de  Turenne,"  1676; 
PAULKTTI,  "Vita  di  Turenna,"  1677;  G.  DE  COURTII.Z,  "Vie  de 
Turenne,"  1685;  RAMSAY,  "  Histoire  de  Turenne,"  2  vols.,  1735; 
RAGUENET,  "Histoire  de  Turenne,"  1738;  FL&CHIER,  "Oraison 
funebre  de  Turenne,"  1675;  SISMONDI,  "Histoire  de  France;" 
MICHKI.ET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  VOLTAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  DE  RETZ,  "  Me'moires  ;"  "  Leven  van  den  Marsclialk  van 
Turenne,"  Amsterdam,  1676;  "  Lettres  et  Memoires  du  Marechal 
de  Turenne,"  edited  by  COMTE  DE  GRIMOARD,  2  vols.,  1782  ;  ZAN- 
THIER,  "  Feldzu'ge  des  Vicomte  de  Turenne,"  1779;  "Lives  of  the 
Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  and  England,"  by  SIR  ED 
WARD  CUST,  London,  1867;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Turennius.     See  TURENNE. 

Turgenef,  Turgenev,  or  Turgenew.     See  TOOR- 

GENEF. 

Tur'got,  an  Anglo-Saxon  historian.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  Primate  of  Scotland  in 
1107,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  of  Durham 
from  635  to  1096."  Died  in  1115. 

Turgot,  tiiR'go',  (ANNE  ROBERT  JACQUES,)  Baron  de 
L'Aulne,  (deh  Ion,)  an  eminent  French  economist  and 
financier,  born  in  Paris  in  May,  1727.  He  studied  law, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e.,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TURGOT 


2157 


TURNER 


became  a  counsellor  to  the  Parliament  in  1752,  and  mas 
ter  of  requests  in  1753.  In  1761  he  was  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  Limoges.  Before  the  last  date  he  had  pro 
duced  treatises  on  various  subjects.  He  was  versed  in  the 
ancient  languages  and  many  sciences.  In  the  perform 
ance  of  his  administrative  duties  as  intendant,  he  made 
several  reforms  and  experiments  in  political  economy. 
He  suppressed  the  corvees,  opened  new  roads,  introduced 
the  use  of  potatoes,  and  distributed  the  burden  of  taxation 
more  equitably.  Having  formed  friendly  relations  with 
the  philosophic  party,  of  which  Voltaire  and  D'Alem- 
bert  were  leaders,  he  contributed  to  the  "Encvclopedie" 
articles  on  "Existence,"  "Expansibility,"  "Fairs  and 
Markets,"  ("  Foires  et  Marches,")  etc. 

He  was  appointed  in  August,  1774,  to  the  office  of 
controller-general  of  finance,  then  the  most  important 
office  of  the  government.  Among  his  first  acts  was  the 
restoration  of  free  trade  in  grain  between  the  provinces. 
He  abolished  several  oppressive  laws  and  feudal  privi 
leges,  reformed  abuses,  and  began  to  improve,  by  econ 
omy,  the  public  finances.  His  policy  was  expressed  by 
the  phrase,  "No  bankruptcy,  no  increase  of  taxes,  no 
loans."  The  courtiers,  nobles,  politicians,  and  privileged 
classes  combined  against  him.  He  was  removed  in  May, 
1776.  His  friend  Malesherbes  said  that  Turgot  had 
"the  heart  of  L'Hopital  with  the  head  of  Bacon." 
Voltaire  was  a  warm  admirer  of  Turgot,  whom  he  char 
acterized  as  the  best  minister  that  France  ever  had. 
Turgot  corresponded  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  wrote 
a  Memoir  on  the  American  war.  Died  in  March,  1781. 

"There  are  crises,"  says  the  "Fortnightly  Review" 
for  August,  1870,  "when  a  character  tells  far  more  than 
an  idea,  and  is  at  once  a  saving  opportunity  and  a  de 
cisive  force.  Such  a  character  was  Turgot.  The  further 
we  recede  from  the  French  Revolution,  the  more  pre 
eminent  does  this  firm  and  exalted  figure  shine  forth, — 
the  one  legislator  who  might  have  saved  France." 

See  DUPONT  DE  NEMOURS,  "  Me'moires  sur  la  Vie  de  Turgot,"  2 
vols.,  1782;  CONDORCET,  "  Vie  de  Turgot,"  1786  ;  DROZ,  "  Histoire 
du  Regne  de  Louis  XVI;"  M.  J.  TISSOT,  "Turgot,  sa  Vie,  son 
Administration,"  etc.,  1862;  MARMONTEI.,  "Memoires;"  DUPUY, 
"  filoge  historique  de  Turgot,"  1781  ;  BLANQUI,  "  Histoire  de 
1'Economie  politique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Turgot,  (ETIENNE  P'RANgois,)  MARQUIS,  a  rural 
economist,  born  in  Paris  in  1721,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  Died  in  1789. 

Turgot,  de,  deh  tiiR'go',  (Louis  FELIX  ETIENNE,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  diplomatist  and  senator,  born  in 
1796.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  Decem 
ber,  1851,  to  July,  1852,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Spain  in  1853. 

Turk,  tocmk,  (DANIEL  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  musician, 
born  near  Chemnitz  in  1751,  was  organist  at  Halle.  He 
wrote  several  treatises  on  music.  Died  in  1813. 

Turk,  von,  fon  tooRk,  (KARL  CHRISTIAN  WILHELM,) 
a  German  philanthropist,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1774, 
was  active  in  promoting  common-school  education, 
and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  silk-manufacture  into 
Germany.  Died  in  1846. 

Tiirkheim,  von,  fon  ttifRk'hlm',  (JOHANNES,)  a  po 
litical  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1746; 
died  in  1824. 

Turlupin.     See  BELLEVILLE. 

Turn'bull,  (ROBERT,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
Linlithgowshire,  Scotland,  in  1809,  emigrated  to  America, 
and  settled  in  1845  as  pastor  of  a  church  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut.  He  has  published  "Christ  in  History,  or 
the  Central  Power,"  (1856,)  and  several  other  works, 
and  translated  from  the  French  Vinet's  "  Vital  Chris 
tianity." 

Turn'bull,  (ROBERT  JAMES,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Florida  in  1775.  He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises 
in  defence  of  the  State-Rights  party  in  South  Carolina. 
Died  in  1833. 

Turnebe.     See  TURNEBUS. 

Tur'ne-bus,  [Fr.  TURNEBE,  tuR'nib',1  (ADRIEN,)  an 
eminent  French  scholar,  originally  named  Tourneboeuf, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1512.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  city  in  1547.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  as  a  classical  scholar, 
translated  into  Latin  a  number  of  Greek  authors,  among 
whom  were  Plutarch  and  Theophrastus,  and  wrote  com 


mentaries  on  Cicero's  works.  According  to  a  French 
biographer,  he  was  unrivalled  as  a  professor  in  clearness, 
accuracy,  and  profundity.  Among  his  works  is  "Ad 
versaria,"  (3  parts,  1564-73,)  in  which  he  corrects  and 
explains  many  passages  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1565.  He  was  eulogized  by  L'Hopital, 
Scaliger,  and  Montaigne,  the  last  of  whom  called  him 
"  Fame  la  plus  polie  du  monde,"  ("the  most  polished 
(or  polite)  soul  in  the  world.")  He  had  a  son  Adrien, 
who  wrote  Latin  verses.  Died  in  1594. 

See  PASSKRAT,  "  In  Turnebi  Obitum  Naenia,"  1651  ;  DE  THOU  et 
TF.ISSIER,  "  filoges  ;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biugraphie 
Generale." 

Tur'iier,  (DAWSON,)  an  English  botanist  and  writer, 
born  at  Great  Yarmouth  in  1775.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Fuci,  or  Coloured  Figures  and  Descrip 
tions  of  the  Plants  of  the  Genus  Fucus,"  (3  vols.  fol., 
1808,)  "A  Tour  in  Normandy,"  (1820,)  and  "The 
Botanist's  Guide  through  England  and  Wales,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  the  last-named  conjointly  with  Mr.  L.  W.  Dill- 
wyn.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of 
other  learned  institutions.  Died  in  1858. 

Tur'ner,  (EDWARD,)  a  distinguished  chemist  and 
physician,  born  in  Jamaica  in  1797.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1828  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  London  University,  where 
his  lectures  gained  for  him  a  high  reputation.  His 
"  Elements  of  Chemistry,"  (1827,)  often  reprinted,  is 
esteemed  a  standard  work.  Died  in  1839. 

Turner,  (FRANCIS,)  Bishop  of  Ely,  was  one  of  the 
seven  English  prelates  who  were  prosecuted  for  resisting 
the  authority  of  James  II.  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Vindication  of  Archbishop  San- 
croft,"  etc.^  and  "Animadversions  on  Naked  Truth." 
Died  in  1760. 

See  Miss  STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

Turner,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  English  officer,  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  was  notorious  for  his  cruel 
treatment  of  the  Scottish  Covenanters.  He  left  an  auto 
biography. 

Turner,  (JOSEPH  MALLORD  WILLIAM,)  an  eminent 
English  landscape-painter,  born  in  London  in  April, 
1775,  was  a  son  of  a  hair-dresser.  He  received  only  an 
ordinary  education,  and  passed  his  boyhood  mostly  in 
London.  "At  last,"  says  Ruskin,  "fortune  wills  that 
the  lad's  true  life  shall  begin  ;  and  one  summer  evening 
he  finds  himself  sitting  alone  among  the  Yorkshire  hills. 
For  the  first  time  the  silence  of  Nature  around  him,  her 
freedom  sealed  to  him,  her  glory  opened  to  him."  He 
was  admitted  as  a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1789.  "So  taught  and  prepared  for  his  life's  labour, 
sat  the  boy  at  last  alone  among  his  fair  English  hills, 
and  began  to  paint,  with  cautious  toil,  the  rocks  and 
fields,  and  trickling  brooks,  and  soft  white  clouds  of 
heaven."  ("  Modern  Painters,"  vol.  v.)  For  many 
years  he  used  water-colours  almost  exclusively.  He 
exhibited  a  "View  of  Lambeth  Palace"  in  1790.  His 
early  pictures  represented  mostly  English  or  Welsh 
scenery.  In  1799  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  exhibited  an  oil-painting  of  "The 
Battle  of  the  Nile."  He  became  a  Royal  Academician 
in  1802,  after  which  he  travelled  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Fall  of  Schaffhausen,"  (1805,)  "The  Sun 
Rising  through  Vapour,"  (1806,)  "  Narcissus  and  Echo," 
(1814,)  "Apollo  and  Python,"  and  "Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage,"  (1832.)  In  1807  or  1808  he  commenced 
the  publication  of  his  famous  "  Liber  Studiorum,"  a 
series  of  prints  or  drawings.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819, 
1829,  and  1840.  According  to  Ruskin,  he  surpassed 
all  former  artists  in  "the  expression  of  the  infinite  re 
dundance  of  natural  landscape.  .  .  .  This  work,  done  by 
Turner  among  the  hills,  joining  the  most  intense  appre 
ciation  of  all  tenderness  with  delight  in  all  magnitude 
and  memory  for  all  detail,  is  never  to  be  rivalled  or 
looked  upon  in  similitude  again."  ("Modern  Painters," 
vol.  iv.  chap,  xvii.)  Turner  was  never  married.  His 
disposition  was  reserved  and  unsociable,  and  he  is  repre 
sented  as  having  been  extremely  parsimonious.  He 
died  in  London  in  December,  1851,  having  bequeathed 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard^zsj;  G,  H,  K.,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TURNER 


2158 


TURRETIN1 


to  the  nation  a  large  number  of  oil-paintings,  which  are 
exhibited  in  the  National  Gallery. 

See  BURNETT,  "Turner  and  his  Works,"  1852;  W.  THORN- 
BURY,  "Life  of  W.  Turner,"  2  vols.,  1862;  RUSKIN,  "Modern 
Painters,"  passim;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'neVale  ;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1862;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
January,  1862. 

Turner,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  at  Barnstable,  lived  at  Rome,  Ingolstadt, 
and  Gratz.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible.  Died 

,  i"  1599- 

Turner,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  diplomatist,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  about  1759,  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Thibet  in  1783,  and  afterwards  to  the  Sultan  of  Mysore. 
He  published  an  "Account  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Court 
of  the  Teshoo  Lama  in  Tibet,"  (1800.)  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1802. 

Tur'ner,  (SAMUEL  HULBEAKT,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1790.  He 
became  in  1821  professor  of  biblical  learning  in  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  and  in  1831 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  Columbia  College.  He  pub 
lished  "Thoughts  on  Scriptural  Prophecy,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1861. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Turner,  (SHARON,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1768,  followed  the  profession  of  attorney.  His 
reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,"  (4  vols.,  1799-1805,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  also  published  a  "  History  of  England 
from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth," 
(5  vols.,  1814-29,)  a  "Sacred  History  of  the  World  as 
displayed  in  the  Creation  and  Subsequent  Events  to  the 
Deluge,"  (3  vols.,  1832-39,)  and  several  poems.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  WILLIAM  JERDAN,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1835  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March, 
1803,  February,  1807,  and  November,  1824. 

Turner,  (Rev.  SYDNEY,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
chaplain  of  the  Reformatory  School  at  Red  Hill,  has 
prepared  a  new  edition  of  his  father's  "Sacred  History 
of  the  World,"  and  published  a  treatise  on  "  Refor 
matory  Schools." 

Turner,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Reading  in  1591.  He  became  Dean  of  Canterbury. 
Died  in  1672. 

Turner,  (THOMAS  HUDSON,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1815.  He  published  in  1851  "  Some 
Account  of  Domestic  Architecture  in  England  from 
the  Conquest  to  the  End  of  the  Thirteenth  Century," 
(illustrated,)  a  work  which  displays  great  learning  and 
research.  Died  in  1852. 

Turner,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine  and  physician, 
born  in  Northumberland  about  1520.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  Dean  of  Wells. 
He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  medicine,  theology, 
zoology,  and  botany ;  among  the  last-named  we  may  cite 
his  "  Herball,  or  History  of  Plants,"  said  to  have  been 
the  first  work  of  the  kind  published  in  England.  Died 
in  1568. 

Turner,  (WILLIAM  WADDEN,)  born  in  London  in 
1810,  emigrated  at  an  early  age  to  America,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  as  an  Oriental  scholar.  He  be 
came  in  1842  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  Died  in  1859. 

Tur'nus,  [Gr.  Tvpvof,}  King  of  the  Rutulians,  was  a 
suitor  for  the  hand  of  Lavinia,  and  an  adversary  of 
^Eneas,  against  whom  he  waged  war.  He  was  killed  by 
tineas  in  single  combat. 

See  VIRGIL,  "JEneid,"  books  vii.,  ix.,  x.,  xi.,  xii. 

Tur'nus,  a  Roman  satiric  poet,  who  probably  flour 
ished  in  the  second  half  of  the  first  century.  His  works, 
which  are  praised  by  Martial,  are  not  extant. 

Tur'pin  orTil'pin,  [Lat.  TURPI'NUS,]  a  French  Bene 
dictine  monk,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rheims  by 
Charlemagne.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  poem  celebrating  the  deeds  of  Charlemagne.  Died 
about  812. 

Turpin,  tiiR'paN',  (FRANQOIS  HENRI,)  a  French  littl- 
rateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1709,  wrote  a  "History  of  Ma 


homet,"  (2  vols.,  1773,)  "France  Illustrated,  or  the 
French  Plutarch,"  (5  vols.,  1777-90,)  and  other  historical 
and  biographical  works.  Died  in  1799. 

SeeQuERARD,  "La  France  Litte'raire." 

Turpin,  (PIERRE  JEAN  FRANgois,)  a  French  botanist 
and  designer,  born  at  Vire  in  1775.  He  visited  the 
West  Indies  in  his  youth,  returned  to  France  in  1802, 
and  was  employed  to  illustrate  with  his  designs  the 
works  of  Humboldt.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Vegetable  Iconography,"  (1841.)  Died  in  1840. 

See  ACHILI.E  RICHARD,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Turpin,"  1840. 

Turpin  de  Crisse,  tuR'paN'  deh  kRe'sa',  (LANCELOT,) 
COUNT,  a  French  officer  and  military  writer,  born  in  La 
Beauce  about  1715,  served  with  distinction  in  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Essay  on  the  Art  of 
War,"  (3  vols.,  1754,)  obtained  extensive  popularity  and 
was  translated  into  English,  German,  and  Russian.  He 
also  published  "  Commentaries  on  Caesar,"  and  other 
similar  treatises.  He  was  created  a  commander  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Louis  in  1771,  and  lieutenant-general  in 
1780.  Died  about  1795. 

See  DE  COUKCEM.ES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Francais." 

Turpin  de  Crisse,  (LANCELOT  THEODORE,)  COUNT, 
a  French  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1782.  He  painted 
landscapes,  published  a  "  Voyage  to  Naples,"  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute.  Died  in  1859. 

Turquet.     See  MAYERNE. 

Turquety,  tuVkeh-te',  (£DOUARD,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1801,  wrote  "  Poetical  Sketches," 
("  Esquisses  poetiques,"  1829,)  "  Love  and  Faith," 
(1833,)  "  Primavera,"  (1840,)  and  other  poems. 

Ttirr,  tuR,  (STEPHEN,)  a  Hungarian  patriot  and  gene 
ral,  born  at  Baja  about  1820.  He  joined  the  Italian 
army  in  1849,  anc'  fought  against  Austria.  In  the  Cri 
mean  war  he  served  in  the  allied  army  against  Russia. 
He  enlisted,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  in  the  army 
of  Garibaldi  in  1859,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
liberation  of  Sicily  in  1860.  He  became  a  general  of 
division  in  the  Italian  service,  and  married  a  grand 
daughter  of  Lucien  Bonaparte. 

Turranius.     See  RUFINUS. 

Turreau,  tii'ro',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at 
Orbec  about  1760.  He  was  a  violent  member  of  the 
Convention,  1792-95.  Died  in  1796. 

Turreau  de  Linieres,  tii'ro'  deh  le'ne-aiR',  (Louis 
MARIE,)  BARON,  a  French  general,  born  at  fivreux  in 
1756.  He  commanded  an  army  which  defeated  the  Ven- 
dean  insurgents  in  1793,  and  was  ambassador  to  the 
United  States  from  1804  to  1811.  Died  in  1816. 

Turrecremata,  the  Latin  of  TORQUEMADA,  which 
see. 

Turrell  orTurrel,  tu'rel',[Lat.  TUREL'LUS,]  (PIERRE,) 
a  French  astrologer,  and  rector  of  the  College  of  Dijon, 
wrote  "  The  Period  of  the  World,"  ("  La  Periode  du 
Monde,"  1531.)  Died  about  1547. 

Turretin.     See  TURRETINI. 

Turretini,  toor-ra-tee'nee,  [Fr.  TURRETIN,  tii'reh- 
taN'  or  tuR'taN,!  (BENEDICT,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1588,  was  eminent  for  his  learning  and 
talents.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva  in 
1612,  and  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1631. 

Turretini  or  Turretin,  [Lat.  TURRETT'NUS,]  (FRAN 
COIS,)  an  eminent  Swiss  theologian,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1623.  He  studied  under 
Spanheim  and  Diodati,  became  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva  in 
1653.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  Church.  His  prin 
cipal  work  is  "Theological  and  Controversial  Institutes," 
"  Institutiones  Theologios  Elencticae,"  3  vols.,  1679-85,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  Died  at  Geneva  in  1687. 

See  PICTET,  "Memoria  F.  Turretini  celebrata,"  1688. 

Turretini  or  Turretin,  [Lat.  TURRETI'NUS,]  (JEAN 
ALPHONSE,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  the  most  cele 
brated  member  of  the  family,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
1671.  He  studied  at  Leyden  and  in  England,  gained 
distinction  as  a  preacher,  and  became  professor  of  the 
ology  at  Geneva  in  1705.  He  was  a  liberal  theologian, 
who  endeavoured  to  promote  union  among  the  different 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


TURRETINUS 


2159 


TTCHSEN 


Protestant  sects.  He  opposed  with  success  the  regula 
tion  that  candidates  for  the  ministry  should  be  required 
to  sign  the  Consensus.  His  chief  works  are  "Cloud  of 
Witnesses  in  favour  of  Moderate  and  Pacific  Judgment 
concerning  Theological  Affairs,"  ("  Xubes  Testium  pro 
moderato  et  pacifico  de  Rebus  Theologicis  Judicio," 
1719,)  and  "Theological  Cogitations  and  Dissertations," 
("  Cogitationes  et  Dissertationes  theologicse,"  2  vols., 
1737.)  Died  in  1737. 

See  SENEBIER,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^nerale. " 

Turretinus.     See  TURRETINI. 

Turrian,  toor-re-an',  [Fr.  TURRIEN,  Hi're-aN' ;  Lat. 
TURRIA'NUS,]  or  Torres,  tor'rgs,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Span 
ish  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Herrera  about  1504.  He 
wrote  many  works  of  little  merit.  In  1562  he  was  sent 
by  the  pope  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  Died  in  1584. 

Turrianus.     See  TURRIAN. 

Turrien.     See  TURRIAN. 

Tur-sel-li'nus,  (HORATIUS,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  ori 
ginally  named  Torselliiio,  (toR-sel-lee'no,)  born  at  Rome 
in  1545,  became  rector  of  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  in  his 
native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  use 
of  the  Latin  particles,  "  De  Usu  Particularum  Latini 
Sermonis,"  (1598,)  which  ranks  among  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind  ;  also  an  "  Epitome  of  Universal  His 
tory,"  (in  Italian,)  and  "  Life  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier," 
(in  Latin,  1594.)  Died  in  1599. 

See  MORERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Tur'ton,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
about  1780.  He  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  in  1830, 
and  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1845.  Died  in  1864. 

Turton,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  physician  and  natu 
ralist,  born  before  1800.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  a  conchological  dictionary  of  the  British 
Islands,  (1819,)  "Conchylia  Insularum  Britannicarum," 
or  "  Shells  of  the  British  Islands,"  systematically  ar 
ranged,  (1822,  illustrated,)  and  "Manual  of  the  Land 
and  Fresh-Water  Shells  of  the  British  Islands,"  (1831.) 

Tussanus.     See  TOUSSAIN. 

Tus'ser,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet  and  writer  on 
agriculture,  was  born  in  Essex  about  1520.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Hus 
bandry  united  to  as  many  of  Good  Housewifery,"  (1573,) 
and  was  dedicated  to  his  patron,  Lord  Paget.  It  is 
written  in  verse,  and  accompanied  by  an  interesting 
memoir  of  the  author.  Died  about  1580. 

See  FULLER,  "Worthies  of  Essex." 

Tutch'in,  (JOHN,)  an  English  political  writer  under 
the  reign  of  James  II.,  was  a  partisan  of  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth.  Died  in  1707. 

Tuthill,   ttit'il,    (LouiSA    CAROLINE    HUGGINS,)   an 
American  writer,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  was 
married  in   1817.     She  has  published  "James  Somers, 
the  Pilgrim's  Son,"  (1827,)  "My  Wife,"  a  novel,  "The  I 
History  of  Architecture,"  (1848,)  "The  Nursery  Book,"  | 
(1849,)  and  other  original  works;    also,  a  compilation 
entitled  "The  Young  Ladies'  Reader." 

Tutilo,  too'te-lo,  or  Tuotilo,  too-o'te-lo,  a  learned 
Swiss  monk,  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency  in 
music,  eloquence,  and  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture. 
Died  about  896. 

Tut/tie,  (JAMKS  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Monroe  county,  Ohio,  about  1823.  He  served  as  colonel 
at  Shiloh,  April,  1862,  and  commanded  a  Federal  brigade 
at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  in  May  and  June,  1863. 

Twed'dell,  (ToH.v,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Northumberland  in  1769.  Having  studied  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  chosen  a  Fellosv  of  Trinity  College  in  1792,  and 
in  1795  set  out  on  a  tour  to  the  continent.  While  en 
gaged  in  examining  the  remains  of  art  at  Athens,  he 
died,  after  a  few  days'  illness,  (1799,)  leaving  a  collection 
of  manuscripts  and  drawings,  which  were  unfortunately 
lost  on  the  voyage  to  England.  A  selection  from  his 
letters  was  published  in  1815  by  his  brother  Robert, 
with  a  memoir  of  the  author. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1815  ;  "  London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  October,  1815. 

Tweed'dale,  (GEORGE  HAY.)  MARQUIS  OF,  a  British 
general,  born  in  1787.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 


(i8o8-r4,)  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  in  1854. 
He  was  a  representative  peer  of  Scotland. 

Twells,  (LEONARD,)  an  English  clergyman,  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1704.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
wrote  on  theology.  Died  in  1742. 

Twes'ten,  (AUGUST  DETLEV  CHRISTIAN,)  professor 
of  theology  at  Kiel  in  1819,  was  born  at  GHickstadt  in 
1789.  He  succeeded  Schleiermacher  in  1835  in  the 
chair  of  theology  at  Berlin.  He  published  several  philo 
sophical  and  religious  works. 

Twiggs,  twigz,  (DAVID  EMANUEL,)  an  American  gene 
ral,  born  in  Georgia  in  1790.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1847. 
He  joined  the  secession  party  in  1861.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  rank  in  the  United  States  army.  Died  at  Augusta, 
Georgia,  in  September,  1862. 

Twiggs,  (LKVi,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Richmond  City,  Georgia,  in  1793.  He  served  under 
General  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  mortally 
wounded  in  the  assault  upon  Chapultepec,  1847. 

Twinger,  (JAMES.)     See  KONIGSHOVEN. 

Twi'ning,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1734, 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  became  rector  of  White  NTol- 
ley,  in  Essex,  in  1768.  He  published  an  excellent 
translation  of  Aristotle's  "  Poetics,"  accompanied  with 
notes  and  with  two  dissertations  on  poetical  and  musical 
imitation,  (1789.)  Died  in  1804. 

Twining,  (WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
surgeon,  born  in  Nova  Scotia,  studied  in  London,  where 
he  afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  College  of  Sur 
geons.  He  was  appointed  in  1830  one  of  the  surgeons 
to  the  Civil  Hospital  at  Calcutta.  He  published  "Clin 
ical  Illustrations  of  the  More  Important  Diseases  of 
Bengal,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1832.)  Died  in  1835. 

Twiss,  (HORACE,)  an  English  politician  and  writer, 
born  in  1786  or  1787.  He  became  a  member  of  Par 
liament,  and  published  a  "Life  of  Lord  Eldon."  Died 
in  1849. 

Twiss,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  1747, 
published  "Travels  through  Portugal  and  Spain  in  1772 
and  1773-4,"  "  A  Tour  in  Ireland  in  1775-8,"  "Miscel 
lanies,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1821. 

Twiss,  (TRAVERS,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  about  1810.  He  became  professor 
of  political  economy  at  Oxford  about  1842,  and  obtained 
a  chair  of  civil  law  there  in  1855.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  law  of  nations,  etc. 

Twiss,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  English  nonconformist 
minister,  bom  in  Berkshire  about  1575,  was  a  Calvinist. 
He  was  prolocutor  to  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines,  in  1643,  apd  wrote  several  controversial  works, 
among  which  is  "Defence  of  Grace,"  ("  Vindiciae 
Gratis,"  1632,)  against  Arminianism.  He  was  curate 
of  Newbury  for  many  years.  Died  in  1646. 

Twyne,  (BRIAN,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1579, 
became  keeper  of  the  archives  at  Oxford,  and  wrote  on 
the  antiquities  of  that  place.  Died  in  1644. 

Twyne,  (JoHN,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  Hampshire, 
was  a  grandfather  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  British 
antiquities.  Died  in  1581. 

Twys'deii,  (Sir  ROGER,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Kent  in  1597,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Historical 
Defence  of  the  Church  of  England,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1672. 

Ty.     See  TYR. 

Ty'-ehe,  [Gr.  Ti'xn,]  in  Greek  mythology,  the  personi 
fication  of  chance  or  luck,  corresponded  with  the  Roman 
Fortuna.  She  was  represented  sometimes  with  a  ball, 
and  sometimes  with  the  horn  of  Amalthea. 

Tycho  Brahe.     See  BRAHE. 

Tychsen,  t/nVsen  or  tlK'sen,  (Oi.AUS  GERHARD,)  an 
eminent  Orientalist,  born  at  Tondern,  in  Sleswick,  in 
1734.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1763  became  profes 
sor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at  Biitzow,  where  he  soon 
acquired  the  highest  reputation  as  a  teacher.  He  died 
in  1815,  leaving  a  very  valuable  library,  which  was  pur 
chased  by  the  University  of  Rostock.  He  was  author 
of  treatises  on  the  Phoenician  and  Arabic  languages, 
and  a  work  entitled  "  Leisure  Hours  of  Biitzow,"  (1769.) 

See  HARTMANN,  "O.  Tychsen,"  etc.,  5  vols.,  1818-20;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generate." 


€as/e;  9  as*;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  th  as  in  this.     (^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TTCHSEN 


2160 


TTNDJLL 


Tychsen,  (THOMAS  CHRISTIAN,)  a  philologist,  born 
in  Sleswick  in  1758.  Having  studied  at  Gottingen,  he 
visited  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  after 
his  return  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  (1789,)  an 
"  Arabic  Grammar,"  an  edition  of  Smyrnaeus,  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1834. 

Tydee.     See  TYDEUS. 

Tydeman,  ti'deh-man',  (MiNARD,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Zwolle  in  1741.  He  was  professor 
of  law  at  Utrecht,  and  removed  to  Leyden  about  1801. 
Died  in  1825. 

Ty'deus,  [Gr.  Tvdevf  ;  Fr.  TYDEE,  te'da',]  a  mythical 
hero,  was  a  son  of  CEneus,  King  of  Calydon,  and  a 
brother  of  Meleager.  He  married  Deipyle,  (sometimes 
written  Deiphyle,)  a  daughter  of  Adrastus,  and  was  the 
father  of  Diomede.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  that 
led  the  famous  expedition  against  Thebes,  in  order  to 
restore  Polynices.  In  this  war  he  was  mortally  wounded 
by  Melanippus. 

Tydide.     See  TYDIDES. 

Ty-di'des,  [Gr.  Tw5«'%;  Fr.  TYDIDE,  te'ded',]  a 
patronymic  of  Diomede,  the  son  of  Tydeus. 

Tye,  ti,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  an  eminent  English  musi 
cian,  born  in  Westminster,  was  patronized  by  Henry 
VIII.,  who  appointed  him  musical  teacher  to  Prince 
Edward.  He  became  organist  to  the  chapel  royal  under 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  His  compositions  are 
chiefly  anthems  and  church  music. 

Ty'ers,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  1726,  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  Vauxhall, 
London.  Among  his  works  is  "  Biographical  Sketches 
of  Dr.  Johnson,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1787. 

Ty'ler,  (BENNET,)  D. D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Middlebury,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
elected  in  1822  president  of  Dartmouth  College.  He 
wrote  a"  History  of  the  New  Haven  Theology,"  (1837,) 
and  a  number  of  religious  and  controversial  works. 
Died  in  1858. 

Tyler,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Con 
necticut  in  1799,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819.  He 
was  a  civil  engineer  before  the  rebellion.  He  com 
manded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21, 
1861. 

Tyler,  (ERASTUS  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ontario  county,  New  York,  about  1822,  became  a 
resident  of  Ohio  in  his  youth.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  the  battles  of  Port  Re 
public  (June,  1862)  and  of  Fredericksburg,  December 
13,  1862. 

Tyler,  (JOHN,)  the  tenth  President  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Charles-City  county,  Virginia,  in  March, 
1790,  was  a  son  of  John  Tyler,  Governor  of  Virginia. 
He  studied  law,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1816,  and  served  in  that  body  about  five  years,  during 
which  he  opposed  a  protective  tariff  and  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  originally  a  republican  of  the 
Virginia  school,  and  supported  W.  H.  Crawford  for  the 
Presidency  in  1824.  In  1825  he  became  Governor  of 
Virginia,  and  in  March,  1827,  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  place  of  John  Randolph  of  Roan- 
oke.  He  voted  against  the  tariff  bill  of  1828,  and 
against  all  measures  of  internal  improvement,  and  was  a 
partisan  of  General  Jackson  in  the  election  of  that  year. 
He  sympathized  with  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina  in 
1832,  became  an  opponent  of  Jackson's  administration, 
and  voted  alone  in  the  Senate  against  the  "  Force  Bill" 
which  was  passed  against  the  nullifiers  in  February,  1833. 
He  was  re-elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  commencing 
December,  1833,  soon  after  which  date  he  opposed  the 
removal  of  the  public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  and  supported  Mr.  Clay's  resolution 
which  censured  the  President  for  the  removal  of  the 
same.  The  legislature  of  Virginia,  about  February, 
1836,  instructed  the  Virginia  Senators  to  vote  for  ex 
punging  the  resolution  of  censure  just  mentioned,  but 
Mr.  Tyler  preferred  to  resign  his  seat,  and  refused  to 
obey  their  instructions.  He  became  identified  with  the 
Whig  party,  and  in  the  National  Convention  which  met 
in  December,  1839,  he  zealously  supported  Mr.  Clay 
for  the  Presidency.  He  was  then  nominated  for  Vice- 


President,  General  Harrison  being  the  Presidential 
candidate,  and  was  elected  in  November,  1840. 

In  consequence  of  the  death  of  President  Harrison, 
(April  4,  1841,)  Mr.  Tyler  became  President  of  the 
United  States.  He  retained  in  office  the  cabinet  min 
isters  appointed  by  General  Harrison.  He  soon  after 
began  to  quarrel  with  Mr.  Clay  and  the  majority  of  those 
who  had  elected  himself  to  the  Vice-Presidency.  He 
vetoed  a  national  bank  bill  which  was  passed  by  Con 
gress  about  the  6th  of  August,  1841,  although  the  prin 
cipal  provisions  of  that  bill  had  been  suggested  by  Mr. 
Ewing,  secretary  of  the  treasury.  "Congress  having 
passed  another  bank  bill,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "based 
entirely  on  his  own  suggestions,  and  conforming  in  all 
points  to  his  requirements,  he  vetoed  that  also,"  (about 
September  10,  1841.)  This  veto  provoked  the  indig 
nation  of  the  Whigs,  who  denounced  the  President  for 
betraying  their  confidence.  It  caused  the  resignation 
of  all  the  members  of  the  cabinet  except  Daniel  Webster, 
who  was  secretary  of  state,  and  who  remained  in  office 
in  order  to  complete  important  negotiations  with  the 
British  government.  Having  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Lord  Ashburton  on  the  subject  of  the  northeastern 
boundary,  Webster  resigned  in  May,  1843.  ^n  JL1ty> 
1843,  the  President  reorganized  his  cabinet,  to  which  he 
appointed  several  Democrats.  The  department  of  state 
was  then  given  to  Abel  P.  Upshur,  who  was  accidentally 
killed  in  February,  1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  C. 
Calhoun.  He  concluded  in  April,  1844,  a  treaty  of 
annexation  with  the  republic  of  Texas,  which  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  Mr.  Tyler  continued  to  promote  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  which,  by  the  aid  of  the  Democrats, 
he  effected  March  i,  1845.  H's  intrigues  to  obtain  a 
nomination  for  the  Presidency  were  not  successful,  and 
he  retired  to  private  life  on  the  4th  of  March,  1845. 

He  was  president  of  the  Peace  Conference  or  Conven 
tion  which  met  in  Washington  in  February,  1861.  Having 
joined  the  disunion  movement,  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Confederate  Congress  about  March,  1861.  Died 
in  Richmond  in  January,  1862. 

See  GREELEY,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  154-156;  "Demo 
cratic  Review"  for  November,  1842,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Tyler,  (RoYAi.i,,)  an  American  jurist  and  humorous 
writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1756.  His  comedy  entitled 
"The  Contrast"  was  performed  in  New  York  in  1786 
with  brilliant  success.  His  other  principal  works  are 
"  The  Algerine  Captive,"  a  novel,  and  the  comedies  of 
"May-Day,  or  New  York  in  an  Uproar,"  and  "The 
Georgia  Spec,  or  Land  in  the  Moon."  Died  in  1826. 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature." 

Tyler,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  lawyer  and  philo 
sophical  writer,  born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Mary 
land,  in  1809.  He  has  published  a  "Discourse  of  the 
Baconian  Philosophy,"  (1844,)  "The  Progress  of  Phi 
losophy  in  the  Past  and  in  the  Future,"  (1859,)  and  other 
similar  works. 

Ty'ler,  (WAT,)  an  English  rebel,  was  a  leader  of  a 
large  number  of  men  who  revolted  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  England  in  1381  in  consequence  of  a  capitation 
tax.  They  massacred  several  persons  of  the  higher 
classes,  committed  much  devastation,  and  marched 
towards  London.  Tyler  was  killed  by  the  mayor  of 
London  in  1381. 

Tyler,  (WILLIAM  SEYMOUR,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine  and  scholar,  born  in  Susquehanna 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1810.  He  became  professor 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  at  Amherst  College 
about  1836.  He  also  published  editions  of  the  "  Ger- 
mania"  and  "Agricola"  of  Tacitus,  the  "Histories"  of 
Tacitus,  and  Plato's  "  Apology"  and  "  Crito,"  and  a 
number  of  theological- treatises. 

Tyndale.     See  TINDALE. 

Tyn'dall,  (JOHN,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
physicist,  born  in  Ireland  about  1820,  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution, 
London,  in  1853.  Among  his  works  are  "  Peaks,  Passes, 
and  Glaciers,"  (1860,)  and  a  treatise  entitled  "  Heat  Con 
sidered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion,"  (1862,)  which  enjoys  a 
high  reputation.  Professor  Tyndall  has  probably  done 
more  than  any  other  English  writer  to  make  known  and 
popularize  the  great  scientific  truth  of  the  mutual  con- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


TTND4RE 


2l6l 


Tl'RWHITT 


vertibility  of  heat  and  motion.  "There  is  a  moral  force 
and  vividness  of  intellect  about  all  he  writes  which  fasci 
nates  the  attention  at  once,  and  makes  you  feel  that  you 
are  in  contact  with  a  mind  of  far  more  than  the  ordinary 
intensity."  (London  "  Spectator,"  June  8,  1867.)  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  several 
memoirs  on  radiant  heat,  and  published  "  Lectures  on 
Sound,"  (1867.) 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  i86g. 

Tyndare  or  Tyndaree.     See  TYNDARUS. 

Tyn'da-rus  or  Tyn-da're-us,  [Gr.  Tvv&'ipeof  or 
TvviVifieus,  rarely,  if  ever,  Twdapoc;*  Fr.  TYNDAREE, 
tax'dt'ia',  or  TYNDARE,  taN'da"R',j  a  fabulous  king  of 
Sparta,  married  Leda,  and  had  a  number  of  children, 
among  whom  were  Castor,  Pollux,  and  Helen.  The 
poets  relate  that  he  exacted  from  the  numerous  suitors 
of  Helen  an  oath  that  they  would  defend  her  and  the 
husband  whom  she  should  choose  against  all  their  ene 
mies.  (See  HELEN.) 

Tyng,  (STEPHEN  HIGGINSON,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachu 
setts,  in  1800.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  Philadelphia,  in 
1833,  and  in  1845  of  Saint  George's  Church,  New  York. 
He  has  published  "  Lectures  on  the  Law  and  the  Gos 
pel,"  (1848,)  "  Family  Commentary  on  the  Four  Gospels," 
(1849,)  "  The  Child  of  Prayer,"  (a  memoir  of  his  son,  the 
Rev.  Dudley  A.  Tyng,)  and  other  religious  works. 

Typhaon.     See  TYPHON. 

Typhee  or  Typhoee.     See  TYPHON. 

Ty'phon,  Ty-pha'on,  or  Ty-pho'eus,  [Gr.  Tvtidav, 
Tuoufi'c,  Tti^wf ,-  Fr.  TYPHON,  te'ftN',  TYPHOEE,  or  TY 
PHEE,  te'fa',]  in  classic  mythology,  was  a  giant  and  fire- 
breathing  monster,  the  father  of  Chimaera,  Cerberus,  and 
the  Sphinx.  According  to  the  fable,  he  rebelled  against 
the  gods,  some  of  whom  fled  to  Egypt  and  concealed 
themselves  under  the  forms  of  different  animals.  He 
was  finally  vanquished  by  Jupiter  and  buried  under 
Mount  Etna. 

Typot,  te'po',  written  also  Typoest,  [Lat.  TYPO'- 
Tius, |  ([AMES,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and  writer,  born  at 
Bruges  about  1550.  At  the  invitation  of  King  John  III. 
he  went  to  Sweden,  where  he  was  imprisoned  from  1582 
to  1594.  Soon  after  the  latter  date  he  went  to  the  court 
of  the  emperor  Rudolph,  who  gave  him  the  title  of 
historiographer.  He  wrote  "On  Fame,"  ("  De  Faina,") 
"  On  Fortune,"  ("  De  Fortuna,")  and  a  "  History  of 
Sweden,"  (1605.)  Died  at  Prague  in  1601  or  1602. 

Typotius.     See  TYPOT. 

Tyr,  teer,  (or  te~e"R,)  or  Ty,  tee,  [supposed  to  be  allied  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  fir,  signifying  "glorious,"  "mighty,"!] 
the  most  fearless  of  all  the  gods  of  the  Northmen,  was  a 
son  of  Odin,  but  his  mother  was  of  the  race  of  giants, 
(Jb'tuns.)  He  is  called  "  the  one-handed,"  an  epithet 
which  is  explained  by  the  following  legend.  The  most 
terrible  of  all  the  enemies  of  the  gods  was  the  wolf 
Fenrir,  destined  by  the  appointment  of  the  Nornas  to  be 
the  destroyer  of  Odin.  When  young,  he  was  brought  up 
among  the  /Esir,  but  Tyr  alone  had  the  courage  to  give 
him  food.  As  he  increased  in  strength,  the  gods,  anx 
iously  calling  to  mind  the  predictions  that  he  was  fated 
to  be  their  destruction,  resolved,  if  possible,  to  bind  him. 
After  various  unsuccessful  attempts,  they  at  last  caused 
to  be  constructed  a  magic  chain,  which,  though  soft  and 
slender  as  a  silken  cord,  was  of  inconceivable  strength. 
But  the  difficulty  was  to  fasten  it  on  him.  He  had  readily 
allowed  the  ^Isir  to  bind  him  with  other  chains,  which 
he  had  broken  without  much  difficulty;  but  now  his  sus 
picions  were  excited  by  the  seeming  frailty  of  the  new- 
made  band.  The  gods  assured  him  that  he  could  easily 
break  it,  but  even  if  he  did  not  they  promised  they  would 
instantly  release  him  after  he  had  once  tried  his  strength 
upon  it.'  The  wolf  replied,  "  If  I  cannot  free  myself,  I 
am  well  convinced  I  shall  wait  long  to  be  released  by 
you  ;  but,  rather  than  you  shall  charge  me  with  a  want 

*  See  LIDDELL  and  SCOTT,  "  Greek- English  Lexicon." 
t  It  would  seem  to  be  a  probable  conjecture  that  it  might  be  de 
rived  directly  from  tyr,  a  "bull,"  of  which  the  inconsiderate  reckless 
daring  not  a  little  resembles  that  of  the  god  Tyr,  although  some  of 
the  Norse  writers  say,  strangely  enough,  that  Tyr  was  remarkable 
for  the  union  of  prudence  (or  discretion)  with  courage. 


of  courage,  let  one  of  you  place  his  hand  in  my  mouth 
as  a  pledge  of  your  sincerity,  and  I  will  consent  to  be 
bound."  The  gods  now  looked  at  one  another,  but  no 
one  had  the  hardihood  to  offer  his  hand.  At  length 
Tyr  stretched  forth  his  right  hand  and  placed  it  within 
the  jaws  of  the  wolf.  The  monster  now  began  to  strug 
gle,  but  the  more  he  strove  the  more  tightly  he  was 
bound  by  the  magic  chain.  Hereupon  all  the  gods  be 
gan  to  laugh,  except  Tyr,  who  had  good  reason  to  be 
serious,  since  he  had  through  his  rashness  lost  his  right 
hand.  It  is  a  proverbial  saying  of  a  man  of  surpassing 
courage  that  he  is  as  brave  as  Tyr.  Being  the  bravest 
of  the  gods,  he  was  the  deity  especially  worshipped  by 
brave  men.  On  account  of  his  courage,  Tyr  may  be 
styled  "  the  Northern  Mars  ;"  Tuesday  (that  is,  "  Tyr's- 
day"  or  "Ty'sday")  is  called  in  modern  Latin  dies  Martis, 
("  Mars-day,")  whence  the  French  Mardi.  At  the  de 
struction  of  the  world  Tyr  will  be  slain  by  the  dog 
Garm. 

See  MAI.LET,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XIV.  ; 
THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology." 

Ty-ran'nI-o  or  Ty-ran'm-on,  [Gr.  Tvpawiuv,]  a 
Greek  grammarian,  born  in  Pontus,  was  made  prisoner 
by  the  Romans,  and  taken  in  72  B.C.  to  Rome,  where  he 
resided  as  a  teacher.  His  learning  and  abilities  are  highly 
commended  by  Cicero,  who  employed  him  to  arrange  his 
library  and  to  instruct  his  nephew  Quintus,  56  B.C. 

Tyraiinion.    See  TYRANNIC. 

Tyrannius.     See  RUFINUS. 

Tyrants,  Thirty.     See  THIRTY  TYRANTS,  THE. 

Tyr-con'nel,  (RICHARD  TALBOT,)  EARL  OF,  an  Irish 
royalist,  of  Norman  descent.  "  In  his  youth  he  had 
been  one  of  the  most  noted  sharpers  and  bullies  of 
London.  He  had  been  introduced  to  Charles  and  James 
when  they  were  exiles  in  Flanders,  as  a  man  fit. and 
ready  for  the  infamous  service  of  assassinating  the  Pro 
tector."  (Macatilay,  "  History  of  England.")  In  1687 
he  was  appointed  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  the  Protestant 
population  of  which  he  resolved  to  exterminate.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  against  William 
III.,  and  was  defeated,  (1690.)  In  the  campaign  of  1691 
he  assumed  authority  over  the  army,  and  interfered 
with  Saint  Ruth,  who  had  a  commission  as  commander- 
in-chief.  Died  in  1691. 

"  Under  an  outward  show  of  levity,  profusion,  and 
eccentric  impudence,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  was  in  truth 
one  of  the  most  mercenary  and  crafty  of  mankind." 
("  History  of  England.") 

Tyr'rell,  TAMES,)  an  English  political  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1642,  was  a  grandson,  on  the  mother's  side, 
of  Archbishop  Usher.  After  the  revolution  of  1688  he 
published  a  collection  of  political  dialogues,  entitled 
"  Bibliotheca  Politica,  or  an  Enquiry  into  the  Antient 
Constitution  of  the  English  Government,"  etc.,  (1718.) 
His  most  important  work  is  his  "  General  History  of 
England,  both  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil,"  (3  vols.  fol, 
1700.)  Died  in  1718. 

Tyrteeus,  tir-tee'us,  [Gr.  Tvprfwoc;  Fr.  TYRTEE, 
teR'ta';  Ger.  TYRTAUS,  te^R-ta'us,]  a  celebrated  Greek 
elegiac  poet  and  musician,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Miletus,  flourished  about  685  B.C.  According 
to  tradition,  the  Spartans,  instructed  by  the  Delphic 
oracle,  requested  the  Athenians  to  send  them  a  leader. 
The  Athenians,  in  derision,  sent  Tyrtaeus,  a  lame  school 
master.  He  composed  martial  songs  by  which  the 
Spartans  were  animated  to  victory  in  their  war  against 
the  Messenians.  His  war-songs  had  a  great  and  lasting 
influence  over  the  Spartans,  who  continued  to  sing  them 
for  several  centuries.  To  remove  dissensions  among 
the  Spartans,  he  wrote  a  political  elegy,  called  "  Euno- 
mia,"  some  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 

See  A.  MATTHI^G,  "  De  Tyrtaei  Carminibus,"  1820:  N.  BACH, 
"Ucber  Tyrtasus,"  1830;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1835;  K. 
O.  MUI.I.RR.  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  FA- 
BRICIUS,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Tyrtaus.     See  TYRT^US. 

Tyrtee.     See  TYRTAUS. 

Tyrwhitt,  teVit,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  phi 
lologist  and  antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1730.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1762  was  ap 
pointed  clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  also 
curator  of  the  British  Museum,  and  a  Fellow  of  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

136 


See  Explanations,  p.  2  ?. 


TTSON 


2162 


UDAL 


Royal  Society  and  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  his 
"Dissertation  on  Babrius,"  (1776,)  "Conjectures  upon 
Strabo,"  (1783,) — both  in  Latin, — an  excellent  edition 
of  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  "Poems  supposed 
to  have  been  written  at  Bristol  in  the  Tenth  Century 
by  Rowley,"  etc.,  in  which  he  exposes  the  fraud  of 
Chatterton,  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Poetics"  of  Aristotle. 
He  died  in  1786.  His  "Conjectures  upon  ^schylus, 
Euripides,  and  Aristophanes"  came  out  in  1822. 

Ty'spn,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  physician  and  anato 
mist,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1649.  He  took  his  degree 
at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  physician  to  the 
Bridewell  and  Bethlem  Hospitals.  He  was  also  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
He  published  several  excellent  treatises  on  comparative 
anatomy,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Orang-Outang, 
sive  Homo  Sylvestris;  or,  The  Anatomy  of  a  Pygmie, 
compared  with  that  of  a  Monkey,"  etc. ;  and  "  Phoccena  ; 
or,  The  Anatomy  of  a  Porpesse,"  etc.,  (1680.)  He 
also  contributed  several  valuable  essays  to  the  "Philo 
sophical  Transactions."  Died  in  1708. 

Tyson,  (MICHAEL,)  an  English  clergyman  and  en 
graver,  born  about  1740.  He  etched  several  portraits. 
Died  in  1780. 

Tyssens,  tl'sens,  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
landscapes  and  animals,  born  about  1662,  was  a  son  of 
Peter,  noticed  below.  He  worked  at  Antwerp.  Died 
about  1722. 

Tyssens,  (NIKOLAAS,)  an  able  Flemish  painter  of 
birds,  flowers,  etc.,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1719. 

Tyssens,  (PETER,)  a  distinguished  Flemish  painter, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1625.  He  excelled  both  in 
portraits  and  historical  painting.  Among  his  works  in 
the  latter  department  we  may  name  "The  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  James,  at  Antwerp. 
Died  in  1692.  His  sons  NICHOLAS  and  AUGUSTINE  were 
also  celebrated  artists.  The  former  painted  chiefly  birds 
and  flowers,  and  the  latter  landscapes  of  great  merit. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Tyt'ler,  (ALEXANDER  FRASER,)  Lord  Woodhouselee, 
a  distinguished  Scottish  historian  and  jurist,  son  of 
William,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1747. 
He  studied  law  in  his  native  city,  and  was  admitted  an 
advocate  in  1770.  He  became  professor  of  universal 
history  and  Roman  antiquities  at  Edinburgh  in  1786, 
and  in  1802  was  made  judge  of  the  court  of  session, 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Woodhouselee.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Translation," 
(1791,)  "Elements  of  General  History,"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1801,)  "Treatise  upon  Martial  Law,"  and  "Memoirs  of 


the  Life  and  Writings  of  Henry  Home,  Lord  Kames," 
(2  vols.,  1807-10.)  He  died  in  1813,  having  been  pre 
viously  appointed  a  lord  of  justiciary. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tytler,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Brechin 
in  1747.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Geographical,  His 
torical,  and  Commercial  Grammar,"  and  other  works. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,"  second  edition.  He  died  at  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
about  1804. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tytler,  (PATRICK  FRASER,)  a  historian,  a  son  of 
Alexander  F.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1791.  He  was  educated  at  the  High  School  and  Uni 
versity  of  Edinburgh.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Admi 
rable  Crichton,"  (1819,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh," 
(1833,)  a  "Life  of  Henry  VIII.,"  (1837,)  and  other 
biographies.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  Scot 
land,"  (9  vols.,  1828-43,)  which  has  a  high  reputation. 
He  was  an  Episcopalian,  and  not  disposed  to  estimate 
the  Scottish  Reformers  so  favourably  as  some  other 
historians.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  in  December,  1849, 
leaving  several  children. 

See  BURGON,  "Life  of  P.  F.  Tytler;"  CHAMBKRS,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  ''London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
March,  1841,  and  July,  1859;  "North  British  Review"  tor  August, 
185,5. 

Tytler,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1711.  He  published  an  "  Inquiry, 
Historical  and  Critical,  into  the  Evidence  against  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (1759,)  "The  Poetical  Remains  of 
James  I.  of  Scotland,"  (1783,)  "A  Dissertation  on 
Scottish  Music,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1792. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tzetzes,  tset'zez,  (JOANNES,)  a  Greek  poet  and 
grammarian  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Iliaca,"  comprising  three  poems,  "Ante- 
Homerica,"  "  Ilomerica,"  and  "  Post-Homerica,"  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  extant,  and  was  published  in 
1793  by  F.  W.  Jacobs.  He  also  wrote  commentaries 
on  several  Greek  classics. 

His  brother  ISAAC  was  also  distinguished  for  his 
learning. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Tzschirner,  tsheeVner,  (HEINRICH  GOTTLIEB,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1778.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  professor  of  theology  in  1809.  Among  his 
numerous  works  we  may  name  "  Protestantism  and 
Catholicism  regarded  from  the  Stand-Point,  of  Politics," 
and  "The  System  of  Reaction."  Died  in  1828. 


TJ. 


Ubaldi,  (GuiDO.)     See  GUIDO  URALDO. 

Ubaldini,  oo-bal-dee'nee,  (PETRUCCIO,)  an  Italian 
artist  and  writer,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1524.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  early  life,  and  an  illu 
minator  on  vellum.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Life  of  Charlemagne,"  ("Vita  di  Carlo  Magno,"  1581,) 
"Moral  and  Political  Precepts,"  (1592,)  and  "Poems," 
("  Rime,"  1596.)  Died  about  1600. 

Uberti,  degli,  dal'yee  oo-beVtee,  (FARINATA,)  a 
Florentine  leader  of  the  Ghibeline  faction,  was  expelled 
from  Florence  in  1250.  Having  defeated  his  opponents 
in  battle  in  1260,  he  recovered  possession  of  Florence. 
His  magnanimity  is  praised  by  Sismoncli,  who  says  he 
saved  Florence  from  being  razed  to  the  ground  by  his 
own  party. 

Uberti,  degli,  (FAZIO  or  BONIFACIO,)  a  poet,  born 
at  Florence,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
driven  into  exile  by  the  Guelphs.  He  wrote  an  unfinished 
descriptive  poem  called  "The  News  of  the  World,"  ("II 
Dittamondo,")  which  is  said  to  be  interesting.  Died 
about  1367. 

Ubicini,  u'be'se'ne',  (JEAN  HENRI  ABDOLONYME,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1818.  He  published 


"Letters  on  Turkey,"  (2  vols.,  1849-51,)  and  other 
works. 

Uccello,  oot-chel'lo,  (PAOLO,)  an  eminent  Florentine 
painter,  born  about  1395.  His  proper  name  was  PAOLO 
DI  DONO.  He  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  perspective,  and 
for  his  admirable  delineations  of  birds,  from  which  he 
received  the  name  of  Uccello,  ("  bird.")  Died  about  1472. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario." 

Uchanski,  oo-Kan'skee,  (JAMES,)  a  Polish  prelate, 
born  in  1505,  became  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate 
of  Poland  in  1562.  He  favoured  or  tolerated  the  Prot 
estant  doctrines.  Died  in  1581. 

Uchtritz  or  Uechtritz,  von,  fon  uK'tR?ts,  (FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Gorlitz  in 
1800,  has  published,  among  other  works,  a  tragedy  en 
titled  "Alexander  and  Darius,"  and  "The  Babylonians 
in  Jerusalem,"  a  dramatic  poem. 

U'dal,  (EPHRAIM,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  who 
preached  in  London,  became  an  Episcopalian,  and  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Sacrilege."  Died  in  1647. 

Udal,  (JoHN,)  an  English  scholar,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  imprisoned  on  account  of  his  Puritan 
principles,  and  died  in  1592.  His  "Key  to  the  Holy 


a, e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VDAL 


2163 


ULISSE 


Tongue"  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Hebrew  grammar 
published  in  England. 

Udal  or  Udall,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English  scholar  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hampshire  in  1506.  Having  studied 
at  Oxford,  he  became  master  of  Eton  School,  and  sub 
sequently  of  Westminster  School.  He  published  a 
selection  from  Terence's  comedies,  with  an  English 
translation,  entitled  "  Flovres  for  Latyne  Spekynge,"  and 
wrote  several  original  comedies,  which  have  been  lost, 
with  the  exception  of  one,  called  "  Ralph  Royster  Doys- 
ter."  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  English  play  of 
the  kind  divided  into  acts  and  scenes.  Died  in  1564. 

Uden,  van,  vSn  vi'den,  (LucAS,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596.  He 
executed  the  backgrounds  for  several  of  Rubens's  pic 
tures,  who  in  return  painted  the  figures  in  his.  Among 
his  master-pieces  may  be  named  a  "  Landscape  by 
Moonlight,"  in  the  Lichtenstein  gallery  at  Vienna.  His 
engravings  are  numerous  and  highly  prized.  Died 
about  1662. 

Udiiie,  da,  da  oo'de-na,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1489,  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  grotesque 


a  poet,  Uhland  is  characterized  by  simplicity  and  ten 
derness  joined  with  deep  religious  feeling. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Rlackwood's 
Magazine"  for  February,  1827;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1837;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  tor  July,  1864;  L.  DE  Lo- 
MEN'IE,  "  M.  Uhland,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841 :  F.  NOTTER, 
"  Uhland,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Dichtungen,"  1863  :  PFIZER,  "  Uhland 
und  Riickert,"  1837;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Genemle  ;"  "Jahrbuch 
zum  Conversations-Lexicon,"  1863. 

Uhlefeld  or  Ulefeld,  oo'leh-feld',  written  also  Ul- 
feld  or  Ulfeldt,  (CORNIFEX,  CORFITO,  or  CORFITZ,) 
COUNT,  a  Danish  courtier,  became  the  chief  favourite  of 
Christian  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Viceroy  of  .Norway, 
and  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  France  in  1647.  After 
the  death  of  that  king  he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  entered 
the  service  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  He  is  censured 
for  his  hostility  to  his  native  country.  Having  been 
accused  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  King  of  Denmark, 
he  was  condemned  to  death  in  1663,  but  he  was  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  law.  Died  in  1664. 

See  ROUSSEAU  DE  LA  VAI.ETTE,  "  Histoire  du  Comte  d'Uhle- 
feld,"  1678;  HANS  PAUS,  "C.  Ulfeldt's  Levnet,"  1747. 

TThlich,  oo'liK,  (LEBERECHT,)  a  German  theologian 


subjects.      He  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he  assisted  ,  of  the  rationalistic  school,  was  born  at  Kothen  in  1799. 


in  painting  the  Loggie  in  the  Vatican.     He  excelled  as  a 
painter  of  animals,  birds,  etc.     Died  about  1562. 
See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Uffeiibach,  von,  fon  ooffen-baK',  QOHANN  FRIED- 
RICH,)  a  German  poet  and  musician,  born  at  Frankfort 
in  1687,  was  a  brother  of  the  following.  Died  in  1769. 

Uffeiibach,   von,   (ZACHARIAS   CONRAD,)  a  distin- 


He  preached  at  Magdeburg,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Ten  Years  at  Magdeburg,  1845-55," 
(1856.) 

Ullrich,  oo'riK  or  ii'rek',  (JEAN  JACQUES  ALEXIS,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Phalsbourg  in  1802,  became 
brigadier-general  in  1852,  and  general  of  division  in 
1856.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  the  Italian 


U  AiCllUdWll.       V  UU..       \  t-j .A  »_  ri .-\  is.  i --\  .3      \_,wi^  ix-nj^,!      a.      vnovi  n~  .  _  _  o/.        . 

guished  German  scholar,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  i  campaign  of  1859.     In  1862  he  received  the  grand  cross 
in  1681.     He  studied  at  Halle,  and  afterwards  visited  j  °/  the  ^S10"  ot  honoui.     Ab° 


III       IOO^.  i  At      a  LULI  1(^1.1      tXL     i  1  ell  i  ^  ,       £111  Vi       n  j  L>_  i    **  (.1.  i  \_io       v  40  i  wwvi     i 

England.     He  was  made  a  senator  of  his  native  city  in  j  [he  service,  Jut  on  the  outbreak 

.     ^    .          .  TT      J     ,         h»  o^L-fiH    o«H    tfVHf-airi*a/i     rnmni^n 


1721,  and  subsequently  became  chief  justice.     He  col- 


e'ct  d  a   v  ^ge  a-d TaSle  libr^    of  which  he    post .fe  held  until  its  surrender    September  28    1870. 

3  _    O  .  ^  ^TW-        .  ,  TTllIroncrnl'L-^TTcM  APC^P       ATRFRIl     3       Illltrh      Ti3 


he  asked  and  obtained  command  of  Strasbourg,  which 


published  a  catalogue,  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Uffenbach- 
iana,"  etc.  He  was  the  author  of  "  German  Glossary  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  ("Glossarium  Germanicum  Medii 


Uilkens,  oil'kens,  (JACOB  ALBERT,)  a  Dutch  natu- 
list  and  minister,  born  near  Groningen  in  1732.     He 
published,   besides   other  works,   a   "  Manual  of  Rural 

*>!,»)  an  autobiographv,   entitled  » Cotnmentarius   de  ,  Economy,"  (1819,)    and    was    professor  of  rural    econ- 
Vita  propria,"  and   several  bibliographical  works,  (un-    omv  at  Groningen.     Died  in  1825. 
finished.)     Died  in  1734. 

See  HERMANN,  "  Uffenbach's  Leben,"  1753- 


Uggione  or  Uglone.     See  OGGIONE. 

Ughelli,  oo-gel'lee,  (FERDINANDO,)  an  Italian  eccle 
siastic,  born  at  Florence  about  1595,  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "  Italia  Sacra,"  (9  vols.,  1642,) 
being  a  history  of  the  Italian  sees,  etc.,  also  an  account 
of  the  Colonna  family,  called  "  Imagines  Columnensis 
Familiae  Carclinalium,"  (1650.)  Died  in  1670. 

Ugolino.     See  GHERARDESCA. 

Ugoni,  oo-go'nee,  (CAMILLO,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Brescia  in  1  784.  He  translated  some  works  of  Horace, 
and  Caesar's  "  Commentaries."  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  his  "  History  of  Italian  Literature  in  the  Second  Half 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1820-22.)  He  was 
exiled  for  liberalism  from  1821  to  1838.  Died  in  1856. 

Ugoiii,  [Lat.  UGO'NIUS,]  (MATTHIAS,)  an  Italian  prel 
ate  and  writer  on  councils,  flourished  about  1510.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Famagosta,  in  Cyprus.  He  asserted 
the  supremacy  of  councils  over  the  pope. 

Ugoiiius.     See  UGONI. 

Uhland,  oo'lant,  QOHANN  LUDWIG,)  a  celebrated 
German  lyric  poet,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1  787.  He  studied 
law  in  his  native  town,  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
in  1810.  He  was  a  member  for  Tubingen  in  the  repre 
sentative  assembly  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1819,  and  in  1830 
was  appointed  professor-extraordinary  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  at  Tubingen.  Having  been 
chosen  a  deputy  to  the  Diet  in  1833,  he  was  conspicuous 
as  an  able  and  earnest  advocate  of  the  constitutional 
opposition.  He  had  published  in  1815  a  collection  of 
patriotic  songs,  which  became  widely  popular.  This  was 
followed  by  an  essay  "  On  Walthervon  der  Vogelweide," 
(1822,)  "  On  the  Myth  of  the  Northern  Legend  of  Thor," 
("  Ueber  den  Mythus  der  Nordische  Sagenlehre  vom 
Thor,"  1836,)  and  "  Ancient  High  and  Low  Dutch  Popu 
lar  Songs,"  ("Alter  hoch-  und  niederdeutscher  Volks- 


lieder,"   1844-45.) 


a'so    composed    two  tragedies, 


Duke  Ernest  of  Suabia,"  (1817,)  and  "Louis  the  Bava 
rian,"  (1819.)   Died  at  Tubingen  in  November,  1862.    As 


Uitenbogaard,  oi'ten-bo'giRt,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  Re 
monstrant  minister,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1557,  was  a 
chaplain  of  Maurice  the  Stadtholder.  He  became  a 
friend  of  Arminius,  was  persecuted  by  the  Calvinistic 
party,  and  banished  in  1618.  Died  in  1650. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1639,  and  his  "  Life,"  by  G.  BRANDT, 
(in  Latin,)  1720. 

Ukert,  oo'k§Rt,  (FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Eutin  in  1780,  published  a  valuable  work 
on  "  The  Geography  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1816  ;) 
also  a  "  Picture  of  Greece,"  and  "  On  the  Geography  of 
Homer."  He  likewise  assisted  Heeren  in  his  "  History 
of  the  European  States."  Died  in  1851. 

Uladislaus  OF  POLAND.     See  VLADISLAUS. 

Ulbach,  iil'bfk',  (Louis,)  a  French  poet  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Troyes  (Aube)  in  1822,  became  editor  of 
the  "  Revue  de  Paris"  in  1853.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  "Gloriana,"  (1844,)  several  tales,  and 
political  letters  remarkable  for  verve  and  causticity. 

Ulfeld  or  Ulfeldt.     See  UHLEFELD. 

Ulfila.     See  ULFILAS. 

Ul'fi-las,  written  also  Ulfila,  Ulphilas,  and  Vulfila 
or  Wulfila,  a  celebrated  Gothic  scholar  and  writer, 
born  about  318  A.D.,  became  bishop  of  the  Arian  Goths 
living  between  Mount  Hasmus  and  the  Danube.  He 
made  a  Gothic  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  which,  hav 
ing  been  lost  for  a  time,  was  partially  discovered  in  the 
sixteenth  century  in  a  monastery  near  Cologne.  Died 
about  388  A.D.  A  fragment  of  his  version  was  discovered 
by  Angelo  Mai  at  Milan  about  1820.  The  version  of 
Ulfilas  is  regarded  as  a  great  treasure  by  philologists. 

See  GEORG  WAITS  or  WAIZ,  "  Ueber  das  Leben  und  die  Lehre 
des  Ulfilas,"  1840;  IHRE  et  SOTBERG,  "Ulphilas  illustratus,"  1752; 
BESSEI,  "Ueber  das  Leben  des  Ulfilas,"  1860;  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale. " 

Ulft,  van  der,  vtn  der  tilft,  (JACOB,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1627.  He  painted 
views  of  architecture,  ruins,  and  temples,  in  which  he 
introduced  groups  of  figures.  He  was  a  good  colorist. 
Died  after  1688. 

Ulisse,  the  French  and  Italian  of  ULYSSES,  which  see. 


•e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ULLM4NN 


2164 


UL  rSSES 


Ullmann,  ool'man,  (KARi.,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Epfenbach,  in  the  Palatinate,  in  1796.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Tubingen,  and  became  in  1821 
professor-extraordinary  of  theology  in  the  former  uni 
versity.  In  1828  he  associated  with  Umbreit  as  editor 
of  the  journal  entitled  "Theologischen  Stuclien  und 
Kritiken,"  and  in  1829  was  appointed  professor  at  Halle. 
Having  returned  to  Heidelberg  in  1836,  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Upper  Church  Council,  and  an  evan 
gelical  prelate  in  1853.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  Reformers  before  the  Reformation,  particularly  in  Ger 
many  and  the  Netherlands,"  (2  vols.,  1841,)  "  On  the 
Future  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany,"  (1846,) 
"On  the  Value  of  a  Majority  in  the  Church,"  (1850,) 
and  "On  the  Nature  of  Christianity,"  (1855.)  Hi 
writings  enjoy  a  very  high  reputation,  and  have  been 
translated  into  several  languages. 

TJlloa,  ool-lo'a,  [Sp.  pron.  ool-yo'a,]  (ALPHONSO,)  a 
Spanish  historian  and  translator,  settled  at  Venice,  and 
wrote,  in  Italian,  a  "  Life  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.," 
(1560,)  and  other  works.  He  also  translated  into  elegant 
Italian  several  Spanish  histories.  Died  about  1580. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a  or  ool-yo'a,  (Don  ANTONIO,)  a  cele 
brated  mathematician  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Seville, 
in  Spain,  in  1716.  In  1735  he  accompanied  La  Conda- 
mine,  Godin,  and  other  French  savants  to  South  America, 
to  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the  equator.  On 
his  voyage  home,  in  1744,  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
English,  and,  after  a  detention  of  two  years,  returned  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  created  a  commander  of  the  order 
of  Santiago.  He  published  in  1748  a  "  Historical  Ac 
count  of  the  Voyage  to  South  America,"  ("  Relation 
historica  del  Viage  a  la  America  Meridional,")  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  his  friend  and  fellow-traveller,  Jorge 
Juan,  "  American  Notes  on  Southern  and  Northeastern 
America,"  ("Noticias  Americanas  sobre  la  America 
Meridional  y  la  Septentrional-oriental,"  1772,)  and  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Marine  or  the  Naval  Forces  of  Europe 
and  Africa,"  (1778.)  Soon  after  the  cession  of  Louisiana 
to  Spain,  he  was  made  governor  of  that  province;  but 
he  was  subsequently  superseded  by  O'Reilly,  and  on 
his  return  was  appointed  minister  of  the  marine.  Ulloa 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Observatory  at  Cadiz,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement  of  learning  and 
the  arts  and  the  improvement  of  domestic  manufactures 
in  Spain.  Died  in  1795. 

See  FRANCISCO  Hovos,  "  Vida  de  D.  A.  de  Ulloa,"  1847 ;  M  ADOZ, 
"  Diccionario  geografico-historico  ;"  "  Notivelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1828. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a,  (GIROLAMO,)  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Naples  in  1810,  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Venice  against  the  Austrians  in  1849.  After  that  year  he 
resided  in  Paris.  He  published  several  military  works. 

Ulloa,  de,  da  ool-yo'a,  (MARTIN,)  a  Spanish  critic, 
born  at  Seville  in  1730,  was  a  nephew  of  Antonio  Ulloa. 
He  published  several  works.  Died  in  1800. 

Ulloa  y  Pereira,  de,  da  ool-yo'a  e  pa-raVra,  (Luis,) 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toro  about  1590"^  He  wrote 
elegant  lyric  poems,  sonnets,  and  a  poem  entitled  "  Ra- 
quel,"  ("  Rachel.")  Died  in  1660. 

Ullur,  661'lur,  (Ullr,)  or  Ull,  ool,  [signifying  "  wool- 
like"  or  "  white,"  (Sw.  «//,  "  wool,")  so  called  because  he 
is  the  god  of  winter  or  snow,]  the  god  who,  according  to 
the  Norse  mythology,  presides  over  winter  and  winter- 
sports,  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Sif  and  step-son  of 
Thor.  In  running  on  snow-shoes  he  has  no  equal ;  he 
is  also  an  excellent  archer.  His  dwelling  is  Ydalir, 
(e-da'lir,)  i.e.  the  "place  (or  dale)  of  dampness  and  cold." 

Ulphilaa.     See  ULFILAS. 

Ul'pl-an,  [Lat.  ULPIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  ULPIEN,  uTpe-aN',] 
(DoMi'nus,)  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Tyre,  was  born  about  170  A.D.  He  was 
distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Alexander  Severus,  who 
made  him  his  secretary,  and  praetorian  prefect.  He  was 
killed  in  a  mutiny  of  the  praetorian  soldiers  in  228  A.D. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Ad  Edictum," 
and  other  legal  treatises,  which  were  highly  esteemed  ; 
but  most  of  them  are  now  lost.  Several  editions  of  the 
fragments  have  been  published. 

,,J?ee  A-  STEGER,  "  Dissertatio  de  D.  Ulpiano,"  1725;  GROTIUS, 
Vits  Junsconsultorura  ;"  CLODIUS,  "Apologia  Ulpiani,"  1811. 


Ulpianus.     See  ULPIAN. 

Ul-pl-a'iius  OK  ANTIOCH,  a  rhetorician  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
author  of  "  Commentaries  on  the  Orations  of  Demos 
thenes  called  Symbuleutici,"  also  "  Prolegomena,"  and 
other  works.  Ulpian  of  Emesa  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Art  of  Rhetoric." 

Ulpien.     See  ULPIAN. 

Ulric  or  Ulrick,  iil'rik,  [Ger.  ULRICH,  ool'riK,] 
(ANTON,)  Duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  1633.  He  wrote  several  very  successful 
poems,  a  number  of  melodramas,  and  novels  entitled 
"Aramena,  the  Illustrious  Syrian  Lady,"  (1678,)  and 
"  Octavia,  a  Roman  Story,"  (in  German,  6  vols.,  1685- 
1707.)  Died  in  1714. 

Ulrica  (ool-ree'ka)  El-e-o-no'ra,  [Fr.  ULRIQUE 
Ei.ltoNoRE,  uTrek'  a'la/o'noR',]  Queen  of  Sweden,  born 
in  1656,  became  the  wife  of  Charles  XI.  and  the  mother 
of  Charles  XII.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Frederick  III. 
of  Denmark.  Died  in  1693. 

See  13oECLER,  "Vita  Ulrica;  Eleonorae,"  1697. 

Ulrica  Eleonora,  Queen  of  Sweden,  a  daughter  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1688.  She  married  Prince 
Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel  about  1715.  She  was  a 
sister  of  Charles  XII.  In  1719  she  was  elected  as  his 
successor;  but  she  transferred  the  royal  power  to  her 
husband.  Died  in  1744. 

Ulrich,  ool'riK,  QOHANN  KASPAR,)  a  Swiss  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  1705;  died  at  Zurich  in  1768. 

Ulrich,  (JOHANN  RUDOLPH,)  a  Swiss  preacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1728.  He  became  first  pastor 
of  Zurich  in  1769.  Died  in  1795. 

Ulrich,  ool'riK,  (PHILIPP  ADAM,)  a  German  philan 
thropist,  born  in  1692.  He  was  eminent  for  various 
forms  of  practical  charity. 

See  OBERTHUR,  "Life  of  P.  A.  Ulrich,"  (in  German,)  1783. 

Ulrich,  (Trrus,)  a  German  poet,  born  in  the  county 
of  Glatz,  Prussia,  in  1813.  He  produced  in  1845  "The 
Canticle  of  Canticles,"  ("  Das  Hohe  Lied,")  which  is 
highly  praised,  and  in  1848  a  poem  called  "  Victor," 
which  was  very  popular. 

Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein.     See  LICHTENSTEIN. 

Ulrici,  ool-reet'see,  (HERMANN,)  a  German  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1806.  He  studied 
law  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  but  subsequently  devoted  him 
self  to  literature,  and  published  in  1833  his  "Character 
istics  of  Antique  Historiography."  This  was  followed 
by  his  "  History  of  the  Poetic  Art  in  Greece,"  (2  vols., 
1835,)  and  a  treatise  "On  Shakspeare's  Dramatic  Art," 
(1839,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour.  He  has 
also  written  several  philosophical  works,  among  which 
are  "On  the  Principle  and  Method  of  the  Philosophy  of 
Ilepel,"  (1841,)  and  "  Gott  und  die  Natur,"  (1862.) 

Ulrike.     See  LUISE  ULRIKK. 

Ulugh  o_r  Ulug  Beg.     See  OLUG  BEG. 

U-lys'ses,  [Gr.  'Odvaari'f,  (Odysseus;)  Fr.  ULISSK, 
ii'less';  It.  ULISSE,  oo-les'sa,]  called  also  Ulyx'es  and 
Ith'acus,  King  of  Ithaca,  a  Grecian  chief,  renowned 
for  his  eloquence,  subtlety,  sagacity,  and  wisdom,  was  the 
son  of  Laertes,  (or,  as  some  say,  of  Sisyphus,)  and  hus 
band  of  Penelope.  He  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen. 
He  was  the  most  politic  of  all  the  commanders  who 
conducted  the  siege  of  Troy,  to  the  capture  of  which  he 
greatly  contributed  by  his  stratagems  and  exploits.  The 
invention  of  the  wooden  horse  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some 
writers.  After  the  death  of  Achilles  he  contended  for 
his  armour  with  success  against  Ajax.  His  wanderings, 
navigations,  and  adventures  after  the  destruction  of  Troy 
form  the  subject  of  the  "  Odyssey"  of  Homer,  who  relates 
that  he  sailed  from  Troy  with  twelve  ships,  and  was 
driven  by  the  wind  to  the  coast  of  Africa  ;  that  he  visited 
the  island  of  /Eolus,  who  gave  him  a  number  of  winds 
confined  in  a  bag;  that  he  passed  a  year  in  the  island  of 
Circe  the  magician  ;  that,  after  many  of  his  companions 
had  been  devoured  by  the  Cyclops  and  Scylla,  he  was 
driven  to  the  island  of  Calypso,  who  gave  him  a  warm 
reception,  detained  him  for  eight  years,  and  tempted  him 
to  marry  her,  with  the  promise  of  immortality,  which  he 
declined,  "vetulam  suam  praetulit  immortalitati ;"  that 
after  an  absence  of  twenty  years  he  returned  to  Ithaca 
alone  and  disguised  as  a  beggar,  and  found  his  palace 


a,  e,  1,0,  u,  y,  long;  &,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


UMBRE1T 


2165 


URBAN 


occupied  by  numerous  suitors,  whom,  with  the  aid  of  his 
son  Telemachus,  he  killed.     Horace  says, 

"  Rursus  quid  Virtus  et  quid  Sapientia  possit 
Utile  proposuit  nobis  exemplar  Ulixen."* 

Epistles,  book  i.,  2. 

Umbreit,  oom'bRit,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM  KARL,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Saxe-Gotha  in 
1795.  He  studied  the  Oriental  languages  at  Gb'ttingen, 
and  became  successively  professor  of  philosophy  and 
of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  published  several  valu 
able  exegetical  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Philological, 
Critical,  and  Philosophical  Commentary  on  Solomon's 
Proverbs,"  (1826,)  "Christian  Edification  from  the  Psal 
ter,"  etc.,  and  "  Practical  Commentary  on  the  Prophets 
of  the  Old  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1841.)  He  also  wrote 
a  "Translation  and  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Job," 
and  "New  Poetry  from  the  Old  Testament,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1860. 

Umeau,  ii'mo',  (JEAN,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Poi 
tiers  in  1598  ;  died  in  1682. 

Umeyade.     See  OMEYYADE. 

Umeyyah.     See  OMEYYAH. 

Uminski,  oo-men'skee,  (]AN  NEPOMUK,)  a  Polish  gen 
eral,  born  in  Posen  in  1780,  served  in  the  French  cam 
paigns  in  Poland  in  1807  and  1809,  and  in  1831  defeated 
General  Diebitsch  in  the  battle  of  Grochow.  Died  in  1851. 

Uiicas,  iing'kass,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Mohegans  in 
Connecticut,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1637 
he  joined  the  English  in  their  war  against  the  Pequots. 
Died  about  1680. 

Un'der-wood,  (JOSEPH  R.,)  an  American  Senator 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Goochland  county,  Virginia,  in  1791. 
He  removed  to  Bowling  Green,  Kentucky,  about  1823, 
and  represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1845.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  by  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  in  1847. 

Un'der-wood,  (T.  R.,)  an  English  artist  and  writer, 
published  a  "  Narrative  of  Memorable  Events  in  Paris 
during  the  Capitulation  in  1814."  Died  in  1835. 

Uiiger,  oung'er,  QOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  an  eminent 
German  printer  and  wood-engraver,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1750,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed  below.  He 
became  professor  of  wood-engraving  in  the  Academy  of 
Plastic  Arts  at  Berlin,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of 
types  called  "  Ungerian  Types,"  ("  Ungerische  Schrift.") 
He  died  in  1804.  His  wife,  FREDERIKE  HEI.ENE,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1751,  was  distinguished  for  her  talents  and 
accomplishments,  and  published  several  popular  novels, 
one  of  which,  entitled  "Julia  Griinthal,  the  History  of 
a  Boarding-School  Girl,"  ("  Julchen  Griinthal,  eine  Pen- 
sionsgeschichte,"  1784,)  is  particularly  admired.  Her 
"  Confessions  of  a  Beautiful  Soul"  ("  Bekentnisse  einer 
schb'nen  Seele,"  1806)  also  deserves  especial  mention. 
Died  in  1813. 

Unger,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
near  Pirna  in  1715,  was  celebrated  for  his  improvements 
in  wood-cutting  and  typography.  Several  of  his  land 
scapes  engraved  on  wood  are  esteemed  master-pieces 
of  the  kind.  Died  in  1788. 

Union,  de  la,  da  la  oo-ne-6n',  (Don  Luis  FIRMIN  de 
Carvajal  y  Vargas — da  kaR-va-HaK  e  vaR'gas,)  COUNT, 
a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Lima  in  1752.  He  gained 
the  rank  of  general  by  his  services  against  the  French 
invaders  in  1793,  and  became  commander  of  an  army  in 
Catalonia  in  1794.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  near 
Figueras  the  same  year. 

Unterberger,  oon'ter-b^R'ger,  (!GNAZ,)  a  Tyrolese 
painter,  born  at  Karales  in  1744,  worked  at  Vienna. 
Among  his  works  are  pictures  of  Bacchus,  Minerva,  and 
Hebe,  which  are  highly  praised.  Died  in  1797. 

Unterholzner,  oon'ter-holts'ner,  (KARL  AUGUST  Do- 
MINICUS,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Freising  in  1787, 
wrote  several  treatises  on  Roman  law.  Died  in  1838. 

Unzelmami,  oont'sel-rr.an',  (FRIEDRICH  LuD\vic,)a 
German  wood-engraver,  born  about  1798,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gubitz,  and  obtained  the  title  of  royal  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  Berlin.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon,  and  a  large  print 
of  the  "Death  of  Franz  von  Sickingen."  Died  in  1854. 

*  "Again  to  show  what  courage  and  what  wisdom  can  accomplish, 
he  [Homer]  has  set  before  us  Ulysses  as  a  useful  example." 


Unzelmann,  (KARL  WILHELM  FERDINAND,)  a  Ger 
man  comic  actor,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1753  ;  died  in 
1832.  His  son  KARL  was  also  a  popular  actor  in  the 
same  department. 

Unzer,  oont'ser,  ( JOHANN  AUGUST,)  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Halle  in  1727.  was  editor  of  a  medical 
journal  entitled  "  Der  Arzt."  He  was  the  author  of 
"  First  Principles  of  the  Physiology,  etc.  of  Animated 
Bodies,"  (1771,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1799. 
His  wife,  JOANNA  CHARLOTTE,  published  a  number  of 
popular  poems. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale ;"  HIRSCHING,  "  Historisch-litera- 
risches  Handbuch." 

Upanishad,  written  also  Upenished,  [modern  Hin 
doo  pron.  do-pun'i-shud,]  a  Sanscrit  term,  denoting 
what  is  most  essential  in  the  religious  writings  of  the 
Hindoos,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  theological  and  argu 
mentative  portions  of  the  VEDAS,  (which  see.) 

See  WILSON,  "Sanscrit  Dictionary;"  COLEBROOKE,  article  in 
"Asiatic  Researches,"  pp.  472-3. 

Up'cott,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  bibliographer  and 
collector  of  autographs,  born  in  London  in  1779;  died 
in  1845. 

Upham,  lip'am,  (CHARLES  WENTWORTH,)  a  Unita 
rian  divine  and  writer,  born  at  Saint  John,  New  Bruns 
wick,  in  1802,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1854.  He 
has  published  "Lectures  on  Witchcraft,"  etc.,  (1831,) 
"Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,"  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography,"  and  made  numerous  contributions  to  the 
"North  American  Review,"  "Christian  Examiner,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  began  to  preach  at  Salem,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1824,  and  quitted  the  ministry  in  1844. 

Upham,  (THOMAS  COGSWELL,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine  and  able  writer,  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  New  Hampshire,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  became  in  1825  professor  of 
mental  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bowdoin  College. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Philosophical  and  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Will,"  (1834,)  "Life,  Religious  Opinions, 
etc.  of  Madame  Guyon,"  (1847,)  "Principles  of  the  In 
terior  or  Hidden  Life,"  (1848,)  "Life  of  Madame 
Catharine  Adorna,"  (1856,)  and  "Letters,  ^Esthetic, 
Social,  and  Moral,  written  from  Europe,  Egypt,  and 
Palestine,"  (1857.)  He  has  likewise  published  a  trans 
lation  of  Jahn's  "  Biblical  Archaeology,"  (5th  edition, 
1849.) 

Up'shur,  (ABEL  PARKER,)  an  American  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  Northampton  county,  Virginia.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy  by  President  Tyler 
in  September,  1841,  and  succeeded  Webster  as  secretary 
of  state  in  May,  1843.  He  was  killed  by  the  explo 
sion  of  a  cannon  on  board  the  steamer  Princeton,  in 
February,  1844,  aged  about  fifty-three.  He  belonged  to 
the  extreme  State-Rights  and  pro-slavery  school  of  the 
South. 

Up'ton,  (TAMES,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
born  in  Cheshire  in  1670.  He  published  an  edition  of 
Aristotle's  "Poetics,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1749. 
His  son,  of  the  same  name,  edited  Spenser's  "  Faerie 
Queene,"  and  was  the  author  of  "  Observations  on  Shak- 
speare."  Died  in  1760. 

U-ra'm-a,  [Gr.  Orpavia,  (from  avpavos,  "  heaven  ;") 
Fr.  URANIE,  ii'rt'ne',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses  of  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  Muse  of  Astronomy,  was  supposed 
to  be  a  daughter  of  Zeus. 

U'ra-nus,  [Gr.  Ovpavof,  i.e.  the  "  sky"  or  "  heaven,"] 
a  divin'ity  of  classic  mythology,  identified  with  the  Roman 
Ccelus,  was  considered  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  gods. 
He  was  represented  as  the  husband  of  Terra,  and  the 
father  of  Oceanus,  Cronus,  (Saturn,)  Themis,  Hyperion, 
and  the  other  Titans,  whom  he  confined  in  Tartarus. 
According  to  the  legend,  he  was  dethroned  by  Cronus. 

Urbain.     See  URBAN. 

Ur'ban  [Lat.  URBA'NUS;  Fr.  URBAIN,  iiR'baN']  I. 
succeeded  Calixtus  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  224  A.D. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  Alex 
ander  Severus,  (230  A.D.) 

Urban  H.,  born  in  France,  succeeded  Victor  III. 
as  Pope  of  Rome  in  1088.  He  excommunicated  Henry 
IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  supported  Clement  III. 
as  anti-pope,  having  previously  incited  Conrad,  son  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


URBAN 


2  166 


URSINS 


the  emperor,  to  revolt  against  him.  In  a  council  at 
Piacenza  in  1095  he  proclaimed  the  first  crusade.  His 
successor  was  Paschal  II.  Died  in  1099. 

Urban  III.  succeeded  Lucius  II.  in  1185.  He  dice 
in  1187. 

Urban  IV.,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France,  succeedec 
Alexander  IV.  in  1261.  He  carried  on  a  war  agains 
Manfred,  Prince  of  Sicily,  and  made  an  alliance  with 
Charles  of  Anjou,  on  whom  he  bestowed  the  crown  of 
Sicily  and  Apulia  in  fief  of  the  Roman  see,  (1263.)  Fron 
this  treaty  arose  the  subsequent  wars  between  France 
and  Italy  during  several  centuries.  He  died  in  1264 
and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  IV. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban  V.,  originally  named  GUILLAUME  DE  Gri- 
nioard,  (gRe/mo-tR/,)  was  a  native  of  France,  and  suc 
ceeded  Innocent  VI.  as  pope  in  1362.  He  was  the  last 
of  the  pontiffs  who  resided  at  Avignon,  and  in  1367  he 
removed  his  court  to  Rome.  He  died  in  1370,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  XI. 

Urban  [Lat.  URBA'NUS  ;  It.  URBANO,  ooR-ba'no]  VI., 
originally  named  BARTOLOMMEO  Prigiiano,  (puen-yi'- 
no,)  succeeded  Gregory  XI.  in  1378.  He  gave  great  offence 
by  his  severity  to  the  cardinals,  who  elected  an  anti-pope 
in  opposition  to  him,  under  the  title  of  Clement  VI. 
In  1385  he  had  six  cardinals  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of 
conspiring  against  him.  He  died  in  1389,  as  some  writers 
assert,  by  poison,  and  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  IX. 

See  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "Histoite  des  souverains  Pontifes. 

Urban  VII.,  a  native  of  Rome,  originally  named 
GIAMBATTISTA  Castagna,  (ka's-tiin'ya',)  was  chosen  suc 
cessor  to  Sixtus  V.  in  1590.  He  survived  his  election  thir 
teen  days,  and  Gregory  XIV.  was  elected  to  succeed  him. 

Urban  VIII.,  originally  named  MAKKEO  Barberini, 
(baR-bi-ree'nee,)  born  at  Florence  in  1568,  succeeded 
Gregory  XV.  in  1623.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  his  liberal  patronage  of  science  and  art. 
He  founded  the  College  de  Propaganda  Fide,  finished 
the  aqueduct  of  Acqua  Felice,  increased  the  Vatican 
Library,  and  improved  the  "Breviarium  Romanum." 
Under  his  rule  Italy  was  disturbed  by  contests  between 
the  French  and  Spaniards  for  supremacy  in  that  country. 
The  duchy  of  Urbino  was  made  a  fief  of  the  Roman  see 
in  1626.  •  Urban  died  in  1644,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Innocent  X. 

See  SIMONINI,  "Sylvae  Urbanianae,  sen  Gesta  Urban!  VIII.," 
1657  ;  ARTAUD  DE  MONTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban.     See  FORTIA  D'URBAN. 

Urban,  de  Saint,  deh  s&Nt  iiR'blN',  (FERDINAND,) 
a  French  architect,  born  at  Nancy  in  1654.  He  was 
patronized  by  Pope  Innocent  XL,  who  appointed  him 
his  first  architect  and  director  of  medals.  Died  in  1738. 

Urbanus.     See  URBAN. 

Urbino.     See  TIMOTEO  DA  URBINO. 

Urceo,  ooR'cha-o,  [Lai.  UR'CEUS,]  (ANTONIO,)  sur- 
named  CODRUS,  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at 
Rubiera  in  1446.  He  taught  Greek  and  Latin  for  many 
years  at  Bologna,  whither  he  removed  in  1482.  He 
wrote  orations,  letters,  and  poems.  Died  in  1500. 

See  BIANCHINI,  "  Vita  A.  Codri  Urcei;"  NICERON,  "Memoires." 

Urceus.     See  URCEO. 

Ure,  (ANDREW,)  an  eminent  Scottish  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1778.  He  took  his  medi 
cal  degree  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  became  in 
1802  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  in 
the  Andersonian  Institution  in  that  city.  Among  his 
principal  publications  are  his  "New  Experimental  Re 
searches  on  some  of  the  Leading  Doctrines  of  Caloric," 
etc.,  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,'"  (1821,)  "On  the  Ulti 
mate  Analysis  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances," 
(1822,)  "System  of  Geology,"  (1829,)  "Philosophy  of 
Manufactures,"  (1835,)  and  "Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manu 
factures,  and  Mines,"  (1839,) — one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind.  Dr.  Ure  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  other  learned  institutions,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Observatory  at  Glasgow.  Died  in  1857. 

Urfe,  d',  diiR'fa',  (ANNE,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Forez  in  1555-  He  became  a  privy  councillor,  and  after 
wards  a  priest.  He  married  a  rich  heiress,  named  Diane 
de  Chateau-Morand.  Died  in  1621. 

See  BERNARD,  "Les  Urfe,  Souvenirs  historiques,"  etc.,  1839. 


Urfe,  d',  (HoNORE,)  a  French  writer  of  romance, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1567  or  1568,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  soldier  by  profession,  and  fought 
in  the  civil  war  for  the  League.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  romance  called  "  Astree,"  (1610-19,)  which  was 
once  very  celebrated.  Died  in  1625. 

See  N.  BONAFOUS,  "  E"tudes  snr  1'Aslree  et  sur  Honore  d'Urfe," 
1847;  A.  BERNARD,  "  Les  Urfe,"  1839;  NICERON,  "Memoires;" 
DUNI.OP,  "  History  of  Fiction  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Urkhan.     See  OORKHAN. 

Urquhart,  urk'hart,  (DAVID,)  an  able  British  writer 
and  politician,  born  at  Cromarty  in  1805.  He  went  to 
Greece  with  Lord  Cochrane  in  1827,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Turkey  and  its  Resources," 
(1833,)  and  "Travels  in  Spain  and  Morocco,"  (1849.) 
He  maintained  the  opinion  that  the  Ottoman  empire 
has  elements  of  vitality  and  progress.  He  became 
an  uncompromising  adversary  of  Palmerston's  foreign 
policy,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Conservative 
in  1847.  &'<?<£•  -  '*7a 

Urquhart,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  mathematician 
under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  Logopandecteision,  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Universal 
Language,"  and  a  treatise  "On  Trigonometry." 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Urquhart,  (WILLIAM  POLLARD,)  a  political  econ 
omist,  born  in  the  county  of  Westmeath,  Ireland,  in 
18.4.  He  published  "  Essays  on  Political  Economy." 

Urquijo,  de,  da  ooR-kee'iio,  (MARIANO  Luis,)  a 
Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Bilbao  in  1768.  He  was 
secretaryfor  foreign  affairs  about  two  years,  (1798-1800,) 
after  which  he  was  imprisoned  through  the  influence  of 
the  Inquisition,  which  he  had  opposed.  He  was  ap 
pointed  minister  of  state  by  King  Joseph  about  1809. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1817. 

See  A.  UE  BERAZA,  "  Elogio  de  M.  L.  de  Urquijo,"  1820 ;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Urquiza,  de,  da  ooR-kee's3  or  ooR-kee'tha,  (Don 
JUSTE  JOSE,)  a  South  American  statesman  and  military 
commander,  born  in  the  province  of  Entre-Rios  in  1800. 
He  fought  in  his  early  life  for  Rosas,  but  in  1851  he  took 
arms  against  him  and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  gov 
ernments  of  Brazil  and  Uruguay.  In  February,  1852, 
he  gained  at  Santos  Lugares  a  decisive  victory  over 
Rosas,  who  then  ceased  to  reign.  Urquiza  became 
general-in-chief  and  foreign  secretary  of  the  Argentine 
Republic. 

Urraca,  oor-ri'kJ,  Queen  of  Leon  and  Castile,  born 
about  1080,  was  the  only  legitimate  child  of  Alfonso  VI. 
She  was  married  to  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon,  with  whom 
she  quarrelled,  and  against  whom  she  waged  a  long  civil 
war.  Died  in  1126. 

Urrea,  de,  da  oor-ra'a',  (GERONIMO,)  a  Spanish  writer 
and  commander,  born  in  Aragon  about  1515.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  army  of  Charles  V.  He  trans 
lated  Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso"  into  Spanish,  (1556,) 
and  wrote  a  "  Dialogue  on  True  Military  Honour,"  (1566.) 

Ursatus.     See  OKSATO. 

Urseolo.     See  ORSEOLO. 

Ursiiis,  des,  di  ziiR'saN',  or  Orsini,  (ANNE  MARIE 
de  la  Tremouille — deh  It  tRa'mool'  or  tRa'moo'ye,) 
PRINCESS,  a  French  lady  and  courtier,  famous  for  her 
political  influence  and  insinuating  qualities,  was  born 
about  1642.  She  was  married  in  1659  to  Adrien  de  Tal- 
"eyrand,  Prince  de  Chalais,  and  in  1675  to  Flavio  Orsini, 
Duke  of  Bracciano.  She  resided  many  years  at  Rome, 
[n  1701  she  was  selected  by  the  French  court  for  the 
)lace  of  first  lady  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Queen  of 
Spain,  of  whom  she  became  the  chief  favourite.  "She 
aspired,"  says  Macanlay,  "to  play  in  Spain  the  part 
which  Madame  de  Maintenon  had  played  in  France. 
.  .  She  became  so  powerful  that  neither  minister  of 
Spain  nor  ambassador  from  France  could  stand  against 
ler."  (Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "  War  of  the  Succes 
sion.")  Her  influence  ceased  on  the  death  of  the  queen, 
n  1714,  and  the  marriage  of  Philip  V.  with  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  who  dismissed  the  Princess  des  Ursins  from 
court.  She  died  at  Rome  in  1722. 

See  her  "  Correspondence  with  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  4  vols., 
826;  F.  COMBES,  "La  Princesse  des  Ursins,  Essai,"  1858;  SAINT- 
SIMON,  "Memoires;"  SAINTE-BEUVE,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;" 
'Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e, 1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tar,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


URSINS 


2167 


uz 


Ursins,  des,  (JEAN,  JOUVENEL,  (zhoov'neT,)  or  JU 
VENAL,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1388.  He 
wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Charles  VI.,"  and  became  Arch 
bishop  of  Kheims  about  1450.  Died  in  1473. 

Ur-si'lius,  [Ger.  pron.  doR-see'nus,]  (BENJAMIN,)  a 
German  mathematician,  born  in  Silesia  in  1587.  His 
German  name  was  BEHR,  (bain.)  He  taught  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Ocler.  Died  in  1633. 

Ursinus,  (BENJAMIN,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
was  a  relative  of  Zacharias,  noticed  below.  He  was 
made  a  bishop  and  ennobled  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia. 
Died  about  1717. 

Ur-si'nus,  [It.  ORSINI,  oR-see'nee,]  (FuLVius,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Rome 
in  1529,  held  the  post  of  librarian  to  Cardinal  Alexander 
Farnese.  He  published  commentaries  on  the  principal 
Roman  historians,  editions  of  several  Greek  classics, 
and  a  number  of  original  works  which  display  profound 
learning.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  Portraits 
and  Eulogies  of  Illustrious  Men  exhibited  by  Marbles, 
Medals,  and  Gems,"  ("  Imagines  et  Elogia  Virorum  illus- 
trium  e  Marmoribus,  Nummis  et  Gemmis  expressae.") 
Died  in  1600. 

See  CASTIGLIONE,  "G.  Orsini  Vita,"  1657;  NicERON,  "Me- 
moires  ;"  "  Life  of  Ursinus,"  by  CASTALIO. 

Ursinus,  (GEORG  HEINRICH,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Spire  in  1647  >  d'6^  at  Ratisbon  in  1707. 

Ursinus,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  divine, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1608.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Churches 
of  Germany,"  (1668,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1667. 

See  "  J.  H.  Ursinus  Lebenslauf,"  1666. 

Ursinus,  (ZACHARIAS,)  a  learned  German  divine, 
born  at  Breslau  in  1534,  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of 
Melanchthon.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  engaged 
in  controversies  with  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  the 
time,  and  was  the  author  of  several  theological  and  po 
lemical  works,  (1563.)  He  also  prepared  the  Calvinis- 
tic  creed,  entitled  the  "  Heidelberg  Catechism."  Died 
in  1583. 

Ur'su-la,  [Fr.  URSULE,  iiR'sul',]  SAINT,  a  legendary 
personage,  of  whom  scarcely  anything  is  positively 
known.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  daughter  of  a  British 
prince,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cologne  in 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

See  MRS.  JAMESON,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Ursule.    See  URSULA. 

Ursus,  OOR'SUS,  (NIKOLAUS  RAYMARUS,)  a  Danish 
mathematician  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  died  in  1600. 

Urville.     See  DUMONT  D'URVILLE. 

Ush'er  or  Ussh'er,  (HENRY,)  a  prelate,  born  in 
Dublin,  was  an  uncle  of  James,  noticed  below.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ireland 
in  1595.  Died  in  1613. 

Usher  or  Ussher,  [Lat.  USSE'RIUS,]  (JAMES,)  an  emi 
nent  prelate  and  scholar,  born  in  Dublin  on  the  4th  of 
January,  1580.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Richard  Stany- 
hurst  the  poet.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1600.  He  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1601,  began  to  preach  in  Dublin, 
and  became  professor  of  divinity  in  Trinity  College  in 
1607.  In  1613  he  married  Phebe  Challoner.  He  pub 
lished  in  1614  a  Latin  work  "On  the  Succession  and 
State  of  the  Christian  Churches,"  in  which  he  opposed 
the  pretensions  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  made  fre 
quent  visits  to  England,  where  he  formed  an  acquaint 
ance  with  Selden  and  other  eminent  men.  In  doctrine 
he  was  a  Calvinist,  and  a  zealous  opponent  of  popery. 
In  1620  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Meath  by  James  I. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ire 
land  in  1624.  In  1638  he  published  his  "  Emanuel,  or  a 
Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,"  which 
is  accounted  one  of  his  greatest  works.  In  1640  he 
quitted  Ireland,  to  which  he  never  returned,  and  came 
to  England.  The  Irish  rebels  attacked  his  house  at 
Armagh  in  1641,  and  seized  or  destroyed  his  property. 
He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war  between  Charles  I. 
and  the  Parliament.  The  king  gave  him  the  bishopric 
of  Carlisle,  to  be  held  in  commendam,  (about  1641,)  but 


he  derived  little  revenue  from  it.  He  officiated  as 
preacher  to  the  Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  from  1647  to 
1655.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Antiquities  of 
the  British  Churches,"  (in  Latin,  1639,)  "Annals  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  ("  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testament!,"  2  vols.,  1650-54,)  in  which  he  displays 
great  learning,  and  "  Sacred  Chronology,"  ("  Chronologia 
Sacra,"  1660,)  a  work  of  high  reputation.  He  died  at 
Reigate  in  March,  1656,  leaving  one  child,  named 
Elizabeth. 

See  ELRINGTOX,  "Life  of  Archbishop  James  Usher,"  1848  ;  R. 
PARR,  "  Life  of  James  Usher,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  Letters, 
1686;  T.  BERNARD,  "Life  and  Death  of  James  Usher,"  1656; 
AIKIN,  "Lives  of  J.  Selden  and  J.  Usher,"  i8ti  ;  NICERON,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "  Biographica  Britannica."  _2?«*y7e  ,  Z) rt-'tfinntiry  i  v./a. 

Usserius.     See  USHER. 

Ussher.     See  USHER. 

Ussieux,  d',  dii'se-uh/,  (Louis,)  a  French  romance- 
writer  and  rural  economist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1747  ; 
died  in  1805. 

Ussing,  oos'sing,  QOHAN  LUDWIG,)  a  Danish  philolo 
gist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1820.  He  became  professor 
of  philology  in  that  city  in  1849,  ar>d  published  several 
works. 

Ussing,  (TAGE  ALGREEN,)  a  Danish  statesman  and 
jurist,  born  in  Seeland  in  1797.  He  became  procurer- 
general  in  1841,  councillor  of  state  in  1846,  and  a  deputy 
to  the  Diet  in  1848.  He  opposed  the  separation  of 
Sleswick  and  Holstein  from  the  Danish  monarchy.  He 
published  a  "  Manual  of  Danish  Penal  Law." 

Ustariz,  oos-ta-reth/,  (JEROME,)  a  Spanish  political 
economist,  born  in  Navarre  about  1695.  He  published 
in  1724  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Commerce  and 
of  the  Marine,"  which  was  translated  into  English  and 
French.  Died  about  1750. 

Usteri,  dos'ta-ree,  QOHANN  MARTIN,)  a  Swiss  poet, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1763  ;  died  in  1827. 

Usteri,  (LEONARD,)  a  Swiss  educational  writer,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1741  ;  died  in  1789. 

Usteri,  (PAULUS,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Zurich  in  1768.  He  studied  medicine  at  Gottingen,  and 
afterwards  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government.  He  published  a  number  of  medical  and 
political  treatises.  Died  in  1831. 

Usuard,  ii'zii'aR',  or  U-su-ar'dus,  a  French  monk, 
who,  under  the  patronage  of  Charles  the  Bald,  composed 
a  "  Martyrology."  Died  about  877  A.n. 

U-ten-ho'vi'-us.fFr.UTENHOVE^'ta'nov']  (CHARLES,) 
a  Flemish  scholar  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ghent  about 
1536.  He  lived  in  Paris,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1600. 
He  was  a  Protestant  minister. 

Utgard.     See  JOTUN. 

Utrecht.     See  VAN  UTRECHT. 

Uvedale,  yoov'dal,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  scholar 
and  botanist,  born  in  London  in  1642,  assisted  Dryden 
in  the  translation  of  Plutarch's  "Lives." 

U'wins,  (DAVID,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1780.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1815 
became  physician  to  the  City  Dispensary,  London.  He 
was  subsequently  editor  of  the  "Medical  Repository," 
and  published,  among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  In 
sanity  and  Madhouses,"  which  was  very  well  received. 
Died  in  1837. 

Uwins,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  painter,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1783.  Having 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  he  visited  Italy  in  1826, 
and  produced  a  number  of  pictures  illustrating  peasant- 
life.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  Neapolitan  Peasantry 
Returning  from  a  Festa,"  and  "  Children  Asleep  in  a 
Vineyard."  He  became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1836, 
and  in  1847  keeper  of  the  National  Gallery.  Died  in 

1857- 

Uxelles,  d',  diik'seT,  (NICOLAS  de  Ble— deh  bla,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  born  at  Chalons  in  1652.  He 
defended  Mentz  with  ability  against  the  Imperialists  in 
1689,  but  was  forced  by  want  of  powder  to  surrender. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703,  and  president 
of  the  council  of  foreign  affairs  at  the  death  of  Louis 
XIV.  Died  in  1730. 

Uz,  oots,  (JOHANN  PETER,)  a  German  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Anspach  in  1720.  He  published  in  1729  a  collection 
entitled  "  Lyrische  Gedichte,"  which  was  followed  by 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  25.) 


UZZANO 


2168 


VA ILL  ANT 


"  Theodicea,"  and  "  The  Art  of  being  always  cheerful," 
("Die  Kunst  stets  frohlich  zu  sein,"  1760,)  a  didactic 
poem  in  Alexandrines,  which  is  greatly  esteemed.  He 
was  made  a  counsellor  of  justice  in  1796,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Uzzano,  oot-sa'no,  (NiccoiA)  a  Florentine  states 
man  of  the  Guelph  party.  He  became  chief  magistrate 
of  the  republic  in  1417,  and  waged  a  war  against  Vis- 


conti,  Duke  of  Milan,  from  1423  to  1428.  His  prudence 
and  moderation  are  praised  by  Sismondi.  Died  in  1432. 
Uz-zi'ah,  [Heb.  H'T>',]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of 
Amaziah,  began  to  reign  about  808  n.C.  He  defeated 
the  Philistines  and  Arabians.  Having  usurped  the 
priest's  office,  he  was  smitten  with  leprosy.  He  reigned 
fifty-two  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jotham. 
(See  II.  Chronicles  xxvi.) 


V. 


Vaart,  van  der,  vtn  der  vSnt,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  still  life,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1647. 
He  removed  to  England  in  1674.  Died  in  London  in 
1721. 

VacaIde.     See  NUNEZ,  (ALVAR  CABEC.A.) 

Va-ca'rI-us,  a  jurist  of  the  twelfth  century,  born  in 
Lombardy,  was  teacher  of  Roman  law  at  Oxford.  He 
compiled  an  abstract  of  the  Code  and  Digests,  which 
is  still  extant  in  manuscript.  He  was  the  first  teacher 
of  Roman  law  in  England. 

Vacca.     See  BERLINGHIERI. 

Vacca,  vak'ka,  (FLAMINIO,)  an  Italian  sculptor  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  patronized  by  Sixtus  V. 

Vaccaro,  vak'ka-ro,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples  in  1598.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Holy 
Family."  Died  in  1670. 

Vaccaro,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  engraver  and 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  about  1636 ;  died  about  1687. 

Vacher.     See  LE  VAGUER. 

Vacherot,  vish'ro',  (£TIENNE,)  a  French  philoso 
pher,  born  at  Langres  in  1809.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  studies  at  the  Normal  School  about  1838, 
and  acted  as  substitute  of  M.  Cousin  in  the  Sorbonne 
in  1839.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Criti 
cal  History  of  the  Alexandrian  School,"  (3  vols.,  1846- 
50,)  and  "  The  Democracy,"  (1859.)  He  was  imprisoned 
three  months  for  the  latter  work. 

Vachet,  du,  dii  vS'shi',  (PIERRE  JOSEPH,)  a  French 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Beaune  ;  died  about  1655. 

Vachet,  Le,  leh  vi'shi',  (JEAN  ANTOINE,)  a  benevo 
lent  French  priest  and  writer,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1603  ; 
died  in  1681. 

Vacquerie,  vf'ka're',  (  AUGUSTE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1818.  He  was  associated  with  Vic 
tor  Hugo  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  Evenement,"  a  journal 
founded  in  1848.  He  also  produced  poems  entitled 
"Demi-Tints,"  (1845,)  and  other  works. 

Va-cu'na,  a  goddess  worshipped  by  the  Sabines,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Romans,  was  variously  regarded  as 
identical  with  Victoria,  Minerva,  Ceres,  or  Diana. 

Vadder,  de,  deh  vad'der,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1560.  His  pictures 
were  highly  prized.  Died  in  1623. 

Vade,  vt'da',  (JEAN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Picardy  in  1719,  was  the  author  of  comic  operas, 
farces,  and  songs,  which  obtained  great  popularity.  Died 
in  1757. 

Vadian,  va'de-an,  [Lat.  VADIA'NUS,]  (JOACHIM,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  scholar,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1484.  His 
family  name  was  VON  WATT.  He  became  professor  of 
belles-lettres  at  Vienna.  About  1520  he  returned  to 
Saint  Gall,  where  he  practised  medicine  and  became  a 
disciple  of  Zwingle.  He  was  ranked  by  Joseph  Scaliger 
among  the  most  learned  men  of  Germany.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Commentary  on  Pomponius 
Mela,"  (1518,)  and  "Scholia  on  Pliny's  Natural  History," 
(1531.)  Died  in  1551. 

Vadianus.     See  VADIAN. 

Vadier,  vf'de-i',  (MARC  GUILLAUME  ALEXIS,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  in  1736,  was  a  violent  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95.)  He  joined  the  enemies  of 
Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  In  1795  he 
was  denounced  as  a  terrorist,  and  condemned  to  de 
portation,  but  he  avoided  that  penalty  by  concealment. 
Died  in  1828. 

Vaenius.    See  VAN  VEEN. 

Vaga.    See  PERINO  DEL  VAGA. 


Vahan,*  va'han,  [from  vcih,  (written  also  veh,}  to 
"carry,"  cognate  with  the  Latin  z>?h-o,\  a  Sanscrit  word, 
signifying  almost  the  same  as  the  German  Wagen,  (i.e. 
"vehicle,"  "carriage,")  with  which  it  nearly  corresponds 
in  sound.  In  the  Hindoo  mythology  it  is  applied  to 
those  fabulous  creatures  which  were  supposed  to  bear 
the  gods  in  their  journeys.  Thus,  the  white  bull  Nandi 
is  said  to  be  the  vahan  of  Siva ;  Garuda,  the  vahan  of 
Vishnu  ;  and  so  on. 

Vahl,  val,  (MARTIN,)  a  Norwegian  naturalist,  born  at 
Bergen  in  1749,  studied  at  Copenhagen,  and  subse 
quently  at  Upsal  under  Linnaeus.  Having  visited  Eng 
land  and  various  parts  of  the  continent,  where  he  made 
valuable  collections  of  plants,  he  was  appointed  in  1785 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Copen 
hagen.  He  published  "  Symbolae  Botanicae,"  "Eclogoe 
Americana?,"  and  a  continuation  of  CEder's  "Flora 
Danica,"  (1810:)  he  also  contributed  to  the  "Zoologia 
Danica."  He  died  in  1804,  leaving  a  valuable  herbarium, 
library,  and  manuscripts,  which  were  bought  by  the  King 
of  Denmark.  A  genus  of  plants  has  been  named  Vahlia 
in  his  honour. 

See  KKAFT  og  NVEKUP,  "Litteraturlexicon. " 

Vaillant,  vS'y&N',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  PHILIKERT,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  at  Dijon  in  1790,  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  accompanied  the  expedition 
to  Algiers  in  1830,  and  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1833.  Having  become  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845,  ne 
directed  the  operations  of  the  siege  of  Rome  in  1849, 
and  obtained  the  baton  of  marshal  in  1851.  He  was 
minister  of  war  from  March,  1854,  to  May,  1859. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vaillant,  (JEAN  FOY,)  a  French  antiquary,  celebrated 
for  his  knowledge  of  numismatics,  was  born  at  Beauvais 
in  1632.  Having  been  charged  by  Colbert  to  make  a 
collection  of  ancient  medals  for  the  royal  cabinet,  he 
visited  Italy,  Greece,  and  part  of  Asia,  and  returned  in 
1680  with  a  great  number  of  rare  and  beautiful  coins. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  a  treatise  on  the  coins  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  entitled  "  Numismata  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  praestantiora,"  etc.,  (1674,)  and  "  Seleuci- 
darum  Imperium,  seu  Historia  Regum  Syrix,"  etc.,  or 
"  History  of  the  Syrian  Kings  derived  from  Coins." 
Vaillant  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip 
tions  in  1702.  Died  in  1706. 

See  C.  r>E  LAFEUII.I.E,  "  D.  J.  F.  Vaillant  Docloris  Medici  Vita," 
1745;  NICERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vaillant,  (JEAN  FRANQOIS  FOY,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1665.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  contributed  to 
the  "  Memoirs"  of  that  institution  several  treatises  on 
numismatics.  Died  in  1708. 

Vaillant,  [Lat.  VAILLAN'TIUS,]  (S£HASTIEN,)  an  emi 
nent  French  botanist,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1669.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  an  early  age  by  his  proficiency 
in  music,  but  subsequently  studied  medicine,  and  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  royal  fusileers.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  1691,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort, 
and  devoted  himself  henceforth  to  botanical  studies. 
In  1708  he  succeeded  Fagon  as  professor  of  botany  and 
sub-demonstrator  of  plants  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1716. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  his  "  Botanicon  Parisiense,"  or 

*  The  more  correct  but  less  common  form  is  Vahana. 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


2169 


history  of  plants  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  (1727.)  It  was 
illustrated  by  Aubriet,  and  published  by  Boerhaave  after 
the  death  of  Vaillant,  which  occurred  in  1722.  The  genus 
Vaillantia  was  named  by  De  Candolle  in  his  honour. 

See  BOERHAAVE,  "  Vita  Vaillantii,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Botanicon 
Parisiense,"  1727;  "  Biographie  Medicale  ;"  ''  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Vaillant,  (WALLERANT,)  a  Flemish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Lille  in  1623.  He  was  also  a  mezzotint  engraver, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  artist  who  executed 
works  in  that  department.  His  engraved  portrait  of 
Prince  Rupert  is  one  of  his  best  productions.  Died 
in  1677. 

Vaillant  de  Gueslis,  vt'yS.x'  deh  gi'less',  or  Guelle, 
gel,  (GERMAIN,)  a  French  bishop  and  poet,  born  at  Or 
leans.  He  was  patronized  by  Francis  I.,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1586.  He  wrote  an  able  com 
mentary  on  Virgil,  (1575,)  and  a  Latin  poem  at  the  age 
of  seventy.  Died  in  1587. 

Vaillant,  Le,  leh  vS'yoN',  (  FRANCOIS,)  a  celebrated 
traveller  and  naturalist,  born  at  Paramaribo,  in  Dutch 
Guiana,  in  1753.  He  was  taken  to  Europe  about  1764, 
and  passed  many  years  in  France  and  Germany,  where 
he  studied  the  habits  of  birds.  In  1780  he  sailed 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Mope,  and  undertook  to  explore 
Southern  Africa.  He  made  excursions  among  the  Caf- 
fres  and  other  tribes,  extended  his  researches  northward 
beyond  the  Orange  River,  and  remained  in  Africa  until 
July,  1784.  He  returned  to  France  with  a  large  collec 
tion  of  birds,  and  published  an  interesting  and  graphic 
narrative  of  his  travels,  "Journey  in  the  Interior  of 
Africa,"  ("Voyage  dans  1'Interieur  de  1'Afrique,"  2 
vols.,  1790-96,)  which  has  a  high  reputation  for  veracity. 
He  was  a  diligent  observer  and  an  enthusiastic  votary 
of  natural  history.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1793,  and 
only  saved  from  death  by  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He 
published  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Birds  of  Africa," 
(6  vols.,  1796-1812,)  and  several  minor  works  on  birds. 
Died  near  Sezanne  in  November,  1824.  "  His  works 
on  .birds,"  says  Eyries,  "  are  placed  in  the  first  rank." 
("  Biographie  Universelle.") 

Vair,  du.     See  Du  VAIR. 

Vaishuava,  vish'na-va,  (English  plural,  Vaish- 
navas,)  the  name  given  by  the  Hindoos  to  the  worship 
pers  of  VISHNU,  (which  see.) 

Vaissette  or  Vaissete,  vi'seV,  (Dom  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  Benedictine  and  historian,  born  at  Gaillac  in 
1685.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of 
Languedoc,"  (5  vols.,  1730-45,)  which  is  said  to  be  very 
exact,  judicious,  and  well  written.  Died  in  1756. 

Vaj'ra,  (pronounced  by  the  modern  Hindoos  viij'ra 
or  buj'ra,)  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "adamant,"  but 
used  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  designate  the  "ada 
mantine  thunderbolt"  of  Indra.  (See  INDRA.) 

Vakh'tang  I.,  King  of  Georgia  in  the  fifth  century, 
was  descended  from  the  Persian  king  Sapor  (Shapoor)  I. 
He  was  engaged  in  numerous  wars,  and  greatly  enlarged 
his  dominions. 

Vakhtaug  VI.  became  ruler  over  the  province  of 
Kartli,  in  Georgia,  in  1703.  Having  refused  to  embrace 
Mohammedanism,  he  was  deposed  by  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
but  he  was  afterwards  restored  to  power.  While  out 
wardly  conforming  to  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  he  was 
active  in  promoting  Christianity,  and,  having  established 
a  printing-press,  printed  a  Georgian  version  of  a  portion 
of  the  Bible.  Being  compelled  at  length  to  resign  in 
favour  of  his  brother,  he  took  refuge  in  Russia.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  history  of  his  country,  entitled  the 
"Chronicle  of  Vakhtang  the  Sixth,"  (in  manuscript.) 
He  died  in  1734.  His  sons  Bakar  and  Vakhusta  com 
pleted  the  Georgian  Bible  in  1743. 

Val,  du,  du  vtl,  [Lat.  VAI/LA,]  (NICOLAS,)  a  French 
jurist  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  secretary  to 
the  king  about  1542,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work  "  On 
Doubtful  Causes  and  Questions  Disputed  in  Law,"  ("  De 
Rebus  dubiis  et  Quaestionibus  in  Jure  controversis,"  4th 
edition,  1583.) 

Valadares  Gamboa,  de,  da  va-la-da'res  gam-bo'a, 
(JoAQuiM  FORTUNATO,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


Valadon,  vi'l&'doN',  (ZACHARIE,)  a  French  mis 
sionary,  born  at  Auxonne  about  1680.  He  laboured  in 
Palestine,  Syria,  etc.  Died  at  Dijon  in  1746. 

Valart,  vk'laV,  (JosKi'H,)  a  French  scholar  and  critic, 
born  near  Hesclin,  in  Artois,  in  1698.  He  became  a 
priest,  and  was  employed  as  a  school-teacher  at  various 
places.  He  wrote  several  works  on  grammar,  and  pub 
lished  editions  of  Horace,  Ovid,  and  other  Latin  authors. 
His  character  is  represented  as  bizarre.  Died  in  1781. 

Valaze,  de,  deh  vt'13'za',  (CHARLES  £LEONORE  du 
Friche — clii  fResh,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  at  Alenfon 
in  1751,  became  an  advocate.  He  published  an  able 
work  "On  Penal  Laws,"  (1784,)  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
and  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Having  been  condemned 
to  death  in  October,  1793,  he  killed  himself. 

See  Louis  DUBOIS,  "Notice  sur  Valaze,"  1802;  LAMARTINE, 
"  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Valbomiais.     See  BOURCHENU,  DE, 

Valcarcel,  val-kaR-thel',  (JosE  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish 
agriculturist,  born  at  Valencia  about  1720.  He  rendered 
an  important  service  to  his  countrymen  by  the  publica 
tion  of  his  "General  Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy," 
(7  vols.  410,  1765-86.)  Died  after  1790. 

Valcarcel,  (Don  Pio  ANTONIO,)  Count  de  Lunares, 
a  Spanish  antiquary,  born  in  1740,  published  several 
treatises  on  the  inscriptions  of  Saguntum  and  other  cities 
of  Spain.  Died  in  1800. 

Valckenaer,  val'keh-niR,  QAN,)  a  Dutch  diploma 
tist  and  lawyer,  born  at  Franeker  or  Leyden  in  1759. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Utrecht  in  1787,  and 
joined  the  party  of  patriots,  i.e.  those  who  sympathized 
with  the  French  republicans.  He  was  Dutch  ambassa 
dor  at  Madrid  from  1796  till  1801,  and  was  sent  by  King 
Louis  to  Paris  in  1810  to  prevent  the  annexation  of 
Holland  to  France.  Died  in  1821. 

Valckenaer,  (LODEWIJCK  CASPAR,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leeu warden  in  1715,  was  the 
father  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Franeker  in  1741,  and  was  professor  of  Greek  and 
archaeology  at  Leyden  from  1766  until  his  death.  He 
edited,  besides  other  classic  works,  the  "  Phoenissae" 
and  the  "  Hippolytus"  of  Euripides,  and  the  "  Idyls"  of 
Theocritus,  (1773,)  on  which  he  wrote  excellent  com 
mentaries.  Among  his  works  is  "Observationes  Aca- 
demicas,"  (1790,)  which  is  highly  prized.  Died  in  1785. 

See  SAXE,  "  Onomasticon." 

Valdegamas.     See  DONOSO-CORTES. 

Valdemar.     See  WALDEMAR. 

Valdes,  val-des',  (Don  ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  minister 
of  state,  born  in  the  Asturias  about  1735.  He  became 
minister  of  the  marine  in  1781,  and  greatly  increased  the 
naval  force  of  Spain.  His  ability  and  success  were  so 
conspicuous  that  the  king  in  1787  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  the  departments  of  finance,  commerce,  and  war.  In 
1792  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  chief  admiral  or  cap 
tain-general  of  the  navy.  By  the  agency  of  Godoy,  he 
was  removed  in  1795.  Died  about  1811. 

Valdes,  (CAIETANO,)  a  Spanish  naval  officer,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  commanded  a  ship  at 
Trafalgar  in  1805,  after  which  he  became  a  lieutenant- 
general.  Having  revolted  against  Ferdinand  VII.,  he 
was  imprisoned  from  1815  to  1820.  Died  after  1826. 

Valdes,  (DiEGO  or  JAGO,)  a  Spanish  author  and 
professor  of  law,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the  Dignity  of 
Spanish  Kings,"  (in  Latin,  1602.) 

Valdes,  [It.  VALDESSO,  vil-deVso,]  (JUAN,)  a  Spanish 
jurist  and  reformer,  born  probably  in  Leon.  He  be 
came  a  chamberlain  of  Pope  Adrian  VI.  in  1522,  and 
returned  to  Spain  soon  after  the  death  of  that  pope. 
He  removed  to  Naples  about  1530,  and,  it  is  said,  was 
employed  there  as  secretary  to  the  Spanish  viceroy. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works,  in  some  of  which  he 
attacked  the  corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church.  He 
died  at  Naples,  about  middle  age,  in  1540.  He  adopted 
the  chief  doctrines  of  the  Protestant  creed,  but  never 
formally  separated  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  Among 
his  works  of  a  religious  character  is  one  entitled  "One 
Hundred  and  Ten  Considerations,"  etc.,  (1550.) 

"  Valdes  as  a  reformer,"  says  Wiffen,  "  entered  less 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  £h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


V 'AIDES 


2170 


PALESTINIAN 


than  almost  any  thoughtful  man  of  his  time  into  the 
battle  of  hierarchies.  He  was  less  a  destroyer  of  error 
and  evil  than  a  builder-up  of  truth  and  goodness." 

See  B.  B.  WIFFEN,  "Life  of  Juan  Valdes,"  1865;  HODGSON, 
"  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  TICKNOK,  "  History 
of  Spanish  Literature  ;'"  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Valdes  Leal,  de,  da  val-deV  li-al',  QUAN,)  an  emi 
nent  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cordova  in  1630.  He 
worked  at  Seville,  and  was  intimate  with  Murillo,  after 
whose  death  he  was  considered  as  the  head  of  his  pro 
fession.  Among  his  works  are  several  pictures  of  the 
history  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  He  died  in  1691.  His 
son  LUCAS,  born  in  1661,  was  a  painter  and  engraver. 
Died  in  1724. 

Valdesso.     See  VALDES,  QUAN.)  • 

Valdez.     See  MEI.ENDEZ  VALDEZ. 

Valdivia,  de,  da  val-dee've-a,  (Don  PEDRO,)  a  Span 
ish  officer,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  conquest 
of  Chili,  was  born  about  1510.  He  accompanied  Pizarro 
in  his  expedition  against  Peru  in  1532.  About  1540, 
under  the  orders  of  Pizarro,  he  invaded  Chili  with  a 
small  force,  founded  Santiago,  and  gained  victories 
over  the  natives.  He  returned  to  Peru  in  1547  or  1548, 
and  fought  under  La  Gasca  against  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 
He  was  captured  by  the  Araucanians,  and  put  to  death, 

in  1559- 

See  CLAUDIO  GAY,  "Historia  de  Chile;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Ge'nerale. " 

Val'do  or  Wal'do,  [Fr.  pron.  vtl'dc/,]  (PETER  or 
PIERRE,)  a  French  Reformer  of  the  twelfth  century, 
born  at  Vaux,  in  Dauphine,  became  a  chief  of  the  sect 
of  Waldenses,  (or  Vaudois.)  He  maintained  the  equal 
right  of  the  laity  with  the  clergy  to  conduct  the  offices 
of  religion,  and  denounced  the  vices  and  ignorance  of  the 
priests.  His  doctrine  was  condemned  by  the  Roman 
Church  in  1179,  and  his  followers  cruelly  persecuted. 
He  is  said  to  have  translated  the  Scriptures  into  Vaudois. 
Many  suppose  that  the  name  Waldenses  was  derived 
from  Valdo  or  Waldo;  but  it  seems  more  probable 
that  he  took  his  name  Valdo  as  a  surname  because  his 
views  corresponded  with  those  of  the  Waldenses,  who, 
it  appears,  were  in  existence  before  his  time,  and  among 
whom  he  afterwards  became  a  leader. 

See  HODGSON,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
LEGER,  "Histoire  generale  des  Vaudois  ;"  A.  MUSTON,  "Histoire 
des  Vaudois,"  4  vols.,  1851. 

Valee,  vt'li',  (SYLVAIN  CHARLES,)  COUNT,  a  French 
marshal,  born  at  Brienne-le-Chateau  in  1773.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  Austria  and  Spain,  and  was  made  gen 
eral  of  division  in  1811.  He  was  appointed  inspector-gen 
eral  of  artillery  by  Louis  XVI 1 1.,  and  made  improvements 
in  the  artillery.  He  succeeded  to  the  chief  command  in 
Algeria  on  the  death  of  Danremont,  and  took  Constan- 
tina  in  October,  1837.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France 
the  same  year.  Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valence,  de,  deh  vt'l&Nss',  (CYRUS  MARIE  ALEX- 
ANDRE  de  Timbrune — deh  taN'bRiin',)  COUNT,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Agen  in  1757.  He  was  ap 
pointed  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Ardennes  in  Oc 
tober,  1792,  and  gained  some  advantages  over  the  allies 
in  Flanders.  He  followed  Dumouriez  in  his  defection 
and  flight,  (1793.)  Having  returned  to  France  about 
1800,  he  served  as  general  in  Spain,  (1808,)  and  in 
Russia,  (1812.)  Died  in  1822. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valencia,  DUKE  OF.    See  NARVAKZ. 

Valenciennes,  vS'lfiN'se-Sn',  (ACHILLE,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  the  Normal  School  in  1830,  and  after 
wards  professor  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Natural  History  of 
Fishes,"  (n  vols.,  1829-49.) 

Valenciennes,  (PIERRE  HENRI,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1750.  He  was  the  chief 
of  a  school  to  which  many  eminent  painters  belonged. 
According  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  he  was 
the  ablest  landscape-painter  of  his  time.  Died  in  1819. 

Va'lens,  (ABURNUS,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  the  time  of 
Antoninus  Pius.  There  are  only  fragments  of  his 
writings  extant. 


Valens,  (FABIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  notorious  for 
cruelty  and  other  crimes.  He  revolted  against  Galba, 
became  a  partisan  of  Vitellius,  and  defeated  Otho  at 
Bedriacum  in  69  A.D.  Having  been  captured  by  the  troops 
of  Vespasian,  he  was  put  to  death  the  same  year. 

Valens,  (FLAVIUS,)  Emperor  of  the  East,  born  about 
328  A.D.,  was  a  brother  of  Valentinian  I.,  to  whom  he 
was  indebted  for  the  imperial  power.  He  began  to  reign, 
in  364,  over  Thrace,  Asia,  and  Egypt.  In  366  he  sup 
pressed  a  rebellion  of  Procopius.  He  was  an  Arian,  and 
persecuted  the  orthodox.  He  defeated  the  Goths  in  369, 
after  which  he  waged  war  against  Sapor,  (Shapoor,)  King 
of  Persia.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Goths, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  a  great  battle 
near  Adrianople  in  378  A.D. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Tn.- 
LEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Valentia,  de,  da  va-len'te-a,  (GREGOUIO,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  theologian,. born  at  Medina  del  Campo  about 
1550.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Ingolstaclt  and 
at  Rome.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works.  Died 
in  1603. 

Valentia,  de,  (PEDRO,)  an  eminent  Spanish  jurist, 
born  in  1554.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning. 
He  wrote  an  excellent  commentary  on  the  "Academics" 
of  Cicero,  (1596.)  Died  in  1620. 

Valenti-Gonzaga,  va-len'tee  gon-za'ga,  (SiLVio,)  an 
Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Mantua  in  1690,  was  a  patron 
of  learning.  He  became  chief  minister  of  Benedict  XIV. 
soon  after  his  election  to  the  papacy.  Died  in  1756. 

Valentin.     See  VALENTINE  and  VAI.KNTINUS. 

Valentin,  va-len-teen'  or  fa-len-teen',  (GAHRIEL  Gus- 
TAV,)  a  German  physician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1810.  He  became  professor  of  physiology 
at  Berne  in  1846.  He  has  published  a  "Manual  of  the 
History  of  Development,"  (1835,)  and  other  physio 
logical  works. 

Valentin  or  Valentini,  va-lgn-tee'nee,  (MICHAEL 
BERNARD,)  a  German  medical  writer  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Giessen  in  1657.  He  was  professor  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Giessen,  and  wrote  numerous  works.  Died 
in  1726. 

Valentin,  vt'lSN'taN',  (MoisE,)  called  also  VALENTIN 
DE  BOULONGNE,  (v3t'16N'taN'  deh  boo'loNfi',)  and  LE 
VALENTIN,  (leh  vJt'ldN'taN',)  a  distinguished  French 
painter,  born  at  Coulommiers  in  1600.  He  studied  in 
Italy,  and  made  Caravaggio  his  model.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "  The  Death  of  John  the 
Baptist,"  and  "  The  Denial  by  Peter."  His  delineations 
of  common  life  are  also  greatly  admired.  Died  in  1632. 

Valentin  de  Boulongne.   See  VALENTIN,  (Moi'sE.) 

Valentin-Smith,  vt'16N'taN'  smet,  (JOANNES  ER- 
HARD,)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer  on  political  economy, 
born  at  Trevoux  in  1796.  Among  his  works  are  "  Men 
dicity  and  Labour,"  (1848,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Statistics,"  (1854.) 

Val'en-tine  or  Val-eii-ti'nus,  [Fr.  VALENTIN,  vt'- 
loN'taN',]  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  Sep 
tember,  827.  He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

Valentine,  (BASIL.)     See  BASIL- VALENTINE. 

Val'en-tine,  SAINT,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  third  cen 
tury,  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  the 
emperor  Claudius,  (270  A.D.) 

Valentine  de  Milan,  vf'16N'ten'  deh  me'lfiN',  [It. 
VALENTINA  DA  MILANO,  va-lSn-tee'na  da  me-la'no,]  a 
daughter  of  Galeazzo  Visconti,  was  married  in  1389  to 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  brother  of  Charles  VI.  of 
France.  She  is  represented  as  amiable  and  accom 
plished.  She  had  several  sons.  Louis  XII.  and  Francis 
I.  were  her  grandsons.  Died  in  1408. 

See  FROISSART,  "Chronicles;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge'nerale." 

Valentini,  va-lgn-tee'nee,  (GEORG  WILHELM,) 
BARON,  a  German  general,  born  at  Berlin  in  1775, 
served  against  the  French  in  the  principal  campaigns 
between  1811  and  1815,  and  was  appointed  in  1828  in 
spector-general  of  military  instruction  in  the  Prussian 
army.  He  wrote  several  military  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Val-en-tin'i-an  [Lat.  VALENTINIA'NUS  ;  Fr.  VALEN- 
TINIEN,  vt'lSN'te'iie-aN']  I.,  (FLAVIUS,)  born  in  Panno- 
nia  in  321  A.D.,  succeeded  Jovian  as  Emperor  of  Rome 


S,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PALESTINIAN 


21-1 


y ALES IV S 


in  364,  and,  having  made  his  brother  Valenshis  colleague, 
reserved  for  himself  the  western  part  of  the  empire.  He 
carried  on  wars  with  the  Franks,  Allemanni,  and  other 
German  tribes,  over  whom  he  gained  several  important 
victories.  The  Picts  and  Scots  were  also  defeated,  and 
a  rebellion  in  Africa  was  suppressed  by  his  general 
Theodosius.  While  marching  against  the  Quadi  and 
Sarmatae,  who  had  invaded  Pannonia,  Valentinian  died 
suddenly,  (375  A.D.)  He  was  a  Catholic,  but  tolerated 
the  Arians. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  TIL- 
LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  BAKONIUS,  "Aunales;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Valentinian  (Valentiiiianus)  II.,  (FLAVIUS,)  called 
'1  HE  VOLTNGER,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  was 
made  by  his  brother  Gratian,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  375  A.D.,  his  colleague,  and  ruler  over  the 
western  part  of  the  empire.  After  the  murder  of  Gra 
tian  by  Maximus,  in  383,  he  sought  the  protection  of 
Theodosius,  who  defeated  Maximus  and  restored  the 
throne  to  Valentinian.  He  was  assassinated  in  392,  by 
order  of  Arbogastes,  one  of  his  generals,  who  aimed  at 
the  supreme  power. 

See  GIBBON,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Valentinian  (Valentinianus)  III.,  (PLACIDIUS,) 
son  of  Constantius,  born  in  419,  was  made  ruler  over  the 
Western  empire  by  his  uncle,  Theodosius  II.,  (425  A.D.,) 
but  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  mother,  Pla- 
ciclia.  During  this  period  Africa  was  conquered  from 
the  Romans  by  Genseric,  in  consequence  of  the  discord 
between  the  Roman  generals  Aetius  and  Bonifacius. 
Aetius,  having  previously  defeated  the  Huns  under 
Attila,  was  murdered  by  Valentinian,  who  was  jealous 
of  his  superior  ability,  (454.)  The  emperor  perished 
himself,  in  455,  by  the  hand  of  Petronius  Maximus, 
whose  wife  he  had  dishonoured. 

See  GIBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  TILLE- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Valentinianus.     See  VALKNTINIAN. 

Valentinien.     See  VALENTINIAN. 

Val-en-ti'iius,  [Fr.  VALENTIN,  vf'lo.N'taN',]  a  cele 
brated  Gnostic,  was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  the  founder 
of  a  sect  called  Valciitinians.  He  went  to  Rome  about 
140  A.D.,  and  was  excommunicated  soon  after  that  date. 
He  invented  an  obscure  and  fanciful  system  of  theology, 
in  which  Platonic  ideas  were  mingled  with  the  mystic 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel  of  John.  Died  about  160. 

Valentyn,  va'len-tin',  (FRANCIS,)  a  Dutch  preacher 
and  traveller,  born  at  Dort  about  1660.  He  preached 
several  years  at  Amboyna,  and  published  a  descriptive 
work  entitled  "  Ancient  and  Modern  East  Indies,"  (8 
vols.,  1724-26.)  Died  about  1725. 

Valera,  de,  da  va-la'ra,  ( DIEGO,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Cuenca  about  1412.  He  was  major-domo  to 
Isabella  of  Castile,  and  received  the  title  of  histo 
riographer  from  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  wrote  an 
"Abridged  History  of  Spain,"  ("Cronica  de  Espana 
abreviada,"  1482.)  Died  after  1481. 

See  TICKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Valere.     See  VALERIUS,  (LUCAS.) 

Va-le'ri-a  Ga-le'ri-a,  a  Roman  lady,  was  a  daughter 
of  Diocletian  and  Prisca.  She  was  married  in  292  A.D. 
to  the  emperor  Galerius,  after  whose  death  she  was 
persecuted  by  Maximinus  because  she  refused  to  be  his 
wife.  She  was  put  to  death  by  Licinius  in  315  A.D. 

Valeria  Gens,  an  ancient  patrician  tribe  or  family 
of  Rome,  supposed  to  be  descended  from  Volesus,  or 
Volusus,  a  Sabine.  This  gens  was  represented  by  a 
succession  of  eminent  men  for  many  centuries,  and 
enjoyed  peculiar  honours  and  privileges.  Among  the 
names  of  the  families  into  which  it  was  divided  were 
Flaccus,  Maximus,  Messala,  Publicola,  and  Volusus. 

Va-le'ri-anfLat.  VALERIA'NUS,  (PuBLius LICINIUS;) 
Fr.  VALERIKN,  vS'la're-i.x']  succeeded  rEmilianus  as 
Emperor  of  Rome  in  253  A.D.,  and  appointed  his  son 
Gallienus  his  colleague.  The  empire  was  soon  after 
invaded  by  the  Goths  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  and 
by  Sapor,  (Shapoor,)  King  of  Persia,  who  defeated  the 
Romans  near  Edessa  in  260  and  took  Valerian  prisoner. 
He  was  treated  in  the  most  insulting  manner  by  his 
captor,  who  is  said  to  have  placed  his  foot  upon  him 


when  he  mounted  his  horse.  He  died  in  Persia  about 
268  A. ix,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gallienus. 

See  At'RELius  VICTOR,  "De  Cassaribus;"  TILLEMONT,  "His 
toire  des  Empereurs." 

Valeriani  Molinari,  va-la-re-a'nee  mo-le-na'ree, 
(LuiGl,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1758;  died  in  1828. 

See  MONTANARI,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  L.  Valeriani  Moli 
nari,"  1835. 

Valeriaiios  Apostolos.     See  FUCA,  DE,  QUAN.) 

Valerianus.     See  VALERIAN. 

Va-le-ri-a'nus,  (JOANNES  PIERIUS,)  or  Valeriano, 
va-la-re-a'no,  (GIOVANNI  PIERIO,)  an  Italian  author, 
born  at  Belluno  in  1477.  His  family  name  was  BOL- 
ZANI.  He  became  apostolic  prothonotary  and  professor 
of  eloquence  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  are  Latin 
poems,  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Ancient  Symbols,"  ("  Hie- 
roglyphica,  sive  de  Sacris  ^Egyptiorum,  aliarumque 
Gentium  Literis,"  1556.)  Died  at  Padua  in  1558. 

See  DE  THOU  andTEissiER,  "  Eloges  ;"  NIC£RON,  "  Memoires  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Valerien.     See  VALERIAN. 

Valeric,  va-la're-o  or  vi'la're'o',  (THEODORE,)  a 
French  painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Longwy  (Mo 
selle)  in  1819.  He  accompanied  the  Turkish  army  about 
1853,  and  took  sketches  of  various  scenes  and  peoples 
in  Hungary,  Bosnia,  and  the  Danubian  principalities. 

Va-le'rl-us,  (ANTIAS  QUINTUS,)  a  Roman  historian, 
wrote  Annals  of  the  city  from  its  foundation  to  the  time 
of  Sulla. 

Valerius,  (JULIUS,)  a  translator,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  fifth  century.  He  produced  a  Latin 
version  of  a  "  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  by 
rEsopus. 

Valerius,  [Fr.  VALERE,  vi'laiR',]  (LUCAS,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  was  professor  of  geometry  in  the  College 
of  Rome.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the  Centre  of 
Gravity  of  Solids."  Galileo  called  him  the  Archimedes 
of  his  time.  Died  about  1618. 

Valerius,  (PROBUS  MARCUS,)  a  noted  grammarian 
under  the  reign  of  Nero,  was  a  native  of  Syria. 

Valerius,  (  PUISLIUS,)  surnamed  ASIAT'ICUS,  a  Roman, 
who  was  consul  in  46  A.D.  He  was  very  rich.  Messa- 
lina,  who  coveted  his  garden,  induced  Claudius  to  put 
him  to  death  in  47  A.D. 

Valerius  Corvus,  (MARCUS.)     See  CORVUS. 

Valerius  Flaccus.     See  FLACCUS,  (C.Airs.) 

Va-le'ri-us  Max'i-mus,  [Fr.  VALERE  MAXIME,  vi' 
laiR'  mfk'sem',]  a  Roman  historical  writer  under  the 
reign  of  Tiberius.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Fac- 
torum  Dictorumque  Memorabilium  Libri  IX.,"  consist 
ing  chiefly  of  historical  anecdotes.  Numerous  editions 
of  it  have  been  published,  and  it  has  been  translated  into 
the  principal  modern  languages.  This  work  is  very 
defective  in  style  and  other  qualities. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  FABKICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca 
Latina." 

Valerius  Publicola.     See  PUBLICOLA. 

Valesio,  (FRANCISCO.)     See  VALLES. 

Valesio,  va-la'se-o,  (GIOVANNI  LUIGI,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1561.  He 
worked  in  Rome. 

Valesius,  the  Latin  of  VALOIS  and  VALLES,  which  see. 

Va-le'sl-us,  (ADRIANUS,)  [Fr.  ADRIEN  DE  VALOIS, 
t'dRe^N''  deh  vf'lwa',]  brother  of  Henri,  noticed  below, 
born  in  Paris  in  1607,  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  . 
France,  entitled  "Gesta  veterum  Francorum,"  etc.,  (3 
vols.,  1658,)  and  "Notitia  Galliarum  Orcline  alphabetico 
digesta,"  being  an  account  of  ancient  Gaul.  In  1660 
he  received  a  pension  from  the  king,  and  the  title  of 
royal  historiographer.  He  also  wrote  a  "Life  of  Henry 
de  Valois,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1692. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Valesius  or  De  Valois,  (HENRI,)  an  eminent  French 
scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1603.  He  studied  in  his  native 
city,  and  subsequently  at  Bourges.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  editions  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
and  other  Greek  ecclesiastical  historians,  also  an  edition 
of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  "  Excerpta  Polybii,  Dio- 
dori,  Nicolai  Damasceni,"  etc.  He  was  appointed  royal 
historiographer  in  1660.  Died  in  1676. 

See  NICBRON,  "Memoires." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


y  ALETTE 


2172 


VALLANCE 


Valette,  vS'let',  (AucusTE,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Salins  (Jura)  in  1804.  He  became  professor  of  civil 
law  in  the  Ecole  de  Droit,  Paris,  in  1837,  and  occupied 
that  chair  more  than  twenty  years.  He  published  several 
legal  works. 

Valette,  de  la,  deh  It  vt'let',  (JEAN  Parisot— pt'- 
re'zo',)  sometimes  called  Valette-Parisot,  the  founder 
of  Valetta,  and  grand  master  of  Malta,  was  born  of 
French  parents  in  1494.  He  was  elected  grand  master 
in  1557,  having  previously  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  general.  In  1565  the  Sultan  Solyman  attacked 
Malta  with  a  powerful  armament,  (one  hundred  and 
fifty-nine  ships  of  war,)  against  which  La  Valette  made 
a  successful  defence.  After  a  siege  of  four  months,  the 
Turks  retired.  Died  in  1568. 

See  MERMET,  "  Eloge  de  J.  de  la  Valefte-Parisot,"  1803  ;  PFAFF, 
"Philippe  Villiers  de  J'lsle-Adam  mid  J.  de  la  Valette,"  1851; 
PRKSCOTT,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii.  ;  WATSON,  "Life  of 
Philip  II.;"  DE  THOU,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  VERTOT, 
"  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  de  Malte  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate. " 

Valette,  de  la,  (Louis  de  Nogaret — deh  no'gt'ri',) 
CARDINAL,  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1593,  was  a  son  of 
the  Due  d'Epernon.  He  was  an  adherent  of  Richelieu, 
who  in  1635  gave  him  command  of  an  army  sent  to  aid 
the  German  Protestants  and  fight  against  the  Spaniards. 
Turenne  was  second  in  command  under  him.  In  1638 
he  commanded  the  army  of  Italy.  Died  at  Rivoli  in 
1639. 

See  J.  TALON,  "Memoirede  L.  de  Nogaret,  Cardinal  de  la  Valette," 
etc.,  2  vols.,  1772. 

Valette,  de  la,  (Louis  DE  THOMAS,)  a  French  eccle 
siastic,  born  at  Toulon  in  1678.  He  became  general  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Oratory.  Died  in  1772. 

Valette,  La.     See  LA  VALETTE. 

Val'gi-us  Ru'fus,  a  Roman  poet  and  critic  of  the 
Augustan  age,  favourably  mentioned  by  Horace  in  his 
Tenth  Satire,  book  i.  Little  is  known  respecting  him 
or  his  works. 

Valhalla,  (the  "hall  of  the  fallen  or  slain.")  See 
ODIN  and  VALKYRIA. 

Valhubert,  vt'lii'baiR',  (JEAN  MARIE  MELON  RO 
GER,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Avranches  in  1764, 
distinguished  himself  at  Marengo,  and  was  killed  at 
Austerlitz  in  1805. 

Vali,  va'le,  [etymology  uncertain  ;  possibly  related  to 
the  Sanscrit  Mid,  "strength,"  (which  is  cognate  with  the 
Latin  ral-eo,  to  "be  strong,")  or  the  Sanscrit  bald,  an 
"infant,"  because  as  an  infant  he  performed  his  greatest 
achievement,]  one  of  the  principal  gods  in  the  Norse 
mythology,  was  the  son  of  Odin  and  Rinda.  When 
only  one  day  old,  he  avenged  Haider's  death  by  slaying 
Hoder.  He  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  archer.  He  and 
Vidar  are  the  only  ones  among  the  principal  gods  who 
will  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world  at  Ragnarock. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  KEYSER,  "Religion 
of  the  Northmen  ;"  PETERSEN,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Valieri,  va-le-a'ree,  or  Valiero,  va-le-a'ro,  (SiLVES- 
TRO,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1694.  He  waged  war 
with  success  against  the  Turks,  and  compelled  them  to 
cede  the  Morea  to  Venice  in  1699.  Died  in  1700. 

Valiero,  va-le-a'ro,  or  Valeric,  va-la're-o,  [Lat.  VA- 
LE'RIUS,]  (AGOSTINO,)  a  learned  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Venice  in  1531.  He  became  Bishop  of  Verona  in  1565, 
and  a  cardinal  in  1583.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Ecclesiastical  Rhetoric,"  ("  Rhetorica  Ecclesiastica," 
1574,)  and  a  "Life  of  Carlo  Borromeo,"  (1586.)  Died 
in  1606. 

See  UGHEI.LI,  "Italia  Sacra;"  NICERON,  "Memoires;"  G. 
VENTURA,  "  Vita  Cardinalis  A.  Valerii,"  1741. 

Valignani,  va-16n-ya'nee,  (ALESSANDRO,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Chieti  in  1537.  Having 
been  sent  to  the  East  Indies  in  1573,  he  preached  in 
Japan  and  China.  Died  at  Macao  in  1606. 

Valin,  v&'laN',  (RENE  JOSUE,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  La  Rochelle  in  1695,  acquired  a  high  reputation  by 
his  works  on  law.  Died  in  1765. 

See  LEPELLETIER,  "  filoge  de  R.  J.  Valin,"  1844. 

Valincourt  or  Valincour,  de,  deh  vt'laN'kooR', 
(JEAN  BAPTISTE  HENRI  du  Trousset — dii  tRoo'si',) 
SIEUR,  a  French  writer  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1653. 


He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Frai^ois,  Due  de  Guise,"  (1681,) 
and  other  works.  He  succeeded  his  friend  Racine  as  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  in  1699,  and  as  his 
toriographer  to  the  king.  Died  in  1730. 

See  FONTENEI.LE,  "  filoges ;"  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generate. " 

Valkenburgh,  val'ken-biirg  or  val'ken-buRH,  (THEO 
DORE  or  DIRCK,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and  still 
life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1675.  He  worked  for  some 
time  at  Vienna,  from  which  he  returned  to  his  native 
city.  Died  in  1721. 

Valkyria,  (or  Valkyrja,)  val-kfr'e-d  or  val-ldr'ya; 
the  common  English  plural  is  Valkyries,*  val-kir'ez, 
[Norse  plural,  Valkyrjur  or  Valkyriur,  vdl-ldr'yur, 
derived  from  va/r,  "  fallen"  or  "  slain  in  battle,"  and  kj'ora, 
cognate  with  the  old  German  kiircn  and  Anglo-Saxon 
ceosan,  to  "  choose,"  signifying  the  "choosers  of  the  slain,"] 
the  name  applied  in  the  Edda  to  certain  mythical  beings, 
attendants  of  Odin,  by  whom  they  are  sent  to  every 
battle-field  to  select  such  as  are  doomed  to  fall,  and  to 
bring  them  to  Valhalla.  They  are  described  as  white 
maidens  who  ride  through  the  air,  from  the  manes  of 
whose  horses  dew  falls  in  the  valleys  and  hail  on  the 
high  mountains.  Skuld,  the  youngest  of  the  Norns, 
is  numbered  among  the  Valkyries.  They  are  some 
times  called  Valmeyar,  ("battle-maids,")  Skialdmeyar  or 
Skjaldmeyar,  ("shield-maids,")  and  Oskineyar,  ("the 
maids  of  Odin,")  Oski  being  one  of  the  names  of  the 
war-god.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Valkyries,  in  addition 
to  their  other  offices,  to  wait  upon  the  chosen  heroes 
( Einhcriar)  who  are  admitted  to  Valhalla,  to  fill  their 
cups  with  mead,  and  to  have  charge  of  everything  be 
longing  to  the  table. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  KKYSEK,  "Re 
ligion  of  the  Northmen;"  PKTEKSKN,  "Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Valkyries.     See  VALKYRIA. 

Valla.     See  VAL,  DU,  (NICOLAS.) 

Valla,  val'ld,  (GiORGio,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  phy 
sician,  born  at  Piacenza  about  1430,  was  a  cousin  of 
Lorenzo,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  elo 
quence  at  Venice.  He  wrote  several  medical  treatises, 
and  a  work  entitled  "On  Things  to  be  Sought  and  to 
be  Avoided,"  ("  De  Expetendis  et  Fugiendis  Rebus," 
2  vols.,  1501.)  f  Died  at  Venice  in  1499. 

See  BAVLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  TIRABOSCHI, 
"  Stciria  della  Letteratnra  Italiana." 

Valla,  (LORENZO,)  an  eminent  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Rome  about  1415.  He  was  successively  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  Pavia,  Milan,  and  Naples,  where  he  ac 
quired  the  friendship  and  patronage  of  King  Alfonso 
I.  He  was,  it  is  said,  persecuted  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Naples,  but  he  effected  his  escape  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  who 
made  him  his  secretary  and  conferred  on  him  other 
distinctions.  His  principal  works  are  entitled  "Notes 
on  the  New  Testament,"  ("  Annotationes  in  Novum 
Testamentum,"  1505,)  "  Elegantije  Sermonis  Latini," 
commentaries  on  Livy  and  Sallust,  and  translations  of 
Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  Valla  was  one  of  the  first 
critics  and  scholars  of  his  time;  but  his  controversial 
writings  are  disfigured  by  bitter  invective  and  person 
alities.  Died  about  1460. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis;"  BAYLK,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  POGGIAU,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  L. 
Valla;"  WILDSCHUT,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  L.  Vails," 
1830;  P.  GIOVIO,  "Elogia;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valladier,  vt'li'de-i',  (ANDRE,)  a  French  eccle 
siastic  and  writer,  was  born  about  1565.  He  became 
preacher  or  chaplain  to  Henry  IV.  in  1608,  and  abbe  of 
Saint- Arnoul  in  1611.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Royal 
Labyrinth  of  the  Gallic  Hercules,"  ("  Le  Labyrinthe 
royal  de  1'Hercule  Gaulois,"  1600.)  Died  in  1638. 

See  MORERI,  "Dictiomiaire  Historique ;"  NIC^RON,  "  M^- 
moires." 

Vallance,  vt'loNss',  or  Valiancy,  vf'lo.N'se', 
(CHARLES,)  an  antiquarian  writer,  born  in  1721,  pub 
lished  a  work  entitled  "  Collectanea  de  Rebus  Hiber- 
nicis,"  etc.,  and  a  "Grammar"  and  "Dictionary"  of  the 
Irish  language.  Died  in  1812. 


*  The  English  singular  Vcilkyry  or  Valkyrie  is  rarely  used. 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  ft,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


YALLAXD1GHAM 


2173 


VALMORE 


Vallandigham,  va-lanMe-gam,  (Ci.KMK.vr  L.,)  an 
American  politician,  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  about 
1822.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  in 
1856,  by  the  voters  of  the  third  district  of  Ohio,  which 
he  continued  to  represent  until  1863.  While  in  Con 
gress  he  opposed  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  sup 
press  the  rebellion,  and  manifested  his  sympathy  with 
the  insurgents  in  many  a  virulent  harangue.  In  May, 
1863,  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  having  "declared 
disloyal  sentiments  and  opinions,"  etc.,  and  was  sen 
tenced  by  a  military  court  to  close  confinement  till  the 
end  of  the  war;  but  the  President  modified  this  sen 
tence  and  directed  that  he  should  be  banished  or  sent 
southward  beyond  our  military  lines.  Mr.  Vallan 
digham  embarked  at  a  Southern  port  and  afterwards 
went  to  Canada.  The  Democratic  Convention  which 
met  in  Ohio  in  June,  1863,  denounced  his  banishment 
as  a  violation  of  the  Constitution,  and  nominated  him 
as  their  candidate  for  Governor.  He  was,  however, 
defeated  in  the  ensuing  election,  (October,  1863,)  his 
opponent,  Mr.  Brough,  having  received  the  unprece 
dented  majority  of  101,099  votes. 

Vallarsi,  vil-laR'see,  (DoME.MCO,)  an  Italian  anti 
quary,  born  at  Verona  in  1702.  was  versed  in  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  He  edited  the  works  of  Saint  Jerome,  (12 
vols.,  1734.)  Died  in  1771. 

Vallart.     See  VALART. 

Vallauri,  val-low'ree,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  literary  historian,  born  at  Chiusa  di  Cuneo  in  1805. 
He  became  professor  of  Latin  eloquence  at  Turin  in 
1843.  He  published  "History  of  Poetry  in  Piedmont," 
(1841.)  "History  of  the  Royal  House  and  Monarchy  of 
Savoy,"  (1845,)  "Critical  History  of  Latin  Literature," 
(in  Latin,  1849,)  a  "  Latin-Italian  Dictionary,"  (1852,) 
and  editions  of  several  Latin  classics. 

Vaile,  della,  del'la  val'la,  (GUGLIELMO,)  an  Italian 
monk  and  writer,  born  at  Sienna  about  1740.  He  wrote 
"Letters  on  the  Fine  Arts,"  (3  vols.,  1782-86.)  Died 
in  1794. 

Valle,  della,  (PIKTRO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  traveller, 
born  at  Rome  in  1586,  was  surnamed  IL  PEI.LEGRINO, 
("  the  Pilgrim.")  Having  assumed  the  dress  of  a  pilgrim, 
he  set  out  in  1614  for  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  coun 
tries.  He  returned  in  1626,  having  spent  six  years  in 
Persia.  lie  died  in  1652.  His  Travels  in  India  and 
Persia  were  published  in  1662,  (4  vols.)  They  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages. 

Vallee,  vt'la',  (GEOFFROI,)  a  French  Deist,  born  at 
Orleans,  published  "The  Beatitude  of  Christians,"  ("La 
Beatitude  des  Chretiens,")  for  which  he  was  executed 
in  1574. 

Vallee,  (Louis  LEGER,)  a  French  civil  engineer,  born 
in  1794,  was  appointed  inspector-general  in  1848.  He 
published  several  professional  works. 

Vallee,  La.     See  LA  VALLEE. 

Valleix,  vS'li',  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  med 
ical  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1820.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Neuralgia,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1855. 

Vallemont,  de,  deh  viU'mdN',  (PIERRE  Le  Lorrain 
— leh  lo'rax',)  ABBE,  a  French  priest,  naturalist,  and 
writer,  born  at  Pont-Audemer  in  1649.  He  compiled 
several  mediocre  works,  among  which  is  "  The  Elements 
of  History,"  (2  vols.,  1696.)  Died  in  1721. 

Valleriole,  vaTre'ol',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  about  1504  ;  died  in  1580. 

Valles,  value's,  or  Valesio,  va-la'se-o,  [Lat.  VALLE'- 
sius,]  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer,  born  in 
Old  Castile,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was 
physician  to  Philip  II.,  and  author  of  several  esteemed 
works. 

Vallet  or  Valet,  vi'li',  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French  en 
graver,  born  about  1634.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Raphael,  Titian,  and  Poussin.  Died  about  1704. 

Vallet  de  Viriville,  vi'l^'  deh  ve're'vel',  (  AUGUSTE,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1815. 
He  contributed  to  several  periodicals,  and  published,  be 
sides  other  works,  "  Historical  Iconography  of  France," 
(1853,)  and  "  Researches  on  Jeanne  Dare,"  (1855.) 

Valletta,  val-let'ti,  (NiccoLd,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Arienza  (Campania)  in  1738,  (or,  as  some  say,  1750.) 


He  became  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Naples, 
and  published  numerous  legal  works.  Died  in  1814. 

See  ROSA,  "  Elogio  storico  di  N.  Valletta,"  1815. 

Valli,  val'lee,  (EusEHio,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Pistoia  in  1762,  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  the  yellow 
fever,  of  which  disease  he  died  in  1816. 

Val'li-a  or  Wal'll-a,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  began 
to  reign  in  415  A.D.,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Hono- 
rius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  in  416,  after  which  he  gained 
victories  over  the  Vandals  in  Spain.  Toulouse  was  his 
capital.  Died  about  420  A.D. 

Valliere,  de,  deh  vt'le-aiR',  QEAN  FLORENT,)  a 
French  general  of  artillery7~was  born  in  Paris  in  1667. 
He  reorganized  the  artillery,  and  rendered  important 
services  in  several  campaigns.  Died  in  1759. 

Valliere,  de,  (JOSEPH  FLORENT,)  MARQUIS,  an  able 
French  general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1717.  He  became  director-general  of  the  artil 
lery  and  engineers  in  1755,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Hastenbeck.  Died  in  1776. 

Valliere,  de  la,  deh  It  vSlej-aJR',  (Louis  CESAR  LA 
BAUME  LE  BLANC,)  DUKE,  a  French  bibliophile,  born 
in  Paris  in  1708,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  the  following. 
His  library  is  stated  to  have  been  the  richest  that  any 
private  person  ever  had  in  France.  Died  in  1780. 

Valliere,  de  la,  (LOUISE  FRANCOISE  DE  LA  BAUME 
LE  BLANC,)  a  beautiful  and  fascinating  Frenchwoman, 
born  in  Touraine  in  1644.  She  became  a  maid  of 
honour  to  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  and  about  1661  the 
mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  her  the  title  of  duchess. 
She  had  by  him  four  children,  one  of  whom,  the  Count 
of  Vermandois,  was  legitimated.  In  1674  she  retired  to 
a  convent.  Her  virtues  and  piety  are  highly  extolled. 
Died  in  1710. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  Roissv,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de  la  Val 
liere,"  1823;  W.  H.  D.  ADAMS,  "Famous  Beauties  and  Historic 
Women,"  vol.  ii.,  1865. 

Vallisneri,  val-les-na'ree,  or  Vallisnieri,  val-les-ne- 
a'ree,  (ANTONIO,)  an  eminent  Italian  naturalist,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Modena  in  May,  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Mal- 
pighi  at 'Bologna.  He  began  to  practise  medicine  at 
Reggio  about  1688,  and  married  in  1692.  Having  ac 
quired  distinction  by  his  researches  in  entomology  and 
the  generation  of  insects,  he  became  professor  of  practi 
cal  medicine  at  Padua  in  1700.  He  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  spontaneous  generation.  About  1710  he  obtained  the 
first  chair  of  the  theory  of  medicine  at  Padua.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Generation  of 
Men  and  Animals,"  ("Istoria  della  Generazione  dell' 
Uomoe  degli  Animali,"  etc.,  1721.)  Buffon  regarded  him 
as  an  exact  and  profound  investigator.  Died  at  Padua 
in  1730.  Vallisneria,  a  genus  of  plants,  was  named  in  his 
honour  by  Micheli. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  vii.  ; 
NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  TIPAI.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illus- 
tri  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biosjraphie  Generale." 

i      Vallongue.     See  PASCAL-VALLONGUE. 

Vallot,  vt'lo',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Rheims  or  at  Montpellier  in  1594.  He  became  first 
physician  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1652,  and  cured  him  of  a 
serious  illness  in  1658.  Died  in  1671. 

Vallotti,  val-lot'tee,  (FRANCESCO  ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  composer  of  sacred  music,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1697  ; 
died  at  Padua  in  1780. 

Valmlki,  vSl'mi-ki,  or  ValmikI,vtl-mee'kT,aHindoo 
poet,  of  unknown  date,  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  author 
ship  of  the  "  Ramayana,"  one  of  the  two  great  Hindoo 
epics.  (See  RAMAYANA.) 

See  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit-and-English  Dictionary ;"  "  New  Ameri 
can  Cyclopaedia." 

Valmont  de  Bornare,  vtl'moN'  deh  bo'mtR',  (J.  C.,) 
a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1731.  He  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  including  Lapland,  and  returned 
with  a  large  collection  of  objects  in  natural  history.  He 
published  in  1758  his  "  Catalogue  of  a  Cabinet  of  Natural 
History,"  which  was  followed  by  a  "  New  Exposition  of 
the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (2  vols.,  1762,)  and  "  Universal 
Raisonne  Dictionary  of  Natural  History,"  a  work  of 
great  merit,  which  has  obtained  extensive  popularity. 
Died  in  1807. 

Valmore,  (MARCELLINE.)     See  DESBORDES. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2^°"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VALMT 


2174 


Valmy,  DUKE  OF.     See  KKLLERMANN. 

Valois,  vS'lwa',  (Yvns,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  writer 
on  religion,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1694;  died  after  1760. 

Valois,  de,  (AOKIEN.)     See  VALESIUS. 

Valois,  de,  (CHARLES.)     See  ANGOULEME. 

Valois,  de,  deli  vt'lwa',  [Lat.  VALE'SIUS,]  (CHARLES,) 
a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1671,  was  a  son  of 
Adrien  de  Valois  or  Valesius.  He  published  a  curious 
work,  entitled  "  Valesiana,"  (1694,)  which  is  composed 
partly  of  his  father's  writings  and  sayings.  Died  in  1747. 

Valori,  va-lo'ree,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  eminent  Italian 
statesman,  born  at  Florence  in  1439.  He  filled  the 
highest  offices  in  the  Florentine  republic,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Savonarola  and  Macchiavelli.  He  was  killed 
by  the  populace  during  the  excitement  caused  by  the 
reforms  of  Savonarola,  in  1498. 

Valori,  (NiccoLO,)  a"  Italian  writer,  who  was  prior 
of  the  republic  of  Florence.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,"  (1492.) 

Valperga  di  Caluso,  val-p§u'ga  de  ka-loo'so,  or 
simply  Valperga-Caluso,  (TOMMASO,)  an  Italian  lit- 
tlrateur  and  mathematician,  born  in  Turin  in  1737,  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Al fieri.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  literature  in  Turin,  and  director  of  an  observa 
tory  in  that  city.  He  wrote  poems,  and  numerous  treat 
ises  on  mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Gallery  of  Italian  Poets,"  (1814.)  Died  in  1815. 

See  L.  DEBREME,  "  VitadiT.  Valperga-Caluso,"  1815;?.  BAI.BO, 
"  Vita  dell'Abate  Valperga,"  1816  ;  BOUCHERON,  "  Vita  T.  Valpersse- 
Calusii,"  1836;  EKSCH  und  GRUHER,  "Allgemeine  Encyclopaedic," 
article  "Caluso;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Val'pjf,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
brother  of  Richard,  noticed  below,  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  vicar  of 
Saint  Mary,  at  Walsham,  Norfolk.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Elegantiae  Latince,"  (translated,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Valpy,  (RICHARD,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  divine,  born  in  the  island  of  Jersey  in  1754.  Having 
previously  studied  at  the  College  of  Valognes,  in  Nor 
mandy,  he  entered  the  University  of  Oxford,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.,  and  in  1781  was  chosen  head 
master  of  the  grammar-school  at  Reading,  Berkshire. 
He  became  rector  of  Stradishall,  in  Suffolk,  in  1787.  He 
published  "Elements  of  the  Latin  Language,"  (1784,) 
and  a  "Greek  Grammar,"  (1805,)  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1836.  His  son  ABRAHAM  JOHN, 
born  in  1786,  published  excellent  editions  of  several  of 
the  Latin  classics.  Died  in  1854. 

Valsalva,  val-sal'va,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Imola  in  1666. 
He  studied  under  Malpighi  at  Bologna,  and  in  1697 
became  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  university  of  that 
city.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
and  of  other  similar  institutions.  He  made  improve 
ments  in  practical  surgery,  and  acquired  a  high  reputa 
tion  as  an  anatomist  by  his  discoveries  in  the  structure 
of  the  ear,  on  which  he  wrote  a  work,  "  De  Aure  Hu 
mana,"  (1704.)  He  was  a  skilful  physician,  and  invented 
a  method  of  treating  aneurisms.  Died  in  1723. 

See  FABRONI,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  TIPALDO, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Valsecchi,  val-sek'kee,  (ViRGiNio,)  an  Italian  anti 
quary,  born  at  Brescia  in  1681  ;  died  in  1739. 

Valstaiu.     See  WALLENSTEIN. 

Valturio,  val-toc/re-o,  (RouERTO,)  an  Italian  writer 
on  the  military  art,  born  at  Rimini,  was  author  of  a 
work  "  De  Re  militari,''  (1472.)  He  lived  about  1450-80. 

Valvasone,  di,  de  val-va  so'na,  (ERASMO,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Friuli  in  1523,  was  proprietor  of  an  estate 
and  a  castle.  He  wrote  the  "  Angeleida,"  a  poem  on 
the  war  among  the  angels,  (1590,)  and  "The  Chase," 
("Caccia,")  an  admired  didactic  poem  on  hunting, 
(1591.)  Died  in  1593. 

See  TIRABOSCHI,  "  Storia  delta  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Vaman.     See  VAMANA. 

Vamana,  va'ma-na,  called  also  Vaman,  va'man, 
[i.e.  a  "dwarf,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
the  fifth  avatar  of  Vishnu,  when  this  god,  to  humble  the 
arrogance  of  Bali,  (see  BALI,)  took  the  form  of  a  pitiful 
dwarf,  and,  when  the  tyrant  promised  him  as  much  land 


or  space  as  he  could  pass  over  in  three  steps,  revealed 
himself  in  his  real  character,  and  with  the  first  step 
deprived  Bali  of  earth,  with  the  second,  of  heaven,  but 
(in  consideration  of  Bali's  good  qualities)  he  generously 
forbore  to  take  the  third  step,  (which  would  have  left 
that  ruler  no  foothold  in  the  universe,)  and  allowed  him 
the  dominion  of  Patala,  or  the  lower  world.  From 
Vishnu's  exploit  on  that  occasion  he  has  received  one 
of  his  proudest  titles, — that  of  TrTvik'rama,  or  the 
"Three-Step-Taker."  (See  VISHNU.) 
See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Vamuna.     See  VAMANA. 

Van  or  Vaiia.     See  VANIR. 

Van  Achen.     See  ACHEN. 

Van'a-dis,  [Norse  pron.  va'na-dess',  i.e.  the  "  Vana 
goddess,"  so  called  on  account  of  her  descent  from  the 
Vanir,]  one  of  the  many  names  of  FREYIA,  which  see. 

Van  Aelst.     See  AKLST. 

Van  Amburgll,  van  am'burg,  (!SAAC,)  called  "the 
Lion-Tamer,"  was  born  at  Fishkill,  New  York,  about 
1815.  He  was  a  partner  of  a  company  that  exhibited  a 
travelling  menagerie,  and  was  very  successful  in  the 
taming  of  lions.  Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1865. 

Van  Beek.     See  TORRENTINUS. 

Vanbrugh,  van-broo',  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  celebrated  Eng 
lish  dramatist  and  architect,  of  Flemish  extraction,  born 
in  1666,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  London. 
He  was  educated  in  France,  and,  after  his  return,  pub 
lished,  in  1697,  his  comedy  of  "  The  Relapse,"  which  was 
followed  by  "The  Confederacy"  and  "The  Provoked 
Wife."  These  plays  were  highly  popular  at  the  time  ; 
but,  owing  to  their  profanity  and  licentiousness,  they  have 
been  long  banished  from  the  stage.  Among  his  principal 
architectural  works  we  may  name  Castle  Howard,  the 
seat  of  Charles,  Earl  of  Carlisle,  Duncombe  Hall,  Grims- 
thorpe,  in  Yorkshire,  and  Blenheim,  the  magnificent 
residence  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1703  Clarencieux  king-at-arms.  Died  in  1726. 

See  GIBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  BAKKR,  "  Biographia  Dra 
matical"  "Lives  ot'  the  British  Dramatists,"  by  CAMPBKM.,  LEIGH 
HUNT,  etc. 

Van  Bu'ren,  (JoHN,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Hudson,  New  York,  in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Martin,  noticed 
below.  He  was  elected  attorney-general  of  New  York 
early  in  1845,  joined  the  Free-Soil  party,  and  gained  dis 
tinction  as  a  political  orator  in  1848.  After  that  time 
he  practised  law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  acted 
with  the  Democratic  party.  He  died  at  sea  during  his 
homeward  passage  from  Europe,  in  October,  1866. 

Van  Buren,  (MARTIN,)  an  American  statesman,  the 
eighth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Kin- 
clerhook,  Columbia  county,  New  York,  on  the  5th  of 
December,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  the  academy  of 
his  native  village,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1803.  He  began  at  an  early  age  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics,  as  a  member  of  the  Democratic  party, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York  in  1812. 
He  advocated  the  war  against  England  in  1812,  became 
attorney-general  of  New  York  in  1815,  and  was  again 
elected  to  the  Senate  in  1816.  About  this  time  he  became 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Albany  Regency,  an  organization 
which  was  formed  to  oppose  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  which 
controlled  the  politics  of  New  York  for  many  years.  He 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1821,  sup 
ported  William  H.  Crawford  for  the  Presidency  of  the 
United  States  in  1824,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senator 
in  1827.  He  voted  for  the  protective  tariff  of  1828.  The 
same  year  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  New  York  for  two 
years,  but  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  he  resigned 
and  entered  the  cabinet  of  President  Jackson  as  secre 
tary  of  state.  He  resigned  that  office  in  April,  1831, 
probably  because  General  Jackson  had  expressed  his 
opinion  that  cabinet  ministers  should  not  be  aspirants 
for  the  Presidency,  or  should  not  obtain  that  office  through 
his  influence.  He  was  nominated  as  minister  to  Eng 
land,  whither  he  went  about  September,  1831,  but  his 
nomination  was  rejected  by  the  Senate,  in  which  the 
Whigs  had  then  a  majority.  To  compensate  him  for 
this  repulse,  the  friends  of  General  Jackson  elected  Mr. 
Van  Buren  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  No 
vember,  1832.  He  was  General  Jackson's  favourite  candi- 


,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  o,u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure :  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good:  moon; 


VAN  CEULEN 


PAKDER  HEIST 


date  for  the  Presidency,  and  was  nominated  as  such  by 
the  Democratic  Convention  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1835. 
His  Whig  competitor  was  General  W.  H.  Harrison. 
Mr.  Van  Buren  was  elected  President  in  November,  1836, 
receiving  one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes  out 
of  two  hundred  and  ninety-four,  which  was  the  whole 
number.  His  election  was  soon  followed  by  a  great 
financial  panic  and  a  general  prostration  of  business. 
About  May,  1837,  all  the  banks  suspended  specie  pay 
ments.  In  his  message  to  Congress  he  recommended 
the  establishment  of  an  independent  treasury,  which 
measure  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  the  session  of  1837-38,  but  afterwards  passed  both 
houses  of  Congress  and  became  a  law  about  June,  1840. 
In  the  session  of  1838-39  an  attempt  was  made  to  sup 
press  the  agitation  against  slavery,  by  a  resolution  that 
Congress  would  not  receive  or  read  any  petitions  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery.  All  the  political  friends  of  the 
President  voted  for  this  resolution,  which  was  adopted. 

He  was  again  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
Democratic  Convention  in  May,  1840,  but,  after  a  very 
exciting  canvass,  in  which  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Whigs 
was  stimulated  by  mass-meetings,  processions,  songs, 
etc.,  he  was  det'eated  by  General  Harrison,  svho  received 
two  hundred  and  thirty-four  electoral  votes  against  sixty 
for  Mr.  Van  Buren.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1841,  he  re 
tired  from  the  public  service  to  his  estate  called  Linden- 
wald,  near  Kinderhook,  Nesv  York.  In  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  which  met  in  May,  1844,  a  majority 
of  the  delegates  were  pledged  or  instructed  to  vote  for 
Mr.  Van  Birren  ;  but  the  Southern  politicians  opposed 
his  nomination,  because  he  had  written  a  letter  against 
the  annexation  of  Texas.  They  therefore  insisted  that 
the  Convention  should  adopt  a  rule  under  which  two- 
thirds  of  the  votes  were  necessary  to  a  choice.  Mr. 
Van  Buren  had  only  one  hundred  and  forty-six  votes 
out  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-two,  and  therefore  failed 
to  obtain  the  nomination. 

According  to  Mr.  Greeley,  his  renomination  was 
defeated  by  the  "slave-traders,  and  the  closely  affiliated 
class  of  gamblers  and  blacklegs."  ("  American  Conflict," 
vol.  i.  p.  69.)  He  afterwards  separated  himself  from  the 
Democratic  party  because  it  was  committed  to  the  ex 
tension  of  slavery.  A  convention  of  the  Free-Soil  party 
which  met  at  Buffalo  in  August,  1848,  nominated  Martin 
Van  Buren  and  Charles  Francis  Adams  as  candidates 
for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President.  They 
received  a  popular  vote  of  291,342,  but  not  any  electoral 
vote.  It  is  stated  that  he  voted  for  Mr.  Pierce  and  Mr. 
Buchanan  in  the  Presidential  elections  of  1852  and  1856. 
He  had  married  a  lady  named  Hoes  about  1804,  and  had 
several  sons.  Died  at  or  near  Kinderhook  in  July,  1862. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Van  Ceulen.     See  KEUI.EN,  VAN. 

Van  Cleemputte,  vtn  kla'S.x'piit'^LuciEN  TYRTEE,) 
a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  obtained 
the  grand  prize  in  1816. 

Van  Cleve,  vfn  kl£v,  (CORNEII.LK  or  JOSEPH,)  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  1644,  worked  in  Paris.  Died 

in  1733- 

Van  Cleve,  (HORATIO  P.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  about  1810,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  about  March,  1862,  and  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20, 
1863. 

Vancouver,  van-koo'ver,  (GEORGE,)  a  English  navi 
gator,  born  about  1755,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age, 
and  accompanied  Captain  Cook,  as  midshipman,  on  his 
second  and  third  voyages.  In  1791  he  sailed  as  com 
mander  of  the  Discovery  to  the  northwest  coast  of 
America,  to  receive  the  surrender  of  Nootka  from  the 
Spaniards,  who  were  instructed  by  their  government  to 
give  up  that  island  to  the  British.  He  was  also  charged 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  coast  northwards  from  latitude 
30°  north.  He  returned  in  1795,  and  applied  himself 
to  the  preparation  of  his  narrative,  which  was  not  quite 
completed  at  his  death,  in  1798.  It  was  published  soon 
after  by  his  brother,  under  the  title  of  "Voyage  of  Dis 
covery  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  round  the 


World,"  (3  vols.  410.)  Vancouver  gave  his  name  to  an 
island  off  the  coast  of  America  between  48°  20'  and  51° 
north  latitude. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1799. 

Van  Dale,  vtn  da'leh,  (ANTOON,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  Mennonite  preacher,  born  in  1638,  was  the  author 
of  several  learned  works  on  theology  and  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquities.  Among  these  we  may  name  his 
treatise  "  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Idolatry  and 
Superstition,"  (in  Latin,)  and  "On  the  Oracles  of  the 
Heathen,"  ("  Dissertationes  dua;  de  Oraculis,"  etc., 
1700.)  Died  in  1708. 

Van  Dalen.     See  DALEN,  VAN. 

Vandamme,  vfiN'dtm',  (DOMINIQUE  RENE,)  Count 
d'Unebourg,  a  French  general,  born  at  Cassel  in  1770. 
He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1799,  after  he  had 
rendered  important  services  in  Flanders  and  Germany. 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  received  from  Napoleon 
a  gift  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  took  part  in  several 
actions  against  the  Prussians  in  1806,  and  commanded 
a  corps  in  the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809.  In  the  spring 
of  1813  he  captured  Hamburg.  He  commanded  a  sepa 
rate  army  which  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  a  superior 
force  near  Kulm,  in  August,  1813.  Having  joined  the 
army  of  Napoleon  in  1815,  he  had  a  high  command  at 
the  battle  of  Ligny.  Died  in  1830. 

SeeTmERS,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  JOMIXI,  "Vie 
poliuque  et  miiitaire  de  Napoleon  ;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Vandelli,  vin-del'lee,  (DoMENico,)  an  Italian  phy 
sician  and  naturalist,  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  eigh 
teenth  century,  became  superintendent  of  the  botanic 
garden  at  Lisbon.  He  published  a  treatise  on  marine 
zoophytes,  etc.,  and  several  botanical  works.  He  was  a 
correspondent  of  Linnaeus,  who  named  the  genus  of 
plants  Vandellia  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1815. 

Van  den  Eckhout.     See  EECKHOUT. 

Van'deii-hoff,  (JoHN,)  an  English  tragic  actor,  born 
at  Salisbury  in  1790.  He  performed  "King  Lear"  and 
"Coriolanus"  with  success.  Died  in  1861. 

Vanderanus.     See  AA,  VAN  DER. 

Vaii'der-bilt,  (CORNELIUS,)  COMMODORE,  an  enter 
prising  American  navigator,  born  on  Staten  Island,  New 
York,  in  May,  1794.  He  was  originally  a  poor  boy,  and 
commenced  business  as  master  of  a  small  sail-boat.  He 
became  captain  of  a  steamboat  in  1817,  after  which  he 
made  improvements  in  the  construction  of  steamers. 
He  built  many  steamboats  and  steamships,  and  in  1851 
established  a  line  from  New  York  to  California  by  way 
of  Nicaragua.  In  1855  he  built  several  steamships  to  ply 
between  New  York  and  Havre.  In  1862  he  presented 
as  a  gift  to  the  Federal  government  his  new  steamer 
called  the  Vanderbilt,  which  cost  $800,000,  and  for  which 
Congress  passed  a  resolution  of  thanks.  "His  enter 
prise,  genius,  and  success,"  says  the  "  Merchants'  Maga 
zine,"  "are  known  and  felt  the  world  over."  He  now 
has  the  chief  control  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
and  the  Haarlem  Railroad. 

See  a  " Memoir  of  C.  Vanderbilt,"  in  the  "Merchants'  Magazine" 
for  January,  1865. 

Vanderbourg,  de,  deh  v&N'deR'booR',  (MARTIN 
MARIE  CHARLES  de  Boudens — deh  boo'doN',)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Saintes  in  1765, 
was  also  a  philologist.  He  was  the  first  editor  of  the 
poems  of  Clotilde  de  Surville,  (1803,)  of  which  some 
critics  suspect  him  to  have  been  the  author.  Died  in  1827. 

Vaiiderburch,  voN'deR'btiRk',  (£MILE  Louis,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1794,  wrote  many 
successful  comedies  and  vaudevilles.  Died  in  1862. 

Vaiiderburch,  de,  deh  vSn'der-buRK,  (FRANCIS,)  a 
Flemish  prelate,  born  at  Ghent  in  1567.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Cambray.  Died  in  1644. 

Van  der  Cabel.     See  CABEL,  VAN  DER. 

Van  der  Does.     See  DOES,  VAN  DER. 

Vander  Heist,  vtn'der-helst',  (BARTHOLOMEW,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  about 
1610.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  picture  in  the  town- 
house  of  Amsterdam,  containing  twenty-four  full-length 
portraits.  It  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  productions 
of  the  kind,  and  was  highly  commended  by  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds.  Died  about  1670. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  §  as  r,;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VAN  DER   HETDEN 


2176 


Van  der  Heyden,  (or  Heyde.)  See  HEYDEN,  VAN 
DER. 

Van  der  Linden.     See  LINDEN,  VAN  DER. 

Vaii'der-lyii,  (JoHN,)  a  noted  American  painter,  born 
at  Kingston,  Ulster  county,  New  York,  in  1776.  Having 
studied  law  for  a  time  under  Gilbert  Stuart,  he  visited 
Europe,  where  he  spent  several  years,  and  produced  his 
"  Ariadne"  and  "  Marius  sitting  among  the  Ruins  of  Car 
thage,"  which  are  esteemed  his  master-pieces.  Among 
his  portraits  we  may  name  those  of  Washington,  Mon 
roe,  and  Calhoun.  Died  in  1852. 

See  DUNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  Amer 
ica,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "Recollections  of  John  Vanderlyn,"  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  February,  1867  ;  TUCKEKMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Van  der  Maelen,  vtn  der  ma'len,  (PHILIPPE  MARIE 
GuiLLAUME,)  a  Belgian  geographer,  born  in  Brussels 
in  1795.  He  published  a  "Universal  Atlas,"  (6  vols., 
1825-27,)  and  other  works. 

Vaiider  Meer  or  Van  der  Meer,  vtn  der  maik, 
(JAN,)  THE  ELDER,  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1627. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  made 
him  a  councillor  in  1674.  Died  about  1690. 

Vaiider  Meer,  QAN,)  THE  YOUNGER,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1656.  His  landscapes  with  sheep 
are  greatly  admired ;  he  also  produced  a  number  of 
admirable  etchings.  His  works  are  rare  and  highly 
prized.  Died  in  1706. 

Van  der  Mersch.     See  MEUSCH,  VAN  DER. 

Van  der  Monde,  vtn  d&R  moNcl  or  voN'de' 
(CHARLES  AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Macao,  China,  in  1727.  He  published  a  "Dictionary 
of  Health,"  (Paris,  1759.)  Died  in  1762. 

Vander  Monde  or  Vandermoiide,  v 
(N.,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1735.  He 
became  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  ficole  Nor- 
male  in  1795.  He  published  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  two  "Memoires,"  in  which  he  advanced  the  theory 
that  music  might  be  composed  by  mathematical  pro 
cesses.  The  musicians,  it  is  said,  found  in  his  method 
too  much  mathematics,  and  the  mathematicians  too 
much  music.  Died  in  1796. 

Van  der  Neer,  (ARNOLD.)     See  NEER,  VAN  DER. 

Van  der  Ulft.     See  Ui.rr,  VAN  DER. 

Vandervelde,  vSn'der-veM'deh,  (ADRIAAN,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1639, 
was  a  pupil  of  Wynants,  and  a  son  of  Willein  the  Elder. 
His  favourite  subjects  were  landscapes  with  cattle,  in 
which  he  excelled  ;  he  also  frequently  painted  the  figures 
in  the  pictures  of  Ruysdael,  Van  der  Heyden,  and  others. 
Died  in  1672. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Van  der  Velde,  (!SAIAH.)     See  VELDE,  VAN  DER. 

Van  der  Velde  or  Vaudervelde,  (WILLEM,)  some 
times  written  also  Vandevelde,  called  THE  ELDER,  a 
celebrated  marine  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1610.  He 
entered  the  naval  service  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1666 
accompanied  Admiral  De  Ruyter  for  the  purpose  of 
making  drawings  of  the  engagements  between  the  Dutch 
and  English  fleets.  Having  acquired  a  very  high  repu 
tation  by  his  designs,  he  was  invited  to  England  by 
Charles  II.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  painter  of  sea- 
fights  to  the  king,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  pension.  His 
designs  were,  for  the  most  part,  executed  with  a  pen 
upon  paper  or  prepared  canvas,  and  some  of  them  were 
painted  in  oil  by  his  son.  Died  in  1693. 

See  H.  WALPOLE,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Van  der  Velde  or  Vandervelde,  (WILLEM,)  THE 
YOUNGER,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1633.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father,  whom  he  ex 
celled  in  sea-views.  Among  his  master- pieces  we  may 
name  his  "View  of  the  Texel,"  "A  Fresh  Breeze,"  "The 
Rising  of  the  Gale,"  and  "  A  Calm."  He  is  regarded 
by  many  connoisseurs  as  superior  to  any  other  artist  in 
his  department.  Died  in  1707. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Van  der  Werf  or  Vanderwerff,  vtn'der-we'Rf', 
(ADRIAAN,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and 
historical  works,  born  near  Rotterdam  in  1659.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Elector- Palatine  John  William,  who 


chased  his  pictures  at  very  high  prices.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "  Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  "  Magdalene 
in  the  Wilderness,"  and  an  "  Ecce  Homo."  Died  in  1722. 

Van  der  Werf  or  Vanderwerff,  (  PIE  PER,)  a  painter, 
born  near  Rotterdam  in  1665,  was  a  brother  of  Adriaan, 
whom  he  imitated.  Died  in  1718. 

Van  der  Weyde,  vSn'der-wI'deh,  (ROGER,)  a  Flem 
ish  painter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  introduced  great 
improvements  into  the  style  of  the  Flemish  school,  both 


in  respect  to  design  and  expression. 


Among  his  best 
Died  in  1529. 


works  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross.' 
See  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Van  de  Weyer,  vSn  deh  wT'er,  (SYLVANUS  or  SYL- 
VAIN,)  a  Belgian  diplomatist  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lon- 
vain  about  1802.  He  was  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government  formed  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
represented  Belgium  at  the  Conference  of  London, 
(1831.)  On  his  return  he  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  was  prime  minister  for  a  short  time  in 
184=5-46. 

Van  Dienien.     See  DIEMEN,  VAN. 

Van  Dorn,  (EARL,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mis 
sissippi  about  1823,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1855,  and  resigned  his  commis 
sion  early  in  1861.  He  commanded  the  insurgents  at 
the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March  7  and  8,  1862.  He  at 
tacked  General  Rosecrans  at  Corinth,  October  3  and  4, 
1862,  and  was  defeated  with  great  loss.  General  Rose 
crans  reported  that  his  army  killed  and  buried  1423,  and 
took  2268  prisoners.  General  Van  Dorn  was  killed  in 
a  private  quarrel  by  Dr.  Peters  in  Maury  county,  Ten 
nessee,  in  May,  1863. 

Vandyck.     See  VANDYKE. 

Van  Dyck,  (PHILIPPE.)     See  DYCK. 

Van  Dyk,  van  dlk,  (HARRY  STOE,)  an  English  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  pub 
lished  "The  Gondola,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1828. 

Vandyke,  Van  Dyck,  or  Vandyck,  vSn-dlk',  (Sir 
ANTHONY,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter  of  portraits, 
born  at  Antwerp,  March  22,  1599,  was  a  son  of  a  rich 
merchant.  He  began  to  study  painting  under  Van  Balen 
in  1610,  and  afterwards  became  a  pupil  of  Rubens  about 
1615.  According  to  a  doubtful  report,  Rubens,  incited 
by  jealousy,  advised  Vandyke  to  confine  himself  to 
portraits.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Antwerp.  He  visited  Italy  about  1622, 
passed  several  years  at  Venice,  Genoa,  Rome,  and  Flor 
ence,  and  painted  a  number  of  portraits  in  those  cities. 
Having  returned  to  Antwerp  about  1627,  he  painted  a 
picture  of  "  Saint  Augustine  in  Ecstasy,"  a  picture  of  the 
"Crucifixion,"  and  other  historical  works.  Comment 
ing  on  his  "  Crucifixion,"  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  said, 
"This  picture,  upon  the  whole,  may  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  finest  (or  first)  pictures  in  the  world,  and  gives 
the  highest  idea  of  Vandyke's  powers."  Having  been 
invited  by  Charles  I.,  he  went  to  England  about  1632, 
and  painted  portraits  of  that  king,  who  gave  him  an  an 
nual  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  in  1633,  and  the 
title  of  painter  to  his  majesty.  Vandyke  passed  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  England,  and  married  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
Lord  Ruthven,  Earl  of  Gowrie.  His  habits  were  luxu 
rious,  and  his  style  of  living  was  magnificent.  He  painted 
with  such  rapidity  and  facility  that  his  works  are  very 
numerous,  although  his  life  was  short.  He  is  generally 
considered  the  greatest  portrait-painter  of  modern  times 
except  Titian  ;  and  some  critics  prefer  him  even  to  that 
artist.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Erection  of 
the  Cross,"  a  portrait  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  and  his 
secretary,  (at  Wentworth  House,)  and  a  series  of  por 
traits  of  eminent  artists  of  his  time,  which  he  painted 
before  he  left  Antwerp.  Engravings  of  these,  about  one 
hundred  in  number,  have  been  published.  He  died  in 
London  in  December,  1641,  leaving  one  child,  Justiniana. 

See  WALPOLE,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England;"  DESCAMPS, 
"Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  CARPENTER,  "Memoir  of  Sir 
Anthony  Van  Dyck;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1847;  G. 
VALLARDI,  "  Cenni  storico-artistici  sul  A.  Van  Dyck,"  1844  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Vane,  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  in  1589.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament 


conferred  on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood  and  pur- 1  about  1615,  and  was  appointed  cofferer  to  the  Prince 
I,  e,  1, 6,  fl,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


VAKE 


2177 


y AN LOO 


of  Wales  by  James  I.  At  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  he 
became  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  In  1631  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Denmark  and  Sweden.  He  was 
appointed  principal  secretary  of  state  in  1640  or  1639. 
In  consequence  of  his  hostility  to  the  Earl  of  Strafford, 
he  was  removed,  and  became  an  adherent  of  the  Parlia 
ment.  Died  in  1654. 

See  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 

Vane,  (Sir  HENRY,)  THE  YOUNGER,  often  called  Sir 
HARRY  VANE,  a  republican  statesman,  born  in  1612,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  for  a  short 
time  at  Oxford,  from  which  he  went  to  Geneva,  and 
returned  home  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  liturgy  and 
government  of  the  Church  of  England.  By  the  pro 
fession  of  such  opinions  he  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  his  father.  For  the  sake  of  religious  liberty,  he 
emigrated  in  1635  to  Massachusetts.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  the  colony  in  1636,  and  "  manifested,"  says 
Forster,  "a  firmness,  energy,  and  wisdom  truly  remark 
able  in  one  of  his  early  age  and  previous  history."  He 
offended  the  majority  of  the  colony  by  his  advocacy 
of  universal  toleration,  and  returned  to  England  in 
1637,  soon  after  which  he  married  Frances  Wray.  In 
November,  1640,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  in  which  he  efficiently  promoted  the  con 
demnation  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  by  evidence  which 
he  furnished.  He  found  in  his  father's  cabinet  a  memo 
randum  of  a  council  at  which  Strafford  had  proposed  to 
employ  the  Irish  army  to  reduce  England  to  obedience. 

Vane  was  a  leader  of  the  Independents,  and  a  friend 
of  Milton.  On  the  death  of  Pym  (1643)  the  chief  direc 
tion  of  civil  affairs  devolved  on  Vane.  He  disapproved 
the  policy  of  the  execution  of  the  king,  but  expressed 
no  opinion  of  its  abstract  justice.  In  February,  1649, 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  state, 
and  in  the  next  month  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
naval  department.  The  efficiency  and  victories  of  the 
navy  are  ascribed  partly  to  his  administrative  talents. 
He  opposed  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell,  who,  as  his 
soldiers  were  dissolving  the  Parliament,  in  April,  1653, 
exclaimed,  "  The  Lord  deliver  me  from  Sir  Harry  Vane  !" 
Vane  afterwards  passed  several  years  in  retirement,  and 
wrote  works  entitled  "The  Retired  Man's  Meditation," 
(1655,)  and  a  "Healing  Question  Propounded  and  Re 
solved,"  (1656.)  At  the  restoration  he  was  excepted 
from  the  indemnity  or  act  of  amnesty.  Having  been 
confined  in  prison'  about  two  years,  he  was  tried  for 
treason  in  June,  1662,  and  convicted,  after  an  able  speech 
in  his  own  defence.  Charles  II.  wrote  to  Clarendon 
that  Vane  "was  too  dangerous  a  man  to  let  live."  He 
met  death  with  the  most  intrepid  courage  and  firmness. 
"He  was,"  says  Clarendon,  "a  man  of  extraordinary 
parts,  a  pleasant  wit,  a  great  understanding,  which 
pierced  into  and  discerned  the  purposes  of  other  men 
with  wonderful  sagacity.  ...  If  he  were  not  superior 
to  Mr.  Hampden,  he  was  inferior  to  no  other  man  in  all 
mysterious  artifices." 

'See  CLARENDON,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  ;"  JOHN  FORSTER, 
"Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane  the  Younger:"  WHITELOCKE,  "Trial  of 
Sir  H.  Vane;"  HL'.ME,  "History  of  England;"  "The  Life  and 
Death  of  Sir  H.  Vane,"  1662. 

Van  Effen.     See  EFFEN,  VAN. 

Van  Erpen.     See  ERPENIUS. 

Vaiietti.     See  VANNETTI. 

Van  Eyck.     See  EYCK,  (HUBERT  and  JOHN.) 

Van  Galen.     See  GAI.EN,  VAN. 

Vangerow,  von,  fon  fang'eh-ro',  (KART,  ADOLF,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Marburg  in  1808.  He  suc 
ceeded  Thibaut  as  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Heidel 
berg  in  1840,  and  in  1849  was  made  a  privy  councillor. 
He  published  a  "  Manual  of  the  Pandects,"  and  other 
legal  works.  Died  in  November,  1870. 

Van  Goyen.     See  GOYEN,  VAN. 

Van  Helmont.     See  HEI.MONT,  VAN. 

Van  Helt-Stoccade.     See  STOCCADE. 

Van  Hoek.     See  HOEK,  VAN. 

Van  Huevel,  vSn  hti'vel,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Belgiai 
physician,  born  at  Brussels  "in  1802.  He  invented  a 
pelvimeter  and  a  forceps  saw. 

Van  Huysum.     See  HUYSUM,  VAN. 

Vaniere,  vi'ne-ajR',  [Lat.  VANIE'RUS,]  (JACQUES,)  a 
French  Jesuit  ancT  Latin  poet,  born  near  Beziers,  in 


Languedoc,  in  1664.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  Latin  poems,  the  most  important  of  which  is  his 
"Rural  Estate,"  ("  Praedium  Rusticum,"  1707.)  In  this 
poem  he  imitated  Virgil  with  considerable  success.  He 
was  professor  of  humanities  in  several  colleges.  Died 
at  Toulouse  in  1739. 

See  PERE  LOMBARD,  "Vie  du  Pere  Vaniere,"  1739;  MORBRI, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Vanierus.     See  VANIERE. 

Vanini,  va-nee'nee,  fLat.  VANI'NUS,]  (LuciLio,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  skeptic,  born  at  Taurisano  in 
1585.  According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  a  priest 
in  his  youth.  He  travelled  in  Germany,  France,  and 
England,  and  taught  philosophy  for  a  short  time  at 
Genoa.  His  enemies  admit  that  he  was  eloquent  and 
learned.  In  1616  he  published  at  Paris  a  pantheistic 
work,  entitled  "On  the  Admirable  Secrets  of  Nature, 
the  Queen  and  Goddess  of  Mortals,"  etc.,  ("  De  admi- 
ranclis  Naturae  Reginae  Deaeque  Mortalium  Arcanis,") 
which  the  Sorbonne  condemned  to  be  burned.  He 
removed  to  Toulouse  in  1617,  was  accused  of  atheism, 
and  put  to  death  in  1619. 

See  J.  G.  OLEARIUS,  "  De  Vita  Vanini,"  1708;  P.  F.  ARPE, 
"  Apologia  pro  Vanino,"  1712  :  DURAXD,  "  La  Vie  et  les  Sentiments 
de  Vanini."  1717  ;  "Life  of  Vanini."  London,  1730;  FUHRMANN, 
"  Leben  des  Vanini,"  1800;  NICERON,  "Me"moires;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Vaninus.     See  VANINI. 

Vanir,  va'njr,  the  plural  of  Van  or  Vana,  [from 
vanr,  "  empty,"  cognate  with  the  Latin  vanus,  the  pri 
mary  meaning  of  which  is  the  same,]  in  the  Norse 
mythology,  a  peculiar  class  of  beings,  whose  habitation 
and  empire  is  "  the  empty,  vast,  and  wandering  air." 
They  rule  over  the  atmosphere,  the  weather,  and  the 
sea.  Their  dwelling-place  or  kingdom  is  termed  Vana- 
heim,  (i.e.  the  "home  of  the  Vanir.")  The  principal  per 
sonage  among  them  is  Njord,  the  god  of  the  winds,  who, 
though  born  and  bred  in  Vanaheim,  was  given  by  the 
Vanir  as  a  hostage  to  the  ^Esir,  among  whom  he  is  now 
numbered.  The  Vanir  are  said  to  have  been  originally 
hostile  to  the  gods  of  Asgard,  but  were  subsequently 
reconciled  to  them.  This  statement  may  be  thus  ex 
plained.  The  capricious  and  uncertain  movements  of 
the  atmosphere  seem  naturally  hostile  to  the  regularity 
and  order  which  are  the  especial  attributes  of  the  gods 
or  y£sir.  But  when,  inspired  by  the  gods,  men,  by 
superior  skill  in  navigation,  were  enabled  to  take  advan 
tage  of  the  winds,  notwithstanding  their  irregularity,  the 
Vanir,  the  types  of  uncertainty,  were  said  to  be  recon 
ciled  with  the  /Esir,  the  representatives  of  order  and 
skill.  (See  JEsiR  and  JOTUNS.)  That  Freyia  (the  goddess 
of  love)  was  the  daughter  of  a  Vana  prince,  would  seem 
to  allude  to  the  aerial  character  of  those  charms  wMeh 
inspire  the  passion  of  love,  as  well  as  to  the  well-known 
caprice  and  inconstancy  of  lovers. 

See  THORPE,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  KEYSER(>  "Re 
ligion  of  the  Northmen  ;"  PETERSEN,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Vanloo,  vf n-lo',  (ABRAHAM  Louis,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  about  1641,  was  the  father  of  Charles 
and  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  Died  at  Aix  in  1713. 

Vanloo,  v&N'lo',  (CHARLES  ANDR£,  or  CARLE,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Nice  in  1705,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
where  he  painted  his  "Apotheosis  of  Saint  Isidore." 
After  his  return  he  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  (1751,)  and  first  painter  to  the  king,  (1762.) 
Died  in  1765. 

See  DANDRE-BARDON,  "Viede  Carle  Vanloo."  1765;  FONTAINK- 
MALHERBE,  "filoge  de  C.  Vanloo,"  1767;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vanloo,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Aix 
in  1711,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  He 
was  a  promising  artist,  when  he  was  killed  by  accident 
near  Turin  in  1733. 

Vanloo,  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ecluse  in 
1614,  was  the  father  of  Abraham  Louis,  noticed  above. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1670. 

Vanloo,  (JEAN  BAFHSTE,)  a  celebrated  French 
painter,  of  Flemish  extraction,  was  born  at  Aix,  in 
Provence,  in  1684.  He  resided  many  years^  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He 
acquired  the  highest  reputation  by  his  portraits,  and  was 


€  as  k;  5  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

137 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VAN LOO 


2178 


VAN  VEEN 


appointed  in  1735  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  In 
1738  he  visited  London,  where,  according  to  Horace 
Walpole,  "he  soon  bore  away  the  chief  business  of 
London  from  every  other  painter."  He  also  executed 
several  historical  pictures  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1746. 

See  CHARLES  BI.ANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Vaiiloo,  (JULES  CESAR  DENIS,)  a  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was  a  son  of  Charles  Andre, 
noticed  above.  Died  in  1821. 

Vanloo,  (Louis  MICHEL,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1707,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Baptiste, 
noticed  above.  Invited  by  the  king,  Philip  V.,  he  went 
to  Madrid  in  1736,  and  was  appointed  court  painter. 
He  returned  to  Paris  about  1748.  Died  in  1771. 

Van  Loon,  vtn  Ion,  (GEKAKD,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Leyden  in  1683.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Netherlands  from 
1555  to  1716,"  (4  vols.,  1723,)  which  is  commended. 

Van  Loon,  (THEODORE.)     See  LOON. 

Van  Maiider.     See  MANDKK,  VAN. 

Van  Mil'dert,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1765.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he 
afterwards  became  regius  professor  of  theology.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Llandaff  in  1819,  and  of  Durham 
in  1826.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life  of  Waterland," 
and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1836. 

Van  Moer,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  about  1815. 

Van  Mons.     See  MONS. 

Vail  Ness,  (CORNELIUS  P.,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Vermont 
in  1781,  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  in  1822, 
and  was  twice  re-elected.  He  was  minister  to  Spain 
under  President  Jackson  from  1829  to  1838.  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  1852. 

Van  Ness,  (WILLIAM  W.,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1775.  He  was  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  New  York  from  1807  to  1822. 
Died  in  1823. 

Vannetti,  van-net'tee,  or  Vanetti,  va-net'tee,  (CLE- 
MENTINO,)  an  Italian  author,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1754, 
was  a  son  of  a  poet  named  Giuseppe  Valeriano  Van- 
netti.  He  wrote  numerous  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
among  which  are  poetical  epistles  and  biographies.  His 
poetry  was  admired  by  some  critics.  Died  in  1795. 

Van  Neve,  vtn  na'veh,  (FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1627,  studied  at  Rome. 
He  painted  history  and  landscapes,  and  produced  good 
etchings  of  his  own  designs. 

Vanni,  van'nee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Sienna,  flourished  about  1370-1410. 

Vanni,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1565.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  imi 
tated  the  style  of  Baroccio  so  successfully  that  his  works 
are  often  mistaken  for  those  of  that  artist.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  the  "  Death  of  Saint  Ce 
cilia,"  "  Simon  Magus  rebuked  by  Peter,"  and  "  Saint 
Raimond  walking  on  the  Sea."  Died  in  1609. 

See  LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Vanni,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1599,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Flor 
ence.  He  made  admirable  copies  of  the  works  of 
Titian,  Correggio,  and  others,  and  was  also  skilled  in 
engraving.  Died  in  1660. 

Vanni,  (MICHAEL  ANGELO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Sienna  in  1583,  was  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed 
above.  He  was  not  equal  to  his  father.  Died  in  1671. 

Vanni,  (RAPHAEL,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Francesco,  and  a  pupil  of 
Annibal  Caracci.  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Sienna. 
Died  in  1673. 

Vannucci.     See  PERUGINO. 

Van  Obstal,  vtn  op'stal,  or  Van  Opstal,  (GERARD,) 
a  Flemish  sculptor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1597;  died  in 
Paris  in  1663. 

Van  Oort.     See  NOORT. 

Van  Cost,  QACOR.)     See  OOST,  VAN. 

Van  Os,  (JAN.)     See  Os,  VAN. 

Van  Ostade.     See  OSTADE,  VAN. 

Van  Praet.     See  PRAET,  VAN. 


Van  Reiisselaer,  van  ren'sel-ler,  (CORT'LAND,)  D.D., 
an  American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Albany  in  1808, 
was  a  son  of  General  Stephen  Van  Reiisselaer,  noticed 
below.  He  died  in  1860,  leaving  a  collection  of"  Essays 
and  Discourses,"  etc.,  (1861.) 

Van  Reiisselaer,  (HENRY  K.,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  probably  in  New  York  State  about  1 744.  He  served 
as  colonel  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  became  general 
of  militia.  Died  at  Albany  in  1816. 

Van  Reiisselaer,  (PHILIP  S.,)  an  American  magis 
trate,  distinguished  for  his  benevolence,  was  born  about 
1766.  He  was  mayor  of  Albany  for  twentv-three  years, 
and  the  principal  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Albany. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 

Van  Reiisselaer,  (SOLOMON,)  an  American  officer, 
son  of  Henry  K.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Albany  in 
1764  or  1774.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1819.  Died  at  Albany  in  1852. 

Van  Reiisselaer,  (STEPHEN,)  LL.D.,  called  "the 
Patroon,"  a  distinguished  American  statesman  and 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  in  1764.  Having  for  six 
years  rilled  the  office  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  State, 
he  was  appointed  to  command  the  New  York  militia  in 
the  war  of  1812.  He  co-operated  with  De  Witt  Clinton 
in  the  work  of  the  Erie  Canal,  being  president  of  the 
board  of  commissioners  for  fifteen  years.  He  founded 
in  1824  the  Rensselaer  Institute  (now  the  Polytechnic 
School)  at  Troy,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  science.  He  was  also  chancellor  of  the 
State  University.  Died  in  1839. 

See  "Discourse  on  the  Life,  etc.  of  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,"  by 
D.  D.  HKKNAKU. 

Van  Santeii.     See  SANTEN,  VAN. 

Van  Sant'voord,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  lawyer 
anil  litterateur,  born  at  Belleville,  New  Jersey,  in  1819, 
has  published  a  "Life  of  Algernon  Sidney,"  (1851,) 
"Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  United  States," 
(1854,)  and  several  legal  works. 

Van  Schendel,  van  sKen'del,  (PETRUS,)  a  dis 
tinguished  Belgian  painter,  born  at  Breda  in  1806.  His 
market-scenes,  and  interiors  illuminated  with  fire,  moon 
light,  or  lamps,  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind. 

Van-sit'tart,  (NICHOLAS,)  Lord  Bexley,  an  English 
politician,  born  in  London  in  1766,  was  distinguished  as 
a  financier.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from 
1812  to  1823,  and  was  made  a  baron  in  the  latter  year. 
Died  in  1851. 

Vansomer,  van'so'mer,  (PAUL,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1575,  settled 
in  England,  where  he  was  liberally  patronized  by  the 
nobility.  Among  his  principal  works  are  portraits  of 
fames  I.,  Lord  Bacon,  and  William,  Earl  of  Pembroke. 
Died  in  1621. 

Vanstabel,  vox'stt'beT,  (PIERRE  JEAN,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1746.  He  rendered  im 
portant  services  in  1793  by  convoying  one  hundred 
and  seventy  merchant-vessels  from  the  United  States  to 
Brest.  Died  in  1797. 

Van  Stork.     See  STORK,  VAN. 

Van  Swaiievelt.     See  SWANEVELT,  VAN. 

Van  Swieteii.     See  SWIETEN,  VAN. 

Van  Thuldeii.     See  THULDEN,  VAN. 

Van  Tromp.     See  TKOMP,  VAN. 

Vanucchi.     See  SAKTO,  DEL. 

Vaiiucci.     See  PERUGINO. 

Vanuden,  vf-nu'den,  ( LUCAS,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1595,  was  sometimes  em 
ployed  by  Rubens  to  paint  the  backgrounds  to  his 
pictures.  He  also  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
etchings.  Died  about  1672. 

Van  Utrecht,  vtn  ii'tReKt,  (ADRIAAN,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  still  life,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1599.  His 
delineations  of  flowers,  fruit,  game,  etc.  were  unsur 
passed,  and  command  very  high  prices.  Died  in  1651. 

Van  Veen,  (MARTIN.)     See  HEEMSKERK. 

Van  Veen,  vtn  van,  [Lat.  VAE'Niusor  OTTOVE'NIUS,] 
(Or HO,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about  1550, 
studied  at  Rome  under  Zucchero.  He  afterwards  founded 
an  Academy  at  Antwerp,  and  numbered  Rubens  among 
his  pupils.  He  painted  several  historical  pieces,  and  a 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,i,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


VANVtTELLl 


2179 


BARILLAS 


full-length  portrait  of  Alexander  Farnese,  Duke  of 
Parma,  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works.  He  also  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  War  of  the  Batavians,"  from  Tacitus, 
illustrated  with  his  own  designs.  Died  about  1630. 

Vanvitelli,  van-ve-tel'lee,  (GASPAKO,)  the  Italianized 
name  of  CASPAR  VAN  WITEL,  (wee'tel,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Utrecht  about  1650.  He  went  to  Italy  in  early 
youth,  worked  many  years  at  Rome  and  Naples,  and 
gained  distinction  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  archi 
tecture.  Died  in  1736. 

See  NAGI.RR,  "  Allgeineines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Vanvitelli,  (Luior,)  a  celebrated  architect,  born  at 
Naples  in  1700,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  pupil 
of  Ivara.  He  was  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's, 
at  Rome,  in  1725,  and  encircled  the  dome  of  that  edifice 
with  iron  bands.  He  designed  the  large  convent  of  Sant' 
Agostino  at  Rome.  His  capital  work  is  the  magnificent 
royal  palace  at  Caserta,  which  he  built  for  Charles,  King 
of  Naples,  and  commenced  in  1752.  It  is  about  seven 
hundred  and  thirty  feet  long.  This  palace  is  highly 
praised  by  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  who  says  it  exhibits 
unity  in  every  part,  is  simple,  with  variety,  and  complete 
in  all  respects.  Died  at  Caserta  in  1773. 

See  L.  VANVITKI.I.I,  "Vita  di  Luigi  Vanvitelli,"  1823;  MII.IZIA, 
"  Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Van  Wart,  (ISAAC,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Westchester  county,  New  York,  in  1748,  was  one  of  the 
three  captors  of  Major  Andre.  Died  in  1828. 

Vapereau,  vf'peh-ro'  or  vtp'ro',  (Louis  GUSTAVF.,) 
a  French  biographer,  born  at  Orleans  in  1819.  He 
published  in  1844  a  work  "On  the  Liberal,  Moral,  and 
Religious  Character  of  Modern  Philosophy."  Having 
studied  law,  he  was  admitted  as  an  advocate  in  1854. 
He  was  the  chief  editor  of  a  "General  Dictionary  of 
Contemporary  Biography,"  ("Dictionnaire  universe!  des 
Contemporains,"  1858,)  which  has  a  high  reputation  for 
accuracy  and  other  merits. 

Vargiha,  va-ra'ha,  [i.e.  in  Sanscrit,  a  "hog"  or 
"boar,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the 
third  avatar  of  Vishnu.  A  mighty  monster  or  giant 
named  Hiranyaksha  (he-ran-yak'sha*)  is  said  to  have 
seized  the  earth  and  carried  it  into  the  depths  of  the 
ocean.  Vishnu,  assuming  the  form  of  a  boar,  (the  sym 
bol  of  strength,)  dived  into  the  ocean,  and,  after  a  ter 
rible  contest  of  one  thousand  years,  slew  the  monster 
and  restored  the  earth,  bearing  it  above  the  waters  on 
the  point  of  his  tusks.  This  fable  not  improbably  has 
reference  to  some  geological  change  in  the  earth's  surface. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Varanda,  va"'r6N'dt',  QEAN,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Nimes,  graduated  at  Montpellier  in  1587. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where 
he  died  in  1617. 

Va-ra'nes  [Gr.  Ovapurrjc]  or  Bahrain  I.,  King  of 
Persia,  was  a  son  of  Hormisdas  I.  He  reigned  from 
274  to  277  A.D.,  and  waged  war  against  Queen  Zenobia. 

Varanes  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign 
in  277  A. i>.  He  was  involved  in  war  with  the  Roman 
emperor  Cams,  who  took  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon.  Died 
in  29.4. 

His  son,  Varanes  III.,  reigned  only  eight  months, 
and  died  in  294. 

Varanes  IV.,  a  brother  of  Sapor  III.,  began  to  reign 
in  390  AD.  Died  about  404  A.D. 

Varanes  or  Bahram  (or  Baharam)  V.  was  a  son 
of  Yezdegerd  I.  He  became  King  of  Persia  in  420  or 
421.  He  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  waged  war 
against  Theodosius  II.  Died  in  448  A.I). 

Varano,  di,  de  va-ra'no,  (ALFONSO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
bori^at  Ferrara  in  1705.  lie  contributed  to  the  refor 
mation  of  Italian  poetry,  to  which  "he  restored,"  says 
Ugoni,  "that  manly  accent  and  elevation  which  Dante 
had  given  it."  Among  his  works  are  "Sacred  and  Moral 
Visions,"  ("Visioni  sacre  e  morali.")  Died  in  1788. 

See  PANNEU.I,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Alfonso  Varano,"  1826. 

Varchi,  vaR'kee,  (BENEDETTO,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
poet,  and  historian,  born  at  Florence  in  1502.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  I.,  who  made  him 

*  Given  in  a  strangely  corrupted  form  (Ermnccasen")  in  SOUTHEY'S 
"Curse  of  Kehama,"  vol.  i.,  x. 


one  of  the  directors  of  his  New  Florentine  Academy. 
His  principal  work  is  his  "History  of  Florence  from 
1527  to  1538,"  ("  Storia  Fiorentina,"  etc.,  1721.)  He 
also  made  translations  from  Seneca  and  Boethius,  wrote 
a  dialogue  or  treatise  on  the  Tuscan  language,  entitled 
"  L'Ercolano,"  (1570,)  and  composed  "  Sonetti,"  (2  vols., 
!557-)  Died  in  1565. 

See  LONGFKI.LOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  TIRABOSCHI, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  GINGUENE,  "  Histoire  litteraire 
d'ltalie:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vardan.     See  VARTAN. 

Vardes,  de,  deh  vfud,  (FRANCOIS  RENE  du  Bec- 
Crespin — dii  bek'kRes'paN',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  cour 
tier,  famous  for  his  intrigues,  was  born  about  1620.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  afterwards  offended 
him,  and  was  exiled  from  court  in  1664.  Died  in  1688. 

Varela  y  Ulloa,  va-na'la  e  ool-yo'a,  (Don  JOSE,)  a 
learned  Spanish  naval  officer,  bom  in  Galicia  in  1748; 
died  in  1794. 

Varen,  va'ren,  or  Varenius,  va-ra/ne-us,  (BERN- 
HARD,)  an  eminent  Dutch  geographer  and  physician, 
born  at  Amsterdam  about  1610.  He  is  called  the 
founder  of  scientific  geography.  In  1642  he  produced 
a  thesis  entitled  "  First-Fruits  of  the  Philosophic  Muses," 
("  Musarum  Philosophicarum  Primitiae,")  and  in  1649  a 
"  Description  of  Japan."  His  chief  work  is  a  systematic 
treatise  on  geography,  "  Geographia  generalis,"  (1650,) 
which  effected  a  revolution  in  the  science.  An  improved 
edition  of  it  was  published  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  1672, 
and  another  in  1681.  This  work  of  Varen  was  the  first 
or  best  that  had  appeared  on  physical  geography.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  1660  to  1680. 

Varenius.     See  VAREN. 

Varenius,  fa-ra'ne-us,  (AUGUST,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Liineburg  in  1620.  He 
was  a  good  Hebrew  scholar,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Isaiah,  (1708.)  Died  in  1684. 

Vareiine  de  Fenille,  vS'reV  deh  feh-nel',  (PniLr- 
UF.KT  CHARLES,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was 
born  at  Dijon.  He  published  several  useful  works.  He 
was  executed  at  Lyons  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Vargas  or  Vargas-Mexia,  vaR'gasma-Hee'a,  (FRAN 
CISCO,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  diplomatist  of  high  reputa 
tion.  He  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Charles 
V.  in  1550  to  congratulate  the  Council  on  its  return  to 
that  place.  After  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  a  coun 
cillor  of  state.  Died  about  1560. 

Vargas,  de,  da  vaR'gas,  (Luis,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1502.  In  1527  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  studied  under  Perino  del  Vaga.  His 
works  are  principally  religious  pieces,  and  are  painted 
both  in  oil  and  fresco.  He  ranks  among  the  best  Span 
ish  artists  of  the  time,  and  was  equally  admirable  in 
portrait  and  historical  painting.  Died  in  1568. 

See  NAGt.ER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon;"  QUILLIET, 
"Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnoles." 

Vargas-Macciucca,  vaR'gas  mak-chook'ka,  (FRAN 
CESCO,)  Marquis  of  Vatolla,  an  Italian  linguist  and  judge, 
born  at  Teramo,  in  Abruzzo,  in  1699.  He  was  a  patron 
of  literary  men,  and  wrote  several  essays.  Died  in  1785- 

Vargas  y  Ponce,  vaR'gas  e  pflr/tha.  (JosE,)  a  Span 
ish  geographer  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Cadiz  about 
1755,  wrote  a  "Description  of  the  Balearic  Isles,"  (1787.) 

Varignon,  vt/r£n'y6N/,  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Caen  in  1654.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  in  1686,  and  published  in  1687  an  able 
work  on  statics,  called  "  Plan  of  a  New  System  of  Me 
chanics,"  ("  Projet  d'une  nouvelle  Mecanique,")  in  which 
for  the  first  time  all  the  science  of  statics  was  deduced 
from  the  elementary  principle  of  the  composition  of 
forces.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  College  Mazarin  in  1688,  and  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1704.  Among 
his  works  is  "New  Mechanics  or  Statics,"  ("Nouvelle 
Mecanique  ou  Statique,"  2  vols.,  1725.)  Died  in  1722. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  FJoge  de  Varignon;"  NICERON,  "  Me- 
moires;"  MONTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Varillas,  vS're'yas',  (ANTOINE,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Gueret  in  1624,  was  a  prolific  writer.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  France  from 


€  ;is  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23. 


2  I  SO 


the  Reign  of  Louis  XI.  to  that  of  Henry  III.,  inclusive," 
(14  vols.  4to,  1683-94,)  and  "  History  of  the  Revolutions 
which  have  occurred  in  Europe  on  Account  of  Religion," 
(6  vols.,  1686-89.)  His  reputation  for  accuracy  and 
veracity  is  not  good.  Died  in  Paris  in  1696. 

See  NICERON,  "  Memoires ;"  MOR^RI,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique ;"  BOSCHEKON,  "  Varillasiana,"  1734;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate."  ^aji^,Hi'Sm>n*^  /  **<?  f««*  • 

Varin,  vi'raN',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
near  Rouen  in  1740;  died  in  1808. 

Varin,  vt'raN',  or  Warm,  (JEAN,)  a  Flemish  en 
graver  and  sculptor,  born  at  Liege  in  1604.  He  was 
a  skilful  engraver  of  medals,  and  worked  mostly  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  was  the  seal  of  the  French 
Academy,  (1635,)  and  a  marble  statue  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1672. 

See  FELIBIEN,  "Entretiens  sur  les  Peintres." 

Varin,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1740,  worked  in  Paris.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver  of  topography  and  architec 
ture.  He  engraved  illustrations  for  several  books.  Died 
in  1800.  CHARLES  NICOLAS  VARIN,  born  in  1745,  was 
a  brother  and  assistant  of  Joseph.  Died  in  1805. 

Va'rl-us,  (Lucius  RUFUS,)  an  eminent  Roman  epic 
and  dramatic  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  of  whose  life 
little  is  known.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Maecenas, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil,  the 
latter  of  whom  appointed  him  one  of  his  literary  ex 
ecutors.  He  was,  consequently,  living  in  19  B.C.,  the 
date  of  Virgil's  death.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem,  '•  De 
Morte,"  (probably  on  the  death  of  Caesar,)  and  a  cele 
brated  tragedy  of  "Thyestes,"  which,  according  to  Quin- 
tilian,  would  bear  a  comparison  with  any  Greek  tragedy. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  WEICHERT,  "  De  Vario  Poeta,"  1829,  and  "  De  L.  Varii  e 
Cassii  Parmensis  Vita  et  Scriptis, "  1836. 

Varlet,  via'li',  (DOMINIQUE  MARIE,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  Paris  in  1678.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Babylon  about  1719,  but  on  his  arrival  at  the  Caspian 
Sea  he  learned  that  he  was  deposed  or  suspended  by 
the  pope  for  Jansenism.  He  died  in  Holland  in  1742. 

Var'ley,  (JOHN,)  an  English  painter  in  water-colours, 
born  in  London  about  1777.  His  works  are  chiefly 
landscapes,  which  are  ranked  among  the  finest  produc 
tions  in  that  department  of  the  art.  He  was  a  believer 
in  astrology,  to  which  he  devoted  a  great  deal  of  his 
time.  Died  in  1842. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  faRi/ha'gen  fon  eVseh, 
(KARL  AUGUST  LUIHVIG  PHII.IPP,)  an  eminent  German 
author,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  February,  1785.  He  began 
to  study  medicine  in  Berlin  in  1800,  but  soon  renounced 
that  science,  and  applied  himself  to  philosophy,  etc.  at 
Halle,  Berlin,  and  Tubingen.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army  in  1809,  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Wagram, 
and  became  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Bentheim.  In  1813 
he  enlisted  as  captain  in  the  Russian  army.  He  passed 
into  the  Prussian  diplomatic  service  in  1814,  attended 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  with  Prince  Hardenberg,  and 
married  Rahel  Levin  the  same  year.  He  became  in 
1819  a  resident  of  Berlin,  where  he  passed  nearly  all  of 
his  subsequent  life.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  writer  of  biography  and  history,  and  excelled  in  the 
art  of  revivifying  the  great  figures  of  the  past.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Biographic  Memorials,"  ("  Biographische 
Denkmale,"  5  vols.,  1824-30,)  "Memoirs  and  Miscel 
lanies,"  ("  Denkwiirdigkeiten  und  vermischte  Schrif- 
ten,"  7  vols.,  1837-46,)  a  "  Life  of  Field-Marshal  Keith," 
(1844,)  and  a  "Life  of  Karl  Miiller,"  (1847.)  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  October,  1858. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  January,  1841. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  (RAHEL  ANTONIE  FRIE- 
DERIKE  Levin  —  la-veen',)  wife  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parents,  in  Berlin,  in  1771.  She  was 
a  woman  of  superior  intellect,  and  celebrated  for  her 
conversational  powers.  Her  salon  was  frequented  by 
the  Schlegels,  the  Humboldts,  Tieck,  and  other  eminent 
authors.  She  became  a  professor  of  Christianity  a  short 
time  before  her  marriage,  which  occurred  in  1814.  Died 
in  1833.  Her  husband  published  a  work  called  "  Rahel, 


a   Book   of    Remembrance   for   her    Friends,"   (3  vols., 
1854,)  which  contains  some  of  her  writings. 

See  DE  CUSTINK,  "Madame  Varnhagen  d'Ense,"  1838 ;  KUNZ, 
"  Rahel:  Geistes-  und  Charakter-Gemaldediesergrossen  Fran,"  1835; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1841. 

Varnier,  vjti<'ne_-i',  a  French  writer  on  medicine  and 
chemistry,  was  born  at  Vitry-on-the-Marne  in  1709.  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Var'num,  (JAMES  MITCHELL,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Dracut,  Massachusetts,  in  1749.  He  was  twice 
elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1787  was  appointed  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  Northwest  territory.  Died  in  1789. 

Varnum,  (JOSEPH  BRADLEY,)  an  American  Senator, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1755,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1795 
to  1811,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  from  1807  to  1811.  He  was  a  political  friend  of 
Jefferson,  and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1811  to  1817.  Died  in  1821. 

Varoli,  va-ro'lee,  [Lat.  VARO'LIUS,]  (CONSTANT  or 
COSTANZO,)  an  Italian  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1542  or  1543.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
lithotomist,  and  discovered  a  part  of  the  brain  called 
Pons  Varolii.  About  1572  he  became  physician  to  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "The  Optic 
Nerves," etc.,  ("De  Nervis  Opticis,"  1573.)  Died  in  1575. 

Varolius.     See  VAROLI. 

Varotari,  va-ro-ta'ree,  (  ALESSANDRO,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  PADOVANINO,  born  at  Padua  in  1590, 
was  a  son  of  Dario,  noticed  below.  He  studied  at 
Venice,  and  adopted  the  style  of  Titian.  He  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  successful  imitators  of  that  master. 
His  "Marriage  at  Cana"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master 
pieces.  He  excelled  in  painting  women  and  children. 
Died  in  1650. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  RIDOI.FI,  "  Pittori 
Veneti." 

Varotari,  (CHIARA,)  an  Italian  portrait-painter,  born 
in  1582,  was  a  sister  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  1639. 

Varotari,  (DARIO,)  surnamed  PAOOVANINO  or  PA- 
nuANiNO,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1539. 
He  worked  at  Padua,  where  he  became  the  chief  of  a 
school.  Died  in  1596. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Var'ro,  [Fr.  VARRON,  v3'r6N',]  (CAIUS  TERKNTIUS,) 
a  Roman  general,  noted  for  his  temerity.  He  was  a 
leader  of  the  plebeians  or  popular  party,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  216  li.C.  Against  the  advice  of  the  other 
consul,  /Emilius  Paulus,  Varro  offered  battle  to  Hanni 
bal,  and  was  defeated  with  great  loss  at  Cannae,  (216  B.C.) 
He  was  one  ot  the  few  Romans  that  escaped  from  that 
disastrous  battle,  and  he  made  such  resolute  and  vigorous 
efforts  for  the  defence  of  the  capital  that  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  senate.  Died  after  200  B.C. 

See  LIVY,  "  History  of  Rome;"  MOMMSEN,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Varro,  [Fr.  VARRON,]  (MARCUS  TERENTIUS,)  a  cele 
brated  Latin  author,  styled  "  the  most  learned  of  the 
Romans,"  was  born  in  116  B.C.,  probably  in  Rome.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  L.  /Elius  Stilo  and  of  Antiochus  of  Asca- 
lon,  an  Academic  philosopher.  He  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cicero.  About  the  year  67  B.C.  he  had  a  high 
command  under  Pompey  in  the  war  against  the  pirates. 
He  fought  for  the  senate  against  Caesar  in  the  civil  war 
which  began  in  49  B.C.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  he  retired  from  public  life  and  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  nearly 
every  department  of  literature,  and  wrote  a  great  num 
ber  of  works  on  various  subjects.  His  capital  work  was 
"  Antiquitatum  Libri,"  consisting  of  twenty-five  books 
on  Human  Antiquities  and  sixteen  books  on  Divine 
Antiquities,  which  is  not  extant.  Saint  Augustina  de 
rived  from  this  book  materials  for  his  work  "  De  Civi- 
tate  Dei."  Nearly  all  of  Varro's  works  are  lost,  except 
a  part  of  his  treatise  on  the  Latin  language,  ("  De  Lingua 
Latina,")  and  his  excellent  work  on  agriculture,  "  De  Re 
Rustica  Libri  tres,")  which  is  preserved  entire.  In  43 
B.C.  he  was  proscribed  by  Mark  Antony  ;  but  he  escaped 
death  by  concealment,  and  survived  till  28  or  27  B.C. 

See  E.  BERWICK,  "Life  of  Pollio,  Varro,  and  C.  Gallus,"  1815; 
PAPK,  "  De  Varrone,"  1835  ;  G.  BOISSIER,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Onvrages  de  Varron,"  1861  ;  OREI.LI,  "  Onomasticon  Tullianum  ;" 
FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VARRO 


2181 


VASILI 


Varro,  (PuBLius  TERENTIUS,)  a  Roman  poet,  sur- 
named  ATACI'NUS,  from  Atax,  in  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
where  he  was  born  about  82  B.C.  He  was  the  author 
of  elegies,  epigrams,  and  epic  poems,  which  have  been 
lost,  with  the  exception  of  fragments.  Died  in  37  B.C. 

Varron.     See  VARRO. 

Varst  or  Vaerst,  von,  fon  ve"Rst,  (FRIEDRICH  CHRIS 
TIAN  EUGEN,)  BARON,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Wesel  in  1792,  published  works  entitled  "Cavalier 
Perspective,"  (1836,)  "The  Pyrenees,"  (4  vols.,  1847,) 
and  "Gastrosophie,"  (1852,)  which  were  received  with 
favour.  He  lived  at  Breslau.  Died  in  1855. 

Vartan,  var'tSn',  an  Armenian  prince,  who  became 
a  professor  of  Christianity.  He  defended  the  liberty  of 
his  country  against  the  King  of  Persia,  who  attempted 
to  impose  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  by  force  on  the  Ar 
menians.  Vartan  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Persians, 
in  451  A.D. 

Vartan  or  Vardan,  a  learned  Armenian  doctor  and 
author,  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  be 
sides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Armenia  to  the  Year 
1267,"  and  numerous  Fables. 

Var-to-ma'iius,  the  Latin  name  of  LUIGI  BARTHEMA 
(baR-ta'ma)  or  VARTHEMA,  (vaR-ta'ma,)  an  Italian  trav-  j 
eller,  born  at  Bologna  about  1480.     He  travelled  through  , 
Arabia  and  Persia  to  the  East  Indies,  where  he  passed  ; 
several  years.     He  published  in  1508  a  Narrative  of  his 
travels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Bioeraphie  Generale." 

Varuna,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  vur'oo-na  ;  from  the 
Sanscrit  verb   vri,   to   "enclose"    or    "surround,"    and  j 
etymologically  related  to  the  Greek  orpavuf,  "heaven,"]  I 
a  name  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  originally  applied  to 
the  sky  or  heaven,  as  enclosing  or  surrounding  the  earth, 
but  used  by  later  writers   to  designate  both  the  ocean 
(which  also  encompasses  the  earth)  and  the  regent  of 
the  sea,  or  the  deity  who  presides   over  the  waters  of  j 
the  ocean. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Va'rus,  a  Roman  of  the  Augustan  age,  of  whom  little 
is  known  except  that  he  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  Vir 
gil,  who,  in  his  sixth  eclogue,  offers  a  graceful  homage  to 
his  merit.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Q.  Varus, 
who  fought  with  the  rank  of  general  for  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war. 

Varus,  (PuBLH'S  ATICS,)  a  Roman  general  and  par 
tisan  of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  in 
Africa  in  49  B.C..  and,  aided  by  King  Jnba,  gained  a  vic- 
ton-  over  Curio.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Muncla. 

Varus,  (PuBLius  QUINTILIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
became  consul  in  13  B.C.  and  Governor  of  Germany  about 
6  A.D.  He  had  not  the  energy  or  talents  requisite  to  man 
age  the  warlike  German  tribes,  who  were  provoked  to 
revolt  by  taxation  and  innovations  which  Varus  initiated. 
His  army  was  attacked  and  defeated  in  9  A.D.  by  a  large 
army  of  insurgents,  led  by  the  famous  chief  Arminius. 
Varus,  with  nearly  all  his  men,  perished  in  this  action, 
which  was  fought  near  the  Weser. 

See  TACITUS,  "  Annales;"  SUETONIUS,  "Augustus"  and  "Tibe 
rius;"  DION  CASSII/S,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  MEKIVAI.E,  "History 
of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire ;"  ESSEI.I.EN,  "  Nachtrag  7.11  der 
Abhandlung,  iiber  den  Ort  der  Niederlage  der  Romer  unter  Varus," 
"853- 

Varus,  (QuiNTiLiUS,)  of  Cremona,  a  Roman  poet, 
was  a  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil.  He  died  in  24  B.C. 
His  death  was  lamented  by  Horace  in  an  ode,  book  i.  24. 

Varus  Alfenus.     See  ALFENUS. 

Vasa.     See  GUSTAVUS  I. 

Vasanta,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  vus-un'ta ;  often 
called  biis'unt  in  the  common  dialect,]  the  Sanscrit  word 
for  "spring,"  applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  a  per 
sonification  of  spring,  said  to  be  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  god  of  love.  (See  KAMADEVA.) 

Vasari,  va-sa'ree,  (GioRGio,)  an  Italian  painter,  ar 
chitect,  and  writer  upon  art,  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  1512. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  and  was  patronized  by  Pope  Clement  VII.,  the 
grand  duke  Cosimo  I.,  and  'otrier  eminent  men.  His 
reputation  rests  on  his  "Lives  of  the  Most  Excellent 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1550,) 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  kind 


that  has  appeared  in  any  language.  It  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English  and  German.  He  was  a  very  success 
ful  artist,  was  skilful  in  design,  and  painted  many  frescos 
at  Rome  and  Florence.  As  architect,  he  restored  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  at  Florence,  and  built  other  fine  edifices 
for  the  grand  duke  Cosimo.  Died  in  1574. 

See  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  BOTTARI,  "Giunte 
al  Vasari ;"  TICOZZI,  "  Dizionario ;"  MILIZIA,  "  Memorie  degli  Ar- 
chitetti ;"  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Vasco  da  Gama,  (or  de  Grama.)     See  GAMA,  DA. 

Vasconcellos,  vas-kon-sel'16s,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Portu 
guese  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  about  1555. 

Vasconcellos,  (SIMON,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born  in 
1599,  lived  many  years  in  Brazil.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Jesuit  Mission  in  Brazil,  (1663.)  Died  in  1670. 

Vasconcellos,  de,  da  vas-kon-sel'l6s,  (AGOSTINHO 
MANOEL,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at  Evora  in  1583. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Juan  II.  of  Portugal,"  in  Spanish, 
(1639,)  and  other  works.  Having  been  implicated  in  a 
conspiracy  against  John  IV.,  he  was  put  to  death  in  1641. 

See  NICERON,  "M&noires." 

Vasconcellos,  de,  (ANTONIO  AUGUSTO  Texeira — 
ta-sha/e-ra,)  a  Portuguese  journalist  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Oporto  in  1816,  has  published  several  political  and 
historical  works. 

Vasconcellos,  de,  (MiGUEi.,)  a  Portuguese  states 
man,  was  a  son  of  the  jurist  Pedro  Barbosa.  He  became, 
about  1635,  secretary  of  state  and  the  most  powerful 
minister  in  Portugal,  which  was  then  subject  to  the  King 
of  Spain.  His  tyranny  and  cruelty  excited  much  odium 
against  him.  In  December,  1640,  he  was  assassinated 
by  the  conspirators  who  raised  the  Duke  of  Braganza  to 
the  throne. 

See  BARBOSA  MACHADO,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana ;"  LA  CLEDE, 
"  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Vascoiicellos-Coutinho,  de,  di  vas-kon-sel'16s  ko- 
teen'yo,  ( FRANCISCO,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Funchal, 
in  Madeira,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Vascosan,  de,  deh  vaVko'zS.N1',  (MICHEL,)  an  emi 
nent  and  learned  French  printer,  born  at  Amiens  about 
1500,  became  a  citizen  of  Paris.  He  was  connected  by 
marriage  with  Robert  Estienne.  He  published  correct 
and  elegant  editions  of  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  1576. 

Vaseef  or  Vasif,  va-seef,  written  also  Vassif,* 
(Ahmed,  an'med,)  a  Turkish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Bagdad  about  1740.  He  collected  the  works  of  several 
Turkish  historians,  and  published  them  under  the  title 
of  "Annals  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (1804.)  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Reign  of  Selim  III.  Died  in  1806. 

Vasi,  va'see,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  designer  and  en 
graver,  born  in  Sicily  in  1710,  worked  in  Rome.  He 
published  a  collection  of  engravings  of  the  monuments, 
churches,  etc.  of  that  city.  Died  in  1782. 

Vasian,  va'se-an',  written  also  Vassian  and  Was- 
sian,  Archbishop  of  Rostow,  a  Russian  prelate,  noted 
for  his  courage  and  patriotism.  Died  in  1481. 

Vasif.     See  VASEEF. 

Vasili,  va-see'lee,  or  Vasilii,  vi-seel'yee,  written  also 
Vassiliand  Wasilei,  (or  Basil,)  I.,  Grand  Prince  of  Rus 
sia,  born  in  1236,  began  to  reign  in  1272.  Died  in  1276. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  II.,  a  son  of  Dmitri  Donskoi,  was 
born  in  1372,  and  became  grand  prince  in  1389.  He  was  a 
tributary  of  the  grand  horde  of  Tartars.  Died  in  1425. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  HI.,  born  in  1415,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  In  his  reign  Russia  was  afflicted  with 
civil  war  and  other  calamities.  Died  in  1462. 

See  KARAMZIN,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  IV.,  a  son  of  Ivan  III.,  was  born  in 
1479,  and  became  grand  prince  in  1505.  He  obtained 
Smolensk  by  conquest  from  the  Lithuanians  in  1514, 
and  increased  the  power  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1533, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Ivan  IV. 

See  KARAMZIN,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  V.,  (IVANOVITCH  SHOOISKOI  or 
SCHUISKOI,)  born  in  1553,  began  to  reign  in  1606.  He 
was  deposed  by  the  boyards,  who  confined  him  in  a 
convent  in  1610.  Died  in  1612. 


'  See  Introduction,  Section  I.,  14,  (p.  9.) 


<  as  *;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  fch  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VASOKT 


2182 


VAUBAN 


Vasoky.     See  SESHA. 

Vasquez,  vas-keth',  or  Vasques,  vas'kes,  (ALFONSO,) 
a  painter,  born  of  Spanish  parents  at  Rome  about  1575, 
removed  to  Seville  in  his  childhood,  and  worked  there 
with  success.  Died  about  1645. 

Vasquez  or  Vasques,  (GABRIEL,)  a  Spanish  casuist 
and  Jesuit,  born  in  New  Castile  in  1551  ;  died  in  1604. 

Vasquez  de  Coronado,  vas-keth'  da  ko-ro-na'no, 
(FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  explorer,  born  at  Salamanca 
about  1510.  He  emigrated  to  Mexico,  and  in  1540  re 
ceived  the  command  of  a  party  which  the  viceroy  sent 
to  explore  the  interior,  from  which  expedition  he  safely 
returned.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

Vassal,  de,  deh  vS'sil',  (FORTANIER,)  a  French  car 
dinal  and  negotiator,  born  at  Vailhac  ;  died  in  1361. 

Vassal,  de,  (JACQUES,)  Marquis  de  Montviel,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1659;  died  in  1744. 

Vassali-Eaiidi,  vds-sa'lee  a-an'dee,  (ANTONIO  MA 
RIA,)  an  Italian  savant,  born  at  Turin  in  1761.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Turin  from  1792  to  1809."  Died  in  1825. 

Vas'sar,  (MATTHEW,)  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk, 
England,  in  1792,  emigrated  to  America,  and  settled  at 
Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  where  he  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  In  1861  he  gave  the  sum  of  $408,000  to  found 
the  Vassar  Female  College,  near  Poughkeepsie.  He 
died  June  23,  1868,  while  reading  an  address  to  the 
trustees  of  the  college.  Besides  the  gift  above  men 
tioned,  he  left  the  college  a  large  sum  in  his  will,  in 
cluding  the  following  bequests:  $50,000  as  a  Lecture 
Fund,  $50,000  as  a  Library,  Art,  and  Cabinet  Fund,  and 
$50,000  as  an  Auxiliary  Fund  for  aiding  students  unable 
to  pay  the  full  college  expenses. 

Vasselier,  vjls'le^i',  (JosKi-n,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Rocroy  in  1735,  was  a  correspondent  of  Voltaire.  He 
wrote  tales,  songs,  etc.  Died  at  Lyons  in  1798. 

Vasselin,  vts'laN',  (GEORGES  VICTOR,)  a  French 
publicist  and  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1767;  died  in  1801. 

Vasseur,  (JACQUES.)     See  LE  VASSEUR. 

Vassif.     See  VASEEF. 

Vassor,  Le.     See  LE  VASSOR. 

Vasto,  del.     See  AVALOS,  (ALFONSO  II.) 

Vasude'va,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  vus-66-da'va,]  in 
the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the  father  of  Krishna, 
and  sometimes  used  as  an  appellation  of  that  god. 

Vasuki.     See  SESHA. 

Vatable,  vfttbK,  originally  written  Watebled  or 
Gastelbled,  [Lat.  VATA'BLUS',]  (FRANQOLS,)  a  French 
priest,  born  in  Picardy.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  College  Royal  at  Paris.  He  translated  Aristotle's 
"  Parva  Naturalia"  into  Latin.  Died  in  1547. 

See  M.  ADAM,  "  Vitse  Eruditorum  :"  SAINTE-MAKTHE,  "  Elogia." 

Vatablus.     See  VATABLE. 

Vatace.     See  VATACES. 

Vataces,  (accentuation  doubtful,)  [Fr.  VATACE,  vf- 
titss',]  (JoHN  DUCAS,)  Emperor  of  Nicaea,  born  in  Thrace 
in  1193,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Theodore  Lascaris,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1222.  He  waged  war  against  the  Latin 
prince  Robert  de  Courtenay,  and  several  other  princes. 
Died  in  1255. 

See  LE  BEAU,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vater,  fa'ter,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1684.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
and  anatomy  at  Wittenberg.  Died  in  1751. 

Vater,  (JOHANN  SEVERIN,)  a  German  theologian  and 
philologist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1771.  He  studied  at 
Jena  and  Halle,  and  in  1800  became  professor  of  theology 
and  Oriental  literature  at  the  latter  university.  He  was 
professor  of  history  at  Konigsberg  from  1810  to  1820, 
and  returned  to  Halle  in  the  latter  year.  He  published 
(1809-17)  two  volumes  to  complete  the  "  Mithridates"  of 
Adelung,  who  had  left  his  work  unfinished.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,"  (3  vols., 
1802,)  and  a  "  Universal  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
since  the  Reformation,"  (3  vols.,  1818-23.)  L)ied  in  1826. 

See  NIEMEYER,  "Uebersicht  des  Lebens  Vater's,"  in  the  fifth 
edition  of  VATER'S  "  Synchronische  Tafeln  der  Kirchengeschichte." 

Vathek.     See  WATHEK. 

Vatia,  va'she-a,  (  PUBI.IUS  SERVILIUS,)  surnamed  ISAU- 
Ricus,  a  RomarTcommander,  whose  name  first  appears 


in  100  B.C.  He  became  consul  in  79,  and  commanded  a 
fleet  and  army  sent  in  78  B.C.  against  the  ,  irates,  whom 
he  defeated,  and  also  the  Isauri.  DVd  i  >  44  i:.C. 

Vatimesiiil,  de,  deh  vt'te'mi'nel',  (ANTOINE  FRAN 
COIS  HENRI  LEFEBVKE,)  a  French  advocate  and  politician, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1789,  was  a  moderate  royalist.  He  be 
came  advocate-general  to  the  court  of  cassation  at  Paris 
in  1824,  and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  Feb 
ruary,  1828,  to  August,  1829.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1834,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849.  Died  in  1860. 

See  LAMAKTINE,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Va-tin'I-us,  (PuBLius,)  a  Roman  demagogue,  noto 
rious  for  his  vices,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  59  B.C., 
by  the  aid  of  Caesar,  of  whom  he  was  a  violent  partisan. 
He  was  denounced  by  Cicero  in  a  public  speech  about 
56  B.C.  In  the  year  54  or  55  he  competed  with  Cato  for 
the  office  of  praetor,  and  was  elected  by  bribery.  During 
the  civil  war  he  commanded  one  of  Caesar's  armies,  and 
gained  a  victory  in  Illyricum  in  46  B.C.  Died  after  43  B.C. 

Vatke,  fat'keh,  (JOHANN  KARL  WILHELM,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  near  Magdeburg  in  1806.  lie  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1837, 
and  published  several  works. 

Vatout,  vjt'too',  (JEAN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Villefranche  (Rhone)  in  1792.  He  became  first  libra 
rian  to  Louis  Philippe  in  1832,  and  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1848.  He  published,  besides  several 
novels,  "Historical  Souvenirs  of  the  Royal  Residences 
of  France,"  (7  vols.,  1837-46.)  Died  in  England  in  1848. 

See  QUEKAKU,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vattel,  von,  fon  vSt'tel'  or  vat'tel,  (EMRICH,)  a  cele 
brated  Swiss  jurist  and  writer,  born  in  the  principality 
of  Neufchatel  in  1714.  He  studied  at  the  Universities 
of  Bale  and  Geneva,  and  in  1741  visited  Berlin,  where 
he  published  his  "Defence  of  the  System  of  Leibnitz," 
(in  French,  1742,)  dedicated  to  Frederick  the  Great.  In 
1 746  he  was  sent  as  Polish  minister  to  Berne  by  Augustus, 
Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland.  He  published 
in  1758  his  principal  work,  entitled  "The  Right  of  Na 
tions,  or  the  Principles  of  Natural  Law  applied  to  the 
Conduct  and  Affairs  of  Nations  and  Sovereigns,"  which 
has  passed  through  numerous  editions  and  been  trans 
lated  into  the  principal  European  languages.  He  was 
the  author  of  other  works  on  various  subjects,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  entitled  "Questions  of  Natural 
Law,  and  Observations  on  Wolffs  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Nature,"  (1762.)  Died  in  1767. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
August,  1760. 

Vatteville,  de,  deh  vaVvel',  (JEAN,)  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  notorious  for  his  adventures  and  criminal 
intrigues,  was  born  at  Besancon  about  1613.  He  entered 
the  Turkish  service,  after  he  had  committed  several 
homicides,  and  obtained  the  command  of  an  army,  which 
he  betrayed  to  the  Austrians.  For  this  service  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  rich  abbey  of  Baume,  in  Franche- 
Comte,  in  1659.  He  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  intrigues 
by  which  Franche-Comte  was  annexed  to  France  about 
1666.  Died  in  1702. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Me'moires  ;"  "  Nouvel'e  Biographic  Ge"ne- 
rale." 

Vattier,  v&'te-i',  (PIERRE,)  a  learned  French  physi 
cian,  was  born  near  Lisieux,  in  Normandy,  in  1623.  He 
translated  several  works  from  the  Arabic,  including 
Avicenna's  "Treatise  on  Mental  Diseases."  Vattier  was 
physician  to  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans.  Died  in  1667. 

Vauban,  de,  deh  vo'boN',  (ANTOINE  le  Prestre — 
leh  pltttK,)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  in  1659,  was 
a  cousin  of  the  famous  Vauban.  He  was  an  engineer, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  several  sieges.  Died  in 

Vauban,  de,  (S^BASTIEN  le  Prestre,)  SEIGNEUR,  a 
famous  French  military  engineer,  born  at  Saint-Leger  de 
Fougeret  (Nievre)  in  May,  1633.  Having  acquired  some 
skill  in  mathematics,  he  entered  in  1651  the  army  of  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  then  waging  a  civil  war  against  the 
French  court.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French 
in  1653,  and  persuaded  by  Cardinal  Mazarin  to  join  the 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  nftt;  good;  moor.; 


VAUBLANC 


2183 


VAUGHAN 


roval  army.  He  gained  early  distinction  by  his  courage 
an'd  his  skill  in  conducting  sieges,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  royal  engineer  in  1655.  Under  the  orders  of 
Turenne,  he  directed  the  sieges  of  Landrecies,  Conde, 
and  Saint-Ghislain,  (1655,)  and  rendered  important  ser 
vices  at  Gravelines,  Audenarde,  and  Ypres  in  1658.  He 
married  Jeanne  d'Aulnay  in  1660.  After  several  years 
of  peace,  the  war  was  renewed  in  1667.  Under  Louis 
XIV.,  commanding  in  person,  Vauban  took  Tournay, 
Douai,  and  Lille.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  con 
structing  fortifications  at  Lille,  Arras,  and  other  places 
in  Flanders,  and  made  important  improvements  in  the 
art  of  fortification.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  mare- 
chal-de-camp  in  1676,  after  which  he  improved  and 
fortified  the  ports  of  Dunkirk,  Toulon,  etc.  Among  his 
greatest  achievements  was  the  capture  of  the  strong 
fortress  of  Namur,  where,  says  Macaulay,  "  the  two  great 
masters  of  the  art  of  fortification  were  opposed  to  each 
other.  Vauban  had,  during  many  years,  been  regarded 
as  the  first  of  engineers  ;  but  a  formidable  rival  had  lately 
arisen,  Menno,  Baron  of  Cohorn."  ("  History  of  Eng 
land,"  vol.  iv.)  Xamur  was  taken  in  June,  1692.  Vauban 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Attack  of  Places,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Defence  of  Places,"  (1737.)  He  had 
the  courage  to  advise  the  king  to  re-establish  the  edict 
of  Nantes  in  favour  of  religious  liberty.  He  died  in  1707, 
leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  probity  and  other  virtues. 

See  FONTENELLE,  "  filoge  de  Vauban  ;"  CARNOT,  "  FJoge  de 
Vauban,"  1784  ;  AM  ANTON,  "  Notice  sur  Vauban,"  iS2q  :  DK  CHAM- 
BRAY,  "Noiice  histnrique  sur  Vauban,"  1X45:  SAINT  SIMON,  '•  Me- 
moires;"  NOEL,  "Eloge  de  Vauban,"  1790:  D'Avni.i.Y,  "Eloge 
de  Vauban,"  1788;  DK  SAUVIAC,  "Eloge  de  Vauban,"  1790;  VOL 
TAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  DE  COURCHLLES,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Generaux  Francois;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Vaublaiic,  de,  deh  vo'blo.s',  (VINCENT  MARIE 
Vienot — ve'&'no',)  COUNT,  a  French  politician,  born 
in  Saint  Domingo  in  1756,  was  a  royalist  in  the  Revo 
lution.  He  was  detected  in  several  plots  against  the 
republic,  was  proscribed  in  1797,  but  saved  himself  by 
flight,  and  held  several  high  offices  under  Napoleon. 
He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  September,  1815, 
to  May,  1816.  He  died  in  1845.  leaving  autobiographic 
"  Memoires  et  Souvenirs,"  (2  vols.,  1839.) 

See  LAMARTINE,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Vaucanson,  de,  deh  vo'kSx'soN',  (JACQUES,)  a  cele 
brated  French  mechanician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1709. 
His  inventive  genius  and  his  love  for  mechanical  arts 
were  displayed  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1738  he  exhibited 
in  Paris  his  Automaton'Flute-Player,  which  caused  a 
great  sensation.  Among  several  works  of  this  kind,  the 
most  wonderful  and  ingenious,  perhaps,  is  his  Automaton 
Duck,  which  swam,  quacked,  dressed  its  feathers  with 
its  bill,  and  swallowed  barley.  He  was  appointed  in 
spector  of  the  silk-manufactories,  and  invented  some 
machines  which  were  very  useful  in  the  fabrication  of  silk 
stuffs.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  CONDORCET,  "  filoges  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vauchelet,  v5sh'li',  (AUGUSTE  TH^OPHILE,)  ; 
French  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Passy, 
near  Paris,  in  1802. 

Vaucher,  vo'shaiR',  QEAN  PIERRE,)  a  French  bota 
nist  and  theologian,  born  at  Geneva  about  1763.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  or  ecclesiastical  history  at  Geneva. 
In  1803  he  published  a  "  History  of  Fresh-Water  Con- 
fervse,"  which  was  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  prin 
cipal  works  is  a  treatise  on  the  Physiology  of  European 
Plants,  "  Histoire  physiologiqtie  des  Plantes  d'Eu- 
rope,"  (4  vols.,  1841,)  on  which  he  expended  the  labour 
of  many  years.  A  genus  of  Algae  was  named  Vaucheri 
in  honour  of  him  by  De  Candolle.  Died  in  1841. 

Vaudemont,  de,  deh  vod'mix',  PRINCK,  a  Dutch 
general,  who  commanded  an  army  in  Flanders,  and  was 
opposed  to  Villeroy,  in  1695.  According  to  Macaulay 
he  was  "  one  of  the  ablest  commanders  in  the  Dutch 
service."  ("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

Vaudemont,  de',  deh  vod'mAx',  (AXTOINE  de  Lor 
raine — deh  lo'r&n',)  COUNT,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  died  in  1431.  The  succession  U 
this  duchy  was  disputed  by  Rene  of  Anjou  and  the 


Count  de  Vaudemont.      The  latter  defeated  Rene  in 
>attle,  and  the   contest  was  settled  by  a  marriage  of  a 
on   of  the   Count   de  Vaudemont   with  a  daughter  of 
^ene,  (1444-)     Died  in  1447. 
See  D.  CAI.MET,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine." 

Vaudoncourt,  de,  deh  vo'difi'kooR',  (FR£D£RIC 
?RANC.OIS  GUILLAUME,)  BARON,  a  French  general  and 
vriter,  born  at  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1772.  He  obtained 
command  of  the  artillery  of  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
n  Italy  in  1800,  was  employed  to  organize  the  Italian 
artillery  in  1803,  and  became  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1809.  In  1815  he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Jourbons,  and  became  an  exile.  He  wrote,  besides 
ther  military  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Campaigns  of 
1814  and  1815  in  France,"  (5  vols.,  1826,)  and  "Fifteen 
Years  of  an  Exile,"  ("Quinze  Annees  d'un  Proscrit," 
4  vols.,  1835.)  Died  in  1845. 

See  F.  THIERRY,  "  Le  General  Baron  F.  F.  G.  de  Vaudoncourt," 
etc.,  1846  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vaudoyer,  vo'dwa'ya',  (LioN,)  a  French  architect, 
jorn  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1826.  His  plan  for  the  new  cathedral  of  Marseilles  was 
adopted  in  1854. 

Vaudreuil,  de,  deh  vo'dRuI'  or  vo'druh'ye,  (Louis 
PHILIPPE  de  Rigaud — deh  re'go',)  COMTE,  a  brave 
French  naval  officer,  born  at  Quebec  in  1691  ;  died  in 
1763-  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  at  Rochefort  in 
1724,  served  with  distinction  in  the  navy,  and  became  a 
lieutenant-general.  Died  in  1802. 

Vaudrey,  vo'dni',  (CLAUDE  NICOLAS,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1784.  He  was  a  colonel  in  the 
army  at  Strasburg  when  Louis  Napoleon  attempted  to 
initiate  an  insurrection  there.  He  aided  and  abetted 
that  attempt,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  general 
of  brigade  in  1852.  Died  in  1857. 

Vaugelas,  de,  deh  vSzh'la',  (CLAUDE  FAVRE,)  an 
eminent  French  grammarian,  born  nearTrevoux  in  1585, 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Dic 
tionary  of  that  Academy,  and  published  "  Remarks  on 
the  French  Language,"  (1647.)  He  was  very  fastidious 
in  respect  to  purity  of  language,  and  was  regarded  as  an 
oracle  in  questions  of  grammar  and  style.  He  spent 
many  years  on  a  translation  of  Quintus  Curtius,  (1653.) 
Died  in  1650. 

See  PELLISSON,  "  Histoire  de  1' Academic  ;"  NICERON,  "Me 
moires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Vaughan,  vau'an,  (almost  vawn,)  (ALFRED,)  an  Eng 
lish  poet  and  reviewer,  born  in  1823,  was  a  son  of 
Robert,  noticed  below.  He  became  a  dissenting  min 
ister  at  Birmingham,  contributed  to  the  "British  Quar 
terly  Review,"  and  published  "  Hours  with  the  Mystics." 
Died  in  1857. 

Vaughan,  (HENRY,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  Breck 
nockshire,  Wales,  in  1621,  is  sometimes  called  THE 
SILURIST.  He  was  the  author  of  devotional  poems, 
entitled  "  Silex  Scintillans,"  (1650,)  "Thalia  Rediviva, 
the  Pastimes  and  Diversions  of  a  Country  Muse,"  (1678,) 
"The  Mount  of  Olives,"  (in  prose,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1695.  His  brother  THOMAS  wrote  several  treat 
ises  on  alchemy. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  "Retro 
spective  Review,"  vol.  Hi.,  1821. 

Vaughan,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  distinguished  jurist,  born  in 
Cardiganshire  in  1608.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose 
to  be  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1668.  Died 
in  1674. 

Vaughan,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1772.  He  became  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  1834. 
Died  in  1839. 

Vaughan,  (ROBERT,)  D.D.,  an  English  Congrega 
tional  divine,  born  in  1795,  became  professor  of  history 
in  London  University,  (University  College,)  and  subse 
quently  president  of  the  Independent  College  at  Man 
chester.  In  1844  he  began  to  edit  the  "  British  Quarterly 
Review,"  of  which  he  was  the  founder.  He  published 
"  Memorials  of  the  Stuart  Dynasty,"  etc.,  "  Causes  of 
the  Corruption  of  Christianity,"  (1834,)  "The  Protector 
ate  of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1838,)  "  History  of  England 
under  the  House  of  Stuart,"  (1840,)  "John  de  Wycliffe, 
D.D.,  a  Monograph,  with  some  Account  of  the  Wycliffe 


e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FAUGH  AN 


2184 


VEDA 


Manuscripts,"  (1853,)  and  various  other  works.     Died  i 
1868. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Vaughan,  (WILLIAM,)  a  poet,  born  in  Caermarthen 
shire,  in  Wales,  in  1577,  was  the  author  of"  The  Goldei 
Fleece,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1640. 

Vaugiraud,    de,    deh    vo'zhe'ro',    (PiKRKK    RENE 
MARIE,)  a  French  vice-admiral,  born  at  Sables  d'Olonn 
in  1741.     He   emigrated   as  a  royalist   about  1790,  anc 
became  Governor  of  Martinique  in  1814.     Died  in  1819 

Vaugondy.     See  ROHKRT  DE  VAUGONDY. 

Vauguyon,  de  la,  deh  IS  v5'ge'6N',  (ANTOINE  PAUL 
JACQUES  de  Quelen — deh  ka'lS.V,)  Due,  a  Frencl 
general,  born  at  Tonneins  in  1706.  lie  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Fontenoy,  (1745.)  He  was  afterwards 
governor  of  the  sons  of  the  dauphin,  who  became  Louis 
XVI.,  Louis  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  Died  in  1772. 

Vaulabelle,  de,  deh  vo'lS'beT,  (AcaiLLETenaille— 
teh-nil'  or  teh-nt'ye,)  a  French  journalist  and  statesman 
born  in  the  department  of  Yonne  in  1799.  He  became 
in  1838  associate  editor  of  "  Le  National,"  a  repub 
lican  or  advanced  liberal  daily  paper.  He  publishec 
a  "  History  of  the  Two  Restorations  to  the  Fall  of 
Charles  X.,"  (6  vols.,  1844  et  sey.,)  which  is  commendec 
for  accuracy  and  various  research.  He  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  from  July  to  October,  1848. 

Vaulabelle,  de,  (MATHIKU  Tenaille,)  called  ELE- 
ONORE,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  1801,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  many  vaudevilles.  Dice 
in  1859. 

Vauquelin,  vok'laV,  (JEAN,)  Sieur  de  La  Fresnaye, 
a  French  poet,  born  near  Falaise  in  1535.  He  became 
president  of  a  court,  called  presidial,  at  Caen,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  He  wrote  agreeable  idyls,  and 
other  short  poems.  Died  in  '1607. 

His  son  NICOLAS  was  a  poet.    (See  DES  YVETEAUX.) 

See  V.  CHOISY,  "Jean  Vauquelin  de  La  Fresnaye,"  1841. 

Vauquelin,  (Louis  NICOLAS,)  an  eminent  French 
chemist,  born  near  Pont-1'fiveque  (Calvados)  in  May, 
1763.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Fourcroy,  of  whom  he  became 
an  intimate  friend  and  coadjutor.  He  was  appointed 
assistant  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
about  1795,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  In  1801  he 
succeeded  Darcet  as  professor  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  in  1804  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  applied  to 
the  arts,  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  He  improved 
the  methods  of  chemical  analysis,  and  discovered  two 
elementary  substances, — chromium  and  glucina.  He 
wrote  many  "  Memoires,"  inserted  in  the  "  Annales  de 
Chimie"  and  other  periodicals.  Died  in  November 
1829. 

See  CUVIER,  "  Eloge  de  Vauquelin;"  CHEVAI.LIER.  "  Inaugura 
tion  d'un  Monument  a  la  Memoire  de  L.  N.  Vauquelin  :  Notice 
biographique  de  ce  Chimiste,"  iS5o:  DR.  HOEFER,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Chimie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Vauthier-Galle,  vo'te-i'  gtl,  (ANDRE,)  a  French 
sculptor  and  medal-engrav"ef,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Vauvenargues,  de,  deh  vSv-'ntug',  (Luc  de  Cla- 
piers — deh  kll'pe-i',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  moral  philos 
opher,  born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1715,  was  a  friend  of 
Voltaire.  He  entered  the  army  about  1733,  and  left  the 
service  with  ruined  health  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven. 
He  published  in  1746  an  "Introduction  to  the  Know 
ledge  of  the  Human  Mind,  followed  by  Reflections  and 
Maxims,"  which  was  praised  by  Voltaire.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1747.  His  reputation  increased  after  his  death. 

See  SUARD,  "Notice  sur  Vauvenargues  :"  GILBERT,  "  Eloge  de 
Vauvenargues:"  SAINTE-BKUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  vols.  Hi. 
and  xiv.  ;  VOLTAIRE,  "  Corresjxindance ;"  MARMONTEL,  "Me 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vauvilliers,  vS've'ye-i',  (|EAN  FRANQOIS,)  a  French 
scholar,  was  born  at  Noyers  in  1737.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  Greek  at  the  College  of  France  in  1 766,  and  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "  Essays  on  Pindar,"  (1772.) 
In  1790  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  municipality 
of  Paris,  and  lieutenant  to  the  mayor  of  that  city.  He 
entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  Having 
been  proscribed  in  the  same  year,  he  took  refuge  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1801.  He  had  pub 
lished  an  edition  of  Sophocles,  with  notes,  (2  vols.,  1781.) 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


Vaux,  vavvx,  (NICHOLAS,)  LORD,  an  English  officer, 
was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Henry  VIII.,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  French  campaign.  Died  in  1530. 

Vaux,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1510,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  one  of  the  attendants 
of  Henry  VIII.  in  his  expedition  to  France  in  1532. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Assault  of  Cupid."  Died 
about  1557. 

Vaux,  de,  deh  vo,  (NOEL  DE  JOURDA,  no'eM'  deh 
zhooR'da"',)  COUNT,  a  French  general,  born  near  Puy- 
en-Velayin  1705.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Prague  (1743)  and  Foncenoy,  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1759,  and  displayed  much  ability 
by  the  conquest  of  Corsica  in  1769.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1783.  Died  in  1788. 

Vauxcelles.     See  BOURI.ET. 

Vauzelles,  de,  deh  vo'zel',  (JEAN,)  a  French  priest 
and  writer  on  religion,  was  born  at  Lyons;  died  in  1557. 

Vavasseur,  vf'vt'suR',  (FKANC.OIS,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Paray  in  1605.  He  produced, 
besides  several  prose  works,  Latin  odes,  elegies,  etc., 
which  are  said  to  be  elegant.  Died  in  Paris  in  1681. 

See  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Vayu,  vl'oo,  or  Vayus,  vi'dos,  [from  the  Sanscrit 
vdy,  to  "  go,"  or  "  move,"]  one  of  the  names  of  the  wind, 
in  the  Iljndoo  mythology.  (See  MARUT  and  PAVANA.) 

Ve,  va  or  veil,  [i.e.  "holiness;"  allied  to  the  German 
wei/ien,  to  "  consecrate,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a  god 
who  was  associated  with  his  brothers  Odin  and  Vili  in 
creating  the  world.  (See  ODIN.)  It  appears  to  have  been 
his  office  to  banish  from  the  new  creation  whatever  was 
impure  or  evil.  By  some  he  is  identified  with  LODUR, 
which  see. 

Vecchi,  de,  da  vek'kee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro  in  1536;  died  in 
1614. 

Vecchia,  vek'ke-a,  (PIETRO,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
originally  named  MATTONI,  born  in  1605,  was  a  pupil 
of  Varotari.  He  imitated  with  great  skill  the  works  of 
Titian  and  Giorgione.  Died  in  1678. 

Vecchietta,  vek-ke-et'ta,  (LORENZO  DI  PIERO,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Sienna  in  1482.  lie  worked  in 
bronze.  Died  in  1540. 

Vecchio  di  San  Bernardo,  II,  el  vek'ke-o  de  san 
beR-naR'do,  (FRANCESCO  Menzocchi — men-zok'kee,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forli  about  1510  ;  died  in  1547. 
Vecellio.  See  TITIAN. 

Vecellio,  va-chel'le-o,  (CESARE,)  an  Italian  painter, 
>orn  at  Cadore  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  and  cousin  of 
Titian.  He  published  a  collection  entitled  "On  Ancient 
and  Modern  Costumes,"  ("  Degli  Abiti  antichi  e  mo- 
derni,"  1590.)  Died  in  1606. 

Vecellio,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  brother  of  Titian,  born  at 
Cadore  in  1483,  was  a  painter  of  superior  genius,  but 
enounced  the  profession  for  that  of  merchant  or  soldier. 
Died  in  1590. 

Vecellio,  (MARCO,)  or  MARCO  di  Tiziano — de  tet- 
se-a'no,  an  able  painter,  born  in  Venice  in  1545,  was  a 
icphew  and  pupil  of  Titian.  He  accompanied  Titian 
n  his  journeys,  and  imitated  his  style  with  great  success. 
Vmong  his  works  are  a  "  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit" 
and  the  "Marriage  of  the  Virgin  Mary."  Died  in  1611. 
See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  RIDOLFI,  "  Pittori  Veneti ;" 
<ANZI,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Vecellio,  (ORAZIO,)  a  skilful  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Venice  in    1515,  was   a  son  and  pupil  of  Titian.      He 
assisted  his  father  in  many  of  his  works.     Died  in  1576. 
See  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Vechte  or  Wechte,  vgkt,  (ANTOINE,)  a  French 
culptorand  goldsmith,  born  in  the  department  of  Cote- 
I'Or  about  1820.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  de- 
igner  of  ornamental  works  in  gold  and  silver.  Among 
lis  works  is  an  allegorical  vase  in  silver  repousse.  Died 
n  October,  _i 868. 

Vdda,  va'da,  (English  plural  Vedas,)  i.e.  "know- 
edge,"  [from  the  Sanscrit  vid,  to  "know,"  cognate  with 
be  old  English  wit,  having  the  same  signification,  and 
lie  Latin  vid-eo,  to  "see"  or  "perceive,")  the  name  of 
lie  sacred  books  or  scriptures  of  the  Brahmans,  sup- 
osed  to  contain  the  fountain  and  sum  of  all  essential 
nowledge.  They  consist  of  four  parts,  the  Rig- Veda, 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


218: 


7ELDE 


Sama-Veda,  Yajur-Veda,  and  Atharva-Veda.  Of  these 
the  Rig- Veda  is  the  most  important.  It  is  composed  of 
religious  lyrics  or  hymns,  and  is  confessedly  the  oldest 
extant  portion  of  Sanscrit  literature,  dating  perhaps 
from  1400  to  1800  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

See  PROFESSOR  WILSON'S  translations  of  the  "Rig-Veda,"  and 
tlie  different  Introductions  to  those  translations;  COLEBROOKE  on 
the  "Vedas,"  in  vol.  viii.  of  the  "Asiatic  Researches;"  article 
"Veda"  in  the  "New  American  Cyclopaedia,"  (by  PROFESSOR  W. 
D.  WHITNEY.) 

V§danta,  (Philosophy.)     See  VYASA. 

Vedavy^sa.     See  VYASA. 

Vedriani,  va-dke-a'nee,  (LODOVICO,)  a  mediocre  Ital 
ian  historian,  born  at  Modena  in  1601,  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Modena,"  (1664,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1670. 

Veen.     See  VAN  VEEN  and  HEEMSKERK. 

Veenix.     See  WEENIX. 

Vega.     See  GARCILASSO  DE  LA  VEGA. 

Vega,  de.     See  LOPE  DE  VEGA. 

Vega,  von,  fon  va'ga,  (GEOKG,)  BARON,  a  German 
officer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Carniola  in  1754,  was 
originally  named  VEHA.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
several  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Turks,  at 
tained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Imperial  artillery.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Tables  of  Logarithms,"  (Logarith- 
mentafeln,  1783,)  "Lectures  on  Mathematics,"  (4  vols., 
1786-90,)  "Complete  Treasury  of  Logarithms,"  (1794,) 
and  other  valuable  works.  Vega  was  murdered  in  1802 
by  a  miller,  who  despoiled  him  of  his  money  and  watch. 
•  Vegece.  See  VEGETIUS. 

Vegetius,  ve-jee'she-us,  [Fr.  VEGECE,  va'zhis',]  (FLA- 
vius  RENATUS,)  a  Roman  military  writer  of  the  fourth 
century,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  Christian.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "Epitome  Institutionum  Rei 
militaris,"  (in  five  books,)  and  is  dedicated  to  Valentinian 
II.  It  treats  of  the  organization  of  armies,  training 
of  soldiers,  etc.,  and  is  written  in  a  clear  and  graceful 
style.  Translations  of  it  have  been  published  in  English, 
French,  and  German. 

See  FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina." 

Vehrli  or  Wehrli,  vau'lee,  (JAKOB,)  a  Swiss  te'acher, 
born  in  1790,  was  for  many  years  an  assistant  of  Fellen- 
berg  at  Hofwyl.  He  became  in  1833  superintendent  of 
the  Normal  School  at  Krtiitzlingen,  on  Lake  Constance. 

Vehse,  fa'zeh,  (KARI.  EDUARD,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Freiberg  in  1802,  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottin- 
gen,  and  afterwards  visited  the  United  States,  London, 
and  Paris.  He  has  published  several  works,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  his  "  History  of  the  German  Courts 
since  the  Reformation,"  ("  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Hofe  seit  der  Reformation,"  34  vols.,  1854.)  It  is  still 
unfinished. 

Veil,  vil,  or  Viel,  (CHARLES  MARIE,)  a  commentator 
on  Scripture,  born  at  Metz,  was  originally  a  Tew.  He  be 
came  a  Protestant,  and  preached  in  England  about  1680. 

Veil,  de,  cleh  vil,  (Loins  de  Compiegne — deh  koNx- 
pe-in',)  a  converted  Jew,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Metz,  went  to  England  about  1680,  and  pub 
lished  Latin  versions  of  some  works  of  Maimonides. 

Veimars.     See  LOEVE. 

Veit,  vlt  or  fit,  (PmLii'P,)  a  celebrated  German 
painter,  born  at  Berlin  in  1793,  was  a  grandson,  on  his 
mother's  side,  of  Moses  Mendelssohn.  He  studied  at 
Rome  in  company  with  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  other 
voting  artists,  who  aimed  at  reviving  the  mystical  style 
of  the  middle  ages.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may 
name  his  "  Triumph  of  Religion,"  in  the  Vatican  gallery, 
"Scenes  from  Dante's  Paradiso,"  in  the  Villa  Massimi, 
"Christianity  bringing  the  Fine  Arts  into  Germany,"  a 
large  fresco  in  the  Stadel  Art  Institute  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  and  the  "Seven  Years  of  Plenty," — one  of 
the  frescos  of  the  history  of  Joseph,  at  the  Villa  Bartholdy, 
Rome.  Veit  was  a  step-son  of  Frederick  Schlegel,  his 
mother  having  married  that  artist.  Died  at  Rome  in  1854. 

Veitch,  veetch,  (JOHN,)  a  Scottish  professor,  born  at 
Peebles  about  1830.  He  translated  several  works  of 
Descartes,  (1850-53.)  About  1860  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of 
Saint  Andrew's.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton," 


Vela,  va'la,  (BLASCO  NUNEZ,)  a  Spaniard,  was  sent 
by  Charles  V.  to  Peru  in  1543  as  viceroy.  His  authority 
was  resisted  by  the  rebels  under  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  by 
whom  Vela  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1546. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vela,  va'la,  (VINCENT,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  of  Swiss 
origin,  born  in  the  canton  of  Tessin  (Ticino)  in  1822. 
Among  his  works  is  a  statue  of  Spartacus. 

Velasco.     See  PALOMINO  Y  VELASCO. 

Velasco,  de,  da  va-las'ko,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  sacred  poems,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Velasco,  de,  (GREGORIO  HERNANDEZ,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Toledo  about  1550.  He  produced  a  good 
version  of  Virgil's  "  /Eneid,"  and  other  translations. 

Velasquez,  va-las'kgth,  (ALEXANDRO  GONZALEZ,)  a 
Spanish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Madrid  in  1719. 
He  designed  the  palace  of  Aranjuez.  Died  in  1772. 

His  brother  ANTONIO,  born  in  1729,  was  an  able 
painter.  He  became  court  painter  to  Charles  III.  in 
1757.  He  excelled  in  frescos.  Died  in  1793. 

Velasquez,  ( DIEGO,)  a  Spanish  commander,  born  in 
Old  Castile  about  1460.  He  was  sent  by  Diego  Colum 
bus  to  Cuba,  which  he  conquered  in  1511.  He  was 
afterwards  Governor  of  Cuba,  and  despatched  an  ex 
ploring  party  which  discovered  Mexico.  About  1520 
he  sent  a  small  army  to  Mexico  under  Narvaez  to 
operate  against  Cortez,  who  defeated  Narvaez  and  took 
him  prisoner.  Died  in  1523. 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;"  ORET.- 
LANA,  "  Varones  del  nuevo  Mundo." 

Velasquez  (or  Velazquez)  de  Silva,  va-las'keth 
da  sel'va,  (Don  DIEGO  RODRIGUEZ,)  a  celebrated  Span 
ish  portrait-painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1599.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Herrera  el  Viejo,  and  afterwards  of  Francisco 
Pacheco,  whose  daughter  Juana  he  married.  He  did 
not  adopt  the  style  of  either  of  these  masters,  but 
formed  for  himself  an  original  style  by  the  study  of 
nature.  Having  removed  to  Madrid  in  1622  and  painted 
a  portrait  of  the  Duke  of  Olivares  in  1623,  he  was  ap 
pointed  court  painter  to  Philip  IV.,  and  rose  rapidly  to 
fame  and  prosperity.  He  was  a  friend  of  Rubens,  whom 
he  met  at  Madrid  in  1628.  He  visited  Italy  in  1629, 
admired  the  works  of  Titian  at  Venice,  and  passed 
about  a  year  at  Rome,  where  he  painted  a  picture  of 
"Jacob  and  the  Bloody  Garment  of  Joseph,"  and 
"  Apollo  at  the  Forge  of  Vulcan."  He  returned  to 
Madrid  in  1631,  after  which  he  produced  an  admirable 
equestrian  portrait  of  Philip  IV.  In  1648  he  was  sent 
to  Italy  by  the  king  to  purchase  pictures  and  models  of 
antique  statues.  He  painted  at  Rome  an  excellent  por 
trait  of  Pope  Innocent  X.,  and  returned  home  in  1615. 
In  1656  he  obtained  the  cross  of  Santiago,  which  is 
rarely  given  to  any  except  men  of  high  rank.  He  was 
also  appointed  to  the  office  of  aposentador  mayor,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  provide  lodgings  for  the  king  in  his  journeys. 
Died  in  August,  1660.  Velasquez  is  regarded  by  many 
critics  as  the  greatest  painter  that  Spain  has  produced. 
He  is  considered  to  have  surpassed  other  Spanish  artists 
not  only  in  portraits  but  in  history  and  landscapes.  He 
neglected  the  ideal  and  poetical,  and  seems  to  have  been 
deficient  in  invention  ;  but  he  reproduced  the  real  with 
marvellous  fidelity.  His  best  works  are  mostly  at 
Madrid.  Among  his  best  historical  pieces  is  a  "  Cruci 
fixion,"  (1639.)  Commenting  on  his  picture  of  "  The 
Spinners,"  ("  Las  Hilanderas,")  Mr.  Stanley  says,  "  For 
truth  of  character,  perspective  arrangement,  and  delusion 
of  light  and  shadow,  it  is  considered  marvellous." 
(Bryan  and  Stanley's  "  Dictionary.") 

See  WILLIAM  STIRLING,  "Velasquez  and  his  Works,"  1855; 
CEAN-BERMUDEZ.  "  Diccionario  de  las  bellas  Artes;"  NAGLER, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  FORO,  "  Hand- Book  for  Travel 
lers  in  Spain  :"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1855;  QUII.I.IET,  or 
QUILLET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Pemtres  Espagnols  ;"  CHAKLES  BLANC, 
"  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Velasquez  de  Velasco,  va-las'keth  da  va-las'ko, 
(Luis  JOSE,)  Marquis  de  Valdeflores,  a  Spanish  anti 
quary,  born  at  Malaga  in  1722.  He  published  several 
works  on  Spanish  antiquities.  Died  in  1772. 

Velde,  van  den,  vtn  den  vel'deh,  or  Vandervelde, 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about 


Hamilton,"  (1869.)  (ISAIAH,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about  I595» 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  kard;gzsj;  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.      (ffi^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VELDE 


2186 


^ENEZUNO 


was  also  an  etcher.  He  painted  landscapes,  rustic  scenes, 
and  battles.  Died  about  1650. 

Velde,  van  den,  (JAN,)  a  painter  and  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Leyden  about  1598,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  painted  landscapes  and  rustic  scenes,  and 
engraved  portraits,  etc.  Died  after  1677. 

Velde,  van  der,  (ADRIAAN  and  WILI.EM.)  See  VAN 
DER  VEI.DE. 

Velde,  van  der,  vtn  der  fel'deh  or  vel'deh,  (FRANZ 
KARL,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  1779.  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  novels,  tales,  and  dramatic  works, 
which  were  very  popular  at  the  time.  Died  in  1824. 

Veldeke,  von,  fon  vel'deh-keh,  (HEINRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  minnesinger  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  the  author 
of  an  epic  poem  entitled  "Eneit." 

Vel'e-da  or  Vel'le-da,  a  German  prophetess,  who 
lived  near  the  river  Luppia  (Lippe)  in  the  reign  of  Ves 
pasian,  and  was  regarded  with  great  veneration.  Having 
prophesied  in  favour  of  Civilis,  who  revolted  against  the 
Romans,  she  was  carried  captive  to  Rome  about  85  A.D. 

Velez  de  Guevara.     See  GUEVARA. 

Vella,  vel'la,  (GIUSEPPE,)  a  literary  impostor,  born  at 
Malta  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  pre 
tended  to  have  discovered  an  Arabic  manuscript  of 
several  of  the  lost  books  of  Livy,  and  other  important 
documents  in  the  Arabic  language.  His  frauds  were 
exposed  by  Tychsen  and  Hager. 

Velleius  Paterculus.     See  PATERCUI.US. 

Vellejus,  vel-la'yus,  (ANDREAS  SEVERINUS  or  SOE- 
RENSEN,)  a  learned  Danish  historian  and  theologian, 
born  at  Veile,  in  Jutland,  in  1542.  He  became  court 
preacher  at  Copenhagen  about  1568.  He  published 
"The  Lives  of  the  Popes,  in  verse,"  (1571,)  a  "  History 
of  Canute,"  several  biographies,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1616. 

Velleroii.     See  CAMBIS-VEI.I.KRUN. 

Velluti,  v§]-loo'tee,  (DONATO,)  an  Italian  chronicler, 
born  at  Florence  in  1313  ;  died  in  1370. 

Velly,  v^'le',  (PAUL  FRANCOIS.)  a  French  historian, 
born  near  Rheims  in  1709.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
France,"  (8  vols.,  1759,)  which  was  favourably  received 
at  the  time.  He  also  translated  Swift's  "  History  of  John 
Bull."  Died  in  1759. 

Velpeau,  veTp5',  (ALFRED  ARMAND  Louis  MARIE,) 
a  celebrated  French  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  near 
Tours  (Indre-et-Loire)  in  1795.  He  graduated  in  Paris 
in  1823,  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  to  the 
Faculte  de  Medecine  in  1834  or  1835,  and  chief  surgeon 
of  the  hospital  La  Charite  in  1841.  He  succeeded  Dr. 
Larrey  in  the  Institute  about  1842.  As  professor  of 
clinic,  he  acquired  a  European  reputation.  Among  his 
numerous  works  we  notice  a  "Treatise  on  Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (2  vols.,  1825-26,)  which  is  said  to  be  very 
complete,  an  excellent  treatise  on  Obstetrics,  entitled 
"Traitede  1'Art  des  Accouchements,"  (1829,)  which  was 
translated  by  Dr.  Charles  Meigs,  of  Philadelphia,  (1831,) 
and  "Traite  des  Maladies  du  Sein,"  (1838.)  An  en 
larged  edition  of  the  latter  was  issued  in  1854.  Died 
in  August,  1867. 

See  SACHAILE,  "  Les  Medecius  de  Paris  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale. " 

Velser,  feTser,  or  Velserus,  f§l-sa'rus,  (MARCUS,)  a 
German  civilian,  born  at  Augsburgin  1558.  He  became 
a  senator  about  1592.  Among  his  works  is  "  Rerum 
Boicarum  Libri  V.,"  (1602.)  Died  in  1614. 

Veltheim,  fglt'hlm,  (AUGUST  FERDINAND,)  COUNT, 
a  German  antiquary  and  scientific  writer,  born  near 
Helmstedt  in  1741.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Formation  of  Basalt,"  (1786,)  "On  the  Statue  of  Mem- 
non,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1801. 

Veltheim  or  Velthem,  written  also  Velten,  a  Ger 
man  actor  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  plays  of  Moliere  on  the  German  stage. 

Velthusius.     See  VELTHUYSEN. 

Velthuysen,  velt'hoi'zen,  [Lat.  VELTHU'SIUS,]  (LAM 
BERT,)  a  Dutch  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1622.  He  wrote  several  works  on  moral 
philosophy  and  religion,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  toleration.  Died  in  1685. 

Venance.     See  DOUGADOS. 

Venantius.     See  FORTUNATUS. 


Vence,  de,  deh  VONSS,  (HENRI  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  in  Barrois  about 
1675.  He  wrote  dissertations  or  commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  which  were  inserted  in  the  Bible  of  Calmet,  (1748- 
50.)  Died  at  Nancy  in  1749. 

Vendome,  de,  deh  v6N'd5m',  (ALEXANDRE,)  Due, 
a  brother  of  Cesar,  noticed  below,  born  in  1598,  was 
legitimated  the  following  year,  and  created  Duke  of 
Vendome.  He  was  made  grand  prior  of  the  knights  of 
Malta  in  France.  Suspected  of  conspiring  against  Riche 
lieu,  he  was  arrested,  (1626,)  and  died  in  prison  in  1629. 

Vendome,  de,  (CESAR,)  Due,  a  natural  son  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France  and  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  was  born  in  1594. 
He  was  soon  after  legitimated  and  made  Duke  of  Ven 
dome.  Having  been  charged  with  taking  part  in  the 
conspiracy  against  Richelieu  in  1626,  he  was  imprisoned 
four  years.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Burgundy 
in  1650.  Died  in  1665. 

See  CARDINAL  RETZ,  "Memoires;"  BAZIN,  "Histoire  de  Louis 
XIII." 

Vendome,  de,  (Louis,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1612,  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Louis  XIII., 
and  rose  to  be  viceroy  and  commander  of  the  French 
troops  in  Catalonia  in  1649.  He  married  in  1651  Laura 
Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  after  her  death, 
having  been  ordained  a  priest,  was  made  a  cardinal  in 
1669.  Died  in  1669. 

Vendome,  de,  (Louis  JOSEPH,)  Due,  an  able  gene 
ral,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1654. 
He  served  under  Turenne,  and  in  the  campaign  of 
Flanders  under  Marshal  de  Crequi,  and  was  appointed 
in  1681  Governor  of  Provence.  He  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  1688,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  siege  of 
Namur  and  the  battles  of  Steenkerke  and  Marsaglia. 
Having  succeeded  Noailles  as  commander  of  the  army 
of  Catalonia  in  1695,  he  besieged  Barcelona,  which  he 
compelled  to  surrender,  (1697.)  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  became  com 
mander  of  the  forces  in  Italy,  and  in  1702  fought  the 
battle  of  Luzzara  with  the  army  of  Prince  Eugene.  He 
was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
at  Ouclenarde  in  1708.  Being  sent  in  1710  by  Louis 
XIV.  to  the  assistance  of  Philip  V.  in  Spain,  he  restored 
that  sovereign  to  his  capital,  and  soon  after  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  the  Austrian  forces  under  Starhem- 
berg  at  Villa  Viciosa.  Died  in  1712. 

See  VII.I.ENKUVK,  "  filoge  du  Due  de  Vendome,"  1783  ;  VOLTAIRE, 
"Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires:"  JJE  COIJR- 
CKLI.KS,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Fraiifais;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generate. " 

Vendome,  de,  (PHILIPPE,)  Due,  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1655.  He  served  under  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  in  1669,  and  took  part  in  the 
principal  campaigns  of  his  brother.  He  was  grand  prior 
of  the  knights  of  the  order  of  Malta.  Died  in  1727. 

Vendramini,  vSn-di<a-niee'nee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  able 
Italian  engraver,  born  near  Bassano  in  1769,  worked 
in  England,  and  engraved  the  works  of  several  Italian 
masters.  Died  in  London  in  1839. 

Veuedey,  fa'neh-di,  (JAKOB,)  a  German  jurist  and 
politician,  born  at  Cologne  in  1805.  He  was  arrested 
in  1832  on  a  charge  of  being  connected  with  secret  so 
cieties,  but  effected  his  escape  to  France.  Returning  in 
1848,  he  was  soon  after  elected  to  the  National  Assem 
bly.  He  subsequently  became  professor  of  history  at 
Zurich.  He  has  published  several  works  on  various 
subjects,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  German 
People,"  (4  vols.,  1854-58.) 

Venel,  veh-neK,  (GABRIEL  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Combes  in  1723.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where  he 
died  in  1775. 

Venerio.     See  VENIERO. 

Veneroni,  va-na-ro'nee,  a  French  scholar  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  originally  named  JEAN  VIGNERON, 
(ven'yeh-roN',)  published  an  Italian  Grammar  and  Dic 
tionary. 

Venette,  veh-neY,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1633  ;  died  in  1698. 

Veneziano.     See  DOMENICO  VENEZIANO. 

Veneziano,  va-ne't-se-a'no,  (AcosTiNp,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  engraver,  born  at  Venice,  is  sometimes  called 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


PENEZUNO 


2187 


AUGUSTINUS  DE  Musis.  He  studied  under  Marcantonio 
Raimondi,  and  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  Ra 
phael  and  Giulio  Romano.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  portraits  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
of  France,  and  "  The  Skeletons,  or  Burying-Place,"  after 
Baccio  Banclinelli.  Veneziano  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  practise  stipple  engraving.  He  lived  about 
1 5 1 0-40. 

See  STRUTT,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers. " 

Veneziaiio,  (ANTONIO,)  an  eminent  Venetian  painter, 
born  about  1309,  was  a  pupil  of  Angelo  Gaddi.  His 
frescos  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa  are  ranked  among 
his  master-pieces.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine,  and 
died  of  the  plague  at  Florence,  in  1384,  while  attending 
the  sick. 

Veniero,  vi-ne-a'ro,  or  Veiiier,  va-ne-aiu',  (ANTO 
NIO,  )  a  Venetian  statesman,  was  elected  doge  in  1382. 
He  extended  the  domain  of  Venice  by  the  acquisition 
of  Corfu,  Argos,  and  Treviso.  Died  in  1400. 

Veniero,  (DoMENiCo,)  a  Venetian  poet  and  trans 
lator,  born  in  1517,  was  oiie  of  the  founders  of  the 
Venetian  Academy.  He  was  intimate  with  Cardinal 
Bembo  and  other  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  His 
brothers,  LORENZO  and  MAFFEO,  were  also  poets.  Died 
in  1582. 

Veniero  or  Veiiier,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  Venetian  phi 
losopher  and  statesman,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1505  ;  died  in  1581. 

Veniero,  (LORENZO,)  a  poet,  born  at  Venice  about 
1510,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  sa 
tirical  and  immoral  poems.  Died  in  1550. 

Veniero  or  Venerio,  va-na're-o,  (SEBASTIANO,)  a 
Venetian  admiral,  commanded  the  fleet  of  the  republic 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  in  1572.  He  was  elected  doge 
in  1576.  Died  in  1578. 

Sec  PRESCOTT,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Ve-nil'i-a,  f  Fr.  VENII.IE,  va'ne'le',]  a  Roman  divinity 
or  nymph,  was  called  a  sister  of  Amata,  the  wife  of  Fau- 
nus,  and  the  mother  of  Turn  us  and  Juturna. 

Venilie.     See  VENII.IA. 

Venino,  va-nee'no,  (loNAZio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
at  Como  in  1711,  is  said  to  have  been  the  greatest 
preacher  of  Italy  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Died  at 
Milan  in  1778. 

Venius.     See  VAN  VEEN. 

Venn,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  theologian,  born 
at  Barnes,  Surrey,  in  1725,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Richard 
Venn.  He  graduated  as  A.M.  at  Cambridge  in  1749, 
became  vicar  of  Huddersfield  about  1760,  and  rector  of 
Veiling,  in  Huntingdonshire,  in  1770.  He  published, 
besides  Sermons,  "The  Complete  Duty  of  Man,  or  a 
System  of  Doctrinal  and  Practical  Christianity,"  and 
"Mistakes  in  Religion  Exposed."  Died  in  1797. 

Set  HKNKV  VENN.  "Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  Henry  Venn," 
1849. 

Venn,  (JoHN,)  a  clergyman,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Clapham  in  1759.  He  became  rector  of 
Ciapham  in  1792,  and  died  there  in  1813.  Two  volumes 
of  his  sermons  have  been  published. 

Venn,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
was  the  father  of  Henry,  noticed  above.  He  was  rector 
of  Saint  Antholin's,  London.  Died  in  1740. 

Veii'iier,  (ToBiAS,)  an  Eng'ish  physician,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1577.  He  practised  at  Bath  with  suc 
cess,  and  published  a  treatise  on  diet  and  regimen,  en 
titled  "The  Right  Way  to  Long  Life,"  ("Via  recta  ad 
Vitam  longam,"  about  1622,)  which  was  very  popular. 
Died  in  1660. 

Ven'ning,  (RALPH,)  an  English  nonconformist  min 
ister,  born  about  1620,  was  noted  both  for  his  eloquence 
and  his  piety.  He  became  lecturer  or  preacher  at  Saint 
Olave,  Soutlnvark,  from  which  he  was  ejected  for  non 
conformity  in  1662.  He  wrote,  besides  other  religious 
works,  "  Things  Worth  Thinking  on,  or  Helps  to  Piety." 
Died  in  1673. 

Venteiiat,  vSxt'nf,  (ETIFNNE  PIERRE,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Limoges  in  1757.  He  published  a 
"Tableau  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  (4  vols.,  1799,) 
"The  Garden  of  Malmaison,"  (2  vols.,  1803,  with  plates 
by  Redoute,)  and  other  \vorks.  Died  in  1808. 

See  CUVIER,  "EJoges  historiques." 


Ven-tid'i-us  Bas'sus,  (PuBLius,)  a  Roman  general, 
burn  in  Picenum,  was  brought  to  Rome  in  89  B.C.,  being 
then  a  child.  He  became  a  favourite  officer  of  Cassar, 
whom  he  supported  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49 
B.C.,  and  was  chosen  consul  in  43.  As  the  legate  of 
Mark  Antony,  he  commanded  in  Syria  in  the  year  39, 
and  defeated  Labienus  and  the  Parthian  prince  Pacorus. 

See  DION  CASSIUS,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Ventignano,  ven-ten-ya'no,  (CESARE  della  Valle — 
del'la  vai'la,)  DUKE  OF,  an  Italian  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1777.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  tragedies  of  "The  Siege  of  Corinth"  and 
"  Medea,"  an  "  Essay  on  the  Education  of  the  Aris 
tocracy  and  the  Labouring  Classes,"  (1848,)  and  "Phi 
losophic  View  of  the  History  of  the  Human  Race," 
(1853.) 

Ventimiglia,  ven-te-mel'ya,  (GIUSEPPE,)  Prince  of 
Belmont,  a  liberal  Sicilian  statesman,  born  in  1761,  was 
distinguished  for  munificence  and  taste.  Died  in  1814. 

Ventura,  ven-too'ra,  (GioACCHiNO  or  JOACHIM,)  an 
eloquent  Italian  preacher  and  theologian,  born  at  Pa 
lermo  in  1792.  He  gained  such  distinction  as  a  preacher 
of  tuneral  orations  that  he  was  called  "the  Italian  Bos- 
suet."  About  1824  he  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and 
acquired  much  influence  with  the  pope.  He  published 
"On  the  Method  of  Philosophizing,"  ("  De  Methodo 
Philosophandi,"  1828,)  and  "The  Beauties  of  the  Faith," 
(1839.)  He  was  liberal  in  politics,  and,  after  the  election 
of  Pius  IX.,  (1847,)  had  great  popularity  as  a  leader  of 
the  moderate  party  of  reformers  at  Rome.  He  advised 
the  pope  to  give  his  subjects  a  constitution.  His  efforts 
having  been  defeated,  he  quitted  Rome  in  1849,  and  set 
tled  in  Paris  in  1851.  He  preached  at  the  church  of  the 
Madeleine  and  at  the  Tuileries,  (1857,)  and  published, 
in  French,  several  works,  among  which  is  "The  Philo 
sophic  Reason  and  the  Catholic  Reason,"  ("  La  Raison 
philosophique  et  la  Raison  catholique,"  1852.)  Died 
at  Versailles  in  August,  1861. 

See  E.  VAVASSEL-R,  "Ventura,"  Paris,  1851;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generate. " 

Venturi,  ven-too'ree,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Ital 
ian  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bibiano  in  1746.  He 
became  professor  of  physics  at  Pavia  about  1800.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Phy- 
sico-Mathematical  Works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  (1797,) 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Optics,"  (1814.)  Died  in  1822. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805. 

Venturi,  (POMPEO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1693.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Dante,  (3  vols., 
1732.)  Died  in  1752. 

Ve'nus,  |Gr.  'Aopoti-ri,  (Aphrodite;)  Fr.  VENUS,  va'- 
ntts';  It.  VENERE,  va'ni-ra,]  the  goddess  of  love  and 
beauty,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter 
of  Jupiter  (or  Uranus)  and  Dione,  the  wife  of  Vulcan, 
and  the  mother  of  Cupid,  Harmonia,  Hymen,  the  Graces, 
Priapus,  and  /Eneas.  None  of  these,  however,  were  the 
offspring  of  Vulcan.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  origi 
nated  ia  the  foam  of  the  sea,  (hence  her  surname  ANA- 
DYOMENE,)  and  landed  first  on  the  island  of  Cythera, 
from  which  she  passed  to  Cyprus,  where  flowers  sprang 
up  under  her  feet ;  that  Love  and  Desire  attended  her  to 
the  assembly  of  the  celestial  gods ;  that  Juno,  Minerva, 
and  Venus  were  competitors  for  the  prize  of  beauty,  (the 
apple  of  discord,)  and  that  Paris  decided  in  favour  of 
Venus.  She  thus  became  the  object  of  Juno's  jealousy 
and  lasting  enmity.  In  the  war  between  the  Greeks  and 
the  Trojans  she  was  an  ardent  and  active  partisan  of  the 
latter,  and  was  wounded  by  Diomede.  According  to 
popular  legends,  she  possessed  a  magical  girdle,  which 
had  the  property  to  inspire  love  and  desire  for  the  per 
son  who  wore  it.  Among  her  favoured  paramours  were 
Mars,  Bacchus,  Apollo,  Adonis,  Mercury,  and  Anchises. 
The  principal  places  of  her  worship  were  Cythera,  Cy 
prus,  Paphos,  and  Idalium.  Her  favourite  plants  were 
the  rose  and  myrtle.  The  dove,  sparrow,  and  swan 
were  supposed  to  be  sacred  to  her.  She  was  variously 
styled  Cypria,  (from  Cyprus,)  Cythera  and  Cytheraea, 
(from  the  island  of  Cythera,  where  she  first  appeared, 
and  of  which  she  became  the  principal  deity,)  Venus  Gen- 
etrix,  Venus  Hortensis,  Venus  Victrix,  Venus  Verticordia, 
Venus  Alma,  Venus  Erycina,  (from  Eryx,  in  Sicily, 


>  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard :  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VENUSTl 


2188 


y  ERG EN 'NES 


where  she  had  a  temple,)  Aphrodite  Pandemos,  and 
Aphrodite  Urania.  Venus  was  regarded  by  some  ancient 
authors  as  a  personification  of  the  generative  power  of 
nature.  She  does  not  appear  to  have  been  an  original 
deity  of  Rome,  nor  to  have  been  worshipped  by  the 
Romans  while  they  were  ruled  by  kings.  Her  worship 
was  probably  of  Oriental  origin. 

Venusti,  va-noos'tee,  (MARCELLO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Mantua,  was  a  pupil  of  Peri  no  del  Vaga.  He 
was  employed  by  Michael  Angelo  to  copy  a  number  of 
his  works.  Among  these  we  may  name  his  "  Last  Judg 
ment,"  (painted  in  oil,)  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Naples. 
Died  about  1580. 

See  VASARI,"  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy." 

Venuti,  va-noo'tee,  (FiLiPPO,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1709,  was  a  brother  of  the  following. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1769. 

Venuti,  (Niccoi.6  MARCELLO,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1700.  He  discovered  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  and  the  theatre  of  Herculanenm,  and  wrote  a 
"  Description  of  the  First  Discoveries  at  Herculaneum," 
(1749.)  Died  in  1755. 

See  COI.TEI.LINI,  "  Klogium  N.  M.  Venuti,"  1755. 

Venuti,  (RIDOLFINO,)  an  eminent  antiquary,  born  at 
Cortona  in  1705,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  director  of  the  Museum  Albani  at  Rome.  He 
published  a  "Topographical  Description  of  the  Antiqui 
ties  of  Rome,"  (2  vols.,  1763,)  and  other  works  on  Roman 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.,  which  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1763. 

See  POZZETTI,  "  Elogio  di  Ridolfino  Venuti,"  1789. 

Veranzio,  va-rint'se-o,  (ANTON,)  a  Dalmatian  prelate 
and  diplomatist,  born  at  Sebenico  in  1504.  His  name 
in  Dalmatian  was  WRANC/.Y,  (vRant'se.)  He  was  em 
ployed  in  missions  by  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria.  Died 

i»  1 5,73- 

Verard,  va'raV,  (ANTOINF,,)  one  of  the  earliest  French 
printers,  founded  in  1480  an  establishment  in  Paris,  where 
he  published  "  The  Prophecies  of  Merlin,"  "  The  Chroni 
cles  of  France,"  and  "The  Sea  of  Histories." 

Verbiest,  ver-beest',  (FERDINAND,)  a  Flemish  astron 
omer  and  missionary,  born  at  Pitthem  in  1623.   He  went  j 
to  China  about  1658,  and  was  employed  as  astronomer 
by  the  emperor  of  that  country.   He  wrote  several  works 
on  astronomy.     Died  at  Peking  in  1688. 

See  CARTON,  "Notice  sur  le  Pere  Verbiest,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Verboeckhoven,  ver-book'ho'ven,  (EUGENE  JO 
SEPH,)  a  Belgian  painter  of  animals,  born  in  West  Flan 
ders  in  1798.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
his  "  Horses  Fighting  with  Wolves,"  and  a  "  View  in  the 
Campagna  of  Rome  with  a  Herd  of  Cattle."  His  bro 
ther  Louis  has  acquired  distinction  as  a  marine  painter. 

Verci,  ve"R'chee,  (GIOVANNI   BATTISTA,)   an    Italian 
historian,  born  at  Bassano  in  1739.     He  wrote  a  "  His-  | 
tory  of  the  March  of  Treviso,"  (20  vols.,  1786-90,)  and 
other  works.     Died  in  1795. 

Ver-cin-get'o-rix,  an  able  Gaulish  commander  and 
chief  of  the  Arverni.  He  was  general-in-chief  of  the 
tribes  of  Celtic  Gaul  which  waged  war  against  Julius 
Cassar  in  52  B.C.  He  defended  Gergovia  with  success, 
and  compelled  Caesar  to  raise  the  siege.  The  Gauls 
having  been  defeated  at  Alesia,  Vercingetorix,  to  spare 
the  effusion  of  blood,  gave  himself  up  to  the  victor.  He 
was  taken  to  Rome,  and  put  to  death  about  45  B.C. 

See  C/ESAR,  "Commentaries,"  book  vii.  ;  DION  CASSIUS,  "His 
tory  of  Rome :"  H.  MARTIN,  "Vercingetorix,"  1864;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Verdi,  vek'dee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  a  celebrated  Italian  com 
poser,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Parma  in  1814.  He  studied 
under  Lavigna  at  La  Scala,  at  Milan,  and  in  1842  brought 
out  his  opera  of  "Nabucodonosor,"  which  was  very  suc 
cessful.  It  was  followed  by  "I  Lombard!,"  "  Ernani," 
"  I  due  Foscari,"  "  Giovanna  d' Arco,"  "  Macbeth,"  "  Ri- 
goletto,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  great  popularity. 

See  BKRMANI,  "  Schizzi  sulla  Vita  di  G.  Verdi,"  1846  ;  A.  BASEVI, 
"Studio  sulle  Opere  di  G.  Verdi  ;"  FETIS,  "  Biographie  Universelle 
des  Musicians:"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Verdier,  veR'deJi',  (AYMAR,)  a  French  architect,  born 
about  1818,  at  Tours.  He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1848. 


Verdier,  (CESAR,)  a  French  anatomist,  born  near 
Avignon  in  1685.  He  lectured  in  Paris  for  many  years, 
and  wrote  on  anatomy.  Died  in  1759. 

Verdier,  (HENRI,)  Count  de  Lacoste,  a  French  poli 
tician,  born  at  Nimes  in  1770,  was  outlawed  as  a  Girond 
ist  in  1793.  He  held  several  offices  under  the  Directory 
and  the  empire,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Alfred  le 
Grand,"  (2  vols.,  1817.)  Died  in  1821. 

Verdier,  (MARCEL,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1817;  died  in  1856. 

Verdier,  du,  (ANTOINE.)     See  DUVERDIER. 

Verdugo,  veR-doo'go,  (FRANCO,)  a  Spanish  general, 
who  served  in  the  Netherlands  under  Don  John  of 
Austria  and  Alexander  Farnese,  and  became  Governor 
of  Friesland  and  Groningen.  Died  in  1595. 

See  MOTLEY,  "  United  Netherlands,"  chap.  xxxi. 

Vere,  veer,  (Sir  FRANCIS,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1554.  He  served  with  great  distinction  against  the  Span 
iards  in  Holland  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1585  to 
1602,  his  last  achievement  being  the  defence  of  Ostencl 
against  Albert,  Archduke  of  Austria.  He  died  in  1608, 
leaving,  in  manuscript,  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"The  Commentaries  of  Sir  Francis  Vere,"  etc. 

Vere,  (HORACE,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Essex  in  1565.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
of  Holland  under  Prince  Maurice,  and,  after  the  death 
of  Sir  Francis,  was  appointed  general  of  the  English 
army  in  the  Netherlands.  In  1620  he  was  sent  by  James 
I.  to  assist  the  Elector- Palatine  Frederick  V.  in  securing 
Bohemia.  He  was  made  a  peer  by  Charles  I.  in  1625, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Vere  of  Tilbury.  Died  in  1635. 

Vere,  de,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
England,  descended  from  a  Norman  knight  who  had  a 
high  command  at  the  battle  of  Hastings.  His  son  be 
came  Earl  of  Oxford,  and  a  minister  of  King  Henry  I. 
The  third  earl  was  one  of  the  barons  who  extorted  the 
Magna  Charta  from  King  John.  JOHN  DE  VERE,  seventh 
Earl  of  Oxford,  was  a  famous  commander,  and  fought 
at  Cressy  and  Poitiers,  (1356.)  The  thirteenth  earl  was 
a  leader  of  the  Lancastrian  party  in  the  war  of  the 
Roses,  and  commanded  the  van  of  the  army  of  Henry 
VII.  at  Bosworth,  (1485.)  EDWARD  DE  VERE,  the  seven 
teenth  earl,  was  an  eminent  poet.  (See  separate  article.) 
The  twentieth  earl  was  AUBREY  DE  VERE,  whom  Mac- 
aulay  describes  as  "the  noblest  subject  in  England." 
He  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and  after  the 
restoration  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Essex.  In  1687 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  because  he  refused  to  aid 
James  II.  in  packing  a  Parliament.  He  svas  the  last 
earl  of  that  family. 

See  MACAUI.AY,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii. 

Vere,  de,  (EDWARD,)  seventeenth  Earl  of  Oxford,  an 
English  poet  and  courtier,  born  about  1540,  was  one  of 
the  ornaments  of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He 
was  lord  high  chamberlain  in  1588,  and  had  a  command 
in  the  fleet  which  opposed  the  Spanish  Armada.  Died 
in  1604. 

Ve-re'11-us,  [Sw.  pron.  va-rii'le-us,]  (Oi,Aus,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  antiquary,  whose  original  name  was 
OLAF  Werl,  (W§R!,)  was  born  in  the  diocese  of  Lin- 
koping  in  1618.  He  studied  at  Dorpat  and  Upsal,  and 
became  successively  professor  of  Swedish  antiquities  at 
Upsal,  (1662,)  antiquary  to  King  Charles  XL,  (1666,) 
and  chief  librarian  in  the  library  of  Upsal,  (1679.)  He 
published  several  valuable  works  on  Scandinavian  his 
tory  and  antiquities.  Died  in  1682. 

Verelst,  va'relst,  (SiMON,)  a  Flemish  flower-  and 
fruit-painter;  died  in  1710. 

Vergara,  veR-ga'ra,  (JosE,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1726  ;  died  in  1799. 

Vergara,  de,  di  ve"R-ga'ra,  (NICOLAS,)  a  Spanish 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Toledo  about  1510;  died 
in  1574. 

Vergara,  de,  (NICOLAS,)  a  painter  and  sculptor,  born 
at  Toledo  about  1540,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding  ;  died 
in  1606. 

Vergelmer  or  Vergelmir.     See  NIDHOGG. 

Vergennes,  de,  deh  veVzhgn',  (sometimes  Anglicized 
as  ver-jgnz',)  (CHARLES  Gravier — gR$'ve-a',)  COUNT, 
a  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born~at  Dijon  in 
1717.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  the  electoral  court 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


I'ERGERIO 


2189 


I'ERME 


of  Treves  in  1750,  and  in  1755  was  ambassador  to  Con 
stantinople.  After  his  return  he  was  sent,  in  1771,  on  a 
mission  to  Stockholm,  where  he  assisted  Gustavus  III. 
in  his  revolution  against  the  nobles.  He  became  min 
ister  for  foreign  affairs  under  Louis  XVI.  in  1774,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive, 
with  the  United  States,  in  February,  1778,  which  involved 
France  in  a  war  against  England.  This  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  which  he  signed  in  September, 
1783.  He  remained  in  office  until  his  death,  in  1787.  He 
had  a  fair  reputation  for  integrity  as  well  as  diplomatic 
skill. 

See  MAYER,  "Vie  du  Comte  de  Vergennes,"  1789;  VICQ  D'AZYR, 
"doge  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Vergennes,"  1788;  DROZ,  "  Histoire  du 
Regnc  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  "Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Vergerio,  veR-ja're-o,  (PiETKO  PAOLO,)  THE  ELDER, 
an  Italian  reviver  of  learning,  born  at  Capo  d'Istria  about 
1349.  He  was  professor  of  dialectics  at  Padua  from  1393 
to  1400.  He  published  a  work  "  On  Noble  Manners," 
("  De  ingenuis  Moribus,")  and  a  Life  of  Petrarch.  Died 
about  1420. 

See  BAYLE,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  PAor.oGiovio, 
"Elosia." 

Vergerio,  (PIETRO  PAOLO,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  relative 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Capo  d'Istria  about  1495. 
He  became  papal  nuncio  to  Germany  in  1530,  Bishop 
of  Capo  d'Istria  in  1536,  and  a  convert  to  the  Protestant 
religion  about  1544.  He  took  refuge  in  the  Grisons, 
from  which  he  removed  in  1553  to  Tubingen,  where  he 
was  employed  as  a  minister.  He  wrote  several  works 
against  popery.  Died  in  1565. 

See  CARU,  "Vita  di  P.  P.  Vergerio;"  BAVI.E.  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  XICEKOX,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vergers,  des.     See  NOEL  DES  VERGERS. 

Vergers,  des,  di  veR'zhi',  (MARIN  NOEL,)  a  French 
judge,  born  at  Ervy  in  1759.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1831.  Died  in  1836. 

Vergier,  veR'zhe-jl',  (J. \CQTES,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1655,  wrote  tales  and  songs  which  were  once 
admired.  He  was  killed  by  robbers  at  Paris  in  1720. 

Vergier  de  Haurarme]     See  DUVERGIER  DE  HAU- 

RANNE. 

Ver'gil  Pol'y-dors,  [Lat.  VIRGII/IUS  (or  VERGIL'- 
TUS)  POLYDO'RUS  ;  It.  VKRGII.IO  POLIDORO,  veR-jee'Ie-o 
po-le-do'ro,  |  a  celebrated  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Urbino,  in  Italy,  about  1470.  He  was  sent  about 
1502  to  England  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  to  collect  the 
tax  called  "  Peter's  pence,"  and  continued  to  reside  in 
that  country  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  was 
successively  created  Archdeacon  of  Wells,  and  preb 
endary  in  the  cathedrals  of  Hereford,  Lincoln,  and 
Saint  Paul's.  His  principal  works  are  his  "  History  of 
Inventions,"  ("De  Rerum  Inventoribus,")  "  Historia 
Anglica,"  a  history  of  England  brought  down  to  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  a  treatise  against  divina 
tion,  entitled  "  De  Prodigiis."  Died  about  1550. 

Vergilio  Polidoro.     See  VERGIL  POLYDORE. 

Vergilius  Polydorus.     See  VKRGIL  POLYDORE. 

Vergne,  La.     See  LA  VERGNE  and  TRESSAN. 

Vergniaud,  vem/ye-o',  (PIERRE  VICTURNIEN,)  a 
celebrated  French  orator  and  Girondist,  was  born  at 
Limoges,  May  31,  1759.  He  was  educated  at  the  Col 
lege  du  Plessis  at  Paris,  studied  law  under  Dupaty,  and 
began  to  practise  as  an  advocate  at  Bordeaux  in  1781. 
His  habits  were  rather  indolent,  meditative,  and  non 
chalant.  "  His  language,"  says  Lamartine,  "  had  the 
images  and  harmony  of  the  most  beautiful  verses."  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 
September,  1791.  In  July,  1792,  he  declaimed  against 
the  conduct  of  the  king,  in  a  speech  which  made  a  pro 
found  impression,  and  demanded  that  the  Assembly 
should  declare  that  the  country  was  in  danger.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  National  Convention  which  met  in 
September,  1792.  In  the  trial  of  the  king  he  voted  for 
the  appeal  to  the  people,  but  after  the  defeat  of  that 
measure  he  voted  for  his  death,  and,  as  president  of  the 
Convention,  pronounced  the  sentence,  January,  1793. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  moderate  of  the  Girondists. 
In  April,  1793,  he  defended  himself  against  Robespierre, 
who  had  attacked  him  in  a  speech.  He  was  one  of  the 


twenty-two  Girondists  who  were  arrested  by  the  order 
of  the  Convention,  June  2,  1793.  According  to  Lamar 
tine,  he  was  the  most  impassible  of  his  companions  in 
prison,  because  he  was  the  greatest.  Arraigned  before 
the  tribunal  in  October,  he  spoke  thus  in  his  defence  : 
"  What  ought  to  have  been  done  to  assure  the  triumph 
of  the  republic?  I  have  done  it.  What  is  now  requi 
site  to  confirm  the  republic  by  the  example  of  its  devoted 
friends  ?  To  die  ?  I  will  do  that."  He  was  executed 
in  October,  1793.  He  was  of  middle  stature,  and  was 
physically  well  developed.  In  repose,  his  face  was  not 
very  expressive,  but  in  the  act  of  speaking  it  became 
illumined  and  transfigured  with  genius.  "  Such,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  was  the  man  whom  nature  had  given  to 
the  Girondists  for  their  chief.  He  did  not  condescend 
to  be  that ;  too  indifferent  (insouciant)  for  a  leader  of  a 
party,  too  great  for  a  secondary  position.  He  was  Ver 
gniaud.  Rather  glorious  than  useful  to  his  friends,  he 
was  not  willing  to  lead  them,  but  he  immortalized  them." 

"In  parliamentary  eloquence,"  says  Macaulay,  "no 
Frenchman  of  that  time  can  be  considered  equal  to 
Vergniaud.  In  a  foreign  country,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
half  a  century,  some  parts  of  his  speeches  are  still  read 
with  mournful  admiration.  No  man,  we  are  inclined  to 
believe,  ever  rose  so  rapidly  to  such  a  height  of  ora 
torical  excellence.  His  whole  public  life  lasted  barely 
two  years."  (Review  of  Barere's  "Memoirs,"  1844.) 

See  LAMARTIVE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists;"  GENTY  DE 
LA  BORDEKIB,  "  FJoge  de  Vergniaud,"  1800;  THIERS,  "  History  of 
the  Revolution;"  TOUCHARD-LAFOSSE,  "Histoire  parlementaire  et 
Vie  intime  de  Vergniaud,"  1848;  MADAME  ROLAND,  "Memoires;" 
Bt'CHEZ  et  Roux,  "Histoire  parlementaire;"  MICHEI.ET,  "His 
toire  de  la  Revolution  Francaise;"  "Xouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale.  " 

Verhaegen,  ver-ha'gen  or  ver-ha'nen,  (PiERRE  TH£- 
ODORE,)  a  Belgian  politician,  born  in  Brussels  about 
1800.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Cham 
ber  of  Deputies,  which  he  entered  in  1837,  and  acted 
with  the  Liberal  party. 

Verheyden,  ver-hl'den,  (FRANS  PIETER,)  a  Dutch 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1657  ;  died 
in  1711. 

Verheyen,  ver-lil'en,  (PHILIPPE,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
anatomist,  born  in  East  Flanders  in  1648.  He  studied 
medicine,  etc.  at  Louvain,  where  he  obtained  a  chair  of 
anatomy  in  1689,  and  became  highly  distinguished  as  a 
teacher.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  other  professional 
works,  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  (1693,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1710. 

See  V.  J.  FRANCOIS.  "  FJoge  de  Verheyen,"  1847  ;  V.  J.  FRANCOIS, 
"  Xotice  sur  la  Vie  de  P.  Verheyen,"  1842  ;  XICERON,  "  Memoires." 

Verhuell,  ver-hu/el,  or  Verhuel,  (CAREL  HENDRIK,) 
Count  de  Sevenaar,  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  in  Gelder- 
land  in  1/60,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1764.  As  rear-admiral, 
he  fought  against  the  English,  near  Flushing,  in  1804. 
He  received  the  chief  command  of  the  army  destined  to 
operate  against  the  coasts  of  England,  (1805,)  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal  by  King  Louis  in  1806. 
He  entered  the  French  service  in  1810,  and  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  in  1819.  Died  in  1845. 

See  GRANDPIERRE,  "  Xotice  sur  le  Vice-Amiral  C.  H.  Verhuel," 
1845  ;  Q.  M.  R.  VERHURLL,  "  Het  Levenen  Karakter  van  C.  H.  Ver 
huell,"  2  vols.,  1847  ;  "  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Verjus,  veR'zhiis',  (Louis,)  Count  de  Crecy,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1629.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in  1709. 

His  brother  ANTOINE,  born  in  1632,  was  a  Jesuit, 
author  of  several  works  of  biography,  etc.   Died  in  1706. 

Verkolie,  ver-ko'lee,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1650  ;  died  in  1693. 

His  son  NICHOLAS,  born  in  1673,  was  a  painter  of 
history  and  nocturnal  scenes.  Died  in  1746. 

Verlat,  veR'la"',  (CHARLES,)  a  Belgian  painter  of  his 
tory  and  genre,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1824.  He  removed 
to  Paris  in  1847. 

Vermaiidois,  de,  deh  veR'moN'dwa',  (Louis  de 
Bourbon — deh  booR'bc-N',)  COUNT,  born  in  Paris  in 
1667,  was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  La 
Valliere.  He  was  legitimated,  and  appointed  admiral 
of  France.  Died  in  1683. 

Verme,  del,  del  veR'ma,  (JACOPO,)  an  able  Italian 
general  or  condottiere,  commanded  the  armies  of  Gian 


t;  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


fERMEULEN 


2190 


Galeazzo    Visconti.      He    passed    into   the    service   of 
Venice  in  1404. 

Vermeuleii,  ver-mur/len,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Flemish 
engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1644.  He 
engraved  portraits  with  skill.  Died  in  1702. 

Vermeulen,  [Lat.  MOLA'NUS,]  QAN,)  a  Flemish 
writer  on  theology  and  antiquities,  was  born  at  Lille  in 
1533.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  one  "On 
Sacred  Pictures  and  Images,"  ("De  Picturis  et  Imagi- 
nibus  sacris,"  1570,)  and"  De  Canonicis,"  (1587.)  Died 
at  L.:uvain  in  1585. 

Vermeyen,  von,  fon  ver-ml'en,  or  Vermeyn,  ver 
min',  QOHANN,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter,  surnamed 
HANS  MIT  DEM  BAKTE,  ("  Hans  with  the  Beard,")  was 
born  near  Haarlem  in  1500.  He  was  a  favourite  of 
Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  whom  he  accom 
panied  on  his  expeditions.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  ten  large  cartoons  at  Vienna,  representing  the  march 
of  the  emperor  to  Tunis.  Died  in  1559. 
Vermigli.  See  PETER  MARTYR. 
Vermond,  de,  deh  veR'mo.V,  (\IATTHIEU  JACQUES,) 
L'AHHE,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  French  teacher  of 
Marie  Antoinette  at  Vienna  before  her  marriage.  After 
she  became  Queen  of  France,  he  remained  in  her  ser 
vice  as  reader,  enjoyed  her  confidence,  and  exercised 
great  influence  at  court.  He  is  censured  for  his  political 
intrigues.  Died  after  1789. 

Vermuyden,  ver-moi'den,  (Sir  CORNELIUS,)  a  Dutch 
engineer,  born  in  Zeeland.  He  removed  to  England 
about  1622,  was  employed  by  Charles  I.,  and  rendered 
valuable  services  by  draining  part  of  the  Bedford  Level. 
Died  about  1665. 

Veruage,  vCR'ntzh',  (MICHEL  Louis,)  a  French  phy 
sician,  born  in  Paris  in  1697;  died  in  1773. 

Vernazza,  veR-nat'sa,  (GIUSEPPE,)  Baron  de  Freney, 
an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  born  at  Alba,  in  Pied 
mont,  in  1745.  He  resided  at  Turin,  and  held  several 
high  offices.  He  wrote  biographies,  treatises  on  Italian 
antiquities,  etc.  Died  in  1822. 

Vernes,  VCRD,  ( JACOB,)  a  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1728,  wrote  "  Letters  on  the  Christianity  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1791. 

Vernet,  veR/n,Y,  (A  NTOINE  CHARLES  HOKACP,)  some 
times  called  CARLE  VERNET,  a  son  of  Claude  Joseph, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1758.  He  was 
instructed  by  his  father,  and  afterwards  studied  at  the 
French  Academy  of  Arts,  and  in  1782  gained  the  grand 
prize  offered  by  that  institution.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  battle-scenes  and  animals,  particularly  horses. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Bombardment  of 
Madrid,"  "The  Battle  of  Wagram,"  and  "  The  Entrance 
of  Napoleon  into  Milan."  Died  in  1836. 

See  DI-RANOK,  "Joseph.  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865;  L. 
LAGRANC;E,  "Les  Vernet,  (Carle  et  Horace,")  1864;  C.  BLANC, 
"Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Vernet,  (CLAUDE  JOSEPH,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  at  Avignon  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
devoting  himself  principally  to  marine  landscapes,  in 
which  department  he  soon  attained  rare  excellence.  He 
resided  nearly  twenty  years  in  Italy,  during  the  early 
part  of  which,  time  he  was  so  reduced  as  to  be  obliged 
to  paint  coach-panels,  which  were  afterwards  taken  out 
and  framed.  He  was  invited  to  France  in  1752  by  Louis 
XV.,  who  commissioned  him  to  paint  the  principal  sea 
ports  of  France.  These  views — fifteen  in  number — are 
in  the  Louvre,  where  many  of  his  best  works  are  to  be 
seen.  Among  his  other  master-pieces  we  may  name  the 
pictures  in  the  Borghese  and  Rondanini  palaces  at  Rome, 
and  a  "  Seaport  at  Sunset,"  in  the  Louvre.  Ele  had  been 
elected  in  1753  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arts.  Died 
in  1789. 

See  DURANDE,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865;  L. 
LAGRANGE,  "J.  Vernet  et  la  Peinture  au  dix-huitieme  Si'ecle," 
1864;  C.  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;"  "Nouvelle  Biozraphie 
Generale." 

Vernet,  (HORACE,)  a  celebrated  French  painter  of 
battles,  son  of  Antoine  Charles,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1789.  He  studied  under  his  father,  and  in  1809 
exhibited  his  "Capture  of  a  Redoubt."  This  was  soon 
followed  by  "The  Trumpeters,"  "The  Barriere  de 
Chchy,"  "Battle  of  Tolosa,"  "Soldier  of  Waterloo," 
and  other  military  pictures,  which  won  for  him  the 


highest  reputation  in  that  department  of  the  art.  He 
was  created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  by 
Napoleon  in  1814,  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour 
by  Charles  X.,  (1825,)  a  member  of  the  Institute,  (1826,) 
and  director  of  the  Academy  at  Rome,  (1828.)  lie  was 
also  patronized  by  Louis  Philippe,  for  whom  he  painted 
a  series  of  battles  in  the  Constantine  gallery  at  Versailles. 
His  pictures  are  of  large  dimensions.  lie  worked  at 
Rome  about  eight  years, — 1828-35, — and  painted  there  a 
picture  of  a  "Meeting  of  Raphael  with  Michael  Angelo." 
Among  his  chief  works  are  the  "  Siege  of  Constantine" 
and  the  "Battle  of  Isly."  At  the  Exposition  of  1855  a 
jury  of  painters  from  various  nations  awarded  him  the 
grand  medal  of  honour.  Died  in  1863. 

See  A.  Di'RANDE,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865; 
L.  DR  LOMKNIK,  "M.  H.  Vems-t,  par  un  Homine  de  Rien,"  1841; 
L.  LAGRANGE,  "Les  Vernet,  (Cade  et  Horace,")  1864;  C.  BLANC, 
"  Histoire  des  Peintres;"  T.  SYLVKSTRK,  "Histoire 


Vernet,  veR'iuV,  (JACOB,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1698.  He  became  pastor  at  Geneva  in  1734, 
rector  of  the  Academy  in  1737,  and  professor  of  the 
ology  there  in  1756.  lie  wrote,  besides  many  other 
works,  "Socratic  Dialogues  on  Moral  Subjects,"  (1746,) 
and  "Christian  Instruction,"  (4  vols.,  1752.)  Died  in 
1789. 

Verneuil,  de,  deh  vcVnuI'  or  veVnuh'ye,  (PHILIPPE 
EDOUARD  POULLETIER,)  a  French  naturalist,  distin 
guished  as  a  geologist  and  palaeontologist,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1805.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
1854.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Memoir  on  the  Geology 
of  the  Crimea,"  (1837.) 

Veriiey,  du,  (JOSEPH.)     See  DUVERNEY. 

Vernier,  veVne-i',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  mathema 
tician,  born  at  Ornans,  in  Franche-Comte,  about  1580, 
invented  a  graduated  scale  or  quadrant.  Died  in  1637. 

Vernier,  (THEODORE,)  a  French  advocate  and  mor 
alist,  born  at  Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1731.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  against  the  death 
of  the  king,  (1793.)  He  wrote  several  works  on  the 
passions,  etc.  Died  in  1818. 

Verniquet,  veVne'ki',  (EDME,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1727.  He  built  many 
chateaus  and  bridges  in  the  provinces.  His  chief  work 
was  the  plan  of  Paris  and  its  faubourgs,  at  which  he 
worked  twenty-eight  years.  Died  in  1804. 

Ver'non,  (EDWARD,)  a  celebrated  English  admiral, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1684.  He  served  in  the  early 
campaigns  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  in 
1727  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Penryn,  being  re 
turned  for  Portsmouth  in  1734.  In  1739  he  was  sent, 
with  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  to  the  West 
Indies,  to  take  Porto  Bello  from  the  Spaniards,  which 
exploit  he  accomplished  with  only  six  ships.  After  his 
return  he  was  several  times  re-elected  to  Parliament. 
Died  in  1757. 

See  a  "Life  of  Admiral  Vernon,"  London,  1758;  CHARNOCK, 
"  Biographia  Navalis  ;"  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Vernon,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  amateur,  born  in 
1774,  devoted  a  large  fortune  to  the  purchase  of  pictures 
by  British  artists.  In  1847  he  presented  this  collection, 
containing  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  paintings,  to  the 
British  National  Gallery.  The  Vernon  pictures  are, 
with  two  exceptions,  the  work  of  native  artists.  They 
have  been  placed  in  Marlborough  House.  Died  in  1849. 

Vernon,  de.     See  GAY  DE  VEKNON. 

Ver'non-Har'court,  (WILLIAM  GEORGE,)  an  Eng 
lish  lawyer,  born  in  1827.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1851.  He  wrote,  under  the  signature  "  Historicus," 
several  letters  on  international  law,  which  appeared  in 
the  London  "Times." 

Vernon-Smith,  (ROBERT.)     See  LYVEDEN. 

Vernulgeus.     See  VERNULZ,'DE. 

Vernulz,  de,  deh  ver-nul//,  [  Lat.  VEKNUL.E'US,  ] 
(NICOLAS,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  orator,  born  at  Robel- 
mont  in  1583,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  Latin 
at  Louvain.  He  published  numerous  Latin  orations  and 
poems.  Died  in  1649. 

Verny,  vei<'ne',  (CHARLES,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Besan9on  in  1753;  died  in  1811. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


PEROCCHIO 


2191 


UMNE 


Verocchio,  del,  del  vi-rok'ke-o,  or  Verrocchio, 
(ANDREA,)  an  eminent  Italian  statuary  and  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1432.  Among  his  works  are  a  bronze 
bust  of  David  the  Psalmist,  and  paintings  of  "The 
Holy  Family"  and  "The  Incredulity  of  Saint  Thomas." 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  his  pupil.  Died  in  1488. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  LANZI,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Veron.     See  FORBONNAIS,  DE. 

Veron,  va'roN',  (FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
controversial  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1575.  He  had 
a  public  dispute  with  Samuel  Bochart,  at  Caen,  in  1628. 
Died  in  1649. 

Veron,  (Louis  DESIRE,)  a  French  journalist  and 
physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  founded  in  1829 
the  "  Revue  de  Paris,"  which  was  very  successful,  and 
became  director  of  the  Opera  in  1831.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  1836,  became  proprietor  of  the  "Consti- 
tutionnel"  in  1844,  and  supported  Louis  Napoleon  as 
president  and  as  emperor.  He  published  "Memoirs 
of  a  Citizen  of  Paris,"  ("Memoires  d'un  Bourgeois  de 
Paris,"  (autobiographic,)  (6  vols.,  1854.)  Died  in  1867. 

Veronese,  (P/UL.)     See  CAGLIARI. 

Ver-plaiick',  ^GULIAN  CROMMELIN,)  a  distinguished 
American  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1786. 
He  published  in  1819,  anonymously,  a  brilliant  satirical 
work,  entitled  "The  State  Triumvirate,  a  Political  Tale." 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  professor  of  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  in  the   Protestant  Episcopal   Seminary, 
New  York,  and  in  1825  was  elected  to  Congress.    In  1827 
he  published  conjointly  with  W.  C.  Bryant  and  Robert  C. 
Sands  a  miscellany  entitled  "The  Talisman,"  to  which  he 
contributed  nearly  one-half  of  the  articles.     Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  his  address  before  the  New 
York  Historical  Society,  entitled  "The  Early  European  i 
Friends  of  America,"  (1818,)  "  Essays  on  the  Nature  and  ! 
Uses  of  the  Various  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion,"  j 
(1824,)  and  "Discourses  and  Addresses  on   Subjects  of  j 
American    History,   Art,   and    Literature,"  (1833.)     He 
brought  out  in  1846  his  superb  edition  of  Shakspeare,  | 
with  notes,  esteemed  one  of  the  best  that  had  ever  ap 
peared.      Died  in  March,  1870. 

Ver'res,  (CMUs,)  a  Roman   governor,  notorious   for 
his  rapacity  and  cruelty,  was  born  about   112  B.C.     He 
was  quxstor  in  82,  and  city  praetor  at  Rome  in  74  B.C. 
'When  his  term  of  office  as  praetor  had  ended,  in  73,  he 
became  governor  of  the  rich  and  important  province  of 
Sicily,  which  he  almost   ruined  by  his   extortions,  out 
rages,  and  vexatious  measures.      He  was  accused  by  the 
people  of  Sicily,  who  engaged   Cicero   to   conduct   the 
prosecution    before    the    senate.       Hortensius    was    the 
counsel  tor  the  defence  in   this  trial,  which  was  one  of 
the   most  celebrated  in   the  history  of  Rome,  and   was  ' 
one  of  the  great  eras  in  the  life  of  Cicero,  who  gained 
his  cause  ;  but  Verres  had  absconded  before  the  end  of  ', 
the  trial,  and  retired  to  Marseilles.      He  passed  twenty-  ! 
seven  years  in  exile,  and  died  about  42  H.c. 

See  CICERO'S  Verrine  Orations,  including  the  oration  "  In  Q. 
Csecilium  ;"  DRUMANN,  "  Ge^c]Hchte  Roms." 

Verri,   ver'ree,    (ALESSANDRO,)    COUNT,    an    Italian  : 
lawyer  and  eloquent  writer,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1741.  • 
He  contributed   many  able  essays  to  a  literary  journal 
called  "The  Coffee-House,"  ("11  Gaffe.")     About  1767 
he  became  a  resident  of  Rome.      He   published  a  suc 
cessful  novel,  "The  Adventures  of  Sappho,"  (1780,)  and 
a  series  of  dialogues  of  the  dead,  entitled  "The  Roman 
Nights,"  ("  Le  Notti  Romane,"  1792,)  which  were  much 
admired.     Died  at  Rome  in  1816. 

See  A.  LRVATI.  "  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Verri,"  1808;  G.  MAGGI, 
"Vita  di  A.  Verri,"  1^22;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ne'rale." 

Verri,  (CARLO,)  an  agriculturist,  born  at  Milan  in  1 743, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.     He  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  state  in  1805,  and  a  senator  at  Milan  in  ! 
1809.     He  wrote  on  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  other  ' 
subjects.     Died  in  1823. 

See  ROSNATI,  "  Cenni  storici  di  C.  Verri,"  i?42. 

Verri,  (GABRIELS,)  COUNT,  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  | 
Milan  in  1696,  was  the  father  of  Alessandro,  noticed  j 
above.  He  published  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1782. 

Verri,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  author  and  political  econ 
omist,  born  at  Milan  in  1728,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 


He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  his  youth,  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  economy  at  Milan  in  1765,  and 
president  of  the  chamber  of  accounts  in  1780.  He  pub 
lished  a  work  on  political  economy,  ("  Meditazioni  sull' 
Economia  politica,"  1771,)  which  has  a  high  reputation, 
a  "History  of  Milan,"  (2  vols.,  1783-98,)  and  other 
works.  Died  at  Milan  in  1797. 

See  ISIDORC  BIANCHI,  "  Elopio  storico  di  P.  Verri,"  1803:  A. 
Rossi.  "Ora/io  in  Lode  di  P.  Verri,"  1818;  CUSTODI,  "  Notizie 
suila  Vita  di  P.  Verri,"  1843;  NESSI,  "Elogio  di  P.  Verri,"  1844; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  if'zS. 

Verrio,  ver're-o,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
about  1639,  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  II.,  who 
employed  him  to  paint  a  series  of  frescos  in  Windsor 
Castle.  He  was  also  patronized  by  James  II.  His 
works,  executed  for  Lord  Exeter  at  Burleigh  House,  are 
esteemed  his  best  performances ;  he  is  said  by  Dr. 
\Yaagen  to  have  received  more  money  for  these  alone 
than  Michael  Angelo  or  Raphael  ever  obtained  for  all 
their  paintings.  His  works  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
bad  taste  and  absurdity.  Died  in  England  in  1707. 

See  WALPOI.E,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Ver'ii-us  Flac'cus,  (MARCUS,)  a  distinguished  Ro 
man  grammarian,  who  was  appointed  by  Augustus  in 
structor  to  his  grandsons  Caius  and  Lucius.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  one  of  which  was 
a  Roman  calendar,  entitled  "Fasti  Praenestini,"  frag 
ments  of  which  were  published  by  Foggini  in  1779. 

Verrocchio,  del,  (ANDREA.)    See  VEROCCHIO,  DEL. 

Verschaffelt,  de,  deh  ver-sKaf'felt,  (PIERRE,)  a  Flem 
ish  sculptor,  called  by  the  Italians  PIEIRO  FIAMMI.NGO, 
was  born  at  Ghent  in  1710.  He  worked  in  Rome  and 
Mannheim,  where  he  died  in  1793. 

Verschuring,  ver-sKii'ring,  (IlENDRiK,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  whose  works  are  principally  battle-pieces,  was 
bom  at  Gorcum  in  1627  ;  died  in  1690. 

Ver-ste'gaii,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  antiquary,  of 
Dutch  extraction,  was  born  in  London.  He  removed 
to  Antwerp,  where  he  published  his  principal  work, 
entitled  "A  Restitution  of  Decayed  Intelligence  con 
cerning  the  Most  Noble  and  Renowned  English  Nation/' 
(1605.)  Died  about  1635. 

Verstolk  van  Soelen,  ver-stolk'  vtn  soo'len,  QAN 
Gijsbert — gis'beRt,)  BARON,  a  Dutch  statesman,  bi-rn 
at  Rotterdam  in  1777.  He  was  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1815,  and  in  1825  was  appointed  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  1845. 

Vert,  de,  deh  vaiR,  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  Benedictine 
and  liturgist,  born  in  Paris  in  1645.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  religious  ceremonies.  Died  in  1708. 

Verteillac.     See  LA  BROUSSE. 

Vertot,  de,  deh  veR'to',  (RE.\£  AUBERT,)  an  eminent 
French  ecclesiastic  and  historian,  born  in  Normandy  in 
1655.  He  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Rouen,  and 
subsequently  entered  the  order  of  the  Premonstrants  at 
Valsery.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Revo 
lutions  of  Portugal,"  (1689,)  "  History  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Sweden,"  (1696,)  "Complete  History  of  the  Estab 
lishment  of  the  Britons  in  Gaul,"  (1710,)  "  History  of 
the  Revolutions  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (3  vols.,  1719,) 
and  "  History  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,"  (4  vols.,  1726.) 
His  works  were  very  popular,  owing  partly  to  the  style, 
which  is  very  agreeable.  Died  in  Paris  in  1735- 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  1'Abbe  Vertot,"  1795  ;  MOR£RI,  "  Die- 
tionnaire  Historique  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Ver'tue,  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1684.  He  acquired  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and,  on  the  es 
tablishment  of  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  London,  in 
1711,  became  one  of  its  members.  In  1717  he  was  ap 
pointed  engraver  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  by  the 
Earl  of  Winchelsea,  president  of  that  body.  He  en 
graved  the  portraits  of  many  eminent  men  of  his  own 
time,  and  illustrated  several  works  for  the  booksellers. 
He  collected  materials  for  a  history  of  painting  and  en 
graving  in  England,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  These 
were  purchased  by  Horace  YValpole,  and  published  in 
his  "Anecdotes  of  Painting."  Died  in  1756. 

See  STRUTT,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  February  and  March,  1781. 

Vertumne.     See  VERTUMNUS. 


f  as  K;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;';  G,  H,  K,  guttural  '  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERTUMNUS 


2192 


VESTA 


Ver-tum'nus  or  Vor-tum'iius,  [Fr.  VERTUMNE, 
vSF'tomn',]  an  Etruscan  and  Roman  divinity,  supposed 
to  preside  over  the  changes  of  the  seasons  and  the  trans 
formation  of  plants.  He  was  regarded  by  some  writers 
as  the  god  of  gardens,  of  orchards,  and  of  autumn.  The 
poets  relate  that  he  loved  Pomona,  who  was  so  coy  that 
he  did  not  succeed  until  he  had  metamorphosed  himself 
into  many  forms. 

Verulam,  LORD.     See  BACON,  (FRANCIS.) 

Ve'rus,  (Lucius  JEuus),  son  of  ^Llius  Verus,  who 
had  been  adopted  and  made  Caesar  by  the  emperor 
Hadrian.  In  161  A.D.  he  became  the  colleague  of  Mar 
cus  Aurelius  as  Emperor  of  Rome.  He  was  a  weak  and 
profligate  prince.  Died  in  169  A.D.  His  original  name 
was  L.  COMMODUS. 

Verville,  de.     See  BEROALDE  DE  VERVILI.E. 

Ver'jf,  (Jo.MKS,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He  published  "Essays  and 
Poems,"  (1839,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Christian 
Register,"  "Monthly  Religious  Magazine,"  and  other 
Journals. 

See  GRISWOI.D,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Vesale.     See  VESALIUS. 

Vesalio.     See  VESALIUS. 

Ve-sa'li-us,  [Fr.  VESALE,  veh-zSK;  It.  VESALIO,  va- 
sa'le-o,]  (ANDREAS,)  the  most  eminent  anatomist  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  December, 
1514.  His  father,  Andrew,  was  apothecary  to  the  Em 
peror  of  Germany.  He  studied  languages  at  Louvain, 
and  medicine  at  Montpellier  and  Paris.  About  1535  he 
served  in  the  Imperial  army,  probably  as  surgeon.  He 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua  or  Pavi'a  about 
1538,  and  published  a  Latin  work  in  1539  in  which  he 
taught  that  blood  should  be  drawn  from  the  right  arm. 
In  1543  he  produced  his  great  work  on  anatomy,  "  Seven 
Books  on  the  Structure  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  De  Cor- 
poris  humani  Fabrica  Libri  septem,")  which  operated 
immense  improvements  in  the  science.  Senac  compared 
it  to  the  discovery  of  a  new  world.  Having  in  this  work 
controverted  some  doctrines  of  Galen,  he  was  rewarded 
for  his  services  by  violent  hostility  and  reproaches  from 
several  eminent  anatomists  of  his  time.  About  1544 
he  quitted  Italy,  and  became  physician  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  at  whose  court  he  remained  until  the  abdi 
cation  of  the  emperor,  in  1555.  Soon  after  this  event 
he  went  to  Madrid  to  attend  Philip  II.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  physician.  According  to  a  doubtful  re 
port,  he  incurred  the  censure  of  the  Inquisition.  For 
some  reason  not  well  explained,  he  left  Madrid  in  1563 
or  1564,  and  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  While 
he  was  at  Jerusalem,  he  was  invited  by  the  senate  of 
Venice  to  occupy  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua.  He 
resolved  to  accept  this  offer  ;  but,  in  his  voyage  to  Italy, 
he  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Zante,  where  he  died 
of  exposure  in  October,  1564.  His  collected  works,  with 
his  "  Life,"  were  published  by  Boerhaave  and  Albinus,  (2 
vols.,  1725.) 

See  BURGGRAEVE,  "Etudes  siir  Vesale,"  1841,  and  "  FJoge  de 
Vesale,"  1848;  MERSSEMAN,  "  Eloge  de  Vesale,"  1845;  HALI.ER. 
"  Bibliotheca  Anatomica ;"  L.  SCHOONEN,  "  Hommnge  a  Vesale," 
(in  verse,)  1847  :  PORTAL,  "  Histoiredel'Anatomie,"  tome  i.  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Ge'neVale." 

Vesling,  fes'ling,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Minden  in  1598,  became  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Padua.  He  visited  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and 
published  several  botanical  works.  Died  in  1649. 

Vespasian,  vgs-pa'zhe-an,  [Lat.  VESPASIA'NUS;  Fr. 
VESPASIEX,  ves'pt'ze-^N' ;  It.  VESPASIANO,  ves-pa-se- 
a'no,]  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tus  Fla'viua  Vespasia'nus, 
Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  near  Reate  in  9  A.D.  He 
served  as  military  tribune  in  Thrace,  and  held  the  offices 
of  quaestor  of  Crete  and  Cyrene,  under  Caligula.  He 
was  afterwards  made  praetor  ;  and,  having  distinguished 
himself  by  several  important  victories  in  Britain,  he  was 
appointed  proconsul  of  Africa  about  60  A.D.  As  com 
mander  of  the  forces  against  the  revolted  Jews  in  66 
A.D.,he  subjected  nearly  the  whole  of  Judea  in  less  than 
two  years.  In  69  A.D.  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  em 
peror  by  Tiberius  Alexander,  prefect  of  Egypt,  in  oppo 
sition  to  Vitellius,  who  was  soon  after  put  to  death  by 
the  Roman  soldiers.  The  principal  events  of  the  reign 
of  Vespasian  were  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 


in  70  A.D.,  the  victories  of  Agricola  in  Britain,  and  of 
Petilius  Cerealisover  the  Batavi,  commanded  byCivilis. 
Under  his  wise  and  beneficent  rule  Rome  enjoyed  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity ;  he  patronized  learning  and  the 
arts,  introduced  important  reforms  into  the  army  and 
courts  of  justice,  and  repaired  the  ravages  caused  by 
civil  war.  He  also  restored  the  Capitol,  built  the  mag 
nificent  Temple  of  Peace,  and  began  the  erection  of  the 
amphitheatre,  afterwards  called  the  Colosseum,  and  also 
the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  from  his  name  Flavins.  He 
died  in  79  A.D. 

See  SUETONIUS,  "  Vespasianus ;"  A.  W.  CRAMER,  "  Flavins  Ves 
pasianus,"  1785  ;  TACITUS,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  BEKNEGGRK,  "  Vita 
Imperatoris  Vespasiani,"  1625;  HEIMBKOD,  "  Flavii  Vespasiani  Im- 
peratoris  Vita,"  1833;  TII.I.EMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Kmpereurs :" 
MKRIVAI.K,  "  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale. " 

Vespasiano.     See  VESPASIAN. 

Vespasianus.     See  VESPASIAN. 

Vespasieu.     See  VESPASIAN. 

Vespucci,  veVpoot'chee,  (AMERIGO,  a-ma-ree'go,) 
[Latin,  AMER'ICUS  (or  AMERI'CUS)  VESPU'CIUS  ;  Fr. 
AMEKIC  VESPUCE,  S'ma'rek'  veVpiis',]  a  famous  Italian 
navigator,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  New  World,  was 
born  at  Florence  on  the  9th  of  March,  1451.  He 
was  educated  by  his  uncle,  Giorgio  Antonio  Vespucci, 
an  eminent  scholar,  and  applied  himself  especially  to 
astronomy  and  cosmography.  In  his  early  life  he  was 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  About  1490  he  removed 
to  Spain,  where,  it  is  said,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Columbus  in  1492.  In  a  letter  dated  February,  1505, 
Columbus  mentions  Vespucci  as  a  person  whom  he 
knew  and  esteemed.  Vespucci  was  employed  as  a  mer 
chant  at  Seville  for  several  years.  He  accompanied  an 
expedition  which  Ojeda  conducted  to  America  in  1499. 
It  is  probable  that  he  served  as  astronomer  in  this 
and  several  subsequent  voyages.  According  to  a  letter 
written  by  Vespucci,  he  took  part  in  an  expedition 
which  was  sent  by  the  King  of  Spain  in  1497,  and  dis 
covered  new  islands  and  lands.  Humboldt  and  others 
argue  that  1499  is  the  true  date  of  his  first  voyage.  It 
is  admitted  that  he  made  four  voyages  to  the  New 
World,  but  he  had  not  the  chief  command  of  any  one 
of  the  expeditions.  The  part  of  the  continent  discov 
ered  by  him  was  near  the  equator.  In  his  letter  dated 
July  18,  1500,  he  says,  "We  discovered  a  very  large 
country  of  Asia."  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
King  of  Portugal,  he  sailed  in  1501  on  an  exploring  ex 
pedition  to  Brazil,  on  his  return  from  which,  September, 
1502,  he  was  received  at  Lisbon  with  great  honour  and 
rejoicing.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  astro 
nomical  discoveries.  About  1505  he  returned  to  Spain. 
He  died  poor  at  Seville  in  1512. 

See  A.  M.  BANUINI,  "  Vita e  Lettere  di  Amerigo  Vespucci,"  1745; 
CANOVAI,  "  Elogio  di  A.  Vespucci,"  1788;  SANTAREM,  "  Reclierches 
historiques  sur  Ame>ic  Vespuce,"  1842,  (translated  into  English 
by  E.  V.  CHILDE,  1850  ;)  C.  EDWARDS  LESTER,  "  Life  of  Americtis 
Vespucius,"  1846;  AD.  VARNHAGKN,  "Vespuce  et  son  premier  Vo 
yage,"  1858  ;  A.VARNHAGEN,  "  A.  Vespucci,  son  Caractere,  ses  ficrits, 
sa  Vie,"  etc.,  1865  ;  NAPIONE,  "  Esame  critico  del  primo  Viaggio  di 
A.Vespucci,"  iSn;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene'rale  ;"  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1821. 

Vespuce  and  Vespucius.     See  VESPUCCI. 

VSs'ta,  one  of  the  principal  Roman  divinities,  was 
identical  with  the  Greek  Hestia,  ('Earia,)  and  was  re 
garded  as  the  goddess  of  chastity,  virginity,  fire,  the 
domestic  hearth,  and  domestic  happiness.  She  was, 
according  to  Hesiod,  a  daughter  of  Saturn  (Cronus)  and 
Rhea,  and  was  bound  by  a  vow  of  perpetual  virginity. 
Her  symbol  was  the  eternal  fire  burning  on  the  hearth 
or  altar,  and  vigilantly  kept  alive  by  her  priestesses,  the 
vestal  virgins.  If  this  fire  ever  became  extinguished,  it 
was  renewed  by  friction  or  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  col 
lected  by  a  burning-glass.  Every  repast  in  which  a 
family  joined  was  considered  as  a  sacrifice  to  Vesta  and 
the  Penates.  Each  city  had  its  sacred  hearth  or  sanc 
tuary  of  Vesta,  usually  located  in  a  public  edifice  called 
the  Prytaneum.  She  was  supposed  to  preside  at  all 
sacrifices,  and  had  a  share  of  the  sacrifices  offered  in  all 
the  temples.  The  Romans  celebrated  in  her  honour  an 
annual  festival,  called  Vestalia,  which  occurred  in  the 
month  of  June.  Vesta  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
chief  Penates  of  Troy,  and  the  vestal  fire  is  said  to  have 


a,e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PESTRIS 


2193 


been  brought  to  Italy  by  /Eneas.  Tlie  vestal  virgins, 
whose  office  is  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Numa,  were  six  in  number,  and  were  required  to  de 
vote  thirty  years  to  the  service  of  the  goddess.  If  any 
one  of  them  violated  her  vow  of  chastity,  she  was  buried 
alive. 

Vestris,  veVtRess,  or  Vestri,  vgs'tRee,  (ANGIOLO 
MARIA  GASPARO,)  an  Italian  dancer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1730,  was  a  brother  of  Gaetano  Apolline,  noticed 
below.  Died  in  1809. 

Vestris  or  Vestri,  (GAETANO  APOLLINE  BALDAS- 
SAKE,)  a  famous  Italian  dancer,  born  at  Florence  in 
1729.  He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1748,  and  was 
received  with  enthusiastic  applause.  ITe  was  afterward.'' 
appointed  ballet-master  at  the  Grand  Opera.  His  per 
formances  were  unrivalled  in  their  kind,  and  he  was 
popularly  styled  "the  God  of  Dancing."  His  vanity 
was  excessive  and  amusing ;  and  he  once  observed  that 
Frederick,  King  of  Prussia,  M.  Voltaire,  and  himself, 
were  the  only  great  men  of  the  century.  Died  in  1808. 
Vestris  oi  Vestris-Allard,  vSs/ti<6ss't'lfR/,  (M/\Rii< 
AUGUSTE,)  a  dancer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  Died  in  1842. 

Vestris,(MARiE  ROSK Gourgaud-Dugason — gooR 
g5'  dti'gi'zoN',)  a  French  actress,  especially  celebrated 
for  her  skill    in   tragic  parts,   a  sister-in-law  of  Gaetano 
Apolline,  noticed   above,  was    born   in    Paris  in    1746; 
died  in  1804. 

Vestritius  Spurinna.     See  SPURINNA. 
Ve-tra'm-o,  a  Roman   general,  who  was  persuaded 
by  his  troops  to  assume  the  title  of  emperor  in  350  A.D. 
About  the  end  of  that   year  he   abdicated   in  favour  of 
Constantius.     Died  in  356. 

Vettori,  vet-to'ree,  or  Vittori,  vet-to'ree,  (BENE 
DETTO,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  at  Faenza  in 
1481  ;  died  in  1561. 

Vettori,  [Lat.  VICTO'RIUS,]  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Rome  about  1710.  He  wrote  numer 
ous  dissertations.  Died  in  1778. 

Vettori,  (PIKTKO,)  an  accomplished  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Florence  in  1499,  was  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  literature  in  that  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  Latin  commentaries  on  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
and  he  published  editions  of  Sallust,  Cicero,  and  other 
Latin  classics ;  also  the  "  Electra"  of  Euripides,  and 
various  Greek  works.  He  likewise  wrote  a  number  of 
letters,  poems,  and  orations  in  Italian.  Died  in  1585. 

See  A.  M.  BANDINI,  "Vita  di  P.  Vettori,"  1756;  BENIVIENI, 
"  Vita  di  P.  Vettori,"  1585. 

Ve-tu'ri-a,  [  Fr.VE TURIK,  vi'tii're',]  a  Roman  matron, 
the  mother  of  CORIOI.ANUS,  (which  see.)  When  Rome 
was  attacked  by  an  army  of  Volscians  commanded  by 
her  son,  she  headed  a  procession  of  women  who  went  to 
his  camp  and  entreated  him  to  spare  the  city.  He  finally 
relented,  and  exclaimed,  "O  mother,  thou  hast  saved 
Rome,  but  destroyed  thy  son  !" 

Veturie.     See  VK.TUKIA. 

Veuillot,  vuh'yo',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist,  born  in  the  department  of  Loiret  in  1815. 
He  became  successively  editor  of  the  "Charte  de  1830," 
"  La  Paix,"  and  the  "  Univers  Religieux,"  in  Paris,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous  support  of  the  ultra 
montane  party  and  violent  abuse  of  his  opponents.  His 
"  Univers"  was  suppressed  in  1860.  He  has  published 
several  novels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Veyssiere  de  La  Croze.     See  LA  CROZE. 

Veytia,  de,  da  va-e-tee'a,  ?  (MARIANO,)  a  Mexican 
historian,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Puebla  in  1718, 
wrote  an  account  of  the  early  history  of  Mexico,  en 
titled  "  Historia  Antigua,"  (Mexico,  1836.) 

See  PRESCOTT,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Viani,  ve-a'nee,  (GIORGIO,)  an  Italian  numismatist, 
born  in  1762;  died  in  1816. 

Viani,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bo 
logna  in  1636,  is  said  to  have  been  a  skilful  artist.  Died 
in  1700.  His  son  DOMENICO,  born  in  1668,  was  also  a 
painter.  Died  in  1711. 

Viardot,  ve'aa'do',  (LEON,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1804. 


Viardot,  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1800.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Museums  of  Italy,"  (1842,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Arabs  and  Moors  of  Spain,"  (2 
vols.,  1851.)  He  married  Pauline  Garcia,  the  vocalist,  in 
1840.  He  translated  "  Don  Quixote"  and  other  Spanish 
works  into  French. 

Viardot,  (PAULINE  GARCIA,)  a  popular  French  ac 
tress  and  singer,  a  daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1821.  She  made  her  debut  in  London  in 
1839,  and  was  married  to  L.  Viardot  in  1840.  She 
excels  in  the  rdles  of  "  Desdemona,"  "  Valentine,"  (in 
"The  Huguenots,")  and  "Fides,"  (in  "The  Prophet"  of 
Meyerbeer.) 

Vias,  de,  deh  ve'ts',  (BALTHASAR)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1587,  was  a  friend  of  Peiresc.  He  was 
appointed  a  councillor  of  state  by  Louis  XIII.  He 
wrote  numerous  poems.  Died  in  1667. 

Viassolo.     See  FEDERICI,  (CAMILI.O.) 

Viand  or  Viau,  de,  deh  ve'o',  (TiiEoi'iiiLE,)  a  French 
poet.  (See  THEOPHILE.) 

Viborg,  vee'boRG,  (ERICH  NISSEN,)  an  eminent  Dan 
ish  naturalist  and  veterinary  surgeon,  born  in  Sleswick 
in  1759.  lie  wrote  numerous  works.  Died  in  1822. 

Vibulanus.     See  FAHIUS  VIHULANUS. 

Vic,  de,  deh  vek,  (DOMINIQUE,)  a  French  commander 
and  constant  adherent  of  Henry  IV.  He  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Ivry.  In  1602 
he  became  governor  of  Calais  and  vice-admiral.  Died 
in  1610. 

Vicari,  von,  fon  vee'ka-ree,  (HERMANN,)  a  German 
Catholic  prelate,  born  at  Aulendorf,  in  Upper  Suabia, 
in  1773,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Freiburg  in  1842. 

Vic'ars,  (Joiix,)  an  English  Puritan  writer  in  the 
time  of  Cromwell,  was  born  in  London  in  1582.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "The  Burning  Bush  not 
Consumed,"  and  "God's  Ark  Overtopping  the  World's 
Waves."  Died  in  1652. 

Vic'a-ry,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  anatomist,  born  in 
London,  was  surgeon  to  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
He  published  a  treatise  on  anatomy,  (about  1548.) 

Vicat,  ve'kf,  (Louis  TOSEPH,)  a  French  civil  engineer, 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1786.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
the  discovery  of  hydraulic  cement,  and  made  an  improve 
ment  in  the  foundation  of  bridges.  Died  in  1861. 

Vicence,  Due  DE.     See  CAULAINCOURT. 

Vicente,  (Gn..)     See  GIL  VICENTE. 

Vicenza,  DUKE  OF.     See  CAULAINCOURT. 

Vichard.     See  SAINT-REAL. 

Vichmaiin,  viK'man,  (BURKHARD,)  a  Russian  his 
torian,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Riga  in  1786.  He 
wrote  (in  German)  several  works  on  Russian  history. 
Died  in  1822. 

Vichnou.     See  VISHNU. 

Vici,  vee'chee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  architect,  born 
at  Arcevia  in  1744,  was  appointed  in  1787  hydraulic 
architect  and  engineer  for  the  work  of  draining  the  Pon- 
tine  marshes.  Among  the  principal  structures  he  has 
built  may  be  named  the  cathedral  of  Camarino,  and  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  at  Foligno.  Died  in  1817. 

Vico,  vee'ko,  (ENEA,)  an  Italian  engraver  and  numis 
matist,  born  at  Parma  about  1520.  He  worked  at  Flor 
ence  and  Ferrara,  and  engraved  some  pictures  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  Raphael.  He  published  several  works  on 
numismatics,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Medals 
:>f  the  Ancients,"  ("  Discorsi  sopre  le  Medaglie  degli 
Antichi,"  1555.)  Died  about  1570. 

Vico,  (GioVANM  BATTISTA,)  an  eminent  Ita-lian  phi- 
osopher,  called  the  creator  of  the  philosophy  of  history, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1668.  He  studied  languages, 
philosophy,  and  law,  and,  after  he  left  college,  passed 
line  years  as  preceptor  in  the  family  of  the  Bishop  of 
[schia. '  In  1697  he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric 
n  the  University  of  Naples,  with  a  salary  of  one  hun 
dred  scudi  (or  ducats)  per  annum.  He  published  in 
1720  a  work  on  law,  entitled  "On  the  One  Principle  and 
2nd  of  all  Law,"  ("  De  universi  Juris  tino  Principio  et 
Fine  tino.'')  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Principles 
)f  a  New  Science  of  the  Common  Nature  of  Nations," 
"  Principj  di  una  Scienza  nuova  intorno  alia  commune 
Datura  della  Nazione,"  1725,)  in  which  he  attempts  to 


t;  as  K:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PICO 


2!94 


VICTOR 


prove  that  the  events  of  history  are  determined  by  cer 
tain  and  immutable  laws.  It  presents  original  thoughts, 
but  in  some  parts  is  rather  obscure.  In  1735  he  became 
historiographer  to  the  King  of  Naples.  He  was  author 
of  other  works.  Died  at  Naples  in  January,  1 743  or  1 744. 

See  his  Autobiography,  prefixed  to  his  "  Scienza  nuova,"  18 
M.  PARMA,  "Studj  IV.  sopra  Vico,"  1838:  J.  FERRARI,  "Vico  et 
ritalie,"  1839;  Rocco,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Vico."  1844  ;  A.  MANA- 
VIT,  "EloRe  du  PeredeVico,"  i8*S  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GJne'- 
rale  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1845. 

Vico,  di,  de  vee'ko,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Macerata  in  1805,  became  di 
rector  of  the  Observatory  at  Rome.  Died  in  1848. 

Vicq-d'Azyr  or  Vicq-d'Azir,  vek'dt'/.eR',  (FEi.ix, 
a  distinguished  French  anatomist,  born  at  Valogne,  in 
Normandy,  in  1748.  He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1774.  He  became  in  1776  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Medicine,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
perpetual  secretary,  and  in  1788  succeeded  Buffon  in 
the  French  Academy.  He  was  made  first  physician  to 
the  queen  in  1789.  His  wife  was  a  niece  of  Daubenton. 
He  died  in  1794.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  we  may  name  "Observations  on  the  Means  of 
Preserving  Animals  from  Contagion,"  (1774,)  "  Medicine 
for  Horned  Cattle,"  (1781,)  "Treatise  on  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,"  (with  coloured  plates,  1786,)  and  "Eulogies 
on  Members  of  the  Royal  Society,"  (1778-88.) 

See  CUVIKR.  "  E"lo™e  de  Vicq-d'A/yr  :"  MORKAU  VK  I.A  SARTHK, 
"  FJoge  de  F.  Vicq-d'Azir,"  1797:  P.  E.  I.KMONTKV,  "  FJoge  his- 
torique  de  Vicq-d'Azir,"  1825  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vicramaditya.     See  VIKRAMADITYA. 

Victoire  de  France,  vek'twai/  deh  fK6Nss,  (LOUISE 
MARIK  TnfiRESE,)  a  daughter  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1733.  She  emigrated  in  1791,  after  which 
she  lived  at  Rome  and  Naples.  Died  in  1799. 

Victor,  (AURELIUS.)     See  AURKLIUS  VICTOR. 

Vic'tor  I.,  a  native  of  Africa,  became  Bishop  of  Rome 
about  185  A.n.  He  died  about  198  A.n.,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Zephyrinus. 

Victor  II.,  originally  GERHARD,  Bishop  of  Eichstadt, 
succeeded  Leo  IX.  as  rope  of  Rome  in  1055.  He  died 
in  1057,  and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  IX. 

Victor  III.,  (DESIDERIUS,)  Abbot  of  Monte  Casino, 
succeeded  Gregory  VII.  in  1086.  After  a  contest  with 
the  adherents  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  he  retired  to 
Beneventum,  where  he  anathematized  the  anti-pope 
Guibert.  He  died  in  1087,  and  was  succeeded  bv 
Urban  II. 

Victor  IV.  was  supported  as  anti-pope  by  Frederick 
I.  of  Germany,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  III.,  in  1159. 
Died  in  1164. 

Victor,  vek'toR',  (CLAUDE  PERRIN,)  Duke  of  Belluno, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  in  the  department 
of  the  Vosges  in  1764.  He  served  in  Spain  in  1794,  and 
in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Italian  campaigns 
from  1795  to  1799,  having  been  made  general  of  division 
in  1797.  He  commanded  part  of  the  vanguard  at  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  (1800,)  and  had  a  prominent  share  in 
the  victory  of  that  day.  He  was  ambassador  to  Copen 
hagen  in  1805.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  1806,  and  was  created  marshal  of  France 
after  the  battle  of  Friedland,  (1807,)  for  his  signal  ser 
vices  on  that  occasion.  Appointed  in  1808  commander 
of  the  first  corps  of  the  army  of  Spain,  he  gained  several 
important  victories  over  the  Spaniards,  but  he  was  de 
feated  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  at  Talavera,  (1809.) 
In  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  was  conspicuous 
for  his  skill  and  bravery,  as  well  as  for  his  humanity  to 
the  wounded  soldiers  during  the  disastrous  retreat.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Dresden  and  Leipsic, 
(1813.)  Having  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XVIII. 
in  1814,  he  adhered  to  him  in  the  Hundred  Days,  and 
denounced  Napoleon  as  "the  man  who  has  tyrannized 
and  betrayed  France."  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
December,  1821,  to  October,  1823.  Died  in  1841. 

See  DE  COURCEM.RS,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Francais;" 
TIMERS,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Victor,  SAINT,  of  Marseilles,  served  in  the  Roman 
army.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under 
Diocletian,  he  suffered  martyrdom,  in  303  A.n. 


Vic'tor  Am-a-de'us  [Fr.  VICTOR  AMEDEE,  \il/- 
IOR'  t'ma'da';  It.  VITTOUIO  AMEDKO,  vet-to're-o  a-mi- 
da'o]  I.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  born  at  Turin  in  1587.  In 
1635  he  was  the  ally  of  France  in  the  war  with  Spain. 
He  married  Christine  de  France,  a  sister  of  Louis  XIII. 
Died  in  1637,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 
Emmanuel  II. 

Victor  Amadeus  II.,  first  King  of  Sardinia,  born  in 
1666,  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  Emmanuel,  in  1675, 
the  government  being  conducted  by  his  mother  as  regent. 
Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  sovereignty,  he  was  urged 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  persecution  of  the  Waldenses ; 
but  in  1690,  having  formed  an  alliance  with  Spain  and 
Austria,  he  restored  them  to  their  homes,  and  declared 
war  against  France.  He  joined  the  Austriansin  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  in  1706  assisted  his  rela 
tive  Prince  Eugene  in  defeating  the  French,  who  had 
besieged  Turin.  After  the  peace  of  Utrecht  he  obtained 
Lomellina  and  other  territories,  and  the  island  of  Sicily, 
with  the  title  of  king.  He  subsequently  gave  up  Sicily 
to  the  Austrian  emperor,  receiving  in  exchange  the  island 
of  Sardinia.  lie  abdicated  in  1730,  died  in  1732,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  III. 

See  CAKUTTI,  "  Storia  di  Vittorio  Amedeo  II.,"  1856;  LAMBKRTI, 
"  Histoire  de  1'Abdication  de  Victor  Amede'e,"  1734;  BOTTA, 
"  Histoire  d'halie  ;"  ''  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Victor  Amadeus  III.,  son  of  Charles  Emmanuel 
HI.,  was  born  in  1726,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1773. 
He  was  deprived  of  Savoy  and  Nice  by  the  French 
during  the  Revolution.  lie  died  in  1796,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  IV. 

See  J.  DK  M.USTKK,  ''  E'oge  de  Victor  Amedee  III,"  1775. 

Vic'tor  Em-man'u-el  [It.  VITTORIO  EMANUKI.I',, 
vet-to're-o  a-mi-noo-a'la]  I.,  King  ot  Sardinia,  second  son 
of  Victor  Amadeus  III.,  was  born  in  1759,  and  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his  brother,  Charles  Em 
manuel  IV.,  in  1802.  His  subjects  having  demanded  a 
more  liberal  constitution,  to  which  he  refused  to  accede, 
he  resigned  in  1821  in  favour  of  his  brother,  Charles 
Felix.  Died  in  1824. 

Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  (of  Sardinia,)  and  the  first 
King  of  Italy,  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Albert  and  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Turin  in  1820.  He  married 
his  cousin-german,  Maria  Adelaide  of  Austria,  in  1842, 
and  succeeded  his  father,  who  abdicated,  in  March,  1849. 
His  kingdom,  which  then  included  only  Piedmont,  Savoy, 
and  Sardinia,  was  not  in  a  prosperous  condition  ;  but  he 
was  fortunate  in  obtaining  the  services  of  an  able  states 
man,  Count  Cavour,  who  became  prime  minister  in  1852. 
The  wise  and  liberal  policy  of  Cavour  increased  the 
power  of  the  Sardinian  states  and  induced  the  friends 
of  Italian  unity  to  regard  Victor  Emmanuel  with  favour. 
By  joining  the  French  and  English  in  the  Crimean  war, 
(1854,)  he  gained  admission  into  the  conventions  of 
European  powers.  In  April,  1859,  his  dominions  were 
invaded  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  who  was  offended 
by  the  growing  spirit  of  liberty* and  nationality  in  the 
peninsula.  By  an  alliance  with  France,  Cavour  was 
prepared  for  the  contest.  The  Austrians  were  defeated 
at  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino  in  June,  1859,  soon 
after  which  peace  was  concluded,  and  Lombardy  was 
added  to  the  dominions  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  In  the 
mean  time  the  people  of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena 
had  deposed  their  petty  sovereigns,  and  had  taken  steps 
to  unite  themselves  with  the  other  Italian  states.  The 
people  of  the  Romagna  were  also  nearly  unanimous  in 
Favour  of  annexation  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  The 
cause  was  rapidly  advanced,  in  1860,  by  the  brilliant 
operations  of  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  the  libera- 
:ion  of  which  was  completed  by  the  capture  of  Gaeta 
n  March,  1861.  The  result  of  these  transactions  was 
:he  union  of  all  Italy,  except  Venetia  and  a  small  part 
of  the  papal  states  adjacent  to  Rome.  Victor  Emmamiel 
,vas  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  in  March,  1861,  and  was 
•ecognized  as  such  by  the  French  government  in  June 
of  that  year.  He  compensated  Napoleon  III.  for  his 
aid  by  the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice.  The  King  of 
[taly  and  his  subjects  ardently  desired  the  possession 
of  Rome,  the  position  and  celebrity  of  which  rendered 
t  the  most  eligible  place  for  the  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
nit  it  was  under  the  domination  of  the  pope,  supported 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


VICTORIA 


2195 


by  a  French  army,  which  had  occupied  the  city  since 
1849. 

In  1865  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  from 
Turin  to  Florence.  Victor  Emmanuel  was  the  ally  of 
Prussia  in  the  short  but  momentous  war  of  1866.  The 
Italian  army,  having,  entered  Venetia,  was  repulsed  at 
Custozza  ;  but  the  victory  of  the  Prussians  at  Sadowa, 
July  3,  compelled  the  Emperor  of  Austria  to  sue  for 
peace  and  to  give  up  Venetia.  This  province,  in  ac 
cordance  with  a  nearly  unanimous  vote  of  its  people, 
was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  about  the  end  of 
1866, — an  event  which  was  a  source  of  great  exultation 
to  the  Italian  patriots.  In  fulfilment  of  a  treaty  nego 
tiated  in  1864,  Napoleon  withdrew  his  army  from  Rome 
in  December,  1866,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  pope  to 
retain  that  last  bulwark  of  his  temporal  power.  Italy 
was  then  free  from  the  presence  of  foreign  soldiers  for 
the  first  time  probably  in  a  thousand  years.  The  recent 
changes  have  been  most  favourable  to  religious  liberty 
in  Italy,  the  government  of  which  has  adopted  the 
motto  of  "a  free  church  in  a  free  state." 

To  secure  the  neutrality  or  friendship  of  Italy,  Napo 
leon  III.,  in  August,  1870,  withdrew  his  army  from 
Rome.  In  September  of  that  year  Victor  Emmanuel 
sent  an  army  to  occupy  Rome,  and  wrote  to  the  pope 
that  republicanism  was  so  rampant  in  Italy  that  if  he 
had  not  taken  that  course  a  republic  would  have  been 
proclaimed  in  every  Italian  city.  His  army  obtained 
possession  of  Rome,  without  serious  resistance,  Septem 
ber  20,  1870,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  then 
came  to  an  end. 

See  C.  DK  LA  VAKENNE,  "  Le  Roi  Victor  Emmanuel,"  1865; 
ARRIVABKNK,  •'L'ltalie  sous  Victor  Emmanuel,"  1^65;  LA  FA- 
KINA,  "  Storia  d'ltalia  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vic-to'ii-a,  [Gr.  Ni/c^,  (Nike  or  Nice;)  It.  VICTO 
RIA,  vet-to're'-a  ;  Fr.  VICTOIRK,  vek'twdn',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  goddess  or  personification  of  victory. 

Victoria.     See  VICTORINA. 

Victoria,  DUKE  OK.     See  ESTARTERO. 

Victoria,  vek-to're-a,  or  Vitoria,  ( FRANCISCO,)  an 
eminent  Spanish  theologian,  born  in  Navarre.  He  be 
came  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Salamanca,  and 
produced  "Theological  Rejections,''  ("  Relectiones  The- 
ologicas  XIII.,"  1557.)  The  most  important  parts  of 
this  scarce  work  are  those  which  treat  of  the  Indians 
and  of  the  laws  of  war,  ("  De  Indis,"  and  "  De  Jure 
Belli.")  Nicolas  Antonio  and  other  Spanish  writers 
bestow  the  highest  eulogy  on  Victoria.  Commenting  on 
his  "  De  Jure  Belli,"  Hallam  observes,  "The  whole 
relection,  as  well  as  that  on  the  Indians,  displays  an 
intrepid  spirit  of  justice  and  humanity."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  about  1550. 

Victoria,  (Don  VINCENTK,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1658.  He  worked  with  success  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1712. 

Vic-to'ii-a  Al-ex-aii-dri'na,  Queen  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  born  at 
Kensington  Palace  in  May,  1819.  She  is  the  only  child 
of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  (a  son  of  George  III.,)  and 
Maria  Louisa  Victoria  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  was  a  sister 
of  Leopold  I.  of  Belgium.  Her  education  was  directed 
by  the  Duchess  of  Northumberland.  She  received  in 
struction  in  political  affairs  and  principles  from  Lord 
Melbourne.  On  the  death  of  her  uncle,  William  IV., 
she  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  2oth  of  June,  1837, 
and  was  crowned  in  June,  1838.  Lord  Melbourne,  who 
was  prime  minister  when  she  became  queen,  resigned 
in  May,  1839,  and  Victoria  then  requested  Sir  Robert 
Peel  to  form  a  new  ministry.  He  consented  to  take 
office,  but  insisted  that  she  should  dismiss  the  ladies  of 
her  bed-chamber,  (who  were  Whigs,)  which  she  refused 
to  do.  The  result  of  this  affair  was  that  Lord  Melbourne 
returned  to  power.  In  February,  1840,  she  was  married 
to  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  with  whom  she 
lived  happily  and  in  whom  she  found  a  prudent  coun 
sellor.  (See  ALBERT.)  The  Whig  ministry,  having  been 
defeated  in  Parliament,  resigned  in  August,  1841,  and 
Sir  Robert  Peel  became  prime  minister.  Among  the 
events  of  1841  was  the  birth  of  her  son  Albert  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales.  Between  1840  and  1843  three  several 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  her,  by  persons 


named  Oxford,  Francis,  and  Bean.  Victoria  visited 
Louis  Pnilippe  in  France  in  1843,  and  travelled  with 
Prince  Albert  in  Germany  in  1845. 

The  year  1846  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  repeal 
of  the  corn  laws  after  a  long  and  exciting  contest.  (See 
COBDEN,  RICHARD,  and  PEEL,  SIR  ROBERT.)  Lord  John 
Russell  was  prime  minister  from  July,  1846,  to  February, 
1852,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Derby,  a  conservative. 
Lord  Derby  having  resigned,  a  coalition  ministry  was 
formed  by  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in  December,  1852.  To 
maintain  the  integrity  of  Turkey  against  the  encroach 
ments  of  Russia,  the  British  ministry  formed  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  waged  war  in  the  Crimea  and  Baltic 
against  the  Czar  in  1854  and  1855.  Lord  Palmerston 
became  prime  minister  in  February,  1855,  the  queen 
visited  Napoleon  III.  at  Paris  in  August,  and  the  allies 
took  Sebastopol  in  September  of  that  year.  The  Crimean 
war  was  ended  by  a  treaty  in  the  spring  of  1856.  A 
great  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  broke  out  in  India  in  1857. 
Lord  Palmerston  resigned  office  in  February,  1858,  to 
the  Earl  of  Derby,  who  remained  in  power  until  June, 
1859,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Palmerston.  In  De 
cember,  1861,  occurred  the  death  of  Prince  Albert,  by 
which  she  was  so  deeply  affected  that  for  several  years 
she  absented  herself  from  public  ceremonies  and  lived 
in  seclusion.  She  has  been  much  censured  for  neglect 
of  the  duties  of  sovereignty,  but,  with  this  exception, 
her  conduct  has  been  such  as  to  render  her  popular 
with  nearly  all  classes  and  all  parties. 

The  British  government  has  pursued  the  policy  of 
non-intervention  in  the  great  wars  which  have  occurred 
in  Europe  and  America  since  1856.  Among  the  notable 
recent  events  of  her  reign  are  the  revolutionary  move 
ments  of  the  Fenians  in  Ireland  and  North  America, 
(1865-66,)  and  the  agitation  of  the  question  of  reform  in 
England.  The  House  of  Commons  rejected  the  Reform 
bill  of  Russell  and  Gladstone,  who  consequently  resigned 
in  June,  1866,  and  a  Tory  ministry  was  formed  by  Derby 
and  Disraeli.  In  1867  Disraeli  procured  the  passage  of 
a  Reform  bill  which  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
voters  and  will  probably  reduce  the  power  of  the  aris 
tocracy.  Queen  Victoria  is  the  author  of  "  Leaves  from 
the  Journal  of  our  Life  in  the  Highlands  from  1848  to 
1861,"  (1868,)  edited  by  Arthur  Helps.  In  December, 
1868,  Mr.  Gladstone  became  prime  minister. 

See  "Queen  Victoria  from  her  Birth  to  her  Bridal."  London,  2 
vols.,  1X40;  "Queen  Victoria  in  Scotland,"  London,  1842;  "Men 
of  the  Time"  for  i!S6S. 

Victoria  de  Feltre.     See  VITTORINO. 

Vic-to-ri'na  or  Vic-to'ri-a,  [Fr.  VICTORINE,  vek'- 
to'ren', |  a  warlike  Roman  princess,  waged  war  against 
Gallienus  in  Gaul,  and  took  the  title  of  Augusta.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Victorious,  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 
Died  in  268  A.D. 

Vic-to-ii'nus,  a  religious  writer,  and  Bishop  of  Peta- 
biutn,  in  Styria.  He  suffered  martyrdom  about  303  A.D. 

See  LAUNOY,  "  De  Victorino  Episcopo,"  Paris,  1664. 

Victorinus,  (CAIUS  or  FABIUS  MARIUS,)  an  African 
grammarian  and  theologian,  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome, 
was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  grammar  and  theology.  Died  about  380  A.D. 

Victorinus,  [Fr.  VICTORIN,  vek'to'raN',]  (MARCUS 
PIAUVONIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  called  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  He  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  in  Gaul  in 
267  A.D.,  and  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  officers 
in  268. 

Victorius.     See  VETTORI. 

Vida,  vee'da,  (MARCO  GIROLAMO  or  MARCUS  HIERO- 
NYMUS,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Latin  poets  of  modern 
times,  was  born  at  Cremona,  in  Italy,  about  1485.  He 
studied  the  classics  and  theology  at  Mantua,  Padua,  and 
Bologna,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Leo  X.,  who  made  him  prior  of  San  Sil- 
vestro,  at  Frascati.  Under  Clement  VII.  he  became 
apostolic  prothonotary  and  Bishop  of  Alba,  (1532.)  lie 
was  the  author  of  "  Christias,"  (1535,)  a  poem  on  the 
life  of  Christ  and  written  in  the  style  of  Virgil,  "  De 
Arte  Poetica,"  a  didactic  treatise,  (in  verse,)  and  "  Game 
of  Chess,"  ("  Scacchiae  Ludus,")  which  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Goldsmith,  and  into  German  by 
Hoffmann.  He  also  wrote  several  Latin  orations,  and  the 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ut^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VIDAL 


2196 


V '1 EN NET 


dialogues  entitled  "  De  Dignitate  Reiptiblicas,"  (1556.) 
Died  in  1566.* 

See  TA;»ISI,  "Vita  di  Vida,"  1788;  LANCETTI,  "Delia  Vita  e 
degli  Scritti  di  Vida,"  1840:  TIRABOSCHT,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura 
Itafiana  ;"  F.  MANMJKTI,  "  Orazione  in  Lode  di  M.  G.  Vida,"  1846: 
NICEKON.  "M&nnires:1!  U<;IIE[.I.I,  "Italia  Sacra;"  "Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale:"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1835. 

Vidal,  ve'dtl',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  writer  on  social 
ism  and  political  economy,  born  in  the  department 
of  Gironde  in  1814,  has  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Division  of  Wealth,  or  Distributive  Justice  in  Social 
Economy,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  by  the  voters  of 
Paris  in  1850. 

Vidal,  ve-dal',  (JAGO,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Valmaseda  in  1602,  worked  at  Seville.  Died  in  1648. 

Vidal,  (PiERKE,)  a  French  troubadour,  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  accompanied  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion  in  the  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Vidal  de  Cassis,  ve'dal'  deh  kt'sess',  (AuousTE 
THEODORE,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Cassis  in  1803. 
He  became  surgeon  of  the  hospital  du  Midi,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  by  his  "Treatise  on  External  Pathol 
ogy  and  Operative  Medicine,"  ("Traite  de  Pathologic 
externe  et  de  Medecine  operatoire,"  5  vols.,  1838-44.) 
Died  in  1856. 

Vidar,  vee'dar,  or  Vi'Sarr,  vee't-har,  [etymology  ex 
tremely  doubtful  ;  Keyser  supposes  it  may  be  changed 
from  vinnar,  the  "conqueror,"  (from  viiina,  to  "over 
come,")]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  god  of  silence, 
the  son  of  Odin  and  the  Jotun  woman  Grida.  Next  to 
Thor  he  is  the  strongest  of  all  the  /Esir.  Among  his 
possessions  is  an  iron  shoe  of  prodigious  strength  and 
size,  which  at  Ragnarock  he  will  place  on  the  nether 
jaw  of  Fenrir  ;  then  with  his  hand  he  will  seize  the  upper 
jaw  and  tear  him  asunder.  He,  as  well  as  Vali,  will 
survive  the  destruction  of  the  world.  Vidar  is  supposed 
to  be  a  type  of  the  imperishability  of  the  powers  of 
nature. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  KEYSER,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  PHTHRSEN,  "Nordisk  Mytholojji." 

Vidaurri,  ve-dowr'ree,  (SANTIAGO,)  a  Mexican  sol 
dier  and  politician,  born  about  1810.  He  aided  to  drive 
Santa  Anna  from  power  in  1855,  and  proclaimed  himself 
Governor  of  Coahuila  and  New  Leon  in  February,  1*856. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  ministers  of  Maximilian  during 
the  empire,  and  was  shot  as  a  traitor  in  1867. 

Vid'I-us,  [It.  GUIDO,  gwee'do,]  (Gumi,)    an  Italian 
physician,  born  at   Florence  about  1500.      lie  became  a 
professor  in  the   College   Royal   of   Paris  in    1542,  and  I 
removed  to  Pisa  about  1547.       He   wrote   several  pro 
fessional  works.     Died  at  Pisa  in  1569. 

Vidocq,  ve'dok',  (EUGENE  FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
adventurer  and  famous  chief  of  the  detective  police,  was 
born  in  1775.  He  was  successively  a  thief,  soldier, 
deserter,  and  gambler  before  he  entered  the  public 
service,  and  was  often  imprisoned  for  his  offences. 
About  1810  he  enlisted  in  the  police  at  Paris.  His 
success  as  a  detective  has  scarcely  been  paralleled  in 
history.  Died  in  1850. 

See  his  interesting  "  Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  and  the  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Vieilh  de  Boisjolin.     See  BOISJOI.IN,  DE. 
Vieille,  ve'M'  or  ve-i'ye,  (Jui.ES,)  a   French   mathe 
matician,  entered  the  Normal   School  about  1833.     He 


*  Vida's  fame  appears  to  have  been  much  higher  a  century  or  two 
ago  (when  the  language  in  which  he  wrote  was  far  more  generally 
cultivated)  than  it  is  at  present.  Pope  speaks  of  him  as  the  crown 
ing  glory  of  Leo's  reign  : 

''  But  see  !  each  muse,  in  Leo's  golden  days, 

Starts  from  her  trance,  and  trims  her  wither'd  bays ; 

Rome's  ancient  genius  o'er  its  ruins  spread 

Shakes  off  the  dust,  and  rears  his  reverend  head. 

Then  Sculpture  and  her  sister  arts  revive  ; 

Stones  leap'd  to  form  and  rocks  began  to  live  ; 

With  sweeter  notes  each  rising  temple  rung  ; 

A  Raphael  painted,  and  a  Vida  sung. 

Immortal^  Vida  !  on  whose  honoured  brow 

The  poet's  bays  and  critic's  ivy  grow: 

Cremona  now  shall  ever  boast  thy  name, 

As  next  in  place  to  Mantua,  next  in  fame !" 

See  "Essay  on  Criticism,"  Part  III. 


published  a  "General  Theory  of  Numerical  Approxi 
mations,"  (2:1  edition,  1854,)  and  other  works. 

Vieilleville,  de,  deli  ve'il'vel'  or  ve'i'ye-vel',  (FRAN- 
gois  de  Scepaux — deh  si'pf/,)  SIRE,  Count  de  Dure- 
tal,  a  French  general,  born  in  1510.  He  was  employed 
in  foreign  missions  by  Henry  II.  and  Charles  IX.,  and 
was  a  moderate  opponent  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil 
wars.  In  1562  he  became  marshal  of  France.  Died  in 
1571. 

Vieira  or  Vieyra,  ve-a/e-ra,  (ANTONIO,)  an  emi 
nent  Portuguese  missionary~7Tnd  writer,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1608.  He  performed  diplomatic  missions  to  Paris, 
(1646,)  to  London,  and  to  Rome,  (1650.)  He  afterwards 
preached  to  the  Indians  in  Brazil,  and  advocated  the 
cause  of  the  slaves  in  that  country.  He  published  Ser 
mons,  (16  vols.,  1683-1754,)  "History  of  the  Future," 
("  Historia  do  Future,"  1718,)  and  "  Letters,"  ("Cartas," 
3  vols.,  1735-46.)  Died  at  Balu'a  in  1697. 

See  F.  DE  FONSKCA,  "Vida  de  Vieira,"  1734;  A.  DE  BARKOS. 
"Vida  do  P.  A.  Vieira,"  1746;  NICBKON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelie 
Biogr.iphie  Generale." 

Viel.     See  VEIL. 

Viel,  ve'el',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  designed  several  hospitals  in 
Paris,  and  wrote  books  on  architecture.  Died  in  1819. 

Viel,  (JEAN  MARIE  VICTOR.)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  the  architect  of  the  Palais  de 
1'Indiistrie,  built  for  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1855. 

Viel-Castel,  de,  deli  ve'eT  kts'tel',  (HORACE,) 
COMTK,  a  French  litterateur,  born  about  1797.  He  pub 
lished  several  tales  and  poems. 

Viele,  vee'la,  (EGDERT  I,.,)  an  American  engineer  and 
general,  born  in  Saratoga  county,  New  York,  about 
1825,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He  was  ap 
pointed  engineer  in-chief  of  the  Central  Park,  New  York, 
about  1856.  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  i85i 
and  1862,  and  resigned  in  October,  1863. 

Vien,  ve'aN',  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  an  eminent  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1716.  lie 
studied  under  Natoire  in  Paris,  and  in  1743  obtained  the 
grand  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  by  his  picture  of 
"The  Plague  of  the  Israelites  in  the  Time  of  David.'' 
He  afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he 
executed  a  number  of  admirable  works.  lie  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  1754,  appointed  director  of 
the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in  1775,  and  principal 
painter  to  Louis  XVI.  in  1789.  Under  Napoleon  he 
became  successively  a  senator,  count  of  the  empire,  and 
commander  of  the  legion  of  "honour.  Among  his  mas 
ter-pieces  may  be  named  "  Saint  Denis  preaching  to  the 
Gauls,"  "Saint  Louis  intrusting  the  Regency  to  Blanche 
of  Castile,"  "The  Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache," 
"Julius  Cassar  contemplating  the  Statue  of  Alexander 
at  Cadiz,"  and  the  "Virgin  attended  by  Angels."  He 
excelled  as  a  teacher  of  art,  and  was  the  master  of  David 
and  other  famous  painters.  Died  in  1809. 

See  J.  LERKETON,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  [.  M.  Vien," 
1809;  CHARLES  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Vien,  (JOSEPH  MARIE,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1761,  was  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  died  in  1809. 

Vien,  (MARIE  REKOUL,)  a  French  painter  of  flowers, 
birds,  and  still  life,  born  in  Paris  in  1728,  was  the  wife 
of  Joseph  Marie  the  Elder,  noticed  above.  Died  in  1805. 

Vienne,  de,  deh  ve'gi/,  (JEAN,)  an  eminent  French 
warrior,  born  about  1342.  He  defended  Calais  against 
Edward  III.  in  a  long  and  memorable  siege,  (1^547.)  ^e 
afterwards  became  Admiral  of  France,  and  displayed 
courage  and  skill  in  war  against  the  English.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Nicopolis,  where  he  fought  against 
the  Turks,  in  1396. 

Viennet,  ve'i'ni',  (JEAN  PONS  (poN)  GUILLAUME,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  politician,  born  at  Beziers  in 
1777.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
from  the  department  of  Herault  in  1827,  voted  with  the 
gauche  or  liberal  party,  and  was  active  in  promoting 
the  revolution  of  1830.  He  was  made  a  peer  by  Louis 
Philippe  in  1839.  He  published  a  number  of  poems, 
dramas,  fables,  and  satires,  in  prose  and  verse  ;  also  an 
"  Epistle  to  the  Muses  on  the  Romanticists,"  an  attack 
on  the  romantic  school  in  literature.  He  had  been 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  Jo^:  a.  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  il,  y.  tJwrt:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


VIERA 


2197 


elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1830  or  1831.  After 
1848  he  took  no  part  in  politics.  Died  in  July,  1868. 

See  E.  UK  MIRECOURT,  "  Viennet,"  1856;  "  Nouvelle  Bingra- 
phie  Generate. " 

Viera  y  Clavijo,  de,  da  ve-a'i  a  e  kla-vee'no,  (JosE,) 
a  Spanish  historian,  born  in  the  Canaries  about  1738. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Canary  Islands,"  (4 
vols.,  1772-83,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1799. 

Vieta,  ve-a'ta,  (FRANCIS,)  [in  French,  FKANC.OIS 
VIETE,  ve'it',  or  VIETTK,  ve'et',  or  VIET,  ve'i',]  a  cele 
brated  French  mathematician,  born  at  Fontenay,  Poitou, 
in  1540,  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion.  He 
obtained  the  office  of  master  of  requests  about  1580,  and 
passed  the  most  of  his  mature  life  in  the  public  service, 
lie  was  a  friend  of  De  Thou.  During  the  war  between 
Henry  IV.  and  the  Spaniards,  Vieta  rendered  an  impor 
tant  service  to  the  former  by  explaining  intercepted 
despatches  of  the  enemy,  which  were  written  in  a  cipher 
of  five  hundred  characters.  He  published  several  works 
on  mathematics,  etc.,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the  per 
fection  of  algebra.  He  rendered  algebra  a  purely  sym 
bolical  science  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
represented  the  known  quantities  by  symbols.  He  also 
made  improvements  or  discoveries  in  trigonometry. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1603.  His  works  were  published  by 
F.  van  Schooten  in  1646. 

See  DE  THOU,  "  Histoiia  sui  Temporis ;"  MONTUCI.A,  "  Histoire 
des  Matlie'matiques ;"  HAAG,"La  France  protestante ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Viete.     See  VIETA. 

Vieussens,  de,  deh  ve-uh'sfiN',  (RAIMOND,)  a  French 

anatomist,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1641.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Montpellier,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Neurologia  Universalis,"  (1685,)  a  treatise  on 
the  nerves  and  brain.  Died  in  1715. 

Vieusseux,  ve-uh'suh',  ([KAN  PIERUE,)  a  learned 
bookseller,  of  a  Genevese  family,  was  born  at  Oneglia,  in 
Italy,  in  1779.  He  settled  at  Florence,  where  he  pub 
lished  a  celebrated  critical  journal,  entitled  "Antologia 
Italiana,"  (1821-32,)  and  other  periodicals. 

Vieuville,  de  la,  deh  It  ve-uh'vel',  (CHARLES,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  financier,  born  in  Paris  about  1582. 
He  became  minister  of  finance  in  1623,  and  was  removed 
in  1624.  Died  in  1653. 

Vieuxtemps,  ve-uh/t5N',  (HENRI,)  a  Belgian  mu 
sician,  born  at  Verviers  about  1820,  has  attained  a  very 
high  reputation  as  a  violinist. 

Vieweg,  fee'war;,  (!!ANS  FRIEDRICII,)  a  German 
bookseller  and  publisher,  born  at  Halle  in  1761,  founded 
in  1786  an  establishment  at  Berlin,  from  which  he  issued 
superior  editions  of  the  German  classics.  He  numbered 
among  his  friends  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Wieland.  Died 
in  1835. 

Vieyra.     See  VIEIRA. 

Vigand.     See  WIGAND. 

Vigee,  ve'zha/,  (Louis  JEAN  BAPTISTS  F/HENNE,)  a 
mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1758,  was  a 
brother  of  the  artiste  Madame  Le  Brim.  lie  wrote 
numerous  poems  and  dramas.  Died  in  1820. 

Vigee,  MADAME.     See  LE  BRITN. 

Viger,  ve'zha',  [  Lat.  VIGE'KIUS,]  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen.  He  published  an  able  work 
"On  the  Principal  Idioms  of  the  Greek  Language," 
("  De  Idiotismis  praecipuis  Linguae  Graecae,"  1632.) 
"  It  contains  many  valuable  criticisms,"  says  Hallam. 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died 
in  1647. 

Viger  van  Zuichm.     See  AYTA. 

Vigerius.     See  VIGER. 

Vigilance.     See  VIGII.ANTIUS. 

Vigilantius,  vij-e-lan'she_-us,  [Fr.  VIGILANCE,  ve'- 
zhe'lfiNSs',]  a  liberal  Christian  writer  of  Spain  or  Gaul, 
flourished  about  400  A.D.  He  opposed  the  worship  of 
relics,  the  celibacy  of  priests,  and  several  ascetic  prac 
tices  of  the  Catholics.  Saint  Jerome  wrote  a  book  against 
his  doctrines. 

Vigilantius,  vij-e-lan'she-us,  [Fr.  VIGILANCE,  ve'zhe'- 
ISxss',]  (PuBLius,)  a  scholaTancl  poet,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg.  He  became  professor  of  poetry  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  where  he  also  taught  Greek.  He  visited 
Italv  and  other  countries  in  search  of  ancient  manu 


scripts,  and  on  his  return  was  murdeied  in  Suabia  in 
1512. 

VI-gil'i-us,  [Fr.  VIOII.E,  ve'zhel',]  an  orthodox  African 
bishop  of  Thapsus,  was  deprived  of  his  see  in  484  A.n. 
by  Huneric,  the  Vandal  king.  He  afterwards  lived  in 
Europe,  and  wrote  several  works  which  he  endeavoured 
to  make  pass  for  the  productions  of  Athanasius,  Augus 
tine,  and  other  eminent  Fathers. 

Vigilius,  [Fr.  VIGILE,]  a  native  of  Rome,  became 
pope  in  537  A.D.,  in  opposition  to  Sylverius,  whom  Beli- 
sarius  had  banished.  He  died  in  554  A.D.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Pelagius  I. 

Vigiu,  da.     See  LUNGHI,  (SiLLA.) 

Viglius.     See  AYTA. 

Vigne,  de,  deh  ven,  (FELix,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Ghent  in  1806. 

Vigne,  de,  (PIERRE,)  a  Belgian  sculptor,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ghent  in  1812.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  (1837-41.) 

Vigne,  de  la,  deh  It  ven,  (ANDRE,)  a  French  historian 
and  mediocre  poet,  born  about  1450.  He  wrote  an  ac 
count  of  the  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  to  Naples,  in 
a  work  called  "  Le  Vergier  d'Honneur."  Died  abou^: 
1527. 

Vigne,  delle,  (PiETRO.)     See  VINEIS. 

Vigne,  La.     See  LA  VIGNE. 

Vigneiiere,  de,  deh  ven'yeh-naiR',  (Bi.AiSE,)  a  French 
writer  and  translator,  born  in  Bourbonnais  in  1523,  be 
came  private  secretary  to  Henry  III.  His  works  have 
fallen  into  oblivion  which  is  said  to  be  merited.  Died 
in  1596. 

Vigneron.     See  VENERONI. 

Vigneul-Marville.     See  ARGONNE,  D'. 

Vignier,  ven'ye-i',  (JEROME,)  a  French  numismatist 
and  scholar,  was  born  at  Blois  in  1606;  died  in  1661. 

Vignier,  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  historian  and  physician, 
born  at  Bar-sur-Seine  in  1530.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Historical  Library,"  ("  La  Bibliotheque 
historiale,"  3  vols.,  1588.)  Died  in  1596. 

His  son  NICOLAS,  born  about  1575,  was  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  wrote  against  popery.  Died  at  Blois  about 
164$. 

Vignola,  da,  da  ver/yo-la,  [Fr.  VIGNOLE,  ven'yol',] 
(GIACOMO  Barozzio,  ba-rot'se  o,  or  Baroccio,)  an 
eminent  Italian  architect,  born  at  Vignola  in  1507.  After 
having  studied  at  Rome,  he  visited  France  in  company 
with  Piimaticcio,  and  was  employed  after  his  return  in 
various  public  works  at  Bologna,  Piacenza,  and  other 
towns.  He  was  subsequently  patronized  by  Pope  Julius 
II.,  who  made  him  his  architect  and  employed  him  to 
construct  the  Villa  Giulia.  The  palace  at  Caprarola, 
near  Rome,  built  for  the  cardinal  Alexander  Farnese, 
is  regarded  as  his  master-piece.  In  1564  Vignola  suc 
ceeded  Michael  Angelo  as  architect  of  Saint  Peter's. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  five  orders  of 
architecture,  entitled  "  Regole  delle  cinque  Ordini 
d'Architettura,"  (1563,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work,  and  "Rules  of  Practical  Perspective,"  (1583.) 
Died  in  1573. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  :  MILIZIA,  "Vitedegli 
Architetti  ;"  QUATKEMERE  DE  QIUNCY,  "  Histoire  des  plus  celebres 
Architect  es." 

Vignole.     See  VIGXOLA. 

Vignoles.     See  LAHIRE,  (finENNE.) 

Vignoles,  des,  di  ven'yol',  (Ai.i'HONSE,)  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  born  in  Languecloc  in  1649,  became 
minister  of  the  church  at  Copenick,  near  Berlin,  about 
1702.  His  most  important  work  is  a  "  Chronology  of 
Sacred  History,  and  other  Histories,  from  the  Departure 
out  of  Egypt  to  the  Captivity  of  Babylon,"  (in  French, 
1738.)  lie  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Berlin.  Died  in  1744. 

Vignoli,  ven'yo-lee,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  numismatist,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1680.  He 
became  librarian  of  the  Vatican  in  1720.  Died  in  1753. 

Vignolle,  de,  deh  ven'yol',  (MARTIN,)  a  French  gen 
eral,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1763.  He  became  a  general 
of  division  in  1803,  and  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  of 
Italv  in  1809.  Died  in  1824. 

Vigny,  de,  deh  ven'ye',  (ALFRED  VICTOR,)  COMTE, 
a  French  vyriter  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Loches, 
in  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire,  in  March,  1799. 


«  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


V1GO 


2198 


VILLARET 


He  published  in  1828  his  "  Ancient  and  Modern  Poems," 
("  Poemes  antiques  et  modemes,")  a  collection  of  pieces 
which  had  previously  appeared  in  Parisian  periodicals. 
His  other  principal  works  are  a  historical  romance  en 
titled  "  Cinq-Mars,  or  a  Conspiracy  under  Louis  XIII.," 
(1826,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour  and  lias 
been  translated  into  several  languages,  "Stella,  or  the 
Blue  Devils,"  a  prose  narrative,  and  the  tragedy  of 
"  Chatterton,"  (1835,)  which  met  with  brilliant  success. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845. 
In  early  life  he  married  a  rich  English  lady,  Lydia  Bun- 
bury.  Died  in  1863. 

See  G.  PLANCHE,  "  Portraits  litteraires ;"  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "  M. 
A.  de  Vigny,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841;  SAINTE-BKUVK. 
"Portraits  contemporains ;"  ''Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'nerale  ;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Vigo,  di,  dee  vee'go,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent  Italian 
surgeon,  bom  at  Genoa,  lived  about  1510,  practised  at 
Rome,  and  wrote  on  surgery. 

Vigor,  ve'gou',  (SlMON,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at 
Evreux  about  1515.  He  was  court  preacher  to  Charles 
IX.,  and  Archbishop  of  Narbomie.  Died  in  1575. 

Vig'ors,  (NICHOLAS  AYI/WARD,)  a  naturalist,  born 
in  the  county  of  Carlow,  Ireland,  in  1787,  was  the  first 
secretary  of  the  Zoological  Society,  to  the  "Transac 
tions"  of  which  he  contributed  a  number  of  treatises. 
Died  in  1840. 

Viguier,  ve'ge-a',  (ADRIEN,)  a  French  novelist  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1793. 

Viguier,  (PIERRK  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Besancon  in  1745  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1821. 

Viguier,  de,  deh  ve'ge-i/,  (PAUI.E,)  a  French  lady, 
celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  virtue,  was  born  at  Tou 
louse  in  1518.  She  was  married  to  the  Baron  de  Fonte- 
nille.  Died  in  1610. 

Vikramadltya  (vlk-ra-ma'dlt-ya)  I.,  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  sovereign,  who,  about  the  year  56  H.C.,  as  is 
supposed,  defeated  the  Tartar  hordes  who  had  taken 
possession  of  Northern  Hindustan  and  drove  them 
beyond  the  Indus.  There  is  good  ground  to  believe 
that  the  reign  of  this  prince  was  equal  in  splendour  to 
that  of  any  other  monarch  that  ever  lived.  His  dominion 
extended  over  the  whole  of  Northern  Hindostan.  The 
capital  of  his  vast  empire  was  Ujjayini,  (now  Oojein.) 
He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature  and  science.  Nine 
illustrjpus  men  of  genius,  called  in  Oriental  phrase  the 
"nine  gems,"  adorned  his  court  and  were  supported  by 
his  bounty.  Among  these  was  the  immortal  Kaliclasa, 
who  has  been  styled  "  the  Shakspeare  of  India."  (See 
KAI.IDASA.)  The  reign  of  Vikramaditya  is  commonly 
considered  to  mark  an  important  era  in  the  history  of 
India;  but  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  actual 
time  in  which  he  lived. 

See  the  Introduction  to  PROFESSOR  WILLIAMS'S  translation  of 
"  Sakoontala,"  Hertford,  1856. 

Vilain  (ve')aN')  XIIIL,  (CHARLES  GHISLAIN  GUIL- 
I.AUME,)  VICOMTE,  a  Belgian  politician,  born  at  Brus 
sels  in  1803.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from 
March,  1855,  to  1857,  having  previously  been  ambassador 
to  different  courts  of  Italy. 

Vilain  XIIII,  (JKAN  JACQUES  PHILIPPE,)  VI 
COMTE,  a  Belgian  financier,  born  at  Alost  in  1712.  He 
originated  the  penitentiary  system  of  Belgium.  Died 
in  1777. 

Vilate,  ve'lit',  (JOACHIM,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in 
1768,  was  imprisoned  in.  1794,  and  executed  in  1795. 

Vili,  vil'e,  [i.e.  "will,"']  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a 
brother  of  Odin,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  creation  of  the 
world.  By  some  he  is  identified  with  HOENIR,  (which 
see.) 

Villa,  vel'la,  (ANGELO  TEODORO,)  an  Italian  Hel 
lenist,  born  near  Pavia  about  1720.  He  was  professor 
of  Greek  at  Pavia,  and  translated  several  Greek  works. 
Died  in  1794. 

Villa,  di,  de  vel'la,  or  Ville,  vel,  (G.  FRANCESCO,) 
MARQUIS,  an  Italian  general,  commanded  the  Venetian 
army  at  the  siege  of  Candia,  (1666.)  Died  about  1668. 

Villalobos,  de,  da  vel-ya-lo'n6s,  (FRANCISCO,)  a 
Spanish  physician  and  poet,  born  at  Toledo  about  1480. 
He  wrote  a  medical  treatise  in  verse,  called  "Summary 
of  Medicine,"  ("  Sumario  de  la  Medicina,"  1498,)  and 


other  works.  He  was  employed  a.^  physician  to  Charles 
V.  while  that  monarch  resided  in  Srain.  It  is  stated 
that  he  retired  from  court  a  poor  man  about  1540.  Died 
about  1560. 

Villalpandi,  vel-yal-p.lt/dee,  or  Villalpando,  vcl- 
yal-pan'do,  or,  more  fully,  de  Torreblanca  (da  tou-ra- 
blan'ka)  y  Villalpandi,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  jurist, 
born  at  Cordova;  died  about  1645. 

Villalpandi,  (JuAN  BAUTISTA,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and 
mathematician,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Cordova  in  1552.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Ezekiel. 
Died  in  1608. 

Villamediana,  de,  di  vel-ya-ma-ne-a'na,  COUNT,  a 
Spanish  courtier  and  poet,  distinguished  for  his  ac 
complishments  and  wit.  He  was  assassinated  in  the 
street  of  Madrid  in  1621  by  an  unknown  hand.  His 
j  death  was  ascribed  by  some  to  the  jealousy  of  the  king. 
Villamediana  had  expressed  admiration  of  the  queen, 
Elizabeth  of  France. 

Villamene,  vel-la-ma'na,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Assisi  about  1588.  He  died  at  Rome 
at  the  age  of  sixty. 

Villaiidon.     See  L'HERITIKK. 

Villani,  vei-la'nee,  (Fn.ippo,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
biographer,  son  of  Matteo,  noticed  below,  was  the  author 
of  lives  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  other  eminent  Floren 
tines,  (in  Latin,)  also  a  work  on  the  origin  of  the  French 
kings,  ("  De  Origine  Regum  Fraucorum.")  Died  about 
1404. 

Villani,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Florence  about  1280.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Florence  from  its  Origin  down  to  his  Own 
Time,"  (12  books,  1554,  in  Italian.)  It  is  highly  es 
teemed  for  the  simplicity  and  elegance  of  its  style.  He 
was  elected  to  the  high  office  of  |  rior  in  1316  and  in 
1321.  Died  in  1348. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1813. 

Villani,  (MATTEO,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  con 
tinued  the  "  History  of  Florence"  down  to  1363,  in  which 
year  he  died.  His  work  is  commended  for  accuracy  and 
truthfulness. 

Villa  Nova  or  Villanovanus.     See  ARNAI.IHJS. 

Villanueva,  de,  da  vel-ya-nwa'va,  (JOAQUIN  LO 
RENZO,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and  patriot,  born  in  the 
province  of  Valencia  in  1757.  Having  been  ordained  a 
priest,  he  was  appointed  court  preacher  at  Madrid  and 
confessor  at  the  royal  chapel.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Cortes  in  1810,  and  published,  soon  after,  a  defence  of 
constitutionalism  from  the  philosophy  of  Aquinas,  en 
titled  "  Angelicas  Fuentes,  6  el  Tomista  en  las  Cortes." 
After  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  he  was  confined 
several  years  in  a  monastery.  The  constitutional  gov 
ernment  having  been  overthrown  in  1823,  he  removed 
to  Ireland,  where  he  died  in  1837.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  "  Spanish  Christian  Year,"  (19  vols.,)  being  an 
account  of  the  Spanish  church  festivals,  etc.,  a  treatise 
in  favour  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  common  lan 
guages,  entitled  "  De  la  Leccion  de  la  sagtada  Escritura 
en  Lenguas  vulgares,"  and  a  Latin  dissertation  on  the 
Phoenician  colonization  of  Ireland,  etc.  He  also  trans 
lated  Paley's  "Natural  Theology,"  and  other  English 
works,  into  Spanish.  His  brother  JAIME,  born  in  1765, 
was  the  author  of  a  "Literary  Tour  to  the  Churches  of 
Spain,"  (unfinished.)  Jaime  died  in  London  in  1824. 

See  JOAQUIN  LORENZO'S  Autobiography,  entitled  "Vida  literaria 
de  J.  L.  Villanueva,"  2  vols.,  1825. 

Villar,  vel'yaV,  (NoEL  GAKRIEL  LUCE,)  a  French 
bishop,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1748.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95,)  he  promoted  education  and  liter 
ary  interests.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1826. 

Villareal.     See  FERNANDEZ  VILLAREAL. 

Villaret,  ve'yi'ri',  (CLAUDE,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1720,  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas  and  fictitious  works,  and  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Velly's  "  History  of  France."  lie  treated  of  the  period 
from  1329  to  1469.  Died  in  1766. 

Villaret,  de,  deh  ve'yt'ri',  (Foui.QUES,)  a  French 
commander,  was  chosen  grand  master  of  the  order  of 
Malta  in  1307.  He  captured  Rhodes  in  1310,  and  re 
signed  his  office  in  1319.  Died  in  1327. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I.  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moot:; 


VILLA  RET 


2199 


Villaret  de  Joyeuse,  ve'yi'ri'  deh  zhwa'yuz', 
(LoL.  is  THOMAS,)  COUNT,  a  French  vice-admiral,  born 
at  Auch  in  1750.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1766,  and  be 
came  rear-admiral  in  1793.  He  gave  proof  of  skill  and 
courage  in  a  battle  against  the  British  admiral  Howe, 
which  began  May  29  and  ended  June  I,  1794.  Villaret, 
who  commanded  in  this  action,  lost  about  seven  ships. 
In  June,  1795,  he  was  defeated  by  Lord  Bridport,  who 
had  a  superior  force.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
sent  to  conquer  Saint  Domingo  in  1801,  and  was  captain- 
general  of  Martinique  from  1802  to  1809,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  English.  Died  in  1812. 

See  THIERS,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  LACROIX, 
"  Eloge  de  1'Amiral  Viilaret  de  Joyeuse,"  1824  ;  KKKGUELEN,  "  His- 
toiredes  Guerres  maritime*  entrela  F ranee  et  1'Angleterre  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villars,  ve'ytu'  or  vel'ytn',  (DOMINIQUE,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1745,  studied  medicine, 
and  took  his  degree  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  in  1805 
professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Strasbourg.  He 
published  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Plants  of  Dau 
phine,"  (with  65  plates,  4  vols.,  1786,)  and  other  botanical 
works,  also  "  Principles  of  Medicine  and  Surgery." 
The  genus  Villarsia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  LADOUCETTE,  "Notice  de  M.  Vii'ars."  iSiS. 

Villars,  de,  deh  ve'ySit'  or  vel'v^R',  (Ci.AUDE  Louis 
Ilt.croK,)  Due,  a  famous  French  general,  born  at  Mou- 
l;ns  in  1653,  was  a  son  of  General  Pierre  de  Villars, 
noticed  below.  He  had  a  handsome  form,  and  personal 
advantages  which,  with  his  courage  and  high  spirit,  early 
attracted  the  notice  of  Louis  XIV.  For  his  conduct  at 
Senef,  in  1674,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  lie 
served  in  Flanders  and  Alsace  from  that  year  until  the 
peace  of  1678,  after  which  he  was  employed  in  diplo 
matic  missions  to  Vienna  and  Munich.  Having  returned 
to  Paris  about  1688,  he  obtained  the  favour  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon  and  Louvois,  who  appointed  him  com 
missary-general  of  cavalry  in  1689.  He  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1693,  and  served  several  campaigns 
near  the  Rhine  in  the  war  which  was  ended  by  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  In  1698  he  was  sent  as  ambassa 
dor  to  Vienna,  where  he  displayed  much  finesse,  and 
adroitly  counteracted  the  intrigues  of  the  Austrian 
court  in  relation  to  the  Spanish  succession.  The  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  began  in  1701,  and  Villars  re 
turned  to  Paris.  He  married  Mademoiselle  de  Varange- 
ville  in  1702.  Having  been  appointed  commander  of 
ar  army  sent  to  aid  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  gained  a 
victory  on  the  Rhine  in  October,  1702,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  the  same  year.  In 
1704  he  subdued  the  Camisaids,  Protestants  of  Ce  venues, 
who  had  revolted.  For  this  service  he  received  the 
title  of  duke  in  1705.  He  is  praised  by  several  English 
writers  for  his  humanity  to  the  Camisaids.  He  obtained 
in  April,  1705,  command  of  the  army  of  the  Moselle, 
with  which  he  took  Lauterburg  and  Haguenau  in  1706, 
and  invaded  Wiirtemberg  in  1707.  In  January,  1709, 
he  took  command  of  the  army  in  Flanders,  where  he 
was  opposed  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene.  lie  was  defeated  by  them  at  the  great  battle 
of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  having  in  the  early  part  of  the 
action  received  a  wound  which  disabled  him  for  some 
months.  This  victory  was  dearly  bought  to  the  allies, 
who  lost  about  20,000  men.  Villars  was  compelled,  by 
want  of  men  and  money,  to  remain  on  the  defensive 
in  1711.  He  commanded  with  success  against  Prince 
Eugene,  who  invaded  France  in  1712.  The  French 
gained  a  victory  at  Denain,  took  Douai  and  Boucliain, 
and  compelled  the  enemy  to  retreat  to  Brussels.  After 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  ensued  a  long  peace.  Villars 
had  great  influence  at  court  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV.  He  was  one  of  the  most  fortunate,  as 
well  as  most  able,  French  generals  of  his  time.  Died  at 
Turin  in  1734. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Villars,"  (partly  written  by  himself,)  3 
vols.,  1734;  PEYSSONNEL,  "  filoge  de  Villars."  1734:  ANQUETII., 
"  Vie  du  Marechal  de  Villars,"  4  vols.,  1784  ;  VOI.TAIRR,  "Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV;"  SAINT-SIMON,  "Memoires;"  DANGEMJ,  '•Journal:" 
SAINTE-BEUVE,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "  Nouvelle  Bic'i  iphie 
Generale." 


Villars,  de,  (HONORE  ARM  AND,)  Prince  de  Martigues, 
born  in  1702,  was  a  son  of  Marshal  Villars.  He  became 
governor  of  Provence,  and  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1734.  His  talents  were  only  ordinary. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.  Died  in  1770. 

Villars,  de,  (MONTFAUCON,  m6N'f5'kAN',)  ABBE,  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1635,  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
He  published  in  1670  a  satirical  work,  entitled  "Con 
versations  of  the  Count  de  Gabalis,"  ("Entretiens  du 
Comte  de  Gabalis,")  for  which  he  was  forbidden  the 
pulpit.  He  was  killed  by  robbers  in  1673. 

Villars,  de,  (PIERRK,)  a  French  general  and  diplo 
matist,  born  in  1623,  was  the  father  of  Marshal  Villars. 
He  served  in  Italy  under  the  Prince  of  Conti.  On  ac 
count  of  the  enmity  of  Louvois,  he  left  the  army  and 
became  a  diplomatist.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Spain  in  1672,  and  to  Denmark  in  1683.  Died  in  1698. 
His  wife,  MARIE  GIGAULT  DE  BKLLEFONDS,  (ge'go' deli 
beTloN',)  born  in  1624,  was  distinguished  for  intelligence 
and  wit.  She  wrote  Letters,  which  were  published  in 
1759.  Died  in  1706. 

Villars-Brancas.     See  BRANCAS,  (ANDRE.) 

Villaviciosa,  de,  da  vel-ya-ve-//;e-o'sa,  (JosE,)  a 
Spanish  poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Sign  -nza  in  1589, 
was  appointed  in  1628  Inquisitor  of  the  kingdom  of 
Murcia.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Battle  of  the  Flies," 
("  La  Mosquea,")  a  mock-heroic  poem.  Died  in  1658. 

Ville,  de,  deh  vel,  (.\NTOINE,)  a  French  military  en 
gineer  and  writer  on  fortification,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1596  ;  died  in  1656. 

Villebrune.     See  LEFEKVRE,  (JEAN  BAPTISTE.) 

Villedieu,  de,  deh  vel'de-uh',  (MARIE  CATHERINE 
HORTENSE  Desjardins — di'zhtK'da.N',)  MADAME,  a 
French  authoress,  born  near  Fougeres  in  1631.  She 
wrote  verses  and  novels  which  were  once  popular.  Died 
in  1683. 

Villefore,  de,  deh  vel'foR',  (JOSEPH  FRANQOIS  BOUR- 
GOIN,)  a  French  biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1652.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Bernard,"  (1704,)  and  lives  of 
other  saints.  Died  in  1737. 

Villefosse.     See  HERON  DE  VILI.EFOSSE. 

Villefroy,  de,  deh  velTRwa',  (GUILLAUME,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1690.  He  founded  in  1744 
a  society  of  linguists,  called  Capucins  hebraisants,  who 
sought  to  explain  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  by  a  double 
literal  sense.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Paris 
in  1752.  Died  in  1777. 

Villegagiion,  de,  deh  vergtn'yoN',  (NICOLAS  Du- 
RAND,)  CHEVALIER,  a  French  admiral,  born  at  or  near 
Provins  in  1510,  was  a  nephew  of  Villiers  de  1'Isle  Adam, 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  Malta.  He  commanded 
the  vessel  which  conveyed  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  to 
France  in  1548.  He  proposed  to  found  in  Brazil  a 
French  colony  where  the  Protestants  could  enjoy  re 
ligious  liberty,  and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Admiral 
Coligny  for  that  enterprise.  In  1555  he  conducted  a 
party  of  emigrants  in  two  vessels  to  Brazil.  He  did 
not  succeed  in  forming  a  permanent  colony,  and  he 
returned  to  France,  where  he  was  censured  for  his 
mismanagement.  Died  in  1571. 

See  "  Navigation  de  Villegagiion  en  1555,"  1557  ;  NICERON,"  Me 
moires  :"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villegas,  de,  da  vel-ya'gas,  (Ai.ONSO,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  romance,  born  at  Toledo,  flourished  about 
1550.  He  wrote  "  Selvaggia,"  which  is  an  imitation  of 
the  "  Celestina." 

Villegas,  de,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  poet,  lived  about 
1550.  A  volume  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1565. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Villegas,  de,  (ESTEVAN  MANUEL,)  a  celebrated  lyric 
poet  of  Spain,  born  in  Old  Castile  in  1596,  published  a 
collection  of  poems  entitled  "  Amatorias,"  (1620.)  He 
also  translated  Horace  and  Anacreon  into  Spanish  verse, 
and  made  a  prose  translation  of  Boethius.  Died  in  1669. 

"The  graceful  luxuriance  of  the  poetry  of  Villegas," 
says  Bouterwek,  "  has  no  parallel  in  modern  literature  ; 
and,  generally  speaking,  no  modern  writer  has  so  well 
succeeded  in  blending  the  spirit  of  ancient  poetry  with 
the  modern." 

See  TICKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


V 'ILL  EG  AS 


V1LLEXEUVE 


Villegas,  de,  (FERNANDO  Ruiz,)  a  Spanish  writer  of 
Latin  verse,  bom  at  Burgos,  lived  about  1500-1530.  He 
became  governor  of  Burgos,  and  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus. 
He  left  many  elegant  Latin  poems,  which  remained  in 
manuscript  until  1743. 

See  VICENTE  DE  LOS  Rios,  "  Memorias  cle  la  Vida  de  F.  Ruiz  de 
Villegas,"  1774. 

Villegas,  de,  (FRANCISCO.)     See  QUKVEDO. 

Villegas,  de,  (PERO  FERNANDEZ,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  1453,  became  Archdeacon  of  Burgos.  He  trans 
lated  Dante's  "Inferno"  into  Spanish  verse,  (1515.) 
Died  in  1525. 

Villehardouin,  de,  deh  vel'tu'doo-aN',  (GEOFFROY,) 
a  French  diplomatist  and  historian,  born  at  Arcis-sur- 
Aube  about  1 165.  He  was  sent  in  1201,  by  Tliibault, 
Count  of  Champagne,  to  solicit  aid  from  the  Venetians 
in  fitting  out  a  crusade,  in  which  mission  he  was  suc 
cessful.  In  1204  he  assisted  in  the  siege  of  Constanti 
nople,  and  afterwards  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  it, 
entitled  "The  History  of  the  Capture  of  Constantinople 
by  the  French  and  Venetians."  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  oldest  prose  history  in  the  French  language,  and  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  records  of  the  time. 
Died  about  1213. 

See  MicHAL'D,  "  History  of  the  Crusades." 

Villele,  de,  deh  ve'lil',  (JOSEPH,)  COUNT,  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1773.  In  1815  he  repre 
sented  the  department  of  Haute-Garonne  in  the  Cham 
ber  of  Deputies,  where  he  was  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  ultra-royalist  party.  After  the  fall  of  the  Decazes 
ministry,  he  became  minister  of  state  in  1820,  and  of 
finance  in  1821.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the 
council  (prime  minister)  in  September,  1822.  His  talents 
for  administration  were  respectable,  but  lie  was  not 
capable  of  grand  views  and  genuine  statesmanship.  lie 
rendered  himself  unpopular  by  illiberal  and  reactionary 
measures,  and  was  removed  from  office  in  January,  1828. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  DE  NKUVIU.E,  "Notice  snr  M.  de  Viilele,"  1855;  L.  DK 
LOMENIK,  "  M.  de  Villele,  par  un  Hjmime  de  Rien,"  iS4i  ;  LA- 
MAKTINK,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Villemain,  vel'max',  (An EL  FRANQOIS,)  a  celebrated 
French  critic,  orator,  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris 
on  the  gth  of  June,  1790.  He  was  educated  at  the  Im 
perial  Lyceum;  (College  Louis-le-Grand,)  and  was  a 
pupil  in  rhetoric  of  Luce  de  Lancival.  About  1810 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Lycee 
Charlemagne  by  M.  de  Fontanes.  He  gained  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Institute,  in  1812,  for  his  "  Kloge  de  Mon 
taigne,"  in  which  he  displayed  a  great  power  of  general 
ization  and  an  excellent  gift  of  harmonious  language. 
He  produced,  in  1814,  a  "Discourse  on  the  Advantages 
and  Inconveniences  of  Criticism,''  which  was  crowned 
by  the  French  Academy.  In  1816  he  became  professor 
of  French  eloquence  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
wrote  an  "  FJoge  de  Montesquieu."  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  professor  and  critic.  Blending  in  his 
lectures  literary  analysis,  biography,  spicy  anecdotes, 
ingenious  judgments  in  detail,  and  profound  generalities, 
he  gave  to  them  the  form  of  eloquent  conversation.  As 
a  critic,  he  was  liberal,  impartial,  and  disposed  to  appre 
ciate  merit,  in  whatever  nation  or  school  it  appeared. 
He  was  appointed  master  of  requests  to  the  council  of 
state  in  1818,  published  a  "  History  of  Cromwell,"  (2 
vols.,  1819,)  and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1821.  Having  avowed  liberal  political  opinions,  he 
was  deprived  of  the  office  of  master  of  requests  in  1827. 
Under  the  new  regime  he  became  a  peer  of  France  in 
1832,  president  of  the  royal  council  of  public  instruction 
in  1834,  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  Academy 
in  the  same  year.  He  published  his  "  Lectures  on  French 
Literature/'  ("Cours  de  Litterature  Frai^u'se,"  5  vols., 
1828-38,)  which  is  considered  his  principal  work.  He 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  May,  1839,  to 
March,  1840,  and  held  the  same  office  in  the  cabinet  of 
Juizot  from  October,  1840,  to  December,  1844.  After 
he  revolution  of  1848  he  took  no  part  in  politics.  He 
;ontributed  many  admirable  articles  to  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle"  and  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 
Among  his  numerous  works  we  notice  "  Discours  et 


Melanges  litteraires,"  (1823,)  and  "Studies  of  Ancient 
and  Foreign  Literature,"  (1846.)  Died  in  May,  1870. 

M.  Villemain  is  generally  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  writers  of  his  time.  His  style  is 
admirable,  and  his  works  present  a  happy  union  of  mod 
eration  with  independence,  while  they  preserve  a  due 
equilibrium  between  reason  and  imagination. 

See  L  DK  LOMKNIK.  "  M.  Viilemain,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841;  SAINTK-BKUVK,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  and  "Canseries 
du  Lundi  ;"  F.  Z.  COI.I.OMHET,  "  M.  Villemain,  de  ses  Opinions 
religieuses,"  etc  ,  1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1X54. 

Villemessaiit,  vel'mi'sSs'',  (JEAN  HIPPOLYTE  CAR- 
TIER,)  a  French  journalist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1812.  He 
supported  the  Legitimist  party,  and  began  to  publish 
the  "  Figaro"  in  Paris  in  1854. 

Villemot,  vel'mo',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  astronomer 
and  priest,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1651.  He 
published  in  1707  a  "New  System  or  Explanation  of 
the  Movements  of  the  Planets."  Died  in  1713. 

Villena,  de,  da  vel-ya'na,  (Don  ENRIQUE,)  MARQUIS, 
a  celebrated  Spanish  scholar  and  writer,  bom  in  1384, 
was  related  to  the  royal  families  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
His  extraordinary  attainments  in  science  procured  for 
him  among  his  contemporaries  the  reputation  of  a  necro 
mancer.  He  translated  Virgil's  "  /Kneid"  and  Dante's 
poems  into  Spanish,  and  wrote  several  original  works, 
among  which  is  "Gaya  Sciencia."  Died  in  1434. 

See  PKESCOTT,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i. 
part  i. 

Villena,  de,  (THAN  Pacheco — pa-cha'ko,)  MARQUIS, 
a  Spanish  courtier,  became  the  favourite  and  chief 
minister  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile  about  1454.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  abilities  and  ambition,  and  acquired  an 
entire  ascendency  over  the  imbecile  king.  After  the 
malcontent  nobles  formed  a  league  against  Henry  IV., 
(1460,)  Villena  was  supplanted  in  the  royal  favour  by 
Bertram!  de  la  Cueva  ;  but  he  retained  his  power  by 
joining  the  nobles  who  had  revolted,  and  who  deposed 
Henry  in  1464.  Died  in  1474. 

Villeziave,  vel'ntV,  (MATHIEU  GUILLAUMF.  THE- 
RESE,)  a  French  litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Lan- 
guedoc  in  1762.  He  practised  as  an  advocate  during 
the  Revolution,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1793-94  on  sus 
picion  of  moderantisme.  lie  edited  several  journals  of 
Paris  under  the  republic  and  restoration,  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  and  produced 
a  translation  of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  (4  vols.,  1807 
-22,)  which  was  received  with  favour,  and  various  other 
works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1846. 

See  QUERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Villenave,  (THEODORE,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1798.  He  pro 
duced,  besides  other  works,  a  drama,  called  "  Walstein," 
(1828.)  and  "Constaniine,"  a  poem,  (1837.) 

Villeneuve,  de,  (ARNAUD.)  See  ARNALDUS  VILLA- 
NOVA  N  US. 

Villeneuve,  de,  deh  vel'nuv',  (CiiRiSTOPHE,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  1541,  served  with  distinction 
under  Henry  III.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIII.  Died 
in  1615. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (GAURIELLE  SUSANNE  Barbot — 
btk'bo',)  a  French  novelist,  born  about  1695.  She  died 
in  1755. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  soldier  and 
writer  of  the  fifteenth  century,  accompanied  Charles 
VI f  I.  in  his  Italian  campaign,  and  was  the  author  of 
"Memoirs  of  the  Conquest  of  Naples,"  (1497.) 

Villeneuve,  de,  (HEI.ION  or  fiuo.\r,  a'le'oN',)  was 
born  in  1270.      Having  entered  the  order  of  Saint  John 
f  Jerusalem,    he   was  elected  grand  master  of  Rhodes 
in  1319.      Died  in  1346. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Huox,  /m'dN',)  a  French  poet 
under  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  was  the  author  of 
"  Les  quatre  Fils  d'Aymon,"  and  other  works. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1450,  was  appointed  by  Charles  VIII.  commander 
f  the  army  sent  against  Naples.  He  was  subsequently 
employed  on  important  missions  to  Rome,  and  in  1505 
was  created  a  marquis  by  Louis  XII.,  being  the  first  who 
received  that  title  in  France.  Died  in  1516. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  xi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VILLENEUVE 


22OI 


yiLLOISON 


Villeneuve,  de,  (PIERRE  CHARLES  JEAN  BAPTISTE 
SII.VESTRF.,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Valensoles 
(Basses-Alpes)  in  1763.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  American  war,  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1796,  and 
commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  fleet  which  was 
defeated  by  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  1798. 
With  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  he  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  Sir  Robert  Calder,  near  Cape  Finisterre, 
in  July,  1805.  He  commanded  about  thirty-three  ships 
of  the  line  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  where  the  French 
were  defeated  with  great  loss  and  Villeneuve  was  taken 
prisoner,  (October,  1805.)  He  was  blamed  by  Napoleon 
for  this  defeat,  and  committed  suicide  at  Rennes  in 
April,  1806. 

See  J.  J.  MAGENDIE,  "  Memoire  necrologique  sur  le  Vice-Amiral 
de  Villeneuve,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villeneuve.de,  (RoMEK,)  an  eminent  French  states 
man  and  general,  born  about  1170.  He  was  employed 
in  the  service  of  Berenger,  Count  of  Provence,  and  was 
regent  of  Provence  after  the  death  of  Berenger,  in  1245. 
Died  after  1250. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (ROSALINE,)  a  French  nun,  noted 
for  her  ascetic  piety,  born  about  1263,  was  canonized. 
Died  in  1329. 

Villeneuve-Bargemoii,  de,  deh  vel'nuv'  biRzh'- 
mo.N',  (JEAN  PAUL  Alban — fl'boN',)  VICOMTE,  a  French 
economist,  born  near  Grasse  (Provence)  in  1784.  He 
received  the  Montyon  prize  for  his  "Christian  Political 
Economy,  or  Researches  into  the  Causes  of  Pauperism," 
etc.,  (T,  vols.,  1834.)  Died  in  1850. 

Villeneuve-Trans,  de,  deh  vel'nuv'  tR6x,  (Louis 
FRANCOIS,)  MARQUIS,  a  historical  writer,  born  in  1784, 
was  a  twin-brother  of  the  preceding.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France,"  (3  vols., 
1836.)  Died  in  1850. 

Villerme,  ve'ye'R'ma',  (Louis,)  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1819.  He  wrote  on  agriculture 
and  economy. 

Villerme,  (Louis  RENE,)  a  French  economist  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1782.  He  advocated 
reform  in  the  treatment  of  prisoners,  founded  the  "  An- 
nales  d'Hygiene,"  (1829,)  and  was  the  first,  it  is  said, 
to  apply  statistics  to  questions  of  hygiene.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "Tableau  of  the  Moral  and  Physical  State 
of  Operatives  employed  in  the  Manufacture  of  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Silk,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)  Died  in  1863. 

See  "  NouveHe  Biographic  Generale." 

Villeroi  or  Villeroy,  de,  deh  vcl'inva',  (CHARLES 
As  Neufville — deh  nuh'vel',)  MARQUIS,  a  French  gen 
eral,  born  about  1560,  was  called  Marquis  d'Alincourt 
in  his  youth.  He  fought  for  the  League,  and  was  a 
rival  of  Sully.  Died  in  1642. 

Villeroi,'  de,  (FRANQOIS  DE  NEUFVILLE,)  Due,  a 
marshal  of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1644,  was  a  son 
of  Nicolas,  noticed  below.  He  was  better  qualified  to 
be  a  courtier  than  a  general.  He  became  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1674,  lieutenant-general  in  1677,  and  mar 
shal  of  France  in  1693.  Through  royal  favouritism 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Flanders  in  1695.  He  failed  to  relieve  Namnr,  which 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  William  III.  of  England. 
He  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Ramillies,  (1706,)  where 
he  was  defeated  by  Marlborough  ;  but  he  retained  the 
favour  of  Louis  XIV.  even  after  this  disaster.  He 
was  noted  for  his  presumption  and  self-esteem.  Died 
in  1730. 

See  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires  ;"  VOI.TAIRR,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  DE  COURCEI.I.ES,  "Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villeroi,  de,  (NICOLAS  DK  NEUFVILLE,)  Due,  a 
courtier  and  general,  born  in  1598,  was  a  son  of  Charles, 
noticed  above.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France,  and 
governor  of  the  young  king  Louis  XIV.,  about  1646. 
Died  in  1685. 

Villeroi  or  Villeroy,  de,  (NICOLAS  DE  NEUFVILLE,) 
SEIGNEUR,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  1542, 
was  the  father  of  Charles,  noticed  above.  He  was  ap 
pointed  secretary  of  state  in  1567,  after  which  he  was  a 
trusted  counsellor  of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  HI.  He 
became  a  partisan  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  was  the 
agent  of  the  negotiations  opened  in  1589  between  the 


Duke  de  Mayenne  and  Henry  IV.  In  1594  he  entered 
the  service  of  Henry  IV.  as  secretary  of  state.  He  was 
a  rival  or  enemy  of  Sully.  Died  in  1617. 

See  P.  MATHIEU,  "  Remarques  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  de  Villeroy,"  1618. 

Villeroy.     See  VILLEROI. 

Villers,  ve'ya',  (  FRANCOIS TOUSSAINT,)  a  French  revo 
lutionist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1749.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention  of  1792-95,  and  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred.  Died  in  1807. 

Villers,  de,  deh  ve'ya',  (CHARLES  FRANCOIS  DOMI 
NIQUE,)  a  French  philosopher  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1764.  Soon  after  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Revolution,  he  published  a  treatise  "On  Liberty," 
by  which  he  exposed  himself  to  the  persecution  of  the 
Jacobins,  and  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Germany. 
lie  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Heeren,  Jacob!,  and 
other  eminent  writers,  and  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  German  literature,  which  he  greatly  contributed  to 
render  popular  in  France.  He  was  appointed  in  1811 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Spirit  and  Influence  of 
Luther's  Reformation,"  which  was  crowned  by  the 
French  Institute  and  was  translated  into  English,  Ger 
man,  Dutch,  and  Swedish,  "  Report  on  the  State  of 
Ancient  Literature  and  History  in  Germany,"  and 
"  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  etc.  He  also  translated  a  num 
ber  of  standard  German  worksinto  French.  Died  in  1815. 

See  MICIIKI.  BKKR,  "Notice  sur  M.  C.  Villers,"  1815;  SMILK 
A.  BEGIN,  "Villers,  Madame  de  Rodde  et  Madame  de  Stael,"  1840. 

Villeterque.de,  deh  vel'tiuk',  (ALEXANDRK  Louis,) 
a  French  writer,  born  at  Ligny  in  1759.  He  was  an 
editor  of  the  "Journal  de  Paris,"  and  published  "Dra 
matic  Essays,"  (1793,)  and  "  Essays  on  Morals  and  Physi 
cal  Science,"  (2  vols.,  1795.)  Died  in  1811. 

Villette,  de,  deh  ve'let',  (CHARLES,)  MARQUIS,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  friend  of 
Voltaire.  lie  wrote  verses,  eloges,  etc.  In  1792  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Convention.  Died  in  1793. 

Villiaume,  ve'le-5'ma',  (NICOLAS,)  a  French  historian, 
advocate,  and  political  economist,  born  at  Pont-a-Mous- 
son  in  1814.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His 
tory  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1850,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,'*'  (2  vols.,  1857.) 

Villiers.     See  BUCKINGHAM,  DUKE  OF. 

Villiers.     See  CLARENDON. 

Villiers,  vil'yerz,  (CHARLES  PELHAM,)  an  English 
politician,  a  brother  of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  born  in 
London  in  1802.  He  became  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  in  1835,  and  made  annually  a  motion  to  re 
duce  or  repeal  the  duty  on  grain.  He  was  appointed 
judge-advocate-general  in  1853,  and  president  of  the 
poor-law  board  in  1859  ;  resigned  in  1866. 

Villiers,  (HENRY  MONTAGUE,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1813.  He  became  Bishop  of  Durham 
in  1856.  Died  in  1861. 

Villiers,  de,  deh  ve'yej-i',  (JEAN,)  a  French  general, 
born  about  1384.  lie  wasTan  enemy  of  the  Armagnac 
faction,  and  fought  for  the  English  against  the  King  of 
France.  Died  in  1437. 

Villiers,  de,  (PIERRE,)  a  French  writer  and  preacher, 
born  at  Cognac  in  1648.  He  published  a  poem  on  the 
"  Art  of  Preaching,"  ("L'Art  de  piecher,"  1682,)  often 
reprinted,  and  several  religious  and  moral  essays.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1728. 

Villiers  de  L'Isle  Adam,  de,  deh  ve'ye-i'  deh  lei 
t'clSs'',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French  commander,  born  at  Beau- 
vais  in  1464.  He  was  elected  grand  master  of  the  order 
of  Saint  John  at  Rhodes  in  1521.  The  Turks  having 
taken  Rhodes  in  1522,  he  removed  the  order  to  Malta 
in  1530.  Died  in  1534. 

See  VERTOT,  "  Histqire  des  Chevn^er^de  Malte." 

Vuftp'iguX^vTl'fe^g'T?''")''  Villepigue,  (JOHN  B.,) 
an  American  general,  born  in  South  Carolina  about 
1834,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  He  fought 
against  the  Union  at  Corinth,  October,  1862.  Died  at 
Port  Hudson,  Louisiana,  in  November,  1862. 

Villoison,  de,  deh  ve'Kvi'ziN',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  GAS- 
PARD  d'Ansse — do.N'ss,)  an  eminent  French  Hellenist, 
born  at  Corbeil-sur-Seine  about  1750.  He  studied  at 
the  College  of  Beauvais,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  had 
read  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek  classics.  He  pub- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


flLLON 


2202 


^INCHON 


lished  in  1773  the  first  edition  of  Apollonius's  "Lexicon 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,"  with  valuable  scholia,  from 
a  manuscript  at  Saint-Germain.  He  was  soon  after 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  although  by  the 
rules  of  the  society  too  young  to  receive  that  honour. 
Having  been  sent  by  the  government  in  1778  to  examine 
the  Library  of  Saint  Mark,  Venice,  he  discovered  nu 
merous  fragments  of  Greek  works  hitherto  unpublished, 
which  appeared  in  1781  under  the  title  of  "  Anecdota 
Graeca,"  etc.  He  also  brought  to  light  a  manuscript 
"Iliad"  of  the  tenth  century,  with  ancient  scholia,  (since 
called  "  Scholia  Vencta,")  published,  with  learned  pro 
legomena,  in  1788.  This  was  considered  an  important 
discovery.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his 
"  Epistolae  Vimarienses,"  (1783,)  being  the  result  of  his 
researches  in  the  Library  of  Weimar,  and  an  edition  of 
the  "  Pastoralia"  of  Longus.  lie  travelled  in  Greece 
about  three  years,  (1785-88.)  He  died  in  April,  1805, 
just  after  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
College  de  France. 

See  I?ON  Jo-iKpn  DACIER,  "  fi  o~e  de  J.  H.  cl'Ansse  de  Villoison," 
1806;  article  "  Dansse"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Villon,  ve'y6.N',  (FitANgois,)  an  early  French  poet, 
whose  original  name  was  COKBUKIL,  (koit'bul' or  koK.'- 
buh'ye,)  born  in  Paris  in  1431.  He  was  author  of  a 
humorous  poem  called  "The  Great  Testament,''  ("  Le 
grand  Testament,")  and  is  reckoned  one  of  the  national 
poets.  Died  about  1485. 

See  PROFILET,  "  De  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Villon,"  1856; 
CAMPAUX,  "  Villon,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEnvres,"  1859;  LONGFELLOW, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Villotte,  ve'yot/,  (J.VCQUKS,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1656.  He  was  em 
ployed  in  Armenia  and  at  Ispahan.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Turkey,  Persia,  Armenia,"  etc.,  (1730.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Vilmar,  til'maR,  (Aur.usr  FRIKDRICH  CHRISTIAN,) 
a  German  politician  and  writer,  born  at  Solz,  in  Hesse, 
in  1800.  He  became  intendant-general  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Church  at  Cassel  in  1851.  He  wrote  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  the  National  Literature  of  Germany," 
(1845,)  and  other  works. 

Vimoiit,  ve'moN1',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Caen  in  1795.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Human 
and  Comparative  Phrenology,"  (2  vols.,  1833-36.) 

Viiiateya,  one  of  the  names  of  GARUDA,  (which 
see.) 

VInce,  (SAMUKL,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Suffolk.  lie  became  professor 
of  astronomy  and  experimental  philosophy  in  the  Uni 
versity  of  Cambridge  in  1796,  and  contributed  several 
treatises  to  the  •'  Philosophical  Transactions."  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Complete  System  of  Astronomy,"  (3 
vols.,  1797-1808.)  He  was  also  Archdeacon  of  Bedford. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1809. 

Vincent,  vaN's6.\',  (ALEXANDRE  JOSKPH  Hidulphe 
— //e'diilf',)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  liesdin  in 
1797,  published  a  "Course  of  Elementary  Geometry," 
"Treatise  on  the  Solving  of  Numerical  Equations,"  and 
other  works  on  various  subjects.  He  became  in  1831 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand. 

Vincent,  (FRANgois  ANDRE,)  an  able  French  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1747,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1768,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1782.  A  picture 
of  "  President  Mole  seized  by  Factious  Persons"  is  called 
his  master-piece.  Died  in  1816. 

See  QUATREMEKE  L>K  QuiNcv,  "  Notice  sur  Vincent,"  1817. 

Vincent,  (FRANCOIS  NICOLAS,)  a  violent  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  Paris  in  1767,  belonged  to  the  faction 
called  Ilebertistes.  He  was  executed  with  Hebert  in 
March,  1794. 

Viii'geiit,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Hertford,  was  a  brother  of  Thomas, 
noticed  below.  He  was  ejected  in  1662,  after  which  he 
preached  in  London.  He  wrote  several  religious  works. 
Died  in  1697. 

Vincent,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
who  was  conspicuous  for  his  humanity  to  the  sufferers 


from  the  plague  in  London  in  1665.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "God's  Terrible  Voice  in  the  City 
by  Plague  and  Fire."  Died  in  1671. 

Vincent,  (WILLIAM,)  D.I).,  an  English  scholar  and 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1739.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  appointed  head-master  of 
Westminster  School  in  1788,  and,  after  several  other  pre 
ferments  in  the  Church,  became  Dean  of  Westminster  in 
1802.  He  published  "The  History  of  the  Commerce 
and  Navigation  of  the  Antients  in  the  Indian  Ocean," 
(2  vols.,  1807,)  a  "  Defence  of  Public  Education,  in  a 
Letter  to  the  Lord  Bishop  of  Meath,"  "The  Origination 
of  the  Greek  Verb,  an  Hypothesis,"  and  a  number  of 
sermons.  The  first  named  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  British  Critic"  and 
"The  Classical  Journal."  Died  in  1815. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1798. 

Vincent  OF  LKKINS.     See  VINCENTIUS  LIRINKNSIS. 

Vincent  de  Beauvais,  vaN'sSN'  deh  bo'vi',  |  Lat. 
VINCEN'TIUS  BELLOVACEN'SIS,]  a  learned  French  Do 
minican  monk,  was  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Louis  IX.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  encyclopaedia,  entitled  "Speculum 
Quadruplex"  or  "Speculum  Majus."  Died  about  1260. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  (or  Depaul,)  vin'sent  (or  vaN'sSN') 
deh  pol,  [Ger.  VINCENZ  VON  PAULA,  vin-sents'  fon  pow'- 
la,]  SAINT,  a  benefactor  and  reformer,  born  near  Dux,  in 
the  southwest  of  France,  in  1^76.  He  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  1600,  and  was  captured  in  1605  by  corsairs,  who 
took  him  to  Tunis  and  sold  him  as  a  slave.  Having 
escaped  in  1607,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  became  curate 
of  Clichy  in  161 1.  About  1613  he  was  employed  as  pre 
ceptor  of  the  sons  of  Philippe  Emmanuel  de  Gondi, 
Count  de  Joigny.  One  of  these  pupils  was  the  famous 
Cardinal  de  Retz.  Vincent  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  to  improve  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the 
poor  and  the  sick.  About  1617  he  founded  a  charitable 
institution,  called  Confrerie  de  Charite,  in  which  he 
made  a  successful  innovation  by  employing  the  laic  ele 
ment.  He  afterwards  spent  some  time  in  reforming  and 
relieving  the  prisoners  in  the  galleys  at  Marseilles.  In 
1624  he  began  to  organize  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis 
sions,  designed  to  train  teachers  and  preachers  for  the 
provinces  of  France.  The  priests  of  this  society  were 
called  Lazaristes.  He  established  a  foundling-hospital 
in  Paris  about  1638.  Among  the  most  useful  and  widely- 
extended  institutions  of  Vincent  de  Paul  was  the  Sisters 
of  Charity,  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  sick.  During 
the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde  his  inexhaustible  charity 
was  employed  in  relieving  the  miseries  of  famine.  His 
services  on  this  occasion  procured  for  him  the  title  of 
Pere  de  la  Patrie,  ("  Father  of  the  Country.")  He  died 
in  Paris  in  1660.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Clement 
XII.  in  1737. 

See  ABEI.LY,  "Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1664;  P.  COI.I.RT, 
"Viede  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  2  vols.,  1748:  GALURA,  "  Vincenz 
von  Paula,"  1807  :  LEOPOLD  I>H  STOLBKRG.  "  Leben  des  Vincen/  von 
Paula,"  1818;  LKMAIRE,  "Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1825; 
AKB£  MAURY.  "  Pane'ayriqiie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1827; 
CAPBFIGOK,  " Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  (1»  Paul,"  1827;  Til.  NISARD, 
"Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1844;  A.  CHAI.I.AMEI,  "Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,"  1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Vincent  Ferrier  or  Vicente  Ferrer,  ve-then'ta 
fer-raik',  a  Spanish  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Valencia 
about  1350.  He  preached  in  Spain,  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany,  the  languages  of  which  he  spoke  with  facility. 
He  was  renowned  as  a  preacher,  and  was  venerated  as  a 
saint.  Died  at  Vannes  in  1419. 

See  COELHO,  "  Vida  de  V.  Ferrer,"  1713;  FUKSI,  "Life  of  V. 
Ferrier,"  (in  Hungarian,)  1749:  HELI.HR,  "Vincent  Ferrer  nach 
seinen  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1830. 

Vin-cen'tl-us  (vin-sen'shc-us)  Lir-i-nen'sis,  [Fr. 
VINCENT  DE  LERINS,  van'soN'  dfh  leh-ra.\',]  a  monk 
and  writer,  born  in  Gaul.  He  wrote  a  short  treatise 
entitled  "Commonitorium"  against  heretics,  which  is  a 
work  of  some  merit.  Died  about  450  A.D. 

Vincenz  von  Paula.     See  VINCENT  DE  PAUL. 

Vinchon,  va\'sho.N',  (AUGUSTS  JEAN  BAPTISTK,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1789.  He  obtained  the 
grand  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  1814,  and  sub 
sequently  studied  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  may  be 
named  "Joan  of  Arc  under  the  Walls  of  Orleans,"  and 
the  "Death  of  Coriolanus."  Died  in  1855. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


2203 


V1KET 


Vinci,  da,  da  vei/chee,  (or  vin'chee,)  (LEONARDO,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  born 
at  Vinci,  near  Florence,  in  1452,  was  a  natural  son  of 
Pietro  da  Vinci,  a  notary.  He  became  in  early  youth  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  Verocchio,  a  painter  of  Florence,  whom 
he  soon  surpassed.  He  was  well  versed  in  anatomy, 
astronomy,  botany,  mathematics,  engineering,  and  music. 
In  his  youth,  before  he  left  Florence,  he  produced  a 
cartoon  of  Adam  and  Eve,  a  Madonna,  a  picture  of  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and  other  works.  About  1481 
he  removed  to  Milan,  and  entered  the  service  of  Ludovico 
il  Moro,  Duke  of  Milan.  He  was  director  of  an  Academy 
of  sciences  and  arts  founded  by  the  duke  about  1485.  In 
1493  he  made  a  model  for  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Francesco  Sfor/a.  The  statue  was  never  cast,  because 
he  could  not  procure  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bronze. 
About  1499  he  completed  at  Milan  his  master-piece, — 
the  picture  of  the  "  Last  Supper,"  ("  Cenacolo,")  which 
was  painted  on  a  wall  of  the  convent  of  Santa  Maria 
delle  Grazie.  This  celebrated  work  exists  now  only  in 
copies  made  by  Marco  Oggioni  and  other  painters,  and 
in  the  engraving  of  Raphael  Morghen.  In  consequence 
of  the  expulsion  of  Ludovico  il  Moro  from  Milan  by 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  Leonardo  returned  to  Florence 
in  1500.  He  painted  at  Florence  a  portrait  of  Madonna 
Lisa  del  Giocondo  and  "The  Virgin  on  the  Knees  of 
Saint  Anne."  Having  been  commissioned  to  paint 
one  end  of  the  council-hall  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  he 
commenced  there  a  picture  of  the  battle  of  Anghiari, 
which  he  left  unfinished.  He  worked  at  Milan  in  1507 
and  1512.  He  visited  Rome  in  1514,  but  soon  came 
away  in  disgust,  which  is  ascribed  to  Pope  Leo's  want 
of  courtesy,  or  to  the  disagreement  of  Da  Vinci  with 
Michael  Angelo,  who  was  then  at  Rome.  Da  Vinci  en 
tered  the  service  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  whom  he  met 
in  Italy,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  France  in  1516. 
He  received  from  Francis  an  annual  salary  of  seven 
hundred  crowns.  His  health  was  so  infirm  that  he  exe 
cuted  no  great  work  after  he  left  Italy.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  excellent  treatise  on  painting,  "Trattato 
della  Pittura,"  which  has  been  translated  into  English, 
and  various  other  treatises,  which  have  not  been  pub 
lished.  The  genuine  paintings  of  Da  Vinci  which  are 
now  extant  are  not  very  numerous.  Among  them  is  a 
portrait  of  himself  in  the  Uffizi  gallery  at  Florence.  He 
surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  the  art  of  chiaroscuro. 
He  was  never  married.  He  died  near  Amboise,  or  at 
Fontainebleau,  in  May,  1519,  leaving  his  manuscripts, 
library,  and  other  personal  property  to  his  pupil  Fran 
cesco  Melzi.  Among  his  eminent  pupils  were  Bernar 
dino  Luini  and  Marco  Oggioni. 

"  The  discoveries, "says  Hallam,  "  which  made  Galileo 
and  Kepler  and  Maestlin  and  Maurolicus  and  Castelli 
and  other  names  illustrious,  the  system  of  Copernicus, 
the  very  theories  of  recent  geologers,  are  anticipated 
by  Da  Vinci  within  the  compass  of  a  few  pages, — not 
perhaps  in  the  most  precise  language  or  on  the  most  con 
clusive  reasoning,  but  so  as  to  strike  us  with  some 
thing  like  the  awe  of  preternatural  knowledge.  ...  If 
any  doubt  could  be  harboured,  not  as  to  the  right  of  Leo 
nardo  da  Vinci  to  stand  as  the  first  name  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  which  is  beyond  all  doubt,  but  as  to  his  origi 
nality  "in  so  many  discoveries,  which  probably  no  one 
man,  especially  in  such  circumstances,  has  ever  made,  it 
must  be  on  an  hypothesis,  not  very  untenable,  that  some 
parts  of  physical  science  had  already  attained  a  height 
which  mere  books  do  not  record."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  AMORETTI,  "  Memorie  stnriche  sulla  Vita  di  L.  da  Vinci," 
1784;  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  GAUI.T  DE  SAINT-GKR- 
MAIN,  "Vie  de  Leonard  de  Vinci."  iSo-?:  G.  Bossi,  "Vita  di  I,.  A.i 
Vinci,"  1814;  BR\UN,  "  L.  da  Vinci's  Leben,"  1819;  J.  W.  BROWN. 
"  Life  of  L.  da  Vinci,"  1828  ;  A.  DUMF.SNM.,  "  Leonard  de  Vinci,'1 
Paris.  1850;  GAI.I.KNBKRG,  "  Leon,  da  Vinci,"  1834 :  CH.  CI.EMENT, 
"  Michel  Ange,  L.  de  Vinci.  Raphael,"  18^1  ;  MRS.  JAMESON,  "Me 
moirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters:"  J.  S.  HAWKINS,  "Life  of  L.  da 
Vii  ci,"  1X02  ;  E.  J.  DEI.ECI.UZK,  '' Essai  sur  L.  da  Vinci."  1844: 
LANZI,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  K.  Rio,  "  L.  da  Vinci  et 
?on  Ecole,"  185;;  TIOIZZI,  "  Dir.ionario  ;"  BAI.DINUCCI,  "  Noti/.ie  ;" 
"  We<tminste/Rpview"  for  July,  1850. 

Vinci,  da, '(I, EON. \R DO,)  an  Italian  musical  composer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1690;  died  about  1732. 

Vinciguerra,  ven-che-gwer'ia,  (MARCO  ANTONIO.) 
an  Italian  poet,  who  flourished  about  1470-1490.  lie 


was  for  a  long  time  secretary  of  the  republic  of  Venice. 
He  is  called  the  creator  of  satire  in  Italy.  His  works 
are  said  to  be  remarkable  for  energy,  originality,  and 
pathos. 

Vincke,  fink'keh,  (FuiEDRicu  LUDWIG  WILHKLM 
PHILIP?,)  a  Prussian  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Min- 
den  in  1774,  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government,  and  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Admin 
istration  of  Great  Britain."  Died  in  1844. 

Vincke,  von,  fon  flnk'keh,  ( ERNST  FRIEDKICH 
GEORG,)  BARON,  a  distinguished  Prussian  orator  and 
statesman,  son  of  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born 
near  Hagen,  in  the  county  of  Mark,  in  1811.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Diet  in  1847,  and  in  1849  became  a 
member  of  the  second  Prussian  Chamber,  being  several 
times  re-elected.  He  is  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of 
the  constitutional  party,  and  is  conspicuous  as  an  able 
and  brilliant  debater. 

Vinckelbooms,  vlnk'el -boms',  or  Vinkenbooms, 
vink'en-boms',  (DAVID,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Mech 
lin  in  1578.  His  favourite  subjects  were  landscapes, 
festivals,  hunting-scenes,  etc.,  which  he  delineated  with 
great  skill  and  fidelity.  Died  in  1629. 

Vin'dex,  (CAius  JULIUS,)  a  Roman  general,  born  in 
Aquitania.  lie  was  governor  or  pro-praetor  of  Gallia 
Celtica  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  68  A.D.  he  revolted 
against  Nero,  and  proclaimed  Galba  emperor.  He  was 
killed,  or  killed  himself,  at  Vesontio  (Besai^on)  in  the 
same  year. 

Vindiciaiius,  vin-dish-e-a'nus,  an  eminent  physician 
and  Christian,  lived  about  370  A.D.  He  was  physician 
to  the  emperor  Valentinian.  His  skill  and  wisdom  are 
highly  commended  by  Saint  Augustine. 

Vinding,  vii/cling,  (ERASMUS,)  a  Danish  scholar  and 
jurist,  born  at  Vinding,  in  Zealand,  in  1615.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  assessor  of  the  supreme  court 
of  justice.  He  had  the  principal  part  in  the  reformation 
or  revision  of  the  laws  of  Denmark.  Died  in  1684. 

Vinding,  (PAUL,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1658.  He  was  professor  of  Greek,  and  author  of 
several  works  on  classical  subjects.  Died  in  1712. 

Vineis,  vin'e-is,  (PKTRUS,)  originally  Pietro  delle 
Vigne,  (del'la  ven'ya,)  an  Italian  jurist,  ruse  to  be  chan 
cellor  to  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  whose 
cause  he  defended  against  the  popes.  Died  in  1249. 

Vl'ner,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  lawyer  and  compiler, 
born  about  1680,  published  in  1751  "A  General  and 
Complete  Abridgment  of  Law  and  Equity,"  (24  vols. 
fol.,)  a  work  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  employed  half 
a  century.  He  died  in  1756,  bequeathing  twelve  thou 
sand  pounds  to  establish  a  professorship  of  common  law 
at  Oxford,  which  was  first  filled  by  Blackstone. 

Vines,    vlnz,    (RICHARD,)    an  'English    Presbyterian 

divine,  born  in  Leicestershire.     He  was  a  member  of  the 

j  Assembly  of  Divines  in  1644,  minister  of  Saint  Clement 

Dane's,    and   vicar  of  Saint  Lawrence  Jewry,   London. 

Died  in  1655. 

Vinet,  ve'ni',  (AI.EXANDRE  RODOLPHE,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  author  and  theologian,  born  at  or  near  Lausanne 
in  June,  1797.  He  became  professor  of  the  French  lan 
guage  and  literature  at  Bale  in  1817,  and  retained  that 
chair  twenty  years.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
an  eloquent  preacher,  advocated  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  opposed  the  union  of  church  and  state.  In  1837  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  practical  theology  at  Lau 
sanne.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "An  Argu 
ment  for  Liberty  of  Worship,"  (1826,)  "  Chrestomathie 
Frai^aise,"  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  "  Discours  sur  quelques 
Sujets  religieux,"  (1835,)  an  English  version  of  which 
was  entitled  "  Vital  Christianity,"  "  Studies  on  French 
Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1849,) 
and  "  Pastoral  Theology,"  (1850.)  His  works  are  highly 
esteemed,  and  are  remarkable  for  elegance  of  style. 
He  seceded  from  the  national  Church  in  1840.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  E  SCHERKR,  "  A.  Vinet,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Merits,"  1853  :  SAINTE- 
BEUVK,  "Portraits  contemporains ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1854. 

Vinet  or  Vinette,  ve'neV,  (fii.lE,)  a  French  scholar 
and  critic  of  great'  learning,  was  born  near  Barbezieux 
(Saintonge)  in  1509.  He  was  for  some  years  professor 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (gSf^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


riNETTE 


2204 


VIREY 


at  the  College  of  Guienne,  Bordeaux,  of  which  he  was 
rector  or  president  from  1558  till  1583.  He  published 
good  editions,  with  notes,  of  Eutropius,  (1553,)  Sueto 
nius  "  De  Rhetoribus,"  (1556,)  Florus,  (1563,)  Ausonius, 
(1575,)  and  other  classics.  He  also  wrote  several  original 
works.  Died  in  i  587. 

See  JOANNET,  "filoge  d'filie  Vinet,"  1816;  NICERON,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Vinette.     See  VINET,  (£LIE.) 

Viiigtrinier,  vaN'tKe'ne-i',  (ARTUS  BARTHELEMY.) 
a  French  physician  and  economist,  born  in  1796.  He 
practised  in  Rouen,  and  treated  the  subject  of  prison- 
reform  in  an  able  work,  entitled  "  Des  Prisons  et  des 
Prisonniers,"  (1840.)  He  wrote  other  works. 

Vinaeii.     See  VINNIUS. 

Viii'nl-us  or  Via'nen,  (ARNOLD,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
jurist,  bom  near  the  Hague  in  1588.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  law  at  the  University  of  Leyclen  in  1633.  He 
published  "Select  Questions  of  Law,"  "Commentaries 
on  Four  Books  of  the  Imperial  Institutes,"  ("Com- 
mentarius  in  Libros  IV.  Institutionum  Imperialium," 
1642,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Leyden  in  1657. 

Vintimille,  de,  deli  vaN'te'mer  or  vaN'te'me'ye, 
(JACQUKS,)  COMTE,  a  scholar  and  translator,  born  about 
1512.  He  lived  mostly  in  France,  and  became  a  coun 
sellor  to  the  parliament  of  Burgundy  in  1549.  He  wrote 
several  Latin  poems,  and  translated  into  French  the 
"  Cyropaedia"  of  Xenophon  and  the  works  of  Herodian. 
Died  in  1582. 

See  LUDOVIC  LIE  VAUZRLLES,  "Jacques  de  Vintimille,"  1865. 

Vintimille  du  Luc,  de,  deli  vaN'te'mel'  dii  lu'k, 
(CHARLES  GASPARD  GUILLAUME,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  near  F  re  jus  in  1655.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Paris  in  1729,  and  opposed  Jansenism.  Died  in  1746. 

Vin'ton,  (ALEXANDER  HAMILTON,)  D.D.,  an  Epis 
copalian  divine,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1807.  He  became  successively  rector  of  Saint  Paul's 
Church  in  Boston,  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in 
Philadelphia,  and  Saint  Mark's  Church  in  New  York, 
(1861.) 

Vinton,  (FRANCIS,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1809.  He 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy  of  West  Point,  served 
in  the  Creek  war  in  1836,  and,  having  afterwards  studied 
theology,  was  ordained  in  1839.  He  became  rector  of 
Grace  Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1847,  and  assistant  minister 
of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  in  1855. 

Vinton,  (FRANCIS  LAURENS,)  an  American  general, 
a  nephew  of  the  Rev.  Francis  Vinton,  was  born  at  Port 
land,  Maine,  in  1835.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1856,  and  became  a  brigadier  general  about  September, 
1862. 

Vinton,  (JUSTUS  HATCH,)  an  American  missionary, 
born  at  Wilhngton,  Connecticut,  in  1806,  sailed  in  1834 
for  Burmah,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  instruction 
of  the  Karens.  Died  in  1858. 

Vinton,  (SAMUEL  F.,)  an  American  legislator,  born  at 
South  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  removed  to 
Ohio  about  1816,  practised  law  with  distinction,  and  as  a 
Whig  represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress  about 
twenty-two  years,  (1823-37  and  1843-51.)  Died  in  1862. 

Vio,  de.     See  CAJETAN. 

Violante  do  Ceo.     See  CKO,  no. 

Viollet-Leduc,  (or  Le  Due,)  ve'o'l.Y  leh  ditk,  (EU 
GENE  EMMANUEL,)  an  eminent  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1814,  was  a  pupil  of  A.  Leclerc.  He  devoted 
himself  to  Gothic  and  mediaeval  architecture,  and  was 
employed  by  the  government  in  the  restoration  of 
several  ancient  churches,  among  which  were  that  of 
Notre-Dame,  in  Paris,  and  the  cathedral  of  Amiens. 
He  began  to  publish  in  1853  a  large  and  valuable  work 
on  French  architecture,  "  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  1'Ar- 
chitecture  Frai^aise  du  Xle  au  XVIe  Siecle,"  (6  or 
more  vols.) 

Viomenll,  de,  deh  ve'o'ma'nel',  (ANTOINE  CHARLES 
du  Houx — dii  /ioo,)  BARON,  a  French  general,  born 
in  Vosges  in  1728.  He  was  second  in  command  of  the 
army  of  Rochambeau  in  the  United  States,  to  which  he 
was  sent  in  1780.  While  defending  the  king  against  the 
populace  of  Paris,  in  August,  1792,  he  received  a  severe 
wound.  Died  in  November,  1792. 


Viomenil,  de,  (CHARLES  JOSEPH  HYACINTHE  in1 
Houx,)  MAKQUIS,  a  general,  born  in  1734,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  served  in  the  United  States, 
(1780-82,)  emigrated  as  a  royalist  in  1791,  and  fought 
against  France,  under  Conde,  until  1797.  He  returned 
in  1814,  and  became  a  marshal  of  Fiance  in  1816.  Died 
in  1827. 

Viotti,  ve-ot'tee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  violinist,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1755.  ^e  studied 
under  Pugnani,  and  was  appointed,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
first  violinist  at  the  court  of  Turin.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  repaired  to  London, 
where  he  was  for  a  time  leader  of  the  band  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  One  of  his  principal  works  is  entitled  "Vingt- 
neuf  Concertos  de  Violons."  Died  in  1824. 

See  BAIU.OT,  "Notice  sur  J.  B.  Viotti,"  1825;  MIEI.,  "Notice 
sur  Violti,"  1X27. 

Viperano,  ve-pa-ra'no,  (GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Messina  in  1535. 
He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Giovenazzo  by  Pope  Sixtus 
V.  He  wrote  various  works,  among  which  are  "On  ' 
Writing  History,"  ("  De  Scribenda  Historia,"  1569,)  and 
"On  the  Chief  Good,"  ("De  Summo  Bono,"  1575.) 
Died  in  1610. 

Vipsanius.     See  AGRIPPA. 

Virabhadra,  [modern  1  lindoo  pron.  vee'ra-b'hud'ra, ] 
[from  the  Sanscrit  vird,  a  "strong  or  valiant  person," 
a  "  hero,"  (perhaps  cognate  with  the  Latin  vir,  a  "  man," 
also  a  "  hero,")  and  bh.idni,  "  prosperous,"  "excellent,"] 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  son,  or,  accord 
ing  to  some,  of  an  avatar,  of  Siva. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  177. 

Viraj,  vi-raj',  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
a  mysterious  being,  who  was  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Brahma  and  the  father  of  the  first  Mann.  By  dividing 
himself  into  male  and  female,  he  became  the  parent  of 
many  creatures.  The  fable  of  Viraj  seems  to  have  sug 
gested  the  idea  of  Arclha-nari,  (ar'dha  na'ree,  from 
ilrdhd,  "half,"  and  ndri,  "woman,"  a  being  combining 
the  two  sexes,)  one  of  the  forms  of  Siva,  and  perhaps 
also  of  the  Hermaphrodite  of  the  Greeks. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  pp.  83-85. 

Virchow,  feek'Ko,  (Runoi.E,)  a  distinguished  Ger 
man  pathologist,  born  at  Koslin,  in  Pomeranin,  in  1821. 
He  became  in  1846  prosector  at  Berlin,  and  in  1856 
professor  of  pathological  anatomy  in  that  city.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  of  his  professional  works — all  of 
which  enjoy  a  high  reputation — is  his  "Cellular  Pa 
thology  as  based  upon  Physiological  and  Pathological 
Histology,"  (1858;  2(1  edition,  1859,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English,  and  is  regarded  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  lie  has  also 
given  especial  attention  to  investigating  the  diseases 
caused  by  trichina.  In  regard  to  political  and  social 
questions  Dr.  Virchow  is  progressive  and  liberal. 

See  PIEREK,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Viret,  ve'r.Y,  [Lat.  VIRE'TUS,]  (PIERRE,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  Reformer,  born  at  Orbe  in  1511,  was  a  friend  of 
Fare!.  He  began  about  1531  to  preach  the  Reformed 
doctrines  at  Orbe  and  Payerne.  In  1536  he  preached 
at  Lausanne,  where  lie  made  many  converts,  and  where 
he  was  employed  as  pastor  several  years.  His  health  is 
said  to  have  been  ruined  by  poison  given  to  him  by 
some  priests  at  Geneva.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  removed  about  1561  to  the  south  of  France.  He 
afterwards  preached  at  Lyons,  from  which  he  was  driven 
by  persecution  in  1565,  and  took  refuge  in  Navarre.  He 
wrote  many  works,  among  which  are  an  "  Exposition  of 
the  Doctrines  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1543,)  and 
"Papal  Physics,"  ("La  Physique  papale,"  1552.)  Died 
at  Orthez  in  1571. 

See  CHENF.VIEUE.  "  Farel,  Froment,  Viret,  Reformateurs,"  1835; 
JAQIJKMOT,  "Viret,  Refonnateur  de  Lausanne,"  1836. 

Viretus.     See  VIRET. 

Virey,  ve'r.Y,  ([UIJEN  JOSEPH,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Hante-Marne  in  1775.  He 
was  appointed  in  1812  chief  pharmaceutist  at  the  hos 
pital  of  Val  de  GrS.ce  in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Theo 
retical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Pharmacy,"  (1811,) 
"  Ephemerides  of  Human  Life,"  (1814,)  "On  Vital 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  sam»,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nftt;  good;  muon; 


VIRGIL 


220: 


VIRGINIA 


Power,"  (1822,)  "Philosophical  Hygiene,"  (2  vols., 
1828.)  and  other  valuable  works.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  principal  contributors  to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sci 
ences  naturelles"  and  the  "Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
medicates."  Died  in  1846. 

Vir'gil,  [Ital.  VIRGILIO,  veR-iee'le-o  ;  Fr.  VIRGII.K, 
veR'zhel',]  or,  more  fully,  Pub'11-us  Vir-gil'I-us  (or 
Ver-gil'I-us)  Ma'ro,  the  most  illustrious  of  Latin  poets, 
was  born  of  humble  parents  at  Andes,  a  small  village 
near  Mantua,  on  the  I5th  of  October,  70  B.C.,  during  the 
consulship  of  Pompeyand  Crassus.  His  mother's  name 
was  Maia.  He  studied  at  Cremona,  Milan,  and  Neapo- 
lis,  (Naples.)  It  is  evident  from  his  writings  that  he  re 
ceived  a  liberal  education,  and  was  well  versed  in  Greek 
literature,  philosophy,  medicine,  and  mathematics.  lie 
inherited  from  his  father,  Maro,  a  small  farm  near  Man 
tua,  which  was  included  in  the  tract  assigned  by  Octavian 
(Augustus)  to  his  soldiers  as  a  reward  for  their  services 
at  Philippi  in  42  B.C.  Virgil  was  thus  deprived  of  his 
patrimony;  but  he  recovered  it  by  a  personal  appeal  to 
Augustus.  He  expressed  his  gratitude  for  this  favour 
in  his  first  eclogue,  which  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  his 
earliest  productions.  He  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
Pollioand  Horace,  and  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Maecenas, 
to  whom  he  was  introduced  about  40  B.C.  He  displayed 
a  remarkable  mastery  over  the  Latin  language  in  his 
ten  eclogues,  "  Bucolica,"  or  pastoral  poems,  which  are 
mostly  imitations  of  Theocritus.  In  these  poems,  de 
scriptions  of  nature  are  admirably  blended  with  human 
feelings  and  sympathies. 

About  the  age  of  thirty-three,  Virgil  became  a  resident 
of  Rome,  and  a  recipient  of  the  bounty  of  Augustus  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  could  devote  himself  entirely  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  owned  a  house  on  the  Esquiline 
Hill.  It  appears  that  after  he  had  remained  a  few  years 
at  Rome  he  removed  to  Naples,  at  that  time  a  favourite 
abode  of  literary  men.  He  expended  seven  years  in  the 
composition  of  a  didactic  poem  on  rural  economy, 
entitled  "  Georgica,"  in  four  books,  which  is  considered 
his  most  original  and  finished  production.  It  presents  a 
marvellous  union  of  didactic  precept  with  graphic  de 
scription  and  ingenious  illustration,  expressed  with  great 
variety  and  magnificence  of  diction.  "  In  sustained 
majesty,  in  melody  that  ever  satisfies  but  never  cloys 
the  ear,  in  variety  of  modulation,  in  stateliness  but  free 
dom  of  march,  it  stands  unapproached  by  any  other 
Roman  poet."  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

About  30  n.c.  he  began  to  compose  a  great  national 
epic  poem,  which  he  had  long  meditated,  and  which  was 
designed  to  celebrate  the  origin  of  the  Roman  empire. 
He  had  written  or  sketched  the  last  book  of  this  poem, 
the  " /Eneid,"  (" /Eneis,")  which  constitutes  a  perennial 
monument  of  his  genius,  when  he  departed  on  a  visit  to 
Athens  in  19  B.C.  He  intended  to  pass  several  years  in 
Greece,  in  polishing  and  revising  the  "  /Eneid,"  but  his 
health  failed.  During  the  homeward  voyage  he  died 
at  Brundusium,  in  September,  19  B.C.  According  to  his 
own  request,  he  was  buried  near  Naples.  There  is  a 
current  tradition  that  shortly  before  his  death  he  re 
quested  his  friends  to  burn  the  "  /Eneid,"  which  he 
regarded  as  imperfect ;  but,  as  they  refused  to  comply, 
he  committed  the  publication  of  it  to  Tucca  and  Varius. 

Virgil  is  represented  as  a  person  of  tall  stature, 
swarthy  complexion,  and  delicate  constitution.  He  was 
generally  beloved  as  well  as  admired  by  his  contempo 
raries.  Among  his  virtues  modesty  was  conspicuous. 
Of  his  more  private  life  nothing  is  known.  It  does  not 
appear  that  he  was  ever  married.  lie  had  two  brothers, 
who  died  before  him,  and  a  half-brother,  Valerius  Pro- 
culus.  The  "/Eneid"  has  ever  been  ranked  among  the 
poems  which  are  destined  to  immortality.  Nearly  nine 
teen  hundred  years  of  uninterrupted  popularity  attest 
the  broad  and  elevated  and  diversified  character  of  his 
poetical  merit.  In  comparison  with  Homer,  it  is  usual 
to  represent  Virgil  as  deficient  in  originality  and  sub- 
limit}'.  Some  critics  also  depreciate  the  "  /Eneid"  as  an 
imitation  of  Homer's  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey."  On  this 
subject  we  cannot,  perhaps,  do  better  than  to  quote  some 
remarks  of  Addison.  "  One  great  genius  often  catches 
the  flame  from  another,  and  writes  in  his  spirit  without 
copying  servilely  after  him.  There  are  a  thousand 


shining  passages  in  Virgil  which  have  been  lighted  up 
by  Homer.  Virgil  falls  infinitely  short  of  Homer  in  the 
characters  of  his  poem,  both  as  to  their  variety  and 
novelty,  ^neas  is  indeed  a  perfect  character,  .  .  .  and 
that  of  Dido  cannot  be  sufficiently  admired.  .  .  .  Virgil 
has  excelled  all  others  in  the  propriety  of  his  sentiments. 
Everything  is  just  and  natural.  His  sentiments  show 
that  he  had  a  perfect  insight  into  human  nature,  and 
that  lie  knew  everything  that  was  most  proper  to  affect 
it."  (Critique  on  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost."  in  the 
"  Spectator.")  He  is  considered  by  good  judges  supe 
rior  to  all  ancient  poets  in  beauty  and  harmony  of 
versification.  Dante  admired  Virgil,  and  adopted  him 
as  his  model. 

Wordsworth  pronounced  Virgil  the  greatest  master 
of  language  that  ever  existed,  and  extolled  his  lofty  moral 
tone  and  frequent  strokes  of  tenderness  and  imagina 
tion.  ("  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1853.) 

Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  "/Eneid"  "is 
the  most  beautiful  monument  which  remains  to  us  of  all 
antiquity." 

Commenting  on  J.  C.  Scaliger's  preference  of  Virgil 
to  Homer,  Hallam  observes,  "  It  would  be  a  sort  of 
prejudice  almost  as  tasteless  as  that  of  Scaliger,  to  refuse 
the  praise  of  real  superiority  to  many  passages  of  Virgil, 
even  as  compared  with  the  'Iliad,'  and  far  more  with 
the  'Odyssey.'  If  the  similes  of  the  older  poet  are 
more  picturesque  and  animated,  those  of  his  imitator 
are  more  appropriate  and  parallel  to  the  subject." 

The  best  or  most  popular  English  translation  of  Vir 
gil  is  that  of  Dryden,  which  has  a  high  reputation. 
Sotheby's  version  of  the  "  Georgics"  and  Pitt's  version 
of  the  "7Eneid"are  highly  commended.  The  "  Eclogues" 
and  "  Georgics"  were  also  translated  into  verse  by  Jo 
seph  Warton.  "  We  may  congratulate  ourselves,"  says 
the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1861,  "on  the 
possession  of  a  splendid  English  epic,  in  which  most 
of  the  thoughts  are  Virgil's  and  most  of  the  language 
Dryden's.  He  was  constantly  adding  to  the  origmal, 
and  that  in  the  most  wilful  and  reckless  manner.  There 
were  elements  in  his  nature  peculiarly  repugnant  to  the 
Virgil ian  ideal.  .  .  .  It  is  idle  to  discuss  who  has  come 
nearest  to  the  style  and  language  of  Virgil,  when  no  one 
has  come  within  any  appreciable  distance."  His  works 
became  school-books  before  the  end  of  the  Augustan 
age.  Virgil  composed,  says  Donatus,  his  own  epitaph, 
in  these  terms  : 

"  Mantua  me  gemiit,  Calabri  rapuere,  tenet  mine 
Parthenope.     Cecini  pasciia,  rura,  duces."* 

See  DOXATUS.  "P.  Virgilii  Mnronis  Vita;"  LAUTER,  "  De  Vir- 
gilio  Imitatore  Homeri,"  1796;  TISSOT,  "  fitndes  stir  Vlrgile,"  4 
vols.,  1825-30;  SAINTE-BEUVR,  "Virgile,"  2  vols..  1857;  SKRVIUS, 
"  Commentarius  ad  Virgilium  ;"  J.  W.  BEROF.R,  "  De  Virgilio  Ora- 
tore,"  1703;  O.  ARKHKNIUS,  "  Tal  om  P.  Virgilius  Maro,"  1841; 
FABRICIUS,  "  Bibliotlieca  Lalina  ;"  CARI.  G.  FRANCKR,  "  Disser- 
t.itio  de  P.  Virgilio  Mnrone,"  etc.,  1776;  BAHR.  "Geschiclite  der 
RSmisclien  Literatur  ;"  MICHAEL  EARTH,  "  Vita  P.  Virgilii  Maronis 
Carmine  descripta,"  1676. 

Virgil,  (PoLYDORE.)     See  VERGIL,  (POLYDORE.) 

Virgile.     See  VIRGIL. 

Virgilio.     See  VIRGIL. 

Virgilius.     See  VIRGIL. 

Virgilius,  (POLYDOKUS.)     See  VERGIL,  (POLYDORE.) 

Vir-gil'i-us,  SAINT,  a  native  of  Ireland,  became 
Bishop  of  Saltzburg,  (Juvavum,)  in  Austria.  He  is  said 
to  have  converted  many  Slavonians  and  Huns  to  Chris 
tianity.  Died  about  782. 

Virgin,  vir-geen',  ?  (CHRISTIAN  ADOLPH,)  a  Swedish 
navigator,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1797.  He  performed 
a  voyage  round  the  globe  in  1851-53,  after  which  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 

Vir-gin'I-a,  [Fr.  VIRGINIE,  veR'zhe'ne',]  a  Roman 
maiden,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  tragical  fate,  was  a 
daughter  of  Lucius  Virginius,  an  officer  of  the  army.  She 
was  betrothed  to  L.  Icilius,  a  tribune  of  the  people, 
from  whom  the  decemvir  Appius  Claudius  wished  to 
ravish  her.  She  was  seized  by  M.  Claudius,  one  of  his 
agents,  who  pretended  that  she  was  his  slave,  and  who, 
in  order  to  prove  his  claim,  took  her  before  the  tribunal 


*  "  Mantua  bore  me,  Calabria  [next]  received  me,  Naples  now 
holds  me.  I  have  sung  of  pastures,  [or  shepherds,]  of  farms,  and 
of  lenders  in  war." 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  73.) 


VIRGIN  IE 


2206 


of  Appius  Claudius.  Virginias  arrived  at  the  forum 
just  alter  the  decemvir  had  decided  that  she  was  the 
slave  of  Claudius.  He  immediately  killed  her,  to  deliver 
her  from  slavery  and  dishonour,  (449  H.C.)  The  people 
revolted  against  the  decemvirs,  and  dragged  Appius 
Claudius  to  prison,  where  he  killed  himself. 

See  SMITH,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.  ; 
MACAUI.AV,  "  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome." 

Virginie.     See  VIRGINIA. 

Virginius,  (Lucius.)     See  VIRGINIA. 

Vjr-giii'i-us  Ro-ma'nus,  a  Latin  comic  poet  of  the 
Augustan  age,  had  a  high  reputation.  He  is  said  to 
have  contributed  to  improve  the  public  taste,  and  to 
have  merited  a  place  beside  Plautus  and  Terence.  His 
style  wi.s  noble  and  e'e^ant.  His  works  are  lost. 

Vir-ghi'I-us  (or  Vergin'ius)  Ru'fus,  (Lucius,)  a 
Roman  general,  bom  at  Como  in  14  A.n.,  was  consul  in 
the  year  63.  After  he  had  defeated  Vindex,  his  army 
proclaimed  him  as  emperor,  (69  A.n  ,)  but  lie  refused 
the  crown.  He  became  a  third  time  consul  in  97  A.D., 
as  an  associate  of  the  emperor  Nerva.  lie  was  eulogized 
by  Tacitus  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 

Viriathe  or  Viriath.     See  VIKIATHUS. 

Vl-ri'a-tkus,  [Gr.  Oiipiadof  ;  Fr.  VIRIATHE,  ve're'tt'; 
Ger.  VIUIATH,  ve-re-at',]  a  brave  Lusitanian  chief,  who 
carried  on  for  many  years  a  successful  war  against  the 
Romans  ;  but  he  was  at  length  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  consul,  L.  Servilius  Csepio,  by  whom  he  was  put 
to  death,  (140  li.c.) 

See  HECKER,  "Viriath  und  die  Lusitanier,"  7826. 

Virieu,  de,  deh  ve're-uh',  (FUANC.OIS  HENRI,)  COMTE, 
a  French  officer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1754.  He  was 
elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  one  of 
the  members  of  the  noblesse  that  joined  the  Tiers-fitat. 
He  was  a  royalist,  and  a  leader  of  the  insurgents  of 
Lyons  who  revolted  against  the  Convention  in  May, 
1793.  He  was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Lyons,  in  Oc 
tober,  1793. 

See  "  Notice  sur  le  Comte  de  Virieu,"  1863. 

Virotte.     See  LA  VIROTTE. 

Virues,  de,  da  ve-roo-eV,  ?  (CRISTOVAT.,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Valencia  about  1550,  was 
the  author  of  five  tragedies,  an  epic  poem,  and  a  number 
of  lyrics.  Died  in  1610. 

Viscaino,  ves-ka-ee'no,  (SEHASTTAN,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  born  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen 
tury.  He  commanded  an  expedition  sent  from  Aca- 
pulco  in  1602,  and  explored  the  coast  of  California,  of 
which  he  made  an  accurate  chart. 

Vis-9el-li'iius,  (SPURIUS  CASSIUS.)  a  Roman  general, 
distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  first  agrarian  law, 
was  consul  in  502  H.C.  He  defeated  the  Sabines,  was 
chosen  consul  again  in  493,  and  formed  an  important 
league  with  the  Latins.  Having  become  consul  in  486, 
he  proposed  an  agrarian  law.  He  was  charged  with 
aspiring  to  royal  power,  and  was  put  to  death  in  485  B.C. 

Visch,  de,  deh  visK,  (CHARLES,)  a  Flemish  monk 
and  biographer,  born  near  Furnes  about  1596;  died  in 
1666. 

Vischer,  (CORNELIS.)     See  VISSCHER. 

Vischer,  fish'er,  (FKIEDRICH  THEODOR,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1807,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Tiibingen  in  1844.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "/Esthetics,  or  the  Science  of  the  Beautiful." 

Vischer,  (PETER,)  an  eminent  German  sculptor  and 
founder,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1460.  Among  his 
best  works  may  be  named  the  monument  of  the  Arch 
bishop  Ernst  at  Magdeburg  and  the  tomb  of  Saint  Se- 
bald  at  Nuremberg,  both  in  bronze.  The  latter  is  of 
rare  excellence.  Died  in  1530.  Vischer  had  five  sons 
who  were  sculptors,  and  HERMANN,  the  eldest,  was 
esteemed  nearly  equal  to  him  in  genius.  Died  in  1540. 

Vischnou  or  Vischnu.     See  VISHNU. 

Viscoiiti,  ves-kon'tee,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  Lombardy,  which  acquired  sovereign  power 
at  Milan  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  founder  of  their 
grandeur  was  OTTONE  VISCONTI,  who  became  Arch 
bishop  of  Milan  in  1262.  He  was  violently  opposed  by 
a  party  of  the  Milanese,  the  Torriani,  whom  he  defeated 
in  battle  in  1277.  He  died  in  1295.  His  nephew, 


MATTEO  VISCONTI  THE  GREAT,  born  in  1250,  was 
chosen  in  1288  "captain  of  the  people"  for  five  years. 
He  obtained  sovereign  power,  and  waged  war  against 
the  Torriani,  who  drove  him  out  of  Milan  in  1302  ;  but 
he  was  restored  in  1311.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
Ghibelines,  and  was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Pope 
John  XXII. ,  who  excommunicated  him  in  1322.  He 
died  in  the  same  year.  According  to  Sismondi,  "  he 
raised  himself  above  all  the  princes  of  his  time  by  his 
political  talents,"  etc.  His  son,  GALEAZ/.O  I.,  born  in 
1277,  became  in  1322  lord  of  Milan,  which  was  then 
under  the  papal  interdict.  His  capital  was  attacked  in 
1323  by  an  army  of  crusaders,  who  were  incited  by  the 
pope.  He  was  aided  by  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  defeated 
the  crusaders  in  1324.  Died  in  1328.  A/,zo  VISCONTI, 
born  in  1302,  was  a  son  of  Galeazzo,  and  became  sove 
reign  of  Milan  and  Lombardy  in  1329.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  able,  liberal,  and  just  prince.  He  was  the 
first  lord  of  Milan  who  coined  money  in  his  own  name. 
Died  in  1339,  without  issue.  LUCCHINO  (or  LUCHINO) 
VISCONTI.  an  uncle  of  Az/.o  and  son  of  Matteo,  was  born 
in  1287.  He  became  lord  of  Milan  in  1339,  and  enlarged 
his  dominions  by  the  annexation  of  Parma,  Pavia,  and 
other  towns.  He  died  in  1349,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  GIOVANNI,  who  was  bom  in  1290.  lie  had 
been  appointed  Archbishop  of  Milan  about  1317.  He 
acquired  Bologna  by  purchase  in  1350,  and  died  in  1354. 
His  power  was  inherited  by  three  nephews,  Matteo, 
Galeazzo,  and  Barnabo,  the  first  of  whom  died  in  1355. 
BARNAB6,  born  in  1319,  became  master  of  Bergamo, 
Brescia,  Crema,  and  Cremona.  He  also  ruled  Milan 
jointly  with  Galeazzo.  He  was  notorious  for  his  cruelty 
and  audacity,  and  defied  the  power  of  the  pope,  who 
excommunicated  him.  Urban  V.  preached  a  crusade 
against  him,  and  united  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  with 
other  monarchs  in  a  league  against  him  about  1363. 
Barnabo  resisted  them  with  success.  Died  in  1385. 
GAI.EAZZO  II.,  born  about  1320,  became  lord  of  Como, 
Pavia,  Novara,  Vercelli,  Asti,  and  Tortona,  in  1354.  He 
was  cruel  and  tyrannical.  He  died  in  1378,  leaving  a 
son.GiAN  GALEAZZO,  the  first  Duke  of  Milan,  who  was 
born  in  1347.  He  was  ambitious  and  perfidious.  Hav 
ing  deposed  his  uncle  Barnabo  in  1385,  he  obtained  his 
dominions.  By  force  or  fraud  he  made  himself  master 
of  Verona,  Vicenza,  Bologna,  and  Padua.  In  1395  he 
purchased  the  title  of  Duke  of  Milan  from  the  empe 
ror,  lie  aspired  to  be  King  of  Italy,  when  he  died  in 
the  midst  of  his  victorious  career,  in  1402.  GIOVANNI 
MARIA,  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1389, 
became  duke  in  1402.  He  was  feeble  and  depraved. 
During  his  reign  the  limits  of  the  duchy  were  greatly 
reduced.  He  was  assassinated  in  1412.  FILIPPO  MARIA 
VISCONTI,  born  in  1391,  was  a  brother  of  Giovanni 
Maria,  whom  he  succeeded.  His  army,  commanded 
by  the  famous  General  Carmagnola,  reconquered 
Lombardy.  He  was  cruel,  cowardly,  and  suspicious. 
He  put  to  death  his  own  wife.  About  1426  Venice, 
Florence,  and  Alfonzo  of  Aragon  formed  a  league 
against  him.  He  waged  war  for  many  years  against 
these  powers  and  the  pope  Eugene  IV.  He  died  in 
1447,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law,  Francesco 
Sforza. 


Viscoiiti,  (ENNio  QUIRING,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Rome  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1751.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father,  who 
was  prefect  of  antiquities  at  Rome.  He  displayed  such 
precocity  of  intellect,  that  he  translated  the  "  Hecuba" 
of  Euripides  into  Italian  verse  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  whom  he  assisted  in 
editing  the  first,  he  edited  the  six  remaining  volumes 
of  the  "  Museo  Pio-Clementino,"  (1807.)  He  had  been 
appointed  in  1787  conservator  of  the  Capitoline  Mu 
seum.  On  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  French,  in 
1798,  Visconti  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government,  and  soon  after  became  one  of  the  five  con 
suls  of  the  republic.  Having  removed  to  France,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  archaeology  and  overseer  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  published,  at  the  re- 


a,  e,  7,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


V 'IS  CO  AT 7 


2207 


quest  of  Napoleon,  a  series  of  portraits  of  the  eminent 
men  of  Greece  and  Rome,  entitled  "  Iconographie 
Grecque"  (3  vols.  410,  1808)  and  "  Iconographie  Ro- 
maine,"  (3  vols.,  1818.)  Besides  this  magnificent  work, 
he  wrote  a  description  of  the  monuments  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Gabii,  and  various  other  treatises  on  ancient 
art.  Died  in  1818. 

See  Qu ATREMEKE  UE  QUINCY,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  Visconti,"  iSiS;  GIOVANNI  LABUS,  "  Notizie  bioarafiche  intorno 
la  Vita  di  E.  Q.  Visconti,"  1818;  TIPAMJO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian! 
illustri  :"  DACIKR,  "  E"loge  d'E.  Q.  Visconti;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra 
phic  Generale. " 

Viscouti,  (FlLlPPO  AURKLIO,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  became  superintendent  of  the  antiquities  of 
Rome  after  the  death  of  his  father.  He  published  several 
antiquarian  treatises,  and  edited  the  "  Museo  Chiara- 
monti,"  a  sequel  to  the  "  Museo  Pio-Clementino."  Died 
in  1830. 

Visconti,  (GASPARO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan 
in  1461,  became  a  senator.  He  published  "Rhymes," 
("  Rithnii,"  1493,)  anc'  a  "Poem  on  the  Lovers  Paul  and 
Dana,"  ("  Poema  di  Paolo  e  Daria  Amanti,"  1495.) 
Died  in  1499. 

Visconti,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  ANTONIO,)  an  Ital 
ian  antiquary,  the  father  of  Ennio  Quirino,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Vernazza  in  1722.  He  became  pre 
fect  of  antiquities  at  Rome  in  1768,  and  was  employed 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  to  form  a  collection  of  ancient 
marbles,  which  is  called  "Museo  Pio-Clementino." 
Died  in  1784. 

See  "  Biografia  di  G.  B.  Visconti,"  Rome. 

Visconti,  (Louis  TULLIUS  JOACHIM,)  an  architect, 
a  son  of  Ennio  Quirino,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1797, 
and  studied  architecture  in  Paris  under  Percier.  He  was 
appointed  in  1825  architect  of  the  Bibliotheque  Royale. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  tomb  of  Napoleon  I., 
the  monuments  of  Marshals  Soult  and  Suchet,  and  the 
completion  of  the  Louvre  and  its  junction  with  the 
Tuileries.  The  last,  which  was  finished  in  1857,  is  a 
grand  and  admirable  structure.  Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Genera'e. " 

Visconti,  (MARCO,)  an  able  Italian  commander,  was 
a  son  of  Matteo  the  Great,  (mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
notice  of  the  Visconti  family,)  and  a  leader  of  the  Ghibe- 
lines.  He  commanded  the  forces  of  his  brother  Gale- 
azzo  I.  when  Milan  was  attacked  by  an  army  of  crusaders, 
whom  he  defeated  in  1322.  He  was  assassinated,  by 
order  of  his  nephew  Azzo,  in  1329. 

Visdelou,  de,  deh  ve'deh-loo'  or  ved'loo',  (CLAUDE,) 
a  learned  French  missionary,  born  in  Brittany  in  1656. 
He  was  one  of  the  Jesuits  sent  to  China  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1685.  He  laboured  about  twenty  years  in  China, 
received  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Claudiopolis  in  1708, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  Chinese  history,  etc.  Died 
at  Pondicherry  in  1737. 

Vise  or  Vize.     See  DONNEAU. 

Vishnu,  v!sh'ndo,  written  in  French  Vichuou  or 
Vischiiou,  and  in  German  Wischnu  or  Vischnu, 
sometimes  improperly  spelled  in  English  Veeshiioo,* 
i.e.  the  "  Pervader,"  [from  the  Sanscrit  vis/i,  to  "enter" 
or  "pervade,"]  the  name  of  the  preserving  deity,  one 
of  the  great  gods  of  the  Hindoo  Triad,  t  The  Vaishna- 
vas,  (pronounced  vish'na-vaz,)  or  especial  worshippers 
of  Vishnu,  claim  that  Brahma  (or  the  Self- Existent) 
sprung  from  Vishnu  in  his  character  of  Narayana,  (or 
the  primeval  spirit  which  moved  upon  the  waters, — see 
NAKAYANA  :)  thus  they  exalt  Vishnu  above  the  Creator 
(Brahma)  and  the  Destroyer,  (Siva.)  The  Saivas,  or 
worshippers  of  Siva,  on  the  other  hand,  place  their 
favourite  deity  far  above  Vishnu  or  Brahma,  (see  SIVA,) 
calling  him  Mahadeva,  or  the  "Great  God." 

The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  preserving  deity 

*  Improperly,  because  the  ee  in  the  first  syllable  does  not  represent 
correctly  the  pronunciation.  (See  Preface,  p.  vi.) 

tit  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  the  Hindoo  Triad  (unlike  the 
Trinity  of  the  Western  nations)  is  not  considered  to  constitute  the 
godhead  of  the  infinite  eternal  Being  ;  for  none  of  the  gods  of  the 
Triad  is  supposed  to  be  eternal  in  the  strictest  sense.  They  are,  in 
fact,  personifications  of  the  powers  of  nature.  They  had  a  beginning, 
and  they  will  come  to  an  end.  BRAHM,  of  whom  they  are  but  tem 
porary  emanations,  is  the  only  eternal  Being  in  the  Brahmanical 
system  of  theology. 


are  his  numerous  avatars,  alluding  to  which  Southey 
says, — 

"When  .  .  .  tyrants  in  their  might 
Usurped  dominion  o'er  the  earth, 
[Then]  Veeshnoo  took  a  human  birth, 
Deliverer  of  the  sous  of  men." 

Curse  of  Kehatna,  vol.  i.,  x. 

On  these  occasions  his  parents  were  usually  Kasyapa 
and  Diti.J 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  avatars  of  Vishnu  : 
I.  Matsya,  or  the  Fish ;  2.  Kurma,  the  Tortoise ;  3. 
•Varaha,  the  Boar;  4.  Narasingha,  the  Man-Lion;  5. 
Vamana,  the  Dwarf;  6.  Parasu-Raina ;  7.  Rama-Chan 
dra;  8.  Krishna;  9.  Buddha,  (Booddha ;)  10.  Kalki,  or 
the  Horse.  For  an  explanation  of  these,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  their  respective  heads.  Vishnu,  as  his  name 
implies,  represents  Spirit,  while  in  the  same  general 
relation  Brahma  represents  Matter,  and  Siva,  Time. 
Again,  as  the  Earth  is  the  type  or  symbol  of  Brahma, 
and  Fire  of  Siva,  so  Water  is  the  symbol  of  Vishnu. 
The  reason  is  sufficiently  obvious:  in  a  country  like 
India,  where  everything  is  exposed  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  to  a  burning  sun, — one  of  the  many  forms 
of  Siva, — it  is  the  water,  coming  in  the  periodical  rains, 
which  alone  saves  the  plants  and  animals  (whose  life  is 
dependent  upon  that  of  plants)  from  utter  destruction. 
As  a  personification  of  water,  (or  the  sea,)  Vishnu  is  in 
pictures  usually  represented  of  a  dark-blue  colour.  The 
air,  as  the  symbol  of  spirit,  and  perhaps,  also,  as  the 
vehicle  of  the  preserving  rains,  is  considered  to  belong 
peculiarly  to  Vishnu.  The  sun  likewise,  though  com 
monly  regarded  as  a  type  of  Siva,  is  one  of  the  many 
representations  of  Vishnu.  For  if  cold  is  one  of  the 
numerous  forms  of  Siva,  (the  Destroyer,)  the  warmth 
of  the  sun  may  very  naturally,  in  a  temperate  climate, 
or  in  winter,  be  considered  as  a  manifestation  of  the 
preserving  Power. 

Among  the  possessions  peculiar  to  Vishnu  are  the 
Chakra,  (called  by  the  modern  Hindoos  chuk'ra  or 
chiik'ur,)  a  sort  of  wheel  or  discus,  with  a  hole  in  the 
centre,  which  the  god  hurled  at  his  foes,  and  the  Shankh 
or  Chank,  (modern  pron.  shimkh,§)  a  kind  of  shell,  having 
allusion,  doubtless,  to  the  sea  as  personified  in  Vishnu. 

Vishnu,  like  Siva,  is  said  to  have  had  a  thousand 
different  names,  among  which  we  may  mention  that  of 
Trivikrama,  or  "three-step-taker,"  (see  VAMANA,)  and 
Hari,  (or  Her!,)  i.e.  "Green,"  in  allusion,  in  all  prob 
ability,  to  the  colour  of  the  sea,  (the  type  of  Vishnu  ;) 
so  KRISHNA,  the  name  of  that  one  of  the  avatars  which 
is  regarded  as  Vishnu  himself,  signifies  "dark  blue," 
and  it  was  doubtless  applied  to  him  for  the  same  reason, 
the  colour  of  the  sea  varying  with  varying  circumstances 
from  green  to  a  deep  blue. 

The  preserving  deity  is  usually  represented  with  four 
arms.  He  is  pictured  in  various  positions,  some 
times  as  Narayana  reclining  on  Sesha, — a  thousand- 
headed  serpent, — meditating  on  the  universe  to  which 
he  is  about  to  give  being  ;  from  his  navel  proceeds  a 
lotus,  in  the  opening  flower  of  which  Brahma,  known  by 
his  four  heads,  is  seen  sitting;  while  Lakshmi  (Nara- 
yani)  sits  reverently  at  the  feet  of  her  lord.  At  other 
times  he  is  represented  as  standing  with  the  Shankh  and 
Chakra  in  his  hands.  Sometimes  he  is  pictured  sitting 
with  Lakshmi  by  his  side,  and  holding  a  bow  and  mace, 
as  he  rides  on  his  Vahan  GARUDA,  (which  see.)  The 
Shankh  and  Chakra  are  his  usual  insignia,  whether 
he  is  represented  in  his  own  proper  person  or  in  the 
characters  of  his  various  avatars. 

See  MOOR,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  GUIGNIAUT,  "Religions  de 
PAntiquite,"  vol.  i.,  book  i.  chap.  iii. ;  "  Biographic  Universelle," 
(Partie  mythologique ;)  Coi-F.MAN,  "Mythology  of  the  Hindus." 

Visin.     See  VIZIN. 

Visinet,  ve'ze'n.V,  (AUGUSTE  THEODORE,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  edited  the  "  Jour 
nal  de  Rouen"  from  1828  to  1848. 


t  In  the  celebrated  drama  of  "  Sakoontala"  .'.translated  by  Pro 
fessor  Williams,  of  Oxford)  the  following  passage  occurs: 
"That  immortal  pair 

Whom  Vishnu,  greater  than  the  Self-Existent, 
Chose  for  his  parents,  when,  to  save  mankind, 
He  took  upon  himself  the  shape  of  mortals." — Act  vii. 
§  Etymologically  related  to   the   Greek  xoyx1?.  (Latin,  concha.,) 
having  the  same  signification. 


€  as  -e;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


flSSCHER 


2208 


V1TRT 


Visscher  or  Vischer,  vis'Ker,  (ANNK  Roenier — 
roo'mer,)  a  Dutch  poetess  and  artist,  born  in  1587,  was 
a  daughter  of  Roenier,  noticed  below.  Died  in  1651. 

Her  sister,  MARIA  TESSELSCHADK,  (tes'sel-sKa'deh,) 
born  in  1597,  was  also  a  poetess.  Her  talents  and  beauty 
were  highly  extolled  by  the  historian  Hooft.  Died  in 
1649. 

See  SCIIKI.TEMA,  "  Anna  en  Maria  Tesse'schade  Visscher,"  1809; 
LONGFKI.I.OW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "  Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  March,  1854. 

Visscher  or  Vischer,  (CORNKI.IS,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
engraver,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Sout- 
man.  He  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  his  own 
designs,  as  well  as  from  other  artists.  His  works  are 
ranked  among  the  finest  specimens  of  the  art,  and  com 
mand  enormous  prices.  He  engraved  many  admirable 
portraits,  among  which  is  that  of  A.  D.  Winius.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  1660  to  1670. 

Visscher,  (JAN,)  a  skilful  Dutch  engraver,  born  in 
1636,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  engraved 
after  Berghem  and  Ostade.  Died  after  1692. 

Visscher,  (ROKMKK  or  ROMKRUS,)  a  poet,  styled  "the 
Dutch  Martial,"  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1547,  published 
a  book  of  emblems,  entitled  "  Zinnepoppen,"  (1614,)  and 
a  collection  of  Epigrams.  Died  in  1620. 

Viswacarma  or  Viswacarmaii.  See  VISWA- 
KARMA. 

Viswakarma  or  Vishwakarma,  [modern  Hindoo 
pron.  vis'wa  kur'ma  ;  from  the  Sanscrit  Tlshioa,  "  all," 
and  karma,  "  work,'')  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name 
of  the  Artificer  of  the  Universe,  corresponding  in  some 
respects  to  the  Vulcan  of  classic  mythology.  He  was 
married  to  Prithu,  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  which  he  is 
supposed  to  have  moulded  into  its  present  shape. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Vlswamitia,  vls-wa'mi-tra,  or  Vishwamitra,  [from 
the  Sanscrit  rts/iwd,  "  all,"  and  mitra,  a  "  friend,"  called 
"  the  friend  of  all,"  perhaps  on  account  of  his  being  the 
counsellor  and  friend  of  Rama,  who  was  the  general 
friend  of  mankind,]  a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage,  who, 
though  originally  a  Kshatriya,  became,  by  long  and 
painful  austerities,  a  Brahman,  or  rather  a  Brahmarshi, 
(i.e.  "  Brahman-rishi,"  or  "  Brahman  saint")  one  of  a 
particular  class  of  rishis,  in  which  character  he  was  the 
preceptor  and  counsellor  of  Rama. 

See  MOOR,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  WILSON,  "  Sanscrit-and- Eng 
lish  Dictionary." 

Vital,  (OKDKKIC.)     See  ORDKRICUS  VITALIS. 

Vital  de  Blois,  ve'taT  deh  blwi,  [Lat.  VITA'I.IS 
BLK'SK;S,]  a  Latin  poet  of  the  twelfth  century,  com 
posed  in  1 1 86  a  poem,  "  De  Querulo,"  which  was  printed 
in  1830. 

Vi-ta-le-a'nus,  [Fr.  VITALIEV,  ve'tt'le-ax',]  Pope  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Engenius  I.  in  657  A.D.  He  died  {11672 
A.n.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Deodatus  H. 

Vitalis.     See  SJOHEKG. 

Vitalis  Ordericus.     See  OKDERICUS  VITALIS. 

Vite,  della,  del'la  vee'ia,  (TiMOTKO,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Urbino  about  1470.  He  worked  with 
Raphael  at  Rome.  Died  about  1524. 

Vitelli,  ve-tel'lee,  (CiAPiNO,  cha-pee'no,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  at  Citta  di  Castello  in  the  sixteenth  cen 
tury.  He  entered  the  service  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
ancl  was  employed  under  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  the  Low 
Countries.  Died  in  1576. 

See  MOTLEY,  "History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Vitelli  or  VI-tel'11-us,  (COKNKI.IO,)  an  Italian  teacher 
of  Greek,  came  to  Oxford  about  1488,  in  order,  as  Hal- 
lam  says,  "to  give  that  most  barbarous  university  some 
notion  of  what  was  going  forward  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Alps."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
lie  returned  to  Paris  in  1489. 

Vi-tel'11-us,  (Aui.us,)  Emperor  of  Rome,  born  about 
15  A.D.  He  was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Caligula, 
Claudius,  and  Nero,  and  was  appointed  by  Galba  to 
command  the  German  legions.  lie  was, soon  after  pro 
claimed  emperor  by  his  army,  and,  Galba  having  been 
put  to  death  by  the  partisans  of  Otho,  the  empire  was 
now  disputed  between  the  latter  and  Vitellius.  Otho 
was  defeated,  and  Vitellius  recognized  as  emperor  ;  but, 
Vespasian  having  been  meanwhile  proclaimed  at  Alex 


andria,  his  general  Antonius  Primus  marched  against 
Rome,  subdued  the  adherents  of  Vitellius,  and  put  him 
to  death,  (69  A.n.) 

See  SUETONIUS,  "  Viteliius  ;"  TACITUS,  "  History  ;"  TII.I.EMONT, 
"  Histoire  des  Empereiirs :"  KRANZ  HORN,  "Historische  Geinaltle' 
Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,"  1812. 

Vitellius,  (CoRNKLio.)     See  VITEI.I.I. 

Vitello,  ve-tel'lo,  or  Vitellio,  ve-tel'le-o,  a  Polish 
mathematician  and  philosopher  of  the  thirteenth  cen 
tury,  was  the  author  of  several  works,  the  principal  of 
which  is  a  treatise  on  optics  and  geometry,  entitled 
"Vitellionis  Perspectivae  Libri  decem." 

Vitet,  ve'ti',  (Lunovic,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was  appointed 
in  1830  inspector-general  of  French  antiquities,  and  in 
1834  represented  the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  published  historical  and 
dramatical  sketches,  entitled  "  Les  Barricades,"  (1826,) 
"  Les  Etats  de  Blois,"  (1827,)  and  "La  Mort  de  Henri 
III,"  (1829,)  also  an  essay  on  painting  in  France,  entitled 
"  Eustache  Le  Sueur,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,'*'  (-1843.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845. 

Vit'I  ge§  became  King  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  536  A.n. 
He  fought  in  Italy  against  Belisarius,  who  took  him 
prisoner  in  539  and  carried  him  to  Constantinople.  He 
died  about  three  years  later. 

Vitikind.     See  WITIKIND. 

Vitiza.     See  Win/, \. 

Vitre,  ve'tRa',  (ANTOINK,)  a  French  printer,  born  in 
Paris  about  1595.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
royal  printing-office  by  Colbert.  Among  the  works  which 
lie  printed  was  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Le  Jay,  (10  vols., 
1628-45,)  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  the  characters. 
Died  in  1674. 

See  AUG.  BERNARD,  "A.  Vitr£  et  les  Caracteres  Orientaux," 
etc.,  1X50. 

Vitringa,  ve-tuing'ga  or  ve-tRing'na,  (CAMPEGIUS,) 
a  learned  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in 
1659,  became  successively  professor  of  Oriental  litera 
ture,  theology,  and  sacred  history  at  Franeker.  I  le 
was  the  author  of  Latin  commentaries  on  various  books 
of  the  Scriptures,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  The 
Commentary  on  Isaiah  ranks  among  the  best  works  of 
the  kind.  Died  in  1722. 

See  NICEKON,  "  Memoires. " 

Vitriiaga,  (CAMPKGIUS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Franeker  in  1693.  lie  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Franeker  in  1716,  and  had  a  high  reputation. 
He  wrote  several  theological  treatises.  Died  in  1723. 

Vitrolles,  de,  deh  ve'tRol',  (Eur.feNK  FRANCOIS 
AUGUSTK  d'Arnaud — cliVnS',)  BARON,  a  French  poli 
tician,  born  near  Aix  in  1774.  He  was  a  royalist,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  intrigues  which  preceded  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  January,  1830.  Died  in  1854. 

Vitruve.     See  VITRUVIUS. 

Vitruvio.     See  VITRUVIUS. 

Vi-tru'vi-us,  [Fr.  VITRUVE,  ve'tRuv';  It.  VITRUVIO, 
ve-tRoo've-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Mar'cus  Vi-tru'vi-us 
Pol'll-o,  a  celebrated  Roman  architect  ancl  writer,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  served  as  a  military  engineer 
in  his  youth,  and  was  employed  under  Julius  Caesar  in 
Africa  in  46  n.C.  He  designed  a  basilica  or  temple  at 
Fanum.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  he  was  inspector  of 
military  engines.  He  wrote  in  old  age  a  work  on  archi 
tecture,  in  ten  books,  ("De  Architectura,")  which  is 
highly  esteemed  as  a  text-book,  and  is  the  only  ancient 
treatise  on  the  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us.  His 
work  has  been  translated  into  English  by  R.  Caste]], 
(1730,)  and  by  W.  Newton,  (1771-91.) 

See  H.  I.AI.OE,  "  Vita  Vitruvii,"  1612;  POI.ENI,  "  Exercitationes 
Vitruvianae,"  1739-41  :  QuATRRMEKE  DE  QUINCY,  "Dictionnaire 
des  Architectes  ;"  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Vitry.     See  JAMES  DF.  VITRY. 

Vitry,  de,  deh  ve'tRe',  (EnouARn,)  a  French  philolo 
gist  and  numismatist,  born  about  1670.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  dissertations.  He  visited  Rome  in  1724. 

Vitry,  de,  (Louis  de  1'Hospital — deh  lo'pe'ttl',) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  general,  was  a  partisan  of  the  League 
after  the  death  of  Henry  III.  Died  in  1611. 

Vitry,  de,  (NICOLAS  DE  L' HOSPITAL,)  MARQUIS,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1581.  He  was  one  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure ;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n5t;good:  moon: 


t'lTTORELLI 


2209 


VLADIMIR 


those  who  assassinated  Concini  in  1617,  and  was  re 
warded  for  that  act  with  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  1644. 

Vittorelli,  vet-to-rel'lee,  or  Vettorelli,  ve"  t-to-rel'lee, 
(ANDREA,)  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  born  at  Bassano 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  as  a  writer.  Died  after  1632. 

Vittoria  Colonna.     See  COLONNA. 

Vittorino  da  Feltre,  vet-to-ree'no  da  feTtRa,  [Fr. 
VICTORIN  DE  FELTRE,  vek'to'rax'  deh  feMtK,]  a  cele 
brated  Italian  teacher,  born  at  Feltre  in  1379,  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  Padua.  He 
afterwards  presided  over  a  school  at  Mantua,  where  he 
numbered  among  his  pupils  George  of  Trebizond,  Theo 
dore  Gaza,  and  other  eminent  men.  His  system  of 
education,  which  included  gymnastics,  is  highly  com 
mended  by  contemporary  writers.  Died  in  1447. 

See  RACHEI.I,  "  Intorno  a  Vittorino  da  Feltre,"  1832  ;  BENOIT, 
'•  Victorin  de  Feltre,"  1833  :  CARLO  DE  ROSMINI.  "  Idea  deil'ottimo 
Precettfire  nella  Vita  di  Vittorino  da  Feltre,"  if<oi. 

Vittorio  Amedeo.     See  VICTOR  AMADEUS. 

Vivaldi,  ve-val'dee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  composer 
and  eminent  vioiinist,  born  at  Venice  in  the  seventeenth 
century  ;  died  in  1743. 

Vivant,  ve'vfiN',  (  FRANCOIS,)  a  French  priest,  born 
in  Paris  in  1663,  became  canon  of  Notre-Dame  at  Paris, 
grand  vicar,  and  grand  chorister  or  precentor,  in  1730. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1739. 

Vivares,  ve'vik',  (FRANCOIS,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  near  Montpellier  in  1712.  He  studied  landscape- 
engraving  in  England,  and  executed  a  number  of  prints, 
after  Claude  Lorrain,  which  are  esteemed  master-pieces 
of  the  kind.  Died  in  1782. 

Vivarini,  ve-va-ree'nee,(AxTONio,)a"  Italian  painter, 
of  Murano,  near  Venice.  He  was  a  brother  of  Barto- 
lommeo,  and  worked  about  1450.  His  works  are  richly 
coloured. 

Vivarini,  (BARTOI.OMMEO,)  a  Venetian  painter  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  one  of  the  first  artists  in  Venice 
who  employed  oil-colours. 

Vivarini,  (Lnoi,)  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  painter.  There  are  several 
of  his  works  in  the  Venetian  Academy.  He  worked  as 
late  as  1490. 

Vivens,  de,  deh  ve'vSx',  (FRAxgois,)  a  French  sa 
vant  and  writer,  born  near  Clairac  in  1697.  He  wrote 
on  agriculture,  physics,  etc.  Died  in  1780. 

Vives,  vee'v&s,  (Jonx  Louis,)  [called  in  Latin  LUDO- 
vi'cus  Vi'vus,!  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Valencia  in 
1492.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  where 
he  afterwards  became  professor  of  the  Latin  language. 
He  was  subsequently  invited  to  England  by  Henry  VIII., 
who  appointed  him  tutor  to  the  princess  Mary.  Having 
opposed  the  divorce  of  Catherine  of  Aragon,  he  was 
imprisoned  several  months,  and  on  his  release  settled  at 
Bruges,  in  the  Netherlands.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus  and  Budaeus,  and  the  three  have  been  called 
a  triumvirate  in  the  republic  of  letters,  equally  eminent 
for  talents  and  learning.  Among  the  principal  works  of 
Vives  are  Latin  treatises  "On  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Faith,"  "On  the  Soul  and  Life,"  and  "On  the  Causes 
of  the  Arts  being  Corrupted,"  ("  De  Causis  Corrupta- 
rum  Artium.'')  Died  in  1540. 

See  BOSCH-KF.MPER,  "  J.  L.  Vives  geschetst  als  christelijk  Phi- 
lantroon,"  1851  ;  NAMECHE,  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de 
J.  L.  Vives  ;"  N.  ANTONIO,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova  ;"  NICERON, 
'•  Memoires  :"  DI'PIN,  "  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Viv'i-an,  (RICHARD  HUSSEY  Vivian,)  LORD,  an 
English  general,  born  in  1775.  He  served  under  Moore 
at  Corunna  in  1808,  became  a  colonel  in  1812,  and  dis 
tinguished  himself  in  the  Peninsular  war  in  1813.  With 
the  rank  of  major-general,  he  commanded  a  brigade  of 
cavalry  at  Waterloo.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1841.  Died  in  1842. 

Viviani,  ve-ve-a'nee,  (VixcENZO,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
mathematician  and  engineer,  born  at  Florence  in  April, 
1622.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  after  whose  death 
(1642)  he  studied  under  Torricelli.  About  1662  he  was 
appointed  chief  engineer  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus 
cany.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation  by  his  attempt  to 
restore  the  fifth  book  of  Apollonius  on  Conic  Sections,  in 


his  "Geometrical  Conjectures  concerning  Maximums 
and  Minimums,"  ("De  Maximis  et  Minimi's  geometrica 
Divinatio,"  1659.)  In  1674  he  published  "The  Fifth 
Book  of  the  Elements  of  Euclid,  or  the  Universal  Sci 
ence  of  Proportion  explained  according  to  the  Doctrine 
of  Galileo."  Died  at  Florence  in  1703. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vitz  Italortim  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  i. ; 
FONTEXEI.LE,  "  FJoge  de  Viviani;"  NICERON,  "Memoires:"  TIRA- 
BOSCHI,  "  Storia  deila  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vivien,  ve've^x',  (ALEXANDRE  FRAxgois  AUGUSTE,) 
an  able  French  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1799. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from 
1833  to  1848,  and  was  minister  of  justice  from  March  to 
October,  1840.  In  1845  he  published  "  Administrative 
Studies,"  which  procured  his  admission  into  the  Acad 
emy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  Died  in  1854. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vivien,  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1657.  He  painted  mostly  in  pastel,  (crayon,) 
and  gained  a  high  reputation.  He  received  the  title  of 
first  painter  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  at  whose  court 
he  worked  many  years.  Died  at  Bonn  in  1735. 

Vivien  de  Saint-Martin,  ve've-^x'  cieh  sax  mfR'- 
tax',  (Louis,)  a  French  geographer  and  historian,  born 
about  1800.  He  published,  besides  several  works  of 
geography,  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (4 
vols.,  1841,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Geographical  Dis 
coveries  of  European  Nations,"  (2  or  3  vols.,  1845-46.) 

Vivonne,  ve'von',  (Louis  VICTOR  de  Rochechou- 
art — deh  rosh'shoo'Sk',)  Due  de  Montemart  et  de  Vi 
vonne,  a  French  general  and  courtier,  born  in  1636, 
was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Montespan.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1675  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  which  was  then  the 
seat  of  war  between  the  French  and  Spaniards.  He 
gained  a  decisive  naval  victory  near  Palermo  in  1676. 
Died  in  1688. 

SeeCoMTE  DERoCHECHOUART.  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Roche- 
chonart, "  1859  ;  SAINT-SIMON,  "  Memoires;"  DANCE  A  u,  "Journal ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vizin,  von,  fon  or  von  vee'zin,  written  also  Visin 
and  Wisin,  (and  sometimes  Von-Vezin,)  (DEXis 
IVANOVITCH,)  a  celebrated  Russian  dramatist,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1745,  was  the  author  of  comedies  entitled 
"The  Brigadier"  and  "The  Spoiled  Youth,"  which 
obtained  great  popularity.  He  also  translated  Voltaire's 
"  Alzire,"  and  made  other  versions  from  the  French  and 
German.  Died  in  1792. 

Vizzani,  vet-sa'nee,  (PoMPEO,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1540.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Bologna,"  (1596.)  Died  in  1607. 

Vlaccus.     See  VLACQ. 

Vlacq,  vlak,  [Lat.  VLAC'CUS,]  (ADRIAAN,)  a  Dutch 
mathematician  and  printer,  flourished  about  1620-40. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  computation  of  loga 
rithms,  and  published  "Tables  of  Sines,  Tangents, 
Logarithms,"  etc. 

Vladimir  or  Wladimir,  vlad'e-meer.  [Polish  and 
Russian  pron.  vla-dee'mir,]  surnamed  THE  GREAT,  Grand 
Duke  of  Russia,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Svatoslaf, 
who,  on  dividing  his  dominions,  gave  him  Novgorod 
for  his  share,  about  972.  He  afterwards  made  war  on 
his  brother  .Yaropolk,  whom  he  defeated  and  put  to 
death,  thus  becoming  sole  monarch  of  the  empire.  He 
was  a  warlike  and  powerful  prince,  and  the  first  Chris 
tian  sovereign  of  Russia.  In  988  he  demanded  in  mar 
riage  the  Greek  princess  Anna,  (a  sister  of  the  emperors 
Basil  and  Constantine,)  and  sent  an  army  to  the  Crimea 
to  support  his  demand.  He  obtained  the  princess,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  adopted  the  religion  of  the  Greek 
Church,  which  he  established  in  Russia.  He  zealously 
opposed  idolatry,  and  built  churches  and  schools.  Died 
in  1015. 

See  KARAMZIX,  "  History  of  Russia." 

Vlad'imir  or  Wladimir,  (AXDREIOWITCH,)  a  brave 
Russian  prince,  was  a  nephew  of  Ivan  II.  At  the  death 
of  Ivan,  in  1364,  he  might  have  succeeded,  but  he  yielded 
the  throne  to  Dmitri.  He  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Tartars  at  Koolikof  (Kulikow)  in  1380.  Died  in  1410. 

Vladimir  Mo-nom'a-ehos,  [Fr.  VLADIMIR  MONO- 
MAQUE,  flt'de'meR'  mo'no'mtk',]  a  celebrated  monarch 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/,  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

"39 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VLADISLAS 


2210 


of  Russia,  born  about  1052,  was  a  great-grandson  of 
Vladimir  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  at  Kief  about 
1 1 12.  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Harold,  King  of 
England.  He  was  renowned  for  his  martial  exploits  and 
his  wisdom  and  goodness.  His  reign  was  very  pros 
perous.  Died  in  1126. 

See  KARAMZIN,  "  History  of  Russia." 

Vladislas  OF  HUNGARY.     See  LADISLAUS. 

Vlad'is-laus,  written  also  Vladislas  and  Ladislas 
or  Ladislaus,  [Polish,  WLADISLAW,  vla'de-s!3f,]  I.,  King 
of  Poland,  bom  about  1044,  succeeded  his  brother  Bo- 
leslaus  in  1082.  Died  in  1102  or  1103. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  II.  was  a  son  of  Boleslaw 
or  Boleslaus  III.  He  began  to  reign  in  1139,  and  was 
deposed  by  the  Diet  in  1146.  Died  about  1162. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  III.  or  IV.,  King  of  Po 
land,  began  to  reign  in  1296,  was  deposed  in  1300,  and 
restored  in  1305.  He  defeated  the  Teutonic  knights.  He 
died  in  1333,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  the 
Great. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  King  of  Po 
land,  was  Jagellon,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.  lie 
obtained  the  crown  of  Poland  in  1386  by  marriage  with 
Hedwig,  the  heiress  of  the  former  king.  At  the  same 
time  he  renounced  paganism  and  joined  the  Catholic 
Church.  He  waged  war  against  the  Teutonic  knights. 
Died  in  1434. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  V.  or  VI.,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1423,  or,  as  some  say,  1400. 
He  was  a  famous  warrior,  and  became  King  of  Hungary. 
(See  LADISLAS  IV.  or  V.) 

Vladislav.     See  VLADISLAUS. 

Vlaming,  vla'ming,  (PETER,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1686.  He  produced  a  poetical  version 
of  Sannazaro's  "  Arcadia,"  and  some  original  poems. 
Died  in  1733. 

Vlerick,  vla'rik,  (PETER,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Courtrai  in  1539.  He  studied  under  Tintoretto  in 
Venice,  and  worked  at  Rome.  In  1569  he  settled  at 
Tournay.  Died  in  1581. 

Vliet,  van,  vfn  vleet,  (HENDRIK,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  landscapes,  and  portraits,  lived  about  1650-1700. 

Vlitius,  vlee'se-us,  or  Van  Vliet,  ( JOHN,)  a  Dutch 
philologist  and  poet,  lived  at  the  Hague  ami  at  Breda. 
He  was  appointed  recorder  or  registrar  of  Breda  in 
1651.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  and  other  works,  among 
which  is  "Old  and  New  Hunting  of  J.  Vlitius,"  ("Jani 
Vlitii  Venatio  novantiqua,"  1645.)  Died  in  1666. 

Vocht,  (KARL.)     See  VOGT. 

Voeroesmarty.     See  VOROSMARTY. 

Voet,  voot,  (DANIEL,)  a  son  of  Gisbert,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Heusden  in  1629.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  philosophy  at  Utrecht,  and  wrote  "  Meletemata 
Philosophica  et  Physiologica,"  (1661.)  Died  in  1660. 

Voet,  [Lat.  VOE'TTUS,]  (GISHERT,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Heusden  in  1589  or 
1588.  Having  studied  at  Leyden,  he  became  professor 
of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Utrecht  in  1634. 
He  was  engaged  in  frequent  and  violent  controversies 
with  the  Arminians,  the  Catholics,  and  the  Cartesian 
philosophers,  and  advocated  the  doctrines  set  forth  by 
the  Synod  of  Dort.  Died  in  1676. 

See  BAYI.E,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Voet,  (JoHN,)  son  of  Paul,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1647.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Leyden,  and  was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  the 
Pandects,  and  other  legal  vvorks,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1714. 

Voet,  (JoHN  EUSEIHUS,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  physician, 
resided  at  the  Hague.  Died  in  1778. 

Voet,  (PAUL,)  son  of  Gisbert,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Heusden  in  1619.  He  became  professor  of 
logic,  Greek,  and  civil  law  at  Utrecht.  lie  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  legal  works,  among  which 
we  may  name  "On  Laws  and  their  Harmony,"  ("  De 
Statutis  eorumque  Concursu.")  Died  in  1677. 

Voetius.     See  VOET. 

Vogel,  vo'zhel'  or  fo'gel,  (ADOLPHE,)  a  French  mu 
sical  composer,  a  grandson  of  Christoph  Vogel,  was 
born  at  Lille  in  1806.  He  produced  an  opera  entitled 
"  The  Siege  of  Leyden,"  which  was  performed  with 
applause  in  1847. 


Vogel,  fo'gel,  (CHRISTIAN  LEBERECHT,)  a  German 
historical  painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1759,  became  pro 
fessor  in  the  Academy  of  his  native  city.  Died  in  1816. 

Vogel,  (CukiSTOPH,)  a  German  composer  of  operatic 
music,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1756.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Demophon."  Died  in  1788. 

Vogel,  (EnuARD,)  son  of  Johann  Karl,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Crefeld  in  1829.  Being  sent  in  1853  by  the 
English  government  to  assist  Barth,  Richardson,  and 
Overweg  in  their  researches  in  Central  Africa,  he  was 
put  to  death,  by  order  of  the  Sultan  of  Wadai,  in  1856. 

Vogel,  (JoHANN  KARL  CHRISTOPH,)  a  distinguished 
German  teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  1795. 
He  became  director  of  the  Btirgerschule  at  Leipsic  in 
1832.  He  published  a  "  School  Dictionary  of  the  Ger 
man  Language,"  a  "  German  Reader  for  the  Higher 
Classes,"  and  other  works.  His  daughter  ELISE,  born 
in  1823,  has  published  "Musikalischen  Mahrchen," 
(1852,)  and  other  popular  tales. 

Vogel,  (JoHANN  WILHELM,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Coburg  in  1657.  He  published 
"Travels  in  the  East  Indies,"  (1690,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1723. 

Vogel,  (THEODOR,)  a  German  botanist,  who  in  1841 
!  accompanied  the  expedition  sent  out  to  Africa  by  the 
|  English  government.  He  died  at  Fernando  Po  about 
six  months  after. 

Vogel  von  Vogelstein,  fo'gel  fon  fo'gel-stii/,  (KARL 
CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  painter,  son  of  Christian  Lebe- 
recht  Vogel,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Wildenfels  in 
1788.  He  studied  at  Dresden,  and  afterwards  visited 
Rome  and  Florence.  He  became  professor  of  painting 
at  the  Academy  of  Dresden  in  1820,  and  in  1824  court 
painter.  Among  his  principal  works  are  portraits  of 
Thorwaldsen  and  Pope  Pius  VII.,  and  illustrations  of 
Goethe's  "  Faust." 

Vogelin,  fo'geh-leen',  (ERNST,)  a  Swiss  painter,  born 
at  Constance  in  1528,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Valentine 
Papa,  a  noted  publisher  of  Leipsic.  Among  the  publi 
cations  of  Vogelin  were  excellent  editions  of  Isocrates 
and  other  classics.  Died  in  1590. 

Voght,  von,  fon  foGt,  (KASPAR;)  BARON,  a  German 
philanthropist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1 752,  was  the  founder 
of  several  benevolent  and  educational  institutions  for  the 
poor  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  rural  economy.  Died  in  1839. 

Vogl,  fool,  (JoHANN  NEPOMUK,)  an  Austrian  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1802,  has  published  "Ballads 
and  Romances,"  "  Soldier  Songs,"  "  Lyric  Poems,"  and 
other  works. 

Vogler,  for/ler,  (GEORG  JOSEPH,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1749.  He  was 
appointed  chapel-master  at  Stockholm  in  1786.  He 
published  several  musical  treatises,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Meyerbeer  and  Weber.  His  com 
positions  include  masses,  symphonies,  and  operas.  Died 
I  in  1814. 

Vogler,  (VALENTIN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  medical 
'  writer,  born  at  Ilelmstedt  in  1622  :  died  in  1677. 

Vogli,  vol'yee,  (GIOVANNI  GIACINTO,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  near  Bologna  in  1697.  He  published 
a  work  "On  the  Generation  of  Man,"  ("De  Anthropo- 
gonia,"  1718.)  Died  in  1762. 

Vogt,  foot,  sometimes  written  Vocht,  (KARL,)  a 
German  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Giessen  in 
1817.  He  studied  anatomy  and  medicine,  and  subse 
quently  accompanied  Agassiz  in  his  expedition  to  the 
glaciers.  He  was'  appointed  professor  of  geology  at 
Geneva  in  1852.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"  Physiological  Letters,"  (1845,)  "  Pictures  from  Animal 
Life,"  (1852,)  "Outlines  of  Geology,"  (1860,)  and  "Lec 
tures  on  Man,  his  Position  in  the  Creation  and  in  the 
History  of  the  Earth,"  (1863.)  He  also  contributed  to 
Agassiz's  "  Natural  History  of  Fresh-water  Fish."  He 
favours  the  Darwinian  theory.  "  All  the  German  writers 
we  have  quoted,"  says  the  "  North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1870, — "  Vogt,  Biichner,  Haeckel,  and  others, 
— dwell  with  more  or  less  concealed  elation  on  one  great 
service,  as  they  suppose,  of  the  Darwinian  theory, — 
that  it  has  removed  the  necessity  of  an  intelligent  Creator 
from  the  theory  of  the  universe." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ft,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moor. ; 


Y  01  ART 


221  I 


VOLKET 


Voiart,  vwa'tu',  (ANNE  ELISABETH  Petitpain — 
peli-te'pax',)  a  French  authoress,  born  at  Nancy  in  1786. 
She  was  married  to  M.  Vo'i'art.  She  wrote  novels  and 
educational  works,  among  which  is  "  Woman,  or  the 
Six  Loves,"  ("La  Femme,  ou  les  Six  Amours,"  6  vols., 
1828.)  This  gained  the  Monty  on  prize.  Died  in  1866. 

Voigt,  foiKt,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1644.  He  became  rector  of  an  academy 
at  Hamburg  about  1680.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Physical  Curiosities,"  ("  Curiositates  Physi- 
cx,"  1668,)  and  a  treatise  on  the  altars  of  the  early 
Christians,  called  "  Thysiasteriologia,  sive  de  Altaribus 
vetertim,"  etc.,  (1709.)  Died  in  1682. 

Voigt,  QOHANN,)  a  German  Protestant  minister,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1695.  He  published  a  "  Critical  Cata 
logue  of  Rare  Books,"  (1732.)  Died  in  1765. 

Voigt,  (JOHANNES,)  a  German  historian,  born  in  Saxe- 
Meiningen  in  1786.  He  became  professor  of  historical 
sciences  at  Konigsberg  in  1817,  and  afterwards  filled  the 
chair  of  mediaeval  and  modern  history  in  the  same  uni 
versity,  fie  published  a  "  History  of  the  Lombard  Con 
federacy,"  ("Geschichte  des  Lombardenbmules,"  1818,) 
a  "  History  of  Prussia  from  the  Earliest  Times  down  to 
the  Destruction  of  the  Power  of  the  German  Order,"  (9 
vols.,  1827-39,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1863. 

Voigt,  von,  fon  foiKt,  (CHRISTIAN  GOTTLOB,)  a  Ger 
man  jurist,  born  at  Allstadt  in  1743,  rose  to  be  minister 
of  state  for  Saxe-Weimar.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Schiller,  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Wieland.  Died  in  1819. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1774,  filled  several 
offices  under  the  government,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1801.  Died  in  1813. 

Voisenon,  de,  deh  vwaVnox',  (CLAUDE  HENRI 
FUSEE,)  AKBE,  a  French  wit  and  dramatic  writer,  born 
near  Melun  in  1708.  Having  taken  orders,  he  was  ap 
pointed  grand  vicar  of  Boulogne,  and  subsequently 
obtained  the  abbey  of  Jard.  lie  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1762.  He  wrote  a  number  of  pop 
ular  comedies  ;  also  poems,  tales,  literary  anecdotes, 
and  historical  sketches.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Voltaire.  Died  in  1775. 

See  G.  DESNOIRESTF.RRES,  "  Les  Orieinaux  ;"  "  Xouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1851. 

Voisin,  (DANIEL.)     See  VOYSIN. 

Voisin,  vwa'zax',  (FELIX,)  born  at  Mans  in  1794, 
studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed,  in  1831, 
physician  to  the  Bicetre  Asylum.  He  published  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Mora!  and  Physical  Causes  of  Mental 
Maladies,"  (1826,)  "On  Idiocy  in  Children,"  (1843,)  anc' 
other  similar  works. 

Voisin,  de,  deh  vwa'zaN',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  theolo 
gian  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Bordeaux  about  1610. 
He  was  chaplain  to  the  Prince  of  Conti.  He  published 
the  "Theology  of  the  Jews,"  ("  Theologia  ludaeorum," 
1647,)  a  "Treatise  on  the  Jubilee,"  (1655.)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1685. 

Voiture,  vwa'tim',  (VINCENT,)  a  famous  French  poet 
and  wit,  born  at  Amiens  in  1598,  was  a  son  of  a  rich  wine- 
merchant.  He  was  admitted  about  1625  into  the  Hotel 
Rambouillet,  where  he  acquired  great  favour  and  admira 
tion  by  his  wit,  his  talent  for  raillery,  and  his  agreeable 
manners.  In  his  early  life  he  svas  in  the  service  of  Gas- 
ton,  Duke  of  Orleans,  who,  having  revolted  against  the 
king,  sent  Voiture  to  Spain  about  1632  to  solicit  the  aid 
of  the  Count  of  Olivares.  He  described  his  travels  in 
Spain  in  letters,  which  are  among  his  best  works.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy, 
into  which  he  was  admitted  in  1634.  In  1639  he  became 
maitrc-d' hotel  (steward)  to  the  king.  He  obtained  in 
1642  the  office  of  chief  clerk  to  the  controller-general  of 
finances,  a  lucrative  sinecure.  Died  in  1648.  He  wrote 
many  letters  and  poems,  which  the  critics  of  his  own 
time  extolled  as  models  of  grace,  but  which  are  marred 
by  affectation.  His  style  w:as  greatly  admired  by  Boileau. 
"If  the  bad  taste  of  others,"  says  Hallam,  "had  not 
perverted  his  own,  Voiture  would  have  been  a  good 
writer.  His  letters,  especially  those  written  from  Spain, 
are  sometimes  truly  witty,  and  always  vivacious.  .  .  . 
Pope,  in  addressing  ladies,  was  nearly  the  ape  of  Voi 
ture."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe." 
Two  English  translations  of  Voiture's  letters  were  made, 


one  by  J.  Davies,  (1657,)  and  one  by  Dryden  and  others, 
(3d  edition,  1736.) 


Volanus,  vo-ld'nus,  (ANDREAS,)  a  Polish  writer  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  the  province  of  Posen  in 
1530,  published  numerous  controversial  works  against 
the  Jesuits  and  Socinians;  also  a  Latin  treatise  "On 
Political  Liberty,"  (1582.)  Died  in  1610. 

Volfius,  vol'fe'uV,  (JKAN  BAPTISTE,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1734.  He  became  constitutional  Bishop 
of  Cote-d'Or  in  1791.  Died  in  1822. 

See  AMANTON,  "  Notice  sur  J.  B.  Volfius,"  1823. 

Volger,  fol'ger,  (WILHELM  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
teacher,  born  near  Liineburg  in  1794,  published  several 
geographical  and  historical  works  for  the  use  of  schools. 

Volk,  folk,  (WILHELM,)  a  Prussian  writer,  born  at 

Berlin   in    1804.     He  published  "The  Ecstatic  Virgins 

i  of  the  Tyrol,"  and  other  works  on  mysticism  ;   also  a 

"Manual  of  Italian  Literature,"  and  "Sweden,  Ancient 

and  Modern." 

Vol-keTi-us,  [Ger.  pron.  fol-ka'le-us,]  QOHANN,)  a 
German  Socinian  minister,  born  in  Misnia,  flourished  in 
I  the  seventeenth  century.     He  wrote  a  work  "On  True 
;  Religion,"  ("  De  vera  Religione,"  1630.) 

Volkhardt,  folk'haiu,  (WILHELM,)  a  German  his 
torical  painter,  born  at  Herdecke,  on  the  Ruhr,  in  1815. 
He  worked  at  Dusseldorf. 

Volkmann,  folk'mdn,  (ALFRED  WILHELM,)  a  distin 
guished  German  physiologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1801. 
He  studied  medicine  and  natural  history  at  the  univer- 
;  sity  of  his  native  city,  and  in  1837  became  professor  of 
physiology  at  Dorpat.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  physiology  and  anatomy  at  Halle.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  "Anatomy  of  Animals," 
("  Anatomia  Animalium,"  1831-33,)  "  New  Contributions 
to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,"  ( Gesithtsinn, )  (1836,)  and 
"The  Doctrine  of  the  Corporeal  Life  of  Man,"  (1837.) 

Volkmann,    (JULIUS,)    a  jurist,  born  at   Leipsic  in 
i  1804,  is  a  brother  of  the  preceding.     He  practised  law 
at  Chemnitz,  and  published  several  legal  works. 

Volkof,  Volkov,  or  Wolkow,  vol-kof,  (FEODOR 
GRIGORIEVITCH,)  born  at  Kostroma,  in  Russia,  in  1729, 
was  the  founder  of  the  first  theatre  in  his  native  country. 
It  was  erected  at  Yaroslaf  about  1750.  He  officiated  as 
architect,  scene-painter,  manager,  actor,  and  poet,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  various  departments.  About 
:  1756  he  was  ordered  by  the  empress  to  establish  a 
theatre  at  Moscow.  Died  in  1763. 

Volleiihove,  vol'len-ho'veh,  (JAN,)  a  Dutch  poet  and 
Protestant  minister  of  the  seventeenth  century,  preached 
at  the  Hague.  His  chief  work  is  "  The  Triumph  of 
the  Cross." 

Voliiey,  vol'ne,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  vol'ni',]  (CoN- 
STANTIN  FRANCOIS,)  COUNT,  a  distinguished  French 
philosopher,  author,  and  traveller,  was  born  at  Craon 
(Mayenne)  in  February,  1757.  His  family  name  was 
CHASSEHCEUF,  (shfss'buf,)  for  which  his  father  substi 
tuted  BOISGIRAIS.  The  name  Volney  was  adopted  by  the 
subject  of  this  article,  who  inherited  an  independent 
fortune.  Having  travelled  in  Egypt  and  Syria  (1783- 
85)  and  learned  the  Arabic  language,  he  published  in 
1787  his  "Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,"  ("Voyage  en 
figypte  et  en  Syrie,"  2  vols.,)  which  is  a  work  of  high 
reputation.  It  was  esteemed  the  best  description  of 
those  countries  that  had  yet  appeared.  In  1789  he  was 
elected  a  deputy  to  the  States-General.  He  favoured 
rational  liberty  and  reform,  but  opposed  the  excesses  of 
the  Revolution,  and  was  identified  with  the  Girondists. 
The  weakness  of  his  voice  hindered  his  success  as  an 
orator.  In  1791  he  produced  a  popular  and  eloquent 
work,  entitled  "  Ruins,  or  Meditations  on  the  Revolu 
tions  of  Empires."  He  was  imprisoned  by  the  dominant 
party  in  1793,  and  saved  from  death  by  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  (July,  1794.)  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  in 
1795,  and  passed  two  years  or  more  in  the  United 
States.  He  complained  that  he  was  ill  treated  by  the 
government  or  by  President  Adams.  In  his  absence  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  supported 


•e  as  s;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/:  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  V,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  3  as  ;,-  th  as  in  M/'r.     (^^^See  Explanations,  p 


VOLOGESES 


2212 


VOLTAIRE 


Bonaparte  on  the  iSth  Brumal  re,  1799,  but  declined  the 
place  of  minister  of  the  interior,  which  the  First  Consul 
offered  him,  and  soon  became  alienated  from  his  service. 
In  1803  he  published  a  "Description  of  the  Climate  and 
Soil  of  the  United  States  of  America,"  ("Tableau  du 
Climat  et  du  Sol  des  Etat-Unis  d'Ameriqne,"  2  vols. 
8vo,)  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  married  his 
cousin,  Mademoiselle  de  Chasseboeuf,  in  1810.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Natural  Law,  or  Physical  Principles 
of  Morality,"  (1793,)  and  "Researches  on  Ancient  His 
tory,"  (3  vols.,  1814.)  Died  in  April,  1820. 

See  A.  BOSSANGE,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Volney,"  1821  ;  EUGENH 
KERGER,  "  fitudes  sur  Volney,"  1852  ;  SAINTK-BKUVE,  li  Causeries 
du  Lundi,"  vol.  vii. ;  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generate. " 

Vo-log'e-ses  [Fr.  Voi.oofese,  vo'lo'zhiz']  I.,  King  of 
Parthia,  ascended  the  throne  in  50  A.u.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Romans,  who  in  the  reign  of  Nero  invaded 
Armenia.  Died  about  81  A.D. 

Vologeses  II.  was  a  son  of  Chosroes,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  in  122  A.n.  His  reign  was  pacific.  He  died 
about  148,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Vologeses  III. 
He  attempted  about  162  to  conquer  Armenia  from  the 
Romans,  but  was  defeated. 

Volpato,  vol-pa'to,  (GIOVANNI,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bassano  about  1735.  He  studied  at  Venice  under 
Bartolozzi,  and  afterwards  executed  a  number  of  prints, 
after  the  works  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican,  and  other 
eminent  artists.  His  engravings  are  numerous,  and  are 
ranked  among  the  master-pieces  of  the  time.  Raphael 
Morghen  was  the  pupil  and  son-in-law  of  Volpato.  Died 
in  1803. 

Volpi,  vol'pee,  (GiAN  ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  printer 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Padua  in  1686.  In  con 
junction  with  the  printer  Comino,  he  established  a  press, 
called  "Libreria  Volpi-Cominiana,"  from  which  were 
issued  excellent  editions  of  the  classics,  including  Ca 
tullus.  Volpi  was  for  many  years  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  philosophy  at  Padua,  and  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  and  other  works.  Died  in  1766. 

See  FABRONI,  "  Vice  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Volpi,  (GlUSEPPK,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  near 
Bari  in  1680.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Visconti,  (2  vols., 
1737-48.)  Died  in  1756. 

Volta,  vol'ta,  (ALF.SSANDRO,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
electrician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Como, 
February  19,  1745.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  At 
tractive  Force  of  Electric  Fire,"  ("  De  Vi  attractiva  Ignis 
electrici,"  1769,)  and  invented  an  electrophorus  in  1775. 
About  1 776  he  became  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Pavia.  He  travelled  in  Germany, 
France,  and  England  in  1782.  He  invented  an  electrical 
condenser  and  a  eudiometer.  His  celebrity  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  discovery  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  an  appa 
ratus  which  excites  a  continuous  current  of  electricity  by 
the  contact  of  different  substances.  He  published  this 
discovery  about  1792,  and  received  the  Copley  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1794.  He  generalized 
the  phenomena  which  Galvani  had  observed,  and  recti 
fied  an  error  in  the  theory  by  which  that  philosopher 
had  explained  them.  "  It  was  thus,"  says  Sir  J.  F.  W. 
Herschel,  "  that  he  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  a  gene 
ral  fact,  that  of  the  disturbance  of  electrical  equilibrium 
by  the  mere  contact  of  different  bodies,  and  the  circula 
tion  of  a  current  of  electricity  in  one  constant  direction 
through  a  circuit  composed  of  three  different  conductors. 
To  increase  the  intensity  of  the  very  minute  and  delicate 
effect  thus  observed,  became  his  next  aim  ;  nor  did  his 
inquiry  terminate  till  it  had  placed  him  in  possession  of 
that  most  wonderful  of  all  human  inventions,  the  pile 
which  bears  his  name,  through  the  medium  of  a  series 
of  well-conducted  and  logically-combined  experiments, 
which  has  rarely,  if  ever,  been  surpassed  in  the  annals 
of  physical  research."  ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the 
Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.")  Volta  married  Teresa 
de'  Peregrini  in  1794,  and  had  three  sons.  Invited  by 
Bonaparte,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1801,  and  performed  ex 
periments  with  his  pile  before  the  Institute,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  in  1802. 
He  retained  his  professorship  at  Pavia  about  thirty 
years.  In  1810  he  received  the  title  of  count  from  Na 
poleon,  who  also  appointed  him  a  senator  of  the  king 


dom  of  Italy.  He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  elec 
tricity,  etc.,  which  were  collected  and  published  in  5  vols., 
(1816,)  under  the  title  of  "  Opere  di  Volta."  He  died  at 
Como  in  April,  1827. 


See  ARAGO,  "  E"loe;e  de  Volta,"  18^4;  ZUCCALA.  "  El< 


MOCCHETTI,  "Vita  del  Conte  Volta," 


SKKP.KI  K.  "  Gcclachtnissi-ede  auf  A.  Volta,"  1X46;  TtPAl.DO,  "  Bio- 


grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri  ;"  "Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 


Voltaire,  de,  deh  vol'tau',  (FRANgois  MARIE 
Arouet — a'roo'i',)  the  most  remarkable  name  in  the 
history  of  French  literature,  was  born  at  Chatenay,  near 
Sceaux,  the  2Oth  of  February,  1694.  His  father  was 
Francois  Arouet,  formerly  a  notary,  then  a  treasurer  in 
the  chamber  of  accounts  ;  his  mother,  who  belonged  to 
a  noble  family  of  Poitou,  was  Marie  Marguerite  Dau- 
niart.  The  name  Voltaire,  according  to  some  authorities, 
was  derived  from  an  estate  which  belonged  to  his  mother, 
though  others  have  maintained  that  it  was  an  anagram 
of  Arouet  1.  /'.,  (i.e.  Arouet  le  ieune,  (jeiine,)  or  "  Arouet 
the  Younger.")  Madame  Arouet  is  said  to  have  been  an 
intelligent,  witty,  and  attractive  woman.  She  died  before 
her  distinguished  son  had  reached  his  twentieth  year. 
The  godfather  and  first  teacher  of  young  Arouet  was  the 
Abbe  de  Chateauneuf,  whose  morals,  like  his  religious 
principles,  were  anything  but  strict :  so  that  it  was  whis 
pered  and  believed  by  many  that  Voltaire  might  justly 
have  claimed  with  him  a  more  direct  relationship  than 
that  of  godson.  So  much,  at  least,  may  be  considered 
certain,  that  the  abbe  early  indoctrinated  his  pupil  in 
the  skeptical  literature  which  was  then  becoming  all  the 
fashion  in  France.  At  the  age  of  eleven  years  Voltaire 
wrote  a  poetical  petition  for  an  invalid  soldier,  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  celebrated  beauty  Ninon 
de  Lenclos,  then  far  advanced  in  years  ;  and,  at  her  re 
quest,  lie  was  presented  to  her  by  the  Abbe  Chateauneuf, 
who  had  the  reputation  of  being  her  latest  love,r.  Her 
death  occurred  shortly  after  this  interview,  and  bv  her 
will  she  left  Voltaire  two  thousand  livres  for  the  purpose 
of  purchasing  books.  He  had  been  placed  when  he  was 
ten  years  old  at  the  Jesuit  college  Louis-le-Grand,  where 
one  of  his  instructors,  Pere  Le  Jay,  is  said  to  have  pre 
dicted  that  he  would  some  day  be  the  Coryphaeus  of 
deism  in  France.  Even  at  that  early  age  the  wit  and 
genius  of  the  young  Arouet  appear  to  have  excited 
general  admiration.  In  1710  the  poet  Jean  Baptiste 
Rousseau,  then  in  the  acme  of  his  fame,  assisted  in  the 
distribution  of  the  honours  at  the  college.  As  one 
prize  after  another  was  awarded  to  Voltaire,  the  atten 
tion  of  Rousseau  was  arrested  ;  he  desired  to  have  the 
boy  presented  to  him,  and  predicted  for  him,  we  are 
told,  a  brilliant  literary  destiny. 

On  leaving  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  he  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  a  law-school,  where  he  says  he  was  dis 
gusted  with  the  unphilosophical  method  of  pursuing  the 
study  of  jurisprudence,  and  he  therefore  resolved  to 
abandon  the  law  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  his  taste  for  light 
literature  contributed  quite  as  much  towards  leading 
him  to  that  resolution  as  the  philosophical  considera 
tions  to  which  he  refers.  The  Abbe  Chateauneuf  had 
already  introduced  him  into  a  circle  at  once  brilliant 
and  licentious.  To  withdraw  him  from  this  corrupt  but 
fascinating  influence,  his  father  sent  him  as  secretary  to 
the  Marquis  Chateauneuf,  who  was  setting  out  as  am 
bassador  to  the  United  Provinces.  While  there,  he  se 
duced  the  daughter  of  Madame  du  Noyer,  an  intriguing 
woman,  who  passed  for  being  a  Protestant.  She  was 
even  suspected  by  some  of  conniving  at,  if  not  directly 
encouraging,  the  'fault  of  the  youthful  lovers,  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  money  from  Voltaire's  relations.  She 
complained  loudly  to  the  Marquis  of  Chateauneuf,  from 
whom,  soon  after,  Voltaire  received  an  order  to  quit  the 
Hague  and  return  to  France.  Mademoiselle  du  Noyer's 
father  was  in  Paris,  and  Voltaire  did  not  hesitate  to  ad 
vise  his  inamorata  to  feign  a  conversion  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  in  which  case  she  might  hope  to  have  the  powerful 
assistance  of  the  Church  in  rescuing  her  from  the  tyranny 
of  her  mother.  But  this  ingenious  plot  was  not  success 
ful,  and  the  correspondence  between  the  lovers  soon  after 
ceased,  at  least  for  a  time. 

At  the  house  of  M.  de  Caumartin,  (a  friend  of  the 
family,)  with  whom  Voltaire  sought  refuge  from  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  not;  good:  moon; 


VOLTAIRE 


221  3 


VOLTAIRE 


frowns  and  reproaches  of  his  father,*  he  had  an  oppor 
tunity  of  hearing  the  father  of  that  gentleman  talk  of 
the  glorious  days  of  Henry  IV.,  with  some  of  whose 
contemporaries  the  old  man  had  conversed  in  his  youth. 
Young  Arouet's  enthusiasm  was  strongly  excited.  It 
was  then  that  he  formed  the  design  of  his  great  epic,  the 
"  Henriade,"  and  of  his  history  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
About  this  time  Louis  XIV.  died  ;  a  witty  and  satirical 
pamphlet,  in  which  the  decease  of  the  king  was  treated 
as  a  national  deliverance,  and  in  which  the  new  govern 
ment  was  not  spared,  was  suspected  to  have  been  written, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  by  Voltaire.  He  was  accordingly 
arrested,  and  confined  in  the  Bastille.  This,  however, 
proved  a  blessing  to  him,  rather  than  a  calamity.  Freed 
during  his  imprisonment  from  the  seductions  of  pleasure 
and  the  dissipations  of  society,  he  composed  a  consider 
able  part  of  the  "  Henriade,"  and  completed  his  tragedy 
of  "  CEdipe,"  which  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  the 
regent,  and  procured  his  liberation.  He  was  presented 
soon  after  by  M.  Noce  to  the  regent,  who  gave  him  one 
thousand  crowns.  Voltaire  is  reported  to  have  said  on  that 
occasion,  "  I  thank  your  royal  highness  that  you  are  thus 
careful  for  my  board  ;  but  no  more  of  your  lodgings,  I  be 
seech  vou."  He  was  twenty-four  years  of  age  svhen  he 
was  released  from  the  Bastille,  after  an  imprisonment  of 
almost  a  year.  It  was  soon  after  this  event  that  he  changed 
his  name  from  Arouet  to  Voltaire.  "  I  have  been,"  he  wrote 
to  Mademoiselle  du  Noyer,  "  very  unfortunate  under  my 
first  name.  I  wish  to  try  if  this  new  one  will  serve  me 
any  better."  The  brilliant  success  of  his  "  CEdipe"  (which 
was  represented  with  great  applause  for  thirty  successive 
nights)  appears,  however,  to  have  completely  reconciled 
him  to  the  ways  of  the  blind  goddess.  Rank  and  beauty 
were  now  eager  to  pay  him  homage.  He  became  the 
favoured  guest  and  companion  of  the  great.  The  Prince 
of  Conti  addressed  to  him,  as  a  brother  poet,  some  pretty, 
complimentary  verses,  and  he  was  very  graciously  re 
ceived  by  the  beautiful  Marechale  de  Villars,  with  whom, 
it  is  said,  he  fell  desperately  in  love,  (eperdnment  amoit- 
renx:)  but  she  does  not  appear  to  have  given  him  the 
slightest  encouragement.  ("  Biographic  Universelle.") 

But  the  cup  of  prosperity  presented  to  his  lips  was 
not  unmixed  with  bitter  ingredients.  The  Abbe  Desfon- 
taines  had  obtained  fraudulently  an  imperfect  copy  of  the 
"Henriade,"  and  had  it  published,  under  the  name  of 
"The  League,"  ("La  Ligue,"  etc.)  The  poem,  even  in 
this  imperfect  form,  was  very  favourably  received.  Vol 
taire  hastened  to  prepare  for  the  public  a  more  perfect 
edition  ;  but  certain  passages  in  the  work  which  gave 
offence  to  the  priesthood  prevented  him  from  obtaining 
permission  to  publish  it. 

His  vanity  and  self-esteem  were  destined  to  receive 
some  severe  rebuffs  from  that  haughty  aristocracy  which 
could  never  wholly  divest  itself  of  the  idea  that  rank 
was  something  essentially  superior  even  to  genius  of  the 
highest  order,  which  it  might  indeed  condescend  to 
patronize  and  perhaps  applaud,  but  with  which  it  could 
never  associate  on  equal  terms.  In  December,  1725, 
Voltaire,  while  at  the  table  of  his  friend  the  Duke  of 
Sully,  happened  to  express  himself  on  some  subject  with 
great  animation  and  self-confidence.  One  of  the  guests, 
the  Chevalier  de  Rohan,  son  of  the  Duke  de  Rohan- 
Chabot,  asked,  "Who  is  this  young  man  that  speaks  so 
loud?"  "He  is,"  replied  Voltaire,  "one  who  does  not 
carry  a  great  name,  but  can  do  credit  to  the  one  he  has." 
A  few  days  after,  the  chevalier  sent  word  to  Voltaire  that 
the  Duke  of  Sully  expected  him  to  dinner.  He  went 
accordingly.  While  he  was  dining,  one  of  the  servants 
announced  that  some  one  wished  particularly  to  see 
him.  He  descended,  and  was  met  by  three  men,  who 
immediately  fell  on  him  and  beat  him  unmercifully 
with  their  canes.  It  was  noticed  as  an  act  of  great  gen 
erosity  on  the  part  of  the  Chevalier  de  Rohan  that  he 
directed  his  men  not  to  beat  their  victim  on  his  head. 
When  Voltaire  complained  of  the  outrage  to  the  Duke 
of  Sully,  the  latter  admitted  that  it  was  a  rude  and  "un- 


*  His  father  appears  to  have  been  quite  as  much  displeased  with 
Voltaire's  writing  poetry  as  with  his  more  culpable  irregularities.  He 
was  not  less  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  his  eldest  son,  because  he 
had  become  a  Jansenist.  He  said,  bitterly,  "I  have  for  sons  two 
fools, — the  one  in  prose,  the  other  in  verse." 


civil"  act  on  the  part  of  Rohan,  but  declined  to  aid  him 
in  any  way  to  obtain  satisfaction.  Thereupon  Voltaire 
practised  fencing  diligently  for  some  weeks,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time  challenged  Rohan  to  a  duel.  The 
challenge  was  accepted,  but,  before  the  parties  met,  Vol 
taire  was  arrested  and  sent  to  prison.  We  are  not  told 
whether  or  not  the  chevalier  gave  notice  to  the  police  ; 
but  a  chivalrous  knight  who  could  employ  three  men  to 
attack  another  who  was  unarmed  might  reasonably  be 
supposed  capable  of  such  an  act.  This  proceeding  had, 
in  all  probability,  an  important  influence  on  the  destinies 
of  Europe.  It  seems  for  a  time  to  have  completely 
disgusted  Voltaire  with  the  society  and  government  of 
France,  and  it  determined  him  to  accept  an  invitation, 
received  from  Lord  Bolingbroke,  that  he  should  visit 
England.  This  visit,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  event  of  his  life,  dates  from  August, 
1726.  While  in  that  country,  he  was  particularly  struck 
with  the  absolute  freedom  of  thought  enjoyed  by  all  the 
people  ;  his  own  views,  in  the  society  of  Bolingbroke  and 
his  deistical  friends,  appear  to  have  been  developed  and 
matured.  In  England,  also,  he  acquired  some  acquaint 
ance  with  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  the  knowledge  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  among  the  first  to  introduce 
among  his  countrymen  in  France.  After  nearly  three 
years'  absence,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1729.  At  first  he 
lived  retired,  and  finished  his  tragedy  of  "  Brutus,"  which 
he  had  begun  in  England.  According  to  some  critics, 
the  influence  of  Shakspeare  is  clearly  visible  in  this 
piece,  and  perhaps  still  more  in  his  next  tragedy,  "  Zaire," 
(1730,)  although  Voltaire  afterwards  affected  to  despise 
the  great  English  dramatist,  perhaps  the  better  to  con 
ceal  how  much  he  was  indebted  to  him.  About  this 
time,  also,  he  finished  his  "History  of  Charles  XII.," 
for  which  he  had  procured  some  very  valuable  materials 
during  his  sojourn  in  London. 

His  "  Brutus"  was  by  some  considered  a  complete 
failure,  and  Fontenelle  indeed  advised  him  to  aban 
don  tragedy,  as  unsuited  to  his  genius  ;  but  his  next 
drama,  "Zaire,"  proved  a  brilliant  success.  It  is  re 
garded  by  many  as  the  finest  of  all  Voltaire's  tragedies, 
and  as  fully  equal  to  the  best  in  the  language.  His 
"  Lettres  Philosophiques,"  otherwise  called  "  Lettres  sur 
les  Anglais,"  ("  Letters  on  the  English,")  appeared  about 
1732.  The  freedom  of  some  of  his  ideas  gave  offence  to 
the  clergy.  The  "  Lettres"  were  condemned  to  be  pub 
licly  burned,  the  publisher  was  imprisoned,  and  an  order 
was  issued  to  arrest  the  author,  so  that  to  escape  the 
officers  of  the  law  he  was  fain  to  make  a  speedy  retreat 
to  Cirey,  (on  the  borders  of  Lorraine,)  an  estate  belong 
ing  to  the  celebrated  Madame  Chatelet,  (or  Chastelet,) 
with  whom  he  formed  a  liaison  which  continued  until 
the  death  of  that  lady.  (See  CHASTELET,  GAHKIELLE.) 
While  in  this  retreat  he  wrote  his  "  FJemens  de  la  Phi 
losophic  de  Newton,"  (published  at  Amsterdam  in  1738,) 
designed  to  set  forth  and  elucidate  the  theories  and  dis 
coveries  of  the  great  English  philosopher.  He  also 
composed  his  "  Alzire,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  acted  at 
Paris  with  great  applause  in  1736.  His  "Mahomet," 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  pope,  was  first  acted  in  1741. 
His  holiness  accepted  the  dedication  very  graciously, 
unable,  or  perhaps  unwilling,  to  perceive  that  the  shafts 
which  the  author  seemed  to  aim  at  the  false  pretences 
of  the  prophet  were  in  reality  directed  against  those  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  His  "  Merope,"  brought  out  in 
1743,  was  received  with  an  enthusiastic  and  tumultuous 
applause  such  as  had  never  before  been  exhibited  in 
any  theatre  in  Europe. 

Several  years  before  the  last-named  date,  Frederick, 
the  Prince-Royal  of  Prussia,  had  written  to  Voltaire  and 
expressed  his  admiration  of  the  genius  which  was  then 
dazzling  Europe  :  this  led  to  an  intimacy  between  the 
prince  and  the  poet,  which  was  kept  up  by  a  constant 
exchange  of  letters  and  flattering  compliments  from  both 
the  parties.  When,  in  1740,  Frederick  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  he  invited  his  friend  to  visit  him  at  Berlin.  But 
Voltaire  was  unwilling  to  separate  himself  from  Madame 
Chatelet.  He  accepted,  however,  in  1743,  a  mission 
from  the  government  to  visit  Frederick  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  Prussia's  alliance  with  France,  in  which 
undertaking  he  was  successful.  Through  the  influence 


*  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  fch  as  in  this.    (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOLTAIRE 


22  14 


VOLTAIRE 


of  Madame  Pompadour,  with  whom  Voltaire  was  ac 
quainted,  as  he  tells  us,  before  she  became  the  favourite 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  he  was  chosen  (May  9,  1746)  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  to  succeed  Bouhier, 
and  appointed  historiographer  of  France.  He  had  de 
clined  the  flattering  offers  of  Frederick,  that  he  might 
not  be  deprived  of  the  society  of  Madame  Chatelet. 
But  the  mistress  to  whom  he  was  so  fondly  attached  no 
longer  felt  for  him  the  affection  of  former  years,  but  had 
(about  1748)  given  her  heart  to  another  and  younger 
lover,  Saint-Lambert. 

Madame  Chatelet  died  in  childbed,  in  August,  1749.* 
After  her  death,  although  he  knew  she  had  been  un 
faithful  to  him,  Voltaire  said  of  her,  "  I  have  not  lost  a 
mistress  ;  I  have  lost  the  half  of  myself.  ...  I  love  to 
find  everywhere  something  that  can  recall  the  thought 
of  her."  A  short  time  afterwards,  as  her  husband,  M. 
du  Chatelet,  was  on  the  point  of  opening  a  locket  which 
had  been  carried  by  Madame  du  Chatelet,  Voltaire  con 
fidently  expected  to  see  his  own  portrait  :  it  proved  to  be 
that  of  Saint-Lambert ;  he  said  to  M.  du  Chatelet,  "  Be 
lieve  me,  monsieur,  neither  of  us  has  here  any  cause  to 
boast."  On  a  previous  occasion  he  spoke  to  Saint- 
Lambert  (with  whom,  it  appears,  he  had  at  first  been 
offended)  with  a  kindness  and  magnanimity  which  would 
have  been  sublime,  could  they  have  had  existence  in  a 
pure  and  elevated  mind.  "It  is  I,"  said  he,  "who  have 
been  to  blame  ;  you  are  at  the  age  when  one  loves  and 
inspires  love  ;  ...  an  old  man,  infirm  as  I  am,  is  not 
made  for  pleasure." 

Having  nothing  now  to  detain  him  in  France,  he  ac 
cepted  the  invitation,  recently  renewed,  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  arrived  in  Berlin  in  July,  1750.  He  was 
received  by  Frederick  with  the  most  flattering  demon 
strations  of  regard.  No  lovers  in  a  romance  could  have 
met,  after  a  long  absence,  with  greater  transports  of  joy. 
Voltaire  had  at'last  found  an  earthly  paradise.  A  thou 
sand  louis-d'or  had  been  sent  him  for  the  expenses  of 
the  journey.  In  addition  to  the  splendid  apartments 
assigned  him  under  the  royal  roof,  he  was  to  receive  a 
pension  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  and  Frederick 
studied  together  two  hours  every  day,  and  in  the  evening 
he  was  entertained  at  the  king's  own  table.  ,  But  this 
charming  life  was  destined  to  be  of  short  duration. 
"  Never,"  says  Macaulay,  "had  there  met  two  persons 
so  exquisitely  fitted  to  plague  each  other.  Each  of  them 
had  exactly  the  fault  of  which  the  other  was  most  impa 
tient,  and  they  were,  in  different  ways,  the  most  impatient 
of  mankind."  (See  Essay  on  "  Frederick  the  Great," 
originally  published  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
April,  1842.) 

The  king  wr»te  verses,  which  Voltaire  was  to  criticise 
and  correct, — a  delicate  and  perilous  position  for  any 
man,  but  peculiarly  so  for  one  who  was  so  fastidious,  so 
irritable,  and  so  prone  to  ridicule  as  Voltaire.  It  was 
quite  impossible  for  him  to  correct  his  majesty's  verses 
—  which  might  well  have  provoked  the  ridicule  of  a  more 
indulgent  critic — without  laughing  at  them.  "  Behold," 
said  he,  "what  a  quantity  of  dirty  linen  the  king  has 
sent  me  to  wash  !"  And,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  there 
was  always  some  well-intentioned  person  ready  to  carry 
such  remarks  to  the  ear  of  the  king.  It  would  be  long 
to  tell  of  the  irritation,  the  increasing  disgust,  the  quar 
rels,  the  ingenious  schemes  devised  by  each  to  annoy  or 
torment  the  other.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  after  a  stay  of 
about  three  years,  the  poet  parted  from  the  king,  with  a 
promise  to  return,  but  with  a  firm  determination,  as  he 

*"  Every  one  knows,"  says  Carlyle,  "  the  earthly  termination  of 
Madame  la  Marquise,  and  how,  by  a  strange  and  almost  satirical 
Nemesis,  she  was  taken  in  hef  own  nets,  and  her  worst  sin  became 
her  final  punishment."  A  few  days  after  her  death,  Voltaire  com 
posed  the  following  quatrain  : 

"  L'univers  a  perdu  la  sublime  Emilie. 
Ellc  aima  les  plaisirs,  les  arts,  la  verite  ; 
Les  dieux,  en  Ini  dormant  leur  ame  et  leur  genie, 
N'avaient  garde  pour  eux  que  I'lmmortalite." 

("The  universe  has  lost  the  sublime  Emilja. 

She  loved  pleasure,  the  arts,  and  truth;  [knowledge  ?] 
The  gods,  in  giving  her  their  soul  and  their  genius, 
Had  reserved  for  themselves  immortality  only.") 

"After  which,"  says  Carlyle,  "he,  like  the  bereaved  universe, 
consoled  himself,  and  went  on  his  way." 


tells  us,  never  to  see  him  again.  At  Frankfort  he  was 
arrested  by  an  order  from  Berlin,  and  required  to  give 
up  some  of  the  king's  poetry,  copies  of  which  had  been 
printed  for  private  circulation  and  presented  to  Voltaiie 
and  other  of  the  royal  favourites.  But  Frederick,  now 
fearing  that  the  arch  wit  and  scoffer  might  perhaps  use 
the  poetry  to  turn  its  author  into  ridicule,  resolved  to 
get  possession  of  it  again.  It  so  happened  that  he  had 
left  the  poetry  behind  at  Leipsic,  and  some  days  elapsed 
before  he  could  send  for  and  receive  it.  Meanwhile  he 
was  kept  in  strict  custody  ;  and  even  after  the  precious 
packet  had  arrived  he  was  still  detained.  "  The  Prus 
sian  agents,"  says  Macaulay,  "had,  no  doubt,  been  in 
structed  not  to  let  Voltaire  off  without  some  gross  indig 
nity.  He  was  confined  twelve  days  in  a  wretched  hovel. 
Sentinels  with  fixed  bayonets  kept  guard  over  him.  His 
niece  was  dragged  through  the  mire  by  the  soldiers. 
Sixteen  hundred  dollars  were  extorted  from  him  by  his 
insolent  jailers.  It  is  absurd  to  say  that  this  outrage 
was  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  king."  (Essay  on  "  Frede 
rick  the  Great.") 

Voltaire  returned  to  France  thoroughly  divested  of 
all  his  illusions  respecting  that  great  prince  whom  he 
had  once  delighted  to  call  the  Solomon  and  Alexander 
of  the  North,  the  Marcus  Aurelius  of  Potsdam,  the 
Trajan  and  Pliny  combined,  etc. 

In  1755  he  established  himself  at  Ferney,  near  Lau 
sanne,  in  Switzerland.  Here  he  spent  perhaps  the  most 
tranquil,  as  well  as  the  most  creditable  and  useful, 
portion  of  his  life.  He  is  admitted  to  have  been  a 
benefactor  to  the  inhabitants  of  Ferney  and  the  vicinity. 
The  village  or  town  was  greatly  improved  and  enlarged 
under  his  auspices  ;  new  houses  were  built,  and  a  small 
theatre  established.  He  even  erected  a  church,  in  which 
he  had  the  hardihood  to  preach.  To  silence  the  com 
plaints  of  those  who  were  scandalized  at  his  irregular 
proceedings,  he  went  through,  in  due  form,  the  ceremony 
of  taking  the  communion. 

The  one  aspect  of  Voltaire's  character  which  can  be 
viewed  with  unmingled  approbation  was  the  deep, 
heartfelt  pity  and  indignation  with  which  he  regarded 
every  flagrant  act  of  cruelty  or  oppression,  whether  it 
was  enacted  in  his  own  country  or  in  the  remotest  part 
of  Europe.  He  signalized  his  philanthropy  in  the 
earnest  zeal  with  which  he  took  tip  the  cause  of  Jean 
Calas,  who  had  been  condemned  at  Toulouse  and 
broken  on  the  wheel  for  a  crime  of  which  he  was  inno 
cent,  and  his  family  had  been  driven  from  the  country. 
Through  Voltaire's  generous  exertions  and  untiring  zeal, 
the  sentence  was  annulled  and  the  family  partially  indem 
nified.  I  lis  sympathy  in  the  case  of  Admiral  Byng  was  no 
less  real  or  less  earnest;  but  he  exerted  himself  in  vain 
to  prevent  the  consummation  of  that  judicial  murder, 
which  has  left  an  indelible  stain  upon  the  character  of 
the  ministry  under  whose  auspices  it  was  committed.! 
Another  act  of  his,  though  of  a  different  kind,  reflects 
no  less  credit  on  his  character.  Having  learned  that  a 
young  girl,  a  near  relative  of  the  great  Corneille,  (she 
was  then  believed  to  be  the  grand-daughter  of  that 
poet,)  was  living  in  extreme  poverty,  he  sent  for  her 
and  had  her  brought  to  Ferney,  where  he  gave  her  an 
education,  and  settled  on  her,  out  of  his  own  means,  a 
life-annuity  of  fourteen  hundred  francs. 

During  his  residence  at  Ferney  he  composed  or 
finished  some  of  his  greatest  works,  among  which  the 
most  valuable  and  perhaps  the  most  original  of  all  was 
his  "  Essav  on  the  Manners  of  Nations,"  etc.,  ("  Essai 
sur  les  Moenrs  et  1'Esprit  des  Nations,"  1756,)  which 
might,  says  Brougham,  be  justly  designated  the  "  Phi 
losophy  of  History."  It  has  unquestionably  exerted 
throughout  Europe  a  great  and  beneficent  influence 
upon  the  mode  of  writing  history.  No  inconsiderable 
portion  of  this  work  had  been  composed  •  during  his 
residence  at  Cirey.  His  "  Candida,"  the  most  remark 
able  of  his  prose  fictions,  appeared  in  1758.  "Dr. 
Johnson,"  says  Brougham,  "  never  spoke  of  it  without 


t  However  deeply  his  feelings  might  be  touched,  he  never  failed  to 
give  free  scope  to  his  wit.  He  remarked,  after  the  execution  of 
Byng,  that  it  was  the  policy  of  the  English  now  and  then  to  put  to 
death  an  admiral,  in  order  to  encourage  the  rest,  ("  pour  encourager 
les  autres.") 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  \,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o.  onscure:  tar.  fill,  fat:  met:  not;  good:  moon; 


VOLTAIRE 


VOLTAIRE 


unstinted  admiration,  professing  that  had  he  seen  it  he 
should  not  have  written  '  Rasselas.'  "  Among  his  other 
romances  may  be  named  "  Zadig,"  (about  1758,)  and 
"L'Ingenu,"  (1767.)  Of  his  tragedies,  besides  those 
already  named,  the  most  deserving  of  notice  are  per 
haps  the  following:  "  Artemise,"  (about  1721,)  "  Mari- 
amne,"  (1724,)  "  Eriphile,"  (1732,)  "  La  Mortde  Cesar," 
(1735,)  "Semiramis,"  (1748,)  "  Oreste,"  (1750,)  "Rome 
Sauvee,"  otherwise  called  "  Catiline,"  (1752,)  which  Vol 
taire  is  said  to  have  preferred  to  all  his  tragedies,  but 
the  critics  and  the  public  decided  differently,  and 
"  Tancrede,"  (1760,)  which  had  a  brilliant  success.  His 
powers  had  confessedly  begun  to  fail  when,  in  1778,  on 
his  visit  to  Paris,  his  "  Irene,"  the  last  of  his  dramatic 
productions,  was  acted  with  great  applause,  which,  how 
ever,  was  bestowed  rather  on  its  illustrious  author  than 
upon  the  piece  itself.  He  also  attempted  comedy,  and 
composed  "  L'Indiscret,"  which  had  but  an  indifferent 
success.  The  "  Enfant  Prodigue,"  another  comedy, 
brought  out  anonymously,  was  much  more  popular,  but 
it  was  not  known  to  be  Voltaire's  until  he  claimed  it 
several  years  afterwards. 

He  wrote  a  satirical  poem,  "  Le  Temple  clu  Gout," 
(1733,)  and  a  mock-heroic  poem,  entitled  "  La  Pucelle," 
(1755,)  of  which  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc  forms  the 
subject.  This,  according  to  Brougham,  (than  whom 
Voltaire  has  probably  no  more  indulgent  critic,)  is  "the 
great  master-piece  of  Voltaire's  poetic  genius."  He 
adds,  however,  "The  'Pucelle'  is  one  continued  sneer 
at  all  that  men  do  hold  and  all  that  they  ought  to  hold 


sacred. 


Religion,    virtue, 


all    are    made    the 


constant  subjects  of  sneering  contempt  and  ribald 
laughter  ;"*  and  he  might  have  added  that  many  parts 
are  disfigured  by  gross  obscenities.  We  must  not  omit 
to  notice  Voltaire's  connection  with  the  famous  "  Encyclo 
pedic"  founded  by  Diderot  and  Alembert.  The  success 
of  this  publication  was  due  in  no  small  measure  to 
the  name  and  influence  of  Voltaire,  who  contributed  to 
it  many  articles  on  various  subjects,  among  which  will 
be  found  some  of  his  most  reckless  and  violent  attacks 
upon  Christianity. 

Of  his  histories,  "Charles  XII"  (1731)  is  admitted 
to  be  the  best.  It  is,  indeed,  a  chef-d'oeuvre  of  clear, 
elegant,  animated,  and  rapid  narration.  His  "Siecle 
de  Louis  XIV"  (1752)  holds  the  second  place.  The 
"  Histoire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  I"  (1759)  is  considered 
to  be  the  least  successful  of  his  productions  in  this 
department. 

In  1778,  being  then  in  his  eighty-fifth  year,  Voltaire 
visited  Paris,  where  his  sojourn  was  one  continued  ova 
tion.  "The  homage  of  every  class,"  says  Brougham, 
"  and  of  every  rank  was  tendered  to  him  ;  and  it  seemed 
as  if  one  universal  feeling  prevailed,  —  the  desire  of 
having  it  hereafter  to  say,  'I  saw  Voltaire.'  His  car 
riage  was  drawn  by  the  populace,  who  were  inspired 
with  the  wildest  enthusiasm.  At  the  theatre  his  bust 
was  crowned  with  laurels  and  garlands  of  roses,  amid 
the  shouts  and  tears  of  the  audience.  He  exclaimed, 
'  You  will  make  me  die  with  pleasure  ;  you  will  stifle  me 
with  roses.'  " 

The  exhaustion  produced  by  this  great  excitement 
appears  to  have  been  the  cause  of  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  the  3<Dth  of  May,  1778.  Some  time  before  his 
death,  while  he  was  supposed  to  be  very  near  his  end, 
he  was  induced,  from  his  desire  of  obtaining  a  Christian 
burial,  to  subscribe  to  a  confession  and  undergo  absolu 
tion,  which,  says  Condorcet,  gave  less  edification  to  the 
devout  than  scandal  to  the  free-thinkers.  t 


*  See  Brougham's  "Lives  of  Men  of  Letters  and  Science," 
London,  1845. 

t  Very  contradictory  accounts  are  given  of  bis  last  hours.  It  has 
been  well  observed  that  it  is  of  far  more  consequence  how  one  spends 
his  life  than  how  he  passes  the  few  fleeting  moments  at  its  close.  Cir 
cumstances  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  one's  faith  or  one's  con 
science  may  sometimes  give  the  appearance  of  great  tranquillity,  or 
the  contrary,  to  the  death-bed  scene.  But,  as  much  has  been  said 
about  the  death  of  Voltaire,  it  may  not  be  without  interest  to  cite 
briefly  the  testimony  of  Tronchin,  who  was  his  friend,  and  who  was 
constantly  with  him  (much  of  the  time  alone)  dur'ng  his  last  hours. 
"If  the  bond  of  my  principles,"  says  he,  "  had  needed  to  be  strength 
ened,  the  man  whom  I  have  seen  agonize  and  die  under  my  eyes 
would  have  made  of  them  a  Gordiau  knot ;  and  in  comparing  the 
death  of  a  good  man,  which  is  only  the  close  of  a  beautiful  day.with 


Voltaire  is  confessedly  the  foremost  name,  the  acknow 
ledged  head,  of  European  literature  in  his  time  ;J  whence 
he  was  often  styled  "  King  Voltaire,"  ("  le  Roi  Voltaire.") 
His  writings  contributed  powerfully  to  give  a  fresh 
impulse  to  almost  every  department  of  human  thought. 
There  was,  indeed,  no  branch  of  literature  which  he  him 
self  did  not  cultivate  with  distinguished  success.  His  his 
torical  works  mark  an  era  in  this  department  of  writing. 
If  his  histories  are  inferior  to  those  of  some  other  emi 
nent  writers  in  depth  of  thought  or  in  a  philosophic 
treatment  of  the  subject,  they  are  remarkable  for  the 
clearness,  simplicity,  animation,  and  rapidity  of  the 
narrative.  If  they  are  not  calculated  in  an  especial 
manner  to  make  philosophic  historians,  they  are  pre 
eminently  fitted  to  interest  and  instruct  the  generality 
of  readers  ;  and  they  have  perhaps  done  more  to  make 
history  popular  among  all  classes  than  the  works  of  any 
other  writer  of  modern  times.  Though  not  the  first 
French  author  who  wrote  on  the  wonderful  discoveries 
of  Newton,  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
make  them  extensively  known  on  the  continent.  As  a 
wit,  he  probably  never  had  an  equal  either  in  ancient  or 
modern  times.§  As  a  poet,  Voltaire  is  by  some  critics 
ranked  at  the  very  head  of  the  great  masters  of  the  art 
in  France.  His  "Zaire"  is  called  the  chef-d'txuvre  of 
French  tragedy,  and  his  "  Henriade"  may  be  said  to  be 
the  only  successful  epic  in  the  French  language. 

But  several  eminent  critics,  while  admitting  that  Vol 
taire  was  a  genius  of  the  rarest  order,  deny  that  he  was 
a  great  poet  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word.  "  It  is 
certain,"  says  Brougham,  "  that  the  tragedies  of  Voltaire 
are  the  works  of  an  extraordinary  genius,  and  that  only 
a  great  poet  could  have  produced  them  ;  but  it  is  equally 
certain  that  they  are  deficient  for  the  most  part  in  that 
which  makes  the  drama  powerful  over  the  feelings, — 
real  pathos,  real  passion,  whether  of  tenderness,  of 
terror,  or  of  horror.  The  plots  of  some  are  admirably 
contrived  ;  the  diction  of  all  is  pure  and  animated  ;  in 
most  cases  it  is  pointed,  and  in  many  it  is  striking, 
grand,  impressive;  the  characters  are  frequently  well 
imagined  and  portrayed,  though  without  sufficient  dis 
crimination,  and  thus  often  running  one  into  another 
from  the  uniformity  of  the  language,  terse,  epigrammatic, 
powerful,  which  all  alike  speak.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
situations  of  great  effect  and  single  passages  of  thrilling 
force  ;  but,  after  all,  the  heart  is  not  there  ;  the  deep  feel 
ing  which  is  the  parent  of  all  true  eloquence,  as  well  as 
all  true  poetry,  ...  is  rarely  perceived."  (See  "  Lives  of 
Men  of  Letters,"  etc.,  where  also  (pp.  36-42)  will  be 
found  an  elaborate  critique  on  the  "  Henriade.") 

As  a  critic  his  claims,  though  unquestionably  of  a  high 
order,  are  open  to  great  exceptions.  He  appears,  indeed, 
to  have  been  wanting  in  no  natural  gift  necessary  to  rank 
him  with  the  very  greatest  critics  that  ever  lived.  He 
possessed,  in  a  degree  that  has  probably  never  been  sur 
passed,  a  clear,  incisive  intellect,]!  a  vivid  sense  of  pro 
priety,  a  quick  perception  of  the  true-relations  of  things, 
combined  with  an  intense  susceptibility  to  all  those  feel 
ings  or  sentiments  which  go  to  make  the  orator  and  the 
poet.  But  he  was  wholly  wanting  in  that  earnest  love 
of  truth  without  which  no  critical  verdict  can  command 
our  respect,  much  less  be  accepted  as  authority.  He 
often  pronounced  judgment  on  books  that  he  had  not 
read,  or  had  read  so  imperfectly  that  he  failed  to  com 
prehend  their  real  scope  and  character.  In  the  desire 


that  of  Voltaire,  I  could  see  clearly  the  difference  there  is  between  a 
beautiful  day  and  a  tempest.  .  .  .  You  remember  the  Furies  of 
Orestes, — Furiis  agitatus  obiit."  (See  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  vol.  xlvi.  p.  442,  where  Tronchin's  letter  is  given  in  full.) 

t  Goethe  goes  still  further,  and  calls  him  "the  greatest  literary 
man  of  all  time,  the  most  astonishing  creation  of  the  Author  of 
Nature."  (See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  vol.  xlvi.  p.  445.) 

§  Mackintosh  speaks  of  Voltaire  as  one  who  embodied  in  his  own 
person  all  the  wit  and  quickness  and  versatile  ingenuity  of  a  people 
which  surpasses  other  nations  in  these  brilliant  qualities.  (See 
"  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.")  It  is  related  that  Voltaire  once 
expressed  to  an  Englishman  a  very  high  opinion  of  Haller.  His  com 
panion,  with  more  frankness  than  good  breeding,  informed  him  that 
his  high  regard  for  the  Swiss  philosopher  was  not  reciprocated. 
"  Ah  !"  said  he,  after  scarcely  a  moment's  pause,  "no  doubt  both  of 
us  are  very  much  mistaken  in  each  other." 

||  "  He  has,"  says  Carlyle,  "the  eye  of  a  lynx  :  sees  deeper  at  the 
first  glance  than  any  other  man;  but  no  second  glance  is  given." 
("Essays,  vol.  ii.") 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


VOLTAIRE 


2216 


VOLTAIRE 


to  display  his  wit,  he  constantly  lost  sight  of  truth.* 
This  last  fault  was  most  conspicuously  exhibited  when 
ever  he  had  occasion  to  assail  Christianity.  His  ribald 
jests  on  all  sacred  subjects  are  but  too  well  known  ;  but 
it  is  not  so  generally  known  that  he  was  guilty  of  the 
most  reckless,  unblushing  falsehoods,  which  he  uttered 
with  a  confident  assurance  that  often  led  inexperienced 
readers  to  suppose  that  from  his  sentence  there  could  be 
no  appeal.! 

Yet  although  his  talents  were  confessedly  of  the  most 
diversified  and  rarest  order,  and  though,  in  the  words 
of  Macaulay,  "of  all  the  intellectual  weapons  ever  used 
by  man,  the  most  terrible  was  the  mockery  of  Voltaire," 
we  cannot  regard  him  as  a  very  formidable  enemy  of 
Christianity.  In  discussing  such  questions  his  state 
ments  were  so  rash,  and  the  spirit  with  which  he  was 
animated  so  manifest,  that  he  could  deceive  only  the 
ignorant,  or  those  who  were  willing  or  anxious  to  be 
deceived.  Men  much  inferior  to  him  in  genius  (as  Hume, 
Gibbon,  and  Strauss)  have  proved  themselves  far  more 
dangerous  adversaries  to  revealed  religion,  because  their 
positions  have  been  more  cautiously  taken,  and  their 
attacks,  if  less  violent,  have  been  made  with  far  greater 
skill,  so  that  the  fallacy  of  their  arguments,  unlike  those 
of  Voltaire,  can  sometimes  be  detected  by  those  only 
who  are  accustomed  to  think  closely,  and  who  are,  at 
the  same  time,  capable  of  earnest,  impartial,  and  labo 
rious  research. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  the  charge  of  atheism 
which  has  often  been  brought  against  Voltaire,  is  wholly 
without  foundation.  On  the  one  point  of  belief  in  a 
God  he  was  consistent  and  unwavering,  though  so  fickle 
in  almost  everything  else.  In  fact,  there  are  to  be  found 
in  his  works  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  ad.nirable 
arguments  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  a  God  that  have 
ever  been  written.  The  young  wits  of  France,  whom  he 
had  taught  to  ridicule  almost  everything  sacred,  turned 
against  him,  in  his  later  years,  the  same  ridicule,  because 
he  still  adhered  to  that  delusion  of  his  early  education. 

In  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  Voltaire's  extraordinary 
influence  upon  the  mind  of  Europe,  we  ought  not  to  be 
guilty  of  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  his  intellectual 
gifts  constituted  the  whole  or  even  the  principal  part  of 
his  marvellous  power.  However  much  we  may  attribute 
to  his  versatile  and  transcendent  intellect,  we  ought, 
perhaps,  to  ascribe  still  more  to  the  intensity  as  •'  11  as 
extreme  susceptibility  of  his  emotional  natur-  .t  has 
been  justly  remarked  that  the  same  genera-  v  holds 
good  in  the  moral  or  the  social,  as  in  the  material,  wnrld, 
— that  every  body  is  attracted  in  the  same  proportion  that 
it  attracts  others.  If  Voltaire  exercised  a  greater  attract 
ive  influence  on  the  mind  of  Europe  than  any  other  man 
of  his  age,  it  was  because  he  felt  more  than  any  other 
the  influence  of  the  age  upon  himself.  This  explains 
why  he  not  merely  instructed  or  dazzled  the  minds  of 
his  contemporaries,  but  won  their  sympathy  and  affec 
tion  as  no  literary  man  or  poet  had  ever  done  before. 
The  influence  of  his  intellect  and  heart  was  all  the 
more  powerful,  because  in  his  sentiments  and  ideas  he 
was  so  little  elevated  above  the  mass  of  his  readers,  that 
he  could  exert  to  the  fullest  extent  all  that  attractive 
power  which,  as  every  one  knows,  is  greatest  when  near- 


*  Of  this  his  reckless  observations  and  slurs  upon  Shakspeare 
furnish  a  striking  illustration.  In  one  place  he  says  that  Shakspeare 
"was  but  an  ugly  ape, "("  n'ttait  yu'un  vilain  singe.")  On  another 
occasion  he  calls  the  English  dramatist  "the  Corneille  ot"  London, 
but  a  great  fool  anywhere  else,"  ("  ua  grand  foil  d'ail/eitrs.'  )  Hut 
perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  his  absurdities  is  his  complaint 
against  the  indecencies  of  Shakspeare,  (see  his  letter  to  I, a  Harpe, 
August  15,  1776,) — and  this,  too,  from  the  author  of  "  La  Pucelle"  ! 

t  "  Many  of  his  statements,"  says  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
"astonish  us  for  their  temerity,  whether  we  attribute  them  to  igno 
rance  or  effrontery.  Thus,  he  says,  for  example,  '  It  is  a  decided 
truth,  whatever  Abbadie  may  say  to  the  contrary,  that  none  of  the 
first  Fathers  of  the  Church  down  to  Irenxus  inclusive  have  quoted 
any  passage  from  the  four  Gospels,  with  which  we  are  acquainted.' 
Again  he  says  (in  the  '  Encyclopaedia,'  under  the  head  of  '  Christi 
anity')  that  among  the  early  Christians  '  fifty  four  societies  had  fifty- 
four  different  gospels,  all  secret,  like  their  mysteries.'(l)  He  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  thrown  out  his  falsehoods  with  utter  recklessness 
whenever  he  thought  they  could  serve  his  turn,  trusting  that  his  great 
name  in  literature,  and  the  confident  assurance  with  which  they  were 
uttered,  would  induce  the  vast  majority  of  readers  to  accept  them 
without  examination,  in  which  method  of  proceeding  he  has  been 
followed  by  other  assailants  of  Christianity." 


est  the  object  to  be  attracted.  That  marvellous  suscep 
tibility  of  heart,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  not  only 
prompted  him  to  those  generous  acts  of  benevolence 
which  constitute  his  one  claim  to  true  glory,  but  also 
caused  him  to  adopt  with  facility,  or  rather  to  embrace 
with  eagerness,  the  prevailing  foibles  and  vices  of  his 
age,  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  represented  in  all  its 
strength  and  in  all  its  weakness.  While  the  influence  of 
his  writings  doubtless  contributed  powerfully  to  accel 
erate  the  denouement  of  that  mighty  tragedy  in  France, 
the  first  acts  of  which  may  be  said  to  date  from  the 
commencement  of  the  century,  if  not  earlier,  it  did  not, 
we  believe,  very  materially  modify  the  direction  or 
character  of  the  great  movement  of  which  he  appeared 
to  be  the  leader,  but  of  which  he  was  in  reality  scarcely 
more  than  its  most  striking  manifestation.  He  was,  it 
may  be  said,  but  the  foremost  wave  in  a  mighty  deluge, 
urged  on  by,  as  well  as  leading,  those  behind.  Had  he 
been  as  great  morally  as  he  was  intellectually,  he  might 
probably  have  impressed  a  very  different  character  upon 
the  French  Revolution.  He  might  have  fostered  and 
developed  the  spirit  of  liberty,  without  at  the  same  time 
letting  loose  upon  society  the  demons  of  licentiousness, 
of  persiflage,  and  of  blasphemy.}:  But,  with  his  vain  and 
fickle  character, §  it  would  have  been  as  impossible  for 
him  to  direct  such  a  movement  steadily,  wisely,  and 
beneficently,  as  it  would  have  been  to  support  the  earth 
upon  his  shoulders.  His  was  no  Atlantean  strength, 
capable  of  sustaining  any  great  cause  steadily  and  firmly  ; 
it  was  rather  the  fitful  and  uncertain  strength  of  the 
wind,  which,  moved  by  forces  not  residing  in  itself,  may 
at  one  moment  refresh  and  revive  the  fainting  traveller, 
and  the  next,  heap  the  burning  sands  of  the  desert  upon 
a  perishing  caravan, — may  at  one  time  carry  prosper 
ously  across  the  main  a  vessel  laden  with  precious 
treasure,  and  at  another,  overwhelm  this  same  vessel  in 
the  depths  of  the  ocean. 

See,  besides  the  works  already  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  article,. 
FREDERICK  THE  GREAT,  "  filoge  de  Voltaire,"  1778;  CpNDORCKT, 
"Vie  de  Voltaire,  suivie  des  Memoires  de  Voltaire,  ecrits  par  lui- 
meme,"  1787;  JEAN  FRANCOIS  UK  LA  HARPH,  "  I?loge  de  Voltaire," 
1780;  C.  PAUSSOT,  "  Fjoge  de  Voltaire,"  1778;  Louts  SIMON  AU 
GER,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Voltaire,"  1X27  ;  j.  F.  (In. LET,  "  Voltaire 
der  Reformator,"  1772;  DURDENT,  "Histoire  litteraire  et  phiioso- 
phique  de  Voltaire,"  i8tS;  STANDISH,  "Life  of  Voltaire."  iSig; 
LA  ROCHE  nu  MAINE  DE  LUCHET,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Voltaire," 
etc.,  6  vols.,  17X2:  MAZURE,  "Vie  de  Voltaire,"  1X21  :  SAINT-AI.HIN 
BERVIU.E,  "Notice  historique  sur  Voltaire,"  1827;  PAII.I.KT  DE 
WARCY,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  On  wages  de  Voltaire,"  2  vols., 
1823;  BUNGENER,  "Voltaire  et  son  Temps. "  2  vols.,  1850;  VON 
ZARUESSNIG,  "  Historische  mid  kritische  Nachrichten  von  dem 
Leben  und  den  Schriften  des  Herrn  Voltaire."  etc.,  2  vols.,  1777: 
PASTORET,  "  Eloge  de  Voltaire,"  1779;  "  Leven  van  F.  M.  Arouet 
van  Voltaire,"  Utrecht,  1779;  MAKIA  JUI.IA  YOUNG,  "Voltairiana," 
4  vols.,  1805;  F.I.I. ISSKN,  "Voltaire  als  politischer  Dichter,"  etc., 
1852  ;  LONGCHAMP  et  WAGMIEUE,  "  Memoires  sur  Voltaire,"  2  vols., 
1825;  J.  VENKDEY,  "  Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  Voltaire,"  1859;  A. 
HOUSSAVB,  "  Le  Koi  Voltaire,"  1861  :  P  DUPRAT,  "Voltaire  et 
1' Encyclopedic,"  1865;  F.  A.  HAKBL,  "  Discours  sur  Voltaire," 
1844;  CHARLES  NISARD,  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  1853:  GAHE- 
REL,  "Voltaire  et  les  Genevois,"  1860;  SAINTE  BKUVK,  "Causeries 
du  Lnndi,"  tomes  ii.  and  xiii.  ;  LEPAN,  "  Vie  politique.  litteraire  et 
morale  de  Voltaire,"  1817;  QUERARD,  "  Bibliographie  Voltairienne," 
1844;  O.  HONORB,  "Voltaire  &  Lausanne,"  1853;  VILI.EMAIN, 
"  Tableau  de  la  Litterature  du  dix-huitieme  Siecle  ;"  COUSIN  u'Av\i,- 
I.ON,  "  Voltairiana,"  1801  :  "  Hiographie  Universelle  ;"  and  the  elabo 
rate  article  on  "Voltaire,"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

%  Lord  Brougham  defends  Voltaire  against  the  charge  of  blasphemy, 
on  the  ground  that  one  cannot  be  guilty  of  blasphemy  against  anv 
being  in  whom  the  offender  has  no  belief.  One  might  utter  all  hor 
rible  slanders  against  the  character  of  Christ,  and  yet,  according  to 
this  view,  it  would  not  be  blasphemy  if  the  speaker  or  writer  did  not 
believe  in  the  divinity  of  Christ.  In  reply  to  this  argument,  it  may 
suffice  to  say  that  it  has  no  support  in  the  original  signification  of 
the  verb  to  "blaspheme,"  which  is  simply  to  "slander"  or  "  vilify;" 
and  it  appears  to  have  no  sanction  in  the  usage  of  any  European 
language. 

§  Byron  has  most  aptly  portrayed  the  character  of  Voltaire  when, 
contrasting  him  with  Gibbon,  he  says, — 

"  The  one  was  fire  and  fickleness,  a  child, 
Most  mutable  in  wishes,  but  in  mind 
A  wit  as  various, — gay,  grave,  sage,  or  wild, — 
Historian,  bard,  philosopher  combined  ; 
He  multiplied  himself  among  mankind, 
The  Proteus  of  their  talents ;  but  his  own 
Breathed  most  in  ridicule, — which,  as  the  wind, 
Blew  where  it  listed,  laying  all  things  prone,— 
Now  to  o'erthrow  a  fool,  and  now  to  shake  a  throne." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iii.  stanza  cvi. 

For  some  very  curious  and  interesting  notices  of  the  fickleness, 
as  well  as  intensity,  of  Voltaire's  feelings,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Marmontel's  "Me'moires." 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a.  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  s'iort:  a,  e,  j,  y,  obscure:  far,  faa,  fat;  m§t;    5  ;  gooa;  moon; 


VOLT ERR  A 


2217 


VORSTIUS 


Volterra  or  Volterre.     See  RICCIAREI.LI. 

Volterrano.  See  MAFFEI,  (RAFFAELLO  and  FRAN- 
CESCHINI.) 

Voltoliiia,  vol-to-lee'na,  (GIUSEPPE  Mn.io,)  a  writer 
of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Salo,  on  the  Lake  of  Garcia, 
flourished  about  1570.  He  wrote  a  fine  poem  on  Horti 
culture,  (1574.) 

Vo-lum'ni-a,  a  Roman  matron,  was  the  wife  of  Cori- 
olanus.  She,  and  her  mother-in-law,  persuaded  that 
general  to  desist  from  his  purpose  of  attacking  Rome. 
(See  VKTURIA.) 

Vonck,  vonk,  (FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born  near 
Brussels  in  1735.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
party  which  attempted  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Austria 
about  1789.  Died  in  1792. 

Vondel,  van  den,  va"n  den  von'del,  [Lat.  VONDE'- 
J.ius,]  (JoosT,)  an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Cologne 
in  1587,  was  a  son  of  Protestant  parents,  who  fled  from 
Antwerp  to  escape  persecution.  He  resided  mostly  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits, 
and  married  about  1610.  He  produced  in  1620  a  tragedy 
of  the  "Sack  of  Jerusalem,"  and  in  1625  a  more  famous 
drama,  called  "  Palamedes,"  in  which  he  alluded  to  the 
execution  of  Barneveldt  in  such  indignant  terms  that  he 
was  fined.  His  drama  of  "  Gisbert  van  Amstel"  (1637) 
was  received  with  great  applause.  It  is  stated  that  he 
joined  the  Catholic  Church  about  1640.  Among  his 
remarkable  works  is  the  tragedy  of  "Lucifer,"  (1654,) 
which  is  said  to  resemble  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  lie 
was  also  a  great  lyric  poet.  The  choruses  of  his  trage 
dies  are  sublime  lyrical  compositions.  He  was  the 
author  of  satires  and  many  other  poems,  and  is  regarded 
as  the  great  national  poet  of  Holland.  Died  in  1679. 

See  L.  V.  OM.F.FEN,  "  Leven  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1783; 
SIJBRANDI,  "Vondel  and  Shakspeare,"  (in  Dutch,)  1X41  ;  PIKTKR 
CAMPKK,  "  Dissevlatio  de  J.  Vondelio,  Poeta  tragico,"  1819:  HEN- 
DRIK  ZKKMAN.  "  I. even  van  J.  van  den  Vonclel,"  1831  ;  C.  LOOTS, 
"  H tilde  aan  de  Nagedaclitenis  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  iSiy  ; 
LONG  FK  i. i.ow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1X54. 

Vondelius.     See  VONDEI.. 

Von  der  Hardt.     See  HARDT,  vox  DKR. 

Vo-no'ne.i,  King  of  Parthia,  was  a  son  of  Phraates 
TV.  He  passed  some  of  his  early  years  at  Rome  as  a 
hostage,  and  began  to  reign  in  14  A.ix  Having  been 
deposed  by  his  subjects,  he  was  killed  in  19  A.D. 

Von-Visiii.     See  VIZIN,  VON. 

Voorst,  van,  vtn  voRst,  (Anoi.ru,)  a  Dutch  physi 
cian  and  botanist,  born  at  Delft  in  1597.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  professor  of  botany  at  Leyden.  Died  in 
1663. 

Voorst,  van,  [Lat.  VOR'STIUS,]  (EvERARn,)  a  Dutch 
physician,  born  at  Ruremonde  in  1565,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  at  Leyden 
in  1598.  He  wrote  several  medical  works.  Died  in 
1624. 

Vo-pis'cus,  (FLAVIUS,)  a  Latin  historian,  born  at 
Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  lived  about  300-320  A.I).  He  was 
one  of  the  writers  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta,"  to  which 
he  contributed  the  lives  of  Aurelian,  Tacitus,  Florianus, 
Probus,  etc.  He  is  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  ablest 
of  the  writers  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta." 

See  D.  W.  MOLI.ER,  "  Disputatio  de  F.  Vopisco,"  1687. 

Vor,  VOR,  or  Vo'ra,  written  also  Vara,  [probably 
from  vor  or  for,  (Ger.  vor,}  "  before"  or  "  beforehand," 
so  named  on  account  of  her  prudence  and  foresight,]  a 
goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  distinguished  for  her 
wisdom  and  sagacity.  It  is  her  office  to  search  out  and 
punish  broken  oaths  and  promises,  particularly  those 
of  lovers.  Nothing  can  escape  her  penetration,  and  no 
vows,  however  secret,  can  be  hidden  from  her. 

See  THORPE,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  35  and  36. 

Voragiiie,  (GIACOMO.)    See  JAMES  (or  GIACOMO)  DE 

VORAGINE. 

Vorherr,  foR'he'R,  QOHANN  MICHAEL  CHRISTIAN 
GUSTAV,)  a  German  architect,  born  at  Freudenbach  in 
1778,  studied  at  Berlin  and  Paris,  and  was  subsequently 
employed  to  construct  a  number  of  public  buildings  in 
the  vicinity  of  Munich.  Died  in  1847. 

Voronikhiii  or  Woroiiichin,  vo-ro-ne-Ker/,  (AN- 
Ei  NIKIFOROVITCH,)  a  Russian  architect,  born  in  1760, 


was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  was  patronized  by  Count 
Alexander  Stroganof.  He  studied  at  Moscow,  and 
subsequently  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed,  after  his  re 
turn,  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  In  1811  he 
completed  the  superb  cathedral  of  "  Our  Lady  of 
Kazan,"  in  the  Nevskii  Prospect,  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  structures  in  the 
city.  Died  in  1814. 

Vorontsof,  vSr-6nt-sof',  Vorontzov,  or  Woron- 
zow,  (ALEXANDER,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  statesman  under 
the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  was  a  brother  of  the  Princess 
Dashkof,  the  intimate  friend  of  that  empress.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Alexander  chancellor  of  the 
empire  in  1802.  Died  in  1806. 

Vorontsof,  Vorontzov,  or  Woronzow,  (MIKHAIL 
ILARIONOVITCH,)  COUNT,  a  Russian  diplomatist  and 
statesman,  born  in  1710,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour 
of  the  empress  Elizabeth,  and  rose  to  be  chancellor  of 
the  empire.  He  negotiated  the  treaty  of  alliance  be 
tween  Russia  and  Sweden  in  1745.  Died  in  1767. 

Vorontsof,  Vorontzov,  or  Woronzow,  (MIKHAIL 
SEMENOVITCH,)  PRINCE,  a  Russian  general  and  states 
man,  born  at  Moscow  in  1782.  He  was  educated  in 
England,  where  his  father,  Semen  Woronzow,  resided 
as  Russian  ambassador.  Having  entered  the  Russian 
army,  he  served  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  Napoleon  from.  1812  to  1815.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  governor  of  New  Russia  and 
Bessarabia,  and  in  1844  of  the  Caucasian  provinces. 
Died  in  1856. 

Vorontzov  or  VorontzofF.     See  VORONTSOF. 

Vorosmarty  or  Voeroesmarty,  vo'rosh-morty, 
(almost  -moRtch,)  (MmALY,)  a  celebrated  Hungarian 
writer  and  patriot,  born  in  the  county  of  Fejervar  in 
1800.  He  published,  while  a  student  at  Pesth,  his  drama 
of  "King  Solomon,"  (1821,)  which  was  followed  by  a 
poem  entitled  "The  Triumph  of  Fidelity,"  (1822,)  "King 
Sigismund,"  (1824,)  a  drama,  "The  Flight  of  Zalan,"  an 
epic  poem,  and  the  tragedy  of  "  Kont,"  (1825.)  His 
narrative  poems  entitled  "Cserhalom"  and  "The  En 
chanted  Valley"  ("Tiindervolgy,"  1827)  established  his 
reputation  as  the  first  Hungarian  poet  of  his  time.  He 
was  a  contributor  to  Kisfaludy's  "Aurora,"  and  was  for 
several  years  editor  of  a  journal  called  "The  Repository 
of  Science."  In  1830)16  published  a  patriotic  lyric  entitled 
"  T'*Q  Appeal,"  ("  Szozat,")  which  at  once  became  widely 
pop.  and  the  author  received  from  the  Hungarian 
A  cadi,  i  ducat  for  every  line.  He  took  part  in  the 
re\  ilutii  .1  of  1848,  and  was  a  deputy  to  the  National 
Assembly  for  the  county  of  Bacska,  and  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  was  imprisoned  a  short  time.  He 
died  in  1856,  while  engaged  on  a  translation  of  Shak 
speare. 

Vorst,  foRst,  or  Vorstius,  foR'ste-us,  (JOHANN,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Wesselburg  in  1623.  He 
settled  in  Berlin  in  1660,  and  became  rector  or  president 
of  the  college  of  that  city.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Sacred  Philology,"  etc.,  ("Philologia  Sacra,  seu 
de  Hebraismis  Novi  Testament)  Liber,"  1658.)  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1676. 

Vorsterman,  voR'ster-man',  (LuCAS,)  a  skilful  Flem 
ish  engraver  and  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1580, 
was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Rubens,  among  which  are  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
and  the  "Descent  from  the  Cross."  He  worked  in 
London  about  nine  years,  (1624-32,)  during  which  he 
engraved  a  number  of  portraits  after  Van  Dyck.  Died 
about  1645.  H's  son  LUCAS  was  an  engraver,  but  not 
equal  to  the  father. 

See  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Vorstius.     See  VORST  and  VOORST. 

Vorstius,  foR'ste-us,  or  Vorst,  foRst,  (CONRAD,)  a 
German  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Cologne  in  1569. 
Having  taken  the  degree  of  D.D.  at  Heidelberg,  he  be 
came  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva,  and  afterwards 
filled  the  same  chair  in  the  school  of  divinity  at  Stein- 
furt.  In  1610  he  succeeded  Arminius  in  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Leyden.  His  appointment  to  this  post  was 
strongly  opposed  by  the  Calvinists  in  Holland,  on  account 
of  the  heresies  contained  in  his  "  Disputations  on  the 
Nature  and  Attributes  of  God,"  ("  De  Deo,  seu  Dis- 


•e.  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


yORTIGERN 


2218 


yossius 


»y  .  .  .  . 

putationea  decem  de  Natura  et  Attnbutis  Dei,  etc. 
The  book  was  condemned  to  be  publicly  burned  by  James 
I.  of  England,  who  also  wrote  a  tract  against  the  author. 
In  1619  he  was  denounced  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  as  un 
worthy  of  his  office,  and  exiled  from  the  country.  He 
died  at  Tonningen  in  1622.  He  was  the  author  of  sev 
eral  religious  and  controversial  works,  and  was  distin 
guished  for  his  learning  and  piety. 

Vor'ti-gern,  a  British  chief,  who  was  elected  king 
about  445  A.'n.  To  defend  Britain  against  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  he  invited  the  aid  of  the  Saxons.  Hengist  and 
Horsa  led  an  army  of  Saxons  into  Britain,  and  soon 
turned  their  arms  against  Vortigern,  who  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  485  A.D. 

Vos,  de,  cleh  vos,  (CORNELIS,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Hulst  about  1585.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  and 
painted  several  historical  pieces.  Died  at  Antwerp  in 
1651. 

Vos,  de,  (MARTIN.)     See  DEVOS. 

Vos,  de,  (PAUL,)  a  painter  of  animals  and  hunting- 
scenes,  born  at  Hulst  (or  Aelst)  about  1590,  was  a  bro 
ther  of  Cornelis,  noticed  above.  Died  in  1654. 

Vos,  de,  (SIMON,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1603  ;  died  about  1675. 

Vos,  van,  vjtn  vos,  (\VILLEM,)  a  Dutch  writer  on 
theology  and  moral  philosophy,  born  about  1740.  He 
was  employed  as  pastor  at  Amsterdam.  Died  in  1823. 

Voss,  (GERARD.)     See  Vossius. 

Voss,  fos,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  scholar,  was  a  son 
of  the  following.  He  became  a  professor  in  the  Univer 
sity  of  Heidelberg.  He  translated  /Eschylus  into  Ger 
man,  and  aided  his  father  in  a  translation  of  Shakspeare. 
Died  in  1822. 

Voss,  (JoHANN  HEINRICH,)  an  eminent  German  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Sommersdorf,  (Mecklenburg,)  Febru 
ary  20,  1751,  was  the  son  of  poor  parents.  After  he  left 
the  public  school  of  New  Brandenburg,  he  became  a 
tutor  in  a  family  (1769)  near  Penzlin.  Some  verses  which 
he  contributed  to  the  "  Musenalmanach"  of  Gottingen 
attracted  the  notice  of  Boie,  the  editor,  who  invited  him 
to  Gottingen.  He  went  thither  in  1772,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  philology  under  Heyne,  with 
whom  he  soon  quarrelled.  He  became  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  members  of  the  literary  society  called  Hainbund, 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Klopstock,  and  married 
about  1777  a  sister  of  Boie,  above  mentioned.  He  quitted 
Gottingen  in  1775  with  a  profound  knowledge  of  classical 
literature  and  philology,  and  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
public  school  at  Ottendorf  in  1778.  In  1781  he  produced 
an  excellent  translation  of  Homer's  "Odyssey,"  in  hex 
ameter  verse,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the 
best  judges.  In  his  version  the  ideas  and  details  of  the 
original  are  reproduced  with  great  fidelity.  He  removed 
in  1782  to  Eutin,  in  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  where  he 
was  employed  about  twenty  years  as  rector  of  the  gym 
nasium.  In  1789  he  published  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
"Georgics,"  with  a  commentary.  His  admirable  trans 
lation  of  the  "Iliad"  appeared  in  1793.  As  a  translator 
of  the  classics,  he  is  generally  considered  to  be  un 
rivalled.  He  contributed  much  to  the  improvement  of 
the  German  language  and  metre.  Between  1774  and 
1800  he  composed  eighteen  beautiful  idyls,  which  were 
published  collectively  in  4  vols.,  1802.  His  pastoral  or 
idyllic  poem  "  Luise"  (1795)  is  considered  the  most 
charming  poem  of  that  kind  in  the  language. 

Voss  and  Heyne  were  involved  in  several  literary  con 
troversies,  and  indulged  in  violent  personalities.  In  1799 
he  published  a  translation  of  the  complete  works  of  Vir 
gil.  He  removed  from  Eutin  to  Jena  in  1802,  and  was 
called  in  1805  to  Heidelberg  by  the  Elector  of  Baden, 
who  offered  him  a  pension  of  about  one  thousand  florins. 
He  afterwards  published  translations  of  Horace,  (1806,) 
Hesiod,  (1808,)  Theocritus,  Bion  and  Moschus,  (1808,) 
and  Aristophanes,  (1821.)  Voss  manifested  his  devo 
tion  to  the  Protestant  religion  and  liberal  principles  in 
a  work  entitled  "  How  F.  Stolberg  became  illiberal," 
("Wie  ward  Fritz  Stolberg  ein  Unfreier,"  1819,)  and 
published  in  1823  his  "  Antisymbolik,"  in  answer  to 
Creuzer's  "  Symbolik,"  in  which  the  opinions  of  Heyne 
had  been  maintained.  He  had  two  sons,  Henry  and 
Abraham,  who  were  his  coadjutors  in  a  translation  of 


Shakspeare,  published  in  1818-26.     He  died  at  Heidel 
berg  in  March,  1826. 

See  PAUI.US,  "  Lebens-  mid  Todeskunden  fiber  J.  H.  Voss,"  1826  ; 
TH.  SCHMID,  "Leben  des  Dicliters  J.  H.  Voss,"  1835;  J.  H.  Voss, 
"  Abriss  nieines  Lebens,"  i5ji8;  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  HKINRICH  DOKINC;,  "J.  H.  Voss  nach  seinem  Leben 
und  Wirken  dargestellt,"  1834;  J.  J.  GOEKRES.  "  J.  H.  Voss  und 
seine  Todtenfeier  in  Heidelberg,"  1826  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generate  ;"and  the  article  on  "German  Poetry"  in  "  Fraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  April,  1832. 

Voss,  von,  fon  fos,  (Jui.ius,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  in  Brandenburg  in  1768,  was  the  author  of  a  num 
ber  of  dramas  and  romances.  Died  in  1832. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us,  (DioNYSius,)  a  Dutch  Oriental 
ist,  born  at  Dort  about  1609,  was  a  son  of  the  following. 
He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  learned 
several  modern  languages.  He  translated  into  Latin 
Maimonides  "  On  Idolatry,"  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1633. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us,  or  Voss,  vos,  (GERARD,)  a  Ger 
man  or  Flemish  theologian  and  priest,  born  near  Liege, 
lived  at  Rome.  He  edited  some  works  of  Chrysostom, 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  other  Greek  Fathers,  (1575- 
1604.)  Died  at  Liege  in  1609. 

Vossius,  (GERARD,)  a  classical  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1620.  He  edited  Vel- 
leius  Paterculus.  (1639.)  His  death  is  variously  dated 
from  1640  to  1650. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us  or  fos'se-us,  or  Voss,  fos,  (GE 
RARD  TAN,)  a  celebrated  German  scholar,  born  near 
Heidelberg  in  1577.  He  removed  to  Dort,  in  Holland, 
studied  theology,  history,  and  antiquities  at  Leyden,  and 
became  master  of  the  public  school  at  Dort  in  1600. 
He  was  appointed,  in  1614,  rector  of  the  theological 
school  at  Leyden,  in  which  he  soon  after  filled  the  chair 
of  eloquence.  He  visited  England  in  1629,  and  was 
installed  as  a  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  through  the 
influence  of  Archbishop  Laud.  About  1632  he  became 
professor  of  history  in  a  new  college  at  Amsterdam.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1649.  Among  his  principal  works 
may  be  named  "  Aristarchus,  or  Seven  Books  on  the 
Dramatic  Art,"  ("Aristarchus,  sive  de  Arte  Dramatica 
Libri  VII.,")  "  Historia  Pelagiana,"  (1618,)  "The  Rhe 
torical  Art,"  ("Ars  Rhetorica,"  1623,)  "  On  the  Greek 
Historians,"  ("De  Historicis  Grsecis  Libri  ties,"  1624,) 
"On  the  Latin  Historians,"  ("De  Historicis  Latinis 
Libri  tres,"  1627,)  and  "  Commentariorum  Rhetori- 
corum  (sive  Oratoriarum  Institutionum)  Libri  VI." 

He  was  a  friend  of  Grotius,  and  was  a  man  of 
commendable  piety  and  modesty.  "Gerard  Vossius," 
says  Hallam, — "a  far  greater  name  in  general  literature 
than  Scioppius, — contributed  more  essentially  to  these 
grammatical  rules  ;  and  to  him  perhaps,  rather  than 
to  any  other  one  man,  we  may  refer  the  establishment 
of  as  much  correctness  of  writing  as  is  attainable  in  a 
dead  language."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  (,'.  TOI.I.IUS,  "Oratio  in  Obitum  G.  J.  Vossii."  1649;  MEUR- 
sius,  "  Athens  Hatavae  ;"  NICERON.  "  Memoires  ;"  VAI.ERE  ANDRE, 
"  Bibliotheca  lielgica  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vossius,  (ISAAC,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1618.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father, 
and  subsequently  travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  In 
1648  he  was  invited  by  Queen  Christina  to  Sweden, 
where  he  resided  nearly  ten  years.  He  visited  England 
in  1670,  and  was  made  a  canon  of  Windsor  by  Charles 
II.  He  published'editions  of  Scylax,  Pomponius  Mela, 
and  other  classics,  "Dissertations  on  the  Seventy  Inter 
preters,  and  their  Translation  and  Chronology,"  ("  De 
Septuaginta  Interpretibus,  eorumque  Translatione  et 
Chronologia  Dissertationes,"  1663,)  "On  the  Chanting 
of  Poems  and  the  Power  of  Rhythm,"  ("  De  Poematum 
Cantu  et  Viribus  Rhythmi,"  1673,)  and  "A  Book  of 
Various  Observations,"  ("Variarum  Observationum 
Liber.")  He  died  in  1688,  leaving  a  large  and  very 
valuable  library,  which  was  purchased  by  the  University 
of  Leyden.  His  learning  was  profound,  but  he  was  dis 
solute  in  character  and  skeptical  in  religion,  though  so 
credulous  in  other  things  that  Charles  II.  said  of  him, 
"  This  learned  divine  will  believe  anything  except  the 
Bible." 

See  FOPPENS,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica;"  NICERON,  "Memoires;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


i,  e, I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o, obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


rossius 


2219 


VTASA 


Vossius,  (MATTHEUS,)  a  historical   writer,  born  at  ! 
Dort,  was  a  brother  of  Isaac  Vossius.     He  became  li-  j 
brarian   of  the   city   of   Amsterdam,   and    published,    in 
Latin,   "Annals   of  Holland   and   Zealand,"   (1645-46.) 
Died  in  1646. 

Vostermaii,  vos'ter-man',  (JOHN,)  a  Dutch  landscape-  ; 
painter,  born  at  Bommel  in  1643.      He  worked  in  Eng-  ; 
land,  and  was  patronized  by  Charles  II.     He  is  said  to 
have  excelled  in  delicacy  of  finish.     Died  in  1699. 

Vouet,  voo'i',  (SiMox,)  a  celebrated  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1582,  (or  1590,  according  to  the  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale.")  He  studied  at  Venice 
and  Rome,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed,  in  1627, 
painter  to  Louis  XIII.  He  is  called  the  founder  of  the  | 
French  school  of  painting,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Mignard,  Le  Brun,  Le  Sueur,  and  other  distin 
guished  artists.  He  adorned  many  churches  of  Paris 
with  his  works,  which  are  defective  in  colour  and  design. 
Died  in  1649,  (ori  as  some  say,  1641.) 

See  FKI.IBIKN,  "  Les  Artistes  Krangais  ;"  CHARLES  BLANC,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Voullaiid,  voo'15x',  (HKNKI,)  a  violent  French  Jaco 
bin,  born  at  Uzes  in  1750,  was  a  member  of  the  Con 
vention  of  1792-95.  Died  in  1802. 

Voyer.     See  ARGENSOX,  r>'. 

Voys,  vois,  (AkY  or  ADKIAAX,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1641.  He  painted  history  and  land 
scapes. 

Voysin  or  Voisin,  vwa'zdx',  (DANIEL  FRANCOIS,) 
a  French  lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  about  1654. 
He  was  patronized  by  Madame  de  Maintenon,  through 
whose  influence  he  became  secretary  of  war  in  1709,  and 
chancellor  of  France  in  1714.  lie  wrote  the  last  will  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  a  few  days  after  the  king's  death  pro-  I 
noticed  it  null.  Died  in  1717. 

Vre'tos  or  Vre'to,  (ANDREW  PAPADOPOULOS,)  a 
modern  Greek  writer,  born  at  Theaki  (Ithaca)  in  1800. 
He  published  many  works,  among  which  is  a  "Life  of 
President  Capo  d'Istria,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1837-38,) 
and  "The  Literature  of  Modern  Greece,"  (2  vols., 
1854-57.) 

Vriemoet,  vKee'moot,  (EMO  Lucius,)  a  Dutch  phi 
lologist  and  minister,  born  at  Eniden  in  1699.  He  be 
came  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Franeker  in 
1730.  Died  in  1760. 

Vriend.     See  FLORIS,  (FRAXS.) 

Vries,  vRees,  (MARTIN  Gerritzoon — geR'rit-zon,)  a 
Dutch  navigator,  was  sent  in  1643,  by  Van  Diemen, 
governor  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  India,  on  a  voyage 
to  explore  the  countries  north  of  Japan.  An  account 
of  the  expedition  appeared  in  1646. 

Vries,  de,  deh  vRees,  (HANS  Fredeman — fi<a'deh- 
man',)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter  of  perspective  and 
architectural  pieces,  was  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1527. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective,"  and 
produced  a  great  number  of  architectural  designs.  His 
sons  PAUL  and  SOLOMON  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  same  department.  Hans  Fredeman  died  after  1604. 

Vuez,  de.     See  DEVUKZ. 

Vukassovich,  von,  fon  voo-kas'so-vik,  (PHILIP,) 
BARON,  a  general,  born  in  Slavonia  in  1755.  He  served 
as  a  general  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Italy  against  the 
French.  Died  in  1809. 

Vulcain.     See  VULCAN. 

Viil'can,  [Gr.  "Hteoroc,  ( Hephaistos;)  Lat.  VULCA'- 
NUS;  Fr.  VULCAIN, viiKkax';  It.  VOLCANO,  vol-ka'no,]  the 
Roman  god  of  fire,  celebrated  as  a  worker  in  metals  and 


a  fabricator  of  armour,  corresponds  to  the  Hephaestus 
(or  Hephaistos)  of  the  Greek  mythology.  According  to 
Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Hera,  (Juno,) 
and  was  weak  and  deformed  from  his  birth.  Other 
writers  reported  that  he  was  a  son  of  Juno,  and  had  no 
father  ;  that,  in  a  quarrel  between  Jupiter  and  Juno,  he 
took  the  part  of  his  mother,  and  was  hurled  down  from 
Olympus  by  Jupiter;  that,  after  falling  a  whole  day,  he 
lighted  on  the  island  of  Lemnos  ;  that  his  fall  rendered 
him  lame  ;  that  he  forged  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter, 
and  fabricated  the  shield  of  Hercules,  the  armour  of 
Achilles  and  other  heroes,  and  other  famous  pieces  of 
exquisite  workmanship.  The  island  of  Lemnos  was  his 
favourite  residence  on  the  earth,  and  he  had  also  a  palace 
in  Olympus,  to  which  he  returned  after  his  fall.  He 
married  Venus,  whom  he  once  detected  in  the  embrace 
of  Mars.  The  story  of  this  affair  may  be  found  in  the 
"  Odyssey,"  book  viii.  According  to  popular  tradition, 
Mount  Etna  was  a  forge  of  Vulcan,  who  had  also  work 
shops  in  several  volcanic  islands,  and  the  Cyclopes 
worked  in  his  service.  (See  Virgil's  "/Eneid,"  book 
viii.  370-448.)  The  ancients  ascribed  to  Minerva  and 
Vulcan  jointly  the  invention  or  the  introduction  of  the 
arts  which  embellish  life  and  distinguish  civilized  society 
from  the  savage  state.  He  was  represented  with  ham 
mer  and  tongs  at  the  anvil,  and  with  his  right  arm  bare. 
He  was  also  called  MULCIBER,  which  is  perhaps  a  cor 
ruption  of  mnlcifir,  (from  mitlceo,  to  "soften"  or  "render 
tractable,"  undfeman,  "iron.") 

Vulcanius,  vul-ka'ne-us,  (BoNAVENTURA,)  a  Flemish 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Bruges  in  1538.  He  became  sec 
retary  to  Cardinal  Francisco  de  Mendoza  in  Spain  about 
1560,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Leyden  in  1578. 
He  edited  several  ancient  authors,  and  translated  some 
Greek  works  into  Latin.  Died  at  Leyden  in  1614. 

Vul'pi-us,  [Ger.  pron.  fool'pe-us,]  (CHRISTIAN  AU 
GUST,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Weimar  in  1762.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Erlangen,  and  afterwards  became 
secretary  of  the  court  theatre  at  Weimar,  under  the 
direction  of  Goethe,  who  was  his  brother-in-law.  He 
published  "  Rinaldo  Rinaldini,"  (1799,)  a  robber  romance, 
which  was  received  with  great  favour  ;  also  "  Romantic 
Histories  of  Former  Times,"  and  a  number  of  dramatic 
works.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  first  librarian 
and  overseer  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  at  Weimar.  Died 
in  1827. 

Vulsoii,  de,  deh  vuTs6.N',  (MARC,)  a  French  writer  on 
heraldry.  He  fought  for  Henry  IV.  in  his  youth,  and 
became  a  gentleman  of  the  chamber  of  the  king.  He 
published  several  works.  Died  in  1658. 

Vyasa,  ve-a'sa  or  vya'sa,  [etymology  doubtful  ;  sup 
posed  by  some  to  signify  "  compiler"  or  "  arranger,"] 
called  also  Vedavyasa,  va'da-vya'sa,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  Hindoo  sage  or  saint,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  original  compiler  of  the  Vedas  and  Pura- 
nas,  and  the  founder  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy.* 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  and  by  some 
he  is  regarded  as  a  myth. 


*  The  Vedanta  philosophy,  called  also  simply  the  Vedanta.  (i.e. 
the  "end  or  scope  of  [all]  knowledge,"  from  z>ed&,  "knowledge," 
and  dntft.,  "end"  or  "scope,")  is  a  sort  of  ideal  system,  which 
has  been  derived  or  developed  from  portions  of  the  Vedas,  called  the 
UPANISHADS,  (which  see.)  It  teaches,  among  other  things,  that 
Hrahni,  the  infinite  eternal  Spirit,  is  the  only  being  really  existing  in 
the  universe.  All  creatures  are  merely  emanations  (or  we  might  say 
exhalations)  from  Him,  having  an  apparent  rather  than  a  real  exist 
ence,  and  will  at  last  be  absorbed  or  extinguished  in  his  essence. 
(See  BRAHM  and  BRAHMANISM.) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WAAGEN 


WADE 


w. 


Waagen,  wa'gen,  (GusTAV  FRIEDRICH,)  an  eminent 
German  amateur  and  art-critic,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1794.  He  studied  at  Breslau.  Dresden,  and  Munich, 
and  in  1823  was  appointed  director  of  the  Royal  Gallery 
of  Paintings  at  Berlin.  He  published  "  Works  of  Art 
and  Artists  in  England  and  France,"  ("  Kunstwerke  uncl 
Kiinstler  in  England  uncl  Frankteich,"  3  vols.,  1837,) 
"  Works  of  Art  and  Artists  in  Germany,"  ("  Kunstwerke 
uncl  Klinstier  in  Deutschland,"  2  vols.,  1843,)  "The 
Treasures  of  Art  in  Great  Britain,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1854, 
in  English,)  a  "  Life  of  Rubens,"  and  other  works,  which 
enjoy  the  highest  reputation.  He  was  appointed  in  1844 
professor  in  the  Royal  University  for  the  department  of 
art  history.  Died  at  Copenhagen  in  August,  1868. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Waal.     See  WAEI.. 

Waast.     See  WASP. 

Wace,  va"s  or  vas,  (RoBKRT,)  an  Anglo-Norman  poet, 
a  native  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  resided  at  the  court  of 
Henry  II.  at  Caen,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  "  Roman 
du  Rou,"  (1160.)  He  was  afterwards  made  a  canon  in 
the  cathedral  of  Hayeu.x.  His  "  Roman  du  Ron  [Rolloj 
et  des  Dues  de  Normandie"  is  a  history  (in  verse)  of  the 
Dukes  of  Normandy  from  the  invasion  of  Rollo  to  the 
time  of  Henry  I.,  and  is  highly  valued  as  a  historical 
record.  He  was  the  author  of  other  poems,  the  prin 
cipal  of  which  is  entitled  "The  English  Brutus,"  ("  Le 
Brut  d'Angleterre.")  Died  about  1184. 

See  PLUQUET,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Robert  Wnce," 
1824;  LONGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  tor  April,  iS2S;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
February,  iS47,  article  "Anglo-Norman  Poets  of  the  Twelfth  Cen 
tury  :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate. " 

Wach,  waK,  (\VILMKLM,)  a  German  painter,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1787,  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  was 
elected,  after  his  return,  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  new  school  of  paint 
ing  at  Berlin.  Among  his  best  works  is  the  altar-piece 
in  the  church  of  Peter  and  Paul  at  Moscow.  Died  in 
1845- 

Wachler,  waK/ier,  (JoHANN  FKIEDKICH  Lunwio,)  a 
German  writer,  born  at  Gotha  in  1767.  Having  studied 
at  Jena,  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg 
in  1801,  and  of  history  at  Breslau  in  1815,  and  was  after 
wards  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  University  at 
Breslau.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual  of  the  Uni 
versal  History  of  Literary  Culture,"  (1804,)  "Manual  of 
History,"  ("  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte,")  "  Lectures  on 
the  History  of  German  National  Literature,"  (1818,)  and 
other  works,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  Died  in  1838. 

Wachsmuth,  waks'moot,  (ERNST  WILHELM  GOTT 
LIEB,)  a  German  historical  writer,  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1784,  studied  at  Halle,  and  became  professor  of  his 
tory  at  Leipsic  in  1825.  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  European  Manners,"  (Sittenge- 
schichte,)  (5  vols.,  1831,)  and  "  Universal  History  of 
Culture,"  (1850.) 

Wachsmuth,  viks'mut',  (FERDINAND,)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  battles,  born  at  Mulhouse,  near 
the  Rhine,  in  1802.  Among  his  subjects  are  several 
French  victories  in  Algiers. 

Wachter,  waK'ter,  (FERDINAND,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  1794,  has  published  several  treatises  on  Scandi 
navian  legends  and  antiquities  ;  also  a  number  of  dramatic 
works. 

Wachter  or  Waechter,  w§K'ter,  (GEORG  PHII.IPP 
LUDWIG  LEONHAKD,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in  1762, 
was  the  author  of  "  Legends  of  Ancient  Times,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1837. 

Wachter,  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  an  eminent  German 
linguist  and  archaeologist,  born  at  Memmingen  in  1673. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Ber 
lin,  and  became  first  librarian  and  director  of  the  Museum 
of  Antiquities  at  Leipsic.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Glos- 
sarium  Germanicum,"  etc.,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind,  "  Archaeologia  Nummaria,"  (1740,) 


and  other  treatises  on  numismatics  and  etymology.   Died 

in  175.7- 

Wachter  or  Waechter,  von,  fon  welter,  (KARL 
GEORG,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Marbach,  on  the 
Neckar,  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Heidel 
berg,  and  became  in  1822  professor  of  law  in  the  former 
university,  of  which  he  was  nvicle  chancellor  in  1836.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  civil  law  at  Leipsic  in  1852, 
and  published  several  works  on  German  law. 

Wachtler  or  Waechtler,  weia'ler,  (CHRISTFRIED,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  atGrimme  in  1652.  He  published 
numerous  legal  works.  Died  in  1731. 

"Wachtler  or  Waechtler,  JAKOB,)  a  German  Prot 
estant  minister  and  writer  on  theology,  born  at  Grimme 
in  1638;  died  at  Beltzig  in  1702. 

Wackenroder,  wdk'ken-ro'der,  (WILHELM  1 1  F.I  \- 
RICH,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1772.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Ludwig  Tieck,  in  conjunction  with  whom 
he  published  "  Herzensergiessungen  eines  Kiinstlieben- 
den  Klosterbruders."  Died  in  1798. 

See  J.  G.  KLEIN,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Wackenroder,"  1809. 

Wackerbarth,  Mk'ker-baiu',  (AUGUST  CHUIS 
Torn,)  COUNT,  a  German  military  commander,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Saxe-Lauenburg  in  1662.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Turks,  and 
was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1712.  Died  in  1754. 

See  FRIGANDER,  "  Leben  des  A.  C.  Grafen  von  Wackerbarth," 
2  vols.,  1730. 

Wackernagel,  wak'ker-na'gel,  (KARL  HEINRICII 
WlLHELM,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Merlin  in  1806, 
became  professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature 
at  Bale  in  1835.  He  published  a  "  German  Reader," 
(1835,)  a  treatise  "On  Dramatic  Poetry,"  (1838,)  "  His 
tory  of  German  Literature,"  (1848,)  and  other  works,  of 
great  merit,  on  similar  subjects. 

Wad-dell',  (JAMES,)  D.I).,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
celebrated  for  his  eloquence,  born  in  Ireland  in  1739, 
came  at  an  early  age  to  America,  and  settled  as  a  pastor 
in  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  He  was  the  original  of 
William  Wirt's  beautiful  sketch  of  the  "  Blind  Preacher." 
Died  in  1805. 

Wadding,  wSd'ding,  or  Wading,  (LuKK,)  an  Irish 
scholar  and  Catholic  priest,  born  at  Waterforcl  in  1588. 
He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  in  Lisbon,  and  in 
1618  accompanied  Anthony  a  Trejo  on  a  mission  to 
Rome,  where  he  continued  to  reside,  and  founded  in 
1625  the  College  of  Saint  Isidore.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Annales  Ordinis  Minorum,"  etc.,  (8  vols., 
1628-54,)  being  a  history  of  the  order  of  Franciscans. 
Died  in  1657. 

Waddiiigton,  wSd'ding-ton,  (GEORGE,)  an  English 
writer,  born  about  1793.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Church  from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Reformation," 
(3  vols.,  1835,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation  on 
the  Continent,"  (3  vols.,  1841.)  He  became  Dean  of 
Durham  in  1840. 

Waddiiigton  -  Kastus,  vt '  daN  '  ION'  kfs'tus', 
(CHARLES,)  a  French  Protestant  philosopher,  born 
about  1819.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Ramus,"  (1855,) 
and  "Essays  on  Logic,"  (1858.)  He  became  a  professor 
at  Strasburg  in  1856. 

Wade,  (BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,)  an  American  Sena 
tor,  distinguished  as  a  zealous  opponent  of  slavery,  born 
at  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  October  27,  1800,  was  a 
son  of  poor  parents.  He  removed  to  Ohio  about  1821, 
was  employed  as  a  school-teacher  for  several  years,  and 
studied  law.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828,  since 
which  time  he  has  resided  in  Ashtabula  county,  Ohio. 
In  1837  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Ohio, 
and  in  1847  he  was  chosen  presiding  judge  of  the  third 
judicial  district  of  that  State.  He  was  elected  a  Sena 
tor  of  the  United  States  by  the  Whigs  of  Ohio  in  1851. 
He  advocated  the  Homestead  bill,  voted  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  opposed  the  Nebraska 
Kansas  bill  of  1854.  He  was  re-elected  a  Senator  for 
six  years  in  1857,  and  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  §,  j,  Q,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WADHAM 


WAGNER 


committee  on  territories.  In  December,  1860,  he  made 
a  speech  in  which  he  opposed  any  new  concessions  to 
the  slave-power,  and  declared  to  the  Southern  Senators, 
'•  We  hold  to  no  doctrine  that  can  possibly  work  you 
any  inconvenience,  any  wrong,  any  disaster."  In  the 
session  of  1861-62  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
joint  committee  on  the  conduct  of  the  war.  On  the 
question  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States 
after  the  end  of  the  civil  war  he  was  a  decided  radical. 
He  was  elected  President  of  the  Senate  about  March, 
1867,  having  been  selected  for  that  office  on  account  of 
his  resolute  character  and  inflexible  fidelity  to  the  cause 
of  liberty.  At  the  Chicago  National  Convention,  May 
21,  1868,  he  received  on  the  first  four  ballots  more  votes 
than  any  other  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency,  but 
failed  to  obtain  the  nomination. 

Wadham,  wScl'am,  (NICHOLAS,)  born  in  Somerset 
shire  in  1536,  was  the  founder  of  the  college  at  Oxford 
called  by  his  name.  Died  in  1610. 

"Wading,  wSd'ing,  ?  (PETER,)  an  Irish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Waterford,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  Latin  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  became  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Gratz,  in  Styria.  Died  in  1644. 

Wadstiom  or  Wadstroem,  wad'stRom,  (CARL 
BERNS,)  a  Swedish  philanthropist,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1746.  He  visited  Africa  in  1787,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  "Observations  on  the  Slave-Trade,  and  a 
Description  of  Some  Part  of  the  Coast  of  Guinea,"  etc., 
(1789,  in  English.)  This  work  first  suggested  to  the 
British  government  the  establishment  of  the  colonies  of 
Sierra  Leone  and  Bulema.  Died  in  1799. 

Wadsworth,  w6d//worth,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Milton,  Massachusetts,  about  1670. 
He  preached  in  Boston  for  many  years,  and  became 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1725.  Died  in  1737. 

Wadsworth,  (JAMES,)  a  wealthy  American  land 
holder,  born  at  Durham,  Connecticut,  in  1768.  He  re 
moved  at  an  early  age  to  Western  New  York,  where  he 
purchased  a  large  tract  near  the  Genesee  River.  He 
was  instrumental  in  founding  the  State  Normal  School, 
and  was  a  generous  patron  of  the  cause  of  education. 
Died  in  1844. 

Wadsworth,  (JAMES  SAMUEL,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Geneseo,  Livingston  county,  New  York,  in  Oc 
tober,  1807,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges,  studied  law  under 
Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833. 
He  inherited  an  immense  landed  estate  situated  in 
Western  New  York,  and,  like  his  father,  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  the  cause  of  education.  He  enlisted  as  a 
volunteer  early  in  1861,  was  appointed  a  brigadier-gene 
ral  in  August,  and  became  military  governor  of  the  Dis 
trict  of  Columbia  in  March,  1862.  In  November,  1862, 
he  was  the  Republican  candidate  for  Governor  of  New 
York,  but  was  not  elected.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862,  and 
at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  6,  1864. 

"The  country's  salvation,"  says  H.  Greeley,  "claimed 
no  nobler  sacrifice  than  that  of  James  S.  Wadsworth, 
of  New  York.  .  .  .  No  one  surrendered  more  for  his 
country's  sake,  or  gave  his  life  more  joyfully  for  her 
deliverance." 

See  GREELEY,  "  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  568,  569  ;  TENNEY, 
"Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  777. 

Wadsworth,  (PELEG,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1748.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  represented  a 
district  of  Massachusetts  in  Congress  from  1792  to  1806. 
Died  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1829. 

Waechter,  QOHANN  GEORG.)     See  WACHTER. 

Waechtler.     See  WACHTLER. 

Wael  or  Waal,  de,  deh  wil  or  vil,  (CORNELIUS,)  a 
Flemish  battle-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1594,  was  a 
son  of  John  de  Wael,  noticed  below.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Genoa,  where  he  executed  a  number  of  excel 
lent  pictures,  consisting  chiefly  of  sea-fights  and  other 
battles.  Died  in  1662. 

Wael,  de,  (JoHN,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant 
werp  in  1558,  attained  distinction  in  the  departments  of 
portrait  and  historical  painting.  Died  in  1633. 


Wael,  de,  (LUCAS,)  born  at  Antwerp  in  1591,  was  a 
brother  of  Cornelius,  noticed  above,  whom  he  accom 
panied  to  Genoa.  He  painted  landscapes  both  in  oil- 
colours  and  fresco,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
in  1676. 

Wa'fer,  (LIONEL,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  accom 
panied  Dampier  on  one  of  his  voyages,  and,  having 
quarrelled  with  him,  was  left  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
He  published  after  his  return  an  account  of  his  adven 
tures  among  the  Indians,  (1690.) 

Wafflard,  vf'fltR',  (ALEXIS  JACQUES  MARIE,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  Among 
his  works  are  "  A  Moment  of  Imprudence,"  (1819,)  and 
a  "Voyage  to  Dieppe,"  (1821.)  Died  in  1824. 

Waga,  va'ga,  (THEODORE,)  a  Polish  historian,  born 
in  Mazovia  in  1739.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Poland," 
(1770.)  Died  in  1801. 

Wagenaar,  wa'geh-nSr'  or  wa'neh-nSr',  (JAN,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  historian,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1709. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  Netherlands, 
entitled  "  De  Vaderlandsche  Historic  vervattende  de 
Geschiedenissen  der  vereenigde  Nederlanden,"  etc., 
(21  vols.,  1749-59,)  and  other  historical  works.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  P.  HUISINGA  BAKKER,  "  Het  Leven  van  J.  Wagenaar,"  1776. 

Wagenseil,  wa'gen-zTl',  [Lat.  WAGKNSEIL'IUS,]  (Jo- 
HA\\  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Nurem 
berg  in  1633.  He  became  professor  of  history  at  Altdorf 
in  1667,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  tutor  to  the 
counts-palatine.  He  published  a  number  of  critical, 
antiquarian,  and  controversial  treatises,  in  Latin,  among 
which  we  may  name  his  "  Tela  Ignea  Satanse,"  in  refu 
tation  of  the  Jewish  writers  against  Christianity.  Died 
in  1705. 

See  F.  ROTH-SCHOLTZ,  "Vita  J.  C.  Wagenseilii,"  1819;  Nic^- 
RON,  "  Mumoires." 

Wagenseilius.     See  WAGENSEIL. 

Wa'ger,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1666,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  In 
1708,  with  four  ships,  he  defeated  seventeen  Spanish 
galleons  near  Carthagena,  South  America.  For  this 
exploit  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  He  afterwards 
commanded  a  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  till  the  peace 
of  1713.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  min 
istry  of  Sir  Robert  Wai  pole  from  1732  to  1742.  About 
1731  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  Died  in  1743. 

Wag'horn,  (Lieutenant  THOMAS,)  R.N.,  an  English 
naval  officer,  born  in  Kent  in  1800.  He  served  in  India 
in  the  Arracan  war,  and  in  1827  applied  to  the  govern 
ment  for  assistance  in  carrying  out  a  project  he  had 
conceived  of  opening  communication  by  steam  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  East  Indies.  He  expended  much 
time  and  energy  in  this  useful  enterprise,  and  was  at 
length  successful.  The  result  of  his  labours  is  the  Over 
land  mail-route  through  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea.  Died 
in  18:50. 

"Wagner,  wac/ner,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  scholar 
and  preacher,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1663.  He  wrote  a 
"Thesis  on  the  Number  of  Worlds,"  ("Thesis  de  Nu- 
mero  Mundorum.")  Died  in  1693. 

Wagner,  (ERNST,)  a  German  novelist  and  poet,  born 
in  1769,  published  "  Wilibald's  Views  of  Life,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  "The  Travelling  Painter,"  (2  vols.,  1806,)  "  Isi- 
dora,"  (3  vols.,  1812,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1812. 

See  F.  MOSENGEII,,  "  Briefe  iiber  E.  Wagner,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1826. 

Wagner,  (GEORG  PHILIPP  EBERHARD,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Schonbrunn,  in  Saxony,  in  1794, 
published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  on  "The 
Greek  Tragedy  and  the  Theatre  at  Athens,"  (1844.) 

Wagner,  (GOTTLOB  HEINRICH  ADOLF,)  a  German 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1774.  He  pub 
lished  "Two  Epochs  of  Modern  Poetry,"  etc.,  (1806,) 
and  other  original  works,  and  translated  into  German 
Byron's  "  Manfred,"  and  Coxe's  "  History  of  the  House 
of  Austria,"  the  latter  in  conjunction  with  Dippold. 
Died  in  1835. 

Wagner,  wac/ner,  (JoHANN  JAKOB,)  a  Swiss  natural 
ist,  born  near  Zurich  in  1641.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a 
"Natural  History  of  Switzerland,"  (1680.)  Diedini695. 

Wagner,  (JoiiANN  JAKOB,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1775,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 


<;  as  n;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy'/  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  Mw. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WAGKER 


WAKEFIELD 


Wiirzburg.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "On 
the  Nature  of  Things,"  (1803,)  a  "System  of  Ideal  Phi 
losophy,"  (1804,)  "Theodicee,"  (1809,)  and  "  Organon 
der  menschlichen  Erkenntniss,"  (1830.)  Died  in  1841. 

See  P.  L.  ADAM  and  A.  KOHI.LE,  "  J.  J.  Wagner,  Lebensnach- 
richten  und  Biiet'e,"  1848. 

Wagner,  (Lunwio  FRIEDKICH,)  a  German  antiquary 
and  jurist,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1700;  died  in  1789. 

"Wagner,  (MoRiTZ,)  a  German  traveller,  born  at 
Baireuth  in  1813,  published  "Travels  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Algiers,"  etc.,  (1841,)  "The  Caucasus  and  the 
Land  of  the  Cossacks,"  (1848,)  "Journey  to  Persia  and 
Kurdistan,"  (1852,)  and  other  works. 

Wagner,  (RICHARD,)  a  distinguished  German  com 
poser,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  at  Dresden  in  1843.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  the  operas  of  "  Rienzi,"  (1842,)  "Tanhauser,"  (1845,) 
"Lohengrin,"  (1851,)  and  "  Rheingold,"  (1869.)  He  has 
written  several  essays  on  music  and  the  dramatic  art, 
which  have  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy. 
Among  these  is  one  called  "Oper  und  Drama,"  (1851.) 

See  F.  HINRICHS,  "  R.  Wanner  und  die  neuere  Musik,"  :8s4. 

Wagner,  (Runui.F,)  a  German  physician  and  anato 
mist,  brother  of  Moritz,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Baireuth  in  1805.  He  succeeded  Blumenbach  as  pro 
fessor  of  physiology  at  Gottingen  in  1840.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Comparative 
Physiology  of  the  Blood,"  (1833,)  a  "Manual  of  Com 
parative  Anatomy,"  (1834,)  and  "  Icones  Physiologicas," 
(1839.)  Died  in '1864. 

"Wagner,  (ToiUAS,)  a  German  theologian  and  writer, 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1598.  Fie  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen.  Died  in  1680. 

Wagner,  von,  fon  wac/ner,  QOHANN  MARTIN,)  a 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  1777. 

Wagniere,  vSn'ye-aiu',  ([KAN  Louis,)  a  Swiss  littl- 
rateitr,  born  in  1739.  He  became  secretary  to  Voltaire 
about  1756,  and  gained  his  confidence.  In  conjunction 
with  Longchamp,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  on  Voltaire  and 
his  Works,"  (2  vols.,  1825.)  Died  after  1787. 

Wagrarn,  PRINCE  OF.     See  BERTHIKR. 

Wag'staff,  (\Vn.i.i\M,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician 
and  humorous  writer,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1685  ; 
died  in  1725. 

Wagstaffe,  wag'staf,  (THOMAS.)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1645.  He  published  a  "Vin 
dication  of  King  Charles  I.,"  etc.,  and  a  number  of  ser 
mons.  Died  in  1712. 

Wahhab  or  Wahab,  (Abdul.)  See  ABD-EL- WA- 
HAR 

Wahl,  wtl,  (CHRISTIAN  AI.BRECHT,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Dresden  in  1773.  He  published  a 
"  Historical  and  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Biblical 
Writings,"  (1820,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1855. 

Wahl,  von,  fon  wtl.  (JOACHIM  CHRISTIAN,)  COUNT, 
a  German  general,  distinguished  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  in  which  he  fought  for  the  Catholics  or  Imperialists. 
He  commanded  with  success  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  in 
1634,  after  which  he  took  Baireuth,  Augsburg,  and  other 
places.  Died  in  1644. 

Wahlberg,  wal'beKG,  (PETER  FREDERIK,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1800.  He  wrote  on 
botany,  and  succeeded  Berzelius  as  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Wahlbom,  vvil'bom,  ([OHANN  WILHKLM  CARL,)  a 
Swedish  painter,  born  at  Calmar  in  1810;  died  in  1858. 

Wahlenberg,  wa'len-beRC/,  (GEORG,)  a  Swedish 
botanist,  born  in  the  province  of  Wermland  in  1780.  He 
visited  Lapland  and  other  northern  regions  of  Europe, 
and  subsequently  became  professor  of  botany  and  medi 
cine  at  Upsal.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"  Flora  Lapponica,"  "  Flora  Carpatorum,"  and  "  Flora 
Suecica."  Died  in  1851. 

Waiblinger,  wi'bling-er,  (WiLHEi.M  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
German  litterateur,  born  at  Reutlingen  in  1804;  died 
in  1830. 

Waifer,  wl'fer,  [Fr.  pron.  vi'faiR',1  Duke  of  Aqui- 
taine,  born  about  725  A.D.,  began  to  reign  in  745.  His 
dominions  were  invaded  in  760  by  Pepin  le  Bref,  against 
whom  he  fought  without  success.  He  was  assassinated 
by  order  of  Pepin  le  Bref  in  768  A.D. 


Wailly,  de,  deh  vS'ye',  (ARMAND  FRANC.OIS  LEON,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1804,  was 
a  grandson  of  Charles,  noticed  below.  He  wrote  a 
novel,  entitled  "  Stella  and  Vanessa,"  (1846,)  and  trans 
lated  the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  other  English 
authors.  Died  in  1863. 

Wailly,  de,  (CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  French  ar 
chitect,  born  in  Paris  in  1729.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize  of  Rome  in  1752,  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Painting  as  a  designer  in  1771,  and  was  the  chief 
founder  of  the  Society  of  "Amis  des  Arts."  Died  in 

1798. 

See  LAVALI.I^E,  "  Notice  sur  Charles  de  Wailly,"  1799. 

Wailly,  de,  (£TIKN\K  AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  littera 
teur,  born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a  son  of  Noel  Franfois, 
noticed  below.  lie  became  frm'iseur  of  the  Lycee  Napo 
leon.  Died  in  1821. 

His  son,  ALFRED  BARTHEI.EMI,  born  in  Paris  in  1800, 
published  a  Latin-French  Dictionary,  (1829,)  and  a 
French-Latin  Dictionary,  (1832.) 

Wailly,  de,  (JOSEPH  NOEL,)  a  French  scholar,  a 
brother  of  Armand  Francois  Leon,  was  born  at  Mezieres 
in  1805.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Elements 
of  Palasography,"  (2  vols.,  1838.) 

Wailly,  de,  (NoEL  FRANC.OIS,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  the  father  of  Etienne  Augustin,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Amiens  in  1724.  lie  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "General  and  Particular  Principles  of  the 
French  Language,"  "Abridgment  of  the  Dictionary  of 
the  Academy,"  "Principles  of  the  Latin  Language," 
"  Dictionary  of  Rhymes,"  and  "Select  Histories  from 
the  Xew  Testament."  Died  in  1801. 

Wainwright,  wan'iit,  (JONATHAN  MAY  HEW,)  D.D., 
born  at  Liverpool,  England,  in  1792,  emigrated  to 
America,  and  graduated  in  1812  at  Harvard  College. 
He  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  in  1834, 
assistant  minister  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  in  1837, 
and  in  1852  provisional  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New 
York.  Died  in  1854. 

Waith'man,  an  English  magistrate,  born  near  \Yrex- 
ham  in  1765,  was  elected  lord  mayor  of  London,  and 
several  times  represented  that  city  in  Parliament.  Died 
in  1833. 

Waitz,  wits,  (GEORG,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  1813, 
published  several  historical  works,  among  which  is  a 
"  History  of  the  German  Constitution,"  (2  vols.,  1843-47.) 

Waitz,  (THEODOR,)  a  German  philosophical  writer, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1821.  He  published  a  "Manual  of 
Psychology  as  a  Natural  Science,"  (1849,)  and  other 
works. 

Wake,  (Sir  ISAAC,)  an  English  writer  and  diplo 
matist,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1575,  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "  Rex  Platonicus."  Died  in  1632. 

Wake,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  prelate  and  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1657.  He  was  successively 
created  Dean  of  Exeter,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  Arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  (1716.)  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England," 
"An  English  Version  of  the  Genuine  Epistles  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers,"  and  a  number  of  sermons  and  con 
troversial  works.  Died  in  1737. 

Wakedi,  Al,  (Mohammed.)     See  WAKIDEE. 

Wakefield,  wak'feld,  (EDWARD  GIBBON,)  an  Eng 
lish  writer  on  colonization  and  political  economy,  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  "England  and  America:  a 
Comparison  of  the  Social  and  Political  State  of  Both 
Nations,"  (1833,)  and  "  View  of  the  Art  of  Colonization." 
He  became  in  1837  the  founder  of  the  New  Zealand 
Association.  Died  in  1862. 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849. 

Wakefield,  (GILBERT,)  an  English  scholar  and  theo 
logian,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1756.  He  studied  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  the  degree  of  B.A. 
in  1776.  He  became  master  of  the  Dissenting  Academy 
at  Warrington  in  1779,  and  published  soon  after  "A 
Plain  and  Short  Account  of  the  Nature  of  Baptism,"  and 
a  "New  Translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew," 
(1782.)  These  works  were  followed  by  "Remarks  on 
the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1789,) 
and  "  Philological  Commentary  on  the  Sacred  and  Profane 
Authors,"  ("  Silva  Critica,  sive  in  Auctores  sacros  pro- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  p,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  nit;  good;  moon; 


WAKEFIELD 


2223 


WALDEMAR 


fanosque  Commentarius  Philologus,")  a  fifth  part  of 
which  appeared  in  1795.  He  published  in  1791  his 
"Translation  of  the  Xew  Testament,  with  Notes,"  and 
"An  Inquiry  into  the  Expediency  and  Propriety  of 
Public  01  Social  Worship."  The  latter  caused  consid 
erable  sensation,  and  elicited  several  replies.  His  "Re 
ply  to  Some  Parts  of  the  Bishop  of  LlandafFs  Address" 
caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  two  years,  during  which 
time  he  wrote  his  critical  essays  entitled  "  Xoctes  Car- 
cerarias,"  ("Prison  Nights.")  He  died  in  1801,  leaving 
among  his  numerous  works  an  edition  of  Lucretius, 
which  is  still  esteemed. 

See  his  "Autobiographic  Memoirs  of  the  First  Thirty-Six  Years 
of  the  Life  of  G.  Wakefield,"  1792;  "Monthly  Review''  for  October, 
1805. 

Wakefield,  (Mrs.  PRISCILLA,)  an  English  educational 
writer,  born  in  1750.  .She  was  the  author  of  an  "  Intro 
duction  to  Botany,"  (1796,)  "Reflections  on  the  Present 
Condition  of  the  Female  Sex,  with  Hints  for  its  Im 
provement,"  (1798,)  "Juvenile  Traveller,"  (1801,)  "  Do 
mestic  Recreation,"  (1805,)  "The  Traveller  in  Africa," 
and  various  other  works.  Died  in  1832. 

Wakefield,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  linguist  and  priest, 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  para 
phrase  of  Ecclesiastes,  and  other  works.  Died  in  15^7. 

Wakidee  or  Wakidi,  wa'ki-dee',  written  also  Wa- 
qidy,  an  Arabian  writer,  born  at  Medina  in  748  \.i>.  ; 
died  at  Bagdad  in  823.  He  made  a  collection  of  the 
traditions  concerning  Mohammed  and  those  of  his  fol 
lowers  who  fought  at  Bedr,  called  "Tabakat-Kebeer,"  (or 
" -Kebir,")  the  "great  series"  or  "order  of  events."  It 
consists  of  biographies  arranged  in  chronological  order. 
His  lite  of  the  prophet  has  been  pronounced  by  compe 
tent  critics  to  be  the  best  by  far  that  has  been  written. 

See  SPRENGER,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  70  et  seg. 

Wakidi.     See  WAKIDEE. 

Wak'ley,  (THOMAS,)  M.  P.,  an  English  surgeon,  born 
in  1795,  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the  "Lancet." 
He  represented  Finsbury  in  Parliament  from  1835  to 
1852.  Died  in  1862. 

Walaeus,  wi-la'us,  or  Wale,  wa'leh,  (AvrooN,)  a 
Dutch  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Ghent  in  1573.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden.  Died  in  1639. 

Walaeus,  (JAN,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1604.  He  is  said  to  have  made  some 
discoveries  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Died  at 
Leyden  in  1649. 

Walafridus,  w6l-a-free'dus  or  wal'a-free'dus  or 
Walafried,  wa'ld-fReet',  written  also  Walhafredus, 
a  learned  German  monk,  surnanied  STRA'HUS,  or 
"  Squint-eyed,"  was  the  author  of  a  theological  essay, 
entitled  "  be  Officiis  Divinis,"  etc.,  "  Hortulus,"  a  treat 
ise  on  botany,  (in  Latin  verse,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  849. 

Walbaum,  wal'bowm,  (JoHANN  Jui.ics,)  a  German 
physician    and    writer,    born   at   Woifenbiittel  in   1724;} 
died  in  1799. 

Walch,  walK,  [Lat.  WAI/CHIUS,]  (CHRISTIAN  Wn,- 
HKI..M  FRANZ,)  second  son  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1726.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  ecclesiastical  history,  theology, 
and  ancient  literature  ;  among  the  most  important  of 
these  are  his  "  History  of  the  Jewish  Patriarchs  men 
tioned  in  Books  of  Roman  Law,"  "Compendium  of  the 
most  Modern  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (both  in  Latin,) 
and  a  "History  of  Heresies,  Schisms,  and  Religious 
Controversies  down  to  the  Reformation,"  (in  German, 
II  vols.,  1762.)  Died  in  1784. 

See  C.  G.  HEVNE,  "  Elogium  C.  G.  F.  Wa'chii,"  1784. 

Walch,  (JoHANN  ERNST  IMMANUEL,)  son  of  Johann 
Georg,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1725.  He  be 
came  professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city,  and  pub 
lished  a  number  of  critical  and  theological  works,  also 
several  valuable  treatises  on  mineralogy.  Died  in  1778. 

See  HEXNINGS,  "Leben  des  Professors  J.  E.  I.  Walch,"  1780. 

Walch,  [Lat.  WAI/CHIUS,]  (JOHANN  GEORG,)  a  Ger 
man  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1693, 
became  successively  professor  of  philosophy,  eloquence, 
and  theology  at  Jena.  He  published  a  "  Philosophical 
Lexicon,"'  (1726,)  "Introduction  to  the  Theological  Sci 


ences,"  (1747,)  "Theologia  Patristica,"  (1770,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1775. 

His  son  KARL  FKIEDRICH  became  professor  of  law  at 
Jena,  and  was  the  author  of  several  legal  treatises. 

See  "  Leben  und  Charakter  des  J.  G.  Walch,"  Jena,  1777. 

Walcher,  walK'er,  (JOSEPH,)  an  Austrian  Jesuit, 
noted  for  his  skill  in  hydraulics  and  mechanics,  was 
born  at  Linz  in  1718.  He  was  professor  of  mechanics 
in  a  college  of  Vienna,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1803. 

Walchius.     See  WALCH. 

Walckeuaer,  val'keh-naR',  (CHARLES  Athanase — 
t'tS'ntz',)  BARON,  an  eminent  French  writer  and  savant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1771.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Insti 
tute  in  1813,  and  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1840.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de 
J.  de  La  Fontaine,"  (1820,)  "  Histoire  generale  des  Vo 
yages,"  (21  vols.,  1826-31,  unfinished,)  "  Natural  History 
of  Insects,"  (3  vols.,  1836-44,)  "Ancient  Geography, 
Historical  and  Comparative,  of  the  Gauls,"  (3  vols., 
1839,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  "  History  of  the  Life 
and  Poems  of  Horace,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  and  "  Memoires 
touchant  la  Vie  et  les  Ecrits  de  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
(5  vols.,  1842-52.)  He  contributed  many  able  articles 
to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  In  his  youth  he  had 
inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  was  appointed  prefect 
of  Nievre  in  1826,  and  held  other  high  offices.  Died 
in  1852. 

See  QTEK»RD,  "  La  France  LitteVaire ;"  NAUDET,  "Notice  his- 
torique  sur  Walckenaer,"  1X52;  SAIVTE-BEL'VK,  "  Causeries  du 
Lundi  ;"  '•  Ninivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Walckendorf,  walk'en-doRf',  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  Dan 
ish  statesman,  born  at  Copenhagen  about  1525.  He 
rendered  important  services  as  minister  of  finance  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  II.,  (1558-88.)  Died  in  1601. 

Waldarfer,  wal'daR'fer,  sometimes  written  Valdar- 
fer  or  Baldorfer,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  printer,  who 
established  a  press  in  Venice  about  1470,  and  at  Milan  in 
1474.  His  edition  of  Boccaccio  was  greatly  admired  for 
its  correctness  and  elegance. 

Waldau,  (MAX.)     See  HAUENSCHILD,  VON. 

Waldburg,  wdlt'bdoRG,  (FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG,)  a 
Prussian  general  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Tangermiinde 
in  1776  ;  died  in  1844. 

Waldeck,  wal'dek,  (CHRISTIAN  AUGUST,)  PRINCE 
OF,  a  German  general,  born  in  1744.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Austria,  and  fought  against  the  French  in 
1792.  He  distinguished  himself  by  directing  the  army 
in  its  passage  of  the  Rhine,  and  afterwards  had  a  high 
command  in  Flanders.  Died  in  1798. 

Waldeck,  (GEORG  FKIEDRICH,)  PRINCE  OF,  a  Ger 
man  general,  born  in  1620.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the  Turks  at 
Vienna  in  1683.  He  was  defeated  by  the  French  at 
Fleurus  in  1690.  Died  in  1692. 

Waldegrave,  w&ld'grav,  (JAMES,)  second  EARL,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1715.  He  filled  several  im 
portant  offices  under  George  II.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Memoirs  from  1754  to  1758,"  (published  in  1821.) 
Died  in  1763. 

Waldemar  (wol'de-mar)  or  Val'de-mar  I.,  THE 
GREAT,  King  of  Denmark,  born  in  1131,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1157.  He  subjugated  the  southern  part  of 
Norway,  and  the  territory  of  the  Wends  in  Northern 
Germany.  He  died  in  1181,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Canute  VI. 

Waldemar  (or  Valdemar)  II.,  second  son  of  Wal 
demar  I.,  was  surnamed  SEIER,  (the  "Victorious.")  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Canute  VI.,  he  became  king,  in 
1203.  He  conquered  Livonia,  Courland,  Esthonia,  and 
other  provinces,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  ability  as 
a  ruler.  He  died  in  1241,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Eric  VL 

Waldemar  (or  Valdemar)  III.  or  IV.,  called  AT- 
TERDAG,  was  the  last  king  of  the  first  Danish  dynasty, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1340.  He  sold  Livonia,  and 
other  conquests  of  Waldemar  II.,  to  the  grand  master 
of  the  Teutonic  order  in  Prussia.  He  died  in  1373  or 
1375,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Margaret  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Olaus. 

See  "  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  a;  c  as  s;  g  hard;gz.sj;  G,  H,  K.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t-h  as  in  this.      (£|r"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WALDEMAR 


2224 


WALKER 


Waldemar,  wal'deh-maR",  (FRIKDRICH  WILIIEI.M,) 
a  German  prince,  nephew  of  Frederick  William  III., 
King  of  Prussia,  was  born  in  1817;  died  in  1849. 

Wal-den'sis  or  Wol-den'sis,  (THOMAS,)  an  English 
Carmelite  monk,  originally  named  NKTTEK,  was  born  at 
W olden,  in  Essex,  about  1365.  He  was  patronized  by 
Henry  V.,  whom  he  accompanied-to  France.  Died  in  1430. 

Waldhauser,  walt'how'zer,  (CONRAD,)  a  German 
reformer  and  Augustinian  monk,  who  began  to  preach 
in  Vienna  about  1345.  He  exposed  the  vices  and  im 
postures  of  the  monks,  and  acquired  much  influence  as 
a  preacher.  Died  about  1368. 

See  HODGSON,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Waldis,  wal'dJs,  (BURCKHARD,)  a  German  fabulist, 
born  at  Allendorf  about  1500.  He  was  a  chaplain  of 
Margaret,  wife  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  He  imitated 
/Esop  with  success.  Died  in  1554. 

Waldkirch,  de,  deh  walt'ke'e'RK,  (JEAN  Ronoi.ru,) 
a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Bale  in  1678.  He  wrote,  besides 
several  legal  works,  a  "  History  of  Switzerland,"  (2  vols., 
1721.)  Died  in  1757. 

His  daughter  ESTHER  ELIZABETH,  though  blind,  was 
well  versed  in  mathematics. 

Waldmann,  walt'man,  (JoHANN,)  a  Swiss  magistrate, 
born  in  the  canton  of  Zug  about  1426.  He  was  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Swiss  army  that  fought  at  Morat,  and 
he  gained  a  victory  at  Nancy  for  the  Duke  of  Lorraine. 
In  1483  he  became  burgomaster  of  Zurich,  where  he  made 
several  reforms.  The  peasants  and  populace  having 
revolted  against  him,  he  was  put  to  death  about  1490. 

See  J.  H.  FUESSI.I,  "Vie  de  Waldmann,"  1780;  COKEMANS, 
"  Waldmann,  le  Vainqueur  du  Temeraire,"  1843. 

"Waldo.     See  VALDO. 

Waldo,  wdl'do,  (DANIEL,)  an  American  Congrega 
tional  divine,  born  at  \Vindham,  Connecticut,  in  1762. 
He  graduated  at  Vale  College,  and  subsequently  became 
pastor  at  Exeter,  Connecticut.  At  the  age  of  ninety-six 
he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Congress,  serving  in  that 
capacity  two  years.  Died  in  1864. 

Waldor,  vii'doR',  (MELANIE  VILLENAVE,)  MADAME, 
a  French  authoress,  born  at  Nantes  about  1796,  was  a 
sister  of  Theodore  Villenave.  She  published  numerous 
novels,  among  which  are  "The  Chateau  de  Ramsberg," 
(1844,)  and  "Charles  Mandel,"  (1846.) 

Waldrada.     See  WALDKAUK. 

Waldrade,  vaTdRtd',  [Lat.  WALDRA'DA,]  an  am 
bitious  Frenchwoman,  who  became  about  S6o  A.D.  the 
concubine  of  Lothaire  II.  She  was  excommunicated  by 
the  pope. 

See  ERNOUF,  "  Histoire  de  Waldrade,"  1858. 

Waldschmidt,  walt'shmit,  QOHANN  JAKOB,)  a  Ger 
man  medical  writer,  born  in  1644.  He  died  at  Marburg 
in  1689. 

Waldseemiiller,  walt'za-nruTler,  [Lat.  HYLACOMI'- 
LUS,]  (MARTIN,)  a  German  compiler,  born  at  Friburg 
about  1470.  He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  Cos 
mography,  with  the  Four  Voyages  of  Americus  Vespu- 
cius,"  (1507,)  in  which  he  advocated  the  application  of 
the  name  America  to  the  New  World.  Died  after  1522. 

Waldsteinius  or  Waldstein.    See  WALLENSTEIN. 

Wale.     See  WALRUS. 

"Wale,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  painter  and  designer, 
lived  in  London,  and  made  designs  for  the  booksellers. 
Died  in  1786. 

Waleed  or  Walid.     See  AL  WALEED. 

Waleed  or  Walid  II.,  born  in  703  A.D.,  was  a  son 
of  Yezeed  (Yezid)  II.,  and  became  caliph  in  743.  He 
was  very  licentious.  He  was  assassinated  in  744. 

See  WKIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xv. 

Walef  or  Waleff,  de,  deh  vt'lef',  (BLAISE  HENRI 
de  Corte — deh  koRt,)  BARON,  a  Belgian  poet,  born  at 
Liege  in  1652.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  armies  of 
France,  England,  and  Spain.  He  wrote  several  French 
poems.  Died  in  1734. 

See  M.  L.  POLAIN,  "  Notice  sur  le  Baron  de  Walef,"  1848. 

Wales,  PRINCE  OF.     See  ALBERT  EDWARD. 

Wales,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  about  1734.  He  was  sent  in  1768 
to  Hudson  P5ay,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  and 
subsequently  accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  second 


and  third  voyages.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1776,  and  was  afterwards  made  secre 
tary  to  the  Board  of  Longitude.  Tie  published  "  General 
Observations  made  at  Hudson's  Bay,"  etc.,  (1772,)  "The 
Method  of  Finding  the  Longitude  by  Time-Keepers," 
(1794,)  "  Observations  on  a  Voyage  with  Captain  Cook," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1798. 

Walewski,  wa-lev'skee,  [Fr.  pron.  vt'leVske',] 
(FLOKIAN  ALEXANDRE  JOSEPH  COLONNA,)  COUNT,  an 
able  statesman  and  writer,  a  natural  son  of  Napoleon 
I.  and  the  Countess  Walewska,  a  Polish  lady,  was  born 
in  Walewice  in  1810.  Under  Louis  Napoleon  he  was 
sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Florence  (1849)  and 
Naples,  and  was  ambassador  to  London  about  1852.  In 
1855  he  succeeded  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  as  minister  oi 
foreign  affairs.  He  was  removed  in  January,  1860,  be 
came  minister  of  state  at  that  date,  and  president  of  the 
corps  legislatif  in  August,  1865.  Died  in  1868. 

Walierdin,  vfl'feR'da.N',  (HENRI,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Langres  in  1795.  He  was  as 
sociated  with  Arago  in  some  scientific  labours.  He 
invented  a  hvdro-barometer  and  several  kinds  of  ther 
mometers. 

Walid.     See  WALEED  and  AL  WALKED. 

Walker,  waw'ker,  (ADAM,)  an  English  writer  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1731,  was  the 
author  of  a  "System  of  Familiar  Philosophy,  in,  Lec 
tures,"  "  Treatise  on  Geography,"  and  other  works.  He 
was  also  the  inventor  of  several  ingenious  instruments. 
Died  in  1821. 

Walker,  (Sir  BALDWIN  WAKE,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  1803.  He  was  surveyor-general  of  the 
navy  from  1847  to  1860. 

Walker,  (CLEMENT,)  an  English  Presbyterian  and 
political  writer,  born  in  Dorsetshire.  He  represented 
the  city  of  Wells  in  Parliament  in  1640,  and  wrote  "  The 
History  of  Independence,"  (1648,)  afterwards  enlarged 
and  published  under  the  title  of  "The  High  Court  of 
Justice,  or  Cromwell's  New  Slaughter-House,"  (1651.) 
For  this  offence  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  where 
he  died  in  1651. 

"Walker,  (Sir  EDWARD,)  an  English  writer,  and  Garter 
king-at-arms,  born  in  Somersetshire.  He  was  appointed 
by  Charles  I.  his  secretary  at  war,  and  clerk-extraor 
dinary  of  the  privy  council.  lie  wrote  "  Historical 
Discourses,"  (1705,)  "Military  Discoveries,"  and  "  her 
Carolinum,"  an  account  of  the  marches,  etc.  of  Charles 
I.  from  1641  to  the  time  of  his  death.  Died  in  1677. 

Walker,  (Rev.  GEORGE,)  a  Protestant  divine,  of 
English  extraction,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Tyrone, 
Ireland.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  brave  defence  of  Lon 
donderry  against  the  forces  of  James  II.,  (1689.)  lie 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  in  1690,  having 
been  previously  created  Bishop  of  Derry  by  William 
III.  He  published  "A  True  Account  of  the  Siege  of 
Londonderry." 

Walker,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
dissenting  minister,  born  at  Newcastle  about  1734.  He 
lived  at  Durham,  Nottingham,  and  Manchester,  and  wrote 
several  able  works  on  geometry,  etc.  Died  in  1807. 

Walker,  QAMES,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
about  1780.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an  en 
gineer  of  docks,  harbours,  etc.  He  was  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Died  about  1862. 

"Walker,  waw'ker,  (JAMES,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Unitarian  divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Burlington,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1794.  He  became  editor  of  the  "Chris 
tian  Examiner"  in  1831,  and  in  1839  Alford  professor  of 
moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  at  Harvard.  He  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  in  1853,  a  position  which  he 
filled  with  eminent  ability  for  seven  years.  He  resigned 
in  1860,  on  account  of  his  feeble  health.  He  has  delivered 
a  course  of  "Lowell  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion;"  also  "Lectures  on  Natural  Religion."  Dr. 
Walker  is  a  clear  and  profound  thinker  and  a  finished 
writer. 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Walker,  (JAMES  BARR,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1805.  Having  previously 
edited  several  religious  journals  in  the  West,  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Sandusky,  Ohio.  He  published 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WALKER 


2225 


WALLACE 


"Philosophy  of  the  Plan  of  Salvation,"  (1855.)  which 
has  had  a  wide  popularity  and  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  other  religious  works. 

Walker,  (JOHN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Devonshire,  became  rector  of  a  parish  at  Exeter.  He 
published  in  1714  an  "Account  of  the  Numbers  and 
Sufferings  of  the  Clergy  who  were  Sequestered  in  the 
Grand  Rebellion."  Died  about  1730. 

Walker,  (JOHN,)  an  English  lexicographer  and  elo 
cutionist,  born  in  Middlesex  in  1732.  He  published 
"A  Rhyming  Dictionary,"  "  Elements  of  Elocution," 
(1781,)  "Rhetorical  Grammar,"  (1785,)  and  "Critical 
Pronouncing  Dictionary  and  Expositor  of  the  English 
Language,"  (1791,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour 
and  has  passed  through  more  than  thirty  editions.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  ALI.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  August  and  September,  1781. 

Walker,  (JOHN,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  in  Cumberland  in  1759.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Universal  Gazetteer,"  "  Elements  of  Geography,"  and 
several  medical  treatises.  Died  in  1830. 

Walker,  (JOSEPH  COOPER,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in 
Dublin  about  1766.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Historical  Memoirs  of  the  Irish  Bards,"  (1786.)  Died 
in  1810. 

Walker,  (LEROY  POPE,)  of  Alabama,  was  secretary 
of  war  in  the  provisional  government  formed  by  the 
secessionists  in  February,  1861.  In  a  speech  at  Mont 
gomery,  April  12,  he  predicted  that  the  Confederate 
flag  would  float  over  Washington  City  before  the  1st  of 
May.  He  resigned  in  September,  1861. 

Walker,  (OBADIAH,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  York 
shire  about  1616.  He  studied  at  University  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  was  elected  master  in  1676.  Having 
openly  professed  Catholicism,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  imprisoned  for  a  time  after  the  revolution  of 
1688.  He  wrote  "A  Brief  Account  of  Ancient  Church 
Government,"  (1662,)  "The  Greek  and  Roman  History 
Illustrated  by  Coins  and  Medals,"  (1692,)  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1692. 

Walker,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  portrait-painter. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  several  portraits  of 
Cromwell,  one  of  Admiral  Blake,  and  one  of  General 
Monk.  Died  about  1660. 

Walker,  (ROBERT  J.,)  a  distinguished  American 
writer  on  political  economy,  born  at  Northumberland, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1801,  graduated  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1819.  He  studied  law,  and  removed  in 
1826  to  Natchez,  Mississippi,  where  he  practised  with 
success.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  Mississippi  in  1835  or  1836,  and 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party.  He  was  a  zealous 
and  efficient  supporter  of  the  project  for  the  annexation 
of  Texas  to  the  United  States.  In  March,  1845,  ne  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  President  Polk. 
He  produced  a  report  in  favour  of  free  trade  which 
attracted  much  attention.  He  retired  to  private  life  in 
March,  1849,  ar"d  was  appointed  by  President  Buchanan 
Governor  of  Kansas  about  April,  1857.  He  resigned 
that  office  in  February,  1858,  on  account  of  dissatisfaction 
with  the  course  or  policy  of  the  national  government. 
Died  in  November,  1869. 

Walker,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Exeter  in  1714,  became  curate  of  Truro,  and  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died  in  1761. 

Walker,  (SEARS  COOK,)  an  American  astronomer, 
born  at  Wilmington,  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1805,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  about  1824. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where 
he  taught  school.  He  contributed  many  observations 
to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  and  the  "Trans 
actions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society."  He 
was  attached  to  the  Washington  Observatory  in  1845, 
and  discovered  in  1847  the  identity  of  the  planet  Nep 
tune  with  a  star  observed  by  Lalande  in  1795.  He  ren 
dered  a  service  to  science  by  his  computations  of  the 
orbit  of  Neptune.  Died  in  Cincinnati  in  1853. 

Walker,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  lawyer  and  humor 
ous  writer,  born  in  1784.  He  published  a  periodical 
called  "The  Original."  Died  in  1836. 


Walker,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  actor,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1698;  died  in  1743. 

Walker,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lin 
colnshire  in  1623.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  English  Particles,"  and  "  Idiomatologia 
Anglo-Latina."  Died  in  1684. 

Walker,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  filibuster,  born  at 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  in  1824.  He  emigrated  to  Cali 
fornia  about  1850,  and  became  editor  of  a  paper.  In 
1855  he  conducted  a  party  of  about  sixty  adventurers 
to  Nicaragua,  which  he  entered  ostensibly  as  an  ally  of 
one  of  the  factions  then  engaged  in  civil  war.  He  cap 
tured  the  city  of  Granada,  assumed  the  title  of  President 
of  Nicaragua,  and  re-established  slavery,  which  had  been 
abolished.  He  was  driven  from  power  in  May,  1857,  and 
escaped  to  New  Orleans.  In  June,  1860,  he  led  an  ex 
pedition  against  Honduras.  He  was  captured  and  shot 
at  Truxillo  in  September,  1860. 

Walker,  (WILLIAM  H.  T.,)  of  Georgia,  an  American 
general,  who  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He  com 
manded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Lee  in  the 
early  part  of  1863,  served  at  Chickamauga  in  September 
of  that  year,  and  was  killed  near  Atlanta  in  July,  1864. 

Wall,  (JoHN,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Worcestershire  in  1708,  was  the  first  who  drew  public 
attention  to  the  virtues  of  the  Malvern  waters.  Died 
in  1776. 

Wall,  (MARTIN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1744, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  physician,  and  in  1785 
became  clinical  professor  at  Oxford.  Died  in  1824. 

Wall,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1646, 
published  a  "  History  of  Infant  Baptism,"  and  "Critical 
Notes  on  the  Old  Testament."  Died  in  1728. 

Wallace,  wol'lis,  (HORACE  BINNEY,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  writer  of  rare  talents,  a  nephew  of  Horace 
Binney,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  February  26,  1817. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  and  subsequently 
visited  Europe.  He  committed  suicide  in  Paris,  (1852,') 
— as  is  supposed,  in  a  fit  of  temporary  insanity.  He 
wrote  "Literary  Criticisms,  and  other  Papers,"  "Art 
and  Scenery  in  Europe,"  (1855,)  and  edited  several  legal 
works  conjointly  with  Judge  Hare.  While  in  Paris  he 
became  acquainted  with  Auguste  Comte,  who  said  of 
him,  "  I  do  not  exaggerate  his  merits  in  ranking  him  as 
the  equal  of  the  greatest  American  statesmen." 

See  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

"Wallace,  wSl'lis,  (Sir  JOHN  ALEXANDER  DUNLOP 
AGNEW,)  an  English  general,  born  in  1775.  He  served 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14.)  Died  in  1857. 

Wallace,  (LEWIS,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of 
David  Wallace,  formerly  Governor  of  Indiana,  was  born 
in  Fountain  county,  Indiana,  about  1828.  He  was 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  di 
vision  at  the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April 
5  and  7.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  about 
March,  1862. 

Wallace,  wdl'lis,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  celebrated  Scot 
tish  hero  and  patriot,  supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
1270.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir  Malcolm  Wallace  of  Ellerslie, 
!n  Renfrewshire.  While  attending  school  at  Dundee,  he 
killed  the  son  of  the  English  governor  of  Dundee  Castle 
in  revenge  for  an  insult  received,  and  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  among  the  mountains.  Having  gathered 
around  him  a  band  of  devoted  followers,  he  carried  on 
for  several  years  a  successful  partisan  warfare  against 
the  English  forces.  After  the  capture  of  the  garrisons 
of  Aberdeen,  Forfar,  and  other  towns,  he  was  engaged 
n  the  siege  of  Dundee,  when  news  came  of  the  advance 
of  a  large  English  army  towards  Stirling.  He  immedi 
ately  marched  to  meet  the  enemy,  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  them  at  Stirling  Bridge,  (1297,)  and,  entering  Eng 
land,  ravaged  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  He  was 
soon  after  defeated  with  great  loss  near  Falkirk  by  the 
English,  led  by  Edward  I.  in  person,  (1298.)  The  office 
of  guardian  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  had  held  for  a 
short  time,  was  now  taken  from  him,  and,  after  several 
years  spent  in  border  warfare,  he  was  betrayed  into  the 
bands  of  the  English,  condemned  as  a  traitor,  and  exe 
cuted,  (1305.)  His  achievements  have  been  a  favourite 
theme  with  Scottish  poets  and  writers  of  romance,  and 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  nard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

140 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WALLACE 


2226 


WALLER 


have  been  especially  celebrated  by  Harry  the  Minstrel, 
sometimes  called  Blind  Harry. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xx.,  xxi.,  and 
xxii.  ;  J.  S.  WATSON,  "The  Story  of  William  Wallace,"  iS6z ; 
SCOTT,  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather;"  HuMB,  "  History  of  England:" 
J.  D.  CARRICK,  "Life  of  Sir  William  Wallace,"  2  vols.;)  1830; 
CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wallace,  (WILLIAM,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  mathemati 
cian,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  in 
1803  one  of  the  teachers  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
Military  College,  Buckinghamshire,  and  in  1819  became 
professor  of  that  science  at  Edinburgh.  Among  his 
principal  works  we  may  name  his  "  New  Series  for  the 
Quadrature  of  the  Conic  Sections  and  the  Computation 
of  Logarithms,"  (1808,)  "Account  of  the  Invention  of 
the  Pantograph,  and  Description  of  the  Eiclograph," 
(1831,)  and  the  article  on  "Porism,"in  the  "  Encyclo 
paedia  Britannica."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  member  of  other  learned 
institutions.  Died  in  1843. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wallace,  (WILLIAM  H.  L.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  in  1821.  He  practised  law  in 
Illinois  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  where  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  April  6  of  that  year.  "  This  day's  work," 
says  Horace  Greeley,  "had  won  for  him  the  admiration 
of  all  beholders."  ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.) 

Wallace,  (WILLIAM  Ross,)  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Lexington,  Kentucky,  about  1819.  Among  his  works 
maybe  named  "  Alban  the  Pirate,"  (1848,)  and  "Medita 
tions  in  America,  and  other  Poems,"  (1851.) 

Wallace,  (WILLIAM  VINCENT,)  a  musician  and  com 
poser,  born  at  Waterford,  in  Ireland,  about  1815.  He 
composed  several  successful  operas,  among  which  are 
"Maritana"  and  "Lurline."  Died  in  1865. 

Wallack,  wfil'lak,  (JAMES  WILLIAM,)  an  English 
actor,  born  in  London  in  1795,  has  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  his  art,  both  in  England  and  America. 
Having  settled  in  New  York  City  in  1851,  he  founded 
the  theatre  on  Broadway  called  by  his  name. 

His  sons,  JOHN  LESTER  and  JAMES,  are  also  actors, 
and  the  former  has  published  several  comedies. 

Wallenbourg.     See  WALLENBURG. 

Walleiiburch,  van,  vtn  wal'len-buRk',  (ADRIAAN 
and  PIETER,  )  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  born  at 
Rotterdam,  were  brothers.  They  lived  at  Cologne,  and 
wrote  several  works  against  the  Protestants.  Adriaan 
died  in  1669,  and  Pieter  in  1675. 

Wallenburg,  von,  fon  wal'len-booRo',  written  also 
Wallenboi&g,  (JACOB,)  an  Austrian  Orientalist,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1763.  He  passed  twenty  years  in  Turkey. 
He  translated  the  Persian  poem  "  Mesnevi"  into  French. 
Died  in  1806. 

Wallenstein,  wfl/len-stln',  [Ger.  pron.  wal'len-stln',] 
or  Waldstein,  walt'stln,  [Lat.  WAI.I.ENSTEI'NIUS  or 
WALDSTEI'NIUS;  It.  VALSTAIX,  val'stin,]  ^ALBKKCHT 
W'ENZEL  EUSEHIU.S,)  COUNT  OK,  and  Duke  of  Meck 
lenburg,  Friedland,  and  Sagau,  a  celebrated  German 
general,  born  at  the  castle  of  Hermanic,  in  Bohemia, 
in  September,  1583,  was  a  son  of  Wilhelm,  Baron  von 
Waldstein.  After  the  death  of  his  parents,  who  were 
Protestants,  he  was  sent  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Olmiitz, 
and  was  converted  into  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  also 
studied  several  sciences  and  languages  at  Padua  and 
Bologna.  About  1606  he  fought  against  the  Turks  at 
the  siege  of  Gran.  He  married  a  rich  widow  in  1610, 
and  at  her  death,  in  1614,  inherited  a  large  estate. 
Having  raised  a  troop  of  horse  in  1617,  he  fought  with 
distinction  for  the  Austrian  archduke  Ferdinand  against 
the  Venetians.  In  1619,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  war,  he  joined  the  Imperial  or  Roman  Catholic 
army,  and  was  appointed  quartermaster-general.  He 
defeated  Bethlen  Gabor,  in  Hungary,  in  1621,  and  was 
created  Duke  of  Friedland  and  a  prince  of  the  Holy 
Empire  in  1624.  In  1625  he  raised,  at  his  own  expense, 
a  large  army,  which  he  resolved  to  support  by  pillage 
and  exactions  from  the  enemy.  His  high  reputation 
attracted  mercenaries  from  various  parts  of  Europe.  He 
defeated  Count  Mansfeld  in  1626,  and  invaded  Denmark, 


in  which  he  encountered  no  effectual  resistance.  To  re 
ward  him  for  his  services,  the  emperor  gave  Wallenstein 
the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg  in  1628,  and  added  the  title 
of  admiral.  His  pride,  rapacity,  and  cruelty  rendered 
him  so  odious  that  Ferdinand  dismissed  him  from  com 
mand  in  1630,  at  the  same  time  that  Gustavus  Adolphus 
entered  Germany  to  fight  for  the  Protestant  cause.  The 
victories  of  Gustavus,  and  the  death  of  General  Tilly, 
reduced  Ferdinand  to  such  a  critical  situation  that  he 
implored  the  aid  of  Wallenstein  as  the  only  man  who 
was  able  to  save  the  empire.  He  consented  to  serve 
him  again,  on  condition  that  he  should  have  exclusive 
control  of  the  army,  and  should  govern  or  reign  over 
the  countries  which  he  might  conquer.  lie  displayed 
great  skill  in  defence  of  the  lines  near  Nuremberg,  which 
were  attacked  by  the  Swedes  in  September,  1632.  In 
November  of  that  year  he  was  defeated  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  at  the  great  battle  of  Lutzen.  He  afterwards 
gained  victories  in  Silesia,  but  refused  to  march  to  the 
relief  of  Bavaria,  which  was  overrun  by  the  Swedes. 
According  to  some  authorities,  he  aspired  to  be  sovereign 
of  Bohemia.  The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  other  enemies 
of  \Vallenstein,  persuaded  the  emperor  to  distrust  his 
loyalty.  In  January,  1634,  he  was  deprived  of  his  com 
mand,  and  secret  orders  were  given  to  Gal  las  and  Picco- 
lomini  to  arrest  or  assassinate  him.  He  attempted  to 
secure  himself  by  negotiations  with  the  Swedes,  but  his 
overtures  were  rejected,  and  he  retired  to  the  castle  of 
Eger  or  Egra,  where  he  was  assassinated  in  February, 
1634.  The  story  of  Wallenstein  forms  the  subject  of 
Schiller's  greatest  though  not  his  most  popular  tragedy. 
See  SCHII.I.KR,  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  MURK, 
"Die  Ermordimg  Herzogs  von  Friedland,"  iSo6;  HKI.I.KK,  "  Leben 
des  Grafen  von  Wallenstein,"  iSi4;  F.  FORSTKR,  "Wallenstein, 
Herzog  zn  Mecklenburg."  etc.,  1834  :  J.  MITCHELL,  "Life  of  Wai- 
lenstein,"  1837;  MEBOI.D,  "  Giistav  Adolf  mid  Wailenstcin."  2vois., 
1835-40;  HKLBIG,  "Wallenstein  und  Armin,"  1850;  Gl;ALix>-Pm- 
OHATO,  "  Istoria  della  Vita  d'A.  Valstain,"  1643;  C\RL  MARI  \vo.v 
ARKTIN,  "Wallenstein,"  1846;  SIR  KDVVARD  CUST,  "The  Thirty 
Years'  War,"  2  vols.,  1865  ;  MAI.MSTROEM,  "  De  Wallensteinio  Com- 
mentarius,"  1815;  "Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  ''  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  January,  1838. 

Wallensteinius.     See  WALLENSTEIN. 

Waller,  wfil'ler,  (EDMUND,)  an  eminent  English  poet, 
born  at  Coleshill,  in  Hertfordshire,  in  1605,  was  a  cousin- 
german  of  the  celebrated  John  Hampden.  He  studied 
at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  represented  Amers- 
ham  in  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640,  having  been  pre 
viously  several  times  elected  for  that  borough.  He  was 
for  a  time  a  moderate  partisan  of  the  popular  cause  ;  but 
he  subsequently  went  over  to  the  royalists.  He  was 
arrested  in  1643  on  a  charge  by  the  Parliament  of  having 
formed  a  "  popish  plot  for  the  subversion  of  the  Prot 
estant  religion,"  etc.  Several  of  his  accomplices  were 
punished  with  fines  and  imprisonment,  and  two  were  exe 
cuted,  while  Waller,  the  leader  of  the  conspiracy,  saved 
his  life  by  a  most  abject  and  pusillanimous  speech.  lie 
was  released,  after  a  year's  confinement,  on  condition  of 
his  leaving  the  country,  and,  after  a  residence  of  about 
ten  years  in  France,  was  permitted  to  return  to  England 
in  1653.  He  died  in  1687.  Waller  was  twice  married, 
and  had  by  his  second  wife  five  sons  and  eight  daughters. 
Among  his  earliest  productions  are  the  verses  addressed 
to  the  Lady  Dorothea  Sidney,  under  the  name  of  Saccha- 
rissa.  His  other  principal  poems  are  a  "  Panegyric  on 
Cromwell,"  "On  a  War  with  Spain, ""On  the  Death 
of  the  Lord  Protector,"  and  an  ode  to  Charles  II.,  en 
titled  "To  the  King  upon  his  Majesty's  Most  Happy 
Return."  It  is  said  that  when  Charles  remarked  to 
Waller  the  greater  poetical  merit  of  his  panegyric  on 
Cromwell,  he  replied,  "  Poets,  sire,  succeed  better  in  fic 
tion  than  in  truth."  After  the  restoration  he  was  several 
times  returned  to  Parliament,  where,  according  to  Bur- 
net,  "he  was  the  delight  of  the  House,  and,  though  old, 
said  the  liveliest  things  of  any  among  them."  Johnson 
observes,  "  The  general  character  of  his  poetry  is  ele 
gance  and  gaiety.  He  is  never  pathetic,  and  very  rarely 
sublime;  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  added  some 
thing  to  our  elegance  of  diction  and  something  to  our 
propriety  of  thought." 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  vol.  i.  ;  WOOD, 
"Athens  Oxonienses;"  HALLAM,  "Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe;"  CAMPBELL,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  ALI.I- 
BONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  £,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t;  good;  moor.; 


WALLER 


2227 


WALPOLE 


Waller,  wSl'ler,  (JoHx  LTGHTFOOT,)  LL.D.,  an 
American  Baptist  divine  and  journalist,  born  in  Wood- 
ford  county,  Kentucky,  in  1809.  Ke  became  editor  in 
1845  °f  tne  "  Western  Baptist  Review,"  and  published 
several  controversial  works.  Died  at  Louisville  in  1854. 

Waller,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  statesman  and 
general  of  the  Parliamentary  army,  born  in  Kent  in 
1597,  was  a  distant  relative  of  the  poet,  Edmund  Wal 
ler.  Having  served  for  a  time  in  the  Protestant  army 
in  Germany,  he  was  elected  to  the  Long  Parliament 
for  Andover  in  1640,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
second  in  command  of  the  forces  under  the  Earl  of 
Essex.  He  was  removed  from  the  service  by  the  self- 
denying  ordinance  of  1645,  anc^  nl  '647  he  was  one  of 
the  eleven  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  im 
peached  by  the  army.  lie  afterwards  resumed  his  seat 
in  Parliament,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  council  of 
state  in  1660.  He  died  in  i66S,  leaving  a  "  Vindication 
of  Sir  William  Waller,"  etc.,  and  "Divine  Meditations 
upon  Several  Occasions,"  (1680.) 

See  CLARENDON,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion;"  HUME, 
"  History  of  England." 

Wal-le'ri-us,  [Swedish  pron.  val-ln're-us,]  (JoHANX 
GoTTSCHALK,)  a  Swedish  savant,  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy. 
Died  in  1785. 

Wallerius,  (XiCHoi.AS,)  a  Swedish  philosopher,  born 
at  Xerika  in  1706.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Upsal,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Rational  Psy 
chology,"  ("  Psychologia  Rationalis.")  Died  in  1764. 

Wallia.     See  VAI.LIA,  King  of  the  Visigoths. 

Wallich,  val'liK,  (NATHANIEL,)  a  Danish  botanist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1787.  Having  entered  the  ser 
vice  of  the  East  India  Company,  he  was  appointed  in 
1815  superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Calcutta. 
He  visited  Nepaul  and  other  parts  of  India,  and  made  a 
large  and  valuable  collection  of  plants.  He  published 
"  A  Description  of  the  Tree  which  produces  the  Ripal 
Camphor- Wood,"  etc.,  (1823,)  "  Tentamen  Florae  Xepa- 
lensis,"  (1824,)  "Plantae  Asiatics  Rariores,"  (3  vols.  fol., 
1829,  with  300  plates,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1854. 

Wallin,  val-leen',  (GEURGK,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
in  Xordland  in  1686.  He  published  several  works,  and 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Gothenburg.  Died  in  1760. 

Wallin,  (JoHAN  OLOF,)  an  eminent  Swedish  prelate 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  17/9.  He 
studied  at  Upsal,  and  became  in  1810  a  member  of 
the  Swedish  Academy.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
theological  tutor  to  Prince  Oscar,  and  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Upsal  in  1833. 
His  hymns  are  ranked  among  the  finest  productions 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  have  been  adopted 
into  the  authorized  Swedish  Hymn-Book.  He  also  pub 
lished  a  number  of  sermons  of  great  excellence.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  E.  G.  GEIJER,  "  Minnes-Tal  ofver  Dr.  J.  O.  Wallin,"  1840; 
J.  H.  SCHKOEDER,  "  J.  O.  Wallin,  Svea  Rikes  Erkebiskop,"  1846; 
J.  E.  RvuijfisT,  "J.  O.  Wallin;  Minnesteckninp,"  1839;  How- 
ITT,  "  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii. 

Wallingford,  \v6Kling-ford,  (RICHARD,)  an  English 
mechanic  and  astronomer  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
made  a  clock  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
that  was  regulated  by  a  fly-wheel. 

Wallis,  wfll'lis,  (JoHX,)  an  eminent  English  mathe 
matician  and  theologian,  born  at  Ash  ford,  Kent,  on  the 
230!  of  XTovember,  1616.  He  entered  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1632,  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1640, 
and  was  ordained  a  priest  the  same  year.  He  favoured 
the  party  of  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war,  and  ren 
dered  valuable  services  by  deciphering  intercepted 
despatches  written  in  cipher.  In  1644  he  was  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westmin 
ster.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at 
Oxford  in  1649.  In  1655  he  published  an  important 
work,  entitled  "Arithmetic  of  Infinites,"  ("  Arithmetica 
Infinitorum,")  preceded  by  a  treatise  on  conic  sections. 
He  treated  of  the  fundamental  points  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  in  his  "  Universal  Science  or 
Learning."  ("  Mathesis  Universalis,"  1657.)  He  made 
important  discoveries  in  mathematical  theories,  and 


distinguished  himself  by  his  sagacity  and  talent  for  gen 
eralization.  Having  promoted  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  he  retained  his  professorship.  Besides  the  above- 
named  works,  he  wrote  several  books  on  theology,  and 
a  treatise  on  logic,  which  had  a  high  reputation.  He 
edited  Ptolemy's  "  Harmonics,"  (1680,)  and  Aristarchus 
of  Samos.  Died  in  October,  1703. 

See  THOMSON,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society  ;"  XIC^KON,  "  Me- 
moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale."  2£ayle  ,  •&-*' <? ' icninvy 

Wallis,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  navigator,  who,  as 
commander  of  the  Dolphin,  made  a  voyage  in  the  Pacific 
and  discovered  Easter  Island  in  1767,  and  Tahiti,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  King  George's  Island.  The 
latter  is  supposed  to  have  been  previously  discovered  by 
Quiros.  Died  in  1795. 

Wallis,  von,  fon  wal'liss,  (GEORG  OLIVER,)  COUNT, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1671.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  and  the  chief  command  of  an  army 
in  Hungary.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  1739. 
Died  in  1743. 

Walb's,  von,  (JOSEPH,)  COUNT,  an  Austrian  financier, 
born  in  1768.  He  was  minister  of  finance  from  1810 
to  1816.  Died  in  1818. 

Walliser,  -fral'le-zer,  (CHRISTOPH  THOMAS,)  a  Ger 
man  composer  and  writer  upon  music,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Died 
in  1648. 

Wallius,  wal'le-us,  or  Van  de  Walle,  vSn  deh  wal'- 
leh,  (JACOB,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Courtrai  in  1599.  He  wrote  numerous  poems,  printed 
in  1656.  Died  about  1680. 

Wallon,  vi'lo.N',  (HENRI  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1812.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  Slavery  in  Antiquity,"  (3  vols.,  1848,)  and 
succeeded  Quatremere  de  Quincy  as  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1850. 

Wallot,  wal'lot  or  vt'lo',  (JEAN  GUILLAUME,)  a  Ger 
man  astronomer,  born  at  Pauers,  in  the  Palatinate,  in 
1743.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Paris.  He 
was  executed  by  the  Jacobins  in  July,  1794. 

Wallraf,  vvaVraf,  (FERDINAND  FRANZ,)  a  German 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Cologne  in  1748.  He 
made  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  objects  in  natu 
ral  history  and  art,  which  he  presented  to  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1824. 

Walmesley,  wSmz'le,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  mathe 
matician  and  Benedictine  monk,  born  in  1721,  became 
apostolical  vicar  of  the  western  district  in  England.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  "  Analysis  of  the  Measures  of  Pro 
portions  and  of  Angles,"  etc.,  and  other  works,  in  French 
|  and  Latin.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1797. 

Wain,  wawl,  (XICHOLAS,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
about  1740,  practised  with  distinction  in  Philadelphia. 
He  afterwards  became  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  and  humour. 
Died  in  1813. 

Wain,  (ROBERT,)  Jr.,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1794.  He  wrote  "The  Hermit  in  Phila 
delphia,"  a  satire,  (1819,)  "The  American  Bards,"  and 
other  poems,  also  a  "  Life  of  La  Fayette,"  (1824.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Walpole,  wol'pol,  (HORACE,)  fourth  Earl  of  Orford, 
a  famous  literary  gossip,  amateur,  and  wit,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  October,  1717,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  and  Catherine  Shorter.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1739  he  began 
a  tour  on  the  continent,  in  company  with  his  friend 
Thomas  Gray  the  poet,  from  whom,  in  consequence  of 
a  disagreement,  he  parted  in  1741.  He  returned  home, 
and  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  same  year. 
In  March,  1742,  he  made  a  speech  in  defence  of  his 
father,  which  was  commended  by  William  Pitt.  He 
continued  to  "sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  many 
years,  but  seldom  spoke  there.  He  called  himself  a 
Whig,  but  cared  little  for  any  political  principle. 

In  1747  he  purchased  the  villa  of  Strawberry  Hill,  at 
Twickenham,  on  the  improvement  and  decoration  of 
which  he  expended  much  time  and  money.  He  collected 
there  many  prints,  pictures,  books,  curiosities,  and 
objects  of  z'irtu.  He  published  in  1758  a  "Catalogue 


-:  as  c;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     ( 


Explanations,  p.  23.  ) 


W ALP  OLE 


2228 


WALSH 


of  Royal  and  Noble  Authors,"  and  commenced  in  1761 
his  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England,"  the  last  volume 
of  which  appeared  in  1771.  The  materials  for  this  work 
were  furnished  by  Vertue  the  engraver.  In  1764  he 
produced  a  novel  entitled  "The  Castle  of  Otranto," 
which  was  very  successful.  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Mysterious  Mother,"  a  tragedy,  (1768,)  "Historic 
Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  III.,"  (1768,) 
"Reminiscences  of  the  Courts  of  George  I.  and  George 
II.,"  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.  from  1771 
to  1783,"  and  his  "Letters,"  (9  vols.,  1857-59,)  which 
are  greatly  admired.  He  affected  a  great  dislike  to 
be  considered  a  literary  man.  Macaulay  expresses  the 
opinion  that  "he  was  the  most  eccentric,  the  most  arti 
ficial,  the  most  fastidious,  the  most  capricious  of  men. 
.  .  .  Serious  business  was  a  trifle  to  him,  and  trifles 
were  his  serious  business.  .  .  .  What,  then,"  asks  the 
same  critic,  "is  the  irresistible  charm  of  Walpole's 
writings  ?  It  consists,  we  think,  in  the  art  of  amusing 
without  exciting.  .  .  .  His  style  is  one  of  those  peculinr 
styles  by  which  everybody  is  attracted,  and  which  nobody 
can  safely  venture  to  imitate."  (Review  of  Walpole's 
"  Letters  to  Sir  Horace  Mann,"  in  Macaulay's  Essay 
published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  1833.)  His 
Letters  are  considered  his  best  productions.  In  1791 
he  succeeded  his  nephew  George  as  Earl  of  Or  ford, 
but  he  never  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
seldom  used  his  title.  Died  in  March,  1797. 

See  "  Walpoliana,"  by  J.  PINKERTON,  1792;  LORD  DOVER, 
"Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Horace  Walpole,"  prefixed  to  "Letters  to 
Horace  Mann,"  1833;  ELIOT  WAKBURTON,  "Memoirs  of  Horace 
Walpole  and  his  Contemporaries,"  2  vols..  1851  ;  "  London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  April,  1823;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September, 
October,  and  November,  tygS;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1843, 
article  "Walpole  and  his  Friends." 

Walpole,  (HORATIO,)  LORD,  an  English  diplomatist 
and  writer,  born  in  1678,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Robert, 
the  premier.  He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1723  to 
1727,  became  treasurer  of  the  king's  household  in  1730, 
and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Holland  about  1733. 
His  talents  and  character  are  praised  by  the  historian 
Coxe.  He  wrote  political  treatises.  Died  in  1757. 

Walpole,  (Sir  ROBERT,)  Earl  of  Orford,  a  celebrated 
English  statesman,  born  at  Houghton  on  the  26th  of 
August,  1676,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Walpole,  Esq.,  M.P. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam 
bridge.  In  1700  he  married  Catherine  Shorter,  and 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Castle  Rising  and  a 
supporter  of  the  Whig  party.  He  became  an  able 
debater,  a  skilful  parliamentary  tactician,  and  an 
excellent  man  of  business.  In  1708  he  was  appointed 
secretary  at  war,  and  the  management  of  the  House  of 
Commons  was  committed  to  him  by  his  party.  He 
resigned  with  the  other  Whig  ministers  in  1710,  and 
declined  the  place  which  Harley  offered  him  in  the  new 
cabinet.  The  Tory  majority  expelled  him  from  the 
House  in  1712,  and  imprisoned  him  in  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  corruption.  He  was  released  at  the  end  of 
the  session. 

On  the  accession  of  George  I.,  (1714,)  Walpole  ac 
quired  great  influence  at  court,  and  was  appointed  pay 
master-general  of  the  forces.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  impeachment  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  In  October,  1715,  he  became  first  lord  of 
the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  His 
brother-in-law,  Lord  Townshend,  was  the  chief  minister 
of  this  administration.  Townshend  having  been  re 
moved  by  the  intrigues  of  Lord  Sutherland,  Sir  Robert 
resigned  in  April,  1717,  although  the  king  urged  him  to 
remain  in  office.  He  opposed  the  South  Sea  act,  and 
was  preserved  by  his  good  sense  from  the  general  in 
fatuation  during  the  inflation  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble. 
"When  the  crash  came, — when  ten  thousand  families 
were  reduced  to  beggary  in  a  day, —  .  .  .  Walpole  was 
the  man  on  whom  all  parties  turned  their  eyes."  (Mac 
aulay.)  He  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime 
minister)  in  April,  1721,  and  restored  the  public  credit. 
Supported  by  a  large  majority  of  Parliament,  he  en 
countered  at  first  no  serious  opposition,  until  he  created 
an  opposition  by  proscribing  the  eminent  men  of  his 
own  party  and  indulging  his  propensity  to  engross  the 
power.  Pulteney,  who  had  strong  claims  to  a  place  in 


the  cabinet,  was  neglected  and  turned  into  a  formidable 
adversary.  The  highly-gifted  Lord  Carteret,  who  was 
secretary  of  state,  was  removed  in  1724,  and  a  few  years 
later  a  violent  quarrel  occurred  between  Walpole  and 
Lord  Townshend,  who  had  long  been  personal  friends. 

At  the  death  of  George  I.,  (1727,)  Queen  Caroline 
exerted  her  influence  in  favour  of  Sir  Robert,  who  was 
reappointecl  prime  minister  and  gained  the  confidence 
of  George  II.  According  to  Macaulay,  Walpole  first 
gave  to  the  English  government  that  character  of  lenity 
which  it  has  since  generally  preserved.  The  same 
author  remarks,  that  "though  he  was  at  the  head  of 
affairs  during  more  than  twenty  years,  not  one  great 
measure,  not  one  important  change  for  the  better  or  the 
worse  in  any  part  of  our  institutions,  marks  the  period 
of  his  supremacy.  .  .  .  The  praise  to  which  he  is  fairly 
entitled  is  this,  that  he  understood  the  true  interest 
of  his  country  better  than  any  of  his  contemporaries, 
and  that  he  pursued  that  interest  whenever  it  was  not 
incompatible  with  the  interests  of  his  own  intense  and 
grasping  ambition."  (Review  of  "  Walpole's  Letters  to 
Sir  Horace  Mann.") 

Among  the  errors  of  his  administration  was  the  war 
against  Spain,  (1739,)  into  which  he  was  driven  by  the 
popular  clamour,  while  his  own  judgment  condemned  it 
as  impolitic  and  unjust.  When  he  heard  the  bells  ring 
ing  on  account  of  the  declaration  of  war,  he  muttered, 
"Before  long  they  will  be  wringing  their  hands."  It  is 
admitted  that  he  practised  corruption  or  bribery  on  a 
large  scale,  for  which  some  writers  apologize  by  the  plea 
that  it  was  impossible  to  govern  without  corruption.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  official  career  he  was  attacked  by 
a  powerful  combination  of  Tories,  disaffected  Whigs 
called  patriots,  and  wits,  including  Pulteney,  Carteret, 
Chesterfield,  Swift,  Pope,  and  Pitt.  The  Prince  of 
Wales  also,  having  become  estranged  from  the  king, 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition.  After  a  long 
and  spirited  contest,  he  resigned  office,  and  passed  into 
the  House  of  Lords,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Orford, 
in  February,  1742.  He  died  in  March,  1745,  leaving 
three  sons. 

"Without  being  a  genius  of  the  first  class,"  says 
Burke,  "he  was  an  intelligent,  prudent,  and  safe  minis 
ter.  .  .  .  The  prudence,  steadiness,  and  vigilance  of 
that  man,  joined  to  the  greatest  possible  lenity  in  his 
character  and  his  politics,  preserved  the  crown  to  this 
royal  family,  and  with  it  their  laws  and  liberties  to  this 
country."  ("  Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  Whigs.") 

See  W.  MUSGRAVE,  "  Brief  and  True  History  of  Sir  R.  Walpole 
and  his  Family,"  1738;  "  Histoire  dn  Ministere  du  Chevalier  Wal 
pole,"  Amsterdam,  1755;  "Walpoliana,"  London,  1783;  COXE, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Administration  of  Sir  R.  Walpole,"  3 
vols.,  1798;  LORD  MAHON,  (STANHOPE,)  "History  of  England  ;'' 
MACAULAY,  Essay  on  the  "  Earl  of  Chatham,"  reprinted  from  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1834  ;  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign 
of  George  11.,"  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1868. 

Walpole,  (SPENCER  HORATIO,)  an  English  conser 
vative  statesman,  born  in  1806.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Midhurst  in  1846,  and  in  March,  1852, 
became  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department. 
He  resigned  about  December,  1852.  In  1856  he  repre 
sented  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  Parliament.  He 
was  secretary  for  the  home  department  about  a  year, 
(1858-59,)  and  obtained  the  same  office  in  July,  1866. 
He  resigned  in  May,  1867. 

Walsh,  w61sh,  (BENJAMIN  D.,)  an  eminent  entomol 
ogist,  born  in  Great  Britain  in  1808,  removed  to  America 
when  very  young.  He  enjoyed  a  national  reputation 
among  scientific  men  for  excellence  in  his  special  study. 
Died  at  Rock  Island,  Illinois,  in  1869. 

Walsh,  w61sh,  (EDWARD,)  M.D.,  an  Irish  physician, 
born  at  Waterford,  served  as  army  surgeon  in  Holland 
and  America.  He  published  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Expe 
dition  to  Holland."  Died  in  1832. 

Walsh,  vtlsh,  (JOSEPH  ALEXIS,)  VICOMTE,  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Anjou  in  1782,  was  a  legitimist  in 
politics.  He  wrote  several  novels,  a  book  entitled 
"  Memorable  Days  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (5  vols., 
1840,)  and  other  works. 

Walsh,  (PETER,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  the 
county  of  Kildare,  Ireland,  in  1610.  He  wrote  against 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  (1674.)  Died  in  1688. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


WALSH 


2229 


WALT  HER 


Walsh,  \v51sh,  (ROBERT,)  an  American  author,  bon 
in  Baltimore  in  1784,  was  the  son  of  an  Irishman.  He 
studied  law,  travelled  in  Europe,  returned  home  abou 
1808,  and  became  a  resident  of  Philadelphia.  He 
wrote  (December,  1809)  a  "Letter  on  the  Genius  and 
Disposition  of  the  French  Government,"  etc.,  which 
was  highly  commended  by  the  "Edinburgh  Review.' 
"  Perhaps  nothing  from  the  American  press,"  says  R 
W.  Griswold,  "had  ever  produced  a  greater  sensation.' 
In  January,  1811,  he  began  to  publish  "The  American 
Review  of  History  and  Politics,"  which  was  the  first 
American  quarterly,  and  was  discontinued  about  the 
end  of  1812  for  want  of  patronage.  In  1813  he  produced 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Future  State  of  Europe."  He  edited 
the  "American  Register"  for  a  short  time,  (1817-18,) 
and  published  in  1819  an  "Appeal  from  the  Judgment 
of  Great  Britain  respecting  the  United  States,"  etc.  He 
founded,  in  1821,  the  "National  Ga/,ette,"  an  able  and 
influential  daily  paper  of  Philadelphia,  which  he  edited 
for  fifteen  years.  He  published  "  Didactics,  Social, 
Literary,  and  Political,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)  In  1845  he  was 
appointed  American  consul  at  Paris,  where  he  passed 
the  subsequent  part  of  his  life.  Died  in  Paris  in  1858. 

See    R.  W.  GRISWOLD,    "Prose   Writers   of  America,"   p.   197; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1820;  "North  American  Review 
for  April,  1820. 

Walsh,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Wor 
cestershire  in  1663,  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  friend  of 
Dryden  and  the  patron  of  Pope.  He  was  several  times 
elected  to  Parliament  for  his  native  county.  His  poems 
are  principally  amatory.  He  also  published  a  prose 
essay  entitled  "Eugenia,  a  Defence  of  Women,"  for 
which  Dryden  wrote  a  preface.  Died  in  1709. 

See  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  vol.  i. 

Walsingham  or  Walsyngham,  w6l'sing-am,  (Sir 
FRANCIS,)  an  English  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born 
in  Kent  in  1536.  He  studied  at  King's  College,  Cam 
bridge,  and  at  an  early  age  acquired  the  favour  and 
patronage  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  appointed  him  her 
representative  at  the  French  court  in  1570.  After  his 
return,  in  1573,  he  became  a  member  of  the  privy  coun 
cil,  and  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  He  was  after 
wards  sent  on  important  missions  to  the  Netherlands, 
France,  and  Scotland.  He  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
detection  of  Babington's  conspiracy,  and  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  in  the  trial  of  Mary,  Quean  of  Scots. 
As  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  he  rendered  the  greatest 
services  to  England  and  the  Protestant  cause  by  his 
vigilance  and  skilful  diplomacy  ;  he  is  said  to  have  over 
reached  the  Jesuits  in  their  own  game  of  equivocation 
and  mental  reservation,  and  to  have  maintained  fifty- 
three  agents  and  eighteen  spies  in  foreign  courts.  In 
private  life  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  integrity.  He 
died  in  1590,  leaving  one  daughter,  who  was  successively 
married  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  the 
Earl  of  Clanricarde.  An  account  of  Walsingham's 
French  embassy  appeared  in  Sir  Dudley  Digges's 
"  Complete  Ambassador,"  (1655.) 

See  HUME,  "  History  of  England  ;"  FROUDE,  "  History  of  Eng 
land;"  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  LODGE,  "Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Personages." 

Walsingham,  [Lat.  WALSINGHA'MUS,J  (THOMAS,) 
an  English  historian  and  Benedictine  monk,  a  native  of 
Norfolk,  lived  about  1430.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Time  of  Edward  I.  to 
Henry  V.,"  (in  Latin.) 

Walsyngham.    See  WALSINGHAM. 

Walter,  wal'ter,  (FERDINAND,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Wetzlar  in  1794,  published  a  "Manual  of  Ecclesi 
astical  Law,"  (1822.)  which  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  also  other  legal  works. 

Walter,  (FRIEDRICH  AUGUST,)  son  of  Johann  Gott 
lieb,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1764.  He  was  appointed 
first  medical  councillor  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1826. 

Walter,  (HUBERT,)  an  English  prelate,  was  a  nephew 
of  Ranulph  de  Glanville.  As  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  he 
accompanied  the  crusaders  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1193,  a"d  afterwards 
became  justiciary  of  England. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  ch.  xi. 


Walter,  (JOHANN  GOTTLIEB,)  a  celebrated  German 
physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Konigsberg  about 
1735.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Berlin  under  Meckel, 
whom  in  1774  he  succeeded  as  first  professor  of  anatomy 
and  midwifery.  His  valuable  anatomical  museum  was 
purchased  by  the  King  of  Prussia  for  100,000  dollars. 
Among  his  works  may  be  named  "  A  Treatise  on  the 
Bones  of  the  Human  Body"  and  a  "  Manual  of  Mvologv." 
Died  in  1818. 

Wal'ter,  (JoHN,)  an  English  journalist,  and  founder 
of  the  London  "Times,"  was  born  in  1739.  The  first 
number  of  "The  Times"  appeared  in  1788.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  logography,  or  the  art  of  printing  with 
entire  words  or  syllables.  He  died  in  1812.  His  son, 
of  the  same  name,  born  in  London  in  1784,  became  in 
1803  exclusive  manager  of  "  The  Times,"  which,  under 
his  direction,  soon  became  the  most  able  and  influential 
journal  of  Europe.  In  1814  "  The  Times"  was  printed 
for  the  first  time  by  Konig's  steam-power  machines. 
(See  KONIG.)  Mr.  Walter  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Berkshire  in  1832,  and  in  1841  was  returned  for  the 
borough  of  Nottingham.  Died  in  1847.  His  son  JOHN, 
born  in  1818,  succeeded  to  the  proprietorship  of  "The 
Times,"  and  represented  Nottingham  in  Parliament 
from  1847  to  '859. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Februarj',  1848. 

Wal'ter,  (THOMAS  U.,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
architect,  born  in  Philadelphia,  September  4,  1804.  He 
received  a  good,  though  not  a  collegiate,  education.  He 
studied  architecture  under  Mr.  William  Strickland,  and 
afterwards  mathematics  under  David  McClure,  (then 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  that  science.)  He  applied 
himself  assiduously  to  study  for  many  years  before  he 
commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  designed 
in  1831,  and  superintended  the  erection  of,  the  Philadel 
phia  County  Prison.  His  designs  for  the  Girard  College 
for  Orphans  were  adopted  by  the  City  Councils  in  1833, 
and  that  magnificent  building,  perhaps  the  finest  speci 
men  of  classic  architecture  on  the  American  continent, 
was  constructed  throughout  from  his  designs  and  under 
his  immediate  supervision.  This  work  occupied  him 
fourteen  years.  In  1851  his  plans  for  the  extension  of 
the  Capitol  at  Washington  were  adopted,  and  he  was 
appointed  architect  of  the  work  by  President  Fillmore, 
a  position  which  he  held  for  fourteen  years.  In  addition 
to  the  works  of  the  Capitol  extension,  he  planned  and 
executed  the  new  iron  dome  of  the  Capitol,  the  east 
and  west  wings  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  the  extension 
of  the  General  Post-Office.  He  also  designed  the  new 
Treasury  Building,  and  the  Government  Hospital  for 
the  Insane.  In  1853  he  received  the  title  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  from  the  University  of  Lewisburg,  and 
in  1857  that  of  doctor  of  laws  from  Harvard  University. 
He  held  for  many  years  a  professorship  of  architecture 
in  the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and 
of  many  other  literary  and  scientific  institutions,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects. 

Walther,  wal'ter,  (AUGUST  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
anatomist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1688,  was  a  son  of 
Michael,  noticed  below,  (1638-92.)  He  became  pro- 
essor  of  anatomy  at  Leipsic  in  1723,  and  wrote  many 
treatises  on  anatomy.  Died  in  1746. 

Walther,  [Lat.  GUALTE'RUS  or  WALTHE'RUS,]  (BAL- 
I'HASAR,)  a  German  scholar  and  Protestant  theolo 
gian,  was  born  in  Thuringia  before  1600.  He  became 
irofessor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Jena.  He  wrote 
several  learned  works  in  Latin  and  German.  Died  in 
1640. 

Walther,  (BERNARD,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  in 
1430,  was  a  pupil  of  Regiomontanus.  He  is  said  to 
lave  first  discovered  the  effect  of  atmospheric  refrac- 
ion.  Died  in  1504. 

Walther,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  Protestant  divine. 
rle  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Wittenberg  edition  of 
Anther's  works,  and  published  a  number  of  controver 
sial  treatises.  Died  about  1572. 

Walther,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  divine,  born  near 
Conigsberg  in  1655.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
,t  that  city  in  1703,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  rector 


€  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (£^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WALT  HER 


2230 


WAN-LEE 


of  the  university.  He  wrote  several  theological  and  an 
tiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1717. 

Walther,  (CHRISTOPH  THEODOSIUS,)  a  German  di 
vine,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1699.  He  was  one  of  the 
missionaries  sent  by  the  Danish  government  in  1705  to 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  and  the  other  Danish  posses 
sions  in  India.  He  founded  the  missionary  establishment 
of  Majubaram,  and  published  "  An  Abridgment  of  Ec 
clesiastical  History,"  and  other  works,  in  the  Tamul 
language.  He  died  at  Dresden  in  1741. 

Walther,  (GEORG  CHRISTOPH,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Rothenburg  in  1601,  became  president  of  the  chancery 
of  justice  in  his  native  town.  He  published  several  legal 
works  in  Latin.  Died  in  1656. 

Walther,  (HEINRICH  ANDREAS,)  a  German  Prot 
estant  divine,  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  Hesse,  in  1696, 
wrote  several  religious  and  theological  works,  in  Latin 
and  German.  Died  in  1748. 

Walther,  (JOHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  writer, 
born  about  1684,  published  a  "  Musical  Dictionary,  His 
torical  and  Biographical."  Died  in  1748. 

Walther,  QOHANN  LUDOLPH,)  a  German,  who  lived 
about  1740,  and  published  "Lexicon  Diplomaticum," 
(1745,)  in  which  he  explained  the  modes  of  writing  and 
the  abbreviations  used  in  the  middle  ages. 

"Walther,  (MICHAEL,)  a  German  divine  and  theo 
logical  writer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1593.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Helmstedt  in  1622,  and  in  1642 
was  appointed  general  superintendent  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick-Luneberg.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Manna,"  ("Tractatus  de  Manna,"  1633,) 
a  learned  treatise,  entitled  "  Otficina  Biblica,"  (1636,) 
"  Exercitationes  Biblicas,"  (1638,)  and  other  works,  in 
Latin;  also  "The  Golden  Key  of  the  Ancients,"  etc., 
in  German.  Died  in  1662. 

Walther,  (MICHAEL,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1638.  He  was  professor  at  Wittenberg,  and 
published  several  valuable  works  on  theology  and 
mathematics.  Died  in  1692. 

Walther,  [Lat.  GUALTE'KUS,]  (RUDOLPH,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Zurich  in  1519,  was  a  friend 
of  Melanchthon,  Zuinglius,  and  other  eminent  Reformers 
of  the  time.  He  published  an  "  Apology  for  Zuinglius," 
Homilies  on  the  twelve  minor  prophets  and  on  the  New 
Testament,  and  other  prose  works,  in  Latin  ;  also  sev 
eral  Latin  poems.  Died  in  1586. 

Walther,  von,  fon  wal'ter,  (PHILIPP  FRANZ,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon  and  oculist,  born  at  Buxweiler, 
in  Bavaria,  in  1781,  became  professor  of  surgery  at  Bonn 
in  1819.  He  published  several  medical  and  surgical 
works,  among  which  are  "Human  Physiology,"  ("Phy 
siologic  des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1807-08,)  and  a  "Sys 
tem  of  Surgery,"  (4  vols.,  1833-40.)  Died  in  1849. 

See  J.  N.  VON  RINGSELS,  "  Rede  zum  Andenken  an  den  Dr.  von 
Walther,"  1851. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  wal'ter  fon  d6it 
foo'el-wi'deh,  ("Walter  of  the  Bird-Meadow,")  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  German  minnesingers,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  in  Franconia  about  1170.  He  was  of  a 
noble  family,  and  was  patronized  by  the  duke  Frederick 
of  Vienna  and  his  brother  Leopold  VII.  His  works  are 
amatory  and  patriotic  songs,  and  display  genius  of  a  high 
order.  Two  editions  of  them  have  been  published  by 
Lachmann,  and  an  account  of  Walther's  life  and  poetry, 
by  Uhland,  appeared  in  1822.  Died  about  1230. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Wal'tpn,  (BRIAN,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1600.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  appointed  about  1638  chaplain  to  the  king,  and 
prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's.  When  the  party  of  the 
Parliament  came  into  power,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  retired  to  Oxford,  where  he  began  to  collect 
the  materials  for  his  Polyglot  Bible.  This  great  work 
was  completed  in  1657,  (in  6  vols.  fol.)  Walton  died  in 
1661,  having  a  short  time  previously  been  created  Bishop 
of  Chester. 

See  TODD,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Right  Rev. 
Brian  Walton,  D.D.,"  etc. 

Wal'ton,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Frederick 
county,  Virginia,  about  1740.  He  was  elected  to  Con 


gress  from  Georgia  in  1776,  being  four  times  re-elected, 
and  was  twice  chosen  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  became 
chief  justice  of  that  State  in  1783.  Died  in  1804. 

"Walton,  (IZAAK,)  a  celebrated  English  writer,  born 
at  Stafford  in  1593.  His  first  publication  was  an  elegy 
on  his  friend  Dr.  Donne,  which  was  followed  by  a  Life 
of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  let 
ters,  etc.,  and  entitled  "  Reliquiae  Wottonianre,"  (1651.) 
In  early  life  he  was  a  hosier  or  linen-draper  in  London. 
His  principal  work,  "The  Complete  Angler,  or  Con 
templative  Man's  Recreation,"  came  out  in  1653.  It 
was  received  with  great  favour,  and  has  passed  through 
numerous  editions.  Among  his  other  productions  are 
good  biographies  of  Richard  Hooker,  George  Herbert, 
(1670,)  and  Bishop  Sanderson,  (1678.)  Walton  was 
twice  married,  his  first  wife  being  Rachael  Floud,  a 
descendant  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  second  a 
half-sister  of  Bishop  Ken.  He  died  in  1683,  leaving  one 
son  and  one  daughter.  Ilazlitt  expressed  the  opinion 
that  his  "  Complete  Angler"  is  perhaps  the  best  pastoral 
in  the  English  language. 

See  SIR  J.  HAWKINS,  "  Life  of  Izaak  Walton,"  1760;  T.  ZOUCH, 
"Life  of  I.  Walton,"  1823;  "Life  of  Izaak  Walton,"  by  SIR  N. 
HARRIS  NICOLAS,  1836. 

Walworth,  wSl'worth,  (REUKEN  HYDE,)  LL.IX,  an 
eminent  American  jurist,  born  at  Bo/rah,  in  Connecticut, 
in  1789.  He  removed  at  an  early  age  to  Hoosick,  New 
York,  where  he  studied  law,  and  was  appointed  in  1811 
one  of  the  county  judges.  He  served  in  the  wnr  of 
1812,  and  was  present  in  1814  at  the  siege  of  Platts- 
burg,  as  adjutant-general  of  the  United  States  forces.  In 
1821  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1828  appointed 
chancellor,  being  the  last  who  held  that  office  in  this 
country.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  religious 
and  benevolent  associations  of  the  day,  and  was  presi 
dent  for  a  time  of  the  American  Temperance  Union. 
Died  in  1867. 

See  LIVINGSTON,  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

"Walworth,  wol'worth,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  was  lord 
mayor  of  London  when  an  army  of  insurgents  under 
Wat  Tyler  marched  to  that  city  in  1381.  He  killed 
Tyler  while  he  was  speaking  to  the  king.  Died  about 

1385; 

Warn  an  or  Wamaiia.     See  V  AM  AN  A. 

Wamba,  w6m'ba  or  wam'ba,  King  of  the  Visigoths 
of  Spain,  began  to  reign  in  672  A.D.  Died  in  683. 

Wamese,  wa'ma-zeh,  or  Waniesius,  wa-ma'ze-us, 
(JoHN,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born  near  Liege  in  1524;  died 
in  1^90. 

Waiidelaincourt,  voNd'laN'kooR',  (.\NTOINE  HU 
BERT,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Verdun  in  1731.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  of  1792,  and  voted  against  the  death  of  the 
king.  Died  in  1819. 

Wand'el-bert  or  Wand'al-bert,  a  learned  monk 
and  poet,  born  about  813  A.D.,  lived  at  Prum,  in  Flan 
ders.  He  wrote  a  Martyrology,  in  verse.  Died  after  870. 

Wandesforde,  wftn'des-ford  or  wonz'ford,  (CHRIS 
TOPHER,)  Viscount  Castlecomer,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1592.  He  entered  Parliament, 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  managers  in  the  impeachment 
of  Buckingham.  He  succeeded  Strafford  as  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland  in  1640.  Died  in  December  of  that  year. 

Wangenheim,  wing'en  -him',  (KARL  AUGUST,) 
BARON,  a  German  statesman,  born  at  Gotha  in  1773. 
About  1806  he  was  called  to  Stuttgart,  where  he  became 
president  of  the  department  of  finance.  He  was  after 
wards  appointed  president  of  the  superior  court  at  Tu 
bingen,  and  curator  of  the  university.  He  wrote  several 
works  in  relation  to  government.  Died  in  1850. 

Wang-Mang,  a  Chinese  usurper,  who,  having  put 
to  death  the  infant  heir  to  the  throne,  took  the  title  of 
emperor  about  9  A.D.  He  was  assassinated  in  23  A.D. 

"Waii-Koolee,  (or  -Kouli,)  (Mohammed Ibn  Mus 
tafa,  mo-ham'med  ib'n  moos'ta-fa,)  a  Turkish  lexicog 
rapher  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  translated  into 
Turkish  the  Arabic  Dictionary  of  Jevhery. 

Wan-Lee  or  Wan-Ly,  wan-lee,  called  also  Y-Kiun, 
an  emperor  of  China,  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  began  to 
reign  in  1572.  He  waged  war  against  the  Mantchoos 
who  invaded  China.  Died  in  1619  or  1620. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WAX LET 


223 


WARD 


Wanley,  w&n'le,  (HUMPHREY,)  an  English  antiquary, 
was  born  at  Coventry  in  (672.  He  employed  himself 
in  collecting  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts  for  Dr.  Hickes's 
"  Thesaurus,"  and  prepared  a  descriptive  catalogue  of 
those  contained  in  the  libraries  of  the  kingdom.  He 
afterwards  became  librarian  to  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  Died 
in  1726. 

Wanley,  (Rev.  NATHANIEL,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leicester 
in  1633.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "Vox  Dei,  or 
the  Great  Duty  of  Self- Reflection  upon  a  Man's  Own 
Ways,"  and  a  popular  compilation  called  "  Wonders  of 
the  Little  World."  Died  in  1680. 

Wansleben,  wans'la'ben,  QOHANN  MICHAEL,)  a  Ger 
man  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1635.  He 
was  sent  in  1670  by  the  French  government  to  Egypt, 
where  he  made  a  collection  of  manuscripts.  He  pub 
lished,  in  Italian,  "An  Account  of  the  Present  State  of 
Egypt,"  and  several  antiquarian  works  in  Latin.  Died 
in  1679. 

See  VOCKERODT,  "  Programina  de  J.  M.  Wansleben,"  1718  ;  NICE- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Wappers,  wap'pers,  (GUSTAVE,)  BARON,  a  Belgian 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1803. 
He  studied  in  his  native  city  and  in  Paris,  painted  his 
torical  and  religious  pictures,  and  obtained  the  title  of 
first  painter  to  the  King  of  Belgium.  In  1846  he  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Antwerp. 

War'beck,  (PERKIN,)  an  adventurer,  who  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  pretended  to  be  the  younger  son 
of  Edward  IV.,  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  by 
order  of  his  uncle,  Richard  III.  At  the  head  of  several 
thousand  insurgents,  he  besieged  Exeter  ;  but  he  re 
treated  on  the  approach  of  the  royal  army,  and,  being 
made  prisoner,  was  executed  in  1499. 

War'bur-tpn,  (EuuT  BARTHOLOMEW  GEORGE.)  a 
distinguished  writer,  born  in  county  Galway,  Ireland,  in 
1810.  He  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  College,  Cam 
bridge,  and  published  in  1845  his  work  entitled  "The 
Crescent  and  the  Cross,"  which  met  with  great  favour 
and  passed  through  numerous  editions.  It  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  history  of  "Prince  Rupert  and  the  Cava 
liers,"  (1849,)  and  "Memoirs  of  Horace  Walpole  and 
his  Contemporaries."  He  perished  in  the  ship  Amazon, 
lost  off  Land's  End  in  1852.  His  tale  entitled  "  Darien, 
or  the  Merchant  Prince,"  came  out  after  his  death. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  tor  March,  1845. 

War'bur-ton,  (JOHN,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1682,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Vallum  Komanum." 
Died  in  1759. 

Warburtoii,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  writer 
and  prelate,  born  at  Newark  on  the  24th  of  December, 
1698,  was  a  son  of  George  Warburton,  an  attorney.  He 
was  educated  for  the  profession  of  law,  and  passed  five 
years  in  the  office  of  an  attorney,  (1715-19.)  Having 
resolved  to  enter  the  Church,  he  studied  theology  pri 
vately,  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1723,  and  published 
"Miscellaneous  Translations,  in  Prose  and  Verse,  from 
Roman  Authors,"  (1723.)  He  obtained  the  vicarage  of 
Gryesley  in  1726,  through  the  patronage  of  Sir  Robert 
Sutton,'by  whom  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Brant-Broughton,  near  Newark,  in  1728.  He  resided  at 
this  place  about  eighteen  years.  In  1727  he  published 
a  "Critical  and  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Causes 
of  Prodigies  and  Miracles  as  related  by  Historians." 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  an  able  work  entitled 
"The  Alliance  between  Church  and  State,  or  the  Ne 
cessity  and  Equity  of  an  Established  Religion  and  a 
Test  Law,"  etc..  (1736,)  which  was  commended  by  Bishop 
Horsley  as  an  excellent  "specimen  of  scientific  reason 
ing  applied  to  a  political  subject." 

His  principal  work  is  "The  Divine  Legation  of  Moses 
demonstrated,  on  the  Principles  of  a  Religious  Deist, 
from  the  Omission  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State  of 
Rewards  and  Punishments  in  the  Jewish  Dispensation," 
(2  vols.,  1738-41,)  in  which  he  displayed  immense  erudi 
tion  in  the  support  of  novel  and  paradoxical  opinions. 
This  work  excited  much  controversy.  About  1740  he 
became  intimate  with  Pope,  after  he  had  written  several 
letters  in  defence  of  that  poet's  "  Essay  on  Man."  When 


Pope  died,  (1744,)  he  left  half  of  his  library,  and  other 
valuable  property,  to  Warburton,  who  married,  in  1745, 
Gertrude  Tucker,  a  niece  of  Mr.  Ralph  Allen,  of  Prior 
Park,  near  Bath.  Warburton  resided  mostly  at  Prior 
Park  after  his  marriage.  He  was  elected  preacher  to 
the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1746,  edited  Shakspeare's 
works  in  1747,  and  published  a  complete  edition  of 
Pope's  works,  with  notes,  (9  vols.,)  in  1750. 

In  1754  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  king's  chaplains- 
in-ordinary,  and  in  1755  he  obtained  a  prebend  of  Dur 
ham.  He  became  Dean  of  Bristol  in  1757,  and  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  in  1759.  Among  his  other  works  we 
notice  "  A  View  of  Lord  Bolingbroke's  Philosophy,  in 
Four  Letters  to  a  Friend,"  (1754-55,)  and  two  volumes 
of  Sermons  preached  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  (1754.)  His  dis 
position  was  rather  haughty.  "  Warburton,"  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  "was  a  man  of  vigorous  faculties,  a  mind  fer 
vid  and  vehement,  supplied  by  incessant  and  unlimited 
inquiry,  with  a  wonderful  extent  and  variety  of  know 
ledge,  which  yet  had  not  oppressed  his  imagination  or 
clouded  his  perspicacity.  To  every  work  he  brought  a 
memory  full  fraught,  together  with  a  fancy  fertile  of 
original  combinations,  and  at  once  exerted  the  powers 
of  the  scholar,  the  reasoner,  and  the  wit.  .  .  .  His 
abilities  gave  him  a  haughty  confidence,  which  he  dis 
dained  to  conceal  or  mollify."  ("Life  of  Alexander 
Pope,"  in  the  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets.")  He  died 
at  Gloucester  in  June,  1779.  He  had  only  one  child,  a 
son,  who  died  young. 

See  BISHOP  HURD,  "  Notice  of  Warburton,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  his  works,  1794;  J.  S.  WATSON,  "Lite  of  Warburton,"  1863; 
CHALMERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1809;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Decem 
ber,  1820. 

Ward,  (ARTEMAS,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo 
lution,  born  at  Shrewsbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1727.  He 
served  under  Abercrombie  against  the  French  and 
Indians,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  the 
Revolution  was  appointed  second  in  command  to 
Washington.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  April, 
1776.  He  was  afterwards  elected  to  Congress,  in  which 
he  served  from  1791  to  1795.  Died  in  1800. 

"Ward,  (ARTEMAS,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1763.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1813,  and  became  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1821.  Died  in 

1847- 

Ward,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  humorous  writer,  born 
about  1667.  He  made  a  version  of  "  Don  Quixote" 
into  Huclibrastic  rhymes,  and  was  the  author  of  "The 
London  Spy,"  a  poem.  Died  in  1731. 

Ward,  (EDWARD  MATTHEW,)  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1816.  He  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  afterwards  at  Rome  and  Munich.  He 
was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician  in  1855.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  may  be  named  "The  Last  Sleep 
of  Argyle,"  "The  South -Sea  Bubble,  a  Scene  in  Change 
Alley,"  "  Daniel  Defoe  and  the  Manuscript  of  Robinson 
Crusoe,"  and  "  Izaak  Walton  Angling." 

Ward,  (Sir  HENRY  GEORGE,)  an  English  statesman, 
a  son  of  Robert  Plumer,  noticed  below,  was  born  about 
1798.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Saint  Alban's  and  Sheffield,  and  in  1846  became  secre 
tary  to  the  admiralty.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  Gov 
ernor  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  in  1856  of  the  island 
of  Ceylon.  Died  in  1860. 

Ward,  (TAMES,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  London 
in  1770,  executed  a  number  of  admirable  works  in  the 
style  of  Morland.  Among  the  best  of  these  may  be 
named  his  "  Horse  and  Serpent,"  "  Bulls  Fighting 
across  a  Tree,"  and  a  "  Landscape  with  Cattle."  He 
was  appointed  painter  and  engraver  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1794,  and  in  1811  was  elected  Royal  Acade 
mician.  Died  in  1859. 

Ward,  (Captain  JAMES  HARMAN,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1806.  He 
published  several  professional  works,  and  "  Steam  for 
the  Million,"  (new  edition,  1860.)  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Potomac  flotilla  in  May,  1861,  and 
was  killed  in  a  fight  against  a  battery  at  Matthias  Point, 
Virginia,  in  June  of  that  year. 


teiiers  in  ueicnce  01  111*11  JJUCL  a     i-.^say  uu  -*j.cni.        »  n\_n      ¥  n^mm,  *n  j  M»  *»*  ^~« 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (33f°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WARD 


2232 


WARING 


Ward,  (JOHN,)  LL.D.,  an  English  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1679.  He  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Gresham  College  in  1720.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Maximus  Tyrius,  "  Lives  of  the  Professors 
of  Gresham  College,"  (1740,)  "Four  Essays  upon  the 
English  Language,"  (1758,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.  Died  in  1758. 

See  THOMAS  BIRCH,  "Life  of  John  Ward,"  1766. 

Ward,  (JOHN  WILLIAM.)     See  DUDLEY,  EARL  OF. 

Ward,  (NATHANIEL,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  was 
born  at  Haverhill  about  1570.  In  1634  he  visited  New 
England,  where  he  assisted  in  forming  a  settlement  at 
Haverhill.  After  his  return  to  England  he  published 
a  satirical  work  entitled  "  Mercurius  Antimecharius, 
or  the  Simple  Cobbler's  Hoy,"  etc.  Died  in  1653. 

Ward,  (ROBERT  PLUMEK,)  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  1765.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the  admiralty 
in  1807,  and  was  subsequently  a  member  of  Parliament. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations 
in  Europe  from  the  Time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
the  Age  of  Grotius,"  (1795,)  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Con 
duct  of  European  Wars,"  (1803,)  three  novels,  entitled 
"Tremaine,"  "  De  Vere,"  and  "  I)e  Clifford,"  and  other 
works  on  various  subjects.  Died  in  1846. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Political  and  Literary  Life  of  Robert  Plumer 
Ward,"  by  HON.  EDMUND  PHIPPS,  2  vols.,  1850. 

Ward,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Durham.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Taunton  in  1615, 
and  afterwards  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford. 
Died  in  1643. 

Ward,  (SETH,)  an  English  bishop  and  distinguished 
astronomer,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1617.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  became  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford.  He  was  also  chosen  president  of 
Trinity  College  ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  resign  this 
office  at  the  restoration.  Under  Charles  II.  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1662.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  An  Essay  on  the  Being 
and  Attributes  of  God,"  etc.,  (1652,)  a  treatise  on  the 
nature  of  comets,  entitled  "  Praelectio  de  Cometis,"  etc., 
(1653,)  and  "Astronomia  Geometria,"  (1656.)  Died 
in  1689. 

See  WALTER  POPE,  "Life  of  Seth  Ward,"  1698. 

Ward,  (THOMAS,)  a  Roman  Catholic  controversialist 
and  poet,  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  i6>2  ;  died  in 
1708. 

Ward,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  missionary,  born  at 
Derby  in  1769.  He  sailed  for  India  in  1799,  and,  having 
settled  at  Serampore,  printed  the  Bengalee  New  Testa 
ment  and  other  translations.  He  also  published  "An 
Account  of  the  Writings,  Religion,  and  Manners  of  the 
Hindoos,"  (1811,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1823. 

Ward'law,  (HENRY,)  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's,  and  founded  the 
university  in  that  place.  Died  in  1440. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wardlaw,  (RALPH,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Dalkeith  in  1779. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1803 
became  pastor  of  a  church  of  the  Scottish  Independents 
in  that  city.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  systematic 
theology  in  the  Academy  of  the  Independents  at  Glas 
gow  in  1811.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an  essay 
"On  the  Assurance  of  Faith,"  (1830,)  "Christian  Ethics, 
or  Moral  Philosophy  on  the  Principles  of  Divine  Reve 
lation,"  (1833,)-"  The  Divine  Dissuasive  to  the  Young 
against  the  Enticements  of  Sinners,"  and  a  "  Treatise 
on  Miracles,"  (1852.)  Died  in  1853. 

See  W.  L.  ALEXANDER,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Ralph  Wardlaw,  D.D.  ;"  AI.UBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup 
plement.) 

Ware,  (HENRY,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian  divine, 
born  at  Sherburne,  Massachusetts,  in  1764.  He  grad 
uated  at  Harvard,  where  he  became  in  1805  Hollis 
professor  of  divinity.  He  published  "Letters  to  Trini 
tarians  and  Calvinists,"  and  other  controversial  works. 


His  second  wife  was  a  daughter  of  James  Otis.  Died 
in  1845. 

Ware,  (HENRY,)  Jr.,  D.D.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1794.  He  became 
minister  of  the  Second  Unitarian  Church,  Boston,  in 
i8f7,  and  was  appointed  in  1829  professor  of  pulpit  elo 
quence  and  the  pastoral  care  in  the  theological  school, 
Cambridge.  He  was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  "Christian 
Disciple,"  since  become  the  "Christian  Examiner,"  and 
published  a  number  of  religious  essays  and  poems,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "To  the  Ursa  Major,"  has  been  greatly 
admired.  Died  in  1843. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Henry  Ware,  Jr.,"  by  his  brother  JOHN,  1846. 

Ware,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1594.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  auditor-general  of 
the  kingdom  in  1632,  and  afterwards  became  a  member 
of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  and  of  the  privy  council. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Ire 
land,  entitled  "  De  Prtesulibus  Hiberniae  Commentarius," 
and  of  other  treatises  on  history  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1666. 

'Ware,  (JAMES,)  an  English  surgeon  and  oculist,  born 
at  Portsmouth  about  1756,  became  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  at  Cambridge.  He  wrote  "  Remarks  on  Fistula 
Lachrymalis,"  (1798,)  and  "Chirurgical  Observations." 
Died  in  1815. 

Ware,  (JoiiN,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Henry  Ware,  (1794- 
1843,)  vvas  born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1795. 
He  was  appointed  in  1832  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  the  medical  department  of  Har 
vard  College.  He  has  published  treatises  "On  Croup," 
"On  Haemoptysis,"  and  other  medical  works. 

Ware,  (WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  American  author, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hingham,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1797.  He  was  successively  pastor  of 
a  church  in  New  York,  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts, 
and  at  West  Cambridge.  His  "  Letters  from  Palmyra," 
originally  published  in  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine," 
appeared  afterwards  under  the  title  of  "  Zenobia,"  (1836,) 
and  was  succeeded  in  1838  by  "Aurelian,"  otherwise 
called  "  Probus,"  a  continuation  of  the  same  subject. 
These  classical  romances  have  won  for  their  author  a 
high  reputation  both  in  America  and  Europe,  and  have 
been  translated  into  German.  Mr.  Ware  was  for  a  time 
editor  of  the  "Christian  Examiner."  He  also  published 
"Lectures  on  the  Works  and  Genius  of  Washington 
Allston,"  and  "Sketches  of  European  Capitals,"  (1851.) 
He  died  at  Cambridge  in  February,  1852. 

See  GRISWOI.D,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  DUVCKINCK, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Si'KAGUE,  "Annals  of 
the  American  Pulpit,"  vol.  viii.  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January, 
1838 ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1837. 

Wargeiitiii,  vak'gen-teen',  (PETER  WILHELM,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  astronomer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1717. 
He  was  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy 
of  Stockholm  in  1749;  and  he  subsequently  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  chevalier 
of  the  Polar  Star.  Died  in  1783. 

See  FRANZBN,  "  Minne  af  P.  W.  Wargentin,"  1847. 

War'ham,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  prelate  and  states 
man,  born  in  Hampshire.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
was  successively  created  by  Henry  VIII.  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  (1502,)  lord  chancellor,  (1503,)  Bishop  of 
London  the  same  year,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
(1504.)  He  was  obliged  to  resign  the  chancellorship  in 
1516  in  favour  of  Wolsey,  who  had  become  the  favourite 
of  the  king.  He  died  in  1532,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Warham  was 
a  patron  of  learning,  and  a  warm  friend  of  Erasmus,  who 
mentions  him  in  his  letters  with  high  commendation. 

See  W.  F.  HOOK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.,  new  series,  chap.  ii. 

Warin.     See  VARIN,  (JEAN.) 

Wa'ring,  (EDWARD,)  an  eminent  English  mathema 
tician,  born  near  Shrewsbury  in  1736.  He  studied  at 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  Lu- 
casian  professor  of  mathematics  in  1760.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1763.  He  published 
"  Analytical  Miscellanies  on  Algebraic  Equations," 
("  Miscellanea  analytica  de  /Equationibus  algebraicis," 
etc.,  1762,)  "  Properties  of  Algebraic  Curves,"  ("  Propri- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  d,  sair.e,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  nftt;  gdud;  moon; 


2233 


W4RREN 


etates  Algebraicarum  Curvarum,"  etc.,  1772,)  and  other 
valuable  works.  Died  in  1798. 

Warmholtz,  waKm'holts,  (CARL  GUSTAF,)  a  Swedish 
bibliographer,  born  in  1710.  lie  published  a  "  Swedish- 
Gothic  Historical  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  historica 
Sueco-Gothica,"  3  vols.,  1782.)  Died  in  1784. 

Wariiachaire,  vaVnt'shaV,  [Lat.  WARNACHA'RIUS,] 
became  mayor  of  the  palace  under  Thierry  II.  of  Bur 
gundy  about  612  A.D.  He  aided  Clotaire  II.  to  defeat 
Queen  Brunehaut,  and  acquired  great  power.  Died 
in  626. 

Warneford,  warn'ford,  (Rev.  SAMUEL  WILSON,)  an 
English  clergyman  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1758.  He  studied  at  University  College,  Oxford,  and 
in  1810  became  rector  of  Bourton-on-the-IIill,  in  Glou 
cestershire.  He  founded  a  hospital  at  Leamington,  and 
a  lunatic-asylum  near  Oxford,  both  called  by  his  name, 
and  made  munificent  donations  to  various  colleges  and 
charitable  institutions  in  the  kingdom.  Died  in  1855. 

War'ner,  (ANNA  B.,)  sister  of  Susan  Warner,  noticed 
below,  has  published  "  Dollars  and  Cents,  by  Amy 
Lothrop,"  (1853,)  "My  Brother's  Keeper,"  (1855,)  and, 
in  conjunction  with  her  sister,  "Say  and  Seal,"  (1860,) 
and  other  works. 

War'ner,  (FERDINANDO,)  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1703,  became  rector  of 
Barnes,  in  Surrey.  Among  his  numerous  publications 
we  may  name  "The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1756,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,"  (1758,)  and  "History  of  the  Rebellion  and  Civil 
War  in  Ireland,"  (1767.)  Died  about  1768. 

Warner,  (JoHN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1585,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Rochester. 
Died  in  1666. 

Warner,  (JoHN,)  D.D.,  son  of  Ferdinando,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1736.  He  became  rector  of  Stourton, 
in  Wiltshire,  and  wrote  a  political  work,  entitled  "  Me- 
tronariston."  Died  in  1800. 

Warner,  (JOSEPH,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished  surgeon, 
born  in  the  island  of  Antigua  in  1717,  was  a  pupil  of 
Samuel  Sharpe.  He  was  surgeon  to  Guy's  Hospital, 
London,  about  forty-four  years,  and  published  several 
professional  works.  Died  in  1801. 

Warner,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
1711,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Plantae  Woodford- 
ienses."  The  genus  Warneria  was  named  in  his  honour. 
He  died  in  1775,  leaving  his  library  to  Wadham  College, 
Oxford. 

Warner,  (Sus,\N,)  a  popular  American  writer,  born 
in  New  York  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
She  published  in  1850,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
EI.IZ.AHKTH  WETHERELL,  her  novel  of "  The  Wide,  Wide 
World,"  which  had  an  extraordinary  success.  It  was 
followed  in  1852  by  "  Queechy,"  which  likewise  enjoyed 
a  great  popularity.  Both  have  been  translated  into 
French.  She  has  also  written  "The  Hills  of  Shate- 
muck,"  (1856,)  "The  Duties  of  American  Women,"  and 
other  works. 

See  the  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1853. 

Warner,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Ox 
fordshire  about  1558.  He  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  ballads,  entitled  "Albion's  England,"  which  acquired 
great  popularity;  also  "Syrinx,  a  Seavenfold  Historic," 
consisting  of  prose  narratives.  Died  in  1609. 

Warnkonig  or  Warnkoenig,  waRn'ko'nic,  (LEO 
POLD  AUGUST,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Bruchsal  in 
1794,  became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Louvain, 
Ghent,  Freiburg,  and  Tubingen.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Jurisprudence  and  State  of  Flanders," 
(1834,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Warren,  wor'ten,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  engraver 
on  steel,  born  in  London  about  1762,  had  a  high  reputa 
tion.  Died  in  1823. 

Warren,  wSr'ren,  (GOUVERNEUR  K.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  New  York  about  1825,  graduated  at 
\Vest  Point  in  1850.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the 
Union  army  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  at  Malvern 
Hill,  July  i,  1862.  He  served  at  Antietam,  September 
17,  1862,  at  Chancellorsville,  May  3,  1863,  and  at  Gettys 
burg,  July  2  and  3.  He  commanded  the  fifth  corps  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilder- 


ness,  May  5  and  6,  1864,  at  Spottsylvania  Court-House, 
May  8-12,  and  at  Cold  Harbour,  June  3.  On  the  3ist 
of  March,  1865,  his  corps,  advancing  to  seize  the  White 
Oak  Road,  was  attacked  by  the  enemy,  whom  he  re 
pulsed.  He  then  reinforced  General  Sheridan,  under 
whom  he  served  at  the  battle  of  Five  Forks,  April  i. 
He  was  deprived  of  his  command  by  General  Sheridan 
about  the  close  of  this  battle. 

Warren,  QAMES,)  an  American  patriot  and  revo 
lutionist,  born  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1726, 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  that 
State,  and  a  zealous  defender  of  the  colonists.  Died 
in  1808. 

Warren,  (JoHN,)  M.D.,  brother  of  General  Joseph 
Warren,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1753. 
He  was  physician  to  the  military  hospitals  of  Boston  in 
the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  department  of  Har 
vard  College.  He  published  a  number  of  medical  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Warren,  (Sir  JOHN  BORLASK,)  G.C.B.,  an  English 
naval  commander,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1754.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Marlow  in  1774,  and  again 
in  1780.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with  France 
in  1793,  and,  as  commander  of  the  Canada,  in  1798,  cap 
tured  the  French  squadron,  consisting  of  a  ship  of  the 
line  and  three  frigates,  sent  for  the  invasion  of  Ireland. 
Soon  after  this  service  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Notting 
ham  in  1793,  being  re-elected  in  1802,  and  was  subse 
quently  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  "  A  View  of 
the  Naval  Force  of  Great  Britain,"  (1791.)  Died  in  1822. 

Warren,  (JOHN  COLLINS,)  M.D.,  a  son  of  John, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1778.  He  studied 
medicine  in  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Paris,  and,  after  his 
return,  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Harvard,  (1815.)  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,"  and  was  a  fre 
quent  contributor  to  the  leading  scientific  and  medical 
journals.  He  published  "  Surgical  Operations  on  Tu 
mours,"  a  treatise  on  "  Diseases  of  the  Heart,"  (1809,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1856. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  John  C.  Warren,"  by  his  brother  EDWARD, 
2  vols.,  1859. 

Warren,  (JOSEPH,)  a. distinguished  American  general 
i  and  patriot,  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1741, 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1759.  He  studied 
medicine,  which  he  began  to  practise  in  Boston  at  the 
age  of  twenty-three,  and  he  became  in  a  few  years  one 
of  the  most  eminent  physicians  of  that  city.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  political  affairs,  was  a  decided  asserter 
of  liberal  principles,  and  was  eminently  qualified  by 
his  superior  talents  and  ardent  temperament  to  be  a 
popular  leader  in  critical  times.  He  possessed  in  high 
perfection  the  gift  of  eloquence.  In  March,  1772,  he 
delivered  an  oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Boston 
Massacre.  According  to  Alexander  H.  Everett,  "the 
commanding  genius  of  Warren  carried  him  at  once  to 
the  helm,  and  rendered  him,  for  the  brief  period  of  his 
subsequent  life,  both  in  civil  and  military  affairs,  the 
most  prominent  man  in  New  England." 

In  1774  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Provincial 
Congress,  and  chairman  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  which  exercised  the  chief  executive  power  in 
Massachusetts.  Having  obtained  information  of  the 
British  expedition  against  Concord,  he  despatched  a 
messenger  on  the  night  of  April  18,  1775,  to  warn  his 
friends,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  success  gained  at 
Lexington  on  the  ensuing  day.  He  was  elected  a  major- 
general  by  Congress  on  the  I4th  of  June,  1775.  He 
opposed  the  plan  of  fortifying  the  heights  of  Charles- 
town  ;  but  the  majority  of  the  council  of  war  decided  to 
fortify  those  heights,  and  thus  brought  on  the  battle  of 
Bunker's  Hill  before  the  Americans  were  fully  prepared 
for  it.  While  both  the  armies  were  awaiting  the  signal 
for  action,  on  the  I7th  of  June,  General  Warren  joined 
the  ranks  as  a  volunteer,  and  declined  to  take  the  com 
mand  of  the  army,  which  was  offered  to  him  by  General 
Putnam.  He  was  about  to  retire  from  the  redoubt  after 
the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  had  been  exhausted, 


•;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WARREN 


2234 


WARWICK 


when  he  was  shot  in  the  forehead,  and  instantly  killed. 
He  left  two  sons,  who  both  died  young,  and  two  daughters. 
His  loss  was  deeply  and  universally  lamented.  "The 
name  of  Joseph  Warren,"  says  A.  II.  Everett,  "is  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  the  Revolution. 
His  memory  is  cherished  with  even  warmer  regard  than 
that  of  some  others,  who,  from  the  greater  length  ol  their 
career,  and  the  wider  sphere  in  which  they  acted,  may 
be  supposed  to  have  rendered  more  important  services 
to  the  country.  This  distinction  in  his  favour  is  owing, 
in  part,  to  the  chivalrous  beauty  of  his  character,  which 
naturally  excites  a  sympathetic  glow  in  every  feeling 
mind,  and  in  part  to  that  untimely  but  glorious  fate 
which  consecrated  him  as  the  first  distinguished  martyr 
in  the  cause  of  independence  and  liberty." 

See  "The  Life  of  Joseph  Warren,"  by  ALEXANDER  H.  EVKRETT, 
in  SPARKS'S  "American  Biography,"  vol.  x.  ;  "National  Portrait- 
Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Warren,  (MERCY,)  the  wife  of  James  Warren,  and 
sister  of  James  Otis,  was  born  at  Barnstable,  Massachu 
setts,  in  1728.  She  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  (3  vols.,  1805,)  which  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time,  tragedies  entitled  "The  Sack  of 
Rome"  and  "  The  Ladies  of  Castile,"  and  a  number  of 
poems.  Died  in  1814. 

See  GKISWOI.U,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Warren,  (Sir  PETKR,)  an  Irish  admiral,  born  in  1703. 
As  commander  of  a  squadron,  he  captured  Louisbourg 
from  the  French  in  1745,  and  in  1747  assisted  Anson 
in  defeating  a  French  squadron.  He  was  subsequently 
created  vice-admiral  of  the  red,  and  elected  to  Parlia 
ment  for  Westminster.  He  died  in  1752.  A  monument 
to  him,  by  Roubiliac,  was  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Warren,  (SAMUEL,)  a  popular  English  novelist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1807.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  but  subsequently  devoted  him 
self  to  the  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837. 
His  "  Passages  from  the  Diary  of  a  Late  Physician" 
(New  York,  1831)  came  out  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine," 
and  obtained  an  extensive  popularity ;  and  his  novel  of 
"Ten  Thousand  a  Year"  (1841)  appeared  soon  after  in 
the  same  journal.  Both  works  were  afterwards  published 
separately,  and  the  latter  has  been  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe.  Mr.  Warren  has  also 
written  "A  Popular  and  Practical  Introduction  to  Law 
Studies,"  etc.,  (1845,)  "  Now  and  Then,"  (1847,)  "  Moral, 
Social,  and  Professional  Duties  of  Attorneys  and  So 
licitors,"  (1848,)  and  other  valuable  legal  treatises.  He 
was  chosen  to  represent  Midhurst  in  Parliament  in  1856 
and  1857. 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Klackwood's  Maga 
zine"  for  February,  1848;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May, 
1848. 

Warrington,  w6r'ring-ton,  (LEWIS,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in  1782. 
He  fought  with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  com 
manded  the  Peacock,  which  captured  the  British  brig 
Epervier  in  April,  1814.  He  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography  in  1842.  He  had 
been  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1814.  Died  in  1851. 

Wartenberg,  von,  fon  waR'ten-bgRG',  (FRANZ  WIL- 
HELM,)  COUNT,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1593. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  and  Osnabriick,  and 
cardinal  in  1661.  He  died  the  same  year. 

Wartensleben,  waR'tens-la'ben,  (ALEXANDER  HER 
MANN,)  a  German  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1650. 
He  served  in  the  armies  of  Hesse,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 
with  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Died  in  1734. 

Wartensleben,  von,  fon  waR'tens-la'ben,  (WiL- 
HELM  LUDWIG  GASTON,)  an  Austrian  general,  born 
in  1728.  He  obtained  command  in  1796  of  a  corps 
d'armee  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and  was  defeated 
by  Jourdan  at  Friedberg,  from  which  he  retreated  to 
Wtirzburg.  Having  effected  a  junction  with  the  arch 
duke,  he  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the  French  near 
Wiirzburg,  in  September,  1796.  Died  soon  after  1797. 

War'ton,  (JOSEPH,)  D.D.,  an  English  critic  and 
scholar,  born  in  Surrey  in  1722.  He  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  his  degree  of  B.A., 
was  ordained  curate  of  Basingstoke.  He  published  in 
1746  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled  "Odes  on  Various 


Subjects,"  and  in  1753  an  edition  of  Virgil,  with  a  new 
poetical  version  of  the  "  Eclogues"  and  "  Georgics."  His 
"Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius  of  Pope"  appeared 
in  1782,  and,  although  not  favourably  received  at  the 
time,  is  now  generally  regarded  as  one  of  his  best  works. 
Warton  became  head-master  of  Winchester  School  in 
1766,  and  he  was  afterwards  successively  created  preb 
endary  of  Saint  Paul's  and  of  Winchester  Cathedral,  and 
rector  of  Clapham.  In  1797  he  published  an  edition  of 
Pope's  works,  with  notes,  (9  vols.  8vo.)  Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  Late  Rev.  Joseph  Warton, 
D.D.,"  by  the  REV.  JOHN  Woot.i,  ;  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets, 
from  Johiison  to  Kirke  White,"  by  GARY. 

Warton,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  critic  and 
poet,  born  at  Basingstoke  in  1728,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1751.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  poetry  in  1757,  and  subsequently  Camden 
professor  of  history,  at  Oxford.  His  "  History  of  Eng 
lish  Poetry,"  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  works 
of  the  kind,  came  out  in  1781,  in  3  vols.  Among  his 
other  productions  we  may  name  "The  Triumph  of 
Isis,"  a  poem,  written  in  reply  to  Mason's  "  Isis,"  "The 
Progress  of  Discontent,"  and  "The  Oxford  Sausage, 
or  Select  Pieces  written  by  the  Most  Celebrated  Wits  of 
the  University  of  Oxford,"  all  of  which  display  great 
powers  of  humour  and  satire.  His  "Observations  on 
the  Faerie  Queene  of  Spenser"  (1754)  was  also  received 
with  great  favour.  Warton  made  several  contributions 
to  Dr.  Johnson's  "  Idler,"  and  published  an  edition  of 
Milton's  minor  poems,  and  an  excellent  edition  of  The 
ocritus,  to  which  was  prefixed  a  Latin  dissertation  on 
the  bucolic  poetry  of  the  Greeks.  In  1785  he  succeeded 
Whitehead  as  poet-laureate.  Died  in  1790. 

See  R.  MA  NT,  "  Life  of  Warton,"  1802;  CAMPBELL,  "  Specimens 
of  the  British  Poets;"  GAKY,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1838  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  November,  1778,  et  seq. 

Warton,  (THOMAS,)  REV.,  an  English  scholar,  born 
in  1687,  was  the  father  of  Joseph  Warton,  noticed  above. 
He  was  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  Died  in  1745. 

Warwick,  wSr'rik,  EARI.S  OF.  This  title  was  given 
to  one  of  the  family  of  Newburgh  by  William  the  Con 
queror,  and  was  inherited  by  William  de  Beauchamp  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  earldom 
remained  in  the  family  of  Beauchamp  until  1449,  when 
Richard  \evil  became  Earl  of  Warwick.  (See  separate 
article,  given  below.)  The  title  became  extinct  about 
1500,  and  was  revived  in  favour  of  John  Dudley  in  1547. 
In  1618  it  was  obtained  by  Robert  Rich. 

Warwick,  EARL  OF.     See  DUDLEY,  (Jon.x.) 

Warwick,  (EDWARD,)  EARL  OF.  See  EDWARD 
PLANTAGENKT. 

Warwick,  (Guv,)  EARL  OF,  an  English  hero,  whose 
history  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century.  The  "  Romance  of 
Sir  Guy"  was  probably  written  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  was  printed  by  William  Cop 
land  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Warwick,  (HENRY  DE  BEAUCHAMP,)  EARL  and 
DUKE  OF,  was  created  by  Henry  VI.  Premier  Earl  of 
England,  Duke  of  Warwick,  and  King  of  the  Islands 
of  Wight,  Jersey,  and  Guernsey.  He  was  the  son  of 
Richard  de  Beauchamp,  noticed  below.  Died  in  1445. 

Warwick,  (Sir  PHILIP,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1608.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament  of  1640,  and  a  partisan  of  the  king  in  the 
civil  war.  He  officiated  as  clerk  to  the  signet  or  as 
secretary  to  Charles  I.,  and  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  his  Own 
Time,"  (1701,)  a  work  of  some  interest.  Died  in  1683. 

See  "  Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  GUIZOT,  London,  1864. 

Warwick,  (RICHARD  DE  BEAUCHAMP,)  EARL  OF,  an 
English  statesman  and  military  commander,  who  served 
in  France  under  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  during  whose 
absence  he  acted  as  regent  of  that  kingdom.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  was  appointed  governor  to  the 
young  prince,  afterwards  Henry  VI.  In  1437  he  be 
came  again  Regent  of  France,  where  he  died  in  1439. 

See  SHAKSPEARE,  "  Henry  VI.,"  Parts  II.  and  III. 

Warwick,  (RICHARD  NEVIL,)  EARL  OF,  (called 
"  Warwick  the  King-Maker,")  son  of  the  Earl  of  Salis- 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m^t;  not;  good;  moon; 


WARWICK 


2235 


WASHINGTON 


bury,  and  son-in-law  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Warwick,  no 
ticed  above,  was  born  about  1420.  By  his  marriage  with 
Anne,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  he  acquired 
the  immense  estates  of  that  family,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Warwick.  He  was  also  nephew  of  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  and  was  first-cousin  to  Edward  IV.,  be 
sides  being  allied  to  other  noble  families  of  the  kingdom. 
Having  joined  the  party  of  the  Duke  of  York  in  the  civil 
war  of  the  Roses,  in  1455,  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in 
gaining  the  victory  of  Saint  Alban's,  and  was  soon  after 
made  governor  of  Calais.  After  the  defeat  of  the  York 
ists  at  Ludiford,  Warwick  collected  a  large  army,  and 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  enemy  at  Northampton, 
(1460,)  and  took  King  Henry  prisoner.  He  defeated  the 
Lancastrians,  in  1461,  at  the  battle  of  Towton,  which 
secured  the  throne  to  Edward  IV.  He  was  liberally  re 
warded  for  his  services,  and  became  the  most  powerful 
subject  of  England.  Having  quarrelled  with  the  king, 
Warwick  passed  over  to  France,  (1470,)  formed  an 
alliance  with  Queen  Margaret,  and  returned  with  an 
army  to  England,  where  he  proclaimed  Henry  VI.  as 
king.  Edward  IV.  was  driven  out  of  the  kingdom,  and 
retired  to  Holland,  but  returned  in  March,  1471,  with  a 
body  of  troops,  and  defeated  the  enemy  at  Barnet  in 
April,  1471.  The  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  commanded 
the  Lancastrians,  was  killed  in  this  action.  He  had  two 
daughters, — Isabella,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  and  Anne,  who  was  married  first  to  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales,  (a  son  of  Henry  VI.,)  and  again  to 
Richard  HI. 


Warwick,  (ROBERT  RICH,)  EARL  OF,  was  a  de 
scendant  of  Lord-Chancellor  Rich.  He  became  Earl  of 
Warwick  in  1618.  In  the  civil  war  he  adhered  to  the 
Parliament,  by  which  he  was  appointed  admiral  of  the 
fleet  in  1642.  He  acquired  great  authority  and  credit 
with  the  popular  party,  and  supported  Cromwell  after 
he  became  Protector.  According  to  Clarendon,  "  he 
lived  in  entire  confidence  and  friendship  with.  Cromwell." 
("  History  of  the  Rebellion.")  Died  in  1658. 

Waser,  wa'zer,  (ANNA,)  a  Swiss  miniature-painter, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1679;  died  in  1713. 

"Waser,  (GASPAR,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist,  born  at  Zurich 
in  1565.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Zurich  in 
1596.  Died  in  1625. 

Washburn,  wosh'burn,  (CADWALADER  C.,)  an  Ameri 
can  general  and  lawyer,  born  at  Livermore,  Maine,  in 
1818.  He  removed  to  Wisconsin,  and  represented  a 
district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1855  to  1861. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  about  July,  1862.  In 
May  or  June,  1863,  he  moved  a  division  from  Memphis 
to  reinforce  General  Grant  at  Vicksburg. 

Washburn,  (ELIHU  B.,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1816.  He  studied 
law,  and  settled  at  Galena,  Illinois.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1852,  and  successively  re-elected 
seven  times, — voted  with  the  Republican  party,  and  be 
came  a  personal  friend  of  General  Grant.  He  served  as 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  commerce  for  many  years, 
and  distinguished  himself  as  an  advocate  of  economy 
and  retrenchment.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1869,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of  General 
Grant ;  but  he  resigned,  on  account  of  his  health,  about  a 
week  later,  and  was  nominated  minister  to  France.  He 
remained  in  Paris  during  the  siege  which  began  about 
September,  1870. 

Washburn,  (ISRAEL,)  an  American  Governor,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Livermore,  Maine, 
in  1813.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1851  to 
1860,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  Maine  in  the  latter 
year. 

Washington,  w6sh'ing-ton,  (BusiiROD,)  a  judge, 
born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1759,  was  a 
nephew  of  General  George  Washington,  and  a  son  of 
John  Augustine  Washington.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Virginia  Convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  in  1788,  and  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  September, 
1798.  By  the  will  of  his  illustrious  uncle  he  became 


the  possessor  of  the  estate  of  Mount  Vernon,  (1799.) 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  November,  1829,  leaving  a 
good  reputation. 

Washington,  (GEORGE,)  an  illustrious  American 
general,  statesman,  and  patriot,  the  first  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  on  the  Potomac  River,  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  on  the  22d  of  February, 
1 732.  He  was  a  son  of  Augustine  Washington,  a  planter, 
and  his  second  wife,  Mary  Ball.  His  great-grandfather, 
John  Washington,  emigrated  with  his  brother  Lawrence 
from  England  to  Virginia  about  1657.  Augustine  dying 
in  1743  left  a  large  estate  in  land  to  his  widow  and  his 
five  surviving  children.  The  subject  of  this  article  in 
herited  a  large  farm  on  the  Rappahannock  River,  (near 
Fredericksburg,)  on  which  farm  was  the  house  occupied 
by  Augustine  Washington  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
George  attended  several  schools  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
home,  but  was  never  sent  to  college,  and  never  studied 
the  ancient  languages.  His  manuscript  school-books 
are  still  extant,  and  are  models  of  neatness  and  accuracy. 
In  his  early  youth  he  was  distinguished  for  his  probity 
and  veracity.  Favoured  with  superior  physical  strength, 
he  excelled  in  athletic  exercises  and  in  horsemanship. 
His  moral  character  was  moulded  by  the  influence  of 
his  high-spirited  and  intelligent  mother. 

After  he  left  school  (1747)  he  passed  much  time  with 
his  elder  brother  Lawrence,  who  resided  at  Mount 
Vernon,  on  the  Potomac  River.  He  was  also  a  frequent 
guest  at  Greenway  Court,  the  seat  of  Thomas,  Lord 
Fairfax,  an  eccentric  nobleman,  who  owned  an  immense 
tract  of  land  in  that  part  of  Virginia.  Young  Washing 
ton  gained  the  favour  of  Lord  Fairfax  and  of  his  cousin 
Sir  William  Fairfax,  who  lived  at  Belvoir.  In  the  spring 
of  1748  he  was  employed  by  Lord  Fairfax  to  survey  a 
portion  of  his  land  which  was  situated  beyond  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  had  not  yet  been  settled  by  white  people. 
In  the  hardships  and  privations  of  this  enterprise  he 
passed  nearly  three  years,  during  which  he  was  accus 
tomed  to  sleep  in  the  open  air.  He  kept  a  journal  of 
these  surveying  expeditions,  as  well  as  of  the  subsequent 
events  of  his  life.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  ap 
pointed  adjutant-general  (with  the  rank  of  major)  of  one 
of  the  districts  into  which  Virginia  was  divided  when 
hostilities  between  the  English  and  French  became  im 
minent.  In  November,  1753,  he  was  sent  by  Governor 
Dinwiddie  on  a  mission  to  the  French  commander,  and 
performed  a  perilous  journey  of  five  hundred  miles  or 
more  through  the  wilderness.  The  prudence,  sagacity, 
resolution,  and  fortitude  which  he  manifested  in  this 
mission  pointed  him  out  as  one  fitted  for  more  impor 
tant  public  services.  "  It  is  an  expedition,"  says  Irving, 
"  that  may  be  considered  the  foundation  of  his  fortunes. 
From  that  moment  he  was  the  rising  hope  of  Virginia." 

Hostilities  between  the  Virginians  and  the  French 
began  in  the  spring  of  1754,  when,  as  lieutenant-colonel, 
Washington  led  a  small  force  to  the  frontier.  He  de 
feated  the  enemy  in  May  of  that  year,  at  the  Great 
Meadows.  In  a  letter  relating  to  this  action,  (which 
was  the  first  of  the  Seven  Years'  war,)  he  wrote,  "  I 
heard  the  bullets  whistle  ;  and,  believe  me,  there  is  some 
thing  charming  in  the  sound."  About  this  time  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  served  as  aide-de 
camp  to  General  Braddock  in  his  disastrous  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne.  This  imprudent  general,  de 
spising  both  the  Indians  and  the  Virginia  militia,  and 
obstinately  adhering  to  the  tactics  of  regular  war, 
rejected  the  advice  of  Washington,  and  was  defeated 
with  great  loss,  and  mortally  wounded,  by  the  French 
and  their  savage  allies,  who  attacked  him  in  the  forest 
about  seven  miles  from  Fort  Duquesne,  July  9,. 1755. 
In  this  battle  four  bullets  passed  through  the  coat  of 
Colonel  Washington,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
courage  and  presence  of  mind  amidst  the  general  panic 
and  total  rout  of  the  English  army. 

In  a  letter  written  soon  after  this  battle,  Colonel  Wash 
ington  said,  "We  have  been  most  scandalously  beaten 
by  a  trifling  body  of  men.  .  .  .  The  dastardly  behaviour 
of  those  they  called  regulars  exposed  all  others  to  almost 
certain  death,  and  at  last  they  ran  as  sheep  pursued  by 
dogs."  In  the  summer  of  1755  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  forces  (about  two  thousand  men) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;*^  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WASHINGTON 


2236 


WASHINGTON 


tn 


which  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  ordered  to  be  raised 
for  the  defence  of  the  province.  He  commanded  a  part 
of  the  army  which,  under  General  Forbes,  took  Fort 
Duquesne  in  November,  1758.  In  January,  1759,  he 
married  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Dandridge,  and  whose  first  husband  was  John  Parke 
Custis.  He  now  resigned  his  commission,  retired  from 
the  service,  and  settled  at  Mount  Vernon  as  a  planter. 
In  1758  he  had  been  elected  to  the  House  of  Burgesses, 
the  Speaker  of  which,  on  the  first  appearance  of  Wash 
ington  in  that  body,  tendered  to  him  a  compliment  for 
his  military  services.  "Washington  rose  to  reply," 
says  Irving,  "blushed,  stammered,  trembled,  and  could 
not  utter  a  word."  "  Sit  clown,  Mr.  Washington,"  said 
the  Speaker:  "your  modesty  equals  your  valour,  and 
that  surpasses  the  power  of  any  language  I  possess." 

By  his  marriage  he  added  about  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars  to  his  fortune,  which  was  before  considerable. 
He  was  partial  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  and  carried 
into  his  rural  affairs  the  same  methodical  habits  and  dili 
gent  attention  which  distinguished  him  in  military  opera 
tions.  He  kept  his  own  accounts,  posted  his  books  and 
balanced  them  with  mercantile  exactness.  By  the  pur 
chase  of  adjacent  plantations  he  enlarged  the  Mount 
Vernon  estate  until  it  amounted  finally  to  eight  thousand 
acres.  He  continued  for  many  years  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  but  never  took  a  prominent  part 

in  the  debates  of  that  or  any  other  public  assembly.     He  j  Germantown,  about  six   miles   from   Philadelphia -'but 
was  a    delegate    to  the  convention  which  met  at   Wii-    they  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of  about  800  killed'  and 


through  New  Jersey  to  the  west  side  of  the  Delaware 
River.  During  this  retreat  his  army  was  reduced  to 
4000  men  or  less,  and  the  cause  for  which  he  fought 
seemed  almost  desperate ;  but  General  Howe  was  too 
indolent  or  incapable  to  follow  up  his  successes  with 
vigour.  General  Washington,  having  been  reinforced, 
crossed  the  Delaware  in  open  boats  on  the  night  of 
December  25,  1776,  attacked  a  British  force  at  Trenton, 
and  captured  nearly  1000  prisoners,  (Hessian  merce 
naries.)  On  the  3d  of  January,  1777,  he  gained  another 
victory  at  Princeton,  where  he  took  about  300  prisoners. 
Soon  after  these  successes,  which  greatly  revived  the 
spirits  of  the  Americans,  General  Washington  was  ' 
vested  with  almost  dictatorial  powers  by  Congress, 
the  summer  of  1777  a  British  army,  under  General  Bur 
goyne,  moved  from  Canada  towards  Albany,  and  another 
army,  of  about  16,000  men,  under  General  Howe,  sailed 
up  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  take  Philadelphia.  To  defend 
this  city,  then  the  seat  of  government,  General  Wash 
ington  interposed  his  army  of  about  11,000  men,  and 
encountered  the  enemy  on  the  Brandywine  on  the  nth 
of  September.  Overpowered  by  superior  numbers,  the 
Americans  retreated,  having  lost  about  900  killed  and 
wounded.  Among  the  wounded  of  this  day  was  the 
Marquis  de  La  Fayette.  A  few  days  after  this  battle 
the  British  army  occupied  Philadelphia.  On  the  4th  of 
October  the  Americans  attacked  the  British  army  at 


liamsburg  on  the  1st  of  August,  1773,  and,  asserting  the 
right  of  the  colonies  to  self-government,  resolved  that 
taxation  and  representation  were  inseparable.  This 
convention  chose  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and  five 
others,  to  represent  Virginia  in  the  General  Congress 
which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  September,  1774.  Patrick 
Henry  being  asked,  after  the  end  of  the  first  session, 
whom  he  considered  the  greatest  man  in  Congress, 
replied,  "  If  you  speak  of  solid  information  and  sound 
judgment,  Colonel  Washington  is  unquestionably  the 
greatest  man  on  that  floor." 

Hitherto,  Washington  and  the  other  leading  patriots 
had  not  aimed  at  independence  or  separation  from  the 
mother-country  ;  but  the  battle  or  massacre  of  Lexington, 
April  19,  1775,  became  the  signal  of  a  general  deter 
mination  to  resist  by  arms  the  tyranny  of  the  British 
government. 

On  the  I5th  of  June,  1775,  he  was  unanimously  elected 
by  the  Continental  Congress  commander-in-chief  of  all 
the  forces.  Before  he  could  take  command  of  the  army, 
occurred  the  important  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17, 
1775,  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  British  remained 
masters  of  the  field,  but  lost  about  1050  men,  while  the 
Americans  lost  only  449  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 
On  the  2cl  of  July,  General  Washington  assumed  com 
mand  of  the  army  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  amount 
ing  to  about  15,000  men,  and  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Boston,  which  was  occupied  by  11,000  British  veterans. 
General  Washington  applied  himself  to  the  organization 
of  his  troops,  whom  he  found  undisciplined  and  nearly 
destitute  of  powder  and  other  materials  of  war.  The 
difficulty  of  his  situation  was  increased  by  the  fact  that 
the  Continental  Congress  was  very  deficient  in  all  the 
attributes  of  an  efficient  government,  and  was  almost 
destitute  of  money  and  credit.  While  the  main  army 
was  besieging  Boston,  Generals  Montgomery  and  Arnold, 
about  the  end  of  1775,  invaded  Canada,  and  attacked 
Quebec,  but  were  not  successful.  On  the  I7th  or  i8th 
of  March,  1776,  the  British  army  evacuated  Boston,  and 
escaped  on  their  fleet,  which  sailed  thence  to  Halifax. 
Congress  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  commander-in- 
chief  for  his  services  and  success  in  this  siege.  General 
Washington  moved  his  army  from  Boston  to  New  York, 
where  he  arrived  in  April,  and  awaited  the  approach  of 
the  enemy,  who  were  moving  by  the  sea  towards  that 
objective  point.  In  the  mean  time  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  was  signed  by  Congress,  July  4,  1776. 

The  opposing  forces  next  met  at  the  battle  of  Long 
Island,  where  the  Americans  were  defeated  by  General 
Howe,  August  27,  and  lost  nearly  2000  men.  In  conse 
quence  of  this  victory,  the  British  took  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  General  Washington  was  compelled  to  retreat 


wounded.  In  the  mean  time  General  Burgoyne  and 
General  Gates  had  fought  an  indecisive  battle  at  Still- 
water,  New  York,  September  19,  and  General  Stark  had 
gained  a  victory  at  Bennington.  On  the  7th  of  October, 
'777.  General  Gates,  at  the  second  battle  of  Still  water, 
defeated  General  Burgoyne,  who,  on  the  171)1  of  that 
month,  surrendered  his  army  of  about  6000  men,  at 
Saratoga.  This  victory  was  one  of  the  most  important 
events  of  the  war,  as  it  not  only  inspired  the  people 
with  confidence,  but  induced  the  French  government  to 
become  the  ally  of  the  United  States  in  the  war  against 
Great  Britain. 

In  December,  1777,  General  Washington  went  into 
winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  on  the  Schuylkill  River, 
where  his  men  suffered  great  hardships  and  distress 
for  want  of  clothing,  etc.  General  Henry  Clinton,  who 
had  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  place 
of  General  Howe,  evacuated  Philadelphia  in  Tune,  and 
moved  his  army  through  New  Jersey  towards  New  York. 
General  Washington  pursued  and  attacked  him  on  the 
28th  of  June,  1778,  at  Monmouth  Court-House.  After  an 
indecisive  battle,  in  which  the  Americans  lost  69  killed 
and  about  160  wounded,  General  Clinton  continued  his 
march  to  New  York.  Congress  expressed  their  satisfac 
tion  with  General  Washington's  conduct  in  this  action 
by  a  unanimous  vote  of  thanks.  Hitherto  the  opera 
tions  of  the  British  armies  had  been  directed  against 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States ;  but  in  1779  no  great 
battle  was  fought  in  this  portion  of  the  republic.  About 
the  end  of  1778,  General  Sir  Henry  Clinton  sent  to 
Georgia  a  body  of  troops,  who  captured  Savannah  in 
December  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  prov 
ince.  The  chief  command  of  the  Southern  American 
army  was  given  to  General  Lincoln,  who,  aided  by  the 
French  fleet,  attacked  Savannah  in  September,  1779, 
but  was  repulsed. 

The  army  of  General  Washington  passed  the  winter 
of  1779-80  near  Morristown,  New  Jersey.  Early  in 
1780  Sir  Henry  Clinton  transferred  his  main  army,  by 
sea,  from  New  York  to  South  Carolina,  and  besieged 
Charleston,  which  General  Lincoln  defended  for  several 
weeks,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  in  May.  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  leaving  Lord  Cornwallis  in  command 
in  the  Carolinas,  returned  to  New  York  in  June,  1780. 
In  the  same  month  Congress  appointed  General  Gates 
commander  of  the  Southern  department.  This  general 
was  signally  defeated  by  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Camden, 
August  16,  and  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  North  Caro 
lina.  During  the  year  1780  the  commander-in-chief  was 
obliged  to  remain  on  the  defensive,  in  consequence  of 
the  weakness  and  destitution  of  his  army.  The  exhaus 
tion  of  the  public  treasury,  and  the  depreciation  of  the 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long ;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WASHINGTON 


2237 


WASHINGTON 


currency,  were  such  that  he  found  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  food  or  clothing  for  his  soldiers.  In  July,  1780, 
a  French  fleet  arrived  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  with 
an  army  of  6000  men,  which  the  French  government 
had  sent  to  aid  the  Americans.  While  the  people  were 
anticipating  great  advantages  from  the  combined  efforts 
of  the  French  and  American  armies,  treason  was  in  the 
camp  and  plotting  the  ruin  of  the  cause  of  freedom. 
Benedict  Arnold,  who  commanded  the  important  fortress 
of  West  Point,  made  arrangements  to  betray  that  place 
into  the  power  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  In  consequence 
of  the  capture  of  Major  Andre,  in  September,  the  plot 
was  detected  and  frustrated.  (See  ANDR^,  JOHN.) 

[n  a  letter  addressed  by  General  Washington  to  Con 
gress  in  August,  1780,  he  urged  the  necessity  of  forming 
an  army  by  drafting  men  tor  three  years  or  during  the 
war,  and  added,  "  Had  we  formed  a  permanent  army  in 
the  beginning,  which,  by  the   continuance  of  the  same 
men  in  service,  had  been  capable  of  discipline,  we  never 
should  have  had  to  retreat  with  a  handful  of  men  across 
the  Delaware  in  1776,  trembling  for  the  fate  of  America, 
which  nothing  but   the   infatuation  of  the  enemy  could 
have  saved  ;  .  .  .  we  should   not  have  been  under  the 
necessity  of  fighting   at   Brandywine   with   an    unequal  , 
number  of  raw  troops,  and  afterwards  of  seeing  Phila-  • 
clelphia  fall  a  prey  to  a  victorious  army;  we  should  not  | 
have  been  at  Valley  Forge  with  less  than  half  the  force  j 
of  the  enemy, — destitute  of  everything. — in  a  situation  | 
neither  to  resist  nor  to  retire."     In   November,    1780,  j 
General  Gates  was  removed  from  the  command  of  the  I 
Southern  army  by  Congress,  which    requested   Wash-  I 
ington  to  appoint  a  general  in  his  place.     He  selected 
General    Greene,   whom    he    commended    to    Congress  | 
as  "an   officer  in  whose  abilities,  fortitude,  and  integ-  j 
rity   he  had    the   most    entire   confidence."     The   army  | 
of  which  Greene  took   command  at   Charlotte,   North 
Carolina,   did  not  much   exceed  2200  men,   more   than  ! 
half  of  whom   were    militia.     In    December,    1780,   the 
army  which  General  Washington  commanded  in  person 
retired    into  winter   quarters,   the  Pennsylvania    troops  ! 
being  stationed  at  Morristown,  and  another  part  of  the 
army  on  the  Hudson   River,  near  West  Point.     In  Jan 
uary,  1781,  a  thousand  or  more  of  the  Pennsylvanians 
mutinied,  and  marched  towards  Philadelphia  to  demand 
a    redress    of  their    grievances    from    Congress.      This 
mutiny  was  suppressed  by  mild  measures,  and  by  satis 
fying  the  claims — which  were  not  unreasonable — of  the 
mutineers.     The  Articles  of  Confederation  between  the 
States  were  ratified  in  February,  1781. 

The  principal  military  operations  of  1781  were  con 
fined  to  the  Southern  States.  On  the  lyth  of  January 
General  Morgan  gained  at  Cowpens,  South  Carolina,  a 
complete  victory  over  Colonel  Tarleton,  who  lost  about 
900  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The  whole  loss 
of  the  victors  was  not  more  than  80.  Compelled  to 
retire  before  superior  numbers,  General  Greene  made 
a  rapid  retreat  from  the  Catawba  to  the  Dan  River,  and 
was  closely  pursued  by  Lord  Cornwallis.  His  force 
having  been  increased  to  about  4^00  men,  General  j 
Greene  resolved  to  risk  a  battle,  and  met  the  enemy  ' 
on  the  1 5th  of  March  at  Guilford  Court-House,  North  , 
Carolina.  In  this  battle  the  British  gained  some  ad 
vantage,  but  their  loss  was  severe,  and  the  retiring 
Americans  were  not  pursued.  In  April,  1781,  Lord 
Cornwallis  began  to  march  to  Virginia,  and  General 
Greene  moved  his  force  into  South  Carolina.  On  the 
8th  of  September  General  Greene  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Eutaw  Springs,  and  took  500  prisoners.  In  the  spring 
of  1781  a  force  of  about  3000  men,  under  General  La 
Fayette,  was  sent  to  defend  Virginia.  He  conducted  a 
campaign  against  Lord  Cornwallis,  but  neither  of  these 
commanders  gained  any  decisive  advantage.  Lord 
Cornwallis  collected  his  troops  at  Yorktown,  Virginia, 
where  he  constructed  fortifications.  Early  in  September 
a  French  fleet  of  twenty-eight  ships,  commanded  by 
Count  De  Grasse,  arrived  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  about 
the  same  time  General  Washington  moved  the  combined 
American  and  French  armies  from  New  York  to  Vir 
ginia.  He  began  the  siege  of  Yorktown  on  the  28th  of 
September,  with  an  army  estimated  at  15,000  men,  and 
Lord  Cornwallis,  on  the  igth  of  October,  surrendered 


his  whole  army  of  7000  men.  This  victory  was  one  of 
the  most  important  events  of  the  war,  and  was  the  sub 
ject  of  enthusiastic  rejoicing  among  the  Americans. 

In  consequence  of  a  general  persuasion  that  peace 
was  at  hand,  there  was  no  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war  in  1782.  On  the  3d  of  September,  1783,  a  definitive 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  Paris,  by  which  the  British 
government  recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
States.  General  Washington  resigned  his  commission 
to  Congress,  December  23,  1783,  and  retired  to  private 
life,  follosved  by  the  enthusiastic  love  and  admiration  of 
his  countrymen.  He  passed  the  ensuing  years  at  Mount 
Vernon,  and  resumed  his  former  pursuits  of  agriculture, 
etc.  Mean  while, 'the  form  of  confederation  which  had 
been  adopted  by  the  States  in  1781  was  found  to  be 
more  and  more  inefficient  and  impotent.  In  a  letter  to 
James  Warren,  of  Massachusetts,  General  Washington 
wrote,  "The  Confederation  appears  to  me  to  be  little 
more  than  a  shadow  without  the  substance,  and  Con 
gress  a  nugatory  body.  .  .  .  From  the  high  ground  on 
which  we  stood,  we  are  descending  into  the  vale  of  con 
fusion  and  darkness."  To  rescue  the  nation  from  this 
state  of  anarchy  and  degradation,  a  National  Convention 
met  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787.  General  Washington 
was  unanimously  elected  president  of  this  Convention, 
which,  after  a  session  of  several  months,  adopted  a  new 
Constitution,  that  greatly  increased  the  power  of  the 
Federal  government.  He  was  elected,  without  opposi 
tion,  President  of  the  United  States  for  four  years  from 
the  4th  of  March,  1789.  Before  the  election  he  wrote 
to  Alexander  Hamilton,  "If  I  should  be  prevailed  upon 
to  accept  it,  [the  Presidency,]  the  acceptance  would  be 
attended  with  more  diffidence  and  reluctance  than  ever 
I  experienced  before  in  my  life."  He  was  inaugurated 
on  the  3Oth  of  April,  in  New  York,  and  delivered  in  the 
Senate-chamber  an  inaugural  address  to  both  Houses 
of  Congress.  In  this  address  he  affirmed  that  "  the 
preservation  of  the  sacred  fire  of  liberty  and  the  destiny 
of  the  republican  model  of  government  are  justly  con 
sidered  as  deeply,  perhaps  as  FINALLY,  staked  on  the 
experiment  intrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  American 
people.''  He  appointed  Thomas  Jefferson  secretary  of 
state,  Alexander  Hamilton  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
General  Henry  Knox  secretary  of  war,  and  Edmund 
Randolph  attorney-general.  Among  the  difficulties 
encountered  by  the  President  were  the  deplorable  con 
dition  of  the  finances  and  the  opposition  of  a  powerful 
party  which  disapproved  the  Federal  Constitution  and 
asserted  the  sovereignty  of  the  States.  In  January,  1790, 
Hamilton  presented  to  Congress  an  able  report  on  the 
public  credit  and  a  plan  for  the  support  of  the  same. 
The  results  of  this  financial  policy  were  the  speedy 
restoration  of  the  public  credit  and  the  revival  of  trade 
and  other  departments  of  industry.  The  people  became 
divided  into  two  great  parties,  called  Federalists  and 
Republicans,  (or  Democrats,)  the  latter  of  which  insisted 
on  State  rights  and  wished  to  reduce  the  power  of  the 
Federal  government.  Although  Washington  was  not 
formally  committed  to  either  party,  his  principles  and 
measures  were  such  as  necessarily  connected  him  with 
the  Federalists.  A  great  excitement  was  caused  by  the 
French  Revolution,  in  relation  to  which  the  Federalists 
and  Democrats  differed  widely.  The  latter  party,  of 
which  Jefferson  was  the  leader,  desired  that  the  United 
States  should  aid  the  French  in  the  war  against  Great 
Britain,  while  the  Federalists  advocated  the  policy  of 
strict  neutrality. 

In  1792  Washington  was  again  unanimously  elected 
President,  and  John  Adams,  a  Federalist,  was  re-elected 
Vice-President,  receiving  seventy-seven  electoral  votes, 
while  his  opponent,  George  Clinton,  a  Democrat,  re 
ceived  fifty  votes.  During  his  second  term  of  office 
the  President  resided  at  Philadelphia,  which  was  then 
the  seat  of  government.  In  April,  1793,  he  issued  a 
proclamation  of  neutrality,  (between  the  British  and  the 
French,)  which  gave  great  offence  to  the  Republicans. 
"The  proclamation,"  says  Irving,  "was  stigmatized  as  a 
royal  edict  and  a  daring  assumption  of  power." 

M.  Genet,  the  ambassador  of  the  French  republic, 
arrived  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  April,  and 
issued  commissions  for  privateers,  which  captured  seve- 


«  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WASHINGTON 


2238 


WASHINGTON 


ral  British  vessels.  The  official  communications  of 
Genet  became  so  offensive  and  insulting  to  the  Presi 
dent  that  the  American  minister  to  France  was  in 
structed  to  desire  his  recall.  Jefferson,  having  failed  in 
his  efforts  to  eject  his  rival  Hamilton  from  the  cabinet, 
resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  in  December, 
1793,  and  was  succeeded  by  Edmund  Randolph,  the 
former  attorney-general.  When  the  new  Congress  met, 
in  December,  1793,  it  was  found  that  the  opponents 
of  the  administration  had  a  majority  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  perplexity  of  the  President  was 
increased  by  the  fact  that  American  vessels  had  been 
captured  by  British  cruisers,  which  inflamed  the  popular 
heart  and  reinforced  the  party  which  opposed  neutrality. 
Resolving  to  prevent  a  war,  if  possible,  by  negotia 
tions,  the  President  sent  John  Jay  as  a  special  envoy  to 
England,  (April,  1794.)  "  Scarcely  has  any  public  act 
of  the  President,"  says  Marshall,  "drawn  upon  his  ad 
ministration  a  greater  degree  of  censure  than  this."  In 
January,  1794,  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  treasury  was 
resigned  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  "  who  had  wasted  in  the  public 
service  a  great  part  of  the  property  acquired  by  his 
previous  labours."  (Marshall.)  General  Knox  having 
also  resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  Timothy  Picker 
ing  was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  Oliver  Wolcott 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  Mr.  Jay  negotiated  a  treaty, 
which  was  signed  November  19,  1794,  and  presented  to 
the  United  States  Senate  for  ratification  in  June,  1795. 
This  treaty  was  vehemently  opposed  and  denounced  by 
the  Democrats  and  those  who  were  most  partial  to  the 
French  revolutionists;  but  it  was  finally  approved  by 
the  Senate,  and  signed  by  the  President,  August  18, 
1795.  After  the  question  had  been  decided,  the  voice 
of  faction  continued  to  assail  the  President.  "  His 
military  and  political  character,"  says  Marshall,  "was 
attacked  with  equal  violence,  and  it  was  averred  that 
he  was  totally  destitute  of  merit  either  as  a  soldier  or 
a  statesman." 

In  1795,  Timothy  Pickering  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state,  in  the  place  of  Edmund  Randolph,  who  had 
resigned.  In  March,  1796,  the  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  resolution  requesting  the  President  to  lay 
before  that  House  a  copy  of  the  instructions  given  to 
Mr.  Jay,  together  with  the  documents  relative  to  the 
treaty  with  Great  Britain.  He  declined  to  comply  with 
their  request,  affirming  that  it  would  establish  a  dan 
gerous  precedent  to  admit  the  right  of  the  House  to 
demand  the  papers  respecting  a  foreign  negotiation. 
When  La  Fayette  was  confined  in  the  dungeon  of 
Olmiitz,  General  Washington  wrote  a  private  letter  to 
the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  entreated  him  to  release 
that  captive. 

Although  the  people  generally  wished  to  elect  Gene 
ral  Washington  for  a  third  term,  he  announced  his 
determination  to  retire  from  public  life  at  the  end  of  his 
second  term.  He  also  issued  a  "  Farewell  Address  to 
the  People  of  the  United  States,"  which,  having  been 
revised  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  appeared  in  Septem 
ber,  1796,  and  produced  a  deep  impression.  In  this 
address  he  insisted  on  the  vast  importance  of  union  as 
"a  main  pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real  independence  ; 
the  support  of  your  tranquillity  at  home  ;  your  peace 
abroad  ;  of  your  safety  ;  of  your  prosperity  ;  of  that 
very  liberty  which  you  so  highly  prize.  But,  as  it  is 
easy  to  foresee  that  much  pains  will  be  taken,  many 
artifices  employed,  to  weaken  in  your  minds  the  convic 
tion  of  this  truth  ;  as  this  is  the  point  in  your  political 
fortress  against  which  the  batteries  of  internal  and  ex 
ternal  enemies  will  be  most  constantly  and  actively 
(though  often  covertly  and  insidiously)  directed,  it  is  of 
infinite  moment  that  you  should  properly  estimate  the 
immense  value  of  your  national  union  to  your  collect 
ive  and  individual  happiness."  He  also  advised  the 
people  to  have  as  little  political  connection  as  possible 
with  foreign  nations,  and  to  "steer  clear  of  permanent 
alliances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world." 

On  the  7th  of  December,  1796,  the  President  met  for 
the  last  time  the  Houses  of  Congress,  to  which  he  made 
a  dignified  address.  His  official  career  terminated  March 
4,  1797,  and  he  then  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  leaving 
the  nation  in  a  state  of  great  prosperity.  The  capture 


of  American  vessels  by  French  cruisers  led  to  hostilities 
between  the  United  States  and  France,  although  there 
was  no  formal  declaration  of  war.  In  this  emergency, 
the  government  of  the  United  States  raised  an  army  of 
about  10,000  men,  of  which  General  Washington  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  July,  1798.  He  accepted 
this  appointment  on  the  condition  that  Colonel  Hamil 
ton  should  be  the  second  in  command.  The  selection 
of  Hamilton  as  second  in  command  was  also  desired  by 
the  public,  but  was  not  in  accordance  with  the  will  of 
President  Adams,  who,  however,  finally  assented.  Be 
fore  the  question  of  war  or  peace  had  been  decided, 
Washington  died,  without  issue,  at  Mount  Vernon,  after 
a  short  illness,  on  the  141)1  of  December,  1799.  A  few 
hours  before  his  death,  he  said,  "  I  look  to  the  event  with 
perfect  resignation."  His  disease  was  acute  laryngitis. 

On  learning  the  death  of  Washington,  the  House  of 
Representatives  resolved,  "That  a  committee  be  ap 
pointed  to  consider  the  most  suitable  manner  of  paying 
honour  to  the  memory  of  the  MAN  first  in  war,  first  in 
peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."* 

General  Washington  had  inherited  a  number  of  slaves, 
whom  he  emancipated  by  his  last  will.  In  a  letter  to 
Mr.  Morris,  in  1786,  he  said,  "There  is  not  a  man  living 
who  wishes  more  sincerely  than  I  do,  to  see  a  plan 
adopted  for  the  abolition  of  slavery." 

In  stature  General  Washington  was  six  feet  and  two 
inches  high,  with  a  frame  well  proportioned  and  firmly 
knit.  His  hair  was  brown,  his  eyes  blue  and  far  apart. 
He  was  remarkable  from  boyhood  for  his  great  physical 
strength.  It  is  related  that  in  his  youth  he  threw  a 
stone  across  the  Rappahannock  opposite  his  father's 
house, — a  feat  which  has  never,  it  is  said,  been  performed 
by  any  one  since  that  time.  When  young,  he  was  ever 
foremost  among  his  companions  in  all  athletic  sports, 
and  was  especially  distinguished  as  a  skilful  and  fearless 
horseman.!  He  was  scrupulously  attentive  to  his  dress 
and  personal  appearance.  His  manner,  though  gentle 
and  gracious,  was  in  public  characterized  by  a  certain 
military  dignity  and  reserve,  lie  was  proverbial  for 
punctuality  as  well  as  for  truthfulness. 

In  the  whole  history  of  mankind,  few,  if  any,  great 
men  will  be  found  more  worthy  of  our  heartfelt  esteem 
and  admiration  than  Washington.  Without  any  of  the 
dazzling  gifts  of  genius,  without  perhaps  possessing 
talents  of  the  very  highest  order,  yet  his  various  powers 
were  so  admirably  proportioned  and  adjusted  to  each 
other,  so  under  the  control  of  lofty  moral  principle  and 
a  high  heroic  will,  which  neither  the  extremity  of  peril 
or  disaster,  the  fiercest  blasts  of  obloquy,  nor  the  seduc 
tions  of  ambition  had  power  to  shake,  that,  though  he 
may  have  been  surpassed  by  many  in  some  single  point, 
if  we  consider  his  character  as  a  whole,  we  shall  scarcely 
find  his  equal,  and  shall  search  in  vain  for  his  superior. 
One  result  of  the  admirable  equipoise  and  harmony  of 
his  powers  was  a  wisdom  of  the  rarest  order.  It  is  well 
known  that  wisdom  is  not  the  product  of  one  or  two 
faculties,  but  the  combined  result  of  many,  including 
the  moral  as  well  as  intellectual.  Napoleon,  with  all 
his  transcendent  genius,  was  in  wisdom  far  inferior  to 
Washington.  No  man  of  his  day  more  clearly  foresaw 
the  future  dangers  to  which  our  country  would  be  ex 
posed,  or  showed  more  distinctly  and  forcibly  how  they 
were  to  be  avoided,  than  Washington.  And  of  all  men 
that  ever  lived,  he  may  be  said  to  have  most  truly  and 
fully  merited  the  glorious  title  of  "  Pater  Patriae,"  the 
"  Father  of  his  Country." 

His  great  rival  Jefferson,  who  differed  from  him  widely 
on  questions  of  state  policy  and  other  points,  bears  the 
following  testimony  to  his  character:  "His  integrity 
was  the  most  pure,  his  justice  the  most  inflexible,  I  have 
ever  known, — no  motives  of  interest  or  consanguinity, 


*  The  original  form  of  this  celebrated  expression  was,  "  first  in 
rar,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  fellow-citizens."  In 
the  funeral  oration  pronounced  by  General  Lee,  the  word  "  country- 
nen"  was  substituted  for  "fellow-citizens,"  as  being  both  shorter 
and  more  euphonious ;  and  with  this  change  the  passage  is  commonly 
quoted. 

t  "His  person,"  says  Jefferson,  "was  fine,  his  stature  exactly 
what  one  would  wish,  his  deportment  easy,  erect,  and  noble ;  the 
)est  horseman  of  his  age,  and  the  most  graceful  figure  that  could  be 
seen,  on  horseback."  (Tucker's  "Life  of  Jefferson.") 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  v,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure;  far.  fall,  fat:  m§t:  not;  good:  moon; 


WASHINGTON 


2239 


WATH1EZ 


of  friendship  or  hatred,  being  able  to  bias  his  decision. 
He  was  indeed,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  a  wise, 
a  good,  and  a  great  man.  His  temper  was  naturally 
irritable  and  high-toned  ;  but  reflection  and  resolution 
had  obtained  a  firm  and  habitual  ascendency  over  it." 
(Tucker's  "  Life  of  Jefferson.") 

"  In  him,"  says  Marshall,  "  that  innate  and  unassuming 
modesty  which  adulation  would  have  offended,  which  the 
voluntary  plaudits  of  millions  could  not  betray  into  in 
discretion,  was  happily  blended  with  a  high  and  correct 
sense  of  personal  dignity,  and  with  a  just  consciousness 
of  that  respect  which  is  due  to  station." 

"How  grateful,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "the  relief 
which  the  friend  of  mankind,  the  lover  of  virtue,  experi 
ences,  when,  turning  from  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
character,  [Napoleon  I.,]  his  eye  rests  upon  the  greatest 
man  of  our  own  or  of  any  age  !  ...  It  will  be  the  duty 
of  the  historian  and  the  sage,  in  all  ages,  to  omit  no 
occasion  of  commemorating  this  illustrious  man  ;  and 
until  time  shall  be  no  more  will  a  test  of  the  progress 
which  our  race  has  made  in  wisdom  and  virtue  be  de 
rived  from  the  veneration  paid  to  the  immortal  name  of 
Washington."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1838.) 

See  JOHN'  MARSHALL,  "Life  of  George  Washington."  5  vo's., 
1804-07;  WASHINGTON  IRVING,  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  5 
vols.,  1855-59:  JARED  SPARKS,  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  George 
Washington:  being  his  Correspondence,  Messages."  etc.,*  12  vols. 
8vo,  1833-40;  J.  K.  PATLDING,  "  Life  of  G.  Washington,"  2  vols., 
1835  ;  F.  GUIZOT,  "  Essai  snr  la  Vie  du  General  Washington,"  1839  ; 
Louis  DE  FONTANES,  "  E°loge  de  Washington,"  i^oo ;  A.  BANCROFT, 
"Essay  on  the  Life  of  G.  Washington."  1807:  J  \MES  MADISON, 
"Discourse  on  the  Death  of  General  Washington."  i^'oo:  FISHER 
AMES,  "Oration  on  the  Sublime  Virtues  of  Washington."  iSoo; 
WKKMS,  "Life  of  G.  Washington."  i«o;:  D.  R  \MSAY,  "Life  of  G. 
Washington,"  1*07;  EDUARD  GEHE,  "  Leben  Washington's,"  '838: 
F.  GrizoT,  "Washington:  Fondation  de  la  R"nnbliqne  dts  E~tats- 
Unis,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1850;  J.  T.  HEADLEY.  'Washington  and  his 
Generals,"  2  vols.,  1847;  PBTER  PARLEY,  "  Life  of  Washington." 
1837  :  BANCROFT.  "  History  of  the  United  States  ;"  GOSCH,  "  Wash 
ington  mid  die  Befreinng  der  Nordatneri'r<ani*chen  Freistaaten,"  3 
vols.,  1815.  See,  also,  the  interesting  article  on  Washington  in  the 
"New  American  Cyclopaedia, "  (by  EDWARD  EVERETT.) 

Washington,  wosl/ing-ton,  (Captain  JOHN,)  R.N., 
an  English  officer  and  hydrographer.  He  served  in 
the  American  war  of  1812,  and  rose  through  several 
promotions  to  the  rank  of  commander  in  1833.  Being 
appointed  in  1841  to  continue  the  survey  of  the  North 
Sea,  he  examined  that  part  of  it  lying  between  lati 
tude  52°  10'  and  the  coast  of  the  Netherlands.  He  was 
made  post-captain  in  1842,  and  hydrographer  to  the 
admiralty  in  1855.  He  has  also  been  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  a  "Geo 
graphical  Notice  of  the  Empire  of  Marocco,"  and  other 
treatises,  in  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society." 

Washington,  (Jon\  A.,)  proprietor  of  Mount  Ver- 
ivm,  Virginia.     He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Captain  John 
Brown    near   Harper's    Ferry,    October    16,    1859.      He 
took   arms   against   the  Union,  became  a   colonel,  and  ! 
was  killed  on  Cheat  Mountain  in  September,  1861. 

Washington,  (WILLIAM  AUGUSTINE,)  an  American  j 
officer  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Stafford  county,  Vir 
ginia,  in  1752,  was  a  relative  of  General  Washington, 
lie  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton, 
commanded  the  cavalry  at  Cowpens,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  in  1798.  Died  in  1810. 

Wasmuth,  was'moot,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  German  Orien 
talist,  born  at  Kiel  in  1625.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Kiel,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  Arabic  Grammar,  (1654.)  Died  in  1688. 

Wasse,  w6ss,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Vorkshire  in  1672,  became  rector  of  Aynhoe.     He  pub 
lished   an  edition   of  Sallust,  (1710,)   and  wrote  several  | 
essays  on  various  subjects.     Bentley  is  reported  to  have  I 
said,  "When  I  am  dead,  Wasse  will  be  the  most  learned  : 
man  in  England."     Died  in  1738. 

Wassenaer,  van,  vtn  was'seh-nSR.',  (GERARD,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1585  ;  died  in  1664. 

Wassenaer,  van,  (TACOH,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  | 
about  1610.     He  succeeded  Van  Tromp  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  1653,  and  was   killed   in   a  battle  against 
the  English  in  1665. 

Wassenberg  or  Wassenbergh,  von,  fon  was'sen- 
G,  (EvERARD,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Emme 


rich  in  1610.  He  published  "  Florus  Germanicus," 
(1640,)  which  treats  of  the  wars  waged  by  Ferdinand  II. 
and  Ferdinand  III.  from  1627  to  1640.  Died  after  1672. 

See  CRANE,  "Vita  E.  van  Wassenbergh,"  1828. 

Wassian.     See  VASIAN. 

Wast  or  Waast,  wflst  or  vast,  [Lat.  VEDAS'TUS,] 
SAINT,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  who  became  Bishop  of 
Arras  about  500  A.n.  Died  in  540. 

See  AI.CUIN,  "  Vitn  Vedasti ;"  GAZET,  "Vie  de  Saint-Wast," 
1622. 

Wastelain,  vts'teh-laN',  ?  (CHARLES,)  a  Belgian  his 
torian  and  Jesuit,  born  in  Hainault  in  1695.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  Description  of  Belgian  Gaul  in  Three  Ages  of 
History,"  (1761.)  Died  in  1782. 

Wateau.     See  WATTEAU. 

Watelet,  vit'li',  (CLAUDE  HENRI,)  a  French  ama 
teur  artist  and  writer  upon  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1718.  He  was  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem,  entitled 
"The  Art  of  Painting,"  ("  L'Art  de  Peindre,"  1760,) 
"Essay  on  Gardens,"  (1774,)  and  "Dictionary  of  the 
Arts  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Engraving."  (5  vols., 
1792.)  The  last-named  work  was  completed  by  M. 
Levesque.  Watelet  etched  a  number  of  portraits  and 
other  pieces  of  great  excellence.  In  1760  he  was  ad 
mitted  into  the  French  Academy.  He  was  identified 
with  the  philosophic  party,  and  contributed  to  the  "En 
cyclopedic'1  of  Diderot.  Died  in  1786. 

See  MARMONTEL,  "  Memoires  ;"  MOREI.LET,  "Memoires." 

Watelet,  (Louis  ETIENNE,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He  painted  French, 
Italian,  and  Belgian  scenery.  He  gained  a  first  medal 
in  1819. 

Wa'ter-house,  (BENJAMIN,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1754, 
studied  at  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at 
Leyden.  After  his  return  he  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  physic  in  the  medical  school  of 
Harvard  College,  continuing  to  fill  this  post  for  thirty 
years.  Died  at  Cambridge  in  1846. 

Wa'ter-house,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1619.  He  published  "An  Apology  for  Learning  and 
Learned  Men,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1670. 

Wa'ter-laiid,  (DANIEL,)  D.D.,  an  English  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1683.  He  studied  at  Mag 
dalene  College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became 
one  of  the  chaplains-iii-ordinary  to  George  I.  He  was 
engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Clarke  and  other 
champions  of  the  Arian  party,  and  published  "  A  Vin 
dication  of  Christ's  Divinity,"  "Critical  History  of  the 
Athanasian  Creed,"  "  Scripture  Vindicated,"  etc.,  and 
other  works.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Middlesex  in 
1730.  Died  in  1740. 

See  BISHOP  VAN  MM.IJERT,  "Life  of  Waterland,"  prefixed  to  his 
works. 

Waterloo,  waw'ter-loo',  [Dutch  pron.  wa'ter-15',] 
(ANTONI,)  an  eminent  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver,  born  near  Utrecht  about  1618.  His  etchings 
are  numerous,  and  are  ranked  among  the  best  works 
of  the  kind.  Died  in  1662. 

See  CHARLES  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Wa'ter-ton,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  about  1782.  He  visited  South  America 
in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  and  published  in  1825 
"  Wanderings  in  South  America,  the  Northwest  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  Antilles."  He  also  wrote 
"  Essays  on  Natural  History."  Died  in  1865. 

See  "Charles  Waterton,  his  Home,  Habits."  etc.,  London,  1866: 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1826,  (bv  SYDNEY  SMITH  :) 
"London  Magazine"  for  March,  1826;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1857. 

Wathek-Billah,  Al,  il  wa'thek  bil'lah.  written  also 
Vathek  and  Wathik,  (Aboo  Jaafar  Haroon,  (or 
Harun,)  a'boo  ji'a-far  ha'roon',)  an  Abbasside  Caliph 
of  Bagdad,  was  born  in  811  A.n.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Motassem,  in  842,  and  endeavoured  to  maintain 
the  literary  splendour  which  had  distinguished  the  reigns 
of  his  predecessors;  but  he  is  censured  for  cruelty  and 
intolerance.  Died  in  847  A.n. 

See  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen." 

W?'.hiez,  vi'te-a',  (FRANCOIS  ISIDORE,)  VICOMTE,  a 
French  general,  bom  at  Versailles  in  1777.  He  served 


€  as  K:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  n  -s^l:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


W ATKINS 


2240 


WATT 


as  captain  at  Austerlitz  (1805)  and  Jena,  (1806.)  and 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1813.  Died  in  1855. 

Watkins,  wSt'kinz,  (CHARLES  FREDERICK,)  an  Eng 
lish  clergyman,  born  in  Wiltshire  about  1795.  He  pub 
lished  several  poems,  an  "  Introduction  to  Geology," 
and  other  works. 

Watkiiison,  w6t'kin-son,  (DAVID,)  born  in  Suffolk, 
England,  in  1778,  emigrated  to  America,  and  acquired  a 
large  fortune  by  merchandise  at  Hartford,  Connecticut. 
He  died  in  1857,  leaving  $40,000  to  found  a  juvenile 
asylum  and  farm  school  for  neglected  children,  $100,000 
for  a  library  in  connection  with  the  Historical  Society 
of  Connecticut,  and  other  munificent  bequests. 

Wats,  wots,  (GILBERT,)  an  English  translator,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1600,  became  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford.  He  translated  Davila's  "History  of 
the  Civil  Wars  of  France"  and  Lord  Bacon's  "  De 
Augmentis  Scientiarum."  Died  in  1657. 

Watson,  wSt'son,  (CAROLINE,)  a  skilful  English  en 
graver,  born  in  London  about  1760.  She  engraved 
many  portraits.  Died  about  1812. 

Watson,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1714.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the  Spaniards 
in  the  campaigns  of  1744  and  1747,  and  was  made  rear- 
admiral  of  the  blue  in  1748.  He  accompanied  Colonel 
Clive  to  India  in  1754,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
capture  of  Chandernagore,  in  1757.  Died  the  same  year. 

Watson,  wSt'son,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish  classical 
scholar,  born  in  1710.  He  produced  a  prose  transla 
tion  of  Horace.  Died  in  1756. 

Watson,  wfit'son,  (ELKANAH,)  a  merchant,  born  at 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1758.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Albany,  and  distinguished  himself  by  promoting 
various  public  works,  and  by  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of 
education.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  first  agricultural 
society  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He  wrote  memoirs 
entitled  "Men  and  Times  of  the  Revolution,"  (1856.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Watson,  (HENRY,)  COLONEL,  a  British  military 
engineer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1737.  He  accompanied  Lord  Clive  to  India,  and  gained 
distinction  as  chief  engineer  in  Bengal  and  Orissa.  He 
died  in  England  in  1786,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1780. 

Watsoii,  (HEWETT  C.,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1804.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
writer  on  botany,  etc.  Among  his  works  is  an  able 
treatise  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  plants,  en 
titled  "Cybele  Britannica,"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1847-55.) 

Watson,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  printer,  born  at  Aber 
deen  about  1675.  He  published  a  newspaper  in  Edin 
burgh,  a  "  History  of  the  Art  of  Printing,"  and  a  Bible, 
(1715,)  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  the  typography. 
Died  in  1722. 

Watson,  (JoHN,)  REV.,  an  English  historian,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1724,  became  rector  of  Stockport.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  Halifax,"  (1775.)  Died  in  1783. 

Watson,  (JoHN,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1807.  Having  emigrated 
to  America,  he  became  in  1833  one  of  the  physicians  of 
the  New  York  Dispensary,  lie  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  and  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  has  published  a  num 
ber  of  medical  works. 

Watson,  (JoHN  FANNING,)  an  American  antiquary 
and  historical  writer,  born  in  Burlington  county,  New 
Jersey,  in  1780.  He  published  "Annals  of  Philadelphia," 
(1830,)  "Historic  Tales  of  the  Olden  Times  in  New 
York,"  (1832,)  and  other  similar  works.  He  resided  for 
many  years  in  Philadelphia.  Died  in  1860. 

Watson,  (RICHARD,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1737. 
He  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  as  a  sizar  in 
1754,  and  in  1767  was  appointed  one  of  the  head  tutors. 
Having  taken  his  degree  of  M.A.,  he  was  chosen  in  1764 
to  succeed  Dr.  Hadley  as  professor  of  chemistry,  and 
in  1771  became  regius  professor  of  theology.  He  rose 
through  various  minor  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Llandaff  in  1782.  He  had  already  published  several 
works  of  a  political  nature,  one  of  which  was  entitled 
"The  Principles  of  the  Revolution  Vindicated."  His 
"Letter  to  Archbishop  Cornwallis  on  the  Church  Reve 


nues"  came  out  in  1783.  Among  his  other  writings 
may  be  named  his  "  Apology  for  Christianity,  in  a  Series 
of  Letters  addressed  to  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.,"  (1776,) 
"  An  Apology  for  the  Bible,"  (1796,)  in  answer  to  Thomas 
Paine,  "Chemical  Essays,"  and  "Miscellaneous  Tracts 
on  Religious,  Political,  and  Agricultural  Subjects,"  (1815.) 
Died  in  1816. 

See  "Anecdotes  of  the  Life  of  Richard  Watson,  Bishop  of 
Llandaff."  by  himself:  AI.I.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Edin 
burgh  Review"  tor  June,  1818  ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
October,  1817  ;  "Monthly  Review"  lor  February  and  March,  iSiS. 

Watson,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Barton-upon-Humber  in  1781,  was  appointed  in 
1817  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Missionary  Society. 
He  published  "  A  Defence  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missions  in  the  West  Indies,"  "Theological  Institutes," 
etc.,  "  Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Life  of  Richard  Watson,"  by  T.  JACKSON. 

"Watson,  (RoHERT,)  a  Scottish  historian,  born  at 
Saint  Andrew's  in  1730.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh,  and  became  in  1777  principal  of  the  united 
colleges  of  Saint  Leonard  and  Saint  Salvador  at  Saint 
Andrew's.  He  published  the  same  year  a  good  "  His 
tory  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  which  enjoyed  considerable 
popularity  for  a  time;  but  it  has  been  eclipsed  by  the 
more  elaborate  works  of  Motley  and  Prescott.  He  died 
in  1780,  leaving  an  unfinished  "History  of  Philip  III." 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  :" 
AI.I.IBONK,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  April, 
'777- 

Watson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  nonconformist  min 
ister,  became  rector  of  Saint  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  Lon 
don,  in  1646.  He  was  ejected  about  1662,  after  which 
he  preached  occasionally.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Body  of  Divinity,"  (1692.)  Died  about  1690. 

Watson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  bishop  and  Roman 
Catholic.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1557, 
but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  imprisoned. 
He  died  in  prison  in  1582. 

Watson,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  phy 
sician  and  botanist,  born  in  London  in  1715-  He  ob 
tained  the  Copley  medal  in  1745  for  his  discoveries  in 
electricity.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Trans 
actions."  Died  in  1787. 

Watson,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  Catholic  priest, 
who  formed  a  conspiracy  against  James  I.  in  the  early 
part  of  his  reign.  He  was  convicted  of  high  treason 
and  executed  in  1603. 

See  GARDINKR,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i. 
chap.  ii. 

"Watson,  (WILLIAM  R.,)  an  American  political  writer, 
born  in  Rhode  Island  in  1799.  He  was  an  active  Whig 
politician.  Died  at  Providence  in  1864. 

Watt,  wdt,  (GREGORY,)  a  British  geologist,  born  in 
1777,  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated  James  Watt.  He  be 
came  a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Boulton  &  Watt  in  1794, 
after  which  he  studied  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
Having  been  advised  by  a  physician  to  pass  the  winter 
in  the  west  of  England  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  repaired  in  1797  to  Penzance,  where  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Humphry  Davy.  He  wrote,  in  1804, 
"Observations  on  Basalt,  and  on  the  Transition  from 
the  Vitreous  to  the  Stony  Texture  which  occurs  in 
the  Gradual  Refrigeration  of  Melted  Basalt."  Died  in 
October,  1804. 

Watt,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  engineer,  philosopher,  and 
inventor  of  great  merit  and  celebrity,  was  born  at  Green- 
ock,  on  the  Clyde,  on  the  igth  of  January,  1736.  He 
was  a  son  of  James  Watt,  merchant,  builder,  and  ship- 
chandler.  His  mother's  name  was  Agnes  Mtiirhead  or 
Muirheid.  Being  a  child  of  delicate  constitution,  he  was 
educated  mostly  at  home.  His  favourite  studies  and 
pursuits  were  the  experimental  sciences  and  practical 
mechanics.  Having  adopted  the  trade  of  maker  of 
mathematical  instruments,  he  went  to  London  in  1755 
and  served  an  apprenticeship  of  one  year  with  John 
Morgan.  In  1756  he  returned  to  Scotland,  with  the 
intention  to  settle  at  Glasgow ;  but,  as  he  was  not  a  bur 
gess,  the  corporation  of  arts  and  trades  would  not  permit 
him  to  open  a  workshop  in  that  city.  The  professors  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow  then  offered  him  a  place  of 


a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  4,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


2241 


WATT 


business  within  their  precincts,  and  gave  him  the  title 
of  mathematical  instrument  maker  to  the  University. 
He  employed  his  evenings  in  the  profound  study  of 
various  sciences,  learned  most  of  the  modern  languages 
of  Europe,  and  formed  intimate  friendships  with  Robi- 
son,  Black,  and  other  professors  at  Glasgow.  In  1764 
he  married  his  cousin,  Miss  Miller,  and,  as  his  wife  was 
the  daughter  of  a  burgess,  he  was  then  permitted  to  open 
a  shop  in  Glasgow. 

About  1764  he  was  employed  to  repair  a  model  of 
Newcomen's  steam-engine  which  was  used  in  the  class 
room  of  the  university,  and  perceived  defects  in  it  which 
induced  him  to  make  experiments  on  the  application  of 
steam-power.  He  discovered  that  water,  when  converted 
into  steam,  is  expanded  to  eighteen  hundred  times  its 
bulk.  He  ascertained  that  in  the  "  atmospheric"  engine 
of  Xewcomen  there  was  a  great  waste  of  the  steam  which 
was  condensed  by  the  injection  of  cold  water  into  the 
cylinder,  and  that  to  prevent  this  waste  the  cylinder 
must  be  continually  kept  as  hot  as  the  steam  which  enters 
it.  In  1765  the  fortunate  idea  occurred  to  him  of  con 
densing  the  steam  in  a  separate  vessel,  which  should  be 
exhausted  of  air  and  always  kept  cool.  "This  capital 
improvement,"  says  Dr.  Black,  "  flashed  on  his  mind  at 
once,  and  filled  him  with  rapture."  ("  History  of  Mr. 
Watt's  Improvement  of  the  Steam-Engine.")  Another 
improvement  which  he  invented  about  this  time  was  the 
use  of  the  expansive  force  of  steam  to  depress  the  piston, 
instead  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

He  ceased  to  make  mathematical  instruments  in  1768, 
after  which  he  pursued  the  business  of  land-surveyor  and 
civil  engineer.  He  obtained  a  patent  for  his  invention  in 
January,  1769,  and  was  supplied  with  some  capital  requi 
site  to  reduce  his  improvements  to  practice,  by  Dr.  John 
Roebuck,  who  had  a  share  in  the  patent.  Before  Watt 
could  realize  any  profit  from  his  new  engine,  Dr.  Roe 
buck  became  insolvent,  or  so  embarrassed  that  he  could 
not  advance  any  more  funds.  In  a  letter  dated  August, 
1772,  Watt  writes,  "I  pursued  my  experiments  till  I 
found  that  the  expense  and  loss  of  time  lying  wholly 
upon  me,  through  the  distress  of  Dr.  Roebuck's  situa 
tion,  turned  out  to  be  a  greater  burthen  than  I  could 
support,  and  I  was  obliged  for  a  time  to  abandon  my 
project.  Notwithstanding  my  natural  despondence,  I  am 
convinced  that  the  machine  may  be  made  to  answer  in  a 
very  considerable  degree,  and  in  more  forms  than  one, 
but  that  I  am  by  no  means  the  proper  person  to  carry  it 
into  execution." 

Watt  was  employed  as  surveyor  or  engineer  in  the 
construction  of  several  canals,  bridges,  and  other  works 
in  Scotland  during  the  period  from  1769  to  1773.  Roe 
buck,  who  had  advanced  £1000  to  the  inventor,  trans 
ferred  in  1774  his  share  in  the  patent  (i.e.  two-thirds)  to 
Matthew  Boulton,  of  Soho,  an  enterprising  man  of  busi 
ness,  who  entered  into  partnership  with  Watt  for  the 
manufacture  of  steam-engines  at  Soho,  near  Birmingham. 
Boulton  and  Watt  applied  to  Parliament  for  an  ex 
tension  of  the  term  of  their  patent,  and  obtained  the 
exclusive  right  to  make  and  vend  the  new  engine  for  a 
term  of  twenty-five  years,  (1775-1800.)  A  great  saving 
of  fuel  was  effected  by  the  improvements  of  Watt,  whose 
engines  were  soon  extensively  used  to  pump  water  out 
of  the  mines  of  Cornwall.  In  1782  he  took  out  a  patent 
for  the  invention  of  the  double-acting  engine,  in  which 
the  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  was  converted  into 
rotatory  motion. 

He  afterwards  invented  several  improvements,  among 
which  are  the  governor  or  "regulator  by  centrifugal 
force,"  the  mechanism  of  parallel  motion,  the  throttle- 
valve,  and  the  steam  barometer  or  float.  The  manufac 
tory  of  engines  at  Soho  was  successful,  and  enriched 
both  of  the  partners. 

In  1783  Watt  made  an  important  chemical  discovery, 
— the  composition  of  water  ;  but  the  honour  of  this  dis 
covery  is  claimed  for  Cavendish  by  some  writers.  To 
the  substances  which  unite  to  form  water,  Watt  applied 
the  terms  "phlogiston"  and  "  dephlogisticated  air."  Dr. 
Dalton,  in  his  "New  System  of  Chemical  Philosophy," 
(1810,)  says,  "The  composition  and  decomposition  of 
water  were  ascertained,  the  former  by  Watt  and  Caven 
dish,  and  the  latter  by  Lavoisier  and  Meusnier."  An 


other  eminent  chemist,  Dr.  Henry,  wrote  to  James 
Watt,  Junior,  "There  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  your 
father's  priority."  The  honour  of  this  discovery  was 
also  ascribed  to  Watt  by  Sir  D.  Brewster,  Lord  Je'ffrey, 
and  M.  Dumas.  (See  a  review  of  this  controversy  in 
an  article  entitled  "  Watt  or  Cavendish,"  by  Lord  Jeffrey, 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848.)  Watt 
was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in 
1785.  He  remained  in  partnership  with  Boulton  until 
1800,  and  then  resigned  his  business  to  his  two  sons.  In 
1814  he  was  elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates 
of  the  French  Institute.  Having  lost  his  first  wife  in 
1773,  he  married  a  Miss  MacGregor  a  few  years  later. 
He  died  at  Heathfield,  near  Birmingham,  in  August, 
1819.  In  the  same  year  Lord  Jeffrey  composed  a  eulogy 
on  Watt,  from  which  we  quote  as  follows:  "By  his 
admirable  contrivances,  it  [the  steam-engine]  has  become 
a  thing  stupendous  alike  for  its  force  and  its  flexibility, 
for  the  prodigious  power  which  it  can  exert,  and  the 
ease  and  precision  and  ductility  with  which  it  can  be 
varied,  distributed,  and  applied.  The  trunk  of  an 
elephant,  that  can  pick  up  a  pin  or  rend  an  oak,  is  as 
nothing  to  it.  It  can  draw  out,  without  breaking,  a 
thread  as  fine  as  gossamer,  and  lift  a  ship  of  war  like  a 
bauble  in  the  air.  .  .  .  He  had  infinite  quickness  of 
apprehension,  a  prodigious  memory,  and  a  certain  recti 
fying  and  methodizing  power  of  understanding,  which 
extracted  something  precious  out  of  all  that  was  pre 
sented  to  it.  His  stores  of  miscellaneous  knowledge 
were  immense,  and  yet  less  astonishing  than  the  com 
mand  he  had  at  all  times  over  them."  "I  look  upon 
him,"  says  the  poet  Wordsworth,  "considering  both  the 
magnitude  and  the  universality  of  his  genius,  as  per 
haps  the  most  extraordinary  man  that  this  country  ever 
produced."* 

See  J.  P.  MI-IRHEAD,  "Life  of  James  Watt,"  1858,  and  "The 
Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Mechanical  Inventions  of  J.  Watt,  illus 
trated  by  his  Correspondence,"  3  vols.,  1854;  F.  ARAGO,  "Vie  de 
Watt,"  1838;  CHAMBERS,  "  Rio.graphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen  :"  SAMI'F.I,  SMH.ES,  "  Brief  Biographies  ;"  LORD  JF.FFRF.V, 
article  on  Watt  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1819;  DR.  HOKFF.R, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  ;"  J.  FORBF,S,  "Dis 
sertation"  in  the  8th  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;" 

[  "London   Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1858;   "North  British 

I  Review"  for  February,  1847,  and  May,  1855. 

Watt,  (JAMES,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
i  born  in  February,  1769.  He  studied  natural  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  mineralogy,  and  learned  to  speak  the 
French  language  fluently.  About  1790  he  went  to 
Paris,  became  inflamed  with  enthusiasm  for  liberty  and 
equality,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolution.  "  He 
was  for  some  time,"  says  Muirhead,  "in  company  with 
Thomas  Cooper  and  Wordsworth  the  poet,  in  the  habit 
of  associating  with  many  of  those  men  who  afterwards 
attained  a  dreadful  celebrity,  and,  as  Southey  has  men 
tioned,  was  at  that  time  the  means  of  preventing  a  duel 
between  Danton  and  Robespierre."  ("Life  of  James 
Watt.")  Robespierre  having  in  1792  insinuated  that 
Watt  was  an  emissary  of  Pitt,  Watt  sprang  on  the 
tribune  of  the  Jacobin  Club  and  defended  himself  in  a 
brief  and  impassioned  speech,  after  which  he  instantly 
quitted  Paris.  In  1800  he  became  a  partner  of  Boulton 
the  younger  in  the  manufacture  of  engines  at  Soho.  Tie 
rendered  some  services  to  the  cause  of  steam-navigation 
by  experiments  on  marine  engines.  In  1817  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Holland  in  the  steamboat  Caledonia,  which 
he  owned,  and  which  was  the  first  that  crossed  the 
Channel.  He  died,  unmarried,  at  Aston  Hall,  in  1848. 

"Watt,  (JAMES  HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1799,  was  a  pupil  of  Charles  Heath. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  High 
land  Drover's  Departure"  and  "  Horses  at  the  Fountain," 
after  Landseer,  and  "Christ  Blessing  Little  Children," 
after  Eastlake.  Died  in  1867. 

Watt,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  phvsician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Ayrshire  in  1774.  He  was  president  of 
the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Glasgow, 
and  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the 
History,  Nature,  and  Treatment  of  Chin-Cough."  He 
also  compiled  the  "Bibliotheca  Britannica,  or  a  General 


Quoted  in  Muirhead's  "  Life  of  Watt." 


VOISier   and   MeUSnier.         An-  *  Quoted  in  uimrneaa  s      i.ue  01   wan. 

€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R,  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WATTE  AV 


2242 


WE  ALE 


Index  to  British  and  Foreign  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1820.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Watteau  or  Wateau,  vt'to',  (ANTOINK,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1684.  He  studied  under 
Gillot  and  Audran,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  in  his 
peculiar  department  of  the  art.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  rural  festivals,  balls,  masquerades,  and  military 
encampments,  and  in  these  he  was  perhaps  unsurpassed. 
Horace  Walpole  observes,  "  Watteau's  shepherdesses 
— nay,  his  very  sheep — are  coquet ;  yet,  though  he  fell 
short  of  the  dignified  grace  of  the  Italians,  there  is  an 
easy  air  in  his  figures,  and  that  more  familiar  species  of 
the  graceful  which  we  call  genteel."  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  greater  part  have  been  engraved. 
They  were  greatly  admired  by  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia,  and  many  of  the  best  are  to  be  seen  at  Berlin. 
Died  in  1721. 

See  WAI.POI.E,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting;"  LI£ON  DUMONT,  "An- 
loine  Watteau,"  1866  ;  A.  DINAUX.  "  Notice  sur  A.  Watteaii,"  1834  ; 
CHARI.KS  KI.ANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographic 
Generale." 

Watteville,  de,  deli  vf  t'vel',  (  ADOLPHE  du  Grabe— 
dii  gi'Sb,)  BARON,  a  French  economist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1799.  He  wrote  several  works  on  charitable  institu 
tions,  etc. 

Wattier,  \-fte_-i',  (CHARLES  EMILE,  )  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Watts,  w6ts,  (ALARIC  ALEXANDER,)  an  English 
journalist  and  litterateur,  born  in  London  in  1799.  He 
edited  successively  the  "Leeds  Intelligencer,"  "Man 
chester  Courier,"  "The  Literary  Souvenir,"  and  "The 
United  Service  Gazette."  He  also  published  "  Lyrics 
of  the  Heart,  and  other  Poems,"  (1851.)  His  wife,  the 
sister  of  J.  H.  Wiffen,  has  published  "The  Juvenile 
Poetical  Library,"  and  contributed  the  leUer-press  to 
"  Hogarth's  Tableaux,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died 
in  1864. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1835. 

Watts,  (GEORGE  FREDERICK,)  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1820.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  his  "Orlando  pursuing  the  Fata  Mor 
gana,"  "  Alfred  inciting  the  Saxons  to  Maritime  Enter 
prise,"  and  "The  School  of  Legislation,"  a  fresco,  in 
Lincoln's  Inn. 

Watts,  (ISAAC,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and  sacred 
poet,  born  at  Southampton  in  1674.  He  was  educated 
at  an  Independent  academy  in  London,  where  he  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  theology,  Hebrew, 
logic,  and  Latin  poetry.  In  1696  he  became  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Sir  John  Hartopp,  at  Stoke  Newington,  and  in 
1702  succeeded  Dr.  Chauncy  as  pastor  of  the  Inde 
pendent  Church  in  Mark  Lane,  London.  Having  been 
attacked  with  a  severe  illness  in  1712,  he  was  compelled 
to  retire  for  a  time  from  his  office,  and,  on  the  invitation 
of  Sir  Thomas  Abney,  went  to  reside  in  his  family  at 
Theobalds,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.,  a  period 
of  nearly  forty  years.  He  died  in  1748,  and  a  monument 
was  erected  over  his  grave  by  his  devoted  friends  Sir 
John  Hartopp  and  Lady  Abney.  Among  his  principal 
works  we  may  name  "  Divine  Songs  attempted  in  Easy 
Language  for  the  Use  of  Children,"  (1720.)  "Logic,  or 
the  Right  Use  of  Reason  in  the  Inquiry  after  Truth," 
etc.,"  (1725,)  "The  Improvement  of  the  Mind,"  (1741,) 
"Three  Dissertations  relating  to  the  Christian  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,"  "The  Art  of  Reading  and  Writing 
English,"  and  "  Horae  Lyricae." 

See  ROBKRT  SOUTHEY,  "Memoir  of  Isaac  Watts;"  THOMAS 
GIBHONS,  "  Memoirs  of  Isaac  Watts  ;"  JOHNSON,  "  Lives  of  the  Eng 
lish  Poets,"  vol.  i. ;  DRAKE,  "Essays;"  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1851. 

Watts,  (THOMAS,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  London, 
was  employed  many  years  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
caused  one  hundred  thousand  volumes  of  American 
books  to  be  added  to  the  library.  He  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  printed  books  of  that  museum  in  1866. 
Died  in  1869. 

Wat  Tyler.     See  TYLER. 

Waugh,  waw,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  Scottish  minister  of 
the  United  Secession  Church,  born  in  Berwickshire  in 
1754.  He  settled  in  London  in  1782,  became  an  elo 


quent  and  popular  minister,  and  preached  in  that  city 
forty-four  years.  Died  in  1827. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wauters,  wow'ters,  ?  (CHARLES  AUGUSTIN,)  a  Bel 
gian  painter  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Boom  in 
1811.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea,"  and  "  Peter  the  Hermit  preaching  a  Crusade."  He 
became  a  resident  of  Brussels. 

Wawrzecki,  vav-zhets'kee,  (THOMAS,)  COUNT,  a 
Polish  general,  succeeded  Kosciusko  as  commander  of 
the  army  in  1794.  On  the  capture  of  Warsaw  by  Sti- 
warow,  November,  1794,  he  retired  to  Sandomir,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  liberated  in  1797.  Died 
in  1816. 

Way'laiid,  (FRANCIS,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  March,  1796.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Union  College  in  1813,  and  subsequently  studied 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  In  1826  he  was 
chosen  president  of  Brown  University  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Island.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Ele 
ments  of  Moral  Science,"  (1835,)  "Elements  of  Political 
Economy,"  (1837,)  "Limitations  of  Human  Responsi 
bility,"  (1840,)  a  correspondence  with  Dr.  Fuller  on  the 
subject  of  slavery,  entitled  "Christianity  and  Slavery," 
(1845,)  and  "Intellectual  Philosophy,"  (1854.)  Died  in 
1865.  "I  think,"  says  R.  W.  G'riswoid,  "that  his 
'Treatise  on  Human  Responsibility'  will  be  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  great  guiding  monuments  of  human 
thought  in  the  department  to  which  it  refers." 

See  GKISWOI.D,  "Prose  Writers  of  America."  p.  364;  AI.I.IBONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Memoirs  of  Francis  Wayland,"  by  his 
sons,  1867. 

Wayne,  (ANTHONY,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  January,  1745-  He 
followed  the  business  of  a  surveyor  in  his  youth,  formed 
a  friendship  with  Dr.  Franklin,  and  married  about  1767 
a  Miss  Penrose,  of  Philadelphia.  He  afterwards  lived 
on  a  farm  in  his  native  county,  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  in  1774,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  safety  in  1775.  In  this  year  he  raised 
and  disciplined  a  regiment,  and  entered  the  army  as  a 
colonel.  He  served  at  the  battle  of  Three  Rivers,  Canada, 
in  June,  1776,  soon  after  which  he  took  command  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general. 
About  May,  1777,  ne  j«med  the  army  of  Washington  in 
New  Jersey,  lie  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle 
of  Brandywine,  where  he  distinguished  himself,  Sep 
tember,  1777,  and  led  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of 
Germantown,  in  October  of  that  year.  His  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Monmouth  (June,  1778)  was  commended 
by  General  Washington.  His  most  brilliant  achieve 
ment  was  the  capture  of  the  strong  fortification  of  Stony 
Point,  on  the  Hudson  River,  which  he  surprised  and  took 
by  assault  on  the  night  of  July  15,  1779,  for  which  exploit 
Congress  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks.  He  was  wounded 
in  the  head  in  this  action.  He  served  at  the  battle  of 
Green  Springs,  Virginia,  in  July.  1780,  and  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  the  British  army  at  Yorktown,  October 
19,  1781.  After  this  event  he  commanded  in  Georgia, 
and  defeated  the  Indians.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  in  December,  1787.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  m.ijor-general,  and  was  appointed  in  1792  commander 
of  the  army  sent  against  the  Indians.  In  August,  1794, 
he  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Miamis  in  West- 
ern  Ohio.  Although  he  was  sometimes  called  "Mad 
Anthony,"  on  account  of  his  daring  and  impetuous 
valour,  he  was  not  deficient  in  prudence  and  judgment. 
He  died  at  Presque  Isle,  on  Lake  Erie,  in  December, 
1796,  leaving  a  son  ISAAC,  who  became  a  colonel  and 
Senator. 

See  JOHN  ARMSTRONG,  "Life  of  General  Anthony  Wayne, "  in 
SPARKS'*  "American  Biography,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "National  Porirau- 
Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Wayn'flete,  (WILLIAM,)  was  created  Bishop  of 
Winchester  in  1447,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1456.  He 
founded  Magdalene  College,  Oxford.  Died  in  1486. 

See  "The  Three  Chancellors,  or  Lives  of  William  of  Wykeham, 
William  of  Waynflete,  and  Thomas  More." 

Weale,  weel,  (JoHN,)  an  English  publisher,  born 
about  1792,  lived  in  London.  He  edited  several  useful 
scientific  works.  Died  in  December,  1862. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  not;  good;  moon; 


WEAVER 


2243 


WEBSTER 


Wea'ver  or  Wee'ver,  (JOHN,)  an  English  anti 
quary,  was  born  in  1576,  probably  in  Lancashire.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "Ancient  Funeral  Monuments 
in  Great  Britain."  Died  in  1632. 

Weaver,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  geologist,  born  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  studied  under  the  celebrated 
Werner  at  Freiberg.  He  published  "  Memoirs  on  the 
Geology  of  the  East  and  South  of  Ireland,"  and  other 
works  of  the  kind.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  a  member  of  the  Geological  Society.  Died 
in  1855. 

"Webb,  (ALEXANDER  S.,)  an  American  general,  a  son 
of  James  Watson  Webb,  was  born  about  1834.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855,  was  wounded  at  Get 
tysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  served  at  the  battle  of  the  Wil 
derness,  May  5  and  6,  1864,  and  was  disabled  by  a 
wound  at  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania,  May  8-12. 

Webb,  (DANIEL,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Limerick.  He  published  "  Remarks  on  the  Beauties 
of  Poetry,"  (1762,)  and  other  works,  which  are  com 
mended.  Died  in  1798. 

"Webb,  (TAMES  WATSON.)  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1802.  He  became  in 
1829  editor  of  the  "  Morning  Courier  and  New  York 
Enquirer,"  a  leading  journal  of  the  Whig  party.  He 
was  appointed  in  1861  minister  to  Brazil  by  President 
Lincoln. 

Webb,  (PHILIP  BARKER,)  an  English  botanist  and 
scholar,  was  born  in  Surrey  about  1793.  He  inherited 
an  ample  fortune,  and  travelled  extensively  in  Europe 
and  Asia.  With  M.  Berthelot,  he  published  a  "  Natural 
History  of  the  Canaries,"  with  plates,  (3  vols.)  Among 
his  works  is  "  Iter  Hispaniense,  or  a  Synopsis  of  Span 
ish  Plants."  Died  in  Paris  in  1854. 

Webb,  (PHILIP  CARTERET,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  1700;  died  in  1770. 

Webbe,  web,  (GEORGE,)  a  learned  English  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1581.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Limerick  in  1634.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Practice  of  Quietness."  Died  in  1641. 

Webbe,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  composer,  born  in 
1740.  His  works  include  anthems,  masses,  songs,  and 
glees.  The  last-named  compositions  are  esteemed  mas 
ter-pieces  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1817. 

Web'ber,  (CHARLES  WILKINS,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Russellville,  Kentucky,  in  1819.  He  published 
"  The  Hunter  Naturalist,"  (1851,)  "Tales  of  the  Southern 
Border,"  (1853,)  and  "Gold-Mines  of  the  Gila."  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  American  Review"  and 
the  "  Democratic  Review."  He  was  killed  in  Nicaragua 
in  1856,  while  serving  under  the  filibuster  Walker. 

See  DUYCKIXCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Web'ber,  (JOHN,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  London 
in  1 7^ I,  accompanied  Captain  Cook's  last  expedition  as 
draughtsman.  Died  in  1793. 

Webber,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  mathematician, 
born  at  Byfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at 
Harvard  College  in  1789,  and  in  1804  succeeded  Wil- 
lard  as  president  of  that  institution.  He  published  a 
"System  of  Mathematics,"  (1801.) 

"Weber,  wa'ber,  (BEDA,)  a  Tyrolese  writer,  born  in 
1798,  has  published  "Songs  from  the  Tyrol,"  (1842,) 
"Andrew  Hofer  and  the  Year  1809,"  and  other  works. 

Weber,  wa'ber,  (BERNHARD  ANSELM,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1766,  became  chapei- 
master  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1821. 

Weber,  (ERNST  HEINRICH,)  a  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  son  of  Michael  Weber,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1795.  He  became  professor 
of  human  anatomy  and  of  physiology  at  Leipsic  in 
1840.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Sympathetic  Nerve,"  (1817,)  and  "Ana 
tomical  and  Physiological  Annotations,"  (in  Latin.)  His 
brother  EDUARD  FRIEDRICH  has  published  several 
physiological  treatises. 

Weber,  wa'ber  or  va'baiR',  (FREDERIC,)  a  Swiss  en 
graver,  born  at  Bale  in  1813.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Paris,  and  engraved  numerous  portraits. 

Weber,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  composer  and  writer 
upon  music,  born  at  Freinsheim  in  1779;  died  in  1839. 


Weber,  (HENRY  WILLIAM,)  an  antiquarian  writer,  of 
German  extraction,  was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1783. 
He  settled  in  Scotland,  where  he  published  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Battle  of  Flodden  Field,"  and  "Metrical 
Romances  of  the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth 
Centuries."  Died  in  1818. 

Weber,  (KARL  JULIUS,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Langenburg  in  1767.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "  Letters 
of  Germans  Travelling  in  Germany."  Died  in  1832. 

Weber,  (MICHAEL,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
born  near  Weissenfels  in  1754,  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Wittenberg.  He  wrote  several  exegetical  and 
theological  works.  Died  in  1833. 

Web'er,  [Ger.  pron.  wa'ber, j  (PAUL,)  a  distinguished 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Germany  about  1820.  In 
early  life  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  practised 
his  art  for  many  years  in  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Weber's 
landscapes  are  remarkable  for  a  certain  aerial  softness 
which  imparts  to  them  an  indescribable  charm.  Several 
years  since  he  returned  to  Germany  and  established 
himself  at  Darmstadt. 

Weber,  (VEIT,)  a  German  poet  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
battle-songs,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "The  Battle  of 
Murten." 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe. " 

Weber,  (WTILHELM  EDUARD,)  a  German  physiologist 
and  scientific  writer,  brother  of  Ernst  Heinrich,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1804.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  and  was  appointed,  in  1831,  professor  of  physics 
at  Gottingen.  He  published,  conjointly  with  his  brother 
Ernst,  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Wave  Theory  grounded 
on  Experiments,"  etc.,  (1825,)  "On  the  Magnetism  of 
the  Earth,"  in  conjunction  with  Gauss,  and  several  other 
works. 

Weber,  (WILHELM  ERNST,)  a  German  scholar  and 
teacher,  born  at  Weimar  in  1790.  He  published  editions 
of  Herodian  and  other  classics,  and  several  original 
works.  Died  in  1850. 

Weber,  von,  fon  <va'ber,  (EMMANUEL,)  COUNT,  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1659.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Giessen  in  1698,  and  published 
many  legal  works.  Died  in  1726. 

Weber,  von,  (KARL  MARIA  FRIEDRICH  ERNST,) 
BARON,  an  eminent  German  composer  and  musician,  born 
at  Eutin,  in  Holstein,  in  1786.  He  was  successively  in 
structed  in  music  by  Michael  Haydn,  Valesi,  and  Kalcher, 
and.  after  the  composition  of  several  works  of  minor  im 
portance,  he  brought  out,  in  1800,  his  opera  of  "The 
Forest  Girl,"  ("  Das  Waldmadchen.")  He  soon  after 
visited  Vienna,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Joseph  Haydn  and  the  Abbe  Vogler.  In  1807  he  made 
a  professional  tour  through  Germany,  taking  up  his 
residence  for  a  time  with  Duke  Lewis  of  Wiii  temberg, 
where  he  remodelled  his  opera  of  "  Das  Waldmadchen," 
under  the  title  of  "Sylvana;"  it  was  performed  with 
brilliant  success  in  1810.  He  was  appointed,  in  1813, 
director  of  the  Opera  at  Prague,  and  in  1817  became 
chapel-master  and  manager  of  the  German  Opera  at 
Dresden.  He  married  the  same  year  the  celebrated 
actress  Lina  Brandt.  His  opera  of  "  Der  Freischiitz," 
which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  came  out  in  1822, 
and  was  received  with  the  greatest  applause  at  Berlin 
and  London.  His  "  Euryanthe,"  performed  at  Vienna 
in  1823,  was  less  generally  admired.  Having  been  com 
missioned  to  compose  an  opera  for  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  London,  he  brought  out,  in  1826,  his  "  Oberon," 
which  was  eminently  successful,  being  represented 
twenty-seven  times.  He  died  the  same  year,  of  pulmo 
nary  disease.  His  remains  were  removed  in  1844 
from  the  Catholic  chapel  at  Moorfields  to  the  family 
vault  at  Dresden. 

See  VICTOR  MAGNIEN,  "  E"tude  biosraphique  sur  C.  M.  Baron 
de  Weber,"  1848:  BARBEDETTE,  "Weber.  Essai  de  Critique  musi- 
cale,"  1862;  FETIS,  "Biographic  Uuiverselle  des  Musiciens;" 
'•  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1831. 

Web'ster,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  popular  and  eloquent 
Scottish  minister,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1707.  He 
preached  at  the  Tolbooth  Church  of  that  city,  and  be 
came  an  influential  citizen.  He  founded  a  useful  insti- 


•e  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  vi.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEBSTER 


2244 


WEBSTER 


tution  to  grant  annuities  to  the  widows  of  the  Scottish 
clergy.  Died  in  1784. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Web'ster,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  comedian,  bom 
at  Bath  in  1800,  became  manager  of  the  Haymarket 
Theatre  in  1837,  and  subsequently  of  the  Aclelphi. 

Web'ster,  (DANIEL,)  a  celebrated  American  states 
man,  jurist,  and  orator,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  New 
Hampshire,  January  18,  1782.  He  was  a  younger  son 
of  Ebenezer  Webster,  a  farmer,-  and  Abigail  Eastman, 
both  persons  of  vigorous  intellect  and  high-toned  mo 
rality.  On  account  of  the  delicacy  of  his  constitution, 
lie  was  permitted  to  pass  a  large  part  of  his  childhood 
in  play,  which  he  dearly  loved.  He  also  loved  books, 
among  which  Addison's  "  Spectator"  was  an  especial 
favourite  with  him.  Having  learned  the  rudiments  of 
education  at  home,  and  in  the  common  schools  of  the 
vicinity,  he  was  sent,  in  May,  1796,10  Phillips  Exeter 
Academy,  of  which  Benjamin  Abbot  was  the  principal. 
Young  Webster  was  at  that  time  so  diffident,  as  he  him 
self  tells  us,  that  he  could  not  be  induced  to  declaim 
before  the  school.  "The  kind  and  excellent  Buck- 
minster,"  says  he,  in  his  autobiography,  "sought  to 
persuade  me  to  perform  the  exercise  of  declamation  like 
other  boys,  but  I  could  not  do  it."  In  February,  1797, 
he  quitted  the  academy  of  Exeter,  and  pursued  his 
studies  under  the  tuition  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Wood, 
of  Boscawen.  His  father,  although  burdened  with  a 
large  family  and  hardly  able  to  defray  the  expense,  had 
resolved  to  send  Daniel  to  college.  Having  read  six 
books  of  Virgil's  "  /Eneid"  and  some  of  Cicero's  ora 
tions,  and  obtained  a  little  knowledge  of  Greek  grammar, 
he  entered  Dartmouth  College  as  a  freshman  in  August, 
1797.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  "misera 
bly  prepared  both  in  Latin  and  Greek, "and  he  had  little 
taste  or  genius  for  mathematics.  His  habits  at  college 
were  studious  and  regular.  "  By  the  close  of  his  first 
year,"  says  Edward  Everett,  "young  Webster  had  shown 
himself  decidedly  the  foremost  man  of  his  class  ;  and  that 
position  he  held  through  his  whole  college  course."  He 
was  also  the  best  writer  and  public  speaker  in  the  college. 
By  teaching  school  during  vacations  he  earned  money, 
which  he  gave  to  aid  his  elder  brother  Ezekiel,  whom 
the  family  sent  to  college,  not  without  great  sacrifices 
and  privations.  This  brother,  who  was  called  by  some 
the  handsomest  man  in  the  United  States,  became  a 
prominent  lawyer,  and  died  in  1829.  Daniel  graduated 
in  August,  1801,  and  began  to  study  law  in  the  office  of 
Thomas  W.  Thompson,  of  Salisbury,  who  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1814.  In  order  to 
earn  a  supply  of  money  for  his  brother  who  was  at 
college,  he  took  charge  of  an  academy  at  Fryeburg,  in 
Maine,  with  a  salary  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
per  annum.  Here  he  remained  about  eightjmonths,  and 
returned  to  Mr.  Thompson's  office  in  the  autumn  of 
1802.  Upon  coming  of  age  he  joined  the  Congrega 
tional  (Orthodox)  Church.  In  politics  he  was  a  zealous 
Federalist.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  hunting  and 
fishing,  both  in  his  youth  and  his  mature  life. 

To  perfect  his  legal  education,  he  went  to  Boston  in 
July,  1804,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  received  as  a 
clerk  in  the  office  of  Christopher  Gore,  an  eminent  law 
yer  and  statesman.  Here  he  read  Vattel  and  Puffendorf, 
but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  common 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  March,  1805.  He 
practised  nearly  two  years  at  Boscawen,  and  in  1807 
removed  to  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Before  this 
date  he  had  delivered  several  Fourth-of-July  orations. 
In  June,  1808,  he  married  Grace  Fletcher,  of  Hopkinton, 
New  Hampshire.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession, 
and  was  soon  regarded  as  a  fit  antagonist  for  Jeremiah 
Mason,  who  was  the  greatest  lawyer  in  the  State,  and 
was  many  years  older  than  Webster.  In  November, 
1812,  he  was  elected  as  a  Federalist  to  the  National 
House  of  Representatives,  in  which  lie  took  his  seat  in 
May,  1813.  He  opposed  the  war  against  Great  Britain, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  which  that  war  oc 
casioned,  and  advocated  an  increase  of  the  navy.  His 
speeches  on  these  subjects  placed  him  in  the  first  rank 
as  a  debater.  He  was  re-elected  to  the  fourteenth  Con 
gress,  which  met  in  December,  1815,  when  the  violence 


of  party  spirit  had  greatly  abated,  and  the  return  of 
peace  had  directed  the  attention  of  the  national  legis 
lature  to  new  and  important  questions.  Among  these 
was  a  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  to  which 
he  moved  an  amendment  requiring  the  bank  to  pay  de 
posits  in  specie.  He  also  rendered  an  important  service 
by  a  resolution  presented  April  26,  1816,  requiring  that 
all  payments  to  the  public  treasury  must  be  made  in 
specie  or  its  equivalents, — which  resolution  was  adopted, 
and  greatly  improved  the  currency  of  the  country. 

Having  resolved  to  retire  from  public  life  and  devote 
himself  to  his  profession,  he  removed,  in  1816,  from 
Portsmouth  to  Boston.  On  this  wider  arena  his  profes 
sional  reputation  was  greatly  increased,  and  he  became 
in  a  few  years  the  foremost  lawyer  in  New  England. 
His  argument  before  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  in  the  Dartmouth  College  case,  in  1818,  raised 
him  to  the  highest  rank  as -a  constitutional  lawyer.  The 
case  was  decided  in  favour  of  his  clients,  and  by  this 
decision  the  law  of  the  land  in  reference  to  collegiate 
darters  was  firmly  established.  Thenceforth  he  was 
retained  in  nearly  all  important  cases  that  were  argued 
before  the  supreme  court  at  Washington.  He  also 
exhibited  great  skill  as  a  criminal  lawyer,  in  cross-exam 
ining  witnesses,  and  in  baffling  the  deepest  plans  of  per 
jury  and  fraud.  The  effect  of  his  arguments  was  enhanced 
by  a  deep-toned,  musical,  and  powerful  voice,  and  by 
the  magnetism  of  his  imposing  presence  and  personal 
qualities.  "  His  influence  over  juries,"  says  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1870,  "was  due  chiefly  to  the 
combination  of  a  power  of  lucid  statement  with  his 
extraordinary  oratorical  force.  .  .  .  His  power  of  setting 
forth  truth  was  magnificent." 

Mr.  Webster  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
met  in  1820  to  revise  the  Constitution  of  Massachusetts. 
Of  his  services  in  this  Convention,  Judge  Story  expressed 
a  high  opinion  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  saying,  "  The  whole 
force  of  his  great  mind  was  brought  out,  and  in  several 
speeches  he  commanded  universal  admiration."  In  De 
cember,  1820,  he  pronounced  at  Plymouth  a  celebrated 
oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim 
fathers.  "  This,"  says  Everett,  "  was  the  first  of  a  series 
of  performances,  aside  from  the  efforts  of  the  senate  and 
the  bar,  by  which  Mr.  Webster  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  American  orators."  In  1822  he  was  elected  by 
the  voters  of  Boston  a  member  of  the  Congress  which 
met  in  December,  1823.  On  the  subject  of  the  Greek 
Revolution  he  made  (January,  1824)  a  famous  speech,  in 
which  he  denounced  the  principles  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
with  powerful  effect. 

As  chairman  of  the  judiciary  committee,  he  reported 
a  complete  revision  of  the  criminal  law  of  the  United 
States,  which  was  approved  by  the  House.  He  was  re- 
elected,  in  the  autumn  of  1824,  by  a  nearly  unanimous 
vote,  and  supported  John  Q.  Adams  in  the  ensuing  elec 
tion  of  President.  In  June,  1825,  he  delivered  an  oration 
on  laying  the  corner-stone  of  the  Bunker  Mill  Monu 
ment.  To  the  same  class  of  orations  belongs  his  admi 
rable  eulogy  on  Adams  and  Jefferson,  pronounced  in 
Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  in  August,  1826.  "  His  consum 
mate  skill  of  composition  and  delivery,"  says  Mr.  G.  T. 
Curtis,  "gave  to  a  supposititious  speech  of  John  Adams 
all  the  effect  of  a  real  utterance  of  that  patriot."  George 
Ticknor,  who  heard  this  eulogy,  says,  "  His  bearing,  as 
he  stood  before  the  vast  multitude,  was  that  of  absolute 
dignity  and  power."  He  continued  to  serve  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  until  1828,  when  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  As  a  Senator  he 
voted  for  the  Tariff  bill  of  1828.  Though  not  deeply 
interested  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1828,  he  sup 
ported  John  Q.  Adams  in  preference  to  General  Jackson. 
Having  lost  his  first  wife,  (who  died  in  January,  1828,, 
he  married  Caroline  Le  Roy,  of  New  York  City,  in  De 
cember,  1829. 

His  most  memorable  parliamentary  effort  was  his  tri 
umphant  reply  to  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  who  had 
affirmed  the  right  of  a  State  to  nullify  the  acts  of  Con 
gress,  had  assailed  New  England,  and  had  provoked 
Mr.  Webster  by  caustic  personalities.  It  was  on  the 
26th  of  January,  1830,  that  Webster  began  this  great 
argument  in  defence  of  the  Union  and  the  Constitution, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


WEBSTER 


2243 


WEBSTER 


which  was  probably  the  most  remarkable  speech  ever 
made  in  the  American  Congress.  His  peroration  ends 
with  the  following  magnificent  passage  :  "  When  my 
eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun 
in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and 
dishonoured  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union  ;  on 
States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a  land 
rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  maybe,  in  fraternal 
blood  !  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance  rather 
behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known 
and  honoured  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  ad 
vanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original 
lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star 
obscured — bearing  for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  in 
terrogatory  as  What  is  all  this  worth  ?  nor  those  other 
words  of  delusion  and  folly,  Liberty  first, and  Union  after 
wards — but  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of 
living  light;  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float 
over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  that  other  sentiment, 
dear  to  every  true  American  heart — Liberty  and  Union, 
now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable  !"  "  Webster 
had,"  says  Mr.  Curtis,  "but  a  single  night  in  which  to 
make  preparation  to  answer  the  really  important  parts 
of  the  preceding  speech  of  his  opponent." 

In  May,  1832,  he  made  an  important  speech  for  the 
renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States. 
This  bill  passed  both  houses  of  Congress,  but  was 
vetoed  by  President  Jackson.  About  this  date  he  pur 
chased  an  estate  at  Marshfield,  on  the  sea-shore,  which 
was  his  usual  summer  residence.  Me  supported  Mr. 
Clay  for  President  in  the  election  of  1832,  but  in  the 
great  crisis  of  the  Nullification  question,  in  1833,  he  op 
posed  Clay's  Compromise  Tariff  bill,  and  voted  for  the 
"  Force  Bill"  of  the  Administration.  On  these  subjects 
Webster  and  Calhoun  were  adversaries  in  debate.  Mr. 
Webster  became  one  of  the  most  popular  leaders  of 
the  Whig  party,  which  was  organized  about  1834,  and 
he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the  Whigs  of 
Massachusetts. 

In  September,  1837,  as  a  member  of  the  Senate,  he 
opposed  the  Sub-Treasury  bill  in  an  elaborate  speech, 
said  to  have  been  the  most  effective  of  all  his  arguments 
on  the  subjects  of  currency  and  finance.  He  visited 
England,  Scotland,  and  France  in  1839,  attracting  the 
admiration  of  Carlyle,  who  met  him  at  table,  and  thus 
estimated  him  :  "  He  is  a  magnificent  specimen.  As  a 
logic-fencer,  advocate,  or  parliamentary  Hercules,  one 
would  incline  to  back  him,  at  first  sight,  against  all  the 
extant  world."  He  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
January,  1839,  and  actively  promoted  the  election  of 
General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency  in  1840,  by  public 
speeches  at  Saratoga,  Richmond,  Virginia,  etc.  In 
March,  1841,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
President  Harrison,  after  whose  death  he  was  retained 
in  that  office  by  Tyler.  He  negotiated  with  the  English 
ambassador,  Lord  Ashburton,  a  treaty  which  settled 
the  long  and  serious  dispute  about  the  Northeastern 
boundary  of  the  United  States.  This  important  treaty 
was  signed  August  9,  1842.  In  compliance  with  the 
general  desire  of  the  Whigs,  (whose  interests  President 
Tyler  had  betrayed,)  he  resigned  office  in  May,  1843. 
He  was  urged  to  return  to  the  national  Senate  ;  but  his 
private  interest  and  duties  dissuaded  him.  In  a  letter 
dated  February  5,  1844,  he  says,  "  I  am  now  earning 
and  receiving  fifteen  thousand  dollars  a  year  from  my 
profession,  which  must  be  almost  entirely  sacrificed  by 
a  return  to  the  Senate." 

In  the  campaign  of  1844  he  earnestly  advocated  the 
election  of  Mr.  Clay,  who  was  his  chief  rival  in  the  favour 
and  leadership  of  the  Whig  party.  He  opposed  the 
innexation  of  Texas,  for  the  reason  that  it  would  involve 
the  extension  of  slavery. 

He  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
n  the  winter  of  1844-45,  as  the  successor  of  Mr.  Choate. 
[n  December,  1845,  'le  niade  a  speech  in  the  Senate 
igainst  the  admission  of  Texas  as  a  slave  State,  and  in 
February,  1847,  he  declared  that  he  opposed  the  prose 
cution  of  the  Mexican  war  for  trie  conquest  of  territory 
to  form  new  States  of  our  Union.  Although  Mr.  Web 
ster  and  his  friends  were  disappointed  by  the  nomination 
of  General  Taylor  in  1848,  he  voted  for  him  in  prefer 


ence  to  General  Cass.  In  consequence  of  the  acquisition 
of  Mexican  territory  by  conquest,  the  sectional  conflict 
relative  to  slavery  became  more  and  more  violent  and 
irrepressible,  with  an  alarming  proclivity  towards  dis 
union.  The  houses  of  Congress  became  in  1850  the 
scene  of  intense  excitement  about  the  admission  of 
California  and  the  organization  of  the  new  territories. 
The  imminent  danger  of  this  crisis  was  averted  or  post 
poned  by  Mr.  Clay's  "Compromise  Measures,"  which 
Mr.  Webster  supported  in  an  elaborate  speech  on  the 
7th  of  March,  1850.  This  compromise  consisted  of  a 
number  of  resolutions,  one  of  which  declared  that  the 
new  territories  should  be  organized  without  the  adoption 
of  any  restriction  or  condition  on  the  subject  of  slavery  ; 
and  another,  that  more  effectual  provision  ought  to  be 
made  by  law  for  the  restitution  of  fugitive  slaves.  On 
the  first  of  these  points  he  argued  that  he  would  not  re- 
enact  by  human  law  what  was  already  settled  by  a  law 
of  God  ;  that  slavery  could  not  be  introduced  into  those 
territories,  by  reason  of  their  natural  unfitness  for  slave 
labour.  .His  support  of  these  measures  gave  great 
offence  to  many  of  his  admirers,  and  to  the  opponents 
of  slavery,  who  accused  him  of  sacrificing  an  important 
principle  to  a  supposed  political  expediency.* 

In  July,  1850,  before  the  final  vote  on  the  Compromise 
bill,  President  Taylor  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice- 
President  Fillmore,  who  appointed  Mr.  Webster  secre 
tary  of  state.  On  the  I7th  of  July  he  addressed  the 
Senate  on  the  subjects  connected  with  the  Compromise 
bill  and  Wilmot  proviso.  This  was  his  last  speech  in 
the  Senate.  He  delivered  an  eloquent  address  on  the 
4th  of  July,  1851,  at  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of 
the  extension  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington.  His  last 
important  forensic  argument  was  on  the  Indian  Rubber 
Patent  cause,  at  Trenton,  in  January,  1852.  Among  his 
later  official  acts  was  a  celebrated  despatch  to  Hiilse- 
mann,  the  Austrian  charge-d'affaires,  occasioned  by  the 
revolt  of  the  Hungarian  patriots.  This  document  was 
dated  in  December,  1851.  In  May,  1852,  he  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage,  and  seriously  injured,  near  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts;  but  he  was  afterwards  able  to  revisit 
Washington.  After  all  his  sacrifices  and  concessions  to 
the  pro-slavery  party,  he  received  in  the  National  Whig 
Convention  of  1852  only  thirty-two  votes,  and  those 
from  Northern  men,  although  it  was  known  that  he 
wished  to  be  nominated  for  the  Presidency.  He  died 
at  Marshfield,  October  24,  1852,  leaving  one  son, 
Fletcher,  noticed  below.  His  other  sons  and  daughters 
died  before  their  father. 

In  stature  he  was  tall,  his  head  and  brain  of  great 
size,  his  eyes  large,  black,  and  lustrous.  He  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers  and 
genial  temper  in  society.  "To  those,"  says  Curtis, 
"who  have  known  Mr.  Webster  only  in  public,  it  is 
difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  the  genial  affections  which 
at  every  period  of  his  life  flowed  out  from  him  in  the 
domestic  circle,  and  still  more  difficult  to  paint  the 
abounding  gayety  and  humour  and  fascination  of  his 
early  days."  "  He  was,"  says  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
August,  1870,  "the  greatest  orator  that  has  ever  lived 
in  the  Western  hemisphere.  Less  vehement  than  Cal 
houn,  less  persuasive  than  Clay,  he  was  yet  more  grand 
and  powerful  than  either." 

"Sir.  Webster,"  says  Hallam,  the  great  historian, 
"  approaches  as  nearly  to  the  beau-ideal  of  a  republican 
senator  as  any  man  that  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  course 
of  my  life ;  worthy  of  Rome  or  Venice,  rather  than  of 
our  noisy  and  wrangling  generation."  (Letter  to  Mrs. 
Ticknor,  dated  January  21,  1840.) 

See  GEORGE  T.  CURTIS,  "  Life  of  Daniel  Webster,"  2  vols.,  i«7o  ; 
CHARLES  LANMAN,  "Private  Life  of  Daniel  Webster,"  1X53;  S.  L 
KNAPP,  "Life  of  D.  Webster,"  1851  ;  MAKCKER,  "  D.  Websler,  der 
Ainerikanische  Staatsmann,"  Berlin,  1853;  EUWAKD  KVKRETT, 
"  Memoir  of  D.  Webster,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Webster's 
Collective  Works,  6  vols.  Svo,  1X51  ;  and  his  article  on  Daniel 
Webster  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia." 


*  It  was  not  the  ultra  abolitionists  only  that  condemned  his  course. 
Mr.  Seward  in  1858  spoke  of  Webster  as  "  a  great  statesman,  who 
for  a  large  portion  of  his  life  led  the  vanguard  of  the  army  of  freedom, 
.  .  .  and  who,  on  the  great  day  when  the  contest  came  to  a  decisive 
issue,  surrendered  that  great  cause  then  in  his  place,  and  derided  th 
proviso  of  freedom,  the  principle  of  the  ordinance  of  1787." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy';  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEBSTER 


2246 


WEDDERBURN 


Webster,  (EBENF.ZER,)  an  American  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  born  at  Kingston,  New  Hampshire,  in  1739, 
was  the   father  of  Daniel   Webster.     He  served   in  the  j 
war    against   the  French,  and  in  the  subsequent   cam 
paigns  of  the  Revolutionary  war.     Died  in  1806. 

Webster,  (EZEKIEL,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1780,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.  Died  in  1829. 

Webster,  (FLETCHER,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1812,  was  a  son  of  the 
celebrated  Daniel  Webster.  He  served  as  assistant 
secretary  of  state  in  1841  and  1842.  He  enlisted  as 
colonel  in  the  Union  army  in  1861,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Gainesville,  or  Bull  Run,  in  August,  1862. 

Webster,  (JOHN,)  an  English  dramatist  of  the  six 
teenth  century.  His  principal  works  are  "The  White 
Devil,"  "The  Duchess  of  Malfi,"  (1623,)  and  "Appius 
and  Virginia,"  (1624.)  He  occupies  a  high  rank  among 
the  immediate  successors  of  Shakspeare. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  (1823 ;)  CAMPBELL,  "  Speci 
mens  of  the  Britisli  Poets." 

Webster,  (JOSEPH  D.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Hampshire  about  1811,  became  a  civil  engineer. 
He  served  as  colonel  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson, 
February,  1862,  and  was  chief  of  staff  to  General  Grant 
at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7.  He  directed  the 
artillery  with  skill  in  this  action,  and  was  promoted  to 
be  a  brigadier-general. 

Webster,  (NoAH,)  a  distinguished  American  phi 
lologist  and  lexicographer,  born  at  West  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  October,  1758.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1778,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1781,  soon  after  which  he  became  a  school 
teacher.  He  published  "  Sketches  of  American  Policy," 
(1785,)  and  "Dissertations  on  the  English  Language," 
(1789.)  In  1793  he  began  to  issue,  in  New  York,  a 
daily  paper  called  "The  Minerva,"  the  name  of  which 
was  soon  changed  to  "Commercial  Advertiser."  In  this 
journal  he  defended  the  policy  of  the  Federal  adminis 
tration.  About  1798  he  removed  to  New  Haven.  He 
expended  the  labour  of  many  years  on  a  "  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language,"  which  was  published  in  1828 
and  was  highly  esteemed.  An  enlarged  edition  of  this 
dictionary  was  published  in  1840,  and  a  quarto  edition, 
revised  by  C.  A.  Goodrich,  appeared  in  1859.  Another 
and  greatly  improved  edition  of  Webster's  Dictionary, 
with  numerous  pictorial  illustrations  incorporated  in  the 
body  of  the  work,  appeared  in  1864.  He  died  at  New 
Haven  in  May,  1843. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii.  :  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ; 
"  Nortli  American  Review"  for  April,  1829. 

Webster,  (THOMAS,)  a  British  geologist,  born  in  the 
Orkney  Islands  about  1773.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
"  Fresh-Water  Beds  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,"  and  became 
professor  of  geology  in  the  London  University.  Died 
in  1844. 

Webster,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1800,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of  which 
he  was  elected  an  associate  in  1841.  His  favourite  sub 
jects  are  children,  and  his  best  works  represent  school 
boys  and  their  sports.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  The 
Slide,"  "A  Farm-House  Kitchen,"  "A  See-Saw,"  "A 
School  Play-Ground,"  "The  Internal  Economy  of  Do- 
theboys  Hall,"  "Peasant  Children,"  and  "Hide  and 
Seek."  He  was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician  in  1846. 

Webster,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
polemical  writer,  born  in  1689.  He  became  curate  of 
Saint  Dunstan,  in  West  London,  in  1715,  and  rector  of 
Depden  in  1733.  Died  in  1758. 

"Webster,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  about  1684,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Arithmetic." 
Died  in  1744. 

Wechel,  va'sheT  or  <ve"K'el,  (ANDREW,)  an  eminent 
printer,  born  in  Paris  about  1510,  was  a  son  of  Christian, 
and  was  a  Protestant.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1554, 
and  purchased  the  stock  of  Henri  Estienne  in  1560.  He 
carried  on  business  in  Paris  until  the  massacre  of  1572, 
and  then  removed  his  presses  to  Frankfort.  Died  in  1581. 

Wechel,  weK'el,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  celebrated  German 
printer,  established  a  printing-office  in  Paris  about  1527, 


from  which  he  issued  many  excellent  editions  of  the 
classics.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  where  his  business  was  carried  on  with  equal 
reputation  and  success  by  his  son  Andrew.  Died  in 


Weckerlin,  von,  fon  <vek'ker-leen',  (AUGUST,)  a 
German  agriculturist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1794,  has 
published  a  treatise  "  On  English  Agriculture,"  and 
other  similar  works. 

Weckheiiin,  wek'ker-leen',  (GEORG  RUDOLF,)  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1584.  Having  travelled 
in  various  parts  of  Europe,  he  settled  eventually  in 
London,  and  was  employed  by  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
in  several  important  missions.  lie  was  one  of  the 
earliest  reformers  of  German  poetry,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  first  introduced  into  the  language  the  ode,  sonnet, 
and  epigram.  Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name 
his  heroic  poem  on  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
Died  about  1651. 

See  CARL  P.  CONZ,  "  Nachrichten  von  dem  Leben  G.  R.  Weck- 
herlin's,"  1X03. 

Weckherlin,  (WILHELM  LUDWIG,)  a  German  writer, 
born  near  Wiirtemberg  in  1739,  was  the  author  of  seve 
ral  satirical  and  political  works.  Died  in  1792. 

Wed'der-burn,  (ALEXANDER,)  Lord  Loughborough 
and  Earl  of  Rosslyn,  an  eminent  British  jurist  and  poli 
tician,  born  in  East  Lothian  in  1733.  He  was  in  early 
life  an  advocate  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  eloquence  and  the  fierceness  of  his  in 
vective.  "Having  quarrelled  with  the  court,  he  removed 
to  London  in  1753,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  a  few  years 
later.  He  took  great  pains  to  eradicate  his  Northern 
accent.  He  became  king's  counsel  in  1763,  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  about  the  same  time,  and  joined 
the  Northern  circuit.  "  He  was  far  from  being  a  pro 
found  lawyer,"  says  Lord  Brougham.  "  His  strength 
lay  in  dealing  with  facts  ;  and  here  all  his  contemporaries 
represent  his  powers  to  have  been  unrivalled.  It  was 
probably  this  genius  for  narrative,  for  arguing  upon 
probabilities,  for  marshalling  and  sifting  evidence,  that 
shone  so  brilliantly  in  his  great  speech  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Lords  upon  the  celebrated  Douglas  cause,  and 
which  no  less  a  judge  than 'Mr.  Fox  pronounced  to  be 
the  very  finest  he  ever  heard  on  any  subject."  ("  His 
torical  Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 
III.")  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  by  Lord 
North  in  1771,  soon  after  which  he  and  Thurlow  became 
the  two  main  supporters  of  the  prime  minister  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  a  famous  speech  against  the 
Americans  before  the  privy  council,  he  indulged  in  offen 
sive  personalities  against  Franklin,  calling  him  a  man 
of  three  letters, — the  old  Roman  joke  for  a  thief,  (fur.) 
In  1778  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  in  1780 
obtained  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Loughborough.  On  the 
bench  he  continued  to  be  an  unscrupulous  partisan,  and 
during  the  short  ministry  formed  by  a  coalition  of  Fox 
and  Lord  North  (1783)  he  was  chief  commissioner  of 
the  great  seal.  In  the  first  years  of  Pitt's  administration 
Wedderburn  was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  When  the  king  became  deranged, 
(1789,)  he  advised  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  proclaim 
himself  regent ;  but  his  desperate  counsels  were  not 
followed.  He  was  one  of  the  members  that  seceded  from 
the  Whig  or  opposition  party  on  questions  connected 
with  the  French  Revolution,  and  was  appointed  lord 
chancellor  in  1793.  He  retained  this  office  until  the  for 
mation  of  a  new  ministry,  April,  1801,  and  was  then 
created  Earl  of  Rosslyn.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1805.  According  to  Lord  Brougham,  "his  prosperous 
career,  supported  by  no  fixed  principles,  illustrated  by 
no  sacrifices  to  public  virtue,  ...  at  length  closed  in 
the  disappointment  of  mean,  unworthy  desires,  and  ended 
amidst  universal  neglect." 

See  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 
III.,"  vol.  i.  ;  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;" 
CHAMBKRS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wedderburn,  (DAVID,)  a  Scottish  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  born  about  1570.  He  taught  school  at  Aberdeen, 
and  wrote  numerous  poems.  Died  about  1650. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


WEDDERKOPF 


2247 


WEICKARD 


Wedderkopf,  von,  fon  wecl'der-kopf,  (MAGNUS,)  a 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Husuni,  in  Holstein,  in 
1638.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Kiel,  and  prime 
minister  of  the  Duke  of  Holstein  in  1705.  He  published 
several  legal  works.  Died  in  1721.  His  brother  GA- 
URIEL,  born  in  1644,  was  a  writer  on  theology,  pastor  at 
Kiel,  and  court  preacher.  Died  in  1696. 

Wedekind,  wa'deh-klnt',  (ANTON  CHRISTIAN,)  a 
German  historical  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Verden 
in  1765.  He  published  a  "Chronological  Manual  of 
Modern  History,"  (1816.)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1845. 

Wedekind,  (GEORG  CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIKK.)  BARON, 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1761,  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Mentz.  He  published  a  num 
ber  of  medical  and  miscellaneous  works.  Died  in  1831. 

Wedekind,  (GEORG  WILHELM,)  BARON,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1796.  He 
published  an  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Forest  Science,"  (1847,) 
and  other  similar  works. 

Wedel,  wa'del,  (ERNST  HEINRICH,)  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Gotha  in  1671,  was  a  son  of  Georg  Wolf 
gang,  noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "On  the  Diseases  of  Public  Speakers,"  ("De 
Morbis  Concionatorum.")  His  brother  JOHANN  ADOLF 
published  several  medical  treatises.  Died  in  1709. 

Wedel,  (GEORG  WOLFGANG,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  at  Golzen,  in  Lusatia,  in  1645.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  where  he  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  1673.  He  was  also  first  physician  to  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  was  created  in  1694  a  count-palatine 
and  imperial  councillor.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
mathematician  and  Orientalist,  as  well  as  for  his  know 
ledge  of  medical  science,  and  was  one  of  the  most  vo 
luminous  writers  of  his  time.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "  Opiologia,"  etc.,  (1674,)  "  Exercitationes 
Pathologicae,"  (1675,)  and  "Pharmacy  reduced  to  the 
Form  of  an  Art,"  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1721. 

Wedel,  (JoiiANN  ADOLF,)  a  medical  writer,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Tena  i'1  1675,  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  Jena  in  1709.  Died  after  1746. 

Wedel,  (JOHANN  WOLFGANG,)  a  German  botanist, 
oorn  in  1708,  practised  medicine  at  Jena.  He  wrote 
"Botanical  Essay,"  ("Tentamen  Botanicum,"  1747.) 
Died  in  1757. 

Wedel,  von,  fon  wa'del,  (KARL  HEINRICH,)  a  Prus 
sian  general,  born  in  the  Uckermark  in  1712.  He  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  The  victory 
of  the  Prussians  at  Leuthen  (1757)  was  attributed  to 
Wedel  by  Frederick  the  Great.  Died  in  1782. 

Wedel-Jarlsberg,  wa'del  yaRls'bgRG,  ( JOHANN  KAS- 
PAR  HERMANN,)  a  Danish  statesman,  was  born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  in  France,  in  1779.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  rose  through  several  offices  to  be  minister  of  finance 
in  1822.  Died  in  1840. 

Wedg'wood,  (JosiAH,)  a  celebrated  English  artisan, 
Dorn  in  Burslem,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1730.  His  oppor 
tunities  for  education  were  very  limited,  and  in  his  early 
youth  he  worked  in  the  pottery  of  an  elder  brother  at 
Burslem.  In  1759  he  established  in  that  place  a  manu 
factory  of  ornamental  pottery,  where  he  soon  after  pro 
duced  the  beautiful  cream-coloured  ware  since  called  by 
his  name.  A  table-service  of  this  kind  was  ordered  by 
Queen  Charlotte,  who  appointed  Wedgwood  her  potter. 
He  subsequently  opened  a  warehouse  in  London,  where 
he  executed  copies  of  antique  vases,  cameos,  and  sculp 
ture,  remarkable  for  their  accuracy  and  exquisite  work 
manship.  Among  his  works  in  this  department  were 
fifty  copies  of  the  celebrated  Portland  vase,  which  were 
sold  for  fifty  guineas  each.  Some  of  his  compositions 
were  of  such  hardness  and  indestructibility  as  to  render 
them  invaluable  for  chemical  vessels.  His  works  were 
not  only  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  manufactures  and 
commercial  prosperity  of  his  country,  but  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  refining  the  national  taste.  Wedg 
wood  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  contributed 
several  treatises  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  that  body. 
Died  in  1795. 

See  ELIZA  MHTEYARD,  "Life  of  J.  Wedgwood,  from  his  Private 
Correspondence,"  1864;  L.  JEWBTT,  "The  Wedgwoods,"  1865;  J. 
MARRYATT,  "  Collection  towards  a  History  of  Pottery,"  etc.,  1850 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge'ne'rale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July 
and  October,  1867. 


Weed,  (STEPHEN  H.,)  an  American  brigadier-general, 
oorn  in  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  He 
was  a  skilful  officer  of  artillery.  He  was  killed  at  Gettys 
burg,  July  2,  1863,  aged  about  thirty. 

"Weed,  (TnuRLOW,)  an  American  journalist  and  poli 
tician,  born  in  Greene  county,  New  York,  in  1797.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  printer,  and  edited  several  news 
papers.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Anti-Masonic 
party,  and  in  1830  became  the  editor  of  the  "  Albany 
Evening  Journal,"  which  opposed  the  Albany  Regency 
and  was  an  able  organ  of  the  Whig  party.  He  acquired 
distinction  and  great  influence  as  a  party  manager  for 
the  Whigs  and  the  Republicans.  He  was  an  intimate 
associate  and  adherent  of  William  H.  Sevvard.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  civil  war  he  ceased  to  be  in  unity 
with  the  Republican  party.  He  favoured  the  policy  of 
President  Johnson  in  relation  to  reconstruction  in  1866- 
67,  but  supported  General  Grant  for  the  Presidency 
in  1868. 

Weekes,  weeks,  (HENRY,)  an  English  sculptor,  born 
at  Canterbury  in  1807,  was  a  pupil  of  Chantrey,  whom 
he  assisted  for  several  years.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Lord  Bacon,  at 
Cambridge,  and  a  monument  to  Shelley,  in  Hampshire. 

Weems,  (MASON  L.,)  an  American  biographical 
writer,  was  rector  of  Mount  Vernon  parish,  Virginia. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  A  History  of  the  Life  and  Death, 
Virtues  and  Exploits,  of  General  George  Washington," 
etc.,  (1800,)  "Life  of  General  Francis  Marion,"  (4th 
edition,  1816,)  and  biographies  of  Franklin  (1817)  and  of 
William  Penn,  (1829.)  They  are  written  in  a  lively, 
entertaining  style,  but  are  not  to  be  relied  upon  as 
biographies  or  histories.  Died  in  1825. 

See  DuYCKiN'CK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Weeninx,  wa'ninks,  or  Weenix,  wa'niks,  (JAN  BAP 
TIST,)  THE  OLD,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am 
sterdam  in  1621.  He  studied  under  Abraham  Bloemaert, 
and  afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he 
was  extensively  patronized.  His  works  include  portraits, 
historical  pictures,  animals,  and  marine  views,  in  all  of 
which  he  acquired  a  very  high  reputation.  Died  in  1660. 

His  son  JAN,  surnamed  THE  YOUNG,  was  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1644.  He  was  instructed  in  painting 
by  his  father,  whose  style  and  favourite  subjects  he 
adopted.  As  a  colorist,  he  was  esteemed  superior  to  his 
father,  and  his  hunting-scenes  and  birds  are  regarded 
as  master-pieces.  Died  in  1719. 

See  DESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
CHARLES  BLANC,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Weerdt,  de,  deh  waiRt,  (ADRIAN,)  a  Flemish  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Brussels,  lived  about  1550. 

Weert.     See  WERTH. 

Weever.     See  WEAVER,  (JOHN.) 

Wegelin,  fta'geh-leen',  (JACQUES,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1721.  He  became  professor  of 
history  at  Berlin  in  1765,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  on  the  Philosophy  of  History,"  (4 
vols.,  1772-79,)  and  "Universal  History,"  (6  vols.,  1776 
-80.)  Died  in  Berlin  in  1791. 

See  PELS,  "  Biographic  Wegelins,"  1792. 

Wegener,  wa'geh-ner,  (CASPAR  FREDERIK,)  a  Danish 
historian  and  publicist,  born  in  Fiinen  in  1802.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  several  works  on  Danish 
history.  He  became  director  of  the  national  archives 
in  1848. 

Wegiier,  weG'ner,  (GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1644.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Konigsberg,  and  court  preacher.  Died 
in  1709. 

Wegscheider,  war/shi'der,  (JULIUS  AUGUST  LUD- 
WIG,)  a  German  theologian  of  the  rationalistic  school, 
was  born  at  Kiibbelingen,  in  Brunswick,  in  1771.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1810.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  Institutes  of  Dogmatic  Chris 
tian  Theology,"  (in  Latin,  1818.)  Died  in  1849. 

Wehrli.     See  VEHRI.I. 

Weichert,  wI'Kert,  (JONATHAN  AUGUST,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Saxony  in  1788,  published  editions  of 
Pomponius  Mela  and  other  classics.  Died  in  1844. 

Weickard,  wi'kaRt,  (MELCHIOR  ADAM,)  a  German 
physician,  was  a  warm  advocate  of  the  Brunonian 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;%*sj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (B^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WE1DEN 


2248 


WEISS 


system,  and  published,  among  other  works,  "The  Philo 
sophical  Physician."  Died  in  1803. 

Weideu,  von,  fon  wl'den,  Weda,  wa'da,  or  Wied, 
•^eet,  (HERMANN,)  COUNT,  a  German  prelate,  born 
in  Nassau  in  1472.  He  was  elected  Archbishop  and 
Elector  of  Cologne  in  1515,  and  persecuted  the  Prot 
estants  for  a  number  of  years.  About  1540  he  changed 
his  course,  and  patronized  Bucer  and  other  Reformers. 
Having  been  excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  1546,  he 
resigned  in  1547,  and  died  in  1552. 

Weidler,  wl'dler,  (JoHANN  FRIEDRICH.)  a  German 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1691.  He  became  in  1721  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Wittenberg.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable  works, 
in  Latin,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Mathematical 
Institutes,"  "History  of  Astronomy,"  "Astronomical 
Bibliography,"  and  "Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Machines." 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died 
in  1755. 

Weigel,  wlo'el  or  wl'gel,  (ERHARD,)  a  German  mathe 
matician  and  astronomer,  born  at  Weicla  in  1625,  became 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Jena.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  several  astronomical  instruments,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  one  entitled  "The  Mirror  of  the 
Heavens,"  ("  Himmels-spiegel.")  Died  in  1699. 

Weigel,  (JOHANN  AUGUST  GOTTLOI;,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773  ;  died  in  1846. 

"Weigel,  (KARL  CHRISTIAN  Leberecht — la'beh- 
rCKt,)  a  German  physician  and  scholar,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1769.  He  published  a 
"Modern  Greek-German-Italian  Dictionary,"  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1845. 

Weigel,  (VALENTIN,)  a  German  theologian,  founder 
of  a  sect  of  mystics  called  by  his  name,  was  bom  at 
Grossenhain,  in  Saxony,  in  1533.  His  leading  doctrines 
are  said  to  resemble  those  of  Tauler;  and  Jacob  Bohme 
was  one  of  his  most  noted  disciples.  His  works  were 
published  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1588. 

See  HII.LIGER,  "Vita  V.  \Vcigelii,"  1721. 

Weigel,  von,  fon  wlo'el  or  wi'gel,  (CHRISTIAN 
Ehrenfried — I'ren-fReet,)  a  German  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1748,  wrote  "  Observa- 
tiones  Botanicae,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1831. 

Weigl,  WIG!,  (JOSEPH,)  a  musical  composer,  born  at 
Eisenstadt,  in  Hungary,  in  1766,  became  chapel-master 
of  the  Italian  Opera  at  Vienna.  His  opera  of  "The 
Swiss  Family"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works.  Died 
in  1846. 

Weil,  wil,  (GusrAV,)  a  distinguished  German  Orien 
talist,  of  fewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Sulzburg  in  1808. 
He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  visited  Egypt  about  1830,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Arabic,  Persic,  and 
Turkish  languages.  He  was  appointed,  after  his  return, 
assistant  librarian,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages, 
in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  in  1845.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "The  Poetical  Literature  of  the 
Arabs,"  (1837.)  "Mohammed  the  Prophet,"  (1843,)  and 
"  History  of  the  Caliphs,"  ("Geschichte  der  Chalifen," 
5  vols.,  1846.) 

Weill,  wil,  [Fr.  pron.  vil,]  ( Al.EXANDRE,)  a  litterateur 
and  journalist,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  in  Alsace 
in  1813.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Gazette  cle 
France."  and  published  a  work  entitled  "  Republic  and 
Monarchy,"  an  "  Essay  on  Schiller,"  and  several  political 
treatises. 

Weiller,  von,  fon  wil'ler,  (KAJETAN,)  a  German 
teacher  nnd  educational  writer,  born  at  Munich  in  1762. 
He  became  secretary  general  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1823.  Died  in  1826. 

Weimar,  DUCHESS  OF.     See  AMELIA. 

Weimar,  (BERNARD,)  DUKE  OF.  See  BF.RNHARD 
OF  SAXE- WEIMAR. 

Weinbreimer,  win'bRen'ner,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  cele 
brated  German  architect,  born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1766.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1791,  and  spent  several  years  in  study 
ing  the  remains  of  ancient  art.  On  his  return,  in  1798, 
he  was  appointed  inspector  of  buildings  a^  Carlsruhe. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  theatre  at  Leipsic, 
and  the  Standeshaus  theatre,  the  Lutheran  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  and  Hochberg  palace,  at  Carlsruhe. 
He  also  founded  in  the  latter  place  an  institution  for  the 


study  of  architecture  and  the  kindred  arts.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Manual  of  Architecture,"  (1810,)  a  treatise 
"On  Form  and  Beauty,"  (1819,)  and  other  similar 
works.  Died  in  1826. 


Weinlig,  <vln'lio,  (CHRISTIAN  THEODOR,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1780;  died 
in  1842. 

His  son,  CHRISTIAN  ALHRECHT,  born  in  1812,  became 
professor  of  national  economy  at  Erlangen,  and  pub 
lished  a  "Manual  of  Theoretical  Chemistry,"  (1840,) 
and  other  works. 

Weinreich,  win'rlK,  or  Weiiirich,  win'rlK,  (VALEN 
TIN,)  a  German  philologist  and  poet,  born  near  Hartz 
in  1553,  became  rector  at  Eisenach.  Died  in  1622. 

Weiiirich,  wm'riK,  (GEORG,)  a  learned  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1554.  He  preached  at  Leipsic, 
and  published  a  number  of  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1617. 

Weiiirich,  QOHANN  MICHAEL,)  a  German  writer 
and  Lutheran  minister,  born  in  1683,  lived  at  Mei- 
nungen.  Died  in  1727. 

Weir,  weer,  (ROBERT  W.,)  an  American  painter,  born 
at  New  Rochelle,  in  New  York,  in  1803.  Among  his 
best  works  are  "The  Landing  of  Henry  Hudson,"  "The 
Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims,"  and  "The  Antiquary 
introducing  Lovell  to  his  Womankind." 

See  DUNI.AP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  TUCKKRMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Weir,  weer,  (WILLIAM,)  a  Scottish  journalist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  about  1802.  He  edited  successively  the 
Edinburgh  "Literary  Journal,"  the  Glasgow  "Argus," 
and  the  "Daily  News,"  a  Liberal  paper  of  London. 
Died  in  1858. 

Weisbach,  wIs'baK,  (Juuus,)  a  German  savant, 
born  near  Annaberg  in  1806,  published  a  "Manual  for 
the  Engineer  and  Machinist,"  and  several  treatises 
on  hydraulics. 

Weise,  wi'zeh,  [Lat.  WEI'SIUS,]  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  Ger 
man  writer,  born  at  Zittau  in  1642,  became  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  in  his  native  town.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
satirical  romance,  entitled  "Die  drei  Hauptverderber," 
and  a  number  of  dramas,  also  several  educational  works. 
Died  in  1708. 

See  HERMANN  PALM,  "  C.  Weise,  eine  literar-historische  Ab- 
handlung,"  1854;  S.  GROSSER,  "Vita  C.  Weisii,"  1710. 

Weisflog,  ftiss'floG,  (KARL,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Sagan  in  1770,  published  a  number  of  humorous 
tales.  Died  in  1828. 

Weishaupt,  wiss'howpt,  (ADAM,)  a  German  jurist 

j  and  philosopher,  born  at   Ingolstadt  in  1748,  is  chiefly 

j  celebrated  as  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the  Illuminati. 

He  became  professor  of  canon   and   natural   law  in  his 

native  city  in  1775.     He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an 

"Apology  for  the  Illuminati,"  (1786,)  and  "  Pythagoras  ; 

or,  The  Secret  Art  of  Governing  the  World,"  (1790.) 

Died  in  1830. 

See  GOTTSCHUNG,  "Weishaupt's  Schicksale,"  1789;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Ge'ne'rale." 

Weisius.     See  WEISE. 

Weiss.  See  ALHINUS,  (BERNARD,)  ALBINUS,  (?v.- 
TRUS,)  and  ALBINUS,  (JOHANNES  GEORGIUS.) 

Weiss,  wiss,  [Fr.  pron.  viss,]  (CHARLES,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Besai^on  in  1779.  He  contributed  a 
great  number  of  articles  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle," 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  editors. 

Weiss,  (CHARLES,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1812,  became  professor  of  history  at  the  Lycee 
Bonaparte.  He  published  "Spain  from  Philip  II.  to 
the  Accession  of  the  Bourbons,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  French  Protestant  Refugees  since  the 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

See  "  Blackvvoocl's  Magazine"  for  July,  1853. 

Weiss,  wiss,  (CHRISTIAN  SAMUEL,)  a  German  min 
eralogist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1780.  He  studied  under 
Werner  at  Freiberg,  and  in  1810  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise 
"On  the  Natural  Divisions  of  the  System  of  Crystalliza 
tion,"  (1813.)  Died  in  1856. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


WEISS 


2249 


SELLER 


Weiss,  (SiEGKRiKD,)  a  German  publicist,  born  at 
Dantzic  in  1822.  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Code 
of  Maritime  International  Law,"  (2  vols.,  1858.) 

Weisse,  wl'seh,  (CHRISTIAN  ERNST,)  a  German 
jurist,  son  of  Christian  Felix,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1766.  He  became  in  1813  professor  of 
criminal  law  in  that  city,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
"Manual  of  Saxon  Civil  Law,"  which  is  esteemed  a 
standard  work.  Died  in  1832. 

"Weisse,  (CHRISTIAN  F"ELIX,)  a  popular  German 
writer,  born  at  Annaberg  in  1726.  He  studied  at  Leip 
sic,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Leasing,  and 
soon  after  produced  several  tragedies,  which,  however, 
met  with  little  favour.  His  "  Merry  Songs,"  ("  Scherz- 
haften  Lieder,")  which  appeared  in  1758,  were  very 
successful,  and  were  followed  by  a  number  of  comedies, 
which  were  also  well  received.  In  1775  he  became 
editor  of  a  juvenile  periodical  called  "  The  Children's 
Friend,"  ("Der  Kinderfreund,")  which  obtained  almost 
unprecedented  popularity,  and  was  afterwards  imitated 
by  Berquin  in  his  "Ami  cles  Enfans."  His  "Songs  for 
Children,"  "ABC  Book,"  and  "Dramas  for  Chil 
dren"  were  received  with  equal  favour,  and  they  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  European  languages. 
Besides  these  juvenile  productions,  on  which  his  reputa 
tion  mainly  rests,  Weisse  published  "  Lyric  Poems"  and 
"Comic  Operas."  He  was  for  several  years  editor  of 
a  literary  journal  of  high  character,  entitled  "Bibliothek 
der  Schonen-Wissenschaften  und  Freien-Kiinste."  He 
died  in  1804. 

See  C.  G.  BAUER,  "  Ueber  C.  F.  Weisse,"  1805  ;  WEISSE,  "Auto 
biography."  1806 ;  H.  C.  IPHOFEN,  "  Lebensgeschichte  C.  F. 
Wi'isse's,"  etc.,  1806;  GERVINUS,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Diclitung." 

Weisse,  (CHRISTIAN  HERMANN,)  a  son  of  Christian 
Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1801,  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Present  Stand-Point  of 
Philosophical  Science,"  (1829,)  "  System  of  ./Esthetics, 
or  Science  of  the  Idea  of  Beauty,"  (1830,)  and  essays, 
which  have  a  high  reputation. 

Weisseiithurn,  von,  fon  wi'sen-tooRn',  (JOHANNA 
FRANUL  VERONICA,)  a  German  actress  and  dramatic 
writer,  originally  named  GRUNBERG,  was  born  atCoblentz 
in  1773.  Her  works  are  numerous,  and  once  enjoyed 
considerable  popularity.  Died  in  1847. 

Weitenaver,  wi'ten-a'ver,  (IGNATIUS,)  a  German 
linguist  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1705.  He 
published  several  works  on  language.  Died  in  1783. 

Weitling,  wlt'ling,  (WILHKLM,)  a  German  commun 
ist,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1808,  published  "Guarantees 
of  Harmony  and  Freedom,"  "  Humanity  as  it  is  and  as 
it  should  be,"  (1845,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Weitzel,  wlt'sel,  (GODFREY,)  an  American  major- 
general  and  engineer,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  about 
1835,  graduated  at  West  Point,  second  in  his  class,  in 
1855.  He  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Butler  in  the 
expedition  to  New  Orleans,  April,  1862,  and  rendered 
important  services  as  chief  engineer  of  Butler's  army. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  under  General  Banks  in 
Louisiana  in  1863,  and  a  division  in  the  operations 
against  Petersburg,  Virginia,  in  the  summer  of  1864. 
He  was  designated  by  General  Grant  to  command  the 
land-forces  of  an  expedition  against  Wilmington  in 
December,  1864,  but  he  actually  served  as  second  in 
command  under  General  Butler,  and  decided  that  it 
would  be  a  rash  sacrifice  of  life  to  assault  the  fort  with 
6000'  men.  His  command  was  foremost  in  the  occupa 
tion  of  Richmond,  April  3,  1865.  He  is  a  major  of 
engineers  in  the  regular  army. 

See  REID,  "  Ohio  in  the  War,"  1868,  p.  789. 

Weitzel,  wlt'sel,  (JOHANNES,)  a  German  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Johannisberg  in  1771.  He  published 
a  "History  of  Political  Science,"  "Letters  from  the 


Rhine,"  and  other  works,  on  various  subjects.  Died  in 
1837. 

Wel'by,  (AMELIA  B.,)  an  American  poetess,  born  at 
Saint  Michael's,  Maryland,  in  1821.  She  subsequently 
removed  to  Louisville,  Kentucky,  where  she  contributed 
numerous  poems  to  the  "  Louisville  Journal,"  under  the 
signature  of  "Amelia."  Died  in  1852. 

See  GRISWOLD,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 


Welch,  QOHN,)  a  Scottish  minister,  born  about  1570, 
married  a  daughter  of  John  Knox.  He  preached  at 
Ayr,  was  banished  in  1606  or  1616,  and  went  to  France. 
Died  about  1622. 

Welch'man,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Banbury  about  1665.  He  became  Archdeacon  of 
Cardigan,  and  published  "The  Thirty-Nine  Articles 
illustrated  with  Notes."  Died  in  1739. 

Welcker,  wel'ker,  (FRIEDRICH  GOTTLIEB,)  an  emi 
nent  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Griinberg  in  1784. 
Having  studied  at  Giessen,  he  resided  two  years  at 
Rome,  and,  after  his  return,  became  successively  pro 
fessor  of  archaeology  and  Greek  literature  at  Giessen 
and  Gottingen,  and  professor  of  philology  at  Bonn, 
being  also  appointed  chief  librarian  in  the  last-named 
university.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  works 
we  may  name  "Die  Aeschyleische  Trilogie  Prometheus," 
etc.,  "On  a  Cretan  Colony  in  Thebes,  the  Goddess 
Europa  and  Cadmus,"  (1824,)  "The  Epic  Cyclus;  or, 
The  Homeric  Poets,"  (1835,)  and  "Short  Essays  on 
Grecian  Literary  History,"  (1844.)  He  also  wrote  "The 
Life  of  Zoega,  with  a  Collection  of  his  Letters,"  etc. 
Died  in  1868. 

See  BROCKHAUS.  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Welcker,  (KARL  THEODOR,)  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  Upper  Hesse  in  1790.  lie  studied 
at  Giessen  and  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently  became 
professor  of  law  at  Kiel.  He  was  elected  to  the  Upper 
Chamber  of  Baden  in  1831,  and  soon  after  assisted  in 
founding  the  Liberal  journal  entitled  "  Der  Freisinnige." 
P"or  the  political  opinions  expressed  in  this  gazette  he 
was  arrested,  but  released  after  a  short  imprisonment. 
He  was  a  deputy  to  the  German  National  Assembly  in 
1848.  He  wrote  several  able  political  treatises,  and 
assisted  Rotteck  in  the  "Staatslexikon."  Died  in  1869. 

Weld,  (CHARLES  RICHARD,)  an  English  writer,  born 
at  Windsor  in  1818.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Royal 
Society,"  (1847,)  and  other  works. 

Weld,  (Rev.  LEWIS,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Hampton,  Connecticut,  about  1796.  He  was  principal 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Hartford. 
Died  in  1853. 

His  brother,  THEODORE  D.,  was  distinguished  as  an 
opponent  of  slavery. 

Weld,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  cardinal,  born  in  Dor 
setshire  in  1773;  died  in  1837. 

Welden,  von,  fon  wel'den,  (LuDWiG,)  BARON,  a 
German  officer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1782.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1813-15, 
and  was  made  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1836.  He  died 
in  1852,  having  been  previously  appointed  master  of 
the  ordnance. 

Wel'dpn,  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  was  born  at  Chichester  about  1670.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Purcell,  and  in  1708  became 
organist  of  the  chapel  royal.  His  anthems  are  regarded 
as  master-pieces ;  he  also  produced  several  songs,  and 
other  works  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1736. 

Welee-ed-Deen  or  Weli-Eddin,  wel'ee  ed-deen', 
(Ahmed,  aH'med,)  a  famous  Turkish  poet,  born  about 
1438.  He  obtained  the  office  of  vizier  under  Mahomet 
II.  Died  in  1495. 

Welhaven,  wel'ha'ven,  QOHANN  SEBASTIAN,)  a 
Norwegian  poet,  born  at  Bergen  in  1807,  has  published 
"Half  a  Hundred  Poems,"  ("  Halvhundret  Digte," 
1848,)  "Pictures  of  Travel  and  Poems,"  ("  Reisebilleder 
og  Digte,"  1851,)  and  a  criticism  on  the  poet  Wergeland, 
entitled  "  Henrik  Wergeland's  Poetry  and  Polemics." 
He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Christiania  in 
1846. 

Wellekens,  wel'leh-kens,  (JOHN  BAPTIST,)  a  Dutch 
pastoral  poet,  born  at  Alost  in  1658,  passed  eleven  years 
in  Italy,  whither  he  went  about  1676.  His  idyls  are 
praised  as  natural  and  true.  Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1726. 

Wellens,  wel'lens,  (JACQUES  THOMAS  JOSEPH,)  a 
learned  and  benevolent  Flemish  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1726,  became  bishop  of  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1784. 

Weller,  wel'ler,  [Lat.  WELLE'RUS,]  (JAKOB,)  a  Ger 
man  scholar  and  theologian,  born  in  1602,  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Wittenberg,  and  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  Mw. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


WELLER 


2250 


WELLINGTON 


1646  first  court  preacher  at  Dresden.     His  "New  Greek 
Grammar"    ("Grammatica  Graeca  Nova")   was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.     Died  in  1664. 
See  REICHMANN,  "Memoria  J.  Welleri,"  1664. 

Weller,  wel'ler,  [Lat.  WELLE'RUS,]  (JEROME  or 
HIERONYMUS,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Freyberg, 
in  Misnia,  in  1499.  He  was  in  early  youth  a  favourite 
disciple  of  Luther,  in  whose  house  he  lived  eight  years. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Freyberg,  and 
propagated  the  doctrines  of  Luther  by  his  sermons  and 
writings,  which  had  a  high  reputation.  Died  in  1572. 

See  LEMMEL,  "  Wellerus  redivivus  ;"  HEMPEL,  "  Life  of  Weller," 
in  Latin  verse. 

Wellerus.     See  WELLER. 

Welles,  w£lz,  (GIDEON,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1802.  He  studied 
law,  and  became  about  1826  editor  of  the  "Hartford 
Times,"  a  Democratic  journal.  He  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  Connecticut  in  1827,  and  was  appointed 
chief  of  one  of  the  bureaus  of  the  navy  department  in 
1846.  About  1854  he  separated  from  the  Democratic 
party  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  slavery,  and  joined 
the  Republicans.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
navy  in  March,  1861,  and,  after  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln,  was  retained  in  office  by  Johnson  until  the  close 
of  his  administration  in  March,  1869.  j3<-&<&,  r&y8  • 

Wellesley,  (Sir  ARTHUR.)     See  WELLINGTON. 

Wellesley,  svelz'le,  (Lord  CHARLES,)  the  second  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
1808.  He  entered  the  army,  and  became  a  colonel  about 
1851.  He  was  elected  in  1842  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  Conservatives. 
Died  in  1858^ 

Wellesley,  (RICHARD  COLLEY,)  Marquis  Wellesley, 
an  able  statesman,  born  in  Dublin  in  1760,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Garret,  first  Earl  of  Mornington,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  studied 
at  Eton,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  classical  scholar. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1781,  he  became  Earl  of 
Mornington,  and  entered  the  Irish  House  of  Lords.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  George  III.  by  his  course  on  the 
subject  of  the  regency  in  1789,  and  at  the  next  general 
election  was  returned  to  the  English  House  of  Commons 
for  Windsor.  In  1793  he  was  sworn  in  a  member  of  the 
British  privy  council.  He  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  India  in  October,  1797,  and  raised  to  the 
British  peerage,  as  Baron  Mornington.  In  1798  he 
declared  war  against  Tippoo  Sahib,  Sultan  of  Mysore, 
who  had  given  offence  by  intrigues  or  negotiations  with 
the  French.  The  British  army  gained  victories  at  Mal- 
lavelly  and  Seringapatam,  and  Tippoo  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1799.  Lord  Mornington  was  created  Marquis 
Wellesley  in  December,  1799.  About  1803  he  waged 
war  against  the  Mahrattas,  from  whom  he  conquered 
the  region  between  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  He  resigned 
in  1805,  became  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in 
December,  1809,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  January, 
1812.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Perceval,  (1812,)  the  Marquis 
Wellesley,  at  the  request  of  the  prince-regent,  made  an 
unsuccessful  effort  to  form  a  coalition  ministry.  He  was 
appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  December,  1821. 
Being  a  zealous  friend  of  Catholic  emancipation,  he 
resigned  when  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
became  prime  minister,  in  1828,  because  the  duke 
opposed  the  Catholic  claims.  He  served  as  lord  lieu 
tenant  of  Ireland  for  a  short  time  in  1833-34.  He  died 
in  September,  1842,  leaving  no  children,  although  he 
was  twice  married. 

See  R.  R.  PEARCE,  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Marquis 
Wellesley,"  3  vols.,  1846. 

Wel'ling-ton,  (ARTHUR  WELLESLEY,)  first  DUKE 
OF,  a  celebrated  British  general  and  statesman,  born  in 
Dublin  or  at  Dangan  Castle,  in  the  county  of  Meath, 
Ireland,  on  the  ist  of  May,  1769.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Garret  Wesley,  first  Earl  of  Mornington,  and  Anne 
Hill  Trevor,  a  daughter  of  Viscount  Dungannon.  The 
original  name  of  the  family  was  exchanged  for  Wellesley 
about  1797  by  the  subject  of  this  article  or  by  his  eldest 
brother.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  a  military 
academy  of  Angers,  in  France.  He  received  in  March, 
1787,  a  commission  as  ensign  in  the  seventy-third  regi 


ment  of  foot,  became  a  lieutenant  in  December  of  that 
year,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  June,  1791. 
Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  major  in  April,  1793, 
he  acquired  by  purchase  that  of  lieutenant-colonel  of 
the  thirty-third  regiment  of  foot  in  September  of  the 
same  year.  In  1794  he  served  in  the  Low  Countries 
under  the  Duke  of  York,  whom  the  French  general 
Pichegm  compelled  to  retreat  to  Bremen.  During  this 
disastrous  retreat  Colonel  Wesley  commanded  a  brigade, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  and  intrepidity. 

Having  been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1796, 
he  was  ordered  to  India,  where  he  arrived  in  February, 
1797.  In  1798  his  eldest  brother,  Lord  Mornington, 
became  Governor-General  of  India,  and  declared  war 
against  Tippoo  Sahib.  Colonel  Wellesley  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Mallavelly  and  the  capture  of  Seringa 
patam,  of  which  he  was  appointed  governor  in  July, 
1799.  "During  several  years  that  he  held  the  command 
in  Mysore,"  says  C.  MacFarland,  "  he  was  fully  occupied 
in  organizing  the  civil  and  military  administration  of 
the  country ;  and  in  the  execution  of  this  task  he  im 
proved  his  natural  talents  for  business,  and  displayed 
that  quickness  of  perception  and  that  sagacity  and  self- 
command  which  have  characterized  him  throughout  the 
whole  course  of  his  military  career." 

He  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  April,  1802, 
was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  all  the  British 
and  allied  troops  serving  in  the  territories  of  the  Peishwa 
and  the  Nizam  in  1803,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Mahrattas  at  Assaye  in  September  of  that  year. 
In  this  battle  he  had  two  horses  killed  under  him. 
Having  obtained  in  February,  1805,  leave  to  return  to 
England,  he  arrived  there  in  the  ensuing  September. 
In  the  next  November  he  was  sent  to  Holland  with 
an  army  which  was  commanded  by  Lord  Cathcart,  and 
which  returned  to  England  in  February,  1806,  without 
having  encountered  the  enemy. 

In  April,  1806,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  married  Lady 
Catherine  Pakenham,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Long 
ford.  He  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for 
the  borough  of  Rye  in  1806,  and  was  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  in  April,  1807.  In  August  of  that 
year  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  which  in 
vaded  Denmark,  and  defeated  the  Danes  at  Kioge.  He 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  April, 
1808,  and  in  the  ensuing  June  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  an  army  of  about  10,000  men  which 
was  sent  to  Spain  to  fight  against  the  French.  He 
reached  Corunna  in  July ;  but,  as  the  Spanish  Junta 
declined  the  assistance  of  a  British  auxiliary  force,  he 
landed  at  Mondego  Bay,  in  Portugal,  which  country  was 
then  occupied  by  a  French  army  under  Junot.  The 
British  forces,  marching  towards  Lisbon,  defeated  a  divi 
sion  of  the  Frenclvarmy  at  Roli9a  in  August,  1808.  A 
few  days  after  this  affair  his  army  was  largely  reinforced, 
but  he  was  superseded  in  the  command.  The  ministers 
appointed  Sir  Hew  Dalrymple  commander-in-chief,  Sir 
Harry  Burrard  second  in  command,  and  Sir  John  Moore 
third.  Sir  Arthur  was  thus  reduced  from  first  to  fourth 
in  command.  He  repulsed  the  French  who  attacked 
him  at  Vimeira,  August  21.  The  French  having  evacu 
ated  Portugal,  in  accordance  with  the  Convention  of 
Cintra,  in  September,  1808,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  re 
turned  to  England,  and  resumed  the  place  of  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland.  In  January,  1809,  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Parliament  for  his  services  in  Portugal. 

The  victorious  march  of  Napoleon  to  Madrid  aird  the 
defeat  of  Sir  John  Moore  at  Corunna  induced  the  British 
government  to  increase  their  forces  in  the  Peninsula 
and  to  aid  both  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards.  General 
Wellesley,  having  been  appointed  commander-in-chief, 
arrived  at  Lisbon  in  April,  1809,  and  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  an  army  of  about  25,000  men.  On  the  I2th 
of  May  he  defeated  Soult  at  Oporto.  The  passage  of 
the  river  Douro  at  this  time,  in  the  presence  of  10,000 
Frenchmen,  is  considered  one  of  his  most  brilliant 
achievements.  About  the  end  of  June,  1809,  he  marched 
into  Spain,  which  was  occupied  by  several  French 
armies,  widely  separated,  and  commanded  by  Soult, 
Victor,  Suchet,  and  others.  A  Spanish  army  under 
General  Cuesta  took  the  field  against  the  French  and 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WELLINGTON 


2251 


WELLINGTON 


joined  the  army  of  General  Wellesley,  who  encountered 
Marshal  Victor  on  the  22d  of  July  at  Talavera.  In  the 
battle  which  ensued  at  this  place,  the  British  claimed 
the  victory,  but  they  did  not  pursue  the  retiring  enemy. 
Sir  Arthur  wrote,  on  the  24th  of  July,  "  I  am  not  able 
to  follow  the  enemy  as  I  could  wish,  .  .  .  owing  to  my 
having  found  it  impossible  to  procure  even  one  mule  or 
cart  in  Spain.  My  troops  have  been  in  actual  want  of 
provisions  for  the  last  two  days."  Victor,  having  been 
reinforced,  attacked  the  British  at  Talavera  on  the  271)1 
of  July,  renewed  the  fight  on  the  28th,  and  was  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss.  The  approach  of  several  French  armies, 
superior  in  number  to  his  own,  induced  Sir  Arthur  to 
retreat  by  way  of  Badajoz  towards  Portugal.  He  after 
wards  pursued  a  cautious  Fabian  policy.  In  September, 
1809,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  titles  of 
Baron  Douro  of  Wellesley  and  Viscount  Wellington  of 
Talavera. 

The  battle  of  Talavera  was  the  last  action  of  the 
British  army  in  the  campaign  of  1809.  A  large  Spanish 
army  was  routed,  with  great  loss,  at  Ocana  in  Novem 
ber,  and  about  the  same  time  the  French  defeated 
another  army  of  20,000  Spaniards.  On  learning  these 
events,  Lord  Wellington  wrote,  "  I  lament  that  a  cause 
which  promised  so  well  a  few  weeks  ago  should  have 
been  so  completely  lost  by  the  ignorance,  presumption, 
and  mismanagement  of  those  to  whose  direction  it  was 
intrusted."  He  prepared  for  the  campaign  of  1810 
by  the  construction  of  the  celebrated  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  near  Lisbon,  and  fixed  his  head-quarters  at 
Viseu  in  January.  His  army,  including  the  Portuguese, 
amounted  to  about  54,000  men.  A  large  French  army, 
commanded  by  Massena,  approached  Portugal  from  the 
northeast  in  the  summer  of  1810.  The  French  having 
taken  Almeida  in  August,  after  a  short  siege,  Lord  Wel 
lington  fell  back  to  the  valley  of  the  Mondego,  and  took 
a  strong  position  near  Coimbra,  along  the  ridge  of 
Busaco.  Here  he  was  attacked  on  the  271)1  of  Septem 
ber  by  the  French,  who  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  which 
the  English  writers  estimate  at  4000  killed  and  wounded. 
A  few  days  after  this  battle,  Lord  Wellington  was  com 
pelled  to  retreat  towards  Lisbon.  His  army  entered 
the  strong  defences  of  Torres  Vedras  about  the  8th  of 
October.  Massena  made  several  unsuccessful  attacks 
on  these  lines,  lost  many  men  by  disease,  and  retired  in 
November  to  Santarem,  where  he  passed  the  winter. 
Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1810.  Lord  Wellington 
complained  that  he  was  not  efficiently  supported  by  the 
Portuguese  regency,  some  members  of  which  perversely 
endeavoured  to  thwart  his  plans.  In  a  letter  dated 
October  6,  addressed  to  Mr.  Stuart,  he  says,  "  As  for 
Principal  Souza,  I  beg  you  to  tell  him,  from  me,  that  I 
have  had  no  satisfaction  in  transacting  the  business  of 
his  country  since  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  govern 
ment.  .  .  .  Either  he  must  quit  the  country,  or  I  will." 

During  the  months  of  January  and  February  the 
hostile  armies  in  Portugal  remained  stationary.  Mar 
shal  Soult,  who  commanded  in  Andalusia,  was  ordered 
to  act  in  concert  with  Massena  by  attacking  Portugal 
south  of  the  Tagus.  Massena,  whose  position  was  ren 
dered  untenable  by  want  of  provisions,  began  about  the 
4th  of  March  to  move  his  army  northward,  and  was 
followed  by  the  British.  On  the  nth  of  March  the 
strong  fortress  of  Badajoz  was  taken  by  Marshal  Soult. 
The  British  army  defeated  that  of  Massena  on  the  3d 
of  April,  at  the  battle  of  Sabugal,  which  Lord  Welling 
ton  described  as  "  one  of  the  most  glorious  actions  that 
British  troops  were  ever  engaged  in."  On  the  6th  the 
French  crossed  the  Aguecla  into  Spain,  and  thus  ter 
minated  their  invasion  of  Portugal.  They  left  a  garrison 
in  Almeida,  which  was  blockaded  by  the  British.  In 
order  to  relieve  this  garrison,  Massena  marched  back 
from  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  attacked  the  enemy  at  Fuentes 
de  Onoro.  After  a  pitched  battle,  which  ended  on  the 
5th  of  May,  the  French  were  repulsed,  and  abandoned 
Almeida. 

In  the  mean  time  an  allied  army  under  General 
Beresford  invested  Badajoz  about  the  4th  of  May,  and 
Marshal  Soult  moved,  with  inferior  numbers,  to  relieve 
that  place.  The  armies  met  at  Albuera  on  the  i6th  of 
May,  and  a  severe  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  allies 


claimed  the  victory,  but  admitted  that  they  lost  about 
7000  men  killed  and  wounded.  Soult  retired  to  Seville, 
and  Lord  Wellington,  who  arrived  at  Albuera  about  the 
2Oth  of  May,  ordered  the  siege  of  Badajoz  to  be  re 
sumed.  Having  failed  in  several  attempts  to  take  that 
place  by  assault  in  June,  he  retired  towards  the  north 
of  Portugal,  and  remained  on  the  defensive,  in  a  position 
on  the  Coa,  during  the  autumn  of  1811.  "Wellington 
was  aware,"  says  Jules  Maurel,  "  that  Fortune  could  not 
change  sides  at  a  leap,  and  that  it  was  only  after  repeated 
trials  that  you  could  win  her  favours  ;  .  .  .  and  that 
before  acquiring  the  art  of  gaining  great  victories  it  was 
necessary  to  begin  by  learning  to  avoid  defeats,  and  for  a 
time  to  decline  all  engagements."  Having  gained  the 
confidence  of  his  troops  by  his  extraordinary  success 
while  acting  on  the  defensive,  he  at  length  assumed 
the  offensive,  and  showed,  when  those  qualities  were 
demanded,  that  his  enterprise  and  promptitude  were 
not  inferior  to  his  prudence. 

In  January,  1812,  he  made  a  rapid  march  to  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  which  he  took  by  storm  on  the  igth  of  that 
month.  He  also  took  Badajoz  in  April,  before  the 
French  army  could  come  to  relieve  that  place.  In  the 
assault  of  Badajoz  the  allies  lost  1000  killed  and  3786 
wounded.  On  the  22d  of  July  Lord  Wellington  gained 
an  important  victory  over  Marshal  Marmont  at  Sala 
manca.  He  entered  Madrid  in  triumph  on  the  I2th  of 
August,  soon  after  which  Soult  raised  the  blockade  of 
Cadiz  and  concentrated  his  forces  at  Granada.  Leaving 
two  divisions  at  Madrid,  Wellington  moved  his  army 
northward,  entered  Valladolid  on  the  7th  of  September, 
and  marched  thence  to  Burgos,  the  castle  of  which  was 
defended  by  a  garrison  of  2000  Frenchmen.  He  spent 
nearly  five  weeks  in  the  siege  of  this  place,  which  he 
could  not  take,  and  about  the  2ist  of  October  he  began 
to  retreat  towards  Portugal  through  Salamanca,  closely 
pursued  by  General  Souham.  The  campaign  of  1812 
closed  without  any  other  battles.  The  British  general 
was  rewarded  for  his  victory  at  Salamanca  by  the  title  of 
Marquis  of  Wellington.  About  the  end  of  1812  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  armies  by 
the  regency  of  Spain. 

The  campaign  of  1813  opened  in  May,  by  the  march 
of  the  allies  across  the  Dour.o  to  Valladolid.  The 
French  army,  abandoning  Burgos  on  the  I2th  of  June, 
retired  across  the  Ebro,  and  were  overtaken  at  Vitoria, 
where  Wellington  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Mar 
shal  Jourdan  on  the  2ist  of  June.  The  allies  took  here 
an  immense  quantity  of  booty. 

When  Napoleon  received'  tidings  of  the  disaster  at 
Vitoria,  he  sent  Soult  to  Spain  as  commander-in-chief. 
Soult  attacked  the  allies  near  Pampeluna  on  the  28th 
and  3Oth  of  July,  but  was  repulsed.  These  actions  are 
sometimes  called  "The  Battles  of  the  Pyrenees."  Thus 
was  terminated  the  French  occupation  of  Spain. 

Wellington's  success  in  the  wars  of  the  peninsula 
must  be  ascribed  in  no  small  measure  to  the  character 
which  he  established  for  probity  and  truthfulness.  With 
true  moral  heroism,  he  refused  to  indulge  in  the  slightest 
misrepresentation,  even  to  save  his  own  fame.  In  this 
respect  his  character  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  that 
of  his  great  antagonist,  Napoleon.  In  one  of  his  de 
spatches  he  says,  "I  see  a  disposition  exists  to  blame 
the  government  for  the  failure  of  the  siege  of  Burgos. 
The  government  had  nothing  to  say  to  the  siege  ;  it 
was  entirely  my  own  act."  When  his  allies  in  Portugal 
and  Spain  became  at  length  acquainted  with  his  charac 
ter,  they  believed  with  implicit  confidence  whatever  he 
told  them,  and  he  thus  acquired  a  moral  power  equal  to 
the  force  of  mighty  armies.  Afterwards,  in  carrying  out 
a  policy  as  wise  as  it  was  humane,  he  refused  even  in  an 
enemy's  country  (in  France)  to  allow  his  own  troops,  or 
those  of  his  Spanish  allies,  to  support  themselves  by 
plunder,  for  his  object  was  not  merely  to  maintain  his 
army,  but  to  conciliate  the  people.  He  had  been  among 
the  first  to  perceive  how  an  opposite  policy  towards  the 
nations  he  had  conquered  was  gradually,  but  surely,  un 
dermining  the  colossal  power  of  Napoleon  ;  the  plainest 
dictates  of  common  sense,  as  well  as  motives  of  a  higher 
character,  preserved  Wellington  from  the  commission  of 
a  similar  error. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,     (J^P'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WELLINGTON 


2252 


WELLS 


About  the  loth  of  November  Lord  Wellington  marched 
across  the  frontier  into  France.  He  fought  with  success 
several  battles  near  Bayonne  between  the  gth  and  131!! 
of  December,  1813.  On  the  27th  of  February,  1814,  he 
defeated  Soult  at  Orthez,  from  which  the  French  retreated 
to  Toulouse.  The  allies  gained  another  victory  at  Tou 
louse  on  the  roth  of  April,  but  they  lost  in  this  battle 
about  4600  men.  The  report  of  the  abdication  of  Na 
poleon  arrived  at  Toulouse  on  the  I2th,  and  hostilities 
were  suspended  on  the  i8th  of  April.  Wellington  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  duke  on  the  3d  of  May,  and, 
after  visits  to  Paris  and  Madrid,  took  leave  of  his  army 
on  the  I4th  of  June.  Having  returned  to  England,  he 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  on  the  aSth  of  June. 
The  House  of  Commons  voted  ,£400,000  for  the  support 
of  his  dignity.  In  August,  1814,  he  was  sent  as  ambas 
sador-extraordinary  to  the  court  of  France.  With  sev 
eral  colleagues,  he  represented  England  at  the  Congress 
of  Vienna,  which  assembled  in  January,  1815.  He  was 
at  Vienna  when  he  received  intelligence  that  Napoleon 
had  returned  to  France. 

In  April  Wellington  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  in  Flanders,  consisting  of  about  76,000 
men,  mostly  British  and  Dutch.  A  Prussian  army  under 
General  Bliicher,  who  had  about  80,000  men,  was  ready  to 
act  in  concert  with  Wellington.  To  oppose  these  armies 
Napoleon  raised  about  115,000  men.  On  the  nth  of 
June  the  French  emperor  quitted  Paris  to  open  the  cam 
paign,  and  exclaimed,  "  I  go  to  measure  myself  with  this 
Wellington,"  ("Je  vais  me  mesurer  avec  ce  Villainton.") 
Wellington  attended  a  ball  at  Brussels  on  the  evening  of 
the  1 5th  of  June,  and  his  army  began  to  march  on  the 
morning  of  the  i6th.  The  Prussians  were  defeated  with 
severe  loss  at  Ligny  on  the  afternoon  of  the  l6th,  and 
about  the  same  time  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought 
between  Marshal  Ney  and  the  allies  at  Quatre-Bras.  Blii 
cher  is  said  to  have  lost  about  12,000  killed  and  wounded 
at  Ligny.  On  the  morning  of  the  171)1,  Wellington  made 
a  retrograde  movement  on  Waterloo,  where  he  was  at 
tacked  by  the  French  about  ten  A.M.  on  the  i8th  of  June. 
According  to  J.  Maurel,  Wellington  had  then  70,000 
men,  of  whom  37,890  were  British  ;  and  Napoleon  had 
75,000,  excluding  the  detachment  of  Grouchy.  It  was 
the  object  of  Napoleon  to  drive  the  enemy  from  his 
position  before  the  arrival  of  the  Prussian  army.  He 
had  made  several  obstinate  attacks,  without  success,  when 
General  Bulow  reached  the  field  with  16,000  Prussians, 
at  four  P.M.,  and  decided  the  victory.  Bliicher  arrived 
about  seven  o'clock,  and  pursued  the  retreating  French. 
The  loss  of  the  victors  on  this  day  was  immense.  The 
British  and  Hanoverians  alone  lost  2432  killed  and 
9528  wounded. 

Wellington  and  the  allied  armies  entered  Paris  with 
out  resistance  about  the  7th  of  July.  He  restrained  the 
excesses  of  Bliicher,  who  was  about  to  blow  up  the  bridge 
of  Jena  and  to  commit  other  acts  of  vengeance.  His 
first  thought  after  the  victory  of  June  18  was  to  favour 
the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  to  oppose  the  dis 
memberment  of  France.  The  allied  powers  resolved  to 
maintain  an  army  of  occupation  in  France  for  five  years, 
and  gave  the  command  of  that  army  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  By  his  advice,  the  period  was^  shortened, 
and  the  allied  army  evacuated  France  about  the  end  of 
1818.  He  became  master-general  of  the  ordnance  and 
a  member  of  the  cabinet  in  January,  1819,  represented 
England  at  the  Congress  of  Verona  in  1822,  and  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Russia  in  1826.  He  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  York  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in 
January,  1827. 

In  politics  Wellington  was  a  staunch  Tory.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  long  contest  which  he  maintained  in 
order  to  preserve  Europe  from  the  revolutionary  or  in 
novating  spirit  of  the  French  may  have  contributed  to 
strengthen  those  principles  of  rigid  conservatism  by 
which  his  political  career  was  distinguished.  When 
Canning  became  premier,  in  April,  1827,  Wellington 
resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Goderich  as  prime  minister  in  January,  1828.  The  new 
ministry  opposed  the  motion  of  Lord  John  Russell  to 
repeal  the  test  and  corporation  acts,  but  were  defeated 
by  a  majority  of  forty-four  in  the  House  of  Commons. 


Wellington  then  yielded,  and  procured  its  passage  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  lie  was  an  opponent  of  free  trade 
and  electoral  reform,  both  of  which  were  demanded  by 
an  ever-growing  majority  of  the  nation.  He  at  first 
resisted  the  effort  to  emancipate  the  Roman  Catholics 
from  civil  and  political  disabilities,  but  at  length  deemed 
it  expedient  to  yield  to  the  popular  will.  The  bill  for 
the  relief  of  Roman  Catholics  was  passed  by  large 
majorities  in  both  houses  in  March  and  April,  1829. 

The  strength  of  the  Tory  party  was  impaired  by  the 
death  of  George  IV.,  June,  1830,  and  the  French  revo 
lution  of  the  ensuing  month  gave  an  impetus  to  the  cause 
of  reform  in  England.  In  the  new  Parliament,  which 
met  in  October,  1830,  the  friends  of  reform  had  a 
majority,  but  the  duke  assumed  an  attitude  of  obstinate 
resistance  to  the  movement.  He  declared  that  "  the 
country  already  possessed  a  legislature  which  answered 
all  the  good  purposes  of  legislation  ;  that  the  system  of 
representation  possessed  the  full  and  entire  confidence 
of  the  country."  Having  provoked  a  violent  excitement 
by  such  language,  and  rendered  himself  extremely 
unpopular,  he  resigned  in  November,  1830.  He  was 
hooted  by  the  populace  of  London  on  the  i8th  of  June, 
1832.  In  December,  1834,  Sir  Robert  Peel  became 
prime  minister,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs.  They  resigned  in  April,  1835.  He 
had  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  formed  by  Peel  in  1841,  but 
was  not  charged  with  official  functions.  Although  he 
had  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  his  influence 
decided  the  House  of  Lords  to  consent  to  the  repeal 
after  it  had  passed  the  House  of  Commons  in  May,  1846. 
He  died  at  Walmer  Castle  on  the  I4th  of  September, 
1852,  leaving  his  title  to  his  eldest  son,  Arthur,  who  is 
the  present  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  also  had  a  son 
Charles. 

Comparing  the  Duke  of  Wellington  with  Napoleon, 
General  William  F.  P.  Napier  says,  "  Firm,  tranquil, 
and  stubborn  in  resistance,  vehement  and  obstinate  in 
attack  ;  bold,  when  there  was  a  call  for  daring  ;  more 
inclined  to  operate  by  a  flank  than  by  a  front  attack — in 
all  these  things  they  resembled  and  matched  each  other  ; 
but  in  the  art  of  following  up  his  point  and  of  making 
the  most  of  victory,  the  English  general  was  far  behind 
Napoleon.  The  battle  of  Wellington  was  like  the  heavy 
blow  of  the  battering-ram,  that  strikes  straight  and  hard 
and  makes  a  great  hole  in  the  wall.  The  battle  of  Na 
poleon  was  like  the  rush  and  irruption  of  a  gigantic  sea, 
which,  descending  from  a  mighty  height,  bursts  through 
all  obstacles  and  inundates  the  whole  country  to  a  great 
distance." 

See  JULES  MAUREL,  "Wellington:  his  Character,  his  Actions, 
and  his  Writings,"  1853;  W.  H.  MAXWELL,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,"  3  vols.,  1839;  CHAKLES  MACFARLANE,  "  Life  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,"  1851  ;  SOUTHEY,  "  Life  of  Wellington,"  1821  ; 
SHEREK,  "  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols., 
1832  ;  WILSON,  "  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols.,  1853-55  ; 
DE  BRIAI.MONT,  "  Vie  du  Due  de  Wellington,"  3  vols.,  1858;  GLEIG, 
"Life  of  Wellington,"  1862;  CHARLES  D.  YONGE,  "  Life  of  Welling 
ton,"  1860;  L.  DE  LOMENIE,  "Lord  Wellington,  par  un  Hoinme  de 
Rien,"  1842;  GEORGE  ELLIOT,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington," 
1814;  GEORGE  SOANE,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols., 
1839-40;  A.  COOPER,  "Life  of  Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington,"  1850; 
W.  F.  P.  NAPIER,  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula;"  "De 
spatches  and  Correspondence  of  the  Duke  ot  Wellington,"  published 
by  COLONEL  GURWOOD,  12  vols.,  1852  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April  and  July,  1815,  and  July,  1866. 

Wells,  (CHARLES  WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  physi 
cian,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1757.  Having  studied  at  Edinburgh,  he 
settled  in  London,  and  was  appointed  in  1800  physician 
to  Saint  Thomas's  Hospital.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  contributed  to  their  "Transactions" 
"  Experiments  on  the  Colour  of  the  Blood,"  and  other 
treatises.  His  principal  work  is  an  "Essay  upon  Dew," 
(1814,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1817. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1821. 

Wells,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wilt 
shire  about  1665,  published  "The  Geography  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1727. 

Wells,  (HORACE,)  M.D.,  born  at  Hartford,  Vermont, 
January  21,  1815,  studied  and  practised  dentistry  in 
Boston.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  employ 
anaesthetics  successfully,  by  means  of  inhalation,  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  pain  in  dental  operations.  On 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WELLS 


2253 


WENTZEL 


the  nth  of  December,  1844,  Dr.  Wells,  then  residing  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  was  placed,  at  his  own  request, 
under  the  influence  of  nitrous  oxide  gas,  and  a  large 
molar  tooth  was  extracted  by  Mr.  Riggs,  causing  scarcely 
any  perceptible  pain.  After  that  date,  Dr.  Wells,  and 
other  dentists  of  Hartford,  continued  with  great  success 
to  employ  the  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  an  anaesthetic  for 
nearly  two  years,  when,  attention  having  been  directed — 
chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Wm.  T.  G.  Morton,  of 
Boston — to  the  anaesthetic  properties  of  sulphuric  ether 
and  chloroform,  those  agents,  as  being  more  easily  pro 
cured  or  applied,  were  generally  substituted  for  the 
nitrous  oxide  gas.  Dr.  Wells,  while  investigating  with 
his  usual  ardour  the  relative  value  of  these  different  an 
aesthetics,  seriously  injured  himself,  as  it  would  appear, 
by  the  inhalation  of  chloroform,  so  that,  his  reason  being 
unhinged,  he  committed  suicide  in  New  York  in  January, 
1848.  In  weighing  the  respective  claims  of  Dr.  Wells 
and  Dr.  Morton,  we  feel  bound,  after  a  careful  examina 
tion,  to  award  to  the  former  the  credit  of  having  been 
the  first  to  conceive  of,  and  to  carry  to  a  successful  issue, 
the  use  of  anaesthetic  inhalation  in  surgical  operations, 
while  to  the  latter  belongs  the  distinguished  merit  of 
having  done  more  than  any  other,  or  all  others,  to  make 
this  invaluable  discovery  known  to  people  of  all  classes 
and  in  both  hemispheres. 

See  "  Testimonial  of  the  Members  of  the  Medical  Profession  of 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston  in  behalf  of  W.  T.  G.  Morton, 
M.U.,"  i  Mo;  and  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Modern  Anaes 
thesia,"  by  the  HON.  TKUMAN  SMITH,  1867,  including  a  "Life  of 
Horace  Wells,  M.D.,"  by  L>R.  P.  W.  ELLSWORTH. 

Wells,  (JoHN  DOANE,)  an  American  physician,  emi 
nent  as  a  lecturer  on  anatomy,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1799.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical 
school  of  Maine.  Died  in  Boston  in  1830. 

Wellwood,  (Sir   HENRY  MOXCRIEFF.)     See  MON- 

CKIKFF,    (IlKNKY.) 

Well'wood,  (JAMES  or  THOMAS,)  a  Scottish  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1652,  pub 
lished  "Memoirs  of  English  Affairs  from  1588  to  the 
Revolution  of  1688."  Died  in  1716. 

Welschow,  ve'l'sho,  (JOHANN  MATTHIAS,)  a  Danish 
historian,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1796.  He  has  written 
on  Danish  history. 

Welser,  wSl'ser,  or  Velser,  (BARTHOLOMAUS,)  a 
German  nobleman  of  great  wealth,  was  a  native  of 
Augsburg.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Charles 
V.,  who  made  him  a  privy  councillor. 

Welser,  [Lat.  VELSE'RUS,]  (MARCUS,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1558.  He  wrote  several 
historical  and  philological  treatises,  in  Latin,  and  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Galileo,  who  dedicated  to  him  one  of 
his  works.  Died  in  1614. 

See  C.  ARNOLD,  "Vita  M.  Velseri,"  1682. 

Welser,  (PHILIPPINE,)  a  niece  of  Bartholomaus,  no 
ticed  above,  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  talents, 
and  was  privately  married  in  1550  to  the  archduke 
Ferdinand,  son  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  After  her 
father-in-law  became  reconciled  to  the  marriage,  he 
created  her  Margravine  of  Burgau.  Died  in  1580. 

Wel'sted,  (LEONARD,)  an  English  poet,  bum  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1689.  His  principal  poem  is  en 
titled  "The  Triumvirate,"  (1718,)  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  intended  for  a  satire  on  Pope,  who  retaliated 
by  his  allusions  to  Welsted  in  the  second  and  third 
books  of  the  "  Dunciad."  Died  in  1749. 

Wenceslaus,  weVses-laus  or  wgnt'ses-lowss',  [Fr. 
WENCESLAS,  v6N'ses'las',]  or  Wenzel,  wlnt'sel,  son  of 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.  of  Germany,  was  born  in  1361. 
He  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Romans  in  1376,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1378.  He  displayed  the  weakness 
and  cruelty  of  his  character  by  cancelling  the  debts  owed 
by  the  nobles  to  the  Jews,  and  confiscating  the  property 
of  three  thousand  of  that  sect  who  had  been  murdered 
by  a  mob  at  Prague.  He  also  caused  John  Nepomuk 
to  be  drowned  in  the  Moldau.  Having  made  many 
powerful  enemies  by  forsaking  the  cause  of  Pope  Boni 
face  IX.,  whom  he  had  formerly  supported  against  the 
anti-pope  Benedict  XIII.,  he  was  deposed  in  a  Diet  at 
Frankfort,  (1400,)  and  the  Elector-Palatine  Rupert  was 
chosen  in  his  stead.  He  died  in  1419,  having  previously 


abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother  Sigismund,  who  had 
been  chosen  emperor  on  the  death  of  Rupert. 

See  F.  M.  PEI.ZEL,  "  Lebensgeschichte  des  Romischen  und 
Bbhmischen  Konigs  Wenceslaus,"  1788-90. 

Weii'ges-laus  or  Wen'ges-las  I,  King  of  Bohemia, 
born  in  1205,  began  to  reign  in  1230.  He  was  a  patron 
of  arts  and  learning,  and  exerted  much  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  Germany.  Died  in  1253. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  II.,  King  of  Bohemia 
'and  Poland,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1271.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1278,  and  was  chosen 
King  of  Poland  in  1300.  Died  in  1305. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  III.,  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1289.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1306. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  IV.  OF  BOHEMIA.  See 
WENCESLAUS,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Wenceslaus, -Cvent'ses-lowss',  [Fr.  WENCESLAS,  v6N'- 
seVlas',]  or  Wenzel,  -wgnt'sel,  SAINT,  Duke  of  Bohemia, 
born  about  908,  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  his 
paternal  grandmother  Ludmila.  He  was  distinguished 
for  the  sanctity  of  his  life,  and  refused  the  crown  of 
Bohemia,  which  was  offered  him  by  the  emperor  Otho  I. 
He  was  assassinated  in  936,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
mother  Drahomira  and  his  brother  Boleslaw. 

See  F.  X.  SCHULDES,  "  Der  heilige  Wenzel  dargestellt,"  etc., 
1848. 

Wendelin,  weVde-leen',  [Fr.  VENDELIN,  vSN'deh- 
laN',]  (GoDEFROi,)  a  Flemish  astronomer  and  scholar, 
born  at  La  Lampine  in  1580.  He  became  canon  of 
Tournay,  and  published  various  works,  among  which  is 
"Lunar  Eclipses  observed  from  1573  to  1640."  It  is 
stated  that  he  determined  the  parallax  of  the  sun.  Died 
in  1660. 

Wendover.     See  ROGER  DE  WENDOVER. 

Wendt,  <v£nt,  (JOHANN  AMADEUS,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1783,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen.  He  published  "  Rossini's  Life  and 
Works,"  (1824,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  various  lit 
erary  periodicals  of  the  time.  Died  in  1836. 

Wengierski,  weMig-ge-eR'skee,  (ANDREW,)  a  So- 
cinian  minister,  born  in  Silesia  in  1600.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  Slavonian  Churches,"  (1652.)  Died 
in  1649. 

Weiis'ley-dale,  (JAMES  PARKE,)  BARON,  an  English 
jurist,  born  near  Liverpool  in  1782.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  a  baron 
of  the  court  of  exchequer  in  1834.  On  retiring  from  the 
bench,  in  1856,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Wensleydale. 

Went'wprth,  (BENNING,)  son  of  John  \Ventworth, 
was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1696.  He  was  Governor  of 
New  Hampshire  for  more  than  twenty  years.  The  town 
of  Bennington,  in  Vermont,  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1770 

Wentworth,  (CHARLES  W.)     See  ROCKINGHAM. 

Weiitworth,  (Sir  JOHN,)  a  nephew  of  Benning  Went 
worth,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1736. 
He  became  Governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1768,  and 
gave  its  charter  to  Dartmouth  College.  Died  in  1820. 

Wentworth,  (Colonel  JOHN,)  born,,  at  Dover,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1719,  was  appointed  in  1776  one  of  the 
superior  judges  of  New  Hampshire.  Died  in  1781.  His 
son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1745,  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1778,  and  twice  re-elected. 
Died  in  1787. 

Wentworth,  (JoiiN,)  an  American  journalist,  born 
at  Sandwich,  Xew  Hampshire,  in  1815,  removed  to  Illi 
nois,  and  became  editor  of  the  "Chicago  Democrat." 
He  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1857 
became  mayor  of  Chicago,  and  again  in  1860. 

Wentworth,  (THOMAS.)    See  STRAFFORD,  EARLOF. 

Wentworth,  (Wn.LiAM,)  born  in  England  about 
1610,  was  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  New  Hampshire. 
Died  in  1697.  His  grandson  JOHN,  born  in  1671,  be 
came  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1717. 
Died  in  1730. 

Wentzel  or  Wenzel,  <v£nt'sel,  (JOHANN  CHRIS- 
TOPH,)  a  German  poet  and  physician,  born  in  Eisenach 
in  1659.  He  became  principal  of  the  Academy  of  Zittau 
in  1713,  and  published  several  poems.  Died  in  1723. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  Mw.    (JH^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEN- WANG 


2254 


WERNER 


"Wen-Wang,  the  founder  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of 
Chow  or  Cheou,  was  born  about  1230  B.C.  He  gained 
great  distinction  as  a  general  and  as  a  writer,  and  was 
governor  of  Chow  (Cheou)  for  many  years.  He  died 
aged  ninety-seven.  His  son  Woo-  (or  Wou-)  WANG 
became  Emperor  of  China. 

Wenzel,  (Emperor  of  Germany.)    See  WENCESLAUS. 

Weiizel,  SAINT.     See  WENCESLAUS. 

Wepfer,  wSp'ier,  (JoHN  JAMES,)  a  Swiss  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1620,  was  the 
author  of  several  medical  works.  Died  in  1695. 

Weppen,  wep'pen,  (JOHANN  AUGUST,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Nordiieim  in  1742.  He  published  between 
1778  and  1796  a  number  of  poems,  which  are  com 
mended. 

Werdenhagen,  weR'den-ha'gen,  (JOHANN  ANGE,)  a 
learned  German  jurist  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Helm- 
stedt  in  1581,  published  several  works.  Died  in  1652. 

Werder,  weR'der,  (KARL,)  a  German  philosophical 
writer,  of  the  school  of  Hegel,  was  born  at  Berlin  in 
1806.  He  became  assistant  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  in  1838. 

Werder,  von,  fon  wek'der,  (DIETRICH,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Werdershausen,  in  Hesse,  in  1584.  He 
became  a  privy  councillor  at  the  court  of  Cassel.  In 
1626  he  produced  a  German  version  of  Tasso's  "  Je 
rusalem  Delivered."  He  also  translated  Ariosto's 
"Orlando  Furioso,"  (1632.)  These  translations  are 
praised  by  several  writers.  Died  in  1657. 

Werdiii  or  Weredin.  See  PAULINUS,  (JOHANN 
PHTLIPP.) 

Werdmuller,  weRt'mool'ler,  (JOHANN  RUDOLPH,)  a 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Zurich  in  1639.  He  painted 
mostly  landscapes  and  portraits.  Having  commenced 
a  journey  to  Paris,  he  was  drowned  in  the  Silh  in  1668. 

Werdum,  van,  vitn  weVdum,  (ULRICH,)  a  Dutch 
historian,  born  at  Werdum,  in  Friesland,  in  1632.  He 
was  privy  councillor  of  East  Friesland.  He  wrote  sev- 
ral  useful  works  on  the  history  of  Friesland.  Died 
in  1681. 

Wer'em-bert  or  Werimbert,  [Lat.  WEREMHER'- 
TUS,]  a  learned  German  monk,  born  at  Curia,  (Coire,) 
was  a  brother  of  Adalbert,  a  famous  general  of  Charle 
magne.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  books  of  Scrip 
ture,  and  other  works,  and  taught  at  Saint  Gall.  Died 
in  884  A.D. 

Werenfels,  wa'ren-fgls',  (PETER,)  a  Swiss  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  1627,  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Bale  about  1675.  He  wrote  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1703. 

Werenfels,  [Lat.  WERENFEL'SIUS,]  (SAMUEL,)  a 
Swiss  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1657, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  the  chair 
of  eloquence  in  1687  at  Bale,  where  he  afterwards 
became  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  besides 
other  able  works,  "  On  the  Controversies  of  Learned 
Men,"  ("De  Logomachiis  Eruditorum,"  1692.)  Died 
in  1740. 

See  P.  RYHINER,  "Vita  S.  Werenfelsii,"  1741. 

Werenfelsius.     See  WERENFELS. 

Werf  or  Werff,  van  der,  vtn  der  weuf,  (PETER,)  a 
Dutch  patriot,  born  at  Leyden  in  1529.  He  was  em 
ployed  by  William  the  Silent  in  confidential  missions. 
As  burgomaster  of  Leyden,  he  displayed  great  firmness 
and  constancy  when  that  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1573-74. 

Werff  or  Werf,  (ADRIAAN.)     See  VAN  DER  WERF. 

Wergeland,  weVgeh-lant',  (HENRIK  ARNOLD,)  a 
celebrated  Norwegian  poet,  born  at  Christiansand  in 
1808.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Christiania,  where 
he  was  appointed,  in  1836,  keeper  of  the  library,  and,  in 
1840,  archivist  of  the  kingdom.  His  first  publication 
was  a  satirical  farce,  entitled  "  Ah  !"  which  appeared 
under  the  pseudonym  of  SIFUL  SIFADDA.  It  was  fol 
lowed  by  a  number  of  similar  works,  distinguished  by 
their  intensely  sectional  spirit  and  political  personalities. 
Among  his  most  admired  productions  are  the  opera 
of  "The  Campbells,"  (1838,)  tragedies  entitled  "The 
Venetians"  (1840)  and  "The  Child-Murderess,"  and 
poems  entitled  "  Jan  van  Huysum's  Flower-Piece,"  and 
"The  Spaniards."  Died  in  1845. 


Werkmeister,  wgRk'mis'ter,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German 
composer  and  writer,  born  in  1645,  was  author  of  "  Har- 
monologia  Musica,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1706. 

Werl,  (OLAF.)     See  VERELIUS. 

Werlauff,  weVlowf,  (ERIK  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Danish 
antiquary  and  historian,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1781, 
was  appointed  first  librarian  in  the  Royal  Library  of 
that  city  about  1828.  He  made  numerous  contributions 
to  the  "  Antiquariske  Annaler"  and  other  literary  peri 
odicals,  assisted  Thorlacius  in  editing  the  history  of 
the  kings  of  Norway,  and  published  various  learned 
works  on  Scandinavian  antiquities. 

Werlhof,  weid'hof,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Hehnstedt  in  1660.  He  became  aulic  councillor  to 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  wrote  several  legal  works. 
Died  in  1711. 

Werlhof,  (PAUL  GOTTLIEB,)  a  skilful  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1699.  He  settled  at  Han 
over  in  1725,  and  became  first  physician  to  George  II. 
of  England.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  (1745,) 
and  other  medical  works,  (3  vols.,  17/5.)  Died  in  1707. 

Werloschnid,  von,  fon  weK'lo-shmt',  (JOHANN  BAP 
TIST,)  a  German  physician,  lived  about  1710.  lie  pub 
lished  an  "  Account  of  the  Plague  which  prevailed  in 
Austria,  Hungary,  etc.  in  1708-1710." 

Wemeck,  von,  fon  weu'nek,  (FRANZ,)  BARON,  an 
eminent  Austrian  general,  born  at  Ludwigsberg,  in  Wu'r- 
temberg,  in  1748.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service 
about  1765,  became  general-major  in  1789,  and  com 
manded  a  corps  d'armee  in  the  campaign  of  1793  against 
the  French.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Wiirz- 
burg  in  September,  1796,  and  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Lower  Rhine  in  1797,  but  was  soon  removed  for  his 
ill  success.  He  was  captured,  with  a  division,  in  1805. 
Died  in  1806. 

Wer'ner,  [Ger.  pron.we'R'ner,]  ( ABRAHAM  GOTTLOB,) 
an  eminent  German  geologist  and  mineralogist,  was  born 
at  Wehrau,  on  the  Queiss,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  September 
25,  1750.  He  was  educated  in  the  school  of  mines  at  Frey- 
berg,  in  Saxony,  and  studied  law  for  three  years  at  Leipsic. 
In  1774  he  published  a  short  "Treatise  on  the  Charac 
ters  of  Minerals,"  in  which  he  proposed  a  methodical 
and  precise  language,  the  varied  terms  of  which  suffice 
to  express  all  the  sensible  qualities  of  minerals.  "This 
little  essay,"  says  Cuvier,  "  has  made  a  revolution  in 
mineralogy,  to  which  the  author  rendered  a  service  analo 
gous  to  that  which  Linnaeus  had  rendered  to  botanical 
science  by  the  terminology  explained  in  his  '  Philosophia 
Botanica.'"  ("  Biographic  Universelle.")  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1775  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Freyberg,  and 
inspector  of  the  cabinet  of  minerals  belonging  to  that 
school.  In  1780)16  produced  a  translation  of  Cronsteclt's 
"  Mineralogy."  His  doctrines  were  propagated  by  sev 
eral  of  his  pupils,  among  whom  were  Karsten,  Wiede- 
mann,  Jameson,  and  Napione.  He  applied  the  term 
Geognosy  to  the  science  which  treats  of  the  respective 
positions  of  minerals  in  the  crust  of  the  globe,  and  of 
the  epochs  of  their  origin.  He  presented  the  bases  of 
this  science  in  his  "Classification  and  Description  of 
Mountains,"  (1787.)  "He  was  the  first,"  says  Cuvier, 
"  that  raised  the  theory  of  the  earth  to  the  rank  of  a 
positive  science  by  divesting  it  of  the  fantastic  systems 
of  which  it  was  for  a  long  time  composed."  He  classi 
fied  rocks,  according  to  their  relative  antiquity,  injto  four 
classes  or  formations  :  I,  the  primitive,  which  contain  no 
organic  remains  ;  2,  the  transition ;  3,  the  stratified  ;  and 
4,  the  alluvial  beds  formed  recently.  He  divined  the  order 
of  superposition  which  has  been  found  almost  general 
all  over  the  earth,  although  his  sphere  of  observation 
was  quite  limited.  In  1791  he  published  a  "New Theory 
of  the  Formation  of  Veins."  Werner  was  the  author 
of  the  theory  known  as  the  Neptunian  or  Wernerian, 
that  the  primitive  and  other  rocks  were  formed  by 
precipitation  from  water  or  some  liquid.  This  theory 
was  controverted  by  Hutton  and  others,  who  attributed 
to  the  primitive  rocks  an  igneous  origin,  and  were  called 
Vulcanians.  He  passed  nearly  all  of  his  mature  life  at 
Freyberg.  In  1802  he  visited  Paris,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  was  a  very  accomplished  and  popular 
lecturer  ;  but  he  was  not  a  voluminous  writer,  having  a 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


WERNER 


2255 


WES  LET 


peculiar  aversion  to  the  act  of  writing.     He  was  never 
married.     Died  at  Dresden  in  June,  1817. 

See  CUVIER,  "  E"loge  de  Werner  ;"  FRISCH,  "  Lebensbeschreibung 
A.  G.  Werners,"  1825  ;  HASSE,  "  Denkschrift  zvir  Erinnerung  an  A. 
G.  Werner,"  1848;  CONFIGUACHI,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  dei 
due  Naturalisti  Werner  e  Haiiy,"  1827. 

Werner,  (FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG  ZACHARIAS,)  an  emi 
nent  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Konigsberg  in 
1768.  He  studied  law  and  finance  in  the  university  of 
his  native  town,  where  he  also  attended  the  lectures  of 
Kant.  1 1  is  first  drama,  entitled  "The  Sons  of  the  Valley," 
came  out  in  1800,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  "Twenty- 
fourth  of  February,"  ("  Der  Vierundzwanzigster  Fe- 
bruar,")  a  tragedy  of  great  power,  and  esteemed  one  of 
his  best  works.  His  other  principal  productions  are  the 
dramas  entitled  "The  Cross  on  the  Baltic,"  "Martin 
Luther,  or  the  Consecration  of  Strength,"  "  Kunegunde,'' 
"The  Mother  of  the  Maccabees,"  and  "  Attila,  King  of 
the  Huns."  In  1811  Werner  became  a  Catholic,  and, 
having  been  ordained  a  priest  in  1814,  settled  as  a  preacher 
at  Vienna,  where  he  died  in  January,  1823. 


See  J.   E.   HITZIG,   "  F.   L.  Z.  Werner's   Lebensabnss,"   1823 ; 


SCHUTZ,  "Z.   Werner's    Biographic  und   Charakteristik,      2  vols., 


i  ;  MADAME  DE  STAEI.,  "Germany,"  vol.  ii.  ;  GEKVINUS,  "  Ge- 


schichte  e'er  Deutschen  Dichtune;"  "Blackwoods  Magazine"  lor 


April,  1827;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Werner  or  Wer-ne'rus,  (JOANNES,)  a  German  as 
tronomer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1468.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "  The  Movement  of  the  Eighth  Sphere,"  and 
"Annotations  on  the  First  Book  of  Ptolemy's  Geog 
raphy,"  also  several  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1528. 

Werner,  wCR'ner,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Swiss  painter,  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Berne  in  1637.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
and  was  subsequently  patronized  at  the  court  of  Louis 
XIV.  He  excelled  in  miniatures  and  in  historical  pieces 
of  small  size.  Among  the  latter  may  be  named  "The 
Muses  on  Parnassus"  and  "The  Death  of  Dido."  Died 
in  1710. 

Werner,  von,  fon  weVner,  (PAUL,)  a  celebrated 
general,  born  at  Raab,  in  Hungary,  in  1707,  served  with 
distinction  in  Austria,  and  subsequently  in  the  Prussian 
army  during  the  principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war.  In  1760  he  delivered  Coburg,  which  was  besieged 
by  the  Russians,  for  which  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  by  Frederick  II.,  who  also  caused  a  medal  to  be 
struck  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1785- 

Wernher,  weRn'her,  (JOHANN  BALTHASAR,)  a  Ger 
man  publicist  and  jurist,  born  at  Rothenburg  ;  died  at 
Vienna  in  1742. 

Wernike,  weVne-keh,  or  Wernigk,  weR'nik,  written 
also  Wernack  or  Warneck,  (CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
epigrammatic  poet,  born  in  Prussia  about  1670.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  King  of  Denmark  his  resident  minister 
at  the  French  court,  and  died  in  Paris  about  1720.  His 
works  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time,  and  he  is 
ranked  among  the  reformers  of  German  poetry. 

Wernsdorf,  weRns'doRf,  [Lat.  WERNSDOR'FIUS,] 
(GOTTLIEB,)  a  German  theologian  and  philologist,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1668.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittenberg  in  1698,  and  superintendent  or  Bishop  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  1719.  Died  in  1729. 

See  COI.EK,  "De  Wernsdorfii  Vita." 

Wernsdorf,  (GOTTLIEB,)  a  philologist,  born  at  Wit 
tenberg  in  1710,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  and  history  at  Dantzic,  and 
published  several  learned  works.  Died  in  1774. 

His  brother,  ERNST  FRIEDRICH,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1718,  was  a  learned  writer.  He  became  a  preacher  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Queen  Zenobia,"  (1742.)  Died  in  1782. 

Wernsdorf,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1723.  He  obtained  the  chair  of 
eloquence  at  Helmstedt  in  1752,  and  published  a  good 
edition  of  "  Poetse  Latini  minores,"  (6  vols.,  1780-99.) 
Died  in  1793. 

Wernsdorfius.     See  WERNSDORF. 

Werp,  weRp,  (CHARLES,)  a  benevolent  Flemish  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Huy  in  1592;  died  in  1666. 

Werth,  von,  fon  waiiu,  Wert,  or  Werdt,  QOHANN,) 
sometimes  called  JEAN  DE  WF.F.RT,  a  celebrated  general, 
born  at  Weert,  in  Brabant,  in  1594.  He  served  under 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and 


distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  ;  but 
he  was  defeated  in  1638  and  made  prisoner  by  Bernard, 
Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  near  Rheinfelden.  After  his 
release  he  entered  the  Austrian  service.  Died  in  1652. 
See  BARTHOLD,  "Johann  von  Werth  in  Zusammenhange  mit 
seiner  Zeit ;"  BAYLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Wesenbeck,  wa'zen-bek',  (MATTHEW,)  a  Flemish 
jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1531.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Jena,  and  removed  thence  to  Wittenberg  in 
1569.  He  wrote  several  legal  works,  which  were  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1586. 

See  A.  RAUCHBAR,  "Wesenbeck's  Leben." 

Wesenbeck,  (PETER,)  a  jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1546,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  lectured  on 
law  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg,  and  died  at  Coburg  in  1603. 

Wes'ley,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  preacher  and  writer 
of  hymns,  born  at  Epworth  in  December,  1708,  was  a 
son  of  Samuel,  and  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  John 
Wesley.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  his  strictness  in  religion  procured  for  him  the 
name  of  Methodist  and  other  names  given  in  derision. 
Having  taken  orders,  he  sailed  for  Georgia  with  his 
brother  John  in  1735,  and  served  as  secretary  to  General 
Oglethorpe.  They  returned  to  England  about  the  end 
of  1736.  Charles  became  an  able  preacher,  and  co 
operated  with  John  in  many  of  his  religious  enterprises. 
He  married  Sarah  Gwynne  in  1749,  after  which  he 
preached  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places,  and 
propagated  the  Methodist  doctrines.  He  also  gained 
great  distinction  as  a  writer  of  hymns,  and  composed 
many  of  those  used  in  the  Methodist  Church.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  JACKSON,  "Life  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley;"  "Journal  of 
the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley,"  2  vols.,  1849. 

Wesley,  (CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  musician,  born 
in  1757,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  skilful 
performer  on  the  organ  and  harpsichord.  Died  in  1815. 

Wesley,  (Rev.  JOHN,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  about  1636,  was  the  father  of  Samuel 
Wesley,  noticed  below.  He  was  ejected  in  1662,  after 
which  he  preached  at  Preston  and  other  places,  and 
was  persecuted  by  imprisonment.  Died  about  1670. 

Wesley,  (JoHN,)  a  distinguished  religious  reformer, 
the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Methodists,  was  born  at 
Epworth,  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  on  the  I7th  of  June, 
1703.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Samuel  Wesley,  noticed 
below,  and  Susannah  Annesley.  At  an  early  age  he 
was  sent  to  the  Charter-House,  from  which  he  passed 
in  1720  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  distinguished 
at  college  for  his  attainments,  and  especially  for  his  skill 
in  logic.  His  mother,  who  was  a  very  intelligent  woman, 
and  understood  Greek  and  Latin,  advised  him  to  make 
religion  the  business  of  his  life.  He  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  religion,  began  to  change  the  form  of  his 
conversation,  and  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  perusal 
of  Jeremy  Taylor's  "  Holy  Living  and  Dying."  He  was 
ordained  a  deacon  in  1725,  graduated  as  M.A.  in  1726, 
and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College  about  that 
date.  He  began  about  1726  to  record  his  actions, 
thoughts,  and  experience  in  a  diary,  which  he  continued 
to  the  end  of  his  life.  Eight  months  after  his  election 
to  a  fellowship  he  was  appointed  Greek  lecturer  and 
moderator  of  the  classes.  He  was  employed  a's  curate 
of  his  father  at  Wroote  about  two  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  was  summoned  to  return  to  Lincoln  College. 
While  he  held  the  curacy  at  Wroote,  he  was  ordained  a 
priest  of  the  established  Church,  (1728.)  On  his  return 
to  Oxford  he  found  that  his  brother  Charles  and  several 
other  students  had  associated  together  for  religious 
improvement,  and  by  their  strict  and  methodical  habits 
had  obtained  the  name  of  Methodists.  They  were  also 
called,  in  derision,  Bible  Moths,  the  Godly  Club,  and 
Bible  Bigots.  James  Hervey,  author  of  the  "Medi 
tations,"  and  George  Whitefield  were  members  of  this 
society,  which  recognized  John  Wesley  as  its  directing 
head.  "The  good  intentions  of  Wesley  and  his  asso 
ciates,"  says  Southey,  "could  not  be  questioned;  but 
they  were  now  running  fast  into  fanaticism."  By  hard 
study,  fasting,  and  habits  of  austerity,  he  had  reduced 
himself  to  an  alarming  physical  condition  ;  but,  having 
put  himself  under  the  direction  of  medical  men,  he  soon 
recovered  his  health. 


as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WES  LET 


2256 


WESSELENTI 


In  October,  1735,  John  and  Charles  Wesley  accepted 
an  invitation  to  go  to  Georgia,  to  preach  to  the  Indians 
and  the  settlers  of  a  colony  which  General  Oglethorpe 
had  planted  there.  Among  their  fellow-passengers  in 
the  voyage  to  Georgia  were  twenty-six  Moravians,  whose 
simplicity  and  piety  made  a  favourable  impression  on 
Wesley.  They  arrived  at  Savannah  in  February,  1736. 
As  a  preacher,  John  Wesley  was  not  very  popular 
at  Savannah.  "He  drenched  his  parishioners,"  says 
Southey,  "with  the  physic  of  an  intolerant  discipline." 
lie  became  intimate  at  Savannah  with  Sophia  Causton, 
the  daughter  of  a  magistrate  at  that  place,  and  was  in 
clined  to  marry  her,  but  he  was  dissuaded  by  the  elders 
of  the  Moravian  Church,  with  whom  he  was  on  intimate 
terms.  She  afterwards  married  a  Mr.  Williamson,  and 
Wesley  excluded  her  from  the  communion.  For  this  act 
her  husband  prosecuted  him,  and  numerous  persons 
conspired  to  drive  him  from  the  colony.  He  departed 
from  Savannah  in  December,  1737,  and  arrived  in  Eng 
land  in  February,  1738.  About  this  date  he  recorded 
his  conviction  that  "  I,  who  went  to  America  to  convert 
others,  was  never  myself  converted  to  God." 

Soon  after  his  return  he  met  with  Peter  Boehler,  a 
Moravian,  who,  according  to  Southey,  "became  Wes 
ley's  teacher."  "By  him,"  says  Wesley,  "in  the  hands 
of  the  great  God,  I  was  clearly  convinced  of  unbelief, — 
of  the  want  of  that  faith  whereby  alone  we  are  saved." 
He  dated  his  conversion  on  the  24th  of  May,  1738.  In 
the  summer  of  that  year  he  visited  the  Moravian  brethren 
at  Herrnhut,  and  became  acquainted  with  Count  Zinzen- 
dorf.  Having  returned  to  England,  he  followed  the  ex 
ample  of  Whitefield  (who  was  then  his  fellow-labourer) 
by  preaching  in  the  open  air  at  Bristol,  where  the  foun 
dations  of  the  society  of  Methodists,  as  an  independent 
sect,  were  laid.  He  continued  to  profess  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  of  England  after  he  ceased  to  conform  to 
its  discipline.  A  difference  between  Wesley  and  the 
Moravians  resulted  in  a  formal  separation  in  1740. 
About  1741  lie  ceased  to  have  fellowship  with  White- 
field,  in  consequence  of  a  disagreement  on  the  doctrine 
of  predestination,  which  Wesley  rejected  with  great 
earnestness.  They  exchanged  a  number  of  letters  on 
this  fertile  topic  of  dispute.  The  respective  followers 
of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  then  formed  themselves  into 
separate  organizations.  "  No  founder  of  a  sect  or  order, 
no  legislator,  ever  understood  the  art  of  preserving  his 
authority  more  perfectly  than  Wesley."  (Southey,  "  Life 
of  Wesley.")  "  His  restless  spirit,"  says  Southey,  "had 
now  found  its  proper  sphere,  where  it  might  move  un 
controlled  and  enjoy  a  prospect  boundless  as  his  desire 
of  doing  good,  the  ambition  which  possessed  him."  He 
became  an  itinerant  preacher,  and  adopted  the  system 
of  itinerancy.  By  this  practice,  combined  with  that  of 
field-preaching,  he  and  his  fellow-workers  obtained  free 
access  to  the  lower  classes.  Another  innovation  of 
Weslqy  was  the  employment  of  laymen  as  preachers. 
Applicants  for  membership  were  not  required  to  sub 
scribe  any  creed  or  formula. 

Wesley  performed  his  mission  with  the  greatest  zeal, 
and  with  entire  devotion  to  the  cause  which  formed  the 
great  object  of  his  life.  He  usually  travelled  on  horse 
back,  atid  very  often  preached  several  sermons  in  a  day. 
His  biographers,  Coke  and  Moore,  express  the  belief 
that  "there  could  not  be  an  instance  found,  during  the 
space  of  fifty  years,  wherein  the  severest  weather  hin 
dered  him  even  for  one  day."  Field-preaching  was  at 
that  time  a  dangerous  service,  and,  in  certain  districts, 
was  frequently  interrupted  by  mobs,  which  some  of 
the  clergy  encouraged  and  the  magistrates  did  not 
restrain.  In  a  few  instances  Wesley  himself  barely 
escaped  being  killed.  But  these  persecutions,  far  from 
daunting  his  courage  or  abating  his  zeal,  seemed  only 
to  confirm  him  in  the  great  work  to  which  he  had  con 
secrated  his  life. 

About  1750  he  married  a  widow  named  Vizelle,  who 
possessed  an  independent  fortune,  but  he  took  care  that 
it  should  be  settled  on  herself.  But  the  marriage  was 
not  happy.  She  annoyed  him  by  her  jealousy,  opened 
his  letters,  revealed  his  secrets,  and  ran  away  from  him 
several  times.  A  final  separation  between  him  and  his 
wife  took  place  in  1771. 


Wresley  published,  besides  many  religions  tracts,  a 
work  called  "Primitive  Physic,  or  an  Easy  and  Natural 
Method  of  Curing  most  Diseases,"  and  a  "  History  of 
England  "  His  collected  works  were  published,  in  32 
vols.  Svo,  in  1774.  He  was  favoured  with  a  vigorous 
constitution  and  a  rare  activity  of  spirit,  which  was  not 
impaired  by  old  age.  "Ten  thousand  cares,"  he  said, 
"were  no  more  burden  to  his  mind  than  ten  thousand 
hairs  were  to  his  head."  He  had  no  children.  He  died 
in  London  in  March,  1791. 

Since  the  days  of  the  apostles  to  the  present  time, 
probably  few,  if  any,  religious  teachers  have  been  instru 
mental  in  effecting  more  good  than  John  Wesley.  As 
no  hardships  or  dangers  were  too  great  for  him  to  under 
take  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  so  no  portion  of  humanity, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  was  beyond  the  scope  of 
his  all-embracing  Christian  zeal  and  sympathy.  He  not 
only  sought  with  particular  care  to  gather  into  the  fold 
of  Christ  the  lowest  classes  of  the  poor,  but  he  was 
among  the  first  to  see  and  feel  the  iniquity  of  African 
slavery  and  to  labour  for  its  overthrow.  The  society 
which  he  founded,  and  which  owes  in  a  great  measure 
its  efficiency  and  its  influence  to  the  system  which  he 
organized,  embraces  at  present,  in  Europe  and  America, 
nearly  three  millions  of  souls. 

See  DK.  COKE  and  MR.  MOOKK,  "  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  1792; 
J.  HAMHSON,  "  Memoirs  of  J.  Wesley,"  1791  ;  JOHN  WHITKHHAD, 
"Life  of  John  Wesley,"  2  vols.,  1805;  ROHHKT  Sot'THKV,  "Life 
of  Wesley,  and  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Methodism,"  1820  ;  ADAM 
CI.AKKR,  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family;"  SCHMIDT,  "  Des  J. 
Wesley  I.eben,"  1849.  For  an  interesting  notice  of  Wesley  as  a 
"Reformer,"  see  "  lilackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1868. 

Wesley,  (Rev.  SAMUKI.,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  at  Preston  about  1664,  was  the  father  of  John 
Wesley,  the  founder  of  Methodism.  He  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  curate  in  London. 
In  1688  he  preached  a  sermon  against  King  James's 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  According  to  some  writers, 
he  wrote  a  book  in  defence  of  the  revolution  of  1688,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  living  of  Epworth,  in  Lincoln 
shire.  He  published,  besides  other  poems,  "  Elegies  on 
Queen  Mary  and  Archbishop  Tillotson,"  (1605,)  ancl 
"The  History  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  Verse,"  (1704.) 
He  also  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  Job,"  (1735.)  Died 

in  1735- 

See  CLARKE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  P'amily,"  1823. 

Wesley,  (SAMUEL,)  a  teacher  and  poet,  born  about 
1692,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  took  holy  orders,  and  was  usher  of  Westminster 
School  for  many  years.  His  preferment  in  the  Church 
was  probably  hindered  by  his  zealous  support  of  the 
Tory  party,  or  his  intimacy  with  Atterbury  and  other 
Jacobites.  He  became  head-master  of  Tiverton  School 
in  1732.  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  which  have 
some  merit.  Died  in  1739. 

See  CI.ARKK,  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family,"  1823.     • 

"Wesley,  (SAMUKI.,)  a  composer  of  music,  born  in 
1766,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley,  noticed 
above.  He  began  to  compose  when  he  was  about  eight 
years  old,  and  was  considered  a  great  prodigy.  He 
acquired  celebrity  as  an  extemporaneous  performer  on 
the  organ,  and  composed  sacred  music,  oratorios,  etc. 
Died  in  1837. 

Wessel,  wes'sel,  or  Wesselus,  •wes-sa'lus,  (JOHN,) 
sometimes  called  GANSKFORT  or  GOKSKVORT,  a  Dutch 
theologian  and  Reformer,  born  at  Groningen  about  1420. 
He  studied  at  Louvain,  Heidelberg,  and  Paris,  where 
he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  knowledge  of 
philosophy  and  divinity.  He  was  also  surnamed  MA- 
GISTF.R  CONTRADICTIONUM,  ("Master  of  Contradic 
tion,")  from  his  skill  in  dialectics.  He  attacked  with 
great  boldness  the  prevailing  abuses  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  Reformers  before 
the  time  of  Luther.  He  died  in  1489,  leaving  a  number 
of  treatises  in  Latin,  some  of  which  were  burnt  as 
heretical. 


See  CARL  Ui. I.MANN,  "  Johann  Wessel,  em  Voreanser  I.nthers,' 


834:    HODGSON,    "Reformers   and   Martyrs,"    Philadelphia,    1867 


MUCKUNG,   "Commentatio  de   J.  Wesseli   Gansfortii   Vita,"   1831 


.  BAHKING,  "J.  Wessel,     1850. 


Wesselenyi,  w§sh'she'-lan/yee,  (MiKi.os,)  a  Hunga 
rian  patriot  and  statesman,  born  about  1795  ;  died  in  1850. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WESSELING 


2257 


WESTERM4NN 


Wesseling,  weVseh-ling',  (PETER,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Steinfurt  in  1692.  He  became  professor  of  elo 
quence  at  Franeker,  (1723,)  and  of  ancient  literature  at 
Utrecht,  (1735.)  He  published  several  critical  treatises 
on  the  classics,  and  valuable  editions  of  Herodotus,  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  and  "  Vetera  Romanorum  Itineraria." 
He  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time.  Died  in  1764. 

See  HIRSCHING,  "  Historisch-Hterarisches  Handbuch;"  SAXE, 
"  Onomasticon." 

Wes'sells,  (HENRY  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  about  1809,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1833.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  about 
April,  1862.  He  commanded  at  Plymouth,  North  Caro 
lina,  which  was  taken  by  the  Confederates,  after  a  brave 
defence,  April  20,  1864. 

Wesselus.     See  WESSEL. 

Wessely,  wes'seh-le,  (NAPHTALI  HARTWIC.,)  a  Jewish 
writer  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1723. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  poem,  the  subject  of  which 
is  the  vocation  or  mission  of  Moses.  Died  in  1805. 

See  MEISEL,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  N.  H.  Wessely's,"  1841;  E. 
CARMOI.Y,  "Wessely  et  ses  Ecrits,"  1829. 

Wessenberg,  wes'sen-beRC/,  (!GNAZ  HEINRICH 
KAKI.,)  BARON,  a  German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1774.  He  was  appointed  in  1802  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Constance,  and  was  active  in 
promoting  the  use  of  the  German  language  at  mass, 
and  various  other  reforms  in  the  Church.  Having  been 
nominated  in  1814  by  Archbishop  Dalberg  his  coad 
jutor  in  the  see  of  Constance,  he  was  rejected  by  the 
pope,  who  also  wished  him  to  resign  his  office  of  vicar- 
general.  This,  however,  he  declined,  being  supported 
by  his  sovereign,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Elementary  Education 
of  the  People,"  and  other  prose  works  ;  also  a  number 
of  .poems.  Died  in  1860. 

See  "I.  H.  von  Wessenburg,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  by  DR.  J. 
BECK  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1848. 

Wesseiiberg-Ampringeri,  weVsen-be' KG'  am'pRing- 
en,  (Jon ANN  PHILIP?,)  a  German  statesman,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1773.  He  was  employed  on 
missions  to  Munich,  Paris,  and  the  Hague. 

West,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  eminent  American  painter, 
born  at  Springfield,  Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  loth  of  October,  1738,  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  His  talent  and  predilection  for  the  art  were 
manifested  at  an  early  age,  and,  when  seventeen,  he  began 
portrait-painting  at  Philadelphia.  He  visited  Rome  in 
1760,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Raphael  Mengs. 
He  soon  after  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  and,  some 
of  his  works  having  attracted  the  notice  of  George  III., 
he  was  thenceforth  liberally  patronized  by  that  monarch. 
His  "  Death  of  Wolfe,"  in  which  he  had  the  courage  and 
good  taste  to  depart  from  the  custom  of  clothing  the 
figures  in  classical  costume,  was  greatly  admired.  His 
next  important  work  was  "Christ  Healing  the  Sick," 
now  in  the  British  National  Gallery  :  a  copy  of  it  was 
presented  by  the  artist  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
Philadelphia.  He  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1792.  Among  his 
other  pictures  may  be  named  the  "  Departure  of  Regu- 
lus,"  the  "Battle  of  La  Hogue,"  and  "Death  on  the 
Pale  Horse,"  now  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Phila 
delphia.  Died  in  London  in  1820. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists  ;"  DUNLAP,  "  History  of 
the  Arts  of  Design  in  America;"  CUNNINGHAM,  "  Lives  of  Painters 
and  Sculptors." 

West,  (Gii.HERT,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1705.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  subse 
quently  held  several  offices  under  the  government.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Observations  on  the  Resurrection," 
which  won  for  him  a  high  reputation,  also  a  poetical 
version  of  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  and  several  other 
translations  from  the  Greek.  He  was  a  relative  of  Pitt, 
Earl  of  Chatham,  and  of  Lord  George  Lyttleton,  who 
dedicated  to  him  his  "  Dissertation  on  the  Conversion 
of  Saint  Paul."  Died  in  1756. 

West,  (JAMES,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  probably 
in  Warwickshire.  He  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in 
1726.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society 


in  1738.  He  made  a  rich  collection  of  manuscripts, 
prints,  medals,  etc.  Died  in  1772. 

West,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  became  chancellor  of  Ireland  in 
1715.  He  published  several  legal  and  miscellaneous 
works.  Died  in  1726. 

"West,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  theologian,  born  in 
Yarmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1730.  He  preached  at 
New  Bedford,  was  an  active  Whig  politician,  and  wrote 
on  theology  and  politics.  Died  in  1807. 

"West,  (STEPHEN,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Tolland,  Connecticut,  in  1735,  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Stockbridge  in  1759.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "  Essay  on  Moral  Agency,"  "  An  Essay  on 
the  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement,"  (1/85,)  "Life 
of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins,"  and  other  theological 
works.  Died  at  Stockbridge  in  1819. 

West,  (TuoMAS,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lan 
cashire,  published  "A  Guide  to  the  Lakes,"  and  other 
topographical  works.  Died  in  1779. 

West,  (W.  E.,)  an  American  painter,  distinguished 
for  the  excellence  of  his  portraits.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Washington  Irving,  and  made  illustrations  of  his  "  Pride 
of  the  Village"  and  "Annette  Delarbre."  Died  in  1857. 

See  TUCKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  DUNI.AP,  "Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America." 

West'all,  (RICHARD,)  a  celebrated  English  painter 
in  water-colours,  was  born  at  Hertford  in  1765.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1794.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind, 
may  be  named  "The  Storm  in  Harvest,"  "Sappho  in 
the  Lesbian  Shades,"  and  "Jubal,  the  First  Voice  of 
the  Lyre."  He  also  illustrated  Moore's  "Loves  of  the 
Angels,"  and  furnished  designs  for  Boydell's  "  Shak- 
speare  Gallery."  He  was  appointed,  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  teacher  of  drawing  and  painting  to  the  Princess 
Victoria.  Died  in  1836. 

Westall,  (WILLIAM,)  a  landscape-painter,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hertford  in  1781.  He 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  subsequently  visited 
India,  China,  and  Australia.  He  was  elected  an  Asso 
ciate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1812.  Among  his  most 
admired  works  are  a  "View  of  Seaforth's  Isle,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria,"  and  a  series  of  engraved  designs 
representing  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmore 
land.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth  and 
Southey.  Died  in  1850. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  April,  1850. 

Westbury,  LORD.     See  BETHELL,  (RICHARD.) 

Westenrieder,  von,  fon  weVten-ree'cler,  (LoRENZ,) 
a  German  educational  writer,  born  at  Munich  in  1748, 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  a  "History  of  Bavaria  for  Youth  and  the 
People,"  and  other  historical  and  geographical  works. 
Died  in  1829. 

Westerbaen,  weVter-bin',  (JACOK,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
of  a  noble  family,  was  born  in  1599.  He  was  the  author 
of  songs  and  other  poems,  and  made  translations  from 
Virgil  and  other  Latin  classics.  Died  in  1670, 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Westergaard,  ves'ter-gond',  (NIELS  LUDWIG,)  a 
distinguished  Danish  Orientalist,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1815.  Having  studied  at  Bonn  and  visited  London 
and  Paris,  he  made  a  tour  to  India  and  Persia.  After 
his  return  he  was  appointed,  in  1845,  professor  of  Ori 
ental  philology  at  Copenhagen.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "  Radices  Sanscritae,"  (1841,)  and  a  critical  edition 
of  the  "Zendavesta,"  (1852.)  2>&e«£ /'*/*• 

Westerhof,  weVter-hof,  (ARNOLD  HEINRICH,)  a 
German  scholar,  who  gained  distinction  by  a  good  edi 
tion  of  Terence,  (2  vols.,  1729.) 

Westermarm,  weVter-man',  (ANTON,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1806,  became  professor  of 
antiquities  in  his  native  city  in  1834,  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Eloquence  in  Greece  and  Rome,"  (2  vols., 
1833-35,)  a'so  editions  of  the  Orations  of  Lysias,  the 
works  of  Philostratus,  and  other  classics. 

Wes'ter-mami,  [Fr.  pron.  veVt§R'min',]  (FRANCOIS 
JOSEPH,)  a  French  Jacobin  and  general,  born  in  Alsace 
about  1760.  He  became  a  violent  revolutionist,  and  a 


c  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, giitttiral ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this. 

I42 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WESTFIELD 


2258 


WETTE 


friend  of  Dan  ton.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  riot 
in  Paris  of  the  loth  of  August,  1792.  In  September  of 
that  year  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general,  and  sent  to 
the  army  of  Dumouriez.  lie  became  a  general  of  brigade 
in  May,  1793,  obtained  command  of  the  vanguard  of  the 
army  in  Vendee,  ar.d  defeated  the  royalists  near  Chatil- 
lon.  I  ] e  attacked  and  routed  the  Vendeans  at  Mans  and 
Savenay  in  December,  1793.  He  was  executed  with 
Danton  in  April,  1794. 

See  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  THIERS,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution." 

West'field,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Ely.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  the  reign  of 
|ames  I.,  and  was  noted  as  a  pathetic  preacher.  Died 
in  1644.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

West'ma-cott,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  eminent  English 
sculptor,  born  in  London  in  1775.  He  studied  at  Rome 
under  Canova,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Florence  in  1795.  After  his  return  he 
executed  a  number  of  works  which  established  his 
reputation  as  one  of  the  first  English  sculptors  of  the 
time.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  his  "  Eu- 
phrosyne,"  "Psyche,"  "Nymph  Unclasping  her  Zone," 
a  "  Peasant  Maiden,"  and  "The  Distressed  Mother;" 
statues  of  Pitt  and  Addison,  monuments  of  Sir  Ralph 
Abercrombyin  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  of  the  Duke 
of  York  on  the  column  at  Waterloo  Place,  and  the  bronze 
statue  of  George  III.  at  Windsor.  In  1816  he  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician,  and  in  1827  succeeded 
Flaxman  as  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Royal 
Academy.  Died  in  1856. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  October,  iS-,6. 

Westmacott,  (RICHARD,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1799.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
father,  and  afterwards  spent  six  years  in  Italy.  lie  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1837,  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1849,  and  in  1857  became  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy.  His  works  are  prin 
cipally  of  a  devotional  and  classical  character.  Among 
these  are  "  Prayer  and  Resignation,"  "  David  as  the 
Slayer  of  Goliath,"  the  "  Angel  Watching,"  the  statue 
of  "The  Cymbal-Player,"  "Venus  Instructing  Cupid," 
and  "  Paolo  and  Francesca."  He  also  executed  a  number 
of  portrait-busts  of  great  merit.  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  writer  of  works  on  art,  among  which  is  a  "  Hand- 
Hook  on  the  Schools  of  Sculpture." 

West'more-laiid,  (!<>H\  FANE,)  eleventh  KAKI,  OK, 
an  English  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1784.  He 
served  in  Egypt  and  Sicily,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to 
the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsular  war.  He- 
was  sent  as  ambassador  in  1841  to  the  court  of  Berlin, 
where  he  remained  till  1851,  and  was  then  sent  on  an 
important  mission  to  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  privy  council,  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Bath,  and 
obtained  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa.  He  was  noted 
as  a  musician  and  composer,  and  published  several 
military  treatises.  Died  in  1859. 

Westmoreland,  (Mn.DMAV  FANF.,)  second  EAUI. 
OK,  an  English  statesman  and  poet,  born  about  1600. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled 
"Otia  Sacra."  Died  in  1665. 

Wes'ton,  (ELIZABETH  JANE,)  a  learned  English  lady, 
born  about  1586,  removed  in  early  life  to  Prague.  She 
wrote  several  elegant  Latin  poems.  She  was  married  to 
John  Leon.  Died  after  1605. 

Westoii,  (RICHARD,)  Earl  of  Portland,  an  English 
politician,  who  became  grand  treasurer  of  the  kingdom 
about  1625,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Portland  in  1633. 
Died  in  1635. 

Western,  (STEPHEN,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1747.  He  published  a  number  of 
translations  from  the  Persian  and  Chinese,  and  several 
philological  and  antiquarian  essays.  Died  in  1830. 

Weston,  (THOMAS,)  a  popular  English  comedian. 
Died  in  1776. 

Weston,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  divine,  and  resident 
of  Gloucestershire,  was  the  author  of  "  Dissertations  on 
some  of  the  Most  Remarkable  Wonders  of  Antiquity." 
Died  in  1760. 

Westphal,  <vest'fal,  (ERNST  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1737,  became  professor 


of  law  at  Halle.  He  published  several  works  on  Roman 
law,  and  a  treatise  "  On  the  Law  of  the  German  Em 
pire,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1792. 

Westreenen  van  Tiellandt,  wes'tRii'nen  vf"n  teel'- 
lant,  (WILLF.M  HENURIK  JACOB,)  BARON,  a  Dutch  his 
torical  and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1783. 
He  published  "  Researches  concerning  the  Ancient 
Forum  of  Hadrian  and  its  Vestiges  near  the  Hague," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1848. 

West'wood,  (JOHN  OBADIAH,)  an  English  entomolo 
gist,  born  at  Sheffield  about  1805.  lie  was  appointed 
professor  of  zoology  at  Oxford  in  1861. 

Wetherell.     See  WARNER,  (SUSAN.) 

Weth'er-ell,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1770,  was  a  son  of  the  Dean  of  Hereford.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1794,  and  acquired  extensive  prac 
tice  in  the  court  of  chancery.  Though  he  was  an  ultra 
Tory  and  was  king's  counsel,  he  defended  the  Spafield 
rioters,  who  were  tried  for  treason  in  1817.  In  1820 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  .for  Oxford.  He  became 
solicitor-general  in  1824,  and  attorney-general  in  1826. 
Having  resigned  in  1827,  he  was  reappointcd  in  1828, 
but  retired  from  office  in  1829,  because  he  was  opposed 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  By  his  hostility 
to  the  Reform  bill  he  rendered  himself  so  unpopular 
that  he  was  attacked  by  a  mob  at  Bristol  in  1831,  and 
narrowly  escaped  death.  Died  in  1846. 

Wetstein,  wet'stin  or  wet'stin,  (JOHN  HENRY,)  a 
distinguished  printer,  born  at  Bale  in  1649,  founded  at 
Amsterdam  a  publishing-house,  which  became  celebrated 
for  the  excellent  editions  of  the  classics  issued  from  it. 
Died  in  1726. 

Wetstein,  (JOHN  JAMES,)  an  eminent  Swiss  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1693,  was  a  son  of  John 
Rudolph,  (1647-1711,)  noticed  below.  He  studied  He 
brew  and  theology  in  the  university  of  his  native  town, 
and,  having  visited  England  and  various  parts  of  the 
continent  for  the  purpose  of  examining  manuscripts,  he 
published  in  17^0  his  "Prolegomena  ad  Novi  Testa 
ment!  Grace!  Editionem  accuratissimam."  His  liberal 
doctrines  having  excited  great  opposition  among  the 
clergy,  he  was  deposed  from  his  office,  and  about  1733 
removed  to  Amsteidam,  where  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Arminians  professor  of  philosophy  and  ecclesiastical 
history.  He  brought  out  in  17^2  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament,  (2  vols.  fol.)  Died  in  I7S4- 

Wetstein  or  Wettstein,  wet'stTn,  (Jons  RUDOLPH,) 
a  Swiss  diplomatist,  bom  at  Bale  in  1594.  lie  rendered 
important  services  to  his  country  at  the  congress  which 
negotiated  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1647,)  and  received 
the  surname  of  THE  |'\CIEICATOR.  Died  in  1666. 

Wetstein,  (JOHN  RUDOLPH,)  son  of  John  James, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Hale  in  1614.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  in  his  native  town,  and  assisted  Suicer 
in  his  "Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus."  Died  in  1683. 

Wetstein,  (JoiiN  RUDOLPH,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Bale  in  1647.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
in  that  town,  and  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Origen. 
Died  in  1711. 

Wetstein,  wet'stin,  (KAREL  ANTON,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1743,  w:ls  a  lawyer 
in  his  early  life.  He  translated  Hesiod  and  Theocritus 
into  Latin  verse,  and  wrote  several  original  Latin  poems, 
which  were  admired.  Died  in  1797. 

Wette,  de,  deh  wet'teh  or  wet'teh,  (WILHEI.M  MAR 
TIN  LEHRECHT,)  an  eminent  German  scholar,  theologian, 
and  biblical  critic,  born  near  Weimar  in  1780.  He  be 
came  professor  of  divinity  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in 
1810,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  both  as  a  preacher 
and  writer.  Among  his  most  important  works  are  the 
following:  "Contributions  to  an  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament,"  (2  vols.,  1806-7,)  "A  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms,"  (iSn,)  "Manual  of  Jewish  Archaeology," 
(1814,)  "Christian  Dogmatics,"  (2  vols.,  1813-16,)  "On 
Religion  and  Theology,"  (1815,)  and  "Critical  and  His 
torical  Introduction  to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments," 
(1817-26.)  The  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  was 
translated  and  enlarged  by  Theodore  Parker,  (1843,) 
and  that  to  the  New  by  Frederick  Frothingham,  (1858.) 
He  produced,  in  conjunction  with  Augusti,  a  new  trans 
lation  of  the  Bible.  In  1819  he  was  dismissed  from  his 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


WETZEL 


2259 


WHARTON 


professorship  because  he  wrote  a  letter  of  consolation 
to  the  mother  of  Sand,  who  killed  Kotzebue.  He  ob 
tained  a  chair  of  divinity  at  Hale  in  1821.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Lessons  on  Morality,"  (3  vols.,  1824.)  Died 
at  Bale  in  1849. 

See  SCHENKKI.,  "  De  Wette  und  die  Bedeutung  seiner  Theologie 
fiir  unsere  Zeit,"  1849;  LUCKE.  "Dr.  W.  M.  L  de  Wette,"  1850; 
HAGENHACH,  "  W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,"  1849;  "North  British  Re 
view"  for  August,  1847. 

Wetzel,  wet'sel,  (FRIEDRICH  GOTTLOI;.)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Bautzen  in  1780,  was  the  author  of 
dramas,  war-lyrics,  and  other  poems  and  prose  essays. 
Died  in  1819. 

Wetzel  or  Wezel,  (JOHANN  CASPAR,)  a  German 
writer  and  preacher,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1691.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Sacred  Hymnology," 
("  Hymnologia  Sacra,"  1728.)  Died  in  1755. 

Wetzel  or  Wezel,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  in  1762  ;  died  in  1810. 

Wewitzer,  wa'wit-ser,  ?  (RALPH,)  an  English  come 
dian,  born  in  London  before  1800;  died  in  1824. 

Wey,  vi,  (FRANCOIS  ALPHONSE,)  a  French  litte 
rateur,  born  at  Besancon  in  1812.  He  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  the  national  archives  in  1852.  He 
wrote  several  novels.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly 
on  two  works,  entitled  "  Remarks  on  the  French  Lan 
guage  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,''  (1845,)  and  a  "His 
tory  of  the  Revolutions  of  Language  in  France,"  (1848.) 

Weyde,  van  der.     See  VAN  DER  WEYDE. 

Weyden,  van  der,  vtn  der  wl'den,  (ROGER,)  a  cele 
brated  Flemish  painter,  called  ROGER  OF  BRUGES,  was 
born  at  Brussels  about  1390,  and  was  a  pupil  of  John 
van  Eyck.  He  went  to  Italy  about  1450,  and  worked 
several  years  at  Rome.  lie  painted  in  oil.  Having 
returned  to  Brussels,  he  died  there  in  1464. 

See  A.  WAUTKRS,  "  Notice  sur  R.  van  der  Weyden,"  1846,  and 
"  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  ses  GEuvres,"  etc.,  1855. 

Weyer.     See  VAN  DE  WEYER. 

Weyerman,  wi'er-man',  QACOB  KAMPO,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  was  born  at  Breda 
in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lives  of  the  Dutch 
Painters,"  a  work  characterized  by  Descamps  and  others 
as  full  of  calumnies.  He  was  condemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment  for  a  libel  on  the  Dutch  East  India  Com 
pany,  and  died  in  prison  in  1747. 

Weyse,  wl'zeh,  (CHRISTIAN  ERNST  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
Danish  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Altona  in  1774; 
died  in  1842. 

Wezel.     See  WETZEL. 

Wezel,  wet'sel,  (JOHANN  KARL,)  a  German  littera 
teur,  born  at  Sondershausen  in  1747,  wrote  a  number 
of  romances,  comedies,  and  prose  essays.  Died  in 
1819. 

Whalley,  hwol'le,  (PETER,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  born  in  Warwickshire  in  1722,  was  the  author 
of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Learning  of  Shakspeare."  Died 
in  1791. 

Whalley,  (THOMAS  SEDGWICK,)  D.D.,  an  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1746.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  and  correspondent  of  Mrs.  Siddons 
and  Miss  Seward,  and  published  a  poetic  tale  entitled 
"  Edwy  and  Eldild."  Died  about  1826. 

See  "Journal  and  Correspondence  of  T.  S.  Whalley,"  London, 
1863. 

Wharton,  hwar'ton,  (FRANCIS,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1820.  He  became  in  1856  pro 
fessor  of  logic  and  rhetoric  at  Kenyon  College,  Ohio. 
He  has  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Criminal  Law  of 
the  United  States,"  a  "Treatise  on  Medical  Jurispru 
dence,"  and  other  works. 

Wharton,  hwar'ton,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English  as 
tronomer  and  astrologer,  born  at  Kirby-Kendal  in  1617. 
He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war,  and  afterwards 
compiled  almanacs,  in  which  he  inserted  predictions 
against  the  dominant  party.  Died  in  1681. 

Wharton,  (HENRY,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary 
and  divine,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1664.  He  studied  at 
Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A. 
in  1687,  being  ordained  a  priest  in  1688.  Among  his 
numerous  works  the  most  important  is  his  "  Anglia 
Sacra,"  (2  vols.  fol.,  1691,)  being  a  collection  of  .biogra 


phies  of  English  bishops  and  archbishops  from  the  in 
troduction  of  Christianity  to  1540.  He  also  published 
"A  Treatise  of  the  Celibacy  of  the  Clergy,"  etc.,  and 
"  The  History  of  the  Troubles  and  Trials  of  Archbishop 
Laud,"  and  assisted  Dr.  William  Cave  in  his  "  Scriptorum 
Ecclesiasticorum  Historia  Literaria."  Died  in  1695. 

Wharton,  ( PHILIP,)  LORD,  an  English  peer,  who 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in 
1642,  and  commanded  a  regiment  for  Parliament  at  the 
battle  of  Edgehill.  He  was  a  zealous  Presbyterian.  He 
died  in  1696.  He  was  the  father  of  Thomas,  Marquis 
of  Wharton. 

Wharton,  (PuiLTP,)  Duke  of  Wharton,  an  eloquent 
and  profligate  English  peer,  born  in  1698,  was  the  son 
of  Thomas,  Marquis  of  Wharton,  noticed  below.  About 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  married  privately  a  daughter  of 
General  Holmes.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1715,  he 
became  heir  to  an  estate  of  ^16,000  a  year,  and  entered 
upon  a  course  of  reckless  dissipation  and  vice.  In  1716 
he  began  a  tour  on  the  continent.  Having  arrived  at 
Lyons,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Pretender,  who  then 
resided  at  Avignon,  and  who  received  Wharton  in  a 
flattering  manner  when  he  came  to  that  city.  He  took 
his  seat  in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  about  1717,  sup 
ported  the  ministry  with  zeal,  and  was  raised  to  the 
English  peerage,  as  Duke  of  Wharton,  in  1718.  He 
entered  the  English  House  of  Peers  in  1719  or  1720,  and 
denounced  the  South  Sea  bill  in  a  speech  remarkable 
for  bitter  invective.  On  other  questions  also  he  opposed 
the  ministers  with  great  eloquence. 

He  involved  himself  in  debt  by  his  boundless  prodi 
gality,  retired  to  the  continent  in  1724,  avowed  himself 
an  adherent  of  the  Pretender,  and  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  1726  he  married  a  Miss  O'Byrne, 
a  daughter  of  an  Irish  colonel.  He  served  as  a  volun 
teer  in  the  Spanish  army  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar,  in 
1727.  For  this  offence  he  was  indicted  for  treason,  and 
convicted.  He  lost  his  peerage  and  his  estate,  and  was 
reduced  to  poverty.  He  died  at  Tarragona,  Spain,  in 
1731.  His  character  is  portrayed  by  Pope  in  his  "Moral 
Essays." 

See  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Wharton,"  2 
vols.,  1732;  "Biograpbia  Britannica." 

Wharton,  (THOMAS,)  MARQUIS  OF,  an  English  Whig 
politician,  born  about  1645,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip, 
Lord  WTharton.  He  entered  Parliament  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  constantly  opposed  the  court,  and  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  his  dexterity  and  turbulence  as 
a  politician.  In  November,  1688,  he  joined  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  appointed  him  comptroller  of 
the  household  in  1689.  He  received  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Wharton  in  1706,  and  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland 
from  1708  to  1710.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lillibullero," 
a  famous  satirical  ballad.  In  September,  1714,  he  was 
appointed  lord  privy  seal  by  George  I.,  and  in  1715  he 
was  created  Marquis  of  Wharton.  He  died  in  1715, 
leaving  a  son,  Philip.  He  was  characterized  by  Swift  as 
"the  most  universal  villain  that  I  ever  knew."  "Those 
who  hated  him  most  heartily,"  says  Macaulay,  "admitted 
that  his  natural  parts  were  excellent,  and  that  he  was 
equally  qualified  for  debate  and  for  action.  .  .  .  Heearly 
acquired,  and  retained  to  the  last,  the  reputation  of  being 
the  greatest  rake  in  England.  .  .  .  His  mendacity  and 
his  effrontery  passed  into  proverbs.  ...  As  a  canvasser 
he  was  irresistible.  .  .  .  Had  he  not  been  a  man  of  im 
perturbable  temper,  dauntless  courage,  and  consummate 
skill  in  fence,  his  life  would  have  been  a  short  one.  But 
neither  anger  nor  danger  ever  deprived  him  of  his 
presence  of  mind  ;  and  he  had  a  peculiar  way  of  dis 
arming  his  opponents  that  moved  the  envy  of  all  the 
duel  lists  of  his  time."  (Macaulay's  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.  pp.  136-37.) 

See,  also,  SWIFT'S  satire  on  Wharton  in  his  "Four  Last  Years 
of  Queen  Anne;"  and  (anonymous)  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Thomas, 
Marquis  of  Wharton,"  1715. 

Wharton,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Winston,  in  Durham,  about 
1610.  He  took  his  degree  as  M.D.  at  Oxford  in  1647, 
after  which  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1650.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  glands,  entitled  "Adenography,  or 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^P°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHAT  ELY 


2260 


WHEELER 


Description  of  the  Glands,"  ("  Adenographia,  sive  Glan- 
dularum  Descriptio,"  1656.)  He  first  discovered  the 
excretory  duct  in  the  submaxillary  gland,  which  bears 
his  name.  Died  in  1673. 

Whately,  hwat'le,  (RICHARD,)  Archbishop  of  Dub 
lin,  an  eminent  English  thinker  and  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1787,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Whately,  prebendary 
of  Bristol.  As  a  child,  he  was  nervous  and  shy,  and,  like 
De  Quincey,  appears  to  have  preferred  the  society  of  his 
sisters  to  that  of  his  brothers.  He  delighted  in  arith 
metical  calculations,  which  he  carried  on  in  his  mind. 
In  childhood,  as  well  as  in  after-life,  whatever  occupied 
his  thoughts  appears  to  have  completely  absorbed  him 
for  the  time.  The  passion  for  arithmetic  soon  left  him  ; 
he  then  devoted  himself  to  "castle-building,"  which, 
however,  took  a  philosophical  or  metaphysical,  rather 
than  a  romantic,  direction.  In  1805  he  entered  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1811, 
and  in  which  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1812. 
While  at  Oxford,  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Dr.  Arnold,  which  continued  unchanged  till  the  death 
of  the  latter.  In  1810  he  gained  the  prize  for  the  English 
Essay,  the  subject  being  "The  Comparative  Excellence 
of  the  Ancients  and  Moderns."  In  1819  he  published 
"  Historic  Doubts  relative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,"  an 
ingenious  attempt  to  show  the  absurdity  of  skeptical 
criticism.  He  married  a  lady  named  Pope  in  1821. 
He  was  appointed  Hampton  lecturer  at  Oxford  in  1822, 
and  the  same  year  obtained  the  rectory  of  Halesworth, 
in  Sussex.  His  Bampton  lectures  "On  the  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Party  Feeling  in  Religion"  were  published  in 
1822.  In  1825  he  was  chosen  principal  of  Saint  Alban's 
Hall,  Oxford.  He  extended  his  reputation  by  his 
"Essays  on  some  of  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  (1825,)  his  "Elements  of  Logic,"  (1826,) 
often  reprinted,  and  highly  esteemed,  his  "  Essays  on 
some  of  the  Difficulties  in  the  Writings  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,"  and  his  "  Errors  of  Romanism  traced  to  their 
Origin  in  Human  Nature,"  (1830.)  He  was  elected 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford  in  1830,  and 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1831.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the  national  system  of 
education  in  Ireland.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  Elements  of  Rhetoric,"  (1828,)  "  Introduction  to  Politi 
cal  Economy,"  (1831,)  "  Sermons  on  Various  Subjects," 
(1835,)  "Essays  on  some  of  the  Dangers  to  Christian 
Faith  which  may  arise  from  the  Teaching  or  the  Conduct 
of  its  Professors,"  (1839,)  and  "The  Kingdom  of  Christ 
Delineated,  in  Two  Essays  on  our  Lord's  Own  Account 
of  His  Person,"  etc.,  (1841.)  He  also  wrote  several 
valuable  articles  for  the  leading  reviews.  His  style  is 
luminous  and  aphoristic.  As  a  theologian,  he  was  char 
acterized  by  the  liberality  of  his  views  and  by  the  free 
dom  and  independence  of  his  thoughts.  He  is  justly 
considered  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  profound  and 
original  thinkers  of  his  time.  As  a  man,  he  was  distin 
guished  for  moral  courage,  and  was  singularly  sincere, 
generous,  and  disinterested.  Died  in  October,  1863. 

See  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Richard  Whately,  D  D.,  Late 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,"  by  his  daughter,  E.  JANE  WHATELY,  2 
vols.,  London,  1866:  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1822;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1864;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1867.  For  some  strictures  on  Whately's 
"Logic,"  see  SIR  WILLIAM  HAMILTON'S  "Logic." 

"Whately,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  at  Banbury,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1583.  He  became 
vicar  of  Banbury  about  1610,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Prototypes,  or  the  Primary  Precedent 
out  of  the  Book  of  Genesis."  Died  in  1639. 

Wheare,  hwair,  ?  (DEGORY,)  an  English  historian, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1573.  He  was  the  first  reader  of 
the  lecture  which  Camclen  founded  at  Oxford,  and  wrote 
several  works.  Died  in  1647. 

Wheat/ley,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1686,  published  a  "  Rational  Illustration  of  the  Com 
mon  Prayer."  Died  in  1742. 

Wheatley,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  landscape-painter 
in  oil- and  water-colours,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He 
became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1791.  Died  in  1801. 

Wheat'ley,  (PHILLIS,)  a  negro  poetess,  born  in  Africa 
about  1753,  was  brought  to  America  in  1761.  She  was 
instructed  by  her  mistress,  Mrs.  Wheatley,  a  resident 


of  Boston,  and  published,  at  an  early  age,  "  Poems  on 
Various  Subjects,  Religious  and  Moral."  She  was 
afterwards  married  to  a  man  named  Peters,  and  died  in 
Boston  in  1794. 

See  DUVCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ; 
ALLIHONK,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wheat/oil,  (HKNRY,)  an  American  jurist,    civilian, 
and  diplomatist,  born  in   Providence,  Rhode   Island,  in 
November,  1785.     He  graduated   at  Brown   University 
in  1802,   after   which    he   pursued    the    study  of  law  at 
Poitiers,  France,  and    in   London.     On    his    return    he 
became  a  resident  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  in  1812 
began  to  edit   the  "  National   Advocate,"  a  daily  jour 
nal.      He   published    in  1815   a  "  Digest  of  the  Law  of 
Maritime   Captures    and    Prizes,"   which   was    received 
with    favour.      In   1816    he   became   a   reporter    of  the 
decisions   of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "North  American 
Review."      He   was  appointed  charge -d'affaires  to  the 
court  of  Denmark  in  1826  or  1827,  and  minister  resident 
at  Berlin  in  1835.     He  published  in  1836  his  most  im 
portant  work,  "Elements  of  International   Law,"  which 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a  standard  authority.      In  1837  he 
i  was   promoted  to   the   rank   of  minister-plenipotentiary 
I  at  Berlin,  where  he  remained  until  1846.     He  wrote  an 
i  able  work  entitled  a   "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations 
I  in  Europe  and  America,  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
I  Treaty   of  Washington,"  which  originally  appeared   in 
I  French  at  Leipsic  in  1841.      It  was  enlarged  and  pub 
lished   in   English  in  1845.     "Of  its  great  merit,"  says 
R.  W.  Griswohl,  "all   competent  critics  have  given  the 
same  testimony."     Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  History 
j  of  the  Northmen,  or  Danes  and  Normans,"  (1831.)      lie 
published  "  Reports  of  Cases  argued  and  determined  in 
the    Supreme   Court  of  the   United   States,"  (12   vols., 
1827.)     He  was  elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
French  Institute  about  1843.     Died  near  Boston,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  March,  1848. 

See  GKISWOLD,  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  169;  ALLIBONE, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  October, 
1832,  and  January,  1837;  "Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1847. 

Wheaton,  (ROKERT,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1826.  He  wrote  historical  and 
literary  articles  for  several  reviews,  and  acquired  dis 
tinction  as  a  writer.  Died  in  October,  1851. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Robert  Wheaton,"  1854. 

Wheat'stone,  (CHARLES,)  F.R.S.,  professor  of  ex 
perimental  philosophy  in  King's  College,  London,  was- 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1802.  In  early  life  he  was  a  manu 
facturer  of  musical  instruments,  and  made  researches 
on  the  science  of  acoustics.  He  displayed  much  me 
chanical  ingenuity  in  the  construction  of  instruments 
and  Apparatus.  He  published  in  1834  an  "Account  of 
Experiments  to  Measure  the  Velocity  of  Electricity  and 
the  Duration  of  Electric  Light."  In  the  same  year  he 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  King's  College,  Lon 
don.  He  invented  the  stereoscope,  which  he  described 
in  his  "Contributions  to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,"  (1838.) 
He  was  one  of  several  persons  who,  in  1837,  claimed 
the  honour  of  the  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph. 
Wheatstone  and  his  partner  Cooke  obtained  in  1837  a 
patent  for  apparatus  which  thev  invented  for  conveying 
signals  by  means  of  electric  currents.  They  were  suc 
cessful  in  the  practical  application  of  their  invention,  - 
which  soon  came  into  extensive  use.  Professor  Wheat- 
stone  afterwards  invented  several  improvements,  among 
which  is  the  magneto-alphabetical  telegraph. 

Whe'don,  (DANIEL  DENISON.)  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  divine,  born  in  Onondaga  county,  New  York, 
in  1808.  He  became  in  1856  editor  of  the  "Methodist 
Quarterly  Review."  He  has  published  a  "  Commentary 
on  the  Gospels,"  and  other  works. 

Whee'ler,  (DANIEL,)  an  able  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  born  in  London  in  1771.  He  enlisted 
in  the  British  army  about  1791,  and  served  in  Holland 
in  1794.  Before  this  time  his  moral  character  had  be 
come,  it  is  said,  very  depraved.  Having  passed  through 
much  suffering  and  danger,  and  repented  of  his  sins,  he 
quitted  the  army  in  1796,  and  was  approved  as  a  minis 
ter  by  the  P'riends  in  1816.  He  was  employed  by  the 
Russian  government  to  superintend  agricultural  improve- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mil;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


WHEELER 


2261 


WHIST  ON 


incuts  near  Saint  Petersburg,  for  many  years,  (1817-32.) 
About  the  end  of  1833  he  sailed  on  a  religious  mission 
to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  which  he  spent 
nearly  four  years.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1839 
as  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  and  died  in  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1840. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Daniel  Wheeler,"  (partly  autobiographic,)  1842. 

Wheeler  or  Wheler,  (Sir  GEORGE,)  an  English 
divine,  born  in  Kent  or  Holland  in  1650,  became  rector 
of  Houghton-le-Spring.  He  published  a  "Journey  into 
Greece,"  and  "An  Account  of  the  Churches  of  the 
Primitive  Christians."  Died  about  1723. 

Whee'ler,  (WILLIAM  A.,)  an   American   editor  and 
author,  born  at  Leicester,  Massachusetts,  November  14, 
1833,  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in   1853.     In  1856 
he  went  to  Cambridge  to  assist   Dr.  Worcester  in   the  ! 
preparation  of  his  quarto  Dictionary,  on   which  he  was  \ 
engaged  several   years.     In  1861   he  was  employed  by  j 
Messrs.  G.  &  C.  Merriam  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  ; 
new  edition  of  Webster's  quarto  Dictionary,  which  passed  j 
through  the  press  under  his  supervision.     Among  his 
various    publications    we  may  name    a  "  Dictionary  of 
the    Noted   Names   of  Fiction,"  (i   vol.  121110,  1865,)   a  | 
work   original    in    its    conception,   as    well    as    of  great  j 
practical  value  as  a  book  of  reference.     In  1867  he  was  ' 
appointed    assistant   superintendent,    and    head   of   the  i 
cataloguing  department,  in  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

Whee'lock,  (EI.KAZAK,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre 
gational  divine,  born  at  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  1711.  | 
He  was  the  founder  and  first  president  of  Dartmouth  [ 
College,  which  grew  originally  out  of  an  Indian  mission 
ary  school.     Died  in  1779. 

Wheelock,  (Jon.\,)  LL.D.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1754.  He  served 
for  a  time  in  the  Continental  army,  and  was  made  a  lieu 
tenant-colonel.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he  became 
president  of  Dartmouth  College.  Died  in  1817. 

Wheel'wright,  (JOHN,)   a  Puritan  divine,  born   in 
Lincolnshire,   England,   in    1594,   was   a  classmate  and  ; 
friend  of  Oliver  Cromwell.     He  emigrated  in   1636  to 
New  England,  where  he  soon  after  founded  the  town  of 
Exeter,  in  Massachusetts.     He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  ! 
Mrs.  Ann  Hutchinson,  whose  religious  views  he  shared,  j 
Died  in  1679. 

Wheth/am-stede,  (JOHN,)  an   English   monk   and  ' 
chronicler,  was  Abbot  of  Saint  Alban's,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1382.     He   wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  period  j 
from  1441  to  1461.     Died  in  1464. 

Whet/stone,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  miscellaneous  j 
writer,  who  lived  about  1575.  His  principal  work'is  a  j 
comedy,  entitled  "Promos  and  Cassandra,"  (1578.) 

Whewell,  hu'el,  (WILLIAM,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished  ! 
English  philosopher  and  scholar,  born  at  Lancaster  in  ; 
1795.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu-  j 
ated  in  1816,  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
and  l>ecame  an  eminent  tutor  in  the  same.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  mineralogy  in  1828,  obtained  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  or  moral  theology  in  1838, 
and  became  master  of  Trinity  College  in  1841.  Before 
the  last  date  he  had  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  by  the 
production  of  his  "  Astronomy  and  Physics  considered 
with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology,"  (1833,)  which  is 
one  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises,  "  The  History  of  the 
Inductive  Sciences,"  (3  vols.,  1837,)  and  "The  Phi 
losophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences  founded  upon  their 
History,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)  Referring  to  these  two  works, 
Professor  James  D.  Forbes  says,  "One  attempt — a  bold 
and  successful  one — has  been  made,  in  our  own  day,  to 
unite  two  of  the  three  departments  :  I  mean  the  His 
tory  and  Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences.  An 
English  philosopher,  of  wonderful  versatility,  industry, 
and  power,  has  erected  a  permanent  monument  to  his 
reputation,  in  a  voluminous  work  bearing  the  preceding 
title."  ("  Preliminary  Dissertation"  in  the  eighth  edition 
of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  An  anonymous  | 
work  called  "The  Plurality  of  Worlds"  (1853)  is  gen 
erally  understood  to  be  the  production  of  Dr.  Whewell. 
The  author  of  this  work  doubts  or  denies  the  existence 
of  a  plurality  of  worlds.  He  became  vice-chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1855.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  "  Elements  of  Morality,"  (1855,) 


and  several  valuable  treatises  on  tides,  published  in  the 
•' Philosophical  Transactions."     Died  in  1866. 

See  ALUBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1834,  and  October.  1837  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  June,  1841  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1852. 

Which'cote,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1610,  studied  at  Emanuel  College,  Cam 
bridge,  was  appointed  one  of  the  university  preachers 
about  1636,  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1649,  and  after 
wards  became  rector  of  Milton,  in  Cambridgeshire. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Saint 
Lawrence,  Jewry.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Observations 
and  Apophthegms,"  "Moral  and  Religious  Aphorisms," 
and  numerous  sermons.  He  has  been  called  one  of  the 
principal  founders  of  the  latitudinarian  school  of  divines 
in  England.  Died  in  1683. 

Whip'ple,  (hwip'p'l,)  (ABRAHAM,)  an  American  com 
modore  of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1733.  He  captured  many  rich  prizes  and  per 
formed  several  daring  exploits  between  1775  and  1781. 
Died  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  in  1819. 

See  HILDRETH,  "Life  of  A.  Whipple." 

Whipple,  (AMIKL  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Massachusetts,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He 
became  a  captain  of  topographical  engineers  in  1855, 
and  chief  engineer  on  the  staff  of  General  McDowell  in 
the  spring  of  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chan- 
cellorsville,  May,  1863,  aged  about  forty-six. 

Whipple,  (EnwiN  PERCY,)  a  distinguished  American 
critic  and  essayist,  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in 
1819.  He  published  in  1843  H1  tne  "  Boston  Miscellany" 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Macaulay," 
which  attracted  much  attention.  He  has  been  a  contrib 
utor  to  the  "American  Review,"  "  Christian  Examiner," 
"  Methodist  Quarterly  Review,"  "  North  American 
Review,"  and  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  A  collection 
of  his  writings,  entitled  "  Essays  and  Reviews,"  was 
published  in  2  vols.  in  1849.  He  is  also  the  author 
of  "  Lectures  on  Subjects  connected  with  Literature  and 
Life,"  (1849,)  and  "Character  and  Characteristic  Men," 
(1867.)  Mr.  Whipple  has  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  lecturer.  In  1859  he  delivered  before  the  Lowell 
Institute,  Boston,  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  "  Literature 
of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth,"  which  were  published  in  a 
small  volume  in  1869. 

See  GRISWW.D,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America;"  "  North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1850. 

Whipple,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  born  at  Kittery,  Maine,  in  1730,  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  1776,  was  appointed  briga 
dier-general  in  1777,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Stillwater  and  Saratoga  and  in  the  siege  of  Newport. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  SANDEKSON,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

WhistTer,  (hwiss'ler,)  (GEORGE  WASHINGTON,)  an 
American  engineer,  born  at  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  in 
1800,  graduated  at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy 
in  1819.  Having  been  previously  employed  in  the 
construction  of  several  railroads  in  the  United  States,  he 
was  invited  to  Russia  in  1842  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
to  superintend  the  internal  improvements  in  that  country. 
Died  in  1849. 

Whis'ton,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  philoso 
pher  and  theologian,  born  at  Norton,  in  Leicestershire, 
on  the  gth  of  December,  1667.  He  was  educated  at 
Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  gave  special  attention 
to  mathematics  and  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  and  took 
his  degree  in  1690.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  his 
college  in  the  same  year,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1693.  About  this  time  he  became  acquainted  with  Sir 
Isaac  Newton.  In  1696  he  published  a  "  New  Theory 
of  the  Earth,  from  its  Original  to  the  Consummation  of 
all  Things,"  in  which  he  attributed  the  great  Deluge  to 
the  collision  of  a  comet  with  the  earth.  This  work  ran 
through  six  editions.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Lowes- 
toft,  in  Suffolk,  in  1698,  soon  after  which  he  married  a 
Miss  Antrobus.  In  1701  Newton  nominated  him  as 
his  deputy  in  the  Lucasian  professorship  at  Cambridge. 
Through  the  influence  of  Newton,  Whiston  obtained 
the  chair  of  mathematics,  which  the  former  resigned  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,guctural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  fch  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITAKER 


2262 


WHITE 


1703.  He  then  gave  up  his  living  at  Lowestoft,  and 
removed  to  Cambridge,  where  he  also  officiated  as  a 
clergyman,  having  been  appointed  lecturer  of  Saint  Clem 
ent's.  In  1707  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  the  Boyle 
lecture,  and  published  "  Przelectiones  Astronomicae." 
He  was  gradually  converted  to  Avian  doctrines,  which 
he  advocated  in  a  volume  of  sermons  and  essays  pub 
lished  in  1709,  and  in  other  writings.  In  1710  he  was 
deprived  of  his  professorship  and  expelled  from  the 
university.  He  then  settled  in  London,  and  published 
a  "  Histovical  Preface  to  Primitive  Christianity,"  (1710,) 
which  was  followed  by"  Primitive  Christianity  Revived," 
(4  vols.,  1711.)  The  clergy  prosecuted  him  for  heresy  in 
the  spiritual  courts;  but,  after  many  evasive  delays,  the 
prosecution  was  ended  in  1715,  by  an  act  of  grace  by 
which  all  heretics  were  pardoned.  Whiston  was  an 
unflinching  and  courageous  asserter  of  religious  liberty, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  shrewd  and  pithy  retorts 
in  conversation.  He  was  once  in  company  with  Addison, 
Pope,  Walpole,  and  Secretary  Craggs,  who  raised  the 
question  whether  a  secretary  of  state  could  be  an  honest 
man.  Whiston  having  expressed  his  opinion  in  the  af 
firmative,  Craggs  said, ""It  might  answer  for  a  fortnight, 
but  no  longer."  Whiston  then  asked,  "Mr.  Secretary, 
did  you  ever  try  it  for  ?.  fortnight?"  to  which  Craggs 
made  no  answer.  He  published  in  1737  a  translation 
of  Josephus,  often  reprinted,  and  in  1749-50  his  enter 
taining  "Memoirs  of  his.  own  Life,"  (3  vols.)  Died  in 

1752. 

See  "  Biographic  Britarmica ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Whit'a-ker,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
born  in  1750,  published  "An  Abridgment  of  Universal 
History,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1818. 

Whitaker,  (JoHN,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Man 
chester  about  1735.  ^e  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became 
rector  of  Ruan-Langhorne,  in  Cornwall,  in  1778.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Man 
chester,"  (1771-75,)  "Genuine  History  of  the  Britons 
Asserted,"  "Mary  Queen  of  Scots  Vindicated,"  (1788,) 
"The  Origin  of  Arianism  Disclosed,"  and  "Sermons 
upon  Death,  Judgment,  Heaven,  and  Hell."  Died  in 
1808. 

See  AI.I.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  April,  1783,  and  October,  1795. 

Whitaker,  (THOMAS  DUNHAM,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1759.  He  studied 
law  at  Cambridge,  but  subsequently  entered  holy  orders, 
and  became  vicar  of  Blackburn  in  1818.  He  published 
"The  Life  and  Original  Correspondence  of  Sir  George 
Radcliffe,"  "  History  of  the  Deanery  of  Craven,"  and 
other  antiquarian  works.  Died  in  1821. 

Whitaker,  (WILLIAM,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Holme,  in  Lancashire,  in  1547.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1579,  and  master  of 
Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  translated  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  and  Nowell's  Catechisms  into 
Greek,  and  wrote  numerous  controversial  works  against 
popery.  Died  in  1595. 

Whit'bre'ad,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  London  in  1758,  was  the  son  of  an  opulent  brewer  of 
that  city.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam 
bridge,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Steyning  in  1790,  and  was  afterwards  returned  for  the 
town  of  Bedford.  He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
Whig  party,  and  a  warm  personal  friend  of  Mr.  Fox. 
He  conducted  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Melville,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the  oppo 
sition  after  the  death  of  Fox.  His  wife  was  a  daughter 
of  the  first  Earl  Grey.  He  committed  suicide  in  1815, 
during  an  attack  of  temporary  insanity. 

Whit'by,  (DANIEL,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1638.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col 
lege,  Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to 
be  rector  of  Saint  Edmund's,  Salisbury,  having  been 
previously  created  D.D.  His  controversial  works  are 
numerous,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time  ; 
among  the  most  important  of  these  may  be  named  "  A 
Discourse  concerning  the  Idolatry  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,"  (1674,)  "The  Absurdity  and  Idolatry  of  Host- 
Worship  Proven,"  (1679,)  and  "The  Fallibility  of  the 
Roman  Church  Demonstrated,"  (1687.)  In  1683  he 


published  a  plea  for  the  toleration  of  dissenters,  entitled 
"  The  Protestant  Reconciler,"  etc.,  which  encountered 
violent  opposition  and  was  condemned  to  be  burned.  His 
"  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament," 
(1703,)  a  defence  of  Arminianism,  is  regarded  as  his 
best  production,  and  was  followed  by  several  other 
works  of  a  similar  nature.  Dr.  Whitby  subsequently 
professed  Arianism,  in  defence  of  which  he  wrote  a 
number  of  tracts,  and  also  defended  Bishop  Hoadly  in 
the  Bangorian  controversy.  Died  in  1726. 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

White,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  officer  and  writer, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1793,  served  under  Wellington 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  in  Hanover  as 
adjutant  of  the  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  published 
"Almacks  Revisited,"  "The  King's  Page,"  "Arthur 
Beverly,"  and  other  popular  romances;  also,  "The 
Belgic  Revolution  in  1830,"  (1835,)  and  "  Three  Years 
in  Constantinople,"  (1846.) 

White,  (DANIEL  APPLETON,)  a  distinguished  jurist 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  in  what  is  now 
the  city  of  Lawrence,  June  7,  1776.  lie  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1797,  sharing  the  highest  honours  of  the 
class  with  Horace  Binney,  of  Philadelphia.  In  1799  he 
accepted  the  position  of  Latin  tutor  at  Harvard,  where 
he  remained  nearly  four  years.  He  began  the  study  of 
law  at  Cambridge,  and  was  there  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1804.  His  success  in  his  profession  was  remarkable. 
From  1810  to  1815  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Senate. 
In  November,  1814,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  from  the 
Essex  district  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  ;  but  before 
taking  his  seat  in  the  national  legislature  he  resigned 
his  position  as  representative  and  accepted  that  of  judge 
of  probate  for  the  county  of  Essex,  which  in  the  mean 
time  had  been  tendered  to  him.  He  filled  this  office, 
with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  advantage  to  the 
Commonwealth,  for  thirty-eight  years. 

Judge  White  was  distinguished  for  his  generosity  and 
public  spirit,  and  gave  liberally  of  his  time  and  means 
to  promote  the  cause  of  education  and  other  important 
public  interests.  He  was  an  active  member  of  many 
philanthropic  and  literary  associations,  and  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  cause  of  temperance.  Besides  frequent 
smaller  gifts,  he  gave  in  all  to  the  Essex  Institute  at 
Salem  more  than  8000  volumes,  including  the  3000  left 
in  his  will.  He  closed  his  long  and  useful  life  on  the 
30th  of  March,  1861. 

See  the  interesting  "  Memoir  of  Daniel  Appleton  White,"  by  G. 
W.  HRIGGS.  Salem.  1864;  and  the  ''Memoir  of  Judge  White,"  by 
DR.  WAI.KKR,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society. 

"White,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  mezzotint  engraver, 
son  of  Robert,  noticed  below,  executed  a  number  of 
excellent  portraits,  among  which  we  may  name  those 
of  Lord  Clarendon  and  Sir  Richard  Blackmore.  Died 
about  1735. 

White,  (GILBERT,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist  and 
divine,  born  at  Selborne,  in  Hampshire,  in  1720.  He 
studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.  in  1746.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Natural 
History  of  Selborne,"  appeared  in  1789.  Its  graceful 
and  attractive  style,  as  well  as  its  other  merits,  have 
given  it  a  high  rank  among  English  classics.  After  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1793,  a  selection  from  his  jour 
nal  was  published  by  Dr.  Aikin,  under  the  title  of  "  A 
Naturalist's  Calendar,"  etc.  His  "  Antiquities  of  Sel 
borne"  was  published  in  1813,  in  the  same  volume  with 
the  two  above-named  works. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

White,  (HENRY,)  an  English  clergyman,  of  consider 
able  literary  attainments,  was  a  resident  of  Lichfield, 
and  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  celebrated  writers 
of  the  time.  Died  in  1836. 

White,  (HENRY Kirke,)  often  called  KIRKE  WHITE, 
an  English  poet,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1785.  As  a 
child,  he  was  remarkable  for  precocity  of  intellect,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  music,  and  natural  science. 
Having  previously  made  several  contributions  to  the 
"  Monthly  Mirror"  and  other  literary  journals,  he  pub 
lished  about  1803  a  collection  of  poems,  which  were 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  %,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not:  s^ood;  moon; 


WHITE 


2263 


WH1TEFIELD 


severely  criticised  by  the  reviewers.  The  volume,  how- 
evei,  attracted  the  notice  of  Southey,  who  subsequently 
became  his  warm  friend  and  generous  patron.  Having 
about  this  time  experienced  deep  religious  impressions, 
it  became  his  earnest  desire  to  educate  himself  for  the 
ministry.  Through  the  assistance  of  several  friends,  he 
was  enabled  to  enter  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1804.  His  severe  application  to  study  and  the  excite 
ment  of  preparing  for  examination  were  too  much  for 
his  originally  frail  constitution,  and  he  fell  into  a  rapid 
decline,  dying  in  October,  1806.  His  works,  in  prose 
and  verse,  were  published  in  1807  by  Southey,  with  a 
very  interesting  biography. 

See,  also,  SOMMEKMEVKR,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
H.  Kirke  White,"  1*47;  CARY,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  While  :"  ALLIHONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1810. 

"White,  (Huon  LAWSON,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Iredell  county,  North  Carolina,  in  October, 
1773.  He  removed  to  Knox  county,  Tennessee,  in  1786, 
and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  that 
State  in  1801.  In  1825  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  Tennessee.  He  received  twenty-six 
electoral  votes  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1836, 
and  was  re-elected  a  Senator  in  the  same  year,  but  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  1839.  Died  at  Knoxville  in  1840. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

"White,  (JAMES,)  an  Irish  novelist  and  poet,  wrote 
romances  entitled  "  Adventures  of  John  of  Gaunt," 
"Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,"  and  "  Conway  Castle,  and 
other  Poems."  Died  in  1799. 

White,  (Rev.  JAMES,)  an  English  dramatist  and  his 
torian,  born  in  1785.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries,"  (1858,)  "Land 
marks  of  the  History  of  Greece,"  and  a  "  History  of 
England,"  (1861.)  Died  in  1862. 

"White,  ([EKKMY,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Restoration  of  All  Things,''  in 
support  of  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation.  Died 
in  1707. 

White  or  Whyte,  (Jonx,)  an  English  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Surrey  in  1511,  was  made  Bishop  of  Winchester 
under  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  Died  in  1560. 

White,  (  JOHX,  )  an  English  divine  and  popular 
preacher,  sometimes  called  "  the  Patriarch  of  Dorches 
ter,''  was  born  in  1574;  died  in  1648. 

White,  (Jonx,)  called  CENTURY  WHITE,  an  English 
lawyer  and  nonconformist,  born  in  Pembrokeshire  in 
1590.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  in  1640, 
and  sat  as  a  lay  assessor  in  the  Assembly  of  Divines 
at  Westminster.  He  published  "The  First  Century  of 
Scandalous  Malignant  Priests  made  and  admitted  into 
Benefices  by  the  Prelates,"  etc.  Died  in  1645. 

White,  (JOHN,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  1805. 
He  represented  a  district  of  Kentucky  in  Congress 
from  1835  to  1845,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  December,  1841,  to  March,  1843. 
Died  in  1845. 

White,  (JosEi'H,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  Orien 
talist,  born  in  Gloucestershire  about  1746.  He  studied 
at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1 775  became  Laudian 
professor  of  Arabic  in  the  university.  In  1783  he  de 
livered  the  Bampton  lectures,  which  were  afterwards 
published  under  the  title  of  "  A  View  of  Christianity  and 
Mahometanism,  in  their  History,  their  Evidence,  and 
their  Effects."  They  won  for  him  a  high  reputation  and 
the  office  of  prebendary  in  the  cathedral  of  Gloucester. 
It  was  soon  after  discovered,  however,  that  they  were  in 
great  part  the  composition  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Badcock 
and  Dr.  Samuel  Parr,  who  had  been  employed  by  Dr. 
White  to  assist  him.  He  published,  in  1800,  his  "  Dia- 
tessaron,"  which  was  followed  by  his  "  /Egyptiaca,  or 
Observations  on  Certain  Antiquities  of  Egypt,"  and 
a  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  ALI.IRONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

White,  (JOSEPH  BLANCO,)  often  called  BLANCO 
WHITE,  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Seville,  in  Spain, 
in  1775,  was  descended  from  an  Irish  Catholic  family 
settled  in  that  country.  In  Spain  he  was  called  BLANCO, 


which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for  its  English  equiva 
lent.  He  was  educated  for  the  Church,  but  he  soon 
abandoned  that  profession,  and,  having  settled  in  Eng 
land,  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  had  been  for 
several  years  editor  of  a  Spanish  journal,  entitled  "  El 
Espanol,"  and,  in  1822,  edited  "Las  Variedades,"  an 
other  Spanish  periodical.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Quarterly"  and  "  Westminster"  Reviews,  the 
"  Dublin  University  Review,"  and  other  literary  journals. 
Among  his  principal  works  maybe  named  "The  Poor 
Man's  Preservative  against  Popery,"  (1825,)  "Second 
Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion," 
(1833,)  and  a  sonnet  entitled  "Night,"  which  is  highly 
commended  by  Coleridge.  Died  in  1841. 

See  "The  Life  of  the  Rev  Joseph  Blanco  White,  written  by  Him 
self,"  London,  1845;  J.  H.  THOM,  "  Life  of  J.  B.  White,"  3  vols., 
1845  ;  "  Biackwood's  Magazine"  for  Juiy,  1825  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1845;  "Westminster  Review"  for  December, 
1845  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846. 

White,  (JULIUS,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Madi 
son  county.  New  York,  about  1816.  He  served  at  the 
battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  was  second  in 
command  at  Harper's  Ferry  when  Stonewall  Jackson 
captured  that  place,  September  15  of  the  same  year. 

White  or  Vi'tus,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  historian 
and  Roman  Catholic  priest,  burn  in  Hampshire,  became 
a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1557.  He  taught 
law  at  Douai.  Died  in  1612. 

"White,  (RICHARD  GRANT,)  an  American  litterateur, 
born  in  New  York  in  1822,  was  for  a  time  associate 
editor  of  the  "Courier  and  Enquirer."  He  has  been  a 
contributor  to  the  leading  literary  periodicals,  and  has 
published  a  volume  of  critical  essays,  entitled  "  Shake 
speare's  Scholar,"  (1854.,)  an  "  Essay  on  the  Authorship 
of  Henry  VI.,"  and  a  "Life  of  William  Shakespeare," 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Shakespeare's  collected  works 
in  12  vols.,  (1865  et  sty.) 

White,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  engraver,  bom  in 
London  in  1645.  His  portraits  in  mezzotint  and  line- 
engraving  are  very  numerous.  Died  in  1704. 

White,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London, 
born  in  1492,  became  lord  mayor  of  that  city  in  1553. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1566. 

White,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Bristol.  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Dunstan's,  Fleet 
Street,  London,  in  1575.  He  founded  Sion  College,  in 
London,  and  a  hospital.  Died  in  1623. 

"White,  (THOMAS,)  [in  Latin,  THOMAS  AL'HUS  or 
AN'GLUS,]  an  English  philosopher  and  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  1582.  He  lived  mostly  on  the  continent, 
and  published  several  works  on  philosophy,  etc.  Died 
in  1676. 

White,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  philosopher,  was  a 
friend  and  correspondent  of  Descartes.  Died  in  1696. 

"White,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Kent 
in  1630,  was  made  Bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1685.  He 
was  one  of  the  seven  bishops  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
in  1688.  Died  in  1698. 

See  Miss  STRICKLAND,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

White,  (WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
bishop,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1748.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1772,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  Christ 
Church  and  Saint  Peter's  Church,  Philadelphia.  He 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in  1786.  He  pub 
lished  "Comparative  Views  of  the  Controversy  between 
the  Calvinists  and  Arminians,"  and  other  theological 
works.  Died  in  1836. 

See  BIRD  WILSON,  "Life  of  Bishop  White,"  1839;  DUVCKINCK, 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Whlte'field,  (hwit'feld,)  (GEORGE,)  an  eminent  and 
eloquent  English  preacher,  and  the  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Calvinistic  Methodists,  was  born  at  Gloucester  in 
December,  1714.  He  was  a  son  of  an  inn-keeper,  from 
whom  he  inherited  little  or  nothing.  His  mother,  who 
became  a  widow  about  1716,  sent  him  to  a  grammar- 
school.  In  1733  he  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
as  a  servitor.  He  had  received  from  nature  a  good  voice 
and  remarkable  rhetorical  talents.  At  college  he  became 
an  intimate  friend  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  with 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITEHEAD 


2264 


WH1TG1FT 


whom  he  entered  into  religious  fellowship.  He  was  or 
dained  a  deacon  in  1736,  and  began  soon  after  to  preach 
with  great  eloquence  and  power.  In  1737  he  preached 
in  London,  and  other  places,  to  crowded  congregations, 
who  listened  to  him  with  enthusiastic  admiration.  He 
performed  a  voyage  to  Georgia  in  the  early  part  of  1738, 
instituted  an  orphan-house  at  Savannah,  and  returned 
to  England  in  September  of  that  year.  In  1739  he 
was  ordained  a  priest  by  Bishop  Benson.  Having  been 
excluded  from  the  churches  of  Bristol,  he  adopted  the 
practice  of  preaching  in  the  open  air,  for  which  his 
powerful  voice  was  well  adapted.  He  propagated  the 
Methodist  religion  at  various  places  with  great  success. 
In  the  autumn  of  1739  he  again  crossed  the  Atlantic  to 
America,  where  he  spent  more  than  a  year  in  zealous 
ministerial  labours.  Having  traversed  the  provinces 
from  New  York  to  Georgia,  he  returned  to  England 
in  1741.  Soon  after  this  date  Whitefield  and  Wesley 
ceased  to  co-operate,  in  consequence  of  their  disagree 
ment  in  doctrines.  They  differed  especially  in  the  doc 
trine  of  predestination,  which  Whitefield  accepted,  as  a 
disciple  of  Calvin.  (See  WKSLEY,  JOHN.)  About  1742 
he  married  a  Welsh  widow  named  Mrs.  James.  They 
had  one  child,  who  died  in  infancy.  He  revisited  the 
American  colonies  in  1744,  and  laboured  among  them 
several  years.  In  1748  he  became  acquainted  with 
Selina,  Countess  of  Huntingdon,  who  appointed  him 
her  chaplain.  Among  the  persons  who  are  said  to  have 
heard  and  admired  his  sermons  were  Hume,  Lord 
Chesterfield,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  published  a 
journal  of  his  life,  (ad  edition,  1756.)  He  sailed  from 
England  in  1769  on  his  seventh  visit  to  America,  and 
died  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  September,  1770. 
A  collection  of  his  letters,  sermons,  etc.  was  published 
in  six  volumes,  (1771.) 

"  Hume  pronounced  him,"  says  Robert  Southey,  "the 
most  ingenious  preacher  he  had  ever  heard,  and  said  it 
was  worth  while  to  go  twenty  miles  to  hear  him.  But 
perhaps  the  greatest  proof  of  his  persuasive  powers  was 
when  he  drew  from  Benjamin  Franklin's  pocket  the 
money  which  that  clear,  cool  reasoner  had  determined 
not  to  give."*  ("Life  of  John  Wesley.") 

See  J.  GILLIES,  "Life  of  George  Whiiefield,"  1772:  "Genuine 
and  Secret  Memoirs  relating  to  that  Arch-Methodist.  G.  Whitefield," 
Oxford,  1742;  ScHAFFSH.uisEN',  "Historia  Methodistarum  et  Vita 
Whitefield,"  1743;  ROBERT  PHILIP,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  the 
Rev.  George  Whitefield,"  1838;  R.  SOUTHEY,  "Life  of  John  Wes 
ley;"  "  Kraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1838. 

White'head,  (D/\vin,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Hampshire,  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne  Boleyn. 
He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1552,  went 
into  exile  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  and  preached 
at  Frankfort.  In  1558  he  returned  to  England.  Died 
in  1571. 

Whitehead,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  Quaker  preacher, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1636,  procured  for  the  society 
of  which  he  was  a  member  the  allowance  of  an  affirm 
ation  in  the  courts  of  law,  instead  of  the  customary  oath. 
He  was  a  personal  friend  of  George  Fox.  Died  in  1725. 

Whitehead,  (JoHN,)  a  Methodist  divine  and  phy 
sician,  who  preached  John  Wesley's  funeral  sermon, 
and  afterwards  published  Memoirs  of  his  life.  Died 
in  1804. 

Whitehead,  (PAUL,)  an  English  satiric  poet,  born 
in  London  in  1710.  His  political  satire  entitled  "  The 
State  Dunces"  was  dedicated  to  Pope,  and  was  followed 
by  "Manners,"  (1739,)  "The  Gymnasiad,"  (1744,)  and 
"  Honour,"  all  of  which  were  conspicuous  for  their 
virulence  and  daring  personalities.  He  was  an  associate 
of  Wilkes,  Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  and  other  profligate 
wits  of  the  time.  Died  in  1774. 

Whitehead,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  poet  and  drama 
tist,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1715.  He  studied  at  Cam 
bridge,  and  in  1757  succeeded  Colley  Gibber  as  poet- 
laureate.  He  published  tragedies  entitled  "  The  Roman 
Father"  and  "Creusa,  Queen  of  Athens,"  "The  School 
for  Lovers,"  a  comedy,  and  numerous  odes,  epistles, 
etc.  Died  in  1788. 

White'hurst,  (JOHN,)  an  English  mechanician  of  dis 
tinguished  talents,  born  in  Cheshire  in  1713  ;  died  in  1788. 

*  See  Franklin's  own  account  of  this,  in  his  "  Autobiography." 


Whlte'locke,  (hwlt/lok,)  (BULSTRODE,)  an  eminent 
English  statesman  an'c^  lawyer,  born  in  London  in  1605, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  James,  noticed  below.  His  mother 
was  Elizabeth  Bulstrode.  About  1620  he  entered  Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted,  without  a 
degree,  to  study  law  in  the  Middle  Temple.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament  for  Great 
Marlow  in  November,  1640,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  Charles  I.  lie  was  chairman  of  the  com 
mittee  which  managed  the  impeachment  of  the  Earl  of 
Strafford,  but  was  more  moderate  and  conservative  than 
most  of  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  During  the 
civil  war  he  preferred  the  part  of  mediator  to  that  of  a 
zealous  partisan.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  treat  with  the  king  at  Oxford  in  January, 
1642-43.  About  1648  he  was  nominated  one  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  great  seal.  He  declined  to  take 
any  part  in  the  trial  of  Charles  I.,  which  he  character 
ized  as  a  "  bad  business ;"  but  he  accepted  office  under 
Cromwell,  who  had  much  confidence  in  his  integrity 
and  judgment.  In  1653  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Sweden,  negotiated  a  treaty  with  that  power,  and  re 
turned  in  1654.  lie  was  a  member  of  Cromwell's 
second  Parliament,  and  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1656,  soon  after  which  he  urged 
Cromwell  to  assume  the  title  of  king,  and  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  new  House  of  Peers  created  by  the  Pro 
tector,  lie  was  created  a  viscount  in  August,  1658,  but 
he  would  not  accept  the  title.  After  the  death  of  Oliver 
he  became  president  of  the  council  of  state,  in  1659, 
and  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  which  he  resigned  about 
December,  1659.  At  the  restoration  of  1660  his  name 
was  included  in  the  Act  of  Oblivion.  He  died  in  1676, 
leaving  a  valuable  contribution  to  history,  entitled  "  Me 
morials  of  English  Affairs  from  the  Beginning  of  the 
Reign  of  Charles  I.  to  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II.," 
(1682,)  also  "Memorials  of  English  Affairs  from  the 
Supposed  Expedition  of  Brute  to  this  Island  to  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  James  I.,"  which  was  published  in  1709 
by  William  Penn,  who  prefixed  a  notice  of  the  author's 
lite.  An  Account  of  his  Swedish  Embassy  was  pub 
lished  in  1772. 


Whitelocke,  (Sir  JAMES,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  in  1570,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1620,  and  afterwards  be 
came  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas.  He  had  a  good 
reputation  for  fidelity  to  the  duties  of  his  office.  Died 
in  1632. 

White'side,  (JAMES,)  LL.D.,  an  Irish  jurist  and 
conservative  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Wicklow 
about  1806.  lie  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
subsequently  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer 
and  orator.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  counsel  in  the 
defence  of  O'Connell  in  1843,  and  also  defended  Meagher 
and  Smith  O'Brien  in  the  trials  of  1848.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Enniskillen  in  1851,  and  in  1859  was 
returned  for  the  University  of  Dublin.  He  became 
about  1866  lord  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  queen's 
bench  in  Ireland.  He  has  published  a  work  entitled 
"  Italy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1849.) 

Whit'gift,  (  JOHN,)  an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and 
learned  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Great  Grimsby, 
Lincolnshire,  in  1530.  He  entered  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge,  about  1548,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Pembroke  Hall.  In  1554  he  took  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts.  He  adopted  the  Protestant  doctrines 
at  an  early  age,  and,  after  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary,  he  was  protected  from  persecution  by  his  friend 
Andrew  Perne.  Having  entered  into  holy  orders  in 
1560,  he  gained  distinction  as  a  preacher  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  resided  many  years  after  the  date  just  named. 
He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  in  1563, 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall  in  1567,  and  chaplain  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  same  year.  About  1568  he  was 
appointed  master  of  Trinity  College  and  regius  pro 
fessor  of  divinity.  He  appeared  as  a  champion  of  the 
Established  Church  and  its  liturgy  in  a  controversy 
against  Cartwright,  who  was  a  Puritan.  In  1571  he  was 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WHITING 


2265 


WHITTEMORE 


appointed  Dean  of  Lincoln.  The  constitution  and  lit 
urgy  of  the  Church  of  England  having  been  attacked 
in  a  Puritan  work  called  "An  Admonition  to  Parlia 
ment,"  Whitgift  defended  the  Church  with  much  ability 
in  his  "  Answer  to  the  Admonition  to  Parliament," 
(1572.)  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1576,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  queen  by  his  zeal  and 
severity  against  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Puritans.  He 
succeeded  Grindal  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1583, 
and  initiated  vigorous  measures  to  enforce  conformity  to 
all  the  doctrines,  forms,  and  discipline  of  the  Church. 
He  required  all  clergymen  to  subscribe  to  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles,  and  to  recognize  the  queen  as  the 
supreme  head  of  the  Church.  His  intolerance  and  per 
secuting  spirit  are  said  to  have  driven  many  persons 
into  dissent.  "  Honest  and  well-intentioned,"  says  Gar 
diner,  "but  narrow-minded  to  an  almost  incredible 
degree,  the  one  thought  which  filled  his  mind  was  the 
hope  of  bringing  the  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Eng 
land  at  least  to  an  outward  conformity."  Lord  Burghley 
remonstrated  against  his  intolerant  conduct,  without 
effect.  Whitgift  declined  the  office  of  lord  chancellor 
in  1587.  He  founded  a  hospital  at  Croydon.  On  the 
death  of  Elizabeth  (1602)  he  sent  Dr.  Nevil  to  Scotland 
to  court  the  favour  of  James  I.  He  took  part  in  the 
conference  at  Hampton  Court  in  January,  1604.  Died 
in  February,  1604. 

See  STRYPE,  "Life  and  Acts  of  John  Whitgift,"  1718;  SIR 
GEORGE  PAUI.K,  "Life  of  Whitgift,"  1699 :  GARDINER.  "History 
of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i.  ci).  iii.  ;  "  Retrospective  Re 
view,"  vol.  xiii.,  (1^26.) 

Whi'ting,  (HKNRY,)  an  American  general  of  the 
United  States  army,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  in  Massa 
chusetts.  He  wrote  various  articles  for  the  "  North 
American  Review."  Died  at  an  advanced  age  in  Saint 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  1851. 

"Whiting,  (WILLIAM  H.  C.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1825,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861, 
and  became  a  major-general  in  1863.  He  commanded 
at  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  1864,  and  was  taken  pris 
oner  at  the  capture  of  that  fort,  in  January,  1865.  He 
died  in  prison,  March,  1865. 

Whit'lock,  (ELIZABETH,)  an  English  actress,  born 
in  1761,  was  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons. 
She  was  married  in  1785  to  Mr.  Whitlock,  manager  of 
the  Newcastle  Theatre.  Died  in  1836. 

Whit'maii,  (SARAH  HELEX  POWER,)  an  American 
poetess,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1813,  pub 
lished  "Hours  of  Life,  and  other  Poe-.ns,"  (1853,)  and 
a  work  entitled  "Edgar  Poe  and  his  Critics,"  (1860.) 

See  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
GRISWOLD,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Whit'ney,  (ADELINE  D.  Train,)  a  popular  American 
writer,  born  in  Boston  in  1824.  Among  her  works  are 
"Mother  Goose  for  Grown  Folks,"  (1860,)  "Faith  Gart- 
ney's  Girlhood,"  (1863,)  "The  Gayworthys,"  (1865,) 
"  Patience  Strong's  Outings,"  (1868,)  and  "Hitherto:  a 
Story  of  Yesterday,"  (1869.) 

Whitney,  (ELI,)  the  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin,  was 
born  at  Westborough,  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
December  8,  1765.  He  displayed  great  mechanical  in 
genuity  in  his  early  youth,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1792,  and  went  to  Georgia  to  teach  school.  He  became 
an  inmate  in  the  household  of  General  Greene's  widow, 
near  Savannah,  where,  about  the  end  of  1792,  he  invented 
the  cotton-gin  for  separating  the  cotton  from  the  seed. 
In  May,  1793,  he  formed  with  Phineas  Miller  a  partner 
ship  for  the  manufacture  of  the  gins.  Before  he  had 
obtained  a  patent  for  his  invention,  some  persons  broke 
open  his  premises  by  night  and, carried  off  his  model 
machine.  He  was  thus  defrauded  of  his  just  reward, 
and  was  involved  in  much  trouble  by  the  infringements 
of  his  patent.  "  The  South,"  says  Horace  Greeley, 
"fairly  swarmed  with  pirates  on  the  invention,  of  all 
kinds' and  degrees."  When  he  prosecuted  those  who 
infringed  his  patent,  the  juries  of  Georgia  decided  for 
the  defendants.  The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  paid 
him  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  his  patent-right  about 
1804.  Despairing  of  gaining  a  competence  by  this  in 
vention,  he  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms  near 
New  Haven  in  1798.  He  made  great  improvements  in 


the  construction  of  fire-arms,  and  acquired  an  inde 
pendent  fortune  in  that  business.  He  married  in  1817 
a  daughter  of  Judge  Pierpont  Edwards.  "  We  cannot 
express,"  says  Judge  Johnson,  (in  1807,)  "the  weight  of 
the  obligation  which  the  country  owes  to  this  invention," 
(the  cotton-gin.)  Robert  Fulton  expressed  the  opinion 
that  "  Arkwright,  Watt,  and  Whitney  were  the  three 
men  that  did  most  for  mankind  of  any  of  their  contem 
poraries."  He  died  at  New  Haven  in  January,  1825. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Eli  Whitney,"  in  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  Jan 
uary,  1832,  by  PROFESSOR  OLMSTBD;  HENRY  HOWE,  "Lives  of 
Eminent  American  Mechanics,"  1847;  GREELEY,  "American  Con 
flict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  58-66. 

Whitney,  (WILLIAM  DWIGHT,)  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
distinguished  American  philologist  and  Oriental  scholar, 
was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  on  the  gth  of 
February,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in 
1845.  lie  studied  in  Germany  in  1850^53,  and,  while  at 
Berlin,  copied  from  the  manuscripts  in  the  Royal  Library 
the  Sanscrit  text  of  the  "  Atharva  Veda,"  and,  after  col 
lating  it  with  manuscripts  in  Paris  and  London,  published 
it  in  conjunction  with  Professor  R.  Roth,  of  Tubingen, 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Berlin,  1856.)  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Sanscrit  and  comparative  philology  at  Yale 
College.  Since  1857  he  has  been  the  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and  one  of 
the  principal  editors  of  the  Journal  of  that  society. 
Among  his  numerous  publications  are  his  elaborate 
notes  to  a  translation  of  the  "  Surya  Siddhanta,"  the  text 
of  the  "Atharva  Veda  Praticakhya,"  with  a  translation 
and  commentary,  and  the  text  of  the  "Taittiriya  Prati- 
9akhya,"  (with  its  commentary,)  with  a  translation  and 
notes.  These  were  published  in  the  "Journal  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society,"  to  which  he  has  made 
various  other  contributions,  including  a  very  able  criti 
cism  on  the  "  Standard  Alphabet"  of  Professor  Lepsius, 
and  also  criticisms  on  the  views  of  Biot,  Weber,  and 
Miiller  on  the  Relations  of  the  Hindoo  and  Chinese 
Asterisms. 

Professor  Whitney  has  been  one  of  the  collaborators 
with  Bohtlingk  and  Roth  in  their  great  Sanscrit  Dic 
tionary,  now  in  course  of  publication  at-Saint  Petersburg, 
and  has  contributed  many  articles,  mostly  on  philo 
logical  and  Oriental  subjects,  to  the  "North  American 
Review,"  the  "  New  Englander,"  the  "  New  American 
Cyclopsedia,"  "The  Nation,"  and  other  publications. 
In  March,  1864,  he  gave  at  the  Smithsonian  Institu 
tion  a  course  of  six  lectures  on  language  and  linguistic 
science,  which  were  afterwards  expanded  into  twelve 
lectures  and  delivered  the  following  winter  at  the  Lowell 
Institute  in  Boston,  (since  published  in  I  vol.,  called 
"Lectures  on  Language,"  New  York,  1867.)  In  addition 
to  his  duties  as  professor  of  Sanscrit,  Professor  Whitney 
gives  constant  instruction  in  German  and  in  the  general 
principles  of  language  to  the  students  of  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  of  Yale  College.  He  has  recently  pub 
lished  an  excellent  "Compendious  German  Grammar," 
(1869,)  and  a  "German  Reader,"  (1870.)  Asa  critic  and 
writer  on  subjects  connected  with  philology,  he  is  no  less 
distinguished  for  his  clear  insight  and  sound  judgment 
than  for  his  accurate,  profound,  and  varied  learning. 

Professor  Whitney  is  a  member  of  various  learned 
societies  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  The 
honorary  degree  of  Ph.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  University  of  Breslau  in  1861,  and  that  of  LL.D.  by 
Williams  College  in  1868.  In  1869  he  was  chosen  presi 
dent  of  the  American  Philological  Association,  then  just 
established.  In  1870  the  Bopp  prize  was  awarded  to 
him  by  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Berlin  for 
the  most  important  contribution  to  Sanscrit  philology 
which  had  been  made  during  the  three  years  previous. 

Whittemore,  hwft'mSr,  (AMOS,)  an  American  me 
chanician,  born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1759, 
was  the  inventor  of  a  machine  for  sticking  cards.  Died 
in  1828. 

Whittemore,  (THOMAS,)  D.D.,  an  American  Uni- 
versalist  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1800,  was  for  many 
years  editor  of  "  The  Trumpet,"  a  religious  journal. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Universalism,"  "  Songs  of 
Zion,"  and  a  "Life  of  Hosea  Ballou,"  (3  vols.,  1854-55-) 
Died  in  1861. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  /r»7/<tf;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.    (J^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITTIER 


2266 


triCQVEFORT 


Whittier,  hwit/te-er,  (JoHN  GREENLEAF,)  a  distin 
guished  American  poet  and  philanthropist,  born  at 
Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1808.  He  was  educated  by 
his  parents  in  the  principles  of  the  Friends  or  Quakers, 
with  which  denomination  he  has  always  remained  in 
connection.  He  had  not  the  advantage  of  a  classical 
education.  In  1830  he  became  editor  of  the  "New  Eng 
land  Weekly  Review,"  and  in  1831  published  his  "Le 
gends  of  New  England,"  a  collection  of  Indian  traditions. 
Having  early  identified  himself  with  the  anti-slavery 
party,  he  assumed  about  1838  the  editorship  of  the 
"Pennsylvania  Freeman,"  one  of  the  organs  of  the 
American  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  in  which  many  of 
his  finest  lyrics  first  appeared.  He  was  for  a  time  cor 
responding  editor  of  the  "  National  Era,"  published  at 
Washington.  In  addition  to  the  above-named  works,  he 
has  published  "Songs  of  Labour,  and  other  Poems," 
(1851,)  "The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits,"  etc.,  (1853,) 
"Home  Ballads  and  Poems,"  (1859,)  "In  War-Time, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1863,)  "National  Lyrics,"  (1865,) 
"Snow-Hound;  a  Winter  Idyl,"  (1866,)  "The  Teuton 
the  Beach,"  (1867,)  "Among  the  Hills,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1868,)  and  "Ballads  of  New  England,"  (1869.) 
Nearly  all  the  productions  of  Whittier  in  his  happier 
hours  are  characterized  by  intense  feeling,  and,  we  may 
add,  by  all  the  spirit  of  the  true  lyric  poet.  (For  some 
excellent  remarks  on  the  characteristics  of  Whittier  as 
a  poet,  see  the  "  Fable  for  Critics,"  (pp.  42-44,)  by  Pro 
fessor  Lowell,  whose  sketch,  though  "drawn  from  a 
Mephistophelian  stand-point,"  is  none  the  less  just  nor 
the  less  complimentary  on  that  account.) 

See,  also,  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  ii.  ;  GRISWOI.D,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  AI.LIHONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors:"  "North  British  Review"  for  1867; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1837,  and  July,  1854;  ''Demo 
cratic  Review"  for  August,  1845. 

Whittingham,  hwit/ing-am,  (Sir  SAMUEL  FORD,)  a 
British  general,  who  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
(1809-13.)  He  became  in  1839  commander-in-ehief  at 
Madras,  where  he  died  in  1840  or  1841. 

Whittiiigham,  (Wii.LiAM,)  an  English  Puritan  min 
ister,  born  at  Chester  in  1524.  He  visited  France  in 
1550,  married  a  sister  of  Calvin  at  Orleans,  and  returned 
home  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  After  the  accession 
of  Mary  he  went  into  exile,  and  succeeded  John  Knox 
as  pastor  at  Geneva,  where  he  assisted  in  an  English 
translation  of  the  Bible.  He  became  Dean  of  Durham 
in  1563.  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York,  in  1577 
brought  against  him  a  charge  of  thirty-five  articles,  one 
of  which  was  that  he  was  ordained  at  Geneva  only. 
Whittingham  appealed  to  the  queen,  who  appointed  a 
commission  to  try  the  case.  Before  the  case  was  decided, 
he  died,  in.  1589. 

Whittingham,  hwit'ing-am,  (WILLIAM  ROLI.INSON,) 
D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1805, 
was  elected  in  1840  Bishop  of  Maryland.  He  has  pub 
lished  a  number  of  sermons,  and  other  works. 

Whit'ting-tpn,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  a  famous  citizen  of 
London,  was  thrice  elected  lord  mayor  of  the  city.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  benefactor  to  the  public.  Died 
after  1419. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  R.  Whittington,"  London,  1811. 

Whittington,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  grammarian 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Lichfield  about  1480.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Epigrammata,"  and  other  Latin  verses 
of  great  elegance,  and  of  several  grammatical  works. 

"Whit'tle-sey,  (FREDERICK,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Washington,  Connecticut,  in  1799.  He  settled 
at  Rochester,  New  York,  in  1822,  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1831,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  New  York.  Died  at  Rochester  in  1851. 

Whit'ty,  (EDWARD  MICHAEL,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1827,  has  been  associate  editor  of 
"  The  Times,"  the  "  Daily  News,"  and  other  prominent 
journals. 

Whit'worth,  (CHARLES,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
born  in  Staffordshire  in  1670.  He  was  ambassador  to 
Russia  in  1710,  and  was  afterwards  employed  in  im 
portant  missions  to  Prussia  and  the  Hague.  He  was 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of  Cambray  in 
1722.  He  died  in  1725,  having  been  created  Baron 
Whitworth  of  Gal  way  in  1721.  His  "  Account  of  Russia 


as  it  was  in  the  Year  1710"  was  published  after  his 
death,  by  Horace  Walpole. 

Whitworth,  (CHARLES,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Kent  in  1754.  He  was  sent  in  1788  as  envoy- 
extraordinary  and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Russia, 
remaining  in  that  country  until  1800,  when  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Copenhagen.  He  was  ambassador-extra 
ordinary  to  the  French  court  in  1802,  appointed  Viceroy 
of  Ireland  in  1813,  and  in  1815  created  Baron  Aldbaston 
and  Earl  Whitworth.  Died  in  1825. 

Whitworth,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  engineer  and 
mechanician,  born  at  Manchester  about  1805,  invented 
the  rifle  called  by  his  name.  He  also  made  great 
improvements  in  cannon  and  other  ordnance. 

WUiytt,  (ROBERT,)  an  eminent  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1714.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1746,  first 
physician  to  the  king  in  Scotland  in  1761,  and  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1764.  He  pub 
lished  several  medical  works  and  Physiological  Essays. 
Died  in  1766. 

Wiarda,  we-aR'cla,  (TILEMANN  DOTHIAS,)  a  Dutch 
historical  writer,  born  at  Eirulen  in  1746,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  East  Friesland,"  and  other  similar 
works.  Died  in  1826. 

Wibald,  wee'balt,  or  Wibold,  wee'bolr,  written  also 
Guibald,  [in  Latin,  WIHOI/DUS,  Wm.u/nus,  or  Gui- 
BAL'DUS, ]  a  celebrated  monk,  born  at  or  near  Liege 
about  1097.  He  was  employed  in  important  affairs  by 
the  emperor  Lothaire  and  his  successor  Conrad.  He 
was  elected  Abbot  of  Corvey  or  Corbie,  in  Westphalia, 
in  1 147.  Died  in  1158. 

Wibaldus.     See  WIKAI.D. 

Wiberg,  vee'beRg.tANDREAS.JD.D.,  a  Swedish  divine, 
born  in  Helsingland  in  1816,  was  originally  a  Lutheran, 
but  joined  the  Baptists  in  1852.  Having  resided  three 
years  in  the  United  States  of  America,  he  became,  after 
his  return,  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Stockholm, 
and  editor  of  "The  Evangelist." 

Wibold  or  Wiboldus.     See  Win  ALT). 

Wicar,  ve'kSu',  (Jr.AN  BAPTISTE  JOSKPII,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Lille  in  1762,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  He  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life 
in  Italy,  and  made  a  valuable  collection  of  the  designs 
of  Italian  masters.  These  are  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Lille.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1834. 

See  DUI-AY,  "  Notice  de  Wicir,"  1844. 

Wicherly.     See  WYCHERLY. 

Wichern,  wlK'eRii,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  D.D.,  an 
eminent  German  philanthropist  and  divine,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1808.  He  founded  near  that  city,  in  1833, 
a  Rauhes-Haus,  or  reformatory  school  for  destitute  and 
vagrant  children,  and  soon  after  established  the  Insti 
tute  of  Brothers,  for  the  gratuitous  training  of  teachers 
for  such  schools.  He  was  also  chiefly  instrumental  in 
organizing  the  association  known  as  the  Inner  Mission 
of  the  German  Evangelical  Church,  of  which  he  published 
an  account  in  1849. 

Wichmann,  wlic'man,  (JOHANN  ERNST,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Hanover  in  1740.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  and,  after  having  visited  London  and  Paris,  was 
appointed  court  physician  at  Hanover.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  work,  entitled  "  Ideas  on  Diagnosis,"  and  other 
medical  treatises.  Died  in  1804. 

Wichmami,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Potsdam  in  1775,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow,  and 
afterwards  studied  in  Italy.  He  executed  a  number  of 
portrait-busts  and  statues;  among  the  latter,  that  of  the 
Russian  empress  Alexandra  is  especially  admired.  Died 
in  1836. 

Wichmann,  (Luowic  WILHELM,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1785.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  the  same  department  of  sculpture.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  busts  of  Korner,  Schleiermacher, 
Hegel,  and  Henrietta  Sontag.  Wichmann  became  pro 
fessor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1859. 

Wickham.     See  WYKK.HAM. 

Wickliffe.     See  WYCLIFFE. 

Wiclef.     See  WYCLIFFE. 

Wicquefort,  de,  deh  wik'fort,  (or  vek'foit',)  (ABRA 
HAM,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1598. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e ,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  no:;  good;  moon; 


WICQUEFORT 


2267 


W 1 EL  AND 


He  was  appointed  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  his 
resident  at  the  French  court,  which  post  he  occupied 
for  upwards  of  thirty  yea's.  He  was  arrested  in  1658 
by  order  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille  on  a  charge  of  conveying  secret  intelligence 
to  the  States-Gei>eral.  Being  released  after  a  year's 
confinement,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country,  and 
on  his  return  to  Holland  was  made  historiographer  to 
the  States,  and  appointed  minister  to  the  'Hague  by 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Liineburg.  In  1676  he  was 
sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment  on  a  charge  of 
unlawful  correspondence  with  the  enemies  of  his  country. 
He  effected  his  escape  in  1679,  and  died  about  1682. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Ambassador  and  his 
Functions,"  (1681,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  Prov 
inces,"  etc.,  (both  in  French.) 

See  NICEKON,  "  Memoires  ;"  PAOUOT,  "  Memoires." 
Wicquefort,  de,  ([UACHI.M,)  a  Dutch   diplomatist, 
bom   at  Amsterdam,  was  a   brother   of  the    preceding. 
He    was    employed    in   divers    negotiations   during    the 
Thirty  Years'  war  by  Bernard,  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar. 
Died  in  1670. 
Wida.     See  WEIDKN. 

Widmaiistadt,  wit'man-stat',  (JOHANN  ALKRKCHT,, 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Nellingen,  near  Ulm,  in 
the  fifteenth  century.      lie   studied   languages   in   Italy 
and  Spain,  and  returned  to  Germany  in  1541.     He  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  the   Emperor  of 
Germany  in    1552.      He  produced  a  New  Testament  i 
Syriac,  (1555.)     Died  before  1559. 

See  WAI.OAU.  "  J.  A.  Widmaiistadt,"  1796. 

Widmer,  wit'mer,  (SAMUEL,)  a  Swiss  inventor  and 
manufacturer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Aargau  in  1767, 
was  a  nephew  of  Oberkampf.  He  had  a  manufactory  of 
calico  or  painted  muslins  at  Jouy,  and  invented  the  art 
ot  printing  muslins  with  engraved  cylinders  of  copper. 
He  also  invented  a  machine  to  engrave  the  cylinders. 
Died  in  1821. 

Widiimann,  wldn'man,  (MAX,)  a  Bavarian  sculptor, 
born  at  Eichstadt  in  1812,  studied  at  Munich  under 
Schwanthaler.  He  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he 
executed  his  "Shield  of  Hercules,"  which  is  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  statues  of  Ranch  and  of  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
and  the  group  of  "  A  Hunter  Defending  his  Family  from 
a  Panther."  In  1848  he  succeeded  Schwanthaler  as 
professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Munich. 

Widukiud.     See  WITTKKI.ND. 

Wiebeking,  wee'beh-king',  (KARL  FRIKDRICH,)  a 
celebrated  German  engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born 
at  Wollin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1762.  lie  rose  through 
several  offices  to  be  general  inspector  of  roads  and 
canals  in  Bavaria  in  1805.  He  published  several  works 
of  great  merit,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "Theo 
retical  and  Practical  Naval  Architecture,"  ( Wasser- 
bankitiist,)  (5  vols.,  1805,)  "Theoretical  and  Practical 
Civil  Architecture,"  (4  vols.,  1821,  with  109  plates,)  and 
"  Historical  Analysis  of  the  Monuments  of  Antiquity," 
etc.,  (1840,)  the  last-named  in  French.  Died  in  1842. 

Wiedemanii,  w-ee'deh-man',  (LunwiG,)  a  German 
statuary  and  founder,  born  at  Nordlingen  in  1690 ;  died 
in  1754- 

Wieden  or  Wida.     See  WKIDEN. 

Wiegleb,  weec'lep,  (JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  Ger 
man  chemist,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1732.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Progress  and 
Discoveries  in  Chemistry  among  the  Ancients,"  (1791.) 
Died  in  1800. 

Wiegmarm,  weec'man,  (AREND  FRIEDRICH  AU 
GUST,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1802, 
published,  conjointly  with  Ruthe,  a  "  Manual  of  Zoology," 
(1832,)  and  founded  in  1835  a  journal  entitled  "Archives 
for  Natural  History."  Died  in  1841. 

Wielaiid,  wee'laiTd,  [Ger.  pron.  wee'lant ;  Lat.  WIE- 
LAN'DIUS,]  (CHKISTOPH  MARTIN,)  a  celebrated  German 
poet,  born  at  Oberholzheim,  near  Biberach,  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  September  5,  1733,  was  a  son  of  a  Protestant 
clergyman.  About  the  age  of  twelve  he  began  to 
write  verses  in  German  and  in  Latin.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Academy  of  Klosterbergen,  near  Magdeburg,  in  his 
fourteenth  year,  and  became  a  good  classical  scholar. 


Having  returned  to  his  father's  house  at  Biberach  in 
1750,  he  fell  in  love  with  his  cousin,  Sophia  von  Guter- 
mann,  who  was  afterwards  known  as  an  authoress  under 
the  name  of  Madame  de  Laroche.  Inspired  by  this 
passion,  he  wrote  a  didactic  poem  "On  the  Nature 
of  Things,  or  the  Most  Perfect  World,"  (1751.)  He 
entered  the  University  of  Tubingen  as  a  student  of  law 
about  the  end  of  1750;  but  he  gave  his  attention  more 
to  classical  literature  and  philosophy.  He  produced  in 
1752  "Ten  Moral  Epistles"  in  verse,  which  present  the 
first  indication  of  that  Socratic  and  Horatian  irony  in 
which  he  afterwards  excelled.  His  poem  "  Arminius" 
or  "Hermann"  (1752)  procured  for  him  the  friendship 
of  Bodmer,  who  invited  him  to  Zurich.  He  accepted 
the  invitation,  and  passed  several  years  in  the  house  of 
Bodmer,  who  exercised  a  temporary  influence  over  his 
literary  character.  Under  this  influence  Wieland  wrote 
"The  Trial  of  Abraham,"  ("  Der  gepriifte  Abraham," 
1753,)  and  "Letters  from  the  Dead  to  their  Living 
Friends,"  (1753.) 

The  religious  enthusiasm  of  his  youth  was  followed 
by  a  reaction,  and  his  imagination  became  more  sober 
as  his  reason  was  more  developed.  In  1754  he  ceased 
to  reside  in  the  house  of  Bodmer  ;  but  he  remained  at 
Zurich  about  four  years  longer,  as  tutor  in  private 
families.  In  1757  he  produced  five  cantos  of  "Cyrus," 
an  epic  poem,  which  he  never  finished.  He  afterwards 
wrote  a  beautiful  poem  entitled  "  Araspes  and  Panthea," 
(1758.)  He  resided  a  short  time  at  Berne,  from  which 
he  removed  in  1760  to  Biberach,  where  he  became  inti 
mate  with  Count  Stadion,  and  renewed  his  intimacy  with 
his  cousin  Sophie,  who  had  been  married  to  M.  de  La 
roche.  Wieland  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Biberach,  or  director  of  the  chancery.  He  produced 
a  translation  of  Shakspeare's  dramas,  (8  vols.,  1762-66.) 
This  was  the  first  version  of  Shakspeare  that  had 
appeared  in  the  German  language.  Wieland  was  not 
specially  qualified  for  this  task,  his  genius  being  by  no 
means  Shakspearian. 

In  1765  he  married  a  lady  of  Augsburg,  with  whom 
he  lived  happily  for  many  years.  His  works  written 
after  1760  are,  unhappily,  tainted  with  sensuality  and 
epicureanism.  He  published  in  1766  his  best  novel, 
"  Agathon,"  which,  said  Lessing,  "is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  books  of  our  age."  His  poem  entitled 
"  Musarion"  (1768)  was  admired  for  its  graceful  style 
and  ingenious  irony.  In  1769  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Erfurt.  He  produced  numerous  works  in 
rapid  succession,  and  was  much  censured  by  the  critics 
because  the  tone  of  his  later  works  was  not  so  religious 
as  that  of  his  first.  He  defended  himself  with  the 
weapons  of  satire  and  humorous  invective,  in  "  Love 
Accused,"  ("  Der  verklagte  Amor,")  and  "  The  Manu 
script  of  Diogenes  of  Sinope,"  (1770.)  On  account 
ot  his  wit,  combined  with  a  certain  levity,  Wieland  has 
often  been  called  "  the  German  Voltaire." 

Having  been  invited  by  the  Duchess  Amelia  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  to  direct  the  education  of  her  sons,  he  removed 
to  \Veimar  in  1772.  He  produced,  in  1773,  "Alceste," 
an  opera,  which  had  great  success.  About  the  same 
date  he  founded  the  "  Deutscher  Mercur,"  a  monthly 
literary  periodical,  of  which  he  was  the  chief  or  sole 
editor  until  1790,  after  which  it  was  edited  by  Wieland 
and  Bottiger  about  fifteen  years.  He  formed  a  friend- 
hip  with  Goethe  about  1775.  In  1773  he  published  a 
humorous  work  called  "  The  People  of  Abdera,"  ("  Die 
Abderiten,")  and  in  1780  the  romantic  poem  of  "  Obe- 
ron,"  which  is  his  most  celebrated  poetical  production, 
and  which  was  praised  by  Goethe  as  a  master-piece.  It 
combines  a  variety  of  merits, — originality  of  personages, 
purity  of  language,  refinement  of  irony,  and  profound 
ness  of  sentiment. 

He  afterwards  produced  a  free  translation  of  the 
Epistles  and  Satires  of  Horace,  (1782-86,)  to  which  he 
added  valuable  commentaries.  He  also  translated  Lu- 
cian,  (1788-91.)  Among  his  later  works  is  "  Peregrinus 
Proteus,"  (1791.)  He  published  an  edition  of  his  com 
plete  works,  (36  vols.  410,  1794-1802.)  Wieland  was 
:he  father  of  fourteen  children.  In  1798  he  purchased  a 
'arm  or  country-seat  at  Osmanstadt,  near  Weimar.  He 
enjoyed  in  his  later  years  a  competent  fortune,  and  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


W1ELING 


2268 


WILBERFORCE 


society   of  Goethe,    Schiller,    and    Herder.     Died   near 
Weimar  in  January,  1813. 

See  GRUBER,  "  C.  M.  Wieland,"  4  vols.,  1818  ;  H.  D6KINC,  "  C. 
M.  Wieland;  biographisches  Denkmal."  1840;  CANT(T,  ''Wieland 
ed  i  suoi  Contemporanei,"  1844:  H.  PORING,  "  C.  M.  Wielaud's 
Biographic,"  1853  ;  CARL  P.  CONZ,  "  Laud.uio  Wielandii,"  1820 ; 
GERVINUS,  "  Geschiclite  der  Deutschen  Diclmmg  ;"  LADOUCKTTE, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Wieland,"  1820;  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828. 

Wieling,  wee'ling,  (ABRAHAM,)  a  German  jurist, 
horn  in  Westphalia  in  1693.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Utrecht  in  1739.  Died  in  1746. 

Wienbarg,  ween'bauG,  (LunoLF,)  a  German  littf- 
rateur  and  journalist,  born  in  1803,  was  successively 
associate  editor  of  the  "Deutschen  Revue,"  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  the  "  Hamburger  Neue  Zeitung,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  has  also  published  "  Holland  in 
the  Year  1831  and  1832,"  and  other  works,  on  various 
subjects. 

Wier,  van,  vfn  ween,  written  also  Weier,  (JoHN,) 
a  distinguished  physician,  born  in  North  Brabant  in  1515, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  oppose  the  belief  in 
witchcraft,  in  condemnation  of  which  he  published  a 
work  entitled  "  De  Praestigiis  Daemonum  et  Incanta- 
tionibus  ac  Veneficiis,"  (1563.)  Died  in  1558. 

See  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Helgica. " 

Wiertz,  weerts  or  veeius,  (AxroiNK,)  an  eminent 
Belgian  painter,  born  at  Dinant  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of 
Van  Bre'e.  He  painted  large  historical  and  religious 
pictures,  among  which  are  "The  Revolt  of  the  Angels" 
and  "  The  Triumph  of  Christ."  The  government  built 
for  him  a  large  atelier,  always  open  to  the  public.  He 
invented  a  new  and  secret  method  of  painting,  which,  it 
is  said,  unites  the  advantages  of  fresco-  and  oil-painting. 
Died  in  1865. 

Wieselgren,  vee'sel-gK§n',  (PKTKR,)  a  distinguished 
Swedish  writer  and  philanthropist,  born  near  Wexio  in 
1800.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and  in 
1834  settled  as  pastor  at  Westerstad,  in  Scania.  He 
became  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  temperance  reform 
and  of  the  Inner  Mission,  and  published,  besides  several 
religious  works,  a  history  of  Swedish  literature,  entitled 
"Sveriges  Skona  Litteratur,"  (3  vols.,  1833.)  He  has 
also  been  a  principal  contributor  to  Palmblad's  "  Bio 
graphical  Lexicon  of  Celebrated  Swedes." 

Wietersheim,  von,  fon  wee'teRs-him',  (EDUARD,)  a 
German  statesman,  born  in  1789,  rilled  several  offices 
under  the  Saxon  government,  and  was  appointed  in  1840 
minister  of  public  instruction. 

Wif'fen,  (JKRKMIAH  HOLME,)  an  English  writer  and 
translator,  born  near  Woburn  in  1792.  Among  his 
original  works  are  poems  entitled  "  Aonian  Hours," 
"The  Luck  of  Eden  Hall,"  a  ballad,  "Julia  Alpinula, 
the  Captive  of  Stamboul,"  and  other  poems,  and  "  His 
torical  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  etc.  His 
translation  in  the  Spenserian  stanza  of  Tasso's  "  Jeru 
salem  Delivered"  came  out  in  1830.  He  also  translated 
the  poems  of  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  from  the  Spanish. 
He  held  for  many  years  the  office  of  private  secretary 
and  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  Died  in  1856. 

See  AI.LIBOMK,  "Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "Westminster  Re 
view"  for  1827  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1821. 

Wig'an,  (ALFRED,)  a  popular  English  actor,  born  in 
Kent  in  1818. 

Wigand,  wee'gant,  'written  also  Vigand,  (TOHANN,) 
a  German  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Mansfeld  in  1523. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1587. 

"Wigaud,  (JUSTUS  HEINRICH,)  a  German  physician, 
but  more  particularly  distinguished  as  an  accoucheur 
and  writer  on  obstetrics,  was  born  in  1769;  died  at 
Mannheim  in  1817. 

Wigand,  (OTTO  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  publisher, 
born  at  Gottingen  in  1795.  Among  his  publications 
was  a  "  Conversations-Lexikon"  for  the  people,  begun 
in  1845. 

Wigand,  (PAUL,)  a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born 
at  Cassel  in  1786.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia,"  and  various  other  works 
on  German  history,  law,  and  antiquities. 

Wigard,  wee'gaRt,  (FRANZ,)  born  at  Mannheim,  in 
Germany,  in  1807,  studied  law  and  forest-science,  and 
various  other  branches,  at  Munich,  and  afterwards 


became  principal  of  the  Stenographic  Institute  at  Dres 
den.  In  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  National  As 
sembly  at  Frankfort,  where  he  sat  on  the  left.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  Stenography,"  (1852,)  and 
other  works. 

Wigbode,  wir/bo-deh,  a  German  poet  of  the  eighth 
century,  enjoyed  great  consideration  at  the  court  of 
Charlemagne. 

Wight,  wit,  (ORLANDO  WILLIAMS,)  an  American  lit 
terateur,  born  in  Alleghany  county,  New  York,  in  1824. 
He  translated  from  the  French  Cousin's  "History  of 
Modern  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1852,)  and  Pascal's 
"Thoughts,"  (1859,)  and  has  written  several  original 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  Life  of  Abelard  and  Heloise," 
(1853.) 

Wight,  wit,  (ROBERT,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
about  1796.  He  went  to  India  about  1820  as  a  surgeon 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  pub 
lished  "  Illustrations  of  Indian  Botany,"  (2  vols.,  1838- 
50,)  and  "  Figures  of  East  Indian  Plants,"  ("  Icones 
Plantarum  Indias  Orientalis,"  6  vols.,  18^8-56.) 

Wightman,  wlt'man,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  a  British  judge, 
born  in  Scotland  about  1784.  He  practised  law  with 
some  distinction,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  queen's  bench  in  1841.  Died  in  1863. 

"Wignerod  or  Vignerod,  de,  deh  ven'yeh-rod', 
(FRANCOIS,)  a  French  general,  a  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  near  Genoa  in  1638. 
He  died  in  1646,  aged  thirty-seven.  He  was  grand 
father  of  Marshal  Richelieu. 

Wikstrom  or  Wikstroem,  vik'stkom,  (JoHAN 
EMANUEI.,)  a  Swedish  botanist,  born  at  Wenersborg  in 
1789.  He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Stockholm  in 
1822,  and  wrote  several  botanical  works.  Died  in  1856. 

Wil'ber-force,  (EDWARD,)  a  writer,  a  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  about  1836.  He  published  "Brazil 
viewed  through  a  Naval  Telescope,"  and  contributed  to 
several  periodicals. 

Wilberforce,  (ROBKRT  ISAAC,)  an  English  divine 
and  writer,  son  of  the  celebrated  William  Wilberforce, 
was  born  at  Clapham  Common  in  1802.  He  studied  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  was  made  Archdeacon  of  the 
East  Riding  of  Yorkshire  in  1840.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  historical  compendium,  entitled  "The  Five 
Empires,"  (1840,)  "  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,"  (1848,) 
and  a  "History  of  Erastianism,"  (1851.)  In  1854  he 
resigned  his  office,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Died  in  Italy  in  1857. 

Wilberforce,  (SAMUKL,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1805,  studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and 
subsequently  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  (1845.)  lord  high  almoner  of  the  queen, 
(1847,)  and  Bishop  of  Winchester,  (1869.)  He  published 
"Sermons  at  Oxford,"  (1839,)  "  Eucharistica,"  (1839,) 
"Rocky  Island,  and  other  Parables,"  (1840,)  "History 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  America,"  (1844,)  and,  in 
conjunction  with  his  brother,  the  "  Life  and  Correspond 
ence  of  William  Wilberforce,"  (1838.) 

Wilberforce,  (WILLIAM,)  an  illustrious  English  phi 
lanthropist  and  statesman,  born  at  Hull  on  the  24th  of 
August,  1759,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Wilberforce,  a  mer 
chant,  who  died  in  1768.  When  he  was  about  twelve 
years  old,  he  felt  deep  religious  impressions,  which, 
according  to  his  own  account,  his  friends  spared  no  pains 
to  stifle.  He  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  October,  1776,  and  became  a  general  favourite  among 
the  students.  "There  was  no  one,"  says  T.  Gisborne, 
"at  all  like  him  for  powers  of  entertainment."  Wil 
berforce  informs  us  that  he  wns  a  good  classic,  but  he 
neglected  mathematics  almost  entirely.  Before  he  was 
twenty  years  old  he  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He 
formed  at  Cambridge  a  slight  acquaintance  with  William 
Pitt,  of  whom  he  became  an  intimate  friend  soon  after 
he  left  college.  Having  resolved  to  enter  public  life,  he 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  and  was  elected  a  mem 
ber  of  Parliament  for  Hull  in  1780.  This  election  cost 
him  over  ^8000.  He  entered  Parliament  as  an  opponent 
of  the  American  war  and  of  Lord  North's  administra 
tion  ;  but  he  was  rather  an  independent  member  than  a 
partisan.  After  Pitt  became  a  cabinet  minister,  in  1782, 
he  often  lodged  in  Wilberforce's  villa  at  Wimbledon. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WILBERFORCE 


2269 


W1LCOX 


"  With  talents  of  the  highest  order,  and  eloquence  sur 
passed  by  few,  he  entered  upon  public  life  possessed  of 
the  best  personal  connections  in  his  intimate  friendship 
with  Mr.  Pitt."  ("Life  of  Wilberforce,"  by  his  sons.) 
In  1783  he  visited  France,  in  company  with  Mr.  Pitt. 
He  made  a  famous  speech  against  the  coalition  of  Lord 
North  and  Mr.  Fox,  at  York,  in  March,  1784,  and,  as  a 
supporter  of  Pitt,  was  elected  a  member  for  Yorkshire. 
He  passed  part  of  the  years  1784  and  1785  in  a  conti 
nental  tour  with  Isaac  Milner,  during  which  he  became 
deeply  interested  in  vital  religion.  On  his  return  he 
commenced,  in  November,  1785,  a  private  journal,  in 
which  he  kept  a  record  of  his  spiritual  conflicts  and 
devotional  exercises.  "  He  now  began,"  say  his  sons, 
"to  open  to  his  friends  the  change  which  had  passed 
upon  him."  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  Pitt,  he  wrote,  "I  can  no 
more  be  so  much  of  a  party  man  as  I  have  been  before." 
"Pitt's  answer  was  full  of  kindness,"  but  "he  tried  to 
reason  me  out  of  my  convictions." 

Among  the  results  of  his  conversion  was  the  devotion 
of  his  life  to  the  arduous  enterprise  of  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  In  1787  Thomas  Clarkson,  Granville 
Sharp,  and  ten  others  formed  a  committee  to  promote 
the  suppression  of  the  trade,  in  co-operation  with  Wil 
berforce,  who  also  received  from  Mr.  Pitt  a  promise 
of  assistance.  In  May,  1788,  Pitt  moved  a  resolution 
binding  the  House  to  consider  the  subject  of  the  slave- 
trade  early  in  the  ensuing  session.  Wilberforce  made  a 
long  and  able  speech  on  the  subject  in  May,  1789.  "He 
was  supported  in  the  noblest  manner  by  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr. 
Burke,  and  Mr.  Fox."  The  movement,  however,  en 
countered  long  and  bitter  opposition.  He  opened  the 
campaign  in  1790  by  a  motion,  which  was  carried  on  the 
271)1  of  January,  for  referring  to  a  special  committee  the 
examination  of  witnesses.  After  the  end  of  the  session 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  vast  mass  of  evidence 
which  had  been  collected  on  the  subject.  In  April, 
1791,  the  motion  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was 
rejected,  eighty-eight  members  voting  for  it,  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  against  it. 

The  war  against  France,  which  he  opposed,  in  1792, 
caused  the  first  decided  political  separation  between  him 
and  Pitt.  Me  had  the  courage  to  withstand  the  popular 
current,  and  offended  many  of  his  friends  by  moving 
an  amendment  to  the  address  on  the  war  about  the  end 
of  1/04.  In  February,  1796,  he  again  brought  in  an 
abolition  bill,  which  was  defeated  by  a  small  majority, 
seventy-four  to  seventy. 

He  was  re-elected  a  member  for  the  county  of  York 
in  1796.  In  1797  he  married  Barbara  Ann  Spooner, 
and  published  a  work  entitled  a  "  Practical  View  of  the 
Prevailing  Religious  System  of  Professed  Christians 
contrasted  with  Real  Christianity,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour.  It  ran  through  five  editions  before 
the  end  of  the  year.  In  1826  fifteen  editions  had  been 
issued  in  England,  besides  twenty-five  editions  in  the 
United  States.  In  April,  1798,  he  renewed  his  motion 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  was  defeated  by 
a  majority  of  four  votes.  In  March,  1799,  he  made  a 
speech  in  favour  of  immediate  abolition,  which  was 
rejected  by  a  vote  of  eighty-four  against  fifty-four.  He 
was  a  liberal  contributor  to  various  charitable  institu 
tions,  and  gave  privately  much  money  to  the  poor.  lie 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  foundation  of  the  Bible 
Society  in  1803.  In  1804  he  procured  the  assent  of  the 
House  of  Commons  to  the  first  reading  of  his  abolition 
bill.  Pitt  pressed  earnestly  for  a  postponement  of  the 
abolition  question,  but  Wilberforce  said  he  would  never 
"make  that  holy  cause  subservient  to  the  interests  of 
party."  On  the  second  reading  he  was  defeated  by 
seventy-seven  to  seventy.  The  royal  family  opposed 
abolition,  but  the  ministers  Fox  and  Grenville.  who  came 
into  power  in  1806,  cordially  supported  the  measure, 
which  triumphed  at  last  in  February,  1807.  On  the 
final  passage  of  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
two  hundred  and  eighty-three  voted  for  it,  and  sixteen 
against  it.  "The  whole  House,  surprised  into  a  for- 
getfulness  of  its  ordinary  habits,  burst  forth  into 
acclamations  of  applause." 

He  continued  to  represent  Yorkshire  until  1812, 
having  been  elected  five  times  without  a  contest,  and 


he  was  chosen  a  member  for  Bramber  in  that  year.  He 
supported  the  motion  for  the  emancipation  of  Roman 
Catholics  in  1813,  though  "all  the  religious  people  were 
on  the  other  side."  In  1814  he  dined  in  London  with 
Madame  de  Stael,  who  afterwards  said,  "Mr.  Wilber 
force  is  the  best  converser  I  have  met  with  in  this 
country.  I  have  always  heard  that  he  was  the  most 
religious,  but  I  now  find  that  he  is  the  wittiest,  man  in 
England."  About  1818  he  began  to  agitate  the  eman 
cipation  of  the  West  Indian  slaves,  on  which  he  wrote 
an  Appeal  to  the  Nation  in  1823.  On  account  of  his 
declining  health,  he  intrusted  the  management  of  the 
cause  in  the  House  of  Commons  to  T.  Fowell  Buxton. 
He  retired  from  Parliament  in  1825,  and  survived  until 
the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  read  a  second 
time.  Three  days  after  this  event,  he  died,  in  London, 
in  July,  1833.  "Contemporary  with  Lord  Grenville  and 
Mr.  Pitt,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "appeared  a  man  in 
some  respects  more  illustrious  than  either, — one  who, 
among  the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  human  race,  holds 
an  exalted  station, — one  whose  genius  was  elevated  by 
his  virtues  and  exalted  by  his  piety."  ("  Statesmen  of 
the  Time  of  George  III.") 

See  "The  Life  of  William  Wilberforce,"  by  his  sons,  ROBERT  I. 
and  SA.MCEL  WII.BERFORCE,  1838:  "Correspondence  of  William 
Wilberforce,"  2  vols.,  1840  ;  J.  COI.QUHOUN,  "  W.  Wilberforce,"  1866  ; 
BROUGHAM,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  vol.  ii.  ;  J.  S. 
HARFORD,  "Recollections  of  William  Wilberforce,"  1865;  "Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  April,  1807,  and  April,  1838;  ''Eraser's  Maga 
zine"  for  September,  1838. 

Wilbord.     See  WILLEBROD. 

Wil'bur,  (HERVEY  BACKUS,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Wendell,  Massa 
chusetts,  in  1820,  was  the  founder  of  schools  for  idiots 
in  the  United  States.  On  the  establishment  in  1854  of 
the  New  York  State  Asylum  for  Idiots  at  Syracuse,  he 
was  appointed  its  superintendent. 

Wilbur,  (|OHN,)  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends 
or  Quakers,  was  born  in  Hopkinton,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1774.  He  had  been  for  several  years  greatly  exercised, 
it  is  said,  on  account  of  the  introduction  of  religious  views 
at  variance  with  the  original  doctrines  of  "  Friends." 
Soon  after  the  arrival  of  Joseph  John  Gurney  jn  the 
United  States,  in  1838,  John  Wilbur  was  accused  by 
several  members  of  Rhode  Island  Yearly  Meeting  of 
circulating  in  his  conversation  and  writings  opinions 
and  statements  derogatory  to  the  character  of  that  emi 
nent  minister, — on  which  account  an  attempt  was  made 
to  "disown"  or  excommunicate  him.  But,  his  own 
monthly  meeting,  (that  of  South  Kingston.)  whose  busi 
ness  it  legitimately  was  to  institute  proceedings  against 
him,  being  in  his  favour  by  a  large  majority,  it  was  "  laid 
down"  or  dissolved  by  the  Rhode  Island  Quarterly 
Meeting,  and  its  members  joined  to  Greenwich  Monthly 
Meeting,  which  was  known  to  be  less  inclined  to  favour 
the  accused.  Soon  after,  John  Wilbur  was  formally 
disowned  (Fanuary,  1843)  by  the  Greenwich  Monthly 
Meeting,  and  its  decision  was  confirmed  by  the  Quarterly 
Meeting  and  the  Rhode  Island  Yearly  Meeting.  A 
small  minority,  however,  of  the  Yearly  Meeting,  ap 
proving  of  John  Wilbur's  course,  and  believing  that  he 
had  been  unfairly  and  harshly  dealt  with,  separated 
themselves  from  the  majority  and  set  up  an  independent 
Yearly  Meeting,  the  members  of  which,  as  well  as  those 
Friends  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States  who  ap 
proved  their  course,  have  been  popularly  designated  as 
"  Wilburites."  He  died  in  1856. 

See  "Journal  and  Correspondence  of  John  Wilbur,"  i  vol.  8vo, 
Providence,  1859:  also,  the  "Report  [of  the  Philadelphia  Yearly 
Meeting]  in  Relation  to  the  Facts  and  Causes  of  the  Division  in 
New  England  Yearly  Meeting,"  Boston,  1849. 

Wilbye,  wil'be,  ?  (JOHN,)  an  eminent  English  com 
poser,  lived  about  1570.  His  works  are  principally 
madrigals,  which  are  ranked  among  the  most  exquisite 
compositions  of  the  kind. 

Wil'cocks,  (JosKi'H,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1723,  was  a  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Rochester.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Roman  Conversations." 
Died  in  1791. 

Wil'cox,  (CARLOS,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  New 
port,  New  Hampshire,  in  October,  1794.  He  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  began  to  preach  in  1819,  and  pub- 


, 
€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K, guttural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.     O^'See  Explanations,  p.  23 


WILCOX 


2270 


WILKES 


lisbed  in  1822  the  first  book  of  a  poem  called  "The 
Age  of  Benevolence."  He  was  ordained  minister  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1824,  and  soon  obtained  a 
high  reputation  for  eloquence.  He  produced  in  1824 
"The  Religion  of  Taste,"  a  poem.  Died  in  1827. 

See  "Remains  of  Carlos  Wilcox,"  1828;  R.  W.  GRISWOI.D, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  America. " 

Wilcox  or  Willcox,  (ORLANDO  B.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Detroit  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1847.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861,  was  taken  prisoner  in  that  battle,  and 
detained  a  year  or  more.  He  afterwards  served  at 
South  Mountain,  September,  1862. 

Wild,  wilt,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  opera-singer  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Hollabrunn,  in  Lower  Austria,  in 
1792;  died  January  i,  1860. 

Wild,  (HENRY,)  sometimes  called  "the  Learned 
Tailor,"  was  born  in  Norwich,  England,  about  1684. 
He  studied  Latin  and  Greek  at  the  grammar-school  of 
his  native  town,  and  afterwards,  while  working  at  his 
trade,  mastered  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  other 
Oriental  tongues.  Me  subsequently  obtained  an  office 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.  lie  translated  from 
the  Arabic  the  legend  entitled  "Mohammed's  Journey 
to  Heaven."  Died  about  1730. 

See  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Wild,  [Lat.  FE'RUS,]  (JoHANN,)  a  German  monk  and 
writer,  born  near  Mentz  about  1485.  He  published 
"  Commentaries  on  Scripture,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  i  $ 54. 

Wild,  (ROBERT,)  an  English  poet  and  dissenting  min 
ister,  born  in  1609.  He  became  rector  of  Aynhoe^about 
1648,  .and  was  ejected  in  1662.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Northern  Tour,"  ("  Iter  Boreale.")  Died  in  1679. 

Wilda,  wil'da,  (WiLHEi.M  EDUARD,)  a  distinguished 
German  jurist,  born  at  Altona  in  1800,  became  in  1854 
professor  of  German  law  at  Kiel.  He  published  sev 
eral  le^al  works.  Died  in  1856. 

Wild'bore,  (CHARLES,)  an  ingenious  English  mathe 
matician,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  became  curate  of 
Sulney.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1802  or  1803. 

Wilde,  vil'deh,  (J.AKon,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  in 
Courland  in  1679.  He  published,  besides  other  useful 
works,  "Pragmatic  History  of  Sweden,"  ("  Sueciae  His- 
toria  pragmatica,"  1731.)  Died  in  1755. 

Wilde,  wild,  (RICHARD  HK.NRY,)  an  author  and  law 
yer,  born  in  Dublin  in  1789,  was  a  child  when  his  parents 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  Georgia  bar  in  1809,  and  elected  to  Con 
gress  in  1815.  He  also  represented  a  district  of  Georgia 
in  Congress  from  1828  to  1835,  and  acquired  distinction 
as  an  orator.  In  1835  he  visited  Europe,  where  he 
passed  about  five  years.  He  published  in  1842  "Con 
jectures  and  Researches  concerning  the  Love,  Madness, 
and  Imprisonment  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  which,  says  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "  is  a  work  of  extraordinary  merit  and  of 
great  interest  to  all  lovers  of  literary  history."  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  popular  lyrics.  He  became  professor 
of  common  law  in  the  University  of  Louisiana  in  1844. 
Died  in  New  Orleans  in  1847. 

See  GRJSWOI.D'S  "Prose  Writers  of  America"  and  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America." 

Wilde,  (THOMAS.)     See  TRURO,  LORD. 

Wildenow.     See  WII.LDENOW. 

Wildens,  w!l'dens,  (!AN,)  an  eminent  Flemish  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp.  He  was  employed  by 
Rubens  to  paint  backgrounds  for  his  pictures.  Died 
in  1644. 

Wild'er,  (MARSHALL  PINCKNF.Y,)  an  American  mer 
chant  and  eminent  horticulturist,  born  at  Rindge,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1798.  became  in  1825  a  resident  of  Bos 
ton.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts 
Horticultural  Society,  of  which  he  was  for  some  years 
president.  He  was  likewise  first  president  of  the  United 
States  Agricultural  Society. 

See  LIVIN-GSTON-,  "Portraits  of  .Eminent  American-;." 

Wil'ford,  (FRANCIS,)  a  distinguished  officer  and 
Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Hanover,  was  sent  in  1781  as 
lieutenant  of  reinforcements  to  the  British  troops  in 
India,  where  he  acquired  the  language  of  the  country, 


and  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Asiatic  So 
ciety.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  contributions  to 
the  "Asiatic  Researches."  Died  in  1822. 

Wil'fred,  [Lat.  WILFRE'DUS,]  SAINT,  a  celebrated 
Saxon  prelate,  of  noble  birth,  was  born  in  Bernicia  in 
634  A.D.  He  visited  Rome  at  an  early  age  for  the  pur 
pose  of  obtaining  information  on  disputed  theological 
points,  and,  after  his  return,  received  from  the  King  of 
Northumbria  a  grant  of  land  and  a  monastery  at  Ripon. 
Having  been  ordained  a  priest  in  664,  he  attended  the 
conference  at  YVhitby  the  same  year,  when  the  con 
troversy  between  the  Scottish  clergy  and  the  rest  of 
Christendom  on  the  observance  of  Easter  was  decided 
against  the  former.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  Bishop 
of  York  by  Alchfred,  King  of  Northumbria,  whose  suc 
cessor,  Egfred,  fearing  the  ambition  of  Wilfred,  divided 
the  bishopric  into  three.  lie  was  involved  in  a  pro 
tracted  contest  for  the  see  of  York,  but  eventually 
retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  709  A.D. 

See  MABII.I.ON,  "  Acta  Sanctorum,"  etc. 

Wilfredus.     See  WILFRED. 

Wilhelm,  the  German  of  WILLIAM,  (which  see.) 

Wilhelm,  wll'he'lm,  (JANUS,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Lubcck  in  1554.  He  published  a  work  "On 
the  Magistrates  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (1577,)  "  Veri- 
similium  Libri  tres,"  (1582,)  and  other  works,  which 
evince  much  critical  sagacity.  Died  at  Bonrges  in  1584. 

Wilhem,  ve'len/,  (GUILLAO.ME  Louis  Bocquillon 
— bo'ke'yoN',)  a  French  computer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1781.  lie  became  professor  of  harmony  at  the  Lycee 
Napoleon  in  1810,  and  applied  Lancaster's  method  of 
mutual  instruction  to  teach  singing  in  schools.  lie  com 
posed  music  for  some  songs  of  Beranger.  Died  in  1842. 

See  JOM  \RD,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  G.  L.  P..  Wilhem,"  1X42  ; 
A.  DK  LAFAOK,  "  Notice  sur  Wilhem,"  1844. 

Wilken,  wIKken,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  German  historian 
and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Natzeburg  in  1777.  lie 
studied  at  Gottingen,  became  professor  of  history  at 
Heidelberg  in  1805,  and  was  appointed  chief  librarian 
and  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1817.  He 
published  a  "History  of  the  Crusades  according  to 
Oriental  and  Western  Accounts, "(7  vols.,  1807-32,)  and 
several  other  works.  Died  in  1840. 

Wilkes,  wllks,  (CHARLES,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1801,  entered  the  navy 
in  1816,  and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1826.  He  com 
manded  an  exploring  expedition  which  was  sent  out  by 
the  United  States  government  to  the  Antarctic  regions 
in  1838.  He  discovered  the  Antarctic  Continent,  ex 
plored  many  islands  and  coasts,  completed  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  and  returned  in  June,  1842.  He  pub 
lished  a  narrative  of  this  expedition,  in  =;  vols.,  (1845.) 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1855.  In  November, 
1861,  he  captured  T-  M-  Mason  and  T,.  Slidcl!  from  the 
British  steam-packet  Trent.  For  this  act  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  ;  but  his  conduct  was  not  ap 
proved  by  the  President.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a 
commodore  in  1862,  after  which  he  commanded  a  squad- 
rein  in  the  West  Indies.  In  July,  1866,  he  was  made  a 
rear-admiral. 

Wilkes,  w?lks,  (JOHN,)  a  celebrated  English  politician, 
born  in  London  in  1727,  was  educated  at  Leyden,  and 
became  a  good  classical  scholar.  His  manners  were 
fascinating,  and  his  habits  dissolute.  In  1749  he  married 
a  Miss  Mead,  a  rich  heiress,  ten  years  older  than  himself. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Aylesbury  in 
17^7,  and  re-elected  in  1761.  In  1762  he  founded  the 
"North  Briton,"  a  journal  which  assailed  Lord  Bute's 
administration  with  great  animosity  and  rendered  Bute 
so  unpopular  that  he  resigned  office.  "Wilkes  had," 
says  Macaulay,  "the  requisites  for  the  character  of 
demagogue.  He  was  clever,  courageous,  unscrupulous. 
He  was  a  good  scholar,  expert  in  resource,  humorous, 
witty,  and  a  ready  master  of  the  arts  of  conversation. 
He  could  'abate  and  dissolve  a  pompous  gentleman' 
with  singular  felicity."  (Review  of  the  "  Works  of  Charles 
Churchill,"  i84y)  In  No.  xlv.  of  the  "North  Briton," 
published  in  April,  1763,  he  accused  the  king  of  an 
"infamous  fallacy"  which  appeared  in  the  speech  from 
the  throne.  For  this  offence  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  general  warrant  issued  by  Lord  Halifax, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  v,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t:  not;  good;  moon: 


W ILK IE 


2271 


WILKINSON 


secretary  of  state.  Having  been  brought  into. the  court 
of  common  pleas  by  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  he  was 
discharged  in  May,  1763.  He  was  convicted  of  libel  by 
the  House  of  Commons,  expelled  in  January,  1764,  and, 
having  absented  himself  from  the  island,  was  outlawed. 
He  returned  in  1768,  and  was  elected  member  for  Mid 
dlesex,  but  was  arrested,  and  punished  by  fines  and 
imprisonment.  This  persecution  rendered  him  a  great 
favourite  with  the  people.  He  was  re-elected  by  the 
voters  of  Middlesex  in  February,  1769;  but  the  House 
of  Commons  declared  that  he  was  incapable  of  sitting 
in  that  Parliament.  In  1769  he  obtained  a  verdict  of  four 
thousand  pounds  against  Lord  Halifax  for  false  imprison 
ment.  Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  repeated 
expulsion  or  exclusion  of  the  popular  champion  from 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  chosen  lord  mayor 
of  London  in  1774,  and  a  member  for  Middlesex  in  the 
same  year.  The  ministry  then  ceased  to  defy  the  people, 
and  permitted  him  to  take  his  seat.  He  was  afterwards 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years,  and  was  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  American  war.  Died  in  1797. 
"His  name,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "has  been  sounded 
from  pole  to  pole  as  the  phoenix  of  convivial  felicity." 
Among  the  anecdotes  related  of  him  is  the  following: 
George  III.  once  inquired  of  him,  "  How  is  your  friend 
Serjeant  Glynn  ?"  and  received  this  answer  :  "  He  is  not 
my  friend;  he  is  a  Wilkesite,  which  I  never  was." 

See  CRAIXICK,  "  Life  of  John  Wilkes"  1773  ;  J.  ALMON,  "  Life  of 
John  Wilkes,"  1^05;  "Wilkes's  Correspondence  with  his  Friends," 
2  vols.,  iSo^  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  November,  1777  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1805. 

Wilkie,  wil'ke,  (Sir  DAVID,)  a  celebrated  Scottish 
painter,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1805.  He  studied  for  a  time 
in  the  Trustees'  Academy  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1805 
entered  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  having  previously 
executed  several  works  of  great  merit.  His  "Village 
Politicians,"  exhibited  in  1806,  met  with  enthusiastic  ad 
miration,  and  at  once  established  the  reputation  of  the 
artist.  This  picture,  which  was  sold  to  the  Earl  of  Mans 
field,  was  succeeded  by  "The  Blind  Fiddler,"  "The 
Rent-Day,"  "The  Card-Player,"  "The  Cut  Finger," 
"The  Jews-Harp,"  "The  Village  Festival,"  (which 
brought  eight  hundred  guineas,  and  is  now  in  the  Na 
tional  Gallery,)  "  The  Wardrobe  Ransacked."  and  other 
works  of  a  similar  character.  lie  was  elected  a  Royal 
Academician  in  i8li,and  in  1813  exhibited  his  "Blind- 
man's  Buff,"  painted  for  the  prince-regent.  In  1814  he 
visited  Paris,  and  after  his  return  produced  his  "  Dis 
training  for  Rent,"  "  The  Sheep-Washing,"  "  The  Penny 
Wedding,"  "  The  Reading  of  the  Will,"  (for  the  King  of 
Bavaria,)  "  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  his  Family,"  and  "Chel 
sea  Pensioners  listening  to  the  News  of  Waterloo," 
which  ranks  among  his  master-pieces.  In  1825  he  visited 
the  continent,  and  spent  three  years  in  studying  the 
works  of  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  artists.  He 
succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  as  painter-in-ordinary 
to  the  king,  in  1830,  and  in  1832  produced  his  "John 
Knox  preaching  the  Reformation  in  Saint  Andrew's," 
"  Benvenuto  Cellini  presenting  a  Silver  Vase  of  his  Own 
Workmanship  to  Pope  Paul  III.,"  and  various  other 
pictures,  showing  the  results  of  his  foreign  studies,  but 
which  are  esteemed  much  inferior  to  his  earlier  works. 
In  1840  he  set  out  on  a  tour  to  Egypt  and  Palestine  ; 
but  his  health,  which  had  been  long  declining,  grew 
worse,  and  he  died  on  the  voyage  home,  off  Gibraltar,  in 
June,  1841. 

See  ALLAN  CUNNINGHAM,  "  Life   of  Sir  David  Wilkie,"  3  vi 


(Supplement  ;1  \V 

iS66  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1843  ;  "  Fraser's 

Magazine"  for  October,  1X41,  and  September.  iS42. 

Wilkie,  (Wn.i.iAM.)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
divine,  born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  1721,  became  pro 
fessor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Saint  Andrew's.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  The  Epigoniad," 
(on  the  sacking  of  Thebes  by  the  Epigoni,)  which  en- 
joyed  for  a  time  great  popularity  among  some  of  the 
Scottish  literati,  who,  somewhat  absurdly,  styled  Wilkie 
"  the  Scottish  Homer."  It  has  since  fallen  into  utter 
neulect.  Died  in  1772. 

Wil'kius,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  a  distinguished  English 
Orientalist,  born  at  Frome,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1749. 
He  went  to  India  in  1770  as  a  writer  on  the  Bengal 


establishment,  and  learned  Arabic,  Persian,  and  other 
languages  used  in  the  East  Indies.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  Sanscrit  with  great  success.  In  1784, 
in  conjunction  with  Sir  William  Jones,  he  founded  the 
Literary  Society  of  Calcutta.  He  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  European  who  made  translations  from  the 
original  Sanscrit.*  He  published  in  1785  an  English 
translation  of  the  "  Bhagavat  Gita,"  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  part  of  the  great  Hindoo  epic  entitled 
"  Mahabharata,"  and  two  years  afterwards  gave  to  the 
world  a  translation  of  the  "  Hitopadesa."  lie  returned 
to  England  about  1786,  became  librarian  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  1801,  and  published  a  "Sanscrit 
Grammar,"  (1808.)  Died  in  1836. 

Wilkiiis,  (DAVin,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1685, 
became  Archdeacon  of  Suffolk.  He  published  "  Leges 
Saxonicas,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1745. 

Wilkins,  (JoHN,)  a  learned  English  bishop,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1614.  He  studied  at  Magdalene 
Hall,  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  orders,  was  chosen  in 
1648  warden  of  Wadham  College.  He  married  about 
1656  Robina,  a  sister  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  was  ap 
pointed  in  1659  master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  lost  this  office  at  the  restoration,  but  he  was  made 
rector  of  Saint  Lawrence,  Jewry,  by  Charles  II.  in  1662. 
He  soon  after  became  one  of  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  then  lately  formed,  and  of  which  he  had  been 
one  of  the  originators.  He  was  created  Bishop  of 
Chester  in  1668.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"Discourse  concerning  a  New  Planet,"  etc.,  (1640,) 
"  Mercury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,"  "Mathe 
matical  Magic,"  etc.,  (1648,)  and  "Discourse  concerning 
the  Beauty  of  Providence  in  All  the  Rugged  Passages 
of  it,"  (1649.)  He  died  in  1672.  A  collection -of  his 
sermons  was  published  in  1682  by  Archbishop  Tillotson, 
who  had  married  his  step-daughter. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  NICEKON,  "Memoires." 

Wilkiiis,  (WILLIAM,)  a  distinguished  English  archi 
tect,  born  at  Norwich  in  1778.  He  visited  Italy  and 
Greece  in  1801,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his 
"Antiquities  of  Magna  Grascia."  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  facade  of  London  University,  now  called  Uni 
versity  College,  Saint  George's  Hospital,  Hyde  Park 
Corner,  and  the  alterations  of  Corpus  Christi,  Trinity, 
and  King's  Colleges,  Cambridge.  He  also  published 
"  Atheniensia,  or  Remarks  on  the  Buildings  and  An 
tiquities  of  Athens."  Died  in  1839. 

Wil'kins,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1779.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  1831,  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Russia  in  1834,  and  was  secretary  of  war  from  February, 
1844,  to  March,  1845.  He  resided  in  or  near  Pittsburg, 
where  he  died,  June,  1865. 

Wil'kin-son,  (  JAMES,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  in  Maryland  in  1757.  He  enlisted 
in  the  army  as  captain  in  1775,  ail<^  served  under  Gates 
in  1777.  In  1792  he  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1796  he  became  general-in-chief.  He 
afterwards  commanded  at  New  Orleans,  and  opposed 
the  designs  of  Aaron  Burr.  In  the  summer  of  1813  he 
commanded  on  the  Northern  frontier  with  ill  success. 
He  was  removed  from  the  command  about  February, 
1814.  Died  in  Mexico  in  1825.  He  published  "Me 
moirs  of  My  Own  Time,"  (3  vols.,  1816.) 

Wil'kin-son,  (JAMHS  JOHN  GARTH,)  an  English 
writer  on  law,  medicine,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  about 
1812.  He  edited  several  works  of  Swedenborg,  and 
wrote,  besides  treatises  on  law, "  Emanuel  Swedenborg: 
a  Biography,"  (1849,)  which  was  long  regarded  as  the 
best  memoir  of  Swedenborg  that  had  appeared,  and 
"The  Human  Body  and  its  Connection  with  Man," 

(1851.) 

Wilkinson,  (JEMIMA,)  an  American  fanatic  and  re 
ligious  impostor,  born  at  Cumberland,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1753,  removed  to  Western  New  York  early  in  the  present 
century.  She  professed  to  be  endowed  with  the  power 
of  Christ,  and  attempted  tp  work  miracles.  She  died  in 
1819,  and  her  sect  was  soon  dispersed. 

*  Sir  William  Jones,  in  a  letter  to  him,  said,  "You  are  the  first 
European  who  ever  understood  Sanscrit."  (See  Knight's  "Cyclo 
paedia  of  Biography.") 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  ^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILKINSON 


2272 


W1LLERAM 


"Wilkinson,  (Sir  JOHN  GARDNER,)  a  learned  Eng 
lish  archaeologist,  bom  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  and  subsequently  spent  twelve  years  in 
Egypt  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  cus 
toms,  and  antiquities  of  that  country.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Materia  Hieroglyphica,"  (1828,) 
the  "Topography  of  Thebes,"  etc.,  (1835,)  "The  Man 
ners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  including 
their  Private  Life,  Government,  Laws,"  etc.,  (5  vols.  Svo, 
1840,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  "Modern 
Egypt  and  Thebes,"  (1843,)  intended  as  a  hand-book 
for  travellers,  "The  Architecture  of  Ancient  Egypt," 
etc.,  (1850,)  and  "The  Egyptians  in  the  Time  of  the 
Pharaohs,"  (1857,)  which  rank  among  the  most  valu 
able  and  interesting  compositions  of  the  kind.  He  was 
made  a  knight  in  1840,  and  soon  after  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  member  of  other  learned 
institutions. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1839;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  February,  1860. 

Willaert,  wil'lSut,  (ADRIANO,)  a  Flemish  composer, 
born  about  1490,  was  a  native  of  Bruges.  He  became 
chapel-master  of  Saint  Mark's,  at  Venice,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Zarlino  and  Costanza  Porta.  Died  in 

1563- 

Willamov,  wil'la-mof,  (JoHANN  GOTTLIEB,)  a  Prus 
sian  poet,  born  at  Morungen  in  1736,  was  the  author 
of  a  collection  of  poems  entitled  "  Dithyrambics,"  and 
"Fables  in  Dialogues."  Died  in  1777. 

Wil'lan,  (ROBERT,)  a  distinguished  English  physician, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1757.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
where  he  took  his  medical  degree  in  1780,  and  in  1783 
became  physician  to  the  Public  Dispensary  in  Carey 
Street,  London.  He  published  in  iSoi  his  "Description 
and  Treatment  of  Cutaneous  Diseases,"  (unfinished,) 
esteemed  the  most  valuable  work  that  had  appeared  on 
the  subject  at  that  time.  Dr.  Willan  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies.  Died  in  1812. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Dr.  Willan,"  by  DR.  BATEMAN,  in  the  "  Edin 
burgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,"  No.  xxxii. 

Wil'lard,  (EMMA  HART,)  an  American  teacher  and 
educational  writer,  born  at  Berlin,  Connecticut,  in  1787, 
became  in  1821  principal  of  a  female  seminary  at  Troy, 
New  York.  She  published  a  "  History  of  the  United 
States,"  (1828,)  "Universal  History  in  Perspective," 
(1837,)  "Chronographer  of  English  History,"  (1845,) 
"  Astronography,  or  Astronomical  Geography,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1870. 

Willard,  (JOSEPH,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  di 
vine,  born  at  Biddeford,  Maine,  in  1738,  was  chosen 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1781.  Died  in  1804. 
His  son  SIDNEY,  born  in  1780,  was  for  more  than  twenty 
years  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Harvard.  Died 
in  1856. 

Willard,  (JosiAH,)  born  in  Massachusetts  about  1680, 
was  a  son  of  Samuel  Willard,  noticed  below.  He  was 
secretary  of  that  colony  thirty-nine  years.  Died  in  1756. 

"Willard,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  at 
Concord  in  1640.  He  preached  in  Boston,  and  published 
several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1707. 

Willard,  (SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Petersham,  Massachusetts,  in  1775.  He  preached  at 
Deerfield,  Massachusetts.  Died  in  1859. 

Willaurnez,  ve'yo'ma',  (JEAN  BAPTISTE  PHILIBERT,) 
COUNT,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Belle-Ile-en- 
Mer  in  1763.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the 
English,  became  rear-admiral  in  1804,  and  vice-admiral 
in  1819.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Marine," 
(1820.)  Died  in  1845. 

Will'de-now,  [Ger.  pron.  wll'deh-no',]  (KARL  LUD- 
\VIG,)  a  celebrated  German  naturalist,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1765.  He  studied  medicine  at  Halle,  and  settled  as  a 
physician  in  his  native  city,  where  he  became  in  1798 
professor  of  natural  history  and  superintendent  of  the 
Botanic  Garden.  His  most  important  publication  is  his 
new  edition  of  the  "  Species  Plantarum"  of  Linnaeus, 
with  descriptions  of  all  the  species  discovered  since  the 
original  work  appeared,  and  arranged  according  to  the 
Linnaean  system.  This  work,  owing  to  his  failing  health, 
he  left  unfinished  ;  but  it  was  completed  by  Link  and 
Schwagricher  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1812. 


He  also  published  "Elements  of  Botany,"  ("Grundriss 
der  Krauter-Kunde,"  1792,)  "  Prodromus  Flora  Beroli- 
nensis,"  "Catalogue  of  Butterflies  in  the  Mark  of  Bran 
denburg,"  and  other  treatises. 

See  SCHLECIITENUAHI.,  "  Leben  Willdenow's ;"  "  Edinburgh  Re 
view"  for  October  and  July,  1807. 

Wille,  wil'leh,  (JOHANN  GEORG.)  a  distinguished  Ger 
man  engraver,  born  near  Giessen  in  1715.  He  studied 
in  Paris,  where  he  acquired  the  highest  reputation  for 
his  prints  after  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters.  He 
was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  by  Napo 
leon,  and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Paris,  where  lie  died  in  August,  1806.  '  Among  his  mas 
ter-pieces  may  be  named  Schalken's  "  Family  Concert," 
"The  Satin  Gown,"  after  Terburg,  and  portraits  of  the 
Marquis  de  Marigny  and  Marshal  Saxe.  He  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Bervic  and  J.  G.  von  Miiller.  His  son 
PETER  ALEXANDER  rose  to  be  a  general  in  the  Parisian 
national  guard. 

See  "Memoires  et  Journal  de  J.  G.  Wille,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1X57. 

Wil'le-brod  or  Wil'le-brord,  sometimes  written 
Willibrod  and  Wilbrord,  [Lat.  WILLEBROR'DUS,! 
SAINT,  the  apostle  of  the  Frisians,  was  born  in  the  Saxon 
kingdom  of  Northumbria  about  657.  Having  spent 
many  years  in  Ireland  in  preaching  the  gospel,  he  visited 
Friesland,  where  he  was  successful  in  making  many  con 
verts  to  Christianity.  He  was  made  a  bishop  by  Pope 
Sergius  I.,  under  the  name  of  Clemens,  and  founded  a 
number  of  churches  in  that  country,  and  a  monastery  at 
Echternach,  near  Treves,  where  he  was  buried,  having 
died  in  738  A.I). 

See  Lux,  "  Levensschets  van  den  H.  Willebrordus,  Apostel  der 
Nederlanden,"  1*39. 

Willebrord.     See  BOSSCHAERT. 

Wil'le-had,  an  Anglo-Saxon  missionary,  who  con 
verted  many  Frieslanders  and  Saxons,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Bremen  in  787  A.IX  Died  in  789. 

Willemet,  vel'mi',  (PIERRE  REMI,)  a  French  natu 
ralist,  born  at  Norroy-sur-Moselle  in  1735.  He  resided 
at  Nancy,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora 
of  Lorraine,"  (3  vols.,  1805.)  Died  in  1807. 

See  J.  LAMOI:RKUX,  "  Notice  sur  Willemet,"  1808. 

Willemet,  (PIERRE  REMI  FRANCOIS  de  Paule — 
deh  pol,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Nancy  in  1762; 
died  at  Seringapatam  in  1790. 

See  Mn. LIN,  "  Notice  snr  Willemet  fils,"  1790. 

Willemin,  vel'maN',  (NICOLAS  XAVIER,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  engraver,  born  at  Nancy  in  1763.  He 
rendered  a  useful  service  to  the  arts  by  a  large  illus 
trated  work  called  "  Unpublished  French  Monuments 
illustrating  the  History  of  Arts,  Costumes,"  etc., 
("  Monuments  Fraii£ais  inedits  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire 
des  Arts,  des  Costumes,"  etc.,  1806-39.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1833. 

Willems,  wiKlems  or  ve'l^ms',  (FLORENT,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Liege  about  1812.  He  settled  in  Paris 
about  1839,  and  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 
He  excels  as  a  painter  of  costume,  especially  of  silk 
gowns.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Musical  Party,"  and 
"  The  Coquette." 

Willems,  (JAN  FRANS,)  a  distinguished  Belgian 
writer  and  philologist,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1793.  In 
1811  he  won  the  prize  offered  for  the  best  poem  on  the 
battle  of  Friedland  and  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  in  1818 
published  a  poetic  address  to  the  Belgians,  entitled 
"  Aen  de  Belgen,"  calling  on  his  countrymen  to  main 
tain  the  Flemish  language  and  nationality.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Dutch 
Language  and  Literature  in  Connection  with  the  South 
ern  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,"  (2  vols.,  1819-24,) 
and  a  Flemish  version  of  the  poem  entitled  "  Reynard 
the  Fox."  He  was  also  editor  of  the  "  Belgisch  Mu 
seum,"  the  organ  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Flemish  Literature.  Died  in  1846. 

See  P.  r>E  DECKER,  "Notice  sur  J.  F.  Willems,"  1847;  SNEL- 
LAERT,  "  Korte  Levensschets  van  J.  F.  Willems,"  1847. 

Willeram,  <vil'leh-ram,  or  Walram,  vval'ram,  a 
German  monk,  born  in  Franconia,  became  Abbot  of 
Ebersberg.  He  wrote  a  paraphrase  of  Solomon's  Song, 
in  Latin  verse.  Died  in  1085. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


W1LLET 


2273 


WILLIAM 


Wil'let,  (ANDREW,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
at  Ely  in  1562.  He  obtained  a  prebend  at  Ely  about 
1598.  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Synopsis  of 
Popery,"  ("  Synopsis  Papismi,")  which  was  reputed  the 
most  able  refutation  of  popery  which  had  then  appeared. 
Died  in  1621. 

William  (wll'yam)  I.,  surnamed  THE  CONQUEROR, 
[Lat.  GUI.IEI/MUS  CONQUKS'TOR;  Fr.  GUII.LAUME  LE 
CONQUERANT,  ge'yom'  leh  ko.N'ka'iSN',!  King  of  Eng 
land,  born  at  Falaise  in  1025,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  1035,  as  William  II.  of  Normandy,  and  during  his 
minority  gave  proof  of  his  energy  and  courage  by  re 
ducing  to  submission  the  rebellious  Norman  barons.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  his  kinsman  Edward  the  Confessor, 
King  of  England,  who,  having  no  issue,  formed  a  secret 
intention  to  adopt  William  as  his  heir.  His  chief  com 
petitor  was  Harold,  a  Saxon  prince,  whom  a  majority 
of  the  people  of  England  preferred  to  the  Duke  of 
Normandy.  On  the  death  of  Edward  (January,  1066) 
Harold  ascended  the  throne,  without  opposition.  (See 
HAROLD.) 

"William,"  says  Hume,  "by  his  power,  his  courage, 
and  his  abilities,  had  long  maintained  a  pre-eminence 
among  the  haughty  chieftains"  of  Western  Europe. 
Having  resolved  to  invade  England,  he  soon  assembled 
a  fleet  of  3000  vessels  and  an  army  of  60,000  men. 
Several  powerful  barons  of  adjoining  countries,  with 
their  retainers,  were  attracted  to  his  standard  by  the 
grandeur  and  audacity  of  the  enterprise.  The  Norman 
army  landed  at  Pevensey,  in  Sussex,  about  the  28th  of 
September,  and  defeated  the  English,  commanded  by 
Harold,  at  Senlac,  near  Hastings,  on  the  I4th  of  October, 
1066.  Harold  was  killed  in  this  battle,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  decisive  and  important  that  occurred  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  According  to  Hume,  William  lost  nearly 
1:5,000  men.  He  followed  up  his  victory  with  celerity 
and  vigour,  encountered  little  opposition  in  his  march 
to  London,  and  was  crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey  on 
the  251(1  of  December.  Edgar  Atheling,  who  had  been 
proclaimed  king  at  the  death  of  Harold,  renounced 
his  claim  and  submitted  to  William. 

The  Conqueror  appeared  at  first  willing  to  conciliate 
his  new  subjects  by  mildness ;  but  he  confiscated  the 
estates  of  those  partisans  of  Harold  who  had  been  killed 
at  Hastings,  and  took  care  to  place  all  real  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  Normans.  While  he  was  absent  on  a 
visit  to  Normandy,  in  1067,  conspiracies  were  formed 
against  him,  and  hostilities  began  in  many  places.  Hume 
expresses  a  suspicion  that  he  left  England  in  order  that 
the  revolts  provoked  by  his  licentious  soldiery  might 
furnish  him  with  a  pretext  for  severe  and  tyrannical 
measures.  According  to  the  same  writer,  "  this  measure 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  all  the  calamities  which 
England  endured  during  this  and  the  subsequent  reigns." 
William  returned  about  the  end  of  1067,  and  maintained 
his  power  by  acts  of  excessive  cruelty.  He  ordered  his 
army  to  lay  waste  by  fire  the  extensive  tract  between  the 
Humber  and  the  Tees.  The  majority  of  the  proprietors 
of  land  were  deprived  of  their  estates  by  confiscation, 
and  all  the  natives  were  reduced  to  a  state  not  much 
better  than  slavery.  During  a  visit  of  William  to  the 
.continent,  in  1074,  several  Norman  barons  revolted 
against  him,  and  were  defeated. 

He  had  become  the  most  powerful  sovereign  of  Europe, 
when  Pope  Gregory  VII.  wrote  him  a  letter,  requiring 
him  to  do  homage  for  the  kingdom  of  England  to  the 
see  of  Rome,  and  to  send  the  tribute  which  his  prede 
cessors  had  been  accustomed  to  pay  to  the  pope.  By 
the  tribute  he  meant  Peter's  pence.  William  replied 
that  the  money  should  be  remitted  as  usual,  but  he 
refused  to  pay  homage.  About  1078  his  son  Robert 
levied  war  against  William  in  Normandy.  During  this 
war  Robert  happened  to  encounter  the  king,  whom  he 
wounded  and  unhorsed.  Struck  with  remorse  on  dis 
covering  that  he  had  wounded  his  father,  Robert  asked 
his  pardon,  and  made  peace  with  him.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  he  ordered  a  general  survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  the  kingdom,  their  extent  in  each  district,  their 
proprietors,  tenure,  and  value.  "  This  monument,  called 
'Domesday  Book,'"  says  Hume,  "is  the  most  valuable 


Domesday  Book,' "  says  Hume,  "  is  the  most  valuable    renowned   throughout 

;  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

'43 


piece  of  antiquity  possessed  by  any  nation."  He  had 
married  Matilda,  a  daughter  of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flan 
ders.  On  the  approach  of  death,  he  discovered  the 
vanity  of  all  human  grandeur,  and  was  filled  with  re 
morse  for  his  cruelties.  He  died  at  Rouen  in  1087, 
leaving  three  sons,  Robert,  William,  and  Henry. 

See  HCME,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  iii.  and  iv.  ; 
AUG.  THIERRY,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conquete  de  1'Angleterre :"  JOHN 
HAYWARD,  "  Lives  of  the  Three  Norman  Kings  of  England,  William 
I.,"  etc.,  1613;  FREEMAN,  "History  of  the  Norman  Conquest," 
vol.  iii.  chaps,  xii.-xvi.  ;  SAMUEL  CLARKE,  "Life  and  Death  of 
William  the  Conqueror,"  1660;  THOMAS  ROSCOE.  "Life  of  William 
the  Conqueror,"  1848;  ANDREW  HENDERSON,  "Life  of  William  the 
Conqueror,"  1764;  P.  M.  SAUNIER,  "Vie  de  Guillaume,  Due  de 
Normandie,"  1804. 

"William  II.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  RU'FUS, 
[Fr.  GUII.LAUME  LE  Roux,  ge'yom'  leh  roo,]  from  the 
colour  of  his  hair,  was  born  in  Normandy  in  1056.  He 
was  the  second  of  the  surviving  sons  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  His  education  was  directed  by  the  famous 
Lan franc.  According  to  some  historians,  William  I., 
just  before  his  death,  wrote  a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  desiring 
him  to  crown  his  son  William  as  King  of  England,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  left  Normandy  and  Maine  to  Robert. 
William  was  crowned  in  September,  1087.  The  Anglo- 
Norman  barons,  who  owned  estates  both  in  England 
and  Normandy  and  would  be  required  to  pay  allegiance 
to  two  masters,  favoured  the  claim  of  Robert  to  both 
thrones.  They  took  arms  against  William,  but  were 
soon  reduced  to  submission.  In  1091  he  invaded  Nor 
mandy  with  an  army  to  wage  war  against  Robert,  who 
prevented  hostilities  by  a  treaty,  according  to  which 
William  obtained  the  towns  of  Aumale,  Fescamp,  etc. 
He  afterwards  instigated  the  Norman  barons  to  rebel 
against  Robert,  and  passed  over  to  Normandy  in  1094 
to  support  his  partisans.  He  was  prevented  from  push 
ing  his  advantages  by  an  incursion  of  the  Welsh,  which 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England.  Robert,  having 
enlisted  in  the  first  crusade,  sold  or  mortgaged  his 
dominions  to  William  for  the  small  sum  of  10,000  marks, 
(1096.)  William  did  not  partake  of  the  general  enthu 
siasm  for  the  crusade.  "  It  is  likely,"  says  Hume,  "  that 
he  made  the  romantic  chivalry  of  the  crusaders  the  object 
of  his  perpetual  raillery."  He  was  found  dead  in  the 
New  Forest  in  August,  noo.  Hume  adopts  the  popular 
account  that  Walter  Tyrrel,  while  hunting  with  the 
king,  discharged  an  arrow  which  glanced  from  a  tree 
and  killed  William.  He  had  never  married,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry.  "  He  seems,"  says 
Hume,  "to  have  been  a  violent  and  tyrannical  prince  ; 
a  perfidious,  encroaching,  and  dangerous  neighbor  ;  an 
unkind  and  ungenerous  relation." 

See  HUME,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v.  ;  Miss  STRICK 
LAND,  "Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings  of  England,"  1861  ;  JOHN 
HAYWARD,  "  Life  of  William  II.,"  1613. 

William  III.,  or  William  Henry,  King  of  England 
and  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  was  born  at  the  Hague  on 
the  I4th  of  November,  1650.  He  was  the  eldest  or 
only  son  of  William  II.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
Stuart,  a  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  was 
styled  Prince  of  Orange  before  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain.  At  the  death  of  his  father 
(1650)  the  party  opposed  to  the  house  of  Orange  deter 
mined  that  there  should  never  be  another  Stadtholder. 
On  the  death  of  De  Witt,  in  1672,  the  young  prince 
became  the  chief  of  the  government,  and  took  strenuous 
measures  to  defend  the  state  against  the  French  armies 
which  had  invaded  it.  He  opened  the  dikes  and  inun 
dated  the  seat  of  war,  exclaiming  that  he  svould  die  in  the 
last  ditch  rather  than  witness  the  ruin  of  the  republic. 
The  invaders  were  forced  to  save  themselves  by  a  hasty 
retreat.  In  1674  he  was  defeated  at  Senefby  the  Prince 
of  Conde.  The  war  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Nymwe- 
gen,  in  1678.  He  married  in  1677  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
James,  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  of  England. 
Besides  his  native  Dutch,  he  spoke  and  wrote  the 
French,  English,  and  German  languages  fluently,  though 
not  elegantly  nor  exactly.  "The  tenet  of  predestina 
tion,"  says  >Iacaulay,  "  was  the  keystone  of  his  religion." 
From  a  child  he  had  been  weak  and  sickly,  and  in  man 
hood  he  was  subject  to  painful  and  depressing  maladies. 

Before  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  was 
renowned  throughout  Europe  as  a  soldier  and  diplo- 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILLIAM 


2274 


WILLIAM 


matist,  and  was  the  master-spirit  of  a  powerful  coalition 
against  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He  became  about  1686 
the  head  of  the  English  opposition  which  the  perverse 
and  infatuated  course  of  James  II.  had  provoked.  In  the 
summer  of  1688  he  was  invited  by  Russell,  Sidney,  and 
other  conspirators  to  come  with  an  army  for  the  defence 
of  liberty  and  the  Protestant  religion  in  England. 
William  issued  a  declaration,  in  which  he  abjured  all 
thought  of  conquest,  and  pledged  himself  to  leave  all 
questions  to  the  decision  of  a  free  Parliament.  In 
November,  1688,  he  landed  at  Torbay  with  an  army  of 
about  14,000  men.  lie  was  joined  by  numerous  peers, 
and  was  favoured  by  a  general  defection  in  the  army 
of  King  James,  who  threw  the  great  seal  into  the 
Thames  and  absconded  on  the  nth  of  December,  1688. 
The  revolution  was  thus  accomplished  without  much 
bloodshed.  He  called  a  convention,  composed  of  peers 
and  the  surviving  members  of  the  former  House  of 
Commons,  which  in  February,  1689,  voted  that  James 
had  abdicated,  and  that  William  and  Mary  should  be 
declared  King  and  Queen  of  England.  Amidst  the  gen 
eral  joy,  the  ill  humour  of  the  clergy  and  the  army  was 
very  conspicuous.  The  position  of  William  was  beset 
with  great  difficulties.  The  deposed  king  had  many 
adherents  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  who  supported  his 
cause  by  arms,  and  he  was  assisted  by  Louis  XIV. 
William  selected  for  his  ministers  members  of  both  the 
great  parties,  the  Whigs  and  Tories,  and  reserved  to 
himself  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  not 
popular  with  his  new  subjects.  His  cold  manners, 
which  presented  a  great  contrast  to  the  strength  of  his 
emotions,  gave  almost  universal  offence. 

In  May,  1689,  he  declared  war  against  the  King  of 
France,  by  whose  aid  James  II.  was  enabled  to  take 
the  field  in  Ireland  with  a  considerable  army.  William 
passed  over  to  Ireland  in  June,  1690,  and  took  command 
of  his  land-forces.  About  this  time  his  fleet  was  defeated 
by  the  French  near  Beachy  Head.  On  the  ist  of  July, 
1690,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  French  and 
Irish  at  the  famous  battle  of  the  Boyne,  after  which 
James  gave  up  the  contest  and  fled  to  France.  The 
allied  English  and  Dutch  fleets  defeated  the  French  at 
La  Hogue  in  May,  1692.  The  war  between  the  allies 
and  the  French  continued  in  Flanders,  where  William 
commanded  in  person.  He  was  defeated  at  Steenkei  ke, 
by  Marshal  Luxemburg,  in  August,  1692.  Hostilities 
were  suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697. 

The  reign  of  William  III.  was  much  disturbed  by  fac 
tious  intrigues  and  Jacobite  conspiracies.  He  removed 
from  command  the  Duke  of  Mar) borough,  who  was  sus 
pected  of  being  in  a  plot  to  restore  one  of  the  Stuarts 
to  the  throne,  in  1692.  Soon  after  the  peace  of  Rys 
wick,  William  III.  and  Louis  XIV.  became  parties  to  a 
treaty  to  partition  the  Spanish  dominions,  and  stipulated 
that  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  should  succeed  to  Spain  and 
the  Indies,  while  the  French  dauphin  should  reign  over 
the  two  Sicilies.  In  November,  1700,  Charles  II.  of  Spain 
died,  and  bequeathed  the  throne  to  Philip  of  Anjoti.  Re 
gardless  of  the  obligations  of  the  partition  treaty,  Louis 
XIV.  accepted  for  his  grandson  the  splendid  legacy. 
William  then  formed  with  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
and  other  powers  a  coalition  against  the  Bourbons,  and 
took  the  first  steps  towards  the  great  war  oi  the  Spanish 
succession.  Before  hostilities  commenced,  he  died,  with 
out  issue,  in  London,  in  March,  1702,  in  consequence  of 
a  fall  from  his  horse.  lie  was  succeeded  by  Queen 
Anne. 

"  His  name,"  says  Macaulay,  "at  once  calls  up  before 
us  a  slender  and  feeble  frame,  a  lofty  and  ample  fore 
head,  a  nose  curved  like  the  beak  of  an  eagle,  an  eye 
rivalling  that  of  an  eagle  in  brightness  and  keenness.  .  .  . 
Nature  had  largely  endowed  William  with  the  qualities 
of  a  great  ruler,  and  education  had  developed  those 
qualities  in  no  common  degree.  ...  If  his  battles  were 
not  those  of  a  great  tactician,  they  entitled  him  to  be 
called  a  great  man.  .  .  .  His  defeats  were  repaired  with 
such  marvellous  celerity  that  before  his  enemies  had 
sung  the  '  Te  Deum'  he  was  again  ready  for  conflict. 
.  .  .  He  was  born  with  violent  passions  and  quick 
sensibilities,  but  the  strength  of  his  emotions  was  not 
suspected  by  the  world.  From  the  multitude  his  joy 


and  his  grief,  his  affection  and  his  resentment,  were 
hidden  by  a  phlegmatic  serenity  which  made  him  pass 
for  the  most  cold-blooded  of  mankind." 

See  MACAULAY,  "  History  of  England;"  BURNH.T,  "History  of 
his  Own  Times;"  A.  MONTANUS,  "  Leven  van  Willem  III.,"  1703; 
W.  HARRIS,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  o!  William  Henry," 
etc.,  1749;  TREVOR,  "  Life  and  Times  of  William  III.,"  iSjq;  AHKI. 
BOYER,  "  Histoire  de  Guillaume  III,"  3  vols.,  1702;  SIR  JAMKS 
MACKINTOSH,  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  England  in  i6SS;" 
V.  DE  BKUINE,  "Leven  en  Dood  van  Willem  III.,"  1702;  JAMES 
VERNON,  "  Court  and  Times  of  William  III.,"  3  vols.,  1841  ;  VOL 
TAIRE,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

William  IV.,  King  of  England,  the  third  son  of 
George  III.,  was  born  in  London  on  the  2ist  of  Au 
gust,  1765.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  as  midshipman 
in  1779,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1786. 
Having  in  several  cases  disobeyed  the  orders  of  his 
superiors  or  violated  the  rules  of  discipline,  he  was  not 
permitted  to  command  in  active  service  ;  but  he  was 
promoted  by  successive  steps  until  he  received  the  title  of 
admiral  of  the  fleet,  in  1801.  He  had  been  created  Duke 
of  Clarence  and  Saint  Andrew's  and  Earl  of  Minister  in 
1789.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  generally  acted  with 
the  Whig  party;  but  he  supported  Pitt  after  1793.  He 
married  in  July,  1818,  Adelaide,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Meiningen.  They  had  two  children,  who  died 
in  infancy.  On  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York,  in  1827,  William  became  heir-presumptive  to  the 
throne.  He  succeeded  George  IV.  on  the  2oth  of  June, 
1830,  which  was  a  critical  time  in  the  politics  of  Europe. 
The  French  revolution  of  July,  1830,  had  great  influence 
in  England.  The  friends  of  electoral  reform  had  a  ma 
jority  in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  in  October,  but 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  was  prime  minister,  op 
posed  reform,  in  terms  which  produced  a  violent  excite 
ment.  The  ministry,  having  been  outvoted  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  resigned  in  November,  1830,  and  were 
succeeded  by  a  Liberal  ministry,  of  which  Earl  Grey 
and  Lord  John  Russell  were  the  chiefs.  The  Reform 
bill  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  large  majority 
in  September,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords  on  the 
3d  of  October,  1831.  A  long  and  violent  crisis  fol 
lowed.  In  May,  1832,  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues 
resigned,  and  the  king  requested  Wellington  and  Lynd- 
hurst  to  form  a  ministry;  but  they  failed,  or  quailed 
before  the  storm,  for  the  people  were  determined  to 
have  reform,  if  they  had  to  fight  for  it.  Earl  Grey 
resumed  the  office  of  premier  about  the  i8th  of  May, 
and,  the  king  having  induced  many  of  the  Tory  peers  to 
absent  themselves  and  refrain  from  voting,  the  Reform 
bill  finally  became  a  law  in  June,  1832.  The  king  him 
self  was  no  friend  to  reform,  and  was  partial  to  the  Con 
servatives,  or  Tories.  After  Earl  Grey  and  several  other 
ministers  had  resigned,  William  IV.,  in  November,  1834, 
sent  for  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  constructed  a 
new  ministry,  in  which  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  premier. 
Peel  and  Wellington,  however,  could  not  command  a 
majority  in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  in  February, 
1835.  They  resigned  in  April,  and  gave  place  to  the 
Whig  ministry  of  Lord  Melbourne.  William  died  on 
the  2Oth  of  June,  1837,  leaving  no  lawful  issue,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  niece,  Victoria. 

Wil'liam,  [Dutch,  WII.I.KM,  wil'Iem  ;  Ger.  WII.HELM, 
wil'helmj  (FREDERICK,)  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  and  Prince  of  Orange 
Nassau,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  August,  1772.  He 
was  a  son  of  William  V.,  Prince  of  Orange  Nassau 
and  hereditary  Stadtholder.  He  married,  in  1791,  Fre- 
derica  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  army  which 
resisted  the  French  invaders  in  1793  and  1794.  Hol 
land  was  conquered  in  1795,  and  William  Frederick 
retired  to  Germany.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  gene 
ral  in  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  between  1806 
and  1813.  A  revolution  restored  him  to  royal  power  in 
Holland  about  the  end  of  1813,  after  which  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  decided  that  Belgium  should  be  annexed  to 
the  United  Provinces,  and  that  he  should  reign  over  the 
whole.  lie  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Netherlands  in 
March,  1815.  The  Belgians,  who  regarded  the  Dutch 
with  invincible  antipathy,  revolted  in  September,  1830, 
and,  after  several  battles,  by  the  aid  of  France  and  Eng- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WILLIAM 


2275 


WILLIAM 


land,  became  a  separate  nation.  In  October,  1840,  he 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  William,  and  died  in 
Berlin  in  1843. 

William  (or  Willem)  II.,  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  December,  1792.  As  aide-de-camp  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  he  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Peninsula.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  troops  at  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded.  About 
1816  he  married  Anna  Paulowna,  a  sister  of  Alexander, 
Czar  of  Russia.  He  gained  some  victories  over  the 
Belgian  insurgents  in  1831  ;  but  the  intervention  of  a 
French  army  compelled  him  to  retire  from  that  contest. 
He  began  to  reign  in  October,  1840.  He  died  in  March, 
1849,  leaving  two  sons,  William  and  Henry. 

William  (or  Willem)  III.,  King  of  Holland,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  February,  1817.  He  mar 
ried  Sophia,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1839,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  March,  1849.  It  >s 
stated  that  he  has  shown  himself  friendly  to  liberal 
measures. 

William  (or  Wilhelm,  wil'hclm)  I.,  King  of  Prus 
sia,  born  on  the  22cl  of  March,  1797,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Frederick  William  III.  He  married,  in  1829,  Maria 
Louisa  Augusta,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar. 
During  the  violent  commotions  of  1848  he  retired  for 
safety  to  England,  from  which  he  soon  returned.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  suppressed  the  insurrection 
in  Baden  in  1849.  He  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Frederick  William  IV.,  January,  1861, 
and,  soon  after  his  accession,  appointed  Count  von  Bis- 
mai  k  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  To  the  superior  states 
manship  of  this  minister  is  chiefly  attributed  the  great 
and  sudden  increase  of  Prussia  in  extent  and  power. 
(See  BISMARK,  VON,  KARL  OTTO.) 

In  1864  he  united  with  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  an 
aggressive  war  against  Denmark,  who  was  compelled  to 
cede  to  the  victors  Sleswick  and  Holstein. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  Prussian  policy  seems  to 
be  the  union  of  all  the  German  peoples  into  one  nation 
or  federation,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  empire,  of 
Austria  from  the  same.  Invoking  the  potent  and  in 
vincible  spirit  of  nationality  and  devotion  to  the  Father 
land,  he  declared  war  against  Austria  about  the  iSth  of 
June,  1866,  having  previously  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  King  of  Italy.  The  reigning  princes  of  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Hanover,  Hesse,  (Electoral,)  and  some  other 
states,  took  side  with  Austria,  which  had  controlled  a 
majority  of  votes  in  the  Diet.  The  Prussian  armies, 
whose  movements  were  planned  by  General  von  Moitke, 
advanced  rapidly  into  Bohemia,  arid,  after  several  minor 
victories,  defeated  the  Austrians  at  the  great  and  de 
cisive  battle  of  Sadowa,  near  Koniggratz,  on  the  3d  of 
July,  1866.  The  victors  are  said  to  have  taken  at  Sadowa 
21,471  prisoners,  (including  about  7400 wounded.)  This 
campaign  is  called  the  Seven  Weeks'  war.  Peace  was 
restored  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Prague  in  August,  1866, 
in  accordance  with  which  the  Emperor  of  Austria  re 
nounced  his  claim  to  be  the  head,  or  even  a  member,  of 
the  new  German  Bund,  called  the  North  German  Con 
federation,  which  was  composed  of  all  the  states  situated 
north  of  the  river  Main.  The  area  and  population  of 
•Prussia  were  considerably  increased  by  the  annexation 
of  several  conquered  states,  among  which  were  Hanover. 
Holstein,  and  Electoral  Hesse.  By  the  terms  of  the 
new  Bund  the  King  of  Prussia  directs  the  foreign  policy 
and  controls  the  military  power  of  the  states  which 
compose  it.  A  secret  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and 
defensive,  was  negotiated  by  Prussia  with  Bavaria  and 
Baden  in  August,  1866,  and  made  public  in  April,  1867. 

On  a  frivolous  pretext,  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.  de 
clared  war  against  Prussia,  July  16,  1870.  The  German 
armies,  commanded  by  King  William  in  person,  and  by 
his  son,  Frederick  William,  having  crossed  the  frontier 
early  in  August,  defeated  Marshal  McMahon  at  Worth 
(August  6)  and  Marshal  Bazaine  in  a  great  battle  near 
Metz,  (August  14-18.)  Bazaine,  having  shut  himself  up  in 
Metz,  was  besieged  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prus 
sia,  while  the  king  and  his  son,  the  crown-prince,  pur 
sued  Marshal  McMahon,  who  had  retreated  to  Chalons, 
and,  after  he  had  collected  there  a  large  army,  moved 


northward  to  the  valley  of  the  Meuse.  The  German 
army,  amounting  to  about  240,000  men,  attacked  Mar 
shal  McMahon  near  Sedan,  and  a  great  battle  ensued, 
which  lasted  several  days,  and  resulted  in  one  of  the 
most  decisive  and  momentous  victories  in  universal  his 
tory.  On  the  2d  of  September  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
and  his  army  of  100,000  men,  or  more,  surrendered  at 
Sedan  as  prisoners  of  war.  A  few  days  later,  King  Wil 
liam  and  the  crown-prince  marched  against  Paris,  which 
by  strenuous  exertions  had  been  prepared  for  a  siege, 
and  was  now  controlled  by  the  republicans  under  a  new 
regime.  The  siege  or  investment  of  Paris  began  about 
September  15.  Marshal  Bazaine  surrendered  Metz  and 
his  army,  the  number  of  which  was  stated  at  150,000 
men,  or  more,  to  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  on  the  27th 
of  October,  1870.  In  the  great  battles  of  this  war  the 
French  were  outnumbered,  as  well  as  outgeneralled,  by 
the  Germans,  whose  movements  were  directed  by  Gen 
eral  von  Moitke.  Count  von  Bismark  was  present  with 
the  army  at  Sedan  and  at  Paris,  and,  soon  after  the  sur 
render  of  Napoleon,  had  an  interview  with  Jules  Favre, 
the  French  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  who  made  over 
tures  of  peace.  Bismark  demanded  the  cession  of  Alsace 
and  part  of  Lorraine,  which  the  French  ministers  refused 
to  give  up.  In  October,  1870,  the  princes  Frederick 
William  and  Frederick  Charles  were  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal. 

The  civilized  world  was  kept  in  painful  suspense  by  a 
fear  that  the  most  beautiful  and  polished  city  on  the 
globe  would  be  bombarded  and  destroyed ;  but  the 
Germans  delayed  their  assault,  in  the  confident  hope 
that  famine  would  soon  reduce  Paris  to  submission. 
They  also  expected  that  the  French  forces  within  the  city 
would  be  paralyzed  by  riots  and  the  violent  contests  be 
tween  opposing  factions.  This  hope  proved  to  be  delu 
sive.  The  citizens  of  Paris  maintained  good  order,  and 
defended  their  cause  with  heroic  constancy.  On  the  gth 
of  November  the  army  of  the  Loire,  commanded  by  Gen 
eral  Palladines,  defeated  the  Bavarian  general  Von  der 
Tann  near  Orleans,  and  took  about  2000  prisoners.  But 
the  army  of  the  Loire  was  afterwards  defeated  in  several 
actions.  On  the  2gth  of  November  the  French  in  great 
force  made  a  vigorous  and  determined  sortie  from  Paris  ; 
the  contest  which  ensued  lasted  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
3Oth  ;  but  they  failed  to  raise  the  siege.  As  one  of  the  re 
sults  of  this  war,  Prussia  now  holds,  instead  of  France,  the 
military  primacy  among  the  nations  of  Europe.  King  Wil 
liam  is  a  zealous  asserter  of  the  divine  right  of  kings.  He 
took  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany  in  December,  1870. 

William  (Willem  or  Wilhelm)  OF  HOLLAND,  son 
of  Count  Florent  of  Holland,  was  made  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  1247,  through  the  influence  of  Pope  Inno 
cent  IV.',  in  opposition  to  Frederick  II.  He  was  unable, 
however,  to  assert  his  authority  until  after  the  death  of 
Conrad  IV.,  the  son  of  Frederick,  in  1254.  He  was 
killed  in  a  war  against  the  West  Frisians  in  1256. 

William  the  Lion,  King  of  Scotland,  was  a  brother 
of  Malcolm  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1165.  He  in 
vaded  England  in  1174,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  could 
not  obtain  his  liberty  until  he  promised  to  be  the  vassal 
or  liegeman  of  Henry  II.  About  1190,  Richard  I.,  for  a 
pecuniary  consideration,  released  Scotland  from  alle 
giance  to  himself  and  his  successors.  William  died  in 
1214,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II. 

See  ISi-RTox,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xiii. 

William  (or  Wilhelm)  I.,  King  of  Wiirtemberg, 
born  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  I.,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  in  October,  1816.  He  granted  a  new  constitu 
tion  in  1819.  In  1848  he  made  further  concessions  to 
the  growing  desire  of  reform.  He  opposed  the  attempts 
of  the  King  of  Prussia  to  acquire  supremacy  in  Ger 
many  in  1850.  Died  in  1864. 

William  II,  (Stadtholcler.)  See  ORANGE,  (WILLIAM, 
PRINCK  OF.) 

William  III,  (Stadtholder.)  See  WILLIAM  III., 
(King  of  England.) 

William,  an  Anglo-Norman  prince,  born  in  1102,  was 
the  only  legitimate  son  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  He 
was  drowned,  with  his  sister  Aclele,  in  the  passage  from 
Normandy  to  England,  in  1120. 

William  of  Champeaux.     See  CHAMPEAUX,  DE. 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILLIAM 


2276 


WILLIAMS 


William  of  Hesse-Cassel.  See  HESSE,  LAND 
GRAVE  OF. 

William  of  Malmesbury.     See  MALMESBURY. 

William  de  Nangis.     See  NANGIS,  DE. 

William  of  Nassau.  See  ORANGE,  (WILLIAM, 
PRINCE  OF.) 

William  of  Newbui'g  or  Newbury.  See  NEW- 
BURGH. 

William  the  Silent.     See  ORANGE,  (WILLIAM  OF.) 

William  of  Tyre,  a  prelate  and  historian,  born 
about  1130.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Tyre  in  1174. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of  Palestine  or  the 
Crusaders  from  1005  to  1184."  Died  before  1193. 

William  of  Wykeham.     See  WYKEHAM. 

Wil'liams,  (wil'yamz,)  (Au'HE.us  S.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  about  1810, 
was  a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Chancellorsville,  May  3,  1863,  and  at  Gettys 
burg,  July  1-3  of  that  year.  He  served  under  General 
Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta,  May-August, 
1864,  and  commanded  a  corps  of  the  army  that  marched 
from  Atlanta  to  the  sea. 

Wil'liams,  (ANNA,)  an  English  writer,  who,  having 
become  blind,  was  taken  by  Dr.  Johnson  into  his  house 
and  supported  for  the  remainder  of  her  life.  She  died 
in  1783. 

See  BOSWELL,  "Life  of  Johnson." 

Williams,  (Sir  CHARLES  HANBURY,)  a  distinguished 
English  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1709,  was  the 
son  of  John  Hanbury,  Esq.,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Williams  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  his  godfather, 
Charles  Williams.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent, 
he  was  elected,  after  his  return,  member  of  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Monmouth,  (1733,)  and  in  1749  was 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  having  been  previ 
ously  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath.  He  was  afterwards 
employed  on  an  important  embassy  to  Russia.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  collection  of  odes,  also  political  ballads 
and  satires  in  verse,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace  Wai  pole,  and  a 
supporter  of  the  measures  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  to 
whom  he  rendered  effective  service  by  his  satirical  verses. 
Died  in  1759. 

See  "George  Selwyn  and  his  Contemporaries,"  by  J.  H.  JESSE: 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1822. 

Williams,  (CHARLES  KII.BORN,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1782,  was  a  son 
of  Samuel  Williams,  noticed  below.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Vermont  in  1851.  Died  in  1853. 

"Williams,  (DANIEL,)  D.I).,  an  English  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Wrexham,  in  Denbighshire,  in  1644.  He 
wrote  "Gospel  Truth  Stated  and  Vindicated,"  and  a 
number  of  religious  and  controversial  treatises,  lie 
died  in  1716,  leaving  numerous  bequests  for  chari 
table  and  educational  purposes.  Among  the  most  im 
portant  of  these  was  one  for  the  establishment  of  a 
public  library  in  Red-Cross  Street,  London,  opened 
in  1729. 

Williams,  (I)AVin,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Cardi 
ganshire,  Wales,  in  1738,  was  the  founder  of  the  Literary 
Fund  Society.  He  published  "  Lectures  on  Political 
Principles,"  (1789,)  a  "History  of  Monmouthshire," 
(1796,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1816. 

Williams,  (EDWARD,)  a  Welsh  poet,  also  called  IOLO 
MORGANWG,  (mor-ga'noog,)  born  in  Glamorganshire 
about  1747,  was  a  stone-mason  by  trade.  He  published 
a  collection  of  hymns  in  Welsh,  and  two  volumes  of 
iyric  and  pastoral  poems  in  English,  (1794.)  He  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Myvyrian  Archaiology." 
Died  in  1826. 

Williams,  (£LEAZAR,)  born  at  Caughnawaga,  New 
York,  about  1787,  resided  as  a  missionary  among  the 
Indians  in  the  vicinity  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  He 
pretended  to  be  the  dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  his 
claims  were  supported  by  J.  II.  Hanson,  of  New  York, 
in  a  work  entitled  "The  Lost  Prince."  A  series  of 
articles  also  appeared  in  "  Putnam's  Magazine"  for  Feb 
ruary,  April,  and  July,  1853,  and  February,  1854,  main 
taining  with  much  ability  and  zeal  his  title  to  be  regasded 
as  the  heir  of  the  Bourbons.  Died  in  1858. 


"Williams,  (ErHRAiM,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1715,  was  mortally  wounded 
in  an  engagement  near  Lake  George  with  the  French 
and  Indians  in  1755.  He  had  bequeathed  the  princi 
pal  part  of  his  property  towards  founding  a  free  school 
in  Massachusetts,  which  afterwards  became  Williams 
College. 

Williams,  (FREDERICK  SIMS,)  an  English  barrister, 
born  in  1812.  He  published  several  legal  works,  and 
"The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens,"  (1861.)  Died  in  1863. 

Williams,  (GRIFFITH,)  born  in  Wales  in  1589,  rose 
through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of  Ossory  in 
1641.  He  published,  among  other  works,  one  entitled 
"  Seven  Golden  Candlesticks,  holding  the  Seven  Lights 
of  Christian  Religion."  Died  in  1672. 

"Williams,  (HELEN  MARIA,)  a  writer  and  translator, 
born  in  London  in  1762.  While  residing  in  Paris,  in 
1790,  she  published  her  "  Letters  from  France,"  favouring 
the  doctrines  of  the  Girondists,  in  consequence  of  which 
she  was  imprisoned  for  a  time.  Among  her  other  works 
are  two  poems,  entitled  "Peru"  (1784)  and  "  The  Slave- 
Trade,"  (1788,)  "Julia,  a  Romance,"  (1790,)  "Narrative 
of  Events  in  France,"  (1815,)  and  a  translation  of  the 
"  Personal  Narrative"  of  Humboldt  and  Bonpland.  Died 
in  1827. 

Williams,  (JoiiN,)  a  distinguished  prelate  and  states 
man,  born  in  Carnarvonshire,  Wales,  in  1582.  He  studied 
at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and,  having  taken 
orders,  became  in  1611  chaplain  to  the  lord  chancellor 
Egerton.  He  soon  after  acquired  the  favour  of  King 
|ames  I.,  who  made  him  successively  one  ot  his  chap- 
lains-in-ordinary,  Dean  of  Salisbury,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  (1621.)  He  was  de 
prived  of  the  last-named  office  on  the  accession  of 
Charles,  and,  having  been  charged  by  his  enemy  Laud 
with  betraying  the  king's  secrets,  was  condemned  to 
several  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  _£io,ooo.  He 
was  released  in  1640,  and  soon  after  created  Archbishop 
of  York.  Died  in  1650. 

See  Piiu.i.irs,  "  Life  of  John  Williams,"  and  "  Memorial  offered 
to  the  Great  Deserving*  of  John  Williams,"  by  JOHN  HACICKT. 

Williams,  (Jonx,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1634,  became  successively  chaplain  to  William  and 
Mary,  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  and  Bishop  of  Chi- 
ches'ter.  (1696.)  Died  in  1709. 

Williams,  (JoHN,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1644,  was  made  prisoner, 
together  with  his  wife  and  six  children,  by  a  party  of 
French  and  Indians  in  1704.  He  was  afterwards  re 
deemed,  and  published  an  account  of  his  adventures, 
entitled  "The  Redeemed  Captive."  Died  in  1729. 

Williams,  (Rev.  JOHN,)  a  Welsh  dissenter,  born  at 
Lampeter  about  1726.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament."  Died 
in  1798. 

"Williams,  (Rev.  JOHN,)  a  Welsh  scholar  and  archae 
ologist,  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1811.  He  wrote  on 
Welsh  antiquities,  etc.  Died  in  1862. 

Williams,  (Rev.  JOHN,)  a  celebrated  English  mis 
sionary  and  dissenter,  sometimes  called  "the  Apostle  of 
Polynesia,"  was  born  at  Tottenham  in  1796.  Being  sent 
in  1816  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  the  Society 
Islands,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
Tahitian  language,  and  to  the  instruction  of  the  natives 
in  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  as  well  as  in  the  duties  of 
religion.  In  1823  he  visited  the  Hervey  Islands,  and 
discovered  Rarotonga,  an  island  of  that  group,  in  which 
he  established  a  mission.  To  convey  himself  from 
Rarotonga  to  Raiatea  and  Tahiti,  he  built  a  vessel  about 
1828,  although  he  was  destitute  of  proper  tools.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1834,  and  published  a  "Narra 
tive  of  Missionary  Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands," 
(1837.)  In  1838  he  sailed  on  another  voyage  to  the 
South  Sea,  with  many  other  missionaries.  He  was  killed 
by  the  natives  of  Erromanga,  one  of  the  New  Hebrides, 
in  November,  1839. 

See  PROUT,  "Memoirs  of  John  Williams,"  1843  ;  J.  CAMPBELL, 
"The  Martyr  of  Erromanga,"  1842. 

Williams,  (MONIER,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  born  at 
Bombay,  of  English  parentage,  in  1819.  He  studied 
in  England,  and,  having  taken  his  degree  at  University 


a,  e,T,  5,  \\,y,long;  a,  e,  6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o, obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WILLIAMS 


2277 


WILLIS 


College,  Oxford,  became  in  1844  professor  of  Sanscrit 
at  Haileybury  College,  and  in  1860  Boden  Sanscrit  pro 
fessor  at  Oxford,  as  successor  to  H.  H.  Wilson.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Practical  Grammar 
of  the  Sanscrit  Language,"  etc.,  (1846,)  an  "  English- 
ancl-Sanscrit  Dictionary,"  (1851,)  an  English  translation 
of  "Sakoontala,"  (1855,)  and  "Indian  Epic  Poetry," 
(1862.) 

See  AI.LIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Williams,  (OTHO  HOLLAND,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Maryland,  in  1748,  was 
adjutant-general  to  General  Gates  in  1780,  and  distin 
guished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Camden.  Died  in  1794. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Williams,  (ROGER,)  an  English  officer  and  writer, 
born  in  Monmouthshire.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
Flanders,  and  wrote  works  entitled  "Actions  of  the 
Low  Countries,"  and  "  Advice  from  France."  Died 
in  1595. 

See  MOTLEY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i. 

Williams,  (ROGER,)  a  Puritan  reformer,  the  founder 
of  Rhode  Island,  was  born  in  Wales  in  1606.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  became  master  of  several  ancient 
languages,  and  was  ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England.  In  1631  he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
search  of  religious  liberty,  and  preached  for  a  short  time 
at  Salem  ;  but  he  was  banished  from  the  colony  in  1635 
on  account  of  his  doctrines.  He  was  censured  by  the 
court  because  he  taught  that  magistrates  should  not 
punish  the  breach  of  the  Sabbath  or  dictate  on  the  sub 
ject  of  worship.  He  founded  the  city  of  Providence, 
(1636,)  and  there  opened  an  asylum  in  which  men  of  all 
creeds  might  enjoy  full  religious  liberty.  It  is  stated 
that  he  became  a  Baptist  in  1639,  but  that  he  soon 
began  to  doubt  the  validity  of  baptism,  and  that  he 
continued  to  ''neglect  the  ordinances  of  the  gospel." 
He  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  1643,  obtained  a 
charter  for  the  new  colony,  and  returned  in  1644.  After 
a  second  voyage  to  England,  he  was  elected  President 
of  Rhode  Island  in  1654.  He  lived  in  peace  and  amity 
with  the  Indians,  over  whom  he  acquired  much  in 
fluence.  In  1657  he  ceased  to  be  president  of  the 
colony.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise 
again.st  persecution,  (1644,)  "The  Hireling  Ministry 
none  of  Christ's,"  and  "Experiments  of  Spiritual  Life 
and  Health  and  their  Preservatives,"  (1652.)  Died  at 
Providence  in  1683. 

See  JAMES  D.  KNOWI.ES.  "  Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  1833  ;  WIL 
LIAM  GAMMEI.L.  "Life  of  Ro^er  Willi?.ms,"  1846;  ROMEO  ELTON, 
"Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  London,  1852. 

Williams,  (ROWLAND,)  a  Welsh  clergyman,  born  in 
Flintshire  about  1817.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Christianity  and  Hinduism,"  and  a  "  Review 
of  Bunsen." 

Williams,  (SAMUEL,)  LL.D.,  a  New  England  divine, 
born  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  in  1743,  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Harvard  College,  and  the  author  of  a 
"Natural  and  Civil  History  of  Vermont,"  (1794.)  Died 
in  1817. 

Williams,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  designer  and  wood- 
engraver,  born  at  Colchester  in  1788.  Among  his  best 
works  are  his  illustrations  of  Thomson's  "Seasons"  and 
of  Scrope's  "  Days  of  Salmon-Fishing."  Died  in  1853. 

Williams,  (SAMUEL  WELLS,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
philologist,  born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1812.  Having 
visited  China  in  1833,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  Chinese  language,  and  in  1841  published  "Easy 
Lessons  in  Chinese,"  followed  by  an  "  English-and- 
Chinese  Vocabulary,"  (1843.)  In  1848  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Chinese  Repository,"  at  Canton,  and  in  1856 
brought  out  his  "Tonic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Lan 
guage." 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Williams,  (SKTH,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Augusta,  Maine,  about  1822.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  served  as  adjutant-general  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862,  and  as  acting  inspector- 
general  of  the  same  in  1864  and  1865.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  in  many  actions 
in  Virginia.  Died  in  March,  1866. 


Williams,  (THOMAS,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Greensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1806.  He  settled  in  Pitts- 
burg,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1862. 
He  also  represented  the  twenty-third  district  of  Penn 
sylvania  in  Congress  for  two  subsequent  terms,  and  was 
one  of  the  managers  to  conduct  the  impeachment  of 
President  Johnson,  March,  1868. 

Williams,  (THOMAS,)  an  able  American  general, 
born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1818,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837.  He  attacked  Vicksburg  in  June, 
1862,  and  commanded  a  small  force  which  was  attacked 
by  General  Breckinridge  at  Baton  Rouge,  August  5  of 
that  year.  He  was  killed  in  this  action,  but  his  army 
gained  the  victory. 

See  TEXNEY,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  732. 

Williams,  (THOMAS  SCOTT,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1777,  was  noted 
for  his  beneficence.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1817  to  1819,  and  was  chief  justice  of  Connecticut 
from  1834  to  1847.  He  resided  at  Hartford,  where  he 
died  in  December,  1861. 

Williams,  (WILLIAM,)  an  American  patriot  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1731.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775.  Died  in  1811. 

See  SANDERSON,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,"  1848. 

"Williams  OK  KARS,  (Sir  WILLIAM  FE.NWICK,) 
K.C.B.,  a  distinguished  general,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1800.  He  was  educated  at  the  Woolwich 
Military  Academy,  in  England,  and  afterwards  served 
in  Ceylon  and  Turkey,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieuten 
ant-colonel  in  1847.  He  was  appointed  in  1854  British 
commissioner  with  the  Turkish  army  in  the  East,  and 
soon  after  was  created  a  brigadier-general,  having  his 
head-quarters  at  Kars.  In  September,  1855,  he  severely 
repulsed  the  Russian  general  Mooravief,  (Mouravieff,) 
who  had  besieged  that  city,  but,  owing  to  the  suffering 
of  his  troops  by  famine,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  in 
November  of  that  year.  After  his  return  to  England 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Calne,  was  made  a 
baronet,  and  obtained  other  distinctions.  In  1860  he 
became  commander-iii-chief  of  the  forces  in  British 
America. 

Williams,  (WILLIAM  R.,)  D.D.,an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1804.  He  published  "Mis 
cellaneous  Addresses,"  (1850,)  "Lectures  on  the  Lord's 
Praver,"  (1851,)  and  other  religious  works. 

Wiriiam-son,  (IIucn,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  at  West  Nottingham,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1735,  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Holland,  and  was 
appointed  after  his  return  a  surgeon  in  the  Revolutionary 
army.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress  from 
Edenton,  North  Carolina.  He  published  "Observations 
on  the  Climate  of  America,"  (1811,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1819. 

Wil'liam-son,  (Sir  JOSEPH,)  an  English  statesman, 
who  held  several  important  offices  under  the  govern 
ment,  and  in  1674  succeeded  Lord  Arlington  as  secretary 
of  state.  He  died  in  1701,  leaving  ^6000  and  a  large 
collection  of  manuscripts  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  had  been  educated  ;  also  a  bequest  for  founding 
a  mathematical  school  at  Rochester.  He  had  been  chosen 
in  1678  president  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Willibrod.     See  WILLED  ROD. 

Wil'lis,  (BROWNE,)  LL.D.,  an  English  archaeologist, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1682,  was  a  grandson  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Willis,  noticed  below.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  the  author  of  a  "  Survey  of 
the  Cathedrals  of  England,"  (3  vols.  410,  with  plates, 
I73v)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1760. 

"Willis,  (FRANCIS,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1720.  He  studied  at  Brazen- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1740  entered  holy  orders  ; 
but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
medicine, — particularly  menial  diseases.  He  attended 
King  George  III.  during  his  attack  of  insanity,  and 
his  successful  treatment  of  his  case  procured  for  him  a 
high  reputation.  He  founded  an  establishment  for  the 
insane  at  Greatford,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  his  labours 
were  attended  with  extraordinary  success.  His  personal 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILLIS 


227 


influence  over  his  patients  is  said  to  have  been  wonder 
ful.     Died  in  1807. 

Wil'lis,  (NATHANIEL  PARKER,)  a  distinguished 
American  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Port 
land,  Maine,  in  1807.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1827,  and  was  soon  after  employed  by  S.  C.  Goodrich, 
since  widely  known  as  Peter  Parley,  to  edit  "The  Le 
gendary"  and  "The  Token."  He  founded  in  1828  the 
"American  Monthly  Magazine,"  subsequently  merged 
in  the  "New  York  Mirror."  About  1831  he  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  as  one  of  the  attaches  of  Mr. 
Rives,  American  minister  at  Paris.  He  published  in 
England  "  Pencillings  by  the  Way,"  (1835,)  and  "Ink 
lings  of  Adventure,"  (1836,)  both  republished  in  Amer 
ica.  These  works  were  followed  by  "  Loiterings  of 
Travel,"  (1839,)  "Letters  from  under  a  Bridge,"  (1840,) 
"  Dashes  at  Lite  with  a  Free  Pencil,"  (1845,)  "  People  I 
have  met,"  (1850,)  "A  Health  Trip  to  the  Tropics," 
(1853,)  "  Eamous  Persons  and  Places,"  (1854,)  and  "  Out- 
Doors  at  Idlewild,"  (1854.)  Mr.  Willis  became  in  1846 
associated  with  G.  P.  Morris  as  editor  of  the  "  Home 
Journal,"  a  literary  periodical,  published  in  New  York. 
Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  ALI.IBONE,  " Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  DUYCKINCK,  "Cyclo 
paedia  ot'  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  GKISWOI.D,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  ot"  America;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  tor  January,  1836; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1836;  "North  American  Re 
view"  tor  October,  1836,  and  July,  1X40,  (by  C.  C.  FELTON.) 

Willis,  (ROBERT,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  experimental 
philosopher  and  mechanician,  born  in  London  in  1800, 
was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1826.  He  became  Jack- 
sonian  professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
at  Cambridge  in  1837,  and  lectured  on  dynamics,  statics, 
applied  mechanics,  etc.  He  applied  himself  to  acoustics, 
the  philosophy  of  mechanism,  the  history  and  philosophy 
of  architecture,  etc.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  Remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
of  Italy,"  (1835,)  and  "The  Principles  of  Mechanism," 
(1841.) 

Willis,  (THOMAS,)  F.R/S.,  an  eminent  English  anato 
mist  and  physician,  born  at  Great  Bedwin,  in  Wiltshire, 
in  1621,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  began  to  prac 
tise  medicine  at  Oxford  about  1646,  and  was  appointed 
professor  ot  natural  philosophy  there  in  1660.  He  pub 
lished  in  1664  an  able  work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the 
Brain,"  ("  Cerebri  Anatome,")  in  which  he  suggested  or 
affirmed  that  the  several  portions  of  the  brain  are  organs 
of  different  faculties.  In  1666  he  removed  to  London, 
and  became  physician  to  the  king.  Died  in  1675. 

See  WOOD,  "  Athens  Oxonienses  ;"  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Willisen,  von,  fon  <vil'Ie-zen,  (WILHELM,)  a  Prus 
sian  general  and  military  writer,  born  near  Magdeburg 
in  1790,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of 
1814  and  1815.  He  became  a  general  in  1835,  and 
commanded  the  army  of  Sleswick-Holstein  against 
Denmark  in  1849. 

Wil'lis-tpii,  (SAMUEL,)  a  wealthy  American  manu 
facturer,  born  at  Easthampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1793. 
He  founded  in  his  native  town  the  Williston  Seminary, 
endowed  two  professorships  at  Amherst  College,  and 
gave  large  sums  for  other  educational  and  charitable 
purposes. 

Willmar,  wil'mar  or  vel'mtn',  (JEAN  PIERRE  CHRIS 
TINE,)  BARON,  a  Belgian  general,  born  at  Luxemburg 
in  1790,  was  minister  of  war  from  1836  to  1840,  and 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Hague  in  1845.  Died 
in  1858. 

Will'more,  (JAMES  TIBIHTS,)  an  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1800.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
for  his  admirable  landscapes,  particularly  his  prints, 
after  Turner.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  The  Golden 
Bough,"  "  Ancient  Italy,"  and  "Bellini's  Picture  con 
veyed  to  the  Church  of  the  Redentore."  His  "  Harvest 
in  the  Highlands,"  after  Landseer,  and  "  Wind  against 
Tide,"  after  Stanfield,  are  also  esteemed  master-pieces. 
He  became,  in  1843,  associate  engraver  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  Died  in  1863. 

Will'rnott,  (Rev.  ROBERT  ARIS,)  of  Bearwood,  an 
English  writer  and  man  of  science,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor."  Died  in  1863. 


Wil'lock,  Wil'lox,  or  Wil'locks,  (Jonx,)  a  Scot 
tish  Protestant  reformer,  was  a  native  of  Ayrshire.  He 
was  in  England  in  1541.  Died  after  1568. 

Willot,  ve'yo',  (AMEDEK,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Saint-Gennain-en  Laye  in  1757.  He  became  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1793,  and  gained  some  successes  in  the 
north  of  Spain  in  1795.  Having  joined  the  royalist 
party,  he  was  transported  to  Guiana  in  September,  1797, 
as  an  accomplice  of  Pichegru  in  theClichian  conspiracy. 
He  returned  to  Fiance  about  1814.  Died  in  1823. 

Willoughby,  wil'lo-be,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  natu 
ralist,  born  in  1635.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  John 
Ray,  in  company  with  whom  he  afterwards  made  a  sci 
entific  tour  on  the  continent.  He  died  in  1672,  leaving 
his  valuable  works,  entitled  "  Ornithologiae  Libri  tres" 
and  "Historian  Piscium  Libri  quatuor,"  to  be  published 
by  Ray,  who  also  translated  the  former  into  English. 
His  merits  as  a  naturalist  are  highly  commended  by 
Cuvier. 

See  J.  F.  DKXHAM,  "  Memoir  of  F.  Willoughby,"  1846. 

Willoughby,  (Sir  II UGH,)  an  English  navigator,  was 
commander  of  an  expedition  fitted  out  by  the  merchants 
of  London  in  1553  for  the  purpose  of  making  dis 
coveries  in  the  Arctic  seas.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
perished,  with  nearly  all  his  company,  in  1554. 

Wills,  (Wu.i.iAM  HENRY,)  an  English  litterateur, 
born  at  Plymouth  in  1810,  became  successively  asso 
ciate  editor  of  "  Chambers's  Journal,"  "  Punch,"  the 
"  Daily  News,"  "  Household  Words,"  and  "  All  the 
Year  Round." 

Will'shire,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  general,  born 
at  Halifax,  North  America,  about  1790.  lie  served  in 
the  Afghan  war.  Died  in  1862. 

Wil'mot,  (DAVID,)  an  American  legislator,  distin 
guished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  Bethany, 
Wayne  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  January,  1814.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  practised  law  at 
Towanda.  He  began  his  political  life  as  a  Democrat, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1844.  While 
a  bill  was  pending  to  appropriate  $2,000,000  for  the 
purchase  of  a  part  of  Mexico,  in  August,  1846,  he  moved 
to  add  an  amendment,  "That,  as  an  express  and  fun 
damental  condition  to  the  acquisition  of  any  territory 
from  the  republic  of  Mexico  by  the  United  States,  .  .  . 
neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  shall  ever 
exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory."  This  amendment, 
known  as  the  "  Wilmot  Proviso,"  produced  a  great  ex 
citement,  both  in  Congress  and  in  the  country  at  large. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  but 
failed  in  the  Senate.  Mr.  Wilmot  was  re-elected  in  1846 
and  1848,  and  in  the  latter  year  supported  Martin  Van 
Buren  for  the  Presidency.  In  1851  he  was  elected 
president  judge  of  the  thirteenth  judicial  district  of 
Pennsylvania.  Having  joined  the  Republican  party, 
he  advocated  the  election  of  John  C.  Fremont  to  the 
Presidency,  in  1856.  He  was  temporary  chairman  of  the 
National  Convention  which  nominated  Mr.  Lincoln  in 
1860,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  March,  1861,  to  fill  a  vacancy  for  two  years.  Died  at 
Towanda  in  March,  1868. 

Wilmot,  (JOHN.)     See  ROCHESTER,  EARL  OF. 

Wil'mot,  (JoiiN  EARDLEY,)  an  English  jurist,  born 
at  Derby  in  1709,  rose  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas  in  1776,  and  published  a  work  entitled  "Notes  of 
Opinions."  Died  in  1792. 

Wilmot,  (JOHN  EARDLEY,)  a  lawyer,  born  at  Derby 
in  1748,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Laws  and  Customs  of  England,"  and 
"Memoirs  of  his  Father."  Died  in  1815. 

Wilmsen,  vvil'm'zen,  (FKIEDRICH  PHILIPP,)  a  Ger 
man  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1770.  He  published 
the  "Deutscher  Kinderfreund,"  "Manual  of  Natural 
History,"  and  other  educational  works.  Died  in  1831. 

Wif'spii,  (ALEXANDER,)  a  distinguished  ornithologist, 
born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1766.  He  emigrated  in 
1794  to  America,  where  he  employed  himself  for  a  time 
at  his  trade  of  weaving,  and  subsequently  taught  a  school 
at  Kingsessing,  Pennsylvania.  Having  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  birds  from  W7illiam  Bartram  the  naturalist, 
he  resolved  to  make  a  collection  of  American  birds,  and 


a,e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WILSON 


2279 


WILSON 


in  1804  set  out  on  a  pedestrian  tour  through  Western 
New  York,  then  a  wilderness.  He  gave  a  lively  and 
graphic  account  of  this  excursion,  in  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Foresters."  He  brought  out  in  1808  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Ornithology," and  in  1813  had  completed 
seven  volumes.  For  this  admirable  work  he  had  himself 
drawn  with  great  care  and  exactness  the  pictures  of  the 
birds  from  original  specimens;  and  his  publication  may 
be  said  to  mark  an  era  in  ornithological  science.  It 
was,  in  fact,  the  pioneer  of  the  magnificent  works  of 
Charles  Bonaparte  and  Audubon,  which  have  left  nothing 
to  be  desiiecl  in  this  department  of  ornithology.  Wilson 
died  in  1813,  worn  out  with  his  excessive  labour  in  pre 
paring  his  work  for  publication.  Two  more  volumes 
ueie  edited  after  his  death,  and  a  continuation  by  C.  L. 
Bonaparte  came  out  in  1833,  (4  vols.  410.) 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June  and  August,  1826  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  tor  January,  1827  ;  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopedia 
of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  ALLIHONK,  "Dictionary  of  Au 
thors." 

Wil'spn,  (Sir  ARCHDALE,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  1803.  He  was  chief  in  command  at  the  siege  of 
Delhi,  which  he  took  from  the  mutineers  in  September, 
1857.  For  this  service  he  was  made  a  baronet. 

Wilson,  (ARTHUR,)  an  English  writer,  was  secre 
tary  to  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  "Life  and  Reign  of  James  I."  Died  in  1642. 

Wilson,  (DANIEL,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
London  in  1778.  He  studied  at  Saint  Edmund's  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Calcutta  and  metropolitan  of  India  in  1832. 
He  published  "Sermons  on  Christian  Doctrine,"  (1818,) 
"  Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (2  vols., 
1828-30,)  "The  Christian's  Struggle  against  Sin  and 
Death,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  Calcutta  in  1858. 

See  the  "Life  of  Daniel  Wilson,"  by  the  REV.  JOSIAH  BATE- 
MAN,  1860. 

Wil'spn,  (DANIEL,)  a  Scottish  writer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1816.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Archaeology  and  Prehistoric  Annals  of 
Scotland,"  (1851,)  and  "Prehistoric  Man:  Researches 
into  the  Origin  of  Civilization  in  the  Old  and  the  New 
World,"  (2  vols.,  1863.)  He  became  professor  of  history 
at  Toronto,  in  Canada,  about  1853. 

Wilson,  (ERASMUS,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  about 
1808.  He  practised  in  London,  and  published  a  "  Sys 
tem  of  Human  Anatomy,"  (1842.)  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  other  professional  works. 

Wilson,  (FLORENCE,)  [Lat.  FLOREN'TIUS  VOLUSE'- 
M's,]  a  Scottish  philosopher  and  scholar,  born  in  the 
county  of  Moray,  studied  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  be 
came  teacher  of  a  grammar-school  at  Carpentras.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  Dialogue  on  Tranquillity  of 
Mind,"  ("  De  Animi  Tranquillitate  Dialogus.")  Died 
in  1547. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wilson,  (GEORGE,)  a  Scottish  chemist  and  physician, 
a  brother  of  Daniel,  noticed  above,  was  bom  at  Edin 
burgh  in  1818.  He  was  successively  appointed  chemical 
lecturer  in  the  School  of  Arts,  director  of  the  Industrial 
Museum  of  Scotland,  and  regius  professor  of  technology 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  (1855.)  He  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  an  "Elementary  Treatise 
on  Chemistry,"  (1850,)  "Researches  on  Colour-Blind 
ness,"  (1855,)  and  "The  Five  Gateways  of  Knowledge," 
(1856.)  Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  George  Wilson,"  by  his  sister,  JESSIE  A.  WIL 
SON,  1860;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1860. 

Wilson,  (HENRY,)  an  English  mariner,  was  captain 
of  a  vessel  which  was  wrecked  on  one  of  the  Pelew 
Islands  in  1783.  He  was  kindly  treated  by  the  chief 
of  the  island,  Abba  Thulle,  whose  son  Le  Boo  went  to 
England  with  Wilson.  Died  in  1810. 

Wilson,  (HENRY,)  a  distinguished  American  Senator, 
born  at  Farmington,  New  Hampshire,  February  16, 
1812,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents.  His  education  was 
very  defective.  After  he  had  worked  on  a  farm  many 
years,  he  removed  to  Natick,  Massachusetts,  about  1832, 
and  learned  the  trade  of  shoemaker.  In  1840  he  was 
elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachu 
setts  by  the  Whigs.  He  afterwards  served  four  years  it 


the  Massachusetts  Senate,  of  which  he  was  twice  elected 
^resident,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  zealous  and 
resolute  opponent  ot  slavery.  He  took  a  prominent 
jart  in  the  organization  of  the  Free-Soil  party  in  1848, 
and  in  that  year  began  to  edit  the  "Boston  Republican." 
[ie  was  president  ol  the  Free-Soil  National  Convention 
it  Pittsburg  in  1852,  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1853,  and  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate 
"or  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1853  and  1854.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  to 
ucceed  Edward  Everett.  He  advocated  the  repeal  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  became  in  1855  one  of 
he  leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  then  just  organized, 
[n  May,  1856,  he  was  challenged  by  Preston  S.  Brooks 
because  he  denounced  his  assault  on  Mr.  Sunnier  as 
'murderous,  brutal,  and  cowardly."  He  declined  to 
accept  the  challenge,  on  the  ground  that  duelling  was 
Forbidden  by  the  laws  of  his  country  ;  at  the  same  time 
lie  notified  his  challenger  that,  if  attacked,  his  conscien 
tious  scruples  would  not  prevent  him  from  defending 
nimself.  lie  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  about  January,  1859,  and  in  March  of  that  year 
made  a  speech  in  defence  of  free  labour,  which  attracted 
much  attention.  He  rendered  great  service  to  the 
country  during  the  civil  war,  as  chairman  of  the  com 
mittee  on  military  affairs.  General  Scott  declared  that 
lie  performed  in  one  session  more  work  than  all  the 
chairmen  of  the  military  committees  had  done  in  twenty 
years.  In  1861  he  raised  a  regiment,  and  received  a 
commission  as  colonel  ;  but  his  duties  in  the  Senate 
prevented  him  from  remaining  long  in  the  field.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  bill  by  which  slavery  was  abolished  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  April,  1862.  During  the  civil 
war  he  introduced  many  important  measures  to  organize 
and  develop  the  military  resources  of  the  nation,  and 
delivered  about  one  hundred  speeches  at  various  places 
in  support  of  the  cause  of  liberty  and  union.  "No 
public  man,"  says  Headley,  "ever  brought  to  the  high 
duties  of  a  great  occasion  more  sympathy  for  the  toiling 
and  the  oppressed,  or  more  faith  in  the  people  and  the 
democratic  institutions  of  his  country."  He  was  again 
elected  to  the  Senate  for  six  years,  1865-71. 

See   P.  C.   HEADLEY,   "  Massachusetts  in   the    Rebellion,"    pp. 

-56. 

Wilson,  (HORACE  HAYMAN,)  an  eminent  English 
Orientalist,  born  in  London  in  1786.  He  studied  medi 
cine,  and  went  to  Benga]  as  a  surgeon  in  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company  about  1808.  Having  learned 
Sanscrit,  he  published  in  1819  a  valuable  "  Sanscrit  Dic 
tionary."  He  translated  several  ancient  Sanscrit  dramas 
into  English,  (3  vols.,  1826-27,)  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  an  Orientalist.  In  1833  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  Sanscrit  at  Oxford.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"History  of  Cashmere,"  printed  in  the  "Asiatic  Re 
searches,"  (1825,)  "Ancient  Ariana,"  ("  Ariana  Antiqua," 
1841,)  a  "History  of  British  India  from  1805  to  1835," 
(2  vols.,  1846,)  and  a  translation  of  the  "  Rigveda,"  (vol. 
i.,  1850.)  Died  in  May,  1860. 

See  ALLIBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1845. 

Wilson,  (JAMES,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence,  was  born  near  Saint  Andrew's, 
Scotland,  in  1742.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
and  was  elected  in  1775  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  Washington  one  of  the 
first  judges  of  the  United  States  supreme  court.  Died 
in  1798. 

See  SANDERSON,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Wilson,  (JAMES,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  scientific 
writer  of  great  merit,  born  at  Paisley  in  1795,  was  a 
brother  of  Professor  John  Wilson,  noticed  below.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  A  Voyage  round  the  Coasts  of 
Scotland  and  the  Isles,"  and  contributed  to  the  "  En 
cyclopaedia  Britannica"  the  articles  on  natural  history. 
Died  in  1856. 

See  "Memoirs  of  James  Wilson,"  by  JAMES  HAMILTON,  1859; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1828. 

Wilson,  (JAMES,)  a  journalist  and  statesman,  born  in 
Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1805.  He  became  in  1843 


<2  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23.) 


WILSON 


2280 


WILSON 


editor  of  "The  Economist,"  an  organ  of  free  trade,  was 
chosen  to  represent  Westbury  in  Parliament  in  1847, 
was  re-elected  in  1852,  and  was  soon  after  appointee 
financial  secretary  to  the  treasury.  He  wrote  a  treat 
ise  "On  the  Influences  of  the  Corn-Laws  as  affecting 
all  Classes  of  the  Community,"  etc.,  (1839,)  and  "  Fluc 
tuations  of  Currency,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures, 
referable  to  the  Corn-Laws,"  (1840.)  Died  in  1860. 

Wilson,  (JAMES  F.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Newark,  Ohio,  in  1828,  removed  to  Iowa  about  1853. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  Iowa  in  1859,  and  was 
chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1861.  He  representec 
the  first  district  of  Iowa  in  three  subsequent  terms, 
(1863-69,)  and  served  as  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  the  judiciary.  He  was  elected  one  of  the  manager: 
to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  it 
March,  1868. 

Wilson,  (JAMES  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Illinois,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1860.  He  com 
manded  a  corps  of  cavalry  at  the  great  battle  of  Nash 
ville,  December  15  and  16,  1864,  before  which  event  he 
had  served  under  General  Grant  in  Mississippi,  and 
under  Sheridan  in  Virginia.  In  March,  1865,  he  led  an 
army  of  about  15,000  men,  mostly  cavalry,  on  an  expe 
dition  against  Alabama,  which  he  entered  from  the  north. 
He  defeated  General  Forrest,  and  captured  Selma, 
Montgomery,  Columbus,  and  Macon,  in  April,  1865. 
Jefferson  Davis  was  taken  prisoner  by  a  detachment 
of  his  men.  He  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
regular  army  in  1866. 

Wilson,  (JoHN,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Windsor  in  1588.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
1629,  and  was  the  first  minister  of  Boston.  Died  in  1667. 
Wilson,  (JoHN,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  Kent  in  1594,  was  celebrated  for  his  perform 
ance  on  the  lute,  and  was  a  great  favourite  of 'Charles  I. 
He  became  professor  of  music  at  Oxford  in  1656,  and 
after  the  restoration  was  patronized  by  Charles  II. 
Died  in  1673. 

Wilson,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1782.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14.) 
Died  in  1856. 

Wilson,  (JOHN,)  otherwise  known  as  CHRISTOPHER 
NORTH,  a  celebrated  Scottish  writer,  critic,  and  poet, 
was  born  at  Paisley  on  the  igth  of  May,  1785.  His 
lather  was  a  manufacturer.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  which  he  entered  about  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
gained  distinction  as  a  scholar  and  as  an  athlete.  He 
won  the  Newcligate  prize  for  English  poetry,  and  ex 
celled  in  the  knowledge  of  Greek.  He  was  remarkable 
for  physical  strength,  beauty,  and  agility.  He  graduated 
as  B.  A.  in  1807.  Having  inherited  an  easy  fortune,  (about 
£30,000,)  he  purchased  a  beautiful  place,  called  Elleray, 
which  is  situated  on  Lake  Windermere.  Here  he  enjoyed 
the  society  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Southey.'  In 
1810  or  1811  he  married  an  English  lady  named  Jane 
Penny.  He  published  in  1812  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Isle  of  Palms."  About  1815  he  lost  part  of  his  fortune, 
which  had  been  unsafely  invested,  and,  having  adopted 
the  profession  of  law,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh.  He 
produced  in  1816  "The  City  of  the  Plague,"  a  poem. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  contributors  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  which  was  founded  in  1817,  ancl  derived  its 
popularity  chiefly  from  the  brilliant  articles  which  he 
continued  to  furnish  for  many  years  under  the  name  of 
"  Christopher  North." 

Commenting  on  "The  City  of  the  Plague,"  the  "Edin 
burgh  Review"  for  June,  1816,  says,  "  We  take  our 
leave  of  it  with  unfeigned  regret  and  very  sincere  ad 
miration  of  the  author's  talents.  He  has,  undoubtedly, 
the  heart  and  fancy  of  a  poet,  and,  with  these  great 
requisites,  is  almost  sure  of  attaining  the  higher  honours 
of  his  art,  if  he  continues  to  cultivate  it  with  the  docility 
and  diligence  of  which  he  has  already  given  proof." 

In  1820,  Wilson  and  Sir  William  Hamilton  were 
competitors  for  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  which  the  former  obtained. 
His  success  is  attributed  partly  to  his  political  principles, 
which  were  Tory.  His  lectures  are  said  to  have  been 
attractive  as  well  as  suggestive.  He  published  a  series 


of  tales  in  prose,  entitled  "  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
Scottish  Life,"  (1822,)  and  "The  Foresters,"  which 
were  highly  popular.  Among  his  most  celebrated  pro 
ductions  are  the  "  Noctes  Ambrosianae,"  contributed  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  between  1822  and  1835,  and 
consisting  of  familiar  dialogues  on  men,  books,  and  the 
principal  topics  of  the  clay.  "They  contain,"  says  R. 
Caruthers,  "passages  of  'admirable  fooling,'  shrewd 
observation,  description,  and  criticism.  .  .  .  There  was 
originality  with  fervour  and  boldness  in  all  he  wrote.  It 
was  mixed  with  baser  matter,  in  the  shape  of  invitations 
fo  coarse  jollity,  ancl  fierce  political  and  personal  satire; 
but  the  frank,  genial,  literary  spirit  predominated." 
("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  In  1842  he  published  a 
selection  of  his  contributions  to  "  Blackwood's  Maga 
zine,"  under  the  title  of  "  Recreations  of  Christopher 
North."  He  continued  to  occupy  the  chair  of  moral 
philosophy  for  thirty  years  or  more.  He  died  in  Edin 
burgh  in  April,  1854. 

See  a  "Life  of  John  Wilson,"  by  MRS.  GORDON,  his  daughter, 
1862;  LORD  JKFFRKV,  critique  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
February,  1812,  vol.  xix. ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843, 
vol.  Ixxvii.  ;  CHAMIIEKS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots 
men,"  (Supplement;)  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1863;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1854,  and  December, 
1862;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1855;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1863;  "North  British  Review"  for  February 
1863. 

Wilson,  (RICHARD,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Montgomeryshire  in  1713.  He  devoted 
himself  at  first  to  portrait-painting;  but,  having  visited 
Rome,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Joseph 
Vernet  and  other  celebrated  artists,  he  was  induced  to 
relinquish  that  branch  of  the  art  for  landscape-painting. 
Having  spent  six  years  in  Italy,  where  he  executed 
several  admirable  works,  he  returned  in  1755  to  London. 
He  exhibited  in  1760  a  celebrated  picture  of  the  "De 
struction  of  Niobe's  Children."  He  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Villa  of  Maecenas  at  Tivoli,"  a  "View 
of  Baias,"  "  The  Temple  of  Bacchus  near  Rome,"  "  Car 
narvon  Castle,"  and  "Pembroke  Castle."  Died  in  1782. 

See  THOMAS  WRIGHT,  "Account  of  the  Life  of  R.  Wilson," 
1824  ;  CHARI.KS  BLANC,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Wilson,  (Sir  ROHEKT  THOMAS,)  an  English  general 
and  military  writer,  born  in  1777.  He  served  in  Flanders 
and  Holland,  and  subsequently  under  Sir  Arthur  Wel- 
lesley  in  Spain.  In  1816  he  aided  Lavallette  to  escape 
from  Paris.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  South- 
wark  in  1818.  In  1841  he  was  made  a  general,  and  in 
1842  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  Gibraltar. 
He  published  an  "Historical  Account  of  the  British 
Expedition  to  Egypt,"  (1802,)  a  "Narrative  of  Events 
which  occurred  in  1812  during  the  Invasion  of  Russia," 
(1860,)  ancl  other  works.  Died  in  1849. 

Wilson,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  left  his  country  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
was  arrested  at  Rome,  and  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
the  Inquisition.  After  his  return  to  England  he  became 
private  secretary  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Netherlands  in  1576.  He  was  appointed 
in  1577  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  He  wrote  two 
critical  works  of  great  merit,  entitled  "The  Rule  of 
Reason,  containing  the  Art  of  Logic,"  (1551,)  and  "The 
Art  of  Rhetoric,"  (1553.)  Died  m  1581. 

Wilson,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Kent.  He  preached  at  Canterbury,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Complete  Christian  Dictionary." 
Died  in  1621. 

Wilson,  (THOMAS,)  a  pious  English  theologian,  born 
at  Burton,  in  Cheshire,  in  1663.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Sodor  and  Man  in  1697,  and  many  years  later  declined 
the  more  lucrative  place  of  Bishop  of  Exeter,  which  the 
king  offered  him.  He  published  "  Religious  Tracts"  and 
Sermons.  Died  in  1755. 

See  CRUTWBM,,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Wilson,"  I78o;  HUGH  STOW- 
ELL,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Wilson,"  1819. 

Wilson,  (THOMAS,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
n  1703.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Ornaments 
of  Churches  Considered."  Died  in  1784. 

Wilson,  (WILLIAM  DEXTER,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Stoddard,  New  Hampshire, 


a,  e,  i 


5,  f,,  y,  long;  a,  e,  f>,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  ^obscurt;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  m£t;  not;  gcjod;  moon; 


WILSON 


2281 


WIKDHAM 


in  1816.  He  became  in  1850  professor  of  history  and 
of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  at  Geneva  Col 
lege,  New  York.  He  has  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Reformation  in  England,"  and  other  works. 

Wilson,  (WILLIAM  RAK,)  a  British  traveller,  born  at 
Paisley  about  1773.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,"  and  "  Travels  in  Russia." 
Died  in  1849. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Wil'ton,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  sculptor,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  Academy,  was  born  in  London 
in  1722.  He  studied  in  Paris  and  at  Rome,  svhere  he 
resided  many  years.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
monument  to  General  Wolfe,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  busts  of  Newton,  Bacon,  Chatham,  and  Swift.  Died 
in  1803. 

See  ALLAN  CUNNINGHAM,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects." 

Wimpfeling,  wimp'feh-ling',  or  Wimpheliiig,  [Lat. 
WIMPHKLIN'GIUS,]  (JAKOB,)  an  eminent  German  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Alsace  in  1450.    He  became  a  priest, 
preached  for  some  time  at  Spire,  and  afterwards  lived 
at  Strasburg,  Bale,  and  other  towns.    It  appears  that  he 
never  remained  long  at  one  place.     He  wrote  many  and  ! 
various  works,  among  which  are  "  Youth,"   ("  Adoles-  ! 
centia,"  1492,)  and  one  "On  Integrity,"  ("  De  Integri- 
tate,"  1505.)     Died  in  1528. 

See  NicEKON",  "Memoires;"  SCHWALB,  "Notice  sur  Wimphe- 
ling,"  '85.. 

Wimpffen,  von,  fon  wlmp'fen,  (FRANZ  EMIL  Lo-  j 
RENZ  HERMANN,)  a  German  military  commander,  born 
at  Prague  in  1797,  served  against  the  French  in  the 
campaigns  of  1813-14,  and  in  the  revolution  of  1848. 
He  was  made  feldzeugmeister  (master  of  ordnance)  in 
1849,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Trieste. 

Wimpffen-Berneburg,  wlmp'fen  beR'neh-booRG', 
(FKLix,)  KARON,  a  distinguished  general,  born  at  Zwei- 
briicken,  (Deux-Ponts,)  in  Germany,  in  1745.  Having 
entered  the  French  service,  he  fought  in  1769  against 
Paoli  in  Corsica,  and  in  1789  was  a  deputy  from  Nor 
mandy  to  the  States-General.  He  defended  Thionville 
against  the  Prussians  in  1792;  but  he  was  afterwards 
defeated  by  the  royalists  near  Vernon,  and  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  England.  He  was  made  a  general  of 
division  by  Napoleon  in  1799.  Died  in  1814. 

Wimpffen-Berneburg,  (FRANZ  LUDWTG,)  BARON, 
born  at  Zweibrucken  (Deux-Ponts)  in  1732,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  French  army  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  rose  to  be  a  general  of  division.  He  published 
"Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  (1788.)  Died  in  1800. 

Wimpina,  wim'pe-na,  (Co.NRAD,)  was  born  in  Fran- 
conia,  in  Germany,  in  1460.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  about  1506.  In  1530 
he  was  one  of  three  Catholic  theologians  appointed  to 
dispute  with  the  Lutherans  at  Augsburg.  Died  in  1531. 

Winch'ell,  (|AMES  MANNING,)  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1791, 
became  in  1814  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in 
Boston.  He  published  a  compilation  of  psalms  and 
hymns,  and  several  original  works.  Died  in  1820. 

Win'ches-ter,  (£LHANAN,)  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1751,  was  originally  a 
Baptist,  but  was  afterwards  converted  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Restorationists.  He  published  "Four  Dialogues 
on  Universal  Restoration,"  and  numerous  other  theo 
logical  works.  Died  in  1797. 

.  See  VIULER,  "Life  of  E.  Winchester;"  E.  M.  STONE,  "Life  of 
E.  Winchester,"  1836. 

Win'ches-ter,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  writer  on 
theology,  born  in  Berkshire.  He  became  rector  of  Ap- 
pleton  in  1761.  Died  in  1780. 

Winckell,  wlnk'kel,  (GEORG  FRANZ  DIETRICH,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  1762,  published  a  "Manual  for 
Sportsmen  and  Amateurs,"  (1820.)  Died  in  1839. 

Winckelmann,  wink'el-man,  [Ger.  pron.  <vink'kel- 
man',]  (JoHANN  JOACHIM,)  an  eminent  German  critic 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Stendal,  in  Prussia,  in 
1717.  His  father  was  a  poor  mechanic,  unable  to  afford 
him  any  opportunities  of  instruction  ;  but  his  eager  de 
sire  for  knowledge  procured  for  him  the  friendship  and 


patronage  of  several  gentlemen  of  rank  and  fortune, 
and  in  1738  he  entered  the  University  of  Halle.  He 
became  in  1748  private  librarian  to  Count  Biinau,  near 
Dresden.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Archinto, 
the  pope's  nuncio,  who  offered  him  a  situation  at  Rome 
on  condition  of  his  becoming  a  Catholic.  He  accepted 
this  offer,  after  some  hesitation,  and  in  1755  set  out  for 
Rome,  having  previously  published  his  "  Reflections 
upon  the  Imitation  of  the  Antique."  He  soon  acquired 
the  friendship  of  the  principal  artists  and  literati  of 
Rome,  particularly  of  Raphael  Mengs,  whose  counsels 
exercised  great  influence  over  him.  He  was  appointed 
in  1759,  by  Cardinal  Albani,  librarian  and  keeper  of  his 
gallery  of  antiquities,  and  became  in  1763  antiquary  of 
the  apostolic  chamber.  His  great  work  entitled  "  His 
tory  of  Ancient  Art"  ("Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Alter- 
thums")  came  out  in  1764,  and  was  soon  followed  by  his 
"  Account  of  the  Latest  Discoveries  at  Herculaneum." 
In  June,  1768,  while  returning  from  a  visit  to  Vienna, 
— where  he  had  been  received  with  great  distinction, — 
he  was  assassinated  at  Trieste  by  Arcangeli,  an  Italian, 
who  had  gained  his  confidence,  and  whose  cupidity  was 
excited  by  some  gold  coins  which  Winckelmann  had 
shown  him. 

See  C.  G.  HEYNE,  "  Lobschrift  auf  Winckelmann,"  1778; 
GOETHE,  ''Winckelmann  und  sein  Jahrhundert,"  1805;  MORGEN- 
STERN,  "J.  Winckelmann:  Rede,"  1805;  D.  DE  ROSSETTI,  "  J.  J. 
Winckelmann's  letzte  Lebensepoche, "  iSiS;  OTTO  JAHN,  "  J.  J. 
Winckelmann;  eine  Rede,"  1^44;  C.  PETERSEN,  "  Erinnerung  an 
J.  J.  Winckelmann's  Einfluss,"  etc.,  1842;  MADAME  DE  STAE'L, 
"Germany;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Wiackelmann,  QOHANN  JUSTUS,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  at  Giessen  in  1620.  He  published  several 
works  in  Latin.  Died  in  1697. 

Winckler,  wlnk'ler,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1703,  became 
professor  of  physics  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Thoughts 
on  the  Properties  and  Effects  of  Electricity,"  and  other 
similar  works.  Franklin  is  supposed  to  have  been  bene 
fited  by  his  suggestions.  Died  in  1770. 

Wm'der,  (\VILLIAM  H.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
officer,  born  in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  in  1775, 
served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  in  1814.  Died  in  1824. 

Windham,  wlnd'am,  (CHARLES  ASH,)  an  English 
general,  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  1810,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  1855  suc 
ceeded  General  Barnard  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the 
Eastern  army.  He  was  made  commander  of  the  Bath 
the  same  year.  In  1857  he  fought  against  the  mutineers 
in  India.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
celebrated  William  Windham.  Died  in  1870. 

Windham,  (JOSEPH,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Twickenham  in  1739.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Observa 
tions  on  a  Passage  in  Pliny's  Natural  History  relative 
to  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,"  and  wrote  the 
principal  part  of  the  "  Ionian  Antiquities."  Died  in  1810. 

Windham,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  orator 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  May,  1750,  was  the 
only  son  of  Colonel  William  Windham,  of  Norfolk. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton,  Glasgow,  and  University 
College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  in  1771.  In  1778  he 
censured  the  policy  of  the  government  on  the  subject 
of  the  American  war,  in  a  public  speech.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  Norwich  in  1783,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings.  He  began  public  life  as  a  Whig 
and  political  friend  and  follower  of  Burke,  to  whom  he 
adhered  after  the  Whig  party  had  been  divided  by  the 
issues  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1790  he  was  again 
elected  a  member  for  Norwich.  He  was  secretary  at 
war  in  the  cabinet  of  Pitt  from  1794  until  1801,  and  he 
then  resigned  with  his  colleagues.  About  1798  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Forrest.  He  made  a 
celebrated  speech  against  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802, 
and  moved  an  address  to  the  king,  which  was  rejected. 
He  opposed  the  administration  of  Addington  and  that 
of  Pitt,  (1804-06.)  On  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  Lord 
Grenville  and  Fox  came  into  power  at  the  head  of  the 
"ministry  of  all  the  talents,"  in  which  Mr.  Windham 
was  secretary  at  war  and  for  the  colonies.  He  procured 
the  passage  of  acts  to  increase  the  pay  and  pensions  of 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WINDHEIM 


2282 


WINS  LOW 


soldiers  and  to  limit  their  term  of  service.  He  and  his 
colleagues  ceased  to  hold  office  in  March,  1807.  He  was 
regarded  as  the  model  of  an  English  gentleman.  Died 
in  |une,  1810.  Respecting  his  style  of  speaking,  Lord 
Brougham  says,  "  It  was  in  the  easy  tone  of  familiar 
conversation  ;  but  it  was  full  of  nice  observation  and 
profound  remark  ;  it  was  instinct  with  classical  allusion  ; 
it  was  even  over-informed  with  philosophic  and  with 
learned  reflection  ;  it  sparkled  with  the  finest  wit." 

See  BROUGHAM,  ''Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III  ."  vol. 
ii  :  THOMAS  AMYOT,  "Life  of  Windhnm  :"  "  Diarv  of  William 
Wimlham."  1X66;  E.  MAI.ONE,  "  Biographical  Memoir  of  William 
Windham,"  1810;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February.  1811. 

Windheim,  wint'hlm,  (CHRISTIAN  ERNST,)  a  Ger 
man  philosopher  and  writer,  born  at  Wernigerocle  in 
1722.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Er- 
langen.  Died  in  1766. 

Windisch,  win'dish,  (KARL  GOTTLIEB,)  a  Hungarian 
historian,  born  at  Presburg  in  1725.  I  Ie  wrote  on  the 
history  and  geography  of  Hungary.  Died  in  1793. 

Windischgratz,  win'dish -gfats',  (  ALERKD  /.IT,) 
PRINCE,  a  distinguished  field-marshal,  born  at  Brussels 
in  1787.  Having  entered  the  Austrian  army,  he  served 
in  the  campaign  of  1814,  and  was  made  general  of  di 
vision  in  1833.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  defeated 
the  Hungarian  insurgents,  and  took  Vienna  by  storm, 
(October  31.)  He  afterwards  led  a  large  army  into 
Hungary,  where  he  remained  inactive,  and  was  censured 
for  hesitation  or  dilatory  conduct.  He  was  removed  in 
April,  1849.  Died  in  1862. 

Windischmami,  win' dish -man',  (KARL  JOSEPH 
HIEKONYMUS,)  a  German  physician  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Mentz  in  1775.  He  became  Catholic  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and  published  a  number 
of  treatises  on  medicine  and  animal  magnetism,  also 
"  Philosophy  in  the  Progress  of  the  History  of  the 
World,"  (1827-34,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1839.  His  son  FRIEDRICH  has  published  several  works 
on  theology  and  Oriental  literature. 

Wine'breii-ner,  ([OHN,)  founder  of  a  sect  called  by 
his  name,  became  in  1821  pastor  of  a  German  Reformed 
church  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.  He  afterwards 
founded  a  religious  society,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  the  "Church  of  God."  Among  its  tenets  are  oppo 
sition  to  slave.rv  and  to  the  use  of  ardent  spirits. 

Winer,  wee'ner,  (GKORG  BENEDICT,)  a  German  Prot 
estant  theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1789.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
and  in  1823  became  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen. 
In  1832  he  filled  the  same  chair  at  Leipsic.  lie 
published  a  "  Biblical  Dictionary,"  ("  Biblische  Real- 
worterbuch,"  1820,)  "Greek  Testament  Grammar," 
("Grammatik  des  Neutestamentlichen  Sprachidioms," 
1822,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard  work,  and 
"Chaldean  Reader,"  (1825,)  also  a  "  Manual  of  Theo 
logical  Literature,  principally  that  of  Protestant  Ger 
many,"  (1825,)  and  other  critical  and  theological  essays 
of  great  merit.  Died  in  1858. 

See  the  "  Westminster  Review''  for  December.  1845,  article 
"German  Theology;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Wines,  (ENOCH  COBB,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Hanover,  New  Jersey, 
in  1806,  became  professor  of  languages  in  the  Central 
High  School  of  Philadelphia  in  1838.  He  published 
"Hints  on  a  System  of  Popular  Education,"  (1837,) 
"Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews," 
(1852,)  and  other  works. 

Wing,  (ViNCEST.)  an  English  astronomer,  was  the 
author  of  "Harmonicon  Celeste,  or  the  Harmony  of 
the  Visible  World,"  (1651,)  "  Astronomia  Britannica," 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1668. 

Win'gate,  (EDMUND,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
statesman,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1593.  He  studied  law, 
and  subsequently  resided  for  a  time  in  France,  where 
he  instructed  the  Princess  Henrietta  Maria  in  English. 
After  his  return  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the 
county  of  Bedford.  He  was  the  author  of  "Natural 
and  Artificial  Arithmetic,"  "  Ludus  Mathematicus,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1656. 

Winghen,  van,  vitn  wing'gen  or  wing'nen,  (  JOSEPH,) 
a  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1544; 
died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1603. 


Winkelried,  von.    See  ARNOLD  VON  WINKKI.RIED. 

Winkler,  wlnk'ler,  (KARL  GOTTFRIED  THEODOR,)  a 
German  litterateur,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of 
THEODOR  HELL,  born  in  1775.  ^e  was  tne  author  of  a 
number  of  poems  and  dramatic  works,  and  made  trans 
lations  from  the  French,  English,  and  Portuguese.  Died 
in  1856. 

Win 'ram,  (JoHN,)  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  was  sub- 
prior  of  the  monastery  of  Saint  Andrew's.  He  afterwards 
professed  the  Reformed  religion.  Died  in  1582. 

See  CHAM  HICKS.  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Winsem,  win'sem,  or  Winsemius,  win-sa'me-us, 
(MENELNUS,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Lccuwarden 
about  1500.  lie  was  professor  of  medicine  and  botany 
at  Franeker.  Died  in  1639. 

Winseni  or  Winsemius,  (PIETER,)  a  historian  and 
poet,  born  at  Leeu warden  about  1586,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of 
the  Netherlands  in  the  Reign  of  Philip  II.,"  (2  vols., 
1629-33,)  which  was  esteemed  by  the  Protestants;  also 
other  works.  Died  in  1644. 

Winsemius.     See  -W i  NSEM. 

WIus'low,  (EDWARD,)  born  in  Worcestershire,  Eng- 

I  land,  in  1595,  came  in  the  Mayflower  to  New  England 

i  in  1620.      He  was  elected  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony 

'  in  1633,  1636,  and  1644.    He  was  the  author  of  "  A  Brief 

i  Narrative  of  the  True   Grounds  or  Cause  of  the   First 

Planting  of  New  England,"  "  Hypocrisie  Unmasked," 

and  other  works.      Died  at  sea  in  1655. 

Winslow,  (FoRiiKs,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1810.  lie  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1835,  and  president  of  the  Lon 
don  Medical  Society  in  1853.  In  1848  he  became  editor 
of  the  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Psychological  Medicine  and 
Mental  Pathology."  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Manual  of  Osteology,"  "  Anatomv  of  Suicide,"  (1840,) 
and  "On  Obscure  Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Disorders 
of  the  Mind,"  (1860.) 

Wms'low,  (HuHHARD,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre 
gational  divine,  born  at  Williston,  Vermont,  in  1800. 
He  published  "Christianity  applied  to  our  Civil  and 
Social  Relations,"  (1835,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1864. 

Winslow,  vlns'lo,  (JAKOB  BENIG'NUS,)  an  emi 
nent  anatomist  and  physician,  born  at  Odense,  in  the 
island  of  Fiinen,  in  1669.  He  studied  in  Holland,  and 
subsequently  in  Paris  under  Duverney.  He  soon  after 
entered  the  Catholic  Church,  having  been  converted 
by  the  eloquence  and  the  arguments  of  Bossuct.  In 
1743  he  succeeded  Hunault  as  professor  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  in  Paris.  His 
"  Anatomical  Exposition  of  the  Structure  of  the  Human 
Body"  (in  French,  1732)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work, 

and  has  been  translated  into  several  languages.     Died 

,  °     ° 

in  1760. 

See  KRAFT  og  NYKRUP,  "  Litteraturlexion  ;"  "Biographic 
Medicale." 

Winslow,  (JoHN  A.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
descended  from  a  brother  of  Governor  Edward  Wins- 
low,  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Wilmington,  North 
Carolina,  in  1811.  He  entered  the  n  ivy  about  1827, 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1839,  and  commander  in  1855. 
In  1862  he  served  under  Captain  Fo  >te  on  the  Mis 
sissippi  River.  He  obtained  command  of  the  steamer 
Kearsarge,  of  seven  guns,  and  was  ordered  to  the  coast 
of  Europe,  to  watch  rebel  cruisers,  in  the  early  part  of 
1863.  On  the  igth  of  June,  1864,  he  met  the  Alabama, 
Captain  Semmes,  near  Cherbourg.  When  the  vessels 
were  about  one  mile  apart,  the  Alabama  began  to  fire 
rapidly  and  wildly,  but  the  guns  of  the  Kearsarge  were 
directed  with  coolness  and  precision.  "The  two  ves 
sels,"  says  Headley,  "were  now  steaming  at  the  rate  of 
seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour, — and  every  few  minutes 
sheering,  so  as  to  bring  their  broadsides  to  bear,  they 
were  forced  to  fight  in  circles,  swinging  steadily  around 
an  ever-changing  centre."  After  they  had  described 
seven  circles  and  had  diminished  their  distance  to  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile,  the  Alabama  began  to  sink,  and 
raised  a  white  flag.  Captain  Winslow  lost  only  three 
killed  and  wounded  out  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-three 
officers  and  men.  He  took  sixty-five  prisoners.  He 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y, long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WIN  SLOW 


2283 


WINTRINGHAM 


was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore  in  July,  1866, 
and  to  that  of  rear-admiral  in  1870. 

See  J.  T.  HEADLKY,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders." 
pp.  288-319;  GKEEI.EY,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  647-648  ; 
TENNEY,'  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  648. 

Winslow,  (JosiAH,)  a  son  of  Governor  Winslow, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  1629.  He  was  Governor  of 
Plymouth  colony  from  1673  until  1680.  Died  in  1680. 

Winslow,  (MiRON,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  Rev. 
Hnbbard  Winslow,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Willis- 
ton,  Vermont,  in  1789.  He  sailed  in  1819  as  a  missionary 
to  India,  became  president  of  the  college  connected  with 
the  mission  at  Madras,  and  published  in  1862  a  "  Com 
prehensive  Tamil-and-English  Dictionary,"  which  enjoys 
a  high  reputation.  He  died  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  October,  1864. 

Wiii'sor,  (FREDERICK  ALKKRT,)  an  English  projector, 
who  first  introduced  gas-light  into  London.  He  began 
his  experiments  on  gas-light  in  1803.  Died  in  1830. 

Win'stan-ley,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  biographical 
writer,  published  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  "  Historical 
Rarities,"  and  other  works.  DJed  about  1690. 

Wiii'stpn,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1575.  He  studied  medicine  in  Switzerland,  and  at 
Padua,  where  he  took  his  degree.  He  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1613,  and  in  1615  pro 
fessor  of  anatomy  at  Gresham  College.  His  "  Lectures 
on  Anatomy"  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  Died 
in  1655. 

Wmt,  de,  (PETER,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1784.  His  works 
are  chiefly  English  landscapes,  views  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,  Wales,  etc.  Died  in  1849. 

"Winter,  win'ter,  (GEORG  LUDWIG,)  a  German  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Baden  in  1778  ;  died  in  1838. 

Winter,  van,  vfn  win'ter,  (}AN  WILLEM,)  a  Dutch 
naval  commander  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Kampen  in 
1761.  He  served  for  a  time  in  France  under  Dumouriez 
and  Pichegru,  and  rose  to  be  general  of  brigade.  He 
was  created  vice-admiral  after  his  return,  with  the  com 
mand  of  the  Texel  fleet,  and  in  1797  was  defeated  by 
the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Duncan.  He  was  sent 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  France  in  1798,  and  was 
afterwards  made  a  marshal  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
by  Louis  Bonaparte.  After  the  union  of  Holland  with 
France,  he  was  created  by  Napoleon  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour.  Died  in  1812. 

Winter,  von,  fon  <vin'ter,  (PETER,)  a  German  mu 
sician  and  composer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1754.  He 
studied  at  Vienna  under  Salieri,  and  in  1782  brought 
out  at  Munich  his  opera  of  "  Helena  and  Paris."  His 
compositions  are  very  numerous,  including  masses, 
symphonies,  cantatas,  and  operas.  Among  the  most 
admired  of  the  last-named  are  his  "Calypso,"  "  Zaira," 
"Tamerlane,"  "  The  Interrupted  Sacrifice,"  and  "The 
Rape  of  Proserpine."  Died  in  1825. 

"Wiiiterburger,  win'ter-bdoK'ger  orv\'in'ter-booRC/er, 
(ToHANN,)  a  German  printer,  born  in  the  Palatinate 
about  1450,  settled  at  Vienna  about  1492.  Died  in  1519. 

Winterfeld,  win'ter-telt',  (KARL  GEORG  AUGUST 
VIRIGENS,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1794  ;  died  in  1852. 

Winterfeldtvon,  fon  win'ter-felt',  (HANS  KARL,) 
a  celebrated  Prussian  general  and  favourite  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Vanselow  in  1709.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement  in  Silesia  in  1757. 
A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Berlin  by 
Frederick. 

See  VARNHAGEN  VON  ENSE,  "  Leben  des  Winterfeld,"  1836;  M. 
A.  UK  WINTERFELD,  "  Leben  des  Generals  von  Winterfeld,"  1809. 

Winterhalter,  -vvin'ter-hal'ter,  (FRANZ  XAVER,)  a 
German  painter,  born  in  Baden  in  1803.  He  was  pa 
tronized  by  the  royal  families  of  England  and  France, 
and  executed  numerous  portraits  of  Queen  Victoria 
and  Prince  Albert,  also  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and 
other  English  noblemen.  Among  his  best  works  we 
may  name  "  The  F^mpress  Eugenie  and  the  Ladies  of 
her  Court,"  and  a  fancy  piece  entitled  "  II  Deeamerone." 

Win'ter-toii,  (RALPH,)  an  English  philologist,  born 
in  Leicestershire,  was  noted  as  a  Hellenist.  He  pub 


lished  "  Minor  Greek  Poets,"  ("  Poetae  Graeci  minores," 
1635.)  Died  in  1636. 

Winther,  vin'ter,  (RASMUS  VILLADS  CHRISTIAN 
FERDINAND,)  a  celebrated  Danish  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Seeland  in  1796.  He  visited  Italy  in  1830, 
and  published,  after  his  return,  several  volumes  of 
poems,  which  established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  first 
lyric  poets  of  his  country.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of 
popular  novels,  and  "  Five-and-Twenty  Fables,"  ("  Fein 
og  tvve  Fabler,"  1845,)  and  other  juvenile  works. 

Win'throp,  (JuHN,)  born  in  Suffolk,  England,  in 
1588,  was  elected  in  1629  Governor  of  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts,  and  set  sail  in  1630  for  New  England. 
He  was  re-elected  nine  or  ten  times.  His  journal, 
giving  an  account  of  the  transactions  in  the  colony,  was 
published  in  1825.  He  is  said  to  have  been  eminent  for 
wisdom,  magnanimity,  and  other  virtues.  Died  in  1649. 

See  "  Life  of  John  Winthrop,"  by  ROBERT  C.  WINTHROP. 

Wiiithrop,  (JoiiN,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  England  in  1606,  and  sailed  for  America  in  1631. 
He  was  twice  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut,  and  was 
sent  to  England  in  1661  to  procure  a  charter  for  that 
colony.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  Died  in  Boston  in  1676. 

Wiii'thrpp,  (JOHN,)  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Massa 
chusetts  in  1715.  He  was  appointed  in  1738  Hollis 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in 
Harvard  College.  He  published  several  astronomical 
works.  Died  in  1779. 

Winthrop,  (ROBERT  C.,)  an  American  statesman 
and  orator,  a  descendant  of  Governor  Winthrop,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  May  12,  1809.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1828,  studied  law  in 
the  office  of  Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1831.  He  served  in  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  of  Massachusetts  from  1835  to  1840,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  Having  been  re-elected, 
he  continued  in  Congress  for  ten  years,  and  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  December, 
1847.  He  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  Speaker  in  1849  ; 
but  his  opponent,  Mr.  Cobb,  was  elected  by  a  plurality 
of  two  or  three  votes,  after  a  contest  which  lasted  three 
weeks.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  a  part  of  the  unexpired  term  of  Mr. 
Webster,  who  resigned  his  seat.  He  was  the  Whig 
candidate  for  the  office  of  Senator  in  1851,  but  was 
defeated  by  Charles  Sumner.  A  volume  of  his  "Ad 
dresses  and  Speeches"  was  published  in  1852. 

Winthrop,  (THEODORE,)  an  American  writer  and 
soldier,  born  at  New  Haven  in  1828.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1848,  and  subsequently  visited  Europe. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  war  in  1861,  he 
joined  the  volunteers  of  the  J>Jew  York  Seventh  Regi 
ment,  gained  the  rank  of  major,  and,  having  accom 
panied  General  Butler's  expedition  to  Great  Bethel,  was 
killed  in  that  engagement,  (June,  1861.)  He  was  the 
author  of  novels  entitled  "  Cecil  Dreeme,"  (1861,)  "  John 
Brent,"  (1861,)  and  "Edwin  Brothertoft,"  (1862.) 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  August,  1861,  and  August,  1863. 

Wiiitoun  or  Wyntoun,  wln'ton,  (ANDREW,)  a  Scot 
tish  chronicler,  who  lived  about  1410-20,  was  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  Saint  Serf's  Island,  on  Loch  Lomond. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Orygynale  Cronykil  of 
Scotland,"  in  verse,  containing  valuable  historical  in 
formation  of  those  times. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wintoun,  (GEORGE  SKTON,)  EARL  OF,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite,  born  in  1690.  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  in 
1715.  Died  in  1749. 

Win'tring-ham,  (CLIFTON,)  THE  ELDER,  an  English 
surgeon  and  physiologist,  born  before  1695,  wrote  a 
"  Treatise  on  Endemic  Diseases,"  (1718,)  and  other 
medical  works,  in  Latin  and  English,  which  have  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1748. 

Wintringham,  (CLIFTON,)  THE  YOUNGER,  born  at 
York  in  1710,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
physician  to  George  III.  in  1762,  and  subsequently  phy- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (23f=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WINTZINGERODE 


2284 


WISH  ART 


sician-general  to  the  army.  He  published  several 
medical  treatises.  Died  in  1794. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  fon  wfnt'sing-eh-ro'deh,  (FER 
DINAND,)  BARON,  a  German  officer,  born  at  Bodenstein 
in  1770.  He  entered  the  Russian  army,  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1809  and  1812,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen,  Leipsic,  and  Saint- 
Dizier.  He  was  made  general  of  cavalry  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1812.  D;ed  in  1818. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  (GKORG  ERNST  LEVIN,) 
COUNT,  a  German  statesman,  born  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  in  1801  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  king 
dom  of  \Viirtemberg.  Died  in  1834. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  (HKINRICH  KARL  FRIEDRICH 
LEVIN,)  COUNT,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1778. 
He  was  ambassador  from  Wurtemberg  to  Paris,  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  Vienna.  Died  in  1856. 

Wiii'wood,  (Sir  RALPH,)  an  English  diplomatist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1564. 
He  was  employed  on  several  important  missions  to 
Holland,  and  became  secretary  of  state  in  1614.  He 
died  in  1617,  leaving  a  valuable  work,  published  in 
1725  under  the  title  of  "Memorials  of  Affairs  of  State 
in  the  Reigns  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  James  I.," 
(3  vols.) 

Win'zet  or  Winget,  (NlNlAN,)  a  Scottish  ecclesi 
astic,  born  in  Renfrewshire  in  1518.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  controversial  works  in  opposition  to  the  Prot 
estant  reformers.  Died  in  1592. 

Wioii,  VC'ON',  (ARNOULD,)  a  learned  French  monk, 
born  at  Douai  in  1554;  died  about  1610. 

Wirsung,  vveeK'soong,  (CiiRisToi'H,)  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1500.  He  wrote  a  "New 
Book  of  Medicine,"  (1568.)  Died  in  1571. 

Wirsung  or  Wirsungus,  weeR-soong'as,  (JOHANN 
GKORG,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  at  Augsburg,  was 
the  discoverer  of  the  pancreatic  duct.  Died  in  1643. 

Wirt,  (WILLIAM,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer  and 
author,  born  at  Bladensburg,  Maryland,  in  November, 
1772,  was  of  Swiss  extraction.  He  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1792,  and  married  a  Miss  Gilmer, 
of  Virginia,  about  1795.  He  practised  law  at  Richmond 
and  Norfolk,  and  published  in  1803  "  Letters  of  a  British 
Spy,"  which  obtained  a  great  popularity.  About  1806 
lie  settled  at  Richmond,  Virginia.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  as  one  of  the  counsel 
for  the  prosecution,  (1807.)  In  1817  he  published  a 
"Life  of  Patrick  Henry,"  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  from  1817 
to  March,  1829.  having  been  appointed  first  by  President 
Monroe  and  retained  by  President  Adams.  He  removed 
to  Baltimore  in  1829  or  1830,  and  was  nominated  for 
the  Presidency  in  1832  by  the  Anti-Masonic  party.  He 
died  in  Washington  in  February,  1834. 

"  He  was  master,"  says  Griswold,  "  of  all  the  arts  by 
which  attention  is  secured  and  retained.  ...  It  is  agreed 
on  all  hands  that  he  was  a  very  ready,  pleasing,  and 
effective  speaker,  inferior  perhaps  to  no  one  among  his 
contemporaries  at  the  bar  in  this  country." 

See  J.  P.  KENNEDY,  "  Life  of  William  Wirt,"  1849;  R.  W.  GRIS 
WOLD,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  DUYCKINCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin 
guished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Wirth,  we^Rt,  QOHANN  GKORG  AUGUST,)  a  German 
journalist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1799; 
died  in  1848. 

Wirth,  (JOHANN  ULRICH,)  a  German  divine  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  in  Wurtemberg  in  1810. 
He  became  in  1852  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal  of 
Philosophy  and  Philosophic  Criticism,"  ("  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Philosophic  und  philosophische  Kritik.")  He  pub 
lished  a  "Theory  of  Somnambulism,"  (1836,)  "System 
of  Speculative  Ethics,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 

Wirtz  or  Wirz,  we^Rts,  ([OHANN,)  a  Swiss  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1640;  died  in  1709. 

Wischnu.     See  VISHNU. 

Wise,  (DANIEL,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  England,  in  1813,  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  edited  successively  several  religious  journals. 
He  has  published  "The  Young  Man's  Counsellor," 
"Life  of  Ulric  Zwingli,"  and  other  works. 


Wise,  (FRANCIS,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Oxford  in  1695.  He  wrote  several  works  on  English 
antiquities.  Died  in  1762. 

Wise,  (HENRY  A.,)  a  distinguished  American  poli 
tician,  born  in  Accomac  county,  Virginia,  in  December, 
1806.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1828.  He  represented  a  district  of  Virginia  in  Congress 
from  1833  to  1843,  having  been  elected  as  an  adherent 
of  General  Jackson,  but  he  soon  joined  the  opposition. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  President  Tyler,  who  appointed 
him  minister  to  Brazil  in  1844.  In  1855  he  was  elected 
by  the  Democrats  Governor  of  Virginia  for  three  years. 
A  convention  of  Southern  Governors  was  held  at 
Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  in  October,  1856,  at  the  invi 
tation  of  Governor  Wise,  who  afterwards  declared  that 
if  Fremont  had  been  elected  President  he  would  have 
inarched  with  20,000  men  and  taken  Washington.  In 
1861  he  joined  the  insurgent  army  as  brigadier-general, 
and  commanded  a  force  in  the  Kanawha  Valley  with  ill 
success. 

Wise,  (HENRY  AUGUSTUS,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
a  relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  in  1819.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Edward 
Everett,  of  Boston.  In  1862  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander,  and  appointed  assistant  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography.  He  published 
"Los  Gringos,"  (1849,)  a  series  of  sketches  of  Mexico, 
California,  Peru,  etc.,  "Tales  for  the  Marines,"  (1855,) 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1869. 

Wise,  (MICHAEL,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  was  born  in  Wiltshire.  He  was  patron 
ized  by  Charles  II.,  and  became  in  1686  almoner  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  and  master  of  the  choristers.  He 
was  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  a  watchman,  in  1687. 

Wiselius,  we-sa/Ie-us,  (SAMUEL  IPERUSZOON.)  a 
Dutch  poet,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1769,  studied  in  his 
native  city  and  in  Germany,  and  subsequently  filled 
several  high  offices  in  Holland.  He  published  tragedies 
entitled  "  Polydorus"  and  "Ion,"  also  a  collection  of 
odes  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1845. 

Wiseman,  wiz'man,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  distinguished 
scholar,  of  English  extraction,  was  born  at  Seville,  in 
Spain,  in  1802.  He  finished  his  studies  at  the  Eng 
lish  College  in  Rome,  where  he  subsequently  became 
professor  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1829  was 
appointed  rector.  After  his  return  to  England  he  rose 
through  various  promotions  in  the  Catholic  Church  to 
be  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  (1850,)  and  cardinal. 
The  assumption  of  the  title  of  archbishop  met  with 
great  opposition  from  the  Protestants  in  England,  and 
an  act  was  passed  making  such  titles  penal.  It  appears, 
however,  that  his  learning,  talents,  and  general  popu 
larity  did  much  to  allay  the  hostility  of  his  opponents. 
Cardinal  Wiseman  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  the 
Connection  between  Science  and  Revealed  Religion," 
(2  vols.,  1836,)  a  "Treatise  on  the  Holy  Eucharist," 
(1836,)  "Letters  on  Catholic  Unity,"  (1842,)  and  other 
works.  He  was  for  many  years  associate  editor  of  the 
"Dublin  (Catholic)  Review."  Died  in  February,  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale:"  BROCKHAUS,  "Conversa 
tions  Lexikon  ;"  ALI.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1858. 

Wiseman,  (RICHARD,)  an  English  surgeon  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  patronized  by  King  Charles 
II.  His  treatises  on  surgery  were  highly  esteemed  in 
his  time. 

Wish'art,  written  also  Wysshart,  Wischart,  and 
in  other  modes,  (GEORGE,)  THE  MARTYR,  a  Scottish 
Protestant  reformer  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  After  preaching  the  Reformed  doctrines  in 
several  Scottish  towns,  he  was  arrested  and  tried  before 
Cardinal  Beatoun,  who  condemned  him  to  the  stake 
in  1546. 

See  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxxvi.  ; 
FROUDE,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xxii.  ;  CUNNINGHAM, 
"  Church  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  ;  "  Biographic  Universelle  ;" 
CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wishart,  written  also  Wiseheart,  (GEORGE,)  a  -Scot 
tish  divine  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Haddington- 
shire  in  1609.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  Marquis  of 
Montrose,  and  subsequently  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 


a, e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  shore;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


WISH  ART 


228s 


WITTEKIND 


James  I.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Edinburgh  in  1662. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  the  wars  of  Montrose,  in  Latin. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  elegance.  Died  in  1671. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wishart  or  Wischart,  (Wiu.iAM,)  a  Scottish  diviive, 
born  at  Dalkeith  about  1657,  preached  in  Edinburgh, 
and  wrote  a  Calvinistic  work  entitled  "Theology,"' 
("Theologia.")  Died  in  1727. 

Wislicenus,  wis-lit-sa'nus,  (GusTAV  ADOLF,)  a  Ger 
man  rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  near  Eilenburg, 
in  Prussia,  in  1803.  He  became  minister  at  Halle  in 
1841,  but  was  soon  after  deposed  on  account  of  his 
opinions. 

Wissenbach,  wis'sen-baK',  (JOHANN  JAKOB,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  born  in  Nassau  in  1607.  He 
became  professor  of  law  at  Franeker,  and  published 
several  legal  works.  Died  in  1665. 

Wissiiig,  wis'sing,  (WiiLiAM,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1656.  He  worked  in 
England,  and  painted  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  Died 
in  1687. 

Wissowatzi,  wis-so-wat'see,  [Lat.  WISSOWA'TIUS.] 
(ANDREW,)  a  Socinian  writer,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1608, 
was  a  grandson  of  Faustus  Socinus.  He  was  persecuted, 
and,  after  several  removals,  found  refuge  in  Holland, 
where  he  died  in  1678. 

Wis'tar,  (CASPAR,)  a  distinguished  American  phy 
sician,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1761.  He  graduated  at 
Edinburgh,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  physiology  in  the  College  of  Philadel 
phia,  and  subsequently  succeeded  Dr.  Shippen  in  the 
chair  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"System  of  Anatomy,"  (1812.)  Died  in  1818. 

Wisziiiewski,  vish-ne-eVskee,  (MICHAEL,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  in  Galicia  in  1794.  He  became  in  1830 
professor  of  history  at  Cracow.  He  has  published 
several  critical  and  philosophical  works. 

Wit,  wit,  (FERDINAND  JOHANNES,)  a  German  poli 
tician,  born  at  Altona  in  1800.  Having  joined  a  secret 
society,  he  was  banished  in  1819.  He  afterwards  joined 
the  ultramontane  party,  and  published  "  Fragments  of 
my  Life  and  my  Epoch,"  (4  vols.,  1827-30.)  Died  in 
1863. 

Witch/ell,  (GEORGE,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  in  1728;  died  in  1785. 

Wither.     See  WITHERS. 

With'er-ing,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1741.  He  published  "  A 
Systematic  Arrangement  of  British  Plants,"  (1776;)  also 
a  number  of  treatises  on  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
medicine.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died 
in  1709. 

With'er-ing-ton,  (WILLIAM  FREDERICK,)  an  Eng 
lish  painter,  born  in  London  in  1786.  He  was  elected 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1840.  Among  his  works,  which 
are  principally  landscapes,  we  may  name  "The  Hop 
Garland,"  "The  Stepping-Stones,"  "  Making  Hay,"  and 
•'  Returning  from  the  Village."  Died  in  1865. 

Withers,  with'erz,  written  also  Wither  and  Wyther, 
(GEORGE,)  an  English  poet,  satirist,  and  political  writer, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1588.  He  published  in  1613  a 
collection  of  satires  in  verse,  entitled  "  Abuses  Stript 
and  Whipt,"  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to  several 
months'  imprisonment.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  he  served  in  the  royalist  army,  in  1639;  but 
he  afterwards  went  over  to  the  party. of  the  Parliament, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Soon  after 
the  restoration  he  was  imprisoned  several  years  in  the 
Tower  for  having  published  a  seditious  libel,  entitled 
"Vox  Vulgi."  He  died  in  1667.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  consist  chiefly  of  lyrics  and  devotional 
pieces.  His  poems  were  little  esteemed  by  his  con 
temporaries,  and  he  is  mentioned  with  contempt  by 
Pope  and  Swift;  but  eminent  critics  of  later  times  have 
assigned  him  a  high  rank  among  English  poets. 

See  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  SIR  EGERTON 
BRYDGKS,  "  Censura  Literaria;"  HAZLITT.  "Lectures  on  English 
Poetry;"  ELLIS,  "Specimens  of  Early  English  Poetry;"  "Retro 
spective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  (1823.) 

With'er-spoon,  (JOHN,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distin 
guished  divine,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 


of  Independence,  was  born  in  Haddingtonshire,  Scot 
land,  in  1722.  In  1766  he  was  offered  the  presidency 
of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  which  in  1768  he 
accepted,  and  also  filled  the  chair  of  divinity  in  that 
institution.  He  was  elected  in  1776  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  and  was  active  in  promoting  the  cause  of 
independence.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Characteristics,  or  the  Arcana  of  Church  Policy,"  (1753,) 
a  "  Serious  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Effects  of  the 
Stage,"  (1757,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1794. 

See  CLEVELAND,  "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Withof,  wit'hof,  QOHANN  PHILUT  LORENZ,)  a  Ger 
man  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Duisburg  in  1725. 
He  studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  in  1770  became 
professor  of  eloquence  and  Greek  literature  at  Duisburg. 
He  published  in  1782  a  collection  of  didactic  poems, 
entitled  "  Academische  Gedichte,"  which  have  a  high 
reputation.  Died  in  1789. 

Witikind.     See  WITTEKIND. 

Wit'i-kind  or  Wife-kind,  a  Saxon  historian  and 
monk,  lived  at  the  abbey  of  Corvey,  (Corbeia  nova.) 
He  wrote  "  Annales  de  Gestis  Othonum."  Died  after 

973- 

Witiza,  we-tee'za,  [Sp.  pron.  ve-tee'tha,]  King  of  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain,  began  to  reign  about  701  A.D.  He 
was  deposed  in  708,  and  was  succeeded  by  Roderick, 
who  had  revolted  against  him.  Died  about  709. 

Wit'old  or  Wit'wald,  (ALEXANDER,)  Grand  Duke 
of  Lithuania,  was  a  warlike  and  powerful  prince.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Tartars.  Died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  1430. 

Wits,  wits,  Witsen,  wit'sen,  or  Witsius,  wit'se-iis, 
(HERMAN,)  a  learned  Dutch  theologian,  born  in  North 
Holland  in  1636.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht  from  1680  to  1698,  and  succeeded  F.  Spanheim 
at  Leyden  in  the  latter  year.  He  published  several  works 
on  theology.  Died  in  1708. 

Witsen,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  patriotic  Dutch  magistrate, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1640,  was  noted  for  his  liberal 
public  spirit.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Construction 
of  Ships,"  (1671.)  He  was  employed  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  with  England  in  1689. 

See  BODEL,  "  Notice  of  N.  Witsen,"  1855. 

Witt,  de.     See  DE  WITT. 

Witte,  wit'teh,  or  Witten,  wit'ten,  (HENNING,)  a 
German  divine  and  biographer,  born  at  Riga  in  1634. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  biographies  of  eminent  men  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  in  5  vols.  Died  in  1696. 

Witte,  (KARL,)  a  German  jurist,  born  near  Halle  in 
1800.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Heidelberg,  and  be 
came  professor  of  law  at  Halle  in  1834.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works,  and  made  translations  from  the 
Italian  of  Dante  and  Boccaccio. 

Witte,  de,  (EMANUEL.)     See  DE  WITTE. 

Witte,  de,  deh  wit'teh,  (GASPARD,)  a  Flemish  land 
scape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1621.  He  worked  in 
Italy  and  France. 

Witte,  de,  (Gn.ES,)  an  eminent  Jansenist  theologian, 
born  at  Ghent  in  1648.  He  preached  at  Mechlin  (Ma- 
lines)  from  1684  to  1691,  wrote  several  controversial 
works  in  defence  of  Jansenism,  and  produced  a  Flemish 
version  of  the  Bible.  Died  in  1721. 

Witte,  de,  (LiEViN,)  a  Flemish  painter  and  archi 
tect,  born  at  Ghent  about  1510.  He  excelled  in  painting 
perspective  and  architecture.  Died  at  Munich. 

Witte,  de,  (PIKTKR.)     See  CANDIDO,  (PIETRO.) 

Wit'te-kmd  or  Wit'l-kiud,  written  also  Witti- 
chind,  [Lat.  WITTEKIN'DUS,]  surnamed  THE  GREAT, 
a  celebrated  warrior,  was  the  principal  commander  of 
the  Saxons  against  Charlemagne.  The  latter  having  in 
vaded  the  Saxon  territory,  Wittekind  sought  the  alliance 
of  the  King  of  Denmark,  whose  sister  he  had  married. 
After  several  battles,  fought  with  varying  success,  the 
Saxons  were  defeated  near  the  Hase  in  783,  and  the 
leaders,  Wittekind  and  Alboin,  were  reinstated  in  their 
possessions,  on  condition  of  their  embracing  Christianity 
and  submitting  to  the  authority  of  Charlemagne.  Wit 
tekind  died  in  807. 

See  J.  A.  CRITSIUS,  "  Wittekindus  Magnus,"  1679;  DREUX  DE 
RADIER,  "Vie  de  Wittekind  le  Grand,"  1757;  GENSSLER,  "Witte 
kind,"  etc.,  1817;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


W1TTEKIND 


2286 


WOLF 


Wittekind,  wit'teh-ldnt,  or  Widukind,  \vid'oo-k?nt, 
a  German  chronicler  and  monk  of  the  tenth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Saxony.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Res 
gestae  Saxonicas,"  being  a  history  of  King  Henry  I.  and 
of  the  emperor  Otho  I. 

Wittekiiidus.     See  WTITTEKIND. 

"Wittgenstein,  von,  fon  wit'gen-stln,  (LuDWiG 
ADOLF,)  COUNT,  a  German  military  commander,  some 
times  called  SAYN-\VITTGENSTEIN,  was  born  in  1769. 
Having  entered  the  Russian  army,  he  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1807  and  1812,  and  was  appointed  in  1813 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  Russian  and  Prussian  forces, 
which,  however,  he  retained  but  a  short  time.  He  was 
defeated  by  Napoleon  near  Paris  in  1814.  Having  been 
created  a  field  marshal  in  1826,  he  fought  against  the 
Turks  in  1828.  Died  in  1843. 

Wittichius,  wit-tiK'e-us,  (CHRISTOPH,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1625.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Nymwegen  for  sixteen  years, 
and  removed  to  Leyden  in  1671.  He  wrote  several 
works.  Died  at  Leyden  in  1687. 

Witzleben,  von,  fon  wits'la'ben,  (Jon  WILHELM 
KARL  ERNST,)  a  Prussian  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1783.  lie  served  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French  from  1806  to  1813,  and 
was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1831,  and  minister  of  war 
in  18^3.  Died  in  1837. 

Witzleben,  voii,  (KARL  AUGUST  FRIEDRICH,)  a 
popular  German  novelist,  known  under  the  pseudonym 
of  VON  TROMLITZ,  was  born  near  Weimar  in  1773.  lie 
served  against  the  French  in  the  Prussian  and  subse 
quently  in  the  Russian  army,  where  he  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel.  He  produced  historical  romances, 
entitled  "  Franz  von  Sickingen,"  "  Die  Pappenheimer," 


and  other  similar  works. 
Wi'vell,  (AHRAHAM,) 


Died  in  1839. 

an    English    portrait-painter, 


born  in  1786.    He  invented  the  fire-escape.   Died  in  1849. 

Wladimir.     See  Vi.  \DIMIR. 

Wladislas.     See  VL\I>  SLA  us  and  LADISI.AUS. 

Wodehouse.     See  KIMIIERI.EY. 

"Woden.     See  ODIN. 

Wodhull,  wood'ul,  ?  (MicHAKi.,)   an   English  poet, 
born    in    Northamptonshire    in    1740.       He    translated 


in  the  Town-House  of  Nuremberg,  and  a  "  Votive  Offer 
ing  with  Saint  Jerome,"  in  the  Belvedere  gallery  at 
Vienna.  His  engravings  on  copper  and  wood  are  very 
rare,  and  are  highly  esteemed.  He  numbered  among 
his  pupils  Albert  Diirer,  who  painted  his  portrait.  Died 
in  1519. 

See  MAKGGRAKF,  "  Erinnerunsen  an  Albrecht  Diirer  und  seinen 
Lehrer  M.  \Vohlgennuh,"  1840;  NAGLER,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Wohner  or  "Woehner,  wo'ner,  (ANDREAS  GKORG,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  in  Hoya  (Hanover)  in  1693. 
He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Gottin- 
gen  in  1739.  He  published  a  Hebrew  grammar,  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1762. 

Woide,  woid,  ?  (CHARLES  GODFREY,)  an  eminent 
Orientalist  and  divine,  born  in  1725,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Poland.  Having  been  invited  to  Eng 
land  in  1770,  he  became  preacher  of  the  German  Royal 
Chapel,  and  assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  published  La  Croze's  "Dictionary  of  the  Coptic 
Language,"  with  additions  and  an  index,  and  other 
learned  works.  lie  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1790. 

Woirol,  vwa'rol',  (TiiEoiMULE,)  a  Swiss  officer,  born 
at  Tavanne,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  in  1781.  He  served 
in  the  French  army,  and  especially  distinguished  him 
self  during  the  Hundred  Days.  In  1819  he  was  made 
marechal-de-camp,  and  in  1836  became  a  peer  of  France. 
Died  in  1853. 

Wolcott,  wool'kot,  (ERASTUS,)  a  son  of  Roger  Wol- 
cott,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1723.  He  joined 
the  army  in  1776,  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1777, 
and  afterwards  a  member  of  Congress  and  a  judge  of 
the  superior  court  of  Connecticut.  Died  in  1793. 

Wolcott,  wool'kot,  (JOHN,)  an  English  physician 
and  satiric  poet,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  PETER 
PINDAR,  was  born  in  Devonshire  in  1738.  Having 
taken  his  medical  degree  at  Aberdeen,  he  accompanied 
Sir  William  Trelawney,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  to  that 
island  in  1767,  but,  failing  to  obtain  extensive  practice, 
returned  to  England,  where  he  published  in  1782  his 
"Lyric  Odes  to  the  Royal  Academicians  for  1782,  by 
Peter  Pindar,  Esq.,"  etc.  This  satire  was  very  suc- 


Euripides  into  English,  and  wrote  some  original  poems,  i  cessful,  and  was  soon  followed  by  similar  attacks  on  the 
Died  in  1816.  |  king,  ministers,    and    prominent    writers    of    the    time. 

Wod'row,  (ROBERT,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine  i  Wolcott's  satires   are    remarkable    for   coarseness    and 


and  historical  writer,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1679,  became 
minister  of  Eastwood,  in  Renfrewshire.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "History  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1722.)  He  also  wrote  a  diary  and  collection  of 
anecdotes,  entitled  "  Wodrow's  Analecta."  Died  in  17^4. 
See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Woehler.     See  WOHLER. 

Woehner.     See  WOHNER. 

Woelffl.     See  WOLFFL. 

Woellner.     See  WOLLNER. 

Woepcke.     See  WOI-CKE. 

Woeriot,  vo'i're-o',  or  Woeiriot,  (PIERRE,)  an  able 
engraver,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1532.  He  settled  at 
Lyons  about  1555.  Died  after  1576. 

Wof'fing-ton,  (MARGARET,)  a  celebrated  Irish  actress, 
born  at  Dublin  about  1718;  died  in  1760. 

Wohler  or  Woehler,  wo'ler,  (FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  chemist  of  high  reputation,  was  born  near  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1800.  He  studied  medicine  and 
chemistry  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently 
became  professor  of  technology  and  chemistry  in  the 
Polytechnic  School  at  Cassel.  He  also  assisted  in  found 
ing  a  nickel-manufactory  in  that  town.  In  1836  he  be 
came  professor  of  medicine  and  director  of  the  Chemical 
Institute  at  Gottingen.  lie  was  associated  in  1838  with 
his  friend  Liebig  as  editor  of  the  "  Annalen  der  Chemie 


und  Pharmacie. 
his 


Among  his  most  important  works  are 
his  "Principles  of  Chemistry,"  (1840,)  and  "Practical 
Exercises  of  Chemical  Analysis,"  (1854.)  He  has  been 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and 
of  other  similar  institutions. 

^  Wohlgemuth,  woKgeh-moot',  (MICHAEL.)  an  eminent 
German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1434-  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Last  Judgment," 


vulgarity,  as  well  as  for  wit ;  and  his  character  as  a 
man  appears  not  to  have  been  a  whit  more  elevated  than 
his  writings.  Died  in  1819. 

See  ALI.IBONH,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Autobiography  of 
William  Jerdan,"  vol.  ii.  ch.  xix. 

Wolcott,  (OLIVER,)  an  American  patriot  and  states 
man,  son- of  Roger  Wolcott,  noticed  below,  was  horn 
in  Connecticut  in  1726.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1776,  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
became  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1796.  Died  in  1797. 

See  SANDERSON,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Wolcott,  (OLIVER,)  a  statesman,  born  at  Litchfield, 
Connecticut,  in  1760,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinets  of  Wash 
ington  and  Adams,  from  February,  1795,  t()  December, 
1800.  After  1800  he  was  engaged  for  about  fourteen 
years  in  trade  in  the  city  of  New  York.  He  was  Gov 
ernor  of  Connecticut  from  1817  to  1827.  Died  in  New 
York  in  1833. 

Wolcott,  (ROGER,)  an  American  statesman  and 
soldier,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1679,  served 
against  the  French  in  Canada,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut 
in  1751.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  Pequot  war,  in 
verse.  Died  in  1767. 

Wolf,  (CHRISTIAN.)       See   LUPUS. 

Wolf,  wolf,  (ERNST  WILHELM,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Gross  Behringen  in  1735.  He 
lived  many  years  at  Weimar.  Died  in  1792. 

Wolf,  (FERDINAND,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Vienna 

1796.      He  was  appointed   librarian  of   the   Imperial 

Library,  and  secretary  of  the   Academy  of  Sciences  in 

his  native  city.     He   published  "Contributions  to   the 

History  of  the  National  Literature  of  Castile,"  (1832,) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WOLF 


2287 


WOLFE 


a  work  "  On  the  Romantic  Poetry  of  the  Spaniards," 
(1847,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Wolf,  woolf,  [Ger.  pron.  wolf;  Lat.  WOL'FIUS,] 
(FkiKDKicn  AUGUST,)  a  celebrated  German  scholar 
and  critic,  was  born  at  Hainrode,  near  Nordhausen,  in 
Prussia,  on  the  ijth  of  February,  1759.  He  studied  at 
Nordhausen,  and  had  become  a  good  classical  scholar 
when  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  in  1777. 
Me  acquired  in  early  life  a  habit  of  independent  judg 
ment,  and  devoted  himself  at  Gottingen  to  the  study 
of  philology.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  Heyne,  who 
refused  to  admit  him  to  one  of  his  lectures.  In  1779  he 
was  employed  as  teacher  at  Ilfeld.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Plato's  "Symposium"  in  1782,  enriched  with 
notes  and  an  introduction,  in  which  he  gave  proof  of 
critical  sagacity.  Having  married  about  1782,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle  in  1783,  and 
director  of  the  Pedagogic  Institute,  which  he  trans 
formed  into  a  philological  seminary  or  normal  school. 
He  had  formed  an  exalted  idea  of  the  vocation  of 
teacher,  which  he  pursued  with  much  zeal  and  success. 
During  the  twenty-three  years  in  which  he  occupied 
the  chair  at  Halle,  he  gave  more  than  fifty  courses  of 
lectures  on  different  authors  and  subjects,  besides  his 
labours  in  the  philological  seminary.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Homer's  poems  in  1784  and  1785,  and  an 
edition  of  Demosthenes'  oration  against  Leptines,  about 
1790.  Tile  latter  opened  a  new  era  in  the  study  of 
the  Greek  orators.  His  celebrity  was  increased  by  his 
"Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,"  (1795,)  in  which  he  sup 
ported  with  much  ingenuity  the  novel  and  paradoxical 
theory  that  the  "  Iliad'' and  "Odyssey"  were  not  written 
by  Homer  or  any  single  poet,  but  that  they  were 
formed  by  the  junction  of  several  poems,  composed  by 
different  rhapsodists.  This  work  produced  a  great 
sensation  among  the  learned  throughout  Europe  ;  but 
his  theory  was  accepted  in  full  by  a  very  few  only. 
Wolfs  claim  to  priority  in  this  discovery  was  disputed 
by  Heyne,  and  was  defended  by  the  former  in  "  Letters 
to  Heyne.''  (1797,)  which  are  regarded  as  models  of 
controversy  and  refined  irony,  tie  published  an  edition 
of  Suetonius,  (1802,)  and  an  edition  of  Homer,  ("  Ho- 
meri  et  Homeridarum  Opera,"  4  vols.,  1804-07.) 

In  consequence  of  the  war,  the  University  of  Halle 
was  closed  in  1806,  soon  after  which  Wolf  removed  to 
Berlin,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the 
university  of  that  city.  He  received  the  title  of  privy 
councillor  at  Berlin.  Wolf  and  Buttmann  published 
the  ".Museum  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,"  (1807— IO.) 
In  a  remarkable  treatise,  entitled  "Exhibition  of  Archae 
ology,"  ("  Darstellung  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,")  he 
gave  a  programme  of  the  studies  of  antiquity  and  phi 
lology  which  he  wished  to  be  pursued.  He  published 
an  excellent  philological  journal,  called  "  Literarische 
Analekten,"  (1817-20.)  To  improve  his  health,  he  visited 
the  south  of  France  in  the  spring  of  1824.  He  died  at 
Marseilles  in  August  of  that  year. 

See  H. -\NH-\KT,  "  Erinneriinsen  an  F.  A.  Wolf,"  iR2< ;  W. 
KOKRTE.  "!.rben  und  Stndien  Wolfs."  2  vols.,  iSrj;  "  Xouvelle 
BiographieGenerale;"  "North  British  Review"  lor  June,  1865. 

Wolf,  [F.at.  Woi/Fius,]  (HtF.RONYMUS,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Dettingen  in  1516.  He  studied  at  Wit 
tenberg,  and  became  in  1557  professor  of  Greek,  and 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Augsburg.  lie  was  one 
of  the  best  Greek  scholars  of  his  time,  and  published 
editions  of  the  works  of  Isocrates,  of  Xicephorus  Grego- 
ras,  of  /F.schines  and  Demosthenes,  and  other  classics. 
Died  in  1580. 

See  r,ER[.  \cn.  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  H.  Wolfii."  1743  ;  M.  ADAM, 
"  Viut  Germanonim  Philosophoruin." 

Wolf,  (ToKANX,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  in 
Zweibriicken  (Deux- Fonts)  in  1537,  was  professor  at 
Marburg.  Died  in  1616. 

Wolf,  (TOHANN.)  a  German  jurist,  said  to  have  been 
a  twin  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  "  A 
Key  to  History,"  ("Clavis  Historiarum,")  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1606. 

Wolf,  (JoHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Wernigerode  in  1689.  He  became  professor  of 
physics  and  poetry  at  Hamburg  in  1725,  and  edited  the 
extant  fragments  of  Sappho  and  other  Greek  poetesses. 
Died  in  1770. 


Wolf,  [Lat.  WOL'FIUS,]  (JOHANN  CHKISTOI-H,)  a 
German  divine  and  scholar,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Wernigerode  in  1683.  He  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  and  rector  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Hamburg.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Hebrew 
Lexicons,"  (in  Latin,)  "Bibliotheca  Hebraica,"  and  other 
learned  works,  also  editions  of  the  Letters  of  Libanius, 
and  other  classics.  Died  in  1739. 

See  J.  H.  VON  SEKI.EN,  "  Commentatio  de  Vita  J.  C.  Wolfii," 
1717:  "  Nouve'.le  Biographie  Generale." 

Wolf,  (  KASPAR,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at 
Zurich  about  1525,  was  a  friend  of  C.  Gesner.  He  was 
professor  of  physics  and  Greek  at  Zurich.  Died  in  1601. 

Wolf,  (KASPAR  FRIKDRICH,)  a  German  anatomist, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1735  »  died  in  1794. 

Wolf  or  Wolff,  von,  ton  wolf,  [Lat.  WOL'FIUS,] 
(JOHANN  CHRISTIAN,)  FKKIHF.RR,  a  celebrated  German 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Breslau,  January 
24,  1679,  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  1674.)  After 
he  had  studied  for  some  years  in  the  College  of  Breslau, 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1699.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  exact  sciences,  and  began  at  an  early  age 
to  meditate  the  reform  of  practical  philosophy  by  the 
application  of  mathematical  methods.  About  1701  he 
passed  from  Jena  to  Leipsic,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  philosophy,  and  delivered  lectures.  He  became  ac 
quainted  with  Leibnitz,  who  exercised  considerable 
influence  over  him.  In  1707  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  published 
"Thoughts  on  the  Powers  of  the  Human  Mind,"  (1712,) 
and  "Elements  of  Universal  Science,"  ("  Elementa 
Matheseos  universae,"  1713-15.) 

His  peace  was  disturbed  by  the  intrigues  of  the 
professors  of  theology,  who  censured  his  doctrines  as 
dangerous  to  religion  and  morality.  Instigated  by  these 
adversaries,  among  whom  Joachim  Lange  was  especially 
violent,  the  King  of  Prussia  removed  Wolf  from  his  chair 
in  1723,  and  banished  him  from  the  kingdom.  Before 
that  year  he  had  published  "  Rational  Thoughts  on  God, 
the  World,  and  the  Human  Soul,"  (1720,)  "Thoughts 
on  the  Search  after  Happiness,"  (1720,)  and  other  works. 
He  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at 
Marburg  for  eighteen  years,  (1723-41.)  During  this 
period  he  published  a  number  of  works,  among  svhich 
are  a  celebrated  "Treatise  on  Logic,"  ("  Philosophia 
Rationalis,  sive  Logica  methodo  Scientifica  pertractata," 
1728,)  "  Primitive  Philosophy,  or  Ontology,"  ("  Philoso 
phia  prima,  sive  Ontologia,"  1730,)  "Moral  Philosophy, 
or  Ethics,"  ("Philosophia  moralis,  sive  Ethica,"  1732,) 
"  Rational  Psychology,"  ("  Psychologia  rationalis,"  1734,) 
and  "  Universal  Practical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia 
practica  universalis,"  2  vols.,  1738-39.)  About  1733 
he  was  invited  by  the  king  to  return  to  Halle.  He 
declined  to  change  his  position  until  the  accession  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  (1740,)  when  he  resumed  his  pro- 
j  fessorship  at  Halle.  He  was  appointed  privy  councillor 
and  professor  of  international  law.  Among  his  later 
works  were  "  The  Law  of  Nature,"  ("  Jus  Naturae,"  8 
vols.,  1740-49,)  and  "The  Law  of  Nations,"  ("Jus 
Gentium,"  1749.)  He  had  married  Catherine  Marie 
Brandisin  in  1716,  and  had  several  children.  As  a  phi 
losopher,  he  developed  and  popularized  the  doctrines 
of  Leibnitz,  his  mind  being  methodizing  rather  than 
creative.  Died  in  April,  1754. 

See  STIEBRITZ,  "  Nachricht  von  Wolfs  Leben  und  Ende."  1754; 
GOTTSCHED,  "  Historische  Lobschrift  auf  C.  Wolf,"  1755  ;  WUTTKE, 
"C.  Wolfs  eigene  Lebensbeschreibung,"  1841  ;  C.  F.  BAUMEISTER, 
"Vita,  Fata  et  Scripts  (,'.  Wolfii."  1739;  FONTEXELLE,  "fi!oges;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Wolfart,  -(vol'faiU,  (PEi'F.R,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Hanau  in  1675  ;  died  in  1726. 

Wolfe,  woolf,  (CHARLES,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  at  Dublin  in  1791.  He  studied  in  the  uni 
versity  of  his  native  city,  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1814,  and  in  1817  was  ordained.  He  died  in  1823,  of 
consumption,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one.  His  works 
were  published  in  1825,  under  the  title  of  "  Remains 
of  the  Late  Rev.  Charles  Wolfe,"  etc.  :  they  consist  of 
sermons,  prose  sketches,  and  lyric  poems  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  last-named  is  his  "Burial  of  Sir 
John  Moore,"  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest 
productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 


«  as  K:  c  as  s:  g  hard:  g  as/:  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WOLFE 


2288 


WOLMAR 


Wolfe,  (JAMES,)  a  celebrated  English  officer,  born  in 
Kent  in  1726.  He  served  with  great  distinction  in  Ger 
many  in  the  early  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Louisburg 
from  the  French  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  in  1759  to 
command  the  land-forces  in  the  expedition  against  the 
French  in  Canada,  having  been  previously  made  major- 
general.  After  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  drive  the 
French  army  from  their  position  near  Quebec,  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  ascending  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
commanding  that  city,  and,  in  the  battle  which  ensued, 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  enemy.  He  was, 
however,  mortally  wounded  in  the  action,  dying  on  the 
field  of  battle  immediately  after  he  was  informed  of  the 
result.  His  opponent,  General  Montcalm,  also  fell  in 
this  engagement,  and  the  French  lost  their  possessions 
in  Canada. 

See  "The  Life  of  Major-General  James  Wolfe,"  by  ROBERT 
WRIGHT. 

"Wolff.     See  WOLF. 

Wolff,  wolf,  (E.MiL,,)  a  German  sculptor  of  high  repu 
tation,  born  in  Berlin  in  1802,  resided  many  years  in 
Rome.  He  executed  a  number  of  portrait-busts  and 
mythological  subjects.  Among  the  former,  those  of 
Niebuhr  and  Prince  Albert  are  especially  admired. 

Wolff,  woolf,  (JosKi'H,)  a  converted  Jew  and  traveller, 
born  about  1795.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the 
Anglican  Church  about  1838.  He  performed  a  journey 
to  Bokhara,  of  which  he  published  a  narrative.  He 
wrote  other  works.  Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1861. 

"Wolff,  (OSKAR  Lumvio  BERNHARD,)  a  popular 
German  writer,  born  at  Altona  in  1799,  was  the  author 
of  numerous  tales,  romances,  and  satirical  sketches. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "  The  Natural  History  of 
German  Students,"  and  "Poetical  Home  Treasure  of 
the  German  People."  Died  in  1851. 

Wolff,  (Pius  ALEXANDER,)  a  celebrated  German  actor 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1782.  He 
excelled  particularly  as  a  tragedian,  and  his  representa 
tions  of  Hamlet,  Orestes,  Max  Piccolomini,  and  Tasso 
were  unsurpassed.  He  was  the  author  of  "Caesareo," 
and  other  comedies,  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Preciosa," 
which  forms  the  text  of  one  of  Von  Weber's  operas. 
Died  in  1828. 

Wolffhart.     See  LYCOSTHENES. 

Wolffl  or  Woelffl,  wolf],  (JOSEPH,)  an  eminent 
German  composer  and  pianist,  born  at  Salzburg  in  1772, 
was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Haydn  and  Leopold  Mozart. 
In  1795  he  visited  Vienna,  where  he  was  received  with 
enthusiasm,  and  subsequently  resided  for  a  time  in  Paris 
as  music-teacher  to  the  empress  Josephine.  He  died 
in  London  about  1812.  His  compositions  are  chiefly 
operas,  and  pieces  for  the  piano.  As  a  pianist,  he  was 
regarded  as  scarcely  inferior  to  Beethoven. 

Wolfgang,  woolf 'gang,  [Ger.  pron.  wolf'gang,]  Prince 
of  Anhalt,  a  German  Reformer  and  adherent  of  Luther, 
was  born  in  1492.  Having  taken  up  arms  against  the 
Imperialists,  he  was  outlawed  by  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
in  1547.  Died  in  1566. 

Wolfius.     See  WOLF. 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach.     See  ESCHENBACH, 

VON. 

Wolfter,  wolf'ter,  (PETER,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Mannheim  in  1758.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  the 
German  empire.  Died  in  1805. 

Wolgemuth.     See  \VOHLGF.MUTH. 

Wolke,  wol'keh,  (CHRISTIAN  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Jever  in  1741  ; 
died  in  1825. 

Wollaston,  wool'las-ton,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English 
writer  on  ethics  and  theology,  was  born  in  Staffordshire 
in  1659.  He  studied  at  Sidney  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1681.  His  principal 
work,  entitled  "The  Religion  of  Nature  Delineated," 
(1724.)  obtained  extensive  popularity,  and  was  translated 
into  French.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  critical,  philo 
sophical,  and  theological  treatises.  Died  in  1724. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica ;''  CLARKE,  "Life  of  Wollaston," 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  "The  Religion  of  Nature." 


Wollaston,  (WILLIAM  HYDE,)  an  eminent  English 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1766. 
He  was  a  son  of  Francis  Wollaston,  an  astronomer, 
who  was  a  grandson  of  William,  noticed  above.  Having 
been  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  studied  medicine,  and 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1793;  but  he  soon  re 
nounced  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  devoted  himself 
to  scientific  researches.  He  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1806,  and  president  of  the  same 
in  1820.  He  invented  the  reflecting  goniometer,  by 
which  the  angles  of  crystals  are  measured,  and  the 
camera  lucicla,  (1812.)  About  1802  he  verified  the  laws 
of  double  refraction  in  Iceland  spar,  announced  by 
Huyghens,  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Oblique  Re 
fraction  of  Iceland  Crystal."  He  acquired  wealth  by 
the  manufacture  of  platinum  by  an  improved  method, 
having  been  the  first  who  reduced  that  metal  into  ingots 
in  a  state  of  purity.  About  1805  he  discovered  the 
metals  palladium  and  rhodium.  He  contributed  thirty- 
eight  memoirs  to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions." 
The  identity  of  galvanism  with  common  electricity  was 
first  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Wollaston.  He  was  a  very 
skilful  experimenter  and  accurate  observer.  Among  his 
valuable  inventions  is  a  chemical  sliding-rule,  by  which 
the  equivalents  of  substances  are  readily  ascertained, 
and  an  ingenious  method  of  rendering  platinum  malle 
able.  The  latter  was  published  just  before  his  death. 
Died  in  December,  1828. 


Wolle,  wol'leh,  (CHRISTOI-H,)  a  German  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1700,  was  well  versed  in  the 
Oriental  languages.  Died  in  1761. 

Wolleb/wol'lep,  [Lat.  Woi.i.F/mus,]  (JOHANN,)  a 
Swiss  divine,  born  at  Bale  in  1536.  He  was  professor 
in  the  University  of  Bale,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Summary  of  Theology,"  ("Compendium  Theologice,") 
which  is  highly  commended.  Died  in  1626. 

Wollebius.     See  WOLLF.I!. 

Wollner  or  Woellner,  von,  fon  wol'ner,  (JOIIANN 
CHRISTIAN,)  a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Dovritz  about 
1730.  He  was  ennobled  by  Frederick  William  II.  in 
1786,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  state  and  justice, 
and  director  of  ecclesiastic  affairs,  in  1788.  He  insisted 
on  rigid  orthodoxy  in  the  clergy.  Died  in  1800. 

Wollstonecraft, \vooKston-kraft,  (MARY,)  afterwards 
MRS.  GODWIN,  a  celebrated  English  authoress,  born  in 
1759.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  place  of  her  birth  ; 
but  her  parents  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  London  when 
she  was  about  sixteen  years  old.  Owing  to  the  poverty 
of  her  family,  and  the  violent  temper  of  her  father,  her 
early  training,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  was  very 
defective.  Having  by  her  own  exertions  fitted  herself  to 
be  a  teacher,  she  opened  a  school  at  Islington  in  1783, 
in  which  she  was  assisted  by  two  sisters  and  an  intimate 
friend.  In  1786  she  published  her  first  work,  entitled 
"Thoughts  on  the  Education  of  Daughters."  She  next 
translated  into  English  Salzmann's  "Elements  of  Mo 
rality,"  and  Lavater's  "Physiognomy."  In  1791  she 
wrote  an  answer  to  Burke's  "  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution,"  which  was  soon  followed  by  her  "  Vindi 
cation  of  the  Rights  of  Woman."  In  1792  she  visited 
Paris,  where  she  wrote  "  A  Moral  and  Historical  View  of 
the  French  Revolution."  About  this  time  she  formed  an 
unfortunate  attachment  to  an  American  named  Imlay, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  desertion,  twice  attempted  to 
destroy  herself.  In  1795,  having  business  in  Norway, 
she  travelled  in  that  country  and  in  Sweden,  and,  on 
her  return,  published  "  Letters  from  Norway."  This 
work  shows  great  shrewdness  and  powers  of  observation, 
and  contains  many  fine  descriptive  passages.  Mary 
Wollstonecraft  was  married  to  Godwin,  the  celebrated 
novelist,  in  1796,  and  died  in  1797,  after  giving  birth 
to  a  daughter,  who  became  the  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley. 

See  WILLIAM  GODWIN,  "Life  of  Mary  Godwin;"  MRS.  ELWOOD, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commence 
ment  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  (1843;)  "Monthly  Review"  for 
June,  1792,  April,  1795,  and  July,  1796. 

Wolmar,  wol'maR,  or  Volkmar,  volk'maR,  (MEL- 
CHIOR,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  Hellenist,  born  at  Rothweil 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WQLOWSK1 


2289 


WOOD 


about  1497.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Tubingen,  and 
taught  Greek  to  Calvin.  Died  in  1561. 

Wolowski,  vo-lov'skee,  (LEWIS  FRANCIS  MICHAEL 
RAYMOND,)  a  political  economist,  born  at  Warsaw  in 
1810,  is  a  member  of  the  Institute  of  France. 

Wolsey,  wool'ze,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  English 
courtier  and  cardinal,  born  at  Ipswich  in  1471.  His 
origin  was  rather  obscure.  According  to  a  doubtful 
tradition,  he  was  the  son  of  a  butcher.  1  le  was  educated 
at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  the 
degree  of  B.  A.  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  his  college,  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Lymington  in  1500.  Soon 
after  that  date  he  became  chaplain  to  Henry  VII.,  and 
was  sent  on  a  delicate  mission  to  the  emperor  Maxi 
milian,  which  he  performed  with  great  celerity  and  suc 
cess.  He  obtained  in  1508  the  lucrative  place  of  Dean 
of  Lincoln.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII. , 
Wolsey's  patron  Bishop  Fox  procured  his  appointment 
as  royal  almoner.  Having  excellent  qualifications  for  a 
courtier,  he  gained  the  special  favour  of  the  young  king, 
and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He  became  Canon  of  Wind 
sor  in  151 1,  Dean  of  York  and  Bishop  of  Tournay  in 
1513,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  March,  1514,  Archbishop  of 
York  in  September,  1514,  and  cardinal  in  1515.  About 
the  end  of  the  last-named  year  he  was  appointed  chan 
cellor.  He  was  now  the  prime  favourite  and  chief 
minister  of  Henry  VIII.  In  his  style  of  living  he  dis 
played  a  princely  magnificence.  He  had  supeiior  talents 
for  business,  and  understood  the  public  interests,  which 
he  seems  to  have  promoted  except  when  they  interfered 
with  his  ambition.  His  favour  and  influence  were  courted 
by  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  when  they  became  (1519) 
competitors  for  the  imperial  crown.  Wolsey  aspired  to 
the  papacy,  and  was  a  candidate  for  it  at  the  death  of  Leo 
X.,  in  1522.  When  he  was  defeated,  he  showed  his  re 
sentment  against  Charles  V.  because  that  monarch  failed 
to  support  his  pretensions.  He  built  a  grand  palace  at 
Hampton  Court,  which  he  presented  to  Henry  VIII. 

"The  numerous  enemies,"  says  Hume,  ''  whom  Wol 
sey's  sudden  elevation,  his  aspiring  character,  and  his 
haughty  deportment  had  raised  him,  served  only  to 
rivet  him  faster  in  Henry's  confidence.  .  .  .  That  artful 
prelate  likewise,  well  acquainted  with  the  king's  impe 
rious  temper,  concealed  from  him  the  absolute  ascendant 
which  he  had  acquired,  and,  while  he  secretly  directed 
all  public  councils,  he  ever  pretended  a  blind  submission 
to  the  will  and  authority  of  his  master."  ("  History  of 
England,"  vol.  iii.)  In  1523  he  was  appointed  legate  of 
the  pope  for  life.  Wolsey  fortified  the  king's  scruples 
in  relation  to  his  marriage  with  Queen  Catherine,  partly 
with  a  view  of  promoting  a  breach  with  Charles  V.  ;  but 
he  lost  the  favour  of  Henry,  probably  because  he  failed 
to  gain  the  pope's  consent  to  the  divorce  of  Catherine. 
The  enmity  of  Anne  Boleyn  also  contributed  to  his  fall. 
In  October,  1529,  the  great  seal  was  taken  from  him. 
An  indictment  was  laid  against  him  that  he  had  pro 
cured  bulls  from  Rome,  contrary  to  a  statute  of  Richard 
H.  The  court  pronounced  against  him  a  sentence  by 
which  his  lands  and  goods  were  forfeited  ;  but  Henry 
granted  him  a  pardon  for  all  offences.  He  was  soon  after 
again  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason  ;  but  before  his  trial 
began  he  died,  at  Leicester  Abbey,  in  November,  1530. 

See  T.  STORER,  "Life  of  Thomas  Wolsey,"  1590:  G.  CAVEN 
DISH,  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  1641  ;  FIDDES,  "  Li'e  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey,"  1724  :  J.  GROVE,  "  History  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  4  vols., 
1742-44;  J.  GAI.T,  "Life  and  Administration  of  Wolsey,"  1812; 
FKOUDE,  "  History  of  England  ;"  BURTON,  "  History  of  Scotland," 
vol.  i  i.,  particularly  pp.  279,  280:  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  States 
men. "in  LARDNER'S  "  Cyclopaedia  :"  SHAKSPEAKE,  "Henry  VIII." 

Woltmami,  von,  fon  wolt'man,  (KARI.  LUDWIG,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Oldenbura;  in  1770.  He  pub 
lished  a  "History  of  Great  Britain,"  (1799,)  a  "History 
of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1809.)  a  continuation  of 
Schiller's  "Thirty  Years'  War,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1817. 

His  wife,  CAROLINE  VON  WOI.TMANN,  origin-ally 
named  SrosCH,  (stosh,)  was  the  author  of  several  his 
torical  and  fictitious  compositions.  Died  in  1847. 

Wolzogen,  wolt-so'gen,  (TOHANN  LunwtG,)  a  G'er- 
man  Socinian  writer,  born  in  Austria  in  1596;  died:  near 
Breslau  in  1658. 


Wolzogeii,  van,  vtu  wol-zo'gen  or  wol  zo'Hen, 
(Louis,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Amersfort  in  1632. 
He  preached  at  Amsterdam  in  the  Walloon  church,  and 
wrote  several  theological  works.  Died  in  1690. 

Wolzogen,  von,  fon  wolt-so'gen,  (JUSTUS  LUDWIG,) 
BARON,  a  Prussian  general,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1773, 
was  a  step-son  of  Karoline  von  Wolzogen,  noticed 
below.  He  served  against  the  French  in  the  principal 
campaigns  from  1807  to  1815,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  of  infantry.  Died  in  1845. 

Wolzogeii,  von,  (KAROLINE,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Rudolstadt  in  1763.  Her  original  name  was  LENGS- 
FELD,  and  she  was  a  sister-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Schiller.  She  published  in  1798  a  romance  entitled 
"Agnes  von  Lilien,"  which  was  received  with  great 
favour.  Her  "  Life  of  Schiller,  drawn  from  the  Recol 
lections  of  his  Family,"  etc.,  came  out  in  1830,  in  2 
vols.  It  gives  a  highly  interesting  and  truthful  delinea 
tion  of  the  life  and  character  of  that  great  poet.  Died 
in  1847. 

Womock,  woo'mok,  or  Wo'mack,  (LAWRENCE,) 
an  English  theologian,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1612.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  controversies  of  the  time, 
and  wrote  against  the  Puritans  and  the  nonconformists. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1683.  Died  in 
1685. 

Wood,  (Sir  ANDREW,)  an  able  Scottish  admiral, 
born  about  1455.  He  fought  against  the  English.  Died 
about  1540. 

See  CHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Wood,  f  ANTHONY  A,)  an  English  antiquarian  writer, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1632.  He  studied  at  Merton  College, 
and  attained  great  proficiency  in  music  and  the  science 
of  heraldry.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Oxford,"  translated  into  Latin  by  Dr. 
Fell,  (1674,)  and  "Athenae  Oxonienses,  an  Exact  His 
tory  of  all  the  Writers  and  Bishops  who  have  had  their 
Education  in  the  University  of  Oxford  from  1500  to 
1695,"  etc.  Died  in  1695. 

See  R.  RAWLINSON,  "Life  of  Anthony  a  Wood,"  1711;  AI.I.I- 
BONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wood,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  G.C.B.,  an  English  states 
man,  born  at  Pontefract  in  1800.  He  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Great 
Grimsby  in  1826.  and  returned  for  Wareham  in  1831. 
He  was  afterwards  successively  secretary  to  the  treasury 
and  to  the  admiralty,  and  in  1846  became  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer.  He  resigned  in  1852.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  India  in  1859,  which  position  he 
resigned  in  1866,  or  before  that  date. 

Wood,  (FERNANDO,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Philadelphia  about  1812.  He  became  a  merchant  of 
New  York  City,  was  elected  to  Congress  bv  the  Demo 
crats  in  1841,  and  was  chosen  mayor  of  New  York  in 
1854.  lie  was  re-elected  mayor,  and  in  January,  1861, 
recommended  that  New  York  should  secede  and  become 
a  free  city.  He  was  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1868 
and  1870. 

Wood,  (GEORGE  B.,)  M.D.,  LL.D-.,  an  eminent 
American  physician  and  medical  writer,  was-  born  in 
Greenwich,  Cumberland  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1797. 
His  parents  were  Friends  ;  his  great-grandfather,  Richard 
Wood,  was  a  county  judge  in  1748.  The  education  of 
Dr.  Wood  was  begun  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
1815  he  graduated  with  the  first  honours  in  the  aca 
demical  department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  office  of  Dr.  Joseph  Parrish, 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  the  University  of  Penn 
sylvania  in  1818.  He  delivered  in  1820  a  course  of  lec 
tures  on  chemistry,  and  was  appointed  in  1822  to  the 
chafr  of  chemistry,  and  in  1831  to  that  of  materia  medicn, 
in  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.  In  1835  he 
was  elected  professor  of  materia  medica  and  pharmacy 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  a  position  which  he 
filled  with  great  distinction  for  fifteen  years.  In  1850 
I  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  the  theory  and  prac 
tice  of  medicine  in  the  same  institution.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  1860.  As  a  lecturer,.  Dr.  Wood  was 
eminently  successful.  While  filling  the  chair  of  materia 
medica  at  the  university,  he  procured  and  exhibited  to 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  xy,nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

144 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WOOD 


2290 


WOODDESON 


the  students,  at  great  expense,  many  living  specimens 
of  rare  tropical  and  other  exotic  plants  which  he  had 
occasion  to  treat  of  in  his  lectures  ;  and  he  has  doubt 
less  clone  more  than  any  other  individual  of  his  time  to 
advance  the  interests  and  reputation  of  the  institution 
with  which  lie  was  connected.  In  1865  he  endowed  an 
auxiliary  faculty  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Penn 
sylvania,  composed  of  five  chairs:  namely, — I.  Zoology 
and  Comparative  Anatomy ;  2.  Botany;  3.  Mineralogy 
and  Geology;  4.  Hygiene  ;  5.  Medical  Jurisprudence  and 
Toxicology  ;  the  incumbent  of  each  chair  being  required 
to  deliver,  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June, 
not  less  than  thirty-four  lectures  every  year. 

Among  Dr.  Wood's  various  publications  we  may  name 
a  "History  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,"  (1827,) 
a  "  Treatise  on  the  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1847,) 
which  has  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  has 
been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  medical  department 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Therapeutics  and  Pharmacology,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1856.) 
In  addition  to  the  above,  he  prepared,  conjointly  with 
Dr.  Franklin  Bache,  in  1830,  a  "  Pharmacopoeia,"  which 
was  adopted,  with  slight  alterations  made  under  the 
superintendence  of  its  authors,  by  the  national  convention 
of  physicians  assembled  for  that  purpose,  and  which 
became  the  basis  of  the  present  "  United  States  Phar 
macopoeia  ;"  and  the  "  United  States  Dispensatory,"  (first 
published  in  1833.)  Of  this  admirable  work  the  first 
idea  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Wood,  who  also  wrote  about 
two-thirds  of  the  original  work,  and  he  had  the  entire 
superintendence  of  the  preparation  of  the  last  edition, 
(published  since  the  death  of  Dr.  Bache,)  thoroughly 
revised  and  brought  down  to  near  the  present  time. 
More  than  120,000  copies  of  this  work  have  been  (1870) 
sold  since  its  first  publication. 

In  1859  Dr.  Wood  was  elected  president  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  which  position  he  still 
holds. 

Wood,  (ISAAC,)  an  English  painter  and  humorist, 
born  in  1689  ;  died  in  1752. 

Wood,  (JAMKS,)  an  English  millionaire  and  miser, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1756,  became  proprietor  of  the 
Old  Gloucester  Bank.  He  also  at  the  same  time  kept 
a  small  shop,  which  he  attended  diligently.  He  died  in 
1836,  leaving  his  fortune  to  his  four  executors. 

"Wood,  (JicTHRO,)  distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  a 
greatly-improved  form  of  the  cast-iron  plough,  was  born 
in  Washington  county,  New  York,  in  1774.  He  is  said 
to  have  commenced  forming  models  of  ploughs  when 
he  was  a  boy.  In  1819  he  completed  his  great  inven 
tion,  which,  by  its  simple  construction,  its  cheapness,  and 
its  efficiency,  soon  superseded  the  old  style  of  ploughs 
throughout  the  United  States.  Mr.  Wood  resided  in 
Cayuga  county,  New  York,  where  he  died  in  1834. 

"Wood,  (JOHN,)  an  English  architect,  commonly  called 
WOOD  OF  BATH.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "Origin 
of  Building,"  etc.,  and  an  "  Essay  towards  a  Description  of 
Bath,"  v.-liich  city  he  greatly  improved  and  embellished. 
Died  in  1754. 

Wood,  (Rev.  JOHN  GEORGE,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  in  1827.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Common  Objects  of  the  Sea-Shore,"  (1857,) 
"The  Illustrated  Natural  History,"  (3  vols.,  1859-63,) 
which  is  said  to  be  a  work  of  great  value,  and  a  "  Pop 
ular  Natural  History,"  (1866.) 

Wood,  (Sir  MATTHEW,)  M.P.,  an  English  magistrate, 
born  at  Tiverton  in  1768.  He  became  lord  mayor  of 
London  in  1815,  and  again  in  1816.  He  saved  the  lives 
of  three  men  unjustly  condemned  on  false  evidence. 
Died  in  1 843. 

"Wood,  (RoKEKT,)  an  eminent  archaeologist,  known 
also  as  PALMYRA  WOOD,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Meath,  Ireland,  in  1716.  Having  studied  at  Oxford,  he 
visited  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  the  "Ruins  of  Palmyra,"  (1753,  with  57 
plates,)  and  "Ruins  of  Balbeck,"  (1757,  with  47  plates.) 
He  also  wrote  "An  Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  and 
Writings  of  Homer,"  etc.,  which  was  translated  into 
several  languages.  Died  in  1771. 

Wood,  (THOMAS  JEFEERSON,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1825,  graduated  at  West  Point 


in  1845.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  Union 
volunteers  about  October,  1861.  He  commanded  a  di 
vision  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  January 
2,  1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20  of 
the  same  year.  He  served  under  General  Sherman  in  the 
campaign  against  Atlanta,  May-August,  and  commanded 
a  corps  at  the  great  battle  of  Nashville,  December  15 
and  1 6,  1864. 

Wood,  (Sir  WILLIAM  PAGE,)  Lord  Hatherley,  an 
English  lawyer,  born  probably  in  London  in  1801.  He 
graduated  with  honour  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1827.  About  1847  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford  as  a  Lib 
eral.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1851,  and 
a  vice-chancellor  in  December,  1852.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  lord  justice  of  appeal  when  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  December,  1868, 
and  then  received  the  title  of  Lord  Hatherley. 

Wood'all,  (wood'al,)  (JoiiN,)  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1556,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Plague," 
"The  Surgeon's  Mate,"  a  description  of  the  diseases  of 
sailors,  and  other  works.  He  became  surgeon  to  Saint 
Bartholomew's  Hospital. 

Wood'bridge,  (BENJAMIN,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  1622,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1642. 
He  preached  at  Newbury,  (England,)  from  which  he 
was  ejected  in  1662.  He  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1684. 

Wood'bridge,  (TIMOTHY,)  a  blind  American 
preacher,  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1784, 
was  a  grandson  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  was  minister 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Spencertown,  Columbia 
county,  New  York,  from  1818  to  1851.  Died  in  Decem 
ber,  1862. 

Woodbridge,  (WILLIAM  CHANNING,)  an  American 
educational  writer,  born  at  Medford,  Massachusetts,  in 
1794.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mrs.  Willard,  a 
"Universal  Geography,"  "Letters  from  Hofwyl,"  de 
scribing  Pestalozzi's  system  of  school  instruction,  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1845. 

Woodbury,  wofxl'ber-e,  (DANIEL  P.,)  an  American 
general  and  engineer,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  gradu 
ated  at  West  Point  in  1836.  He  became  a  captain  of 
engineers  in  1853,  and  commanded  the  engineer  brigade 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862.  He  died  of  fever, 
at  Key  West,  in  August,  1864,  aged  fifty-one. 

Woodbury,  (LEVI,)  an  American  jurist  and  states 
man,  born  at  Francestown,  New  Hampshire,  in  Decem 
ber,  1789.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1809, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812.  lie 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  in  1817, 
settled  at  Portsmouth  in  1819,  and  was  elected  Governor 
of  New  Hampshire  in  1823.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  from  1825  to  1831,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  about  April  of  that  year.  In  June 
or  July,  1834,  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Jackson.  He  continued  to  fill  that 
office  under  Mr.  Van  Buren  until  March,  1841  ;  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  New  Hamp 
shire  in  that  year.  He  voted  against  the  repeal  of  the 
Sub-Treasury  act,  and  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  to 
the  Union,  (1844.)  About  the  end  of  1845  he  was  ap 
pointed  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  in  place  of  Joseph  Story.  He  died  at  Ports 
mouth  in  September,  1851.  A  collection  of  his  "Po 
litical,  Judicial,  and  Literary  Writings"  was  published 
in  3  vols.,  (1852.) 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Woodd,  wood,  (BASIL,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1760,  was  rector  of  Saint  Peter's,  Cornhill. 
He  published  "Advice  to  Youth,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1831. 

Wood'de-son,  (RICHARD,)  an  eminent  English  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1745.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  succeeded  Sir  Robert  Chambers  as 
Vinerian  professor  of  law.  He  published  "Elements  of 
Jurisprudence,"  etc.,  (1783,)  "A  Systematical  View  of 
the  Laws  of  England,"  etc..  (1792,)  and  a  "  Brief  Vin 
dication  of  the  Rights  of  the  British  Legislature,"  (1799,) 
which  are  esteemed  standard  works.  Died  in  1822. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moor.; 


WQODFJLL 


2291 


Wood'fall,  (HENRY  SAMPSON,)  an  English  journalist, 

was  editor  of  the  "Public  Advertiser"  at  the  time  the 
"  Letters  of  Junius"  appeared  in  its  columns.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  retentive  memory  and  his  extra 
ordinary  talents  as  a  reporter,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
written  "sixteen  columns  after  having  sat  in  a  crowded 
gallery  for  as  many  hours  without  an  interval  of  rest." 
Died  in  1803.  His  brother  WILLIAM  was  editor  suc 
cessively  of  "The  London  Packet,"  "The  Morning 
Chronicle,"  and  "The  Diary." 

Wood'ford,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  in  London  in  1636.  He  obtained  a  prebend 
at  Winchester  in  1680.  Died  in  1700. 

Wood'head,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Yorkshire  about  1608.  He  wrote  several  con 
troversial  works  against  the  Protestants.  Died  in  1678. 

Wood/house,  ( ROBERT,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Norwich  in  1773.  He  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge  in  1820, 
and  Phmiian  professor  of  astronomy  in  1822.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Principles  of  Analytical 
Calculation,"  (1803,)  a  "Treatise  on  Isoperimetrical 
Problems,"  (1810,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Physical  As 
tronomy,"  (2  vols.,  1812-18,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Observatory 
in  1824.  Died  in  1827. 

Woodhouselee,  LORD.  See  TYTI.ER,  (ALEXAN 
DER  K.) 

Woods, (LEONARD,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Princeton,  Massachusetts,  in  1774.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College,  and  was  appointed  in  1808  professor 
of  theology  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  which 
post  he  occupied  for  nearly  forty  years.  He  was  an 
active  member  of  the  American  Tract  Society,  the 
Temperance  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions. 
Died  in  1854. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  became  in  1839  presi 
dent  of  Bo\vdoin  College,  and  has  translated  from  the 
German  Knapp's  "Lectures  on  Christian  Theology." 

Woodville,  (ANTHONY.)     See  RIVERS,  EARL  OF. 

Woodville    or    Wydeville,   (ELIZABETH.)     See 

El.IZAUETH   WOODVILLE. 

Woodville,  wood'vil,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  physi 
cian,  born  at  Cockermouth  in  1752.  He  took  his  degree 
at  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  settled  in  London,  where 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Smallpox  Hospital. 
I  le  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Medical  ISotany," 
(4  vols.  dto,  1790.)  He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Smallpox  in  Great  Britain,"  (unfinished.)  Died  in  1805. 

Wood'ward,  (BERNARD  BOLINGBROKK,)  an  English 
historian,  born  at  Norwich  in  1816.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  Wales,"  (1851,)  a  "History  of  America,"  and 
other  works.  In  1816  he  became  librarian  to  the  queen 
at  Windsor. 

Woodward,  (HsNRY,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in 
London  in  1717.  He  published  several  dramatic  pieces. 
Died  in  1777. 

Woodward,  (JoHN,)  an  English  geologist,  physician, 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1665.  He  pub 
lished  in  1695. "A  Natural  History  of  the  Earth,"  con 
taining  the  results  of  his  observations  during  a  scientific- 
tour  in  England.  This  work,  which  presented  new  and 
important  truths  in  relation  to  geology,  was  received 
with  great  favour,  though  the  errors  it  contains  excited 
considerable  opposition.  Dr.  Woodward  became  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Gresham  College.  He  was  also  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  College  of 
Physicians.  His  other  principal  works  are  "  An  Account 
of  Roman  Urns  and  other  Antiquities  lately  dug  up 
near  Bishopsgate,"  (1707,)  and  an  "Attempt  towards 
a  Natural  History  of  the  Fossils  of  England."  The 
latter  came  out  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1728. 

Wood'ward,  (SAMUEL  BAYARD,)  M.D.,  an  Ameri 
can  physician*,  born  at  Torrington,  Connecticut,  in  1787, 
became  in  1832  superintendent  of  the  State  Lunatic 
Asylum  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  Died  in  1850. 

Wood'ward,  (SAMUEL  P.,)  an  English  geologist,  a 
brother  of  Bernard  B.  Woodward,  noticed  above,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1821,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  Woodward, 
author.  Me  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  and 
geology  in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  in  1845.  He 


contributed  to  several  scientific  periodicals,  and  pub 
lished  a  "Manual  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells,"  (1851- 
56.)  Died  in  1865. 

Wood'worth,  (SAMUEL,)  an  American  journalist 
and  poet,  born  at  Scituate,  Massachusetts,  in  1785.  In 
1823  he  founded,  conjointly  with  George  P.  Morris,  the 
"  New  York  Mirror."  He  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  lyrics,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  The  Old  Oaken 
Bucket,"  has  been  very  popular.  Died  in  1842. 

Wool,  (JOHN  E.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  New- 
burg,  New  York,  in  1789.  lie  entered  the  army  in 
April,  1812,  and  served  as  captain  at  Queenstown  in  Oc 
tober  of  that  year.  He  became  inspector-general  of  the 
army  in  1821,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
in  1841.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of 
Bucna  Vista,  February,  1847.  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  lie  took 
command  of  Fortress  Monroe  and  the  department  of 
Virginia,  August  16,  1861,  and  occupied  Norfolk,  May 
to,  1862.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general  of 
the  regular  army,  May  16,  1862.  Died  in  1869. 

Wool'house,  (JOHN  THOMAS,)  an  English  surgeon 
and  oculist.  He  resided  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he 
published,  in  French,  several  treatises  on  diseases  of 
the  eye.  Died  in  1730. 

Wool'lett,  ( WILLIAM,)  an  eminent  English  engra%-er, 
born  in  Kent  in  1735.  His  landscapes,  both  etched  and 
engraved,  are  ranked  among  the  most  exquisite  works 
of  the  kind  ;  his  engravings  of  the  "  Death  of  General 
Wolfe"  and  the  "  Battle  of  the  Hogue,"  after  West,  arc 
also  esteemed  master-pieces.  Among  his  l>est  land 
scapes  we  may  name  "Jacob  and  Laban"  and  "  Roman 
Ruins,"  after  Claude  Lorrain,  and  "Cicero  at  his  Villa," 
"  Apollo  and  the  Seasons,"  and  "  Phaeton,"  after  Wilson. 
He  died  in  1785,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

See  STRUTT,  "  Dictionary  of  Entrr.ivers." 

Wool'man,  (JoHN,)  an  American  Quaker  preacher 
and  eminent  philanthropist,  born  in  Northampton,  near 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1720.  The  cruelties  insepa 
rable  from  negro  slavery  early  made  a  deep  impression 
on  his  mind,  and  he  laboured  long  and  zealously  to 
convince  the  people  of  the  colonies,  and  es|>ecially 
those  of  his  own  religious  persuasion,  of  the  iniquity  of 
holding  their  fellow-beings  in  bondage  ;  and  his  influ 
ence  doubtless  contributed  far  more  than  that  of  any 
other  individual  towards  inducing  the  Society  of  Friends 
to  pass  regulations  forbidding  their  members  either  to 
hold  slaves  themselves  or  in  any  way  to  encourage  that 
iniquitous  practice  in  others.  Wool  man  worked  at  the 
trade  of  a  tailor,  and  was  a  rare  example  of  conscien- 
j  tiousness,  self-denial,  humility,  and  benevolence.  Am  out; 
i  his  principal  works  are  "  Some  Considerations  on  the 
Keeping  of  Negroes,"  (1754,)  "Considerations  on  the 
True  Harmony  of  Mankind,"  (1770,)  "The  Journal  of 
the  Life  and  Travels  of  John  Woolman  in  the  Service 
of  the  Gospel,"  (1774-75,)  and  "A  Word  of  Remem 
brance  and  Caution  to  the  Rich,"  (Dublin,  1793.)  Died 
at  York,  in  England,  in  1773.  The  sensibility,  the 
loving  spirit,  and  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  character 
evinced  in  the  writings  of  Woolman  have  often  attracted 
the  admiration  of  those  who  were  far  from  endorsing 
the  peculiar  views  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Charles 
Lamb  says,  "Get  the  writings  of  John  Woolman  by 
heart,  and  love  the  early  Quakers."  ("  Essays  of  Elia.") 

See,  also,  "H.  C.  Robinson's  Diary,"  vol.  ii. 

Woolsey,  wool'se,  (MKLANCTHON  TAYLOR,)  a  naval 
officer,  born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1782,  became 
commander  of  the  Con.-tellation  in  1825.  Died  in  1838. 

Woolsey,  (THEODORE  DVVIGHT,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  American  scholar,  a  nephew  of  Pre.-ident 
Dwight,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  the  3151  of 
October,  1801.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1820. 
He  afterwards  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  the 
Greek  language  in  Germany.  He  was  appointed  in  1831 
professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  College,  of  which  he  was 
elected  president  in  1846,  as  successor  to  Dr.  Day.  He 
has  filled  this  high  position  with  distinguished  ability 
for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century.  He  has  prepared  as 
text-books  the  following  Greek  classics,  to  which  he  has 
added  valuable  notes :  "The  Alcestis  of  Euripides," 


€  as  k;  c  as  f:gkard;  g  as/,-  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  2~. 


tl'OOLSTON 


2292 


WORDSWORTH 


(first  published  in  1833,)  "The  Antigone  of  Sophocles," 
(1835,)  "The  Electra  of  Sophocles,"  (1837,)  "The  Pro 
metheus  of  vlischylus,"  (1837,)  and  "  The  Gorgias  of 
Plato,"  (1842.)  He  has  also  published  an  excellent  "In 
troduction  to  the  Study  of  International  Law,"  and  a 
volume  entitled  "Essays  on  Divorce,"  etc.,  (1869,)  and 
lias  made  important  contributions  to  the  "  New  Eng- 
lander"  and  other  literary  journals. 

See  AI.LIBONK,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wool'ston,  (TiloMAS.)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Northampton  in  1669.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
subsequently  entered  into  holy  orders.  He  published  in 
1705  "The  Old  Apology  for  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion  against  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  Revived,"  which 
was  followed  by  several  other  works  in  favour  of  an  alle 
gorical  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  For  his  "Six 
Discourses  on  the  Miracles  of  Christ,"  he  was  sentenced 
to  a  vear's  imprisonment.  Died  in  1733. 

Woos'ter,  (woos'ter,)  (DAVID,)  an  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Stratford,  Connecticut,  in 
1710.  He  served  against  the  French,  and  subsequently 
rose  to  be  major-general  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  battle  near  Kidgefield  in  1777. 

Woot'ton  or  Wooton,  (JoHN.)  an  English  painter 
of  animals,  landscapes,  etc.,  born  about  1720  or  earlier. 
He  painted  horses  and  sporting-scenes.  Died  in  1765. 

Woo-Wang  or  Wou-Wang,  woo'wang',  the  founder 
of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Chow,  (or  Tcheou,)  was  born 
about  1169  li.C.  He  obtained  the  throne  about  1122  by 
a  victory  over  the  army  of  the  reigning  emperor.  He  is 
represented  as  a  great  reformer  and  lawgiver.  Died  in 
1116  H.C. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle. " 

Wopcke  or  Woepcke,  <vop'keh,  (FRANZ,)  a  Ger 
man  mathematician  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Dessau  in 
1826.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject  of 
mathematics  among  the  Orientals,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  same.  He  died  in  Paris  in  1864. 

See  NARDi'CCt,  "  Intnrno  alia  Vita  di  Fr.  Woepcke."  Rome,  1864; 
"  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Worcester,  woos'ter,  (EDWARD  SOMKRSKT,)  MAR 
QUIS  OK,  an  English  peer,  distinguished  as  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  steam-engine,  was  born  in  1601.  He 
was  styled  LORD  HKRBKRT  chirinc  the  life  of  his  father. 
He  was  an  active  partisan  of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil 
war,  raised  troops  at  his  own  expense,  and  spent  in  the 
cause  a  great  sum  of  money,  which  was  never  repaid.  He 
had  an  inventive  genius  and  superior  mechanical  talents. 
He  resided  at  Raglan  Castle,  in  Monmouthshire.  After 
the  restoration  of  1660  he  impoverished  himself  by  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  in  scientific  experiments.  In 
1663  Parliament  passed  an  act  to  enable  the  marquis  to 
receive  the  benefit  and  profit  of  "a  water-commanding 
engine"  invented  by  him.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
published  a  curious  work,  entitled  a  "Century  of  the 
Names  and  Scantlings  of  Inventions,"  and  constructed 
at  Vauxhall  a  machine  which  he  cal'ed  a  water-engine. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  first  steam-engine  ever 
made.  He  was  regarded  as  a  visionary  projector  by  his 
contemporaries.  Died  in  1667. 

See  HENKV  DIRCKS.  "  Life,  Times,  and  Scientific  Labours  of  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester,"  1865. 

Worcester,  woos'ter,  (Josr.pii  EMKRSON,)  a  distin 
guished  American  lexicographer,  born  at  Bedford,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1784.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1811.  He  published  a  "Universal  Gazetteer,"  (2 
vols.,  1817,)  a  "Gazetteer  of  the  United  States,"  (1818,) 
"  Elements  of  Geography,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1819,) 
and  other  works  on  geography.  He  removed  to  Cam 
bridge,  Massachusetts,  about  1820.  In  18^0  he  pro 
duced  a  "Comprehensive  Pronouncing  and  Explanatory 
Dictionary,"  and  in  1846  a  "Universal  and  Critical 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (i  vol.  410,) 
which  ranks  with  the  very  best  works  of  the  kind  in 
our  language.  Died  in  1865. 

See  AI.UBOXE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Nortli  American 
Review''  for  January,  1^47. 

Worcester,  (NoAH,)  D.D.,  a  learned  American  Con- 
gregational  divine,  and  one  of  the  most  prominent  of 
the  early  advocates  of  Unitarianism  in  New  England, 
was  born  at  Hollis,  New  Hampshire,  in  1758.  One  of 


his  first  publications,  entitled  "  Bible  News  of  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  was  strongly  condemned  by  the 
orthodox  clergy.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name 
"A  Solemn  Review  of  the  Custom  of  War,"  which  had 
a  great  popularity  and  was  translated  into  several  lan 
guages,  "The  Causes  and  Evils  of  Contention  among 
Christians,"  (1831,)  and  "Last  Thoughts  on  Important 
Subjects,"  (1833.)  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the 
"  Friend  of  Peace."  Died  in  1837. 

Worcester,  (SAMirKi.,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Hollis,  New  Hampshire,  in  1770.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Tabernacle  Church,  Salem,  Massa 
chusetts.  Died  in  1821.  His  son  SAMUEL  MKLANC- 
THoN  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Amherst  College. 

Worde,  de,  deli  waurcl,  ?  (\VYNKIN,)  an  eminent 
printer,  who  assisted  Caxton  in  London,  printed  many 
works  after  the  death  of  Caxton.  Died  about  1534. 

Wor'den,  (JOHN  LOKIMKK,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Westchester  county,  New  York, 
March  12,  1818.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1834,  and  be 
came  a  lieutenant  in  1840.  In  April,  1861,  he  was  sent 
as  a  bearer  of  despatches  to  Fort  Pickens  or  Pensacol.i. 
He  was  arrested  as  he  was  returning  by  land,  and  kept 
in  prison  seven  months.  He  commanded  the  floating 
battery  Monitor,  which  was  armed  with  two  n-inch 
smooth-bore  D:ihlgren  guns,  carrying  a  shot  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  pounds,  and  which  left  New 
York  March  6,  1862.  He  arrived  at  Hampton  Roads 
on  the  evening  of  the  8th,  after  the  iron-clad  Merrim.ic 
had  destroyed  the  wooden  frigates  Cumberland  and 
Congress.  On  the  morning  of  the  gth  a  memorable 
and  indecisive  battle  was  fought  by  the  Merrimac  and 
Monitor,  the  former  of  which  was  partly  disabled  and 
abandoned  the  fight,  after  several  violent  collisions  with 
the  Monitor.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander 
in  the  summer  of  1862,  became  a  captain  in  February, 
1863,  and  commanded  the  iron-clad  Mon'auk  in  the 
operations  against  Fort  Sumter  in  April  of  that  year. 
In  June,  1868,  he  was  appointed  a  commodore. 

See  HE -\ni.EV.  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders."  iSfi/. 

Wordsworth,  wurdz'worth,  (Cn ARI.KS,)  an  English 
bishop,  a  nephew  of  the  poet  William  Wordsworth,  was 
burn  in  1806.  lie  published  a  "  Greek  Grammar," 
(1839,)  "Christian  Boyhood  at  a  Public  School,"  and 
other  works,  mostly  religious.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Saint  Andrew's,  Dunkeld,  and  Dunblane,  in  1852. 

Wordsworth,  (CHRISTOPHKR,)  D.D.,  born  at  Cock- 
ermouth,  in  Cumberland,  in  1774.  was  father  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  poet,  noticed 
below.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1799.  He  was 
successively  appointed  chaplain  to  the  House  of  Com 
mons,  master  of  Trinity  College,  and  rector  of  Buxted 
and  Uck field.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Biography,  or  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Men  connected  with 
the  Hi.-tory  of  Religion  in  England,"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1809,) 
"Christian  Institutes,"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1837,)  a  collection 
of  sermons,  and  two  works  on  the  authorship  of  "  Icon 
Basilike."  Died  in  1846. 

Wordsworth,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  D.D.,  youngest  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1808.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.,  and  soon  after  entered  into  holy  orders.  He 
became  head-master  of  Harrow  School  in  1835,  and  in 
1850  vicar  of  Stanford-in-the-Vale,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln 
in  1869.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Athens  and 
Attica:  Journal  of  a  Residence  there,"  (1836,)  "Theo- 
philtis  Anglicanus,  or  Instruction  for  the  Young  Student 
concerning  the  Church,"  etc.,  (1843,)  "On  the  Canon  of 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  on  the 
Apocrypha,"  (1848,)  and  "Memoirs  of  William  Words 
worth,  Poet-Laureate,"  (2  vols.,  1851.) 

Wordsworth,  (Wn.T.iAM,)  an  illustrious  English 
poet,  born  at  Cockermouth,  in  Cumberland,  on  the  7th 
of  April,  1770,  was  a  son  of  John  Wordsworth,  attorney- 
at-law,  and  Anne  Cookson.  About  1778  he  was  sent 
with  his  elder  brother  to  the  school  of  Hawkshead,  Lan 
cashire,  where  he  remained  until  his  eighteenth  year. 
Here,  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  wrote,  as  a  task  or 
school-exercise,  "The  Summer  Vacation,"  in  verse.  In 
October,  1787,  he  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 


a,  e, !,  o,  u,  y,  fang:  a,  e,  A,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e.  T.  o.  \\,  y.  short;  a,  e,  i,  o.  obscure:  far,  fill,  fat:  m&t:  not;  good;  moon; 


WORDSWORTH 


2293 


WORM 


bridge.  He  was  impatient  of  control,  and,  like  Milton, 
was  averse  to  the  studies  and  discipline  of  his  college. 
According  to  his  own  account,  he  "got  into  rather  an 
idle  way,  reading  nothing  but  classic  authors  according 
to  my  fancy,  and  Italian  poetry."  "  He  did  not  tread 
in  the  beaten  path  prescribed  by  academic  authority 
and  leading  to  academic  distinctions."  ("  Memoirs  of 
Wordsworth,"  by  his  nephew.)  In  the  summer  and 
autumn  of  1790  he  spent  his  vacation  in  a  pedestrian  tour 
through  France  and  among  the  Alps.  "At  the  Lake  of 
Como,"  he  writes,  "my  mind  ran  through  a  thousand 
dreams  of  happiness  which  might  be  enjoyed  upon  its 
banks,  if  heightened  by  conversation  and  the  exercise 
of  the  social  affections."  He  took  his  degree  of  B.A. 
in  January,  1791. 

Wordsworth  hailed  the  French  Revolution,  at  first, 
with  enthusiasm,  and  felt  a  strong  impulse  to  take  an 
active  part  in  it.  He  went  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of 
1791,  and  afterwards  passed  several  months  at  Orleans, 
where  he  learned  to  speak  French.  In  October,  1792, 
he  was  again  in  Paris,  and  was  intimately  connected 
with  the  Girondists.  "  He  longed  to  remain  at  Paris," 
says  his  nephew,  "but,  happily  for  him,  circumstances 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England,"  where  he  arrived 
about  the  end  of  1792.  Although  he  was  disappointed 
by  the  course  of  events  in  France,  he  still  clung  with 
tenacity  to  his  republican  principles,  which  he  avowed 
in  letters  written  after  his  return  from  France.  Some 
of  his  friends  advised  him  to  take  holy  orders;  but  he 
had  insuperable  objections  to  the  clerical  profession. 
"As  for  the  law,"  ^aid  he,  "I  have  neither  strength  of 
mind,  purse,  nor  constitution  to  engage  in  that  pursuit." 

He  opened  his  literary  career  by  the  publication  of 
two  poems, '"The  Evening  Walk,  addressed  to  a  Young 
Lady,"  (1793,)  an<^  "Descriptive  Sketches  taken  during 
a  Pedestrian  Tour  among  the  Alps,"  (1793.)  His  pecu 
niary  circumstances  at  this  period  were  distressing.  In 
November,  1794,  he  requested  a  friend  to  procure  him 
employment  as  a  contributor  to  a  London  paper,  and 
insisted  that  it  must  be  an  organ  of  the  opposition. 
He  was  relieved  from  the  pressure  of  poverty,  in  1795, 
by  a  legacy  of  .£900  from  his  friend  R.  Calvert.  In 
1795  or  '796  he  settled  at  Racedown,  Dorsetshire,  with 
his  sister  Dorojhy,  who  exercised  a  great  and  salu 
tary  influence  over  him.  She  cheered  his  spirits,  and 
counteracted  his  morbid  tendencies.  He  tells  us  in 
his  "Prelude"  that  she  "maintained  for  me  a  saving 
intercourse  with  my  true  self."  His  next  production 
was  "Salisbury  Plain;  or.  Guilt  and  Sorrow,"  (1796.) 
In  June,  1797,  S.  T.  Coleridge  visited  Wordsworth  at 
Racedown.  To  enjoy  the  Society  of  Coleridge,  Words 
worth  and  his  sister  removed  to  Alfoxden  in  August, 
1797.  He  wrote  there  a  number  of  short  poems,  which 
were  published  under  the  title  of  "Lyrical  Ballads," 
(1798,)  and  were  but  coldly  received.  lie.  passed  the 
winter  of  1798-99  in  Germany,  whither  he  went  in 
company  with  Coleridge.  On  his  return  he  settled  at 
Grasmere,  where  he  resided  until  1808.  lie  married 
Mary  Hutchinson  in  1802,  and  about  the  same  time 
inherited  nearly  j£t8oo  of  his  father's  estate. 

In  1 80^  he  finished  a  long  autobiographical  poem, 
called  "The  Prelude,"  containing  an  account  of  the 
cultivation  and  development  of  his  own  mind,  in  four 
teen  books,  which  remained  in  manuscript  until  his 
death.  "  I  began  this  work,"  says  the  author,  "  because 
I  was  unprepared  to  treat  any  more  arduous  subjects." 
Henceforth  he  resolved  to  devote  his  energies  to  a  phi 
losophical  poem,  entitled  "The  Recluse." 

He  published  in  1807  two  volumes  of  poetry,  contain 
ing  numerous  odes,  sonnets,  etc.  His  poetical  reputa 
tion  was  not  of  rapid  growth.  He  had  some  ardent 
admirers,  but  he  was  severely  criticised  by  Lord  Jeffrey 
and  other  critics,  who  designated  Wordsworth,  Cole 
ridge,  and  Southey  as  the  Lake  School  of  poets,  because 
they  lived  in  the  lake  district  of  Cumberland  and  West 
moreland  and  described  the  scenery  of  that  beautiful 
region.  Wordsworth  resided  several  years  at  Allan 
Bank,  near  Grasmere.  He  wrote  the  letter-press  of  an 
illustrated  work,  entitled  "Select  Views  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire,"  published  in  1810  by 
J.  Wilkinson. 


In  1813  he  removed,  with  his  wife,  sister,  and  three 
surviving  children,  to  Rydal  Mount,  on  Lake  Winder- 
mere,  and  about  two  miles  distant  from  Grasmere.  Here 
he  continued  to  reside  until  his  death.  He  published  in 
1814  a  didactic  poem  entitled  "The  Excursion,"  which 
is  a  portion  of  "The  Recluse,"  and  contains  episodes 
of  great  beauty,  pathos,  and  grandeur.  It  was  con 
demned  by  the  reviewers,  and  not  appreciated  by  the 
public,  who  purchased  only  five  hundred  copies  in  six 
years.  His  literary  efforts  brought  him  no  remunera 
tion  ;  but  his  appointment  to  the  office  of  distributor  of 
stamps,  in  1813,  raised  his  income  to  an  easy  compe 
tence.  It  was  worth  about  five  hundred  pounds  a  year. 
In  1815  he  produced  "The  White  Doe  of  Rylstone." 
Among  his  other  works  are  "Peter  Bell,"  (1819,)  "Ec 
clesiastical  Sonnets,"  and  "  Yarrow  Revisited,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1835.) 

His  poetry  is  remarkable  as  evincing  an  exquisite  sen 
sibility  to  the  beauties  of  nature  under  every  form  ;  and 
one  result  of  this  mental  peculiarity  was  that  nearly  all 
his  poems  were,  as  he  tells  u«,  composed  in  the  open  air. 

He  received  a  pension  of  £500  per  annum  in  1842,  and 
was  recognized  as  the  greatest  living  poet  of  England 
when  he  succeeded  Southey  as  poet-laureate,  in  1843. 
In  his  mature  age  he  was  conservative  in  politics,  and 
a  devout  member  of  the  Anglican  Church.  He  died 
at  Rydal  Mount  on  the  23d  of  April,  1850. 

"  Wordsworth,"  says  Robert  Caruthers,  "  was  more 
original  and  philosophical  than  any  of  his  great  con 
temporaries,  and  he  has  sent  forth  strains  that  recall  the 
divine  genius  of  Milton.  .  .  .  His  taste  was  not  equal  to 
his  genius  ;  the  power  or  will  to  discriminate,  reject, 
and  condense  was  wanting.  .  .  .  Some  of  his  odes  and 
minor  poems  have  never  been  excelled."  (See  "  Ency 
clopaedia  Britannica,"  article  "  Wordsworth.")  Robert 
Southey,  who  was  his  intimate  friend,  wrote  in  a  letter 
to  B.  Barton,  December  19,  1814,  "  His  life  does  not 
belie  his  writings;  for  in  every  relation  of  life  and  every 
point  of  view  he  is  a  truly  exemplary  and  admirable 
man.  In  conversation  he  is  powerful  beyond  any  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  as  a  poet  ...  I  declare  my 
full  conviction  that  posterity  will  rank  him  with  Milton." 

"The  fame  of  Wordsworth,"  says  Ralph  W.  Emer 
son,  "is  a  leading  fact  in  modern  literature,  when  it  is 
considered  how  hostile  his  genius  at  first  seemed  to 
the  reigning  taste,  and  with  what  feeble  talent  his  great 
and  growing  dominion  has  been  established.  .  .  .  'The 
Excursion'  awakened  in  every  lover  of  Nature  the  right 
feeling."  (See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1868.) 

"  Whatever  influence,"  says  the  "Quarterly  Review," 
"  Wordsworth  may  have  exercised  on  poetic  style,  be  it 
great  or  small,  was  by  deviating  in  practice  from  the 
principles  of  composition  for  which  he  contended.  .  .  . 
In  spite  of  the  cloudy  and  unsubstantial  philosophy,  and 
its  unsuitability  to  the  condition  of  the  principal  speaker, 
in  spite,  too,  of  long  and  frequent  paragraphs  of  dreary 
prosing,  '  The  Excursion'  was  yet  a  noble  addition  to 
the  English  library.  It  owes  its  now  universal  recogni 
tion,  as  such,  to  the  beauty  of  the  pictures  of  rustic  life 
and  rural  scenes,  with  their  exquisite  accompaniment  of 
natural  feeling.  .  .  .  He  has  some  of  the  most  magical 
lines  and  stanzas  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  whole 
body  of  literature  ;  and  ideas  which  seemed  almost  to 
defy  expression  are  not  unfrequently  conveyed  in  the 
simplest,  clearest,  and  happiest  phrases." 

See  "Memoirs  of  William  Wordsworth,"  by  his  nephew.  CHRIS- 
TOPIIHR  WORDSWORTH,  2  vols.,  1851;  article  in  the  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1853,  entitled  "  Memoirs  of  William  Words 
worth  ;"  JANUARY  SEARI.E,  "Memoirs  of  William  Wordsworth," 
iS,:?:  DK  QUINCEV,  "Literary  Reminiscences,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ; 
LORD  JKFFRKV,  "Miscellanies;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1814,  and  October,  1815;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1860;  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

Worlidge,  wurl'ij,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1700.  He 
executed  a  great  number  of  etchings  in  the  style  of 
Rembrandt,  which  are  particularly  admired.  His  draw 
ings  in  Indian  ink  are  also  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1766. 

Worm,  voRm,  [Lat.  WOR'MIUS,]  (Oi.AUS,)  a  Danish 
physician,  antiquary,  and  historian,  born  in  Jutland 
in  1588.  He  studied  medicine  at  Padua  and  several 
German  universities,  and  became  in  1613  professor  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this,     (23^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WORM 


2294 


WOV  GERMAN 


humanities  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  where  he 
also  held  the  office  of  rector.  He  was  likewise  physician 
to  Christian  IV.  and  his  successor  Frederick  III.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  his  "Fasti  Danici,"  (1626,) 
"The  Most  Ancient  Danish  Literature,"  ("  Literatura 
Danica  antiquissima,"  etc.,  1636,)  "  Runic  Lexicon  and 
Appendix  to  the  Danish  Monuments,"  ("  Lexicon  Ru- 
nicum  et  Appendix  ad  Monuments  Danica,"  1650,)  and 
a  "History  of  Norway,"  (in  Latin.)  He  also  wrote 
valuable  treatises  on  medicine  and  natural  history.  He 
was  the  first  to  describe  minutely  the  bones  of  the  skull 
called  Ossa  Wormiana.  Died  in  1654. 

See  NICEKON,  "  Memoires  ;"  KRAFT  og  NYERUP,  "  Litteratiir- 
lexicon." 

Worm  or  Wormius,  (WiLUKLM,)  a  Danish  physi 
cian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1633.  He  described  the  specimens  of  his  father's  cabinet 
in  a  work  called  "Miisaeum  Wonnianum,"  (1655.)  Died 
in  1704. 

Wormius.     See  WORM. 

Wor'uum,  (RALPH  NICHOLSON,)  an  English  painter 
and  art-critic,  born  in  North  Durham  in  1812.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  may  be  named  his 
"History  of  Painting,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  a  "De 
scriptive  and  Historical  Catalogue  of  the  National 
Pictures  of  the  British  School,"  (1857,)  and  a  "  Life  of 
Holbein,"  (1866.)  He  also  contributed  the  article  on 
"  Painting"  to  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities."  He  was  appointed  keeper  and  secretary 
to  the  National  Gallery,  London,  in  1857. 

Woronichin.     See  VORONIKHIN. 

Woronicz,  vo-ro'nitch,  (JonN  PAUL,)  an  eminent 
Polish  writer  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Volhynia  in 
1757.  He  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  at  Ostrog, 
and  was  created  Bishop  of  Cracow  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1815.  He  subsequently  became  Arch 
bishop  of  Warsaw  and  Primate  of  Poland.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  historical  poem  entitled  "  Sibylla,"  esteemed 
the  finest  production  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  His 
sermons  are  also  greatly  admired  :  the  one  on  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Alexander  is  regarded  as  a  master-piece 
of  pulpit  eloquence.  Died  in  1829. 

Worririg,  wor'ring,  (ANDREAS,)  a  German  mechani 
cian,  born  at  Vienna  about  1806,  became  manager  of  the 
imperial  printing-office  in  that  city.  He  was  the  first 
to  apply  the  lately  discovered  art  of  nature-printing  to 
botanical  uses,  by  the  transfer  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

Worsaae,  voK'saw'eh,  (JKNS  JACOB  ASMUSSKN,)  a 
Danish  antiquary  of  great  merit,  born  in  Jutland  in 
1821.  He  visited  England,  Sweden,  and  various  parts 
of  the  continent,  and  was  appointed  in  1847  inspector 
of  antiquarian  monuments  in  the  Danish  States.  Among 
his  principal  works  may  be  named  his  "Denmark's  Old 
Time  illustrated  by  Old  Things,"  ("  Danmark's  Oldtid," 
etc.,  1843,)  "Blekingske  Mindesmarker  fra  Hedenold," 
and  "An  Account  of  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,"  ("  Minder  om  de 
Danske  og  Nordmande  i  England,  Skotland  og  Irland," 
1852.) 

Wors'dale,  (JAMES,)  an  English  painter  and  drama 
tist,  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and  married  his 
niece.  Died  in  1767. 

Wors'ley,  (Sir  RICHARD,)  an  English  statesman  and 
antiquary,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1751.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  borough 
of  Newport,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  He  published  "Musasum  Worsleianum  ;  or, 
A  Collection  of  Antique  Basso-Relievos,"  etc.,  (2  vols. 
fol.,  1794,)  also  a  "History  of  the  Isle  of  Wight." 
Died  in  1805. 

"Worth,  (WILLIAM  JENKINS,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Columbia  county,  New  York,  in  1794.  He 
served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  subsequently  in  the 
Florida  campaigns  of  1841  and  1842,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general.  For  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war 
(1846-47)  he  obtained  the  rank  or  brevet  of  major- 
general.  Died  in  Texas  in  1849.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  New  York. 

Wpr'thing-tpn,  (JOHN,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Manchester  in  1618,  preached  in  London  and  at  Hack 
ney,  and  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died  in  1671. 


Wor'thing-tpn,  (THOMAS,)  born  in  Jefferson  county, 
Virginia,  in  1773.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  Ohio  in  1803  and  1810,  and  became  Gov 
ernor  of  that  State  in  1815.  Died  in  1827. 

Worthingtoii,  (WILLIAM,)  a  British  divine,  born  in 
Merionethshire  in  1703,  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Scheme 
of  Redemption,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1778. 

Wot'ton,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1492.  He  studied  at  Ox 
ford,  where  he  took  his  medical  degree  in  1525.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "On  the  Differences  among  Ani 
mals,"  ("  De  Differentiis  Animalium,")  which  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.  He  became  physician  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  Died 

in  1555- 

Wotton,  [Lat.  WOTTO'NUS,]  (Sir  HENRY,)  an  Eng 
lish  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in  Kent  in  1568.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  by  his  proficiency  in  law,  mathe 
matics,  languages,  and  the  natural  sciences.  He  subse 
quently  travelled  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  icsiding 
abroad  nearly  nine  years,  during  which  time  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Isaac  Casaubon  and  other  learned 
men  of  the  time.  After  his  return  to  England  he  be 
came  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  whom  he  accom 
panied  on  his  expeditions  to  Spain  and  Ireland.  When 
Essex  was  arrested,  in  1601,  Wotton  fled  to  the  conti 
nent.  Having  learned  at  Florence  that  some  persons 
had  conspired  to  assassinate  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  he 
carried  information  of  the  plot  to  that  king,  and  thus 
gained  his  favour.  In  1604  Sir  Henry  was  sent  as  Eng 
lish  ambassador  to  Venice,  where  he  remained  several 
j  years.  He  performed  missions  to  other  foreign  courts, 
and  became  provost  of  Eton  about  1625.  lie  wrote 
several  short  and  beautiful  poems,  and  prose  works, 
among  which  are  "  The  State  of  Christendom,"  "  The 
Elements  of  Architecture,"  and  "Characters  of  some 
of  the  English  Kings."  Died  in  1639. 

See  IZAAK  WALTON,  "Life  of  Sir  Henry  VVotton,"  prefixed  to 
"  Re!iqui,-E  Wottonianae,"  1651. 

Wotton,  (NICHOLAS,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  about  1497,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  employed  in  several  embassies,  and  was  secretary 
of  state  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  Died  in  1566. 

Wotton,  (WILLIAM,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1666.  He  possessed  extra 
ordinary  powers  of  memory,  and,  having  entered  Cathe 
rine  I  lall,  Cambridge,  before  the  age  of  ten,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Oriental  languages.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1683,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  Middleton 
Keynes,  in  Buckinghamshire.  His  principal  works  are 
entitled  "  Reflections  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning," 
in  reply  to  Sir  William  Temple's  essay  in  defence  of 
modern  literature,  and  "View  of  Hickes's  Archaeo 
logical  Treasure  of  the  Ancient  Northern  Languages," 
(1708.)  The  former  treatise  gave  rise  to  the  famous 
controversy  between  Bentley  and  Sir  William  Temple 
concerning  the  "Epistles  of  Phalaris."  Died  in  1726. 

See  "  Hiographia  Britannica." 

Wottonus.     See  WOTTON. 

Woulfe,  woolf,  (PETER,)  an  English  chemist,  was  a 
resident  of  London  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  contributed  to  the  "Transactions"  of  that  body 
"  Experiments  on  the  Distillation  of  Acids,"  etc.,  and 
other  chemical  treatises.  Died  in  1806. 

Wouters,  wow'ters,  (FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  history  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Lierre  in  1614, 
and  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  went  to  England  in 
1637,  and  afterwards  worked  at  Antwerp.  He  was 
killed  by  an  unknown  hand  in  1659. 

Wouvermaii,  wow'ver-man',  or  Wouvermaiis, 
wow'ver-mans',  (PETER,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Haarlem  about  1625,  was  a  pupil  of  his  brother  Philip, 
whose  style  he  imitated.  He  painted  horses,  hunting- 
scenes,  etc.  Died  in  1683. 

His  younger  brother  JOHN  was  a  skilful  landscape- 
painter.  Died  in  1666. 

Wouverrnan,  Wouvermaiis,  or  Wowerman, 
(PHILIP,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1620,  and  was  a  pupil 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, :,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WOU-W4NG 


2295 


WREN 


of  Wynants.  His  works  are  chiefly  landscapes,  battle- 
piece.--,  hunting-scenes,  and  horse-markets,  ail  of  which 
he  represented  with  admirable  skill  and  fidelity, — his 
horses,  particularly,  being  unsurpassed.  The  galleries 
of  Dresden  and  Paris  possess  numerous  master-pieces 
by  this  artist.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  poverty, 
though  his  pictures  were  sold  for  high  prices  by  his 
patrons.  His  designs  and  etchings  are  also  highly 
esteemed  and  very  rare.  Died  'n  1668. 

See  KAMMKKER'S  treatise  "  V'M-ei  die  Composition  in  Phi'ipp 
Wowerman's  (Jemalclen,"  etc.  ;  DES^AMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres." 

Wou-Wang.     See  WOO-WANG. 

"Woveren.     See  WOWER. 

"Wower,  wo'<ver,  sometimes  called  De  Woweren, 
deh  wo'weh-ren,  (JoHN,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1574.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Polymathia  Tractatio  integri  Operis  de  Studiis 
veterum,"  (1603,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1612. 

Wower,  wow'er,  or  Wo'ver-en,  (JOHN,)  a  Flemish 
jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1576,  was  a  friend  of  Justus 
Lipsius.  lie  edited  Tacitus  and  Seneca,  and  wrote 
several  works.  Died  in  1635. 

Wraiigel,  vuang'gel,  (HERMANN,)  a  Swedish  gen 
eral,  born  in  1587,  was  the  father  of  Karl  Gustaf, 
noticed  below.  He  obtained  from  Gustavus  Adolphus 
the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1621,  and  commanded 
against  the  Poles.  In  1636  he  took  several  places  in 
Pomerania.  Died  in  1644. 

Wrangel,  von,  fon  vRang'gel,  (KARL  GUSTAF,) 
COUNT,  an  eminent  Swedish  admiral  and  general,  born 
at  Skokloster  in  1613.  He  served  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  Germany,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in 
the  victory  of  LAitzen,  after  the  death  of  that  illustrious 
commander.  Appointed  subsequently  to  the  command 
of  the  Swedish  forces  in  Germany,  he  carried  on  the 
war  with  energy  and  success,  until  it  was  concluded  by 
the  peace  of  Westphalia.  lie  afterwards  gained  several 
decisive  victories  over  the  Danes  and  their  Dutch  allies, 
and  in  1660  was  made  grand  marshal  of  Sweden.  Died 
in  1675. 

See  GEIJER,  "Histoire  de  Suade." 

Wrangel,  von,  fon  wRang'gel,  (FKIKDRICH  HEIN- 
RICH  ERNST,)  BARON,  a  Prussian  general,  born  at 
Stettin  in  1784.  He  served  against  the  French  in  the 
campaigns  from  1811  to  1815,  and  had  a  high  command 
in  the  Danish  war  of  1848.  He  was  made  general  of 
cavalry  in  1849.  Died  in  1869. 

See  "  Leben  F.  von  Wrangel's,"  Berlin,  1849. 

Wrangell  or  Wrangel,  von,  fon  vRang'gel,  (FER 
DINAND  PETROVITCH,)  BARON,  a  Russian  admiral  and 
celebrated  navigator,  of  Swedish  extraction,  was  born 
in  Esthonia  in  1795.  Appointed  in  1820  commander  of 
an  exploring  expedition  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  he  travelled 
on  the  ice  in  sledges  as  far  north  as  72°  2'.  After  his 
return  he  became  in  1829  governor  of  the  Russian  pos 
sessions  in  the  northwestern  part  of  America.  In  1847 
he  was  created  vice-admiral.  His  principal  works  are 
a  "  Sketch  of  a  Tourney  from  Sitka  to  Saint  Petersburg," 
(1836,)  "Statistical  and  Ethnographical  Notices  on  the 
Russian  Possessions  in  America,"  (1839,)  and  "Journey 
on  the  Northern  Coasts  of  Siberia  and  the  Icy  Sea," 
(1841,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and  German. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1840. 

Wranitzki,  wKa-nfts'kee,  (PAUL,)  a  German  opera- 
composer,  born  in  1756,  became  director  of  the  orchestra 
at  the  Imperial  Theatre  at  Vienna.  Died  in  1808. 

Wratislatis,  vRa'tis-lowss',  or  Wratislaw,  vua'tis- 
laf,  the  first  King  of  Bohemia,  inherited  the  title  of  duke 
in  1061.  He  afterwards  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
was  an  ally  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  Died  in  1092. 

Wraxall, rak'sal,  (FREDERICK  CHARLES  LASCELI.ES,) 
an  English  writer,  born  at  Boulogne  in  1828.  He  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "Wild  Oats,"  (1857,)  and 
''Armies  of  the  Great  Powers,"  (1859.)  Died  in  London 
in  1865. 

Wraxall,  (Sir  NATHANIEL  WILLIAM,)  an  English 
statesman  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1751. 
He  travelled  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and 
published  in  1775  "Cursory  Remarks  made  in  a  Tour 
through  some  of  the  Northern  Parts  of  Europe,"  etc., 


which  was  very  well  received.  He  was  elected  to  Par 
liament  in  1780.  Among  his  other  works  maybe  named 
"The  History  of  France  from  the  Accession  of  Henry 
III.  to  the  Death  of  Louis  XIV.,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1795,) 
and  "Historical  Memoirs  of  My  Own  Time,"  (1815.) 
The  latter  publication  contained  a  libel  on  the  Russian 
ambassador,  Count  Woronzow,  for  which  Wraxall  was 
fined  and  imprisoned  for  a  short  time.  Died  in  1831. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1815  ;  "  London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  April,  1815,  and  December,  1836;  ALLIHONE, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wray,  ra,  (DANIEL,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1701,  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "Athenian 
Letters."  (See  YORKE,  CHARLES.)  Died  in  1783. 

Wray,  (JOHN.)     See  RAY. 

Wray,  (ROBERT  BATEMAN,)  an  eminent  English 
gem-engraver,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1715.  Among  his 
best  works  are  heads  of  Milton,  Shakspeare,  Pope, 
Cicero,  a  Madonna,  Dying  Cleopatra,  and  Antinous. 
Died  in  1770. 

Wrbna  mid  Freudenthal,  iiRl/na  oont  froi'den- 
til',  (RUDOLF,)  COUNT,  an  Austrian  statesman,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1761  ;  died  in  1823. 

Wrede,  vKa'deh, (FABIAN  JAKOI;  FAIUANSON,)  BARON, 
a  Swedish  general  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was 
born  in  1802. 

Wrede,  wRa'deh,  (KARL  PHILIPP.)  PRINCE,  a  cele 
brated  German  field-marshal,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1767. 
He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  campaigns  of  1799 
and  1800,  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1804,  and  in 
1805  succeeded  General  Deroy  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Bavarian  forces,  then  forming  a  part  of  Napoleon's 
"grand  army.''  He  soon  after  obtained  a  series  of  bril 
liant  successes  over  the  Austrians,  including  the  capture 
of  Innspruck,  and  in  1809  was  created  a  field-marshal 
and  count  of  the  French  empire  for  his  distinguished 
bravery  at  the  battle  of  Wagram.  As  commander  of 
the  Bavarian  cava'.ry  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812, 
he  was  defeated  by  Wittgenstein  at  Polotsk;  but  lie 
skilfully  covered  the  retreat  of  the  scattered  army  on  that 
disastrous  day.  By  the  treaty  of  Reid,  in  1813,  Bavarri 
joined  the  allies,  and  Wrede  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  Bavaria. 
On  the  3Oth  of  October,  1813,  he  endeavoured  to  inter 
cept  the  army  of  Napoleon,  then  retreating  after  the 
defeat  of  Leipsic  ;  but,  after  a  fiercely-contested  battle 
at  Hainan,  the  French  troops  forced  a  passage,  and  the 
allies  withdrew,  Marshal  Wrede  having  been  severely 
wounded.  Died  in  December,  1838. 

See  W.  RIEDKI.,  "  C.  P.  von  Wrede  nach  seinem  Leben  und 
Wirken,"  1835;  "  Nouvele  Biographic  Generale." 

Wree,  de,  deh  vRa,  (OLIVIER,)  a  Belgian  historian, 
bom  at  Bruges  in  1596.  He  wrote  "  History  of  the 
Counts  of  Flanders,"  ("  Historia  Comitum  Flandrias," 
1650.)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1652. 

Wren,  ren,  (Sir  CHRISTOPHER,)  a  celebrated  English 
architect,  born  at  East  Knoyle,  in  Wiltshire,  on  the 
2Oth  of  October,  1632,  was  a  nephew  of  Bishop  Mat 
thew  Wren.  His  father  was  Dean  of  Windsor  and 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  He  invented  several  ingenjous 
instruments  about  the  age  of  fourteen.  In  1646  he 
entered  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  com 
moner.  He  was  early  distinguished  for  his  proficiency 
in  mathematics  and  anatomy,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
prodigy  at  college.  In  16^3  he  was  elected  Fellow  of 
All  Souls'  College,  Oxford.  He  became  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London,  in  1657,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society.  In 
1661  he  was  appointed  assistant  to  Sir  John  Denham, 
surveyor-general,  and  began  to  turn  his  attention  to 
architecture.  To  extend  his  knowledge  of  that  art,  he 
visited  Paris  in  1665.  The  great  fire  in  London  in  1666 
afforded  him  a  favourable  opportunity  and  ample  space 
for  the  exercise  of  his  talents.  He  proposed  to  rebuild 
the  city  on  a  more  regular  and  commodious  plan,  which, 
however,  was  not  adopted.  About  1667  he  succeeded 
Denham  as  surveyor-general  and  chief  architect.  He 
erected  in  London  a  number  of  churches,  the  Royal 
Exchange,  the  Monument,  Temple  Bar,  the  Observatory 
at  Greenwich,  and  other  fine  public  edifices.  His  master 
piece  is  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  which  was  commenced 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  n,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


WREN 


2296 


If  RIGHT 


in  1675  and  finished  in  1710.  It  is  about  four  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  long,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  noble 
cupola,  which  is  greatly  admired.  Saint  Paul's  is  prob 
ably  the  most  beautiful  cathedral  ever  built  in  England 
for  Protestant  worship.  The  original  and  favourite  plan 
which  Wren  formed  for  this  work,  and  which  was  re 
jected  by  the  authorities,  differed  greatly  from  the  plan 
that  was  adopted. 

He  married  a  daughter  of  Sir  John  Coghill  in  1674. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1680. 
About  1690  he  built  an  addition  to  Hampton  Court  for 
William  III.  Among  his  other  works  were  additions 
to  Windsor  Castle,  and  two  towers  added  to  the  west 
end  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  greatest  of  English  architects.  He  contributed 
several  treatises  on  astronomy  and  other  sciences  to  the 
'•  Philosophical  Transactions."  He  died  in  London  in 
February,  1723,  aged  about  ninety-one,  and  was  buried 
in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 

"The  austere  beauty  of  the  Athenian  portico,  the 
gloomy  sublimity  of  the  Gothic  arcade,  he  was,  like 
almost  all  his  contemporaries,  incapable  of  emulating  ; 
.  .  .  but  no  man  born  on  our  side  of  the  Alps  has 
imitated  with  so  much  success  the  magnificence  of  the 
palace-like  churches  of  Italy."  (Macaulay,  "  History  of 
England,"  vol.  i.) 

See  "  Parentalia,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Family  of  the  Wrens,"  by 
his  son  CHRISTOPHER  and  his  grandson  STEPHEN,  1750;  JAMES 
EI.MES,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  C.  Wren,"  1823,  and  "Sir  C. 
Wren  and  liis  Times,"  1852;  QUATKEMERE  DB  QUINCY,  "Histoire 
des  Architectes  celebres." 

Wren,  (CHRISTOPHER,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1675.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  antiquary, 
and  wrote  memoirs  of  his  family,  entitled  "  Parentalia," 
(1750.)  Died  in  1747. 

Wren,  (MATTHEW,) an  English  prelate,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1585.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  prince,  after 
wards  Charles  I.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Spain  in 
1623,  and  was  successively  created  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
Norwich,  and  Ely.  He  was  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Star  Chamber,  and  assisted  in  drawing  up  the  Scottish 
Liturgy,  which  gave  rise  to  the  riots  in  Edinburgh  in 
1637.  He  was  impeached  by  the  Commons  in  1640, 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  nearly  twenty  years.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  was  his  nephew.  Died  in  1667. 

Wren,  (M.vmiKW,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Cambridge  in  1629.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament, 
and  became  successively  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Clar 
endon  and  the  Duke  of  York.  He  published  a  treatise 
'•On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Revolutions  in  Eng 
land,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1672. 

Wright,  rlt,  (ABRAHAM,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London  in  1611.  He  became  vicar  of  Okeham,  in 
Rutlandshire.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Parnassus  with  Two  Tops,"  ("  Parnassus  biceps," 
1656.)  Died  in  1690. 

Wright,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Garve.ston,  in  Norfolk.  He  became  a  Fellow  of 
Cains  College,  Cambridge.  He  constructed  for  Prince 
Henry  a  large  sphere  which  represented  the  motions  of 
the  planets,  moon,  etc.,  and  predicted  the  eclipses  for 
17,100  years.  About  1590  he  accompanied  the  Earl  of 
Cumberland  in  a  sea-voyage.  He  published  in  15993 
valuable  "Treatise  on  Navigation."  He  is  said  to  have 
discovered  the  mode  of  constructing  the  chart  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Mercator's  Projection.  Died  in 
i6iv  or,  as  some  say,  1618. 

Wright,  lit,  (EuztiR,)  an  American  journalist  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut, 
in  1804.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1829 
became  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi 
losophy  in  Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio.  He  was 
successively  editor  of  the  "Quarterly  Anti-Slavery 
Magazine,"  the  "Massachusetts  Abolitionist,"  and  the 
.  "Chronotype."  He  has  also  translated  La  Fontaine's 
"  Fables"  into  verse. 

Wright,  lit,  afterwards  Darusmont,  dt'ru'm6.N', 
(FANNY,)  a  social  reformer  or  innovator,  born  at  Dun 
dee,  Scotland,  about  1796.  She  visited  the  United  States 
about  1818,  and  wrote  "  Views  on  Society  and  Manners 
in  America."  Her  opinions  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  atheistical  French  philosophers.  She  lectured  in 


the  Northern  United  States,  and  attacked  slavery  rind 
other  social  institutions.  About  1838  she  was  married 
to  M.  Darusmont,  a  Frenchman.  ^  Died  in  Cincinnati 
in  1853. 

Wright,  (HoKATio  GATKS.)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Connecticut  about  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1841.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  vol 
unteers  about  September,  1861,  and  took  command  of 
the  department  of  Ohio  in  August,  1862.  He  com 
manded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May 
S  and  6,  1864,  and  a  corns  at  Spottsylvania  Court- 1  louse, 
May  9-12,  and  Cold  Harbour,  June  3.  He  served  as 
major-general  at  the  battle  of  Opequan  Creek,  Septem 
ber  19,  1864,  and  contributed  to  the  decisive  victory  at 
Cedar  Creek,  October  19  of  that  year.  He  received 
the  brevet  of  major-general  in  the  United  States  army 
for  his  services  at  the  capture  of  Petersburg,  April,  1865. 
Wright,  lit,  (JoHN  WKSI.KY,)  an  Irish  naval  officer, 
born  at  Cork  in  1769.  He  became  a  captain  in  the 
navy,  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  French  coast  in  1804, 
and  was  confined  in  the  Temple  at  Paris.  In  1805  he 
was  found  dead  in  prison,  and  it  was  suspected  that  he 
had  been  murdered. 

Wright,  (JosKPH,)  a  celebrated  English  painter,  com 
monly  known  as  WRIGHT  OF  DERBY,  was  born  in  that 
town  in  1734.  He  studied  portrait-painting  in  London, 
under  Hudson,  and  subsequently  visited  Rome.  His 
works  are  chiefly  landscapes  and  historical  pictures  ; 
among  the  most  admired  we  may  name  "The  Lady  in 
Comus,"  "  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  "  View  of  Ullswater,  in 
Westmoreland,"  "  Eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,"  and 
"Cicero's  Villa."  Died  in  1797. 

Wright,  (Sir  NATHAN,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1653,  was  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  from  1700  to 
1705.  In  politics  he  was  a  Tory.  "  To  his  obscurity," 
says  Lord  Campbell,  "  he  owed  his  promotion."  Died 
in  1721. 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  iv. 
Wright,  (Sir  ROIJKUT,)  an  English  judge,  was  chief 
justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1687.  "  He  was  ignorant 
to  a  proverb,"  says  Macaulay:  "yet  ignorance  was  not 
his  worst  fault.  His  vices  had  ruined  him."  ("History 
of  England.'')  He  and  two  others  were  appointed  to 
exercise  visitorial  jurisdiction  over  Magdalene  College, 
from  which  they  removed  President  Hough,  (1687.) 

Wright,  (SAMUEL,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Retford  in  1683.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  New  Birth."  Died  in  1746. 
Wright,  (Sn.AS,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Amherst,  Massachusetts,  May  24,  1795.  He  graduated 
at  Middlebury  Col-lege  in  1815,  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1819,  and  settled  at  Canton,  Saint  Lawrence 
county,  New  York.  He  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of 
New  York  in  1823,  became  a  political  opponent  of  De 
Witt  Clinton,  and  served  in  the  Senate  until  1827.  In 
1826  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  Democrats.  He  was  comptroller 
of  New  York  for  about  four  years,  (1829-32,)  and  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  January, 
1833.  He  opposed  the  United  States  Bank,  and  sup 
ported  Mr.  Clay's  Compromise  bill  of  1833.  In  1837  he 
was  re-elected  a  Senator  for  six  years.  He  voted  for 
the  tariff  of  1842,  and  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas 
to  the  Union,  (1844.)  He  was  nominated  as  candidate 
for  the  Vice- Presidency  by  the  National  Democratic 
Convention  in  May,  1844;  but  he  declined  the  honour. 
He  had  been  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  February,  1843,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of 
New  York  in  November,  1844.  He  declined  to  serve 
under  President  Polk  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
1845,  and  is  said  to  have  refused  the  offer  of  a  foreign 
mission.  In  1846  he  was  a  candidate  for  Governor,  but 
was  not  elected.  He  died  at  Canton  in  August,  1847, 
leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity. 

See  J.  D.  HAMMOND,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Silas  Wright,"  iS4S. 
"Wright,  (THOMAS,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1810,  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  College,  Cam 
bridge.  He  published  numerous  works  on  early  English 
history  and  literature,  among  which  we  may  name  his 
"  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria,"  (1846,)  "Essays  on 
the  Literature,  Superstitions,  and-  History  of  England  in 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WRIGHT 


2297 


fTURTZ 


the  Middle  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  "  Narratives  of  Sorcery 
and  Magic,"  (1851,)  "The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the 
Saxon,"  (1852,)  "Wanderings  of  an  Antiquary,"  etc., 
(1854,)  and  "History  of  Ireland,"  (3  vols.,  1857.)  He 
also  edited  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  (1855,)  "Po 
litical  Songs  of  England  from  the  Reign  of  |ohn  to 
that  of  Edward  II.,"  "The  Chester  Miracle  Plays,"  and 
other  productions  of  the  middle  ages.  He  was  one  ol 
the  founders  of  the  Camden  Society  and  of  the  British 
Archaeological  Association,  and  has  been  elected  a  cor 
responding  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscrip 
tions,  and  other  learned  societies  in  Europe. 
See  ALI.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 
Wright,  (THOMAS,)  "  the  Prison  Philanthropist,"  an 
English  reformer,  born  in  1788,  devoted  himself  to  visit 
ing  prisons  and  to  the  reformation  of  criminals. 

Wright,  (WALTER  RODWEI.L.)  an    English  lawyer, 
who  wrote  a  description  of  the  isles  of  Greece,  entitled 
"  florae  lonicae."     He  died  at  Malta  in  1826. 
Wriothesley,  (HKNRY.)     See  SOUTHAMPTON. 
Wriothesley,  rots'le  or  rot'es-le,  (THOMAS,)  fourth 
Earl  of  Southampton,  an  English  statesman,  became  a 
member   of   the   privy  council   under  Charles   II.,  and 
subsequently    lord    high    treasurer.     He    had    superior 
abilities,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  integrity  and  virtue 
in  a  time  of  general  corruption.     Died  in  1667. 

Wrisberg,  wRis'beRG,  (HEINRICH  AUGUST,)  a  Ger 
man  anatomist,  born  in  the  liar/  in  1739.  He  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Gottingen,  and  wrote  numerous 
professional  works.  Died  in  1808. 

Wroniecki,  vRo-ne-ets'kee,  (ANTONY,)  a  Polish 
officer  and  military  writer,  born  at  Posen  in  1790.  He 
served  against  the  Russians  in  1830,  and  rose  to  be 
general  of  brigade.  Died  in  1838. 

Wrottesley,  rots'le,  (JOHN,)  LORD,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  in  1798.  He  received  in  1839  a  gold 
medal  from  the  Astronomical  Society  for  his  catalogue 
of  stars.  He  entered  the  House  of  Lords  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1841,  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1855.  About  1842  he  erected  an  obser 
vatory  near  his  residence,  Wrottesley  Hall.  Died  in  1867. 
Wuk.  See  KARAJITCH. 

Wulfen,  wdol'fen,  (FUANZ  XAVER,)  a  German  natu 
ralist  and  mathematician,  born  at  Belgrade  in  1728.  He 
wrote  on  botany,  zoology,  etc.  Died  at  Klagenfurth  in 
1805. 

Wulffer,  woolf'fer,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1651.  He  was  employed  as  min 
ister  of  the  gospel  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1724. 

Wulfhelm,  woolf'helm,  an  Anglo-Saxon  prelate,  be 
came  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  923  A.D.   Died  in  942. 
Wulfstan.     See  WULSTAN. 

Wullenweber,  wool'len-wa'ber,  written  also  Wul- 
lenwever,  (GEORG  or  JURGEN,)  a  German  statesman 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Lubeck,  where 
he  was  elected  burgomaster  about  1534.  He  was  con 
demned  to  death  on  a  charge  of  Anabaptism  and  politi 
cal  offences,  and  executed  in  1537. 

Wiillerstorf  or  Wuellerstorf,  von,  fon  wul'lers- 
torf,  (BERNHARD,)  BARON,  an  Austrian  admiral  and 
minister  of  state,  born  at  Trieste  in  1816.  He  conducted 
an  exploring  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Austrian  govern 
ment  in  1857,  and  returned  in  1859.  An  account  of  this 
expedition  appeared  in  3  vols.,  in  1861.  About  1865  he 
became  minister  of  commerce.  He  published  several 
scientific  works. 

Wulstan,  an  English  monk,  born  about  1008,  be 
came  in  1062  Bishop  of  Worcester.  He  was  patronized 
by  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  successor  William 
Rufus.  Died  in  1095. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Wulstan,"  in  WHARTON'S  "  Anglia  Sacra." 
Wulstan,  written  also  Wolstan  and  Wulfstan,  an 
English  monk  of  the  tenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a 
Latin    poem   on   the   miracles  of  Saint   Swithin,  and   a 
"  Life  of  Bishop  Ethelwold,"  (in  Latin.) 

Wunder,  woon'der,  (EnuARD,)  a  German  critic  and 
scholar,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1800.  He  became 
director  of  the  College  of  Grimma  in  1842.  His  chief 
publication  is  a  good  edition  of  Sophocles,  (7  vols.,  1831.) 
Wunderlich,  woon'der-liK',  (JOHANN,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1708.  He  became  professor 


of  philosophy  in  that  city  in  1761,  and  published  several 
legal  works.  Died  in  1778. 

Wunderlich,  (KARL  AUGUST,)  a  German  physician, 
born,  at  Sulz,  on  the  Neckar,  in  1815,  became  professor 
of  clinics  at  Leipsic  in  1850.  He  published  a  "Manual 
of  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,"  (1846,)  and  other  works. 

Wundt,  woont,  (DANIEL  LUDWIG,)  a  German  his 
torian,  born  at  Kreutznach  in  1741,  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  the 
Palatinate.  Died  in  1805. 

His  brother,  FRIKDRICH  PETER,  born  in  1748,  pub 
lished  several  works  on  the  history  and  topography  of 
the  Palatinate.  Died  in  1808. 

Wunsch,  woonsh,  (CHRISTIAN  ERNST,)  a  German 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Hohenstein  about  1730.  He 
died  after  1800. 

Wunsch,  von,  fon  woonsh,  (JOHANN  JAKOB,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  1717.  He  served  with  distinc 
tion  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
General  Brentano  in  October,  1759.  Died  in  1788. 

Wuotan.     See  ODIN. 

Wurdtwein  or  Wuerdtwein,  wiiRt'win,  (STEPHAN 
ALEXANDER,)  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Amerbach 
in  1719,  became  Bishop  of  Worms.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  treatises  on  diplomacy  and  ecclesiastical  law, 
(in  Latin.)  Died  in  1796. 

Wurm,  wooRm,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
divine  and  astronomer,  born  at  Nurtingen  in  1760, 
published  a  "History  of  the  New  Planet  Uranus,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1833. 

His  son  JULIUS  FRIEDRICH  wrote  several  treatises  on 
theology,  mathematics,  and  philology.  Died  in  1839. 

Another  son,  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,  born  in  1803, 
published  a  number  of  commercial  and  political  works. 
He  became  professor  in  a  college  at  Hamburg  in  1833. 
Died  in  1859. 

Wurm'ser,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  wooRin'zer,]  (DAGO- 
BERT  SIGISMOND,)  COUNT,  an  eminent  Austrian  general, 
born  in  Alsace  in  1724.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service 
in  1750,  and  fought  against  the  Prussians  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62.)  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1778,  he  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Kubelschwerd  in  1779.  In  1793  he  commanded  an 
army  which  operated  against  the  French,  and  drove 
them  across  the  frontier  into  Alsace  ;  but  he  was  defeated 
in  December,  at  Frischweiler.  He  gained  a  victory  on 
the  banks  of  the  Neckar  in  October,  1794,  and  occupied 
Mannheim.  In  the  summer  of  1796  he  was  sent  as 
commander-in-chief  to  Italy,  where  the  Austrian  general 
Beaulieu  had  been  defeated  by  Bonaparte.  Advancing 
towards  Mantua,  Wurmser  was  attacked  and  defeated 
by  Bonaparte,  at  Lonato,  on  the  3d  of  August.  The 
Corsican  general  also  gained  victories  over  Wurmser 
at  Castiglione  on  the  5th  of  August,  and  at  Roveredo. 
Wurmser  retreated  to  Mantua,  which  he  defended  with 
vigour,  but  he  was  forced  to  surrender  in  February,  1797. 
He  died  at  Vienna  in  June  the  same  year. 

See  SCHILLER,  "Gallerie  interessanter  Personen." 

Wursteisen,  wooR'sti'zeu,  [Lat.  WURSTTC'IUS  or 
URSTIC'IUS,]  a  mathematician,  born  at  Bale  in  1544, 
was  also  a  historian.  He  became  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  Bale,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  history 
called  "Chronicon  Majus,"  (1580.)  Died  in  1588. 

Wursticius.     See  WUR.STEISEN. 

Wiirtemberg,  wur'tem-berg,  [Ger.  pron.  wuR'tem- 

beRG',1   (EBERIIARD,)    DUKE   OF,  a  SOU  of  Louis  II.,  W3S 

born  in    1445,  and   began    to    reign    in    1459.     He  was 
a   just  and  beneficent  ruler,    patronized    learning,   and 
founded  the  University  of  Tubingen.     Died  in  1496. 
Wiirtemberg,  von,  fon  wur'tem-berg,  (or  wuR'tem- 

JCRC/,)    (CHRISTIAN    FRIEDRICH    ALEXANDER,)    COUNT, 

son  of  Duke  William  of  Wiirtemberg,  was  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1801.  He  published  a  collection  of  lyric 
joems,  (1837,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Musen- 
almanach"  of  Chamisso  and  Schwab.  Died  in  1844. 

Wiirtemberg,  von,  (ULRic,)  an  able  commander, 
)brn  in  1617,  was  a  younger  son  of  Frederick  I.  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  commanded  the  Imperial  army  which 
opposed  Turenne  in  Hesse  111-1648.  Died  in  1671. 

Wurtz,  wooRts,  (FELIX,)  a  skilful  Swiss  surgeon, 
jorn  at  Zurich,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ($y  See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


WURTZ 


2298 


WT  CLIFF  E 


Wurtz,  von,  fon  voorts  or  wooiUs,  (PAUL,)  BARON, 

Danish   or  German    general,   born   in    Hiisuni.     He 
served  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  until  his  death,  (1632,) 
nd  afterwards  had  a  high  command  in  the  army  ot  the 
4  Provinces.     Died  in  1676. 

Wurtzburg  or  Wurzburg.  See  CONRAD  OF 
"WURTZBURG. 

Wurzbach,  wooiUs'baK,  (CONSTANT,)  a  German 
poet  and  savant,  born  at  Laybach  in  1818.  Among 
his  writings  is  a  humorous  work  entitled  "  Parallels," 
("  Parallelen,"  1849.) 

Wurzelbau,  von,  fon  wdout'sel-bow',  QOHANN 
PHILIPP,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1651.  He  invented  or  improved  several  astronomical 
instruments,  and  made  a  series  of  observations  in  his 
observatory  at  Spitzenberg.  He  corresponded  with 
Leibnitz  and  other  astronomers.  Died  in  1725. 

Wutgenau,  von,  fon  woot'geh-now',  (GOTTFRIED 
ERNST,)  BARON,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  Silesia  in 
1673  ;  died  in  1736. 

W'y'att,  (JAMES,)  an  English  architect,  of  high  repu 
tation,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  about  1745.  He 
studied  several  years  at  Rome  and  Venice,  and  after 
his  return  built  the  Pantheon,  in  Oxford  Street,  London, 
(1772.)  He  was  appointed  surveyor-general  to  the  board 
of  works  in  1796.  Among  his  other  structures  we  may 
name  Fonthill  Abbey,  the  Military  Academy  at  Wool 
wich,  and  the  Library  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1813. 

Wyatt,  (MATTHEW  COTES,)  an  English  sculptor, 
born  in  1778.  He  was  patronized  by  George  III.,  and 
adorned  Windsor  Castle  with  his  works,  among  which 
was  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 
Died  in  London  in  January,  1862. 

Wyatt,  (MATTHEW  DlGBV,)  an  English  architect 
and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Wilts  in  1820.  He  studied  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  subsequently  visited  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Industrial  Arts  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1852.) 

Wyatt,  (RICHARD  J.,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in 
London  in  1795.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently 
under  Canova  at  Rome,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
in  1850.  His  works  are  principally  classical  subjects, 
and  are  remarkable  for  their  elegance  and  exquisite 
finish.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Penelope," 
"  Nymph  entering  the  Bath,"  "  Shepherd  Boy,"  "  Nymph 
Eucharis  and  Cupid,"  and  "  Bacchus." 

Wyatt,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  THE  ELDER,  an  eminent  Eng 
lish  statesman  and  poet,  born  in  Kent  in  1503.  He 
studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1520.  He  was  a  favourite 
at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  a  gentleman 
of  the  bed-chamber  and  conferred  on  him  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  (1536.)  He  was  afterwards  employed  on 
important  missions  to  Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
died  in  1542,  with  the  reputation  of  an  able  diplomatist 
and  one  of  the  most  accomplished  gentlemen  of  his  time. 
His  poems  are  chiefly  amatory  and  satirical  ;  he  also 
published  letters  and  other  prose  works  of  superior 
merit. 

See  JOHNSON,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  CAMPBELL,  "Spe 
cimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Wyatt,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  THE  YOUNGER,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1520  or  1521.  He  inherited  his 
father's  estate  in  1542,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  against  the  French  between  1544  and  1550. 
Wyatt  and  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  became  in  1554  the 
leaders  of  an  insurrection,  the  design  of  which  was  to 
dethrone  Queen  Mary  or  to  prevent  her  marriage  with 
Philip  II.  Wyatt  gained  some  successes  over  the 
royalist  forces,  and  entered  Southwark.  He  was  cap 
tured  in  London  and  executed  in  April,  1554. 

See  HUME,  "History  of  England;"  J.  PROCTOR,  "History  of 
Wyatt's  Rebellion,"  1555. 

Wy'at-ville,  (Sir  JEFFRY,)  an  English  architect, 
originally  named  WYATT,  was  a  nephew  of  James 
Wyatt,  noticed  above.  He  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in 
1766,  and  was  instructed  by  his  uncle  in  architecture. 
In  1824  he  was  employed  by  George  IV.  to  remodel 
Windsor  Castle,  in  which  work  he  was  occupied  for  the 


greater  part  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1840.  His  designs 
for  Windsor  Castle  were  published  in  1841,  in  2  folio  vols. 

Wybicki,  vi-bets'kee  or  ve-bit'skee,  (JOSEPH,)  a 
Polish  patriot  and  political  writer,  born  in  1747;  died 
in  1822. 

Wych'er-ly  or  Wych'er-ley,  (\VILLIAM,)  a  pop 
ular  English  dramatist,  was  born  in  Shropshire  about 
1640.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  France,  where  he 
spent  considerable  time  at  the  court  of  the  Duke  of 
Montausier,  Governor  of  Angouleme.  After  his  return 
he  studied  for  a  time  at  Oxford,  and  again  made  pro 
fession  of  the  Protestant  faith,  which  he  had  abjured  in 
France.  He  subsequently  acquired  great  favour  with 
Charles  II.,  and  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  and  other  profligate  wits  of  the  time. 
He  produced  in  1669  his  comedy  entitled  "Love  in  a 
Wood,  or  Saint  James's  Park,"  which  was  followed  by 
"The  Gentleman  Dancing-Master,"  (1671,)  "The  Plain 
Dealer,"  (1674,)  and  "The  Country  Wife,"  (1675.)  He 
married  the  Countess  of  Drogheda  about  1680.  Died 
in  1715. 

See  MAJOR  PACK,  "Memoirs  of  William  Wycherly;"  MAC- 
AUI.AY,  Essay  on  the  "Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Restoration;" 
LEIGH  HUNT,  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  Wycherley,  Congreve,  etc., 
with  biographical  Notices,"  1810  :  UAKKK,  "  Biographia  Dramatica  ;" 
"Lives  of  Kiiiish  Dramatists,"  by  CAMPBELL,  LEIGH  HUNT,  etc.; 
ALI.IBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wyck,  wik,  (JoiiN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1645,  worked  in  London.  He  painted  hunting- 
scenes,  landscapes,  and  horses.  Died  in  London  in  1702. 

Wyck,  (THOMAS,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter  and  en 
graver,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1616.  He  painted  sea-ports,  public  places,  interiors, 
etc.  His  etchings  were  highly  prized.  Died  in  i6S6. 

Wyc'liffe,  Wic'lif,  or  Wick'liff,  written  also  Wic- 
lef,  de,  (JoiiN,)  an  eminent  English  Reformer,  born  in 
Yorkshire,  near  Richmond,  about  1324.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency 
in  divinity  and  scholastic  philosophy.  According  to 
several  biographers,  he  began  to  write  against  the  men 
dicant  monks  in  1360.  lie  became  master  or  warden 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1361,  and  rector  of  Fyling- 
ham,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  the  same  year.  In  1365  he 
(or,  according  to  some  writers,  another  of  the  same 
name)  was  appointed  master  ot  Canterbury  Hall,  from 
which  he  was  ejected  in  1366.  He  exchanged  the  rec 
tory  of  Fylingham  for  that  of  Ludgershall  in  1368.  It  is 
commonly  stated  that  he  took  his  degree  of  D.D.  in 
1372,  and  then  began  to  read  lectures  on  divinity  at 
Oxford  with  great  applause.  This  date  is  questioned 
by  some  writers.  About  this  time  he  began  to  censure 
openly  the  doctrines  and  corruptions  of  the  Romish 
Church  and  to  advocate  religious  liberty. 

Wycliffe  was  a  member  of  a  legation  sent  by  Edward 
III.  to  Pope  Gregory  XI.  in  1374,  to  treat  with  him 
about  the  practice  of  papal  provision  or  reservation  of 
benefices,  and  other  abuses.  Soon  after  his  return  to 
England  he  denounced  the  pope  as  "Antichrist,  the 
proud  worldly  priest  of  Rome."  In  1375  the  king  gave 
him  the  prebend  of  Aust  in  the  church  of  Westbury. 
He  was  prosecuted  for  heresy  before  the  Bishop  of 
London  in  1377,  but  was  protected  by  his  friend,  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  whose  favour  he  had  gained, 
probably  by  defending  the  royal  authority  against  papal 
encroachments.  In  May,  1377,  Pope  Gregory  addressed 
a  bull  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  directing 
him  to  summon  Wycliffe  before  him.  The  Reformer 
appeared  before  a  synod  assembled  at  Lambeth  in  1378, 
>ut,  before  the  case  was  decided,  the  Londoners,  who 
sympathized  with  him,  broke  into  the  court  and  fright 
ened  the  bishops,  who  were  also  checked  by  a  message 
from  the  queen,  or  the  mother  of  Richard  II.  The 
schism  caused  by  the  election  of  two  popes  in  1378 
tended  to  weaken  the  papal  domination,  and  promoted 
the  safety  of  Wycliffe,  who  wrote  a  tract  "On  the  Pope 
of  Rome,  or  the  Papal  Schism,''  ("  De  Papa  Romano," 
or  "Schisma  Papas.'') 

He  attacked  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in  a 
series  of  lectures  read  at  Oxford  in  1381.  The  Arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury  summoned  a  council  or  synod, 
which  met  in  1382,  declared  his  opinions  to  be  heretical, 
and  ordered  vigorous  measures  to  be  employed  for  their 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


WYDEV1LLE 


2299 


WTTHE 


suppression.  Before  this  period  the  principles  of  Wyc 
liffe  had  been  adopted  by  numerous  disciples,  some  of 
whom  propagated  them  by  preaching.  His  disciples 
were  called  Lollards.  He  was  summoned  to  appear  at 
a  convocation  of  clergy  at  Oxford,  and,  according  to 
some  authorities,  made  a  confession  or  concession  to 
his  adversaries,  and  admitted  the  doctrine  of  the  real 
presence.  It  appears  that  the  only  penalty  inflicted  on 
him  was  expulsion  from  the  University  of  Oxford.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  produced  an  English  version 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  This  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  complete  English  translation  that 
was  ever  made.  It  became  an  engine  of  wonderful 
power  against  Romanism.  To  translate  the  Bible  was 
regarded  as  an  act  of  heresy ;  and  his  version  continued 
to  be  a  proscribed  book  until  the  Reformation  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Wycliffe,  who  may  be  considered  the 
father  of  English  prose,  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
works,  some  of  which  remain  in  manuscript. 

"He  clearly  anticipated,"  says  David  Irving,  "the 
most  distinguishing  doctrines  of  the  Protestants,  and 
his  opinions  on  certain  points  present  an  obvious  co 
incidence  with  those  of  Calvin.  Of  the  simplicity  of 
primitive  times  he  was  too  devoted  an  adftiirer  to 
secure  the  approbation  of  modern  churchmen."  ("  En 
cyclopaedia  Britannica.")  He  opposed  episcopacy,  or  at 
least  did  not  consider  the  episcopal  order  essential  to 
the  legitimate  constitution  of  the  Church.  He  died  at 
Luttei  worth  in  December,  1384. 

See  RKV.  JOHN  LEWIS,  "Life  of  John  Wycliffe,"  1719;  DR. 
ROHKKT  VAUGHAN,  "Life  of  John  WyciitTe,"  1828,  (revised  edition, 
1851:)  WEBB  LE  BAS,  "Life  of  John  Wycliffe,"  1832;  HODGSON, 
"Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  WILLIAM  GII.PIN, 
"  Lives  of  J.  Wiclef  and  of  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Disciples,"  etc., 
1763;  TISCHER,  "J.  Wiclef s  Leben,"  1800;  F.  VINCKNS,  "\Viclef: 
These  historique,"  1848;  MAIMBOURG.  "  Histoiredu  Wiclefianisme." 
1683  ;  WORDSWORTH,  "  Biographia  Ecclesi.istica  ;"  "  Four  Ecclesi 
astical  Biographies."  ly  J.  H.  GtrKNKY  ;  "London  Quarterly  Re 
view"  for  July.  iSsS;  AI.I.IBUNE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wydeville,  (ANTHONY.)     See  RIVERS,  EARL  OF. 

Wyermaii.     See  WEYKRMAN. 

Wykeham,  de,  de  wik'am,  (Wn.UAM,)  an  eminent 
English  ecclesiastic  and  statesman,  born  in  Hampshire 
in  1324.  His  talents  early  gained  for  him  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Edward  III.,  who  appointed  him  in 
1356  surveyor  of  the  works  at  Windsor.  He  afterwards 
became  successively  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  secretary 
to  the  king,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  lord  high  chan 
cellor  of  England,  (1367.)  Among  his  numerous  and 
munificent  works  were  the  erection  of  the  New  College, 
Oxford,  finished  in  1386,  and  the  college  at  Winchester. 
He  also  rebuilt  a  great  part  of  the  cathedral  of  Win 
chester.  Died  in  1404. 

See  BISHOP  LOWTH,  '•  Life  of  William  de  Wykeham,"  1758;  LORD 
CAMHBKLL,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors." 

Wy'lie,  (ANDREW,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of  the 
Episcopal  Church,  born  in  Washington  county,  Pennsyl 
vania,  in  1789.  He  became  president  of  the  University 
of  Indiana  in  1829.  He  published  an  English  Grammar, 
and  other  works.  Died  in  1851. 

Wy'man,  (JEFFRIES,)  an  American  anatomist,  born 
at  Chelmsford,  Massachusetts,  in  1814.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1847  Hersey  professor  of  anatomy  at  Har 
vard,  and  professor  of  comparative  anatomy  in  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School.  He  has  published  "Twelve 
Lectures  on  Comparative  Physiology,"  and  been  a  con 
tributor  to  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science"  and  other 
periodicals. 

Wy'iiants  or  Wy'nantz,  (J.\N,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1600.  His  pic 
tures  are  generally  of  small  size  and  great  excellence. 
He  numbered  among  his  pupils  Wouwerman  and 
Adriaan  van  cler  Velcle,  who  frequently  painted,  it  is 
said,  the  figures  in  his  landscapes.  Died  about  1678. 

Wyndham,  wind'am,  (Sir  CHARLES,)  Earl  of  Egre- 
mont,  an  English  politician,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
William  Wyndham.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset.  He  died  in  1763,  and  left  his  title 
to  his  son  George.  (See  EGREMONT.) 

Wyndham,  (GEORGE  O'BRIEN.)  See  EGREMONT, 
EARL  OF. 

Wyndham,  (Sir  WILLIAM.)  an  able  English  states 
man,  born  in  1687,  belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of 


Somersetshire.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Somerset,  joined  the  Tory  party,  and  became  a  powerful 
debater  in  Parliament.  He  was  appointed  secretary  at 
war  in  1710  or  1711,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in 
1713.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
to  whose  interest  he  adhered  after  the  quarrel  between 
that  leader  and  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  On  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne  he  was  removed  from  office,  (1714.)  He 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  in  1715,  on  suspicion  of 
complicity  in  a  Jacobite  conspiracy;  but  he  was  soon 
liberated,  without  a  trial.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  opposition  to  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Wai- 
pole,  and  had  great  influence  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  1734  he  made  a  celebrated  speech  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Septennial  act.  "  His  eloquence,"  says  Speaker 
Onslow,  "improved  by  use,  was  strong,  full,  and  with 
out  affectation,  arising  chiefly  from  his  clearness,  pro 
priety,  and  argumentation  ;  in  the  method  of  which  last, 
by  a  sort  of  induction  almost  peculiar  to  himself,  he 
had  a  force  beyond  any  man  I  ever  heard  in  public 
debates."  Died  in  1740. 

Wynn,  (CHARLES  WATKINS  WILLIAM,)  M.P.,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  1775.  He  was  secretary 
at  war  from  November,  1830,  to  April,  1831.  Died  in 
1850. 

Wynne,  win,  (EDWARD,)  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1734.  He  published  several  legal  works,  which  are 
commended.  Died  in  1784. 

"Wynne,  (JOHN  HUDDLESTONE,)  a  British  writer, 
born  in  Wales  in  1743,  published  "Fables  for  the 
Female  Sex,"  "  A  General  History  of  Ireland,"  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1788. 

Wyntoun.     See  WINTOUN. 

Wy'on,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  engraver  of  coins 
and  medals,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1795.  He  became 
second  engraver  at  the  Mint  in  London,  and  in  1838  a 
Royal  Academician,  being  the  first  artist  in  his  depart 
ment  who  had  won  that  distinction.  His  works  com 
prise  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  scientific,  artistic,  and 
war  medals,  and  are  ranked  among  the  most  admirable 
productions  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1851. 

Wyrsch,  wee~Rsh,  (JoiiANN  MEI.CHIOR,)  a  Swiss 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  in  Unterwalden  in 
1732.  He  worked  for  many  years  at  Besai^on.  Died 
in  1798. 

See  F.  WEY,  "Wyrsch  et  les  Peintres  bisontins,"  1861. 

Wyse,  (Sir  THOMAS,)  an  English  writer  and  diplo 
matist,  born  about  1800.  In  1821  he  married  Letitia 
Bonaparte,  a  niece  of  Napoleon  I.  He  was  minister 
at  Athens  from  1849  to  1862.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Walks  in  Rome,"  and  an  "Excursion  in  the 
Peloponnesus  in  1858,"  (2  vols.,  1865,)  which  is  praised 
by  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  an  article  entitled  "  Sir 
Thomas  Wyse's  Peloponnesus,"  (October,  1865.)  Died 
in  1862. 

Wyshart.     See  WISHART. 

Wysocki,  vi-sots'kee,  (JOSEPH,)  a  Polish  patriot  and 
soldier,  born  in  Podolia  in  1809.  He  fought  in  the 
revolution  of  1830,  and  in  1848  entered  the  Hungarian 
service.  After  the  defeat  at  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in 
France.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  "  The  Art 
of  War." 

Wysocki,  (PETER,)  a  Polish  patriot,  and  prominent 
leader  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in 
1799.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Russians  in  1831, 
and  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  1837. 

Wyss,  wiss,  (JOHANN  RUDOLF,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
at  Berne  in  1781,  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his 
native  town.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Idyls, 
Traditions,  Legends,  and  Tales  of  Switzerland,"  (1815.) 
Died  in  1830. 

Wysshart.     See  WISHART. 

Wythe,  \\\th,  (GEORGE,)  an  American  jurist  and 
patriot,  was  born  in  Elizabeth  City  county,  Virginia,  in 
1726.  He  was  an  ardent  promoter  of  the  independence 
of  the  colonies,  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress 
in  1775,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in 
July,  1776.  In  this  year  Wythe,  Jefferson,  and  Pendleton 
were  appointed  a  committee  to  revise  the  laws  of  Vir 
ginia.  He  became  in  1777  a  judge  of  the  high  court 
of  chancery,  and  served  as  chancellor  of  Virginia  for 


€  a»  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WTTHER 


2300 


XENOCRATES 


twenty   years.     He    emancipated    his    slaves.     Died    at 
Richmond  in  1806. 

See  SANDKKSON,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Wyther.     See  WITHERS. 

Wyttenbach.wit'ten-baK',  [Lat.  WYTTENBA'CHIUS,] 
(DANIEL,)  an  eminent  Swiss  critic  and  scholar,  born  at 
Berne  in  1746.  Me  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  subse 
quently  at  Leyden  under  Professor  Ruhnken,  and  be 
came  in  1771  professor  of  Greek  and  philosophy  in  the 
Athenaeum  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  appointed  in  1779 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Leyden.  He  was  one  of  the 


greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  and  his  compositions, 
which  are  all  written  in  Latin,  are  esteemed  standard 
works.  Among  these  his  "Life  of  Ruhnken"  (1799)  is 
particularly  admired  for  the  elegance  of  its  style.  He 
was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  ^'  Bibliotheca  Critica,"  and 
published  editions  of  the  "Opera  Moralia"  of  Plutarch, 
the  "  Phaedon"  of  Plato,  (1810,)  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1820.  His  wife,  JOHANNA  GAI.I.IKN,  was  distinguished 
for  her  learning,  and  was  made  doctor  of  philosophy  by 
the  University  of  Marburg. 

See  W.  L.  MAHNK,  "Vita  U.  Wyttenbachii,"  1823. 

Wytteiibachius.     See  WYTTE.NHACH. 


X. 


Xaintrailles,  de.     See  SAINTRAIU.ES,  r>E. 

Xanthippe.     See  XANTIPPE  and  XANTHIPPUS. 

Xaathippus,  zan-thip'pus,  [Gr.  £uvt)i-7roe ;  Fr.  XAN- 
THii'PK,  gzft.N'tep',]  an  Athenian  general,  was  the  father 
of  Pericles.  He  succeeded  Themistocles  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  479  H.C.,  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in 
the  naval  victory  over  the  Persians  at  Mycale,  (479.)  He 
captured  Sestos  in  478. 

Xanthippus,  a  Spartan  general,  an  ally  of  the  Car 
thaginians  in  the  first  Punic  war,  defeated  the  Romans 
under  Regulus,  whom  he  took  prisoner,  (B.C.  255.) 

Xaiithus,  zan'thus,  [H"i'0oc,[  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  who 
flourished  probably  about  650  Ji.c.  No  fragments  of  his 
poetry  are  extant. 

Xaiithus,  a  Greek  historian  and  native  of  Lyciia, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Herod 
otus.  He  was  the  author  of  a  description  of  Lyciia, 
entitled  "  Lydiaca,"  which  is  highly  commended  by 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  There  are  only  fragments 
of  it  extant. 

Xantippe,  zan-tip'pe,  or,  more  correctly,  Xan- 
thip'pe,  [Gr.  AavOiTTTrr] ;  Fr.  XANTIPPE  or  XANTHIPPE, 
gzS.N'tep',]  the  wife  of  Socrates,  was  notorious  for  her 
ill  temper.  Being  asked  by  Alcibiades  how  he  could 
live  with  such  a  woman,  he  is  said  to  have  replied,  "She 
exercises  my  patience,  and  enables  me  to  bear  with  all 
the  injustice  I  experience  from  others."  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  Xantippe's  faults  have  been  much  exag 
gerated.  Socrates  evidently  entertained  a  sincere  regard 
for  her,  and  gave  her  credit  for  many  domestic  virtues. 
(See  SOCRATES.) 

Xaupi,  gzo'pe',  (JOSEPH,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1688;  died  in  1778. 

Xaverius.     See  XAVIER. 

Xav'I-er,  [Ger.  XAVER,  ksa-vaia',]  (FRANCIS,)  second 
son  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  (who  was  afterwards 
Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland,)  was  born  in  1730.  He 
was  appointed  in  1763  administrator  of  Saxony  during 
the  minority  of  his  nephew.  Died  in  1806. 

Xavier,  zav'e-er,  [Sp.  pron.  Ha-ve-aiR';  Fr.  pron. 
gzt've-i';  Lat.  XAVE'UIUS;  Ger.  XAVER,  ksa-vaiR';  It. 
SAVKKIO,  sa-va're-o,]  (FRANCIS,)  SAINT,  a  celebrated 
Jesuit  missionary,  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indies," 
was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  near  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees,  in  April,  1506.  He  was  educated  in  Paris, 
and  there  formed  a  friendship  with  his  fellow-student 
Ignatius  Loyola.  He  was  one  of  those  who  associated 
themselves  with  Loyola  in  the  formation  of  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  about  1534.  In  1538  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
began  to  preach  in  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Da- 
maso.  Under  the  auspices  of  John,  King  of  Portugal, 
Xavier  visited  the  East  Indies  as  a  missionary  in  1541, 
arriving  at  Goa  in  May,  1542.  Ringing  a  bell  through 
the  streets  of  Goa,  he  summoned  parents  to  send  their 
children  and  slaves  to  him  in  order  to  be  instructed  in 
the  catechism.  He  endeavoured  to  reform  the  vicious 
professors  of  religion  as  well  as  to  convert  the  heathen, 
whose  temples  he  caused  to  be  destroyed  and  replaced 
by  churches.  Having  laboured  among  the  ignorant 
population  employed  in  the  pearl-fishery  on  the  coast, 
he  afterwards  passed  to  Travancore,  where,  it  is  said,  he 
baptized  ten  thousand  idolaters  in  nine  months.  In  1545 
he  visited  Malacca,  and  converted  numerous  idolaters, 
Jews,  and  Mohammedans.  With  several  other  mission 


aries,  whom  Loyola  sent  to  aid  him,  he  pursued  his 
course  to  the  Banda  Isles  in  1546.  He  baptized  many 
in  Amboyna,  founded  a  mission  at  Ternate,  and  returned 
to  Malacca  in  1547.  Having  converted  a  Japanese  exile, 
named  Auger,  he  resolved  to  extend  his  labours  to 
Japan.  He  took  Auger  with  him,  and  in  1549  reached 
Canguxima,  where  he  studied  the  Japanese  language, 
and  was  kindly  received  by  the  King  of  Saxuma.  He 
went  thence  to  Firanda,  in  which  he  was  permitted  to 
preach,  and  made  many  converts.  Encouraged  by  this 
success,  he  proceeded  to  Meaco,  the  capital  of  the  em 
pire,  where  he  arrived  in  1551.  He  obtained  from  the 
king  permission  to  preach,  and  converted  about  three 
thousand  there.  His  success  was  hindered  by  his  im 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  language.  He  ardently  desired 
to  carry  the  gospel  to  China,  and  was  not  deterred  bv 
the  severe  penalty  under  which  foreigners  were  forbid 
den  to  enter  that  country.  Before  he  could  reach  this 
new  scene  of  labour,  he  died,  on  the  isle  of  Sancian, 
near  the  Chinese  coast,  in  December,  1552.  He  was 
canonized  in  1622. 

See  TURSKLI.INUS,  "Vita  F.  Xaverii,"  1594;  BARTOI.I,  "Vita  F. 
Xaveiii,"  1666;  SANDOVAL,  "  Vida  de  S.  Francisco  Xavier,"  1619; 
I.  TOSCANO,  "Vita  di  F.  Saverio,"  1658;  H.  VENN,  "Missionary 
Life  of  Francis  Xavier:"  BOUHOUKS,  "Vie  de  S.  Francois  Xavier," 
i6S2,  (DKVDKN'S  English  translation  of  the  same,  1688;)  RAYBOIS, 
"Vie  de  S.  F.  Xavier,"  1838;  RKITHMKIKR,  "  Leben  des  heiligen 
Franz  Xaver,"  1846. 

Xavier,  (JEROME,  or  GERONIMO,)  a  Jesuit  missionary, 
born  in  Navarre,  was  a  relative  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Goa  in  1571,  after  which  he  preached  at  the  court 
of  the  Mogul  emperor,  where  he  is  said  to  have  made 
many  converts.  He  wrote  several  religious  treatises,  in 
Latin  and  in  Persian.  Died  at  Goa  in  1617. 

Xeiiarchus,  ze-nar'kus,  [Hewp^of,]  an  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  about  350- 
330  K.c.  Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Xenocles,  zen'o-klez,  [EewM/%,]  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  son  of  Carcinus  the  Elder,  and  flourished 
about  420  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  Euripides  in 
415  B.C.  He  had  a  son  CARCINUS,  and  a  grandson 
XKNOCLES,  who  were  likewise  tragic  poets. 

Xenocles,  an  Athenian  architect,  lived  in  the  age 
of  Pericles. 

Xeiiocrate.     See  XENOC RATES. 

Xenocrates,  ze-nok'ra-tez,  [Gr.  Sew/cpurr/f ;  Fr.  XE- 
NOCRATE,  gza'no'kuaV,)  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher, 
born  at  Chalcedon  in  396  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Plato 
and  a  fellow-student  of  Aristotle.  He  accompanied 
Plato  to  Syracuse,  and  after  the  death  of  his  master  was 
sent  on  embassies  to  Philip  of  Maceclon.  About  339 
B.C.  he  became  the  head  of  the  Platonic  Academy  at 
Athens,  over  which  he  presided  twenty-five  years.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  probity,  modesty,  and  moral 
purity.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  philosophy,  which 
are  not  extant,  taught  that  the  soul  is  a  self-moving 
number,  and  regarded  unity  and  duality  as  two  deities, 
the  former  of  which  rules  in  heaven  and  the  latter  in  the 
mutable  world.  In  his  philosophy  the  doctrines  of  Plato 
are  modified  by  the  Pythagorean  doctrines  of  number. 
His  eloquence  converted  the  dissolute  Polemon  into 
a  temperate  man  and  an  eminent  philosopher.  Died  in 
314  B.C. 

See  DIOGF.NKS  I.AERTIUS;  VAN  DE  WIJNPERSSE,  "Diatribe  de 
Xenocrate  Chalcedonio,"  1822. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y",  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


2301 


XERXES 


Xenocrates,  a  Greek  statuary  of  the  school  of  Ly- 
sippus,  flourished  about  260  u.c. 

Xenocrates,  a  Greek  physician,  who  resided  at 
Aphrodisias,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  37  A.D. 
lie  was  the  author  of  a  work  "On  the  Nutriment  de 
rived  from  Animals,"  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Xenomedes,  zen-o-mee'dez,  [Sevofajdqf,]  OK  CHIOS, 
a  Greek  historian,  lived  before  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
(which  began  431  B.C.) 

Xenon,  zee'non,  or  Xe'no,  [Sevuv,]  a  Greek  painter 
of  Sicyon,  was  a  pupil  of  Neocles. 

Xenophane.     See  XKNOPHANES. 

Xeiiophanes,  ze-nof'a-nez,  [Gr.  &evo$awj£;  Fr.  X£- 
NOPHANK,  gza'no'tln',]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher 
and  poet,  born  at  Colophon,  in  Ionia,  about  600  B.C. 
Diogenes  states  that  he  flourished  in  the  6oth  Olympiad, 
(about  538  B.C.)  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic 
school,  and  probably  lived  for  some  time  at  Elea,  in 
Italy.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  foundation  of  Elea,  and 
a  number  of  elegiac  poems  of  much  merit.  "The  work 
which  contained  his  philosophic  system,"  says  Victor 
Cousin,  "and  which  has  immortalized  his  name,  was  a 
poem  on  Nature,  in  hexameter  verse."  Several  frag 
ments  of  this  poem  have  been  preserved.  He  was  con 
sidered  by  the  ancients  as  the  originator  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  oneness  of  the  universe.  He  censured  Hesiod 
and  Homer  because  they  attributed  to  the  gods  human 
vices  and  defects,  and  is  said  to  have  maintained  the 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  Deity.  According  to  Aris 
totle,  Xenophanes,  directing  his  view  over  the  universe, 
declared,  "God  is  the  One."  Saint  Clement  also  affirms 
that  he  taught  pure  monotheism.  Victor  Cousin  de 
fends  him  from  the  charge  of  pantheism  which  some 
writers  had  brought  against  him.  ("Biographic  Uni- 
verselle.")  Xenophanes  also  insisted  on  the  antagonism 
between  sensuous  appearances  and  the  pure  truth  or 
reality.  He  was  about  one  hundred  years  old  when  he 
died. 

See  RITTF.R,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  LEWES,  "  Bio 
graphical  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  ARISTOTLE,  "  De  Xenophane, 
Georgia  et  Melisso  :"  SIMON  KARSTKN,  "  Xennnhanis  Carniimnn 
Reliquiae;  de  Vita  ejus,"  etc.,  1X30;  DIOGENES  LARKTIUS,  "Xeno 
phanes  ;"  Fth.l.EBORN,  "  Beitrag;  zur  Geschichte  der  Philosophic." 

Xenophile.     See  XKNOPHII.US. 

Xenophilus,  ze-nof'e-lus,  [Gr.  Asvo(j>i/.of ;  Fr.  XENO- 
PHII.K,  gzi'no'fel',]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who,  aided  by 
Straton,  made  a  statue  of  /Escnlapius  at  Argos. 

Xenophon,  zen'o-fon,  [Gr.  AEVO<JHJV;  Fr.  XENOPHON, 
gza'no'foN'';  It.  ZENOKONTE,  dza-no-fon'ta, ]  a  celebrated 
Athenian  historian  and  general,  was  a  son  of  Gryllus, 
and  a  native  of  the  demus  Ercheia.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  445  B.C.  According  to  Diogenes 
Laertius,  from  whose  writings  we  derive  nearly  all  that 
is  known  of  his  lite,  Xenophon  fell  from  his  horse  at  the 
battle  of  Delium,  in  424  u.c.,  and  would  probably  have 
been  killed,  if  he  had  not  been  rescued  by  Socrates. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Socrates  at  an  early  age,  and, 
according  to  Photius,  was  also  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life  which  occurred 
between  the  battle  of  Delium  and  the  year  401  B.C. 
Diogenes  Laertius  states  that  "Xenophon  edited  or 
made  known  the  History  of  Thucydides,  although  it 
was  in  his  power  to  pass  it  off  as  his  own  work  ;"  but 
the  truth  of  this  statement  is  doubted  by  some  critics. 
In  401  B.C.  he  went  to  Sardis,  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  Persian  prince  Cyrus  the  Younger,  whom  he  ac 
companied  in  an  expedition  against  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, 
King  of  Persia.  Xenophon  and  the  other  Greeks  who 
engaged  in  this  expedition  were  deceived  as  to  its  real 
object.  Cyrus  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Cunaxa,  near 
Babylon,  and  the  Greek  general  Clearchus  was  treach 
erously  slain.  Xenophon  was  one  of  the  generals  who 
conducted  the  Greek  army  of  10,000  in  its  memorable 
retreat  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Black  Sea.  He  displayed 
great  firmness,  courage,  and  military  skill  in  this  opera 
tion.  This  expedition  and  retreat  form  the  subject  of 
his  most  celebrated  work,  the  "  Anabasis,  or  History 
of  the  Expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,"  which  is  a 
very  interesting  narrative  and  is  written  in  a  natural, 
agreeable  style. 

According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  banished  from 
Athens  about  399  B.C.,  perhaps  because  he  was  a  friend 


of  Socrates.  Diogenes  Laertius  says  lie  was  banished 
for  Laconism.  He  took  part  in  an  expedition  which 
the  Spartan  king  Agesilaus  conducted  against  the  Per 
sians  in  396,  and  he  fought  in  the  Spartan  army  against 
the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of  Coroneia,  (394  B.C.)  Soon 
after  this  date  he  settled,  with  his  wife  Philesia  and  his 
children,  at  Scillus,  near  Olympia,  where  he  resided 
many  years  and  employed  his  time  in  hunting  and 
writing.  During  his  residence  at  Scillus  he  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Hunting,"  his  "Anabasis,"  and  perhaps- 
other  works.  The  decree  by  which  he  was  banished 
from  Athens  was  repealed  a  few  years  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  about  355  B.C.  He  had  two  sons,  named 
Gryllus  and  Diodorus.  It  is  supposed  that  all  of  his 
writings  have  come  down  to  us.  Under  the  title  of 
"  Hellenica,"  he  wrote  a  history  of  Greece  from  411  to 
362  B.C.  His  "  Cyropaedia"  ( K vponaukia)  is  commonly 
regarded  as  a  political  romance  founded  on  the  exploits 
of  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  has  no  authority  as  a  history. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Agesilaus,"  "  The 
Symposium,  or  Banquet,"  in  which  he  explains  the 
ideas  of  Socrates  in  relation  to  love  and  friendship, 
and  delineates  the  character  of  Socrates,  a  Dialogue 
between  Socrates  and  Critobulus,  entitled  O&cwquucof, 
which  treats  of  domestic  and  moral  economy,  and  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  a  philosophic  work  called  "The 
Memorabilia  of  Socrates,"  ('A-rrop.'T)/j.ovt:i'fj.aTa  Zoitpurwfi) 
which  purports  to  be  an  exposition  of  the  doctrines  and 
character  of  his  illustrious  master.  It  is  highly  prized 
as  a  memorial  of  the  practical  part  of  the  Socratic  phi 
losophy.  "Xenophon,"  says  Macaulay,  "  is  commonly 
placed,  but,  we  think,  without  much  reason,  in  the  same 
rank  with  Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  He  resembles 
them,  indeed,  in  the  purity  and  sweetness  of  his  style  ; 
but  in  spirit  he  rather  resembles  that  later  school  of 
historians,  whose  works  seem  to  be  fables  composed 
for  a  moral,  and  who  in  their  eagerness  to  give  us  warn 
ings  and  example  forget  to  give  us  men  and  women." 
(Essay  on  "History,"  1828.)  Xenophon's  "Memora 
bilia"  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Sarah  Fielding, 
his  "  Symposium"  by  J.  Wellwood,  his  "Cyropaedia" 
by  M.  A.  Cowper,  and  his  "  CEconomicus"  by  Robert 
Bradley. 

See  FORTIA  D'URBAN,  "Vie  de  Xenophon,"  1795;  CRF.UZKR, 
"  De  Xenophonte  historico,"  1799;  HACKKN,  "Xenophon,"  1^05; 
KRUGER,  "  De  Xenophontis  Vita,"  1823;  NOBHE,  "Vita  Xeno- 
phontis,"  1825;  FAHRICIUS,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  HOFFMANN, 
"  Lexicon  Bibliographicum  ;"  GROTE,  "  History  ot  Greece  ;"  THIRL- 
WAI.I,,  "  History  of  Greece;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Xenophon,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  svho  lived  about 
300  B.C.  In  conjunction  with  Cephisodotus,  he  made  a 
statue  of  Jupiter. 

Xenophon,  a  Greek  physician,  a  native  of  Cos,  lived 
at  Rome,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Claudius. 
At  the  instigation  of  Agrippina,  he  poisoned  Claudius, 
by  introducing  a  poisoned  feather  into  his  mouth  under 
pretence  of  making  him  vomit. 

Xenophon  OF  EPHKSUS,  a  Greek  writer  of  unknown 
period,  was  the  author  of  a  romance  called  "  Ephesiaca, 
or  the  Loves  of  Anthia  and  Abrocomas,"  the  style  of 
which  is  simple  and  elegant.  lie  probably  lived  in 
the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ.  His  romance 
has  been  translated  into  German  by  Burger,  and  into 
English  by  Rooke. 

Xerces.     See  XERXES. 

Xeres,  de,  da  na/res,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  histo 
rian,  was  secretary  to  Pizarro,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Peru  about  1530.  He  published  in  1547  a  history  of  the 
expedition,  entitled  "A  True  Account  of  the  Conquest 
of  Peru,"  etc. 

Xerxes,  zerk'sez,  [Gr.  Zepfrf;  Fr.  XERCES,  gzeVseV,] 
I.,  sometimes  called  XERXES  THE  GREAT,  a  famous  king 
of  Persia,  and  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time, 
was  a  son  of  Darius  1  lystaspis.  His  mother  was  Atossa, 
a  daughter  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  succeeded  Darius 
in  485  u.c.,  and  began  to  raise  an  immense  army  for  the 
invasion  of  Greece.  Several  years  were  expended  in 
cutting  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Mount  Athos, 
and  in  building  a  bridge  of  boats  or  ships  across  the 
Hellespont,  over  which  Xerxes  and  his  army  passed  in 
the  spring  of  480  B.C.  His  army  was  composed  of  many 
nations  tributary  to  the  Persian  empire,  and,  according 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t-h  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


XERXES 


2302 


XIMENES 


to  Herodotus,  amounted  to  2,317,610  men,  besides  slaves 
and  noil-combatants.  Niebu.hr  and  Grote  consider 
this  number  incredible  and  impossible.  The  number 
of  slaves  and  other  camp-followers  was  equal  to  that 
of  the  soldiers.  He  is  said  to  have  shed  tears  when 
he  reflected  that  in  a  century,  or  less,  none  of  these 
myriads  of  men  would  survive.  Having  reviewed  his 
army  at  Doriscus,  he  marched  through  Thrace  and 
Thessaly.  The  Greeks  attempted  to  defend  the  pass 
of  Thermopylae,  but  the  Persians  turned  that  position, 
(see  LEONIDAS,)  and  captured  Athens,  from  which  the 
whole  population  had  been  removed.  The  Athenians, 
who  were  directed  by  Themistocles,  relied  chiefly  on 
their  naval  power  for  defence  against  the  invaders.  An 
indecisive  naval  action  was  fought  by  the  two  fleets  at 
Artemisium,  where  the  Persian  fleet  was  much  damaged 
by  a  storm.  Xerxes  was  still  able  after  this  loss  to 
muster  a  fleet  of  twelve  hundred  vessels,  which  in  the 
autumn  of  480  K.c.  was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Salamis.  (See  THEMISTOCI.ES.)  Xerxes,  placed  on  a 
lofty  position  on  the  adjacent  shore,  witnessed  this  dis 
astrous  defeat  of  his  vainglorious  project.  He  retreated 
hastily  by  land  to  the  Hellespont,  and  crossed  over  to 
Asia,  leaving  an  army  under  Mardonius,  who  was  de 
feated  at  Plataea  in  479  is.c.  Xerxes  was  murdered  in 
465  by  Artabanus,  an  officer  of  his  court.  He  appears 
to  have  been  by  nature  not  without  amiable  and  noble 
qualities;  but  his  heart  was  corrupted  by  the  posses 
sion  of  unlimited  power,  and  by  the  abject  adulation 
commonly  bestowed  on  Eastern  sovereigns.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 

See  HERODOTUS,  "History  of  Greece;"  GROTE,  "History  of 
Greece:"  ROI.UN,  "Ancient  History;"  ROSENBERG,  "  De  Cam- 
byse,  Dario  Hystaspe  et  Xerxe,"  1690;  HUSSEL,  "  Xerxes  cles  Gros- 
sen  Leben.  Thaten  und  Knde."  1816. 

Xerxes  II.,  King  of  Persia,  was  a  son  of  Artaxerxes 
I.,  (Longimanus,)  whom  he  succeeded  in  425  H.c.  After 
a  reign  of  a  few  months,  he  was  assassinated  by  Sog- 
dianus,  his  half-brother. 

Ximeiies  or  Jimenes,  ire-ma'nes,  (FRANCISCO,)  a 
Spanish  friar,  who  was  employed  as  a  missionary  in 
Mexico.  He  translated  into  Spanish  a  Latin  work  on 
the  plants  of  Mexico,  by  Hernandez.  Died  about  1620. 

Ximenes  or  Jimenes,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1598.  lie  studied  in 
Rome,  adopted  an  Italian  style,  and  returned  to  Sara 
gossa.  His  works  are  highly  praised.  Died  in  1666. 

Ximeiies,  iie-ma'nes,  (LEONARDO,)  a  Sicilian  astron 
omer  and  geometer,  born  at  Trapani  in  1716,  became 
a  Jesuit.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  geography  at 
Florence,  and  by  his  skill  in  hydraulics  rendered  im 
portant  services  in  averting  the  damages  caused  by 
overflowing  rivers.  He  wrote  a  number  of  able  works 
on  astronomy  and  hydraulics,  among  which  is  "Collec 
tion  of  Hydraulic  Pamphlets,"  etc.,  ("  Raccolta  di  Peri- 
zie  ed  Opuscoli  idraulici,"2  vols.,  1781-86.)  He  founded 
an  observatory  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1786. 

Ximenes,  she-ma'nes,  (PETER,)  a  theologian,  born 
of  Portuguese  parents  at  Middelburg,  in  Holland,  in 
1514.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  called  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Catholic  Truth."  Died  in  1595. 

Ximenes,  (RODRIGO,)  a  Spanish  prelate  and  his 
torian,  became  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  cardinal. 
He  rendered  important  military  services  in  the  war 
against  the  Moors,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Spain." 
Died  in  1247. 

Ximenes,  de,  deh  ze'ma'nes',  (AucusriN  Louis,) 
MARQUIS,  a  French  poet,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  in 
Paris  in  1726,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Don  Carlos,"  and  other  tragedies,  a 
poem  entitled  "  Cassar  in  the  Senate,"  and  several  criti 
cal  essays,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1815. 

Ximenes  (or  Jimenes)' de  Carmona,  ne-ma'nes 
di  kaR-mo'na,  (FRANCISCO,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer, 
born  at  Cordova  near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Ximenes,  [English  pron.  ze-mee'nez,j  or,  more  fully, 
Jimenes  (or  Ximenes)  de  Cisneros,  ne-ma'nes  da 
//zes-na'r6s,  (FRANCISCO,)  called  CARDINAL  XIMENES,  a 
celebrated  Spanish  statesman  and  patron  of  literature, 
was  born  at  Torrelaguna,  in  New  Castile,  in  1436.  He 
was  educated  at  Salamanca  and  at  Rome,  where  he 


studied  theology,  philosophy,  and  Oriental  languages. 
He  became  grand  vicar  of  Cardinal  Mendo/.a  at  Siguenza. 
About  1482  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  Toledo, 
where  he  acquired  distinction  as  a  preacher.  He  was 
appointed  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella  in  1492,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1495.  His  modesty  prompted 
him  to  decline  this  honour;  but  he  submitted  to  the 
positive  command  of  the  pope.  He  was  distinguished 
by  his  simplicity  of  life,  his  charity  to  the  poor,  and  his 
aversion  to  luxury  and  pomp.  About  1498  he  founded 
the  University  of  Alcala  de  Henares.  lie  exerted  his 
influence  to  reform  the  Franciscan  order  of  monks. 
Under  his  auspices  a  number  of  eminent  scholars  began 
in  1502  to  prepare  a  Polyglot  Bible,  called  the  Complu- 
tensian,  which  became  the  model  of  all  the  subsequent 
versions  of  the  Bible  in  divers  languages,  and  was  the 
greatest  literary  enterprise  of  that  age.  On  the  death 
of  Queen  Isabella  (1504)  he  acted  as  mediator  between 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  the  archduke  Philip,  each 
of  whom  claimed  the  regency  of  Castile.  After  the 
death  of  Philip  (1506)  Ximenes  was  appointed  regent 
or  guardian  of  Queen  Joanna,  who  was  disqualified  by 
mental  imbecility.  He  authorized  the  citizens  of  the 
towns  to  form  themselves  into  a  militia,  and  by  this 
bold  and  politic  measure  promoted  the  power  of  the 
crown,  while  he  reduced  the  importance  of  the  unruly 
nobles. 

In  1507  he  received  the  title  of  cardinal.  He  fitted 
out  at  his  own  expense  a  fleet  and  an  army,  which  he 
conducted  in  person  to  Africa  in  1509,  and  captured  the 
city  of  Oran  by  storm.  "  His  talents,  energy,  and  re 
puted  sanctity  of  character,"  says  Prescott,  "combined 
with  the  authority  of  his  station,  gave  him  unbounded 
influence  with  all  classes  of  the  Castilians."  During  his 
expedition  against  Oran,  King  Ferdinand  wrote  a  letter 
to  Count  Navarro  and  requested  him  to  find  some 
pretence  for  detaining  Ximenes  in  Africa.  The  car 
dinal  was  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  this  letter,  and 
naturally  put  the  worst  construction  on  the  same.  On 
one  occasion  the  king,  who  wished  the  archbishopric  of 
Toledo  for  his  natural  son  Alfonso,  importuned  Ximenes 
to.resign  his  see  and  take  another  in  exchange  ;  but  he 
replied,  with  indignation,  "that  he  would  never  consent 
to  barter  away  the  dignities  of  the  Church."  In  1517 
his  "Polyglot  Bible"  was  completed.  According  to 
Prescott,  this  was  "a  noble  monument  of  piety,  learn 
ing,  and  munificence,  which  entitles  its  author  to  the 
gratitude  of  the  whole  Christian  world."  ("  History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.") 

By  the  testament  of  Ferdinand,  who  died  in  January, 
1516,  Cardinal  Ximenes  was  appointed  sole  regent  of 
Castile  during  the  absence  of  the  young  king  Charles. 
His  right  to  this  office  was  disputed  by  Adrian,  Dean 
of  Louvain,  who  produced  powers  of  similar  purport 
from  Charles.  Ximenes  and  Adrian  administered  the 
government  jointly  for  some  time,  but  the  former  soon 
assumed  sole  power.  In  September,  1517,  Charles  V. 
arrived  in  Spain,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  Ximenes,  which 
"is  unmatched,  even  in  court  annals,  for  cool  and  base 
ingratitude."  (Prescott.)  It  announced  his  dismissal 
from  office.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  November,  1517. 

"  Such,"  says  Prescott,  "  was  the  end  of  this  remark 
able  man, — the  most  remarkable,  in  many  respects,  of 
his  time.  His  character  was  of  that  stern  and  lofty 
cast  which  seems  to  rise  ab  >ve  the  ordinary  wants  and 
weaknesses  of  humanity.  His  genius,  of  the  severest 
order,  like  Dante's  or  Michael  Angelo's  in  the  regions 
of  fancy,  impresses  us  with  ideas  of  power  that  excite 
admiration  akin  to  terror.  .  .  .  His  regency  was  con 
ducted  on  the  principles  of  a  military  despotism.  His 
whole  policy,  indeed,  was  to  exalt  the  royal  prerogative 
at  the  expense  of  the  inferior  orders  of  the  state.  .  .  . 
He  had  a  full  measure  of  the  religious  bigotry  which 
belonged  to  the  age."  ("  History  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,"  vol.  iii.) 

See  ROBI.ES,  "  Vida  del  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1604 ;  FI.ECHIER, 
"  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1693;  CASTRO,  "  De  Vita  F. 
Ximenii,"  1581;  MENDOZA,  "Vida  de  Ximenes,"  1653:  MARSOL- 
I.IEK,  '•  Histoire  du  Ministere  de  Ximenes,"  1694;  "  Don  F.  Xime 
nes,"  Leipsic,  1796;  BAKKKT,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1813; 
HEFEI.E,  "  Der  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1844;  HAVEMANN,  "  F'.  Xime 
nes."  1848;  ROBERTSON,  "History  of  Cli.irles  V.;"  PRESCOTT, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  iii.  part  ii. 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  shnrt;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


XIMENES 


TAO 


Ximenes  de  Quesada,  (da  ka-sa'Da,)  (GONZAI.O,)  a  i 
Spanish   explorer  and  captain,  born  at  Granada  about 
1495.     ^e  commanded  a  party  which  about  1532  began 
to  explore  the   region  since  called  New  Granada,  and 
founded  in  1538  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.     Died  in  1546. 

Ximeiio  or  Jimeno,  He-ma'no,  (VINCKNTE,)  a 
Spanish  biographer,  born  at  Valencia  about  1700.  He 
published  a  literary  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia, 
"Escritores  del  Regno  de  Valencia,"  (2  vols.,  1747-49.) 

Xiphilin.     See  XIPHILINUS. 

Xiphilinus,  zif-e-li'nus,  [Gr.  Zify'/lvw; ;  Fr.  XIPHILIX, 
gze'fe'la.N'',]  ( JOANNES,)  became  Patriarch  of  Constanti 
nople  in  1066.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
and  ecclesiastical  works.  Died  in  1075. 

Xiphilinus,  (JOANNES,)  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
wrote  an  epitome  of  the  "  History"  of  Dion  Cassius, 
which  was  first  published  in  1551. 

Xuares  or  Juares,  noo-a'res,  (GASPAR,)  a  Jesuit  and 
botanist,  born  in  Paraguay  in  1731  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1804. 

Xuares  or  Juares,  noo-a'ies,  written  also  Suares, 
(RODERICK,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Salamanca,  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 


Xuthus,  zu'tluis,  [Gr.  Ew0of,]  a  mythical  king  of 
Peloponnesus,  was  called  a  son  of  Helen,  a  brother  of 
Dorus  and  /Eolus,  and  the  father  of  Achasus  and  Ion. 

Xylaader,  kse-lan'der,  (GULIELMUS,  or  WILLIAM,) 
a  German  scholar,  originally  named  HOLZMANN,  (i.e. 
"  wood-man,"  of  which  Xyl.mder  is  the  Greek  equivalent,) 
was  born  at  Augsburg  in  1532.  He  studied  in  his  native 
town  and  at  Tubingen,  and  in  1558  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He  made  numerous  transla 
tions  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  among  which  we  may 
name  the  works  of  Strabo  and  Plutarch,  the  "  History'1 
of  Dion  Cassius,  and  the  mathematical  works  of  Dio- 
pliantus.  He  also  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Marcus 
Antoninus,  Phlegon  Tralliantis,  and  Antigonus  Carys- 
tius.  His  learning  was  profound,  and  his  translations 
are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1576. 

Xylander,  von,  fon  kse-lan'der,  (JOSEPH  KARL 
AUGUST,)  a  German  officer  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Munich  in  1794,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled 
"  Strategy  and  its  Application,"  (1818,)  a  "Manual  of 
Tactics,"  and  numerous  other  works,  on  various  sub 
jects.  Died  in  1854. 


Y. 


Yahya,*  (or  Yahia,)  ya'ne-a,  a  Moorish  captain, 
called  by  the  Spaniards  BEN-GAMA  or  BEN-GAMIA.  He 
was  commander  of  the  armies  of  the  Almoravides  in 
Spain,  whose  power  was  opposed  by  the  Almohades. 
He  was  killed  in  1148. 

Yahya-  (or  Yahia-)  al-Barmekee,  (or  -Barmaki,) 
ya'ne-a  a!  bar'ma-kee',  (Aboo-Alee  or  Abu-All, 
d'boo  a'lee,)  a  Persian  minister  of  state,  belonged  to  the 
family  of  Barmecides,  (or  Barmekides.)  He  became 
vizier  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  in  786  A.D.  He  was  a 
man  of  superior  talents,  and  had  great  influence  for 
many  years.  He  was  disgraced  about  803,  and  died 
in  807  A.D. 

Yakoobt-al-Mansoor-Billah,  Yakoub-al-Man- 
sour-Billah,  or  Yakub-  (or  Jakub-)  al-Maiisur- 
Billah,  ya'koob'  al  man'soor'  bil'lah,  a  king  of  Morocco, 
horn  about  1210,  was  an  able  and  powerful  monarch, 
lie  began  to  reign  in  1258.  In  1275  he  invaded  Spain, 
and  waged  war  against  the  Christians  with  some  suc 
cess.  Died  in  1286. 

Yakoob-  'Yakoub-  or  Yakub-)  Ibn-Lais  or 
-Laith,t  ya'koob'  ib'n  ITs,  surnamed  AL-SoFFAR  or  AL- 
SCFFAR,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Soffarides 
in  Persia.  By  conquest  he  made  himself  master  of  Sei's- 
tan  about  862  A.D.,  and  of  Farsistan  a  few  yeais  later. 
Died  about  878  A.D. 

Yal'den,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  poet  and  divine, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1671.  He  studied  at  Magdalene 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
Addison  and  Sacheverell.  He  succeeded  Atterbury  as 
lecturer  at  Bridewell  Hospital  in  1698,  and  became 
professor  or  reader  of  moral  philosophy  at  Oxford  about 
1702.  He  was  also  rector  of  Chalton  and  Cleanville,  in 
Hertfordshire.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "The 
Temple  of  Fame,"  (1700,)  "/Esop  at  Court,"  (1702,)  a 
"  Hymn  to  Light,"  and  a  "  Hymn  to  Darkness,"  which 
was  praised  by  Dr.  Johnson.  Died  in  1736. 

See  JOHNSON',  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Yale,  (Ki.iiii;,)  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in 
1648,  was  the  principal  patron  of  the  college  called  by 
his  name.  lie  became  in  1687  governor  of  Fort  Saint 
George  at  Madras.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So 
ciety.  Died  in  1721. 

Yarn'a  or  Yam'a-na,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  yum'? 
or  yum'a-na,]  called  also  Yam'an  or  Yam'en,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  god  of  Patala,  (or  Naiaka,§)  or 


*  It  may  be  remarked  that  Yahya  is  the  Arabic  form  of  JOHN. 
There  have  been  many  princes,  leaders,  and  writers  of  this  name, 
both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  but  none  of  any  great  note. 

t  Yakoob  (in  German,  JakuU)  is  the  Arabic  of  JACOB  and  JAMBS. 

t  See  "  Introduction,"  p.  viii.  section  i.,  4. 

§  The  words  Naraka  and  Pa;ala  appear  to  be  sometimes  used  as 
nearly  synonymous  ;  but  Patala  is  more  correctly  applied  to  the 
whole  extent  of  the  lower  world,  while  Xaraka  properly  denotes  a 
place  of  torment. 


the  lower  world,  and  the  god  of  death  and  the  judge  of 
departed  spirits.  His  residence  or  capital  is  called  Yama- 
pura,  or  "  city  of  Yania."  After  having  inquired  into  and 
pronounced  upon  the  merits  of  those  who  are  brought 
before  his  judgment-seat,  he  sends  the  good  to  Swarga, 
(Indra's  paradise,)  and  the  wicked  to  appropriate  places 
of  punishment,  corresponding  to  the  Tartarus  of  classic 
mythology.  Yama  is  known  by  a  great  multitude  of 
names,  as  Dharma-Raja,  ("  King  of  Justice,")  Mrityu, 
(i.e.  "  Death,")  etc.  He  is  said  to  have  a  servant, 
named  Karmala,  (or  Cannala,)  who  brings  before  him 
the  righteous  on  celestial  self-moving  cars.  He  has  two 
faces, — the  one  full  of  mildness  and  benevolence,  seen 
only  by  the  virtuous  ;  the  other  is  hideous,  exhibiting 
great  and  terrible  teeth  :  this  only  is  visible  to  the 
wicked.  Yama  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same 
as  Bali,  (or  Baly,)  to  whom,  as  we  are  informed  in  the 
legend  of  VAMANA,  (which  see,)  Vishnu  conceded  the 
kingdom  of  Patala  ;  bat  Southey  makes  them  two  dis 
tinct  personages,'|  Yamen  being  the  king,  and  "  Baly" 
(Bali)  the  judge,  of  "  Padalon,"  (a  corruption  of  Patala.) 
See  "The  Curse  of  Kehama,"  vol.  ii.,  v.,  also  ix.-xii.  ;  MOOR, 
"  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Yamana.     See  YAMA. 

Yamen.     See  YAMA. 

Yanaka.     See  NANEK. 

Yaii'cey,  (\VILLIAM  L.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  about  1815.  He 
studied  law,  and  settled  in  Alabama  about  1837.  He 
represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1844  to  1847  inclusive.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  most 
extreme  partisans  of  State  sovereignty  and  disunion, 
(called  fire-eaters,)  and  was  the  reputed  author  of  the 
phrase  "fire  the  Southern  heart."  In  the  Convention 
of  Alabama  he  reported  the  ordinance  of  secession, 
which  was  passed  in  January,  1861.  He  was  sent  early 
in  1861  to  Europe  as  a  commissioner  to  obtain  the 
recognition  of  the  new  confederacy.  Having  returned 
in  February,  1862,  he  entered  the  Congress  at  Richmond 
as  Senator' for  Alabama.  Died  in  August,  1863. 

Yang-Tee  or  Yang-Ti,  yang'tee',  Emperor  of  China, 
began  to  reign  in  605  A.D.  lie  caused  several  great 
canals  to  be  made  for  navigation.  Died  in  617. 

Yao,  ya'o,  or  Yaou,  ya'oo,  almost  yow,  an  ancient 
Chinese  sage  and  ruler,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  According 
to  Pauthier,  he  ascended  the  imperial  throne  2357  B.C., 
and  reigned  seventy-two  years,  after  which  Shun  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  government.  His  reign  is 


||  "  He  [Yamen]  sat  upon  a  marble  sepulchre, 

Massive  and  huge,  where  at  the  monarch's  feet 
The  righteous  Ba'y  had  his  judgment-seat." 

Curse  of  Kehama,  vol.  ii.,  xi. 


€  as  -6;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (J^'See  Explanations,  p.  23 


YAROSLAF 


2304 


rEN-HOEI 


considered  by  some  to  mark  the  commencement  of  au 
thentic  history  among  the  Chinese.  The  most  ancient 
historical  books  of  China,  if  we  may  trust  the  statements 
of  the  Chinese  critics,  date  from  the  time  of  Yao;  in 
other  words,  the  events  of  his  reign  were  chronicled  by 
contemporary  historians,  and  not  written  afterwards 
from  tradition,  as  is  the  case  with  the  early  history  of 
nearly  all  other  nations.  He  this  as  it  may,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  the  early  history  of  China  to  be  more 
trustworthy  than  that  of  most  other  countries.  Yao  is 
represented  as  having  been  one  of  the  most  enlightened, 
virtuous,  and  prosperous  of  rulers.  He  introduced 
into  the  state  many  important  regulations.  He  gave 
especial  encouragement  to  the  study  of  astronomy  and  to 
works  of  public  improvement.  "Great  indeed,"  says 
Confucius,  "was  Yaou  as  a  sovereign.  How  majestic 
was  he  !  It  is  only  Heaven  that  is  grand,  and  only  Yaou 
corresponded  to  it.  How  vast  was  his  virtue!  The 
people  could  find  no  name  for  it.  How  majestic  was  he 
in  the  works  which  he  accomplished  !  how  glorious  in 
the  admirable  regulations  which  he  instituted  !"  (See  the 
"Confucian  Analects,"  book  viii.  chap,  xix.)  Yao  was 
succeeded  by  Shun,  who  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior 
to  him  in  wisdom  and  virtue. 
See  PAUTHIER,  "Chine,"  pp.  31-37. 

Yaroslaf  or  Yaroslav,   Jaroslaw   or  Jaroslav, 

ya'ro-slaf',  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  a  son  of  Vladimir  I., 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  In 
1016  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  his  brother, 
Sviatopok,  and  was  crowned  sovereign  of  all  the  Russias. 
His  reign  is  distinguished  by  the  wise  laws  which  he 
enacted  for  the  benefit  of  his  subjects,  the  liberal  encou 
ragement  which  he  gave  to  learning,  and  the  introduction 
of  painting  from  Greece.  His  sister  Mary  was  married 
to  Casimir,  King  of  Poland,  and  one  of  his  daughters 
became  the  queen  of  Henry  I.  of  France.  Died  in  1054. 

Yaroslaf  (or  Jaroslaw)  II  became  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia  in  1238.  During  his  reign  the  Mongol  Tartars 
overran  his  dominions  and  reduced  him  to  vassalage. 
Died  in  1246. 

Yar'ran-tpn,  (ANDREW,)  an  English  soldier  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1616,  served  for 
a  time  in  the  Parliamentary  army.  He  devoted  himsell 
to  the  improvement  of  inland  navigation  and  agricul 
ture,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  England's 
Improvement  by  Sea  and  Land,"  (1677.) 

See  SAMUEL  SMILES,  "  Industrial  Biography." 

Yar'rell,  (WILLIAM.)  an  eminent  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1784.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Linnxan  and  Zoological  Societies,  and  contributed  a 
number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the  Journal  and  Trans 
actions  of  those  institutions.  He  published  in  1836  his 
"  History  of  British  Fishes,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  which  was 
followed  in  1843  by  his  "  History  of  British  Birds,"  (2 
vols.)  They  are  beautifully  illustrated  with  wood-cuts, 
and  are  ranked  among  the  most  admirable  works  of 
their  kind.  Yarrell  was  the  first  to  prove  that  the  white 
bait  is  a  distinct  species  offish,  and  not  the  young  of  other 
species,  as  was  previously  supposed.  Died  in  1856. 

See  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1837. 

Yart,  ya"R  or  e-^R,  (ANTOINK.,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1710,  became  a  priest  and  curate  of 
Saussay,  in  Vexin.  He  published,  under  the  title  of 
"  Idee  de  la  Poesie  Anglaise,"  (8  vols.,  1749-56,)  prose 
translations  of  several  English  poems.  Died  in  1791. 

Yates,  (ANNA  MARIA,)  a  celebrated  English  actress, 
excelled  particularly  in  tragic  parts.  She  was  the  wife 
of  Richard  Yates.  Died  in  1787. 

Yates,  (EDMUND  HODGSON,)  an  English  novelist,  a 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  in  1831.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "  Temple  Bar  Magazine"  for  some  years  ending 
in  1867.  Among  his  works  are  "Broken  to  Harness," 
(3  vols.,  1864,)  "The  Business  of  Pleasure,"  (2  vols., 
1865.)  "  Land  at  Last  :  a  Novel,"  (3  vols.,  1866,)  and 
"The  Rock  Ahead,"  (3  vols.,  1868.) 

Yates,  (  FRKDERICK  HKNRY,)  a  popular  English  actor, 
born  about  1795,  became  manager  of  the  Adelphi  The 
atre.  Died  in  1842. 

Yates,  (JAMKS,)  an  English  antiquary  and  economist, 
born  at  Highgate,  near  London,  in  1789,  became  a  dis 


senting  minister.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Textrinum  Opus,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Art  of  Weav 
ing  among  the  Ancients,"  (1845.) 

Yates,  (RoBKRT,)  an  American  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1738,  rose  through 
various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  State  of  New 
York  in  1700.  Died  in  1801. 

Yates,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  Baptist  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1792.  In  1815  he 
went  as  a  missionary  to  Calcutta,  where  he  employed 
himself  in  making  translations  from  the  English  into 
the  Indian  tongues.  Among  the  most  important  of  these 
may  be  named  his  versions  of  the  Bible  into  Bengalee, 
and  the  New  Testament,  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Isaiah,  and  Daniel  into  Sanscrit.  He  also  published  a 
Sanscrit  grammar,  a  Sanscrit-and-English  dictionary, 
and  other  educational  works.  He  died  on  the  voyage 
to  England,  in  1845. 

Yazeed.     See  YEZKED. 

Yazid.     See  YEZK.KD. 

Yberville.     See  IHKKVILLE. 

Yeaines,  yeemz,  (WILLIAM  FREDERICK,)  an  English 
painter,  born  at  Taganrog,  in  Russia,  in  1835.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Sir  Thomas  More  taken  to  the  Tower," 
(1863.)  He  was  elected  yen  associate  of  the  Royal  Acad 
emy  of  London  in  1866. 

Yearsley,  yeeiv/le,  (Mrs.  ANNE,)  an  English  writer, 
born  at  Bristol  about  1756,  was  originally  a  milkwoman. 
She  was  patronized  by  Hannah  More,  under  whose  aus 
pices  she  published  "The  Royal  Captives,"  a  romance, 
and  a  collection  of  poems. 

Yeates,  vats,  ?  (TuoMAs,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1768.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  a 
Hebrew  Grammar  and  a  Syriac  Grammar,  both  of  which 
are  commended.  Died  in  1839. 

Yeats,  (TnoMAS  PATTINSON,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
naturalist  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  the  author  of 
an  elementary  work  on  entomology.  Died  in  1782. 

Yefremof  or  Jefremow,  ySh-fra'mof,  a  Russian 
traveller,  born  about  1744,  published  "Travels  in  Persia 
and  India,"  (1786.)  Died  after  1809. 

Yelin,  von,  fon  yeh-leen',  (Jui.ius  CONRAD,)  a  Ger 
man  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1771,  wrote 
several  scientific  works.  Died  in  1826. 

Yeliu-Thsoo-Thsai,  yel'le-oo'  tsoo  tsl,  a  celebrated 
Chinese  or  Tartar  minister,  born  in  1190.  He  was  a 
councillor  of  Jengis  Khan  and  of  his  son  OgodaY.  He 
was  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  virtue.  Died  in  1244. 
According  to  Abel  Remusat,  "  Millions  of  men  owed 
their  lives  and  liberty  to  this  great  minister,  who  spent 
his  life  in  pleading  the  cause  of  law,  order,  and  hu 
manity." 

YeTver-ton,  (Sir  HKNRY,)  an  English  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  1566,  was  the  author  of"  Reports  of 
Special  Cases."  Died  in  1630. 

Yendis  or  Yendys.     See  DOBELL. 

Yen-Hoei,  yen-ho-a'  or  -ho-T',  or  Yen-Hwuy,  called 
also  Yen-Yuen,  (yoo'en',)  the  favourite  and  most  gifted 
disciple  of  Confucius,  was  born  towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixtli  century  n.c.  Not  only  his  master  but  his 
fellow-pupils  admitted  his  decided  superiority  over  all 
the  rest.  Confucius  asked  one  of  them,  (Ts/.e-Kung.) 
"Which  do  you  consider  superior,  yourself  or  Hwuy?'' 
He  replied,  "  How  dare  T  compare  myself  with  Hwuy  ? 
Ilwuy  hecirs  one  point  and  knows  all  about  a  subject,  I 
hear  one  point  and  know  a  second  [only]."  (See  "Ana 
lects  of  Confucius,"  book  v.)  Confucius  said  of  him, 
"There  was  Yen-Hwuy;  HE  loved  to  learn;  ...  he 
did  not  repeat  a  fault.  Unfortunately,  his  appointed 
time  was  short :  he  died,  and  now  there  is  not  such 
another."  ("Analects,"  book  vi.)  Even  Mencius  was 
considered  to  be  inferior  to  Yen-IIwuy,  who  was  "all 
round  and  complete."  (See  Legge's  "Chinese  Classics," 
vol.  ii.  p.  43.)  When  Yen-Hwuy  died,  Confucius  was 
inconsolable,  both  for  his  own  loss  and  the  loss  of  man 
kind.  (See  CONFUCIUS.)  His  disciples  said  to  the  sns;e, 
"  Your  grief  is  excessive  !"  "  Is  it  excessive  ?"  said  he. 
"If  I  am  not  to  mourn  bitterly  for  this  man.  for  whom 
should  I  mourn?"  ("  Analects,"  book  xr.)  On  another 
occasion  he  said,  "Admirable  indeed  is  the  virtue  of 
Hwuy."  And  again,  "  He  has  nearly  attained  to  perfect 


a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,y, /<?«£•,•  a,  e,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  met:  not;  good;  moon; 


rEN-TUEN 


2305 


roosup 


virtue."  The  following  may  serve  to  show  Yen-Hoei's 
devotion  to  his  master.  Once,  while  travelling,  they 
were  in  danger  from  the  hostility  of  the  people  of  the 
place  through  which  they  were  passing.  Yen-Hoei 
happened  to  fall  behind  the  rest.  When  he  came  up, 
Confucius  said,  "  I  thought  you  had  died."  Yen-Hoei 
replied,  "While  you  were  alive,  how  should  I  presume 
to  die?" 

See  LEGGE.  "  Analects  of  Confucius,"  passim  ;  also  the  notice  of 
Confucius  in  PAUTHIER'S  "Chine,"  pp.  145,  146,  and  176. 

Yen- Yuen.     See  YEN-HOEI. 

Yepez,  de,  da  yi-peth',  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  Bene 
dictine  monk,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century,  lived  at 
Valladolid.  lie  wrote  "Chronicles  of  the  Benedictine 
Order,"  (7  vols.,  1609-15.)  Died  in  1621. 

Yepez,  de,  (DiF.GO,)  a  Spanish  monk  and  historical 
writer,  born  near  Toledo  in  1559.  He  became  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  the  Escurial.  Philip  II.  is  said  to  have 
intrusted  to  him  the  direction  of  his  conscience.  Yepez 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Persecution  in  England  since 
1570."  Died  in  1613. 

Yeregui,  de,  da  ya'ra-gee,  (JosE,)  a  pious  and  liberal 
Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Vergara  in  1734.  He 
founded  several  schools,  and  became  preceptor  of  the 
children  of  Charles  III.  Died  in  1805. 

Yermak  or  lermak,  yeVmak,  a  Cossack  chief,  who 
conquered  Siberia,  was  born  near  the  banks  of  the  Don. 
He  invaded  Siberia  with  5000  men,  and,  after  several 
victories  over  the  native  tribes,  took  Siber,  the  capital, 
in  1580,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Russian  dominion 
in  that  region.  Died  in  1583. 

See  MII.I.ER,  "  Opisanie  Sibirskago  tzarstra,"  1750. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  (yez'de-jerd7)  L,  King  of 
Persia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Sassanidze,  succeeded  his  brother 
Varanes  (Bahram)  IV.  in  399  A.n.  He  maintained  peace 
and  friendship  with  the  Roman  empire,  and  gave  tolera 
tion  to  the  Christians,  who  became  numerous  in  Persia. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  however,  a  persecution 
was  provoked  by  the  rash  zeal  of  Abdas,  Bishop  of  Susa, 
who  destroyed  a  temple  of  the  fire-worshippers.  Died 
in  419. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  II.,  surnamed  THE 
GENTLE,  was  the  son  of  Varanes  (Bahram)  V.,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Persia  in  439  A.D.  He  i 
was  attached  to  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster,  and  wished 
his  subjects  to  conform.  His  chief  minister  urged  him 
to  use  severe  measures  against  the  Christians,  who  were 
numerous,  especially  in  Armenia,  and  in  442  an  army 
was  sent  to  enforce  the  worship  of  fire  in  that  province. 
An  Armenian  prince  named  Vartan  raised  a  large  army 
and  defeated  that  of  Persia ;  but  finally,  through  the 
treachery  of  several  Armenian  leaders,  Vartan  was  de 
feated  and  killed,  and  the  province  was  subdued  in 
451.  He  died  in  457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Hormisdas. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  III.,  King  of  Persia,  was 
the  son  of  Sheheriar,  and  the  last  of  the  race  of  Sas- 
sanidne.     He  began  to  reign  on  the  death  of  his  uncle 
Ferrookh-zad,  in  632  A.D.,  and  found  the  empire  weak 
ened  by  intestine  dissensions  and  verging  to  dissolution,  j 
He  reformed  the  calendar,  changed  the  old  names  of  i 
months  and  days  for  others  representing  physical  objects  ' 
or  properties,  and  ordained  that  time  should  be  com 
puted  from  a  new  era,  (June  16,  632,)  which  is  still  ob-  j 
served  by  the  followers  of  Zoroaster.     In  634  Irak  was 
invaded  by  a  Moslem  army,  against  which   he   sent   a 
general  named   Roostam,  who  addressed  the  invaders 
in   terms  like   these  :   "  Retire  from  the  Persian  soil,  if  j 
you  would  avoid  the  wrath  of  the  king  of  kings.     Who  | 
is  your  sovereign  ?  what  are  his  antecedents,  his  titles, 
and   his  dominions  ?     Why  do  you   quit  your  deserts, 
and  what  do  you   seek    in    Persia?"     To   this   the   un- 
terrified  zealots  replied,  "  We  covet  nothing  that  Persia 
contains.     The  vicegerent   of  God   has  charged   us   to 
announce  his  law  to  the  nations  of  the  earth.     If  the 
Persians  and  their  king  will  receive  these  sublime  truths, 
they  shall  be  our  brothers  ;  if  not,  our  swords  shall  sub 
vert  the  throne  of  Yezdejerd."     In   the  battle  that  en 
sued,  the  Arabs  fought  with  all  the  courage  of  fanaticism, 
and   appeared   invincible   until    they   were  broken   and 
routed   by  the  charge  of  the   Persian   elephants.     The 


caliph  Omar  raised  another  army,  and  in  636  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Roostam,  who  was  killed  in  the 
retreat.  This  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  victories  which 
about  645  had  effected  the  conquest  of  all  Persia,  except 
a  part  of  Khorassan,  in  which  the  Persian  king  took 
refuge.  He  was  killed  in  652  A.n. 

Yezeed,  Yezid,  or  Jesid  (veh-zeed')  L,  written 
also  Yazid  and  Yazeed,  the  second  of  the  Omeyyade 
caliphs,  was  a  son  of  Moaweeyah,  (whence  his  Aral) 
surname,  iBN-MoAWEEYAH,)  and  began  to  reign  at 
Damascus  in  680  A.n.  He  was  recognized  in  Persia, 
Syria,  and  Egypt.  Mecca  and  Medina,  having  revolted 
against  him,  were  pillaged  and  almost  destroyed  by 
his  armies.  Died  in  683  A.n.,  aged  thirty-nine. 

See  WEIL,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vi. 

Yezeed,  Yezid,  or  Jesid  II.,  a  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  son  of  Abd-el-Malek,  became  caliph  in 
720  A.n.  He  persecuted  the  Christians.  Died  in  724. 

See  WEIL,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i   chap.  xiii. 

Yezeed  or  Yazid,  (Ibn-Mahleb,  ib'n  mah'leb,)  an 
able  Persian  warrior,  who  gained  several  victories  for 
the  caliph  Soliman.  Having  revolted  against  Yezeed 
II.,  he  was  killed  in  battle  about  720  A.n. 

Yggdrasil.     See  Onix. 

YKiun.     See  WAN- LEE. 

Ymir,  ee'mir,  or  Ymer,  [supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  Xorse^';«M,  to  "rush,"  to  "roar,"  expressive 
of  confusion,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  first  of  the 
giants  produced  from  Ginnunga-gap  (the  "abyss  of 
abysses")  by  the  union  of  heat  and  frost,  and  the  pro 
genitor  of  the  Frost-Giants.  He  was  also  called  Aur- 
gehnir,  (the  "primeval  mass,"  or  chaos.)  He  was  slain 
by  Odin  and  his  brothers,  who  made  the  earth  of  his 
flesh  and  bones,  the  sea  of  his  blood,  and  the  heavens 
of  his  skull.  He  was  a  personification  of  Chaos. 

Yonge,  yiing,  (CHARLES  DUKE,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1812.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  England,"  (1857,)  a  "  Life  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,"  (1860,)  a  "  History  of  the  British  Navy,'' 
(2  vols.,  1863,)  and  "The  History  of  France  under  the 
Bourbons,"  (4  vols.,  1867.) 

Yonge,  (CHARLOTTE  MARY,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  Hampshire  about  1823,  published  a  number 
of  tales,  among  the  most  popular  of  which  are  "  The 
Heir  of  Redclyffe,"  (1853,)  and  "The  Daisy  Chain,"  (2 
vols.,  1856.)  She  has  also  written  "  Landmarks  of  His 
tory,"  (1852-57,)  and  other  educational  works,  and  a 
"  History  of  Christian  Names,"  (2  vols.,  1863.) 

See  AI.LJRONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

YonI,  yo'ni,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  symbol 
of  Parvati  and  of  femineity  in  general,  and,  as  such, 
associated  with  the  worship  of  Siva.  (See  SIVA,  and 
also  JUNO.) 

See  MOOR.  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  pp.  3S2-39?. 

Yoong-Shing  or  Young-Ching,  yoong-shing,  an 
emperor  of  China,  began  to  reign  in  1723.  He  died  in 
173;,  aged  fifty-eight. 

Yoosuf,  Yousouf,  Yusuf,  or  Jusuf  (yoo'soof)  I.,  a 
Moorish  king  of  Granada,  began  to  reign  in  1333  ;  died 
in  H54. 

Yoosuf-  (or  Yusuf-)  Aboo-Arnroo-Ibn-Abdi-1- 
Barr,  (a'boo  am'roo  ib'n  abd-il  baR,)  written  also  You- 
souf-Amrou-Ben-Abd-Alberr,  a  learned  Moorish 
writer,  born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  979  ;  died  in  1070. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  treatise  on  Mo 
hammedan  history  and  traditions,  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Opinions  of  the  Mussulman  Doctors,"  etc.  A  history 
entitled  the  "  Pearls  of  Sacred  Wars"  is  also  attributed 
to  him. 

Yoosuf-  (orYusuf-)  Ibn-Abdi-r-Rahman-al-Feh- 
ree,  (or-Fehri,)  (ib'n  abd-Ir  raii'man  al  feh'r'ee,)  a  Sara 
cen  or  Moor,  who  was  chosen  Emir  or  Governor  of 
Spain  in  746  A.n.  He  was  defeated  by  Abd-er-Rahman, 
near  Cordova,  in  756,  and  was  killed  in  759  A.n. 

Yoosuf-Ibn-Tishefeen,  (or -Tashefin,)  (Ib'n  ta'- 
sheh-feen',)  written  also  Ben-Taschefyn,  an  Almo- 
ravide  prince  of  Northern  Africa,  distinguished  for  his 
bravery  and  skill  in  war.  He  made  extensive  conquests, 
and  in  1072  founded  the  city  of  Morocco  as  the  capital 
of  his  dominions.  Invited  in  1086  bv  the  Moslem 


«  as  z:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  0;  th  as  in  this. 

'45 


Sec  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


rORCK 


2306 


TO  UNG 


princes  of  Spain  to  assist  them  against  the  Christians, 
he  equipped  a  powerful  armament,  landed  in  Spain,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory,  near  Badajoz,  over  Alfonso, 
King  of  Castile.  He  afterwards  reduced  nearly  all  of 
the  Moorish  princes  of  that  country  to  vassalage.  Died 
in  1106. 

Yorck  (or  York)  von  Wartenburg,  yoi<k  fon 
waR'te:i-bdoKG',  (HANS  DAVID  Lumvu;,)  COUNT,  a 
Prussian  general,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1759.  Having 
served  for  a  time  against  the  French,  under  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  he  entered  Napoleon's  army,  and  com 
manded  the  Prussian  corps  in  the  campaign  of  1812. 
After  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  army,  and  their 
withdrawal  from  the  French  cause,  lie  successively  de 
feated  Eugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  at  Dannekow,  Sebastian! 
at  Weissig,  and  General  Bertrand  at  Wartenburg,  (1813.) 
He  gained  a  victory  over  Marmont,  at  Mockern,  in 
October  the  same  year,  and  in  18:4  was  made  general 
of  infantry.  After  the  surrender  of  Paris,  he  was  created 
a  count,  commander  of  the  forces  in  Silesia  and  Posen, 
and  in  1821  a  field-marshal.  He  died  in  1830. 
York,  CARDINAL.  See  STUART,  (HENRY  BENEDICT.) 
York,  DUKE  OF.  This  title  is  appropriated  exclu 
sively  to  members  of  the  royal  f.imily  of  England,  and 
has  often  been  given  to  a  younger  son  of  the  king.  The 
first  Duke  of  York  was  EDMUND  OF  LANGLEY,  the  fifih 
son  of  Edward  III.  He  was  born  in  1341,  and  obtained 
the  title  about  1385.  He  had  superior  abilities,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  Died  in 
1402.  His  son  EDWARD,  second  Duke  of  York,  was 
distinguished  as  a  warrior.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Agincourt,  in  1415,  and  left  no  issue.  The  dukedom 
then  passed  to  his  nephew,  RICHARD  PLANTAGENET,  a 
son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  who  was  a  younger 
son  of  the  first  Duke  of  York.  Richard,  the  third  duke, 
became  a  claimant  of  the  throne,  the  right  to  which 
descended  through  his  mother,  Anne  Mortimer,  who 
was  a  great-granddaughter  of  Lionel,  the  third  son  of 
Edward  III.  He  was  appointed  Regent  of  France  in 
1435,  and  recalled  in  1447.  In  1454  he  received  the 
title  of  Protector  of  the  Kingdom  during  the  illness  of 
Henry  VI.  In  1455  ne  took  arms  to  enforce  his  claim 
to  the  throne.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  long  civil 
war  of  the  Roses.  His  party  gained  a  victory  at  Saint 
Alban's  in  1455,  and  another  at  Northampton  in  1450  or 
1460.  The  Duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Wakefield  in  December,  1460.  His  son  became  King 
Edward  IV.  RICHARD,  the  second  son  of  Edward  iv!, 
became  Duke  of  York  in  1474.  He  was  murdered  in 
the  Tower  by  Richard  III.  in  1483.  HENRY  TUDOR, 
the  second  son  of  Henry  VII.,  was  created  Duke  of 
York  in  1491.  He  ascended  the  throne,  as  Henry  VHL, 
in  1509.  The  title  was  also  borne  by  Charles  I.  and 
James  II.  before  their  accession  to  the  throne.  ERNEST 
AUGUSTUS,  a  brother  of  George  I.,  was  created  Duke  of 
York  and  Albany  in  1716.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1728.  EDWARD  AUGUSTUS,  a  brother  of  George  III., 
was  created  Duke  of  York  and  Albany  in  1760,  and  died, 
without  issue,  in  1767. 

See  Miss  ROHERTS,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Rival  Houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,"  1827. 

York,  (FREDERICK,)  DUKE  OF,  born  in  1763,  was  the 
second  son  of  George  III.  He  served  for  a  ti'me  in  the 
Prussian  army,  and  was  created  in  1784  Duke  of  York 
and  Albany.  He  married  in  1791  Frederica,  daughter 
of  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia.  He  commanded 
a  British  corps  in  the  French  campaigns  of  1793-94,  was 
made  a  field-marshal  in  1795,  and  commancler-in-chief 
of  the  army  in  1798.  He  was  defeated  near  Bergen,  in 
Holland,  in  1799,  and  compelled  to  sign  the  disadvan 
tageous  convention  of  Alkmaar.  Died'in  1827. 

Yorke,  (CHARLES,)  Lord  Morden,  an  English  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  December,  1722,  was 
a  younger  son  of  the  first  Lord  Harclwicke.  He  was 
educated  at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge.  He  and  his 
brother  Philip  were,  while  at  college,  the  principal 
authors  of  the  "Athenian  Letters;  or,"The  Correspond 
ence  of  an  Agent  of  the  King  of  Persia  residing  at 
Athens,"  (1741,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  He  pub 
lished  an  ingenious  "Treatise  on  Forfeiture  for  Treason," 
(I744-)  I»  1747  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Rye- 


gate.  He  became  solicitor-general  in  1756,  and  attorney- 
general  in  1762.  He  was  attached  to  the  Whig  party. 
Having  resigned  in  December,  1763,  he  was  reappointe'l 
in  August,  1765,  on  the  formation  of  the  ministry  of 
Rockingham.  He  refused  the  offer  of  the  great  seal 
several  times,  but,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  king,  he 
accepted  the  same  in  January,  1770,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Camden.  By  this  act  he  deserted  his  Yv'hig  friends  and 
destroyed  his  own  peace.  He  died  a  few  days  after  he 
became  chancellor,  probably  by  suicide.  He  left  several 
children,  one  of  whom  was  Sir  Joseph  Yorke,  a  naval 
officer.  Charles  Yorke  was  a  friend  and  correspondent 
of  Montesquieu. 

"He  was  possessed,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "of  the 
finest  talents,  of  the  most  varied  accomplishments,  of 
every  virtue  in  public  and  private  life;  but  when  he 
seemed  to  have  reached  the  summit  of  his  lofty  am 
bition,  he  committed  a  fatal  error.  .  .  .  His  acceptance 
of  the  great  seal  was  wrong,  but  did  not  proceed  from 
sordid  motives.  He  was  overpowered  by  royal  blandish 
ments,  and  a  momentary  mistake  as  to  the  duty  of  a  good 
subject." 

See  LORD  CAMPBELL,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  v. 

Yorke,  (CHARLES  PHILIP.)     See  HARDWICKE. 

Yorke,  (Sir  JOSEPH  SIDNEY,)  K.C.B.,  an  English 
admiral,  entered  the  navy  in  1780.  He  served  under 
Lord  Rodney  in  1782,  and  rose  through  various  promo 
tions  to  be  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1830.  He  perished 
by  shipwreck  in  Stokes  Bay  in  1831. 

Yorke,  (Pmi.ii>.)     See  HARDWICKE,  EARL  OF. 

Youatt,  yoo'at,  (WILLIAM,)  an  English  veterinary 
surgeon,  born  in  1777,  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  Cattle,"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Horse,"  "The  Com 
plete  Grazier,"  and  other  similar  works.  He  was  also 
editor  of  a  journal  entitled  "The  Veterinarian."  Died 
in  1847. 

Youmans,  yoo'manz,  (EDWARD  LIVINGSTON,)  an 
American  chemist  and  scientific  writer,  born  in  Albany 
county,  New  York,  in  1821.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Class-Book  of  Chemistry,"  (1852,) 
and  "Hand-Book  of  Household  Science,"  (1857.)  He 
edited  "The  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces: 
a  Series  of  Expositions  by  Grove,  Helmholtz,"  etc., 
(1864.) 

Young,  yiing,  (ALEXANDER,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1800,  was  the 
author  of  "Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  the 
Colony  of  Plymouth,"  (1841,)  "  Library  of  Old  English 
Prose  Writers,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1854. 

Young,  yiing,  (Sir  ARKTAS  WILLIAM,)  an  English 
officer,  served  successively  against  the  French  in  Egypt, 
Sicily,  and  Spain,  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1813.  He  became  lieutenant-governor  of  Prince  Ed 
ward's  Island  in  1831,  and  was  knighted  in  1834.  Died 
in  1835. 

Young,  (ARTHUR,)  an  eminent  English  agriculturist 
and  writer  on  economy,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1741. 
He  was  a  merchant's  clerk  in  his  youth  at  Lynn.  Having 
an  aversion  to  mercantile  business,  he  began  to  make 
experiments  in  agriculture,  which  at  first  were  not  suc 
cessful.  He  leased  a  farm  of  three  hundred  acres  at 
Samford  Hall,  Essex,  about  1765,  and  cultivated  it  for 
five  years.  He  published  a  "Tour  through  the  Southern 
Counties  of  England  and  Wales,"  (1708,)  which  was 
successful,  and  a  "  Course  of  Experimental  Agriculture," 
(1770.)  He  performed  several  exploring  tours  in  different 
parts  of  England,  and  published  the  results  of  his  inves 
tigations  in  works  which  contributed  much  to  improve 
the  methods  of  cultivation.  His  "Farmer's  Calendar" 
(1771)  was  a  very  popular  work.  In  1774  he  published 
his  "  Political  Arithmetic."  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  writings  on  agriculture.  In  1784  he 
began  to  publish  the  "  Annals  of  Agriculture,"  (45  vols.,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  travelled  in  France  in 
1787  and  1789,  to  explore  the  agricultural  resources  of 
that  country,  on  which  subject  he  published,  about  1791, 
an  interesting  work.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  secre 
tary  to  the  board  of  agriculture,  with  a  salary  of  four 
hundred  pounds  or  more.  He  had  married  in  early  life, 
and  had  several  children.  Died  in  1820.  By  his  experi 
ments  and  writings  he  rendered  an  important  service  to 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ro  UNG 


2307 


rOUNG 


British  agriculture;  and  even  the  French  acknowledge 
that  France  rests  under  obligations  to  him.  His  works 
on  agriculture  were  translated  into  French  by  order  of 
the  Directory,  and  published  tinder  the  title  of  "  Cultiva- 
teur  Anglais',"  (18  vols.,  1801.) 

See  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1820;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  July,  August,  and  September,  1780,  etseq.  ;  AI.I.IBONE, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Young,  (AUGUSTUS,)  an  American  naturalist  and 
geologist,  born  at  Arlington,  Vermont,  in  1785.  He 
studied  law,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1841, 
and  after  the  end  of  his  term  (4843)  devoted  himself  to 
scientific  pursuits.  He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  was  appointed  State  naturalist  (for  Vermont)  in 
1856.  Died  in  1857. 

Young,  (BRIGHAM,)  high-priest  of  the  Mormons, 
was  born  at  Whitingham,  Vermont,  in  June,  1801.  He 
joined  the  Mormons  in  1832  at  Kirtland,  Ohio,  and 
soon  acquired  much  influence  by  his  shrewdness  and 
energy.  He  was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  sent  out 
in  1835  to  make  proselytes.  On  the  death  of  Joseph 
Smith,  June,  1844,  he  was  chosen  president  and  prophet. 
As  the  people  of  Illinois  seemed  determined  to  expel 
the  Mormons  from  the  State,  Young  resolved  to  remove 
to  some  region  in  the  far  West,  and,  accompanied  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  Mormons,  abandoned  Nauvoo 
early  in  1846.  He  persuaded  his  followers  that  the  valley 
of  Great  Salt  Lake  was  the  Promised  Land,  and,  having 
arrived  at  that  lake  about  July,  1847,  he  founded  Salt 
Lake  City.  The  Mormons  increased  rapidly  by  emi 
gration,  'in  the  spring  of  1849  they  held  a  convention 
at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  organized  a  State,  which  they 
called  Desertt  ;  but  Congress  refused  to  admit  it  into 
the  Union,  and  organized  the  Territory  of  Utah,  of 
which  Brigham  Young  was  appointed  Governor,  (1850.) 
The  Mormons  afterwards  defied  the  laws  and  officers  of 
the  federal  government,  and  Brigham  Young  ruled  over 
Utah  with  absolute  authority.  In  1857  President  Buch 
anan  appointed  Alfred  Gumming  Governor  of  Utah,  and 
sent  an  army  of  about  2500  men  to  enforce  his  authority. 
Governor  Gumming  proclaimed,  about  November,  1857, 
that  the  Mormons  were  in  a  state  of  rebellion  ;  but  in 
1858  hostilities  were  suspended  by  a  compromise.  Ac 
cording  to  Mr.  Dixon,  there  were  20,000  "saints"  in 
Salt  Lake  City  in  1866,  and  150,000  in  Utah,  which  is 
probably  a  great  exaggeration,  as  the  population  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  according  to  the  *ecent  census,  does  not  ex 
ceed  14,000.  Brigham  Young  keeps  about  twelve  actual 
wives,  besides  many  women  who  have  been  "sealed  to 
him"  as  his  spiritual  wives. 

See  "  Mot-monism,"  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia  ;"  "  New 
America."  by  HKFWORTH  DIXON,  1867;  "  Mornionism  :  its  Leaders 
and  Designs,"  by  JOHN  HYDE,  JR.,  1857;  "The  Mormons,  or 
Latter-Day  Saints,"  by  LIKUTKNANT  J.  W.  GUNNISON,  1852;  ]!. 
G.  FKRRIS,  "  Utah  and  the  Mormons,"  1836. 

Young,  (EDWARD,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  at 
Upham,  in  Hampshire,  in  1684,  was  a  son  of  Edward 
Young,  rector  of  that  parish,  and  subsequently  Dean 
of  Salisbury.  He  studied  at  Winchester,  entered  New 
College,  Oxford,  in  1703,  and  a  few  months  later  removed 
to  Corpus  Christ!  College.  In  1708  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College.  He  published  in  1713 
poems  entitled  "The  Last  Day,"  and  "The  Force  of 
Religion,  or  Vanquished  Love."  In  1719  he  took  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.,  and  produced  the  same  year  the 
tragedy  of  "Busiris."  lie  was  patronized  by  the  Duke 
of  Wharton,  who  granted  him  an  annuity.  His  next  work 
was  "The  Revenge,"  a  tragedy,  (1721,)  which,  like  most 
of  his  writings,  is  marred  by  false  taste  and  bombastic 
style.  About  1725  he  began  to  publish,  under  the  title 
of  "The  Love  of  Fame,  the  Universal  Passion,"  a  col 
lection  of  satires,  which  was  very  successful.  It  is  stated 
that  he  received  ,£3000  for  this  work.  His  several 
works  were  dedicated  to  various  patrons,  in  terms  of 
fulsome  adulation.  Having  taken  holy  orders  in  1727, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  royal  chaplains,  and  ob 
tained  in  1730  the  rectory  of  Welwyn,  in  Hertfordshire 
where  he  resided  many  years.  In  1731  he  married 
Lady  Elizabeth  Lee,  widow  of  Colonel  Lee,  and  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lichfield.  They  had  a  son 
Frederick.  Colonel  Lee  and  Lady  Lee  had  a  daughter, 
who  was  married  to  a  Mr.  Temple,  and  who  died  at 


Lyons  in  1736.  This  Mr.  Temple  and  his  wife  are  the 
"  Philander"  and  "  Narcissa"  of  the  "Night  Thoughts," 
(1742-46,)  the  poem  on  which  the  reputation  of  Young 
is  chiefly  founded.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
found  admirers  and  imitators  in  Germany  and  France. 
The  form  and  conception  of  this  poem  are  somewhat 
original  and  bold  ;  it  is  profusely  adorned  with  brilliant 
imagery,  pompous  hyperbole,  and  striking  antithesis  ; 
but  he  seldom  attains  the  true  sublimity.  "  In  his 
'Night  Thoughts,'"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  he  has  ex 
hibited  a  very  wide  display  of  original  poetry,  varie 
gated  with  deep  reflections  and  striking  allusions, — a 
wilderness  of  thought,  in  which  the  fertility  of  fancy 
scatters  flowers  of  every  hue  and  every  odour. "  ("  Lives 
of  the  English  Poets.")  "  Young,"  says  Villemain,  "  is 
not  a  good  model  ;  he  has  too  much  artifice.  .  .  .  He 
fatigues  the  imagination  more  than  he  touches  the 
heart ;  he  fills  the  reader  with  a  sort  of  satiety  of  sym 
pathy  for  his  sorrow."  ("  Biographic  Universelle.") 
Among  his  later  works  is  "  Resignation,"  a  poem, 
(1762.)  In  1761  he  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  the  Princess-Dowager  of  Wales.  After  he  was 
seventy  years  old  he  continued  to  solicit  preferment,  but 
without  success.  He  died  at  Welwyn  in  April,  176^. 

See  H.  CROFT,  "  Life  of  Edward  Young,"  in  JOHNSON'S  "Lives 
of  the  English  Poets;"  "  Biographica  Britannica  :"  J.  MITFOKD, 
"Life  of  Young;"  CAMPBELL,  "Specimens  of  the  Engiish  Poets;" 
DRAKE,  "Essays;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1857; 
ALI.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Young,  (Sir  JOHN,)  an  English  civil  officer,  born  in 
1807.  He  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  1844  to 
1846,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  from  1852  to  1855,  and 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales  from  1860  to  1868. 

Young,  (Joiix  CLARK,)  D. D.,  an  American  Presby 
terian  divine,  born  at  Greencastle,  Pennsylvania,  in  1803, 
became  president  of  Centre  College,  Danville,  Kentucky, 
in  1830.  Died  in  1857. 

Young,  (JOHN  RADKORD,)  an  English  mathema 
tician,  born  in  London  about  1800.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  General  Theory  and  Solution  of  Algebraic 
Equations,"  (1842,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Navigation  and 
Nautical  Astronomy,"  (1856.) 

Young,  (MATTHEW,)  an  eminent  Irish  mathematician 
and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Roscommon  in  1750. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  of  which  he  be 
came  a  Fellow  in  1775,  and  in  1786  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  natural  philosophy.  He  was  one  of  the  found 
ers  and  first  members  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  to 
the  "Transactions"  of  which  he  contributed  several 
valuable  articles.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "An 
Essay  on  the  Phenomena  of  Sounds  and  Musical  Strings," 
(1784,)  "Method  of  Prime  and  Ultimate  Ratios,"  and 
"Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1800.)  He  died 
in  1800,  having  been  previously  created  Bishop  of  Clon- 
fert  and  Kilmacduach. 

Young,  (PATRICK,)  [Lat.  PATUIC'IUS  JU'NIUS,]  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  in  East  Lothian, 
Scotland,  in  1584,  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  royal 
library  in  London.  He  translated  into  Latin  some  of 
the  works  of  King  James  I.,  and  edited  the  epistles  of 
Clemens  Romanus.  Died  in  1652. 

Young,  (Sir  PKTKK,)  [Lat.  PK'TRUS  JU'NIUS,]  a  Scot 
tish  diplomatist,  born  in  1544.  He  was  associated  with 
Buchanan  as  tutor  of  the  young  prince,  afterwards  James 
I.  of  England,  and  subsequently  became  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  and  was  employed  in  various  missions. 
Tie  was  the  author  of  a  vindication  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots.  Died  in  1628. 

Young,  (S\MUKi,,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Lenox,  Massachusetts,  about  i7Qo.  removed  to  the  State 
of  New  York  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  board  of  canal  commissioners  in  1817,  was  for  many- 
years  a  Senator  of  New  York,  and  held  other  high 
offices  in  that  State.  He  acted  with  the  Democratic 
party,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  delegation  of  Free- 
Soilers,  alias  "  Barnburners,"  which  went  from  New  York 
to  the  Baltimore  Convention  in  1848.  He  died  at  Ball- 
ston.  New  York,  in  1850. 

Young,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
about  1587.  He  became  master  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  a  tutor  of  the  poet  Milton.  Died 
in  1655. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/.-  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal:  K,  irilUJ:  5  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOUNG 


2308 


ru 


Young,  (TuoM.xs,)  an  English  philosopher  and  scholar 
of  great  eminence,  was  horn  at  Milverton,  in  Somer- 
setshire,  on  the  131)1  of  June,  1773.  His  parents  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  studied  for 
several  years  at  Compton  School,  Dorsetshire,  and  after 
wards  at  home.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  and  Italian  languages,  and  in  mathematics.  He 
also  studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  etc.  From  1787  to  1792 
he  was  employed  as  tutor  to  Hudson  Gurney,  in  the 
family  of  David  Barclay  of  Youngsbury,  in  Hertford 
shire.  During  this  period  he  studied  natural  philosophy, 
and  the  "Principia"  of  Newton.  He  became  a  student 
of  medicine  in  London  in  1792,  attended  the  lectures  of 
John  Hunter,  and  continued  his  studies  in  Edinburgh, 
whither  he  went  in  1794.  About  this  date  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  the  autumn  of  1795 
he  went  to  Gottingen,  where  he  studied  several  months 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  He  visited  various  cities 
of  Germany  in  1796,  and  entered  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1797.  His  uncle,  Dr.  Brocklesby,  who 
died  in  1797,  left  him  a  legacy  of  about  ,£10,000. 

He  began  to  practise  medicine  in  London  in  1800,  and 
X  was  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Insti 
tution  from  1801  to  1804.  Between  1800  and  1804  he 
contributed  to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  several 
f  *  memoirs  "On  the  Theory  of  Light  and  Colours,"  in 
which  he  advocated  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  He 
married  Miss  Eliza  Maxwell  in  1804.  In  1807  he  pub 
lished  an  excellent  work  entitled  a  '-Course  of  Lectures 
on  Natural  Philosophy  and  Mechanical  Arts,"  (2  vols. 
410,)  which  presents  a  complete  system  of  elementary 
physics  and  mechanical  philosophy.  Among  his  chief 
*•  discoveries  was  the  interference  of  the  rays  of  light,  on 
which  subject  we  quote  the  comments  of  Sir  John  F.  W. 
Herschel :  "The  first  year  of  the  present  century,  our 
illustrious  countryman,  the  late  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  had 
established  a  principle  in  optics  which,  regarded  as  a 
physical  law,  has  hardly  its  equal,  for  beauty,  simplicity, 
and  extent  of  application,  in  the  whole  circle  of  science. 
»...  Nothing  was  now  wanting  to  a  rational  theory  of 
double  refraction,  but  to  frame  an  hypothesis  of  some 
mode  in  which  light  might  be  conceived  to  be  propagated, 
through  the  elastic  medium  supposed  to  convey  it,  in 
such  a  way  as  not  to  be  contradictory  to  any  of  the  facts 
nor  to  the  general  laws  of  dynamics.  This  essential 
idea,  without  which  everything  that  had  been  done  be 
fore  would  have  been  incomplete,  was  also  furnished  by 
Dr.  Young,  who,  with  a  sagacity  which  would  have  done 
honour  to  Newton  himself,  had  declared  that  to  accom 
modate  the  doctrine  of  Huygens  to  the  phenomena  of 
polarized  light  it  is  necessary  to  conceive  the  mode  of 
propagation  of  a  luminous  impulse  through  the  ether, 
y  differently  from  that  of  a  sonorous  one  through  the  air. 
In  the  latter,  the  particles  of  the  air  advance  and  recede  ; 
in  the  former,  those  of  the  ether  must  be  supposed  to 
tremble  laterally.'1''  ("Preliminary  Discourse  on  the 
Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.") 

In  1811  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  physicians  of 
Saint  George's  Hospital.  He  contributed  to  the  "Quar 
terly  Review"  numerous  articles,  mostly  scientific.  He 
published  in  1813  "  An  Introduction  to  Medical  Litera 
ture,  including  a  System  of  Practical  Nosology."  In 
1818  he  became  secretary  to  the  board  of  longitude.  He 
was  afterwards  the  editor  or  conductor  of  the  "  Nautical 
Almanac."  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject 
of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  in  which  he  made  some  dis 
coveries,  that  he  published  in  1819.  He  was  more  suc 
cessful  in  explaining  the  symbols  of  ancient  Egypt  than 
any  person  except  Champollion.  He  wrote  about  sixty 
articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  including 
the  article  "Egypt"  and  more  than  forty  biographical 
notices.  In  1827  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  eight  foreign 
associates  of  the  French  Institute.  He  died,  without 
issue,  in  London,  in  May,  1829. 

See  GEORGE  PEACOCK,  D.D..  "Life  of  Dr.  Thomas  Young," 
18*5:  GURNEV,  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Yonna;,"  1831:  ARAGO, 
>;  £loge  de  Thomas  Young;"  AI.I.IBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;" 
"North  British  Review"  for  August,  1855. 

Young,  (THOMAS  JOHN,)  an  American  Episcopalian 
divine,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1803, gradu 
ated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1847  became  assistant  rector 
of  Saint  Michael's  Church,  Charleston.  Died  in  1852. 


Young,  (Sir  WILLIAM,)  an  English  writer,  born  near 
Canterbury  in  1750.  lie  was  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Saint  Mawes  in  1783,  and  w  is  afterwards  Governor  of 
Tobago.  He  published  "The  West  India  Common 
place  Book,"  "The  History  of  Athens,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Young-Ching.     See  YOONG-SHING. 

Yousouf-Ben-Taschefm.  See  Yoosur-lBN-TAsnE- 

FKKN. 

Ypey,  I'pi,  ?  (ANN/EUS,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born 
in  Friesland  in  1760,  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  at  Groningen  in  1813.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and  a  "Compendious  History 
of  the  Reformation,"  ("  Beknopte  Geschieclenis  de  Her- 
vorming,"  1817.)  Died  about  1834. 

Ypres,  d',  depR,  (CHARLES,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
designer,  born  at  Ypres  about  1510,  studied  in  Italy. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Last  Judgment."  He  died 
in  1563  or  1564. 

Ypsilanti,  ip-se-lan'tee,  or  Ypsilan'tis,  (ALEXAN 
DER,)  a  Greek  statesman  and  soldier,  was  appointed 
Hospodar  of  Wallachia  in  1774.  He  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Turks  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  executed 
in  1792.  His  son  CONSTANTINE  became  interpreter  to 
the  Porte,  and  was  afterwards  successively  Hospodar 
of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  He  died  in  1816,  having 
made  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  achieve  the  inde 
pendence  of  his  country. 

Ypsilanti,  (  ALEXANDER,)  a  celebrated  Greek  patriot, 
a  son  of  Constantine,  and  grandson  of  Alexander,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1792.  He  entered 
the  Russian  service  at  an  early  age,  fought  with  dis 
tinction  in  the  campaigns  of  1812-13,  and  was  made 
a  major-general  in  1817.  lie  became  leader  in  1820  of 
the  Hetaeria,  (Hetairia,)  an  association  for  the  promotion 
of  Grecian  independence  ;  but  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Greeks  at  Dragashan,  in  1821,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the 
Austrians,  by  whom  he  was  imprisoned  six  years.  He 
was  released  in  1827,  on  the  intercession  of  the  C/ar 
Nicholas,  but  he  died  the  following  year. 

Ypsilanti,  (DIMITRIUS,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1793.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  in  1821,  he  took  Tripo- 
litza  by  storm,  and  subsequently  distinguished  himself 
by  his  bold  defence  of  the  citadel  of  Argos,  in  conse 
quence  of  which  the  Turkish  army  was  destroyed  in  its 
passage  between  Argos  and  Corinth.  He  was  made 
commander  of  the  forces  in  Eastern  Greece  by  the  presi 
dent,  Capodistria,  in  1828,  and  after  the  assassination  of 
that  magistrate,  in  1832,  became  one  of  the  members  of 
the  executive  commission.  He  died  the  same  year. 

Ypsilantis.     See  YPSILANTI. 

Yrala  or  Irala,  de,  di  e-ra'la,  (DOMINOO  Martinez 
— maR-tee'neth,)  a  Spanish  captain  and  explorer,  born 
at  Vergara  about  1486.  He  explored  the  region  near 
the  Paraguay  River,  and  was  chosen  governor  of  the 
colony  at  Assumption  about  1538.  Died  in  1557. 

Yriarte.     See  IRIARTK. 

Ysabeau,  e'zt'ba',  (CLEMENT  ALEXANDRE,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  at  Gien  in  1754.  He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king,  and  acted  with  the  enemies  of  Robespierre  on 
the  gth  Thermidor.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council 
of  Elders  in  1795.  Died  in  1823,  (or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  1831.) 

Ysabeau,  (VICTOR  FREDERIC  ALEXANDRE,)  a  French 
writer  on  rural  economy,  born  at  Rouen  in  1793,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  published  a  number  of 
works. 

Yu,  yoo,  the  last  of  the  three  ancient  Chinese  em 
perors*  who  stand  pre-eminent  for  their  wisdom  and 
virtue  among  all  the  rulers  of  the  Celestial  empire, 
began  to  reign,  according  to  Pauthier,  in  2205  B.C.  He 
constructed  extensive  dikes  along  the  banks  of  such  of 
the  great  rivers  as  were  subject  to  inundations,  and 
executed  other  important  public  works.  He  is  said 
to  have  introduced  great  improvements  in  agriculture. 
Some  writers  date  the  commencement  of  authentic  his- 


*  Yao,  Shun,  Yu. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  Jong;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


YVAN 


2309 


ZACH  ARIAS 


tory  in  China  (see  YAO)  from  the  reign  of  Yu,  who  was 
the  founder  of  the  first  dynasty — commonly  called  the 
Hia  (hec'a)  dynasty — of  Chinese  emperors. 
See  PAUTHIER,  "Chine,"  pp.  39-54. 

Yusuf.     See  YOOSUF. 

Yvan,  C'VON',  (MELCHIOR,)  BARON,  a  French  phy 
sician  and  writer,  born  in  Basses-Alpes  in  1803.  He 
went  to  China  in  1843  as  physician  to  a  mission  or 
embassy  conducted  by  M.  Lagrenee,  and  he  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Travels  in  China  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula,"  (1850.) 

Yver,  e'vaik',  (JACQUES,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Ni- 
ort  in  1520,  wrote  "  Le  Printemps  d'Yver."  Died  in  1572. 

Yvernois.     See  IVERNOIS. 

Yves,  SAINT.     See  IVKS. 

Yves,  SAINT.     See  SAINT-!VKS. 

Yves,  SAINT,  or  Yves  de  Ker-Martin,  ev  deh  kSi<'- 
mtK/ta.N',  a  learned  French  monk  and  jurist,  born  in 


Bretagne  in  1253,  was  sometimes  called  YvES-IlELORl, 
(ev  a'lo're'.)     Died  in  1303. 

See  I.  FAVE,  "  Histoire  de  Saint  Yves,"  1851. 

Yves  de  Ker-Martin.     See  YVKS,  SAINT. 

Yveteatix,  Des.     See  DES  YVETEAUX. 

Yvon,  e'voN',  AKBE,  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born 
in  Normandy  about  1720.  Me  aided  Diderot  in  the 
redaction  of  the  "Encyclopedic,"  and  published  other 
works.  Died  about  1790. 

Yvon,  (ADuu'HE,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
in  the  department  of  Moselle  in  1817,  was  a  pupil  of 
Paul  Delaroche.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be 
named  "  Marshal  Ney  supporting  the  Rear-Guard  in 
Russia,"  "The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  and  "The  Capture 
of  the  Malakoff." 

Yvon,  (PIEKRE  CHRISTOPHE,)  born  near  Mans  in 
1719,  was  for  many  years  physician  of  the  Abbey  Royal 
of  Poissi,  near  Paris.  Died  in  1814. 


z. 


Zabaglia,  clza-bal'ya,  (NiccoLO,)  an  Italian  archi 
tect  and  mechanician,  born  at  Rome  in  1674,  was  the 
inventor  of  several  ingenious  machines,  among  which 
was  one  for  transferring  frescos  from  the  plaster.  He 
was  appointed  architect  of  the  basilicon  of  Saint  Peter's. 
Died  in  1750. 

Zabarella,  dza-ba-rel'la,  (FRANCESCO,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  sometimes  called  THE  CARDINAL  OF 
FLORENCE,  was  born  at  Padua  in  1339.  He  was  pro 
foundly  versed  in  canon  law,  and  rose  through  several 
preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  1410,  and 
a  cardinal  in  1411.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  pro 
ceedings  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  the  author 
of  numerous  treatises  relating  to  theology  and  ecclesias 
tical  matters.  Died  in  1417. 

See  VEUOVA,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  Francesco  Zaba 
rella,"  1829. 

Zabarella,  (GIACOMO,)  an  Italian  philosopher,  born 
at  Padua  in  1533,  published  "Commentaries  on  the 
Physics  of  Aristotle,"  and  several  treatises  on  logic  and 
philosophy.  Died  in  1589. 

Zaborowa,  za-ba-ro'va,  (JAMES,)  a  Polish  publicist, 
flourished  about  1500.  He  published  a  collection  of  the 
laws  and  constitutions  of  Poland,  (1506.) 

Zaborowski,  za-ba-rov'skee,  (STANISLAS,)  a  Polish 
jurist,  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1506.  He 
wrote  on  law  and  grammar.  Died  in  1549. 

Zabulon,  the  French  for  ZEIHJLIJN,  which  see. 

Zacagni,  dza-kan'yee,  or  Zaccagni,  (LORENZO  ALES- 
SANDRO,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  antiquary,  became  keeper 
of  the  library  of  the  Vatican.  He  published  an  impor 
tant  work  entitled  "A  Collection  of  Ancient  Memorials 
of  the  Church,"  ("Collectanea  Monumentorum  veterum 
Ecclesije,"  etc.,  1698.)  Died  at  Rome  in  17121 

Zaccaria,  clza-ka-ree'a,  (FRANCESCO  ANTONIO,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in  1714,  be 
came  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  College 
of  Wisdom,  Rome.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Literary  History  of  Italy,"  (14  vols.  8vo,  1751,) 
"  Literary  Annals  of  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1762,)  and  "  Numis 
matic  Institutes."  Died  in  1795. 

Zac'-ehe-us,  [Fr.  ZACHEE,  zS'sha',]  a  rich  publican 
of  Jericho,  who  became  a  disciple  of  Christ. 

See  Luke  xix. 

Zacchias,  dzak-kee'as,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Rome  in  1584,  became 
physician  to  Pope  Innocent  X.  He  published  a  number 
of  works  on  medical  jurisprudence,  which  were  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.  Died  in  1659. 

Zaccone,  zS'kon',  (PIERRE,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Douai  in  1817.  He  published  several  novels,  and  a 
"History  of  Secret  Societies,"  (1847.) 

Zach,  von,  fon  zak,  [Ger.  pron.  tsaK,]  (ANTON,) 
BARON,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Pesth  in  1747.  He 
became  a  colonel  in  1795,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Marengo,  where  he  was  made  prisoner,  (1800.)  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal-lieutenant.  He  wrote 


several  works  on  the  military  art  and  on  mathematics. 
Died  in  1826. 

Zach,  von,  fon  zak  or  tsaK,  (FRANZ  XAVER,)  BARON, 
an  eminent  astronomer,  born  at  Presburg  in  June,  1754, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  passed  several 
of  his  early  years  in  England  after  he  had  left  college. 
About  1786  he  entered  the  service  of  Ernest,  Duke 
of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  was  appointed  director  of  an  obser 
vatory  which  that  prince  had  erected  at  Seeberg.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  as  an  observer  and  a  writer  on 
astronomy.  He  published  a  valuable  periodical,  entitled 
"Monatliche  Correspondenz,"  (28  vols.,  1800-13,)  a 
"Catalogue  of  Fixed  Stars,"  (1804,)  "Tables  of  Aberra 
tion  and  Nutation  for  1404  Stars,"  (1812,)  and  a  work 
called  "The  Attraction  of  Mountains  and  its  Effects  on 
a  Plumb-Line, "  (2  vols.,  1814.)  He  passed  several  of  his 
latter  years  in  Italy,  whither  he  went  as  an  attendant  or 
grand  marshal  of  the  Duchess  of  Saxe-Gotha.  He  died 
of  cholera  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Zacharia  or  Zachariae,  tsaK-a-ree'a,  (GOTTHILF 
TRAUGOTT,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1729;  died  at  Kiel  in  1777. 

Zacharia,  (Jusr  FRIEDRICH  WII.HELM,)  a  German 
poet  and  satirist,  born  at  Frankenhausen  in  1726.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became  in  1761  professor  of 
belles-lettres  in  the  Carolinum  at  Brunswick.  His 
burlesque  heroic  poem  entitled  "The  Brawler"  ("  Der 
Renommist,"  1744)  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  that 
had  appeared  in  German,  and  was  received  with  great 
favour.  It  was  followed  by  other  similar  poems,  en 
titled  "  Phaeton,"  "The  Handkerchief,"  ("  Das  Schnupf- 
tuch,")  and  "  Murner  in  Hell,"  ("Mumer  in  der  Ilolle,") 
which  were  also  very  successful.  lie  likewise  published 
"  Fables  and  Tales,"  which  are  highly  esteemed,  and 
translated  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  German  hex 
ameter  verse.  Died  in  1777. 

See  F/SCHRNBURG,  "  Leben  F.  W.  Zachariae's,"  1781  ;  GERVINUS, 
"Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung." 

Zacharia  von  Lingenthal,  tsaic-a-ree'a  fon  ling'- 
en-thll,  (KARL  SAI.OMO,)  an  eminent  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Meissen  in  1769.  Having  studied  at 
Leipsic,  he  became  in  1802  professor  of  law  at  Witten 
berg,  and  in  1807  filled  the  same  chair  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  ennobled  in  1842,  with  the  title  of  Baron  von 
Lingenthal.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable  legal 
and  philosophical  works,  among  which  may  be  named  a 
"Manual  of  French  Civil  Law,"  and  "The  Unity  of 
State  and  Church."  Died  in  1843. 

See  C.  E.  ZACHARIAE,  "  Karl  S.  Zachariae's  Biographic,"  1843. 

Zaeh-a-rl'ah.  IF r.  ZACHARIE,  zl'ki're';  Heb.  rvor,] 
King  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  793  B.C.  Died  about  770  B.C. 

See  1 1  Kings  xv. 

Za-eh-a-ri'as,  [Fr.  ZACHARIE,  zt'kt're',]  a  Jewish 
priest,  who  was  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  to 
whom  the  angel  Gabriel  predicted  the  birth  of  that  son. 

See  Luke  i. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this. 


xplanations,  p.  23.) 


'ACH ARIAS 


23  10 


ZAMAGNA 


Zacharias,  [Gr.  Zaxapiaf  ;  Fr.  ZACHARIE,]  surnamed 
SCHOLAS'TICUS,  n  Christian  writer,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Mitylene  and  lived  about  530  A.D.  He  wrote,  in  Greek, 
a  work  entitled  "  Auinionius,"  designed  to  refute  the 
doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  the  universe. 

Zacharias,  [Fr.  ZACHARIK,]  a  Greek  ecclesiastic, 
succeeded  Gregory  III.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  741  A.I). 
He  compelled  Luitprand,  King  of  the  Longobards,  to 
restore  the  territories  which  he  had  taken  from  the 
exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  supported  Pepin  in  his  claim 
to  the  thione  of  France  in  opposition  to  Childeric,  (75°-) 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Benedict,"  and  other  works, 
and  founded  numerous  churches.  Died  in  752. 

Zacharie.     See  ZACHARIAH  and  ZACHARIAS. 

Zacharie  de  Lisieux,  z8  kt'ie'  deli  le'ze-uh',  a 
French  monk,  born  at  l.isieux  in  1582.  He  produced, 
besides  other  books,  a  fanciful  work  called  "  Gyges  the 
Gaul,"  ("Gyges  Callus,"  1659.)  lie  wrote  under  the 
assumed  name  of  PETRUS  FIKMIANUS,  or  FIRMIAN. 
Died  in  1660. 

Zachau,  tsaK'ow,  written  also  Zachaw,  (FRIED- 
KICH  WILHKLM,)  a  German  musician  and  composer, 
burn  at  Leipsic  in  1663.  He  was  a  skilful  performer  on 
the  organ,  lived  at  Halle,  and  was  one  of  the  masters  of 
Handel.  Died  in  1721. 

Zachee.     See  ZACCHEUS. 

Zachtleveii  or  Zachtleevin.     See  SACHTI.EVEN. 

Zacuth,  (AiiKAHAM.)     See  ABRAHAM  ZACUTH. 

Zacuto  Lusitaiio,  za-koo'to  loo-se-ta'no,  [Lat.  ZA- 
CU'TUS  LUSITA'NUS,]  a  Portuguese  physician  and  phi 
losopher,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1575. 
He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  Amsterdam,  where 
he  published  several  medical  works.  Died  in  1642. 

Zacutus.     See  ZACUTO. 

Za'dok  or  Za'doc,  [Heb.  plli',]  a  Jewish  chief 
priest,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  David.  Zadok  and  the 
prophet  Nathan  anointed  Solomon  as  king. 

See  I.  Kings  i.  45,  ii.  35;  II.  Samuel  xv.  29,  35. 

Zahn,  tsln,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Franconia  in  1641,  published  "  Physico-Mathematico- 
Historical  Mirrors  of  Remarkable  and  Wonderful 
Things  to  be  Known,"  ("Specula  Physico-Mathematico 
Historica  Notabilium  ac  Mirabilium  sciendorum,"  1696.) 
Died  in  1707. 

Zahn,  ( JOHANN  KARL  WILHEI.M,)  a  German  artist, 
born  at  Rodenberg  in  1800,  spent  many  years  in  Italy, 
and  published  in  1828  a  work  entitled  "The  Finest 
Ornaments  and  Most  Remarkable  Pictures  from  Pom 
peii,  Ilerculaneum,  and  Stabiae."  He  was  appointed 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin  in  1829. 

Zahrtniaun,  tsaiu'man,  (CHRISTIAN  CHRISTOPHER,) 
a  Danish  officer  and  hvdrographer,  born  before  1800. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign  of  1815, 
and  subsequently  examined  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  of 
which  he  published  valuable  charts.  One  of  these, 
entitled  "The  Danish  Pilot,"  has  been  translated  into 
English  and  French.  He  was  appointed  hydrographer 
to  the  Danish  admiralty,  created  knight  grand  cross  of 
the  order  of  Dannebrog,  and  obtained  various  other 
distinctions.  Died  in  1853. 

Zaidoon,  Zaidoun,  or  Zaidun,  Ibn,  Ib'n  zl'doon', 
(Abool-Waleed-  lor  Walid-i  Ahmed,  a'bool  wa-leed 
aii'med,)  an  Arabian  poet,  born  at  Cordova  in  1003. 
lie  lived  at  Seville,  and  was  vizier  to  King  Motadhed. 
Died  in  1070. 

Zainer  or  Zeiner,  tsi'ner,  written  also  Tzainer, 
(GuNTHER,)  a  celebrated  German  printer,  born  at  Reut- 
lingen  about  1430,  was  the  first  to  establish  a  press 
at  Augsburg.  He  also  introduced  the  Roman  type 
into  Germany.  Died  in  1478.  His  brother  JOHANN 
founded  a  printing-establishment  at  Uhn. 

Zajonczek,  za-yon'chek,  (JoSKPH,)  a  Polish  general, 
born  at  Kamieniec  in  1752.  He  served  under  Kos- 
ciusko  against  the  Russians,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
French  army,  fought  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1802.  He  lost  a  leg  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  soon  after  made 
prisoner.  In  1815  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Poland 
by  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  made  him  a  prince  in 
1818.  He  published,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Revolution  in  1794,"  (1797.)  Died  in  1826. 


Zakrzewski,  zlkR-zhSv'skee,  a  Polish  patriot,  born 
about  1744.  became  president  of  the  National  Council 
at  Warsaw  in  1794.  After  the  capture  of  that  city  by 
Suwarow,  he  was  arrested,  by  order  of  the  Russian 
government,  with  Potocki  and  others,  and  imprisoned 
at  Saint  Petersburg  till  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul.  Died  in  1802. 

Zal,  /.al,  or  Zalzer,  /31'zar,  [i.e.  "golden-haired,"]  the 
name  of  an  ancient  Persian  warrior,  who  was  distin 
guished  for  his  heroic  achievements,  and  still  more  as 
the  father  of  the  famous  ROOSTAM,  (which  see.)  He  is 
said  to  have  greatly  aided  Kai-Kobad  (the  first  of  the 
Kaianian  kings)  in  repelling  the  invasion  of  the  Tartars 
and  in  establishing  that  king  securely  on  the  throne  of 
Persia. 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia, "  in  vol.  v.  of  Sin  WILLIAM 
JONKS'S  Works;  ATKINSON'S  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of 
Firdausi." 

Zaleski,  za-les'skee,  (BoiiDAN,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
in  the  Ukraine  in  1802.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"The  Spirit  of  the  Steppes,"  and  "The  Holy  Family." 

Za-leu'cus,  [ZuAtmor,]  an  eminent  Greek  legislator, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  about  700  n.c.  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  the  first  of  the  Greeks  who  pre 
pared  a  code  of  written  laws.  This  code — which,  he 
declared,  was  revealed  to  him  by  Minerva — was  made 
for  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians,  in  Southern  Italy.  He 
is  said  by  some  writers  to  have  been  killed  in  battle  ; 
while  others  assert  that  he  committed  suicide  for  having 
thoughtlessly  violated  one  of  his  own  laws. 

Sue  RITTHKSIIUSIUS,  "  Oratio  de  Zaleuco  et  Cliaronda,"  etc., 
1591  :  B.  PORTUGUESE,  "Frammenti  della  Legislazione  de  Zaleuco," 
etc.,  1X42. 

Zallinger,  tsai'ling-er,  (FRANZ  SKRAIMIIN,)  aTyrolese 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Botzen  in  1743,  published 
several  works.  Died  after  1800. 

Zallinger,  (JAKOB  ANTON,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at 
Botzen,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1735.  ^e  published,  besides 
other  works,  in  Latin,  "The  Interpretation  of  Nature, 
or  the  Newtonian  Philosophy  Expounded,"  (3  vols., 
1773-75.)  Died  about  1802. 

Zallwein,  tsal'wln,  (Gi-:oiu:,)  a  German  canonist, 
born  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  in  1712.  He  was  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Salzburg,  and  wrote  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1766. 

Zalmoxis.     See  ZAMOLXIS. 

Zaluski,  za-loos'skee,  (ANDREW  CHRYSOSTOM,)  a 
Polish  statesman  and  pulpit  orator,  born  about  1650, 
rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Ermeland  and  grand  chancellor  of 
Poland  under  Augustus  II.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  and  interesting  work  entitled  "  Historical  Epis 
tles,"  ("Epistolae  historico-familiares.")  Died  in  1711. 

Zaluski,  (ANDREW  STANISLAS,)  nephew  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  created  Bishop  of  Plock  by  Augustus  II., 
and  appointed  grand  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  (1735.) 
He  became  Bishop  of  Cracow  in  1746.  lie  was  distin 
guished  for  his  learning  and  his  patronage  of  literature. 
Died  in  1758. 

Zaluski,  (JOSEPH  ANDREW,)  a  bibliophile,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1701.  Having  visited 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  he  became  after  his  return 
Bishop  of  Kief.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  the 
Bishop  of  Cracow,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of 
forming  a  library,  which  in  1748  amounted  to  230,000 
volumes  and  was  opened  to  the  public  at  Warsaw  the 
same  year.  In  1766  he  was  imprisoned,  by  order  of 
the  Russian  government,  for  having  denounced  the  Dis 
sidents  protected  by  that  country,  and  was  not  released  till 

1773.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  an  account,  in  verse,  of 
the  Polish  histories  contained  in  his  library.     He  died  in 

1774,  and  his  magnificent  collection  was,  on  the  partition 
of  Poland,  in  1795,  seized   by  the  Russian  government 
and  carried  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  it  formed  the 
nucleus    of  the   Imperial    Library.     Many  books   were 
lost  on  the  way,  but  the  number  which   arrived  safely 
amounted  to  262,640  volumes,  of  which  the  greater  part 
were  French,  German,  and  English.     It  also  contained 
about  25,000  engravings. 

Zaniagna,  dza-man'ya,  (BERNARDO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ragusa  in  1735.  He  translated 
the  poems  of  Hesiod  and  Theocritus,  and  the  "Odyssey" 
of  Homer,  into  Latin  verse.  Died  in  1820. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lotig:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  5,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZAMSECCAR1 


Z4NE 


Za'nbeccari,  clzam-bek-ka'ree,( FRANCESCO,)  COUNT, 
a  distinguished  Italian  aeronaut,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1756.  He  maintained  the  theory  that  a  balloon  could 
be  managed  by  the  use  of  oars  and  by  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  gas,  and,  while  making  the  experiment, 
perished  by  his  balloon  being  caught  in  a  tree  and 
taking  fire,  (1812.) 

Zambeccari,  (GiUSEPPF,)  nn  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native 
of  Florence,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pisa. 

Zam-be'li-os,  (JoiiN,)  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  one 
of  the  Ionian  Isles  in  1787.  lie  wrote  lyric  poems, 
and  several  tragedies,  which  were  successful.  Died 
in  1856. 

Zambelli,  d/.am-bel'lee,  (ANDREA,)  an  Italian  his 
torian,  born  at  Lonato  in  1794.  lie  became  professor 
of  history  at  Pavia  in  1825,  and  president  of  the  Institute 
of  Milan  in  1845.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
War." 

Zamboiii,  dzam-bo'nee,  (BALDASSARE,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Brescia  about  1730  ;  died  in  1797. 

Zamet,  7.8'm.y,  (|EAN,)  a  distinguished  military  officer, 
born  in  France,  was  a  son  of  the  following.  He  fought 
for  the  King  of  France  against  the  Huguenots,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  model  Christian  soldier.  He  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Montpellier,  about  1621. 

Zamet,  dza-meY  or  zi'my,  (SKI:ASTIAX,)  an  Italian 
financier  and  courtier,  born  at  Lucca  about  1549,  came 
to  Paris  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  confidential  agent 
of  Henry  IV.,  who  borrowed  money  of  him  and  em 
ployed  him  in  negotiations  and  intrigues.  Died  in  1614. 

Zamet,  (SEBASTIEN,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Langres 
in  1615.  About  1630  he  founded  an  order  of  nuns  for 
the  adoration  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  which  was  gov 
erned  by  Angelique  Arnauld.  Died  in  1655. 

Za-mol'xis  [Gr.  Zu/io^if]  or  Zal-mox'is  [Gr.  ZuA- 
(Uo^fj  was  regarded  as  a  deity  by  the  ancient  Getre  or 
Thracians.  According  to  a  Greek  tradition,  he  was  a 
slave  and  pupil  of  Pythagoras,  and  he  taught  the  doc 
trine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  to  the  Getae. 

See  RHOUSOFOULOS,  "Dissertatin  cle  Zamolxide,"  1852. 

Zamora,  tha-mo'ra,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  physician, 
born  at  Salamanca  about  1570;  died  about  1640. 

Zamora,  (LORENZO,)  a  Spanish  theologian  and  poet, 
born  at  Ocana  about  1550.  He  wrote  a  poem  ("La 
Saguntina")  on  the  siege  of  Saguntum.  Died  in  1614. 

Zamora,  de,  da  tha-mo'ra,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish 
dramatist,  who  lived  about  1710-50,  was  patronized  by 
Philip  V.  His  tragedy  entitled  "  Mazariegos  y  Mon- 
salves"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works. 

Zamora,  de,  (BERNARDO,)  a  learned  Spanish  monk, 
born  in  Leon  about  1720.  He  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  Salamanca,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1785. 

Zamori,  dza-mo'ree,  or  Zamoreo,  dza-mo'ri-o,  (GA- 
ERIO,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Parma 
about  1320.  He  was  highly  praised  by  Petrarch,  who 
wa-;  his  friend.  Died  about  1400. 

Zamosc.     See  ZAMOYSKI. 

Zamoscius.     See  ZAMOYSKI. 

Zamoyski,  zd-moi'skee,  written  also  Zamojskiand 
Zamosc,  (ANDREW,)  a  Polish  statesman  and  philan 
thropist,  born  in  1716.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Saxon  army,  attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
in  1764  became  grand  chancellor  under  Stanislas  Au 
gustus.  He  published  in  1778  a  code  of  laws,  prepared 
at  the  request  of  the  Diet,  which,  on  account  of  its  pro 
vision  for  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  encountered 
general  opposition,  and  was  not  even  permitted  to  be 
read.  It  was,  however,  adopted  by  the  Diet  of  1791. 
He  died  in  1792.  His  wife,  originally  a  princess  Czar- 
toryska,  was  also  distinguished  for  the  benevolence  of 
her  character  and  her  numerous  charities. 

Zamoyski,  (foHN,)  grandson  of  the  following,  was 
born  in  1626.  He  fought  against  the  Cossacks  in  1651, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  Palatine  of  Sandornir  by 
John  Casimir.  He  also  distinguished  himself  in  the 
subsequent  wars  with  Sweden  and  Russia.  Died  in 
1665.  His  widow  was  afterwards  married  to  the  cele 
brated  Sobieski. 


Zamoyski  or  Zamosc,  [Lat.  ZAMOS'CIUS,]  (JOHN 
SARIUS,)  an  eminent  Polish  statesman,  general,  and 
scholar,  born  in  1541.  He  was  educated  at  Paris  and 
at  Padua,  where  he  studied  law.  In  1563  he  published 
at  Padua  or  Venice  an  able  treatise  "On  the  Roman 
Senate,"  ("  De  Senatu  Romano,")  which  Graevius  praised 
and  inserted  in  his  "Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Roma- 
narum."  He  returned  to  Poland  about  1565,  and  found 
a  bountiful  patron  in  King  Sigismund  Augustus,  who 
died  in  1572.  In  the  election  of  a  new  king,  Zamoyski, 
who  was  recognized  as  chief  of  the  equestrian  order, 
supported  Henry  of  Anjou,  who  was  elected,  and  ap 
pointed  Zamoyski  grand  chamberlain.  After  the  flight 
or  abdication  of  Henry,  (1574,)  Zamoyski  favoured  the 
election  of  Stephen  Batliari,  and  was  rewarded  with  the 
office  of  grand  chancellor.  He  was  the  most  influential 
Polish  statesman  in  the  reign  of  Bathori.  During  the  war 
against  (he  Muscovites  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  1580,  and  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1582, 
by  which  Livonia  and  Novogorod  were  ceded  to  Poland. 
He  married  a  niece  of  the  king  about  1582.  The  Swedish 
prince  Sigismund,  who  succeeded  Bathori  in  1586,  owed 
his  election  to  Zamoyski.  Maximilian  of  Austria,  who 
was  a  candidate  for  the  Polish  throne,  having  invaded 
Poland  with  an  army,  Zamoyski  defeated  li!,n  and  took 
him  prisoner  about  the  end  of  1586.  lie  commanded 
the  army  in  a  successful  campaign  against  the  Turks  in 
1595,  and  gained  some  victories  over  Charles,  Duke  of 
Sudermania,  in  Courland,  about  1597.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Logica  Stoica,  seu  Dialectica  Chrysippea."  Died 
in  1605. 


Zamoyski,  (STANISLAS  KOSTKA  FRANCIS  REIN- 
HOLD,)  a  Polish  politician,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1775,  was 
a  son  of  Andrew,  noticed  above.  He  became  a  privy 
councillor  at  Vienna  in  1795,  a  senator-palatine  about 
1809,  and  president  of  the  senate  of  Poland  in  1822. 
Died  in  1856. 

Zamoyski,  (THOMAS,)  a  son  of  John  Sarius  Zamoy 
ski,  was  born  in  1595.  He  inherited  in  some  degree 
the  qualities  of  his  father,  and  was  appointed  grand 
chancellor  in  1635.  Died  in  1638. 

Zampi,  clzam'pee,  (FELICE  MARIA,)  a  famous  Italian 
preacher  and  poet,  born  at  Ascoli  about  1700.  His 
sermons  were  sometimes  rather  facetious,  or  deficient 
in  gravity.  Died  in  1774. 

Zampieri.     See  DOMKNICHINO. 

Zampieri,  dzam  pe-a'ree,  (CAMII.LO,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Imola  in  1701,  was  a  good  classical  scholar.  He 
became  a  senator  at  Bologna,  where  he  lived  many  years. 
He  produced  several  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  which  are 
commended.  Died  in  1784. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vita;  Italorum  doctrina  excellentitim." 

Zanchi,  dzan'kee,  [Lat.  ZAN'CHIUS,]  (BASILIO,)  an 
Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bergamo  about 
1501,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  elegant  Latin  poems, 
one  of  which  was  entitled  "  On  the  Garden  of  Wisdom," 
("  De  Horto  Sophias.")  He  was  imprisoned  in  1558 
for  some  act  of  disobedience  to  the  pope,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Zanchi,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  writer  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  history,  in  Latin,  of  one  of 
the  wars  of  the  Venetians  against  Maximilian,  King  of 
the  Romans. 

Zanchi,  (GiAN  CRISOSTOMO,)  brother  of  Basilio, 
noticed  above,  published  a  historical  work,  entitled 
"  On  the  Origin  of  the  Orobii  or  Cenomani,"  ?  ("  De  Oro- 
biorum,  sive  Cenomanorum  Origine.")  Died  in  1566. 

Zanchi,  (GiROLAMO,)  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1516.  He  studied  divinity,  and  at  an 
early  age  became  one  of  the  canons  of  the  Lateran.  While 
at  Rome,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  the  Protestant 
reformer  Peter  Martyr,  and,  having  been  converted  to 
his  doctrines,  repaired  to  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  controversial  and  theological 
works.  Died  in  1590. 

Zane,  clza'na,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Venice  in  1529;  died  in  1560. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.,gutiitr.<i;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  %h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZANETTI 


23  I  2 


ZARATE 


Zanetti,  dza-net'tee,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  COUNT,  a 
Venetian  engraver  and  amateur,  born  about  1680,  made 
a  choice  collection  of  antique  gems  and  other  works 
of  art.  He  also  published  several  treatises  on  art  and 
antiquities.  Died  in  1766. 

Zanetti,  (ANTONIO  MARIA,)  a  relative  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1716.  He  became  libra 
rian  of  Saint  Mark,  and  was  the  author  of  a  valuable 
work  on  Venetian  painting,  ("Delia  Pittura  Veneziana.") 
Died  in  1778. 

Zanetti,  (BKRNARDINO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
near  Treviso  in  1690.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Lombards,"  ("  Del  Regno  de'  Longobardi  in  Italia,"  2 
vols.,  1753.)  Died  in  1762. 

Zanetti,  (GIROLAMO  FRANCESCO,)  brother  of  Antonio 
Maria,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  was  born  at  Venice  in 
1713.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Padua,  and  wrote 
several  antiquarian  works.  Died  in  1782. 

Zanetti,  (GuiDO,)  an  eminent  Italian  numismatist, 
born  in  the  province  of  Bologna  in  1741.  He  published 
a  work  on  Italian  Coins,  entitled  "Nuova  Raccolta  delle 
Monete  e  Zecche  d'ltalia,"  (5  vols.,  1775-89.)  Died  in 
1791. 

Zaugiacomi,  zd.N'zht'ko'me',  (JOSEPH,)  BARON,  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Nancy  in  1766.  He  was  a  mod 
erate  member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  became 
a  judge  in  1800.  In  1831  lie  was  appointed  president  of 
the  chamber  of  requests.  Died  in  1846. 

See  PAILLART,  "  £"loge  de  Zangiacomi,"  1854. 

Zanichelli,  dza-ne-kel'lee,  or  Zannichelli,  (GiAN 
GIROI.AMO,)  an  Italian  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Modena  in  1662,  was  the  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises.  A  genus  of  plants  has  been  named  Zanni- 
chellia  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1729. 

Zannichelli.     See  ZANICHELLI. 

Zamiini,  dza-nee'nee,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  in  1781,  lived  at  Venice.  Died  in  1843. 

Zannoni,  dza-no'nee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA, )  an 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1774,  was  a  pupil 
of  Land,  and  became  in  1817  secretary  of  the  Academy 
della  Crusca.  He  published  a  history  of  that  academy, 
and  several  treatises  on  numismatics  and  ancient  art. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  C.  CAVKDONI,  "  Bioerafia  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Zannoni," 
1835;  F.  BECCIII,  "  Elofiio  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Zannoni,"  1838. 

Zanobi  da  Strata,  dza-no'bee  dl  stRa'ta,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Strata,  near  Florence,  in  1312.  He  was 
crowned  with  laurel  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1355. 
Died  in  1361. 

Zanolini,  dza-no-lee'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  Orientalist,  born  at  Padua  in  1693.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Syriac  at  Padua,  and  published 
lexicons  and  grammars  of  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac  lan 
guages.  Died  in  1762. 

Zaiioni,  dza-no'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian  agricul 
turist,  born  at  Udine  in  1696.  He  made  experiments  in 
rural  economy,  and  published  several  works  on  that 
subject.  Died  in  1770. 

Zanoni,  (GIACOMO,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  in 
Lombardy  in  1615.  He  was  keeper  of  the  botanic  gar 
den  of  Bologna,  and  published  a  botanical  work  entitled 
"  Botanical  History  of  Rare  Plants,"  etc.,  ("  Storia  bo- 
tanica  delle  Piante  piu  rare,"  etc.,  1675.)  Died  in  1682. 

Zanotti,  dza-not/tee,  (EusTACHio,)  an  Italian  mathe 
matician  and  astronomer,  son  of  Giampietro,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1709.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  astronomy  in  his  native  city,  and  published 
several  scientific  works  in  Latin  and  Italian.  Died  in 
1782. 

See  VANNETTI,  "  Commentarius  de  Vita  E.  Zanotti,"  1786. 

Zanotti,  (FRANCESCO  MARIA,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Bologna  in  1692.  He  became  suc 
cessively  professor  of  philosophy,  librarian,  and  president 
of  the  university  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author 
of  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian,  and  several  treatises  on 
physics,  mathematics,  and  art.  Died  in  1777. 

Zanotti,  (GIAMPIETRO  CAVAZZONI,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  art-critic,  born  in  1674,  was  a  pupil  of  Lorenzo 
Pasinelli  at  Bologna.  He  published  "  Hints  to  a  Young 
Painter,"  a  "Life  of  Pasinelli,"  "  History  of  the  Clemen 


tine  Academy  of  Bologna,"  and  other  works.     Died  in 
1765- 

Zanten,  van,  vaYi  zan'ten,  (JACOB,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  translator,  born  about  1650.  He  became  minister 
of  the  Mennonite  church  at  Haarlem  in  1707.  He 
translated  into  Dutch  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  Died 
after  1729. 

Zanzalus.     See  BARAD^EUS. 

Zapata,  tha-pa'ta,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Spanish  cardinal, 
born  at  Madrid  about  1550.  He  was  appointed  Viceroy 
of  Naples  in  1620,  but  was  soon  removed.  Died  in  1635. 

Zapata,  (ANTONIO  or  LUIMAN,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Segorbe  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Zapata,  dza-pa'ta,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  probably  at  Rome  about  1520.  lie 
published  a  work  called  "  Wonderful  Secrets  of  Medi 
cine,"  ("Maravigliosi  Secret!  di  Medicina,"  2d  edition, 
1586.)  Died  after  1586. 

Zapf,  tsapf,  (GEORG  WILHELM,)  a  learned  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Nordlingen  in  1747.  He  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  a  "Bibliography 
of  Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (1781,)  "History  of 
Printing  at  Augsburg,"  (2  vols.,  1788-91,)  and  "Lives 
of  Celebrated  Savants  and  Artists  of  All  Time,"  (1806.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Zapf,  (NiKOLAUS,)  a  German  Lutheran  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Milwitz  in  1600,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Erfurt  in  1633,  and  court  preacher  to 
the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  in  1642.  lie  was  eminent 
for  learning  and  other  merits.  Died  in  1672. 

Zapolya,  za-pol'ya,  or  Zapoly,  za'pol,  (JoiiN,)  son 
of  Stephen,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1487,  and  was 
proclaimed  King  of  Hungary  in  1526,  in  opposition 
to  Ferdinand  of  Austria.  After  a  protracted  contest, 
Zapolya  was  forced  to  give  up  his  claim  to  all  except 
Transylvania  and  a  few  other  territories.  Died  in  1540. 

Zapolya  or  Zapoly,  (JoiiN  II.,)  a  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  in  1540.  He  inherited  the  principality 
of  Transylvania.  Died  in  1570  or  1571. 

Zapolya,  (STEPHEN,)  a  distinguished  military  com 
mander  under  Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary, 
was  appointed  by  that  sovereign  Governor  of  Austria. 
His  daughter  Barbara  was  married  to  Sigismund  I., 
King  of  Poland.  Died  in  1499. 

Zappi,  dzap'pee,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,)  an  Italian 
moralist,  born  at  Imola  about  1540.  He  published  a 
work  entitled  "The  Field  of  Spiritual  Philosophy," 
("  Prato  della  Filosofia  spirituale,"  1577.)  Died  after 
1585- 

Zappi,  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  FELICE,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  jurist,  born  at  Imola  in  1667.  He  was  the 
author  of  sonnets,  eclogues,  and  other  poems,  which 
are  greatly  admired  for  the  grace  and  purity  of  their 
style.  Died  in  1719.  His  wife  FAUSTINA,  daughter  of 
Carlo  Maratta,  was  also  distinguished  for  her  accom 
plishments  and  poetic  talents. 

Zara,  dza'ra,  (ANTONIO,)  Bishop  of  Pedena,  was 
born  at  Aquileia  in  1574.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Anatomy  of  Inventions  and  Sciences,"  ("  Anatomia 
Ingeniorum  et  Scientiarum,"  1615.) 

Zarate,  (ANTONIO.)     See  GIL  Y  ZARATE. 

Zarate  or  §arate,  de,  da  tha-ra'ta,  (AuousTiN,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  who  in  1543  accompanied  Blasco 
Nunez  de  Vela,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  to  South  America.  He 
held  the  office  of  master-general  of  accounts  in  Peru 
and  Terra  Firma,  and,  after  the  deposition  of  Vela, 
was  sent  on  an  important  embassy  to  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 
He  published  in  1555  his  "History  of  the  Discovery 
and  Conquest  of  Peru,"  which  has  been  translated 
into  French  and  Italian.  It  is  esteemed  a  judicious  and 
reliable  work.  Died  about  i  =;6o. 

See  PRKSCOTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 
book  v. 

Zarate,  de,  (FERNANDO,)  a  Spanish  dramatist  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  "  El  Maestro  de 
Alejandro,"  and  several  other  comedies,  also  a  collection 
of  poems. 

Zarate,  de,  (FRANCISCO  LOPEZ,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
at  Logrono  about  1580.  He  was  the  author  of  lyric 
poems  entitled  "Silvas"  and  "Eclogues,"  which  have  a 
high  reputation.  Died  in  1658. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


ZARATHUSTRA 


ZE1SBERGER 


Zarathustra.     See  ZOROASTKR. 

Zar'co,  (JoAo  GONZALEZ,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
discovered  in  1417  the  island  of  Porto  Santo,  near  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  in  1419  the  island  of  Madeira,  to 
which  he  gave  this  name  on  account  of  the  dense  forests 
with  which  it  was  covered.  Zarco  founded  the  town  of 
Funchal,  and  was  made  governor  of  the  island  con 
jointly  with  his  companion,  Tristao  Vaz. 

Zaremba,  tsa-rem'ba,  (MICHAEL  CONSTANTINE,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1711;  died  in 
1786. 

Zarlino,  dzaR-lee'no,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  eminent  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Chioggia  about  1520, 
was  chapel-master  at  Saint  Mark's,  Venice.  He  com 
posed  music  for  churches,  and  published  "  Instituzione 
armoniche,"  (1558.)  Died  in  1590. 

See  RAVAGNAN,  "  Elogio  di  G.  Zarlino,"  1819  ;  F.  CAFFI,  "  Nar- 
razione  della  Vita  di  G.  Zarlino,"  1836. 

Za'si-us,  [Ger.  pron.  tsa'ze-us,]  written  also  Zazius, 
[Fr.  ZASE,  zaz,]  (ULRIC,)  an  eminent  Swiss  or  German 
jurist,  born  at  Constance  in  1461,  was  a  friend  of  Eras 
mus.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Friburg,  and  was 
regarded  as  an  oracle  in  that  science.  He  published  a 
number  of  legal  works,  among  which  is  "  Method  of 
Law,"  ("Methodus  Juris.")  Died  in  1535. 

See  RIEGGER,  "  Life  of  Zasius,"  Ulm,  1774. 

Zaurier,  tsow'ner,  (FRANZ,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
in  1746,  was  patronized  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa. 
Among  his  best  works  may  be  named  the  monument  of 
Leopold  II.,  and  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Joseph 
II.  He  was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Vienna. 
Died  in  1822. 

Zavarroni,  dza-var-ro'nee,  (ANGELO,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  biographer,  born  at  Montalto  in  1710. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Calabrian  Library," 
("  Bibliotheca  Calabra,"  1753,)  which  consists  of  the 
lives  of  Calabrian  authors.  Died  in  1767. 

Zawadowski,  za-va-dov'skee,  (PETER,)  COUNT,  a 
Russian  minister  of  state,  born  in  1738.  He  rendered 
important  services  by  promoting  order  and  education  in 
Russia,  and  became  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
1802.  Died  in  1812. 

Zawisza,  za-vee'sha,  surnamed  THE  BLACK,  a  Polish 
soldier,  served  under  the  emperor  Sigismund,  and  was 
killed  in  the  Turkish  campaign  of  1420. 

Zayas  y  Sotomayor,  de,  da  tha'yas  e  so-to-ma- 
y6a',  (Dona  MARIA,)  a  Spanish  poetess,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Madrid.  She  published  "Moral  and  Amorous 
Tales,"  ("  Novelas  exemplares  y  amorosas,"  1634,)  which 
are  commended. 

Zbarawski.     See  ZBOROWSKI. 

Zborowski,  zbo-rov'skee,  written  also  Zbarawski, 
(JOHN,)  PRINCE  OF,  a  Polish  general,  who  distinguished 
himself  in  war  against  the  Muscovites  and  Tartars  in 
the  reigns  of  Stephen  Bathori  and  Sigismund  III. 
Died  in  1608. 

Zea,  sa'a  or  tha'a,  (Don  FRANCISCO  ANTONIO,)  a 
distinguished  South  American  statesman  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Medeliin,  in  New  Granada,  in  1770.  Having 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Spanish  government  by 
his  liberal  sentiments,  he  was  imprisoned  two  years  in 
Spain.  He  was  appointed  in  1805  professor  of  natural 
sciences  and  director  of  the  Royal  Botanical  Garden  at 
Madrid.  Under  Joseph  Bonaparte  he  became  minister 
of  the  interior  and  Governor  of  Malaga.  He  sailed  in 
1814  for  South  America,  where  he  joined  Bolivar  against 
the  Spaniards,  was  made  intendant-general  of  the  armies 
of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  and  elected  Vice-President 
in  1819.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  England  in  1820, 
and  died  at  Bath  in  1822. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Zea-Bermudez,  tha'a  beR-moo'Deth,  (Don  FRAN 
CISCO,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Malaga  in  1772, 
was  employed  on  embassies  to  Saint  Petersburg,  Con 
stantinople,  and  London,  and  in  1824  succeeded  Count 
de  Ofalia  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1850. 

Zeb'u-lun,  [Heb.  JH3T  or  p13T ;  Fr.  ZABULON,  zf'bii'- 
16N',]  a  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob,  was  the  head 
of  one  of  'the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

See  Genesis  xxx.  20,  xlix.  13. 


Zecchi,  dzgk'kee,  [Lat.  ZEC'CHIUS,]  (GIOVANNI,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Bologna  in  1533.  He  prac 
tised  in  Rome,  and  was  employed  by  several  popes. 
He  published  a  number  of  professional  works.  Died 
in  1601. 

Zecchini,  dzek-kee'nee,  (PETRONIO,)  an  Italian  medi 
cal  writer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1739;  died  in  1793. 

Zecchius.     See  ZECCHI. 

Zech,  tseK,  (FRANZ  XAVER,)  a  German  Jesuit,  dis 
tinguished  as  a  canonist,  was  born  in  Franconia  in  1692. 
He  published  four  works  which  form  a  complete  course 
of  canon  law.  Died  at  Munich  in  1772. 

Ze-eh-a-ri'ah,  [Heb.  mur ;  Fr.  ZACHARIE,  zS'ki're',] 
one  of  the  twelve  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  was  the  son 
of  Berechiah,  and  began  to  prophesy  about  520  B.C. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  [Eleb.  H'pIV  or  DTpl*,]  son  of  Josiah, 
King  of  Judah,  began  to  reign  about  600  B.C.  Having 
joined  Pharaoh-IIophra,  King  of  Egypt,  in  a  rebellion 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  latter  laid  siege  to  Jeru 
salem,  which  he  took  after  nineteen  months,  (586  B.C.) 
Zedekiah's  sons  were  slain  before  his  eyes,  by  order  of 
the  king,  and  he  himself  imprisoned  for  life  at  Babylon, 
having  previously  been  made  blind. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  10;  Jeremiah  xxxii. 

Zedler,  tsed'ler,  (JOHANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Breslau  in  1706,  was  the  publisher 
of  the  "Universal  Lexicon  of  Science  and  Arts,"  (6t 
vols.,  1731-50.)  Died  in  1760. 

Zedlitz,  tsgcl'llts,  (JOSEPH  CHRISTIAN,)  BARON,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Johannesberg  in  1790,  published 
a  number  of  lyrics  and  tragedies,  and  translated  Byron's 
"Childe  Harold"  into  German.  Died  in  1862. 

See  LONGFELLOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Zedlitz,  von,  fon  tsgd'llts,  (KARL  ABRAHAM,)  BARON, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  near  Lanclshut,  in  Silesia,  in 
1731.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  in  1770, 
and  the  next  year  the  king  confided  to  him  the  de 
partment  of  ecclesiastic  affairs  and  public  instruction. 
He  promoted  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  reform  in  the 
prisons.  He  resigned  office  in  1789.  Died  in  1793. 

Zeeman,  za'man,(REMiGius,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter, 
whose  original  name  was  NOOMS,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1612. 

Zegabene.     See  ZEGABENUS. 

Zeg-a-be'nus,  [Fr.  ZEGABENE,  za'gt'bin',]  (GEOR- 
Gius,)  a  Byzantine  writer  of  unknown  period.  He  wrote, 
in  verse,  a  work  on  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

Zeg'e'din',  (STEPHEN  OF,)  a  Hungarian  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Zegedin  in  1505,  was  a  pupil  of 
Luther  at  Wittenberg.  He  was  often  persecuted  and 
driven  from  place  to  place.  Died  in  1572. 

Zegers  or  Segers,  za'gers  or  za'iiers,  (HERCULES,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter  and  engraver  of  great  merit, 
was  born  about  1625.  Notwithstanding  the  excellence 
of  his  works,  he  was  very  unsuccessful  in  disposing  of 
them,  and,  discouraged  by  his  bad  fortune,  gave  himself 
up  to  intemperance.  He  died  in  consequence  of  a  fall 
when  intoxicated.  His  prints,  after  his  death,  were  sold 
for  very  high  prices. 

Zegers,  za'gers  or  za'zhaiit',  (TACITE  NICOLAS,)  a 
Flemish  theologian,  born  at  Brussels  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Latin,  (1559.)  According  to 
the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  he  was  one  of  the  best 
critics  of  his  time.  Died  in  1559. 

Zeiad.     See  ZEYAD. 

Zeibich,  tsi'biK,  (KARL  HEINRICH,)  a  German  writer 
on  theology,  born  at  Edemburg  in  1717,  was  professor 
at  Wittenberg.  Died  in  1763. 

Zeid.     See  ZEYD. 

Zeidoun  or  Zeidun.     See  ZAIDOON. 

Zeiler,  tsi'ler,  or  Zeiller,  (MARTIN,)  a  German  geog 
rapher  and  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  in 
Styria  in  1589.  He  published  some  useful  works  on  the 
geography  and  topography  of  Germany.  Died  in  1661. 

Zeisberger,  tsTs'beRG  er,  (DAVID,)  a  German  mission 
ary  among  the  American  Indians,  was  born  in  Moravia 
in  1721.  Having  been  educated  by  the  Society  of  Mo 
ravians,  he  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  where  he  assisted 
in  founding  the  town  of  Bethlehem.  He  afterwards 
established  missions  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal',  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     ( Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZELADA 


ZENO 


and  Canada.     He  published  several  religious  and  educa 
tional  works  in  the  Delaware  language.     Died  in  1808. 
See  EDMUND  DE  SCHWEINITZ,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Davic 
Zeisberger ;"  "Weekly  New  York  Tribune"  for  November  23,  1870 

Zelada,  dza-la'da,  (FRANCESCO  SAVERIO,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  and  liberal  patron  of  learning,  was  born  about 
1717.  He  became  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Vatican. 
Died  in  1801. 

Zelich,  /a'lik  or  dza'iik,  (G.,)  a  Dalmatian  scholar 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1752,  visited  Germany  anc" 
Russia,  and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitlec 
"Life,  Adventures,  etc.  of  G.  Zelich,"  (Buda,  1823,)  saic 
to  have  been  the  first  prose  work  in  the  Servian  language. 
Died  about  1822. 

See  L.  BRIGHTWELL,  "By- Paths  of  Biography." 
Zell,  tsel,  (KARL,)  a  German  scholar  and  critic,  born 
at  Mannheim  in  1793,  studied  at  Heidelberg  under 
Creuzer.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  edition 
of  Aristotle's  "Ethica  Nicomachea,"  "  P^erienschriften,' 
(3  vols.,  1826-33,)  a  series  of  treatises  highly  commended 
by  Goethe,  and  a  "Manual  of  Roman  Epigraphy,'" 
(1850.)  He  became  professor  at  Heidelberg  in  1847. 

Zell,  tsel  or  zel,  (ULRICH,)  the  first  printer  of  Cologne, 
established  a  press  in  that  city  about  1462,  and  pub 
lished,  among  other  works,  "  Augustinus  de  Vita  Chris 
tiana,"  and  "  Biblia  Latina. " 

Zeller,  tscl'ler,  (EDUARD,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Wiirtemberg  in  1814,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Platonic  Studies,"  (1839,)  and  "  The  Theological  Sys 
tem  of  Zwingle,"  (1853.) 

Zeller,  (JoHANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  learned  German  phy 
sician,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1656.  He  was  professor 
of  medicine  at  Tubingen,  where  he  died  in  1734. 

Zelotti,  dzi-lot'tee,  (BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Verona  in  1532,  was  contemporary  with  Paul 
Veronese,  to  whom  in  some  respects  he  is  esteemed 
superior.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  series  of 
frescos  at  Cataio,  representing  the  achievements  of  the 
Obizzi  family.  Died  in  1592. 

Zelter,  tsel'ter,  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  distinguished 
German  composer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1758.  He  was 
instructed  in  music  by  Fasch,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1800  as  teacher  of  the  Academy  ot  Singing,  called  by 
his  name.  In  1809  he  was  appointed,  by  the  King  of 
Prussia,  professor  of  music  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  at  Berlin.  He  numbered  among  his  pupils  the 
celebrated  Mendelssohn,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Goethe.  He  died  in  1832,  leaving  his  "Correspondence 
with  Goethe,"  which  appeared  in  1833. 

Zeltner,  tselt'ner,  (GusrAV  GEOKO,)  a  learned  Ger 
man  philologist  and  writer,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1672. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  and  Oriental  languages 
at  Altdorf  for  twenty- four  years.  Died  in  1738. 

Zenale,  dza-na'la,  (BERNARDINO,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  about  1450.     He  worked  at  Milan, 
where  he  was  often  consulted  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
Zend  Avesta.     See  ZOROASTER. 
Zendrini,    dzen-dree'nee,    (BERNARDO,)   an    Italian 
natural   philosopher,   born   in  1679.  resided  at  Venice, 
where  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  to  the  republic. 
He  was  also  employed  in  various  important  works  by 
the  Austrian  government,  and  published  several  valuable 
treatises  on  hydraulics,  astronomy,  etc.     Died  in  1747. 

Zenner,  tsln'ner,  (GOTTFRIED^)  a  German  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  at  Altenburg.  He  was  for  twenty  years 
secretary  to  the  Prince  of  Anhalt.  According  to  the 
"  Biographic  Universelle,"  he  was  born  in  1596  and 
died  in  1721. 

Ze'no  or  Ze'non,  [Gr.  Z'jvuv ;  Fr.  ZENON,  za'n6NT'; 
It.  ZENONE,  dza-no'na,]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher, 
the  founder  of  the  school  of  Stoics,  was  born  at  Citium, 
in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  about  355  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Crates  the  Cynic,  and  afterwards  received  instruction 
from  Stilpo  and  Polemon  at  Athens.  He  settled  at 
Athens  at  an  early  age,  and,  having  formed  a  new  sys 
tem  by  selections  from  different  philosophers,  he  opened 
a  school  in  the  Athenian  porch,  called  CTOU  iroiKi^ri,  (  Stoa 
Poicile,)  "painted  Porch,  (or  Portico.")  His  disciples 
were  at  first  called  Zenonians,  but  afterwards  they  were 
styled  the  philosophers  of  the  Porch,  (or  Portico,)  or, 
more  briefly,  "those  of  the  Porch,"  ol  kit  rr/f  arouf,  or  oi 


aruiKoi,  (in  Latin,  Sto'ici,  English  "  Stoics.")  He  is  said  to 
have  taught  philosophy  at  Athens  for  fifty-eight  years. 
His  discipline  was  severe.  He  was  distinguished  by 
his  gravity,  modesty,  austere  morality,  and  firmness  of 
character.  In  the  use  of  words  he  aimed  at  sententious 
brevity.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  which  are  not  ex 
tant.  Our  information  about  the  principles  of  his  system 
is  very  scanty.  He  is  said  to  have  taught,  among  other 
things,  that  virtue  is  the  sumtnum  bonum,  and  that  the 
accordance  of  individual  reason  with  the  universal  Reason 
(i.e.  the  Divine  Law)  is  virtue  ;  and  to  have  originated 
the  fourfold  division  of  the  affections,  desire  and  fear, 
pleasure  and  pain.  The  doctrine  of  the  Stoics  that  pain 
is  not  an  evil  has  excited  much  wonder  and  some  ridi 
cule,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  ;  but  essentially 
the  same  doctrine  has  been  held  by  great  and  heroic 
men  in  all  ages.  Zeno  meant  nothing  more  than  that 
pain,  (including  sickness,  toil,  grief  for  the  loss  of  one's 
property,  etc.,)  causing  a  mere  temporary  inconvenience 
to  the  body,*  was  not  to  be  classed  in  the  same  category 
with  such  evils  as  crime,  cowardice,  or  dishonour, — evils 
which  stamp  themselves  indelibly  upon  the  soul.  In 
comparing  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics  with  those  of 
Epicurus,  it  is  a  triumphant  recommendation  of  the 
former  that,  after  the  introduction  of  Grecian  letters  and 
philosophy  among  the  Romans,  those  who  were  the  most 
eminent  of  all  for  public  and  private  virtue — such  as 
Cato  the  Younger,  Marcus  Aurelins,  and  many  others — 
were  among  the  disciples  of  the  Porch,  while  scarcely 
one  man  of  distinguished  virtue  can  be  pointed  to  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Epicureans.t  It  was  a  glorious  testimony 
to  the  character  of  Zeno  both  as  a  man  and  as  a  teacher 
of  virtue  that,  though  a  stranger,  the  Athenians  reposed 
in  him  the  most  unbounded  confidence  while  he  was 
alive,  and  after  his  death  they  decreed  him  a  golden 
crown  and  a  public  burial,  because,  during  his  long 
residence  at  Athens,  he  had,  both  by  precept  and  by  a 
consistent  example,  led  the  young  men  who  attended  his 
school  to  the  practice  of  wisdom  and  virtue.  Zeno  died 
about  the  age  of  ninety-eight,  and  was  succeeded  by  Cle- 
anthes  as  the  head  of  the  school.  The  Stoic  philosophy 
appears  to  have  been  somewhat  modified  by  several  of 
the  disciples  and  successors  of  Zeno.  Some  of  the  Stoics 
maintained  that  the  wise  man  is  perfect ;  that  he  only  is 
rich,  free,  noble,  and  beautiful  :  "  Solos  sapientes  csse, 
si  distortissimi  sint,  formosos  ;  si  menclicissimi,  divites  ; 
si  servitutem  serviant,  reges."  (Cicero,  "Pro  Murena.") 
According  to  Cicero,  they  taught  that  all  sins  were 
equal,  that  a  wise  man  is  never  mistaken,  never  changes 
his  mind,  and  is  never  moved  by  compassion. 

See  DIOGENES  LAERTIUS,  "Life  of  Zeno:"  RITTER,  "  History 
of  Philosophy ;"  G.  H.  LHWKS,  "Biographical  History  of  Philoso 
phy  ;"  CICERO,  "  De  Finibus"  and  "  Academica  ;"  FOREUUS,  "Zeno 
Philosophus,"  1700;  JF.NICHEN,  "  De  Zenone  Cittico,"  1724;  TIEDE- 
MANN,  "System  der  Stoischen  Philosophic,"  3  vols.,  1776;  SMITH, 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Ze'no  or  Ze'noii  [Gr.  Z>/vuv]  OF  ELEA,  [Lat.  ZK'NO 
ELEA'TES;  Fr.  ZENON  D'£LEE,  za'nox'd.Yla',  |  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Elea,  in  Southern  Italy,  about 
495  B.C.  He  was  the  favourite  disciple  of  Parmenides, 
in  company  with  whom  he  visited  Athens  when  Socrates 
was  very  young.  Plato,  in  his  dialogue  entitled  "  Par- 
menides,"  states  that  Zeno  was  about  forty  years  old 
when  he  came  to  Athens.  According  to  Plutarch,  Zeno 
was  one  of  the  masters  of  Pericles.  It  is  probable  that 
he  remained  at  Athens  for  several  years  ;  but  the  events 
of  his  life  are  mostly  involved  in  obscurity.  According 
to  a  tradition  current  among  the  ancients,  Zeno  took  an 
active  part  in  the  public  affairs  of  Elea,  and  lost  his  life 
in  an  attempt  to  liberate  that  city  from  a  tyrant.  His 
doctrines  were  the  same  as  those  of  Parmenicles.  Their 


*  The  same  general  idea  was  carried  still  farther  by  the  early 

hristians.     Thus,  Saint  Paul  says,  "We  GLORY  in  tribulations." 

Romans  v.  3.)  and  James.  "  My  brethren,  count  it  ALL  joy  when  ye 

"all  into  various  trials,"  (Treipaa-noi?  Troiia'Aoi?.)  (Epistle  of  James,  i. 

2.)  Nor  is  this  view  limited  to  the  early  Christians.  "  I  am  fully  con- 

inced,"  says  Zschokke,  "that  THERE  is  NO  EVIL  IN  THE  WORLD 

BUT  SIN."     In  another  place  he  says,  "Though  some  may  shake 

tieir  heads  incredulously,   it   is  a  fact  that  worldly  suffering   HAS 

OFTEN  NOT  BEEN  DISAGREEABLE  TO  ME."      (See  Zschokke's   "  AlltO- 

riography.") 

t  The  only  exception  that  we  can  call  to  mind  is  Pomponius  At- 
icus,  an  amiable  and  most  estimable  man  in  private  life,  but  without 
any  just  claims  to  public  virtue. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscttre;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZENO 


2315 


ZENOBIA 


doctrine  of  absolute  unity  produced  a  great  effect  at 
Athens.  Zeno  was  distinguished  by  his  subtle  and  bold 
dialectic.  "What  is,"  says  Victor  Cousin,  "the  most 
original  and  prominent  trait  of  Zeno  as  a  philosopher? 
It  is  evidently  the  invention  of  dialectic,  considered  as 
a  system  and  an  art."  Diogenes  Laertius  reports,  on  the 
authority  of  Aristotle,  "that  Zeno  was  the  inventor  of  dia 
lectic."  He  was  the  first  Eleatic  philosopher  that  wrote 
in  prose.  His  works,  which  were  mostly  polemical  and 
refutations  of  attacks  on  the  system  of  Parmenides,  have 
not  come  down  to  us.  He  attempted  to  disprove  the 
possibility  or  reality  of  absolute  motion  by  several  argu 
ments  founded  on  the  infinite  divisibility  of  space  and 
time.  He  also  showed  the  absurd  consequences  which 
result  from  the  hypothesis  of  those  who  deny  the  prin 
ciple  of  absolute  unity  and  maintain  the  plurality  of  the 
existent. 

See  DIOGENES  LAEKTIUS,  "  Life  of  Zeno  of  Elea  ;"  LUNDBI.AD, 
"  Dissertatio  de  Zenone  Eieate,"  1805;  RITTER,  "  History  of  Phi 
losophy;"  G.  H.  LEWES,  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy;" 
TIKDEMANN,  "Geist  der  speculative  Philosophic  ;"  VICTOR  COUSIN, 
article  "Zenon"  in  the  "  Biographic  Universelle ;"  CHEI.L,  "  De 
Zenone,"  1724: V-  COUSIN,  "  Nouveaux  Fragmens  philosophiques." 

Jtiiwte.,  33 to IJf> **ty f  *•'<>• 

Zeno  OF  SIDON,  a  Greek  philosopher,  mentioned  by 
Suidas  as  a  disciple  of  Diodorus  Cronus  and  a  teacher 
of  Zeno  the  celebrated  Stoic.  He  wrote  a  defence  of 
Socrates. 

Zeno  OF  TARSUS,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  was  a  son 
of  Dioscorides,  and  a  pupil  of  Chrysippus,  whom  lie 
succeeded  as  the  head  of  the  school  of  the  Portico. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  physician,  mentioned  by  Galen,  was 
an  eminent  disciple  of  Herophilus.  He  lived  probably 
about  200  i;.c. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Rhodes,  was  a  con 
temporary  of  Polybius.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of 
Rhodes. 

Zeno,  an  eminent  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  born 
at  Sidon,  flourished  about  60  B.C.  Cicero,  who  heard 
him  at  Athens,  speaks  favourably  of  his  abilities. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  at  Aphroclisias,  in 
Caria,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  some  part  of 
the  period  between  50  and  150  A.D.  Several  of  his  works 
are  extant. 

Zeno,  [Fr.  ZENON,  za'noN"',]  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
a  native  of  Isauria,  and  a  son-in-law  of  Leo  I.,  upon 
whose  death,  in  474  A.D.,  he  usurped  the  throne.  Leo 
T.  had  appointed  as  his  successor  his  infant  grandson 
Leo,  who  was  a  son  of  Zeno,  and  who  died  a  few  months 
after  the  death  of  Leo  I.  Zeno  is  represented  as  de 
praved,  cruel,  and  incapable.  His  reign  was  disturbed 
by  revolts  and  foreign  wars.  He  was  driven  out  of  his 
capital  by  Basiliscus  in  47^,  but  was  restored  in  477 
A.D.  Theodoric  the  Great  invaded  the  dominions  of 
Zeno,  and  was  about  to  take  his  capital,  when  Zeno  per 
suaded  him  to  conquer  Italy,  and  thus  saved  himself. 
Died,  without  issue,  in  491  A.n. 

See  TILLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs ;"  LE  BEAU,  "His- 
toire  du  Has- Empire." 

Zeno,  dza'no,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Venetian  navigator,  born 
between  1330  and  1340,  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of 
Zeni  or  Zena,  and  was  a  brother  of  Niccolo,  noticed 
below.  About  1391  he  performed  a  voyage  to  Frisland, 
and  joined  Niccolo.  (See  ZENO,  NiccoiA)  Died  about 
1405. 

Zeno,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Venetian  scholar,  a  relative  of 
the  preceding,  lived  about  1570-90. 

Zeno,  (APOSTOLO,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  drama 
tist,  born  at  Venice  in  December,  1668.  He  became 
editor  in  1710  of  the  "Giornale  de'  Letterati  d'ltalia,"  a 
literary  periodical  of  a  high  character,  and  about  1717 
repaired  to  Vienna  on  the  invitation  of  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  court  poet  and 
historiographer.  He  published  numerous  operas  or 
melodramas  of  superior  merit,  and  contributed  greatly 
to  the  improvement  of  that  species  of  composition. 
Among  his  other  principal  works  are  his  "  Historical, 
Critical,  and  Literary  Dissertations  on  the  Italian  His 
torians,"  biographies  of  Davila  and  Guarini,  and  a. 
collection  of  Letters.  In  1729  he  quitted  Vienna,  and 
returned  to  Venice,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  published  twenty  volumes  of  the  "Giornale  de'  Let 
terati,"  (1710-18.)  lie  was  eminent  as  a  critic,  and  was 


well  versed  in  antiquities.  "Zeno  was  regarded,"  says 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "as  the  greatest  lyric  poet 
that  Italy  had  produced  when  Metastasio  appeared  on 
the  scene.  .  .  .  He  delights  us  by  his  invention,  by  his 
fecundity,  by  the  truth  of  his  pictures,  and  by  his  knowl 
edge  of  the  dramatic  art."  His  treatises  on  antiquities, 
entitled  "  Dissertazioni  Vossiani,"  (2  vols.,  1752,)  are 
highly  esteemed.  Died  in  November,  1750. 

See  FABRONI,  "Vita?  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  ix.  ; 
FRANCESCO  NEGRI,  "Vita  di  Apostolo  Zeno,"  1816;  TIPALDO, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Zeno,  (CARLO,)  an  able  Venetian  admiral,  born  about 
1334,  was  a  brother  of  Niccolo,  noticed  below.  He 
conducted  at  Constantinople  the  negotiations  by  which 
Venice  acquired  Tenedos  in  1376.  About  that  date  the 
Venetians  were  involved  in  the  war  of  Chiozza  against 
the  Genoese  and  their  allies.  Zeno  served  on  land  until 
1379,  when  he  obtained  command  of  a  fleet,  captured 
several  vessels,  and  sailed  to  Beyroot  to  convoy  some 
rich  cargoes  from  the  Levant  to  Venice.  When  he 
returned,  in  January,  1380,  he  found  the  republic  in  a 
critical  position,  the  Genoese  having  taken  Chiozza  and 
entered  the  lagoons.  He  was  received  as  the  liberator 
of  his  country,  was  appointed  commander  of  the  land- 
army,  and  retook  Chiozza.  On  the  death  of  Pisani, 
August,  1380,  he  became  grand  admiral.  Several  years 
later  he  was  procurator  of  Saint  Mark.  In  1403  he 
defeated  the  Genoese  admiral  Boucicaut  near  Modon. 
He  is  represented  by  Sismondi  as  "the  most  virtuous 
citizen  and  greatest  man  of  Venice"  of  that  age.  ("  Bio 
graphic  Universelle.")  Died  in  1418. 

See  "Life  of  Carlo  Zeno,"  (in  Latin.)  by  his  grandson,  JACOPO 
ZENO,  1544;  DIVIACO,  "Compendio  clella  Vita  di  C.  Zeno,"  1591; 
DARU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise  ;"  SISMONDI,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques 
Italiemies." 

Zeno,  (CATERING,)  grandson  of  Antonio,  (the  first  of 
the  name,)  was  Venetian  ambassador  to  the  Persian 
court  in  1472.  He  published  after  his  return  an  account 
of  his  travels,  which  is  no  longer  extant. 

Zeno,  (  JACOPO,)  grandson  of  Carlo,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1417.  He  rose  through  various  preferments  to 
be  Bishop  of  Padua  in  1459.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his 
grandfather,  Carlo  Zeno,  in  Latin,  and  "Lives  of  the 
Pontiffs,"  ("  Vitae  Summorum  Pontificum.")  He  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Died  in  1481. 

Zeno,  (Niccoi.6,)  a  Venetian  navigator,  born  about 
1330,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  admiral  Carlo  Zeno. 
He  commanded  a  galley  in  the  war  against  the  Genoese 
in  1379,  and  was  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  richest  pa 
tricians  of  Venice  in  1381.  About  1388  he  fitted  out  a 
ship  at  his  own  expense  and  sailed  towards  England  on 
a  voyage  of  exploration.  Before  he  had  reached  Eng 
land  he  was  driven  by  a  storm  and  wrecked  on  an  island 
which  he  calls  Frisland.  He  then  entered  the  service 
of  a  prince  named  Zichmini,  who  employed  him  in  mari 
time  and  warlike  enterprises,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
discovered  the  islands  of  Estland,  Grisland,  and  Engrone- 
lancl.  After  he  had  lived  four  years  in  Frisland,  he 
invited  his  brother  Antonio  to  join  him.  Antonio  went 
there  and  passed  many  years  in  the  service  of  Zichmini. 
Niccolo  died  about  1396.  Geographers  disagree  about 
the  position  or  identity  of  the  islands  which  he  dis 
covered.  Walckenaer  thinks  that  one  of  them  was 
Iceland.  The  narrative  of  the  voyages  of  the  Zeni  (the 
plural  of  Zeno)  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1558. 

Zeno,  (Niccoub,)  a  Venetian  writer,  born  in  1515. 
He  published  in  1558  an  account  of  the  travels  of 
Caterino  Zeno  in  Persia  and  the  East,  compiled  from 
his  letters  to  his  friends.  Died  in  1565. 

Zeno,  (PIETRO  CATERING,)  a  brother  of  Apostolo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1666.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city,  and  was  asso 
ciated  with  his  brother  as  editor  of  the  "Giornale  de' 
Letterati,"  which  he  continued  to  edit  alone  from  1718 
to  1728.  Died  in  1732. 

Ze'no,  [  Fr.  ZENON,  za'noN',]  SAINT,  a  native  of  Africa, 
became  Bishop  of  Verbna  about  362  A.n.  He  is  com 
mended  for  his  charity  to  the  poor.  He  died  in  380, 
leaving  many  sermons,  which  were  printed  in  1508. 

Ze-iio'bi-a,  [Gr.  Zevodia  or  Zi)vo6ia;  Fr.  ZE.NOBIE, 
za'no'be',]  (SEPTIMIA,)  a  famous  and  ambitious  queen 
of  Palmyra,  was  a  daughter  of  Amroo,  an  Arab  chief. 


•e  as k;  c  as  s;  g hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s as z;  th  as  in  this.     (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZENOSU 


2316 


ZES'CHAU 


She  was  renowned  for  her  beauty,  learning,  and  martial 
and  political  abilities.  She  was  mistress  of  the  Greek, 
Latin,  Syriac,  and  Egyptian  languages.  Her  husband, 
Odenathus,  King  of  Palmyra,  died  about  266  A.D., 
leaving  two  minor  sons,  Herennius  and  Timolaus. 
She  assumed  the  royal  diadem,  with  the  title  of  Queen 
of  the  East,  performed  the  active  duties  of  sovereign, 
and  continued  the  conquests  which  Odenathus  had 
begun.  Palmyra  was  then  a  magnificent  city,  adorned 
with  Grecian  porticos  of  marble  and  porphyry  and 
enriched  by  an  extensive  commerce.  Her  dominion 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
over  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  acknowledged 
by  subjects  of  various  races.  The  eminent  Greek  critic 
and  writer  Longinus  served  her  as  secretary  and  coun 
sellor.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  liberal 
ruler.  She  sometimes  marched  on  foot  at  the  head  of 
her  army,  the  toils  of  which  she  shared.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  the  emperor  Aurelian,  in  270  A.D.,  she 
wrote  a  letter  to  him,  asserting  her  independence  and 
refusing  allegiance  to  the  Roman  empire. 

Aurelian  conducted  in  person  an  army  against  the 
Queen  of  Palmyra,  and  defeated  her  forces  in  two  battles, 
near  Antioch  and  near  Emesa.  He  then  besieged  Pal 
myra,  which  she  defended  for  a  long  time  witli  heroic 
courage,  but  it  was  taken  in  272  or  273,  and  she  was 
carried  to  Rome  fettered  with  golden  chains.  She  was 
paraded  as  a  captive  before  the  imperial  chariot  in  the 
triumphal  procession  of  Aurelian,  who  in  other  respects 
treated  her  with  clemency,  and  gave  her  a  villa  at  Tibur, 
where  she  passed  the  rest  of  her  life  with  her  children. 

See  TREBKI.LIUS  POI.I.IO,  "  Triginta  Tyranni ;"  ZOSIMUS,  "His 
tory  of  the  Roman  Empire:"  GIBBON,  "  Decline  and  Kail  of  the 
Roman  Empire;"  E.  F.  WKRNSDOKF,  "  De  Septimia  Zenobia," 
1742;  JOUVH  DK  HAUTEVII.LE,  "  Histoire  de  Zenobie,"  1758;  CAP- 
PEI.I.H,  "  De  Zeiuibia,"  1817.  See,  also,  "Letters  from  Palmyra," 
by  WILLIAM  WARS,  1836-38. 

Zenobia,  the  wife  of  Rhadamistus,  King  of  Ar 
menia,  lived  about  50  A.D.  Her  husband,  pursued  by 
his  victorious  enemies,  threw  her  into  a  river,  intending 
to  save  her  from  capture  by  death,  but  she  was  found  by 
some  shepherds,  and  restored  to  life. 

Zenobie.     See  ZENOBIA. 

Ze-no'bi-us,  [7,r/v66iof, ]  a  Greek  writer,  who  lived  at 
Rome  about  100-130  A.D.  He  compiled  a  collection  of 
proverbs,  which  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1487  or  1497. 

Ze-no'bi-us,  (Fr.  Z^NOUK,  zi'nob',]  SAINT,  an  Italian 
prelate,  born  at  Florence  about  334  A.D.,  was  a  zealous 
opponent  of  Arianism.  lie  became  Bishop  of  Florence. 
Died  about  405. 

Zenodore.     See  ZENODORUS. 

Zea-o-do/rus,  [Gr.  Zrjvofiupoc  ;  Fr.  Z£NODORK,  za'no'- 
doR',]  an  eminent  Greek  statuary,  flourished  about  50 
A.D.  After  he  had  worked  ten  years  in  Gaul  on  a  statue 
of  Mercury,  he  went  to  Rome,  whither  he  was  invited 
by  the  emperor  Nero.  He  made  a  colossal  bronze  statue 
of  Nero,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  in  height.  He  was 
also  a  skilful  silver-chaser. 

Zenodorus,  a  tyrant,  who  reigned  over  Trachonitis 
and  some  adjoining  territory.  He  annoyed  neighbouring 
people  by  predatory  practices,  or  connivance  at  robbery. 
For  this  reason  Augustus  deprived  him  of  nearly  all  his 
possessions,  in  24  B.C.  Died  in  2O  B.C. 

Zenodote.     See  ZENODOTUS. 

Ze-iiod'o-tus  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  a  grammarian,  lived 
after  the  time  of  Aristarchus,  whom  he  criticised  for 
his  recension  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

Zenodotus  [ZijvodoTod  OF  EPHESUS,  [Fr.  ZENO- 
DOTE  D'EPHESE,  za'no'dot'  da'ftz',]  a  celebrated  Greek 
grammarian,  flourished  about  280  B.C.  He  was  a  dis 
ciple  of  Philetas,  and  was  the  first  librarian  of  the  great 
library  of  Alexandria.  He  and  two  other  critics  were 
employed  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  to  revise  or  edit 
all  the  Greek  poets.  Zenodotus  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  works  of  Horner,  in  which  he  made  con 
siderable  changes  and  inserted  various  readings.  His 
edition  or  recension  of  Homer  was  highly  esteemed  by 
ancient  critics.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Glossary,  and  a 
"Dictionary  of  Foreign  Phrases." 

See  HF.FFTER,  "Programma  de  Zenodoto,"  etc.,  1839. 

Zenofonte.     See  XENOPHON. 


Zeiion.     See  ZENO. 

Zeiione.    See  ZENO. 

Zentner,  tsent'ner,  (GEORG  FRIEDRICH,)  BARON,  a 
German  statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Strassenheim  in 
1752,  became  professor  of  civil  law  at  Heidelberg  in  1779, 
and  in  1823  minister  of  justice  in  Bavaria.  Died  in  1835. 

Zepernic.     See  COPERNICUS. 

Zepernick,  Isa'peR-nik',  (KARL  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  jurist,  born  at  Halle  in  1751,  published  several 
legal  works.  Died  in  1801. 

Zeph-a-m'ah  [Heb.  rTJDi' ;  Fr.  SOPHONIE,  so'fo'ne', 
called  SOPHOM'AS  in  the  Septuagint]  was  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets,  and  flourished  under  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  King  of  Judah.  He  foretold  the  fall  of  Nin 
eveh,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  subsequent 
captivity  of  the  Jews. 

Zephirin.     See  ZEPHYRINUS. 

Zeph'yr,  [Gr.  Zt^ypof  ,•  Lat.  ZEPH'YRUS  ;  Fr.  ZE- 
PHYRE,  za'tek';  Sp.  ZEFIRO  or  CEFIRO,  tha'fe-ro  or 
thef'e-ro  ;  It.  ZEFFIRO,  dzef'fe-ro,]  in  classic  mythology, 
was  a  personification  of  the  west  wind,  and  was  called  a 
son  of  Astraeus  and  Aurora.  The  poets  feigned  that 
he  married  Chloris  or  Flora,  and  had  a  son  named 
Carpus,  (fruit.) 

Zephyre  and  Zephyrus.     See  ZEPHYR. 

Zeph-y-ii'nus,  [  Fr.  ZEPHIRIN,  za'fe'ra.N1',]  SAINT,  a 
native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  about  202  A.D.  During 
his  pontificate  the  fifth  persecution  of  the  Christians 
took  place,  under  Septimius  Severus.  He  died  about 
217  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Calixtus  1. 

Zeplichal,  tsep'liK-al,  (ANTON  MICHAEL,)  a  German 
Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in  Moravia  in  1737.  He  pub 
lished  many  scientific  works,  which  were  extensively 
used  in  schools.  Died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Zerbi,  dzeVbee,  [I.at.  DK  ZKR'BLS,]  (GABRIEL,)  an 
eminent  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Verona.  He  had 
lectured  several  years  at  Rome,  when  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Padua  about  1495.  H's  chief  work 
is  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  Liber  Anatomiie 
Corporis  humani,"  about  1490,)  which  contains  the 
germ  of  several  discoveries  in  anatomy.  Died  in  1505. 

Zerbis,  de.     See  ZERBI. 

Zerboai  di  Sposetti,  tseR-bo'nee  de  spo-zet/tee, 
(JOSEPH,)  a  German,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1766.  Having  written,  in  1796,  a  letter  to 
the  Governor  of  Silesia,  showing  the  unreasonableness 
of  attaching  an  unlimited  importance  to  the  right  of 
birth  in  the  nobility,  he  was,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason, 
imprisoned  three  years  by  order  of  Frederick  William 
III.  His  case  having  at  last  been  brought  to  trial,  he 
was  liberated,  and  subsequently  employed  in  several 
public  offices.  Died  in  1831. 

See  PIERER,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Zerdusht.     See  ZOROASTER. 

Zernitz,  tseR'nits,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  didactic  poet,  born  at  Tangermiinde  in  1717.  His 
"  Didactic  Essays"  are  highly  commended.  All  of  his 
works  are  posthumous.  Died  in  1744. 

Zerola,  dza-ro'la,  (ToMMASO,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  at  Benevento  in  1548,  became  Bishop  of  Minori  in 
1597.  He  published  "  Episcopal  Duties  or  Business," 
("Praxis  Episcopalis,"  1597.)  Died  in  1603. 

Zerrenner,  tse'r-ren'ner,  (HEINRICH  GOTTLIEB,)  a 
German  educational  writer,  born  at  Wernigerocle  in 
1750,  published,  among  other  works,  the  "  Deutscher 
Schulfreund,"  (46  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Manual  of  the 
Christian  Religion,''  (1799.)  Died  in  1811. 

His  son,  KARL  CHRISTOPH  GOTTLIEB,  was  the  author 
of  several  works  for  the  use  of  children  and  of  schools. 

Ze-rub'ba-bel  or  Zo-rob'a-bel,  [Heb.  "7331?.]  * 
Jewish  chief  or  prince,  was  a  son  of  Salathiel.  He 
conducted  from  Babylon  to  Juclea  the  Jewish  captives 
who  were  liberated  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  about  536 
B.C.  To  him,  also,  was  confided  the  mission  to  rebuild 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

See  Ezra  ii.  2,  iv.  2,  and  v.  2  ;  Zechariah  iv.  6;  Matthew  i.  12. 

Zeschan,  von,  fon  ts§sh'ow,  (HEINRICH  ANTON,)  a 
Saxon  statesman,  born  in  1789,  rose  through  various 
offices  to  be  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1835.  He  was 
removed  in  1848. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZESCHAU 


2317 


ZHOOKOFSKT 


Zeschau,  von,  (HEINRICH  WII.HKLM,)  a  Saxon 
officer,  born  in  1760,  served  against  the  French  in  the 
principal  campaigns  from  1793  to  1813,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Dresden  in  1823.  Died  in  1832. 

Zese.     See  ZKSEN,  VON. 

Zesen,  von,  fon  tsa'zen,  or  Zese,  tsa'zeh,  [Lat.  C/E'- 
Sius,]  (PHILU'P,)  a  German  writer,  was  born  near  Dessau 
in  1619.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems  and 
prose  works  having  for  their  object  the  improvement  of 
the  German  language.  Died  in  1689. 

Ze'tes  or  Ze'thEs,  [Gr.  Z^f ;  Fr.  ZETHES,  za'tes',] 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Boreas,  King  of  Thrace, 
and  a  twin  brother  of  Calais.  He  is  mentioned  among 
the  Argonauts.  The  poets  feigned  that  Zetes  and  Calais 
had  wings,  and  that  they  delivered  Phineus  from  the 
Harpies  that  plagued  him. 

Ze'thus  [Gr.  Zf/6r>f]  was  a  reputed  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Antiope,  and  a  twin  brother  of  Amphion,  King  of 
Thebes.  These  brothers,  sometimes  called  DIOSCURI, 
("  sons  of  Jove,")  were  exposed  together  in  infancy,  and 
eventually  reigned  together  at  Thebes. 

Zetterstedt,  zet'ter-stet',  (Jon AN  WILHELM,)  a 
Swedish  naturalist,  born  in  the  province  of  East  Goth 
land  in  1785.  He  studied  at  Lund,  and  subsequently 
made  a  scientific  tour  in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Southern 
Lapland.  He  became  in  1839  professor  of  botany  and 
agriculture  at  Lund,  and  in  1846  rector  of  that  university. 
Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named  his  "  Orthop- 
tera  Suecias,"  (1821,)  "  Fauna  Insectorum  Lapponica," 
(1828,)  and  "Diptera  Scandinaviae,"  (40  vols.,  1842-52.) 
The  last  work  obtained  the  great  Linnaean  medal  from 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm. 

Zeune,  tsoi'neh,  (AUGUST,)  a  German  teacher  and 
wi  iter,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1778,  published  several 
geographical  works  and  treatises  on  the  education  of  the 
blind.  Died  in  1853. 

Zeune,  [Lnt.  ZEU'NIUS,]  (JOHAXN  KARL,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1736.  He  edited  several 
works  of  Xenophon,  and  was  professor  at  Wittenberg. 
Died  in  1788. 

Zeus,  [Gr.  Z«r,  genitive  Zrjvof,  and  Awf,]  the  chief 
divinity  of  the  Greek  mythology,  corresponding  to  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Romans.  He  was  represented  as  the  son 
of  Cronos  and  Rhea,  and  the  father  of  Mars,  Minerva, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Apollo,  and  other  gods.  According 
to  Homer,  he  held  his  court  on  Mount  Olympus,  was 
styled  the  father  of  gods  and  men,  and  was  the  most 
powerful  among  the  immortals,  so  that  even  Fate  was 
subordinate  to  his  will.  He  married  his  sister  Hera, 
(Juno.)  His  attributes  and  symbols  were  the  sceptre, 
the  eagle,  and  the  thunderbolt.  (See  JUPITER.)  The 
poets  feigned  that  he  and  the  other  gods  occupied  a 
palace  or  city  built  by  Vulcan  on  the  summit  of  Mount  j 
Olympus,  (in  Thessaly,)  which  rises  above  the  clouds. 
The  actual  height  of  Olympus  is  about  six  thousand 
feet.  The  Greeks  erected  to  Zeus  a  magnificent  temple 
at  Olympia,  near  Elis,  where  the  Olympic  games  were 
celebrated.  This  place  was  profusely  adorned  with  the 
most  splendid  monuments  of  architecture  and  sculpture, 
among  which  was  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeus,  executed  by 
Phidias,  and  generally  regarded  as  the  most  admirable 
as  well  as  greatest  of  all  his  works. 

Zeuss,  tsoiss,  (JOHANN  KASPAR,)  a  German  philolo 
gist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Upper  Franconia  in 
1806,  became  professor  of  history  at  Bamberg  in  1847. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Grammatica  Celtica,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

Zeux-i'a-des,  [Zn^artw,]  a  Greek  statuary  of  the 
school  of  Lysippus,  flourished  about  350  B.C. 

Zeux'is,  [Ztf^c,]  a  Greek  painter  of  great  celebrity 
and  almost  unrivalled  skill,  was  born  at  Heraclea  about 
450  B.C.  It  is  not  known  which  of  the  cities  named 
Heraclea  was  his  birthplace.  According  to  several 
ancient  authorities,  he  lived  about  425-400  B.C.  Plutarch 
states  that  he  flourished  when  Pericles  erected  the  great 
monuments  of  Athens,  and  Pliny  tells  us  that  "the  doors 
of  the  art,  which  were  opened  by  Apollodorus,  were 
entered  by  Zeuxis  in  the  95th  Olympiad,"  (about  400  B.C.) 
The  name  of  his  master  is  not  certainly  known.  Accord 
ing  to  Pliny,  he  was  a  pupil  of  Demophilus  of  Himera 
or  of  Xeseas  of  Thasos.  He  belonged  to  the  Asiatic 


or  Ionian  school  of  art,  which  excelled  in  the  reproduc 
tion  of  sensual  charms.  He  appears  to  have  studied  or 
worked  at  Athens  during  the  life  of  Apollodorus,  who 
was  older  than  Zeuxis,  and  who  complained  that  Zeuxis 
had  robbed  him  of  his  art.  This  is  understood  to  signify 
that  Zeuxis  surpassed  him  in  light  and  shade  or  in 
colouring,  the  parts  of  the  art  in  which  Apollodorus 
especially  excelled.  Zeuxis  was  renowned  for  his  accu 
rate  imitation  of  the  human  form,  and  for  the  noble  style 
of  his  design,  in  which  he  combined  energy  with  gran 
deur.  He  succeeded  better  in  the  imitation  of  form  than 
in  the  expression  of  character.  He  executed  an  exten 
sive  work  in  the  palace  of  Archelaus,  King  of  Macedonia, 
who  reigned  from  413  to  399  B.C.  He  also  worked  in 
Southern  Italy,  and  probably  at  Ephesus.  After  he  had 
amassed  a  fortune  by  his  art,  he  often  gave  his  pictures 
as  presents.  Pliny  relates  a  story  of  a  trial  of  skill  be 
tween  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius,  the  former  of  whom  painted 
a  bunch  of  grapes  so  naturally  that  a  bird  flew  at  the 
picture  to  eat  the  fruit.  (See  PARRHASIUS.)  Among  his 
master-pieces  were  a  "Female  Centaur,"  "The  Infant 
Hercules  strangling  the  Serpent,"  "Penelope  lamenting 
the  Absence  of  Ulysses,"  and  "Jupiter  in  the  Assembly 
of  Gods."  His  most  celebrated  work  was  a  picture  of 
Helen,  which  he  painted  for  the  city  of  Croton,  on  which 
he  inscribed  several  lines  of  Homer's  "Iliad,"  (iii.  156:) 

"  No  wonder  such  celestial  charms 
For  nine  long  years  have  set  the  world  in  arms." — POPE. 

Cicero  informs  us  that  Zeuxis  selected  five  of  the  most 
beautiful  virgins  of  Croton  as  models  for  this  picture. 
"He  deserves,"  says  fimeric-David,  "by  the  choice  of 
his  models  and  the  grandeur  of  his  style,  to  be  compared 
to  the  prince  of  sculptors,  (Phidias  ;)  and  if  he  was 
defective  in  some  quality,  Greece  pardoned  him  for  the 
sake  of  the  merit  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  art, — 
that  is,  precision  of  design  and  nobleness  of  form." 
("  Biographic  Universelle.") 

See  PLINY,  "  Natural  History,"  xxxv.  ;  CICERO,  "De  Inventis;" 
LUCIAN,  "Zeuxis;"  CARLO  DATI,  "Vitede'  Pittori  antichi,"  1667; 
QUINTIHAN,  xii.  10. 

Zeuxis,  a  Greek  physician,  often  quoted  by  Galen, 
lived  probably  about  250  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  school 
of  Empirici,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Hippocrates. 

Zevallos  or  Cevallos,  tha-val'yos,  (  PEDRO  OR- 
DONES,)  a  Spanish  voyager,  born  in  Andalusia  between 
1550  and  1590.  He  wrote  an  "Account  of  his  Travels 
in  America,  East  India,"  etc.,  (1614.) 

Zevecot,  za'veh-kot',  (JAMES,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Ghent  in  1604.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Harderwyck.  He  wrote  elegies,  epigrams,  tragedies, 
etc.,  which  were  admired.  Died  in  1646. 

Zeyad  or  Zeiad,  za'ytd',  a  famous  Arabian  warrior, 
born  about  625  A.D.,  was  a  brother  of  the  caliph 
Moaweeyah  I.  He  was  highly  distinguished  by  his 
eloquence.  He  became  governor  of  Bassorah  and  of 
the  eastern  provinces  of  the  empire.  Died  in  673  A.D. 

Zeyd  or  Zeid,  zad  or  zld,  a  servant  of  Mohammed, 
distinguished  for  his  fidelity  and  devotion  to  the  prophet. 
(See  MOHAMMED.) 

Zhookofsky,  Zhukofsky,  or  Joukovski,  zhoo- 
kof'skee  or  zhoo-kov'skee,  written  also  Shukowski, 
(VASILII  ANDREEVITCH,)  a  celebrated  Russian  poet, 
born  near  Bielev,  in  the  government  of  Penza,  in  1783, 
began  his  literary  career  at  an  early  age  by  several 
contributions  of  great  merit  to  a  journal  of  Moscow.  In 
1802  he  published  a  translation  of  Gray's  "Elegy  in  a 
Country  Church-Yard,"  which  established  his  reputation 
and  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  numerous  versions  of 
that  popular  poem.  He  succeeded  Karamzin  in  1808 
as  editor  of  the  literary  periodical  entitled  "  Viestnik 
Evropui."  In  the  campaign  of  1812  he  joined  the  Mos 
cow  volunteers,  and  rendered  most  effective  service  to 
his  country's  cause  by  his  spirited  ballads  entitled  "The 
Minstrel  in  the  Russian  Camp."  These  songs,  which 
obtained  the  greatest  popularity  with  all  classes  and 
won  for  him  the  especial  favour  of  the  emperor  and 
empress,  were  followed  by  his  "Ziudmilla,"  an  imitation 
of  Burger's  "  Lenore,"  and  "  Svietlana,"  a  poem,  which 
is  esteemed  his  finest  production.  On  the  marriage  of 
the  grand  duke  Nicholas,  Zhookofsky  was  appointed 
teacher  of  the  Russian  language  to  his  wife,  and  after- 


«  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal  ;  R,  trilled  '  ;  s  aTS  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


Z1AK1 


2318 


ZIMMERMANN 


wards  became  preceptor  of  the  young  prince,  since 
Alexander  II.  Besides  the  above-named  works,  he  pub 
lished  a  number  of  prose  essays  and  tales,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "  Mary's  Grove,"  is  especially  admired.  He  also 
made  numerous  excellent  translations  from  the  English, 
German,  and  other  languages.  He  died  in  1852,  and  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  by  the  emperor 
Nicholas. 

Ziani,  dze-a'nee,  (SEBASTIANO,)  was  elected  Doge  of 
Venice  in  1172.  He  instituted  the  annual  ceremony  of 
the  marriage  of  Venice  with  the  sea.  In  his  reign  the 
church  of  Saint  Mark  was  built.  Died  in  1179. 

His  son  PIETRO  succeeded  the  famous  Dandolo  as  doge 
in  1205.  During  his  reign  the  Venetians  completed  the 
conquest  of  the  Greek  empire.  Died  in  1229. 

Ziebland,  tseep'lant,  (GEORG  FRIEDRICH,)  an  emi 
nent  German  architect,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1800,  was  a 
pupil  of  Quaglio.  He  was  patronized  by  King  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  at  whose  expense  he  visited  Italy.  He  de 
signed  several  public  edifices  of  Munich.  His  capital 
work  is  the  large  and  splendid  basilica  or  church  of 
Saint  Boniface,  at  Munich,  completed  about  1848. 

Ziegelbauer,  tsee'gel-bow'er,  (M.,)  a  learned  German 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Elwangen,  in  Suabia,  in  1696. 
He  wrote  a  "  Literary  History  of  the  Benedictine  Order," 
(4  vols.,  1754,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1750. 

Ziegenbalg,  tsee'gen-balG',  (BARTHOLOMEW,)  a  Ger 
man  theologian  and  missionary,  born  in  Lusatia  in  1683, 
was  sent  out  by  the  King  of  Denmark  to  India  in  1706, 
remaining  in  that  country  till  1714.  He  sailed  a  second 
time  in  1716,  and  died  at  Tranquebar  in  1719.  lie  pub 
lished  a  "Tamul  Grammar,"  ("  Grammatica  Damulica,") 
a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Tamul  language, 
("Biblia  Damulica,")  and  other  works. 

Ziegler,  tseeo'ler,  (BI-.RNARD,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  in  Misnia  in  1496.  He  became  pro 
fessor  of  Hebrew  at  Leipsic,  and  published  several 
sermons.  lie  was  acquainted  with  Luther,  who  highly 
esteemed  him.  Died  in  1566. 

Ziegler,  [Lat.  ZIEGLK'RUS,]  (CASPAR,)  an  able  Ger 
man  jurist  and  Protestant  canonist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1621.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg  in 
1654.  Besides  several  treatises  on  civil  law,  he  pub 
lished  a  work  "On  Bishops  and  their  Laws  or  Rights," 
("  De  Episcopis  eorumque  Juribus,"  1685.)  Died  in 
1690. 

Ziegler,  ze'a'glaiR',  (CLAUDE  Louis,)  a  skilful  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Langres  in 
1804,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ingres.  He  was  employed  by 
Louis  Philippe  to  decorate  the  cupola  of  the  church 
of  Madeleine,  in  which  he  painted  religious  allegorical 
scenes.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Death  of  Foscari," 
"  Jacob's  Dream,"  and  "  Daniel  in  the  Den  of  Lions." 
Died  in  December,  1856. 

Ziegler,  (FRIEDRICH  WILHELM,)  a  celebrated  Ger 
man  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1760. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  and 
performed  at  the  court  theatre  for  nearly  forty  years 
with  great  reputation  and  success.  His  tragedies  and 
comedies  were  also  highly  popular :  one  of  the  latter, 
entitled  "The  Four  Temperaments,"  ("  Die  vier  Tem- 
peramente,")  still  keeps  its  place  on  the  stage.  He 
likewise  wrote  several  critical  treatises  on  the  drama. 
Died  in  1827. 

Ziegler,  (HIERONYMUS,)  a  German  poet  and  biog 
rapher,  born  at  Rotenburg  about  1520.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Cyrus  Major,"  ("  Cyrus  the  Great,")  a  drama, 
(1547.)  Died  after  1562. 

Ziegler,  [Lat.  ZIEGLE'RUS,]  (JAKOB,)  an  eminent 
German  theologian  and  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria 
about  1480.  In  pursuit  of  knowledge  he  visited  Italy, 
became  secretary  of  General  George  Frondsberg,  and 
witnessed  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1526.  He  afterwards 
passed  many  years  at  Passau,  the  bishop  of  which 
furnished  him  with  means  to  pursue  literature.  lie 
published,  besides  other  books,  a  work  (in  Latin)  on 
the  geography  of  Palestine,  Arabia,  etc.,  (1532.)  Died 
in  1549. 

Ziegler,  (WERNER  KARL  LUDWIG,)  a  German  writer 
on  theology,  etc.,  was  born  near  Luneburg  in  1763.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock.  Died  in  1809. 


Ziegler,  von,  fon  tseeo'Ier,  (FRANZ,)  a  Swiss  medical 
writer,  born  at  Schaffhausen  before  1700.  He  was  pro 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Rinteln,  and  published  several 
treatises.  Died  in  1761.  * 

Ziegler  und  Klipphausen,  von,  fon  tseec'ler  66nt 
klip'how'zen,  (IlEiNRica  ANSELM,)  a  German  writer,, 
born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1653,  produced,  conjointly  with 
J.  G.  Hamann,  a  romance  entitled  "The  Asiatic  Banise," 
(1688,)  which  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Died  in  1697. 

Zieglerus.     Sec  ZIEGLER. 

Zieni,  ze'etn',  (FELIX,)  an  eminent  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Heaune  about  1822.  lie  visited  Italy 
and  the  East  in  1845-48,  and  obtained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1852.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Grand 
Canal  of  Venice,"  a  "View  of  Antwerp,"  "Constanti 
nople,"  and  "  Evening  at  Venice." 

Ziethen,  von,  fon  tsee'ten,  (HANS  ERNST  KARL,) 
COUNT,  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1770,  served  in 
the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1815,  and  had  a  prominent 
part  in  the  victory  of  Waterloo.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  occupation  in 
France,  and  in  1835  was  made  a  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1848. 

Ziethen,  von,  (!!ANS  JOACHIM,)  a  Prussian  general 
and  distinguished  favourite  of  Frederick  the  Great,  was 
born  in  1699.  He  served  in  the  Silesian  campaigns  of 
1742  and  1745,  and  subsequently  in  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  being  conspicuous  for  his  skill  and  bravery  at 
Reichenberg,  Prague,  Kolin,  and  Torgau.  He  was 
soon  after  made  a  general  of  cavalry  by  the  king,  who 
also  loaded  him  with  other  distinctions.  He  died  in 
1786,  and  a  statue,  by  Schadow,  was  erected  to  his 
memory,  by  order  of  Frederick  William  II.,  in  the 
Wilhelmsplatz,  Berlin,  (1794.) 


Zilioli,  clze-le-o'lee,  (.\LESSANDRO,)  an  Italian  his 
torian  and  lawyer,  born  at  Venice  before  1600.  He 
published  in  1642  a  history  of  the  period  from  1600  to 
1640,  entitled  "  Storie  memorabili  de'  nostri  Tempi." 
Died  in  1650. 

Zille,  tsil'leh,  (MoRi'iv,  ALEXANDER,)  a  German  theo 
logian,  born  near  Zittau  in  1814.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Kingdom  of  God,"  ("Das  Reich 
Gottes,"  1850.) 

Zimara,  uze-ina'ri,  (MARCAN TO.NIO,)  an  Italian  physi 
cian,  born  at  Galatina  about  1460  ;  died  at  Padua  in  1532. 

Zimisces.     See  JOHN  I.,  K.MPKUOR  OF  THE  EAST. 

Zimmerl,  voii,  ton  tsim'mei<l,  (JOHANN  MICHAEL,) 
an  Austrian,  born  at  Ernstbrunn  in  1757,  became  a 
member  of  the  imperial  commission  for  commerce,  and 
published  several  works  relating  to  the  laws  of  trade 
and  exchange. 

Zimmermann,  tsin/mer-man',  (ERNST,)  a  German 
theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1786. 
He  studied  at  Giessen,  and  was  appointed  in  1816  court 
preacher  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
"  Allgemeine  Kirchenzeitung,"  and  other  religious  and 
literary  journals,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Homiletic  Iland-Book  for  Thinking  Preachers,"  (1812.) 
Died  in  1832. 

Zimmermann,  (FRANZ  JOSEPH,)  a  German  writer  on 
logic  and  philosophy,  born  near  Freiburg  in  1795  ;  died 
in  1833. 

Zimmermann,  (HEINRICH,)  a  German  voyager,  born 
in  the  Palatinate.  He  served  as  a  sailor  in  the  third 
voyage  of  Captain  Cook,  (1776,)  and  published  "A 
Voyage  around  the  World  with  Captain  Cook,"  (1782.) 

Zimmermann,  (JOHANN  JAKOB,)  a  German  enthu 
siast,  called  by  some  a  fanatic,  was  born  in  Wurtemberg 
n  1644.  lie  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior 
:alents,  and  to  have  adopted  the  opinions  of  Jacob 
Boh  me.  He  preached  at  various  places  in  Germany. 
Died  in  1693. 

Zimmermann,  tsim'meR-min',  (JOHANN  JAKOB,)  a 
Swiss  writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1685.  He  became  pro- 
ressor  of  natural  law  at  Zurich  in  1731,  and  professor  of 
theology  in  1737.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  J.  B.  Cramer," 
and  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1756. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


ZIMMERM4NN 


2319 


ZINZENDORF 


Zinimermann,  (|OHANN  KARL,)  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  surgery,  was  born  in  Silesia  in  1803.  He 
practised  surgery  in  Leipsic. 

Zimmermami,  (KAKI.,)  a  German  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  brother  of  Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1803.  He  became  court  preacher  at  Darmstadt,  and 
published  a  number  of  sermons  and  religious  works, 
and  a  life  of  his  brother  Ernst. 

Zimmermami,  (KARL  FERDINAND,)  a  German 
painter  of  history,  portraits,  and  genre,  was  born  in 
Berlin  in  1796. 

Zinimermann,  (MATTHIAS,)  a  Protestant  theologian, 
born  at  Eperies,  in  Hungary,  in  1625.  He  preached  at 
Eperies  from  1652  to  1660,  after  which  he  became  minister 
and  superintendent  at  Meissen.  He  was  skilful  in  the 
exposition  of  Scripture,  and  was  author  of  several  works. 
Died  in  1689. 

Zimmermaiin,  von,  fon  tsim'mer-man',  (CLEMENS,) 
a  German  painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1789.  He  studied 
at  Munich,  and,  having  visited  Italy,  was  appointed,  after 
his  return,  professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  that 
city,  (1825.)  Among  his  best  works  may  be  named  a 
series  of  illustrations  of  Anacrcon  in  the  dining-hal!  of 
the  royal  palace  at  Munich,  and  a  colossal  "Ascension 
of  the  Virgin,"  in  a  church  in  Australia. 

Zimmermami,  von,  (EISERHARD  AUGUST  WIL- 
HELM,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Uelzen,  in  Hanover, 
in  1743,  became  professor  of  physics  in  the  Caroline 
College  at  Brunswick  in  1766.  He  published  a  number 
of  geographical,  political,  and  scientific  works,  among 
which  we  may  name  a  treatise  "On  the  Compressi 
bility  and  Elasticity  of  Water,"  (1779,)  "France  and 
the  Republics  of  North  America,"  (1795,)  and  "The 
Geographical  Pocket-Book."  An  abridgment  of  the 
last  work,  entitled  "The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants," 
came  out  in  1810,  in  5  vols.  Died  in  1815. 

Zim'mer-maiin,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  tsim'mer- 
miln',|  (JoitANN  GEORG,)  an  eminent  Swiss  philosopher 
and  physician,  born  at  Brugg,  near  Berne,  December  8, 
1728.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  studied  medicine 
under  Mailer  at  Gottingen,  where  he  graduated  as  M.D. 
in  1751.  On  this  occasion  he  wrote  an  able  thesis  on 
Irritability.  He  began  to  practise  medicine  at  Berne 
about  1752,  and  married  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Hal- 
ler,  who  was  his  friend.  About  1754  he  became  public 
physician  ( Stadt-physicus )  at  Brugg,  where  lie  acquired 
a  wide  reputation  as  a  practitioner  and  as  a  writer,  but 
he  suffered  from  ill  health,  hypochondria,  and  the  want 
of  congenial  society.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Haller," 
(1755,)  alu'  a  work  "On  National  Pride,"  ("  Vom  Na- 
tionalstolze,"  1758,)  which  had  great  popularity  and  was 
translated  into  various  languages.  His  next  important 
work  was  "On  Experience  in  Medicine,"  ("Von  der 
Erfahrung  in  der  Arzneikunst,"  2  vols.,  1763,)  which  was 
highly  esteemed,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  is 
his  chief  title  to  celebrity. 

In  1768  he  obtained  the  place  of  physician  to  his 
Britannic  majesty  at  Hanover,  with  the  title  of  aulic 
councillor.  He  had  a  very  extensive  practice  at  Hano 
ver,  but  he  continued  to  be  a  victim  of  melancholy,  and 
regretted  his  separation  from  the  Swiss  mountains.  He 
also  lost  his  wife  in  1770,  and  his  son  became  insane. 
His  spirits  were  somewhat  revived  by  a  second  marriage 
in  1782.  He  published  in  1784  and  1785  his  celebrated 
work  "On  Solitude,"  ("Von  der  Einsamkeit,"  4  vols.,) 
which  was  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia  expressed  her  approbation  of 
this  work  by  the  present  of  a  diamond  ring,  and  an 
invitation  to  come  to  Saint  Petersburg  and  serve  her  as 
physician,  but  he  declined  that  honour.  He  went  to 
Potsdam  to  attend  Frederick  the  Great  in  his  last  illness 
in  1786,  and  published  a  book  entitled  "Fragments  on 
Frederick  the  Great,"  (3  vols.,  1790,)  which,  by  intem 
perate  attacks  on  several  eminent  German  savants,  gave 
much  offence  and  impaired  the  author's  popularity.  He 
was  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
became  involved  in  political  controversy  to  an  extent 
that  was  fatal  to  his  peace  of  mind.  A  victim  to  painful 
hallucinations,  he  imagined  that  the  French  army  was 
marching  to  Hanover  on  purpose  to  kill  or  persecute 
him.  He  died  at  Hanover  in  October,  1795. 


"His  conversation,"  says  Goethe,  "was  varied  and 
highly  instructive,  and,  for  one  who  could  pardon  his 
active  sense  of  his  own  personality  and  merits,  no  more 
desirable  companion  could  be  found.  .  .  .  Every  one 
who  reads  his  writings,  especially  his  excellent  work 
on  Experience,  will  perceive  more  definitely  what  was 
discussed  between  him  and  me.  His  influence  was  the 
more  powerful  over  me  from  the  twenty  years  that  he 
was  my  senior.  .  .  .  His  severity  towards  his  children 
was  a  hypochondria,  a  partial  insanity,  a  continuous 
moral  homicide,  which,  after  having  sacrificed  his  chil 
dren,  he  at  last  directed  against  himself."  ("Truth  and 
Poetry  from  my  Own  Life,"  book  xv.) 

See  TISSOT,  "Vie  de  Zinimermann,"  1797;  WICHMANN,  "Zim- 
mermnmi,"  (in  German.)  1796;  MARCARD,  "Biographic  cles  J.  C. 
von  Zinimermann,"  1795;  "  Zimmermanns  eigene  Lebeusbeschrei- 
bung,"  (autobiographic,)  1791;  SAINTK-BEUVE,  "Causeries  ciu 
Lmidi;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Zim'ri,  [Heb.  "~OT,]  King  of  Israel,  assassinated  King 
Elah,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  929  B.C.  He  was  at 
tacked  by  Omri,  and,  unable  to  resist  him,  committed 
suicide  in  the  same  year. 

See  I.  Kings  xvi.  16. 

Ziiicgreff.     See  ZINKGREF. 

Zincke,  tslnk'keh,  (CHRISTIAN'  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  painter  in  enamel,  born  at  Dresden  about  1684. 
He  resided  many  years  in  England,  where  he  obtained 
the  patronage  of  the  royal  family.  Died  in  1767. 

Zingarelli,  dzen-ga-rel'lee,  (NiccoLo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1752.  He  studied 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Loretto,  and  in  1806  succeeded 
Guglielmi  as  chapel-master  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
He  was  successively  appointed  by  Napoleon  director 
of  the  Conservatory  at  Rome,  chapel-master  of  Saint 
Peter's,  and  director  of  the  new  Conservatory  at  Naples. 
He  produced  a  number  of. operas,  which  enjoyed  a  tem 
porary  popularity;  but  his  reputation  rests  principally 
on  his  sacred  music,  including  the  grand  oratorios  of 
"La  Gerusalemme  liberata"  and  "UTrionfodi  Davide." 
Died  in  1837. 

See  R.  GITARINI,  "Cenni  storici  di  N.  Zingarelli,"  1837;  MAR- 
CHESE  DI  VILI.AROSA,  "  Elogio  storico  di  N.  Zingarelli,"  1837. 

Zingaro,  II.     See  SOLARIO,  DA. 

Zingg,  tsing  or  tsink,  (ADRIAN,)  a  Swiss  engraver 
and  designer,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1734,  studied  under 
Aberli  and  Wille.  He  was  appointed  in  1766  professor 
of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  Dresden.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  prints  after  Ruysdael,  Dietrich, 
and  Van  der  Neer.  Died  in  1816. 

Zingis.     See  JENGIS  KHAN. 

Zini,  dzee'nee,  (PiETko  FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  Hel 
lenist,  born  at  Verona  about  1520,  translated  into  Latin 
the  works  of  several  Greek  Fathers.  Died  after  1575. 

Zink,  von,  fon  tsink,  (FiUEDRicii,)  BARON,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1753.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  short  poems,  which  are  highly  commended.  He  lived 
at  Emmendingen.  Died  in  1802. 

Zinkeiseii,  tslnkVzen,  QOHANN  WILHELM,)  a  Ger 
man  historian,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1803.  He  edited 
at  Berlin  the  "Official  Gazette"  ("  Staats-Zeitung") 
from  1840  to  1851.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe,"  (7  vols., 
1840-62,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1840.)  Died  in  1863. 

Ziiiken,  tslnk'en,  (GEORG  HEINRICH,)  a  German 
financier  and  writer,  born  near  Naumburg  in  1692.  He 
published,  besides  other  works  on  political  economy 
and  finance,  "  Cameralistenbibliothek,"  (1751.)  Died 
in  1769. 

Zinkgref  or  Ziiicgreff,  tslnk'gre"f,  (JULIUS  WIL 
HELM,)  a  German  lyric  poet,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1591. 
His  principal  work  is  "Deutschen  Apophthegmata," 
(2  vols.,  1626-31,)  a  collection  of  epigrams,  anecdotes, 
etc.  Died  in  1635. 

Zinn,  tsin,  (JoiiANN  GOTTFRIED,)  a  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  near  Anspach  in  1727.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1753,  and  wrote 
several  able  treatises  on  anatomy.  Died  in  1759. 

Zin'zeii-dorf,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  tsInt'sen-doRf',] 
(NiCOLAUS  LUDWIG,)  CoUNT,  a  German  theologian,  dis 
tinguished  as  the  founder  or  restorer  of  the  sect  of  Mora 
vians  or  Herrnhuters,  was  born  at  Dresden  on  the  26th 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as_/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZINZENDORF 


2320 


ZOBEL 


of  May,  1700.  lie  was  a  son  of  Georg  Ludvvig,  cham 
berlain  and  minister  of  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
who  died  while  this  son  was  an  infant.  He  was  educated 
under  the  care  of  his  grandmother,  the  Baroness  von 
Gersdorf,  a  friend  of  Jakob  Spener.  In  1710  he  was 
sent  to  the  Seminary  of  Halle,  where  he  became  a  pupil 
of  Francke  and  a  convert  to  pietism.  He  devoted  him 
self  to  religious  studies  and  duties,  and  formed  at  Halle 
a  mystical  society  called  the  "  Order  of  the  Grain  of 
Mustard."  About  1716  he  removed  from  Halle  to  the 
University  of  Wittenberg,  where  lie  studied  law  and 
remained  three  years.  He  had  received  from  nature  a 
lively  imagination,  the  faculty  of  eloquence,  and  great 
personal  beauty  and  dignity.  His  religious  tenets  were 
similar  to  those  of  the  Lutherans. 

In  1719  he  travelled  in  Holland  and  France,  to  obtain 
information  about  the  state  of  the  churches,  and  perhaps 
to  exchange  ideas  with  persons  eminent  for  piety.  During 
this  tour  he  preached  at  various  places,  and  was  in  the 
habit  of  advocating  the  truths  of  the  gospel  in  private 
houses  and  in  worldly  society.  He  would  have  entered 
into  holy  orders  if  his  relatives  had  not  interposed.  In 
1722  he  married  the  countess  Erdmuth  Dorothea  Reuss, 
and  went  to  reside  at  Bertholdsdorf,  in  Lusatia.  A  few 
members  of  the  Moravian  Church,  driven  by  persecution 
from  their  native  country,  sought  refuge  with  him  in  1722, 
and  were  permitted  to  form  a  settlement  on  his  estate. 
This  settlement  received  the  name  of  Herrnhut,  the 
"  Lord's  guard,"  or  the  "  Watch  of  the  Lord,"  and  was 
joined  by  many  other  emigrants.  Zinzendorf  entered 
into  fellowship  with  them,  became  their  patron,  and 
acquired  great  influence  over  them.  They  professed  a 
conformity  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
To  propagate  his  principles,  he  published  a  religions 
periodical,  called  the  "  German  Socrates,"  and  numerous 
other  works.  Missionaries  were  sent  out  from  Herrnhut 
to  America  in  1732,  and  colonies  were  planted  in  various 
parts  of  Europe. 

"Although  his  own  conduct,"  says  Southey,  "was 
more  uniformly  discreet  than  that  of  any  other  founder 
of  a  Christian  community,  (it  would  be  wronging  the 
Moravian  Brethren  to  designate  them  as  a  sect,)  he  was 
involved  in  difficulties  by  the  indiscretion  of  others  and 
the  jealousy  of  the  government  under  which  he  lived. 
He  was  therefore  ordered  to  sell  his  estates,  and  after 
wards  banished."  ("  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  vol.  i.)  About 
1734  he  became  a  tutor  in  a  family  at  Stralsund,  that 
he  might  pass  through  the  regular  examination  as  a 
candidate  in  divinity,  and  was  ordained  at  Tubingen  as 
a  minister  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  He  was  banished 
from  Saxony  in  1736,  after  which  he  travelled  exten 
sively.  He  gained  the  favour  of  Frederick  William  I. 
of  Prussia,  who  caused  him  to  be  ordained  a  bishop  in 
1737  by  his  own  chaplain.  In  1738  he  met  John  Wesley 
in  Germany.  "They  parted,"  says  Southey,  "with  a 
less  favourable  opinion  of  each  other  than  each  had 
entertained  before  the  meeting." 

Zinzendorf  visited  Pennsylvania  in  1742,  preached  for 
some  time  at  Germantown,  and  established  congrega 
tions  of  his  disciples  at  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth.  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1743,  and  was  permitted  in  1747 
to  become  a  resident  of  Herrnhut  In  1749  he  visited 
England,  and  obtained  an  act  of  Parliament  authorizing 
the  establishment  of  Moravian  missions  in  North  Amer 
ica.  He  wrote  numerous  hymns,  which  are  used  in  the 
Moravian  churches.  In  his  early  writings  he  gave  offence 
by  expressions  which  seemed  to  border,  on  indecency, 
and  which  he  afterwards  condemned.  On  this  subject 
Southey  remarks,  "  Seeing  the  offensiveness,  if  not  the 
danger,  of  the  loathsome  and  impious  extravagances 
into  which  they  had  been  betrayed,  they  corrected  their 
books  and  their  language  ;  and  from  that  time  they  have 
continued  to  live  without  reproach." 

"  The  Moravian  doctrine,"  says  Goethe,  "  had  some 
thing  magical,  in  that  it  appeared  to  continue,  or  rather 
to  perpetuate,  the  condition  of  those  first  times,  [i.e.  the 
apostolic  times.]  It  connected  its  origin  with  them,  and 
had  never  perished,  but  had  only  wound  its  way  through 
the  world  by  unnoticed  shoots  and  tendrils,  until  a  single 
germ  took  root  under  the  protection  of  a  pious  and 
eminent  man,  once  more  to  expand  wide  over  the  world." 


("  Autobiography,"  book  xv.)  Zinzendorf  died  at  Herrn 
hut  in  May,  1760.  Among  his  works  is  an  account  of  his 
early  travels,  entitled  "  The  Journey  of  Atticus  through 
the  World."  He  had  several  children. 

See  VAKNHAGEN  VON  ENSE,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Zinzendorf," 
in  his  "  Denkmale,"  vol.  v.  ;  SPANC.KNUERG,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von 
Zinzendorf,"  1775  ;  (S.  JACKSON'S  English  version  of  the  same,"  1838  ;) 
J.  G.  Mih.LER,  "Leben  des  N.  voii Zinzendorf;"  VERHECK,  "  Leben 
des  Grafen  vou  Zinzendorf,"  1845  ;  F.  BOVET,  "  Le  Comte  de  Zinzen 
dorf,"  1865. 

Zinzendorf,  von,  (PHILIPP  Luuwio,)  COUNT,  an 
Austrian  diplomatist  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  1671. 
He  obtained  the  title  of  first  chancellor  of  the  court 
in  1705,  and  represented  Austria  at  the  conference  of 
Utrecht,  (1712.)  A  few  years  later  he  succeeded  Prince 
Eugene  as  chief  minister.  He  is  said  to  have  been  re 
sponsible  for  the  war  against  France  and  the  quadruple 
alliance.  He  resigned  in  1740,  and  died  in  1742. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  Paris  in  1699,  be 
came  a  cardinal  in  1727,  and  Bishop  of  Breslau  in  1732. 
Died  in  1747. 

Zinzerling,  tsInt'seR-ling',  (JoilANN,)  [called  in  Latin 
Jono'cus  SINCE'KUS,]  a  German  philologist,  born  in 
Thuringia  about  1590.  He  settled  at  Lyons,  and  pub 
lished,  besides  other  works,  "A  Guide  to  Travellers 
in  France,"  ("  Itinerarmm  Galliae,"  1612.)  Died  about 
1618. 

Zirardini,  dze-raR-dee'nee,  (ANTONIO,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1725  ;  died  in  1784. 

Ziska,  /Js'ka,  or  Zizka  OF  TROCZNOW,  (tuotch'nov,) 
(JoiiN,)  a  famous  Bohemian  general  and  leader  of  the 
Hussites,  was  born  near  Trocznow  about  1360,  (or,  as 
some  say,  about  1380.)  He  fought  in  the  Polish  army 
against  the  Teutonic  knights,  and  against  the  Turks 
in  Hungary.  Having  entered  the  English  service,  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
in  1415.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was  appointed  cham 
berlain  to  Wenceslaus,  King  of  Bohemia.  Ziska  was  a 
disciple  of  John  Huss,  who  was  burned  at  the  stake  at 
Constance  in  1415.  He  urged  the  king  to  revenge  "the 
bloody  affront  that  the  Bohemians  had  suffered  at  Con 
stance,"  and  is  said  to  have  received  permission  from 
Wenceslaus  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  Hussites  by 
arms.  Ziska  raised  an  army  in  1419,  and  took  the  chief 
command.  Just  after  the  war  began,  Wenceslaus  died, 
and  the  throne  was  claimed  by  Sigismund,  Emperor 
of  Germany;  but  the  Hussites  refused  to  recognize  him. 
In  August,' 1420,  Ziska  defeated  the  Imperial  army  near 
Prague.  In  1421  he  lost  his  only  remaining  eye  at  a 
siege  ;  but  he  continued  to  command  the  army  in  person. 
Sigismund  raised  a  new  army,  and  invaded  Bohemia, 
but  was  routed  by  the  Hussites  in  January,  1422.  Ziska 
also  defeated  in  the  same  year  an  army  of  Saxons,  who 
were  allies  of  Sigismund.  He  is  said  to  have  been  vic 
torious  in  thirteen  pitched  battles.  The  Hussites  having 
been  divided  into  two  parties,  Ziska  became  the  leader 
of  that  party  which  was  called  Taborites.  Sigismund 
at  last  made  overtures  for  peace,  but,  before  the  treaty 
was  concluded,  Ziska  died,  in  October,  1424,  after  which 
the  war  was  continued  for  many  years.  He  left  a  high 
reputation  as  a  patriot  and  champion  of  liberty  and 
equality. 

See  G.  GILPIN,  "Life  of  J.  Z'ska,"  in  "The  Lives  of  John 
Wickliffe  and  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Discioles,"  etc.,  1764; 
LENFANT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  des  Hussites:"  PALACKY, 
"  History  of  Bohemia  ;"  ARNOLD,  "  History  of  the  Hussites,"  (in 
Bohemian,)  1848;  MAJOR  GKNERAL  J.  MITCHELL,  "Biographies  of 
Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865. 

Zizim.    See  JKM. 

Zizka.    See  ZISKA. 

Zobaidah  or  Zobaydah.     See  ZOBKIDAH. 

Zobeidah,  zo-ba'dah  or  zo-bi'dah,  written  also  Zo- 
beydah,  Zobaidah,  and  Zobaydah,  [Fr.  ZOH^IOK, 
zo'ba'ed',]  a  celebrated  Persian  princess,  distinguished 
by  her  wisdom,  virtue,  and  beneficence,  born  about  765 
A.n.,  was  the  cousin-german  and  wife  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  She  had  a  son  Ameen,  (Amin,)  who  became 
caliph.  After  the  death  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  she  resided 
at  Bagdad.  Died  in  831  A.n. 

Zobeide.    See  ZOHKIDAH. 

Zobel,  tso'bel,  (BKNJAMIN,)  a  German  artist,  born  at 
Memir.ingen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1762,  resided  many  years  in 
England,  where  he  was  patronized  by  George  III.  He 


a,  e,  i,  o,  \\,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  vt,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon; 


ZOSETDAH 


2221 


ZOO/5  KI 


was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  painting  on  gold  and 
silver  grounds,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  method  of 
painting  called  marmotinto.  Died  in  1831. 

Zobeydah.     See  ZOBEIDAH. 

Zoboli,  dzo'bo-lee,  (ALFONSO,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Reggio  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  died  about 
1640. 

Zoccoli,  dzok'ko-lee,  (CARLO,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Naples  in  1718  ;  died  in  1771. 

Zo'e  [Gr.  Zvi/]  L,  called  CARHONOPSINA,  Empress  of 
the  East,  was  the  wife  of  Leo  VI.,  whom  she  survived. 
She  had  a  son,  Constantine  VII.,  (Porphyrogenitus.)  She 
died  about  919  A.n. 

Zoe  II.,  Empress  of  the  East,  a  daughter  of  Constan 
tine  IX.,  was  married  to  Romanus  Argyrus,  who  became 
emperor  in  1028.  She  caused  him  to  be  murdered  in 
1034,  and  took  in  his  place  Michael  IV.  After  his 
death,  in  1041,  she  was  married  twice, — to  Michael  V. 
and  Constantine  X.  Died  in  1050. 

Zoega,  tso-a'ga,  (GEORG,)  an  eminent  Danish  archae 
ologist,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in  the  county 
of  Schackenburg,  Jutland,  in  1755.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  and  in  1776  made  the  tour  of  Switzerland  and 
Italy.  In  1782  he  made  his  third  visit  to  Rome,  where 
he  continued  to  reside  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
lie  was  patronized  by  Pope  Pius  VI.  and  Cardinal 
Borgia,  and  was  appointed,  through  the  influence 
of  the  latter,  interpreter  of  modern  languages  to  the 
Propaganda  College.  He  published  in  1787  his  "  Numi 
/Egyptii  Imperatorii  prostantes  in  Museo  Borgiano 
Velitris,"  etc.,  being  a  catalogue  of  the  Egyptian  coins 
struck  by  the  Roman  emperors,  contained  in  the  Borgian 
Museum.  This  work  was  received  with  great  favour, 
and  was  followed  by  his  treatise  on  obelisks,  entitled 
"  De  Origine  et  Usu  Obeliscorum,"  (1797,)  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the 
kind.  Besides  the  above  works,  he  published  a  cata 
logue  of  the  Coptic  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  Car 
dinal  Borgia,  ("Catalogus  Codicum  Copticorum,"  etc.,) 
and  an  account  of  the  antique  bas-reliefs  at  Rome, 
entitled  "  Bassi-Rilievi  antichi  di  Roma,"  (2  vols.,  1808.) 
The  latter,  written  conjointly  with  Piranesi,  was  left 
unfinished.  Zoega  was  appointed  in  1802  professor  in 
the  University  of  Kiel  ;  but  he  was  exempted  from  the 
duties  of  the  office,  and  permitted  to  remain  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1809. 

See  WKI.CKKR.  "  Zoe.sja's  Leben,  .Sammhinp;  seiner  Briefe,"  etc., 
2  vols.,  iXig;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

Zoellner.     See  ZOLLNER. 

Zoes,  zoos,  f  Lat.  ZOE'SIUS,!  (HENRY,)  a  Flemish  jurist, 
born  at  Amersfort  in  1571.  He  became  professor  of  law 
at  Louvain  about  1607,  and  wrote  several  works  on  law. 
Died  in  1627. 

Zoest.     See  SOST. 

Zoffani  or  Zoffany,  zof'fa-ne  or  tsof  fa-nee,  (JoHANN,) 
a  German  painter,  born  in  1735,  settled  in  England,  where 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and 
was  patronized  by  the  royal  family.  He  became  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  an  "Indian  Tiger-Hunt"  and 
"The  Embassy  of  Hyder  Alee  to  Calcutta."  Died  in 
1810. 

See  PII.KINGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Zogoskin  or  Zagoskin,  za-gos'ken  or  zo-gos'kin, 
(MIKHAIL  NIKOLAIVITCH,)  written  also  Zogoskine, 
a  Russian  novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  of  Tartar  ex 
traction,  was  born  in  the  government  of  Penza«n  1789. 
Having  published  several  popular  comedies,  he  brought 
out  in  1829  his  romance  entitled  "George  Miloslavsky, 
or  the  Russians  in  1612,"  which  met  with  enthusiastic 
favour  from  all  classes  in  Russia,  as  a  faithful  picture 
of  the  national  character  and  manners.  Besides  the 
above,  he  wrote  several  other  novels,  and  a  number  of 
prose  essays.  Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1833. 

Zo'gra-phos,  (CONSTANTINE,)  a  Greek  orator  and 
politician,  born  in  the  Morea  about  1 798.  He  became  the 
head  of  the  ministry  in  18^7,  and  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1850.  Died  in  1856. 

Zoheir,  zo'har',  an  Arabian  poet,  contemporary  with 
Mohammed.  He  was  the  author  of  one  of  the  seven  poems 


of  the  "  Moallakat,"  which  Sir  W.  Jones  published,  with 
an  English  version,  in  1782.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
poet  Kaab. 

Zoile.     See  ZOILUS. 

Zol-lus,  [Gr.  Zwiftof,-  Fr.  ZOILE,  zo'el',]  a  Greek 
critic  and  grammarian  of  uncertain  period.  According 
to  Vitruvius,  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  (285-247  B.C.  ;)  others  think  that  he  flourished 
about  360-330  H.c.  Fie  was  notorious  for  the  malignity 
of  his  criticism  of  Homer,  whom  he  censured  for  intro 
ducing  fabulous  and  incredible  stories  into  his  poems. 

Zoilus,  a  Greek  physician  and  oculist,  mentioned  by 
Galen. 

Zola,  dzo'la,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
near  Brescia  in  1739.  He  was  professor  of  history  at 
Pavia,  and  favoured  the  reforms  of  the  emperor  Joseph 
II.  Died  in  1806. 

Zolkiewski,  zol-ke-ev'skee,  (STANISLAS,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1547.  He  became  general -in -chief  of 
the  army  of  Sigismund  III.  about  1609.  He  invaded 
Russia  and  captured  Moscow  in  1610.  In  1620  he 
conducted  an  army  against  the  Turks.  Having  been 
deserted  by  some  mutinous  officers  and  men,  he  was 
overpowered  by  the  Turks  and  killed  the  same  year. 

Zoll,  tsol,  (HERMANN,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  1643. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Marburg  in  1674,  and 
published  a  number  of  able  legal  works.  Died  in  1725. 

Zol'li-coffer  or  Zollikoffer,  (FELIX,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Maury  county,  Tennessee,  in  1812.  He 
became  editor  of  the  "  Nashville  Banner,"  a  Whig  paper, 
and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1852.  Having  taken 
arms  against  the  Union,  he  commanded  the  force  which 
was  defeated  at  Mill  Spring,  where  he  was  killed  on  the 
igth  of  January,  1862. 

Zollikofer,  tsol'le-ko'fer,  (GEORG  JOACHIM,)  an  emi 
nent  Swiss  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Saint 
Gall  in  1730.  lie  finished  his  studies  at  Utrecht,  and 
in  1758  became  pastor  of  the  Calvinistic  congregation  at 
Leipsic,  where  he  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence 
by  his  eloquence  and  the  excellence  of  his  character. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  religious  treatises  and 
hymns  of  great  merit,  and  numerous  sermons,  a  com 
plete  collection  of  which  appeared,  in  15  vols.,  in  1789. 
Died  in  1788. 

See  GAKVE.  "  Ueber  den  Charakter  Zollikofer's,"  1788;  SCHEIT- 
I.IN,  "  Ueber  G.  J.  Zollikofer,"  1832. 

Zbllner  or  Zoellner,  tsol'ner,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Neudamm  in  1753.  He  was 
minister  of  the  church  of  Saint  Nicholas,  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1804. 

Zollogoob  or  Zollogub,  zol'lo-goob,  written  also 
Sollogub  and  Zollohub,  (VLADIMIR  ALEXANDRO- 
VITCH,)  a  popular  Russian  writer,  born  at  Saint  Peters 
burg  about  1815,  published  a  novel  entitled  "Tarantas," 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  and  German, 
also  poems,  essays,  and  dramas. 

Zon'a-ras,  [Gr.  Zuvafiuf,]  (JOANNES,)  a  Byzantine 
theologian  and  historian  of  the  twelfth  century,  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Alexius  Comnenus,  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "Chronicon,"  or  annals  from  the  creation  down  to 
1118,  which  was  continued  by  Nicetas  Acominatus,  also 
"Commentaries  on  the  Sacred  Canons,"  etc. 

Zonca,  dzon'ka,  (VICTOR,)  an  Italian  mathematician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  New  Theatre  of  Machines,"  giving  an  account 
of  various  mechanical  inventions. 

Zoobof  or  Zoubof,  zoo'bof,  written  also  Zoubov 
and  Subow,  (Pi.vroN,)  a  Russian  courtier,  born  in 
1767.  He  became  in  1791  the  favourite  of  the  empress 
Catherine  II.,  who  appointed  him  grand  master  of  the 
artillery.  He  was  the  most  powerful  Russian  subject 
until  the  death  of  Catherine,  (1796,)  after  which  he  was 
disgraced.  He  was  one  of  the  conspirators  that  killed 
Paul  I.,  in  1801.  Died  in  1822. 

See  "  Mlmoires  secrets  sur  la  Rnssie,"  1800. 

Zooiski,  Zuiski,  or  Zouiski,  (pronounced  almost 
zwis'kee,)  (VASU-ii,)  a  Russian  prince  and  general,  was 
a  descendant  of  Vladimir  the  Great.  He  was  the  head 
of  the  government  during  the  minority  of  Ivan  IV.,  by 
whose  order  he  was  executed  in  1544. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural  ';  N,  nasal:  ?.  tr;lled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 

146 


Explanations,  p.  23. 


Z001SKI 


2322 


ZRINTI 


Zooiski,  Zuiski,  or  Zouiski,  (VASii.ii,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  distinguished  himself  by  his  successful  de 
fence  of  Pleskow  against  the  Polish  general  Zamoyski 
in  1582.  He  was  murdered  by  Boris  Godoonof  in  1587. 

Zopelli,  cl/.o-pel'lee,  (GiACovio,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1639  ;  died  in  1718. 

Zopf,  tsopf,  (fuiiANN  HEINRICH,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Gera  in  1691.  He  published  in  1729  a  "  Uni 
versal  History."  Died  in  1774. 

Zopfl,  tsopfl,  (HEINRICH  MATTHAUS,)  a  German 
jurist,  and  professor  of  civil  law  at  Heidelberg,  was  born 
at  Bamberg  in  1807.  lie  published  a  number  of  legal 
and  political  works. 

Zoppio,  dzop'pe-o,  (Giuoi.AMO,)  an  Italian  writer, 
l)orn  at  Bologna  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  translated 
the  first  four  books  of  Virgil's  "/Eneid"  into  verse,  and 
wrote  original  poems,  "Rime,"  (1567.)  Died  in  1591. 

His  son  MKI.CHIOK,  born  at  Bologna  about  1544,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  that  city  about  fifty  years. 
He  wrote  four  tragedies  and  two  comedies.  Died  in 
1634. 

Zoppo,  dzop'po,  (MARCO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1451,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna. 
Died  in  1517. 

Zoppo,  (PAOLO,)  an  Italian  painter,  noted  for  the 
fineness  of  his  touch,  was  born  at  Brescia;  died  in  1515. 

Zoppo  di  Lugano.     See  DISCKPOLI. 

Zopyre.     See  ZOI-YRUS. 

Zop'y-rus,  [Gr.  ZuTrvpog ;  Fr.  ZOPYRE,  zo'peR',]  a 
Persian  officer  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  When  that  king  was 
besieging  the  revolted  city  of  Babylon,  Zopyrus  gained 
admission  into  the  city  by  the  following  stratagem.  He 
cut  off  his  nose  and  ears,  and  presented  himself  to  the 
enemy  as  a  deserter  who  wished  to  revenge  the  cruel 
treatment  he  had  received  from  Darius.  His  story  was 
credited,  and  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  troops 
in  Babylon,  which  he  delivered  to  Darius. 

Zopyrus,  a  Greek  physician  or  surgeon  of  Alexan 
dria,  flourished  about  100  B.C.  or  80  H.C.  He  invented 
an  antidote  for  Ptolemy  Anletes,  and  also  one  for  Mith- 
ridates.  Galen  mentions  a  letter  from  Zopyrus  to  Mith- 
ridates  on  the  subject  of  his  antidote. 

Zorgh,  ZORG,  written  also  Sorgh,  (HENDRIK,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  fairs,  markets,  etc.,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of  Teniers.  Died  in  1684. 

Zom,  tsoRn,  (PETKR,)  a  learned  German  theologian 
and  philologist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1682.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  Greek  language  and  antiquities,  on  which 
he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  often  changed  his  place 
of  residence.  From  1715  to  1720  he  was  rector  at  Plon. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Stettin 
in  1725.  Died  at  Thorn  in  1746. 

Zor-o-as'ter,  [Gr.  ZupoaaTpi/f;  Lat.  ZOROAS'TRES  ; 
Persian,  ZERDOOSHT  or  ZKRIHJSHT,  zer'doosht ;  Fr. 
ZOROASTRE,  zo'ro'tstR',]  a  Bactrian  or  Persian  philos 
opher,  celebrated  as  the  founder  or  reformer  of  the 
Magian  religion.  The  time  in  which  he  lived  is  not 
ascertained.  According  to  the  "  Zendavesta,"  (in  which 
his  name  is  written  ZARATHUSTRA,)  he  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Vita9pa,  whom  the  Persians  call  Gushtasp,  and 
whom  some  writers  identify  with  Hystaspes,  the  father 
of  Darius  I.  Firdousee,  (Firdausi,)  in  his  great  poem 
the  "Shah  Namah,"  likewise  makes  him  contemporary 
with  Gushtasp.  Some  authors  conjecture  that  he  lived 
more  than  1500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
first  Greek  writer  that  mentions  him  is  Plato.  Ac 
cording  to  Aristotle,  Eudoxus,  Hermippus,  and  other 
ancients,  Zoroaster  lived  5000  years  or  more  before 
the  time  of  Plato.  Niebuhr  regards  him  as  a  mythical 
personage.  Tradition  presents  him  in  the  characters 
of  legislator,  prophet,  pontiff,  and  philosopher.  The 
doctrines  usually  ascribed  to  him  are  contained  in  the 
"  Zend  Avesta,"  which  may  be  termed  the  Zoroastrian 
Scriptures.  These  are  written  in  the  language  of  ancient 
Persia,  and  profess  to  give  the  revelations  made  by  Or- 
muzd  to  his  servant  and  prophet  Zarathustra.  (Zoroaster.) 

The  Zoroastrian  system  of  religion  teaches  that  the 
world  or  universe  is  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between  two 
principles, — the  good,  called  Ormuzd,  and  the  evil,  called 
Ahriman  ;  that  each  of  these  possesses  creative  power, 
but  that  the  good  principle  is  eternal,  and  will  finally 


prevail  over  Ahriman,  who  will  sink  with  his  followers 
into  darkness,  which  is  their  native  element.  According 
to  some  authorities,  he  also  believed  in  an  infinite  Deity 
or  Being,  called  "Time  without  bounds."  His  religion 
gradually  degenerated  into  an  idolatrous  worship  of  fire 
and  the  sun.  (See  ORMUZD.) 

See  ANQUETII.-DUPERRON,  "Zendavesta,"  3  vols.,  1771  ;  HYDF, 
"  Veterimi  Persarum  et  Magorum  Religionis  Histor'a,''  1760; 
RHODE,  "  Der  heilige  Sage  der  alien  Baktren,  Meden  mid  Persen  ;" 
DE  PASTORET,  "Zoroastre,  Confucius  et  Mahomet,"  1787;  H.  G. 
SCHNEIDER,  "De  Nomine  et  Vita  Zoroastris,"  1708:  DE  BOCK, 
"  Memoires  sur  Zoroastre  et  Confucius,"  17X7  ;  Hoi/rv,  "Zoroaster 
und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1836;  MKNANT,  "Zoroastre,  Essai  sur  la  Phi 
losophic  religieuse  de  la  Perse,"  1848;  Mn. MAN,  "  History  of  Chris 
tianity;"  REV.  J.  WILSON,  "Religion  of  the  Parsees."  See,  also, 
the  article  on  "Zend  Avesta,"  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia," 
by  PROFESSOR  WHITNEY. 

Zoroastre  or  Zoroastres.     See  ZOROASTER. 

Zorobabel.     See  ZKRUHHAKEL. 

Zorrilla  y  Moral,  thor-rel'ya  e  mo-ral',  (Don  JOSE,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Valla- 
clolid  in  1817.  Being  destined  by  his  father  for  the  legal 
profession,  he  was  sent  to  the  Seminario  de  los  Nobles 
at  Madrid  in  1827,  but,  instead  of  the  study  of  law,  he 
devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  literary  pursuits,  and 
became  a  contributor  to  the  journal  "El  Artista."  His 
elegy  on  the  death  of  the  poet  Larra  (1837)  was  received 
with  enthusiastic  admiration,  and  raised  the  highest 
hopes  of  his  future  excellence.  In  1841  he  published 
his  "Songs  of  the  Troubadour,"  ("Cantos  del  Trova- 
dor,")  which  were  equally  successful.  His  other  prin 
cipal  works  are  the  comedies  of  "The  Shoemaker  and 
the  King"  ("  El  Zapatero  y  el  Rey,"  1840)  and  "Don 
Juan  Tenario,"  a  "Collection  of  Historical  Legends  and 
Traditions,"  (1840,)  and  "Granada,  an  Oriental  Poem, 
with  the  Legend  of  Al-Hamar,"  (1853.) 

Zoi'tan,  (PETRATSCII,)  a  Hungarian  peasant,  born 
near  Temesvar  in  1537;  died  in  1724,  at  the  age  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty-five  years. 

See  SIR  JOHN  SINCLAIR,  "  Code  of  Health  and  Longevity,"  vol. 
ii.,  Edinburgh,  1807. 

Zorzi,  d/.oiu'see,  [Lat.  GKOR'GIUS,]  (ALESSANDRO,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  metaphysician,  born  at  Venice  in  1747. 
He  published  a  "  Prospectus  of  a  New  Italian  Ency 
clopaedia,"  (1775,)  but  only  lived  long  enough  to  give 
a  small  specimen  of  it.  Died  in  1779. 

See  VANETTI,  "  Vita  Alex.  Georgii,"  1779. 

Zosinie.     See  ZOSIMUS. 

Zos'i-mus,  [Gr.  ZWCT</«JC;  Fr.  ZOSIME,  zo'zem',]  a 
Greek  historian  of  the  fifth  century,  lived  under  Theo- 
closius  IT.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
Roman  Empire  down  to  410  A.IX,"  in  six  books,  all  of 
which  is  extant.  He  was  a  pagan,  and  is  accused  of 
partiality  by  some  orthodox  writers.  His  style  is  neat 
and  pure. 

Zosimus,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic,  succeeded  Innocent 
I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  417  A.IX  He  confirmed  the 
sentence  of  heresy  pronounced  against  the  Pelagians, 
and  was  the  author  of  letters  and  controversial  treatises. 
Died  in  December,  418. 

Zoubof  or  Zoobov.     See  ZOOBOF. 

Zouch,  zootch,  (RiCHARD,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Wiltshire  about  1590,  became  regius  professor  of  law  at 
Oxford  in  1620.  He  afterwards  rose  through  several 
offices  to  be  judge  of  the  high  court  of  admiralty.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  legal  works,  in  Latin. 
Died  about  1660. 

Zouch,  (THOMAS,)  an  English  divine  and  writer,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1737,  became  rector  of  Scrayingham 
in  1793,  and  subsequently  a  prebendary  of  Durham. 
He  published  "An  Attempt  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
Prophecies  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (1800,) 
"Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Philip  Sid 
ney,"  (1808,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1815. 

Zouiski.     See  ZOOISKI. 

Zoust.     See  SOST. 

Zrinyi,  zuei/yee,  written  also  Zriny,  (NICHOLAS,)  a 
celebrated  Hungarian  general,  born  in  1518,  was  Ban 
of  Croatia,  which  he  defended  twelve  years  against  the 
Turks.  In  1566  he  was  besieged  in  the  town  of  Szigeth 
by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  at  the  head  of  65,000  men, 
while  his  own  forces  were  but  3000.  After  a  resistance 
of  a  month,  the  city  was  taken,  and  Zrinyi,  with  his  few 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


ZRINTI 


2323 


ZUMBO 


remaining  followers,  defended  themselves  for  a  time  in 
the  citadel,  and,  in  the  final  assault,  rushed  forth  and 
fell  fighting.  His  heroic  achievements  have  been  immor 
talized  in  one  of  Korner's  dramas. 

Zrinyi,  (NICHOLAS,)  a  Hungarian  warrior  and  poet, 
a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1616,  became 
Ban  of  Croatia,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  war 
against  the  Turks.  Died  in  1664. 

Zschackwitz,  tshik'wits,  (Jon  ANN,)  a  German  jurist, 
bom  near  Naumburg  in  1669,  lectured  on  law  at  Halle, 
and  wrote  on  history  and  public  law.  Died  in  1744. 

Zschokke,  tshok'keh,  (JOHANN  HKINRICH  DANIEL,) 
a  popular  German  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  on  the  22(1 
of  March,  1771.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  lie  produced  in  1793  a  drama 
called  "  Aballino  the  Bandit,"  which  was  successful.  His 
next  work  was  "Julius  von  Sassen,"  a  drama,  (1796.1 
About  1796  he  left  Frankfort,  and  travelled  through 
Germany  and  France.  He  settled  in  Switzerland,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  that  country 
(between  1798  and  1803)  as  a  civil  officer  of  the  republic. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  .Swiss  history,  among  which 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Combats  and  Fall  of  the  Swiss 
Mountain  and  Forest-Cantons,"  (1801.)  In  1803  or 
1804  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  mines 
and  forests.  He  resided  many  years  at  Aarau,  whither 
he  removed  about  1808.  From  1807  to  1813  he  edited 
a  popular  periodical  called  "Miscellany  of  the  Most  Re 
cent  Events,"  ("Miscellen  fur  die  neueste  Weltkunde.") 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  novels,  tales,  poems,  and 
histories.  His  novels  are  commended  for  their  good 
moral  tone,  and  are  remarkable  for  humour.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Bavaria,"  (4  vols.,  1813-18,)  and  a  "His 
tory  of  Switzerland  for  the  Swiss  People,"  (1822,)  which 
is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
"Hours  of  Devotion,"  ("Stunclen  cler  Andacht,")  an 
eloquent  exposition  of  modern  rationalism,  and  "The 
Goldmaker's  Village,"  a  tale.  He  died  in  January,  1848. 

See  his  autobiography,  entitled  "  Selbstschan,"  1841;  E.  FRENS- 
DORF,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Zschokke,"  1844  ;  BAER,  "  Zschokke, 
sein  Leben  und  sein  Werken,"  1849;  MUENCH,  "Zschokke  geschil- 
dert  nach  seinen  vorziiglichsten  Lebensmomenten,"  1830;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1844. 

Zuallart,  zii't'ltR',  (JEAN,)  a  Belgian  traveller,  visited 
the  Holy  Land  in  1586,  and  published  a  "Journey  to 
Jerusalem,"  (1587.)  Died  after  1632. 

Zuazo,  f/ioo-^'f/io,  almost  th\\§.'tho,  (ALFONSO,)  a 
Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Olmedo  about  1466.  He  was 
sent  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  to  America  in  151610  protect 
the  natives  from  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards.  He  re 
ceived  from  Ximenes  full  power  to  govern  the  colonies, 
and  he  used  his  power  in  favour  of  justice  and  humanity. 
In  1522  he  became  Governor  of  Cuba,  where  he  reformed 
the  courts  of  justice.  Died  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1527. 

Zuber,  tsoo'ber,  (MATTHAUS,)  a  German  writer  of 
Latin  poetry,  born  at  Neuburg,  on  the  Danube,  in  1570. 
He  published  "Various  Poems,"  ("  Poemata  varia," 
1598,)  and  "Epigrammata,"  (1605.)  Died  in  1623. 

Zuccardi,  dzook-kaR'dee,  (UBERTINO,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Correggio  about  1480;  died  in  1541. 

Zuccarelli,  dzook-ka-reKlee,  or  Zuccherelli,  dzook- 
ka-rci'lee,  (FRANCESCO,)  an  Italian  landscape-painter, 
horn  near  Florence  in  1702.  He  visited  England  in 
1752,  and  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  After  a  residence  of  more  than  twenty  years 
in  England,  where  he  was  extensively  patronized,  he 
returned  to  Florence,  and  died  in  1788. 

Zuccarini,  tsook -ka-ree'nee,  (JOSEPH  GERARD,)  an 
eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Munich  in  1798.  He 
was  professor  of  botany  at  that  city,  and  described  the 
plants  collected  by  Siebold,  in  the  "  Flora  Japonica," 
(1835.)  Among  his  works  is  "  Instruction  in  Botany," 
(1834.)  Died  in  1848. 

Zuccaro,  dzook'ka-ro,  or  Zucchero,  dzook'ki-ro, 
(FKDKRIGO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sant'  Angelo,  in 
the  duchy  of  Urbino,  in  1543.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
elder  brother  Taddeo,  several  of  whose  unfinished  pic 
tures  he  completed.  Having  executed  some  important 
works  at  Florence  and  Rome,  he  visited  the  Netherlands 
and  England,  where  he  painted  portraits  of  Queen  Eliza 
beth,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Sir  Francis  Walsingham, 
and  other  eminent  persons.  After  his  return  to  Rome 


he  completed  the  frescos  of  the  Pauline  Chapel,  in  the 
Vatican,  which  he  had  previously  begun  at  the  request 
of  Gregory  XIII.  On  the  invitation  of  Philip  II.,  he 
repaired  to  Spain  about  1585,  and  was  employed  to  paint 
the  Escurial.  In  1595  he  became  the  founder  and  the 
first  president  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  at  Rome. 
He  was  also  skilled  in  sculpture  and  architecture,  and 
published  a  work  entitled  "  L'Idea  de'  Pittori,  Scultori 
ed  Architetti."  Zuccaro  was  one  of  the  most  admired 
artists  of  his  time  ;  but  later  critics  have  not  assigned 
him  so  high  a  rank.  Died  in  1609. 

See  WALPOLE,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting  ;"  VASARI,  "  Lives  of  the 
Painters." 

Zuccaro,  (MARIO,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born 
in  the  sixteenth  century  at  Naples,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine.  Died  in  1634. 

Zuccaro,  (TADDEO,)  a  brother  of  Federigo,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1529.  At  an  early  age  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  lived  for  a  time  in  great  destitution  and 
was  employed  as  a  colour-grinder.  He  was  afterwards 
patronized  by  the  popes  Julius  III.  and  Paul  IV.,  and 
Cardinal  Alexander  P'arnese,  for  whom  he  painted  a 
series  of  frescos  in  the  palace  at  Caprarola,  illustrating 
the  glories  of  the  Farnese  family,  since  engraved  by 
Premier.  Died  in  1566. 

See  VASARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Zucchelli,  dzook-kel'lee,  (ANTONIO,)  of  Gradisca,  a 
Capuchin  monk,  who  went  as  a  missionary  to  Congo  in 
1697.  In  1712  he  published  an  interesting  "Account  of 
his  Travels,  with  a  Description  of  Angola  and  Congo." 

Zuccherelli.     See  ZUCCARELLI. 

Zucchero.     See  ZUCCARO,  (FEDERIGO.) 

Zucchi,  dzook'kee,  (ANTONIO,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1726,  resided  several  years  in  England,  where 
he  executed  a  number  of  frescos,  and  became  an  asso 
ciate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Died  at  Rome  in  1795. 

Zucchi,  (BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Monza  about  1560,  became  a  priest.  He  wrote  several 
biographies  and  historical  works.  Died  in  1631. 

Zucchi,  (GiACo.MO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Flor 
ence,  was  a  pupil  of  Vasari.  He  went  to  Rome  about 
1572,  and  worked  there  with  success.  Died  about  1590. 

Zucchi,  (MARCO  ANTONIO,)  a  famous  Italian  im- 
provisatore,  born  at  Verona.  He  composed  verses 
extempore  in  public.  Died  in  1764. 

Zuccolo,  dzook'ko-lo,  (Luici,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Faenza  about  1570.  He  published  several  works 
on  moral  philosophy  and  other  subjects. 

Zuccolo,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1599. 
He  wrote  "  De  Ratione  Status,"  (1663.)  Died  in  1668. 

Zucconi,  dzook-ko'nee,  (GIUSEPPE,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  in  1721,  was  appointed 
censor  of  books.  He  died  prematurely  in  1754- 

Zuckert,  tsdSk'keRt,  (JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,)  a  Ger 
man  medical  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1737.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  diet  and  regimen,  which  are  com 
mended.  Died  in  1778. 

Zuichem  or  Zuichemus,  (ViGLius.)     See  AYTA. 

Zuiugli.     See  ZWINGLE. 

Zuinglius.     See  ZWINGLE. 

Zumala-Carreguy,  thoo-ma'la  kar-ra'gee,  (Don  To- 
MAS,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  commander  in  the  service 
of  Don  Carlos,  was  born  near  Villareal  in  1788.  He 
served  under  General  Mina  in  1813,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel  in  1825,  being  appointed  at  the  same 
time  governor  of  Ferrol.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  he  became  leader  of  a  band  of  insurgents  in  the 
Basque  provinces,  with  whom  he  defeated  General  Rodil 
in  the  valley  of  Amescoas  in  1834,  which  was  followed 
by  several  other  signal  victories  over  the  forces  of  Queen 
Christina.  He  was  mortally  wounded  while  preparing 
to  besiege  Bilbao,  in  1835. 

See  HENNINCSEN,  "Twelve  Months  of  Campaign  with  Zumala- 
Carre.cny,"  2  vols.,  1836;  MADRAZO,  "  Historia  militar  y  politica  de 
Zumaiacarreguy,"  1844;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1837;  "  Black-wood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1845,  and  July,  1846. 

Zumbo,  dzoom'bo,  or  Zummo,  dzoom'ino,  (GAE- 
TANO  GIULIO,)  a  Sicilian  artist,  born  at  Syracuse  in 
1656,  was  celebrated  as  a  modeller  of  figures  in  coloured 
wax.  He  was  a  skilful  anatomist,  and  his  anatomical 
preparations  in  wax  were  greatly  admired.  Died  in  1701. 


as  K;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZUMPT 


2324 


ZW INGLE 


Zumpt,  tsoompt,  ( A  UGUST  W  II.HELM,)  nephew  of  Kar 
Gottlob,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1815 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Commentationes 
epigraphicae  ad  Antiquitates  Romanas  pertinentes,"  (2 
vols.,  1850-54.) 

Zumpt,  (KARL  GOTTLOB,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1792.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  under  Creu- 
zer,  and  in  1828  became  professor  of  Roman  literature 
in  the  University  of  Berlin.  His  "  Latin  Grammar,' 
published  in  1818,  enjoys  a  very  high  reputation,  anc 
has  been  translated  into  English.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  several  valuable  essays  on  Roman  customs 
and  antiquities,  among  which  we  may  name  "On  the 
Architecture  of  the  Roman  Dwelling-House,"  (1844,] 
and  "On  the  Religion  of  the  Romans,"  (1845.) 
likewise  prepared  editions  of  Quintilian's  "  Institutiones 
Oratoriae,"  and  other  Latin  classics.  Died  in  1849. 

Zumsteeg,  tsoom'stao,  (JOHANN  RUDOLF,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  1760.  His  songs  and  ballads  are 
particularly  admired.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Schiller,  several  of  whose  lyrics  he  set  to  music.  Died 
in  1802. 

Zuiiiga,  de,  da  thoon-ye'ga,  (Don  DIEGO  ORTIZ,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Seville.  He  wrote  a  "  His 
tory  of  Seville,"  (1677.)  Died  in  1680. 

Zuiiz,  tsoonts,  (LEOPOLD,)  a  learned  German  Jew, 
born  at  Detmold  in  1794,  .became  principal  of  the  Jewish 
Seminary  at  Berlin.  He  published  "The  Synagogal 
Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  and  other  works. 

Zurbano,  thooK-ba'no,  (MARTIN,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  about  1780,  served  in  the  army  of  Queen  Christina, 
and,  when  she  was  compelled  to  leave  Spain,  attached 
himself  to  Espartero.  He  was  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy  in  1845,  and  shot. 

Zurbaran,  thooR-ba-ran',  (FRANCISCO,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1598.  He 
'studied  tinder  Juan  de  Roelas  at  Seville,  where  he 
produced  a  great  number  of  his  best  works.  Among 
these  may  be  named  his  "  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas,"  an 
altar-piece  in  the  church  of  the  College  of  Saint  Thomas 
Aquinas,  esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  pictures 
ever  executed  in  Spain,  and  the  altar-pieces  in  the 
churches  of  San  Lorenzo  and  Sant'  Antonio  Abaci.  A 
few  of  his  works  are  to  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  Dresden  ;  and  at  Munich,  a  "  Virgin  and 
Saint  John  returning  from  the  Sepulchre  of  Christ." 
Zurbaran  received  the  title  of  painter  to  King  Philip  III., 
and  was  patronized  by  his  successor,  Philip  IV.  He  is 
sometimes  called  "the  Spanish  Caravaggio,"  from  the 
resemblance  of  his  style  to  that  of  the  Italian  master  ; 
but  he  is  thought  in  some  respects  to  have  surpassed 
him.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  fidelity  to  nature, 
richness  of  colouring,  chiaroscuro,  and  exquisite  repre 
sentation  of  velvets,  brocades,  and  white  draperies. 
The  Spanish  friar  was  a  favourite  subject,  in  the  treat 
ment  of  which  he  was  eminently  successful.  Died  in  1662. 
Zurita,  thoo-ree'td,  (GERONIMO,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Saragossa  in  1512.  He  studied  at  Alcala,  and 
rose  through  several  important  offices  to  be  a  member 
of  the  supreme  council  of  Castile,  in  1543.  He  was 
afterwards  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Germany,  and  in  1549 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  kingdom.  His  prin 
cipal  work,  entitled  "Annals  of  the  Crown  of  Aragon," 
("  Anales  de  la  Corona  de  Aragon,"  4  vols.,  1580,) 
enjoys  a  high  reputation.  His  candour  and  impartiality 
are  praised  by  Prescott  in  his  "  History  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  (vol.  ii.  part  ii.)  Died  in  1581. 

Zurla,  dzook'la,  (PLACino,)  a  learned  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  the  Venetian  States  in  1769,  became  vicar-general 
to  Pope  Leo  XI  I.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  Marco 
Polo  and  other  Venetian  Travellers,"  and  "  On  the 
Voyages  and  Discoveries  of  Cadamosto."  Died  in  1834. 
Zurlauben,  zuK'lo'b6\'  or  tsooK'low'ben,  (BEAT 
JACQUES,)  a  Swiss  general  in  the  service  of  France,  com 
manded  a  brigade  at  Steenkerke,  (1692,)  and  at  Neerwin- 
den.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at  Blenheim,  in  1704. 
Zurlauben,  de,  deh  zuVlo'bSN',  (BEAT  FIDELE  AN- 
TOINE  JEAN  DOMINIQUE,)  Baron  de  la  Tour-Chatillon, 
a  Swiss  general  and  writer,  born  at  Zug  in  1720,  served 
in  the  French  army  many  years.  He  wrote,  besides 
many  historical  and  antiquarian  treatises,  "A  Military 


History  of  the  Swiss  in  the  French  Service,"  (8 
vols.,  1751-53,)  and  a  "Description  of  Switzerland," 
("Tableaux  topographiques,  pittoresques,  physiques," 
etc.,  4  vols.,  1780-86.)  Died  in  1795. 

Zuiio,  dzooR'lo,  (GIUSEPPE,)  COUNT,  an  able  Italian 
minister  of  state,  born  at  Naples  in  1759.  He  became 
minister  of  finance  in  1798.  He  followed  the  court  to 
Palermo  in  1806,  when  the  French  regime  was  es 
tablished  at  Naples;  but  he  returned  in  1809,  and  was 
appointed  minister  of  justice  and  of  the  interior  by 
Murat.  He  reformed  the  administration,  and  protected 
learning,  commerce,  and  agriculture.  In  1815  he  retired 
from  office.  Died  in  1828. 

Zurner,  tsook'ner,  (ADAM  FRIEDRICH,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  near  Oelsnitz  about  1680,  produced 
several  maps  of  Saxony  and  other  parts  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1742. 

Zuylichem.     See  HUYGENS. 

Zuzzeri,  dzoot-sa'ree,  (GIOVANNI  LUCA,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  numismatist,  born  at  Ragusa  in  1716; 
died  at  Rome  in  1746. 

Zwanziger,  tsftAn'siG-er,  (JOSEPH  CHRISTIAN,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  Hungary  in  1732.  He  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  wrote  against 
the  philosophy  of  Kant.  Died  in  1808. 

Zweers,  zwairs,  (  PHI  LIP,)  a  Dutch  poet,  lived  at 
Amsterdam.  He  wrote  "  Semiramis,"  a  tragedy,  and 
other  poems,  which  were  admired.  Died  in  1774. 

Zwelfer,  tswel'fer,  (JOHANN,)  a  German  chemist  and 
physician,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1618.  He  practised 
in  Vienna,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1668. 

Zwicker,  tswik'ker,  (DANIEL,)  a  German  religionist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1612.  He  was  once  a  Socinian,  and 
afterwards  an  Arminian.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Irenicon  Irenicorum,"  (1658,)  the  aim  of  which  was  to 
promote  union  among  Christian  sects.  Died  in  1678. 

Zwinger,  tswinc/er,  (JAKOB,)  a  Swiss  physician  and 
philologist,  born  at  Bale  in  1569,  was  a  son  of  Theodore. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Bale,  and  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Lucian,"  (1602,)  and  "  Examination  of  Chemi 
cal  Principles,"  ("  Principiorum  Chymicorum  Examen," 
1606.)  Died  in  1610. 

Zwinger,  [Lat.  ZWINGE'RUS,]  (JOHANN  RUDOLPH,) 
a  Swiss  physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1692,  was  a  son  of 
Theodore  the  Younger.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
at  Bale  for  fifty-two  years.  Among  his  pupils  was  the 
famous  Haller.  Died  in  1777. 

See  BUXTORF,  "  Vita  J.  R.  Zwingeri,"  1778. 

Zwinger,  [Lat.  ZWINGE'RUS,!  (THEODORE,)  THE 
ELDER,  an  eminent  Swiss  physician  and  scholar,  born 
at  Bale  in  1533,  was  the  father  of  Jakob.  He  studied 
at  Paris  and  Padua.  In  1565  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
Greek  at  Bale.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  collection  of  anecdotes,  etc.,  entitled  "Theatre  of 
Human  Life,"  ("  Theatrum  Vitas  humanae,"  1565,)  and 
"On  the  Rural  or  Agricultural  Method  of  Cato  and 
Varro,"  ("  Methodus  Rustica  Catonis  et  Varronis," 
1576.)  Died  at  Bale  in  1588. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Zwinger"  in  "  Athena:  Rauricas." 

Zwinger,  (THEODORE,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Hale  in  1597,  was  a  son  of  Jakob.  He  became 
first  pastor  and  superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Bale 
in  1630.  He  was  also  professor  of  divinity  in  that  city 
for  twenty-four  years.  Died  in  1654. 

Zwinger,  (THEODORE,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  bot 
anist,  born  at  Bale  in  1658,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding.  He  was  a  son  of  Johann  Zwinger,  (1634-96,) 
professor  of  Greek  and  theology  at  Bale.  He  became 
n  1687  professor  of  physics  in  his  native  city,  where  he 
also  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  practitioner  of  medi 
cine.  In  1703  lie  exchanged  the  chair  of  physics  for 
that  of  anatomy.  He  wrote  several  works  on  medicine 
and  botany.  Died  in  1724. 

See  "Athene  Rruiricjc." 

Zwingerus.     See  ZWINGER. 

Zwingle,  zwlng'g '1,  Zwiiigli,  or  Zuingli,  zwing'- 
glee,  [Lat.  ZwfN'GLlUS  or  ZUIN'GLIUS;  Fr.  ZWINGLE, 
zvaNg'l ;  Ger.  ULRiCHor  HuLDREICHZwiNGLT,  hdoIt'nK 
s<vlng'Jee,]  a  Swiss  Reformer  of  great  eminence,  was 
jorn  at  Wildhaus,  in  the  canton  or  valley  of  Toggen- 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long:  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i, 5,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ZW  INGLE 


ZTPE 


burg,  nn  the  1st  of  January,  1484.  He  was  liberally 
educated  at  Bale  and  Vienna,  at  the  former  of  which 
places  he  studied  theology  under  Thomas  Wyttenbach. 
He  was  a  diligent  reader  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Horace, 
and  Seneca.  In  1506  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at 
Bale,  and  was  appointed  priest  of  Glarus.  About  this 
time  he  acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  original 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  began  to  test  the  sound 
ness  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Church  by  the 
standard  of  the  gospel.  "  The  Holy  Scriptures,"  says 
Hottinger,  "had  been  his  daily  and  nightly  study,  and 
he  knew  the  greater  part  of  them  literally  by  heart." 
He  performed  a  journey  to  Bale  to  become  personally 
acquainted  with  Erasmus,  whose  writings  he  admired. 
He  served  as  chaplain  to  a  body  of  Swiss  troops  em 
ployed  in  Lombardy  in  1515,  and  witnessed  the  great 
battle  of  Marignano.  He  afterwards  raised  his  voice  to 
dissuade  the  Swiss  from  the  practice  of  enlisting  as 
mercenaries  in  foreign  armies. 

In  1516  he  removed  from  Glarus  to  Einsiedeln,  the 
monastery  of  which  was  in  high  repute  as  a  sanctuary 
and  was  visited  by  numerous  pilgrims  and  devotees,  who 
came  to  buy  indulgences  for  their  sins.  Zwingle  was 
employed  there  as  preacher  to  the  monastery.  He  had 
previously  been  convinced  that  several  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Roman  Church  were  not  consistent  with 
the  pure  religion  of  the  gospel ;  but  he  had  hitherto 
refrained  from  the  public  avowal  of  his  convictions. 
Zwingle  and  Luther  began  about  the  same  time  to  con 
demn  the  sale  of  indulgences,  and  other  corruptions  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  supported  by  Theobald 
of  Geroldseck,  administrator  of  the  abbey,  and  found  at 
Einsiedeln  another  coadjutor,  Leo  Juda.  In  his  sermons 
he  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  practical  virtue  and  new 
ness  of  life,  instead  of  exterior  observances,  ceremonies, 
and  superstitious  practices.  He  also  urged  the  bishops 
and  other  high  functionaries  to  undertake  the  refor 
mation  of  the  Church  by  removing  the  impostures 
and  ignorance  and  depravity  of  the  priests.  He  corre 
sponded  with  Erasmus,  Capito,  and  Beatus  Rhenanus. 
In  December,  1518,  he  was  appointed  preacher  to  the 
collegiate  church  or  great  Minister  of  Zurich,  where  he 
found  the  priests  and  the  people  in  a  benighted  spiritual 
condition.  He  insisted  that  the  people  should  read  and 
understand  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His  bold  and  novel 
mode  of  preaching  produced,  of  course,  much  agitation. 

In  1523  the  Great  Council  of  Zurich,  at  the  request 
of  Zwingle,  summoned  the  clergy  of  that  diocese  to 
attend  a  conference  for  the  discussion  of  the  new  doc 
trines,  and  proposed  that  the  Holy  Scripture  should  be 
recognized  as  the  standard  by  which  doctrines  must  be 
judged.  To  this  conference  the  Bishop  of  Constance 
sent  John  Faber,  his  vicar-general.  Zwingle  defended 
his  course,  having  previously  published  a  list  of  articles 
to  be  discussed,  among  which  were  the  following :  the 
power  arrogated  to  themselves  by  the  pope  and  bishops 
is  not  sanctioned  by  Scripture  ;  the  marriage  of  priests 
ought  not  to  be  forbidden  ;  and  no  one  ought  to  be  mo 
lested  for  his  opinions.  The  result  of  the  conference  was 
a  decision  of  the  council  that  Zwingle  should  continue 
to  preach  the  gospel  as  lie  had  done  heretofore.  "His 
simplicity,  firmness,  and  gentleness,"  says  Hess,  "in 
spired  his  audience  with  great  veneration  ;  his  eloquence 
and  knowledge  carried  away  those  who  were  hesitating 
between  the  two  parties."  ("  Life  of  Zwingle.")  1111524 
he  married  Anna  Reinhart.  He  published  in  1525  a 
work  entitled  "  A  Discourse  on  True  and  False  Religion." 
The  mass  was  abolished  at  Zurich  in  1525.  About  the 


same  time  the  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  their 
j  property  was  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  education 
and  charity. 

Zwingle  took  part  in  a  conference  (between  the  Re 
formers  and  the  Roman  Catholics)  which  met  at  Berne 
in  1528,  soon  after  which  the  Reformed  religion  was 
established  in  the  canton  of  Berne.  In  1529  he  met 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  in  conference  at  Marburg.  He 
agreed  with  them  in  relation  to  fourteen  articles  of  faith, 
to  which  they  all  subscribed,  but  he  differed  from  them 
on  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist,  and  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  the  real  presence.  For  this  reason  Luther  refused 
to  give  him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  The  Swiss 
Reformer  was  the  less  dogmatical  of  the  two,  and  was 
disposed  to  tolerate  a  difference  of  opinion  on  that  point. 
The  Roman  Catholic  party  continued  to  predominate  in 
most  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  except  Zurich,  Glarus,  and 
Berne,  and  they  persecuted  those  Protestants  who  lived 
in  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwyz,  etc.  Zwingle  had  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  wisdom,  and  was  often  consulted  by 
the  council  of  Zurich  in  relation  to  public  affairs.  His 
adversaries  having  accused  him  of  being  the  chief  cause 
of  the  dissensions  which  destroyed  the  peace  of  the 
country,  he  offered  to  resign ;  but  the  senate  refused  to 
accept  his  resignation.  In  1531  the  five  cantons  of  Lu 
cerne,  Zug,  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden  declared  war 
against  Berne  and  Zurich,  which  were  not  well  prepared 
for  the  conflict.  Zwingle  was  one  of  a  small  band  that 
marched  out  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Cappel,  in  October,  1531.  He  left,  besides 
other  works,  an  "Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith,"  in 
Latin,  (1536.)  His  followers  were  called  "  Evangelicals." 

See  MYCONIUS,  "  De  Vita  et  Obitu  Zwinglii,"  1536;  ZIEGLER, 
"Zwingli's  Leben,"  1719;  TISCHER,  "Zwingli's  Leben,"  1800;  J.  G. 
HESS,  "Vie  de  Zwingle,"  1810,  which  was  translated  into  English 
by  Lucv  AIKIN,  1812;  PKSTAI.OZZI,  "  Bilder  aus  dem  Leben  Zwin 
gli's,"  1819;  M.  RICHARD,  "Zwingii  biographisch  geschildert," 
1819;  ROTKRMUNDT,  "Leben  des  Reformator  U.  Zwingli,"  1819; 
MULLER,  "  Ulrich  Zwingli,"  1819;  ROEDER,  "  Erzahlungen  ans 
Zwingli's  Leben,"  1834;  J.  J.  HOTTINGER,  "Zwingli  und  seine 
Zeit,"  1842  ;  an  English  version  ot  Hottinger's  work,  by  PROFESSOR 
T.  (J.  PORTER,  1856;  N.  CHRISTOFFEL,  "Zwingli's  Leben,"  1847; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1828. 

Zwingli  or  Zwinglius.     See  ZWINGLE. 

Zwirner,  tsweeVner,  (ERNST  FRIEDRICH,)  an  emi 
nent  German  architect,  born  at  Jacobswald,  in  Silesia, 
in  February,  1802.  He  completed  his  studies  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Architecture  and  the  University  of 
Berlin.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  architect  of  the  ancient 
Cologne  Cathedral,  and  undertook  the  completion  and 
restoration  of  that  grand  Gothic  or  mediaeval  edifice, 
which  had  never  been  finished.  He  expended  many 
years  on  this  work,  which  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  successful  and  admirable  specimens  of  restoration 
which  have  ever  appeared.  Zwirner  designed  the  castle 
of  Count  von  Furstenberg  at  Herdringen,  and  several 
castles  on  the  Rhine.  Died  in  1861. 

Zylius.     See  ZYLL. 

Zyll,  van,  \Sn  zll,  [Lat.  ZY'LIUS,]  (OrHO,)  a  Dutch 
Jesuit,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1588.  He  gained  some  dis 
tinction  as  a  Latin  poet.  Died  in  1656. 

Zypaeus,  zi-pa'fis,  or  Van  den  Zype,  vin  den  zT'peh, 
(FRANCIS,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and  canonist,  born  at  Ma- 
lines  in  1578.  He  published  several  legal  works.  Died 
i  in  1650. 

His  brother  HENRY,  born  in  1577,  was  abbot  of  Saint- 
|  Andre,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  in  1659. 

See  HENDRIK  FEYE,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  F.  Zypasus,"  1853 ; 
P.  VAN  DEN  BROECK,  "  De  F.  Zypaei  Vita,"  etc.,  1852. 

Zype,  van  den.     See  ZYPAEUS. 


«  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN    NAMES. 


IT  is  perhaps  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  following  Vocabulary  of  Christian  (or  first)  Names  is  not  intended 
to  be  exhaustive,  having  been  prepared  simply  to  meet  the  most  obvious  demands  of  a  work  like  the  present,  in 
the  body  of  which  the  pronunciation  of  names  of  the  class  referred  to  has  rarely  been  given.  In  numerous 
instances  names  which  are  properly  surnames  (such,  for  example,  as  Fisher  AMKS,  Washington  IRVING,  etc.) 
are  used  as  Christian  names.  These  are  not  included  in  the  present  Vocabulary,  as  they  can  readily  be  found  in 
their  alphabetical  place  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

£3^=  The  order  of  arrangement  in  the  Vocabulary  is  as  follows  :  first  the  English,  then  the  other  names  ac  cording 
to  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  languages  to  which  they  belong,  as,  Arabic,  Danish,  Dutch,  French,  etc.  To 
avoid  multiplying  the  references,  (which  must  in  any  case  be  pretty  numerous,)  we  have  generally  given  them 
only  when  the  name  would  be  separated  by  some  other  name  or  names  from  the  alphabetical  place  of  the  English 
name  under  which  it  is  noticed.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  when  the  name  referred  from  is  so 
different  from  the  one  referred  to,  that  ordinary  readers  would  not  be  likely  to  suspect  the  identity,  as  in  the  case  of 
ALONZO  and  ALPHONSO,  etc. 


AARON,  a'ron  ;  Arabic,  HAROON  or  HARUN,  ha-roon'; 
Fr.  AARON,  a'ro.v';  Ger.  AARON  or  ARON,  a'ron  ;  Heb. 
I  Tin.  <  ;  It.  ARONNE,  a-ron'na;  Lat.  AA'RON,  (genitive, 
AARO'NIS;)  Port.  A  A  RAO,  a-rows';  Sp.  ARON,  a-r6n'. 

ABKL,  a'bel  ;  Arabic,  HABEEL  or  HABIL,  ha'beel'; 
Fr.  ABEL,  S'beT;  Heb.  hir\  •  Lat.  A'BEL,  (genitive, 
ABE'LIS.) 

ABRAHAM,  a'bra-ham  ;  Arabic,  IBRAHEEM  or  IBRA 
HIM,  ib-r5-heem'  ;  Danish,  ABRAHAM,  al/Ka-htm  ; 
Dutch,  ABRAHAM,  a'bi<a-ham  ;  Fr.  ABRAHAM,  fbttt'- 
/&tm';  Ger.  ABRAHAM,  a'bRa-ham  ;  Heb.  Dm:!.-*  ;  It. 
ABRAMO,  a-bi<a'mo  ;  Lat.  ABRAHA'MUS,  (genitive  in  -i  ;*) 
Russ.  AVKAAM,  a-vRa-am',  or  ABRAMII,  a-vRa'mee  ; 
Sp.  ABRAHAN,  a-bRa-an';  Sw.  ABRAHAM,  a'bRa-ham. 

ABSALOM,  ab'sa-lom  ;  Fr.  ABSALON,  Sb'sS'ld.s';  Heb. 


ACHILLES,  a-kil'lez;  Fr.  ACHILLE,  t'shel';  Gr.  ' 
/IETC,  (Achillens  ;)  It.  ACHILLE,  a-kel'la  ;  Lat.  ACHIL'LES, 
(genitive,  Acmi/LlS;)   Sp.  AQUILES,  a-kee'l£s. 

ADALBERT.     See  ETHELBERT. 

ADAM,  ad'am  ;  Arabic,  ADAM,  ad'am  ;  Danish,  ADAM, 
a'dtm;  Dutch,  ADAM,  a'dam  ;  Fr.  ADAM,  f'do.N';  Ger. 
ADAM,  a'dam;  Heb.  D1X  ;  It.  ADAMO,  a-da'mo  ;  Lat. 
ADA'MUS,  (genitive  in  -i;*)  Port.  ADAO,  a-dowN1';  Sp. 
ADAN,  a-dan'. 

ADELINE,  ad'e-llne  ;  Danish,  ADELINE,  a-deh-lee'neh  ; 
Dutch,  ADEI.INA,  a-cleh-lee'na  ;  Fr.  ADELINE,  Sd'len'; 
Ger.  ADELINE,  a-deh-lee'neh  ;  It.  ADELINA,  a-cli-lee'na; 
Lat.  ADELI'NA,  (genitive  in  -.«.*) 

A-DOL'PHUS,  ("noble  wolf:"  see  note  under  RALPH;) 
Danish,  ADOLF,  a'dolf;  Dutch,  ADOLF,  a'dolf;  Fr. 
ADOLPHE,  i'dolf';  Ger.  ADOLF  or  ADOLPH,  a'dolf;  It. 
ADOLKO,  a-dol'fo  ;  Lat.  ADOL'PHUS;  Sp.  ADOLFO, 
a-dol'fo;  Sw.  ADOLF,  a'dolf. 


*  Latin  names  ending  in  us  usually  have  the  genitive  in  i;  those 
ending  in  a  or  its  take  the  genitive  in  & :  of  those  names  in  this  table 
not  included  under  the  foregoing  rules,  the  genitive  will  always  be 
added. 


ADRIAN,  a'dre-an,  or  HADRIAN,  ha'dre-an ;  Danish, 
ADRIAN,  a'clite-an;  Dutch,  ADRIAAN,  a'dRe-Sn;  Fr. 
ADRIEN,  t'dRe-aN1';  It.  ADRIANO,  a-dRe-i'no ;  Lat. 
ADRIA'NUS  or  HADRIA'NUS;  Port.  ADRIANO,  a-dRe- 
a'no,  or  ADRIAO,  a-clRe-ovvN';  Sp.  ADRIAN,  a-dRe-an'. 

ALGIDIUS.     See  GILES. 

/ELIAN,  ee'Ie-an ;  Fr.  Ei.iEN.a'le'aN'';  Lat. /ELIA'NUS, 
(genitive  in  -I.) 

AFFONSO.     See  ALPHONSO. 

AGATHA,  ag'a-tha,  ("good;")  Danish,  AGATHE,  a-gfi'- 
teh;  Dutch,  AGATHA,  a-ga'ta;  Fr.  AGATHE,  t'gtt';  Ger. 
AGATHE,  a-ga'teh  ;  Gr.  'Ayafljy,  (A^ithe;)  It.  AGATA, 
i'ga-ta;  Lat.  AG'ATHA  ;  Sp.  AGATA,  i'ga-ti;  Sw.  AGATA, 
a-ga'tl 

AGNES,  ag'nez,  ("chaste  ;")  Danish,  AGNES,  Sg'nSs,  or 
AGNETE.Sg-na'teh  ;  Dutch,  AGNES,  ag'ne"s  ;  Fr.  AGNES, 
fn'ySs';  Ger.  AGNES,  ig'n&s ;  It.  AGNESE,  an-ya'sa ; 
Lat.  AG'NES,  (genitive,  AGNE'TIS.) 

AGOSTINHO.     See  AUGUSTINE. 

AIMEE.     See  AMY. 

ALARIC,  al'a-rik,  ("noble  ruler;")  Danish,  ALARICK, 
a'la-rik;  Fr.  ALARIC,  i'li'iek';  Ger.  ALARICH,  i'la-riK  ; 
It.  ALARICO,  a-la-ree'ko ;  Lat.  ALARI'CUS  ;  Sp.  AI.ARICO, 
a-la-ree'ko. 

ALBAN,  awl'ban,  ("svhite  ;")  Danish,  ALBANUS,  Sl-bi'- 
nus  ;  Dutch,  ALBANUS,  al-ba'niis  ;  It.  ALBANO,  al-ba'no  ; 
Lat.  ALBA'NUS. 

AI.BERIC,  al'ber-ic,  ("elf-king"?)  Danish,  ALBERIK, 
fl'beh-rik;  Fr.  ALBERIC,  tl'ba'rek';  Ger.  AI.BERICH,  il'- 
beh-riK';  It.  ALBERICO,  al-bi-ree'ko ;  Lat.  ALBERI'CUS. 

AI/BERT,  ("all  bright ;")  Danish,  ALBRECHT,  Jtl'bR^kt ; 
Dutch,  ALBF.RTUS,  al-b^R'tiis,  or  ALBERT,  al'b^Rt;  Fr. 
ALBERT,  tKbaiR';  Ger.  ALBRECHT,  ll'bR§Kt ;  It.  AL 
BERTO,  al-be"R'to ;  Lat.  ALBER'TUS;  Sp.  ALBERTO,  al- 
bek'to  ;  Sw.  ALBERT,  al'be'Rt. 

ALCIBIADES,  al-se-bi'a-dez,  ("strong  compeller  ;")  Fr. 
ALCIBIADES,  fl'se'be'td';  Gr.  'A.?Jct6iuArji;,  ( Alkibiades.) 


*  as  K;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 
2327 


VOCABULARY  GF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


ALEXANDER,  al-ex-an'der,(a  "helper  of  men  ;")  Dutch, 
ALEXANDER,  a-lek-yin'der  ;  Fr.  ALEXANDRE,  t'leV- 
s6.\dR';  Ger.  ALEXANDER,  a-leVsin'der;  Gr.  'A^av- 
dpuf,  (Alexandras:)  It.  ALESSANDRO,  "i-lSs-sau'dRo  ; 
Lat.  ALEXAN'DER,  (gen.  ALEXAN'DRI;)  Sp.  ALEJANDRO 
or  ALEXAITDRO,  i-la-nin'dRo. 
ALEWIJN.  See  ALVIN. 

A-LEX'IS,  ("help,"  "defence  ;")  Fr.  ALEXIS,  t'leVse'; 
Gr.  'AAf^c,  (Alexis  ;)  Russian,  ALEXEI,  a-lSk-sa'c. 
ALFONSO.     See  ALPIIONSO. 

AI/FRED,  ("all  peace;")  Danish,  ALFRED,  il'fke'd  ; 
Dutch,  ALFRED,  al'lkSt  ;  Fr.  ALFRED,  tl'fRgd';  Ger. 
ALFRED,  al'fRe"t  ;  It.  ALFREDO,  al-fRa'do  ;  Lat.  ALFRK'- 
DUS;  Sp.  ALFREDO,  al-fua'Do. 

ALICE,  al'iss,  ("noble  ;")  Danish,  ELSE,  eTseh  ;  Dutch, 
ELSJE,  gls'yeh  ;  Fr.  ALICE,  i'less';  Lat.  Aug'iA,  (a-lish'- 
e-a;)  Sw.  EI.SA,  eTsi. 

ALONZO  or  ALONSO.     See  ALPHONSO. 
AL-PHON'SO  or  A-LON'ZO;  Danish,  ALFONS,  il'fons; 
Fr.  AI.PHONSE,  fl'foNs';  It.  ALFONSO,    al-fon'so;   Lat. 
ALI-HON'SUS;  Port.  AFFONSO,  af-fon'so;  Sp.  ALFONSO, 
il-fon'so,  or  ALONSO,  i-lon'so. 

ALVIN,  al'vin,  or  A  I/WIN,  ("winning  all;")  Dutch, 
ALEWIJN,  i'leh-win';  Fr.  ALUIN,  a'iu-aN';  Ger.  AI.WIN, 
al'win  ;  It.  ALVINO,  al-vee'no  ;  Lat.  ALWI'NUS;  Sp. 
AI.UINO,  a-loo-ee'no. 

AMADEUS,  am-a-de'us,  (a  "lover  of  God  ;")  Fr.  AME- 
DEK,  3'ma'da';  Ger.  AMADEUS,  a-mi-da'us  ;  It.  AMEDEO, 
a-ma-da'o,  or   AMADEO,    i-ma-da'o;    Lat.  AMADE'US  ; 
Sp.  AMADEO,  i-ma-Da'o. 
AMALIE.     See  AMELIA. 
AMATA.     See  AMY. 

AM'BROSE,  ("immortal  ;")   Danish,  AMBROSIUS,  Sm- 
bRo'se-us  ;    Dutch,     AMBROSIUS,     am-bRo'se-us  ;     Fr. 
AMBROISE,  dN'bRwaz';  Ger.  AMBROSIUS,  am-bRo'ze-us, 
or  AMBKOS,  im'bRds  ;  It.  AMBROGIO,  am-bRo'jo  ;  Lat. 
AMBRO'SIU.?;  Sp.  AMBROSIO,  am-bRo'se-o. 
AMEDEE  or  AMEDEO.     See  AMADEUS. 
AMELIA,  a-mee'le-a;    Danish,    AMALIE,    ii-ma'le-eh  ; 
Fr.  AMALIE,  S'ma'le';   Ger.  AMALIE,  a-ma'le-eh  ;   Sp. 
AMELIA,  a-ma'le-a. 

AMOS,  jl'mos,  (a  "burden;")  Fr.  AMOS,  t'mos';  Heb. 


AMY,  a'me,  (a  "  beloved  ;")  Danish,  AMALIE,  a-ma' 
le-eh  ;  Fr.  AIMEE,  .Vma';  It.  AMATA,  a-ma'td. 

ANASTASIUS,  an-a-sta'she-us,  ("rising  up;")  Fr.  ANA- 
si'ASE,  f'nS'stf//;  Gr.  '\vaaTuaioc,  (  Anastasios  ;  )  It.  ANA- 
STASIO,  a-na-sta'se-o  ;  Lat.  ANASTA'SIUS. 

AN'DREW,  ("manly,"  "courageous;")  Danish,  AN 
DREAS,  Jtn-dRas';  Dutch,  ANDRIES,  aN-dRees';  Fr.  AN 
DRE,  6N'dRa';  Ger.  ANDREAS,  3n-dRa'as  ;  Gr.  'Aw5peac, 
(Andreas:)  It.  ANDREA,  an-dRa'a;  Lat.  AN'DREAS  ; 
Port.  ANDRE,  an-dRa';  Sp.  ANDRES,  an-dReV. 

ANDRONICUS,  an-dro-nT'kus,*  (a  "  conqueror  of  men  ;") 
Fr.  ANDRONIC  or  ANDRONIQUE,  SN'dRo'nek';  Gr.  'Av- 
^povLKor,  (  Andronikos  ;)  It.  ANDRONICO,  an-dRo-nee'ko  ; 
Lat.  ANDRONI'CUS. 

ANGELICA,  an-jeTe-ka,  ("angelic;")  Fr.  ANGELIQUE, 
oN'/.ha'lek';  Ger.  ANGELICA,  an-ga'le-ka  ;  It.  ANGELICA, 
an  ja'le-ka. 

*  Pronounced  A  ndron'icus  in  Shakspeare. 


ANGELUCCIO,  (It.)  an-ja-loot'cho,  (a  derivative  from 
ANGELO.) 

ANNA,  an'na,  or  ANNE,  an,  ("grace"  or  "gracious," 
the  same  as  the  Hebrew  HANNAH,  which  see  ;)  Danish, 
ANNA,tn'na;  Dutch,  ANNA,  ai/na  ;  Fr.  ANNE.Sn;  Ger. 
ANNE,  an'neh ;  It.  ANNA,  an'na;  Lat.  AN'NA. 

ANNIBAI.E.     See  HANNIBAL. 

ANSELM,  an'sglm,  (a  "defender  ;")  Dutch,  ANSELMUS, 
an-s^Kmvis;  Fr.  ANSELME,  S.N's^lm';  Ger.  ANSKLM, 
an's§lm;  It.  ANSELMO,  an-seTmo;  Lat.  ANSEL'MUS  ; 
Sp.  ANSELMO,  an-seTmo. 

ANTONY  or  ANTHONY,  pronounced  alike  an'to-ne  ; 
Danish,  ANTON,  tn'ton  ;  Dutch,  ANTON,  ai/ton,  or  AN- 
TOON,  an'ton,  or  ANTONIUS,  an-u/ne-us;  Fr.  ANTOINE, 
6.N'twan';  Ger.  AN  TON,  an'ton  ;  It.  ANTONIO,  an-U/ne-o  ; 
Lat.  ANTO'NIUS;  Port.  ANTONIO,  an-to'ne-o  ;  Sp.  AN 
TONIO,  an-to'ne-o  ;  Sw.  ANTON,  ai/ton. 

AQUILES.     See  ACHILLES. 

AKABEI/LA,  (a  "fair  altar"?)  Dutch,  ARABELLA,  a-ra- 
bel'Ia;  Fr.  ARADELI.E,  t'ra'bgl';  Ger.  ARABELLE,  a-ra- 
beKleh  ;  It.  ARABELLA,  a-ri-bel'la;  Lat.  ARABEI/LA. 

ARCHIBALD,  ai'che-bauld ;  Fr.  ARCHAMBAUD,  fk'- 
/;  Lat.  ARCHIUAL'DUS. 

AKISTARCIIUS,  ar-is-tar'kus,  ("best  prince;")  Fr. 
ARISTARQUK,  S'les'tauk';  Ger.  ARISTARCHUS,  a-ris-taR'- 
Kus  ;  Gr.  'Apicrap^of,  ( Aristarchos  ; )  Lat.  ARISTAR'CHUS. 

A-RIS-TO-BU'I.US,  ("excellent  counsellor;")  Fr.  ARIS- 
TOBULE,  S'res'to'bul';  Gr.  'ApiaroSovXof,  ( Aristoboitlos  ;) 
It.  ARISTOBULO,  a-res-to-boo'lo  ;  Lat.  ARISTOBU'LUS. 

ARMAND  or  ARMANT.     See  HERMANN. 

ARNOLD,  ar'nold  ;  Fr.  ARNAUD,  tk'n5';  Ger.  ARNOLD, 
aR'nolt;  It.  ARNALDO,  aR-nal'do;  Lat.  ARNOL'DUS  or 
ARNAI/DUS. 

AR'THUR;  Fr.  ARTHUR,  fu'tiiR',  or  ARTUS,  ta'tiis'; 
It.  ARTURO,  aR-too'ro;  Lat.  ARTHU'RUS. 

ATIIANASIUS,  ath-a-na'she^us,  ("immortal;")  Fr. 
ATHANASK,  S'tt'nfz';  Gr.  'AOaraaioc,  ( Athanasios;)  It. 
ATANASIO,  a-ta-na'se-o  ;  Lat.  ATHANA'SIUS. 

AU-GUS'TA,  ("venerable;")  Danish,  AUGUSTE,  ow- 
goos'teh  ;  Dutch,  AUGUSTE,  ow-Gus'teh  ;  Fr.  AUGUSTE, 
o'giist';  Ger.  AUGUSTE,  ow-gdos'teh,  or  AUGUSTA,  O\T- 
goo.s'til;  It.  AUGUSTA,  ow-goos'ta ;  Lat.  AUGUS'TA. 

AUGUSTINE,  aw'gus-tin,  or  aw-gus'tin.t  ("  venerable;") 
Dutch,  AUGUSTINUS,  ow-Giis-tee'iuis,  or  AUGUSTIJN, 
ow'Gus-tln';  Fr.  AUGUSTIN,  5'giis'taN';  It.  AUGUSTINCJ, 
ow-goos-tee'no  ;  Lat.  AUGUSTI'NUS  ;  Port.  AGOSTINHO, 
a-gos-ten'yo  ;  Sp.  AUGUSTIN,  ovv-goos-ten'. 

AU-GUS'TUS;  Danish,  AUGUST,  ow'gust ;  Dutch,  AU 
GUSTUS,  ovv-Giis'tiis ;  Fr.  AUGUSTE,  o'giist7;  Ger.  AU 
GUST,  ovv'gust ;  It.  AUGUSTO,  ow-goos'to  ;  Lat.  AUGUS'- 
TUS  ;  Sw.  AUGUST,  ow'gust. 

AURELIUS,  aw-ree'le-us  ;  Fr.  AURELE,  5'riK;  Ger.  Au- 
RELIUS,  ow-ra'le-us  ;  It.  AURELIO,  ow-ra'le-o. 

AVRAAM.     See  ABRAHAM. 

BAI.DASSARE.     See  BALTHASAR. 

BALDWIN,  (a  "bold  winner  ;")  Danish,  BALDUiN,balcK- 
oo-een'  or  bald' ween  ;  Dutch,  BOUDEWIJN,  bovv'cleh-win'; 
Fr.  BAUDOUIN,  bo'doo-aN';  Ger.  BALDUIN,  bal'doo-een'; 
It.  BALDOVINO,  bal-do-vee'no ;  Lat.  BALDUI'NUS. 

*  See  Disputed  or  Doubtful  Pronunciations,  p.  2344. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 5,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fat;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 
2328 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


BALTHASAR,  bal'taz-ar,  ("without  treasure"?)  Dutch, 
BALTHASAR,  bal'ta'sar  ;  Fr.  BALTHAZAR  or  BALTHASAR, 
baTtii  Z&R';  It.  BALDASSARE,  bal-das-sa'ra  ;  Lat.  BAL- 
THA'SAR,  (genitive,  BALTHAS'ARIS  ;)  Sp.  BALTASAR,  bal- 
ta-san'. 

BAP'TTST,  (a  "  baptizer  ;")  Fr.  BAPTISTE,  bip'test'; 
Ger.  BAPTIST,  bap'tist  ;  It.  BATTISTA,  bat-tes'ta  ;  Lat. 
BAPTIS'TA  ;  Port.  BAPTISTA,  bap-tes'ta  ;  Sp.  BAUTISTA, 
bow-tes'ta. 

BARIJARA,  bar'ba-ra,  ("foreign,"  "stranger;")  Dutch, 
BARHARA,  baR'ba-ra  ;  Fr.  BARBE,  binb  ;  Ger.  BARBARA, 
baR'ba-ra;  It.  BARBARA,  baR'ba-ra;  Lat.  BAR'BARA. 

BAR'DULPH,  (a  "famous  helper"?)  Fr.  BARDOLPHE, 
btk'dolf';  It.  BARDOLFO,  baR-dol'fo;  Lat.  BARDUL'PHUS. 

BARKND.     See  BERNARD. 

BARNAHAS,  bar'na-bas,  or  BARNABY,  bar'na-be,  (a 
"  son  of  consolation  ;")  Danish,  BARNABAS,  baR'na-bts  ; 
Dutch,  BARNABAS,  baR'na-bas  ;  Fr.  BARNABE,  btit'- 
nf  'ba';  Ger.  BARNABAS,  baR'na-bas  ;  It.  BARNABA,  baR'- 
na-ba;  Lat.  BAR'NABAS,  (genitive,  BAR'NAB^E;)  Sp.  BEK- 
NABE,  b§R-na-ba'. 

BAR-THOI/O-MEW,  ("warlike  son"?)  Danish,  BAR- 
THoi.oM.'EUS,  baR-to-lo-ma'us  ;  Dutch,  BARTHOLOMEUS, 
baR-tol-o-ma'us;  Fr.  BAKTHELKMI,  baVtal'me';  Ger. 
BARTHOLOMAUS,  baR-to-lo-ma/iis  ;  It.  BARTULOMMEU, 
baR-to-lom-ma'o  ;  Lat.  BARTHOLOMAC'US  ;  Port.  BAR- 
THOLOMEU,  baR-to-lo-me'oo  ;  Russ.  VARFOLOMEI,  vai<- 
fol-o-ma'e  ;  Sp.  BARTOLOME,  baR-to-lo-ma';  Sw.  BAR 
THOLOMAUS,  baR-to-lo-ma'us. 

BASIL,  ba'zil,  ("kingly;")  Danish,  BASILIUS,  ba-see'- 
le-us  ;  Dutch,  BASILIUS,  ba-see'le-iis  ;  Fr.  BASILE,  bt'- 
/el';  Ger.  BASILIUS,  ba-zee'le-us  ;  Gr.  Baut'Aetoc,  (Basi- 


leios,)  or  Baff^wf,  (Basilios;)  It.  BASILIO,  ba-see'le-o  ; 
Lat.  BASII/IUS  ;  Russ.  VASILII,  va-see'lee  or  v3.-sel'ye  ; 
Sw.  BASILIUS,  ba-sn'le-us. 

BAUDOUIN.     See  BALDWIN. 

BEATRICE,  bee'a-triss,  ("making  happy;")  Danish, 
BEATRIX,  bi-a'tRiks  ;  Dutch,  BEATRIX,  ba-a'tRiks  ;  Fr. 


BEATRICE,  ba'ft'tRess';  Ger.  BEATRIX,  ba-a'tRiks,  or 
BEATRICE,  ba-i-tReet'seh  ;  It.  BEATRICE,  ba-a-tree'cha  ; 
Lat.  BEA'TRIX,  (genitive,  BEATRI'CIS  ;)  Sp.  BEATRIZ, 
ba-a-tre///;  Sw.  BEATRIX,  ba-a'tRiks. 

BENEDETTA.     See  BENEDICTA. 

BEN'E-DICT  or  BEN'NET,  ("blessed;")  Danish,  BENE- 


nlke;)  It.  BERENICE,  ba-ra-nee'cha  ;  Lat.  BERENICE, 
(genitive,  BERENICES.) 

BERNABE.     See  BARNABAS. 

BERNARD,  ber'nard,  ("  strong  or  hardy  bear  ;"*)  Da 
nish,  BERNHARD,  beRn'haR^/;  Dutch,  BERN-HAR'DUS  or 
BAREND,  ba'r^nt  ;  Fr.  BERNARD,  bek'ntR';  Ger.  BERN- 
HARD,  bgRn'haRt  ;  It.  BERNARDO,  b§R-naRrdo;  Lat. 
BERNAR'DUS;  Sw.  BERNHARD,  bfiRn'haRd. 

BERNICE.     See  BERENICE. 

BERTHA,  ber'tha,  ("bright"  or  "famous;")  Dutch, 
BERTHA,  beVta;  Fr.  BERTHE,  beiu  ;  Ger.  BERTHA, 


;  Lat.  BER'THA;  Sw.  BERTHA, 


bcR'ta;  It.  BERTA, 
beVta. 

BERTRAM,  ber'tram,  ("  fair,"  "  illustrious  ;")  Fr.  BER- 
TRAND,  b§R'tR6N';  Ger.  BERTRAM,  beit'tRam. 

BIAGIO.     See  BLASE. 

BIANCA.     See  BLANCH. 

BIRGITTE.     See  BRIDGET. 

BLANCH,  blantch,  ("  white  ;")  Danish,  BLANCA,  bltng'- 
ka;  Dutch,  BLANCA,  blang'ka  ;  Fr.  BLANCHE,  blS.Nsh  ; 
Ger.  BLANCA  or  BLANKA,  blang'ka;  It.  BIANCA,  be-an'- 
ka;  Lat.  BLAN'CHA;  Sp.  BLANCA,  blJng'kd  ;  Sw. 
BLANKA,  blang'ka. 

BLASE,  blaz,  ("sprouting  forth;")  Danish,  BI.ASIUS, 
bla'se-iis  ;  Dutch,  BLASIUS,  bla'se-iis;  Fr.  BLAISE,  bl.\z  ; 
Ger.  BLASIUS,  bla'ze-us  ;  It.  BIAGIO,  be-a'jo  ;  Lat.  BLA'- 
sius,  (bla'she-us  ;)  Sp.  BLAS,  bias;  Sw.  BLASIUS,  bla'- 
se-us. 

BONA,  bo'na,  ("good;")  Fr.  BONNE,  bon  ;  Lat.  BO'NA. 
BONAVENTURE,  boi/a-ven'tur,  ("good  fortune;")  Fr. 

BONAVENTURE,  bo'nt'vS.N'tUR';  It.  BONAVENTURA,  bo- 

na-ven-too'ra  ;  Lat.  BONAVENTU'RA. 

BONIFACE,  bon'e-fass,  (a  "  well-doer  ;")  Danish,  BONI- 
FACIUS,  bo-ne-fa'se-iis  ;  Dutch,  BONIFACIUS,  bo-ne-fa'- 
se-iis;  Fr.  BONIFACE,  bo'ne'ftss';  Ger.  BONIFAZ,  bo-ne- 
fats',  or  BONIFACIUS,  bo-ne-fat'se-iis  ;  It.  BONIFACIO, 
bo-ne-fa'cho;  Lat.  BONIFA'CIUS,  (bon-e-fa'she-us  ;)  Sw. 


BONIFACIUS,  bo-ne-fa'se-us. 
BONNE.     See  BONA. 
BOUDEWIJN.     See  BALDWIN. 

BRIDGET  or  BRIGIT,  brij'it,  ("shining  bright;")  Da 
nish,  BIRGITTE,  begR-git'teh  ;  Dutch,  BRIGITTA,  bRe-n!t'- 
ta;  Fr.  BRIGITTE,  bRe'zhet';  Ger.  BRIGITTE,  bRe-git'teh  ; 

nicr,  ba'neh-dlkt';  Dutch,  BENEDICTS,  ba-neh-dik'tus  ;  i  Tt'  BKIC;I™.  bRee'je-da,  or   BRIGITA,  bRee'je-ta ;  Lat. 
Fr.  BENOIT,  beh-nwa';    Ger.    BENEDICT,    ba'neh-dlkt';  j  BRIG'IDA  5  Sp.  BR.GIDA,  bRee'ne-Da. 
It.  BENEDETTO,  ba-na-det'to ;    Lat.  BENEDIC'TUS  ;  Sp. 
BENITO,  bk-nee'to,  or  BENEDICTO,  ba-na-dek'to ;    Sw. 
BENGT,  bengt. 

BENEDICTA,  ben-e-dik'ta,  ("blessed,"  feminine;)  Fr. 


BENOITE,  beh-nwat';  It.  BEXEDETTA,  ba-na-det'td;  Lat. 
BENEDIC'TA;  Sp.  BENITA,  ba-nee'ti. 

BENGT.     See  BENEDICT. 

BENJAMIN,  (the  "son  of  a  right  hand;")  Danish,  BEN 
JAMIN,  be'n'ya-meen';  Fr.  BENJAMIN,  bSN'zhS'maN'; 
Ger.  BENJAMIN,  ben'ya-meen';  It.  BENIAMINO,  be"n-ya- 
mee'no  ;  Lat.  BENJAMI'NUS. 

BENNET.     See  BENEDICT. 

BKNO!T.     See  BENEDICT. 

BENOITE.     See  BENEDICTA. 

BERENICE,  b§r-e-ni'se,  or  BERNICE,  ber'nlss,  ("bringing 


CECILIA.     See  CECILIA. 
C/ECILIUS.     See  CECIL. 

see'zar,  ("adorned  with  hair;")  Danish, 
sa'sar ;  Fr.  CESAR,  .sa'ztk';  Ger.  CASAR  or 
CAESAR,  tsa'zaR  ;  It.  CESAKE,  cha'sa-ra ;  Lat.  C/K'SAR, 
(genitive,  C/ES'ARIS  ;)  Sp.  CESAR,  tha'saR. 

CAMILLA,  ka-mil'la;   Fr.  CAMILLE,  kt'mel'  or  kt'- 
me'ye;  It.  CAMILLA,  ka-mel'la;  Lat.  CAMIL'LA. 


victory;")  Fr.  BERENICE,  ba'ra'ness';  Gr. 


ri,  (Here- 


*  A  name  naturally  applied,  in  rude  times,  to  a  hero  in  a  country 
where  the  bear  was  the  most  remarkable  type  of  strength,  courage, 
and  endurance.  In  the  case  of  Alp-Arslan  (i.e.  "strong  lion")  we 
have  a  similar  epithet  appropriate  to  an  Oriental  country  where  lions 
abound,  but  applied  to  a  single  individual,  and  not,  like  Bernard,  em 
ployed  as  a  common  name.  Some  writers  give  "  bear's  heart"  as  the 
true  signification  of  Bernard,  (P.ernhart,)  an  expression  similar  to 
the  surname  (Cceur  de  Lion)  by  which  Richard  I.  of  England  was 
so  widely  known. 


€  as  K;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (JtJT^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2329 


VOCABULARY  CF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


CA-MII/LUS;  Fr.  CAMILLE,  kt'mel'  or  kt'me'ye. 

CARL.     See  CHARLES. 

CARLO.     See  CHARLES. 

CARLOTTA  or  CARI.OTA.     See  CHARLOTTE. 

CAROLINE,  kar'o-Hn  ;  Danish,  CAROLINE,  ka-ro-lee'- 
neh ;  Dutch,  CAROLINA,  ka-ro-lee'na ;  Fr.  CAROLINE, 
kt'ro'len';  Ger.  CAROLINE  or  KAROLINE,  ka-ro-lee'neh  ; 
It.  CAROLINA,  ka-ro-lee'na ;  Lat.  CAROLI'NA  ;  Svv. 
KAROLINA,  ka-ro-lee'na. 

CASPAR.     See  JASPER. 

CASSANDRA,  kas-san'dra  ;  Fr.  CASSANDRE,  kf'sSNdR'; 
It.  CASSANDRA,  kas-san'dRa  ;  Lat.  CASSAN'DRA. 

CATALINA.     See  CATHERINE. 

CATHERINE  or  CATHARINE,  kath'a-rin,  ("pure;") 
Danish,  CATHARINE,  ka-ta-ree'neh ;  Dutch,  CATHA- 
RINA,  ka-ta-ree'na ;  Fr.  CATHERINE,  kft'ien';  Ger. 
KATHARINE,  ka-ta-ree'neh  ;  Gr.  Kadapivr],  (Katharine ;) 
It.  CATERINA,  ka-ta-ree'na ;  Lat.  CATHARI'NA;  Russ. 
EKATKRINA,  a-ka-ta-ree'na,  or  YEKATERINA,  ya-ka-ta- 
ree'na;  Sp.  CATALINA,  ka-ta-lee'na;  Sw.  KATARINA, 
ka-ta-iee'na. 

CEC/IL,  ("dim-sighted;")  Dutch,  CECILIUS,  sa-see'- 
le-iis;  Fr.  CECILE,  sa'sel',  (rare;)  Lat.  C.^CIL'IUS. 

CECILIA,  se-sil'e-a;  Dutch,  CECILIA,  sa-see'le-a ;  Fr. 
CECILE,  sa'sel';  It.  CECILIA,  chi-chee'le-a;  Lat.  CXL- 
CIL'IA. 

CESAR.     See  C.tSAR. 

CESARE.     See  CAESAR. 

CHARLES,  charlz,  ("  manly"  or  "  noble-spirited  ;")  Da 
nish,  CARL,  kaRl ;  Dutch,  KAREL,  ka'rel ;  Fr.  CHARLES, 
shSid ;  Ger.  KARL,  kaRl;  It.  CARLO,  kaK'Io;  Lat. 
CAR'OLUS;  Sp.  CARLOS,  k*aR'16s ;  Sw.  KARL,  kaRl. 

CHARLOTTE,  shar'lot,  ("noble-spirited;")  Danish, 
CHARLOTTE,  shaR-lot'teh  ;  Dutch,  CHARLOTTA,  shaR- 
lot'ta;  Fr.  CHARLOTTE,  shaVlot';  Ger.  CHARLO'ITE, 
shaR-lot'teh  ;  It.  CARLOTTA,  kaR-lot'ta;  Lat.  CAROLET'- 
TA  ;  Sp.  CARLOTA,  kaR-lo'ta;  Sw.  CHARLOTTA,  shaR- 
lot'ta. 

CHLOE,  klo'e,  (a  "young  shoot,"  a  "green  herb;") 
Fr.  CIII.OE,  klo'a';  Gr.  XAO;>,  (Chloe;)  Lat.  CHLO'E, 
(genitive,  CHLO'ES.) 

CHRISTINA,  kris-tl'na  or  kris-tee'na ;  Dutch,  CHRIS 
TINA,  kRis-tee'na;  Fr.  CHRISTINE,  kRes'ten';  Ger. 
CHRISTIANA,  kRls-te-i'ni;  It.  CRISTINA,  kRes-tee'na. 

CHRISTOPHER,  kris'to-fer,  ("bearing  Christ;"*)  Da 
nish,  CHRISTOFFER,  kRis'tof-fer;  Dutch,  CHRISTOPHO- 
RUS,  kRis-to'fo-rus ;  Fr.  CHRISTOPHE,  kRes'tof;  Ger. 
CHRISTOPII,  ki<ls'tof ;  Gr.  Xpiaroijx'ipof,  (  Christophoros ;* ) 
It.  CRISTOFORO,  kRes-tof'o-ro ;  Lat.  CHRISTOPH'ORUS; 
Port.  CHRISTOVAO,  kRes-to-vowN';  Sp.  CRISTOVAL, 
kRes-to'vdl;  Sw.  KRISTOFER,  kRls'to-fer. 

CIIRYSOSTOM,  krls'os-tom,  (  "golden -mouthed ;") 
Dutch,  CHRYSOSTOMUS,  kRe-sos'to-mus ;  Fr.  CHRYSO- 
STOME,  kRe'zo'stSm';  Gr.  Xpvaoaro/j.of,  ( C/irysostomos : ) 
It.  CRISOSTOMO,  kRe-sos'to-mo  ;  Lat.  CHRYSOS'TOMUS. 

CIPRIANO.     See  CYPRIAN. 

CIRILI.O.     See  CYRIL. 


*  According  to  an  old  legend,  he  was  called  Christophoros  (from 
Xpio-To«,  "Christ,"  and  <£«'peo,  to  "bear")  because  he  bore  the  infant 
Saviour  across  a  raging  stream.  (See  Mrs.  JAMESON'S  "  Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art.") 


GIRO.     See  CYRUS. 

CLARA,  klar'a,  or  CLAIRE,  kl^r,  ("clear,"  "bright," 
"illustrious;")  Danish,  CLARA,  kla'ra ;  Dutch,  CLARA, 
kla'ra;  Fr.  CLARA,  klt'it';  Ger.  KLARA,  kla'ra;  It. 
CLARA,  kla'ra;  Lat.  CLA'RA;  Sw.  KLARA,  kla'ra. 

CLAUDIA,  klaw'de-a;  Dutch,  CLAUDIA,  klow'de-a  ; 
Fr.  CLAUDIE,  klo'cle';  It.  CLAUDIA,  klow'de-i;  Lat. 
CLAU'DIA;  Sw.  KLAUDIA,  klow'de-a. 

CLAUDIUS,  klaw'de-us  ;  Danish,  CLAUDIUS,  klow'de- 
us;  Dutch,  CLAUDIUS,  klowMe-iis  ;  Fr.  CLAUDE,  klod  ; 
It.  CI.AUDIO,  klow'de-o ;  Lat.  CI.AU'DIUS;  Sw.  KLAU- 
nius,  klow'de-us. 

CLEM'ENT,  ("mild-tempered;")  Danish,  CLEMENS, 
kla'mens;  Fr.  CLEMENT,  kla'moN'';  Ger.  CLKMENS, 
klem'ens  ;  It.  CLEMENTE,  kla-men'ta  ;  Lat.  CI.E'MENS, 
(genitive,  CLEMEN'TIS  ;)  Sp.  CLEMENTE,  kla-men'ta. 

CON'RAD,  ("able  counsel;")  Danish,  CONRAD,  kon'- 
raV/,-  Dutch,  KoENRAAD,  koon'rat;  Fr.  CONRAD,  k6N'- 
rSd';  Ger.  CONRAD,  kon'rat ;  It.  COKKADO,  kor-ra'do, 
or  CURADO,  koo-ra'do;  Lat.  CONRA'DUS  ;  Sw.  KONRAD, 
kon'rad. 

CONSTANCE,  koi/stanss,  ("constant ;")  Dutch,  CON- 
STANTIA,  kon-stan'se-a,  (almost  kon-stan'she-3. ;)  Fr. 
CONSTANCE,  koN'stfiNss';  It.  COSTANZA,  ko-stan'za ; 
Lat.  CONSTAN'TIA,  (kon-stan'she-a ;)  Sp.  CONSTANCIA, 
kon-stdn'Me-a. 

CONSTANTINE,  kon'stan-tlii,  ("resolute;")  Danish, 
CONSTANTIN,  kon'sttn-teen';  Dutch,  KONSTANTIJN, 
kon'stan-tln';  Fr.  CONSTANTIN,  kiN'stSN'taN1';  Gr. 
KuvaruvTivor,  ( Konstantinos ; )  It.  CONSTANTINO,  kon- 
stdn-tee'no ;  Lat.  CONSTANTI'NUS. 

CORDELIA,  kor-dee'le-a ;  Fr.  CORDELIE,  koR'da'le'. 

CORNELIUS,  kor-nee'le-us  ;  Danish,  CORNELIUS,  kok- 
na'le-iis;  Dutch,  KORNELIS  or  CORNELIS,  koR-na'lis  ; 
Fr.  CORNEILLE,  koR'nil'  or  kok'nVye  ;  It.  COKNKLIO, 
koR-na'le-o  ;  Lat.  CORNE'LIUS  ;  Sp.  CORNELIO,  koii-na'- 
le-o. 

CORRADO.     See  CONRAD. 

COSTANZA.     See  CONSTANCE. 

CRISOSTOMO.     See  CIIRYSOSTOM. 

CRIS'PIN;  Dutch,  KRISPIJN,  kids'pin;  Fr.  CREPIN, 
'paN';  It.  CRISPING,  kRes-pee'no;  Sw.  KRISPIN, 
kitis-peen'. 

CRISTINA.     See  CHRISTINA. 

CRISTOFORO.     See  CHRISTOPHER. 

CRISTOVAL.     See  CHRISTOPHER. 

CURADO.     See  CONRAD. 

CYPRIAN,  sip're-an  ;  Dutch,  CYPRIAAN,  see'pRe-Sn; 
Fr.  CYPRIEN,  se'pRe'aN';  Ger.  CYPRIAN,  tsee'pRe-an ; 
It.  CIPRIANO,  che-pRe-a'no;  Lat.  CYPRIA'NUS;  Port. 
CYPRIANO,  se-pRe-a'no;  Sp.  CIPRIANO,  Me-pRe-d'no. 

CYRIL,  slr'il,  ("little  Cyrus;")  Danish,  CYRILLUS, 
se-ril'lus;  Dutch,  CYRILLUS,  se-ril'ltis;  Fr.  CYRILLE, 
se'reK;  It.  CIRILI.O,  che-rel'io;  Lat.  CYRIL'LUS. 

CYRUS,  sl'riis ;  Fr.  CYRUS,  se'i  tis';  Ger.  CYRUS, 
tsee'rus;  Gr.  Kvpof,  (Kuros;)  It.  ClRO,  chee'ro  ;  Lat. 
CY'RUS;  Sp.  GIRO,  ^ee'ro. 

DANIEL,  dan'yel,  ("  God  is  judge  ;")  Danish,  DANIEL, 
da'ne-el ;  Dutch,  DANIEL,  da'ne-el  ;  Fr.  DANIEL,  dS'- 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moor.; 
233° 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


ne'61';  Ger.  DANIEL,  da'ne-£l ;  Heb.  bx'JI;  It.  DANIELE, 
da-ne-a'la;  Lat.  DAN'IEL,  (genitive,  DANIE'LISJ)  Sp. 
DANIEL,  cla-ne-el'. 

DAVID,  da'vid,  ("beloved;")  Danish,  DAVID,  da'vi*/; 
Dutch,  DAVID,  da'vit ;  Fr.  DAVID,  df'ved';  Ger.  DAVID, 
da'vit;  Heb.  in  or  TH ;  It.  DAVIDE,  da-'ve-da,  or 
DAVIDDE,  da-ved'di  ;  Lat.  DA'VID,  "(genitive,  DAV'IDIS.) 

DEBORAH,  deb'o-ia,  (a  "bee;")  Dutch,  DEBORA,  da- 
bo'ra  ;  Fr.  DEBORA,  da'bo'rt';  Heb.  mai ;  It.  DEBORA, 
da'bo-ra;  Lat.  DEB'ORA. 

DEMETRIUS,  de-mee'tre-us,  ("sprung  from  the  earth" 
or  "from  Ceres;")  Fr.  DEMETRIUS,  da'ma'tRe'iis';  Gr. 
Ayuf/Tpiof,  (Demetrios;)  It.  DKMETRIO,  da-ma'tRe-o ; 
Lat.  DEME'TRIUS;  Russ.  DMITRI,  dmee'tree. 

DEN'IS  or  DIONYSIUS,  dl-o-nish'e-us ;  Danish,  Dio- 
NYSIUS,  de-o-nee'se-us  ;  Dutch,  DIONYSIUS,  de-o-nee' 
se-us  ;  Fr.  DENIS  or  DENYS,  deh-ne';  Ger.  DIONYS, 
de-o-nees';  Gr.  Atovi'wof,  (Dioimsios  ;)  It.  DlONlGiO, 
de-o-nee'jo ;  Lat.  DIONYS'IUS,  (di-o-nish'e-us  ;)  Sp.  Dio- 
NISIO,  de-o-nee'se-o. 

DE'O-DATE,  ("given  by  God;")  Fr.  DIEUDONNE, 
de-uh'do'na';  It.  DEODATO,  da-o-da'to ;  Lat.  DEOD'- 
ATUS. 

DERRIK  or  DIEDERIK.     See  THEODERICK. 

DIANA,  dl-an'a,  or  DIAN,  di'an ;  Danish,  DIANA,  de- 
a'ni;  Fr.  DIANE,  de'tn';  Ger.  DIANA,  de-a'na;  Gr. 
'Apreuif,  (Artemis;)  It.  DIANA,  de-a'na;  Lat.  DIA'NA. 

DIDO,  dl'do;  Fr.  DIDON,  de'd6N';  It.  DIDONE,  de- 
do'na;  Lat.  DI'DO,  (genitive,  DIDO'NIS.) 

DIDYMUS,  did'e-mus,  (a  "twin;")  Fr.  DIDYME,  cle'- 
dem';  Gr.  A'i6vuof,  (Diditmos ;)  Lat.  DID'YMUS. 

DIEGO.     See  JAMES. 

DIETRICH.     See  THEODERICK. 

DIEUDONNE.     See  DEODATE. 

DIOGO.     See  JAMES. 

DIONIGIO  or  DIONISIO.     See  DENIS. 

DIRK  or  DIRCK,  (the  same  as  DIEDERICK.)  See 
THEODERICK. 

DMITRI.     See  DEMETRIUS. 

DOMINIC,  dom'e-nik;  Danish,  DOMINICUS,  do-mee'- 
ne-kus  ;  Dutch,  DOMINICUS,  do-mee'ne-kus ;  Fr.  DO 
MINIQUE,  do'me'nek';  It.  DOMENICO,  do-ma'ne-ko; 
Lat.  DOMIN'ICUS;  Port.  DOMINGOS,  do-meiigrg6s ;  Sp. 
DOMINGO,  do-meng'go ;  Sw.  DOMINICUS,  do-mee'ne- 
kus. 

DOROTHY,  doivo-^e,  (the  "  gift  of  God ;")  Danish, 
DOROTHEA,  do-ro-ta'a;  Dutch,  DOROTHEA,  do-ro-ta'i; 
Fr.  DOROTHEE,  do'ro'ta';  Ger.  DOROTHEA,  do-ro-ta'a ; 
Gr.  Awpofc'a,  (Dorothea  ;)  It.  DOROTEA,  do-ro-ta'a ;  Lat. 
DOROTHE'A;  Sp.  DOROTEA, do-ro-ta'a;  Sw.  DOROTHEA, 
do-ro-tii'a. 

DRUSILLA,  dru-sil'la,  ("dewy  eyes;")  Fr.  DRUSILLE, 
dRii'zel';  Ger.  DRUSILLE,  dRoo-zil'leh;  Gr.  bpovc'MT], 
(Drousille :)  It.  DRUSILLA,  duoo-sel'la;  Lat.  DRUSIL'LA. 

DUARTE.     See  EDWARD. 

EBERHARD.     See  EVERARD. 
ED'GAR,  ("  happy  honour"  ?)  Lat.  EDGA'RUS. 
ED'MUND,  ("happy  protection"  or  "happy  peace;") 
Danish,  EDMUND,  ed'moon^/;    Fr.  EDMOND,  ed'm6N'; 


Ger.  EDMUND,  et'moont;  It.  EDMONDO,  ed-mon'du  ; 
Lat.  EDMUN'DUS  ;  Sp.  EDMONDO,  Sd-mon'do,  or  ED- 
MUNDO,  ed-moon'do. 

EDWARD,  eel' ward, ("happy  keeper;")  Danish, EDUARD, 
a'doo-aR^/;  Dutch,  EDUARD,  a'doo-aRt ;  Fr.  EDOUARD, 
a'doo'tit' ;  Ger.  EDUARD,  a'doo-aRt ;  It.  EDUARDO, 
a-doo-aR'do,  or  EDOARDO,  a-do-aR'do  ;  Lat.  EDVAR'DUS 
or  EDOAR'DUS  ;  Port.  DUARTE,  doo-aR'ta ;  Sp.  EDUAR 
DO,  a-Doo-aa'do  ;  Ssv.  EDUARD,  a'doo-aRd. 

ED'WIN,  (a  "happy  conqueror;")  Danish,  EDWIN, 
£d'vin;  Lat.  EDWI'NUS. 

EG'BERT,  ("ever  bright"?)  Lat.  EGBER'TUS. 

EHRENFRIED,  (Ger.)  a'ren-freet'. 

EIRENE.     See  IRENE. 

EKATERINA.     See  CATHERINE. 

ELEANOR,  el'e-nor ;  Danish,  ELEONORE,  a-la-o-no'reh; 
Dutch,  LEONORA,  la-o-no'ra;  Fr.  ELEONORE,  a'la'o'- 
HOR';  Ger.  ELEONORE,  a-la-o-no'reh ;  It.  ELEONORA, 
a-la-o-no'ra  ;  Lat.  ELEANO'RA  ;  Sp.  LEANOR,  la-a-noR'. 

EL'DRED,  (i.e.  "all  dread,"  hence  "terrible;")  Lat. 
ELDRE'DUS. 

EL-E-A'ZAR,  (the  "help  of  God  ;")  Lat.  ELEA'ZAR,  (gen 
itive,  ELEAZ'ARIS.) 

ELENA.     See  HELEN. 

ELIAS,  e-ll'as,  or  ELIJAH,  e-ll'ja,  ("God  the  Lord;") 
Danish,  ELIAS,  a-lee'as ;  Fr.  EI.IE,  i'le';  Ger.  ELIAS, 
a-lee'as;  Heb.  irrSx  or  n'^S ;  It.  ELLA,  a-lee'a;  Lat. 
ELI'AS. 

ELIJAH.     See  ELIAS. 

ELISA  or  ELISE.     See  ELIZA. 

ELISABETH.     See  ELIZABETH. 

ELISABETTA.     See  ELIZABETH. 

ELISHA,  e-ll'sha,  (the  "  salvation  of  God  ;")  Fr.  ELISEE, 
a'le'za';  Heb.  >'jy*Sx ;  It.  ELISEO,  a-le-sa'o ;  Lat. 
ELIS^E'US;  Port.  ELISEU,  a-le-sa'oo?  Sp.  ELISEO,  a-le- 
sa'o. 

ELIZA,  e-li'za ;  Danish,  ELISA,  a-lee'sa  ;  Dutch,  ELISA, 
a-lee'sa;  Fr.  ELISE,  i'lez';  Ger.  ELISA,  a-lee'za;  Lat. 
ELI'ZA  or  ELI'SA. 

ELIZABETH,  e-liz'a-beth,  (the  "  oath  of  God  ;")  Danish, 
ELISABETH,  a-lee'sa-bet ;  Dutch,  ELIZABETH,  a-lee'zi- 
bSt;  Fr.  ELISABETH,  a'le'zf 'bet';  Ger.  ELISABETH, a-Iee'- 
za-b^t';  It.  ELISABETTA,  a-le-sa-bet'ta;  Lat.  ELIZABE'- 
THA  ;  Sp.  ISABEL,  e-si-bel'. 

ELLEN.     See  HELEN. 

ELSE  or  ELSA.     See  ALICE. 

ELSJE.     See  ALICE. 

EMANUF.L.     See  EMMANUEL 

EM'ER-icor  EMERY,  em'er-e,  ("  always  rich;")  Danish, 
ALMERIK,  fl'meh-r5k';  Dutch,  ALMERIK,  al'meh-rlk; 
Fr.  EMERIC,  am'rek',  or  EMERI,  am're';  Lat.  ALMERI'- 
cus ;  Sw.  EM'MER-IK. 

EMILIA,  e-mil'e-a,  or  EMILY,  em'e-le;  Fr.  EMILIE, 
a'me'le';  Ger.  EMILIE,  a-mee'le-eh,  or  EMILIA,  i-mee'- 
le-a;  It.  EMILIA,  a-mee'le-a. 

EM'MA,  (a  "nurse;")  Fr.  EMMA,  i'mt';  It.  EMMA, 
e"m'ma ;  Lat.  EM'MA. 

EM-MAN'U-EL  or  E-MAN'U-EL,  ("God  with  us  ;")  Fr. 
EMMANUEL,  i'mf'nii'Sl';  Ger.  EMANUEL,  a-ma'noo-51, 


1011,     AJ  i_/ .»i*j  !•*  i^,     via    llJWIIltj          i    1.    Xjl^.viWi>  LJt    tu    IIILf.>(     ,        11..M  .M.^iN  U  £-!>,      d   Illtl   Illl   Cl    ;     VJCI.      H,.M.-\.>  U  F-l>,     d-lllu    IIUO-CI, 

€  as  k;  9  as  s;%hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  TH,guttitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.)* 

2331 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN  N4MES. 


or  IMMANUEL,  im-ma'noo-€i ;  It.  EMANUELE,  i-mi-noo- 
a'li ;  Lat.  EMMAN'UEL  ;  Port.  MANGEL,  ma-no-eY;  Sp. 
MANUEL,  ma-noo-gl'. 

EMMERIK.     See  EMERIC. 

ENOCH,  ee'n9k,  ("  instructed ;")  Fr.  ENOCH  or  HE- 
NOCH,  i'nok';  Heb.  "jUTI ;  Lat.  ENO'CHUS  or  HENO'- 
CHUS. 

ENRICHETTA  or  ENRIQUETA.     See  HARRIET. 

ENRICO.     See  HENRY. 

E'PHRA-IM,  ("fruitful;")  Fr.  EPHRAIM,  a'fRt'dm' ; 
Heb.  D'HSX  ;  Lat.  EPHRAI'MUS. 

E-RAS'MUS,  ("lovely;")  Danish,  ERASMUS,  a-rfs'rr.us  ; 
Fr.  ERASME,  a'rism';  Ger.  ERASMUS,  a-ras'miis  ;  Gr. 
'Epao/i6f,  (Erasmos  ;)  It.  ERASMO,  a-ras'mo;  Lat.  ERAS'- 
MUS  ;  Sp.  ERASMO,  a-ras'mo. 

E-RAS'TUS,  ("beloved;")  Fr.  ERASTE,  a'rist';  Gr. 
'Epaarof,  ( Erastos ; )  Lat.  ERAS'TUS. 

ERCOLE.     See  HERCULES. 

ER'NEST,  ("earnest;")  Danish,  ERNST,  e"Rnst ;  Dutch, 
ERNESTUS,  e"R-nes'tiis  ;  Fr.  ERNEST,  CR'ne'st';  Ger. 
ERNST,  e"Rnst ;  It.  ERNESTO,  6R-nes'to ;  Lat.  ERNES'- 
TUS  ;  S\v.  ERNST,  e"Rnst. 

ERRICO.     See  HENRY. 

ESAIAS.     See  ISAIAH. 

E'SAU,  ("completed  ;")  Fr.  ESAU,  a'zt'u';  Heb.  Wy ; 
Lat.  ESA'VUS. 

ESDRAS.     See  EZRA. 

ESTHER,  es'ter,  ("secret;")  Dutch,  HESTER,  heVter; 
Fr.  ESTHER,  eVtaii*';  Ger.  ESTHER,  eVter  ;  Heb.  ir\DN  ; 
It.  ESTER,  eVtaiR';  Lat.  ESTHE'RA  ;  Sp.  ESTER,  ?s-taiR'. 

ESTEBAN.     See  STEPHEN. 

ESTEVAO.       See  STEPHE»\. 

ESTIENNE.     See  STEPHEN. 

ETH'EL-BALD,  ("nobly  bold;")  Lat.  ETHELBAL'DUS. 

ETHELBERT,  eth'el-bert,  ("nobly  bright ;")  Danish, 
ADELBERT,  a'del-be'Rt';  Dutch,  ADELBERT,  a'del-be'Rt'; 
Fr.  ADALBERT,  i'dtl'baiR',  or  ADELBERT,  S'deTbaiR'; 
Ger.  ADELBERT,  a'del-be'Rt';  Lat.  ETHELBER'TUS  or 
ADALBER'TUS. 

ETIENNE.     See  STEPHEN. 

ETTORE.     See  HECTOR. 

EUGENE,  u-jeen',  ("nobly  descended  ;")  Dutch,  EUGE- 
NIUS,  uh-Ha'ne-us  ;  Fr.  EUGENE,  uh'zhin';  Ger.  EUGEN, 
oi-gan';  Gr.  Ei^ewoc,  ( Eugenics  ;)  It.  EUGENIO,  §-oo-ja'- 
ne-o  ;  Lat.  EUGE'NIUS  ;  Sp.  EUGENIO,  |-oo-Ha'ne-o  ;  Sw. 
EUGENIUS,  5-oo-gu'ne-us. 

EUGENIA,  u-jee'ne-a  ;  Fr.  EUGENIE,  uh'zha'ne';  Gr. 
Ei}'£i'ia,  (Eugenia.) 

EUGENIO  or  EUGENIUS.     See  EUGENE. 

EUNICE,  u'niss,  ("fair  victory;")  Gr.  Ei'w'/o?,  (Eu- 
nike ;)  Lat.  EUNI'CE. 

EUSEBIUS, u-see'be-us,  ("religious;")  Fr.  EUSEBE, uh'- 
zib';  Gr.  Evattiof,  ( Eusebios : )  It.  EUSEBIO,  e'-oo-sa/be-o ; 
Lat.  EUSE'IUUS  ;  Sp.  EUSEBIO,  £-oo-sa'Be-o. 

EUSTACE,  u'stass,  ("standing  firm  ;")  Dutch,  EUSTA- 
Tius,  uh-sta'se-iis,  (almost  uh-sta'she-us ;)  Fr.  Eu- 
STACHE,  uh'stfsh' ;  It.  EUSTACHIO,  g-oo-sta'ke-o  ;  Lat. 
EUSTA'CHIUS  ;  Sp.  EUSTAQUIO,  e-oo-sta'ke-o. 


EVE,  eev,  ("life"  or  "causing  life;")  Arabic,  HAWA, 
na'wa  or  na'vt,  or  HEVA,  H§v'5 ;  Danish,  EVA,  a'vS ; 
Dutch,  EVA,  a'vS ;  Fr.  EVE,  iv ;  Ger.  EVA,  a'vJ ;  Gr. 
Eva,(£ua  or  Eva;)  Heb.  H1H  ;  It.  EVA,  a'va ;  Lat. 
E'VA  ;  Sp.  EVA,  a'vd ;  Sw.  EVA,  n'va. 

EVERARD,  ev'er-ard  ;  Danish,  EBERHARD,  a'ber-han/; 
Dutch,  EVERARD,  a'veh-raiu';  Ger.  EBERHARD,  a'ber- 
haRt'. 

EZECHIAS  or  EZECHIAS.     See  HEZEKIAH. 

EZEKIEL,  e-zee'ke-el,  (the  "strength  of  God  ;")  Dutch, 
EZECHIEL,  a-za'Ke-gl';  Fr.  EZECHIEL,  a'za'she-gK. 

EZRA,  ez'ra,  or  ESDRAS,  ez'dras,  (a  "helper;")  Fr. 
ESDRAS,  eVdRas';  Lat.  EZ'RA  or  ES'DRAS. 

FABIAN,  fa'be-an  ;  Danish,  FABIAN,  fa'be-f  n  ;  Dutch, 
FABIAAN,  fa'be-an'';  Fr.  FABIEN,  ft'be'aN';  It.  FABIANQ, 
fa-be-a'no ;  Lat.  FABIA'NUS. 

FEBE.     See  PHOEBE. 

FEDERIGO.     See  FREDERICK. 

FELICE.     See  FELIX. 

FELIPE.     See  PHILIP. 

FE'LIX,  ("happy;")  Danish,  FELIX,  fa'liks  ;  Dutch, 
FELIX,  fa'liks  ;  Fr.  FELIX,  fi'leks';  Ger.  FELIX,  fa'liks  ; 
It.  FELICE,  fa-lee'chi  ;  Lat.  FE'LIX,  (genitive,  FELI'CIS  ;) 
Sp.  FELIX,  fa-leks'. 

FEODOR.     See  THEODORE. 

FERDINAND,  fer'de-nand,  ("  pure  peace ;")  Dutch, 
FERDINAND,  f§R'de-n3nt';  Fr.  FERDINAND,  f^R'de'nSN'; 
Ger.  FERDINAND,  fe'R'de-nant';  It.  FERDINANDO,  f^R- 
de-ndn'do  ;  Lat.  FERDINAN'DUS  ;  Port.  FERNANDO,  feR- 
nan'do,  or  FERNAO,  feR-nowN' ;  Sp.  FERNANDO,  f^R- 
nan'do. 

FILIBERTO.     See  PHILIBERT. 

FILIDE.     See  PHYLLIS. 

FILIPPA  or  FILIPPINA.     See  PHILIPPA. 

FILIPPO.     See  PHILIP. 

FINEO.     See  PHINEAS. 

FIORENZA.     See  FLORENCE. 

FLORA,  flo'ra,  (the  "goddess  of  flowers;")  Dutch, 
FLORA,  flo'rS ;  Fr.  FLORE,  floR ;  It.  FLORA,  flo'ra ;  Lat. 
FLO'RA. 

FLOR'ENCE,  ("flourishing;")  Danish,  FI.ORENZ,  flo- 
r§nts';  Dutch,  FLORENTIA,  flo-r§n'se-a;  Fr.  FLORENCE, 
flo'ifixss';  Ger.  FLORENZ,  flo-re^its';  It.  FIORENZA, 
fe-o-r§n'za ;  Lat.  FLOREN'TIA,  (flo-rdn'she-a  ;)  Sp.  FLO- 
RENCIA,  flo-r^n'^e-a  ;  Sw.  FLORENZ,  flo-i  £ns'. 

FOR-TU-NS'TUS,  ("happy,"  "fortunate;")  Fr.  FOR 
TUNE,  foR'tii'na';  Ger.  FORTUNATUS,  foR-too-na'tus ;  It. 
FORTUNATO,  for-too-na'to  ;  Lat.  FORTUNA'TUS. 

FRANCES,  fran's§s,  (the  feminine  of  FRANCIS  ;)  Danish, 
FRANCISCA,  fRfn-sis'ka;  Dutch,  FRANCISCA,  fRan-sis'- 
ka;  Fr.  FRANgoiSE,  frfiN'swaz';  Ger.  FRANCISCA,  fRant- 
sis'ka;  It.  FRANCESCA,  fRan-ch§s'ka;  Lat.  FRANCES'CA 
or  FRANCIS'CA  ;  Sw.  FRANCISKA,  fRan-sis'ka. 

FRAN'CIS,  ("free  ;")  Danish,  FRANTS,  frSnts,  or  FRAN- 
ciscus,  fRf n-sis'kus ;  Dutch,  FRANCISCUS,  fRan-sis'kus  ; 
Fr.  FRANC.OIS,  fRSN'swJ';  Ger.  FRANZ,  fR3nts ;  It. 
FRANCESCO,  fRan-cheVko ;  Lat.  FRANCIS'CUS  ;  Port. 
FRANCISCO,  fRan-ses'ko;  Sp.  FRANCISCO,  fRan-^es'ko; 
Sw.  FRANS,  franss. 


a, e, 1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 
2332 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES. 


FRED'ER-ICK,  ("rich  in  peace;")  Danish,  FREDERIK, 
fRa'der-ik  ;  Dutch,  FREDEUIK,  fRa'deh-rik  ;  Fr.  FREDE 
RIC,  fRi'da'rek';  Ger.  FRIEDRICH,  fReed'riK ;  It.  FREDE- 
RICO,  fRi-da-ree'ko,  or  FEDERIGO,  fa-da-ree'go ;  Lat. 
FREDERI'CUS  ;  Port.  FREDERICO,  fRa-di-ree'ko ;  Sp. 
FREDERICO,  fRa-Da-ree'ko ;  Sw.  FREDRICK,  fked'rik. 

GABRIEL,  ga'bre-el,  (the  "  strength  of  God,"  or,  ac 
cording  to  some,  the  "hero  of  God  ;")  Arabic,  JABREEL 
or  JABR!L,  ja-breel';*  Fr.  GABRIEL,  gt'bRe'el';  Ger. 
GABRIEL,  ga'bRe-el ;  It.  GABRIELE,  ga-bRe-a'la;  Lat. 
GA'BRIEL,  (genitive,  GABRIE'LIS  ;)  Sw.  GABRIEL,  ga' 
bRe-el. 

GALFRED  and  GALFRIDUS.     See  GEOFFREY. 

GASPARD  or  CASPAR.     See  JASPER. 

GAUTIER.     See  WALTER. 

GEDEON.     See  GIDEON. 

GEOFFREY,  jef'fre.  or  GEF'FREY,  ("joyful  peace"  ?t) 
Danish,  GALFRED,  gtl'fReV;  Dutch,  GODFRIED,  got'- 
fi<eet  or  Hot'fReet ;  Fr.  GEOFFROY,  zho'fRwa';  It.  GIOF- 
FREDDO,  jof-fRed'do  ;  Lat.  GAI.FRI'DUS. 

GEORGE,  jorj,  (a  "  fanner  ;")  Danish,  GEORG,  ga'oRG  ; 
Dutch,  GEORG,  ga'oRH,  (sometimes  pronounced  nearly 
like  the  French  zhorzh  or  shorsh;}  Fr.  GEORGE  or 
GEORGES,  zhoRzh  ;  Ger.  GF.ORG,  ga'oRG ;  Gr.  Tewpvwf, 
(Gcvrgios  ;)  It.  GIORGIO,  JOR'JO  ;  Lat.  GEOR'GIUS  ;  Port. 
JORGE,  zhop/zha;  Sp.  JORGE,  itoR'na ;  Sw.  GEORG, 
ga'org. 

GERARD,  je-rard',  sometimes  corrupted  to  GAR'RET 
and  GER'RIT,  (i.e.  "firm  spear  ;"J)  Danish,  GERHARD, 
geR'haiY/;  Dutch,  GERARD,  na'riRt ;  Fr.  GERARD, 
zha'iaV;  Ger.  GERHARD,  geVhaRt ;  It.  GKRARDO,  ja- 
rau'do  :  Lat.  GKRAR'DUS  ;  Sw.  GERHARD,  g 

GEREMIA.     See  JEREMIAH. 

GERONIMO.     See  JEROME. 

GERTRUDE,  ger'triid  or  jer'trud,  (perhaps  "true 
spear  ;"§)  Dutch,  GKKRTRUIDA,  HaR-tRoi'cla ;  Fr.  GER 
TRUDE,  zheVtKiid';  Ger.  GKKTRAUD,  geVtRowr,  or 
GERTRUD,  geR'tRoot';  It.  GERTKUDA,  jeR-tRoo'da ;  Lat. 
GERTRU'DA;  Sw.  GERTRUD,  gCK'tRood. 

GERVASE,  jer'vas,  or  JER'VIS  ;  Dutch,  GERVAAS,  heV- 

vas;  Fr.  GERVAIS,  zheR'vi' ;  Lat.  GERVA'SIUS. 

GIACOMINA  or  GIACOBBA.     See  JACQUELINE. 

GIACOMO.     See  JAMES. 

GIDEON,  gid'e-on,  (a  "breaker  ;")  Fr.  GEDEON,  zha'- 

da'd.s';  It.  GEDEONE,  ja-da-o'na ;  Lat.  GID'EON. 

GIL.     See  GILES. 


*  Pronounced  in  some  Arabic  dialects  gi-breel'. 

t  Some  suppose  that  GEOFFREY  has  the  same  origin  as  GODFREY 
signifying  "  God's  peace  ;"  but,  if  this  be  so,  it  seems  strange  that  it 
the  English,  French,  Italian,  and  Danish  there  should  be  two  forms 
so  entirely  different.  In  the  Danish,  Geoffrey  is  Galfreci,  which  can 
scarcely  by  any  possibility  come  from  "God's  peace,"  {Gudsfred. 
It  would  rather  seem  to  be  "joyful  peace,"  from  a  root  cognate  with 
the  Anglo-Saxon  gal,  "wanton,"  "merry,"  and  allied  to  the  Danisl 
gale  and  Swedish  gala,  to  "crow"  or  "sing  for  joy,"  and  also  t 
the  prefix  gala  in  our  "gala-day." 

{  From  a  root  cognate  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  gar,  a  "dart"  or 
"javelin,"  and  hard,  "firm." 

§  And  hence  "true,"  "faithful,"  because  one  who  was  true  ii 
war  was  true  in  the  most  important  sense.     Miss  C.  M.  YONGE,  in 
her   "History  of  Christian    Xames,"   gives   "spear-maid"  as   th 
etymological  signification  of  Gertrude. 


GILBERT,  fil'bert,  ("bright  as  gold"?)  Danish,  GIL- 
!ERT,  gil'bgRt ;  Dutch,  GILBERT,  Hil'beRt ;  Fr.  GILBERT, 
shel'baiR';  Ger.  GILBERT,  gil'beRt ;  Lat.  GILBER'TUS; 

Sw.  GlLBERTUS,  gil-beR'tUS. 

GILES,  jllz,  (a  "little  goat"?)  Fr.  GILLES,  zhel ; 
ier.  AEGIDIUS,  a-gee'de-us ;  It.  EGIDIO,  a-jee'de-o; 
Lat.  ^GID'IUS;  Sp.  GIL,  Hel. 

GIOBBE.     See  JOB. 

GIORGIO.     See  GEORGE. 

GIOSIADE.     See  JOSIAH. 

GIOSUE.     See  JOSHUA. 

GIOVANNA.     See  JANE. 

GIOVANNI.     See  JOHN. 

GIROLAMO.     See  JEROME. 

GIUDA.     See  JUDAH. 

GIUDITTA.     See  JUDITH. 

GIULIA.     See  JULIA. 

GIULIANA.     See  JULIANA. 

GIULIANO.     See  JULIAN. 

GIUSEPPA  or  GIUSEPPINA.     See  JOSEPHINE. 

GIUSEPPE.     See  JOSEPH. 

GODARD,  god'ard,  ("  firm  or  true  to  God  ;")  Ger.  GOTT- 
HARD,  got'haRt ;  Lat.  GODAR'DUS. 

GODEFROI.     See  GODFREY. 

GODEWIJN.     See  GODWIN. 

GOD'FREY,  ("  God's  peace  ;")  Danish,  GOTTFRIED, 
got'freertV  Dutch,  GODFRIED,  not'fKeet ;  Fr.  GODEFROI, 
50'deh-fRwa'  or  god'fRwa';  Ger.  GOTTFRIED,  got'fReet ; 
It.  GOFFREDO,  gof-f.Ra'do  ;  Lat.  GODFRI'DUS. 

GOD'WIN,  ("  victorious  in  God  ;")  Dutch,  GODEWIJN, 
Ho'deh-wln';  Lat.  GODWI'NUS. 

GCJFFREDO.     See  GODFREY. 

GOTTFRIED.     See  GODFREY. 

GOTTHARD.     See  GODARD. 

GOTTLIEB.     See  THEOPHILUS. 

GRSCE,  ("favour;")  Dutch,  GRATIA,  gra'se-a;  Fr. 
GRACE,  gRtss ;  It.  GRAZIA,  gidt'se-a  ;  Lat.  GRA'TIA. 

GREGORY,  gieg'o-re,  ("watchful  ;")  Danish,  GREGOR, 

a-goR';  Dutch,  GREGORIUS,  gRa-Go're-us ;  Fr.  GRE- 
GOIRE,  gRa'gwiR' ;  Ger.  GREGOR,  gRa-g5R';  Gr.  I>?y6- 
fitaf,  (G>e,o- ios ;)  It.  GREGORIO,  gRa-go're-o  ;  Lat.  GRE- 
GO'RIUS;  Sp.  GREGORIO,  gRa-go're-o ;  Sw.  GREGORIUS, 
gi<a-go're-us. 

GRIF'FITH;  Danish,  GRIFFITH,  gRif'fit ;  Dutch,  Ru- 
FINUS,  rii-fee'nus ;  Lat.  GRIFFITH'IUS  ;  Sw.  RUFIN, 
roo-feenr. 

GUALTERUS.     See  WALTER. 

GUGLIELMO.     See  WILLIAM. 

GUIDO.     See  GUY. 

GUILLAUME.     See  WILLIAM. 

GULIELMUS.     See  WILLIAM. 

GUS-TA'VUS  ;  Dutch,  GUSTAVUS,  Hus-ta'vus  ;  Fr.  Gus- 
TAVE,  giis'ttv';  Ger.  GUSTAV,  goos'taf ;  Lat.  GUSTA'VUS; 
Sw.  GUSTAF,  goos'tif. 

GUY,  gT,  ("  wit,"  "  sense"  ?)  Danish,  GUIDO,  gwee'do  ; 
Dutch,  GUIDO,  gwee'do  or  Hwee'do  ;  Fr.  GUY,  ge ;  Ger. 
VEIT,  fit;  It.  GUIDO,  gwee'do;  Lat.  GUI'DO;  Sw. 
GUIDO,  gwee'do. 


£  as  K;  c  as  /;  g  hard;  °  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.     ( J^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2333 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


HADRIAN.     See  ADRIAN. 

HAGAR,  ha'gar,  (a  "  stranger  ;")  Arabic,  HAjAR,  ha'- 
jar,  or  HAGAR;  Fr.  AGAK,  t'gaR';  Heb.  "UH;  Lat. 
HA'GAR,  (genitive,  HA'GARIS.) 

HANNAH,  ("gracious;")  Danish,  HANNE,  hSu'neh,  or 
HANNA,  haa'na ;  Dutch,  HANNA,  han'na ;  Fr.  ANNA, 
t'nt';  Heb.  HJH ;  Lat.  HAN'NA  ;  Sw.  HANNA,  han'na. 

HANNIBAL,  han'ne-bal,  (a  "gracious  lord;")  Fr. 
HANNIBAL,  t'ne'bSl';  It.  ANMHAI.K,  au-ne-ba'la;  Lat. 
HAN'NIBAL,  (genitive,  HAN'NIBALIS.) 

HANS.     See  JOHN. 

HARMAN.     See  HKKMAN. 

HAROLD,  har'old,  (a  "cliampion  ;")  Danish,  HARAI.D, 
ha'rtld  ;  Dutch,  HEROLD,  ha'rolt ;  Fr.  HAROLD,  hS'rold'; 
It.  ARALDO,  a-ral'do  ;  Lat.  HAROL'DUS. 

HAHKIKT,  har're-et ;  Danish,  HENRI  F.TTE,  h£n-re-et'- 
teh ;  Dutch,  HENRIETTA,  hen-re-et'ta ;  Fr.  HENRIETTE, 
//6iN're-eY;  Ger.  HENRIETTE,  he"n-re-et'teh  ;  It.  ENRI- 
CHETTA,  en-re-ket'ta;  Sp.  ENRIQUETA,  en-re-ka'ta;  Sw. 
HENRIETTA,  hSn-re-et'ta. 

HECTOR,  (a  "defender;")  Fr.  HECTOR,  Sk'toit'j  Gr. 
"Eicrup,  (ffestor;)  It.  ETTOKE,  St-to'ra ;  Lat.  HEC'TOR, 
(genitive,  HEC'TORIS.) 

H  BIN  RICH.     See  HENRY. 

HEI/EN  or  HELENA,  hel'e-na,  ("brightness;")  Da 
nish,  HELENA,  heh-la'na ;  Dutch,  HELENA,  heh-la'na; 
Fr.  HELENS,  a'l,V;  Ger.  HEI.ENE,  heh-la'neh ;  Gr. 
'Etei'Ti,  (ffeltne;)  It.  ELENA,  a-la'na ;  Lat.  HEI/ENA; 
Sp.  ELENA,  a-la'na. 

HENDRIK.     See  HENRY. 

HENRI.     See  HENRY. 

HENUICUS.     See  HENRY. 

HENRIETTA.     See  HARRIET. 

HEN'RY,  ("rich  lord  ;")  Danish,  HENDRIK,  lign'dKik  ; 
Dutch,  HENDRIK,  hen'duik  ;  Fr.  HENRI,  ho.N're';  Ger. 
HEINRICH,  hln'riK;  It.  ENRICO,  £n-ree'ko,  or  ERRICO, 
cr-ree'ko;  Lat.  HENRI'CUS;  Port.  HENRIQUE,  en-ree'ka ; 
Sp.  ENRIQUE,  en-ree'ka;  Sw.  HEN'RIK. 

HERBERT,  her'bert,  ("  bright  lord  ;")  Lat.  HERBER'- 
TUS;  Sw.  HERBERT,  heR'beut. 

HERCULES,  her'ku-lez,  (the  "glory  of  Hera;")  Fr. 
HERCULE,  eR'ku'l';  Ger.  HERCULES,  heR'koo-le"s ;  Gr. 
'HpaK/iyc,  (Hemkles;)  It.  ERCOLE,  CR'ko-la ;  Lat.  HER'- 
CULES,  (genitive,  HER'CUI.IS.) 

HERMAN,  her'man,  (the  "leader  of  an  army;")  Da 
nish,  HERMANN,  he'R'min  ;  Dutch,  HERMAN,  h§R'man  ; 
Fr.  ARMAND  or  ARMANT,  SR'ITION';  Ger.  HERMANN, 
hgu'inan  ;  Lat.  HERMAN'NUS  or  HARMAN'NUS  ;  Sw. 
HERMAN,  heVman. 

HERMOGENES,  her-moj'e-nez,  ("descended  from  Her 
mes  ;")  Fr.  HERMOGENE,  eVmo'zhin';  Gr.  'Ep/^o/ev^c, 
(Hcrmogenes  :)  Lat.  HKRMOG'ENES,  (genitive,  HERMOG'- 

ENIS.) 

HEROLD.     See  HAROLD. 

HESTER.     See  ESTHER. 

HEZEKIAH,  hez-e-kT'a,  ("cleaving  to  the  Lord;") 
Dutch,  HISKIA,  his-kee'a;  Fr.  fizECHiAS,  a'za'she'Ss'; 
Heb.  IH'pfH  or  TVprn  ;  Lat.  HEZEKI'AS. 

HIEROM.     See  JEROME. 

HIERONYMUS.     See  JEROME. 


HILARY,  hil'a-re,  ("merry,"  "cheerful;")  Danish, 
HILARIUS,  he-la're-us  ;  Dutch,  HIL/VKIUS,  he-la're-iis ; 
Fr.  HII.AIRE,  e'laR';  It.  ILARIO,  e-la're-o;  Lat.  HILA'- 
uius;  Sw.  HILARIUS,  he-ld're-us. 

HIOB.     See  JOB. 

HISKIA.     See  HEZEKIAH. 

HOMKROI.     See  HUMTHRKY. 

HOR'ACE  or  HORATIO,  ho-ril'she-o,  ("  worthy  to  be 
beheld"?)  Dr.nish,  HORATS,  ho-rSts' ;  Dutch,  HoRATius, 
ho-ra'se-iis  ;  Fr.  HORACE,  oYtss';  Ger.  HORAZ,  ho-rats'; 
It.  ORAZIO,  o-rat'se-o;  Lat.  HORA'TIUS;  Port.  HORACIO, 
o-ra'se-o  ;  Sp.  HORACIO,  o-ra'//ie-o. 

HORATIO.     See  HORACE. 

HORATIUS.     See  HORACE. 

HORATS  or  HORAZ.     See  HORACE. 

HU'BERT,  ("bright  in  mind"?)  Danish,  HUBERTUS, 
hoo-beR'tus;  Dutch,  HUBERTUS,  hu-bcR'tus  ;  Fr.  IIu- 
BERT,  //U'baiR';  Lat.  HUBER'TUS;  Sw.  HUBERTUS, 
hoo-bCR'tus. 

HUGH;  Danish,  HUGO,  hoo'go;  Dutch,  HUGO, hvi'go; 
Fr.  HUGUES,  hiig;  It.  Uco,  oo'go  ;  Lat.  HU'GO,  (geni 
tive,  HUGO'NIS;)  Sw.  HUGI^,  hoo'go. 

HUM'PHKEY,  ("support  of  peace"?)  Dutch,  HUM- 
FRIED,  hum'fReet ;  Fr.  HOMKROI,  7/oN'fRwa';  It  OM- 
FREDO,  om-fRa'clo ;  Lat.  HuMi'HRE'DUSor  ONU'PHRIUS  ; 
Sw.  HUMFRID,  hoom'fRid. 

IBRAHEEM.     See  ABRAHAM. 

IGNA'TIUS,  (ig-na'she-us  ;)  Dutch,  IGNATIUS,  ig-na'- 
se-us ;  Fr.  IGNACE,  en'ytss';  (Jer.  IGNAZ,  ig-nats',  or 
IGNATIUS,  ig-nat'se-iis ;  Gr.  'b/rurioc,  (Ignatios;)  It. 
IGNACIO,  en-ya'cho  ;  Lat.  IGNA'TIUS  ;  Sp.  IGNACIO,  eg- 
ni'//^e-o,  or  INIGO,  en-yee'go. 

ILARIO.     See  HILARY. 

INIGO.     See  IGNATIUS. 

IN'NO-CENT;  Dutch,  INNOCENTIUS,  in-no-sSn'se-iis  ; 
Fr.  INNOCENT,  e'no'sflN';  Ger.  INNOCENZ,  in-not-sents', 
or  INNOCENTIUS,  in-not-sent'se-us  ;  It.  INNCJCENTE, 
tn-no-ch6n'ta  ;  Lat.  INNOCEN'TIUS,  (in-no  sen'she-us  ;) 
Sp.  INOCENCIO,  e-no-///en'///e-o. 

I-RE'NE,  ("peace;")  Fr.  IRENE,  e'r«\n';  Ger.  IRENE, 
e-ra'neh  ;  Gr.  Elpf/vrj,  ( Eirene;)  It.  IRENEA,  e-ra-na'a. 

ISAAC,  I'zak,  ("laughter;")  Arabic,  ISHAK,  is-hSk'; 
Danish,  ISAK,  ee'sSk  ;  Dutch,  IZAAK,  ee'zfik  ;  Fr.  ISAAC, 
e'zf'tk';  Ger.  ISAAK,  ee'/ak ;  Heb.  pHi"  or  pH^'  ; 
Hungarian,  IzsAK,  ee'sSk  ;  It.  ISACCO,  e-sak'ko  ;  Lat. 
ISA'ACUS;  Polish,  IZAAK,  ee'zak  ;  Sw.  ISAK,  ee'sak. 

ISABEL,  iz'a-bel,  or  ISABELLA,  iz-a-bel'la,  (originally 
the  same  as  ELIZABETH,  which  see  ;)  Dutch,  ISABELLE, 
e-sa-bel'leh  ;  Fr.  ISABELLE,  e'zf'bel';  Ger.  ISABELLE, 
e-za-bel'leh  ;  It.  ISABELLA,  e-sa-bel'la  ;  Lat.  ISABEL' LA; 
Sp.  ISABEL,  e-sa-bel';  Sw.  ISABELLA,  e-sa-bel'la. 

ISACCO.     See  ISAAC. 

ISAIAH,  i-za'ya  or  I-za'e-ya  ;  Danish,  ESAIAS,  a-si'fs  ; 
Dutch,  JEZAJAS,  ya-za'yas ;  Fr.  ISA'IE,  e'zt'e';  Ger. 
ESAIAS,  a-za'e-as,  or  a-zl'as ;  Heb.  IH';'^';  It-  ISAIA, 
e-si'S ;  Lat.  ESAI'AS  ;  Port.  ISAIAS,  e-si-ee'as ;  Sp. 
ISAIAS,  e-sa-ee'as. 

ISAK.     See  ISAAC. 

IsnAK.     See  ISAAC. 

ISH'MA-EL,  ("  God  hath  heard  ;")  Arabic,   ISMAEEL 


a,  e,  T,  o,  it,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n&t:  good;  moon; 
2334 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES. 


or  ISMAIL,  is'mi-eel';  Fr.  ISMAEL,  es'ma"e'l';  Heb. 
^•VOtr  ;  It.  ISMAELE,  es-mi-a'la ;  Lat.  ISH'MAEL. 

ISIOORE,  iz'e-dor ;  Dutch,  ISIDOKUS,  e-se-do'riis ; 
Fr.  ISIDORE,  e'ze'doR';  Gr.  'laiSupof,  (Isadoras ;)  It.  Isi- 
DORO,  e-se-do'ro  ;  Lat.  ISIDO'RUS. 

ISMAEL,  ISMAELE,  or  ISMA!L.     See  ISHMAEL. 

ISRAEL,  iz'ra-el,  ("  prevailing  with  God  ;")  Fr.  ISRAEL, 
es'rt-eT;  Ger.  ISRAEL,  is'ra-al';  Heb.  ^XVtf'  ;  Lat.  Is'- 
RAEL,  (genitive,  ISRAE'LIS.) 

ISTVAN.     See  STEPHEN. 

IVAN.     See  JOHN. 

IZAAK,  IZAK,  or  IZSAK.     See  ISAAC. 

JABREEL.     See  GABRIEL. 

JACOB,  ji'kob,  (a  "  supplanter  ;")  Arabic,  YAKOOB  or 
YAKUB,  yi'koob';  Danish,  JAKOB,  ya'kob  ;  Dutch,  JACOB 
or  JAKOB,  yi'kob  ;  Fr.  JACOB,  zht'kob';  Ger.  JAKOB, 
vi'kop  ;  Helx  21?*  ;  Hungarian,  JAKOB,  yi'kob;  It. 
IACOB,  ya'kob,  or  JACOPO,  yi'ko-po ;  Lat.  JACO'BUS  or 
[A'COB  ;  Polish,  JAKOB,  yi'kob  ;  Sw.  JAKOB,  yi'kob. 

[ACQUEI.INE,  jak'keh-leen',  (the  feminine  of  JAMES;) 
Fr.  IACQUKI.INE,  zhtk'keh-len';  Ger.  JAKOBIXE,  yi-ko- 
bse'neh  ;  It.  GIACOMINA,  ji-ko-mee'ni,  or  GIACOBBA, 
ji-kob'bi. 

[AMES,  jamz,  (in  its  origin  the  same  as  JACOB  ;)  Da 
nish,  JAKOB,  yi'kob;  Dutch,  JACOBUS,  yi-ko'biis ;  Fr. 
JACQUES,  zhtk  ;  Ger.  JAKOB,  yi'kop ;  Hungarian,  JA- 
KAB,  yok'ob;  It.  GIACOMO,  ji'ko-mo;  Lat.  JACO'BUS  ; 
Polish,  JAKUB,  yi'koob ;  Port.  DIOGO,  de-o'go,  or 
JACOBO,  zhi-ko'bo  ;  Russ.  YAKOF,  yi'kof;  Sp.  JAIME, 
Hi'ma,  (Saint  lames  is  called  Santiago,  sin-te-i'go  ;) 
S\v.  JAKOB,  ya'kob. 

JAN.     See  JOHN. 

TANK  and  JOAN,  or  JOANNA,  jo-an'na,  (the  feminine  of 
[OHN  ;)  Danish,  JOHANNE,  yo-hSn'neh  ;  Dutch,  HANNA, 
hin'ni  ;  Fr.  JEANNE,  zhtn  ;  Ger.  JOHANNA,  yo-hin'ni ; 
It.  GIOVANNA,  jo-van'ni;  Lat.  JA'NA  or  JO-HAN'NA  ; 
Sp.  JUANA,  noo-in'yi;  Sw.  JOHANNA,  yo-hin'ni. 

JANOS.     See  JOHN. 

JAS'PER,  ("treasure-master"?)  Danish,  JESPER,  y§s'- 
per ;  Dutch,  JASPER,  yis'per,  or  KASPER,  kis'per ;  Fr. 
GASPARD,  gts'ptu';  Ger.  CASPAR  or  KASPAR,  kis'piR ; 
It.  GASPARO,  gis'pi-ro  ;  Lat.  GAS'PAR,  (genitive,  GAS'- 
PARIS  ;)  Port.  GASPAR,  gis-piR' ;  Sp.  GASPAR,  gis-piR'; 
Sw.  KASPER,  kis'per. 

JEAN.     See  JOHN. 

JEANNE.     See  JANE. 

JEANNETTE.     See  JENET. 

JEFFREY  or  JKFFERY.     See  GEOFFREY. 

JEN'F.T,  (the  diminutive  of  JANE  ;)  Fr.  JEANNETTE, 
zhi'neV;  It.  GIOVANNETTA,  jo-viii-net'ti ;  Lat.  JOA- 
NET'TA. 

JEPH'THAH,  (a  "discoverer;")  Fr.  JEPHTE,  zheTta'; 
Heb.  nr\3'  ;  Lat.  JEPH'THA. 

JEREMIAH,  jer-e-mi'a,  or  JEREMY,  jeVe-me ;  Danish, 
JKREMIAS,  ya-reh-mee'ts;  Dutch,  JEREMIAS,  ya-reh- 
mee'is ;  Fr.  JEKEMIE,  zha'ra'me';  Ger.  JEREMIAS,  yi- 
reh-mee'is;  Heb.  n"3^  ;  It.  GEREMIA,  ja-ra-mee'i; 
Lat.  JEREMI'AS  ;  Sw.  JEREMIAS,  ya-reh-mee'is. 

JEROME,  jlr'om  or  je-rom',  or  HIEROM,  hee'er-om, 
("  sacred  name  ;")  Danish,  JERONYMUS,  ya-ro'ne-mus ; 


Dutch,  HIERONYMUS,  he-eh-ro'iie-miis ;  Fr.  JEROME, 
zha'rom';  Ger.  HIERONYMUS,  he-eh-ro'ne-mvis ;  It.  GE- 
RONIMO,  ja-ron'e-mo,  or  GIROLAMO,  je-rol'i-mo;  Lat. 
HIERON'YMUS;  Port.  HIERONIMO,  e-a-ro'ne-mo ;  Sp. 
GERONIMO,  na-ro'ne-mo  ;  Sw.  HIERONYMUS,  he-eh-ro'- 
ne-miis. 

JESPER.     See  JASPER. 

JEZAJAS.     See  ISAIAH. 

JOAN,  (the  same  in  its  origin  as  JANE,  which  see.) 

JOANETTA.     See  JENET. 

JOANNA.     See  JANE. 

JOANNES.     See  JOHN. 

JOAO.     See  JOHN. 

JOB,  job,  ("sorrowing;")  Arabic,  AIYOOB  or  AYY0B, 
T'yoob';  Fr.  JOB,  zhob  ;  Ger.  HIOB,  hee'op  ;  Gr.  'Iu6, 
(lob:)  Heb.  2VX  ;  It.  GIOBBE,  job'ba  or  job'ba ;  Lat. 
JOB  (genitive,  JO'BIS)  or  JO'BUS;  Sw.  JOB,  yob. 

JO'EL,  ("acquiescing;")  Fr.  JOEL, zho'el';  Heb.  Sxv  ; 
Lat.  JO'EL,  (genitive,  JOE'LIS.) 

JOHANNA.     See  JANE. 

JOHN,  (the  "grace  of  the  Lord;")  Danish,  JOHANN, 
yo'hjn,  or  HANS,  lit ns  ;  Dutch,  JAN,  yin  ;  Fr.  JEAN, 
zh6.N ;  Ger.  JOHANN,  yo'hin,  (familiarly  HANS,  hinss,  a 
contraction  of  JOHANNES;)  Gr.  'luavvqe,  (Joannes;) 
Heb.  njnV  ;  Hungarian,  JANOS,  yi'nosh  ;  It.  GIOVAN 
NI,  jo-vin'nee  ;  Lat.  JOAN'NES  or  JOHAN'NES  ;  Polish, 
JAN,  yin  ;  Port.  JOAO,  zho-owN"';  Russ.  IVAN,  e-vin'; 
Sp.  JUAN,  Hoo-in';  Sw.  JOHAN,  yo'hin,  or  HANS,  hins. 

JO'NAH  or  JO'NAS,  (a  "dove  ;'')  Fr.  JONAS,  zho'nis'; 
Ger.  JONAS,  yo'nis  ;  Heb.  HJV  ;  Lat.  JO'NAS. 

JONATHAN,  jon'a-than,  (the  "gift  of  the  Lord;")  Fr. 
JONATHAN,  zho'nt'tSN';  Heb.  {ruiiT  ;  Lat.  JON'ATHAN, 
(genitive  in  -is.) 

JOOST.     See  JOSCELIN. 

JORGE.     See  GEORGE. 

JOS'CK-I.TN  or  JOC/E-LIN,  ("  just ;")  Dutch,  JOOST, 
yost ;  Lat.  JOSCELI'NUS. 

JOSEPH,  jo'zef,  ("addition;'')  Fr.  JOSEPH,  zho'zeT  ; 
Ger.  JOSEPH,  yo'zeT;  Heb.  'pi'  ;  Hungarian,  JOZSEF, 
yo's^f;  It.  GIUSEPPE,  joo-sep'pi ;  Lat.  JOSE'PHUS  or 
JO'SEPH  ;  Polish,  JOZEF,  yo'ze'f;  Port.  JOZE,  zho-za'; 
Sp.  JOSE,  iio-sa'. 

JOSEPHINE,*  jo'zeh-feen',  (the  feminine  of  JOSEPH  ;) 
Fr.  TOSEPHE,  zho'zeT',  or  JOSEPHINE,  zho'za'fen';  Ger. 
JOSEPHE,  yo'zef-eh,  or  JOSEPHINE,  yo-zeh-fee'neh  ;  It. 
GIUSEPPA,  joo-sep'pi,  or  GIUSEPPINA,  joo-sep-pee'ni ; 
Lat.  JOSE'PHA. 

JOSHUA,  josh'u-a,  (a  "saviour;")  Dutch,  JOSUA,  yo'- 
sii-i ;  Fr.  JOSUE,  zho'zii'a';  Ger.  JOSUA,  yo'zoo-i  ;  Heb. 
>'iyirv  ;  It.  GIOSUE,  jo-soo-a';  Lat.  JOS'UA  ;  Sw.  JOSUA, 
yo'soo-i. 

JO-SI'AH  (jo-sT'a,)  or  JO-SI'AS  ;  Danish,  JOSIAS,  yo- 
see'ts ;  Dutch,  JOZIAS,  yo-zee'is ;  Fr.  JOSIAS,  zho'- 
ze'is';  Heb.  'n'ti'.N'  ;  It.  GIOSIADE,  jo-see'i-da ;  Lat. 
JOSI'AS. 

JOSUA.     See  JOSHUA. 

JOZE.     See  JOSEPH. 

JOZSF.F.     See  JOSEPH. 


*  JOSEPHINE  (or  JOSEPHINE)  and  GIUSEPPINA  are,  strictly  speak 
ing,  diminutives  from  JOSEPHE  (or  JOSEPHA)  and  GIUSEPPA. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p. 
2335 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


JUAN.     See  JOHN. 

JUANA.     See  JANE. 

JU'DAH,  JU'DAS,  JUDE,  jud,  ("  confession  ;")  Fr.  JUDA, 
zhii'dt'  or  JUDE,  /hud ;  Ger.  JUDAS,  yoo'das;  Heb. 
mirv  ;  Hungarian,  JUDA,  yoo'da ;  It.  GiUDA,  joo'da; 
Lat.  JU'DAS  ;  Polish,  JUDAS,  yoo'das;  Sw.  JUDAS,  yoo' 
das. 

JU'DITH,  ("praising;")  Heb.  miTT ;  It.  GIUDITTA, 
joo-det/ta;  Lat.  JUDI'THA. 

JULIA,  ju'le-a,  (the  feminine  of  JULIUS  ;)  Dutch,  JULIA, 
yii'le-a ;  Fr.  JULIE,  zhii'le';  Ger.  JULIE,  yoo'le-eh ;  It. 
GIULIA,  joo'le-a ;  Lat.  JU'LIA  ;  Sp.  JUI.IA,  iioo'le-a ;  S\v. 
JULIA,  yoo'le-a. 

JULIAN,  ju'le-an,  ("related  to  Julius;")  Dutch,  Ju- 
I.IANUS,  yii-le-a'niis ;  Fr.  JUI.IKN,  zhii'le-aN' ;  Ger. 
JULIAN,  yoo'le-an ;  It.  GIULIANO,  joo-le-a'no ;  Lat. 
JULIA'NUS;  Port.  Jui.iAo,  zhoo-le-owN';  Sp.  JULIAN, 
Hoo-le-an',  or  JULIANO,  Hoo-le-a'no ;  Svv.  JULIAN,  yoo' 
le-an. 

JULIANA,  ju-le-tn'a,  (the  feminine  of  JULIAN  ;)  Dutch, 
JULIANA,  yii-le-a'nJ ;  Fr.  JULIENNE,  zhii'le-en';  Ger. 
JULIANE,  yoo-le-a'neh  ;  It.  GIULIANA,  joo-le-a'na  ;  Lat. 
JULIA'NA  ;  Port.  JULIANA,  zhoo-le-a'na;  Sp.  JULIANA, 
Hoo-le-a'na;  Sw.  JULIANA,  yoo-le-a'na, 

TULIANO.     See  JULIA. 

JULIE.     See  JULIA. 

JULIEN.     See  JULIAN. 

JULIENNE.     See  JULIA. 

JULIUS,  ju'le-us,  ("sprung  from  lulus;")  Dutch,  Ju- 
Lius,  yu'le-iis  ;  Fr.  JULES,  zhiil  ;  Ger.  JULIUS,  yoo'le-us  ; 
It.  GIULIO,  joo'le-o;  Lat.  JU'LIUS  ;  Port.  JULIO,  zhoo'- 
le-o  ;  Sp.  JULIO,  Hoo'le-o. 

KARL  or  KAREL.     See  CHARLES. 

KASVAR.     See  JASPER. 

KATHARINE  or  KATARINA.     See  CATHERINE. 

KLAAS.     See  NICHOLAS. 

KLARA.     See  CLARA. 

KLAUDIA.     See  CLAUDIA. 

KLAUDIUS.     See  CLAUDIUS. 

KOENRAAD.     See  CONRAD. 

KONRAD.     See  CONRAD. 

KONSTANTIJN.      See  CONSTANTINE. 

KORNELIS.     See  CORNELIUS. 
KRISPIN  or  KRISPIJN.     See  CRISPIN. 
KRISTOFER.     See  CHRISTOPHER. 

L^TITIA.     See  LETTICE. 

LAM'BERT,  ("  brightness  or  glory  of  the  country"  ?) 
Dutch,  LAMBERT,  lam'ligRt,  or  LAMKKRTUS,  lam-beV- 
tus  ;  Fr.  LAMBERT,  ISN'baiit';  Ger.  LAMBERT,  lam'be'Rt ; 
Lat.  LAMBER'TUS. 

LAN'CE-LOT,  (a  "  little  lance  ;")  Fr.  LANCELOT,  IONSS'- 
lo';  Lat.  LANCELOT'TUS. 

LAURA,  law'ra,  ("laurel;"')  Fr.  LAURE,  IOR  ;  Ger. 
LAURA,  low'ra ;  It.  LAURA,  low'ra. 

LAU'RENCE,  ("crowned  with  laurel;")  Danish,  Lo- 
RENZ,  lo'rents  ;  Dutch,  LAURENS,  low're'ns  ;  Fr.  LAU 
RENT,  lo'rftN';  Ger.  LAURENZ,  low'r£nts,  LORENZ,  lo'- 
rgnts,  and  LAURENTIUS,  low-rgnt'se-us ;  It.  LORENZO, 


lo-r£n'zo;  Lat.  LAUREN'TIUS  ;  Sp.  LORENZO,  lo-ren'- 
tho  ;  Sw.  LARS,  laRs. 

LAZARUS,  laz'a-rus,  ("  destitute  of  help  ;")  Fr.  LAZARE, 
It'zSr';  Gr.  Aufapoc,  (Lazaros;)  It.  LAZZARO,  lat'sa-ro ; 
Lat.  LAZ'ARUS. 

LE'O  or  LE'ON,  (a  "  lion  ;")  Fr.  LEON,  la'AN';  It. 
LEONE,  la-o'na;  Lat.  LE'O,  (genitive,  LEO'NIS.) 

LEOLINUS.     See  LEWELLIN. 

LEONARD,  l£n'ard,  ("strong  as  a  lion  ;")  Dutch,  LE 
ONARD,  la'o-naiu';  Fr.  LEONARD,  la'o'nSR';  Ger.  LEON- 
HARD,  la'on-haRt';  It.  LEONARDO,  la-o-naR'do,  or  Lio- 
NARDO,  le-o-naR'do  ;  Lat.  LEONAR'DUS. 

LEONELLUS.     See  LIONEL. 

LEONORA.     See  ELEANOR. 

LE'O-POLD,  ("bold  for  the  people,"  and,  hence,  "de 
fending  the  people ;")  Fr.  LEOPOLD,  la'o'pold';  Ger. 
LEOPOLD,  la'o-polt';  It.  LEOPOLDO,  la-o-pol'do ;  Lat. 
LEOPOL'DUS. 

LETTICK,  let'tiss,  or  LETITIA,  le-tish'e-a,  ("joy;") 
Danish,  L^ETITIA,  la-tee'te-a;  Dutch,  LAETITIA,  la-tee'- 
se-a,  (almost  la-tee'she-a ;)  Old  Fr.  LETICE,  Ia't6ss';  Lat. 
L^TIT'IA,  (le-tish'e-a.) 

LK-\VEI/LIN,  ("like  a  lion  ;")  Lat.  LEOLI'NUS. 

LEWIS,  lu'iss,  or  Louis,  loo'is,  (the  "fortress  or  de 
fence  of  the  people;")  Dutch,  LODEWIJK,  lo'deh-wlk'; 
Fr.  Louis,  loo'e';  Ger.  LUDWIG,  lood'wic;  It.  LUIGI, 
loo-ee'jee,  or  LODOVICO,  lo-do-vee'ko,  or  LUDOVICO, 
loo-do-vee'ko ;  Lat.  LUDOVI'CUS;  Sp.  Luis,  loo-6ss'; 
Sw.  LUDWIG,  lood'vig. 

LIDIA.     See  LYDIA. 

LIONARDO.     See  LEONARD. 

LIONEL,  (a  "little  lion;")  Lat.  LEONEI/LUS. 

LIVIA,  liv'e-a;  Fr.  LIVIK,  le've';  It.  LIVIA,  lee've-a ; 
Lat.  LIV'IA. 

LODEWIJK.     See  LEWIS. 

LODOVICO  or  LODOVIC.     See  LEWIS. 

LORENZ  or  LORENZO.     See  LAURENCE. 

Louis.     See  LEWIS. 

LOUISA,  loo-ee'za,  (the  feminine  of  LEWIS  or  Louis ;) 
Fr.  LOUISE,  loo'ez';  Ger.  LUISE,  loo-ee'zeh  ;  It.  Lui- 
GIA,  loo-ee'ja;  Lat.  LUI'SA;  Sp.  LUISA,  loo-ee'sa  ;  Sw. 
LUDOVIKA,  loo-do-vee'ka. 

Luc  or  LUCA.     See  LUKE. 

LU'CAN  ;  Fr.  LUCAIN,  lii'kaN';  Lat.  LUCA'NUS. 

LUCAS.     See  LUKE. 

LUCE.     See  Lucius. 

LUCIAN,  lu'she-an  ;  Fr.  LuciEN,  lii'se-aN';  It.  Lu- 
CIANO,  loo-chi'no  ;  Lat.  LUCIA'NUS. 

LUCIE.     See  LUCY. 

Lucius,  lu'she^s,  ("shining;")  Fr.  LUCE,  Hiss,  or 
Lucius,  lu'se-iis';  Ger.  Lucius,  loot'se-us ;  It.  Lucio, 
loo'cho ;  Lat.  Lu'cms. 

LUCRETIA,  lu-kree'she-a,  or  LU'CRECE;  Fr.  LUCRECE, 
lii'kRis';  Ger.  LUCRETIA,  loo-krat'se-a ;  It.  LUCREZIA, 
loo-kr§t'se-a;  Lat.  LUCRE'TIA  ;  Sp.  LUCRECIA,  loo-kRa'- 
^e-a. 

LUCY  or  LUCIE,  lu'se,  (the  feminine  of  Lucius;) 
Dutch,  LUCIE,  lii'se-eh  ;  Fr.  LUCIE,  lii'se';  Ger.  LUCIE, 
loot'se-eh  ;  It.  LUCIA,  loo-chee'a ;  Lat.  LU'CIA  ;  Sp. 
LUCIA,  loo-^ee'a. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  Ci,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moo.i; 
2336 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


LUDOVIKA.     See  LOUISA. 

LUDOVICO  or  LUDOVICUS.     See  LEWIS. 

LUDWIG.     See  LEWIS. 

LUIGI.     See  LEWIS. 

LUIGIA.     See  LOUISA. 

LUISA.     See  LOUISA. 

LUISE.     See  LOUISA. 

LUKE,  (a  "  light"  ?)  Danish,  LUCAS,  loo'kts  ;  Dutch, 
LUCAS,  lii'kas ;  FT.  Luc,  Kik  ;  Gcr.  LUCAS,  loo'kas ; 
Hungarian,  LucA'rs,  loo'katch  ;  It.  LUCA,  loo'ka ;  Lat. 
LU'CAS  ;  S\v.  Lu'CAS. 

LYDIA,  lid'e-a;  Danish,  LYDIA,  lee'de-a;  Dutch, 
LYDIA,  lee'de-a;  Fr.  LYDIE,  le'de';  Gr.  Avdia,  (Ludia;) 
It.  LIDIA,  lee'de-a;  Lat.  LYD'IA. 

MA'BEL,  (a  corruption  of  the  French  aimable,  (origi 
nally  amaM,)  "lovely;7')  Lat.  MAKIL'IA  or  AMAI/ILIS. 

MAGDALEN,  mag'da-len,  or  MAGDALENE,  ("of  Mag- 
dala,"  a  place  in  Palestine ;)  Dutch,  MAGDALENA,  maG- 
da-la'na  ;  Fr.  MADELEINE  or  MADELENE,  mtd'lin';  Ger. 
MAGDALENA,  mag-da-la'na ;  It.  MADDALENA,  mad-da- 
la'na,  or  MADAI.ENA,  ma-da-la'na  ;  Lat.  MAGDALE'NA  ; 
Sp.  MAGDALENA,  mag-da-lii'na. 

MARC.     See  MARK. 

MAR-CEL'LUS  ;  Fr.  MARCELLUS,  maR'si'lus';  It.  MAR- 
CELLO,  maR-chel'lo;  Lat.  MARCEL'LUS. 

MARCUS.     See  MARK. 

MARGARET,  mar'ga-ret,  (a  "pearl;")  Dutch,  MAR- 
GARETHA,  maR-ga-ra'ta,  or  maR-na-ra'ta ;  Fr.  MAR 
GUERITE,  mtR'gRet';  Ger.  MARGARETHE,  maR-ga-ra'- 
teh  ;  Gr.  Ma/r/apt'r^f,  ( Margarites ; )  It.  MARGARITA, 
maR-ga-ree'ta ;  Lat.  MARGARI'TA  or  MARGARE'TA. 

MARIA.     See  MARY. 

MARIE.     See  MARY. 

MARK,  (a  "hammer"?)  Danish,  MARCUS,  maR'kus ; 
Dutch,  MARCUS,  maR'kiis  ;  Fr.  MARC,  mtRk  ;  Ger.  MAR 
CUS,  maR'kus  ;  Gr.  Mdp/iOf,  ( Mar/cos  ;)  Hungarian,  MARK, 
mauk  ;  It.  MARCO,  maR'ko  ;  Lat.  MAR'CUS;  Sp.  MAR 
COS,  maR'kos  ;  Svv.  MARKUS,  maR'kus. 

MARTHA,  mar'tha,  ("bitlerness"  ?)  Dutch,  MARTHA, 
maR'ta;  Fr.  MARTHE,  mint ;  Ger.  MARTHA,  maR'ta; 
Gr.  M<ip0a,  (Martha;)  It.  MARTA,  maR'ta;  Lat.  MAR' 
THA;  Sp.  MARTA,  mai<'ta;  Sw.  MARTHA,  maR'ta. 

MAR'TIN,  ("martial  ;")  Dutch,  MARTINUS,  maR-tee'- 
inis ;  Fr.  MARTIN,  mtR'ta.v';  Ger.  MARTIN,  maR'tin  ; 
It.  MARTINO,  maR-tee'no ;  Lat.  MARTI'NUS  ;  Sp.  MAR 
TIN,  maR-teu';  Sw.  MARTIN,  maR-teen'. 

MARTINEZ,  (Sp.,)  maR-tee'neth,  (the  "son  of  Martin.") 

MARY,  ma're,  ("  bitter  ;")  Danish,  MARIE,  ma-ree'eh  : 
Dutch,  MARIA,  ma-ree'a ;  Fr.  MARIE,  mS're';  Ger. 
MARIA,  ma-ree'a,  or  MARIE,  ma-ree'eh  ;  Gr.  Map/a, 
{Maria;)  Hungarian,  MARIA,  ma're-a  ;  It.  MARIA,  ma- 
ree'a;  Lat.  MAKI'A;  Polish,  MAKYA,  maR'ya;  Port. 
MARIA,  ma-ree'a;  Sp.  MARIA,  ma-ree'a;  Sw.  MARIA, 
ma-ree'a. 

MASSIMILIANO.     See  MAXIMILIAN. 

MASSIMINO.     See  MAXIMIN. 

MASSIMO.     See  MAXIMUS. 

MATED.     See  MATTHEW. 

MATHIEU.     See  MATTHEW. 


MATHUSALEM.     See  METHUSELAH. 

MATIAS.     See  MATHIAS. 

MATILDA,  ma-til'da,  or  MAUD;  Danish,  MATHILDE, 
ma-til'deh;  Dutch,  MATHILDA,  ma-til'dl  ;  Fr.  MA 
THILDE,  mt'teld';  It.  MATILDA,  ma-tel'da  ;  Lat.  MA- 
THIL'DA;  Sp.  MATILDE,  ma-tel'di;  Sw.  MATILDA, 
ma-til'da. 

MATTHEW,  ma///u,  (a  "gift"  or  "present"?)  Danish, 
MATTH/EUS,  mat-ta'us;  Dutch,  MATTHEUS,  mat-ta'us  ; 
Fr.  MATHIEU,  mt'te-uh';  Gr.  Mortoof,  (  Matthaios  ;  ) 
Hungarian,  MATE,  ma'ta;  It.  MATTEO,  mat-ta'o;  Lat. 
MATTHEUS  ;  Polish,  MATEUSZ,  ma'te^oosh  ;  Sp.  MATEO, 
ma-ta'o  ;  Svv.  MATTHAUS,  mdt-ta'us. 

MATTHIAS,  ma-thl'as,  (originally  the  same  as  MATTH 
EW;)  Dutch,  MATTHIJS,  mat-tls';  Fr.  MATTHIAS,  mS'- 
te'as';  Ger.  MATHIAS,  ma-tee'as  ;  It.  MATTIA,  mat-tee'a  ; 
Lat.  MATTHI'AS  ;  Sp.  MATIAS,  ma-tee'as. 

MAUD.     See  MATILDA. 

MAURICE,  maw'riss  ;  Danish,  MORITZ,  mo'rits  ; 
Dutch,  MAURITS,  mow'rits,  or  MAURITIUS,  mow-ree'- 
se-iis,  (almost  mow-ree'she-iis  ;)  Fr.  MAURICE,  mo'ress'; 
Ger.  MORITZ,  mo'rits;  It.  MAURIZIO,  mow-ret'se-o,  or 
MAURISIO,  mow-ree'se-o  ;  Lat.  MAURIT'IUS  or  MAU- 
Rig'ius,  (maw-rish'e^us;)  Sp.  MAURICIO,  mow-ree'^e-o  ; 
Sw.  MORITZ,  mo'rits. 

MAXIMILIAN,  niak-se-mll'e-an  ;  Dutch,  MAXIMILI- 
ANUS,  mik-se-me-le-i'nus  ;  Fr.  MAXIMILIEN,  mSk'se'- 
me'le'aN';  Ger.  MAXIMILIAN,  mak-se-mee'le-an  ;*  It. 
MASSIMILIANO,  mas-se-me-le-a'no  ;  Lat.  MAXIMILIA'- 
NUS;  Sp.  MAXIMILIANO,  mak-se-me-le-i'no;  Sw.  MAX 
IMILIAN,  mak-se-mll'e-an. 

MAXIMIN,  mak'se-min  ;  Fr.  MAXIMIN,  mtk'se'maN'; 
It.  MASSIMINO,  mas-se-mee'no  ;  Lat.  MAXIMI'NUS. 

MAXIMUS,  mak'se-mus,  ("greatest;")  Fr.  MAXIME, 
mtk'sem';  It.  MASSIMO,  mas'se-mo  ;  Lat.  MAX'IMUS  ; 
Sp.  MAXIMO,  mak'se-mo. 

ME-THU'SE-LAH,  ("driving  away  death"?)  Fr.  MA 
THUSALEM,  mi-tii'zt'lem';  Lat.  METHU'SELA;  Heb. 


MICHAEL,  mT'ka-§l,  ("  who  is  like  God  ;")  Fr.  MICHEL, 
me'sheT;  Ger.  MICHAEL,  mlK'a-el,  (almost  mfn'a-e'l  ;) 
Heb.  ^XD'O  ;  Hungarian,  MIHALY,  mee'hal  ;  It.  Ml- 
CHELE,  me-ka'la  ;  Lat.  Mi'ciiAEL,(genitive,  MICHAE'LIS;) 
Polish,  MICHAL,  mee'Kal  ;  Port.  MIGUEL,  me-gel';  Russ. 
MIKHAIL,  me-Ka-el',  (almost  me-na-el',)  or  me-KcVel  ; 
Sp.  MIGUEL,  me-gel'. 

MIKLOS.     See  NICHOLAS. 

MIL'DRED,  ("speaking  mildly  ;")  Lat.  MILDRE'DA. 

MOISE.     See  MOSES. 

MOOSA.     See  MOSES. 

MORITZ.     See  MAURICE. 

MOSES,  mo'zez  or  mo'z?z,  ("drawn  out;")  Arabic, 
MOOSA  or  MOsA,  inoo'sa  ;  Dutch,  MOZES,  mo'z^s  ;  Fr. 
MO'ISE,  mo'ez';  Heb.  HBO  ;  Gr.  Mwc/X,  (Moses;)  Hun 
garian,  MOZE.-,  mo'zesh  ;  It.  MoiSE,  mo-e-sa';  Lat. 
MO'SES,  (genitive,  Mo'sis  ;)  Polish,  MOYZESZ,  moi'zhe'sh  ; 
Sp.  MOYSES,  mo-e-s8s';  Sw.  MOSES,  mo'se's. 

NAR-gis'sus,  (a  "daffodil  ;")  Fr.  NARCISSE,  nfR'sess'; 
It.  NARCISSO,  naR-ches'so;  Lat.  NARCIS'SUS. 


*  Generally   abbreviated,   except   in   formal   discourse,  as   MAX, 
(indks.) 


€  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/';  G,  H,  K,gittturai;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this. 

147 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 
2337 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES.. 


NATALIS.     See  NOEL. 
NATANAEL.     See  NATHANAEL. 
NATHAN,  na'/^an,  (a  "gift;")  Fr.  NATHAN,  nt't6N'; 
Ger.  NATHAN,  na'tan ;  Heb.  JHJ ;  Lat.  NA'THAN  ;  Sp. 
NATAN,  na-tan'. 

NATHANAEL  or  NATHANIEL,  na-///ar/yel,  (the  "gift  of 
God ;")  Dutch,  NATHANIEL,  na-ta'ne-e"] ;  Fr.  NATHANIEL, 
nt'tf  ne-21'j  Ger.  NATHANIEL,  na-ta'ne-el ;  Lat.  NA- 
THAN'AEL,  (genitive,  NATHANAE'LIS  ;)  Sp.  NATANAEL, 
na-ta-na-eV. 

NEHEMIAH,  ne-he-ml'a,  (the  "rest  of  the  Lord;") 
Danish,  NEHEMIAS,  na-heh-mee'as  ;  Dutch,  NEHEMIA, 
na-heh-mee'a;  Fr.  NEHEMIE,  ni'a'me';  Ger.  NEHE 
MIAS,  na-heh-mee'as ;  Heb.  iTDPU  ;  It.  NEEMIA,  na-a- 
mee'a;  Lat.  NEHEMI'AS  ;  Sp.  NEHEMIAS,  na-a-mee'as. 

NICHOLAS,  nik'o-las,  (the  "people's  victory;")  Dutch, 
NICOLAAS,  nee'ko-las',  (more  frequently  KLAAS,  klas  ;) 
Fr.  NICOLAS,  ne'ko'la';  Ger.  NICOLAUS,  nee'ko-lowss'; 
Gr.  Nuoftoof,  ( Nikolaos ;)  Hungarian,  MIKLOS,  mee'- 
klosh  ;  It.  NiccoLd  or  NICOL6,  nek-ko-lo';  Lat.  Nico- 
LA'US  ;  Port.  NICOLAO,  ne-ko-la'o ;  Russ.  NIKOLAI, 
ne-ko-la'e,  or  NIKOLAS,  ne-ko-las';  Sp.  NICOLAS,  ne- 
ko-las';  Sw.  NILS,  nils. 

NIC-O-DE'MUS,  ("victory  of  the  people''  or  the  "con 
queror  of  the  people  ;")  Fr.  NICODEME,  ne'ko'd&m';  Gr. 
Nwo^of,  (  A'ikodemos  ; )  Lat.  NICODE'MUS. 

NICOLAS.     See  NICHOLAS. 

NILS.     See  NICHOLAS. 

NO'AH,  (no'a  ;)  Arabic,  NOOH  or  N0H,  noon  ;  Dutch, 
NOACH,  no'dH  or  no'aK ;  Fr.  No6,  no'a';  Ger.  NOAH, 
no'a;  Gr.  N<ie,  (Noe;)  Heb.  PU;  Sw.  NOA,  no'a. 

NO'EL,  ("Christmas;"*)  Fr.  NOEL,  no'eT;  Lat.  NA- 
TA'LIS  or  NOE'LIUS. 

NOOH.    See  NOAH. 

NORMAN,    nor'man,   ("born   in   Normandy"  or  "of 
Norman  extraction  ;")  Lat.  NORMAN'NUS. 
NOUH  or  NUH.     See  NOAH. 

OBADIAH,  ob-a-dl'a,  (the  "servant  of  the  Lord;") 
Heb.  m3>';  Lat.  OBADI'AS. 

OCTAVE.     See  OCTAVIUS. 

OCTAVIA,  ok-ta've-a ;  Fr.  OCTAVIE,  ok'ti've';  It.  OT- 
TAVIA,  ot-ta've-a ;  Lat.  OCTA'VIA. 

OCTAVIUS,  ok-ta've-us ;  Fr.  OCTAVE,  ok'tiv';  It.  Or- 
TAVIO,  ot-ta've-o ;  Lat.  OcrA'vius ;  Sp.  OCTAVIO,  ok- 
ta've-o. 

ODUSSEUS  or  ODYSSEUS.     See  ULYSSES. 

OLIVER,  ol'e-ver,  ("an  olive,"  or  "bearing  the  olive;") 
Dutch,  OLIVIER,  o-le-veeR';t  Fr.  OLIVIER,  o'ie've-i'; 
It.  OLIVIERE,  o-le-ve-a'ra,  or  ULIVIERE,  oo-le-ve-a'ra; 
Lat.  OLIVA'RUS  or  OLIVA'RIUS;  Sp.  OLIVERIO,  o-le-va'- 
re-o;  Sw.  OLIVIER,  o-le-veeR'. 

OLIVIA,  o-l?v'e-a,  (the  feminine  of  OLIVER  ;)  Danish, 


*  Given  as  a  name  to  children  born  on  Christmas-day, 
t  OLIVIER  (pronounced  ol-e-veer')  appears  also  to  have  been  an 
old  English  form.     Scott  says, 

"  When  Roland  brave,  and  Olivier, 
And  every  paladin  and  peer, 
On  Roncesvalles  died." — 

Afarmion,  canto  vi.  stanza  33. 


OLIVIA,  o-lee've-a;  Dutch,  OLIVIA,  o-lee've-a;  Fr.  OLI- 
VIE,  o'le've';  Ger.  OLIVIA,  o-lee've-a;  Sw.  OLIVIA, 
o-llv'e-a. 

OLIVIER.     See  OLIVER. 

OLYMPIA,  o-l!m'pe-a,  or  OLYMPIAS,  o-lim'pe-as,  ("be 
longing  to  Olympus,"  "divine;")  Fr.  OLYMPE,  o'laMp'; 
Gr.  'O/,tyz7nuf,  (Ohimpias;)  Lat.  OLYM'PIAS  or  OLYM'- 
PIA. 

OMFREDO.     See  HUMPHREY. 

ONESIMUS,  o-ngs'e-mus,  ("  profitable  ;")  Fr.  ONESIME, 
o'na'zem';  Gr.  'Ovf/m^of,  (Onesimos;)  It.  ONESIMO,  o-na'- 
se-mo;  Lat.  ONES'IMOS. 

ONUPHRIUS.     See  HUMPHREY. 

OPHELIA,  o-fee'le-a,  ("help,"  "usefulness;")  Fr. 
OPHELIE,  o'fa'le';  Gr.  'Q$£?da,  (Ophelia;)  Lat.  OPHE'- 
LIA. 

ORAZIO.     See  HORACE. 

ORIGEN,  or'e-jen,  ("descended  from  Horus,"an  Egyp 
tian  deity  ;J)  Fr.  ORIGENE,  o're'zhin';  Gr.  'Q.piyivj]q, 
(Origenes  ;)  Lat.  ORIG'ENES,  (genitive,  ORIG'ENIS.) 

ORLANDO,  (a  form  of  ROLAND,  which  see  ;)  It.  OR 
LANDO,  oR-ldn'do;  Lat.  ORLAN'DUS. 

O'riio,  ("  spirited"  ?§)  Dutch,  OT'TO  ;  Fr.  OTHON, 
o'tiN'  ;  Ger.  OT'TO  ;  It.  OTTONE,  ot-to'na;  Lat.  O'THO  ; 
Sp.  OTONIO,  o-to'ne-o  ;  Sw.  OT'TO. 

OTTAVIA.     See  OCTAVIA. 

OTTAVIO.     See  OCTAVIUS. 

OTTO.     See  OTHO. 

OTTONE.     See  OTHO. 

OV'ID  ;  Dutch,  OVIDIUS,  o-vee'de-iis  ;  Fr.  OVIDE, 
o'ved';  Ger.  OVIDIUS,  o-vee'de-us  ;  It.  OVIDIO,  o-vee'- 
de-o  ;  Lat.  OVID'IUS. 

PAULO.     See  PAUL. 

PAL.     See  PAUL. 

PAOLINA.     See  PAULINA. 

PAOLO.     See  PAUL. 

PASCHAL,  pas'kal,  ("  belonging  to  Easter,"  or  "born 
at  Easter  ;"||)  Fr.  PASCAL,  pts'kSl';  It.  PASQUALE,  pas- 
kwa'la  ;  Lat.  PASCHA'LIS  ;  Sp.  PASCUAL,  pas-kwal'. 

PAT'RICK,  ("patrician,"  "noble;")  Dutch,  PATRI- 
cius,  pa-tRee'se-us  ;  Fr.  PATRICE,  pt'tRess';  It.  PATRI- 
zio,  pa-tRet'se-o  ;  Lat.  PATRIC/IUS  ;  Sp.  PATRICIO,  p3.- 


PAUL,  ("little;")  Danish,  PAUL,  powl,  or  PAULUS, 
pow'lus  ;  Dutch,  PAULUS,  pow'lus  ;  Fr.  PAUL,  p51  ;  Ger. 
PAUL,  powl  ;  Gr.  HavZof,  (  Paulos  ;)  Hungarian,  PAL, 
ptl  ;  It.  PAOLO,  pa'o-lo  or  pow'lo  ;  Lat.  PAU'LUS  ;  Polish, 
PAWEL,  pa'vgl  ;  Port.  PAULO,  pow'lo  ;  Russ.  PAVEL, 
pa'v^l  ;  Sp.  PABLO,  pa'Blo  ;  Sw.  PAUL,  powl. 

PAULINA,  paw-ll'na,  (the  feminine  of  PAUL  ;)  Fr.  PAU 
LINE,  po'len';  Ger.  PAULINE,  pow-lee'neh  ;  It.  PAOLINA, 
pa-o-lee'na  or  pow-lee'na  ;  Lat.  PAULI'NA. 

PAVEL.     See  PAUL. 

PAWEL.     See  PAUL. 

PEDER.     See  PETER. 

PEDRO.     See  PETER. 


t  Called  Orits  flipos)  by  the  Greeks. 
§  See  ODIN  in  the  body  of  this  work. 
||  From  Pascha,  the  "passover,"  or  "Easter." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fat;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 
2338    ^ 


rOCABULARr  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES 


PE-NEI/O-PE,  (a  "weaver"?)  Fr.  PENELOPE,  pa'na'- 
lop';  Gr.  nnve'Ao-Ti,  (Penelope;)  Lat.  PENEL'OPE,  (geni 
tive,  PENEL'OPES.) 

PEREGRINE,  peVe-grln,  ("foreign,"  "pilgrim;")  Da 
nish,  PEREGRINUS,  pa-reh-gRee'nus  ;  Dutch,  PEREGRI- 
NUS,  pa-reh-gree'nus ;  It.  PEREGRINO,  pa-ra-gRee'no  ; 
Lat.  PEREGRI'NUS;  Sw.  PEREGRINUS,  per-eh-gKee'nus. 

FE'TER,  (a  "rock"  or  "stone  ;")  Danish,  PEDER,  pa'- 
i>er  ;  Dutch,  PIETER,  pee'ter  ;  Fr.  PIERRE,  pe^aiR';  Ger. 
PETER,  pa'ter  ;  Gr.  Ilerpof,  ( Petros :)  Hungarian,  PE TER, 
pa'ter ;  It.  PIETRO,  pe-a'tRo  ;  Lat.  PE'TKUS  ;  Polish, 
PIOTR,  pyot'r  ;  Port.  PEDRO,  pa'dno  ;  Russ.  PIOTK,  pyot'r 
cr  pe-otV;  Sp.  PEDRO,  pa'oRo  ;  Sw.  PETER,  pil'ter. 

PHEBE.     See  PHCEUE. 

PHILEMON,  phi-le'mon,  ("saluting;")  Fr.  PHILEMON, 
fe'la'moN';  Gr.  <kiAt'/uui;  (Philemon;)  It.  Fi LEMON K, 
fe-la-mu'na  ;  Lat.  PHILE'.MON,  (genitive,  PHILK.MO'NLS.) 

PHI-LE'TUS,  ("beloved;")  Gr.  *i/.j/-0f,  (Philetos;) 
It.  FH.ETO,  fe-la'to;  Lat.  PHILE'TUS. 

PHILUJERT,  fil'e-bert,  or  PHILEBERT,  ("famously 
bright"?)  Danish,  PHILIBERT,  nTe-beiu';  Fr.  PHILIBEKT, 
fe'le'baiu';  It.  FILIHERTO,  fe-le-ben'to ;  Lat.  PHILEUER'- 
TUS. 

PHII/IP,  ("loving  horses;")  Dutch,  PnH.H'i'L'S,  fe- 
lip'piis;  Fr.  PHILIPPE,  fe'lep';  Ger.  PHII.IPP,  Hl'ip; 
Gr.  QM-TTOC,  ( Philip pos  ;)  Hungarian,  FII.EP,  fee'lep  ;  It. 
FII.IPPO,  fe-lep'po;  Lat.  PHILIP'PUS  ;  Polish,  FILIP, 
fee'lip;  Port.  FEI.IPPE,  fa-lep'pi  ;  Russ.  PHILIPP  or 
FILIP,  fe-lep';  Sp.  FELIPE,  fa-lee'pi  ;  Sw.  FII.II-,  fil'ip. 

PHILIPPA,  fe-lip'pa,  (the  feminine  of  PHILIP;)  Dutch, 
PIULIPPA,  fe-lip'pa;  Ger.  PHILII-PINE,  fe-Hp-pee'neh  ; 
Gr.  4>/A!— a,  (Philippa:)  It.  FH.IPPA,  fe-lep'pi ;  Lat. 
PHILIP'PA;  Sp.  FELIPA,  fa-lee'pi  ;  Sw.  FILIPPINA,  fil- 
ip-pee'ni. 

PHIN'E-AS  ;  Fr.  PIUNEAS,  fe'na'is';  It.  FINEO,  fe-na'o; 
Lat.  PHIN'EAS;  Sp.  PHINEES,  fe-na-?s'. 

PIKEP.E,  fee'be,  ("bright,"  "shining;")  Fr.  PHEBE, 
fa'ba';  Gr.  *of5//,  ( Phoibe  :)  It.  FEI-.E,  fa'bi ;  Lat. 
PHCF/ISE,  (genitive,  PHCE'BES.) 

Piivi/Lisor  PHII/LIS,  (a  "green  bough  ;")  Gr.  <ti'//.of, 
(Phullos;)  It.  FILIDE,  fee'le-di;  Lat.  PIIVL'LIS,  (geni 
tive,  PHYL'LIDIS.) 

PIE.     See  Pius. 

PIERRE.     See  PETER. 

PIETER.     See  PETER. 

PiEi'RO.     See  PETER. 

Pio.     See  Pius. 

PIOTR.     See  PETER. 

Pi'us,  ("  pious  ;")  Fr.  PIE,  pee  ;  Ger.  Pius,  pee'us  ; 
It.  Pio,  pee'o;  Lat.  Pi'us. 

PLINY,  plin'e  ;  Fr.  PLINE,  plen  ;  Ger.  PI.INIUS,  plee'- 
ne-us ;  It.  PLINIO,  plee'ne-o  ;  Lat.  PLIN'IUS. 

POLYCARP,  pol'e-karp,  ("abounding  in  fruit;")  Fr. 
POLYCARPE,  po'le'kiRp';  Gr.  Ho/.i'K.ap-of,  ( Polukarpos ;) 
It.  POLICARPO,  po-le-kaR'po  ;  Lat.  POLYCAR'PUS. 

POM'PEY;  Danish,  POMPEJUS,  pom-pa'yfls  ;  Dutch, 
POMPEJUS,  pom-pa'yus  ;  Fr.  POMPEE,  po.v'pa';  It.  POM- 
PEO,  pom-pa'o  ;  Lat.  POMPE'IUS. 

PRISCILI.A,  pris-sii'la,  ("ancient  ;")  Dutch,  PRISCILLA, 


pi<is-sil'li;  Fr.  PRISCILLE,  pRe'sel';  It.  PRISCILLA,  pke- 

shel'll;  Lat.  PRISCIL'LA. 

ProLEMY,  tol'e-me,  ("warlike"  or  "mighty  in  war;") 
Dutch,  PTOLEMEUS,  pto-leh-ma'us ;  Fr.  PTOLEMEE, 
pto'la'mi';  Ger.  PTOLEMAUS,  pto-leh-ma'us  ;  Gr.  IlroAf- 
ftaiof,  ( Ptolemaios ; )  It.  TOLOMEO,  to-lo-ma'o ;  Lat. 
PTOLE.M.C'US. 

RA'CHEL,  (a  "  sheep"  or  "  lamb  ;")  Fr.  RACHEL,  ri'- 
shei';  Ger.  RAHEL,  rl'hel,  or  RACHEL,  rait'el  ;  Heb. 
^n^  ;  It.  RACHELE,  rl-ka'li ;  Lat.  RA'CHEL,  (genitive, 
RACHE'I.IS;)  Sp.  RAQUEL,  rl-kel';  Sw.  RACHEL,  ra'kel. 

RADULPHUS.     See  RALPH. 

RAFAEU     See  RAPHAEL. 

RAFAELE  or  RAFFAELLE.     See  RAPHAEL. 

RAHEL.     See  RACHEL. 

RAIMOND.     See  RAYMOND. 

RAIMUNDO.     See  RAYMUND. 

RALPH,  ralf,  ("warrior-wolf"?*)  Dutch,  RUDOLF,  rii'- 
dolf;  Fr.  RAOUL,  rt'ool';  It.  RAOLFO,  ri-ol'fo ;  Lat. 
RADUI/PHUS  ;  Sp.  RODOI.FO,  ro-dol'tb;  Sw.  RUDOLF, 
roo'dolf. 

RAMON.     See  RAYMOND. 

RANDAL,  rii/dal,  or  RAN'UI.PH,  (perhaps  the  same 
as  RALPH  ;)  Fr.  RANDOLPHS,  rfiN'dolf;  Lat.  RANUI/- 
PHUS  ;  Sp.  RANDOLFO,  ran-dol'fo. 

RAOLFO.     See  RALPH. 

RAOUL.     See  RALPH. 

RAPHAEL,  ra'fa-el  or  ra'fi-el,  (the  "  healing  or  medi 
cine  of  God;")  Fr.  RAPHAEL,  rS'tl'el';  Ger.  RAPHAEL, 
ra'fa-el  ;  It.  RAFAELE,  ra-fa-a'la,  or  RAFFAELLE,  rlf-fa- 
el'la ;  Lat.  RA'PHAEL,  (genitive,  RAPHAE'LIS;)  Sp. 
RAFAEL,  ra-fa-eT. 

RAQUEL.     See  RACHEL. 

RAY'MOND,  ("wise  protection"?)  Fr.  RAYMOND,  ri'- 
m6N';  It.  RAIMONDO,  rl-moi/do ;  Lat.  RAYMUN'DUS  ; 
Sp.  RAYMUNDO,  n-moon'do,  or  RAMON,  ra-m<Sn'. 

REBECCA  or  REBEKAH,  re-bek'ka  ;  Fr.  REBECCA,  reh'- 
bi'ki';  It.  REBECCA, 'ri-bek'ka;  Lat  REBEC'CA;  Sp. 
REBECA,  ra-Ba'ki. 

RP:GINALDUS.     See  REYNOLD. 

REICHARD.     See  RICHARD. 

REIN  HOLD.     See  REYNOLD. 

REJNOLD.     See  REYNOLD. 

RENAUD.     See  REYNOLD. 

RENE,  (not  used  in  English,)  ("born  again,"  "regen 
erate  ;")  Fr.  RENE,  reh-na' ;  It.  RE  NATO,  ri-na'to  ;  Lat. 
RENA'TUS. 


*  If,  as  seems  to  be  generally  assumed,  Ralph  in  its  origin  is  the 
same  as  Rudolph  or  Rodolf,  it  probably  signifies  "red  wolf,"  (com 
pare  the  Saxon  rud  and  our  ruddy  uiih  the  Danish  and  Swedish 
rod,  Dutch  rood,  and  the  German  roth,  all  signifying  "red,")  having 
been  applied  in  the  first  place,  perhaps,  to  some  red-haired  warrior, 
for  it  is  common  among  all  rude  nations  to  compare  a  warrior  to  some 
animal  distinguished  for  strength,  courage,  or  fierceness.  But  Ralph 
may  not  improbably — as  its  English  spelling  and  still  more  thai  i>f 
its  Latin  equivalent  (Radulphns)  might  seem  to  indicate — be  derived 
from  Ridulf  or  Radulph,  meaning  "  wirrior  wolf:"  the  prefix  ra 
(cognate  with  the  English  ride  or  rode)  being  applied  to  the  better 
class  of  warriors,  who  were  usually  on  horseback :  thus,  rad-cttiht,  in 
Anglo-Saxon, — literally,  a  "riding  youth," — signifies  a  "soldier"  or 
"  warrior-knight." 


€  as/v  cas  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  ¥i,i;n'tural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


See  F.xplanations,  p.  2J.) 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES. 


RENEE,  sometimes  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
len'ne,  (the  feminine  of  RENE;)  Fr.  RENEE,  reh-na' ; 
It.  RENATA,  ra-na'ta  ;  Lat.  RKNA'TA. 

REUBEX,  rii'ben,  ("behold  a  son;")  Fr.  RUBEN,  rii'- 
baN';  Heb.  pl*O  ;  Lat.  REUBE'NUS. 

REYNOLD,  ren'old ;  Danish,  REINHOLD,  dn'hoW; 
Dutch,  REINOI.D,  ri'nolt ;  Fr.  RKNAUD,  reh-no';  Ger. 
REINHOLD,  rin'holt ;  Lat.  REYNAI/DUSOV  REGIXAL'DUS; 
Sp.  REYNALDO,  ra-nal'do;  S\v.  REINHOLD,  nn'hold. 

RIIODA,  ro'da,  or  RHO'DE,  (a  "rose;")  Gr.  'P(>6t], 
(Rhode;)  Lat.  RHO'DA. 

RICH'ARD,  ("  firm  or  strong  king  ;")  Dutch,  RICHARI^ 
ree'shaiU ;  Fr.  RICHARD,  re'shaV;  Ger.  RICHARD,  riK'- 
aut,  or  RKICHARD,  ii'KJRt;  It.  RICARDO,  re-kaii'do  ; 
Lat.  RICHAR'DUS  ;  Port.  RICARDO,  re-kak'do;  Sp.  RI 
CARDO,  re-kaR'do. 

RIDOI.FO.     See  RUDOLPH. 

ROB'EUT,  ("  bright  fame"  ?)  Danish,  ROBERT,  ro'beRt  ; 
Dutch,  ROBERT,  rfib'eiU ;  Fr.  ROBERT,  ro'baiR';  Ger. 
ROBERT,  ro'beRt ;  It.  ROBERTO,  ro-beu'to  ;  Lat.  Ro- 
BER'TUS;  Sp.  ROBERTO,  ro-beR'to;  Sw.  ROBERT,  rob'- 
eiu. 

ROD'ER-ICK,  ("  rich  in  fame"  ?)  Fr.  RODRIGUE,  ro'- 
dReg';  Ger.  RODERICH,  ro'deh-riK';  It.  RODRIGO,  ro- 
duee'go;  Lat.  RODERI'CUS  ;  Russ.  RU'RIK  ;  Sp.  RO 
DRIGO,  ro-DRee'go,  RODERIGO,  ro-Di-ree'go,  or  RUY, 
roo-ee'  or  Rwee. 

RODOLFO.     See  RUDOLPH. 

KoDoi.i'HE.     See  RUDOLPH. 

RODRIGO.     See  RODERICK. 

RODRIGUE.     See  RODERICK. 

RODRIGUEZ,  (Sp.,)  ro-DRee'geth,  (the  "son  of  Rode 
rick.") 

ROELAND.     See  ROLAND. 

ROGER,  roj'er,  ("famous  spear"?)  Dutch,  RUTGER, 
rtit'ger  or  rfit'iier;  Fr.  ROGER,  ro'zha' ;  It.  RUGIERO, 
roo-ja'ro;  Lat.  ROGE'RUS  ;  Sp.  ROGERIO,  ro-na're-o. 

ROLAND  or  ROWLAND,  ro'land,  (the  "fame  or  glory 
of  the  land"?)  Danish,  ROLAND,  ro'laW;  Dutch,  ROE- 
LAND,  roo'lant;  Fr.  ROLAND,  ro'lSV;  Ger.  ROLAND, 
ro'lant ;  It.  ORLAN'DO,  oR-lin'do,  or  ROLANDO,  ro-lan'- 
do ;  Lat.  ROLAN'DUS ;  Port.  ROLANDO,  ro-lan'do ;  Sp. 
ROLANDO,  ro-lai/do. 

ROSA.     See  ROSE. 

ROSAMOND,  roz'a-mond,  ("rose  of  peace;")  Dutch, 
ROZAMOND,  ro'za-m6nt';  Fr.  ROSEMONDE,  ro'zeh-moNd' 
or  roz'n^Nd7;  It.  ROSMONDA,  ros-mon'dS  ;  Lat.  ROSA- 
MUN'DA. 

ROSE,  roz;  Danish,  ROSA,,  ro'za ;  Dutch,  ROSA,  ro'- 
sa ;  Fr.  ROSE,  roz  ;  Ger.  ROSE,  ro'zeh  ;  It.  ROSA,  ro'sa ; 
Lat.  RO'SA;  Sp.  ROSA,  ro'sa;  Sw.  ROSA,  roo'sa,  or 
ROSINA,  roo-see'na. 

ROWLAND.     See  ROLAND. 

ROZAMOND.     Fee  ROSAMOND. 

RUBEN.     See  REUBEN. 

RU'DOLPH,  (see  note  under  RALPH  ;)  Dutch,  RUDOLF, 
rii'dolf ;    Fr.  RODOLPHE,  ro'dolf;    Ger.  RUDOLF,  roo'- 
dolf ;  It.  RO-DOL'FO  or  RIDOLFO,  re-dol'fo ;  Lat.  Ru- 
DOL'PHUS. 
RUFIN  or  RUFINUS.     See  GRIFFITH. 


RU'FUS,  ("  reddish,"  "  having  red  hair  ;")  Lat.  RU'FUS. 

RUGIERO.     See  ROGER. 

RU'PERT,   ("  bright    fame"  ?)   Ger.   RUPRECHT,    roo'- 

t ;  Lat.  RUPER'TUS. 
RURIK.     See  RODERICK. 
RUTGER.     See  ROGER. 
RUTH,  rooth  ;  Fr.  RUTH,  rut ;  Lat.  RUTH. 
RUY.     See  RODERICK. 

SAISINA,  sa-bi'na ;  Dutch,  SABIXE,  sa-bee'neh  ;  Fr. 
SABINE,  st'ben';  It.  SABINA,  sa-bee'na  ;  Lat.  SABI'NA  ; 
Sp.  SABINA,  sa-isee'na  ;  .Ssv.  SABINA,  sa-bee'na. 

SALAMON.     See  SOLOMON. 

SALOMAO.     See  SOLOMON. 

SALOMON.     See  SOLOMON. 

SAMSON,  sam'son  ;  Danish,  SAMSON,  stm'son  ;  Dutch, 
SAMSON,  sam'son  ;  Fr.  SAMSON,  s6.N"'s6N';  Heb.  jltSOL?  ; 
Lat.  SAM'SON,  (genitive,  SAMSO'NIS;)  Port.  SANSAO, 
san-sowx';  Sp.  SANSOX,  san-s6n';  Sw.  SIM'SON. 

SAM'U-EL,  ("heard  by  God  ;")  Danish,  SAMUEL,  sa'- 
moo-el  ;  Dutch,  SAMUEL,  sa'mii-el,  (almost  sa'moo-el ;) 
Fr.  SAMUEL,  sS'mii'el';  Heb.  7X101?  ;  Hungarian,  SAM 
UEL,  sha'moo-el  ;  It.  SAMUELE,  si-moo-a'la;  Lat.  SAM'- 
UEL,  (genitive,  SAMUE'I.IS;)  Sp.  SAMUEL,  sa-moo-el'. 

SANSON  or  SAXSAO.     See  SAMSON. 

SARAH  or  SARA,  sa'ra,  (a  "princess  ;")  Dutch,  SARA, 
sa'ra;  Fr.  SAUA,  sS'rt';  Ger.  SARA,  sa'ra ;  Heb.  mtf; 
It.  SARA,  sa'ra;  Lat.  SA'RA;  Port.  SARA,  sa'ra;  Sp. 
SARA,  sa'ra;  Sw.  SARAH,  sa'ia. 

SAUL,  ("desired;")  Fr.  SAUL,  st'iil';  Heb.  SlNP ; 
Lat.  SAU'LUS. 

SCZEPAX.     See  STEPHEN. 

SEBASTIAN,  se-bast'yan,  (perhaps  "  inclined  to 
reverence ;  ")  Dutch,  SEBASTIAAX,  sa-bas'te-tn  ;  Fr. 
SEHASTIEN,  si'bSs'te^x';  It.  SEBASTIANO,  sa-bls-te- 
a'no ;  Lat.  SEP.ASTIA'XUS  ;  Port.  SEBASTIAO,  sa-bas-te- 
O\V.N';  Russ.  SEVASTIAX,  sa-vas-te-3.n';  Sp.  SEBASTIAN, 
sa-Bas-te-an';  Sw.  SEBASTIAN,  sa-bas'te-an. 

SIBYL,  sfb'il  ;  Dutch,  SIBYLLA,  se-bil'la;  Fr.  SIBYLI.E, 
se'bel';  Gr.  S/Siv^.o,  ( Sibulla  ; )  Lat.  SIBYI/LA. 

SIGISMUND,  sij'is-mund,  ("victorious  protection,"  or 
"  he  who  affords  protection  by  victory  ;")  Dutch,  SIGIS- 
MUNDUS,  se-gis-muii'diis  or  se-llis-miiii'dus  ;  Fr.  SIGIS- 
MOND,  se'zhess'moN';  Ger.  SIGISMUND,  see'gis-moont', 
or  SIGMUXD,  seec/moont ;  Lat.  SIGISMUN'DUS  ;  Sp. 
SIGISMUNDO,  se-iies-moon'do ;  Sw.  SIGISMUND,  sig'is- 
moond. 

SIL-YA'NUS,  ("belonging  to  the  woods,"  or  "inhabit 
ing  the  woods;")  Dutch,  SILVANUS,  sil-va'nus;  Fr. 
SYLVAIN  or  SILVAIN,  sel'vaN';  It.  SILVANO,  sel-vi'no; 
Lat.  SILVA'NUS;  Sp.  SILVANO,  sel-va'no. 

SILVESTER  or  SYLVESTER,  sil-ves'ter,  ("belonging  to 
the  woods;")  Fr.  SILVESTRE,  sel'vestR';  It.  SILVESTRO, 
sel-ves'tRo;  Lat.  SILVES'TER,  (genitive,  SILVES'TRIS  ;) 
Sp.  SILVESTRE,  sel-ves'tRi. 

SILVIA.     See  SYLVIA. 

SIM'E-OX,  ("  hearing  with  acceptance  ;")  Fr.  SIMEON, 
se'ma'oN1';  Ger.  SIMEON,  see'ma-on  ;  Heb.  jl>?0ty  ;  It. 
SIMEOXE,  se-ma-o'na;  Lat.  SIM'EOX,  (genitive,  SIMEO'- 
NIS;)  Port.  SIMEAO, se-ma-owx';  Sp.  SIMEON, se-ma-6n'. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  v,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure:  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 
2J4Q- 


VOCABULARY  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES. 


SIMON,  s!'m9n,  (originally  the  same  as  SIMEON  ;) 
Dutch,  SIMON,  see'mon  ;  Fr.  SlMON,  se'mdN';  Ger. 
SIMON,  see'mon;  Hungarian,  SIMON,  shee'mon  ;  It. 
SIMONE,  se-mo'na;  Lat.  SI'MON,  (genitive,  SIMO'NIS;] 
Sp.  SIMON,  se-m6n';  Sw.  SIMON,  see'mon. 

SIMSON.     See  SAMSON. 

SOFIA.     See  SOPHIA. 

SOL'O-MON,  ("peaceable;")  Arabic,  SOLIMAN,  so-le- 
mSn',  or  SULEYMA.N,  soo'la-mSn';  Dutch,  SALOMO,  sa'- 
lo-mo  ;  Fr.  SALOMON,  sa"lo'm6.\';  Ger.  SALOMON,  sd'lo- 


nion  ;  Gr.  2o/o(uajv,  (Solomon  ;)  Heb. 


;  Hungarian, 


SALAMON,  shol'6-mon  ;  It.  SALOMONS,  sa-lo-mo'na  ;  Lat. 
SAI/OMON,  (genitive,  SALOMO'NIS;)  Polish,  SALOMON, 
sd-lu'mon  ;  Port.  SALOMAO,  sa-lo-mowN';  Sp.  SALO 
MON,  sa-lo-mon'. 

SOPHIA,  so-fi'a,  ("wisdom;")  Danish,  SOPHIE,  so- 
fee'eh  ;  Dutch,  SOPHIE,  so-fee'eh  ;  Fr.  SOPHIE,  so'fe'; 
Ger.  SOPHIE,  so-fee'eh  ;  Gr.  2o<pla,  (Sophia;)  It.  SOFIA, 
so-fee'a;  Lat.  SO'PHIA  ;  Russ.  SOFIA,  so-fee'a  or  so' 
fe  -a  ;  Sp.  SOFIA,  so-fee'a;  Sw.  SOFIA,  so-fee'a. 

SOPHRONIA,  so-fro'ne-a,  ("of  a  sound  mind;")  Fr. 
SOPHKONIE,  so'fuo'ne';  Lat.  SOPHRO'NIA. 

SOSTHENES,  sos'//£e-nez,  ("of  sound  strength;")  Fr. 
SOSTHENE,  sos'tin';  Gr.  ZuaOtvra;,  (Sosthenes;)  Lat. 
SOS'THENES. 

STEPHEN,  stee'ven,  (a  "crown"  or  "garland;")  Da 
nish,  STEPHAN,  stef'an  ;  Dutch,  STEVKN,  sta'ven,  or 
STEPHANUS,  sta'fa-niis  ;  Fr.  ETIENNE,  a'te'en';  Ger. 
STEPHAN,  stef'an  ;  Gr.  Sre^aroc,  (Stephanos:)  Hungarian, 
ISTVAN,  esht'vin  ;  Lat.  STEPH'A.NUS;  Polish,  SCZEPAN, 
s'cha'pan  ;  Port.  ESTEVAO,  es-ta-vow.\';  Kuss.  STKPAN, 
sta-pan',  or  STEFAN,  sti-fan';  Sp.  ESTEBAN,  es-ta'nan, 
(almost  es-ta'van  ;)  Sw.  STEFAN,  stefdn. 

SULEYMAN.     See  SOLOMON. 

SUSAN,  soo'zan,  or  SUSANNA,  soo-zan'na,  (a  "lily;") 
Danish,  SUSANNA,  soo-san'na;  Dutch,  SUSANNA,  sii- 
san'na  ;  Fr.  SUSANNE,  sifziti/;  Ger.  SUSANNE,  soo-zan'- 
neh  ;  It.  SUSANNA,  soo-san'na  ;  Lat.  SUSAN'NA;  Sp. 
SUSANA,  soo-sa'na  ;  Sw.  SUSANNA,  soo-sdn'na. 

SYLVAIN.     See  SILVANUS. 

SYLVANUS.     See  SILVANUS. 

SYLVESTER.     See  SILVESTER. 

SYLVIA  or  SILVIA,  sil've-a,"  ("of  the  woods,"  or 
"delighting  in  the  woods;")  Fr.  SILVIE,  sel've';  It. 
SILVIA,  sel've-a  ;  Sp.  SILVIA,  sel've-a. 

TABITHA,  tab'e-tha,  (often  incorrectly  pronounced 
ta-bi'tha,)  (a  "roe;")  Lat.  TAH'ITHA. 

TADDEO  or  TADEO.     See  TIIADDEUS. 

TAMAS.     See  THOMAS. 

TEOHALDO.     See  THEOBALD. 

TEODORICO.     See  THEODORIC. 

TEODORO.     See  THEODORE. 

TEODOSIO.     See  THEODOSIUS. 

TEOFILO.     See  THEOPHILUS. 

TERESA.     See  THERESA. 

THADDEUS,  thad'de-us  or  thad-dee'us,  ("praise"?) 
It.  TADDEO,  tad-da'o  ;  Lat.  THADDE'US;  Sp.  TADEO, 
ta-Da'o. 

THE'O-BALD,  ("bold  for  the  people"?)  Danish,  THEO 


BALD,  ta'o-bfli/;  Dutch,  TiEiiOur,  tee'bowt;  Fr.  Tin- 
BAUT,  te'bo';  Ger.  THEOBALD,  ta'o-bil  t';  It.  TEOBALDO, 
ta-o-bal'do  ;  Lat.  THEOBAL'DUS  ;  Sp.  TEOBALDO,  ta-o- 
Bal'do  ;  Sw.  THEOBALD,  tn'o-bald'. 

THE-OD'ER-ICK  or  THE-OD'O-RIC  ;  Dutch,  DIEDKR- 
ICK,  dee'der-ik,  commonly  contracted  to  DIRK  or  DIRCK, 
deeuk  ;  Fr.  THEODORIC,  taVdo'rek';  Ger.  THEODORICII, 
ta-od'o-riK',  or  DIETRICH,  dee'tRiK  ;  It.  TEODORICO,  ta- 
o-do-ree'ko  ;  Lat.  THEODORI'CUS  ;  Sp.  TEODORICO,  ta- 
o-Do're-ko. 

THKODORE,  ^ee'o-dor,  (the  "gift  of  God;")  Danisl , 
THEODOR,  ta'o-doR  ;  Dutch,  THEODORUS,  ta-o-do'riis  ; 
Fr.  THEODORE,  ta'o'doR';  Gr.  OeMupor,  (Theodoras;) 
It.  TEODORO,  ta-o-do'ro  ;  Lat.  THEODO'RUS  ;  Port.  THEO- 
DORO,  ta-o  do'ro ;  Russ.  FEODOR,  la-o-don';  Sp.  TEO- 
DORIO,  ta-o-Do're-o  ;  Sw.  THEODOR,  tn'o-doR. 

THEODOSIA.  //;e-o-do'she-a,  (the  feminine  of  THEO 
DOSIUS  ;)  Fr.  THEODOSIE,  taVdo'ze';  It.  TEODOSIA,  ta- 
o-do'se-i ;  Lat.  THEODO'SIA. 

THEODOSIUS,  /"/ze-o-do'she-us,  ("given  by  God  ;")  Fr. 
THEODOSE,  ti'o'doz';  It.  TEODCJSIO,  ti-o-do'se-o ;  Lat. 
THEODO'SIUS;  Sp.  TEODOSIO,  ta-o-Do'se-o. 

THEOPHILUS,  ^e-of'e-Ius,  (a  "lover  of  God  ;")  Da 
nish,  GOTTLIEB,  got'leep ;  Dutch,  THEOPHILUS,  ta-»'- 
fe-lus  ;  Fr.  THEOPHILE,  tiVt'eK;  Ger.  GOTTLIEB,  got' 
leep  ;  Gr.  Geo^tAor,  (  Theophilos  :)  It.  TEOFILO,  ta-of'e-lo  ; 
Lat.  THEOPH'ILUS  ;  Port.  THEOPHILO,  ta-o'fe-lo ;  Sp. 
TEOFILO,  ta-o'fe-lo. 

THERESA,  te-ree'sa;  Dutch,  TIIERESIA,  ta-ra'se-a  ; 
Fr.  THERESE,  ta'riz';  Ger.  THERKSE,  ta-ra'zeh ;  It. 
TERESA,  ta-ra'sa  ;  Lat.  THERE'SA  ;  Sp.  TERESA,  ta-ra'sa  ; 
Sw.  THERESA,  ta-rn'sa. 

THIBAUT.     See  THEOBALD. 

THOMAS,  tom'ass  or  tom'us,  (a  "twin;")  Danisli, 
THOMAS,  tom'ts  ;  Dutch,  THOMAS,  to'mas  ;  Fr.  THO 
MAS,  to'ma' ;  Ger.  THOMAS,  to'inSs  ;  Gr.  0&y/dc,  (  Tho 
mas;)  Hungarian,  TAMAs,  tom'lsh  ;  It.  TOMMASO, 
tom-ma'so ;  Lat.  THO'MAS;  Polish,  TOMASZ,  to'mish  ; 
Port.  THOMAS,  to-mas',  or  THOMAR,  to-maii';  Sp. 
TOMAS,  to-mas';  Sw.  THOMAS,  tom'as. 

TIBERIUS,  ti-bee're-us  ;  Fr.  TIBERE,  te'baiR';  It.  Ti- 
BERIO,  te-ba're-o;  Lat.  TIBE'RIUS. 

TIEBOUT.     See  THEOBALD. 

TIMOTHY,  tim'o-///e,  ("fearing  God;")  Danish, 
TIMOTHEUS,  te-mo'ta-ils  ;  Dutch,  TIMOTHEUS,  te- 
mo'ta-iis  ;  Fr.  TIMOTHEE,  te'mo'ta';  Ger.  TIMOTHEUS, 
te-mo'ta  us  ;  Gr.  Tt/MiOeog,  (  Timotheos  ;)  It.  TIMOTEO, 
te-mo-ta'o ;  Lat.  TIMO'THEUS;  Port.  TIMOTHEO,  te- 
mo-ta'o  ;  Sp.  TIXIOTEO,  te-mo-ta'o;  Sw.  TIMOTHEUS, 
te-mo'te-us. 

TITUS,  tT'tus;  Fr.  TITE,  tet ;  Ger.  TITUS,  tee'tus ;  It. 
Tiro,  tee'to;  Lat.  TI'TUS;  Sp.  TITO,  tee'to. 

TOBIAS,  to-bl'ass,  or  TOBY,  to'be,  (the  "goodness  of 
the  Lord  ;")  Danish,  TOBIAS,  to-bee'ts  ;  Dutch,  TOBIAS, 
to-bee'As  ;  Fr.  ToniE,  to'be';  Ger.  TOBIAS,  to-bee'as  ; 
ft.  TOBIA,  to-bee'i;  Lat.  TOBI'AS;  Sp.  TOBIAS,  to- 
bee'as. 

TOI.OMEO.     See  Proi.EMY. 
TOMAS.     See  THOMAS. 
TOMASZ.     See  THOMAS. 
TOMMASO.     See  THOMAS. 


t  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this. 


Explanations,  p.  23.) 
2341 


I'OCABULART  CF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


TRISTRAM,  tris'tram,  ("sorrowful;")  Lat.  TRISTRA'- 
MUS;  Port.  TRISTAO,  tues-towN'. 

UGO.     See  HUGH. 

ULIVIERE.     See  OLIVER. 

ULYSSES,  yoo-lis'.sez  ;  Fr.  ULYSSE,  ii'less';  Gr.  'OAva- 
aei'f,  ( Ottnsseus ; )  It.  ULISSE,  oo-les'sa;  Lat.  ULYS'SES 
or  ULYX'ES,  (genitive,  ULYS'SIS.) 

URBAN,  ut'ban,  ("  courteous  ;")  Danish,  URBAN,  OOK'- 
oSn  ;  Dutch,  URBANUS,  uR-ba'nus,  or  URBAAN,  itit'bin  ; 
Fr.  URBAIN,  uit'baN';  Ger.  URBAN,  ooR'ban  ;  It.  UR- 
BANO,  ooR-ba'no;  Lat.  URBA'NUS;  Sp.  URBANO,  OOR- 
ba'no;  Sw.  URBAN,  ooR'ban. 

URIAH,  yoo-ii'a,  (the  "fire  of  the  Lord  ;")  Fr.  URIK, 
ii're';  Ger.  URIAS,  oo-ree'as  ;  It.  URIA,  oo-ree'a ;  Lat. 
URI'AS. 

URSULA,  ur'su-la,  (a  "female  bear  ;")  Dutch,  URSULA, 
liR'sii-la;  Fr.  URSULE,  iiR'stil';  Ger.  URSULA,  OOK'- 
soo-la;  It.  URSULA,  oou'soo-la ;  Lat.  UR'SULA;  Sp. 
URSULA,  ooR'soo-la;  Sw.  URSULA,  ooR'soo-la. 

UzziAH,  uz-zl'a,  (the  "strength  of  the  Lord  ;")  Heb. 
r\'\y ;  Lat.  UZZI'AS. 

VALENTINE,  val'en-tin,  ("strong"  or  "healthy;") 
Danish,  VALENTIN,  fa'len-teen';  Dutch,  VALENTIJN, 
va'len-tin';  Fr.  VALENTIN,  vS'iSN'taN';  Ger.  VALENTIN, 
fa'len-teen'  or  va'len-teen';  It.  VALENTINO,  va-le"n-tee'- 
no ;  Lat.  VALENTI'NUS;  Port.  VALKNTIM,  va-le"n-te.N'; 
Sp.  VALENTIN,  va-len-ten';  Sw.  VALENTIN,  va'len-teen'. 

VALERE.     See  VALERIUS. 

VALERIA,  va-lee'ie-a,  (the  feminine  of  VALERIUS;) 
Fr.  VALERIE,  vS'li're';  It.  VALERIA,  va-la're-a ;  Lat. 
VALE'RIA. 

VALERIAN,  va-lee're-an  ;  Dutch,  VALERIANUS,  va-la- 
re-a'niis  ;  Fr.  VAL^KIEN,  vt'la're^N1';  It.  VALERIANO, 
va-la-re-a'no ;  Lat.  VALERIA'NUS. 

VALERIE.     See  VALERIA. 

VALERIUS,  va-lee're-us ;  Fr.  VALERE,  vS'laiR';  It. 
VALERIO,  va-la're-o;  Lat.  VAI.E'KIUS. 

VARFOLOMEI.     See  BARTHOLOMEW. 

VASILI  or  VASILII.     See  BASH. 

VEIT.     See  GUY. 

VERONICA,  vgr-o-ni'ka ;  Fr.  V^RONIQUE,  va'ro'nek'; 
It.  VERONICA,  va-ro-nee'ka. 

VICENTE.     See  VINCENT. 

VICTORIA,  vik-tc/re-a,  ("victory;")  Fr.  VICTOIRE, 
vek'twaR';  It.  VITTORIA,  vet-to're-a  ;  Lat.  VICTO'RIA  ; 
Sp.  VITORIA,  ve-to're-a. 

VIN'CENT,  (an  "  overcomer ;")  Dutch,  VINCENTIUS, 
v!n-s§n'se-us ;  Fr.  VINCENT,  vaNxs6.\';  It.  VINCENTE, 
ven-chen'ta ;  Lat.  VINCEN'TIUS;  Port.  VICENTE,  ve- 
s^n'ta ;  Sp.  VICENTE,  ve-//ienrta,  or  VINCENTE,  ven- 
Men'ia. 


VIRGINIA,  vji-jin'ea;  Dutch,  VIRC.INIE,  vlR-nee'- 
ne-eh  ;  Fr.  VIRGINIE,  veR'zhe'ne';  Ger.  VIRGINIA,  fe~eR- 
gee'ne-S  ;  It.  VIRGINIA,  vcr-jee'ne-a ;  Lat.  VIRGIN'IA. 

VITTORIA  or  VITORIA.     See  VICTORIA. 

VIVIAN,  viv'e  an,  ("living;")  Fr.  VIVIKN,  ve'v^4,N'; 
Lat.  VIVIA'NUS. 

WALTER,  waul'ter,  (a  "  wood-master  ;")  Dutch,  Wou- 
TKR,  wow'ler  ;  Fr.  GAUTIER,  go'te-a';  Ger.  WALTER, 
wdl'ter ;  It.  GUAI.TERIO,  gwal-ta're-o  ;  Lat.  GUALTE'- 
RUS  ;  Port.  GUALTER,  gwal-taiR';  Sp.  GUALTERIO, 
gwal-ta're-o  ;  Sw.  WALTER,  val'ier. 

WILHEI.M.     See  WILLIAM. 

WILHELMINE,  wll'hgl-meen',  (the  feminine  of  WIL 
LIAM  ;)  Ger.  WII.HELMINK,  <\'ll-hel-mee'neh  ;  It.  Gu- 
GLIELMA,  gool-yel'ma. 

WILLIAM,  wil'yam ;  Danish,  WILHEI.M,  vll'hclm  ; 
Dutch,  WILI.EM,  wii'lem ;  Fr.  GuiLLAUME,  ge'yom'; 
Ger.  WILHEI.M,  <v?l'hclm  ;  It.  GUGLIELMO,  gool-yeVmo  ; 
Lat.  GULIEL'MUS,  WILHEI/MUS,  or  WILLIEL'MUS;  Sp. 
GUILI.ERMO,  ge-yeK'mo;  Sw.  WII.HELM,  vil'h^lm. 

WINIFRED,  win'e-fred,  or  WIN'IKKID,  ("winning 
pence;")  Dutch,  WiNFRiED,  win'fueet ;  Fr.  WINIFRED, 
ve'ne'fRCd';  Lat.  WINFRE'DA  ;  Sw.  WINKRID,  vin'fRid. 

WOUTER.     See  WALTER. 

VAKOF.     See  JAMES. 
YEKATERINA.     See  CATHERINE. 

ZABULON.     See  ZEBULON. 

ZACARIAS.     See  ZACHARIAH. 

ZACCARIA.     See  ZACHARIAH. 

ZACCHEUS,  zak-kee'us,  ("pure,"  "just;")  Fr.  ZACH^E, 
za'sha';  It.  ZACHEO,  dza-ka'o;  Lat.  ZACCHE'US. 

ZACHARIAH,  zak-a-n'a,  ("remembering  the  Lord;") 
Danish,  ZACHARIAS,  za-ka-ree'Ss  ;  Dutch,  ZACHARIAS, 
za-Ka-ree'as  ;  Fr.  ZACHARIE,  zS'kS're';  Ger.  ZACHARIAS, 
tsaK-a-ree'as  ;  Heb.  H'lDI ;  It.  ZACCARIA,  dzSk-ka-ree'5  ; 
Lat.  ZACHARI'AS;  Sp.  ZACARIAS,  /M-ka-ree'as ;  Sw. 
ZACHARIAS,  za-ka-ree'as. 

ZADOK,  za'dok,  ("righteous;")  Fr.  ZADOC,  zf'dok', 
Heb.  p'Hl.' ;  Lat.  ZADO'CUS. 

ZEB'U-LON  or  ZEB'U-LUN  ;  Fr.  ZABULON,  zS'bii'loN'; 
Heb.  J173I  orpDT;  Lat.  ZAB'ULON,  (genitive,  ZABU- 
LO'NIS.) 

ZEDEKIAH,  zed-e-kl'a,  (the   "justice  of  the   Lord;") 

Heb.  rrpi*  or  irrpi* . 

ZF/NO;  Fr.  ZENOX,  za'n6N';  Gr.  Zr/vuv,  (Zendn  ;)  It. 
ZENONE,  dza-no'na. 

ZENOBIA,  ze-no'be-a;  Fr.  ZENOBIE,  za'no'be';  Gr. 
7.rivo8ia,  (Zenobia;)  It.  ZENOBIA,  dza-no'be-a  ;  Lat.  ZK- 
NO'BIA. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 
2342 


DISPUTED  OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

LANGUAGE  may  be  said  to  be  a  mixed  product  of  cer 
tain  accidental  elements  and  the  generalizing  faculty  of 
the  human  mind.  Each  nation,  from  some  peculiarity, 
as  it  would  seem,  in  its  original  or  acquired  character, 
tends  to  develop  its  language  in  a  particular  manner, 
and  while  this  tendency  operates  without  the  interfer 
ence  of  foreign  influence,  a  language  will  generally  be 
found  to  grow  more  and  more  regular  so  long  as  the 
nation  speaking  it  exists.  But  if  foreign  words,  or  new 


The  comparative  regularity  of  the  Italian  language  is 
to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  though  Italy  has 
often  been  overrun  by  foreign  armies  it  has  seldom 
been  subjected  to  permanent  military  occupation.}:  And 
in  the  comparatively  few  instances  in  which  this  has 
occurred,  the  great  and  acknowledged  superiority  of  the 
Italians  in  literature  and  the  arts  has  led  the  conquerors 
rather  to  adopt  the  customs  and  language  of  the  con 
quered  than  attempt  to  introduce  their  own.  In  the 
sound  of  the  Italian  letters,  whether  simple  or  in  com 
bination,  there  is  scarcely  any  difficulty,  when  the  rules 


habits  of  thought,  be  introduced  by  the  prevalence  of  j  of  pronunciation  are  Once  known.  The  only  irregu- 
some  new  philosophical  or  religious  system,  irregularity  I  ]aritjes  that  Qccur  in  the  langllage  may  i^  said  to  be 
in  language,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  is  the  inevitable  ,  ]imited  to  diversity  of  spelling  and  variation  of  accent  ; 
result.  Accordingly,  we  occasionally  see  even  among  j  SQ  that(  jf  the  orthography  of  the  word  or  name  and 
the  Germans  (who,  of  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  appear  {he  proper  accentuation  are  ascertained,  one  cannot 


to  have  been  most  successful  in  preserving  their  lan 
guage  pure  from  the  admixture  of  foreign  elements) 
such  irregularities  as  the  following,  " D.is  Leiden  Christi" 
("  the  suffering  of  Christ,")  with  a  Latin  genitive,  instead 
of  the  more  regular  form,  "  D.is  Lei  Jen  des  Christns." 

But  the  most  common,  as  well  as  most  powerful, 
cause  of  irregularity  in  language,  is  military  conquest 
and  occupation,  as  in  this  case  the  conquerors  invariably 
introduce  new  words  and  phrases,  which  often  form  a 
most  incongruous  mixture  with  the  native  dialects.  If 
the  conquest  be  religious  as  well  as  military,  the  effect  is 


easily  err  in  the  pronunciation. 

In  Spain  we  find  a  language  of  the  most  heterogeneous 
elements,  because  in  early  times  it  was  often  overrun 
and  some  portions  permanently  occupied  by  nations  of 
the  most  diverse  and  even  opposite  characters, — Car 
thaginians,  Romans,  Goths,  Arabs,  etc.  ;  but,  having 
been  for  nearly  six  hundred  years  unsubjected,  except 
for  a  short  time  only,  to  any  foreign  power,  it  has  so 
assimilated  its  originally  heterogeneous  and  incongruous 
elements,  and  been  so  successful  (if  we  may  use  the 
expression)  in  bringing  light  and  order  out  of  the  chaos 


still  more  striking.     This  was  remarkably  exemplified  in     of  itg  njde  and  multifarious  dialects,  that  it  may  now 
the  conquest  of  Persia*  and  Hindostan  by  the  followers  j  just]y  boast  of  bdng;  Qn   the  who]e)  Qne  of  the 
of  Mohammed.     The  ail-but  unparalleled  irregularity  of 


the  English  language  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  succes 
sive  conquests  of  Britain  (originally  inhabited  by  Celtst) 
by  the  Romans,  the  Saxons,  the  Danes,  and  the  Nor- 
mans,  the  conquest  in  each  instance  being  not  a  mere 


regular  as  well  as  one  of  the  finest  among  all  the  lan 
guages  of  Europe.  As  regards  pronunciation,  the  most 
striking  irregularities  in  the  Spanish  tongue  will  be 
found  in  words  or  names  of  Moorish  origin,  such  as 
Alcacer,  (Arabic,  al-Kasr,  "the  castle"  or  "palace,") 


overrunning  of  the  countr}-,  but  followed  by  a  permanent  |  A]ca]^   (al.qild<  ,,the  fort>)   Almodovar,  (al-Modhafer, 

"  the  victorious,")  and  so  on. 

Below  will  be  given  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
discrepancies  in  the  pronunciation  and  spelling  of  the 
principal  European  languages. 

I. 
ENGLISH. 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  irregularity  of  our  lan 
guage,  we  find  comparatively  few  instances  of  discrep 
ancy  in  the  pronunciation  of  celebrated  names,  whether 
these  be  of  English  origin  or  the  Anglicized  forms  of 
foreign  names. 


military  occupation. 

To  the  same  cause,  though  operating  in  a  less  degree, 
must  likewise  be  ascribed  the  irregularity  of  the  French 
tongue;  though  other  influences  have  also  contributed 
to  the  same  result.  The  central  situation  of  France,  and 
the  various  attractions  which  the  country  and  people 
present  to  strangers,  have  induced  multitudes  of  almost 
every  nation  to  make  it  their  residence  ;  so  that  proba 
bly  no  European  country  in  recent  times  has  had  so 
mixed  and  multifarious  a  population.  To  this  cause, 
more  than  to  any  other,  must  be  attributed  the  exceeding 
irregularity  which  prevails  in  the  pronunciation  of  French 
proper  names. 


*  See,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  our  remarks  on  the  Persian 
language,  with  accompanying  note,  in  the  Introduction,  p.  19. 

t  At  least,  the  Cel's  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  island  known 
to  history. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural ';  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


t  It  should  be  borne  distinctly  in  mind  that  when  this  phrase  is 
used  it  always  has  reference  to  military  occupation  by  the  troops  of 
a  nation  essentially  differing  in  language  from  the  conquered  people. 

Explanations,  p.  23.) 
2343 


DISPUTED    OR    DOUBTFUL    PRONUNCIATIONS. 


The  following  are  among  the  most  important  : 

Augustine,  aw'gus-tin  or  aw-gus'tin.* 
Bellarmin,  bel'lar-min  or  bel-lar'min.t 
Cowper,  kow'per  or  koo'per.t 
Derby,  der'be  or  dar'be.§ 
Gifford,  gif  ford  or  jif'f<?rd.|| 
Raphael,  ra'fa-el  or  ra'fa-el. 

Variations  in  spelling  are  still  more  rare. 

II. 

NOTED  FRENCH  NAMES  OK  DOUBTFUL  SPELLING.!" 


Angeli, 

Cecille, 

Chateaubriand, 

Fenelon, 

Niceron,  . 

Petion. 

Remusat, 


Angeli. 

Cecille, 

Chateaubriand. 

Fenelon. 

Niceron. 

Petion. 

Remusat. 


It  might  be  supposed  that  diversities  in  spelling  like 
the  above  would  necessarily  be  followed  by  diversity  of 
pronunciation.  But  this  is  not  always  the  case.  For 
example,  Vice-Admiral  Cecille  informs  us  that  although 
he  never  writes  the  first  syllable  of  his  name  with  an 
accent,  it  is  always  pronounced  as  if  it  had  an  accent. 
Petion,  the  famous  mayor  of  Paris  in  the  early  part  of 
the  French  Revolution,  always  omitted  the  accent  on  the 
e  in  his  name,  which  was  nevertheless  always  pronounced 
Petion.  But  though  the  unaccented  letter  may  in  many 
cases  still  be  pronounced  as  if  it  had  the  accent,  the 
omission  can  scarcely  fail,  sooner  or  later,  to  produce  a 
permanent  change  in  the  pronunciation  itself. 

NOTED  FRENCH  NAMES  OF  DOUBTFUL  OR  DISPUTED 
PRONUNCIATION. 

Barras,  bS'rf  s'  or  bit'ra'. 
Biot,  beV  or  be'ot'.** 


*  In  favour  of  the  first  we  have  not  only  the  analogy  of  other 
languages,  cognate  with  ours,  e.g.  the  German  Augustin'  or 
Au'gustin,  and  the  Dutch  Au'gustijn,  but  also  the  authority  of  some 
of  our  best  poets,  including  Scott  and  Longfellow.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  best  modern  usage,  at  least  in 
this  country,  is  in  favour  of  Augus'tine. 

t  The  first  pronunciation  of  this  name  appears  to  have  been  for 
merly  very  general  among  the  best  speakers ;  but  modern  usage  seems 
to  have  decided  for  the  second. 

t  The  first  pronunciation  is  pure  Saxon  ;  the  other  (a  more  aris 
tocratic  pronunciation)  is  intended  to  give  the  Norman  sound  of  ou, 
(or  oiv,)  u  and  w  being  formerly  often  interchanged.  (See  note  to 
Gifford.) 

§  The  chief  reason  for  adopting  the  second  pronunciation  of  this 
name,  so  contrary  to  the  general  usage  of  our  language,  would  seem 
to  be  the  consideration  that  an  antiquated  pronunciation  is  appro 
priate  to  the  name  of  a  very  ancient  family. 

H  Properly  speaking,  these  may  be  regarded  as  two  different 
names :  the  one  aristocratic,  taking  the  soft  sound  of  g  from  the 
Norman  French  :  the  other  plebeian,  adopting  the  common  Saxon 
pronunciation  of  that  letter. 

11  The  French  language  at  the  present  time  would  appear  to  be 
in  a  transition  state  in  regard  to  placing  the  accent,  which  is  now 
omitted  from  many  names  on  which  it  was  formerly  invariably 
placed.  The  omission  was  probably  due  in  the  first  place  to  haste  or 
carelessness;  but  what  was  originally  an  error  resulting  from  sheer 
negligence,  if  committed  by  some  eminent  author  in  regard  to  his 
own  name,  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  preferable  mode  of 
writing  such  name. 

**  We  have  been  assured,  on  respectable  authority,  that  in  the 
name  of  the  celebrated  Bossuet  the  final  t  was  pronounced  in  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century. 


Chateaubriand  or  Chateaubriand,  sha'to'bke'&N' 
or  shU'to'bKe'oN'. 

Dumas,  dii'ma'  or  du'mi's'. 

Genlis,  zhSN'less'  or  zho.N'le'. 

Guise,  gwez  (gii-ez')  or  gez. 

Guixot.tt  gwe'zo'  (gii-e'zo')  or  ge'zo'. 

Laennec,  IJt'ne'k'tt  or  LVnek'. 

Sieyes,  se'i'yess'  or  se'ess'. 

This  list  might  be  much  extended,  including  a  multi 
tude  of  names  in  which  the  pronunciation  of  the  final 
consonant  is  undetermined,  as  Audoul,  6'dool'  oro'doc/, 
Bastoul,  bts'tool'  or  baVtoo',  Uestutt,  variously  pro 
nounced  di'tiit/,  d«Vtu',  and  deVtiit',  etc.  etc.,  and  many 
others,  such  as  Remilly,  Silly,  Villers,  Villette,  VVailly, 
Willot,  etc.,  in  which  it  is  somewhat  uncertain  whether 
the //should  or  should  not  be  made  liquid.  To  which 
maybe  added  almost  every  name  of  recent  introduction 
from  foreign  countries,  as  Bianchi,  Brown-Sequard, 
Weiss,  Wilhem,  Zurlatiben,  etc.  In  regard  to  such 
names  many  French  speakers  will  seek  to  approximate 
the  foreign  pronunciation,  while  others  will  try  to  make 
them  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  orthoepical 
principles  of  their  own  language.  The  best  usage  ap 
pears  to  make  a  marked  difference  in  the  pronunciation 
of  names  of  foreign  and  those  of  French  origin.  (See 
Section  V.,  30,  Obs.  2,  in  the  Introduction.) 

III. 

GERMAN. 

There  are  among  the  educated  classes  of  Germany 
no  diversities  in  German  pronunciation  of  any  great 
importance.  It  may,  however,  be  observed  that  the 
names  of  families  of  French  extraction  are  usually  pro 
nounced  according  to  the  principles  of  the  French  lan 
guage. 

IV. 

ITALIAN   NAMES  OF  DOUBTFUL  OR   DISPUTED 

PRONUNCIATION. 

In  tne  pronunciation  of  Italian  names,  almost  the 
only  discrepancy  of  any  importance,  as  already  inti 
mated,  relates  to  the  accentuation.  But  doubtful  names 
of  the  last-named  class  are  pretty  numerous. 

Alcamo,  al'ka-mo  or  al-ka'mo. 

Argoli,  au-go'lee  or  aR'go-lee. 

Bagnolo,  ban'yo-lo  or  ban-yo/lo. 

Baila,  bT'll  or  ba-ee'la. 

Benoli,  ba-nc/lee  or  ba'no-lee. 

Bertola,  beVto-la  or  bei<-to'la. 

Caffaro,  kaffa-ro  or  kaf-fa'ro. 

Calici,  ka'le-chee  or  ka-lee'chee. 

Campolo,  kdm'po-lo  or  kam-po'lo. 

Caracciolo,  ka-iat-cho'lo  or  ka-rat'cho  lo. 

Cerasola,  cha-ra-so'la  or  cha-ra'so-li. 

Clarici,  kla-ree'chee  or  kla're-chee. 

Guiccioli,  gwet-cho'lee  or  g\vet'cho-lee.§§ 


tt  See  the  pronunciation  of  this  name  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

tt  This  pronunciation,  which  has  been  given  in  the  body  of  the 
work,  has  the  sanction  of  M.  1'escherelle  himself,  than  whom  there 
is  no  higher  authority. 

§§  We  gave,  on  what  we  considered  good  authority,  the  antepenulti 
mate  accentuation  of  this  name  under  the  article  GUICCIOLI  ;  but  we 
have  since  met  with  an  educated  and  highly  intelligent  Italian  gentle 
man,  Signer  PONTI,  who  assures  us  that  he  was  personally  acquainted 
with  several  Italiansnamed  Guiccioli,  and  that  thename  was  invariably 
accentuated  on  the  pemtltima,  (gwet-cho'lee.)  We  have  now  no 
doubt  that  this  is  the  correct  pronunciation. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fat;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moor ; 
2344 


DISPUTED   OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS. 


Maroli,  ma'ro-lee  or  ma-ro'lee. 
Ongaro,  on-ga'ro  or  on'ga-ro. 
Vaccaro,  vak'ka-ro  or  vak-ka'ro. 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  in  the  attempt  to  ascer 
tain  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  foregoing  names 
we  have  had  the  assistance  of  several  of  the  most  dis 
tinguished  professors  of  the  Italian  language  in  Italy. 
No  doubt  the  same  name  is  often  pronounced  differently 
in  different  sections:  we  have  therefore  generally  pre 
ferred  to  adopt  the  opinion  of  that  professor  who  lived 
nearest  to  the  birthplace  of  the  person  whose  name  was 
the  subject  of  dispute. 

The  diversity  in  the  spelling  of  Italian  names  appears 
to  be  for  the  most  part  limited  to  such  comparatively 
unimportant  variations  as  the  doubling  of  a  consonant, 
or  the  interchange  of  the  vowels  a  and  e  in  an  unaccented 
syllable.  The  following  are  among  the  most  important 
exceptions  to  the  foregoing  remark  : 

Caliari  or  Cagliari,  (pronounced  alike  kal'yJ-ree.) 

Leonardo  (or  Lionardo)  da  Vinci. 


Michelangelo,  (Michael  Angelo,)  me-kel-Sn'ja-lo,  or 
Michelagnolo,*  me-kel-an'yo-lo. 

V. 

SPANISH. 

The  rules  for  writing  and  printing  Spanish  are  so 
admirablet  that  among  the  educated  classes  there  is 

'  scarcely  any  considerable  diversity  either  in  spelling  or 
pronunciation.  The  chief  exceptions  to  this  remark 
occur  in  proper  names,  some  writers  adopting  the  mod 
ern  spelling  of/ for  x,  (in  XIMENES,  for  example,)  while 

I  others  prefer  the  old  form. 

*  This  spelling  seems  like  a  strange  anomaly  when  we  consider 

that  the  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  MICHAEL  ANGELUS  ;  but  the 

|  name  of  the  great  artist  is  so  spelled  on  the  base  of  his  statue  at  the 

;  Palazzo  Vecchio  in  Florence,  and  the  name  of  the  street  in  which  he 

|  lived  is  spelled  in  the  same  manner:   so,  likewise,  Roscoe  always 

gives  the  name  in  his  "Pontificate  of  Leo  X." 

t  See  Section  XIX.,  20,  Obs.  T,  in  the  Introduction. 


as  n:  c  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this. 


anations,  p.  23. 
2345 


THE  END 


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